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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c833ca609ebf4e36e7e7fd63aabc8ed1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e4f439b0-3257-4d31-8bc0-8283078d3641/retrieve","id":"348760208"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"63886302-94cd-4d63-9549-cf05eeaf769e","pagecount":"122","content":"Research to Nourish Africa Internalionallnstitute of Tropical Agrirulture I Institul international d'agriaJlture tropicale Preface IITA's research-for-development agenda is divided into six project themes (Annex 1), around which these project annual reports are prepared_ These project themes address different aspects of attaining sustainable increases in productivity of dominant farming systems and utilization practices in the various agroecologies of sub-Saharan Mrica (SSA)_ Research and training activities carried out in the six projects are being implemented together with national program partners in order to increase the well-being of resource-poor people in SSA through higher levels of food production, better income, and nutritional status, and reduced drudgery particularly for women_The project logframe is presented in Annex 2.Highlights from all projects are in Annex 3 which thus provides an illustrative overview of IITA's research activities and achievements for the year.Annex 4 shows the agroecological zones of sub-Saharan Mrica in which UTA conducts J'esearch_The targeted cropping and land use systems in this project generally only make up part of the portfolio of farming activities of rural households in the humid and subhumid zone of West and Central Mrica. Willingness oHarmers to take up innovations will also depend on the relative allocation of resources to these other activities. This project will evaluate opportunities and innovations based on the overall conditions encountered by the farmers.Particularly in the humid zone, agriculture and forest managementfconservation inter• face. This can lead to conflicts between different stakeholders. Furthermore, land with specific characteristics is often allocated preferentially to specific cropping systems. This requires a spatial understanding of household and community decisions on resource use. This project will interface across disciplines and institutions to identify alternative land use opportunities also at a spatial level.Integration of innovations by farming households is a social process. Technology development alone is not adequate to ensure adoption beyond the test sites. This project will endeavour to include the social component as an integral part of its approach.The policy and institutional environment (e.g., related to markets, credits, and input supply) can influence the uptake of innovations by farmers and rural communities. At the same time, feedback needs to be provided to policymakers on options. This project will take these factors into consideration as it develops strategies and will also relay its findings to policy makers at different levels. Plantains are the most important commercial food crop in southern Cameroon and elsewhere in the humid forest ecologies of sub• Saharan Mrica. They are planted after forest clearing, thus drawing on natural resources. Plantains have a high demand for N, K, and P and it was shown that P and K application increased yields even when planted after long forest fallow. Yields are depressed through plant losses caused by the burrowing nematode Radopholus similis. Farmers are not aware of the symptoms and consequences of nematode infection and have no means to clean planting material. Most plantations are established from suckers cut from existing plantations, bearing a high risk of initial infection. There may be an interaction between soil fertility (in terms of nutrient supply) and nematode infestation, such that infested plants need higher nutrient levels to acquire sufficient nutrients to produce a crop. The latter may be one reason for farmers not to plant plantains in young fallows or land already used for several cycles.In the degraded land none of the measures increased bunch yield to the lowest level attained in the forest land (Table 3). Thus additional factors need to be considered in any further attempt to profitably produce plantains in short fallow land.  Hot-water treated 4.878 8.028 < 0.001 Traditional 3.114 3.174 it is expected that the demand for plantain will increase in the future.Smallholder farmers who can use this demand to generate income face the problem of a high proportion of plantains failing to produce because of early toppling and pseudostem break in the dry season, due to Radopholus similis infestation. Farmers in southern Cameroon are not aware of the presence of the nematode, nor of measures against it.The traditional way of planting plantain does not include any measures to remove nematode•infested tissue from suckers. However, there are several methods to clean suckers from nematodes. One of them, hot-water treatment, has been shown to be efficient. However, in the rural setting of southern Cameroonian farmers, hot-water treatment is apparently too complicated and too expensive (capital investment). Alternatively, paring has been suggested to remove infested tissue. Tests on -station could not confirm any nematode reducing effect or improved plant growth. Consequently, paring, which is a rather time-consuming procedure, might not be required if other cleaning methods are used. Here, the proven hot-water method, along with locally used and simplified methods were tested on pared and non-pared suckers to establish whether paring is required to obtain clean planting material and if alternative treatments can be effective without paring suckers. In an earlier experiment, the application of fertilizer caused positive yield responses, particularly when suckers were hot-water treated_ Therefore, the response to N, P, K, fertilizer application, after cleaning suckers with different methods, was tested_The experiment was established in a farmer's field on land previously under forest fallow for about 18 years, at Nkolmetet (11 0 x 45' E, 3 0 25' N) in southern Cameroon. The forest was cleared manually using cutlasses and a chain saw. The slash was retained, not burned. The design was a three factorial (2 x 5 x 2) complete randomized block design with four replicates. The experiment was positioned on a gentle slope with blocks arranged along the slope. Plots contained 16 plants at 2.5 x 2.25 m distance on a rectangular configuration, resulting in a space allocation of 5.625 m 2 plant•! and 1778 plants ha-!.First factor was sucker preparation at two levels: suckers pared versus suckers prepared in the traditional manner. Second factor was sucker treatment at 5 levels: (1) no treatment, i.e., control (2) nematicide application into the planting hole, (3) rolling of the sucker in wood ash, (4) hot-water treatment, and (5) boiling-water treatment. Third factor was fertilizer application at two levels: 120 kg N ha-! as urea in 4 dressings of 30 kg ha-! plus 180 kg K ha-! as potassium sulfate in three dressings of 60 kg ha-! and 40 kg P ha-! as triple super phosphate in a single dressing versus no fertilizer application.Traditional sucker preparation involves the removal of the lower half ofthe corm to control for the presence of banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) galleries, if none are found the sucker is planted as is. If galleries are found the black tissue is removed. This method does not look for weevils that have penetrated the corm through the base of the petioles. Furthermore, black tissue and rotten tissue are only roughly removed, yet not until all remaining corm material is purely white and free of discolored tissue. Nematicide (carbofuran), was applied at 2.0 g active incredient per planting hole around the sucker before refilling planting hole with soil. Rolling of suckers in wood ash was a suggestion made by farmers during a survey on plantain planting methods in southern Cameroon. Wood ash is readily available as all rural households use firewood for cooking. Furthermore wood ash contains Ca, Mg, K, and P. When dissolved it increases the pH and might thus have a biocidal effect. Hot-water treatment was conducted in a hot-water tank by submerging suckers in 52 °C hot water for 20 minutes. Boiling-water treatment was conducted in a used oil drum suspended over a fire. Suckers were submerged in boiling water for 30 seconds.Plantain suckers were obtained locally and separated into four size classes, to be planted in the four blocks. Within size classes suckers were randomly separated into batches of 16. Thereafter the suckers were treated and the treated suckers of each plot were weighed. Planting holes of approximately 20 x 20 x 20 em were dug and suckers were planted from 2 to 7 April 1999.Mean sucker weight per plot at planting was higher after traditional preparation (910 g) than after paring (801 g, P = 0.032). Sucker weights were not different between any other treatments (Table 4). The reduction of sucker weight through paring is inevitable as the corms' outer layer is completely removed. By the traditional preparation, more tissue is retained because the method is less stringent in the removal of discolored tissue. The mean sucker weight was used as a covariate when appropriate.selected and cut to 10 em length, then cut longitudinally to expose corticle and steele. If plants were uprooted, excavation and count of roots was not possible. In such cases five roots were randomly selected from the exposed corm. Nematode•damaged tissue is dark purple to black as compared to the unaffected white corticle tissue. A \"root nematode index\" (RNI) was derived as: RNI = (surface of necrotic cortical tissue/total surface of cortical tissue) x 100%To consider both the number ofliving roots and the level of nematode damage a \"non-damaged roots index\" (NDRI) was calculated as: NDRI = number of living roots x (100 -RNI) Harvested plants were cut at ground level. The largest sucker was retained to grow the ratoon, all other suckers were cut off. Bunch harvest was terminated at the end of May 2002, 45 months after planting.The plantain establishment rate at 10 WAP was neither correlated to the mean sucker weight per plot nor to the mean mulch layer height per plot. Establishment was higher from traditionally prepared suckers (96.7%) than from pared suckers (86.7%, P = 0.0001). Treatments following traditional preparation had no effect on establishment rates. However, after paring, boiling water treatment reduced establishment compared to all other treatments and nematicide application had a lower establishment than ash-coating (Table 5).In all treatments but the pared boiling water treatment, the proportion of surviving plants further dropped until 30 WAP (Table 6). Plant losses in the pared treatment were 14_5 %, resulting in significantly lower survival than in the non-pared treatments (85.5 versus 94.1 %, P = 0.0001)_ Paring interacted significantly with following treatments, such that in boiling water treatment and nematicide application paring caused significant reductions in survival, yet not in the other treatments. At 10, 20, and 30 WAP, pared plants had significantly less leaves than traditionally prepared plants (Table 7). All other factors and interactions were insignificant. At 10 W AP, living leaf number was weakly positively correlated to mean initial sucker weight at planting: Number ofleaves = 1.4 x sucker weight (kg) + 3.36; r2 = 0.174, P = 0.0001, n = 80. Paring had no effect on the number of standing leaves (1.13 versus 1.11 in pared), the height (228 cm versus 218 cm in pared) and circumference (40.6 cm versus 38.5 cm in pared) of plants at harvest or when reported fallen. Neither the number of living roots nor that of dead roots was affected by paring. The root necrosis index (RNI) was significantly lower for pared plants, yet not the non.damaged root index (NDRI) (Table 8).Effects on the numbers ofliving roots of treatments following paring or traditional preparation failed the 0.05 significance level, yet at P < 0.07 the control (7.1) and ash coating (8.6) had lower living root numbers than nematicide application (10.4) hot-water treatment (10.7), and boiling water treatment (11.8). The RNI and NDRI were highly significantly affected by treatments (Table 9).  Paring suckers before further treatment against nematodes and weevils had no positive effect on the proportion of plants that produced a bunch (37.8% nonpared versus 37.0% pared, p = 0.86), the bunch mass per plant that produced (5.257 kg nonpared versus 5.915 kg pared, p = 0.34), and the fresh bunch yield (7.306 Mg ha• l nonpared versus 7.363 Mg ha• l pared, p = 0.96).Treatments following paring or traditional preparation had effects on both bunch mass and yield. Bunch mass per plant that produced was highest after boiling water treatment, followed by nematicide application and hot• water treatment (Table 10).Table 10. Bunch mass (kg) per plant that produced a bunch and fresh bunch yield (Mg ha• l ) of plantain, after different treatments against nematodes. As the effect of paring was negative when followed by thermal treatment, the analysis was run with the nonpared plots only. The proportion of plants that produced an edible bunch was significantly higher after boiling water treatment than after control, ash coating, and nematicide application (Table ll). There were no differences between the other treatments.Table 11. Proportion of plants that produced an edible bunch, bunch mass per plant that produced, and bunch yield of traditionally prepared plantain following different treatments against nematodes.-~--.------- The time-consuming paring does not appear necessary, especially if a thermal cleaning method can be used. Although boiling water treatment did not out yield the hot-water treatment, its advantage of low capital investment, mobility, and speed of treatment, make it a more likely adoptable option than hot-water treatment.Further investigations specifically to test interactions with mulching or other nutrient application (fertilizer) may allow further yield increases.byS.H.To establish the effect of existing plant parasitic nematode populations in the sites of a planned experiment on the performance of local plantain and UTA hybrid in different fallow ages and under different agronomic systems, the soil was sampled at establishment of cover and other intercrops.Nematodes were extracted directly form the sampled soil. About 4 kg of the soil were weighed into 15 I buckets and tissue culture banana plants planted. At 3 months after planting (!I{AP), the bananas were removed and the number of leaves, the leaf area, shoot dry weight, root number, and root fresh weight were determined. The roots were mixed in a blender and nematodes were extracted. At 3 MAP, a soil sample was taken from every bucket and nematodes extracted from the soil.Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus spp. were neither found in the soil before planting, nor in the banana roots or the soil at 3 months after planting bananas. The most common nematode was a Helicotylenchus sp. which was more abundant in young Chromolaena odorata dominated fallow (261 100 em') than in forest fallow (18 100 em\"). Meloidogyne spp. were more abundant in forest soil (60 100 em\") than in young fallow soil (9 100 cm•').Hoplolaimus spp. occurred in a few samples and at very low densities. The Helicotylenchus sp. densities increased very rapidly in the banana roots in short fallow land (24 0911100 g roots) compared to forestland (432/100 g roots).A similar yet not as pronounced increase was found in the rhizosphere of short fallow soil (654 100 em\") versus forest soil (24 100 cm•,).by S.H.In two experiments testing the effects of boiling water treatment on plantain suckers, samples of roots attached to the sucker and corm surface material were taken before and after submerging the suckers in boiling water for 30 seconds.The level of infestation before treatment was surprisingly low. Mter treatment of 24 sets of suckers one apparently live specimen of R. similis was found. The sample originated from a set of suckers which had rather a lot of hard soil attached, and it might have been that the heat did not penetrate fast enough into the soil. Thus, suckers should be cleaned of soil and root stumps should be cut off before treatment. This remains an ongoing activity to establish the geographical distribution of nematodes on Musa in Nigeria, and how this relates to previous studies. In neighboring countries, a shift in the community structure of nematode populations on Musa has shown Pratylenchus correae to gradually become more prevalent than previously, resulting in more damage to plantain by this species.In Nigeria, results to date indicate that P. cotteae is present but with a relatively low prevalence in comparison to Helicotylenchus multicinctus, which is the most prevalent and occurs in greatest densities. The species currently identified as the most common occurring on Musa are P. corteae, H. multicinctus, Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis, and Hoplolaimus pararobustus. A field experiment was laid down at Ibadan, Nigeria, to study the differential pathogenicity of the plant parasitic nematodes Pratylenchus coffeae, Helicotylenchus multicinctus, Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus smiles, and Hoplolaimus pararobustus, which were inoculated separately onto plots of plantain cv. Agbagba.Data on the mother crops have largely been lost due to storm damage. Results of the first ratoon are awaited. Experiments under screenhouse conditions in pots are being established in 2003 to compare with and support results from the field.Evaluation ofthe comparative efficiency of Tithonia diversifolia mulch for pest management and improved Musa production by D. Co., S.H., and A. T.Use of Tithonia diversifolia as a mulch, as low as 2 tha\" dry weight on Musa in pots resulted in a significant increase in crop growth on nematode-infected planting material over a 4-month period. Mulching with T_ diversifolia over a 4-month period however, did not affect nematode populations of Helicotylenchus multicinctus in Nigeria, or Radopholus simi lis in Uganda.A field trial was established in 2002 to observe the effects of T_ diversifolia mulch on plantain and nematode pests in Ibadan, Nigeria, over a series of crop cycles. On-farm demonstration plots are due to be established in 2003 to promote the use of clean planting material in combination with mulch, for improved nematode management and increased production.Developing germplasm adapted to key pest and disease constraints, while preserving market preferences 1. New selections were made in 2002 from early evaluation trials (EET) established in 2000 or 2001 at Onne, consisting of four diploid x diploid-derived hybrids, one diploid x tetraploid-derived hybrid, and nine tetraploid x diploid-derived hybrids (Table 12)_ These are under propagation for clonal evaluation from 2003 onwards.Three new EETs were established at Onne in 2002 with focus on selecting for resistance to nematodes among families derived from crosses involving 'Morong princesa' and 'Pisang lilin' as sources of resistance and primary diploid or tetraploid hybrids previously selected for their excellent agronomic characteristics as well as resistance to black Sigatoka.   On•farm demonstration plots (OFDP) were established in the form of varietal mixture trials (VMT) at 62 georeferenced sites in collaboration with farmers and extension agencies across the Nigerian plantain belt (Fig. 1).Three tetraploid hybrids (PITA 14,PITA 17,and BITA 3) were planted in alternation with the popular landrace \"Agbagba\", following a checkerboard layout. Preliminary data show that disease pressure on the landrace is reduced, resulting in higher yields of the landrace in addition to the good performance of the hybrids.Baseline data collection has been carried out to provide indicators against which to measure progress imparted by the project. Similarly, data on crop performance at and beyond farm gate are being collected at all 62 contact test locations. Such data from a small number of contact farmers (10 out of 62) show that the adoption potential of the new hybrids is very high.On the average, each farmer harvested 21.3 bunches of the improved hybrids compared to 10.7 bunches for the landrace, owing to the faster growth of the improved hybrids. In terms of food quality. the surveyed farmers reported that the new hybrids met their preference criteria. Interestingly, not all the harvested bunches were consumed at the farm gate: an average 69% of the harvest was sold for the hybrids, understandably less than the 82% for the landrace.Also. the hybrids attracted lower prices per bunch compared to the hybrids, which was expected because the latter was more known to buyers than the former. However, farmers derived more cash income from the hybrids (N3873.33) than from the landrace (N2517.67). as a result of the larger number of bunches produced by the hybrids compared to the land• race. These results are detailed in Table 13.Furthermore, additional income was generated from the sale of suckers to other farmers. Of much significance is the relatively large number of suckers that were sold to each pur• chaser, despite the relatively high cost of the suckers.This may be interpreted as an indication of the high appeal exerted to noncontact farmers by the new hybrids, are good prospects for expansion of areas cultivated with the improved varieties. It appears that besides disease resistance, earliness and faster cycling constitute most attractive features of the new varieties.The performance of the hybrids has generated a lot of interest among the farmers in the region, and this has resulted into pressure on UTA and collaborating State ADPs as well as contact farmers for the hybrid planting materials. Therefore, to ensure that the hybrid dissemination process continues indefinitely, efforts are underway to establish six regional plantain training schools (RPTS) at nodal locations across the Nigerian plantain belt. It is therefore important that we vigorously pursue the completion of the RPTS that will carry the triple mission of (1) providing planting materials through rapid multiplication techniques acquired from UTA. ( 2) training of farmer groups in such techniques to foster the development of community nurseries, and ( 3) training in postharvest processing options that reduce wastage, extend shelf life, and add value to the fruits for increased income generation.Meanwhile, 10 selected personnel from the RPTS host agencies were subjected to intensive training in efficient vegetative propagation methods as well as nursery management techniques both at the UTA station at Onne and at CARBAP (Centre Africain de recherches sur bananiers et plantains) station at NjomM (Cameroon). The trained personnel will now serve as resource persons for the RPTS with backstopping assistance from UTA. Furthermore, a plant propagation manual consisting in step-by-step pictorial guides was produced for distribution to the RPTS as training materials for future use.By A. T. and J.d'A.H. in In Ghana, a large-scale hybrid dissemination process was launched in 1998, resulting in the establishment of three primary plant multiplication plots with BITA-2, BITA-3, PITA-2, PITA-5, PITA-ll, PITA-I3, and FHlA-21 in three regions (Ash anti, Central, and Eastern).Secondary sites were also established in these regions and extended to the other three plantain-producing regions (Brong Ahafo, Volta, and Western) of Ghana (Fig. 2). We now -16- plan to mass-propagate and disseminate from the secondary sites the improved hybrids to farmers during 2002-2004.by A. T. in collaboration with NARES, KULeuven, and IPGRI (also under Project D)Another country targeted for mass distribution of improved hybrids in West and Central Africa is Cote d'Ivoire where preparation for distribution of PITA-3 and PITA-14 have started.In Cameroon, the field evaluation of several improved hybrids introduced in 2001 from Onne (Nigeria) to Mbalmayo has been completed with the identification ofBITA3, PITA14, PITA21, PITA23, FHIA23, and FHIA25 as the most promising hybrids for Cameroon. These will undergo mass-propagation for on-farm demonstration trials backed by training in rapid multiplication techniques and assistance in developing a decentralized network of plantain seedling multiplication in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture.Hybrid dissemination was also undertaken in Uganda with five IITA-bred hybrids (BITA-2, BITA-3, PITA-8, PITA-14, and PITA-17). The hybrids BITA-2 and BITA-3 were also included in the largest scale hybrid distribution scheme ever undertaken in eastern Africa.Culminating in the distribution of nearly 1 million seedlings of improved varieties since 1997 in northern Tanzania under the Kagera Community Development Program, it was implemented by the Belgian Technical Cooperation in collaboration with KULeuven and with financial support from the DGDC. This dissemination scheme will be boosted by additional support from USAlD in 2002-2003, which also targets Mozambique.While UTA's primary intervention zone is sub-Saharan Africa, demand for UTA hybrids has been coming from outside the continent. Thus, IITA-bred hybrids have been reach• ing farmers in Latin America (e.g., BITA-2, BITA•3, PITA-S, PITA-10, PITA•14, PITA-17, distributed to farmers in the departments of Leon and Chinandega in Nicaragua in the framework of a KULeuven coordinated project with possible spillover into neighboring countries).Likewise, the hybrid BITA. This activity was embedded in the hybrid delivery schemes, whereby farmers field days (FFD) were held to demonstrate new processing options in addition to displaying the new hybrids. In Nigeria, for example, most hybrids have produced fruits at virtually all farm sites, justifying our efforts to hold as many FFDs as possible to showcase the improved varieties to nonhost communities. The FFDs not only provide opportunities to showcase the new varieties, but also constitute avenues for displaying several value-adding postharvest processing options (Fig. 3) that can generate extra income for those adopting them. Furthermore, practical demonstrations of good farming practices and easy-to•perform field multiplication techniques are carried out to assist those who choose to grow the new varieties.In 2002 alone, about 20 FFDs have been held with more than 1400 participants and public television coverage, which provided means of reaching a larger audience. This public aware• ness drive has also benefited from radio broadcasts using local dialects. It is estimated that more than 50 000 people have been reached by the awareness campaign, the consequences of which is increased interest in, and request for, improved hybrids.It is becoming increasingly clear that the processing/marketing end of the plantain enterprise may not be physically connected with the production end, i.e., separate groups of people express interest in one versus the other, rarely both. This indicates that market information systems may need to be put in place to link these two ends of the production-processing continuum.by A. T. in collaboration with B. Faturoti, T. Adeniji, and S. AkeleThe major cause of micronutrient deficiencies in sub-Saharan Africa is inadequate intake of foods rich in micronutrients. In Nigeria, plantain and banana are one of the major starchy staples and provide an important source of rural income in the local food economies. UTA -IS- has developed several disease resistant and high•yielding hybrids that produce two to five times more than traditionallandraces, under natural conditions with no chemical control of black Sigatoka. Increased concentration of micronutrients, such as provitamin A, iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn), in otherwise disease-resistant hybrids could be a cost•effective approach to improve the micronutrient status for areas of subsistence farming which are beyond the market reach of fortified foods.Thus, several plantain and banana hybrids currently distributed to farmers in the Nigerian plantain belt were compared to Agbagba, the most popular plantain landrace consumed in Nigeria. Bunches were harvested at green (unripe) stage and fruits were subjected to micronutrient analysis in fresh form for pro-vitamin A (rJ•carotene) content or after drying for iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) content. Another set of analysis was done for Fe and Zn after processing of fruits into chips.Preliminary results indicate that four plantain hybrids (pITA•14, PITA-21, PITA-24, and PITA-25) and one cooking banana hybrid (BITA-7) had both higher iron and zinc content than the preferred landrace Agbagba (Fig. 4). Two other hybrids, one plantain (pITA•17) and one cooking banana (BITA•3), h ad higher zinc content than the landrace, but did not contain more iron than the landrace.The recommended dietary a llowances (RDA) for an aver age adult male or female is 10 mg and 18 mg Fe/day, r espectively, 15 mg Znlday for both adult male and female. Thus, the landrace Agbagba provides about 20% of Fe requirements for adult males, 11% of the Fe '\".s • FHIA-21. _ . _ ---j 4.0 5.0 6.0Iron content (mg/100g) Figure 4_ Micronutrient content in the flour of some improved plantain and banana hybrids_ needs for adult females, and about 6% of the Zn needs of either male or female adults for each 100 g of flour. In comparison, the five improved hybrids contribute from 24% to 55% of the adult males' Fe needs, 13% to 31% of the Fe needs offemale adults, and 6% to 22% of the Zn requirements for these people.Processing hybrids into chips resulted in simultaneous increase in the Fe and Zn contents of two hybrids (PITA•14 and PITA•26) well above the levels expressed by the landrace as shown in Table 14. Processing usually reduced iron content in other varieties but increased Zn content of several varieties (particularly PITA •24). A workshop was organized in November 2002 to review constraints and opportunities connected to the development of a competitive market-oriented cassava subsector in Nigeria. A strategy with emphasis on value-addition and productivity enhancement along the entire cassava value-chain was recommended, which could be pursued through a coalition of private/public sector partnership including farmers, processors, marketers, and other stakeholders.The overall objective must be to transform cassava from a basic commodity into some advanced commodities such as bakery products, noodles, creams, sweeteners, convenient snack foods, pellets, chips, starch, ethanol, gums for small-and large-scale industrial users. This will involve the setting up of collection points, with emphasis on farm-gate processing, the development of new processes, expanded seed multiplication, provision of new uses, and improvement in information management.The workshop identified the high cost of cassava production and poor product qualities as the major causes oflack of competitiveness of the Nigerian cassava subsector. It was pointed out that the key to the development of the cassava subsector is in the domestic industrial market because Nigeria has the largest domestic market in sub-Saharan Africa.Success in the industrial utilization of cassava in Nigeria lies in the promotion and enforcement, by government, of policies that will encourage the use of secondary processed cassava products as industrial raw material in Nigeria. The research on population dynamics of ARTS on various cassava genotypes continued in 2002. We concluded a trial on four cassava varieties in DRC and two varieties in Cameroon. While there are differences in ARTS abundance among cassava varieties tested, all germplasm was heavily attacked (over 200 scales per plant at peak densities). These trials will be repeated in 2003 with additional local and improved cassava germplasm in an effort to locate sources of resistance for ARTS_ Trials are also underway to quantify yield losses due to ARTS on various cassava germplasm in DRC and Cameroon.-21-Vegetation management in fallows to reduce African root and tuber scale infestations in cassava fields. Baseline survey of constraints associated with cassava in key sites in Cameroon by C. N, J.Lg., R.H., M.To., D.Co., S.D., and AT. This activity is due to be initiated in 2003 to establish the incidence and distribution of pests and diseases, abiotic and social factors restricting increased commercialization of cassava in Cameroon using funds from IITA Project E competitive grant.Assessment of the importance of nematodes to cassava production Assessment of the interaction between fungal root rots and nematodes on cassava Clones that perform best in response to CMD and well in other respects will be selected, multiplied, and later tested in on• farm trials prior to introduction into the pandemic mitigation multiplication program. IITA in ROC to be sensitive to the severe virus (EACMV-UG) associated with the pandemic. Three hectare blocks of MM 86 were multiplied at the three locations, and stems produced will be distributed by the FAa's Emergency Program to farmers. However, the ROC-IITA program will identify cassava clones with proven resistance to severe pandemic CMD for subsequent larger-scale multiplication. These materials will be obtained from the tissue culture introductions under small-scale multiplication and the 17 \"recovered\" IITA-origin clones currently being evaluated in CMD hotspots.Testing and distributing germplasm adapted to key pest and disease constraints, while preserving market preferencesby A. T. and A.G.O.D. in collaboration with P. flona, E. Njukwe, and J. Fanwoua In Cameroon, we undertook a study to evaluate together with rural women the performance of some improved cassava varieties in the forest zone. The study was initiated by John Wendt prior to his relocation to Uganda and conducted in 36 sites distributed in six villages with 13 improved UTA varieties and a local variety provided by the women. The local practices associated with cassava cultivation in the area were used to manage the trials while those related to cassava utilization guided the choice of evaluation criteria.The trials were entirely managed by women themselves, according to their normal cultural practices, but with participation of a research technician. The varieties were evaluated according to the following characteristics: total yield, tuber dry matter content, yield of marketable tubers, cooking ability, and taste.Five improved varieties were selected as the best for the region (Table 15). Interestingly, other varieties with high total yield appeared to be of little value for direct consumption. Thus, an evaluation based only on total yield would have been misleading, and this study showed that such errors could reduce the adoption rate of new cultivars. The pyramiding of multiple sources of resistant genes in these varieties is especially important for imparting durable CMD resistance in varieties that would prove difficult for various strains of the virus to circumvent. The characteristics of the new genotypes also reflect the vision of an expanded future role of cassava in SSA as a major source of income from industrial use and in the animal feed sector as well as many nontraditional food uses. These improved genotypes have been virus tested at Ibadan, Nigeria and are available for international distribution. In the case of Nigeria, 46 diverse CMD-resistant varieties have been selected and available for widespread deployment (Table 16).In order to get these materials into farmers fields as quickly as possible, a novel fasttrack varietal testing approach is piloted, in which new clones are rapidly multiplied on station, then taken straight for simultaneous multilocational evaluation on station and participatory evaluation in farmers' fields as well as promoting decentralized and large scale community-based multiplication and distribution centers at sites covering a diverse range of agroecologies.Target interventions for food security would include the provision of CMD-resistant planting materials and production technologies to producers. For income generation and equity, smallholder farmers and processors will be linked to high value markets where the majority of the value is retained in the rural sector. This will require collective action, NGO participation, development of enterprise skills and private sector involvement. As regards import substitution and foreign exchange earning, increased production efficiency; and the sale of low cost and high volume materials to major users and markets would be required.Emergency response to the outbreak of cassava mosaic disease in the Democratic Republic of Congo  and Sud Kivu. All the trials in the first four provinces were evaluated during this trip and the summaries are shown below.Ten new genotypes of cassava, having high levels of beta• carotene content, were introduced and planted at Kola for preliminary evaluation. The genotypes included 0111115,0111273, 0111224, 0111663, 0111442, 0111649, 0111277, 0111646, 0111413, and 0111412. The demand for planting materials of such varieties is high particularly in Plateau de Bateke where the economic returns from the sale of yellow fleshed roots is high. The high levels of pro•vitamin A in such varieties make them important for improving diets in several villages where cassava is a major staple.Eight thousand cassava seedlings from 160 improved families were planted at Mvuazi in Bas Congo. These were evaluated at 3 MAP for multiple pest resistance. The pressure of cassava mosaic disease (CMD) was very high and over 60% of the seedlings showed severe damage symptoms. Resistant genotypes to CMD and CBB were tagged to facilitate selection at harvest.Crosses were made between selected and adapted parents to generate seeds for further selection. The cross combinations included improved x improved, improved x local, local x improved, and local x local. About 2000 fruits have been successfully produced and are awaiting maturity.A clonal evaluation trial comprising 100 cassava genotypes selected from the seedling nursery at Mvuazi was planted in December 2002 at three locations including Mvuazi (Bas Congo), Mbankana (Kinshasa), and Kiyaka (Bandundu). The performance of each genotype in terms of resistance to major pests and diseases was evaluated. At Mvuazi and Kiyaka, both of which are in the forest agroecology, the severity and incidence scores for CMD were comparatively high. Damage by CBB was highest at Mbankana in the savanna while CAD damage was only observed at Kiyaka. The number of genotypes that showed symptoms of damage by these diseases is shown by location in Table 17.A second set of clonal evaluation was planted only at Lubumbashi in the Katanga province and comprises of30 genotypes selected in 2001 by INERAfrom seeds at Mvuazi. At 3 MAP all the genotypes were clean for CBB and CAD. However, five of the genotypes showed severe damage symptoms ofCMD. These were evaluated at 3 MAP for multiple pest resistance. The trial at Tshela will also be used to evaluate for resistance to the African root scale (ARTS). At Mvuazi, CMD pressure was high while CBB and CAD pressures were low. Despite the high pressure of CMD 35 of the genotypes did not show symptoms of damage and were apparently resistant (Table 18).At Tshela, the pressures of CMD, CBB, and CAD were all very low, thus providing a good environment to evaluate the effect of ARTS alone, which is in abundance, on the performance of cassava. At Mbankana, CBB pressure was very high while CMD and CAD pressures were low (Table 18). Damage by CBB remains the major biotic constraint to cassava production in the Kinshasa province and only very few genotypes have so far shown some level of tolerance. At Kiyaka, damages by CMD, CBB, and CAD were moderate.Twenty-four genotypes were evaluated in this trial in two provinces Katanga and Kasai Orienta!. The genotypes comprised 21 introductions from UTA, 2 improved checks from IN ERA currently in multiplication, and 1 local check of the farmers in the region. At Katanga, the genotypes were evaluated at 3 MAP for resistance to major pests and diseases. Only one genotype, 9210053, showed symptoms of CMD at 5% incidence level while the others were clean for all the major diseases considered (Table 19).The best of farmers' selections from 2001102 PYT trials in each of 3 provinces (Bas Congo, Kinshasa, and Bandundu) were advanced to uniform yield trials in December 2002 at the same location.The number of genotypes evaluated at each location varied because of differences in farmers' choice at harvest. All the genotypes were evaluated at 3 MAP for resistance to CMD, CBB, and CAD (Table 20).The severity of CMD in this trial at 3 MAP was very high at Mvuazi where 4 of the genotypes, earlier thought to be resistant, showed some symptoms of the disease. However the incidence of attack was less than 5% in these varieties compared with the improved and local checks in which the incidence was above 80%.The situation was different at Mbankana and Kiyaka where the pressure of CMD was comparatively lower and most of the genotypes did not show any symptom of the disease.On the other hand, the CBB pressure was highest at Mbankana and no symptom of the disease was observed at the other 2 locations at 3 MAP. This differential in disease pressures calls for independent selection for each of the provinces. So far, the most promising gentoypes include 96/1439, 9610860, 9610160, 96/1630, 95/1009, 95/0925, 95/0528, 95/0211,  99/0395,9610267,96/1087, and 93/0170.  Table 18. Damage scores of three major cassava diseases in preliminary yield trials at three locations in three provinces.-.------~---Mbankana Kiyaka----~-,-,--. , -------91/02327    At Lubumbashi in the Katanga province disease symptoms of CMD, CBB, and CAD were not observed on any of the improved genotypes as well as the improved and local checks. Plant establishment was low due to prolonged drought soon after the trial was planted.The data from the sister trial at Mbujimayi in Kassai Oriental were not available as at the time of this report.Ten other genotypes in UYT, selected by INERA from seed populations introduced from !ITA, were also evaluated at 3 MAP at 21ocations (Lubumbashi and Mbujimayi). At Lubum• bashi, in the Katanga province, disease symptoms of CBB and CAD were not observed on any ofthe improved genotypes as well as the checks. However, damage by CMD was severe on 3 ofthe improved selections (Table 22). The data from the trial at Mbujimayi in Kassai Oriental were not available as at the time ofthis report.This trial was planted in Sud Kivu according to the plan of work that was jointly prepared with Mr Phemba for eastern Congo. As at the time of this evaluation there was no information on this trial. It is expected that Mr Phemba would forward available data as soon as possible. for Bas Congo, Kinshasa, Bandundu, and Katanga, respectively. In Bas Congo, 50fthe 17 improved genotypes under test showed symptoms of CMD in at least one site. However the incidence of the disease was less than 5%_ In Kinshasa, only one ofthe improved genotypes showed symptoms of CMD while no symptoms were observed on any of the genotypes in Bandundu and Katanga. Damage by CBB was observed only in Kinshasa at a moderate level on all the genotypes but there were indications that the level of damage could get worse. In Bandundu, damage by CAD was observed at an early stage, though at a low severity and incidence level, on all the genotypes_ In Table 23, the performance of each genotype is compared for the following 3 diseases (CMD, CBB, and CAD). Generally, the farmers' local varieties were highly susceptible, particularly to CMD across the provinces. The farmers themselves observed significant differences between the new genotypes and their conventional types at all sites and locations and this is evident from the choice they made at this stage of the trial.  , 9611708, 96/1089A, 9610023, 9210398, 9510166, 0111229, 01/1311, 0111313, 0111581, 0111533,0111661, MV 021039, andTME 419.These new varieties are being rapidly multiplied at Mvuazi to increase available planting materials. Planting materials of at least 5 of the genotypes in on-farm trials will be delivered to FAO and SECID after the final evaluation in November 2003. Planting materials of other genotypes particularly those in preliminary yield trial will be needed in large quantities for the establishment of a new set of on-farm trials in 2003-2004.Arrangements were made to send improved varieties of cassava to Equateur for evaluation in collaboration with farmers. Two trials were identified as very important--{)n-station evaluation of 21 improved varieties in preliminary yield trial (PYT) and on-farm trials of the same set of genotypes. Mr N dombo Delo, having worked in this region in the past, was hired to plant these trials. The PYT was planted and 22 on-farm trials were established.The FAO representative in the country, as usual, was highly instrumental in providing the required logistics to transport the materials to Equateur.Intensive rapid multiplication of selected genotypes has been emphasized at Kolo in Bas Congo and Manpu in Plateau de Bateke. Two hectares of planting materials at approximately 40 000 plants per hectare have been produced at Kolo and another 0.5 ha at Manpu in Plateau de Bateke. Further intensive multiplication will continue in the coming months to ensure that sufficient planting materials for secondary multiplication and expanded on-farm trials are available by NovfDec 2003.Postharvest activities were continued in target communities in 2 provinces (Bas Congo and Bandundu) to demonstrate the income generation potential of the crop to farmers, particularly women. Improved methodologies for producing quality flour, starch, chips confectioneries and other food products were adapted to farmers' conditions using locally available tools.Practical workshops on the production and use. of unfermented cassava flour, starch, and chips were organized for women leaders and interested processors. The workshop at Kikwit was organized in collaboration with SECID. Requirements for the establishment of smallscale processing centers were discussed and at the moment, women at Kola (Bas Congo) have organized themselves into groups for the commercial production of cassava flour.Table 24 shows the number and gender of participants at the workshops.At the end of the workshops, there was a high demand for cassava flour by women who wanted to evaluate the market friendliness and acceptability of the new products. In response to this demand, 120 kg of quality flour was produced by a local women NGO (AFEPA). Twenty kilogram of the flour was given as starting material to women groups at Kinzau-vuete, Lukula, and Tshela in Bas Congo. The women of AFEPA sold the remaining quantity of flour to generate income for the association. The cassava flour business is already booming. Another 130 kg of quality flour was produced to meet increasing demand for cassava flour for confectioneries. Women groups in Bas Congo and Bandundu received at least 20 kg of flour to enable them evaluate market acceptability of cassava-based confectioneries. Subsequently, these women are expected to produce by themselves large quantities of quality flour for sale in the local market. To realize this objective, the only available grating/chipping machine, introduced from UTA in 2002, will be rotated on village basis to -34-enable women grate or chip fresh cassava roots, which will be dried and milled into flour. More grating/chipping machines are urgently needed to sustain this growing market.In order to make cassava-processing machines more readily available and at an affordable price for processors in DRC, local fabricators of machines were identified for the direct reproduction and perhaps modification of the prototype from UTA to suit local demands.With the assistance of Mr Bernard Musangu of SECID, 3 fabrication centers were visited in Kinshasa. Each company's potential for mass production of quality machines at an affordable price was assessed and compared with others.Chanimetal has the highest capacity for mass production of quality machines, however the price quoted for each unit ofthe machine (without the motor) is very high compared with that of other companies (Table 25). The most probable company that can guarantee quality at an affordable price is ITI (Institut Technique Industriel). The comparative advantage of this company over others can further be considered from the point of view that it is affiliated to a technical school, where students are trained in machine fabrication. This will ensure that more fabricators are available in the future for the production and servicing of cassava processing machines locally. Selected Grater/Chipper (11 ) 500.00IT! = Institut Technique Industriel. Prices quoted are exclusive of the motor, which is estimated at US$400 max.Ongoing and future activitiesEstablishing nutrient deficiency symptoms in yam and addressing soil fertility constraints through efficient use of organic and inorganic amendmentsIn vitro plantlets of D. alata and D. rotundata were transplanted into and maintained in water culture. Nutrient omission treatments, -N, -P, -K, -Ca, -Mg, -B, -Zn, •Mn, -Mo, -Cu and -Fe were applied in comparison with control (full nutrient status).The symptoms observed were photographed 30 days after transplanting. These would serve as a guide in the identification of nutrient deficiencies in the field that often confound diseases caused by viruses and fungi.Farm-level soil fertility depletion is a fundamental cause of steady productivity decline in yam production during the past four decades, as pressure increased on land and fallow periods shortened or even disappeared. A study was conducted to identify the determinants of adoption decisions and intensity of application of mineral fertilizers in yam cultivation. Knowledge generated will be crucial for designing new approaches to soil fertility maintenance and continuous culture of yam, while increasing productivity, assuring food and income security, and fostering sustainable resource management in Eastern and Central Nigeria.Commercially oriented as opposed to subsistence production of yams has a positive influence on the probability of fertilizer adoption. Farmers' geographic location and ethnic background had a positive influence on the likelihood of fertilizer use. Among the seven states covered in the survey, the probability of adoption increases with farmers originating from Taraba and Nasarawa. Farmers from the Tiv ethnic group were more likely to apply fertilizer on yams than their Igbo, Igala, and Mada counterparts, the major ethnic groups encountered during the survey.Among adopters, age and gender of the farm operator, extension contacts, farm size, the number of other crops fertilized on the farm and market orientation in production influenced the intensity of fertilizer application on yams. Older producers are more likely to apply fertilizer on a large share of their yam fields as opposed to younger ones. The same pattern is predicted for females as opposed to male producers. Because yams are usually grown before other crops on newly cleared land or after a fallow period, this finding provides evidence that female and older producers may be growing yams more frequently on the same plots or on marginal lands. The intensity of fertilizer application increases with the size of yam cultivation as measured in number of mounds, the number of other crops fertilized on a farm, and with commercially oriented production. In view of the large amount of seed and labor requirement in yam production, farm size is an indication of the level of economic resources available to producers.The objectives of this study were to: (1) evaluate farmers' perception of yam inter-cropping with Glyricidia sepium;(2) evaluate farm-level economic viability ofthe technique; and (3) identify factors explaining adoption and nonadoption.Adopters of the technology acknowledged its contribution to soil fertility improvement (100%), reduction of fallow periods (55%), production of stakes (53%), and prevention of soil erosion (13%). Yet, a number of constraints, namely competition between yam and G. sepium trees (22%), high labor requirement, particularly for tree pruning (49%), and difficulties in the provision and growth of seedlings (13%) restricted the intensity of adop-tion_ A limited number offarmers (1.5%) also faced insecurity over farmland that prevented them from using the technology.Other farmers abandoned the technology on grounds of additional constraints, namely the reduction in area for planting yam, and the belief that Glyricidia trees will deplete soil fertility in the long run. The lack of information and lack of interest regarding the technique were the constraints identified by 53% and 21 % of nonadopters, respectively. Insufficiency of farmland (11%) and difficulties to access seedlings of Glyricidia sp. (8%) were also mentioned.Results from the multinomial Logit model show that the likelihood of adoption of Glyricidia intercropping with yam is associated with male farmers, age, the number of extension contacts, and security over farmland. In addition, inheritance rights over farmland and education have positive influences on the probability of adoption among current adopters and former users, respectively. Yet, it declines for farmers that have insufficient farmland. Furthermore, adopters do not consider the technology as a means for producing stakes in yam cultivation.Partial budget analysis using farm-level data shows that intercropping yams with G. sepium is economically viable with a marginal rate of return of 7 that is slightly more than double farmers' minimum acceptable rate of return.The introduction in the Zou-Nord Benin of Glyricidia as a soil fertility management crop is well accepted by few farmers who acknowledge its advantages. However, young farmers and female farmers were not attracted to the technology, which could be an introduction bias. The constraints enumerated in the zone suggest that additional technical support would be necessary to help these farmers take full advantage of the technique and encourage nonadopters to develop interest. This could be achieved through increased extension contacts and assuring security over land.In view of the high profitability of the technology compared to low adoption and high abandon rates, research efforts need to evaluate the technology within the context of whole farm planning where many crops compete for limited resources.Addressing pests and diseases, particularly nematodes, through improved and clean planting material and agronomic measures adapted to farmer circumstancesDuring the year, 18000 virus-tested in vitro plantlets were produced from certified germplasm stocks of D. rotundata and D. alata. A total of 16 000 plantlets were transplanted into protected screenhouses leading to the production of 12 950 minitubers for international distribution. From these 5145 and 4253 minitubers were delivered to partners in Benin and Togo, respectively, for field multiplication and evaluation. The remainder was reserved for delivery to partners in Sierra Leone early in 2003. Pathogenicity studies of different geographic isolates within Nigeria have shown different levels of damage between different isolates in pots, but not in the field. Both field and pot experiments are being repeated in the forthcoming year. Differences were limited, but comparisons of those isolates, which differed from each other in levels of damage, are currently being made for differences in DNA material. Material from other yam-growing countries in West Africa has also been sourced for assessment of variability. Nematodes from the different countries will be assessed for pathogenic differences in the coming year, under quarantine. Development of a reproductive fitness assessment assay on agar proved unsuccessful. Alternative culture mediums are currently being assessed.Specific regions of the DNA from individual nematodes have been extracted and amplified using primers for Dl domain of 28S rDNA, IGS of rDNA, ITS of rDNA, and mitochondrial COl gene. DNA from individual nematodes of different isolates have been analyzed using different restriction endonucleases. DNA polymorphisms within and between populations have been identified. Analysis of incoming, new material continues.Results ofthe comparison of the polymorphisms with data on pathogenicity of the nematode should allow us to develop and test appropriate molecular probes for the nematode.Field trials were conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria and at Cotonou, Benin to assess the interaction between fertilizer (NPK) application and Scutellonema. bradys nematode damage on yam cv. Td131. Results are yet to be analyzed. The trials will be repeated during 2003 in more detailed experimental design and treatments, involving the multidisciplinary approach to assessing reducing yam production, using UTA Project E competitive grant funds.Genetic improvement of yams at IITA focuses on Guinea (Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensis) and water (D. alato) yams. Guinea yams are indigenous to West Mrica. They are the most preferred yams and also those with the highest market value owing to the organoleptic properties of their tubers that suit the most prevalent food use for the crop in the region. D. ala to, introduced to Mrica from Asia during the 16th century, is next in terms of volume of production and extent of utilization to the Guinea yams but it is the most widely distributed Dioscorea species in the world.Primary geographical focus of UTA's yam improvement work is on the dominant yamproduction zones of coastal West and Central Mrica (WCA). It is however recognized that yam cultivation has continued outside those zones in many countries of Mrica, often as a minor component of the farming systems. Annual and perennial wild/semi-domesticated Dioscoreo species continue to serve as important reservoirs of food in Mrica during periods of food shortage.Yams bring a lot of flexibility to the annual cycle offood availability in many areas through the multiplicity of cultivars, agroecological adaptation, maturity periods, as well as options for storage and utilization. Moreover the crop has high commercial value that can be exploited for alleviation of poverty. It is important to understand the minor, but significant, role that the crop plays outside the main production belt in WCA and explore opportunities -38-for expansion of production and utilization of the crop, where relevant, with the aims of enhancing food security and income generation for farmers and consumers.The objectives for yam improvement at UTA include high yield of dry matter per unit area and unit time; resistance to diseases (e.g., anthracnose, viruses, tuber rots) and pests (e.g., nematodes, beetles); tuber characteristics that are valued by consumers (e.g. size, shape culinary quality, and shelf life). Farmers have been relying on natural genetic variation for their selection of suitable yam cultivars to cope with the deteriorating resource base in the major yam producing areas.The pace of this is not compatible with the increasing challenges in the physical and socio• economic environment. Farmer'participatory testing, which combines farmers' indigenous knowledge and long experience with the expertise of breeders, is one of the approaches being used for the selection of new cultivars that are more suited to the current challenges as well as opportunities.Planting materials for production of ware yams (large tubers for market or home con• sumption) are derived from the edible portion, the tuber, which is expensive and bulky to transport. Farmers often use small tubers from the previous harvest or cut portions oflarge tubers as planting materials. For early maturing varieties of D. rotundata, harvesting of tubers about two-thirds into the growing season without destroying the root system ('milking') provides early yams for home consumption and market. This also allows the regeneration of fresh small tubers from the corm at the base of the vine. These small tubers are harvested at the end ofthe season and used as planting materials for the next season.The multiplication ratio for seed yam production in the field is very low (less than 1:10) compared, for instance, to some cereals (1:300). The technique of rapid multiplication using small tuber pieces (e.g., 25 g weight, called a minisett) in field nurseries has been developed and used for acceleration of the multiplication process. Meristem culture and micropropagation in vitro offer even higher multiplication rates and healthier propagules.For bulbiferous cultivars of D. alata, there is another option for propagation through the bulbils while the use of botanic seeds and vine cuttings require more research effort to become viable alternatives in the future.Breeding lines of D. alata and D. rotundata were evaluated in comparison with local check cultivars in preliminary, advanced, and uniform yield trials at Owerri and Ikenne (forest zone),lbadan (forest/savanna transition zone), Ubiaja, and Abuja (southern Guinea savanna) in Nigeria.For instance in uniform yield trials of 12 advanced clones of D. alata with 4 popular local check cultivars, three of the advanced clones TDa 98101166, TDa 98/01168, and TDa 991 00240 each had a mean yield across five sites (Abuja, Ikenne, Ibadan, Owerri, and Ubiaja) that was about twice as much as that of the best local check. Owerri was the poorest site with a mean yield of 5.11 tonneslha while Ubiaja was the best with 25.51 tonneslha. The yields at Ubiaja for the two top yielding clones TDa 98/01166 and TDa 98101168 were 38.3 and 39.4 tonneslha, respectively.Another set of D. alata clones were evaluated in a uniform yield trial at Abuja, Ikenne, and Ubiaja in Nigeria for symptoms of leaf blight (lfb), leaf spot (lsp), anthracnose (ant), and -39-virus (vir) infections. This was done on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 = no or negligible infection and 5 = maximum expression of symptoms, giving the results shown in Table 26. TDa 297 and TDa 92-2 were used as local check cultivars with the former being known for its moderate reaction to the diseases evaluated_Regional varietal trials with NARS Regional trials were conducted at several sites in West Africa in partnership with national yam programs within an IFAD-sponsored project (TAG 457) based on clonal germplasm supplied by IITA and local selections from seed populations_ Populations of Dioscorea rotundata developed for high yield and pest resistance formed the basis for identification of superior new clones by partners in the five major yam praducing countries of West Africa (Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire).Selections were made from these trials on the basis of tuber yield; reaction to viruses, anthracnose (leaf scorch) disease, leaf spot, leaf blight, and nematodes; and tuber quality (dry matter content, culinary attributes). New clones, superior in yield and pest resistance to popular local yam varieties, were identified among the introductions in each of these countries.Table 26_ Mean scores of D. alata clones evaluated in a uniform yield trial at three locations in Nigeria for leaf blight (lfb), leaf spot (lsp), anthracnose (ant), and virus (vir) infections, using a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 = no or negligible infection and 5 = maximum expression of symptoms. -40-Fifty-two new clones of the species were provided for farmer-participatory evaluation in six states of Nigeria and a set of 12 leading clones were delivered to partners in each of the five key countries for a regional collaborative trial.New clones of Dioscorea alala selected for high tuber yield and food quality as well as anthracnose resistance were delivered to, and evaluated on-station with partners in Nigeria (18 clones) and Cote d'Ivoire (36 clones).Selections from earlier introductions are under on-farm evaluation with farmers in Cote d'Ivoire. These and other germplasm of the two species delivered to partners in West Mrica during the year for various purposes are shown in Table 27.  Producers' demand for varietal characteristics of yam in Nigeria: an ex-ante evaluation for adoption of new technologiesThe objective of this study was to evaluate farmers' preferences for yam characteristics and assess their expectations from varietal improvement programs. The knowledge generated will give yam breeders an indication of the ex-ante adoption of improved varieties yet to be disseminated to producers.The knowledge will be essential for the development of desirable genetic material in future yam breeding programs that aim at adequate adoption, increased food security, and higher incomes at the farm level. Results will also help extension agents and rural development initiatives to efficiently target adopters of the improved varieties by matching characteristics with farmers' preferences, social and demographic parameters.A survey was conducted in East-Central Nigeria corresponding to the eastern section of the yam production belt_ The area comprises seven states namely, Benue, Ebonyi, Enugu, Federal Capital Territory, Kogi, Nasarawa, and Taraba.Results from the ordered Probit models show that producers preferred pounded yam (sticky dough prepared by pounding boiled tuber pieces) that is white, shiny, smooth, nonsticky, easy to mold, and elastic. These attributes highly influenced the likelihood of a variety being ranked ideal for processing into pounded yam. The ranking of varieties did not differ according to the gender of producers but with respect to other sociodemographic and geographic parameters such as yam growing experience, education, and state of origin.Producers preferred boiled yam that is white, dry, mealy, and sweet to taste, regardless of yam species. For D. rotundata species, soft texture of boiled yam was most preferred.Even though preferences differed across state boundaries but not with respect to gender these attributes played a significant role in the classification of producers' varieties for their suitability for boiling. Similarly for amala (a sticky dough prepared by stirring yam flour in boiling water), producers preferred a paste that is light-brown in color, has smooth texture, is non-sticky, easy to mold, and elastic, with some differences across states and ethnic groups. Elasticity, texture, and stickiness highly influenced the probability of a variety being classified as ideal for amala.Among agronomic and morphological characteristics, producers prefer varieties that are early-maturing, high-yielding, and readily marketable. Tubers should be large in size, smooth skinned, cylindrically shaped, and easy to harvest, without enzymatic browning of the flesh or shrinkage in storage. There were differences among producers in the ranking of D. rotundata varieties on the basis of gender, yam-growing experience, and State, but not across ethnic groups. For D. alata, ranking differed according to state and ethnicity only. Men and women were similar in the order of importance of yam characteristics, based on average scores. Among the main dishes prepared with yam, the three most important characteristics were color, texture, and consistency for pounded yam; sweet taste, white color, and soft texture for boiled yam; and light brown color, with a lump-free texture that is easy to mold for amala. Regarding the 12 agronomic and morphological characteristics analyzed, high and stable yield, good marketability, large tuber size, and growth cycle were the most important to producers.Varietal improvements targeting good agronomic, morphological, and marketability traits should not come at the expense of sweet taste as the outcome will be less attractive to women or short cooking time as this will be less attractive to men if the variety is to be used as boiled yam. Similarly, it should not hinder the smooth texture of amala (valued by women) or non-sticky and elastic amala (valued by men).Quality of the tuber for the preparation of yam-based foods is a major criterion for acceptance of new yam varieties by farmers and consumers. Yam tubers are mostly consumed with sauce directly after boiling, frying in oil, or roasting. They may also be cooked into pottage with added protein sources and oils. One major method of preparation that is well appreciated in coastal West Mrica is the boiling and pounding of the tuber pieces into a thick dough (called 'tutu' or 'pounded yam') that is consumed with soup. Another popular dough (called 'amala' in Nigeria and Benin and 'konkonte'in Ghana) is prepared in hot water from flour derived from dried yam tubers. The popularity of this product is increas• ing in urban areas owing to the convenience in its preparation. The product has also been introduced to processors and consumers in Cote d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, and Cameroon through the same project entitled: Raising the value of yams on the urban market. A few commercial products based on dry flakes or flours from the tuber are produced in Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire for export and sale in urban areas. These are produced by peeling, dicing, sulphite bathing, cooking, mashing, drying, and flaking followed by packaging. However the yam sector currently needs additional innovative processing technologies that could reduce food losses and create new products with higher added value. In order to address this efficiently it is necessary to understand the properties of the tuber that relate to high quality of food products. The objective of this experiment was to establish a fast protocol for screening yam geno• types for food quality by evaluating the textural characteristics of 'pounded yam' from varieties of D. alata and D. rotundata using sensory texture profile analysis and relating this to instrumental texture profile analysis. Pounded yam is a very popular yam dish in West Mrica prepared by pounding boiled tuber pieces into a sticky dough that is consumed with soup.Sensory analysis is a scientific method used to evoke, measure, analyze, and interpret those responses to products as perceived through the senses of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. For instrumental texture profile analysis a texturometer was used that measures texture by simulating the action of the human jaw (deforming food via a pivotal motion).From the results of sensory texture profile analysis, textural qualities that are considered important in pounded yam are: adhesiveness, cohesiveness, elasticity, hardness, and smoothness. Fibrousness was not considered an important textural quality in pounded yam since both yam species (D. rotundata and D. alata) gave pounded yams that were fibrous, and it did not affect the acceptability of the texture of the pounded yam by the trained panellists. It was therefore concluded that textural notes associated with a good quality pounded yam are: a reasonable degree of adhesiveness, cohesiveness, elasticity, moderate softness but firmness (so that it will be deformable or easily squeezed with the hand). Pounded yam prepared from D. rotundata varieties met these criteria. Textural qualities of pounded yam from D. alata species were considered very poor. The pounded yam samples were less cohesive, very soft, not elastic, lumpy (not smooth), and highly sticky (adhesive).Storage of fresh yam tubers before use improved the textural qualities of the pounded yam produced from them. Pounded yam made from stored yams from the two yam species was judged to have better textural qualities than those made from freshly harvested yams. Storage of the yams gave pounded yam that was less sticky, cohesive, moderately soft (not hard), firm (not still) and very elastic (high resilience value in instrumental texture profile analysis (TPA) pounded yam.There were highly significant positive correlations between the five dominant instrumental TPA parameters: Hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, stringiness, adhesiveness and the sensory parameters: stickiness, elasticity, cohesiveness, and hardness. Deformability had lower correlation coefficients with other instrumental TP A parameters and may not be a significant parameter to consider in instrumental TPA of pounded yam. In sensory TPA since it shows whether the pounded yam is fIrm, and deformable or very hard and stiff.Four dominant parameters (adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness and hardness) can be picked from eight TPA parameters (fracturability, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, adhesiveness, springiness, resilience, and hardness) extracted from the TPA force•compres• sion curve correlated with the sensory TPA. These parameters can be used for objective assessment of texture in pounded yam. This means that from the result of the TPA analysis, the harder pounded yam is, the more cohesive and more elastic it could be. Also it can be less deformable depending on whether the softness or hardness is at two extreme ends. A desirable degree of adhesiveness (stickiness) is also important.Highly significant correlations between instrumental and sensory texture profile analyses parameters show that the former can be used as an objective method for the measurement of textural qualities of pounded yam as an alternative to sensory evaluation using trained panelists.byK.A.A survey was conducted in the Isati, Dereboua, and Dimori regions located in three yam production ecologies. The study found that men predominantly manage yam production although 85% of the households have one to fIve women involved in agricultural activities.Farmers do not manage many yam plots, contrary to other food crops, as a way to take advantage of soil types and microclimates, and to minimize the risks of crop failure. The number of yam plots is limited to one (58%) or 2 plots (33%).Although yam is a major contributor to the diet and food security in the study areas, there is a high degree of commercialization of production to generate income. About 72% of producers commercialize 20-65% of disposable output. Harvesting and sale of fresh tubers are mainly spread over five to six months, but some prefer selling their harvest in December or in April.Most of these sales take place in the village market places. However, 30% of producers carry their products beyond their villages to nearby towns and cities. Others sell yam on markets across the national border (Ghana). A number of farmers (17%) have declared growing varieties such as Koukou, Alassora, Keke, Kratsi, and Wamba specifically for processing into chips that they commercialize in many types of markets during the peak period of June through August.Traders offresh tubers and chips are mainly women (98%) that are highly organized along the marketing channel into collectors, semi• and wholesalers, and retailers. They operate within specific zones and with different capacities. Collectors purchase yam products from primary rural markets directly from producers. These collectors then sell to intermediaries andlor wholesalers that assure distribution to other wholesalers and retailers. In many cases, this distribution takes place through a middleman and from the production zones to consumption centers in the country.Occasionally, some traders (12%) target regional markets in Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Niger with fresh tubers, but not with chips. Skin bruises, tuber rot, and pest damages in -44-storage are the major constraints to traders (63%). As a result, there is a high stock turnover and 54% of traders manage to sell yam within 10---12 days of acquisition. Yet, yam chips are easily stored and 50% of traders do so for 2 to 6 months.Transport service providers playa major role in linking production and consumption centers nationally and regionally. These services are not limited to yam alone but to other food and non-food commodities, as one would expect. A number of transporters (8%) confirmed hauling fresh tubers across national borders to other countries in the subregion namely, Ghana, Mali, and Niger.In terms of scale and geographic scope, many small vehicles cover short distances, each transporting a small share of marketed outputs. On the contrary, few lorries convey the bulk of yam tubers over longer distances. This practice suggests that on the margin, small vehicle size may be a more efficient way of product collection while medium and large capacities are more profitable in hauling.In conclusion, fresh yam tubers and dried chips are tradable food products that are well integrated in the marketing systems. They are sources of food as well as income for marketoriented farmers, traders, and other service providers. Production and trade activities are highly specialized according to gender and predominantly under the management of men and women, respectively. Markets are geographically segmented with many categories of participants.Further research should address, among other things, the extent and volume of spatial product flows, the transaction costs, and market efficiency, factors explaining market participation and how they affect the livelihood of the poor farmers and traders. The Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP) constitutes a coordinated and innovative effort made by farmers and producer organizations, the worldwide chocolate industry and trade, national governments, research institutes, the public sector, policymakers, donors, and development agencies to facilitate the improvement of smallholder agricultural systems based on tree crops in West Africa. With over 50% of the foreign exchange derived in West Africa coming from cocoa alone, it is clear that there are numerous groups now involved and committed to the tree crop commodities. Collectively, these groups, which typically bring different perspectives to the table, have shaped consensus around three common interests and concerns. They include: (1) promoting the production and marketing of quality cocoa, (2) improving market access and income for small-scale producers, and (3) creating systems that are environmentally friendly, socially responsible, and economically sustainable.The STCP goal is to improve the economic and social well-being of smallholders and the environmental sustainability of tree crops farms_ To achieve the STCP goal, a public-private sector partnership was created-the STCP West Mrican Development Alliance-to provide stakeholders with an organizational framework and policy environment under which they could improve the performance and efficiency of the system. Productivity of tree crop farms and enterprises are being raised, with emphasis on the rehabilitation and reclamation of deforested lands_ Efficiency in the marketing chain is being improved so that it delivers fair prices to farmers and quality products to end-users_ Only by lowering production and marketing costs will tree crops remain competitive and profitable for Mrican farmers on world markets. Achieving this and at the same time improving the state of natural resources, including biodiversity, land, soil and water, is the formidable task being undertaken by STCP. On the social and labor front, STCP is working to prevent hazardous working conditions and eliminate the worst forms of child labor, thereby improving standards on farms and in comm unities. If successful, the outcome of these efforts will be a more sustainable global economy for the focal tree crop systems, characterized by: increased rural incomes, reduced risk and greater stability in the supply of quality products to end users, increased demand for and use of tree crop products, better working conditions on farms, and an improved status of environmental resources for current and future generations of West Mricans to pursue their interests.STCP is a program that brings together all ofthese stakeholders and enables them to collaborate. To do this efficiently, a results framework with five strategic areas was adopted:(1) strengthening community-focused groups, ( 2) technology dissemination and research, (3) policy change and implementation, (4) market system and information system development, and (5) labor and social systems. The general approach being taken within each strategic area is to build on the existing efforts and activities of relevant stakeholder groups, to add value to them, and to coordinate future collaborations. Currently, the primary tree crops targeted by STCP in West Mrica are cocoa and cashew. Additional tree crops may be considered within the context of diversification of cocoa or cashew production systems.A regional program is being implemented which will enhance the synergies to be gained by working across institutions and countries to successfully develop sustainable tree crop production. The four largest Mrican cocoa producers (Cameroon, Cote d'I voire, Ghana, and Nigeria) are included in the program and account for approximately two-thirds of total world production. The flith member of the program is Guinea whose diversified agricultural economy includes cocoa, cashew, and robusta coffee as major subsectors. Furthermore, an integrated and holistic approach is taken within STCP to link developments in research, technology delivery, market systems, information systems, policy change, and community or producer-focused services.Currently, a series of STCP pilot projects are in the start-up phase in West Mrica; three pilot project sites have been identified in Cote d'Ivoire, and one in each of the other four countries (Cameroon, Ghana, Guinea, and Nigeria). The objective of these pilot activities are to compare, test, and validate different approaches and interventions to develop sustainable and integrated cocoa production systems, and to concurrently address child labor concerns in a coherent and systematic method. The ultimate goal of these pilot activities is to improve the rural livelihood of cocoa producers in West Mrica by improving their ability to respond to the demands of global markets. To support the pilot activities, three \"crosscutting\" regional projects have been developed in the following thematic areas: (1) child labor, ( 2) demand-driven technology delivery and research, and (3) trade and information systems. These projects are being developed by organizations with the necessary expertise and capabilities in the respective areas.Finally, a regional management structure has been developed to support and link the pilot projects and regional activities. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (UTA) is hosting the STCP regional program and will manage it through the STCP Regional and National Coordination Units. The Child Labor Regional Project will be hosted and managed by the International Labor Organization In November 2002, a regional workshop was held for the broader STCP coalition to participate in and support this integrated and coordinated West African Regional Program to develop a holistic approach to sustainable tree crop systems in Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, and Nigeria. The workshop was organized jointly by the Government of Ghana (COCOBOD), the US Government, the international cocoa industry (Global Issues Group), and UTA. Specifically, three areas were addressed during the workshop:• STCP Action Plan: A common understanding of the rationale for and details of the Pilot Phase Action Plan of STCP and the framework for its implementation was developed.• STCP Interventions: The successes in interventions to date and innovations necessary to achieve the STCP goal were showcased and discussed for further assimilation into the program.• STCP Coalition: The coalition between farmer organizations, industry, governments, international agencies, research and extension for implementing STCP activities was consolidated and further strengthened.The STCP Action Plan, initiated in October 2002, has now moved into full implementation of its 3-year program, building on the insights provided by this workshop. The Action Plan includes pilot projects in each ofthe member countries focusing on developing the capacity of farmer organizations, and regional projects that provide technical support to the pilots in addressing issues on trade and information systems, technology dissemination, research, and child labor. The child labor component is implemented through the WACAP Program of ILOIIPEC. Existing linkages with complementary programs are being formalized (e.g., with Socodevi and Creative Associates) and new ones will be pursued. At the end of the workshop, the members of the Sustainable Tree Crop Development Alliance ensured their support for the Action Plan of STCP. With this workshop, the 3-year regional Action Plan was launched.Create and strengthen regional market and information systems, which enhance the efficiency of the tree crop sector, i.e., primarily cocoa and associated cropsAmong the perennial tree crops, the cocoa sector is of particular interest for the humid forest region and for the global chocolate industry, as approximately 60% of the world supply of cocoa originates from West and Central Africa, and producing countries derive a large proportion of their foreign exchange earnings from cocoa.The main objective ofthis research was to understand the general constraints and opportunities of cocoa-based systems in the humid forest zone of West and Central Africa (cashew as concerned Guinea), in view to increase the productivity of agricultural land and labor employed by asset-poor households, and thus contribute to alleviation of rural poverty.An extensive baseline survey of 5457 farmers in major cocoa growing regions (cashew growing regions in Guinea), was conducted in 2001 in Cote d'I voire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Guinea, to provide basic parameters of cocoaJcashew based systems in the region.In all of the countries surveyed, villages and clusters of households were randomly selected and household heads interviewed using structured questionnaires. In Nigeria, 1083 households were visited in 35 villages and towns of Ondo State which accounts for between 40 and 50% of annual production in Nigeria. In Cameroon, 1003 households and 83 villages in the Southwest, Center and South Provinces were visited, with production from these sites accounting for over 80% of national production. In Ghana, the surveys were conducted with 1000 households from 85 villages in the Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Eastern, and Western regions which together account for approximately 90% of national production. In Cote d'Ivoire, a list of farmers obtained from a national census of cocoa and coffee producers conducted in 1998 provided the opportunity of selecting households with known probability of selection. In all, 1372 households from 20 subdivisions and 134 villages, hamlets and cocoa \"camps\" across the cocoa belt of Cote d'Ivoire were visited. In Guinea, 999 farmers were visited in Boke and Mandiana areas.Table 28 summarizes information on land ownership by crop types in the cocoa belt of the four countries. Compared with other crops, cocoa areas are the most important. Cocoa production across the region is in the hands of small family farms. The average cocoa area planted per household was 4.5 ha in Cote d'Ivoire, 5 ha in Cameroon, 6.4 ha in Ghana and 4.6 ha in Nigeria. In Guinea, the average cashew area was 3.12 ha.Cocoa production is just one component in the rural livelihoods of most households. Nearly all households also grow food crops for both consumption and the market and in Cote d'Ivoire about half of the cocoa producers also grow robusta coffee on small plots. Other common perennial cropping systems include oil palm, and in some areas citrus production.Relatively small portions of the planted areas were dedicated to food crops; with the areas -48- allocated ranging between 1.3 ha (Ghana) and 2.5 ha (Cameroon). It is also important to note that if in some countries (Cameroon), forestlands are still important, land shortage is apparent in Nigeria and Ghana.Cocoa revenues are often the largest source of revenues for many households (Table 29).The average cocoa share in household income ranges from a low of 50% in Cameroon to a high of 67% in Nigeria. In Ghana, the average share of cocoa revenues was 56% while in Cote d'l voire the average share of cocoa revenues among the surveyed households was 51 % and 21.5% for coffee. In Guinea the contribution of cashew is only 9%. The low yields reflect in part the low prices in recent years, which have caused farmers to reduce the amount of inputs applied to their tree stock investments. The most impor• tant of these inputs are labor and agrochemicals for fertilization and controlling pest and disease.Agrochemicals use showed a wide variation by country. Nigeria and Cameroon have the largest proportion of farmers applying some kind of chemical inputs (88% and 84%, respectively). While in Ghana and Cote d'lvoire less than 50% are concerned. In Guinea, very few farmers (2%) use chemical inputs. An important problem with the agrochemical use is the place of purchase. An important proportion of farmers purchased chemical inputs from unlicensed private suppliers (Table 30). These sources do not necessarily provide certified quality of chemical inputs. This can potentially lead to serious health problems. The use of pesticide on cocoa farms requires special capital equipment. Ownership of capital equipment for pesticide application is very low (Table 31). Knapsack sprayer is the most common equipment mainly in Cameroon where 72% of farmers use it. This is naturally related to the high prevalence of cocoa black-pot disease in Cameroon. The use of more modern motorized equipment is globally very low. Most producers are smallholder farmers. The size of farms limits the possibilities for an individual ownership of some types of equipment. The proportion of farmers who do not have access to suppliers of improved varieties is relatively high in some countries (Table 32). This is the case in countries where the sector has been liberalized. Fifty-eight and 87% offarmers in Cameroon and Cote d'Ivoire, respectively, mention the lack of availability of suppliers of improved varieties. A consequence of this is that the largest portion of producers in all countries obtained planting material from existing farms/fields or volunteer seedlings (Table 32). These sources probably do not provide the latest improved varieties. Farmers who obtained planting material from market or the other sources (cooperative. government service) are more likely to use improved varieties-the proportion of farmers using these sources was high only in Ghana. -50-The adhesion of farmers to rural organization is still very low, even insignificant in a country like Ghana where only 9% of farmers belong to a group (Table 33).In the humid forest zone of Mrica, the private and nongovernmental sectors have been actively brought in after the liberalization of the cocoa sector. Specially, groups of farmers, in the form of producer associations, are among the best means of providing extension advice and thus extending new production techniques. It is noted that these groups are actually more active in the marketing part of the cocoa activity (Table 34). ------- Data in Table 35 show that cash credit is a very scare commodity in the rural sector. Eightynine percent offarmers in Cote d'lvoire 74% in Cameroon, 80.5% in Ghana, 47% in Nigeria, and 75% in Guinea did not have access to cash credit in 2001. The supply of rural credit has been divided into the 'formal' and 'informal' sectors. The formal sector includes banks, government agencies, cooperative credit unions, NGOs, etc. The informal sector is made up largely of individuals (traders, landlords or farmers themselves) who lend money as a business. The main source for farmers who received credit was the informal sector. Some farmers reported to have received in-kind credits (Table 35), mainly in Nigeria (44%) and in Cameroon (25%). The in-kind credit received is mainly made of fungicides, pesticides, and fertilizers.In recent years, with the liberalization of the cocoa sector, the credit sector has experienced many changes due to the withdrawal of government subsidized credit programs. The gap left by the withdrawal of government has been partly filled by the informal sector. However, the informal sector is traditionally characterized as being highly usurious and in positions of considerable power due to lack of local competition. The initial results of an experiment to compare the agronomic effects and environmental impacts of different copper fungicide regimes in cocoa are presented. Fungicide to control blackpod (Phytophthora megakarya Bras. & Griff) is the main external input used in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) systems in southern Cameroon. One of the most commonly used fungicides is 'Ridomil® Plus 72 W AP'; copper (I) oxide plus metalaxyl. However, at fluctuating cocoa prices, the spraying regime recommended by the manufacturer is not always profitable. Therefore the effects of a reduced spraying regime need to be assessed.In a survey conducted in eight southern Cameroonian villages, on average farmers classified 33% of their cocoa holdings as abandoned. Given increased interest in cocoa production due to higher market prices, it is important to know what yields are possible from previously abandoned fields and what is the yield response to fungicide.Losses of fungicide to the soil surface are inevitable, from dripping during the spraying, and during subsequent rainfall and thus there might be negative environmental consequences associated with application. Earthworms are 'ecosystem engineers' and maintaining their populations and consequent activities such as burrowing and cast production is an essential component in sustainable agricultural systems worldwide and their use as a bioindicator is widespread. The cocoa tree trunks, pods and leaves are sprayed manually up to 12 times per year during the rainy seasons using a knapsack sprayer. Soil organisms can tolerate metals by avoidance, reduced assimilation or increased excretion rates, uptake into compartments at the subcellular level and protein inductions. Earthworms can distinguish between litter contaminated with metal ions (zinc, copper) and that which is not, selecting the non-contaminated litter. However, there are very few in-situ studies on copper toxicology from the tropics. Cocoa pods were harvested as ripe from all trees within experimental plots. Mass of whole pods was recorded for each plot and the tree of origin was recorded. Pods were split in the lab and fresh mass of beans and empty pods measured. A subsample of empty pods from each plot was weighed for dry matter determination and dried at 55 DC to constant mass.Beans were fermented on a draining tray for six days and were regularly turned. Beans were sun-dried. On wet days, beans were dried in an airflow oven. Dry mass of beans was recorded.Two hundred beans (ten batches of twenty beans) per plot were randomly selected. Dry mass, and husk percentage were recorded. These data were used as a proxy for fat content as previous work has shown that beans weighing less than 1 g have a lower fat content.Soil Surface casting was measured in 1 m by 1 m frames with five frames per plot each adjacent to where the soil samples had been taken. All surface casts were collected from the frames twice. Casts were dried at 40 DC for 48 hours after each sampling and the dry mass per frame was recorded. Casts were bulked by plot.Cast and soil samples were ground to 2 mm for texture analysis and 0.5 mm for chemical analysis. Texture was determined using Day's procedure. The pH was determined in a water suspension at a 2:5 soil:water ratio. Exchangeable (exch.) Ca, Mg, K, Cu and total P were extracted by the Mehlich-3 procedure (Mehlich 1984). Cations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and P by the malachite green colorimetric procedure. Organic C was determined by Heanes' improved chromic acid digestion and spectrophotometric procedure. Total N was determined using the Kjeldahl method for digestion and ammonium electrode determination.All datasets were analyzed using the GLM procedure in SAS v. 6.12.For earthworm cast production, the model used was an incomplete blocked two factorial where the cocoa treatments were nested within a 'cocoa versus forest' factor. Exploratory data analysis revealed that sample variances of earthworm cast amounts were correlated with the means. The data were thus transformed so that Y = sqrt (y) and all analysis were performed upon the transformed data.For cocoa yield and blackpod data, analysis were performed on square root transformed data using a blocked one-factorial at three levels. For cocoa bean size, the model used included the harvesttime as a subplot factor. Proportions were arc-sine transformed prior to analysis.Yields of cocoa were 358, 203, and 48 kg dry beans ha• 1 in the high, low, and zero spray treatments, respectively, in the first year of rehabilitation. In the second year, yields were generally much lower due to lower pod set early in the year, probably due to rainfall differences and this was a general feature in the area. Yields were 149, 104, and 7 kg dry beans ha• 1 in the high, low and zero spray treatments, respectively. In the first year, returns to capital were higher in the high application rate treatment whereas in the second year, returns were higher in the low application rate treatment. There was high variability between individual trees in both cherelle production and unaffected pod production. Fungicide treatments had no significant effect upon cocoa bean size, although individual bean mass was significantly greater at the final (December) harvest than at earlier harvests.Copper concentrations in cocoa beans were extremely low (13-17 ppm) and were not different between treatments.Topsoil (0-10 cm depth) was different between cocoa and secondary forest, with higher pH, higher exch. Mg and Cu in the cocoa (Table 36). In the 10--20 cm layer, exch. K concentration was lower in the cocoa.There were no significant differences in texture between forest and cocoa, however, the 10--20 cm layer had a higher clay content than the 0--10 cm layer. There were no significant differences between fungicide treatment plots therefore the data are not shown.While the forest had more total cast production in both years than the cocoa treatments, the year totals of the cocoa fungicide treatments were not significantly different from each other. Nutrient and carbon concentrations were generally higher in casts derived from the cocoa plots than casts in the forest. However, there were no effects of fungicide treatment upon any concentration measured. Cast:soil nutrient ratios were higher than one for all elements except Cu. Casts derived from the forest had a higher percentage of sand than those from the cocoa. Casts derived from the high fungicide application plots had a higher percentage clay than those derived from the low fungicide application and zero-spray treatments.The profitability of the spraying depends on the yield level and thus farmers are recommended to spray at the recommended rate in years when pod set is high and at the low rate -54- Forest (n -9) (0/0) (system) Forest (n = 9) (%) (system)  in years with poor pod set. Furthermore, some trees did not produce, thus it is suggested to replace such trees. However, cherelle and pod production per tree are being monitored for a third year to test whether there are correlations between year to year production for each tree. No significant negative environmental consequences of fungicides were detected over the time frame of the experiment.Differences in soil pH and exch. Mg concentration between the forest and the cocoa may reflect either previous management and/or the initial land selection for cocoa establishment. The higher exch. eu concentration in the cocoa soil suggests a history of copper fungicide use, although the fields had been abandoned for the three previous years. Some of the difference in exch. eu is attributed to pH differences, as eu is more available at higher pH. Thus, differences in exch. eu concentrations between forest and cocoa may to some extent reflect pH dependent availability rather than real differences in eu amounts in the soil. However, eu concentrations were still low, with the highest eu concentration in the topsoil of 19.3 mg kgt.Relative to the forest system, casting levels ranged from 24 to 36% in the cocoa. This difference is similar to that reported for a comparison between forest and a food crop field after burning, tillage and cropping where cast production was 25% of the forest.There was no effect of fungicide treatment on earthworm cast production over the year and cast nutrient concentrations reflected initial soil nutrient concentrations. eu concentrations of casts were lower than eu concentrations in soil for the cocoa plots. This suggests that, unless the eu is being compartmentalized at the sub-cellular level, that earthworms are avoiding copper uptake. Earthworms could avoid copper uptake by feeding at deeper soil layers. Casts derived from the high fungicide application plots had a higher percentage of clay than those derived from the low fungicide application and zero-spray treatments. This suggests that the earthworms may be feeding more in the deeper soil layers where the clay content was higher (Table 36) to avoid the soil with higher Cu concentrations near the surface. Faced with declines in profits and labor productivity of cocoa, the majority of smallholder cocoa farmers are increasingly diversifying their income generation and food production activities. With the goal of diversifying land use systems and increasing incomes, farmers can either reconvert their plantations or enrich them by increasingly integrating forest species, fruit trees, and annuals within the plantation system. The particular dynamics of interest to us in this study is the diversification within the cocoa plantations. The important ecological, economic, and sociocultural dynamics that have lead and are leading to different types of cocoa agroforests need to be understood to better target research interventions. These multistrata systems deserve to be investigated as they are excellent models of association between non-domesticated forest species and cultivated forest species; between production of food, nuts and seeds, and other provision of environmental services in the forest ecology; and between sustainable management, flexibility, and household food security.The overall objectives of this study are to:1. Characterize the factors explaining the dynamic changes of cocoa multistrata agroforestry systems in the humid forest zone;2. Characterize the vegetation structure and composition of the evolving agroforestry systems and its environmental role;3. Characterize the management and production of the evolving agroforestry systems.The study is being conducted within the Forest Margin benchmark in southern Cameroon.The current report builds on reports already provided in 1999-2000 and focuses on the specific differences between the typology of cocoa agroforests presented in 1999. Three basic types had been identified based on the species composition of 60 agroforests in three different blocks (i.e., areas around Yaounde, Mbalmayo, and Ebolowa):Type A Plantations with a high density of oil palms and Musa species.Type B: Plantations with a high density of cocoa trees.Type C: Plantations with a high density of non• timber forest product and high-value timber speCIes.In 2002, building on previous work, we initiated in different cocoa agroforests a study to investigate (1) the productivity of the cocoa systems, and (2) the litter fall and its composition. Eight cocoa agroforests were identified: one Type A and one Type C each in Nkometou (Yaounde block) and Akok (Ebolowa block), one each of Types A, B, and -56-C in Awae (Mbalmayo block), and one \"full sun\" system (8) also in Awae. The \"full sun system\" was added to assess the role of shading on biomass dynamics in cocoa agroforests. Initial results from the period July to December 2002 are being presented for this progress report.During the 6•month period, between 4 and 5 tlha oflitter material was collected (Table 37). Across the benchmark area, leaves of associated trees constituted 66% of the total litter fall, that of twigs 19%, cocoa leaves 8%, fruits of associated trees 6%, and cocoa fruits less than 2%. There appeared to be a trend of greater total litter fall in the Yaounde block compared to Ebolowa (P = 0.0958). This difference was significant particularly in the leaf and cocoa fruit fractions. Although the proportion of leave fall of associated trees across the blocks was similar (about one•third), cocoa leaf fall in the Yaounde block constituted 14% of the total litter fall, while only 4% in Ebolowa. In contrast, the fall of fruits of associated trees and twigs was greater in Ebolowa.Evaluating litter fall by month, we observed that the greatest litter fall across all blocks was in December (Fig. 5). This coincides with the establishment of the dry season in the region. Greater litter fall was registered in the Yaounde and Mbalmayo blocks. The lower rates in Ebolowa appear to be associated with the usually more delayed on• set of the dry season in the southern part of the benchmark area.From July to December, nearly 5 tlha of litter fell in the shaded cocoa systems (A, B, and C), while only 2 tlha in the \"full sun\" cocoa system (8) (Table 38). This is primarily due to greater leaf fall from associated trees and greater twig fall. However, \"full sun\" cocoa system had significantly greater cocoa leaf fall and to a lesser extent greater cocoa fruit fall. Less than 10% ofthe total litter in the shaded systems came from cocoa leaves, while this was 72% in the \"full sun\" system. And the inverse was true for the proportion of the leaves from associated trees.The litter fall is greatest in all systems in December as the dry season establishes itself (Fig. 6). There appears however to be a greater increase in litter fall compared to the rainy season months particularly in Types A and 8, the fIrst being a shaded system with reduced shading compared to Band C, and the second being the \"full sun\" system.  During the period July to December 2002, the total litter fall was similar in the different blocks of the benchmark area, although there were differences in the composition of the litter fall. The \"full sun\" cocoa system was distinct from the shaded systems in general. However, System A has some similarities to the \"full sun\" system, which is probably explained by the former having fewer large shade trees compared to Types Band C. There was also some indication of shaded systems being at least initially less severely affected by the on-set of the dry season. Oil palms are an integral component of nearly all the farming systems in the forest zone of southern Cameroon. Farmers have been utilizing the oil palm for oil production and palm wine tapping. Oil palms are not planted, but retained in home gardens and increasingly in the various food crop farms naturally.As pressure on the land increases and forests disappear, farmers have started showing mounting interest in establishing smallholder oil palm systems on already deforested land using improved varieties. This is particularly the case in the northern part of the Forest Margin Benchmark where population pressure is mounting (ca. 100 personslkm 2 in the rural areas) and adult forests do not dominate the landscape any more.For young male farmers in Nkometou, a research village in the northern part of the Benchmark, the development of oil palm systems is their number one priority and is also of interest to women and older men. Such systems, particularly in the non•traditional oil palm plantation areas as around Nkometou, could provide an alternative source of income to cocoa and coffee, which have for long been the most important cash crops of farmers of the zone. Unlike relatively large•scale plantations managed by parastatals, these oil palm systems are family managed and receive only low levels of external inputs with very limited technical assistance.The main objectives ofthis activity are to:• Develop sustainable oil palm systems on already deforested land for smallholder farmers, providing early income through intercropping with food crops.• Transfer the experience on the development of these systems primarily by farmers from two other locations where activities had been initiated in 1997.• Determine the preference of farmers for different management systems.-59-In 2001, the major farmer groups in Nkometou were approached and asked to identify representatives from their respective groups to participate in this activity. This approach was taken to ensure that the participating farmers fed their information back to nonparticipating farmers of their group. Finally 20 farmers were selected after ensuring that their households had enough land and labor for this additional enterprise. In a further set of meetings in Nkometou, farmer leaders from two other localities who have already been involved with UTA since 1997 in developing oil palm systems on deforested lands were brought in to share their experience. Some key observations of these farmers conveyed were:• The main limiting factor is labor during the establishment phase.• Size of a new plantation needs to be adjusted to the available household labor force.• Oil palms need to be physically protected against rodents for the first 2-3 years.• Intercropping with food crops in the fIrst one to two years is recommended since it helps to keep the fIelds clean of weeds. However, planting cassava should be avoided.• Mter cropping has stopped, a cover crop such as Pueraria phaseoloides should be planted to keep the natural vegetation down.• Fertilizers should be used as recommended.• Marketing and transformation opportunities need to be looked into early.The fields were cleared early in 2002 and the oil palm seedlings were planted during May and June 2002. A base fertilizer application was made to all seedlings in October. Each of the 20 fields received 36 plants with the intention that the farmers would be able to experiment with certain factors which were important to them. In the second half of 2002 a set of evaluations of the activities to that date was made and discussions held with the participating farmers. Some key observations follow:• Farmers were particularly keen on testing the role of fertilizers. It was perceived that fertilizers may give greater bunch yields, but that there may be greater loss due to fruit rots before the bunch harvest and that oil quality may be inferior.• Farmers indicated that fIeld preparation was done just before the start of the rainy season (FebruaryfMarch), but that waiting for the official recommended planting date for oil palms (May) necessitated an additional round of slashing just before planting. This happened during a period where labor was already scarce due to other operations on the farm.• Eleven farmers planted different short season crops between the rows of oil palms. They decided to do this to facilitate the weeding of the oil palm fields. Some of the others decided to plant food crops in a different field since they wanted to associate these crops with cassava, and thus decided that they preferred to slash any vegetation establishing in the oil palm fields.• At planting, only a minority of farmers had built protectors against rodent attack for their young palms, but they were ready to do this as soon as the palms had been planted.Observations will be continued jointly with the farmers in 2003.Establishing cocoa hybrids on degraded land in southern Cameroon AB forests become scarce, new ways of establishing cocoa farms on already deforested and possibly degraded land have to be devised. This requires investigating the best means of providing a protective environment for the young cocoa seedlings, improving the level of fertility of the degraded land, and selecting the varieties best adapted to these more severe establishment conditions. One of the farms was lost due to the farmer's decision to convert an adjacent forest into an oil palm plantation. The forest trees fell into the bush system destroying virtually all cocoa plants. This report is thus on the six remaining farms.Survival was affected by shade system with more plants alive under Musa shading (88%) than in the bush (82%, P = 0.098). Variety had no effect on survival, ranging from 81% in local and SNK to a maximum of 90% in hybrid # 4. In the Musa system, more flush leaves were found than in the bush system. All other growth parameters were unaffected by the shade system. With the decline of the plantains, the shading (or the lack of it) in the two systems is becoming more similar, eliminating differences found at earlier stages.The most important indicator of vigor, stem diameter, was larger in hybrids # 1, 3, and 4, than in the local material and SNK. Survival of the terminal bud was highest in the local material, yet this may well be caused by the fact that many plants had not formed a jorquette and therefore were still in a stage where the presence of a terminal bud was an advantage. Most hybrids had a jorquette and thus numerous side branches.Flower formation, although not usually an important parameter in December, was greater in hybrids # 1 and 3, significantly different form the local material. Fruit set was the high. est in hybrid # 3, significantly higher than in the local material and SNK.At the moment, hybrids # 1, 3, and 4 all appear superior to the local and SNK material. A final evaluation will be conducted in June 2003 and a decision made as to which hybrids to propagate. Data on cocoa quality need to be gathered in the forthcoming years to ensure the multiplication of cocoa with superior vigor and appropriate quality.Establishment of mixed tree crop systems on short fallow land by L.N. and S.H.In 1999, an on• farm, two• factorial trial, replicated nine times was established to assess the potential of mixed tree systems consisting of Persea americana Mill: Lauraceae (avocado),Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H. J. Lam: Burseraceae (safoutier), Terminalia ivorensis A. Chev:Combretaceae (framire), Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre: Euphorbiaceae (essessang) and Theobroma cacao L.: Sterculiacaeae (cocoa) to rehabilitate short-fallow land. The effects of different temporary shade crops and four fertilizer regimes were tested. We compared the following shade treatments which had different levels of labor investment, different potential profitabilities, and different risks of success.Four different shade treatments were tested: plantain (Musa spp. AAB); cooking banana (Musa spp. ABB); inga (Inga edulis Mart.: Leguminosae), and alleys of natural regrowth dominated by Chromolaena odorata King & Robinson:Asteraceae.Musa spp AAB cv. Essong (local plantain), a French type. This was the farmers' choice treatment and, given that plantain is the favored starch staple of urban populations in Cameroon (Dury et a1. 2002), there is a potential for a high economic return.Musa spp ABB cv. Fougamou (cooking banana). This is less susceptible than local plantain to root nematodes and Sigatoka, can have a higher survival and can, under southern Cameroonian conditions, continue to produce four or more bunches from the same mat (Hauser pers. obs). However, it is not widely grown in Cameroon, and thus has no established market price.Inga edulis Mart: Leguminosae: Mimosideae (inga) is an N .fixing tree. On a similar soil (Ultisol) in Costa Rica, 1. edulis had the highest nitrogenase activity of nine tested species (Tilki and Fisher 1998). The genus Inga originates from Latin America and is one of the most widely used shade trees in cocoa and coffee plantations. It is a multipurpose tree, producing an edible fruit and fuelwood. In Mrica, it is in Equatorial Guinea probably having been brought by the Spanish during colonial times, to provide shade in cocoa plantations. Its fruits there are found for sale in the capital. The tree is not known in Cameroon.Alleys of the natural regrowth. This was the 'low investment' and required the least labour to establish. Alleys of the fallow vegetation were left between the rows of cocoa to provide some shade. These were maintained by regularly slashing along the cocoa lines.Four inorganic fertilizer regimes were imposed: nil; 'N only' at 22 kg ha\"; 'P plus cations' P, K, Ca, and Mg at 11, 33, 367, and 73 kg ha• 1 ,respectively; and 'all' N, P, K, Ca, and Mg at 22, 11,33, 367, and 73 kg ha•\"respectively. All plots were planted in an identical pattern to fruit and timber tree seedlings.Growth oftimber and and fruit trees was assessed twice per year. Mter measurements on all components in May/June 2002, fields were reweeded in October and all system components were remeasured (height, girth, leaf numbers, etc.). In all years, shade treatment had no impact upon survival. By October 2002, growth was generally best in the plantain temporary shade treatment and fertilizer regime had no significant effects. Plantain is susceptible to root nematode pests and leaf diseases therefore it is prone to uprooting and can maintain fewer leaves than cooking banana. This treatment produced the least shade and, given that local plantain (AAB) has a poor performance relative to (ABB) cv. Fouga• mou, competition would be lower in these plots. By October 2002, survival of Terminalia iuorensis was 71% across treatments and trees averaged 245 em height. Stem diameter and branching were significantly higher in the plantain treatments and growth was worst in -62-the bush. However, green branch number was highest in the bush treatment, suggesting a developmental delay. By October 2002, growth of Ricinodendron heudelotii was generally unaffected by shade treatment although stem diameter was higher in plantain plots than in others.Of the shade treatments, rnga was thinned to 50% of the initial density and the cooking banana suckers were removed but one per stand. The thinning exercise was used to estimate the biomass ofthe Inga. This repeats the measurements conducted last year and thus gives yearly growth data and canopy development. It is concluded that the selected fruit trees have a negative initial response to shading and it might be more appropriate ifthey are planted before fast-growing components in such mixed systems.Evaluation One ofthe farms was lost due to the farmer's decision to convert adjacent forest into an oil palm plantation. The forest trees fell into the bush system destroying virtually all cocoa plants. This report is thus on the six remaining farms.Survival was affected by shade system with more plants alive under Musa shading (88%) than in bush (82%, P = 0.098). Varity had no effect on survival, ranging from 81% in local and SNK to a maximum of 90% in hybrid # 4. In the Musa system, more flush leaves were found than in the bush system. All other growth parameters were unaffected by the shade system. With the decline of the plantains, the shading (or the lack of it) in the two systems is becoming more similar, eliminating differences found at earlier stages.The most important indicator of vigor, stem diameter, was larger in hybrids # 1, 3, and 4, than in local material and SNK. Survival of the terminal bud was the highest in the local material, yet this may well be caused by the fact that many plants had not formed a jorquette and therefore were still in a stage where the presence of a terminal bud is an advantage. Most hybrids had a jorquette and thus numerous side branches.Flower formation, although not usually an important parameter in December, was greater in hybrids # 1 and 3, significantly different form the local materiaL Fruit set was the highest in hybrid # 3, significantly higher than in local material and SNK.At the moment, hybrids # 1, 3, and 4 all appear superior to local and SNK materiaL A final evaluation will be conducted in June 2003 and a decision made which hybrids will be propagated. Data on cocoa quality needs to be gathered in the forthcoming years to ensure the multiplication of cocoa with superior vigour and appropriate quality.-63- Farmers are unfamiliar with grain legumes such as cowpea and soybean, but are showing increasingly interest in their cultivation in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon. Grain legumes produce not only edible grain for human consumption but also biomass that can be used for soil fertility restoration and weed controL However, soybean, an N•fixing legume, requires a large amount of P for its energy•consuming N,-fixation process and P is one of the major limiting nutrients for crop production in this zone. Given the limited access of most small farmers to fertilizer P, it is desirable to identify and incorporate into cropping systems soybean cultivars that can mobilize P from soil•P pools that are unavail• able to less P•efficient food crops.Fields and pot experiments were carried out at Minkoameyos and Abang village in 2001 and 2002. A factorial trial with 2 factors (soybean cultivar and P fertilizer application) was run in a split block design. Thirteen soybean cultivars and 3 levels ofP fertilizer application (0 kg P, 30 kg TSP, and 90 kg rock phosphate) were tested. Soybean was seeded at 5 by 75 cm with a density of 250 000 plants ha•'. The soil pH was 5.4 and the available P (Bray. 1) was 2.68 at 0•10cm. Biomass production, nodulation (weight and number of nodules), % AMF, root length, Nand P, and P use efficiency, and N fIxed by different soybean were determined at pod filling and at harvest. In this report only data on dry matter production, root length and phosphorus• use efficiency are presented.The F•test denoted a signifIcant effect of cultivars and P application on dry matter produc• tion of soybean cultivars. However the interaction effect between cultivars x P application was not signifIcant (p = 0.81). In extreme P defIcient condition, the high dry matter was produced by cultivars, Tgm 1511 (6.01 g plant•') and in high P supply, the higher dry matter production was obtained by the same cultivars Tgm 1511 (7.50 g plant•') following by the cultivars Tgm 1251 (7.10 g plant•') (Table 39).The total root length of soybean cultivars was signifIcantly different between the cultivars and P application (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.031 for cultivars and P application, respectively) (Table 40). The higher root length was produced by Tgm 1196, Tgm 1039, and Tgx 1465•2E whereas the lower root length was produced by the cultivars Tgm 1293, Tgm 1360, and Tgm 1420 (Table 40).RP: Togolese rock phosphate; TSP: Triple super phosphate; Means followed by the same letter are not signifIcantly different at P = 0.05.The P•use efficiency per em of root showed that cultivars Tgm 1419; Tgm 1360, and Tgm 1293 had the higher P•use efficiency than cultivars Tgx 1465; and Tgm 1039 where the P•use efficiency was two times lower than the P•efficient cultivars (Fig. 7).Table 39. Effect of phosphorus application on dry matter production and Puptake at Minkoameyos.------- The most important contribution of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungus (AMF) to crop growth is probably phosphorus uptake through the soil mycelium network. Numerous studies have shown the significant effect AMF in increasing the available P that plants can uptake. Surprisingly, very few data can say precisely which P fraction the fungus makes available to plants. Moreover, in the humid forest of southern Cameroon, no data exist on the number and infective propagules able to form AMF association with host plant.This study was developed from a need to assess the number of AMF infective propagules present in the humid forest soil of southern Cameroon and to determine the fractions of P which are made available to the plant by AMF association. The study was conducted in the Benchmark of southern Cameroon. Sites were selected according to their texture and low levels of available P (Bray 1). In each soil group, five representatives villages were selected and within each village, five fields (4 short fallow and one forest) were used for sampling of soil and aboveground biomass of the vegetation. Soil and plant root samples were sampled from September to December 2000. Soil was sampled at 0-5; 5--10, and 10-25 cm depths. At each sampling point, spores were recovered from 25 g of soils. Spores were then counted under a microscope at 40x magnification. The most probable number (MPN) technique was used to assess the infectivity of AMF in soil. A 10•fold dilution series was made in a screenhouse at Nkolbisson. Steamed soil was used to dilute the inocula. Two pregerminated seeds of cowpea and soybean were planted. The plants were supplied with nutrient solution for eight weeks after planting and harvested at 8 WAP. Values for the MPN were calculated from the number of infected pots by an approximation of the maximum likelihood method.Results obtained showed that the number of AMF spores was not significantly different between the five groups of soil fallow fields, although the number of spores was higher in Akonolinga and Sangmelima than in Ebolowa, Mbalmayo, and Yaounde soils (Fig. 8). No significant difference was observed between soil groups in the forest field. Contrary to the fallow fields, the highest number of spores was obtained in Akonolinga and Ebolowa soils.When comparing the number of spores according to type of vegetation (forest and fallow fields), the difference was significantly different (P < 0.0001) (Fig. 8).The number of spores and the number of AMF invectives propagules were not significantly different between the soil groups (Fig. 9). However significant differences were observed between vegetation types. The coefficient of correlation between soil P•fractions, the number of spore, and the number of infective propagules (Table 41) showed significant and positive relationships in terms of available P (Bray I), the number of invectives propagules (r = 0.59; P < 0.0001; n = 82), Pi.NaHCo 3 , the number of spores (r = 0.35; P < 0.0041; n = 64), Pi•HCI fractions, and the most probable number of AMF (r = 0.45; P < 0.0004; n = 64). The main objectives of this study were: (i) to obtain quantitative data of the phosphorus reserve in the strongly weathered soils of southern Cameroon, and (ii) to establish relationships between P fractions and soil genetic properties_ As detailed soil maps are largely missing for southern Cameroon and the Congo Basin, whereas geological maps are more often available, such information should enable us to locate soils with potential P problems.Five soil groups, termed according to their location as 'Ebolowa', 'Sangmelima', 'Yaounde', 'Akonolinga' and 'Mbalmayo' soils, were sampled. The parent material of these soil groups vary from granite (Ebolowa and Sangmelima), migmatite (yaounde), mica schist (Akonolinga), to schist (Mbalmayo). The soils derived from them belong to the udult and udox suborders. In each group, one representative profIle was described and sampled by genetic horizons. The profiles were located as far as possible on summits with slopes of less than 4%. AIl profIles were under fallow vegetation of less than 4 years at the time of sampling and were chosen such that no adjacent tree could interf. Soil samples were collected by genetic horizons.Four discrete P pools were determined by sequential extraction whereby alkali-soluble forms of phosphorous (0.5M NaHC0 3 and O.lM NaOH) with greater bioavailability were extracted fIrst, followed by less available, acid extractable ones. Residual P was extracted with 2M H 2 S0 4 after ignition at 550 'C. Total organic P within the solum was calculated as the sum of all the 4 fractions to a depth of 1.5 m, taking into account the P form and its concentration, soil bulk density, and horizon depth.The studied pedons differ in their morphological and biochemical properties. 'Sangmelima', 'Yaounde' and 'Akonolinga' soils are red (2.5 YR hue) in contrast to 'Mbalmayo' and 'Ebolowa' with yellow (10YR hue) surface color. Ultisols were morphologically more differentiated than soils derived from the various granites. Their silt/clay ratio, clay illuviation index, and ECEC were all indicative of soils at an advanced stage of weathering. The oxalate extractable, active Fe (Fe o ) ' was minimal in the soil surface, and reached a maximum in the upper part of the Bt horizon. Higher values of Fe o , (1.0-3.2 g k!5!) were observed in red soils (2.5 YR) compared to yellow (10 YR) soils (0.5-1.2 g kg'!). AI3+, exchangeable with 1 M KCI, was the dominant cation on the organo-mineral complex reaching saturation levels between 30 and 93% from 20 cm downwards.The total P reserve within 1.50 m depth ranged from 473 to 632 )lg g'! in granitic soils to 168-254)lg g-! in schist-derived soils ('Mbalmayo' and 'Akonolinga' soils). Labile P, as measured by the Bray-I method, ranged from 15.2 )lg !5! in surface horizons to almost zero in subsoils horizons. Soils from the 'Yaounde' group had higher values of all extracted fractions in the Ap horizon, reflecting recent fertilizer application. The bicarbonate (NaHCO,P) fraction represented between land 3% of tbe total P with higher values occurring in surface horiwns. The vertical pattern suggests that this pool is associated with short-term organic matter transformation processes, mediated by plant uptake. The NaOH-P pool represented between 6 and 27% of the total soil P reserve. Significantly higher values were observed in granitic soils and the 'Yaounde' soils. The highest values of NaOH-P occurred in illuvial horizons with higher amounts of Fe o ,'-69-Phosphorus response of maize (Zea mays L.) in relation to P fractions in three acid forest soils from southern Cameroon by C.N. in collaboration with M. Tchienkoua, M. Jemo, and P. Bilong Data on P.response of maize in dominant soils of southern Cameroon are scarce. The objec• tive of this study were: (i) to quantify P fractions and P•sorption characteristics of three major soil groups in southern Cameroon; (ii) to determine the response of maize to different levels of applied P; and (iii) to analyze the residual P in the soil system.A pot experiment was run as RCBD with soil type and P fertilizer rate as factors. Soil (0-10 cm) was collected from three villages (Mengomo, Minkoamayeos, and Abang) representing 3 ('Ebolowa', 'Yaounde', and 'Mbalmayo' soils, respectively) of the 5 soil groups studied. Soil material for the experiment was collected from fields under fallow. These fields were chosen on the basis oftheir P•Bray•I values of~ 3!, g g\". P was applied as SSP with 5 rates ranging from 0, 7.5, 15, 30, and 45 kg P ha• 1 • The test crop was maize CV. CMS 8704.Soil samples were sun•dried, passed through a 4 mm sieve, and distributed after thorough mixing in 60 pots. The applied P rate was corrected for mean bulk density of the soil at the time of sampling. Each pot contained 5 kg of soil, which was put to 80% of field capacity by daily watering with deionized water. Each pot received a basal application of 30 kg K ha• 1 in the form of Kieserite and N (30 ppm) in the form of urea. Five maize plants were sown and thinned to 4 soon after emergence. Crop parameters, such as plant height and diameter, shoot and root fresh and dry weight, were measured at 4 and 6 W AP. Shoot and root samples were oven•dried at 70°C. The P and Zn contents of each compartment were analyzed. Free and total Fe, Al, and P•sorption were also analyzed.Growth parameters (plant height and diameter) showed highly significant differences (P = 0.0001; Table 42) for soil type and P rate. Similarly yield components (shoot and root bio• mass) followed the same trend. The interaction term was significant at 7% root yield. A greater response to P was observed at Abang and Minkoameyos villages for plant height at 3 and 6 WAP, and diameter at 6 WAP. Maize growth parameters were generally lower on Mengomo soils. In Abang soils however, maize root biomass was less developed but produced similar or higher amount of aboveground biomass compared to Minkoameyos. This may point to higher P availability at Abang than Minkoameyos.Table 42. Mean values of some growth parameters and root/shoot ratio.  Nitrogen has been identified as the most yield• limiting factor for maize in the Yaounde area whereas no significant yield response to phosphorus was observed. With maize production becoming more intensive in the urban and peri•urban area of Yaounde, where it is sold fresh or dry for income generation, resource• poor farmers hardly purchase N •mineral fertilizer for maize production. However, N can be supplemented to maize by using appropriate legume species grown as intercropping or relay cropping. Although, experiments in the region revealed no consistent effect of P on maize, P shows generally an effect on legumes.Objectives if this experiment are: (i) to identify the best legume species among cajanus, mucuna, soybean and cowpea for low external mineral N fertilizer input in an intensive maize production system; and (ii) to study the long•term P effect on maize yield.An experiment was established in four farmers' field at Nkometou (each farmers field constitutes a replicate) in March 2002. Treatment factors are maize cropping pattern (intercropping vs. sole cropping) and Prate (0 and 30 kg P ha• 1 ). A total of 16 treatments were randomly allocated to plots in each replicate. Cropping pattern treatments were as follows:(1) Maize intercropped during the first season with Cajanus, soybean, cowpea, or Mucuna, followed by Cajanus, cowpea, soybean, and Mucuna, respectively, during the second season;(2) Sole maize during the first season, followed by soybean, cowpea, Mucuna or natural fallow during the second season.In the first season, cajanus and maize were planted simultaneously, while soybean, cowpea, and Mucuna were planted 2, 4, and 8 weeks after maize, respectively. Maize was planted at 0.75 x 0.50 em (2 seedslhill), and Cajanus, soybean, cowpea, and Mucuna were sown between two maize rows. The distance between these legumes, planted 1 grainlhill within a row, were 0.30, 0.10, 0.20, and 0040 m, respectively. In the second season, soybean and cowpea were planted at 0.50 x 0.25 cm at a rate of 3 grainslhill for soybean and 2 grains! hill for cowpea. Crops varieties used were: CMS 8704 (maize), TGX 1805•13F (soybean), 'Asonteng' (a cowpea cv. from Ghana), and a local Cajanus variety from the Northwest province of Cameroon of 6-7 months growth period with red kernels.Maize grain yield, plants at harvest (PAR), ears at harvest (EAR), and haulms weight (HW) were not affected either by P or by intercropped legume species (Table 43). Although there was no significant difference between the two P levels for all the parameters measured, a slight effect of P was observed (Table 44).P did not affect intercropped soybean and cowpea yield during the first season. Both legumes yielded about 100 kg ha\" (data not presented). During the second season, residual P or previous sole or intercropped maize treatments did not affect soybean and cowpea yield. Soybean yielded 841 kg ha• 1 , which was significantly higher than the cowpea yield with 388 kg ha•'.-71-  Groundnut is the common legume grown for household consumption in the humid forest zone of Cameroon. Farmers are increasingly showing interest in cultivating soybean, which is not a traditional legume grown in this region. Recent trials on selected villages have shown some promising soybean varieties. These varieties have not yet been tested on a large scale in farmers field. The objective of this activity was to identify the best performing soybean variety in farmers field.Three soybean varieties (TGX 1879-7F, TGX 1838-5E, and TGX 1805-13F) were distributed to agents of the national extension service (PNVRA) to be planted in farmers fields in a RCB design with a local variety as a check. A total of eight extension agents were involved with 80 and 60 farmers, respectively, during the first and second season of 2002. Out of these farmers, data were effectively recorded on 67 farmers fields during the first season and 58 during the second season.The analysis of variance showed significant differences in yield for all fixed effects (season, zone, variety) and their interactions (data not shown). Therefore, a separate analysis was done by season for each zone. Mean grain yields are presented in Table 45.During the first season, TGX 1879-7E grain yield was lower than that of other varieties except at Nkolfep (Table 45). This was mainly due to the poor seed germination of this variety. No variety consistently yielded better than the other varieties during the two seasons. Therefore, no clear recommendation on the variety to be proposed to farmers could be made. However, farmers expressed their preference for TGX 1805-13F because of its earliness and uniform maturation. Due to logistical problems, the biomass yield of the soybean varieties could not be determined. Note: Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (P == 0.05) within zones in each season.Results from earlier trials indicated that the improved soybean varieties have higher biomass yield than the local variety_ This means that it can be recommended to farmers to change over to an improved soybean variety without loosing on grain yield while having a higher potential for soil conservation through increased biomass recycling. However, currently farmers uproot the whole plant and carry it to the village before stripping the pods. This technique does not allow farmers to benefit from the higher biomass recycling, because the biomass is usually not returned to the field. A recommendation to soybean breeders is therefore, to modify the plant characteristics such that easier pod harvesting on site would be possible.Cowpea germplasm screening in the humid forest margins of Cameroon Cowpea is a new crop in cropping systems of the humid zone in Cameroon. It is often assumed that cowpea is not adapted to the humid zone, because of pest pressure. In initial trials it was found, however, that cowpea gives good yields of about 1 Mg ha-I even without spraying. Cowpea, adapted to acid soils, is of interest to farmers because it fetches a relatively high price on the market (FCFA 400 kgl) and can serve as a substitute or addendum to the traditional groundnut, which usually yields little grain. Thus, we started a screening program in order to select varieties that could be recommended to farmers in the region.Twenty-four cultivars were tested in the fIrst season of 2001. Seventeen cultivars were retained after the fIrst season-14 improved from Ibadan, 1 improved from IRAD Bambui, and 2 local. These 17 cv's were tested in both seasons of 2001 and 2002 in two villages, Nkometou with soil pH of 5.5 to 6.5 and Akok with soil pH of 4.5 to 5.0. Spraying was a treatment factor with no or maximum spraying (2-3 as required for total suppression of insects). The experiment was run as split•block design with 4 replications per location. Determined were: grain and biomass yield, percentage rotten pods and seeds, nodulation, and shoot/root ratio. Only grain and biomass yield are reported here.The statistical analysis was done using a mixed model approach. Fixed factors were geno• type, season, treatment, and their interactions, whereas, random factors were year, loca• tion, and replication. Replication was nested within treatment (spraying) block and within year, location, and season.Genotype and season by genotype were the significant fIxed factors in terms of grain and biomass yield, indicating that both yields of some cowpea cultivars were influenced by seasonal factors. However, Asonten and MTA 22 were among the highest grain yielders in both seasons (Figs. 10 and 11).Grain and biomass yields of all cultivars were higher in the fIrst season than in the second season (exception cv. 22), on average by 34% and 78%, respectively, but the difference was not significant. The four highest yielding cultivars in the fIrst season were IT97K•556•4, IT98K•128•3, Asonten, and MTA 22, with grain yields ranging between 0.95 and 1.15 Mg ha• ' . The two highest yielding cultivars in the second season were Asonten and MTA 22 with grain yields of 0.89 and 0.79 Mg ha\", respectively. Spraying with Karate led on aver• age to 25% higher grain yields, but the difference was not significant. The biomass yields, however, were 10% less with spraying, but again the difference was not significant.The cultivar 97K•819•170 gave the highest dry biomass yield (1.85 Mg ha\") in the first season (Fig. 12), but it had also the lowest harvest index (0.16). The next highest biomass yields of 7 cvs. ranged from 1.03 to 1.23 Mg ha\" (Fig. 12) with harvest indices between 0.37 and 0.43. Dry biomass yields in the second season were considerably lower with 7 cvs. yielding between 0.57 and 0.80 Mg ha\" and with harvest indices between 0.43 and 0.50 (Fig. 13). The best grain and biomass yields in the fIrst season were obtained with cvs. IT97K-556•4 and IT98K-128•3 and cvs. Asonten and MTA 22 in the second season. ;::.,. ... \"f N ... ~ 'l' 0 C N i ., '\" '\" '\" '\" ;;; '\" '\" '? 0 '\" ... J!! N '\" N i '\" '\" ., ... ..,. ., N ;;; N ~ ., a, c g \"I ;;: \"I ;;: \"f \"I ...'\" '\" ;;;; '\" ;;;; 0 ;;;; <C ... '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" .. ...'\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" '\" ::;; '\" '\" t:: t:: t::...  -74-  -75 -  ----------------------------------, second season 1 . 8 0 -t - -------------------------------j 1 . 6 0 + - -------------------------------j 1 . 4 0 -t - ------------------------------- -------------------------------j ~ 1 . 0 0 + - ------------------------------- Improving integration between crop and livestock: Develop, test, and integrate into farming systems crop-livestock management strategies integrating crop selection, nutrient management, and livestock options in an environmentally sound manner while protecting the health of animals and humans by G.N.The overall objective ofthis intervention is to intensify maize and soybean cropping for the production of chicken feed. Maize and soybean are the main ingredients of chicken feed in terms of volume and can be self-produced with a view to reduce fodder costs in chicken production. Fodder costs represent generally 60-70% ofthe total costs of small-scale chicken production and 79% of chicken producers think that production costs can be lowered by self• produced maize and soybean, as revealed by a survey amongst peri-urban producers.It is anticipated to economize between 10 and 30% of the fodder costs through self-produced maize and soybean. Further results of that survey were that producers trust more the quality of their own produce vis-a.-vis purchased feed.Four research actions have been discussed with the farming community in Odza village (along Yaounde -Nsimalen road), including:1.quality tests of purchased maize at Mokolo market, to test variation in terms of protein, energy, and lysine/methionine content 2. testing a high-protein quality maize cultivar (cv. \"Obatampa\") vs. the local and eMS 8704 cultivar on 15 farmer fields 3. testing intensified maize cropping, with focus on N fertilizer management (fertilizer type, N-rate and time of application as factors) on the community fieldActivities 1-3 will start in 2003. The longer-term objective in terms of crop management is to integrate chicken manure into the existing cropping system at the village. A second phase is anticipated to use the experience for dissemination among a wider farming community in the peri-urban area of Yaounde.Ongoing and future activities 6.1 Assess agroecosystems at the household, community and landscape levels through dynamic systems analysis, and determine farmers' management strategies and stakeholder roles in targeted study areas of the humid and subhumid zone by V.B. and G.L.The activity carried out by the HFC GIS LAB in 2002 has mainly focused on data collection, in continuity with the activity of2001, for the implementation of the FMBA-GIS. Actually the borders of the benchmark were overtaken and the database has expanded to cover the central and southern province of Cameroon. First analysis of the dataset has produced a general cost-distance matrix for the area, which can be used for market tension and transport analysis. First applications of the map are (1) Benchmark Market Tension Analysis for 45 Benchmark villages and ( 2) implementation of a methodology for the spatialization of fresh cassava market-flow in the peri• urban area of Yaounde.The interaction with the ASB modelling project has continued, with many interconnected activities: (1) land cover mapping, to focus on the dynamic of forest-agriculture mosaics in the area of study at different scale and time frames; (2) the integration of GIS and partici. patory mapping in the ASB test villages, to get information (qualitative and quantitative) on the social basin of natural resource management in the area. This information will be integrated in the Flores model, used for the interpretation of land cover dynamics and for the implementation of possible scenarios regarding management options in the context ofASB. In the first 4 years of continuous cropping the leguminous cover crops out yielded the natural regrowth fallow and burning biomass had a cumulative advantage over mulch retention. Results were published in 2002 (Hauser, S., Henrot, J., and Hauser, A. 2002. Maize yields in a Mucuna pruriens var. utilis and Pueraria phasealaides relay fallow system on an Ultisol in southern Cameroon. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 20: 243-256).In the fifth year, burning had no longer an advantage but mulch retention led to higher yields (2.63 Mg ha\" versus 1.99 Mg ha\" after burning P = 0.023). The number of cobs and the number of marketable cobs m• 1 had a significant fallow type by biomass management interaction, which more cobs and marketable cobs after burning the legume biomass yet less cobs and marketable cobs after burning the natural regrowth fallow.In the sixth year, the experiment was severely hit by a storm, which caused all plots to lodge. This happened at flowering and consequently a lot of plants died, reducing plant density in the Mucuna system significantly below the level in natural regrowth fallow (2.71 plants m-' versus 3.42 m', P = 0.015). Plant density in the Pueraria system did not differ from the other two (3.21 plants m-'). Grain yields were lower than in any previous year, yet higher in the Pueraria system than in both other systems (1.65 Mg ha• 1 versus 1.19 Mg ha• 1 in Mucuna and 1.06 g ha-1 in natural regrowth fallow, P < 0.023).Mid-term (4 years) effects of Mucuna relay cropping with maize established on-farm byS.H.In 1998, a two-factorial experiment was established in a harvested farmer's field at Ngoungoumou. First factor was fallow type, at two levels: Mucuna planted fallow and natural regrowth fallow, second factor was biomass management at two levels: burned versus retained as mulch. The experiment was four times replicated. In 1999, the plots were slashed and either burned or mulched. Maize cv. eMS 8704 (90-100 days to maturity) was planted with two seeds per pocket at 0.5 m by 0.5 m distance on a square configuration. Maize was supposed to be thinned to one plant per pocket. Weeding was done by the farmer. In 2000In , 2001In , and 2002, the same plots were planted to maize in the first rainy season in the same manner. The farmer collected Mucuna seed in every dry season and reseeded when ever he felt it necessary. Mucuna was removed from non-Mucuna plots once during each fallow phase.In 1999 and 2000, neither the fallow type nor the biomass management had an effect on the number of marketable cobs or the grain yield. However, the number of marketable cobs almost tripled from 1999 (0.55 m-,) to 2000 (1.47 m-') and the grain yield increased from 1.35 Mg ha-1 to 1. 76 Mg ha-1 . In 2001, biomass management had a highly significant effect with burned plots out yielding mulched plots by more than 1 Mg ha• 1 (1.92 Mg ha-1 burned versus 0.92 Mg ha-l mulched, P = 0.0002). The number of marketable cobs had a similar response. Fallow type had no effect. In 2002, grain yield was higher than in any previous year (2.23 Mg ha-1 ), without an effect of biomass management and a positive effect of the Mucuna at P = 0.082, yielding 2.57 Mg ha-1 versus 1.88 Mg ha-l after natural regrowth fallow.The cumulative grain yield over the four years was highest in Mucuna when biomass was burned (Table 46). The study aimed to provide quantitative information on the ecology of short fallow systems in southern Cameroon, and their socioeconomic value to farming communities ofthat area. Results from this study will lead to recommendations for the design of appropriate conservation and management decisions and plans that will improve the productivity and guarantee the sustainability of shortened fallows in the area.The specific objectives of the present research were to assess species diversity as impacted by fallow age and fallow type, both during the fallow phase as well as during the subsequent cropping period, and to evaluate the productivity of some key fallow trees identified by local farmers that could be components of productive agroforests.The major indigenous key productive fruit trees identified by farmers throughout the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon include Coula edulis Baill., Dacryodes edulis H. J. Lam, Irvingia gabonensis Baill. and Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre (cf UTA-AR2001).This part of the study was undertaken to characterize the phenology of C. edulis, D. edulis, 1. Gabonensis, and R. heudelotii in a fallow farming system of southern Cameroon, and to examine the phenological patterns in relation to land use. Leaf flushing, flowering and fruiting phenology of each study species were investigated and patterns offruit production monitored.This study was carried out in the Kaya Watershed in Makak District of southern Cameroon.The sample design used to study the distribution and abundance of selected tree species was adopted from van Dijk (1999). The sample plots covered an area of 4.9 ha, in the form of four transects with a length of 1.15-1.25 km and 10 m wide. For this part of the study, three land use types were defined: short fallows (of less than 7 years old), medium•term fallows (of 7-10 years old), and long-term fallows (of more than 10 years old). For each of these land use types and across the sample area, an average number of 10 individuals per species were selected for phenological observations. Flowering, leafing, and fruiting patterns were observed on 103 individuals twice per month (i.e., every 15 days) over a period of 19 months (from February 2001to August 2002). For each tree species, the pattern of leaf flushing, flowering, and fruiting was recorded as the percentage of canopy in each phenophase.Except for D. edulis, the basic procedure used to estimate fruit yield was identical for all study species and adapted from Peters and Hammond (1990). Two weeks before fruiting, the ground beneath the crown of each individual was cleaned of vegetation and debris.The vertical projection of the crown of each sample tree was then determined and four litter traps were positioned within this area under the crown, using random bearing and distances from the trunk. All quadrats were emptied weekly during the fruiting season.For each tree, the total number of mature fruits was recorded, and their weight determined using an electronic scale. Following Peters and Hammond (1990), total fruit production for each individual, per year, was estimated by summing the number of fruits collected and their weight during each sampling period, and by extrapolating the result by the percent of the crown area sampled.-79-The farmland of Kaya appeared to be mainly dominated by fallow lands of more than seven years old (about 35% of the total area sampled, Fig. 12) and logged-over primary forests (24% of the total area sampled). Coula edulis, Dacryodes edulis, Iruingia gabonensis and Ricinodendron heudelotii were recorded at 2 very low density values in fallow lands of the study area « 10 individuals of more than 10 em dbh). suggesting the need to develop preferential management of regeneration for these species.Apart from leaf flushing, flowering and fruiting phenology of these species were seasonal, with irregular flowering/fruiting observed for some D. edulis and 1. gabonensis individuals over the two years of monitoring. Fruiting was concentrated between July and October (and up to January for R. heudelotii), coinciding with the rainy season.  47). Regression analyses showed that tree size parameters are correlated with fruit production for some species, but generally, do not explain an important part of the production data of the study species (r < 60%). It is not uncommon in wild tropical fruit trees that variability in production is high between individuals and also between years . It is thus necessary to make multi-year observations to ensure that reliable data is obtained. This study is investigating the influence of fallow vegetation types on the biological cycle and population density of Z. variegatus and its effect on crop damage in adjacent fields.Fallow species that affect the presence of the variegated grasshopper are being identified and their influence on the development of the grasshoppers established.The work is being carried out in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon. Though the activities were initiated in 1998, this report focuses on observations made in 2002.-80-The results of the previous work presented in the 2000 annual report showed that Zonocerus variegatus was more abundant in a natural fallow of Chromolaena odorata compared to a planted tree fallow of Calliandra callothrysus. It was postulated that these differences were at least in part due to the different architecture of the vegetation. The natural fallow was dominated by chromolaena and had a single dense canopy at about 2 meters. In contrast, the calliandra fallow had its main canopy at about 3-4 meters above the ground with a weak layer of herbaceous plants between the rows. To further check on the potential role of the architecture of the vegetation, we decided to observe Z. variegatus populations in an Inga edulis fallow. This tree fallow had developed a single dense canopy between 6 and 8 meters with no lower vegetation layer. Observations were made every 14 days from January 2002 to February 2003. Throughout the period of observation, there was a total absence of Z. variegatus in the I. edulis fallow. This result combined with previous observations suggests that the presence of Z. variegatus populations is linked to the presence of a leafy canopy at heights primarily up to 3 meters. Where such a canopy is weak due to shading from above, the populations are low, and where it is missing, Z. variegatus tend to be absent. However, further verification ofthis hypothesis is necessary.The detailed methodology of this study has been presented in the 2001 annual report. In brief, young larvae of the insect were collected in the field and placed in laboratory cages where they were fed 17 specific diets of young shoots of fallow plants and selected crops.On average it took 361 days for adults to develop out of the first larval stage. The propor• tion oflarvae that developed into adults varied between 0 and 54% (Table 48). However, 8 diets led to no adults, and another 7 to less than 6%. Out of the nine monospecific diets, only 2 produced adults, while 7 did out of the 9 polyspecific diets. By far the best diet was that of M. esculenta (cassava) leaves which led to 54% of adults developing. Among those 9 diets that produced adults, the longevity of the adults varied significantly and ranged between 44 and 116 days (Table 48). On 5 diets longevity was more than 100 days, while on the other 4 it was distinctly less.Adults on all of the diets produced ootheca. However, 3 diets resulted in 0 eggs per ootheca (Table 48). The highest number of eggs on average was between 11 and 13 per ootheca. In contrast, adults that were collected in the field and reared on cassava in the lab had on average 51 eggs per ootheca, significantly more than completely lab reared ones (P < 0.0001).The results obtained so far indicate that lab studies can provide useful information on some certain aspects of the relationship between Z. variegatus and improved fallow species. However, supplementary studies are necessary in the field to attain a fuller understanding of these relationships.Reducing urbanization and the increasing AIDS epidemic. In the humid part of Nigeria, very few farmers use animals or tractors to prepare land and labor is mainly used for the tedious and unpopular tasks, land preparation, and weed control. Widespread adoption of chemical weed management practices among small-scale farmers is low. This is mainly because of the need to acquire expensive application equipment and herbicides and because most farmers have no experience with the technology. Cropping areas infested by speargrass require especially high labor inputs. However, only 3% of the farmers with infested fields use herbicides for control. Work on increasing farmers herbicide use would, because of the extra labor requirements in speargrass infested areas, have higher expected adoption rate compared to areas dominated by other weeds_ Alternative land preparation methods and increased use of herbicides would decrease the intensive labor requirements for crop production.In speargrass infested areas of the humid part of Nigeria, farmers' land preparation for maize (Zea mays L.) is traditionally tillage and hoe weeding as a postemergence intervention. The amount of labor involved often forces farmers to abandon land and fallows dominated by speargrass are often observed. Conservation tillage, where soil inversion is avoided and labor is saved can substitute unavailable traction for land preparation. To substitute the post-planting weeding in maize, the rope wick (RW) was tested as a promising safe and water-conserving alternative by scientists in southeast Asia. RW can be used to make a directed in-row glyphosate application, and uses 40 L ha•' depending on the weed infestation_ Low carrier volume is important and the perspective of carrying 200-300 L ha•' to often remote fields made farmers from the republic ofB€min prefer pesticide applicators with low water use to conventional knapsack sprayers_ In contrast to adoption of new crop varieties where farmers have to change little or no practices, adopting herbicides is more complex. Using herbicides instead of hoe weeding requires a sprayer, chemicals, and knowledge on how to use it. Adoption of technologies where farmers have had to change major practices has often been low. Traditionally, technologies have been developed from the drawing board of scientists without involving farmers from the beginning. Many of such technologies have not been adopted as widely, as the scientists would have expected. Instead of simply accepting or rejecting an innovation as a fixed idea, potential adopters should be included as active participants in the adop• tion process, giving their own unique meaning to the innovation as it is applied in their local context. Therefore farmers need to be involved to make the technology development choices from the beginning of the development phase.The objectives of these trials were threefold: (1) to compare conservation tillage practices with farmers practices, (2) to test the weed wiper as a plausible alternative postemergence weed control to hoe weeding, and (3) to involve farmers from the initial technology testing stage, to get their inputs on the economic feasibility of the technology.Two sets of trials were set up to test the hypothesis. The first set of trials (experiment 1), a set of RCBD researcher-managed on•farm trials, were conducted in 2000,2001, and 2002 on sites dominated by speargrass at Ijaiye (7° 35' N; 3° 55' E), a village located in the forest/savanna transition zone characterized by annual average precipitation of 1200 to 1500 mm, in two seasons: May to mid•August and September to mid•October/November. There is a short dry spell between mid-August and September. The average annual tern• perature was 26 DC in 200026 DC in , 200126 DC in , and 2002. The soil type is a sandy loam (Oxic Paleustalf) with a pH of 5.4-6.5 and an organic carbon content of 0.53-0.67%. Before the study, the experimental site had been abandoned for at least 5 years due to heavy infestation of speargrass (above 100 plants m') and slashed and burned two weeks before applying the treatments. The treatments were a pre-planting and a post-planting treatment. The preplanting treatment had two levels, hoe tillage followed by planting (SBT) and application of glyphosate (NT) (1200 g ai-1 ha-1 ) followed by direct planting. The post-planting treatments had three sublevels, hoe weeding (HW) (3 and 6 WAP), band weeding, which was in-row hoe weeding and intra-row wiping of glyphosate with 100 ml Roundup per L water with a handheld rope wick applicator (3 and 6 WAP) (RWh) , and lastly band weeding, which was similar to the previous treatment but with reduced glyphosate dose (50 ml Roundup/L) (RWl). Note that 100 ml Roundup per liter water gives a 10% solution. When speargrass is 15 em high and there are 100 shoots per m' about 30 L solution per ha is used. Thereby the application rate is 3 1. Rounduplha treated area. Fertilizer was given as a split application where 60:60:60 NPK kg is applied to the whole site when maize is planted and 35 kg urea is applied at 6 W AP (maize). This adds up to 24 plots (2 x 3 x 4) sized 100 m' (10 m x 10 m).A separate second set of participatory strip plot farmer-managed trials (experiment 2) was set up in Okowowolo (7\" 34'N; 7° 33' E) and Emere (7° 27' N; 7\" 37' E), in 2001 and 2002 on sites dominated by speargrass. The villages were also located in the forest/savanna transition with similar rainfall patterns to Ijaiye. The main criteria for the participating farmers were that they should be part ofthe DDS farmer groups to which feedback should be given. It was indicated by farmer group representatives that the farmers wanted to try some of the experiment 1 tested treatments. The farmer experiments were then designed to be a reduced form of the fIrst trials. It thus became a 2 x 2 trial with three replications. This allowed the farmers to test results and the researcher to get reasonable tangible results. The pre• planting treatments were similar to the treatments in the fIrst experiment, with the difference that the farmers chose to ridge after spraying to avoid water logging. The post• planting treatments were either hoe weeding (HW) or band weeding followed by the high dose glyphosate application (RWh). The low dose from experiment 1 was not included as the data from 2000 showed a reduced effect on weeds with the low application rate. Therefore, to test the treatments 24 plots (2 x 2 x 2 x 3) sized 100 m' (10 m x 10 m) were needed. The observations were yield of crop, measured at the end of the season, count of maize plant density, above-and below-ground weed biomass sampling at crop harvest, cost of labor for land preparation, weeding, planting, spraying, and cost of herbicides. A mid-term evaluation was undertaken on the trial involving the farmers and their DDS groups in June 200L Farmers were asked to rank their agricultural problems, and rank the trial control methods against each other. An end of trial evaluation workshop was set up where the involved farmers assessed the economics of the trials. Using participatory budgeting the farmers was asked to list advantages and disadvantages of the treatments, and then compare the results economically. When making a participatory partial budget, only costs that are different in between treatments were included.In the midterm evaluation ofthe trials, the farmers indicated that their main problem was soil fertility, weeds, lack of capital, and pests. Speargrass was closely related to soil fertility problems and indicated a higher problem on light upland soils with high fertility. The farmers categorized the extent of speargrass problems with specifIc references to crops, like maize, yam, and groundnut as the most affected and cassava and cowpea as the least affected. Cassava was indicated to shade out speargrass. Cowpea was not affected due to it being a short season crop_ If no weeding was done, irrespective of soil fertility status, this could lead to total crop loss. They were of the opinion that for the past 10-20 years, the problem had been getting worse, due to deforestation, bush burning, and continuous cropping. Farmers found in the midterm evaluation that no-tillage followed by knapsack spraying was the best method as it was effective and reduced labor requirements. The main problem was the costs involved. Second preference was no-tillage followed by hoe weeding, as the labor inputs were perceived to be less compared to the tilled systems. Tillage followed by weed wiping was rated third and tillage followed by hoe weeding was rated fourth as the two latter were rated laborious and ineffective. The knapsack sprayer was preferred to the weed wiper as it could not be purchased locally and was regarded as more labor intensive than the knapsack sprayer.The advantages and disadvantages of the individual treatments were established with the farmers in the process of quantifying the costs and benefIts of each treatment. Each treatment was evaluated in pairs (pre-or post-planting with and without herbicide) (Table 49).In the glyphosate plots, farmers used 100 hours less time to ridge than they did in the untreated plots. Furthermore, they stated that they did not need to hoe weed the pre tillage glyphosate plots where they used 300 hours to hoe weed the untreated plots. The reduced labor use in the glyphosate plots induced an increased net benefit of US$189.3 compared to the untreated plots. Farmers estimated the rope wick application labor cost to be U8$15.7, saying that it took double the time, compared with knapsack spraying. Note: Scientist• measured yields were used in the analysis rather than the farmers higher estimates. Farm gate prices are those of Ayankpa market as indicated by farmers.However, the difference was negligible compared to the US$153.7 used for hand weeding. Therefore, the rope wick gave US$122 greater benefit than did weeding with the hoe. Although farmers felt that the herbicide treatments gave significantly higher yields, scientist•measured yields were used in the analysis.Seasonal Speargrass propagates sexually by seed and vegetatively by underground rhizomes. The rhizomes have a high regenerative ability because of the numerous alternately arranged lateral buds that readily sprout into new plants when fragmentation due to tillage or any other form of plant disturbance removes apical dormancy. This inherent regenera• tive capacity of rhizomes in addition to their ability to penetrate deep into different soil horizon, and adequate protection of rhizome buds by scales spear grass very persistent in soils. Furthermore, rhizomes can conserve water within the vascular bundles and possess a lignified core that resists breakage and disruption to allow the plant to resprout in dry -85-periods. In a participatory appraisal on speargrass management made in southern Nigeria in 2002, farmers considered that the aggressive, invasive nature of speargrass was attrib• utable to the extensive rhizome system, and its ability to resprout in the dry season when other plants could not.The stocks of carbohydrates of under and aboveground parts of perennial rhizomous weeds fluctuate during the growing season and thus determine growth and propagation. For several temperate perennial weeds this has been intensively investigated in connection with herbicide uptake and translocation, but this is not the case for many tropical peren• nials. For speargrass there is solid information on the influence of abiotic factors such as temperature and soil moisture, and anthropogenic factors such as burial depth and fire on the regenerative effects of rhizomes has been investigated.However, there is very little knowledge on the fluctuations of carbohydrates over the season. The stored carbohydrate reserves in the rhizomes support the growth of new shoots after each intervention (e.g., slashinglburningltilling) and any time the reserves are at a minimum, the plant is most susceptible to any control measure. An understanding of the seasonal variation of source of sink relationship between the arial parts and the rhizomes is crucial in order to identify the optimal time to obtain maximum weed control and to give indications of an effect of combined interventions. The objective of the study was to estimate the time of the year when carbohydrate and dry matter are at minimum in the rhizomes .. This knowledge would help farmers to better integrate interventions against speargrass.Researcher•managed on•farm trials were conducted on sites dominated by speargrass at Ijaiye (7° 35' N; 3° 55' E), a village located in the forest/savanna transition zone character• ized by annual average precipitation ofl200 to 1500 mm, in two seasons: May to mid•August and September to mid-OctoberlNovember. There is a short dry spell between mid.August and September. The average annual temperature was 26°C in 2000 and 2001. The soil type is a sandy loam (Oxic Paleustalf) with a pH of 5.4-6.5 and an organic carbon content of 0.53-0.67%. Prior to the study, the experimental site had been abandoned for at least 5 years due to heavy infestation of speargrass (above 100 plants m 2 ).Initial preparation was slash and burn of the whole area, which was then done every December/January to simulate the often• occurring savanna fires in speargrass infested areas. The treatments applied were no treatment, slash and burn, and slash, burn and tillage with three replications. The sampled plot size was 2 by 2 meters with 1 meter between the plots. After sampling the treatments are applied to the plots that are supposed to be harvested next month.As the first sampling is done before any treatment the experiments will be analyzed by analysis of covariance to adjust for nonuniform infestation of Imperata cylindrica.In each plot, four 50 x 50 em square samples were randomly taken. The first sampling was different from the others, as it was done before the initial slash and burn treatment.Sampling was done on the first of each month in 24 months. All in all (4 by 3 by 24) 288 samples were taken. Observation of phenological stage of the plants in the square (number of plants and number of leaves counted), leaf area measurement, biomass of shoot, and rhizome dry weight was recorded. Measurement of precipitation was done with the UTA weather station. The collected samples were analyzed for dry weight, soluble carbohydrates (sugars, glucose, maltose), and starch using a colorimetric method.There was no interaction between month and treatment for rhizome biomass (Fig. 14). This means that the effect of tillage is similar whenever applied. This would have been good news but for the fact that the soil was dry and hard in the dry season. Farmers would have been able intervene at a time when labor was more available. Slashing and burning had no effect on rhizome biomass development, as there was no difference between the untreated plots and the slashed and burned plots. This could be associated with the large amount of lignified material in the core of the rhizomes. Slashing and burning would only be expected to reduce the starch and readily available carbohydrates. The ratio between carbohydrates and cell material is expected to be low while more detailed info would come from the carbohydrate analysis.  Plant parasitic nematodes are insidious pests, often overlooked, regularly confused with nutrient deficiency symptoms or are misdiagnosed. However, with correct diagnosis of nematode problems, the options available for their management are limited. As a consequence, addressing nematode-related problems have been somewhat neglected. With increasing intensification of agricultural systems, more consecutive cropping of land with the same crop, reduced lengths of fallow and more marginal land coming under production, crop losses due to nematodes are estimated to be escalating. Damage resulting from nematode infection can lead to pre and postharvest yield losses and loss of quality (marketability).Nematode infection can affect a crop's ability to tolerate water stress, uptake nutrients and can predispose crops to additional pests and diseases. Consequently, the need to address nematode-related problems is becoming more urgent. Efforts underway at IITA towards managing nematode problems on key crops in sub-Saharan agricultural systems are discussed. Pivotal to improved management of nematodes is the need for a well-balanced integration of management options, using resistant/tolerant cultivars and clean planting material as a basis to support complementary pest management components. Discussion will also take into consideration the need to further understand the relationship between nematode infection, poor soil fertility and low water availability, in order to ensure the development of suitable pest and disease management strategies. Plant parasitic nematodes are one of the most important constraints to sustainable Musa production_ In the lowlands of central Uganda, the most common nematode species is Radopholus similis, while at higher elevations Pratylenchus goodeyi is more prevalent. The use of host plant resistance provides promising prospects towards sustainable nematode management through conventional breeding. To identify resistance, reliable screening methods need to be developed. In this study, two screening methods for resistance to nematodes are compared. The flrst screening method is based on the inoculation of individual roots placed in a cup. The second 'screening method is based on the classic pot experiment, whereby the complete root system is inoculated. The newly developed cup method requires less nematode inoculum and less plant material per cultivar compared to the pot experiment. By using single roots for inoculation, the host response to nematode attack is not influenced by differences in root growth rates between Musa genotypes. Hybrids developed within the banana breeding program of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture are being evaluated for resistance against Radopholus similis using both methods. Nematode reproduction ratio is compared against a known resistant check (Yangambi km 5) and a known susceptible check (Valery). The results of both screening methods will be discussed. The East African highland banana is a major staple crop in the East African Great Lakes Region. Current production levels however, are falling, with sustainable production threatened. Among the various abiotic and biotic constraints contributing to this production decline are plant-parasitic nematodes, particularly the aggressive Radopholus similis in the lowlands of central Uganda, while at higher elevations (above 1400 masl) Pratylenchus goodeyi is more prevalent. The use of host plant resistance provides promising prospects as a basis towards sustainable nematode management and improved banana production. The East African highland banana (Musa genome group AAA•EA) is a staple crop in the Ugandan diet consumed by a large proportion of the population. Banana weevils (Cos• mopolites sordidus) and nematodes (especially the aggressive Radopholus similis) have been observed to reduce production. These are often and easily transferred to new fields through infested planting material. To address this constraint, an inexpensive and afford• able method using clean planting material was developed and disseminated to farmers in three districts i.e., Ntungamo, Mpigi, and Luweero. In these districts, approximately 1000 farmers were trained on the use of clean planting material technology using a farmer participatory approach. Farmers then established banana fields using clean planting mate• rial. From the study, a total of 180 farmers were interviewed on their opinions on the technology. Among the positive observations, 13% and 34% observed that the technology led to reduced pests and improved yields, respectively. Some of the negative observations by the farmers included drought susceptibility (19%) and 6% observed that they were more susceptible to livestock. According to the farmers' perceptions, the technology was appropriate and worthwhile under their circumstances, managed pests, improved banana yields, and proved profitable. Endophytic fungi colonize living plant tissue without causing symptoms of damage to their hosts. Endophytic fungi have been isolated from all plants investigated and mutualistic relationships of fungal endophytes with their host plant could be demonstrated. Stud• ies on banana material originating from Uganda have shown that banana corm and root tissue hosts a variety of endophytic fungi. Preliminary results in Uganda have shown that indigenous endophytic fungi from banana can effectively colonize tissue-cultured banana when plants are inoculated at an early stage. Inoculation could lead, depending on fungal isolate and banana clone, to increased plant growth, reduced nematode multiplication, and reduced weevil damage. Control levels vary between fungal species and strains and host-endophyte interactions influence chances of success. Interactions of the fungi with their host plant and weevils and nematodes, respectively, and the mechanisms leading to effective control are not well understood. Similarly, the duration of protection provided by the endophyte to the plant is not known at present. Currently, research focuses on the inoculation of single strains onto endophyte• free planting material, such as tissue-cultured plants, and targets the initial period of plant establishment in the field. As our knowledge of the microbial biodiversity inside the plant increases, combinations of different fungal strains or species might be used in the future. This will help to achieve different levels of control for a number of pests and also to target specific periods. Long•term control might involve persistence of the fungal endophyte or the activation of effective and durable plant defense responses to pests. Ideally, fungal endophytes are applied only once and persist within the host plant to ensure protection for a considerable or the entire time span of the crop. This is a major advantage to biocontrol agentsfbiopesticides, which are more costly to produce, have to be applied more frequently, and are often highly influenced by envi• ronmental factors. The use of fungal endophytes also reduces the risk of side effects on non-target crops and humans as no field applications are required. The use of indigenous strains further limits environmental risks. Acceptability of endophytes for pest control is therefore considered high from an environmental and economic point of view. Research at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture in Uganda focuses on the identification of fungal endophytes that are effective against a number of pests and diseases of banana and the mechanisms leading to biocontrol. One of our prime objectives is the optimization and integration of this new technology into agricultural systems in East Mrica. Management of endophytes must be seen as one component in IPM strategies and has to be combined with other control options such as tissue cultured planting material.Onyeka, T.J., E.J. A. Ekpo, and A.G.O. Dixon. 2002. Prevalence of cassava root rot disease and associated fungi in Nigeria (In review).The distribution and importance of root rot disease in cassava was determined in a survey of farmers' fields across humid forest and forest transition agroecological zones in Nigeria between November 1998 and September 1999. Root rot was observed in 115 (50.44%) of the 228 sites visited. Field disease index ranges between 2.5 and 3.1 in the humid forest and from 2.3 to 2.8 in the forest transition zone. Symptomatic samples were collected from the 115 diseased fields, from which a total of nine fungal genera were isolated. The most widely distributed fungal isolates were Botryodiplodia theobromae and Nattrassia mangiferae. Other frequently isolated fungi were Fusarium spp., Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus stolonifer, Penicillium oxalicum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Trichoderma spp. and Macrophomina phaseolina. Higher populations of these fungi were observed in the humid forest zone than in the forest transition zone. In a pathogenicity test, isolates of B. theobromae were highly virulent, and N. mangiferae isolates were virulent; all other fungi isolates were moderately virulent. Because of the relatively high virulence of B. theobromae and N. mangiferae and their wide distribution across the cassava-growing ecological zones, it was concluded that these are the most important pathogens of cassava root rot in Nigeria. Project A• A cowpea core collection (2078 accessions) was established from the world cowpea collection (> 15000 accessions) at UTA; 133 yam accessions were added to the in vitro genebank; and the Bambara groundnut collection (1169 accessions) was rejuvenated.• Genetic variation in Ugandan banana cv. Sukai Ndizi and the genetic diversity in EastAfrican highland bananas and their putative ancestors was established with DNA markers.• Studies on the genetics of resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD) in Mrican cassava landraces showed that the additive gene effect was more important in predicting progeny performance. Data from F1 progenies suggest polygenic inheritance of the trait.• Analysis, through inductively coupled plasma spectrophotometry (ICP), of kernels from 240 early maturing varieties of maize grown at three sites showed variation in iron (16.9-20.7 mglkg) and zinc (18.5-21.2 mg/kg) contents. Environmental, varietal, and variety x environment interaction effects were highly significant.• Inherita nce wa s elucidated for cowpea seed characteris tics, pla nt pigmenta tion, flow er color, pod color, photosensitivity, and r esistance to Ascochyta blight.• Multivariate statistical ana lysis of 56 quantitative and qualitative agrobotanical traits of 504 Mrican landraces a nd 398 improved cultivars of cassava identified 12 cluster groups for the African landraces a nd nine for the improved germ plasm. Twenty-two clusters were formed from the joint clustering of the African landraces and improved cassava germplasm.• Molecular markers were identified for important traits, e.g., DNA markers associated with quantitative trait loci (QTL) for resistance to the cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus) (one of the QTL accounted for up to 76% ofthe variation for this trait); SSR marker associated with resistance to CMD in cassava (accounting for 57.41% of the total phenotypic variation for the trait); SSR and AFLP markers associated with QTL affecting Striga damage symptom rating and maize yield under Striga infestation; QTL for resistance to flower bud thrips were detected at five regiops of the cowpea genome that explained 76% of the variation for the trait.• RAPD markers for resistance to virus (white yam) and anthracnose (water yam) and genetic linkage maps for white and water yams were published.• Cowpea gene flow studies showed outcrossing (0.021 %) 10 m from the marker line.• New sources of several important traits were identified, e.g., root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) resistance in soybean; resistance to black sigatoka in the Musa cultivar Kikundi; pulp color, bunch characteristics, and nematode resistance in Musa germplasm from Papua New Guinea; resistance to major diseases, grain quality, and tolerance to specific abiotic stresses in cowpea; resistance to root rot in cassava;resistance to root knot and yam nematodes in Dioscorea dumetorum; tuber quality in white and water yams; drought tolerance, high p-carotene content and vitamin A equivalent, and resistance to Striga and Aspergillus flauus in maize.• Improvement of broad-based and special trait populations continued for all mandate crops.• Seeds were delivered for international trials: e.g., 63 sets of regional uniform variety trials (RUVT) of maize and 41 ofthe regional Striga variety trials (early and extra-early maturity) to partners of WECAMAN; and 409 sets of cowpea trials to 105 partners in 24 countries. Based on results of 200 1 RlNTs, 120 kg of seed of selected maize varieties were also delivered to NARS partners on request.• UTA's Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC) was inaugurated and a workshop was organized for would-be-members of national biosafety committees from five countries in West Africa.• Several postgraduate students conducted thesis research on the mandate crops in germplasm management and crop improvement.• Mild strains of the pandemic-associated cassava mosaic virus, EACMV -U g , were shown to provide a cross-protective effect against superinfection by severe strains of the same VIrus.• Some 30 highland bananas and 20 plantain hybrids with improved resistance against the nematode Radopholus similis have been identified.• The importance of organic mulching (particularly using the weed Tithonia) in improving crop production and suppressing nematode damage has been demonstrated in field trials.• Aflatoxin management packages allowed a 30% reduction of aflatoxin contamination compared with traditional maize production practices in Benin and Togo.• The occurrence and spread of the gray leaf spot pathogen Cercospora maydis on experimental and farmers' maize fields in Plateau State and at Mokwa, Nigeria, was confirmed. Similarly, widespread occurrence of soybean rust has been confirmed in IITA•lbadan farm.• Samples of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae were found to be highly virulent to the cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus) in small experimental stores and also to laboratory populations of the pod bug (Clauigralla tomentosicollis) leading to complete control of these pests.• The industrial production of Green Muscle ™ (recently rated by FAa as environmentally safe and causing low risk to humans) against locusts and grasshoppers in West Africa has been demonstrated to be economically feasible at a price competitive with synthetic pesticides, and in Niger, farmers have started buying it in large quantities.• Studies on the interactions between cassava cultivars and the exotic phytoseiid predator Typhlodromalus aripo in a range of agroecologies indicated that the predator's preference for cassava cultivars with large hairy apices is widespread. In greenhouse studies, T. aripo produced up to four times more offspring when exudates were available, boosting biological control of cassava green mite.• Where T. aripo has persisted for two or more years in the field, cassava green mite abundance has declined substantially and cassava yields have increased by between 15 and 45%, and at times, by up to 85% on varieties susceptible to cassava green mite damage and favorable for the predatory mites.• Mango mealybug and spiralling whitefly infestations (checked in Benin, Burkina Faso, and Cote d'Ivoire) were again generally low with a dry season peak particularly in big cities. In all samples, all exotic parasitoid species were common.• The exotic thrips parasitoid Cera nisus femoratus was recently recovered 390 km north of the original experimental release site in southern Benin, 1 Y, years after the initial release, indicating faster spread than anticipated.• The SP-IPM pilot site farmers gained 20% increase in maize yields by integrating. resistant varieties with habitat management against Striga and stemborers in Kenya; reduced Striga emergence by 63% by integrating resistant varieties and cropping patterns in northern Nigeria; and resuscitated faba bean production in Egypt and Morocco through resistant varieties and improved agronomic practices against Orobanche.• Over 70% of vegetable consumers in Ghana and Benin are aware of potentia1 health risks linked to the misuse of pesticides and are willing to pay up to 60% of the premium price for organic vegetables, whereas vegetable farmers are willing to pay 30-60% of the premium price for new biopesticides, which could increase expected incomes by at least 10% while decreasing health hazards and environment pollution.• A total of 41 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters were published in 2002 by the 18 \"core\" project scientists.• A research paper relating aflatoxin exposure to impaired child growth was published in the prestigious British Medical Journal.• Faunistic surveys conducted in various ecological regions of Benin, Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo led to the preservation of more than 20 000 new specimens and' enabled us to update the UTA insect reference collection with 1000 newly identified speCIes.Impact, policy, and system analysis• The impact of globalization on Mrican agriculture shows that a few countries experienced a positive real growth in gross domestic product in the last two decades. Highly competitive global markets and increases in the production of raw products led to about a 76% decline in commodity prices. Some of the interventions for African agriculture to become competitive and to benefit more from globalization are strengthening the capacity of countries in trade negotiations, stimulating the production of added-value products, diversifying exports, improving access to information technology, and increasing regional trade.• The analysis of the urban food demand structure in the dry savanna of Nigeria shows that rice (imported and local) represents about 65% of the household expenditure for cereals, followed by maize (20%), sorghum (9%), and millet (6%). Cross-price elasticities indicate that maize is a substitute for sorghum and rice.• The spatial and economic analysis of the fresh cassava supply in Yaounde identified 15 urban markets where the product is being sold and 65 villages supplying the four main markets. Most of the villages are located within a traveling distance of 2-3 hours. These villages will be the major sites for further research and development actions.• Aflatoxin contamination was detected in 99% of the serum samples from 200 children aged 18 to 36 months in Benin Republic. The contamination was higher in the southern Guinea savanna than in the coastal savanna. It increases from February to November in both zones. Contamination was also found in the samples of white maize, a staple in the study area. Stunting of children, 40% on average, was higher in the aflatoxin high exposure zone than in the low exposure zone.• The potential is high for the use ofbiopesticides for vegetable production because both producers (about 80% of 372 respondents in Ghana and Benin) and consumers (70% of 220) are aware of the health risk from chemical pesticides. Farmers are willing to pay b~tween 30 and 60% more as the price premium for yield increases of between 10 and ~%. Consumers are willing to pay 50% more as a price premium for cabbage and tomato free from chemical residues.• A new scheme of small farmers' groups of between 5 and 10 people is proving successful in the four pilot states of the RUSEP project in Nigeria. About 4300 farmers belong to 550 groups linked up with private seed companies, 960 with banking institutions, and 860 with tractor-hiring services for sustainable access to modern agricultural inputs. Similarly, RUSEP is facilitating the supply of raw materials by farmers' groups to agro-industries worth about USD 2.7 million. This amounts to about a 20% increase in farmers' income and a 15% reduction in cost for the agro-industries.• FOOD NET continues to improve the market information systems in Uganda, including 2-3 broadcasts/week, and the use of a local SMS service provider to enable text messaging for 17 commodity prices to be available via mobile phone_ Similarly, RUSEP is facilitating the broadcast of market information on 20 agricultural commodities in Nigeria through local radio and a website.• About 100 entrepreneurs benefited from training on agroenterprise and product development in Nigeria and Uganda.understanding of their market opportunities and challenges on both a territorial and commodity-specific hasis.• Tools for monitoring and evaluating the business performance of processing equipment manufacturers have been developed with banks and microcredit institutions to assist in the scaling-out process. In western Kenya, five processing units have been installed and tested to enhance and develop the income generating potential of cassava, and transform fresh roots into stable, market-grade, intermediate products.• SARRNET brokered the involvement of an additional 20 industries within the SADC region in commercial cassava production and utilization from a base number of less than 4 in 1990. This has increased the industrial utilization of cassava from 8166 t in 2001 to 11 700 t in 2002. Farmers' associations have been established in pilot production and processing centers and linked to industrial users in Malawi (3) and Tanzania (2).A cassava business center has heen created in Tanzania while a \"Cassava Task Force\" was inaugurated in Malawi.• Typhlodromalus aripo is confirmed estahlished since its release hetween 1995 and 1998 across different agroecologies in Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Impact surveys indicate a reduction in CGM populations with a 15-40% increase in storage root yields. The CMD pandemic was newly reported from two districts of northwestern Tanzania and large areas of DR Congo and Republic of Congo.A coordinated \"Plan of Action\" for research for development on CBSD was developed hy the principal stakeholders.• Large shoot tips and compact and hairy apices are major determining factors for suitability to T. aripo. No interaction was observed between CGM infestation and CMD infections at Kumi, Uganda, where CGM densities are very high. T. aripo did not discriminate against varieties infected by CMD with similar numbersltip recorded on MH 95/0414 (resistant to CMD, slightly tolerant to CGM) and Ebwanatereka (susceptible to both CGM and CMD).• A spreadsheet, accessible at http://www.iita.orglinfo/soilmass.zip, was developed using more precise methods than previously published to simplify determination of soil nutrient stocks.• A competitive production cost was estimated for cassava to be obtained from 25 to 30 tlha with an economic return of about US$800 to US$1000Iha.• Field and feed trials were initiated with commercial feed millers in Malawi and Tanzania to develop and validate feed production systems for poultry, pigs, and cattle. Crude protein levels of cassava leaves (fresh, dried) were 2 to 3 times higher than other fodder crops (fresh and dried alfalfa, napier hay, and brachiara). Application of chicken manure on the cassava variety Kiroba, planted at 33 000 plantslha yielded the highest amount of silage. Variety Silira also had the highest yields in Malawi at similar densities. A 30% increase in milk production was recorded from dairy cattle fed on cassava silage in Malawi and Tanzania.• The functional quality characteristics of 832 elite genotypes for potential end-uses were assessed and cassava starches specifically compared favorably with corn starches. Genotype MM96/0161 produced the highest quantity of gari per unit area estimated at 11.8 t garilha equivalent to US$6820Iha.oThe economic analysis oflegume fallow for soil fertility maintenance in yam productionshows that intercropping yams with Gliricidia sepium is economically viable with a marginal rate of return of about seven from a survey of 153 farmers in Benin Republic. Similarly, 65% of 631 survey farmers in Nigeria applied inorganic fertilizer to yam. The intensity of fertilizer application was higher for male farmers, those with large holdings, and those who crop for sale.o Farmers' requests for seeds of herbaceous legumes shows a sharp increase after only three years in eight villages of the derived savanna in Benin Republic (times 2.2) and northern Guinea savanna in Nigeria (times 7.6). The main driver is livestock feed for Nigeria and soil fertility improvement for Benin Republic.oThe profile of an ideal yam variety to guide breeding activities was constructed from an ex•ante adoption study on a sample of 1347 respondents located in the yam belt of Benin, Cote d'l voire, Ghana, Nigeria. and Togo. Results from Nigeria (631 respondents), as an example, show differences in users' preferences for yam attributes for the three major identified yam products: pounded yam, boiled yam, and amala. o High adoption rates of lIT A technologies were recorded in the dry savannas of Nigeria. IITA maize (largely varieties Oba Super 1 and 2) was found in nine out of ten villages and accounted for more than 45% of the maize planted. Results for soybean (largely TGX1019•2EN and TGXI448•3E) were eight often villages and 44% of area. Six years ago, soybean was mentioned in only two villages. Results for cowpea (largely IT93K452•1 and IT90K277•2) were six often villages and 26% of area. In the forest zone of Cameroon, new cassava from UTA (largely 8034 and 8017) was grown in 64% of area planted to this crop from a sample of 320 households.o A user• friendly procedure for annual project planning and management was developed and is available in the form of a CD• ROM. The procedure is based on a multicriteria scoring approach that UTA is developing for a more transparent and structured system for setting priorities within the Institute .. o Two international workshops were successfully organized, one in collaboration with the World Bank and the second with the CGIAR Systemwide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture.Starchy and grain staples in Eastern and Southern Africa o Ninety stakeholders participated in a regional workshop to develop strategies for transforming the cassava subsector to assure food security, income generation, and economic growth in East, Central, and Southern Africa. Participants identified opportunities within the food, feed, and industrial sectors with varying potentials across countries. Demand for feed was estimated at 535 000, 500 000, and 18 750 t in Madagascar, Kenya, and Uganda, respectively. Constraints to industrial transformation included policy, grades and standards, marketing system, volume, prices, supply, production, processing and storage technologies, credit, market information and intelligence, and the need for a private•sector•led championship lobby group.o FOODNET conducted market studies (46) that aimed to assist research institutes, international NGOs, governments, donors, and private•sector clients to gain a better time, 10 improved plantain hybrids and five banana hybrids were distributed to 60 farming communities via farmer participatory demonstration plots located in those communities.• Thermal (hot water and boiling water) treatments out yielded the control, ash-coating (traditional), and nematicide (carbofuran) application. Paring in combination with thermal treatment had no positive effect, thus the labor-intensive paring can be regarded as unnecessary if suckers are treated with hot water (20 minutes at 52 GC) or submerged for 30 seconds in boiling water.• Diagnostic surveys of cassava in western regions of the Democratic Republic of Congo and central and northern Republic of Congo showed cassava mosaic disease to be the most widespread and damaging production constraint with more than 70% of all plants diseased, severe symptoms predominant, and mixed virus infections frequent. To tackle the expanding CMD pandemic, a multifaceted CMD management program was initiated in the Republic of Congo, and included the field establishment of >100 elite CMDresistant clones, hot spot evaluation of 17 \"rescued\" IITA varieties, training of Congolese researchers in cassava plant health management techniques, and the establishment of a national stakeholder network for cassava research for development.• It has been clearly established that P and K are the primary limiting nutrients for cassava production on the structurally stable terre de barre soils of southern Benin and Togo. In three years of continuous cropping, cassava yields were maintained above 20 tfha with NPK and 18 tlha with PK while unamended yields fell to 13 tlha.• Participatory evaluation of several improved cassava varieties in the forest margin benchmark of Cameroon was completed with the best three varieties retained for mass multiplication and distribution to farming communities.• Populations of Dioscorea rotundata developed for high yield and pest resistance formed the basis for identification of superior new clones by partners in each of the five major yam-producing countries of West Africa (Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo). New clones of Diose ore a alata selected for high tuber yield and food quality as well as anthracnose resistance were delivered to, and evaluated on-station with partners in Nigeria (18 clones) and Cote d'l voire (36 clones). Selections from earlier introductions are under on-farm evaluation with farmers in Cote d'lvoire.• At least 95% of producers in surveyed zones would consider improved yam varieties for adoption in Cote dT voire, Ghana, and Togo. For these varieties having desirable characteristics, most farmers in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, as opposed to Togo, are willing to pay more than the current market price of local yams.• Nine-month legume fallows produced between 1.3 and 2.0 times more maize grain than the natural fallow in southern Cameroon, with maize grain yields being around 4 Mgf ha after the best legume fallows, such as Cajanu8, Mucuna, and Pueraria. P fertilizer application increased the maize grain yield further in combination with some but not all legumes. N fertilizer application (70 kg Nlha) after natural fallow gave higher though comparable grain yields (4.5 Mglha).• GIS and market survey tools were used successfully to identify the supply system in Yaounde for fresh cassava roots. The supply system is fragmented and most of • Open quarantine facilities have permitted exchange of over 3800 improved clones to eight countries significantly reducing the cost of establishing cassava using tissue culture material, shortening the time for evaluation to release of varieties and providing an efficient regional solution for the CMD pandemic. The participatory on•farm evaluation involving NGOs, farmer groups, extension services of the Ministry of Agriculture, and church organizations has permitted farmers to apply their own criteria to identify suitable varieties and enriched the diversification of improved varieties in farmers' fields and proved essential in meeting the diverse food and other needs of households.• Kikundi, a male sterile but female fertile cultivar, is being used as a new resistance source for black sigatoka in banana germplasm development. Landraces of Papua New Guinea with good variations in pulp color, bunch characteristics, and resistance to Radopholus similis were identified. There are strong indications of different pathotypes among R. similis populations in Uganda. Tithonia mulch improves initial EARB (cv. Mbwazirume) development, crop production, and suppression of nematode damage.• Pratylenchus sudanensis has been demonstrated to be pathogenic on yams in Uganda, though varietal differences exist in response to it. Monoxenic cultures of Pratylenchus sudanensis have been established using carrot discs.• Sampling methods for banana weevil were improved through the use of damage to the central cylinder, which is the key parameter in banana weevil yield loss assessment.The positive effect of crop sanitation on weevil pest status (reduced weevil densities and damage) was demonstrated on-farm. Semiochemicals aggregate banana weevil while the ant Pheidole sp. predates on banana weevil immatures thereby reducing weevil damage. Searches for natural enemies in Indonesia revealed several new predators but no parasitoids for either eggs or larvae.• Training courses were conducted on marketing, agroenterprise development, market information, statistical analysis, and CGM management using different approaches including learning alliance, field days, and farmer field schools. Ten partners participated in an agroprocessing study tour in Vietnam, hosted by the Vietnamese Postharvest Technology Institute.Diverse agricultural systems in the humid zone of West and Central Africa• In order to facilitate distribution of improved plantain and banana hybrids to farmers, six pilot multiplication centers were established in collaboration with four public extension agencies and two nongovernmental companies in Nigeria. Similarly, three multiplication centers were established in Ghana. At least 500 farmers received training in rapid plant multiplication techniques and pre and postharvest management of plantain through farmers' field days held at five locations in Nigeria. At the same 120 kg Nlha (the maize yields ranged fromL4 to 2.1 t/ha). However, a supplementary application of 40 kg Plha, 29 kg Calha, 25kg Mglha, and 26 kg Slha in the form ofTSP and Epsom salts (9.9% Mg, 12.7%S), the same N treatments showed a highly significant response (the maize yields ranged from 2.2 t/ha to 5.12 tlha) suggesting that these degraded soils are not only deficient in N but also deficient in P, Ca, Mg, and S.• A participatory on-farm fertility trial in the northern Guinea savanna showed that maize yields were similar (about 3.5 tlha) with 136 N + 20 P + 37 K kglha (mineral fertilizers) and with 86 N + 9 P + 17K kglha (mineral fertilizers) + 6 tlha animal manure.However, in the same fields, soybean yielded about 3 tlha without any fertilizer. Also, the residual effect of soybean on maize in the following year was equal to 6 t of animal manure. The results indicate the importance of cereal-legume rotation and crop-livestock integration in reducing the need for mineral fertilizers and efficient management of natural resources.• Several high yielding maize varieties were developed combining drought tolerance and Striga resistance and ability to perform well under low fertility (30 kgfha). Some of the promising varieties are TZE COMP 3 DT, ACR94 TZE COMP-5W, TZE COMPI C5, DTSRW-CO, and LN PC3. A total of 113 open-pollinated variety trials, 63 hybrid trials, and 24 inbred line trials were distributed to various countries on request.• A number of early, medium, and late maturing soybean varieties were developed combining high_ grain and stover yields with good nodulation, enhanced nitrogen fixation, and low shattering. The most promising varieties were TGX 1910-11F (early), TGX 1905-2F (medium), and TGX 1910-8 (late) with about 2 tlha grain and 2 to 3 tlha stover yields. Forty-two sets of soybean international trials involving 20 improved varieties were sent to 36 collaborators in 21 countries on request.• A range of improved grain and dual-purpose cowpea varieties were developed with combined resistance to major diseases, insectpests, and Striga for the northern Guinea savanna, (NGS) Sudan savanna (SS), and the Sahel. The most promising varieties were IT97K-568-18, IT97K-499-35, IT99K-573-1, and ITOOK-1260 for NGS; IT98D-1399, IT98K-409-5, IT98K-491-4, and IT97K-499-39 for SS, and IT97K-568-18, IT98D-1399, IT98K-131-1, and ITOOK-1205 for the Sahel. A total of 409 sets of cowpea international trials involving 140 improved varieties were sent to 105 collaborators in 24 countries.• The results of an IPM trial to control cowpea insects at Minjibir (Nigeria) representing the Sudan savanna showed some beneficial effect of soap and neem leaf but much less compared to the synthetic insecticide .The mean grain yield of the improved cowpea variety IT90K-277-2 was 361 kglha without insecticide spray; 516 kglha with soap spray; 509 kgfha with neem leaf (extract) spray; 1352 kgfha with two sprays of synthetic insecticide spray, and 2430 kglha with three sprays of synthetic insecticide sprays.• It was demonstrated for the first time that stem exudates of cowpea, maize, and soybean can stimulate better germination of Striga hermonthica seeds than root exudates. It was further shown that cowpea varieties caused 42 to 70% germination of S. hermonthica compared to 24 to 36% germination by soybean varieties. Cowpea variety IT94K-440-3 was the best, causing 70% germination and TGX1844-18E soybean variety caused 36% germination.the supplying villages are located within 2-3 hours travel distance. Transport costs represent about 30% of the consumer price. The carriers complain about bad road conditions, harassment by police, and the lack of space to unload the commodities in the urban markets.• Farmers organizations associated with the Sustainable Tree Crops Program have been able to increase the prices they receive for cocoa by 10-15% through organized sales in Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, and Nigeria.• Recommended application rates of fungicide appear to be necessary to maintain cocoa yields against black pod disease in southern Cameroon. Regarding trade-offs between ecological sustainability criteria, there was no significant advantage of reducing fungicide rates on earthworms, the major \"ecosystem engineer\" in the system. However, relative to the forest system, casting levels ranged from 24 to 36% in the cocoa farm.• Two years after a farmers' organization was established in Akok villagefsouthern Cameroon and a farmer-managed credit system set up around the cocoa crop, farmers are actively seeking new income generating opportunities and diversifying their agricultural base.• A participatory mapping approach was developed that allows, through an interactive process of mapping and reiterated validations, the local communities in southern Cameroon to get familiar with the ordinary geographic representation. They are then able to sketch on a georeferenced base map land use, clan and lineage lands, hunting areas, etc. This will provide new insights into the management of landscapes by local communities.• A study of natural fallows in southern Cameroon revealed that farmers identified a total of 174 useful plant species, from which about 58% were collected in fallows of less than 10 years old. This demonstrates the importance of short fallow systems as a reservoir of forest product species and their significance in the socioeconomic and cultural lives of rural communities, particularly in landscapes where forests are rapidly disappearing.• Prototype CamFlores model running was tested to improve understanding of interactions between farmers and land, and to evaluate the effects on productivity, livelihoods, and landscape sustainability of interventions in farming systems; modified and expanded to simulate one real forest margin benchmark village in Cameroon. The model has demonstrated the critical role of labor availability in food production, as well as the need to model interhousehold cooperation.• A new user-friendly version of LEXSYS (Herbaceous Legume Expert System) has been made available on the internet (ftp:ffftp.bangor.ac.uk/pubfdepartmentsfaflLEXSYSf) through collaboration with the University of Wales at Bangor's School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences.Improving and intensifying cereal-legume systems in the moist and dry savannas of West and Central Africa• In degraded soils of Shika farm (Zaria, Nigeria) representing the northern Guinea savanna, maize yields did not show any significant response to nitrogen from 30 to• A weed control experiment in maize revealed that a new herbicide, \"Nicosulfuron\", was very effective in controlling weeds at a low dose of 35 g a.i.lha. The mean maize grain yield in the control plot was 968 kglha and the herbicide treated plot (35 g a.i.) yielded 3070 kglha compared to 2800 kglha in the hand-weeded (weed-free) plot. The grain yields in plots treated with the higher doses (70, 105, 210, and 420 g a.iIha )of the herbicide did not differ significantly from 35g a.i.lha.• The farmer participatory evaluation ofthe IITAJILRIIICRISAT improved crop-livestock system was very successful and the number of participating farmers was increased from about 50 in 2001 to 160 farmers in 2002 in Nigeria, using the special project support from DANIDA and Gatsby. Also, the project will now cover Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria from 2003. A series of stakeholders' meetings were held to develop the work plans and field days were held to show the trials to farmers, policymakers, scientists, NGOs, and extension workers.• The farmer-to-farmer diffusion of improved cowpea variety IT90K-277-2, which started in Kano State (Nigeria) in1997 through GTZ assistance, covered 140 primary farmers and 27 375 secondary farmers in 2002 who together produced a total of 578 065 kg of seed. This project will be extended to other states in 2003 through a special grant from USAID.• The project made a significant contribution in training and capacity building ofNARS.Over 60 PhD and MSc students conducted their thesis research in 2002 under the supervision of Project F scientists. ","tokenCount":"33311"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac66f223172c36e7725aa8adf18c6e6b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c80afbb5-c030-47f7-a3d1-cc326f2023c2/retrieve","id":"489323714"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"44bf0635-456f-4e6d-bf81-d1d05e599da5","pagecount":"10","content":"In 2010, Myanmar re-entered the global scene after 22 years of isolation (Jones, 2014;ADB, 2014). Since then, the country has been changing at a rapid pace as a result of ongoing political and economic reforms (Kattelus et al. 2014;IISS, 2011;International Crisis Group, 2012). These reforms are opening new opportunities for Myanmar and foreign investors and international donors have lined up to take part in Myanmar's transformation, resulting in steady economic growth 1 . One area of especially rapid growth is the hydropower sector, which is driven by high-energy demands in the region and is increasing pressure on Myanmar's water resources (IEA, 2015;Kattelus et al. 2014).While Myanmar boasts an abundance of water resources, spatial and temporal distribution is highly uneven, resulting in water scarcity and desertification in the central dry-zone, floods and salinization issues in the Ayeyarwady Delta and flash floods in the North and Western parts of Myanmar. Deforestation due to illegal logging causes erosion and sedimentation in rivers and reservoirs, the former causing problems for navigation. Myanmar's climate is strongly influenced by the Indian Monsoon circulation (Taft and Evers, 2016). Variability and a change in patterns such as intensification of pre-monsoon tropical cyclones, early termination of monsoons, the increase in average rainfall in most areas and a declining trend in other areas are expected to aggravate flood events and drought periods (Wang et al. 2013;Shrestha and Aung Ye Htut, 2016).Water management in Myanmar is scattered across ministries and departments resulting in an overlap of responsibilities in some sectors, while others remain neglected (OECD, 2014). Gaps in institutional resources affect Myanmar's capacity to implement and enforce effective laws and regulations (SEI, 2015). Water resources are managed ad hoc, with no clear long-term planning and the hierarchical structure of ministries and departments results in little or no cooperation or policy integration. Decisions have to move up and down the hierarchical ladder resulting in delays in planning and implementation (Myanmar government official, personal communication, February 2016).In the National Water Policy adopted in 2014, the government called for an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach to face these and future problems that will arise as a direct result of the country's development (Myanmar National Water Policy, 2014). IWRM can be defined as \"a process that promotes the co-ordinated development and management of water, land and related resources to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems\" (GWP, 2009). How this concept is understood in Myanmar and what principles of IWRM are considered important is not yet clear.As part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems in the Greater Mekong, researchers proposed a framework consisting of four constructs considered important parameters that can indicate the extent of IWRM implementation in a river basin: policy integration, public participation, gender inclusion, and adaptivity. The Q-methodology was used to identify perceptions among stakeholders comprising 31 participants from union, regional, and local governments, NGOs, academics, and the private sector. Four distinguishing viewpoints and narratives emerged. Results showed that institutional arrangements and mechanisms for public participation require greater attention for successful implementation of IWRM in Myanmar.An important principle of the participatory approach to development is the incorporation of local people's knowledge into program planning (Cooke and Kothari, 2001). Participation is expected to enhance the effectiveness of water resources management (Özerol and Newig, 2008), and to involve and empower local communities. Critical scholars, such as Cleaver (1999:608) suggest that \"participation has been translated into a managerial exercise based on 'toolboxes' of procedures and techniques\" and to achieve the intrinsic value of participation, appropriate techniques are needed to ensure real involvement in decision-making. Fung (2006:66) states that appropriate techniques or \"mechanisms for public participation vary along three important dimensions: who participates, how participants communicate with one another and make decisions together, and how discussions are linked with policy or public action\". These are questions that need to be addressed to find successful mechanisms for Myanmar, where a governance system with space for participation has been absent for decades and where participation is not a matter of course.In 2014, the World Bank granted a loan of USD 100 million to the Myanmar government for the implementation of the Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBMP). The project aims to strengthen integrated, climate resilient water management in the Ayeyarwady River Basin through a multi-phased approach (AIRBMP, 2014). This project provides the opportunity for Myanmar to manage its water resources according to IWRM principles. In line with the adoption of the IWRMbased national water policy by the Myanmar government, a national water law is in preparation and Myanmar now has to determine what they value and understand as 'good' IWRM practice to translate policy into nation-wide practical plans.The WLE research project examined perceptions of four constructs underlying IWRM, policy integration, public participation, gender inclusion, and adaptivity among people responsible for the implementation of future water management plans in Myanmar.The assumption is that perceptions of these constructs are an indication of how likely it is that IWRM principles will be adopted in water management plans. Policy integration is expected to be challenging in a context where rigid hierarchical structures are the norm (UNDP, 2015) and effective public participation is expected to pose challenges. With regards to compliance with Goal 6.5 of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs), Akkerman et al. (2015) recognize that practical approaches on how to measure the extent to which water management plans follow principles of IWRM are rare.The Q-methodology is a mixed-method approach for the systematic study of beliefs, and attitudes (Work et al. 2015: Brown, 1993;Van Exel and De Graaf, 2005). Based on quantitative factor analysis, the Q-methodology does not require a large sample (Raadgever et al. 2008;Watts and Stenner, 2005) and involves the analyses of ranked statements (the Q-set) about IWRM onto a grid according to a quasi-normal distribution. To identify perceptions, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Myanmar officials working in the water sector at national and local level along with an examination of government reports, policies, reports from NGOs and international development and financial institutions. Initially, 87 statements were developed of which 41 formed the final Q-set. The sample was composed of 12 national government officials, three regional government officials, two local government officials, four academics, six NGOs and four participants from the private sector. Approximately half the sample were women.Q-sorting of the 87 statements started with a short introduction to the research topic, an explanation of the procedure and the assurance of anonymity. The participants then received cards with the statements, which they classified as agree, disagree or neutral. The statements are then arranged from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree. The exercise concluded with an interview to explore participants' reasons for their distribution.The complete analysis (Van Dorp et al., n.d.) provides detail on viewpoints regarding the four constructs (policy integration, public participation, gender inclusion, and adaptivity). Of particular interest is the consensus among the participants on 13 statements. For example, one statement is related to policy integration: \"Data should only be available for the ministries and departments, not to the public\", was strongly rejected by all four viewpoints. Reasons mentioned by participants included statements such as: \"A country is composed of people and the government so data should not be only for the government. It has to be shared with the public. They have the right\" and \"We cannot make any research without data. \"There was also consensus on statements regarding public participation (e.g. \"Local people know the local water system and should therefore be consulted\"). Reasons given included \"In the delta area, people know when the tide will come and the water level increases. They know more than us sometimes\" and \"In the past, if the government does a project they never do public consultation. The public does not know what is planned and people cannot express their feelings because they are not consulted. They have no choice. In the future, this must change\".The consensus statements on gender reflect different viewpoints, some negative (\"Women are too busy to manage the household and should not be burdened with water management decisions\") and some more promising (\"Women and men have same chances and in Myanmar women can participate in the water management sector so they are not excluded. There isn't any rule for women to be excluded from water management\").Consensus statements indicate an awareness of potential impacts of climate change and land use changes (\"Sometimes we cannot pump groundwater for drinking water supply, I think that is due to climate change; climate change adaptations in livelihoods is part of our projects for five years. I see that there are more organizations getting involved: deforestation, urbanization and mining are important land use changes in Myanmar. There is a lot of sedimentation in the river due to mining and deforestation, and also pollution from mercury. We have to dredge a lot because of that\").Other positive signs are that participants believed that ministries should work together to reduce climate change impacts, a general consensus that planning should cover more than 10 years in the future, all water management plans should incorporate climate change scenarios, and government should inform citizens more about possible climate change impacts.The detailed analysis of viewpoint by factor (A to D) and construct is provided by Van Dorp et al. (n.d.).Further study is needed to understand perceptions of IWRM throughout all states and regions, with specific attention to ethnic minorities. Because the Q-methodology uses a small-sample size, a different method might be better suited, such as focus group discussions and structured interviews. The statements did not cover transboundary issues, which, from a current Union perspective, are minimally addressed. With increasing federalization of the country, however, transboundary issues will become of more importance in Myanmar.Policy integration and cooperation within and between ministries is limited, resulting in long decision-making processes, inefficiencies, and delays in the implementation of plans. With the new government, however, participants expect this to change quickly. The present organizational culture characterized by segregated departments and ministries makes it challenging for projects such as the Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBMP) to adopt IWRM principles. An important aspect is the absence of data-sharing between ministries. Making policies with insufficient or unreliable data is already difficult, let alone integrating policies when information is not shared.There are discussions about whether the Ayeyarwady River Basin should have a river basin organisation, or whether a new ministry should be established for natural resources management. These institutional arrangements are important aspects of IWRM. Participants believe that regional governments should have more responsibility for decision-making. Increasing responsibilities would also change the hierarchical structure that is widely seen as an obstacle to integration. In addition, there is an urgent need for expert knowledge and capacity building. Cooperation between ministries and sharing knowledge is one key aspect of policy integration. Most government officials with water management tasks are engineers. Considering possible impacts on fish populations or local livelihoods as a result of closing off a tributary is not necessarily something they are trained to include in their calculations. Whether a more holistic approach advocated by IWRM can be successful depends to a large extent on cooperation between ministries and departments and, most of all, the sharing of knowledge and data. The results of this study show a consensus on the need to involve citizens in water management decisions. Questions remain about who should participate, and how outcomes are linked with policy or public action.The results related to gender inclusion show that women did not feel excluded from decision-making. Participants agreed with the statement that \"the man is head of the household\", suggesting that while Myanmar has a traditional family structure, men are not perceived as being more capable of making water management decisions than women. Some participants who confirmed that while women are excluded when it comes to higher positions in government, within the family they are equal.Policy integration and public participation are perceived as the two topics with the widest divergence of viewpoints among the four constructs. Seven of the 13 Q-set consensus statements concern adaptivity, suggesting this construct is perceived similarly among the participants. Statements regarding adaptivity systematically scored high, indicating that it is believed to be an important part of water management in Myanmar. All plans should incorporate climate change scenarios and the government has a major responsibility to inform its citizens about possible climate change impacts.Four distinct 'viewpoints' and related narratives were identified as part of the Q-methodology. Those holding Viewpoint One have strong beliefs about policy integration and believe that decision-making power should be more equally divided among government levels, and that only full cooperation will lead to effective and sustainable water management. Those expressing Viewpoint Two believe that decentralization is important for IWRM and emphasize the importance of the role that women play in water management. Viewpoint Three holders believe that public participation is empowering for vulnerable groups, although they also have strong opinions about gender equality. Viewpoint Four distinguishes itself from the others through the belief that future land use change is more important than climate change. People who hold this viewpoint believes this topic as important for future water management in Myanmar. Climate change receives a lot of attention, which can be partly attributed to donors' focus on climate change.The findings suggest that Myanmar water professionals are open to aspects of the IWRM approach to water management, with special interest in policy integration and cooperation and public participation. Ongoing projects such as the Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project will provide further knowledge on the extent these ambitions can be implemented, given the current organizational structure in the water sector as well as limited experience with public participation.","tokenCount":"2274"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eeb45ffad9ef6a7d7e9a36766072f80f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/242e4f78-9c0e-4591-b266-abbd49714155/retrieve","id":"-1854297490"},"keywords":["Planning","training workshops","facilitation"],"sieverID":"0a2f59ad-f9ab-4443-a6bd-907990d18846","pagecount":"4","content":"Cover Field visits helped participants complete the process, providing a lot of information I was there with two other members of the PROMER project in Mozambique: like all other participants, we brought a \"success story\" with us. Following what we were told before the meeting, we were ready to \"learn how to align and refine a text.\" We had not realised that the purpose of the workshop was to learn about an approach that can help us avoid future mistakes. Perhaps if we had known, we'd have raised other questions.We were sure that we had completed what we had to do, until the tables that the facilitators shared forced us to look at what had gone wrong in our project. Guided by their step-by-step explanations, we started to focus on what had really happened -and soon saw that the tables were showing something rather different from what we had in our original texts. When we first started writing we did not consider everything we saw in the field, we never got beyond the positive things. So we left our texts aside and started new onessomehow feeling that we had wasted some time.The objectives of a capitalization process, and the materials that participants had to bring along were unclear; most participants (or their superiors) understood different things. And the first four days did not help to clarify it completely. The documents we got describing the methodology contained words that generated confusion. We could have escaped these misconceptions by avoiding terms like \"success stories\". Looking back, we should have given this workshop a different name. In a capitalization process we analyse what was planned and went well, together with all those steps which were planned and did not have positive results, leading to lessons that can be used in the future. This is why I think that words like \"learning\" and \"sharing\" should have been highlighted.Finding the time to write between the two workshops was an enormous challenge as we are all under a heavy work pressure. Some of the participants thought that it could have been better to start working individually, converting the tables we had all filled in into a first draft text during the first workshop. I have no answer to this; all I have are some scenarios to consider. But I do think that it would have been very useful for us to try to do this before the end of the first week -either individually or working in groups -and then to start the second workshop with the same exercise. We could have done this in the same way as we worked at the end of our second workshop in Maputo, when we had a \"conversation round\" which was very effective. Between the two workshops, participants could have looked for more information and improved the first drafts we made.The planning process of a new capitalization exercise should start by looking in detail at the exercise we just completed. Now, if I am to reconstruct our participation in the experience capitalization workshop in Maputo, I have to start by saying that during the first few days it was very difficult to see what we were doing, or to see what we had to do.When I came back from the workshop, I had the opportunity to share the capitalization tools we got with my colleagues at the Monitoring & Evaluation department, and also with and some technicians. These tools have made it easier for us to write \"success stories\" (all our quarterly and annual reports must include at least one of them), but to do it in a better way. We used to do it in an ambiguous way, with no structure ... but by using the tables that the facilitators recommended we are able to position ourselves, focusing on what is it that we want to do, why do we want to do it, who do we want to include -and who will be the readers of each story. The different examples that we brought from the workshop and that we shared with our colleagues really helped the whole staff to understand and to learn.Equipped with this knowledge, we promoted an \"exchange of experiences\" session between members of a cooperative of traders that had seen a lot of success in facilitating marketing links, and other traders outside the programme. These traders have serious problems with some foreigner merchants, who buy directly from the producers on their own farm. Very often, these small players work with large companies, but work without a government license. The problem is that they distort the market. Sometimes the maize has not even dried yet and they are already trying to buy it -for great discomfort of the large traders who want a long-lasting and more efficient relationship with the communities.At the same time, it may be worth considering having a five-day workshop to fit all this, or it could also be good to reduce the theoretical presentations during a four-day programme. In my view, the learning process would be more efficient if one would start with one of the cases brought to the workshop, linking the presentations made by the facilitators to it in a better way.But we can also look at the specific sessions. The individual talks we all had with the facilitators (in what we called both \"the kitchen\" or \"the bar\"), helped us to focus on our case, and to formulate the key ideas that made it worth sharing. On the other hand, the \"campfire\" session was also very useful, as it brought everybody together. This was the moment when the facilitators encouraged us to share our own ideas, and when we learned about the other projects/ programmes that were being capitalised. I am sure that this interaction made us all ready for a future exchange of ideas and information: the ice was broken.A very positive aspect of the whole process was that the facilitators were Portuguese speakers -the participants were unanimous about it. Most workshops -where large resources are invested, like in this one -are offered in English. But in English, this workshop would have never had the same impact. Since it was in our own language, we are already disseminating the lessons we drew.Facilitation has to start long before the workshop, whereas at the workshop we create together a new body of knowledge -and political impact.this mandate. The space to manoeuvre for our team is limited, as it seeks information, evaluates it and then delivers to those who have the decision-making power. Playing on less favourable outcomes is quite sensitive.Only managers can decide how they want to get the information and to whom it should be sent: dissemination as such has both a technical and a political cost. Therefore, the selection of the case to be analysed should also be taken by the project managers. This is not to say that they would be on their own. We need to include those who know what was planned at the project level, what went well, and what went wrong. But in the end, it is the project managers who have to make sure that the capitalization seeds fall in fertile soils.We recorded together how they were operating before, and how the cooperative regained control of the market. It was a practical adaptation of the capitalization tables. Both my colleagues and myself realised that to speak exclusively of one aspect at a time has a strategic, persuasive effect. The traders \"saw\" that they have had marketing problems, and recognised how, with the support of the government, they were able to work together and overcome these difficulties. Now we are already working on a report of this experience. We hope that a district manager, or perhaps someone working for the government, will read our report and realise that the situation has been controlled and that this is an approach which is worth repeating.Our own \"experiment\" with the capitalization approach showed another important point to consider when starting and facilitating such a process: the choice of participants. For me, an experience capitalization process should be run by the project coordinators, or by those who are responsible for the management of the programmes that they have to disseminate later. A monitoring officer does not have Edson Natha works in Nampula, Mozambique, for PROMER, Programa de Promoção de Mercados Rurais. His article, \"Alfabetização funcional\", was published in Portuguese in 2018. E-mail: nathaedson@yahoo.com Above At first \"it was difficult to see what we had to do\". Now \"we are disseminating the lessons we drew\"","tokenCount":"1419"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"10d9435d0bc0c2e0d17f7eb526027a59","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c01f32b7-5153-47ba-be5a-3182afa2ba2e/content","id":"1590229616"},"keywords":["Ethiopia","wheats","varieties","home economics","socioeconomic environment","plant production","production factors","credit","crop management","fertilizer application","technology transfer","innovation adoption","economic analysis","research policies","extension activities","highlands AGRIS category codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies","E16 Production Economics CIMMYT Dewey decimal classification: 338.162"],"sieverID":"221ecfad-8885-4caf-a9e8-acc18f378ca6","pagecount":"36","content":"At the time this paper was drafted, Hugo Verkuijl was an associate scientist at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Wilfred Mwangi is a principal economist with CIMMYT and also Director of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya. Douglas Tanner is an agronomist with CIMMYT, also based in Ethiopia. The views expressed in this paper are the authors' and do not necessarily reflect policies of their respective institutions.Wheat is one of the major cereal crops grown in Ethiopia. In sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia ranks second to South Africa in terms of total wheat area and production. In Ethiopia, wheat ranks fourth in total cultivated area and production. Despite the significant area of wheat production in the country, the mean national wheat yield (1.3 t/ ha) is 24% below the mean yield for Africa and 48% below the global mean yield. This relatively low mean national yield may be partially attributed to the low level of adoption of improved wheat production technologies.Hence, the objectives of this study were to: assess farmers' current wheat management practices, determine the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of wheat technologies, and draw implications for research, extension and policy.Since its inception in 1966, the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR, now renamed Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO)) of Ethiopia has released a number of high yielding wheat varieties and recommended associated crop management practices. The wheat technologies promoted in Adaba and Dodola woredas included improved wheat varieties (ET-13, HAR-710, HAR-1685, andHAR-1709), fertilizer types and rates (100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea as a blanket recommendation), and weed control practices (hand weeding, 1.0 l/ha U-46 for control of broadleaf weeds).Adopters of improved varieties were younger, more educated, and had larger families and farms. Also, adopters hired more labor and owned more livestock. Nonadopters appeared to have more off-farm income than adopters, but this difference was not significant. There were no significant differences between adopters and nonadopters in terms of the number of farm implements owned (e.g., hand hoes, ox-plows, or oxen carts).During 1997, about 42% of farmers in the study area planted improved wheat varieties. About half of the adopters grew Kubsa (=HAR-1685) or Wabe (=HAR-710). For the adopters, about 65% of their total wheat area was allocated to improved wheat varieties. In Adaba, about 34% of farmers planted improved wheat varieties compared to 48% of farmers in Dodola. Moreover, the mean area under improved wheat varieties was significantly larger in Dodola (0.5 ha) than in Adaba (0.2 ha). Pavon-76 was the most popular variety, preferred by 35% of adopters and 43% of nonadopters. The next most popular variety was Kubsa, which was preferred by 28% and 20% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively. Farmers identified the following varietal traits as important: high yield, resistance to sprouting and lodging, seed color and size, and baking qualities. The main constraint to adopting improved wheat varieties was the high price of seed.Most of the adopters (55%) began land preparation in March, while the nonadopters (48%) began preparation in February. More than 80% of farmers in both groups planted wheat in June. Average seed rates were 185 kg/ha and 178 kg/ha for adopters and nonadopters, respectively, which were higher than the recommended rate of 150-175 kg/ha. Farmers preferred a higher seed rate to compensate for low soil fertility and to compete with weed infestations.Wheat and barley received priority for fertilizer application by 98% and 88% of adopters and 80% and 82% of the nonadopters, respectively. Significantly more adopters (95%) applied chemical fertilizer than nonadopters (75%). Adopters applied about 88 kg/ha of DAP and 81 kg/ha of urea, while nonadopters applied about 78 kg/ha of DAP and 60 kg/ha of urea; however, average fertilizer rates for both groups were below the recommended rate of 100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea. The main constraint to fertilizer use for both groups was its high price. Crop rotation and fallowing were two other important soil fertility management practices.According to both farmer groups, broadleaf and grassy weeds were equally important in their wheat fields.Farmers controlled weeds by hand weeding or herbicide application. About 95% and 87% of adopters controlled weeds by hand weeding and herbicides, respectively, while 93% and 61% of nonadopters used hand weeding or herbicides, respectively. According to 75% of farmers, the most problematic weed that was not controlled by existing weed control measures in wheat fields was Snowdenia polystachya. The most important diseases were \"leaf rust\" (Puccinia striiformis) and \"stem rust\" (P. graminis), while cut worms, wild animals, and army worms were the most important pests. None of the farmers attempted to control diseases and only 9% of adopters and none of the nonadopters practiced pest control. The main reason for not controlling diseases and pests was a lack of knowledge of appropriate control measures.Farmers obtained formal credit through the agricultural development offices of their respective woredas in the form of farm inputs (fertilizer, improved seed, and herbicides). About 85% of adopters and 60% of nonadopters had access to credit for the purchase of fertilizer, while 48% and 9% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, had access to credit for the purchase of improved seed. The main credit constraints for both groups were high interest rates and a lack of cash for the required 25% down payment. All adopters and 99% of nonadopters had received an extension visit. Other sources of agricultural information were farmer field days, training courses, and broadcast radio messages.The age of the farmer, the use of credit, and several varietal characteristics preferred by farmers (disease and lodging resistance and baking quality) significantly influenced the area allocated to improved wheat varieties. The marginal effect of the farmer's age on the area under improved wheat varieties was -0.01, and farmer's age decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 1.5%. The marginal effect of the use of credit on improved wheat area was 0.59, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 84.3%. The marginal effect of disease preference on improved wheat area was 0.32, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 45.2% if the varieties were perceived to be more disease resistant. However, the marginal effect of baking quality on improved wheat area was -0.21, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters decreased by 29.9%. Lodging resistance was the third significant varietal characteristic preferred by farmers. The marginal effect of lodging resistance on improved wheat area was 0.31, while the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 44.2%. The farmer's total wheat area, number of livestock, and the use of hired labor and credit significantly influenced the amount of fertilizer used. The marginal effect of a farmer's total wheat area on the mean amount of fertilizer used was -0.08, and wheat area decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 0.3%. The marginal effect of hired labor on the amount of fertilizer used was 0.25; the corresponding increase in the probability of adoption among nonadopters was 1.0%. The marginal effect of the number of livestock (TLU) owned on the amount of fertilizer used was 0.01, and TLU increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 0.04%. The marginal effect of credit on the amount of fertilizer used was 0.80, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 3.2%.Both adopters (50%) and nonadopters (53%) preferred Pavon-76, which suggests that it has traits important to farmers that should be considered in national and regional wheat breeding programs. In particular, the perceived resistance to disease and lodging of the improved wheat varieties were traits that positively influenced their adoption. However, the perceived bread baking quality negatively influenced the adoption of improved wheat seed.Hence, this trait should be given a higher priority by wheat breeding programs.The tobit analysis revealed that access to credit is an important factor affecting a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technologies. Credit in kind not only relaxes the cash constraint currently existing in most farming communities, but also facilitates the availability of inputs to farmers. Therefore, credit in the form of improved seed and fertilizer should be made available to all wheat farmers. Hired labor was also found to positively influence the adoption of improved fertilizer practices. This highlights the importance of developing labor-saving wheat production technologies to offset the cost of hired labor and expand the adoption of N fertilizer.Livestock ownership was an important factor which influenced the adoption of fertilizer. Livestock ownership is one means for farmers to minimize the risks associated with crop failure. Livestock represent the main cash source for financing crop production. Wheat is one of the major cereal crops grown in Ethiopia. In sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia ranks second to South Africa in terms of total wheat area and production. In Ethiopia, wheat ranks fourth in total crop area and production. It is grown in the highlands at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 3000 masl, situated between 6-16 o N and 35-42 o E; however, the most suitable agroecological zones for wheat production fall between 1900 and 2700 masl (Hailu Gebremariam 1991). Major wheat production areas are located in the Arsi, Bale, Shewa, Ilubabor, Western Harerghe, Sidamo, Tigray, Northern Gonder, and Gojam regions (Figure 1).Export of Ethiopian wheat flour increased until the late 1940s. After this period, due to growing domestic demand for wheat, wheat exports declined. Between 1944 and 1952, Ethiopia exported 697,652 tons of cereals and pulses with a total value of 120.7 million Birr (7 Birr = 1 US$); however, since 1957, Ethiopia has become a net grain importer. Between 1961 and 1997, total wheat area increased from 364,000 to 1,450,000 ha, while total wheat production increased from 255,000 t to 1.980,000 t. Mean grain yield increased from 0.7 t/ha in 1961 to 1.4 t/ha in 1997 (Hailu Gebremariam 1991;CSA 1997a;Payne et al. 1996). Despite the growth in wheat area and total production, Ethiopia continues to be a net wheat importer. Despite the significant area of wheat production in Ethiopia, the mean national wheat yield of 1.3 t/ ha is 24% below the mean yield for Africa and 48% below the global mean yield (Gavian and Gemechu 1996). This relatively low figure may be partially attributed to the low level of adoption of improved wheat production technologies. Hence, the objectives of this study were to assess farmers' current wheat management practices, determine the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of wheat technologies, and draw implications for research, extension, and policy.The study area is situated in the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia-an area known for its high production potential for crops and livestock. A multi-stage purposive sampling procedure with a stratified random sampling method was used to identify the sample units (i.e., the farmers). First, peasant associations (PAs) were purposively selected based on their potential for wheat production and accessibility to vehicles. Then, members of each PA were stratified in two groups based on the gender of the household head. A systematic random sampling technique was applied within each stratum to obtain a sample of 144 farmers, consisting of 108 male and 36 female heads of households. Primary data formed the core of the study and were obtained from farmers using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed through an informal farming system survey that provided qualitative data on farmers' practices and circumstances. Information obtained through the survey was supplemented by secondary data from Woreda Agricultural Development Offices (WADOs) and informal interactions with extension staff.The questionnaire was administered from October 1997 to January 1998.Factors influencing the adoption of new agricultural technologies can be divided into three major categories: 1) farm and farmers' associated attributes; 2) attributes associated with the technology (Adesina and Zinnah 1992;Misra et al. 1993); and 3) the farming objective (CIMMYT 1988). Factors in the first category include the farmer's education level, age, and family and farm size. The second category varies with the type of technology, e.g., the characteristics a farmer prefers in an improved wheat variety, such as high yield, disease resistance, quality of the grain for bread making, resistance to lodging, and maturity. The third category includes the influence of different farm strategies, such as commercial versus subsistence farming, on the adoption of technologies.For this study, a tobit model was used to test the factors affecting the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties or the amount of fertilizer (N kg/ha) used. A tobit model (McDonald and Moffitt 1980;Maddala 1983) that tests the factors affecting the incidence and intensity of adoption can be specified as follows:where: Y t = the proportion of land (ha) allocated to improved wheat varieties or the amount of fertilizer (N kg/ha) at a given stimulus level X t ; N = number of observations; X t = vector of independent variables; β = vector of unknown coefficients; U t = independently distributed error term assumed to be normal with zero mean and constant variance σ 2 .X t β is the index reflecting the combined effect of the independent X variables that inhibit or promote adoption. For the current study, the index level X t β was specified as follows:where: β 0 = constant;X 1 = WHEAT (area under wheat, ha); X 2 = AGE (age of the household head, yr); X 3 = EDUC (education level of household head, dummy variable); X 4 = LABOR (family labor, number of adults per household); X 5 = HLABOR (hired labor, dummy variable); X 6 = CREDIT (credit obtained by farmer for improved varieties or fertilizer, dummy variable); X 7 = TLU: Tropical livestock units (index where livestock numbers are aggregated using the following weighting factors: oxen and cows = 1.0, goats = 0.08, sheep = 0.08); X 8 = EXTEN (farmer received extension visit, dummy variable); X 9 = GENDER (sex of the household head, dummy variable); X 10 = DISEASE (farmer prefers the variety to be free of diseases, dummy variable); X 11 = BREADTST (farmer prefers the baking quality of the grain in bread; dummy variable); X 12 = LODGING (farmer prefers the variety to resist lodging; dummy variable);Formation of the model was influenced by a number of working hypotheses. It was hypothesized that a farmer's decision to adopt or reject a new technology at any time is influenced by the combined (simultaneous) effect of a number of factors related to the farmer's objectives and constraints (CIMMYT 1993). The following variables were hypothesized to influence the allocation of land to improved wheat varieties or the amount of fertilizer used.The amount of wheat area (X 1 ) is an indicator of wealth and can perhaps serve as a proxy for social status and influence within a community. It is expected to be positively associated with the decision to adopt improved wheat technology. However, a small area allocated to wheat could conceivably encourage farmers to intensify their production practices. In this case, larger farm size would be negatively related to the adoption of improved wheat technology.Farmer's age: Farmers' age (X 2 ) can either generate or erode confidence in new technology. In other words, with more experience, a farmer can become more or less risk-averse when judging new technology. This variable could thus have a positive or negative effect on a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technology.Education: Education (X 3 ) could increase the farmer's ability to obtain, process and use information relevant to the adoption of improved wheat technology. Education is thus thought to increase the probability that a farmer will adopt improved wheat technology.Household size: Large households will be able to provide the labor that might be required to implement improved wheat technologies. Thus, household size (X 4 ) is expected to increase the probability of the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Hired labor: Similarly, access to hired labor (X 5 ) is expected to be positively related to the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Credit: Farmers who have access to credit can minimize their financial constraints and therefore buy inputs more readily. Thus, it is expected that access to credit (X 6 ) increases the probability of adopting improved wheat technologies.Livestock: Ownership of livestock (X 7 ) is expected to positively influence the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Extension: Agricultural extension services provided by the OADB are the major source of agricultural information in the study area. It is hypothesized that contact with extension workers (X 8 ) will increase a farmer's likelihood of adopting improved wheat technologies.The gender of the household head (X 9 ) can positively or negatively influence the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Disease resistance: Farmers are expected to prefer wheat varieties that are disease resistant (X 10 ).The perceived quality of the grain for bread making (X 11 ) is expected to affect the adoption of improved wheat varieties.Resistance to lodging: Farmers are expected to prefer wheat varieties that are resistant to lodging (X 12 ). For example, the improved wheat varieties Kubsa and Wabe are relatively short-statured and are therefore more resistant to lodging; this is expected to have a positive effect on the adoption of these improved wheat varieties.The demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the adopters and the nonadopters of improved wheat varieties are shown in Table 2. About 69% of the adopters live in Dodola, while 33% live in Adaba. Most adopters (85%) were male. These differences in location and gender were significant at p<0.1. Most adopters (73.3%) and nonadopters (65.4%) were Muslim, while about 27% of adopters and 33% of nonadopters were Orthodox Christian. About 75% of adopters were literate compared to 56% of nonadopters (χ 2 = 3.6; p<0.1). The adopters (41.8 years) were significantly younger than the nonadopters (47.7 years) (t=2.2; p<0.05). Adopters had larger families (9 persons) than nonadopters (7.6 persons) (t=1.9; p<0.1). The average number of permanent workers did not differ between adopters (2.4) and nonadopters (2.3). There was also no difference between the average number of part-time workers hired by adopters (2.2) and nonadopters (2.4).About 66% of adopters hired labor compared to 49% of nonadopters (p<0.1); however, nonadopters hired labor for 26 person-days/year compared to 24 person-days/year for adopters (NS). The average wage for hired labor was significantly higher for nonadopters (4.9 Birr/day) compared to adopters (4.4 Birr/day) (t=1.9; p<0.1). The majority of adopters and nonadopters hired labor for wheat and barley production (Table 2), most of which was used during harvesting and weeding. About 57% of adopters and 50% of nonadopters reported that hired labor was readily available. This difference was not significant.   For both groups, the main activities for men within the household were land preparation, planting, fertilizer application, and harvesting (Table 3). Women and children were mainly involved in weeding, threshing, and grain storage.The main source of income for adopters (96.7%) and nonadopters (97.5%) was the sale of farm produce. Off-farm activities provided another important source of income for adopters (36.7%) and nonadopters (43.2%). Details of crops sold and off-farm activities are shown in Table 4. The most important cash crops for adopters were wheat (98.3%), faba beans (46.6%), and linseed (43.1%), while for nonadopters they were wheat (87.5%) and linseed (43.8%). Livestock sales (35%) were the third-most important generator of income for nonadopters. Most off-farm income was derived from trade for both adopters (32%) and nonadopters (29%). Other farm activities such as poultry and beekeeping were also important sources of off-farm income for 41% and 29% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively. Casual labor provided the third-most important off-farm activity for 9% of adopters and 29% of nonadopters.The total cultivated area for Adaba and Dodola was 25,732 ha and 25,825 ha, respectively. Table 5 shows the land holdings and land use pattern for farmers in the study area. About 98% and 93% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, grew wheat (NS). Wheat area was significantly larger for adopters (1.5 ha) than nonadopters (1.1 ha) (t=2.3; p<0.05). Barley was grown by more adopters (92%) than nonadopters (81%) (χ 2 = 3.5; p<0.1); however, the area under barley was almost equal for adopters (0.8 ha) and nonadopters (0.9 ha). Close to 50% of adopters and nonadopters grew linseed and the cultivated area was about 0.6 ha for both groups. About 44% of adopters and 34% of nonadopters grew teff (NS); however the cultivated area was significantly smaller for adopters (0.4 ha) than for nonadopters (0.5 ha) (t=2.0; p<0.1). Faba beans and field peas were grown by 38% and 31% of adopters, respectively, and about 22% and 16% of nonadopters, respectively (p<0.05). The area under faba beans was close to 0.35 ha for both groups, while the area under field peas was 0.5 ha for adopters and 0.4 ha for nonadopters (NS).Total farm size was significantly larger for adopters (3.5 ha) than for nonadopters (2.8 ha) (t=2.5; p<0.05). Likewise, adopters (3.3 ha) had a significantly larger cultivated area than nonadopters (2.6 ha) (t=2.6; p<0.01). Fifteen percent of adopters and twelve percent of nonadopters sharecropped their land, and the two groups sharecropped similar amounts of land. The area under fallow was also similar for adopters (0.8 ha) and nonadopters (0.7). Both groups owned about four parcels of land. About 94% and 97% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, received their land as an allocation from the local PA. About 8% of adopters rented or inherited their land, while 2% and 5% of  nonadopters rented or inherited their land, respectively.The average number of tropical livestock units (TLU) was significantly higher for adopters (9.2) than for nonadopters (6.2) (t=2.7; p<0.01) (Table 6). About 92% and 95% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, owned oxen. The average number of oxen owned appeared to be slightly higher for adopters (2.8) than nonadopters (2.4), but this difference was not significant. Eighty-one percent of the adopters owned cows compared to about 84% of the nonadopters. The average number of cows, Note: NS = not significant; NC = not calculated.however, was significantly higher for adopters (4.4) than nonadopters (3.3) (t=1.7; p<0.1). For adopters, about 58% and 77% owned donkeys and equines, respectively, while 63% of nonadopters owned both donkeys and equines. The average number of donkeys and equines did not differ significantly between groups. About 62% and 42% of the adopters owned sheep and goats, respectively, while 58% and 16% of nonadopters owned sheep and goats, respectively. The average number of sheep (4.6) and goats (3.8) was almost equal for both groups. About 46% of adopters and 47% of nonadopters owned horses. On average, adopters (2.1) owned more horses than nonadopters (1.5) (t=1.7; p<0.1). Thirty-nine percent of adopters and 26% of nonadopters owned other livestock (young bulls, heifers, and calves). The average number of young bulls (3.0) and heifers (3.5) owned by adopters was significantly higher than the average number of young bulls (1.7) and heifers (1.8) owned by nonadopters (p<0.1). The average number of calves did not differ significantly between adopters and nonadopters.Farmers used traditional and mechanized implements for different farm operations. The types of traditional implements used by sample farmers are shown in Table 7. The adopters appeared to own more hand hoes, ox plows, ox harrows, ox carts, and sickles than nonadopters; however, these differences were not significant. The most important constraint to farm mechanization for 68% of the adopters and 77% of the nonadopters was a lack of cash to purchase and/or hire farm implements. Other constraints included the unavailability of farm implements, land fragmentation, the nature of the terrain, and lack of knowledge. About 71% of adopters and 53% of nonadopters used mechanized farm implements (p<0.05). About 44% and 42% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, used a tractor for land preparation, while 93% and 100% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, used a combine harvester.During 1997, about 42% of farmers planted improved wheat varieties, while 58% planted only local varieties. For the adopters, about 65% of their wheat area was allocated to improved wheat varieties.The adoption of improved wheat varied across woredas. In Adaba, about 34% of farmers planted improved varieties compared to 48% of farmers in Dodola (χ 2 =2.9; p<0.1). Moreover, the average area under improved wheat was significantly larger in Dodola (0.5 ha) compared to Adaba (0.2 ha) (t=3.8; p<0.01). About 51% of adopters planted Kubsa (HAR-1685), 49% planted Wabe (HAR-710), and 8% planted Mitike (HAR-1709). During 1997, 65% of the area farmed by adopters was planted to improved wheat varieties. About 41% of adopters planted Pavon-76, 10% planted Dashen, 12% planted Israel, 8% planted K6295-4A, 5% planted ET-13, and 3% planted other local wheat varieties. The most important varieties grown by nonadopters were Pavon-76 and Dashen. About 51% of nonadopters planted Pavon-76, 27% planted Dashen, 7% planted Israel, and 10% planted other local wheat varieties.Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the total area planted to the most important wheat varieties for adopters and nonadopters from 1992 to 1997. The figures show that the area under Kubsa and Wabe increased for the adopters, while the area under Pavon-76 and Dashen increased for the nonadopters.About 95% of adopters and 75% of nonadopters indicated that they had increased their total improved wheat area over time. The main reason given by adopters (90.9%) and nonadopters (78.3%) for increasing wheat area was the high market price of wheat compared to alternative crops.  A second important reason for both adopters (54.4%) and nonadopters (39.1%) was the availability of superior improved wheat seed compared to improved seed of other crops. About 36% and 39% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, reported an increased requirement for home consumption as the reason for increasing their wheat area. Other reasons included the ease of mechanization of wheat production, and the low risk of wheat crop failure due to disease. Twenty-eight percent of adopters and 15% of nonadopters decreased the total area under local wheat varieties over time, while only 1% of both adopters and nonadopters decreased the area under improved wheat. The reasons for decreasing the total wheat area included poor quality of wheat seed, unsuitable soils for wheat production, unavailability of fertilizer, and the importance of other crops. About 5% of adopters and 17% of nonadopters did not change their amount of wheat area.Table 8 shows the sources of wheat seed and the constraints on obtaining improved seed for farmers in the study area. For the adopters, about 51% obtained seed from the extension service of the OADB, 48% purchased their wheat seed, and 15% obtained their seed from other farmers. Most nonadopters (61.6%) purchased their seed, while 18% and 16% obtained their seed from the extension service or other farmers, respectively. Most of the adopters (61.3%) who purchased wheat seed bought it at the local market, while 23% bought it from other farmers. Three percent of the adopters purchased their wheat seed from local merchants or the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE). About 55% of nonadopters purchased wheat seed at the local market, while 31% bought it from other farmers. Five percent of the nonadopters purchased their wheat seed from local merchants or Fifty percent of adopters and 53% of nonadopters preferred Pavon-76 (Table 9). The second most preferred variety was Kubsa for 39% and 26% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, followed by Wabe for 38% of adopters and 23% of nonadopters. The reasons why adopters preferred these varieties included  the basis of recommendations from research stations or extension agents. More than 90% of farmers in both groups prepared their land at a specific time because it coincided with the beginning of the rains or for traditional reasons. All farmers used the local ox plow (maresha) for land preparation. Both groups plowed their land four times with the maresha. Sometimes farmers used the maresha in combination with a tractor. About 37% of adopters and 24% of nonadopters used a tractor for land preparation. Where the ox plow was used in conjunction with a tractor, both farmer groups plowed an average of three times. About 24% of adopters and 22% of nonadopters were informed of plowing frequency by an OADB extension agent, while more than 90% of farmers plowed in the traditional way.More than 80% of farmers in both groups planted wheat in June, and about 90% of farmers reported that this decision was based on tradition or due to the beginning of the rains. Only 20% and 19% of the adopters and nonadopters, respectively, planted during June because of recommendations from OADB extension agents. The average seed rate used was 185.0 kg/ha and 178.4 kg/ha for adopters and nonadopters, respectively (NS). Only 21% of adopters and 18% of nonadopters used the seed rate (150-175 kg/ha) recommended by OADB extension agents. The main reasons for not adopting the recommended seed rate were: 1) farmers perceived the traditional seed rate to be superior, and 2) farmers used a higher seed rate to compensate for low soil fertility.Soil fertility practices of adopters and nonadopters are shown in Table 11. About 95% of adopters and 75% of nonadopters applied chemical fertilizer in 1996 and 1997 (p<0.01).During 1997, adopters used significantly more DAP (87.8 kg/ha) than nonadopters (77.6 kg/ ha) (t= 1.9; p<0.1). Also, adopters used significantly more urea (80.6 kg/ha) than nonadopters (60.4 kg/ha) (t=1.8; p<0.01). More than 90% of both groups broadcasted their fertilizer. Fertilizer was applied to an average wheat area of 1.4 ha for adopters and 1.2 ha for nonadopters. Both groups used less than the recommended rate of 100 kg/ha of DAP and 100 kg/ha of urea, even though about 81% of adopters and 62% of nonadopters were aware of the recommended rates. The main reason that adopters (80%) and nonadopters (82.5%) did not follow the recommendations was a lack of cash for the required down payment. About 93% of adopters and 86% of nonadopters were satisfied with the fertilizer packaging size (NS).Most farmers in Ethiopia have a long history of fertilizer use. In the study area, most adopters (57.9%) and nonadopters (45.7%) started using fertilizer during the Dergue regime (1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991), while about 9% of adopters and 14% of nonadopters started using fertilizer during the reign of Haile Selassie (prior to 1974). About 65% of adopters and 37% of nonadopters increased fertilizer use over time because they were convinced of the benefits and had perceived a decline in soil fertility. Fourteen percent of adopters and 12% of nonadopters decreased fertilizer use, mainly due to its high price. About 21% of adopters and 37% of nonadopters maintained a constant level of fertilizer usage.About 98% of adopters and 80% of nonadopters used the purchased fertilizer on wheat, and 88% of adopters and 82% of nonadopters used it on barley. Few farmers used fertilizer on linseed or teff.Most adopters (96.2%) bought fertilizer from an OADB extension agent, while 6% bought it at the local market. The nonadopters (81.5%) mainly bought fertilizer from an extension agent, while about 15% and 6% bought it from the local market or a local merchant, respectively. High price was the major reason given for not using fertilizer by adopters (78%) and nonadopters (88.2%). Problems associated with fertilizer use were: late delivery, reported by 55.9% of adopters and 55.9% of nonadopters; lack of credit, reported by 31% of adopters and 27% of nonadopters; and a lack of cash, reported by 35% of adopters and 32% of nonadopters. Other constraints included inadequate supply or lack of availability of fertilizer, and low market price of wheat.Crop rotation and fallowing were the most important alternative soil fertility management practices. About 72% of adopters and 63% of nonadopters practiced crop rotation. The adopters rotated wheat with barley (86.4%), linseed (55.9%), faba beans (32.2%), or field peas (25.4%), while the nonadopters rotated wheat with barley (81%), linseed (58.2%), faba beans (22.8%), and field peas (21.5%). About 53% of adopters rotated their crops once every two years, 23% rotated crops once every three years, and 23% rotated crops twice in three years. Sixty-two percent of nonadopters rotated their crops once every two years, 20% rotated crops once every three years, and 18% rotated crops twice in three years.Both adopters and nonadopters reported that broadleaf and grassy weeds were equally important in their wheat fields (Table 12). About 95% of adopters and 93% of nonadopters controlled weeds by hand, whereas 87% of adopters and 61% of nonadopters used herbicides. The average number of hand weedings was 1.7 and 1.8 for adopters and nonadopters, respectively (NS). While only 18% of adopters and 5% of nonadopters hand weeded on the basis of the OADB recommendation, 42% and 33%, respectively, were aware of the recommended weeding frequency. The main constraints to frequency of hand weeding for adopters were labor shortage (74.5%) and lack of cash to hire labor (59.6%). Similarly, the main constraints for nonadopters were labor shortage (68.2%) and lack of cash to hire labor (60.6%).The most common herbicide used was U-46. The adopters (1.0 l/ha) used significantly more U-46 than nonadopters (0.8 l/ha) (t=2.0; p<0.1). About 61% and 52% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, obtained herbicide from the agricultural development offices of the OADB, while about 30% and 47% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, obtained herbicide from the local market. About 63% of adopters and 47% of nonadopters were aware of the recommended herbicide rate. Eighty-eight percent of adopters and 79% of nonadopters obtained information on herbicide use from an OADB extension agent. Other information sources included research staff at the Sinana Research Station (4% of adopters and 17.9% of nonadopters) and other farmers (4% for both groups). The main constraints to herbicide use for adopters included a lack of sprayers (58.0%), the high rental cost of sprayers (58.0%), and high price of herbicide (44.0%). The main constraints reported by nonadopters were a lack of sprayers (68.9%), high rental cost of sprayers (60%), and high price of herbicide (55.6%).The most problematic weed that could not be adequately controlled by current weeding practices was Snowdenia polystachya, locally known as \"muja\" (reported by 75% of both adopters and nonadopters). Other problematic weeds included Avena fatua, locally known as \"sinar\" (21.2% of adopters and 26% of nonadopters), and \"shabie\" (5.8% of adopters and 13.7% of nonadopters). Table 13 summarizes disease and pest management undertaken by farmers in the study area. The most important diseases were leaf rust (Puccinia recondita), reported by 96.3% of adopters and 94.8% of nonadopters, and stem rust (Puccinia graminis), reported by 53.2% of adopters and 48.3% of nonadopters. Pavon-76, Dashen, and Wabe were the most affected wheat varieties reported by 51.2%, 27.9%, and 18.6% of adopters, respectively. For the nonadopters, Pavon-76 (56.1%) and Dashen (26.3%) were the most affected varieties. None of the farmers practiced disease control measures. A lack of knowledge of disease control was the main constraint cited by both adopters (73.9%) and nonadopters (87.5%). Also, adopters (10.9%) and nonadopters (5.4%) reported that there were no critical wheat diseases in the area. The lack of availability of chemicals was another reason for not practicing disease control, according to 15% and 11% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively.About 28% of adopters and 29% of nonadopters reported that they had no pest problems. The most important pests for adopters were cut worms (13.7%), wild animals (13.7%), and army worms (7.8%). For nonadopters, cut worms (35.3%) and aphids (8.8%) were the most important pests. Nine percent of adopters and none of the nonadopters practiced pest control measures. A lack of knowledge on how to control pests was the main constraint cited by adopters (45.7%) and nonadopters (51.2%); however, 45.7% of adopters and 16.3% of nonadopters reported that pest control was not necessary. The unavailability of chemicals was cited as a constraint on pest control by 6% of adopters and 12% of nonadopters. Other minor problems reported were a lack of money, high price of chemicals, and the complexity of chemical application.Most adopters (77%) and nonadopters (53.8%) cleaned their wheat seed and stored it separately from their grain (Table 14). Most farmers in both groups (77%) stored their wheat seed in a traditional gotera-a local container made from bamboo plastered with mud. Twenty-four percent of farmers in both groups used fertilizer bags. Rodents (rats) were the most important storage problem reported by adopters (78.9%) and nonadopters (77%). About 56% and 19% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, reported weevils as an important storage problem. Another impediment to storage was high grain moisture, reported by 8.8% of adopters and 6.8% of nonadopters. The types of credit that farmers have access to and the constraints they face in accessing formal credit are shown in Table 15. Farmers obtain formal credit through the agricultural development offices of their respective woredas in the form of farm inputs (fertilizer, improved seeds, and/or herbicides). About 85% of adopters and 60% of nonadopters received credit for fertilizer, while 48% of adopters and 9% of nonadopters received credit for improved wheat seed. Both differences were significant at p<0.01. The average amount of credit received was 660 Birr and 490 Birr for adopters and nonadopters, respectively (NS). For adopters, the decision to use credit was made jointly by the husband and wife (50.9%), or individually by the husband (41.5%) or the wife (5.7%). For nonadopters, the decision to use credit was made jointly (34%), or individually by the husband (31%) or the wife (19% Note: NS = not significant; *** = significant at p<0.01.Both adopters (42.6%) and nonadopters (38.7%) commonly received one or two visits from extension agents per month (Table 16). The gender of the extension agent was usually male (74.1% for adopters and 65.7% for nonadopters). The majority of adopters (84.4%) and nonadopters (75.5%) did not express a preference for the gender of the extension agent. About 21% of adopters and 14% of nonadopters preferred a male extension agent.The extension agent usually visited adopters (100%) and nonadopters (95.2%) as part of a group visit, while for 61% of adopters and 22% of nonadopters, the extension agent made individual visits.The extension agent contacted the male head of the household for 60.7% of adopters and 33.9% of nonadopters. For about 7% of adopters and 23% of nonadopters, the extension agent contacted the wife of the household. Extension staff contacted both spouses for 32% of adopters and 44% of nonadopters.About 39% of adopters and 6% of nonadopters were contact farmers (p<0.01). Other sources of agricultural information reported by adopters were farmer field days (83%), farmer training courses (21.3%), and radio messages (48.9%). For nonadopters, other sources of agricultural information included farmer field days (80.6%), farmer training courses (22.2%), and radio messages (47.2%).All farmers were members of a PA. The services commonly offered by a PA included handling credit in kind (seed and fertilizer) for farmers, and land allocation. About 24% of adopters and 11% of nonadopters were office bearers in their respective PA (p<0.05). Note: NS = not significant; ** = significant at p<0.05; *** = significant at p<0.01; NC = not calculated. Feder et al. (1985) defined adoption as the degree of use of a new technology in a long-run equilibrium when a farmer has all of the information about the new technology and its potential.Adoption at the farm level reflects the farmer's decision to incorporate a new technology into the production process. On the other hand, aggregate adoption is the process of spread or diffusion of a new technology within a region. Therefore, a distinction exists between adoption at the individual farm level and aggregate adoption within a targeted region. If an innovation is modified periodically, the adoption level may not reach equilibrium. This situation requires the use of econometric procedures that can capture both the rate and the process of adoption. The rate of adoption is defined as the proportion of farmers who have adopted a new technology over time. The incidence of adoption is the percentage of farmers using a technology at a specific point in time (e.g., the percentage of farmers using fertilizer). The intensity of adoption is defined as the aggregate level of adoption of a given technology (e.g., the number of hectares planted with improved seed or the amount of fertilizer applied).The results of the tobit model on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties are presented in Table 17. The tobit model was used because the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties is a continuous variable but truncated between zero and one. The use of ordinary least squares will result in biased estimates (McDonald and Moffitt 1980). In Table 17, δEY/ δX i shows the marginal effect of an explanatory variable on the expected value (mean proportion) of the dependent variable, δEY*/δX i shows changes in the intensity of adoption with respect to a unit change of an independent variable among adopters, and δF(z)/δX i is the probability of a change among nonadopters (e.g., the probability of adopting improved wheat varieties) with a unit change in the independent variable (Roncek 1992). The Wald chi-square statistic was significant at p<0.01.The farmer's age, use of credit, and several varietal characteristics preferred by farmers (disease and lodging resistance, bread baking quality) significantly influenced the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties. The marginal effect of the farmer's age on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was -0.01, and farmer's age decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 1.5%. The marginal effect of credit on improved wheat area was 0.59, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 84.3%. The majority of adopters obtained credit in kind in the form of improved seed and fertilizer through the OADB extension package. These inputs are distributed to farmers who are willing to host a demonstration plot.The varietal characteristics that were significant to farmers were the perceived resistance to disease and lodging, and baking quality. The marginal effect of disease resistance on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was 0.32, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 45.2% if the varieties were perceived to be more resistant to disease. However, the marginal effect of baking quality on improved wheat area was -0.21, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters decreased by 29.9%. Lodging resistance was the third significant varietal characteristic that farmers preferred. The improved varieties Wabe and Kubsa are shorter and hence more resistant to lodging than some of the wheat varieties previously grown, such as Enkoy and Pavon-76. The preference for lodging resistance revealed that the marginal effect of lodging resistance on improved wheat area was 0.31, while the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 44.2%.The coefficients of the tobit model used to investigate factors affecting the amount of N fertilizer used are shown in Table 18. The model is significant at the 1% level on the basis of the Wald chi-square statistic with 10 degrees of freedom. The farmer's total wheat area, the number of livestock, and the use of hired labor and credit significantly influenced the amount of fertilizer used. Wheat area decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 0.3%, and the marginal effect of a farmer's total wheat area on the mean amount of fertilizer used was -0.08.The marginal effect of hired labor on the mean amount of fertilizer was 0.25; the corresponding increase in the probability of adoption among nonadopters was 1.0%. The improved wheat technologies are labor intensive, primarily due to the recommended increase in hand weeding.Farmers that can afford to hire labor are usually in a better position to adopt these technologies. Hicks and Johnston (1974) reported that a higher labor requirement explained the nonadoption of improved rice varieties in Taiwan and that a shortage of family labor explained the nonadoption of high yielding varieties in India.The marginal effect of TLU on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.01, and TLU increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 0.04%. Livestock constitute accumulated wealth, a source of cash, and facilitate the 25% down payment required to obtain credit for inputs. Also, farmers who buy inputs on credit carry the risk of crop failure and, therefore, the risk of being unable to repay their debts. Farmers who own more livestock may be more willing to take risks since they will still be able to settle their debts in the event of a calamity.The marginal effect of credit on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.80, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 3.2%. At the time of fertilizer application (June/ July), most farmers face food shortages and use their available cash to buy food grain. Provision of credit to finance the purchase of inputs is therefore critical for successful adoption of fertilizer.Adopters of improved wheat technologies were younger, more educated, and had larger families and farms. Also, adopters hired more labor and owned more livestock. All of these differences were significant. Nonadopters tended to have more off-farm income than adopters, but this difference was not significant. There were no significant differences between adopters and nonadopters in terms of the number of farm implements owned (e.g., hand hoes, ox plows, and oxen carts).During 1997, about 42% of farmers grew improved wheat varieties. Most adopters grew Kubsa (51%) or Wabe (49%). For the adopters, about 65% of their total wheat area was allocated to improved wheat varieties. In Adaba, about 34% of farmers grew improved wheat varieties compared to 48% of farmers in Dodola. Moreover, the average area under improved wheat varieties was significantly greater in Dodola (0.5 ha) than in Adaba (0.2 ha). Adopters (55%) and nonadopters (53%) preferred Pavon-76, followed by Kubsa, which was preferred by 39% and 26% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively. Varietal traits considered important by farmers included high yield, resistance to sprouting and lodging, seed color and size, and baking quality. High price was reported as the main constraint on using improved wheat seed.Most adopters (55%) began land preparation in March, while nonadopters (48%) began in February. More than 80% of farmers in both groups planted wheat in June. The average seed rate was 185 kg/ha and 178 kg/ha for adopters and nonadopters, respectively, which are both higher than the recommended seed rate of 150-175 kg/ha. According to farmers, a higher seed rate was used to compensate for low soil fertility and to compete with weeds.Fertilizer was mainly applied to wheat and barley crops by 98% and 88% of adopters, respectively, and 80% and 82% of nonadopters, respectively. Significantly more adopters (95%) applied chemical fertilizer than nonadopters (75%). Adopters applied 88 kg/ha of DAP and 81 kg/ha of urea while nonadopters applied 78 kg/ha of DAP and 60 kg/ha of urea. However, the average fertilizer application rate for both groups was below the recommended rate (100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea). The main constraint to fertilizer use for both groups was its high price. Crop rotation and fallowing were two other important soil fertility management practices.According to both groups, broadleaf and grassy weeds were equally important in their wheat fields. Farmers controlled weeds by hand weeding or herbicide application. About 95% and 87% of adopters controlled weeds by hand weeding and herbicides, respectively, compared with 93% and 61% of the nonadopters, respectively. According to 75% of farmers, the most problematic weed that was not controlled by existing weed control measures was Snowdenia polystachya. The most important diseases were \"leaf rust\" (= P. striiformis) and \"stem rust\" (= P. graminis), while cut worms, wild animals, and army worms were the most important pests. None of the farmers practiced disease control and only 9% of adopters practiced pest control. The main reason that farmers did not attempt to control diseases and pests was a lack of knowledge of appropriate control practices.Farmers obtained formal credit through the agricultural development offices of their respective woredas in the form of farm inputs (fertilizer, improved seeds, herbicides). About 85% of adopters and 60% of nonadopters had access to credit for fertilizer, while 48% and 9% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, had access to credit for improved seed. The main credit constraints for both groups were high interest rates and a lack of cash for the required 25% down payment to purchase inputs. All of the adopters and 99% of nonadopters had received an extension visit. Other sources of agricultural information were farmer field days, farmer training courses, and radio broadcasts.The farmer's age, use of credit, and several varietal characteristics preferred by farmers (disease and lodging resistance, bread baking quality) significantly influenced the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties. The marginal effect of the farmer's age on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was -0.01, and farmer's age decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 1.5%. The marginal effect of the use of credit on improved wheat area was 0.59, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 84.3%. The marginal effect of disease resistance on improved wheat area was 0.32, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 45.2% if the varieties were perceived to be more disease resistant. However, the marginal effect of baking quality on the amount of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was -0.21, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters decreased by 29.9%. Lodging resistance was the third significant varietal characteristic that was preferred by farmers. The marginal effect of lodging resistance on improved wheat area was 0.31, while the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 44.2%.The farmer's total wheat area, the number of livestock, and the use of hired labor and credit significantly influenced the amount of fertilizer used. The marginal effect of a farmer's total wheat area on the mean amount of fertilizer used was -0.08, and wheat area decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 0.3%. The marginal effect of hired labor was 0.25; the corresponding increase in the probability of adoption among nonadopters was 1.0%. The marginal effect of TLU on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.01, and TLU increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 0.04%. The marginal effect of credit on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.80, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 3.2%.Pavon-76 was preferred by both adopters (50%) and nonadopters (53%). This suggests that this variety has important traits that farmers appreciate, and should be considered in the national and regional wheat breeding programs. In particular, the farmer's perception of the disease and lodging resistance of the improved wheat varieties positively influenced adoption. The perceived baking quality of the varieties negatively influenced adoption, however, and this trait should receive a higher priority in wheat breeding programs.The tobit analysis revealed that access to credit is a determining factor in a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technologies, and credit for the purchase of improved seeds and fertilizer should be extended to all farmers. Credit in kind would not only relax the cash constraint currently existing in most farm communities, but also improve farmers' access to inputs.Availability of hired labor is another determinant of a farmer's adoption of fertilizer, emphasizing the importance of developing labor-saving wheat technologies. This would offset the costs of hired labor and would expand the adoption of fertilizer by farmers who cannot afford hired labor.Livestock ownership was an important factor in the adoption of fertilizer. Livestock represent the main cash source to finance crop production and livestock ownership is one means by which farmers can minimize the risks associated with crop failure. Therefore, research and extension staff should increase the attention given to livestock.","tokenCount":"8511"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"072912c4b512cc489b0ab2f527bc6dc0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79788f70-1944-4632-ab22-509deeaa2cbd/retrieve","id":"1571579108"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"30bda66d-7b9a-439f-953f-312d615ac610","pagecount":"45","content":"We thank the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT and WWF Germany for their financial contribution. A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES 4 Wamena coffee is an organic arabica coffee from central range montane forest of New Guinea, cultivated by local communities without insecticide and chemical fertilizers.This guide is a showcase of good practices from around the world that use food systems as a pathway to meet many interconnected biodiversity-related targets in the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.Intended for practitioners and policymakers, it does not set out a 'one size fits all' approach but rather good practice examples that have the potential to be adapted and scaled in a variety of food systems around the world.The post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework sets out an ambitious plan to implement broad-based action to transform society's relationship with biodiversity, ensuring that by 2050 the shared vision of 'living in harmony with nature' is fulfilled.To live in harmony with nature and deliver food and livelihood security to millions of vulnerable people around the world, we must conserve and sustainably use biodiversity in our food systems, and better integrate and align efforts to conserve both agricultural and wild biodiversity rather than pursuing them separately.That today's unsustainable agricultural practices are both driving and suffering from the effects of climate change, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem degradation is not under dispute. Modern food systems also invest in and rely on just a narrow handful of plant and animal species. This high-risk approach neglects the myriad of species, breeds, and strains of crops, animals, and fish at the heart of our food systems that boost resilience and provide diverse diets that are nutritious, sustainable, affordable, acceptable, safe, and accessible to all. At the same time, wild biodiversity that contributes to healthy ecosystems and ecosystem services that are critical to food production, such as pollination and soil fertility, is also at risk from agriculture, for example, through land conversion.The good news is that there are many good practices from around the world that use and conserve biodiversity to replenish ecosystem health and restore forest systems; deliver inclusive development for rural communities and Indigenous Peoples; increase productivity and resilience to climate change in production systems; help drive consumer shifts toward healthy eating for a healthy planet. You will also find examples of efforts to conserve traditional varieties of crops and associated knowledge that may hold unique genetic keys to adapt our food systems now and in the future. Many of these examples are supported by strong innovative enabling policies, at regional, national, and local levels, that incentivize the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity for resilient, healthy, and sustainable food systems.Each section in the guide is mapped to its potential to deliver across Action 2030 Targets as set out in the first draft of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD/WG2020/3/3).It is important to note that using and conserving biodiversity in food systems delivers across many objectives of the CBD Framework simultaneously so this is not intended as a definitive list but rather as a useful overview of ways that sustainable food systems can deliver across many objectives of the framework.Targets 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 13, 14Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtain from nature such as clean water and carbon sequestration. In agriculture, ecosystem services include pollination, natural pest and disease control, nutrient cycling, and more. Yet despite the importance of ecosystem services to farming communities, markets, policies, and research often focus on specialization and economies of scale where biodiversity is seen as an impediment to crop productivity and farm income.Using agricultural practices based on biodiversity -genetic varieties, species, soil, and landscapes -can increase resilience in our food production systems and contribute to restoration efforts, for example, by reducing soil erosion. At the same time, restoration efforts increase habitats for wild species of benefit to food production systems such as pollinators, pest predators, and crop wild relatives.Vietnam farmer Bearing seedlings of rice to plant, Asian farmer Bearing rice seedlings on the back before the grown in paddy field.© Shutterstock / TOM...foto / WWF 10To support agricultural water management, the researchers adapted a set of tools that local farmers could use to optimize their groundwater use for irrigation. Using soil moisture probes and nutrient measurements, farmers were able to save up to 40% of water, 30% of energy (for pumping groundwater), and 80% of fertilizers on their crops and enhanced crop production creating savings and additional incomes for the farmers.• Currently, the countries in the Limpopo Basin have different policy requirements relating to the provision of e-flows, but all are committed to protecting the aquatic ecosystems to ensure a sustainable future and to meet water-resourcesharing treaties. While there is only detail about environmental flows in the South African legislation, the basic framework exists in all riparian countries.• Next steps include testing high-tech modern digital methods to contribute to aspects of assessing and implementing e-flows as well as other parts of water resource management.This project was carried out by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in partnership with Rivers for Life and the University of Mpumalanga in South Africa and supported by USAID with help from national departments responsible for water and sanitation including the Limpopo Watercourse Commission.Community InclusionCapacity Strengthening1.1 E-flows in the Limpopo Basin in Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and ZimbabweThe Limpopo River basin in southern Africa is shared by Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. It is the driest it has been for 35 years with groundwater supplies held in porous rock under the ground -aquifers -at risk of running low, especially at times of drought. This project has been set out to deliver ecosystem health, boost biodiversity and support the livelihoods of rural communities that depend on the river basin for their water security, for example, for irrigation of their crops, through better understanding and management of environmental flows (e-flows). E-flows are the river flows needed to support vegetation, fish, and macroinvertebrates like snails, worms, and crayfish in both the river and its margins, which in turn provide ecosystem services, like nutrient recycling. By studying the volume, timing, and duration of e-flows it is possible to strike a balance between water resource development and the protection of freshwater ecosystems.Water resources provided by the Limpopo Basin are socially, economically, and ecologically valuable, supporting communities that are highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. In 2016, reduced rainfall led to the Limpopo Province in South Africa being declared a disaster area with widespread crop failure and economic hardship. Other threats include a growing population which is driving greater demand for the water, and pollution caused by excessive upstream use -major cities including Johannesburg, Pretoria, and Gaborone lie upstream. The water resources are also over-utilized, primarily for irrigation, and the goods and services provided by the biodiversity and ecosystems of the rivers in the basin are affected.The project carried out a risk assessment to predict how changes in the river's flow affect the various ecosystem services that people depend on, as well as local biodiversity. The assessment included field surveys and looked at historical data in 27 risk areas to inform a plan to sustainably protect and use the water resources.• Findings showed that the risk of altered flows into the ecosystem and potential negative impacts are high where the sub-basin areas are in a high-risk, unsustainable, and impaired state -almost 68% of the basin falls under this category, with high risk to ecosystem services identified in 27% in the upper and middle parts of the basin.• Implementing e-flows can reduce risks, potentially returning more than 80% of the area to a sustainable state, for example, through better management of groundwater. The project worked with transboundary partners to understand better the needs and challenges of sustainable water management in shared aquifers, for example, the Ramotswa Aquifer, which lies between South Africa and Botswana. Activities included mapping both physical attributes and cultural needs.• Better understanding and management of e-flows in river basins can increase freshwater supplies, including for irrigation, and protect freshwater ecosystems and the services they provide.• Successful forest, water system, and landscape restoration often requires working with transboundary partners to understand needs and overcome challenges. In the Limpopo Basin, this included mapping both physical attributes and cultural needs for shared aquifers.• Incentives for farmers to support agricultural water management is critical. This project supported adapted tools to optimize groundwater use for irrigation which saved farmers costs and water, and enhanced production. 12 This WWF-led project is carried out in partnership with Tanzania Forest Services and is part of the large Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) program in the East Usambara funded by the Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). Find out more about the Trillion Trees project.Checklist:Capacity Strengthening A restored Ngitili system in the Shinyanga Region, Tanzania.Through its Trillion Trees project, WWF in partnership with BirdLife International and the Wildlife Conservation Society is leading large-scale efforts to maintain multiple forest functions, prevent the loss of globally important biodiversity, and improve the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities through climate-smart, sustainable agriculture. The project is working in the Usambara mountains which cover an area of 3,500 km 2 and include the Eastern Arc Mountain forests, nature reserves, and major rivers which supply water essential for agriculture, hydropower, human use, livestock, and wildlife. WWF is also supporting forest restoration efforts in the Kilwa and Kisarawe districts in southeast Tanzania.Forest areas in Tanzania are being adversely impacted by deforestation and degradation, in particular, for charcoal production which is a source of fuel and income for many households, and for agriculture, which is the mainstay of the Tanzanian economy and the country's largest employer. The degradation of the landscape is harming the communities who depend on it for their livelihoods, well-being, and food security, for example, in the Kilwa districts, the loss of nutrients in the soil means that crop farming is not viable beyond a season or two, so plots are abandoned, and new forest areas cleared to serve as new ones.• Civil Society Organizations can be an effective entry point for community engagement, needs mapping and capacity building in forest landscape restoration projects.• Community volunteers, including women, who receive training on improved farm practices, can be supported and incentivized to set up their own forest-friendly farms to demonstrate agroecological production practices and serve as a means of empowerment and livelihoods.• Value addition activities, for example, seed oil production, can also serve as incentives for communities to transition to sustainable agricultural practices in the long-term.Good practices• Civil Society Organization (CSO) engagement through a stakeholder mapping exercise with five CSOs to ensure enhanced community representation and inclusion in the restoration project. CSOs were also invited by WWF to attend an engagement planning workshop with government agencies, NGOs, research institutions, and community groups. Two were selected to receive financial support through grants while the others continued to be included in the planning, implementation, and monitoring of their forest landscape restoration, building capacity in conservation work, and financial management.• Capacity building to train farmers on how to combine cropping practices to help reduce soil erosion and water runoff, increase soil fertility, and increase yields to reduce the practice of shifting to new plots.• Community members from six project sites, in particular, vulnerable women, were encouraged to establish demonstration farms of sunflower, sesame, sorghum, or cassava on previously abandoned farmlands to boost incomes and as a means of empowerment beyond the project, for example, through small-scale oil production.• Engagement with six schools as an entry point reached young people and households with information and other benefits on restoration, for example, through tree planting and management activities. The project expects to raise 30,000 tree seedlings that will be planted around and within the East Usambara mountains. 14• The economic trade-off between the natural capital of a healthy landscape against primary food production is mitigated through the FLR349 Fund. The fund provides each smallholder farmer with 1-1.5 ha of land and a subsidy of $390 ha per year for five years to support the transition to sustainable farming and increase their self-reliance beyond the project. It costs $5,859 per ha for 6 years of operation to sustain the restoration program which includes support such as capacity building and seedlings. The funding is sourced through crowdfunding and private-sector donations.• Seedlings include a diverse mix of food and cash crops such as avocado, cacao coffee, lychee, and mango, that grow within the forest landscape, can support livelihoods, and are appropriate for the land, for example, trees and plants that provide moisture and trap water or that can grow under the shade of large trees.• Other incentivizing schemes include a carbon credit scheme for sustainable agriculture transformation, which is currently under feasibility study ( 2022) with a multi-stakeholder partnership. The scheme will use remote sensing technologies in the measurement of carbon sequestration in the project areas.• FLR349 SE (Social Enterprise), a bankable business model, was recently established to develop a self-sufficient value chain to remove reliance on public funding, through the 'Food for Forests' umbrella. Products include 'Vegetables for Forests,' 'Chicken Eggs for Forests,' and 'Coffee and Cacao for Forests.' Through the value chain, FLR349 SE assists farmers to market and brand products, and distribute them to the right markets, helping to connect producers with consumers.• A traceability platform will be developed (currently in progress) to link stakeholders along the supply chain and enable them to access information and remote sensing data regarding the food supply chain, make donations to support the operation, and track the progress of reforestation efforts. Clear indicators, such as carbon sequestration and social return on investment will help ensure good socio-economic and environmental benefits from the project.• WWF Thailand has also supported and worked directly together with smallholder farmers, community-based organizations, and local social enterprises to build capacity and skills in implementing agricultural approaches for ecological restoration.The project has provided support to and worked in partnership with smallholder farmers, cooperatives and local administrative organizations at project sites. Between 2018 -2022, a thousand smallholder farmers have benefited from the project. Workshops have been conducted to validate and share farming practices that better protect the environment. More than 200 ha of maize plantation have been successfully converted from monoculture to agroecology so far serving as model sites for sustainable agriculture and supply chains. Once established, the FLR349 model provides smallholder farmers with multiple times the income compared to what they were earning through monoculture agriculture, increasing their self-reliance.Impact assessments show how that for every 1 Thai baht (USD 0.026) invested, social benefits of 8.367 Thai baht (USD 0.22) are generated including increased farmer knowledge and income, a decrease in environmental management cost, increased access to affordable organic food and a reduction in government healthcare expenses from reduced agrochemical use. It also shows potential to contribute to national GHG mitigation strategies and forest restoration targets. Agroecology has proven climate mitigation potential. A study commissioned by the project found that while maize plantation releases high amount of carbon, agroecology systems store more carbon than they release, demonstrating the high potential of scaling out implementation of the project for climate mitigation.Public-Private PartnershipsChecklist:In the Nan Province, known as a monoculture farming area, a conservation group called 'Jorb Plien Nan' is working to turn 'bald mountains' into rich watershed forests again.Three Forests, Four Benefits is a WWF conservation project that works in partnership with farmers, the private sector, the public sector, and civil society organizations. to implement agricultural practices for environmental restoration. It is part of an initiative of His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej which includes a Forest and Landscape Restoration Fund and approach (FLR349) to restore degraded land through the development of sustainable value chains which empower rural communities. Activities include planting mixed systems of fruit trees, vegetables, and herbs which help replenish the soil, contribute to ecosystem health, and increase resilience in food systems. This regenerative agricultural system also offers increased yields and resilience to climate instability and improves the health and vitality of farming communities. The project is focused on the Chiangmai and Nan provinces in northern Thailand which is an area dominated by watershed forests and rich in biodiversity, but which is being encroached upon for cash crop plantations.• Food production of diversified local varieties and perennial crops can help restore degraded lands and forests, protect biodiversity and pollinators, and restore carbon back into the soil. Family farmers that adopt biodiversity-based approaches can be powerful agents of change with the right support.• To encourage farmers to permanently make the shift from intensive agrochemical monoculture practices to using agroecological approaches requires educational outreach, capacity strengthening and incentives including financial support, land, seedlings, value chain development and carbon credits.• FLR349 SE (Social Enterprise), a bankable business model, was recently established to develop a self-sufficient value chain to remove reliance on public funding, through the 'Food for Forests' umbrella. Products include 'Vegetables for Forests,' 'Chicken Eggs for Forests,' and 'Coffee and Cacao for Forests.'Approximately 800,000ha of forest in Thailand has been destroyed so far for cash crop cultivation which is primarily maize for animal feed to support the country's meat export industry. This has reduced the ability of smallholder producers in the forest to be able to sustain their livelihoods putting food security at risk. As well as forest clearance, land preparation includes open burning of agricultural residues which leads to heavy haze pollution. Over the past decades, maize has become a major driver of deforestation in northern Thailand, as well as in neighboring Myanmar and Lao PDR. 16Highlight: Building on Success and Scaling UpFollowing the success of the Agua de Honduras platform in providing critical data to help policymakers make smarter water investment decisions and improve water management, the Government of Honduras has officially adopted it as one of the main water management systems of the Ministry of Environment (MiAmbiente+) where it is expected to help water conservation investments as well as access to water for smallholder farms and human consumption. In the future, it could benefit millions of Hondurans.It has also attracted the attention of international agencies which have supported the expansion and migration of the AGRI tool to the whole of Central America, East Africa, and the island of Grenada. Now, this novel tool is almost finished for other four islands of the Caribbean and in the north of Argentina with the support of FAO.This reservoir is located in the village of La Azomada, in the municipality of Gracias, Lempira. More than 60 producer families benefit from its waters to irrigate their crops.1.4 Agua de Honduras -Improving Water for Smallholder Farming and Human Consumption Takeaways• The Agua de Honduras platform provides critical data to help policymakers make smarter water investment decisions and improve water management. Its development included community engagement to inform the creation of water scenarios that reflect real life needs.• The Government of Honduras has adopted the platform as one of its main water management systems which will expand its potential to help water conservation investments as well as access to water for smallholder farms and human consumption.• A third phase of the project is strengthening local capacities in using the platform for water resource planning and management.The project 'Agua de Honduras' is a governmental data platform that provides communities with data on hydrology, vegetative cover, soil properties, water demand, and future climate scenarios. It includes an important component called AGua para RIego (AGRI), which is a decision-making tool to identify irrigation and drinking water. Having this information readily available means technicians and decision-makers from local to national levels can access water-related information, enter local data, obtain statistics, simulate scenarios, and find new water sources. This, in turn, supports municipal, governmental, and international cooperation investments related to water conservation and improving water for smallholder farming and human consumption.Access to water resources has been one of the greatest challenges for economic and social development in some Central American countries such as Honduras where farmers and governments often lack the information needed to make the smartest water and agricultural investments. In Western Honduras, where the Agua de Honduras Platform was initially implemented, the climate can be brutally dry and unpredictable constraining most farmers to rainfed subsistence agriculture. The data in the platform can be used to help them become more food secure and boost livelihoods, as well as contribute to water conservation.• At the local level, the platform was successfully piloted in four micro-watersheds with local organizations and municipal governments. One of these organizations has already used the platform to decide where to purchase land as a strategy to increase water availability for potable water systems.• The platform has been developed in different modules, for example, data on climate change scenarios or tools for irrigation water planning (AGRI) or to assess the water balance under natural conditions.• The project has sought to engage with communities and local stakeholders in the water planning process so that local water use, and demand, can be considered when creating balanced water scenarios under different conditions, for example, that may include periods when irrigation is needed and other periods when it is not. A third phase of the project is also strengthening local capacities in using the platform for water resource planning and management.This project was supported by USAID and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC).Checklist:Community InclusionOrganization:© CIAT/Adriana Varón• Over 1,000 knowledge products published including training manuals, reference books, videos, drama, website articles, workshops, diversity fairs, exhibitions, cross-site visits, posters, fliers, peer-reviewed publications, case studies, onfarm demonstrations, and national knowledge-sharing events between scientists and farmers.• Education materials developed and used in universities, middle schools, and technical schools in 25 countries that integrate the use of agricultural biodiversity into local curriculums.1.5 Diversity Assessment Tool for Agrobiodiversity and Resilience (DATAR)• Focusing agricultural research-for-development efforts at the species level can miss the genetic diversity of crop varieties, livestock breeds and fish strains that could provide unique traits needed to adapt food systems to challenges such as climate change adaptation.• Having data about the genetic diversity that is available and how it can be used is essential for local communities and policymakers to make informed decisions and investments for its sustainable use and conservation to meet current and future needs.• Participatory community assessments of an unlimited number of varieties of crops, and breeds of livestock, can be carried out in multiple projects and sites. The DATAR tool quickly synthesizes the information at local and national levels for community and national validation. After data assessment and validation, DATAR is then used as a decisionmaking tool to identify constraints and provide a portfolio of actions to support the use of agrobiodiversity to improve livelihoods and ecosystem health.The Diversity Assessment Tool for Agrobiodiversity and Resilience (DATAR) is an innovative, open-source IT tool built to assess agrobiodiversity and support decision-making for agricultural development. It has been developed as part of an IFAD-implemented GEF-integrated approach program to foster sustainability and resilience for food security in sub-Saharan Africa. The tool has three components -a website, web portal, and app -that help decision-makers design agricultural projects to maximize biodiversity. It enables users to access information on crops, livestock, and aquatic stock going beyond the species level to consider crop varieties, livestock breeds, and fish strains and the diversity of genetic traits they bring to the development table, for example, for climate resilience. The tool connects users with providers including ones in local communities who supply crop seeds, animal breeds, and (coming soon) aquatic farmed types best suited to their needs. It also identifies management, market, policy, and institutional constraints producers face when using local crop and animal biodiversity.• Building the DATAR App and web portal was an iterative process with multiple tests and improvements, made possible through close collaboration with national partners in Asia, Africa, the Americas, the Middle East, and Europe and local IT practitioners.• An important component of the DATAR tools is that surveys can be completed in multiple projects and sites for many species and that they include templates and questionnaires to support community engagement, for example, through focus group discussions, household surveys, and key informant interviews on various aspects including management practices, market, policy, and institutions.• Data is input directly into the app while conducting the surveys so is quick and efficient and the tool is also easy to use to find out if within your community or stakeholder group you have the biodiversity you need to meet your goal.Food production systems such as farms, livestock, agroforestry, and aquatic systems are home to rich genetic diversity yet agricultural development programs, for example, climate resilience planning, often stop short at the species level when deciding which crop, livestock, or aquatic animal would be best suited to meet its particular goal. Yet there are thousands of crop varieties, livestock breeds, and fish strains that contain a wealth of genetic diversity that can also be deployed to deliver on sustainable development goals. 1 Bioversity International and the International Center of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) are two CGIAR centers that forged an Alliance in 2020 becoming the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT. While many projects by the two organizations referred to in this document took place or started prior to this, for consistency and ease of readership, they are both referred to as the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT throughout regardless of the date of the project.Digital innovationThe projectThe rice sector in Madagascar generates 41% of households' income making it the most important economic sector in the country. Using an Adaptation Fund established to reduce the negative effects of climate change on vulnerable communities, this adaptation project executed by the Government of Madagascar with support from UNEP and funding from the Adaptation Fund developed and piloted an Integrated Resilient Rice Model. This model adopts ecological production practices such as using organic compost rather than chemicals, deploys resilient rice varieties that require fewer inputs, and restores ecological services through reforestation and restoration efforts.In Madagascar, climate change is reducing both winter and spring rainfall in many parts of the country, which poses a serious risk to rice yields and livelihoods in the region. Additionally, there is continued environmental degradation as deforestation for agricultural land is leading to widespread soil erosion due to run-off including loss of topsoil, depletion of soil nutrients, landslides, and heavy siltation of lowlands and waterways. Land clearance and environmental degradation are both putting local biodiversity at risk.• Integrated Resilient Rice Systems are improving livelihoods, food security and biodiversity in Madagascar, increasing average rice yields up to three times.• Improved rice varieties developed using climate-resilience traits such as drought tolerance were selected in participation with local communities, helping to increase adoption rates and ensure that introduced improved varieties meet local needs.• Reforestation efforts are more likely to succeed if they can generate long-term income for local communities beyond a project, for example, by planting agroforestry species with market demand to supplement income and to create incentives for sustainable management.• Improved farmer livelihoods from the use of on-farm genetic diversity in over 25 countries.• Increased land areas under sustainable management with intra-specific diversity on farms and in forest production including fruit and nut wild relatives in 25 countries.• Development of networks and institutions for community access to local crop and livestock genetic materials including community seedbanks and genebanks in Bolivia, Burkina Faso, China, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uganda, and Uzbekistan.• Policy gaps or constraints identified through using the tool have resulted in policy change including:• Protocols for benefit sharing and access to germplasm from the community genebanks and farmers' fields in Bolivia, Burkina Faso, China, Ecuador, Mali, Morocco, Nepal, and Uganda.• National governments of Morocco, Nepal, Uganda, and Uzbekistan, supporting agrobiodiversity and local seed systems.• Ministries of Agriculture and Education in Morocco and Uzbekistan including agrobiodiversity education, in middle school, and higher education technical schools.• Formal recognition of farmer breed varieties by the governments of Mali and Nepal.• Government policies for new reforestation targets that include local fruit and nut tree genetic diversity in Uzbekistan.Beneficiaries include development workers and researchers, together with farmer communities in 18 countries (Burundi, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Italy, Malawi, Mexico, Morocco, Nepal, Niger, Pakistan, Peru, Tanzania, Uganda, USA, and Uzbekistan. The number of countries is growing. 60,000+ farmers have benefitted so far of which 30-60% were women (% depending on the country).Highlight: Integrating system-based approaches into food production and restoration effortsIncorporating biodiversity-based approaches into agriculture is a win-win as it can benefit ecosystem services which in turn benefit agricultural production, particularly when supported by enabling policies.• 1,137 hectares have been reforested to rehabilitate watersheds • 31 acres have been planted with agroforestry plants and farmers trained in agroforestry practices -reforestation efforts that generate livelihood options for farmers are more likely to be sustained.• Farmers have been trained on the use of rice straw as an energy source, increasing the use of rice byproducts and on using integrated pest management approaches.• Almost 2,500 farmers have been trained on producing and using organic compost although a spate of cattle theft in the area increased the rarity of cow dung, making compost production more expensive.• A replication and upscaling strategy has been developed and implemented in two other regions Good practices• 2,400 farmers trained on using resilient seed varieties and agroecological approaches to field preparation, fertilization, pest management, better livestock and land management, and post-harvest storage have been undertaken.The selection of three improved rice varieties that showed promise for climate resilience was carried out in participation with local communities. The project distributed almost 12,000kg of improved seeds and trained seed producer groups to increase access to improved varieties which resulted in the production of 26,000kg of improved seeds.• Training has been carried out at the regional and district levels on climate risk management and how to disseminate that knowledge to farmers including through better weather forecasting. Communication methods deployed include dynamic agricultural calendars to inform and adjust planting schedules based on seven-day climate forecasts which have been distributed to farmers and extension staff, as well as local radio forecasts twice a day. Two new weather stations have also been installed.• Water infrastructure for irrigation has been upgraded and 21km of canals have been dredged and cleared. 6km of dikes have been strengthened to prevent flooding. In one project site, water availability has increased between 28-55% near the dam. • Selecting tree lucerne as the most suitable fodder species was done in consultation with the International Livestock Research Center (ILRI) which manages the International Forage Genebank. Over 1,000 species of forage grasses, legumes, and food tree species are held in its collection.• Organization of farmers into eight groups in four sites in the Ethiopian highlands enabled training to targeted groups of both men and women, and of different social groups, on planning and managing tree lucerne on farms, and how to mix it with other local feed sources to feed dairy cows and sheep. Training was also given to farmers on how to use Tree lucerne to establish beekeeping for additional income.The project was enabled through the supportive policies of the government of Ethiopia around sustainable land and natural resource management which consider fodder trees and forages as part of watershed management initiatives.• Using tree lucerne as a pathway to improve rural livelihoods through its use as livestock fodder is helping to combat environmental degradation and boost local biodiversity.• Tree lucerne was selected from over 1,000 species held in the Forage Collection managed by ILRI as the most suitable for this project, showing the importance of conserving and studying plant genetic diversity as a source of options for sustainable development initiatives.• The project was successful because it addressed a key issue that was important to the farmers who became engaged and were willing to adopt tree lucerne as a fodder species.The project 'Improving rural livelihoods through the introduction of a multipurpose tree fodder' is a CGIAR project led by ILRI to introduce tree lucerne, a leguminous fodder tree, as a fodder species to boost livestock productivity in Ethiopia. Providing an affordable alternative to supplements through its nutritious leaves, tree lucerne was selected as it grows in high altitude areas and provides several ecological benefits for crops and other forage plants which grow in its vicinity, for example, contributing to soil fertility as a nitrogen-fixer and acting as a windbreaker to prevent soil erosion. Its scented flowers attract bees which supports honey-producing enterprises. It also supports wild biodiversity conservation by providing habitats for species such as birds and supports climate mitigation through carbon sequestration.In the Ethiopian highlands, grazing lands are shrinking and in some cases have disappeared as more land is used for crop production to feed a rapidly increasing human population. What remains is often degraded meaning that for livestock productivity to reach its potential, extra food and nutrition supplements are needed. For many smallholders, commercial concentrates are just too expensive so they use poor-quality crop residues, and even for those who can afford them, delivery issues limit availability. These constraints adversely affect the farmers' livelihoods.This project was made possible through the support of USAID.Checklist:Organization:© ILRI/ Kindu Mekonnen Organization:A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES 29 28 Good practicesThe support of the local government has helped shape the initiative into a sustainable collective enterprise for green, local, and healthy living. The district has been declared a conservation district and as such, the local government is applying policies and supporting initiatives that generate good economic value and create conservation incentives to protect the forest and traditional agricultural practices including the women's market which now has a permanent home.The women have formed a committee to oversee activities at the market, establish rules, and agree on fair prices. They are applying a self-monitored Internal Control System to guarantee hygiene, reduce the use of plastic, and enhance the cultural aspects of the market. The initiative relies on close interactions between sellers and buyers and relations of knowledge and trust.• The women have also developed a traceability tool to collect lifecycle information on their produce to show information such as origin and organic credentials.The project 'Traditional markets for sustainable consumption, conservation, and women economic empowerment in Indonesia' is an initiative led by WWF which started in 2016 in collaboration with the Women Association and through local government support for women's enterprise and conservation The project supported the economic empowerment of indigenous smallholder women producers who had started businesses selling traditional nutritious varieties of vegetables and fruits grown from seeds inherited through generations as well as wild medicinal herbs and the occasional hunting catch. From selling door-to-door, the women had negotiated with a local landowner to start an informal market. This project helped the women to become better organized, develop and enforce quality standards and traceability tools, establish a permanent location for the market, and empower them economically and as agents of biodiversity conservation.• Empowering women through the sale of local agrobiodiversity builds resilience in communities and helps break the poverty cycle, for example, enabling them to pay for their children to pursue higher education.• Using agrobiodiversity as an entry point to boost women's livelihoods enhances their role and status as custodians of agrobiodiversity conservation, for example, of ancient crop varieties passed through generations and wild plants.• Enabling government policies that stimulate both women's enterprises and conservation can drive change towards more sustainable and equitable production and consumption of diverse traditional foods.The Women Association started with around 25 women from two villages and has evolved into a group of more than 100 traders who are working together to improve quality control and raise quality standards. This includes reducing the use of plastic bags and containers, safely disposing of garbage, increasing the cultivation and sale of local produce, and conserving local varieties. Moreover, the women traders in Malinau have been trained as trainers in quality control and implementing the principles of healthy, local, sustainable and fair markets and local supply chains.The women have shared their initiative and motivation with women in other villages in the province of North Kalimantan and the province of West Kalimantan which has significantly contributed to boosting average incomes.Checklist:Community InclusionInformal rural markets are a significant sector in developing countries and provide women with an opportunity to generate income and exit the poverty cycle, yet the lack of regulation limits their potential to meet the growing local demand for local vegetables, including the ones that their ancestors used to grow and harvest from the forest. The produce is fresh, grown from local seeds without the use of chemicals, with almost no carbon footprint, and the vegetables and fruit varieties on sale are unique to the area and not found anywhere else, yet the women lacked traceability tools to show its provenance and cultural links. 30This adaptation project executed by the Government of Gambia with support from UNEP and funding from the Green Climate Fund aims to build climate resilience over large areas, promote climate-resilient sustainable development, and create a sustainable natural resource-based economy that could directly benefit up to 8,376 Gambian households and indirectly benefit 30,800 households in four regions along the Gambia river. At the heart of this economic development is an ambitious restoration target of almost 16,000 hectares of degraded forests, mangroves, savannahs, wildlife areas, and farmland to improve ecosystem health, make food production more resilient, and protect bio-diversity. The nature-based economy will be developed through 176 commercial enterprises such as beekeeping, ecotourism, and food processing that will be managed by local communities.The project is also working to strengthen the implementation of existing policies for the participatory management and benefit-sharing of climate-resilient natural resources and integrating ecosystem-based management into national and local policies.• As part of efforts to rehabilitate 12,788 ha of degraded forest, savanna, and mangroves, and 3,000 ha of farmland, 10 million mangrove saplings have been planted, which protect coastal villages from storm surges while providing habitat for many fish species.• 60 beekeeping businesses, managed by local communities, have been established, supported by training in both beekeeping and business management. These new enterprises have created 398 jobs so far -121 of which are filled by women -and are helping to generate long-term sustainable income for the population.• Capacity building in approaches and techniques such as natural regeneration for planting has seen the survival rate of planted materials increase from 10-48% to almost 95% after three months of planting.Highlight: Natural-Resource-Based Economies -From Concept to Practice• To maintain restoration efforts, it is critical that local communities can generate incomes by adopting sustainable ecosystem-based approaches that maintain biodiversity and the natural resources upon which they depend. Following investment of almost USD 3 million in infrastructure development, the River Company has been established which is expected to employ more than 500 people through 176 new commercial enterprises over the next 20 years. This is estimated to increase the cash incomes of 8,376 households by at least USD 330 per year which is a lifeline in a country where 60% of the population live below the poverty line.•The River Company is predicted to have a cumulative gross cash return of USD 4,515,270 generated through the adoption of diversified, climate-resilient livelihood options including fisheries, agriculture, natural resource-based businesses, as well as the restored landscapes which are sources of raw materials that will be processed and traded by the natural-resource-based enterprises. It will provide around USD 677,270 in annual contributions to the National Forest Fund (NFF) through taxes and licensing fees.• To maintain restoration efforts, local communities need to be able to generate income from the conservation, management and sustainable use of local natural resources long after the project is completed. The 176 nature-based enterprises resulting from the project could increase cash incomes by USD 330 a year.• Restoration efforts that include farmland as well as wild areas to integrate food systems into sustainable resource management strategies mean increased resilience and biodiversity in both systems, as well as increasing food security.• Capacity building in using approaches and techniques such as natural regeneration for planting has seen the survival rate of planted materials increase from 10-48% to almost 95% after three months of planting.A woman surveys her crops in a village community garden.Climate change in the Gambia is resulting in increased temperatures, wind storms, coastal erosion, salt intrusion, erratic rainfall, droughts, and floods which in turn is leading to reduced agricultural and livestock production and unsustainable extraction of resources from forest ecosystems by rural households. The agricultural sector, which employs 44% of the country's workforce, is threatened because it is heavily rain dependent. Sea-level rise and salt intrusion into freshwater wetlands have all but eliminated rice production in the western half of the country, causing 'hunger seasons' between July and September.The 'Building a Natural-Resource-Based Economy in the Gambia River Basin' adaptation project is executed by the Government of Gambia with support from UNEP and funding from the Green Climate Fund.Checklist:Organization: Organization: 32 2.4 Terra-i -Using Satellite Imagery to Make Coffee Forest-Friendly in Vietnam Takeaways• Coffee production which provides livelihoods for smallholder producers is increasingly exposed to climate risks including longer droughts and less rain which can prevent crop flowering. At the same time unsustainable forest conversion to coffee plantations increases climate risks.• Integrating early-warning tools like Terra-i into forest monitoring systems can scale potential and encourage private sector investment in deforestation-free areas.• Multi-stakeholder workshops helped identify local actors' needs and constraints and identify a baseline and indicators of success. Other activities included identifying gaps that the data provided by Terra-I could fill and the data format needed by different stakeholders for it to be useful and encourage adoption.Terra-i is an early-warning forest monitoring system that deploys satellite imagery to detect changes in vegetation cover resulting from human activities.Vietnam has an organized forest inventory and a regular process for quantifying change in forests, but it needed a system that could provide data in almost real-time, to alert rangers to respond more quickly to incidences of illegal logging or encroachment. These incidences are increasingly happening due to the massive expansion in Vietnam's coffee production. From an almost nonexistent industry 30 years ago, it is now the world's second-largest producer with an export industry valued at $US3 billion. This project is part of efforts to make the country's coffee production more sustainable and reduce risks through emission reductions, forest conservation, land conversion, financial solutions, and various decision-support tools that contribute to Vietnam's commitments to the global development framework. It is part of the UN-REDD Vietnam Program Phase II.• Workshops held with policymakers, private sector representatives, forest rangers, civil society organizations, and ethnic minority groups helped identify local actors' needs and constraints, set a baseline and indicators of success, and identify gaps that the data provided by Terra-I could fill. Useful information gathered included the data format needed by different stakeholders, for example, most stakeholders wanted warning alerts to come through their phones and to be able to send feedback on whether the alerts were true or false on their phones as well.• Data from the first set of alerts was uploaded to Google and shared as a means of improving the system following comments and feedback, for example, by introducing a ranking system of high, medium, and low-priority alerts. As the project developed, a web-based platform was developed to communicate up-to-date detections to stakeholders.• As it was the first time the system had been implemented in the region, it was necessary to further calibrate the system with detailed information about the status of the Di Linh forest which required fieldwork to characterize the forests. The analysis included high-resolution optical satellite imageries and field geo-referenced observations.• Capacity building of local forest rangers through training sessions on how to interpret maps and tables of loss detections was followed by a validation exercise of forest loss detections. The team also worked with technical staff from the forest protection department to explore the integration of Terra-i into their monitoring work.The project has been carried out with the full support and engagement of local authorities and communities and work is ongoing to establish a mechanism to integrate Terra-i within the current government forest monitoring system to extend its scope to the national level.Highlight: Terra-i: A practical application for forest-friendly coffee production in Viet NamThe pilot project led to an agreement to upscale its use for forest monitoring at provincial and national levels in Vietnam. For example, the Lam Dong Provincial People Committee has adopted Terra-i and expanded its application at a provincial level.Civil society organizations, including the Centre for Sustainable Rural Development, have also recognized its use to promote participatory forest monitoring to enhance early detection of forest changes and empower communities to help protect the forests.Continued positive growth in the coffee sector will rely on international collaboration, with several organizations, including the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, working with the government, private sector, and smallholder farmers.The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT supported the pilot application of the Terra-i system to monitor changes in forest land use, especially forest conversion to coffee plantations in Di Linh district, Lam Dong province, where forest encroachment is widespread and difficult to control. This project was carried out in partnership with the Vietnamese government and with partners at the World Meteorological Association and Australia. It was made possible thanks to funding through the International Climate Initiative of the German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, and support from the EU.Community InclusionThrough research and partnerships, the Alliance supports work to make coffee production in Vietnam a sustainable source of prosperity for smallholder farmers.Vietnam has historically relied on ground patrols to detect illegal logging and encroachment. This costly method takes enormous numbers of staff to cover the country's large and difficult-to-access forest areas and is time-consuming, delaying the detection of illegal activities. Forest loss in the country also mostly happens in small-size sites before expanding into larger areas, so information needs to be in almost real-time and of high spatial resolution. Deploying Terra-i as an early-warning system linked to fast response times is a way to address both risks to the forest and the livelihoods of smallholder producers. • The project has directly benefitted and trained close to 4,500 farmers and other rural producers, a third of them being women, in supply chain enhancement and nature-based solutions. Some examples of investments include solar dehydrators to improve food storage, crop rotation systems, organic agriculture certification, aquaculture, and organic fertilizer production.The project created the MEBA biodiversity platform, an online tool that helps service providers integrate climate and biodiversity risks into credit decisions and use that information as basis to qualify for green credit lines.The project also developed 13 demonstrative farms in which ecosystem-based adaptation measures were implemented.• What is truly transformational about the MEbA approachis the fact that loan access and conditions (interest rates, payment periods, etc.) are tied to a series of indicators, including biodiversity and adaptive capacity, encouraging better stewardship of natural resources while improving production practices and reducing climate vulnerability. This combination of innovative finance mechanisms and ecosystem-based adaptation has been so successful that it is now being implemented in two African countries, Senegal and Benin, and under replication in other countries in Africa and Latin America.The project 'Microfinancing Ecosystem-based Adaptation to Climate Change' is a UNEP-led adaptation project implemented with funding from the German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (IKI).Checklist:Community InclusionThe project''Microfinance for Ecosystem-based Adaption to Climate Change (MEbA)' is a project in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Africa to help address risks to vulnerable populations from climate change and biodiversity loss. The project uses innovative microfinance services and products as an entry point to promote investment in agricultural systems that are ecosystem-based that can deliver improved climate resilience, protect and enhance biodiversity, and improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and other rural producers.The target project beneficiaries were local landholder populations with potential ecosystem-based projects in the areas of influence of the various participating Microfinance Institutions including the Andean region of Colombia and Peru, Benin, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, and Senegal.• In countries with national plans for climate change adaptation that promote ecosystem-based approaches, microfinance can be an entry point for leveraging investment in products that deliver ecosystem and rural livelihood resilience in rural populations that have been marginalized somewhat by insufficient financial inclusion.• Microfinancing Ecosystem-Based Adaption has supported the distribution of nearly 18,000 microcredits and benefitted around 4,500 farmers, funding products from solar panels to organic agriculture certification. More than USD 30 million has come from private investors.• Climate change risks and biodiversity loss are often not considered in agricultural finance packages. This can lead to missed opportunities to invest to enhance resilience to climate change and the ecosystem health of smallholder production systems.• Investments include solar dehydrators to improve food storage, crop rotation systems, organic agriculture certification, aquaculture, and organic fertilizer production. Products need to show they enhance ecosystems and the services they provide, and the social and economic resilience of human populations vulnerable to climate change.• Loan access and conditions (interest rates, payment periods, etc.) are tied to a series of indicators, including biodiversity and adaptive capacity, encouraging better stewardship of natural resources while improving production practices and reducing climate vulnerability.• 13 demonstration farms to show the value and function of ecosystem-based adaptation measures have been implemented.• Populations included in the project are in places with strong microfinance institutions that were already servicing them with other products.Climate change risks and biodiversity loss are often not considered in agricultural finance packages. This leads to missed investment opportunities to enhance resilience to climate change and the ecosystem health of smallholder production systems. Methodologies and technologies, as well as awareness and capacities of Financial Services Providers, are needed to carry out agricultural credit assessments that include climate risks and biodiversity considerations.• Evaluate accessions held in collections through a collaboration between genebanks, farmers, plant breeders, and other researchers to find the diversity that can help farmers and food production systems be more resilient to climate change.• Support national genebanks to reach international standards to ensure the collections are safe and widely available in the long-term including through safety back-ups of collections, the upgrade of equipment, improved internal processes such as documentation of data, and increased staff technical capacity.• Build and strengthen linkages with key user communities to make sure that new crop varieties are developed to meet their needs.The Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) houses the Genetic Resources Institute in Kenya which has been conserving seeds since 1988. It currently holds over 50,000 samples representing over 2,000 plant species acquired through donations and field collections carried out across Kenya. Like many other genebanks, it has been facing inconsistent funding and insufficient staff putting its collections at risk. Some of the seeds have been in storage for over 30 years and there are concerns that they could be losing viability.The Crop Trust, through the Seeds for Resilience project, is providing financial and technical support to help the Genetic Resources Institute meet international standards for seed conservation and data management. Alongside technical training and equipment upgrades, the project is also supporting the genebank to implement a new quality management system. An outreach component will also help the genebank work more closely with farmers and plant breeders.This project is being implemented by the Global Crop Diversity Trust in collaboration with partners including national genebanks and research institutes in the project countries. It was made possible through the generous support of the Federal Government of Germany (BMZ), through the German Development Bank (KfW).Community Inclusion Capacity Strengthening• Plant collections held in Africa's national genebanks may hold the genes needed to breed the climate-resilient crops farmers need both now and in the future, but secure funding, staff recruitment and training is needed to safeguard the collections in the long term and make them available to all.• Identifying and using useful traits held in the collections in breeding programs can increase the livelihoods, nutrition and resilience of farming households and their communities.• Collaboration between genebanks, farmers, plant breeders and other researchers is essential when evaluating samples held in collections to ensure new crop varieties developed really meet the needs of farmers.Seeds for Resilience provides financial, and technical support to secure the genetic diversity held in the national genebanks of Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Zambia and make it available to all to underpin the development of new varieties and crops, and the increased availability of crop diversity to farmers. Many of the accessions (samples) held are not found in genebanks anywhere else in the world such as many African green leafy vegetables and the African eggplant.The increased international availability of these seeds through enabling policies like the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and the development of climate-resilient crop varieties are expected to benefit farming households and their communities beyond the partner countries and the duration of the project.Smallholder producers in Africa -around half of whom are women -produce nearly 80% of the continent's food against a backdrop of increasingly unpredictable and extreme weather and changing growing seasons. They urgently need access to a wide range of affordable, quality seeds of productive and nutritious crop species and varieties that are resilient in the face of climate change. While crop improvement programs have released new varieties over the last decades, these have focused on just a small number of species, leaving the unique genetic diversity of many other resilient and nutritious crops untapped. This genetic diversity is being lost at unprecedented rates, particularly for vegetables and fruits. While some accessions are conserved in national genebanks, chronic underfunding and staff shortages place collections at risk.This UNEP-led project is enhancing the climate change resilience of rural communities living in five community-protected areas of Cambodia. It integrates food production into restoration activities to ensure long-term sustainability and diversify food production systems for increased resilience and reduced risks. The main entry point has been through establishing irrigated home gardens planted with diverse crops and supporting small livestock such as chickens, alongside restoration efforts that have included planting native trees that provide food or enhance soil health. The project worked closely with the communities in the protected areas at every step of the project including creating a Project Steering Committee to facilitate engagement between government ministries, civil society, provincial and district officers, and local agriculturalists and foresters.• Forest restoration approaches used multi-use native tree species that provide food, erosion control, timber, medicine, and fruit. The project also planted trees alongside 2,200 hectares of rice paddies to reduce erosion and enhance soil productivity.•The project has trained local households in sustainable income-generating strategies such as raising chickens and crickets, ecotourism, and selling vegetables.• Climate forecasts were used to inform and adjust planting schedules aiming for a 20% decrease in climate change vulnerability at all project sites, covering a population of 9,271 people.• 80% of the 1,900 households who participated report an improvement in access to water, to new seed varieties, and to improved rice storage techniques, as a result of additional interventions following the building of rainwater harvesting tankers and pumping wells.• Drought-tolerant rice varieties were distributed to families to increase yields -the varieties have genetic traits that are particularly adapted to local conditions.Training was given to households and schools to create home gardens of diverse crops including vegetables, which diversifies families' agricultural production which increases resilience, and reduces the risk of losing the harvest. Previously, when rice harvests failed due to drought, people had to sell their animals or possessions to buy food.In Kulen, a sacred and protected area in the Cambodian mountains, illegal logging of trees to fuel the luxury hardwood and charcoal markets has destroyed huge patches of forest, taking the rain clouds that used to gather over the trees with them.The project has eased people's reliance on rain-fed agriculture through the establishment of home gardens planted with diverse crops including vegetables that have year-round irrigation thanks to a small reservoir dug into springs a few kilometers up the mountain. This means that people no longer need to go into the forest to forage for roots when the rains fail. They also have chickens and have been trained in how to raise them. The vast majority of families in the village now have home gardens and fruit trees have been planted providing mangoes, jackfruit and avocados.A tree sapling nursery established through the project is helping one community grow 100,000 seedlings with additional saplings donated as part of a plan to plant more than a quarter of a million trees and protect 306 acres from illegal logging. • It is increasingly recognized that integrating people's needs into sustainable use strategies for protected land management, rather than separating people and protected areas, is the way forward. Most protected areas are already home to people, whether they are permanent residents, seasonal visitors or Indigenous Peoples.• Engagement between all stakeholders is critical for the long-term sustainability of restoration projects that integrate food systems, including working with local agriculturalists and foresters, and being aware of and respectful to the important cultural aspects of the protected areas.• Protected areas provide a vital safety net for species diversity, genetic diversity within species, habitats and ecosystems which includes vital plant species for food production systems.Organization:Climate change is producing erratic rainfall in Cambodia, where dry seasons are getting drier and wet seasons are wetter, causing devastating floods and droughts that can lead to crop failures and soil erosion, which is impacting rural livelihoods and food security. Only 19.5% of cultivated land in Cambodia benefits from irrigation, so the agricultural sector is dependent on rainfall. To counter drops in agricultural yields, communities rely on illegal logging in protected forests to supplement food and income, whether it be collecting fuelwood or timber. These decimated forests once provided both climate and soil water regulation in the agriculturally vital Mekong River Basin with a marked decrease in the number of rain clouds over the now depleted forest. 42Highlight: Developing Resilience in Drought-Tolerant GrasspeaDuring the evaluation work to assess the performance of crop wild relatives and their crosses under a range of conditions and climates in different countries, scientists in Morocco and Tunisia scientists identified a wild grasspea species that is resistant to two forms of broomrape, an aggressive parasitic weed led to the abandonment of the crop in some Mediterranean countries. These results may lead to its revival. Genetically related to today's cultivated crops, crop wild relatives have been left to evolve in the wild, developing traits such as drought tolerance and pest resistance that farmers need to face today's challenges. Yet we are losing them and many of those that remain are vulnerable to extinction, for example through land use change. While their wild habitats are disappearing through land use changes and degradation, they are poorly represented in genebank collections and undervalued in breeding programs. They also often fall outside conservation and agricultural agendas.• Carry out a global inventory of crop wild relatives already held in genebanks to prioritize collecting missions to fill gaps in collections, which were carried out through a multi-country, multi-partner effort which included 100 scientists from 25 countries. All relevant and applicable national, regional, and international regulations were followed by project partners in the collection of new diversity from within their borders. Collecting missions resulted in the conservation of 4,587 seed samples of more than 355 wild relatives of 29 key crops including, in the case of three wild potato relatives, the only examples held in any genebank.• Secure the safety and accessibility of the collected material by ensuring it is held in the national collections of the countries of origin, the Millennium Seed Bank, CGIAR international collections, and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.• Conduct 19 pre-breeding projects in 43 countries -this means identifying desired genetic traits and introducing them into breeding lines that are crossable with modern varieties. These projects have resulted in new crop varieties with all materials available through the Multilateral System of the Plant Treaty.• Build information systems to manage and search global crop collections for crop wild relative data (Genesys) and information from the pre-breeding and evaluation projects via the Germinate platform.• Conduct capacity building and training on collecting, documenting, and conserving crops with more than 12,000 people from 124 institutions in 71 countries and carry out IT audits in 37 national and regional genebanks, 27 of which resulted in upgrades.and the Horn of Africa. 44 Good practices• Promotion of eco-friendly farming practices that include using more traditional locally adapted crop varieties in production systems to strengthen resilience • Four community seedbanks were established in four project sites to safeguard, better understand, and increase the use of local crop varieties and to conserve local knowledge about their traits and uses.• Capacity-building through diversity field schools and fairs in project sites to create awareness and mobilize local communities and stakeholders to use and conserve traditional crop biodiversity. In addition, the project developed and disseminated farmer-friendly training materials, community-based biodiversity management tools, and a field guide to diseases of the project crops.The project played a significant role in creating awareness of the value of traditional crop diversity including as a buffer against environmental change with over 70 publications in English and local languages.The main objective of the UNEP-led project on Integrating Traditional Crop Genetic Diversity into Technology: Using a Biodiversity Portfolio Approach to Buffer Against Unpredictable Environmental Change in the Nepal Himalayas was to maintain the conservation and use of crop biodiversity found in the mountain agricultural production landscapes of the country. The project's focus was to build resilience to climate change, boost ecosystem services and improve access and benefit-sharing capacity in the mountains' ecosystems. The project focused on eight neglected and underutilized species: buckwheat, cold-tolerant rice, common bean, finger millet, foxtail millet, grain amaranth, naked barley, and proso millet. These species were falling out of common use in local communities who were shifting to subsidized and more accessible staples like rice and wheat which are less adapted to the challenging growing conditions.• Traditional crops that have evolved over hundreds of years in some of the world most extreme landscapes have global importance for climate change adaptation and related challenges yet need protection through conservation and use programs.• Subsidizing major staple crops in food insecure areas while well-intended can displace resilient traditional crop varieties which are more adapted to local growing conditions.• Eco-friendly farming practices that use a diverse mix of locally adapted crops can strengthen resilience in production systems, acting as a buffer against environmental changes, and can be supported through community projects, for example, establishing seedbanks to conserve and manage locally adapted crop varieties and make seeds available to local farmers.• About 300 varieties of the eight target crops were evaluated in farm conditions out of which 60 have been used and promoted by farmers.• Seven superior farmer varieties of five crops (amaranth, finger millet, foxtail millet, proso millet and common bean) have been officially registered and promoted widely for enhancing access and benefit-sharing of smallholder farmers.• 500 local crop genetic resources are now safely stored in the national genebank for future use including breeding.• 20,000 households received benefits in the project sites and beyond through good quality seeds, germplasm, information on conservation, and the promotion of traditional crops.• Farmers including women who benefited from capacity-building activities have since been rewarded and recognized as biodiversity custodians in their communities.• Farmers accessed a low interest collateral free loan from a community biodiversity management trust fund created through the community seedbanks, to boost local livelihoods and self-finance the conservation of rare genetic resources.The project developed processing equipment (mainly electric threshers for proso millet) and promoted a finger millet thresher to over 500 households to improve processing efficiency. Climate-resilient traditional and nutritious crop varieties that have adapted to harsh conditions and high altitudes are the lifelines of the mountain communities that live in the Nepalese Himalayas. Yet many of these crops are at risk just when local communities need them most to build resilience and buffer against increasing unpredictability in weather, temperatures, and the increased frequency and severity of pests and pathogens. Better conservation and use of this crop genetic diversity has global implications for improved food security in other high-altitude areas of high environmental instability and variability.The Seeds for Needs approach started in Ethiopia in 2012 working on durum wheat -the wheat used to make pasta -and has since expanded to become a global project, implemented in 15 countries in a range of contexts and with a diverse range of crops. Led by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, this innovative approach brings a diverse portfolio of seeds including traditional farmer varieties to rural communities to give the farmers and their households a say in which varieties best meet their needs. As Ethiopia is experiencing frequent droughts that are damaging crops and livestock, threatening the livelihoods and food security of millions of people, identifying the varieties that are best suited to the harsh climates and that farmers will adopt is becoming increasingly urgent. The varieties bred through the project, including two farmer varieties of durum wheat, have been officially registered and released following national protocol procedures.• Over 850 Ethiopian durum wheat landraces and several Ethiopian improved lines underwent extensive molecular and phenotypic characterization through the project resulting in a shortlist of 373 varieties from genebanks and 27 improved varieties from farmers' fields. These were tested and ranked by both farmers and researchers. More than 20% of traditional Ethiopian wheat varieties performed better than commercially released varieties showing the importance of using as much diversity as possible in breeding programs.• Ranking of traits by farmers included a variety of measures beyond standard ones like yield and drought tolerance, for example, taste and texture. These rankings were combined with researchers' evaluations, resulting in a final shortlist of 20 varieties from 50 that were crossbred with an elite variety of durum wheat called Asassa. These were grown and ranked by farmers in real conditions. This ranking was important for the future adoption of any varieties bred through the project.•The varieties became part of the portfolio of newly established community seedbanks, created in the target regions as an important source of high-quality seeds for the communities.The varieties were also tested for how they perform in pasta production working with Italian companies and institutions. This activity was to generate the basis for future value chains that will further promote their future conservation and use.• An impact study showed that the Seeds for Needs initiative led to a significant improvement in improving on-farm production diversity, and enhanced food security among smallholder farmers in the study regions • Collaborations with universities, including in Italy, have built capacity and expertise at various levels with ten PhD levels and 15 MSc levels reached, as well as thousands of farmers trained through the project.Two durum wheat varieties whose local names mean 'Stable' and 'We Have It Back!' have been officially registered and released through the project, targeting farmers operating in marginal production areas. The varieties are drought-tolerant, give high yields and have good nutritional traits. Wehabit had been lost from the community until it was rediscovered in the genebank and reintroduced through the project.These are just two examples of the many varieties in the pipeline for future breeding programs that have come from this project. So far, more than 50,000 farmers have received seeds through the project's crowdsourcing approach.The varieties were released using the standard procedures for variety release in Ethiopia. In other words, they had to be compared to the best improved varieties available for the target areas with evaluation done by the breeders. A variety can only be released if it outperforms them otherwise it is rejected. The significance of the process is that it shows how traditional varieties can outperform improved varieties in certain environments. However, the process is not ideal, as it is costly and cumbersome to follow this procedure and only allows the release of a very limited number of varieties, while the aim is to constantly inject new varieties that can keep pace with climate change. Specific protocols for traditional varieties release remain a priority not only in Ethiopia, but in Africa in general.This project was carried out through ITPGRFA and with the support of GIZ and the World Bank.Public-Private Sector Partnerships Checklist:Community Inclusion• For farmers to adopt and use crop varieties that can build resilience into their production systems, it is critical to include them at all stages of the development, evaluation and selection process to boost adoption rates and ensure the varieties deliver what the farmers and their communities need.• Using the genetic diversity safeguarded in genebank collections and farmers' fields creates new opportunities for breeding that traditionally relies on a narrow tried and tested selection of genetic materials.• Partnering with the private sector to establish future value chains is important to promote the future cultivation of traditional varieties, ensuring their conservation through use.Past efforts to introduce new varieties to farmers have not always been successful with a major reason being that farmers had not been included in the variety development, evaluation, and selection process. Gathering important information about farmer-preferred traits, for example, taste or texture in traditional recipes is critical to developing the right varieties, and also opens new possibilities in terms of using a wide selection of genetic diversity available in genebanks and farmers' fields that is not normally considered in breeding programs.Targets: 2, 4, 9, 10, 14, 16, Millions of people face hunger and micronutrient deficiencies, which means they lack the essential vitamins and minerals they need for healthy development, such as Vitamin A deficiency.Yet 75% of the world's food is generated from just 12 plants and five animal species meaning many options are off the menu that could help deliver not just diverse, safe, affordable diets all year round and help deliver planetary health and resilience in our food production systems. Consumer education is also critical to influence production, whether through awareness campaigns, product labeling, or public procurement mechanisms, for example, linked to school feeding programs.Catchment, Lake Naivasha, Kenya.Organization:A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES 51 50The Sustainable Diner is an innovative private-public sector partnership led by WWF to reduce CO2 emissions by tackling food waste and other SCP principles. The project targets tourism and dining out which are two of the Philippines' fastest-growing sectors. Tourism alone supports the livelihoods of over 12 million people. It is part of a set of policy changes to support sustainable local development across a range of sectors supported through the International Climate Initiative. By using food waste as an entry point, the project is assisting the food service sector to transition to low-carbon, sustainable food consumption and production practices across all its activities.Due to economic growth domestically, many Filipinos are now able and willing to spend on higher-value goods and services, including better-quality meals, ready-to-eat food delivery services, and new restaurant trends. As a result, meat consumption has increased which has a higher carbon and environmental footprint than traditional dietary options, while its vegetable intake is the lowest in Asia. Yet this is also a country where almost 25% of the population lives below the poverty line and where, despite widespread hunger and food insecurity, large amounts of food are being wasted. In Metro Manila alone, 800,000 tons of food waste end up in trash bins every year.• Private sector partnerships can help scale awareness-raising and incentivize carrying out sustainable consumption and production principles in business operations, as well as strengthen the business case for reducing food waste and implementing sustainable practices.• Support of the national and local governments has led to the project influencing and advising on policy decisions including the National Sustainable Consumption and Production Framework and the National Food Waste Guidelines.• Targeting consumers through educational and awareness campaigns about the impact of their dietary choices, such as choosing diverse local foods, will also contribute to the long-term sustainability of the project.• The project, working through the Hotel and Restaurant Association (HRAP), is supporting restaurants and hotels to offer more sustainable dining options through local food sourcing and procuring products with a reduced carbon footprint, for example, water and energy efficiency and avoidance of single-use plastics. Tools developed such as the WWF Hotel Kitchen Toolkit provide advice on ways to reduce food waste, for example, through more efficient menu planning and accurate guest counts.The initiative is also targeting young consumers through an educational campaign about the impact of their dietary choices, such as choosing diverse local foods, and plant-based options instead of meat, through information materials for primary, secondary, and tertiary teachers and efforts to integrate sustainability issues into school curricula.In partnership with the private sector, the National Eco-Labelling Program -Green Choice Philippines -was revisited to include new criteria to strengthen sustainability practices across food and health safety, nutrition, environmental management, and resource efficiency. Partnerships were also forged with 24 restaurants in three cities and with industry platforms that could act as multipliers, raising awareness of the project.• To incentivize companies, a cost-benefit analysis was conducted to provide the business case for reducing food waste and implementing sustainable practices.• Policy advocacy achievements included influencing or contributing towards several bills, policies, and guidelines such as the Food Surplus Reduction Bill, the National Sustainable Consumption and Production Framework, the National Food Waste Guidelines, and an MoU with the Department of Tourism to mandate sustainability training for the food service industry.This project was carried out with the support of the International Climate Initiative.Public-Private Partnerships Checklist:Organization:A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES 53 52Good practicesThe program is adaptable which means its impacts have reached beyond the classroom as it moved online in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. These adaptations ultimately helped set the scene for scale-up as the digital version of The Picnic Basket could travel to more schools across the three countries and hopefully, outside of these countries as well.• An added benefit of changing parts of the program to an online version for WWF-Greece and WWF-Romania was that it aided the work of measuring impact including some impressive results:• 92% improvement in dietary habits, including a 23% increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetable snacks and 18% in the consumption of homemade snacks (Romania)• 20% increase in fruit and vegetable snack consumption and a 15% reduction in food waste (Greece)• Up to 100% of teachers were happy to recommend the tool to fellow teachers and planned to implement it in the following school year (both).The COVID pandemic provided an opportunity to learn about the importance of testing assumptions e.g., it was never considered that schools could be closed. Design thinking helps work through these assumptions and incorporate helpful steps to improve the design.• Based on the success of the innovation project there are plans to scale up the work with more schools, more students, and more families within each country, and hopefully in more countries across the WWF Network.• There are plans to further invest in the digital version of The Picnic Basket as a simple and fast way to expand the work within schools with tools that are already available.Public-Private PartnershipsChecklist:The projectThe Picnic Basket is a tool to teach children aged 5-11 about sustainable food systems, sustainable diets, and food waste. It adopts a mix of experimental learning, play, and cooking as ways to switch snacking habits towards more sustainable choices and deepen the engagement of students, teachers, and parents on these issues. The program includes teaching materials for the classroom in the form of a real picnic basket filled with games and learning resources to teach sustainable eating habits, promote homemade food and eliminate food waste.Unsustainable food production is a primary contributor to biodiversity loss and a major driver of climate change yet one-third of food produced goes to waste. Further, poor dietary habits are on the rise. The best moment to shape an individual's taste for sustainable and healthy food and introduce behaviors to prevent food waste is in early childhood.• Education programs on the importance of eating sustainable diets and reducing food waste that target early years have the best chance of behavior change.• Promoting sustainable diets and reducing food waste helps delivers biodiversity conservation goals.• Adaptable project planning can reap rewards -going digital in response to COVID restrictions led to better measurements of outcomes in two of the project countries and expanded access to the educational materials.A sample of the Picnic Basket by WWF.practice eco-friendly habits. 544.3 Naturbeteskött -The Meat Label Helping to Restore Sweden's Semi-Natural Grasslands Takeaways• Restoring and managing semi-natural grasslands including their use for grazing is an environmentally friendly way to produce dairy and meat that also increases wild biodiversity.• Certification schemes that show the green credentials of food products including meat and dairy help guide consumers who are increasingly guided by environmental concerns when making purchasing decisions.• Farmer incentives such as grants, capacity building and access to markets including through public-private partnerships are critical to support transition in food production systems as are enabling policies like the Common Agriculture Policy and the Strategic Plan which support management of semi-wild grasslands and investments in animal housing.In 1989 WWF Sweden started setting up semi-natural pasture projects in several locations to safeguard resting places for migratory birds and to protect local biodiversity. Grazed natural pastures in Sweden have a high biodiversity of plants, insects, and birds -on average 40 species per square meter. This work led to the realization that reintroducing traditional pastoral systems could present an opportunity to restore the grasslands and produce high-quality meat products with green credentials resulting in Naturbeteskött (natural pasture meat), a national label to help consumers who make eco-purchasing decisions when it comes to their food.In Sweden, as in many other places around the world, seminatural grasslands have declined by more than 95%. One of the main drivers is a shift from traditional pastoral systems for milk and cattle production to intensive feeding and indoor rearing. This means the grasslands are no longer grazed resulting in the encroachment of bushes and trees and a loss of biodiversity. As semi-natural grasslands are one of the most environmentally friendly ways to produce meat, the idea of producing beef and lamb on extensive high conservation value grasslands is supported by both politicians and environmental agencies.• WWF worked with beef and dairy producers to form farmer groups in different parts of Sweden and supported the transition to using grazing in their production systems, for example, through grants for fencing, financial support to restore grazing lands, and working with landowners to release land for grazing.The project developed a third-party quality assurance certification -Naturbeteskött 2 -for grass-fed meat. The scheme was launched in 2008 and got a significant number of farmers interested in joining the scheme, as well as helping them to find markets for their certified meat and milk including through a national partnership with Coop Sweden.• Early producers of Naturbeteskött, together with WWF, spent considerable time working with chefs and food journalists to build recognition of the brand as a premium product.Checklist:In Sweden, semi-natural grasslands have declined by more than 95%.Organization:A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES A GLOBAL COLLECTION OF GOOD PRACTICE CASES 57 56• Business Sector: Working closely with the Indonesia Business Council for Sustainable Development, the project worked with the private sector to develop sustainable procurement guidelines and encouraged companies to incorporate sustainability principles into their strategic plans and operations.• Consumers: The project was built upon WWF Indonesia's consumer campaign Beli Yang Baik (Buy what's Good) to convey the concept of sustainable palm oil consumption to the Indonesian public. Domestic consumers account for 30% of the oil produced, mostly for cooking (60%). Cooperation with civil society organizations including the Earth Hour community and the Indonesian Organic community increased the campaign's reach while media trips helped to raise awareness of the negative consequences of conventional palm oil production.• Policymakers: To advance progress toward Indonesia's climate targets, the project provided support to policymakers by developing strategies to reduce GHG emissions in the palm oil sector including mitigation measures for the agricultural sector developed with the participation of the government, the private sector, scientific institutions, and civil society organizations• Engaging all stakeholders from governments to indigenous people is essential to minimize tradeoffs between economic growth and the destruction of uniquely biodiverse natural ecosystems and the services they provide to people, like clean water, carbon sequestration and CO2 emission reduction.• Targeting consumers as well as producers with campaigns about the importance of purchasing sustainably produced products such as palm oil is critical to create change through consumer demand, particularly when it comes to targeting domestic consumers who can closely relate to local impacts.• While palm oil production does generate jobs, these are frequently precarious and tainted by exploitation, which keeps prices low. Sustainability standards need to include labor and human rights provisions as well as environmental ones which requires engagement with many stakeholders from local communities including Indigenous Peoples to the private sector.Highlight: Multi-stakeholder Engagement for UptakeFor successful integration of sustainable consumption and production principles into business practices, policies and consumer choices, the project showed the vital role that bringing together and communicating with different stakeholders can bring including:• Engaging businesses in high-level meetings facilitated collaboration between retailers and brand owners that led to commitments between SuperIndo -one of the largest supermarket chains in Indonesia -and the Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil Producers (RSPO) resulting in the introduction of sustainable palm oil products. Sustainable Sourcing Guidelines were also published through the project and adopted by a range of sectors from food retailers to the hospitality industry.• Targeting consumers through a range of channels including through radio shows, cooking demonstrations, ecomarkets and movie screenings. Consumer power is an important driver of change and can help overcome resistance to align development policies to SDGs and climate targets.• Working with community partners to assess their capacity, commitment, and readiness to implement projectrelated activities including through a Memorandum of Understanding signed in 2019 between WWF-Indonesia and the Government of West Java Province to increase public awareness on sustainable palm oil by collaborating with community organizations.The project is supported by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection (BMUV) of Germany.Checklist:Community InclusionThe project Indonesia has seen exponential economic growth in the last decade which has cut the poverty rate in half, to just under 10%. Government policies to develop infrastructure, improve logistical efficiency and promote exports have led to an unprecedented expansion of the agriculture and food sector, in particular, the cultivation of high-yielding palm which is produced for its oil. Indonesia has become the world's largest exporter of palm oil, a product used in a vast array of products from chocolate to detergent to diesel fuel. This project worked to minimize tradeoffs between economic growth and the loss of uniquely biodiverse ecosystems and the services they provide by taking a three-pronged approach to integrating sustainable consumption and production principles into business practices, government policies, and consumer choices.Indonesia has the third largest tropical rainforest on the planet (94.1 million hectares), as well as the largest tropical peatlands (14.9 million hectares) and vast tracts of mangrove forests (3.31 million hectares). These natural resources store enormous amounts of carbon. The boom in palm oil has come at an incredible cost to nature, through the conversion of immense extensions of tropical forest and peatland in one of the world's most unique biodiversity hotspots, with land clearing and burning frequently accounting for most of the country's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions -almost 80% in 2015. In addition, while the economic benefits from palm oil have contributed to rural poverty alleviation, jobs generated have been characterized by precariousness and exploitation and land conflicts with regular reports of local communities and indigenous peoples.4.5 Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition in Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey• Biodiversity for food and nutrition is an often-overlooked link between agriculture and health, with indigenous species ranging from Brazilian vitamin-rich fruits to African leafy vegetables representing a valuable resource to reduce malnutrition and improve livelihoods.• Public procurement schemes that incentivize production of a diverse range of foods, for example, through school feeding programs, are critical to diversify production systems.• Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition has helped generate changes in behaviors and attitudes within a range of partner ministries and federal institutions of the project by working in close collaboration with them, for example, inviting representatives of strategic policy programs to be part of national steering and executing committees.The Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition project (BFN) was a multi-country initiative aimed at strengthening the conservation and sustainable management of agricultural biodiversity in four megadiverse countries -Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey. The initiative used a three-pronged approach to i) increase evidence of the nutritional value and cultural importance of local underutilized nutritious foods, ii) better link research to policy to ensure diverse foods are considered in national food and nutrition security strategies and actions, and iii) improve consumer awareness on the benefits of these alternative foods to encourage their incorporation in diets, food systems, and markets.• Evidence: Nutrition and food composition data were collected for 195 species, contributing to national food composition tables and the FAO/In Foods Database. Publications and online databases along with recipes and traditional knowledge are accessible to a wider audience. Collaboration with over 50 national universities and agencies established for data collection across the four countries, leading to the generation of new food composition data and the update of national food composition tables and databases. Four communities in Kenya, 121 villages in Turkey, quilombola communities in the Centre-West region of Brazil, and communities at the three pilot sites in Sri Lanka provided information used to document traditional knowledge associated with the target species.• Policy: BFN led the revision of Brazil's National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), engaging 400 participants from institutions across the business, environment, academia, federal and state government sectors as well as indigenous peoples and traditional communities and included the conservation of biodiversity for food and nutrition as an indicator of biodiversity health in the national revisions to the NBSAP 2020-2021. In addition, BFN supported the formulation of key policies including two Biodiversity Ordinances in Brazil and the first-ever Biodiversity Conservation Policy in Kenya.The project increased the value given to biodiversity by consumers and producers while expanding market capacity. Examples include a farm-to-school direct procurement model, Sri Lankan-women-led traditional food businesses, farmer business school, gastronomy events such as the Wild Herb Festival in Turkey, cooking workshops, nutritionist training, educational and green job training initiatives, recipe books, and an online course, and a toolkit, to help mainstream biodiversity for food and nutrition.Agricultural biodiversity is important for food and nutritional security, as safety against hunger, a source of nutrients for improved dietary diversity and quality and strengthening local food systems and environmental sustainability. Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey are among the world's most mega-diverse countries thanks to the extraordinary diversity of ecosystems and species existing within their borders. They each contain unique biological diversity and have associated traditional ecological knowledge that supports a large proportion of the world's food supply in a range of ecosystems that are global priorities for conservation. Due to the fact that the biodiversity in these four participating countries is so vast, the use of these indigenous, largely plant, genetic resources is still scarcely explored, appreciated, or conserved.Highlight: Enabling Policies to Mainstream Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition• Evidence: Food composition data of 78 underutilized species added to the national database; 12 MSc dissertations and 3 PhD thesis dissertations published in collaboration with federal universities.• Awareness: Gastronomic events featured celebrity chefs using native crops, indigenous species featured on school textbook covers, mainstreaming biodiversity for food and nutrition online course. Checklist:Display of bananas and plantains.In Africa, bananas are a major staple and livelihood crop. The daily consumption of cooking bananas in Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda -plantains and East African Highland bananas -can reach as many as 11 bananas in a day per person, while in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) they are consumed up to four times in a week. As the banana is eaten in such large quantities, introducing varieties that naturally have a higher content of provitamin A carotenoids -plant pigments that the body converts into vitamin A -is a way to tackle the deficiency that is so widespread in the region. For some banana varieties, particularly orange fleshed varieties, eating just two a day can meet 100% of the daily recommended intake for children under five. To this end, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT has been fast-tracking vitamin-A-rich banana varieties for over a decade and integrating them into rural communities' farming systems and diets.• The first step was to screen more than 400 varieties to identify those with high levels of carotenoids. Bananas are notoriously difficult and expensive to breed, so 'fast-tracking' existing vitamin-A-rich varieties for testing in this way offers savings of both time and money.• A shortlist of 15 banana varieties from Ghana, Papua New Guinea, and the Philippines, were evaluated in different growing environments in Burundi and Eastern DRC for agroecological performance such as yield, taste, and texture.For communities to adopt the introduced varieties, they must grow under local conditions, work well in a range of traditional recipes, and appeal to children.• Evaluations were accompanied by awareness creation activities on the importance of vitamin A in diets for healthy development and capacity building, for example, cooking demonstrations. These kinds of activities stimulate consumer demand which increases adoption and market demand which gives added incentives for farmers to cultivate the introduced varieties. Key message booklets and factsheets have been co-developed to ensure they are community friendly, translated into local languages, and disseminated through partners.• 12,000 farmer households have been reached so far with information on the sustainable use of vitamin-A-rich banana varieties and approximately 20,000 plantlets of five varieties selected from the evaluation trials have been distributed.In addition, farmers are sharing the bananas and planting materials within their communities.• Next steps include studies to establish the bio-efficacy of provitamin A carotenoids and their contribution to vitamin A body stores following regular consumption of diets based on the bananas selected and used in the project. Results from this study will fill the final piece of the puzzle and enhance efforts toward scaling adoption of the vitamin-A-rich bananas.The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) and the World Health Organization have identified vitamin A deficiency as a major public health problem in many developing countries. It increases the risk of disease and death from severe infections in children, contributes to poor pregnancy outcomes among women, and is the leading cause of preventable blindness in children. The prevalence of vitamin A deficiency in East Africa is around 35% despite efforts towards supplementation and biofortification and around 40% of children are affected.is the bananas found in most Western supermarkets.Organization:3 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services | IPBES secretariatTargets: 2, 4, 9, 10, 13, 16,The IPBES Global Assessment Report 3 released in 2019 and presented to the Convention on Biological Diversity generated international headlines on the potential loss of one million species by 2050. These species include the thousands of plant, animal, and fish species as well as the varieties, breeds, and strains found within those species, and those that contribute to ecosystem health, upon which our food systems depend.Conserving agrobiodiversity is critical to give people the options they need to adapt to climate change, fill nutrient gaps, and be resilient to emerging pests and diseases. As well as conserving the genetic diversity that underpins our food systems whether in genebanks, on farms or in the wild, it is critical also to conserve the traditional knowledge about its uses and cultivation methods. Integrating wild and agricultural biodiversity conservation strategies can also be an effective approach although the two agendas often remain separate despite having similar goals.Colours and shapes show the great diversity of local products. La Cocha, Colombia Northern Andes Ecoregion.Central Asia is the center of origin and domestication for many temperate fruit and nut species of global significance. Its mountain slopes are home to selected varieties and wild species of, apple, apricot, grape, peach, pear, pistachio, plum, pomegranate, walnuts, and others. These locally developed traditional varieties are adapted to local environments, increasing both resilience in agroecosystems and farmers' livelihoods. The project -In Situ/On-Farm Conservation and Use of Agricultural Biodiversity (Horticultural Crops and Wild Species) in Central Asia -targeted horticultural crops and wild fruit species for sustainable development, food security, and environmental resilience in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.• Hundreds of native fruit and nut tree species and their genetic traits developed over millennia are now safely conserved in farmers' orchards in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan and being used to generate livelihood benefits. These nutritious and resilient species are also beneficial to ecosystem health including carbon sequestration and nutrient recycling.• The regional approach taken working with the countries to tackle shared problems in transboundary ecosystems has proved effective and efficient, improving cooperation and reducing duplication of effort. Moreover, farmers, research institutes, and local communities were equipped with capacity and skills to conserve in situ/on-farm horticultural crops and wild fruit species in Central Asia.• Tree nurseries, inspired by the project, have distributed hundreds of thousands of saplings across the region, improving livelihoods, increasing food availability and helping to restore degraded environments.• A wide range of stakeholders was brought together from different countries to approach the challenge from a regional perspective that considered the transboundary nature of the ecosystems, habitats, and the globally significant species and their wild relatives in their center of origin and diversity. This included the creation of a regional steering committee to ensure that agreed common purposes, activities, and outcomes were followed and to provide necessary governance of the project at national and regional levels, for example, regular monitoring and reporting to the regional level.The project leveraged its regional scope to ensure that farmers from different countries had the opportunity to exchange insights on different aspects of the cultivation and processing of fruits and nuts. For example, in Uzbekistan, farmers were introduced to a new technology for planting pistachio trees with a covered root system that extends the planting season for two months.• Through consultation with a wide range of stakeholders including scientists, policymakers, farmers, foresters, and users of forest products, a shortlist of 12 endemic perennial priority fruit and nut tree species was created -almond, apple, apricot, cherry plum, currants, fig, mulberries, peach, pear, pistachio, pomegranate, sea buckthorn, and walnutto allow in-depth work on their conservation and sustainable use. Farmers' associations were promoted to maintain local varieties of horticulture crops and wild fruit species.Wild apricot sampling process in Chichkan gorge, Kyrgyzstan.• National project teams prepared and delivered training programs on a wide range of agricultural biodiversity conservation topics for researchers and educators, farmers, managers of protected areas, and policymakers. At each target site, the teams worked closely with local leaders among farmers and forest users to build capacity in using biodiversity for food production and to supply planting material. Farmers also worked in collaboration with researchers on diversity assessments of local varieties of fruit and nut trees. A critical aspect was to connect farmers' conservation strategies with extension services to increase the benefits of managing biodiversity to improve the welfare of rural populations.• An educational campaign raised awareness among farmers, policymakers, the media, and the general public about the value of indigenous fruit and nut-bearing tree diversity.These species remain economically and socially significant in the region providing the current population with a consistent supply of valuable foods and income, especially in unirrigated and drier areas, and supporting soil stabilizing through their root systems, among other environmental functions. Each country derives direct benefits from these species and because of the nature of the transboundary ecosystems, they also benefit from coordinated approaches to sustain the diversity of the species and their habitats. Estimates suggest that globally 80% of the seeds on which smallholder farmers in developing countries depend are self-produced and obtained through local channels of distribution and exchange. This high level of farmer seed autonomy masks the fact that almost everywhere local seed systems are under stress. Agricultural intensification, commoditization, privatization of natural resources, and the expansion of corporate power in the life science industries (including the seed industry) are among the forces impacting smallholder agriculture. Large-scale rural-to-urban migration is contributing to a decline in farming in many countries or transforming small-scale family farming into contract farming. These trends are affecting seed conservation, production, selection, storage, distribution, and exchange. Although in many areas farmers continue to maintain a diversity of crops and crop varieties, significant reductions, in terms of numbers as well as area sown or planted, are occurring.• The number of community seedbanks is increasing around the world; they are taking on multiple functions, such as conserving, restoring, revitalizing, strengthening, adding value to and improving local seed systems. Women play key roles in community seed banking.• Community seedbanks conserve large numbers of diverse local crop varieties, including major and minor food crops, and neglected and underutilized crop species. They complement the conservation efforts of the national genebanks, although not always receiving the recognition and support they deserve.• Community seedbanks can be strong partners in national conservation strategies and systems, but they require more policy, legal, financial, organizational, and technical support. In some countries, community seedbanks have established a formal collaboration agreement with the national genebank to create synergy toward a national conservation system.Conservation 73 demonstration plots/orchards were established in all five partner countries where 436 traditional varieties of fruit and 117 genotypes of wild nut tree crops are maintained in situ and on farm. 59 tree nurseries have also been established to improve farmers' access to diversified germplasm and increase understanding about management practices of local varieties among farmers. These nurseries supply 1.5 million saplings of local fruit crop varieties and 100,000 saplings of wild fruit and nut species annually.National rosters of local varieties of fruit, nut-bearing tree crop and grapevine varieties were developed that include information on the genetic diversity and the farmers (diversity custodians) who maintain it on their farms. The national roster in Uzbekistan includes information on 185 custodians who maintain 433 local varieties, in Tajikistan -118 custodians who maintain 219 varieties, in Turkmenistan, 97 farmers who grow 142 local varieties in their orchards, in Kyrgyzstan -47 custodians maintain 136 varieties. Checklist:Capacity developmentCommunity seedbanks:• Have multiple seed system functions including conservation, providing access and availability, sharing seeds and related knowledge, adding value, and establishing linkages with other seed system actors.• Contribute to the adaptive capacity of farmers and communities (in particular concerning climate change), through several strategies: conserving a portfolio of diverse seeds of crops and crop varieties; conserving seeds from plants that have a high capacity to survive under extreme weather conditions; restoration of 'lost' varieties with particular good adaptation potential; accessing novel diversity not conserved locally, and accessing seeds from areas where plants have adapted to extreme weather conditions. Bridging traditional knowledge with modern science to strengthen technical and organizational aspects, e.g., through the use of locally available botanical repellents (to keep away infectants), airtight containers (to store seeds), zeolite beads (to dry seeds), and seed registers (to track seed flows in and out of the community seedbank).• Add value to the conservation function through participatory crop improvement, e.g., evaluating varieties for their adaptive capacity and/or nutritional values; seed production and marketing of good performing varieties and/or varieties with high market demand; and the provision of educational services, e.g., training of other farmers interested to establish a community seedbank.The project 'Empowering Conservation Stewards in Grasslands' is a WWF project in South Africa to incentivize and reward communities for sustainably managing the grasslands that cover nearly a third of the country. Grasslands have a critical role in providing water security and supporting the livelihoods and food security of rural communities including through resilience to climate change. They also support the habitats and connectivity of many wild plant, animal, and aquatic species. Since 2015, WWF has worked with rural communities and commercial farmers in the grasslands to ensure the communities benefit from the outcomes of the landscapes that they sustainably manage through the adoption of voluntary agreements.The rich biodiversity in the grasslands and the continued provision of ecosystem services that they provide to people are under pressure from large-scale agriculture, mining, invasive species, poor fire management, and overgrazing for livestock. Two of the 80 vegetation types found here are classified as critically endangered, 18 as endangered, and 27 as vulnerable, while 83% of its river ecosystems are ranked as threatened or critically endangered. Despite their critical role in supporting biodiversity and rural populations, only 4% of grasslands are protected.• Empowering communities through incentives to sustainably manage land can result in the effective conservation of the natural resources used by the communities who in turn benefit from ecosystem health and the services it provides.• Voluntary agreements drawn up between a range of stakeholders protect the interests of the community and landowner stewards.• Government support and enabling policies including the National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act recognize the role that communities play in managing protected areas and the biodiversity it contains and ensure local communities maintain access to their lands through private protected area management.• Voluntary agreements have been drawn up that empower the local communities who manage the lands to benefit from doing so, for example through land management plans that ensure sustainable livestock production, economic growth, and biodiversity stewardship. These plans have been developed in collaboration with the communities and other key local stakeholders including the South African National Parks and Provincial Conservation Agencies.• Capacity-building with local landowners and farmers is ensuring efficient land management which is supported by expanded grassland protection schemes and investments in restoration.•The project has placed community engagement at the heart of its strategy working in 13 focal community sites, representing 11,500 people, and catalyzing over 200,00 ha of land under stewardship. One of the community stewardship projects, the Mgundeni, is recognized as the only successful land reform and livestock initiative by the district municipality.Checklist: • Through the project, farms in the two reserves have been characterized to map and identify crop and livestock diversity, main agroecological conditions, and social issues. Data on biodiversity, including wild species and cultivated varieties, agricultural practices, environmental quality, and socio-economic and socio-cultural aspects were collected using different tools including questionnaires and soil biodiversity indexes.• Marketing campaigns have helped to build public awareness around the biological and bio-cultural values of Cuban Biosphere Reserves at national and international levels. They have also served to improve markets for Man and Biosphere farmers and create opportunities and conditions for public and private investments in agro-tourism and ecotourism that support the protected areas in Cuba.• There is potential to better integrate and align efforts and activities to achieve outcomes for both agricultural and wild biodiversity, yet most agricultural and wild conservation strategies continue to be pursued separately. By bringing together different sectors, the project is tapping into the expertise of usually separated fields, to work towards strengthening the resilience and food security of these socio-ecological landscapes.• Mainstreaming conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity, that builds on traditional knowledge and cultural values, into the protected area management system can provide resilient and innovative resources for society contributing to the sustainability of the protected areas and the livelihoods of the communities.• Farming that is carried out in and around protected areas is often embedded into agroforestry systems where different wild and cultivated species co-exist and relies on traditional practices that help sustain ecosystem health and biodiversity.The objective of this initiative was to increase agricultural biodiversity in the buffer and transition zones of the Sierra del Rosario and Cuchillas del Toa in the UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Reserve of Cuba. The Man and Biosphere Programme is an intergovernmental scientific program to enhance the relationship between people and their environment including through the creation of diversified and sustainable agricultural production systems that build on traditional knowledge and bio-cultural values, and foster community and stakeholder participation. The project focused on integrating wild and agricultural biodiversity conservation and sustainable use strategies in these areas; improving the management of the Cuban MAB Reserve system through enhanced leadership and decision-making capacity of all relevant stakeholders; and improving the livelihoods of those communities living in and around the project site through benefit-sharing mechanisms that support sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity.• Many of the farming management practices used are biodiversity-friendly, for example, fences made of vegetation, fruit trees to shade vegetable crops, intercropping systems as well as the use of natural compost. The project has promoted recognition of the value of such farming systems within the reserve as a means of food, knowledge, and cultural heritage, and agrobiodiversity conservation is now included in conservation strategies in the reserves.• Several farmer-based seedbanks have been created in the two reserves with the technical support of the project. Farmers voluntarily accepted to act as custodians of specific crops and varieties (landraces) by conserving seeds or planting material on their farms and exchanging them with other neighboring farmers in case of need or simply because they want to try different crops and varieties.• A set of indicators developed through the project to measure the socio-ecological resilience of the farms in the face of climate change and enhance resilience using participatory practices has garnered much interest among NGOs, research institutes, and development agencies around the world as a useful tool for participatory landscape resilience assessments. The indicators were developed as part of an earlier project within the framework of the Satoyama Initiative, but Cuba was the first country where they were tested.Some of the richest, most beautiful, and most diverse agricultural landscapes can be found in UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Reserves around the world. Yet, while biodiversity conservation has always been a fundamental tenet in the management of these reserves, the protection of agricultural landscapes has largely been neglected. The result is a continuing tension between conservationists and agricultural communities living in protected areas. An innovative and flexible approach to nature conservation is needed that bridges the objectives of ecosystem and agrobiodiversity conservation, improves the well-being of agricultural communities, and contributes to food sovereignty.• A new inventory of plants species and their uses found in the two reserves has been created and it amounts to 732. The different farm types found in the two reserves were also characterized and crop distribution is available for 171 farms in the two areas.• 33 farm-based community seedbanks have been established in the two reserves and 50 different crop species (perennial and annual) have been re-introduced and have benefited multiple families. The creation of new selling points along the road in the two reserves has represented an opportunity for farmers to sell all those products that are not contracted with the state and that usually are wasted on farm because not commercialized or processed • Biodiversity fairs were promoted as a tool for raising public awareness of the value of conserving local fruit landraces. In all the project communities throughout the four countries, fruit diversity fairs were organized at local to national levels. During a fair, farmers from different communities are brought together to exhibit a range of landraces; this continues the traditional system of exchange of seeds and knowledge and local products made from the fruits. This has been a great participatory social learning tool for various objectives by a range of organizations.• Farmers across South and Southeast Asia have a wealth of knowledge and skill developed over millennia for cultivating different species and varieties of fruit trees which needs to be conserved and used, along with the vast array of genetic diversity.• Integrating traditional knowledge into formal conservation efforts undertaken by national agencies can bring tangible benefits to farmers.• Community engagement revealed that for fruit tree conservation efforts to succeed and be sustainable it was important that participation not be limited to farmers, but also include private nurseries, local banks, financing agencies and schools.South and Southeast Asia are the centers of origin and diversity of many globally important tropical fruit tree species from citrus, to mango, papaya, and rambutan, and their wild relatives. India alone is home to over 1,000 varieties of mango. This project aimed to improve the conservation and use of this rich tropical fruit tree genetic diversity by strengthening the capacity of farmers, local communities, and institutions to implement community-based management of local fruit tree diversity in home gardens and orchards, and to enhance the in-situ conservation of their wild relatives in forests. It also worked to establish a platform that integrates farmers' traditional knowledge and skills with scientific knowledge and formal conservation efforts undertaken by national agencies.• The project integrates traditional knowledge and practices into local farming and social systems. Community genetic diversity assessments revealed that farmers maintain rich tropical fruit tree diversity including a significant number of cultivars that have little commercial value but are important for home and local consumption. Traditional knowledge related to the cultivation of diverse tropical fruit tree species and varieties was also documented.• Participatory methods and on-farm and in situ conservation approaches were introduced as a completely new field of work for all partners. Frontline researchers and community organizers were trained with appropriate traditional knowledge documentation, participatory approaches, CBM methodology, diversity assessments, baseline survey methods, markets for diversity, etc., to equip partners to work with communities in developing action plans that reflect local needs. Capacity building of national and local educational institutes was carried out to train staff, in participatory assessment, conservation, valuation, and enhanced use of tropical fruit tree resources.• Community-based organizations like farmer organizations, women's groups, or self-help groups were established or strengthened for the implementation of local action plans. Stakeholders were involved through established Multidisciplinary Site Teams who regularly met and were involved in the implementation of activities to share knowledge and skill and promote local innovation built upon traditional knowledge and practices.The genetic diversity of tropical fruit trees in Asia is increasingly threatened. Threats facing cultivated species are the specialization of production systems in a few varieties, land-use changes, and climate change. Habitat loss is the primary threat facing wild relatives. Ex situ conservation of genetic diversity is difficult because tropical fruits generally possess recalcitrant seeds that cannot be stored in conventional genebanks. In-situ or on-farm conservation is considered to be a viable low-cost option; however, many national partners do not understand it adequately and experience difficulties with implementation strategies at the community level. The value of the farmer's contribution to in situ conservation is not well appreciated as much of the conservation investment in terms of human resources and operational funds are limited to ex situ conservation. •The project has reached out to 14,345 households through a wide range of development activities and training workshops across the four countries and worked intensively with 1,900 households across the project communities.The project assisted cooperatives and farmer associations and established or strengthened self-help groups, mainly in India through a collaboration with a local NGO (Dhan Foundation) targeting in particular women and poorer households involved in growing or collecting fruits. In total 53 nurseries have been established.• Farmers have learned grafting techniques and over 77,000 saplings of 87 selected elite materials (best performing trees of a species or variety) were distributed across the project sites. These were documented in 27 fruit catalogues including photos of trees, fruits, and leaves and a description of their uses, characteristics and current availability, including the names and photos of their owners.• 61 diversity fairs were organized over a period of 5 years, from small but vibrant village fairs to the participation of farmer groups in trade events or fairs in major cities such as the famous 'mango mela' in New Delhi or the Malaysian Agriculture, Horticulture and Agrotourism Show (MAHA) in Kuala Lumpur.• Custodian farmers and their families have been identified, documented with their fruit tree diversity, and involved in key activities of the project such as developing fruit catalogues, identifying elite materials, participating in diversity fairs and training workshops. They also played a key role in identifying, implementating and mainstreaming of good practices and establishing fruit tree diversity gardens in 30 sites.The Peru has some of the world's richest biodiversity and is a center of origin for several priority crops that are of global importance on the one hand, and critical for local rural livelihoods on the other. Over 50% of rural inhabitants live in poverty including the indigenous populations who live in arid Andean highlands where much globally important agrobiodiversity is conserved. Like many other low-income countries, Peru faces the challenge of how to safeguard its valuable genetic diversity maintained by farmers in their fields while meeting those same people's development needs and rights, particularly for genetic diversity that has little market demand or cultural appeal. There is also often a gap between the good intentions of policies to 'share benefits' with traditional and indigenous farmers who conserve ancestral varieties and the actual practice of assuring 'benefits' by responding to farmers' demands with clear mechanisms for self-determination.These two projects set out good practice approaches that recognize and reward the important role of custodian farmers in conserving precious genetic diversity including where there are no market incentives for doing so.Payments for Agrobiodiversity Conservation Services in Peru (PACS)• Agricultural biodiversity is the basis of human survival and well-being -safeguarding it is crucial to providing future food growing options for us all. But its conservation is often carried out by smallholder farmers who receive little recognition or compensation for carrying out what is essentially a service for the public good.• Empowering the communities to identify their own rewards in PACS tenders, an important form of participatory justice, is an essential part of making the incentive scheme work.• Strong support from the Ministry of Environment in Peru, combined with the interest and knowledge of the farmers on quinoa diversity, as well as support through regional governments have all contributed to the success of the project.'Payments for Agrobiodiversity Conservation Services (PACS)' recognizes and rewards the role that custodian farmers play in conserving crop varieties of global importance on their farms in particular those that have no economic value. PACs schemes involve landscape-wide competitive tenders where communities are invited to submit proposals to conserve a priority portfolio of crop species and varieties that are at risk of being lost and to name their conditions for doing so -the 'payment' which is usually in the form of in-kind rewards such as community equipment. The scheme has been successfully trialed in Peru on quinoa varieties where the Ministry of the Environment has recognized its complementary role to ensure the conservation of its genetic base against market development activities. • Tools are needed that can gather data to show clear evidence of the impact of conservation initiatives by the private sector -businesses need data and information about the efficacy of their corporate social environmental initiatives and co-investors wants proof of the biodiversity return on their investments.• The need for review and monitoring mechanisms was a key lesson from the UNEP-WCMC report on Aichi Target Assessments. The integrated assessment of data provided by TerraBio helps determine if private sector environmental targets are being achieved, and how they affect land use and biodiversity conservation over time.TerraBio is a geospatial and biodiversity methodological framework developed by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT to support environmental monitoring as part of the Amazon Biodiversity Fund (ABF). It links in situ biodiversity data with annual maps of habitat conditions to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of private-sector food production, forest-based extraction interventions, and restoration activities. These include the adoption of silvopastoral systems -an agroecological approach that uses a mix of trees, livestock, and pastures -on biodiversity conservation. The project is being carried out through Catalyzing and Learning through Private Sector Engagement (CAL-PSE), a program for biodiversity conservation in the Brazilian Amazon.The Amazon is Earth's single largest tropical forest and biodiversity hotspot providing 20% of the earth's oxygen and 16% of its freshwater. It also directly supports more than 30 million people contributing to an estimated 70% of South America's GDP. According to the Living Planet Index, the region is the worst performing in terms of biodiversity loss with an estimated 94% of species decline from 1970 to 2016. In Brazil, land cover change, as well as illegal extractive activities like mining, are putting the forest at risk along with the global and local ecosystem services it provides. Businesses operating in the Amazon have extensive influence on decisions around the use of natural resources, thus through greater accountability and transparency, they could have a pivotal role in transforming food systems and value chains to be more sustainable. Greater accountability is particularly important for those that impact land cover change such as agriculture and extractive industries.• Given that traditional forests and biodiversity monitoring approaches across geographies tend to be expensive, timeconsuming, and difficult to standardize, TerraBio is being developed and applied to integrate state-of-the-art land use mapping technologies with innovative biodiversity data collection methodologies. The remote-sensing system can detect forest loss, forest degradation, and the regeneration of vegetation through the implementation of sustainable practices.• The mapping component is complemented by the collection of on-site soil samples for DNA analysis to inventory the community of species present in different land cover and land use areas.The integrated assessment of this data helps determine if private sector environmental targets are being achieved, and how they improve (or not) land use and biodiversity conservation over time.• A pilot application of TerraBio was conducted in 2021 in an area of 40,000 km2 to evaluate the implementation of shaded cocoa plots in pasture-dominated landscapes. The pilot provided many lessons to improve TerraBio's methodology, and we also learned about the presence of over 50 different insect taxonomic groups in shaded cocoa plots that included important pollinator species such as butterflies and bees.• In 2022, TerraBio was used in two business deals within the impact investment fund. Analysis is underway to report back to the fund and investors on environmental indicator baselines and monitoring will continue over time as well as incoming ones to assess their actual impact and generate the evidence required to promote sustainable practices and economic development in the Brazilian Amazon.","tokenCount":"19652"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b5cf99b1c77ce628cc7c95a2fae3d7b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5b68c6e-b291-4151-99a7-04aaab439b02/retrieve","id":"-1308690154"},"keywords":["WEFE nexus","trade-offs among ES","policy uptake of NbS","Valle del Cauca","ES valuation","forests ES"],"sieverID":"f6cfb8f8-625d-49e1-9ff6-37b52b537dc1","pagecount":"17","content":"Forests play a crucial role in providing ecosystem services (ESs), critical for maintaining ecological balance and supporting human well-being through a wide range of functions. These include regulating services like carbon sequestration, habitat quality and biodiversity conservation, water regulation and soil preservation [1][2][3][4][5]. These ecosystems are integral to sustainable land use planning and decision-making due to their multifunctional role in providing critical ES and socio-economic benefits [6]. However, rapid land use changes driven by agricultural expansion, urbanization, and industrial activities-among other drivers-have significantly altered forests, leading to the degradation of these vital ecosystems and the services they provide [7]. Therefore, integrating measures to cope with these drivers along with forest management into land use planning is critical for achieving sustainable development goals and ensuring the balanced allocation of resources [8]. Forest loss and degradation are not evenly distributed across global regions. While Europe and Asia have gained forest cover during the last 10 years (0.3 and 1.2 million hectares (Mha)/year respectively), deforestation has happened mainly in the tropical regions in the global south, with net losses in Africa and South America of 3.9 and 2.6 Mha/year, respectively, between 2010 and 2020 [9]. One of the reasons forest loss continues in these regions is the different trade-offs that occur when promoting forest cover [10]. While some ESs of public nature, mainly regulating ones, might be enhanced (e.g., water quality, carbon sequestration, habitat for wild species), forest expansion can come with an opportunity cost by limiting other potentially profitable land uses and the enhancement of certain provisioning services, mostly of a private nature, such as agricultural food production [11]. This trade-off situation is particularly visible in Latin America, where forest loss trends continue [12]. Between 2000 and 2018, 68 Mha of net forest loss were registered in South America, primarily affecting tropical rainforests, which accounted for 40% of global forest loss during this period [13]. While having some of the most biodiverse forest ecosystems globally, the region also presents vast pressures on these resources driven by economic development targets and food and energy security agendas. Given its socio-economic context, the region must promote sustainable development and economic growth [14].The continuous forest loss and degradation dynamics have increased the recognition of the need to implement sustainable land management practices to preserve and enhance forests and their ES. To promote such needed sustainable land management practices, nature-based solutions (NbSs) have emerged as a promising approach, as they are \"actions to protect, conserve, restore, sustainably use and manage natural or modified terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems, which address social, economic and environmental challenges effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being, ecosystem services and resilience and biodiversity benefits\" [15]. Thus, NbSs should leverage natural processes to address environmental challenges while providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits [16]. Forest-related NbSs include reforestation, afforestation, sustainable forest management, and agroforestry systems [17].NbSs can be framed within the Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystems (WEFE) nexus concept that, in recent years, has gained traction as a holistic framework for understanding the interconnections-either in terms of synergies or trade-offs-between these critical sectors [18]. The WEFE nexus highlights how water security is intrinsically linked to energy and food security and how ecosystem degradation can have far-reaching implications across these domains [19,20]. This concept is especially crucial for regions facing complex trade-offs between security agendas [21].Despite the growing recognition of NbSs and the WEFE nexus and agreement about their potential interlinkages (e.g., [22,23]), there remains a significant research gap in understanding the positive and negative impacts that land use changes pushing for forest-related NbSs create. While advocacy increases for NbS, such as reforestation and afforestation, due to their capacity to sequester carbon and improve water-related ES, more research is needed into the unintended trade-offs that might arise, e.g., between provisioning and regulating services supply. Such research is necessary so that NbS strategies not only achieve climate and environmental objectives, but also support socioeconomic needs [24]. This research gap has become more pronounced in the Latin American region and other developing countries, where research lags behind and remains fragmented [25]. Specifically, there is a need to assess the costs and benefits these changes generate from multiple perspectives. Furthermore, it is essential to advance the practical application of ES valuation methodologies that inform decision-making linked to policy contexts, such as the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and climate change policies, to help direct funding for biodiversity conservation [26].This study contributes to address these knowledge gaps by conducting a biophysical and economic valuation of ESs and comparing business as usual (BAU) and forest-NbS scenarios to identify and assess possible future land use development trajectories. The study was conducted within the context of the EU Horizon2020 REXUS project (Managing REsilient neXUs Systems through participatory systems dynamics modeling; project cofounded by the European Union under the grant No. 101003632), which aimed to provide evidence on the role of NbS in facing WEFE nexus-related challenges in Europe and South America. More specifically, this research focuses on the Nima sub-basin in Colombia, a multipurpose Andean water sub-basin vital for water supply to the water, energy, and agricultural sectors in the municipality of Palmira, supporting 350,000 residents, 13 rural aqueducts and the municipal aqueduct, and two hydropower plants [27][28][29]. The sub-basin faces challenges such as deforestation, water pollution, and increased risks from climate change, necessitating the implementation of NbS. This area was set as a case study since strategic ecosystems for biodiversity conservation and hydrological cycle regulation are inside it, such as mist forests and paramo. In terms of biodiversity, the sub-basin accounts for around 566 species of faunal biodiversity, including birds, herpetofauna, and mammals [30]. Regarding water sources, the Nima River drainage network consists of 272 tributaries, covering approximately 96.65 km, providing drinking water to 13 rural communities and approximately 355,000 inhabitants of the Palmira municipality. Additionally, the area has around 127 springs and three glacial lakes [31].By comparing the BAU scenario with an alternative forest-NbS future scenario, we expect to derive potential gains and losses associated with different land use and management choices. Our research results support and inform future decision-making regarding the implementation of forest-related NbS while contributing to advancing knowledge of using ES valuation as a tool within the WEFE nexus approach to support its practical implementation. This study aligns with the growing body of research on forests as NbSs, and their role in providing multiple ESs and benefits while also considering potential trade-offs in their implementation.The Nima River sub-basin, located in the Valle del Cauca Department in the western part of Colombia, covers 16.702 hectares and includes two main landscape units: a mountainous area upstream and a flat area downstream, with elevations ranging from 1050 to 4100 m above sea level (Figure 1). The climatic characteristics of the sub-basin are determined by an annual rainfall regime ranging from 1600 to 1800 mm [32]. Its hydrology is characterized by 14 tributaries, which provide an average flow of 2 m 3 /s, captured at the intake of the Palmira municipal aqueduct [33].In terms of land use coverage in the sub-basin, the pristine paramo ecosystem and the Andean ecosystems (high mountain ecosystems) occupy 27% of the area and are home to various endemic and endangered species of fauna and flora. The main productive activity upstream is livestock farming, mainly cattle ranching, which accounts for 19% of the land use [34]. Forest plantations (Pinus sp. and Eucalyptus sp.) cover 2% of the area [35], and a mosaic of crops occupies another 3%, consisting mostly of coffee and annual crops (e.g., tomato, cilantro, green beans, onion, corn) [34]. The downstream area is surrounded by an agricultural landscape primarily composed of sugarcane plantations, covering 21% of the area [36].In the mountainous upstream area of the sub-basin, there are designated conservation zones of regional and national importance, such as the Regional Natural Park of the Nima River, the National Natural Protective Forest Reserve of Amaime, and Las Hermosas National Natural Park, where the Nima River originates [37]. In the lower area of the sub-basin, the Nima River flows into the Amaime River, one of the main tributaries of the Cauca River, the second most important river in Colombia. The sub-basin supports various economic activities across its area. In the upper part, these include commercial forestry, farming (e.g., poultry and pig farming), subsistence agriculture, and the cultivation of cash crops. Commercial crops, primarily sugar cane, dominate the lower part. These activities place pressures on essential ES, leading to significant issues, particularly related to water pollution and availability. As a result, water quality and quantity are among the primary ESs affected within the sub-basin [38].The NbSs chosen to simulate and compare with the current BAU scenario on the Nima River sub-basin were selected through a participatory process involving 30 stakeholders from different WEFE sectors within the sub-basin, such as civil society and institutional bodies, as well as private sector organizations (Table 1). The selection of diversified types of stakeholders allowed us to consult actors with decision-making power, actors that would implement the discussed solutions, and actors that can facilitate or support the implementation process. These stakeholders included farmers; regional and local governments, such as the Municipality of Palmira through the departments of Environmental Management and Agriculture, and the Government of Valle del Cauca; the Chamber of Commerce of Palmira; the regional environmental authority; the National University of Colombia; and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating within the sugarcane sector and water-related associations, such as Fundación Fondo Agua por la Vida y la Sostenibilidad (i.e., the Water Fund Foundation) and the Association of Users of the Amaime and Nima Rivers (ASOAMAIME).The participatory process, implemented within the framework of the REXUS project, employed a standardized methodology proposed by the REXUS consortium, consisting of two phases [39]. The first phase aimed at having the stakeholders select the NbS they considered capable of addressing the challenges of the sub-basin, from an initial list of solutions prioritized in the project's framework. In the second phase, a prioritization exercise of the selected NbS was conducted. During the first phase, stakeholders were given a list of 16 NbS, each accompanied by a description of its importance and the means for its implementation. The 16 NbS were selected within the framework of the REXUS project considering the two main challenges in the area. They analyzed these NbSs to determine which ones best addressed the challenges of the sub-basin. The challenges identified as of highest priority by stakeholders within the sub-basin are related to water quality and quantity regulation and maintenance. Additionally, stakeholders were encouraged to propose other NbSs they believed could address the challenges of the sub-basin that were not included in the provided list. This participatory approach yielded several stakeholder-identified solutions, which were subsequently included in the final list of NbS (see Table 6 in Section 3).In the second phase of the participatory process, stakeholders were asked to qualitatively prioritize the selected NbSs, according to their knowledge and using the following three criteria:• Effectiveness, i.e., the solution's effectiveness in achieving the goals and objectives defined to face WEFE nexus-related challenges; • Acceptability, i.e., the level of social acceptance the solution has;• Feasibility, i.e., how easily the solution can be implemented based on the stakeholders' capabilities.At the end of the prioritization exercise, stakeholders agreed to select forest landscape restoration, via afforestation and reforestation practices, as the single most relevant NbS at the local scale to face the challenges of the sub-basin. The subsequent NbS assessment, therefore, has been applied considering such NbSs as an alternative to the BAU scenario.Building on the outcomes of the stakeholder consultation process, a forest landscape restoration strategy via a hypothetical expansion of forest areas in the middle and upper parts of the sub-basin was identified as the best alternative land use scenario to the BAU.To conduct the analysis, two scenarios were defined (Figure 2):1.Baseline (BAU) Scenario-This scenario includes the current land use practices without any additional conservation measures or any change of practices. With the term \"current\", we indicate the time in which the study has been conducted, and it reflects the traditional management practices in the sub-basin. In this scenario, fragmented forests and grasslands are prevalent on the upper part of the sub-basin; 2.NbS Scenario-This scenario includes the establishment and development of dense forests of native species between the middle and upper parts of the sub-basin, incorporating the prioritized forest landscape restoration strategies. Example species include Andean trees and shrubs from low montane humid forest such as the native pepper plants (e.g., Piper cornifolium, P. lacunosum), Andean walnut (Juglans neotropica), Cecropia trees (Cecropia sp.), Alnus acuminata, Morella pubescens, and others [40].  These two scenarios were mapped using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), considering areas with high potential for Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) implementation, considering the previous identification of potential areas to reforest through this scheme by the Palmira municipality. We assessed water flow regulation, water quality and water provisioning ES for each scenario using the InVEST 3.13.0 flood risk mitigation, nutrient-delivery ration and annual water yield models, respectively [41]. Additionally, we also considered the value of food (i.e., farmed food-crop) provisioning for both scenarios. The selected ESs were chosen based on the primary challenges and main economic activities within the area. The NbS scenario has been considered as the forest was at the maturity stage, providing the full range of potential ES. To account for the time that the NbS takes to deliver the ES, we created a cashflow and estimated a net present value (NPV) for the NbS scenario, considering the annual costs of implementing the NbS (i.e., payments to landowners during ten years within the PES framework) and its expected benefits from year 11, considering a 25-year horizon. We used a discount rate of 4% following [42]. The value of the annual costs of implementing the NbS was retrieved during conversations with the Municipality of Palmira within the framework of the REXUS project. The resulting NPV was transformed into a single annuity for a terminating annual series. This step makes NbS values comparable with the BAU ones. Following the \"with and without\" principle [43,44], net ES supply was calculated as the difference between the NbS and BAU scenarios. These two scenarios were mapped using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), considering areas with high potential for Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) implementation, considering the previous identification of potential areas to reforest through this scheme by the Palmira municipality. We assessed water flow regulation, water quality and water provisioning ES for each scenario using the InVEST 3.13.0 flood risk mitigation, nutrient-delivery ration and annual water yield models, respectively [41]. Additionally, we also considered the value of food (i.e., farmed food-crop) provisioning for both scenarios. The selected ESs were chosen based on the primary challenges and main economic activities within the area. The NbS scenario has been considered as the forest was at the maturity stage, providing the full range of potential ES. To account for the time that the NbS takes to deliver the ES, we created a cashflow and estimated a net present value (NPV) for the NbS scenario, considering the annual costs of implementing the NbS (i.e., payments to landowners during ten years within the PES framework) and its expected benefits from year 11, considering a 25-year horizon. We used a discount rate of 4% following [42]. The value of the annual costs of implementing the NbS was retrieved during conversations with the Municipality of Palmira within the framework of the REXUS project. The resulting NPV was transformed into a single annuity for a terminating annual series. This step makes NbS values comparable with the BAU ones. Following the \"with and without\" principle [43,44], net ES supply was calculated as the difference between the NbS and BAU scenarios.For both BAU and NbS scenarios, four key ESs were assessed from both biophysical (Section 3.2.1) and economic (Section 3.2.2) perspectives. This evaluation allows for an understanding of the impact of land use changes on the ecosystem from the different WEFE dimensions.The assessment of ESs and the methodologies used for each of them are detailed below.Water flow regulation.Biophysical Assessment-The flood risk mitigation capacity was assessed using the InVEST 3.14.1 flood risk mitigation model, which allows one to measure the capacity of ecosystems to retain precipitation water and release it in a controlled manner, regulating drought and flood events. This model has been previously applied in economic valuation studies of NbS, where it effectively demonstrated their economic benefits to flood risk management [44,45]; Economic Valuation-The economic value of water flow regulation was estimated using the replacement cost method, which calculates the cost of alternative flood mitigation infrastructure, such as levees and retention basins, that would be required to achieve similar outcomes. The annual value of the ES was calculated as the single annuity of a finite series of annuities, based on a useful life of 60 years for the surrogate good and a discount rate of 4% [42].Input and output data for assessing and evaluating water flow regulation are reported in Table 2. Depth of rainfall (mm) 71.4 mm as the average maximum precipitation in 24 h (1989-2019), identified from [47] Soils' hydrological group raster 250 m spatial resolution raster of categorical hydrological groups from [48] Economic value Replacement cost method. Surrogate good: lamination basin. Unit cost: EUR 400/m 3 calculated from [49] and updated to 2023Retained runoff volume (m 3 ) Raster with runoff retention values (in m3) indicating the capability of each pixel to store runoff 2.Water provisioning.Biophysical Assessment-The quantity of water provided under the BAU and NbS scenarios was assessed using the InVEST 3.14.1 annual water yield model. This tool evaluates how land cover changes impact water availability throughout the year.Economic Valuation-The market price method was used to assess the economic value of water provisioning, calculating the potential revenue generated from water use for various purposed such as hydropower, agricultural, and domestic.Input and output data for assessing and evaluating water provisioning are reported in Table 3.Water purification.Biophysical Assessment-The InVEST 3.14.1 nutrient delivery ratio model was used to assess the sub-basin's capacity to filter and purify water by trapping nitrogen exports, based on the present land cover for each scenario.Economic Valuation-The economic benefits of water purification were estimated using avoided-cost methods, focusing on the expenses avoided in water treatment facilities due to the natural purification services provided by ecosystems. Input and output data for assessing and evaluating water purification are reported in Table 4. Table 3. Input and output data for the assessment and evaluation of water provisioning.Land cover map (BAU and NbS scenarios) BAU: Raster of land use/land cover (LULC) for each pixel (resolution 5 m × 5 m), based on [36] NbS: BAU map adapted with prioritized areas for a PES scheme from the municipality of Palmira Precipitation map Raster of average annual precipitation in the sub-basing, retrieved from [50] Evapotranspiration map Raster of average annual evapotranspiration in the sub-basin, retrieved from [51] Root restricting layer depth map Raster of root restricting layer depth, the soil depth at which root penetration is strongly inhibited because of physical or chemical characteristics, retrieved from [52] Plant available water content Raster of plant available water content, the fraction of water that can be stored in the soil profile that is available to plants. Value defined as 1, as per the suggestion of the InVEST model Biophysical table csv file reporting biophysical parameters for each LULC class; parameters were derived from [51,52] Economic value (EUR)Market price from water use for hydropower, agricultural, and domestic purposes; data from [53] in COP and converted to EURWater yield volume (m 3 ) Raster values with the total volume of water yield in the sub-basin (in m 3 ) Table 4. Input and output data for the assessment and evaluation of water purification.Land cover map (BAU and NbS scenarios) BAU: Raster of land use/land cover (LULC) for each pixel (resolution 5 m × 5 m), based on [36] NbS: BAU map adapted with prioritized areas for a PES scheme from the municipality of Palmira Digital Elevation Model Raster of elevation above sea level for the study area; data from [54] Nutrient Runoff Proxy Raster of average annual precipitation in the sub-basin, retrieved from [50] Biophysical table csv file reporting each LULC class in relation to its biophysical properties to N load and retention; values were derived from [55,56] Economic value Replacement cost method. Surrogate good: lamination basin. Unit cost: EUR 87.6/kg of N; data retrieved from [57] in COP and converted to EUR and updated to 2023.Total N export (kg/m 2 /year) A raster showing how much nitrogen from each pixel eventually reaches the stream for each scenario Biophysical Assessment-An Excel-based calculation was conducted to estimate changes in food production under different scenarios, considering the area of arable land and crop yield data.Economic Valuation-The economic value of food provisioning was evaluated using market prices, considering the potential revenue from different agricultural products sales.Input and output data for assessing and evaluating food provisioning are reported in Table 5.Table 5. Input and output data for the assessment and evaluation of food provisioning.Products List of agricultural products harvested in the Nima River sub-basin; data retrieved from [34] Price per kg and ton (EUR/kg and EUR/ton)The price of the product per kilogram and ton in COP retrieved from [58] and converted into EUR Farmed area in Nima (ha)The area where each product is cultivated within the Nima River sub-basin; data calculated via Q-GIS based on the land cover mapsTotal crop production in the Nima basin (ton)The total production quantity of each product, based on the harvested area and yieldThe total market value of the production from the Nima River sub-basin in EUR, calculated by multiplying the production quantity by the price per tonThis section presents the outcomes of the participatory process that selected and prioritized the most relevant NbS to conduct the ES valuation in the Nima sub-basin (Section 3.1) and the findings from such biophysical and economic valuations for both the BAU and NbS scenarios (Section 3.2).The participatory process with WEFE-relevant stakeholders focused on proposing and prioritizing NbS. As a result of this process, 11 NbSs were considered relevant to face the challenges of the sub-basin (i.e., water quality and quantity). Moreover, stakeholders proposed to add four extra measures they considered relevant. Subsequently, among the total 15 NbSs selected, stakeholders prioritized 5 of them using the criteria mentioned in the methodology section (Section 2.2). Forest landscape restoration was the final solution prioritized as the most relevant by the stakeholders (Table 6 synthesizes the process of NbS selection and prioritization, from the initial list proposed to the final NbS selected).The assessment of targeted ESs associated to both the BAU and NbS scenarios was conducted through a two-step process. First, ESs were assessed in biophysical terms (Section 3.2.1) and an economic analysis was performed to quantify the economic impacts of the two scenarios (Section 3.2.2).The biophysical assessment estimated that 233,143 m 3 of water is retained annually when comparing the BAU scenario with the NbS scenario (Table 7). This result indicates a 2.9% increase in water retention for the NbS scenario (i.e., implementing the forest landscape restoration strategy via the PES scheme). Conversely, the evaluation of water provision showed a minimal increase of 0.01% in the volume of surface water available per year, from 157.12 million m 3 /year in the BAU scenario to 157.14 million m 3 /year in the NbS scenario.   Water quality assessment indicates a 4.7% reduction in nitrogen pollutants (kg/year) when transitioning from the BAU scenario to the NbS scenario. This result highlights the potential positive impact of forest landscape restoration in lowering water pollution levels. On the other hand, the food production service showed a reduction in the NbS scenario concerning the BAU one since part of the forest landscape restoration strategy was simulated in current agricultural lands. The biophysical assessment estimated total crop production to be 474,250.11 ton/year under the BAU scenario and 470,506.34 ton/year under the NbS scenario. These results imply a 3743.77 ton/year reduction, equivalent to a decrease of nearly 0.8% in service provision.The economic valuation exercise estimates significant differences between the BAU and NbS scenarios. The values reported consist of single annuities of terminating annual series for both scenarios calculated based on a 25-year horizon (Table 8). Water flow regulation emerges as the ES with the most substantial increase under the NbS scenario, showing an increase of EUR 11.39 million/year compared to the BAU scenario, with a total value of EUR 155.64 million/year. The water provisioning service displays a comparative minimal difference between the two scenarios, yielding an increase of EUR 19,729.43/year in the NbS scenario over the BAU, with total values of EUR 370,701.26/year and EUR 350,971.83/year, respectively. This marginal difference aligns with the minor variation observed from the biophysical assessment. Regarding the water purification service, the estimated avoided costs for water purification show a moderate decrease under the NbS scenario, which reflects the positive effect of the NbS for this service. The economic benefit is estimated at EUR 265,779.96/year in terms of avoided costs with respect to the BAU scenario. On the other hand, the food provisioning service shows a decrease in the NbS scenario. The economic valuation indicates a reduction of EUR 3,212,923.70/year compared to the BAU scenario, contrary to the other services. This economic decrease corresponds with the reduction observed in the biophysical assessment of this service.These assessments estimate that the NbS scenario results in a net positive economic impact of EUR 8,463,673.93/year across all evaluated ESs.The biophysical and economic valuation results of this study provide valuable insights into the potential impacts of implementing NbSs in the Nima sub-basin in Colombia with a WEFE nexus approach. Our estimations show that the forest-based NbS scenario results in a net positive economic impact of EUR 8.46 million/year across all evaluated ESs. This finding aligns with other studies that have shown the economic benefits of NbSs, such as [59], who report significant economic advantages of forest-NbSs through the supply of multiple ESs, among which are water flow regulation and water quality. Other studies like [60] report a significant increase in carbon sequestration through forest conservation and restoration. We observed reduced food provision at the expense of increased water flow regulation and purification. Interestingly, our results show a slight increase (0.01%) in annual water quantity, differing from some studies that suggest forest restoration might reduce overall water availability in a basin [61] and, in more general terms, suggest a strong relationship between forest cover and change in runoff patterns, e.g., [62]. On the other hand, our findings are consistent with those of [63], who found that reforestation measures can reduce peak flows and stormflows associated with soil degradation; however, they did not report evidence that this also produced a corresponding increase in low flows. Although the dominant paradigm indicates trade-offs between forest cover and water yield, particularly in terms of groundwater recharge, [64] identified several caveats and biases. While these inconsistent findings may advocate for more specific studies, they may also suggest that some issues arose in feeding or calibrating relevant InVEST models.Our study contributes to addressing knowledge gaps about forest-NbS scenarios in multipurpose water basins, which are critical for water supply to various sectors. This approach serves as an instrument for considering different elements of the WEFE nexus, highlighting potential synergies and trade-offs across sectors. For instance, the reduction in food provision indicated by our valuation might raise concerns among some stakeholders (e.g., farmers) in the municipality of Palmira, mainly if restoration is applied to the entire middle and upper zones of the sub-basin where agriculture is relevant for local livelihoods [65].The participatory process employed in this study plays a crucial role in legitimizing the results and enhancing their potential for integration into decision-making processes. This approach coincides with the growing recognition of the importance of stakeholder engagement in ES assessment and valuation, aligning theoretical models with the interests of local governments and other stakeholders [66,67]. In this way, our findings can significantly contribute to decision-making related to agricultural conversion projects in strategic zones of the Nima River sub-basin, potentially enabling these projects to be integrated into the implemented PES program.The potential effectiveness of this exercise in promoting PES schemes for forest landscape restoration is significant. By quantifying the economic value of ES under different scenarios, our study provides a strong foundation for justifying investments in NbSs. This approach is similar to that used by [68] in their analysis of PES schemes in Costa Rica, where economic valuation played a crucial role in program design and implementation. Our findings, showing increases in water flow regulation and water purification services, align with other successful PES cases in Latin America, such as the Water Funds in Ecuador and Colombia [69]. Globally, our results contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of economic valuation in PES scheme development, as seen in cases from Vietnam [70] and Tanzania [71].Despite the valuable insights provided by this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. Data availability was a significant constraint, necessitating reliance on global sources that might not be accurately calibrated to the study area. This limitation is common in ecosystem service valuation studies, as noted by [2]. Additionally, our analysis focused on a subset of forest ES, potentially underestimating the total value of NbS implementation. For instance, carbon sequestration could significantly increase the estimated benefits, as [72] demonstrated in their global forest carbon assessment. Forests also provide other significant regulating services, such as moisture recycling and temperature regulation, which might influence other land cover responses (e.g., agriculture). The study by [73] reported that nearly 50% of precipitation in certain regions is regulated by vegetation, and studies by [74,75] demonstrated how forests effectively contribute to global and local cooling by driving evapotranspiration, creating cloud cover, and influencing surface albedo. These ESs provided by forests play a critical role in sustaining agricultural productivity downwind from forested areas. Similarly, ESs that might reveal additional economic advantages from forest conservation and restoration are pollination and biological control services, as [76] showed in their study on coffee production in Costa Rica.Despite these limitations, this study can provide substantial policy implications for land use planning and ES management. Our findings support the mobilization of Target 19 of the Global Biodiversity Framework, which aims to increase financial resources for biodiversity conservation. This study provides a strong argument for integrating ecosystem service valuation into land planning processes by demonstrating the economic value of NbSs. This narrative aligns with the recommendations of [77], who argue for mainstream-ing natural capital approaches in decision-making. Furthermore, our results can inform the development of more comprehensive PES schemes and support the implementation of NbSs at larger scales, contributing to both local sustainable development and global conservation goals.We conducted a biophysical and economic valuation of ES to compare BAU and forest-NbS scenarios to estimate potential benefits and trade-offs of land use development trajectories with a WEFE nexus approach in a multipurpose Andean water sub-basin in Western Colombia. Our estimations show that the forest-based NbS scenario results in significant net positive economic impacts across all evaluated ESs, yet highlights relevant trade-offs between ESs (e.g., food provisioning). From a public policy perspective, such a scenario looks fully consistent with the rationale behind policy tools and-in particularmarket-based instruments to support ES delivery. Indeed, the NbS scenario would support the provision of a set of public goods, benefiting local communities as a whole, at the (partial) expense of private goods (food). The estimated gap in terms of benefits gained under the NbS scenario provides robust justification for the NbS development from a public investment angle, as it demonstrates it would be possible to support farmers in partly shifting land use and management practices towards solutions benefiting society at large, including beyond the targeted area. In fact, the benefits gained under the NbS scenario, in terms of water flow regulation, water quality, and water quantity, could contribute to reducing the main water-related challenges affecting farmers in the upper part of the sub-basin.The study builds on a participatory process involving stakeholders from different WEFE sectors within the sub-basin, who prioritized and selected the NbS scenario to compare against the BAU one, enhancing community participation and the potential integration of this exercise into potential decision-making processes. ESs for both scenarios were assessed from both biophysical and economic perspectives, considering ES representing different WEFE dimensions.Our study supports the growing body of literature on the economic benefits of forest-NbSs, and can provide policy implications for land use planning and ecosystem services management. Specifically, our findings could support the mobilization of important global environmental goals, such as Target 19 of the Global Biodiversity Framework. Our results can inform the development of PES schemes and support the implementation of NbSs at larger scales, contributing to both local sustainable development and global conservation goals. The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.We would like to thank all the stakeholders from the workshops held for the REXUS Nima pilot site for their valuable contributions to this research. We extend our special gratitude to the Dirección de Gestión de Medio Ambiente de Palmira for providing essential information about the Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) in Palmira. Their support has been instrumental in completing this study. A special thanks to Luisa Fernanda Eusse-Villa for supporting the creation of Figures 1 and 2.","tokenCount":"5538"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"59b3cd99c54c9accd0c47910845e7c3d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01063b41-1e03-4a81-b625-6330e6d40d43/retrieve","id":"-1677597210"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d07ede55-1f3c-48b7-adbd-6360036f12ae","pagecount":"45","content":"The organizers and editors would like to sincerely thank all the contributors to various chapters of the compendium and their institutions specially, DoA, MoA, Govt. of Odisha; OUAT, Bhubaneshwar,Odisha views climate change as a direct threat to its socio-economic development with the potential of reversing the hard earned developmental gains achieved since long back. Ensuring that agriculture becomes climate smart is a priority for addressing the need for adequate, nutritionally balanced food for a growing and more demanding population in a situation of resource limitations, and climate change and variability. According to observations and scientific studies, climate change has resulted in an increase high inter and intra-seasonal rainfall variability and in extreme cyclones for Odisha. The impacts of climate change on agriculture production have rendered a significant proportion of households' food and nutrition insecure and consequently having to rely on food aid while climate projections show that conditions will worsen. Support to climate change adaptation and mitigation among smallholders hardly works when it is imposed from outside: local institutional frameworks for the adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices at the Institutional arrangements and policy engagement at the district and community levels must play a facilitating role. This means that institutional frameworks that support farmer-driven adoption and adaptation must be encouraged. Supporting such frameworks usually not only involves developing new institutions but also creating synergies between existing institutions to implement policies effectively. The dissemination and uptake of climate smart technologies, tools and practices is still largely an ongoing, challenging process. Barriers at different levels must be overcome in all countries and solutions to these challenges must respond to specific local needs.The Compendium on CSA proposes such a holistic and integrated approach, building on sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes, adapting and building resilience to climate change and reducing and/or removing GHG emissions, where possible. The compendium provides a comprehensive overview of the challenges and issues for sustainable development, both related and unrelated to climate change. I hope that the Compendium on CSA will stimulate dialogue and significant progress towards the identification and implementation of sustainable solutions for the farming sector, which safeguard its fundamental role for food security while responding effectively to the challenges of climate change. Coordination and alignment between agriculture, climate change, water, energy and other sectors will be crucial for the design of sound and inclusive policies, as well as regulatory frameworks to support the adoption of CSA practices by farmers, and ensure the sustainable and equitable use of resources in the long term.(Pramod Aggarwal)Stakeholders engaged in agricultural research for development (AR4D) are increasingly tackling risks associated with climate change in smallholder systems. Accordingly, development and scaling of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) are one of the priorities for all the organizations, departments and ministries associated with the farm sector. Having a 'one-stop-shop' compiled in the format of a compendium for CSA technologies, practices and services would therefore serve a guide for all the stakeholders for scaling CSA in smallholder systems. Bringing out a Compendium on Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) for Odisha, India was therefore thought of during the workshop on The main objectives to bring forth this compendium are: to argue the case for agriculture policies and practices that are climate-smart; to raise awareness of what can be done to make agriculture policies and practices climatesmart; and to provide practical guidance and recommendations that are well referenced and, wherever possible, based on lessons learned from practical action.CSA programmes are unlikely to be effective unless their implementation is supported by sound policies and institutions. It is therefore important to enhance institutional capacities in order to implement and replicate CSA strategies. Institutions are vital to agricultural development as well as the realisation of resilient livelihoods. They are not only a tool for farmers and decision-makers, but are also the main conduit through which CSA practices can be scaled up and sustained. The focus in this compendium is on CSA and it's relevant aspects, i.e., (i) technologies and practices, (ii) services, (iii) technology targeting, (iv) business models, (v) capacity building, and (vi) policies.The approaches and tools available in the compendium span from face-to-face technicianfarmer dialogues to more structured exchanges of online and offline e-learning. In every scenario it is clear that tailoring to local expectations and needs is key. In particular, the voice of farmers is essential to be captured as they are the key actors to promote sustainable agriculture, and their issues need to be prioritized.CSA practices are expected to sustainably increase productivity and resilience (adaptation), reduce Greenhouse Gases (mitigation), and enhance achievement of national food security along with sustainable development goals. CSA is widely expected to contribute towards achieving these objectives and enhance climate change adaptation.CSA practices have to be included in State's Climate Policy as a priority intervention as the state steps up efforts to tackle climate change. Furthermore, emphasis shoud be laid on CSA training for a sustainable mode to enhance CSA adoption in the state hence the relevance of developing this document.The adaption of climate related knowledge, technologies and practices to local conditions, promoting joint learning by farmers, researchers, rural advisor and widely disseminating CSA practices, is critical. This compendium brings together a collection of experiences from different stakeholders with background of agricultural extension and rural advisory services in supporting CSA. The contributions are not intended to be state-of-the art academic articles but thought and discussion pieces of work in progress. The compendium itself is aOdisha state has a big challenge of providing sustainable livelihoods for its population in the fragile ecosystems facing the issues of absolute water scarcity, erratic rainfall, drought, cyclone, flood and land degradation. About 80 per cent of its total population lives in rural areas and depends primarily on agriculture for livelihood. The performance of agriculture determines the food and nutritional security of the population and is important for reducing poverty and achieving inclusive growth. In fact, agriculture in Odisha is characterized by wide diversity and considerable spatio-temporal variations in growth and productivity. In the present agricultural scenario of Odisha, the average size of land holding is 1.25 ha for all categories of farmers but is only 0.6 ha for marginal and small farmers and is largely fragmented. The small and marginal farmers constituting more than 80% of the farming community, either own or rent a piece of land for cultivation. Odisha has cultivated area of 6.4 million ha out of 15.5 million ha geographical area. Agricultural activities depend on and are affected by natural environment in various ways via soil quality (texture, erodibility, nutrient depletion, moisture balance, salinity, etc.), water quality (surface and ground water pollution and depletion), air quality (greenhouse gas emission), bio-diversity, wildlife habitat and ecosystem as a whole. Paddy is the main crop of Odisha and is usually grown twice or even three times in a year. The coverage under Paddy during kharif is about 4.1 million ha and during rabi 0.3 million ha in a wide range of soils varying widely from highly acidic to slightly alkaline and from light sandy to stiff clays. Further, about 0.4 million ha is exposed to saline inundation, 0.35 million ha to water-logging, particularly in the deltaic areas. Odisha's climate is tropical, characterized by high temperature, high humidity, medium to high rainfall and short and mild winters. The normal rainfall of the state is 1451.2 mm.Odisha is prone to tropical cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis. Its densely populated coastal plains are the alluvial deposits of its river systems. The rivers in these areas, with heavy load of silt, have very little carrying capacity, resulting in frequent floods. Climate change is likely to impact negatively on many aspects of agriculture including irrigation availability, soil heath, pest population, crop and livestock production. Erratic rainfall and uneven distribution of rainfall cause drought in some places wihile floods in others. Recently the state is experiencing contrasting extreme weather conditions claiming many lives: from heat waves to cyclone, from droughts to floods. During the past decade, the state has faced one or more forms of disasters like floods, cyclone, tornado or drought every year. In last 100 years, Odisha experienced flood in 49 years, drought in 30 years and cyclone in 11 years. The poor and marginal farmers are most affected by these natural calamities. A striking issue is that the small, marginal and women farmers are unreached by the green revolution and so are targeted with the conservation strategy referred to as 'on-farm management in agricultural production systems' taking into account the climate change issues.Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) involves sustainable increase in agricultural productivity and incomes, adapting and building resilience to climate change, and, where ever possible, reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (FAO, 2013). There are many ways to achieve these goals, depending on the environmental and social context in which an agricultural system operates. Hence CSA practices may include all aspects of crop, soil, and water management-from tactical considerations involving time of sowing and crop maturity, to nutrient, water, and pest management and conservation tillage options, as well as strategic decisions about crop selection, rotations, and cropping patterns and investment in irrigation infrastructure. While field studies can evaluate and identify a set of \"climate-smart\" practices that function well at a given location, crops and cropping systems simulation using simulation models provide a means to perform such ex-ante evaluations.Addressing the need for proven and effective climate-smart agricultural options, CCAFS has developed the Climate-Smart Village (CSV) approach as a means to agricultural research for development (AR4D). It seeks to fill knowledge gaps and stimulate scaling of climate-smart agriculture (CSA). The CSV approach is founded on the principles of participatory action research for grounding research on appropriate and location/context-specific enabling conditions, generating greater evidence of CSA effectiveness in a real-life setting and facilitating codevelopment of scaling mechanisms towards landscapes, subnational and national levels. In establishing a CSV-AR4D site, the very first step is to build trust and partnerships amongst diverse stakeholders; and to attain agreements and buy-in to a common approach. Once partners have agreed on the establishment of a CSV site, the major steps include baseline assessment, identification and context specific prioritization of CSA interventions, evaluation and development of portfolios of weatherresilient interventions, and scaling up through institutions and policies, and scaling out to large areas through dissemination and ICTbased approaches. Communication of timely and relevant information on climate change risks through credible sources is essential for mobilising farmers to take actions to adapt to climate change.SECTION 1 Out of the total rice area in Odisha sixty five percent is rainfed and thirty five percent irrigated. Rainfed shallow and semi-deep water lowland rice suffers from flash floods and water logging. Like wise uncontrolled irrigation in lowlands also aggravates the problem of water logging. Heavy and intense rainfall events, sometimes tidal movements in coastal areas, cause flash floods due to overflow of rivers and canals. Normally 140-155 day duration varieties are grown in these risk prone ecosystem.Growing the most popular high yielding rice variety Swarna, covering seventy percent of the area, no doubt gives high yield and return but in years of flood, with even a week submergence the crop gets completely devastated resulting total yield loss and zero return.Rice variety Swarna-sub1, a variety developed by IRRI, Philippines and NRRI, Cuttack and released in 2009, is has submergence tolerance and performs better under flood situation apart from being high yielding with good grain quality. Demonstration of this variety in floodprone ecosystem showed that it could tolerate submergence up to two weeks and could perform significantly better compared to other local and improved cultivars.In farmers field, Swarna sub-1 produced 6.1 t/ ha yield and Rs.95,167 gross return per hectare with an B-C ratio of 2.01 as against Swarna (5.9 t/ha yield, Rs.92,040 gross return and 1.9 B-C ratio) under CCAFS (P 25) supported project. This provided Rs.4295 extra income to the farmers. Swarna is largely affected by stem borer which Swarna sub-1 escaped to certain extent and thereby saved two sprayings. The the production cost was reduced by Rs.1175 per hectare with energy saving of 89 MJ . In years with normal rainfall the yield is no less.There is yield advantage of 3.4% in normal years whereas in flood years it proved with more than 90% yield advantage. More over Swarna sub-1 is having a closed plant geometry unlike the spreading geometry of Swarna for which harvesting becomes easier, quicker and cheaper. The head rice recovery with hulling percentage in Swarna sub-1 was found to be nearly 80% as against 70% in Swarna. Moreover subsidy provision for Swarna sub-1 mobilized the farmers to increase area under this variety. Under such situation Swarna sub-1 is a savior for farmers which tolerates submergence even up to 17 days.In recent years Swarna sub-1 is popular and almost all farmers in the intervention village and nearby ones prefer Swarna sub-1 over other high yielding varieties including Swarna. Undoubtedly this will benefit thousands of poor farmers in Compendium | Climate-Smart Agriculture | 17 habiting the rainfed low land areas, who often do not harvest any crops due to floods.Rainfed shallow and semi-deep water lowland including flood prone/ submergence ecosystem in Odisha, accounting to nearly 1.5 million has can be brought under this and other submergence tolorent varieties which will act as a premium under challenging climatic scenario. It can be well fitted to the rice-pulse or ricefallow system.Rural Self Help Groups and innovative/ progressive farmers can take up the seed production programme to make them meet the growing demand for all the stress tolotant varieties including Swarna sub-1.Government of Odisha is already making significant efforts in strengthening the seed system of swarna sub-1. This can be achieved through seed hubs involving NGOs, SHGs and local seed dealers.Effect of Var.Bina Dhan-11 (lodging-tolerant)  Lodging-resistant varieties that can withstand up to maturity in affected areas were demonstrated in CSVs. Var. Bina Dhan 11 was demonstrated in farmers fields in frequently affected areas.Although its duration was 5-7 days more, it sustained completely against lodging. It also registered tolerance to certain extent against BPH. Delayed harvesting also did not increase any shattering loss.The variety Bina Dhan 11 produced 5.8 t/ha yield with an yield advantage of 11.5% over Lalat (5.2 t/ha). The production cost was reduced by Rs.6435 with the B-C ratio of 1:8 (Lalat-1:4) saving around 10 labour days/ha. Therefore the variety Bina Dhan 11 has become quite popular and can substitute Lalat and act as a premium against lodging due to hail and thunder storm in summer and also can occupy a substantial area under kharif paddy. In addition the average yield of Bina Dhan 11 is around 7.0 t/ ha while others was around 6.0 t/ha.Summer paddy occupies eight per cent paddy area (0.3 million ha) in Odisha. Lalat being the dominant variety, Bina Dhan 11 can substitute it in irrigated medium land ecosystem more so in cyclone affected areas under rice-rice system.Rural Self Help Groups and advanced farmers can take up the seed production programme to make them meet the growing demand for all the stress tolotant varieties including Bina Dhan 11.With the help of appropriate extension strategy the coverage under Bina Dhan 11 can be expanded with involvement of NGOs and farmers organisations. Initial support through seed subsidy can make the process faster.Transplanting paddy under puddled condition has remained a common practice which involves lots of energy and high water used for puddling incurring higher cost. If conditions are not favorable, land preparation/puddling can not be carried out in time and transplanting gets delayed.Adoption of climate resilient conservation agriculture practice of non-puddled transplanted rice through access to appropriate farm machinery at reasonable cost brings precision to agricultural operations and efficiency in use of resources . Thus non puddled transplanting is a suitable substitute which enables transplanting with low water, energy and cost as well as timely establishment.Although the yield difference is not significant non-puddled transplanting (var. Swarna sub-1 in Kharif) yielded 5.82 t/ha with net return of Rs.43213 and B:C of 1.91 with the energy use efficiency of 7.8. The most important resource i.e. water consumed in puddling was just 1000 m 3 in non-puddled transplanting against 2500 m 3 in puddled transplanting. Energy in form of diesel fuel used for puddling was reduced by 12% (11 L/ ha). More importantly with less amount of water transplanting operation could be completed in time ensuring water availability to other areas. Not only paddy but the subsequent crop in sequence gets a favorable soil environment for better root growth.Non-puddled transplanting can be successful in place of puddled transplanting with less water and energy. Thus the area under transplanted paddy can be increased with available water resource.Non-puddled rice transplanting provides low land farmers with the same flexibility of timing and planting establishment with the onset of monsson rains as does the normal farmer practice.With the help of appropriate extension strategy the coverage under non-puddled transplanting can be expanded with involvement of NGOs and farmers' organisations. Initial support through incentive attached schemes under RKVY and NFSM can make the process faster.Rice-rice crop rotation has been practiced for decades. The summer rice which consumes huge quantity of water was grown with the lift irrigation water from river Ganga. This river carries most of the irrigation water sewage from Bhubaneswar city and is highly contaminated. In Kharif due to large flow in the river the contaminants get diluted. However in summer season gradually the water quality deteriorates and irrigation water causes irritation and skin diseases. Moreover, due to rising water requirement in summer season the flow in the said river is insufficient for raising summer paddy.Diversification strategies play a crucial role in ensuring food security under climate change, as they have the potential to address two of the CSA pillars by contributing to food security and adaptation to climate change.In search of a suitable alternative, green gram (var. IPM 02-14) was grown by utilizing the residual moisture from Rabi rice crop. With one supplemental irrigation at flowering or pod formation stage the crop performed well. This variety shows resistant to yellow vein mosaic Group of Farmers visited green gram and groundnut fields virus (YMV) which is quite common region in the locality. Under prevailing situation groundnut was also a suitable alternative and the variety 'Devi' was grown utilizing the residual moisture succeeding Kharif paddy. Green gram and groundnuts showed potential of diversification of rice-rice system in Odisha.In comparison to summer paddy green gram can be grown with 43.7% less fuel, 21.7% less labor, 48.5% less cost and a saving of 93.9% irrigation water (15,500 m3). The energy input in green gram was 3264 MJ/ha as against 44701 MJ/ha in summer paddy and energy use efficiency of 5.5 as against 2.6 in paddy. The green gram crop recorded a yield of 7.2 quintals/ha giving a paddy equivalent yield of 8.46t/ha in rice-green gram system. The drill seeded groundnut variety Devi yielded 21.4 quintal per hectare in 120 days with a paddy equivalent yield of 6.86 t/ha and system equivalent yield of 12.78 t/has as against 11.9 t/ha in rice-rice system. The yield advantage in rice-groundnut system was 7.3% as compared to rice-rice system. With an investment of Rs. 53,880 /-per hectare the groundnut crop realized a gross return of Rs.1,07,000 and net return of Rs. 53,120 per hectare and B-C ratio of 2.0. It could save 37.7% fuel, 41.6% energy and 100 % irrigation water.With less investment, less labour and less water green gram proved to be a better substitute to summer rice crop. Since the crop was harvested early (78 days) the gap between the succeeding summer rice and Kharif crop was sufficient enough to consider various options available. Now most of the farmers are switching over from `rice-rice system to rice-green gram system and the area is increasing.Most of the summer rice area, in well drained heavy soils, where water crisis is aggravating green gram can prove to be a suitable alternative for resource conservation and restoration of soil health. In comparatively light soil with high water retention capacity, ground nut is more payee if seed material is made available in time to sow the crop with residual moisture.With the support of farmer groups, development department and ICAR research project, OUAT and IRRI could make the beginning. State department of agriculture-extension wing, seed supply agencies, farmers organisations may put joint effort to diversify the summer paddy area and bring it under energy rich pulse (green gram) and oilseed (groundnut) crops.Storing seed groundnut by women farmers using CaCl 2 can ensure seed availability for timely sowing, make best use of residual moisture, can store better seed lot and save the cost. The produce (both green gram and groundnut) can be further processed for value addition and can be sold with a higher margins for improving the incomes.Schemes like RKVY, NFSM and BGREI can provide support to strengthen the stake holders and farmers in the mission. Farmer producer groups can support in marketing and save against distress sale.Rainfed agriculture in India plays an important role in the livelihoods of many rural households in semi-arid regions. These households are highly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate variability and change especially drought and heat stress. Government of India is investing and promoting different adaptation options to overcome the adverse impacts of climate variability in rainfed farming and to build household resilience through different programs.The adoption of one or two CSA technologies or practices may increase the crop yield or resource use efficiency but does not improve the overall farm household resilience to persistent climate variability or change e in the future. So under a multi-disciplinary project called AgMIP (http://www.agmip.org/), a location specific regional climate smart adaptation package (including biophysical, socio-economic and policy components) was developed through series of stakeholder consultation in the region and evaluated to understand the potential of the CSA package in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.To reduce the risk of climate change on overall farm income and particularly on rainfed farming in state of Andhra Pradesh, possible adaptation options were framed based on discussions with various stakeholders. Since the agriculture production system in the regions is mostly rainfed (61% of the total cropped area) and is affected by variability and distribution of monsoon rainfall, we designed the adaptation package to be climate-smart to make the production systems more resilient to climate variability. The adaptation package is a combination of different biophysical and socioeconomic interventions like use of new crop cultivars (short duration, high yielding for major crop like chickpea), introduction of new crop in the kharif season (foxtail millet) to increase the system productivity since the majority of the farmers practice fallow-chickpea cropping system in the black cotton soil (vertisols) region in the State. We also included the provision of critical irrigation at 60 DAS through harvested rain water in a farm ponds, reduction in the cost of production as a result of application of fertilizer as per scientific recommendations (20 Kg N), and use of mechanical harvesters to reduce harvesting costs by Rs.2200 per ha.The evaluation of adaptation strategies (combination of biophysical, economic and policy options) across diverse farms in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh using the multi-model approach revealed:• Increase in the chickpea productivity on average by 40% in the district by adopting • Increase in the per capita income by 34%• Reduction in the poverty rate in the region from 26.8% to 16.4% across the farm households in Kurnool district• The CSA package developed in consultation with different stakeholders in the state is having high scope to upscale in the rainfed farming region where the farmers practice Fallow-Chickpea cropping system. The new crop (foxtail millet) and high yielding drought tolerant chickpea cultivar as part of adaptation package will increase the system productivity as well as farm income especially in the drought year than in the normal rainfall year in the region. Due to labour scarcity and high wage rate during the peak harvest season in the state, the department of Agriculture and Agriculture University is now developing and promoting machine harvestable Chickpea cultivar in the regions. The construction of farm ponds in the fields to provide lifesaving irrigation to the crops will increase the water efficiency at the field level.• Currently during harvest season chickpea cultivation in the regions demands high women labour for harvesting, threshing and cleaning of grains. But if the adoption of machine harvestable chickpea cultivars will reduce the drudgery of the women labour and they could use this additional time to create alternative source of income and also social and household empowerment. This CSA package could also have potential to provide entrepreneurship to the youth in the region by establishing custom hiring centers and millet and pulses processing units to add value to the locally produced grains.The adoption of machine harvestable chickpea cultivar in the regions will help to develop local entrepreneurs/business to provide custom hiring services of combined harvester for harvesting and threshing of chickpea in the field. There is also scope for small millet processing unit as business for youth or local agro-entrepreneurs to process and add value to the small millets produced in the region. It has large business opportunity in the urban food markets.The In CIMMYT-Asia maize program, we focused on to enhance resilience in maize germplasm for an array of climatic conditions. The overarching goal of the stress-resilience maize program has been to improve upside yield potential with downside risk reduction. The new generation of stress-resilient hybrids possess combination of traits, including tolerance to drought/ waterlogging/heat stress and resistance to key diseases with respectable yields under optimal trial. These hybrids were licensed to partners (on semi-exclusive basis), including OUAT and two Odisha based SMEs. These high-yielding stress-resilient hybrids is being taken forward for deployment and scale-out to reduce yield losses under stress-prone growing conditions at farmer's field.• At least 2.0 tones more yield under stressful conditions and at par with commercial seed company hybrids optimal conditions.• At least 20% less irrigation water and enhanced nutrient use efficiency due to stress tolerance The problems like food insecurity, high investment flooded, water requirements are reduced, generally by 25-50%.• The system does not require purchase of new varieties of seed, chemical fertilizer, or agrochemical inputs. Costs of production are usually reduced, usually by 10-20%, although this percentage varies according to the inputintensity of farmers' current production.• Saving in terms of labour by 30 to 35 % due to less population of plants transplanted, mechanized weeding and harvesting is easier.• Reduction in drudgery of women in transplanting, weeding and harvesting operations.• Household food security has increased with additional availability of food for 5-8 months from own consumption.• There is increase in income of the farmers as they have surplus for selling. The net income has been increased up to Rs 15,000 to 25,000 per season.• Organic matter-enriched soils are able to store more water and furnish nutrients helping to develop strong root system resulting in a robust plant physiology that is more adapted to climatic adversities.• It has been observed that the plants under the system of crop intensification can sustain drought like situations, submergence and strong winds due to its stronger root systems.• Methane (CH 4 ) is reduced by between 22% and 64% when soils are maintained under mostly aerobic conditions rather than being flooded.Under the crop management system nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is only slightly increased or sometimes even reduced as the use of N fertilizer is reduced; N 2 0 increases do not offset CH 4 reductions, so Global Warming Potential is reduced.There is scope to scale up the technology under the rain fed farming systems and also to address water stress and adverse climatic conditions costs, water scarcity and climate change affects require a paradigm shift in the cropping systems from input intensive methods to improved practices like system of crop intensification. System of Rice Intensification is an innovative method for higher yield, water saving, and coping with the adverse effects of climate change, having at the same time considerable impact on green house gas emissions with a net reduction of 20-40% per ha and more per kg. of rice produced because of different practices for plant, soil, water and organic ways of nutrient management.In addition SRI is estimated to reduce fresh water use in rice cultivation by about 40-50% which is already established by research.The practices of crop intensification are also applicable to production of finger millets and other crops for increasing productivity to almost double in comparison to traditional practices while withstanding climatic stress to reduce the hunger gap and nutritional insufficiency.System of crop intensification in these staple crops can addresses the major constraints affecting the livelihoods of small and resource poor farmers, their limited resources of land, labour, water as well as losses from pests and diseases while reducing their dependency on external inputs.System of crop intensification especially in rice and millets is an innovation in technology that can adapt to changing climate and withstand adverse affects of climate change. The technology changes the way that the plants, soil, water and nutrients are managed and has multiple impact.• The yield increases by almost double in comparison to traditional methods of rice and millet cultivation. The yield per acre paddy has increased on an average to 16 qnt per acre in SRI from 8 to 9 qnt per acre in traditional transplanting method. Similarly, the production of finger millet has increased from 4 qnt per acre in traditional transplanting to 8-9 qnt per acre due to system of millet intensification.• Since SRI fields are not kept continuously which is beneficial for the small and marginal farmers of Odisha for food security, increase their income level and also at the same time to reduce the investment cost in inputs to reduce the vulnerability to debt and distress migration.As the land under cultivation is decreasing, water resources are getting scarce and climatic conditions are fragile, the technology can provide solution to the need of small and marginal farmers by optimum use of existing resources.As women are involved in 60-70 % of operations in rice and millet farming, it is necessary to enhance their skills, access to inputs, information and drudgery reduction technologies, organise their collectives for value addition and market linkages so that they can be involved in a more productive manner. The introduction of mechanized weeding, primary processing like threshing of millets have reduced drudgery of women which need further scale up. • OXFAM supported for introducing SRI in 2006.Government of Odisha under the RKVY Scheme.• NABARD supported for Seed Village programme with SRI.• Tata Trusts supported from 2008 till date for promotion of SRI & SMI which is scaled up to 15471 Farmers.• Odisha Millet Mission supporting for promotion of SMI.• IRRI supported Stress Tolerant Varieties of Rice.• Edel Give Foundation supporting for system of crop intensification.• Digital Green supported for video based extension systems for scale up.The Odisha Millet Mission is providing incentive to the farmers for adoption of System of Millet Intensification and also establishment of value addition and marketing of millets. The Government is also including millets in the Food Security Schemes which will encourage farmers to adopt SMI to increase production. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme, National Food Security Mission (NFSM) launched from 2007-08 in the State has also one of the objective to increase production of rice through SRI.However, there is further need of policy support for promotion of crop intensification in the context of climate change and the condition of small and marginal farmers which will reduce their investment in inputs as well as infrastructures for assured crop production.Improved fodder variety for better livestock productivityLivestock plays an important role for reducing the poverty in a mixed farming system that predominants in Odisha. It contributes around 20 per cent of the agricultural GDP of the State. Feed cost constitutes the major share (60 per cent) of cost livestock rearing. Therefore, judicious feeding mechanism is the most important pillar of economical dairying and also livestock rearing. The farmers in Odisha mostly depend on paddy straw, however they don't do any processing/treatment before feeding to their animals which extract minerals like calcium from body by forming oxalate salt. In addition, due to erratic rainfall, declining grazing land and use of harvestor for rice harvesting. It is estimated that Odisha has shortage of more than 80 per cent of concentrate, 55 per cent of green fodder and 30 per cent of dry fodder. To improve the livestock productivity in the state, it is required to improve the feeding management practice though grazing land management, increase feed efficiency, supplementary feeding and thereby reducing the enteric emission. As state has only 37% cultivated land is under irrigation, drought tolerance perennial fodder variety can be promoted.The increasing of crossbreed population and declining grazing land, demand for concentrate and green fodder is increasing. However, due to lack of water, market failure, lack of institutional support and low level of knowledge on fodder cultivation led to shortage of feed. In this context, promoting new variety of fodder with less water requirement and having high nutrient content is a viable alternative for increasing the feed and fodder availability in the state. In addition, identification of locally available good quality of feed and fodder in a particular zone and enrichment of those would help to increase the livestock productivity.ILRI has been promoting the new varieties of fodder crops such as drought tolerance perennial sorghum (COFS-29 and COFS-31) and new variety Hybrid Napier Bajra (CO-5 and Sampoorna) and fodder trees (Agasti, Morigna and Hedge leucern). In addition, new feeding practices based on availability of local feed and fodder. This gives an opportunity to farmers for improve their livestock productivity.Improved feed and management practice will reduce the cost of livestock production.Cultivating new variety of fodder and following better management practice will enable us to mitigate the effects of climate change and thereby increasing the productivity in following ways:Reduced the cost of milk production/feed up to 45%.• Increased the milk quality (FAT) by 10%• Increased milk yield by 20 %• Reduced dependency on the grazing land• Increased the digestibility and that leads to reduce the methane emission.• Increase the total income of the farmers by 6000 per lactation.There is scope to upscale the new feeding practices and fodder cultivation in dairy potential areas of the State.Dairying at household level is largely the domain of women, where they are actively involved in various aspects of dairy farming activities like care of new born calf, cleaning of animal shed, cleaning of utensils, and storage of feed, feeding, grooming and cleaning animals. It is possible to enhance the access of technologies, inputs, credits and markets and result in elimination of gender differences and discriminations in rural areas. As the demand fodder is goring in milk intensive areas, commercial green fodder production/seed production provide a unique opportunity for employment or rural youth. By creating and establishing the fodder group/ cooperatives, it is envisaged that many rural enterprises come up and employments are generated in their real life situations.As informed, Odisha has shortage of feed especially concentrate and green fodder. This can be enhanced only through community and promoting through local service provider.Taking up this into a larger area can help to service provider for develop the business case of supplying fodder block, feed blocks, chopping and such others as a viable option.With whom the intervention was developed: On upland plateau, rice farming is becoming highly vulnerable to in-season drought. The area consists of light textured soil so doesn't hold moisture for enough time to support rice during dry spells. Frequent post-monsoon showers also coincide with rice harvesting that leads to crop lodging and inferior grain quality.Alternatively, maize has been tested to withstand such scenarios more effectively. In-season drought of this degree merely affect maize crop and post-monsoon showers can be avoided by selecting maize varieties of longer duration.Problem associated with maize farming is use of traditional maize varieties under traditional production practices. These varieties produce abysmally low yield and have no takers in the market as commercial produce. Small and fragmented incomes are made through sale of green cobs only. Altogether, it puts growers under serious food and income security.Production of commercial maize under best bet agronomic practices is the intervention to address climatic risks and ensure income security. Commercial maize means cultivation of hybrids those can be readily bought by institutional buyers. These hybrids should be of long maturity class (120 days) as their yield potential is high and they can surpass postmonsoon rains. Best bet agronomic practices include planting in rows with optimal plant population, appropriate fertilizer application and proper weed management. Maize planting in rows should be preferably done through seed-cumfertilizer drill. Fertilizers should be applied at the rate of 150 kg urea, 100 kg DAP & 80 kg potash per hectare. In addition, 5-10 tones/ha of compost should be applied. Good weed management can be achieved through application of one postemergence herbicide followed by one manual/ mechanical weeding. Weeding should be performed by mechanical power weeder that would reduce cost by performing weeding and earthing-up in one single go. Output market integration can be achieved through produce aggregation at village level and establishing linkages with the proximate feed millers.• Increase in Yield -This intervention increases maize yield from an average of 3 ton/ha to 6 ton/ha.• Improvement in resource use efficiencies -Use of seed-cum-fertilizer drill amplifies fertilizer use efficiency by precise placement of basal fertilizers in right quantity. Seed rate is also calibrated as per desired plant population of 75,000 plants per ha. Power weeder improves efficiency of urea by immediate earthing-up.• Increase in Net Profit -With established output market, the intervention has potential to generate net income of Rs 40,000 per ha.The average gross revenue per ha is Rs 75,000. Out of which, Rs 35,000 is cost of cultivation taking all cost factors into consideration.Occurrence of in-season drought and postmonsoon rains are the two major climatic aberrations. Shifting to maize from rice overcomes the challenge of in-season drought as the water requirement of maize is comparatively lower than rice. Selection of long duration maize hybrids avoids risks associated with postmonsoon rains.Gender relevance: Several women based selfhelp groups (SHG) have been formed in this region under livelihood mission program of the state. These women SHGs are takingup this intervention as an income generating opportunity. Although they either own little farm land or no land, they are taking large tracts on rent and practicing this intervention. So far, almost 1500 women farmers are engaged in Mayurbhanj & Keonjhar districts for commercial maize production.Service providers: There are three areas under this intervention where agriculture machine service provision model operates. These areplanting by seed-cum-fertilizer drill, weeding by power weeder and threshing by maize sheller. Individual farmer from the community buy any of these three machine or multiple machines on Govt. subsidy and provide service to neighboring farmers on rental basis.Produce aggregator: People from the community who have some background of business dealings, buy maize produce from individual farmers in the village. They perform drying and cleaning based on buyers requirement and finally sell it in bulk after keeping their margin. Some of the service providers are also involved in this kind of business. Subsidy program for farm mechanization accelerates the purchase of number of seedcum-fertilizer drills and power weeder. e-NAM scheme can greatly help in establishing market linkages for maize produce.Rice is predominantly cultivated in Odisha of which nearly fifty per cent is transplanted.Transplanting requires at least 25 ha-cm of water for puddling operation, which creates a dense clay layer in the sub-soil to prevent seepage losses. The crop requires about 130 ± 10 ha-cm of irrigation in addition to adoption of suitable variety and recommended dose of fertilizers to realize yield levels of above 6 t/ha. Generally, about 40% of all irrigation water goes to paddy cultivation in the region. It is estimated that flooded rice fields produce about 10% of global methane emissions. Also, injudicious use of nitrogenous fertilizers is a common feature in paddy cultivation which is a source of nitrous oxide emissions. In Odisha, farmers generally take up transplanting of coarse rice. The current practice of excessive exploitation of ground water has led to a decline in the quality of natural resources i.e. land and water.A comprehensive water management programme was conducted for the farmers. Different methods of irrigation were discussed including DSR. Direct Seeded Rice reduced water use by reducing the number of irrigation events required, it can reduce water use by up to 25%. It can help farmers cope with water scarcity and increase reliability of downstream irrigation water supply. It is also a water management practice in irrigated lowland rice that saves water and reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while maintaining yields.Researchers have developed suitable direct seeding alternatives to transplanted paddy. In DSR cultivation, raising of nursery for transplantation is done away with. Farmer can avoid the major problem faced in labour shortage for transplanting during peak demand. In case of delay in monsoon or shortage of water, DSR provides flexibility to take up direct sowing of paddy with a suitable duration variety to fit into the left over season. This allows timely sowing of the succeeding crop. Direct sown rice consumes relatively less water compared to transplanted flooded rice. Energy demand for pumping of irrigation water is also less and saving can be much higher during deficit rainfall situations.Direct seeding of paddy var. Lalat yielded 5.51 t/ha that was close to transplanted coarse rice was 5.6 t/ha. But with DSR there was a saving of about Rs 3300-4200 per hectare in labour cost and irrigation water. However, extra expenditure is required on herbicide applications. DSR with reduced tillage is an efficient resource conservation technology that holds promise in view of the following advantages:• Saving in water up to 25%• Sating in energy up to 27% of diesel as pumping energy is saved for field preparation, nursery raising, puddling and reduced frequency of applying irrigation water Direct sowing can be practiced for cultivating both coarse rice and basmati rice wherever feasible in all themedium and low land ecosystem. Direct seeded rice is relatively more popular in the rainfed rice growing tracts. There is scope to upscale the technology inrainfed well as irrigated rice growing areas in Odishato promote higher water use efficiency , to reduce cost and conserve agricultural resources.State department of agriculture, farmers organisations, OUAT and IRRI jointly are working hard in popularising the practice.Governmental support of incentivising through various schemes like RKVY, NFSM and BGREI puts lot of encouragement to farming community in adoption of the practice.Transplanted rice grown in irrigated and rainfed areas are increasingly facing water scarcity due to deficit rainfall, declining groundwater table due to insufficient recharge, late and limited release of irrigation water from canals or poor inflows into tanks. Land preparation for nursery and main field require copious amounts of water.It also involves huge labour force for nursery raising and subsequent transplanting. Water shortage at the transplanting time leads to delay in transplanting and thus use of over aged seedlings with limited tillering capacity. This is an issue that every farmer faces during both in kharif as well as in rabi seasons. Again, farmers also follow traditional method, termed \"shallow flood irrigation\" where the fields are submerged with a shallow water layer during most of the rice-growing season, resulting in high use of water.Water and labour saving AWD technique of irrigation in rice is a feasible option to reduce their irrigation water consumption in rice fields without compromising on yield. In AWD, irrigation water is applied a few days after the disappearance of the ponded water observed through irrigation tubes. Hence, the field gets alternately flooded and dried. The number of days of non-flooded soil between irrigations may vary depending on the number of factors such as soil type, weather, and crop growth stage.When grown in conventional irrigation system rice needs 16500 m 3 water (land preparation=700 m 3 , nursery raising 100 m 3 , puddling 2500 m 3 and main field irrigation =13200 m 3 ) whereas grown under alternate wetting and drying (AWD) system the rice crop needs 13200 m 3 (land preparation=700 m 3 , nursery raising 100 m 3 , puddling 2500 m 3 and main field irrigation =9900 m 3 ). Irrigation was scheduled in main field on depletion of water level below 15 cm in the perforated irrigation tube. In the main field alternate wetting and drying system consumed 33% less water, saving six numbers of irrigation.Alternate wetting and drying provide a way to change irrigation practices and it is regarded as one of the more important rice cultivation methods that can dramatically save freshwater.The saved water may be utilized in increasing area under low water consuming crops. The AWD irrigation was accompanied with irrigation via channels, which allowed exact water required into the field, the drainage was easier. Time required for irrigation also reduced. AWD method can increase grain yield because of enhancement in root respiration and growth, remobilization of carbon reserves from vegetative tissues to grains and grain-filling rate.AWD can reduce the cost of irrigation by reducing pumping costs and fuel consumption.This method could also reduce the labor costs by improving field conditions at harvest, allowing mechanical harvest. AWD leads to firmer soil conditions at harvest, which is suitable to operate machines in the field. Therefore, AWD increases net return of farmers.AWD provides the means for rice to adapt to water scarcity and at the same time mitigate greenhouse gas emissions by reduction in methane emissions. AWD reduces methane (CH 4 ) emission that is produced by the anaerobic decomposition of the organic material in the flooded paddy field. This method has been assumed to reduce CH 4 emissions by an average of 48% compared to continuous flooding.Alternate wetting and drying reduce cadmium accumulation in rice grains. It can dramatically reduce the concentration of arsenic in harvested rice grains. Periodic soil drying reduces the incidence of fungal diseases and other insect pests.The yield recorded under alternate wetting and drying irrigation system (var. Bina Dhan 11in summer season) was 5.88 t/ha as against 5.56 t/ha in conventional system giving as yield advantage of 5.8%. But the energy input was 38222 mJ/ha in alternate wetting and drying system whereas in conventional system it was 44701 mJ/ha saving 1500 mJ energy with energy use efficiency of 3.1 in AWD as against 2.5 in conventional irrigation system.In alternate wetting and drying system the production cost, gross return and net return realized was Rs.49784, Rs.91728, Rs.41944, respectively with B-C ratio of 1:87 whereas in conventional system it was Rs.51,284, Rs.86,732, Rs.35,452, respectively with B-C ratio of 1:64.Under CCAFS, AWD in paddy was demonstrated in 26 ha covering 23 farmers in Jayapur Patna, Kuanarpur and Taraboi Sasan villages in Odisha and resulted in an average increase in yield and benefit cost ratio compared to current practice of irrigation. There is scope for wider adoption of AWD in the state under summer rice and autumn rice, primarily grown with irrgated water.The practice can reach a large numbers of rice growers in the state through training and guidance from state department of agriculture, SAU, IRRI, department of water resources, directorate of water management etc supported by the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture.Water being the most crucial and scarce resource formulating government policy to price it and imposing restriction on its use for rice farming may pressurise for its judicious use.The climate of Odisha is hot sub humid with hot summers and mild winters, the mean winter temperature and rainy days are most suitable for rice -pulse production. In Odisha, paddy crop is mainly cultivated in kharifseason covering 30.74 lakh hectare. Following this kharif paddy, only 18.51 lakh ha is cultivated in rabi, of which green gram covers 6.31 ha area grown under residual soil moisture, while other 12.2 lakh ha is left as fallow. Due to rise in temperature and susceptibility of existing varieties to YMV the crop yield of green gram is decresing resulting in increase in fallow. To address the growing concerns, there is a need to look at the climate resilient crop variety and practices to sustain and stabilize green gram productivity.The green gram var. IPM 02-14 was introduced in Rice-fallow/pulse cropping. In this system rice is harvested early, allowing to cultivate pulses to take advantage of the residual moisture stored in the soil with minimum tillage. To utilise the stored moisture effectively, green gram is drill seeded instead of traditional broadcasting. Yellow sticky trap (YST) was installed to protect the crop from YMV by trapping the vectors.Drill seeding ensured sufficient plant population through proper utilization of residual moisture. Green gram var. IPM 02-14 was tolerant to high temperature, With YST, it was found free from YMV. As a result, it yielded (7.2 q/ha) advantage of 57 per cent over the broadcasted traditional variety. The gross return realized was Rs 41,40012 Contribution from S. Biswal and T. Panigrahi , OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha with a B-C ratio of 1:6Scaling: Scope and pathwaysRice pulse system with Green gram var. IPM 02-14 can be adopted in all the districts. However, districts with large area under rice fallows hold good potential to scale-up. By preferring shorter duration rice varieties this system can also be extended to the districts where rice fallow is predominant.Livelihood and employment opportunities can be created by enhancing the productivity and income through crop intensification.Value addition system (particularly, mini Dal mills and processing units in the vicinity of production areas) can provide additional employment and income to youths and farm women groups.Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology (OUAT), IRRI and State department of agriculture.Through convergence of different initiatives and missions this can leave useful options for increasing productivity and income in all the thirty districts of Odisha in partnership with the Department of Agriculture, OUAT, IRRI etc.Integrated weed management is the key for climate change adaptation and decreases dependence on chemicals 1.13. Integrating weed management (IWM) technology for higher productivity 1313 Contribution from S. Biswal, OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha and Sanjoy Saha, ICAR-NRRI, Cuttack, OdishaWeed causes major yield loss in both direct seeded and transplanted rice crop. It involves lots of labour force for weeding. But due to labour crisis weeding is delayed which not only reduces crop yield but also becomes a source for spread of insect and diseases.Integrating the manual, mechanical and chemical means of weed control not only reduced cost of production but also timely operation resulted in higher yield. Application of Pretilachlor within two days after transplanting at 1.0 l/ha followed by a mechanical weeding by rotary weeder or conoweeder three weeks after transplanting controlled maximum weeds. The rest of the weeds were removed manually at six weeks after transplanting.In village Jayapurpatna in Khorda district farmers used IWM technology and by this There is scope to upscale the technology in the rainfed as well as irrigated rice growing areas in Odisha. Integrating weed management practices has a potential to reduce production cost and to improve rice productivity and profitability. Minimum use of herbicide but timely application combined with mechanical and manual approaches can minimise the crop weed competition.IRRI, DAFE of Odisha, OUAT, and NRRIProviding mechanical weeder and proper herbicides at a subsidised cost and capacity building can build up the confidence of the farmers for wider use. This can reduce the chemical load as well as the GHG emission.Odisha, the state on the south-eastern fringes of India, is largely producer and consumer of rice; however, the average state productivity is quite low as compared to the national average. SSNM based approach for irrigated rice developed and evaluated and found suitable for RCM to make better decisions on key nutrient management adjusting nutrient application for smallholding farmers of Odisha. For rainfed conditions, SSNM based method developed and further evaluation through on-farm testing carried out in different agro-ecological zones of Odisha.The idea behind this decision support tool is to apprehend through the study to sort out the fertility issues that have the thought-provoking constraint for yield under rainfed scenario due to unpredictable water situation. Farmers, in this region, often apply fertilizers inefficiently, unaware of the concept and benefits of sitespecific nutrient management. It results in lower yields and poor soil health. SSNM based approach ensures better nutrient management under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. In rainfed scenario water availability at the time of fertilizer application is measured as helpful and helps to improve the agronomic efficiency of the applied nutrient. SSNM approach considers the integrated nutrient management (INM) system considering all available sources of nutrients and implies use of nutrients based on supply and demand concept for particular field to improve productivity and soil health.Odisha lies in the in the tropical belt of India and occupies only 3% of total rice area in India but shares 7% of India's total rice production. Farming is the main occupation and rice is the chief source of energy for the people of the state. The recommended dose of fertilizers in the RCM plot was estimated through one-to-one interviews with the farmers using RCM tool. In FFP, the nutrient management information was collected from the farmers before the start of the experiment and used by researchers to monitor the time and amount of application during the season. Except for differences in fertilizer rate, timing, and variety in these plots, all other management practices were same. At maturity, the crop cut was done in the presence of farmers, extension workers, and government officials to observe, witness, and evaluate the treatments.Use of RCM based recommendations reported a yield advantage of 21-22 percent over FFP (0.73 t/ ha with FV and 0.77 t/ ha with STRVs). Use of RCM recommendation along with STRVs realised a benefit of 283$/ ha from rice yield over FFP with FV (minimum support price for rice is 23.97 $ /q). The net added benefit in RCM +STRV treatment was 276$/ ha (fertilizer cost for RCM plot is 7$ more over FFP).There is scope to upscale the technology in the rainfed rice growing areas in Odisha as RCM has a potential to improve rice productivity and profitability in rainfed environments. This is possible either by increasing the yield or decreasing the fertilizer cost or a combination of both. Application of fertilizers at times when it is required increases the nutrient use efficiencies.Correcting the time and amount of fertilizer not only increase crop yield but could be a better option for soil health management by saving the fertilizer loss to atmosphere and water bodies.Gender and youth, considered as a factor for planning and implementing the agricultural programmes, has always scope to enhance the access of technologies, inputs, credits and markets, ultimately, result in elimination of gender differences and discriminations in rural area. Also, it created awareness among rural youth for better nutrient management practices. During studies it was observed that in RCM technology, women's and youth's role (either as an individual or collective) was more pronounced in decision making. Gender sensitized rice production among tribal farmwomen of Odisha through RCM technology approach resulted in enhanced knowledge level, productivity and income.Taking up RCM in larger areas on community basis can help to service providers for develop business case of printed sheet when disseminated by input dealers and agro-based community service centers. To harness the benefits, a small cost of the printed sheet could motivate to use this technology. Thrust may be given for popularization of low cost smart phone and internet facilities for making this technology a viable option for nutrient management.IRRI, DAFE of Odisha, OUAT, and NRRIA centrally sponsored Soil health card mission and National Food Security Mission (NFSM) has been launched from 2007-08 in the State with the objective of increasing production of rice and pulses through area expansion and productivity enhancement in a sustainable manner in the identified districts. DAFE/NRRI/OUAT will have to own this technology for more outreach.Irrigation covers about 54% of agriculture land in Odisha and about 21% of total irrigated area is covered by lifting underground water with tubewell and electric or fossil fuel-based pumps. For many farmers, poor irrigation systems, the high cost of pumping groundwater and limited access to electricity are major problems. As their costs fall, solar irrigation pumps could replace farmers to use solar energy to pump water during periods of rainfall defficit can provide big opportunity in agriculture.In Establishment of solar panels for solar pump is an economic method of irrigation 15 Contribution from Arun Khatri-Chhetri, CCAFS, BISA, New Delhi and Tushar Sahah, IWMI, Ananda, Gujarat, India farmers did not need irrigation.The pilot project has generated income from both the improvement in agricultural production and the sale of surplus energy. It has also promoted a range of CSA interventions, such as efficient technologies for water use in vegetable farming, improved seed and nutrient management, minimum tillage, and introduction of crops that require less water. Cooperative members use solar energy to irrigate their own crops and sell irrigation services to neighbouring farmers before selling the residual energy to the power company.Figure 26 shows the changing dynamics of electricity generated and irrigation use. Between January and May (the dry season), cooperative membershad solar energy to meet their own and their neighbors'irrigation needs, and from May 2016 they could sell it to the power company. This model was also effective in reducing the use of power and water in agriculture without impinging on farmer incomes. The program could be of great significance for Himachal Pradesh given its small but critical water requirements for open and polyhouse cultivation, abundance of small streams and rivulets for water lifting, and the dispersion and remoteness of its farms, orchards, and pastures, not all of which can be connected to the power grid.Varietal difference in growth of rice crop 16 Contribution from Swati Nayak, Mosharaf Hossain and Mukund Variar, IRRI, New Delhi, IndiaThe state of Odisha is known for recurrent events of flood and drought year after year in the coastal and inland districts respectively. Though the quantum of seasonal rainfall has not changed drastically during the last 25 years, the distribution has been erratic, with longer drought spells and intensive precipitation occuring more frequently and causing distress to farmers. Incidence of drought and flood occurring within the same season further complicate the already delicate situation in some years. Every alternate year and sometimes consecutive years have witnessed serious crop loss or damage due to these climatic stresses. Many poor and marginal farming households are, therefore, at the peril of food and livelihood insecurity. Rice being the predominant food crop covering 69% of the cultivated area in the state, losses resulting from reduced productivity and production are substantial. Given this vulnerability of millions of farmers of the region, climate resilient rice varieties are one of the necessary adaptation strategies to reduce the risk and sustain production.Climate resilient rice varieties often popularly known as STRVs (stress tolerant rice varieties) have been developed to make the crop remain unaffected or relatively less affected compared to other high yielding varieties under stress conditions like drought, flood or salinity. When • Nearly 15 released in the STRVs pipeline have been tested under the local ecology through comparative trials. Sub 1 genes are now incorporated in a number of genetic backgrounds.• 40 varietal cafeterias have been hosted as evidence hubs for multi-variety comparative trials. These hubs have been connected with different stakeholders for participatory evaluation and ratings.• The stakeholders who have been part of joint evaluation and selection of suitable varieties are local government agriculture officers, KVK scientists, farmers, dealers, researchers, seed production officers, pvt.seed entrepreneurs, NGOs.• Drought tolerant varieties have been tested in more than 3000 ha under upland ecology through direct interventions and demonstrations in last 3 years (2016-2018)• More than 9000 ha was covered under comparative trials and demonstrations in lowland ecology in the state in flood affected districts in 3 years.• Apart from above direct coverage under trials/ demonstrations, there is an expected spill over/multiplier effect in terms of farmer saved/ sold/shared seeds gradually increasing the area by approximately by 55000 ha in last 2 years alone (with an estimated rate of 5-10% of harvest being reused or distributed as seed).• Apart from this; OSSC, and local seed entrepreneurs steadily increasing the volume of STRV in their supply channel, many more new farmers are being reached out year after year.• Awareness creation through demonstrations have led to higher seed demand for Bina Dhan 11, Sahbhagi Dhan, DRR 44 which have been brought under seed chain by state seed corporation.• Breeder seed demand for STRVs for Kharif 2019 is about 55% of the total seed indent by the Department of Agriculture, Odisha. State Seed Corporation and/or private seed producers have sourced and converted breeder and foundation seeds to certified seeds to make it available to farmers in different districts.• STRV like Sahabahagidhan and DRR 44 have shown average yield advantage of 0.43 t/ha to 0.5 t/ha against local checks under stress (11-15 days of drought spells).• Bina Dhan 11, a flood tolerant variety, gave average yield advantage of 0.5 t/ ha under 14 days of submergence. Being early in duration, this variety provides the required time window to grow an additional crop after rice harvest. The variety is also getting popular in the rabi season because of its ideal duration, nonlodging character and high productivity.In order to accelerate the adoption for climate resilient varieties, there needs to be integrated effort to strengthen not only the seed systems for the new varieties but also the delivery systems for same.i) Farmer centric learning: The adoption rate could be triggered with farmer led learning process and making them participate in scientific evaluation of varieties under their own farm conditions.ii) Engaging extension functionaries: Extension agents from public, private or civil society sector are the major agents of change for taking the varietal knowledge to farmers and playing role in motivating them for their adoption. They could play a key role in mobilization as well. Creating learning platforms and appropriate linkage for these agents can make the difference.iii) Strengthening seed systems: Both formal and informal seed systems need to be strengthened for new varieties for sustained adoption. Creating institutional linkage for breeder seed, engaging government stakeholders, public seed corporation and private companies for varietal evaluation process can create better policy avenues and planned procurement/production of seeds in formal chain. Similarly capitalizing the strength of various community institutions of farmers and especially women; informal seed production and dissemination can also be triggered through capacity building.iv) Engaging seed delivery agents/dealers: Empowering dealers through exposure to varieties by organized trials supervised them and linking them to various varietal evaluation, selection and promotion platforms / events can lead to creation of market demand as well as supply of seeds. Dwindling surface water has forced the farmers to access aquifers to meet the agricultural water demand. Electric and diesel pumps have taken over the traditional pumping mechanisms, which were rendered dysfunctional due to decreasing ground water level. Currently, 30 million irrigation pumps are being used throughout the country (out of which around 70% use electricity while 30 percent rely on diesel).In order to meet the Nationally Determined Contribution of India, Solar Powered Irrigation Systems offer a way to adapt agricultural water management to Climate Change.Solar Powered Irrigation System (SPIS) offers a climate-smart and sustainable approach to simultaneously extend the area under irrigation while using renewable source of energy. SPIS offers both adaptive and mitigating benefits to curtail climate change, through solarisation of agriculture and agricultural pumping. Burgeoning technological innovations are reducing the investment cost required for owning solar powered irrigation systems (SPIS). This coupled with substantial amount of subsidy schemes being rolled out by the present government is giving necessary fillip to SPIS installations.With increasing focus on solar energy use in agriculture, several pilots and models of solar irrigation systems have been rolled out in the country. It has led to significant increase in the income of the farmers while simultaneously abating the ever rising greenhouse gas emissions.It offers farms the opportunity to reduce the cost of energy by reducing the requirement to invest in diesel to run the pumps or be dependent on the vagaries of electricity supply. Solar power generation offers a solution which amalgamates clean energy technology with increased food production.• Increase in yield Almost all of the pilot interventions have been taken up with the support of some external agency such as national or international nonprofit organizations. These organization have supported the intervention in either or all of the ways: by providing funds; by providing access to technical knowledge; providing coordination support etc.With the existing institutional framework it is challenging to scale out and ensure subsistence of the Solar Powered Irrigation System Technology, without the support of grass-root level NGOs, funding organisations as well as knowledge partners. A policy which facilitates these organisations to extend their support to such scaling out initiatives is the need of the hour.KUSUM (Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahaabhiyan) Scheme launched by the government of India, aims to support farmers to use solar powered irrigation systems to meet the energy demand for agricultural water requirement.17 Contribution from Paresh Bhaskar, CCAFS, BISA, New Delhi, India Discussed between farmer and researcher about crop residue management 18 Contribution from S. Biswal, OUAT, Bhubneswar and D. S. Rana, IRRI, New Delhi, IndiaIn Odisha, paddy crop is cultivated mainly in kharif season covering 30.74 lakh hectare. Of this only 18.51 lakh ha is cultivated in rabi, while other 12.2 lakh ha is left as fallow. With growing labour crisis most of the farm operations are heading towards mechanisation particularly the sowing/ transplanting and harvesting and threshing of paddy. Use of combine harvester clears the land early within short period so that the rabi crop grown on residual moisture is sown in time. But it leaves the entire residue (straw/hay) in field which is not essentially reused by most farmers. It is also difficult to incorporate and decompose the residue in the following dry crop(puises and oilseeds). Collection and disposal of this huge biomass is also time consuming and expensive. Therefore the farmersprefer to burn the residues to clear the land for ease and timely sowing.This leads to increased CO emissions and also is a great loss to the farmer as well to the land, as the land is deprived of biomass that helps in build up of precious soil organic carbon.There are many already proven residue management practices that can help farmers adapt to the likely adverse effects of increasing weather variability and climate change, and that can, in many cases, also reduce agricultural greenhouse gas emissions.In order to encourage farmers to change this practice, residue incorporation/mulching is to be introduced in the selected villages. The residue can be chopped into small pieces, spread and incorporated in-situ thoroughly by machines with varying efficiencies depending upon the left over residue. This can be well decomposed within short period by use of microbial inoculation.It helps in early seedbed preparation soon after harvesting kharifcrops for sowing of rabicrops, improves the soil physical properties and hence, results in increased crop yield. Incorporation of crop residue adds both major and micronutrients into the soil. This results in saving of chemical fertilizersin long run. Residue or biomass incorporation builds up soil organic carbon which improves water retention capacity and benefits the crop. This practice of in situ incorporation of crop residues can bring about reduction in residue burning which aggravates GHG emissions and air pollution. The entire summer crops, portion of rabi crops (15 lakh ha) and kharif crops under exigency (31 lakh ha) are irrigated. canal is the main source of irrigation. However in summer season as the canal source is exhausted and in areas out of reach of canal command area irrigation is done mainly with minor irrigation sources by using diesel or electric water pumps. For most farmers, poor irrigation systems, the high cost of pumping groundwater, and limited access to electricity are major problems.The rising diesel cost and frequent power shredding in summer season, frequent damage to distribution systems by cyclones and over loading drags the crops to suffering.In CSVs, in situ incorporation of paddy and pules residues and biomass of green manuring crops can be scaled up across several districts.In CSVs the machine is to be made available through custom hiring centers for wider adoption by farmers for resource conservation to improve soil health and productivity and reduce GHG emission.In areas of paddy-pulse/oilseed cropping system or where a dry crop is taken in rabi preferably with residual soil moisture ammounting to around 15 lakh ha can be brought under machine harvest as well as residue incorporation in order to reduce GHG emission and increase soil health.Availability of machines in large scale even through custom hiring can encourage the farmers to opt for the practice. In this endeavour rural youth groups and custom hiring centres can play a major role.Bailing the residue using tractor mounted bailers and lifting them from field can clear the land for sowing as well as preserve the residue for further use. It can be used as potential animal feed after mixing additives or can be sold to paper industries or packaging industries for gainful return. Availability of machines in large scale through custom hiring can encourage the farmers to opt for the practice and can provide employment to the rural youths.Government ban on residue burning and incentive for recycling can encourage farmers for this greater cause.Solar Powered Irrigation Systems offer a way to adapt agricultural water management to Climate Change. As the costs falls and timely water supply is ensured, solar irrigation pumps could replace diesel or electric pumps a possibility the state government is aggressively popularizing. Moreover when crops do not require irrigation surplus project power may be sold to local grids to earn additional income.Apart from ensuring higher crop yields through timely farm operations and mitigating GHG emission and climatic risks it may also promote a range of CSA interventions, such as: efficient technologies for water use, improved seed and real time nutrient management, minimum tillage, and introduction of low water requiring crops.Like Gujrat , solar cooperatives may be formed where cooperative members use solar energy to irrigate own crops and sell irrigation services to neighbouring farmers before selling the balance energy to the local power company.The stakeholders, farmers,government officials, academicians, and representatives of the solar industry may visit the project location to better understand the model for stimulating significant state and national policy.The program could be of great significance for Odisha given its small but critical water requirements.The project may be initiated in small scale in pilot mode but it can spread to all the crop fields wherever and whenever irrigation is needed.State department of agriculture, OREDA, Power companies, NABARD, farmer cooperatives, NGOs, SHGs can join handsWomen farmer groups and rural youth organisations may start the project in business mode and sale irrigation water to local farmers and surplus energy to power grids .this can support the employment generation to a great extent that to in rural sector.Both the state and central government should liberally support the project by incentivising in several sectors.In rainfed areas, the window for taking up of timely farm operations like land preparation, sowing and inter-culture operations is quite narrow, especially in the low rainfall zones. Failing to exploit this limited window often leads to a compromise on productivity and resource use efficiency in crop production. On the other hand labour crisis at peak period of demand is a serious problem faced by farmers. Delayed farm activity especially sowing not only affects the current crop but also the crops in succession.In high rainfall areas dominated by heavy soils, drainage is more crucial to prevent damage to crop from excess soil moisture in the root zone.20 Contribution from S. Biswal, OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha and D.S. Rana, IRRI, New Delhi (India)Adoption of climate resilient practices are linked to timely access to appropriate farm machinery at reasonable cost. Several options are now available to increase the efficiency and timeliness of agricultural operations even on small farms by using farm machinery.Mechanization brings in timeliness, uniformity and precision to agricultural operations, greater field coverage over a short period, costeffectiveness, efficiency in use of resources and applied inputs, conservation of available soil moisture under stress conditions and provision of adequate drainage. Farm implements could successfully empower farmers to tide over the shortage of labour and improve efficiency of agricultural operations.Transplanting has remained as a potential establishment method. Manual transplanting is a common practice but with rising labour crisis and uncertainty in water availability sometimes it is delayed and done with age old seedlings resulting in yield reduction.Mechanization has come to the rescue under such disadvantage which saves around 40 labour days on uprooting and transplanting normal seedlings. For mechanical transplanting mat nursery has proved an additional advantage which saves 90% labour and 20-25 kg/ha seeds as against conventional method. With mechanical transplanting only five labours can assist in transplanting an hectare area. Uniform and shallow transplanting at 24 cm × 14 cm spacing with 3-4 seedling of 18 days old produced higher tillers (14-16/hill) as against manual transplanting (12-14/hill). The operations could be completed in time without affecting seedling age. As a result, a yield level of 6.2 t/ha could be realised with 14.8 per cent yield advantage. The net return was Rs 48,991 with B-C ratio of 2.03 under mechanical transplanting as against Rs 31,511 under manual transplanting.Similarly, using combine harvester could save 62 labourers and a cost up to Rs10175 from one hectare area with an added advantage of simultaneous threshing. By combine harvesting the cost and time period for threshing was saved which ensured early marketing in local Mandi; the subsequent crop is also sown in time to utilize residual moisture. Any one taking early maturity variety prefered to use the reaper for early harvest to utilise 100% straw similar to manual harvesting.Looking at the advantages of mechanical transplanting, supported by subsidized cost of procurement the no of transplanters in the CSVs is increasing at a faster rate. This can spread to all the transplanted areas either due to labour or water crisis. Harvesting through combine harvesters, being a group assignment is easily adopted to save the produce from cyclonic storms and heavy rain at the fag end of the crop. For hiring combine harvester all the farmers in a patch used to grow the same variety for synchronization in maturity which strengthens the cooperation.Hiring transplanters, combines also provides extra employment to the young farmers and solves the labour crisis to a great extent. Thus establishing custom hiring centers for mechanised farm operations has become the demand of the day. This can generate rural employment and also can modernise agriculture.State department of agriculture, agro-industries Corporation, implement factories, can join hands in making the progress faster.Liberally incentivising custom hiring centres to mechanised farming can mobilise farmers to modernise agriculture and make it climate resilient. This can be linked to various other schemes like RKVY, NFSM and BGREI etc. Factories for impements play a key role in this endeavour and therefore should also be promoted.Weather variability significantly affects crop yields. Clear understanding of climate helps in devising suitable management practices for taking advantage of the favourable weather conditions and avoiding or minimizing risks due to adverse weather conditions. Early planting is advantageous but in certain years, this is offset due to the presence of long dry spell after planting, which leads to seedling death and necessitates re-planting. There is a tendency for lower yields for late sowings beyond first week of August; because of the high risk of end-season long dry spells. Farmers having access to climate and weather information are more likely to take better crop management actions. Understanding of optimum sowing period, growing season characteristics with reference to rainfall pattern helps farmers in making informed decisions in designing strategic planting management options.Devanakonda Mandal in Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh (AP), India, receives an annual rainfall of about 606 mm in 35 rainy days and groundnut is the major rainfed crop. ICRISAT and Microsoft have jointly taken up a pilot project under the Andhra Pradesh \"Rythu Kosam\" Project for disseminating sowing and other crop-management advisories to the rainfed groundnut farmers of Devanakonda. Farmers' Group Meetings were organized and 175 farmers have registered their mobile phone numbers for receiving sowing advisories. Historic climate data for 30-years (1986-2015) was used to understand the rainfed growing season characteristics and optimum sowing window was identified using PNUTGRO crop-growth simulation model. Beginning of groundnut crop growing period for the year 2016 was identified based on the Moisture Availability Index. Advisories were prepared both in Telugu (local language) and in English and were disseminated to the registered farmers during the groundnut crop-growing period of 2016. Advisories included recommendations on land preparation, soil-test based fertilizer application, FYM application, sowing, seed treatment, optimum sowing depth, preventive weed management, maintaining proper plant density, applying nutrients if needed, harvesting, shade drying of harvested pods and storage.Weather advisories brought climate awareness among groundnut farmers and encouraged them to initiate sowing at the optimum time. They followed weather-based agro advisories for proper crop management and obtained better yields and are out of loss compared to some farmers who have sown earlier. Some registered farmers who have sown as per our advisory have Inter-annual and intra-seasonal rainfall variability has become a reality, probably due to climate change, and many farmers are turning towards climate services and are seeking support on choices of climate smart crops and varieties and their optimum sowing windows. There is great scope to upscale this initiative in the rainfed groundnut and pigeonpea crop growing areas in Odishato reduce the risk of sowing failures and to promote better crop management practices based on medium range weather forecasts and advisories. India Meteorological Department (IMD) has initiated issue of weather forecasts at Block level and these will help in developing cropspecific agromet advisory services in Odisha.Women are unable to voice their specific requirements even though the impact of climateThe Intelligent Systems Advisory Tool (ISAT) 22 Contribution from Dakshina Murthy Kadiyala, KPC Rao, Ram Dhulipala, and Anthony Whitbread, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Telangana and Mithun Das Gupta&SoudaminiSreepada, Microsoft India (R&D) Pvt. Ltd, Gachibowli, Hyderabad change affects women and men differently. It is therefore required to boost resilience of women and youth to climate change through climatesmart agriculture practices.Weather-based crop management services for the farmers are to be offered free of cost, as per current policy.ICRISAT is implementing a project supported by the Government of Odisha on \"Enhancing Agricultural Productivity and Rural Livelihoods through Scaling-up of Science-led Development in Odisha: Bhoochetana\". The objectives of the project include assessment of the nutrient status of agricultural soils and to identify the best soil, water, crop, and nutrient management options for increasing productivity in all the thirty districts of Odisha in partnership with the Department of Agriculture, OUAT and other partners from Odisha through convergence of different initiatives. Enhanced Agromet Advisory Services can be planned on a pilot scale for groundnut and pigeonpea in selected locations.In recent years, climate services have emerged as an important means to address the challenges posed by climate variability and change.Advances in climate and weather predictions have opened up new opportunities for smallholder farmers to better understand, anticipate and respond to the risks and opportunities presented by variable climatic conditions. At present, the forecast-based advisories tend to be generic and not very contextual due to use of district as a boundary which is very coarse for this type of service. Hence by taking advantage of the recent advances in climate science which made significant contribution to improve the availability and quality of climate information and using advanced analytical techniques and state of the art system simulation models there is a need to design and deploy an automated messaging system for smallholder farmers and extension workers to deliver real-time, locationspecific, crop-based, agro-advisories using scalable methodologies for managing climate risk.ICRISAT with its partners (Microsoft India Pvt. Ltd and ANGR Agricultural University) developed and deployed \"Intelligent Systems Advisory Tool (ISAT)\" which enables farmers to make informed decisions by providing them with tailored location and crop specific advisories communicated to their mobiles through Short Message Service (SMS). The whole process of delivering agro advisories starts with development of decision trees or algorithms for all the decisions depending on the time of sowing. In the decision tree, each branch represents a possible outcome or an action and the selection of most appropriate action is guided by the result of test conducted at different nodes in the tree. Hence, putting the decision tree into action involves getting or accessing real time data from various sources as required to test the criteria set at each node, evaluate the criteria and select the most appropriate action. Microsoft, India has developed the required algorithms and program to implement these steps. Messages were communicated initially at the beginning of the season on cropping systems to be followed based on the seasonal climate forecast released by IITM, Pune. The regular bi-weekly agro advisories during crop season were pushed automatically using last (previous?) week's actual weather data, coming week forecasted weather and two weeks weather outlook obtained from IMD. The contextual information thus provided, enables farmers to manage their farms more efficiently and profitably by making timely decisions and conducting operations with precision.• Nearly 79% of the farmers are satisfied with the weekly frequency of the messages • 93% of farmers from the project villages are satisfied with the coverage of various issues in the messages• About 58% of the farmers rated the information as \"mostly correct\" or \"correct 75% of the times\" and another 33% of the farmers rated as \"correct more than 50% of the times\"• About 78% farmers used the information for timely sowing, more than 66% farmers used the information in planning harvesting and 57% used it in scheduling spraying and fertilizer applications• On average 16.2% increase in groundnut yields achieved by farmers in treatment villages with access to climate information than by farmers in the control villages without access to climate informationThere are several SMS type platforms that exist which could be substantially improved by adopting the iSAT methodology. IKSL for example, currently has an ICT platform that makes available climate related advisories to about two million farmers mainly through SMS service. Integrating with existing commercial or government platforms will ensure that the project and the outputs are sustainable and have an opportunity to scale. It is also anticipated that many governments will find such knowledgebased systems extremely useful in making their extension systems effective by providing them with up-to-date location specific advisories using the methodology developed under this project.In India, women who play a key role in the decisions for many farm operations (e.g. enterprise selection, timely farm operations and alternative livelihood practices). By using gendered farmer and indigenous knowledge engagements, training and outreach to interpret and use probabilistic climate information, women will benefit equally from increased availability of relevant climate information, improving access to credit, and therein strengthening household food and nutrition security.There are several progressive IT solutions and services startup companies concentrating on agri business by focusing on effective use of information technology in India (specifically in the public sectors) for the benefit of farming communities. These startup companies are a free to use platform for communicating the climate information to the end users through mobile devices and web browsers. Different stakeholders of agriculture like farmers, traders, input dealers, Farmer Producer Organizations, students, scientists and researchers, etc., can use information from these platforms to share their needs, ask & answer questions, receive news & information like farm advisories, market linkages, etc., which can be a business model for the startupcompanies.• Microsoft India Pvt. Ltd.• ANGR Agricultural University• ICRISAT• Vasudhaika Software Private LimitedThe application could be linked can be integrated with any existing platform (e.g.IKSL) for sustainable scaling up. This tools can very well be integrated with the electronic agricultural extension systems that many state governments are promoting.Agricultural production is an outcome of biological activity highly sensitive to weather changes. Climate change impose negative effect on agricultural production through: (i) increasing the frequency of losses from extreme weather events including floods, droughts, and cyclones, (ii) changing absolute and relative variability of such losses, (iii) shifting spatial distribution of such losses, (iv) damage function increasing exponentially with weather intensity, (v) abrupt and non-linear changes in losses, (vi) widespread geographical simultaneity of losses, (vii) more single events with multiple correlated consequences. Thus with climate change, the agricultural risk will not only accentuate but also will become very complex and cumbersome process necessitating devising new mechanisms and measures to address such risks. Therefore, there is a great need for crop insurance with the following goals (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana -PMFBY, 2016) 1) Financial support to farmers in the event of failure of crop as a result of natural calamities and pests, diseases etc.2) To encourage farmers to adopt progressive farming practices and improved technology in agriculture.3) To help stabilize farm incomesConsidering the number of farmers at risk, dynamic of the risks, moral hazards, and limited resources by governing and monitoring entities of PMFBY implementation in the state, at issue is how PMFBY program can effectively assess claims in the case of extreme weather events within the strict timely requirements stated in the policy.Earth observation and remote sensing technology facilitates effective monitoring of agricultural crops at large scale on a repetitive basis. In the case of lowland rice, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) option for earth observation is advantageous due to pervasive cloud cover during monsoon, the time most expansive time of rice cultivation and in the case of floods and cyclone events. Remote sensing technology especially when integrated with crop modeling approach can offer an attractive solution of nonbias and transparent loss assessment delivered within the required timing defined in PMFBY policy. Use of processed-based crop modeling allows yield information to be projected while season is still in progress thru incorporation of weather forecast allowing loss assessment in the case of weather extreme events (e.g. floods, droughts, and cyclone impacting rice production).Remote sensing approach supported with ground-truthing can reliably map start of season and rice growth indicators and thereby can effectively monitor whether any parts of monitoring coverage exhibit cases of preventive sowing and/or fail sowing. Rice area derived from remote sensing and delineation of it according to land ecosystem also useful for targeting sampling area for CCE for PMFBY. Integrating remote-sensing data and crop growth model is more promising than the empirical approach for yield estimation as the integration allows remotely sensed vegetation indices translated directly into crop yield and production values.The integration approach exploits the synergies between: (i) remote-sensing technology strength in capturing spatial and temporal variation related to agro-practices (e.g., crop establishment dates) and seasonal crop development (i.e. phenology) and vegetation status (e.g. leaf area index); and (ii) process-based crop growth model strength in reliably simulating yield by capturing biophysical growth drivers (microclimate, water, and nutrient). In addition to supporting risk reduction efforts by supporting crop insurance, the information from remote-sensing technology can be used to identify and target hot-spot areas for interventions to reduce yield gaps and optimize resource use to ensure sustainable rice production.IRRI implements remote sensing technology, specifically earth observation using cloud penetrating synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, to timely monitor rice planting progression and provide in-season yield forecast. Multi-temporal SAR data (January to December, every 12 days) spanning across 3 tracks of Sentinel 1A and Sentinel 1B satellites are used for rice cultivated area extraction of Odisha during Kharif and Rabi seasons and for discrimination of land cover types to develop rice baseline map. Optical images from Landsat 8 and Sentinel 2 satellites were used to cross-check and verify rice area classification based on SAR data.• Developed a rice monitoring system for Odisha to provide accurate and timely estimates on rice area, yield and production along with planting date. during June, considered as Autumn rice along with mixed Autumn and early winter in July with 16% of area and 6% of late winter in September.• Yield estimation system was implemented based on integration of SAR data with ORYZA crop growth model using Rice Yield Estimation System (Rice-YES). RICE-YES interprets LAI maps from MAPScape-Rice to simulate yield accordingly while capturing meteorological and agronomic information through the use of spatially disaggregated weather data, varieties, soil, and nutrient management information.• Crop damage assessment in case of drought, flood, and cyclone for all rice-growing areas, to provide data and information derived from remote sensing to support implementation of Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) for paddy in Odisha.• During the wet and dry season, IRRI generated rice area map, estimated yield and provided flood maps affected by the cyclones 'Titli', during October 2018 and 'FANI, during May 2019. These efforts were followed by socioeconomic and policy research to identify factors that affect crop insurance uptake and ways to improve acceptance of the insurance scheme by bundling risk reducing technologies and other options.• Field level monitoring and damage assessment in case of floods and droughts using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) were deployed to complement information derived using satellite earth observation.• Local capacity building programmes and hands-on training sessions to NARES partners consisting of DoA staffs and the Odisha Space Applications Centre (ORSAC) staffs were conducted targeting know how of remote sensing data processing using MAP Scape-Rice software and yield mapping using Rice-Yield Estimation System (Rice-YES) software.Timely forecast of crop yield during mid-season are critical preparedness requirement against natural calamities. In the event of crop failure as a result of natural calamities and pests, diseases outbreak, key information needed for accessing economic loss relies on information of the expected productivity of the affected farms. Satellite and drone based advanced remote sensing technology is feasible and scalable intervention for effective support crop insurance program to reduce vulnerability of farmers to negative impact of climate change.Current implementation of PMFBY heavily relies on Crop Cutting Experiments (CCEs) to determine the yield and yield loss. Remote sensing and crop modeling technology implement by IRRI has the potential to complement delivery of yield loss information and thereby promoting a more reliable claim processing and thus promote better acceptance of the program by farmers. Climate change has increased late season heavy rains and cyclones causing an increasing threat of heavy economic loss from post-harvest inundation. Protocol for loss assessment using complementary information derived using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) can further strengthen information delivery in strict time requirement under extreme weather events including localized events of post-harvest inundation which has a very high damaging threat to the economy of small holds paddy farmers.Disseminating accurate and real-time information on rice area for throughout cropping seasons to state government to facilitate in policy decision making, implementation of insurance products and crop damage management.Color-coded map shows the district-level estimated yield for Kharif-2018 In coastal area of Odisha, abiotic stress such as flood water inundation directly affects the rice productivity. Initial crop establishment in directseeded rice and survival upon submergence in transplanted rice is poor and impacts the productivity. Decoding the spatio-temporal dynamics of coastal flood prone areas through geospatial technology substantially contributes to the productivity enhancement measures.Flood prone zone identification was done using MODIS (Aqua & Terra) 250 m EVI images at 8-day interval for 5 years, (2010-2014). Time series images between end of May to end of October for each year was analyzed to help identify the flood prone zone in each year and subsequently demarcate those areas which were relatively consistent. This work was done for coastal districts of Balasore, Bhadrak, Kendrapara, Jagatsinghpur and Puri. Later for each district, zones were aggregated at block level for necessary intervention.Spatio-temporal dynamics shows that Bhadrak districts was most affected flood prone zone followed by Puri and Kendrapara. Among all the years, 2014 was relatively most affected by flood.Especially between the mid-July to mid-August -and that the water receded only after the last week of August thereby affecting the possible areas of DSR and transplanting.Geospatial technology has the potential to monitor and evaluate the flood zone extent at landscape level, which subsequently can be an important tool for agronomist and policy makers. Moreover, availability of time-series satellite data can substantially support the dynamic decision making at regular interval. With the launch of micro satellites, the tradeoffs between spatial and temporal aspects are reducing. Recent advancement in the technology, e.g. high spatial and temporal resolution satellites such as Sentinel, Planet Lab, is crucial in mitigating risk with persistent and precise monitoring. Drones are facilitating a higher-level of precision in agricultural data by creating an opportunity for real-time monitoring. Another important and emerging aspect of this technology lies in availability of open source data, software and user-friendly toolkits, which can act as a powerful tool for not only the geospatial professional but for people who requires quick area specific or landscape level analysis.Weekly weather mapping using MODISA large portion of potentially productive cropland in Odisha remains fallow during the winter (Rabi) season after the monsoon (Kharif) rice season due to three major factors: (1) lack of irrigation water, mostly in the plateaus and tablelands;(2) stagnant water causing water logging in the coastal low land areas; and (3) high soil or water salinity in the coastal zone. Late harvest of the Kharif crop or excessive soil wetting after rice harvest leads to late planting and low productivity of the Rabi crop. At issue is and major challenge for the state is how to increase productivity and profitability of these agricultural lands. Bringing these fallow lands into cultivation could substantially improve food production and enhance livelihoods of rural communities in this geography. Availability of drought-, flood-, and salt-tolerant rice cultivars and short-duration pulse crops, along with improved agronomy, water management, and mechanization, and technology targeting using GIS and remotesensing, significant numbers of potential ricefallows areas can be brought into cultivation.To intensify cropping in rice-fallow lands by targeting water-efficient crops like pulses, the spatial distribution and extent of the rice-fallow system area need to be mapped. Using improved remote sensing and geospatial technologies, IRRI has carried out mapping of rice fallows (current and permanent fallows) and its spatial-temporal change (by comparing the rice fallows in the year 2006, 2010, 2016, 2017 and 2018) along with the mapping of major associated abiotic stresses (e.g., flood, drought, and salinity) and other reasons for leaving productive lands under fallow (e.g identification of areas having long duration rice cultivars). Residual soil moisture content after rice cultivation is often sufficient in most of the districts to raise short-duration pulses (55-75 days) and oilseed crops. However, a detailed analysis of spatiotemporal profiles of soil moisture availability and duration during the Rabi season was required to precisely target and utilize the short residual soil moisture window (varies from 10-30 days, depending upon land types). IRRI worked to develop extrapolation domain maps of fallows with potential for double cropping by integrating remote sensing and GIS mapping with logical decision tree approach and following it up with on-farm trials and demonstrations of pulses after rice in different locations in Odisha. Extrapolation domain mapping identifies the suitability of rice based cropping systems for targeting improved stress tolerant cultivars, agronomic and water management practices in 'underutilized stress prone rice fallow areas' in Odisha.Integrated analysis of time series remote sensing satellite data of Sentinel-1 (SAR) microwave and Landsat OLI (optical) imageries for the threeyear period 2016-18 revealed that fallow area ranged from 1.97 to 2.20 million ha in Odisha (40 to 45% of the net cropped area), out of which about 1.34 million ha would be considered as permanent rice fallow as revealed by the analysis of frequency of common area for the three mapping years of 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18. Nine among the 30 districts, i.e., Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar district in North-Central plateau, Bargarh and Bolangir district in Western-Central table land, Baleshwar and Bhadrak district in North-Eastern coastal plain, Sundargarh district in North-Western plateau, Kalahandi district in Western undulating zone, and Nawarangpur district in Eastern Ghat highland, account for about 50% of total Rice-Fallow area. Rice-Fallow area is considerably less in the districts situated in the South-Eastern coastal plain.Extrapolation domains using remote sensing and GIS can facilitate precise targeting and accelerate the dissemination of improved technologies in fallow areas in a fast and cost-effective manner:• Rice-fallows and stress prone areas were effectively characterized for the entire state of Odisha• Flood and drought prone areas were mapped for rice varietal targeting at village level • Village wise area and suitability map of potential areas in rice-fallows were made available to facilitate targeting of water efficient suitable short/medium duration crops in rice-fallow systems in Odisha• Improved cropping systems for Rabi and Kharif fallows were tested and recommended• High yielding, short duration and disease resistant pulse varieties were disseminated to farmers along with best-bet agronomy, appropriate varietal selection, and sustainable water resources development through direct intervention• Intensification and diversification is expected to enhance farmer's income with efficient agronomic management practices and land use requirements for various situations• Rice Pulse Monitoring System(RPMS) App has been developed to collect and store georeferenced information, along with a suite of geo-spatial tools to visualize, analyze and manipulate ground data for data management and decision making.• Potential crops for rice fallows could be green gram, black gram, chickpea and mustard, etc. can be grown.• An analysis of the long-term average of spatio-temporal soil moisture profiles can assist in identifying the areas having low, optimum, and excessive soil moisture during the sowing period during Rabi. It also provides the information needed (1) to identify the areas where soil moisture is retained for a shorter or longer period after initial germination, and (2) to determine whether adequate soil moisture can be available up to the pod formation stage of the crop. This information can significantly help to decide the type and duration of the cultivars to use as well as sowing time to target the pulse crop in the rice-fallow cropping system.• ICAR and Ministry of Agriculture, India, to test five different crops in fallow areas targeting (i.e., sweet potato, black gram, green gram, chick pea, and pigeon pea) piloted on field trials in Puri district during Rabi 2018-19, involving other CGIAR organizations including CIP, ICARDA, ICRISAT and IRRI.The scope of advance remote sensing and geospatial analysis based targeting method including extrapolation domains can facilitate precise targeting and accelerated dissemination of improved technologies in fallow areas in fast and cost-effective manner and when combined with thorough cropping systems research, the integrative approach can facilitate increase income of farmers, the ultimate beneficiary of the technology intervention because it allows recommended contextually-relevant improved cropping systems and stress tolerant varieties (STRVs). The approach allows considerable scope to improve the productivity of rice-based systems by adjusting varietal characteristics (e.g. by planting shorter-duration rice, stresstolerant rice, hybrid rice, etc.) and evaluating potential crops for rice-fallows (green gram, black gram, chickpea, mustard etc.) through use of on station experiments and demonstrations in farmers' fields. Managing fallows with a sequence crop, beyond the primary benefits of increased cropping intensity and higher farm returns, also add carbon to the soil, and extract plant available N thereby reducing N2O emissions by preceding rice crops. Odisha is an agrarian state with 70% of the state's population depending on agriculture and allied sector. Even though the quantum of rainfall in Odisha is quite high, its distribution during monsoon period is highly uneven and erratic. As a result, flood and drought occur regularly with varying intensity impacting the production of kharif rice which occupies 67 per cent of the total cropped area and plays a significant role in food security. About 50 per cent of the rice area is established through transplanting methods in Odisha predominantly in rainfed medium or lowland agro-ecology which face problems of erratic rainfall leading to the forced use of weak, older and infested rice seedlings. Delayed transplanting of paddy due to the failure of rain in July affects productivity, as over aged seedlings suffer from low tillering ability. On the other hand, 91 per cent of the farmers have small holding (<1 ha) and can't afford to raise the nursery once it is damaged due to drought/flood. In this scenario, rice nursery enterprise model seems to be an effective solution where a rice nursery entrepreneur takes it as a business to produce healthy rice seedlings in staggered manner and supplies required quantity of healthy seedlings as and when required to farmers at an affordable price. The rice nursery entrepreneur adopts best agronomy practices and this becomes a win-win model for both the entrepreneur and farmers.The lack of resources and quality seed and lack of knowledge in better nursery management in times of monsoon variability demands a source from where farmers can buy healthy seedlings as and when required for transplanting. Staggered mat nursery of paddy with long, medium, and short duration varieties were raised on 15th June (1st nursery), 1st July (2nd nursery) & 15th July (3rd nursery) respectively and supplied to farmers as and when rainfall is enough for transplanting. Hence, farmers transplanted with the right aged seedlings when rainfall is enough for transplanting so farmers saved time and used rainfall effectively. On the other hand, individual rice nursery entrepreneur or SHG developing community nursery earn sufficiently by selling the seedlings in a span of two months. Individual rice nursery entrepreneur and community rice nursery groups developed and promoted in collaboration with various stakeholders like the department of agriculture and KVKs.In this model, rice nursery entrepreneur in consultation with farmers selected the variety, other inputs and management practices and grew it in staggered manner. Farmers availed seedlings from entrepreneurs when their fields got ready and when rainfall was sufficient for crop establishment. In case of extreme climate, staggered nursery raised with quality seeds in trays minimized the damage and able to supply seedling when needed. Due to the volume of business, s(he) or community could be able to minimize the cost and earn good profit.Rice nursery enterprise is a win-win model for both entrepreneur and farmer as it opens seasonal livelihood opportunity for rural youth and women and a strong solution that ensures crop establishment by supplying healthy seedling as and when required at affordable price against critical situation of monsoon variability.It saves money and conserve resources as the entrepreneur follows best management practices to grow healthy seedlings in order to sustain his/ her business.• Increase in Yield: The farmers who used rice seedlings from entrepreneur increased their rice yield by 0.44 t/ha compared to farmers who uses their self-grown nursery with overaged seedlings.• Cost of nursery production: The mat type nursery has less cost for producing rice nursery (INR 2381) for one ha of main field transplanting compared to manual nursery (INR 4762).• Improvement in resource use efficiencies: An entrepreneur uses almost all inputs (land/ seed/fertilizer/water) judiciously because of his technical skill and better-bet management practice.• Increase in net Profit: An average entrepreneur made a profit of INR 15070 in a span of two months in kharif season from selling rice seedlings for 16.09 ha of main field transplanting. Similarly, manual nursery entrepreneur made a profit INR 6300 for selling rice seedlings for 7.85 ha of main field transplanting.• Adaptation & mitigation to climate change risk: Due to nursery enterprises, farmers could be able to establish the crop at right time and no land was left un-transplanted.• Business for enhanced income: By engaging potential individuals particularly youth and women groups through skill development promoted entrepreneurship and contributed to local economy by creating localized service provision in agriculture.Although low land rainfed ecology where monsoon variability is a serious issue; hugely demands such a model, it can succeed at any climate and biophysical conditions. The business model is more beneficial in rice-rice cropping system and this rice nursery model is not only useful for mechanical transplanted rice but also for manually transplanted rice.Due to its low income, rural youth are departing from agriculture in rural areas. On the other hand, women are losing job in agriculture due to mechanization (in transplanting, weeding, harvesting). Hence, the nursery enterprise model has been conceptualized and successfully piloted with youth (individual entrepreneur) and women groups (community nursery) and found successful in Puri, Balasore and Bhadrak districts.If seed, why not seedling! That, if farmers are struggling to get quality seed and raising nursery under high risk, why not they buy readily available healthy seedlings from entrepreneur. This is one of the motivational factor of this model. Moreover, it has been observed that the business model is beneficial to both entrepreneur and the farmer. However, as this is new to the geography, a big push is needed. Government may launch a special scheme with substantial incentivization so that youth and women group will be able to establish seedling factories. To make it more effective and sustainable, this may be linked to mechanical transplanted rice schemes .This module can be operationalized and established through active collaboration with international partners like IRRI, CIMMYT, IFPRI and can be scaled up through Department of Agriculture, KVKs, CBOs .The scheme such as Capital Investment Subsidy for Commercial Agri-Enterprises (CAE) for unit establishments and Farm Mechanization can support this nursery business model. The Govt. has been promoting line transplanting through service provision models and this can be linked with rice nursery business model.Adoption and dissemination of climate resilient rice varieties has emerged as one of the key strategies to tackle the challenges of climate change and making rice farmers in Eastern India more resilient and food secure. However, for sustained adoption of these relatively newer varieties, farmers need sustained access to affordable good quality seeds at the right time. This requires a robust seed system for these resilient varieties which are not yet mainstreamed in the formal public sector channels. Among the various approaches to achieve this, informal and social networks including farmer to farmer dissemination of seed and knowledge could play a significant role. Over the last few decades, women led community-based institutions including self-help groups and their federations have evolved as one of the strong entry points for social and economic change. Building on their capacity, community mobilization skills and wide reach, these institutions can serve as effective platforms for faster dissemination and sustainable production of seed. Their network gives an opportunity for building sustainable adoption and scaling models with a large consumer base to create demand as well as utilize the production. Sahbhagi Dhan (a drought tolerant rice variety) was introduced to the upland areas through these institutions. Being the representative body for several village level women self-help groups and thousands of women farmers; these institutions not only ensured distribution of these seeds among member farmers through seed distribution and reinvestment but also saw other women farmers , especially in the neighbouring villages and communities exchanging these seeds for grains and trying them in their farms. They ensured that every farmer receiving the seeds, multiplied them and returned the same volume to community pool after the harvest. The community institutions ensured those pooled seeds and fresh procured seeds from Department of Agriculture, facilitating NGO or similar projects running in the area are re-distributed among new farmers. Equipped with advanced knowledge and skills, these women members ensured high quality seed production for themselves as well as others. This model, in spite of the lack of any monetary transactions or incentive, was a huge success as exemplified by a rapid dissemination of the variety in region, creating a demand for the seeds year after year.Introduced to less than 1000 farmers in the year 2014-15; the revolving seed production and distribution led to scaling of Sahbhagi Dhan among 2000 additional including new farmers in the next season itself. Apart from the compulsory contribution to community pool many old farmers were also part of informal exchange of seeds with other farmers.The key outcome of this intervention was the creation of capacities in seed production and demand for new varieties. By working with two women led institutions (federations), the knowhow and seeds of the resilient rice reached several thousands of women farmers who are members of these institutions. These member farmers were also found to spread the benefits to non-members within and beyond their villages in form of information and/or seed.Many villages where Sahbhagi Dhan was introduced with few women farmers a few years ago, now have the variety being used in almost all households. Malati, a woman leader from village Jhalkiani of Sampurna Federation says; \"Every household in our village now has either grain or seed of Sahbhagi. Each one of us now consume this variety. If I recall, it was only me and few other members of our group, who had the seeds in 2014\". This indicates the multiplier effect of this intervention.Inspired by the popularity and growing demand of variety, facilitating NGOs (PRADAN) and their collaborators also simultaneously disseminated the variety in many other drought prone districts. This contributed to consolidated demand for this variety growing steadily in the state. Other women federations in nearby Keonjhar district also started asking for these varieties.This momentum gradually helped in continuous circulation of these varieties and entering various formal channels like department of agriculture, zonal outlets of OSSC, dealers, PACS, LAMPS operating in the concerned districts. Spurred by efforts from Department of Agriculture and OSSC, the varietal landscape of the region has been gradually changing. As per primary data from dealers and OSSC growers, the sales of Sahbhagi Dhan only in Jashipur and Karanjia (the operational blocks of the above mentioned women federations) through formal channels has reached 400 quintals (catering 2000 acres) in 2018. This also indicates the potential impact of women's collectives ushering in change through their strong social and informal networks which are trust-based. Several women farmers also reported that they now don't have to exchange farm saved seeds for the variety as they have established seed supply which also ensures the seed quality, seed replacement and diverse seed sources for the community.Apart from reported yield advantages over traditional upland varieties, many women liked the cooking quality, taste, colour of this variety and preferred to store this variety (Sahbhagi Dhan) for home consumption to use as food or in religious/ cultural events.By the year 2017, there were several villages across Jashipur and Karanjia blocks of Mayurbhanj that witnessed introduction of other climate resilient varieties like Bina Dhan 11, DRR 42 etc. through same institutional networks.In some villages like Patbil in Karanjia, women also reported that they faced some resistance within the households when introducing these varieties, but were successful in negotiating and trying these varieties and spreading the word about them in the village. They became proactive in seed sourcing and assessing the quality of the seeds procured for the season. The exposure to new package of practices and extension support through the village level federation of SHGs ensured that women were more confident and involved in varietal selection.The womens' SHG network has proved to be one of the strongest community platforms for introduction, scaling and adoption of technologies, seeds and knowledge. The role of the federations and Village Organizations (VOs) can be further strengthened through access to modern technology, equipment, and knowledge support around large scale seed production programmes for all potential varieties. This can give a significant boost to state level varietal replacement programmes and strengthen seed system of new climate resilient varieties.With existing exposure to book keeping and coordination skills, their business development skills can be enhanced to run commerciallyoriented enterprises around seed and other products. Encouraging more villagers to take up seed production by helping them identify assured markets, aiding the planning and procurement of the materials, assisting the mobilization of resources to establish machinery for processing are a few of the immediate actions that can sustain the interest of these groups in running enterprises.Many trained community resource persons, master trainers, and women farmers from community as individuals or collectives can be linked to the formal seed certification process and registered as growers for public or private seed suppliers.IRRI, CIMMYT, DOA, NRRI, PRADANNational Rural livelihood Mission supported programmes around women farmers' empowerment, MKSP (Mahila Kisan Shashaktikaran Pariyojna); and initiatives by Odisha Livelihood Mission; programmes like Mission Shakti; and Seed Village programmes of Govt. of Odisha are some of the best opportunities to replicate and scale out these models and equip these institutions with skill and resources for spurring further growth and development.Transplanting has remained as a potential establishment method whereas manual transplanting is a common practice. With rising labor crisis and uncertainty in water availability sometimes it is delayed and old seedlings result in yield reduction. Mechanization has come to the rescue under such adversary which saves around 40 labour days on uprooting and transplanting normal seedlings.Farmers adopted this technique and jointly produced seedlings to ensure timely transplanting of correct age seedlings of higher productivity and reduce the risk associated with deficit or delayed onset of monsoon.For mechanical transplanting mat nursery has proved an additional advantage which saves 90% land, 20-25 kg seed as against conventional method which requires 1000 m 2 nursery area and 62-75 kg seed.28 Contribution from S. Biswal, T. Panigrahi, OUAT, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha Impact A community nursery in 5 acres/panchayat and 150 acres in each district was taken up. The subsidy for each nursery given to the farmer is Rs.6500/acre to cover the cost of production and Rs.1000/acre to farmers for purchasing of seedlings for transplanting in 10 acres from 1 acre of nursery. The total amount supported by the department for 1 acre of community nursery worked out to Rs.16,500.State Department of Agriculture has launched a scheme for promoting farmer managed community nurseries under assured irrigation to make paddy seedlings available for transplanting to meet contingent situations. It is suggested to promote community nursery with short duration varieties in the event of deficit rainfall situation / early drought in July as is experienced in several districts .In rainfed ecology where monsoon variability is a serious issue; badly demands such an approach. However it can succeed at any climate and biophysical conditions. The community nursery model is more beneficial in rice-rice cropping Farmers picked up timely nursery and are getting a good crop resultsRice food security is a priority issued for national governments. Shortfalls in production can accentuate food prices, which can in turn impact the government itself. National rice research institutions are responsible for the rice-based systems recommendations for their country.Recommendations for farmers for variety choice for the diversity of ecosystems, for crop management from seed to market and pest management demand credible knowledge and recommendations from scientists and informed extension services. This underpins the public system and this feeds into the institutional knowledge of the diverse actors working for extension of rice knowledge for farmers. In the current scenario, farmers and extension agents are subject to pluralistic extension systems that convey contrasting and conflicting knowledge A key principle in the development of the RKB was single source publishing, which allowed credible content to be used in multiple communication formats. The RKB approach was to enable a collation of rice-based knowledge that was country specific and reflected national agricultural authority. This is then accessible to ICT intermediaries and rural services agencies for using as is, or repackaging for dissemination through to farmers.RKB has over the years developed a systematic approach to working with national partners for the development of their own knowledge bank or a knowledge platform, through workshops and discussion fora. Key components of country knowledge platforms are• Bringing together a wide range of stakeholders from government research and extension institutions and agricultural information services, civil society organizations and as available the private sector• Exercises on priority extension materials to be developed.• Types of communication materials• Capacity building needs of actors in multiple channels• Consistency of messagingThe example of knowledge banks for rice as an example is illustrated with IRRI and the case studies of Bangladesh and the Philippines where processes and knowledge are transferable and scalable for agricultural enterprises beyond rice. The process followed for the knowledge platforms can equally be applied to vegetables, livestock, fisheries and non-rice crops.A credible source of knowledge in a system can serve as a hub within countries for dissemination of the information needed for coherent and rapid out scaling of new technologies. Groundnut is the most promising oilseed crop of Odisha. It covers 2.7 lakhs ha in kharif rabi. Most of rabiareas depends on residual soil moisture. This necessitates early sowing. But seed material available from kharif produce is not sufficient for rabi crop. Hence state depends on seed supply from adjoining states. This is usually delayed and so yield loss is an usual phenomena. Farmers also get exploited by the middle men who supply seeds and in return pick up the entire produce at low price besides charging heavily for seeds, fertilizers and pesticides in terms of interest. Thus timely availability of quality seeds for rabigroundnut that too at a lower price is a great headache for the State Department of Agriculture.The groundnut seeds loses viability when stored in kharif season due to its exposure to high humidity. Storing seeds with CaCl 2 gives prompt and effective germination.Farm women were mostly trained to store seed groundnut using CaCl 2 . As a result farmers could 100 per cent good and bold and perfect quality seeds. This could realize 87 per cent germination and 2.38 t/ha yield as compared to 83 per cent germination and 2.14 t/ha yield with fresh seeds. With an expenditure of Rs 39,243/ha farmers could be benefitted to the tune of Rs. 79,757/ ha. In addition this could free the farmers from bondage with middle men.This technology can be used by each and every groundnut farmer of the state if only CaCl 2 and polybags are made available so that the crop can be sown in time using farmers; own seed that too at a lower price.Groundnut grown in rabi season under stored soil moisture where kharif produce/seed is not available in sufficient quantity (most of costal districts having deltaic alluvium) can be covered under this and early sowing in rabi season can ensure proper and prompt germination.Rural youth, preferably farm women and farmers organisations after expertizing can try this technology in a business mode. They can procure seeds at harvest at a lower price, can store it for the local farmers and sale them at sowing time at reasonable price and can earn huge profit.State department of Agriculture, Odisha State Seed Corporation, women SHGs and farmers' organization and OUAT can work jointly to address this vital issue and solve the crisis.State Govt. need to encourage the farmers to store their own seeds and save lot of money spent on seeds, purchase and transport and also can save lot of precious time at critical period in ensuring seeds availability at farmer door step. Rather a part of this expense can be diverted in providing CaCl 2 and storage bags. Ultimately this can ensure timely sowing and higher productivity and higher return to farmers and to the state. At present the extension personnel in department of agriculture has the major responsibility of transferring technologies to the farming community from time to time. But at this juncture the personnel also have the limitation of transferring field specific crop management practices to the farmers in a user-friendly way.The existing transfer of technology mechanisms and extension programs mostly government run are either slow or ineffective in bridging the linkages between the research community and the farmers. This is partly due to inadequate exploitation of new means of knowledge and information dissemination by these agencies.Using the principles of SSNM, IRRI has developed the Rice Crop Manager (RCM), an application that provides farmers with crop management recommendations tailored to their fields and rice-growing conditions through the internet and text messages. In collaboration with the Government of Odisha, IRRI is investing in developing the capacity of extension workers to ensure the sustainability of the usage of RCM. The extension workers at the block and village-level have been trained through Training of trainers (ToT) programme to operate the tool, interview the farmers and to transfer the crop management advisories to them in a printed one-pager format. Till date around 2800 extension officials have been trained on how to use the RCM app. To re-inforce the advisories, reminders are also sent through voice-calls and text messages to the farmers. As the adage goes \"seeing is believing\", demonstration plots are established and through crop cuts farmers are made aware of the comparative advantage of following RCM recommendation over the conventional practices. In India, women's role in agriculture has been traditionally limited to transplanting, weeding, and similar tasks. Although rural women play a significant role in agriculture, their leverage to influence decision-making for purchasing and applying fertilizer and other inputs in the field remains low. IRRI is working towards creating awareness among women farmers regarding balanced nutrient application, soil health and improved crop management practices by providing them with RCM recommendations and explaining them the advisories. They are also being involved in establishing trials and demonstrations. Several of India's policies and programmes already directly or indirectly address climate change impacts on the agricultural sector covering many of the CSA approach components. However, this is currently being done in anUsing farmers participatory approaches for policy interventions around CSA 32 Contribution from Barun Deb Pal, IFPRI, New Delhi, India uncoordinated manner and are not uniformly spread across the country. For example, NMSA is currently focusing on rainfed areas, whereas climate change vulnerability is also arising in irrigated areas. Given that human and financial resources are scarce it will be more effective and efficient to have a synergized national policy to address climate change in the agricultural sector.This policy will bring about convergence of all ongoing as well as proposed activities at the national and state level related to climate change adaptation and mitigation. It is further proposed that emphasis be laid on considering agriculture as part of a larger landscape to make the system more integrated and sustainable. Such a policy can aid in judicious utilization of natural, physical and financial resources as well as alleviate poverty and food insecurity conditions under climate change and variability.What distinguishes climate smart village from other developmental models is its explicit consideration of climatic risks that are emerging more rapidly and with greater intensity today than in the past coupled with emphasis on addressing adaptation and mitigation challenges. The Climate Smart Village approaches entail higher investments in (i) managing climate risks;(ii) understanding and planning for adaptive transitions that may be needed and iii) exploiting opportunities for reducing or mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, where feasible.According to the Standing Parliament Committee on Agriculture in India, there is already a discerning effect on food grain production due to climate change. Further, Significant negative impacts have been projected with mediumterm (2010-2039) climate change, for example, yield reduction by 4.5 to 9%, depending on the magnitude and distribution of warming (Standing Committee on Agriculture, 2017). Since agriculture makes up roughly 20% of Odisha's GSDP, a 4.5 to 9.0% negative impact on production implies cost of climate change to be roughly between 1 to 2% of GSDP of Odisha per year. Since more than 60 % of people of the state depend directly or indirectly on climate sensitive agriculture sector and concentration of poor is high in rural areas than in urban areas, climate change impacts will increase income inequality in this state. Therefore, transforming agriculture into more adaptive, resilient and sustainable is need of the hour for rural development of Odisha.To achieve this goal Climate Smart Agriculture Village Programme can be an integrative approach to address the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change that aims to:(i) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, to support equitable increase in farm incomes, food security and development;(ii) adapting and building resilience of agricultural and food security systems to climate change;(iii) and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultureBenefits of a village level approach are already being demonstrated through the programme on National Innovation for Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) in 121 villages across the country covering its 11 agro-climatic zones. Also, Climate Smart Agriculture pilot projects are being implemented through the CGIAR research programme that are showcasing successes in making agriculture at village level climate resilient.Keeping in view that the vulnerability level of districts across India will change as the climate warms in short, medium to long term (CRIDA, 2013), the Climate Smart Village Agriculture policy must be dynamic and evolve with the changes across time and space.The starting point to implement this policy will be the Village Agriculture Plan. The program will need to lay special emphasis on developing village level plans for sustaining agriculture production systems, food and livelihood security for all villages that have been classified as, high and highly vulnerable to climate change as per the CRIDA assessment (CRIDA, 2013). Therefore, budgetary provisions need to be made to enable making of these plans. The plans will be guided by an initial climate change vulnerability assessment done using NICRA guidelines on the same. Based on the vulnerabilities assesses the CSA practices will be identified that will be introduced in the villages and corresponding proposals formed. These will be formed by the villagers with scientific inputs from the departments. While considering the best technological practices the plan will enable the following: Odisha experiences frequent drought and flood; its 480 km long coast line is cyclone prone in most part of the crop season. The climate of the Odisha state is hot sub humid with hot summers and mild winters. The farmers are mostly small and marginal groups having low income and so low risk taking ability. Thus the state is greatly affected by the climate change in terms of farm production, income and livelihood. Rice being the major crop of the state, attempts are made to intervene selectively to make the rice based farming system climate smart. Few of such suggestions are detailed below.• Stress tolorent crop varieties( both biotic and abiotic) that can face Challenging weather conditions like drought, flood, cyclones can make farming smart and resilient. A basket of options can widen the resource base under unforeseen exigencies.• Sixty five Per cent rice area is grown rain fed where the sowing/ planting window is quite narrow due to erratic rainfall. Similarly early and quick harvest is required to get rid of cyclonic/ thunder storms at harvest in both kharifand rabi season. But labour crises does not allow it in time. This necessitates mechanisation (transplanter and combine harvester) that can save time as well as the labour cost and can avoid massive crop loss.Establishing custom hiring centers can also create rural employment.• Alternate irrigation system (like AWD) with channel to field irrigation can save water loss, extend crop area and increase crop growth and yield by facilitating root respiration.• Laser land levelling can save water resource by higher distribution efficiency, ensures timely harvest and sowing of successive crop with uniform moisture status.• Resource conserving rice establishment methods (DSR, NPTR) carry better scope in resource scarce farming for climate resilience.• Using solar power for irrigation and other farm processes can avoid dependancy on electricity / fossil fuel in inaccessible areas and for timely farm operation.• Establishing commercial Community paddy nurseries , by individuals or in groups, can supply Right aged seedlings as per the requirement under exigencies and can benefit both the farmers and entrepreneurs.• Real time nutrient management approaches by use of RCM, green seekers etc can effectuate precission agriculture, increase productivity, profitability and sustainability.• Integrated pest and weed management approach can reduce the chemical load, GHG emission , can be cost effective, productive and sustainable.• Conserving crop residues, especially paddy straw, and recycling it can add to soil health; reusing it can add to the income.• Crop diversification from rice-rice system to rice-green gram / ground nut system can save water and other resources, reduce GHG emission, can restore soil health and can render higher profit.• In Odisha, paddy crop is mainly cultivated in kharifseason covering 30.74 lakh hectare (ha). After Kharif paddy, only 18.51 lakh ha is cultivated in rabi, while other 12.2 lakh ha is left as fallow. Growing pulses with heat tolerant varieties can take advantage of the residual moisture stored in the soil with minimum tillage in rice-based system. Processing and value addition can make the approach more remunerative particularly to farm women.• Capacity building for seed storage can ensure timely sowing for effective utilization of resources including residual moisture, can reduce the cost and increase yield and profit.• Smart agro-advisories ensure timely farm operations, can protect the crop and the farmers.• Convergence of various schemes and partner and stake holders can make the mission rapid and fruitful.Currently, the government of Haryana, in collaboration with CIMMYT, is implementing the results of the CSV sites in 500 villages with a focus on resource-conserving machinery and sensors for optimizing fertilizer use and reducing GHG emissions. The governments of Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, andTelangana have also proposed to finance use of this approach for building resilience in agricultural systems in thousands of villages.The government of Odisha might also seriously consider establishing at least 5 CSV clusters in four regions of the state.Research in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Maharashtra, and Telangana has yielded models of CSA portfolios for building resilience that can be adapted for Odisha. Following are thus needed:1. Establish CSV sites as learning platforms for building evidence for CSA. The government of India is taking a similar approach in most states through its National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) program.The Compendium seeks to provide an overview of approaches and practical tools to support extension services in the field of climate-smart agriculture.For more information please visit on linkDr ","tokenCount":"21551"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a55f4737a0c9aeee67e5284bd8d6c1e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9407014a-64b0-4b34-a640-a261c2e35d8d/retrieve","id":"1326904473"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8967976f-b7d5-4ed7-922a-d58b6d2e3f0a","pagecount":"11","content":"ISBN 978 94 6022 433 1M aking silage is a good way to feed animals in the dry season in Uganda.The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish is doing a lot of research on this and is hoping to promote it widely. But will it work somewhere else -in Kenya, say, or Zambia? Doing a set of experimental trials in many locations is expensive and timeconsuming. So scientists try to choose where they target their innovations by looking at aspects like the climate, soils, and socio-economic characteristics such as poverty and market access. Maps can be used to show where a particular technology looks promising.Gender can be a critical influence on the success of a particular intervention. A technology that works well in one place might fail completely in another because of different gender contexts. Stall-feeding, for example, takes a lot of time. It works well if women have sufficient time to collect and chop the feed. It is likely to fail in locations where women already have a high labour burden from their farming and household responsibilities. They will probably prefer to leave their animals out to graze even though this is less productive in terms of milk or meat output.But how to get gender relations and constraints into this targeting? We need a set of maps that show various aspects of gender so we can judge where contexts are similar, and where they differ.To create such maps, we followed four steps:We first decided what types of information to include in the map.1. We selected a large number of variables to reflect this information.2. We built a new set of indicators, or factors, that summarize these variables.3. We created a set of maps showing these factors.We needed a framework that could reflect a whole range of transactions in agricultural value chains. The New Institutional Economics framework (Williamson, 2000) captures four levels: informal institutions, formal institutions, governance and resource allocations. For each of these levels, we identified the corresponding gender concepts. Informal institutions, for example, relate to gender norms such as inheritances being reserved to men (the first column in Table 5.1). We then chose a set of gender indicators to reflect how these gender concepts relate to value chains (the second column in the table ).   Women have low decision-making power in their households, earn less than their partners, don't take decisions about money, yet have access to radio and TV. They live in countries that protect them against violence.We wanted to compare across countries and if possible among regions within countries. We needed a large, existing dataset to make this possible. For levels 1 and 2 (formal and informal institutions), we used country-level data from the OECD social institution and gender index (SIGI) database, covering 160 countries. We selected five variables: laws on domestic violence, women's secure access to land, women's secure access to non-land assets, women's access to financial services, and women's access to public space. Each of these variables can take on a score from 0 to 1, where 0 means no discrimination, and 1 means legal discrimination. A score between 0 and 1 depends on experts' opinions on the extent of discrimination through customary law (bringing in the informal institutions).For levels 3 (governance) and 4 (resource allocation), we used data from the Demographic Health Survey (DHS), which covers 90 countries in the developing world. These are individual-level data that cover a wide range of issues: ranging from educational level and access to information to decision-making within the household and ownership of assets. These data come from standardized interviews with a representative samples of women in each region within each country.The OECD data are at a national level, while the DHS data are at an individual level. To use both in the same analysis, we had to make them compatible. We did this by assigning the OECD scores for the country to each individual in the DHS dataset.The third step was to reduce our 20+ variables into a more manageable number. We did this by using factor analysis -a statistical technique that combines variables that are correlated with each other and identifies a set of factors that reflect the underlying meaning of the data.We discovered that the data for countries in Africa and Asia were rather different, so we did separate factor analyses for the two continents. We focus here on Africa. Our analysis identified six factors; Table 5.2 shows these, the variables that contribute to each factor, and how we interpreted each one.To produce maps from the factors, we aggregated the individual-level factors by grouping together women living in the same subnational region. We then plotted these data on a map of Africa. The left-hand map of Figure 5.2 shows that women in Zambia are subject to strong discrimination in terms of laws and customs compared to, say, Uganda. But Zambian women have more decision-making power within their households than do their sisters in Uganda.To return to the question at the start of this section: if we are considering transferring a silage-making technique from Uganda to Zambia, we need to be careful: it may not work because women in Zambia do not own land. On the other hand, it might work because they have more power in their households and may be able to persuade their husbands to try out the new idea.A serious researcher is obviously not going to make decisions just based on a set of such maps. She will also consult with specialists who know the area, look at other datasets and read the literature, before conducting small-scale trials in the new location. But the maps do provide useful information: they give a first indication for possible areas to consider -opportunities -and, they alert the researcher to potential problems. Another choice concerns how to measure indicators and how to treat missing data. An example: a woman's family may not own land because it is too poor. Or the family may own a lot of land, but it is not in the woman's name. In both cases she owns no land, but her situation is clearly different. We need to decide how to deal with this when selecting our variables. For the presented maps, we decided to use women's ownership of land and non-land asset regardless of their family situation, measuring the power a woman has over critical assets needed contribute to the value chain development.All this means that a set of maps may be useful for one purpose but not for another. We can transfer the approach, but may need to generate new maps for different research topics. That may take time and require some recoding of the computer program that generates the maps. Part 1 Gender-integrated methodologies and systems analysisWe have shown it is possible to map gender in a meaningful way and to compare contexts within and between countries. Two issues remain: Do the maps reflect reality on the ground? Validation is often a challenge for global maps. The Livestock and Fish programme has a lot of qualitative data that can be used to validate these maps. More case studies and detailed analysis are needed to understand better how accurate and useful the current maps are.What is the added value of gender context maps for targeting? The maps have not yet been tested for targeting research or development activities. We do not yet have any evidence that they will be useful. We need to test them in targeting actual research activities and seeing if they provide any new recommendations. If they do -and if the recommendations are valid -then we can be confident that we have created a useful product.The project speaks to the gender integrated research agenda because the gender maps can be used to identify the gender characteristics of contexts to interventions. Gender characteristics are considered an important aspect of contexts that affect the uptake of technological and institutional innovations and solutions. Identifying these factors, and also identifying how contexts correspond or differ from other contexts on gender characteristics is helpful to see which innovations can be scaled out where, and what gender considerations merit consideration in implementing these innovations.In terms of gender integration, this project:• Uses sex-disaggregated data, and especially data in existing datasets that is collected from women ","tokenCount":"1373"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f77b550e78d328d802af9fd5bb34ec13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7814d19-5845-4043-86d1-59451512deb6/retrieve","id":"170761710"},"keywords":["agricultural incentives","GHG","nominal rate of assistance","nominal rate of protection","value chain JEL codes: Q11","055","L1"],"sieverID":"a43e50fc-215a-446e-aa64-1991d86cca42","pagecount":"87","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for countryled development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.Establishing an Agricultural Incentives database was the key element of this research program. This allowed us to bring together and harmonize data collected by four key international organizations-FAO, the Inter-American Development Bank, the OECD and the World Bank-and to make them widely available on a dedicated website hosted by IFPRI. Doing so increased the geographic coverage of data from 27 country/regions (including the EU) covered by the OECD to 62 country/regions, including many where agricultural support measures strongly affect poverty.The Ag-incentives data are important both in their own right and as a platform for further research by both IFPRI team members and external researchers. Because the Ag-Incentives data are compatible with the now-dated collection of data from the World Bank's Distortions to AgriculturalIncentives database, they have allowed construction of consistent data series from 1981 to 2020 in recent work and could potentially allow extension of the data back to 1955 in some cases. These long data series are particularly important because the pattern of agricultural support changes as countries develop, with countries typically moving from taxing agriculture in developing and under-developed countries to supporting it in developed countries. The new, extended data series include both support from subsidies as well as from market price support provided by trade distortions, allowing us to provide a much more complete picture of support as richer countries tend to provide much more of their support through subsidies than developing and under-developed countries.Within the IFPRI team, the Ag Incentives data provided a basis for a wide range of research on key topics. An important series of PIM supported studies focused on agricultural incentives and value chain development. These studies examined value chains in Ethiopia, India, Nigeria and Tanzania,showcasing the importance of the overall policy framework for key commodities. A related set of studies used gender-differentiated protection indicators to assess impacts on women.Another important strand of work under this theme is on the critical topic of repurposing agricultural support. While there are major concerns about the adverse impacts of current support, there appear to be few concrete plans for reform in a way that will address these concerns. Recent IFPRI-World Bank work has revealed various simpler approaches to reform widely advocated policies-such as removing support from livestock, making support uniform across commodities, or abolishing all support-would not generate the transformational reductions in emissions needed to limit global warming. Another popular approach to reform-by using conditionality to induce farmers to produce with lower emissions-faces the limitation that by lowering productivity, it is likely to require an increase in agricultural land use, and hence emissions from land use change. This research shows that a much deeperAgricultural policy measures affect commodities at farm as well as the entire agri-food value chain of a commodity. These impacts are important as farmers in developing countries have increasingly become more market oriented, with smallholder farmers selling substantial shares of their farm output (Rapsomanikis, 2015) and relying on markets, both to generate income and to meet food needs (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2017). To understand the full implications of agricultural policies, it is necessary to correctly measure the extent to which policies distort market prices of commodities along the value chain, and to understand the implications of protection provided to other sectors, protection that affects agricultural incentives indirectly both through impacts on prices of intermediates and through real exchange rate impacts.The functioning and performance of agricultural value chains are particularly important for the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in developing countries. In developing countries, especially in lowermiddle income countries, agriculture provides an important share of employment and a smaller, but still important, share of GDP. To support development and to respond to political-economy pressures, governments often intervene with trade policies or price support for specific agricultural commodities or products.In addition to domestic value chains, global value chains are growing in importance. Bulk agricultural products account for under a quarter of global agricultural trade, with processed, semiprocessed products and horticultural products accounting for the remaining 75 percent. In Africa, horticultural products, involving complex supply chains, accounted for 22 percent of agricultural exports and processed and semi-processed products 43 percent (Fukase and Martin, 2018).In this Discussion Paper, we draw lessons from various studies that were supported by CGIAR Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) program on agricultural incentives, including i) the links between agricultural incentives and value chain development, and ii) links between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes.The first objective of this Report is to place the global Ag-Incentives database and other studies that rely on it into a broader perspective of agricultural and value chain development. The Report links this work to the ongoing discussions on repurposing of agricultural support. We also discuss achievements of the Ag-Incentives Consortium through multi-institutional collaboration among key stakeholders, such as policy makers, researchers, and market participants. We also point out the important role of this initiative as a foundation for many other studies that contribute to the positive changes sought by PIM.One of the most critical contributions of the studies supported by PIM is to highlight the necessity to look beyond impacts at the single node of an agricultural value chain. Thus, the second objective of this Discussion Paper is to highlight the contributions of studies that link agricultural policy analysis to value chain analysis. This will include discussion of studies that build on the Ag-Incentives framework and value chain analysis. These include studies of repurposing agricultural incentives to achieve environmental goals; studies of the process of transformation as economies develop; and studies that examine ways to combine multiple interventions to address multiple goals.We discuss in some depth methodological contributions to the literature on linking nominal rate of protection (NRP) analysis to value chain analysis. For this, we draw from a study on Indian value chains, which proposed a new methodology to extend the NRP approach that is estimated for commodities to a value chain framework. Second, we will discuss NRPs and policy impacts along value chains in three developing countries: small ruminants in Ethiopia, palm oil and cacao in Nigeria, and maize and groundnuts in Tanzania. Finally, we will discuss gender dimensions of agricultural policy and its impact by drawing from gender-differentiated NRP indicators computed for Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda.The third objective of this Discussion Paper is to propose a framework which enables further scientific use of the Ag-Incentives database and the underlying methodology for research and policy analysis. This is intended to help future researchers move beyond policy measurement to other research topics such as meta-analyses of distortions and disincentives. This section of the report discusses the organization and achievements of the Ag-Incentives Consortium whose data are fundamental to analysis of the impacts of agricultural support on value chains. It also examines a series of studies that use this work to investigate key questions such as the impacts of changes in support on global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.Many governments intervene in agricultural markets to accomplish a variety of goals, such as keeping food prices low for consumers, raising farm incomes, and/or reducing food price volatility. These policies may generate overlapping and opposing outcomes along the agricultural value chain, by protecting one part of the value chain and taxing another. Policy interventions, particularly those in large countries, can also have large impacts on world prices of commodities. In this context, it is important to have continuous and accurate measurement of agricultural incentives for a wide range of agricultural commodities.Frequently, the means used to provide protection or taxation of agriculture are non-transparent, making it difficult for participants in policy debates-especially those in partner countries-even to be confident whether agriculture is being protected or taxed. Continuous monitoring and measurement of agricultural incentives in many countries helps provide timely information on impacts both on key stakeholder groups, such as the poor, within countries and on world markets. Reliable information helps governments make necessary policy adjustments in response to a wide range of shocks.To provide an agreed database on agricultural incentive measures within the group of rich industrial countries, the OECD has been preparing standardized estimates of agricultural incentive measures since the 1980s. Over time, the coverage of this effort has been extended to include some of the developing countries with the largest impacts on world markets. Two major one-off studies from the World Bank provided measures of these distortions for a range of developing countries. The seminal Krueger, Schiff and Valdés (1988) study covered 18 countries while the Anderson (2009) study covered a total of 75 countries, with around 40 developing countries in addition to the high-income countries covered by OECD. In terms of institutional efforts, OECD annually updates the Producer Support Estimate (PSE) database for OECD countries and selected emerging economies (see OECD 2020). The IDB's Agrimonitor program 1 uses the OECD methodology and covers close to twenty countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. FAO-MAFAP publishes similar estimates for 15 countries, mostly in Africa (Pernechele, Balié, and Ghins, 2018). Results from studies of agricultural incentives in South Asia initiated by the World Bank are also included in the database (Ejaz and Ahmed, 2017;Weerahewa, 2017).The wide scope of databases with slightly different methodologies and terminology makes it difficult for stakeholders to interpret the impacts of policies on market incentives for the countries applying the measures, for their trading partners, and for world market outcomes. A comprehensive and long-term database helps analysts and policy makers to compare and interpret the impacts of policies across commodities, countries, and over time, while avoiding duplication of effort. To measure agricultural incentives, different methodologies are used in the literature. These methodologies fall into two categories: (i) direct measurement of policies, and (ii) inferring the stance of policy by examining the impacts of policies on the gaps between prices. Direct measurement of policies works well if the policies are transparent measures such as tariffs, whose impact can be specified with a summary measure such as a percentage rate. Unfortunately, many agricultural price distortions arise from measures such as product licenses, import quotas, tariff-rate-quotas, or export bans. Sometimes multiple measures apply to the same product either at one time or at different points in time. To deal with the problems of multiple instruments, and the non-transparent impacts of quantitative restrictions, the main approach to measuring agricultural distortions (since Josling, 1973) has been to estimate the combined impact of all relevant measures using the gap between the internal and external prices of the good.Dividing this price gap by the external reference price converts it into a nominal rate of protection (NRP)that is comparable to an ad valorem tariff. For this measure to be a valid representation of the effects of policies, great care must be taken to ensure that the products outside and inside the country are comparable in terms of quality, location, and other key product attributes at a point of competition between domestic and traded goods.Once this NRP has been calculated, it can be converted-by adjusting for transport and other costs-into an estimate of the impact of distortions on prices at other points in the value chain, such as at the farmgate. The impacts of domestic support measures such as output or input subsidies can also be added to it to obtain a total measure of the impact on incentives.To capture the net effect of policies, the NRP measures the impact of policies on domestic prices relative to the reference prices that would have applied had there been no interventions.The NRP methodology is based on the law of one price, which requires that the domestic and the border prices refer to comparable commodities. A reference price at the farmgate is computed and used to estimate the NRP by comparing it with the farmgate price that is distorted. This price difference, expressed as a percentage, is the NRP. Positive NRPs indicate that producers receive prices above prevailing international prices, meaning that policies have subsidized the producers. Negative NRPs indicate that producers receive prices below international prices, meaning policies have taxed producers.An estimate of the monetary value of market price support (MPS), is also provided in the Ag-Incentives database. MPS is computed as:Another important indicator used in the literature is the Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA). The NRA is an extension of the NRP that includes policies such as subsidies (spending) to inputs and outputs in addition to the price gap measured by the NRP. The total NRA to farm output can be decomposed into support provided by border price support (the NRP), support provided by domestic policies such as subsidies on outputs and inputs, which, when summed together, generate the total NRA. The total NRA may be decomposed into support to inputs and to output.The  Where only market price support is provided, or only market price support is being considered, equations (4) and ( 5) can be used to compare the PSE and the NRP.The PSE-type measures have a useful interpretation as the share of producer income that is provided by the distortions under consideration. The NRP/NRA measures have a useful interpretation as the tariff rate that would be equivalent to the measures applying to the commodity. For small rates of intervention, the two measures are similar, with a 5 percent NRP translating into a PSE of 4.76 percent.However, for large rates of distortion, the gap between the two becomes quite large, with a 50 percent NRP translating into a PSE of 33 percent. Both these measures are useful, although for different questions, and it is important to recall that they can readily be inter-converted.The Effective Rate of Protection (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41), introduced by Corden (1966) and Balassa (1965), is an indicator for analyzing the impacts of trade distortions on value added at different points in the value chain. Corden (1966) defines the \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41 as the percentage increase in domestic value added per unit in an economic activity due to current tariff structure relative to a situation in absence of tariffs. This measure is particularly important for activities that involve substantial use of intermediate inputs, such as processing activities and manufacturing, where differences between protection to inputs and outputs may make it difficult to be sure whether an activity is, on balance, protected or taxed, and where the incentive or disincentives to output from seemingly modest rates of intervention may be very large. Calculation of ERPs requires information on the NRPs for both inputs and outputs. This measure is rarely used for agriculture but is very important for manufacturing sectors where intermediate inputs are generally a larger share of output value and many intermediate commodity prices may be distorted.The global Ag-Incentives database provides an NRP indicator, using a consistent methodology, drawing on all the available IO databases. Based on this harmonization and consolidation effort, the Ag-Incentives website was launched in 2017 to release the harmonized database. The audience for the website is many stakeholders, including journalists, academics, policy makers, researchers and nongovernment organizations (NGOs). By drawing together comparable data, the Ag-Incentives database can be used to analyze the impact of agricultural policies on the welfare of farmers and consumers globally.Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA) measures that include both the market price support represented in the NRP and other support measures such as subsidies to output, input and factors have been computed and are scheduled for release in 2022. Major work has also been undertaken to extend the duration of many NRP series back to the mid-1950s by harmonizing the data in the Ag-Incentives database with the time series from 1955 to 2005 generated by the Anderson (2009) Distortions to Agricultural Incentives project at the World Bank.Table 1 shows the country and commodity coverage of NRPs in the database as of late 2021.There is some overlap across geographical and sector coverage across IO databases. Thus, the Consortium maintains the mandate and the independence of each IO, while creating a collaborative approach and recognizing Intellectual Property Rights. To understand the full implications of agricultural policies, it is necessary to correctly measure and interpret policy distortions to agricultural incentives. In this section, we will provide a brief survey of these interventions in global agricultural markets by systematically reviewing estimates of policy induced distortions to agricultural incentives. We use the Ag-Incentives Consortium 2 database to assess these policy distortions. The database combines data from multiple International Organizations (IO) and uses the NRP methodology based on data from each of the IOs.  One useful perspective is provided by comparison of the weighted average NRP for the agricultural sector globally with global food price indices such as the FAO Food Price index. Figure 2 shows that the average protection rate responded strongly to the food price crisis of 2008 and 2011. In both years, world food prices increased, and average NRPs decreased substantially as governments sought to insulate consumers from higher global market prices.While this insulation approach might appear to each individual country to make sense -taking the changes in world prices as given -these reductions in protection increase the demand for food within the insulating countries and reduce the incentive to produce. This, in turn, raises world prices, reducing the effectiveness of each country's attempt to stabilize its domestic prices (Anderson, Ivanic, and Martin, 2014). Martin and Anderson (2012) offer an analogy with the situation where every member of a crowd rises in a stadium to get a better view of the game-thereby wiping out the improvement in view that they all seek.Anderson, Martin and Ivanic (2017) offer another analogy by noting that that, if all countries reduced their protection by the same amount -such as the observed average decline in protection -the increase in the world price would completely offset the reduction in their protection, causing their domestic prices to rise in line with the original increase in world prices, and rendering their interventions collectively ineffective. However, countries differ in the extent to which they try to offset the impact of higher world prices. In this context, the only way that an individual country can effectively stabilize its domestic price is by reducing its protection by more than the average. Clearly, however, not all countries Oilseeds and products Other TOTAL can reduce their protection by more than the average amount, any more than all children in a class can be above average.A further possibility is that countries may focus on food availability, as argued by Sen (1981), likely at least in part because of confusion between food self-sufficiency and food security. This results in NRPs that depend on the volume of domestic production, with poor harvests resulting in higher rates of protection, and good harvests in low rates of protection, with price stabilization efforts frequently resulting in greater price instability (Jayne 2012, p144). If elasticities of demand for food are near unity, this may stabilize farm incomes, while destabilizing consumer costs (Newbery and Stiglitz 1984). If elasticities of demand for food are less than unity, as seems likely, such a policy will destabilize both producer revenues and consumer costs. Koo, Mamun and Martin (2021) analyze a case where food policies based on availability exacerbate the costs of adverse output shocks to farmers who are net sellers, and increase poverty. This type of policy is perhaps worse than price insulation in that it destabilizes both domestic prices and -by blocking the country's responses to changes in world prices -world prices as well.Analysis aimed at assessing the effectiveness of agricultural trade policies requires information on agricultural protection rates over time. This is the case whether the objective is to assess the effectiveness of an individual, small country's policies in stabilizing domestic prices; to assess the effectiveness countries' collective action on the stability of world prices (Ivanic and Martin 2014) or the impacts of food self-sufficiency policies on both domestic and external price instability. The Ag Incentives database provides essential information for analyzing the impacts of current food price policies and for designing and testing the impacts of improved policies.  In the next step, let's look at trends of agricultural incentives across different agricultural products. High Income countries protect their Animal products sector over the study period at high rates, whereas Middle Income countries increase their protection from negligible amounts in 2005 to 10% in 2018 (Figure 4). Low Income countries, on the other hand, tax the Animal products sector at very high rates, with considerable volatility seen in the negative NRP values. Oilseeds show quite high variation, although some of this volatility may reflect changes in the countries included in this relatively small sample of countries where estimates of support to oilseeds are available.To the extent that these fluctuations in NRPs reflect actual changes in protection, they raise important policy questions for which the Ag Incentives data permit thorough analysis. When we compare NRPs for the agricultural sector across regions in Figure 7, we see the high taxation rate in Africa, although this rate of taxation has declined over time. This is partly due to governments in the region following cheap food policies for products such as maize and partly due to export taxation on cash crops such as coffee and tea being an important source of government revenue.Europe's protection of agriculture declines over the period, whereas Asia's protection rate first decreases and then increases. Northern America has low but consistently positive NRP. The Latin America and Caribbean region oscillates between protection and taxation, but at low average rates. The NRP series averages 10 percent over the study period, while the NRA averages 16.8 percent.This gap roughly matches the 6.4 to 9.3 percent ratio seen in the first period and the 15 to 21 percent ratio seen at the end. However, this gap varied considerably during the period. In 1973-74, it appears that direct support to farmers declined considerably-perhaps because policy makers felt that farmers needed less support in this period of very high prices. The gap widened considerably between 1980 and 1984, as governments increased their direct support to farmers while the NRP remained low. These relationships between the NRP and the NRA point to complex dynamics of the type considered by Ivanic and Martin (2014) between domestic and world market prices.An important step is to have measures of agricultural incentives over an extended period. This is because the rate and form of protection frequently change as countries develop (Anderson 1995). Key  1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 NRA NRP domestic subsidies and show, for instance, the dramatic decline in the reliance of the European Union on market price support between 1988 and 2007. They also show the dramatic turnaround in China from taxing agriculture in the early 1980s to an average of around 20 percent support after 2012.The Ag Incentives consortium itself provides important information for policy makers. But perhaps its most important contributions to PIM goals arise from the research that builds on it. Measures of the direct impacts of agricultural policies are important both in their own right and as inputs into model-based analysis examining the implications of policy reform. In recent years, a key policy issue has been the implications of repurposing agricultural support to improve both economic and environmental outcomes. The first study considered (Mamun, Martin, and Tokgoz, 2021) examines whether agricultural incentives are biased towards emission-intensive products. The second study, Laborde et al. (2021), examines the implications of repurposing agricultural incentives on emissions from production, while a third study by Gautam et al. (2022) examines the implications of reform taking into account emissions from both production and land use change. All of these studies deal with situations where policy makers have multiple objectives. To examine this problem in more detail, we turn to a study by Martin, Ivanic, and Mamun (2022) of policy formulation when policymakers have multiple objectives, such as economic efficiency and environmental outcomes or economic growth and poverty reduction.Agricultural production and land use change contributed to nearly 20 percent of GHG emissions globally in 2017 (FAOSTAT, 2021), the second largest contributor as a sector. Since agriculture and land use change are important sources of GHG emissions, it is crucial to address this issue if any meaningful contribution to addressing climate change is to be achieved. Thus, the environmental implications of agricultural production and agricultural policy framework are important in the climate change debate.If agricultural support is directed at commodities that are emission intensive, agricultural support might indirectly increase emissions by increasing the output of these commodities. Especially subsidies that have a direct positive impact on production would increase GHG emissions if given to commodities with higher emission intensities relative to the other countries producing the same commodity. For example, if rice production has higher GHG emissions per kg of output in Country A than in Country B, and if County A provides coupled subsidies to rice farmers, the impact on global GHG emissions is likely to be positive. Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) utilize the OECD PSE (2018) database and Tubiello (2019) to compare emission intensities of agricultural commodities and agricultural support for these commodities, grouped into OECD countries (mostly developed countries) and non-OECD countries (emerging economies). These two groups of countries differ widely in terms of support levels and support types as discussed in section 2.1 above. A particular challenge in designing policies to reduce emissions from agriculture arises because most of them are \"process\" emissions that do not respond directly to changes in incentives. This difference from emissions arising from combustion of fuels means that price policies do not affect the choice of production technique in the way that a carbon tax brings about substitution between fuels and reductions in fuel use per unit of output. In this situation, changes in agricultural support levels can influence emissions only by changing output levels.What matters for commodity output levels is primarily the extent to which support changes the incentive to produce particular outputs. While relatively commodity-neutral incentives such as fertilizer or capital subsidies affect overall agricultural output, the elasticities of aggregate agricultural supply response are generally low relative to those for individual commodities-where output can be changed both by augmenting inputs and by transferring land between activities. For this reason, the authors focus on agricultural support that can be associated with particular commodities, captured in the Single Commodity Transfer (SCT), which includes MPS for that commodity and that part of budget support (such as output subsidies) that can be identified with the particular commodity. It therefore excludes support such as fertilizer or other input subsidies that cannot generally be allocated to production of a specific commodity.Figure 9 below shows this commodity-specific support as a percentage of the value of production at reference prices in OECD and non-OECD countries using data from the OECD PSE database (2018).The highest support rate is for rice, followed by sugar, and beef and veal for OECD countries. For non-OECD countries, rapeseed, rice, sugar, and wheat have high rates of support. In both groups, there is wide variation in support rates across commodities. based on their methodology now available at FAOSTAT (Tubiello, 2019). Table 3 below presents average emission intensity by commodity and emission shares by commodity for OECD and non-OECD country groups in 2015. An important feature is the high emission intensity of ruminant meat in both OECD and non-OECD countries. There are significant differences in emission intensities between OECD and non-OECD countries: the emission intensity is twice as high in non-OECD countries for beef and veal; and more than twice as high in non-OECD countries for milk. When border measures in OECD countries increases output of beef and veal in OECD countries, there is an adverse output effect on emissions in the rich countries, but the associated reduction in global demand helps lower world prices and hence reduce the incentive to produce the good.Figure 9 above shows that beef and veal received approximately 18 percent support in OECD countries and 8 percent in non-OECD countries. Other livestock commodities, such as pig meat, also have higher emission intensity relative to other commodities in both groups of countries. Pig meat receives 11 percent support in OECD and 12 percent support in non-OECD countries. Another feature is the higher emission intensity of rice in OECD and non-OECD group relative to \"other cereals\".To the extent that market price support in OECD countries stimulates output in those countries while depressing output in other countries, it is important to examine differences in the emission intensity of production in each region. When we look at the share of emissions coming from specific agricultural commodities, ruminant meats contribute nearly half of emissions (Table 3) in both OECD and non-OECD countries. Milk has the same share of GHG emissions in both country groups, approximately 18 percent.One striking difference is the much higher share of rice in GHG emissions in non-OECD countries relative to OECD countries. Figure 9 shows that in OECD countries, support for rice is around 113 percent and in non-OECD countries it is around 33 percent. The share of emissions from rice production is about five times higher in non-OECD countries than in OECD countries. Considering the gaps in emission intensities between two groups of countries, one question to ask is what would happen if developing countries produced and consumed higher shares of milk and bovine meat, like OECD countries, but with the same emission intensity they currently have. Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) compute that the total emissions from current OECD output mix with the current emission intensities of non-OECD countries would increase total emissions from developing countries by 78 percent. With increasing incomes in developing countries, this answer generates concerns about the future of GHG emissions from agriculture. It should be noted that we are not considering trade, such as the import of dairy and livestock products by developing countries with high emission intensities from developed countries with low emission intensities.Emission intensities are not constant over time but tend to decline with improvements in productivity. Developing countries tend to have greater potential to increase productivity since they are further away from their production possibility frontier. Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) compute annual changes in emission intensity by commodity for both country groups (Table 4). For both country groups emission intensities are declining over time. Furthermore, for almost all commodities, emission intensities are declining faster in developing countries. A key question is whether the current structure of agricultural support is GHG unfriendly or not, i.e., \"does the current support encourage output of emission-intensive commodities relative to others?\" Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) attempt to answer this question by comparing rate of support for these commodities relative to other commodities. They compute this ratio as:where \uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43 is the proportional support rate on emission intensive commodities (ruminant meats, milk, rice, other cereals, pig meat, poultry meat, eggs) and \uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43 is the support rate on other commodities.  We see that in the early 1990's, globally the direct impact of agricultural incentives favored lower emission-intensive goods, with the ratio being only 0.85. For OECD countries, we observe the same, i.e. the ratio is below 1 in the study period, with variation over time, and ending at 0.90. In non-OECD countries, the ratio increases starting in 2007, and reaching above 1 over time. This shows that agricultural support in non-OECD countries has changed, favoring output of emission-intensive goods relative to others. One thing to note in this discussion is the nature of support. The trend of the ratio for non-OECD countries may overestimate the full impact on GHG emissions since most of the support was through MPS that raised consumer prices. Higher prices likely have reduced demand for those goods in countries with trade barriers while they reduced output in countries without such protection and facing depressed world prices.Countries spend significant resources on agricultural subsidies every year; the 51 countries covered by OECD's agricultural policy monitoring provided $483 billion per year in subsidies to farmers in 2015-17. At the same time, the effectiveness of this support has been in question for decades. The Ag-Incentives Consortium, supported by PIM, has played a critical role in this debate. It has brought together the findings from the organizations active in this field in order to develop a global view of agricultural incentives. Through this work, CGIAR PIM has contributed to better measurement of how agricultural policies are influencing market prices and incentives.The work of the Ag-Incentives Consortium is crucial since agricultural incentives change over time due to changes in policy environment and movements of agricultural prices in world markets.Regular estimation and analysis of agricultural incentives is necessary for meaningful discussion of policy reform. At the same time, the joint of impact of countries' policies influences the level of world prices. Thus, a meaningful policy reform debate needs to consider not only the country's own policy space, but also the impact of policies of countries with large share of the world trade and production. This policy reform debate is especially important due to ongoing debate on the impact of agricultural policy on environmental outcomes, especially GHG emissions.Countries allocate significant financial resources to agricultural resources. These resources are allocated either as coupled subsidies (direct subsidies on output or as subsidies on inputs that create incentives to increase output of specific goods) or as decoupled subsidies (that avoid altering incentives to change output levels but provide direct income support to farmers). Countries also support farmers through other policies such as trade or border measures (tariffs, licenses, or quotas that provide MPS by raising the domestic price relative to world price).In addition to the support measures discussed above, governments also attempt to improve the enabling environment for agriculture, by providing public goods, such as research and development and rural infrastructure. Governments also intervene in many ways that indirectly affect agriculture, such as by imposing mandates for use of biofuels and improving the poor people's access to food through social safety net programs.At the same time, the effectiveness of this agricultural support has been in doubt for decades. One study (supported by the FOLU Coalition) that relied on the Ag-Incentives database discussed the reform of agricultural support for improving environmental outcomes in developed and developing countries (Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz, 2021). The following discussion is based on the findings of Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021).If we evaluate agricultural support policies based on how much they distort trade, market price support is the most distorting followed by coupled subsidies, and decoupled subsidies being the least distorting. If we evaluate agricultural support policies in the context of environmental impact, the ranking is different. Any given amount of support provided to producers by market access barriers has, other things equal, a smaller impact on global output and emissions than the same amount of support provided by subsidies. This is because the market price support, while increasing the incentive to produce in the part of the world receiving subsidies, reduces global demand for the product by raising its cost to consumers.Differences in emission intensities across regions also influence the outcome. For example, reduction of MPS in a developed country with low emission intensity may shift production to developing countries that have higher emissions per unit of output and thus increase overall GHG emissions.Emissions from agriculture and land use change have contributed to an increase in GHG emissions over the years (Tokgoz and Laborde. 2014). Thus, the impact of agricultural support on agricultural production is crucial in climate change debate as well. Any re-purposing debate of agricultural support needs to consider both the trade impact and the environmental impact (GHG emissions, water use, etc.).When discussing re-purposing of agricultural support, it is crucial to evaluate the financial burden. Agricultural support such as coupled and decoupled subsidies need to be funded directly, and thus they are under greater scrutiny. Measures directed towards market price support do not need to be funded and thus avoid this scrutiny. This makes trade and border measures appealing to importing countries that obtain tariff revenues or exporting countries that benefit from export tax as government revenue.When evaluating future of agricultural support, we begin the discussion with a brief review of recent trends. Agricultural support has been transformed in both developed and developing countries over the last decades. In High Income countries, there has been a strong move to decoupled subsidies away from MPS and coupled subsidies, as seen in the decline in average NRPs of High-Income countries in   Another form of agricultural support is spending on activities such as agricultural research and development and rural infrastructure. Agricultural R&D has been effective in increasing productivity in both developing and developed countries (Alston, et al., 2020). The OECD PSE database shows that for OECD and non-OECD countries, investment in these public goods is a relatively small share of total support. In the OECD countries, they average around 12 percent of total support (OECD, 2018), with the largest allocations going to infrastructure and research and knowledge generation. In the non-OECD countries, this type of support averaged around 16 percent of total support, with the largest amount spent on public stockholding and most of the remainder on infrastructure and knowledge generation.There are many paths to increasing productivity, such as use of more productive inputs, investments in mechanization and irrigation, better land management, agricultural R&D, and increases in cropping intensity (Laborde, et al. 2016;Poudel et al. 2012;ERS 2011). Governments can invest in these channels, especially research and development where the returns per dollar spent are likely $10 or more (Alston, 2018).Although agricultural support has been changing over time both in terms of form and spending amount, there are still calls for agricultural policy reform due to the challenges being faced globally: climate change, poverty, and nutritional issues. However, whether nationally or globally, any reform of agricultural support will face challenges since current beneficiaries would be the most vocal to oppose reform. To be successful, reformers need to make a careful strategic decision about the breadth of the policy agenda, including measures that would generate benefits to key interest groups. Incentive Program in the USA (Engel and Muller, 2015).A major limitation of these approaches is that they likely reduce productivity as well as emissions. While proponents of particular approaches to reducing emissions -such as organic farmingfrequently argue that their favored approach is more productive than technologies in current use, the need for conditionality to induce use of this approach suggests that producers are not convinced. Literature surveys of productivity in organic farming, for instance, suggest to a non-trivial loss in productivity associated with its use (Ponisio et al. 2014;Seurfert, Ramankutty, and Foley 2014). If farmers are induced to use less productive approaches by conditionality, this will lower the productivity of agriculture and require additional agricultural land use. Gautam et al. (2022) conclude that this approach can, on net, reduce emissions, despite the increase in emissions associated with increased agricultural land use, but that this comes at substantial costs in terms of national income, farm income and higher costs of healthy foods to consumers.The Gautam et al. (2022) study built a new database of agricultural support drawing on all the information in the Ag-Incentives database and selected additional information, such as estimates of domestic support based on the literature. Importantly, it also added emissions from land use change, to get a more comprehensive assessment of the impacts of changes in emissions from reform of support policies.It concluded that the most promising approach to achieving both economic and sustainability goals appears to be to invest in R&D designed to both reduce emissions and raise productivity. Approaches of this type have a double environmental dividend-reducing both emissions from production and emissions from land use change. They also raise national income and lower the costs of health diets. It is desirable that they be accompanied by programs to increase the mobility of labor out of agriculture to avoid depressing returns to agricultural workers. While higher productivity reduces the effect of lower emission intensities on total emissions by increasing demand for, and output of, food, this is offset by the reduction in land use change. A 30 percent increase in productivity coupled with a reduction in emission intensities of 30 percent ends up achieving almost a 40 percent reduction in total emissions.An IFPRI/ International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) project on agricultural transformations in Africa and Asia has built on the ag-incentives data to create policy taxonomies for agricultural transformation (Baliño et al 2019a). These identify how policies affect the transformation process and seek policy improvements. This framework was used in a major report that examines the performance of 117 countries over 45 years to understand which agricultural policies have succeed or failed (McDougal et al 2018). Without the fundamental data from the Ag Incentives database, it would not have been possible to provide such a comprehensive assessment. The Ag Incentives data have alsoprovided key inputs into a study on progress towards ending hunger and malnutrition that charts the progress that the world has made in improving food security and nutrition over the past 25 years, while documenting that the world remains far from ending hunger and all forms of malnutrition (Laborde,).An important FAO-UNDP-UNDP (2021) report examining possibilities for repurposing agricultural support to transform food systems builds extremely heavily on Ag Incentives data and IFPRI's modeling work. This report examines a wide range of impacts of agricultural support, such as impacts on the farm sector, nature, climate, nutrition, health and equity. On the basis of that analysis, it proposes a systematic and empirical approach to repurposing agricultural support for better outcomes more consistent with the objectives pursued by PIM.The A successful policy reform of agricultural support mechanisms needs to combine economic analysis focused on identifying policy challenges and building coalitions for achieving reforms. This highlights the need for a global Ag-Incentives database that brings together International Organizations:we need proper measurement of policy impact and distortions to agricultural incentives for meaningful policy reform. Economic analysis is useful to help organize the information about policy proposals and answers. While theory is important in guiding how we organize our information and structure models, many important policy questions cannot be answered without empirical analysis. Quantitative techniques allow us to see the impacts of policy interventions on tangible outcomes: income, GHG emissions, prices, poverty rates, etc. Therefore, both a public database like Ag-Incentives and modelling analysis based on this database are necessary to help aid the process of policy reform.PIM also supported other studies relevant to measurement of agricultural incentives in developing countries. These studies focused on measurement of agricultural incentives with a value chain perspective. These studies included analysis of Ethiopian sheep and goats value chains, Nigerian palm oil and cacao value chains, Tanzanian maize and groundnut value chains, and Indian oilseeds and biofuels value chains. These four developing country studies provide examples of how to utilize NRP methodology for future analysis in other countries and other value chains, which will be useful for other researchers in the One CGIAR system.Much recent policy work seeks to identify combinations of policies to achieve multiple goals. This is a new challenge since economists have historically tended to focus solely on economic efficiency, leaving policy makers to make decisions about acceptable equity and sustainable goals with little guidance from economists. Since achieving multiple goals requires the use of multiple instruments (Tinbergen, 1952), it poses challenges about how to choose the best policy options.One popular and very useful approach is to identify some key instruments and to assess their impacts on multiple goals. The radar chart used by Laborde, Bizikova, and Smaller (2020) for sub-targets under Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2 is a very popular way to convey this type of information for reform of a particular, popular form of support to agriculture (Figure 12). One potential approach to achieving a range of goals is to build on the theory of quantitative economic policy. We know from this theory that achieving multiple goals requires multiple instruments.However, theory provides little guidance on how we might identify optimal policies in this situation. The approach to prioritizing policies outlined in Martin, Ivanic and Mamun (2022) can be used to target multiple goals and to identify both which policies should be used and the settings of these policy instruments.This approach begins by specifying an objective function that values the multiple objectives. This builds on the approach of Theil (1964) but drops the focus on punishing deviations from targets. Rather, it sets goals such as raising national income, reducing poverty, reducing global GHG emissions and improving gender equity. The proposed programming approach then uses non-linear programming to explore the extent to which the objectives can be achieved and to identify the optimal settings of the available policy instruments. Some problems, such as setting of tax or tariff rates, are problems of unconstrained optimization. Others such as allocating scarce investment resources are constrained optimization problems. The Martin, Ivanic and Mamun ( 2022) study provides two illustrative examples:the first involves setting optimal taxes on GHG emissions with both an efficiency and a sustainability objective. The second involves allocating scarce R&D resources to raise income and reduce poverty in Ethiopia. The policy recommendations in both cases take into account the existing distortions in the economy, knowledge of which is provided by data from the Ag-Incentives Consortium.4.1 Policy-Induced Market Distortions along Agricultural Value Chains Global and regional value chains have been expanding in the last decades. This expansion can be attributed to many factors such as lower transaction and transportation costs in international trade, increasing speed of globalization, and a surge of regional trade agreements. Value chains are defined as full range of activities by firms to bring a product to market from origin to final use (OECD, 2013).Although most value chain expansion is in the industrial and the services sectors, global and domestic agricultural value chains are also expanding.The functioning and performance of agricultural value chains are important particularly for smallholder farmers in developing countries. For example, in Africa, 55% of jobs are in agriculture, which is the source of more than 70% of the earnings of the poor (World Bank, 2020). Therefore, governments intervene in agricultural value chains especially as part of their economic transformation plans in countries where agriculture comprises a significant share of the GDP.Any policy measure has repercussions not only for the targeted commodity but also throughout the value chain of the commodity. To understand the implications of agriculture or trade policies for producers, processors, and consumers, it is necessary to correctly define and measure distortions to agricultural incentives along the entire value chain. Any policy distortion will affect the different value chain actors in different ways. A comprehensive analysis would allow design of effective policies and minimize unintended consequences.Oilseed complex allows the test of this new methodology where agricultural commodity (rapeseed, groundnut) is tradable. Ethanol-molasses value chain allows use of the methodology when a new value chain is created through policy. Molasses-sugar complex allows test of a case where by-product, molasses, is created when a product, sugar, is generated through processing of an agricultural commodity, sugarcane. 'Meal + oil' complex is an example when new products are created through processing. Togive an example of the methodology, the formula for VCNRP for \"meal + oil\" value chain is as follows:where 'share' denotes share of seed/nut that is crushed from total production. IP denotes international reference price. DP denotes domestic price.The formula for VCNRP for \"meal + oil + seed\" value chain is as follows:VCNRP integrates the NRP of the raw commodity with the NRP of the downstream products, allowing us to see an aggregate measure of all policy impacts on the commodities and products in the value chain, normalized at the farmgate.Results show that farmers are subsidized. Both sugarcane farmers and sugar processors are subsidized, but sugar processors are subsidized at higher rates (Figure 13), showing that gains are not evenly distributed across value chain actors. Molasses value chain and ethanol value chain are taxed in India, but that taxation is lower for ethanol than for molasses. Value chain NRP for 'ethanol + molasses + inputs' are positive and high at sugar and sugarcane level, indicating net subsidization of the overall chain, but this is due to high subsidization of sugar and sugarcane producers, exceeding the taxation of molasses and ethanol.Groundnut and rapeseed producers have been subsidized by the government, as seen in positive NRPs (Figure 14). VCNRP for 'oil + meal' is also high and positive for rapeseed and groundnut complex.This shows that the oilseed crushing industry producing meal and oil is subsidized enough by domestic agricultural policy that despite rapeseeds and groundnuts being purchased at higher prices, the net impact of policies at state and national levels are positive.When comparing NRPs across these value chains, it can be observed that there is increasing protection along the value chain from commodity to product for the oilseeds sector (i.e., higher NRPs for meal and oils relative to NRPs for seeds and nuts). The picture is less clear for the sugarcane value chain.Sugar NRP is higher than sugarcane NRP, but the molasses and ethanol value chain NRP is negative.Thus, the segment of the value chain that the Indian government protects (farmers or processors) varies based on the type of value chain.  A study by Kassie et al. (2019) assessed the sources and magnitude of distortions to agricultural incentives along the small ruminant value chains in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, small ruminants account for the largest share of total livestock population, second only to cattle. For instance, in 2014/15, excluding pastoralist holdings, there were 29.3 million sheep and 29.1 million goats in the country (CSA, 2015).Similarly, among livestock keepers surveyed in 2013/14, 47.4 percent and 34.9 percent of them owned sheep and goats, respectively (CSA and World Bank, 2015). Small ruminants provide both economic and socio-cultural benefits to the smallholder and poor farmers in the country. They mainly serve as a source of income, meat, milk, manure, and as a store of capital. Moreover, they help mitigate risk from unforeseen environmental shocks, such as droughts and flood (Kassie et al., 2019).Rural farmers keep small ruminants essentially for cash income generation to sustain their meagre-resource based livelihoods. According to CSA ( 2013), the proportion of total sheep and goats sold in the year 2012 was 23.5% and 16.7%, while the proportion of slaughtered was 12% and 7.3%, respectively. However, problems related to market information, market infrastructure, propensity to market orientation, and seasonal price fluctuations have been identified to be among the most important constraints that affect the production and marketing of small ruminants in developing countries like Ethiopia (Dereje et al., 2014, Kocho et al., 2011, Abebe et al., 2013, Ayele et al., 2006, Addis and Ginda, 2015, Eshetu and Abraham, 2016, Asegede et al., 2015).The livestock markets in rural Ethiopia are dominated by a few powerful buyers in rural areas undermining prices received by the numerous, but poor smallholder farmers (Kassie et al., 2016).Similarly, Ethiopian live animal exporting is entangled with inconsistent and rigid taxing system.Different regional governments have different taxing systems for live animals. Taxes on live animals are mainly levied in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) and Oromia Regions. This tends to discourage smallholder farmers from supplying their animals to the formal markets and drives them to illicit trading. Ultimately, the supply of animals will be limited. Taxes on live animals at the port are also critical for livestock exporters. The exporters are always complaining about unnecessary taxes imposed on their exports reducing their competitiveness and hence their profitability. Exporters have indicated that the high taxes are forcing them to close their businesses (Molla, 2004).This study on Ethiopian value chains aimed at identifying whether and where the different local and national policies in the country generate distortions to small ruminant producers. The authors also attempted to separate policy induced distortions from market inefficiencies along the value chain.Methodologically, the study estimated NRPs and price gaps at different nodes of the small ruminant value chain. A positive price gap indicates that the policy environment generates incentives (support) to producers or sellers at point of competition [Addis Ababa retail market]. On the other hand, a negative price gap means that the policy environment generates disincentives (taxes) to producers or sellers of small ruminants at point of competition.The study considered four scenarios in the analysis. Under all scenarios, the observed and adjusted price gaps at farmgate and point of competition relative to a comparable reference price for both sheep and goats are negative on the national level and indicate a strong deviation of producer and retailer prices from the comparable reference prices over the studied five-year period (2010-2015) (Figure 15). This means farmers and retailers received prices lower than what they would have received from export markets or international markets due to policy distortions. Furthermore, price gaps for farmers are getting higher over time, although retailers see some improvements in some years of the study. Source: Authors' calculationThe NRPs at farmgate level are negative in all districts under all scenarios. There is some variation of NRPs across districts, showing that some differences over location in policy effects. The access costs generated by the farm survey used in the study also varied across districts showing that market structure and performance are different from market to market.The consistently negative NRP results clearly show that the restrictive policies of the government have negatively impacted the farm households, reducing the prices farmers would have received in a nonpolicy distorted market. Overall, producer NRPs were lower than retail point NRPs, implying that farmers are at a greater disadvantage, although both retailers and producers are receiving disincentives to their activities. If there is such a high gap between retail and farm gate prices, a logical question will be to what extent this pie is shared along the value chain by traders, marketers, and sellers, as this is not going to the producers.It is difficult to separate policy impact from market and value chain inefficiencies, although effort has been done to do so by using market access cost data. It can still be noted that market inefficiencies are due to government policy to a certain extent. The producers and retail traders received price penalization because of the low number of small ruminants traded and the few market opportunities. The fact that farmers and retailers are operating within a market with heavy disincentive entails a serious revision of the grass roots level institutions and policies that increase the burden on farmers and traders.Therefore, it important to emphasize that the sector needs less illicit and explicit taxing and more of a support. The physical and informational disconnection to the market of the smallholder small ruminant keepers in Ethiopia has destined farmers to take prices than being part of the price discovery process. The results imply that there is a need for a deliberate effort to empower farmers through various means, for instance access to information and structured collective action. Market infrastructure development that includes access to financial services would certainly reduce the disincentive farmers are living with.Agriculture is the largest sector in the Nigerian economy, employing around two-thirds of the country's workforce (FAO, 2013). However, over the past 20 years, Nigeria's value-added per capita in agriculture has risen quite slowly (FAO, 2013). Therefore, the Nigerian government has placed renewed focus on supporting agricultural development through a variety of programs, such as the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (FMARD, 2013) and its successor, the Agriculture Promotion Policy 2016-2020 (FMARD, 2016). These policy reforms attempt to support agribusiness that can foster food security, generate exports, and provide sustainable income and job growth. One of the approaches to reach these goals is to prioritize production of rice, wheat, maize, soybeans, and tomatoes as well as export crops such as cacao beans, cassava, oil palm, sesame, and gum Arabic. Furthermore, value chain development is identified as a priority with input supply, production, storage, processing/utilization, marketing, and consumption issues particularly identified (FMARD, 2016).Since Nigerian agricultural value chains have been targeted by a number of policy decisions, it is necessary to understand the implications of these policies on all value chain agents, especially smallholder farmers. Tokgoz et al. (2020) analyzes the import-oriented palm oil value chain and the export-oriented cacao value chain, estimating the price distortions from policies and their implications for production incentives in Nigeria. They utilize NRP methodology at farmgate and border nodes of the value chain. NRPs at the farmgate are computed for palm oil and cacao beans at the regional level in Nigeria. These two value chains were chosen since they form an important share of Nigeria's agricultural sector, affecting a large number of smallholder producers.NRPs for palm oil at the farmgate for the main producing regions in Nigeria are presented in Figure 16. Due to protective trade policy and other domestic policy initiatives, the NRPs at the farmgate are positive and high. Farmgate NRPs vary widely across regions which may be partially because of the impact of regional/state-level policies that contribute to variations in the prices that producers receive.Furthermore, local conditions matter for price transmission including variation in transaction costs, quality premiums, or mark-ups captured by traders (Hatzenbuehler, Abbott, and Abdoulaye, 2017), which may explain a portion of the regional heterogeneity in farmgate NRPs. The differences in farmgate NRPs between two years are significant in value. Producers receive higher prices relative to world prices in 2012/13 than in 2010/11, despite the lower world prices in 2012/13. These results provide some evidence that producers in Nigeria were insulated from palm oil price shocks in international markets. While it is difficult to estimate the exact impact of policies, it appears that protection for producers has increased over time with domestic support policies. Nigeria imposes import tariffs for palm oil, which increases the price of palm oil entering Nigeria, negatively affecting consumers, but assisting producers (Figure 17). The NRPs at the farmgate are higher than NRPs at the border in both years, showing that domestic agricultural policies have further supported producers in addition to trade policies, by increasing the farmgate price. understand the impact of policies on supply and demand. They find that palm oil production was, on average, 11% higher in study period because of policy framework. They also find that palm oil imports were 53% lower because of higher prices of palm oil entering Nigeria. This shows the negative consequences for the consumers through lower available palm oil in the market as well as higher palm oil price they pay.The study also estimates NRPs for the cacao value chain commodities at the border. Figure 18 shows NRPs at the border for these 4 commodities as negative for all years, although Nigeria is a net exporter of all commodities in the period of analysis. These results show that exporters are receiving lower prices than the prices prevailing in international markets, i.e. there are disincentives in Nigeria's export market for cacao despite the lack of export taxes and export quotas or export bans. The negative NRPs at the border for cacao beans and cocoa products may also be due to a quality gap, the export market structure, and the concentration of buyers in global markets.  showing disincentives in the cacao beans export market reverberate through the domestic market despite domestic support policies. Farmgate prices in 2012/13 were lower than prices in 2010/11, which mirrors the trends in international markets and Nigerian export prices. This demonstrates that cacao bean producers are not insulated from shocks in international markets. NRPs at the farmgate for cacao beans are lower than NRPs at the border, showing that domestic agricultural policies have generated additional disincentives for producers. While support policies exist for cacao bean producers in Nigeria, they do not appear to be sufficient to protect producers from the disincentives in the cacao bean export market, which reverberates through the domestic market and farmgate prices. Some variation exists across regions for NRPs: South producers have much lower NRPs than South West producers. These differences across regions may be partly due to the impact of regional/state-level policy frameworks that are reflected in different farmgate prices that producers receive. It should be noted that findings of Hatzenbuehler, Abbott, and Abdoulaye (2017) regarding how local conditions matter for price transmission may explain a portion of the regional heterogeneity in farmgate NRPs as well.-80%  Market Price Support for cacao beans is estimated at -38,536 million Naira, on average, in the study period showing the decline in revenue of producers at the farmgate due to domestic agricultural policy. Thus, there were no transfers from consumers and taxpayers to producers arising from policy measures. The study also estimated that cacao bean production was 6% lower because of policy distortions, using elasticities from the literature and the estimated NRPs. Cacao bean exports were estimated to be 7% lower, on average, because of policy induced distortions in the export market. Resultsshow that cocoa paste exports were 17% lower, cocoa butter exports were 3% lower, and cocoa powder exports were 11% lower, due to policy distortions.The livelihoods of many smallholder farmers in Tanzania depend upon maize and groundnuts.The value chains for these crops have the potential to expand and contribute to agricultural development through clear policy mechanisms. In order to identify and implement efficient and targeted policies, it is important to measure policy distortions to agricultural incentives along the value chains of these two crops. In this vein, Majeed et al. (2018) measures the impact of agricultural and trade policies using NRP application of import tariffs. When Tanzania is a net exporter (2007/08, 2011/12, 2012/13), the NRPs are -57 percent, 47 percent, and -31 percent, respectively; this demonstrates disincentives in the maize export market in two out of three years. Thus, it appears that Tanzania's border NRPs and trade status imply an anti-trade bias; when maize is imported, it faces an import tariff (hence the positive NRPs in most years during which maize imported) and when it is exported, it is often taxed (hence the negative NRPs in most years during which maize is exported).For maize flour, Tanzania is a net importer for the 2006/07, 2007/08, and 2008/09 crop years and a net exporter for the rest of the period. All border NRPs in our period of analysis are negative (Figure 21). For years during which Tanzania is a net exporter, the negative border NRP is expected and in line with maize value chain underdevelopment. However, the negative NRPs in years during which Tanzania is a net importer are surprising.NRPs at the farmgate for the main producing regions in Tanzania, using the regional farmgate price data, are also computed. Figure 21 shows these NRPs for white maize in Long Rainy Season regions, and Figure 22 shows these NRPs for Short Rainy Season regions. For regions with LRS and SRS, the NRPs are mostly negative. For 2008/09 and 2010/11, Tanzania is a net importer of maize with positive NRPs at the border. However, for these years, farmgate NRPs for most regions and on average are negative. For 2011/12, Tanzania is a net exporter, with negative border and farmgate NRPs. This shows that disincentives in the export market are reverberating through the domestic market.The NRPs differ widely across regions which may be due to i) the impact of regional/state-level policy framework, ii) other market inefficiencies that lead to variation in the prices that farmers receive, and iii) price transmission issues.   for groundnut and groundnut oil, and farmgate for groundnut. Figure 23 shows NRPs at the border for both commodities, where Tanzania's trade status changes between net importer and net exporter within the analysis period. For groundnuts, NRPs are negative at the border for all years, regardless of whether Tanzania is a net importer or net exporter. When Tanzania is a net exporter from 2006/07 through 2012/13, the NRPs range between -72% and -35%. When Tanzania is a net importer in 2013/14 and 2014/15, the NRPs are -70% and -66%, respectively. The negative border NRPs during net exporting years show there are disincentives in the groundnut export market, despite the existence of minimal to no export taxes for groundnuts. The negative NRPs in net importer years show that Tanzania paid less than world market prices for groundnut imports. Import tariffs show preferential tariffs for East African Community (EAC) countries with which Tanzania trades with. Thus, negative NRPs in net importer years can be because of that.For groundnut oil, Tanzania was a net importer for the 2007/08 crop year and a net exporter for the rest of the analysis period. All NRPs in period of analysis are negative. For years during which Tanzania is a net exporter, the border NRPs are as expected and in line with underdevelopment of the groundnut oil markets. Tanzania has not yet developed the processing and marketing stages of the groundnut value chain, and inefficiencies in the value chain create disincentives in export markets. When Tanzania imports, it imports from neighbouring countries and thus pays a lower price than international market prices. This is in line with preferential tariffs for EAC countries.The study also computed NRPs at the farmgate for the main producing regions in Tanzania.Figure 24 shows these NRPs for groundnuts in all Long Rainy Season regions for three years (2008/09, 2010/11, 2012/13). For the three years for which we compute NRPs at the farmgate, Tanzania is a net exporter of groundnuts. For all regions and years, the NRPs are negative, showing that disincentives in the groundnut export market reverberate through the domestic market and affect farmers negatively despite numerous agricultural policies meant to support the farmers.NRPs vary across regions even though we include market access costs between farmgate and wholesale markets for each region individually. Therefore, the different NRPs across regions may show the impact of regional/state-level policy framework or other market inefficiencies leading to variation in prices that farmers receive.  The findings are important to consider given the renewed pressure for protectionist trade policies as these policies may have wide-reaching and unintended consequences. Further research on the value chain participants and processing channels is needed to identify opportunities for increasing efficiencies in processing and value addition across these two value chains. As countries move through the transformation process from subsistence agriculture to modern agricultural sectors well integrated into the economy, value chain analysis will be increasingly important. As this process proceeds, consumer demands become much more diversified, as does the production mix and more and more food markets involve long and complex value chains. In this situation, there are increasing risks that policies will inadvertently create very serious distortions-such as missing links that prevent or choke off activities that could help both to diversify diets and to increase incomes both on farm and along value chains.The existing literature on agricultural incentives methodology and the institutional databases publishing estimates of agricultural incentives have not focused on understanding the implications of policy space from a gender perspective. Female farmers are important stakeholders in production, especially in developing countries that are dominated by smallholder production practices. Since the main goals of agricultural policies in developing countries include attaining food security and reducing poverty, adding a gender dimension to policy analysis is very important, since the role of women in attaining these goals is well-established.Through three studies, in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda, Laborde and Lallemant (2016, 2017a, 2017b) attempt to understand the implications of agricultural and trade policies for gender outcomes. To do this, they combine two data sets: i) Ag-Incentives data for NRPs in these three countries, and ii) gender data at the farm and household level (based on surveys). They propose a new methodology for a genderdifferentiated NRP indicator and apply this methodology to Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda agricultural sector data. The three studies also present share of value of production controlled by male and female farmers.The three studies attempt to answer the question \"Do price distorting policies have biased outcomes based on gender?\" Since analysis on how gender roles and biases interact with the transmission and outcome of agricultural policies is very limited, these studies provide a starting point for a discussion on understanding the differentiated impacts of policies on both genders. Klasen and Lamanna (2009) note that there is a positive relationship between smaller gender gaps and economic development based on the literature review they have conducted (theoretical and empirical). Since women are participants in value chains both as consumers and as producers, it is imperative that any policy analysis along the value chain should bring in gender perspectives, data availability permitted.To design a new gender-differentiated price incentive indicator, Laborde and Lallemant (2016, 2017a, 2017b) rely on Nominal Rate of Protection methodology of Krueger, Schiff, and Valdes (1988).NRPs are computed for a commodity in a country. To add a gender dimension to NRP analysis, they ask \"are men and women in a country specialized in different agricultural commodities?\" If this is the case, then any policy framework impacting an agricultural commodity will have different impacts on the male and female farmers since policies vary significantly from one commodity to another.In combining NRP and household survey data sources, gender specific production patterns, including the control of outputs, they compute gender-differentiated NRPs as follows:\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41  Another indicator that may show specialization of women is the distribution of area for by source of control of output. Figure 27 shows that women control area for other cereals, roots & tubers, and beans.Men control cattle, cotton, and sugarcane area. They also look at the share of product quantity by the source of control of output. Consistent with Figure 27 above, Roots and Tubers, beans and other cereals are the crop groups for which the largest share of production is controlled by women. We can also see that cash crops such as coffee, sugarcane, and tea are the crops whose production is strongly dominated by men (Figure 28). Using the survey data, they identify the crops important for women's employment and income.They note that female farmers are weakly involved in the production of key export crops and livestock products, and they are more focused on staple commodities. Since the latter category is affected by a Applying the methodology in equation ( 7), gender-specific NRP results for Uganda are given in Figure 29. NRPs are for women, men, total categories for control. In this Figure, control shares are used as weights, i.e., how much of final product is controlled by men, women, and a total. Since it appears that female and male labor are relatively balanced for certain key crops, the authors do not find significant discrepancies between the NRPs associated with female managed crops and NRPs associated with male managed crops. In 2006In , 2009In , 2010, taxation was higher for commodities controlled by women. In 2005In , 2007In , 2008, support for commodities controlled by men are higher. In 2011In , 2012In , 2013, taxation for commodities controlled by women are lower. For more specific analysis, they rely on LSMS-ISA Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey Wave 3.They use data on 3,303 households for gender differentiated production pattern data. Below Figure 32 shows the value of production by \"decider\" category. The authors observe that Ethiopia has teff, oilseeds, and livestock as among the top ten highest value of production commodities, which are also dominated by male farmers. The authors also note that in this Figure that some products such as coffee have lower values of production than might be expected. While these crops are important on the national level, and are represented in Ag-Incentives dataset, these products are poorly represented in the household survey sample, which may be due to a scale issue. These types of crops are part of large-scale industrial productions while this household level survey is biased towards smallholders and smaller scale productions.Figure 33 below shows the distribution of the value of production by crop and gender. It can be observed that smaller livestock (poultry, small ruminants) are largely controlled by women. However, important exported goods such as larger livestock, cereals and coffee are mostly controlled by men. This implies a potential specialization of men and women on these particular products. consortium are largely controlled by men. Household survey data shows that women are weakly involved in the production of key export and cash crops. Since the latter category is affected by a positive NRP, a bias in terms of average NRP faced by male and female farmers can be expected.The study on Malawi shows the trends in policy support to farmers. As seen in Figure 34, NRP has changed from positive to negative for groundnuts. Support for tobacco and cotton has increased in some years. Export commodities such as tea and sugar are taxed. Staple crops like maize are supported.  In this chapter we propose some future research approaches that build on past work that is summarized in this Report. Specifically, we illustrate a few approaches to move from policy measurement to other research areas that are linked to the Impact Areas of One CGIAR.Value chain innovations and resulting developments could improve rural livelihoods in at least three ways, i.e., through enabling access to inputs and markets, establishing efficiency premium for poor suppliers, and employment opportunities for poor households where the benefits could be very important to the poorest and women (Maertens and Swinnen, 2012).Poorly organized and/or distorted value chains would, however, undermine the opportunities that the poor actors would otherwise exploit. The studies summarized in this Discussion Paper have shown the The value chain framework is important for understanding the gravity of the problems that value chain actors face in developing countries as node level studies rarely show the whole picture. Efforts to eradicate or alleviate poverty need to consider the value chain approach not only because other actors are as important but also farmers/producers are increasingly engaging in downstream activities mainly due to growing market orientation and integration into global agrifood value chains.Transformations of domestic agricultural value chains require development of the different components of the entire agricultural system. Services and infrastructure need to be in place to improve production, marketing, and consumption. The incentive system needs to be designed to ensure smooth transactions and equitable distribution of margins.What is not clear is the impact the distortions have on the welfare of the rural communities who are entirely dependent on agriculture. Similarly, the potential impact of abating distortions on the improvement of livelihoods is not known either. Therefore, it is important to understand the causes and intensity of distortions (not only policy distortions but also inefficiencies caused by the weak integration of markets). However, it is more important to assess the impacts of the distortions or lack thereof along the key agricultural value chains in each economy.There are well established methods to assess the extent of distortions in agricultural value chains (Tokgoz and Majeed, 2019). There is also a set of tools to assess impact of distortions on food insecurity, poverty, and unemployment (Laborde et al., 2016;Martin et al., 2021). It is worth noting that models to be adapted or developed will have to be context specific as the markets and actors along the value chains are different both across location, time, and commodity.In Chapter 5 \"Agricultural Incentives and Gender\", this Discussion Paper summarized PIM supported work on gender dimensions of agricultural policy for three African countries. The three studies used a new methodology developed by Laborde and Lallemant (2016, 2017a, 2017b) to generate genderdifferentiated NRP indicators. The author(s) applied this methodology to show i) how agricultural policy affects different commodities differently, ii) how agricultural commodity production can be controlled by men or women at different levels, and iii) how agricultural policy supporting or taxing a commodity will have different implications for female and male farmers in a country depending on the share of control they have over the production of that commodity.These PIM supported studies are very important since women are participants in agricultural value chains both as consumers and producers, and thus it is essential that any policy analysis should bring gender perspectives, subject to data availability. The studies also pave a path forward for this analysis to be extended to other countries since they provide a new methodology and a description of how publicly available datasets were used to conduct the analysis.To do this work, the authors combine two data sets: i) The Ag-Incentives data set for NRPs, and ii) gender-differentiated data at the farm and household level (based on surveys). Thus, for this type of research to continue, combinations of two types of datasets are necessary. World Bank's LSMS-ISA household surveys 3 are available for various years for eight partner countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda). Furthermore, GlobalAgricultural Research Data Innovation Acceleration Network (GARDIAN) 4 is CGIAR's metadata repository, including approximately 182,000 publications and 28,000 datasets from more than 30 institutional publications as well as data repositories across all 13 CGIAR Centers and 11 genebanks, and institutional partners. Both sources provide a wide array of household survey data that can be used to extend this effort by Laborde and Lallemant.Female farmers' power over production and sale decisions differs across different commodities in the three countries under analysis. The authors utilize household survey data to compute the share of value of production controlled by male and female farmers. The authors also use the labor share between male and female farmers to allocate the production in each parcel, and the control share between male and female farmers. This way they clearly identify which commodity is predominantly controlled by which gender. This allows the authors to differentiate the impacts of policy framework on female and male farmers in those cases where the policy can be mapped to a specific commodity.The studies also illustrate the importance of data availability to conduct this type of analysis.They find that some commodities are important on the national level, and are represented in the Ag-Incentives dataset. However, these products are poorly represented in the household surveys. This may be due to a scale issue where certain commodities are part of large-scale industrial productions while household level surveys are geared towards smallholders and smaller scale productions.Furthermore, a challenge faced by authors is that some important products for female farmers are not included in the set of commodities monitored at the country level by the Ag-Incentives database. In the case of Ethiopia, the authors observe that crops that are represented in the Ag-Incentives Consortium are largely controlled by men. Household survey data show that women are weakly involved in the production of key export and cash crops.  One critical future research topic that can be conducted using the Ag-Incentives database is the link between agricultural support measures and environmental indicators. Section 3 discussed studies that used the Ag-Incentives database to analyze the link between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes. Another critical environmental concern is water risks in an era of climate change. Agriculture both contributes to and faces water risks globally. OECD (2017b) identifies Northeast China, Southwest United States and Northwest India as the top three water risk hotspot countries for agricultural production.These three countries each constitute a significant share of global agricultural production. Figure 39 shows agricultural sector NRPs for China, India, USA, and a global average. China supports its agricultural sector, above the global average, whereas USA. support for agricultural sector is slightly below global average. India taxes its agricultural sector overall. India constitutes an interesting case study on the link between agricultural support measures and environmental indicators. OECD (2017b) identifies India as being one of three hot spots for water risks.There are ongoing policy efforts to reduce water risks in India such as pilot programs that decouple agriculture subsidies from inputs, such as irrigation (OECD, 2017a), and the Water Conservation Fee for use for drinking, domestic, and commercial purposes. These efforts are essential given the size of Indian agricultural sector, which suffers from groundwater depletion and deteriorating water quality.Figure 39 shows that Indian agricultural sector is overall taxed; however, wide variation exists across sectors and across state lines since agricultural policy is a state matter in India. India's groundwater use, largely driven by agriculture irrigation, is particularly concerning in key agricultural regions such as Northwest. The Northwest region (Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat), which is predominantly cereal-producing, is facing groundwater-related agriculture risks (water table, water quality) relative to the more  , 2017a). Agricultural policies at federal and state level encouraged cereal production in this region, which in turn led to overuse of water and groundwater depletion, since wheat and rice are two crops that use a lot of water. Energy subsidies also allowed farmers to irrigate even when a lower water table requires more energy to pump water to surface level.Farmers, thus, have few incentives to use less water-intensive cropping methods or invest in water-saving technologies because of the policy framework (OECD, 2017a). In this context, OECD (2017a) lists redirection of agricultural support policies from water and other inputs towards supporting increased innovation, sustainability and productivity on farms and providing support to low-income households among resource-poor farms as one its policy recommendations. OECD (2017b) notes that existing policies such as energy subsidies and the promotion of solar pumps need to be overhauled in Northwest India. One interesting possibility with solar power is to integrate the solar energy into the grid by providing feed-in tariffs. Not only does this opportunity to generate revenue help raise farmers' incomes, but it raises the opportunity cost of using the electricity to pump water, reducing pressure on aquifers.These examples show how the Ag-Incentives database can be used to explore the link among agricultural policy, agricultural production, and water use in agriculture. Continuation of Ag-Incentives database work would show how agricultural (dis)incentives impact crop production in terms of volume and location on a global, regional, and national basis. This, in turn, would allow for a more comprehensive analysis of issues pertaining to agriculture and water, especially in this era of climate change. One example is agricultural (dis)incentives pertaining to rice. Figure 40 shows average global NRP for the agricultural sector and for rice. Rice is a water-intensive crop, and as seen in Figure 40, is supported on average globally. Figure 41 shows NRPs for cereals for the three water hot spots as well as global averages since cereals require relatively more water for production and are staple crops. As seen above, China supports rice and wheat, USA does not provide support for rice and wheat, and India generally taxes rice and wheat. Globally both crops are supported.The Ag-Incentives database provides an organized starting point to start research on these issues.Resulting production patterns due to agricultural support may favor staple crops that will impact how much natural resources are needed (such as India favoring rice and wheat production in water constrained locations). Having a consolidated database that relies on multi-institutional databases with a global coverage would help future research efforts, particularly when agricultural support measures are linked to modelling efforts for more detailed analysis. Work to date in this area, summarized in section 2.4, provides important insights into the implications of reforming agricultural subsidies for environmental outcomes. This required development of databases both of agricultural incentives and of greenhouse gases and a modeling framework able to analyze the implications of reform at global, national and household level. One key finding from the baseline analysis is that emissions will rise substantially if policies are not reformed. Another is that simple rearrangement of current policies-up to and including abolition of current policies-would not be enough to bring about the extent of GHG reduction needed to contribute fully to GHG abatement. What appears to be needed is more comprehensive reform that targets reductions in emissions. Policies that dedicate a portion of support to R&D that reduces emissions-particularly from ruminants-and raises productivity seem likely to be needed to bring about that outcome. Such policies would generate strongly favorable outcomes not only for the environment but also, by reducing the cost of healthy diets and reducing the pressure of agricultural demand for land.Many more questions can be addressed by building on the modeling frameworks developed for these studies. One key question that has not yet been addressed is the time profile of emissions. Most agricultural emissions are from methane, which is much more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide but lasts a shorter time in the atmosphere. Reducing methane emissions could be a very valuable first step towards reducing the global warming impact of overall emissions.Another unexplored area is the implications of Border Carbon Adjustments as a companion to carbon taxes or other policies designed to reduce GHG emissions. Much of the motivation for this type of policy comes from political-economy considerations-it may be politically easier to implement such a measure than a standard carbon tax. Exploratory analysis by Martin (2021) suggests that there may also be an efficiency gain as a result of switching from a tax on emission to a tax on use of goods or activities that are emission-intensive. Certainly, the agricultural sector will likely be affected even if it is not directly included, because current proposals include taxes on nitrogen fertilizers.Governments intervene in the agricultural sector to achieve multiple goals. The explicit goals of interventions include achieving food and nutrition security, protecting the livelihoods of farmers, and aiding the rural economy, but the particular interventions used are typically heavily guided by policy makers' need to generate and retain political support (Anderson, 1995). Particularly in developing countries, the agricultural sector is still important as a source of income and, especially, of employment.Furthermore, any agricultural policy measure impacts all economic agents along the value chain of the commodity that is targeted. In this context, it is necessary to correctly measure the extent to which policies distort market prices of the commodities chain, and to understand the implications of protection provided to other sectors, that affects agricultural incentives through real exchange rate impacts.This Discussion Paper summarizes and draws lessons from multiple studies that were supported by CGIAR Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) program on agricultural incentives. PIM-supported studies include i) the Ag-Incentives database that is a global public good in coordination with the International Organizations, ii) studies that explore the links between agricultural incentives and value chain development in developing countries, iii) studies that explore the link between gender and agricultural incentives, and iv) studies that explore the links between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes.The global Ag-Incentives database was the starting point of these efforts since it generated a harmonized and consolidated database of measurement of distortions to agricultural incentives based on OECD, FAO-MAFAP, IDB, and World Bank efforts. The Ag-Incentives Consortium, of which PIM was a part of, enabled the continuing effort of the publicly available database. This multi-institutional collaboration provided a reliable database that can be utilized by various stakeholders, including policy makers, researchers, and market participants.PIM also supported studies that brought forward a broader perspective of agricultural incentives and value chain development. These studies particularly focused on value chains in developing countries:Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, and Tanzania. These studies estimated distortions to agricultural incentives along the value chains of the selected commodities and showed the importance of the overall policy framework for value chain development.Another set of studies linked the Ag-Incentives database to the ongoing discussion on repurposing of agricultural support. These studies also explored the link between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes. PIM also supported studies that examined gender dimensions of agricultural policy by drawing from gender-differentiated NRP indicators computed for Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda. These studies provide a roadmap and methodological tools for future research. Researchers","tokenCount":"14605"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"afde7802b3d0bef21cdd693ffe03496b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e132058-0b97-4a48-9fdd-79c36bfd4db7/retrieve","id":"457333082"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"07f1cf70-a447-47b7-86f4-d010a9730e58","pagecount":"52","content":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU. For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int ABOUT CTA DISCUSSION PAPERS CTA Discussion Papers are commissioned reviews of information on topics related to the Centre's work. They are intended to inform future work by CTA and its partners and to stimulate further discussion.This study was commissioned by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA) to assess the financial behaviour of cassava farmers in Ghana and Nigeria, in relation to their usage of cash and their interest in mobile payments for their farm products as a gateway to other digital finance products. Data from smallholder farmers were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) and surveys carried out in the cassava producing regions of Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo and Volta in Ghana, and the communities of Oleh, Olicha and Ozoro in Nigeria.The demographics of the cassava farmers who responded to surveys in Ghana and Nigeria are as follows:• Most farmers are women -52.6% in Ghana and 55% in Nigeria. • Most farmers are over the age of 30 -88% in Ghana and 82.2% in Nigeria. • Most are subsistence farmers -65.7% in Ghana and 98.1% in Nigeria -where cassava is their primary source of income. • There are considerable differences between the two countries in terms of the level of education of cassava farmers. In Ghana, 40.2% of farmers had not completed primary school, while in Nigeria, only 11% had not completed a primary education.In both countries, most land used for cassava cultivation is either leased or family owned (titled or non-titled). In Ghana, cassava farmers frequently grow other crops to mitigate losses associated with low cassava yields. However, in Nigeria, very few other crops are grown by cassava farmers. Instead, they mitigate against potential crop failures by diversifying their income sources -a retail business (kiosk), for example.Cash transactions dominate the entire cassava value chain in both Ghana and Nigeriafarmers receive payments for their produce in cash and pay their expenses in cash. Three quarters or more of cassava farmers in both Ghana and Nigeria are in the habit of saving, whether formally with a financial institution or informally by way of home storage, Susu collectors or Savings and Credit Cooperatives.The main priorities for saving are paying school fees, maintain the farm and pay for agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilisers. Farmers who are not saving are primarily not doing so because they don't have the money.Despite high ownership of mobile phones among cassava farmers in both countries (83.6% in Ghana and 95.6% in Nigeria), mobile money uptake is much higher in Ghana where 52.8% of cassava farmers use the service, compared with only 4% in Nigeria.Both the education level and technical knowhow of Nigerian farmers are higher than that of farmers in Ghana, suggesting that these are not significant barriers to uptake of mobile money services, suggesting another reason for the low uptake in Nigeria. It is possible that greater awareness of mobile money services, through radio and word of mouth, in Ghana compared with Nigeria (60% versus 40%, respectively) might at least in part explain the greater uptake and willingness to use mobile phones for financial transactions in Ghana.In both Ghana and Nigeria, cassava farmers perceive mobile payments to be convenient, fast, safe and affordable, but expressed concerns about their technical know-how, delays in conducting a transaction due to unreliable network connectivity and the risk of phone loss or theft.The study therefore offers the following recommendations:• Interventions are needed to encourage youth into cassava farming. • Campaigns to increase awareness of mobile money are needed to improve uptake. • Mobile money operators should collaborate with agribusiness to strengthen their agent and merchant networks where farmers live and work. • Education programmes on mobile money use will improve farmers' capacity, confidence and trust in these services. • Providing incentives will increase uptake of mobile money services.Cassava production in Ghana is dominated by an adult population of farmers who are above 30 yearsof registered mobile money users do not do any transactions on the platform 14.8%  (FAO and IFAD, 2005). The majority of this dramatic growth in production was driven by Ghana and Nigeria, Africa's second and first largest producers of cassava, respectively. Increases in both the planted area and in yields have been credited for increased production.In Ghana, cassava is one of the most commonly grown roots and tubers and has recently been declared as 'Crop of the Decade' by the African Union according to an article by the Business and Financial Times (2016). Cassava constitutes about 22% of Ghana's agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) (Otoo, 1998). Data from the Statistics and Research Information Directorate of Ghana's Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2013) reveal that production of cassava in Ghana has increased by approximately 33%, from 9,731,000 metric tonnes (t) in 2002 to 14,547,000 t in 2012. This growth has been attributed to the increase of land under cultivation (WAAPP, 2009;Kleih et al., 2013). Cassava's contribution to Ghana's economy is now greater than any other crop, including cocoa which is acclaimed to be the backbone of Ghana's economy (WAAPP, 2009).In Nigeria, cassava is considered a 'poor man's crop'. Almost all farmers receive cash payments for their crop. Unlike cassava farmers in Ghana, Nigerian farmers do not produce many other crops and yet only 15% of Nigerian farmers invest in fertilisers to help improve their cassava yields. Nevertheless, even though it is a subsistence crop with a fragmented value chain, Nigeria is the leading producer of cassava worldwide. Unfortunately, the industrialisation of cassava in Nigeria is constrained by private sector wheat importers who consider cassava's potential substitution of wheat to be a threat.The significant role of agriculture in nation building all over the world cannot be overemphasised. Attitudes, practices and knowledge around money vary widely between countries, and the specific value chain a farmer participates in will strongly influence their financial options and behaviours. This study considers what lessons might be learned from the cassava value chain in the context of CTA's interest in the potentials of:• digital financial services for agriculture, such as mobile payments for farmers' products • other payment streams for financial inclusion of farmers • index based insurance services • digital services to support access to loans and credits.This research provides a comprehensive market study of cash usage behavioural practices and financial literacy among cassava farmers in Ghana and Nigeria. Specifically, this study:• analyses the demographic profile of targeted farmers in Ghana and Nigeria within the cassava growing regions • maps the production and marketing of cash payment flows • analyses the current usage of mobile money among targeted farmers • analyses the experience of targeted farmers with mobile money and its potential for adoption.This study provides a common framework and approach for how cash usage behaviour (CUBeR) can be assessed for farmers not only in cassava, but more broadly for farmers in other value chains in ACP.This comprehensive market study used a mixed method approach of qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. The study in Ghana focused on cassava farmers from the three leading crop producing regions: Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and Volta. In Nigeria, the study focused on cassava farmers in the communities of Oleh, Olicha and Ozoro.Emphasis was placed on the farmers who sell their produce to processors.The data collection was carried out in four phases:As well as the FGDs, a total of 909 cassava farmers were interviewed directly -460 in Ghana and 449 in Nigeria. Representative sample sizes were estimated using methods described in Annex 1. In Ghana, surveys were conducted using an approved survey instrument that was deployed on Farmerline's Mergdata electronic survey platform. The Farmerline's Mergdata platform was also used in Nigeria, but was implemented by FLV Logistics. To capture the survey data, enumerators in Ghana and Nigeria were trained on Mergdata as well as on the use of the mobile devices on which the Mergdata application was installed. Captured data were synchronised with the platform and then exported to Excel (SPSS was also used) for further analysis.In order to capture preliminary data to inform the FGDs and individual surveys, the Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD)/Voice functionality of Farmerline's Mergdata platform was used to survey over 2,000 farmers in Ghana. In Nigeria, the citizen engagement platform Kryout, provided by Kowree, placed calls to 500 farmers and received 328 phone replies. The results of these direct-to-farmer surveys informed the subsequent design of Phase III and Phase IV instruments.In addition to secondary data collection, primary data collection was carried out with key informants by the team lead, LHB Associates, using an illustrative open-ended question set. Interviews were conducted with key experts from NGOs, private sector, academia, commodity buyers, financial institutions, service providers, regulators, Ministry of Agriculture and other stakeholders involved in agriculture in general as well as cassava specifically.In Ghana, six FGDs were organised across the three study areas (two per study area) with eight farmers participating in each group. Farmers were randomly selected from a pool of farmers in each community who farm cassava as a main crop and sell to processors. The FGDs were conducted in 2016, between 31 August and 5 September. In Nigeria, the six FGDs -two in each of the three communities -each had six farmers participate. The research teams used an approved focus group discussion guide to lead discussions and collect data from the 48 farmers in Ghana and 36 farmers in Nigeria.PHASE 3Interviews with key informants, combined with secondary data, provided insights into current and ongoing activities happening in Ghana to increase uptake of mobile payments. Vodafone in Ghana is implementing a grant from the GSMA's mAgri Programme -an initiative that the trade body set up to improve productivity and profitability of smallholder farmers. Tigo continues to implement Rice Mobile Finance (RiMFin), an initiative that pays rice farmers in the Volta region using Tigo Cash, with Wienco Inc., even though funding support from VISA expired in 2014. Tigo is also the partner in a US$433,000 (€367,000) initiative from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to introduce mobile payments in cocoa, dried fruit and palm oil. The World Bank and the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) are currently in discussions with Cargill and are providing technical assistance to Olam to digitise their cash payments to their cocoa and cashew farmers.The World Cocoa Foundation has already conducted similar cash usage behaviour research for the cocoa value chain in Ghana.It is useful to compare some of the high level findings from their October 2015 study with data collected for this report:• 94% of cocoa farmers have a mobile phone versus 84% of cassava farmers • 92% of cocoa farmers are willing to use mobile money versus 71% of cassava farmers • 30% of cocoa farmers have a bank account versus 47% of cassava farmers • 15% of cocoa farmers have a mobile wallet versus 63% of cassava farmers.The results between the cocoa research in 2015 and this cassava CUBeR might be explained by the difference in time and/or as differences between the value chains.Meanwhile, cassava processors state that government support for cassava in Ghana is \"non-existent\" and that \"flour millers don't want cassava\" and \"high quality cassava flour has never been produced\". Cassava is consumed primarily as a starch. Mobile payments were perceived by cassava processors to be beneficial for the supply chain as well as farmers.Figure The other benefits of mobile money identified by participants are that it is fast, secure and easy. The challenges participants identified with mobile money are:• low community education about usage • inadequate number of mobile money agents • occasional transaction delays • high mobile money fees.Over half of farmers who participated in FGDs mentioned that they save for needs such as building works, health, motor vehicles, school fees and funerals. As for the types of services that they pay for within the community, most mentioned agricultural inputs, such as fertilisers, as well as school fees, utility bills and daily groceries. Almost all of these payments are made with cash.Cultivation of cassava is a labour intensive process and therefore the age of farmers can be important. Of the 453 farmers that provided their age, the majority of respondents (47.6%) were above the age of 45 while the least predominant age group (11.1%) was 18-30 year-olds (Figure 3). This implies that young adults are not as involved in cassava production in Ghana. This is consistent with the findings of the West African Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) ( 2009) that the sector is dominated by old-and middle-aged farmers.Of the 460 farmers interviewed, 218 were men and 242 were women. The study revealed that farmers who sell their produce to processors were mostly women representing 52.6% of the sample population (Figure 2). Education plays an important role in farmer acceptance and adoption of new technologies. Among cassava farmers surveyed, 26.7% (123) had completed primary school, 26.1% (120) had no schooling at all, and 14.1% (65) had started but not completed primary school.The household size ranges from 1 to 20 people with a mean of 6 (±2.7). The main source of income for most cassava farmers is from subsistence/small-scale farming (65.7%) followed by commercial or large-scale farming (16.5%). The remaining 17.8% of surveyed farmers had other main sources of income, including trading, private and public sector jobs, pension benefits, money from relatives, rent and returns on investment (Figure 5).Among cassava farmers whose main income source is subsistence/small-scale farming, the majority (42%) reported a monthly income range of GH¢251-1,000 (€48-193) and 34% reported a range of GH¢250 (€48) or less (Figure 6). At the extreme ends of the spectrum, 7% reported no income, while 5% reported a monthly income of GH¢3001 (€579) or more.The status of land ownership varied widely among the farmers. The two main ownership classifications are leasing (32%) and titled family ownership (28%) as presented in Figure 7. Production and marketing cash flows of cassava farmersThe survey results show that in addition to cassava production, farmers cultivate other crops, such as (in order of frequency) maize, plantain, vegetables, yam, leguminous plants, cocoyam and cocoa. This mixed cropping approach increases the resilience of farmers, enabling them to smooth out their incomes when one or more crops decline in yield or fail entirely.The surveys reveal that 46.3% (213) of cassava farmers sell their produce to traders, 38% (175) sell to processors, 10.2% (47) sell to exporters and 15% (69) sell to their lead farmers (Figure 8). Adade Gari Processors, Caltech Ventures Limited, Josema Gari Processing and Krobo Gari Processors were among the processors that farmers mentioned selling to. Finally, the traders the surveyed farmers sell to include Green Acres Farm, poultry farmers, market women (especially from Mampong and Kumasi cities), Agricfo, and chop bars and fufu sellers, which are operators of canteen-like businesses.The majority of farmers (90%) receive sales payments twice a year while the remaining 10% get paid only once a year. Most farmers (76%) make sales individually, compared with 8% who sell through a farmer cooperative. Two hundred and seventy-seven (60.2%) farmers negotiate the sale of their products at their homes while 169 farmers (36.7%) sell their cassava tubers on the farm (Figure 9). The overwhelming majority of farmers (91.5%) receive payments in cash, 8.3% receive payments in cheque and 0.3% via bank transfer (Figure 10).  Among all the surveyed farmers, 88% have a family member who owns a mobile phone. This seems to explain why 71.8% of farmers do not share their mobile phone with other family members. The study also revealed that one in every three farmers (34.2%) have multiple SIM cards.In addition to 88% of farming households owning more than one phone, when asked why they do not share their mobile phone with family members, 53% indicated other reasons most of which are personal. This lends some credence to the fact that the mobile phone is a very personal device.Of the farmers who do not share their phone with family members, 15% indicated this was due to a lack of knowledge within the household about operation of a phone, 12% said replacing a phone is expensive and 10% said airtime charges are expensive (Figure 13).The survey revealed that on average, farmers spent about GH¢25.00 (€4.83) on airtime purchases monthly. Other than airtime sellers, the most common place for airtime purchase is the neighbourhood grocery/corner store.Figure 14 shows that 87.3% of the surveyed farmers are able to use their mobile phones to make and receive calls and 73.2% can use their phones to check their airtime balance. However, only 55% and 67.6% of surveyed farmers know how to receive and send SMS/ texts, respectively. It is possible that the low understanding of SMS/text functions is related to the level of education completed by the farmer (Figure 4), but as this correlation was not specifically looked at in this study, this cannot be confirmed.Of the total farmers surveyed, only 65 (14.1%) responded yes to having access to the internet on their mobile phones. Among those 65 with internet access, only 45 farmers (69.2%) know how to operate the internet on their mobile phones.  The majority (80%) of farmers interviewed generally rated their mobile network operator's service to be good, very good or excellent (Figure 17).  Savings among cassava farmersThe majority of respondents (52.6%) save their incomes through traditional methods.Among cassava farmers, traditional methods include keeping money in the house (under pillows, in cupboards, etc.), Susu 1 collectors and Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs), or even saving with their relatives, friends or farmer groups (Figure 18). A very small proportion of the cassava farmers (1%) actually save by purchasing property (livestock, gold) or other household assets.The remaining 47% of farmers interviewed save money with at least one financial institution. The main reasons farmers save are to:• pay school fees for their children • buy farm and agriculture inputs or do farm maintenance • meet emergencies, such as health, funerals and natural calamities (Figure 19).The main reasons farmers do not save with financial institutions are:• they have no money • financial institutions are too far away and expensive • they do not have the required documentation to open an account at a financial institution (Figure 20).In addition, there were eight farmers who stated that they do not trust financial institutions.1 Susu is a traditional savings method, often described as a savings club, where members pay each month to the 'susu' who rotates each month among the members. The main transactions made by cassava farmers who keep their money in financial institutions include cash deposits and withdrawals, receiving salary or payments from buyers, and receiving benefits and/or insurance payments. The majority of farmers interviewed reported depositing money into their account one to three times every six months. Very few farmers reported depositing money four or more times per month (Figure 22). Mobile money is the most frequently used e-payment method used by 343 of the 460 farmers surveyed (74.6%), followed by bank transfer via bank branch (3%), cheque and other (each 2%) as shown in Figure 23.Mobile money agents were the most popular method for registering for mobile money (30.7%) followed by registration at a bank branch or mobile operator's office in a big town (7%), as shown in Figure 24. The cassava farmers that use mobile money do so primarily for sending and receiving money. A few others save on the service, receive payments from customers and purchase airtime, while 68 farmers (14.8%) do not use mobile money for any reason (Figure 25). In terms of branded mobile wallet usage for sending and receiving money, the farmers interviewed used the following providers in descending order of popularity: MTN (47.8%), Vodafone (8.7%), Tigo (4.6%) and Airtel (3.3%).More than 3 months ago More than 2 months but less than 3 months ago More than 1 month but less than 2 months ago More than 1 week but less than 1 month agoIn the past week Twenty-eight percent (130 farmers) had used mobile money for a financial transaction within the past month, followed by 22% (103 farmers) who used the service more than three months ago for a transaction.Of the 343 farmers that use mobile money most frequently, the majority of farmers (57.4%) can reach a cash-in/cash-out agent in less than five minutes. Another 28.9% (99 farmers) can reach an agent within five to 30 minutes.According to the farmers, their three top reasons for using mobile money are because it is:• easily available/accessible • convenient • secure.Figure 28 reveals the monthly outflows for farmers. These data show that education, food, agricultural inputs and electricity are the largest expenses. About 70% of farmers (321) pay for these expenses in cash, and most of these expenses are incurred monthly (Figure 29).  Figure 30 reveals that the majority of mobile money sending and receiving occurs once a month. Further, most of those monthly transactions are to receive money. The average that most farmers send is GH¢100 (€19.30) and the average they receive is GH¢200 (€38.60). With regards to incentives to promote mobile money usage, farmers prefer airtime bonuses as well as gift items such as mobile phones, branded T-shirts and cash back as e-float (Figure 31). Mobile money in Nigeria began seven years ago but unlike Ghana and most of the rest of Africa it is not led by the mobile network operators (MNOs). Nigeria is the largest country in Africa and the financial exclusion of the rural population is of significant policy concern. In pursuit of the financial inclusionary benefits of mobile money the Central Bank has licensed 21+ MMOs that can be either banks or other third-party providers. Unfortunately, mobile money uptake, in urban as well as in rural areas, has been modest. This is believed to be because MNOs have confined their operations to the same urban customer base served by banks. Many believe the Central Bank's departure from the MNO-led model does not leverage the potential of the MNOs nationwide customer base.While mobile money has had slow uptake to date given the size of the country and its significant diaspora population there are some compelling dynamics that indicate there will soon be mobile money uptake. Nigeria is the fifth largest receiver of remittances globally (Chinedu, 2017) which amounts to US$21 billion (€19.4 billion) annually (Wall Street Journal, 2015). Mobile money international remittances reduce the cost of traditional money transfer (Western Union, MoneyGram, etc.) by more than 50% (GSMA, 2016).According to the Vice Chairman of the Nigerian Communications Commission there needs to be \"a mobile money kiosk located in every street especially in rural areas where the need is the greatest\" (Ezeh, 2016). This study considers the potential for mobile money uptake in the cassava value chain for which there is some room for optimism. Observations from the FGDs have been selectively integrated throughout the following narrative.Figure 32. Locations of FGDs in NigeriaOf the 449 farmers surveyed, 202 (45%) were men and 247 (55%) were women.As shown in Figure 34, most farmers (42.9%) belong to the middle age group (31-45 years), followed closely by the 45+ age group (39.3%). Only 17.8% of farmers are young adults (18-30 years).Among the cassava farmers 62.1% ( 279) have exceeded a level of education beyond primary school (Figure 35). This indicates a level of literacy that bodes well for the potential uptake of mobile crop payments given that illiteracy is a key barrier.  Consistent with the National Population Commission statistics on average household size in Nigeria, the average cassava farming household size is five. One-fifth of the cassava farming households (20%) have 10-20 inhabitants. In most of these cases, the inhabitants include farm labourers and other workers who also reside in the household. These large households also present high cash payment streams that can be migrated to mobile payments.In Nigeria, the overwhelming majority (440 or 98.1%) of cassava producers are subsistence farmers with the balance being commercial/ large scale farmers. Across all age groups, respondents are engaged in a range of other occupations in both formal and informal sectors. The majority of respondents are engaged in more than one income-generating activity. There were 397 farmers (88.6%) that earned ₦60,000 (€141.18) or less per month. This is combined income from all farm and off-farm sources.Of the population of farmers that had more than one source of income, 58.3% of them maintained a kiosk for petty trading.Discussions within the focus groups revealed that the other income sources are varied: The majority (66%) of farmers sell to local collector and export buyers (Figure 39). Another 31.8% of farmers sell to major collectors/traders. There seems to be no established market relationships because farmers sell to the buyers that happen to be in their community at harvest time. In addition, prices are individually negotiated for each transaction, and there is likely to be market price information asymmetry between the buyer and seller. This fragmented nature of cassava marketing can be a challenge for promoting uptake of mobile payments by one or more buyers to individual farmers. Nevertheless, an innovative buyer can secure strategic advantage by embracing the potential of mobile money solutions to streamline their supply chain management. This robust volume of farming household income presents additional value proposition for the integration of a cassava mobile payments scheme.The majority of farmers (65.4%) sell their produce at the local marketplace (Figure 40). Seventy-nine farmers (17.8%) negotiate pricing and sell their produce at their home while 62 farmers (13.9% do so at their farm.Four hundred and thirty (95.8%) of the 449 farmers surveyed own a mobile phone. Of these farmers, 229 (53.3%) are women and 201 (46.7%) are men. A contributing factor to this high rate of mobile phone ownership might be the high rate of literacy indicated by the 89% of farmers (400) who have completed primary school (Figure 35). This high rate of mobile phone ownership (and literacy) bodes well for potential mobile money uptake within the cassava value chain in Nigeria.  While the primary purpose of the mobile phone is for voice communication, about 68% (292) of the farmers who own a phone know how to receive an SMS/text message. However, only 57.9% (249) of farmers know the more complicated keystrokes necessary for sending SMS/text messages. A total of 192 farmers (42.8%) expressed willingness to use their mobile phone for financial transactions. This included the potential for receiving mobile payments for the sale of their cassava as well as sending/ receiving money for other purposes, such as making bill payments. This rate is lower than this study's finding in Ghana of 71.1%, which might be due to the lower levels of mobile money uptake and trust in financial service providers in Nigeria. Some other mobile phone services that farmers would consider include receiving information about market pricing, availability of fertiliser and harvest timing. This willingness of farmers to use mobile money could be leveraged by cassava buyers to transition them to mobile crop payments. The practice of saving is a well-developed discipline among cassava farmers in Nigeria. A total of 375 (83.4%) farmers save money formally with financial institutions and/or informally through traditional means (home, groups, collectors/agents). As stated by a young FGD participant \"anyone that has a vision will save\" (female, 18-30 years). As portrayed during FGDs their savings habits enable them to achieve four objectives: parental responsibilities, controlled spending, new/existing investments and increased self-confidence/security. Some of the comments made at FGDs include:The mobile network operator MTN serves 61% (274) of the Nigerian farmers surveyed. The next most prominent MNO is Globacom serving 26% (116) of farmers. Farmers typically use multiple SIM cards but MTN is perceived to have the higher quality network service. -Male, 45 years + Saving (especially for a predetermined goal) is considered necessary to curb excessive spending, thus ensuring financial discipline.Saved funds can be invested in new business opportunities or ploughed into existing ones for further expansion.Having some savings gives some level of self-confidence and sense of security. Of the 375 farmers who save formally and/ or informally, 51% (191) of them save with a formal financial institution. During the FGDs it was revealed that those who save with a financial institution do so because it is safe and they earn interest. It also makes them eligible for loans. As stated by one FGD participant:For safe keeping of our money. And to earn interest.\"Of the 375 farmers who save, there are 184 farmers (49%) who only save informally. Over 100 of these farmers (60%) primarily save in and/or around their house (i.e. under a mattress, inside a cupboard). This is most prominently followed by savings channels with SACCOs (14.4%) and farming cooperatives (10.9%). SACCO and cooperative saving deposits are made on a daily, weekly or monthly basis within a group savings/lending context. Deposits are also made with collectors/agents (5.5%) that visit the household on a daily or weekly basis and then return the collected money, less the agent's fee, to the saver after an agreed to period of time.The top three saving priorities for the cassava farmers surveyed were: their children's education (22.6% of farmers), a fund for emergencies (20%), and meeting daily needs (19%) (Figure 50). Farm-related activities, such as revitalising crops, purchasing agricultural inputs or land for farming, were mentioned as priorities by nearly 28% of farmers (combined total).  In-house under the mattress, inside cupboards, etc. 60%The 258 farmers (57.5%) who do not save with a financial institution or who do not save at all were asked why they do not save with a financial institution. The most significant reason, cited by 30% of those farmers, was they did not have enough money to save (Figure 51). Another 21% of those farmers said they do not have the requisite documentation to open an account, followed by 16% of farmers who felt the bank fees were too expensive. Of the 191 farmers that save with a formal financial institution, 107 farmers (56%) prefer to do their deposit and withdrawal transactions inside the financial institution.Another 72 farmers (38%) prefer to conduct their transactions at an automated teller machine (ATM).Most farmers (33.7%) using a formal financial institution make five or more deposits in a six-month time period (Figure 53). In spite of the mobile money usage, and aligned with discussion from the focus groups, 40% of farmers believed the most important benefit of mobile money is either reduced transport cost (20%) or time savings (20%) (Figure 58). Meanwhile, the most significant concern about using mobile money for 32% of farmers was the risk of losing their phone (Figure 59). This was closely followed by 30% of farmers who believed they did not have the technical skills to use mobile money on their phone. These concerns were echoed during the FGDs, where concerns were expressed about the safety and security of the mobile money    For 287 farmers (64%), cash is their primary mode of payment for basic household expenses. The use of credit is considered by 126 farmers (28%) to be their primary mode of payment. Both of these payment behaviours present transaction flows that can be migrated to mobile payments.Most household bills are paid monthly (52%), while 14.3% are paid daily, 11.4% weekly and 7.2% every two weeks (Figure 64). Weekly, daily and bi-weekly payment frequencies are more suitable from a mobile money perspective, compared to monthly or annual bill payments.Figure 65 reveals that respondents make 48% of their payments at the point of purchase for products and services, while 40% make payments at the household/farm, for services such as farm labour, as well as repair, construction and other manual labour.Relatively few farmers use the bank branch (11%) and utility office (1%) to make cash payments, probably due to the inconvience and cost in terms of transport and time. Approximately 96% of farmers need 30 minutes or less to reach a location where they can access (deposit or withdraw) funds and travel less than 5 km to get there (Figure 66). The introduction of mobile crop payments, together with an infrastructure of cash-in/ cash-out agents and merchants conveniently located where farmers live and work, will be of significant benefit to farmers. During the FGDs farmers stated that they send and receive money to and from spouses, friends, relations, business partners and customers. They do so through both formal and informal means. This applies regardless of whether the transfers are local or international. For international transfers, they do so formally through international money transfer operators like Western Union, and informally by hand delivery through friends and relatives. For local transfers they do so formally through their bank accounts and by direct deposit into the recipient's bank account, as well as informally by hand delivery through friends and relatives, recharge cards, inter/intra state bus services or known drivers.Sending and receiving money is done monthly by the majority of farmers.  In terms of sending remittances, 346 farmers (77%) send ₦10,000 (€23.53) or less and the average amount sent for all farmers is ₦4,696 (€11.04) (Figure 70). The average amount of remittances that farmers receive, ₦9,316  Cassava farmers and their customers• The ratio of male to female farmers engaged with the production of cassava is about the same in Ghana and Nigeria.• In both countries, 80-90% of cassava farmers are above the age of 30.• In Ghana, only 33.1% of cassava farmers have more than a primary school education, though 52.8% use mobile money. This contrasts with Nigeria where 62.1% of cassava farmers have more than a primary school education, but only 4% use mobile money.• The average farming household size in both countries is between five and six people.• Cassava is the main source of income for the majority of smallscale farmers in both countries. In Ghana and Nigeria, 80-90% of farmers earn €215 or less monthly.• To mitigate the risk of low cassava yields, farmers in Ghana cultivate other crops, such as maize. In Nigeria, however, farmers diversify their income portfolio, owning a retail trade such as a kiosk as well as farming.• In both countries, most land used for cassava cultivation is either leased or family owned (titled or non-titled).• The main customers of the cassava farmers who participated in the study are traders and processors who individually negotiate prices with farmers at their homes or at the farm gate. This points to some level of personal relationship between farmers and customers.• Cash transactions dominate the entire cassava value chain -farmers receive payments for their produce in cash and pay their expenses in cash.• Three quarters or more of cassava farmers in Ghana and Nigeria are in the habit of saving, whether formally with a financial institution or informally by way of home storage, Susu collectors or SACCOs.• The main priorities for saving are paying school fees, maintain the farm and pay for agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilisers.• Farmers who are not saving are primarily not doing so because they don't have the money.• Mobile phone ownership among farmers is 83.6% in Ghana and 95.6% in Nigeria.Phones are perceived to be a personal tool, which farmers will typically not share with other family members.• In both countries, mobile phones are primarily used for making and receiving calls and more people can receive text messages than can send them.• Six out of ten farmers in Ghana have heard of mobile money through radio and word of mouth, but only four out of ten farmers in Nigeria have heard of mobile money.• Mobile money usage is much higher in Ghana (52.8%) than in Nigeria (4%), despite farmers having a higher education level and text messaging competency in Nigeria. This suggests that education and technical knowhow aren't necessarily the main barriers to mobile money uptake.In Ghana, the most commonly known and used e-commerce method was mobile money, whereas in Nigeria it was ATM.• In both countries, mobile money was primarily used for sending and receiving money.• More farmers in Ghana (71.1%) expressed a willingness to use their mobile phones for financial transactions than did farmers in Nigeria (42.8%).• Farmers perceive mobile payments to be convenient, fast, safe and affordable, but expressed concerns about their technical know-how, delays in conducting a transaction due to unreliable network connectivity and the risk of phone loss or theft.• In both countries, airtime bonuses, gift items (such as mobile phones and branded T-shirts) and cash back e-floats were noted by cassava farmers as the most preferred incentives for using mobile money services.The cassava value-chain is dominated by smallholder farmers and the following recommendations are proposed to drive further uptake of mobile money services:• Interventions are needed to encourage youth into cassava farming. Given the aging population of cassava farmers in both countries, more youth need to be encouraged into the industry. Youth are also more likely to take up technologies such as mobile money services.• Campaigns to increase awareness of mobile money are needed. More cassava farmers are using mobile money in Ghana than in Nigeria, despite a higher level of education and technical know-how among Nigerian farmers. Awareness of the technology, however, through radio, television and word of mouth was higher in Ghana, suggesting that awareness is critical to uptake.• Mobile money operators should collaborate with agribusiness to strengthen their agent and merchant networks where farmers live and work. Agents should be equipped to train farmers who interact with them in order to improve their understanding and use of mobile money services. In addition, agent liquidity is critical if farmers are to find mobile money services more attractive.• Education programmes on mobile money use are needed. Educating farmers about the features and benefits of mobile money will build their capacity, confidence and trust in using these services.• Provide incentives for using mobile money services. The cassava farmers interviewed in both countries agreed that incentives would entice them to use these services.","tokenCount":"6309"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f4596f15897db90558070bd23573da4f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/badfb687-b505-4f45-921b-9f62727be34c/content","id":"801578130"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a642e6a-83f2-4cd7-896d-3318ca197a3c","pagecount":"122","content":"CIMMYT is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center is engaged in a worldwide research program for maize, wheat, and triticale, with emphasis on improving the productivity of agricultural resources in developing countries. It is one of 13 nonprofit international agricultural research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), which is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of a combination of 40 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations.CIMMYT receives core support through the CGIAR from a number of sources, including the international aid agencies of Australia,-----Tables Table 2.1Target varietal replacement to meet farmers' minimum requirements for yield increases (MRR = 100%). Table 2.2 Duration of resistance in wheat varieties to stripe and leaf rusts, Punjab, Pakistan, 1984. Table 2.3Proportion of wheat area sown to given varieties at five-year intervals (hypothetical data). Table 2.4Varieties released since 1965 and year banned for rust susceptibility, Punjab, Pakistan. Table 2.5Release of wheat varieties in the Punjab, 1955-84. Table 2.6Rate of varietal release in Pakistan and other countries. Table 2.7Extent and rate of diffusion of wheat varieties released in the Punjab, 1965-81. Table 2.8Indices of wheat varietal replacement in the Punjab of Pakistan, the Punjab of India, and northwestern Mexico, 1977-86. Table 2.9Measures of exposure of the wheat crop to a rust epidemic in the Punjab in recent years. Table 2.10 Percentage of total wheat area sown to a major variety at the farm level, 1985/86. Table 2.11 Regression results for vintage model for ISWYN data, Faisalabad, 1965-86. Table 2.12 Regression results for vintage model for normal season wheat varieties, Khanewal Seed Farm variety x planting date trial, 1980-86. Table 2.13 Estimates of annual wheat yield gains (%/yr) due to varietal improvement, ISWYN, Faisalabad, 1965-86. Table 2.14 Estimates of annual wheat yield gains (%/yr) due to varietal improvement, Khanewal Seed Farm, Pakistan, 1980-86. Table 3.1Estimates of percentage area planted to major wheat varieties in three zones of Pakistan, survey of farmers and breeders' survey, 1985/86.-Table 3.2 Percentage area planted to major wheat varieties in the Punjab, 1985/86 and 1986/87.Table 3.3 Percentage area planted to major wheat varieties in the ricewheat survey area, 1985-89.Table 3.4 Percentage area planted to major wheat varieties in the cottonwheat survey area, 1985-89. Price of certified wheat seed, NWFP.Table 5.1 Seed depot density (retail seed outlets per 100,000 ha of wheat).Table 5.2 Sources of wheat seed of new varieties and other popular varieties currently planted, rice zone.Table 5.3 Sources of wheat seed of new varieties and other popular varieties currently planted, cotton zone.Table 5.4 Sources of wheat seed of new varieties and other popular varieties currently planted, Mardan. Farm size and percentage farmers using new varieties who initially got wheat seed from seed depotJresearchiextension.Type of farmer from whom seed of new wheat variety was obtained.Distance to farmers providing seed of new wheat varieties.Percentage of farmers who knew seed depot location and had visited a depot.In wheat growing areas, slow replacement of older varieties with newer ones in farmers' fields delays the transfer of benefits from breeding research to farmers and heightens the risk of disease epidemics, especially when the diversity of varieties in an area is limited. Determining the optimal time period in which farmers should replace older varieties and understanding which factors in the seed system may impede rapid varietal replacement are vital to bringing the gains of breeding research to fanners' fields.During the post-Green Revolution period, yield gains attained in wheat through genetic improvement have been about 0.75% per year, although there is a certain variability around trend. At this rate of yield gain it will pay fanners to change varieties every four years, given reasonable assumptions about current levels of many of the parameters influencing their choices. Differences in microenvironments, different lengths of time between periods of actual yield gains, and fluctuations in observable rust losses mean that in some cases the desired period for farmers to change varieties could be longer.In Pakistan since the Green Revolution in wheat, varietal replacement has been slow compared to areas with similar ecological circumstances, such as the Punjab ofIndia and northwestern Mexico. Furthermore, wide areas in Pakistan are often dominated by a single variety and diversity occurs only during the transition from one dominant variety to another. In the Punjab from 1977 to 1986, the proportion of wheat area planted to varieties that are no longer recommended because of rust susceptibility averaged over 40%, and from 1982 to 1986 the area planted to varieties with leaf rust ratings of 50S or higher was nearly 60% of the total area. Apart from the losses that could be caused by an epidemic, annual losses in yield to rust are also serious. They are not widely reported but may add up to a substantial annual loss.To examine the dynamics of the varietal replacement problem in Pakistan, four complementary studies were designed to analyze the wheat varietal and seed system from the breeding of new lines to adoption by farmers . The studies focus on the Punjab, which contains 71% of Pakistan's total wheat area and 75% of all the irrigated wheat area in Pakistan, because relatively more data are available and the seed system is most developed. Both the methods and results of this research should be useful to researchers outside of Pakistan who are seeking a framework for analyzing the interrelated problems of slow varietal replacement, limited varietal diversity, and ineffective seed systems.The first study examines the problem of slow varietal replacement from the perspective of the research system. It considers measures of varietal replacement and spatial diversification and applies them to the Punjab. These measures are used to investigate whether there is an optimal rate of varietal replacement and to assess the level of disease exposure. Other measures for assessing the progress of a wheat breeding program are also presented, including the rate of release of new varieties and the rate of yield gain over time attributable to the development of new varieties.It appears that in the Punjab varietal replacement has been much slower than a reasonable target-----once every five or six years--and the area planted to rust susceptible varieties has been unacceptably high (over 50% of the Punjab's wheat area in the first half of the 1980s).The second study assesses problems in obtaining basic data on the area covered by different varieties. Since varietal monitoring competes with many other agricultural data collection needs, any large scale estimation of varietal coverage is likely to be a byproduct of surveys designed for other purposes. Physical identification of varieties by skilled personnel is quite expensive, so usually identification depends on the statements of farmers, who may not always know varietal names or may identify cultivars incorrectly. Cluster sampling designs tend to create large standard errors in estimates of varietal coverage because variances within the primary sampling units (e.g. villages) tend to be lower than variances across the primary units.The third study concentrates on seed multiplication and marketing by the Punjab Seed Corporation (PSC). Data are presented on past and current seed production and the present seed marketing network in the Punjab. The PSC has effected a clear increase in production capacity for wheat seed in the Punjab. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, before the PSC was established, on average only a little more than 16,000 t of seed were sold each year. In the five years after it was established, the PSC raised production from 4,000 to 44,000 t, where it has remained since. Even in North West Frontier Province (NWFP), where there is no specialized seed production industry, the ability to produce wheat seed has advanced: the Agricultural Development Authority (ADA) in NWFP procures 3,000-4,000 Uyr. Formerly much of this seed came from the Punjab; in 1986/87 all of it came from NWFP.Major problems remain in planning seed production and in promoting and marketing seed. The early stages of seed multiplication could be speeded up, but the seed authorities cannot be sure which varieties to multiply. Production is not expanded because the PSC cannot sell the additional seed that is procured. The goal for marketing wheat seed appears to be to supply pure certified seed to fanners, rather than to facilitate the rapid replacement of varieties. The evidence suggests that fanners use the formal seed system more to change varieties than to get new seed of varieties they already grow. Nevertheless, an active seed network, closely linked with both agricultural research and extension, is a prerequisite for more rapid varietal replacement in the post-Green Revolution period.The commission paid to private dealers for handling seed is much less than for fertilizer, an input in greater and more regular demand. Hence seed is the input whose distribution at the fann level is still largely handled by the public sector. Very little effort is made by the seed industry to promote its product.Greater promotional effort, a wider distribution network, and higher commissions to dealers are necessary to spread new seed more rapidly. These changes will probably require an increase in seed price. Though higher seed prices will reduce farmers' demand for seed in the short term, the net effect could be more rapid varietal replacement if higher prices lead to more promotion and a better distribution network, and so reduce the amount of time before new varieties reach the farmers. The Punjab of India has both higher wheat seed prices and faster varietal replacement than the Punjab of Pakistan.The fourth study concentrates on farmers' perceptions. Just one-quarter to one-half of farmers sampled in three major cropping systems thought some wheat varieties were more disease resistant than others. Only one-quarter or fewer farmers thought resistant varieties could lose their resistance.Farmers' awareness of new wheat varieties was best explained in the rice-wheat zone of the Punjab, where the diffusion of new varieties has proceeded the farthest.In this zone awareness of new wheat varieties is positively influenced by education, extension contact, and location in a village where many fields are planted to new varieties. Some of these variables, notably education or literacy, as well as village factors, are influential in the other surveyed zones, the Punjab cotton-wheat area and irrigated Mardan, NWFP.In the presence of other variables, farm size usually becomes a less significant determinant of varietal awareness or adoption in areas where new varieties have spread the farthest . Smaller farmers will adopt new varieties once they are aware of them, but large farmers are more likely to become aware earlier because of their higher literacy and better contact with extension and other sources of information. One noticeable way in which farm size is important in all areas is that large farmers are more likely to plant both old and new varieties rather than to specialize in one or the other. Small farmers who do adopt a new variety are more likely to plant all their wheat area to that variety.Yield was by far the most common reason stated by farmers in all three zones for changing varieties. Most farmers simply believed that the yield of the new variety was superior, although a few farmers related this perceived yield advantage to reduced yield in their old varieties because of disease or other factors . In multivariate analysis, farmers' perception that new varieties yield better is usually the strongest factor influencing adoption. Performance at late planting dates is also important, particularly in the cotton zone.In the three sampled areas in 1985/86, when all the sampled farmers' wheat fields were considered, 50-60% were planted with retained seed. An additional 20-30% were planted with seed obtained from neighboring farmers. Farmer-to-farmer transfer is clearly a major method of varietal diffusion. Some 45-55% of the farmers in all three zones who were planting post-1978 releases initially got seed from other farmers. Of fanners planting new varieties, over 33% in the rice-wheat zone, 50% in the cotton-wheat zone, but only 14% in Mardan initially got seed from the depot.In all three zones, literacy and extension contact were the two variables most likely to be related significantly and positively to correct knowledge of where the seed depot was located. Distance from the seed depot may have been related negatively in the Punjab to knowledge of the depot's location . In the Punjab, farmers aware of new varieties were also more likely to be aware of the seed depot; in NWFP there was no relationship, confirming the relative lack of importance of the seed depot in Mardan in spreading new varieties.Only 40-50% of the fanners in all three zones who used their own seed managed it through techniques such as selecting a special field or threshing seed separately from grain. Very few significant relationships existed between farmer characteristics and seed management.Extension contact was not very important in explaining awareness and adoption of new varieties. Varietal demonstrations by the extension service have probably not been spread widely enough and have not always been tailored to different agroecological circumstances or cropping system constraints. The promotional efforts of research, the seed industry, and extension have not been well coordinated.Taken together, the results of all four studies emphasize the importance of regular varietal replacement for fanners and for the nation of Pakistan. The methods used in this research-institutional analysis, analysis of research data, and farmer surveY5---{)ffer a means to evaluate the complex relationships between wheat breeding, varietal testing, and release; seed production and distribution; extension; government policy; and varietal change at the farmer level. Although the conclusions presented in this report are specific to a particular crop, place, and time, they may also be viewed as hypotheses that in some cases might be applicable in different situations, perhaps after modification.Future studies to expand knowledge of factors relating to varietal replacement might develop methods for detennining rough objectives for the number and genetic diversity of varieties to be released by mature plant breeding programs in countries with large areas planted to the crop in question. More case studies of seed systems with different degrees of success in marketing seed of different crops would also be useful. Such studies do exist; what is needed is to add the perspective of varietal replacement to the legal and institutional description they often contain. Additional research is also required to verify empirically the relative strengths of the factors influencing fanners' demand for replacement seed. Finally, studies of other countries and particularly of other crops would sharpen our understanding of the features of varietal replacement that are universal and of the changes in assumptions and methods necessary to analyze factors more specific to time, place, and particular crops .En las zonas productoras de trigo, la sustitución lenta de las variedades más viejas por las nuevas en los campos de los agricultores retrasa la transferencia de los beneficios de la investigación fitotécnica a los agricultores e intensifica el riesgo de que se presenten epifitias, en especial cuando es limitada la diversidad genética de las variedades cultivadas en la zona. La determinación del período óptimo después del cual los agricultores deben reemplazar sus variedades y la comprensión de los factores del sistema de producción de semilla que pueden impedir la rápida sustitución de las variedades son esenciales en la transferencia de los beneficios de la investigación a los agricultores.En el período después de la Revolución Verde, los aumentos del rendimiento de trigo que se han logrado mediante el mejoramiento genético han alcanzado cerca del 0.75% anual, aunque existe cierto grado de variabilidad en la tendencia. A ese ritmo de aumento, les conviene a los agricultores cambiar las variedades cada cuatro años, con base en suposiciones razonables sobre los niveles actuales de muchos de los parámetros que influyen en sus opciones. Las diferencias en los micro-ambientes, los intervalos variables entre los períodos en que se dan los aumentos del rendimiento y las fluctuaciones en las pérdidas observables causadas por la roya, significan que, en algunos casos, el período más conveniente para que los agricultores cambien sus variedades podría ser más largo.que buscan un marco de referencia para el análisis de los problemas interrelacionados que surgen de un reemplazo lento de variedades, poca diversidad de variedades cultivadas y sistemas de producción de semilla ineficaces.En el primer estudio se examina el problema del reemplazo lento de variedades desde el punto de vista del sistema de investigación, y además se consideran las formas de medir el reemplazo de variedades y su diversificación temporal y espacial, y se aplican al Punjab. Estas mediciones se usan para averiguar si existe un ritmo óptimo de reemplazo de variedades y para evaluar el nivel de exposición a las enfermedades. Se presentan también otras mediciones que se usan para evaluar el progreso de un programa de mejoramiento de trigo, entre ellas, la tasa de lanzamiento de nuevas variedades y la tasa de aumento del rendimiento a lo largo del tiempo que puede atribuirse al desarrollo de variedades nuevas. En el Punjab, la sustitución de variedades ha sido mucho más lenta de lo que se considera razonable -cinco o seis años-y la superficie que se cultiva con variedades susceptibles a la roya ha sido demasiado extensa (más del 50% de la superficie de trigo del Punjab en la primera mitad del decenio de 1980).El segundo estudio evalúa los problemas de obtener datos básicos sobre la superficie que se siembra con las distintas variedades. Como la observación de las variedades que se cultivan compite con muchas otras necesidades de recolección de datos, cualquier estimación en gran escala de la superficie cultivada suele derivarse de encuestas que se realizaron con otros propósitos. La identificación física de las variedades por personal especializado resulta muy costosa y, por tanto, suele hacerse con base en lo que dicen los agricultores, quienes no siempre conocen los nombres de las variedades y a veces las identifican incorrectamente. Los diseños de muestro en conglomerados tienden a crear grandes errores estándar en las estimaciones de la superficie sembrada con cada variedad porque la varianza dentro de las unidades primarias de muestreo (por ejemplo, las aldeas) tiende a ser menor que la varianza a través de esas unidades.El tercer estudio se centra en la multiplicación y comercialización de semilla por la Empresa de Semilla de Pakistán (Punjab Seed Corporation, PSC). Se presentan datos sobre la producción actual y anterior de semilla, así como sobre la presente red de comercialización de semilla en el Punjab. Es evidente que la PSC ha logrado aumentar la capacidad de producir semilla de trigo en el Punjab. A fines de los 60 y principios de los 70, antes de que se estableciera la PSC, se vendía cada año un promedio de poco más de 16,000 t de semilla. En los primeros cinco años después de su creación, la PSC incrementó la producción de 4,000 a 44,000 t, Y ese nivel se ha mantenido desde entonces. Incluso en la Provincia de la Frontera del Noroeste (North West Frontier Province, NWFP), donde no existe una industria especializada de producción de semilla, la capacidad de producir semilla ha aumentado, pues la Autoridad de Desarrollo Agrícola en la NWFP adquiere entre 3,000 y 4,000 t/año. Anteriormente, la mayor parte de la semilla provenía del Punjab; en 1986/87, casi toda procedió de la NWFP.-Siguen existiendo problemas en la planificación de la producción de semilla y la promoción y comercialización de la misma. Quizá fuera posible acelerar las primeras etapas de la multiplicación, pero las autoridades no están seguras cuáles variedades deben multiplicarse. La producción no aumenta porque la PSC no puede vender el excedente de semilla que se produce. El objetivo de la comercialización de semilla parece ser suministrar semilla pura y certificada al agricultor, no facilitar la sustitución rápida de variedades. Las pruebas sugieren que los agricultores utilizan el sistema formal de semilla más para cambiar sus variedades que para obtener semilla nueva de las variedades que ya cultivan. No obstante, se requeriría un sistema activo de producción de semilla que tuviera nexos cercanos con la investigación y la extensión para lograr una reposición más rápida de variedades en el período posterior a la Revolución Verde. .La comisión que reciben los distribuidores privados por el manejo de la semilla es mucho menor que la que se les paga por vender fertilizante, un insumo que tiene una demanda mayor y más regular. Por tanto, la semilla es un insumo cuya distribución a nivel de fincas todavía es efectuada por el sector público. La industria privada hace muy poco esfuerzo para promover su producto.Para difundir la semilla nueva más rápidamente, son necesarios un mayor esfuerzo promocional, una red de distribución más extensa y una comisión más elevada para los distribuidores. Estos cambios probablemente requerirán que se incremente el precio de la semilla. Aunque un precio más alto reducirá a corto plazo la demanda de semilla entre los agricultores, el efecto neto podría ser un reemplazo de variedades más rápido, siempre que los precios más altos condujeran a una mayor promoción, a una mejor red de distribución y, por tanto, a una reducción del tiempo necesario para que las nuevas variedades lleguen al agricultor. En el Punjab de la India, los precios del trigo son mayores y hay un reemplazo de variedades más acelerado que en el Punjab de Pakistán.El cuarto estudio examina las percepciones de los agricultores. Sólo una tercera o cuarta parte de los agricultores encuestados en los tres principales sistemas de cultivo opinaron que algunas variedades eran más resistentes a las enfermedades que otras, y sólo una cuarta parte o menos pensaba que las variedades podían perder su resistencia.La razón de que los agricultores conocieran las nuevas variedades fue más clara en la zona del Punjab donde se cultiva arroz y trigo, y donde la difusión de las nuevas variedades ha sido extensa. En esta zona, el conocimiento de las nuevas variedades se ve influido por el nivel de educación, el contacto con los servicios de extensión y el hecho de vivir en una aldea donde muchas parcelas se siembran con estas variedades. Algunas de estas variables, en especial el nivel de educación o escolaridad y los factores relacionados con la aldea, también tienen influencia en otras zonas encuestadas, como la zona productora de algodón y trigo del Punjab y la región irrigada de Mardan, NWFP.Frente a otras variables, el tamaño de la finca suele ser una determinante menos importante del conocimiento o adopción de variedades en aquellos lugares donde las nuevas variedades se han extendido más. El pequeño agricultor adoptará las variedades nuevas una vez que las conoce, pero los grandes agricultores son los que suelen enterarse primero, por su mayor nivel de escolaridad y su contacto más asiduo con la extensión y otras fuentes de información. El tamaño de la finca es importante en todas las zonas en el sentido de que los grandes productores tienden a sembrar tanto variedades viejas como nuevas, sin especializarse en ninguna. Los pequeños agricultores que adoptan una nueva variedad por lo general cultivan con ella todas las tierras que dedican al trigo .La razón más común que dieron los agricultores en las tres zonas de cambiar variedades fue el rendimiento. La mayoria de ellos creía que el rendimiento de las nuevas variedades era superior, pese a que unos cuantos percibieron que este aumento del rendimiento sobre los rendimientos reducidos de sus antiguas variedades tenía que ver con la resistencia a las enfermedades y otros factores. En el análisis multivariado, por lo general el factor que más influye en la adopción es la percepción de los agricultores de que las nuevas variedades rinden más, aunque también es importante su comportamiento cuando se usan fechas de siembra tardías, sobre todo en la zona algodonera.En las tres zonas encuestadas en 1985/86, el 50 ó 60% de todos los campos de los agricultores encuestados se sembraron con semilla reservada de la cosecha anterior. Otro 20 ó 30% se cultivó con semilla obtenida de agricultores vecinos. Es evidente que la transferencia de agricultor a agricultor constituye un medio importante de difusión. En las tres zonas, entre el 45 y 55% de los agricultores que sembraban variedades lanzadas después 1978 habían conseguido inicialmente semilla de otros agricultores. De los productores que sembraban variedades nuevas, obtuvieron inicialmente semilla del depósito más del 33% en la zona productora de arroz y trigo, pero sólo el 14% de los que viven en Mardan.En las tres zonas, la escolaridad y el contacto con los servicios de extensión fueron las dos variables que más se relacionaron en forma positiva y significativa con el conocimiento correcto de dónde se localizaba el depósito de semilla. Es posible que en el Punjab la distancia del depósito estuviera negativamente relacionada con el conocimiento de dónde se encuentra éste. En el Punjab, los agricultores que conoCÍan las variedades nuevas también eran los que probablemente sabían dónde quedaba el depósito; en Mardan no hubo tal relación, lo cual confirma la falta relativa de importancia del depósito de semilla en la difusión dé las variedades nuevas.En las tres zonas, sólo el 40 ó 50% de los agricultores que siembran su propia semilla utilizan técnicas como la selección de una parcela especial o la trilla por separado de la semilla y el grano. Hubo muy pocas relaciones significativas entre las características del agricultor y el manejo de la semilla.-El contacto con los servicios de extensión no fue una causa muy importante del conocimiento y adopción de las variedades nuevas. Las demostraciones de las variedades por los servicios de extensión quizá no se han difundido lo suficiente y además no siempre se han adecuado a las distintas circunstancias agrecológicas o factores adversos de los sistemas de cultivo. Por otra parte, no se han coordinado bien los esfuerzos de promoción de la investigación, la industria semillera y los servicios de extensión.En conjunto, los resultados de los cuatro estudios realzan la importancia que tiene el reemplazo regular de variedades para los agricultores y para todo Pakistán. Los métodos que se usaron en esta investigación -análisis institucional, análisis de los datos de la investigación y encuestas entre los agricultores-ofrecen un medio de evaluar las complejas relaciones entre el fitomejoramiento de trigo, la verificación y el lanzamiento de las variedades, la producción y distribución de semillas, la extensión, las políticas gubernamentales y los cambios de variedades que hacen los productores. Si bien las conclusiones que se presentan en este informe son específicamente de un cultivo, un lugar y un período determinados, se les puede considerar también como hipótesis que se podrían aplicar en distintas situaciones, quizá con alguna modificación.En el futuro, en los estudios realizados para ampliar el conocimiento de los factores que afectan el reemplazo de las variedades, se podrían crear métodos para establecer el número aproximado de variedades que serán lanzadas por los programas fitotécnicos más avanzados de países con grandes zonas productoras del cultivo en cuestión, y la diversidad genética que esas variedades deberán poseer. Asimismo, sería muy útil un mayor número de estudios de los sistemas de semilla que han logrado cierto nivel de eficacia en comercializar semillas de distintos cultivos. De hecho, existe ya este tipo de estudios; lo que habría que hacer es agregar la perspectiva del reemplazo de variedades a la descripción legal e institucional que a menudo contienen. También es necesario realizar más investigaciones para verificar empíricamente el efecto relativo de los factores que influyen en la demanda de semilla para reemplazar variedades por parte de los agricultores. Por último, estudios de otros países y en especial, de otros cultivos, mejorarían nuestro entendimiento de los aspectos del reemplazo de variedades que son universales, y de los cambios en las suposiciones y métodos que son necesarios para analizar factores más específicos respecto al tiempo, al lugar y a determinados cultivos.En raison même de la lenteur avec laquelle s'effectue dans les exploitations agricoles des contrées productrices de blé la substitution des plus anciennes variétés par de nouvelles , les agriculteurs ne bénéficient qu'avec retard des résultats de la recherche en phytotechnie et sont, de plus, exposés au risque de voir se présenter des épidémies, notamment quand la diversité génétique des variétés cultivées dans la région est limitée. Pour que les agriculteurs puissent effectivement profiter des résultats de la recherche, il faut avant tout déterminer la période optimale pour le remplacement des variétés qu'ils cultivent et bien connaître les facteurs du système de production de la semence susceptibles de faire obstacle à une rapide substitution des variétés.A la suite de la Révolution Verte, les augmentations de rendement en blé obtenues à la faveur de l'amélioration génétique ont été de près de 0,75 % par an, encore que cette tendance n'ait pas été uniforme partout. Une telle augmentation suggère qu'il est de l'intérêt des agriculteurs de changer de variétés tous les quatre ans, sur la base de suppositions rainsonnables quant aux niveaux actuels de nombreux paramètres qui influencent leurs décisions. Les différences de microenvironnement, la variabilité des intervalles entre les périodes de meilleur rendement et les fluctuations des pertes occasionnées par la rouille font que, dans certains cas, les agriculteurs devront prolonger la période précédant le changement des variétés . Les quatre études complémentaires dont on trouvera ici le compte rendu ont pour objet l'analyse des problèmes associés au remplacement de variétés dans la culture du blé dans un seul pays, le Pakistan. Les systèmes de substitution de variétés et de production de semence y sont examinés, depuis l'obtention de nouvelles lignées jusqu'à l'adoption de ces dernières par las agriculteurs. Les recherches ont été principalement centrées sur le Punjab dont les cultures de blé couvrent 71% de la superficie totale des terres ensemencées en blé au Pakistan et 75 % des terres de blé irriguées du pays. Les informations concernant cette zone sont relativement plus abondantes et le système de production de semence y est plus développé. Néanmoins, les méthodes et résultats de cette recherche pourront être utiles aux chercheurs qui, en dehors du Pakistan même, ont besoin d'un cadre de référence pour l'étude de ------problèmes qui peuvent se présenter en liaison avec une lente substitution de variétés, une faible diversité des variétés cultivées et des systèmes de production de semence déficients.La première étude est consacrée au problème de la substitution tardive de variétés du point de vue du système de recherche; de plus, les diverses manières de mesurer le remplacement de variétés et leur diversification dans le temps et dans l'espace, appliquées au Punjab, y sont exposées. Ces méthodes de mesure servent à déterminer si il existe un rythme optimal pour la substitution de variétés et à évaluer le degré de vulnérabilité de ces dernières aux maladies. D'autres types de mesures sont également proposés pour évaluer l'avance d'un programme d'amélioration du blé, tels le taux de lancement de nouvelles variétés et le taux d'augmentation du rendement pendant la période requise pour que se développent de nouvelles variétés. Au Punjab, la substitution de variétés a été beaucoup plus lente qu'ont pouvait raisonnablement l'espérer -de 5 ou 6 ans -et la culture de variétés sensibles à la rouille s'est étendue sur une très grande superficie (plus de 50% des terres à blé du Punjab pendant les premières années 80).La deuxième étude traite des problèmes que pose l'obtention de données relatives à la superficie des terres ensemencées avec diverses variétés. L'observation des variétés cultivées coïncide souvent avec la nécessité de recueillir d'autres types de données, de sorte que toute estimation globale de la superficie cultivée provient souvent d'enquêtes menées dans une toute autre perspective. L'identification de visu des variétés cultivées par un personnel spécialisé étant fort onéreuse, il faut se fier généralement aux dires des agriculteurs, lesquels ne connaissent pas toujours les noms des variétés et parfois ne les identifient pas correctement. Les échantillonnages issus d'ensembles de cultures peuvent induire une grande erreur standard dans l'estimation de la superficie cultivée avec chaque variété, du fait que la variance dans les unités primaires d'échantillonnage (les villages, par exemple) tend à être inférieure à la variance globale de ces unités.La troisième étude porte sur la multiplication et la commercialisation des semences par la société de production de semence au Pakistan (Punjab Seed Corporation, PSC). Les chiffres correspondant à la production antérieure et à la production actuelle sont présenté, ainsi que les données relatives au réseau de commercialisation des semences au Punjab. De toute évidence la PSC a élevé la production de semence de blé au Punjab. A la fin des années 1960 et durant les premières années 1970, avant que soit créée la PSC, les ventes annuelles de semences dépassaient à peine 16000 tonnes en moyenne. Au cours des cinq premières années d'activité, la PSC a porté la production de 4 000 à 44 000 tonnes et l'a maintenue à ce niveau, y compris dans la Province de la Frontière du Nord-Ouest (Northwest Frontier Province, NWFP) où il n'existe pas d'industrie spécialisée dans la production de semences, la capacité de production a augmenté et l'Autorité de développement agricole de la NWFP acquiert 3 000 à 4 000 tonnes par an. Auparavant, la majeure partie de la semence provenait du Punjab, mais dès 1986/87 elle a été fournie presque en totalité par la NWFP.Des problemes importants subsistent dans la planification de la production de la semence, de même que dans la promotion et la commercialisation. Peut-être serait-il possible de faciliter les premières étapes de la multiplication, mais les autorités ne savent pas exactement quelles sont les variétés qu'il serait bon de multiplier. La production n'augmente pas parce que la PSC ne peut vendre l'excédent de sa production. Fournir à l'agriculteur une semence pure et dûment certifiée semble être le premier objectif en matière de commercialisation et non faciliter la substitution rapide de variétés. Apparemment les agriculteurs ont plus recours au système officiel pour changer de variété que pour obtenir de nouvelles semences de variétés qu'ils cultivent déjà. Néanmoins, un système de production de semence travaillant en étroite liaison avec les centres de recherche et les services de vulgarisation serait fort utile pour activer la substitution de variétés dans la période suivant la Révolution Verte.La commission que perçoivent les distributeurs privés dans le cadre de la commercialisation de semence est très inférieure à celle qui leur est accordée pour la vente d'engrais, produit qui fait l'objet d'une demande plus important et plus régulière. De ce fait, la distribution de semence au niveau des exploitations agricoles est effectuée par le secteur public. L'industrie privée, pour sa part, ne fait pas grand effort pour promouvoir sa production.La diffusion plus rapide de semence nouvelle requiert une plus grande activité promotionnelle, un réseau de distribution plus étendu et l'octroi d'une commission plus élevée aux distributeurs. Sans doute ces modifications donneront-elles lieu à une majoration du prix de la semence laquelle, à court terme, motivera la réduction de la demande de la part des agriculteurs mais pourra, néanmoins, avoir pour effet l'accélération du remplacement de variétés, si toutefois cette hausse des prix favorise la promotion et l'extension du réseau de distribution, d'où une réduction du temps nécessaire pour que les nouvelles variétés soient mises à la disposition des agriculteurs. Au Punjab indien les prix du blé sont plus élevés et la substitution de variétés plus rapide qu'au Punjab pakistanais.Le point de vue des agriculteurs fait l'objet de la quatrième étude. Un tiers ou un quart seulement des agriculteurs auprès desquels ont eu lieu les enquêtes dans les trois principaux systèmes de culture considéraient que certaines variétés étaient plus résistantes que d'autres aux maladies, et un quart d'entre eux -peut-être même moins -pensait que les variétés pouvaient perdre leur résistance.  ----- Dans les études effectuées à l'avenir en vue de faire conaître mieux les facteurs qui entravent la substitution de variétés, des méthodes pourraient être proposées pour établir le nombre approximatif des variétés issues des programmes d'amélioration les plus avancés de pays producteurs où les cultures de blé couvrent de grandes surfaces, ainsi que la diversité génétique que devraient présenter ces variétés. De même, il serait fort utile de mener de plus nombreuses études sur les systèmes de production de semence qui ont prouvé une certaine efficacité dans la commercialisation de semence de diverses cultures. En fait, ce type d'études existe déjà, mais il serait souhaitable qu'elles ne soient pas limitées à la description légale et institutionnelle qu'elles contiennent le plus souvent et qu'elles soient conçues dans la perspective du remplacement de variétés. Il serait également nécessaire de procéder à des recherches qui auraient pour objet de vérifier de façon empirique l'influence des facteurs qui interviennent dans la demande de semence des agriculteurs désireux de remplacer certaines variétés. Enfin, des études émanant d'autres pays et portant sur d'autres cultures nous pennettraient de mieux connaître les aspects universels de cette substitution de variétés et les changements à apporter tant aux suppositions qu'aux méthodes nécessaires pour analyser des facteurs plus spécifiques en ce qui concerne le temps, le lieu et des cultures déterminées.Paul W. HeiseyThe speed with which new varieties are released and diffused to the farming population is an important factor influencing the benefits realized from plant breeding. Diffusion of new varieties ensures continuing increases in productivity through the increased yield potential of new varieties; it reduces the time lapse from the investment in research to the time the benefits are realized, thereby increasing the returns to research; and it helps maintain genetic resistance to diseases and pests.The last benefit is particularly important in wheat. The resistance of released varieties often breaks down within a few years because pathogens, especially of leaf rust (Puccinia recondita) and stripe rust (P. striiformis), are continually evolving. To guard against loss when varietal resistance breaks down, it is useful to diversify varieties 1) over time, by rapidly replacing the varieties available to farmers, and 2) at a given point in time, by ensuring the availability of several varieties with different sources of genetic resistance to the dominant pathogens so that farmers can plant several varieties and reduce the risk of losses, or change varieties quickly if an epidemic breaks out. Varietal replacement over time and varietal diversification at a given point in time are both important targets of any program to develop and diffuse new wheat varieties.Pakistan is one country in which varietal replacement has been slow. Though farmers quickly adopted semidwarf wheats at the time of the Green Revolution, since then varietal change has lagged compared with similar wheat-growing environments such as the Indian Punjab and northwestern Mexico. Wheat researchers have been aware of the problem of slow varietal replacement for some time. Pathologists, plant breeders, and other scientists have warned that a rust epidemic similar to the one that occurred in 1977178 is likely to occur. However, the exact dimensions of the problem could not be determined; although some information on area planted to specific varieties is collected in Pakistan, at least for the Punjab, data are not made available publicly or in a timely fashion.In the early 1980s, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC)lInternational Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Collaborative Wheat Project, in cooperation with provincial research institutes, undertook a program of \"integrated research in farmers' fields in areas representing dominant cropping systems in which wheat is grown in Pakistan\" (Byerlee et al. 1986). As part of this program, agronomic-economic surveys were used to diagnose farmers' wheat production problems and to set priorities for research (Byerlee et al. 1984, Hussain et al. 1985, and Akhter et al. 1986a; Figure 1.1 shows the survey areas). The surveys discovered that large areas of wheat in northern Pakistan were planted to old, rust-susceptible varieties. According to these researchers, variety is an important factor affecting farmers' yields and is also among the factors given the highest priority for immediate technology transfer.These findings emphasized the need to develop methods and conduct research to understand the problem of limited varietal diversification and replacement more thoroughly. Additional research was warranted for many reasons. Seed is a basic but relatively uncomplicated and inexpensive component of wheat production technology.The contrast between the rapid initial adoption of high yielding varieties and the present slow rate of varietal replacement, and between rates of varietal replacement in Pakistan and in other countries, certainly suggested further study. Economic losses caused by disease in normal years in Pakistan, let alone the losses that could be incurred in an epidemic, are severe enough to make the subject of varietal replacement a serious policy issue. Pakistan was therefore a good location for exploring these issues in greater depth .The results presented in this report come from four complementary studies designed to analyze the wheat seed system in Pakistan from the development of new lines by researchers to adoption by farmers. The report focuses on the Punjab, which contains 71 % of Pakistan's total wheat area and 75% of all the irrigated wheat area in Pakistan, because relatively more data are available and the seed system is most developed.Baluchistan -----The first study, summarized in Chapter 2, analyzes slow varietal replacement from the perspective of the research system. Measures of varietal replacement and spatial diversification are presented and used to investigate whether there is an optimal rate of varietal replacement in the Punjab and to assess the level of disease exposure. Other measures of assessing the progress of a wheat breeding program are also discussed, including the rate of release of new varieties and the rate of yield gain over time attributable to the development of new varieties.The second study, most of which is presented in Chapter 3, assesses problems in obtaining the raw data on varietal coverage required for much of the subsequent analysis in this report. The study is the result of a series of special surveys conducted by social scientists from PARCo The surveys were designed to monitor wheat varietal coverage and change in the three cropping systems covered by the agronomic-economic diagnostic surveys.Chapter 4 discusses the third study, which concentrates on seed multiplication and marketing by the Punjab Seed Corporation (PSC). Data are presented on past and current seed production and the present seed marketing network in the Punjab.The fourth study, discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, concentrates on farmers. Chapter 5 looks specifically at farmers' seed sources and seed management, describing farmers' contacts with the formal seed system and the operation of the informal seed system. Chapter 6 concentrates on farmers' use of seed in the context of the literature on technology adoption. Farmers' perceptions of wheat technology in general, varieties in particular, and the wheat disease threat are presented and analyzed. Farmer characteristics are analyzed statistically for their effects on farmers' awareness and adoption of new varieties.The four studies presented in this report look explicitly at the research system, the formal seed system, the informal seed system, and the varietal monitoring system. The relationships between these systems and the rate of varietal replacement in farmers' fields is diagrammed in Figure 1.2. No separate analysis of agricultural extension is conducted. However, evidence of extension's role in varietal diffusion is available from the discussion of extension as a source of technological information and the effect of extension contact on farmers' awareness and adoption of new 1 varieties.The final chapter of this report presents some conclusions and recommendations aimed at varietal monitoring; wheat breeding, varietal testing, and release; seed production and distribution; extension; and government policy. Although the studies described in the pages that follow focus on the Punjab of Pakistan, the results and recommendations should be useful for all who are concerned with speeding the benefits of breeding research to its ultimate clients, the farmers.1 General evaluations of agricultural extension for the Punjab can be found in Khan et al. (1984) and Haq et al. (1986), and for Mardan in Freedman et al. (1986).  -Derek Byerlee and Paul W. HeiseySeveral studies have analyzed the overall returns to wheat breeding research (e.g., Nagy 1984 andZentner andPeterson 1984). However, the concepts of a target or optimal rate of varietal replacement and of the degree of varietal diversification over space have received little attention, and appropriate measures to monitor replacement or diversification in farmers' fields also merit further study. This chapter addresses those issues, first by introducing some basic concepts and measures of varietal replacement and diversification, and then by applying them to recent trends in wheat varietal diffusion in the Punjab of Pakistan.Any plant breeding program will have an optimal time span during which new varieties are released and old ones are replaced. The length of this period depends on the benefits and costs of releasing new varieties. The benefits in turn depend on 1) the yearly genetic gains in yield or improvement in other desirable characteristics such as maturity, 2) the rate of varietal decay caused by breakdown in disease resistance, and 3) the genetic diversity for disease resistance in varieties that are currently grown. Because these factors, particularly the third one, change from year to year, the optimum period for varietal replacement will vary over time. The costs of replacement depend on the costs of breeding new varieties, multiplying seed of those varieties, providing extension to substitute new varieties for old ones in farmers' fields, and farmers' seed purchase and learning costs.All of those factors are quite specific to a given situation. The genetic gains in yield per year in a plant breeding program vary substantially. Annual yield gains may average 2% or more in exceptional periods, as in the 1960s and 1970s when the semidwarf character was widely exploited by wheat breeding programs, but over the long term, genetic yield gains are unlikely to average more than 1% annually (CIMMYT 1989).To make it worthwhile for a farmer to change varieties, some threshold yield increase--aside from the attractions of improved disease resistance and other superior characteristics that a new variety might have--is usually needed. The number of years before farmers should change varieties depends upon several factors, which are shown in Figure 2.1 and discussed in Heisey and Brennan (1989).•Ifwe make the simplifying assumption that farmers' seed does not deteriorate over time, we can use the yield threshold criterion in a straightforward manner.Assuming that the price of seed of a new variety is twice the price of seed of the old variety, and assuming a minimum marginal return on capital of 100% (CIMMYT 1988), the threshold yield increase would be between 7.5% and 10% for a base wheat yield of 2 tJha in farmers' fields. l If the annual rate of genetic gain in yield is 1%, a varietal replacement period of 8-10 years is implied. If breeding gains are more rapid, or base yields are higher, prices of seed of improved varieties lower, or if farmers' seed deteriorates, the desired varietal replacement period is considerably shorter.The period in which farmers should grow one variety before changing to another is shown for various assumptions in Table 2.1. The seed-to-grain price ratio of 1.5 reflects the current ratio of wheat seed to commercial grain in Pakistan; the ratio of 1. 75 is nearer the worldwide average. The base yield of 2 tJha is near current levels for irrigated wheat in the Punjab; the higher yield (comparable to farmers' yields in  northwestern Mexico) illustrates the effects of a substantially higher base yield. Seed pricing does not affect varietal replacement so significantly when base yields are higher.2Another factor influencing the benefits of varietal replacement is the rate at which varieties decay as their disease resistance breaks down. The degree of longevity is obviously quite specific to a given variety and environment. Nonetheless, a recent review (Khan 1987) suggests that the life of a wheat variety before leaf rust and/or stripe rust resistance breaks down averages about five to six years in northern Pakistan (Table 2.2). In the highly favorable wheat growing environment of northwestern Mexico, where leaf rust is a major problem, the average longevity of a variety is only three to four years. Data summarized by Kilpatrick (1975) for many countries suggest that races of rust pathogens change on average about once every five years in wheat growing areas of the Third World. Because some cultural practices that increase yields also promote conditions for rust to occur, wheat varietal longevity is decreasing over time (Khan 1987).The longevity of new resistant wheat varieties also decreases if they are grown alongside susceptible varieties. The buildup of inoculum on susceptible materials is likely to raise the probability of a change in rust races (PARe 1987). In Queensland, Australia, wheat breeders noted that varietal longevity with regard to stem rust increased from about five to 10 years when nearly all farmers grew varieties resistant to the disease and the level of inoculum was kept low. Note : Assumes a minimum marginal rate of return (i.e., farmers' minimum return on capital) of 100%; also assumes that the ratio of price of seed of improved variety to price of seed of old variety (i.e., commercial grain price) is 1.50 or 1. 75; a seed rate of 100 kg/ha; no deterioration in farmers' seed; and inclusion of benefits in years subsequent to a change.2 For more discussion of the effects of the various parameters, see Heisey and Brennan (1989). But frequent varietal replacement also incurs costs, since it requires both a well-developed breeding program and an established seed multiplication, distribution, and extension system. Such a system should be able to provide sufficient seed of new varieties two to three years after their release, although limitations on seed multiplication can often increase this period to four years or more. The rate of diffusion is likely to be a function of improved yield or another superior characteristic of the new varieties, rather than disease resistance. However, in periods when yield gains are attained slowly in breeding programs, varietal replacement may have to be undertaken largely to protect against disease rather than to exploit new yield gains. In that case, the cost of extension to replace old, susceptible varieties may be quite high if farmers are unaware that the resistance of their varieties has broken down until a disease epidemic occurs.On the other hand, when new varieties clearly give higher yields, they may spread quite rapidly with little input from extension, as occurred when semidwarf wheats were first released (Lowdermilk 1972).The costs and benefits of varietal replacement in Pakistan suggest that wheat varieties should turn over every five to six years, which is somewhat longer than the target of three to five years set in Pakistan after the 1978 rust epidemic (Muhammad 1981). The five-to six-year target period would meet the hypothesized threshold at which it becomes profitable for farmers to change varieties and maintain rust resistance. The target period would also be practical, given the limitations in releasing, extending, and multiplying seed of new varieties.Even a target period of five to six years poses considerable challenges to plant breeders. For example, in the Punjab alone there are three varietal zones--irrigated southern Punjab (leaf rust zone ), irrigated northern Punjab (leaf rust and stripe rust zone), and the barani (rainfed) tract-as well as two distinct planting periods (normal and late) in the irrigated tracts. To meet a target replacement time of five to six years in all zones, one new variety should be released each year. Some varieties are adapted across zones, thereby reducing the number of varieties needed, but this advantage is countered by the fact that some varieties are not accepted by farmers or are grown on only a negligible area.Assuming that varietal diversification reflects genetic diversity, varietal diversification over space is desirable mainly to reduce the risk to farmers and to a nation should a rust epidemic occur. If a susceptible variety covers only a minor proportion of the planted area, losses in the year of an epidemic are reduced, and in the next year the variety can be replaced more quickly and cheaply than if it had been planted on a wider area. Replacing a susceptible variety grown on half or more of the planted area usually takes more than one year and requires an accelerated program to procure and distribute seed. Large-scale seed imports may even be necessary, as during the rust epidemic in Pakistan in 1978.To actually reduce the risk of an epidemic, diversification must be practiced at the field level, perhaps by planting multilines or varietal mixtures in a given field. 3  There is some difference of opinion over whether planting adjacent fields with genetically different material slows the spread of disease, but plant pathologists generally agree that diversification above the field level will probably not influence the rate at which a rust epidemic spreads.To monitor both the impact of a plant breeding program and exposure to rust epidemics, some measures of varietal replacement and diversification are needed.Measures used in other studies are reviewed here and some are applied to the situation in Pakistan. Examples are sometimes calculated using hypothetical data from Table 2.3. 3 A multiline is a mixture of phenotypically similar plants that have different genes for rust resistance. A multiline could be developed by crossing a variety to a series of varieties with different sources of resistance and then backcrossing to the original variety to regain phenotype. However, each component of a multiline or varietal mixture must be tested to ensure it has at least one resistance gene that is different from those in the other components of the mixture/multiline...Many different measures of varietal replacement have been proposed, beginning with an index developed by Johnson and Gustafson (1963). Some of the more important measures are discussed by Brennan (1984) and Brennan and Byerlee (1989). The two measures used in this study are the proportion of recent varieties and the weighted average age of varieties; they are analyzed in the sections that follow.Proportion of recent varieties-This index (Brennan 1984) is quite simple to construct. If we use a five-year period for varietal replacement, then this index, Nt' is simply the proportion of the area planted to varieties released in the previous five years.The following hypothetical example illustrates the method . Assume that a target is set to grow only varieties released in the previous seven years (n := 7) (two years for seed multiplication and five years for varietal longevity). Then the indices of varietal newness (N,) calculated from Table 2.3 are as follows: Weighted average age of varieties-This index consists of the average age, A\" of varieties grown by farmers, measured in years from varietal release and weighted by the proportion of area sown to each variety. Again, using the data from Table 2 This index is easy to construct and does not require a \"target\" replacement period, n, to be pre-selected. It will be the main index used here.It is important to note that this is an aggregate measure. Though it is related to the optimal replacement period for an individual farmer (see above), it is not the same. In particular, aggregate weighted average age is affected by the amount of time from varietal release until a substantial amount of seed first reaches farmers, and by the fact that the actual year when farmers change varieties may differ from farmer to farmer.It is possible to construct crude indices of varietal replacement that do not consider the genetic makeup of disease resistance in released varieties. The simplest measure is the proportion of area devoted to the most popular variety. Targets may be set to keep this proportion in any given area to, say, 33% or less (Duvick 1984). As more is known about the specific genes conferring rust resistance, this index can be considerably refined by grouping varieties that carry the same gene sets for resistance against known rust races to make the calculations (Priestley and Bayles 1980).Varietal Replacement and Diversification in the Punjab, 1965-86 and1978-86 Data for analyzing varietal diversification in the Punjab were provided by the Crop Reporting Service (CRS), Lahore. Since the 1978 rust epidemic, the CRS has recorded the area planted to specific varieties in randomly selected farmers' fields in the Punjab. These data are not without limitations; in particular, the CRS does not allow for the fact that, on average, 12-15% offarmers cannot reliably identify which wheat variety they grow (Chapter 3). A tendency to rely on physical identification has probably led to an overestimation of some varieties, especially Yecora, a sister line of Pari, from which it is almost physically indistinguishable. Nonetheless, data at the provincial level reasonably reflect general trends in varietal use. At the zonal level, estimated area in each variety is also fairly consistent with estimates from independent surveys conducted by wheat breeders and economists from 1985 to 1988 (Chapter 3).Rate of varietal release--Upon its release in 1965, Mexipak became the first commercially successful semidwarf wheat in Pakistan. Around 1970 the rate of varietal release increased substantially with the rapid development of other semidwarf materials. Two decades later, some 27 new varieties, all but one of them semidwarf, had been approved for cultivation in the Punjab (Tables 2.4 and 2.5). Nonetheless, the rate of release in Pakistan is low relative to other countries. In the Punjab and for Pakistan as a whole, 0.29 varieties have been released per year per million hectares of wheat cultivated. This figure can be compared to an average of 0.72 varieties/yr/million ha for 15 developing countries and 0.45 varieties/yr/million ha for 7 developed countries (Table 2.6). The lower rate of varietal release in the Punjab partly reflects its relative agroclimatic uniformity and large wheat area.In addition to a relatively slow rate of varietal release, the rate of acceptance of varieties in the Punjab may be a problem. Of 20 varieties released from 1965 to 1981, six can be considered failures as they were never planted to more than 1% of the area, and only nine were adopted on 5% or more of the area (Table 2.7). The latter figure is consistent with adoption in other countries, where only about half of the varieties released are expected to become commercial successes. Nonetheless, the number and quality of varieties released in the Punjab would probably have been sufficient to allow reasonable varietal diversification over space and time, if each variety had been rapidly adopted by farmers on roughly equivalent areas. Note: Some varieties are recommended for both normal and late planting or for both irrigated and rainfed wheat.     The area under Punjab-8l has probably peaked because of that variety's stripe rust susceptibility and tendency to shatter at harvest, and it is estimated that the area under Pak-8l will peak at over 50% in 1991. Adoption ofPak-8l is growing quite rapidly in some areas (e.g., the rice-wheat area of northeastern Punjab) and more slowly in others .Three other varieties have been and continue to be important, covering 10% or more of the area, but usually for specific situations. Blue Silver, also known as Sonalika, is grown widely and recommended especially for late planting. Lyallpur-73 is prominent in the rainfed areas. The area planted to older, taller, and desi (local) varieties has continuously declined and their cultivation is now largely confined to the driest rainfed areas.Two measures of varietal replacement (the percentage area sown to new varieties released in the past five years, N and the average age ofvarieties, A,) were \" calculated for 1978-86 using the indices of varietal replacement described earlier.    When varietal replacement is calculated using the conventional definition of new varieties (those released in the previous five years: n = 5), the area planted to new varieties has averaged only 11%. Even if the definition is relaxed to include varieties released in the past seven years (n = 7), the area sown to new varieties is relatively small.The average age of varieties was calculated as about 10 years for all varieties and about nine for semidwarfs only (Figure 2.5). The average age of all varieties has not changed even though newer semidwarfs have replaced some of the old tall varieties. Over 95% of the irrigated area is now sown to semidwarfs and the average age of semidwarf varieties has actually tended to increase over time (Figure 2.5). This trend is disturbing because disease pressure is greatest in irrigated areas.These statistics on varietal replacement in the Punjab compare unfavorably with data from similar wheat growing areas. For example, in the Indian Punjab, the percentage of area sown to varieties released in the previous five years averages 30% compared to 11% in the Punjab of Pakistan. Correspondingly the average age of new varieties in the Indian Punjab (6.5 years) is less than three-quarters of the average age of new varieties in the Punjab of Pakistan. In the smaller, more uniform wheat growing environment of northwestern Mexico, the rate of varietal replacement is much faster than in either India or Pakistan (Table 2.8). Exposure to risk of disease--The slow rate of varietal replacement has left much wheat area in the Punjab exposed to severe risk of a rust epidemic for most of the past decade. From 1977 to 1986 the area sown to varieties that are no longer approved because of disease susceptibility averaged 42%. This figure underestimates the risk of a rust epidemic, since several recommended varieties are also susceptible to the disease . It also does not include the related problem of growing approved varieties outside of their recommended zones. The Cereal Disease Research Institute (CDRI) inoculates plots in farmers' fields to measure the susceptibility of commercial varieties to leaf rust (PARC 1987). These data suggest that the percentage area planted to varieties rated at 50S or above (50% severity with a susceptible field response, based on the modified Cobb scale) averaged 59% between 1982 and 1986 (Table 2.9). Another measure of exposure to an epidemic is the average coefficient of infection (ACI) for leaf rust over the total provincial wheat area, based on varieties (weighted by area) sown in farmers' fields . In 1984/85, a relatively high value of 36 was registered for this indicator. 4Aside from the devastating losses that a rust epidemic could cause, actual losses to leaf rust are already substantial. Scientists estimated a 10% loss (equivalent to 400,000 t of wheat) in 1986/87 in fields planted to such susceptible varieties as WL 711, Blue Silver, and Yecora; this occurred mostly in the Punjab. Losses of such magnitude not only justify increased investment in wheat research but also in seed multiplication, seed promotion, and extension.Diversification in space--A simple measure of diversification over space is the percentage area sown to one variety at a given time. This measure can be calculated at various levels of aggregation-the farm level, district or divisional level, or  4 For information on how ACI is calculated, see Stubbs et al. (1986).provincial level. At the provincial level, one variety usually tends to dominate half or more of the total wheat area. For example, Mexipak is estimated to have covered nearly 60% of the area in 1971 (Nagy 1984).The dependence on one variety is even more striking at the divisional level. Surveys in the rice-wheat zone showed that Yecora covered 60% of the area in 1984 (Byerlee et al. 1984). The CRS, Punjab, records an even higher percentage planted to Yecora in 1982 and 1983 in that zone. In individual villages there is also evidence that farmers concentrate on one variety (Heisey et al. 1987). At the farm level, where varietal diversification is a function of farm size, even large-scale farmers with more than 10 ha plant an average of 75% of their wheat land to one variety (Table 2.10).Yield Gains in the Punjab, 1965-86 Since varietal replacement appears to be slow in the Punjab, it is important to investigate one of the most critical factors in farmers' uptake of new varieties, gains in yield.Methods--A number of methods are available for measuring yield gains due to new varieties (for a review see Godden 1987). Ideally, recording yield gains due to breeding will require a varietal trial in which important varieties released over the period of interest are grown under practices of representative farmers (e.g., date of planting, fertilizer rate, etc.). In practice, such data are rarely available, and other less satisfactory approaches must be used.Two methods of analysis were employed to analyze information from varietal yield testing trials conducted over years, although only the second method, the vintage regression model, is reported here. Varieties included in these trials varied from year to year. In the first method an index is constructed by comparing the yield of each variety relative to the check variety (see Schmidt 1984   where Yi, is yield of variety i in year t (as above), D, are a set of dummy variables (0,1) for the experimental year t and D j are a set of(O,l) dummy variables for the \"vintage\" or period of release ofa variety. Godden and Brennan divided D into five-year periods. The GoddenlBrennan J formulation allows for nonlinear yield increases over time in newly released varieties. In our case we were only interested in the long term average rate of increase in yield gains, and the specification of the vintage function was simplified to the following two alternative forms:(2) t where 1n(Yit) is the natural log of Y i , and V i is the year in which variety i was released. The linear specification (equation 1) provides an estimate of the yield increase due to new varieties in absolute terms (i.e., c measures kg/ha/year yield gains) while the logarithmic specification gives the relative yield increase (i .e., c measures %/yr yield gains). Both specifications were tried, but because the logarithmic specification generally gave as good or better fit and since we were more interested in the relative yield gains, we report here only the logarithmic specification.Data sources--For this analysis, we employed two quite comprehensive data sets. The first is the results of the International Spring 'Wheat Yield Nursery (lSWYN) sent by CIMMYT to many countries for the past 22 years to measure yield performance and other varietal characteristics such as disease resistance over a wide range of environments. This nursery has been grown at Faisalabad since 1964/65 and data are published in the ISWYN reports for all years except 1976. Methods and practices used in the ISWYN have varied over the years, but the nursery trials have always used relatively high management levels on small plots, although no fungicide is applied. The date of planting varies from 10 to 24 November, generally considered the optimal planting period for this area. The variety Siete Cerros (or its sister lines Mexipak and Kalyonsona) was included as a check in all ISWYN trials . Over the years, all widely grown commercial varieties from Pakistan, both tall and semidwarf, have also been included in the ISWYN, either as advanced lines or as released varieties.The second data set consists of the results of a variety by date of planting trial conducted annually at the Khanewal Seed Farm since 1979/80. This replicated trial uses relatively large plot sizes and has included all major commercial varieties released since 1970. Sonalika is a common check variety over all years. Furthermore, each variety is grown at four dates of planting, typically ranging from 1 November to 31 December or early January. The performance of varieties over planting dates enables yield gains to be estimated under conditions more representative of farmers' conditions, since late planting has become increasingly more common in the Punjab as cropping intensity has increased. Nonetheless, the trials are planted with higher levels of inputs, especially fertilizer, than farmers use, so yields are considerably above farmers' levels.Results---Results of some of the vintage regression models are reported in Tables 2.11 and 2.12. The F -ratio for the group of dummy variables for year of experiment is generally highly significant and the coefficient for V, the year of varietal release, is also significant and positive in most cases.Estimates of the rate of yield gain due to new varieties are summarized in Tables 2.13 and 2.14 for various subsets of years, varieties, and dates of planting. The ISWYN data allow the estimation of yield gains to include the effect of the release of the first semidwarfvarieties in the 1960s. However, it is also interesting to know the yield gains achieved in successive generations of semidwarf varieties. The results of c The number given is the F -ratio to enter the set of dummy variables for year.both the vintage model and the yield relative to the check (Siete Cerros) indicate that yield gains for all varieties, including the change to semidwarf from tall varieties, has been nearly 2% per year, but for the semidwarfs alone, the yield gains have averaged about 1% per year.The ISWYN data set includes several varieties, especially Siete Cerros, which have become susceptible to rust over time. Hence, the estimated yield increase to new varieties includes both the effect of increasing yield potential of new varieties as well as the decline in yield of some older varieties caused by a breakdown in rust resistance. In fact the yield of Mexipak does show fairly high variability compared to other varieties, probably because of rust attack. An attempt was made to account for this effect by removing the years 1973, 1976, and 1978, when rust was severe and Mexipak (Siete Cerros) was given a leaf rust rating of 60S or higher. 5 The estimated rate of yield increase for \"non-rust\" years falls from 1.25% to 1.0% using the vintage model, suggesting an average rate of decay of 0.25% per year caused by a deterioration in rust resistance. This estimate is only a rough guide and is probably  an underestimate since natural rust infestations in small yield plots, surrounded by resistant varieties, might be expected to be lower than in large fields of the same variety.The Khanewal Seed Farm data include 284 observations of variety by planting date by year. Only popular commercial varieties were included in the experiment but they can be divided into varieties for normal planting, varieties for late planting, and varieties for rainfed areas. Table 2.14 summarizes estimated yield gajns for various groups of varieties and dates of planting. In the irrigated Punjab most wheat is planted between 15 November and 15 December, so the best estimate of yield gains under farmers' conditions is the average of D2 and D3 or the average of D2, D3, and D4 (D2 =20 November, D3 = 10 December, D4 =end of December or early January).To account for these effects, date of planting was also included as an independent variable in the vintage equation.  b 1973, 1976, 1978.  *** Significant at 1%; **significant at 5%.  The estimates for normal season varieties again suggest yield gains from 0.75-1.25% per year. However, for early maturing varieties for late planting and varieties for rainfed areas, there is no evidence of any yield gains. The evaluation of rainfed varieties should be conducted in rainfed conditions so the latter result is not surprising. For late planting, significant yield gains have been made for \"normal\" season varieties. These gains largely reflect the relatively good performance of Pak-81 and WL-711 under late planting (Byerlee, Akhter, and Hobbs 1987). The overall yield gains estimated relative to the check, Sonalika, also give a similar estimate of 0.88% per year.In synthesis, the results of the analysis of two comprehensive data sets by two methods give quite comparable results of yield gains to new varieties of about 1% per year or a little less since semidwarfs were first released, and nearly 2% per year if the introduction of semidwarfs is also included. These figures are quite comparable to estimates for Mexico by Evans (1981) and Waddington et al.(1986) and for the UK and Australia by Godden and Brennan (1987 ).There remains the question of whether these results can be applied to yield gains in farmers' fields under farmers' management. For some varieties, especially Pak-81, farmer surveys and on-farm experiments show that yield gains under farmers ' conditions are comparable (Byerlee et al. 1986), and we are willing to extrapolate these results to the farm level. However, to allow for the effect of a breakdown in rust resistance, a conservative overall estimate of yield gains of 0.75% per year due to new varieties may be more appropriate.This estimate of yield gains can be fed into the model of varietal replacement at the farmer level described above and by Heisey and Brennan (1989). Given the present seed-to-grain price ratio of about 1.5, and assuming yield gains of 0.75% per year and annual deterioration in the performance of varieties of 0.25%, farmers would be willing to change varieties every four years. If annual yield gains from breeding were 1 % and annual deterioration were 0.5%, individual varietal replacement time would be three years. These desired replacement times, coupled with an aggregate mean age of varieties of about nine years, imply that seed of new varieties reaches farmers an average of about seven years after release. Even if the price of seed were raised to a 2:1 ratio with grain, under the other assumptions specified above, the desired replacement times would be eight and five years. To maintain an aggregate mean age of nine years would require that seed reach farmers in four-and-a-half to six years. Aggregate mean age of varieties would be reduced if the increase in seed price stimulated seed production and sales .-_ : 1______ -Conclusions Several measures of varietal diversity applied to wheat in the Punjab indicate that varietal replacement has been slow and that exposure to disease risk has been high. Because of the large area sown to susceptible varieties, losses to rust have been considerable. However, whelj.t breeding has continued to provide potential benefits by increasing yield potential and changing the sources of disease resistance in available varieties. Although the rate of varietal release per million hectares of wheat has been somewhat low, the number and quality of the varieties released in the Punjab have been great enough to allow acceptable varietal diversification over space and time, had they been more rapidly adopted by farmers. Reasons for the slow rate of adoption will be among the major topics of following chapters.Paul W. Heisey, M. Ramzan Akhter, Khaleel A. Tetlay The most thorough varietal monitoring is presently conducted for the Punjab by the Crop Reporting Service (CRS) in Lahore, who collect information on wheat varieties as part of their annual estimation of area and yield. Their estimates of varietal coverage are not published, however, and wheat scientists are either unaware of their existence or uncertain of the methodology used to produce them. Although the CRS hesitates to claim accuracy for its estimates below the provincial level (reasons for this will become apparent later), their data remain the single most useful source for any analysis of varietal change in Pakistan, especially since equivalent data for other provinces are not available.Wheat varieties grown by farmers are also monitored occasionally by specialized institutions, such as agricultural extension or the Federal Seed Certification Department (FSCD). In addition to being occasional, these surveys tend to overrepresent large-scale farmers and thus to overestimate the area planted to new varieties.In 1985/86 social scientists from the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) conducted a major study of the constraints to rapid diffusion of new, disease resistant wheats in three major cropping systems. 2 Ferozewala, Gujranwala, and 1 More detailed information on the research reported in this chapter can be found in Akhter et al. (1986b); Akhter et al. (1987);Sharifet al. (1988); Khushk et al. (1987); Heisey et al. (1986 and1987); and Ahmad et al. (1988). Heisey et al. (1986 and1987) also describe the methodology used in estimating the relative areas covered by different wheat varieties.2 Much of the analysis in Chapters 5 and 6 is based on this study.--Daska tehsils (subdi'stricts) were selected to represent the rice-wheat system of the northeastern Punjab; Lodhran, Mailsi, and Bahawalpur tehsils to represent the cotton-wheat system of the southern Punjab; and the irrigated part of Mardan District to represent the irrigated Peshawar plain, North West Frontier Province (NWFP).3 (Survey areas are shown in Figure 1.1, page 2.) Thirty villages were randomly selected in each of the rice-wheat and cotton-wheat survey areas, and 20 villages were randomly chosen in irrigated Mardan. Over 1,200 farmers in the 80 villages were interviewed about the wheat varieties they were growing. Social scientists returned to the same villages later with wheat breeders from provincial wheat research institutes to identify the varieties grown in over 3,000 village wheat fields. In subsequent years, the social scientists have returned to the same villages to conduct similar surveys of farmers, though there have been no more breeders' surveys. In addition, farmer and breeders' surveys were conducted in two cotton wheat talukas (subdistricts) and two sugarcane-wheat talukas in Sind in 1986/87. These surveys provide the basis of some of the estimates reported below.The first problem in monitoring varieties is to identify them correctly. Identification can be done through physical identification or farmer interviews. Large surveys relying on physical identification are too costly for widespread use because only a few individuals have the specialized skills to identify with accuracy all varieties grown by farmers, even when the crop has reached maturity.4 On the other hand, relying on farmer interviews can also be problematic. Interviews with farmers in the Punjab and Sind revealed that 5-20% of the surveyed area was planted to wheat varieties that farmers could not name. In Mardan, the proportion was much higher: in three years of surveys, one-third to one-half of the wheat area was planted to varieties that farmers either could not name or referred to as \"Mexipak,\" which in addition to being a true varietal name is also the local name for any semidwarf wheat. Another complicating factor is that farmers identify their wheat varieties by the name given by the person who initially supplied the seed or on the basis of their own knowledge of a variety's characteristics. The present system of assigning varieties similar names makes it easy to confuse varieties (Punjab-81 and Punjab-85, for example, or Pak-81 and Punjab-8D.Despite some drawbacks, farmer interviews are likely to remain the major instrument in varietal monitoring. Even at present, interviews produce useful information; judicious questioning about the length of time a variety has. been planted can lead to a decision about whether or not it is a recent release, even though the specific name of the variety is not obtained.In the surveys reported here, \"don't know\" responses were divided into \"new, don't know\" and \"old, don't know\" categories. Varieties were labeled \"new, don't know\" if the farmer did not know the variety's name but said it was new. Supplementary questioning about the length of time the farmer had been growing the variety and the length of time other farmers in the same village had been growing it were used to confirm the farmer's opinion. This process required a certain amount of subjective judgment on the part of the enumerator and probably resulted in slight overestimation of the \"new, don't know\" category at the expense of the \"old, don't know\" category.The other major constraint to estimating varietal coverage accurately is sampling. Most large-scale varietal surveys, such as that of the CRS in the Punj ab, are byproducts of other research efforts and not designed primarily to record varietal information. Thus, sampling design is unlikely to maximize the efficiency of estimates of area planted to given varieties. This problem is complicated by the fact that, to the authors' knowledge, all the surveys described earlier used a cluster sampling design. Cluster sampling reduces survey costs through the selection of first-stage sampling units defined by location (\"clusters\"); second-stage sampling units are chosen from within the cluster. In the special studies in the rice-wheat, cotton-wheat, and Mardan areas, the first-stage unit was the village.Cluster sampling can produce efficient estimators if individual clusters are relatively heterogeneous with respect to the parameters in question and if there is relatively high homogeneity between clusters. Unfortunately this is not likely to be the case with respect to wheat variety. Researchers' experience in conducting specialized varietal identification studies has shown that varieties tend to be concentrated in particular villages. A farmer is more likely to grow the same variety grown by another randomly selected farmer in the same village than a variety grown by a randomly selected farmer in a•different village. Similarly, two wheat fields inspected by a breeder in the same village are more likely to be planted to the same variety than a random pair of wheat fields from two different villages. Estimates of varietal coverage from cluster sampling designs are therefore likely to have relatively high sampling error. In the short run, this method can be improved by choosing a relatively high number of clusters (villages) and a relatively low number of farmers (or fields) within each village. 5 5 In the long run, as the CRS moves towards area frame sampling designs, better estimates of varietal coverage are likely to result as a by-product.-Finally, if a survey is to provide estimates of varieties that cover relatively little area, it is in effect sampling from a rare population. Unless a relatively expensive survey is designed, it is unlikely that the estimates will be very accurate.Survey of Farmers and Breeders' Survey, 1985/86The special surveys conducted in 1985/86 exemplify some of the difficulties in accurately estimating varietal coverage. Varieties were identified by farmers and by wheat breeders in the same villages. Because of the sampling problem and the identification problem discussed earlier, there were large discrepancies The discrepancies for Yecora and Sandal in the rice-wheat zone might be related to the fact that they are sister lines. Yecora was introduced in 1974 and large amounts of seed were imported; in 1981 it was banned. Yecora's sister lines Pari-73 and Sandal were released in Pakistan in 1973 and are still approved but recommended for replacement. Although it is clear that Yecora was the dominant variety in the 6 For example, in the next two years (1986/87 and 1987/88), area under \"new, don't know\" varieties, as well as Pak-81, increased substantially in Mardan. Most of this \"new, don't know\" area can be presumed to be under Pak-81.Punjab in the late 1970s and early 1980s, there has probably been some tendency for farmers and the eRS to overestimate Yecora and underestimate Pari-73 and Sandal.In all three areas, estimates for WL-711 were higher in the breeders' survey and lower in the survey of farmers. For Blue Silver the situation was exactly the reverse.In the 1985/86 surveys, the discrepancy for Blue Silver was particularly apparent in the cotton-wheat zone. WL-711 is a variety of intermediate maturity and Blue Silver is early maturing. Though their physical characteristics are somewhat similar, they can be distinguished near maturity with only moderate difficulty.The discrepancy between farmers' and breeders' identification ofWL-711 in Mardan is partially accounted for by farmers' tendency to be unaware of varietal names. 7 The discrepancy for the cotton zone is more problematic. Subsequent surveys of farmers in the same area of the cotton zone, confirmed by unpublished eRS estimates, show a large, even increasing, proportion of wheat area under Blue Silver. Perhaps the cluster sampling problem is even more severe for the breeders' survey than the survey of farmers; and, as in Mardan, both WL-711 and Blue Silver may be referred to as \"India\" by farmers, although the name more commonly applies to WL-711.Estimates from the Crop Reporting Services and special studie~Though some wheat varieties are more widely adapted than others, different varieties are often more popular within different cropping systems. An obvious example is the use of certain varieties in irrigated agriculture and others in rainfed agriculture. Different requirements for maturity and disease resistance also account for varietal diversity over widely dispersed areas. For those reasons, and also because of differences in recording methodology, the Punjab-wide varietal estimates from the eRS cannot be compared directly with those from the special studies, which covered a much smaller area. Nonetheless, examining the different estimates for some of the major varieties together helps identify regional differences in varietal use (Tables 3.2 to 3.4).The estimates from the special studies for 1985/86 and 1986/87 are broadly consistent with the eRS estimates for the same years. In particular, both indicate that Pak-81 is undergoing rapid adoption and Yecora is nearly phased out. Two other results from the special studies might be predictors of province-wide trends: namely, that WL-711 and Punjab-81 probably reached their peak coverage in the years of the studies and are likely to have entered the disadoption phase.7 In fact, in Mardan \"India\" might refer to either WL-711 or Blue Silver, as both WL-711 and Blue Silver's sister line, Sonalika, were imported from India. Here, \"India\" has been recorded under WL-711; otherwise the discrepancy for WL-711 in Mardan would be even greater.Besides indicating general trends in varietal use and disuse, the special studies provide specific evidence of preference for particular varieties in the three crop production zones. Pak-81 , Punjab-81, and Yecora are clearly important in the rice wheat area, whereas WL-711 and Bahawalpur-79 are much more significant in the cotton-wheat area. Blue Silver is important in both zones, but particularly in the cotton-wheat area. WL-711 performs well when planted late, and Blue Silver has traditionally been recommended for rate planting. Although WL-711 has been recommended that Blue Silver be phased out, the actual choice of varieties in the cotton zone has been determined by the constraints of the cropping system rather than by recommendations based largely on disease resistance.Recent trends in varietal use in the special study areas--Data from three years of farmer surveys in the rice-wheat zone, cotton-wheat zone, and Mardan illustrate patterns in varietal use and identify trends among varieties in each zone. Some distinctions will be made in those data. First, \"new varieties\" in any year are defined as those released no more than five years ago. Second, in any year, varieties are classified as \"recommended\" or \"banned\" according to the list issued after the annual meeting of the wheat Varietal Evaluation Committee. B On the basis of those two definitions, varieties are classified as \"new recommended,\" \"old recommended,\" or \"banned.\" A third category, \"all varieties released in 1979 or more recently,\" is the basis of the study of the diffusion of new wheat seed and new wheat varieties, presented in Chapters 5 and 6.In the rice zone the wide diffusion of post-1978 releases (Table 3.5) is the result of fanners' adoption ofPak-81. The \"new, don't know\" category has also increased in area, implying that one or more recent releases are being adopted fairly rapidly. The area under Punjab-81 appears to be declining and Yecora can be considered nearly phased out. Although the large variability in the estimates makes it difficult to speculate about varieties that cover smaller proportions of the area, figures for 1987/88 suggest that the area planted to Blue Silver may also be declining. -In the cotton zone, the adoption ofpost-1978 releases has been much slower. Pak-81, Punjab-81, and Bahawalpur-79 appear to make up nearly equal proportions of that category. On the other hand, there has been a significant shift out of banned varieties into recommended varieties in the most recent year (Table 3.6).In Mardan, the relative area planted to old varieties is particularly high compared to the other two study areas. Mardan has relatively little area planted to varieties released in the 1970s and still recommended (Table 3.7). The increase of recommended varieties in Mardan has been overwhelmingly the result of the diffusion of Pak-81. The area under \"new, don't know\" varieties has been particularly high in the last two years, implying that, although the estimated area under Pak-81  -----in Mardan is about 30%, the true proportion may be closer to 45%. The latter percentage would make the diffusion ofPak-81 in Mardan comparable to its spread in the rice-wheat area.Several measures could improve identification of varieties in farmer surveys in Pakistan and elsewhere. First, more distinctive varietal names could be chosen.Second, enumerators should be trained to record \"don't know\" responses and local names; farmers should not be prompted with the name of a variety that the enumerator knows. Sampling designs could also improve. If cluster sampling is used, more clusters with fewer farmers per cluster would improve sampling efficiency, as varietal use tends to be correlated over short distances. 9 However, large-scale varietal monitoring is likely to remain a byproduct of other surveys, notably those intended to estimate wheat production and yield. Agencies that monitor varieties, such as Pakistan's Crop Reporting Services, should be consulted to determine if their current sampling designs could, with minimal modifications, produce useful estimates for major cropping systems within large areas.Estimates of wheat varietal coverage should be circulated rapidly and widely to policy makers, wheat breeders, and pathologists. In Pakistan, disseminating these data in February or March would allow more in-depth assessment of the current crop and assist the Varietal Evaluation Committee and the Federal Committee on Agriculture to recommend varieties and set seed production targets. Furthermore, CRSs in provinces other than the Punjab should be encouraged to collect and report varietal data; varieties should be identified following guidelines suggested above.Finally, special studies may occasionally need to be done in areas of interest to pathologists or epidemiologists. The special studies reported here, if they are continued, will allow longitudinal analysis of varietal change within particular cropping systems. They will prove particularly useful if they are integrated with analyses of other changes, both in wheat technology and within the cropping system . 109 For example, data from the studies reported in this chapter show that planting of new varieties tended to be concentrated in some villages rather than to be spread evenly over most of the villages.10 For example, studies conducted by the Agricultural Economics Research Unit, Faisalabad, and the PARC/CIMMYT collaborative program, have looked at the rapid spread of an earlier maturing basmati rice variety, and the use of combine harvesters by larger farmers, in the rice-wheat zone (Sharif et al. 1989;and Smale 1987, respectively). These changes may affect the choice of wheat varieties as they imply somewhat earlier planting dates for wheat.  4.1. On average, that seed was enough to cover 2-4% of the total wheat area in Punjab Province, although substantial amounts of seed were sold in the late 1960s when seed of high-yielding varieties was first imported from Mexico.Under the ADC, pre-basic seed produced at government research institutes was multiplied into basic seed at ADC farms. Basic seed was multiplied into certified seed at registered growers' farms and then offered for sale to 17.0 3.9 its own network of 47 bulk centers and 212 retail points throughout 1 A fuller treatment of this subject can be found in Chaudhry and Heisey (1987). The cooperation of Chemonics International Consulting Division in supporting this research is gratefully acknowledged.-----the country. Staffing problems led the ADC to recruit employees from the military, but they lacked agricultural experience. Seed targets were established arbitrarily with little reference to market demand.These inadequacies combined to make the quantity and quality of seed offered for sale to farmers unacceptable. The ADC was dissolved in 1972 and its functions relating to seed production and marketing were assumed by the provincial governments. In Punjab Province, Punjab Agricultural Development and Supplies Corporation (PAD&SC) took over most of ADC's assets and staff and continued operations.Unfortunately the new organizational structure did not rectify the problems that brought about ADC's failure. To replace the seed production system with a modern seed industry that would release new varieties and multiply, process, certify, store, and market seed, the government initiated a Seed Industry Project in 1976 with the financial and technical assistance of the World Bank. The main benefit anticipated from the project was the higher crop yields to be obtained by users of improved quality seed. To implement the project, provincial seed corporations were established in the Punjab and Sind. One of them, the Punjab Seed Corporation (PSC), now markets seed for 12 crops, although cotton and wheat seed are by far its dominant products.The PSC produces pre-basic wheat seed at the research institutes or at the Foundation Seed Cell, Khanewal. Pre-basic seed is multiplied into basic seed at the PSC farms and supplied to registered growers contracted by the PSC to produce certified seed. At all stages of seed multiplication, standing crops are inspected by an independent agency, the Federal Seed Certification Department (FSCD). Seed is procured only from fields approved by the FSCD. That agency also tests the purity and quality of seed during processing and distribution . In addition to the routine seed certification tests of the FSCD, the PSC has established its own Internal Quality Control Cell at each plant site. This system also tests seed at the fields of registered growers, in their stores, and at PSC plant sites or stores.Pre-basic seed production-Pre-basic seed of impeccable quality is essential to a successful seed program. In Pakistan, pre-basic seed is produced at the research institutes two years ahead of the certified seed crop, under the direct supervision of plant breeders. To handle pre-basic seed production adequately, the research institutes have been provided with sophisticated laboratory equipment under the Seed Industry Project.Because pre-basic seed is produced two years before the certified seed crop, production in year t depends upon certified seed requirements in year t+3 . Certified seed requirements depend upon anticipated seed demand and rate of seed replacement. 2 In the early years of the Seed Industry Project, breeders lacked resources to produce the quantities of pre-basic seed that were required. To meet the anticipated demand for certified seed, it was decided to produce two generations of basic seed at the PSC farms (2,370 ha in three farms at Khanewal and 70 ha at Sahiwal). This increased the certified seed production cycle from three years to four.To shorten the cycle, a \"Foundation Seed Cell\" was established in 1980/81 at the PSC seed farm in Khanewal to produce pre-basic seed under breeders' supervision. In the first three years of the Foundation Seed Cell program, the PSC share in pre-basic seed production increased from 20-40% to over 90% from 1983/84 onward.Basic seed production-Basic seed is the progeny of pre-basic seed. To ensure the closest possible control over production and handling, basic seed is produced on PSC farms. The PSC, after taking over the farms, levelled the fields and provided such resources as tubewell irrigation, tractors, agricultural machinery, and management and technical guidance for the tenants.Area sown to pre-basic seed and total basic seed production are shown in Table 4.2. Each variety's share in the total basic seed production plan has changed over the years as new varieties have been introduced. 3 Sandal, Lyallpur-73, LU-26, and Pari-  1977) for assumptions used in planning the Seed Industry Project. They imply, very roughly, a certified seed requirement of 70,000 tlyr for the Punjab. Using fairly conservative assumptions about seed multiplication ratios, this implies production of 25-40 t of pre-basic seed each year. 3 Details of pre-basic and basic seed production for each year by variety can be found in Chaudhry and Heisey (1987).-----73 dominated the PSC seed multiplication program during its early years when total output was lower than at present. More recently, Pak-81, Punjab-81, and Blue Silver have been the leading varieties featured in the seed production plan.Certified seed production-To improve reliability of seed supplies and minimize managerial problems, farmers selected by the PSC to produce certified seed must meet certain standards. The criteria for selection are:• The grower should be cooperative, reliable, financially sound, and prepared to adopt recommended farm development and crop production practices;• The farm unit of the grower/family should be at least 40 ha and preferably directly cultivated; and• Farms should be near the seed processing plants. (Progressive growers with large mechanized farms located farther from processing plants are chosen occasionally.)There are currently 572 PSC-registered growers, 310 in category \"A\" and 262 in category \"B.\" The PSC enters into contracts with category \"B\" growers only if the total production target is beyond the capacity of its category \"A\" growers. During recent years, certified wheat seed was produced on an average of 19,000 ha of category \"A\" farmers' land and 13,000 ha belonging to category \"B\" farmers .The quantities of wheat seed procured from registered growers are shown in Table 4.3, along with annual targets fixed by the government and targets planned in the original PC-I (Seed Industry Project) scheme. Production of certified seed for four individual varieties widely grown by farmers is also shown. 4 The total amount of wheat seed procured by the PSC rose from 4,000 t in 1979/80 to 43,000 tin 1986/87. Most of this increase in certified seed procurement occurred in the PSC's first five years; it has levelled off since 1983/84. The total amount of \"improved wheat seed\" reported as distributed in the Punjab doubled from 1979/80 to 1986/97, from 22,000 t to the current figure (Government of Pakistan 1983). It appears that in the early years of PSC operation PAD&SC was distributing seed that was not produced by the PSC.sThe PSC fell short of procurement targets every year except for 1979/80 and 1982/83, when it sold all the seed it procured. In 1979/80 the procurement target was very low compared to following years. It was PSC's first year in the market and marketing 4 Further details of certified seed production by variety can be found in Chaudhry and Heisey (1987).5 It is unlikely that much of the non-PSC seed distributed was certified by the FSCD, as this agency was established by the Seed Act of 1976 and was probably not fully operational until the 1980s.efforts were substantial in relation to the amount of seed procured. The year 1982/83 was good because seed ofWL-711 and Punjab-81 was in great demand, and PSC stocks consisted mainly of those varieties.The procurement targets from 1979/80 to 1981182 were very much in line with those planned in the Seed Industry Project appraisal report (PC-I). But in 1983/84 and thereafter, targets fixed by the government and quantities actually procured were significantly below the targets planned in the PC-I scheme.The relationship between amounts of certified seed procured for the four varieties listed in Table 4.3 and the area covered by those varieties is shown in Figure 4.1.The same scales are used in each part of the figure. The figure indicates that seed of those four varieties continues to spread although certified seed production has diminished or stopped. For the older varieties Blue Silver and WL-711, it is difficult to establish the amount of time between seed production and significant area coverage, especially since some seed of those varieties was probably first distributed outside of the PSC network. For the more recent releases Pak-81 and Punjab-81, area seems to have increased rapidly about two years after the first large increases in seed production.In many seed multiplication schemes, particularly in the earlier stages of production of basic and pre-basic seed, seed rates are lower than those usually chosen by farmers (Hanson et al. 1982). The aim is not to maximize biological yield (or economic profit) but rather the ratio of seed output to seed input. Though greater than-normal quantities of other inputs may maintain yields (Brennan and Appleyard 1982), some yield reduction is also a possibility.  The data in Tables 4.2 and 4.3, as well as data for individual varieties, indicate that implied multiplication ratios from pre-basic to basic seed and from basic to certified seed vary greatly from year to year. Furthermore, multiplication ratios from pre basic to basic seed are often rather low . The fairly good yields in Table 4 .2 indicate that some aspects of production were carefully managed on the PSC seed farms. On the other hand, seed rates implied by the second and third columns of the table are often high, even higher than \"normal\" seed rates for irrigated wheat in Pakistan. One explanation is that some of the pre-basic seed does not meet standards for basic seed production. Another possibility is that some pre-basic seed is diverted from basic seed production, either because production plans for varietal mix change or for other reasons . Data for some popular varieties, notably Pak-81 and Punjab-81, also show rather low multiplication ratios, implying that diversions are not the result of changes in production plans.It seems that the main cause of fluctuating multiplication ratios from basic to certified seed is that the amount of certified seed procured is mainly determined by the government's procurement target and PSC's perception of how much seed it can sell, rather than by the amount of basic seed available from the previous production cycle. In years when the ratio of certified to basic seed is low, either some basic seed does not go into certified seed production, some seed produced by registered growers does not meet certification standards, or seed produced by registered growers is simply not procured by the PSC. On the other hand, in years when the apparent ratio of certified to basic seed is high, the PSC may have procured certified seed indirectly from farmers who were not issued basic seed for multiplication under contract, if the seed they produced met certification standards.Given the area PSC now has available for basic seed production and the number of its contract growers, the corporation clearly has the capacity to meet total wheat seed production targets. But the PSC generally follows a conservative approach and procures only as much seed as its managers feel can be sold, with some reference to the annual seed production targets fixed by the Federal Committee on Agriculture. The targets are generally based on the amount of seed sold and on targets assigned in the previous year. The PSC is not a member of the Federal Committee on Agriculture, and constraints faced by the PSC in procuring and selling seed are not taken into account when targets are set. Too high a procurement target can lead to procurement of seed that does not meet seed certification standards or is of unapproved varieties.The PSC can now make 8,000-9,000 t of seed of individual varieties available to farmers three years after release (as it did with Pak-81) or even two years after release when release seems to have been anticipated (Punjab-81). There may be several ways to increase seed production capacity, but doing so requires early decisions about which varieties to multiply. Past coordination of varietal choice between the government and the PSC has not been encouraging; procedures for selecting, retaining, and withdrawing varieties for seed multiplication and distribution have not been understood clearly by all parties. Although the seed production cycle takes three to four years, decisions to retain or reject a variety are made yearly.For example, in 1981/82 the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MINFA)•and PARC recommended that Blue Silver, Bahawalpur-79, Sandal, Pari-73, and Indus-79 be grown for only one year, and only in specified limited zones. s But the next year PSC was asked to multiply those varieties again, because replacements for them were not forthcoming. In another instance, during 1981/82 the variety WL-711 was not allowed to be distributed because it had been banned, but PSC had to procure it because it was already planted with contract growers.One reason for the PSC's conservatism in multiplying recently released varieties is that breeders and the seed corporation have limited knowledge of a variety's acceptability to farmers. Breeders attempt to evaluate promising materials by planting them in microplots in farmers' fields. Mter that, lines proposed for release are tested for two years in the National Uniform Wheat Yield Trials (NUWYTs). Plot sizes in the microplot trials and the NUWYTs are too small for farmer evaluation. Also, for breeders to evaluate the materials properly, the level of management must be somewhat more intensive than the management farmers usually provide. Since farmers' reactions are not recorded, breeders and the PSC have little information about a variety's commercial possibilities over a wide area .Seed processing includes drying, cleaning, grading, and packing. Under the Seed Industry Project, three seed processing plants are to be installed, one each at Khanewal, Sahiwal, and RY. Khan. Each plant will have the capacity to process about 27,600 t of wheat seed. The plant at Khanewal has been in operation since 1985, but the other two are not yet functional. In the meantime, the PSC uses other processing methods, such as cleaning wheat seed with locally made sieves.Total planned storage capacity in open storage and silos will be about 43,000 t. Currently the PSC stores about 22,000 t of wheat seed annually in its own facilities and hires warehouses, some of which cannot be fumigated properly, for storing the remaining seed.The Industry Council for Development (ICD) report on Pakistan's seed industry (1987) notes that the assumption that a seed certification law addresses all consumer protection issues is not justified. The apparent lack of consumer protection laws at the retail level provides merchants with the opportunity to mix noncertified seed with high-quality certified seed. However, despite current problems with seed 6 Indus-79 never achieved commercial success.processing and quality control, two recent studies conducted by the Punjab Economic Research Institute (PERI) and the PSC (Sharif et al. 1986;PSC 1986) indicate that 80% or more of farmers sampled throughout the Punjab were satisfied with the quality of seed supplied by the PSC. The PERI study referred specifically to wheat seed. The PSC results might be biased positively both because the quality of cotton seed produced by the PSC is exceptionally good and because the survey was done by PSC field staff, who were also responsible for procuring and distributing seed. Even though few consumers appear to complain about the quality of PSC wheat seed, consumer protection measures should be strengthened.The distribution network-The PSC sells its seed through public and private organizations. At first the PSC used the retail outlets ofPAD&SC, but as it expanded it began selling seed through private dealers, its own outlets, and branches of the Provincial Cooperative Bank. The PAD&SC also markets seed through private dealers who are primarily agents for PAD&SC fertilizers.Between 1981 and 1986 the number ofPSC outlets increased from under 400 to over 900. These may be viewed as potential outlets, as the amount of seed handled per outlet varies widely. The largest market share in 1985/86 was held by PAD&SC, which handled 59% of PSC wheat seed sold in the Punjab. These sales were made through 186 PAD&SC sale depots as well as some of the 581 private dealers carrying PSC seed. The rest of the private dealers, who receive seed directly from the PSC, accounted for 27% of the Punjab market. Most of the remaining seed, approximately 14%, was sold by 11 PSC sale depots located either at seed processing plant sites or divisional headquarters. Although 140 Cooperative Bank branches supposedly handle PSC seed, less than 1% of the seed sold was marketed through the bank.A geographic breakdown of sale points shows that private dealers and PSC depots are concentrated in the cotton zone, suggesting that PSC depots are more likely to be located in areas where a more profitable product, cotton seed, can be marketed. The concentration of PSC depots (6 out of 11) in the cotton zone is also influenced by the fact that PSC farms and seed processing plants are located there.The P AD&SC has had difficulty establishing itself as an effective institution for marketing agricultural inputs. Its market shares for its two major products, fertilizer and seed, have declined with time because of the private sector's increased involvement in marketing inputs. That trend has led the PAD&SC to reduce its sale points by about half in recent years and has diminished the PSC's enthusiasm for selling its seed through the PAD&SC network. But it is awkward for PSC to decline to use PAD&SC as its distributing agent: the two organizations share the same Chairman and Board of Directors and the PSC has not developed an alternative marketing arrangement although it has been in business for almost eight years. Some of these problems are reflected in the dealings of the two public sector organizations with the network of private dealers. A majority of the private dealers selling seed are PAD&SC agents. When they come to PAD&SC stores to get fertilizer, they are sometimes required to take seed as well. Private dealers who deal directly with the PSC received a commission of Rs 12 per 90-kg bag in 1985/86, but those selling seed for the PAD&SC received Rs 8 per 90-kg bag. The PAD&SC retains the balance of the PSC commission to support its own operations. Furthermore, these commissions, even after a 100% increase between 1985/86 and 1986/87, are still less than 5% of final product price. Commissions on fertilizer are nearly 20%. The PAD&SC dealers are particularly unhappy with the situation.Management of seed distribution-Before the selling season begins, the PSC asks its dealers, private and public, about their anticipated demand and later transports the seed to dealers' stores at its own expense in accordance with a mutually agreed upon supply schedule. As the season proceeds, supplies are adjusted depending on the market.Seed is supplied to public sector agencies and private dealers on a \"cash and carry\" basis as a matter of policy, but in practice the requirement is usually relaxed for public sector agencies. Some private dealers who have established their creditworthiness with the PSC also receive seed on credit against guarantees.The PSC pays the same rate of commission to all distributing agents with whom it deals directly. If some of the stocks supplied to distributors are not sold, PSC takes them back at its own expense and refunds the dealers. The PSC is considering ending this policy to avoid transportation costs, but such a change would discourage PSC agents from requesting more seed. Already some dealers state that the PSC is reluctant to take back unsold stocks.Most dealers handling PSC seed are dissatisfied with the corporation's seed distribution. Poor planning and coordination between the marketing staff and stores staff mean that seed supplies are often delayed, quantities dispatched sometimes exceed quantities requested, or seed is sent to a geographic zone for which it is inappropriate. The quality of packing material is reportedly very poor. All of these factors negatively affect the total sales volume at the retail level, compounding the problem of unsold stocks.All marketing activities of the PSC are supervised by the staff of the Marketing Division, where one assistant manager is presently responsible for monitoring seed sales in three districts. If sales are to be supervised effectively, the number of marketing field staff must be increased, as this area is too large for one person to cover.-Total sales--Presently, the PSC produces approximately 44,000 t of wheat seed-about 70% of the demand for certified seed planned in the original project and about 9% of the total annual provincial demand (Table 4.4).7.8Ten percent of annual demand might not be too different from wheat seed production in other parts of the world (J. Longmire, personal communication).In the early years of the PSC, almost all of the corporation's wheat seed was sold in the cotton-wheat zone, particularly in Multan Division. The proportion of seed sold in that zone has fallen steadily but, even in 1985/86, Multan and Bahawalpur Divisions, with 30% of the total Punjab wheat area, accounted for 43% ofPSC wheat seed sales. The concentration of both seed production and retail outlets in this area is certainly responsible for the zone's large share of sales.Even though it obtains quantities of seed smaller than the targets assigned by the government, the PSC in some years does not sell all the seed it procures and offers the remainder for sale as grain in the open market. The PSC has been unsuccessful in selling all its seed stocks for several reasons. First, procurement targets are set arbitrarily. Second, the seed marketing system is inefficient. Improved marketing requires greater coordination between units within the PSC and better planning of which varieties to produce and where to market them. Finally, neither the seed project planners nor PSC management have resolved the aims and principles of seed pricing in the marketing process. The implications of this last problem are discussed next. 7 Total sales figures include seed sold to other provinces and exported to other countries. However, the quantities sold to other provinces and countries have been small relative to total sales.8 A breakdown of sales by districts within the Punjab can be found in Chaudhry and Heisey (1987).-----Current pricing and subsidies-The PSC, like many other quasi-public organizations dealing in seed, tends to base pricing decisions on costs. Before the selling season, the PSC Marketing Division proposes the sale rate of seed, which is usually approved by the Board of Directors. The sale rate is fixed to recover the actual expenditure incurred in procuring, storing, and handling seed. To ensure the PSC's financial viability, a corporation margin is added to the end price of seed.Various cost items that enter into the calculation of the retail price of seed are shown in Table 4.5. Although the procurement price of wheat has increased by 60% since 1980/81 and the premium paid to contract growers has stayed constant during the last five years, it is difficult to interpret changes over time in other costs. The PSC distributes most of seed handling and other operating costs over wheat and cotton seed, so one reason for irregular changes in the cost structure may be the variation in total volume of wheat and cotton seed that is procured and sold.Nonetheless, it is hard to understand why the corporation margin is charged in one year and not in another; how it differs from corporation overheads; or how distribution costs can stay constant over time when total quantities handled, transportation costs, and wage rates are all increasing. Also, it is important to note that the commission paid to dealers was Rs 12 per 90-kg bag instead of Rs 8, the figure used in calculating the 1986/87 sale rate. This discrepancy may result from inconsistencies noted earlier in the actual commission that is paid to the final dealer.The price of wheat seed was subsidized for the first six years of the Seed Industry Project. The government subsidy was gradually reduced after 1983/84 and ended completely in 1986/87 . There may still be a small element of cross-subsidization within the PSC, which assigns a smaller share of corporation overheads to wheat seed than to cotton seed because farmers are relatively more willing to pay for cotton seed. Furthermore, the initial fixed costs of establishing seed farms and processing plants are not reflected in the price of seed.When farmers change wheat varieties, their willingness to pay for seed is fairly high. However, for a given variety, incremental benefits associated with the use of certified wheat seed may not always be enough to support a high seed-to-grain price ratio if a farmer has only been planting a variety for a few years or can purchase fairly good seed from a neighboring farmer. The PSC should recognize that, although it enjoys a monopoly in the certified wheat seed market, it cannot increase the price of wheat seed without adopting a more aggressive marketing strategy that emphasizes varietal replacement.The PSC does not have a marketing research unit and bases its seed production and distribution plans on historical trends. Furthermore, no regular information is collected about why one variety is preferred over another in a particular cropping n --------111------------------------------  1980/81 and 1982/83; 10.5% in 1982183; and 14% from 1983-84 onwards. e About 3-5% of \"total procurement price.\".:--zone. 9 Sales promotion is weak. The PSC has been in the business for nine years, yet the brand name of its product has not been established. All of these factors suggest the need to establish a strong marketing research unit capable of regularly generating information and analyzing marketing problems. If such a unit is established, a reorganization of existing procurement and marketing field staff would be appropriate.The Agricultural Development Authority (ADA) of North West Frontier Province (NWFP), which is also responsible for the supply of other agricultural inputs in NWFP, organizes the production of certified wheat seed in the province. lo In theory, the system works as follows. Pre-basic seed is provided by wheat breeders from the research institutes, notably the Cereal Crops Research Institute (CCRI), Pirsabak. Basic seed is grown on government farms run by agricultural extension. Certified seed is produced by registered growers, who are private farmers. Both the Federal Seed Certification Department and representatives of the ADA inspect the seed at all stages of the process.If growers clean seed, they receive a higher price premium. Both the growers and the ADA primarily use hand sieves to clean seed. The ADA owns no storage facilities and hires privately owned storage. Seed is fumigated, and though there are some losses in storage, they have been minimal.The ADA maintains some 25 to 30 sale points throughout NWFP. The amount of wheat seed moving through these sale points varies widely. In recent years one-third to one-half of the total wheat seed distributed by the ADA has passed through the two distribution centers in Mardan District, the district covered in the surveys reported in Chapters 3, 5, and 6.The smooth flow of seed from pre-basic through certified production to the farmer is often interrupted. Though the ADA sometimes cannot market a substantial portion of the wheat seed it procures, in the recent past there has been a strong demand for seed from various development projects in the province. This demand has led to seed diversions before the certified stage, at times forcing the provincial research institutes into the role of seed supplier. II -Total wheat seed procured by the ADA between 1982 and 1986 has been about 3,000 to 4,000 t (Table 4.6). Varietal procurement has concentrated on Pak-81; Blue Silver and Lyallpur-73 are the other major varieties. Up until 1985/86, a substantial proportion of this seed was bought from the Punjab Seed Corporation (PAC), but in 1986/87 the ADA was successful in obtaining its entire requirement from registered growers in NWFP. The amount of seed procured has ranged between 4 and 5% of the total annual wheat seed requirement of the province, comparable to the situation in the Punjab in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Chapter 4).Wheat seed targets for NWFP and the problems of unsold seed-Many assumptions must be made in setting seed targets. Wheat seed is not replaced every year because farmers maintain their own seed; a desirable target for seed turnover might be every five years (Chapter 2). Farmers in rainfed areas are more likely to grow older tall varieties for which seed is not supplied by the formal seed system. Furthermore, the particular problems of marketing seed to small farmers make it difficult to maintain much effective demand from the very smallest farmers. In NWFP, a gTeater proportion of the wheat area is unirrigated than in any other province; furthermore, farm size is much smaller than in the Punjab. These factors suggest that a reasonable target for certified wheat seed procurement as a proportion of total seed use might be lower in NWFP than in the Punjab.There is no substitute for a thorough seed planning exercise. Nonetheless, applying the same assumptions used in the PSC planning document (see Chaudhry and Heisey, 1987)12 would imply an annual certified seed requirement for NWFP of 8,000 t. Reducing this amount by a further 25% to reflect the lower demand caused by very small farm size and remote farm locations in NWFP suggests a target of around 6,000 t per annum for wheat seed procurement by the ADA. -Seed production is, as noted, a somewhat greater constraint to the adequate supply of wheat seed in NWFP than in the Punjab. Yet in NWFP, as in the Punjab, the inability of the seed authority to market larger quantities of seed has also been a major constraint to greater seed production. In 1985/86 one-third of the wheat seed procured by the ADA remained unsold, leading to considerable concern among provincial authorities, as unsold stocks are put on the open grain market. The losses incurred are reflected in increases in the next year's seed price. In 1986/87, the gap between procurement and distribution narrowed again, largely because of substantial purchases by development projects. A single project alone took 30% of the total provincial procurement. The provincial government also reinstituted the practice of distributing some certified wheat seed through agricultural extension.Seed Pricing in NWFP-Seed pricing is determined by adding storage and distribution costs to the wheat grain price and the premium paid to the registered  4.5). This in effect must mean some hidden subsidies, as the grain price is generally higher in NWFP than it is in the Punjab. Furthermore, if the alternative to ADA seed is seed from the PSC, seed prices in NWFP should tend to be higher because of transportation costs. The higher grain price in NWFP also means the seed-to-grain price ratio is lower in NWFP than in the Punjab.The system of multiplying and distributing improved wheat seed has changed for the better in the Punjab under the PSC and in NWFP, but there is room for improvement. Pakistan and other countries could benefit from long-term planning in determining absent from seed production policy. Furthermore, coordination among institutions that formulate policy and those that implement seed production programs is essential. For example, since the seed production cycle in Pakistan presently takes three to four years, seed production policy should be planned and implemented accordingly. Possible changes in seed production planning include streamlined varietal testing, multiplication of promising lines before they are released as varieties, and greater coordination between the PSC, the Varietal Evaluation Committee, and the Federal Committee on Agriculture.Actual physical capacity to multiply seed is the least binding constraint faced by the PSC, although production and processing might be improved. For example, multiplication ratios could be improved either through changing agronomic practices or reviewing quality standards to ensure they are not overly stringent. The location of seed production farms could be diversified and seed could be increased out of season. Unfinished seed processing plants should be completed. Because improved marketing will increase seed demand, these physical production changes may become more urgent in the future.In Pakistan some possibilities for developing a well-coordinated, integrated, and expanded seed marketing system include:• Offering higher, uniform commissions to final sales agents;• Relying more on private sector seed marketing;• Relaxing the \"cash and carry\" condition to some extent;• Closer PSC monitoring of its production and marketing costs;• Experimenting with smaller packages, more distinctive packaging, and greater sales promotion;• Taking more realistic approaches to seed certification and consume protection;• Improving coordination between various sections of the PSC, especially stores and marketing: and• Conducting more regular market research.Expanding the seed distribution network and offering greater incentives to retailers will necessitate increasing the final seed price. Marketing margins will have to become consistent with those presently offered for fertilizer in Pakistan and for seed in other countries. Seed prices in Pakistan are currently low relative to grain prices.The ratio of seed price to grain price is 1.5, compared to around 1. 7 for developing countries worldwide. In many Asian countries, including India, the ratio is 2 or more (Gregg 1983;Singh 1985;Katya11987;Tunwar 1987), yet wheat varietal replacement is faster in the Punjab of India than in the Punjab of Pakistan. 13 Experiences in other countries suggest that private dealers generally require a margin of 20% to encourage them to participate in seed marketing. This is at least double what dealers currently receive from PAD&SC.Even if the price ratio were raised to 2 (for example, by paying 15% commissions to retail dealers and registered growers), for farmers the desired time period for replacing the varieties they grow would not rise to more than six or eight years under reasonable parameter assumptions (Chapter 2). If higher seed prices make seed more widely available and allow greater promotion of seed, it is highly likely that the aggregate weighted mean age of varieties will decrease. Even if the varietal life span favored by farmers were as high as eight years, mean age of varieties would decrease if time between a variety's release and availability to farmers were reduced to four years or less, an entirely reasonable goal for the seed system.Chapter III IKhaleel A. Tetlay, Paul W. Heisey, Zulfiqar Ahmed, and Munir AhmadEfforts to improve the pace of varietal replacement will benefit from information gathered at the farm level to determine where farmers get the wheat seed they use, where they get seed when they decide to change varieties, and how they manage seed retained from their own fields. l Data for the study described in this chapter were collected in 1986 during the survey of constraints to the rapid diffusion of new, disease-resistant wheats. Social scientists from the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) administered detailed interviews to 146 farmers in the 30 villages selected in the rice-wheat zone; 149 farmers in the 30 villages in the cotton-wheat zone; and 99 farmers in the 20 villages in irrigated Mardan. (Survey locations are depicted in Figure 1.1.) Further details about the surveys can be found in Tetlay et al. (1987c).Data from the three survey areas are broadly similar but nevertheless reveal certain contrasts. Some differences relate to the fact that the seed system in North West Frontier Province (NWFP) is more rudimentary than in the Punjab. Others relate to contrasts between the two cropping areas in the Punjab (recall that seed production and distribution in the Punjab is particularly concentrated in the cotton zone ). Seed depot density cannot be calculated exactly for the three survey areas because data on depots are only available at the district level. However, if we calculate density of seed outlets for the districts where the survey areas were located, the results confirm high density in the cotton zone and low density in Mardan (Table 5.1). Another difference among the areas is that newer wheat releases were more widely diffused in the rice zone than in the cotton zone at the time of the surveys, largely because WL-711, a high yielding, well-adapted but rust susceptible variety, was dominant in the cotton zone.1 A more comprehensive account of this research can be found in Tetlay et al. (1987a) and Heisey et al. (n.d.).In this chapter and the next, \"new varieties\" at the time of the 1986 surveys are those released in 1979 or thereafter, since those varieties were in most cases in the initial stages of adoption. When the survey was taken, Punjab-81 had already been banned north of Faisalabad because of stripe rust susceptibility (i.e. in the rice zone, where it is grown, and in Mardan, where it is not), but it is included as a new variety because the factors influencing its adoption resemble those influencing the adoption of other new varieties.2Farmers' Sources of Wheat Seed In all three areas, the most common source of wheat seed planted in 1985/86 was seed retained from the previous year's crop (Figure 5.1). Roughly one-fifth to one quarter of the farmers got their seed from other farmers. Some 10% or fewer purchased seed at a depot.3An examination of some of the more popular varieties in each zone clarifies patterns of seed acquisition. Obviously, farmers planting older varieties were more likely to have been planting them longer and to be using retained seed. On the other hand, farmers planting new varieties were more likely to have obtained their seed from a seed depot. Some evidence indicates that the source of seed of new varieties, notably Pak-81, was more often other farmers, whereas seed of old varieties was less likely to be obtained from other farmers (Tables 5.2 to 5.4).Patterns of seed acquisition become more evident if we look at farmers' sources of seed for new varieties the first time they plant them. As expected, seed depots were the major initial seed source for farmers in the two zones in the Punjab but were much less important in Mardan, where the seed system is less developed. Looking at all three zones together, it is apparent that other farmers were the source of seed for about half the farmers who started growing a new variety (Figure 5.2).Some farmers in Mardan first got Seed of new varieties from research or extension.The \"other\" category in Mardan usually refers to cases in which farmers said they got seed at a depot, but did not know the depot's correct location; it is likely that some of that seed came from research or extension.2 In recent years, Punjab-81 has been declining in area in the rice-wheat zone both because the PSC no longer makes its seed available there and because it has proven to be particularly susceptible to shattering (see Chapter 3 and Chaudhry et al. 1985).3 The \"other\" category for the two Punjab zones refers to farmers who got seed from a variety of sources. In Mardan, the analysis was done by fields, so sources did not overlap.  a \"Mexipak\" is often used as a generic name for semidwarf wheat in Mardan; it usually refers to an older high yielding variety that the farmer has been growing for a considerable time (Chapter 3). -Fanners who first acquired seed of new varieties from the depot tended to be larger fanners (Table 5.5), whereas smaller farmers more often got seed of new releases from other farmers. In Mardan, because of the smaller numbers involved, research and extension are grouped with the seed depot as an initial source of seed because they represent a fonnal institution rather than the infonnal but powerful mechanism of farmer-to-fanner seed more of the fanners who initially obtained new varieties from other Rice zone < 10 ha 22 fanners said their source was a farmer L 10 ha 6 with less than 10 ha (Table 5.6). Source Cotton zone < 10 ha 43 farmers were also close to the farmers L 10 ha 6 Mardan < 10 ha 19 they served; over half the fanners who L 10 ha 71 got seed from other farmers contacted someone in their own village and over Note: Research/extension applies only to 80% received seed from a farmer within a Mardan.5-km radius (Table 5.7). 4 In Mardan, farms are quite small so the 10-ha division between \"small farms\" and \"large farms\" is less appropriate than in the Punjab. Forty-six percent of all farmers with over 4 ha initially got seed of new varieties from a seed depot, research, or extension, whereas 24% of the farmers with under 4 ha got new wheat seed from these sources. It seems likely that in Mardan it is primarily the very largest farmers who have contact with formal seed sources.-In all three survey areas, over 90% of farmers planting new varieties said they had no problems obtaining seed. Three-quarters or more financed the seed with their own money; the other significant way of obtaining seed was to exchange grain for seed with another farmer (one-sixth to one-fifth of the farmers got their new seed that way). Yet in both the rice and cotton zones, around half ofthe farmers who knew about new varieties but had not planted them said seed was unavailable. This was the most common reason given for not planting new varieties. In Mardan, the same explanation was given by 9 of the 24 farmers who knew about new varieties but were not planting them.About half the farmers in all three zones knew the correct location of the nearest seed depot. Some farmers in each zone said they knew the location but did not identify it correctly, an occurrence much more common in Mardan than in the Punjab (Table 5.8). Mardan District has only two Agricultural Development Authority (ADA) depots, one in Mardan and one in Swabi, although there are other ways in which seed can be distributed. Significantly more farmers in the Punjab who were aware of new varieties (they were already planting them or had heard of them) knew the correct location of the depot nearest them. In Mardan, there was no relationship between varietal awareness and accurate knowledge of the seed depot.Over one-third of the farmers surveyed in the rice and cotton zones had actually visited a seed depot whereas only one-fifth of the farmers in Mardan had done so (Table 5.8). As farmers who had visited a depot are a subset of those who knew the depot location, factors related to visits are likely to resemble factors related to knowledge of the depot. In the Punjab, farmers planting new varieties were more likely to have visited a seed depot. In Mardan, there was no relationship between the two variables.Many variables can influence whether or not a farmer knows the location of the nearest seed depot or visits it: human capital variables such as literacy; farm size and tenure variables; information sources, such as agricultural extension; or a Includes only farmers with correct knowledge of depot location.distance from the depot. Variables used in the analysis reported below are defined in Table 5.9. Since these variables are unlikely to operate independently, a variable-by variable analysis of relationships with knowledge of seed depots or visits to them is likely to be misleading (Feder, Just, and Zilberman 1985). Instead, probit analysis, which uses a number of independent variables, has been used to predict the probability of whether or not a given farmer knew the location of the seed depot, and also to predict whether or not the farmer had visited a depot.Several equations were estimated for each of the three zones. Results of one of the better equations for each zone (better in terms of goodness of fit as determined by the regression chi-squared statistic) are presented in Tables 5.10 and 5.11.5 This approach is not entirely satisfactory because there are likely to be causal relationships between some of the explanatory variables. However, the results help determine which variables are more likely than others to predict farmers' contact with the seed depot. -The results are consistent with our expectations, except for several anomalous relationships in the smaller Mardan sample. Literacy is the key human capital variable, positively related to knowledge of and visits to the seed depot in the rice zone and in Mardan. In the cotton zone, literacy is not significant at standard levels but the coefficient does have asymptotic t-values significant at the .20 level. In Mardan, a quadratic age specification is also significant, implying that as a farmer's age increases up to the mid-forties, the farmer is more likely to know where the seed depot is or to have actually visited it; after that increasing age reduces the probability.  Extension contact is the main information source related to contact with the seed depot. In the rice and cotton zones, farmers who had seen extension personnel within the last year were significantly more likely to know where the seed depot was. In the rice zone and Mardan, extension contact was significantly related to visits to the seed depot. There was an anomalous result regarding information sources in Mardan, where farmers who had listened to agricultural programming on the radio within the last month appeared less likely to have visited the seed depot. Variables related to general status or resource base, such as farm size, tenure, or social status, are mostly insignificant or anomalous. Increasing farm size did appear to increase the likelihood of seed depot knowledge in the rice zone, but the effect in Mardan was negative. All in all, farm size bore little relationship to seed depot knowledge or contact. This finding does not necessarily contradict earlier indications that larger farmers planting a new variety for the first time were more likely to acquire seed of the variety at a seed depot. What the present results seem to indicate is that larger farmers have significantly higher levels of literacy and extension contacts and, once these other variables are taken into account, farm size does not have much of an effect one way or the other on their contact with the seed depot.The most anomalous result is the highly significant negative effect of social status in Mardan. 6 Social status also appeared to be negatively related to depot visits in Mardan, but positively related in the cotton zone.?In the cotton zone, where retail seed outlets are most concentrated, farmers located farther from the depot were less likely to know where it was or to visit it. The relationships were also negative in the rice zone, but not significant at standard levels. There were no relationships in Mardan, where the formal seed system is a much less active agent of varietal diffusion.From year to year, the most signi'ficant source of wheat seed is seed that farmers retain themselves. Farmers in the three surveyed areas were asked if they managed seed crops any differently from the rest of their grain: did they select a special field for seed, or thresh and store seed separately from other grain?Farmers in the rice zone and Mardan were somewhat more likely than cotton zone farmers to choose a separate field for seed, either before or at harvest. Over all three zones, 40-50% of surveyed farmers threshed and stored seed apart from the rest of their grain (Table 5.12). Threshing seed separately was the criterion for determining if the farmer made special efforts to preserve seed quality. The few farmers who stored seed separately without threshing it separately were not included in the \"special seed management\" group for further analysis.6 In Mardan, only 17 farmers had positive social status, a rather crudely defined variable referring to farmers who were village officials, ran shops, and so on. Nearly all of these farmers were literate. However, literate farmers without \"social status\" were significantly more likely to identify seed depot location correctly than literate farmers with status. Perhaps farmers with status were more familiar with non-ADA seed sources such as research farms or extension offices.7 When the social status dummy is left out of the estimating equation in the cotton zone, the coefficient for literacy becomes significant at the .05 level, suggesting that the \"social status'\" variable may be picking up some of the same influence as the literacy variable did in the other zones.Very few other characteristics of farmers could be related to whether or not they used special seed management practices. In both the rice zone and Mardan, seed management practices of farmers planting new varieties did not differ from practices of farmers who did not plant them . Farmers in the cotton zone who planted new varieties were significantly more likely to manage their seed to maintain quality.Since few farmer characteristics were related to seed management on a variable-by variable basis , no probit analysis was done to predict whether or not a farmer would thresh seed separately from grain . A few variables did appear to affect seed management when analyzed individually. With increasing farm size, the likelihood increased that farmers in the rice and cotton zones threshed seed separately; in the rice zone and Mardan, farmers who had contact with extension in the last year appeared more likely to thresh seed separately.The evidence presented in this chapter confirms that the major source of wheat seed is seed retained from the previous year's crop. The next most frequent source of seed is other farmers. Less than 10% of farmers surveyed obtained seed at a depot. Fewer than half of the farmers who retained their own seed sought to ensure its purity by selecting or threshing it separately.When farmers change varieties, other farmers are the most important source of seed.In the Punjab, where the seed system is better developed, seed depots are almost equally important as a source of seed when farmers want to change varieties. In Mardan seed depots are much less significant as an initial source of new seed . In the Punjab farmers planting new varieties are significantly more likely to know where the seed depot is and to have visited it; in Mardan there is no relationship between planting new varieties and contact with the seed depot. Farmers with larger Table 5.12. Farmers' seed management practices for retained wheat seed A number of associated farmer characteristics appear to influence whether farmers know about or have visited the seed depot and whether they manage seed and grain crops differently. The most consistent explanatory variables are literacy and contact with extension . Farm size does seem to make a difference in one case--initial source of new seed. Larger farmers may also be more likely to manage seed differently than grain. With regard to seed policy it should be noted that more often than not new seed enters a village when a larger farmer obtains it from the formal seed system. Seed then spreads from farmer to farmer within the village or spreads to an adjoining village. Farmer-to-farmer seed diffusion is highly localized, as fewer than 10% offarmers obtain seed from a village more than 10 km away. Despite the strengthening of the formal seed production and distribution system, informal, farmer-to-farmer seed transfer clearly remains a major means of diffusing seed, as in the early days of the Green Revolution (Lowdermilk 1972).Chapter 1mPaul W. Heisey, Khaleel A. Tetlay, Zulfiqar Ahmed, and Munir Ahmad This chapter seeks to explain factors related to farmers' awareness and adoption of newer wheat releases. Certain traits of farmers and varieties explain a two-step process in which a farmer first becomes aware of new varieties and later adopts them.'•2Griliches ' (1957) classic study of the spread of hybrid maize in the USA has been succeeded by a vast literature on the adoption of agricultural innovations. 3 Much of the literature concerns itself with the adoption curve, an S-shaped cumulative frequency curve, which can refer either to the aggregate level or to individual farmers. 4 In Pakistan, adoption of high yielding varieties (HYVs) followed the classic S-shaped pattern. But the replacement of individual wheat varieties is more completely represented as a process of adoption and disadoption (Brennan and Cullis 1987), a pattern visible in Figure 2.2 (page 14) where the area covered by major wheat varieties in Punjab is shown. During the adoption phase, the curve is similar to the monotonically increasing curve usually studied .In 1985/86, at the time of the adoption survey discussed in this chapter, cross sectional differences in farmers' awareness and adoption of new varieties were distributed as in Table 6.1. The data in Table 6.1 are consistent with the area estimates of Chapter 3 , where it was noted that the spread of new varieties in the 1 This chapter is partially based on material in Tetlay et al. (1987b and1987c).2 For a technical description of the type of model used here, see Maddala (1983).3 This literature is summarized in Feder, Just, and Zilberman (1985).4 At the aggregate level for a given innovation, the height of this cumulative frequency curve at a given time can be measured in different ways. For individual farmers , adoption curves show the degree to which the farmer uses the input(s) of interest.rice-wheat zone was greater than in the two other areas at the time of the survey. Farmers in the rice zone who grew new varieties tended to have grown them for less than the average length of time; farmers in Mardan, for more. In other words, new varieties appear to have diffused faster in the rice zone than in the other two areas, a conclusion further supported by the aggregate data of Chapter 3. Diffusion of new wheat varieties has been somewhat slower in Mardan because the seed system is less developed. Although seed outlets are more heavily concentrated in the cotton zone than in the rice zone, diffusion in the rice zone has proceeded faster because the older varieties in the cotton zone are particularly well adapted to the zone's environment and crop rotations.Perceptions of technological components for increasing wheat productivity-In the 1985/86 adoption survey, farmers were asked to identify which technological components were most important, second most important, and third most important for increasing wheat yields. They did not identify variety as a major component. Any attempt to determine which factors were most important to farmers is subject to ambiguity because individual choices can be weighted differently, but it is clear that in all three zones better land preparation ranked highest and more fertilizer second. In the three zones, variety ranked between third and fifth.In diagnostic surveys conducted in the same zones (Byerlee et al. 1986), variety was found to be one factor strongly affecting farmers' yields. For direct technology transfer, variety was among the highest priorities in each area. The difference between the relative importance attached to variety by researchers and farmers may be related to several factors. First, differences in yield due to variety might not be immediately evident prior to harvest. Second, seed is a relatively small amount of farmers' production cost and farmers might tend to weight the importance of an input in proportion to its cost. Finally, the fact that the new varieties were, in general, diffusing slowly at the time of the study meant that farmers had relatively few opportunities to compare yields of old and new varieties.Farmers' perceptions of the disease threat-During the survey, farmers were asked about major diseases affecting wheat; 70-90% of them were aware of rust. (In the rice and cotton zones, about 90% mentioned smut, noted by only 55% of the farmers in Mardan.) Of the farmers who knew about rust, half to three-quarters called it \"a problem\" (Table 6.2). But even though many farmers knew about rust and some thought it a problem, relatively few farmers in Punjab thought it could recur. The different results for Punjab and Mardan were probably caused by the way 5 Farmers in Punjab were asked whether or not they agreed with the statement, \"Rust used to be a problem but it is no longer a problem;\" in Mardan, they were asked whether or not they agreed with the statement, \"Rust could be a problem again in the future.\"-----the question was phrased in the survey areas. s This question probably influenced the answers to subsequent questions about differences in varietal rust resistance and loss of resistance over time.One-quarter of the respondents in Punjab thought some varieties were more resis tant than others; in Mardan the proportion was a little less than half. In all zones, half or less of the farmers who thought some varieties were more resistant than others thought that resistant varieties could lose their resistance. Since more far mers in Mardan agreed with the statement on differential rust resistance, a simil arly larger proportion there thought resistant varieties could break down (Table 6.2).Regardless of problems with some of the questions about rust, it is clear that in all surveyed areas farmers' knowledge of disease was rather limited. Relationships linking farmers' characteristics to disease knowledge variables were generally not significant. 6 Farmers' awareness of rust as a major problem would probably be much greater in a year immediately following an epidemic. Similarly, awareness would be greater among farmers growing a particularly susceptible variety in a year immediately after that variety suffered noticeable yield losses from rust. But in a relatively normal year some years after farmers have experienced serious losses from rust, the threat of disease by itself is unlikely to motivate farmers to change varieties, given the current state of their knowledge about varietal rust resistance and rust epidemics. 6 Nonetheless, in the rice zone and Mardan, farmers who planted or knew about new varieties did seem more likely to believe that some varieties are more resistant than others. In Mardan, literacy and extension contact seemed to be positively related to a belief in differential varietal resistance; extension contact, radio contact, and social status seemed positively related in the rice zone; and in the cotton zone, younger farmers and farm owners appeared more likely to believe some varieties had greater resistance. Given the very limited numbers of farmers who thought resistant varieties could break down, in only one case did a farmer characteristic appear to affect this belief: extension contact in the cotton zone. It is likely that in a multivariate analysis the apparent significance of some of these variables might disappear.Reasons for varietal choice--Variety was not the first factor farmers thought of when they were asked what was most important for increasing yield. But when farmers growing new varieties were asked why they had changed from old to new cultivars, they cited yield more than any other reason (Table 6.3). The other frequent responses for changing variety were yield decline or clisease susceptibility of the old variety; they are also related to a difference in yields. Some farmers who noted that new varieties yielded better also mentioned the yield decline of old varieties; unfortunately, data from two of the survey areas do not permit all factors to be separated out. Even though farmers' awareness of disease is rather low, it is worth noting that losses from clisease are sometimes part of the yield comparison that motivates varietal change.When farmers planting old and new varieties were asked why they planted both types, the most common response across all three zones was that they wanted to compare the performance of each type. In addition, 30-40% of the farmers in each zone planted both types for reasons related to diversification: they wanted one variety for late planting or one for home consumption, or simply wanted to avoid risk (Table 6.4). Farm size was a highly significant determinant of the number of varieties planted. In all three zones, mean farm size for farmers planting more than one wheat variety was much larger than for farmers planting only one variety.7\"Objective\" varietal characteristics and farmer behavio~everal characteristics besides superior grain yield are often thought to influence farmers to plant new varieties: straw yields (Husain 1987), taste and baking quality, and resistance to moisture stress (Byerlee et a1. 1986). To see if particular varietal a Farmers sometimes mentioned declining yield or disease losses of the old variety as well as higher yields of the new variety. However, in some of the survey areas it is not possible to recover how many farmers mentioned these factors in conjunction with higher yields.7 Diversification over old and new varieties was one of the few ways in which farm size did appear to affect varietal diffusion, if other variables were taken into account. See footnote 14.characteristics had induced farmers to adopt new varieties, some \"objective\" measures of varietal characteristics were examined along with evidence of farmers' behavior regarding each characteristic.Yield-Data from the ISWYN and Khanewal seed farm trials, analyzed in Chapter 2, can be used to compare grain yields of several popular wheat varieties. At \"normal\" planting dates, the new variety Pak-81 yields better than all other varieties considered here. The old variety WL-711 also yields more than other important varieties, and the old variety Sandal may also yield somewhat better. Four other varieties (Punjab-81, Blue Silver, Bahawalpur-79, and Yecora) yield about the same under identical management conditions, although one trial ranks them in the order in which they have just been listed (for our purposes, Punjab-81 and Bahawalpur-79 are considered new varieties).Yield and planting date-In all three survey areas, farmers plant wheat at dates which are later than optimal, a practice strongly related to the previous crop in the rotation and seen most frequently in the cotton-wheat cropping system (Byerlee et al. 1986). Thus, not only yield performance per se but also yield performance at late planting dates may affect farmers' choice of varieties.Plant breeders usually try to develop early maturing varieties for circumstances in which the growing season is curtailed. Among the varieties listed earlier, Blue Silver and Bahawalpur-79 are short season releases recommended for late planting. The new variety Faisalabad-83, not widely grown, and the old rust susceptible variety s SA-42, common in Mardan, are also short season varieties. Some farmers offered more than one reason; the most prominent is recorded here. Only 14 farmers in Mardan planted both old and new varieties.8 WL-711 is an intermediate maturity variety, one of the reasons it has fit so well into the cropping system in the cotton-wheat zone, but for simplicity it will be analyzed with the full season varieties.A second approach taken by researchers to the constraint oflate planting, particularly in areas where heat stress is a problem, is to plant a variety late and evaluate its performance regardless of whether it is supposed to be an early, intermediate, or late maturing variety. Under this criterion, at late planting dates Pak-81, a relatively long season variety, continues to perform very well with respect to the short season varieties Blue Silver and Bahawalpur-79; WL-7ll also may perform somewhat better. Punjab-81 does well at late planting, but the yields of old varieties Sandal and Yecora decline greatly when they are planted late (Hobbs 1985; Chapter 2).Crop rotation and variety--Crop rotation and varietal characteristics combine to influence farmers' varietal choices in different ways in the three survey areas. In the cotton zone, where late planting is common, both normal season and short season varieties were planted late (Figure 6.1). Larger farmers in all three zones were more likely to plant more than one variety. In the cotton zone, however, farm size did not vary between farmers planting a short season variety and those who did not. All varieties chosen, whether by the larger farmers who tended to plant more than one variety or the smaller farmers who planted only one, had to perform relatively well at late planting.In the rice zone somewhat less wheat is planted late, although planting dates vary more from year to year than they do in the cotton zone. Figure 6.1 shows that, in contrast to the cotton zone, in the rice zone short season varieties were usually planted later than full season varieties. Furthermore, farmers planting short season varieties tended to have more land than farmers who did not. These factors suggest that farmers in the rice zone often choose full season varieties for earlier planting and early maturing varieties for later planting. (Their choice probably relates to the fact that Yecora, once the dominant variety in the rice zone, suffers heavy yield losses at late planting.) Also, larger farmers in the rice zone may have a wider range of wheat planting dates than do smaller farmers, and thus be more likely to switch to an early variety at the later dates.Mardan presents a different picture of farmers' choices of variety and planting date.In the sample analyzed here, late planting was less common than in either the cotton or the rice zone (Figure 6 variety to another, straw yield is probably less significant, although it may be more important in Mardan than in Punjab, as fodder prices tend to be higher in NWFP.9 However, it is hypothesized that harvest indices between one HYV and another are similar enough to imply that a strong positive correlation usually exists between straw yield and grain yield.Seed shrivelling-An independent assessment of shrivelling characteristics of wheat varieties is not readily available. A variety's shrivelling characteristics are probably related to its performance when it is planted late. There was not much evidence from the survey, however, that farmers' evaluation of shrivelling characteristics was significantly related to their judgement of how a variety performed when it was planted late.Seed shattering-Data on important commercial varieties' susceptibility to shattering are not readily available. However, Punjab-81 has been found to be relatively susceptible, both in trials designed to evaluate this trait (Chaudhry et al. 1985) and in farmers' experience.Baking quality-Although baking quality can be evaluated by such objective measures as gluten strength, in this study it was treated essentially as a subjective judgement and is discussed in the next section.Subjective varietal characteristics--Farmers in the survey who were either planting new varieties or knew about them were asked to compare characteristics of a specific old variety that they had planted or were planting with those of a specific new variety they were planting or knew about. For each characteristic, farmers were asked whether they thought the new variety was better, the old variety was better, or both varieties were the same. \"Don't know\" responses were also recorded.In the rice zone, responses of farmers already planting new varieties differed significantly from the responses of farmers who had only heard of new varieties, for all characteristics. As expected, farmers with no direct experience of new varieties were more likely not to have an opinion. Also as expected, a larger proportion of farmers planting new varieties evaluated them favorably. Their positive opinions were strongest for grain and straw yield, intermediate for late planting performance and shrivelling, and weakest for shattering resistance and chapati (baking) quality. 9 In fact, though grain-to-straw ratios are higher for HYVs than for the varieties they replaced, greater biomass production may still 'lead to higher straw production from fields sown to semidwarfs. Nonetheless, perceptions are important: Husain (1987) demonstrates that even today, in mountainous areas of northern Pakistan, farmers believe the traditional varieties produce more straw than the HYVs although objective yield cuts show per hectare straw production to be about equal. Straw quality may also be an issue.In fact, fanners planting new varieties, as well as farmers who were not, were more likely to say that the old variety had more shattering resistance and made better ckapatis. This response was particularly striking for ckapati quality (Table 6.5). These evaluations are probably related to the relatively greater use ofPunjab-81 (which is particularly subject to shattering) in the rice-wheat zone, and a preference for Yecora for quality.In the cotton zone, differences between nonadopters and adopters were also significant for all characteristics. Even more than in the rice zone, farmers who had only heard of new varieties were less likely than farmers who had adopted them to voice an opinion about their characteristics. For all characteristics, adopters were more likely to rate the new variety more favorably and nonadopters to rate the old one more favorably. Adopters were most likely to give favorable ratings for late planting perfonnance and general yield performance; they gave the lowest ratings for shattering and shrivelling characteristics (Table 6.6).In Mardan, differences between adopters and nonadopters were significant only for opinions on yield. Adopters overwhelmingly favored their new variety and nonadopters were more likely to support the old one. Although the differences among a Row \"P\" refers to farmers who plant new varieties. Row \"K\" refers to farmers who know about new varieties but do not plant them.m ~~---..---------------------------adopters' and nonadopters' opinions of chapati quality, shattering resistance, and shrivelling resistance were not significant, adopters were more likely to favor the new variety and nonadopters the old. Adopters were more likely than nonadopters to say the old variety gave the Same or more straw. Finally, both adopters and nonadopters were more likely to favor the old variety for late planting (Table 6.7).Farmers' Awareness and Adoption of New Wheat VarietiesVariables affecting awareness and adoption-Even a relatively simple change, such as starting to plant a new semidwarf wheat variety, is influenced by complex, interrelated factors, just as when seed-fertilizer technology was first adopted in irrigated Pakistan (Lowdermilk 1972). Adoption is analyzed here as a two-stage process in which the farmer first becomes aware of a new variety and then adopts it. That approach is particularly useful in a situation like this, when, four to five years after the release of several good new varieties, one-third or more of the surveyed farmers had not heard of them. a Row \"P\" refers to farmers who plant new varieties. Row \"K\" refers to farmers who know about new varieties but do not plant them.Probit analysis was used to study the effects of several factors operating simultaneously. Although probit analysis does not take into account the likely interaction of some of the explanatory variables, it is preferable to two-way variable by-variable analysis. The variables, some of which are the same as those defined in Chapter 5, are defined in Table 6.8. Several human capital variables were used. Age may be thought of as a partial proxy for experience. A quadratic specification for age was employed in many of the equations estimated. 10 A literacy dummy, LIT, distinguishes literate from illiterate farmers. Education level dummy EDI denoted farmers with one to eight years of education, and ED2 refers to farmers with more than eight years of education. 10 This implies that, if coefficients were significant and of the proper sign, experience increased the likelihood of awareness up to a point where it began to be outweighed, perhaps, by greater conservatism. In general, the quadratic specification was somewhat more likely to improve the fit or result in significant coefficients than either linear or logarithmic specifications.-We also used two other variables that often appear in the adoption literature: farm size (in our analysis we used LNSIZE, the natural logarithm offarm size in hectares) and a dummy, OWN, distinguishing farm owners and part owners from tenants. Farm size may have an independent effect because a relatively fixed cost of acquiring information is spread over a larger area (Feder and Slade 1984), or because larger farmers may have greater access to information or credit. Variables for two \"modern\" sources of information were employed. The first is a dummy variable, EXT, distinguishing whether or not the farmer had any direct contact with extension in the year immediately preceding the survey. The second, RADIO, is another dummy variable dividing farmers into those who had listened to agricultural programming on the radio over the previous year and those who had not.In this context it is interesting to note which initial sources of information about new varieties were most frequently identified by the farmers themselves. The most important source, cited by half or more of the farmers in all three zones, was other farmers (Table 6.9). This finding, in conjunction with the finding that other farmers were often the first source of seed for new varieties, reinforces the conclusion that local sources of information about new wheat technology remain nearly as important as they were when the Green Revolution began (Lowdermilk 1972).Farmers interviewed for this study mentioned extension as a major source of information slightly more often than farmers in Lowdermilk's study. Extension was mentioned more frequently in the cotton zone and Mardan, where adoption was slower, than in the rice zone. This response corresponds to Lowdermilk's findings. In earlier stages of adoption, farmers in contact with formal sources of information are more likely to be adopting the new technology.Two alternative variables were used to reflect village effects. The first, VIL, was the percentage area planted to new varieties in the surveyed village as identified by the breeders (Chapter 3).1l The second was a dummy, ROAD, indicating whether or not the farmer's village was on a metalled road.    ----------------------------The variables described above were used to predict whether or not a farmer would be aware of new varieties. In addition, four opinion variables were added to the analysis of adoption for those farmers aware of new varieties. Since the opinion variables were highly interrelated, variables for straw yield and shrivelling were dropped. For the others (yield, chapati quality, late planting performance, and shattering resistance), dummies were included with a value of one if the farmer thought the new variety was clearly superior with respect to the characteristic and zero if the farmer favored the old variety, thought them both the same, or did not know. The chapati/baking quality variable was dropped from the cotton zone equation as its inclusion led to instability in the coefficients of the other variables.Awareness of new varieties--The multivariate analysis uses some of the variables described above to predict the probability that a farmer was aware of new varieties. This analysis had most predictive power, and more coefficients were significant with the expected signs, for the rice zone, where diffusion of new varieties had proceeded farthest at the time of the survey.Across all zones, the human capital variables most strongly related to awareness of new varieties were education and literacy. In the cotton zone, farmers with some education were significantly more likely to be aware of new varieties than farmers with no education. In the rice zone, farmers with more than eight years of education were much more likely to know about new varieties. Age coefficients were significant in the rice zone, implying that, as a farmer's aged increased (up to the late forties), so did the likelihood that the farmer would know about new varieties; after the late forties, the likelihood decreased (Table 6.10).Only in Mardan did increasing farm size significantly increase the probability that the farmer would be aware of new varieties. In the rice zone, owners were somewhat more likely than tenants to know about new varieties.Contact with information sources was significant only in the rice zone. Farmers who listened to agricultural radio programs were much more likely to be aware of new varieties; extension contact also had a significant effect. However, given that most farmers said they first learned about new varieties from other farmers, it is likely that radio and extension contact did not cause varietal awareness. Rather, farmers who actively sought agricultural information through these and other channels were also more likely to know about new varieties. 12   In contrast to the results for formal information sources, which are limited and difficult to interpret, characteristics of the village in which the farmer lived did seem to have an effect on whether a farmer had heard about new varieties. In both the rice ----- zone and Mardan, the larger the proportion of total village wheat area covered by new varieties, as estimated by the breeders' survey (Chapter 3), the greater the likelihood a farmer living in that village would know about new varieties. 13 In the cotton zone, the results were less striking. Nonetheless, farmers in villages on paved roads were more likely to know about new varieties.These results show that across zones two factors were more likely than others to significantly influence awareness of new varieties. One was education or literacy, which was positively related to varietal awareness in both Punjab zones. Literacy was also a significant determinant of seed depot knowledge in Mardan (Chapter 5), suggesting that literate farmers are generally more likely to have information about new agricultural technology. The other factor significantly influencing awareness of new varieties was the village in which the farmer was located. This result strengthens the conclusion that farmer-to-farmer transfer of information as well as seed is a basic channel of communication for wheat technology. Farm size was an important factor only in Mardan, where the seed system is least developed, diffusion of new varieties was not as advanced at the time of the survey, and fewer farmers in the survey were literate.Adoption ofnew wheat varieties-Once farmers are aware of new varieties, the major factor influencing adoption appears to be farmers' perceptions of a new variety's characteristics compared to those of the variety they are growing.Responses of farmers who knew about new varieties were analyzed to determine whether or not they would be planting one or more of the new wheat releases. Few of the other variables used in the analysis of varietal awareness were significant in distinguishing farmers who planted new varieties from those who only knew about them (Table 6.11). The quadratic specification for age was significant only in the cotton zone. Literacy was significant in Mardan, but the sign was in the wrong direction. Increasing farm size raised the probability that a farmer had adopted a new variety in the cotton zone and Mardan. This suggests the hypothesis that large farmers may be somewhat more likely to be early adopters of new varieties. In the rice zone, on the other hand, where diffusion of post-1978 releases had proceeded the farthest at the time of the survey, farm size had no significant effect on adoption.14 13 Though it is clear that village location was an important determinant of varietal awareness, attempts to explain why one village would have a greater proportion of wheat area under new varieties than another, in terms of other village characteristics, were unsuccessful.14 Another effect offarm size is not visible in the probit analysis separating adopters from nonadopters. Larger farmers were more likely to plant both a new variety and an old variety. Smaller farmers were more likely to specialize in either a single old variety or a single new variety. This relates to the relationship already noted between farm size and number of varieties planted. It is also visible in a logit analysis that predicts the probabilities that farmers fall into one of three categories: planting only old varieties, only new varieties, or planting both (Tetlay et al. 1987b). Tenure, extension contact, and village effects appeared to play no role in the actual adoption of new varieties. These results differ from those for awareness (Tables 6.10 and 6.11). The mo~t significant variables overall recorded fanners' perceptions of the new variety's perfonnance compared with that of the old variety.15 In all three zones, fanners who believed that new varieties clearly yielded better were significantly more likely to be planting them. In the cotton zone and the rice zone, opinions concerning late planting perfonnance were also important. This variable was particularly significant in the cotton zone, as one might expect given th~ large proportion of wheat planted late in that area.Beliefs concerning shattering resistance were important only in the rice zone. Again, this result makes sense because Punjab-81 was planted extensively in the rice zone in 1985-86 and its susceptibility to shattering is well known. In contrast, opinions on chapati quality did not significantly affect planting behavior. This means, for example, that in the rice-wheat area farmers' preference for chapatis made from Yecora did not stop them from changing to varieties perceived to be higher yielding or better for late planting.These probit regressions, while emphasizing the importance offanners' perceptions in determining adoption behavior, do not explain how fanners' opinions are formed. A partial explanation may be found in the estimated equations with the perceived characteristics variables left out. These equations, not reported here, had little explanatory power. The single variable that did become significant in the rice and cotton zones was the percentage of village wheat area covered by new varieties. In Mardan, this variable became significant at the .20 level. This suggests the hypothesis that informal village demonstration effects, in addition to increasing awareness of new varieties, might also encourage adoption by giving fanners a greater opportunity to observe favorable characteristics of the new varieties.The proportion of village wheat area planted to new varieties was obviously important in explaining varietal awareness, and possibly adoption as well. Nonetheless, obvious village characteristics such as distance to the nearest seed depot did not explain varietal proportions in simple Ordinary Least Squares regressions, nor did they explain awareness and adoption when entered directly into the probit regressions reported in Tables 6.10 and 6.11.The analysis of varietal diffusion presented here focused on two stages: infonnation and adoption . This chapter's findings tend to reinforce the conclusions of the previous one. Fanner-to-fanner transfer of both infonnation and seed plays a major role in seed diffusion. This has been seen in several ways: other farmers are an important general source of seed; other farmers are the most important source of information about new varieties; other farmers are a major source of seed of new varieties; and the proportion of wheat under new varieties in a village influences farmers' awareness of new varieties.Education or literacy appears to be the most important characteristic related to information about new varieties, seed depot location, and so on. Extension contact is more ambiguous. Findings reported in the previous chapter indicated that extension contact often appeared to be related to farmer information, but in this chapter, there were few links between extension contact and simple awareness of new varieties. At the same time, farmers in the cotton zone and Mardan, where new varieties had spread less widely at the time of the survey, were more likely to cite extension as their initial source of information about new varieties. One tentative explanation for that phenomenon is that extension is a more important source of information for early adopters (Lowdermilk 1972). Since the majority offarmers had only been growing new varieties for one or two years at the time of the survey, this hypothesis was not directly confirmed by the data. If the hypothesis were correct, it would imply that the influence of extension spreads beyond the farmers with whom extension personnel are directly in contact.Farm size appears important in several ways. Larger farmers are initially more likely to get seed of new varieties from the formal seed system; larger farmers are more likely to adopt new varieties when the overall rate of diffusion is relatively slow; and larger farmers are more likely to be partial adopters, growing old varieties along with new ones. Furthermore, large farmers are apt to be literate and have better extension contacts. These variables have been shown to affect seed depot contact, and literacy in particular influences awareness of new varieties. When diffusion begins to proceed more rapidly, the adoption behavior of larger and smaller farmers differs little except for larger farmers' greater tendency to diversify. Smaller farmers lag behind, not because they are reluctant to change, but because they are less likely to have full information about the new varieties in the initial stages of adoption because of lower literacy and fewer extension contacts.When farmers do become aware of new varieties, the most important factors determining adoption appear to be seed availability and farmers' perceptions that the new variety will yield more than their old one. Other factors , such as late planting performance or resistance to shattering, are important depending on the cropping system of a particular area or its current varietal mix.Paul W. HeiseyVarietal replacement in cereals and legumes is important to farmers because new varieties may be superior to their old ones in yield or other desirable characteristics. Furthermore, a farmer's old variety may have deteriorated in yield because of seed intermixture, loss of germination potential, loss of resistance to diseases or pests, or other genetic deterioration resulting from cross-pollination. The relative importance of these factors is related to species: cross-pollination is very important in maize and of limited interest in self-pollinating crops such as wheat or rice, whereas diseases and pests may be of greater consequence in wheat or rice than in maize. Some, but not all, of these reasons for changing variety could also influence a farmer to obtain new seed of a variety he or she already grows. In this report, however, we have presented a case study for one crop, wheat, in one country, Pakistan, and our primary interest has been varietal replacement rather than seed replacement.Policy makers may also be interested in the rate of varietal replacement. A faster rate of replacement might mean higher rates of return to research. Furthermore, compared to individual farmers, society as a whole might place a greater value on preventing epidemics of diseases and pests, and so even without institutional constraints to more rapid replacement, policy makers might want to influence the speed of varietal replacement.A large amount of literature from many disciplines has been concerned with \"Green Revolutions\"-the adoption of semidwarf wheat and rice varieties, or of hybrid maize. Green Revolutions might be viewed as instances of aggregate varietal replacement, although varietal replacement can take place at both the aggregate and the individual farmer level without being characterized as a \"revolution.\" The distinguishing feature of a Green Revolution might be a relatively dramatic increase in yield, intimately related to particular genetic characteristics (e.g., dwarfing, photoperiod insensitivity), and, at least historically, to much higher economic optima for complementary inputs such as fertilizer. The differences between the most dramatic of revolutions and the most ordinary cases of varietal replacement are, however, differences of degree rather than kind, and this study has shown that many of the factors influencing varietal change at one end of the continuum can also operate during periods of less overt technological change.This report has focused on wheat in Pakistan in the post-Green Revolution period.The following conclusions are therefore specific to crop, place, and time. However, they can also be viewed as hypotheses that might apply in different situations, perhaps after modification.! Four general areas are considered: the role of the 1 In some cases similar hypotheses have been tested in different circumstances-wheat in Australia (Brennan and Cullis 1987); soybeans in the southern USA (Houston et al. 1989).research system in supplying new varieties; the role of the seed system in disseminating new varieties; sources of information concerning the existence, availability, and characteristics of new varieties; and the influence of yield and other varietal characteristics on farmer demand for varietal replacement.The shift to reliance on a formal research system for improved crop technology, including varieties, might be an additional feature of \"Green Revolutions\" described above. Though \"science-based\" research played a part in crop improvement before periods of marked shifts in technology, it clearly became a much more identifiable source of improved germplasm during and after periods of rapid technological change. In Pakistan's Punjab, for example, contrast the total reliance on local wheat land races before 1911; the 11 varieties released between 1911 and 1965; and the 27 new varieties released between 1965 and 1985. Though maintenance research might be expected to playa larger part in the breeding effort in the post-Green Revolution period (Plucknett and Smith 1986), it is clear from the record that wheat breeding has also contributed substantially to yield gains in Pakistan since 1965.\"Green Revolutions\" in addition mark a shift from the use of seed that is selected entirely by the farmer, or obtained from other farmers, to an increasing role for a formal seed production and dissemination system. Obviously for self-pollinating crops like wheat farmers will continue to maintain their own seed supplies, as they do in the world's large cereal exporters. Nonetheless, an active seed network, closely linked with both agricultural research and extension, is a prerequisite for more rapid varietal replacement in the post-Green Revolution period. Comparing the weighted average age since release of wheat varieties (9-11 years in Pakistan's Punjab, probably longer in other parts of the country) with the weighted length of time farmers had been growing their current varieties in our survey (two-and-a-half to three years in the Punjab, somewhat over five years in Mardan) suggests that there have been significant lags between varietal release and widespread seed availability. Furthermore, many farmers who eventually get seed of more recent wheat releases from other farmers would probably buy seed from seed depots if they were aware sooner of new varieties' existence and convinced of their improved characteristics.Instead, however, seed systems are often viewed primarily as guarantors of seed quality rather than as agents of varietal replacement. Even with a shift in emphasis toward the latter role (without forsaking quality as an objective), the problems of planning seed supply and distribution remain formidable. In general, basic planning decisions, such as deciding the total amount of seed to produce, determining the mix of varieties to produce, and setting the marketing strategy, are more difficult than the more technical problems of seed production itself.The agricultural information system, particularly agricultural extension, has a rather complex influence on the process of varietal replacement both during and after periods of rapid technological change. In this study, for example, we found that contact with extension was significantly related to knowledge of the formal seed system, but in general not significantly related to varietal awareness and adoption. Some evidence, however, indicates that for early adopters extension might be an important first source of information about new varieties.Similarly, the effects of factors expected to influence farmers' ability to process information (literacy or formal education) are also complex. We have reported that these farmer characteristics do appear to influence farmers' knowledge of the formal seed system and of new varieties but do not seem to affect actual adoption behavior given varietal awareness.Much evidence suggests that the transfer of knowledge from farmer to farmer (both general information concerning new wheat technology and \"specific\" information embodied in new seed) is the single most important factor in varietal replacement. This appeared to be true both at the time of Pakistan's Green Revolution and at the time covered by this report. We hypothesize, however, that higher educational levels and more sophisticated extension messages potentially have a much greater role to play in post-Green Revolution varietal replacement.Given the effects of all these other institutional variables, farmer demand still substantially affects the rate of varietal replacement. Theoretically, many factors, including seed price and learning costs, can affect this rate (Heisey and Brennan 1989). Nonetheless we conclude that the single most important factor affecting farmers' demand for new varieties is perceived yield advantage. This factor appears both in farmers' statements and in statistical relationships attempting to explain farmers' actual behavior. Note too the slower spread of more recent wheat releases in the cotton zone of the Punjab, despite the fact that seed production and distribution in the Punjab is most concentrated in that zone. More recent releases had less yield advantage over the variety dominant at the time of our study in the cotton zone compared to other surveyed areas. 2Other varietal characteristics also affect demand, but they tend to be much more location and time specific than yield. Disease resistance per se was not found to be an important farmer consideration in this study, as farmers' knowledge of wheat diseases was rather limited. Replacement varieties must have acceptable grain quality, but in general quality has become a much less influential factor in post Green Revolution wheat production in Pakistan. 3 On the other hand, with increased emphasis on double cropping, performance at late planting has become a more 2 See Brennan and Cullis (1987) and Houston et al. (1989) for other empirical evidence from different countries on the influence of varietal characteristics, including yield, on varietal replacement and seed sales.3 Wheat grain and straw quality may still be of relatively greater importance in some parts of Pakistan, such as rainfed or mountainous areas.important criterion for wheat varieties in some areas. This, too, has probably affected varietal replacement in the cotton zone. Most of the relatively successful, more recent releases have been full-season varieties. Although they yield at least as well as earlier maturing varieties when planted late, this fact has not been widely recognized. In the cotton zone, as WL-711 continues to be phased out, it has been replaced as much by Blue Silver (an old, ear!y, and also rust-susceptible variety) as by Pak-81, a more recent full-season release that performs well at late planting (Azeem et al. 1989).This study has used a number of different methods--institutional analysis, analysis of research data, farmer surveys--to investigate wheat varietal replacement in Pakistan. To examine varietal replacement at all, one element is crucial: a reasonably reliable method of determining which varieties are grown by farmers, and over what proportion of the total crop area. Specific data sources concerning variety are unlikely to exist, but varietal information may be collected as a part of other exercises designed to estimate areas, yields, and production, or to monitor basic technological practices. Among the cereals, varietal information should be easiest to obtain for crops like hybrid maize; somewhat more difficult to elicit for self pollinating crops such as wheat or rice; and most difficult for cross-pollinating crops such as open-pollinated maize (where it is difficult to identify a variety which has become mixed over time).To analyze the productivity of wheat breeding research, we have used experimental or observational data on yield gains and on other characteristics such as disease resistance. A description of the seed production and marketing system, data concerning seed production by variety and seed pricing, and data about farmers' seed sources were employed to examine the present and potential role of the seed system in varietal replacement. Farm survey data provided us with information concerning farmers' seed sources and allowed us to analyze their knowledge of new varieties, their stated reasons for certain choices, and the statistical relationships between their characteristics and their actual behavior. All of these other methods used here may be more or less useful depending on the varietal replacement question to be considered and the costs of obtaining data.Some specific recommendations for Pakistan follow from the studies presented in this report. In some cases they may be useful in addressing problems in other countries where varietal replacement is not as rapid as might be desired. The need for appropriate policies related to varietal replacement and seed production is still as urgent in Pakistan at the start of the 1990s as it was when the research described in this report was initiated. Pak-81, released at the beginning of the 1980s, is approaching its maximum area coverage in some regions just as its resistance to rust is beginning to break down. Blue Silver has been placed on the banned list even though the area planted to Blue Silver continues to increase in parts of the Punjab. Unless policy makers, extension workers, and scientists develop a common program of action to address this problem, the farmers of Pakistan will remain vulnerable to the considerable--and growing--risk of a rust epidemic.Varietal replacement and release--The number of wheat varieties released must be maintained at least at current levels in Pakistan. Furthermore, breeders should aim to increase genetic diversity in their elite materials, as genetic diversity is a better defense against rust than varietal diversity per se. 4 Breeders should consider multiplying more seed of the most promising varieties before release. To enable earlier evaluation of a variety's commercial potential, more farmer evaluations of varieties should be sought before release. The varietal naming system should produce distinctive names that are easily recognized by farmers, rather than similar names that lead to confusion in farmers' minds. This kind of naming system would help educate farmers concerning potential differences in varieties and make varietal monitoring less difficult.Monitoring wheat varieties grown by farmers--To formulate appropriate actions aimed at promoting varietal diversity and more rapid varietal replacement, wheat scientists and policy makers (for example, in Pakistan, the members of the Federal Committee on Agriculture) must be aware which wheat varieties farmers are growing. In the Punjab, the Crop Reporting Service (CRS), Lahore, should continue varietal monitoring through farmer interviews. In other provinces, particularly Sind and NWFP, the CRSs should be encouraged to add simple varietal identification questions to their yield estimation schedules. Enumerators should be trained to avoid prompting farmers and to record \"don't know\" answers. The CRSs should work with wheat breeders and the Agricultural Economics Research Unit (AERUs) of the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council to design the questions and train enumerators.The CRS estimates of wheat varietal coverage for a given wheat season should be circulated rapidly and widely, to policy makers, wheat breeders, and pathologists, in February or March of each season. The Planning Unit, Food and Agriculture Division, Ministry of Food and Agriculture should discuss with CRSs the legitimacy of using current sampling designs to produce estimates of varietal coverage for major cropping systems. Interested institutional representatives, for example wheat researchers, should be -party to these discussions.4 Several measures to speed varietal change or promote genetic diversity do not follow directly form this report but deserve mention: streamlining varietal testing by planting National Uniform Wheat Yield Trials (NUWYTs) and microplots at the same time rather than successively; maintaining backup materials for quick multiplication in case of a rust epidemic; and developing mutlilines or varietal mixtures.Finally, the special studies discussed in Chapter 3 should be continued in the same villages sampled by the AERUs. This will permit more longitudinal analysis of the process of varietal change within given cropping systems.Seed production and marketing--Seed production capability is less of a constraint to faster dissemination of new wheat varieties than the difficulty in deciding which varieties to multiply and the lack of seed promotion. Nonetheless, potential production changes would make new varieties available more rapidly. The possibility of increasing seed out of season should be considered. Breeders currently use the Kaghan summer nursery to advance their lines; a somewhat larger facility could be used for seed production. Seed certification standards should be reviewed to see if they emphasize seed quality at the expense of rapid multiplication.Private marketing of wheat seed should be encouraged through better commissions paid to dealers. Financial incentives might be given to dealers contingent on their own active seed promotion. Eventually, marketing by registered growers, who are the last stage in the production process, should be considered.Seed of new varieties should be available in smaller packets so farmers can test and multiply their own seed. Packaging should be distinctive to maintain consumer confidence.Improved promotion and marketing of seed necessitate increases in seed price. This increase would not be incompatible with more rapid varietal replacement. Increases in the seed price should be timed to coincide with periods in which strong demand for seed is expected.Extension and demonstration of new wheat varieties--Extension, seed corporations, and research should cooperate more closely in varietal demonstrations. Demonstrations should be planted much more widely in major wheat growing areas: each village over a given size should have at least one demonstration. Seed for demonstrations should be provided to extension . Demonstrations should be grown under farmer management, and some should be planted at later than optimal planting dates. These demonstrations should be simple; they should include two or three new varieties at most, along with the farmer's variety. This contrasts with the current system in the Punjab of planting up to 10 varieties in one demonstration trial. A field day for local farmers should accompany the harvest of the demonstration plot. Seed from new varieties in demonstrations should be distributed to farmers, although extension should not be seen as the primary agent for the delivery of inputs such as seed. Extension should also increase the amount of information it makes available about wheat diseases. Radio campaigns should be stepped up to increase farmers' knowledge of new varieties and rust problems.-The case of Pakistan clearly illustrates the importance of regular varietal replacement for farmers and for the nation as a whole. The studies described in this report offer a means to evaluate the complex relationships between wheat breeding, varietal testing, and release; seed production and distribution; extension; government policy; and varietal change at the farmer level. Nonetheless there are areas in which our knowledge offactors relating to varietal replacement is limited or nonexy;tent.Future studies might, for example, develop methods of determining rough objectives for the number and genetic diversity of varieties to be released by mature plant breeding programs in countries with large areas planted to the crop in question.That kind of analysis, expanding on the methods presented in Chapter 2, should consider appropriate measures of genetic diversity (Priestly and Bayles 1980), the size and diversity of the production zones targeted, and the cost of achieving different degrees of diversity. The analysis should also consider the level of sophistication in marketing and information delivery by the seed and extension system responsible for transferring new varieties to farmers.We have highlighted the difficulties of planning seed production and supply, especially when formal seed production is seen as an instrument of varietal replacement. Further research might begin with case studies of seed systems with different degrees of success in marketing seed of different crops. Such studies do exist; what is needed is to add the perspective of varietal replacement to the legal and institutional description they often contain.Additional research is also required to verify empirically the relative strengths of the factors influencing farmers' demand for replacement seed. From the disciplinary point of view of economics, one of the more difficult conceptual issues is how to separate out availability constraints from actual demand components. In the few studies done to date relating to seed demand, including this one, availability constraints have simply been introduced as proxy variables in what is essentially an analysis of the demand side of the market. Another conceptual problem, particularly for crops for which farmers can maintain their own seed, is how to move from an abstract understanding of the factors influencing farmers to obtain seed of new varieties to a concrete set of planning tools for seed producers.Finally, studies of other countries and particularly of other crops would help to sharpen our understanding of the features of varietal replacement that are universal and of the changes in assumptions and methods necessary to analyze factors more specific to time, place, and particular crops.","tokenCount":"32012"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ed2b765587942825d2fdbb23d2988632","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84fa2882-d800-4911-89c3-eb10b1cb3d02/retrieve","id":"-397256789"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"87c99933-908c-4123-bdd0-289e8cf72f5c","pagecount":"14","content":"This section provides:  Synthesis of progress and challenges in implementing the CRP, including their significance for the IDOs that characterize the CRP and a brief description of any noteworthy reorientation in the CRP. Synthesis of the two most significant achievements/success stories in the year (gender disaggregated where pertinent), with references to associated evidence and website links for more details. Overall financial summary: actual total spending (from all sources, including bilateral and Window 3) and percentage expended on gender research, compared to expected budget.CRPs produce two main categories of reports 1 :(i) Detailed documentation on progress at research theme/location/component and subcomponent level to CRP leadership. This information is the foundation that establishes the credibility of the reports in category (ii). It is prepared by CRP staff and submitted to the CRP leadership and is an important reference for (ii).(ii) Annual performance monitoring report at CRP level, from CRP Director and Lead Center to Consortium Office.The template provided in this document refers to the report in category (ii) whilst its supporting data refers to the information in category (i). Report (ii) is submitted by the CRP Director to the CSO by March 10, 2015 and covers progress during calendar year 2014. Its maximum expected length is 10 pages (plus annexes).The CRP report provides a strategic overview of where the program stands in terms of progress towards its targets. It focuses on outputs and outcomes and if relevant explains changes in future directions. It covers results achieved, regardless of sources of funds used to produce the results (i.e. windows 1, 2, 3 where relevant and bilateral). Different measures of progress have to be monitored over the life cycle of a CRP through different instruments. A given CRP is therefore expected to report every year on those items mentioned below that are relevant to its position in its own life cycle.Verification of the reliability of the information provided will occur through:-the external evaluation of the CRPs, commissioned by the Independent Evaluation Arrangement and the leadership of the CRPs; -the external evaluation of the performance monitoring and reporting system commissioned by the CO at regular intervals (2-3 years) -the peer review of the individual CRP reports will continue to take place, including by the CO -all supporting documents and data bases (report (i) mentioned above) will be available through web links.Describe partnership building achievements (if any new ones since last year) and associated strategic partnership issues, including public-private partnerships where relevant. Include a brief description of mechanisms designed to align CRP with priorities in national, regional bodies etc... Include a brief analysis of new strategic interactions with other CRPs and their effectiveness. Include a brief commentary on how different key partners are using the CRP's outputs and outcomes.Provide a summary and highlights of training and its outputs and outcomes. Use indicators from Table 1, as appropriate.List the three major risks that may hinder the expected delivery of results by the CRP and describe the mitigation actions taken to manage these risks.Analysis of variance from what was planned:i. Estimate the overall level of confidence/uncertainty of the indicators provided in Table 1.ii. Description, if relevant, of research avenues that did not produce expected results, and description of actions taken by the CRP, such as new research directions pursued and their expected outputs and outcomes.iii. Lessons learned by the CRP from its monitoring of the indicators and from its qualitative analyses of progress.There are 9 financial reports:1. Report L101 The templates for CRP financial reporting by CRP Directors and Lead Centers are attached as Appendix 3.Note that there is also a requirement for interim financial reports -the first four reports are also submitted to the Consortium at the half-year stage, and Report L401 is required quarterly.Explanatory notes on the financial reports:1 -Report L101 -Annual CRP Budget Summary -by CG Participant and Theme Annual report of income & expenditure compared to the approved Finplan, from all the various funding sources. The information is obtained by the Lead Center from the CG Participants, and the Lead Center consolidates the reports from the participating centers, so that the summary report is available at either Center-level or Theme-level.Report of income & expenditure to date on a cumulative base, from all the various funding sources, and compares that to the CRP total budget (also called \"Whole of Life\" budget) as per the PIA. The information is obtained by the Lead Center from the CG Participants, and the Lead Center consolidates the reports from the participating centers, so that the summary report is available at either Center-level or Theme-level.Provides a comparison of annual actual expenditure against the approved Finplan budget of the CRP, by natural classification, by CGIAR center. It ensures there is a realistic balance between the various components, and in particular provides information on funds flowing to partners outside the CGIAR. The report has data from each CG Center, and the information is for all the various funding sources. The information in this report is also reported in the annual financial statements of each center.Information on Bilateral Grants/Donors is needed so that their contributions to individual CRP's can be monitored. This will help with forecasting cash flow requirements. The report has data from each CG Center, and sets out expenditure to date on a cumulative base, from each individual donor. Amounts should be in accordance with L101 figures, for each center.This report provides an indicator on the extent of partner participation in the CRPs. It provides the name of the institute and country alongside the amount of expenditure.This report provides a summary of CRP cashflows, from the CO to Lead Centers and onto partners, during a financial year. This also reports intercenter receivables/payables at period end, and these balances need to be confirmed with relevant participating centers. This report is required to assist cash forecasting, and hence is requested quarterly.In addition to the \"themes\", there are two \"cross-cutting areas\" which should be reported separately:Area 1 -CRP Strategy, Management and Coordination Area 2 -Implementation of Gender Strategy Note that more cross-cutting areas may be recognized in the future, but for 2012 lead centers are requested to provide financial data only on two.The CRP Lead Centers are responsible for consolidation of each CRP financial report, and submission to the CO. The Participating Centers are responsible for submission of their CRP financial information to the Lead Centers, and ensuring that all inter-center amounts receivable/payable are in agreement with counterpart centers. Sex-disaggregated social data collected and used to diagnose important gender-related constraints in at least one of the CRP's main target populationsThe CRP has defined and collected baseline data on the main dimensions of gender inequality in the CRP's main target populations relevant to its expected outcomes (IDOs)And CRP targets changes in levels of gender inequality to which the CRP is or plans to contribute, with related numbers of men and women beneficiaries in main target populations 2. Institutional architecture for integration of gender is in place -CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS.-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research -CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS and funds allocated to support their interaction.-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research And A CRP plan approved for capacity development in gender analysis CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS and funds allocated to support their interaction.-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research And A CRP plan approved for capacity development in gender analysisThe CRP uses feedback provided by its M&E system to improve its integration of gender into research","tokenCount":"1390"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ee12a342c19bf683522d62a27c47ab2a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2573f96a-296b-4df0-aab9-f41bb61b3f98/retrieve","id":"-1445215204"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ae003a7e-3c29-4569-8b67-05e1cebb085e","pagecount":"23","content":"Las leguminosas forrajeras forman uno de los grupos de plantas más numerosos y esparcidos en el globo terrestre; se encuentran en regiones se climas variados y condiciones ecolóeícas diversas hasta 3,000 msnm.La técnica de propagación por estacas consiste en separar los tallos de la planta madre y colocarlos en condiciones ambientales favorables para inducirlos a formar rafees y nuevos tallos para producir una nueva planta.La cécnica de propagación por estacas requiere ciertos cuidados técnicos especialmente en el corte de las estacas ya que este hecho se considera como uno de los éxitos en la propagación.Otro hecho importante es conocer algunos aspectos básicos sobre las formas y las estructuras del crecimiento en las leguminosas las cuales se pueden aprovechar para obtener mayor cantidad de estacas por planta, teniendo en cuenta que las plantas originarias sean sanas y de estructura fuerte y madura.Los medios a utilizar para la propagación del material forrajero pueden ser diferentes tales como : arena tipo cuarzo, perlita (perlite), vermiculita (vermiculite), suelo, agua, los 2.cuales han dado muy buenos resultados en la propagación de leguminosas como Zornia. Stylosanthes. Desmodium. Centrosema.Estos medios a utilizar deben ser suf : ~ientemente firmes y densos para mantener las estacas en su sitio durante el enraizamiento; deben retener la suficiente humedad relativa en forma pareja y porosa de modo que el exceso de agua escurra y permita una aereación adecuada.Se debe tener en cuenta que estos medios estén libres de nemátodos. malezas y otros organismos patógenos nocivos que pueden afectar las estacas.A continuación se detallan algunos de los medios de propagación de las especies forrajeras:Generalmente se emplea arena de cuarzo que es e n forma predominante un complejo de silice. La arena más conveniente para el enraizamiento de leguminosas forrajeras es la que en albañileria se emplea para enlucidos. Se puede utilizar sola o mezclada con perlita pues ha demostrado que en ambos casos resulta muy satisfactorio su empleo.Es un material volcánico de color blanco que se extrae de los derrames de lava y después de ser tratado en hornos a grandes temperaturas se forma en granos pequeños, esponjosos y porosos que retienen agua en una proporción de 3 a 4 veces su peso. Esencialmente es neutro, con un pH de 7.0 a 7.5 pero sin capacidad de amortiguamiento; no contiene nutrientes y sostiene muy bien las estacas. Cuando se lava en una solución de agua y ácido sulfúrico se puede utilizar varias veces.Es de observar que la perlita se puede utilizar sola o mezclada en partes iguales con la vermiculita.Cuando se utiliza el suelo como medio de propagación es conveniente tener en cuenta: l. Seleccionar suelo que tenga una textura muy bien definida.Que esté l{bre de malezas, semillas y hongos nocivos para las estacas, muchas veces es conveniente esterilizar con vapor, bromuro de metilo, formol o en hornos a temperatura entre 50 y 60°C.4.Debe mezclarse el suelo con arena en relación a 2 partes de suelo por 1 de arena para garantizar mejores resultados de enraizamiento pues es conveniente el drenaje en este tipo de propagación.El agua es otro medio de gran importancia en la propagación Los sitios de propagación son fundamentales en la técnica de propagación por estacas, ya que la temperatura y la aireación del lugar debe tener temperaturas promedios de 20°C a 35°C. Los invernaderos son los sitios más favorables para las estacas por estar más protegidas de las inclemencias del tiempo.Son las bases o estructuras donde se colocarán los medios de propagación. Pueden ser: cámaras, recámaras, bandejas de plástico tipo Jiffy, bandejas de eternit, etc.En la Figura 2 se indica la cámara y la recámara como bases en una mesa de forma rectangular con una medida de aproximadamente 2.20 m de largo por 1.10 de ancho. En los cuatro lados u orillas de la mesa de encuentran las láminas de eternit de 20 cm de altura, que sirven de contención a los medios que se utilizarán tales como piedrita, arena, perlita o vermi.culita.Este tipo de instalación es ideal cuando se tienen sistemas de riego en forma de niebla pues se mantiene la temperatura adecuada.6. Recámara totalmente forrada en plástico cOn riego en forma de niebla.La Figura 3 muestra otra cámara de propagación que es muy práctica; tiene las mismas medidas que la de la Figura 2 pero no está cubierta en plástico. Tiene solamente 70 cm y se le pueden adaptar sistemas de riego en forma de lluvia, utilizando una manguera conectada a un tubo PVC de 1\" con boquillas especiales en este tipo de propagación (Yigura 4).A los dos tipos de cámara que hemos descrito anteriormente se les puede adaptar calor que consiste en conectar cables eléctricos mediante alambre de hierro galvanizado en la base de los medios.Este sistema se considera ideal para las épocas frias.f --------220 cm ---------1 Figura 3. cámara de propagación sencilla con riego en forma de lluvia fina.  2. Se llenan dos vasos de precipitación (beakers) con 500 cc de agua esterilizada o deionizada.3. Se prepara una solución (estimulante enraizador) y se vierte en un vaso de precipitación 100 cc en un gramo de ácido indolbutirico . (Figura 7).   En el enraizamiento de leguminosas forrajeras es muy importante mantener una humedad adecuada para reducir al minimo la pérdida de agua por las hojas, una práctica común especialmente en épocas secas es asperjar las hojas con frecuencia aunque se emplee más tiempo. Se pueden hacer varias asper siones ligeras de agua durante el dia con intervalos largos cuando no se tienen equipos de riego automático.Aunque durante la formación de las rafces es importante la alta humedad en la estructura de propagación, también es necesario que se proporcione un drenaje adecuado de tal modo que escurra el exceso de agua y el medio de enraizamiento no quede húmedo en exceso.También es importante mantener buenas condiciones sanitarias en las cámaras, procurando también que las hojas que caen deben ser retiradas; igualmente debe hacerse con las estacas que estén muertas .Si en las estacas aparecen insectos tales como áfidos, arañita roja, chinches y otros, es necesario aplicar medidas de control por medio de insecticidas, acaricidas . y fungi~ cidas.Al retirar las estacas ya enraizadas debe tenerse mucho cuidado pues al hacerse en forma brusca se podría perder gran parte de las raíces que ya están formadas.20 .","tokenCount":"1040"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"76f629f1f56f677aa22c51111df19dbc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9bed1303-b31e-4f07-aeac-a692e63ae45a/content","id":"-1150685500"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b6766269-85d4-4d44-a3ea-d22a28704c83","pagecount":"20","content":"kernel number and kernel weight were weak. Stg expression was largely dependent on rate of senescence which was related to the pattern of the greenness decay curve and the initial NDVI. QTL analyses revealed a total of 44 loci across environments linked to Stg and related traits, distributed across the genome, with the strongest and most repeatable effects detected on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2B, 4A, 4B and 7D. Of these, some were common with regions controlling phenology but independent regions were also identified. The co-location of QTL for Stg and performance traits in this study confirms that the staygreen phenotype is a useful trait for productivity enhancement in hot-irrigated environments.The staygreen attribute, defined as \"heritable delayed foliar senescence\" (Thomas and Stoddart 1975) is considered as a selection criterion for crop improvement to extend grainfilling duration and ensure that grain size is not limited by lack of post-anthess assimilates. For many years the staygreen character has been empirically included in visual selection of breeding lines (Thomas and Ougham 2014) but its genetic basis is not well understood.The visible symptom of a staygreen phenotype is the persistence of greenness, which actually represents only one of many processes involved in delayed leaf senescence. The permanence of the pigment can be due to disabled chlorophyll catabolism or modification of the chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a ratio (Thomas and Howarth 2000). Complex hormonal controls are involved in leaf senescence, where cytokinins are the main inhibitors; plant treatment with cytokinins has resulted in staygreen phenotypes of tobacco and Arabidopsis (Gan and Amasino 1995). Five types of staygreen have been distinguished (Thomas and Howarth 2000), which broadly can be grouped as cosmetic staygreen or functional staygreen. As their names indicate, in the first type of staygreen the tissue looks green even when photosynthetic activity has been decreased or stopped in contrast to the functional staygreen (Thomas and Ougham 2014). The latter is obviously the target of plant breeding. Staygreen has been associated with drought and heat tolerance (Kumari et al. 2007); for example in sorghum, grain yield is positively associated with staygreen under water limited conditions (Rosenow et al. 1983;Borrell and Douglas 1996). Similarly to drought environments, under heat stressed conditions the staygreen attribute seems to be advantageous. Genotypes that exhibit delayed loss of greenness after anthesis show superior agronomic performance (Kumari et al. 2007;Borrell and Douglas 1996;Borrell et al. 2000). The latter is because staygreen indicates higher photosynthetic assimilation in the late stages of plant development which contributes to increase crop yield; the reason can be an extended photosynthetic active phase or higher photosynthetic rate due greater retention of leaf nitrogen content (Harris et al. 2007). However, it is not yet clear if the physiological and genetic basis for delayed loss of greenness under heat are similar to drought. Mechanisms related to the staygreen phenotype conferring heat adaption may be for example, the conservation of nitrogen through reduction of plant size (including leaves, stems and roots) and modification of water uptake patterns as found under water limited conditions (Borrell et al. 2014a;Mace et al. 2012), but this needs to be confirmed. Sorghum plant with reduced leaf size and decreased tillering have proven to result in genotypes using a conservative strategy to reduce the use of soil water before anthesis for use during grainfilling when water is a limitation. Apparently the staygreen genes affect the expression of genes controlling hormones influencing plant growth (Borrell et al. 2014a). Neverthless, sorghum has shown correlations between staygreen and yield in environments yielding >6 t ha −1 (Jordan et al. 2012).Genetic variability for staygreen has been identified and exploited in maize, oat, rice, wheat, fescue, soybean, pea, tomato, pepper, fruits, trees and other species (Barry et al. 2008;Armstead et al. 2006;Duvick et al. 2004;Thomas and Smart 1993;Thomas and Stoddart 1975). A number of studies have modelled the staygreen attribute as an indicator of photosynthetic activity. Deeper understanding of the dynamics and mechanisms affecting staygreen under high temperature environments are required to successfully exploit this attribute and improve plant adaptation to heat stress. Modelling canopy greenness dynamics over the whole crop cycle can help with this, while having obvious application in determining the best time for screening by identifying at what growth stage(s) differences in greenness are best associated with yield and show the best resolution. The factors affecting staygreen under high temperature conditions are unclear but a better understanding of canopy greenness dynamics are expected to (a) provide information about canopy activity at different time-points during the crop cycle which may be under independent genetic control, and (b) demonstrate when differences in greenness are best expressed in order to refine screening protocols.Elevated temperatures and high irradiance promote the generation of reactive oxygen (ROS) species which can lead to cell damage and further accelerate loss of green biomass (McDonald and Vanlerberghe 2004;Christiansen 1978). In this regard, it seems that the staygreen genotypes have the ability to cope with the negative effect of heat stress either by minimizing the production and accumulation of ROS through the pigments such as xanthophylls and carotenes that protect the chloroplasts by dissipating excess of radiation energy, reducing damage to the photosynthetic apparatus (Hopkins and Hüner 2009;Suzuki and Mittler 2006;Zhao and Tan 2005). It is interesting that staygreen is frequently reported for leaf greenness while other organs that also contribute to total plant photosynthesis such stems and spikes are not always considered. CO 2 absorbed by spikes represents at least 20 % of flag leaf CO 2 captured in wheat (Teare et al. 1972) and estimates indicate that the spikes' contribution to grain yield is variable depending of the conditions but can reach up to the 70 % in wheat and barley grown under stress (Maydup et al. 2010;Araus et al. 1993;Biscoe et al. 1973;Thorne 1963). Accurate quantification of individual leaf greenness (Harris et al. 2007) can be performed with the SPAD meter, and visual scoring, though more subjective, has been used to estimate greenness for decades (Kumar et al. 2010). The GreenSeeker spectral sensor offers an integrative high throughput approach to precision quantification of staygreen; it measures total canopy variation in green area including leaves, stems and spikes and permits screening of a large number of samples in a relatively short time (Lopes and Reynolds 2012); this enables potential application in large scale phenotyping including for QTL mapping. The current study applies this novel methodology measuring normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) during the crop cycle so that the pattern of greenness decline could be determined. A number of NDVI-based staygreen related traits can be derived to enhance understanding of the mechanisms affecting plant's greenness persistence; these include the proportion of plant greenness lost mid grainfilling (Gdecay); the estimation of the velocity of greenness loss (RS) which together with the type of NDVI curve can provide information about how fast are lost the plant greenness and photosynthetic activity; and the estimate of total green biomass (StgAUC and TotalAUC), parameters determining light interception. It is hypothesized that StgAUC and TotalAUC can reflect the accumulated plant greenness during a given period of time and that high values for these two traits are favorable for plant performance due to an increase in plant's green area available for capturing radiation (Cossani and Reynolds 2012). The quantification of the staygreen attribute and other related traits in a wheat mapping population allows the identification of genetic loci controlling staygreen which can provide the tools to enable MAS to accelerate and improve efficiency of plant breeding. QTL mapping for staygreen has been performed for several species including Lolium (Thorogood et al. 1999), pearl millet (Howarth et al. 1994), wheat (Kumar et al. 2010;Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010), maize (Zheng et al. 2009) and sorghum (Harris et al. 2007;Tao et al. 2000).It has been estimated that wheat yield is reduced 3-5 % per 1 °C increased above 15 °C during the grainfilling period (Gibson and Paulsen 1999). High temperatures result in accelerated plant growth, reduced plant size and shortened cycle, limiting the amount of light intercepted. In that sense, extending the grainfilling duration through delayed greenness loss seems to be especially advantageous in heat stressed environment. The exact profile of the staygreen attribute as a heat adaptive-trait still needs to be clarified but in the current study it is proposed that plant greenness during grainfilling is lost following different patterns and that these patterns can be modelled following linear and non-linear regression models. Finally it is anticipated that genotypic differences for the Stg trait and related parameters exist and that this trait can be mapped for QTL to provide new avenues in the understanding of mechanisms controlling plant staygreen and its association with yield and other physiological traits.The specific objectives of this study were (1) to model plant senescence patterns of Seri/Babax RIL grown under heat-stressed, irrigated conditions, (2) to calculate a measure of staygreen (Stg) at physiological maturity using a linear regression model, and (3) to identify QTL linked to this character and additional traits associated with heat tolerance.The population consisted of 167 RIL derived from crosses between two of CIMMYT's elite lines: Seri M82 (herein called Seri) derived from a 'Veery' cross (KVZ/BUHO// KAL/BB) and a sister line of the elite variety Baviacora M92 'Babax' (BOW/NAC//VEE/3/BJY/COC). Both parents exhibit drought tolerance and high yield potential (Olivares-Villegas et al. 2007) while the population is characterized by a restricted range of height and phenology and does not segregate for major height, vernalization or photoperiod response genes (Pinto et al. 2010).Five heat-stressed, irrigated trials were conducted during the seasons 2005, 2006, 2010, 2011 and 2013 in the Yaqui Valley, Northwest México; the site is a high radiation, irrigated environment. In 2005In , 2006 and 2010 the trials were sown in February and in 2011 and 2013 the trials were sown in March. Based on the mean temperature at particular developmental stages, the trials were classified as: moderately hot (M), hot (H) or intensely hot (I) and are named with these letters followed by the last two digits of the sowing and harvest year (Table 1). Field experiments consisted of plots of one raised bed of 80 × 100 cm with two rows per bed; all the experiments were sown in two-replicate alpha-lattice designs. Sowing seed density was 15 gm −2 in the February and March trials. All trials were fully irrigated when ~50 % of available soil moisture was depleted in the 0-1 m soil profile.Physiological and agronomical traits were recorded in the five trials according to standard procedures detailed elsewhere (Reynolds et al. 2001). These included: repeated measurements during the vegetative (v) and grainfilling stages (g) for the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), flag leaf chlorophyll (Chl) and canopy temperature (CT); individual measurements were averaged for these traits and a single value is presented. Also recorded were the number of days to reach heading (heading) and physiological maturity (maturity), plant height (height), grain yield, kernel number (KN), grain weight (TGW) and the grainfilling rate [GFR = yield/(days to maturity − days to heading)]. NDVI was measured by canopy reflectance with a GreenSeeker (Optical Sensor Unit, 2002 NTech Industries, Inc., Ukiah, CA, USA). The chlorophyll of the flag leaf was assessed using a portable chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502 Minolta, Spectrum Technologies Inc., Plainfield, IL, USA) and the CT was recorded using an infrared thermometer (Mikron M90 series) 2-3 times per week avoiding cloudy and windy days according to the protocol described in Reynolds et al. (2001).Staygreen (Stg) was calculated using linear regression analyses of NDVI readings from heading until shortly after maturity according to Lopes and Reynolds (2012), given that anthesis under heat stress occurs very shortly after heading. The regression equation for each experimental plot was obtained by plotting NDVI during grain filling (NDVIg) against days after heading; Stg was calculated by substituting the maturity day in the equation. Stg is a unitless trait given that it is based on a NDVI ratio. The rate of senescence (RS) for each genotype was calculated from the slope of the NDVIg decline against thermal time (°C) using a linear regression equation (Fig. 1). Greenness decay (Gdecay) was calculated as the percentage of NDVI decline in the first half of the grainfilling stage (in number of days after heading). Staygreen-area (StgAUC) and Total area (TotalAUC) were calculated as the area under the curve with starting points at maximum NDVI (for StgAUC) or at crop establishment (TotalAUC) and using the corresponding thermal time for each case. Stg and staygreen related traits (RS, Gdecay, StgAUC, TotalAUC) were estimated only in three environments: M10, H05 and I13, due to insufficient NDVI data in H11 and I06.The modelling of NDVI curves across the crop development period and during staygreen decay in the grainfilling phase were performed in R 3.1.0 (http://www.R-project. org/) applying a sigmoidal function. In the M10 environment NDVIv (NDVI during the vegetative stage) was not recorded before 500 degree-days (dd, °C d) but in order to draw an NDVI trend for the whole cycle, this gap was filled using NDVI from H05 trial, given that comparable values were expected because NDVI for both trials performed similarly after 500 dd. (dotted line, Fig. 4). This assumption had no effect on the calculated Stg values orStg related traits, except on TotalAUC, since only the later included these inferred NDVI values. For this analysis, a non-linear model was developed by combining two sigmoidal functions as given by the following equation:where TT is the thermal time (i.e. °C days), is the simulated NDVI at TT, NDVI max is the season maximum NDVI parameter, r exp is a canopy expansion rate parameter, i exp is a canopy expansion inflection point parameter, r sen is a canopy senescence rate parameter, and i sen is the inflection point of canopy senescence. Each genotype was individually modelled for NDVIg after heading following linear and non-linear models using the equations: Linear model:Non-linear models:The best fitted model was selected based in the Bayesian information criterion (BIC).Adjusted means were obtained in SAS v9.0 using ANOVA mixed models to obtain the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUPs); spatial adjustment was included in the analysis by adding the effect of row and column according to the location of each plot in the field. Pearson's phenotypic correlations (r P ) were calculated using the formula of Roff (1995) from the adjusted means. The QTL mapping analyses were performed in GenStat 15th edition in a Composite Interval mapping procedure using a threshold LOD value of 2 to identify all QTL candidates and LOD > 3.5 for defining consistent QTL. QTL mapping was performed individually by trial and by trait, and also for each trait combined across environments.The Seri/Babax population map used here in was previously constructed and consisted of 475 markers: 118 SSR (Single Sequence Repeat), 212 AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), and 145 DArT (Diversity Array Technology) markers distributed over 20 chromosomes, only the chromosome 3D is missing (McIntyre et al. 2010). Previous QTL mapping studies have been reported using earlier versions of this map (Pinto et al. 2010;Lopes and Reynolds 2012). (TT−i sen)  ,NDVI TT = aTT 2 + bTT + cCurve type 3. normalized difference vegetative index during grainfilling i thermal time with maximum NDVIg, j thermal time with minimum recorded NDVIg; RS was calculated as the linear slope from i to j for all the genotypes, Stg staygreen, residual greenness remaining at physiological maturity calculated using a linear regression for each genotypesThe adjusted means and basic statistics for all traits calculated across the four trials for parents and RILs are presented on Table 2. The two parents showed similar expression for Stg, phenology and other traits while a much wider range was observed in the RIL. The rate of senescence (RS) for both parents averaged across environments indicated that the NDVIg decreased by about 8 SPADunits each degree day (°C), similarly to the estimated population mean. Gdecay across environments ranged from 18 to 44 % and averaged 31.2 % for the RILs. Heading time was found to be relatively constant across parents and RILs, with a range of 13 days observed across environments. Pearson's correlations showed that trial associations were positive and significant for yield (Fig. 2). Staygreen (Stg) was found to not well associated (p > 0.05) across the three environments (Fig. 3) varying from 0.12 to 0.38 but Stg showed consistent and positive correlation with kernel number (KN), thousand grain weight (TGW) and yield (Supplementary Fig. 1). The correlation between Stg and TGW was the weakest on average (Table 3), although it was still significant (p < 0.05). The distribution of the Stg trait showed that it varied across environments, ranging from 0.2 to 0.4, 0.05 to 0.3 and 0.14 to 0.27 for the M10, H05 and I13 trials, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 2). The highest values were observed in M10 which experienced lower heat stress compared with H05 and I13. Unexpectedly, the lowest Stg values were found in H05 and not in I13, but the variability for this trait was reduced under intense heat stress in I13. The rate of senescence for the parents by environment is presented in Supplementary Fig. 3.Individual measurements of NDVIv and NDVIg were plotted against thermal time and by regression analyses a single curve was fitted for the whole population for each environment. The performance of the NDVI trait across the cycle showed similar patterns in H05 and M10; major differences were observed in the NDVI pattern of the highest stressed environment, I13 (Fig. 4). Maximum NDVI was about 0.80 in M10 and 0.75 in H05, contrasting with I13 where the maximum NDVI was only 0.6. These maximum values were reached at about 750 degree-days in all environments. 1 3During grain filling, Seri showed lower initial NDVIg values than Babax at the same thermal time in the three environments (Supplementary Fig. 4). However, the decline in greenness in Seri was slower than the decline in Babax resulting in only marginally lower Stg for Seri. When modelling each mapping line separately, the 169 genotypes were observed to fit one of three types of curves best (Fig. 5). In the I13 environment, higher variation for type of curve was observed, given that the proportion of genotypes that fitted better to a linear curve (55 %) was close to the proportion of genotypes that fitted better to a parabolic curve (45 %). But when the heat stress was lower the diversity was reduced. In H05, 96 % of the population fitted a parabola best (curve type 2 and 3) and only 4 % fitted a linear model (curve type 1); while in M10 all the genotypes fitted a parabolic (curve type 2) curve best (data not shown). To investigate relation between trait performance and NDVIg curve types, a subset of 53 genotypes with restricted range of phenology (average difference in heading date between groups was restricted to 1 day) was selected from the I13 environment in order to balance the number of genotypes included on each group. This environment was chosen because it exhibited a larger diversity for type of curve compared to M10 and H05. In an ANOVA, curve type was significantly related to yield (Table 4). Significant differences were found between genotype groups with different curve types, for yield, yield components and physiological traits (Table 4). The curve type with largest StgAUC, curve type 2, was associated with higher yield, KN, TGW, NDVIg, GFR and GFD. Significant differences were also detected for phenology and plant height, even though differences in heading time between groups were restricted.The QTL mapping analysis was performed for 19 traits by single and by combined environments resulting in a total of 98 analyses (Trait × Environment combinations). A total of 193 QTL were identified with LOD > 2. Of these, 44 QTL were linked to Stg and staygreen associated traits, 37 QTL were associated with yield and yield components and the rest were related to other physiological parameters and phenology. Average LOD scores for all QTL associated with Stg and related traits, yield and yield components and with physiological traits were 3.5, 4.1 and 4.0, respectively. Across all QTL, for all traits and environments, the highest LOD score and the maximum phenotypic variance explained was 18.4 and 36.4 %, respectively, which was for a QTL on 1B for NDVIv. Additionally, 13 linkage groups contained two QTL located >30 cM apart for the same trait. A summary of results is presented as a matrix in Table 5. More detail about QTL with LOD > 3.5 is presented on Table 6; this table shows the related marker(s), maximum variances, size of effects as well as the increasing allele for each QTL. Except for H05, the maximum variances explained in all environments were found for QTL related to traits other than yield.QTL for Stg were located on chromosomes 2A, 4B, 4D, 6A and 7D. The largest phenotypic variance (15 %) was for a locus on 7D. This was also the most repeatable Stg QTL detected (two of three environments plus the combined analysis). Stg related traits such as RS, StgAUC, TotalAUC and Gdecay gave 9, 8, 11 and 11 QTL, respectively. The 4B and 7D loci seemed to be the main genomic regions controlling Stg related traits, given that those QTL were identified for multiple environments and traits (Table 5). A QTL on 1B explained around 10 % of the phenotypic variance for both RS and Gdecay. On 2B a QTL was detected for RS, TotalAUC, StgAUC and also for Gdecay where the greatest variance explained was about 10 % (for Gdecay). Most of the QTL for StgAUC and TotalAUC had LOD values greater than 3.5. QTL on 5B explained 11.3 % of the variance for TotalAUC and 7.3 % of variance for StgAUC (Table 6). For StgAUC the maximum phenotypic variance, 10.5 %, was explained by a QTL on 2A (Table 5). Considering all the environments, alleles from both parents contributed equally to Stg across the genome (Table 6).A number of QTL associated with agronomic and physiological traits were found co-located (linked to markers <30 cM) with QTL for Stg and staygreen related traits (Table 5). Figure 6 shows a Venn diagram summarizing these genetic overlaps. The 1B, 3B, 4A, 4B and 6B genomic regions appeared to be the most important ones controlling yield and yield components based on repeatability and significance (Table 5). Yield QTL co-located with QTL for Stg and staygreen related traits on 1B, 2A, 2B, 3B, 4A, 4B, 5A, 5B, 6B and 7A, and the QTL on 1B, explained the greatest variances for yield (linked to markers at 61.71-65.36 cM), KN (60.73-66.35 cM) and GFR (61.81-66.35 cM) (Table 6). This yield QTL on 1B appeared in three of five environments plus in the combined analysis, and was also found at or near QTL for RS, TotalAUC and Gdecay. The strongest effects for yield (16.5 g/m 2 ) were found on 1B and 4A. For TGW, a QTL on 1A explained close to 12 % of variance and had an additive effect of almost 1 g in the M10 and I06 environments. QTL for StgAUC and TotalAUC were also found on chromosome 1A but >30 cM distant from the QTL for TGW. In total, 28 QTL were identified for NDVI, 12 for NDVIv and 16 for NDVIg; most of these QTL showed LOD > 3.5. On 1B, a major QTL for early ground cover, defined by NDVIv, was found in the same  region as QTL for RS, TotalAUC and Gdecay; for all the traits the QTL were linked to markers found between 59.7 and 64.2 cM (Table 6), indicating co-location. This NDVIv QTL on 1B explained more than 36 % of phenotypic variance for the trait. On the other hand the maximum variance for NDVIg (12 %) was explained by a QTL on 7D (linked to one marker on 2.73 cM) which co-located with QTL for Stg, RS and Gdecay (linked to markers at 2.73-11.1 cM).On chromosomes 1B, 2B and 3B, there was co-location of chlorophyll content QTL (LOD > 3.5), defined by Chlv and Chlg, with Stg QTL related traits; in these three regions the Sgt and Chl QTL were associated with closely linked markers (at ~60, 40 and 113 cM for 1B, 2B and 3B, respectively). Almost 12 % of variance for Chlv was explained by a QTL on 6A, while a QTL on 3B explained about 14 % of the variance for Chlg. Eight QTL were detected for CTv and eight for CTg. Average LOD scores for all QTL related to canopy temperature was 4.2. For CTg the maximum variance was 15 %, explained by a QTL on 7D (at 2.73 cM), which was co-located with a number of QTL for Stg and related traits (at 2.73-11.1 cM). Additionally, the 4A region showed two regions affecting both CTg and yield, the first being located close to 13 cM and the other at around the 111 cM. The maximum variance explained for CTv was for loci on 1B and 4A, each explaining 17 % of the variance. Opposite to the 1B QTL, the QTL on 4A was repeatedly detected for CTv and CTg and in all environments, excepted in H11. The two CTv QTL on 1B and 4A co-located with QTL for yield showing the strongest effects for the trait, but did not co-locate with Stg QTL. The QTL detected for CTv at ~61 cM on 1B also controlled RS. The QTL for CTv and CTg on chromosome 4A co-located with QTL for RS, StgAUC and Tota-lAUC; only the QTL for RS seems to be different, given the large distances between QTL; The CTv and CTg QTL were found at 13-15 cM while the QTL for RS was located at 72 cM. QTL for Gdecay coincided with QTL for CTv and CTg on 1B, 2B, 3B, 4A and 7D, and in all cases the linked markers were closely located, indicating that it was the same QTL. Plant height was mainly controlled by loci on 3A, 4B and 5B. The strongest QTL for plant height was found on 3A, explained about 8 % of phenotypic variance for the trait and had an additive effect of 1.3 cm. This QTL on 3A was not co-located with any QTL for Stg or related traits of LOD > 3.5, or for yield or yield components. However the height QTL on 4B and 5B co-located with QTL for Stg, TotalAUC, StgAUC, Gdecay, yield, TGW and KN.Plant phenology QTL (date of heading and maturity) were positioned across the Seri/Babax genome but with small individual effects (<1.5 days, see Table 6). A QTL on 7D explained the highest variances for both heading and maturity. Based on repeatability and significance it seems that plant phenology was mainly controlled by the 2B, 5D and 7D genomic regions. The consistent QTL (LOD > 3.5) on 2B, 4A and 7D co-located with consistent QTL for Stg and all related traits. QTL for all these traits were found linked to markers at 26.8-40.9 cM on 2B, at 12.92-23.65 cM on 4A and on 2.73-11.7 cM on 7D. The phenology QTL on 5D did not co-locate with any QTL for Stg or related traits. Considering all the environments, alleles from both parents contributed equally to Stg across the genome (Table 6). QTL for Stg, StgAUC and TotalAUC mostly had Babax contributing the increasing allele i.e., these alleles favoured higher areas under the NDVI curve during the whole crop cycle (TotalAUC) and also during the greenness decay phase (StgAUC). Regarding yield, TGW and KN these traits were increased by alleles from both parents across the genome; however, Babax alleles tended to contribute the highest positive effects at loci explaining the maximum variances. Similarly, both parents contributed to increases in NDVI during both the vegetative and the grainfilling stages, depending on the locus. On the other hand, increases in canopy temperature were largely contributed by Seri alleles.Understanding the staygreen mechanism in the Seri/ Babax population-association with yield and plant performanceThe staygreen phenotype has been associated with improved performance of several species under heat stress (Reynolds et al. 2000;Kumari et al. 2013) and in the current study there was a positive and significant association of Stg with yield and yield components (Table 3). However in order to properly exploit the potential of the staygreen trait, a clearer understanding of the underlying mechanisms for the staygreen phenotype in the context of the cumulative effect of traits contributing to yield maintenance in stressed environments is needed. The current study found Stg to be positively associated with high yield, TGW, GFD, KN, and low CT. While heat stress conditions can reduce the grain number due to seed abortion or reduced grain set (Hays et al. 2007;Tashiro and Wardlaw 1990) crop productivity is also related to longer grainfilling periods and faster grainfilling rates, so it is expected that under heat stress, staygreen traits and green tissue area contribute to heavier grains (Kumari et al. 2013). Canopy temperature depression has also been found to be positively and strongly correlated with staygreen traits suggesting a possible link with root development patterns in bread wheat (Christopher et al. 2008;Kumari et al. 2013), as found in sorghum staygreen genotypes (Borrell et al. 2014a). Herein, the canopy temperature during the vegetative stage (CTv) was also found to be associated with RS and with NDVIv (Supplementary Table 1) further supporting the hypothesis that the RS staygreen attribute in wheat is primarily a consequence of the initial amount of greenness (total biomass    1A   For each QTL all linked markers with LOD > 3.5 are listed. Only the environment where the maximum variance explained was detected for a given QTL is indicated together with its corresponding effect and allele contributing to increase the trait. For QTL with more than one listed marker the first is the marker related to the maximum R 2 Chromosomes with two QTL for the same trait since distances between associated markers was >30 cM and chlorophyll) potentially available for filling the grains. This was supported by the fact that genotypes with cooler CTv tended to have higher initial greenness and biomass (NDVIv) and faster rates of senescence during grain filling. NDVI is an integrative measure of chlorophyll and total plant biomass, confirmed by a significant positive correlation between NDVIg and Chlg and height (Supplementary Table 1). The absolute rate of senescence (RS) was positively correlated with yield in the Seri/Babax population (Table 3), showing that genotypes with higher yields tended to lose chlorophyll faster. Higher absolute RS was also observed in genotypes with higher NDVIv, StgAUC and TotalAUC (Supplementary Table 1) showing that despite higher rates of NDVI decay during grain filling in these genotypes, the total amount of initial NDVIg was higher allowing for higher amounts of photosynthesis per unit degree day to fill grains. Interestingly, higher RS did not result in a faster arrival to maturity (associations of RS with days to maturity were not significant). This suggests that among the Seri/Babax progeny, genotypes with a staygreen phenotype were characterized by a high initial greenness, high StgAUC and TotalAUC and high RS, while attaining maturity within a similar timeframe, compared to non staygreen genotypes. In most species studied so far, a very conservative response has been observed for the staygreen phenotype with low RS and delayed onset of senescence (Thomas and Ougham 2014). However, the wheat Seri/Babax population grown in warm and irrigated environments showed a pattern of staygreen where higher initial greenness is lost at a higher rate without really accelerating time to maturity (Supplementary Table 1, NDVIv and Maturity, r P = 0.13, p = 0.089). Nonetheless, analysis across all environments showed low heritability for Stg especially for RS, similarly to results reported by Lopes and Reynolds (2012) in one staygreen study performed in the same population. Moderate and high heritability was found for physiological and agronomic traits (Table 2).Interpretation of staygreen would be most straightforward when dynamic traits fit a linear model. However during the grainfilling phase plant greenness decay patterns sometimes fitted non-linear models best. Non-linear regression curves have been previously used to describe the percent of greenness retained during grainfilling (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010). Additionally, a number of genotypes from the Seri/Babax population were found to fit best a parabolic model in the M10, H05 and I13 environments. Parabolic curves were observed in two of the 3 years in which the Stg attribute was analyzed. Interestingly, the tendency to follow a particular pattern was related to heat stress intensity. Furthermore, the same genotype could fit different curves, depending of the environment, suggesting high G × E for staygreen traits, as reported in previous studies (Bogard et al. 2011;Kumar et al. 2010). According to our modelling results the best time to screen staygreen parameters under heat-stressed, irrigated environments is around mid grainfilling (1200-1550 dae), given that in this period was observed highest resolution in the greenness canopy dynamics between genotypes (Fig. 4, 5). The latter was supported by co-location of QTL for yield and performance traits with QTL for Gdecay; this parameter estimates the percentage of greenness lost (from the maximum) at mid grainfilling and Table 5 showed that the main region controlling Gdecay, RS, yield, KN and GFR was 1B; several additional regions of minor effect were also found in common between these traits. Notwithstanding, for a completer understanding of the canopy dynamics it is suggested to start NDVI recordings when the maximum is reached (in these study it was around the about 750 degree-days) and extend the measurements after physiological maturity. The largest genetic diversity for type of curve was observed in the I13 environment which experienced the highest temperatures; in this environment linear and non-linear models applied to an almost equal proportion of genotypes. Lower diversity for the type of curve was observed in the H05 environment in which heat stress was moderate and in which only 4 % of the population fitted a linear model (curve type 1). In M10, which was the least heat stressed environment, the whole population fitted a non-linear model best (data not shown).A curve type 2 (see Fig. 5) during the decay phase resulted in larger area under the greenness curve (StgAUC) which would have allowed more photosynthesis, thus explaining the association of this curve type with higher grain yields (Table 4) (Kumari et al. 2013). By contrast, the lower StgAUC observed for curve type 3 resulted in lower photosynthetic area and genotypes with reduced grain number (KN) (Table 4). The classification of staygreen into four functional types is highly descriptive but in reality it is quite hard to classify a genotype into one or another group because the staygreen phenotype often results from a combination of two or more types (Thomas and Howarth 2000). Additionally, it is important to take into account that the Stg and RS traits by themselves cannot completely describe the staygreen attribute given the high relevance of the initial greenness value, as observed in the current study.Heat tolerance is a complex trait influenced by different component traits. Increasing temperatures accelerate plant development and decrease the length and amount of green biomass (through decreased organ size and plant height).The main chromosome regions controlling staygreen related traits in this wheat population were generally colocated with regions controlling agronomic and physiological attributes. Different staygreen traits were calculated and QTL mapped, including the residual greenness at maturity (Stg), the rate of senescence (RS), the green area under the curve (StgAUC) and the percentage of greenness lost at mid grainfilling (Gdecay)-all estimated from NDVI decay curves. The maximum phenotypic variance for any staygreen related QTL was detected on chromosome 7D associated with Stg; this locus has been previously described as associated with permanence of greenness under high temperatures (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010;Kumar et al. 2010).In the current study, this Stg QTL on 7D co-located with a QTL for NDVIg, CTg (Table 5) and days to heading. Kumari et al. (2013) reported that staygreen in bread wheat was associated with high canopy temperature depression (CTD) such that the warmer plants tended to be non staygreen. There is evidence in sorghum that staygreen genes overlap with root architecture genes (Mace et al. 2012), for example, QTL for root nodal angle have been found to be co-located with Stg QTL including the Stg4 QTL associated with biomass partitioning between root and shoot (Borrell et al. 2014b). In the present study, the 7D region also controlled Gdecay and StgAUC as well as CTg, with the Seri allele being positive. Gdecay and CTg were positively correlated in the Seri/Babax population indicating that cooler genotypes tended to lose a smaller percentage of greenness in the first half of the grainfilling period. Gdecay and CTg controlled by the QTL on 7D seemed to be affected by plant phenology (Lopes et al. 2013) given the co-location of a main QTL for heading and maturity here (Table 5), but there was no effect of phenology in the 4A region where a consistent QTL was identified for Gdecay and CTg. The highest phenotypic variability explained for Gdecay (11.1 %) and RS (10.6 %) was detected on the 1B chromosome. Chromosome 1B has been reported to control a number of performance traits. Yang et al. (2002) found a QTL for grain filling duration on the short arm of chromosomes 1B which co-located with a number of QTL for Stg related traits from this study. Moreover, this QTL on chromosome 1B was co-located with yield, Chlg, NDVIv, CTv, Gdecay and KN. The 1B region also has been associated with SPAD chlorophyll content (Talukder et al. 2014) and Pinto et al. (2010) reported several QTL on 1B for canopy temperature, yield, and chlorophyll content at the grain filling stage in the Seri/Babax population. Common QTL for Stg related traits, yield, yield components and physiological characters indicate a common genetic basis for these attributes. The strongest QTL for yield detected in the current study was found on chromosome 1B and interestingly, it co-located with a QTL for green leaf duration detected in a previous study of spring wheat grown under heat stress in greenhouse experiments (Naruoka et al. 2012). The calculation and mapping of diverse staygreen associated parameters across the crop cycle allowed to determine if these parameters are under independent genetic controls in the Seri/Babax population. Our study showed that the strongest regions controlling StAUC and TotalAUC are different from those with largest effects for Stg, Gdecay and RS which suggest independent genetic controls for these traits. However, co-location of QTL for these parameters were also identified across the wheat genome which indicate minor overlapping of genes. In conjunction it seems that the mapping of diverse parameters associated to the staygreen attribute contribute with additional and valuable information that could be lost if the investigation is limited to the staygreen (Stg) study per se. For example, the 1B region was found to contain main genetic controls for yield and other agronomic traits and QTL for RS, TotalAUC and StgAUC were identified on 1B but not for Stg (Table 5).In agreement with our results (Table 5), Naruoka et al. (2012) found that the 4A and 3B chromosomes controlled green leaf duration in spring wheat grown under heat and also drought stress; in the Seri/Babax population the 4A and 3B chromosomes seemed to contain genes driving StgAUC, RS and Gdecay. These two genomic regions also showed QTL for yield, yield components, NDVI, GFR, chlorophyll content and canopy temperature which coincided with results from Pinto et al. (2010). During leaf senescence the mechanisms that protect the chlorophyll molecule from photodamage fail and result in leaf yellowing (Thomas and Howarth 2000). In some species, the staygreen phenotype can be conferred by genetic deletions of the locus encoding phaeophorbide a oxygenase (PaO), the main regulatory enzyme for chlorophyll catabolism (Vicentini et al. 1995;Roca et al. 2004;Thomas and Howarth 2000). However, the genetic basis of the staygreen phenotype is complex and differs from one species to another. Multiple staygreen genes (SGR) have been identified in several species, but the number of staygreen genes varies between species and homologos genes do not always result in increased greenness persistence. This may be because staygreen genes may also have different functions from one species to another; an example of this is in Arabidopsis where over-expression of the SGR2 gene results in a staygreen phenotype whereas over-expression of the SGR1 gene promotes leaf yellowing (Sakuraba et al. 2015). The physiological and biochemical mechanisms by which the staygreen genes affect chlorophyll degradation are unclear but various studies seem to indicate the involvement of a multi-protein complex containing chlorophyll catabolic enzymes (CCEs), the product of the staygreen gene 1 (SGR1) and light-harvesting complex subunits of photosystem II (LHCII). Apparently, this complex channels phototoxic Chl intermediates during chlorophyll catabolism (Sakuraba et al. 2012).Studies have shown that the staygreen phenotype includes a genetic component affected by the phenological clock of the plant and a second component un-related to plant developmental stage. In the current study consistent QTL for staygreen related traits on 2A, 2D, 5B, 6B and 7A were not co-located with phenology QTL; while consistent QTL for staygreen related traits and consistent QTL for heading and maturity co-located on 2B, 4A, 4D and 7D. In general terms, earliness in the Seri/Babax population was associated with longer GFD. Overlapping genomic regions for plant phenology and staygreen attributes suggest common genes controlling these traits. In Festuca pratensis, staygreen independent from phenology has been reported as a recessive character generated by changes in a gene regulating the pathway of chlorophyll degradation (Vicentini et al. 1995); Lolium and Festuca staygreen mutants show expression of the PaO enzyme but with reduced activity (Vicentini et al. 1995;Roca et al. 2004). However, the underlying mechanism associated with the staygreen character seems to vary (Thomas and Howarth 2000). In soybean for example, staygreen can be the result of a cytoplasmic mutation, CytG, which makes the chlorophyll b structure more stable (Guiamét et al. 1991). The staygreen of these mutants may be classified as Type C or cosmetic staygreen (Sakuraba et al. 2015;Thomas and Howarth 2000) which is characterized by the permanence of the greenness, but with unaffected loss of photosynthetic function. Mutant lines have also been used to study staygreen in rice (Cha et al. 2002), wheat (Spano et al. 2003;Thomas et al. 2002;Rampino et al. 2006;Tian et al. 2012), Arabidopsis (Grbic and Bleecker 1995) and Festuca (Hauck et al. 1997). However, if the genetic lesion resulting in plant greenness persistence is also associated with improved plant performance, the staygreen is classified as functional staygreen. An example of functional staygreen is in sorghum where some genotypes remain green and give higher grain weights than the non staygreen genotypes (Duncan et al. 1981;Borrell et al. 2000). In the Seri/Babax population functional staygreen may be controlled by chromosomes where common QTL for Stg, yield and yield components were detected, such as 4B. On the contrary, the staygreen phenotype was unlinked to yield improvement on chromosome 7D suggesting that the locus controlled the cosmetic persistence of greenness.The staygreen character is a complex trait; its expression is environment dependent suggesting high G × E interaction (Christopher et al. 2008;Bogard et al. 2011). For example, in sorghum the staygreen attribute is only observed under drought conditions (van Oosterom et al. 1996). In the current study, it was observed that the greenness decay pattern of particular genotypes varied with the growth conditions, resulting in different types of fitted curves (Fig. 5) when grown under moderate, hot or intense heat stress.Results from this study showed the staygreen attribute to be positively and significantly associated with yield and yield components in bread wheat grown under heat-stressed, irrigated conditions. The NDVI decay trend during grainfilling showed genotypic differences within the Seri/Babax population, and that the type of curve followed during greenness decay was strongly associated with general plant performance parameters. However, the type-curve for greenness decay is highly environment dependent. The association of the Stg character, the rate of senescence and all staygreen related traits with stress tolerance is supported by results showing that the same genomic regions have an effect on yield, grain weight, kernel number, canopy temperature, NDVI and also the length and rate of grainfilling. The staygreen character is clearly complex genetically with environmental influences that require further exploration.Author contribution statement R Suzuky Pinto conducted field experiments, performed data analysis and led the write-up; Marta S. Lopes conducted field experiments, performed data analysis and provided useful advice for data interpretation; Nicholas C. Collins contributed to data interpretation and preparation of the manuscript; Matthew P. Reynolds designed the experiments and participated in 1 3 all aspects of data analysis, interpretation and writing of the manuscript.","tokenCount":"7414"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"860a8650360310ff044606d58b2974bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e9ca2662-1f22-4123-88fa-99bf82b6e14c/retrieve","id":"-1249953102"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"edbf0327-8066-400b-9b11-1a4660474a6b","pagecount":"16","content":"-Đảm bảo chất lượng: rõ nguồn gốc, được kiểm tra.-Tránh nhiễm: phân, hóa chất, thuốc bảo vệ thực vật, thuốc chữa bệnh.-Thức ăn không chứa mầm bệnh: nấu chín thức ăn.-   The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agrifood systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world.This presentation is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence.The program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system livestock.cgiar.orgMore meat milk and eggs by and for the poor","tokenCount":"105"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f8800b72cbfb23234a0985455d84279e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/807cf61f-da93-496d-8f9b-6ef7c4e3f491/retrieve","id":"1197141420"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e8f134c9-eba6-4f08-919f-b1b94254981c","pagecount":"64","content":"This report synthesizes findings from the CPWF project number 71 titled \"Commune Agroecosystem Analysis to Support Decision Making for Water Allocation for Fisheries and Agriculture in the Tonle Sap Wetland System.\"A broad group of contributors and a wide range of institutions in Cambodia and international partners were involved in various aspects of CPWF PN71. The important contributions from all of the following institutions are greatly appreciated.under this project and whose contribution played a critical role in achieving positive project outcomes. Finally, a big thank you to Sophie Nguyen-Khoa of the Challenge Program on Water and Food who was instrumental in designing PN71 and was its first project leader and for her continuing advice, support and encouragement during the entire project period.Funding support for this project was obtained from the European Commission (EC) and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).This document has been produced with the financial assistance of IFAD and the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of IFAD and the European Union.The Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) contributes to efforts of the international community to ensure global diversions of water to agriculture are maintained at the level of the year 2000. It is a multi-institutional research initiative that aims to increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production. Through its broad partnerships, it conducts research that leads to impact on the poor and to policy change.The CPWF conducts action-oriented research in nine river basins in Africa, Asia and Latin America, focusing on crop water productivity, fisheries and aquatic ecosystems, community arrangements for sharing water, integrated river basin management, and institutions and policies for successful implementation of developments in the water-food-environment nexus.The Project on Commune Agroecosystem Analysis to Support Decision Making for Water Allocation for Fisheries and Agriculture in the Tonle Sap Wetland System was undertaken with the aim of improving fisheries considerations in the Commune Agroecosystem Analysis (CAEA) process undertaken in Cambodia, to facilitate better planning at the commune level. Under this project a number of changes were made to the CAEA tools and process and pilot tested in an adaptive, iterative manner in four communes -two that had conducted a CAEA previously and two that had not. Results and analyses indicated that the project had significantly strengthened the manner in which livelihoods, water resources and fisheries are now addressed by CAEA. The revised CAEA guidance manual has also shown potential for having wider uptake, and a number of tools have been used by several other projects within Cambodia.Each report in the CPWF Project Report series is reviewed by an independent research supervisor and the CPWF Secretariat, under the oversight of the Associate Director. The views expressed in these reports are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official views of the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment. Before taking any action based on the information in this publication, readers are advised to seek expert professional, scientific and technical advice.Senaratna Sellamuttu, S., Mith, S., Hoanh, C.T., Johnston, R., Baran, E., Dubois, M., Soeun, M., Craig, I., Nam, S., and L. Smith. 2010. Commune agroecosystem analysis to support decision making for water allocation for fisheries and agriculture in the Tonle Sap wetland system. CPWF Project Report Series. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Challenge Program for Water and Food, 63 pp.CAEA is a participatory approach that enables local communities to improve decision making at the commune level. The CAEA approach was initiated in Cambodia in 2001, but until 2008 it focused mainly on agricultural issues, while the fisheries sector closely interlinked to agriculture in Cambodia had not been adequately addressed. In this regard, the Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) Project Number 71 titled \"Commune Agroecosystem Analysis to Support Decision Making for Water Allocation for Fisheries and Agriculture in the Tonle Sap Wetland System\" was conducted between 2008 and 2010. This project aimed to improve fisheries considerations in the CAEA process that would facilitate better planning at the commune level in addition to identifying institutional and policy considerations.• A good example of a demand-driven piece of research that has had a high degree of success. The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Cambodia (MAFF) recognized the need to strengthen the fisheries aspects of CAEA and requested for assistance to improve this component through this research project.• Successful incorporation of fisheries parameters in relation to fisheries biology, water resources and livelihoods into the CAEA process. The results and analyses have clearly shown that CPWF PN71 has significantly strengthened the manner in which these aspects are now addressed by CAEA, compared to a previous narrower focus solely on agricultural production systems.• Since 2004 the use of CAEA has been officially adopted as a national policy for agricultural development, with the DAE of the MAFF as the executing agency. In this regard, the revised CAEA methodology (incorporating fisheries aspects) under PN71 is to be institutionalized by MAFF and used in future CAEA assessments in Cambodia and, therefore, there has been direct influence at the policy level through the project.• The revised CAEA guidance manual has also shown potential for having wider uptake and a number of tools have been used by several other projects within Cambodia as well as in Lao PDR.Cambodia is the fourth largest producer of freshwater fish in the world (Keskinen 2003) with an estimated total catch of approximately 400,000 tons per year (t/yr) (Van Zalinge and Nao 1999). Fish and fish products are therefore considered an important source of nutrition, livelihood and income for the entire country, especially in the rural areas (Ahmed et al. 1998in Keskinen 2003).In the Tonle Sap area particularly, fishing-related activities play a very important role. In villages close to the lake border, fishing naturally forms the major livelihood activity of many people. However, even in the floodplain in areas not adjoining permanent water bodies or small rivers or streams, fisheries often play a critical role in terms of subsistence. For instance, during the flooding or wet season, fishing takes place in flooded forest areas and rice fields (Keskinen 2003). Moreover, it appears that in the dry season, people from many communes migrate to the floodplain area from their villages and engage in fishing. Rice cultivation alone is inadequate to obtain income for daily subsistence, especially during certain times of the year and, therefore, farmers have diversified their livelihood activities and engage in fishing. Thus fisheries and farming systems are closely interlinked in Cambodia and the preservation and enhancement of both systems, and the contributions that these can make to the livelihoods of the poor require a comprehensive and integrated approach.Agroecosystems Analysis (AEA) is a methodology for the analysis of agricultural livelihood systems and for planning and prioritizing research and development activities.It was developed in the late 1970s and has since been used for research and extension planning in a range of locations and environments. In Cambodia, the AEA at the commune level was initiated in 2001, and in 2004 this approach was officially adopted as a national policy for agricultural development, with the DAE of the MAFF as the executing agency. Commune Agroecosystems Analysis (CAEA) is used by the DAE for agroecological analyses at the commune level and is the primary needs-assessment and planning tool for the agriculture sector. By mid-2010 a CAEA had been conducted at least once in over 500 of the 1,621 communes nationwide.CAEA uses multidisciplinary investigation and participatory analysis to understand and describe the major farming systems practiced in each commune, and to identify and prioritize the most important problems facing the farmers. Further, systems analysis is then conducted to plan interventions to address problems and opportunities identified.In the original CAEA there was however a clear demand for the fisheries component to be improved. In this regard, the Challenge Program for Water and Food (CPWF) Project Number 71 titled \"Commune Agroecosystem Analysis to Support Decision Making for Water Allocation for Fisheries and Agriculture in the Tonle Sap Wetland System\" was conducted. The main aim of the project was to improve fisheries considerations in the CAEA process that would facilitate better planning at the commune level in addition to identifying institutional and policy considerations. This included not only the biophysical aspects of fisheries but also the socioeconomic, livelihoods and governance aspects as well to ensure a holistic view of the main issues that need to be taken on board.As a result of PN71, a number of changes to the CAEA tools were made and subsequently field-tested in the four pilot CAEA exercises (in two communes that had an earlier CAEA report and two communes that had not). Changes were of two main types: First, entirely new tools were introduced to address important water resource, fishery and livelihood issues not covered by the original CAEA tools. Second, existing tools were modified to better address key issues in a more complete or comprehensive manner. At the end of the testing phase, an assessment was made of each individual tool to gauge its effectiveness and the benefits it provided compared to the original CAEA procedures.It is clear from the project results and analyses that the CPWF PN71 has significantly improved the way fisheries, water resources and livelihoods are now addressed by CAEA.When comparing the new CAEA outputs and previous CAEAs conducted in the two control communes it is apparent that the revised CAEAs exhibit an emerging recognition of the importance of awareness-raising and capacity development at the community level as compared to the previous narrower focus solely on agricultural production systems.Moreover, the continued application of the PN71 outputs such as the revised CAEA guidance manual beyond the life span of the project ensures the increased impact of PN71. For example, the DAE plans to use the revised version of the CAEA Manual (incorporating fisheries aspects) in future CAEA assessments in Cambodia. In addition, a number of revised CAEA tools have been used by several other projects within Cambodia thus showing its potential for wider uptake and representing an opportunity to introduce effective changes throughout the country. There is also the potential for CAEA to be adopted in neighboring countries (such as Lao PDR) -for example in the Agro-Biodiversity Initiative (TABI) in Lao PDR. TABI is a long-term commitment by the Government of Lao PDR and the Swiss Development Corporation (SDC).In the economy of most Mekong Basin countries, agriculture is the dominant sector. However, the majority of the rural population also depends on the river and associated floodplain wetlands directly for food and livelihood purposes. In Cambodia, for instance, freshwater capture fisheries ranks fourth in the world in terms of estimated total catch (approximately 400,000 t/yr) and these fisheries account for 31% of the GDP contribution of the primary sector of the economy. These fisheries are vulnerable to long-term ecohydrological modification of critical habitats arising from agricultural and water management practices. However, some of these practices can also support fisheries or increase overall system productivity. For this to happen, the consideration of fisheries in decision-making processes related to developmental investments and activities is crucial. While national strategic plans and policy statements, including the most recent Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), acknowledge and give weight to fisheries, fisheries aspects of agroecosystem analysis are relatively limited and data on these aspects are lacking. Overall, the political ecology of current decision making is heavily skewed towards the agronomic perspective.The preservation and enhancement of both fisheries and farming systems, and the contributions that these can make to the livelihoods of the poor require a comprehensive and integrated approach. A clear threat to fisheries arises from the intensification and expansion of irrigated farming as well as from other infrastructural development on existing fisheries. Despite this recognized threat, planning and development often lack adequate assessment of the environmental and socioeconomic implications of agricultural development on fisheries.This neglect is mainly due to a lack of understanding of the interactions between fisheries, agriculture and water management and respective cross-scale linkages. As a result, the inadequate evaluation of fisheries coexisting with both current and emerging farming systems can lead to unsustainable or undesirable use of natural resources, conflicts between farmers and fishers, loss of access to water bodies, missed opportunities to sustain or create employment and enhance livelihoods, and degradation of the ecosystem. A more comprehensive and integrated analysis of biophysical, socioeconomic and governance processes is required to understand and assess the complex and seasonally dynamic interactions between fishing and farming, and aquatic ecosystems.Agroecosystems Analysis (AEA) is a methodology for the analysis of agricultural livelihood systems and for planning and prioritizing research and development activities.It was developed at Chiang Mai University in the late 1970s and has since been used for research and extension planning in a range of locations and environments.In Cambodia, the existing CAEA system that has been adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture since 2001 is commendable in seeking to encompass the issues related to water, land and socioeconomic development while recognizing the potential trade-offs between productivity, equity and sustainability of agroecosystems. CAEA is used by the DAE for agroecological analyses at the commune level and is the primary needsassessment and planning tool for the agriculture sector. CAEA uses multidisciplinary investigation and participatory analysis to understand and describe the major farming systems practiced in each commune, and to identify and prioritize the most important problems that the farmers face. Moreover, the existing data collected were insufficient to encompass the range of variables required to address the combined use of water by fisheries and agriculture and development interactions. As a result, significant uncertainties were creating a bias or impeding effective decision making on the management of water for coexisting agriculture and fisheries systems. CAEA users recognized this weakness and were in agreement that the water and fisheries component be strengthened.In this regard, CPWF Project Number 71 titled \"Water Allocation in the Tonle Sap\" was conducted between 2008 and 2010. This project aimed to improve fisheries considerations in data collection systems and in particular the CAEA process that would facilitate better planning at the commune level, in addition to identifying institutional and policy considerations. As a consequence, the revised CAEA adopted a more holistic approach through incorporation of fisheries variables and also looking at land, water, livelihoods and institutional issues that influence commune development planning.1. Identification of key fisheries variables in the context of fisheries biology, land and water, livelihoods and institutions, to be considered by CAEA through the contributions of an interdisciplinary team of scientists and local stakeholders at community and provincial levels. 2. Testing of the revised CAEA through a comparative analysis of initial versus revised CAEA in selected paired sites (where two sites had earlier CAEA reports and two had not). 3. Finalizing revision of the CAEA and highlighting management and policy implications.A common methodology in terms of the CAEA review, testing and revision is included for land and water resources, fisheries ecology and livelihoods and institutions. Thereafter, the results from these different components can be described separately.The methodology adopted in the PN71 project was based on a three-stage process:• Stage one -screening and scoping • Stage two -field-testing of the revised CAEA tools and methodologies • Stage three -finalizing revision of the CAEA and highlighting management and policy implicationsEach stage included a number of key activities. In stage one (screening and scoping), key variables and existing data collection systems in the context of the CAEA were reviewed and the range of additional fisheries parameters needed to be considered in the CAEA determined. The review was essentially organized into four components -fisheries parameters in the context of (i) land and water resources; (ii) fisheries biology; (iii) livelihood and governance; and (iv) integration across the first three sectors and disciplines.Each component proposed a revision of CAEA from their perspective and analysis, using the knowledge gained through screening activities and literature reviews. The integration of all revised outputs led to the first revision of CAEA to enhance the integration of fisheries in agroecosystem analysis. The revisions essentially recommended incorporation of new variables to CAEA and the adjustment of existing tools and the incorporation of new tools adapted to the existing CAEA structure. Fisheries parameters in the context of fisheries biology, land and water, livelihoods and governance were incorporated into the CAEA process for field-testing, based on what was feasible, given the existing capacity, capabilities and resources -so that the process would not become unmanageable.A stakeholder workshop was held thereafter (in September 2008), to present the first results of the project and recommendations for integrating fisheries in agroecosystem analysis, in particular at the commune level. Workshop outputs further contributed towards refining the CAEA revisions proposed. The workshop participants were mainly government officials from the Departments of Agriculture, Fisheries, Environment and Water resources, a few NGOs, and the project partners and team.In stage two (field-testing of the adapted CAEA), two paired sites (communes) were selected (where two sites had earlier CAEA reports and two had not), for the pilot testing of the revised CAEA. The selection of suitable sites was carried out using the following key criteria:Coverage of a wide range of agroecological zones Significance of fisheries in the commune Pairs of sites 'with vs. without' implementation of CAEA At least one site with significant irrigation development On the basis of the above criteria four communes (in two provinces) were selected (Figure 1): • Chamnar Krom (with CAEA) and Samproch (without CAEA) in Kampong Thom Province • Sna Ansar (with CAEA) and Sya (without CAEA) in Pursat Province Figure 1. Map of the four selected communes.To undertake a comparative analysis of the old and revised methodology, two of the communes selected had an earlier CAEA report and two did not. Both sites where the adapted CAEA was implemented for the first time, were closely comparable and with similar conditions to the communes where an original CAEA was carried out before the methodology revision (Table 1).Table 1. Overview of the agroecological zones in the four communes.Pilot testing in the four communes was carried out between January and October 2009. Each testing cycle per site (commune) took approximately one month -5 days for the CAEA orientation, data collection and preliminary analysis; 3 days for the rapid rural appraisal (RRA), 3 days for systems analysis; and the rest for report writing. After each pilot testing in a commune, the CAEA Manual was revised taking on board the lessons learned during data collection and analysis. While some bigger changes were made during the first two rounds of testing, thereafter it was mainly fine-tuning and further refinements of the methodologies and tools that were used. Revisions and recommendations were made on both the CAEA tools and the process. After the pilot testing was completed in the first two sites, a 2-day 'mini-stakeholder' workshop was held in June 2009. This was used to reflect further on the revisions made in the first two rounds of testing and to discuss and obtain feedback from key stakeholders before proceeding to undertake the field-testing in the third and fourth sites that did not have an earlier CAEA report. Two key aspects were covered in this workshop -a review of the CAEA tools and the CAEA process.To compare original and revised CAEA assessments, the evaluation focused on a number of aspects including ease of use, the variables included in the assessment, and the implications for decision makers. The revision was carried out in the context of the different components, fisheries biology, land and water, livelihoods and governance.The third stage consisted of finalizing revision of the CAEA and highlighting management and policy implications. A final stakeholder workshop was held in March 2010, the main objective being to present and discuss the results from the CAEA field-testing in the four communes and discuss the revised CAEA Manual. The extent of benefits to the commune planning processes through the revised CAEA approach was explored. Steps to improve the institutionalization of the CAEA results in the commune development planning process were also discussed.A number of spatial and temporal tools were applied during the RRA stage of CAEA to gather information on land, water resource and fisheries at the commune level, which are:• Maps and overlays In the old CAEA manual true-to-scale sketch map layers for overlaying of administrative boundaries, land use, soil types, water resources, etc., were used to identify AEA zones.It was based more on diagrams and schemas than on GIS maps. In the revised CAEA Manual a specific checklist is provided with rivers, streams, boeungs (natural ponds or small lakes) and other important water resources (including main fishing grounds, places for fish refuge, feeding and breeding -thus showing much utility for fisheries considerations) and irrigation systems (functioning systems and those in disrepair).The advantages of the revised tool are (i) better identification of key water bodies and infrastructure. For example, both Sna Ansar and Sya are located on the Tonle Sap, and the mapping/overlay tool shows the extent of flooded forest in each commune, which is an area particularly important to fisheries. This is an improvement over the previous CAEA approach, where zones were identified but not clearly mapped; and (ii) this tool is also useful in applying other tools (transect diagrams, etc.).The disadvantage of the revised tool are the need of experts and more information to draw new information types accurately and to scale on sketch maps. Satellite imagery (e.g., Google Earth) could help, as illustrated in an example of Chamnar Krom Commune shown in Figure 2.Figure 2. Example of using satellite imagery for maps and overlays.This is a new tool that did not exist in the old CAEA and was developed during the PN71. It is used to analyze the various uses and characteristics of the water bodies present in the commune. The matrix shows water body type vs. attributes, including accessibility of each type to provide stable, year-round benefits, comparison of productivity levels and identification of reasons for the differences.The advantages of this tool are that i) it provides additional information on water resources and water use for agriculture and fisheries; ii) it provides information on seasonality of water bodies and connectivity between water bodies which were considerations largely absent using the prior tools; (iii) water use conflicts were identified using this tool in both Sna Ansar and Sya, which were not identified with the previous CAEA tools; and (iv) it gives a framework for water resource use analysis.The issues or difficulties in application are that i) it is important to be specific about the characteristics of water body types in different zones (e.g., ponds are permanent in the floodplain, but ephemeral in uplands); and (ii) there is some overlap with the water resource use matrix introduced below (Table 2).Chamnar Krom reservoirs (constructed in 2007) This tool is used to improve understanding about the use of different water sources in the commune at different times of the year and was included in the old 2007 CAEA Manual, but was not applied under this matrix form in the original commune reports. In the revised CAEA Manual a new template is used, with additional parameters on resource characteristics (water quantity, quality, productivity, reliability, equitable access) that are explicitly linked to the WBAAM through water body types (Figure 3).The advantages of this revised tool are that (i) it provides details on multiple uses of water, including fisheries; (ii) it helps in identifying water sources (providing a check on maps and WBAAM); (iii) it includes three categories relevant to fisheries: fishing, aquaculture, and fish productivity rankings and shows which type of water body(ies) is(are) the most important for fisheries in both the wet and dry seasons (i.e., in Sya, the river and natural lake in the dry season vs. only the natural lake in the dry season);(iv) it can also reveal opportunities for fisheries (i.e., canals/reservoirs not being used for fish production); and (v) the template is easy to follow, with questions that are meaningful for the communities.Its shortcomings are that (i) some overlap occurs with WBAAM on reliability, access and quality; and (ii) it requires a degree of prior knowledge to assess/estimate some of the parameters.Water Flow diagrams are used to describe the flow of materials, money, information, labor, etc., between the different zones in the commune. In the old CAEA Manual, a range of visual representations were suggested, with a note that these are \"equally valid, and selection should be made according to the preference and familiarity of the participants.\" Minimal information on fisheries was included in these diagrams.In the revised CAEA Manual, the flow diagram is split into two separate diagrams and color coding is introduced to present the up-down system hierarchy, flows into and out of the commune and zone-to-zone interactions, including fish migration in wet and dry seasons (Figure 4). The advantages of these flow diagrams are that i) they are easier to create with the contribution of participants, and (ii) they constitute a clearer representation of the flow of different products through the interactions among zones.In most cases, land and water issues are not explicitly included in flow diagrams in the current reports, but are represented within other flows (such as inputs, production), since land elements do not \"flow\" (although inputs such as fertilizers do) and as the flow of water is usually obvious, it needs to be included only if there is something unusual (e.g., pumping between areas). Where water quality is an issue, flow of pollutants should be captured.Transect diagrams are used to describe and compare agroecosystems based on a list of physical and socioeconomic parameters. Digital photos can be used to illustrate the ecosystems. Before PN71, this tool included fisheries in both land use and opportunities, but fisheries were only associated with the water resources zone where wild fish were identified as a resource (not in other zones). Several issues and opportunities pertaining to this zone were identified, but other opportunities in other zones were possibly overlooked.In the revised CAEA new variables on water resources, fish and nutrition are included (Table 4), and an iterative process of revision and refinement throughout the CAEA process is proposed.The advantages of the revised CAEA are that i) additional information is provided, so that participants can clearly see the relationships and connectivity from one zone to another across different sectors; (ii) participants can check data provided from other sources; and (iii) CAEA provides an initial analysis of important problems and opportunities. However, a disadvantage of this tool is that its use is time-consuming. In the old CAEA Manual, land management strategies were developed for agroecological zones by using a template of land type, land use, strategy, and technical elements by zone. The strategies were not provided in this form in reports but instead only identification of issues/questions/innovations was mentioned. In the revised CAEA Manual, strategies for management of water and fisheries resources strategies are added separately. The advantages of this revised version are (i) adding an important water dimension to the strategies and (ii) explicit consideration of interactions between land, water and fisheries management. The disadvantage is the complexity in adding strategies for a dynamic resource such as water that is, in many cases, out of the management capacity of the commune. Developing strategies requires \"visioning\" of optimal future use for each zone. There was a perception at commune level that this is difficult and/or risky when based on estimated or incomplete data, limited capacity and limited understanding of land use planning at the commune level. In addition, strategies have not been used widely in developing commune plans, and so are not linked to funding streams and are seen as an academic exercise.However, designing strategies for each zone is a crucial component of CAEA, as it is a way of integrating plans and proposals from all sectors and capturing potential interactions and impacts. It is an important step in thinking beyond the current status to the desired future, and the steps needed to get there. To realize their full value, strategies must be better integrated into the commune planning process.Before PN71, this tool was called a \"commune profile,\" and gave general background information from 1970 to the present. Data were arranged only by data per se in this early version of the tool, and were not grouped under headings (such as fisheries, etc.) After PN71, this tool attempts to provide a much more detailed historical record of agroecosystem characteristics and changes from 1960 to the present (this change was incorporated after the first pilot testing in Sna Ansar). This profile is more organized, and includes explicit information on fisheries, particularly changes in the proportion of fishers in the commune and the abundance of fish over time. While this information is clearly presented in the revised CAEA, it would be of greater use to further summarize the information to make it clearer where, when, and by what degree changes have occurred, rather than exhaustively listing the characteristics of each time period. In this manner, the 2010 CAEA of Sna Ansar serves as a preferable template, as the CAEA historical profile of Sna Ansar (Table 6) is relatively brief and places more emphasis on important changes. Table 6. Partial historical profile of Sna Ansar as pertaining to fisheries, circa 2010 (adapted from Sna Ansar 2010 CAEA). 1970-1975 1975-1979 1979-1990 1990-1993 1993-1998 1998 -2003 2003-2009 Environmen tImpacts begin Large impacts Periods Pre-1979Pre- 1979Pre- -1990Pre- 1990Pre- -1998Pre- 1998Pre- -2009  Before PN71, this tool presented a wide range of data pertaining to commune activities arranged by seasonal occurrence. Data on fisheries, however, were lacking from the original CAEA, as in the 2005 CAEA of Sna Ansar, the seasonal calendar makes no mention of fishing activities. The 2008 CAEA of Chamnar Krom, meanwhile, only includes seasonal prices of fish, again omitting information on seasonal fishing activities.After PN71, this tool has been revised to better summarize the wide variety of activities in the context of when they are performed throughout the year, including fisheries. For example, in the 2010 Chamnar Krom CAEA, this tool identifies the timing and location of seasonal fishing activities. While useful for a summary of seasonal activities, from a fisheries perspective, some of the information here is redundant following the tools already discussed, particularly the Water-Body Attribute Analysis Matrix, which has a \"seasonality\" section that includes the bulk of the information presented for fisheries in the seasonal calendar (Figure 5).Description 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 Climate conditionFishing activities -In commune (lake, rice field, creeks) -Outside commune (lake and stream) Figure 5. Seasonal calendar of fishing activities from Chamnar Krom (adapted from 2010 CAEA) (numbers 1 to 12 and 1 to 6 represent names of months of the year in ascending order).The key results from the CAEA reports in terms of priority issues and actions for land and water management are set out in Table 7 for the northern communes (Chamnar Krom and Samproch) and in Table 8 for the southern communes (Sya and Sna Ansar).Chamnar Krom and Samproch are adjoining communes, and have similar issues and priorities. Samproch includes areas along the Tonle Sap Lake, whereas Chamnar Krom is separated from the lake by the Phat Sanday Commune, and the communities distinguished slightly different AEZs (see Table 7). Priority issues and actions identified varied between the different AEZs as shown in Table 7.In the 2007 report, in Chamnar Krom, the main focus was on issues relating directly to agricultural production (rice cultivation methods, irrigation infrastructure, management of fishing grounds), and strategies were developed for the commune as a whole, not for the different zones. In the 2010 report, using the new CAEA Manual, strategies were differentiated across zones, and there was a stronger emphasis on resource management, as well as on production. The main issues identified were:• Canal rehabilitation to improve irrigation access for wet-and dry-season rice, and dry-season vegetables.• Management of the 21 irrigation reservoirs constructed in 2007, and assessment and management of their impacts on fish and ecology.• Improved on-farm water management, through construction of dykes, leveling of fields and construction and management of community ponds.• Provision of reliable domestic water supplies was identified as the most pressing need in the dry season; options were identified to use existing irrigation canals to supply domestic water, and for multiple use for gardens and livestock.• Protection of flooded forest and grassland areas as fisheries habitats.In Samproch (2010 report) the main focus was on:• Improved access to water for rice, cash crops and animals, through feasibility studies on irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and extension and training on irrigated farming.• Improved water management for recession and dry-season rice through community management of 18 reservoirs constructed in 2007 (including assessment of the impacts of these reservoirs on ecology and fisheries), establishment of a farmer water user group and training in irrigation system operation and management.• Improved on-farm water management, through construction of dikes, leveling of fields, construction and management of community ponds and introduction of water-saving technologies• Lack of domestic water in the dry season was identified as a significant issue, with impacts on health as well as on nutrition, due to constraints on dry-season production from gardens and livestock.• Protection of flooded forest and grassland areas as fisheries habitat.There is an obvious commonality of issues and actions identified across the two communes.Both these recent reports identify a review of the new reservoirs (constructed in both communes in 2007) as a high priority. Concern was expressed regarding construction of reservoirs without consultation, training or impact assessment, and without consideration of issues of landownership and access. High priority is given to both assessing the impacts of disruption in water flow on grasslands and fish and identifying methods to operate the reservoirs to mitigate these impacts.In terms of the fisheries sector, in the reports prepared using the new manual, there is a notable shift in emphasis from catch control (illegal fishing and management of fishing grounds) to inclusion of habitat protection (management of flooded forests and natural ponds). The new reports demonstrate a greater awareness of impacts of land and water use, and the significance of the condition of the resource base for production of both fish and crops (e.g., soil and water pollution). There is also a new focus on community-based conservation groups (flooded forests, wildlife) as well as resource groups (water user group, community fishery group), and active engagement in conservation initiatives such as demonstration sites for habitat management and replanting days for forests. Note: X denotes topics where it was not clear a) which specific units had these issues and b) whether they were relevant for all units.Sna Ansar and Sya communes are close, but not adjacent. Both include areas along the Tonle Sap Lake, but Sna Ansar runs back from the lake further into the uplands, and the community in Sna Ansar has identified mountain and upland zones that are not present in Sya that, however, has distinguished more zones within the lowland terrace and floodplain. Priority issues and actions identified varied between the different AEZs as shown in Table 8.In the report prepared for Sna Ansar in 2005, strategies focused on production methods, and control of fish catch through community fishery and awareness of fisheries law. Strategies were not differentiated across zones. In the 2010 report for Sna Ansar, an additional zone was identified which distinguishes the floodplain from the zone of open water, recognizing the importance of the seasonally wetted zone as a habitat. Strategies and actions were differentiated for the different zones. Priority issues identified included:• A proposal for the a) Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) as part of the Commune Development Plan to establish a Social Land Concession in order to improve access to land for poorer families, discourage land grabbing by powerful interests, and prevent deforestation and b) a preliminary survey to identify available land and land-poor families. • Irrigation improvement, including rehabilitation of existing systems for wet-and dry-season rice and diversified cash cropping, and provision of water for domestic purposes. This includes feasibility studies, field surveys, training and capacity development.• Improved on-farm water management through construction of dikes, leveling, community and farm ponds, and introduction of water saving technologies.• Protection of upland forests, flooded forests and grassland areas as habitats.The report prepared using the new manual has a stronger focus on protection of habitats not only for fisheries, but also for the uplands; conservation zones are proposed in the uplands to protect biodiversity and catchment areas. The newer report demonstrates a greater awareness of a diversity of water sources, with proposals to develop storage in the uplands and groundwater in lowland terraces, as well as improvements to irrigation infrastructure. Water quality and sanitation issues are identified as a priority, with an understanding of the impacts of livestock-raising on water quality and proposals for improved livestock management in the lake zone.In Sya, priority issues identified included:• Improved water access for rice, cash crops and animals through improvement of secondary and tertiary canals from the Charek Reservoir for both wet-and dryseason use.• Improved irrigation management, through extension and training on irrigated farming and sustainable operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation systems, and the establishment of a farmer water user group (based on participatory irrigation management principles).• Improved on-farm water management through construction of dikes, leveling, community and farm ponds, and introduction of water saving technologies.• Provision of reliable domestic water supplies was identified as the most pressing need in the dry season; options were identified to use existing irrigation canals to supply domestic water, and for multiple use for gardens and livestock.• Implementation of integrated water resources management (IWRM) principles to support multiple uses of water (fisheries, irrigation, domestic use, etc.).• Protection of flooded forest and grassland areas.In both communes, the newer reports identified the need for community-based conservation groups (flooded forests, wildlife) as well as resource groups (water user group, community fishery group). Water quality management (sanitation/livestock) 6Note: X denotes topics where it was not clear a) which specific units had these issues and b) whether they were relevant for all units.* Numbers refer to the AEZs for which particular strategies were proposed in the reports, as follows: Common issues emerged from all communes regarding access to irrigation and on-farm water management. Although there were differences of emphasis in the proposed solutions, all communes identified the need for information and training on farming and irrigation techniques, and O&M of irrigation infrastructure. Similarly, all communes identified the need to establish and/or better support farmer water user groups.Provision of reliable domestic water supplies in the dry season was identified as a very high priority in all areas. Suggested solutions included a more integrated approach to water supplies, with multipurpose use of canals and ponds for agriculture, fish and domestic use.All communes recognized the importance of community approaches to land and water management, and proposed the establishment of relevant community management groups (farmer water user groups, conservation groups for flooded forests).The reports prepared using the new CAEA manuals demonstrated a broadening of focus from dominantly production issues (rice aquaculture, livestock) to a combination of both production and natural resources management, and a much greater understanding of the importance of habitat and resource conditions (including water quality) in ensuring production. The newer reports had greater emphasis on water in terms of a greater diversity of water sources, greater awareness of issues of water access and a more integrated approach to multipurpose use of water supplies.With regard to the revised tools, some of the important aspects that have emerged are as follows:• Maps and overlays are important tools for spatial analysis; in particular, the water resources are strongly linked to the availability and development of infrastructure; and they have significant impacts on fisheries. The development of media, Internet, mobile phones, etc., also provides significant information to the communities in identifying the location of their resources.• WBAAM is a new tool to support the Water Resource Use Matrix to provide detailed variations in water resources that are important for agriculture and, in particular, for fisheries and aquaculture. A constraint in using these tools is the dynamics of water that requires more regular updated information on its variations; therefore, these tools should be reapplied more often in combination with other water-related tools such as the land and water management strategies.• Two color flow diagrams for system hierarchy and zone-to-zone are useful tools to show the linkage in production systems and also the sharing of resources and benefits that are strongly influenced by the institutional structure and the culture of the communities. These tools are supported by the transect diagram that presents the interactions of resource uses across agroecological zones and impacts on the new focused products of this CAEA revision, i.e., fish and other aquatic products.• Land and water resources management strategies are identified more explicitly with the revised CAEA Manual. The outputs are more useful information to the community and provincial as well as sectoral development plans. The process of developing the strategies can also be considered as a participatory planning exercise with a bottom-up approach that brings up comments of the communities to the development strategies developed by higher-level managers. On the other hand, during this exercise, the communities also have opportunities to understand and revise the existing strategies.Under the livelihoods analysis, there were six key tools used in the CAEA approach in the RRA stage. These are:• Wealth ranking• Developing livelihood profiles• Gender analysis• Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)• Gross margin analysis• Market and value-chain analysisIn addition, relevant fisheries livelihood variables were incorporated into all the other spatial, temporal and economic analyses and decision-making tools as well.Wealth ranking is a popular tool used in PRA methods. Wealth rankings undertaken by local people can be used to study the variations in the poverty levels within a community. They are useful not only to determine what criteria communities use to measure wealth, and what their definitions and indicators of wealth are, but also to learn about the socioeconomic stratifications that exist within a community (Reitbergen-McCraken and Narayan 1998). Usually, wealth rankings are conducted at the village level to better understand the variations in the wealth status of different households within the village.In the case of the original CAEA, wealth-ranking exercises were conducted at the commune level usually to develop general farming system typologies for each wealth class within the commune that was then used for comparison and analysis. They were used to gain insights into the characteristics, needs and opportunities of each wealth class, particularly of the poor. Wealth analysis helped refine key questions to ensure that they target the poorest as a priority (CAEA 2007). In this case, it is not possible to collect information on individual households in the commune.In the case of the revised CAEA, for the wealth-ranking exercise, the criteria for distinguishing between wealth groups were broadened to include fisheries-related criteria that can help differentiate between different wealth groups, e.g., type of fishing engaged in, different gear owned and used, and relative income obtained from fishing.In addition, the importance of ensuring that the correct participants were engaged in the exercise was emphasized. For instance, it was made clear that respondents should include those engaged in fishing (both men and women), different age groups and, most importantly, representatives from different wealth groups.The advantage of the revised wealth-rankings methodology was that it helped identify fisheries-related issues faced by different wealth groups and helped assess the relative importance of fishing compared to other livelihoods activities.One of the key disadvantages (in both old and new versions) was that there were some difficulties in aggregating wealth-related information at the commune level.This was a new tool developed under PN71 and adopted in testing from the second pilot site onwards. Adapted from the sustainable livelihoods approach, livelihood profiles were developed to provide greater focus and to integrate an assessment of livelihood assets (capital) and key factors that affect livelihood opportunities into the CAEA process.The major income-generating activities within an AE zone provide the focus for this assessment. The tool should be used for each agroecosystem zone individually unless the major livelihood activities are similar across all zones. Usually, up to three major income sources (i.e., livelihood activities) are identified for each agroecosystem. These will often be noted during the identification of agroecosystem zones in the commune during the preliminary analysis (stage 3) of CAEA. They may also be identified based on the findings of the transect walk or wealth ranking.Some activities such as fishing may be found in more than one zone and the assessment for that activity need not be repeated for one commune. But fishing in one zone might be very small-scale, occurring in rice fields and carried out by poor people while fishing in another zone might be in deeper water and require boats and different fishing gear. In this case, the livelihood profile should be completed for each of the two different fishing activities.A table has been designed to fill in each livelihoods profile. The first part of the table identifies who is involved in the activity (record the gender and wealth categories). The second part considers each of the livelihood assets: human, natural, physical, financial and social capital and records the most important of these assets needed for the particular livelihood activity and what may be missing or lacking, either for everyone in the commune or for one or more of the wealth categories.In addition, vulnerability factors are considered. These are aspects that can influence the success of an activity and how much income it generates but are beyond the control of people in the commune. For example, some crops may be more vulnerable to extreme weather or to variation in market prices. Some forms of fishing may be more vulnerable to overfishing by others.Thereafter, key organizations that help an income-generating activity to succeed are noted. This could be a formal organization such as agricultural extension which provides the necessary technical advice, for example, how to control animal diseases. Or it could be an informal village organization which arranges labor-sharing or helps people borrow money to buy inputs.Finally, the laws, rules or customs (institutions) necessary to ensure that the incomegenerating activity is successful and can continue in the long term are recorded.Each row in the table considers whether the issue is the same for all people or whether there are worse problems for women compared to men, or for poor people compared to wealthier people. Any problems identified are noted.Therefore, one of the advantages of the livelihoods profile was that it helped identify problems associated with different livelihoods and key institutions that could help solve the problem.One of the key issues associated with the tool was that the general livelihoods terminology may be unfamiliar to some facilitators who may therefore find difficulties in obtaining the best results from the tool. To address this problem a simple glossary of livelihoods terms was developed and incorporated as an Appendix in the revised CAEA Manual.The Gender Task Analysis tool provides disaggregated information on the proportion of men and women who engage in each livelihood subtask. This provides a better understanding of the different roles played by men and women in the various livelihood activities undertaken in the commune as this will help ensure that the needs of both men and women can be adequately addressed during the formulation of key questions and the designing of solutions and innovation assessments. It will also help in better understanding both the positive and negative impacts potential TIPs could have in the case of gender.In the original CAEA, the Gender Task Analysis simply provided an idea of whether males or females were involved in a particular livelihoods subtask. No information was given on the more detailed labor breakdown. Also more emphasis was placed on agricultural subtasks and less information was gathered on the other livelihood activities in the commune.In the revised CAEA, the specific check list includes a listing of all important livelihood activities in the commune including all fisheries activities, e.g., fishing (for income and consumption), marketing, processing, preparation for cooking, making fishing gear, and so on. Moreover, the role of men and women in each livelihood activity is determined and the labor involvement in terms of gender is quantified as a percentage. The advantage of this is that it gives a clearer picture regarding gender disaggregation in each activity, provides more details in relation to gender-labor breakdown and therefore helps identify target groups for livelihoods training programs that may be linked to innovation assessments and TIPs.The collection of NTFPs is often an important livelihood activity, particularly for poor families. In the context of the CAEA, the term 'NTFPs' has been extended to include aquatic resources found in the flooded forests. It is important to gain an understanding of NTFPs during CAEA because agricultural and other livelihood development activities may impact on their availability. It is also useful to explore possibilities for sustainable harvesting and domestication, especially if the NTFPs are significantly contributing to the livelihood portfolio of poorer families. In the original CAEA there was no disaggregation of collection of NTFPs in terms of gender and no attempt to quantify the decline in NTFPs.In the new version, there is gender disaggregation at the commune level and the decline is quantified as a percentage and reported over the last 5 years. The advantage of this is that presenting the decline in a quantified manner makes it easier to prioritize the key NTFPs that require conservation action or a sustainable use action plan. For example in Sna Ansar, rattan and vine for mat weaving are two important NTFPs from a perspective of livelihoods and these are decreasing significantly. In this case, the possibility of domestication can be explored and also linking to other relevant initiatives, for example, the OPEC FAO project that is working in the floodplains within an area of 100 ha and looking at sustainable use of NTFPs. The gendered differentiation of who is involved in the collection of different NTFPs will help provide a more gender-sensitive targeting approach when undertaking innovation assessments and livelihood programs.Gross margins for major enterprises are developed using information derived from the farmers during the RRA stage. In the original CAEA, gross margins were used to promote a better understanding of local production systems, and to help identify where improvements can be made. With regard to fish and NTFPs, gross margin analyses are generally only conducted for aquaculture or domesticated enterprises in NTFPs, not wild, for capture systems.In the revised CAEA, gross margin analysis is conducted for three enterprises with respect to income including one fisheries enterprise (plus one agriculture-and one livestock-linked). The advantage in terms of fisheries enterprises would be to provide a good idea of the fisheries-related innovations that can be promoted in the commune.One issue facing both old and new versions is the difficulty to get accurate data sometimes (e.g., breakdown of costs, as estimates of most participants are vague).This is a new tool included under the RRA stage of the CAEA process. Value-chain mapping allows for better understanding of market-related problems and opportunities for important livelihood products (crops, livestock, fish, NTFPs, and so on). Value-chain maps show the flow of a product through the marketing chain and help identify where and how value is added to the product by the activities of different actors in the chain.Analysis of completed value-chain maps allows price and market constraints to be identified along with opportunities for enhancing value added by additional or alternative operations by value-chain actors. The advantage of the analysis is that outputs of the value-chain maps can be used to plan market-related interventions (marketing TIPs).One of the issues with the tool is that, for some parts of the chain occurring outside the commune, it is not easy for participants to provide accurate data.With regard to the wealth rankings, in the pilot testing undertaken in the four communes, the results indicated that there were common indicators of wealth that were usually used at the commune level to distinguish between different wealth groups (see Table 9). For example, the major indicators of wealth were landholding size, possession of farming assets, fishing assets and ownership of cattle and pigs. For the poorest wealth category, the lack of land or landlessness was an important indicator of poverty. In terms of fishing, they did not have access to more productive fishing grounds due to not owning fishing boats or appropriate fishing gear. In the first piloting, the participants divided their commune into three broad categories of wealth whereas in the subsequent three pilots, the participants divided each commune into four wealth categories in line with the more realistic scenario in these communes. Livelihood activities appeared to be in general similar in the four communes as they share a similar geographical location in terms of being adjacent to the Tonle Sap Lake.A livelihood profile was developed for the following livelihood activities in the Sya, Chamnar Krom and Samproch communes (Table 10). The tool was not used in Sna Ansar. Need to curb some local practices that contribute to the loss of the fish habitat From the gender task analysis it appears that overall livelihood tasks are fairly equally shared by both men and women, although there is a distinct gender disaggregation in some tasks. For example, in wet-season rice cultivation, while both males and females are equally engaged in sowing the seeds, they focus on different tasks (females soak seeds while males assist in broadcasting them). Providing additional observations during the gender-analysis exercise was therefore useful to distinguish between tasks. On the other hand, certain livelihood activities may be mainly done by males and other activities mainly done by females. These activities showed similarities between the different communes although the exact percentages varied somewhat by commune. For example while fish processing and storage are considered about a 90% female-linked task, in the Sya commune, the corresponding ration in Samproch is 100%. Even if both genders show an equal percentage for a particular livelihoods activity, men and women may be engaged in different tasks, e.g., rice cultivation (wet season), sowing the nursery, both males and females engaged equally (50% each), but involved in different tasks (females soak seeds and males assist in broadcasting them). Providing additional observation was therefore useful to distinguish between tasks.• Mainly male responsibility, e.g., rain-fed rice cultivation (land and dike preparation and water control; transporting Overall, it appeared that in all four communes, NTFPs are important for both subsistence use and as a source of income (usually, after processing; Table 13). Both males and females are involved in collection of NTFPs, and depending on the commune and the specific NTFP being considered there may be only one gender involved in its collection and the other in its processing. Quantifying the decline in NTFPs over the last 5 years is also an important addition to the new version. A number of conclusions can be drawn from the gross margin analyses in Sna Ansar.For example in terms of the following:• Paddy rice production -this activity appears to be more a food security than an income-generation objective. • Pig-raising -opportunity cost for female labor around the house and in the home garden is low and the flexible timing of labor inputs for pig-raising is compatible with the other tasks of women around the house. • Cage culture of catfish -this is seen as a means of \"adding value\" to the lowquality fish species caught in the Tonle Sap rather than an alternative enterprise to wild-capture fishing.In Sya the key outcomes of the gross margin analyses can be summarized as follows:• Floating rice -there does not appear to be much opportunity for value adding. However, on the input side, the high price of labor and machinery may provide an opportunity for producer groups to pool and share resources to maximize efficient use of labor and machinery. • Chicken-raising -there appears to be little opportunity for value adding at the local level. Although higher prices can be obtained in the Pursat Province markets for slaughtered and prepared chicken, the mark-up is only in the order of Riel3,000/kg, and reflects the cost of labor for slaughter and dressing. However, there may be opportunities to target production to coincide with the Chinese New Year in February, when higher prices can be obtained. • In the case of fish, there are value-adding opportunities in the form of processing, namely drying and fermenting (Partook). Here again, higher prices can be obtained in the Pursat market, but any gains are outweighed by the convenience of being able to sell to merchants at the boat-landing sites. There may be opportunities for marketing by group cooperation to bulk the highervalue fish species into sufficient quantities to attract traders for sale to Thailand and thereby benefit from the higher prices received there.In Chamnar Krom the following were the main conclusions:• For wet-season rice, if new technologies are introduced the expected yield could increase to 3.5 t/ha. • Some farmers already obtain yields of over 3.5 t/ha with improved rice varieties, good-quality seed, optimal fertilizer use and better water control. • Fishing, using cylindrical nets: it can be seen that if motorized fishing boats are used then net revenue drops to less than $12/yr However, if rowing boats are used profits can reach about $350/yr, or for a day's work, over $2. This is just a case of using a single fishing gear. In reality, fishers who use motorized fishing boats are better-off as they can access to different fishing grounds where there are more fish and they also use other fishing gears, i.e., fyke net, and enclosure net with lead fences. Once applying the gross margin analysis tool, the team decided to use the cylindrical nets as the example because this gear is common for both poor and better-off fishers as the both type of fishers can afford for the cost. Better bargaining power for negotiating with the middlemen is one possible way of increasing the prices received and subsequently the profit from fishing, as in the case of processing to increase value added.In Samproch:• Rain-fed riceFor wet-season rice, if new technologies are introduced the expected yield could increase to 4.5 t/ha. Some farmers already obtain yields of over 4.5 t/ha with improved rice varieties, good-quality seed, optimal fertilizer use and better water control.• Duck-raising is an important source of cash income for all villagers, including medium and poor families. Net returns are high in duck-raising during 3 months if the extension recommendations are followed along with materials available from MAFF's Department of Agricultural Extension in the form of TIPs.• The maximum price for ducks (Riel12,000/head) coincides with the Chinese New Year in February, and offers an opportunity for adding value. Indeed, many producers already try to maximize production at this time of year. The lowest prices (Riel8,000/kg) are in June and July.• Fishing is also a most important farm enterprise after farming and rice is an important source of cash income for all villagers, including medium and poor families. Fishing appears to be undertaken at a loss due to declining fisheries resources.For each of the communes where pilot testing of the revised CAE was conducted, market and value-chain analyses (Table 15) were conducted for the following livelihood products: • Cage culture fishing: Low-value fish are used as feed for raising higher-value fish species in floating cages in the Tonle Sap Lake. • Rattan mat-weaving: Collection is time-consuming as the wild base is depleted. Domestication of rattan to increase availability and save time; weaving timeconsuming but can be done at times of day or year where opportunity cost of women's labor is low. Formation of mat-making cooperatives/groups in the village to enhance bargaining power to get better prices. Poorer families have difficulties joining due to high membership fee and cost of shared capital.• Poultry (chicken)-raising: The production system is vulnerable to the spread of diseases. A poultry vaccination program is one way to add value while noting that poorer families are engaged in poultry-raising.• Cage culture fishing: Low-value fish are used as feed for raising higher-value fish species in floating cages in the Tonle Sap Lake. • Poultry (chicken)-raising: The production system is vulnerable to the spread of diseases. A poultry vaccination program is one way to add value while noting that poorer families are engaged in poultry-raising. • Paddy cultivation: The prices are low in the commune and the rice mills in the Pursat Province. Prices could be increased when middlemen sell in Phnom Penh, Thailand and Vietnam.• Recession rice: Gross-margin analysis and value-chain mapping exercises show that although yields are high (4 t/ha) margins are very narrow and extremely sensitive to both paddy price and input cost fluctuations, in particular the cost of contract services on which the enterprise is highly dependent. Analysis also showed that there is little or no price premium for high-quality, aromatic rice varieties, thus posing the question as to whether there is an opportunity to develop a niche market for aromatic rice to satisfy the growing domestic demand for a higher-quality product. • In regard to chicken, the maximum price received (Riel15,000/kg) coincides with the Chinese New Year in February, and offers an opportunity for adding value.The diversity of the value chain and the large number of different actors and middlemen mean that competition among traders is strong, keeping farm-gate prices fairly high. However, these characteristics also make the production system vulnerable to the spread of diseases, and losses from certain diseases are extremely high. A poultry vaccination program for these diseases would be one way of adding value to the chicken-raising enterprise. The complexity of the chain and the large number of actors would also make the system extremely vulnerable to the transfer of Avian Influenza to humans if an outbreak were to occur.• The paddy value chain showed that the price of paddy is low, for example, approximately Riel700-800/kg in the commune and Riel1,000/kg in the rice mill. The price could be increased to Riel1,200/kg when middlemen sell in Phnom Penh, Thailand and Vietnam. • Fish (both in rice fields and the Tonle Sap): The revenue from one day's labor from fishing is in the region of Riel20,000 to 30,000. This depends on the capacity of fishing per day and the price in the market. Better bargaining power for negotiating with the middlemen is one possible way of increasing the price received for the fish. Other problems affecting the fish value chain is that many small mesh nets block the watercourses and reservoirs along which fish migrate, and burning the flooded forest for hunting, grazing and other purposes has impacted fish-breeding sites. • In regard to ducks, the diversity of the value chain and the large number of different actors and middlemen mean that competition among traders is strong, keeping farm-gate prices fairly high. However, these same characteristics make the production systems extremely vulnerable to the spread of diseases. A poultry vaccination program for these diseases would be one way of adding value to the duck-raising enterprise.Improved wet-season rice varieties and production technologies to improve rice yields: Agricultural extension services use participatory training and extension (e.g., FFS), on-farm demonstrations, etc. Improved dry-season recession rice varieties to improve rice yields: For appropriate rice varieties to be used in the floodplain, agricultural extension services use participatory training and extension (e.g., FFS), on-farm demonstrations, etc. (but in Sna Ansar, it is reported that the recession rice cultivation has dropped due to irregular changes of the water regime). Cash crops, vegetable diversification: Irrigation improvement, water saving technologies, good-quality seed, post-harvest processing and marketing, appropriate extension methods. Cattle-raising: TIPs developed by DAE and systematic extension programs involving animal husbandry, health and nutrition. Chicken-raising: TIPs developed by DAE can be used for a poultry extension program.Aquaculture.Developing suitable fisheries TIPs. Improving post-harvest processing of fish products. Improving marketing networks and providing better rates for products. Sustainable fisheries management through setting up of fisheries communities and enforcement of fisheries laws and regulations (reducing the use of illegal gear). Protection of all fish habitats such as flooded forests and grassland areas (demarcation of the boundaries of flooded forests, replanting flooded forests, preservation of natural ponds, deep pools (Sna Ansar), etc.• Develop, implement and enforce the sustainable management of the major NTFPs through exploring the possibility of establishing nurseries, planting some key forest products, domesticating some NTFPs and developing sustainable harvesting systems.• Credit (high interest rate of current system): Establish community-managed revolving funds and farmer/fisher organizations (with affordable interest rates). • Market support (poor market linkages, poor-quality ungraded products):Extension workers link farmer/fisher organizations with the traders/market chain, providing business development and management skills in farmer/fisher groups, and communication channels with marketing networks.• With respect to the key questions that emerged in relation to the different livelihood activities undertaken in the commune, key differences noted between the 2008 and 2010 CAEA reports are the following:The 2010 CAEA reports give a more holistic view of all the different livelihood activities (e.g., Chamnar Krom: rice cultivation, cash crops and vegetable cultivation, cattle-raising, fisheries, NTFPs) undertaken in the commune whereas the 2008 CAEA reports a narrower focus on three categories (rice cultivation, cattle-raising and fisheries).Fisheries-related livelihoods are covered in both the 2008 and 2010 reports. The 2008 report focused on aquaculture (fish culture and hatchery). Overall, 2010 focused more on sustainable fisheries management.All AE zones were covered by key questions and 'solutions' for rice cultivation and fisheries.General issues affecting all livelihoods such as credit and marketing networks were covered in 2010 and not in 2008.• With respect to the key questions that emerged in relation to the different livelihood activities undertaken in the commune, key differences noted between 2005 and 2010 CAEA reports are the following:The 2010 CAEA report gives a more holistic view of all the different livelihood activities undertaken in the commune whereas the 2005 report gives a narrower focus. Fisheries-related livelihood activities were covered both in 2005 and 2010 but there was more emphasis in 2010 as the number of questions had increased. Overall, the 2010 report focused more on sustainable fisheries management but it does not mention much about fish culture as the 2005 report does. AE Zone 1 was not covered by overall key livelihood questions and 'solutions' in the 2005 report but in 2010 all AE zones were covered.General issues affecting all livelihoods such as credit and marketing networks were covered in the 2010 report but not in the 2005 report.Both the current research base and national policy in Cambodia clearly favor intensification of irrigated agriculture, typically without adequate consideration of water requirements to sustain fisheries and ecosystems. Through the revised CAEA, a set of suitable tools has been developed while the capacity at the local and national levels has been built to offset this policy bias. In addition, researchers and local officials involved in the revised CAEA process have identified policy implications from the local analyses to share with policy officials at the national level.• Incremental improvements were made within the existing framework.• Needs further capacity-building for effective implementation.The revised version encourages more cross-provincial departmental participation which could ensure the CAEA result would be more acceptable. The revised CAEA not only strengthens cross-departmental cooperation but also encourages better management of water for agriculture and fisheries at the commune level.Integration of the different components of the analyses in relation to land use strategies, water resources, fisheries and livelihoods takes place during the Systems Analysis phase of the CAEA process. Following RRA, the information gained from the use of the tools is organized and prepared for further analysis. Systems analysis proceeds, in plenary session, through a number of steps using the following tools:• SWOT analysis.• Analysis of system properties.• Formulation of key questions.• Innovation assessment.• Problem tree analysis.• Technology Implementation Protocols (TIPs)The SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, allows the assessment team to systematically determine positive and negative influences on production, sustainability, stability and equity. Incorporating the SWAT analysis at this stage in the CAEA process has the advantage of developing a deeper understanding of the technical issues as they relate to land and water, environment and forestry, livelihoods, agriculture, fisheries and law and policy. This is a fairly straightforward and well-understood tool which can be applied easily to a range of contexts. Care needs to be taken in ensuring translated terms, e.g., strengths and opportunities are clearly differentiated in the Khmer language.This tool is designed to support the analysis of attributes having positive or negative effect on the system properties. It follows on directly from the SWOT analysis and employs what is termed a \"force field analysis\" on the four system properties. It provides a systematic approach to evaluating the costs and benefits to different system properties in the agroecosystem by entering the attributes of the different agroecosystem (and their effects, both positive and negative) on the system properties.The tool can help provide a better understanding of the commune, e.g., in terms of whether one agricultural system can be more or less productive, i.e., recession-rice cultivation. If it is more productive whether what they are doing is sustainable or just stable, and whether the rice field is equitably accessible by all wealth groups. This exercise can be a backstop to the scoring of each intervention activity in the Innovation Assessment Table . The analysis also allows for selecting/prioritizing one or more system properties over another.Care needs to be taken to ensure that technical terms are properly understood, and that attributes can be both positive and negative for the same property.Formulating Key Questions Key questions focus on important issues identified by the CAEA. They are generated throughout the CAEA process and tend to become increasingly focused as the analysis proceeds. The questions themselves are used to solve problems by guiding agricultural extension and development activities.The process itself can provide valuable insights into the nature of the problem and the steps necessary to address it. This part of the systems analysis delivers a more nuanced approach to problem identification and solution, and deeper analysis and perspectives on the issue. It helps in identifying what technical components are suitable to be considered appropriate solutions for particular problems. Finally, it also helps identify activities to be carried out in order to solve the problems. This then provides the basis for establishing guidelines and implementation plans.A range of elements for each development intervention are identified, e.g., the identification of the technical components of the proposed program, the extension methods and delivery mechanisms, the extension materials, potential partners, target farmer groups and AEA zones where the proposed technology will be used. Overall, it is quite a lengthy procedure and somewhat complex; however, its iterative and step-wise nature makes it an extremely useful analytical tool.This tool helped in assessing/prioritizing and modifying potential interventions derived from the key questions. It was applied through a matrix table which scored each of the interventions against seven factors (productivity, sustainability,The revised tool is used in the same way, with additional assessment on impact on gender, terrestrial environment, aquatic environment, poverty, compatibility with the Commune Development Plan (CDP), the Commune Land Use Plan (CLUP), the Strategy for Agriculture and Water (SAW) and with government policy. Improved guidance is also now included on how to apply the tool, which in sum, allows for a more holistic approach to assessment; however, it is time-consuming and requires care to ensure that subjectivity is kept to a minimum.This tool attempts to break down individual problems in the commune (identified during the CAEA) into component causes, from which potential solutions may be identified. For example, this tool is used in Chamnar Krom (2010 CAEA). In this commune, problem tree analysis is applied to the problem of poor fish-culture lot technology to break down three fisheries issues into component problems: illegal fishing, lack of technique for fish culture, and lack of fish breeding. From these components, the underlying root causes may be identified, and suggested solutions to these can be supplied in the conclusions of the report.Suggested TIPs are included in the CAEA, and TIPs related to fisheries are mentioned (i.e., TIPs on aquaculture suggested for use by the 2010 CAEA of Chamnar Krom). Inclusion of fisheries TIPs is an improvement in the revised CAEA, as the pre-PN71 CAEA for Chamnar Krom made no mention of TIPs for fisheries issues.As a result of PN71, a number of changes to the CAEA tools were made and subsequently field-tested in the four pilot CAEA exercises. Changes were of two main types. First, entirely new tools were introduced to address important water resources, fishery and livelihood issues not covered by the original CAEA tools. Second, existing tools were modified to better address key issues in a more complete or comprehensive manner.Some of the changes introduced in the early pilot CAEAs were ineffective in meeting their objectives and were dropped, others were modified over the course of the four pilots to improve their effectiveness, and some tools were used with little or no change to their original format over the entire course of the PN71 project.At the end of the testing phase an assessment was made of each individual tool to gauge its effectiveness and the benefits it provided compared to the original CAEA procedures. A summary of the results of this assessment are presented in Table 16. Overall, it was clear that the modifications to the CAEA process following the CP71 project have increased both the quantity and quality of data on fisheries and the consideration given to fisheries in these assessments, and reflect better in commune management plans the importance of fish in the food security and economic well-being of local communities.The clearest result of this project has been the unambiguous identification of (i) the large importance of fish in communes, previously overshadowed by agriculture, (ii) the many issues facing commune fisheries, including both commune-specific problems and problems shared by all four communes in the pilot study, and, most importantly, (iii) the great ecological and economic fisheries opportunities that exist in these communes.The results and analyses have clearly shown that the CPWF PN71 has significantly strengthened the manner in which livelihoods, water resources and fisheries are now addressed by CAEA. Comparisons between the new CAEA outputs and previous CAEAs conducted in the two control communes also demonstrate an emerging recognition of the importance of awareness-raising and capacity development at the community level as compared to a previous narrower focus solely on agricultural production systems.Despite the very clear benefits of the revised CAEA process, a number of important challenges still remain if the lessons learned from PN71 are to be fully capitalized and institutionalized within government planning systems. The key challenges include:1. Strengthening the links between the CAEA process, the Commune Development Planning (CDP) and the Commune Investment Planning (CIP) processes. With the decentralization and deconcentration administrative policy adopted in Cambodia, the Commune Council plays a crucial role in managing development initiatives at the local level. Thus the CAEA contributes to the local planning process in terms of contributing to the commune agriculture development plan which is a part of the CDP and/or CIP. PN71 is exploring how the revised CAEA process can best be linked to the CDPs and CIPs which in turn are discussed at an annual District Integration Workshop (DIW) where funds are provided through the government to undertake various development activities at the commune level as specified in the CDPs and CIPs. PN71 is trying to get a better understanding on how best fisheries-related issues can be appropriately taken up in this forum, through the information collected using the revised CAEA.2. Ongoing AEA development. Since it was first used in the late 1970s, AEA has undergone a number of improvements and modifications, and although PN71 has significantly upgraded the procedures, this is an adaptive learning process and hence the process should continue to evolve and refined further. The challenge now facing DAE, FiA and other AEA users is how to maintain the momentum generated by PN71 so that users can critically review AEA procedures on an ongoing basis to ensure its future evolution in the face of changing situations and new challenges.3. Trade-offs between agriculture and fisheries. The results of PN71 clearly show that, unlike land, water is usually a common, shared resource whose management can create conflicts among different users. At the same time, PN71 has successfully highlighted the importance of water as a key link between fisheries and agriculture, with both potential positive and negative trade-offs. The key challenge remaining is how to modify procedures and/or add new tools to specifically address the most important trade-offs.Although the introduction of the value-chain mapping tool helped promote a better understanding of important market chain issues, it was not particularly helpful in developing appropriate interventions to address the problems identified. The remaining challenge for follow-up work is how to convert this improved understanding into simple and relevant marketing TIPs for use by extension agents in the field.CAEA outputs under PN71 are characterized by a shift in emphasis from key questions which focus mainly on productivity and stability to key questions that more closely address sustainability and equitability. This was accompanied by less emphasis on the 'hardware' of production system improvement to a greater focus on the 'software' of community-based interventions that address community organization, capacity development and empowerment. This shift in emphasis will require the development of a different category of TIPs needed to address these usually more complex 'software' issues.6. Replicability of the results. The focus of PN71 on communes bordering the Tonle Sap, all with similar agroecosystems, means that the new tools and procedures have yet to be tested and shown to be usable across the broader range of highly divergent agroecosystem types found in Cambodia. The use of the new tools under different agroecological and socioeconomic conditions will require further adaptation and refinement, and will need to be closely supported by the experienced team of RGC officials who were involved in PN71.7. Agroecosystems analysis tool kits. Results from PN71 and experience from the broad range of other applications where agroecosystem analysis has been used indicate that AEA is not a single 'hard-and-fast' methodology, but rather makes use of a 'basket' of tools from which individual tools are selected and integrated into the most appropriate 'tool-kit' according to the specific purpose and tasks being addressed. If the adaptive potential and inherent flexibility of AEA are to be maintained, guidelines will have to be developed to assist users in assembling the most appropriate set of tools for the specific purpose in hand.8. Cross-sectoral integration. Because of AEA's focus on livelihoods, its outputs are closely linked to other commune development sectors such as education, health, environment, etc. Engaging and involving other government agencies and assimilating CAEA procedures and findings into their sectoral plans as part of a comprehensive and integrated commune development plan remains a key challenge to fully capitalize on the potential benefits of methodology. 9. CAEA for research planning. PN71 focused on the use of CAEA as a tool to identify commune-level development and extension opportunities in agriculture and fisheries. However, the results obtained include a number of key issues that need to be addressed by research rather than by extension institutions, particularly for fisheries. The challenge here will be to analyze the CAEA results obtained in the four pilot communes from a research perspective and to formulate important key research questions so that these can be articulated to relevant research institutions.10. CAEA and climate change. CAEA outputs under PN71 clearly identified a number of emerging climate-change impacts such as a changing hydrology in the annual Tonle Sap flood cycle, increased drought and flood incidence, shifts in the farming season, etc. Such impacts will have to be increasingly addressed by the commune development planning process, and the increasing recognition of the importance of climate-change, which means that CAEA must be able to adequately address these issues. Although not explicitly designed to address climate change, a number of the tool additions and modification introduced by PN71, with further refinement, have the potential to identify appropriate interventions that respond to both climate-change adaptation and mitigation.11. The cost of CAEA. The modifications introduced under PN71, although adding value to CAEA, have also added to the time and human resources required. This adds to the cost of the exercise, and has significant implications for the future adoption and use of CAEA by government, other projects and donors. CAEA will never be perfect and the remaining challenge is to find the correct balance under which the methodology produces the required results in a scientifically rigorous, but simple and affordable way.Although the above-mentioned challenges will have to be addressed over the longer term, a number of more immediate, concrete steps need to be taken to fully capitalize on the benefits and make use of the results obtained by the PN71 program.As part of PN71, the \"Commune Agroecosystems Analysis Guidance Manual\" was updated to include the new and modified tools introduced under the Project through the pilot testing in four communes as well as the mini stakeholder workshop. Moreover, the new manual was used and tested as the basis of the Training-of-Trainers (ToT) course provided to officials from the key RGC agencies. As a result of the testing, some final minor changes were made. To prepare the manual ready for wide-scale use in Cambodia it will have to be translated, printed and disseminated to all Provincial Departments of Agriculture nationwide and to other potential users in the NGO and donor communities. Clearly, the English version of the guidance manual has the potential for wider usage and it is envisaged that it can be adapted for use in other countries in the region. Ideally, the launch of the new manual should be a high-profile event in order to publicize its availability. Donor support for the printing and launch of the manual may have to be sought. AusAID (via CAVAC), as the original funder of AEA development and D&D (via UNDP), as the main users of AEA outputs are two potential sources of support. Moreover, an effort should be made to make the new manual available to other interested parties and where appropriate, provide refresher training on the new procedures.Following the publication and launch of the new manual, refresher training will have to be provided to provincial CAEA teams across the country. This will be conducted by the ToT team who were prepared for the job under PN71, supported by selected provincial staff from Pursat and Kampong Thom involved in the pilot CAEAs under PN71.Ideally, two or three ToT teams should be formed and operate independently in different provinces in order to speed up the training. These teams will have to be established and prepared, and appropriate training materials will have to be developed. The training should include some theory on the new tools but should focus mainly on hands-on training in the field while conducting an actual CAEA using the new procedures. The training will have to include the additional agencies that are involved in the new procedures rather than just the Offices of Agricultural Extension as was previously the case. Additional agencies that should participate in the training include FiA, PDWRAM and PDE.The Cambodian Agricultural Extension System includes a national Farming Systems Management Information System (FSMIS) database to support the storage, management and dissemination of CAEA and TIPs data to agricultural development stakeholders at the national and provincial levels. FSMIS software has been installed on the computers of Provincial Offices of Agricultural Extension (OAE), and AEA data are entered into the system by OAE staff. The data are used by the province for management and planning purposes, and are also transferred to DAE's national FSMIS database in Phnom Penh. The FSMIS comprises five major types of information:1. Agricultural and Socioeconomic Conditions. This database table contains CAEAgenerated data on (i) land types, (ii) topography, (iii) soil types, (iv) current land use, (v) cropping systems, (vi) crops grown, (vii) water resources, and (viii) socioeconomic indicators (family labor, landholding, off-farm work, rice self-sufficiency, number of livestock, and major income sources).2. Major Farmer Problems. This database table contains CAEA-generated information on (i) the major problems encountered, their priority and the root causes; (ii) the nature of the impact of the problems on the farming system; (iii) the farm enterprise(s) affected; (iv) the discipline(s) involved in solving the problems; and (v) the type of farmer(s) affected by the problem.3. Available Technologies (TIPs). This database table contains TIPs information on improved agricultural technologies available to solve the problems identified. The FSMIS holds all the information necessary to implement the TIPs which will thereby become available to all provincial OAEs and PDAs. 4. AEA Report Archive. This archive holds copies of all Commune AEA reports produced to date. The reports can be accessed and the information in them retrieved by the user.5. Secondary Data. This part of the database contains a range of additional statistical and spatial data sets for use by agricultural extension personnel and researchers.The FSMIS has been designed to provide a number of different functions to a wide range of users, including MAFF departments, research agencies, NGOs, donor organizations and the private sector. Various reporting formats have been developed that allow users to query the database and generate a variety of outputs according to their specific needs. Potential uses of the database include: Targeting TIPs at priority problems under relevant agricultural conditions.Locating sites with specific agroecological and socioeconomic characteristics.Locating sites where particular crops are grown.Identifying national priorities for agricultural research.Identifying market potential and private-sector opportunities.Identifying environmental impacts and key issues related to natural resources management.As a result of PN71, the database will have to be modified to create extra data fields for the storage of additional information generated by the new CAEA tools. In addition, new report formats will have to be created to allow queries in regard to the new data fields, in particular those related to water resources and fisheries. Once these upgrades to the system have been completed, the modified system will have to be reinstalled in the provincial OAE computers and, where considered appropriate, on the computers of FiA, PDWRAM, PDE and D&D.In order to enhance access to the data and information stored in the FSMIS, the database should be developed into an interactive web-based system so that any user can access the data, run queries and download information from the system. Development along these lines will require significant effort and the services of an experienced database management and ICT specialist. As such, it is likely to require donor support and may be an appropriate sub-project for funding under AusAID's CAVAC program. If additional resources can be found, FSMIS development priorities would include:1. Creating new database tables for water resources attribute data.2. Creating new database tables for fisheries attribute data.3. Creating new database tables for livelihoods asset attribute data. 4. Developing an interactive menu to allow FSMIS users to conduct their own queries and generate output reports incorporating the new data fields.5. Posting the FSMIS on a dedicated CAEA website so that users can access information in an interactive on-line environment.Results of the CAEAs conducted under PN71 identified the need for the production of several new TIPs, particularly in the fields of integrated water resources management, community fisheries management and community organization and strengthening. The required TIPs need to be commissioned by DAE, developed by the appropriate technical institution and then officially endorsed by MAFF through the existing peer-review process.Fisheries TIPs revised and reproduced under PN71 constituted one on small-scale pond fish culture produced by the Department of Aquaculture Development in collaboration with DAE in 2006. As small-scale aquaculture development was proposed by local communities in the communes surveyed, the original TIPs needed to be adapted to fit the Tonle Sap agroecosystem. It also needed to be updated, especially with regard to the process of site selection, pond digging techniques, selection of fish species and fingerling size, preparation of fish pond, management of fish pond including feed and feeding, water-quality management, and harvesting the fish which needed to consider the Tonle Sap agroecosystem. These TIPs will be given free to these and other communities in the Tonle Sap.Once fisheries concerns have been identified in the revised CAEA, TIPs should be prepared for immediate dissemination to the communes, and can be grouped under several general headings, shown in Figure 6. Note that most of these proposed TIPs currently exist only as extension materials and must be converted to the TIPs format; it is recommended that these TIPs be produced immediately, so that their utility in following CAEAs can be assessed.Figure 6. TIPs as applicable to fisheries issues thus far identified in the pilot CP71revised CAEA process. Note that the majority of TIPs must still be created from existing extension material; Of the TIPs only one has at this point been created (on \"Small-scale pond fish culture\", as indicated *** above). Adapted from Baran et al. 2010.In addition to its use by DAE for commune agricultural development planning, CAEA procedures have also been used by ADB, AusAID and Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology, Cambodia (MOWRAM) for the design and development of irrigation schemes -the Irrigation Systems Agro-Ecosystems Analysis (ISAEA) and by the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), the World Bank and provincial authorities for planning the development of the Social Land Concession Agro-Ecosystem Analysis SLCAEA)). Many of the new tools and procedures developed under PN71 are also being adapted and used in other projects in Cambodia. For example, the Rural Livelihood Improvement Project (RULIP) funded by IFAD proposes to use the revised CAEA tools for their participatory assessments to be undertaken in the three provinces Preah Vihear, Kratie and Ratanakiri between 2009 and 2011. For the Sustainable Land Management (SLM) project funded by UNDP and MAFF some of the revised CAEA tools are proposed to be adapted to suit the objectives of their project. Therefore, enhancing and revising the CAEA methodology represent an opportunity to introduce effective changes throughout the country.Video clip on \"Management of natural fish refuge in rural community\" (in Khmer)Video clip on \"Better practice guidelines on local resource users and manager's grouples\" (in Khmer)Poster on Fish refuge pond development and management (in Khmer)Poster on integrated fish farming system (in Khmer)Booklet on small scale pond fish culture (in Khmer)TIP on \"Small-scale pond fish culture\" (in Khmer)*** Role of formal and informal credit in the fish marketing chain in Cambodia (in Khmer and English)Guidelines to improve access to microfinance by poof fishing, processing, and trading communities (in Khmer and English)Video clip on \"Our village community fisheries\" (in Khmer)Compilation on legal instruments related to community fisheries in Cambodia (in Khmer and English)Manual on fisheries co-management in Cambodia (in Khmer and English)Posters on freshwater fishes of Cambodia (parts 1, 2, 3, 4-in Khmer and English)Agroecosystems analysis procedures are used by a range of institutions in a number of Southeast Asian countries; for example, by regional universities in Of the changes listed above, which have the greatest potential to be adopted and have impact? What might the potential be on the ultimate beneficiaries? Greatest potential to be adopted: The revised CAEA methodology developed under PN71 is to be institutionalized by MAFF and used in future CAEA assessments in Cambodia.• Uptake and adoption of different tools from the revised CAEA in other projects in Cambodia. For example, the Rural Livelihood Improvement Project (RULIP) funded by IFAD proposes to use the revised CAEA tools for their participatory assessments to be undertaken in three provinces, Prah Vihear, Kratie and Ratanakiri between 2009 and 2011. For the Sustainable Land Management (SLM) project funded by UNDP and MAFF it is proposed that some of the revised CAEA tools will be adapted to suit the objectives of their project. • Upscale and adoption of the revised CAEA process developed under PN71 in neighboring countries. For example, in the Agro-Biodiversity Initiative (TABI) in Lao PDR. TABI is a long-term commitment by the Government of Lao PDR and the Swiss Development Corporation (SDC). The first phase of the project will run from May 1 2009 to April 30 2012. TABI aims to improve the livelihoods of upland farm families by the productive use and conservation of agro-biodiversity resources and hopes to adapt the revised CAEA approach in the project.For uptake of the revised CAEA to achieve its potential:• The revised CAEA guidance manual has been endorsed by the DAE of MAFF and will be used in future CAEAs conducted in Cambodia (the Khmer version of the revised CAEA guidance manual is in the process of being printed and has to be distributed to relevant provincial CAEA teams; a pool of trainers for the revised CAEA tools has been established under PN71 and may be called upon to provide training before conducting the CAEA using the new process). • For further uptake of the revised CAEA tools by other projects in Cambodia it would be useful to provide the English version of the CAEA Manual to other donors and project implementers. For example, during the CPWF Donor Visit to Cambodia in March 2010, the IFAD representative expressed interest to learn more about the CAEA tools and guidance manual. (We will follow up on this request and explore opportunities for future work using these methodologies). • For the uptake of CAEA in neighboring countries. Through the TABI project in Lao PDR, some of the revised CAEA tools have already been adapted together with the assistance of the national partner National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute (NAFRI), to be used for district-level land use planning and an AEA handbook prepared. Potential for future collaboration between the PN71 project implementers and the TABI team is currently being explored. In addition, for the CPWF Mekong 1 Project on Optimizing Reservoir Management for Livelihoods, several of the revised CAEA tools will be used in the livelihoods component of the Project in all three sites (i.e., in Lao PDR, Vietnam and Cambodia). (ii) Uptake of revised CAEA tools and concepts in neighboring countries.This uptake took place during the PN71 -not on project completion. Therefore, it was very quick, considering that PN71 was a short project. The main reason for this was the early endorsement and buy-in of the revised tools by the national partners (DAE) who then promoted these revised tools to other projects that they were involved in. Also having team members who were convinced of the efficacy of the revised methodologies/ concepts being involved in the TABI helped \"spread the message\" very quickly and effectively.Since this is a short, 2-year project, it is difficult to determine how the revised CAEA has contributed to the CDP and CIP process. An ex-ante evaluation should be conducted in the four communes used for the pilot study to determine in the end if the recommendations of the revised CAEA reports had any uptake within the commune planning process (CDP and CIP). This assessment is not part of the original project plan and ideally needs to be conducted if funds and additional time can be provided. used in future CAEA assessments in Cambodia and can therefore be attributed to having direct impact on a national level.• Capacity building of NARES partners in using an integrated approach to understand fisheries in agroecosystems and water management and, in particular, the participatory tools used in the revised CAEA approach. The main national partners were the DAE, the Fisheries Administration (FiA) and, in particular, one of its branches, the Inland Fisheries Research and Development Institute (IFReDI), and the Department of Water Resources Management & Conservation (DWRM&C). IWMI, WorldFish and School of Oriental Studies, University of London, UK (SOAS) were the international partners working together as part of this interdisciplinary team.Future research. The CAEA operates at commune level, which is a scale that may arguably hide the needs of the most vulnerable groups in the commune in some instances. This is especially true for more precise targeting of interventions towards the poorest or landless households. In this context, it would be useful to adapt and pilot some of the revised CAEA tools to be used at the village level, to determine whether more disaggregated data on poverty variations, livelihood portfolios and the different needs of the poorest can be obtained. In fact, there has been an expression of interest from certain donors to undertake such a pilot testing of tools and methodologies that could be developed as a methodology for development interventions at the village level. This option should be explored further. Another important point to note is that the focus of PN71 was on communes bordering the Tonle Sap and that therefore the pilot testing of revised tools took place in relatively similar agroecosystems. This means that the new tools and procedures have yet to be tested and shown to be usable across the broader range of highly divergent agroecosystem types that are found in Cambodia. It is likely that the use of the new tools under different agroecological and socioeconomic conditions may require further adaptation and refinement. This is perhaps another area of research that is important to explore.Extension. As discussed earlier, the revised CAEA methodology will be utilized by the DAE when conducting future CAEA assessments. It would also be of value if other national partners engaged in PN71, utilize and adapt relevant tools from the revised CAEA when conducting their own research and projects, wherever appropriate, noting that AEA is adaptive and not a single 'hard-and-fast' method, but rather a 'basket' of tools from which individual tools are selected and integrated into the most appropriate 'tool kit' according to the specific purpose and tasks being addressed.Policy. In 2004, the CAEA was sighted as a policy instrument in MAFF for the assessment of agricultural interventions and needs at the commune level. Since the revised CAEA approach was endorsed by MAFF, it means it will be adopted in future CAEA assessments conducted by DAE and therefore it has policy-level implications. It would be useful to investigate this aspect more closely and in a rigorous manner to determine how the changes brought about by the project actually play out in practice.Institutions. How best the results of the CAEA report can be fed into the commune development plan and commune investment plan and thereafter presented at the District Integration Workshop, needs to be explored further as only a preliminary assessment of this was conducted under PN71.","tokenCount":"16340"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26880ba80dff037e1ccc6575135c2187","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fb81c3d9-abd1-461e-bbd3-8ccfca3cb79b/retrieve","id":"-913147150"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"10ff47ff-3415-400c-8650-c2e425ed6b48","pagecount":"52","content":"The Making Rangelands Secure Learning Initiative was established by a group of organisations (International Land Coalition (ILC), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralim IUCN-WISP, PROCASUR, and RECONCILE) seeking to improve security of rights to rangelands. The Initiative aims to identify and communicate good practice on making rangelands secure for local rangeland users. This is becoming increasingly challenging as diff erent actors compete for land and resources, and new pressures grow. The Initiative is working with national and local governments, development agencies, NGOs, and CSOs, together with local communities to share experiences, processes, approaches, and activities between East Africa, the Horn of Africa, and beyond. Innovative tools and processes are used for sharing information and experiences, including a Learning Route through Kenya and Tanzania hosted by local communities and organisations.Plotting progress: integrated planning in the rangelands of Kenya, Ethiopia, and UgandaFebruary 2014The Regional Learning and Advocacy Programme (REGLAP) for Vulnerable Dryland Communities is a consortium that promotes lesson learning and good practice documentation on strengthening dryland resilience in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda and advocates to governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders for improved policy and practice. The REGLAP programme has been operating since June 2008 and is funded by ECHO. It is now in its fourth phase, which will operate from January 2012 to December 2013. Regional Learning Groups focus on key issues for disaster risk reduction (DRR) in the drylands to develop good practice models and guidance and to strengthen the evidence base for the promotion of dryland resilience. These are: 1. Community-managed approaches to DRR: CMDRR, cross-border approaches, conflict-sensitive programming, participatory rangeland management (PRM); 2.Water development for DRR: developing and promoting good practice models for integrated water planning; 3. Strengthening the evidence base for DDR advocacy: analysing available research, promoting/filling research gaps to obtain clearer and shared understanding of resilience in the drylands, promoting joint messaging. Country Advocacy Groups advocate on the key constraints to resilience building for the drylands to governments and other key actors.In 2014, following a strategic review and planning exercise REGLAP changed its name to the Dryland Learning and Capacity Building Initiative (DLCI) and became an independent resource and facilitation organisation registered in Kenya.Development means growth, evolution, and progress. In a local context its meaning includes the process of improving the quality of life of the community, enhancing opportunities, and maximising choices.Drylands are areas with low rates of precipitation and high rates of evapotranspiration and which therefore experience water stress on a seasonal or constant basis. Drylands include true deserts as well as semi-arid regions, and occupy roughly 25-32% of the terrestrial area of the planet. Drylands are social, political, economic, cultural, and ecological systems.Land grabbing consists of \"acquisitions or concessions that are one or more of the following: (i) in violation of human rights, particularly the equal rights of women; (ii) not based on free, prior and informed consent of the affected land-users; (iii) not based on a thorough assessment, or are in disregard of social, economic and environmental impacts, including the way they are gendered; (iv) not based on transparent contracts that specify clear and binding commitments about activities, employment and benefits sharing, and; (v) not based on effective democratic planning, independent oversight and meaningful participation\". Source: International Land Coalition, Tirana Declaration, 2011. http://www.landcoalition.org/about-us/aom2011/tirana-declaration Integrated means to combine parts as a whole; to consider the aspects of an issue at the same time; to look at all the circumstances that might affect a project or plan in a holistic manner; and coordination of all stakeholders, sectors, and actors.Integrated land use planning is the integration of different perspectives, needs, and restrictions in land use planning. The integration can be vertical, i.e. national, regional, and local levels, and also horizontal within government organs.Land use planning is \"the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land use options. Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the needs of the people while safeguarding resources for the future\" (FAO 2003. Participatory land use planning is an iterative process based on dialogue amongst all stakeholders. The objective of participatory land use planning is to achieve sustainable land use, i.e. a type of land use which is socially just and desirable, economically viable, environmentally sound, and culturally and technically compatible. It sets in motion social processes of decision-making and consensus building concerning the use and protection of private, communal, or public land (GTZ 1999).Planning means arranging things or projects in a structured manner with a particular outcome or vision in mind. Planning documents should indicate the way to proceed to achieve that end. Planning is a tool used by institutions to bring about change in an orderly and manageable way.Zoning involves land use restrictions enacted via an ordinance to create districts or zones that establish permitted and special land uses within those zones. Land uses in each district are commonly regulated according to such characteristics as type of use (such as residential, commercial, and industrial), density, structure height, lot size, and structure placement, among others. Land use regulations specify for each class of zone which activities are 1) permitted, 2) prohibited, or 3) permitted conditionally if a special permit is obtained. One aspect of the theory behind zoning is that by locating similar land uses together, negative externalities can be limited.Ill advised, uncoordinated, and badly planned interventions have been blamed for continuing poverty and food insecurity in rangelands. Water interventions in particular have had negative impacts. Not only have these interventions failed to improve the livelihoods of people living there, but in many cases they have served to undermine them and the environment on which they depend. Rangeland development interventions have been sectoral in their approach.Development planners have been locked into manipulating one or two key components of rangelands, such as water, without properly taking into account the interconnections between water and grasslands, as well as the wider context in which communities live.Planning for development in rangelands, including land use planning, holds particular challenges and can impose unusual constraints on routine activities. Rangeland planners must address a number of challenges: the sheer size of administrative units with sparsely distributed populations and variable, patchy resources; the independent nature of pastoral and huntergatherer cultures; high levels of environmental variability; and the complexities of managing semi-natural ecosystems. Planners must also confront the additional challenge of managing the interface between high-and low-potential areas that are functionally interdependent. On a temporal basis too, the seasonal and flexible dynamics of pastoral systems rarely fit with the more constrained and rigid administrative, government yearly cycles of planning or finances.Group rights (ownership, access, and use) of resources provide particular challenges for land use planners. Further, there have been significant changes in society that have redefined the way in which individuals interact with each other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources.In response to these issues and challenges, this paper draws together and reviews current and recent experience in planning processes in the rangelands of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Key lessons are drawn out from two types of intervention -those led by government and those led by NGOs. These form the basis of a set of recommendations for different actors.In recent years, there has been a great improvement in the policy and legislative environment of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda, supporting more integrated planning in rangelands. The shift from a centralised approach to a decentralised and devolved policy and legislative environment has opened up opportunities for multi-sector, multi-stakeholder, integrated planning with the participation of land users. However, there is a lack of real commitment to devolve power, including decision-making power, from central to lower government bodies as well as to community organisations. There is also a lack of financial resources and of skilled and knowledgeable personnel who understand how rangelands and the livelihoods that depend upon them function and can grow. Decision-making processes favour sedentary populations over more mobile ones.Other policies and legislation offer mixed support for rangelands and their communities. In practice many policies and pieces of legislation fall far short of fully supporting rangelands, the production systems that work there, and the communities that depend upon them. Policies give mixed and conflicting messages. A key factor in the increased vulnerability of communities living in rangelands is their lack of secure tenure and control over land use changes taking place. Pastoralism as a land use system is given little legitimacy in decisionmaking processes, hence pastoralists still tend to be excluded from decision-making over use of land and the implementation of these decisions.Government departments, aid agencies, and organisations often focus on a particular sector, with patchy and inconsistent integration and coordination. Interventions tend to take place within the boundaries of small government administrative units, which in fact cover only a minor part of the greater rangeland. Government and donors still tend to operate with a supply focus rather than according to community needs -i.e. demand. Government capacities are often limited by a lack of resources and skills.None of the three countries examined in this review has a full country-wide land use plan. The piloting of new processes, mechanisms, and activities by an NGO or development agency can reduce risks for the land user. Case studies described here have introduced new ideas, processes, and approaches. Those that have been embedded in or worked closely with government have greater opportunities for scaling up good practice than those that have not. Collaboration with research institutions and well networked development agencies can also be important in this regard.Good policies can only create the environment for community empowerment and ownership -they cannot guarantee it. Though the importance of community participation is recognised and positive steps have been taken to mainstream participatory approaches, full inclusion is often not achieved. Fair, prior and informed consent is often missing from government decisions for large infrastructure projects. Pastoralists in particular feel that their views and needs are not incorporated into planning processes. Good facilitators are hard to come by and it is difficult to engage and retain trainers. Dependency of communities has been created by too much reliance on external technology. Regular dialogue and consensus building is vital for community mobilisation. For an action of the magnitude that many planning processes are to succeed, the issue in question must be salient, credible, and legitimate in the eyes of community members .Where community participation is a priority, women have taken an active role in the land use and development planning processes described in this paper. However, the more complex gender issues (the balance of power, access to information and education, and control of resources) tend to be sidelined or added on as an afterthought. Women need an incentive in order to be willing to actively participate in meetings or activities -and often this is missing.Changes in society such as more educated youth, exposure to different lifestyles, and more individualised values have redefined the way in which people interact with each other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources. Increasingly, customary institutions are left with little power, while those that have power have no presence on the ground. Attempts have been made to fill this governance and management vacuum, with varying degrees of success.Hybrid governance structures incorporating both government and community institutions may be appropriate but require significant support, including capacity building.Planning at a large scale is challenging. Programmes such as river basin development have often been over-ambitious and inflexible and have tried to adopt a blueprint approach, resulting in limited success. Interventions that provide opportunities for reflection, feedback, and adaptations are better positioned to cope with new challenges and problems (identified and solved in a participatory manner), and therefore are more likely to be sustainable in the long term. Planning is not an event but a process to be invested in.The majority of rangelands have a major comparative advantage over other land types in terms of land use systems, including livestock, tourism, and renewable energy. They are strategically located as the bridgehead to new markets beyond country borders. Increasingly, large infrastructural investments are being established in these areas, including the Lamu Port and Lamu Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor (LAPSSET) and related developments.However, if the opportunities created by these investments are to be fully realised, their planning needs to fully account for and incorporate linkages to and likely impacts on the wider drylands area and the communities living there.From central government to local, there are new opportunities for more integrated planning and implementation that respond to the unique constraints and attributes of rangelands and particularly mobile pastoralism, and that can be sustained in the longer term. New bodies focused on drylands and arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), along with knowledge sharing and discussion platforms, provide opportunities for more appropriate support for livestock production systems.As a result of stronger devolution processes, mid-level layers of government will find it difficult to avoid land use planning and/or ignore existing land use plans in the future. Land security is an important aspect supporting investments in land and related decision-making processes. Across Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia, opportunities exist for strengthening land tenure in rangelands, and resources and support are available for this. All three countries have recognised the need for a country-wide land use plan and are taking steps to produce plans at national and other levels. This requires significant support from development actors.Aid activities and support in drylands are moving from majority humanitarian-or food securityfocused responses to ones based on longer-term development. The new (for many) focus on \"resilience building\" provides a rationale and opportunity for supporting and incorporating systems-based and non-linear approaches to development that are better suited to rangelands than simple, linear, cause-and-effect approaches. The focus on \"resilience\" has provided opportunities for natural science to be brought back into the development narrative. The commitment of all three countries to the IGAD Drought Disaster Resilience and Sustainability Initiative (IDDRSI) process, which has resilience building at its core, and the production of country programme papers to end drought emergencies are reflections of this.New approaches to planning and in particular those that work with both government and communities to plan beyond small administrative boundaries, such as river basin planning, watershed management, ecosystem management, and participatory rangeland management (PRM), are providing increasing evidence that planning at scale has benefits. However, planning at scale should not result in a disconnect between decision-makers and land users -the two need to work together for positive results.Both governments and NGOs are seeking to build capacity for planning at different levels.There are increasing opportunities for investments from the private sector (e.g. commercial investors, water service delivery companies) or through carbon offsetting, and from donors (including the Global Alliance supporting the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)'s DDRSI process). Rewards (financial or non-financial) for environmental services and for voluntary and regulatory arrangements are also a relatively new source of funding, while also supporting a change in behaviour towards sustainable and adapted management of these ecosystems. The development of contingency funds for drought (and, for example, crisis modifiers) provides an opportunity for readily available funds that can be mobilised for effective quick response to crises such as droughts. This is a good example of how funds can be devolved to local authorities to better respond to local situations and needs.NGOs today are better placed and committed to planning and working together than they have been in the past. Some donors have encouraged this through calls for collaborative projects. However, beyond these projects much can be done to improve joint planning, sharing of and more efficient use of resources, and harmonisation of approaches. Experience in the region has shown the value of conservation and research organisations, working with development organisations. With more decision-making power at lower levels, there should be greater opportunity for coordination -however, where it is necessary to work across lower-level administrative boundaries, coordination bodies will be required to manage this.In rangelands there is a much stronger case for governance structures to cut across administrative boundaries in order to reflect the reality of resource use and mobility. In this case a \"nested\" governance structure can hold more relevance with governing institutions in place and functioning for each different layer or unit of resource use (as the structure decreases in size of numbers of uses and area, from a landscape or rangeland to a well or tree). In a well functioning rangeland society there will be structures set up to govern these different resource units, and it is these units and their structures that traditionally form the basis of rangelands planning. As such, they should also form the basis of more formalised planning processes.For sustainable development Global commitment to integrated development planning and decision-making was reconfirmed at the Rio+20 Summit in June 2012 and as part of the document \"The Future We Want\". 1 This affirmed the belief that sustainable development can only be achieved through the integration of economic, social, and ecological systems as interdependent but open entities that continuously interact and influence one other. In the quest to achieve national development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), there is increasing recognition that this can happen only when the goals are translated into actions at the sub-national level and through the active participation of local actors.This in turn has brought about renewed attention to planning for local development. With sustainable development in mind, planning methodologies have been adopted as the means through which states should intervene to address imbalances of power and market failure in order to ensure democratic, well informed, and rational decision-making in the pursuit of economic, social, and ecological goals. The participation of local populations has been increasingly promoted, and to some extent this has been reflected in national development planning processes. The development of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) is an example where community consultations (albeit limited) have taken place at the beginning of the process.With specific attention to drylands, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) emphasises the importance of participatory integrated development plans and the integration of strategies for poverty eradication into efforts to combat desertification and the effects of drought. 2 Here the balance between conservation and management of natural resources and the promotion of economic and social stability of local (indigenous and other) peoples is promoted. This parallels the growing scholarly literature emphasising the interconnectedness of environmental sustainability and socio-economic equity and justice (Orenstein et al. 2011). All of these developments have provided an increasing number of reasons for getting planning in drylands (in particular) right.Poor planning in the past Ill advised, uncoordinated, and badly planned interventions have contributed to the continuing poverty and food insecurity in dryland areas and, more specifically, in rangelands.Water interventions in particular have had negative impacts. The prolific development of water points (e.g. in northern Kenya or eastern Ethiopia) by NGOs, development agencies, and governments has contributed to sedentarisation and privatisation of resources, resulting in conflicts between land users, environmental degradation, and increased vulnerability and poverty for many (Gomes 2006). In Wajir district in Kenya, for example, in the 1940s there were four major dry season water points managed communally; today there are over 75 -many managed by non-customary groups who charge for use. Somali pastoralists claim they have lost 75% of the most palatable pastures as a result of the proliferation of mechanised boreholes. Similar experiences are found in parts of Uganda (Powell 2010). Not only have these interventions failed to improve the livelihoods of people living there, but in many cases they have served to destroy them and the environment on which they depend.Rangeland development interventions have been sectoral in their approach. For example, the large rangeland development schemes established in Ethiopia 3 in the 1970s failed to meet their objectives because \"planning\" was undertaken with a lack of understanding of the pastoral production system, and imposed technology-based solutions. There was a failure to incorporate indigenous knowledge, practices, goals, and strategies of pastoral communities, who were not included in the planning process (Zerfu et al. 2010;Homan et al. 2004).properly taking into account the interconnections between the different components of rangelands and the wider context in which rangeland communities live. Planning has taken place within the boundaries of small government administrative units, which in fact cover only a minor part of the greater rangeland. Across the majority of rangelands, government and donors still operate with a supply focus rather than according to the needs of communities -i.e. demand. Interventionist strategies (e.g. rigid stocking quotas) have consistently failed to deliver improvements to the environmental condition and the livelihoods of the people who depend on it (Laris 2002). Government and local elites can appropriate and influence these processes for their own ends (Gomes 2006).Planning for development in rangelands, including land use planning, holds some particular challenges and can impose unusual constraints on routine administrative activities. The overall per hectare productivity of East African arid and semi-arid (ASAL) rangelands is generally low, so the cost of their management must be as well. Despite a modest revenue base, rangeland administration must address a number of other challenges -the sheer size of administrative units, with sparsely distributed populations and variable, patchy resources; the independent nature of pastoral and hunter-gatherer cultures; the high levels of environmental variability; and the complexities of managing semi-natural ecosystems.Planners must also confront the additional challenge of managing the interface between high-and low-potential areas that are functionally interdependent. Across East Africa, the loss of pastoral access and the alienation of this land to other uses is a widespread occurrence. More and more, these landscapes are becoming fragmented, dissected into a patchwork of agricultural and pastoral land uses (Flintan 2011). The economic performance of pastoralism, its capacity to support human populations and to ride out droughts, depends on continued access to key assets, especially river valley lands (Galvin et al. 2008).On a temporal basis too, the seasonal and/or flexible dynamics of pastoral systems rarely fit with the more constrained and rigid administrative, government yearly cycles of planning, finances, and so on. System component interactions contribute to a dryland system that is difficult to predict and inappropriate to generalise about. Dryland farming is a highly risky enterprise. Pastoralism is a land use system more suited to drylands: it considers ecological, social, and economic systems, and is practised in an integrative way (Flintan et al. 2013).Group rights (ownership, access, and/or use) of resources provide particular challenges for development planners. As a result, governments try to individualise these rights or ignore them (hoping that if they do this for long enough they will break down and disappear).Trends show that, in many communities, what were previously group rights are breaking down and becoming more individualised. Further, there have been significant changes in society that redefine the way in which individuals interact with one other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources. Where land and resource tenure is unclear, poor land use has increased (Gomes 2006).Migration into drylands by non-locals, as well as out-migration by youth in particular, are also becoming more common. The introduction of modern or statutory frameworks for governance at local levels has further undermined the effectiveness of traditional institutions. This has created a situation where traditional institutions still exist on the ground but have little power, while those institutions that have power have no presence on the ground. It is this reality that creates the open access problem with regards to natural resources, which are then exploited without any regulation, leading to degradation and decline (Odhiambo 2012).In response to these issues and challenges, this paper draws together and reviews current and recent experience in planning processes in the rangelands of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Some \"good practice\" examples are provided -these focus firstly on government-led processes (Section 2) and secondly on NGO-led processes (Section 3). Key lessons from these examples are drawn out, including strengths and weaknesses, in Section 4. Opportunities and principles for future interventions and support are highlighted and provide the basis for a set of recommendations.This document is a shorter version of Plotting Progress: Development Planning in the Drylands of Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda (Flintan 2013). Available at: http://www.disasterriskreduction. net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/Plotting%20progress_Flintan_2013_FINAL.pdf Experiences shared and lessons learned: government-led InitiativesThe policy and legislative environments of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda supporting more integrated planning in drylands, and more specifically rangelands, have improved greatly in recent years. The shift from a centralised approach to a decentralised and then a devolved policy and legislative environment has opened up opportunities for multi-sector, multistakeholder, integrated planning with the participation of land users. In Ethiopia, the woreda (district) is seen to be the centre of socio-economic development, providing opportunities to tackle poverty at the grassroots level. As a result of the 2010 Constitution in Kenya, local governance systems are being realigned, empowering county-level elected government to define and implement local development priorities. In Uganda, the responsibility for local planning, budgeting, and implementation lies primarily with the district/municipality and sub-county/town council level of government. However, despite these structures, there is a lack of real commitment to devolve power, including decision-making power, from central to regional and lower-level government bodies, as well as a lack of financial resources and of skilled and knowledgeable personnel who understand how drylands and the livelihoods that depend upon them function and can grow. There is also the danger that more powerful individuals at the local level will take up new opportunities for participation in decision-making processes, while those who have less power or accessibility to decision-making bodies will miss out. In rangelands this situation favours sedentary populations over more mobile ones.Other policies and legislation offer mixed support for drylands and their communities. Though the principles for integrated planning are supported -participation of communities (land users) and other stakeholders, rights to information and knowledge, rights not to be removed from one's land without compensation, equitable development -their implementation falls far short of supporting drylands, the production systems that work there, and the communities that depend upon them. Policies also give mixed and conflicting messages.Though good sector-focused policies, legislation, and development strategies exist, such as for agriculture, few specifically tackle the needs and challenges of drylands. As a result, interventions are often inappropriate for the unpredictable, variable, and often harsh dryland environments and the populations whose livelihoods depend upon them. Interventions focus on one component of drylands at a time, such as water, and fail to incorporate or account for the inter-related nature of all components or to plan at a scale that reflects this interconnectedness. Governments, aid agencies, and organisations are often sector-based, with patchy and inconsistent integration and coordinationThe establishment of the Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands (MDNKOAL) in 2008 provided the opportunity for a geographically focused, multisectoral, and integrated approach to development in Kenya's ASALs. Following elections in March 2013, the structure of the government has changed and the MDNKOAL has been disbanded. However, in view of these likely changes, in 2010 the ASAL Secretariat was established by the Ministry as a permanent and specialised institution that will champion and coordinate development in the ASALs in the long term -as anticipated it will take on the majority of the MDNKOAL's roles and responsibilities.In Ethiopia, the establishment of the Directorate for Equitable Development in Emerging Regions 4 in the Ministry of Federal Affairs (MOFA) has been an example of the recognition by government that pastoral regions require a targeted and different approach from development in highland areas: it is also the federal organisation responsible for a large programme of resettlement of pastoralists. Earlier this year a State Minister of Livestock was appointed in the Ministry of Agriculture to lead livestock development in the country; this highlights the value assigned to livestock in Ethiopia's future economy by the national government.In Uganda, a Rangeland Policy and a Pastoral Code have been in draft for several yearscurrently both are under review. Platforms such as the Karamoja National Working Group (KNWG), which sits in the Office of the Prime Minister, provide opportunities for coordination between different ministries, key development partners, the private sector, and CSOs.Key factors in the increased vulnerability of communities living in rangelands are their lack of security of tenure and lack of control over land use changes that are taking place. There remains little recognition of the benefits and opportunities of pastoral-based livelihoods despite increasing evidence, and in particular in the face of climate change. Where land administration and land use laws exist, they have been crafted with mainly sedentary highland farming areas in mind; hence they have only limited applicability to pastoral areas, which are predominantly characterised by communal land tenure systems (group rights). The lack of legitimacy given to pastoralism as a land use system means that pastoralists tend to be excluded from the design and planning of land-related decisions, plans, and their implementation.None of the three countries examined in this review has a full country-wide land use plan. The existing institutional framework and manpower at all government levels is not yet commensurate with the task of undertaking land use planning at this scale. Some land use planning is being carried out in certain areas (see for example Box 1), but in most cases decisions about land use and development are carried out in a piecemeal fashion focusing on relatively small units of land and resources. \"Enclave development\" occurs where highproductivity areas close to rivers are removed from the pastoral system by governments and made available to investors 5 (Behnke and Kerven 2013). This tends to occur without assessing the appropriateness of the intervention in relation to the environment and resource distribution of the area. Similarities between some recently developed rangeland development projects and failed rangeland development projects of the 1970s are of concern.Box 1: Land use planning and water development in Borana zone, Oromia Region, EthiopiaBased on the principle of a \"Land Use Guided Development Corridor Approach for Sustainable Development\" (see National Regional State of Oromia 2010), Oromia region is at the forefront of planning at a regional level. 6 The Oromia Bureau of Land and Environment is preparing a regional master land use plan (at a scale of 1:50,000) which covers 45% of the region's total area, with fieldwork carried out by the Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (OWWDSE), a public enterprise (ESCNCC 2011). Large parts of Borana zone are already covered by the plan: in order to generate information for this, a detailed land use planning (LUP) study commenced five years ago. There are three main sub-basins of Borana zone, which form the basis of the planning: the Rift Valley-Lakes, the Dawa, and Laga Sure-Laga Wata (the latter two areas containing significant numbers of pastoralists). Based on detailed studies of local ecology, hydrology, socio-economics, etc., land use suitability has been identified for livestock and agriculture. In Laga Sure-Laga Wata, for example, 85% of the basin has been identified as being suitable for livestock production (with some areas requiring rehabilitation of grasslands including bush clearing), and only 9% suitable for agriculture (see study report and Proposed Land Use Plan for the basin -OWWDSE 2010). Different stakeholders were consulted in the development of the land use plan; however, it is not clear who these were and how they were involved.The plans are used as the basis for spatial/area \"integrated land use planning projects\". In southern Oromia there are two such projects under way, in Borana and Genale Dawa. In Borana, a water supply project has been developed across the zone, which will provide water for both domestic and livestock uses. Based on MDG goals, water should be available within a 3km round trip in rural areas. Supply of water for livestock will be based on the calculation that cattle (with sheep) require 4 hectares (ha) of land and 15 litres of water per capita per day (l/c/d), and should not be more than 5km from a water point. Camels (with goats) require 6 ha of land and 20 l/c/d and should not be more than 7.5km from a water point.Figure 1 shows the plans for the whole zone, including the supply network (circles depict the radius serviced by each well according to the above calculations). The initial design was for 2,000km of pipeline, but it is now anticipated that 3,727km of piping will be put down and 5 Such as the Awash River Basin, Afar region (with up to 172,448 ha already under development) and the Omo River Basin, SNNPR, both in Ethiopia. Large government schemes are also found in these areas, including the Fentale Irrigation Development project on the Awash, and the 245,000 ha South Omo sugar plantations, linked to the development of the Gibe III Dam. Some of these developments, and particularly those implemented by the State, do make some provisions for local communities, such as resettlement and outgrower schemes.6 Other regions are in the early stages of developing land use plans. For example, in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia, the Environmental Protection, Land Administration and Use Authority is preparing LUP manuals. However, because of finance and manpower shortages, little activity is taking place. reservoirs and water points established. The pipeline is partially operational but is lacking proper arrangements for management (Alemayehu 2012). To date, 277km of pipe has been laid. Little if any community consultation was carried out in project planning. It is anticipated that NGOs will provide support for establishing community management structures and for network operation and maintenance (Mesele 2010). Based on the new supply network, rangeland development projects are being piloted -for example, the Dembel-Ayisha Dewelle water supply and rangeland development project for sheep farming (see Figure 7). The Water Act prescribes Catchment Management Strategies as the tool for the use and management of water resources, and requires that they should be developed for each of the major river basins in Kenya -with overall responsibility held by the Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA). Regional offices of the WRMA are being set up based on catchments -there is one in Nanyuki to serve the whole of northern Kenya. Implementation of integrated water resource management (IWRM) at catchment level is achieved through the establishment of Catchment Area Advisory Committees (CAACs). Sub-regional offices are being established to manage sub-catchments. At the grassroots level, stakeholders engage through Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs), which also provide a forum for cooperative management of water resources and conflict resolution. This provides the opportunity for hydrological boundaries to be used as the boundary for decision-making, rather than administrative boundaries.Six River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) have been created under the Ministry of Regional Development Authorities (MORDA). These include the Tana and Athi River Basin Development Authority (TARDA) (which covers 138,000 sq km), the Ewaso Ng'iro North River Basin Development Authority 7 (ENNDA) (209,576 sq km), and the Ewaso Ng'iro South River Basin Development Authority (ENSDA) (47,000 sq km), all of which include substantial areas of drylands.In an attempt to improve regional development coordination, the six RBDAs have been shifted to various ministries depending on their major projects at the time; for example, at one time TARDA was under the Ministry of Energy while ENNDA and ENSDA were under the Ministry of Agriculture (and Rural Development). There has been a lack of coordination between the Ministry and the RBDAs and a lack of planners and development managers trained in requisite skills in regional policy analysis, regional planning methodology, and implementation and monitoring, 7 ENNDA, for example, encompasses 28 administrative districts: Moyale, Chalbi, Marsabit, Laisamis, Isiolo, Garbatulla, Wajir East, Wajir West, Wajir South, Wajir North, Garissa, Fafi, Ladgera, Mandera East, Mandera West, Mandera Central, Samburu East, Samburu Central, Samburu West, Laikipia East, Laikipia North, Laikipia West, Meru Central, Imenti North, Tigania, Igembe, Nyandarua North, and Nyeri North.Reconciling different land uses such as agriculture and pastoralism is difficult and requires a multi-sectoral approach which has affected the preparation of regional plans. 8 Limited resources and the absence of a policy framework have been further challenges (Orege undated). There are also other conflicting roles and responsibilities. The Physical Planning Department (PPD) of the Ministry of Lands is charged with responsibility for preparing Regional Physical Development Plans (RPDPs) under the Physical Planning Act (PPA) 1996. Under the Act, the PPD is legally bound to prepare an integrated regional development plan for areas such as Ewaso Ng'iro North River Basin, without collaboration or structured partnership with ENNDA. However, according to ENNDA Act Cap 448 (1989), ENNDA is responsible for planning and management in the Basin, to ensure proper utilisation of natural resource and environmental protection (ENNDA undated).The mandate of the RBDAs 9 is to formulate integrated multi-sectoral development within their areas of jurisdiction through implementation of integrated programmes and projects such as provision of hydropower, flood control, and water supply for irrigation, domestic, and industrial use, together with environmental conservation, as well as to contribute to the formulation and implementation of integrated regional plans and to MORDA's strategic plan.Neighbouring RBDAs are also expected to harmonise their plans and to produce them in consultation with other stakeholders. In addition, RBDAs are expected to collect, store, and share information, establish mechanisms for empowering local communities to participate in development activities, and share benefits equitably between them. For example, the strategic plan of ENSDA (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012) includes, amongst other things, the Ewaso Ng'iro South Integrated Regional Development Plan (IRDP) project to guide and coordinate development interventions in the region; a community drought preparedness project; the establishment of the ENSDA Regional Data Centre; a conflict mitigation and management project for Mara community natural resources; institutional capacity development; regional coordination and monitoring and evaluation (M&E); and the Lower Ewasa Ng'iro South multi-purpose project \"to transform the arid lands to vibrant economic use\". It is anticipated that the money to fund these projects will come from the Government of Kenya (GOK) and donors (ENSDA 2008).Programmes such as the Medium Term ASAL Programme (MTAP), developed by the MNKDOAL, seek to improve coordination and the participation of communities. WRUA development cycles will be adapted for ASAL areas and implemented in 18 sub-catchments in the six priority counties, leading to improved water delivery. The Water Service Trust Fund (WSTF) is a multi-donor basket fund for water catchment strategies (Halakhe 2012;MTAP 2012).In is commissioning the preparation of Master Plans for the 12 major river basins, most of which have now been completed. The River Basin Master Plans are supposed to be used by different federal and regional government ministries and agencies as a base on which to integrate their own strategic plans. However, some regional governments are carrying out their own plans. As detailed in Box 1 Oromia government is in the process of preparing integrated land use plans for various site-specific purposes where the planning sites are within a river basin, as part of a region-wide land use plan but separately from the River Basin Master Plan.This magnifies the problem of coordination and cooperation among different government ministries and agencies (ECSNCC 2010).The Fentale Irrigation Scheme was a pilot for the development of later schemes and progammes.It is now held up by the government as a flagship for good development. The scheme has led to the resettlement of 4,500 Kereyu pastoralist households (out of an anticipated 22,000), and will cost an estimated ETB 467 million. The Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (OWWSDE) was contracted to develop the scheme. Irrigated agriculture is being introduced across 16,000 ha of the 18,000 ha project area, though to date only 25% has been developed. A scoping mission to the area in January 2012 suggested that, although access to water has been improved, communities have received little training in crop production and fear that the 0.75 ha allocated to each household will not be enough for future use. Water users' associations have been established but are not strong and do not function properly; project staff are limited by lack of resources in terms of transport and skills; there is little feeling of \"ownership\" over the scheme and in some cases water pipes have been stolen; and there is a lack of potable water and health clinics for settlement areas. Uncontrolled use of irrigation is likely to result in problems of salinity in five years or so. Most households still keep livestock, but the promised grazing close to home has not materialised. Information to support decision-making is collected through evaluation of groundwater potential and the region's land potential. A land use planning study will take place, together with an integrated approach that will incr ease focus on issues such as dealing with invasive species, natural resource management (NRM), improving livestock production, and marketing. The programme has already settled communities voluntarily on tens of thousands of hectares in riverine areas along the Wabi Shebele, Genale, Dawa, and Web Rivers. Regional coordination offices are being established to manage the projects on the ground. Capacity building of woreda and regional government staff on planning and matters such as drilling supervision, and awareness creation on the usefulness of integrated basin development, are being carried out (Bantero 2012).SLM is a priority for Uganda and the government with partners, is in the process of developing a country-wide programme. This will be aligned with the investment plans of the agriculture and environmental sectors. The process was initiated in 2006 with a national workshop on SLM in order to develop stronger partnerships, increase resource mobilisation, transfer appropriate technology, and promote inter-sectoral coordination, integrated approaches, and cost-effective SLM is also a priority for Ethiopia, as most recently defined in the Ethiopia Strategic Investment Framework (ESIF) for Sustainable Land Management (2008). The ESIF-SLM sets key priorities for SLM-related investments, improving the policy, legal, institutional, and financial environments, and defines a strategy for scaling up SLM best practices and the approach and mechanisms for coordination, consultation, participation, and M&E. It aims to address the interlinked problems of poverty, vulnerability, and land degradation at the rural community level. The ESIF-SLM states (p.39) that \"narrow sector based projects have limited success in addressing the multi-dimensional problem of land degradation. Hence the need is for a comprehensive and integrated approach involving public and private partnerships between different sectoral agencies and other stakeholders\" (FDRE-MOA 2011). The ESIF-SLM is one of the first government initiatives in Ethiopia to recognise land degradation as \"a multi-dimensional problem, which the piecemeal efforts of different agencies in the past failed to tackle\" (ibid).The SLM implementing committees are organised at federal, regional, woreda, and community levels. The total project cost of SLM, including contingencies, is USD 37.79 million, of which a loan from the International Development Association (IDA) accounts for USD 20 million, the GEF USD 9 million, and the Government of Ethiopia (GOE) USD 8.79 million. To avoid duplication and to promote synergies, an SLM platform has been established to coordinate all SLM investments in Ethiopia. This mechanism comprises a national inter-agency steering committee chaired by the State Minister of the MOA (the Natural Resource Management Sector, or NRMS); a national technical committee that comprises representatives of government, civil society, and development agencies; and an SLM Support Unit in the MOA to provide administrative and technical support to the steering committee and the technical committee.Similar SLM platforms are replicated at regional level. Following the successes of watershed planning and management to date (see Flintan 2013), the SLM Support Unit is leading the implementation of the approach across 35 watersheds in (though not exclusive to) highland areas. 10 The selected watersheds are a sub-set of a much larger plan of the MOA to support SLM activities in 177 priority watersheds across the country. The project has significant capacity-building components for communities and local government (for more details, see FDRE-MOA 2011).10 These watersheds, each with an average size of about 10,000 ha, comprise 15-20 sub-watersheds. The project is expected to cover a total area of about 605,271 ha, benefiting around 1 million people (with funding from the World Bank/GEF, Germany's Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), and the Finnish government).The piloting of new processes, mechanisms, and activities by an NGO or development agency can reduce risks for the land user. This is of particular value where the risk is large. Several of the case studies here have introduced new ideas, processes, and approaches -and those that have been embedded in and/or worked closely with government have been particularly successful in scaling up good practice. Collaboration with research institutions and well networked development agencies can be important in this regard. A major constraint for planning is a lack of information and poorly developed information sharing systems.Communities in particular do not have access to information related to land use change or development planning.Here, two initiatives with potential for sustainable scaling-up are highlighted. Other examples are found in the larger document on which this issue paper is based (Flintan 2013).Land Use Master Plan in Kitengela, Kenya Since 1998 the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) has used conservation enterprises 11 as one among several strategic interventions for conserving wildlife to ensure that positive conservation and livelihood outcomes result at the landscape level. In general these activities take place on community land, where there is also a high conservation value. Commonly, land use plans have been developed to zone the community land into different areas of interest and use, and these have proved relatively successful in their implementation. However, in Kitengela, south of Nairobi, a much larger land use plan was produced in collaboration with the District Council, which has proved to be the first community-led land use plan approved by the GOK. RANGELANDS allowed for greater understanding of resource, zoning, and planning issues that affect Maasai pastoralists. Dialogue facilitated by this project led to agreement that a comprehensive and holistic LUP process that sought to protect and facilitate co-existence between the area's livestock and wildlife was required. This developed into a programme, headed by AWF and funded by USAID, to develop a Land Use Master Plan (LUMP) for the Kitengela (Kaputiei) area.The process of producing the plan is described in detail in Fitzgerald and Nkedianye In addition, the process had the support of a number of different individuals, organisations, and donors who were committed to seeing it through to the end. A Land Forum was established to coordinate this. The organisations involved provided different and complementary skills. These \"outside\" interest groups shared the vision of the local communities -halting fragmentation of land and a better securing of rights. Those organisations involved that were research-oriented, such as ILRI, saw the process as \"a 'continual engagement model' creating 'research-action arenas' in order to better integrate knowledge from policy makers, communities and researchers … [and] the creation of a core boundary-spanning team, including community facilitators, a policy facilitator, and trans-disciplinary researchers, responsible for linking with a wide range of actors from local to global scales… This model focused on the creation of hybrid scientific-local knowledge highly relevant to community and policy maker needs\" (Reid et al. 2009).The LUMP was prepared within the legal framework of the Physical Planning Act Cap. 286, which empowers local authorities to control, guide, and prohibit developments, while recognising individual stakeholders and community participation in spatial plan-making processes. The LUMP includes a zonation plan for the region. This limits sub-divisions in the various zones and outlines the permitted expansion zones for urban areas, to stop the increasing encroachment of human settlement on prime agricultural and pasture areas and reduces fragmentation risks. The LUMP designates areas for livestock and wildlife as well as for urban development, and includes restrictions on various land uses in each zone. It balances different land uses and demonstrates that wildlife, pastoralism, and development can co-exist by means of a coordinated plan.Participation in this process gave pastoralists and other land users increased awareness on land matters and greater strength in and power over decision-making processes. Radio broadcasts in Maa were used to ensure that everyone, including community members who were illiterate, understood the planned LUMP and participated in discussions. By March 2010 an estimated 2,500 households had been reached through 13 radio programmes. AWF also provided capacity support to local landowner associations in land management, governance, and financial management.After considerable pressure from the community and the KPF through lobbying, letter writing, and personal meetings, in June 2010 the Olkejuado CC adopted the LUMP. This made it the first community-initiated land use plan to be approved by the Kenyan government (the Ministry of Lands) and the first local land use plan for wildlife conservation areas in Kenya.The implementation of the LUMP, as per Kenya's planning laws, needs to be led by the local authority, in this case the CC of Olkejuado. The council's lack of participation in the development and launch of the LUMP, however, suggests a lack of interest and ability to implement the plan.One of the key challenges is oversight over a broad geographical area. Sub-division and land sales are happening at a pace that is difficult for local authorities to keep track of. There are Urban sprawl and the expanding industrial zone in the Kitengela area conflicts with livestock production in the area also a number of parcels of land with \"unknown\" owners, making any regulation of land use extremely difficult. The land control boards play a critical role in supporting land use plans as these bodies review and approve sub-division. The Isinya Land Board has requested that the LUMP's spatial maps be used for the approval or rejection of requested sub-divisions.Planning needs to be built on trusted and broad community representation if it is to receive general acceptance. The employment of staff from the local area helped the process to succeed: they better understood and steered it through the asymmetries of power at the local level. The communities across the project area were engaged throughout the process. The varied layers of community groups, landowner associations, and the Land Forum present a workable model that will help other regions to ensure community awareness. Tools such as radio programmes are cost-effective ways of reaching the community (Fitzgerald and Nkedianye forthcoming).The adoption of the LUMP (see Figure 4) comes at a time when Kenya is undergoing structural revisions because of a new Constitution and new policies. Though these revisions strengthen the rationale for and role of land use plans as part of the devolution process, it is not clear exactly how the new structures will influence implementation. 12   Pastoral communities have weak security of access to resources and land in Ethiopia, with no formal land tenure system defined for the majority of pastoral areas (Afar region being the exception). In an effort to offer a model for better securing of rights to resources, Save the Children USA developed a participatory rangeland management (PRM) approach (Flintan and Cullis 2010) drawing from and building on the well accepted participatory forest management (PFM) approach now being mainstreamed throughout the country.PRM is made up of three key stages (see Figure 5). An appropriate unit for rangeland management (such as a traditional grazing area) is defined with the community and other stakeholders. Rangeland resources are identified and an appropriate community association or institution is strengthened or set up. A rangeland management plan is developed based on an in-depth rangeland inventory and community action planning. Access to resources is made more secure through the drawing up of a legally binding rangeland management agreement between the community and local government, with rules and regulations (bylaws) defined, based on the rangeland management plan.Participatory rangeland management provides opportunities for rangeland users to be part of planning processes Currently PRM is being piloted in Bale zone, Oromia region by FARM Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia.The pilot kebele have been divided into blocks encompassing at least 80 households of between 6,000 ha and 22,000 ha per block depending on population density, the terrain and resources found there. These blocks form the starting point for data collection (rangeland inventory) and establishing management. The project aims to support the development of rangeland management agreements between communities and local government for management and use of the rangeland resources. It is anticipated that disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaptation (CCA) aspects will be incorporated into these agreements. To date, there are three dheeda 13 stakeholder action plans. However, neither of these approaches has yet produced a formal agreement to secure rights to resources between local rangeland users and local government, though it is hoped that at least one PNRM agreement will be achieved over the next few months.These approaches provide opportunities for landscape users and other stakeholders to be fully engaged in the planning and implementation of processes and activities related to landscape access and management at the local level. Indigenous knowledge, experience, and institutions are starting points for cooperation and learning. PNRM uses this as the foundation for analysis, planning, and decision-making -it provides room for different stakeholders to come together, discuss, identify challenges and analyse their causes, produce a common vision for development, negotiate, and agree on short-and long-term plans and roles for their implementation. It puts greater emphasis on community stakeholders to solve their problems and to implement solutions that work for them and the given context, without depending on external resources and \"expertise\". It is an approach based on longer-term facilitation of change processes, rather than being a short-term, event-focused approach.PRM provides an opportunity for planning and decision-making in a holistic and integrated manner, bringing different stakeholders together and providing space for a joint planning process. This occurs at a scale that is appropriate for local production and management systems. Development based on the sustainable use and management of resources has a greater chance of being successful in the long term. Implementation too demands an integrated approach that is led by local communities but involves other actors, including the private sector. The production of a management plan is not only a valuable process in its own right but also provides strategic direction for those involved.The approach is both transformative and participatory: the processes and structures developed are as important as the tools used during these processes or the improved techniques applied and activities implemented during the realisation of action plans. The right approach may not be identified immediately and adaptation or realignment may be required as the process develops.If the right structures, processes, and institutions are in place, then it is more likely that decisions made and solutions identified will be appropriate for a given context. This is likely to differ in situations where customary institutions are strong and in those where they are weak.Where customary institutions are weak, it may be necessary to support the development of new or adapted institutions that can develop the necessary skills and assume the appropriate authority to make required decisions. Where customary institutions exist, modern or statutory frameworks should not undermine their authority. Otherwise a situation will be created where customary authorities operate on the ground but have little or no power, while those institutions that have power have no presence or mandate on the ground.State authorities are best positioned for coordinating planning processes in rangelands. Those initiatives reviewed in this document that have worked closely with government and/or are well embedded in government structures at different levels have proved to be more sustainable than those that are not. Working with or through government strengthens the likelihood of processes and approaches being incorporated into future interventions. If a project or pilot works in an isolated manner its impact is likely to be less than if it works with partners who can take forward the lessons learned. Being part of an iterative learning process helps those involved to understand how processes evolve, how problems can be overcome, and how positive outcomes can be optimised.Experience has shown that some preconditions are required in order to conduct participatory land use planning activities successfully in a country or region. These are: » Freedom of assembly, opinion, and expression; » Existing need and demand for land use planning; » Political will to define land uses in a transparent and participatory way;» Willingness of all stakeholders to discuss together the optimum sustainable use of land and other resources -including high-ranking politicians, public authorities, and private investors;» Legal security and rule of law to ensure that all parties stick to the land use plan;» Integration of land use planning into official institutions and structures, resulting in legally binding land use plans (Wehrman 2011).In the three countries reviewed here, there is a significant way to go before these preconditions are fully realised. Land users are normally not included in land use planning decision-making processes. Not only is this a matter of poor representation processes; it is also because land users have little incentive to invest time and resources in such processes if they do not have secure access to the land. River basin and watershed planning are positive initiatives and go some way to addressing these gaps; however, firstly they may not take a systems approach to planning and, secondly, little thought has gone into adapting them appropriately to the specific characteristics of rangelands.Unless appropriate integrated and rangelands-specific planning takes place, the drive to focus on the development of rangelands with \"water as an entry point\" risks a return to the development interventions of the 1970s that have been criticised for failing to achieve their objectives and for destroying pastoral systems and societies (see Box 2). Rather, water needs to be considered as one component of many in the inter-related systems of drylands, and its relationships with and impact on other components need to be accounted for. Restricted and inflexible concepts such as carrying capacities also need to be considered with this in mind. Figure 6 shows the wells built as a result of the Arero Rangeland Development Project in the early 1970s, where an area east of Yabello town was demarcated into grazing blocks of 5x5 miles, with four blocks (i.e. 100 square miles) forming a grazing unit. Two ponds were constructed in each grazing unit. The plan was that a restricted number of livestock would occupy a grazing unit for three months in the dry season, using a rotational system to improve livestock productivity.Under this project, 16 ponds were constructed between 1970 and 1974, each with a capacity of between 10,000 and 60,000 cubic metres.Figure 7 shows one of several projects planned in relation to the water supply project currently being implemented in Borana. This water project will provide water for both domestic and livestock use. Based on MDG goals, water should be available within a 3km round trip in rural areas. Supply of water for livestock is based on the calculation that cattle (with sheep) require 4 ha of land, 15 l/c/d of water and should not be more than 5km from a water point. Camels (with goats) require 6 ha of land and 20 l/c/d, and should not be more than 7.5km from a water point.In both cases the rigid, pre-calculated use of the land based on perceived water requirements sits uneasily with the flexible and adaptive nature of resilient rangeland (including pastoral) systems. Though the importance of community participation is recognised and positive steps have been taken to mainstream participatory approaches, full inclusion is often not achieved. There is still a disconnect between decisions made in government offices and community planning on the ground. Rarely is there free, prior and informed consent of rangeland users for large infrastructure projects, even though these may have a fundamental impact on their livelihoods. \"Participation\" of communities tends to be through consultation rather than as partners who should in fact be leading the process at the local level. Pastoralists in particular feel that their views and needs are not incorporated into development planning. Good facilitators are hard to come by and it is difficult to retain and engage trainers without good incentives. Dependency of communities has been created by too much reliance on external technology. Regular dialogue and consensus building are vital for community mobilisation. For an action to succeed of the magnitude that many planning processes are, the issue in question must be salient, credible, and legitimate in the eyes of community members.Where community participation is a priority, women have taken an active role in the land use and development planning processes. However, the more complex addressing of gender issues (the balance of power, access to information and education, and control of resources) tends to be sidelined or added on as an afterthought. Women need to feel valued and to have an incentive in order to be willing to actively participate in meetings or activities.Changes in society such as more educated youth, exposure to different lifestyles, and more individualised values have redefined the way in which people interact with each other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources. Increasingly, customary institutions are left with little power, while those that have power have no presence on the ground. It is thus important to fill this governance and management vacuum in the most appropriate manner, and attempts have been made in the case studies here, with varying degrees of success. Hybrid governance structures incorporating both government and community institutions may be appropriate but these require significant support, including capacity building. Integrated large-scale planning is challenging. Programmes such as river basin development have often been over-ambitious and inflexible and have tried to adopt a blueprint approach, resulting in limited success. Interventions that provide opportunities for reflection, feedback, and adaptation are better positioned to cope with new challenges and problems (identified and solved in a participatory manner), and therefore are more likely to be sustainable in the long term. Projects and programmes must be based on realistic goals that are attainable within their lifespans and with the resources available. Planning is not an event but a process to be invested in.Planning and development of livestock watering points in drylands needs to be carried out in an integrated and participatory manner There has been inadequate M&E (and in particular independent evaluations) of interventions and insufficient follow-up to training. Where M&E has taken place, it has focused on tangible outputs rather than on important processes, such as who takes part, how and why they take part, or why something is working and another thing is not. There are weak linkages with informal and iterative learning processes. Participatory M&E systems may be supported but are lacking in design and implementation .The majority of drylands can have a major comparative advantage over non-dryland areas in livestock, tourism, renewable energy, and other uses. They are strategically located as the bridgehead to new markets beyond country borders. Large infrastructure investments are being established, including the LAPSSET corridor and related developments. However, if the opportunities created by these are to be realised, their planning needs to fully account for and incorporate their linkages to and likely impacts on the wider drylands area and the communities living there.From central government to local, there are new opportunities for more integrated planning and implementation that respond to the unique constraints and attributes of drylands and more specifically rangelands, and that can be sustained in the longer term. New drylands and ASAL-focused bodies and platforms provide opportunities for better and more appropriate support for livestock production systems. Tenure security and its enforcement, DRR, and the building of resilience of drylands and dryland communities all need to be considered in efforts to improve planning in rangelands.As a result of stronger devolution processes, mid-level layers of government will find it difficult to avoid land use planning and/or ignore existing land use plans. The success of good practice examples highlighted in this review opens the door for scaling up and replication. Tenure security for many inhabitants of rangelands is still a problem. This requires urgent attention, in particular in the face of the appropriation and in some cases \"grabbing\" of land, and increasing land use changes (both externally and internally driven). Across Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia opportunities exist for strengthening land tenure in rangelands, and resources and support are available for this. The lack of land use plans across the three countries has proved to be a debilitating factor for good integrated rangelands planning: all three countries have recognised this and have taken steps to produce plans at both national and other levels. This requires significant support from donors and NGOs.In all three countries, aid activities and support in drylands are moving from a majority humanitarian or food security-focused response to responses based on longer-term development. The new (for many) focus on \"resilience building\" provides a rationale and opportunities for focusing on and incorporating systems-based and non-linear approaches to development that are better suited to drylands than simple, linear, cause-and-effect approaches. It also provides opportunities for natural science to be brought back into the development narrative. The commitment of all three countries to the IDDRSI process, which has resilience building at its core, and the production of country programme papers to end drought emergencies, are reflections of this. New approaches to planning and in particular those that work with both government and communities to plan at scale, such as river basin planning, watershed management, ecosystem management, and PRM, are providing an increasing evidence base and proof that planning at scale is beneficial for both the environment and for societies. Where NGOs are trying to influence policy and legislative change, it is important to collaborate and provide a united front for advocacy and lobbying.Both government and NGOs are seeking to build capacity at different levels. There are increasing opportunities for investments from the private sector (e.g. commercial investors, water service delivery companies) or through carbon offsetting, and from donors (including the Global Alliance supporting IGAD's DDRSI process). There are also a number of integrated pastoral-focused programmes that have been established in recent months. Rewards (financial or non-financial) for environmental services and for voluntary and regulatory arrangements are also a relatively new source of funding, while also supporting a change in behaviour towards sustainable and adapted management of these ecosystems. The development of contingency funds for drought (and, for example, crisis modifiers) provide opportunities for readily available funds that can be mobilised quickly in order to respond effectively to crises such as droughts. This is a good example of how funds can be devolved to local authorities to better respond to local situations and needs.NGOs today are better placed and committed to working together than they have been in the past. Some donors have encouraged this, and such collaboration provides excellent opportunities for working and planning together. However, beyond these collaborative projects, NGOs still tend to work in \"silos\", and much can be done to improve joint planning, sharing of and more efficient use of resources, and \"harmonisation\" of approaches. Experience in the region has shown the value of conservation and research organisations working with development organisations. And with more decision-making power at lower levels, there should be more opportunity for coordination; however, where it is necessary to work across lower-level administrative boundaries, coordination bodies will be required to manage this (likely at higher levels). Over the past two decades, the number of regional and cross-continental bodies and initiatives has increased in order to provide a stronger, united, collaborative foundation for economic growth, pastoralism, NRM, and so on. These include the African Union, the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), and NEPAD, including the Land Policy Initiative and the Pastoralism Framework; the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); CAADP; the East Africa Community (EAC); and the Nile Basin Initiative. These bodies provide different integration and coordination roles. The IDDRSI also provides an opportunity for cross-regional development coordination and drought response.Inclusion and participation are espoused across the constitutions, policies, and legislative framework in all the countries covered in this review. Communities are better placed to demand their role in decision-making and planning. However, in practice higher levels of participation of local rangeland users are still elusive. In general there is recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge and its incorporation into decision-making, and there is increasing evidence to support this. External actors such as NGOs can play a facilitating role in assisting communities to define their agendas, organise for advocacy, and engage with other stakeholders.In rangelands there is a much stronger case for governance structures to cut across administrative boundaries in order to reflect the reality of resource use and mobility. In this case a \"nested\" governance structure can hold more relevance, with governing institutions in place and functioning for each different layer of resource use (as it decreases in terms of numbers of uses and area from a landscape or rangeland to a well or tree). In a well functioning rangeland society there will be structures set up to govern these different resource units. And it is these units and their structures that traditionally form the basis of rangelands planning. As such, they should also form the basis of more formalised rangeland planning processes, including those led by government (and NGOs). The timing of planning in rangeland communities may also be different from government (and NGO) planning cycles.This demands a much more flexible planning timeframe. In Kenya the collapse of traditional authority is the main motivation for the establishment of WRUAs and other organisations for the management of natural resources, which derive their authority and legitimacy from statutory instruments and depend for enforcement of their rules on the formal machinery of law and order. WRUAs are different from traditional institutions in that they are made up of men, women, and youth and no preference is given to elders. Leaders of WRUAs are instead young people who have education and capacity to engage with government and other modern frameworks. However, it is recognised that for positive societal transformation the inclusion of elders is still important, and in some cases efforts are being made to ensure that elders are part of the WRUA membership and leadership (Odhiambo 2012).The sustained disruption of inter-related ecosystem and social processes in rangelands due to inappropriate development interventions and poor planning, together with protracted crises exacerbated by climate change and intermittent disasters, threatens the capacity of these systems to sustainably support food security and livelihoods in the future. There remains a bias in development policies and their implementation against rangelands, whose particular characteristics and requirements are not considered.Where good policies, legislation, and development strategies exist for rangelands, their implementation can be poor, aggravated by the lack of resources and poor capacities of local-level government in particular to implement them. Capacity building is crucial to enable institutional bodies and individual actors to achieve competence in implementing new measures. Finally, it is vital that funding and budgetary allocations are brought into line with the contribution that arid and semi-arid lands make both to national economies and to global well-being, and that they are adequate to support the often lengthy, complex, and in-depth processes of planning in drylands that are required.It is evident from this review that a number of initiatives are under way that have the potential to support the sustainable management of resources and improve the livelihoods of rangeland communities in the arid and semi-arid lands of the greater Horn of Africa. Though many of the initiatives are in their early stages, lessons have been learned that should form the basis for future development. A set of principles for rangelands planning is given in Box 3, and key recommendations are made below. » Systems approach, including environmental and livelihood concerns, plus influence of \"external\" factors.» Embedded in government systems, structures, and policies.» People-centred, demand-driven, community-owned.» Inclusiveness (particularly including mobile pastoralists).» Governance clear (roles/responsibilities) and functioning (including conflict resolution): potentially a \"nested\" governance approach.» Capacity building a priority (including problem-solving, knowledge management/ access, communication).» Transformative and iterative learning processes and innovation.» DRR and CCA mainstreamed.» Scal able and sustainable.Recommendations for improving integrated rangelands planning in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda For governments » Establish, strengthen, and enforce policies, legislation, structures, and mechanisms for development planning in the rangelands that provide for a more devolved, integrated, participatory, flexible, and adaptive approach that better reflects realities on the ground.A \"systems approach\" to development planning is appropriate.» Establish, strengthen, and enforce policies and legislation that protect the rights of local rangeland users to their land and resources.» Invest in the building of capacity of local government authorities in order to better understand the characteristics and requirements of rangeland environments and communities, and to support their transformation into more sustainable and productive entities, as appropriate.» Ensure that coordination mechanisms and structures are functioning and well resourced, in order to support multi-sector integrated planning.» Develop comprehensive land use plans for the country, with input from rangeland communities. Land use plans should also be developed for regions, counties, or zones as appropriate.» Work with the commercial sector and facilitate its greater involvement in development planning processes, in order to more effectively develop the provision of services that are well managed by communities.For donors » Fund development planning in the drylands and more specifically rangelands as a priority -at regional, national, or local levels. This can be government-, NGO-, or communityled. In all cases the involvement of government and community should be central, and linkages built up between the two. The capacities of both these actors (to lead and/or take part in planning processes) also need to be built up.» Provide longer-term and flexible funding that can better support the complex, multisectoral, multi-actor, often dynamic and protracted processes of planning in rangelands.Positive change can only be achieved if the appropriate finances are secured.» Fund the development of country-wide land use plans together with regional, county, or zonal plans as appropriate. This is likely to involve providing funds for the building up of the capacity of governmental experts to undertake land use planning and related activities.» Fund the piloting of different planning and management initiatives that contribute to the collection and sharing of good practice in order to influence better planning processes at government and community levels.» Fund the development of improved knowledge management systems that contain upto-date and appropriate information for development planning in rangelands, which is accessible and updated on a regular basis.» Use funding to leverage coordination and collaboration between different groups of development actors in order to develop better development planning and implementation.For NGOs and development agencies » Improve and develop processes and interventions that take a systems approach to development and environmental management, such as resilience-building. » Build the capacity of their own staff so that they better understand dryland/rangeland systems and are able to plan and develop appropriate activities that support them.Building skills such as conflict resolution, facilitating negotiation and consensus building, and participatory research and planning is also important.» Plan and implement programmes and activities at a scale appropriate for rangelands; this should follow the \"nested\" governance and management systems that exist in rangelands.» Pilot different planning and management initiatives that contribute to the collection and sharing of good practice in order to influence better planning processes at government and community levels. This should be done in conjunction with research-focused organisations and local government, and with independent evaluations carried out.» Assist governments in building the capacity of their staff in land administration, land use planning, integrated development planning (of which land use planning should be a part), institution building, and participatory approaches.» Improve collaboration and coordination of activities and information sharing with other NGOs, governments, and communities. Conservation organisations can provide expertise and experience in land use planning, and should be included in planning processes.For research organisations » As a priority, work with other research organisations, governments, NGOs, and communities to develop appropriate and context-specific planning processes that support sustainable development in the drylands This includes assisting them to better understand the particular characteristics and requirements of rangelands, and how best planning processes can reflect and account for these.» Improve collaboration and coordination of activities and information sharing with other research organisations, NGOs, governments, and communities through, for example, participating in platforms, technical working groups, and committees that are established for this purpose.» Pilot different planning and management initiatives that contribute to the collection and sharing of good practice in order to influence better planning processes at government and community levels. This should be done in conjunction with NGOs and local government.» Assist governments to develop improved knowledge management systems that contain up-to-date and appropriate information for development planning in rangelands, which is accessible and updated on a regular basis.» Work with other organisations to lobby and advocate for an improved policy and legislative environment for more sustainable and participatory development planning in rangelands. This includes better land policies and legislation that provide stronger security of rights to land and resources for rangeland users.» Encourage and assist communities to mobilise themselves in order to improve their planning processes, and to contribute to government-led ones. Communities' awareness of the benefits of doing so will need to be improved, and their skills and capacity to do so supported.» Assist communities to consider and agree their vision for the future, in order to be better prepared when opportunities arise to contribute to development planning processes.» Develop partnerships with other actors including government, NGOs (both development and conservation NGOs), and commercial companies. All can offer different resource, support, and capacity assistance -and taking a more strategic and planned approach to working with them can be advantageous.","tokenCount":"12879"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"87140af0448be1471f000ebfea293fe4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e6325bf4-340b-41e6-812a-93b772534425/retrieve","id":"1903013142"},"keywords":["Pinedal, C. Ordóñez2, J. Carabalí2, L. Foryl, S. Sánchez2, P. Olayal, E. Tabaresl, and Z. Lentinil, 2 1 SB2, 2IP4. Funding from GTZ, Germany. Project No. 99.7860.2-001.00 Pinedal, L. Foryl, E. GonzáJez l, A Mora2, T. Agrono2, C. Ordoñez2, C. Cruz2, E. Bolaños l , C.Doradol, A Minal, M.C. Duque l. 2, J. Silva2 and Z. Lentinil, 2 1 SB2, 2 IP4. GTZ, Germany. Project No. 99.7860.2-001.00 CIAT core funds , Ministerio Agricultura Colombia Lindarte. Memorias del Taller Regional, Parque Nacional lguazú, Argentina. Biotechnology Advisory Cornmision -llCA. Jacfoud, D.","Peng, K.","Feinstein, D. and Kilian, A. 2001. Diversity arrays: A solid state technology for sequence inforrnation. Nucleic Acids Res. 29: e25"],"sieverID":"941e718b-e94a-4b5c-a6f8-2ae619d1c1ac","pagecount":"484","content":"Narra ti ve Summary Measurable Indicators Means of Verification Goal To contribute to the sustainable increase of productivity CIA T scientists and partners using biotec hnology CIA T and NARS pubUcaúons. and quality of mandated and othcr priority crops, and the infom1atioo and tools in crop research. Statistics on agric ulture and biodive rsity. conservation of agrobiodiver¡ity in tropical countries. Genetic stocks available to key CIA T _Qartners. Purpose To conserve the genetic diversity and ensure lhat lnformatioo on diversity of wild and culúvated species. Publications, repons, and project proposals. characterized agrobiodiversity, improved crop geoetic Mapped economic genes and gene complexes. stocks, and modero molecular and cellular rnethods and lmproved genetic stocks, Unes, and populations. toob are used by CIAT and NARS scientists for i~viog, usiog. and cooserviog crop genetic resowt:es. Output 1 Geno mes chancterized of wild and c ultivated species of Molecular iofonnation on diversity of rnaodated and Publications, repons, and project proposals. rnalldated and ooomandated crops and of associated noomandated crops species, and relate<! organisrns. Germplasm. o-ganisrns. Bioinformatic techniques iq¡lemcnted.. AvailabiUty of a laboratory information management QTL.s for yield componeot in rice, for nutritioo traits in system (LlMS). beans and cassava, and for oitrification and Altolerance in Brachiarla. Outputl Geoomes modif~ed: genes and gene combioations used to Transgeoic lines of rice and advaoces in cassava, beans, Pubtications, repons, and project proposals. broadeo the genetic base of Dlandated and ooomaodated Brachiaria, and othcr crops. Germplasm. crops. Cloned genes for iron. zinc and drought traits Clooed genes and preparation of gene coostructs. Information on oew transformation and tissue culture techniques. OutputJ Collaboration with public• a nd private-sector partncrs CIA T partnell in LDCs using information and geoetic Publications. enllaoced. stocks. Trairung courses and workshops. New partoerships with private sector. Project proposals. ll Important Assumptions Pro-active participation of CIAT and NARS agricultura! scientists and biologists. 1 AvailabiUty of up-to-date genomics equiprneot. and operatiooal funding. lPR management to access genes and gene promoters. Biosafety regulatioos in place.Govemment and indus try support national biotecll irutiatives.The field work is part of the monitoring of wild forms of common bean, genetically compatible with the cultivated form (landraces, commercial cultivars). lt includes: the mapping of all populations in one geographic area (either through collection consultations or direct visits), the spotting of observed cases of gene flow, and the study of the conditions by which gene flow is created and maintained.During this field work (December 2002-January 2003), we were interested in 1) searching more populations of wild common bean in the Valle Central of Costa Rica, 2) verifying the stability of wild-weed-crop complexes spotted in previous field works (1987,1998), 3) finding more 'intermediate' materials that would deserve study by molecular markers (see section 3). The methodology followed was the one defined elsewhere to look for wild Phaseolus species (Debouck 1988).The results of the field work can be seen in the following table and figure. The number of known populations for wild Phaseolus vulgaris L. has been doubled as compared to previous works (Debouck et al. 1989;Araya et al. 2001), and currently covers most of the Central Valley.The field work has revealed the low permanency of wild-weed-crop complexes once the planting of bean crop has been discontinued, as in Aseni and Tarbaca, and to a lower extent Quircot. Of equal importance for the permanence of a complex is the maintenance of a 'weedy' environment: if farmers are using herbicides as in sorne plots in Quircot, wild and weedy forms disappear. If the original humid forest vegetation is allowed to come back as in Tres Ríos, complexes and populations of wild forms tend to regress as well. If farmers are switching to cash crops (such as the year-bean, P. dumosus) instead of maintaining traditional landraces, then the complexes regress. Interestingly, the field work has revealed natural hybrids with P. costaricensis, perhaps of value in future breeding. _ Finally, it seems important to report that while farmers know about the presence of the wild and íntermediate forms, in our case study site (= Quircot) they do not longer make selections in the segregating populations resulting from natural hybridizations. This situation is in contrast with that observed in certain parts of the Colombian and PeruvianIn this part, gene flow is studied in the field in Costa Rica under conditions at the experimental stations of Alajuela (840 m) and Fraijanes (1850 m). The design (plot planted with beans, of 15 x 15 m) has been standardized and is used planting after planting at these stations. Two subplots of white-flowered and white-seeded bean variety are planted on both sides of a plot with lilac-flowered and black-seeded bean variety. The white-seeded variety cumulates recessive characters such as green hypocotyl and green stems, while the black-seeded variety has dominant characters such as purple hypocotyl and colored intemodes. Intensity of gene flow is measured by countings of purple hypocotyls on seedlings from seed harvested in the plots with recessive lines. If gene flow through pollen carried by bees or other insects has occurred, the seed harvested on the white-flowered lines is hybrid, and with purple hypocotyl being dominant over the green recessive hypocotyl, these hybrids can be easily picked up quickly after germination.The % of outcrossing has been of 0.06 and 0.03% at Alajuela for two trials, while it has been of 0.03% at Fraijanes for one trial. There is a marked effect of the dominant wind at Alajuela, while it is less marked at Fraijanes. Main pollinators observed were bees (Apis) and carpenter bees (Xylocopa). There is also a marked distance effect, since hybrid plants are observed in rows 1-10, and mainly in rows 1-5 (row 1 is the closest to the pollen donor line, while row 10 is at the extreme, or 6 m from the border of the pollen donor line).R.I. González-Torres 1 , E. Gaitán 2 , J. Tohme 2 and D.G. Debouck 3 'Universidad Nacional, 2 SB-2 Project; 3 We present here evidence on gene flow between wild and cultivated forms of common bean in Costa Rica in addition to our previous work (González-Torres et al. 2003).Seeds were collected from natural populations in the Central Valley of Costa Rica as previously reported (González-Torres et al. 2003). We focus on 226 'weedy' or 'intermediate' materials initially selected on morpho-agronomic characteristics, which phenotype is inherited from possible hybridization between wild and cultivated materials. A similar procedure has been used by Papa & Gepts (2003). The analyses were conducted on: 1) morpho-agronomic evaluation; 2) biochernical analysis of phaseolin by SDS-PAGE (Gepts et al. 1986), and isozymes: diaphorase (DIA) and peroxidase (PRX) according to Ramírez et al. (1987), and 3) molecular marker analysis: eight rnicrosatellite primers reported by Gaitán-Solis et al. (2002), and cpDNA polymorphisms by PCR-RFLPs following the protocol of Chacón-Sánchez (2001).The wild populations showed mainly two phaseolin pa~tems, S-4 and S (Table : morphological, biochemical and molecular markers used and No. individuals analyzed for each parameter). In cultivated materials, the phaseolins T , Sb and S-4 were also observed although in low frequency.The figure is a representation of markers used on a selection of individuals; bar height shows the weight (g) of 100 seeds. The shortest bar represents mainly wild characteristics and the longest bar is a description of cultivated materials. The other bars show exchange among individuals of the following markers: shared SSR alleles, change in cpDNA haplotypes, seed weight, isozymes and phaseolin pattems. In individuals 1 and 2, all the evaluated parameters are \"wild\" and they have a hybrid SSR locus, which suggests a recent crossing of wild material with pollen of cultivated material. Seed size of individual 3 could be a phenotypic consequence of more than one past event of gene flow from cultivated material into the wild form, because all evaluated parameters are \"wild\" including hypocotyl color (purple), purple flower, 85 days to flowering and growth habit IV. Besides, its F2 displays a weight of 10.3 g, which suggests that it has kept \"wild\" characteristics and acquired a \"cultivated\" seed size. Individual 8 has hybrid isozymes, \"wild\" microsatellites and phaseolin, but it has a \"cultivated\" chloroplast haplotype. Individual 9 has the same characteristics as individual 8 but it has \"wild\" isozymes. These materials may represent cases of repeated gene flow of culti vated materials crossed with wild forms. Individual 14 is hybrid (PRX enzyme and one SSR locus), meaning that it comes from recent flow of \"wild\" pollen into a cultivated form. The evaluation of 22 cases from Costa Rica indicates that all materials are indeed product of a hybridization showing that the methodology implemented in the selection of the intermediate materials was the appropriate one. Papa et al. (2003) found in intermediate materials of Mexico that the contribution of cultivated parental population was significantly higher than the wild parental one. So far, for these materials of Costa Rica, we have found a more important gene flow from wild material into the culti vated type. The introduction of beans to the Caribbean was postulated to have occurred from northern South America along the \"Arawak are\" of Leeward Islands long before the Spanish Conquest. The Caribbean was also know to have been influenced by the pre-Colombian cultures of Central America. Therefore, the Caribbean was a transition zone between the two regions and was likely to have hada mix of bean germplasm even before the time of the colonies. Later, as a trading center and way station for the Europeans, the Caribbean likely received new crops and varieties from all over Latin Arnerica. This rich heritage makes the Caribbean even today a probable center of secondary diversity for beans. Caribbean nations and societies meanwhile have undergone rapid changes in the past fifty years, which have Jed to the abandonment of agriculture in many places there. Where agriculture holds on, such as the interior of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) farm-size is small and land pressure is intense leading to environmental degradation and emigration from rural areas. Given all this it is interesting to document and preserve the genetic diversity of beans that are still left in the Caribbean. At the University of Puerto Rico, the bean program has collected traditional bean types at local markets or from farmers, most of which were classified as \"Andean\" because of their seed size and color class. The UPR researchers have conducted a genetic diversity analysis of this germplasm using RAPDs and comparing this germplasm to other \"Andean\" genotypes from the Dominican Republic and CIAT. Last year we reported the Phaseolin types found in this germplasm and the probable Andean x Mesoamerican hybrid origin of many of the accessions with \"Andean\" seed types found in the Caribbean. The objective of this work was to validate these results by characterizing the same germplasm set for microsatellite diversity.A total of 129 entries of common bean genotypes were genotyped as described in 2002 Annual Report. These included a total of 112 traditional varieties (or selections thereof) from the Caribbean (65 from Dominican Republic; 18 from Haiti, 26 from Puerto Rico, and 1 each from Cuba, Panama and Jamaica). In addition, 16 check varieties were included of which 8 were advanced breeding lines from CIAT (DRK57, AFR735, CAL96, AFR619, AFR699, DOR364, A36, AND109), 1 was an advanced breeding line from the University of Puerto Rico (UPR9443-4), 3 were varieties from Colombia (ICA Palmar, ICA Pijao and Calima); 2 were varieties from the USA (Redhawk and Montcalm), 1 was a variety from Peru (Blanco Laran) and another was a germplasm accession that has been extensively characterized at CIAT (019833, Northem Peru). DNA was extracted frorn the young trifoliate leaf of a single seedling frorn each accession using a arnmonium acetate extraction technique. Microsatellite PCR reactions and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis were as described previously. Silver-stained gels were dried ovemight and scanned for data analysis.A total of 27 microsatellite markers (19 genornic and 8 gene-based markers) were selected to evaluate the genotypes (Table 1). A mínimum of one marker was selected per chromosome and the rest were chosen based on genornic representation and good arnplification. Only single copy microsatellites were evaluated and in all cases single bands were called. Band sizing and allele calling was done based on comparisons to 25 bp size standard ladders that were used two times per gel. Heterozygosity was not evaluated given that only a single plant per accession was sarnpled. The total number of alleles evaluated across all 27 markers was 118 and on average each marker revealed 4.4 alleles each. The number of alleles and discrirnination power (D) values were significantly higher for genornic rnicrosatellites (6.1 alleles, 0.622 D value) than for gene-based microsatellites (4.3 alleles, 0.513 D value) based on unpaired t-test (at P<0.05). The most polymorphic markers in terms of number of alleles or high D values were OATs91 (12 alleles, 0.889 D value), BM152 (12 alleles, 0.782 D value) and BM143 (10 alleles, 0.780 D value). The least polymorphic markers in terms of either low number of alleles (3 alleles or less) or low D values (D<0.500) were BM142, BM155, BMdlO, BMd15, BMd26, BMc5, BMy4, OATsllB and OATs54 of which five were gene-based and the others were genornic.Microsatellite analysis uncovered two major groups arnong the Caribbean germplasm: an Andean group that was similar to the controls 019833 and Calima; anda Mesoarnerican group that was similar to the controls ICA Pijao and DOR364 (Figure 1). These two genepools were related ata 0.18 Dice similarity value.There were a greater number of accessions and a higher overall diversity within the Andean group (79 accessions, 0.47 to 0.99 Dice sirnilarity values) than within the Mesoarnerican group (49 genotypes, 0.65 to 0.99 Dice sirnilarity values) of this dendrogram. Microsatellite markers were ideal markers to distinguish the fine-scale relationships within these genepools. In the case of the Caribbean germplasm with an Andean affinity, all the landraces and breeding lines .were more similar to the Colombian control genotype Calima (red mottled crearn), than to the Peruvian control genotype 019833 (red mottled yellow). This was expected since many of the Caribbean Andean genotypes are red mottled like Calima and probably derived from the Northem Andes rather than from Central Andean areas of South America such as Peru. It was also noteworthy that the Caribbean genotypes with a Mesoamerican affinity were more closely related to each other than they were to the black seeded and small red seeded control genotypes DOR364 and ICA Pij ao. This also might be expected given the Caribbean Mesoamerican genotypes represent distinct germplasm probably derived frorn inter genepool hybridization but isolated frorn the Central American germplasm frorn which they rnay have arisen. Such inter-genepool hybridization rnay explain how the red rnottled seed coat color was transferred from the Andean genepool into Mesoamerican-like germplasm.The gerrnplasrn assignments of the Caribbean genotypes were generally supported by the previous phaseolin analysis, with ''T\" phaseolin being predominant in the Andean germplasm group and \"S\" phaseolin being predominant in the Mesoamerican germplasrn group, however it was notable that a three Caribbean genotypes that clearly were associated with the Andean group in the dendrogram (Haiti 661, Orocovis lA and Vason) had \"S\" type phaseolin. These results suggested that sorne Caribbean Andean germplasm has had a hybrid inter-genepool origin and that \"S\" type phaseolin has been introgressed into an Andean genomic background. lt was also interesting that these three genotypes are from Haiti, Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic showing that this process has occurred in severa! parts of the Caribbean. The other genotypes which showed Andean microsatellite fingerprint patterns and \"S\" phaseolin, and which therefore showed a possible intergenepool origin (AFR298, Redhawk, Montcalm, UPR-94434 and Blanco Laran) carne from breeding programs (in CIAT, USA, UPR and Peru, respectively) where recombination could be expected to have been actively encouraged. The one genotype which showed \"C\" phaseolin (Naranjito 1, a landrace from Puerto Rico) fell in with the Andean germplasm set according to the microsatellite data. The \"C\" pattern is thought to be a hybrid of \"S\" and \"T\" phaseolins from the Mesoamerican and Andean genepools, respectively.Another factor corroborating the genepool affiliations of the Caribbean genotypes was average seed weight. Overall average seed size was correlated with the germplasm group with which the genotype was affiliated whereby the Caribbean genotypes with an Andean affinity hadan average seed size of 41.7 grams per 100 seed weight (g/lOOs) compared to the Caribbean genotypes with a Mesoamerican affinity which had an average seed size of 3l.lg/100s. Interestingly, within the Andean group, those genotypes with \"T\" phaseolin versus those with \"S\" or \"C\" phaseolin had very similar average seed size of 38.2g/100s versus 37.3g/100s. By comparison those Caribbean genotypes with a Mesoamerican fingerprint pattem and confll1lled \"S\" phaseolin had average seed size of 29.lg/100s that was significantly smaller than both the Andean genotypes with ''T\" phaseolin as well as those with \"S\" phaseolins. The one genotype which showed \"C\" phaseolin had seed size of 24.5 g/lOOs.The microsatellite analysis uncovered relationships between the Caribbean landraces that may reveal the history of bean introduction into the Caribbean. It was notable that while accessions from the Eastem Caribbean (Puerto Rico) were all Andean (26 out of 26 genotypes, 100%), those from the Westem Caribbean (Haiti) were predominantly Mesoamerican (16 out of 18 genotypes, 88.9%). Dominican Republic was a zone of interrningling of the two types of germplasm with about half the collection (34 out of 65 genotypes, 52.3%) being Andean and half Mesoamerican (32 out of 65 genotypes, 48.5% ).Meanwhile the single genotypes from Cuba, Jamaica and Panama were Andean. Therefore there appears to be gradients from east to west in the penetration of Mesoamerican beans and from west to east in the penetration of Andean beans into the Caribbean which would agree with the hypotheses that A) Mesoamerican beans were introduced into the region from Central America, Mexico or the Yucatan, most likely via Cuba, although this needs to be confirmed with greater sampling B) Andean beans arrived from the South American mainland via the Leeward island chain and C) Mesoamerican beans began to overlap with Andean beans precisely on the island of Hispaniola. Withi_ n the Dominican Republic, Mesoamerican beans were prevalent in Vason and Hondo Valle collections, while Andean beans were prevalent in Panjor collections. Pacasas and Derrumba collections were mixed with both types of germplasm found in these sites perhaps indicating preference or adaptation characteristics. Relationship between breeding lines were also uncovered by the microsatellite analysis. Saladin 97 a recently released variety was related to Pompadour J a native landrace from the Dominican Republic. Interestingly, the improved lines JB178 and CIAS 95 as well as the landrace Pacasas lA, all from the Dominican Republic were more closely related to Colombian varieties Calima and ICA Palmar and the CIA T lines, DRK57, AFR735, AFR619, AFR699 than to the Andean landraces from the Caribbean. This confirms the recent emphasis placed in the INIAF breeding program on adopting and breeding the large-seeded red mottled grain type, brought in originally from Colombia and based on crosses with a native large-seeded type \"lose Beta\" which clustered with other Andeans from Puerto Rico, these being somewhat distinct from the majority of Pompadour types.Finally, the microsatellite fingerprinting was also useful for identifying potential duplicates in the collection. A total of six identica1 sets were found among the landraces: Orocovis among the Mesoamericans. Surprisingly UPR9443-4 and Montcalm were also identica] in this analysis. The information generated by this study will be useful for the breeding of severa! Caribbean seed classes including the red mottled (Dominican Pompadour), pink striped (Jamaican Miss Kelly, Puerto Rican Colorado de Pais) and red speckled (Haitian Pompadour) types. The evidence of genepool mixing indicating possible past hybridization and introgression and points to the potential advantages of recombining Andean beans with Mesoamerican beans. Indeed in severa) breeding programs this recombination may have been encouraged as evidenced by genotypes like Montcalm, UPR9443-4, Redhawk which had Andean fingerprint but Mesoamerican \"S\" type phaseolin. The advantages of hybridization between the genepools for sorne Caribbean germplasm may have been in combining medium to large seed size of the Andean types; with greater adaptation to tropical lowland conditions of the Mesoamerican types. Hybrid progeny that fit local preferences and had these advantages were probably selected by the farmers in the region and as such, the germplasm of the Caribbean shows promise for breeding efforts that try to adapt Andean beans to lowland tropical climates.• Compare the microsatellite results with the RAPD data and complete the rnicrosatellite analysis with additional markers, especially using more gene-based microsatellites. • Evaluate a larger number of Caribbean genotypes, especially a greater number of genotypes from Cuba and those from other Caribbean seed classes including the red mottled (Do mini can Pompadour), light red kidney (Ve lasco Largo), pink striped (Jamaican Miss Kelly, Puerto Rican Colorado de Pais) and red speckled (Haitian Pompadour) types, that are held in the FAO-designated collection of common bean at CIAT for microsatellite diversity and compare to this first set. • Determine whether the large seeded Caribbean germplasm traces back to the Nueva Granada race and whether severa! races of Mesoamerican beans contributed genes to the this germplasm.The objective of this work was to characterize rnicrosatellite diversity in three sets of comrnon bean genotypes that are parents of recombinant inbred line populations at CIA T and include wild and cultivated germplasm of common beans, both Mesoamerican and Andean, which have been used as parents in the bean breeding program.The 44 genotypes used in this study are described in previous CIA T annual reports (2000, 2001) and were the parents of over a dozen mapping populations being studied at CIAT for various traits. The genotypes were grouped in 3 parental surveys that were carried out separately with common controls (DOR364, 019833) included in each survey. The genotypes were evaluated for allelic diversity with up to 150 rnicrosatellite markers (of which 65 were gene-based; 85 were genornic) depending on the survey to which they belonged (150 for survey 1, 148 for survey 11 and 97 for survey ID) as shown in Table l.The markers were amplified at different annealing temperatures according to the estímated melting temperatures of the primers. The amplification conditions are given in other parts of this annual report. Markers that did not amplify (6 in survey I, 14 in survey 11 and none in survey ill) were not considered further. The PCR products were resolved by electrophoresis for approximately one hour at 120 constant volts on silver-stained 4% polyacrylarnide gels. Microsatellite alleles were sized by comparison to the 1 O and 25 bp molecular weight standards (Promega). Null alleles were uncommon for both genornic and gene-based rnicrosatellites but were scored as rnissing bands. The discrirninating power (D) of each rnicrosatellite was calculated.In all three parental surveys, the average number of alleles and discriminating power was higher for genomic rnicrosatellites (ranging from 3.7 to 5.4 alleles and 0.467 to 0 .578 discrirninating power when including monomorphic markers, and 4.4 to 6.3 alleles and 0.613 to 0.692 discrirninating power when excluding monomorphic markers) than for gene-based rnicrosatellites (ranging from 2.8 to 3.3 alleles and 0.370 to 0.481 discrirninating power when including monomorphic markers, and 3.2 to 4.1 alleles and 0.484 to 0.642 discrirninating power when excluding mono~orphic markers) (Table 1).The highest diversity was registered in parental survey 1, which contained a good mix of Andean and Mesoamerican cultivated genotypes as well as wild accessions, compared to the other two surveys. Parental survey 11 had the lowest diversity values, mainly because it was predorninantly made up of Mesoamerican genotypes only. Parental survey m contained a mix of Andean and Mesoarnerican genotypes but no wild accessions. When allele number is plotted against discrimination power (d), the higher diversity of genomic versus gene-based microsatellites is evident (Figure 1). Sirnilarly, one can observe the different amount of diversity assessed in each of the three parental surveys. As shown in Figure 1, the discrimination power of each rnicrosatellite was positively correlated with the number of alleles produced at the locus (r=0.686 to 0.803).• Cross survey comparison of microsatellite diversity by correlating allele sizes found in the respective genotype panels.• Assembling of microsatellite fingerprint data into the AceDB database, BeanGenes that were described in last year' s annual report. Two primary centers of diversity, one in South America and the other in Meso-America have been postulated for the genus Manihot (Roger and Appan 1973). Although severa! studies have demonstrated a likely South American origin for the cultivar (Allem, 1994;Fregene et.al 1994;Roa et al. 1997;Olsen and Schaal 1999), the diversity of cassava and its wild relati ves in Memo-America is great enough to suggest a second center in Meso-America. Besides, the potential of Meso-American diversity in cassava improvement has not been properly assessed. Three recent studies of genetic diversity in land races from South America and Meso-America (Chavariaga et. al. 1999;Fregene et. al. 2002;Raji et. al. unpublished data) have revealed unique alleles in land races from Guatemala at a frequency high enough to suggest a Meso American center of cassava diversity. The results of the three studies were based upon 6, 4, and 13 Guatemalan land races. The small sample size of the previous study could distort the allele frequencies and lead to wrong conclusions. A larger collection and SSR characterization of land races from Guatemala was therefore planned to confirm preliminary data of a Meso-American center of diversity and to secure the largely untapped diversity in Guatemala before it becomes extinct. In addition, a selection from the Guatemalan collection will be crossed to CIA T elite parents to evaluate the utility of the Meso-American diversity in cassava breeding.The present study was to confirm the high genetic differentiation between cassava land races from Guatemala and Nigeria, Brazil, and Colombia. If the uniqueness of the Guatemalan germplasm is confirmed, gene tic crosses to CIA T' s elite breeding lines will be made to test hybrid vigor and delineate heterotic pools. Plant materials are a collection of cassava from all over Guatemala anda representative group used in previous studies from Nigeria, Colombia and Brazil to confirm earlier results. It is hoped that results of the uniqueness and the utility of the Guatemalan germplasm will give collection and conservation of this germplasm in regions of Meso-America high priority (Azurdia and Gomez 2002)A collection of cassava land races was carried out all over Guatemala in May last year (Azurdia and Gomez 2002). A total of 128 accessions were collected in the departments of Baja Verapaz, Quiche, Huehuetenango, Alta Verapaz, San Marcos, Escuintla y Santa in Guatemala. See Guatemalan study on the MOLCAS web site (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/Molcas) for names of accessions. For comparison with results of previous studies, DNA from 6, 11 and 12 cassava land races from Nigeria, Colombia y Brazil respectively were included, making 4 sarnples for the analysis of genetic diversity and differentiation. DNA from the Guatemalan accessions was isolated at the Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala using a micro-prep protocol of the Dellarporta (1983) methodology and transferred to CIAT. DNA from the other accessions was obtained from previous studies at CIA T.A set of 36 SSR markers, carefully chosen to represent a bread coverage of the cassava genome with moderate to high polymorphism information content (PIC) and robust amplification, were used in this study. SSR markers, PCR arnplification, polyacrylamide gel eiectrophoresis, and siiver staining used in thís study have been described elsewhere (Fregene et al 2002). The allele data was captured using the program \"Quantity One\" (Bio-Rad Inc) and entered directly into EXCEL (Microsoft Inc) for statistical analysis. Statistical analysis on the raw SSR data include: genetic distance analysis using a of a distance matrix based upon 1-proportion of shared alleles (1-PSA), principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (UPGMA) of the distance matrix, and pararneters of genetic diversity and differentiation.A total of 33 SSR markers were analyzed in the 128 accessions from Guatemala that includes an accession of the wild relative M.aesculifolia. Unique alleles were observed in the accessions from Guatemala for the markers SSRY 12 (0.14), SSRY 20(0.383), SSRY 34(0.006), SSRY 38(0.063), SSRY 51(0.1), SSRY 59(0.014), SSRY 63(0.014), SSRY 69(0.023), SSRY 82(0.007), SSRY 103(0.24), SSRY 108(0.043), SSRY 135(0.13) y SSRY 147(0.013). In parenthesis are the frequencies of the observed alleles. The first and second principal components of the PCA, based on upon the genetic distance 1-proportion of shared alleles, are shown in Fig l . Accessions from Guatemala form two groups, one that clusters along with land races from Brazil, Nigeria and Colombia in a broad group and a second group that is clusters separately. The only sarnple from M. aesculifolia is located far away from both clusters. The results observed confirms previous observation of a high genetic differentiation of between certain groups of cassava land races from Guatemala and these from other parts of Latín America and Africa (Fregene et al. 2003) Assessment of genetic diversity was based on samples of cassava land races from the 4 countries, with an addition that accessions from Guatemala were divided into two groups G 1 and G2 based on clustering from PCA of genetic distances and UPGMA of FsT data. Table 1 surnmarizes the parameters of genetic diversity observed for accessions from the 5 samples. Genetic diversity, as assessed by the average gene diversity CHE) was high in the accessions analyzed 0.5422 ±0.2468. The population with the highest diversity was Colombia followed by the cluster G2 and that with the lowest was the cluster of the Guatemalan accessíons clustered separateiy from other accessions. Average number of alleies was 3.8+/-0.0358 for all accessions. Average number of alleles per locus was highest in the cluster G2 of Guatemalan land races, 5.2, and the lowest in the Nigerian land races, 2.9. A break down of genetic diversity parameters by individual SSR markers can be seen in Table 2.Principal Component AnalysisManihot aesculifolia  A UPGMA cluster analysis of the genetic distance data also produced 2 clusters of the Guatemalan accessions similar to that found with the PCA (data not shown). In addition, 2 sub groups were found within the group G 1 that clustered away from the majority of accessions. A UPGMA of a pair-wise analysis of genetic differentiation CFsT) again confmned the separation of a group of accessions from Guatemala (Fig 2 ) as observed with the PCA and UPGMA analysis of genetic distances. The geographical distribution of accessions in cluster G 1 can be observed in Figure 5. The distribution of accessions closely mirrors the distribution of 2 wild Manihot species in Gutemala, namely Manihot rhomboide and Manihot aesculifolia (Figure 3). The majority of accessions in sub group A are found in westem Guatemala and they overlap, as regards geographical origin, with Manihot rhomboide. On the other hand, genotypes from sub group B are found mostly in the Eastem part of the country together with natural populations of Manihot aesculifolia.  The origins of highly differentiated samples of cassava germplasm from Guatemala can be explained by independent domestication events in populations of different Manihot species that yet exist or are now extinct. They can also be explained by an introgression from Manihot species in certain regions that overlap in geographical spread with cassava.Cassava is an allogamous crop and natural cross pollinate between cassava and populations of wild Manihot species has been demonstrated Wanyera et al (1993).The highly differentiated landraces from Guatemala may represent heterotic pools, like those for maize (Shull 1952). A principal reason for this study was to assess genetic diversity in cassava landraces as a first step to delineating heterotic pools for a more systematic improvement of combining ability via recurrent reciproca! selection (Keeratinijakal and Lamkey 1993). The heterotic pattems found in maize populations at the tum of the century is the basis of a very successful maize hybrid industry and has raised maize yields 500% since 1928 (Shull 1952;Tomes 1998). A high level of genetic differentiation, as revealed by molecular markers, was later found between these populations (Melchinger et al. 1990). lt is noteworthy that accessions from sub group A and B, for example accession 405, 478, 332, and 729 have excellent agronomic characteristics (data not shown) A previous study of the assessment of genetic diversity of cassava land races in 14 South and Central American and African countries revealed a number of unique alleles in accessions from Guatemala and suggests a second center of diversity in Guatemala (Fregene et al 2003). Meso America is a center of diversity for many other food crops including common beans, maize, amongst others. This study shows unique alleles from Guatemala for a higher number of SSR markers and provides additional evidence for possible independent domestication of cassava in Meso America. However, an introgression with Manihot species that overlap with the geographical origins of these accessions makes it impossible to rule out introgression with these species. Further studies are required to clarify which is the most likely scenario via the collection and characterization of wild Manihot species the eastem and westem parts of Guatemala. Additional future activities include a diallel cross of theses excellent land races from Guatemala and other regions (initial experiments are described below in activity 8) .Cassava is the number one provider of calories in Ghana. The Portuguese first introduced cassava from Brazil to Ghana during the 16 1  h and 17th centuries (Jones, 1959). In the then Gold Coast, the Portuguese grew the crop around their trading ports, forts and castles. It was a principal food eaten by both the Portuguese and the slaves. By the second half of the 18th century, cassava had become the most widely grown crop of the people of the coastal plains (Adams 1957). The spread of cassava from the coast into the hinterlands was very slow. It reached Ashanti region, Brong Ahafo and the northem Ghana, mainly around Tamale in the 1930. Until the early 1980s,the Akans of the forest belt preferred plantain and cocoyams and sorghum and millet in the north. Cassava became firrnly established in most areas after the serious drought of 1982/83 when all other crops failed completely (Korang-Amoakoh,Cudjoe and Adams 1987). Cassava ranks first in the area under crop cultivation and utilization. It contributes 22% of the agricultura! gross domestic product AGDP compared to 5% for maize, 2% for rice, and 14% for cocoa (Al-Hassan, 1989;Dapaah, 1996). According to the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS), 83% of 1.73 million sampled households were found engaged in cassava production. The spread of cassava into the upper west and upper east of Ghana is an indication of growing trend in cassava production through area expansion ( MOA, 1990).In the traditional bush-fallow system, sorne cassava plants are allowed to grow during the fallow period, which is long enough to allow cassava to flower and set seeds. The usual out crossing habit of cassava leads to the production of numerous volunteer hybrids and a heterozygous gene pool, which creates phenotypic cliversity. Desirable new hybrid combinations from volunteer seed are often selected by farmers and propagated. This process creates pools of new land races, which are adapted to the different agro-ecological zones of Ghana. Farmers have done selection for desirable traits for over 500 years. Hence the landraces possess higher frequencies of genes required for adaptation to biotic and abiotic stresses, food quality characteristics than unadapted materials. Vegetative propagation also leads to the accumulation of pest and cliseases and good varieties susceptible to these biotic stresses disappear. These factors lead to a fairly high turnover of varieties and have implications for gene pool structure of cassava in any center of diversity. Selection is one of the principal factors at work in cassava' s gene differentiation in Africa. High heterosis for yield components, starch, and number of roots have been observed in cassava, and hence considered a promising method of genetic improvement (Easwari Amma and Sheela, 1996). Heterotic groups identified in mai~e in the early 20th century (Shull et al 1953) have been the basis of a very successful hybrid seed industry.Objectives for the study were:The objective for this study is to assess the genetic cliversity and differentiation in Ghanaian landraces To detect heterotic pattems in the collection and between the Ghanaian collection and land races from other countries and regions. To generate hybrids between the Ghanaian land races and genotypes from putative heterotic groups and select together with farmers superior hybrids from the crosses.In January 2002 a collection of cassava land races from all the agro ecological zones in Ghana was done. A total of 45 villages visited during the collaborative study on cassava in Africa (COSCA) were visited. Another 28 villages, important for cassava production, were also visited. Farmers were assembled and asked to share information on cassava varieties grown by them, characteristics of their varieties, and reasons for keeping them. Farmers volunteered to give mature cassava stems, which were labeled. A total of 320 land races were collected. For the list of genotypes, passport data and characteristics please see the MOLCAS home page (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/molcas) Fresh young leaf samples of the accessions were collected on ice and used for DNA extraction. An amount of 0.1g of the fresh young leaf was ground in liquid nitrogen and the DNA extracted using the Qiagen kit. The extraction was carried out in liTA, Ibadan, Nigeria. The DNA was carried in absolute ethanol to CIAT. DNA quantification was done using the fluorometer. The DNAs were diluted to 10ng/ul and used for SSR reactions. A sub-set of 36 SSR markers, two from each of the 18 linkage groups of the cassava geno me, was employed to obtain an es ti mate of genetic di versity and differentiation in the land races. PCR amplification, automated gel analysis and date collection were as descried by Fregene et al (2003). Genetic clistance, based upon the proportion of shared alleles (PSA), obtained from the raw allele size data using the computer microsat (Minch 1993, http://www.lotka.stanford.edu/microsat.html).Distances between the accessions were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) using JMP (SAS Institute 1995) to obtain a structure of relationship between the land races. Parameters of genetic diversity and differentiation were calculated from allele data using the computer packages GENSURVEY (Vekeman et al1997) and FSTAT (Goudet 1990).A total of 320 landraces were collected including 18 genotypes with yellow roots. Farmers who responded were predominantly women. Among the land races sorne were very early bulking with maturity at 3-9 months after planting. The various local names given suggest a lot of useful traits farmers had associated with the varieties. Woody stems were cut to 20-30cm sizes and planted in plastic pots in a nursery. These were sent to the field after 4weeks and planted in an irrigated field at the Ashiaman office of the Ghana Irrigation Authority. A copy of the collection was packaged and sent to liT A. Accessions were planted in single rows at 1m x 1m spacing with improved varieties as checks.Data from a total of 33 of 36 SSR loci, 3 markers gave poor quality data, was used to derive estímate of genetic diversity and differentiation genetic distances between individual genotypes. The average number of alleles for each locus was close to 5 and is similar to that found for a study of land races from Nigeria, Tanzania and 7 Neo-tropical countries (Table 1). The probability that 2 randomly selected alleles in a given accession are different, average gene diversity, was 0.5245±0.0045 and it is lower than that found in the found for the previous study. Average gene diversity was comparable across all regions with an exception of the central region and central savannah region. Genetic diversity parameters, including total heterozygosity (Ht) and genetic differentiation (Gst) ranged widely across markers. Genetic differentiation, as estimated by FsT (theta), was very low for samples between regions, overall 0.04, with the exception of sorne accessions from Northern Ghana that showed moderate to high genetic differentiation. (data not shown). The results found here support previous findings that agricultura! practices and the allogamous nature of cassava produces a large pool of volunteer seedlings that natural and human selection acts upon to maintain a high leve! of diversity and low differentiation (Doy le et al. 2001;Fregene et al. 2002). Genetic d.istances between all pairs of individual accessions was calculated by the 1proportion of shared alleles (1-PSA) and presented graphically by a principal coordinate analysis (PCA) (Figl). The PCl and PC2 accounted for 26% and 16% of the total variance respective! y. The PCA shows loose clustering of the land races by region but of note is the sub-structure of sorne land races from Northem Ghana. A similar sub-structure in accessions from Nigeria and from Tanzania was observed in earlier stud.ies. The presence of a defined sub-structure in the genetic relationship of cassava land races from Africa appears to be a common feature of cassava germplasm in a number of countries but it is yet to be understood the underlying factors for the groupings. UPGMA cluster analysis of FsT estímate of genetic differentiation arnongst land races was able to group the land races into loose clusters according to agro-ecologies, with a group of genotypes from the Northem region sub-structure being the most differentiated (Fig 2). (Fregene et a1.2002). At least 63 duplicates or closely related accessions were identified in the collection.  One of the principal reasons for this study was to assess genetic diversity in cassava land races as a first step to delineating heterotic pools for a more systematic improvement of combining ability via recurrent reciprocal selection. Based upon clusterings obtained above, genotyopes representative of the clusters were selected as parents for a diallel experiment to search for heterotic pattems and established in a crossing block at the CRI experimental station in Wenchi. Genotypes from other parts of Latin America, for example Guatemala, that cluster away from African accessions were also shipped from CIAT to Ghana for the study of heterotic pattems. The Latin American genotypes were multiplied, hardened and planted in the same crossing block where the land races are currently planted. A total of 320 land races were collected and established at the University of Legan and llT A, Ibadan. Genetic diversity and differentiation in the collection was assessed using SSR markers. Discovery of a sub group within the land races, as observed from PCA of genetic distances (proportion of shared alleles) and UPGMA of pairwise FST between the different regions, that may represent heterotic groups. To test heterotic patterns present within the collection or between the collection and Latín American accessions, selected genotypes were planted in a crossing block for making genetic crosses.Cassava is grown mainly for its starchy roots and the leaves and forms a staple by an estimated half of Uganda's population (Bua, pers.comm, 2001). Cassava was introduced into Uganda after 1850 by Europeans and Arabs (Langlands, 1970). Because of its excellent adaptability to erratic rainfall and low fertility soils, it became a major dietary staple, a famine reserve crop and a source of cash to many small-scale farming comrnunities. The impact of a cassava mosaic disease (CMD) epidemic in Uganda in the late 80's and early 90's on genetic diversity grown by small farmers is thought to be significant. In a survey carried out in 2000 in Mukono, Soroti and Apac districts in Uganda, the impact of the CMD epidemic on cassava diversity was clearly seen via the loss of previously well-known varieties (Kizito and Gullberg 2002, unpublished data). But it was also observed that additional genetic variability had arisen from the use of volunteer seedlings by sorne farmers in Mukono district. Traditional farming systems of slash and bum followed by 3-15 years of fallow have been known to encourage the allogamous nature of cassava producing a large pool of volunteer seedlings that natural and human selection acts on to produce new varieties which maintains a high diversity, for instance in Tanzania (Fregene et al, 2003). We assessed the genetic diversity and differentiation based on SSR markers of landraces from all over Uganda and a small subsection from Latín America and other African countries. The objectives of this study were to: assess the genetic diversity and differentiation of cultivars within and between different districts in Uganda; also to determine how the Uganda cassava diversity compares with the total genetic diversity of species within Africa and the cassava collection after the CMD epidemic.A total of 257 local cassava varieties were collected accessions September through to December 2002 in 17 districts that líe between latitudes N02° 12 1 and S 00° 44 1 , longitudes E029° 56 1 and E034° 21 1 , and altitudes of 4451ft and 2177ft above sea level in Uganda. Three counties on average in each district were selected at random and fields with mature crop were sampled from every 7-10 km along the roads that traversed each of the counties. In each farmer's field the different varieties were identified according to their morphological characteristics as well as by the name given by the fanner. Where no single variety dominated, plants of the co-dominant varieties were sampled, labelled to be planted and maintained in NAARI. Another 20 accessions, representatives of diversity, were selected from Tanzania, and 18 accessions South America from a previous study of cassava accessions from Tanzania and the neo-tropics (Fregene et al. 2003). In addition to this, 20 from the Ghanaian germplasm bank, 20 from Nigeria and 20 from Guatemala was included. In all, 350 accessions were studied. DNA isolation was from young leaf tissue harvested by the CfAB method (Doyle & Doyle, 1987) at Med Biotech Laboratories, Kampala. A subset of 36 SSR markers with high polymorphism information content (PIC) routinely used for diversity analysis in cassava was source of markers, the 36 markers ha ve been chosen to represent a wide coverage of the genome. PCR amplification, automated gel analysis and date collection were as descried by Fregene et al (2003). Genetic distance, based upon the proportion of shared alleles (PSA), obtained from the raw allele size data using the computer microsat (Minch 1993, http://www.lotka.stanford.edu/microsat.html). Distances between the accessions were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) using JMP (SAS Institute 1995) to obtain a structure of relationship between the land races. Parameters of genetic diversity and differentiation were calculated from allele data using the computer packages GENSURVEY (Vekeman et al 1997) and FSTAT (Goudet 1990).Table 1: Genetic diversity within groups of cassava landraces classified according to country of origin.Standard deviations (SD) were estimated by jackknifmg over loci (200 replications). H\" Hn Dm and Gs: are given over loci and over groups (country populations). • H,= total heterozygosity in the entire data set; H,= heterozygosity within country averaged over the en tire data set; 0 51 = average gene diversity between populations; G .. = coefficient of gene differentiation. b poL =polymorphic \"H..= average observed heterozygosity within country; dHc= average expected heterozygosity within country •He-p= average expected heterozygosity within country corrected for small sample sizes {Nei, 1978)A total of 35 of 36 SSR Ioci was used to provide estimates for the genetic diversity and differentiation of 350 accessions of cassava accessions from Uganda and eight other countries, one elirninated for being monomorhphic. The number of alleles observed at each locus in the data set ranged from 2 to 12 alleles per locus over the 35 loci. The average gene diversity, He, for the entire 350 accessions was more than half 0.5649± 0.0698, average gene diversity of accessions from Uganda was 0.5530 (Table 1). However, only 1% (Gs 1 =0.0192± 0.0511) of within district variation in Uganda was dueto differentiation.On the other hand, 10% (Gs 1 =0.1078±0.0502) of the overall heterozygosity (H 1 =0.6305± 0.1696) in all the country accessions could be attributed to differentiation among the samples from both Africa and Latín America, revealing that germplasm within Uganda is at the moment quite uniform. When accessions from Uganda were divided according to districts, the least values for average gene diversity were observed in Lira and Luweero districts, 0.4011 andO. 4219 respectively, while Kasese stands out with the highest value of 0.6208. This affirms earlier findings of higher varietal diversity in the westem and southwestem districts of Uganda as opposed to those in the eastem districts (Otim-Nape et al, 2001). The relatively high level of genetic diversity observed on the whole in this study is unexpected considering Uganda has reported two major cassava mosaic disease (CMD) epidernics before. The most recent CMD epidernic being in the last 10-15 years, since 1988, affected drastically the cassava varietal composition and saw a decrease in area planted to cassava at its peak between 1990-1994(Otim-Nape et al, 2001). This finding continues to demonstrate the fact of active involvement of Ugandan farmers in continuous testing and the adaptation of new planting materials to their unique situations. The importance of volunteer seedlings in the dynarnics of cassava diversity has been demonstrated in traditional farming systems of the Makushi Indians from Guyana (Elías et al, 2001).Genetic distance between accessions based on 1-proportion of shared alleles (1-PSA) was calculated and presented graphically by a principie coordinate analysis (Fig. 1). The PCl and PC2 components accounts for about 39% and 10% of the total variance respectively. The PCA reflects a loose separation between accessions from Africa and the Neotropics as has been shown in earlier studies (Fregene et al. 2003). No distinct substructure was found amongst the Ugandan accessions except for accessions from Nakasongola district. Substructures in diversity have been reported for earlier studies for accessions from Ghana, Tanzania and Nigeria. Genetic differentiation averaged over all locí estimated by Fs 1 (theta) was 0.103±_0.009 (jackknifing) and 0.082± 0.126 calculated by bootstrapping at 99% confidence interval (table 4). This agrees with previous diversity studies in Tanzania (Fregene et al, 2003). Pair wise calculations of Fs 1 (theta) over all loci between pairs of country landraces and U ganda al so revealed lower differentiation between African countries compared with Latín American countries, the lowest being between Ghana and Uganda (0.039) and the highest being between a group of accessions from Guatemala group and Nigeria (0.2631).A dendogram of landraces for UPGMA of pair wise Fst estimates separates the African from Neotropical accessions with the group of accessions from Guatemala being the most genetically differentiated (Fig. 2). These results agree with sorne previous studies on which a high differentiation has been observed among certain cassava groups cultivated in Guatemala and those in other parts of Latin America and África (Fregene et al, 2003;CIAT, 2003). Of particular interest to cassava breeding programs is the group {Gl) from Guatemala, Accessions from G 1 from Guatemala is a representation of the region East and South of Guatemala and it may represent a heterotic group b~ed on differences in allele frquncies. The phenomenon of heterosis or hybrid vigor is an important factor in improvement of heterozygous crops such as cassava, and in cases like the com, the pattems found in these populations at the beginning of the XX century have been the base of a very sucecssful industry of hybrid com, elevating productivity by more than 500% (Shull, 1952;Tomes, 1998).Characterization of the cassava landraces of Uganda with 35 markers and estimation of genetic diversity and differentiation Assessment of the genetic relationship between different countries of Africa and Latín America.Evidence of high differentiation between sorne land races from Guatemala and the rest of the countries that may represent heterotic pools. Evidence of low impact in cassava diversity after of epidemic of CMD and low structure in cassava landraces of U ganda.Cassava is an important staple~g crop in Sierra Leone, second only to rice in importance.Civil strife in the recent past has .lead to an erosion of genetic resources and loss of sorne very valuable germplasm. A collection was conducted by the National Program in collaboration with liTA in the Southem and Eastem provinces where cassava is or more importance to the populace, to safe guard local varieties for the future. The germplasm collection from Sierra Leone is being held at llT A Ibadan pending when peace fully retums to the country and the collection can be retumed to the National root crop program.The collection was analyzed with SSR markers as part of MOLCAS efforts to characterize diversity found in local African varieties compared to what exists in Latin America.Forty villages in the Eastem and Southem province of Sierra Leone were visited in 2001 for the collection of cassava germplasm. In each village farmers were invited to share their most important varieties, between 3 and 4 varieties were collected from each village. The stakes of all accessions collected was established in the field at llT A. DNA was isolated from leaf tissues using a DNA isolation kit (QIAGEN Gmbh) at liTA and carried to CIAT for SSR analysis. A subset of 36 SSR markers with high polymorphism information content (PIC) routinely used for diversity analysis in cassava was source of markers. The markers have been chosen to represent a wide coverage of the genome. PCR amplification, automated gel analysis and date collection were as descried by Fregene et al (2003). Genetic distance, based upon the proportion of shared alleles (PSA), obtained from the raw allele size data using the computer microsat (Minch 1993, http://www.lotka.stanford.edu/microsat.html).Distances between the accessions were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) using JMP (SAS Institute 1995) to obtain a structure of relationship between the land races. Parameters of genetic diversity and differentiation were calculated from allele data using the computer packages GENSURVEY (Vekeman et a11997) and FSTAT (Goudet 1990).A total of 127 local cassava varieties were collected in from 40 villages. Thirty three SSR markers were analyzed in 98 accessions from Sierra Leone, the remainder accessions were not available at the time of SSR analysis. The average number of alleles for each locus was close to 5 and is similar to that found for a study of land races from Nigeria, Tanzania and 7 Neo-tropical countries (Table 1). Genetic distances between all pairs of individual accessions was calculated by the 1-proportion of shared alleles (1-PSA) and presented graphically by a principal coordinate analysis (PCA) (Fig1). The PCA shows a substructure in diversity of the local varieties as have been observed in other collections from Africa. The presence of a defined sub-structure in the genetic relationship of cassava land races from Africa appears to be a common feature of cassava germplasm in a number of countries but it is yet to be understood the underlying factors for the groupings. The sub structure observed in the PCA was the basis of further analysis of genetic diversity parameters carried out.Average number of alleles per SSR locus in the collection was roughly 4 and average gene diversity, was 0.5749±0.0690 it is comparable to that found in previous studies in severa! African countries. Genetic differentiation, as estimated by FsT (theta), between the groups ranged from 0.088 to 0.140 which is low to moderate differentiation. The results found here support previous findings that agricultura! practices and the allogamous nature of cassava produces a large pool of volunteer seedlings that natural and human selection acts upon to maintain a high level of diversity and low differentiation (Doyle et al. 2001;Fregene et al. 2002).PCA of Gene tic Dlatanc:ea from SSR Marker data of Caasava Acc:esslons from Sierra Leone                                     A dendogram of landraces for UPGMA of pair wise F 51 estimates separates the African from Neotropical accessions with the group of accessions from Guatemala being the most genetically differentiated (Fig. 2). These results agree with sorne previous studies on which a high differentiation has been observed among certain cassava groups cultivated in Guatemala and those in other parts of Latin America and África (Fregene et al, 2003;CIAT, 2003). Of particular interest to cassava breeding programs is the group (G1) from Guatemala, Accessions from G 1 from Guatemala is a representation of the region East and South of Guatemala and it may represent a heterotic group ba&ed on differences in allele frquncies. The phenomenon of heterosis or hybrid vigor is an important factor in improvement of heterozygous crops such as cassava, and in cases like the com, the pattems found in these populations at the beginníng of the XX century have been the base of a very sucecssful industry of hybrid corn, elevating productivity by more than 500% (Shull, 1952;Tomes, 1998).Characterization of the cassava landraces of Uganda with 35 markers and estimation of genetic diversity and differentiation Assessment of the genetic relationship between different countries of Africa and Latin America.Evidence of high differentiation between sorne land races from Guatemala and the rest of the countries that may represent heterotic pools. Evidence of low impact in cassava diversity after of epidemic of CMD and low structure in cassava landraces of Uganda. ):GUATEMALA -10.,~~...  The SSR analysis of genetic diversity of local cassava varieties from Sierra Leone reveals the same pattem of high average gene diversity, low differentiation, anda pronounced substructure. Future perspectives include tracing the lineages of sorne of the lines in the 3 clusters found to get a better idea of the impact of gerrnplasm development/introduction and adoption in the country.Cassava is an important crop of modero tropical economies and an attractive one for millions off resource poor farmers found in the tropics (Best and Henry 1994). Recently a second center of diversity have been postulated in Central America based on SSR markers (Monte et al. 2003), in addition to the one in Brazil (Olsen and Schaal 1999). However, the potential of diversity in the second center, particularly in the Caribbean is not well documented. Recently SSR markers have been utilized to study the diversity of cassava from different countries (Fregene et. al. 2003). SSR markers are particularly attractive to study genetic diversity due to their abundance in plant genomes, high levels of polymorphisms and adaptability to automation. These studies revealed a high amount of diversity in accessions from several neotropical countries, a low leve} of genetic differentiation between country samples, with the exception of a group of accessions from Guatemala, and sub-structure in diversity of accessions from sorne African countries.SSR markers can contribute to a better understanding of genetic diversity present in a collection of local cassava varieties held in Cuba to permit a more rational conservation and use of diversity on the island. We present here preliminary results of SSR study of genetic diversity of cassava from Cuba compared to a sub-set of accessions from Africa, South and Central AmericaA total of 94 accessions were selected from a collection of cassava held at INIVIT in Cuba, selection criteria was the economic importance and origin in Cuba. A set of 54 clones from Africa and the Neotropics, 12 from Nigeria, 10 from Tanzania, 12 from Guatemala, and 20 from South America, representative of a large set of accessions from these countries used in previous SSR studies (Fregene et al 2003) were included for comparisons. A third set of 13 improved genotypes from CIAT with traits of agronomic interest were added. DNA from all accessions was obtained using the Dellaporta et al. method (1983). Concentration and quality of the DNA was checked by flourometry and agarose gel electrophoresis respectively. The DNA samples were diluted to a working concentration of 10ng/ul for subsequent PCR amplification.PCR amplification, automated gel analysis and date collection were as descried by Fregene et al (2003) and Mba et al. (2003). Statistical analysis to be conducted include calculations of pair-wise genetic distance, based upon the proportion of shared alleles (PSA), using the computer microsat (Minch 1993, http://www.lotka.stanford.edu/microsat.html). Distances between the accessions will be subjected to principal component analysis (PCA) using JMP (SAS Institute 1995) to obtain a structure of relationship between the land races.Other analysis are estimation of parameters of genetic diversity and differentiation, calculated from the raw SSR allele data using the computer packages GEN SUR VEY (Vekeman et al1997) and FSTAT (Goudet 1990).A total of 15 SSR markers have been analyzed until now in all accessions. A high number of alleles and level of polymorphisms have been observed in all SSR markers analyzed until date (Fig 1). Evaluation of the remainder 21 SSR markers is ongoing and will be completed by October. Also ongoing is reading of the gels and determination of allele sizes using the prograrn Quantity one. This raw SSR data will be used for subsequent analysis as described in the methodology.Figure l. Polyacrilamide gel of a PCR amplification of cassava accessions from Cuba, Nigeria, Tanzariia, Guatemala, and South America using the SSR primer SSRYSl.A SSR study of genetic diversity of cassava in Cuba has been initiated. The outcome of the study is expected to provide insights on the significance of the Caribbean region as a center of diversity for cassava and to guide rational conservation and plant improvement efforts.The genus Oryza (AA genome) contains two cultivated species of rice, Oryza sativa L and Oryza glaberrima Steud and five wild species including Oryza ru.fipogon Griff., the ancestor of rice, and one of them (0. glumaepatula) native of Central and South America (Oka and Chang, 1961;Vaughan and Tomooka, 1999). Red rice (Oryza sativa f spontanea) is a weedy rice with red pericarp and dark-colored grains, commonly found in rice fields. It is the same species as the cultivated, having similar morphologicals traits at vegetative phase that makes difficult to dintinghuish them in the field at early life cycle, but at maturity they are taller, with profuse tillering, seed shattering and dormancy favoring its persistence in the field. Most published reports have classified red rice populations into two major groups based on hull color of mature seeds, which are strawhull and blackhull ecotypes (Smith et al., 1977;Sonnier, 1978cited by Noldin, 1999).According to Langevin et al. (1990), the red rice can be grouped in ecotypes with characters alike cultivated rice or wild rice (Oka and Chang, 1961). Other researches indicate that red rice shows intermediate characteristics between wild rice O. ru.fipogon and cultivated indica or japonica varieties of Oryza sativa L. (Oka, 1988cited by Bres-Patry et al. 2001). Another hypothesis is that weedy rice may evolve through the degeneratíon of domesticated rice, as weedy types of rice, where wild rice is not present (Vaughan et al. 2003).Several population studies have focused on the genetic structure of red rice. These studies have related groups of individuals with morphological seed traits such as color of awn and hulls. A molecular analysis of 26 red rice accessions collected in Uruguay showed three groups: The first containing seeds with blackhulls, purple apiculus and long awn and the second showing seeds awnless or short awn and greyed yellow color apiculus and hulls.The third group included commercial varieties analyzed and sorne red rice accessions similar to the commercial varieties (Rodriguez et al., 2001). Avozani et al. (2001), analyzed 36 red rice accessions with RAPDs markers and found six groups, the most remarkable were the first with only red rice accessions, mainly with awned seeds, and the fifth group including commercial varieties and sorne individuals similar to varieties in seed traits. Gealy et al. (2002) used rnicrosatellite markers to distinguish among red rice, rice cultivars, and red rice-cultivated rice hybrids derivatives (RC hybrids) and the cluster analysis suggested that there were three distinct genotypic groups. The first group consisted of awnless, strawhull red rice types. The second group had primarily awned, blackhull red rice. The third group was composed of RC hybrids and rice cultivars. Prelirninary work conducted by our research group (Gonzalez et al., 2002, andSB2 Annual Report 2002)  Plant Material and Genetic Analysis using Microsatellite Markers. The plant material used and procedures followed for the molecular characterization using microsatellites were the same as previously described in SB-02 Annual Report 2002 (González et al., 2002).The plant material was divided in four groups: Group 1 represented by the 148 red rice accesions, Group 2 included the rice commercial varieties (Coprosem, Oryzica 1, Cimarron and Fedearroz 50), Group 3 was composed by O. ru.fipogon accession from Malasia; and Group 4 by Oryza glaberrima and two wild species Oryza barthii and O. glumaepatula (accession from Costa Rica). The PCR products were resolved on silverstained polyacrylamide gels and microsatellites alleles were sized by comparison to the 10 and 25 bp molecular weight standards (Promega).Statistic analysis. Allelic frequencies were calculated for all materials analyzed. Pearson chi square test was used to evaluate the association between specific microsatellites alleles with black brown awn, apiculus and hulls (BBAAH). Two multiple correspondence analyses (MCA) was conducted. The first analysis only included the molecular markers data (MCA-M), and the second analysis included both the molecular and seed morphological data (MCA-MSM). The Pearson chi-square and MCA are tests apply to establish the significance of associations between categorical variables. The Pearson chisquare test is based on expected frequencies in a two-entry data set, whereas MCA is a modeling technique to analyze associations in multi-entry data set. All analyses were conducted using SAS software (SAS, 1989).Distribution of alleles in four rice groups. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 5 to 12 (average 10.4 alleles per locus). Figure 1 showed a total of 146 alleles obtained in this study. Group 1, composed by the red rice accessions, contained 110 alleles of which 56 alleles (51%) were specific to this group and were not present in the Groups. These results indicated that the red rice population is highly diverse and contained the highest number of specific alleles respect to the other Groups. In contrast to Groups 2 and 4, it is interesting to note that O. ru.fipogon (Group 3) do not have specific alleles sharing all of them with red rice, and sorne of them with either the varieties (Group 2) or the other wild species (Group 4). However, O. ru.fipogon is represented in this analysis by just one accession. It will be important to determine if this pattem is obtained when a broader range of accessions are included. (Figure 1).Association between specific microsatellites alleles with black brown awn, apiculus and hulls (BBMH). Pearson chi-square test showed a highly significant association (Chisquares from 18.4 to 61.2~ p = 0.0001) between 7 alleles (2,7,17,23,53,90 and 115 derived from 7 microsatellites markers) and BBAAH traits {Table 2). These markers are distributed in chromosomes 1,3,5,7 and 12 respectively {Table 2). These alleles were specific of red rice and./or O. ru.fipogon (Figure 1). A limited number of chromosomal regions (1, 3, 4, and 7) enclosing most of the genes/QTLs identified in a natural hybrid between ajaponica variety and red rice collected from a rice field was previously found to be associated with key morphological differences between red rice and rice (Bres-Patry et al. 2001). We found that 4 of the 7 alleles highly significantly associated with BBAAH traits were located in chromosomes 1, 3, 4 and 7, in addition of other two alleles present in chromosomes 5 and 6 not previously reported (Table 2). The Pearson test also showed a high association between the absence of allele number 95 and BBAAH traits (Chi-square 15.61, p = 0.0001, Table 2). This allele was found in the red rice and rice varieties groups (Figure 1).The multiple correspondence analyses using molecular data (MCA-M) generated five groups of which three grouped all red rice accessions (Figure 2A). The wild species O. barthii and O. glaberrima clustered together in the fourth group, and O. glumaepatula in the fifth group (Figure 2A). The three groups that enclosed all red rice accessions were analyzed in more detail and the analysis was complemented with seed morphological traits (MAC-MSM) (Figure 2B). First group (Group V) clustered 86 red rice individuals with the rice varieties (Figure 2B). Group V was composed by 58% of red rice accessions, including awnless or greyed yellow-awn red rice (43 and 56 % respectively), and 98 to 99 % red rice with greyed yellow hulls and apiculus alíke the varieties. Most of the red rice variety biotypes are in this group. Group OR clustered ten red rice (7%) with O. ru.fipogon (Figure 2B). This group included red rice with awn (91%) and with brown apículus (91%) and brown hulls (82 % ). Group R (Figure 2B) was composed by the remaining 51 red rice accessions (35%) that did not fall in neither of the other two groups, and was characterized by individuals with awnless (41 %), greyed yellow awn!hull (37%) or brown awnlhull (22%) seeds. Greyed yellow apiculus and hulls were registered in more than 63% of individuals, whereas the 22% of red rice showed brown hulls and apiculus.In the MCA-M analysis, variability could be explained by 17 microsatellites alleles. Of these 15 alleles are specific to O. barthii, O. glaberrima andO. glumaepatula, one allele is shared by O. ru.fipogon and red rice group, and the other allele is shared by red rice and rice varieties (Figure 1). In MCA-MSM analysis, variability was explained by the presence of 16 microsatellite alleles and four seed morphological traits (black brown awn, apiculus and hulls, absence of greyed yellow apiculus). Of these 16 alleles, 11 alleles were derived from the MCA-M analysis (Figure 1) and the other five alleles from the Pearson chi-square analysis (Table 1).Specific microsatellites alleles were identified distinguishing rice vanetles, red rice accessions and wild species. These alleles could be useful for studying red rice genetics, dispersion of red rice genotypes, degree of hybridization between red rice and cultivated rice, and genetic introgression and persistence of domesticated genes in red rice and wild species populations. The addition of seed morphological traits complemented the molecular analysis facilitating the discrimination of three main groups within the red rice population. One group included red rice similar to commercial varieties, another group alike O. ru.fipogon accession, and the third group with intermediate traits.Future Activities   Cultivated rice, O. sativa L , is an autogamous plant, with a low out crossing rate of 0-1% (Roberts et al. 1961). In contrast, red rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea) a weedy relative of the crop, characterized by a red pericarp and dark-colored grains, shows out-crossing ranging from 1% to 52% hybridization rate (Langevin et al. 1990). Severa! biological, genetic and environmental factors affect the level of outcross compatibility. Among those the effects of temperature, humidity, genotype, flower morphology, stigma receptivity, pollen viability, pollen germination and development of pollen tube had been studied in detailed for most species (Jensen and Salisbury, 1988). Red rice seeds shatter readily and possess dormancy characteristics, which favors the persistence of the weed in rice field. These characteristics in addition to the vigorous growth and other plant traits make this weed highly competitive respect to rice, and a potential candidate as gene receptor from the cultivated species. This work is part of a project directed to analyze the gene flow from non-transgenic or transgenic rice into wild/weedy relatives in the Neotropics, and its effect(s) on the population genetic structure of the recipient species. Last year we reported on the morphological, phenological and molecular characterization of 152 plants collected from rice farmers fields in Tolima and Huila Departments in Colombia, and its corresponding first and second self-progeny. Based on that characterization 6 red rice types, including the scope of diversity present in the collection, were selected as candidates to conduct the studies on gene flow. As complementary step, the leve! of compatibility with transgenic and non-transgenic rice was determined using hand-made cross. Below is summarized results obtained from greenhouse and field grown plants. The hybrids generated will be used a controls in a parallel study optimizing the use of molecular marker to trace gene flow at large scale in the field.Hand-made crosses. Crosses were made following procedures as described by Sarkarung (1996) with sorne modifications (Jaime Carabalí, personal communication, CIAT Project IP4). Six red rice biotypes (1-3-4, 1-21-3, 4-12-2-, 5-38-5, 5-36-4, and 5-48-2), the F 3 BC 1 line derived from the Cica 8 transgenic line A3-49-0-12-3 (carrying the NS3 gene for RHBV resistance and uid-A gene for gus expression) backcross to variety Cica 8, the nontransgenic variety Cica 8 (control), and rice line commonly known as Purple (lRRI accession) were used. The variety purple is characterized by having purple tillers and leaves, and grains with purple apiculus and pericarp. Preliminary inheritance analysis in crosses with other varieties had indicated that the NS3 and uid-A gene are inherited following a simple Mendelian segregation. In rice, anthocyanins are encoded by few dominant genes (Reddy, A.R. 1996). The use of these traits would facilitate tracing the hybrids and inheritance in subsequent generations and ease the adaptation of molecular markers for assessing gene flow at large scale. These plants were grown to maturity under either greenhouse or field conditions. Reciproca! and self-crosses were made between the different materials. Un-emasculated, self-pollinated plants were included as controls. The percentage of seed setting, abortive crosses and dead flowers were evaluated. Follen viability of pollen donor plants was determined by fluorescence microscopy.Floral structure. Spiklets of field grown plants were fixed with a solution of 3:1 ethanol: glacial acetic acid for 24 hr, and dissected under a dissecting scope. Ten spiklets per material from the central part of the panicles were evaluated by measuring the length of pistil (ovary, stile and stigma), anthers, and totallength of the flowers.In general, higher out crossing rates were observed when rice was used as male parent (pollen donor) and red rice as a female parent (pollen recipient) (Table 1). A lower hybridization rate was noted in the reciproca! crosses (using red rice as a pollen donor), which was significant with the line Purple. Unexpectedly, higher crossing rates were noted in the hand-made crosses when using greenhouse-grown materials respect to those from the field in spite that the field pollen-donor plants showed more than 90% of pollen viable, and more than 80% fertility based on the seed setting from spontaneous self cross in the field. It seems that panicles from materials grown in the field may had been affected by stress during handling, in addition to the potential loss of pollen during the transportation of panicles from the field to the crossing house, which may explain these differences. The highest out crossing rates, between 40% and 59%, were noted with the red rice 1-21-3, 4-12-2-, 5-36-4, and 5-38-5 from the greenhouse (Tables 1). Red rice 5-48-2 showed interrnediate hybridization rates (12% to 20%) both from the greenhouse and from the field materials (Table 1). Unfortunately, several crosses could not be made with the line Purple in the greenhouse because of poor development due management problems. Crosses made with the transgenic line ranged from 5% to 12% with the field materials, and with Cica 8 from 17% to 60% with the greenhouse plants (Tables 1). These results are in agreement with those reported by Langevin et al. (1990) on hand-made crosses using red rice collected from the Southem USA showing hybridization of 1 % to 52 % depending on the variety used. Flower or seed abortion was only noted when red rice was used as female parent, suggesting sorne level of incompatibility or higher susceptibility to hand manipulation.Analyses of floral structures indicated that flower morphology of the transgenic line and Cica 8 is similar to those of red rice (Figure 1) and Table 2. The presence of anthocianins was noted on the stigma of the line Purple, and it was also more plumose and spongy respect to red rice, Cica 8 and the transgenic line. The ovary of Purple was shorter and the style was longer respect to the other materials (Figure 1). The pistil of Purple was below the anthers in contrast to the other materials that were at the same level, suggesting morphology more prompt to self-pollination in the case of Purple. (Figure 1).Due to the different hybridization rates obtained with field-grown materials respect to those of the greenhouse, new crosses will be made with plants grown in pots in the greenhouse and the field, in order to avoid the stress that panicles suffer during detachment from the tillers as previously done with field-grown plants. Additional crosses and floral morphology analyses will be done using other commercial rice varieties to evaluate potential effect of genotype on compatibility level with red rice and differences in flower morphology. This study is complementary to the assessment of gene flow currently conducted in the field under farrn conditions.    Introduction A careful assessment of potential impacts of gene flow from transgenic plants on population genetics of natural crop plant biodiversity is needed in other to design strategies for the safe deployment and durable use of these crops in the tropics. Genes from rice varieties may transfer quickly into red rice (1 % to 52% hybridization rate) (Langevin et al. 1990). However, most of the hybridization rate estimates have been done under temperate conditions. Gene flow rates lower than 1% was reported between herbkide-resistant transgenic line and a non-transgenic Mediterranean japonica rice varieties (Messeguer et al., 2001). Similar rates were reported by Noldin et al. (2001) and Zhang et al. (2003) between red rice and resistant herbicide transgenic line which contains the bar gene. Current studies showed that gene flow rates reached about 3 % when O. rufipogon and a commercial variety were sown together (Song et al., 2003). This rate is higher than those reported previously [Messeguer et al. (2001), Noldin et al. (2001), andZhang et al. (2003)]. Last year we presented a detail morphological and molecular characterization of a red rice population collected from rice fanners fie1d in Colombia. Based on these results sorne red rice accessions were selected to conduct gene flow analysis and identify indicators for easy tracing and monitoring of genetic introgression from rice into red rice, and persistence of domesticated genes in the weedy population under field conditions throughout subsequent generations. Here we present preliminary analyses of two field experimental designs to trace genetic introgression from transgenic and non-transgenic rice into red rice using the NS3 (encoding for RHBV resistance in transgenic rice) and gus transgenes, the presence of anthocyanins in the leaves, tillers, and grain apiculus as morphological markers. This work is part of a project directed to analyze the gene flow from non-transgenic or transgenic rice into wild/weedy relatives in the Neotropics, and its effect(s) on the population genetic structure of the recipient species.Comparison of agronomic traits for red rice, transgenic lines and rice varieties. Seedlings of F3BC1 Cica 8 transgenic line A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2, F3 Cica 8 transgenic lines A3-49-60-4-5/Fedearroz 50-19-1 and A3-49-60-4-5/Fedearroz 50-19-1-2, six red rice biotypes 1 , and eight commercial rice varieties were transplanted in the field in three replicates of 42 plants per replicate. Morphological and phenological (days to flowering) characterization was conducted in order finalize the selection of the red rice candidates to be used in the gene flow studies. These red rice materials were pre-selected to include the phenotypic and genetic diversity present in the red rice population based on last year results on the analyses of qualitative and quantitative traits by principal coordinate and component tests respectively, agronomic traits, and molecular characterization by microsatellites markers at the same time sorne genotypes were included because they showed close overlap in flowering with rice varieties as well as similar height. These red rice types were also susceptible to rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV) as indicated by RHBV evaluations conducted in the field. The transgenic lines were chosen because they showed resistance encoded by the NS3 transgene, and contained the gus and hph (hygromycin resistance) marker genes. The rice line commonly known as Purple (1RRI accession) characterized by having purple leaves, tillers, and grain apiculus, was used to trace the inheritance of anthocyanins as a morphological marker (control) facilitating the identification of hybrids since anthocyanin production in rice is encoded by dominant gene(s).Experimental field designs to trace gene flow from transgenic and non-transgenic ( Purple line) into red rice. Seeds of the experimental genotypes were sown in a nursery under the field conditions at different dates to ensure flowering overlap between rice (pollen donor) and red rice (pollen receptor). The expression of gus gene was assayed histochemical in seedlings after 15 days later. Plants with gus expression were selected for the gene flow study. Two experimental field plots were used. The first design (multiple-square assay) consisted in square plots where rice and red rice were planted intermingled simulating farmers field conditions. The second design (concentric circles assay) was used to measure gene flow distance affected by wind.For the multiple-square assay, seedlings of 25 to 30 day-old were transplanted in plots of 1.8 m X 1.8 m. Each plot contained 81 plants, 16 of which corresponded to one red rice type (20% ). The plants were planted at a distance of 0.2 m between plants, and at 5 meters between plots. Each plot was surrounded with a biological barrier of sweet com of 1.8 m of height planted at 2.5 m from the border of each plot. A complete randomized block design, with four replicates per red rice type and pollen donor source (transgenic line or Purple line) was used (Figure 1). In order to ensure flowering overlap between rice (pollen donor) and red rice, pollen donor plants from at least two different sowing dates were planted in each plot. Plants in each plot were scored throughout the life cycle to maturity. Average wind speed and wind direction during flowering were recorded.For the concentric circle assay two designs were used. In both cases, plants from both transgenic lines and Purple line were inter-planted within a circle at the center of the plot. Total of 176 pollen donor plants were planted in concentric 7 circles respect to the center at a distance of 0.25 m between plants. Between 220 and 262 plants red rice plants composed by a equa1 amount of four red rice types (5-38-5, 1-21-3, 5-36-4 and 1-3-4) were planted at 0.3 m between plants, in four concentric circles respect to the pollen source using a Statistic Latín Square Design (Figure 1). The first design, the first circle was 0.5 m from the pollen so urce, and the fourth circle was at 1,25 m. In the second design, the first circle was at 1 m from the pollen source and the fourth circle at 1,75 m.Likewise for the other assay, pollen donor plants of at least two different sowing dates wee used to ensure flowering overlap with red rice.Red rice showed variation in stem (SC) and leaves (LC) color (Table1). Stem color ranged from light green (score 3) to green (score 6), and leaf color varied from green (score 6) to dark green (score 8). Color was defined using The Royal Horticultura! Society color scale (1966). Red rice accessions 1-21-3, 1-3-3, 4-12-2 and 5-38-5 showed erector intermediate growth habit (GH) 1ikewise most rice commercial varieties (scores 3-5). In contrast red rice 5-36-4 and 5-48-2 showed decumbent habit (score 7 -9). In relation to flowering, the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsch multiple range test (p>0.005) discriminated three groups: early flowering (red rice 1-21-3, 1-3-4, and 5-36-4, and the Purple line) with a mean value 92 to 95 day-after-sowing (DAS); intermediate flowering (red rice 5-38-5, 4-12-2, and 5-48-2, and all the rice varieties and transgenic lines A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2, A3-49-60-4-5/FB007-19-1) with a mean value of 99 to 110 DAS); late flowering (the transgenic line A3-49-60-4-5/FB007-19-2) with a mean value of 123 DAS. About 71 % red rice accessions flowered earlier than the variety Cica 8 and the transgenic line A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2 (Table 1), and most red rice flowered earlier than and the transgenic line A3-49-60-4-5/FB007-19-2. No significant difference was noted in the number of tillers between the red rice, the transgenic lines and rice (Table 1). About 70% of the red rice was as tall as the transgenic line A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2, and the Purple line, whereas the varieties Cica 8, Fedearroz 50 and Fedearroz Victoria 1 were taller than 70% of the red rice. Height differences seem not to be a critica! point to prevent gene flow. Song et al. (2003) detected gene flow between species of O. rufipogon and the rice commercial variety Minghui-63, which differed in 130 cm height (Table 1). Based on these results the transgenic line A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2 was selected as one of the pollen donors for the gene flow studies. About 60% of plants from the line A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2 showed gus expression, indicating that the gene was still segregating in this F3BC1 generation. In order to have enough plants for the gene flow studies, a total of 4011 plants were evaluated, and 2246 plants showed gus expression (56%). Flowering was synchronous between the red rice; the Purple line and the transgenic line A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2. Most treatments involving the Purple line and red rice 1-21-3, 1-3-4, 5-36-4 and 5-38-5 overlapped in flowering. The highest synchrony in flowering was noted between red rice 4-12-2 and the Purple line, with 87% of plants with flowering overlap. In the case of the transgenic line, flowering overlap with red rice of 56 to 77 % plants was noted. Even though the red rice 5-38-5 flowered earlier than the transgenic line, there was overlap towards the end of the flowering cycle of the red rice. Wind velocity ranged from Oto 0,7 mis, the maximum mean value of 1.6 mis was registered from 10: 00 AM to 12 PM on cloudy days. Seeds from red rice, transgenic and Purple line were harvested keeping record of the plant location within each experimental plot.Progeny plants from the different treatments will be analyzed using specific microsatellites markers to identify hybrid plants, as well as by scoring gus expression and the presence of the NS3 and hph genes by PCR (when using the transgenic lineas pollen donor) or by the presence of anthocyanins in vegetative and reproductive tissues (when using the Purple lineas pollen donor). These analysis will not only give an estímate of rate of hybridization between the different experimental types, but al so the distan ce of gene flow, and will allow the optimization of an experimental approach to use molecular marker for tracing/ and monitoring genetic introgression from rice at large scale suitable for risk assessment in farmers fields and natural environments. ~ Hybrids plants will be used to study genetic introgression dynamics and persistence of domesticated genes 1 recipient population over time. The information generated will be used to define management practices allowing a safety deployment of transgenic rice in the tropics. Messeguer, J., Fogher, C., Guiderdoni, E., Marta, V., Catalá, M., Baldi, G. and Melé, E. (2001). Field assessments of gene flow from transgenic to cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) using a herbicide resistance gene as tracer marker. Theor. Appl. Genet. 103:1151-1159. Noldin, J., Yokoyama, S., Antunes, P. and Luzzardi, R. (2001).  The work of CIA T on shrub legumes emphasizes the development of materials to be utilized as feed supplement during extended dry seasons. Tropical shrub legumes of high quality for better soils are readily available, but germplasm with similar characteristics adapted to acid, infertile soils is scarce. Flemingia macrophylla and Cratylia argentea have shown promising results in such environments and hence work on these genera is part of the overall germplasm development strategy of the CIA T Forages team.C. argentea is increasingly adopted and utilized, particularly in the seasonally dry hillsides of Central America, and more recently, the Llanos Orientales de Colombia. However, most research and development is based on only few accessions and hence activities to acquire and test novel germplasm of C. argentea is of high priority.F. macrophylla also is a highly promising shrub legume with excellent adaptation to infertile soils. In contrast to C. argentea, whose adaptation is limited to an altitude below 1200 masl, F. macrophylla can successfully be grown up to altitudes of 2000 masl.However, the potential utilization of F. macrophylla is so far Iimited by the poor quality and acceptability of the few evaluated accessions.The project aims to investigate the genetic diversity within collections ofF. macrophylla and C. argentea with three main objectives:1) To identify new, superior forage genotypes based on conventional gennplasm characterization/evaluation procedures (morphological and agronomic traits, forage quality parameters, including IVDMD and tannin contents) 2) To optimize the use and management, including conservation, of the collections.For this, different approaches to identify core collections for each species were tested and compared based on: (a) genetic diversity assessment by agroriomic characterization/evaluation; (b) germplasm origin information; and (e) molecular markers (RAPDs). 3) To assist future gennplasm collections on methodology, geographical focus and genetic erosion hazards.Agronomic characterization and evaluation. Space-planted, single-row plots in RCB design with three replications were established in Quilichao in March 1999 (Cratylia argentea, 39 accessions) and March 2000 (Flemingia macrophylla, 73 accessions).Additionally two replications were sown for seed production and morphological observations.The following parameters were measured in the trials: vigor, height and diameter, regrowth, incidence of diseases, pests and mineral deficiencies, and dry matter yield during wet and dry seasons. For the analysis of nutritive value, crude protein content and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of the entire collections were analyzed. For the morphological evaluation, qualitative and quantitative parameters were measured, such as days to first flower, days to first seed, flower color, flowers per inflorescence, flowering intensity, pod pubescence, seeds per pod, seed color, Ieaf area, peduncle length, etc.For F. macrophylla, a more detailed analysis of nutritive value was conducted of a representative subset (25 accessions), which included high, intermediate and low nutritive value accessions. The groups were selected based on crude protein content and IVDMD. The chemical analysis comprised fiber (NDF, ADF, N-ADF), extractable and bound condensed tannin (ECT, BCf) content and astringency (protein binding capacity). Monomer composition of the extractable condensed tannin fraction (procyanidin:prodelphinidin:proelargonidin ratio = C:D:P) was determined with a highperformance liquid chromatography system (HPLC). Due to extremely variable results both between Iaboratory replicates and among field repetitions, statistical analysis was not possible.In order to give at least an idea of the monomer composition of extractable condensed tannins in F. macrophylla accessions, results from only five accessions, which were consistent between duplicates and among repetitions, are reported. Additionally, another subset of 10 accessions (9 high-quality accessions (18437,18438,21083,21090,21092,21241,21580,22082,22327) and CIAT 17403) was sampled 4, 6 and 8 weeks after cutting, to investigate the effect of age on digestibility as well as on protein, fiber and condensed tannin content and astringency.Based on data referring to the morphological, agronomic and feed quality variation of all accessions a core collection will be created, using multivariate statistic tools (Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis).Based on ecogeographical information on origin of accessions, a core collection was created, hypothesizing that geographic distance and environmental differences are related to genetic diversity. The analysis was conducted with FloraMapTM, a GIS tool developed by CIAT, which allows the production of climate probability models using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis.Efforts made in genetic analysis showed that common manual DNA extraction methods did not work well with F. macrophylla and C. argentea. A modified protocol, which was used to extract DNA showed promising initial results. However, frequent degradation, contamination and partial digestion of DNA occurred, due to secondary plant compounds, probably polyphenols. In preliminary trials with a commercial extraction kit instead, the DNA purity was higher but partial digestion continued to be a severe problem. Various studies with amplified fragment length polymorphism markers (AFLPs), the method of choice, did not succeed and finally studies using this methodology could not be completed. Instead, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers, which do not require enzymatic digestion, were successfully employed.A total of 47 RAPD 10-mer primers (Operon Technologies, Alameda, CA, USA) were screened as single primers for the amplification of RAPD sequences. Primers with highest levels of polymorphisms were repeated to test for reproducibility and those that produced polymorphic, distinct and reproducible bands were chosen for RAPD analysis. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was performed on a matrix created based on the presence (1) or absence (O) of amplified bands. Subsequently, cluster analysis was performed on the coordinates obtained by MCA. Dendrograms were generated using UPGMA method. Nei 's coefficient was used as estimator of similarity between accessions in order to generate between-and within-group similarity tables. Diversity was estimated using Nei's H and GST estimators.Data analysis and synthesis. Individual and combined data analyses of all generated information was carried out using multivariate statistics. We have applied principie component analysis in all data sets (agronomic, morphological, geographical and molecular). In addition, cluster analysis was performed and the resulting clusters were compared to identify similarities.Agronomic characterization and evaluation. Results from evaluations per season carried out for Cratylia argentea and Flemingia macrophylla indicated considerable phenotypic and agronomic variation in the collections studied. Data for C. argentea and F. macrophylla have been presented already in previous reports.For C. argentea, IVDMD varied between 59 and 69% and crude protein content between 18 and 24%. Mean dry matter production was 2.2 (range 0.8 to 5.2) t/ha and 1.93 (range 0 .6 to 3.3) tlha in the wet and dry season, respectively. Dry season yields were relatively high and confirm the good adaptation of C. argentea to dry conditions.There was a pronounced effect of season on sorne agronomic and quality traits. DM production was higher in the rainy season than in the dry season whereas ADF was higher in the dry than in the wet season. A season x genotype interaction was detected for IVDMD.The cluster analysis dendrogram (Ward's Method) was truncated at the 6-group level. The detailed agronomic characteristics of each group are listed in ). Productivity of these accessions was higher than yields of the cultivar released in Costa Rica (cv. Veraniega) and Colombia (cv. Veranera) -an accession mixture of CIAT 18516/18668 (yield 1.9 and 3 tlha). In addition to the higher yield, these accessions (18674, 22375, 22406, 22408 and 22409) also had equal or superior digestibility values (65 to 69%) and crude protein content (20 to 24%) in comparison to CIAT 18516/18668 (IVDMD 64 to 67%, CP 21 to 24%).Based on high forage yield and good seed production potential we selected CIAT 18674, 22375, 22406, 22408 and 22409 for seed multiplication and regional testing (Table B).  18676,18957,22373,22400,22410,22412 Group 6 (very highlaverage yields, good regrowth, high digestibility, high CP, low AFD, higher NDF than group 4): CIAT 18516, 18667, 18668, 18671, 18674,22379,22404,22407,22408,22409    In F. macrophylla, accessions evaluated differed in IVDMD, DM production, ECI', tannin extractability (ECI'/total Cf) and astringency (protein binding capacity) whereas CP and BCT showed only minor variability. IVDMD varied from 28 to 58% and crude protein content from 13 to 25%. Mean dry matter production was 2.08 tlha in the wet and 1.18 t/ha in the dry season.The chemical composition of 25 F. macrophylla accessions with contrasting digestibility varied greatly among accessions and in response to harvest season (Tables C and D).  Monomer composition of the extractable CT fraction in 5 accessions F. macrophylla was quite variable due to accession but not due to season of the year (Fig. A). In four accessions (CIAT 20621, 20744, 20975 and 20976) prodelphinidin made up more than half of the proanthocyanidins (range from 49 to 79% ). The second most important constituent was propelargonidin, which ranged from 16 to 38%. Procyanidin was only present in small proportions (O to maximum 16%). It was interesting to observe that in CIAT 21092 propelargonidin represented 82% of total proanthocyanidins in the rainy season and 95% in the dry season. Procyanidin was absent and prodelphinidin was less than 20%.The five accessions for which we have reliable data on monomer composition of ECT are not representative of the entire Flemingia collection in terms of forage quality. However, four of them had very high ECT concentrations (13-17%) whereas CIAT 21092 presented relatively low ECf levels (7 and 4% in the rainy and dry season, respectively). The latter had an exceptionally high propelargonidin proportion but totally lacked cyanidin, which could indicate a relationship between monomer composition and forage quality. Analysis of a subset of 10 high-quality accessions (including control) showed that forage quality varied over time. Pattems were different in the rainy and dry season for both the averaged values of the 10 accessions and for individual accessions (Fig. B). Correlations found in this analysis confirmed the negative correlations between IVDMD and ECT and IVDMD and astringency.Season had a large effect on IVDMD, DM production, plant height and diameter (higher in the rainy than in the dry season) and ADF, NDF, ECT and astringency (slightly higher in the dry season than in the rainy season). Extractability (percentage ECT of total CT) was relatively stable between harvest seasons (differences <10%). Only in six accessions (CIAT 17403, 18438, 20616, 20622, 21092   CIAT 18048,20972,20976,20978,20980,20982,21982,21991,21992,21995,21996,22327 Group 4 (high digestibility, highlaverage yields, good regrowth, highlaverage CP, high vigor, average plant height): CIAT 18437, 18438, 20975, 21083,21087, 21090, 21092, 22082 Group 5 (average digestibility, high yields, average regrowth, high CP, high vigor, high plant height): CIAT 801, 7184, 20622, 20625 , 20626, 20631, 20744, 21241, 21248, 21249, 21519, 21529, 21580, C104890, 115146, J001 Group 6 (like group 5, but lower yields, lower vigor and lower plant height): CIAT 19453, 19454, 19797, 19798,19799,20065 Group 7 (low digestibility, highlaverage yields, average regrowth, high CP, high vigor, average plant height): CIAT 17400, 17403, 17404, 17405, 17407, 17409, 17411, 17412, 17413, 18440, 19457, 19800, 19801, 19824,20616,20617,20618,20621,20624 Genetic analysis by molecular markers (RAPDs): Out of 47 random primers tested, 9 were chosen that produced 171 RAPD bands ranging from 4 to 18 polymorphic bands per primer. Eight primers were selected for Flemingia macrophylla (DOl, D04, D15, 107, J04, J06, J07, Jl2), and six for Cratylia argentea (D15, G12, 107, J06, J07, J12) (Table F). Analysis of genetic diversity within accessions revealed high variability. Nei and Li similarity between groups often was as high or higher than within groups (Table G). This could indicate either seed contamination of accessions and/or outcrossing during multiplication in the field. Research on reproduction of C. argentea is urgently required to determine the rate and impact of outcrossing in this species.  (1992). Oiven the different sources of the microsatellites we compared the polymorphism rates of markers derived frorn genes versus those derived from random genomic sequences.Populations and DNA extraction. Two populations of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) were used for this study: the first population 'was based on the cross DOR364 x 019833 (and heretofore will be referred to as the DO population). A total of 87 RILs were developed for this cross by a modified single seed descent from the F2 to the F9 generation. The plants within the F9 progeny row were bulked and used for subsequent genetic analysis. The second population was based on 91 RILs from the cross BAT93 x JaloEEP558 whose development and origins are described by Freyre et al. (1998). Total genomic DNA for each of the recombinant inbred lines in both populations was isolated from bulked leaf tissues of eight greenhouse-grown plants per line, using a CT AB extraction method.Source and development of markers. We used three sets of markers in this study: 1) genomic microsatellites developed in this laboratory by Oaitán-Solís et al. (2002); 2) genecoding microsatellites developed by Yu et al. (1999Yu et al. ( , 2000) ) and 3) additional gene-coding and non-coding microsatellites from searches for SSR containing Phaseolus sequences deposited in the Oenbank database before July 15, 2001. SSRs were found using the SSR identification tool (SSRIT) that screens for all possible dimeric, trimeric and terameric repeats. Only sequences containing a mínimum of three tetra-nucleotide, four tri-nucleotide or five di-nucleotide motif repeats were used for primer design. Primers were designed using Primer 3.0 software to produce PCR amplification fragments that were on average 150 bp long, and PCR primers with consistent melting temperatures of 55°C or above and an average length of 20 nucleotides. Primer pairs were checked to make sure that they had similar rnelting temperatures and did not suffer from palindromes or end pairing.Microsatellite analysis. Polymorphisms between the mapping parents were determined on parental survey gels. Standard microsatellite PCR conditions were used throughout and the PCR reaction was carried out in 20 rnL final volumes. Gel staining and image capture are as described in more detail by Gaitan et aL (2002). The sizes of the parental alleles were estimated based on 10 bp and 25 bp molecular weight ladders. To determine the genotypes of the progenies, alleles were scored based on the parental bands that were amplified as controls along with the RIL individuals.Data Analysis. Segregation distortion was measured with a Chi-square test for an expected 1:1 ratio and segregation data was used to place the microsatellites on the established genetic maps for the DG and BJ populations (Beebe et al. 1998;Freyre et al. 1998)  (1992). Linkage analysis was conducted with the software application Mapmaker 2.0 using a mínimum LOD of 4.0.A total of 150 cornrnon bean microsatellites were used in this study. Of these, 81 were anonymous genornic or non-coding microsatellites and 69 were gene-derived rnicrosatellites. In the Genbank searches, SSRs were found in a range of coding and noncoding sequences. The highest number of repeats detected in the simple sequence repeats was nine, while the average number of repeats was 5.5 among all the microsatellites identified. Genomic microsatellites hada significantly higher (P=0.02) average number of repeats than gene rnicrosatellites (6.2 versus 5.3) in unpaired t-test. In this study, di and tri-nucleotide motif containíng microsatellites did not have significantly different average number of repeats. All the microsatellite markers were screened for amplification products and polymorphism in the parents of the DG and BJ populations and no difference in band intensity between the cDNA and genomic derived microsatellites was observed. A majority of the microsatellites produced single bands for the parents. Polymorphism rates for the DG and BJ populations were 65.4 and 63.2% for the genomic microsatellites, and 46.3 and 46.2% for the genic rnicrosatellites, respectively. Overall the percentage of polymorphism between the parents of both populations was very similar: a total of 84 out of the 150 microsatellites tested for the parents of the DG population were polymorphíc (56.0%), while a total of 68 out of the 122 rnicrosate]Jjtes tested for the parents of the BJ population were polymorphic (55.7%).A total of 100 new microsatellite loci were placed on the two genetic maps (78 on the DG population and 22 on the BJ population) during this study. Microsatellite loci were found on each of the eleven chromosomes of the species and each chromosome was tagged with at least five or more microsatellite. Two chromosomes, B02D and B04B hada relatively greater number of microsatellites placed on them, with 17 and 13 markers respectively; while the average number of microsatellite loci per chromosome was 10. The total cumulative map length for the DG population was 1720 cM with an average chromosome length of 156.4 cM. The average distance between microsatellite loci in this map was 19.5 cM; however the distribution of loci was variable and several large gaps between microsatellites remained on the map. The largest gaps between microsatellite markers remained on chromosomes bOl, b07, b08 and bll. Among the markers that presented multiple bands, duplicate loci could be mapped for two markers.The gene-based microsatellites were better distributed than the genomic microsatellites and several clusters of genomic microsatellites were found on almost every chromosome except b06 and b08 which were the linkage groups with the fewest microsatellites.This study brings toa total of 115, the microsatellite loci located on the bean genetic map and provides coverage for every chromosome in the genome with from five to twenty markers each. Although the genomic distribution of microsatellite markers in this study tended to be random, sorne large gaps between microsatellites occurred and certain chromosomes contained more microsatellite loci than others. As single-locus markers, the microsatellites in this study were specific to a given place in the genome and this allowed them to be used for comparati ve mappíng across both the DG and BJ populations. This comparative mapping showed the consistency of microsatellite location on both populations: with all the microsatellites mapping to the same individual chromosome and equivalent map locations in each of the populations. Mapping in two populations was useful for placing microsatellites that were monomorphic in one or the other of the populations. Comparative mapping allowed us to determine the identity and orientation of each linkage group and to obtain a more accurate position for each of the microsatellites. The synteny between maps as reflected by the map order of jointly mapped markers was conserved providing further evidence that no major rearrangements have occurred in the common bean genome.The current set of microsatellite markers described in this study provides the basis for anchoring and aligning genetic maps one to each other based solely on PCR-based markers, something that previously was done with single-copy RFLP markers or by tentatively associating RAPD bands found in different populations. Therefore, the microsatellites make ideal second-generation markers for the whole genome analysis important for gene tagging and quantitative trait loci studies. The microsatellites mapped during the course of this research will also be invaluable for marker assisted selection because they are simple to analyze, specific for single genes of interest and diagnostic in most crosses dueto their high level of polymorphism. The mapped microsatellites can also provide a good set from which to chose markers for studies of genetic diversity in comrnon bean.Nutritionai genornics is being used as part of the Biofortification Challenge Program to discover the basic mechanisms for mineral uptake and accumulation. As part of this program CIA T is collaborating with the Grusak lab at the USDA-Baylor College of Medicine to determine the genes in common beans that determine iron uptake and utilization. As part of the overall genomics approach, information from other well studied specíes such Medicago truncatula, peas and soybeans, as weii as other model species such as Arabidopsis thaliana which have extensive genetic and molecular resources are being used for gene discovery and functional analysis. The underlying concepts of this work are to take advantage of metabolic unity among plants to characterize gene function and to apply bioinformatics and molecular cloning approaches to identify potential orthologous genes.As a first example of this approach the Grusak lab is trying to dissect the importance of iron reductase in the accumulation of iron in beans by assaying iron reductase activity in roots and by cloning an ortholog of the gene from common bean based on similarity to the same gene already isolated from Medicago truncatula and from Pisum sativum (Pea). Iron reductase is a member of the protein super-family of flavocytochromes and functions to convert iron from an unavailable form (ferric, Fe3+) to an available form (ferrous, Fe2+) that can be readily absorbed by plants. The iron reductase protein (FRO) is located in roots and straddles the root cell membrane where it is active for iron reduction and was first isolated from A. thaliana and P. sativum. both of which are fairly efficient at extracting iron from the soil and serve as model species for enzyme activity.SCAR marker. the Grusak lab selected conserved primers for RT -PCR based on the Pisum iron reductase gene (PsFR01). At CIAT we tried using these primers for mapping of the gene as a SCAR marker.Reductase Assay. In the Grusak lab, seeds are genninated for 3-4 days then planted in a hydroponic system for 12 days of growth in various levels of iron concentration (eg. 2, 5 , 10 and 20 uM Fe). Iron reductase assay is conducted at the end of this period by removing the entire root systems of four plants and staining for reduced iron measured as umol Fe reduced/g FW/hr.The SCAR primers produced multiple banding pattems that were not of the expected size range, suggesting that the conservation between common bean and peas for this gene is low, and that it will be difficult to clone via a direct PCR approach. Given this the Grusak lab has been screening a common bean leaf cDNA library which we made at CIAT and will begin next year to screen a set of two root leaf cDNA librarles, where the mRNA for iron reductase is more likely to be expressed.The iron reductase assay is producing interesting results that suggest that there are differences between parents of severa! mapping populations for their ability to reduce iron (Table 1). These differences are evident more at low Fe concentration than at high iron concentration and seem to be somewhat correlated with the seed iron status of the parents, for example in the cross of G21242 x G21078, the high iron parent G21242 has higher reductase activity than the low iron parent G21078. Many of the wild accession also had low reductase activity as well, except for the Colombian accession G24404, which in contrast had high reductase activity and therefore will be investigated further in future experiments.1t was notable that significant difference exist between the parents of the DOR364 x G19833 mapping population ata range of hydroponic Fe concentrations (Figure 1) and that these results were consistent with the results observed in the first trial with multiple parents at 2 uM and 15 uM Fe concentrations (Table 1). More information on this trait will be reported next year when a set of recombinant inbred lines have been fully tested and the QTLs for this trait localized.• Evaluate Fe reductase activity in a greater number of parents of other populatíons and a range of Fe concentrations for each paren t.• Evaluate the full set of recombinant inbred lines from the DOR364 x G19833 and G21078 x G21242 crosses to determine inheritance and location of QTLs for Fe reductase activity.• Develop a DNA marker for Fe reductase activity either based on QTL mapping or cloning and mapping of orthologs of the Fe reductase gene. Part of the effort to increase the nutritional quality of common bean has concentrated on increasing iron bioavailability, where bioavailability is the proportion of the consumed nutrient that is digested, absorbed and utilized by human beíngs. Bioavailability is determined by both food composition and the nutrient status of the consumer as well as a mix of promoters (such as sulfur ami no acids: methionine and cysteine, vitamin A or C and lipid content) and anti-nutritional factors (including fiber, lectins, phytates, polyphenolics and tannins, as well as Calcium and Manganese). Among the anti-nutrients, tannins are important because of their ability to interact with proteins and to chelate minerals which results in reductions in protein digestibility and mineral bioavailability. Tannins are derived from phenolic compounds and contribute to the coloring found in common bean seed coats. They can be divided into hydrolizable 1 soluble tannins (derived from Gallic acid) and condensed tannins 1 proanthocyanadins (derived from polymerized flavonoids), which are measurable by different techniques.Previous studies looking at overall tannin content m bean seed coat, using a water/methanol extraction found variability in the content of tannins in seed coats of different varieties of common beans. In this study our objective was to identify the genetic variability for tannin in a segregating population and to collect preliminary evidence on the inheritance of soluble and insoluble tannin content in the seed coats of recombinant inbred lines from the cross DOR364 x 019833. In this study we applied a more accurate extraction technique and began to look at the inheritance of various fractions of tannin con ten t.Tannin extraction. Total tannin extraction and analysis followed the methods of Jones et al. (1976) andTerrill et al. (1992). Extraction involved the use of a mix of acetone/water/diethyl ether. Colorimetric tannin analysis was realized with a Butanol-HCl method which allows total condensed tanriins to be measured. A butanol-water (5%) mix was used as a blank. This method had been standardized for forage tannin analysis and has been used successfully for the analysis of tannins in sorghum•grain.Plant Material. Tannins were extracted from seed coats that had been peeled from common bean seed, dried at 60 C for one hour and ground into a fine powder to use in the analysís. An n-heptane treatment was used to facilitate seed peeling and consisted in 12 hours immersion in the n-heptane solution, followed by seed drying and hand-peeling. Different amounts of ground seed coat were used for the parents (30 g) than for the individual recombinant inbred lines (15 mg). This was done to obtain enough purified tannin from the parents to construct the concentration calibration curves used in the analysis of the pro gen y. Three replicates were used per seed coat sample for the analysis.Soluble and insoluble tannins were successfully purified from DOR364 and G 19833, the parents of the population, to use for the detennination of a calibration curve for absorbance vs. concentration to use in estimating the amount of tannins in the progeny. The color of the dried tannin extract was darker and more reddish for the DOR364 tannins than for the 019833 tannins as would expected from their respective seed coat colors. When the progeny and parents were tested against the calibration curve, a range of seed coat tannin concentrations (expressed in percent) were observed (Figure 1). Soluble tannin was found to range from 13 to 41%, while insoluble tannin ranged from 1 to 8 %, depending on the progeny lines tested in the population. The parents had similar amounts of soluble tannins (both around 26%) while DOR364 contained more insoluble tannin (5.3 %) than did 019833 (2.9 %). The normal distribution of both soluble and insoluble tannins in the population suggests that both are inherited as quantitative traits.We will use a QTL analysis approach to determine the genes involved in tannin content in common bean seed coats and use this information to devise a strategy for reducing specific fractions of tannins with the hope of increasing bioavailability of iron in beans. The strength with which we pursue the strategy of reducing tannins to increase iron bioavailability, must be counterbalanced by the evidence that sorne tannins have been shown to have beneficia! aspects as anti-oxidants and anti-carcinogens. lntroduction Thrips palmi ís a damaging insect pest of common bean and other dicotyledenous crops that was introduced from Asia (Java, Indonesia) into the Americas during the last decade.Starting in the Caribbean, (Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti and Puerto Rico) the species spread rapidly into the United States and northem South America (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela). The greatest damage inflicted to common bean production in Colombia is seen in climbing bean varieties that are grown for the fresh market (including snap beans and Cargamanto dry beans). Sequential plantings, common in the production of snap beans is very conducive to heavy infestations of thrips and whiteflies, which are synergistic in the damage that they inflict. Misuse of insecticides also can lead to resurgence in thrips populations. Host plant resistance on the other hand is a promising component in an integrated cropping system to reduce damage by Thrips palmi Kamy. Therefore the objective of this research was to identify the stability of Thrips resistance across environments and the genes and QTLs controlling this resistance.The BAT881 x 021212 population, consisting in 139 F5:7 generation RILs, was evaluated over three seasons at a field site in Pradera, Valle, Colombia. The details on phenotypic data collection are reported in CIAT-AR (2000). A genetic map was constructed based on the screening of 151 RAPD markers and 107 microsatellites as reported in CIAT-AR (2002). A linkage map was constructed in two phases; first with the RAPD markers only and then with both RAPD and microsatellite markers. The software package MAPMAKER3.0 (Lander et al., 1987), was used to generate the genetic map, whereby genetic mapping was done by: first, grouping markers at LOD > 5.0 and then, ordering them at LOD > 3.0 using three point analysis with a maximum inter-marker distance of 37.2 cM. Broad sense heritabilities (h2) on an entry-mean basis in seasons and across seasons were calculated for both resistance traits based on mean square ANOV A results, genotypic variance (cr2g), phenotypic variance (cr2p), genotype x season interactions (cr2gs), and error variance (cr2e). Arbitrary linear (orthogonal) contrasts were conducted, using the Scheffe's F-test, to compare among (1) the five most resistant Rll..s, (2) the five most susceptible RILs, (3) the BAT881 parent, (4) the G21212 parent and (5) the susceptible PV A 773 check (Statistix, 1998). Quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified through single-point regression analysis (SPA) and interval mapping analysis (IM) with the software packages Qgene, and QTLCartographer Vl.21, respectively. In the SPA analysis, probability thresholds of 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 were used. In the 1M analysis a LOD threshold of 2.5, a window size of 10 cM anda 2 cM walking step were used to determine the presence and location of QTLs and whether there was evidence for more than one QTL on linkage groups with multiple LOD peaks.which had been run on the progeny.The cross BAT881 x 021212 was found to produce progeny showing transgressive segregation for thrips resistance. Correlations between damage and reproductive adaptation scores were significant in seasons, and significant correlations existed between seasons. Broad sense heritabilities were moderate ranging from 32.4 to 63.4% depending on the parameter and the season (Table 1). The genetic map constructed for the cross had 11 linkage groups, eight of which could be identified as homologous to the chromosomes of the integrated linkage map of common beans, three of which remained unidentified. The most important thrips resistance QTL was located on chromosome b06, linked to two microsatellites and one RAPD marker, explaining up to 27.7% of variance in SPA. This QTL was located at the same region as the bc-3 and Ur-4 resistance genes. Other minor QTLs for thrips resistance were found on chromosomes b02, b03, b08, and b09, sorne of which were located in regions of genes encoding for disease resistance. The identification and mapping of thrips resistance genes is one of the first studies on insect resistance QTLs in common beans and is expected to facilitate the development of resistant bean cultivars by using molecular marker assisted selection.Continue mapping with additional microsatellites to achieve complete map coverage in the BAT881 x 021212 population This year we continued a project begun in 2001 to tag resistan ce to the bean pod weevil (Apion goodmani Wagner) which damages beans grown in Mexico and Central America. Resistance is controlled by two possible mechanisms -either antibiosis involving a hypersensitive response that encapsulates the oviposition siteor antixenosis that affects the preference of oviposition sites. Epistasis between two independent genes, Agr and Agm, has been suggested to control the hypersensitive response. The fact that a few genes control resistance may explain why it has been relatively easy to transfer resistance from Mexican landraces where it is found to new breeding lines with Central American grain types. The objectives of this research were to identify additional markers linked to the genes controlling resistance in the recombinant inbred line (Rll..) population derived from Parental Survey and Genetic Mapping. Genetic material consisted in a total of 104 F5 derived recombinant inbred lines (RILs) from the cross Jamapa x 1117, where Jamapa is a susceptible cultivar released in Mexico and 1117 is a resistant breeding line. Screening of susceptible and resistant bulks (of 4 lines each) has continued from last year with a total of over 150 microsatellite markers. A genetic map was constructed with the new dataset of 104 lines and all the polymorphic RAPD markers using the program Mapmaker.RAPD cloning and SCAR primer design. Two RAPD bands (W9-1300S; Z4-800R) that were polymorphic from last year's survey and whích were significantly associated with the resistance phenotype were selected for cloning. The RAPD bands were purified in 4% polyacrylamide gels whích were used directly for a second round PCR amplification. U pon confirming that a single band had been arnplified thís DNA was purified from a 1% Iow melting point agarose gel using a Wizard PCR prep purification system (Promega). The purified insert DNA was cloned into the PGEM-T easy vector system for further analysis. Several clones were picked per ligation reaction and their inserts sequenced using standard techniques, TI and Sp6 primers and an ABI377 DNA sequencer. Specific primers were designed for each unique sequence using Primer 3.0 software and these were tested for their ability to amplify SCAR products. Any monomorphic SCAR products were digested with frequent cutting restriction enzymes (Alul,Haem,Rsal and Sau3AI).As in last year's results, most of the markers were Iinked to each other in five tight linkage groups representing chromosome bOl, B05, B07, B08 and Bll, each with four or more markers per Iinkage group. The most significant markers occurred on chromosome bOl including the two RAPDs targeted for this SCAR development, W9-1300S and Z4-800R. We will continue to refine the genetic map with new markers for the other four significant linkage groups.BLAST searches identified homologies for the two cloned RAPD bands. Severa} similar clones from each RAPD, showed that W9-1300S was derived from a retrotransposon, while Z4-800R was derived from an unknown Soybean gene.A total of 5 primer sets were designed for the two RAPD band sequences and these were tested on the population parents and on the bulks. AU the primer sets showed monomorphism as SCARs. When the PCR products were digested with the frequent cutting restriction enzymes, polymorphism was revealed for the fragrnent W9-1300-15. This potential CAPS (Cleaved amplified product) marker will be tested across the full population during the upcoming year.Bean golden yellow mosaic virus (BGYMV) is a devastating disease of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Latín America. It was first observed in Brazil in the early 60s, and a decade later it became the main biotic constraint to bean production in Brazil, demonstrating its considerable epidemiological potential for this country, Central America, the Caribbean and Mex.ico (Morales, 1994). Although the disease is not found in Colombia, indirect selection through molecular markers can be accomplished successfully (Beebe et al., 2002). Since 1999, a marker-assisted selection (MAS) breeding scheme has been applied using the SCAR marker DOR21 linked to the bgm-1 gene. Breeding for BGYMV has been facilitated and accelerated with this strategy, which is beginning to be used in other countries such as Cuba (Rodríguez et al., 2002). Last year efforts were made to use a second marker for a QTL (quantitative trait locus), identifi.ed in collaboration with USDA-Puerto Rico and the University of Puerto Rico severa! years ago. This marker is also a SCAR (named W12) and was planned to be used as a large-scale tool, such as DOR21, in the identification of plants carrying the resistance genes for BGYMV.Alkaline DNA ex.traction and PCR for the bgm-1 marker were performed for MAS purposes as described previously (Quintero et al., 2002). Visualization of amplified products was carried out as usual, except that samples were loaded three times per comb instead of two as done previously.Given that the PCR conditions for W12 SCAR used last year yielded either unamplified products or spurious bands that made the screening difficult and time consuming, changes in annealing temperatures of the oligonucleotide primers and different PCR profiles were assayed first in a set of 27 bean varieties, and those that gave best results were applied for screening the F 7 red-and black-seeded farnilies. Once PCR conditions were set, a multiplex assay including both markers was performed as follows: each reaction contained 5 Jll of the alkaline DNA diluted 1:1 in sterile water or 20 ng of pure DNA; 0.2 mM each dNTPs, 0.2 JlM each forward and reverse W12 primers, 0.1JlM each forward and reverse DOR21 primers, 10 mM Tris-HCI pH 8.8, 50 mM KCl, 2.5 mM MgCh and 1 unit of Taq polymerase for a total volume of 15Jll. PCR products were resolved in a 0.5X TBE agarose gel with ethidium brornide at a final concentration of 0.02 Jlg/ml. Presence or absence of both SCAR markers was scored.In addition, new primer sets were designed from the sequence of the amplified fragment provided by P. Miklas (USDA-ARS Prosser, WA). These new primer sets were also assayed with bean varieties known for the presence/absence of DOR21 andlor W12 SCARs. The assays were first performed with DNA extracted using the protocol of Afanador et al. (1993) and then with the alkaJine method routinely used forMAS .MAS for introducing BGYMV resistance in small-seeded beans continued as reported last year, and then F 1 plants were screened for the presence of the bgm-1 marker. Twenty-four segregant populations (BGMV code 548 to 607), corresponding to F 1 multiple crosses for drought stress and high iron content, were evaluated. Of 1794 individual plants, 722 had the bgm-1 marker in homogeneous state and 122 in heterogeneous state. These plants were selected and will be evaluated under drought stress next season.In addition, a set of F6-F 7 derived farnilies under drought stress was screened for the presence of DOR21 and W12 SCAR markers. The marker for bgm-1 was detected in either the heterogeneous or homogenous state in 644 out of 1350 F 7 farnilies tested. The W12 marker was detected in 585 of these farnilies (Table 1). Both markers occurred ata similar frequency (bgm-1, 43% and W 12, 48% ). Al so, the number of red-and black-seeded farnilies having both markers was comparable: 200 (20%) and 74 (22%), respectively. A multiplex assay using DOR21 and the original W12 primers was conducted in four bean varieties and pure extracted DNA. Identical PCR products were obtained when comparing individual amplification of the SCARs and the multiplex (Fig. 1). Using a multiplex assay would speed up the MAS process, but a more specific W12 marker would be needed. Among six sets of designed forward and reverse primers, two sets were selected. The first yielded even more spurious bands than the original W12 oligonucleotides, but the second was more specific and produced a single band at 614 bp (Fig. 2).Figure 2.PCR amplification of shorter region W12 marker (614 bp). Lane 1-8, bean varieties whose DNA was extracted using the alkane method; Lanes 9-13, pure DNA checks, Tío CaneJa 75, DOR 364, G19833, SAM1 and EMP496. Lane 14, original W12 fragment (732 bp).These new W12 oligonucleotides were more specific, at least in the small set of varieties selected for this study. Since no amplification was obtained in 019833 in contrast with the original oligonucleotides, it would be useful to run this new set of primers in the mapping population DOR 364 x 019833, prior to applying it for large-scale screening.The bgm-1 gene is being introduced through MAS on small-seeded farnilies also tolerant to the main biotic and abiotic constraints to bean production.Attempts were made to bring W12 SCAR to a high-throughput screening strategy, comparable to that of DOR21. Changes in PCR profiles for the amplification of the original fragment yielded more confident results than last year assays and were started to be used.A multiplex of both SCARs available for BOYMV resistance was successfully run in a set of bean varieties with known performance for both SCARs. Troubles with spurious bands or no amplification seemed to be overcome as a more specific set of forward and reverse primers for W12 fragment was designed.New W12 primers should be tested in the mapping population DOR 364 x 019833.Last year we described the testing on a total of 63 genotypes (including 7 wild accessions of common bean that were the sources of the seven variants of arcelin known to exist; 28 advanced breeding lines from the bruchid resistance program (either RAZ or GG designations); and 28 bruchid-susceptible parents used in crosses with Arel or Are 5 containing lines) of seven rnicrosatellite markers that were linked to the Arcelin resistance gene which is the most effective resistance factor for the most common storage pests of common bean, narnely the Mexican bean weevil, Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman). This year, our objective was to replace the serological/ protein based selection of arcelin in our Red Mottled common bean breeding program with a genetic assay using two of the rnicrosatellites that were most closely linked to arcelin. We analyze the two markers for their ability to distinguish susceptible and resistant genotypes and individual alleles of the Arcelin gene and confirm these results with both protein assays, insect feeding tests and replicated trials for the most resistant lines. The long-term objective of this work is to increase the efficiency of breeding for multiple constraint resistance and facilitate the pyramiding of bruchid resistance with other biotic and abiotic stress resistances. The conversion of the protein based selection of arcelin to a usable DNA marker obviates the need for arcelin-specific antibodies and protein electrophoresis and streamlines arcelin selection with the widespread use of other SCAR markers that we have also embarked on in our breeding prograrn. In addition to its compatibility with other types of DNA based markers, the advantages of using the microsatellites over the time-consuming protein based selection was they were amenable to high-throughput and fast analysis.Genetic materials and Phenotyping. A set of 796 F4 and Fs derived advanced lines from multiple crosses between RAZ lines and susceptible parents were used in the marker assisted selection experiments. Of these, 772 were Andean genotypes from the breeding program for Red Mottled beans and 24 were Mesoamerican genotypes from the breeding program for Small Red beans. All 796 lines were tested for bruchid resistance using a single replicate of 30 seeds infested with 6 pairs of Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman) in a small mesh covered clear plastic vial whose walls were covered with sandpaper (No. 150, rough side of sandpaper facing inwards) to avoid egg-laying on the plastic surface rather than the bean seed coat. Data was collected on number of eggs, number of emerged adults and percentage emergence. Genotypes with Oto 15% adult emergence were classified as highly resistant (HR), from 15 to 30% as resistant (R), from 30 to 50% as intermediate (I) and from 50 to 100% as susceptible (S). A replicated, confirmation test was conducted with the 60 best, highly resistant advanced lines as well as the 2 worst, susceptible lines and the check varieties, RAZ44 (resistant) and ICA Pijao (susceptible). Days to emergence and percentage of darnaged seed were measured along with the above pararneters using the same protocol. A total of 4 replicates were used in these trials.DNA extraction. Two DNA extraction techniques were attempted. One was a rapid, highthroughput \"microprep\" method based on alkaline lysis. The other was an ammonium acetate based \"miniprep\". Tissue was harvested in the greenhouse as leaf disks cut with a hole-puncher for the microprep or newly emerging trifoliates for the miniprep. The DNA from the miniprep was found to be more adequate for microsatellite amplifications than the DNA from the microprep so subsequent analysis were done with this techniques.Microsatellite markers. Two rnicrosatellite markers were used for the marker assisted selection scheme: Pv-AG004 (X04660) and Pv-ATCT001 (M68913). Microsatellite amplifications were conducted according to standard PCR protocols. Microsatellite markers were run at 1800 volts, 120 Wats and temperature of 45C for one to two hours on 4% polyacrlamide gels and silver-stained with a recirculating tank system. Alleles were identified as reported in last year's annual report for the 63 parental materials used in multiple crosses to generate the advanced lines tested this year.Additional Tests. In addition to the marker assisted selection screening of the 796 lines, two other tests were conducted: 1) an additional microsatellite evaluation on a blind sample of 102 genotypes for which known arcelin reactions and alleles had already been detennined but for which marker genotype was unknown and 2) a protein assay was conducted to confirm the presence or absence of arcelin in the 64 genotypes selected in for the replicated confirmation test described above.Protein extraction and arcelin determination. 0.15g of bean flour was dissolved in 250 ul of extraction buffer, vortexed and centrifuged 14,000rpm for 15 minutes. The supematant was transferred and mixed with 50ul of cracking buffer, which was vortexed, boiled for 5 minutes, allowed to cool and centrifuged before loading 5 ul onto a stacking polyacrylamide gel. Samples were run ata constant 150 volts until the sample passed into the running gel where a constant 25 mA was maintained. Protein gels were stained for 4 to 5 hours in 120 m1 of 0.25% Coomassie Blue R-250, then transferred to Destaining solutions 1 and n for approximately 4 to 5 hours.The phenotyping results are reported in another section of the CIA T annual report, therefore here we will concentrate on the results of the genotyping that was carried out. Preliminary to the process of marker assisted selection we carried out a parental survey, in which we found the number of alleles and level of polymorphism present for each of the seven microsatellites evaluated. In this parental survey, two microsatellites were found to be more tightly associated with the Arcelin gene: of these the microsatellite Pv-AG004 (X04660) was more polymorphic than Pv-ATCT001 (M68913) presenting 6 alleles versus 2 alleles, respectively. For both markers, unique alleles were found for the parent that provided Arcelin 1 (012882) giving a diagnostic test for this widely used allele of the Arcelin gene. Although this marker produced multiple bands, the pattem of bands produced was diagnostic for the 012882 allele and for resistant genotypes derived from this source, producing bands that were 184, 195 and 207 bp long, while susceptible genotypes had bands that were 207 and 245 or 207 and 285 bp long. Furthermore for Pv-AG004 (X04660) there was also a unique allele for the parent that provided Arcelin 5 (002771) that was different from the Arcelin 1 associated allele. This banding pattem consisted of fragments that were 184, 203 and 207 bp long. Meanwhile, the other marker, Pv-ATCT001 (M68913), could not distinguish between susceptible genotypes and Arcelin 5 containing genotypes. This marker produced single amplification products were the resistant allele of Arcelin 5 was associated with the 190 bp band while the susceptible allele of Arcelin 5 was associated with the 195 an<i/or 200 bp bands. It was decided that both markers would be used to screen the full set of advanced lines.In the marker assisted selection tests with Pv-AG004 and Pv-ATCT001 , the percentage of correctly identified susceptible genotypes was higher (95.4 and 94.9%, respectively) than the percentage of correctly identified highly resistant or resistant genotypes (60.2 and 62.0, respectively). Both markers were more accurate in eliminating susceptibles than in distinguishing within genotypes that were likely to contain the Arcelin 1 allele, whether they would be highly resistant, resistant or intermediate. Chi-square tests confirmed the linkage between the markers and the Arcelin resistance gene.The blind test using the Pv-AG004 marker showed the capacity to distinguish whether a genotype had Arcelin or not, but also what type of Arcelin it had as well (Table 1). The accuracy level was 100% for the absence of Arcelin and 81.4% for the presence of Arcelin. As mentioned above this marker was able to distinguish those materials containing Arcelin 1 allele versus those containing Arcelin 5 allele. These results confirm that linkage disequilibrium exists between this Phytohemaglutinnin gene microsatellite and the Arcelin locus.As marker assisted screening proceeded, improvements were made in the experimental technique resulting in a successful analysis of 92.8% of the DNA samples analyzed for Pv-AG004 (833 genotypes) and 85.6% for Pv-ATCT001 (769 genotypes). The remaining DNA samples did not amplify well and were therefore not scored. It was noteworthy that higher quality DNA was needed for the microsatellite amplification and this slowed down the process compared to SCAR screening which proceeds normally with alkaline extraction microprep DNA. The rniniprep extraction technique produced on average 200 ul of 60ng/ul DNA which was more than sufficient for the PCR reactions realized and did have the advantage of being storable for a long period of time allowing screening to proceed over a period of four months, given the need for DNA extraction, PCR amplification and gel electrophoresis of the large number of samples.The confirmatíon test using arceiin protein analysis with 60 highly resistant and 2 susceptible advanced line genotypes plus controls also showed a high level of accuracy. Resistance was associated in its entirety with the presence of the heavy 35Kda band that represents arcelin 1 in the seed protein extract. In the replicated insect resistance trial sorne variability was observed for the arcelin protein containing genotypes (where a few were reclassified from HR to only R).• Improve the efficiency of the screening technique, adapting the rnicrosatellite amplification to the alkaline extraction technique.• Test the remaining two microsatellite markers in the region of the arcelin locus.• Determine the level of linkage disequilibrium between the markers and the arcelin locus in breeding populations.• Use the markers to select for greater recombination around the arcelin locus and break the linkage drag associated with this locus which has a negative affect on plant vigor of arcelin-derived lines.  Agronomic management. The trials were protected with two preventative fungicide treatments at planting and again at flowering, and one insecticide treatment to control thrips and whitefly. The cropping systems consisted in a bamboo and wire trellis, with strings tied to individual plants within the plot. The trellis hada height of 2 m.Data Analysis. Results were analyzed using the Generation Means model of Mather and Jinks (1971). Sums of squares and determination coefficients were estimated for additive and additive x dominance models for generation means analysis of plant height and intemode length at 40, 70 and 90 days after planting in the three populations. Genetic parameters were based on variances (s 2 ) for each generation estimated with the formulae:BC1P2) where s2E was environmental variance, s2G was genotypic variance and s 2 A was additive variance, while other variances corresponded to the indicated generations (Fl,F2,BC1P1 and BC1P2). Broad sense and narrow-sense heritabilities (h 2 ) were estimated based on genetic variance values using the formulae: h 2 (broad-sense) = 100 x s2G(F2) /s2f2 and h 2 (narrow-sense) =100 x s 2 A(F2) /s 2 F2. Data obtained from the single plant scoring of F2 plants was used for evaluating partial correlations between yield components and climbing ability.In the G2333 x Gl9839 cross, generation means analysis for plant height in the first reading at 40 dap showed a better fit toan additive model of inheritance (R 2 =95.8%), while for the data collected at 70 dap for this cross, the inheritance of plant height had a better fit to an additive-dominant model (R 2 =99.5%) over just an additive model (R 2 =88.7%). These results suggest a) that additive effects on plant height are more important than dominance effects in this cross and b) that the dominance effects are expressed la ter .in the season than the additive effects (goodness of fit test, Table 2). The results for intemode length were very similar, with an additive model evident in the first reading at 40 dap and an additive-dominant model at the second reading at 70 dap. This was not surprising given that the two traits ha ve been seen to be associated in our previous studies (CIA T, 2002).Likewise in the Tio Canela x 02333 cross, the same pattem of inheritance held true for both traits with additive-dominant models for both second and third readings, while in the BRB32 X SEL1448 cross, dominance effects were evident in all three readings, although additive effects continued to be more important explanations for total variance.Narrow-sense heritability values for plant height at the three growth intervals and in the three populations varied from 52.53 to 79.63% (Table 3). Similar narrow sense lieritability values were observed for intemode length except in the case of the second reading for the population BRB32 X SEL1448. These results suggest that both characteristics are not very influenced by the spatial environment within a single site and probably are controlled by a few genes. Interactions of these two traits with soil fertility, photoperiod and temperature would of course be interesting to test but are difficult when analyzing an experiment with hybrid seed such as this generation means analysis.Partial correlations were significant between height and intemode length in all three populations suggesting that genepool source of climbing ability does not affect this association (Table 4). In two populations, G2333 x G19839 (Meso x Andean) and Tio Canela x G2333 (Meso x Meso), raceme length was significantly correlated with plant height. Therefore it may be postulated that longer racemes are an inherited character from 02333. No such correlation was found in the BRB32 x SEL1448 (Andean x Andean) population where less variability existed for raceme length. The number of vines was also significantly correlated with plant height in the 02333 x 019839 population however the correlation value was low (r=0.172) and the results were not consistent in the other two populations.Several correlations were observed between yield components and between yield components and climbing bean ability. The number of pods per raceme was positively associated with the length of the raceme in all three populations (r=0.156 to 0.618). Number of seed per pod was also positively correlated with pod length in all three populations (r=0.361 to 0.713). However larger number of seeds per pod was associated with smaller seed in two populations, G2333 x G19839 and Tiocanela x G2333 (r = -0.500 and -{).440 respectively) although this was not observed in the Andean x Andean population, BRB32 x SEL1448, possibly because the parents were less contrasting in seed weíght than the parents of the other two populations.Plant height presented significant correlation with 100 seed weight in the Andean x Andean (BRB32 x SEL1448) and Meso x Meso (Tio Canela x 02333) populations but not in the Meso x Andean (02333 x O 19839) population. However correlation coefficients were generally low (r=0. 175 and 0.222, respectively) suggesting that within genepools there is only a slight tendency for higher, more aggressive plants to produce larger seeds.On the other hand, that when genepools are combined this tendency is overshadowed by the innately larger seed of the Andean genepool and the separate inheritance of this quantitative trait. Fina11y, plant height was high1y correlated with pod 1ength and number of seeds per pod in the Andean x Andean (BRB32 x SEL1448) population but not in the other populations possibly due to the large differences between parents in this population only. The inferences made from these populations will need to be proven in additional populations to make conclusions about the association between these traits across the multiple races and genepools found in cultivated common bean.This is one of the first studies to investigate the inheritance of climbing ability in common bean through generation means analysis. Apart from the determinacy and photoperiod response genes, no other loci, which affect plant architecture in climbing beans, have been studied. This study is attempting to determine the inheritance of climbing ability and to better understand the consistency of additive and dorninance effects across severa} populati ons. Although virus resistance can be screened phenotypically, the frequency of escape, the complex interaction of multiple genes and the recessive nature of most of these malees marker assisted selection (MAS) the best option for rapidly breeding resistant varieties. This is especially true in the case of climbing beans which are longer season and more expensive to produce than bush beans and therefore can proportionally benefit from MAS derived savings in the time and expense of producing a fully tested variety. Climbing beans are grown in both intensive (trellised/staked monoculture) and extensive (intercropping with com) farming systems. In either system the need to protect the crop from diseases is great, especially seed borne and easily transmitted viral diseases such as bean common mosaic virus (BCMV or BCMNV). A number of BCMNV resistance genes have been tagged including the dominant 1 gene, as well as the recessive bc3, bc2 and bcl-2 genes.The genes can be distinguished by inoculation with different viral isolates. BCMNV resistance is very important in Mrica were necrotic strains are prevalent: Therefore, it is important to incorporate recessive resistance based on the bc-3 gene into varieties for most parts of the continent. Although most BCMV and BCNMV resistance genes have been tagged with SCAR markers very little work has been done to validate and utilize the markers in applied breeding programs. Therefore the objective of this research was to validate a SCAR marker for the most important BCNMV resistance gene, bc-3, and use the marker to introgress this gene into new bush bean and climbing bean germplasm being produced at CIAT. One target of the breeding effort are the MAC lines that we have recently developed and distributed to East Africa. These are mid-altitude climbing bean (MAC) lines which are more heat tolerant and higher yielding than many traditional climbing bean varieties and ha ve great promise for the region.Triple crosses and backcrosses were made between BCMV resistant, bc3-containing, bushtype small red or red mottled beans and a series of mid-altitude climbing (MAC) bean advanced lines bred recently at CIA T as well as the Iandraces G2333 and G685. The MAC climbing beans included red and cream mottled selections, namely SEL1445, 1446SEL1445, , 1447SEL1445, , 1448SEL1445, , 1452SEL1445, , 1453SEL1445, and 1454. The BCMNV sources included BRB29, BRB 32 and BRB191. Selection were made based on:Viral inoculations. were carried out on the Fl :2 bulk seed in the greenhouse using a necrotic strain of BCMNV to evaluate viral resistance or susceptibility reactions. After approximately 10 days, the plants were scored for necrotic hypersensitivity 1 gene resistance (N), susceptible mosaic symptoms (M) or immune resistance response indicating presence of the bc3 gene (0).Genotyping. was carried out on young bean plants in the field before flowering. Vegetative tissue was collected for alkaline DNA extraction from four leaflets from four individual plants per line using a hole-puncher. The leaf disks were placed directly into 96 well plates that were kept on ice while in the field. Tissue was kept frozen at -20 oc until use. Alkaline extraction involved adding 60 J.!l of 0.25M NaOH to the samples, heating the 96 well plates to 100 oc for 2 minutes, neutralizing with 60 J..tl 0.25M HCI, and 30 Jll of O.SM pH 8.0 Tris-HCl buffer and heating again to 100 °C for 2 minutes. This extract was transferred to a clean 96 well plate and diluted 1: 1 with sterile water. A total of 5 ul of this dilution was used for PCR amplification of two sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) markers: ROCll used to detect the bc-3 resistance gene (Johnson et al. (1997) and SW13 used to detect the dominant 1 gene (Melotto et al., 1996). PCR products were visualized on 1.5% agarose gels run in 0.5X TBE buffer. Up to three loadings were used per 42 well comb and products were run for 45 minutes at 150 volts.Gels were photographed for scoring. The presence or absence of PCR products was evaluated for each genotype to determine if the genotype was likely to contain the resistance allele or the susceptible allele.Breeding methods. The bush bean resistance sources were crossed with most of the climbing beans and the Fl hybrids were either backcrossed or crossed toa second climbing bean as indicated in Table l. The pedigrees segregating for BCMV resistance were single plant harvested and their progeny screened for resistance in the greenhouse. The F3 farnilies were planted and mass selection was practiced for the best individual plants of each family.Phenotypic screening. Among the crosses segregating for BCMNV resistance, a total of 97 selection were made in the greenhouse from the 228 seed samples that had been selected from within the F1:2 bulks. These samples were separated based on seed color, since sorne of the bulks were mixed. Any farnilies that were positive or had good seed type were planted in the field as F3 farnilies in 2002A. BCMV was prevalent in the field that semester and resistance observed in the field in the F3 generation agreed well with the results for the F2 families tested in the greenhouse. The natural epidemic also allowed us to screen for resistance in the field.Genotyping. ROCll marker is dominant (a band is either present or absent) and in repulsion for the bc-3 gene. Furthermore ROCll is a single-copy SCAR marker which does not produce extra bands. Therefore in advanced generations, it is easy to score the resistant and susceptible genotypes based on presence/absence of the PCR product 1 band as shown in Figure l. The marker and the gene are tightly linked, although sorne crossover events ha ve been observed.  Efficiency of marker assisted selection was increased by multiplex loading of agarose gels (first with two and then three loadings), increasing numbers of wells per comb (first 30 well and then 42 well combs were used), use of 384 well PCR plates and multipipettor loading of gels. The resulting savings decreased the time to PCR amplify and load a gel by approximately 50% and increased the number of genotypes run per gel by 225%.Parental survey: Parental surveys were conducted to detennine the genotype and expected genotype for the SCAR markers. A total of 74 parents involved in the crosses described above were evaluated with both viral inoculations and the SCAR markers to detennine if they contained the recessive bc-3 or dominant 1 resistance genes and the expected marker alleles (Figure 2, Tables 2 and 3). Polymorphism was easily observable in the Andean genepool for the bc-3 gene, since the majority of susceptible Andean genotypes produce a band for the ROCll SCAR, while the majority of bc-3 resistant Andean genotypes do not produce a band for ROCll. Likewise, the band for the SW13 SCAR for the dominant 1 gene is mainly present in resistant parents (Figure 3, Table 3). Therefore in Andean breeding populations segregation for presence or absence of the SCARs was expected to predict well the presence or absence of the resistance alleles.  Marker assisted selection of breeding fines. 2002B: In this season we worked out the technical practicalities of applying the ROC11 marker in the breeding program to gear up for the following semester. We also analyzed which populations with which pedigrees segregated for ROC11 as expected. A total of 180 F4 lines were evaluated for the ROC11 marker at CIAT headquarters (Table 4). Of this total, 139 lines were climbing beans and 41 lines were bush beans. A total of 90 bc~3 positives were diagnosed with the SCAR marker.2003A: In this season we applied the SCAR marker on a mass scale at two locations and tested the efficiency of marker assisted selection for the bc-3 gene. A total of 1923 F4 lines were evaluated for the ROCll marker both at CIAT headquarters (Location 1) and at an off-station breeding site (Location 2) used by our breeding program (Table 5). Of this total and across both locatíons, 1481 lines were climbing beans (246 from simple crosses and 1235 from triple crosses), while 442 lines were bush beans. A total of 350 of these same lines were also evaluated for a second marker (data not shown) showing the potential for multiple screening for pyramiding resistance genes. Conclusions and Future PlansGamete selection was applied to the F1 plants from these triple crosses based on the marker results, resulting in a savings of 50% of the individual selections that would be made if the plants had been saved for phenotypic evaluation. The populations were then advanced by mass and pedigree selection to the F4 and FS generation when single plant selections were made and evaluated for the resistance gene.In the meantime, an additional group of populations made from the simple crosses between virus resistant bush bean parents and susceptible climbing bean parents is being advanced by mass selection through the F3 and F4 generations for good climbing bean genotypes. When we increase seed of the F5 lines and make individual selections from the new F4 populations in the upcoming year we will validate the fidelity of marker assisted selection by testing whether the selections have the virus resistance gene or not. The rapid increase in efficiency obtained during the application of the ROC11 marker shows the advantages of testing new markers in practicing breeding programs. lntroduction Genetic maps combined with phenotypic data can serve to identify markers for econornic traits to be used for Marker Assisted Selection. Maps based on locus-specific markers such as microsatellites are superior since they permit comparative mapping of traits, are typically more stable and repeatable than other markers such as RAPDs, and can serve as a framework within which to map other markers such as RAPDs and AFLPs. Last year we reported on the evaluation of a number of microsatellites on the parents to determine polymorphism, and the mapping of nineteen microsatellites on the map of DOR 364 x BAT477.A partial map of BAT 477 x DOR 364 based on RAPD has existed for several years. In the course of the year we continued with the effort to improve the map, amplifying another 29 microsatellites on the mapping population. To develop the linkage map of DOR 364 x BAT 477 the data were first analyzed with the program MAPMAKER 3.0. Linkage groups were established using as a referente mapped microsatellite markers that had been mapped on the populations BAT93 x Jalo EEP558 and DOR364 x 019833. Each marker was assigned to a group with a mínimum LOD score (probability that a marker is linked to a specific position) of 3.0, which is to say, a probability of 1 in 1000.A subset of the 94 Recominant Inbred Línes (RILs) were selected and planted in multiple locations, to verify if QTL that were expressed in the greenhouse in previous years did in fact express under field conditions. Thirty-six lines and checks were planted in Mexico again in 2002 (as in 2001) and in Darién, Colombia with stress from low P and without stress. Yield data served as phenotypic data for the QTL analysis. Identification of QTLs was carried out using simple linear regresión, or Single . Point Análisis (SPA) con the program Q-Gene, which permits determining the level of significance between the molecular markers and the quantititative characters. At the same time a second analysis was implemented by composite interval mapping (CIM) with the program QTL Cartographer 2.0 to determine the location and effect of QTLs. The probability of the presence of a QTL was expressed as LOD and the threshold value for recognizing a QTL was fixed at 2.8.Map development. At present 190 microsatellite primers have been evaluated on the parental genotypes DOR 364 and BAT 477 of which approximately 25% (48 primers) have presented polymorphism. These forty-eight microsatellites have been amplified and read on the 132 RILs, these corresponding to 30 co-dominant and 4 dominant markers. The linkage map of DOR 364 x BAT 477 contains at the moment 185 rnarkers, of which 137 are RAPDs, and the 48 remaining are microsatellites. Of these markers 130 (96 RAPDs and 34 micros) are already mapped and distributed in 10 linkage groups covering a total distance of 515 cM. ldentification of QTLs. A total of eighty-two phenotypic characters were analyzed with the programs Q-Gene and QTL Cartographer to determine their level of association with the 130 mapped markers. With the QTL Cartographer program it was possible to identify 22 markers for 17 characters on six linkage groups. The SPA analysis identified 26 characters associated with 29 markers in three linkage groups, which explain more than 15% of the phenotypic variation. Other QTL were identified with a smaller effect, but these were examined for their consistency across si tes, especial! y those associated with yield and SNF characters.Sorne of these QTL had. been identified in previous studies of SNF under different phosphorus regimes, in a search for genes for SNF that represented tolerance to low P. The present analysis was repeated with yield data taken in the field in Mexico, under different moisture regimes, and in Colombia under both moisture and low P stress. The intention was to find QTL that were apparently associated with low P tolerance of SNF and that impact on yield. Several QTL identified in the greenhouse had an effect in the field and of these, one of the QTL appears to be especially interesting, for reasons specífied below:1) QTL on chromosome B02, in the vicinity of RAPD V1701 and microsatellite CLON1598: This QTL was associated with parameters of phosphorus use efficiency (PUE) for SNF as well as biomass accurnulation in the greenhouse trial. It is also expressed in severa! (not all) yield trials, both in Mexico and in Colombia. It is normal that QTL do not express in all si tes, rather it is encouraging that a QTL associated with SNF in the greenhouse is in fact carrying over to the field. In the field this QTL gave a yield advantage of 15-49 kglha grain yield, with an average of 33 kglha (Table 1). This is a rather modest absolute increase but considering that this increase occurred in sorne heavily stressed trials with Iow yields (600 kglha or less), it represents an average of 5% and as much as 8% of yield, which is quite respectable for a single SNF gene. It is noteworthy that this yield leve! is in fact quite common and is representative of much of bean production in Mexico. If this yield advantage were extended to sorne 200,000 ha, which is the area occupied by improved varieties in the Mexican highlands, it could represent an additional 8,000,000 kg of grain, or about $2,000,000 per year. This is the most interesting QTL and we will want to Iook at Rll..s with and without this QTL to see possible interactions with the bacterium.2) QTL on chromosome B03: This QTL also was associated with sorne greenhouse traits associated with P use efficiency, and with yield in the field, but sometimes it gave a positive effect on yield and sometimes a negative effect! This region also appears to be associated with longer growth cycle, and in spite of its effect on P use efficiency in the greenhouse, its yield effect may be associated with days to maturity. In other words, longer growth cycle results in better yield, except in drought trials where long growth cycle leads to lower yield. Hence its positive effect in sorne environments, and negative effect in others. Nevertheless, given its effect on PUE in the greenhouse, we have identified sorne Rll..s . that possess this QTL for further study3) QTL on chromosome B09: This QTL hada very marked effect in the greenhouse on PUE and biomass accumulation, but in the field only gives negative associations with yield. It is also associated with growth cycle but its pattem is not as consistent as the case of 2) above. It is also included for further study, for contrast with the other QTL mentioned abo ve.In the past year we have made significant progress toward the tagging of genes for SNF that are associated with tolerance of low P and that contribute to yield in field conditions. The improved SNF potential associated with this QTL will be introducecf to commercial cultivars, with the expectation that this can increase yields by at least 5% under stress conditions. Gains that have been observed reflect SNF with native strains, and our hope is that more dramatic gains can be realized with improved strains. Rll..s with the CLON1598 QTL are being delivered to colleagues for studies of the interaction with modified strains.  ) for CMD resistance at CIA T is both a preemptive measure, should in case the disease is accidentally introduced in Latín America, and a dynamic measure, to enable a true evaluation of the value of CIAT improved germplasm in India and Africa. MAS using the single dominant gene CMD2 as source has completed the first year at CIAT. A total of 2315 seeds harvested from more than 3000 controlled crosses between CMD resistant parents introduced from liT A and elite parents of the 5 cassava gene pools by agro-ecology or backcross derivatives of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia resistant to the green mite. More than 1,100 genotypes were germinated as embryo axes and multiplied for molecular analysis with the SSR marker NS158 closely linked to CMD2. Establishment of breeding populations in vitro is to aid shipment to collaborators in Africa and India. CMD resistant genotypes, as revealed by MAS, will be sent to the green house for hardening and also shipped to partners in India and Africa. We describe here results of the first year of MAS at CIA T.Sexual seeds of crosses between CMD resistant parents and elite parents of cassava gene pools were germinated from embryo axes (see Activity 22) and molecular analysis performed on the plantlets. DNA isolation was using a rapid mini prep method developed for rice (Nobuyuki et al 2000) and 2 young leaves from the in vitro plantlets. The leaves were placed in an 1.5 m1 eppendorf tube and 200ul of TE buffer (10 mM tris-Cl, 1 mM EDTA; pH: 8.0 ) added. The leaves were then squashed in the buffer using a small pestle and incubated in a water bath at 100 oc for 15 minutes. Next, 800ul of TE buffer was added and the tube inverted gently several times to mix the content followed by centrifugation in a table-top centrifuge at 14,000rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant contains about 10 to 20ng/ul and was used directly in the PCR amplification reaction. The supematant was transferred to eppendorf 96-well plates (Costar) using 8 tip multi-channel pipette for easy dispensation into 96-well PCR plates and for long term storage. DNA obtained is sufficient for 100 reactions and can be held in the Costar plates for 2 months at -20oC without any degradation. PCR and PAGE gel analysis of the PCR product is as described by Mba et al. (2001). Gel image from the SSR analysis is entered into an excel sheet containing other ínformation, such as pedigree, phenotypic evaluation, number of plants available and where.More than 1,100 plants representing the first breeding population for CMD resistance at CIAT were analyzed using the NS158 marker associated with CMD resistance. Results of the molecular analysis are shown in Figure l . An information management system to handle the MAS data and to make it easily accessible was developed in Microsoft Excel.The versatility of Excel spreadsheets make it the appropriate software to handle the di verse information generated by MAS. We also reviewed the process of MAS as conducted by CIAT's cassava molecular Iab with respect to time, labor and costs. The time required to pick leaves from in vitro plantlets, extract DNA and completely fill a 96-well plate is approximately 9 hours. To set up a 96-well PCR reaction and complete the temperature cycling, in this case for SSR marker NS158 associated with CMD2, is 4 hours. Running the amplification product on a 6% acrylamide gel and sil ver stain also requires 4 hours. In total it takes 17 hours or 2 working days for a single person to complete DNA isolation and marker analysis for 96 genotypes. The cassava molecular marker lab currently has two persons working on MAS for CMD and together they can process 192 genotypes in 2 days or 480 genotypes per week or over 24,000 samples in a year. We are working on improving this by doing the grinding and DNA isolation in 96-well plates. Current costs of a single SSR marker data point analysis for cassava at CIAT is US$0.30, processing 24,000 samples in a year requires a budget of US$7 ,200.MAS for CMD resistance breeding has been initiated at CIAT. More than 1,100 genotypes have been processed this year and it is expected that three times that number will be processed that year as the entire system from crosses to embryo rescue to molecular analysis is made more efficient. Future perspectives include development of a 96-well method for grinding leaf tissue and DNA isolation to eliminate the need for timeconsuming transfers from eppendorf tu bes to 96-well plates.Figl. Tbe cassava MAS data management system in Microsoft excel, tbe spreadsheet shows part of a 96-weU plate molecular marker (NS158) analysis. The aUele associated with CMD resistance is the middle one.Tanzania is the fourth largest producer of cassava in Africa with average yields of about 8 t/ha (FAO, 2001). This is well below the continent's average of 10tons/ha and the average yield of 14 tons/ha of Africa's (and the world's) largest producer, Nigeria. The low yield is caused by many factors including susceptibility of commonly grown varieties to major diseases and pests such as cassava mosaic diseases, caused principally by the East African Cassava Mosaic Virus (EACMV), its Ugandan variant (UgV), and the African Cassava Mosaic virus (ACMV), cassava brown steak disease (CBSD), cassava bacteria! blight (CBB), cassava green mite (CGM), cassava mealy bug (CM) and nematodes. Previous research at Kibaha and Naliendele reported as high as 55% loss in the local cultivar \"Albert\" (Mtunda 2003 pers comm). A recent survey in Tanga has revealed crop losses of up to 74% (Muhanna and Mtunda, 2002). In severely affected areas, entire fields may be destroyed.A farmer participatory, molecular marker-assisted, decentralized, breeding scherne has recently been approved for funding by the Rockefeller Foundation to speed up the process of improving local cassava germplasm for resistance to pests and diseases in Tanzania. The proposed breeding project will take farmer preferred germplasm by agro-ecology and cross them to improved introductions that have resistance to Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD), Cassava Oreen Mite (CGM), and Cassava Bacteria! Blight (CBB). Given the fairly large number of parents that will be used, molecular markers associated with pest and disease resistance will be employed to reduce, in a logical manner, the number of progeny to a manageable number. The progeny selected by MAS will be evaluated in a single season in the corresponding agro-ecology and then evaluated over two cycles in collaboration with end-users (rural communities and cassava processors). The project will be carried out in a total of six years divided into 2 three-year phases. A principal objective of the project is the development of capacity for participatory plant breeding and marker-assisted breeding. This would be achieved by training 2 national program breeders at the MSc. and PhD level, and through 2 training workshops on participatory plant breeding and markerassisted breeding.Activities of the first year of the RF Tanzanian project includes the collection and evaluation of local germplasm and the introduction of improved progenitors for use as parents in the breeding project. Improved progenitors were designed to have resistance to CMD, CBB, and CGM as well as molecular markers associated with these genes. The improved progenitors were developed as described below. The RF funded project \"Molecular Mapping of Genes Conferring Resistance to the Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) in African Cassava Germplasm\" has led to the identification of 3 SSR and 2 RAPD markers tightly linked to a novel source of CMD resistance controlled by a single dominant gene designated CMD2 (Akano et. al. 2002;Moreno and Fregene unpublished data). The CMD2 source shows high levels of resistance against a wide spectrum of strains of the virus in sub Saharan Africa, including the aggressive Ugandan variant (UgV), ACMV and EACMV (Akano 2002, CIAT 2001). Excellent resistance to CGM have also been observed in 4 F 1 inter-specific hybrid families obtained by crossing the cassava clones CG487-2, CG501-16, MCol2215, and CM2766-5 to a genotype of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia. (Belloti and Fregene 2002, unpublished data;CIA T 2002). Bulk segregant analysis (BSA) was quickly used to identify severa1 SSR markers associated with CGM resistance in the MCol2215 cross (CIAT 2002). The inter-specific hybrids of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia that carry the novel CGM resistance were crossed extensively to elite parents of cassava genepools from the 5 agro-ecologies, a number of these parents have the SG107-35 source of CBB resistance. These first back cross derivatives were then crossed to CMD 2 donor parents to obtain more than 600 BC 2 progenies.Progeny from the above cross were established from embryo axes of mature sexual seeds, multiplied and kept in vitro. Two in vitro plants were used for marker evaluation to identify progeny CMD, CBB and CGM resistance. Another 5 in vitre plants were sent to the green house for phenotypic evaluation of yield and yield components. About 200 genotypes that combine resistance to CMD, CBB and CGM and high productivity are being prepared for shipment to Tanzania, at least 20 plants per genotype will be shipped.An import permit has been issued by the Tanzanian phyto-quarantine authorities for the import of this germplasm.Progenies of inter-specific hybrids crossed to parents of cassava gene pools adapted to the sub-hurnid lowland, acid savannah, mid-altitude and semi-arid agro-ecologies, with good resistance to CBB were crossed to C:MD2 donor parents to obtain more than 600 BC 2 progenies. Table 1 summarizes the BC 2 families obtained and the number of plants per genotype in vitro. In addition, parents of the above progenitors were indexed for the frog sk.in disease (FSD) and other commonly found diseases in South Arnerica as well as checked for pests. Embryo rescue and multiplication of the BC2 families to obtain 10 plants per genotype was done as described earlier (CIA T 2002). About 5 in vitro plants per genotype was used in marker analysis using markers associated with CMD and CGM according to methods described earlier (CIA T 2002). A special format in microsoft excel was developed to display results of the molecular marker-assisted evaluation of the BC 2 progenies as described in the MAS for CMD at CIAT activity. Plants selected by molecular marker analysis were further multiplied to obtain more than 20 plants per genotype and will be shipped to Tanzania once the ímport pemút have been issued and received at CIAT, at least 20 plants per genotypes will be shipped. On arrival in Tanzania, 18 plants of all genotypes will be hardened in the screen house and 6 plants each sent to the 3 different target agro-ecologies for field establishment and evaluation for use as improved parents. The remainder 2 plants per genotype will be multiplied and kept in vitro as back-up. At least 30 genotypes of the 200 improved introductions will be selected for crosses to the20 selected local varieties. Selection parameters will include harvest index, pest and disease resistance and root quality. The parents will be crossed in all possible combinations using a polycross design. The crossing blocks, with 40 plants each per local variety and 20 plants each of the improved introductions, will be set up at two sites, namely SRI-Kibaha, Eastem zone, and Maruku, in the lake zone, where cassava flowers profusely, to maximize the possibilities of getting seeds from all genotypes. Hand pollination will also be carried out to ensure certain combinations are obtained. The local land races and introductions will be used as female parents to achieve a wide base of cytoplasm, therefore open pollinated and controlled pollinated sexual seeds will be harvested from both. Between 10,000 -20,000 seeds are expected from crosses for each agro-ecology.  A molecular marker-assisted breeding project to develop improved germplasm for small cassava farmers have been initiated. The first year will be spent in the development of parents and generating broad-based breeding populations for subsequent selection by molecular markers and in collaboration with farmers. The project is a first and experience gained is expected to guide the application of molecular markers in cassava breeding.Early root yield is an important trait of cassava (Nweke et al. 1994), critical to the crop's role as food security crop in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, as globalization picks up speed, new opportunities have arisen for cassava as a source of industrial raw material which requires a great deal of flexibility of harvest, that is varieties that attain close to maximum yield at 8-10 months after planting. Genetic mapping of early root bulking in a full-sib cassava genetic map population was extended toa S 1 family of 268 genotypes from a progeny, K150, of the same map population. Several QTLs for foliage weight and harvest index, 2 traits that strongly influence early root bulking, were found in both studies. They include a major QTL for foliage weight, explaining 31% of phenotypic variance, and 3 QTLs for harvest index, explaining between 15 and 22% of phenotypic variance, the QTL for foliage showed a dominance gene action while those for harvest index were additive (Okogbenin et al. 2003). The mapping of major QTLs is an important step towards the development of molecular markers for breeding of early yield, which like yield is a complex trait. To identify parents for the development of breeding populations for early root bulking, 25 of the progenies from the S 1 population that had the highest yield at 7 months after planting in the QTL experiments last year were evaluated for a second year in larger plot sizes and more replications. The best 5 genotypes will be used as parents for making crosses to elite cassava parents for the development of breeding populations for molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS).An S 1 farnily was developed from Kl50, a progeny of the cassava map population having a large number of positive QTLs for foliage weight, harvest index and number of roots, was developed in 1998 and evaluated 2001 in a replicated tria! (Okogbenin 2003). A second year evaluation was conducted in 2002 with the difference that harvest was conducted at 7 months after planting. Twenty five of the highest yielding genotypes with harvest index more than 0.50 and strong canopy, foliage weight per plant greater than 1.5kg, were selected and re-established for a third year evaluation at the CIA T station in Santander de Quilichao a high stress environment. Previous work has shown than selection for early root bulking in a low stress environment may not be replicated in a high stress environment (Kawano et al, 2001). Experimental design and evaluation of the above early bulking genotypes was as described for the 2002 evaluation (Okogbenin 2003). Ten months after planting, the genotypes were evaluated for root yield, foliage weight, harvest index, and dry matter content. The best five genotypes from this experiment will be used as parents in the development of populations for a molecular breeding scheme for improved early bulking.Evaluation of the best 25 genotypes from last year's evaluation for early yield confinned earlier observation that a strong canopy and high harvest index are essential for early root yield (Okogbenin and Fregene 2003). The 3 genotypes with the highest foliage weight are also those with the highest root yield (Table 1). Another observation is the very low standard deviation for harvest index in the 25 genotypes, all but one genotype have harvest index of more than 0.6, again revealing the strong correlation between harvest index and early yield, selection of these genotypes last year was based only on early yield. The genotypes selected as parents from this evaluation are AM150-241, AM150-332, AM150-185, AM150-150, and AM150-309. Stakes from these materials have planted in the crossing block for next year.A scheme to improve early bulking vía marker-assisted selection has been initiated with the selection of parents for the development of breeding populations. Future perspectives include evaluation of breeding populations obtained next year with markers associated with QTLs for early bul.king in the S 1 farnily from Kl50. A project to fortify cassava varieties grown by rural comrnunities with higher levels of beta-carotene has been initiated as a way of combating deficiency of this key micronutrient in areas where cassava is a major staple. The experimental approach on increasing cassava beta-carotene content includes conventional breeding and genetic transformation. The discovery of a wide segregation pattern of root color in two S 1 families from the Colombian land race MCol72 (AM273) and the Thai variety MT AI8 (AM320), led to the comrnencement of molecular genetic analysis of beta-carotene content in cassava. The cost-effectiveness of breeding for high beta-carotene content in cassava can be considerably enhanced if the mode of inheritance and the number of genes involved are known. Regions of the genome associated with beta-carotene content can also be examined for the presence of known genes in volved in the biosynthesis of beta-carotene content can. This information can be used for functional diversity analysis of natural variation of beta carotene content for a more rational exploitation of naturally occurring variability. We describe here results of bulk segregant analysis and the identification of two regions of the cassava genome associated with beta-carotene content.Ten white colored and 10 orange/pink colored genotypes were selected from each of the S 1 family to serve as individuals for the high and low beta-carotene bulks. For DNA isolation, 1-2g of young leaves was harvested from genotypes of both bulks for each family and from all 38 genotypes of family AM273 and 102 genotypes from family AM320. The leaves were dried for 24h in an oven at 48°C and then ground into a fine powder using a power drill and washed sand. DNA was isolated from 200mg using a miniprep version of the Dellaporta (1983) protocol. The bulks of white and orange/pink roots were then created per family to give a total of 4 bulks. DNA from the bulks and the parents were then genotyped with the 650 available cassava SSR markers according to methods described by Mba et al (2001). Markers polymorphic in the bulks were employed to analyze individuals of the bulks and, where the polymorphism remained consistent in the individuals as with the bulks, the markers were analyzed in the entire family. Association with orange/pink color was determined by a simple linear regression of phenotypic data on marker genotype marker class means (single point analysis) using the Microsoft Excel. The arnount of phenotypic variance explained by each marker l was obtained from the R 2 value.A total of 6 rnarkers, narnely NS189, NS980, SSRY240, SSRY251, SSRY9, and SSRY63 were polyrnorphic in the bulks from the S 1 family AM320 derived from MTAI8. Six markers, NS980, SSRY240, SSRY9, SSRY251 , common to both families, and 2 additional markers, SSRY192 and SSRY54 unique to AM273, were found polyrnorphic in the bulks.On analyzing individuals of the bulks, polyrnorphism was consistent in the individuals for markers SSRY251 , NS980, SSRY240 in both farnilies while the remaining markers did not show a clear-cut pattem of polyrnorphism between the individuals of the bulks. All the three markers are located on linkage group D of the molecular genetic map of cassava. The 3 polyrnorphic markers were analyzed in all individuals of both S 1 families and results reveal NS251 has the strongest association with beta-carotene content in both families (Fig1). This marker explains 30% of phenotypic variance for beta-carotene. From the segregation of SSR marker NS251 and scorings of color, known to be highly correlated with beta-carotene content (o0.8), of sorne individuals in the family AM320 in figure 1, it can be observed that the most intense color, a score of 8, is associated with homozygosity of the smaller sized allele of NS251 in this family. The sarne was pattem was also observed in family AM273.An SSR marker, NS251 that explains 30% of phenotypic variation for beta-carotene content has been identified in cassava. A search for markers more tightly associated with beta-carotene in the linkage group D region of the genetic map of cassava that may have been rnissed in the screening of the bulks due to a lack of polyrnorphisms is ongoing. A modified BSA method using recombinants found with marker SSR Y251 and several marker systems, including RAPDs, AFLPs, and known biosynthetic genes of beta-carotene is ongoing.Few key traits in cassava hold potential for increasing cost-effectiveness via molecular marker assisted selection (MAS) compared to root dry matter content (DMC). It is measured at the end of the growth cycle and affected by the time of evaluation, DMC is generally high before the onset of the rains but drops after the rains begin as the plant mobilizes starch from the roots for re-growth of leaves (Byrne 1984). A tool to evaluate early and accurately DMC can increase cost-effectiveness of breeding from DMC, via an elimination of a large number of genotypes leaving the breeder more time to concentrate on the evaluation of a reduced number of plants. Every plant with low DMC transplanted to the field uses up space, resources and time (at evaluation) that considerably lowers breeding efficiency.The entry point for developing markers associated with DMC was three diallel experiments that were began in 2000. The diallels, made up of 90 families, is an ideal experiment to identify genes controlling DMC that are useful in many genetic backgrounds. In May 2002, a final evaluation of the three diallel experiments was done.Estimates of general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) for many traits of agronomic interest was calculated, an emphasis was placed on DMC. Based on general combining ability (GCA) estimates, parents were selected to generate larger sized progenies for DMC mapping. Sizes of families in the original diallel experiment were about 30 progenies, a rather small size for genetic mapping. Parallel to the development of mapping populations was the search for markers associated with DMC using 2 F 1 families, GM312 and GM313 selected from the diallel experiment having parents with high OCA for DMC.A crossing block of high and low OCA parents for DMC (Table 1) was established in CIAT, Palmira in October 2002, with the aim of generating larger sized progenies for QTL mapping ofDMC. Crossing is ongoing for all genotypes except for SM1741-1 x MECU) and SM 1411-5 x CM 4574-7), which have either few plants or have poor flowering. Bulk segregation analysis (Michelmore et al., 1991) was conducted for 2 F 1 crosses, OM 312 and OM 313, each with l\\.1ECU 72 (high dry matter and good OCA) as a parent. DNA samples were extracted from 3g of fresh leaves according to Dellaporta et al., 1983.Between 500Jlg to 1000Jlg of high quality DNA was obtained from each extraction and quantified using flourometer. The samples where then diluted to lOng/¡ . .tl for PCR amplification. DNA from genotypes with percent dry matter of 34. 3-37.7 and 24.5-31.5 were bulked to form high and low bulks respectively. The Bulks and parents were screened with polymerase chain (PCR) reaction using 650 SSR primers developed in CIAT. PCR product was denatured and electrophoresed on 6% polyacrylamide gels according to Mba et al., 2001. A summary of crosses made so far for the development of QTL mapping populations for DMC can be seen in table l.Thirty-one primers were found to be polymorphic between the bulks of high and low dry matter content and in individuals of the bulks from family OM 313. These were tested on the remaining genotypes of the cross. Of these eleven NS 701, NS 717, NS781, NS80, NS 9, NS 909, NS 917, NS 955, SSRY 150, SSRY 160 SSRY 88 and NS 371 remained polymorphic. A simple regression of dry matter content on the genotypic classes of the SSR markers was highly significant for the 2 markers, SSRY160 and SSRY150, with regression coefficient (R 2 ) of 29.3 and 18.1 respectively. The phenotypic variance explained by these two markers, based on their regression coefficient, is enough to consider them as markers for marker-assisted selection (MAS). All other markers had R 2 of between 0.05 andO. l. The other farnily GM 312, yielded no markers polymorphic in the individuals of the bulks in the BSA. The markers SSRY 160 and SSRY150 associated with DMC in the GM 313 cross are being tested on about 700 genotypes from 23 crosses of the diallel experiment. The 23 crosses were selected from crosses with a high standard deviation for dry matter content and from parents with good general combining abilities.Theses crosses had earlier been planted in the field in Quilichao for further evaluation of DMC in a completely randomized block design of 3 blocks (replicates) and up tolO plant per block. At harvest data was collected on fresh foliage yield, fresh root yield, number of tubers, harvest index, number of tubers per plant, yield, percentage dry matter and dry matter yield. Results are summarized in tables 2. Low standard deviation values were estimated for dry matter content compared to other yield related parameters suggesting that it is a relatively stable trait. All the parameters were highly correlated (Table 3) confirming their importance to yield. Dry matter and number of tubers per plant were not significantly correlated to the number of plants h_ arvested suggesting that they are not easily influenced by environment, which is important to note since there was non-uniform establishment. There was an incidence of frog skin disease (FSD) in this trial and it was highly and negatively significant to all yield related traits, and it is likely to influence results of the study. The affected plants were therefore eliminated from the final results.Cross GM 311 had the highest standard deviation for dry matter (8.58) followed by CM 9901 (6.47) while GM 228 had the lowest of 2.40 (Table 4). A study of genes controlling dry matter content in many full-sib families of cassava has been initiated towards the development of molecular markers for increasing the costeffectiveness of breeding for dry matter content. Initial marker analysis has led to the discovery of 2 markers, SSRY160 and SSRY150 that explain about 30% and 18% respectively of phenotypic variance for DMC. These markers are being analyzed in 23 crosses with high standard deviation and derived from parents with high GCA for DMC o confirm their utility across genetic backgrounds. Parallel to this, larger families are being developed from selected parent for QTL mapping of DMC.The project on genetic mapping of cyanogenic potential in cassava, a collaborative project between the Swedish Agricultura! University (SLU), Uppsala, the Medica! Biotechnology Laboratories (MBL), Kampala, and CIA T, is in its second year. The project is being conducted as a Ph.D. thesis by Elizabeth Kizito at SLU. A review of the project was conducted at a meeting in Kampala April this year, where severa! changes in the project were decided. The principal change was to discontinue the development of F 2 populations derived from the cross between the bitter Ugandan variety, Tongolo, and the CMD resistant land race, TME4, due to the time limit for the completion of Elizabeth's Ph.D. research. It was decided that the S 1 family AM320 derived from the bitter variety MTAI8 available at CIAT should be used instead. This family is currently being genotyped with more than 800 DArT makers, at CAMBIA, Australia, and 200 SSR markers, at CIAT, for gene tagging of beta-carotene content, dry matter and harvest index in cassava.A new initiative was also embarked during the year on the genetic mapping of the two cytochrome P450 genes, CYP79DI and D2 that catalyze the rate-limiting step of the biosynthesis of the cyanogenic glucosides, linamarin in the S 1 family AM320 anda search for association with QTLs for CNP. This project is collaboration with the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Copenhagen, Denmark (Prof Birger Moller), where the genes were cloned. The discovery of molecular markers for CNP will pro vide a tool to efficiently select for low cyanogenic potential in cassava breeding.The 102 individuals of the family AM320 in the field were transferred in vitro following methods routinely used in the cassava tissue culture facility (Activity 23 of this report).Another 32 plants were obtained from embryo rescue of residual sexual seeds of AM320.Ten copies per genotype were shipped to SLU, Uppsala for evaluation of root and leaf cyanogenic potential under uniform nutrient, temperature, light and humidity conditions in a phytotron. A field evaluation of CNP in the roots will also be conducted at CIAT. For genetic mapping of SSR markers and the CYPDI and D2 genes, DNA was isolated from green house plants of all AM320 genotypes using a modified Dellaporta et al. (1983) DNA isolation protocol. DNA from MTAI8, parental genotype of family AM320, and 5 S 1 progenies was screened with 650 SSR markers to identify polymorphic markers for genetic mapping. To map the cytochrome P-450 genes, primers were designed from thes sequence of CYPDI and D2 using the \"Primer3\" primer picking software found at http://waldo.wi.mit.edu/cgi-bin/primer/primer3 (Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research). The genes were then amplified in SOul volume reactions containing 50-IOOng of genomic DNA from MTAI8, 0.2 ~M of each forward and reverse primers, IOmM Tris-HCL (pH 7.2), 50mM KCL, 1.5 or ImM MgCh, 200mM of each dNTP, and about IU of Taq DNA polymerase. Temperature cycling profile was: an initial denaturation step for 5nún at 94°C, followed by 30 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for Imin, annealing at 55°C (DI) or 60oC (D2) for 2 min and primer extension at 72°C for 2 min. A final extension cycle of 5 min at 72oC was added. Between 4 and S ~1 of the PCR reaction was electrophoresed on 5% ethidium bromide stained metaphor agarose gels and visualized under UV Iight. The fragments are to be mapped either as cleaved amplicon polymorphism (CAPs), RFLPs or SNPs according to standard methods (Cortes et al. 2003;Fregene et al. I997).A total of 130 genotypes from the SI family AM320 have been shipped to SLU, Uppsala for phenotypic evaluation of CNP in the leaves and roots. Evaluation of the same family will be conducted on field grown plants by October at CIAT. Seventy three polymorphic SSR markers, that segregate in the expected fashion has been found out of 320 SSR markers surveyed till date.Primers designed for the CYP79 Dl and D2 genes are shown below. They were used in amplifying a part of the genes from parent MfAI8 and sorne of its S¡ progenies (Figl). The search for single dose fragments as CAPs, RFLPs, or SNPs in genes CYPD 1 and D2 are ongoing using the genotype in Mf A18. Once these markers ha ve been identified they will be mapped in the S 1 family AM320.The genetic mapping of CNP has continued with the S¡ family AM320 derived from Mf Al8. Phenotypic evaluation of root and leaf CNP is being conducted at SLU, Uppsala, Sweden under uniform conditions in a phytotron. The same family is being genotyped with SSR (at CIAT) and DArT markers (at CAMBIA, Australia), root CNP will also be evaluated in the field at CIAT. Parallel to this effort is the mapping of the CYP Dl and D2 gene in the AM320 family. 1t is expected that markers associated with CNP will be identified at the end of the study.Leaf retention or the ability of sorne cassava genotypes to retain their leaves at 5, 6 and up to 7 months after planting, is a trait that has been shown to be associated with dry matter yield. An experiment conducted in the northem coast of Colombia (sub-humid agroecology) to measure the effect of leaf retention revealed that clones that retained leaves at 5-6 months had a 26.4%, 7%, and 32% increase at harvest in fresh root yield, dry matter content and dry matter yield respectively (Lenis et al 2003). Leaf retention in these trials was also associated with higher root dry matter content and harvest index (7% increase). This experiment was repeated during a second season with similar results. Sirnilarly it has been shown that leaf retention and dry matter content are negatively correlated making it possible to simultaneously improve both traits. Preliminary genetic analysis suggests that the trait maybe simply inherited. Development of markers for carrying out pre-selection for leaf retention of breeding populations at CIAT before they are sent to the target environment should therefore reduce the load of evaluation and increase cost-effectiveness of breeding.More than 100 full-sib and half-sib families were evaluated for leaf retention in a clonal field trial in Santo Tomas, the Colombian north coast. Leaf retention was measured visually, on a score of 1 to 9 at 17, 19, 21, and 23 weeks after planting. Two full-sib families, and 1 half-sib family were selected based on the wide segregation for leaf retention. Ten good leaf retention and 10 poor leaf retention genotypes were selected from each of the families to serve as bulks for bulk segregant analysis (BSA) for the discovery of markers associated with leaf retention. For DNA isolation, 1-2g of young leaves was harvested from genotypes of all the 6 bulks and from all other genotype in each family. The leaves were dried for 24h in an oven at 48°C and then ground into a fine powder using a power drill and washed sand. DNA was isolated from 200mg using a rniniprep version of the Dellaporta (1983) protocol. The bulks of high and low leaf retention were then created per family to give a total of 6 bulks. DNA from the bulks and the parents will be genotyped with the 650 available cassava SSR markers according to methods described by Mba et al (2001), and is just beginning. Markers polymorphic in the bulks were employed to analyze individuals of the bulks and, where the polymorphism remained consistent in the individuals as with the bulks, the markers were analyzed in the entire family.Evaluation of leaf retention in the North coast of Colombia in more than 100 families led to the selection of three families for molecular analysis. Table 1 describes sorne statistics of leaf retention in the 3 families. It can be observed that leaf retention evaluated at 23 weeks after planting has the widest variability within families and is the most appropriate measurement for use in molecular analysis of the trait. The choice of 3 families for marker analysis is to identify markers that are useful across genetic backgrounds that can be used in a breeding program regardless of the parental genotypes. Genetic mapping of genes controlling leaf retention has been initiated using 2 full-sib and one self family and BSA. Markers identified to be associated with leaf retention will serve as a means to screen populations for the trait at CIA T before they are sent to the field.As a major staple food crop across the tropics, cassava can serve as a cheap means of deploying adequate protein requirement amongst the• poor and for feeding anirnals. A rnajor effort has therefore been ernbarked upon to increase protein content of cassava roots. An advanced back cross QTL (ABC-QTL) to introgress high protein content frorn wild relatives into cassava is in its third year at CIAT. The first year saw the evaluation of wild relatives of cassava for high protein content and in the second year, inter-specific hybridization between selected high protein lines and sorne irnproved elite parents, including sorne yellow varieties. Wild by wild crosses were also carried out to investigate if protein content can be further increased by cornbining favorable alleles from different populations or species of the wild accessions. The inter-specific hybrids were evaluated in a seedling trial this year.Other activities this year include an amino acid profile of root flour from 4 wild and interspecific accessions and standardization of the SDS-P AGE rnethodology for the determination of size and isolation of root protein frorn high protein accessions, towards a proper characterization of the protein. During this year also, cassava varieties that were found to be high in protein frorn an evaluation conducted in 2001 were re-established in the field frorn tissue culture plants for another round of evaluations. If the previous results are confirmed, genetic crosses will be rnade with elite parents of the cassava gene pools for breeding high protein content and QTL rnapping studies.Sexual seeds of inter-specific hybrids obtained from last year crosses were evaluated in a seedling trial this year. Total protein was measured in root flour, from 3 root per plant, using the Kjedahl method, in selected individuals of about half the total nurnber of families. The decision to evaluate a fraction of the F 1 lines was dueto cost considerations and size of roots, only genotypes with fairly large sized roots were used for protein rneasurernent. In collaboration with the starch cornpany A VEBE, amino acid profile was obtained frorn root flour frorn 1 genotype each of M.esculenta sub spp flabellifolia and M. tristis high in protein, as well as from 2 inter-specific hybrids high in protein. Pooled leaf flour sample frorn 10 cassava varieties with high protein was also analyzed.Severa! protein extraction protocols were evaluated for SDS-PAGE analysis of root protein in cassava in order to select the rnost suitable one (Table 1). AboutlOOmg of root flour was used in each case, suspended in a 500J..ll volume of sample buffer. The samples were centrifuged in an eppendorf tube for 5 min at 14000 rpm and the supematant was transferred to a new eppendorf tu be and, in the case of sorne protocols, mixed in a 1:1 (v:v) ratio with SDS-PAGE disruption buffer (Laemmli, 1970). Proteins were completely dissociated by immersing the samples in a boiling water bath for 5 min, then briefly centrifuging at 14000 rpm to pellet cellular debris. The resulting supematants (total protein extracts) were stored at -20°C until SDS-PAGE analysis.One-dimensional SDS-PAGE was run with 4.5% acrylamide (w/v) loading gel and 10%, 12%, 13.8%, 15% acrylamide (w/v) separation gel concentrations were tested (Table 2) using a Bio-Rad gel electrophoresis apparatus. The 4.5% acrylamide loading gel was prepared by mixing 9.0ml water, 2.25 mi acrylamide (30% solution), 3.75 ml Tris 1.5M pH: 6.8, 150¡.11 SDS (10% solution), 150Jll ammonium persulfate (10% solution) and 20Jll TEMED and the casting (Laemmli,1970). Ten microliters of each sample was loaded per lane. Constant voltage of 50V was applied for 1 h at 10 oc and increased to 150V for the remaining duration of the run, until the tracking dye reached the gel mold. A Phaseolus vulgaris protein sample (Phaseolin type T) was used as a check in every protocol assayed. After electrophoresis, gels were fixed in 12% tri chloro acetic acid, then stained in a solution containing 2% phosphoric acid, 10% ammonium sulphate, 0.15% Coomassie Blue G, and 20% methanol for 12 hours. Gels were then destained in 20% methanol and scanned.  Thirty one cassava varieties that were found to have between 6 and 8% of crude protein in their roots in an evaluation conducted in 2001 (CIA T 2002) were re-established again, from in vitro culture for a second year evaluation.A total of 4,27 1 sexual seeds organized into 58 farnilies were obtained from inter-specific crosses between high protein accessions of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia, M. tristis and elite parents of the cassava gene pool. An evaluation of root protein content was made of 579 genotyopes , based on root size, anda summary of the results are shown in Table 3.Results reveal that sorne wild genotypes such as OW 231-3, 280-2, OW132-2, and OW284-1 have good general combing ability for root protein content. It was also observed that crosses between 2 wild parents, both high in protein (WW), had more uniform high root protein progenies, compared to wild by culti vated eros ses, suggesting that a number of genes for protein content might be recessive or additive. The inter-specific hybrids are being evaluated for a second year in a single row trial (SRT) experiment. Amino acid profile revealed very high amounts of arginine, about half the total amount of ami no acids, and low levels of methionine and lysine in the roots, but high levels in leaves. ------ -------1 ow 180- To get a better understanding of these un usual ami no acid pro file preliminary SDS-P AGE analysis of the protein was conducted on the 4 high protein samples. Extraction buffers number 3, and 5 gave the best quality protein extract as demonstrated by the visualization of sorne bands (Fig. l). Gel concentrations of 13,8 and 12% were more suitable in resolving bands. The bands obtained are still quite faint and need to be improved before proper band sizing and protein isolation can be conducted.  A group of 33 genotypes, 5 plants each, that showed high root protein in an analysis conducted in 2001 were requested from the genetic resource unit and sent to the green house for hardening (Table 5). This year, inter-specific hybrids from wild relatives with high root protein and cassava were evaluated and results reveal the consistency of the trait, amino acid profile and preliminary SDS-PAGE analysis was also conducted with the root proteins. Future perspectives include genetic back crosses, to cassava, of inter-specific hybrids with high protein and evaluation of putative high root protein cassava varietiesFollowing a very dry spell in January 2002 at CIA T Palmira and a subsequent heavy incidence of the green mites, 4 inter-specific hybrid families, CW68, CW65, CW67, and CW66, from the wild Manihot accession MFLA 437-007 showed a very high leve! of resistance to the green mites with an almost equal number of susceptible(score of 3-4) and resistant (score of 1-2) genotypes. Bulk segregant analysis (BSA) was used to identify 4 SSR markers NS74; NS217; NS260; SSRY330 polymorphic in the bulks and individuals of the inter-specific families resistant to green mi tes (CIA T 2002). At the same time, an attempt was made to transfer the resistance observed in the inter-specific families to elite cassava parents. A total of 45 BC 1 families were developed, planted in a seedling trial, and a preliminary evaluation for mites conducted last season. Selected individuals of these BC 1 families were extensively crossed to C.MD resistant parents used forMAS at CIAT, to combine C.MD and CGM resistance in progenitors meant for Africa, to produce BC2 families. The BC 1 progenies were also cloned and planted in a single row trial for the evaluation of resistance to green mites during the dry spell early next year. We describe here evaluation of the putative markers in the inter-specific families, and the development of BC2 families from selected BC 1 individuals.The SSR markers polymorphic in the bulks were evaluated in the 4 F1 inter-specific families and a simple regression analysis conducted using Microsoft excel. The markers found to explain a significant part of phenotypic variance of CGM resistance in the analysis of the 4 F 1 families were then analyzed in the parents of the 45 BC¡ families .. SSR analysis of the 4 markers was as described by Mba et al (2001). The BC 1 families were also evaluated for resistance to mites, a rather preliminary evaluation since only one plant is available per genotype. Based upon the preliminary CGM resistance evaluation of the 45 BC 1 a large number of putatively resistant BC 1 progenies were crossed to C.MD resistant parents for the generation of BC 2 families from which C.MD and CGM resistant lines can be selected from for the generation of parents for breeding in African gene pools. Simple regression analysis of SSR markers NS74; NS217; NS260; SSRY330 in the 4 interspecific families had coefficients (R 2 ) of 46%, 30%, 30%, and 5% in the 4 families respectively. The surprisingly low regression coefficients for resistance that is apparently controlled by a major gene (CIA T 2002) might be due to the single year evaluation of these families for CGM resistance upon which the analysis was based. CGM incidence tends to have focal points therefore a large part of phenotypic variance in an evaluation is due to the environment. The best way to avoid this is to evaluate over 2 or 3 growing cycles. A second more in depth evaluation of these families is being carried out in Santander the Quilichao over two dry seasons, a period of 18 months September 2002 until March 2004. The preliminary evaluation of the BCl families is being repeated this year in a clonal observation trial before further regression analysis is carried out. An evaluation of the SSR markers associated with CGM resistance in the inter-specific hybrids in the parents of the BC 1 families revealed that the bands associated with CGM resistance were not always polymorphic between the parents of the back cross populations.An effort was therefore initiated to identify more markers linked to CGM resistance, BSA, using additional SSR and RAPD markers is being used to identify additional markers for evaluation of resistance. Transfer of a gene to other crosses via MAS using a single marker associated with the gene is fraught with problems of Iinkage disequilibrum, based upon the frequency of that allele in the gene pool. Many more markers are required to eliminate the problems of linkage disequilibrum encountered in diverse genetic backgrounds. Individuals of the BCt families that appeared to possess resistance to CGM in focal points of great CGM damage in the seedling trial were crossed to CMD resistant parents to obtain recombinants that carry CMD and CGM resistance. Table 2 shows the number of seeds by families of the new crosses. These crosses have been established in vitro from embryo axes to enable it to be shared with collaborators in Africa once CMD and CGM resistance have been confirmed by MAS and phenotypic evaluation respective! y.Markers associated with CGM resistance in bulks of 4 inter-specific families were evaluated in the entire families and rather low regression coefficients were found. This is most likely dueto the environmental effect in the phenotypic data. BC2 farnilies have been generated from BCl individuals towards an introgression of this resistance into elite cassava gene pools. As stated in the report from the previous year, three diallel mating designs have been evaluated for the three main target environments (sub-humid environments, acid soil savannas and mid-altitute valleys). Diallel trials were planted in 2001 and in the northem coast and acido soil savannas also in 2002. The relevance of these studies certainly líes on the information they will produce. However, it is important to emphasize that these are diallel studies that offer new altematives to extract information and requires development of new models for their analysis. In this section a brief description of this innovative approach will be described. This research will serve as thesis work for Ph.D students from Vietnam and Uganda (a female and a male, respectively), as well as for a M.S. thesis for one of the assistants working in the project.Theoretical model for analyzing ínter and intra-family vanatzon. The most important difference between these diallels and the traditional ones is the fact that thirty clones were used to represent each cross, and individual measurements were made for each individual genotype making up the full-sib cross. Most diallels will harvest all the individual genotypes for each cross ignoring the within-family variation. This is because the main target is identifying good families or parents. However in the case of cassava breeding the individual genotype (clone) is the central point of attention whereas in other crops such as maize, the main target is the family or F1-eross. lt is important to emphasize the relevance of this distinction because the current method of selection (particular! y in the first stage of selection, called Clonal EvaluationTrials) the cassva breeding project is trying to develop a more systematic evaluation process in which we select on the family basis (all the clones derived from a given parental line), and then the best clones from that family (the individual clone that will eventuall be released 8-10 years leater). One of the severa! questions these diallels aim at answering is what is the relative genetic variability between and within farnilies. This is obviously fundamental for a more scientific process of selection. In other words, should we focus in developing good families of clones or should we concentrate on developing farnilies of clones that have large gentic variability to be exploited.Table 1 illustrates the progress made in developing a quantitative genetic model for the analyses of the diallels. The information presented was exposed to Dr. José Miranda Branco Filho who is an eminent quantitative geneticist who co-authored with ArnellHallauer the most widely used book on the subject (Quantitative Genetics in Maize Breeding, lowa State University Press). The issue of the model and altemative ways of using the information is still underway and there are excellent perspectives that these analyses will in fact be a relevant contribution in the area of quantitative genetics. That is, the studies will hopefully not only be useful for cassava but also for other crops as well.Selections for the Mid-altitude valleys. Tables 2 and 3 present the results of the combined analysis of variance for the two diallel evaluations conducted in the mid altitude valleys environment and the values for GCA effects, respectively. One sriking result in this analysis is the significante of SCA effects, which are related to the dominance of heterosis present in the hybrid clones evaluated in the studies.In Table 3 a more precise estímate for GCA effects that the one presented previously in 2002 is presented. The information provided is a good example of the complexities involved in cassava breeding. The parent generating the best yielding progenies was MPER 183 (the highest positive GCA value) but it showed very deficient performances regarding Harvest Index and Dry Mtter Cntent (both with negative GCA estimates). On the other hand CM 6740-7 has an excellent GCA estímate for dry matter but intermediate performance regarding fresh root yield and harvest index. The clone SM 1741-1 has an good overall performance as a parent, particular! y in relation to dry matter content.Selections for the Sub-Humid Tropical Environment. Following the same criteria for the previous section Tables 4 and 5 present the relevant results from the diallel studies for the sub-humid environmtents. There are sorne interesting differences between the two data sets. The most striking one is that here SCA effects did not reach statistical siginificance (Table 4). This may be the result of the strong dry spell in this environment, which has a strong effect on dry matter content. For the other traits both GCA and SCA showed highly significant statistical differences.Table 5 summarizes the GCA effects for each of the nine parents involved in this diallell.As in the previous cases, it is obvious that there is no perfect parentalline. Good GCA for yield productivity is generally associated with a negative value for dry matter content and/or harvest index, and viceversa. It was disappointing to see the poor performance of SM 1565-17 regarding dry matter content (GCA =-1.467). One pf the promising clones for this environment was SM 1411-5, whose breeding value based on the results in Table 5, is clearly highlighted.    As expected CM 4574-7 hada good performance as a parent with positive GCA for yield and, particularly, for dry matter content (Table 7). However, better that CM 4574-7 was SM 2219-11 with positive GCA values for the three variables evaluated.** lllustration of the kind of additional infonnation that this analysis could provide. Below several examples are given on the way the additional information based on the within Fl family variation could provide. The model is taking advantage of the fact that a single genotype can be vegetatively propagated. Therefore each genotype (clone) was planted in two (mid-altitude valleys) or three (acid soil savannas and sub-humid environments) locations, with three replications in each location. An error exists for the within family variation which is not ordinarily available in diallel studies. In other words, it is possible to estimate the genetic component of the within family variation. That information can be contrasted with the one obtained from the among-Fl families variation and if differences are large, then circunstancial evidence of the occurrence of strong epistatic effects can be produced.Moreover, individual analysis of each variable can help identifying interesting events that otherwise would go unnoticed. For instance, averages for each F1 family and standard deviations (within each F1 family) can be ploted. This information can be very useful and as far as it is known the kind of analysis has never been described in the literature. The basic idea is that parentallines that have many dominant alleles affecting a given trait will yield more homogeneous progenies than a progenitor with recessive alleles. This is the principie in which the graphic approach for diallel analysis (Hayman 1954a;1954b;1958;Mather and Jinks, 1971).The first example tums around the reaction to white flies evaluated in the diallel experiment evaluated in Jamundí (Valle del Cauca, Colombia). Figure 1 shows the result for the averages of the F1 crosses as well as the variation (standard deviation) among the 30 clones that made up each F1 cross. ... 0.9MECU72 x SM1636-24   Famlly averages for thrlp score (1::reslstant; S::susceptlble) (below) in the Altántico Department for the reaction to thrips (l=resistant; S=susceptible). Dominant and recessive ''behavior'' does not refer to the traditional meaingin for dominance and recessiveness. Dominance refers either to a trait where non-additive effects are important or cases where the parental lines may have loci at the bomozygous dominant status.variation around the standard deviations within families. Sorne crosses had very small standard deviations (MECU72 x CM1219-9) indicating a very uniform family. Other progenies (MECU72 x SM1278-2) have a much higher within familiy variation. This contrast is extremely interesting for understanding the genetic structure for relevant traits.Continuing with reactions to pests, Figure 2 illustrates the results from the diallels targeting the sub-humid conditions (different progenitors that those for mid-altitude valleys and acid soil savannas). These results are typical of the trends that can be obtained by putting together the averages for each family and the standard deviation wühin families. First, there is a clear consistency between the results of the two locations, with an upward trend at the right of the figures . The results agree with the expectations, clones with lower averages (resistant to mites) show a more uniform progenies (smaller standard deviations) than the susceptible ones at the right of the figures. The tendencies observed in these plots could be explained as an statistical artifact: families with larger values are likely to have larger standard deviations. However, as will be shown below, for other traits the opposite is observed. In Figure 3 the plots for dry matter content (%) from one of the locations for the diallel for the sub-humid (Santo Tomás, Atlántico Department) and acid soil savannas environment (CORPOICA-La Libertad, Meta Department) are presented. Results for the other respective locations yielded similar results.In this case families tended to be more uniform with higher averages. In other words the magnitude of the averages do not necessarily dictate the magnitude of the standard deviations within each family. Families with high dry matter content tended to be clearly more uniform. This could be envisioned, perhaps, as a result of the continuos selection for increased dry matter content. Most of the germplasm would have the key alleles for high dry matter, the exception being the opposite. When a progeny has an unusualJy Jow dry matter content, then the variability within family tends to increase.It is interesting to note that similar trends were observed for this variable in the three different ecosystems and for all the locations in which they were evaluated. There is a consistency in the way each variable appear in this kind of graphs, which is further suggest that they may be an interestíng new approach for analyzing genetic variability and identifying relevant cases where further studies are justified.Harvest index ís another variable that consistently showed the same tendency as dry matter content, with reduced variability within family at higher levels of the index. As in the case of dry matter content the long selection process for optimum harvest index (Kawano, 2003). Thisprocess could serve to explain why high harvest índices result in reduced variabily. In other words, high harvest index is the rule at least among the elite parental lines used in producing the diallel families.Finally root yield showed a different tendency with increased variability within family in those Fl crosses that showed the highest averages. As in the case of the previous variables, this trend was shared by the three different ecosystems targeted and for each of the locations within each ecosystem. Figure 4 illustrates the results for root yield (kg/plant) for one of the locations at each target environment. It is clear that a common trend exists, with families with low productivity showing a \"dominance behavior\" that does not necessarily mean that root yield is a recessive trait.It is clear from the information provided in Figures 3 and 4 that interesting differences are found among and within the families involved in the diallel studies. Is is also evident the consistency with which each variable responds to the analysis. Further study will be conducted by determining the identity of each family in the plos (as done for white flies).Concluding remarks regarding diallel analysis. Our knowledge on the inheritance of agronomically relevant traits in cassava is still very limited. The most interesting result of the analyses on dialllels described above can be summarized as follows:Innovative approach from the quantitative genetics point of view. The studies will hopefully provide advances in this area of research with a more complete model for explaining genetic variability, model that can be related to actual data. It is interesting, therefore, that cassava may eventually come to provide tools for genetic analyses of other vegetatively propagated crops.The graphic deployment of data facilitates the identification of contrasting families deserving a more detailed study. That is the case, for example, illustrated in Figure 1 among the progenies from :MECU 72.In general the statistical and graphic analysis provide an ideal group of genotypes that can be used for molecular analysis. This is for instance, what CIAT is currently doing with a group of genotypes that showed a contrasting phenotype regarding leaf retention.• ..., '  Nelson Morante, Reman Ceballos y Martin Fregene CIAT For many years cassava research at CIAT has been interested in introducing inbreeding in cassava. The advantages of inbreeding can be summarized as follows:Because no inbreeding is carried out, a sizable genetic load (undesirable or deleterious genes) is expected to prevent the crop fully achieving its actual yield potential.Since there are no clearly defined populations (quantitative genetics sense) allelic frequencies cannot be efficiently modified.Because the highly heterozygous nature of the crop, dominance effects are likely to play a very important role in the performance of materials being selected. The current scheme can exploit dominance effects because, once an elite clone is identified, it can be propagated vegetatively (therefore carrying along the dominance effects). However, it is the same elite clones that frequently are selected as progenitors for the production of new segregating material. In that case, the current procedure has a bias because the breeding value of these clones are unlikely to be well correlated with their performance per se, precisely because of the distorting effects of dominance. In other words, good clones are just found not designed.Production of recombinant seed is cumbersome in cassava. Only 0.6 viable seeds per pollination are produced. It takes about 18 months since a given cross is planned until an adequate amount of seed is produced.When a desirable trait is identified, it is very difficult to transfer it from one genotype to another (even if a single gene controlled the trait). The backcross scheme, one of the most cornmon, successful and powerful breeding schemes for cultivated crops, is not feasible in cassava, because of the constant heterozygous state used throughout the breeding process.The lack of inbreeding in cassava implies a very restricted genetic variability based on recessive traits. Commercially important mutants such as those found and exploited in maize (waxy, floury, high-quality-protein, sweet com, popcom, etc.) are not known in cassava. It is not clear if cassava has or not this kind of useful mutants, but it is obvious that if they existed the breeding scheme employed did not facilitate their identification since the heterozygous nature of the crop significantly reduced the chances of the homozygosity required for the expression of recessive traits.The use of totally inbred material (as parents in the production of hybrids which will then be propagated vegetatively) would greatly facilitate the exchange of germplasm among different cassava breeding projects. Currently this exchange takes place as in vitro plants, which is expensive, time-consuming, and by its very nature restricted to a few genotypes. Botanical seed of inbred genotypes will breed true, and therefore the genotype can be trasnfered in this way without the genetic segregation that occurs from non-inbred materials. This will effectively reduce the relative isolation in which cassava-breeding projects currently operate.CIAT has begun the production of inbred cassava material (currently at 50 and 75% homozygosity). All the elite clones identified through the cassava-breeding project are going to be used for recombination (to produce new segregating populations), but also will be self-pollinated to initiate an S2 recurrent selection process to: a) reduce the inbreeding depression in cassava e~ reduce genetic load); b) indentify useful recessive traits of commercial (i.e. waxy roots), nutritional (acyanogenesis) or agronomic (reduced póst harvest deterioration) relevance. Paralel to this a special project has been approved for the development of a protocol for the production of doubled-haploids from cassava anthers.  During the first semester of 2004 these 3461 plants will be harvested. In the process extensive evaluations will be performed in search of useful traits. This is could eventually be a tuming point for cassava research at CIA T.An intemational consortium of geneticists, molecular biologists and information scientists from Yale University, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, Brookhaven National laboratory, and CIA T was assembled to address the following specific goals:To generate an extensive collection of rice lines, each containing an independent, dispersed insertion of a genetically-engineered Ds transposon; To determine the chromosomal position of each insertion by sequence of its flanking genomic DNA;To establish a database of that relates lines, sequences and phenotipic information;To publicly distribute mutant lines and associated informatics. By making use of this public information, research scientists worldwide can rapidly identify mutant alleles in genes of agronomic importance for functional genomic studies and crop improvement.A major CIAT involvement in this project is to produce foundation seed of stable rice lines containing the Ds insertions. All experiments are carried out in Oryza sativa ssp japonica cv Nipponbare. To produce T1 seed, stock plants (provided by Yale University) will be crossed as males to wild type female plants in the CIA T nursery. Efficient outcrossing can be achieved using a male-sterile female line.Since male-sterility in Nipponbare was not presently available a backcross-breeding scheme shown in Figure 1 was used to introgress this trait into Nipponbare. A nuclear male-sterility allele (msms) found in IR.36 (provided by GSKhush from IRRI) was used as the donor parent. The Nipponbare male-sterile version will be used for the production of foundation seed from each transposition selection (T1 seed) produced in this project.A simplified crossing method described by Sarkarung(1991) was used. A seed sample from the IR.36 source segregating for male sterility was planted under field conditions in CIAT; male-sterile plants were phenotipically identified at flowering time and used as the female parent. F2 seed was harvested from F1 plants and grown in the field for the identification of male-sterile plants, which were backcrossed to Nipponbare to produce BC1F1 seed. A second BC to Nipponbare was done and the BC2F2 population was grown in the field to allow the identification of male-sterile plants, which were used to produce the BC3F1 seed, and subsequently the BC4Fl. This seed was planted again to produce the BC4F2 generation to check for segregation of the sterility trait. Male-sterile plants very similar to Nipponbare were identified. However, sorne segregation in terms of plant height, tillering, flowering time, and presence of awns was observed. Therefore, another BC to Nipponbare was done to obtain a more uniform population. From here on, the male-sterile Nipponbare population will be maintained by growing it in isolation to allow open pollination. Just seed from the male-sterile plants will be harvested to maintain this population.Seed increase of several genetic stocks was also done during the course of this project, and sent to Y ale University for use in transformation experiments. Future plans: Field/greenhouse evaluations of transformed lines carrying stable Ds insertions.In spite of the great impact made in rice production in Latín America (LAC) there is a need to increase it in a sustainable way to meet increasing demand. New alleles can provide genetic variability for crop enhancement. There is wide genetic variability available in rice, but limited use of this variability has been made. It has been shown (Xiao et al, 1998;Moneada et al, 2001;Tanksley and McCouch, 1997;Thompson et al, 2003) that the Oryza wild species represent a potential source of new alleles for improving the yield, quality and stress resistance of cultivated rice. These studies indicated that O.rufipogon possesses new alleles on chromosomes 1 and 2 with positive effect on yield and yield components. However, these studies were conducted on a limited scale since early segregating populations (BC2F2) and few replications (1-2 sites) were used. No data are available confirming that yield advantages detected in the BC2F2 generation is pass on through generations of selection in pedigree nurseries, nor over a wide range of environments. This report focuses on the performance and stability of advanced breeding lines derived from the cross Bg90-2/0.rufipogon across locations in LAC.Twenty-five lines (BC2F8) from the cross Bg90-2/0. rufipogon, derived from the BC2F2 generation following the pedigree method were planted in replicated yield trials in eleven locations under irrigated conditions (seven sites in Colombia and one each in Argentina, Surinam, Uruguay and Venezuela). This work was done in close collaboration with key partners from the national rice programs and pri vate sector. Transplanting was done in CIA T whilst direct seeding was done elsewhere. A complete! y randomized design with three reps was used and crop management was based on recommended local agronomic practices. Varieties grown locally were used as checks. Data on main agronomic traits, including grain yield, was taken. A two-way analysis of variance was used for the analysis of grain yield, whilst a GEBEI package that implements appropiate clustering and ordination procedures and AMMI model were used in the analysis of the GxE data. DNA of young leaves from the parental genotypes and their progenies was extracted by the Dellaporta method (McCouch et al. 1988) modified for PCR assay by CIAT Biotechnology Unit. Subsequent molecular assays were performed using 76 SSRs Traits for yield and yield-related characters were associated with the 76 molecular markers using simple single point analysis.Data are presented in Figure 1 and Table l. Statistical analysis showed no significant difference in grain yield between Bg90-2 and its progeny over alllocations. Although none of the interspecific lines out yielded Bg90-2 in alllocations, severallines performed better than Bg90-2 in each location. Analysis of the GxE (data not shown) indicated that contrasting and distinct environments were included in these trials and that the GxE interaction was high (75%). This suggests that the performance of genotypes was dependent on the climatic/soil conditions in each location and that there was a good level of genetic variability present in this group of lines, which explains the better performance of sorne progenies under specific conditions. This is very important for breeding purposes since the genetic variability hidden in this population was only observed when the progenies were exposed to a diverse set of climatic/soil conditions found in different rice growing areas.Analysis of molecular data from the bulked seed sample of the BC2F8 Iines shows that all of them had introgressions derived from O.rufipogon (Table 1). The number of introgressions ranged from 2(2.6%) to 18 (23%). More introgressions were detected in chromosomes 2(14), 5(9) and 7,12,3(7); chromosomes 4 and 10 had two introgressions.There was no correlation between number of introgressions and grain yield (Figure 1). Markers RM5 and RM1, located on chromosome 1, were found in sorne of the highest yielding lines.Molecular data from the BC2F2 generation (Annual Report 2001) were compared with that of BC2F8. Only 46% of the 76 SSRs were detected in both generations, suggesting that sorne markers were lost during the phenotypic selection carried out through the generation advance. This was expected. However, 52% of the markers detected in the BC2F8 lines were not detected earlier in the BC2F2 generation. This could be explained because plants sampled for molecular analysis and agronomic characterization were different. On the other hand, only 48% of markers detected in BC2F8 lines are somewhat associated with yield or yield components.Molecular data confirmed that all breeding lines had introgressions from O.rufipogon. This wild species is known to have a high level of genetic variability and is adapted to diverse climatic/soil conditions. Statistical analysis on grain yield and performance through eleven locations in LAC indicated that there were contrasting differences among them. Therefore, breeding lines were subjected to diverse biotic and abiotic conditions, including high disease incidence (Villavicencio, Saldaña, Jamundi), acid and infertile soils (Villavicencio, • Jamundi), cold stress (Argentina, Uruguay) and good climatic conditions (Monteria, Aceituno). There were excellent and poor environments for rice production. However, all lines did better than BG90-2, the improvedl recurrent parent; sorne of the lines (8,13,12,1,15,21,9,19,3) yielded between 15-24% more than BG90-2. The stability analysis, based on the method described by Eberhart and Russell indicated that all lines were stable across environments. Data suggest that the superior performance of inter specific breeding lines is due to favorable allele introgressions derived from O.rufipogon. Rice is one of the most important food crops in the word. The 21 wild species and 2 cultivated species (Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima) represent wide genetic variability for rice breeding programs. Most of this variability has not been used so far although severa! studies have suggested that Oryza wild species possess new alleles for improving cultivated rice. The main objective of this study was to focus on progress made in identifying quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with yield and yield components in a BC3F2 population derided from a cross between a recurrent parent (Lemont) and a donar parent (Oryza barthii). The results of applying AB-QTL analysis to 327 individuals characterized with 113 microsatellite markers are described. Marker data were used to identify QTLs associated with yield and yield components.Lemont, which was the first commercial variety developed in Texas (USA) with an excellent industrial quality, was used as the recurrent parent in this study. O. barthii (Accession # 104119), which served as donar parent, is a relative of O. sativa. There was very high sterility so three backcrosses to Lemont were done. BC3F2 plants were selected based on phenotype, díscardíng plants with hígh sterility and long awns. The best 327 individuals were selected for agronomic and molecular characterization (Fig. 1).DNA of young leaves was extracted from the parental genotypes and the 327 BC3F2 families, using the Dellaporta method (McCouch et al., 1988). The CIAT Biotechnology Research Unit modified this method for the PCR assay. A total of 113 microsatellite markers were used to evaluate the hybrid from the Lemont/0. barthii. Markers used in the evaluations and the QTL analyses were selected from the rice molecular framework linkage map (10-20 cM intervals throughout the genome) (Causse et al., 1994;Chen et al., 1997). The population of 327 BC3F2 families was analyzed using a total of 113 microsatellite markers (SSRs), distributed at approximately 10-cM intervals throughout the genome. The order of the SSRs in the molecular map was defined by the Comell Published molecular rice map (Causse et al., 1994;Chen et al., 1997;Temnykh et al., 2000). In this experiment five agronomic traits including days to flower (dth), plant height (ph), panicle length (pi), percent sterility (ps) and yield per plant (yld) were evaluated. The association between phenotype and marker genotype was investigated using single-point analysis (SPA), interval mapping (IM) and composite interval mapping (CIM) using QTL Cartographer Vers. 1.17d software. A normality test showed that only the distribution of trait pi was normal (Fig. 2); thus it was indispensable for the correct use of aforementioned models to estímate significance thresholds with permutation tests.  .  Moreover, pennutations allow the estimation of experimentwise significance. For SPA, the threshold was established by doing 10,000 pennutations, while thresholds, for IM: and CIM: were established by carrying out 1000 permutations. In chromosomes 4, S, 6, 9 and 11, neither marker was associated with neither of the traits; while, in chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10 and 12, there was severa! genetic regions associated with more than one trait. SPA detected QTLs that not were significant for IM and CIM: (declared as true marker-trait associations not significant, type-1 error) (table 1).Similarly, in sorne cases SPA did not detect QTLs that were associated for IM: and CIM (low potency, type TI-error) (Table 2). The use of co-factors are particularly important because of their role in identifying sorne putative QTLs. Marker RM42 on chromosome 8 was associated with ph, pi and ps but not with yld. On chromosome 1, ph and yld were associated but with different markers. Table 3 shows the positions of QTLs that were identified as significant by all three analytical procedures.Table 3. QTLs identified as significant by all three analytical proceduresThe results analyzed in global form suggest that other genetic regions are also important.For example, those QTLs identified as significant simultaneously by two of the three models in contiguous zones of the same chromosome suggest a wide region that must be confirmed (Table 4). ..This preliminary analysis indicates that certain regions associated with important agronomic traits (putative QTLs) in the Lemont/0. barthii cross have been identified. Chromosome 1 carries QTLs associated with grain yield and plant height, as reported in the literature. Likewise, chromosomes 3 and 8 are important for detennining panicle length, perhaps one of the most relevant traits found in advanced breeding lines derived from the Lemont!O.barthii cross. Markers RM227 and RM114 on chromosome 3 are associated with a region derived from O. barthii. Markers RM184 and RM304 on chromosome 10 are associated with days to flower; however, this is a very complex trait as has been reported by others. Advanced lines with different flowering dates have been developed out of this cross. Further molecular work is needed to confirm several interesting regions detected in this analysis.Complete the characterization of agronomic and molecular data and QTL analyses to determine the number of QTLs associated with yield and alleles coming from O. barthii.Evaluate more SSR markers in nonsaturated regions on the map (chromosome 5 and others) to elucidate QTLs associated with yield increase and verify which of the O. barthii alleles has been introgressed in this population.Complete the characterization of agronomic and molecular data and QTL analyses to determine the number of QTLs associated with yield increase across environments for Caiapo/0. glaberrima crosses.Evaluate more SSR markers in nonsaturated regions on the map of the BC2F8 population to identify QTLs associated with yield increase and verify which of the O. rufipogon alleles has been introgressed into this population.Initiate the analysis of agronomic and molecular data from different generations obtained of the Bg90-2/0. rufipogon cross to determine the environmental effect and to look for gene introgression from the wild species in these different populations.The cassava homwonn (Erinnyis ello) is generally considered the most important pest of cassava inn the Americas (Bellotti 1981). High populations can defoliate large plantations in a short time. No naturally occurring resistance to this important pest has been found in the cassava gennplasm collection. Recently, feeding experiments with leaves of the genotype 60444 (MNg11 ) transfonned with the Bacillus thurigensis protein CRY1Ab, and leaves from non-transfonned plants revealed a very high mortality of the homwonn when fed with non transgenic plants (Chavariaga et al. 2003, unpublished data). The above observation suggests a naturally occurring resistance to homworm in the genotye 60444. This genotype was developed at the Moor plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria in the 1950s using third back cross derivatives of the inter-specific cross between cassava and M. glaziovii for the production of C:MD resistant materials. Resistance to the homworm could have been inadvertently introgressed from M. glaziovii (Bellotti 2003, personal communication).Another progeny of the M. glaziovii back cross derivatives , TMS30572, was used in constructing the molecular genetic map of cassava. Regions suspected to be introgression of large chunks of the M. glaziovii genome, as demonstrated by suppression of recombinantion have been noted (Fregene et al. 1997). One of these regions on linkage group D has been shown to bear resistance QTLs for CMD and CBB. A study has therefore been initiated to associate this region of the genome with resistance to homworm resistance.The genotype 60444 has not been used in breeding at CIA T and there are no remnant seeds from previous crosses for genetic studies of homworm resistance, segregating populations will therefore be developed. The breeding program at the Moor plantation, Ibadan utilized principally open pollinated seeds in their breeding activities and the likelihood that sorne inbreeding may have occurred in 60444 cannot be ruled out. The development of segregating populations for mapping resistance to homworm resistance has to take into consideration severa! possibilities of gene action. In light of this, a single full-sib family, by crossing MNgll and the homworm susceptible variety MCol 2215, andan S1 family, by selfing 60444 will be developed.Ten in vitro plants of the genotype 60444 were hardened in the screen house and transferred to the field for genetic crosses for the development of mapping populations. It is expected that seeds from the populations will be ready by May/June next year and sexual seeds from the farnilies will immediately be gerrninated and transferred to the field. Once woody stakes will be harvested from the progenies once they become available and planted in the green house for the feeding studies.A project to associate the linkage group D region of the cassava genome in the genotype 60444 with resistance to hornworm resistance has been initiated. It involves the generation of a full-sib and S 1 farnilies from 60444 and their evaluation for hornworrn resistance and molecular markers from the D region of the cassava genome.Environmental stresses including drought are the major constraint on crop yield. Genetic variability of the traits for environmental stress tolerance exists in different crops but is often complex and multigentetic. Our task is to facilitate breeding for the traits by developing molecular tools and isolating molecular determinants. In this report we will describe the following two points to efficiently implement molecular components into breeding toward to genetic improvement of yield under different stresses conditions: 1) overall strategy for abiotic stress project and 2) prioritization of existing and future projects.Overall Strategy f or Abiotic Stress Project. The following are the key components to develop successful stress project which allow focusing on specific determinants of the traits in efficient and cost-saving manner. All physiological, morphological and biochemical changes that confer stress tolerance in crops must have a molecula:-genetic basis. Thus, analyzing physiologicallbiochemical determinants of yield res! ;onse to environmental stresses is the prerequisite to molecular dissection of the traits sin1 .e we are not focusing on stress traits (e.g. drought) per se, rather focusing un these physiologicallbiochemical traits that contribute to improved productivity under stress conditions.Key components for the success: Challenge lying in molecular work to determine molecular components for the traits is how to filter thousands of genes into the manageable number of candidate genes. As shown Figure 1, several key steps will be required for the process from gene pool to can di date genes. Physiological and biochemical screening will allow us to focus on specific aspects (e.g. deeper root, ABA content) on a trait followed by molecular screening using high throughput tools (e.g. microarray). The resultant data will be combined with other parameters such as QTL to help to select candidate genes. Tools for proof of concept (POC) will facilitate determination of candidate genes. This could be achieved by forward and reverse genetic study if the genetic tool (e.g. knock-out lines) will be available and appropriate for a trait. Transgenesis will be an altemative way to prove gene function. In the end, selected candidate genes will be examined in crops for further application including marker assisted selection. The tools mentioned here need to be established in the early phase of the project since it is time consuming to establish the tools in a cost-efficient as well as high-throughput manner. Prioritization of traits in crops. CIA T major commodities include four crops: common bean, forage, cassava and rice with all different traits as listed below. Prioritization of traits in crops is required to meet our needs in crop improvement in an effective manner. The risk rate (high, medium and low) to achieve the goal shown in the table is a relative score which is based on complexity of individual trait (e.g. single or multi genetic traits) as well as other factors such as genotype x environment (G x E) interaction. There are two ways to prioritize traits which are 1) same trait among the crops and 2) each trait in each crop. The table below showed prioritization of trait in each crop, which mainly based on 1) availability of genetic resources, 2) impact on trait improvement 3) availability of tools to conduct molecular work. Recent advanced genetic and genomic tools allow us to compare genetic diversities across the crops. In this sense, it makes more sense to establish workplan for a same trait in different crops.Priorit~ Risk/Comglexit~Common bean Yield/Drought There are four activities to ensure meaningful deliverables such as trait genes for the crop improvement as described below. The philosophy to develop such strategy is to make best use of in-house, public and non-public resources to identify different molecular components for the trait. Breeding activity includes QTL and phynotyping which should link to other activities in the course of work. Others are all related to gene discovery activities which are divided to three sub-activities based on different target genes as described. Establishing collaboration with public and prívate sectors will ensure access to advanced technologies (e.g. whole transcriptome ESTs) which strengthen different activities of the project. lt should note that genes from model plant would be appreciable to the crop if the genes are related to physiological and biochemical traits that are also found in the crop. Detailed workplan for the trait will be developed by implementation of these components in different level.Aim of this study is to examine involvement of DREB gene in common bean for drought tolerance and develop DREB gene as a molecular marker for drought tolerance.A transcription factor, DREB gene has been isolated from different plants including rice, maize, tomato, barley, Arabidopsis as a key regulatory component for drought and freezing tolerance. The DREB gene is called \"master switch\" for drought and freezing tolerance because the gene regulates its downstream genes which are related to stress response (Seki et al., 2001). Over-expression of the gene in different plants has resulted in increased stress tolerance under defined stress conditions (Kasuga et al.,1999;Pellegrineschi et al., 2002). Moreover, it was suggested that in wheat DREB gene is linked to the frost tolerance locus (Vagujfalvi et al., 2003). Thus, DREB gene is up to now only the one that is proven as a stress tolerance gene by different laboratories. Therefore, these evidences strongly support an assumption that DREB gene is one of key regulatory components for drought and freezing tolerance in plants. Despite accumulated information in DREB gene in plants there is no report of function of DREB genes and its regulation in common bean under stress conditions. Therefore, it is essential to investigate how the DREB genes are regulated under drought stress, and to find linkage of the expression with drought tolerance using drought-tolerant and -susceptible lines in common bean.For plant stress experiments at greenhouse level we used 5 parentallines of common bean: 019833, 021212, DOR364, BAT881 and BAT477 because they have different physiological and biochemical traits including deep rooting and photosynthate transport for drought tolerance. These parental lines were used in BMZ project for \"Bean Oenomics for Improved Drought Tolerance in Central America\". The population includes parentallines as well as the Recombinant Inbred Line populations (Rll.) of three crosses (BAT 477 x DOR364; O 21212 x BAT 881; SEA-5 x MD 23-24). Since field test for gene expression study is not established and we would like to see DREB gene is stress-responsive in common bean we exposed about two week-old plants to drought and cold shock as described below. Plant seeds were sowed in pods in numbers of 3 or 4 seeds per pod and grown for 10 to 14 days under greenhouse conditions. For drought stress plants were taken from pods, cleaned with water to eliminate dirt from roots and placed on the bench top for 3, 6 or 12 hours. After each treatment roots were separated from aerial parts and plant sections were harvested to store at -80°C. For cold stress treatment plants in pods were placed in a cold room at 4°C for 6, 12 or 24 hours. After each time point plants were harvested as described above.Markers for Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) will be sought among Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers already developed at CIAT, or among single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within different orthologs of DREB gene to be developed in this work. Breeding of drought tolerant varieties is underway and mapping all DREB orthologs in common bean rnight be enhanced on marker-facilitated breeding and selection.Our first goal is to isolate DREB/CBF genes from Common bean. We decided to use a PCR approach using Thermal Asymmetric Interlaced (TAIL)-PCR technology because 1) previous study suggested DREB/CBF genes do not contain intron, 2) the transcript expression pattem is unknown in Common bean. To design primers for T AIL-PCR a search for several DREB/CBF proteins in monocotyledons and dicotyledons was performed in the Genbank and 8 sequences representing 6 different plants were chosen to perform a nucleotide alignment (Figure 1). Multiple sequence alignment was performed using AlignX of the VectorNTI (lnformax Inc.) package and conserved regions were determined to design primers for T AIL-PCR. An additional search in specialized soybean and ESTs databases was also performed to find closely related or uncharacterized bean DREB/CBF sequences but no homologous sequences were found. Eight primers (R-CBF1-1:TMCKRCCMGCYGGYITYITCG; R-CBFl-2: GRTGMCG GTYTCHCGAAACIT; F-CBF2-1:A YITCKCYGA YTCKGCITGGMG; F-CBF2-2: GYYTSAA YITCKCYGA YTCKGC; R-ap2-intemal: KKRAAAGTHCCRAGCCA AATCC; F-ap2-intemal: GGAmGGCTYGGDACITTYM:M; R-ap2-flank: CITCA SAMACCCA YITWCCKGA; F-ap2-flank: CRGCTMGWGCTCA YGACGTSGC) were designed from conserved DREB/CBF and AP2 consensus domain sequences. The primers are degenerate at several positions since alignments showed differences in sorne of the bases of the conserved regions.  AY166833 (0ry1.Jl saliva), AY114110 (Oryza sativa). The sequences were aligned using AlignX.Only a section oC the alignment is shown with one or the primers (named: R-AP2-internal) indicated with a black thick bar below.For amplification of putative CBF/DREB genes we used protocols previously described (Liu & Whittier 1995) with sorne modifications. Several amplifications were attempted but failed to amplify specific fragments for DREB/CBF gene. This could be due to use of degenerated primers for the PCR. We are currently testing different conditions for the primers.Future activities• Conduct expression analysis of DREB gene m the parental lines treated with different stresses using Real-Time PCR• Map DREB genes in common bean. Using Resistance Gene Candidates (RGCs) as molecular markers, we have previously detected a locus (RGC7) associated with resistance to angular leaf spot (ALS) in common bean (López et al., 2003 Phytopathology 93:88-95). This result prompted us to sequence a large genomic region that contains a multifamily cluster of RGCs highly similar to the original RGC associated with the ALS resistance locus. (BRU, Annual Report, 2002). The sequencing of the BAC clone 57-M14, even though is derived from the ALS susceptible cultivar Sprite, provides a valuable platform for the genetic dissection and cloning of the corresponding resistance genes (R-genes) in the source of ALS resistance, the variety G 19833. Furthermore, this strategy allows both a) the identification of additional molecular markers in order to assess more precisely the fate of these genes when used in breeding programs; and b) the study of R-gene cluster organization and structure, which may be informative as to the evolution and generation of new specificities of R-genes in general. The comparison of the sequences and genornic structures of diverse cultivars under study should contribute to explain their observed phenotypic differences on ALS resistance. Here, we report the final phase of the BAC sequencing project and the current status of the isolation of R-gene coding sequences from the resistant cultivar.Initially, sequencing of the BAC clone 57-M14 was attempted by a transposon insertion strategy using a kit from Epicentre (BRU, Annual Report, 2001). However, the insertion events were biased to occur in regions highly enriched in retroelement-type sequences, which hindered the coverage of the entire BAC sequence. To overcome this, a sub-cloning library was constructed. After the entire sequencing of the two libraries we reached 70 kb of genornic sequence distributed in about 20 contigs, but the coding sequences of four of the five RGC contigs found were still incomplete (BRU, Annual Report, 2002).At this point, we decided to focus in extending the R-gene contigs through the design of primers in the edge or boundary of the known regions. These primers were used in two ways: Primer walking, which is the use of primers for direct sequencing from the BAC clone DNA as a template.Vectorette PCR or Genome Walker (Hagiwara, K. & Harris, 1996) that consists in the amplification of unknown DNA sequences adjacent to a known sequence, in our case the available contigs. This method is based in the separate digestion of genorrúc or BAC DNA with different restriction enzymes that leave blunt end.s. The fragments are ligated to an adaptor and become the template for PCR amplification (Fig 1 ) with a specific primer that targets the end of a known sequence and a primer corresponding to the adaptor. The PCR products from different digested templates will have dissimilar sizes, allowing us to gain new sequen ce data from different portions of the unknown region.,\" Known , .---....:;. '\" .:.... _, . . '-•...,•quence In brief, the BAC clone was digested separately with Dral, EcoRV, Msn, Pvull, Smal and Sspl and ligated with an asymmetric-bubbled adaptor 224M13 (Hagiwara, K. & Harris); this configuration avoids the amplification of adaptor-adaptor large fragments. The ligation was diluted and an aliquot used to perform PCR. The amplification product was purified and sequenced with the primer M13. Additionally, we designed two specific \"consensus primers\" targeting conserved motifs in the already known regions of the R-genes copies. These consensus primers were also used in vectorette PCR.RGCs were annotated using the following softwares: GenScan (http://genes.mit.edu/GENSCAN.html) and NetPlantGene (http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/NetPGene/) to identify open reading frames (ORFs) and to make predictíons of splice si tes (intron-exon boundaries) -BLASTX searches and BLASTP searches in the Conserved Domain Database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/cdd/wrpsb.cgi) were performed to identify the protein domains.To detect rnicrosatellites present in this genomic region we used the software Simple Sequence Repeat Identification Tool (SSRIT at http://www.gramene.org/db/searches/ssrtool) and designed PCR primers with PRIMER3 software in adjacent regions to target identified rnicrosatellites. They were PCR amplified using DNA from the varieties 019833 and DOR364 and the products were separated in a 6% poly-acrylamide gel to search for polymorphisms.Besides to facilitate the doning of resistance genes, the sequencing of these large genornic regions contributes to the understanding of the molecular evolutionary events that had resulted in the generation of specific pathogen recognition and the subsequent resistance capabilities.Currently, we have 12 assembled contigs that span a total of 90.3 Kb. The primer walking, the vectorette PCR and the Genome Walker methods have been useful to fill sequence gaps that the previously developed libraries were not able to cover. Indeed, we added about 20 Kb of new sequence and joined severa! contigs (we had 20 contigs before). In general the gaps were regions of repetitive DNA with a high AT content, which may explain the difficulty to fill those gaps.We were able to finish the sequence of four out of the five copies of RGCs contained in the BAC. A diagram in Figure 2 illustrates the structure of the predicted proteins from these RGCs (RGC7-A to RGC7-E), reflecting the current status of the annotation. Though a larger analysis is still required, severa! interesting observations ha ve already being noted. RGC7-A is the member on this cluster that still requires additional sequence information. Indeed, no sequence has been obtained further the predicted TIR and NBS domains so that we are not certain about the presence of LRR in this copy. However, this member is pseudogene because it has a stop codon at the end of the known (and incomplete) sequence of the NBS domain and contains a non-LTR retroelement-type sequence inserted in a predicted intron in the middle of the N-terminal TIR domain. This splicing site is not predicted in the other members of the family. RGC7-B is the only member of the cluster with the complete and defined structure of a typical TIR-NBS-LRR R-gene. With a total size of 3233 bp, it contains 4 predicted exons. Interestingly, exon 1 contains the entire TIR domain and the exon 2 NBS domain, a feature shared with the other copies. In fact, the position of intron 1 (intron 2 in RGC7-A) in all the members is well conserved. Additional analyses are on the way to detennine the structure of the LRRs and other characteristics of the domains.Although when the translated sequence of RGC7-C shows similarity with the TIR, NBS and LRR domains, the coding sequence does not contain a true ORF. The presence of the first conserved intron was predicted but the apparent exons actual! y contain a large number of stop codons. Thus, RGC7-C is a perfect example of a pseudogene. When its nucleotide sequence is compared to that of RGC7-B (data not shown), several deletions are detected in RGC7-C which may account for the stop codons but further consideration of the pattern of these deletions is still in process.RGC7-D and RGC7-E are truncated TIR-NBS R-genes. They not only lack the LRR domain but also have an NBS domain interrupted abruptly before the end of the second exon. This occurs to a greater extent in RGC7-E which has only 208 nt in such exon (compare with the equivalent exon in RGC7-B). More interestingly, both RGC7-D and ROC7-E show a striking palindromic sequence right after the end of the gene that may represent a mark of recombination events giving origin to (imperfect) duplicated sequen ces.Oenetic mapping of BAC 57-M14 Even though the BAC clone 57-M14 was identified using the original ROC7 from 019833, we decided to verify that the physical region encompassed by the BAC mapped at the same genetic locus represented by ROC7 and linked to ALS resistance. This was necessary because sometimes the high leve! of gene duplication in eukaryotes like plants causes that gene families are located in more than one region in the genome. Therefore, we looked for molecular markers in the sequence of the BAC clone, mainly microsatellites (SSRs), which are considered the more informative towards such a goal. Strikingly, despite of the high amount of repetitive DNA sequences contained in the BAC, we only found three perfect SSR in the total 90.3 Kb. One of them, SSR07, was a trinucleotide repetition located in the very beginning of the coding sequence of ROC7-C so that it was very promising for our purposes. Indeed, primers targeting this SSR07 were designed and upon amplification on DNA from 019833 and DOR364, the parentals in our mapping population, a size polymorphism was detected and evaluated in the whole progeny. The segregation of this marker was quite similar to that of the original ROC7 and when Single Marker Analysis (Qgene software) was applied to assess its correlation with the phenotype of resistance to ALS, the SSR07 expiained even a higher proportion of the resistance than the original ROC7. This microsatellite explain 75% and 69% of the resistant phenotype to two different isolates of the pathogen. Thus, we can conclude that the physical region we have sequenced in common bean must contain (a) major component(s) of the resistance to ALS. Besides, in the serach for SNPs we have already detected the presence of one polymorphism that is currently under confirmation. Now, the goal is to identify it (them) from the actual resistant variety: 019833.To design primers for each candidate gene based on the sequence information of BAC 57-M14 (obtained from the susceptible variety Sprite), in order to amplify the respective ortholog genes from 019833.To complete the annotation of the BAC 57-M14 and to analyze de structure of the other main component of its sequence, the putative retroelements.This study starts with the hypothesis that the identification of candidate genes for mineral uptake and storage would allow a better understanding of the mechanism and inheritance of mineral accumulation by associating QTLs for mineral content with the map location of known genes involved in mineral transport and storage in the plant and seeds of common bean. The objective of this research was to start the analysis of candidate genes by screening two cDNA libraries from common bean roots for genes involved in micronutrient uptake. Our immediate targets were the genes for ferritin, the major iron storage protein in plants, for zinc transporters from the ZIP family and for enzyrnes in volved in the synthesis of nicotianamine, an iron chelator.Library Screening. Two cDNA libraries were screened: PV-DEd and PV-DEe. Both libraries were constructed from mRNA isolated from the roots of DOR364 plants grown hydroponically under phosphorous sufficiency or deficiency for 5 days, that was cloned into the UniZAP-cDNA vector (Stratagene) as described in the 2002 Annual Report. A total of 36,000 clones were screened (18,000 for each library) on gridded Hybond N+ membrane filters. Positive clones were identified from the six fields 1 96 position 1 doublereplicate 4 x 4 pattem.Probes and Hybridization conditions. A series of soybean cDNA clones were selected based on a keywords search of the Genbank database (ferritin, zinc transporters and nicotianamine). The most promising 15 clones were ordered from Invitrogen. These were mini-prepped from single colony cultures using standard techniques and sequenced with T7, Sp6 and M13 reverse or forward primers depending on their cloning vector, to confirm sequence identity and gene homology. A total of five soybean clones were used as probes. In addition, a single common bean cDNA clone with homology to ferritin was isolated from a leaf cDNA library and also was used as a probe. Probes were randomhexamer labeled with radioactive P 32 using the DECAprime II DNA labeling kit from Ambion. The root cDNA filters were pre-hybridized for 8 hours and hybridized overnight at 60 C in a modified \"Overgo\" hybridization buffer. Filters were washed three times in IX SSC buffer and placed into cassettes with Phosphoimager screens which were scanned the following day with a Storm 480 from Molecular Dynamics. Positive hits were found by looking for double hybridization pattem. Positive clones could then be identified by their position in the double-replicate pattem found at each grid axis in the address system.The number of positive hits per hybridization gave a good idea of the relative levels of gene expression of each clone given the total number of clones screened which ranged from 18,432 to 73,728 clones depending on the probe used (Table 1). Gene expression as analyzed by the library screening effort reflects the gene expression in roots of young plants grown in hydroponic culture with sufficient or deficient phosphorus, since these were the tissues used for mRNA extraction used to make the library. Gene expression of ferritin homologues was noted to be relatively high and similar in both the high P and low P libraries (Figure 1). Meanwhile the homologues of nicotianamine (NA) synthase and transferase genes had very low expression levels (1200 times less than ferritin) that were also more dependent on the library source: while all the NA synthase positive clones were from the low P library, the NA transferase positive clones were found in both the high and low P librarles. Since average insert size for the root cDNA librarles is around 1.5 -1.8 kb, we are hopeful that a full length clone will be obtained.Sequence positive clones for full-length insert sequences. Develop SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) based assays to follow inheritance of common bean orthologs of micronutrient related genes. Hybridize the root cDNA librarles with additional probes for other candidate genes, especially for iron reductase in collaboration with USDA-Houston (see additional section, this Annual Report) .  Cassava (Manihot esculenta subsp. esculenta Crantz), is a major food crop in the tropics.In addition to being a basic food in the human diet, cassava constitutes one of the more common raw materials for starch production. The yield, dry matter content (indirectly starch content) and planting materials are affected by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, the causal agent of cassava bacteria! blight (CBB). One tool which holds a lot of promise in unraveling the complexities in gene expression is Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs). In this study, we have targeted 2 economically important characters, starch content and CBB resistance to generate severa! types of librarles including subtracted ones. A large collection of EST was generated. We report here the single pass sequencing of 18202 cDNA clones from the 5'end and the analysis of the cassava EST collection.Characterization of a unigene set. After trimming a total of 13080 sequences was obtained. These were assembled in a unigene set of . 6046 sequences, including 2032 Tentative Contigs (TC) and 4014 singletons. This unigene set was searched against the GenBank database using the BLASTX algorithm. Twenty-five percent of ESTs (1457) do not show similarity to sequences in the non-redundant protein database.Comparing the cassava unigene set with other plant species . . To identify genes that are highly conserved across plant species and sequences that might be specific to cassava, we compared the cassava unigene set to the EST database of Arabidopsis, Medicago, tomato, soybean and potato using TBLASTX. Conceptual translation of 18% of the sequences did not show any similarity of available EST of other plant species. They might represent new cassava-specific genes, although sorne of them might be simply 5' or 3' untranslated sequences.Functional categories. Functional categories were defined using the Gene Ontology (GO) classification scheme (http://www .geneontology.org). A total of 69% of unigenes did not ha ve a significant match. Thus, only 31% of the unigene set was assigned a putative function using this method (Fig below).Biological processGenes unique to libraries infected with Xam. To identify important genes involved in the defense response, we identified sequences that were only present in the librarles inoculated with Xanthomonas. We obtained a unigene set of 1677 sequences (1514 singletons and 163 TC). Sorne of these genes show similarlty to genes previously identified and involved in defense mechanisms, i.e homologs to R-proteins, chitinase and receptor-like protein kinases. A high number of sequences (56%) did not show similarlty to proteins in the database or match unknown or hypothetical proteins.Library specific sequences. A unigene set representing 2296 sequences (1319 singletons, 977 TC) was found only in the root librarles. 2616 (2256 singletons and 360 TC) sequences were found only in the stem librarles and 521 (439 singletons and 82 TC) to the leaves librarles. These sequences can be considered as candidates of tissu-specific genes, it will be necessary to validate them by other strategies. Detecting SNPs. A high number of ESTs was available with two cultivars CM523-7 and :MJ>er183 and therefore we explored the applicability of our EST data set for identifying coding SNP (cSNP). Among the 1809 contigs, 285 contained four or more sequence reads with CM523-7 and 129 with :MJ>er183. 7.7% (CM523-7) and 17% (MPer183) of these contigs contained SNPs with at least two reads for each. The estimated cSNP frequency was 1 polymorphism per 121 bp.The cassava EST data presented here is the first effort in the large scale sequencing of the cassava expressed genome and also in cataloguing cassava genes.A unigene set of 6046 sequences was identified and a putati ve function assigned to 31% of unigenes.A number of ESTs were found to be present only in the Xam challenged librarles. he EST data represent a valuable source for the identification of SNP and further mapping analysis.The EST resource will increase the density of gene markers on the cassava genetic map.The whitefly (Aleurotrachelus socialis) is one of the most serious pests and disease vectors that affect agricultura! production around the world. In cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), the whitefly causes from 70 to 80 percent economic losses. The most important source of resistance genes is the genotype M Ecu 72. Dueto the whitefly's importance as a pest, it ís necessary to understand the nature of genes that confer resistance to the whitefly in genotypes such as M Ecu 72. For this purpose F1 segregation and the genetic expression of the cross M Ecu 72 (resistant genotype) x a very susceptible genotype (M Col 2246) and molecular markers are being used. This will help accelerate selection of whitefly-resistant materials, as well as isolate resistance genes (R genes). Genetic and molecular studies (Richter and Ronald, 2000) have shown that the R genes are clustered in the genome of several species. They display an apparent multiallelic structure, or they group as genetically separate loci. Different genes determining resistance to insects and nematodes have been reported within the same cluster in tomatoes (Rossi et al., 1998). R genes are thought to be functionally and evolutionary related. The sequences of several R-gene clusters from rice, tomatoes and lettuce have now shed light on the molecular mechanisms leading to their evolution. As suggested by Lefebvre and Chevre (1995), the genes goveming quantitative resistance could share homologies with the clone's R genes, making the candidate gene approach feasible for the study of possible association between resistance gene analogs (RGAs) and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling pest resistance. In this work M Ecu 72 and M Col 2246 were amplified with RGA primers designed by C. Lopez in cassava (pers. com.), to find putative loci related with whitefly resistance. An additional step toward a better understanding of the attack response of the whitefly to cassava was the establishment of a cDNA library, which was developed with a new, highly effective method known as differential subtraction chain (DSC). Using this approach, two mRNA populations, extracted from both resistant and susceptible genotypes, were exarnined to elucidate the differential gene expression between them.For this work an F1 cross (family CM 8996, 276 individuals) between M Ecu 72 (as the resistant parent) and M Col 2246 (as the susceptible parent), elite cassava cultivars from Ecuador and Colombia, respectively, was used. The parents and their offspring were evaluated in the field at two sites: Nataima (Tolima) and Santander de Quilichao (Cauca). The purpose of this evaluation was to identify gene segregation in the offspring and select the resistant and susceptible materials. Both parents were evaluated with 343 cassava SSRs (simple sequences repeat) (Mba et al., 2001) including 156 cDNA SSRs (Mba et al., submitted). AFLPs (Vos et al., 1995) are being used to find markers associated to resistance for mapping and ultimately cloning the resistant genes. Silver staining is being used to visualize the allelic segregation of the markers. Cassava RGA primers were done in the parentals, and the polymorphics were mapped in the Fl. For the isolation of expressed sequences, 21 forty-day-old plants were used, 7 of each genotype (M Ecu 72 and M Per 334 resistant and M Col 2246 susceptible). These plants were taken to the greenhouse, where they were infested with 300 whitefly adults per plant, for a population of 2100 whiteflies per cage. Leaves were collected at six different times for RNA extraction. For the differential subtraction chain (DSC), the follow strategy was used: Genotype M Ecu 72 was infested for use as the tester, while genotype M Col 2246 was used as the driver. At present the DSC technology is being performed according to Luo et al (1999). The representational difference analysis of cDNA was divided into severa! phases: Field evaluation. The field evaluation showed high pressure being exerted by the pest in Nataima, where test materials had high damage rates; however, sorne materia1s had lower Ievels of damage in the evaluations. We can conclude that these genotypes show a resistance level similar to parental M Ecu 72. AFLP analysis. An analysis was made of 128 combinations of primers with both parentals (M Ecu 72 and M Col 2246) and both bulks of 10 whitefly-resistant DNA and 10 susceptible DNA. We obtained 53 polymorphic combinations, in which there were 425 polymorphic bands between the resistant and the susceptible. All combinations were amplified in the Fl (Fig. 1).Mapping. Approximately 55 of the SSRs evaluated were polymorphics in the parentals and were evaluated in the F1 (286 individuals). To construct the linkage map, 103 SSRs were analyzed, of which 71 were anchored. A genetic linkage map of cassava was constructed with 71 SSR markers segregating from the heterozygous female parent (M Ecu 72) of an intraspecific cross. The map consists of 19 linkage groups, which represent the haploid genome of cassava. These linkage groups spanned 550.2 cM, and the average marker density was 1 per 7.9 cM. The position of the 71 SSRs markers is shown on the framework (LOD == 25, theta = 25) of the molecular genetic map of cassava (Fig. 2). Map distances are shown in Kosambi map units. Of these markers, 26 (shown in green, Fig. 2) had been placed previously on the cassava framework map (Fregene et al., 1997); the other 45 SSRs are new. Of the 71 SSRs, 31 were cDNA sequences (Mba, in prep.), while the others were genomic DNA.Association between molecular markers and resistance. The molecular data are being analyzed using QTL packages (QTL cartographer Q gene) to determine linkages between the SSR markers and phenotypic characterization. Preliminary analysis (X 2 at the 5% level) was done using SAS. Putative associations were found between 43 SSRs markers and the field phenotypic characterization (score 1.0 to 2.0 of the damage levels and populations). Differential subtraction: RNA extraction. RNA was isolated from young leaves of M Ecu 72 (E), M Per 334 (P) and M Col 2246 (M), colleted in the greenhouse. To isolate total RNA, the Rneasy Plant Mini Kit QIAGEW'-~ was used. Genomic DNA was removed prior to isolation of poly (At RNA with DNAse l . The SV Total Isolation System of Promegar\"\" was used. The generation of cDNA was done using poly A+ mRNA as the substrate, which was isolated using the protocol Oligotex mRNA Spin Column of QIAGEW'-~. Firststrand cDNA synthesis and cDNA amplification were done using SMART PCR cDNA Synthesis kit\" de Clontech™ (Fig. 4) The PCR products from the amplification of cDNA, were purified using QIAquick PCR Purification kit QIAGEWM. Then digestion ligation was done, where the cDNA was digested with Dpnll, and then adapters (Bami and Bamii) were ligated. Finally, the amplicon generation was done for the hybridization reactions of the subtraction. For \"tester'' M Ecu 72 (E), 150 ng was obtained; and for \"driver\" M Col 2246 (C), 15 J!g.• Saturation of linkage map of M Ecu 72, using AFLPs In order to identify differentially expressed sequences, a new technology known as DNA chips or rnicroarray can sean a significant number of clones. Microarray-expression profiling will be used to identify putative early response regulatory and/or signaling genes and to test the function of selected candidate genes using reverse genetics.Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is currently the fourth energetic food in the world after rice, \" maize, and wheat and feeds more than 1000 millions people. Cassava Bacteria! Blight (CBB) caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis p.v manihotis (Xam) is a destructive disease in the South America and Africa (Lozano, J.C. 1986) and yield losses range between 12 and 100%. The most suitable approach for controlling CBB is through host-plant resistance (Verdier, V. et al., 1998). Cytochemistry and biochemistry of plant defense responses to CBB have been studied (Kpémoua, K. et al., 1996). However, plant response to pathogen attack remains uncharacterized at the molecular and cellular level. In cassava, using the cDNA-AFLP technique Santaella et al., (2002) identified genes involved in the cassava-Xam interaction. Sequences were isolated and showed homologies with plant genes related with resistance genes, signal transduction pathway, disease and stress responses and senescence associated genes. At the moment high-troughput techniques, such as cDNA microarrays, provide a genome-wide description permiting the characterization of the expression profiling of thousands of genes in a single experiment.The objective of this research was to identify genes associated with cassava defense response to Xam combining subtractive library construction and cDNA microarrays.Plant material inoculation and cDNA synthesis. Young plants (4-week old plants) from two resistant varieties (MBRA 685 and SG 107-35) were inoculated by stem puncture with Xam strain CIO 151. Stem tissues were collected at 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours post inoculation (pi), and 7 days pi. The controls were healthy non-inoculated plants and plants inoculated with sterile water. mRNA was isolated usin.fi.t Oligotex mRNA Midi kit (QIAGEN, CA). cDNA was synthesized using SMART PCR cDNA synthesis kit (CLONTECH, CA) from 400-500 ng of mRNA as starting material.cDNA subtractive library. To identify differentially expressed genes during pathogen attack subtractive hybridization was performed, using the Differential Subtraction Chain method. A pool of cDN A obtained from inoculated plants was used as \"tes ter\" and a pool of cDNA obtained from healthy non-inoculated plants and plants inoculated with sterile water was used as \"driver\".cDNA Microarrays preparation. Cassava clones from subtractive libraries, cDNA-AFLP analysis (Santaella et al., unpublished results) and other clones were collected, amplified by PCR and printed on glass slides. The resulting microarray contained 3072 elements with each cDNA printed eight times as replicates. For control pourposes, a set of spot controls from tomato, potato and cassava housekeepings genes, human genes and spiked controls were arrayed.Fluorescent probe preparation and Hybridization. Total RNA was isolated using SV total RNA isolation system cPromega Corp.) cDNA was synthesized using SMART™ PCR cDNA synthesis kit (CLONTECH, CA). Fluorescent-labeled probes were prepared using Klenow labelling (for indirect labelling) and microarray hybridization were performed with cDNA pool from 24-48 pi. v.s cDNA from healthy plants, using two duplicate slides with reverse labeling (dye-swap).Data Analysis. Spot intensities from scanned slides were quantified using the ArrayPro 4.0. software. Background correction was realized, only signals that were higher than two standard deviation from local background were considered for further data analysis. Intensity-dependent norrnalization LOESS was performed and the differentially expressed genes were detected using SAM (Significance Analysis of Microarrays).Two different strategies were used to identify pathogen-induced defense genes, cDNA subtractive libraries and cDNA Microarrays. Using the subtractive libraries, 768 cDNA clones were isolated for each resistant variety. Of these, 110 randomly selected clones were sequenced and a homology search was conducted using the BLAST program. The sequence analysis showed that 16 cDNA clones shared homology with plant genes involved in defense responses (Table 1), 70 clones were either homologous to plant genes of unknown function or showed no homology, and the remaining 24 clones showed homology with other plant genes. A hypothetical model of gene expression changes that occur in cassava-Xam incompatible interaction was proposed (Figure 1). Ca 2 + signals. Specific signa! transduction pathways are activated. Calcium fluxes are an early event in signaling pathway and trigger plant defense responses. Previous studies revealed that the rapid accumulation of cytosolic Ca 2 + is necessary for the production of oxidative burst and PR genes activation (SUS06, SUS07). Clone SUS05 is homologous to a fungus-inducible Calmodulin Mlo family protein isolated recently from rice.  Oxidative Burst, PR genes and HR. During infection, cassava produce a biphasic or polyphasic oxidative burst that is regulated by proteins such as Catalase and NDPKs (SUS02, SUS03), these genes can inhibit Reactive Oxigen Intermediates (ROis) in specific time-points over infection, Clone SUS02 encodes a protein with significant homology (80% identity) to Ngcatl, a gene that was previously reported to be expressed following pathogen infection and salicylic acid treatment (Yi, SY. et al. 1999). Clone SUS03 shares a homology (68% identity) with AtNDPK2 that appears to play a regulatory role in ROismediated MAPK signaling over biotic and abiotic stresses (Moon, H. et al., 2003). PR and other defense-related gene expression are probably regulated by transcription factors, such as MYB and Zinc Finger Protein (SUS lO, SUSll). Ca 2 + signals, ROis and PR genes can activate the HR, thus Xam may be confined to dead cells. This local response could trigger nonspecific resistance throughout plant (SAR).Other defense responses. Associated with oxidative burst, HR and SAR, a number of other active defense responses are activated. These responses are also effective against Xam. A clone homologous to a brassinosteroid-regulated gene Xyloglucan Endotransglycosylase (XET)(SUS09) was reported. Brassinosteroids (BRs) were found to induce disease resistance in plants. BRs increase the abundance of mRNA transcripts for wall-modifying proteins such as XET that incorporate new xyloglucan into the growing cell wall. The pathogen spread is then hindered by physical strengthening of cell walls. Translation inhibition and protein degradation appear to play a role in cassava defense response, SUS12, SUS13, SUS14 and SUS15 genes activity may be coupled to HR development.Clones homologous to genes involved in glycolisis, vesicular transport (data not showed) and traffic protein (SUS16) were also identified. In addition, clone SUS08 encodes a protein with homology to an ankyrin from Arabidopsis. Ankyrin repeats are involved in the protein-protein interaction and have been implicated to function in sorne defense signaling pathways such as Arabidopsis NPRI.cDNA Microarrays. cDNA Microarray enriched for genes involved in the cassava defense responses was constructed and hybridized toa cDNA pool from 24-48 pi. v.s cDNA from healthy plants. Data analysis revealed that sorne clones showed significant differential expression in response to pathogen attack (Figure 2). For up-regulated clones, the difference between experimental and control expression levels were up to 11-fold. These results indicate that sorne gene transcripts were induced between 24-48 hours after inoculation. lt would be interesting to evaluate the microarray with other different time points throughout the infection. Severa! differentially expressed genes revealed by the microarray such as Glutaredoxin (SUS04), Lipid Transfer Protein PR gene (SUS06), Zinc-Finger Protein transcription factor (SUSlO) Dormancy-associated protein (DOR) and Ubiquitin (SUS13) are associated with oxidative burst, defense signaling regulation and protein degradation in the plant-pathogen interactions. Other differentially expressed clones were homologous to Arabidopsis genes of unknown function (Ath) or showed no homology with sequences in the databases (NH), representing a new source of genes potentially involved in cassava defehse responses.Functional genomic tools such as subtractive libraries and microarrays permitted to give a comprehensive overview of the molecular basis of the cassava defense response to the bacteria! blight pathogen. Many defense signal transduction pathways lead to responses like oxidative burst, cell wall modification, protein inhibition, protein degradation, metabolic changes and subsequent HR and SAR induction. The determination of genes that are up and down regulated at different times after the inoculation can help in understanding the defense mechanism of cassava to different pathogens.Confmn the differential expression of the characterized clones by Real-Time PCR analysis. Genetic resources, mostly held by small farmers representa critical resource for the future productivity and stability of production of the crop. How to evaluate and use in a systematic manner the vast amount of variability present in cassava is still a challenge to most cassava breeding programs. Genotyping micro-array technologies offer the highest throughput available up to date. One of them diversity array technology, DArT ™ (CAMBIA), is sequence-independent (low-input) and allows the fingerprint of an individual's genome based on a high number of polymorphic sites spread over the genome. These screening procedures should allow testing of thousands of individual samples in a speedy manner. We describe here a proof of concept on using the DArT tool as a costeffective way for measuring and characterizing genetic diversity of cassava germplasm.The project was initiated in early October 2002, with the shipment of cassava DNA samples from CIA T to CAMBIA. Plant materials used for the generation of the DArT chip was chosen to represent a broad as possible diversity of the cultivar, a few genotype of its wild progenitors and 2 wild species were included to capture a large number of polymorphic fragments. They include 14 accessions from Brazil, 14 from Colombia, 4 from Guatemala, 2 each from Nigeria, Cuba, and Ecuador, Peru and Thailand respectively.Others include, one accession each from Argentina, Bolivia, Costa rica, Fiji islands, Indonesia, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela, and USA. Six and 2 improved varleties were included from CIAT and liTA respectively. The wild species accessions were 29 of Manihot esculenta sub spp Flabellifolia, 7 of M. carthaginensis and 1 of M. walkerae. DNA isolation was according to Dellaporta et al. (1983) followed by two washes of phenollchloroform.A critical step in DArT is the complexity reduction step. Work at CA?vfBIA with several other plant genomes has shown that digestion with Pstl restriction enzyme (RE) in combination with more frequently cutting RE is an efficient method to reduce complexity.A preliminary experiment was therefore conducted to determine the best enzyme combinations, mixture of genomic DNA from twenty cassava genotypes was digested with Pstl, ligated to adapters and further digested with severa} frequently cutting RE (BstNI, Apol, Taql and Banll), followed by amplification with an adapter-specific primer. The cassava genomic Pstl fragments lacking the recognition site for the frequent cutting RE (BstNI, Apol and Taql) were individualized by transformation into E. coli, amplified from bacteria! colonies and micro-arrayed. From each of the librarles 760 clones were arrayed. Genomic representations prepared in the same way (RE digestion!ligation followed by amplification) from each of the twenty genotypes separately, were labelled with Cy3-dUTP and hybridized together with Cy5-dUTP-labelled reference DNA to these microarrays. Slide preparation, hybridizations, washes and scanning are as described by Andrzej et al. (2002). Images generated by the scanner were used to extract quantitative fluorescence signal data for each array feature using our proprietary software. Same software was used to binarlze the data (score as 0/1) for all slides. Binary scoring table was used to prepare the Hamming distance matrix and to obtain a dendogram. Líbrary expansion to obtain more polymorphic clones was carried out using the enzyme combinations Psti/BstNI, and Psti!Taql, and 80 DNA samples from CIAT. About 3000 clones were evaluated for polymorphism from the 2 librarles. The arrays were printed and DArT analysis carried out as described earlier. Among the three libraries /Psti!BstNI, Pstl/ Apol, and Psti!Taql) tested in the preliminary experimnt, Psti!BstNI gave the largest number of polymorphic clones (132), followed by Taql (112) and Apol (69). In total, 313 candidate polymorphic clones were obtained in the initial experiment to determine the best enzyme combination. DArT analysis based on 296 polymorphic clones without a single missing data point was used to generate a binary matrix and obtain a dendrogram, based on Hammings distance, representing genetic relationship between the 20 samples (Fig. 1).The libray expansion with 80 clones yielded 440 polymorphic clones (14.3%), for the Psti!Taql array, consistent with the results obtained with the initial, smaller array (14.6% polymorphic clones). A dendrogram based upon the analysis of the 80 cassava samples with the polymorphic clones is presented in Figure 2. In the Psti/BstNI array 554 polymorphic clones (18.0%) were identifid, also consistent with the polymorphism frequency in the smaller Psti!BstNI array in the first project phase (17.2%). The dendrogram resulting from this array is shown in Figure 3. There is a difference between the two dendrograms obtained with the Psti/BastNI and the Psti!faqi array, respectively. A thorough inspection of the data suggests that the BstNI array contains a higher proportion of clones derived from repetitive sequences than Psti!faqi array. Typing using repetitive sequences introduces a bias in genetic diversity analysis due to over-representation. The Psti!faqi array does not show a high proportion of clones with repeated sequences and can be used as a routine genotyping tool for genetic diversity analysis. Work is ongoing to analyze a larger sub set of accessions from the CIA T core collection with at least 800 polymorphic clonesThis feasibility project has resulted in the design and validation of a reliable complexity reduction method that is uncovering several hundred polymorphic DArT markers in cassava germplasm. Because DArT markers can be scored in parallel in a single analysis, a high throughput, cost-effective whole genome genotyping is now available for determining high-density genome profiles of cassava. As this study has demonstrated, the availability of such a method has the potential to improve dramatically the recognition, conservation and exploitation of cassava genetic diversity. This platform is now available for research on genetic diversity and genetic mapping studies in cassava. With current improvements of DArT's throughput and its cost reduction it is feasible to molecularly characterize very large germplasm collections within a reasonable period of time and cost.Potatoes are the fourth rnost important crop in the world after wheat, rice and maize (FAO, 1995). The annual potato production is about half that of all roots and tubers grown worldwide. Potatoes are consumed by more than a billion people in the world, including 500 mi Ilion from developing countries.There are about 500 potato species, which represent series frorn diploid to hexapod genomes. There are two principal centers of diversity: one in Mexico and the other in Peru, Bolivia and NW Argentina (Hanneman, 1995). Genetic diversity of potatoes includes 4000 cultivars, conserved and maintained at CIP (Centro Internacional de la Papa) in Peru.There are 200 wild species that have sorne traits of interest due to their resistance to diseases, pests and extreme environmental and stress conditions.Genetic resources are the foundation for generating new varieties and are a reservoir of genetic stability and adaptability. They are important to deal with environmental changes and pest attacks. To know about diversity is essential in order to preserve and use it for improving current cultívars. Diversity studies traditionally ernploy molecular markers based on gel platforms such as isozymes, SSR, RFLP and AFLP. These techniques are important because they have generated a lot of information, but they are linked to sorne problems such as being labor-intensive, the gel is expensive, not rnuch information results from each experiment, sometimes it is difficult to resolve bands on gels, and with sorne manufacturer's products, it is necessary to know the DNA sequences.DArT is a technology employing microarrays, capable of solving these problems. It is based on the generation of DNA segment arrays with unknown sequences (panels) of two or more genomic DNA individuals. These segments are hybridized with fluorescentlabeled DNA probes (representations) of two individuals that can be used to create the panel (Jaccoud et al., 2001). In our case panels were created with six potato genotypes including two individuals of a potato genome map. This technology has sorne applications such as tracking changes in DNA methylation, fingerprinting, diversity studies and elucidating complexes mixtures of DNA (Jaccoud et al., 2001).A total of 96 potato genotypes from the CIP potato gennplasm collection were collected, and DNA extracted. Six of them were used to make diversity panels.Generation of diversity panels.Total DNA (100 ng) of six potato genotypes was digested with 2 units of Pstl or Msel enzyme in separate reactions. Digestion products were ligated to their specific adapter and were PCR amplified. The amplification product was column purified, viewed in a 1% agarose gel and quantified. Then 400 ng DNA from the PCR of each genotype was mixed and 10.5 ng was bonded to pGEM T easy vector and used to transfonn competent Escherichia coli strain DH5oc by electroporation. The positively transfonned cells (white colonies) were transferred onto a freezing medium, where they grew at 37°C ovemight. The culture was PCR-amplified usingTI and Sp6 universal primers. The PCR products were dried using an incubator chamber at 50°C to obtain 2f.LL of the PCR total initial volume, which was re-suspended with 23f.LL of a 3X SSC, 1.5M betaine spotting buffer and used to spot microscope slides.Generation of representation. DNA (100 ng) of six genotypes used for building diversity panels was digested with Msel enzyme, bonded to its own adapter and PCR-amplified. The product was then column purified and labeled with Cy3 or Cy5 dyes using an Amersham Megaprime Labeling Kit, except for the enzyme. The enzyme used was Kleenow fragments, exonuclease-free, polymerase l. Five enzyme unites were employed for each labeling reaction.Hybridization. All Vanderbilt protocols were used to make panel hybridization which involves three steps: microarrays prehybridization, washing and hybridization. For the prehybridization a buffer containing 5X SSC, O, 1% SDS and 1% BSA was used to submerge microarrays for 45 min at 56°C. After washing, slídes were air dried for 30 min and hybridized in a Clontech hybridization chamber for 17 h at 42°C with a solution containing representations.Scanning and image analysis. Microarrays were scanned in a Virtek Chip Reader scanner, using a 2.0 version software. Images were analyzed using VersArray Analyzer version 4.5 for Windows (BIORAD), which is being demonstrated at CIA T.Net intensity spot values were nonnalized by using a loess regression that adjusts spot signal values according to their position on the slide and between signal channels. New signa! values were then analyzed, detecting sequences present in each potato genotype.Two genonúc libraries were constructed using 6 out of 96 potatoes genotypes. One of these was made using Msel digestion enzyme; the other with Pstl enzyme. Each library contained 768 clones.Ten panels for potato-Msei library were generated, including alllibrary clones and control potato clones from TIGR. Six of those panels were hybridized with representations generated with PCR, using primers without an additional selective nucleotide at the 3'end.No polymorphic clones were identified in the Msel panel using those representations.The other four panels were hybridized with representations generated with PCR using primers with an additional selective nucleotide, adenine or thynúne, and with a bulk of six different genotype representations generated with PCR using primers without an additional selective nucleotide. Those experiments are still in analysis.• Hybridize Msel panels with different genotypes representations obtained by using PCR primers with selective nucleotides• Evaluate Pstl library for polymorphic clones by hybridizing Pstl panels with different genotype representations• Hybridize all potato genotypes with panel of genonúc library with more polymorphismThe rapid postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD) of cassava roots is a major constraint that impacts negatively on the Iivelihoods of poor fanners, processors and consumers alike. Extending the shelf life of cassava to one or two weeks is perceived as a goal that would be beneficia!, particularly with respect to contributing to the sustainable livelihoods of small-scale rural farmers, as well as poverty alleviation.Genomics and bioinformatics tools are increasing our knowledge of plant genome structure, organization and gene function. Novel technologies such as expressed sequences tags (ESTs) and cDNA microarrays are proving rapid ways to identify genes and to link sequence information to biological function.The objective of this project is to identify the full set of major genes involved in the postharvest physiological deterioration by exploiting the powerful high-throughput analysis of cDNA microarrays. This will not only help understand the problem but also provide the tools (clones) that could serve as components of gene constructs to modulate PPD. This study is an important step in making this goal achievable, utilizing a cDNA library from different time points during the PPD process in cassava roots.Genomic library construction.A genomic library consists of a collection of clones that together encompass the entire genome of cassava. A genomic library cloned onto Lambda DASH II/Bamlll (Stratagene) has been made at Bath from cv. M Col 22. With a titer of 10 5 cfu/ml, the library is ready for screening with cDNA clones differentially expressed during a postharvest deterioration time course and subsequent isolation of corresponding genes including their regulatory elements (promoters).Microarray experiments with PPD-related cDNA libraries. A total of 7680 clones from the early library (0, 6 and 12 h after harvest) and 3072 clones from the late library (24, 48 and 96 h after harvest) were processed. Slide spotting for the microarray experiments was carried out using the Hitachi SPBIO 1.55 system available at CIAT with PL-lOOC-Poly L lysine slides (CEL Associates). To have slides containing 4 technical replicates of each spot and containing 4 replicates of a control plate containing control genes and target spike genes, the early library was distributed onto 5 slides and the late library onto 2 slides. The total number of slides used in each hybridization was 7 (early slides 1-5, late slides 1-2) as shown in Table l. The probes used were cONA probes prepared from RNA extracted at different time points from cassava roots of CM 2177-2, the same cultivar used to make the spotted cONA library. For all experiments the earliest time point was labeled with Cy3 and the latest with Cy5; thus upregulated genes appear red. The spike genes used were TIGR El-ES (Cy 3 + Cy 5, should appear yellow); TIGR E6+E7 (Cy3 only, should appear green); TIGR E8+E9 (Cy5 only, should appear red).Scanning was carried out using the VersArray Chipreader (Biorad) available at CIA T. Initial analysis of all these hybridizations was carried out at Bath University, using ArrayVision software. Both normalized and raw data files were saved (126 analysis files). Subsequent processing of these analysis files is in progress using Cluster and Treeview software and has been completed for the early slide 1 time-course experiments (shown in gray in Table 1). Table 2 shows a partiallist with 18 of 165 upregulated genes of interest identified to date. An initial example of hierarchical cluster analysis of these genes is shown in Figure l.Recomrnendations and future work• Analysis has now been completed, and clones of interest transferred to Bath for sequencing analysis.• Given the number of clones of interest, it would be very labor intensive to confirm expression profiles by Northems for this number of candidate genes. Thus it would be advisable to repeat the hybridization experiments at CIA T so that the microarray data could \"stand alone\" as expression data in any publications/presentations. • Other microarray experiments to identify genes with specific tissue activity could be carried out using different plant tissues as the source for RNA isolation.  Genetic resources, mostly held by small farmers represent a critica! resource for the future productivity and stability of production of the crop. How to evaluate and use in a systematic manner the vast amount of variability present in cassava is still a challenge to most cassava breeding programs. Genotyping rnicro-array technologies offer the highest throughput available up to date. One of them diversity array technology, DArT ™ (CAMBIA), is sequence-independent (low-input) and allows the fingerprint of an individual's genome based on a high number of polyrnorphic sites spread over the genome. These screening procedures should allow testing of thousands of individual samples in a speedy manner. We describe here a proof of concept on using the DArT tool as a costeffective way for measuring and characterizing genetic diversity of cassava germplasm.The project was initiated in early October 2002, with the shipment of cassava DNA samples from CIA T to CAMBIA. Plant materials used for the generation of the DArT chip was chosen to represent a broad as possible diversity of the cultivar, a few genotype of its wild progenitors and 2 wild species were included to capture a Iarge number of polymorphic fragments. They include 14 accessions from Brazil, 14 from Colombia, 4 from Guatemala, 2 each from Nigeria, Cuba, and Ecuador, Peru and Thailand respectively. Others include, one accession each from Argentina, Bolivia, Costa rica, Fiji islands, Indonesia, Mexico, Panama, Venezuela, and USA. Six and 2 improved varieties were included from CIAT and liTA respectively. The wild species accessions were 29 of Manihot esculenta sub spp Flabellifolia, 7 of M. carthaginensis and 1 of M. walkerae. DNA isolation was according to Dellaporta et al. (1983) followed by two washes of phenoVchloroform.A critica! step in DArT is the complexity reduction step. Work at CAMBIA with severa! other plant genomes has shown that digestion with Pstl restriction enzyrne (RE) in combination with more frequently cutting RE is an efficient method to reduce complexity. A prelirninary experiment was therefore conducted to determine the best enzyme combinations, mixture of genornic DNA from twenty cassava genotypes was digested with Pstl, ligated to adapters and further digested with several frequently cutting RE (BstNI, Apol, Taql and Banii), followed by amplification with an adapter-specific primer. The cassava genomic Pstl fragments lacking the recognition site for the frequent cutting RE (BstNI, Apol and Taqn were individualized by transformation into E. coli, amplified from bacteria! colonies and micro-arrayed. From each of the libraries 760 clones were arrayed. Genomic representations prepared in the same way (RE digestionlligation followed by amplification) from each of the twenty genotypes separately, were labelled with Cy3-dUTP and hybridized together with CyS-dUTP-labelled reference DNA to these microarrays. Slide preparation, hybridizations, washes and scanning are as described by Andrzej et al. (2002). lmages generated by the scanner were used to extract quantitative fluorescence signal data for each array feature using our proprietary software. S ame software was used to binarize the data (score as 0/1) for all slides. Binary scoring table was used to prepare the Hamming distance matrix and to obtain a dendogram. Library expansion to obtain more polymorphic clones was carried out using the enzyme combinations Pstl!BstNI, and Pstlffaql, and 80 DNA samples from CIAT. About 3000 clones were evaluated for polymorphism from the 2libraries. The arrays were printed and DArT analysis carried out as described earlier. Among the three libraries /Pstl!BstNI, Pstl/ A poi, and Psti!I'aqn tested in the preliminary experimnt, Pstl/BstNI gave the largest number of polymorphlc clones (132), followed by Taql (112) and Apol (69). In total, 313 candidate polymorphic clones were obtained in the initial experiment to determine the best enzyme combination. DArT analysis based on 296 polymorphic clones without a single missing data point was used to generate a binary matrix and obtain a dendrogram, based on Hammings distance, representing genetic relationship between the 20 samples (Fig. 1).The libray expansion with 80 clones yielded 440 polymorphic clones (14.3%), for the Psti!faql array, consistent with the results obtained with the initial, smaller array (14.6% polymorphic clones). A dendrogram based upon the analysis of the 80 cassava samples with the polymorphic clones is presented in Figure 2. In the Psti/BstNI array 554 polymorphic clones (18.0%) were identifid, also consistent with the polymorphism frequency in the smaller Psti/BstNI array in the first project phase (17.2%). The dendrogram resulting from this array is shown in Figure 3.Figure 3. Genetic relationshlps among the cassava accessions used to identify polymorphic clones (markers) in the Pstl/BstNI array. The dendrogram was created using the distance table based on 554 polymorphisms and the UPGMA clustering algorithm. Topology and branch lengths of this dendrogram are biased due to the presence of significant numbers of polymorphlc clones derived from repetitive sequences.There is a difference between the two dendrograms obtained with the Psti/BastNI and the Pstl!Taql array, respectively. A thorough inspection of the data suggests that the BstNI array contains a higher proportion of clones derived from repetitive sequences than Pstl!Taql array. Typing using repetitive sequences introduces a bias in genetic diversity analysis dueto over-representation. The Pstl!Taql array does not show a high proportion of clones with repeated sequences and can be used as a routine genotyping tool for genetic diversity analysis. Work is ongoing to analyze a larger sub set of accessions from the CIAT core collection with at least 800 polymorphic clonesThis feasibility project has resulted in the design and validation of a reliable complexity reduction method that is uncovering severa! hundred polymorphic DArT markers in cassava germplasm. Because DArT markers can be scored in parallel in a single analysis, a high throughput, cost-effective whole genome genotyping is now available for determining high-density genome profiles of cassava. As this study has demonstrated, the availability of such a method has the potential to improve dramatically the recognition, conservation and exploitation of cassava genetic diversity. This platform is now available for research on genetic diversity and genetic mapping studies in cassava. With current improvements of DArT's throughput and its cost reduction it is feasible to molecularly characterize very large germplasm collections within a reasonable period of time and cost.Previous work revealed that the SSR markers SSRY 28 and NS158 are the closest markers to the gene CMD2 that confers resistance to the cassava mosaic disease (CMD), and are located at distances of 9 and 3 cM respective! y (Akano et. al 2002;Zárate 2002, CIA T 2002). High resolution of the C:MD2 region of the genome was therefore initiated in this region. The experimental approach involves a search for recombinants between CMD2 and the above markers using a large full-sib population, followed by an analysis of the recombinants with thousands of readily assayed markers to identify additional markers more closely linked to the gene. This requires the use of severa! types of marker systems that can achieve whole genome screens with a reasonable leve! of effort. Molecular markers identified that are closest to gene CMD2 will be used to screen a BAC library for the construction of a BAC contig that transverses the region of CMD2 via successive steps of BAC end sequencing. mapping and more BAC library screening.The fine-mapping population was 1690 individuals from a cross between TME3, the source of C:MD2 and the improved variety TMS30572. The cross was evaluated in the 2002 growing season for CMD resistance in the field at liTA, Ibadan, under heavy natural pressure of the disease. DNA was isolated from the individuals of the cross, using the Dellaporta et al. (1983) .method, and diluted 10X in TE without quantification for molecular marker analysis was at CIAT. The population was evaluated with the 2 SSR markers according as described by Mba et al. 2001 and recombinants between the markers and CMD2 identified. DNA from 10 resistant recombinants and 10 susceptible recombinants were combined to form 2 bulks which were then evaluated with severa] markers system including AFLPs, ISTRs, RAPDs and SSRs in a modified bulk segregant analysis (BSA) method. (Michelmore et al. (1991). Evaluation with AFLP markers (Vos et al. 1995) was using a commercial ALFP (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Gaithersburg, MD) following the manufacturer's instructions.. All 64 possible combinations were used in the evaluation. For ISTRs (lnter Sequence Tagged Repeat), the method described by Rohde et al (1996) was used with all possible 64 combinations of the 8 F and 8 B universal retro-elements (retro-transposons) sequence primers. Evaluation with RAPD markers was using 768 commercial primers (Operon Technologies lnc, CA) anda modified Williams et al. (1990) protocol. PCR conditions were 1X PCR buffer, 2.5rnM of MgC1 2 , 0.4rnM of DNTPs, 0.8uM of each primer, l.OU of enzyme taq polymerase, and 50 ng/ul of DNA template in a of 2oül. The amplification ~rogram was an initial denaturation cycle at 94°C for 5min; 35 cycles of 94°C for 30s, 36 C for 1 min, 72°C for 1 min 30s; and a final extension cycle of 72°C for 5min. The amplified fragments were separated on 1.5% agarose gelsand visualized by staining with Ethidium Bromide and exarnination under UV light. A set of 146 newly developed SSR markers (CIAT 2002) were also used to evaluate the recombinant bulks using PCR and PAGE electrophoresis conditions described by Mba et al. (2001). Markers that were polymorphic in the recombinant bulks were then analyzed in individuals of the bulks. A polymorphic RAPD fragment in the individuals of the recombinant bulk was cloned into pGEMT -easy (Promega inc, Madison) and sent for sequencing at the University of Iowa sequencing facility. Primers were designed from the sequences and are being used as SCAR marker forMAS .The evaluation of the fine-mapping population with the SSR markers SSRY28 and NS158 allowed the identification 112 recombinant individuals. The evaluation of the resistant and susceptible recombinant bulks with AFLP, SSR, ISTR produced severa! candidate markers that were polymorphic in the bulks but the polymorphism was not consistent when individuals of the bulks were analyzed separately (opened bulks) . However, analysis with RAPD markers produced 2 polymorphic candidate markers, AC-15 and RME-1 that remained consistent in the individuals of the bulks (Fig 1). Evaluation of the two markers in the entire fine map progeny revealed that AC-15 is at least 2cM from CMD2, while RME-1 is less than 1cM from the gene.The polymorphic fragment in RME-1, a 800bp fragment was cloned into the pGEMT -easy and sequenced. Homology comparison between the sequence of the RAPD band and sequences in public database using BLAST (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) revealed the sequence is similar to the minor caspid protein of bacteriophage T3 suggesting that the fragment is single copy gene. This is being verified at the moment via southern hybridization to total cassava DNA. SCAR primers have been designed from the sequence for the use of the RAPD marker in MAS since it is closer than to the gene than NS 158, the closest marker to date to CtviD2. The abo ve result provides a molecular marker closely linked to CMD2 that can be used to screen a BAC library BAC of cassava for the construction of BAC contigs which is the next stage of the positional cloning of the CMD resistance gene. The wide-spread utility of the molecular genetic framework map of cassava published six years ago (Fregene et al., 1997) was delayed by the preponderance of the RFLP's markers used in constructing that map. Over the past 3 years, efforts have been geared to the development and genetic mapping of SSR markers to make markers on the cassava map more accessible to cassava researchers worldwide especially in the NARS of Africa, Asia, Latín America and the Caribbean. An initial effort led to the mapping of 77 markers (Mba  et al., 200, CIAT 2001), other efforts have led to mapping of 57 SSRs (Zarate 2002) and 45 SSRs from cDNA sequences (Garcia 2002). We describe here the screening of another 140 SSR markers, identified in BAC end sequences, in the parents of the mapping population (Niogeria-2 and CM2177-2) and a preliminary report of the mapping of 26 polymorphic markers.Primers were earlier designed from a total of 141 BAC end sequences found to contain SSR motifs (CIAT 2002). A Dellaporta et al., (1983,) modified protocol was used to extract DNA extraction from the parents and the progeny of the mapping population. DNA quantification was done using the Dyna Quant TM.200 Fluorometer. Hoefer Pharmacia Biotech. PCR amplifications were carried out in 25 J..Ll reactions containing 50 ng of DNA, buffer lX, 2 mM of MgCh, 0.2 mM of each d.NTPs , 0.2 mM of each primer and 0.25 U of Taq polymerase. The PCR profile was changed for sorne markers, a reduction of the annealing temperature, to achieve amplification. The products of amplification were electrophoresed on 6% polyacrylamide gels and visualized by silver staining. For the survey of the parents, the following samples were included: Nigeria-2, CM2177-2, Kl50, TME3, TMS30555, CMD resistant and susceptible bulks. SSR markers that showed polymorphism in the survey of the parents, i.e. having a unique allele in either or both parents of the mapping population, i.e. polymorphic, were used to screen the 150 progenies of the mapping population.A total of 35 polymorphic markers were found in the survey of the parents (Fig1). Of this 26 markers have been evaluated in the F 1 progeny (Fig 2). The level of is about 25% polymorphism and it is much lower than that found for SSR markers developed from an enriched library (60%) and that from a cDNA library (about 40%). The low level of polymorphism found here could be due to the source of the markers, BAC ends, or other unknown reasons.  A new set of 140 SSR markers identified from more than 2000 BAC end sequences of the white fly resistant variety MECU72 was evaluated in the parents of the mapping population and 35 polymorphic markers identified, of this 26 have been evaluated in the F1 pro gen y.Apomixis is a reproductive mode through seeds that contain an embryo produced without the fusion of the egg and sperm cells; therefore it allows the fixation of any genotype, regardless of its complexity, through seeds. Perpetuating improved hybrids in this way could result in potential socioeconomic benefits that would challenge those of the Oreen Revolution (Vielle-Calzada, 1996). Currently, the most accepted point of view is that apomixis and sexuality are closely interrelated development pathways, where the former can be considered a deregulation of the sexual process in both time and space (Tucker, 2003). Sexuality is the reproduction mode in the 460 or so angiosperm families. There are several types of apomixis, of which one or more are present in at least 33 of the angiosperm families. Apomixis has been found to be a derived anomaly of polyphyletic origin (Carman, 1997). If just one or a few alterations do indeed change a sexual development pathway to an apomictic one, then its polyphyletic origin could be understood from the standpoint of having arisen independently several times from different sexual ancestors (Spillane, 2001). Perhaps depending on the specific time and/or space deregulation presented, a particular type of apomixis appeared in each origin event.This project seeks to determine if there are different transcripts between apomictic and sexual plants; and if that is so, to typify them. Characterization of differences in the transcriptome of sexual and apornictic plants should give us insight into the mechanisms involved in the deregulation of the sexual reproductive developmental pathway, which end up transforming it in toan apomictic reproductive one.Using 13 plants from an interspecific Brachiaria hybrid population produced by the Tropical Pastures Program at CIAT, gene expression was compared among closely related apomictic and sexual genotypes in order to identify genes specific to the apomictic development.cDNA synthesis. Pistils are the organs containing the female gametophyte, where genes regulating the reproductive developmental pathway are assumed to be expressed. Pistils take around 18 days to develop, from their differentiation until they are ready for pollination at floret anthesis (Dusi, 1999). Obtaining clean pistils from Brachiaria plants is time consuming due to their small size and protected location within the floret; however it is worth the effort as the pistil accounts for only 0.001% of the floret's weight, which means that by extracting RNA only from pistils, one eliminates a large set of uninteresting transcripts.The 13 plants were classified as apomictic or sexual using the whole plant progeny test. About 300 pistils were dissected out of each plant, comprising the reproductive development from the 3rd to the 20th developmental day. cDNA was synthesized from mRNA fractions extracted from these pistils, from several individual plants (7 apomictic and 6 sexual plants), and two full-length cDNA librarles were constructed from the apomictic and sexual bulks as reported earlier (Cortes, 2002).Subtractive hybridization. Any phenotypic variation found between two biological samples is due in part to their transcriptome variation. Consequently, mRNA sequences found in greater abundance or found only in one of two mRNA fractions coming from different biological samples are particularly interesting to investigators as they could be responsible for their differences. If we are interested in understanding a particular biological condition such as stress responses or differentiation mechanisms, we must isolate those transcripts present only in that specific condition. Subtractive hybridization is a molecular method designed to isolate those target mRNA sequences. The biological sample that contains them is called the tester, and the biological sample that does not have the condition but is similar to the biological sample is called the driver. For instance, if we were studying the response to heat shocks, we would use heat-shocked plants as tester and non heat-shocked plants as driver. To identify differentially expressed genes between apomictic and sexual pístils, three different subtractive hybridization methods were used as each one has different advantages and disadvantages. The methods were subtractive suppression hybridization (SSH), mirror orientation selection (MOS) and differential subtraction chaín (DSC). In each method the apomictic and sexual cDNA bulks used to build the two fulllength cDNA libraries, were used both as tester and driver in arder to isolate the cDNA sequences found only in the apomictic cDNA bulk (forward subtraction) and those found only in the sexual cDNA bulk (backward subtraction). The subtracted cONA ultimately obtaíned with each method was used to construct subtractive libraries of 384 clones each.Microarrays. cONA microarrays are a group of DNA probes spotted on to a salid substrate, usually a microscope glass slide. There may be around 10,000 spots or slightly more per slide. Hybridization of the microarrays with two complex cDNA fractions, each one labeled with different fluorochromes, allows the researcher to monitor the relative leve! of expression of the 10,000 probes simultaneously between the two complex cDNA fractions, by comparing the intensity of the fluorescence emitted by the fluorochromes at each DNA spot. Subtractive hybridization methods are not absolutely efficient, and subtractive libraries do contaín clones that are not differentially expressed between the two biological samples. Hence, microarrays were used to identify those clones from the subtractive libraries that are indeed differentially expressed between apomictic and sexual plants. Six hybridizations were performed between apomictic and sexual cDNA fractions.One hybridization was performed between two apomictic cONA fractions obtaíned from different apomictic species, Brachiaria decumbens vs B. brizantha. This hybridization was used as negative control, assuming that those sequences that differ between these two species are not involved in apomixes, since both of them are apomictic species. The hybridizations were performed as follows (each arrow represents a hybridization; the two~ headed arrows show that a repetition of each hybridization was done swapping the fluorochrome used to label each cDNA fraction.): After hybridization, each rrúcroarray was scanned with VersArrayTM ChipReader to obtain a 16-bit ~ged image file (TIF) for each fluorochrome, which was analyzed using Versarray Analyzer Software. Normalization between the two images was necessary to make biologically valid comparisons, thus the Loess intensity-dependent normalization method was applied as proposed by Yang et al. (2002). The program SAM (significance analysis of rrúcroarrays) from Stanford University was used to deterrrúne which spots were differentially expressed in each hybridization, choosing those whose ratio between the intensity of the fluorochromes is different from 1, keeping the false discovery rate below 7%. Those clones found to be differentially expressed in at least one repetition of the six hybridizations between apomictic and sexual cDNA, and were not found differentially expressed in both repetitions of the hybridization between the apomictic cDNA fractions, are considered candidates responsible for the differences between apomictic and •sexual reproductive development.Subsequently, these differentially expressed clones were sequenced the ABI PRISMTM BigDyeTM Terminator Cycle Sequencing Ready Reaction Kit, with sorne modifications introduced by the CIA T Biotechnology lab, and the automated ABI PRISM 377 Sequencer (Perkin Elmer). Sequencing analysis software was used to obtain sequences, which were semi automatically cleaned (removal of ambiguous bases, adaptors and vector) using SequencherTM 4.1 . Cleaned sequences were compared against the All nonredundant GenBank CDS translations+PDB+SwissProt+PIR database, and against the GenBank nonmouse and nonhuman EST entries.Six subtractive cDNA librarles were obtained, doing a forward and reverse subtraction with three subtractive hybridization methos. Each one with 384 clones: l.Apomictíc cDNA minus sexual cDNA using SSH 2.Sexual cDNA minus apomictic cDNA using SSH 3.Apomictic cDNA minus sexual cDNA using MOS 4.Sexual cDNA minus apomictic cDNA using MOS 5.Apomictic cDNA minus sexual cDNA using DSC 6.Sexual cDNA minus apomictic cDNA using DSCThe subtractive libraries 1, 3 and 5 are enriched in fragments found only, or more abundant in the apomictic pistil cDNA bulk. Each one of them was obtained using one of the subtractive hybridization methods aforementioned: SSH, MOS and DSC. The other three subtractive librarles, 2, 4 and 6 are enriched in fragments found only, or more abundant in the sexual pistil cDNA bulk. Each one was also obtained using SSH, MOS and DSC.Thirty cDNA microarrays containing 10,752 spotted probes each were constructed. Every cDNA microarray contains 4 repetitions of the 2,304 clones from the 6 subtractive libraries, and sorne other control probe spots used to analyze the microarrays properly.Based on these analyses, 65 out of the 2,304 clones from the subtractive librarles were found to be more abundant in the apomictic cDNA fraction than in the sexual one in all six hybridizations performed between apomictic and sexual cDNA, and they were not found to be in different quantities among B. decumbens and B. brizantha cDNA, which are both apomictic species. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the 65 clones among the 6 subtractive librarles. No clone was found less abundant in the apomictic cDNA fraction than in the sexual cDNA in the 6 hybridizations performed.35.00 -r --------------------, Finding sorne clones at higher levels in the apomictic cDNA fraction and none at higher levels in the sexual one supports the hypothesis that apomixis is a deregulation of the sexual pathway, where this deregulation is controlled by the expression (and not lack of expression) of certain genes only in the female gametophytes with apomictic reproductive development.Finding clones at higher levels in the apomictic cDNA fraction from the subtractive library where the sexual cDNA was used as tester (i.e., apomictic cDNA was subtracted from the sexual cDNA fraction) is contradictory. A plausible explanation for this contradiction is that since apomictic plants are usually facultative apomictics (meaning they produce both apomictic and sexual seeds whereas sexual plants only produce sexual seeds), it is Iikely that the apomictic cDNA fraction contained sexual sequences in addition to the apomictic sequences. lf this is the case, when we take the apomictic cDNA fraction we are really taking apomictic and sexual sequences, and when we take the sexual cDNA we are taking only sexual sequences. Then, when we subtract the sexual cDNA fraction from the apomictic cDNA fraction, we end up with those sequences that belong only to the apomictic cDNA fraction. On the other hand, when we perform the subtractive hybridization backwards (i.e., subtracting the apomictic cDNA fraction from the sexual cONA fraction), what we are really doing is taking sexual sequences and subtracting from them both apomictic and sexual sequences. Therefore, this subtractive hybridization is inefficient, because most likely there are no sequences found in the sexual sequences and not found in the apomictic plus sexual sequences. For that reason, this subtractive hybridization leaves us with random clones. Sorne of these random clones are found only, or at higher levels in the apomictic cONA fraction according to the microarray analysis.Another explanation could be that there are indeed no clones found only, or at higher levels in the sexual cDNA, so this backward subtractive hybridization would also be inefficient, also leaving us with random clones, and sorne of those clones are found only, or at higher levels in the apomictic cONA fraction according to the microarray analysis. However, just as among those random clones, there are clones found more abundantly in the apomictic fraction, there should be clones found more abundantly in the sexual fraction, hence the fact of not having found any clones only or more abundantly in the sexual cDNA fraction according to the microarray analysis, supports the second explanation, that is that there are indeed no clones found only, or more abundantly in the sexual fraction.According to the microarray analysis, there are 65 clones differentially expressed between apomictic and sexual plants, all of them found at higher levels in the apomictic fraction; 47 clones have been sequenced so far. Earlier, 150 clones were sequenced to assess the redundancy and kind of sequences we had obtained in the subtractive libraries. Currently, we have 197 sequences, of which only about 12% are redundant, meaning there is a big possibility that sorne sequences from the subtractive libraries were not cloned.The comparison of the 47 sequences against the All nonredundant GenBank CDS translations+PDB+SwissProt+PIR database yielded either random hits or homologies with hypothetical, putative, unknown or known proteins, distributed as shown in Figure 2a. The sequences homologues to putative, hypothetical and known proteins are distributed among functional categories as shown in Figure 2b. As Figure 2a shows, most of the hits are wíth real proteins (light aquamarine), around 12% show random hits, and the other hits were with sequences that are classified as proteins based on prediction with suitable software or on homologies with known proteins or ESTs. Therefore we might have sorne new sequences, putting together those that had random hits and those that gave hits with unknown proteins.Looking at the sequences with hits, which tell us something about their function (Fig. 2b), we have sorne sequences that probably control the idenúty of cells, being them DNA or RNA binding proteins or transduction factors. We also have a big portion of unknown function proteins, and a big portion of energetic or other function proteins such as transport or proteosome proteins.Given that apomixis might be a deregulation of sexuality in space or time, these sequences which code for transcription, translation or transduction factors are very interesting, since they regulate the fate of cells. A more in-depth analysis of their functions is being carried on.• More fragments from the subtractive libraries should be cloned, as the redundancy found in the sequenced fragments is very low.• The 65 clones classified as more abundant in the apomictic cDNA fraction by the microarray analysis will be used to find the full-length mRNA in the full-length cDNA libraries constructed earlier.• The full-length cDNA libraries will be amplified with clones from pistils less than 3 days old.• A subtraction library and microarray analysis should be done with this new fulllength cDNA from pistils less than 3 days old.• A hundred and fifty clones that are different between the two apomictic species will be sequenced to gain basic knowledge about the evolutionary paths that are being taken by two closely related apomictic species.In the framework of its work plan for functional analysis of cereal genomes, the Génoplante consortium decided to construct a rice T -DNA insertional mutagenesis collection. Rice was chosen because of its small genome and because of all genomic resources available for this species (ESTs, genetic maps, complete sequence, etc.). The lines are produced in Cirad laboratories, and grown in Cirad and IRD greenhouses, in Montpellier, France. The present work carried out at CIA T as a collaboration with Génoplante consists in (i) a systematical phenotypic evaluation of the mutant collection, with production of an associated phenotypic database, and (ii) the multiplication of seeds for the entire collection, for later distribution to alllaboratories interested in rice functional genomics.A T-DNA mutant collection is a library of lines obtained from transformation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, using a specific construct called the T-DNA insert. If the T-DNA is inserted in a gene or its regulatory region, the insertion event results in alteration or di~ruption of the functionality of this gene, which can even be completely silenced. Each line contains one ore several insertions, resulting in the silencing of one of several genes in the line. Typically, dozens of thousands are produced. As the transformation events can be considered to be uniformly dispersed along the genome, one may expect that an important fraction of the genes contain an insertion.Additionally, the insertion sites can be individually characterized in sequencing the genomic region flanking the T-DNA insertion site. We then dispose of a Flanking Sequence Tags (FST) database. Hence, in the case of completely sequenced genomes like Arabidopsis or rice, the insertion(s) of each line can be placed on the annotated genome through sequence comparison and thus related to a specific gene or gene region.A T-DNA mutant collection is a powerful tool for discovering gene functions. Indeed, the disruption of a given gene or its promoter and/or transcription factors may result in alteration of the corresponding phenotype in relation to the wild phenotype. This phenotype can be observed at different levels -morphologic, developmental, physiologic, etc. As the entire collection gives access to genotypicphenotypic association at the whole genome level, the scientific studies based on such a material fall into the field of functional genomics.Basically, there are two main approaches for discovering gene functions using a such library:• the collection can be used for forward genetics screens through systematical evaluation of all available Tlm families for a given trait. The mutant lines showing phenotypic variation in comparison to the wild phenotype can then be later analyzed for their T-DNA inserts (location on the genome, annotation on the sequence containing the insert) and association between the observed phenotype and the affected gene may be possibly established.• the other approach is called reverse genetics. One desire to test hypotheses about candidate sequences suspected to have a role in the control of the trait under study.Reverse genetics screens allow identification of the mutant(s) disrupted in a given (gene) sequence based on (i) PCR based amplification product in 2D or 3D DNA pools, (ii) hybridization signals on flanking regions spotted on medium density filters or (iii) by homology search in the FST database, supposing that the entire collection has been sequenced at least for one of the two flanking regions of each T -DNA insert. The identified mutants can then be screened for the targeted trait to evidence genotypicphenotypic associations. The main advantage of the reverse genetics approach is that it saves large-scale phenotypic screenings. lt is specially interesting for time-consuming and/or high-cost phenotypic screenings.The collection is based on the cultivar Nipponbare (Oryza sativa L. ssp. Japonica), because (i) it is relatively easily transformed, and (ii) its genome was used as matrix for the rice genome sequencing project.The lines are generated through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation through an efficient protocol (Sallaud et al., 2003). The objective is to ensure a primary coverage of the rice genome with enhancer trap T-DNA insertion sites (n = 40,000 lines). Individual and parallel characterization of insertion sites by systematic sequencing of the genomic region flanking the left border of the T-DNA is carried out. Later, the enhancer trap T-DNA will be equipped with a non autonomous Ds element which can be further mobilized in trans for creating mutants alleles in genes in the vicinity of T-DNA insertion sites. The lines are also be individual! y characterized by GUS assays.All production and phenotypic (including GUS assays) data will be gathered from the different Génoplante partners (including the present work) using automated entry in a phenotype database software. A sequence database software will integrate finished flanking sequence data, survey against known DNA sequences as well as a functionally oriented representation of their location in the rice genome. All these data will be integrated in the future public database Oryza Tag Line.General features of T-DNA integration in this collection include (i) 1 to 4 copies were integrated at 1 to 2 loci, (ii) we observed 30-40% of single-copy transformation events (TE), (iii) the T-DNA segregated according toa 3:1 ratio in 95% of single copy TE, as well as 50% of multiple copy TE, (iv) a preferential integration in the gene-rich fraction of the genome was observed.Here, we present one of the several projects carried out on the Génoplante rice mutant collection. In its first phase, it consisted the following main activities:• to carry out screenhouse and field phenotyping of a first set of 5,000 lines,• to produce a mutant phenotypic database,• to produce T2 entire panicles for further detailed analyzes of grain filling,• to multiply T2 seeds to constitute a rice T-DNA mutant stock center for future distribution and collaboration with partners.Screenhouse. Five thousand TO plants were produced at Cirad and grown in Cirad and IRD glasshouses in Montpellier, France. Twenty-five T1 seeds per TO plant were received at CIA T and were sawn in a screenhouse. Sawing was carried out in four batches of 1,250 lines, with about three weeks delay between two batches. Seeds were pre-treated by heat for three days at 50 oc to brake dormancy.The nurseries were realized in plastic trays with a mixture of CIAT (67 %) and Santander de Quilichao (33 %) soils.Germination was counted at ten days after sawing (DAS). The first phenotypic observations were carried out at 18-20 DAS, with counting of the number of individuals presenting the mutant phenotype. A list of possible phenotypic traits was established from data mmmg of several rice phenotypic databases (www.gramene.org, www.grs.nig.ac.jp/rice/oryzabase, www.irri.org/genomics), and was used as a guide for observations. An English-Spanish-French lexical of botanical and agronomic terms was established to facilitate phenotype identification.Field. A 2 hectares field was set up following the requirements of the ICA (Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario). In particular, the en tire field was covered by nets to avoid damage and seed dissemination by birds.Plantlets were transplanted at 25 DAS. A basic fertilization was applied, composed of Mono-Ammonium Phosphate, Iron Sulfate, Potassium Chloride and micro-elements. Irrigation was applied two times a week.Controllines ofNipponbare cv. were planted each 10 T-DNA lines in order to facilitate the comparison with wild phenotype. Phenotypic analyses were carried out at different ages, using the list of possible traits as a guide. A first round of observation was run on approximately 45 days-old plants. A second round was run at flowering time, while the ultimate observation was done at maturity. This permitted to maximize the chances to detect phenotypic variations, as various traits could be observed at one of these stages only. Moreover, this permitted to follow the evolution of a suspected phenotype at early stage and possibly confirm or invalidate it.Harvest and storage conditions. Harvest was organized as followed:-Three panicles per plant of each line were collected. This material is to be sent to Biogemma, a private partner of the Génoplante consortium. Biogemma will conduct phenotypic analyses on this material in the framework of a project on functional genomics of grain filling . Seeds from these panicles will later be sent to Cirad to constitute the main mutant stock center.-The seeds from three to six panicles -depending on the level of sterility-were collected from each plant of each line. This will constitute the replicate of the mutant stock center hosted by CIAT.-When possible, for each line showing a mutant phenotype, all remaining panicles from one plant with the phenotype were collected in order to facilitate segregation studies based on wild x mutant crosses.Legal aspects. All issues relative to legal aspects, i.e. importation permit, quarantine and authorization for field tri al of transgenic plants were fixed.Gennination rates. Germination rate of controls (Nipponbare cv.) was close to 100 %. For T-DNA lines, the mean germination rate was around 61 %. A trial without heat treatment showed a mean germination rate of about 35% (Figure 1).Growth. Rice plants generally grown normally. The Nipponbare variety showed a normal phenotype, however, due to short-days conditions inducing a short cycle, plants showed slight reduction in height and tillering than under long-days conditions.Cycle. Nipponbare is a photosensitive cultivar. Thus, under short-days conditions (about twelve hours of daylight per day at Cali), its cycle is reduced in length. At 60 DAS, 50 % of the p1ants had flower, while the 90% of flowered plants was attained at 64 DAS. The complete cycle of Nipponbare (sawing to maturation) under our conditions was around 93 days.Diseases. Plant health was generally very good and close to optimum. Only very localized attacks of Hydrelia and Hoja Blanca Virus were observed. Also, zinc deficiency symptoms were observed in various locations of the field. Mutant phenotypes. In the screenhouse, about 18% of the lines showed phenotype variation in comparison to the wild type. This is much more than currently observed in other mutant collections, where about 3 to 5 % of mutants are identified by visual phenotypic screening. T -DNA insertion is probably not responsible for all the variation observed. Indeed, it is well known that other sources of mutation like the Tos 17 retrotransposon are positively activated by in vitro culture of rice. Moreover, discrepancies in germination dates and seed quality, mainly due to the growth conditions of the TO plants, may be responsible for apparent mutations, notably Growth-Retardate (GR), Tillering, Height. Also, redundancy of phenotypes was frequently observed between two or more lines. We think that, for lines showing close serial numbers, this could result from the same transformation event. It will be necessary to verify if those lines proceed from the same callus, thus bearing the same transformation event.The rate of lines which showed any type of mutant phenotype was 18 %, which should be, as in the screenhouse and for the same reasons, an upper bound. Also, we chose to include even doubtful data as it is preferable to eliminate false-positive data after more detailed analyses for a specific trait than to miss real data. As it is impossible to describe all the data here in details, we chose to present only a few examples.• Numerous lines showed chlorotic or albino plantlets, with associated deficiency in leaf development (Figure 2a, b). General abnormal development was also frequently observed (Figure 2c, d).The most common phenotype included severa! types of dwarfism more or less pronounced (Figure 3a). Sorne lines also showed a mutation for increased size. Figure 3b shows an example combined with awn spikelets. Several lines showed reduced or increased tillering. Notably, a phenotype with very high tillering was observed for severallines (Figure 4b). The Growth-Retardate phenotype was frequent, with associated reduced tillering and height, and late flowering (Figure 4b).A local database of all data relative to growth conditions, germination, flowering, and phenotypic observations was set up. This database is used as a working tool to facilitate data entering and compilation. It also can be used for data browsing as it permit to display information by mutant bar code number or CIA T number. This database also displays photos of the mutants (Figure 5).From this database, a flat datafile will be extracted in order to fill the Génoplante database which will be later made publicly available.The overall process of seed multiplication and phenotypic analysis worked very well. The timetable was respected, and valuable phenotypic data were produced. This first trial should constitute a good basis for conducting a larger project. The molecular basis of plant defense responses to insects is a challenging area whose understanding should make feasible the use of natural immunity in economically important plants. Although molecular biology has recently been incorporated in the exploration of these defense mechanisms, it has been mainly lirnited to studying the interaction between dicotyledonous plants and herbivorous chewing insects. Herein we focus in the defense responses of a monocot that exhibits resistance to a xylem-sucking insect, an interaction that is poorly understood at the molecular level given the peculiarity of this feeding habitat.One of the possible approaches to get closer to such a system without previous molecular data is the characterization of transcriptional changes during the plant response to the insect attack.In this work we show the isolation of differentially expressed sequences in the resistant Brachiaria hybrid CIA T 36062 when challenged with Aeneolamia varia nymphs. This was achieved by a subtractive hybridization technique and a rigorous sequence analysis to identify putative functions of the isolated transcripts. Sequencing analysis of -240 clones from the subtractive library revealed that they corresponded to 74 unique expressed genes. Putative functions were assigned to 41 transcripts through sequence sirnilarity searches and the predicted proteins were classified in eight functional groups. These include three biosynthetic pathways of important plant signaling hormones, cell signaling, transcriptional regulation, cell wall modification and the homeostasis of the plant during the water stress caused by the insect. Finally, we found two putative effector proteins that may be con tribute to the antibiotic action of the resistant plants on the insect.The subtractive hybridization was performed as described in the 2002 Annual Report, where we also showed the results of two 96-well pilot libraries (Annual Report, 2002). Consecutively, we decided to construct two additional libraries of 384 wells in order to expand the coverage of the subtractive product and to avoid the RNA ribosomal artifacts. Four bands corresponding to rRNA generated in the cDNA synthesis were identified by size when the product of the subtraction was run in an acrylarnide gel. The rest of the smear observed in this gel was excised and cloned to create the new libraries.Sirnilarity searches were performed in the GenBank using the BLASTX algorithm. The matching sequences were searched in annotated databases such as T AIR (The Arabidopsis Research Institute), GRAMENE, SWISS-PROT, and ENZYME in arder to detennine their putative functions. More specific information was obtained in secondary databases as InterPro (lntegrated Resource of Protein Families), Pfarn (Protein Families Database), PRINTS (Protein Motif Fingerprint Database), AraCyc (AraCyc: Arabidopsis thaliana Biochemical Pathways), and CDD (Conserved Domain Database, at NCBI). In these databases we found functiona1 information such as precise biochemical roles, metabolic pathways and redundant proteins (other proteins with the same function). Furthermore, we found structural information such as protein motifs and domains contained in the predicted Brachiaria proteins. Finally, in sorne cases we performed two pair alignments of arnino acid sequences using the pair BLAST algorithm to confirm the structural relationship between elements isolated from Brachiaria and the proteins previously reported in resistance studies in other species.A macroarray experiment was carried out in arder to test the differential expression of the isolated transcripts. The clones of the four libraries were arrayed using a 384-well pin replicator on duplicated nylon membranes and grown on LB-agar medium ovemight. The bacterial colonies were denaturalized and the free DNA was UV-crosslinked. These filters were hybridized with radioactivity labeled cDNA from infested plants and from noninfested plants and exposed to autoradiograph films.The cloning strategy to avoid rRNA sequences in the new libraries -which have been partially screened at this point-was successful since the proportion of these artifacts decreased from 40% to 5%. Bringing back together the results of last year's pilot libraries, a total of 240 clones yielded readable sequences, which corresponded to 74 unique transcripts. No match was found for 26 (35%) of them in the GenBank; these may constitute a reservoir of new genes, absents in model species. Seven more sequences were not considered further (e-values over 10•\\ Eighteen out of the remaining 41 sequences are similar to genes that have been shown to be part of defense responses in other plant-insect or plant-pathogen interactions (see Table ). These sequences can be divided in six main groups according to their presumed roles in defense (see Figure ) Hormone Biosynthesis Pathways. The first group contains sequences coding for putative enzymes that catalyze important steps in the biosynthesis of oxylipins, brassinosteroids and ethylene.Oxylipins are the most important hormones in the systemic response to wounding and insects. Plants deprived of Phospholipase (Tumer et aL, 2002), Fatty acid desaturase (Martin et al. , 1999) and Lypoxigenase (Bell et al., 1995) are notable to produce Jasmonic Acid (JA) and are incompetent to activate defense mechanisms such as proteinase inhibitors, defensins and thionins.Brassinosteroids have been mainly studied in cell division and plant development but recently they were assigned a role as systemic defense hormones in responses to virus, bacteria and fungi in both dicots and monocots (Nak.ashita et al., 2003).Although the role of Ethylene is widely recognized in plant-pathogen interactions, its effects can differ in different situations. The emission of ethylene has been proved as a mechanism of communication between organisms that attracts natural enemies of herbivores and causes unwounded leaves to initiate ethylene biosynthesis as a positive feedback loop (Arimura et al., 2002)  Cell signaling. The presence of a putative CIP kinase can be explained by two different processes: a) this protein may interact with CBL, a plant calcium sensor, in the signaling cascade activated under a spittlebug attack. Ca+ signaling in responses to wounding and pathogens has been well documented. b) CIP kinases contain a SNFl domain, suggesting a possible role in gene regulation controlled by cytoplasmic carbohydrate concentration (sugar sensing), an activity that may be related with the rapid change in metabolism that should occur to supply the energy requirements of the defense responses (Rolland et al., 2002).Transcriptional Regulation. SCARECROW is a transcription factor that is rapidly induced upon perception of the elicitor N-acetylchitooligosaccharide. Moreover, its mRNA is induced in rice upon fungal infection but not in the presence of bacteria! pathogens (Da y et al., 2003). Both evidences suggest that this. transcription factor may be involved in responses to enemies that contain chitin, which could be a way to regulate defenses against a broad but specific range of organisms (fungi and arthropods). Lateral effects (water stress). The ornithine carbamoyltransferase parttctpates in the synthesis of citrulline, a precursor amino acid of arginine. Sorne plants accumulate citrulline under water stress in order to increase the concentration of compatible solutes (those that do not alter the electrostatic equilibrium and thus do not disrupt the catalytic properties of enzymes). In this way, the plant enhances its capacity to absorb water decreasing its hydric potential. The production of citrulline in Brachiaria in its interactíon with the spittlebug may be dueto the dramatic alteration of the hydric state caused by this suck:ing insect on the xylem vessels.Defensive barriers. Transcripts for 3 putative enzymes implicated in lignin biosynthesis and cell wall modification were detected in this study. This phenomenon is frequently found in response to pathogens to confine them to the site of infection and avoid their dispersion (Y e et al., 2001), an action whose importance in the defense against an insect seem less obvious. The expression pattems of these elements agree with previous evidences because they have shown to be induced by wounding, ethylene and brassinosteroids.Effector mechanisms. Finally, we found two sequences that encode putative proteins that may participate more directly in the reduced survival of the insect in resistant varieties ( antibiosis ):A metalloprotease with a domain similar to that of proteases involved in the activation of defensins (Liu et al., 2001), this, in tum, may have been previously induced by the oxylipins.A cysteine protease highly homologous to one in maize that induces the disruption of the peritrophic matrix in the gut of a caterpillar. Maize callus transformed with the gene encoding this protein reduce growth of the insect as the resistant plant does. The effect of the cysteine proteinase is probably the perforation of the digestive tube (Pechan et al., 2002), demonstrated by electron microscopy, an event that decreases nutrient absorption and facilitates invasion by pathogens.The macroarray experiment in order to confirm the differential expression of the transcripts isolated shows a percentage of 5% of false negatives. Consistently the putative functions of these non-differential sequences were unrelated with defense mechanisms, therefore they have not been taken in to account for the discussion.Our results shed the first lights on the molecular mechanisms that determine resistance of a monocotyledonous plant to a xylem-suck:ing insect. New and exciting experiments may be . designed to complement our findings and to test the assumptions that transcript sequence information has provided. In the short-term these are our goals:Exogenous applications of jasmonic acid and brassinolide hormone to susceptible varieties in order to determine phenotypic changes in defense capacities Real Time PCR amplification to quantify expression of these transcripts between plants infested by different spittlebug species in order to detect common central defense mechanisms.Use of Virus Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) to evaluate the function in defense responses of the differentially expressed genes.A new subtractive hybridization to detect constitutive mechanisms of resistance by comparing gene expression of susceptible and resistant plants both exposed to the insect. A more subtle infestation method will be used and the experiment will span the first 24 hours post -infestation.There is a pronounced difference in aluminum (Al) resistance between B. decumbens and B. ruziziensis (Wenzl et al.. 2001). Previous results demonstrated that this difference is not restricted to Al 3 + ions but is also observed for trivalent lanthanide ions (see IP-5 Annual Report. 2002). We hypothesized that a less negative (or even positive) surface charge of root apices of B. decumbens compared to those of B. ruziziensis could be the underlying physiological mechanism.Seeds of B. decumbens and B. ruziziensis were germinated in 200 OM CaCh (pH 4.2) for 4 -5 days. Homogeneous seedlings. with root lengths between 2 and 3 cm. were transferred to continuously aerated solutions containing 200 OM CaC1 2 (pH 4.2) and various concentrations of different cationic or anionic toxicants. The seedlings were left to grow in the glasshouse for 3 days. At harvest, root lengths were measured and root elongation was calculated by subtracting the root length at transfer. Relative root elongation (RRE) values were computed by referencing root elongation values against root elongation in the toxicant-free reference treatment.Figure A lower negative surface charge density, however, should also malee B. decumbens more sensitive to anionic toxicants than B. ruziziensis. The right panel of Figure 1, however, does not appear to confirm this prediction because the data points do not cluster above the diagonal. Results from a greater variety of anionic toxicants are required; yet these data do not appear to be consistent with the idea that Al resistance of B. decumbens is due to reduced electrostatic attraction of Al ions to the surface of root apices. Instead they appear to point to a mechanism that may be based on binding to cellular ligand(s). Work is in progress to further characterize this generic cation-resistance mechanism.M.E. Buitrago\\ M.E. RecioLast year we confirmed that a B. ruziziensis x B. decumbens hybrid population segregates for two physiological components that are important for growth in infertile acid soil: root growth vigor and Al resistance. We therefore continued to evaluate most of the 274 hybrids. The cumulative data from ten harvests are now ready to be combined with molecular marker data to identify QTLs underlying these traits.Stem cuttings of hybrids and parents were rooted in a low ionic strength nutrient solution in the glasshouse during 9 days. Equal numbers of stem cuttings were transferred into a solution containing 200 J..LM CaCh pH 4.2 (reference treatment) and a solution containing 200 J..LM CaCh and 200 AlCh pH 4.2 (Al treatment). The solutions were changed every second day to minimize pH drifts. At harvest on day 21 after transfer, the dry weight of stems was measured. Roots were stained and scanned on a flatbed scanner. lmage analysis software (WinRHIZO) was used to determine root length, average root diameter and number of root apices. The root growth data from ten harvests were log-transformed because such growth data tend to be log-normally distributed (Causton and Venus, 1981). They were then adjusted for harvest mean (based on the differences between harvest means and overall mean) and the dry weight of the stem cuttings (using linear regression).The B. ruziziensis x B. decumbens hybrids showed a broad range of root growth vigor. A considerable number of individuals were superior to well-adapted B. decumbens, perhaps as a result of heterosis induced by the interspecific cross (see large number of data points to the right of B. decumbens in Figure 1). By contrast there were only few individuals whose roots elongated as poorly as those of B. ruziziensis. . '\\  ~-----,_ Because root growth vigor varies among hybrids, the inhibitory effect of Al on root length (RL) is not easy to measure, and RL in the Al treatment has to be properly referenced. We tested two approaches. First, we calculated relative root length values by comparing -for each pair of stem cuttings distributed among the two treatments -RL in the Al treatment vs. RL in the treatment without Al (the logarithm of the ratio was used for this purpose).The resulting \"Al resistance index\" was not correlated with root growth vigor. We therefore also tested adjusting RL values in the Al treatment for RL values in the Al-free treatment using linear regression.The two approaches were compared using the degree of correlation among three parameters describing different effects of Al toxicity as a criterion. These were: (i) inhibition of root elongation (see above), (ii) lateral swelling of roots (resulting in a greater root diameter, RD), and production of a greater number or short laterals (resulting in a higher specific root tip number, sRT = number of root tips per unit dry weight). The RD and sRT parameters had been computed based on the two approaches described for RL. The three parameters were more tightly correlated in the second approach, thus suggesting superior data quality. The latter was also corroborated by the fact that the two parents were closer to the two extremes of the distribution. We therefore used the linear regression approach to present the data in   Last year we reported on the identification of individuals of a Brachiaria ruziziensis x Brachiaria decumbens hybrid population with contrasting degrees of Al resistance. This suggested the feasibility of isolating candidate Al-resistance genes from root apices based on a comparison of gene expression pattems between an Al-resistant and an Al-sensitive bulk of hybrids. This year we pursued this approach.Rooted stem cuttings of B. decumbens, B. ruziziensis and a group of hybrids with contrasting Al resistance levels were cultivated as described in ''Evaluating traits associated with acid soil adaptation in a population of Brachiaria ruziziensis x Brachiaria decumbens hybrids\". Root apices collected at various harvests were pooled to create 6 samples for RNA extraction: two Al-resistant bulks of hybrids (grown with +/-Al), an Alsensitive bulk of hybrids (grown with Al), two B. decumbens samples (grown with +/-Al) anda B. ruziziensis sample (grown with Al). Total RNA was isolated, mRNA was captured with magnetic beads, and ds-cDNA was synthesized using anchored oligo(dT) primer/adapters. To minimize cross-hybridization among genes belonging to the same family, 3' -UTRs were amplified by suppressive PCR after simultaneous digestion of cDNAs with Msel and Mspl followed by adapter ligation. The resulting amplicons were then mixed in various combinations and subjected to three rounds of differential subtraction chain (DSC) (Luo et al., 1999).Figure 1 displays the 3' -UTR amplicons obtained from the six mRNA samples. Control experiments confirmed that only 3'-UTR fragments and no interna! gene fragments had been amplified (i.e. suppressive PCR was successful). In addition, sequencing of random 3' -UTRs fragments identified homologies to 3' -regions of known genes, including one coding for a root-specific protein. As a result of the double digestion with two 4-bp cutters, the fragments are small. This should have minimized cross hybridization among different genes during the subsequent subtractive hybridization steps.The 3'UTR amplicons shown in Figure 1 were mixed in various tester-driver combinations to enrich differentially expressed genes using the DCS approach (Table 1). Al3+.The 3' -UTR fragments remammg after three rounds of subtractíve hybridization were separated on a polyacrylamide gel. Distinct bands were visible in sorne combinations of tester and driver amplicons (Figure 2). This appears to suggest that the DSC procedure may have been successful. Bands will be excised from the gel, cloned and sequenced. In addition, random fragments from the second round of subtraction will be cloned and sequenced. Depending on their redundancy they will be used to fabricate cDNA microarrays for screening for differentially expressed genes.Sorne genes that when transfonned into plants increase their resistance to Al, were originally identified based on their ability to enhance Al resistance of yeast. We used this approach to identify candidate Al-resistance genes in root apices of B. decumbens grown in the presence of Al.Total RNA was extracted from root apices of rooted B. decumbens stem cuttings grown in a solution containing 200 OM CaCl2, 200 OM AlCl 3 (pH 4.2). After capture of mRNA with magnetic beads, ds-cDNA was synthesized, ligated to adapters, size-fractionated and PCR-amplified. PCR products from the > 2 kb and < 2 kb fractions were ligated separately to linearized p YES2 plasmid and transfonned into E. coli. The libraries obtained were amplified on pi ates. Plasmids extracted were mixed at a 1: 1 ratio and re-transfonned into yeast. Transfonnants were plated on a medium containing enough Al to arrest growth of yeast cells transfonned with empty plasmid. Plasmids from the most quickly growing colonies were isolated, re-transfonned into E. coli, and extracted for further characterization.Approximately 100 yeast colonies were obtained from two million cfu plated on the Al medium (= 0.005 %). The plasmids isolated from 48 well-growing colonies were digested with a mixture of restriction enzymes to identify clones that had been isolated more than once, thus minimizing the chance of selecting false positives for further analysis. This fingerprinting experiment identified nine clones that had been isolated at least twice from different colonies. Work is underway to sequence and characterize inserts from these clones.Among the possible ways for the genetic transformation of plants, the transformation with Agrobacterium as vector, offers unique advantages. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) has been recalcitrant to Agrobacterium mediated transformation. Of the Phaseolus species only the tepary bean (P. acutifolius) has been transformed through the use of this bacterium.Two methodologies have been used for achieving it: the inoculation of green nodular callus tissues (Dillen et al., 1997) or of meristems of mature seeds (Agrobacterium Mediated Mature Seed Meristem Transformation or AMMSM-Transformation; see Annual Reports 2000Reports -2002)). The AM:MSM-Transformation method does not require previous induction of callus tissue, and thus allows the screening of large populations of genotypes with less effort than that of Dillen et al.In the past 3 years we have screened more than 50 cultivated and wild genotypes of common and tepary bean for competence to AM:MSM-transformation with no success.Results from other series of transformation experiments, made with tepary bean genotypes and hybrids, suggested that nuclear genes of tepary bean accessions are involved in conferring competence to AM:MSM-transformation (see annual report of2001).In 2000 we started an interspecific crossing program using as parents a tepary bean genotype with competence to AMMSM-transformation and other common and tepary bean genotypes which show good response to in vitro culture and plant regeneration The objective of this crossing program is to breed AMMSM-transformable hybrid lines between these species (or any other Phaseolus species which can cqntribute to the transformation process) that can be used for the fast and easy transfer of transgenes to common bean cultivars by sexual crossing. As strategy for combining different traits involved in tissue culture response, plant regeneration or AMMSM-Transformation in one genotype, we are using the double congruity backcross (DCBC) methodology (Mejia -Jiménez et al. 2002).During 2003 we advanced in identifying DCBC hybrids, mainly with the cytoplasm of tepary bean, with improved competence to AM:MSM-Transforrnation.Mature seeds of advanced DCBC hybrids with common and tepary bean cytoplasm were used as explants in the transforrnation experiments. The DCBC hybrids corresponded to the generations: V-DCBC6A. V-DCBC6s. V-DCBC1s. V-DCBCsc. V-DCBCso, V-DCBCsE. with P. vulgaris cytoplasm and the generations, A-DCBCso. A-DCBC 10 A, A-DCBCJOs, A-DCBCHx:, A-DCBCt2B with P. acutifolius cytoplasm (see table DCBCHybrids: http://gene3 .ciat.cgiar.org/blast/docs/DCBCHybrids.pdf).The binary Agrobacterium strains AGLl/pCambia1305-1 AGLl/pCambia3200 (http://www.cambia.org) or the strain C58Cl/ pTARC-Blb (Dillen et al. 1997) were used. The transforrnation methodology was described in the annual report of 200 l.Screening of hybrid populations for competence to AMMSM-Transfonnation. A total of 168 DCBC hybrid lines with cytoplasm of P. vulgaris (V-DCBC) and 197 lines with cytoplasm of P. acutifolius (A-DCBC; an average of 37 explants per line), were screened between October 2002 and September 2003 for AMMSM-transforrnation. Friable and meristematic calli (m-calli) were recovered after selection in 26 (7.1 %) of the screened lines. Initially only the recovered friable calli expressed the GUS-intron gene, which is driven by the p35S prometer.In severa! of the selected lines that have been screened for GUS expression the selected mcalli developed other cellular types such as friable calli (for example in severa! calli selected from the lines GKAX-11B(L)2 F 4 and GKAX-13B F 3 ).Due to this and to the fact that during selection conditions in vitro, we applied (by using a temporary immersion system) strong and uniforrn selective conditions, we believe that most of the tissues resisting selection are genetically transforrned and that the lack of GUS expression in the m-calli is caused by other factors (for example the inactivity of the 35S prometer in this tissue type).Since we can only regenerate plants from the m-calli and not from friable calli, we are measuring the forrnation of m-calli after transforrnation and selection to detect genotypes with transforrnation capabilities.Twenty (10.1 %) A-DCBC lines produced m-calli after selection, while only 6 (3.5%) of the V-DCBC lines produced this same tissue type. However the m-calli of all the V -DCBC lines and of several A-DCBC lines died within 3 months after selection. Thus not only the selection of m-calli seems to be important for the recovery of transgenic plants through the AMMSM-transformation methodology. It is necessary to be able to induce further growth and bud differentiation in the selected tissues.Only 6 (1.6%) of the lines produced m-calli which could be maintained for longer than 3 months and that could be induced to differentíate buds. Within these lines there are two with M-calli survival efficiencies of 21.7 and 35%. That is more than three fold the survival rate achieved with tepary bean hybrids (8.3 %).Although from the m-calli of the V -DCBC lines no bud differentiation or plant regeneration could be achieved, the fact that they could be recovered after selection, is considered already an improvement over the results achieved routinely with comrnon bean cultivars and wild genotypes, which yield no m-callus after selection (Annual report 2001).Plants are being regenerated from the antibiotic resistant m-calli which differentiated buds (Table 2, last column) through micrografting. = P. acutifolius; V = P. vulgaris 3. Agrobacterium strains: 1 = C58C 1 pT ARC; 11 = AGLI pC3200; lil = AGLI pC 1305-1 4. After three days of co-culture three explants were scored for GUS expression. A + or a -score was given for each of the explants expressing or not GUS in the cotyledonary node or apical meristem. 5. Number of explants forming M-calli/number of explants innoculated. 6. After 1 month (two subcultures) in media containing 50 mg/1 geneticin or 30 mg/1 hygromycin. 7. Number of M-calli selected x 100 1 Number of explants innoculated. 8. M-calli with differentiating buds which survived for more than two months after selection. 9. Selected m-calli surviving and differentiaring buds three months after selection.Higher incomes from cassava in the developing world where the crop is generally found will require the industrialization of the crop and the development of novel industrial products from cassava. There are severa! novel products that can be produced from cassava, including modified starches such as 100% amylopectin or 100% amylose starches, from the down regulation of the granule-bound starch synthethase (GBSS) gene or the starch-branching enzyme (SBE) gene. Industrial application of either pure amylopectin or pure amylose starches, such as the production of high-value biodegradable polymers from pure amylose starches or the use of 100% amylopectin in thickeners, pastes and glues, have a market with unlimited growth potential. Biotechnology can play a very important role in the production of the abo ve products in cassava.With funds from the Colombian Ministry or Agriculture and Rural Development, a project was been initiated to genetically engineer industrial cassava varieties for the production of wax.y starch using an anti-sense and sense construct of the GBSSI gene. GBSS catalyses the conversion of ADP-glucose to amylose through the linkage of an ADP glucose to a preexisting glucan chain. Antisense disruption of the GBSSI gene has been employed to create potato transformants with 70-100% amylopectin via the down-regulation of the GBSSI gene (Salehuzzaman et al.,1993) and the disruption sense in sweet potato of the gene GBSS (Kimura et al. , 2001).Isolation of a cassava GBSS cDNA clone. More than 87,000 clones of a cassava root and leaf cDNA library cloned in the vector pCMV SPORT (GffiCO BRL Inc., USA) was gridded onto high-density filters (Mba et al., 2000 unpublished data). The library was screened using a potato GBSS cDNA clones, a gift from Dr.Christine Gerhardt (Max.Planck Institute, Cologne, Germany). The potato GBSS gene was labeled with e 2 P] dATP by random primer labeling and hybridized ovemight to the cDNA filters according to standard protocols for Southem hybridization used in cassava (Fregene et al., 1997). The filters were washed twice with 2X SSC +0.1 % SDS at 60°C for 5 min, and autoradiography was al -80 °C using 2 intensifying screens.Primers were designed from published sequences of a full-length cassava cDNA of the GBSSI gene (Salehuzzaman et al., 1993).BamiD and Xbal restriction enzyme recognition sites were incorporated in 5'end of the primers to enable sub-cloning of the cDNA clone in the sense and antisense orientation into the multiple -cloning site (MSC) of the vector pRTlOl. The primers were used to amplify the cDNA clone obtained above, and the PCR product was cleaned using the QIAGEN PCR Clean Up Kit (QIAGEN Inc., Los Angeles, CA) and digested with the appropriate enzymes. A 2.1Kb BamiD /Xbal fragment was subcloned in the sense and antisense between the 35S prometer and the 35S polyadenylated tenninator region of vector pRTlOl, a gift from Dr. Ryohei Terauchi, Iwate Biotechnology Research Center, Kitakami, Japan. The 35S prometer, GBSSI gene in pRTlOl was liberated using the restriction enzyme Pstl, separated on a agarose gel, eluted and cloned into the Psti site of the binary vector pCAMBIA 1305.2 having the GUSPlusR and HPT reporter genes.Transfonnation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, of varieties. Friable Embryogenic Callus of the cassava genotype TMS60444, Mcol.2215 y CM 3306-4 was transfonned via Agrobacterium tumefaciens with the GBSSI gene in antisense-sense orientation, mediated technology CIA T.Three GBSS cDNA clones obtained form screening the cassava library were sequenced, and one was found to be a complete cDNA clone. The cDNA clone has the ATG start codon 81 bp down stream from the beginning of the cDNA sequence and a stop codon about 100 bp from the poly-A tail. PCR amplification with the designed primers yielded a fragment about 2.1 kb in size that corresponds to the full-length GBSSI cDNA clone (Figure 1). The resulting PCR fragment, digested with BarniD and Xbal restriction enzyme, was cloned into the MCS of pRTlOl. Next, the GBSSI gene, promoter and terminator sequences, excised with Pstl and the resulting fragments separated from the vector fragment (sizes 2.8 and 2.7 kb) by electrophoresis was cloned into the Pstl site of pCAMBIA (Figure 2). These are the constructs that were used in the Agrobacteriummediated transfonnation. Two genetic constructions (Figure 3) with the GBSSI gene in anti-sense and sense orientation in the vector pCAMBIA 1305.2 were made to achieve silencing of the gene.Antisense band of approx 2800bp clonad in the vector pCAMBIA 1305.2Sense band of approx 2800bp clonad in the vector pCAMBIA 1305.2Band of approx 2700bp corresponding to the vector pRT1 01 The constructs were transforrned into friable embryogenic Callus (FEC) of the model transforrnation genotype MNGll via Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Results of GUS transitory assay revealed a successful incorporation of the gene (Fig. 4).Positive test of GUS in Cotyledonary embryos of variety TMS 60444 with the GBSSI sense gene constrauct in the vector pCAMBIA 1305.2We have successfully transformed full-length sense and anti-sense constructs of the OBSSI gene into the model cassava transformation variety :MNO 11. Transformed calli are being regenerated following which molecular and biochemical tests will be conducted to test stable expression of the gene and the eventually the waxy phenotype. The project was carried out as an undergraduate project for the Colombian undergraduate student project, Oina Jazbleidi Puentes P. of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia -Sede Palmira.The tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius A. gray) possesses severa! traits that are important to common bean breeding, such as resistance to drought (accessions 040020 and 040023), bruchids (A. obtectus and Z. subfaciatus; 040199), leaf hopper (Empoasca kraemeri; 040019 and 040036) and bacteria! blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv phaseoli; 040020), among others. Also one genotype of tepary bean has been dentified as competent to Agrobacterium mediated transformation (the wild accession Nl576; see report on bean transformation).Crossing of common with tepary bean has been traditionally difficult. Using facilitator genotypes of both species, and applying recurrent and congruity backcrossing (CBC;Haghighi and Ascher, 1988), we could produce a large number of fertile hybrids (Mejía-Jiménez et al. 1994), from which common bean lines with high levels of resistance to bacteria! blight were developed (Singh and Muñoz, 1999). However using these two backcross strategies, no fertile progeny could be obtained from hybrids involving severa! of the abo ve mentioned tepary bean genotypes.Using a modification of the CBC methodology, we called Double Congruity Backcrosses (DCBC), we could develop fertile interspecific hybrids involving several tepary bean accessions that were formerly impossible to cross (Annua1 reports 2001, and 2002). In 2002 the project IP-1 reported the identification of drought tolerant lines after screening of DCBC hybrids (Beebe et al. 2002).During 2003 our backcross program through DCBC continued, and from the fertile progenies developed during this or previous years, Iines with improved competence to Agrobacterium mediated transformation or resistance to Empoasca or bruchids were identified.Double congruity backcross hybridization on the cytoplasms of common or tepary bean (V-DCBC and A-DCBC hybrids) were started in 1999 using advanced congruity backcross hybrids, developed in the past, with cytoplasm of common bean (Mejía-Jiménez et al., 1994), as described before (Mejía Jiménez et al., 2000;annual report project SB-ll). This backcross strategy consists of backcrossing altemately hybrids developed in a P. acutifolius or P. vulgaris cytoplasmic background, with the most advanced DCBC hybrids generated in the other backgrounds and viceversa. This is repeated severa! times to increase recombination between both genomes and pyrarnid desired traits in the hybrids. Initially only P. vulgaris and P. acutifolius genotypes were included in the DCBC, but later genotypes of different Phaseolus species were also incorporated (see table DCBC hybrids) Embryo rescue was applied when necessary to recover viable hybrids from aborting embryos (Mejía-Jiménez et al., 1994).Identification of DCBC-hybrid Iines with improved response to in vitro culture and plant regeneration or Agrobacterium mediated genetic transformation 'The inter-specific hybridization between common and tepary bean genotypes is being used for the development of hybrids with improved competence to AMMSMtransformation (Agrobacterium Mediated Mature Seed Meristem-transformation; see report on genetic transformation of Phaseolus beans).Three hundred and sixty five DCBC hybrid lines were screened during 2003. The production of antibiotic resistant calli of a singular morphological type, from which plants can be regenerated (meristematic calli or m-calli), was used as a parameter for selecting genotypes with superior performance.Six lines with the cytoplasm of tepary bean yielded antibiotic resistant m-calli which are potentially transgenic. In two of the lines (OKAX-llB(L) 37.2%, and ZXX-13-2 21.7%; see also Table 2 of the transformation report) the recovery efficiency of antibiotic resistant m-callus was higher than in tepary bean intraspecific hybrids 040065 x NI576 (8.3%; Annual report 2001). This indicates that probably alleles involved in the response to the AMMSM?-transformation methodology are being accumulated through the DCBC process which combines the screening for superior genotypes, in both cytoplasmic backgrounds, with the further backcrossing of the selected genotypes found.Three lines with meristematid calli survival and differentiation efficiencies ranging from 7 to 35%, and two V -DCBC lines which yielded antibiotic resistant m-callus after selection, were chosen as parentals for the next generation of DCBC hybrids (see below).It will be tested if the lines, which show the highest percentages of m-calli survival and differentiation (Table 2 of the tansformation report), can be used as bridge for the production of transgenic common bean cultivars.Introgression of Empoasca resistance to common bean through DCBC After a field screening performed by the IP-1 project, at least seven common bean lines derived from DCBC crosses were identified as Empoasca resistant (lines DCBC7A. -7C and _ 80 ; see table DCBC hybrids: http://gene3.ciat.cgiar.org/blast/inicio.htm). All these hybrids include in its pedigree the genotype of P. acutifolius 040036 and one of them the genotype 040019, which are resistant to Empoasca (table 1). These accessions of tepary bean may be the source of the detected resistance. In the past 10 years several common x tepary hybrid lines produced using a different backcross strategy, like recurrent or congruity backcrosses, were evaluated in the field for Empoasca resistance with no success in identifying resistant genotypes. This is an additional proof of the usefulness of the DCBC-strategy to allow introgression of traits from alien germplasm (last year the IP-1 project reported the identification of drought tolerant lines derived also from DCBC hybrids).The resistant common bean lines are being crossed to other Empoasca resistant A-DCBC hybrid lines (table 2), to pyramid different, possibly available, resistance alleles and increase the levels of resistance airead y found.Resistance to the bean weevil (A. obtectus) found in A-DCBC hybrids. Several populations of A-DCBC and V -DCBC hybrids ha ve been screened by the IP-1 project for resistance to the bruchid A. obtectus. Five lines with tepary bean cytoplasm have shown to be resistant (results were confirmed through three individual infestations with the insect; (hybrids A-DCBC with codes ONV AV-2 F 3 , OVV-1 F 3 , OKX-6 F 2 , OKA-12 Fz, ZXX-5 F2). All the resistant seeds were planted in the greenhouse and the plants obtained are being used to generate other DCBC hybrids with common and tepary bean cytoplasm (table 2). It is not clear which is the origin of the resistance allele(s) in the hybrids.Development of new fertile DCBC hybrid progenies of P. vulgaris or P. acutifolius cytoplasms, with parental hybrid lines selected for its response to AMMSMtransformatíon or for resistance to ínsect pests.During 2003 new DCBCs were started, or completed, using as parental hybrid lines selected for its good response to in vitro culture, callus induction or competence to Agrobacterium transformation (V-DCBC hybrids with codes TZTB-12 and AT7-2A; and A-DCBC hybrids with codes GKAX-11B(L)2, ZXX-13-2 and BWG-20), resístance to Empoasca kraemeri (V-DCBC hybrids with codes A36Y-42, EMPZ-2, -8, -9, TZTE-20B and -71B) orA. obtectus (lines with code GKA-12, GKX-6, GVV-1, GNV AV-2). These lines were or are being crossed to the most advanced DCBC hybrid lines available of the same cytoplasm. Morphological traits are being used to verify the hybridization (Table 2)The generated fertile hybrids will further be screened for improved expression of the desired traits. Highlighted in yellow are the resistant parental lines, and also tbe A-DCBC bybrid G36NGP-3, derived from the cross G40036 x NGPNMNG, which may be the principal source of the resistance found in the hybrids. To understand the pedigrees of the hybrids, see also the table DCBC hybrids: http://gene3.ciat.cgiar.org/blast/inicio.htm).1'-ode of the Hybrid Pedigree  IFemale. parent self-sterile pigmentation and flower color from the male parent; primary Jeafs the large petiole from P. vulgaris; hybrids self-sterile pigrnentation and flower color from the male parent; primary leafs the large petiole fro m P. vulgaris in the became self-sterileA-DCBC lines have been identified which show an increased cornpetence to Agrobacterium rnediated transformation. These lines rnay have different levels of introgression of cornrnon bean and rnay be used to transfer transgenes to this species through sexual crossing.DCBCs allowed the introgression, to cornrnon bean, of tepary bean genes involved in Empoasca resistance.Also, lines with tepary bean cytoplasrn resistant to the bruchid A. obtectus were found arnong the progeny of the screened DCBC hybrids.• To continue with the DCBC strategy to produce more advanced DCBC hybrid generations• To perform additional DCBCs with hybrids that have already shown cornpetence for Agrobacterium rnediated transformation, Empoasca, orA. obtectus resistance.• To study the introgression in the hybrid populations of DNA fragments frorn the species involved in the DCBCs using AFLP techniques.The AMMSM-transformation methodology was developed using the hypervirulent Agrobacterium-strain LB A4404pTOK 233 that was developed through cointegration (Hiei et al. 1994). An important achievement of 2003 is the recovery of transgenic (GUS expressing) regenerable M-callus after transformation with the binary Agrobacterium strains AGLl and C58Cl (Table 2). Genes of agronomic interest can be cloned faster and easier in binary plasmids than in the cointegrate ones.Co-transformation with unlinked transgenes. Co-transformation, the transformation of plant cells with unlinked transgenes (which can be localized in the same or different Agrobacterium strains), followed by the separation of the transgenes in the progeny of the transformed plants, is a methodology which has been used for the production of antibioticand marker-free transgenic plants. With sorne of the DCBC lines we have been performing co-transformation experiments by transforming with the GUS-Intron gene and the BAR gene in different plasmids and Agrobacterium strains (see Table 2). The fact that GUS expressing calli was obtained after selection with the BAR gene in these experiments, indicates that both transgenes were co-transformed. It should be tested if they segregate independently in the progeny of the transgenic plants recovered from this kind of experiments.Development of a methodology for large scale sterilization of mature Phaseolus seeds with chlorine vapors. The application of the AMMSM-Transformation methodology requires the preparation of a large number of explants from mature seeds (embryos without one cotyledon). This is a time-consuming and a contamination-prone process, because the embryos have to be excised from the pods and seed coats under sterile conditions. During 2003, and based on a methodology developed for sterilizing seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana (Clough and Bent; http://plantpath.wisc.edu/-afb/vapster.html ) we designed an apparatus and developed a methodology for a simple and efficient sterilization of high quantities of seeds of Phaseolus beans. The methodology uses 5% sodium hypochlorite and 4 N HCL to generate Ch vapors, which in 3 hours completely sterilizes more than 90% of the highly contaminated Phaeolus seeds samples (seeds mixed with soil).Three A-DCBC and two V -DCBC hybrid lines that yielded antibiotic resistant meristematic calli after transformation were chosen for developing new hybrid lines (highlighted in yellow, table 2). The selected lines were airead y crossed to the most advanced DCBC lines of the same cytoplasm, and fertile hybrids have been developed. The screening of the new DCBC-Hybrid populations for AMMSM-Transformation is in progress.As judged by the recovery of GUS expressing and antibiotic resistant regenerable calli after transformation, it is likely that competence to Agrobacterium mediated transformation has been transferred to various advanced P. acutifolius x P. vulgaris -DCBC hybrids with P. acutifolius cytoplasm. Sorne of these show rather high transformation efficiendes.These hybrids could be used as bridge to transfer transgenes to common bean cultivars through sexual crossing. However, to reduce the number of backcrosses that may be necessary for achieving this, transformable hybrids with common bean cytoplasm should be developed.• Develop pure lines with transformation competence, from the already identified AMMSM-transformations competent F3 or F4 populations• Further screen the hybrid progenies developed this year for competence to AMMSM-transformation.• Continue with the co-transforrnation experiments (with marker genes and genes with agronomic importance in different strains or plasmids) in arder to develop a methodology to produce transgenic common bean plants free of antibiotic markers.• Start co-transfonnation experiments with genes of agronornic importance.One altemative method to obtain cassava cultivars resistant to insects is through transgenesis. We developed transgenic cassava plants, from three cultivars, that carry one gene for insect resistance. These plants were produced to test the efficacy of this crylAb gene (Bt gene) to control insect pests like the cassava stem borer (Chilomima clarkei, Lepidoptera) and the cassava hom worm (Erinnyis ello, Lepidoptera). We present a summary of the main findings after carrying out bioassays with transgenic plants and these insects.Transgenic plants of cassava cultivars 60444 (MNigll) and CM3306-4 were obtained vía Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, for the former, and the particle gun for the latter. Bioassays for the stem borer ( Chilomima clarkei) and the cassava homworm (Erinnyis ello) were set in biosafety greenhouses, or in captivity rooms of the IPM program.We infested at least six young cassava plants per transgenic line with Chilomima larvae of second or third instars, one larvae per plant, and let them penetrate the stems and grow for 15 days inside it. All transgenic lines were derived from cultivar 60444. Controls included non transgenic plants of 60444 and CMC-40, a cultivar used to feed insects in captivity.Larvae were weighted at the beginning and end of the test, and the average weight increase was estimated and statistically analyzed.To test resistance to cassava hom worm, we fed 20 first instar larvae with transgenic leaves of lines derived from cultivars 60444 and CM3306-4. As controls we used non-transgenic leaves from cultivar 60444. Unfortunately there were not leaves available from non transgenic CM3306-4 that could serve as proper control. We opted for CMC40, a cultivar routinely used to feed the hom worm in captivity. Therefore, the results presented for CM3306-4 are preliminary and need confirmation. We measured larvae weight increase for 11 days and analyzed differences between transgenic lines and their non transgenic controls.The main findings for the stem borer bioassays can be summarized as follows:No differences in average weight increase were detected between transgenic and non transgenic lines derived from 60444. In fact, larvae fed on non transgenic 60444 lines also lost weigh, if compared with those fed on control CMC-40 (Table 1; Figure 1). There were no statistically significant differences between the two transgenic lines 55 and 92 and the non transgenic control of same cultivar.Developmental stage of larvae seemed critical in detennining the effect of transgenic plants on their diet. Plants seem to express very little insecticida} CRY1Ab protein (Ladino et al 2002), so larvae on second and third instar are already too strong to be affected by this amount protein expressed in transgenic plants Sorne of the larvae fed on transgenic line 80 increased their weigh as much as did those of controls fed on CMC40, suggesting that this line may just represent an escape or a chimera.The bioassays with the steam borer, although limited by the number and developmental stage of available larvae (the insect is not found in the Valle del Cauca), indicated that larvae loose weight when fed on leaves from transgenic and non transgenic plants of cultivar 60444. If there was an effect of the low expressing cry1Ab gene, it will be surely masked by the varietal effect. Feeding on non transgenic control from cultivar CMC-40 produced much healthier larvae, with higher average weigh increase.  There was a significant difference between larvae fed with non transgenic CMC40 and non transgenic 60444. L55, L80, L92 and TMS (control) are derived from cultivar 60444. CMC (control) is derived from CMC-40 (= 0,05)Por the cassava hom worm bioassays, we evaluated the average daily weight increase of 20 first instar larvae during 11 days. The results are pictured in Figure 2. Up to the 8th day larvae fed with non transgenic CMC40 increased weight beyond 3 g, while those fed with the other lines did not exceed 0,5 g. After day eight, larvae fed on CMC40 entered prepupa stage and lost weight, so weighting stopped at day 10. Comparing the behavior of hom worms feeding on CMC40 and lea Negrita, at day 11 we eounted 14 pupa alive and 6 dead larvae fed with CMC40 (30% mortality), while there were no pupa and 18 1arvae died (90% mortality) when fed on transgenic lea Negrita. From the latter's, only three larvae survived to day 11 reaching less than 2 g final weight (Figure 3).The assays indicated that there was a trend of larvae to develop slower (smaller daily weight increments) and die if they fed on transgenic plants of L55 and lea Negrita, or non transgenic 60444., while they developed stronger and faster until the majority reaehed the state of pupa if fed with no-transgenie CMC40.As stated before, results obtained with the hom worm are preliminary and will be repeated to eonfirm observations. This time proper lea Negrita non transgenie eontrols will be tested to confirm if transgenic lines effeetively proteet from hom worm attaeks.Average daily weight increase  Transgenic and non transgenic plants derived from cultivar 60444 seem to delay, or even prevent, the normal development of larvae from the stem borer and the horn worm. The effect seemed stronger on the latter where mortality reached 90%. This may be due to higher concentration of the \"insecticida! molecule\" in the leaves than in stems. It is very unlikely that this effect comes from the crylAb transgene, at least in L55 where gene expression seems low. This finding opens the door to explore new insect resistance sources in cassava germplasm that contains genes from wild relatives. This is the case of MNigll (60444), a variety developed in Africa from crosses with Manihot glaziovii to obtain resistance to CMD.Transgenic lea Negrita also seemed to delay the development and kili the horn worm.However, these results need replícation to confirm the observations since the proper control plants were not available in the first assays. A second set of bioassays will be performed again towards the end of 2003. lf transgenic cassava lines that protect against the stem borer an<i/or the horn worm are identified, then it will be wise to test them under field conditions.Transgenic cassava plants expressing tolerance to the herbicide Basta were obtained in CIAT in 1995. Since then, those plants have been tested to confirm if the transgene bar is still expressed finding that current expression levels do not confer resistance to the herbicide. lt suggests that the transgene is being silenced. We decided to produce new transgenic lines, with different cultivars and the same construct, to follow expression of the gene throught the years and propagation cycles. Besides, resistance to herbicide rnight be an important character for cassava industrial plantations.The Agrobacterium strain LBA4404-pGV1040 was selected to transform 383 clusters (approx. 31 g) of friable embryogenic callus (FEC) of cultivar CM3306-4, and 11 clusters (0,9 g) of cultivar 60444. Embryogenic tissues were then selected on semisolid media with geneticin (20 to 50 mg/1). Those FEC that survived the first round of selection on antibiotic were induced to produce mature embryos (cotyledon stage embryos), and transferred to temporal immersion (RITA) system to continue selection with phosphinotrycin (ppt) 5 to 10 mg/1. Mature embryos in R1T As were induced to produce multiple shoots (organogenesis) to recover plantlets.We recovered 28 transgenic, gus-positive lines of cultivar CM3306-4 (Figure 1) on media with geneticin. Mature embryos of two lines of CM3306-4, and one line of 60444, were transferred to RITA to develop shoots vi a organogenesis under selection with ppt 5 mg/1. Embryos from CM3306-4 survived selection and produced shoots (Figure 1), while those of 60444, although they were gus positive, did not pass selection. At this point, transformation efficiency for cultivar CM3306-4 is 0,9 independent transgenic Unes per gram of FEC (28 lines/31g FEC), or 28 transgenic lines out of 383 explants (7,3% ). Continue selection and regeneration of transgenic plant sin RITAs with 5 mg/1 ppt for the remaining transgenic lines Root plants on medium with ppt (5 to 10 mg/1) Transfer to greenhouse and test for resistance to spraying with ppt at 100 mg/1 minimun concentration 2.1.6 RHBV (Rice Hoja Blanca Virus) Resistance mediated by RNA-Cross Protection in Transgenic RiceIn the past decade there has been a great progress in genetic transfonnation methods for the incorporation of genes confening important agronomic traits in rice using both particle bombardment and Agrobacterium. Transgenic plants expressing resistance to herbicide, disease, insects, nematodes and tolerance to drought and salt stress have been obtained (Jiang et al., 2003). At CIAT, our earlier work was mainly using particle bombardment, but current work uses Agrobacterium mediated transforrnation as the method of choice because the simpler integration patterns without or fewer rearrangements, and stable inheritance and gene expression throughout generations. Our research has resulted in an improved transfonnation protocol for the production of large number of transgenic fertile rice with different genes including resistance to RHBV mediated by the viral nucleoprotein (N) or the non-structural protein 4 (NS 4 ) genes, fungal resistance by the P AP gene (Pokeweed Antiviral Protein a plant origin ribosome inhibitor protein) and regulation of expression of lignin synthesis by the OMT gene (0-metiltransferase). The most advanced project had generated transgenic rice with resistance to RHBV encoded by the viral N proteín gene. This project has served as a learning experience to scale up the use of genetic transformation and to implement the required biosafety regulations from the laboratory to the field. Transgeriic Cica 8 variety carrying the RHBV protein N gene shows resistance to the virus. This resistance is RNA-mediated and sorne plants show hypersensitive reaction when challenge with the RHBV virus (Lentiní et al., 2002). Sorne of the transgenic lines outperform most commercial rice varieties in the field. Attempts to incorporate this resistance into other materials through regular crossing indicate that the RHBV-N transgene is inherited and expressed independently of the genotype background. Thus this transgenic resistance could be used to complement the breeding resistance that has been deployed so far and does not protect plants when younger than 25 day-old. Last year we reported the studies directed to understand the resistance mechanism underlying the transgenic RHBV resistance. This year we report the evaluation of two events of transformation using microsatellites markers and selection of advanced breeding lines in the field.Evaluation of transformation events in the field. Field evaluations were conducted using 18 progeny plants of the T 3 -T 6 generation from self-cross of the Cica 8 transgenic line A3-49-60 and 4 progeny plants of the Iíne A3-49-56, both resistant to RHBV. Twenty-five dayold plants were transplanted in the field using an experimental complete randomized block design with three replications, each of 102 plants per replicate. Agronomic traits were evaluated through the cycle up to maturity. Tiller number, plant height, fertility and plant vigor were evaluated. DNA was extracted from young leaves using Ieaf díscs of 5 mm diameter according to Klimyuk et al. (1993). One or two highly polymorphic microsatellites markers that clearly distinguish Cica 8 from other rice varieties were used to evaluate the molecular profile. A total of eight plants per line were analyzed.Selection of crossing lines. A total of 82 crosses derived from backcross to Cica 8 or crosses between resistant • transgenic Cica 8 plants and the commercial varieties Fedearroz 50, Oryzica 1, and Iniap 12 were evaluated in the field. Each line consisted of 51 plants, planted in three rows per line. Individual plants were selected and seeds harvested. Segregation analysis was done using microsatellites markers.Microsatellites marker analysis of advanced generations of the transgenic RHBV resistant lines indicated that there was no polymorphism between the non-transgenic Cica 8 variety and transgenic Cica 8 lines (Figure 1). It appears that the genetic change incorporated by transformation is minor and is not resolved by microsatellite analysis (Gonzalez et al., 2001). Sorne polymorphism was noted for sorne lines that correlated with phenotypic segregation. This segregation was noted on progenies derived from seeds collected from un-bagged panicles of field-grown plants of previous evaluations suggesting spontaneous outcross. For sorne lines in spite of the genetic uniformity as indicated by the molecular marker analysis, segregation was noted for sorne agronomic traits indicating differential gene expression or the need to use a larger number of molecular markers to detect genetic differences. Based on agronomic performance a total of 202 in di vi dual plants were selected and harvested (highlighted in Table 1). These plants were alike the Cica 8 in most agronomic traits but sorne of them out-yielded Cica 8 since a natural infestation of RHBV was present in the field. Grains from only the inner part of each plant were harvested, to prevent the collection of seeds derived from the outcross with neighbor lines. The total yield per plant of the selected material ranged from 1lgl plant to 123gl plant whereas the variation among different non-transgenic control Cica 8 plant was from 27 glplant to 35 glplant (Table 1).Plants derived from line A3-49-60-12-3 were more resistant to RHBV than Fedearroz 2000 over two field evaluations (Fory et al., 2001). Sterility was noted in about half of the lines derived from this transgenic event (Table 1). Fertility in these lines ranged from 0% to 90% (as in non-transgenic Cica 8). The source of sterility in these plants seems not to be dueto male sterility, since pollen viability in these plants was 85% ± 1.5 % respect to 90 ± 1.2 % in Cica 8. No polymorphism was noted between fertile and sterile plants either (Figure 1). However, other genetic self-incompatibility mechanisms cannot be discarded at this point. The recovery of fertile as well as sterile plants from genetic transformation mediated by particle bombardment has been reported in other works. Wakita et al. (1998) reported that about half of the transgenic plants carrying the herbicide resistance pat gene, and the 3-fatty acid desaturase gene from tobacco generated by particle bombardment were sterile. In this work, fertility was not correlated with the number of gene inserts. 1t seems also that the low fertility cannot be attributed either to the insertion of the foreign DNA fragments into genes related to fecundity or key for normal plant growth. Different integration sites, copy numbers and transgenic locus configurations, as well as epigenetic silencing mechanisms can all contribute to the expression of low fertility. Other works have also shown that the complex insertion of the transgene(s) may be responsible for phenotypic abnormalities in transgenic rice, including high sterility (Jiang et al., 2003).   Of the 82 crosses derived from backcross to Cica 8 or crosses with the other varieties a total of 11 (13%) were selected based on their resistance to RHBV, high fertility, vigor, and yield poten ti al (Table 2). These crosses included 38 lines with a total of 226 individual plant-selections (Tables 2). The mean yield per plant in these selected lines ranged from 12g/plant to 146g/plant respect to Cica 8 that varied from 27g/plant to 35 g/plant (Table 2). The highest yield potential was noted in lines A3-49-60-4-5/ Oryzica 1-15, A3-49-60-4-5/ Fedearroz 50-19 and A3-49-60-12-3/ Iniap 12-18 with 146 g/plant, 104 g/plant and 104 g/plant, respectively. The lines A3-49-60-4-5/ Oryzica 1-15, A3-49-60-4-5/ Fedearroz 50-19 showed resistance to RHBV (scores 3-5). In addition, the line A3-49-60-4-5/ Fedearroz 50-19 was not only resistant to RHBV but also showed tolerance to R. solani under greenhouse conditions. These lines are still segregating since they are in F3 generation. Thus, individual plant selections are being evaluated first for resistance to RHBV for subsequently advance breeding for other traits. The selected plants will be subjected to anther culture for the production of doubled haploid (DH) lines to reduce breeding cycle by rapid fixation of homozygosity.Rhizoctonia solani (causal agent of sheath blight), Helmithosporium, Rhincosporium, and Sarocladium are diseases causing important high yield losses of rice in Latin America. All rice varieties are susceptible. CIAT's Rice Project has recently incorporated breeding efforts to develop strategies for controlling these diseases, aiming to reduce the use of pesticides associated with their control. The characterization of different sources of tolerance to Rhizoctonia solani is in progress (Correa et al., 2000). The evaluation of wild species as a potential altematíve to incorporate resistance is also underway (Martinez et al., 2002). Intermediate tolerance has been found in inter-specific crosses between Oryzica 3 and O. ru.fipogon (Martinez et al., 2002). Efforts are being placed to adapt and improve a reproducible methodology for evaluation of this resistance in the greenhouse (Correa et al.,  2000) and more recently in the field. Molecular characterization of field strains of the pathogen has also initiated (Correa et al., 2000). However, not known sources of stable genetic resistance for these rice diseases have been identified yet. Thus altemative approaches are also needed.The genus Phytolacca is the source of a number of proteins whose antiviral and anti-fungal properties have been analyzed. The PAP protein (pokeweed antiviral protein), derived from Phytolacca americana a weedy species naturally found throughout the Americas, inhibit the infection of a wíde range of RNA and DNA viruses each representing a dífferent plant virus group, such tobacco mosaic virus in plants (Chen et al., 1991), animal víruses, including poliovirus (Ussery et al. , 1977), herpes simplex virus in animals (Aron  and Irvin, 1980) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Zarling et al., 1990). Mutated versions of PAP gene have potent antifungal activity (Zoubenko et al ., 1997). The work by the Dr Tumer Group Rutgers University, USA shown homozygous progeny of transgenic tobacco and potato plants expressing these P AP genes displayed resistan ce to the fungal pathogen as Rhizoctonia solani and Phytophtora infestans (Wang, 1998), and transgenic P AP turf grass are resistant to various fungal pathogens (N. Tumer, personal communication). These results suggest the possibility of designing molecular strategies for incorporating fungal and/or viral resistance into rice.Of the mutated versions of PAP, the non-toxic versíon PAPy123 is the one showing the most potent protection against fungal infection. We are interested in constitutively expressing PAPy123 gene in transgenic plants in order to obtain sheath blight resistance in rice. Last year we reported the selection of transgenic rice lines derived from the commercial varieties Palmar (Venezuela) and Cica 8 containing the PAPy123 gene. Last year we reported the evaluation and selection of transgenic lines with stable integration, inheritance and expression of the PAPy123 gene, as well as with desirable agronomic traits. Here we report the performance of T 2 and T 3 plants derived from these lines when challenge with the pathogen under greenhouse conditions. Also we report the generation of new transgenic lines using the indica varieties Cimarron, and Fedearroz 2000, the breeding line CT11275, and the japonica variety Nipponbare, widely used in rice functional genomic.Genetic transf ormation and plant regeneration. Mature embryos-derived callus of the indica materials Cimarron, Fedearroz 2000, and CT11275, and the japonica variety, Nipponbare, were used. Transgenic plants were generated using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain Agll (Wang et al., 1997) containing the plasmid NT446 that carries the PAPyl23 gene (Tabares et al., 2002).Molecular analyses of PAPy123 transgenic rice plants. Genomic DNA was extracted from 1 g of rice leaves according to McCouch (1988). DNA was digested accordingly to analyze number of gene insertions, copy number, and rearrangements. Gels were denatured and neutralized by standard procedures. Membranes were hybridized using labeled specific-PAPy123 probe at 60°C (Sambrook et al., 1989).Evaluation for Rhizoctonia resistance in the greenhouse. T 2 and T 3 progeny plants from transgenic lines were inoculated at 50-day-old with two Rhizoctonia strains (interrnediate and hyper virulent). These strains were collected from rice farrner's fields in Tolima Department (Colombia), and characterized by its virulence using a susceptibilitydifferential reference. The strain 1953-2 shows interrnediate virulence, and the strain 2399-1 is hyper virulent. The inoculated plauts were placed in a humid chamber (> 80% of relative humidity and 30°C) to simulate symptom development. Plants were evaluated 15 days and 25 days after inoculation according to IRRI evaluation scale and modified by the CIAT Rice Project (F. Correa, personal communication, Project IP4). The non-transgenic Cica 8 and Palmar varieties were used as susceptible control, and breeding line CT14534-12M-3-4M, derived from the inter-specific cross Oryzica 3/0. rufipogon was used as interrnediate resistance control. In addition to the PAP-transgenic rice lines, transgenic lines A3-49-60-12-3-1-31, and derived crosses A3-49-60-12-3/Cica 8-2 and A3-49-60-4-5/FB007-19 containing the N-protein gene and with hypersensitive reaction as the mechanism underlined viral resistance were also evaluated. Five plants of each line were analyzed for the presence of the transgene by PCR.RHBV resistance assays. lndependent transgenic events containing the PAPy123 gene were evaluated for resistance to RHBV in the greenhouse. At least, 10 T 2 progeny per each of 22 transgenic events were inoculated with RHBV at 10 days or 15 days after planting using 4 viruliferous insects per plant. Disease evaluations were conducted using scale from Oto 9, were O refers tono d.isease symptoms and 9 ind.icates more than 90% Ieaf area affected by the RHBV d.isease.From 83% to 100% of plants analyzed showed integration of the PAPy123 gene accord.ing to Southem blot analysis, yield.ing a total of 70 transgenic plants obtained from 371 callus originally Agro-infected (Table 1). The transformation efficiency varied from 11% for Fedearroz 2000 to 54% for Cimarron respectively (Table 1). The molecular analyses showed the integration of single and multiple copies of the PAPy123.All the Fedearroz 2000 plants showed single and non-rearranged gene copies (Figure 1). Most plants from Cimarron and CT11275 also showed simple integration pattems. But Nipponbare showed multiple copies, sorne of them of higher or lower molecular weight than the expected size ind.icating rearrangements in sorne of these copies, includ.ing possible gene fragmentation and deletion (Figure 1). These plants will be evaluated for agronomic traits, and selected lines will be advanced to T2-T3 generations and plants with stable inheritance and expression of P AP gene will be screened for sheath blight resistance.Transgenic plants of Cica 8 and Palmar were evaluated for resistance to Rhizoctonia for two consecutive generations (T2 and T3) using intermediate and hyper virulent strains (Table 2). About 50 T2 lines were identified showing intermed.iate level of resistance, sister plants of these lines were also evaluated for RHBV, and T3 self cross-derived progeny plants from the resistant ones were evaluated for sheath blight in the following year. T2 plants derived from transgenic Cica 8-446 8-1, Cica 8-446-14-6, Palmar-446 4-1, Palmar-446 23-1, and Palmar-446-39-4 showed intermediate resistance to Rhizoctonia. This resistance was inherited ínto T3 plants from the Cica 8-446-14-6-18 and Palmar-446-39-4-7 lines showíng intermediate resistance to both strains of fungi (Table 2). These plants showed a significant reduction in d.isease reaction respect to non-transgenic control. In add.itíon, line Palmar-446-39-4 showed resistance to RHBV and the derived T3 line Palmar-446-39-4-7 showed a reduced leaf area affected by the pathogen respect to the cross Oryzica 3/0. rufipogon when inoculated with the hyper virulent strain 2399-1 (Table 2, and Figure 2A). Southem blot analysis of genomic DNA ind.icated that 100% of these plants contained simple integration pattem of non-rearranged copy of the PAPy123 gene (Figure 2B). These plants showed a fertílity of 93-95%.P AP protein seems to actívate the protein expression of host genes associated with hypersensitive response (HR) and defense-related signal transduction pathway in the absence of pathogen infection and elevated Ievels of salicylic acid (Zoubenko et al., 1997;Wang et al., 1998;Smimov et al., 1997). Add.itionally, PAP inhibits local Iesion formation to a number of different viruses, including both DNA and RNA viruses (Chen et al., 1993), conferring a resístant mechanism against both mechanically and aphid-transmitted virus.For this reason besides fungal resistance, it is interesting to evaluate the activity of the PAPy123 gene against RHBV and other rice viruses. Because PAP also confers resistance to a bread spectrum of fungal pathogen, it will be interesting to evaluate these transgenic plants for resistance to other pathogens as well. The transgenic Cica 8 line A3-49-60-4-5/FB007-19 containing the RHBV-N gene for RHBV resistance, showed highest level of tolerance to Rhizoctonia. The RHBV-N gene appears to confer resistance to this virus by RNA mediated cross protection where hypersensitive reaction mechanism is involved (Lentini et al., 2002). It could be possible that RNA transcripts from the RHBV-N gene could function as elicitors for the plant defense system before or during pathogen infection. This hypothesis requires more systematic research in order to determine the reproducibility of this phenomena and elucidate the resistance mechanism in vol ve.• To study the mechanism of action of the gene PAPyl23 in resistant transgenic Cica 8 and Palmar • To evaluate the possible effect of the gene PAPy123 on Tagosodes orizicolus, the planthopper vector of RHBV • To explain why sorne lines are resistant only to one strain of the fungus • To study protein expression and gene integration in the resistant lines • To evaluate the tolerance to Rice Stripe Necrosis Virus under greenhouse condition • To multiply seed (T 3 ) resistant to R. solani and evaluate resistance for Rhizoctonia, and other pathogens such as Sarocladium, and Helminthosporium under field conditions   Recent studies on genetic diversity of Latin American rice commercial varieties had shown the need for broadening the genetic base of breeding materials. Main targets are increase productivity, stability across environments, increase weed competition, and durable resistance to various diseases and pests. Latin American wild Oryza species are new sources of genetic diversity not found in the cultigens (Buso et al., 1998). These species represent a rich, largely untapped source of resistance genes to biotic and abiotic stresses.Work by CIAT rice breeding program has demonstrated increased evidence that O. rufipogon and O. glaberrima harbor genes of interest for the genetic improvement of cultivated rice (Martinez et al., 2002). However, other studies had shown that inter-specific hybrids in rice might be prompt to both F1 sterility and later-generation hybrid breakdown (Oka, 1988: Burke andAmold, 2001). Red rice (Oryza sativaf spontanea) is a weedy rice with having similar morphologicals traits as cultivated rice at vegetative phase but generally they have profuse tillering, and vigorous growth and other plant traits make this weed highly competitive respect to rice. According to Langevin et al. (1990), the red rice can be grouped in ecotypes with characters alike cultivated rice or wild rice (Oka and Chang, 1961). Other researches indicate that red rice shows intermediate characteristics between wild rice O. rufipogon and cultivated indica or japonica varieties of Oryza sativa L. (Oka, 1988cited by Bres-Patry et al. 2001). Another hypothesis is that weedy rice may evolve through the degeneration of domesticated rice, as weedy types of rice, where wild rice is not present (Vaughan et al. 2003). Our work using microssateliites markers had indicated that red rice accessions collected from farmer' s field in Colombia (Huila and Tolima) showed a genetic diversity not present in either rice commercial varieties, and the accessions of O. rufipogon, O. glumaepatula, O. barthii and O. galberrima analyzed (Gonzalez et al., 2003 in this report Output 1). Thus red rice could a potential source to broaden the genetic base of rice varieties.Selection of red rice accessions. Red rice materials were pre-selected based on previous phenotypic, phenological and molecular characterization (Gonzalez et al., 2002). Priority selection was given to accessions with resistance to RHBV, higher tiller number, yield potential and high re-growth capacity upon harvest. Selection criteria also included materials genetically diverse identified using the principal coordinate and component analyses, and microsatellite molecular characterization.RHBV resistance assays. Prelirninary evaluations were conducted on a total of 141 accessions of red rice. Second generation of self-progeny seeds of the original plants collected in farmers fields were planted in a randornized plot design with 3 replications. Thirteen commercial rice varieties with known reaction to RHBV and one accession of O. rufipogon were used as control. Materials were inoculated at 15 days old with two insects per plant from a Togasodes colony of 80% virulence. Plants were evaluated following the IRRI scale at 15, 30 and 45 days after inoculation.Of the 141 red rice accessions evaluated 83% were susceptible, and 24 red rice materials showed intermediare resistance in the field evaluations, with scores ranging from 5 to 6. Except for Fedearroz 2000 (score 3) and the transgenic line A3-49-60-12-3-3-57-74 (score 1) that were resistant to the virus, all the other varieties andO. rufipogon were intermediare (Oryzica 1 and Fedearroz Victoria 1, scores 5-6) or susceptible (scores 7-9) to RHBV. Thirty seven percent of the red rice with intermediare level of resistance was derived from field plots where Oryzica 1 has been cropped for at least 2 years in a row, and the other 37% from plots with Fedearroz 50. The other accessions carne from plots cultivated with either Coprosem 1 or Cimarron. At this point, it is not clear the source of resistance to RHBV present in these red rice materials, which needs more analysis.A total of 54 red rice materials were selected by having a significant higher number of tillers respect the commercial varieties. These red rice materials showed a range in tiller number from 22 to 30 tillers per plant, whereas the varieties showed from 11 to 24 tillers per plant. Sirnilarly the number of tillers that re-grew after harvest in red rice varied up to 29 tillers per plant, while the best variety (Fedearroz 50) showed a maximum of 29 tillers per plant. A total 59 red rice materials was selected based on its yield potential. These plants showed from 2 to 39 gram per plant, while the commercial varieties (Cimarron, Coprosem, Oryzica 1 and Fedearroz 50) showed a production from 10 to 25 g per plant.Other materials were selected to include the diversity found in the red rice population based on the analysis of qualitative and quantitative traits, as well as on the rnicrosateUite markers profile and resemblance with commercial varieties (17 materials) or wild species O. rufipogon (15 red rice). Selected materials will be planted in the field this semester for further characterization and selection, to initiate a breeding scheme (Figure 1). In addition to evaluations for agronomic traits, materials will be evaluated for RHBV resistance, milling and cooking quality traits. Selected plants will be crossed with Fedearroz 50, Fedearroz Victoria 1 and three FI...AR lines, segregating populations will be evaluated and selected F2 plants will be processed through anther culture to develop fix lines to initiate yield potential and regional evaluation earlier.To initiate the field characterization of agronomic traits of the selected red rice A large number of fruits of Andean origin have great potential to become premium products for local and export markets with a high economic retum for the farmers. Solanum quitoense, locally known as lulo in Colombia and as naranjilla in other countries, is among these fruits. This species is native from Colombia and Ecuador, and it is normally cultivated between 700 and 2000 meters above sea level. Sorne of the main attributes of this fruit include its high level of vitamin C, and the sub-shrubby perennial growth amenable for cultivation in hillsides and inter-cropping, aiding soil conservation practices. Recently in Colombia, naranjilla changed from being a fruit of local fresh consumption to become an important industrial fruit for juice and yogurt products, increasing its market value. A major constraint for the rapid adoption of naranjilla by the local farmers is the limited availability of elite germplasm free of pathogens from clonal propagation. The high level of heterozygosity of this species is reflected in the high segregation of traits by its multiplication through botanical seeds. Rapid multiplication of high quality planting materials is of paramount importance. One of the main objectives of this project is to develop a protocol for in vitro propagation of naranjilla with application for conservation and rapid multiplication of elite clones free of pathogens. This protocol would facilitate the conservation and multiplication of high quality of planting farmer' s material aiding to control one of the major constraints of this crop. In the previous two years we reported the development of an efficient protocol for the maintenance and propagation in vitro of clones selected from farmers field, for the plant regeneration from tissue cultures, and the preliminary evaluation of those plants in the field. This year we report the agronomic performance of those materials in the field, including quality traits of the fruit, as well the progress made to evaluate jointly with farmers the application of this technique at larger scale.Plant material. High quality and elite clones provided by the Andean Fruit Center (Centro Frutícola Andino-CEPA) were used. This collection includes naranjilla with or without thoms commonly grown by farmers. The plants were propagated in vitro or plants were regenerated following procedures as reported by Segovia et al . in SB2 Annual Report 2002.Plant and fruit evaluations. A small-scale field tri al was conducted at 1700 m o ver sea level and a mean temperature of 22C to compare the growth, development and agronomic performance of regenerated plants respect to in vitro propagated clones. Fruits produced during a period of five months were harvested, counted, weighted, and classified by size according to standard scale. Premium size: > 5.5.cm diameter. Commercial size: from 3.5 cm to 5.5 cm in diameter. No commercial: < 3.5 cm in diameter. The fruit maturation process (days from harvest to ripe to rotten) was evaluated using the Munsell color scale.Fruit quality trait analyses were conducted at the Valle University (Cali). These analyses included Brix grade at 20C, relative humidity, acidity percentage, vitamin C, sugar content, pH. A sensorial panel analysis was conducted to evaluate the fruits for its appearance, color, aroma and flavor as fresh fruit or processed in juice, and compared with those available in the supermarket.In vitro introduction of plants from greenhouse or field. Greenhouse or field grown plants were tested to select the best protocol for the in vitro introduction of elite farmer's clones from the field. In order to establish plants in the greenhouse, the recovery of plants from axillary buds using shoot stakes was tested. Clones stakes of 20 cm in length from adventitious shoots with 2-3 axillary buds were taken from selected plants in the field and disinfected first with 3 ml/1 of fungicide propamocarb HCL (Pervicur) for 5 min. The basal section of the stake containing the Iower two buds were either: a) Cultured in water until root formation; b) Soaked in a solution of 10 mgll NAA for 3 days and then transferred to water until root formation; ore) Potted directly in sterilized mix of soil, sand and sugar cane plant residues (Franco et al., 2002). Treatments (a) and (b) were aerated with a fish tank pump system. In order to establish plants in vitro, apical or axillary meristems from plants grown in the greenhouse or field were tested. Explants were surface sterilized and cultured in vitro on medium A instead of medium 17N (Segovia et al., 2002. SB2 Annual Report). Riphampicine (antibiotic) 100 mg/1 was added to the medium to control bacteria! infection from field explants, since the presence of trichomes in the tissues prevented thoroughly disinfections.Evaluation of the technology with farmers. A total of 20 farmers from two regions of Colombia (Cauca y Huila) with commercial production of lulo were selected. Farmers were chosen based on the years of experience cultivating lulo, the number of lulo plants currently grown and their interest to participate in this initiative. A strategy was planned jointly with the farmers to evaluate the potential commercial use of in vitro generated plants as an altemative of planting material clean of pathogens. This activity was conducted m collaboration with IPRA, the tropical fruit project of CIA T, and Corpoica-Popayán.Last year we reported no differences in plant growth and development between regenerated and in vitro propagated plants. Likewise, no significant differences were noted between the regenerated and in vitro propagated plants respect to the total number and total weight of fruits produced (Figure lA). However, the clones with thoms (T) showed higher disease and pest susceptibility that significantly reduced fruit production (Figure lA). The average productivity in 5 months of harvest indicated a mean number of fruits per plant of 142 for materials without thoms (G) and 28 fruits for T (Figure lA), and a total weight of fruits per plant of 5.58 kg for G and 1,57 kg for T (Figure lB). About 80% of the fruits harvested from these clones showed a commercial size (from 3.5 cm to 5.5 cm in diameter). The rest of the fruits were classified as 15% small fruits ( < 3.5 cm in diameter) for the G plants, and 10% prernium size (> 5.5 cm in diameter) for the T materials (Figure 2). Commercial production of lulo may yield per year about 135 fruits/plant and 9 kg fruits/plant when cultured at a density of 3,000-plants/ hectare (3 m 2 per plant, ccn. In this experiment plants were also planted at a distance of about 3 m 2 per plan t. Of the plants evaluated four were identified because of its high yield potential. These plants produced 9 kg fruits/plant during the Y2 year experimental harvest time. These plants were selected; seeds and stakes of these plants were collected, and grown in the greenhouse and in vitro.In relation to fruit quality, no significant differences were noted between the in vitro propagated clones, the regenerated plants and the commercial fruits bought in the supermarket for most chemical traits evaluated. The exception was the content of reduced sugar, which was lower in the supermarket fruit possibly indicating a longer post-harvest time respect to the experimental fruits at the moment the analyses were conducted (Table 1). The two sensorial analyses conducted gave different results. The first panel with 5 panelists shows a higher acceptance for the experimental materials for all traits, but the panel with 11 panelists indicated a higher acceptance for the supermarket fruit in relation to flavor and aroma, and higher acceptance for the experimental materials for color and physical appearance. This analysis seemed to be highly subjective, thus it may need to be conducted with a larger number of panelists to elucidate clearer preferences. No differences were noted in shelf life between the different materials.Attempts to establish plants in the greenhouse from field grown materials indicated that the highest percentage of stakes with new shoots was obtained when the stakes were planted directly into soil in the greenhouse. About 50% of the stakes had healthy looking plantlets 1 month after planting (Figure 3). Explants derived from clones with thoms responded poorly, perhaps due to the weak stage of the donor materials since they were highly affected in the field. Once plants were established in the greenhouse stakes from greenhouse-grown plants produced profuse roots when treated with aerated water, which ease the m~s clona! propagation of plants in the greenhouse. A high percentage of contamination was obtained when meristems were introduced in vitro directly from field grown plants. Explant survival (elongated shoots with roots) was increased from 40% to 60% when the antibiotic was added to the culture medium. No contamination was noted and at least 80% explant survival was obtained when meristems derived from greenhouse grown materials. Based on these results, successful in vitro introductions of elite materials selected in farmers fields can be achieved by establishing first clonally propagated plants in the greenhouse, and use these plants as donors for the in vitro culture of meristems. In the case a direct introduction from the field into in vitro conditions is needed, a more efficient surface sterilization protocol needs to be revised.A process was initiated to test with farmers the suitability of using in vitro propagated plants as planting materials. The potential advantage on the in vitro source is the supply of free pathogens homogenous plants maintaining the selected traits of the elite materials.Farmers were selected from two si tes with commercial production of lulo (Pescador, Cauca, and Tierradentro Cauca-Huila). These sites include small, medium, and large-size production fanns. The farmers have between 2 years to 9 year of experience cropping lulo, and 200-5,200 plant-size farms. Farmers attended a workshop at CIAT with the objective to define jointly a strategy to evaluate the potential commercial use of the in vitro plants. The advantages and lirnitations of using in vitro grown plants were discussed. The farmers evaluated the plants at the CIAT lulo experimental plot. The criteria were established for the collaboration. Farmers are highly enthusiastic with the project, and a teamwork approach will be implemented. For each site, two nursery plots will be established. Farmers will select the best two plants currently grown in their fields based on productivity, fruit quality, and disease/ pest resistance. These plants will clonally propagated in the field, and explants will be established in the greenhouse at CIA T. Meristems from these plants will be introduced in vitro. Pathogen-free in vitro propagated plants will be grown in the nursery plots jointly with the field-clonally propagated plants, and seedlings derived from the seeds of the selected plants (standard propagation mode used by the farmers). The in vitro, clonal-propagated and seed-propagated plants will be compared throughout the production season. The nursery plots could also be used for the evaluation of new germplasm, one of the main needs identify by the farmers, in addition to assistance for an integrated crop and disease/pest management approaches. Corpoica could play a key role in these aspects, reason why CIA T is trying to strengthen their linkage in the project. Farmers selected their best elite materials and currently the plants are being clonally propagated in the field. Following, plants will be brought to CIA T to initiate their introduction in vitro. Field evaluations will be conducted first semester of 2004.   Cassava is an important crop for marginal agriculture areas in Africa, Latín America and Asia. It produces well under marginal conditions and is identified as a famine reserve in subsistence farming. The globalization of world economy offers cassava new opportunities for becoming an even more important source of raw materials for different industries. To achieve this, cassava productivity must increase steadily and reliably based on an efficient breeding approach. Increased genetic variability will be required to achieve diversified end uses of cassava products. This implies not only access to existing variability but effective tools for proper evaluation and screening, as well as the generation of new genetic variability for several key traits. However, traditional cassava breeding has not changed in the last 30 years and there is a need for a more dynamic breeding system so that cassava can maintain its competitiveness respect to other commodities. Introducing inbreeding in cassava genetic improvement has many advantages, which will facilitate and expedite the generation of diversified improved breeding lines. But developing inbred lines through self-pollinations would require in cassava about 9-12 years. Rapid and complete homozygous can be reached by using in vitro haploid technology. The aim of this project is to develop a protocol to induce androgenesis in cassava for the generation of doubled haploids. Doubled haploids of cassava will regenerate from cultured anthers or microspores of elite •varieties via embryogenesis. An oyerview of the results with outcrossing species prompt to inbreeding depression likewise cassava, indicates that an efficient technology for the production of DH in cassava could be developed and spite of inbreeding depression, doubled haploid lines can still be useful for uncovering desirable genetic variability that is masked in highly heterozygous plants (Andersen et al., 1990, Paillard et al., 1996, Zhang et al., 2002). Previous preliminary work conducted by Roca and Iglesias (1993) reported the induction of sporadic callus derived from in vitro culture of isolated microspores. Although these results were not reproducible, it is a proof of concept indicating that it is possible to induce cassava cultures of isolated microspores to divide in vitro. Thus a more s'ystematic analysis of the factors affecting androgenesis in cassava as proposed in this project, may allow the development of a reproducible protocol for the generation of DH in this species. In this first report we present a preliminary study directed to the identification of optimal microspore across different genotypes and environments, the optimization of environmental conditions for shipment of flower buds for establishment of collaboration with ARis, and the cytogenetic analysis of various clones.Clones gown at CIA T experimental Station or Santander de Quilichao of varieties with contrast flowering cycle (early, intermediate and late) were used: AM244-31, MCol-1505, CM4574-7, MCo11468, AM312-103 , CM523-7, MPer-183 and AM523-7; preference was given to clones with profuse flowering. lmmature flower buds were collected when plants were about 8-12 month-old. Based on previous work on cassava flower biology conducted at Ciat by Roca et al. (1989), flower buds were collected when they were between 0.8 mm and 2.5 mm is diameter and fixed in a solution of 3:1 ethanol: glacial acetic acid with 0.5% ferric chloride for 24 hr for deterrnining the stage of rnicrospore development according to flower bud size. The number of rnicrospores per anther was deterrnined, and cytogenetic analyses were conducted to identify the different stages throughout the meiosis, the number of chromosomes and bivalents (ploidy level), identify chromosomal aberrations, as well as the development from cytokinesis to mature pollen grain. Two treatments were tested to evaluate optimal conditions for flower bud shipment. Flower buds were surface sterilized with ethanol 70% for 3 rnin followed by chlorox 20%-30% for 10-15 rnin, and three washes with distilled sterile water. Sterilized flower buds were either transferred in a Falcon 50 ml tube containing sterile water at 24-26 C (room temperature), or in zip-plug plastic bags 4 C (refrigerator). Pollen viability was measured through one week, time expected for the shipment to last.The cassava pollen is generally from 122 to 148 J.l.m in size, which is large compared to other flowering plants. Prelirninary work suggests that most varieties show rnicrospore in the tetrad stage (Figure lB) of development when flower buds are between 0.8 and 1 mm in diameter (Figure 2). Flower buds of 1.2-1.5 mm in diameter contain rnicrospores at the uninucleate stage (Figure lC), whereas those of 1.6-1.8 mm in diameter are at the binucleate (Figures ID and 2). Most flower buds contain mature pollen grains when they reach 2.0-2.2 mm in diameter ( Figures IF-G, and 2). This association between flower bud size and rnicrospore developmental stages appears to change with each peak of flowering.Early varieties seem to show a faster development of pollen grains in smaller flower buds (AM 244-31, Figure 2).Prelirninary data suggest that about 100-200 rnicrospores are produced per anther = 1,000-2,000 per flower bud. However, a variation in the number of rnicrospores/ anther was found between anthers from different flowers of the same inflorescence and between different inflorescences. The intermediate flowering genotype CM523-7, produced about twice rnicrospores per anther (200 rnicrospores/ anther) than the late flowering material MPer-183 (100 rnicrospores/ anther). This figure needs to be checked in a broader range of genotypes across different environments. If this low amount of pollen grains is corroborated, it will be an important bottleneck for isolating large number of microspores required for isolated microspore culture, in such a case the pollen shed system should be considered.In addition, MPer-183 was more affected by the different environmental conditions between the two sites, producing about half of the microspores/anthers (about 80 microspores/anther) when grown at Ciat (satine soils) respect to Quilichao (acid soils, 166 microspores/anthers). The intermediate clone CM523-7 seemed to be less affected by the contrasting conditions in the two sites, producing 189 microspores/anthers and 224 microspores/anthers at the two field sites CIAT and Quilichao, respectively. Based on agronomic performance, CM523-7 is a clone known to have a broader adaptation to contrasting environments respect to MPer-183. This preliminary data suggests that there is a strong genotype-environmental interaction affecting the production of microspores. This interaction seems not only to affect the yield of microspores/ anthers but also the stage of development. The intermediate clone CM523-7 showed a tendency of a faster development of pollen grains in smaller flower buds when grown at Quilichao respect to CIAT.The cytogenetic study indicated that about 95% of pollen mother cells analyzed for MCOL 1505 showed 36 small and similarly shaped chromosomes and 18 bivalent pairing at meiosis (Figure 1H). Late chromosome condensation and chromosome adherence was noted in sorne cases atprophase l. Three nucleolar chromosomes were noted at prophase 1 and 11, and telophase 11 and l. Cytokinesis showed tetrahedral arrangement (Figure 1A-B). Cassava is a highly heterozygous species. Few complete cytogenetic studies are available in cassava. Studies with molecular markers suggest disomic inheritance for sorne loci with evidence of gene duplication (Carvahlo et al. 1999and 2002~ Jennings and Iglesias, 2002).Although three nucleolar chromosomes are noticed as for true diploids, duplication of sorne chromosomes is also present suggesting segmenta! allotetraploidy.  Flower bud diameter (mm)•AM244-31 •MPER183•CM523-7•MCOL 1505 oMCOL 1468• Input from breeders will be used to gather information on flowering, environmental adaptation and genetic diversity to select the best candidate experimental genotypes. Genotypes with profuse, continuous flowers , synchrony of microspore development, slow maturation process to pollen grain, ideally with known in vitro response, and desirable breeding traits are available, will be used as experimental genotypes to develop a protocol for efficient induction of androgenesis in vitro.Cassava starch is a polymer composed of linear (amylose) and ramified (amylopectin) glucose uníts. Starch is a raw material used to produce glues, textiles, paper, chemicals and animal feed components among other products. Sorne of these require a 100% amylopectin-containing starch. One way to obtain it in cassava is by silencing the gene GBSSI (granule bound starch synthase), involved in amylose synthesis via transgenesis.We summarize the latest achievements on producing amylose free cassava.The GBSSI gene was isolated from a cDNA cassava library, using a potato probe, to make vectors containing sense and antisense versions of the gene (pCAMBIA1305.2-S and pCAMBIA1305.2-A, respectively, in Agll A. tumefaciens strain), which were transformed into friable embryogenic callus (FEC) of cassava cultivars 60444 and MCol2215. Putative transgenic tissues were subject to selection with hygromycin. The transformation vector contained a gusA gene that allowed for early scoring and follow up of transformation events.The first transgenic lines of cultivar 60444 are being regenerated (  There are two ways to calculate transformation efficiency with cultivar 60444: There are 10 independent transgenic plants, seven gus positive and three gus negative, that regenerated plants. The initial amount of FEC that was transformed was 8.2 g of FEC; it gives 1,2 independent trasngenic lines/g of FEC The same 10 independent transgenic lines were recovered from 100 FEC clusters. Assuming that each cluster represents an explant, transformation efficiency, in percentage, is 10/100 = 0,10 (10% ).The fonner way of calculating transfonnation efficiency has been adopted as the standard for transfonnation in cassava.  (Miles and Do Valle, 1996). Tropical grasses have high content of cell wall constituents, and this generally correlates negatively to intake, digestibility and animal performance. The major anti-quality components of grass cell walls are lígnin and phenol monomers, which esterifies with cell wall polysaccharides (Smith and He, 2000).Lignin composition, particularly the relative proportion of syringyl (S) and guaíacyl (G) units in the lignin polymer, and the nature of the covalent linkages between lignin and other polymers are also important determinants of the leve! of digestibility (Heath et al., 1998). Genetic variation for quality is present in grass species and traditional breeding programs have been using that variability to improve forage quality. Although progress has been made, it has been slow and limited. Developments in genetic engineering now offer additional ways to improve forage quality. Methods are available to down-regulate lignin biosynthesis genes to reduce lignin content and/or change its type to improve forage digestibility. The lignin biosynthesis pathway and severa! key enzymes are reasonably well understood (Smith and He, 2000).Caffeic acid 0-methyltransferase (COMT) ís a key enzyme in the lignin biosynthesis pathway. Therefore the modification of lignin content and/or composition by genetic manipulation would be of great economic interest, if consider that a 1% in crease in mean live weight gains per animal (Casler and Vogel, 1999). We had reported the cloning and characterization of a caffeic acid 0-methyltransferase gene from Brachiaria decumbens (BdCOMT) (Florez et al., 2003). The objective of this part of the research was to finalize the characterization of this gene by functional analysis of its expression in transgenic rice plants used as model species.Rice genetic transformation. Mature embryos derived embryogenic callus from indica (cv Palmar) andjaponica (Nipponbare) varieties, where used targets. Agrobacterium mediated transformation was conducted using the Agll strain containing the constructs pC010MT-2, pC010MT-4, pC05.20MT-l and pC05.20MT-2 previously generated in the laboratory (Florez et al., 2002, SB2 Annual report p. 254-259). These constructs contain the BdCOMT gene in sense or antisense orientations. Transgenic rice was according Tabares et al., 1999.Southem Blot Analysis: Genomic DNA from rice young leaves was isolated following the methodology McCouch et al. (1988). Brachiaria DNA (15 l-lg) were digested with the restriction enzymes Hind m. The fragments were separated on 1% agarose gels and transferred to Hybond W membranes according to the manufacturer's ínstructions (Amershan). Probe consisted of the open reading frame of BdCOMT prepared by PCR. DNA probes were random primer labeled using Megaprime DNA Labeling System kit (Amersham) and e 2 P] dATP. The hybridization was carried out overnight at 55°Cfollowing the manufacturer' s recomrnendations.Northem Analysis: 15 }!g of total RNA from rice leaves was separated on 1% formaldehyde gels and transferred to Hybond N+ (Amersham) membranes according to the manufacturer' s instructions. The pro be consisted of the open reading frame of BdCOMT prepared by PCR. DNA probes were random primer-labeled using Megaprime DNA Labeling System kit (Amersham) and [32p] dATP. Hybridization and washing were carried out following the manufacturer' s recomrnendations.Histochemical reactions: Leaves sections were sliced by hand and stained according to Weisner and Maüle reactions. For Maüle staining, leaf sections were immersed for 5 min in 1% Kmn0 4 , rinsed and distained in 30% HCI, washed and mounted in concentrated ~OH. Por the Weisner reaction, leaf sections were incubated for 2 min in phloroglucinol solution (2% in ethanol/water 95/5 v/v), and then mounted in 50% HCI. Bright field photographs were taken between 20 min after staining procedure.Plant evaluations: Six agronornic traits of transgenic rice plants were evaluated in the greenhouse. These characteristics included: (1) days to flowering, (2) height, (3) number of tillers, (4) fertility, (5) weight of 100 grains, and (6) total grain weight per plant.Southem analysis indicated that the BdCOMf gene was introduced in sense and antisense orientations in the rice genome of cultivars Palmar (indica) and Nipponbare (japonica).Total of 321 embryogenic hygromycin resistance callus were transferred to regeneration medium containing 50 mg r 1 hygromycin. Between 8-75% of the callus regenerated plants.A total of 125 To plants were transferred to the greenhouse and Southem blot analysis confirmed the integration of BdCOMf gene in 92 -100% of the plants analyzed. These results suggest transformation efficiency between 10-74% for Palmar and between 15-56% for Nipponbare cultivar for different experiments.The BdCOMf expression was measured using histochemical analysis through Weisner and Maüle reactions. Weisner stain in known to react with cinnamaldehyde residues in lignin and the color intensity reflects the totallignin content. No difference was detected with this stain between control and transgenic plants, indicating no significant variation in lignin quantity. In contrast, the Maüle reaction, which is specific for free S units in lignin, revealed variations in staining intensity from pale yellow (inhibited expression) to red (over expresion). Sorne plants displayed a bright red color in their vascular tissue suggesting putative over expression of the BdCOMf gene in these plants. A good correlation between Northem and histochemical analysis was found. High RNA transcript levels were found in these over expressing plants, while no signal was detected in untransformed controls and a very weak signal or no signal was detected in the most plants showing pale yellow color (Figure 1).Agronomic characterization of the transgenic plants indicated sorne variation between transgenic and non-transgenic controls, mainly in the transgenic lines from Nipponbare. High levels of sterility were noted in transgenic Nipponbare plants. This type of phenotypic variation was also noted on non-transgenic regenerated plants, which did not contain the transgenes as indicated by the Southem blots. Transposons and retrotransposons have been found to induce mutation during in vitro culture. In Nipponbare, three retrotransposons (ToslO, Tos17 and Tosl9) are activated during in vitro culture and inactivated during in planta growth (Hiroshima et al., 1996). Previous analyses of expression of other COMf genes in other plants have not found effect on plant growth and development in contrast to the 0-methyltransferase gene CoA-3, which has been demonstrated to affect plant growth (Picon et al., 2001). Thus the phenotypic variation found in transgenic BdCOMf Nipponbare plants seems not to be associated with the presencel expression of the transgene.The quantification of the lignin content and composition in transgenic BdCOMf rice will be conducted in order to complement these analyses. Low-cost propagation methods could support decentralized seed systems. Today this project is in a position to distribute clean materials (certified FSD-free material) for small fanners to use in their next planting cycle (2004-A). Our materials could also be used for reestablishing cassava plantations in the Cauca area.Materials being grown by farmers were collected from Buenos Aires, Caldono, Morales and Santander de Quilichao (Cauca Province). A total of 27 materials were planted in two local seed banks (Pescador 1500 m alt. and Piendamó 1700 m alt.). Stakes were collected from each si te and taken to CIA T HQ in Palmira to initiate meristem culture; and 19 morphological descriptors were evaluated (Fukuda and Guevara, 1998).Younger leaves, to be used in the AFLP analysis, were collected from the CIAT greenhouse for DNA extraction by the Dellaporta method.A total of 6061 plants from 6 clones (M Bra 383, CM 523-7, M Col 1522, HMC-1, CM 6740-7 and M Per 183) were evaluated for frog-skin disease (FSD) by ICA officials.A new plot of cassava plant materials was introduced to the propagation scheme to reactivate a rural in vitro laboratory located in San Rafael.The materials collected were Algodona Gigante, Algodona Rápida, Chiroza, Verde, Algodona Grande, Varita, Pate Pava, Bajuna Pequeña, Correita, Independencia Mejorada, Bajuna Armenia, Totoqueña, Falsa Chiroza, Sata, Chiroza Roja, Blanquita, Cáscara Roja, Parroquiana, Amarilla, Algodona Pequeña, Bajuna, Bajuna Grande, Panameña, Sauce, Regional Morada, SM 5080-1 and Yuca Blanca.Two seed banks were established using materials collected in Pescador (20 materials) and Piendamó (17 materials, sorne of them replanted). When the materials from Pescador were harvested, the farmers expressed interest in Totoqueña (4.1 kg avg), Algodona rápida (2.76 kg avg) and Algodona grande (2.6 kg avg) (Fig. 1-A). The average per total harvested area (840m 2 ) was 1.8 kg with a total production per area 1650 kg after 14 mo. Materials from Piendamó will be harvested in November.Good DNA quality was obtained using the Dellaporta method (Fig. 1-B). Quantification and dilutions were initiated in order to start running the AFLP's. We expect to find diversity among the Algodona materials (farmers preferred these materials by its good starch quality). At present they are very interested in obtaining material from Rojita, but it has not been collected yet although sorne farmers are growing it.A total of 614 meristems were placed in in vitro conditions and will be used as a source of explants for in vitro thennotherapy.ICA functionaries certified the San Rafael plot as free of FSD-diseased plants. Those materials were planted last years as part of CBN-PRGA supported activities (Escobar et al., 2002). Sorne materials (HMC-1, CM 6740-7, M Bra 383, CM 523-7) have good potential (Fig. 2A-B; Table 1). A rapid propagation scheme will be implemented using these materials as the initial source.   The use of in vitro materials could be used initially as part of a decentralized seed system. This would permit certifying the quality and quantity of material per cycle.In vitro systems could be use for seed releases or renewing materials that are showing decreases in root production. Materials from San Rafael will give strong support to cassava systems in Cauca.• Running the AFLP fingerprinting.• Implement two thermo therapy cycles and then material will be tested with Secundina (M Col 2063) for FSD certification • Clean certified materials will be propagated for the rurallaboratory. A second plot will be planted to establish a clean seed bank. • Implement rapid propagation scheme using certified material planted in San Rafael.Cryopreservation techniques can be divided into classical and new. CIAT has developed altematives for both kinds of techniques (Escobar et al., 1997, Escobar et al. , 2000). New techniques based on encapsulation-dehydration, which are simple and rapid, would be useful for preserving large germplasm collections such as that of cassava. Not too many steps are involved as in the classic methods. Using these techniques with a wider number of clones will give a general idea about how safe this conservation method is in the long term with respect to repeatability and consistency after freezing.The encapsulation-dehydration method was implemented using materials from the in vitro bank. These materials were propagated using 4E medium (Roca, 1984) for the bud/node explants. When we tried scaling up, we considered increasing the number of beads per container (recycled baby food jars). Normally each jar with 50 g of silica gel holds 20 beads; we tested 40 beads per jar.To determine if a clone is amenable to being cryopreserved, it has to form shoots from at least 30% of the beads after freezing. This is considered the threshold (Escobar et al., 2001).To date we have received 447 cassava clones, which are being propagated to increase them up to 100-150 plants/clone to produce enough new shoots (2-3 months old and without cuttings) to use in the cryopreservation process.During the last 6 months we had a problem with dust mites infecting the production and lost 187 clones (42% of the material received). This attack made it necessary to increase propagation activities, reducing the number of clones put under cryopreservation. From the material received, we cryopreserved 348 clones (78% of material received, which corresponds to 55.2% of the core collection).Of the total clones cryopreserved so far, 68% have surpassed the threshold value (Table 1). Of the 145 clones tested in [2002][2003]43 % reached the threshold (Table 2).  The 40 beads in the baby food jar did not dehydrate sufficiently or homogeneously; thus encapsulated shoots did not survive freezing. In contrast, when the 40 beads were placed in a petri dish, they reached similar hurnidity levels to the 20 beads in a baby food jar (Fig. 1). These results indicate that dehydration, as expected, depends on the number of beads, the type of container and the sucrose pretreatment. Ideally, larger containers should be used to handle more beads; i.e., glass petri dishes with a larger numbers of beads. However, the cost of a glass petri dish is 250 times higher than a baby food jar.A routine was established to clean the growth room. It perrnits rnite control by combining chernical treatments specific for adults and eggs. Every 15 days we also apply rnint or eucalyptus oil scents on the floor as a preventive measure to keep rnites away .. Last year the SB-2 project supported others projects using its tissue culture facilities to provide them sorne interesting materials (Escobar et al., 2002). The massive cassava propagation system using RITA® was developed by CIAT. This system has been validated with a wide range of cassava materials (Escobar et al., 2000), as well as with other crops (Escobar et al., 2002). Using this system malees it possible to increase propagation rates 6-11 times vs 3-4 times under solid conditions. A summary of this activity is presented here.Conventional in vitro propagation using 4E medium was implemented; rooting was doing in a 17 N medium (Roca, 1984). Users were responsible for hardening and greenhouse management, following Roca et al. (1984).The quality and quantity of new explants recovered by RITA depend on the type and amount of cytokinins used in the media. For cassava best results were observed after treatment with 0.5 mg/1 IDZ; it release shoot tips from apical dominance and allow recover more than one shoot per explant. Combining RITA® -Solid-RIT A® gave the best combinations and enabled recovery of plants without hyper hidrycity (Escobar et al., 2002).Technical support was given to Corn Products lnc. (Malambo) with respect to the management of sorne in vitre problems associated with water quality in their laboratory.Six different plots were established (Table 1). As only a few plants were requested each time, the solid conditions could be used.For the Cauca farmers this project could be considered a unique option for obtaining clean materials. As discussed in the article \"Cassava propagation using low-cost in vitre propagation techniques and conservation of native varieties from southwestern Colombia\" presented elsewhere in this report, material planted in San Rafael, Cauca, last year was certified by ICA functionaries as FSD-free and could be used as a seed source for the rapid propagatíon system.  Whiteflies and FSD are the most limiting problems for cassava in the Cauca regions. In 2002, CORPOICA, MADR and CIAT released a clone with high resistance to the whitefly (Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar) named Nataima-31 (CIAT code CG489-31) (Bonilla et al. , 2002). This is a promising clone that could be used under Cauca conditions. Gustavo Jaramillo (pers. com.) has provided us with a list of sorne materials that he has observed with FSD tolerance. For that reason we included sorne clones with whitefly and FSD resistance in propagation schemes that could be u sed for future testing plot under farmers' conditions.At present, we are running sorne materials with RITA® in • order to cover the needs for whitefly and FSD materials (CG 489-31 , SM 7951-5, M Per 183, HMC-1), commercial clones (CM 523-7, CM 6740-7) and sorne for Cauca farmers (M Col 1522, M Bra 383). For CM 6740 the propagation rate was 1:12.In vitro facilities could play a critica! role in producing clean material to make comparisons with conventional cuttings, releases of new breeding material, renewing materials, clone dissemination, pest and insect testing among others uses.If CIA T projects are thinking of encouraging the use of these materials they must plan their agenda jointly, making propagation schemes, agreeing upon objectives and supply requirements. Coordination among projects is critica! to meet everyone's research agenda.The in vitro system could be used initially for whitefly and FSD management in Cauca by preliminary testing of this material on farm conditions. This scheme could also be implemented in the biofortification program for distributing, testing and promoting high carotene-content materials. Punctual requirements could be covered with RITA® because this system has the highest propagation rate in a short period time. The GRU usually provides 5 plants per clones after signing the Material Transfer Agreement.CMD breeding at CIA T aims to develop Latín America cassava gene pools adapted to the disease should in case it ma.kes an accidental entry into the region. A second important objective is to facilitate gennplasm shípment of CIA T' s elite cassava gennplasm to regions, such as India and Sub Saharan Africa where CMD is endemic, via the introgression of CMD resistance into CIAT's elite gennplasm. To permit marker-assisted selection (MAS) of CMD resistance at CIA T for Latin America and at the same time fulfill plant quarantine conditions for the shipment of the CMD resistant CIA T germplasm to India and Africa, it is necessary to germinate and maintain in vitro breeding populations. This season more than 3000 controlled crosses were made between CMD resistant parents introduced from llT A and elite cassava parents or backcross derivatives of M. esculenta sub spp flabellifolia for resistance to the green mite. A total of 2315 seeds were harvested as mature seeds and have been germinated in vitro from embryo axes. A summary of results obtained from the germination of these seeds is presented below. Once germinated, the plantlets were multiplied, molecular-assisted selection (MAS) performed using the marker NS158 and another SCAR marker RME1, and CMD resistant genotypes will be transferred to the screen house for further hardening and evaluation as well as for shippment to collaborators in India and Africa.The culture of embryo axes from mature or immature seed has become routine in the establishment of cassava CMD breeding populations in vitro. The method being currently used is that developed at CIA T and modified by Okogbenin (2003), in summary, seeds are selected by a floatation test in water, seeds that float (indicating of vain or little developed seeds) are discarded, incubation in 97% sulfuric acid to 97% for 50 minutes, to allow for easy scarification, and washing with water to eliminate the acid. Following, the seeds are disinfected with 70% alcohol to for two minutes then with a solution of sodium hypoclorite (0.5%) and a drop of 20 tween for 12 minutes, finally they are rinsed three times with sterile deionized water. The embryo axes is then removed together with the cotyledon and placed on 17N media and left in the dark for 5 days at temperatures between 28 and 31°C. Next, the embryos are incubated at the same temperature under a photoperiod of 12h light and 12h darkness until they grow into full plants which are then multiplied in 4E media.    ;--m- A total of 2315 mature seeds of cassava originating from 62 F 1 families corresponding to breed.ing populations for resistance to CMD, denominated \"CR\" were received from the breed.ing section. Of this 214 seeds were rejected by the floatation test and 2101 seeds were germinated. Of this number a total of 1128 fully formed plants were recovered and multiplied, a little more 54% recovery. The low % recovery of plants, down from the normal 80% was dueto a very severe attack of green mites in the growth room this year. Plants that are observed to be contaminated with green mites are immed.iately removed and destroyed. A concerted effort of weekly application of acaricide in the growth room, elimination of infected plants, and cleaning of individual tubes with 96% ethanol has been initiated to control the mi te infestation. A number of other cassava tissue culture facilities at CIA T also had mi te problems this year. The source of the mi te problem is not known but it is thought they may ha ve gained entrance via infested in vitro plants transferred from one facility to another.One mature plant of each of the 1128 genotypes was sent to the cassava molecular marker lab for DNA extraction and marker analysis for MAS. Genotypes that have the Cl\\ID2 resistance gene after marker analysis are sent to the green house for hardening and further field evaluation and to partners in Africa and India. At the moment 633 genotypes resistant to ACl\\ID are being transferred to greenhouse, a total off 125 have been established to far, and also being multiplied, at least 10 copies per shipment, to make a shipment to Nigeria, Tanzania and India. Also in the green house are 96 genotypes of 3 S 2 families developed under the S2 recurrent selection for tolerance to inbreeding and 47 genotypes of inter-specific crosses established last year from immature sexual seeds and propagated in vitro this year. These immature seeds are from plants that had to be removed from the field due to the \"zero-cassava\" rule of no plants for one month on the experimental station at Palmira.Other activities in the tissue culture section this year include Embryo rescue of 173 and 123 seeds respectively from 2 St families (AM313 and AM320) of cassava for molecular mapping of cyanogenic potential in collaboration with the Swedish Agricultura! University (SLU), Uppsala,The establishment CMD resistance breeding populations at CIAT for molecular márkerassisted breeding of resistance has become routine. Although a severe attack of mites reduced considerable the% recovery of plants, more than 1000 plants ha ve been processed this year, compared to about less than 500 Iast year. Future perspectives are to tackle the problems discovered this year with mite infestation in the growth rooms, as well as the current size of the growth room and raise this number to at least 5000 plants every year.CIA T cassava project has responsibility to malee available improved germplasm to partners in the NARs in Asia, Latín America and Africa. The cassava tissue culture facility was therefore used to propagate clean materials of improved varieties for shipment to NARs in Latin America and Africa on request from partners. The facility has also been used to clean-up and transfer into in vitro field plants from the field that have were requested for by partners. An example is the shipment to Vietnam of 57 genotypes selected from a diallel experiment for further evaluation in Vietnam. We present a report of shipments of plants in vitro of cassava made to several countries from February to September of the 2003.In vitro plants of the improved varieties were received from the genetic resources unit (GRU) and multiplied using 4E media according to standard protocols established at CIAT (Roca and Mroginski 1991). The method utilized for clean-up and transfer of field plants to tissue culture is that routinely used at CIAT with sorne modifications, in sumrnary: stems with apices and nodes are obtained from plants in the field or green house, the leaves are removed leaving approximately 5mm of petiole. The stem cuttings are washed with sufficient tap water and cut into nodes and apices, with one node per piece. In the flow hood, the fragments are placed into a 250ml sterile flask and washed with 70% ethanol for 30 seconds with vigorous shaking. The ethanol is discarded and the washed again with 10% sodium hypochlorite (0.5% v/v sodium hypochlorite) and one drop of liquid soap for 5 minutes, with vigorous shaking. The hypochlorite solution is discarded and the cuttings washed 3X with sterile double distilled water. The cuttings are then transferred to a sterile petri dish and, using a sharp sterile scapel, the extremes that have been in contact with the solutions are eliminated. The stem cuttings are then planted in 4E medium and placed in a growth room at 28oC with photo-period of 12h light and 12h hours darkness to develop into full plants.    A total of 3506 plants from a list of 39 improved genotypes were shipped to collaborators in Haití, Peru, Cuba, Nigeria, Nicaragua, India and the Dominican Republic this year (Table 1). Aside from this, 5 plants of 44 genotypes were also shipped to Crop Research Institute (CRI), Kumasi Ghana, for the Ph.D. study of Ms Elizabeth Okai who is looking for heterotic pattems between germplasm from Africa and Latín American based on SSR marker clustering. Ten plants each of a selection of 57 genotypes from a diallel study was also shipped to Vietnam for the Ph.D. study of Ms Cach who was at CIAT in 2002 for 6 months analyzing the same diallel experiment (Table 2). Stakes from the 57 genotypes in the field were planted in the sreen house, disinfected and nodal cutting established in vitro in 4E media.The cassava tissue culture facility is being used to share valuable germplasm with collaborators all over the world within a reasonable period of time, germplasm is shipped within 2 months from when the request is received, smaller requests of 5-10 plants per genotype take a month while larger ones take up to 2 months. Future perspectives include an enlargement of thee growth room to allow for the simultaneous processing of several shipment requests.Good quality and healthy planting material is crucial for high yields in cassava. Cuttings obtained from diseased and/or pest infested plants can reduce yield by 30% to 80% (Guritno1985). Another problem with unhealthy planting material is sprouting. The ability of stakes to sprout is closely related to their starch content at planting and growth during the first 20 days after plating is exclusively at the expense of the nutritive reserve previously accumulated in the stakes (Molina et. al. 1995). Starch content of stakes is reduced with poor soil fertility and disease/pest attack. A 20% drop in sprouting and a yield loss of 10% due to the use of poor quality planting material in a 2000ha farm translates to a loss of 8,400 metric ton of fresh cassava roots, at the national average yield of 14tlhectare. Ata conservative estímate of US$50/ton this is a loss of US$0.42 million. Such a loss quickly wipes out the profit margin and puts the entire venture at risk.As part of its assistance package to the Nigerian commercial cassava production company, the Nigeria Starch Mills (N S M), CIA T and CLA YUCA agreed to pro vide technical knowhow on rapid multiplication of clean planting material. In Nigeria, commercially available cuttings are often taken from plants that are diseased, damaged by insect and pests and inadequately fertilized with a consequent reduction in yield (Okeke 1994, Ospina andFregene, Personal observation 2003).Tissue culture of cassava meristematic tissue has been successfully applied to obtain in vitro cassava plants that are disease-and pest-free (Roca et al. 1991). The technology also permits the mass production of in vitro plants compared to traditional multiplication methods. A multiplication ratio of 100 is possible using new efficient multiplication systems, such as the automated temporary immersion systems (ATIS) or \"bioreactors\". Apart from the production of healthy planting materials, rapid tissue culture multiplication can be used to mass-produce and deploy a new promising variety over a short period. However, the initial high start-up costs of the automated ternporary immersion system and support tissue culture facilities increases the costs of establishing a commercial farming operation and diverts funds from other much need activities, making it less attractive compared to other multiplication schemes.To reduce costs, a cheaper tissue-culture based rapid multiplication scheme that combines an initial step of tissue culture muitiplication, hardening, 4 months of field growth, then a 2-node multiplication scheme in a special nursery, as practiced at CfCRI, Trivandrum, India, followed by another cycle of field growth and multiplication in the special nursery was proposed to NSM. The rapid multiplication scheme is expected to produce 2-3 million plants by July 2004, with enough cuttings to plant a 200ha \"seed bank\" to be used as a source for good quality healthy planting material. The scheme can also become a commercial source of planting material for sale to other large scale multiplication projects, for example the pre-emptive management of the cassava mosaic disease (CMD) projects that is being initiated in Nigeria by the Government of Nigeria, NDDC, sorne oil companies, and USAID in collaboration with liT A, Ibadan .. Specific objectives were: Five stakes from 44 liTA improved cassava genotypes were obtained from Alfred Dixon, liT A, Ibadan, for tissue culture multiplication. A list of the improved lines is shown in Table l. A request to multiply the materials at the tissue culture facility of the University of Legon, Acera was granted and multiplication began first week of July. The five stakes were planted in plastic bags and after 2 weeks, meristematic or nodal cuttings was harvested, cleaned with sodium hypochlorite and cultured in 112 MS media supplemented with BAP and GA (4E media). After 4, 8, and 12 weeks after planting the plantlets were subcloned to obtain the target of 200-250 plants per genotype.Hardening of the plants will be in the NSM screen house (65% shade), currently under construction, using a soil mixture of 3 parts sand and 1 part top-soil in black plastic bags. Tissue culture plants received will be gently removed from the glass tubes and placed in the plastic bags with soil, a fungicide will be applied to control fungus growth and plants fertilized with a commercial fertilizer rich in phosphorus. A stryofoam cup with holes will be used to provide the plantlets with high humidity. After one month in the screen house, the plants will be transferred to the field and watered regularly. About 500kg of NPK 15:15:15 fertilizer will be added in split applications at 1 and 2 month after transplanting to the field in bands.After 4 months of growth, 2-node cuttings will be obtained from each plant using a sharp knife and transferred to the special covered nursery. The plants will be watered regularly and at 1 month after planting they will be transferred to the field. The special nursery is simply a canopy of a mesh that allows in only 65% of light while excluding the rest over a nursery bed. The shade of the canopy, combined with constant watering provides an area of high humidity adequate for the fast growth of cassava. A picture of the special nursery is shown in Figure l. During this period, special care is taken to rouge out diseased plants and to keep the area free of pests by spraying appropriate pesticides.After the plants multiplied in the special nursery have grown, another round of multiplication is carried out as described above, this is the final round of multiplication.The plants are then allowed to grow until maturity in the field and used as a seed bank of planting material for storage root productionTen to 20 plantlets of 44 improved varieties from llT A were established from nodal cuttings obtained from 2 week old potted plants in tissue culture (4E media) at the University of Legon. After 4 weeks, the plantlets were subcloned to obtain a 3 to 5 time multiplication of the original plantlets. Two further rounds of multiplication were conducted at 8 and twelve weeks to give between 200 and 250 plants per genotype. The plants are ready for green house hardening and are awaiting the completion of the NSM green house facility under construction at Ihiala, Nigeria. In the mean time an import permit to bring the plants from Ghana into Nigeria has been applied for via the Nigerian Plant Quarantine office and a phyto-sanitary certificate has been requested from the Ghanian authorities to ship the plants to Nigeria. A rapid multiplication of clean improved planting material has been embarked upon for the Nigeria Starch Mili (NSM), if successful it could be a very rapid method for the production of clean planting material for both the medium and large scale cassava production sector in Nigeria as well as small scale rural farming. Although the scheme is still in progress, expected outputs is a 400X multiplication within a single growing season compared to thePlant in vitro culture usíng temporary immersíon (RITA) offers all the advantages of a liquid medium system (automation, Iarge scale production, easy changes of medium, filter sterilization, easy cleaning) without any of its drawbacks (reduce gas exchange, vitrification). lmmersion time, i.e. duration or frequency, is the most decisive parameter for system efficiency. The optimization of the nutrient medium volume and the container volume also substantially improves efficacy, especially for shoot proliferation. Severa! reports confirmed large gains in efficacy from temporary immersion when using liquid medium for micro propagation. The main parameters involved reducing production costs are, frrstly the drastic reduction of work labor, followed by a reduction in shelving area requirement and in the number of containers used. Scaling up the use of temporary immersions for embryogenesis and shoot proliferation procedures are currently taking place in order to commercialize this process (Berthouly & Etienne, 2002). This system has preved its efficacy for somatic embryogenesis of banana (Alvard et al, 1993;Escalant et al, 1994), coffee (Berthouly et al, 1995;Etienne et al, 1997), citrus (Cabasson et al, 1997), oil palm and rubber plant (Etienne et al, 1997), and at CIA T for cassava (Escobar and Roca, 1999). High efficiency has also been demonstrated for clona] propagation through micro-cuttings of coffee, and sugar cane (Lorenzo et al, 1998); for proliferation of meristems of banana, and pineapple, and for micro-tuberization of potato (Teisson and Al varad, 1998).We ha ve previously reported preliminary results using RITA for the induction of embryogenic callus derived rice from mature zygotic embryos (Tabares et al., CIAT SB2 Report 2000) and from anther culture (Tabares et al., CIAT SB2 Report 2001). This year we reporta comparative analysis including various indica and japonica rice genotypes.Anther culture of the indica rice Cica 8, PN1, Cimarron, Fedearroz 2000, and CT 11275, and of the japonica breeding line CT 6241-17-1-5-1 were used. Donor plants were grown in the field, panicles harvested, and anthers cultured according to Lentini et al. (1995). Tissues were either culture in liquid medium contained in RITA vessels or in liquid medium in baby food jars (control). lnduced callus from each culture system was then transfer onto solid plant regeneration medium according to Lentini et al. (1995).The effect of different culture media was evaluated. The medium NL commonly used in the rice anther culture laboratory (Lentini et al, 1995) was used as control. This medium was supplemented with 2,4-D 2mg/L; picloram 0.07mg/L; k.inetin 1mg/L; maltose 8%; with or without sil ver nitrate10mg/L. A modified medium was evaluated consisting of NL basal medium but replacing picloram with phenyl acetic acid (PAA) 10 mg/L, with or without silver nitrate (medium M 1 ). The rest of the culture procedure, including plant regeneration, was according to Lentini et al. (1995).The optimal immersion frequency was determined by evaluating callus induction and embryogenesis at 3 different immersion frequencies. Treatments were conducted using immersions of 1 min every 4, 6, or 8 hr for a total of 4 weeks of culture. Three RITA vessels were used per genotype with 1,000 anthers per 200 ml medium; and 4 baby food jars (permanent immersion system, PIS) per genotype each with 250 anthers per 10 ml culture medium (control). Cultures were incubated at 24 a 26°C.Three different treatments were tested to increase plant regeneration. A water stress treatment was induced on callus prior culture by incubation on 1% agarose-containing medium in the dark at 27°C to dehydrate callus. After two weeks of culture, stressed callus from 1% agarose-containing medium were transferred to 0.4% agarose solid medium for regeneration and incubated in light. Another set of callus was not treated with water stress, and was cultured directly on the medium semi-solidified with 0.4% agarose. The effect of osmotic stress was evaluated by sub-cultured on medium containing 3% sorbitol for 24 hr, after this partial desiccation treatment the callus were transferred on regular plant regeneration medium. Control consisted of callus transferred from callus induction medium without treatment to regular MS regeneration medium. A factorial experimental completely randomized design was used. At least 10 replicates of 10 callus each was evaluated per treatment.A significant higher callus induction was obtained when immersion was conducted every 6 hr than every 4 hr and 8 hr independently of the genotype (Figure lA). The japonica line cr 6241 showed about 7 fold more callus respect to the indica varieties (Figure lB). The maximum callus induction was noted at 40 days after culture on PIS and at 50 days after culture on RITA. But it seems the slower process of callus induction in RITA allows an optimal induction of embryogenesis. A significant higher number of embryogenic callus (95%) were obtained for both indica and japonica genotypes respect to the permanent immersion system (PIS, 45%) (Figure 2).There was an interaction between the callus induction medium and the culture vessel used. No significant differences were seen between the different media on RITA, although there was a tendency of higher induction when using media M 1 with or without silver nitrate. However with PIS, the indica genotypes with intermediate to low response such as Cfll275, Cimarron and Cica 8 showed significant higher induction on M 1 medium with or without silver nitrate, but Fedearroz 2000 optimal induction was noted on NL medium with sil ver nitrate. It has been reported that PAA mode of action is similar to that of IAA, although higher levels of PAA are needed and it is more stable in culture inducing a larger number of organized structures. It seems PAA effect is related to the inhibition of ethylene production from the cultured tissues (Ziauddin et al., 1992). Silver nitrate has also been reported to inhibit the action of ethylene of tissues culture in vitro (Lentini et al., 1995). The beneficia! effects of replacing sucrose by maltose increasing the callus induction from rice anther of recalcitrant genotypes has also been associated with a reduction of ethylene effects. These results j ointly with the effects noted when using PAA and RITA in this work suggest that ethylene might be a critica! factor detennining the induction of androgenesis from microspores in rice.Plant regeneration from embryogenic callus was not affected by the composition of the callus induction medium nor the callus induction culture vessel, indicating that the regeneration capacity depends on the leve! of embryogenesis. Once embryogenesis is obtained the capacity for plant differentiation is similar. Thus, the optimal callus induction medium and culture vessel should be selected based on the larger number of embryogenic callus produced per anther cultured.Significant higher green plant regeneration was obtained when water stress treatment was applied using agarose 1% for 1 week followed by agarose 0.4% for the rest of the culture period (Figure 3). Twice as many green plants were obtained with this treatment respect to the control. Osmotic stress with sorbitol inhibited plant regeneration (Figure 2). Independently of the callus induction or plant regeneration treatments, about 50-60% of the green plants were doubled haploids, which is in the range previously reported (Lentini et al., 1995). The overall objective of this project is to improve the nutritional status of people living in marginal environments of the tropics, by selecting and promoting cassava genotypes with high and good bio-availability of micronutrients and vitarnins. Related traits are the need for a better understanding of the biochemical and genetic basis of post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD).Early work was conducted to demonstrate the existence of genetic variability in cassava for carotene content in roots and foliage and to measure it. Carotene contents in the roots ranged from 0.102 to 1.040 mg/100 g fresh tissue (Ff), whereas in the foliage the figures were much larger: 12.05 to 96.42 mg/100 g Fr (CIAT 1999;2000;2001). PPD is apparently reduced or delayed in roots with high carotene content. Correlations between carotene content in the roots and severa! agronomic and nutritional traits were estimated, with not relevant information except for the effect on PPD.The current research focus shifted towards better understanding the nature of the carotenes accumulated in cassava roots and its stability after .common processing and storage. This report summarizes relevant information with the introduction of a new methodology (HPLC) for measuring carotene content in cassava roots more precise! y.The short post-harvest storage life of cassava is a characteristic that limits the marketability of the root and requires either consumption or processing shortly after harvesting. Post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD) of cassava roots begins within 24 hours of harvest, and results in crop and product quality Iosses, high marketing margins and risks, and restricted management flexibility for farmers, traders and processors. The reduction of PPD has been identified as a priority target for strategic research. It would also benefit processors in Brazil, who face price discounts for samples processed even 48 hours after harvest, dueto grayer and lower quality starch than that derived from fresher roots.In many respects, PPD resembles wound responses found in other better studied plant systems but cassava appears to lack the wound healing capacity which is normally associated with the inhibition of wounding responses. Normally, such defensive wound responses are inhibited by wound repair. However, this repair process does not occur in the harvested cassava storage root, leading to the hypothesis that unrestrained cascarles of wound responses ultimately result in deterioration (Oirschot, Q., 2000). An important component of these wound responses are the oxidati ve processes. Ascorbic acid and carotene a¡e known to have antioxidant properties and seem to delay the onset of PPD (CIAT, 1999;2000;2001).Because of the rapid deterioration of cassava roots, they cannot be stored until they can be anal yzed for caro ten e con ten t. Therefore, onl y a few samples ( < 40) can be anal yzed in one day, with the available facilities at CIAT. A study was conducted to analyze if carotene contents change after different storage conditions for varying periods of time. Two different storage conditions were evaluated: storage at -80 oc and at-20 °C.Storage at -80 °C.. Stability of carotene content was measured on root samples from the clon MCOL 2508 by the colorimetric and HPLC methods on fresh roots. This information was used as a check for data obtained after different periods of storage at -80 °C. Samples of roots were stored for 22, 73, 84, 96, 126, 210 and 230 days and then, carotene contents evaluated using the same measuring methods.As it was usually the case, total carotene content measured by HPLC was slightly higher than when measured by the colorimetric method (1.07 vs. 0 .88 mg 1 100 g fresh tissue). Samples of roots analyzed by the colorimetric method averaged 0.88 mg across the different dates (the same value as the original samples) with a standard deviation of 0.038.Values ranged from 0.81 to 0.92 mg 1 100 g fresh tissue. Measurements based on HPLC showed larger variation. The average content was 1.01 mg 1 100 g fresh tissue, with a standard deviation of 0.156. Individual measurements ranged from 0.81 to 1.26 mg. The larger error associated with HPLC coincides with the findings reported in section 3.1.There was no clear trend suggesting that carotenes measurements will decrease or increase as a consequence of storage. Therefore, it is valid to conclude that root samples can be stored for as long as seven months until carotenes are finally measured. The logistic advantages of this conclusion are very important for different projects involving cassava and carotenoid compounds.UOy---------------------------\"\"\"\"'1.. Storage at -20 °C. In a separate experiment roots from 20 different clones were analyzed by colorimetry soon after harvest and then stored for six months at -20 °C. The root samples were then recovered and analyzed again for carotene content. Figure 6 illustrates the results from this experiment.During the storage period the roots were maintained at -20 oc in open petri dishes. There was a differential dehydration process of root samples from different clones, depending on their position in the storage container. This may explain the obvious lack of correlation between non-stored and stored roots samples of sorne clones (MCOL2435, MCOL2508, MCOL 2266, AM 273-7 and AM 273-23).Similar results were obtained when carotenes were evaluated by the HPLC method (Figure 7). In this case, the lack of association between data from non-stored and stored root samples was found in clones MCOL 2580, MCOL 2410, MCOL 1468, and MCOL 2596.Because of the errors associated after storing roots at -20 oc using both the colorimetric and the HPLC methods the potential of maintaining root samples at that temperature needs further confinnation under closed containers. The next evaluations should consider the potential of liophylization as well. Until then, roots samples should be maintained at -80 oc.4,--------------------------------------------------------------------------,     Cassava roots were harvested and analyzed for carotene content using the colorimetric and the HPLC methods as described above. The purpose of this study was to continue the screening for clones w~th high-carotene in the roots, but more important, to determine the correlation between results from both methods and to estímate the proportion of different carotenoids (alfa and beta-carotene and lutein) by HPLC. The later information is relevant because the production of vitamin A is twice as effective in ~-carotene compared with acarotene (Combs, 1992).Sampling. Root samples of 100 clones from the germplasm or the cassava breeding project at CIAT were used for this study. Harvest took place at 9-10 months after planting (normal harvesting time for cassava at CIA T) and commercial size, disease-free roots were taken to represent each clone.Colorimetric method. The extraction procedure outlined by Safo-Katanga et al. (1984) was adjusted by extracting root parenchyma with petroleum ether .. A sample of 5 g was taken out of the root or leaves, taken at random 10 to 11 months after planting. The quantification of total carotenes was done by ultraviolet spectrophotometry using a Shimadzu UV-VIS 160A recording spectrophotometer. UV detection was done at A = 455nm for root extracts andA= 490 nm for leave extracts.HPLC method. Starting from the method used for the spectrophotometric quiantification of total carotenes, aliquots (20 ml) of petroleum extract were completely dried by rotaevapotration. Then the dry extract was dissolved in 1 ml of HPLC mobile phase (methanol:methyl-t-butylether :water, 81:15:4 v/v), centrifugated at 14000 rpm and 10 J.d were injected in the HPLC system using a YMC-C30 column (250 mm, ID:4.6rnm, Waters). Separation was done by a linear gradient elution from methanol:methyl-tbutylether:water, 81 :15:4 v/v to methanol:methyl-t-butylether :water, 20:76:4 v/v during 90 minutes at 1 ml min\" 1 and 23°C. ¡3-carotene was detected by monitoring absortion at 450 nm. Identificaction and quantificaction was done by comparing retention times and uvvis spectra with a standard of 13-carotene (Sigma C-0126).Based on a sample of roots from 100 clones, (results peviously reported in annual report 2002) the correlation between the two methods of measurements was excellent. If correlations are measured using fresh tissue data the coefficient was 0.922 (Figure 1). Correlation coefficient was slightly higher (0.935) when taken based on dry tissue data (Figure 2).Results illustrated in Figures 1 and 2 help to highlight that most cassava clones have low levels of carotene in the roots. As the total carotene concentration increases, so does the disagreement between the two measuring methodologies.1.80 , -------------------------------, 7.0 0 r -------------------------------.:: a.. J:a.oo 5.00 >-4.00.LlCD e:2.001.00Correlation coefficient = 0.935 --~-------------------- Data in Table 1 present the descriptive statistics to the two measuring methods. The advantage of HPLC is that it allows for the partitioning of total carotenes into its components (a-and P-carotene and lutein). Total carotene was, on average, 13% higher using the HPLC method compared with the colorimetric method.It was very interesting to observe that most of carotene extracted from cassava roots was Pcarotene. On average, about 97% of carotene measured was P-carotene, ranging from 91 to 100% (Table 1). This is advantageous because of the recognized bio-efficacy of this type of carotene to be metabolized into retino! (the active form of vitaminA). The proportion of P-carotene in cassava roots is higher than that found in carrots which was found to ha ve the following proportions (Rodriguez-Amaya, 2001): a.-carotene (28.0%); p-carotene (56.6%); y-carotene(13.2%) and Lutein (2.1 %).Coefficient of variation for colorimetry averaged 7.1% but was 20.9% for measurements based on HPLC. The higher variation for HPLC measurements may be a result of the higher values generally observed for HPLC, but also, and more likely, due to the adjustments of a new methodology in the laboratory. Based on these results sorne p procedures ha ve been modified to reduce experimental error in HPLC measurements. Because the clones had to be harvested at about the same age after planting, and taking into consideration that the trials at the different locations were planted at different dates, depending on the availability of rains, the sampling and carotene measurements were performed on roots that had been harvested at different times. Therefore, there was a confounding effect between batch for carotene measurement and location. Figure 3 shows the mean carotene content of each clone at each location. The amount of carotenes obtained for clone SM 1859-26 in the third location was unexpectedly high.Because of this only outlying data point, the genotype x environment interaction could reach statistical significance at the 5% probability level. In general, however, the performance at the other 11 data points suggests that genotype x environment interaction is not prevalent for carotene content in cassava roots ..  Location Figure 3. Stability of carotene content (mg/100 g fresh tissue) on roots from tbree different cassava clones grown in four different Iocations in Colombia.Table 2 presents the result of the analysis of variance for this experiment. It is important to highlight that, regardless the significance of the genotype by environment interaction observed, it was not strong enough to induce cross-overs in the performances of the clones evaluated. These analyses were carried out by the HPLC methodology and results are based on the addition of a-carotene, ~carotene and lutein. Most of the data available on the carotenes content of foods refer to the raw materials. It is evident, however, that data relating to the form by the foods are consumed by the population are needed and the influence of processing on carotenes levels has to be determined. In addition to the quality of carotenes present in cassava their bio-efficacy will depend on the amount lost upon processing the roots.The purpose of this study is to determine losses of the vitarnin A potency during processing of cassava roots.Carotene contents were measured by HP~C on fresh roots, and after boiling, sun-drying and oven-drying the roots from the same three clones (MBRA 502, SM 1859-26 andSM 1363-11)  Boiling: The subsample (500 g) was boiled in an aluminium pot with 1 liter tapwater for 20 min.Sun dry: The subsample (500g) was dryed under sun during a period of 76 hours.Oven dry: The subsample (500g) was dryed in oven at 60 oc during 24 hours.Lyophilization : The subsample (500g) was dry by Iiophylization at -20 °C. Unprocessed: 5 g of fresh cassava root chopped in small pieces was analized (results in previous report (Stability of carotene accumulation across different locations).HPLC method ( already described above)Figure 4 illustrates the results (averaged across the four locations).Results demonstrate that relatively small amount of carotenes are lost upon boiling the roots (up to 55% of the originallevels recovered), whereas drying the roots by the common sun-drying process or in the oven, resulted in a recovery of 13 and 8%, respective! y. These results contrast with previous ones (previously reported, CIAT, annual report 1999) based on the colorimetric method of quantifying carotene contents (with recoveries of 60, 40 and 63% after boiling, sunor oven-drying, respectively). It is not clear if the differences between these contrasting results are because of the changing in the method for measuring carotenes (colorimetric versus HPLC methods), or else sorne error in the process.Losses of the vitamin A potency during processing can be caused by oxidation by wich the total alpha and beta carotene content of the roots is reduced, and by isomerisation, in such case the total carotene content, quantified by colorimetric method, is not altered, but the vitamin A potency (quantified by HPLC as beta carotene content) is reduced because of the transformation of the naturally occurring all-trans isomers into the biologically less active cis-isomers. Further analyses will be conducted to corroborate or correct results so far obtained.   4. Total carotenes (mg/100 g of dry tissue) adjusted for dry matter content in fresh roots and after different processing methods. Measurements were made using the HPLC methodology.Inheritance of carotene content in cassava has been described as relatively simple (Iglesias,, but not definite mode of inheritance has been clearly specified. 16 S1 lines obtained from the elite clone MTAI 8 (Rayong 60, derived from the cross between MCOL 1684 and Rayong 1) were evaluated. MTAI 8 (= Rayong 60) has roots that are almost white in color. The S1 progenies, surprisingly, exposed a large range of variation for carotene content. Measurements with HPLC were higher than those with the colorimetric method. Also, the coefficient of variation was higher in HPLC than in colorimetry.Moreover, as illustrated in Figure 8, the overestimation of HPLC (or underestimation by the colorimetric method) seems to be much higher at high values of carotene content. It is possible that the increased difference between the colorimetric and HPLC methods at high levels of carotene is due to lack of adequate fit of the standardization curves for one or both methods. This explanation makes sense because the curves were originally devised for a range of carotene content lower than 1 mg 1 100 g tissue. It is not clear yet if it is a matter of overestimation by HPLC or underestimation by colorimetry.Results presented in Table 3 clearly suggest that carotene content can indeed be increased over the natural ranges so far obtained. It is important to emphasize that the highest concentration of carotenes based on fresh tissue so far found had been 1.06 mg 1 100 g fresh tissue. Four of the sixteen S 1 clona! lines evaluated showed much higher levels of carotene concentration (around 1.70 mg 1 100 g fresh tissue). Also promising is the fact that these high values were obtained from a clon (MT Al 8 or Rayong 60) whose actual concentration of carotene was rather low (0.31 mg 1 100 g fresh tissue).• To standarize the new HPLC methodology for carotenoid compound analysis, adjusting the parameters that decrease reproducibility in the results.• To measure sampling variation for ~-carotene in cassava roots from differets plants, between roots of the same plants and among different sectios of the same root, to obtain more uniform, comparable and reliable data.• To determine the effect of different preparation or processing methods on Bcarotene and total carotenes content of cassava roots.  There is a growing interest from both the prívate and public sectors to develop a waxy starch phenotype in cassava. Three approaches have been embarked upon, via genetic transformation, anti-sense, and sense silencing, irradiation of cassava seeds, and screening the germplasm bank for waxy starch phenotypes. The heterozygous nature of cassava however makes the second and third option difficult, given the low chances that a natural mutant of the waxy gene will be found in the homozygous state. A decision was made to screen many S 1 families developed under a population development effort to for tolerance to inbreeding. About 14 S 1 families were available for evaluation. To further increase the precision of the chemical assay for percent amylase in the above evaluations, Prof Allison Smith's group at the nc was contacted for assistance in preparing pure cassava amylose and amylopectin for making an amylose determination standard curve. Current assays use commercially available pure potato amylose and amylopectin in preparing the standard curve, but the chain lengths of amylose in cassava and potato differ and this may introduce errors in the percent amylose measured. Pure amylose and amylopectin was isolated from root starch of the cassava variety MCol 2216 and used in developing an amylose determination standard curve.14 S 1 fanúlies, developed under an S 2 recurrent selection program to develop populations tolerant to inbreeding were the plant materials for the above experimene. They were planted last year at the CIAT station in Santander the Quilichao and harvested July this year. At harvest starch samples was collected from 3 roots of all progenies, a total of 514 individuals, and taken to the laboratory for analysis. Pure cassava amylose and amylopection preparations were made using a sepharose separation column at the John Innes center, Norwich following methods described by Zeeman et. al. (2003). Mixtures of amylose and amylopectin with varying proportions of amylose from 0% to 100% were prepared, the samples were then dispersed in ethanol, hydrolyzed by acid, iodine added to a final concentration o 2% (v/v) and the absorbance measured at wavelengths of 700nm and 525nm in a spectrophotometer. Measuring the sample at this two wavelengths and using a ratio of 700:525 rather than the traditional method of measurement of a single wavelength , 620nm, have been found to be more accurate in determining amylose content (Zeeman et al. 2003). The absorbance and of the samples with varying proportions off amylose was used in generating an amylose determination curve.Pure cassava amylose and amylopection were obtained from fractions of a sepharose column at maximum absorption at wavelength of 595nm (Fig 1). The preparations were used in making mixtures of different proportions of amylose and the absorbance measured as describd above. Figure 2 and table 1 shows results of the development of an amylose content determination curve. The curve will be used for determining amylose content in the starch samples obtained from the S 1 fanúlies. Analysis of the starch samples are ongoing and should be completed by November. Any samples that shows less than 5% amylose will be sent for further analysis, including a quantitative purification of the amylose and amylopectin, and analysis of the molecular structure, to ensure that the low amylose content is not due to extremely long amylose molecules whose absorbance in solution closely mirrors amylopectin molecules ;...     A more accurate method for the determination of amylose and amylopection proportions in cassava has been developed in collaboration with the John Innes center. It consists of using an amylose deterrnination standard curve that was prepared using cassava amylose and amylopectin rather than those from patato. The method is currently being used to evaluate starch samples from St familiesThe globalization of econornies has meant a search for local crops that are competitive and will preserve local agriculture. Economic surveys in the past ten years in cassava growing regions of Africa, Asia and Latín America have revealed that cassava is an important factor in the improved livelihoods of the rural population of these regions (Nweke et al 2001;Kawano 2001;Ceballos 2002). A change in starch quality, for example the elimination of amylose (waxy starch), via a knockout of the GBSS 1 gene, implies access to new markets for cassava growers. For most rural communities, a better standard of living depends on increasing income from their crop harvest. An important disadvantage of cassava is the short shelf life of its roots, which have to be consumed or processed within a few days after harvest. This trait, post-harvest physiological deterioration (PPD), results in losses and higher marketing costs and its elimination will lead to higher profit margins for the small producer. PPD is thought to be a wound response cascade that goes out of control, and the knockout of certain key genes in the cascade should lead toa reduction in PPD.Cassava also possesses a wide range of cyanogenic glucoside content that is often cited as a health risk and a stigma for its acceptance as raw material in certain food and feed industry. Cyanogenic glucosides are produced by a biosynthetic pathway that has a cytochrome P450 as catalyst in the rate-limiting step (Andersen et. al. 2000). Removal of the gene that expresses the cytochrome P450 gene should lead to low cyanogenic potential (CNP) cassava plants. Increased productivity or increased value of cassava roots such as novel starch types and improved marketing through elimination of losses from post-harvest physiological deterioration and the removal of the stigma of cyanogenic glucosides, stands to improve livelihoods of cassava farmers. Mutagenesis has been applied extensively in the production of novel phenotypes in crop species (Van Harten 1998). The project will take advantage of simultaneous research, currently under way, that will facilitate to routine production of inbred materials, for the first time in a cassava breeding project. Once mutants have been identified, molecular genetic analysis will be used to track down genes responsible for the novel traits. The use of these genes as markers or in genetic transformation will permitan increase in the efficiency of transferring these traits to other cassava gene pools through conventional breeding.Irradiate, using gamma rays (a Cobalt-60 source) and fast neutrons, of sexual seeds from elite cassava genotypes under improvement for tolerance to inbreeding depression Establish plants from the irradiated seeds and non-mutated parental genotypes and evaluate them for useful traits such as delayed post harvest physiological deterioration (PPD), low cyanogenic potential (CNP), high dry matter content (DMC), and novel starch types.Develop selfing of the mutated lines to obtain So progenies and their evaluation for the above root quality traits and any other potentially useful trait Carry out DNA analysis for genes known to be involved in biosynthetic pathways of the above traits to identify mutants.Cassava has seldom been inbred, and the large \"genetic load\" hidden in its heterozygous background will likely hinder the production of viable homozygous plants, a phenomenon known as \"inbreeding depression\". Selection for tolerance to inbreeding depression has therefore been initiated to make cassava populations amenable to the production of inbred lines. Sexual seeds from cassava genotypes tolerant to inbreeding were the source of genetic material for mutagenesis. About 2000 sexual seeds were shipped to IAEA for irradiation, using gamma rays (a Cobalt-60 source), 1000 seeds, and fast neutrons, 1000 seeds. The leve! of irradiation with gamma rays was 200Gy.The irradiated seeds were sent back to CIA T for germination and establishment of the plants in the field. The heterozygous nature of cassava implies that mutations in a recessive gene will not be observed in the Mo phenotype. There is therefore a need to self the Mo plants to permit ídentification of the recessive mutants. However, the task of selfing thousands of plants is beyond capacity at CIA T and a selection of mutants for genes of interest will first be carried out to identify mutants. DNA analysis that can identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or insertions/deletions (INDELs) in genes of interest will be employed. At 1 O months after planting, the plants from the irradiated seeds selected above will be evaluated for ability to produce flowers. Plants that flower will be cloned and planted the following year in a clonal observation trial fashion of 10 plants per genotype.Plants in the clona! observation tria! above will be selfed to obtain the M 1 (So) generation. The seeds from the MI (So generation) will again be established in the field at CIA T and other key target environments and thoroughly evaluated for the traits mentioned in the previous section. Progeny identified with useful root traits will be introduced into the cassavabreeding program.A total of 2000 full-sib seeds from full-and half-families of MCol1505, HMC-1, C4 (CMD resistant parent) were sent to IAEA for irradiation with gamma rays and fast neutrons. About 1000 seeds were irradiated with adose of 200Gy of gamma rays. They were moisture equilibrated over a 69% glycerol solution in a dessicator prior to radiation. These seeds ha ve been sent back to CIA T where they have been planted in a seedling nursery. Seeds irradiated with fast neutron experiment, aboutlOOO seeds, are still being expected back.This project seeks to use novel methods of mutagenesis, conventional plant breeding and molecular genetic analysis to identify cassava genotypes with value added traits. lt will take advantage of the recently initiated research to produce inbred cassava germplasm. The project will also use tools of genomics to track down genes responsible for the above traits, markers associated to these genes can be used to efficiently move these genes around the different cassava gene pools defined by agro-ecologies. The new methods will not only accelerate the production of improved germplasm but also be a model for the development of other traits of interest to the market and farmer.A S 2 recurrent selection program was set-up for the development of cassava populations tolerant to inbreeding. The principal reason for the program is the development of populations tolerant to inbreeding and for the development of pure cassava lines via the doubled haploid technology. A second reason is the identification of genetic stocks for gene mapping studies, for example excellent segregation of beta-carotene content and cyanogenic poten ti al (CNP) was observed in 2 of the S 1 farnilies from M Col 72 (betacarotene) and MTAIS (beta-carotene and CNP). A preliminary selfing of an initial 14 genotypes produced 300 S 1 lines that were evaluated in a clonal observation triallast year (CIAT2002). More than 30 of those S 1 lines that flowered profusely were selfed to produce S 2 farnilies. We describe their production and establishment in the field. Furthermore additionallarger sized St farnilies have been developed from 20 varieties and have been established in a seedling tria! this year.About 30 S¡ progenies were selfed and seeds harvested at 40-60 days after pollination, the earl y harvest of the seeds was due to the mandatory remo val of all cassava plants in CIA T before the beginning of the \"zero cassava\" month at CIAT, one of the measures adopted to control the incidence of white flies at CIA T. The S 2 families were established from embryo rescue as described in above in the section on the development of mapping populations in cassava. After one round of multiplication in vitro they were transferred to the screen house for hardening and to the field.At 10 months after planting, the progenies will be evaluated for fresh root yield, dry matter content, foliage weight, harvest index, culinary quality, starch content/quality, and frog skin disease according to standard CIA T procedures.An initial 14 cassava genotypes were chosen for the development of populations tolerant to inbreeding. The genotypes were chosen due to their good general combining ability performance for yield, dry matter yield or root quality. They include the following lines: MCOI22, CM523-7 , MCOL1684, MBRA12, MCOL2060, MVEN77, MCOL1522, MTAI1, l\\1PAN51 , MECU169, MCOL1468, MCOL72, CM849-1, HMCI. More than 300 pollinations were made per genotype and between 30-150 seeds were obtained per genotype. During a clona! observation of the abo ve families, selfings were carried out and 15 small sized S 2 families, of 2-10 progenies were developed (Table 1). These seeds were germinated from embryo axes. Between 5 and 10 plants per S 2 progeny was hardened in the green house and transferred to the field in July this year.The development of populations tolerant to inbreeding has continued with the development of 15 small sized S 2 families. These families will be evaluated at 10 months after planting. The safety assessment of transgenic plants is a major hurdle to their deployment in agriculture. Researchers and regulatory authorities in deveioping countries find such hurdle especially difficult to overcome. On the one hand, researchers lack the guidelines and experience in the types of tests that need to be conducted to assess safety. On the other hand, regulatory authorities are not experienced in assessing the safety of crops in terms of their general release. These difficulties will be felt more acutely when crops that have been developed within these countries reach the stage of general reiease. In these cases, developing country researchers and reguiatory authorities will not be abie to depend upon the previous decisions of other reguiatory bodies, as is presently the case with transgenic crops released in all countries except the United States, Canada, China. Instead, they will have to detennine the appropriate questions to ask, and appropriate data to be gathered, in order to arrive at ajudgment of safety for these indigenously developed transgenic crops.For many regulatory authorities faced with the problem just described, there is Iikely to be the inclination to rnirnic the requirements imposed by regulatory authorities in countries such as the United S tates, where commercialization of transgenic crops has taken place and is relatively routine. However, there is little understanding of the reasoning behind the requirements that have been imposed upon specific transgenic crops in countries such as the U.S., where regulatory data requirements have arisen out of regulatory frameworks and philosophies that rnight be quite different from those of other countries. Furthermore, there is little understanding of the cost and types of expertise required to complete the safety assessments that have already been done. Consequently, the imposition by regulatory authorities of requirements for safety testing that are beyond the means of their countries, either in terms of money or human capacity, will effectively prevent the deployment of the results of biotechnology research in those countries.In order to assist developing country and the CGIAR researchers in gaining an understanding of the types of food safety assessments needed for the deployment of transgenic crops, and to determine which requirements are appropriate for developing countries a workshop was held in May,2003, with funding from the USAID and the Rockefeller Foundation. The meeting was organized by loe Tohme and Rector Quemada from Crop Technology.The goal of the workshop were to provide researchers and regulators with the means to examine 1) the protocols used in the safety assessments of current commercialized transgenic crops, and 2) the rationale for the requirements imposed (or are likely to be imposed) on crops representative of different transgenic technologies. The workshop focused only on food safety assessment.The participants were from NARS representatives from Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Egypt, India, Kenya, South Africa, Philippines, Thailand and Uganda; from CG centers: CIAT, CIP, CIMMYT.ICRISAT, !CARDA and liTA; from intemational lnstitutions and donors: AATF, AgBios, USAID, Rockefeller Foundation, ll...SI and USDA and from the prívate sector.Three representative case studies were commissioned to leading expert and were presented at the workshop: 1) Bt patato, 2) virus resistant papaya, 3) mustard oil with enhanced levels of vitaminA.The outputs of the workshop were the following Examination of the protocols used in the food safety assessments of current commercialized transgenic crops Understanding of the rationale for the requirements imposed (or likely to be imposed) on crops representative of different transgenic technologies Awareness of the regulatory steps to enable researchers to integrate regulatory issues and experiments related to regulatory approval in their overall research and development strategy.The cassavaDB is an AceDB-type genome database designed specifically for handling bioinformatic data flexibly. It includes tools designed to manipulate genornic data that is graphic, flexible and portable. It can be operated on various Unix workstations (SUN, DEC, NEXT, SGI ... ), The first principie of the program is that any piece of data stored in AceDB can very easily be exported in flat ascii files to be used by other programs.The second principie of the program is that write acces to the database is organised in macro transactions that is called sessions. All the information is stored in objects, which fall into a number of classes. The classes are standard units such as genes, alleles, strains, c1ones, papers, authors, journals, etc., and the names are in most cases the standard names. The CassavaDB was initially hosted at the plant databases at the National Agricultura! Library at http://probe.nal.usda.gov. This was later moved to the ARS Genome Database Resource (GDR) server formerly at http://ars-genome.cornell.edu which is now permanently off-line. At the moment it is hosted at http://ukcrop.net/, the website of the UK Crop Plant Bioinformatics Network (UK CropNet) established in 1996 as part of the BBSRC's Plant and Animal Genome Analysis special initiative, the focus is the development, management, and distribution of information relating to comparative mapping and genome research in crop plants.Since CassavaDB was developed in 1998, hundreds of additional markers, predorninantly SSR markers have been developed and mapped in cassava. This information is currently not in the database. Also not in the database are additional genetic maps of cassava made since the first map was published in 1997. Data from several QTL mapping studies have also since become avai]able since then. There is also a need to have the CassavaDB situated on a local server at CIA T to enable more frequent updates and also make it more visible to the international cassava community. Activities to update CassavaDB. A compilation of all cassava SSR marker mapping data and map location data from work done by Mba (et al. 2001), Zarate (2002)  Garcia (2002) and unpublished or undocumented work was initiated in August 2003. This information was formatted according to requirements for AceDB. Sirnilarly, graphics of parental surveys, progeny data and maps were developed from data from the three mapping studies and prepared for CassavDB. All the above information will be up-loaded into CassavaDB in collaboration wi th the CIA T bioinformatics unit and maintained locall y at CIA T. A link to the above will be made on the cassava web page of the CIA T website. lntroduction Understanding the extstmg genetic diversity and its distribution within and among individuals, populations, species and gene pools is crucial for an efficient management and use of germplasm collections. The large amounts of cassava genetic resources held by farmers have been demonstrated to represent a critical resource for the future productivity and stability of production of cassava. A highly successful breeding program at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in the early 1970s began with a great initial germplasm variation, sorne 2,218 local clones collected from Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, and Peru (KA W ANO 2003). That program achieved more than 100% increase in fresh root yield and more than 20% in dry matter content by the early 1980s. The improved varieties from Latin America combined with local varieties in South East Asia formed the basis of a very successful breeding program for the South East Asia Subcontinent, particularly Thailand. The new Thai cultivars are now planted on more than one million hectares in Thailand alone and the economic benefits from the increased productivity is in the order of one billion US dollars and the rural communities in sorne of the poorest parts of Asia captured a large proportion of these economic benefits (Kawano 2003) .. The molecular diversity network of cassava comprises of scientists drawn from institutes in Africa, Latin America, Europe and the USA. In its four years of existence, MOLCAS has studied diversity of local varieties in Tanzania, Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Guatemala, , Peru, Sierra Leone anda subset of the World germplasm bank held at CIAT (MOLCAS 2003). Studies are ongoing of diversity in Cuba and Brazil. The ultimate aim of these studies is to identify and exploit useful variability for increased crop productivity and value addition. Between September 3 and 5 this year, members of the workshop from Brazil, Ghana, Uganda, Netherlands, and Colombia got together in Uppsala with network members based in Sweden and the director of the IPICs donor for the 2nd MOLCAS workshop to discuss progress and draw priorities for the next application to IPICs for the period 2004-2006. The meeting was held at the Plant biology department of SLU, and was well attended by members of the department including the head of department, Prof Per Bergmann.Report of the 2nd MOLCAS meeting. The first day of the meeting saw presentations on SSR assessment of local cassava varieties from Ghana, Brazil, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Guatemala, and Uganda. During second day, members of the plant biology department at SLU working on cassava presented a summary of their findings. They include cloning and transformation of starch biosynthetic genes, molecular biology of the cassava mosaic virus, and breeding cassava for small holders. A discussion was held in the aftemoon of the second day on how an application for the third phase of BIOEARN, the Sida funded East African training network could be streamlined with activities being carried out in Africa. Of particular interest was how the wide gap between upstream biotechnology could be applied to secure the cassava crop as a food security crop and also provide improved livelihood through value addition. It was decided that BIOEARN members draw up a draft of their application and circulate it to MOLCAS members for comments and their inputs.The third day, Prof Rosling presented results of an epidemiology of the Konzo disease in Mozambique conducted in the 1970s as an example of a proper approach to sampling genetic diversity. Two presentations were also made by Prof Janice Jiggins of WAU, Netherlands and Dr L. Chiwona Karltun on a farmer participatory research project taking place at the moment in Malawi. The aftemoon of the third day was spent in a priority setting exercise for projects to be conducted in the next phase of MOLCAS. From a total of 10 project, the following were prioritized for the next phase beginning 2004 until:Highly differentiated cassava gene pools may represent heterotic pools. The study seeks to evaluate these accessions for heterosis or hybrid vigor by making genetic crosses between and within representative members of the clusters. The study will be conducted in CRI, Kumasi , Ghana. Latin American germplasms were shipped to Ghana as tissue culture plants, hardened, and established in a crossing block along with African genotypes.To better understand the diversity sub structures in African local varieties, records and germplasm from breeding programs that existed in East Africa in the early part of the 19th century will be examined and genotypes compared to modero day local varietíes. This study will be carried out by SLU in collaboratíon with researchers from NARO, Uganda.Further evaluation of sorne genotypes that have been observed during the SSR marker study to have novel characteristícs, for example novel starch quality, will be carried out to confirm the earlier observations. Should they be confirmed, genetic crosses will be made to attempt a transfer into improved and other local varietíes and also for inheritance studies A comparison of clustering of cassava germplasm from Brazil and Malawi based upon bitter or sweet taste ofthe roots. (Brazil, Malawi, Sweden) Studies of genetic diversity in Brazil revealed a clustering along the lines of taste. A similar result was also obtained for cassava germplasm from Malawi . The objectíve of this study is to combine both data sets and how they cluster. Dr Gilda Muhlen of University of Rondonia, Brazil will be responsible for the study in collaboration with SLU and Malawian researchers.The web accessible database of the molecular diversity network of cassava (MOLCAS) was set up to make the results of its SSR marker assessment of local cassava diversity in selected countries of Africa and Latín America widely available. The database is updated as completed country studies become available. A total of 8 country studies, 5 in Africa and 3 in Latín America, have now been completed by the network. The database has been updated with 2 additional country studies, bringing the total on the website now to 5, namely Tanzania, Peru, Nigeria, Guatemala and Ghana. A very rewarding outcome of the development of the MOLCAS web is the high number of visits the web has recorded since its inception last year. We describe here progress made this year.The MOLCAS web-based data base (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/molcas and Fig 1 ) was conceived as a mechanism to document and make freely available to the cassava community information being generated by the network. It is hosted at CIA T. Results of the SSR analysis of local cassava land races from Ghana and Guatemala, including names and characteristics of local cassava varieties, allele size data by SSR marker locus, genetic diversity analysis, principal component of genetic distance etc, are now available for viewing on the MOLCAS web data base. Results from 3 other country studies namely Uganda, Sierra Leone and Brazil are being compiled and will be available on the web before the end of the year. The MOLCAS web-based data base has since its launch last year received a total of 34,477 visits with an average of 2700 visits per month. Table 1 shows the summary of all visits and visits in the last 3 months .... -----. .  The MOLCAS web accessible database has increased the completed country studies available for viewing to 5 and 3 more will be added before the end of the year. Two other country studies, Cuba and Mozambique are ongoing and will also be added once completed. Future perspectives for the database is to add a number of useful links, for example, sites where genetic diversity analysis software can be downloaded freely. Other perspectives is to link the MOLCAS data base to and genotyping activities on cassava in the genetic resources challenge program which is expected to begin next year.The were also collected and identified using morphological descriptors, and will be subsequently analyzed by AFLP technique. Since this project has been concluded this year, this analysis and other follow-up activities is being continued by a new CBN project under Small Grant Scheme, which was approved and initiated this year (see 'Projects under CBN-LAC Small Grants Scheme' section)• A methodology adjusted for the adaptation of in vitro material to the greenhouse phase and its subsequent planting in the field. Plants were placed for 8 days in water and then transferred as such to the definitive planting site, where they were planted in plastic bags containing sterilized soil. This practice eliminates the additional expenses occurred when transporting the material between the laboratory and the farms, while also reducing the possibility of lodging during transportation.• Continued incorporation of new equipment and less expensive reagents into the process. A laminar flow chamber was built with local materials, costing 10 times less than an imported chamber.• Advances were also made in the adjustment of the MS basal media. Cassava seedlings showed best growth when the commercial product Ferrovital-NF was used.• Use of the rapid propagation system based on two-budded cuttings by the group of farmers to complement the in vitro system. With this methodology, farmers multiplied nearly 6000 plants of the variety MCOL 1468 from in vitro material certified by the Colombian Agriculture and Livestock Production lnstitute (ICA, its Spanish acronym).• Establishment of a bank in farmers fields with in vitro material from 6 clones of interest to farmers (MCOL 1522, HMC 1,:MBRA 383,and MPER 183) to provide FSD-free material (FSD = frog skin disease). When these clones are harvested in 2003, they will be multiplied by the rapid propagation system, using two-budded cuttings, and distributed to local farmers.• Collection of 14 native cassava varieties in the municipalities of Caldono, Piendamó, Morales, Santander de Quilichao, and Caloto (Department of Cauca) and their identification using the morphological descriptors applied by CIAT's germplasm bank. A sample of each variety was planted on two farms in the municipalities of Caldono and Piendamó, as well as in the greenhouse at CIA T -Palmira. These varieties will be evaluated in CIA T s Biotechnology Unit Lab, using AFLP to determine the degree of diversity among materials.• Systematization of the traditional knowledge of local men and women regarding native varieties, especially their tolerance to different stress factors and their resistance to the most common pests and diseases affecting cassava in the region, uses, starch quality, and use of plant parts (other than roots).• Definition of a participatory work scheme involving men and women to strengthen the fonnal cassava seed production system using in vitro technology and rapid propagation in the rural communities of Bajo Santa Ana, Alto Santa Ana, and Quinamayó.• Easy adoption by the group of farmers of the rapid propagation technique using twobudded cuttings. This method was implemented by the project as complementary to the in vitro method and fanners described it as easy and simple, and said it produced immediate results.• An in vitro cassava seed production scheme to be managed by small fanners was defined. The scheme consists of 6 phases: (1) receipt of certified material; (2) in vitro multiplication in the rural laboratory; (3) adaptation in the greenhouse of the material multiplied through tissue culture; (4) planting of material in farmer fields with adequate management of irrigation, pest control, and fertilization; (5) multiplication of cuttings obtained in the field by rapid propagation (two-budded cuttings); and (6) production of good quality cuttings through the conventional system.• During both phases of this project, rural laboratories were built with their corresponding work areas, and the use of locally available, low-cost materials in their construction was evaluated. In addition, most of the components of the culture medium, such as salts, honnones, and sugars, were replaced with products obtained in the local market. The multiplication rate (1 :3-4) obtained when local inputs were used to prepare the culture media was similar to that obtained when imported raw materials were used.• Severa! of the native materials collected in central northem Cauca, for example Algodona Amarilla and Algodona Grande, present good starch quality and high percentage of starch. Therefore, an agreement was reached with several farmers and starch producers to increase the area planted to these two materials using in vitro propagation. FIDAR assumed production costs and CIA T provided the certified materials. These two cassava clones will hopefully be able to compete better with the varieties imported by starch factories in Ecuador and other regions of Colombia.• The women belonging to the group were able to reach a consensus about their needs and ways to solve them. Priority will be given to the search for income-generating altematives. The in vitro production of cassava seed is one of these altematives, but because of the time involved, they decided to participate in complementary production activities such as the planting of cassava, pineapple and bean, individually and in association, and the multiplication of commercial cassava varieties using rapid propagation.• The results of group participation reported in this phase are characterized by the empowerment and commitment of fanners, who have showed interest in undertaking other initiatives that benefit the community, for example a program to improve the quality and coverage of basic secondary education and allowing the access of young people and adults, who because of economic problems cannot attend nearby schools. An improved educational level has allowed the group to better understand and analyze the processes of in vitro technology.• The cost of an in vitro cassava plant produced in the rural laboratory was estimated at US$0.29 (see final project report 2001). This value is still quite high and not sufficiently competitive for small farmers to purchase these plants. The project continued working on this aspect during the current reporting phase and was able to integrate in vitro production technology with the rapid propagation system using twobudded cuttings. The data needed to determine whether the integration of these two systems reduced costs should be available at the end of 2003.• New systems are being studied to reduce the cost of handling and transporting cassava seed in the greenhouse, its definite adaptation in farmers' fields, and the diversification of use of rurallaboratories for tissue culture of banana and fruit trees.• The sharing of a common language and the leve! of confidence demonstrated by the group of farmers in the facilitating farmer ensured that project participants completed the six phases of the in vitro cassava production process in the rural laboratory and the multiplication in the field. However, the lack of academic training prevented several farmers from converting measurements of volume and weight and from making decisions to sol ve problems of contamination.• Macro and microeconomic factors affected community participation in the project, for example:-High fluctuations in the exchange rate of the Colombia peso versus the US do llar -Low price of cassava roots in Colombia over the last 10 months -Legal and illegal importation of sour starch by large companies in the region -Increase in the number of agronomic and plant health problems (whitefly and diseases such as frog skin) over the last two years However, the adoption of several complementary measures (production projects, training in cassava cultivation) has allowed the group to continue. The importance of acting in anBy implementing and assessing this in vitro cassava seed multiplication technology, farmers were able to maintain informal cassava seed production systems that yielded propagation rates of 1:3-4 every 45-60 days. The system was capable of producing 3250 plants per initial explant (plant), reaching an efficiency of 400% compared with the conventional vegetative seed propagation system currently used by regional farmers.Outstanding results were also obtained in the identification of technical parameters to build a low-cost rural laboratory, that could be easily operated by farmers, as well as of equipment and inputs to prepare the culture media, achieving an efficiency similar to that of specialized laboratories.In addition, the farmer-farmer training methodology implemented by project researchers and technicians proved to be correct because it ensured that participants understood the concepts and acquired the skills needed to operate the rural laboratory. However, more time was needed than that initially planned for the group to understand and self-manage the different processes (prepare the culture media, plant the tissues, hardening the plants, establish plantlets in the field).Although the simplification of the tested technology significantly reduced the costs of the infrastructure, inputs, and culture media used, the labor costs implied by the different processes continue to be quite high and make it impossible for farmers to assume in vitro seed multiplication. It is therefore important to continue evaluating new systems and diversify the use of the laboratory with other crops to ensure its long-term sustainability. Mechanisms must also be sought to attract the participation and support of different local institutions.The use of in vitro technology by farmers is an altemative that solves the problem of availability of good quality seed, especially in the case of new varieties or when seed is scarce because of climatic and plant health problems.The rural laboratory can also be used to multiply native cassava varieties of northem Cauca. These are currently being identified and cleaned at CIAT's Biotechnology Unit Laboratory for subsequent redistribution to the communities for their in situ conservation and multiplication of seed of those varieties enjoying greatest acceptance by farmers and starch producers.The project took off effectively in March 2002 with the general objective of introducing and implementing participatory biotechnology methodologies with small-scale cassava farmers in the cleaning and multiplication of cassava varieties. This is to be done using the low-cost rapid in vitro multiplication techniques developed at CIA T. The project site is the Mania~u region, Caetité municipality, Bahia, Brazil.• • Visit of the technician responsible for low-cost biotechnology (Osvaldo Pereira da Paz) and social scientist (Maria das Gra9as Sena) to seven Caetité's communities (Tanquinho, Contendas, Junquinho, Lagoa do Barro, Passagem de Areia, Ingazeira and Lagoa de Fora) in order to select the pilot si te for the work of low-cost mu1tiplication.In this oportunity, a great interest of all the communities was observed in participating actively of the work. There is a large necessity of clean and improved seeds in the region. The farmer' s time availabily for training and water quality and availability for the work were analyzed. Considering these aspects was chosen the community 'Lagoa de Fora'. This community has available area for clone multiplication, water of good quality and farmers able to receive training and transfer techniques of low-cost cassava propagation. This community housing 60 families, with approx. 300 people, which are highly dependent of the cassava crop. Two women farmers and two EBDA's technician were selected to attend a training on low-cost cassava propagation at the pilot laboratory built in the CNPMF/Embrapa.• Construction of the pilot laboratory for low-cost cassava multiplication at CNPMF/Embrapa. This lab will be the base for training of farmers and technicians, starting with the four persons already selected.• Cleaning and in vitro multiplication of the following clones: 003, 005, 1318, 1389, 1393, Aipim Cachorro (Local), and Laza (Local). In CNPMF, there are 1000 plants of these clones to be transfer to the low-cost lab at 'Lagoa de Fora'.• Seeds (cuttings) of the improved and local selected varieties were supplied to CNPMF's Biotechnology Unit for meristem multiplication and cleaning.The initial work plan was delayed on account of personnel changes at CNPMF/Embrapa leading to the late take off of the project, effectively March 2002. Since this date, however, the pace of work has moved really fast. There is ever indication that the project will expand to other regions from Caetite. This prognosis is based on the numerous requests for the sighting of the pilot si te in severa! other places and in the general enthusiasm observed amongst the farmers, extension agents and community leaders from other regions.In order to update existing infonnation on the status of cassava in Ecuador, a diagnostíc study on the production and utilization of cassava in the Manabi Province of Ecuador was carried out as a pilot study. Manabi is the major cassava producing area of Ecuador. The main objective for this study is to determine the components of the major cassava systems in Manabi and by so doing relate cassava production and use with social and environmental dynamics in the communities. In all, 650 surveys were conducted in Manabi and the data from this already inputted. The analysis is on going.At the end of 2001 and beginning of 2002 were carried out the surveys, concluding the part corresponding to data acquisition. Due to lack of personal for data analysis and transition of CBN coordination staff, the evaluation was delayed and started at the beginning of 2003. Visits to Ecuador were perfonned in order to get the data and to update sorne infonnations related to cassava cultivation with communities and farrner's associations. These informacions will allow CBN to undertake actions to complete the research and to provide sorne support to the sector of small production of cassava.This study will serve as means for evaluating the status of cassava projects that have already been executed in Ecuador, constitute a guide for the execution of development in the cassava cultivating community of Manabi and also serve as the base line data for planning other development projects.CBN has in close collaboration with PROA identified sorne pararneters that could be used to elicit certain urgent information from the data collected so that further work in Ecuador could be commissioned and these are summarized thus: a number of questions that would give a good indication of preferences that could be analyzed by gender (detectable by the respondent's narne), age, wealth (as measured by landholdings and tenure status), principal occupation and agroecological zone.• Questions that relate to the importance of cassava overall compared to other productive activities or community priorities include:-preference for cassava vs. other crops, -importance of cassava for family subsistence, -importance of cassava to household well-being, and -indication of what are considered the most important problems faced by the community.• Questions that indicate preferences, problems and priorities for cassava include:-input requirements and constraints, -disease problems, -varieties known, used, preferred and reasons, -yield/production, -preferred characteristics for cassava plants and reasons -responses may overlap with previous, -demand for mix of varieties, -might give a rough idea of the importance of cassava for marketing vs. subsistence, -importance of being able to delay harvest, -asks about seed knowledge and supply within the community. May give an indication of the importance of cassava, as well as the degree of innovation and cohesion present in the community, -importance of cassava by-products, -varietal preferences of buyers of cassava or cassava products, -difficulties encountered in marketing fresh cassava, cassava starch and cassava flour, -difficulties encountered in processing (spec grating), and -productivity and profitability of cassava over time.• Questions that give an indication of for whom cassava is important and the degree of voice/asset control that person has are:-who decides variety selection, -division of labor for cassava and other household production activities, -control over income from sales of cassava and cassava products, and -control over household income and expenses)The CBN-LAC Small Grants Scheme aims at achieving the following:• Foster cassava biotechnology projects with developing country -developed country or advanced laboratory linkages; and• Permit and encourage developing country laboratories to work on cassava biotechnology research topics relevant to end-users' , national and overall CBN objectives.This small grants scheme primarily supports the planning of specific proposals for intemational collaborative research on priority cassava biotechnology research needs as defined by cassava end-users and farmers. Sorne grants are also awarded in the form of grants-in-aid for developing country biotechnology research operational expenses; forThe generation of transgenic cassava plants has a high potential as a complement to traditional plant breeding program in improving agriculturally valuable traits. However, plant genetic transformation efficacy of cassava, like many other crops, requires the establishment of efficient protocols for plant regeneration. Cassava plant regeneration efficiency is known to be genotype dependent, varying between 5 and 70% (Zhang et al., 2001) which may constrain the use of genetic transformation technology in cultivars with Jow regeneration frequency. Therefore, the first step of our research project was aimed to the establishment of efficient plant regeneration protocols of the selected genotypes. Simultaneously, elaboration of the gene constructs and introduction in the Agrobacterium was also performed.Plant material: Cuttings of cassava genotypes MCol 22, Aramaris, Aipim-Brasil and three genotypes selected for their high ~-carotene content (BGM1153, BGM1692 e BGM1728) were grown in pots under greenhouse conditions.Establishment of in vitro culture of explant donor plants: One month-old newly formed shoots of all six genotypes were surface decontaminated with 10% (v/v) of a commercial solution of sodium hypochlorite for 15 minutes and rinsed five times with sterile distílled water. Shoot tips were excised and transferred to culture flasks containing E4 medíum (Table 1) for establishment of vitro conditions. After three weeks of culture on E4 medíum, the explants were transferred to 17N medium (Table 1) for multiplication. Multiplied shoots were then transferred to MS (Murashige & Skoog, 1962) medium without growth regulators for root formation. All cultures were maintained at 27±1 °C under 16 hours photoperiod. The binary plasmid pBI121 containing the P5CS gene from Vigna aconitifolia under the control of the constitutive promoter CaMV35S, with the genes nptll (neomycin phosphotransferase, for resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin) and uidA CP-glucuronidase or GUS, reporter gene) was amplified using the strain DH5a of Escherichia coli. Bacteria were grown ovemight on 25 mlliquid LB medium. Plasmids were harvested using the mid-prep alkali lysis protocol (Sambrook et al .,1989).The binary plasmid was transferred to the disarmed hypervirulent Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA105 were transformed by electroporation. Bacteria! cultures were grown overnight at 28°C, in liquid YMB medium (0.5 g r K2HP04, 0.1 g 1\" 1 MgS04.?H20, 0.1 g 1\" 1 NaCl, 5 g r 1 glucose, 10 g r 1 de mannitol and 0.4 g r 1 yeast extract) supplemented by 20 mg r 1 rifampicin and 30 mg r 1 kanamycin. Glycerol at 20% final concentration was added to the culture. The bacteria! culture was separated in aliquots in 1.5 mi Ependorf tubes and stored at -80°C.In vitro culture of explant donor plants was established for the six genotypes. Plants are currently on rooting medium (Figure 1). This step is essential in order to obtain plant material for the following experiments on plant regeneration and genetic transformation using protocolos based on Roca et al., (1984) and Mathews et al. (1993) as we had proposed in the research project. Transformation vector in the Agrobacterium strain EHA105 was concluded and, in addition, a gene construct containing the gene bar (resistance to the herbicide ammonium glufosinate) instead of nptil is currently under way. This gene has also an agronomic interest and has been successfully used in other cassava genotypes (Sarria et al., 2000). The present research project is according to the proposed time table presented in the grant application.Three genotypes of cassava with high ~-carotene content were added in the experiments. The main steps for this project are: a) developing friable embryogenic calli (FEC) for cassava varieties adapted to NE Brazil; b) developing transformation protocols using Agrobacterium carrying marker genes; and e) monitoring progress on modified cassava plantsThis project provide a financia! suport to a post-doc student to perform a research that addresses the issue of food security in Brazil by improving food quality through exploitation of novel Amazon cassava genotypes with increased diversity of storage root quality traits. The research focuses on the biochemistry and molecular genetic analysis of recently discovered genotypes with unusual properties of accumulating sugar, and starch in the storage root. Modern genome biotechnology will be used to study the biodiversity and biology of the storage roots of cassava.The variability of free sugar and novel starch accumulated in the storage root of identified wild clones of cassava will be explored by a) biochemical characterization of starch synthesis and degradation; b) isolation of mutated candidate genes with homologous and heterologous genes sequence coding for enzymes of the starch synthesis and degradation pathway, and gene expression (RNA) analysis as well as gene sequence variability; ande) isolation of genes differentially expressed in these contrasting phenotypes by sequencing several subtractive cDNA libraries.The main outputs from this project are:• Better understanding of the regulatory biochemical mechanism on the diversity of starch naturally occurring phenotypes. ldentification of the molecular structure of the isolated novel starch, and amylopectin structure phenotype isolated. ldentification of the molecular structure of the candidate gene coding for the enzyme responsible for the diversified amylopectin structure isolated. Obtain biochemical tools to be used in the identification and isolation of natural diversity of starch structure in cassava gennplasm. Obtain molecular biology tools to be used in the identification and isolation of new clones of cassava. Offer new alternative of use of the storage root of cassava to the farmer and the industry. •• Clone and sequence the cDNA of known genes coding for starch synthesis and degradation enzyme in cassava. Gain knowledge about the presence or absence of specific gene coding for starch synthesis and degradation enzyme by gene expression analysis at the leve! of mRNA. Obtain molecular biology tools to be used in further advanced technology to alter starch structure in local cassava varieties and/or other crops. Gain knowledge on the structure and regulation regions of the genes of starch synthesis enzyme, needed to establish new technological strategies.• Gain knowledge of the sequence of the genes differentially expressed, that would help to explain the storage root tissue phenotype in sugary clones. Generate a data base of EST from the diversity of the storage root of cassava. Obtain genomic tools to be used in data mine to dissect the formation of the storage root of cassava. Training scientist on the new technology as well as promote the distribution of the biotechnology to the poor.Field grown plants in Embrapa Genebank collection, composed of 26 high sugar clones.Multiple experimental strategies are being used, depending on the starch phenotype. The high sugar class of storage root allowed to identify three types starch phenotypes, being amylose free starch, phytoglycogen starch type and differentiated branched amylopectin when compared with starch from the commercial cassava. Therefore each type of phenotype is worked under appropriated framework of mutation already identified in other plant system. In the amylose free starch clone, the strategy uses the waxy mutation framework of rice and com, and uses the candidate gene of the granule bound starch synthase as target gene. In the phytoglycogen accumulating clone the strategy use the sugary mutation framework of pea and com, and the candidate gene coding for the debranching enzyme is the target gene. In the highly branched arnylopectin it uses the soluble starch isoforms mutation frarnework of com, and the candidate gene coding for the soluble starch synthase I is the target gene. The differential expressed gene of the high sugar storage root in relation to the commercial cassavas is used to build an EST database with the sequence of a subtractive cDNA library to generate the needed molecular tools.For the biochemical characterization will be performed the following main steps:• Storage root tissue sarnpling and preparation for carbohydrate analyses;• Reducing sugars quantification; Six subtractive cDNA libraries were assembled and are being sequenced. The results so far, can be summarized as follow: 1) A collection of more than 22000 cDNA clones has been assembled. 2) A pilot sequence initiative generated more than 2500 high quality sequence (PHRED>20).3) Conventional RNA blots probed with cDNA probes belonging to several classes of genes confirmed the efficiency of the subtraction techniques used to building the differential expressed cDNA Iibrary. 4) Several classes of new genes have been revealed in our preliminary analysis of the sequence of our EST bank.These new tools resources will be used in this project to isolate the genes related to sugary phenotype.The target of this project is a cassava living collection, housed in University of Brasilia, which consists of rare wild Manihot species, that have been extincted in their natural habitats, and sorne interspecific hybrids. In order to preserve this collection, which has 16 wild species and 13 hybrids of cassava with wild species, this project aims for the following objectives:• To propagate old and degenerated accessions of both wild and interspecific cassava hybrids • To characterize these introductions morphologically and cytogenetically • To improved the field facilities for maintaining the living collection • To create an adequate database system for data characterization • To create a seed genebankThe main outcome of the project will be the maintainance of wild species of cassava that already disappeared in their natural habitats from complete extinction, saving the rare examples of interspecific hybrids from degeneration and extinction to enable use them in the future for cassava improvement, using their invaluable gene pools. Thirteen new native materials of yuca were collected in the municipalities of Buenos Aires, Caldono, Morales and Santander of Quilichao. These materials with the 14 gathered at the end of the second semester of the 2002 were sowed in three nurseries in the fanners' parcels in the municipalities of Caldono (1.500 m), Piendamó (1.700 m) and Santander de Quilichao (1.000 m). For each one of these materials fields in the nurseries were evaluated the following morphological describers: color of apical leaf, pubescens, shape of central lobe, plant height, height of first rarnification, degree of branching, length of the filament, branching habit, habit of stem growth, color of the stem epidermis, color of the root cortex, color of the terminal rarnification, flowering, plant type, peduncle in root, cortex color, root pulp color, texture and constrictions of the root. For each one of these collected materials a collection record was elaborated, with the purpose of comparing them with the database of the Genetic Resources Unit of CIA T.In different nurseries, the technicians of CIA T ha ve taken samples of each varieties with the purpose of carrying out meristems cultivation starting from mature stakes of each genotype. With the in vitre materials will begin a termoterapy process and of the materials coming from the selected stakes young leaves were harvested and total DNA was extracted by protocol of Dellaporta (Figure 1). The DNA was quantified by fluorometer. With the purpose of systematizing the local farmers knowledge about the native and introduced varieties of cassava collected in the North of the Cauca, meetings were carried out with sorne groups using open type questions and obtaining the following answers:Question 1: What is the opinion that yo u ha ve about the native cassava varieties m relation to those introduced or improved?Opinions are divided, 60% of the farmers has preference for the native materials, arguing that they have seed permanently and most of the varieties ha ve double purpose (starch and fresh consumption). However, they consider that sorne native varieties have diminished their growth and development and many of them are disappearing.In relation to the improved or introduced varieties they consider that they are more precocious, they have higher production and they get less disease and pests, but sorne of them after being cultivated during 3 or 4 cycles show low yield. Another difficulty is the lack of planting material.Question 2: What are the main characteristics ofthe collected varieties?In Table 1 a summary is presented on the farmers' opinions about the collected varieties.Question 3: What are the main factors that the fanners keep in mind to cultivare a native variety?• Farmers from medium and high zones ( 1400 -1700 m)-The seed should be obtained in the region.-The variety should be for double purpose (fresh consumption and starch).-Good content and quality of starch.-Good yield and resistance to pests and diseases.-Do not need so much fertilizers.-The varieties of more acceptance in order of importance for the farmers from high zones are the following: \"algodona grande\" (verdadera algodona), \"bajuna\", \"chirosa\" y \"parroquiana\".• Farmers of low or warm area (900-1300 m)-The variety should be for double purpose.-Good yield and resistant to pests and disease, especially to white fly and frog skin.-Varieties with more acceptance in this area are: \"Rojita\", \"Raya 7\", \"Falsa chirosa\".Question 4: What other parts of the cassava, different to the roots, are used by the communities?-The root peel is used as organic fertilizer.-The leaf is used for feeding of cattle and pigs, the same as the by-products of starch processing.-The hearts are used as greenness for the sausages or stuffs.-The water from starch processing is used to control stomach aches and diarrheas. It has been lcnown for 30 years in the harvested after 16 months. Yield is is to1erant to the excess of humidity and months to obtain good yields. region. good when ferti lizer is applied. has little disease incidence. lt is used for fresh consumption. 2-VARITA Vereda La Unión (Piendamó). 1700 m. Regular production and it produces Big and small roots stuck to the stem, lts yield in the last years is not ver It has been known for 1 O years in the little planting material. favorable to the harvest. good.re~ion.3-FALSA CHIROSA Vereda Pescador (Caldono). 1500 m. lt Good yield and formation of roots. lt is well accepted in the market due to lt is susceptible to Phytopthora. has been known for 12 years in the cortex pink color. 1t has good market for region.fresh consumption. 4-ALGODONA GRANDE Vereda El Mango (Piendamó). 1700 m. The yield is good when the weeds are lt is a variety of high acceptance for those lt is late, it needs from 16 to 18 mooth lt has been lcnown for 40 years. controlled and is fertlized. lt resists the that produce starch, for its quantity and to produce good starch. drought. Good ramification and seed quality. The true 'algodona'. production.Vereda San Miguel (Buenos Aires) Using stake of good size its yield is lt is used for fresh consumption and lt produces little planting material. 1100 m. lt has been known for 14 better. starch. In the last years the processors of years.starch prefer it for starch quality and precocitv. 6-ALGODONA GIGANTE Vereda El Mango (Piendamó). 1700 m. lt presents good yield when fertilized lt has high acceptance by the processors lt is susceptible to bacteriosis. lt need 1t has been known for 12 years. and weeds controlled. lt adapts better of starch for its quality and quantity. between 16 and 17 months to produc above 1500 m. well. 7-VENENOSA O Vereda Mary López (Buenos Aires -lt is a rustic variety that supports lt is a variety for industrial use lts production is low when the see MATASUEGRA Cauca). lt has been known for 20 drought.(production of starch). doesn't have good quality. lt is no years.good for fresh consumption. 8-ALGODONA RAPIDA Vereda La Independencia (Piendamó). Variety of good yield when fertilized Good quality of starch.lt is susceptible to Phytopthora. 1500m.and when doesn't receive a lot of water. 9-SATA Vereda La Marfa (Piendamó). 1500 m. lt presents good yield, especially when lt presents early branching avoiding the Thin stems and it is a late variety (1' lt has been known for 15 years. using thick seed of good size. proliferation of weeds. lt is tolerant to months to be harvested). bacteriosis. 10-AMARILLA Loma de los reyes (Piendamó) 1700 m. Plant of good size, stems of good Good acceptance for fresh consumption lt takes between 16 and 18 months t' lt has been known for 25 years. diameter and short intemodes. Good due to its thick roots with conical shape. obtain good yield. yields especially when fertilized with chicken manure. 11-VALLUNA Vereda El Mango (Piendamó). 1600 lt has good yield when fertilized and Variety of double purpose (starch and lt presents not well formed roots, but i m. lt has been known for 15 years. lt the weeds controlled. fresh consumption). is very accepted for fresh consumpti01 was brought from coffee area of the by the families. 'Valle'. 12-TOTOQUENA Vereda el Mango (Piendamó). 1600 m. Variety of good yield, big and medium lt is good for fresh consumption and to lt presents so me difficulties fo lt has been known for 12 years. roots. process starch. lt is a precocious variety, harvesting (pull out the roots) can be harvested at 12 months. 13-CHIROSA El Porvenir (Caldono) 1500 m. lt has Variety of good yield. lt produces big, 1t is very good for the fresh consumption The plant material found in the regio' been known for 12 years. lt was medí u m and small roots. market. lt gets better prices than other of 'Caldono' and 'Piendamó' is ver introduced by severa} farmers from varieties. deteriorated and its productioo is low. During the last 8 months the evaluation and monitoring of the materials multiplied in vitro by farmers, in the first phase of the project, were continued. The varieties or materials that are available to be harvested in September and then multiplied by fast progatation technique through rooting induction of 2 nodes stakes, are the following: HMC -1, MBRA 383, MPER 183, MCOL 1522, CM 6740-7 and CM 523-7. These materials multiplied by fast propagation will be planted in the farmers' plots in San Rafael, Santa Ana and Caldono with the purpose of evaluating their yield and sanitary quality of the planting material by technicians and farmers.The diffusion of the project's results has been carried out at locallevel in forums with the schools of Santander of Quilichao, where the project's advances were presented toa group of 12 teachers interested to know how to use the different tools used for cassava in vitro propagation.During the second semester a group of 6 teachers from 'Femández Guerra' Scholl, in Santander of Quilichao will be trained in in vitro seed propagation of cassava.With the participation of the farmers 'group of Santa Ana and Caldo no the training on cassava seed quality and the need for conserving local varieties, have continued. Emphasis is also been focused in aspects related to better nutritional content of cassava and beans varieties, to include them in the diet and to strengthen the food security and the nutritio of the families. AH these activities are guided to strengthen the organization and the labor participation of men and women in equal form in the different home and cornmunity acti vities. Also, sorne ideas have been discussed on low cost cassava in vitro propagationt, with University's professors (National University and Nariño University, from Colombia) and with Dr. James Gorges from CTCRI, India.The main difficulties during this phase of the project were related to the following aspects:-Sorne collected materials were confounded in their identification due to different vulgar names in the same region. This situation was corrected identifying them in the field using morphological descriptors by CIAT's expert.-The materials sent to CIAT and multiplied in vitro have presented a slow growth and it has been necessary to change the cultivation medium to stimulate their growth. These two difficulties have retarded the proposed chronogram of activities.-In relation to the participation of the farmers' groups (Santa Ana and Pescador) sorne farmers' demotivation has been reported dueto low prices of the cassava roots and starch, situation that has diminished the planted area.-To begin AFLP's evaluation.-To continue the thermoterapy treatments and in vitro cultivation until finding negative plants for frog skin.-To certify for frog skin by graft with 'Secundina' variety.-Once certificated, the multiplication activities should start to give the materials to the groups of Santa Ana, Caldono and Piendamó.-To begin the activities of fast propagation and to plan a field day to delivery materials to the farmers involved in the project.-To facilitate the delivery to CIAT of the native materials for low areas.-To elaborate a new proposal to present to a donor in order to keep in mind the advances achieved by the project.-To strengthen the participation and the farmers' organization linked to the project keeping In mind the activities that men and women carry out in the communities.-To consolidate and to strengthen the training of the farmers for handling m vitro technology. The main objective of this project is the rescue and multiplication of high quality planting material of cassava and cocoyam varieties selected according to farmers' requirements and preferences, through biotech tools adapted to the conditions of the selected rural communities.The application of in vitro techniques for micropropagation of cassava and cocoyam varieties will facilitate the increment of the yields in these crops due to high quality of the seed produced and better tolerance to main pests and diseases, since the planting material will be free of contaminations. This effort is a high priority for food security in Cuba and also will open new possibilities for incorporation of the experience from rural women and technicians in the rural communities of Cuba.This phase had two activities: 1) Survey'application to know how the flow of cassava and cocoyam seeds is performed within communities, its entrance and exchange points, and leadership in these crops. With the results of this survey will be evaluated the relationship among farmers' groups and their roles within the processes of acquisition, distribution and use of planting material; and 2) Realization of the first workshop with participation of the farmers from severa! regions involved in the project, as well as researchers, farmers' association representatives, local decision-makers politicians, and other stakeholders; the objective of this workshop is to divulgate the project, discuss the general problems related to cassava and cocoyam cultivation, and establish the priorities of future actions. These two activities have been accomplished and the data analysis is in process.During the first workshop many farmers have visited facilities utilized for micropropagation, perceived more details about this technique, and observed the genetic diversity of cassava and cocoyam when visiting INIVIT's collections.In this phase was accomplished the second project's workshop aiming to establish the characteristics of in vitro plants and to arrange local conditions for in vitro plants of cocoyam, which currently are being multiplied and will be distributed to the actors in November 2003. Also, an adjusted timetable of activities and agreements were established.Clones of cassava and cocoyam, selected by farmers, have been rnicropropagated. In vitro cocoyam plants and cassava stakes from micropropagated plants from INIVIT's elite clones will be cultivated in farmers' experimentation fields.Two actors from INCA have attended a training at INIVIT about cassava and cocoyam rnicropropagation and farmers from La Palma, after training, will assemble the facilities for in vitro plants climatization.These activities have been performed in the municipality of Santo Domingo, province of Villa Clara (homogeneous environment), and La Palma, community of San Andrés, province of Pinar de Río (heterogeneous environment).The systemic pathogenic organisms, as virus, spread with the planting material generation after generation; these agents not only affect the yield of the local cassava cultivars but al so limit the maintenance of the germplasm bank, the regional and intemational exchange of clones and the supply of certified seed for extensive cassava production. Such pathogens are the cassava vein mosaic virus (CVMV), cassava common mosaic virus (esCMV), cassava virus X (esVX) and the agent of the cassava frog skin disease (CFSD).This project will become available an altemative technology for virus elimination, with less time and less infrastructure requirements, which will decrease the cost of basic seed production of cassava. This outcome will facilitate the adjsutment of biotech tools for massive multiplication of certified seeds by cassava farmers, mainly those involved with cassava production for industrial starch.• Altemative technology for cassava virus elimination. The procedure (electrotherapy) would replace the current thermotherapy method applied in cassava (40° e at day-light and 35° e at night, during 3 to 4 weeks) to obtain, in combination with apical tissue culture, plants free of virus and other systemic pathogens. This technique will speed the growth of in vitro plants and get more regenerated plants. • Personnel trained on application of electrotherapy at eiAT and other institutions interested in production of cassava planting material free of virus. • Reduced cost of production of free disease cassava plants.• Cornmunications in speciaJized forums.With the development of molecular biology, several molecular markers have been used for identification of genetic variability in cassava cultivars from different regions and countries (Fregene et al., 1997;Fregene et al., 2003). The rnicrosatellite technique or SSR (Simple Sequence Repeats) is attractive to study dueto its abundance in the plant genome, its high polimorphism and adaptability to the automation. It has been appropriate for germplasm cassava characterization (Dixon et al. , 2002;Azudia et al., 2002), and can contribute to evaluate the genetic diversity within cassava Cuban collection and to establish the relationships between the accessions and their wild or cultivated relatives.The objective of this study is to evaluate the cassava genetic diversity and its phylogenetic relationships with culti vated relatives of Africa, South and Central America, in order to assist a sustainable management of the Cuban genetic resources.A total of 94 cultivars was collected in May 2003 in the Cuban cassava collection, according to its economic and/or genetic importance. Also 54 clones from Africa and America were incorporated (12 from Nigeria, 10 from Tanzania, 12 from Guatemala and 20 of South America), and other 13 genotypes of genetic interest.Total DNA was extracted following Dellaporta et al. (1983); DNA concentration and quality were evaluated by fluorometry and electroforesis in gel, respectively. The samples of DNA were diluted to a concentration of 10 ng/ml for the subsequent analyses of PCR and to evaluation of 36 SSR markers that represent a wide covering of cassava genome. The PCR amplification for diversity studies with SSRs, the electroforesis in poliacrilamida gel and the dye with sil ver were developed according to adjusted approaches from Fregene et al. (2002).A total of 18 SSR has been evaluated, which have showed a high polimorphism, high amplification level and a great number of bands per primer (Figures 1 and 2), except the SSRY-132 primer that was monomorphic not allowing differentiation among the individuals.  Other SSR Y primers will be evaluated up to complete 36. The reading and determination of band's weight will be carried out by the program 'Quantity one' and the statistic analysis will be performed using the following softwares: \"Microsat\",\"Gensurvey\" and \"FSTAT\". A comparison matrix among countries will be designed with Fst values and the relationship will be analyzed by a cluster analysis, using the method UPGMA of NTSYS-PC.Introduction Allem (2002) proposes that M. leptophylla, a species whose distribution range includes southern Colombia, coastal Ecuador, Perú and reaches to Belém in Brazil, could be part of the synonymous complex of sub-species which includes M. esculenta ssp. esculenta, M. esculenta ssp. flabellifolia, and M. esculenta ssp. peruviana. The M. leptophylla botanical type is reported from the coastal province of Manabí in Ecuador.Research dedicated to elucidate the position of M. leptophylla, and whether it may have contributed to the genetic constitution of cassava on the western side of The Andes was based on the following initial observations: i) extensive review of herbariurn specimens indicated that only specimens from the western coast of Ecuador and the southwestern part of Colombia are morphologically similar to the M. leptophylla type reported from the Manabí Province of Ecuador and ii) specimens of the species available from the Amazon Basin are morphologically distinct from those from the West leading us to believe that there may be a misidentification of specimens, given the plasticity of Manihot species. In this case, specimens fonn the eastern side of the Andes more probably correspond to M. jlabellifolia than to M. leptophylla, which would be restricted to the lowlands on the westem side of the Andes in Ecuador and Colombia. Molecular marker studies using AFLPs (Narváez & Second, 2002) clearly indicated that M. leptophylla is genetically very djstant from cassava and from M. jlabellifolia. Eventhough AFLPs give a total evaluation of molecular diversity given that they are distributed in the total genome and are considered reliable markers for diversity studies, their potential in an outbreeding plant such as cassava may be limited. Furthennore, as one of the objectives of this study is to evaluate possible hybridization ancl/or introgression microsatellite markers were chosen for their reproducibility, enabling compilation of data from different data sets and for their high allelic diversity as co-dominant markers which could generate markers that indicate specific introgressed si tes on the genome of the species under evaluation.The objectives of this project include: a) To deterrrune the relation of Manihot leptophylla to the other species of the genus and in particular to cassava (Manihot esculenta ssp. esculenta) and b) To provide proof that M. leptophylla has contributed to the genetic constitution of cassava through hybridization and introgression, events that may have also led to the genetic differentiation between sweet and bitter cassava types.Samples from wild putative M. leptophylla populations at different geographical sites in Ecuador were collected in silica gel throughout 2002-2003. Peral plants encountered at these sites were also collected. Collection number and site are listed in Table l . M. esculenta samples were collected in traditional fields in the westem provinces of Manabí and Esmeraldas, collection number and si te are listed in Table 2. A selection of samples for SSR analysis was made considering geographical location and ecological characteristics. The final data sets (Data 1 and Data 2) are listed in Tables 3 and 4.An initial set of 15 mapped primers (Mba, et al 2001) were selected based on previous studies on cassava (Morillo, 2002) for preliminary evaluation of the data sets. These Data analysis included principal coordinate analysis using NTSYS v. 2.1.Results were obtained for each of the data sets. Data set 1 included samples from different geographical origin within Ecuador for M. leptophylla in order to establish genetic relations to M. esculenta, which included samples of bitter and sweet types, the first represented by samples from French Guiana and the latter from westem and eastem localities in Ecuador. Samples of M. flabellifolia included ones from French Guiana and from the CIA T world collection. Samples for Central american species were al so obtained from CIAT. As can be seen in Figure 1, the first axis clearly shows a differentiation of M. leptophylla, asan extreme in the PCoA analysis in regard to M. esculenta (bitter and sweet types). M. jlabellifolia samples, from French Guiana, is found at a center position. M. leptophylla could actually be genetically more similar to M. aesculifolia, although these two species differentiate on the second axis of variation.Regarding M. leptophylla, there seems to be a geographical differentiation. The samples Antl , Ant2 and Ant7, the most extreme in the PCoA analysis (Figure 1), are from the geographical site from were the botanical type is reported, Camarones, Manabí Province, Ecuador; therefore these can be considered \"true\" M. leptophylla. The samples from other localities, especially those from Guayas and Los Ríos Provinces warrant further analysis.Analysis of allele diversity shows that M. jlabellif olia has the largest number of alleles (Table 5), followed by M. esculenta and M. leptophylla. Of the species analyzed, M. jlabellifolia shares a large number of alleles with M. esculenta, while M. leptophylla and M. esculenta have few common alleles (data not shown).The second sample set (Data set 2), includes samples of M. leptophylla and M. esculenta, especially traditional varieties grown in the coastal provinces of Manabí and Esmeraldas, as well as putative hybrids and feral plants. In this case, there is also a clear differentiation of M. leptophylla from M. esculenta. Within M. leptophylla there is not a high genetic diversity (Figure 2) while within M. esculenta there is a large diversity (revealed on the second axis of variation); especially noteworthy are the feral plants that may represent hybrid plants and, within M. leptophylla, sample Ant17 which has unique alleles and also an interesting position in the PCoA analysis (Figure 2).These results give way to considering a new sample set, combined from the two described here. For this purpose, further sampling of Ríos and Manglares-Churute (Guayas) sites must be carried out.   Rl~---' ~8  Although cassava is the main crop for the nationality Kichwa of the Amazonía, it has not been considered in research and development projects in Ecuador. In this region the cassava is perceived as part of the life: it has always been and it will be present in the life of the Kichwas especially of the women. This lack of cassava studies is due to the wrong idea that cassava is an abundant and unperishable crop.However a reduction of the cultivated varieties is observed. This reduction is due to the devaluation of the culture (the boys and girls are educated more and more to live a \"modern\" style in detriment of traditional life style). Considering these circumstances, FONAKIN has proposed this project aiming the importance of cassava crop for the family subsistence and for the culture, and the narrow relationship among the chakra (cassava agroforesty system) and the woman.This project correspond to the first phase of the project \"Documentación del conocimiento Kichwa sobre la Chakra y Fortalecimiento al Grupo de Mujeres de Base de la FONAKIN\", designed with participation of the FONAKIN's Women Group and has the following main objectives:• To document the knowledge of Kichwa's Nationality from 'Alto Napo about production systems in chakra. • To promote women participation in planing, execution and evaluation of FONAKIN's projects.The INIAP, in Ecuador, has released two cassava varieties since 1992. According to a survey, perfonned in the main production areas of Manabí, those varieties have decreased their good characteristics. The importance of cassava for human food, animal feeding and agroindustry malees necessary to clean the released and local varieties to recovery their best performance, which will allow to have these valuable genotypes as source of diversity to obtain cassava products and by-products required by national and intemational markets. The direct beneficiaries will be the partners of the APPYs from: Tablones (Junín), Bijahual y San Vicente (Portoviejo), Jaboncillo y San Miguel (24 de Mayo), of Manabí province.The indirect beneficiaries will be the non partners farmers and their families .Recruitment of CBN coordination staff The Ginés-Mera memorial fellowship fund for postgraduate studies in biodiversityThe Canadian Intemational Development Research Center (IDRC) has generously provided funding in the total sum of US$750,000 spread over 5 years for \"The Ginés-Mera memorial fellowship fund for postgraduate studies in biodiversity\". This fund is aimed memorializing Dr. Maria Jesús (Chusa) Ginés and Ms. Verónica Mera, CBN Coordinator and Social Scientist, respectively, who lost their lives in a tragic airplane accident (Jan 2002) while on an official trip from their base in Quito, Ecuador, to the headquarters of the Intemational Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Cali, Colombia. Specifically, the fund aims at achieving the following over the 5-year span:To provide opportunities and support to female and male master's students from the developing countries of the world to undertake thesis research addressing key elements of the sustainable use and conservation of agricultura} biodiversíty, in particular: a) intellectual property rights and access to agricultura! genetic resources b) molecular characterization of agrobiodiversity e) community-based conservation of genetic agrobiodiversity.This example shows a population of a new species described for Costa Rica (Freytag & Debouck 1996), that has been shown to belong to the phylum of the comrnon bean (Schmit et al. 1993), thus widening possibilities for wide crossing.  15-ll-2002].This case shows how modification of habitats affects wild population, because this site has now been converted into a tourist resort. lt has been shown elsewhere (Bayuelo et al. 2002) that this species is promising for salinity tolerance.The ceparium was established in 1996 to maintain a collection of Agrobacterium andE. coli strains. It consisted of 97 accessions of A. tumefaciens, 17 of A. rizhogenes and 156 of E. coli. The strains are kept frozen at -80 °C, in four boxes, whit 3 copies per box, two of which are the stocks and one is the working collection.The last renovation of the entire ceparium was done in 1998. Since then new accessions have been added, in sorne cases without a back up copy, or lacking crucial information. Due to the overwhelming increase in information on strains, vectors and genes, it was necessary to create a database in year 2000, using Oracle developer 5, Edition Release 8.1.7.4.0 (Figure 1). The data base was not completely filled due mainly to the lack of a full time person devoted to this activity.We hired a visiting scientist anda \"pasante\" from the Universidad del Tolima to update the ceparium, renew part of the collection andintroduce new strains.Update the ceparium and database Renew and purify existing strains in critica! shape Enter new accessions into the ceparium and database.Review and collect references relevant to the ceparium Digitalization of information (pictures, maps, MT A, etc) available for strains, vectors and genes.All boxes, stocks and working collections, were checked and all damaged accessions of A. tumefaciens, A. rizhogenes, andE. coli, were renewed by growing them on LB media with the proper antibiotics. Bacteria! cultures were mixed with conservation media (Glycerol 30%, MgS0 4 7-H 2 0 100 mM, TrisHCl pH 7.5 10 mM) and stored in cryogenic vials. All available drawings, maps, pictures, restriction pattems of vectors and MT As (Material Transfer Agreements) were scanned and included in the database. Using an Oracle tool called TOAD (Figure 1), the available information on strain, vector and genes was also included in the ceparium database.To eliminate contaminants in Agrobacterium strains, a genus-specific Ketolactose test (Bemaerts & DeLey , 1963) was used to purify and renew strains. Figure l. TOAD. a too! from Oracle that facilitates entering the data in the ceparium database. On the right is the actual application of the ceparium, as it shows on the screen, used also to enter and search for data.The ceparium was partially renovated by replacing damaged accessions, or reincorporating lacking ones in all boxes. Currently the collection is maintained by triplicate (Stock 1, Stock 2 and Working Collection) at -80°C. Each strain is in triplicate within each box. There 67 strains of A. tumefaciens, 7 of A. rhizogenes and 36 strains of E. coli. A ketolactose test for all renovated Agrobacterium accessions confirmed that , in fact, they belong to this gen u.All the information available about strains, vectors and genes was digitized and entered into the ceparium database application. Ten New articles related to strains, vectors, were filed.The plasmids pBSK 7, pUC9 psl, pTo 76, pUC9#44, pUC9 GA, pT3T7, pBI22i were introduced in E. coli DH5 O by electroporation, creating se ven new accessions.Filling a data sheet established for such purpose will monitor each new strain that enters the ceparium (Figure 2).Entering to the ceparium collection and database new accessions; these included the plasmid vectors of JIRCAS (Dreb) and pRip.Incorporated into ceparium collection and database the accessions belong to rice transformation collection.Training transformation personal in ceparium database application manage.","tokenCount":"92810"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6a5fd4b01cfec37fb5be26acd6d1a934","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/18c1a1db-cf39-4faa-b621-2557ea24af7c/retrieve","id":"-1842671214"},"keywords":["groundwater management","groundwater recharge","aquifers Mahen Chandrasoma; Layout: Nimal Attanayake"],"sieverID":"60edcfc1-5f20-4c7d-bba9-a5b95017ed0b","pagecount":"4","content":"ISSuE 13 2010 Putting Research Knowledge into Action WATER Over the past 50 years, groundwater development has been a feature of agricultural production across the developing world.Groundwater now accounts for approximately 50% of all irrigation supply in South Asia and two-thirds of supply in the grain belts of North China. Whilst the benefits of groundwater use are apparent, so too are the problems, which mainly concern issues of sustainability and water quality. While it is the problem of overuse that most often captures the attention of the media, there are parts of the developing world that have yet to take full advantage of the poverty-reducing and livelihood enhancing potential of groundwater.The need for information to support decision making is a critical element for groundwater management.In regions of overdevelopment, relevant government authorities need to effect a paradigm shift from resource development to management.There is no 'one-size-fits-all' position on groundwater management. To be effective, groundwater policies must address the unique socio-ecological characteristics of a region and its people. In South Asia, that means recognizing the decline of gravity-fed surface irrigation systems and the rise of a thriving groundwater economy based on millions of smallholder farmers pumping groundwater with the use of cheap diesel or electric pumps. China has some of the most abundant groundwater resources in the world and a highly heterogeneous groundwater economy, with falling water tables in some regions and little apparent decline in others. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), conflict over water has global implications. Significant quantities of renewable groundwater reside in coastal aquifers that are vulnerable to saltwater intrusion and sea level rise driven by global warming.Wherever they are, renewable aquifers are susceptible to overexploitation. In the deserts of Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, there is abundant fossil groundwater, but much of it is far from where it can be used. A lack of data (or access to data) makes it difficult to accurately estimate the extent and use of groundwater, but, as in other regions, it seems clear that groundwater plays an increasingly central role in agricultural livelihoods. In Central America, groundwater is used mainly for human consumption and industrial activities, with little use in agriculture to date. In most regions, there is a lack of reliable data to support decision making. Globally, the use of groundwater is rising. Among its many benefits, its widespread presence and enormous capacity provides a form of insurance against increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns. With few notable exceptions, governments have yet to formulate or implement effective management policies that address the livelihood needs of small farmers.Groundwater recharge in Mekelle, Ethiopia (Photo credit: Akiça Bahri).Common themes running through IWMI's research on groundwater are sustainability and management. Where groundwater is overexploited, IWMI and partners are actively assessing the merits of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) as a supply augmentation strategy. Successful applications of MAR have been demonstrated in peninsular India, trials are underway in northern Thailand, and the concept has been presented as a solution to transboundary disputes over water along the Syr Darya River in Central Asia. Planning for groundwater use and addressing problems of overuse and water quality require a sound understanding of the local social, economic and political ecologies. Technical solutions alone are not sufficient. Within the technical realm, there is growing consensus that surface water and groundwater are intricately connected and must be managed 'conjunctively', that is, as parts of a holistic system at a scale that is meaningful. There is more than sufficient evidence to show that good groundwater governance can make a significant contribution to rural livelihoods and poverty reduction.Coming to terms with the challenges of groundwater use and management requires a comprehensive and coordinated program of research and advocacy that entails understanding the physics of groundwater replenishment and movement, the sociology of groundwater users, the political economy of the water and agricultural sectors, and the laws and institutions that have been or might be to bear. A number of key action points emerged from the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, among them: greater emphasis on conjunctive management with surface water; augmenting groundwater irrigation with urban wastewater; managing demand through indirect means, for example, by tackling the energy-irrigation nexus in many regions; moving towards 'precision' irrigation and water-saving technologies (e.g., micro-irrigation); and crop and livelihoods diversification.The need for information runs across all these topics and is a critical element for groundwater management. There are substantial gaps in basic information on groundwater availability and agricultural use, but enough available information to suspect that agricultural groundwater use appears to be substantially underestimated. IWMI is an active participant in, and supporter of, the global movement for sharing area-specific or georeferenced data, information, knowledge and experience.Where groundwater withdrawals are increasing and an excess of surface water is present, programs for managed aquifer recharge are urgently needed to ensure that falling water tables are stabilized or increased. IWMI researchers in India have helped to put groundwater on the national agenda and are providing the scientific basis for policies promoting in-situ recharge technologies, many of which incorporate rainwater harvesting. Where groundwater is abundant but underused, such as in sub-Saharan Africa for example, IWMI researchers are gathering evidence and demonstrating how groundwater can be used to enhance livelihoods based on pastoral livestock production and the role it plays in drought mitigation, small-scale irrigation, rural domestic supply, urban use and poverty reduction.Perhaps the most important arena for action is governance. With few exceptions in the developing world, government authorities need to upskill and transition from resource development to management.","tokenCount":"918"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"897ddc97a3ce0574d81ab24d3f2e85c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6fa18d68-922e-4af0-9c55-c175a7892c83/content","id":"1174165119"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"51720d8b-643b-492a-88eb-a5455a203bfa","pagecount":"11","content":"Only a few genetic maps based on recombinant inbred line (RIL) and backcross (BC) populations have been developed for tetraploid groundnut. The marker density, however, is not very satisfactory especially in the context of large genome size (2800 Mb/1C) and 20 linkage groups (LGs). Therefore, using marker segregation data for 10 RILs and one BC population from the international groundnut community, with the help of common markers across different populations, a reference consensus genetic map has been developed. This map is comprised of 897 marker loci including 895 simple sequence repeat (SSR) and 2 cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) loci distributed on 20 LGs (a01-a10 and b01-b10) spanning a map distance of 3, 863.6 cM with an average map density of 4.4 cM. The highest numbers of markers (70) were integrated on a01 and the least number of markers (21) on b09. The marker density, however, was lowest (6.4 cM) on a08 and highest (2.5 cM) on a01. The reference consensus map has been divided into 20 cM long 203 BINs. These BINs carry 1 (a10_02, a10_08 and a10_09) to 20 (a10_04) loci with an average of 4 marker loci per BIN. Although the polymorphism information content (PIC) value was available for 526 markers in 190 BINs, 36 and 111 BINs have at least one marker with .0.70 and .0.50 PIC values, respectively. This information will be useful for selecting highly informative and uniformly distributed markers for developing new genetic maps, background selection and diversity analysis. Most importantly, this reference consensus map will serve as a reliable reference for aligning new genetic and physical maps, performing QTL analysis in a multi-populations design, evaluating the genetic background effect on QTL expression, and serving other genetic and molecular breeding activities in groundnut.Dense genetic linkage maps are cornerstones for wide spectrum of genetics and breeding applications such as linkage mapping or association analysis based trait mapping, marker-assisted breeding, map-based cloning and physical map alignment. In general, it is possible to map only limited number of molecular markers in a given mapping population due to polymorphism constraints. As a result, several mapping populations are used for developing different genetic maps so that maximum number of marker loci available are mapped in the given crop species. Subsequently, with an objective to increase the number of mapped marker loci, genetic maps developed for different mapping populations are used for developing a consensus map. As compared to individual genetic maps, consensus maps offer several advantages such as: (i) mapping of a large number of marker loci onto a single map, (ii) determining relative position of common markers across the mapping populations, (iii) determining stability of marker locus position across the genome, (iv) provides evidence for chromo-somal rearrangements [1,2], gene duplication [2,3] and assists in the assignment of linkage groups to chromosome [1], (v) provides the basic information for comparative genomic studies among related species and subspecies [2][3][4] and (vi) provides genetic information for greater genomic coverage [5]. Because of above mentioned features, consensus genetic maps have been developed in many crop species like maize [6,7], wheat [8] barley, [9,10], soybean [11,12] and pigeonpea [13].Groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), an economically important oil seed crop, is cultivated mostly in semi-arid regions of the world. It is an allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 40) with a large genome size 2800 Mb/1C. Based on the origin complexity such as polyploidy nature, narrow genetic base with very low DNA polymorphism in cultivated tetraploid groundnuts, initially genetic maps were developed for AA-genome [14][15][16] and BB-genome [17,18]. Only recently a few mapping populations have been used for developing the genetic maps for cultivated groundnut species [19][20][21][22] or based on cross of cultivated and synthetic tetraploid groundnut species [23]. In some cases, consensus genetic maps based on two or three mapping populations have also been developed [24][25][26][27]. The most dense consensus genetic map developed so far is based on two mapping populations and is comprised of 324 SSR loci [27]. However because of availability of .4000 SSR markers in Arachis species [28], international Arachis community has been striving towards developing a consensus genetic map compiling a maximum number of genetic markers especially when efforts have been initiated to sequence the genome of Arachis species (http://www.peanutbioscience.com/peanutgenomeproject.html).Keeping in view of above, this article reports assembling of SSR marker genotyping data for 11 mapping populations including 10 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and one backcross (BC) population. These genotyping data have been used to develop a consensus genetic map with 895 SSR marker loci and 2 CAPS loci. For enhancing the utility of the consensus genetic map, the map has been divided into 20 cM long 203 BINs and the polymorphism information content (PIC) values for the markers, wherever possible, present in these BINs have also been presented.Marker segregation data were assembled for a total of 1961 markers ranging from 64 markers (RIL-8) to 339 markers (BC-1) per population (Table 1). A chi-square test was performed on marker genotyping data for individual mapping population to test the null hypothesis of segregation ratios of 1:1 at the threshold of p = 0.05. A variable percentage of distorted markers ranging from 3.45% (RIL-8) to 52.34% (RIL-2) were observed for individual mapping populations.The genotyping data obtained on 11 mapping populations (1961 markers) were used for constructing the component genetic maps for the respective mapping population using MAPMAKER/EXP V 3.0 [29]. All developed component genetic maps can be visualized in CMap database at http:// cmap.icrisat.ac.in/cmap/sm/gn/gautami/. The numbers of marker loci ranged from 46 (RIL-8) to 332 (BC-1) per component genetic maps for different mapping populations. Genetic map distance covered from 357.4 cM (RIL-8) to 2208.2 cM (RIL-2) with a range of map density from 2.5 cM (BC-1) to 18.6 cM (RIL-2) (Table 2). As several markers integrated into component maps have segregation distortion, the linkage group (LG)-wise segregation pattern of markers in each mapping population has been shown in Figure S1.A reference consensus genetic map was constructed by integrating all 11 component genetic maps using common markers across different genetic maps using MergeMap program. While integrating component genetic maps, some discrepancies were observed in the names of markers for which genotyping data were available on more than one mapping population. However, to facilitate integration, uniformity in marker nomenclature was maintained for all the markers. For example, 'pPGPseq xx' and pPGSseqxx' were changed to 'seqxx', and 'XIPxx' was changed to 'IPAHMxx' to maintain uniformity in names of marker loci.Based on the common markers and the comparison between component genetic maps, most of the linkage groups were consistent among the individual maps with few exceptions which can be visually assessed from http://cmap.icrisat.ac.in/cmap/ sm/gn/gautami/(also see Table S1). A total of 542 markers were unique markers i.e. mapped only in one mapping population, while the remaining 355 markers were common, i.e. they were mapped in at least two mapping populations (187 markers were common between two maps, 72 between three maps, for four maps 57 are common, 20 markers are common between 5 maps, between 6 maps 13 markers are common, 3 markers are common between 7 maps, 2 markers between 8 maps and 1 marker is common between 9 maps) and served as anchor points for the map integration (Table 3). The grouping of different LGs from component genetic maps to develop the consensus map were given in Table S2. Therefore, in the consensus genetic map, a total of 39.58% (355) markers are anchor markers present on all 20 LGs. The remaining 60.42% (542) markers are the markers which are unique to the individual mapping populations.Multiple segregating fragments (loci) identified with one SSR primer pair were designated with one lower case letter ''a'', ''b'' or ''c'' as suffix with the name of marker. For example two loci mapped on LG_AhVII and LG_AhXVII by using the same marker (RIL-1), were designated as IPAHM108a and IPAHM108b loci (Table S1).Seventy homeologous loci were identified on ''a'' and ''b'' linkage groups (Figure 1), which facilitate the detection of ten homeologous pair named from a01 to a10 and b01 to b10 based on the same loci detected on the framework map (BC-1 in the present study) developed by Fonce ´ka et al. [23]. Out of these 70 homeologous loci, 11 loci were located between the group a01-b01 and a03-b03, followed by eight loci between a02-b02 and a04-b04 and four loci between a09-b09. Except for the groups between a01-b01, a03-b03 and a04-b04 markers order and interloci map distance were well conserved between homeologous groups (Figure 1).In some cases, the same marker mapped single locus on different linkage groups in different mapping populations, these loci were not considered as the same loci and were included as unique loci (with the same name) in the reference consensus genetic map. Twenty nine (26.13%) primer pairs detected duplicated non-homeologous loci between linkage groups (e.g., seq12F07 detected two loci, one on a01 and one on a10; IPAHM524 detected two loci, one on b02 and one on b06 and IPAHM171 detected three loci on a06, b01 and b08) (Figure 1, Table S1).Although it was planned to include only SSR marker loci in the reference consensus genetic map, two CAPS (cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence) markers i.e., ahFAD2A and ahFAD2B, due to their association with high oleic acid to linoleic acid ratios (high O/L) [30], very important trait in groundnut, were also integrated in the reference consensus genetic map.In summary, the reference consensus map is comprised of 895 SSR and 2 CAPS loci distributed over 20 LGs. Nomenclature of LGs in the reference consensus map was given in the same way as in the framework map (BC-1 in the present study) developed by Fonce ´ka et al [23]. The map density in the reference consensus map ranged from 2.5 cM (a01) to 6.4 cM (a08) with an average of 4.3 cM per marker. The inter-locus gap distance ranged from 1.5 cM (a01) to 5.4 cM (a08), with a mean value of 4.5 cM per marker (Table 4). Among the 20 LGs, a01 possess maximum marker loci with 70 loci followed by a03, a05 and b03 with 65, 61 and 60 loci respectively, while a02 and b09 have only 23 and 21 loci, respectively (Figure 1, Table 4). The low number of SSR loci mapped on a02 and b10 may be related to the lack of polymorphism on these two LGs. For example, the consensus LG a02 is built with seven LGs of the different component genetic maps, among which four LGs have only two mapped loci. For these small LGs additional genetic markers are needed for increasing the map density. In the consensus map, some gaps are observed on the distal ends of the a02, b02, a03, a05, b05, a08, a09, b09 and a10. Of the 897 mapped loci, 32.33% (290 loci) of the marker intervals were smaller than 1 cM while 41.14% (369 loci) marker intervals were between 1-5 cM, 15.94% (143 loci) between 5-10 cM, 7.36% (66 loci) between 10-20 cM, and 3.23% (29 loci) marker intervals were greater than 20 cM.As SSR markers are the marker of choice in breeding applications, an attempt was made to understand the distribution of different SSR motifs as well as the polymorphism information content (PIC) values for these markers.Out of 895 SSR loci integrated into the reference consensus map, information on repeat motifs was available for 788 SSR loci. Of the 788 SSRs, 612 SSR loci represent simple repeat motifs and 176 SSR loci contain compound repeat motifs. Among simple repeat motifs contained SSR loci, 375 SSR loci (47.58%) are comprised of di-(NN) repeats followed by 226 (28.70%) tri-nucleotides (NNN) repeats. The longer repeat classes, i.e. tetra-(NNNN, 8 loci) and hexa-nucleotide (NNNNNN, 3 loci) represented 1.39% of the SSR loci (Table S3). In the case of the compound repeats containing SSR loci, 93 loci were comprised of NN repeats and the remaining 83 loci comprised with mixed repeats.Of the 897 mapped marker loci, the information on PIC values was available for 526 SSR marker loci from the studies in which the corresponding SSR loci were mapped (Table S3). Based on genotypes surveyed in those earlier studies, 144 marker loci have .0.50 PIC value. Majority of the loci (181) have 0.31-0.40 PIC value (Figure S2). Average PIC value of individual LGs varied from 0.55 (a02) to 0.81 (a01).For making the consensus map more informative, an attempt has been made to divide the genetic map in 20 cM long BINs. As a result, the reference groundnut genetic map has a total of 203 BINs ranging from 5 (a02 and b06) to 16 (b01) with an average of 4 per linkage group. These BINs carry 1 (a10_02, a10_08 and a10_09) to 20 (a10_04) with an average of 4.41 marker per BIN.In terms of selecting highly informative SSR markers based on available PIC values, 36 BINs have at least one marker that has .0.70 PIC value and 111 BINs carry at least one marker with .0.50 PIC value. 166 BINs have the marker loci with ,0.50 PIC value and 23 BINs do not have the information available on PIC values. 13 BINs do not have any marker.Finally, for deciphering the relationships between LGs of the different component maps, we have identified a total of 58 genome specific SSR markers. These markers will be of great interest for subgenome assignment of SSR loci in cultivated x cultivated mapping studies. These markers could also be used in diversity analysis as they give access to the diversity at the diploid genome level allowing differentiating the structural heterozygosity linked to polyploidy from true heterozygosity.As the reference map was developed based on the common marker loci mapped in the different component genetic maps using the same nomenclature of LGs, there was a good congruence except a few exceptions between marker orders and positions among component maps and the reference consensus map (http://cmap.icrisat.ac.in/cmap/sm/gn/gautami/and also see in Table S1). Comparison of a03 and b08 for all the component genetic maps and the reference consensus map, for example, has been shown in Figure 2.The results of the reference consensus genetic map were compared with the diploid AA and BB maps published earlier [15,18]. The LGs of the reference consensus map in this study are named according to the LGs named in Fonce ´ka et al. [23] (a01 to a10 and b01 to b10). In these maps, LGs of AA and BB genome map were named as Group 1 to Group 11 and B1 to B10 respectively. The synteny study between the reference consensus map and AA map assessed 68 common SSR marker loci and between BB map assessed 43 common SSR marker loci (Table S4). However, for all the ten LGs of the present constructed reference consensus genetic maps, overall good Table 3. Summary of number of loci common between genetic maps for different mapping populations.No. of mapped loci used in consensus map Number of markers in common with n other mapping populations    marker loci per homologous LGs varied between 2 and 10 with AA map and with BB map between 1 and 9.Significant progress has been made during last decade in high throughput genotyping and various linkage mapping tools to place a large number of marker loci on genetic maps in several crop species [8,13,[31][32][33]. In the case of tetraploid groundnut, genetic mapping efforts have been initiated only recently and few genetic maps with 46-332 marker loci have been developed [34]. To enhance the marker density, a few consensus maps have also been developed using 2-3 mapping populations and the mapped marker loci on these maps has not gone beyond 324 loci. The major objective of this study, therefore, was the development of a dense consensus genetic map that can be used as a reference map by the international groundnut community.Dense genetic maps can be developed mainly by using two approaches: (a) map maximum number of marker loci using highly diverse population, (b) merge available genetic maps using common markers mapped across the populations. While the first approach is quite challenging and laborious but precise, the second approach was used in the present study. In this context, segregation data for a total of 1961 marker loci generated for 11 (10 RIL and 1 BC) populations were assembled from different organizations. As a first step, component genetic maps were developed for all 11 populations. While comparing the component genetics maps developed in this study with the ones published by the source laboratory, all mapped marker loci could not be integrated into component genetic maps in this study. One of the main reasons for this may be use of a stringent and common approach to develop all the component genetic maps.Building a consensus map is not possible without common or bridge loci present on each LG [9]. A bridge marker was considered as such when it had an identical name and should have a similar position in different mapping populations that are underpinned. Markers with the same name that mapped to different positions in different populations were not considered to be common or bridge markers. However a minimum of three common markers per linkage group should be considered while, in the present study, at least one common marker per LG is also taken into consideration in some LGs because of availability of lower number of markers in some LGs.During the process of construction of consensus map, the major emphasis was given towards obtaining a general order and distance because as a known fact, groundnut is polyploid with a large genome size (2800 Mb/C), and has a narrow genetic base with very low DNA polymorphism. Slight discrepancies in marker orders as well as positions observed in some LGs (http://cmap. icrisat.ac.in/cmap/sm/gn/gautami/and Table S1) among different component genetic maps may be due to (i) different mapping population sizes used (ii) different type of mapping populations used and (iii) genotyping errors [35] or sometimes these small differences might be due to mapping-imprecision rather than real rearrangements.Developed consensus map integrates a total of 897 marker loci including 895 SSR and 2 CAPS loci with an average map density of 4.3 cM. This map is the most dense and community map and, therefore, is proposed as a reference consensus map. Despite of dense placing of markers on various LGs, some gaps were observed on the distal ends of some LGs e.g. a02, b02, a03, a05, b05, a08, a09, b09 and a10. These regions may be high recombination prone regions and some of them were also observed in other mapping studies also [19,21,[24][25][26][27]. Another reason for these gaps may be due to under-representation or deficiency of marker loci from these genomic regions in the dataset used for developing the reference consensus map [9,13,19,21].In present mapping protocol, the homologous LGs taking into consideration of homeologous relationship were used to generate consensus map LGs one at a time using MergeMap to establish marker orders (see materials and methods). Therefore, the marker orders in the consensus map are consistent throughout most of the linkage groups with few exceptions where the marker orders are in opposite orientation. Moreover, maximum markers were mapped onto the consensus map in their original orders similar to the individual maps, but small number of markers were joined with order changes, which could be caused by computational variation resulting from (i) recombination heterogeneity between different populations, (ii) weak linkages existing in the various LGs of maps, (iii) missing or poor quality data, (iv) different mapping programmes being used for constructing the individuals and the consensus maps and, (v) different thresholds statistics being applied for creating the consensus map and the original maps [36].While utmost precautions were taken in preparing this consensus map, there could be some disagreement in order of closely linked markers between the individual maps within some LGs intervals. Such a disagreement may be due to the quality as well as the quantity and distribution along the LGs of the bridge (common) markers used for preparing the consensus map, or to mapping populations, algorithm and stringency criteria of computer programme [9,24,36]. For example, the mapping populations from which the consensus map has been prepared have different numbers and different types of progeny lines. In smaller populations, the chance that informative recombinant progeny lines are present in the population to accurately position markers is lower than in larger populations [9,36]. Further, even for a given mapping population, different markers were mapped using different subsets of progeny lines in different laboratories. Therefore, the users of the consensus SSR map must consider that the marker order is conditioned by several factors like the progeny lines used and the position of cross over along chromosome within the progeny lines. The precise fine markers order may slightly differ in other population and users may need to verify the order of closely linked markers in their mapping and breeding populations.This reference consensus map integrated almost all types of SSR motifs, however di-and tri-nucleotide microsatellites at 47.58% and 28.70%, respectively, are present in higher proportions than the compound (22.33%) and other types of SSRs (1.39%). The underlying reason may be that the majority of SSR loci integrated in the consensus map were derived from the genomic DNA libraries that had been enriched for dinucleotide and trinucleotide SSR probes [28,34]. Therefore, the availability of different types of SSR loci in a given region will facilitate selection of the SSR repeat motifs of choice in a particular region of interest. Availability of the primer sequences for a total of 885 SSR loci, approximately 90% of all loci integrated in the consensus map, at one place should LGs of the reference consensus map and the diploid AA and BB maps. The LGs of the reference consensus map are represented as a01 to a10 and b01 to b10. The LGs of AA map are named as Group 1 to Group 11 and for BB map as B1 to B10 respectively (published by Moretzsohn et al 2005Moretzsohn et al , 2009)). The AA map was represented by a red bar and the BB map with green colour. The common markers between corresponding LGs in the reference consensus map and AA map are indicated in red colour and pink colour with BB map. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041213.g003 accelerate the use of SSR markers in groundnut breeding activities. Similarly, the genotyping data has been made available for all the mapped SSR loci in the present study and this will allow the community to extend the dataset with their own data set in future.Another feature of the developed reference consensus map is the defining of the groundnut genetic map in 203 BINs. Furthermore marker loci present in these BINs are associated with the PIC values. One marker from each of such BIN with higher PIC value has also been identified. Using this criteria, 36 BINs have been identified that have at least one marker with .0.70 PIC value and 111 BINs carry at least one marker .0.50 PIC value. This information will be very useful to select the genome-wide markers that will have higher probability of showing polymorphism in the parental genotypes of the mapping populations or germplasm collections to be analyzed. It is also important to mention that primer sequence information also has been provided here for 885 markers.SSR marker segregation data available on ten recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and one backcross (BC) mapping populations were assembled from collaborators as mentioned in Table 1. The populations, for which marker segregation data were assembled, for the convenience of referring in this article, have been referred as RIL-1 to RIL-10 and BC-1.Three mapping populations (RIL-1, RIL-2, and RIL-3), developed at ICRISAT, segregate for drought tolerance related traits [25], two mapping populations (RIL-4 and RIL-5), developed at UAS-Dharwad, segregate for foliar disease resistance [26] and two populations (RIL-9 and RIL-10), developed at UGA and HAAS, segregate for tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). In the case of RIL-6, RIL-7 and RIL-8, developed at GAAS, Yueyou 13 (Y13), a Spanish type with high yield was the common female parent. While the RIL-6 segregates for oil content, the RIL-7 segregates for protein content and the RIL-8 segregates for resistance to Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination [24]. The remaining BC-1 population (BC1F1) was developed using a wild tetraploid AABB amphidiploid (A. ipae ¨nsis KG30076 6 A. duranensis V14167), called AiAd [37] and a cultivated tetraploid AABB variety (Fleur 11). This population segregates for several agro-morphological and drought related traits [38].In brief, the segregation data for 211 marker loci on RIL-1 [19,21], 128 and 87 markers loci on RIL-2 and RIL-3, respectively [25] and 209 marker loci each on RIL-4 and RIL-5 populations [20,22,26] were obtained. RIL-6, RIL-7 and RIL-8 contributed marker data for 146, 124 and 64 marker loci respectively [24]. Segregation data were obtained for 261 and 193 marker loci on RIL-9 and RIL-10, respectively [27]. The lone BC-1 population contributed segregation data of maximum number (339) of marker loci [23]. Genotyping data as mentioned above have been provided in Table S5.Segregation data for 1961 markers obtained on all the 11 mapping populations were subjected to chi-square (x2) test to examine distortion from the expected 1:1 segregation using ''Locus genotype frequency'' function of JoinMap V 3.0 [39]. Individual or component genetic maps were constructed using MAPMAK-ER/EXP [29] and Kosambi mapping function [40] to assemble linkage groups by maximum-likelihood for respective mapping populations. Marker clusters were identified using a minimum LOD score of 5.0 and a maximum recombination fraction (h) of 0.35. The most likely marker order within each LG was estimated by comparing the log-likelihood of the possible orders of markers using multipoint analysis ''Compare'' command. The ''Try'' command was also used to determine the most likely placement of the unlinked markers, and subsequent orders were tested using the ''Ripple'' command with ''Error Detection'' and ''Use Three Points'' options enabled. The distance between neighboring markers were calculated using the multipoint analysis implemented in the ''Map'' command.A reference consensus genetic map was constructed using the markers mapped in ten RILs and one BC mapping populations. As peanut is an allotetraploid, deciphering the homologous versus homeologous relationships between LGs of the different component maps was necessary before constructing the consensus map. We first identified the sub-genome origin of each LG of the different component maps using a set of 58 single dose SSR markers (Table S6) that consistently amplified only one locus on the A or B sub-genomes. We then merged all LGs belonging to the same homology group with the software MergeMap [41]. In brief, LGs belonging to the same group of homology were first converted to direct acyclic graphs (DAG), which were then merged into a consensus graph on the basis of their shared vertices. Subsequently, efforts were made to resolve conflicts among the individual LGs by deleting a minimum set of marker occurrences. The result of the conflict-resolution step was a consensus DAG, which was then simplified and linearised to produce the consensus map. The final map was drawn with the help of Mapchart V 2.2 [42].For efficient visualization of individual and consensus maps as well as their comparison, mapping data were put in the comparative mapping programme CMap version 1.01 http:// www.gmod.org/cmap. This helped in assessing the congruency of marker positions and order by making a pairwise comparison among different genetic maps. Considering only the common loci existing among various genetic maps, highly conserved marker order was manifested. Subsequently, all the developed 11 individual genetic maps and the reference consensus map were aligned together in CMap.This article reports the first dense reference consensus map of the international groundnut community for wider applications in groundnut research. The consensus map provides the marker order for a maximum number of markers available in groundnut, which will be very helpful for aligning any new genetic map as well as anchoring genetic map to the future physical map. Furthermore, the reference consensus map now offers the possibility to select desirable set of markers with appropriate repeat motifs as well as PIC value that are uniformly distributed throughout the genome. In addition, marker segregation and mapping data as well as primer sequence information for as many as markers as possible have also been provided as supplementary tables that will be very useful for the groundnut community for future genetics research and breeding applications.  This table provides BIN wise information for integrated markers along with repeat motifs, PIC values and primer sequence information.Table S4 Summary of comparative information between tetraploid cultivated reference map and with diploid groundnut maps. This table provides comparative information on common markers between the tetraploid cultivated reference groundnut map with A-genome (Moretzsohn et al. 2005) and B-genome (Moretzsohn et al. 2009) Table S5 Genotyping scores for ten RILs and one BC mapping populations used to construct the reference consensus genetic map. This table provides detailed genotyping data for all the 11 mapping populations used for the construction of reference genetic map. (XLS) Table S6 List of the ''A'' and ''B'' genome specific markers mapped in the reference consensus genetic map. This table provides list of SSR markers identified specific to A and B genomes of the tetraploid groundnut. (XLS)","tokenCount":"4818"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5019b8f76f048270184f9a2834692a0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad443bf5-a58e-4119-9533-f354acb66f6d/retrieve","id":"1159678358"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1b76a2fd-86b7-4ecc-8d4f-2006c158be8d","pagecount":"57","content":"The authors, listed in alphabetical order, are respectively with the Agricultural Development Economics Division (ESA) of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development of Tanzania, and with the Development Research Group (DECRG) of the World Bank.A diverse rural economy, with agriculture as the backboneThe near totality of rural households in Tanzania has some level of involvement in agricultural activities. Three fifths of rural households earn income from livestock husbandry, while 97 percent cultivate crops and approximately one fifth are employed as agricultural wage laborers. Agricultural activities combined (crop, livestock, and agricultural wage labor) amount to 70 percent of total income for rural households (53 percent from crop production, 13 percent from livestock, and four percent from agricultural wages). Self-employed farming is clearly the mainstay of rural livelihoods, with 53 percent of households deriving 75 percent or more of their income from self-employed farming.Participation in non-agricultural self-employment is similar to that of other developing countries (Davis et al., 2010), with 34 percent of rural households engaged in these activities. The non-agricultural sector provides a non-negligible 30 percent of total income, seven percent of which originates from non-agricultural wages, 13 percent from non-agricultural self-employment, and 10 percent from transfers (mostly private transfers from relatives).Agriculture: A sector of small-holder farmersThe NPS data yield the picture of a heterogeneous agricultural sector dominated by smallholder farmers. Average land ownership and operations are both at about 1.6 hectares, and less than five percent of rural households own or operate more than five hectares of land. Even in the top land quintile, average land operations are smaller than 4 hectares. Most rural households appear to be engaged in subsistence agriculture. On average, 67 percent of agricultural production is consumed by the household, 30 percent is marketed, and the remainder is used as input or allocated to other uses. Larger farmers tend to market a greater share of their agricultural output when compared to smallholders. Farming households in the top land operated quintile still consume a major part of their output at home, but they sell close to 40 percent of it on the market.The statistics on agricultural input use and purchases that emerge from the NPS point to a farming sector characterized by an extremely limited use of modern inputs. Only 30 percent of households report using any fertilizers, and 15 percent report the purchase of pesticides. Meanwhile, 58 percent of rural households purchased seeds for agriculture, but just 14 percent purchased improved seed varieties and only 12 percent bought certified improved varieties. Seed use is therefore largely made up of traditional varieties. As expected, the agricultural practices of larger farmers are somewhat more reliant on the use of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides/herbicides.About three out of five rural households report some income from livestock activities, earning an average 22 percent of total household income from livestock rearing. Both the share of rural households participating and the income shares from participation in livestock activities increase with welfare, as measured by expenditure quintiles. For the bottom quintile, 49 percent of households participate and livestock contributes to 18 percent of their total household income. At the top 20 percent of the expenditure distribution, the corresponding percentages are 69 percent for participation in livestock activities, and 24 percent for the share of income earned from them.The NPS data provide an opportunity to look closely the relationship between overall household welfare and livestock ownership in Tanzania. This can yield important indicators on i) the presence and extent of inequality and concentration within the livestock sector, ii) whether there are structural impediments in the access of the poor to livestock ownership, and iii) the extent to which investments in different types of livestock can be a vehicle for poverty reduction.The poor own relatively more poultry, the rich own more cattle, but average holdings are small for all In terms of total livestock ownership, Tanzanian rural households hold on average 2.72 Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs). Rural livestock ownership is dominated by cattle, which contribute 2.24 TLUs, equivalent to 82 percent of total rural livestock ownership. Cattle ownership is however limited to about one third of households. Poultry ownership on the other hand is almost universal, and for the average livestock keeping rural household it is poultry that constitutes the bulk of livestock holdings.The herds of poorer households are characterized by smaller animals, while wealthier households tend to hold more large livestock. However, all in all the relationship is not striking, which should not be surprising in view of the diversity of rural livelihood. In general, poorer households have broadly comparable levels of ownership to wealthier households. For cows, one can observe a somewhat stronger positive relationship with wealth, with the largest average holding being in the fourth quintile.Livestock holdings are concentrated in a relatively small group of households A substantial share of livestock ownership is concentrated in a relatively small share of the rural population. The top quintile of livestock owners own approximately 81 percent of all livestock. This concentration of ownership is even more striking when compared to the bottom quintile of livestock owners who hold less than one percent of total livestock. Underlying this trend is the composition and size of livestock ownership in these groups, with the bottom 40 percent relying essentially on small numbers of poultry, goats becoming more important in the third and fourth quintiles, and cattle dominating the fifth quintile.Herd size distribution also varies geographically, with larger holders concentrated in the Northern and Western regions, and smaller holdings prevalent in the Southern and Southern Highlands regions. Interestingly, levels of per capita expenditures do not change significantly across quintiles of livestock ownership, whereas herd size and structure does, with a particularly steep gradient in the top quintile, suggesting that there is a small core of relatively larger livestock owners who are substantially different from the rest. This is confirmed by the fact that households in the top quintile earn about a third of their income from livestock, as opposed to 10-14 percent in the other quintiles.The use of inputs in livestock activities is scarce: only six percent of rural livestock holders hired in labor for work on livestock related activities, and only one fifth purchased fodder for their livestock. The share purchasing fodder ranges from 13 percent for the poorest group of households to 37 percent for the top expenditure quintile of rural households involved in livestock keeping, which could be a reflection of their greater purchasing power, but also of differences in herd composition or livestock rearing systems.Households also keep livestock for a variety of other goods and services they provide, one being manure. Although the use of organic fertilizer in household agricultural activities is not widespread, a notable 25 percent of rural households that participate in livestock activities do report using it on their plots, as compared to only 12 percent for households that don't have livestock. That points to potential spillovers of the benefits of livestock to crop production.Livestock diseases are common, access to veterinary services and markets are notThe control, prevention and cure of animal diseases is an important element in explaining constraints to livestock profitability and growth, as well as possibly the single most important element of public policy towards the sectors. New Castle is the most widely reported disease, affecting 52 percent of all poultry keepers, with peaks of 60 percent in urban areas. Among cattle, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and East Coast Fever (ECF) are the diseases most often reported by farmers (17 and 15 percent of households respectively), while 23 percent of sheep and goat herders report some cases of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP).The high level of reported disease could be due to the overall low level of vaccination at approximately 29 percent. Poorer households have lower vaccination rates than wealthier households, and they also report slightly lower overall disease rates for livestock. Vaccination rates are much higher than average among households that hold significant numbers of animals, with 40 percent of households in the fourth ownership quintile and 59 percent in the top quintile reporting some animal vaccination in the course of the previous 12 months. Potential problems with barriers to access to vaccination services are suggested by the fact that urban livestock keepers are more likely than rural ones to report having vaccinated any of their livestock. A similar imbalance is noted for the access to vaccination by female-compared to male-headed households.Access to markets among rural households is limited. Only 10 percent of farm specialized rural households are market oriented (i.e., selling more than 50 percent of their output), and among all rural households, just 37 percent of total agricultural production is marketed, 29 percent being crop sales and only eight percent originating from livestock. Even though the share of livestock in total agricultural sales is limited with respect to crops, livestock is a relatively more market oriented activity, as approximately half of all livestock production is sold. As a result, whereas the value of livestock sales contributes only 7 percent to total agricultural production, it contributes to one quarter of total agricultural sales making it an important source of cash income.Alongside differences in wealth, the livestock sector is also notably divided across gender lines. Sixty-five percent of male-headed households participate in livestock activities, while only 51 percent of female-headed households report participation. When herd structures are compared with respect to the gender of the household head (admittedly a very imperfect indicator of gender control over assets) significant differences are observed in both herd size and composition. Female-headed households manage herds which are on average about two thirds the size of those owned by maleheaded households. The difference is most marked when it comes to cattle ownership; it becomes smaller for goats and sheep, and reduces even further for poultry, despite remaining statistically significant. Female-headed households, therefore, tend to have relatively more small animals than large pack animals compared to the average household. It should be noted that the differences are particularly large in terms of the probability of owning cattle. Once ownership is controlled for, herd size is not large and can actually be larger for female-headed households.While nearly a quarter of household livestock managers are only women, and fifteen percent are only male, three fifths are joint male-female managers. Women managing livestock earn less from their livestock; they manage considerably lower numbers of the main livestock species in Tanzania, with the exception of poultry, and are significantly less likely to use key inputs such as labor, fodder, and vaccinations. The differential rates of usage of inputs and services do not per se indicate discrimination in access, as they may be equally driven by differences in herd structure, since women are less likely to own cattle which are likely to be more (purchased) input intensive. Despite these differences, the share of households with only female livestock managers is not completely disadvantaged in terms of accessing markets. Forty percent sold any livestock, a share that is equal to the share selling among the male/joint managers group. It is worth noting that when considering the scale of production, female managers are significantly more commercially oriented, with 37 percent of their total livestock production being sold on market, compared to only 30 percent for households with men involved in livestock management. This outcome highlights that despite the obstacles faced by women in the livestock sector, commercialization of production may not necessarily be affected.Will the livestock sector be able to satisfy an increasing domestic demand? Consumption of livestock products, whether purchased or own produced, contributes 13 percent to total household expenditures, and just over one fifth to the value of total food consumption. Whereas the share of food in total household expenditures decreases with rising wealth, the importance of livestock in total household expenditures and in total food expenditure rises over quintiles. Total rural household food expenditure makes up nearly two thirds of total household expenditure.The overall level of per capita urban livestock product consumption is approximately twice that of rural households and is sourced almost entirely in purchases, whereas rural households demonstrate a more equal division between the value of produced versus purchased consumption. For meat, poultry and dairy consumption, urban households consume approximately twice the value as rural households, while for eggs, consumption is nearly four times the level of the rural population. The relationship between urban per capita consumption in TZS and wealth quintiles is positive and holds for nearly all products observed.The analysis of the patterns of consumption of products of animal origin reveals the picture of a sector with much room for expansion. The disparities in livestock product consumption between rural and urban areas and between different income groups suggest that as average incomes in Tanzania increase, the demand for livestock products may expand, offering good opportunities for livestock producers to increase their production in order to serve a growing domestic market. Female-headed households, while somewhat disadvantaged in terms of access to livestock assets, appear to be in a relatively good position to benefit from such opportunities, as their participation in livestock output markets is on par with, or greater than, that of other households. This growth is also likely to be accompanied by a shift in the composition of the demand towards more meat and dairy products. Poultry will continue to be important, but if current consumption patterns are of any guidance, household preferences will increasingly shift towards other livestock products as incomes increase.The challenge: Removing constraints to unleash growth in the livestock sector A series of factors may constrain households' ability to take advantage of the opportunities offered by a possible growth in livestock demand. In particular, the low level of input use and veterinary services, and the high prevalence of reported animal illness could place restrictions on the extent to which livestock is productive. Further analysis is required to identify the extent to which these constraints may become binding, and to single out possible actions to remedy the situation.The NPS data offer a rich basis, particularly if integrated with additional data sources, upon which to further the descriptive analysis featured in these pages. The objective of this report has been to use the wealth of information included in the NPS to identify some of the main constraints and opportunities related to growth in the smallholder agricultural sector. It is hoped that others will take this analytical agenda forward, exploiting to its full extent the wealth of information included in the NPS. To that end, the future rounds of longitudinal data that will soon become available from NBS provide an unprecedented opportunity for analysts to further our understanding of the nexus between livestock and livelihoods in rural Tanzania.Tanzania's National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP, also known as MKUKUTA from its Kiswahili title) recognizes that poverty in Tanzania is overwhelmingly rural, as about 87 percent of the population lives in rural areas, where the incidence of poverty is higher. The NSGRP also states that poverty is highest among agricultural households and expresses a concern for the urban-rural disparities in living standards. It is therefore important that the debate on poverty reduction in Tanzania be based on a sound and current understanding of the relationship between living standards in rural areas, agriculture and other sources of income, and access to resources, assets, and markets.In 2006, the government approved a National Livestock Policy based on the premise that \"the Livestock Industry has an important role to play in building a strong national economy and in the process, reducing inequalities among Tanzanians by increasing their incomes and employment opportunities\" (URT, 2006). The policy also recognizes that aside from contributing to GDP, the livestock sector has a role to play in i) ensuring food security, ii) providing households with employment, income, and a store of value and investment opportunity, iii) providing draught power and manure for sustainable agriculture, and iv) fulfilling cultural roles.Tanzania recorded good economic performance in the last decade, with GDP growth rates consistently between 6.0 to 7.8 percent (3.0 to 5.0 percent on a per capita basis). Even in the last years of the decade, despite the global economic recession, growth rates were sustained at respectable rates of 6.0 percent in 2009 and 7.0 in 2010 (or 3.0 and 3.9 percent respectively if the per capita figure is considered) (World Bank, 2011). The agricultural sector annual growth rate was somewhat slower with rates between 3.2 and 5.9 annually. The last two years have been among the worst (3.2 percent in 2009) and the best (5.4 percent in 2010) of the decade according to the available statistics. The agricultural sector accounts for around 28-30 percent of total value added, approximately one fifth of which originates in the livestock subsectors. The crop subsector, the largest component in agriculture, grew 4.5 percent in 2007 and 5.1 percent in 2008. The growth rate in the livestock subsector increased from 2.4 percent in 2007 to 2.6 percent in 20082.6 percent in (URT, 2009)). Government policies towards the sector focused on improving irrigation, rural roads, and infrastructure, as well as increasing efficiency in the use of land resources. Policies also targeted increasing the provision of agricultural services as well as improving access to fertilizers and animal breeding.However, several observers have pointed with concern to the lack of progress in rural poverty reduction, and have emphasized various constraints that are preventing the existing pockets of agricultural growth from translating into broad-based growth and significant gains in rural poverty reduction. Such constraints include low input use and lack of credit (Sarris et al., 2006), lack of productivity gains in the sub-sectors that matter most to the poor, such as maize (Pauw and Thurlow, 2011), and market imperfections that work against poor smallholder farmers (Mashindano et al., 2011). The increase in world food prices from 2007 to 2008 and the resurgence in food price levels in 2010 have contributed to increasing concerns regarding household food security, while opening a debate on the ability of the agricultural sector to trigger a supply response to the improved terms of trade for the sector. This report presents an analysis of rural livelihoods in Tanzania, with particular emphasis on the livestock sub-sector, smallholder farmers' living standards, and issues with access to productive assets. The report attempts to answer basic questions such as:• To what extent is keeping livestock an activity of the relatively better off, and to what extent are poorer households able to engage?• How does the role of livestock vary with different levels of income and well-being?• How are livestock holding size and structure associated with differences in welfare, gender, and geography?• How important are input and output markets for small livestock keepers?• What form does this market participation take in practice, and to what extent?• To what extent do the non-income services of livestock (e.g., manure, draught power) benefit crop production?The report is organized as follows: after a description of the data in Section 2, in Section 3 we analyze the composition of rural income, household endowment of human capital, and access to infrastructure and assets, in order to gain an understanding of the level of wellbeing in the rural space. A descriptive analysis of the characteristics of small rural livestock owners and their production practices is provided in Section 4, which highlights the heterogeneity of the households engaged in the livestock sector and presents evidence of the sector's importance to rural livelihoods in terms of both income and consumption. Section 5 concludes with a discussion of key results and their implications for policy and further analysis. The extensive focus of the survey on agriculture, atypical of previous living standard surveys in Tanzania, offers a wealth of data on the range of agricultural activities relevant for the country. Data was collected using household, agricultural, and community questionnaires in which information was obtained at the individual, household, plot, and community level. Agricultural production data was collected at the plot and crop level, with considerable detail on the allocation of production and the use of inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, seeds, hired labor, and household labor according to activity. Similarly, livestock activities were explored at length in the agricultural questionnaire, with data collected on the ownership of a range of animals, indigenous and improved breeds, transactions in live and slaughtered animals, diseases and vaccinations, and the production and consumption of products obtained from the animals. For all agricultural activities, information was also collected regarding the manager(s) of plots and animals, allowing for the calculation of gender-disaggregated statistics.The survey is nationally representative at the urban/rural and agro-climatic zone level.1 The final sample consists of 3,265 households, 1,202 of which are urban and 2,063 rural. In this study, we analyze the 2,055 rural and 1,200 urban households for which we have complete data on income and household characteristics. Given the extensive set of information on livestock activities, we also break down our analysis further to look at the 1,499 rural and 225 urban households reporting some involvement in livestock activities. 2   3. RURAL HOUSEHOLD LIVELIHOODSTable 1 reports basic summary statistics for some key characteristics of rural households. 3 Data for urban households and t-tests on the difference in means are also reported in the table, for comparison. These households consist on average of 5.4 members, 2.5 of which are of working age, defined as being from 15 to 60 years old. The average age of rural household heads is 47 years. One fourth of household heads are female and about the same share are single. The educational attainment of heads is at the primary school level: on average, household heads have completed less than five years of schooling and the highest level of attainment among all household members is, on average, under six years.Access to infrastructure and basic services is also problematic for many rural households. Fewer than five percent of all rural households report having access to an internal flush toilet, electricity, a fixed telephone line, or public/private garbage collection service. Households, however, are not entirely disconnected from public services and infrastructure. The distance to the nearest primary school from the community is 0.15 kilometers, on average. At an average distance of one kilometer, agricultural plots are also not far removed from the household or the nearest road, but they are relatively far from the nearest market, at about seven kilometers.Urban households are observed to be somewhat smaller at only 4.4 members, but with approximately the same number of working age members in the household. The urban sample is 1 The NPS is statistically representative of the following seven macro-regions of Tanzania: Central, Northern, Eastern, Southern, Southern Highlands, Western, Lakes, and Zanzibar. 2 Of these 1,724 households owning any animals, 1,404 households (1,197 rural and 207 urban) reported earning any income from livestock. In the discussion that follows, we will refer to these as 'livestock producers', and to the households owning livestock (the larger group) as 'livestock keepers'. 3 The survey documentation provides an explanation of the definition of the concept of a household in this survey. also characterized by having younger household heads, who more often tend to be female and single. Educational attainment, at seven years, is also notably higher, though still limited to an upper primary school level. Access to public services in urban areas is also considerably higher when compared to the rural space; however, it is by no means universal, as more than half of urban households lack access to modern sewage disposal, electricity, running water, and public garbage collection. While government schools are present in the vicinity of most rural as well as urban households, private schools are less accessible among the rural sample when compared to urban areas, reflected in the large distance rural households must traverse in order to reach a private primary school; urban households have private primary schools in greater proximity at 4.33 kilometers. Note: Asterisks denote significant differences based on t-tests across urban and rural as follows: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%.Key survey results on household participation in income generating activities and the share of income derived from them are reported in Table 2, while Annex 1 describes the basic concepts and methodologies applied for defining income. The data from the NPS confirm the nearly universal involvement in self-employed agriculture reported in previous surveys and in the agricultural Census (URT, 2006). Three fifths of rural households earn income from livestock husbandry, while 97 percent cultivate crops and approximately one fifth are employed as agricultural wage laborers.Agricultural activities combined (crop, livestock, and agricultural wage labor) amount to 70 percent of total income for rural households, a figure that is driven mostly by independent agricultural work.Whereas 53 percent of total income comes from crop production and 13 percent from livestock, only four percent originates from agricultural wages. Note: A household is defined as specialized in labor if 75 percent or more of its total income comes from wages and self employment; it is migration specialized if it earns 75 percent or more from transfers; and it is farm specialized if it earns more than 75 percent of total income from on farm activities. Market oriented farm specializers are those selling more than 50 percent of their production, while subsistence oriented farm specializers consume more than 50 percent of their production. Diversified households earn less than 75 percent of total income from any one activity.Participation in non-agricultural self-employment is similar to that of other developing countries (Davis et al., 2010), with 34 percent of rural households engaged in these activities. The nonagricultural sector provides a non-negligible 30 percent of total income, seven percent of which originates from non-agricultural wages, 13 percent from non-agricultural self-employment, and 10 percent from transfers. These transfers are nearly all incoming transfers originating from children living outside the household. 4Self-employed farming is clearly the mainstay of rural livelihoods, with 53 percent of households deriving 75 percent or more of their income from self-employed farming. We define these households as agricultural specializers. Nearly all agricultural specializers consume more than half of their production, identifying their livelihood as subsistence oriented. Exactly one third of rural households hold a diversified portfolio of income, with no single source accounting for more than three quarters of total household income. Another 10 percent of households specialize in off-farm labor activities such as self-employment enterprises or wage labor in or outside agriculture.The composition of urban income portfolios is markedly different from the rural one. Only 13 percent of total income is sourced in agriculture, while 35 percent is derived from non-agricultural wages and 42 percent from nonfarm self-employment. Whereas the rural population is largely either specialized in farming or holds a diversified income portfolio, nearly three quarters of urban households are specialized in labor activities and only 15 percent have diversified income portfolios.Data regarding land holdings by rural agricultural households (reported in Table 3) yield the picture of a heterogeneous agricultural sector dominated by smallholder farmers. 5 Most households own or operate agricultural land; only 10 percent of rural households are landless and just six percent report that they do not operate any land. Average land ownership and operations are both at about 1.6 hectares. The distribution of land operated is illustrated in Table 3 and Figure 1, which both show the prevalence of smallholder operations in the rural space. Less than five percent of rural households own or operate more than five hectares of land; even in the top land quintile, average land operations are smaller than 4 hectares.  Most rural households appear to be engaged in subsistence rather than market oriented agriculture. On average, 67 percent of agricultural production is consumed by the household, 30 percent is marketed, and the remainder is used as input or allocated to other uses. Overall, 24 percent of households sell more than half of their production, a share that increases with land operated, while 73 percent of households consume more than half of total agricultural production, a figure that is somewhat inversely related to land size (Table 4).Larger farmers tend to market a greater share of their agricultural output when compared to smallholders. The households at the bottom of the land distribution appear to be primarily subsistence households as they consume up to 70 percent of their production. Farming households in the top land operated quintile still consume a major part of their output at home (61 percent), but they sell close to 40 percent of it on the market. Meanwhile, only 23 percent of the value of total agricultural production is sold by households in the bottom land operated quintile. Furthermore, one third of the largest farming households sell more than half of their output on the market, which is 14 percentage points more than the corresponding share in the first quintile. The statistics on agricultural input use and purchases that emerge from the NPS point to a farming sector characterized by an extremely limited use of modern inputs, summarized by the share of rural households using or purchasing agricultural inputs in Table 5. Only 30 percent of households report using any fertilizers (chemical or organic); about 14 percent buy them on the market, while the remainder rely on own organic fertilizers. Similarly, only 15 percent report the purchase of pesticides. Meanwhile, 58 percent of rural households purchased seeds for agriculture, but just 14 percent purchased improved seed varieties and only 12 percent bought certified improved varieties. Seed use is therefore largely made up of traditional varieties.As expected, the agricultural practices of larger farmers are somewhat more reliant on the use of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides/herbicides. Purchases of chemical fertilizer rise with increasing area of operated land, from 10 percent in the bottom quintile to 14 percent in the largest land group. The use of any kind of fertilizer rises from 23 to 34 percent of rural households over quintiles of land operated. The purchase of improved seeds is not pervasive but it does increase considerably with land operated, confirming the trend towards greater access among larger scale producers. Households in the higher land quintiles are likely to use improved seeds more often (19 percent), while their use is much less common among the smallest holders at nine percent. Household labor is the one input easily accessed by agricultural households. At 99 percent, nearly all rural households relied on household members for agricultural labor in either season (Table 6). This figure varies minimally across land size. The use of hired labor is limited for livestock activities, but more common for activities related to crop production, with 46 percent of the rural sample contracting agricultural laborers. This share increases with area of land operated from 34 percent in the first land quintile to 60 percent in the fifth for crops and from 1 to 8 percent for livestock, although the relationship is not linear. Looking at the composition of total input expenditures in Figure 2, we see that hired labor and seed expenditures are the most important cost items across all land operated quintiles, while fertilizer and pesticides make a more marginal contribution. The composition of total expenditure changes as land operated rises. Larger land operators allocate a somewhat greater share of their total input expenditures to labor and a slightly lower share to seeds than smaller producers. Moreover, pesticide and fertilizer cost shares increase slightly with land size.The high level of labor expenditures relative to other inputs highlights the importance of manpower for agricultural activities, an observation that is consistent with the extremely low level of usage of agricultural tools and mechanization (Table 7). Most households appear to only own hoes; only three percent of rural households own a tractor. About one in five households in the top land quintile (10 percent in total) own an ox plough while almost no households own a mechanical plough. Even larger scale producers are not particularly mechanized, with only eight percent owning a tractor and essentially none reporting any other sort of mechanization. Most agricultural machinery is primarily powered by livestock. The first question this paper intends to investigate is the role that livestock plays in the livelihoods of Tanzania's households, particularly the rural poor. Fifty-one percent of Tanzanian households are to some extent involved in rearing livestock, according to the NPS data, as described in Table 8. In rural areas, the proportion is higher, with about three out of five households reporting some income or expenditure related to livestock activities and earning an average 22 percent of total household income from livestock rearing.In urban areas, livestock activities are of lesser importance, with only 22 percent of households participating. Among the livestock rearing urban population, the share of income is a full seven percentage points below the national average at 14 percent.Both the share of rural households participating and the income shares from participation in livestock activities increase with welfare, as measured by expenditure quintiles (Table 8). For the bottom quintile, 49 percent of households participate and livestock contributes to 18 percent of their total household income. At the top 20 percent of the expenditure distribution, the corresponding percentages are 69 percent for participation in livestock activities, and 24 percent for the share of income earned from them. Rural male-headed households are more likely to participate in livestock rearing than female-headed ones, and when they do they earn a larger percentage of their household income from this activity (23 percent as compared to 19 for female-headed households). The evidence on the relationship between overall household welfare and livestock ownership in developing regions is mixed. Pica-Ciamarra et al. ( 2011b) review the literature and analyze some cross-country data to show how generalizations are not possible and, depending on the country livestock ownership, show positive, negative, or no association with overall welfare as measured by consumption expenditure. They also show that household wealth is a poor predictor of herd composition. While a hierarchy of livestock keeping is sometimes observed (the so-called 'livestock ladder'), with the poor keeping mainly poultry and relatively wealthier households keeping more small and large ruminants, the occurrence of this phenomenon is essentially an empirical question, as factors other than wealth may drive the reliance of households on different types of livestock.The NPS data provide an opportunity to look closely at how these relationships play out in Tanzania. This can yield important indicators on i) the presence and extent of inequality and concentration within the livestock sector, ii) whether there are structural impediments in the access of the poor to livestock ownership, and iii) the extent to which investments in different types of livestock can be a vehicle for poverty reduction.Herd size and composition are important indicators for understanding the characteristics of livestock systems. In terms of total livestock ownership, Tanzanian households hold on average 2.53 Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs, Table 96), or 2.72 TLUs when only rural households are considered. Rural livestock ownership is dominated by cattle, which contribute 2.24 TLUs, equivalent to 82 percent of total rural livestock ownership by the shares of means measure, which conveys the distribution of livestock ownership at the level of the rural economy.For the average livestock keeping rural household, however, it is normally poultry that constitutes the bulk of livestock holdings. This is exemplified by the means of shares measure, which captures herd composition at the household level. This measure reveals that rural household livestock ownership is concentrated in poultry, which constitutes 48 percent of total TLU ownership, while cattle account for 26 percent of the total holdings. Sheep and goats make up about one fifth of rural household holdings, while other ruminants are marginal in terms of total herd composition. Annex 1 describes in detail the methodology in calculating shares of means and means of shares. Herd composition in terms of animal headcounts is analyzed in Table 10, overall and across rural expenditure quintiles. The importance of smaller ruminants such as goats and chickens is again observed through this angle, particularly when analyzed across expenditure quintiles. Despite some positive correlation between ownership levels and wealth, the relationship between holdings and welfare is not linear, and poorer households have broadly comparable levels of ownership to wealthier households. For cows, one can observe a somewhat stronger positive relationship with wealth, although the trend is also not linear, with the largest average holding being in the fourth quintile. For smaller ruminants like goats and sheep, it is actually the second and third quintiles, respectively, that report the highest average ownership level. These trends, taken together with the general observations on livestock sector participation, provide some additional evidence that the herds of poorer households are characterized by smaller animals, while wealthier households tend to hold more large livestock. However, all in all the relationship is not striking, which should not be surprising in view of the diversity of rural livelihoods. Figure 3 graphs the share of total livestock owned in TLUs against per capita expenditures. Livestock ownership is certainly more concentrated among the wealthier strata, however the differences are not striking. The conclusions from this distribution support the trends observed in Table 10 that fail to find clear correlations in the relationship between livestock headcounts and overall welfare levels. Lowess distribution of livestock ownership capita expenditures do not change significantly across quintiles of livestock ownership, whereas herd size and structure does, with a particularly steep gradient in the top quintile, suggesting that there is a small core of relatively larger livestock owners who are substantially different from the rest. This is confirmed by the fact that households in the top quintile earn about a third of their income from livestock, as opposed to 10-14 percent in the other quintiles.Taking a look at livestock ownership across the various macro regions of Tanzania, the relative importance of certain animals across such regions becomes clear, as does the relative concentration of livestock ownership nationwide. Table 12 reports average household headcount ownership by macro-regions for the livestock rearing rural and urban population. Most striking is the level of importance of cattle ownership for households in the Western macro-region, where the highest average household level ownership of heads is concentrated for all types of cattle. Although goats and sheep are also owned in considerable quantities relative to other regions, it is actually in the Central and Lakes regions where holdings are largest for these animals. Households in Eastern Tanzania do not own many heads of any animal, apart from poultry, the ownership of which is rather evenly spread throughout the country. Low levels of access to input use and credit, the incidence of livestock disease, and the poor dissemination and uptake of knowledge on improved management practices are recognized constraints to the development of the Tanzania smallholder crop (Sarris et al., 2006) and livestock sectors (URT, 2006;Njombe and Msanga, 2005).The first wave of the NPS allows an update of the situation with respect to the access by small livestock keepers to basic inputs and services such as extension and vaccination. Future waves of data collection will allow for the monitoring of trends, while also delving more deeply into the possible causal linkages between access to inputs and services, and the productivity and profitability of animal production.The use of inputs in livestock activities is scarce: only six percent of rural livestock holders hired in labor for work on livestock related activities (although this percentage goes up to 14 percent for the largest holders), and only one fifth purchased fodder for their livestock as observed in Table 13. The share purchasing fodder ranges from 13 percent for the poorest group of households to 37 percent for the top quintile of rural households involved in livestock keeping. It is noteworthy that the share of households purchasing fodder in the top quintile is about two to three times the share of households that purchased fodder in each of the other quintiles, which could be a reflection of their greater purchasing power, but also of differences in herd composition or livestock rearing systems.It is interesting in this respect that the largest holders are as likely as the average holder to have purchased any fodder.Aside from being a source of food products, livestock is also kept for a variety of other goods and services it provides, one being manure. The use of own produced organic fertilizer in household agricultural activities is explored in Table 13 for both households that do and do not participate in livestock activities. Although the use of organic fertilizer in household agricultural activities is not widespread, a notable 25 percent of rural households that participate in livestock activities do report using it on their plots. Since only four percent report having purchased any organic fertilizer, the use of it comes largely from household production among those using it in their agriculture. The use of organic fertilizer, whether purchased or produced by the household, is positively related to wealth, ranging from 20 to 32 percent over the five expenditure quintiles, but is much more strongly related to livestock (and cattle) ownership, as it goes up to 47 percent amongst the largest livestock keepers.Among households that are not involved in livestock activities, only 12 percent report the use of organic fertilizer on their plots, considerably lower than the share for livestock rearing households. However, since only five percent of non-livestock households report having purchased this input, other types of organic fertilizer that are not manure are likely being applied to their plots. These could include compost and worm castings, among other non-animal sources. Regardless of the source of the organic fertilizer, the relationship between usage and wealth is positive, as in the case of livestock producing households. Access to credit is also low among rural livestock producers. Access to credit for rural households in general is extremely limited, and the value of loans received varies little according to land size. Similarly, participation in credit or savings groups is low, at six percent. These figures vary minimally for the livestock producing segment of the rural population. Only six percent of these households reported holding credit and five percent reported membership in a credit or savings group. The shares vary slightly with expenditure quintiles in that wealthier households have somewhat greater access to credit, even if the eight percent in the top quintile of rural livestock producing households that hold credit is still a notably low figure. This disparity is also reflected in the level of access to credit-enabling social capital. Whereas only four percent of the households in the poorest quintile report participating in a credit or savings group, 10 percent of the wealthiest do.Access to extension services does not prove to be as scarce as credit, but it is not considerably widespread either. Just over one fourth of rural livestock producing households made use of these services, receiving advice on production practices or disease prevention. Access is positively related to wealth, though the dip in the fourth quintile disrupts the linearity of the trend. The trend is definitely more clear when access to extension services for livestock is related to the size of livestock ownership, indicating that households that have larger herds and depend more on livestock for their income are also more likely to use these services, particularly for livestock disease. The percentages are still low, however, with the vast majority of livestock keepers even in this group not reporting any use of the services.Relating income shares, diseases reported and animal vaccination rates to the receipt of extension reveals some important differences across households that do and do not receive any type of livestock extension (Table 14). Even though the two groups have similar livestock income shares, the share of extension-receiving households that report livestock disease is 12 percentage points higher than for households without extension. Even more notable is that the share of extensionreceiving households who used vaccines for any of their livestock is more than twice the rate of vaccination among households that did not receive any extension. Putting the disease rates together with the vaccination rates raises the question of why differences across groups for each of these variables are so large. While this finding is most likely associated with the fact that households receiving extension may have sought out the services of a veterinarian due to diseases afflicting their animals, or to the fact that the availability of extension and vaccination services may be correlated, it does point to significant differences between the two groups that should be further explored to confirm whether livestock extension may be having a substantial positive impact in ensuring higher vaccination rates.Looking closer at the prevalence of livestock disease among rural livestock producers illustrates the widespread vulnerability of all types of livestock to disease. Tables 15 reports the share of households reporting illness and the share reporting each disease, among owners of each type of livestock, while Table 16 reports the rate of owners reporting the illness of each type of livestock.The reported rates of disease are at an average of 60 percent overall, ranging from 48 percent among the smallest to 71 percent among the largest holdings. The most afflicted animal groups are reportedly poultry and cattle, followed by sheep and goats. For cattle, richer households tend to report higher disease rates, while for other animals all wealth groups have broadly similar rates of reporting. Some caution should be exhibited in interpreting these figures, as they do not factor in the share of each household's herd that was affected by disease.New Castle is the most widely reported disease, affecting 52 percent of all poultry keepers, with peaks of 60 percent in urban areas. Female-headed households report similar incidence rates for this disease as male-headed households, while they report proportionally greater occurrences of diseases among their cattle, sheep, goat, and pig holdings. Among cattle, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and East Coast Fever (ECF) are the diseases most often reported by farmers (17 and 15 percent of households respectively), while 23 percent of sheep and goat herders report some cases of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) (Table 17).  The high level of reported disease could be due to the overall low level of vaccination at approximately 29 percent. Poorer households have lower vaccination rates than wealthier households, and they also report slightly lower overall disease rates for livestock. However, vaccines are not necessarily available nor a necessary treatment for the ailments that households may report when indicating disease among their animals. The relationship could also be endogenous, in that households may vaccinate because they experience disease, even though vaccination should be a preventative measure. Finally, while the observed disparity in access to vaccines may stem from financial and information constraints, a disparity in access to veterinary services may also exist, which could contribute to the slightly lower disease reporting among the poor. Vaccination rates are in fact much higher than average among households that hold significant numbers of animals, with 40 percent of households in the fourth ownership quintile and 59 percent in the top quintile reporting some animal vaccination in the course of the previous 12 months.Potential problems with barriers to access to vaccination services are suggested by the fact that urban livestock keepers are more likely than rural ones to report having vaccinated any of their livestock. A similar imbalance is noted for the access to vaccination by female-compared to maleheaded households. The linkages between smallholder access to improved inputs and technologies and market participation (or lack thereof) have been widely noted in the literature. Barrett (2008) provides an insightful discussion, with convincing evidence related to the crop sector in Eastern and Southern Africa. Market constraints to smallholder development are as important for livestock as they are for crop products (ILRI, 2011), and different forms of interventions to improve market access are part of the policy toolbox of governments and donors throughout Africa. In Tanzania, such constraints are well recognized in livestock policy circles (Njombe and Msanga, 2005;Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2011a) and have led the government to take action both on issues of market infrastructure development (e.g., via the Tanzania Livestock Marketing Project) and of market information systems (e.g., through the Local Indigenous Technical Knowledge System (LINKS) Program).Access to markets among rural households is limited, as shown in the previous section on rural livelihoods. Only 10 percent of farm specialized rural households are market oriented (i.e., selling more than 50 percent of their output), and among all rural households, just 37 percent of total agricultural production is marketed, 29 percent being crop sales and only eight percent originating from livestock. Even though the share of livestock in total agricultural sales is limited with respect to crops, livestock is a relatively more market oriented activity, as approximately half of all livestock production is sold. As a result, whereas the value of livestock sales contributes only 7 percent to total agricultural production, it contributes to one quarter of total agricultural sales (Table 18).Taken together with the share of livestock in total income, which stands at 13 percent, this figure indicates that livestock is relatively more important in terms of cash generation for rural households than would be suggested by its share in overall income. Interestingly, the poorest livestock producing households sell as much as two thirds of their production, while just over one third was sold by the wealthiest households. Although this suggests that the poor are notably more market oriented relative to the scale of their production, it may also be an indication of distress sales of livestock. Unfortunately, the data do not allow for disaggregation by motive of market participation. Of the two thirds of livestock keeping households engaged in selling, 52 percent sold live animals, four percent sold some butchered livestock, and 21 percent sold livestock products (Table 19).Considering that 82 percent of livestock income earners produced some livestock products, the discrepancy between the two figures shows how most of that production is targeted for household consumption. Accounting for just seven percent of the value of livestock production, product sales are not the most important income generators, even though approximately a quarter of rural households earn some cash from those sales. Again, however, we note a steep gradient in the top quintile of livestock ownership, where the share of households selling livestock products (41 percent) is almost double the sample average, indicating a much stronger commercial orientation, which can also be noted in the share selling live animals (71 percent).On the other hand, livestock products appear to be important in supplementing household consumption. For example, more than 70 percent of rural households produced eggs, but mostly for own consumption, as only 11 percent sold any. Similarly, a quarter of rural households participating in livestock produced milk, but only seven percent sold any. This observation is true for all welfare groups, even though a slight increase in the proportion of households selling livestock products as wealth increases can be detected in the data, driven in particular by milk sales. Breaking down the share of households that sold any livestock by the type of markets they accessed reveals the use of a large variety of market outlets (Table 20). Sixty-three percent of households reported selling in their same village, while 46 percent reported having sold any type of livestock or product in a neighboring village. The types of markets to which they sold included businesses and business persons such as traders8 (59 percent), formal markets (27 percent), and neighbors (25 percent). A vast and growing amount of literature exists that documents gender inequalities in nearly all aspects of livelihoods management, from access to education to asset acquisition, wage differentials, and beyond.9 The livestock sector is no exception, in that women are disadvantaged relative to men in terms of herd size, managerial roles, scale of production, and access to industrial value chains (FAO 2011). At the same time, given the role of livestock as an insurance mechanism, a store of wealth, and a potentially sustainable income generating activity (FAO 2009), the livestock sector can serve as an important source of livelihoods, and a potential pathway out of poverty for rural women (IFAD 2011).In Tanzania, previous research has shown that women tend to own fewer TLU's than men, that they tend to be more likely to own poultry and small ruminants than cattle, and that their livestock market participation is more oriented towards the sale of milk, eggs and chicken, whereas the sale of goats, sheep, and particularly cattle, is dominated by men (Njuki et al., 2011). In the discussion that follows, we review the evidence that the NPS provides on some of these issues. It should be noted that the first round of the NPS has some limitations in terms of the provision of genderdisaggregated livestock data, as aside from the standard information on the gender of household headship, it included only a single question defining the person responsible for keeping the animals.However, the survey did not include questions on the control of income, the ownership of the animals, or any further detail on specific aspects of decision-making within the household. Alongside differences in wealth, the livestock sector is also notably divided across gender lines, with the first division concerning the level of participation in the sector. Sixty-five percent of maleheaded households participate in livestock activities, while only 51 percent of female-headed households report participation (Table 29). This difference may be a first indication of the presence of constraints for women to invest in such activities.As demonstrated in Figure 4, the participation differential across gender extends over wealth levels. Forty percent of the poorest female-headed households earned some income from livestock activities. This share increases with wealth, reaching just over 60 percent in the top quintile. Among male-headed households, participation ranges from 50 percent in the poorest quintile to around 70 percent in the top quintile, with much of the difference explained by a sharp jump between the first and second quintiles, and little difference between the other wealth groups. For female-headed households, the involvement in livestock activities seems to increase more gradually with wealth.When herd structures are compared with respect to the gender of the household head (Table 21) significant differences are observed in both herd size and composition. Female-headed households manage herds which are on average about two thirds the size of those owned by male-headed households. The difference is most marked when it comes to cattle ownership; it becomes smaller for goats and sheep, and reduces even further for poultry, despite remaining statistically significant. For equines and pigs, the differences between the two groups disappear, but these constitute a relatively minor component of the average herd. Female-headed households, therefore, tend to have relatively more small animals than large pack animals compared to the average household. It should be noted that the differences are particularly large in terms of the probability of owning cattle. Once Differences across gender lines, with female-headed households owning lower levels of TLUs than their counterparts, remain when the analysis is run by wealth level (Figure 5). For the first, fourth and top quintiles, the differences are not tremendous; however, for the second and third quintiles, female-headed households own less than half the level of livestock that male-headed households hold in those same quintiles.The trends in TLUs owned by gender are more sensitive to the type of animal owned. As observed, male-headed households generally own more livestock across the board, regardless of the type of livestock. However, exceptions to this trend exist, such as with poultry and draft animals, for which ownership levels are roughly equal across the gender of the household head. Moreover, for the ownership of sheep and goats, female-headed households report higher ownership levels than their counterparts in the bottom, fourth, and top quintiles. Despite those exceptions, inequality is most marked in terms of large livestock ownership. Ownership of cattle is higher across the board for male-headed households, the differences often considerably large, such as in the second and third quintiles in which female-headed households own less than half the number of TLUs of cattle than households with male heads. These trends are not necessarily or exclusively a consequence of discrimination, as in part they may be linked to female heads of households preferring to keep livestock that can be supervised around the house, rather than larger pack animals that may require greater labor intensity.Figure 5. TLU ownership by household head gender and rural per capita expenditure quintiles, rural livestock keeping households Aside from animal ownership, the NPS data offer the opportunity to look at the organization of livestock management across gender lines. Table 22 indicates that while nearly a quarter of household livestock managers are only women, and fifteen percent are only male, three fifths are joint male-female managers. Therefore, although joint gender management is the most common arrangement, a greater share of households have female-only rather than male-only livestock management. This figure seems to be driven by female-headed households for which 61 percent of livestock is managed only by women, in comparison to the five percent of female-headed households with only male livestock managers. Male-headed households, on the contrary, are approximately equally divided across male-only and female-only livestock managers, at 17 to 18 percent, while two thirds of male-headed households report involvement of both men and women in their herd management. Although these figures seem to communicate a positive message about gender equality in livestock management, they do not reveal the underlying dynamics in the joint male-female management arrangements and may also simply be a representation of the demographic composition of male-versus female-headed households, the latter of which may have fewer adult male members. As anticipated from the literature, Table 23 reveals that women managing livestock earn less from their livestock, they manage considerably lower numbers of the main livestock species in Tanzania, with the exception of poultry, and they indicate significantly lower usage of key inputs such as labor, fodder, and vaccinations. Although hired labor is not prevalent for livestock in general, the one percent of female managers that hire labor is statistically lower than the four percent of male or joint management households hiring in. Similarly, female livestock managers purchased fodder seven percentage points less often than households with male or joint management. The differential for vaccination rates is even greater, at 20 percentage points. Again, the differential rates of usage of inputs and services does not per se indicate discrimination in access, as it may be equally driven by differences in herd structure, since women are less likely to own cattle which are likely to be more (purchased) input intensive. Despite these differences, the share of households with only female livestock managers is not completely disadvantaged in terms of accessing markets. Forty percent sold any livestock, a share that is equal to the share selling among the male/joint managers group. The likelihood of selling for female livestock managers is slightly lower than the male managers group for both livestock sold alive and as livestock products; however, no differences are observed for slaughtered livestock sales. Moreover, the difference in value earned from slaughtered livestock sales and sales of milk, eggs and other products across gender lines is not statistically significant. For the value of livestock sold alive, however, the difference is much more pronounced, with female managers earning less than half the value earned by the male/joint managers group.It is worth noting that when considering the scale of production, female managers are significantly more commercially oriented, with 37 percent of their total livestock production being sold on market, compared to only 30 percent for households with men involved in livestock management. This outcome highlights that despite the obstacles faced by women in the livestock sector, commercialization of production may not necessarily be affected. Reverting the discussion back to female-headed households, inequality is also observed within the sub-population of rural female-headed households when analyzed by expenditure quintiles (Table 24). Poorer female-headed households report limited access to inputs for livestock production, such as lower vaccination rates, considerably reduced access to extension services, and lower shares of purchasing fodder. They do not however have a more limited commercialization of their livestock.Nearly 70 percent of the poorest quintile of rural livestock producing female-headed households sold livestock or livestock products, on par with the rural average for female-headed households and above the share for male-headed households. Moreover, the poorest strata sold close to 90 percent of their livestock production. Since this outcome seems to be driven by the sale of animals (live/slaughtered) as opposed to the sale of livestock products, and since the share of those sales in total production is considerably lower for the poorest strata than the upper wealth quintiles, the outcome could be suggesting distress sales among poor female-headed households. However, since we observe the same negative relationship for the share of livestock product sales in total production, and an inverse U trend for the share of households selling any livestock or livestock products, we can instead conclude that for this subpopulation, households are more commercially oriented in their livestock activities.Although we do not study the demand patterns for female-headed households, the high share of sales in the value of production for the poor communicates that production is not necessarily intended to satisfy household consumption needs. In fact, the relatively high share of female-headed household selling livestock products among the poor provides evidence that livestock could have the potential to serve as a pathway out of poverty for these disadvantaged segments of the rural population. Globally, the growth in demand associated with economic growth and the accompanying changes in dietary composition are among the main drivers in the development of the livestock sector (Delgado et al., 1999;Thornton, 2010). At the household level, livestock can provide producers with direct access to animal source foods, as well as the income necessary to pursue a more diversified diet. Consumers, in urban as well as in rural areas, tend to spend a greater share of their food budget on animal sourced foods as incomes increase. This section explores demand for livestock products in the rural sample of the NPS, and draws comparisons with urban households in order to illustrate differences in consumption preferences across the rural-urban divide. Total rural household food expenditure makes up nearly two thirds of total household expenditure. Consumption of livestock products, whether purchased or own produced, contributes 13 percent to total household expenditures, and just over one fifth to the value of total food consumption.Whereas the share of food in total household expenditures decreases with rising wealth, the importance of livestock in total household expenditures and in total food expenditure rises over quintiles.At an overall level of eight percent, the share of food expenditure coming from own consumption of livestock products also increases with wealth. Taken together with the share of total livestock expenditure in food expenditure, it is evident that wealthier households purchase a greater share of their livestock consumption than poorer households, who produce a greater share of their consumption. In terms of the value of livestock expenditure per capita, the poorest households report consuming just 5 percent of the value of households in the top quintile. Also noteworthy is the ratio between the bottom and top quintiles for the value of purchased livestock consumption, and also home produced livestock product consumption, which each fall between five and six percent. In other words, for every shilling spent by the poorest households on livestock products, the wealthiest households spent 18 shillings. The value of livestock consumption is therefore strongly and positively correlated with wealth.The allocation of livestock consumption to different items is similar across rural and urban areas. However, urban preferences differ from those of households in rural areas when measured in terms of the level of consumption of these livestock products. As seen in Table 26, the overall level of per capita urban livestock product consumption is approximately twice that of rural households and is sourced almost entirely in purchases, whereas rural households demonstrate a more equal division between the value of produced versus purchased consumption. For meat, poultry and dairy consumption, urban households consume approximately twice the value as rural households, while for eggs, consumption is nearly four times the level of the rural population. The relationship between urban per capita consumption in TZS and wealth quintiles is positive and holds for nearly all products observed. Although urban households are greater livestock consumers when considering the value of total consumption (i.e., purchases, gifts and home production), the share of home produced livestock consumption in total food expenditure is only two percent, a full 10 percentage points below the 12 percent average for rural households. The majority of urban livestock consumption is purchased rather than self-produced, whereas among rural households, home production is relatively more important.The role of participating in the livestock sector in livestock product consumption is conveyed in Figure 7, which presents the distribution of rural livestock product consumption according to whether households report any livestock income. In per capita terms, consumption of livestock products among livestock producers is nearly three times the level consumed by households not involved in livestock. Rural households that do not participate in livestock production reveal a much greater share of dairy consumption, while more nominal shares for poultry, meat and eggs are observed. Conversely, the 39 percent of households who are involved in the livestock sector report livestock product consumption that is somewhat more balanced across products. Eggs and poultry each contribute to approximately one fourth of the value of total consumption, dairy accounts for more than one third, while the value of meat consumption in total livestock product consumption is about one sixth. Annex 2 contains the rural per capita value of consumption in TZS for each product, broken down by expenditure quintiles. Richer households consume much greater levels of livestock products, whether home produced or purchased. The trend over quintiles is conveyed in Figure 8, which presents the level of total per capita home produced and purchased consumption for each expenditure quintile, by type of livestock product. The overall level of expenditures per person increases exponentially with increasing levels of wealth. Households in the bottom quintile spend less than TZS 10,000 per person per year on livestock products, which is less than 10 percent of the TZS 100,000 spent by households in the top expenditure quintile. Expenditures on meat, poultry and dairy increase the most with rising wealth, whereas consumption of eggs records a more limited expansion.  Breaking down per capita consumption levels by quintiles for home produced and purchased consumption reveals additional trends in Figure 9. First, for the bottom quintiles of the expenditure distribution, home produced and purchased production contribute approximately equal amounts to total per capita livestock product consumption. Among households in the third and fifth quintiles, home production levels are greater than purchases.For specific products, the trends support the findings of Figure 6 in which poultry consumption is mostly sourced in home production and meat consumption in purchases. Among the poor, meat consumption is almost entirely sourced from purchases, and the bulk of home produced livestock products is composed of eggs and poultry. Looking at the same figures in terms of quantities rather than values as in Figure 9 reveals similar trends, as per capita quantities of consumption increase exponentially with wealth. Once again, poultry is shown to be the most important item in rural livestock product consumption, and is primarily sourced in home production. The quantity of meat consumed increases with wealth, but is largely purchased rather than produced. As with consumption in value terms, the quantity in kilograms of purchases is greater than the quantity consumed from household production for all but the bottom quintile. Conversely, for dairy consumption, graphed separately since it is calculated in liters, the quantity of home produced consumption largely exceeds purchased consumption for all groups, highlighting the ownership of milk producing animals across the wealth spectrum. These results demonstrate that own consumption of livestock products is fundamental to rural household food intake. When measuring consumption in quantities per capita, urban households are greater consumers of livestock products in comparison to rural households (Table 27). On the whole, urban areas consume nearly twice as many kilograms of meat per person than rural areas. Whereas rural households consume nearly seven kilograms per person annually, the urban sample reports over 12 kilograms per capita. Similarly, urban consumption of eggs in kilograms exceeds rural levels by nearly three times. Poultry and dairy consumption are approximately equal across groups with no significant differences observed, which is striking if one considers that the value of expenditures is almost double in urban areas (Table 26). The Tanzania National Panel Survey (2008-09) provides an up-to-date snapshot of living standards and livelihoods in the country. This report has utilized the extensive information included in this dataset on income sources, productive activities, access to basic services, market participation, access to assets, and a host of other socioeconomic variables to put together a detailed picture of the role of livestock in rural livelihoods.In analyzing the different economic activities in which households are involved, and the income they generate, the report confirmed the perception that agriculture forms the backbone of the rural economy. Nearly all rural households participate in crop or livestock activities, earning on average two thirds of total income from the sector. Household participation in non-agricultural sectors is somewhat more limited but also widespread, with 77 percent of households participating and income accounting for almost one third of the total. Both crop and livestock production are also practiced extensively by urban households, accounting for a combined 11 percent of urban household income.Despite its importance to rural livelihoods, the family farm sector is dominated by small, largely subsistence-oriented operations, often raising some livestock as well as producing crop products. Land ownership is widespread, with only 10 percent of households identified as landless; however, the average farm size is a mere 1.6 hectares. Subsistence staple crop production dominates the sector, and only about one fourth of agricultural produce is sold on the market, while the rest is consumed within the household.The limited ownership of assets and access to inputs present important obstacles to improving the living conditions of rural households, particularly of the poor. Ownership of the most basic productive assets is limited and the use of mechanization is rare. Households instead rely heavily on family and hired labor for all agricultural activities. Furthermore, access to financial services such as credit is scant in rural areas, presenting constraints to household investment potential.This report placed a deliberate emphasis on the characteristics of the livestock sector, which is often overlooked in agricultural sector reports. The role of the sector for poverty reduction can hardly be ignored, as three out of five rural households engage in livestock keeping, earning over 20 percent of their income from livestock, while also benefiting from other livestock uses (e.g., traction, manure) which are not captured in that figure. Households involved in livestock rearing also enjoy a far greater consumption of animal origin products. The NPS offers a wealth of information on the livestock/livelihood linkages of which this report has provided only an initial, descriptive exploration.In terms of herd structure, large ruminants dominate, accounting for over 80 percent of total livestock holdings when measured in TLUs. When looking at the same picture from a household livelihood perspective, however, the importance of poultry emerges alongside that of cattle, as the average livestock keeping household holds 44 percent of their total livestock ownership in poultry. One issue of concern emerging from the analysis is the high degree of concentration in livestock holdings, with the top 20 percent of livestock keepers holding over 80 percent of livestock assets. This reflects a heterogeneous sector composed largely of small holdings that make limited use of inputs, with a core of relatively large holders who are much more active on both input and output markets, and earn a substantial share of their income from livestock.While some correlation between the ownership of livestock and welfare levels (as measured by consumption expenditure) is present in the data, this is not very strong. Cattle ownership is less widespread and more clearly linked to wealth. Poultry ownership is ubiquitous, while poor goat herders have flocks of similar size, or larger, than rich ones. The heterogeneity across rural households seems to be driven more by other issues, such as the regional differences in livestock systems and idiosyncratic household characteristics, such that the larger differences emerge when livestock keepers are classified in terms of the size of their holdings.In terms of heterogeneity along gender lines, the NPS data confirm expectations. Women are relatively disadvantaged when it comes to livestock ownership, in particular for cattle, especially among poorer households. It should be noted that the gender disaggregation of livestock data in the NPS is rather simple and hence these findings should be interpreted with some caution. Once they do own livestock, women appear to be as market oriented as men, if not more so, due in particular to their role in the marketing of milk and milk products. However, the sale of live animals is much more frequently handled by men.Taken together, these results point to the fact that potentially dynamic livestock producers are also present among the poor, and include poor rural women. Removing the constraints to increases in productivity and market participation for these households and individuals, thus allowing them to realize the full income generating potential from their livestock resources, is therefore bound to have a payoff in terms of rural poverty reduction. These payoffs can be amplified via the interaction between livestock keeping and crop production through the provision of manure and draught power. These inputs do appear to be used more frequently by mixed crop-livestock producers, in comparison with pure crop producers at comparable income levels. While this additional benefit of livestock keeping is not included in the figures of income shares reported above, it should enter the equation when calculating the full range of benefits of livestock production for rural households.The analysis of the patterns of consumption of animal origin products reveals the picture of a sector with much room for expansion. The disparities in livestock product consumption between rural and urban areas and between different income groups suggest that as average incomes in Tanzania increase, the demand for livestock products may expand, offering good opportunities for livestock producers to increase their production in order to serve a growing domestic market. Female-headed households, while somewhat disadvantaged in terms of access to livestock assets, appear to be in a relatively good position to benefit from such opportunities, as their participation in livestock output markets is on par with, or greater than, that of other households. This growth is also likely to be accompanied by a shift in the composition of the demand towards more meat and dairy products.Poultry will continue to be important, but if current consumption patterns are of any guidance, household preferences may increasingly shift towards other livestock products as incomes increase.While the prospects for the livestock sector are promising, the report also highlights a series of factors that may constrain households' ability to take advantage of the opportunities offered by a possible growth in livestock demand. In particular, the low level of input use and veterinary services, and the high prevalence of reported animal illness could place restrictions on the extent to which livestock is productive. Further analysis is required to identify the extent to which these constraints may become binding, and to single out possible actions to remedy the situation.The NPS data offer a rich basis, particularly if integrated with additional data sources, upon which to further the descriptive analysis featured in these pages. The objective of this report has been to use the wealth of information included in the NPS to identify some of the main constraints and opportunities related to growth in the smallholder agricultural sector. The descriptive analysis within this report also aimed to provide possible starting points for additional analysis that could offer recommendations of direct relevance to the formulation of national agricultural policies and programs. Further analysis of the NPS data and, even more so, the analysis of longitudinal data as future rounds become available, provide and unprecedented opportunity for the national and international community to further our understanding of the nexus between livestock and livelihoods in rural Tanzania.Income shares are calculated according to the \"means of shares\" approach (MS i ) in which the share of income of each activity in total household income is calculated for each household, and then the mean of all household shares is calculated for each income activity. This approach is effective in communicating the diversity of household income portfolios. An alternative approach, \"shares of means\" (SH i ), calculates income shares from each activity based on the mean level of income for a group of households, generating a picture of the relative importance of different income activities at the economy level, where the overall economy is defined by the universe of the group of households for which the shares are estimated. The formulas for each estimate of income are as follows: The income shares presented in this report are estimated as MS, as the interest of this report is to characterize household level income and agricultural activities. These approaches for estimating shares are not limited to income and can be applied to other variables. For example, the shares of each animal type in total herd size is estimated using both approaches to demonstrate the types of animals that are most important to households individually, as well as among all livestock holders. ","tokenCount":"12875"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4e9dfc9f4a8af9bdf568d6d2186133a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/5094DW/OBZYTC","id":"-878540140"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0f8264d0-1751-4d6c-a999-f62b0bda92ea","pagecount":"5","content":"Good morning/afternoon. I am ___________________ from the SEDPrac Consulting Pvt. Ltd. Together with International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), we are conducting a survey that will provide IFPRI with necessary information to carry out research that is designed to help strengthen the resilience of farmers against climate change, particularly in terms of crop productivity and income of the farmers. Your household has been chosen by a random selection process.We are inviting you to participate in this study. Your opinions in this survey are highly valued and there are no wrong answers to the questions asked in this interview. We will use approximately thirty minutes to conduct the survey. There is no risk as a result of participating in this study. Your participation in this survey is completely voluntary. You are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue your participation in this survey at any point of time. All the information collected through this questionnaire will be kept anonymous and you will be identified through code numbers. All the information collected by us from you will be kept highly confidential.Your participation in this research activity is highly acknowledged. The answers you provide will help provide better information to policy makers, practitioners, and program managers so that they can plan for better services that will respond to your needs.The researcher read to me orally the consent form and explained me its meaning. I agree to take part in this study. I understand that I am free to discontinue my participation at any time as I chose, and the investigator will gladly answer the questions that arise during the course of this survey.Thankyou.Perception about climate variability, impact and adaptation techniques 1.Did you observe that adoption of LLL reduces cost of cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 2.Do you think adoption of LLL reduces crop loss due to climate variability? (yes -1, no -2) 3.How will you rank LLL technique to reduce cost of cultivation? (highly useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 4.How will you rank LLL technique to reduce crop loss due to weather related shocks? (highly useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 5.Did you observe that adoption of DSR reduces cost of cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 6.Do you think adoption of DSR reduces crop loss due to climate variability? (yes -1, no -2, not sure -3) 7.How will you rank DSR technique to reduce cost of cultivation? (highly useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 8.How will you rank DSR technique to reduce crop loss due to weather related shocks? (very useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 9.Have you heard about LLL? (yes -1, no -2) 10. Do you believe that LLL will be useful to reduce irrigation cost for crop cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 11. Do you believe that LLL will enhance crop productivity? (yes -1, no -2) 12. Do you believe that LLL can protect your crop from loss due to weather related events? (yes -1, no -2, not sure -3) 13. Why did you not adopt? (machine is not available on time -1, machine rent is very high -2, not sure about its benefits -3, improved seeds not available -4, others -5) 14. Do you believe that DSR will be useful to reduce irrigation cost for crop cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 15. Do you believe that DSR will be useful to reduce labour cost for crop cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 16. Do you believe that DSR will enhance crop productivity? (yes -1, no -2)[9] Reason for not adopting LLL or DSR Reason (very highly relevant -1, moderately relevant -2, not very relevant -3) LLL DSRInadequate training 2.Inadequate machine supply 3.Rent of machine 4.Irrigation facility 5.Availability of improved quality of seeds 6.Weeding problem","tokenCount":"627"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"05b274eb0124c02060bc4f99b4194002","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7fe9ef22-8539-48ed-aebe-3de3a9453cdb/retrieve","id":"443994108"},"keywords":["Kheir, A.M.S.","Govind, A.","Zoghdan, M.G.","Khalifa, T.H.","Aboelsoud, H.M.","Shabana, M.M.A sandy soils","physical properties","chemical properties","yield quality","SAP polymer","economic return"],"sieverID":"fce9f2e9-f61a-48f5-a0cb-e38242c8c753","pagecount":"13","content":"Two of the most significant issues confronting arid and semi-arid countries are soil degradation and the need to reclaim sandy soils and improve their properties to enhance the agricultural area and ensure food security. Many attempts to improve sandy soil properties have been attempted using soil amendments, but further research is needed to explore the combined impact of cost-effective amendments. To that purpose, we investigated the impact of various soil amendments, including single and combination applications of synthetic Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP), compost, and biochar, on sandy soil physiochemical characteristics and bean (Vicia faba L.) production and quality throughout three growing seasons. In a randomized complete block design with three replicates per treatment, different treatments such as control (without application), lower dose of SAP (SAP1), higher dose of SAP (SAP2), biochar, compost, SAP1 plus biochar, SAP1 plus compost, SAP2 plus biochar, SAP2 plus compost, and biochar plus compost were used. The combined treatments, such as SAP2 plus biochar (T8), SAP2 plus compost (T9), and biochar plus compost (T10), improved soil physiochemical characteristics and crop production significantly. Application of T10 decreased soil bulk density by 15%, 17%, and 13% while increasing soil available water by 10%, 6%, and 3% over the first, second, and third growing seasons, respectively, compared to untreated soil (T1). The application of treatment (T9) surpassed other treatments in terms of yield, quality, and economic return, significantly increasing the seed yield by 24%, 26%, and 27% for the first, second, and third season compared with untreated soil. The higher rate of polymer combined with compost could be considered a cost-effective soil amendment to improve sandy soil productivity in arid and semi-arid regions.According to estimates, 70% more food will be needed due to the world's rapid population growth in order to support the expected population of 9.6 billion people by 2050, with the majority of this need coming from developing nations and Africa [1,2]. In order to overcome this obstacle, it is necessary to boost crop production across the board, particularly in developing countries. Legumes are a key component of agricultural production systems and a major source of proteins and minerals, contributing mainly to human diets and farming systems [3,4]. Domestic Vicia faba production in Egypt fell three decades ago. Egypt's self-sufficiency in the crop was destroyed by a combination of political actions and environmental changes, resulting in the country's severe dependency on imports today. However, domestic bean (Vicia faba L. c.v. Nubaria 2) production is growing more slowly than needed to meet domestic consumption demands. Because of this, the faba bean food gap continues to grow [5]. In fact, the difference widened significantly, growing by roughly 891% from 73 thousand tonnes in 2000 to about 650 thousand tonnes in 2016 [6]. To close the gap, bean production must be increased both horizontally and vertically, which requires high quality soils.Soil quality can be described as the techniques used to improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil [7]. Sandy soil is one of the most difficult challenges facing agricultural production, due to its characteristics of low fertility, low water holding capacity, extensive erosion, and high evaporation, requiring much attention to improve soil quality [8]. There have been numerous efforts made to enhance the characteristics of sandy soil, including applications of both organic [9,10] and inorganic amendments [11]. Among such amendments are biochar [12], vermicompost [13], recycled agricultural wastes [14], and synthetic Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) [15]. Compost has long been used as an organic soil amendment to improve physiochemical and biological characteristics [16,17]. It can also improve soil fertility, structure, increase soil water holding capacity, and decrease erosion and runoff in sandy soils [8]. Biochar, which is made from pyrolyzed wastes that have a longer residence period than unpyrolyzed wastes, increases soil fertility by affecting the physiochemical and biological characteristics of the soil [18,19]. Many studies have shown that biochar has a good impact on soil characteristics and crop output [20][21][22]. Depending on the kind, dosage, and soil type, biochar features such as pH, increased surface area, cation exchange capacity, and nutrient content positively influence soil parameters and ultimately improve soil fertility [23]. The feedstock from which biochar is created, as well as its makeup and the type of soil to which it will be applied, all have a significant impact on the biochar application rate [22]. The combined effect of composts, biochar, and polymers on the physical and chemical characteristics of soil has not yet been studied in detail, confirming the importance of the current study. Understanding how changed composts alter soil structure and, subsequently, soil physical quality through soil micromorphological studies may be helpful.Polymers are huge molecules made up of monomers, which are repeating units. Typically, polymerization of monomers results in the formation of polymers, which differ from monomers in both their physical and chemical characteristics. There have been reports of using both natural and synthetic polymers to stabilize soils [24]. Recently, there has been a focus on the use of synthetic polymers (SA) to stabilize soil properties and reduce deterioration in arid and semi-arid soils [25,26], but further research is needed to encompass a wider range of soils and settings. Therefore, the main objectives of this work are to (I) investigate the individual and combined effects of compost, biochar, and polymer in low and high rates on the physiochemical characteristics of sandy soil, and (II) study the response of bean yield and yield components to the application of these amendments in sandy soil conditions.The experiment was carried out in the Baltim area of Kafrelsheikh province in Egypt's north (Figure 1). The soil texture is sandy loam, with low fertility and water retention (Table 1). The region is located at the north of Egypt with low temperature and moderate precipitation (Figure 2), proving that soil properties are the main limiting factor in crop production. The study site represents the first agroclimatic zone in Egypt, which characterizes the moderate climate.      The field experiment, which included ten treatments, was set up in a randomized complete block design with three replicates per treatment. Individual plots included compost, biochar, SAP polymer, and their mixtures as: T1: control (without addition); T2: SAP1 polymer at 5 g per hull (SAP1); T3: SAP2 polymer at 10 g per hull (SAP2); T4: biochar 5.88 tonnes per acre (B); T5: compost 11.75 tonnes per acre (C); T6: SAP1 + B; T7: SAP1 + C; T8: SAP2 + B; T9: SAP2 + C; and T10: B + C. The local cultivar Nubaria 2 was sown on 9 November in three successive growing seasons (2020/2021, 2021/2022, and 2022/2023). The area of the field experiment was 450 m 2 (36 lines + 9 lines free between all treatments); the distance between each line of 30 cm, with one seed placed per hull, and the distance between the holes along the line was 25 cm. Amendments of biochar and compost, as well as phosphorus, were given during seedbed preparation. Phosphorus fertilizer was applied at 60 kg P ha −1 as ordinary Ca-superphosphate, and K was applied at 120 kg K ha −1 as potassium sulphate. Nitrogen (N) was applied at 72 kg N ha −1 as ammonium sulphate in three equal splits: 30, 45, and 60 days after sowing. SAP polymer was added after the line was prepared. faba beans were sown on 9 November in three seasons at 168 kg ha-1 using a dry planting by hand method. At the harvest stage, after 142 days, soil and plant samples were collected for analysis.Compost was prepared by the procedures described in [8], with the main properties of pH = 7.84, EC (saturation extract) 4.13 dS m −1 , organic matter content = 267.6 (g kg −1 ), N = 17.6 (g kg −1 ), P = 8.8 (g kg −1 ), K = 12.2 (g kg −1 ), and WHC = 126%. Corn waste was slowly pyrolyzed at 350 • C for 2.5 h to produce biochar. Super absorbent polymer (SAP; Polyacrylic acid) was provided by the Central Lab. of the Agric. Climate, Agric. Res. Centre, Giza, Egypt, with the main properties of pH = 7.12; BD = 0.67 Mg m −3 ; WHC = 600%; and composites (Bentonite + SAP − 20% and Kaolinite + SAP − 20%).Before and after harvesting, soil samples were taken and subjected to normal procedures for chemical and physical analysis [27,28]. The pressure membrane method was used to test the soil moisture field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) at 0.1 and 15 bars, respectively. Using the pipette method, the particle size distribution of soil samples was measured. Using a cylindrical, sharp-edged core sampler, the bulk density of the soil was calculated [29]. The modified wet combustion method was used to measure the amount of soil organic carbon [30]. Conventional techniques were used to extract and determine the amount of N, P, and K in the soil [31]. During the three growing seasons, the contents of NPK in faba bean seeds were determined, along with the plant height (cm), weight of 100 seeds (g), HI (%), seed, straw, and biological yields (kg ha −1 ).Total cost, total return, and net return were computed based on the change in the exchange rate between the Egyptian pound and the US dollar between 9 November (planting date) and 30 March (harvest date) during three growing seasons.Regression analysis of soil physiochemical properties under different treatments and over different growing seasons, as well as pair plot visualization of all crop features under all treatments, were performed in Python using the seaborn and matplotlip packages [32]. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) for all crop features and treatments was conducted using the Factoextra in R language. Analysis of variance and least significant differences (LSD) (p ≤ 0.01) were performed according to [33] using the agricolae package in R studio.Figure 3 indicates that amendments had a favourable influence on most soil characteristics, revealing that the addition of compost enhanced CEC, soil organic carbon, and soil nitrogen content significantly throughout the first and second seasons, while the soil phosphorus and potassium concentration were excessive only in the first season. Biochar, on the other hand, increased soil phosphorus and potassium content during the last two seasons (2nd and 3rd), as well as CEC values and soil nitrogen content during the third season. Furthermore, both SAP dosages (SAP1 and SAP2) exhibited a negligible to minor effect on soil chemical characteristics. The lowest increase in values was recorded when no amendments were received. The maximum CEC and SOC values were obtained by combining biochar and compost application (T10). All the combinations, particularly those with biochar, boosted the NPK content of the soil.  The soil amendments had a significant effect on bean seed yield and yield components (p < 0.001), and this effect differed significantly across all treatments (Table 2 and Compost application reduced soil BD by an average of 13.77% and 15.82% in seasons 1 and 2, respectively, while biochar application reduced it by 11.68% in the third season. It was reduced by an average of 18.05%, 20.51%, and 18.61% in each season using biochar +compost (T10) or SAP2 + biochar (T8). The application of SAP polymer had a significant impact on increased soil moisture content, such as WP, FC, and AW, with the application of SAP2 in respective seasons increasing WP, FC, and AW by 14.19%, 23.43%, and 29.50% in the first season, 20.73%, 27.44%, and 32.03% in the second season, and 19.95%, 29.80%, and 36.23% in the third season. SAP1 caused increases of 14.03%, 19.95%, and 23.84%; 11.83%, 22.83%, and 30.35%; and 18.87, 24.29, and 27.84 in the first, second, and third seasons, respectively. A combination of treatments resulted in an increase in soil moisture content, outperforming other treatments. Application of SAP polymers used with both organic additions (biochar and compost) enhanced soil moisture content. On the other hand, for WP, FC, and AW, there were no significant changes between all the investigated combinations (Figure 3). According to the findings, the residual effect of compost diminished in the third season. The effect of biochar, on the other hand, showed an increasing curve during the second season, particularly in the soil content of elements, due to increased CEC values, while the effect of adding both polymer dosages on soil moisture content was obvious.The soil amendments had a significant effect on bean seed yield and yield components (p < 0.001), and this effect differed significantly across all treatments (Table 2 and Supplementary Figures S1-S8). The treatment of SAP2 plus biochar outperformed other treatments, with highly significant differences in seed yield, straw yield, plant height, and seed weight when averaged over three growing seasons. There are no significant differences between SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10), confirming that any treatment from them could be adopted as long as the biggest economic profit is achieved. The treatment (T10), on the other hand, revealed the best nutritional status in bean seeds (N, P, and K) with highly significant differences from the other treatments. faba bean yield and yield attributes responded positively to the fusion application of biochar, compost, and SAP polymer. The pair plot showed positive correlation between all traits except HI, which showed negative correlation with all traits (Figure 4). To properly grasp the correlations between soil amendment treatments, yield, and their qualities, the PCA analysis (loadings and scores) was applied (Figure 5). Yield, yield attributes, and qualities correlated positively with the treatments SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10), and negatively with the trait HI. This confirms the importance of applying SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10) in improving sandy soil properties and maximizing yield and quality in these conditions. However, as there are no significant differences between these treatments (SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10)), further economic analysis is required to select the optimum treatment that achieves the highest return for farmers.    According to the results in Table 3, the expenses of adding amendments were high in the first season 2020/2021 compared to the control; therefore, the net return favoured the control over the new treatments. The difference was clear for all treatments compared to the control in the two subsequent seasons, as net profits increased by 136.93% and 59.66% with the addition of SAP 10 g + 2.5 tonne biochar, followed by 2.5 tonne biochar + 5 tonne compost (134.42% and 57.54%) in 2021/2022 and 2022/2023, respectively. Finally, the treatment of SAP2 plus compost (T9) may be chosen as the most cost-effective treatment with the highest net return in the third season. Principal component analysis (PCA) to better understand the variability of yield, yield attributes (loadings), and treatments (scores). The loadings include seed yield (SeedY), straw yield (StrawY), biomass yield (BY), plant height (PlantH), harvest index (HI), seed weight (SeedW), seed content of nitrogen (N), seed content of phosphorus (P), and seed content of potassium (K). The soil treatments (scores) included control, polymer5, polymer10, biochar2.5, compost5, polymer5 + biochar2.5, polymer5 + compost5, polymer10 + biochar2.5, polymer10 + compost5, and biochar2.5 + compost5 for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, and T10, respectively.According to the results in Table 3, the expenses of adding amendments were high in the first season 2020/2021 compared to the control; therefore, the net return favoured the control over the new treatments. The difference was clear for all treatments compared to the control in the two subsequent seasons, as net profits increased by 136.93% and 59.66% with the addition of SAP 10 g + 2.5 tonne biochar, followed by 2.5 tonne biochar + 5 tonne compost (134.42% and 57.54%) in 2021/2022 and 2022/2023, respectively. Finally, the treatment of SAP2 plus compost (T9) may be chosen as the most cost-effective treatment with the highest net return in the third season. The costs of the raw materials in 2020 were 11.75 ton compost ha −1 = USD 236.67; 5.88 ton Biochar ha −1 = USD 285.71; 1.60 ton SAP ha −1 = USD 304.76 and 1.92 ton SAP ha −1 = USD 609.52.The current study clearly demonstrated that the combined use of biochar, polymer, and compost improved soil quality and plant growth in sandy soil conditions, rather than using the single effect as performed before [34,35]. Application of SAP polymer recently showed a significant improvement in soil properties and crop production [36], but further application in different environments and soils, particularly sandy soils, is required. In the current study, the combined application of polymers, particularly at the highest rate with compost and biochar, as well as the combination of compost and biochar, showed significant improvements in sandy soil properties and crop production. Some studies showed the importance of SAP polymer in improving clay soil properties [37], reducing fertilizer loss [38], and increasing soil content of N, P, and K, which is required for the nutrient demand during plant growth and development [39,40]. Other research emphasized the value of SAP polymer in sandy soils, demonstrating that SAP polymer treatment increased soil water content [41]. However, integrating SAP polymer with other amendments has been given less attention so far, emphasizing the novelty of the current research. Here, the combined application of SAP2 polymer with either biochar (T8) or compost outperformed other single and low-rate SAP treatments in terms of improving soil physiochemical properties and bean yield and quality. This might be explained by SAP's three-dimensional, cross-linked structure, which can take in and hold as much water as 400 times its weight [42,43]. Its hydrophilic functional groups, like hydroxyl, carboxyl, amide, and sulfonic groups, have excellent adsorption and complex capacities. When the molecular chain swelled beneath the three-dimensional cross-linked structure, water moisture entered the internal network easily and formed a water-blocking layer between soil particles, which could inhibit moisture from moving from the soil surface to the atmosphere or to the rock layer of slopes, but made it move horizontally, or to the place that had little SAP. As a result, soil treated with SAP can absorb more water than untreated soil, and it also permits the water to be released gradually when the soil moisture level drops [44]. Application of SAP polymer not only increases soil water holding capacity, but also improves other physiochemical properties in the sandy soil. The chemical hydrophilic groups and network structure of the SAP hydrogel molecule may be responsible for this. The water molecules were charged by weak connections, which could result in a good water exchange between the polymer and the soil. However, combining SAP polymer with biochar or compost outperformed a single application of SAP polymer in terms of enhancing soil characteristics and crop yield. This is primarily explained by the fact that biochar decomposes more slowly in the soil than compost because it contains more stable organic carbon molecules than compost [45,46]. In contrast, the compost's decaying organic elements promote the development of soil microorganisms and boost the activity of soil enzymes, increasing soil organic matter and improving the qualities of sandy soil [47]. This demonstrates the importance of combining compost and biochar with SAP polymer in enhancing the physiochemical characteristics of sandy soils and increasing crop production. Nevertheless, further research is required to use these combinations in different environments with summer crops rather than the current winter crop. Application of SAP polymer with compost and biochar in diverse environments, including moderate and high temperatures with summer crops, will give a realistic insight into using cost-effective amendments in improving degraded soils and crop production to accomplish food security and nutrition goals. Furthermore, the effect of these materials on soil microbial activity and greenhouse gas emissions should be considered as a future research direction. On the other hand, including these resources into decision support tools such as crop models [48] will enable them to be used at scale in a cost-effective manner.The combination of biochar (its shelf life in the soil is 25 years) + compost (its shelf life is 3 years) led to an improvement in the biological activity of the soil, which was reflected in the chemical properties and bulk density of the soil with reduced carbon emissions. From the perspective of economic returns, the use of this mixture gave an economic return like the addition of polymers to the soil (its shelf life is from 6 to 7 years) and, thus, reduced the total costs of adding the polymers alone or in combination with other treatments. In conclusion, the treatment of SAP2 plus compost (T9) could be adopted as the best economic treatment, achieving the highest net return in the third season. However, applying these treatments to a single crop is a study restriction that necessitates more research into employing such amendments in crop rotation and on diverse crops.","tokenCount":"3454"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8b0f94489894d6d09264d8a811df3b10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37e65677-5ddf-4633-a596-26dedeba2894/retrieve","id":"-791452637"},"keywords":["David Dudenhoefer, Véronique Durroux-Malpartida Coordination","Véronique Durroux-Malpartida Design and Layout","Communications Department"],"sieverID":"a814ce50-9fd8-4c37-b31d-75b61526bae2","pagecount":"88","content":"2014 was a year of consolidation for the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB), as scientists made significant progress in the laboratory and on the ground, initial investments in gender integration resulted in more gender-smart research, and we made several changes to improve program management.Based on recommendations from the CGIAR Consortium, a Program Advisory Committee (PAC) was constituted with six nominated members from complementary backgrounds. With their extensive experience and great enthusiasm for our work, they have already begun to contribute significantly to helping RTB reach its objectives. At the end of 2014, the PAC was merged with some members of the Steering Committee to form an Independent Steering Committee.We developed a new program structure to facilitate results-based management (RBM) that organizes RTB research around a linked set of discovery, delivery and impact-at-scale flagship projects. These flagships will be composed of clusters of activities and will replace the current disciplinary themes starting in 2016. The transition from output-based to results-based management is one of the objectives for the program extension of 2015-2016. Other key elements include increasing integration of gender and the implementation of strategic gender research to enhance gender equity, expanding linkages with regional and sub-regional organizations, building broader alliances of partnerships, and maintaining a longer-term pipeline of discovery research.We are proud of the progress that has already been made on integrating gender into our work. A significant amount of RTB research in 2014 was gender-responsive and nearly a dozen gender strategic research case studies were completed that will feed into a CGIAR global study. RTB gender specialists have also engaged in new initiatives with partner institutions that are very promising.While our financial resources increased slightly in 2014, a retroactive budget reduction of 9% announced during the last quarter of the year impacted funding commitments and disbursement. We wish to see this risk reduced, especially because it affects funding that includes many partners, and time-bound projects.We are looking forward to continued progress towards our aims of alleviating poverty and increasing food security.The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) made important progress towards its goals of reducing hunger, malnutrition and poverty in 2014. Efforts to mainstream gender produced important results that include gender integration in interventions to improve the management of the banana diseases Banana Bunch Top Disease (BBTD) and Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), and the collection of sex-disaggregated data on crop traits preferred by farmers, in order to enhance crop breeding. RTB also contributed to a CGIAR global study on gender and agricultural innovation, and launched a university partnership initiative that is connecting RTB researchers with graduate students in gender and development studies.RTB supported gap analyses of global genebank collections of potato and sweetpotato crop wild relatives (CWR) that revealed that many CWR species are underrepresented in genebanks and at risk in the field due to habitat destruction. Researchers also undertook a mass field screening of 1,973 sweetpotato accessions from the CIP Genebank for heat tolerance, identifying 21 that are especially good candidates for breeding efforts.A cross-center initiative to unravel the genetic mechanisms behind key crop traits and harness them for next-generation breeding has resulted in the gene sequencing of nearly 6,500 RTB crop accessions and metabolite profiling that has led to the identification of 7,000 metabolic features per RTB crop. CIAT researchers identified 181 genetic markers in the cassava genome linked to important traits, whereas IITA completed genome-wide association studies of cassava and applied the data to genomic selection. An impact study of a CIP project that promoted orange-fleshed sweetpotato consumption to pregnant or lactating women through a health program in western Kenya showed a doubling of dietary vitamin A intake for both mothers and infants. Bioversity, CIAT, CIP and IITA collaborated with an array of partners on an effort to help farmers manage RTB-critical pests and diseases under climate change, installing networks of weather stations and completing a socioeconomic survey of more than 400 farm households at action sites in Rwanda and Burundi. The centers also made progress on laboratory research to better understand temperature-dependent pest development. A cross-center initiative to improve management of seed degeneration -the transmission and accumulation of pathogens via planting material -resulted in the development of preliminary process models, which will be improved through ongoing, multiyear field studies in nine countries.RTB supported a meeting of cassava experts from research centers in Europe and Africa that resulted in the creation of the Pan-African Cassava Surveillance Network (PACSUN), which will add value to the work of existing organizations and networks by providing diagnostic expertise and information on cassava diseases, and by coordinating responses to halt their spread. RTB scientists continued to play a key role in coordinating an international response to the first African outbreak of the banana disease Foc TR4, working with national institutions, regional organizations and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on a pan-African strategy.RTB supports efforts to combat banana diseases in sub-Saharan Africa that include an alliance to contain and help farmers recover from BBTD led by Bioversity, CIRAD and IITA. Those centers helped local partners in eight countries to establish pilot sites and send 20 researchers to Montpellier, France for training in banana virus diagnostics. Bioversity, IITA and the Institutional Learning and Change (ILAC) Initiative collaborated on efforts to get banana farmers in Eastern and Central Africa to adopt a 'single diseased stem removal' (SDSR) approach to managing the disease BXW, which allows them to control the disease while still producing bananas.CIAT, CIRAD and regional and national organizations in Latin America and the Caribbean are collaborating on solutions for managing the banana disease Moko bacterial wilt that include the use of thermotherapy chambers for mass propagation of disease-free planting materials and a Moko-resistant cultivar. IITA researchers tested aeroponic and immersion bioreactor technologies for producing pathogen-free yam planting material that hold promise. Smallholders in the Tanzanian highlands significantly increased their harvests in 2014 thanks to CIP's efforts to strengthen the production and distribution of clean seed potato in their country. RTB researchers also made progress on a cross-crop initiative to develop a conceptual framework for evaluating and improving seed systems, which was strengthened through 10 case studies.IITA researchers completed a study of smallholder plantain systems in West and Central Africa that documented beneficial intercropping, fertilization and pest-and-disease management strategies. IITA scientists also undertook a field trial on intercropping yams with trees, identifying two tree species that boosted yam yields.A cross-crop initiative was launched to improve postharvest management practices for banana, cassava, potato and sweetpotato in Uganda, with four business cases implemented by teams composed of more than two-dozen organizations. RTB also teamed up with the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) to support efforts to integrate gender into RTB value chain tools and interventions. CIP began testing sweetpotato storage innovations in Ghana and Malawi using dry sand, the results of which indicate sweetpotatoes could be stored for months without major losses. RTB also funded research on cassava processing that should result in technologies to optimize key unit operations to enhance energy efficiency, among other improvements. During its third year, the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) strengthened and expanded its network of partners and began implementing a more effective management structure that will greatly enhance its ability to track and achieve outcomes and impacts in the future. RTB funded an array of initiatives under its seven Themes, among them cutting-edge genomic research, international collaborations to improve the management of priority pests and diseases, and research to help farmers increase their harvests and improve postharvest options.Together, those initiatives are helping the RTB centers and their partners harness the full potential of roots, tubers and bananas for reducing hunger, improving diets, and helping people work their way out of poverty.An RTB priority in 2014 was facilitating a fundamental change in the way the research centers and their partners do business. The idea is to help the centers and partners move from a focus on outputs to an approach that prioritizes evidence-based outcomes and measureable impacts on food security, nutritional uptake, livelihoods and gender equity. This change involves participatory planning with an array of NARES, NGOS, farmer groups and the private sector to transform the way we plan, execute and monitor research for development interventions through the application of results-based management (RBM).This new way of doing business asks scientists and development professionals to envision the impacts that they want to have, and then work backwards to identify all the actions and collaborations, outputs and outcomes needed to achieve them. This includes paying special attention to the needs and constraints of end users, and identifying the actors who need to be engaged or influenced to reach those end users. The focus of this approach, and the consequent framework for managing and monitoring research for development, is the 'impact pathway' -a conceptual tool that allows researchers and development professionals to identify and map the outputs and linkages needed to produce the outcomes leading to impact. An impact pathway places emphasis on the process of change and the partners required to make it happen. Putting it into practice involves the identification of output, outcome and impact indicators for monitoring evaluation and learning (MEL).Those indicators play a key role in implementation, since the feedback they provide allows researchers to make adjustments to an intervention as it progresses and check that it is on track to achieve the desired impacts.The adoption of RBM is one component of a transition from a structure-based on seven disciplinary themes, under which RTB's work was organized during its first three years, to one organized around outcome-focused flagships. RTB researchers made major progress in 2014 on the construction of RTB flagships, each of which is composed of various related 'clusters of activities,' through which the centers and their partners conduct research and effect change. Each of those clusters will have its own theory of change, impact pathway and MEL indicators. As RTB enters its second phase, all research will be organized within flagships and their component clusters, and theories of change and impact pathways will form the basis for all planning, monitoring and evaluation.   As part of its efforts to make crop research more genderresponsive, RTB teamed up with Cornell University in 2014 to launch a university partnership initiative that connects researchers with graduate students in gender and development studies in order to tap their skills and knowledge while providing them with opportunities to work in the field.One of those students is Lisa Anderberg, a Masters candidate in international development at Clark University who will spend several months in 2015 conducting research on women's role in cassava pest and disease management in Laos as part of an RTB project led by CIAT researcher Kris Wyckhuys. Anderberg will be an asset to CIAT, since she has more than two years of development and research experience in Laos and speaks the language, and she is excited about contributing to the project.\"For me, this opportunity means that I will be able to apply my contextual and cultural knowledge of Laos and the theoretical and analytical skills that I have been developing in graduate school,\" she said.Anderberg is one of several graduate students who signed up in 2014, but the partnership initiative is poised to make a major contribution to RTB's gender research goals in the coming years.   The RTB centers and their partners conserve the most important germplasm collections in the world for their crops of  At least 21 of the accessions showed high yields and early bulking under heat-stress conditions, which makes them good candidates for further selection and breeding efforts.Heider noted that the test site has poor, sandy soil and some plants suffered drought stress, which means the accessions that performed well have real potential for relieving hunger and malnutrition on marginal lands. \"This is really promising because we now know that we have germplasm that we can send to areas that suffer heat and related stress. In many areas of Africa and Asia, all the good farmland is already dedicated to other crops, and as the population grows, farmers are moving into marginal areas,\" Heider said.She explained that her team separated accessions according to know traits such as roots with high beta-carotene, or that are sweet or not sweet, which scientists in different countries are already breeding for. She added that the accessions in the CIP genebank are from all over the world, and some of the ones that performed best under heat stress are from Asia.\"The idea is that this information strengthens the breeding program,\" she said. \"The next step is to send the accessions that performed well for multiple testing in other regions.\"In addition to producing useful information for CIP's genebank and sweetpotato breeding program, the field study was innovative in its use of remote sensing data, thanks to a collaboration with the IRD office in Ecuador, a member of RTB's global partnership with French organizations. Information from remote sensing has not only enhanced the sweetpotato mass screening, it will strengthen the future use of this type of data for evaluation of sweetpotato in the field.\"The good news is that enough of the clones performed well that we have a lot of germplasm that could be used in marginal areas or under climate change conditions. If you look at the clones that performed well under both the heat-stress and winter scenarios, © G. Rossel/CIP Sweetpotato germplasm preserved in CIP's genebankIn December 2014, the Global Musa Genetic Resources Network, MusaNet, held a workshop in India to address the urgent need of Musa collection curators for an unequivocal standardized characterization o f germplasm and its associated management of information. This includes ensuring the correct identification of the germplasm conserved and making the information available to all users. The workshop was held at the National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB), in Tamil Nadu, India. Participants included 22 representatives of the 13 partners of the Taxonomic Reference Collection Project (TRCP), and national and regional curators, as well as NRCB scientific staff. Sessions covered topics such as field characterization, field management, documentation and information exchange, global and regional contexts, and next steps planned by the TRCP. \"We hope that we can use this technology for future evaluations and that it will make it easier to do phenotype analysis earlier in trials,\" said Heider, noting that it could be used for \"highthroughput, early analysis of sweetpotato development.\"Faye will use the data to strengthen a methodological framework that he is constructing for the use of remote sensing in landscape ecology. Working with Olivier Dangles, the head of IRD in Ecuador, Faye uses drone technology to study how microclimates affect crop pests. Most remote sensing data comes from satellites and is too low-resolution for application to microclimates. Drones permit the collection of high-resolution data for a small area, and allow scientists to bridge the gap between the climatic data used in models and the conditions on the ground experienced by the organisms they study. \"The RTB metabolomic research has produced the first metabolome diverse libraries for banana, cassava, sweetpotato and yam, which will be analyzed and made available to the RTB community in the next 18 months,\" he said.Becerra explained that the metabolomic data can also be used for the identification of biomarkers for optimal adaptation of specific genotypes to specific environments, whereas they are particularly useful for understanding plant-pest interactions. He added that CIAT plans to do metabolomic analyses of cassava landraces that are either resistant or susceptible to whiteflies in 2015. \"The idea is to expand the cassava platform to the other RTB crops, so that everything we've learned and all the systems that we've created for cassava can be applied to other RTB crops,\" said Mueller. \"Creating the system was a big effort, but once you've created the system, it isn't that expensive to apply it to other crops.\"Mathieu Rouard, a Bioversity bioinformatician who collaborated with CIRAD on the first sequencing project for the banana genome and has worked on the Banana Genome Hub and the Musa Germplasm Information System, as well as the GreenPhyl comparative genomics platform, spent July working with Mueller at BTI and then accompanied him to CIAT and CIP for meetings with scientists there. He observed that cross-\"We want to create better tools for breeders and we want to integrate all the tools that have already been created,\" said Mueller.There have been many cases in which improved crop varieties released by NARES were poorly received by farmers because they lacked the flavor or another trait that farmers or consumers wanted. To ensure high adoption rates for the varieties they develop, breeding programs usually survey farmers about the traits they prefer, but all too often, those researchers rely disproportionately on the opinions of men. However, specialization of household roles means that women and men have different knowledge about and preferences for varietal traits. Women are usually responsible for food preparation and small scale processing, but their knowledge is rarely used for the varietal development process.As RTB works to unlock the genetic potential of roots, tubers and bananas for improving food security, nutrition and incomes, it is also supporting field research to document genderdisaggregated trait preferences. The aim is to ensure that the improved RTB varieties developed in the coming years will have as widespread and gender-equitable an impact as possible.\"Next-generation breeding is helping breeders to speed up the process of developing new RTB varieties, but if we overlook the traits that farmers want, if we don't have the right targets, then center collaboration makes it easier to manage the \"data deluge\" created by RTB genomic and metabolomic research, adding that the effort is benefiting from contributions from several scientists involved in the South Green Bioinformatics Platform, which curates genomic information on tropical and Mediterranean plants.\"The good thing about bioinformatics is that what is developed for one crop can be used for another crop,\" Rouard said. \"We are trying to have a consistent approach, and to avoid reinventing the wheel.\" RTB scientists have already identified tens of thousands of genetic markers that can be linked to traits, but the challenge is to confirm which genes are responsible for key traits -various genes may interact to determine one trait -and make that information available to crop breeders.\"Most breeders lack the tools needed to use genomic data,\" observed CIP bioinformatician Reinhard Simon. One of Simon's priorities in 2014 was the establishment of 'phenotypic ontologies' -standardized terms for specific traits -for potato and sweetpotato, which will be linked to the genomic and metabolite data being generated for those crops. \"There is still a lot of work to be done to build tools to make this data accessible to breeders,\" he said. A first analysis of the dissemination and adoption of yam bean in six of the total eight agro-ecological zones of Benin showed an adoption rate of 47%. A survey of 75 villages, for a total of 101 producers, revealed that the main advantages of cultivating ahipa are the high storage root yields, high seed yields, which Farmer with the yam bean roots harvested on her farm in Zakpota, southeast Benin facilitates rapid propagation and dissemination, and the various options for small-scale root processing, including gari (mixed with cassava), flour, juice or chips. However, the study concluded that currently, yam bean cultivation can only be profitable in Benin if producers process the crop.\"Training in processing is definitely needed to introduce ahipa in local diets in Africa, and to help farmers to improve revenues. This is a striking result, because in Central America and Asia, the crop is so far only used unprocessed,\" Grüneberg said. To assess the intervention's nutritional and health impact, a longitudinal cohort study of vitamin A (COVA) was undertaken from 2012 to 2014 with 505 women from mid-pregnancy through nine months postpartum. At the end of the study, dietary vitamin A intake among both mothers and infants in the intervention areas was nearly twice that of controls. VAD also decreased among mothers in the intervention areas compared to those in control areas.\"Vitamin A deficiency in pregnant and breastfeeding women is a significant public health problem,\" said Dr. Amy Webb Girard of Emory University, one of the lead researchers. \"Finding solutions for pregnant and breastfeeding women that are safe, accessible, sustainable and acceptable is a challenge. When linked with public health efforts, OFSP holds significant promise as a strategy to overcome these challenges.\"Access to Clean Seed  \"As information comes in, we will plug in specifics to improve the models, in order to get management estimates for particular locations,\" said Garrett. She explained that one of the goals is to develop 'management performance maps' that will provide location-specific management guidance for farmers and extensionists. Work has also begun on a gender model that would be applicable across crops and pathogens.In 2015, the seed degeneration research will be incorporated into an RTB initiative to develop a cross-crop seed systems framework, which will strengthen both lines of research. Garrett noted that she learned about the existence of data sets that could be used to improve the seed degeneration models at a meeting with the seed systems team in December of 2014. She added that an initial area of collaboration will be the application of impact network analysis to better understand how the biophysical and socioeconomic aspects of seed degeneration management interact. This tool will help to link the seed degeneration data with the research done for the framework and thereby improve the scientists' understanding of seed systems. Onyeka noted that farmers across the region are suffering the effects of the diseases' destruction. In a survey of 70 taro fields in Nigeria, he found that the incidence of TLB ranged from 65% to 90%. He explained that because farmers in West Africa had never seen the disease before 2009, they have no idea how to manage it. He added that these two diseases not only constitute threats to incomes and food security, but they could also deplete diversity in the crops' already narrow genetic base.Onyeka's recommendations include: creating a regional network of specialists on the two crops in West and Central Africa; Moko bacterial wilt is the principal bacterial disease limiting plantain production in Latin America and the Caribbean, and it is primarily spread between farms and regions via planting material. Moko disease can destroy up to 75% of crop production in an affected area, and annual losses in the region have been calculated to be more than US$100 million. Most farmers use agrochemicals to combat the disease, but interdisciplinary teams of scientists from CIAT, CIRAD and regional and national partners have been working on sustainable solutions for managing the disease, where improving the production of clean planting material has played an important role.A significant development is the use of a thermotherapy chamber for mass propagation of disease-free planting materials. CIAT designed and piloted an inexpensive, efficient and completely automatic system to produce clean planting materials. Once the conditions needed to propagate planting materials were determined, a larger thermal chamber was constructed that is currently producing pathogen-free planting material for 7,000 farmers in central Colombia.The technology has since been adopted by at least 10 nurseries or planting material production centers in Colombia. CIAT scientists helped nursery entrepreneurs to improve their production processes and scale the technology out, while involving female household heads in preparations for planting material production and caring for plantlets. Field studies found that monthly production increased by as much as 90 plantlets, from 15 suckers per square meter, with a total production of 980,000 plantlets propagated and distributed to farmers in 2014. While she admitted that there is no \"silver bullet\" to correct the deficiencies of all seed systems strategies, Almekinders believes that most interventions lack a full scope of the seed system's functions and all the actors involved. She hopes the conceptual framework will help to fill this gap. The framework will be applied to the Marando Bora sweetpotato project in Tanzania in 2015, in order to test and improve the framework and draw lessons from the project that might be applied to other seed system interventions.   \"ASARECA anticipates that the exciting innovations from this project will be shared to benefit the millions of people who depend on RTB crops for their livelihood,\" he said. The research revealed that, after the roots themselves, energy is the second highest cost of production, and that rasping and drying -crucial steps for making starch, flour, gari and fufuwere the most energy-consuming processes.Cassava flour packaging in Sincelejo, Colombia \"Improved process yield and energy efficiency can make all the difference between profitable and unprofitable operations,\" Tran said.The researchers recommend further experimental characterizations and modeling to improve and optimize key unit operations such as rasping and drying, particularly at the small scale, in order to enhance energy efficiency.They also highlighted the need to integrate more socioeconomic data to predict the effect of such innovations on women, who tend to be displaced from value chains when cassava processing is mechanized. \"We realized that male and female value chain actors have different needs, interests and challenges. And when it came to strategies to overcome those challenges, men and women often had different views of how to go about it,\" Mayanja said.\"Previously, we had used a one-size-fits-all approach, but the gender responsive tools helped us use a differentiated strategy.For example, for improving access to credit for value chain investments, the partners helped men access loans from banks, while women were linked to a microfinance provider that developed a table loan, which better suited their needs.\" Like PMCA, the 5 Capitals approach was developed with little consideration of gender. Stoian, who developed 5 Capitals with Jason Donovan of ICRAF, said that their emphasis was on asset building at household and smallholder enterprise levels. He explained that 5 Capitals is complementary to PMCA, since it is primarily used for monitoring and assessing the impact of value chain interventions and, based on this, to adjust them to increase smallholders' capacity to benefit from them.Stoian explained that the project will facilitate the development of gender-responsive versions of PMCA, 5 Capitals and the Link methodology -a value chain tool developed by CIAT. Those tools will then be shared with other centers and tested in different countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.\"This is the way we envision our development-oriented research to work, with centers collaborating within and across Research Programs,\" Stoian said.In Benin and Cameroon, women spend countless hours grating cassava to make the traditional products gari or attiéké in a labor-intensive and potentially dangerous process. Switching to a mechanical grating processing could reduce injuries, save time and energy, and result in a more homogeneous product. To understand the potential for mechanizing the production of such traditional cassava semolina, CIRAD supported research by French engineering student Timothée Gally on technologies for replacing the tiresome, manual process in West Africa and Latin America. Together with partners, CIP researchers tested several sweetpotato storage systems, such as an improved ventilation system that was successful for Solanum potato storage in Afghanistan and a modified \"Triple-S\" method, in which small sweetpotatoes are stored in dry sand and later planted to produce sprouts for planting. That method is being tested to see if larger sweetpotatoes can be stored for eventual sale or consumption.In Ghana, which has a long, hot dry season, sand storage was compared with a traditional system of storing sweetpotatoes in a grass-covered heap that is regularly sprinkled with water. The dry sand box storage gave better results than the traditional heap storage, retaining root freshness and keeping them free of weevils for two months. ","tokenCount":"4587"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"306d0f2a7db960f669ef1e729e8d10d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95b986ab-5d42-4888-a7a8-e7e791c9874d/retrieve","id":"-795593022"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"48c5f50d-fd51-4809-b44d-445529245361","pagecount":"6","content":"A parasitic disease of cattle, East Coast fever (ECF) kills over one million animals a year in sub-Saharan Africa and is particularly devastating for smallholder farmers.A live vaccine provides lifelong immunity after a single inoculation, but it is expensive to produce, store and deploy. As a result, scientists are searching for other methods of control.Extensive research, including the identification of the antibodies and T cells which provide resistance to disease, is helping scientists at ILRI develop a subunit vaccine for ECF.Once available, the vaccine could dramatically improve cattle health and productivity over a large swathe of Africa.East Coast fever occurs in 12 countries in eastern, central and southern Africa and kills over one million cattle a year. Approximately half the 75 million cattle in this area are at risk of catching the disease. In herds which have not previously been exposed to ECF, over 80% of cattle die within three to four weeks of infection. In 2005, ECF-related deaths led to the loss of some USD 300 million of revenue, representing 44% of the combined value of beef production in Burundi, Kenya and Rwanda that year.The direct impact of ECF includes the loss of livestock, the stunting of calves, reduced milk production among survivors and the costs of preventing and controlling the disease. Smallholder farmers are often the worst affected, making their households even more vulnerable and food insecure. 1 The disease has also deterred many farmers from adopting more productive breeds that are less resistant to ECF than indigenous cattle.ECF was first identified in cattle in the early 1900s, but serious attempts to tackle the disease only began in the 1960s and 1970s. The early work on developing a vaccine led to the creation of the Muguga cocktail, derived from three different isolates of the parasite. 2 This is delivered to cattle using an infectionand-treatment method (ITM). Cattle are infected with the parasite and simultaneously treated with an antibiotic. 3 This is still the main vaccine providing lifelong protection against ECF -it has provided immunity to some 1.5 million cattle -but its manufacture, cold-storage requirements and delivery are complicated and expensive, with the cost of the vaccine being beyond the means of many smallholder farmers.  Live vaccines like the Muguga cocktail use the entire pathogen to stimulate an immune response similar to the one seen during natural infection. In contrast, subunit vaccines contain components from the pathogen which are selected for their ability to elicit a strong immune response. The risk of side-effects with subunit vaccines is minimal. Production costs are usually lower than those for live vaccines and subunit vaccines do not have the same stringent cold storage requirements. They are therefore easier to deploy and more affordable for smallholder farmers and pastoralists.A prerequisite to developing a vaccine, either live or subunit, is an understanding of the immune factors and parasite antigens which help cattle develop immunity. The ITM vaccine demonstrates that it is technically possible to vaccinate cattle, and this provides a strong justification for developing subunit vaccines. Research by scientists at ILRI and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) and its collaborators led to the identification of two types of immune response that contribute to immunity to ECF, one dependent on T-cells, the other on antibodies.Research on the ITM vaccine led to the identification of a cytotoxic CD8 + T-cell response that kills schizont-infected cells. 4 This is the major mechanism mediating immunity to ECF. 5 In addition, cattle from ECF endemic areas were found to contain antibodies that neutralize the infectivity of the sporozoite stage of the parasite. 6 This means that antigens derived from the parasite are candidates for developing subunit vaccines, as they can respectively elicit cytotoxic CD8 + T-cells and antibodies. These two types of response are also the subject of intense research in developing vaccines for malaria, HIV and Tuberculosis (TB).One challenge when tackling ECF lies in the complex nature of the parasite. T. parva has approximately 4000 genes 7 , compared to fewer than 20 for an RNA virus like SARS-CoV-2. This makes the search for candidate vaccine antigens a demanding exercise.In addition, we know that the ITM vaccine induces strain-specific immunity, indicating that a broad-spectrum subunit vaccine will be dependent on the use of antigens that are common between different strains, or require the judicious use of a cocktail of antigens to mimic the immunity imparted by the Muguga cocktail. Nevertheless, several antigens -the targets of sporozoiteneutralizing antibodies and schizont antigens targeted by T cells from cattle immunized by ITM -have been identified.The quality of immune responses generated, and thus the level of immunity to ECF, varies with different methods of immunization, so the second challenge lies in identifying methods of immunization that induce robust sporozoite and schizont killing activity. In the general area of vaccinology, it is harder to induce CD8 + T-cells responses than it is to induce antibody responses. Hence, considerable effort has gone into defining antigens and assessing immunization methods.Drawing ILRI/Nicholas SvitekSignificant advances have been made in the identification and characterisation of antigens which can be used in a vaccine. 8 This entailed the development of assays for antigen identification, exploring different immunization methods and the development of immunological assays to measure immune responses in cattle.Two antigens of interest for the development of a subunit vaccine directed against the sporozoite cycle stage of the parasite were identified several years ago. 9 However, only the p67 antigen, the major surface antigen, has given consistent immunity to ECF, varying in efficacy from 20% to 70% in laboratory studies, depending on the different forms of recombinant p67 used and the method of immunization. 10 Unfortunately, it has not been possible to express stable recombinant versions of p67 that mimic the native sporozoite protein. Recent experiments have focused on a portion of p67, known as p67C, as it has been easier to work with and achieves the same level of protection in vaccinated animals.Five different p67C nanoparticle-based antigens combined with the ISA206VG adjuvant have been tested. Immunization with a combination of two of these resulted in 50% immunity and required three doses of antigen. A vaccine target product profile requires an immunization method of two doses and an efficacy of at least 70%, so more research is required to improve the efficacy of sporozoite vaccine antigens. In this context, eight new candidate sporozoite antigens have been discovered using a genome mining approach, but these need further testing on cattle. It is possible that a robust sporozoite vaccine requires a cocktail of antigens.Considerable effort has also been expended on developing a vaccine which can stimulate a lethal response from the CD8 + T cells at the schizont stage of the parasite life cycle. This is the modus operandi of the live ITM vaccine. Using different assays, a total of ten schizont antigens have been identified and nine different immunization methods have been tested. In one early experiment to develop a schizont subunit vaccine, 19 of the 24 cattle immunized with five parasite antigens showed readily detectable CD8 + T cell responses, but in only four of the animals did this response lead to the killing of infected cells. 11 Recently, the use of just one antigen -Tp1 -conferred immunity on approximately 30% of the animals when used in a dose which killed 100% of the unvaccinated control group. The antigen was deployed in a prime-boost regimen, where cattle were immunised with Tp1recombinant human adenovirus boosted with Tp1-recombinant Modified Ankara Virus. 12 Much remains to be done to identify more potent methods of immunization and/or combination of antigens.Experiments exploring immunization of p67C with the Tp-1 antigen reveal an increased rate of survival when compared with the use of p67 alone at 100% lethal dose. This was done using the two corresponding immunization regimen, indicating that a combination of the two arms of the immune system, the cytotoxic T-cells and the antibodies, can enhance the protective effect. Combination approaches may also help when developing a broadspectrum subunit vaccine. What remains to be uncovered is the identity and number of sporozoite and/or schizont antigens that will be required.Being able to predict protection based on immune parameters eases the task of testing different antigens and delivery systems. Considerable effort has been put into identifying immune correlates, especially after immunizing animals against the sporozoite stage of the parasite, and targeting the generation of protective antibodies. Different assays have been developed based on the quantification of antibodies present in serum and an assessment of their quality. The analysis of several hundred archived samples is showing very promising results.A Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Animal Health project on ECF https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00Z41T.pdf will use these assays for antigen selection prior to animal experiments. The antigens will be delivered in nanoparticle form to increase potency and stability. The project will also develop new in vitro assays and introduce new nanotechnology platforms to be used for ECF and other diseases where an antibody-based subunit vaccine would be useful.Regarding induction of cytotoxic T cells to schizont antigens, there are two main things to consider. The first is choosing the right antigens and second is determining whether one or several antigens are needed to kill the infected cells. The many T. parva strains in the field and the diversity of tissue-type antigens in cattle complicates the process of selecting antigens. A particular parasite antigen may be good in one calf but not in another and a comprehensive study would be required to select the best antigens, involving screening of many immunized cattle with different antigens for their reaction to all the 4000 genes from T. parva. Nevertheless, this could be done, followed by selection of the most \"popular\" antigens.The other important consideration involves choosing a suitable vaccination system for induction of cytotoxic T cells in large animals, which is at the same time easy to perform and cheap to produce. If many antigens are needed it may be necessary to identify T cell epitopes to reduce the amount of antigens that need to be inserted into the vaccine..Photo ILRI/Kabir DhanjiPhoto ILRI/Lwitiko MwakalukwaCattle for sale at the Garissa livestock market in northeastern Kenya.","tokenCount":"1683"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9fcacf725467e5c1d90d15d77dda5d66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dcfc7868-d1c0-4606-aac8-7d83e7d0307b/retrieve","id":"1454751481"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"28c83f92-7c8b-42ff-81b6-fc153fb85da1","pagecount":"34","content":"On September 21 st , 2022, scientists from various African countries specializing in plant breeding for cassava, yam, cowpea, maize, soybean, and plantain were welcomed to the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan for a three-day training on Gender Responsive Breeding. The primary goal of this training was to highlight the significance of gender and social inclusion in plant breeding research. The training provided an introduction on the definition and the application of gender-and social inclusion concepts to the breeding pipeline's design and implementation. It also enabled the trainees to recognize the relationship between gender issues and trait preferences, assess the social impact of breeding research activities, and, most importantly, to appreciate the benefits of working in an interdisciplinary team that combines biophysical and social scientists.The use of interactive learning methods throughout the training allowed trainees to participate, voice their opinions, exchange ideas, and feel equally involved. Supported by in-person participation, such techniques were intended to allow participants to vividly notice and appreciate the growth of their knowledge in gender responsive breeding through an ongoing reflection of the notions and approaches learned in their everyday breeding work. In general, the training was well appreciated by the participants, many of which expressed interest in a follow-up. According to many participants, the richness of the content presented would have required devoting more time to the group exercises and discussions.A short video documentary of the training with highlights from some of the participants is available at this link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9_Plq6WenADay one -21 September 2022During the commencement of the training, Martina Cavicchioli welcomed all attendees. She stated that 11 of the 24 participants were from IITA, while 13 were from partner institutions, which, in her words, created an opportunity to foster collaborations with these partner institutions. She proceeded to introduce the other members of the training team who would participate in the three-day course and contribute their knowledge on gender responsive breeding. Cavicchioli expressed her gratitude for the programs and initiatives that had supported and sponsored the training session: the bilateral projects AfricaYam, AVISA, and NextGen Cassava, and the two OneCGIAR initiatives Accelerated Breeding (ABI) and Market Intelligence in Product Profiling (MIPPI). Cavicchioli concluded by emphasizing the critical importance of collaboration between plant breeders and gender and social scientists to achieve more transdisciplinary work. While enabling knowledge sharing from one discipline to the other, this will eventually allow both parties to collaborate towards the design of more gender and socially inclusive methodologies in breeding research. Cavicchioli continued by introducing the invited speakers to give some opening remarks.John Derera, IITA Head of Breeding, underlined the development through time from \"Traditional breeding\" to \"Breeding modernization.\" In a nutshell, he clarified that this transition importantly includes a focus on gender equality and the acknowledgement of diversity as a whole in order to better serve the demands of customers.Leena Tripathi, East African Hub Director (IITA) and IITA Biotechnology Lead, welcomed the attendees and emphasized the value of including gender from the \"start\" of any research activity. In breeding research, this translates into adopting a gender-responsive approach, that is one that includes gender during the Customer and Product Profiling Stages. Such an approach is crucial to the integration of gender during the deployment stages of a variety. In return, integrating gender considerations in the breeding pipeline will increase chances for a greater varietal uptake.Zainatou Sougrynoma Sore, Head of the Capacity Development Office at IITA, began by introducing her department's mission statement, which revolves around the pursuit of expertise through innovative programs that will enhance capacities in research for development while also delivering to transform African agriculture. She emphasized that, in accordance with the mission statement's briefing, the ongoing Gender Responsive Breeding Training fell under the category of \"innovative programs.\" Sore also highlighted the emphasis put on gender inclusion in the workplace as a crosscutting theme across OneCGIAR initiatives. This should remind us that gender is a fundamental concern both within capacity development programs as well as within the work setting in general.IITA's Deputy Director General for Corporate Services, Hilde Koper, emphasized that the organization needs to do even more to be inclusive and meet the CGIAR-set benchmark of at least 40% women in the workplace. She stated that by bringing in more women to the agricultural industry, there would be an increase in female scientists and, ideally, female breeders. Koper also underlined the significance of involving young people and women in agricultural and breeding projects because women currently greatly contribute to the food production sector and their preferences should thus be taken into account when developing new varieties. Second, she discussed the need to develop ways to make the agricultural sector more appealing to attract more young people as it is currently dominated by the elderly.Chiedozie Egesi, cassava breeder and executive director of the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) and project leader of NextGen Cassava, stated in his speech that cassava is a gendered crop that is traditionally grown and processed by women for consumption, and that it has the potential to increase women's income. The NextGen Cassava project is a breeding project that aims to empower both female and male farmers and processors by using innovative and sustainable cassava breeding methods. To address the issue of gender preferences, the NextGen Cassava project created Smarter Cassava Breeding, an initiative that makes use of market intelligence tools to better understand farmer preferences. Egesi also emphasized that the diversity of disciplinary expertise beyond breeding is key to the development, release, and deployment of the best varieties that have the potential to transform Africa's agricultural food landscape.Peter Kulakow, IITA cassava breeder, commended that Gender Responsive Breeding has become a key priority to IITA. He recalled his first experiences with the organization in 2009, when he noticed that the cassava breeding field days were male dominated. This prompted the need to create more gender-balanced settings during their field days, and he testified that this was changed to a more balanced setting through various pathways taken including the involvement of local extension agencies. In part of his speech, he stated that the cassava breeding team realized that those who receive information about their new technologies or varieties, as well as those who provided input that guides them in the development of new technologies, influence the success of the product. This brings gender responsive breeding into the equation, as it ultimately focuses on the diversity of groups of people, taking into account their roles in farming, agriculture, processing, and consumption of the product. He believes that this is significant because it allows breeders to reach out to traditionally marginalized groups in society, and in turn results in the production of varieties that are favoured by such groups.Steven Cole, IITA-Gender Science Lead based in Tanzania, emphasised the importance of gender inclusion in breeding, biophysical sciences, and other agricultural research fields. He first highlighted the importance to morally commit towards goals of gender equality, women's empowerment, and empowerment in general. Incorporating gender has the added benefit of getting existing products off the shelf and reaching more people along the product value chains. This has enabled a better targeting of different groups of people from different market segments. Another advantage of incorporating gender into breeding is that new products can be better designed as they are tested and refined to benefit more seed multipliers, producers, farmers, and others. In a nutshell, breeding initiatives will be able to release varieties that meet the needs of different groups of people, resulting in greater benefits for all. The final benefit of incorporating gender into breeding is that new products will be disseminated or promoted alongside social change innovations or different types of approaches, empowering more people, and transforming unequal power relations, discriminatory structures, or social norms. He concluded by wishing the group a productive training session over the following three days and thanked the training team for organizing it.To officially begin the training activities, participants were given three flash cards that would be used to state and voice their expectations, likes, and dislikes about the agenda of the training. They were thus given one yellow flashcard to write out their expectations for the training, one blue flashcard to specify their likes about gender research in breeding, and one pink flashcard to specify their dislikes about gender research in breeding. After filling out their expectations, likes, and dislikes on the cards, participants were asked to trade them with the person seated to their right. This person would then introduce and read out the written expectations for the person they exchanged cards with. The responses read out by participants are summarized in Box 1 and 2.• To gain understanding of practical application of gender integration in breeding.• To understand gender and how it relates to breeding.• Gain an understanding on the collection and analysis of data on gender in plant breeding.• To learn techniques or approaches on how to integrate gender into a breeding program.• Gain an understanding on how gender can impact breeding activities.• To learn more about the modifications that should be made or implemented for parties who are already including gender into their breeding operations.• To further improve on approaches currently being used in gender involvement in breeding.• To identify the role of gender in yam breeding and getting clarity of when or at what stage in breeding gender should be involved.• Understand how to integrate gender into the entire breeding value chain.• To identify crucial crop traits for gender responsive breeding.• To have an in-depth understanding of gender concepts in relation to plant breeding.• To have a clear explanation of the basic terms used in gender responsive breeding, and their implications on variety development and adoption.• To understand how to utilise large gender captured data for integration in product design.• Gain an understanding on the practicability of integrating gender into breeding research.• To gain an insight on how breeding initiatives can be made simpler through this training.• The improvement of adoption by both men and women. • Women performance in cowpea breeding.• The idea that gender research makes it an inclusive process and allows for better targeting of breeding processes. • The inclusivity involved in decisions such as traits and preferences. • The participatory evaluation of varieties.• High expenses that come with involving all stakeholders. Following the introductory phase, Millicent Liani, Martina Cavicchioli and Olamide Deborah Olaosebikan conducted a session to familiarize participants with gender-related concepts. This session was divided into two parts: one meant to introduce participants to gender concepts that usually inform approaches in agricultural research, and another on intersectionality, which involved a roleplay. This session was intended to provide participants with the opportunity to critically reflect on their place in society, to recognize the importance of addressing social inequalities in scientific research, and, finally, to recognize the importance of conducting a social impact assessment of an intervention.The first session slot included an interactive exercise that allowed participants to elaborate on visual and embodied interpretations of gender roles, concepts such as equality versus equity, and also voice out their thoughts on the concepts. They read out dialogue conversations on examples that explained the differences in how men and women perceive their different gender roles and how such situations result in gender inequalities. They were introduced to a variety of ideas and frameworks, including the distinction between gender and sex, approaches to gender integration, the Reach-Benefit-Empower-Transform (RBET) framework, and the \"traffic light\" showing the shift from gender exploitative, to sensitive, and finally to transformative approaches, to name a few. Some of the participants' questions focused on gender norms and stereotypes, as well as on how to transform existing cultural beliefs that contribute to gender inequality. Millicent Liani provided a few examples of transformative approaches to deal with such restrictive cultural norms. She mentioned conversations at the community level, as well as approaches such as household methodologies or gender action learning approaches. She explained that such tools and approaches can be used to unpack and synthesize the underlying harmful norms in order to try to change people's mindsets and behaviours.This session was facilitated by Martina Cavicchioli and Béla Teeken and was meant to build an understanding on why gender matters in market segmentation and product profiling and what questions help breeders make more informed choices towards a greater social impact: When are gender differentiated traits necessary? What is their impact? What are the trade-offs?The session began with a presentation about how gender affects value chain analysis, the social consequences of breeding decisions on value chain actors, and how to integrate breeders' efforts with other types of agricultural technologies. This presentation was followed by an interactive group exercise for crop teams with the following instructions:With this scenario, the various crop teams were expected to briefly present their proposals to \"donors\" -the remaining participants in the room -who were then expected to provide feedback on the proposal based on the expected social impact of the program and its feasibility. In these presentations, the teams were to: a) Describe the identified crop users' segment and present the reasons why they chose it. b) Outline the breeding objectives of their program as per the crop users' segment that was chosen. c) Highlight the product profile to achieve the programs' objectives, stressing out the opportunities and the trade-offs associated with its development.Different crop teams working on (above) and presenting (below) their proposals.The boxes below (3-8) briefly present the outcomes of each crop team's group work. This was a learning activity and the outcomes of this exercise were not supposed to be implemented.The cowpea team's proposal was to be developed in the West African region, specifically in the Guinea Savanah zone, which has rainfall ranging from 900mm to 1200mm. Their initiative is targeted to both women and male farmers, however certain roles are designated to certain genders -e.g. processing to be done by women.The main goal was to breed cowpea that is less time consuming and therefore requires less energy, specifically: (1) the plant architecture traits considered are those in which the pods are above the canopy, as this would make harvesting and insect management easier;(2) cooking time would be reduced and so require less energy.Feedback to the group: A commenter praised the traits that the group chose to improve, stating that they were a good choice, but the audience felt that there was a lack of alignment between the objective and the user segment.The plantain team's area of focus was Southern Nigeria, a region characterised by hot, humid forests with variable rainfall patterns that are sometimes high or medium. The main breeding objective was to develop plantain that is high yielding with improved shelf life for income stability and food security. The proposed user segments consisted of men, women, and youth. The processors would mostly be women whilst the consumers will be consisting of all the user segments. This endeavour was to address the short shelf life for consumers and processors, but they also hoped that other market groups' needs would be satisfied and that the new varieties would have a more favourable overall impact. This idea may result in nutritional content loss during storage.Farm gate processing will allow to address this trade-off.Feedback to the group: Overall, the group was commended for identifying the specific location of development for the variety. They were also commended for concentrating on a single idea to solve a specific problem: shelf-life expansion.The selected country was the Democratic Republic of Congo (Central Africa), which is located in a region characterised by high rainfall, with a hot and humid climate. The identified user segment was men, women, and youth (boys and girls) as they all play different roles to achieve the full cycle of work within the value chain.The objectives of the proposed initiative were to enhance nutritional value in the leaves, biofortification of the roots, disease resistance (specifically of cassava brown streak virus disease).They also aimed to improve productivity and have high yields and agronomic traits like weed suppression, long shelf life of the cassava root and more.Feedback to the group: The audience commended the group for presenting a balanced presentation on the development of the new cassava variety. The group was said to have covered a broad developmental initiative; however, this may also be a weakness as achieving all these objectives may be unrealistic.The proposed primary objective was to develop early maturing soybean varieties in the West African Region, which is characterized by hot and humid conditions and short rainy seasons. Other breeding goals included the development of a high-yielding, disease-resistant soybean variety with a high nutritional composition. This variety was intended for use in the production of oil, fortified flour, and soymilk. The values for the target product profile are indicated in the flipchart.Feedback to the group: The proposal was well received but criticized for the lack of clear definition of crop user segments, stating who these variety development initiatives were aimed at and why.This proposal aimed to develop a breed of nonsticking yams. Both men and women were targeted as crop user segments. The proposal was motivated by the high cost of yam sticking materials, the high labour requirements, and the scarcity of sticks to support the yam. As a result, in addition to the other goals, the development of non-sticking yams should address farmer income stability, increase food security, be less laborious, and, most importantly, reduce environmental degradation caused by farmers cutting down trees for sticking. With the development of such a variety, a trade-off could be a reduction in yield; however, they proposed using agronomic interventions, combined with the use of fertilizers, as well as targeting means and ways to develop disease resistant yams during the breeding procedures, in order to maintain high yields.Feedback to the group: The audience asked how the group planned to make the yams non-sticking and what else they might grip to if not the sticks. In addition, they received criticism for failing to specify their threshold in their product profile. Finally, they were questioned about how they planned to account for time and labour savings in their breeding pipeline.The aim of this proposal was to breed nutritious dense maize while combining high yield with climate change resilience for food security and household profile. This initiative's focus was proposed to be in West and Central Africa. Dry savannah characterizes the agroecological conditions. The group presented a well-structured and informative activity profile, stating that men, women, girls, and boys would be the most active and capable crop user segment. They specified the dates and times for planting, harvesting, and marketing, as well as the key players in each role.Because of its marketability and premium prices, the group proposed developing flint maize. They also considered storability to be an important characteristic for the new variety.Feedback to the group: Overall, the maize crop team received very positive feedback, with many people saying that their proposal was very convincing because they were able to analyse their value chains and show the roles each actor will be playing as well as the challenges associated with that. They were also praised for addressing the needs of both men and women throughout the process. The criticism they did receive was that the social groups they mentioned provided a simplistic view of the value chains.This session followed up on the morning session on gender concepts to introduce the one of \"intersectionality\" in a playful way. The trainees were invited to participate in a role play that allowed to resurface and be re-embed in their minds most of the concepts they had learned in the morning.For the role-play on intersectionality, called \"One step forward\" (Fischer et al. 2019), the facilitators asked 15 of the 24 participants to stand along a marked line. Each of the 15 participants was given a role that reflected the identity they would be portraying. These assigned roles were descriptive of various positions in society and lifestyles, creating an entirely new identity with different demographical information that would either privilege or disadvantage the participants. The newly assigned roles were to be kept a secret from the other participants. The facilitator would then read a scenario and invite participants with a specific identity trait to either step forward, move backwards or remain where they were standing. The rest of the group (9 trainees) were invited to sit and assess the dynamics going on during the role play as external observers. For both groups, this exercise provided first-hand knowledge of the various realities faced by farmers. It also provided insights into how factors other than gender can have a positive or negative impact on a person's position in society. Lastly, it allowed to reflect on how breeding initiatives can help to alleviate constrictive situations, as well as how targeting the correct user can help to alleviate the injustices faced by different farmers of different social groups.With this activity, participants realized that constraints such as gender, age, disabilities, and position within the society, to mention a few, contributed to some of the major failures amongst the farmers. The wealthier farmers, who were at positions of power or where related to those of high social strata, were at an advantage. In general, male farmers also had an added advantage in most described situations compared to the women. Overall, this activity provided participants with a foundation for understanding how aspects of a person's social and political identities interact to create different modes of discrimination or privilege. With this, participants gained a clear understanding of intersectionality and how it identifies multiple factors of advantage and disadvantage.The first day of training concluded with a discussion of the activity and clarification on some gender terms and concepts of those presented in the morning.Chosen participants for the role play standing by the starting line (left) and steps ahead of others, according to how favourable their chosen roles were (right).The second day started with a recap of the previous day's activities. This allowed the participants to go over what they had done the day before and review the gender concepts they had learned. They were also given the opportunity to express their difficulties with the crop user segmentation exercise from the first day, as well as to revise their understanding of intersectionality, and get some clarification.Following the feedback sessions, Béla Teeken, Olamide Deborah Olaosebikan, Bello Abolore, and Elizabeth Parkes led a session on gender-responsive tools and their application. This session allowed the participants to learn from the cassava engagement with users through participatory approaches and consider how to apply them to their own breeding program.To start off, the cassava gender team held presentations on different gender responsive approaches that have been implemented and sketched the trajectory from surveys to participatory approaches. They also pointed at participatory approaches as more suited to capture the large amount of tacit knowledge among cassava users compared to survey questionnaires. They also highlighted that participatory methods are more inclusive towards most knowledgeable crop users compared to other methods for which ability to communicate and dialogue is necessary (i.e. a mechanism excluding people with low levels of literacy or communication). These approaches identified and informed deeper understanding of specific agronomic, food product quality, and processing traits, the latter related to processes such as ease of peeling and toasting time. In order to investigate the external validity of breeding trials and measuring genetic gain in farmers' fields, the team adopted various interrelated approaches for proper social/gender segmentation: first, the implementation of the mother-baby trial (MBT) approach and then the scaled variant the Triadic Comparison of Technology (TRICOT) approach combined with the implementation of standard surveys based on the Poverty Probability Index (PPI), Rural Household Multi Indicator Survey (RHoMIS). The cassava team also presented the 1000 Minds Survey, an approach in which crop trait scenarios of equal economic value are compared with crop users. These approaches enable an in-depth documentation of the traits prioritized among crop users.To further explore on gender-responsive tools and their application, the cassava team led the participants into an activity whereby, based on their understanding of the presentations, they would write out what kind of approaches they liked and found suitable to their own breeding program and why. Tables 1 and 2 show the outcomes of this exercise.At the end of the session, trainees understood the rationale for adapting and incorporating any of these approaches into their respective breeding programs to make it inclusive and gender responsive. The team had no knowledge regarding the 1000 minds survey, thus they were not interested in adopting it. The PPI, RHoMIS and customised questionnaire were described as simple to use, able to provide useful information and suitable, respectively.The team preferred the RHoMIS method as it gave them a better understanding of the rural population in regards to food security and market access. The group also leaned towards the WEAI as it helped them understand gender roles and women's ability to access resources.The team was interested in adopting 4 out of 6 of these methodologies as they consider the economic weights for trait prioritization, determine the socioeconomic profile of the farmers, and give information on the farmers group. The methods that the team were not sure about adopting the WEAI and the HFIAS.The team indicated interest in surveys cutting across social groups, such as RHoMIS. The customised questionnaire provides primary information and WEAI provides good feedback from women in agriculture. Not interested in PPI because it requires background in socioeconomics.The team was not interested in PPI as they had little information about it. They indicated interest in RHoMIS as it works with target households. Interested in adopting the WEAI because it measures the levels of involvement of women.PPI, RHoMIS and WEAI approaches were viewed to consider the social qualifications and to adopt an intersectional approach. 1000 minds approach helps understanding the different traits prioritized by the end users and in coming up with the economic weights. Interested in almost all the methods and varieties except for the mother baby trial because of its oldfashioned nature. They were interested in the TRICOT approach for its inclusiveness.The goal of this session was to assess what the various breeding teams were currently doing in terms of getting feedback from crop users (mainly through participatory approaches) and to discuss what they can do to be more gender-responsive and end-user focused.Some days before the start of the training, the participants had been requested by the organizing team to prepare and give a short presentation on participatory approaches currently in use in their respective breeding programs. A representative from each of the six crop teams gave a short input during this plenary session. Each crop team discussed what they were currently doing and implementing, as well as their ambitions, challenges, constraints, when and how they engage farmers/processors/consumers for evaluations. The presentations were also inclusive of what kind of evaluations are done and when: points of inclusion of participants, types of data collected, how data is analysed and stored, and how it is combined with technical breeding data, challenges, ambitions, constrains and discussions.Participant presenting the current practices they are implementing.One of the six presentations was given by the cowpea group, who stated that the current methods they use for evaluating advanced breeding lines include the Multi location Trial (MLT), New Plant Type (NPT), farmers' Participatory Varietal Selection trials (PVS), \"seeing-is-believing\" variety testing, and on-farm TRICOT. The group also discussed the methods they used to obtain feedback from end-users and explained that with the feedback provided, it can be difficult for participants to express their true opinions due to external factors such as their leaders, husbands, and parents, among others. To alleviate difficulties, cowpea research teams stated that they usually consider communicating with representative farmers who assist them in bringing an equal number of male and female participants to eliminate bias. Also, due to cultural norms that are restrictive to women, it is sometimes necessary to separate men and women during conversations and interviews to allow both genders to be free and expressive.During the course of the presentations by the groups, the issue of respondents appreciation in the form of cash/kind and giving and sharing the results of the study with the respondents was raised as the plantain crop team mentioned that it is difficult to get participants to evaluate the crop: participants ask often for their benefits for such involvement, while researchers seldom give feedback of the results of study conducted, an attitude undermining credibility and the possibility to build trust with the local communities.With regards to the first point, it was cleared that, as it is important to appreciate respondents' time, it is out of place to use cash for compensation of participants' involvement in any activity, as this may affect or influence results given by the participants. The use of gifts that respondents may need was proposed as more appropriate. Agricultural extension staff could help facilitating this process and so the relationships between the researchers and the communities.As for the second point, it was underlined the importance to give feedback to participants within the communities where research has been conducted. This gives sense of respect to the participants, as well as a sense of belonging, as they will see themselves as part of research and will be more willing to participate in the future. This will help build trust between researcher and respondents. On that note, it was agreed that compensations in the form of gifts should not replace the need to share the results with the respondents.The G+ tools are intended to help plant breeders and social scientists collaborate so that programs incorporate gender issues from breeding implementation to impact assessment. In this session, the facilitators informed the participants on the issue of anticipating trade-offs and how to deal with them by introducing them to a role-play group exercise using the G+ tool.The exercise revolved around trait prioritisation with crop users using frequencies of traits mentioned or ranking of traits with crop users. Crop teams played the role of men and women crop users and were to provide 3 ranked pre-harvest and 3 ranked post-harvest traits. The possibility of ranking with the crop users as well as basing rank on the frequencies with which traits were mentioned by crop users were highlighted. Which method to choose depends on how crop users are confidently able to rank traits. The cassava experience was that often people were not able to rank as they stated all traits were equally important and often related, so the frequency count was used. This exercise was based on the RTB foods methodology as presented (Forsythe et al., 2021). After the ranking exercise, the crop teams were now asked to evaluate one pre-harvest and one post-harvest trait for social impact with regards to gendered benefits or possible harmful unintended consequences. Here they used the G+ product profile query tool. Participants evaluated the two chosen traits by responding to the possible positive effects questions (positive/negative) and the possible negative effects questions for proper understanding of impact (social/economic) that inclusion of certain traits in the breeding program may have on the value chain actors. Breeders in attendance found the prioritization and G+ tools exercise important to incorporate into breeding program. The day ended on a reflective note of the topics and the activities that had been discussed during the day.Day three -23 September 2022Day 3 started with presentation of each crop team on the assessment of traits using the positive benefit and do no harm questions from the group exercise on the G+ tool proposed in day 2. Most traits assessed had more positive benefits and very few do no harm.In a summary of the trait ranking exercise, the six crop teams identified three important agronomic traits specific to their crop, as well as three important post-harvest traits. The traits were ranked by importance for women and men, and the results revealed that generally women preferred quality traits such as texture, whereas men preferred traits that were likely to generate more income, such as higher yields.The G+ tool activity came after the trait ranking exercise. The G+ tool is thus a method for directing data collection in order to prioritize traits in product profiles by taking into account both the traits' potential positive and negative gender-related effects. Crop teams chose one agronomic trait and one post-harvest trait to access in the following exercise. Drudgery reduction, the impact on women's paid employment, quality and quantity improvements, and both men and women's valuations were addressed to assess the potential positive and negative effects of the chosen traits on both genders.In a nutshell, the results showed that most of the traits chosen by the various teams, such as reduced cooking time, improved textures, seed quality, and taste, had positive effects such as reduced drudgery or increased market value, whereas others, such as increased yields for crops like maize, required more management and workforce, increasing drudgery but positively impacting output levels and income. Such results varied according to crop. For instance, while increased yield would require more manpower for a crop like maize, for crops like yam, with higher yields, drudgery would be reduced significantly because a smaller area would produce higher output. As with yam in areas where it is regarded as a king crop and dominated by men, land is insufficient and fragmented, so higher yield would benefit women with limited farmland, as many large roots can be harvested from a single stand of yam. Various results were generated for all crop teams, which assisted the teams in assessing the pros and cons that could result from their chosen traits, as well as how and why it would benefit both genders.After a short follow-up on the G+ Tool exercise proposed in day 2, the first session of the day addressed the topic of transdisciplinary management in product advancement. Béla Teeken started with a presentation on the importance of team composition, and how such composition determines what knowledge is generated. This presentation was followed up by one by Gaby Mbanjo that focused on transdisciplinary breeding product management based on the example of the cassava team.The objective of this session was to raise consciousness about breeding as a transdisciplinary process where product profiles and product advancement are to be determined by the input from a transdisciplinary team consisting of the technical breeding team, food scientist, market specialist, agronomist, pathologists, social/gender scientists and market specialist. This is also a condition that allows good gender integration into breeding. The presentations provided examples on how to achieve such a transdisciplinary organisation of breeding by highlighting the need to determine roles, responsibilities, and decision-making rights for each of the members of this transdisciplinary team. A similar presentation was given to the Excellence in Breeding platform and can be viewed here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8Sfevy3eq0&t=262s.After the presentation, the crop teams were engaged in an exercise in which they had to map all the experts needed at each stage of the breeding process and to determine what kind of decision right they would have, as per the RAPID model (Recommend, Agree, Perform, Inform, Decide). The outcome (Table 3, p. 27) illustrated that next to different scientific experts, also crop user representatives would have a role in product advancement meetings and the breeding process in general. The group stated that for maize, the first two stages, which are product design and trait discovery, are merged into one stage. • Increasing the involvement of women from the beginning to capture their demands in the new breeds and towards the end during the on-farm trials, to ensure that they are involved fully.• Enactment of a quota in the area of seed systems that is expressly intended to benefit women and young people.The training ended on a reflective note for the participants, who were asked to evaluate the training. Among the many responses, some of the recurring suggestions on how the training could be improved included increasing the interactive activities, while many others suggested increasing the training length. Participants were also asked about their main takeaways from the training. Many of them testified about their newly acquired knowledge on gender concepts and approaches, as well as their realization of the importance of gender in crop breeding and how gender can be integrated into plant breeding initiatives. There was also an elevated request coming from the trainees for a follow-up, associated with the need of greater support from the gender experts in guiding and help in activity implementation, especially with regards to some concepts and tools introduced during the training. This request was taken in charge by the training organizers and readdressed during follow-up virtual chats with each crop team some weeks after the training, to monitor how specific learnings will be integrated and implemented. Table 5 is indicative of the responses from the participants' perceptions of the entire training.  ","tokenCount":"6107"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7f8e6848c715fd19382dbe57b0f63cba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eedd73c1-6f9d-4d16-a924-73abc0919a6a/retrieve","id":"233546016"},"keywords":["Pour plus d'informations","contacter Annie Lane","Bioversity International"],"sieverID":"ba4762f5-ab7a-4ea2-8379-629dfbb8f9dd","pagecount":"28","content":"Fruit de la passion, Bolivie. Les parents sauvages constituent une source précieuse de diversité et ils peuvent être utilisés pour faciliter l'adaptation des cultures à l'évolution des conditions environnementales et des besoins humains. A. Lane/Bioversity International La culture des noix figure parmi les cultures cibles du projet PNUE/FEM-Bioversity International pour la conservation des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées. A. Lane/Bioversity International Visiteurs du parc d'information du Ministère de l'agriculture du Sri Lanka guidés à travers une série d'espaces didactiques incluant des champs de légumes, des potagers, la banque nationale de gènes et un musée de l'agriculture.A. WijesekaraEntrée du parc d'information sur l'agriculture du Sri Lanka.Cette publication a été réalisée avec le soutien du projet du PNUE/FEM « Conservation in situ des parents sauvages des plantes cultivées grâce à une meilleure gestion de l'information et à des applications sur le terrain. » Les espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées comprennent les ancêtres des plantes cultivées ainsi que d'autres espèces plus ou moins proches. Elles constituent une source stratégique de gènes de résistance aux maladies, aux ravageurs et aux stress tels que la sécheresse et les températures extrêmes. L'utilisation de parents sauvages a permis d'améliorer la résistance au phytopte de l'enroulement du blé, au mildiou de la pomme de terre et au virus du rabougrissement herbacé du riz. Ils ont également été utilisés pour accroître la tolérance du blé à la sécheresse et du riz aux sols sulfatés acides ou encore pour augmenter la valeur nutritionnelle de certaines cultures, notamment la teneur en protéines pour le blé dur, en calcium pour les pommes de terre et en provitamine A pour les tomates.La protection des espèces sauvages apparentées contribue à maintenir une diversité génétique appropriée dans le pool génétique d'une culture donnée. L'uniformisation génétique croissante des variétés cultivées, combinée aux effets du changement climatique, rend les cultures plus vulnérables aux stress. Aux États-Unis, les pertes catastrophiques subies par les cultures de maïs à la suite de l'épidémie d'helminthosporiose des années 1970 ont mis en évidence le risque réel d'une dépendance vis-àvis d'un petit nombre de variétés à haut rendement. Bien que les États-Unis assurent environ la moitié de la production mondiale du maïs, cette production repose ainsi sur moins de 5 % de la diversité disponible sur l'ensemble du globe.Les espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées sont des outils précieux pour adapter les espèces cultivées à l'évolution des conditions environnementales et des besoins humains, mais les populations naturelles de ces espèces sauvages sont de plus en plus menacées en raison de leur surexploitation et de la destruction de leur habitat. Un projet international a été lancé en 2004 en réponse à ces risques. Ce projet, financé par le Fonds pour l'environnement mondial et mis en oeuvre par le Programme des Nations Unies, réunit des partenaires de cinq pays (Arménie, Bolivie, Madagascar, Sri Lanka et Ouzbékistan) qui possèdent un grand nombre d'espèces sauvages apparentées importantes et menacées. Pour plus d'informations sur ce projet, reportez-vous à la présentation en page 2.Cette section spéciale de Geneflow est parrainée par le projet « Conservation in situ des parents sauvages des plantes cultivées », dans le cadre de ses activités de sensibilisation.À mesure que les connaissances sur les espèces sauvages apparentées aux espèces cultivées augmenteront, les sélectionneurs s'y intéresseront de plus en plus afin de trouver des solutions à un grand nombre de problèmes non résolus liés aux maladies des plantes. La rouille noire, détectée sur le blé en Ouganda en 1999 et baptisée Ug99, compte parmi ces menaces. Cet agent pathogène s'est depuis répandu dans l'ensemble de l'Afrique de l'Est, où il entraîne des chutes de rendements grainiers pouvant atteindre 71 %. Si elle n'est pas maîtrisée rapidement, la souche Ug99 pourrait entraîner une épidémie mondiale au cours des 15 prochaines années. La conservation et l'utilisation des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées pourraient jouer un rôle clé dans la lutte contre Ug99 et contre les autres fléaux qui menacent l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire.Le projet « Conservation in situ des parents sauvages des plantes cultivées », qui réunit cinq pays (Arménie, Bolivie, Madagascar, Sri Lanka et Ouzbékistan), a pour objectif de protéger les populations naturelles d'espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées en créant, en matière de conservation, un précédent susceptible d'être suivi par le reste du monde. Ces pays abritent certains des foyers mondiaux de diversité, zones particulièrement exposées au risque de perte de diversité.Les espèces sauvages apparentées sont essentielles pour adapter les espèces cultivées à l'évolution des conditions environnementales et des besoins humains. Pourtant, de nombreuses populations naturelles de ces espèces hautement compatibles sont de plus en plus menacées en raison du changement climatique, de leur surexploitation et de la destruction de leur habitat. Le projet quinquennal, financé par le Fonds pour l'environnement mondial et mis en oeuvre par le Programme des Nations Unies pour l'environnement, encourage une conservation in situ efficace des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées afin de garantir leur disponibilité dans le cadre de l'accroissement de la sécurité alimentaire mondiale. Chacun des cinq pays participant au projet présente une diversité remarquable et unique d'espèces sauvages apparentées, qui ont, pour un grand nombre d'entre elles, fourni des gènes d'une importance capitale pour l'amélioration des espèces cultivées dans les pays développés et en développement.Bien que la plupart des pays partenaires aient défini la conservation des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées comme une priorité nationale stratégique, les ressources qu'ils pouvaient investir dans les programmes de conservation étaient limitées.Le projet vise trois grands objectifs :• Développer les systèmes d'information nationaux et internationaux sur les espèces sauvages apparentées aux espèces cultivées, avec des données sur la biologie, l'écologie, l'état de conservation, la répartition, le potentiel de rendement des cultures, les utilisations, les mesures de conservation actuelles ou encore les sources d'information existantes.  Pour plus d'informations, contacter Åsmund Asdal, Institut norvégien de recherche sur les plantes cultivées asmund.asdal@bioforsk.noLa production commerciale de Rhodiola integrifolia, espèce sauvage utilisée pour lutter contre la dépression, a commencé en Norvège et en Finlande. Nous n'avons pas changé de nom pour le simple plaisir. Notre organisme a évolué au fil des ans et l'ancienne dénomination, « Institut International des ressources phytogénétiques », si respectable soit-elle, ne reflète plus adéquatement notre travail.Nous sommes un organisme de recherche dédié à la conservation et à l'utilisation de la biodiversité, mais nos activités ne se limitent pas aux ressources phytogénétiques. Nous travaillons avec nos collaborateurs de recherche afin de conserver tous les types de biodiversité, aussi bien les ressources génétiques animales, aquatiques que microbiennes.Notre recherche ne se limite pas aux ressources génétiques et à la génétique. Elle est tournée vers l'homme, qui est au centre de tout ce que nous faisons.Nous n'évaluons pas notre succès en calculant le nombre de variétés et d'espèces conservées dans des banques de gènes. Nous le mesurons en termes de bénéfices tangibles que nos recherches apportent aux populations dans le monde, notamment à celles des pays en développement qui vivent dans la pauvreté et la faim. Nous travaillons avec un réseau international de partenaires afin de conserver la biodiversité et de l'exploiter en vue d'assurer des conditions de vie plus dignes et durables aux populations pauvres, de fournir une meilleure alimentation à ceux qui ont faim et de protéger les écosystèmes menacés.Afin de mieux refléter la portée et la nature de notre travail, nous avons donc adopté un nouveau nom : « Bioversity International ».Non seulement nous avons choisi un nouveau nom, mais nous avons créé un nouveau mot. Nous pensons que « Bioversity » évoque une constellation d'idées qui associent la biodiversité à d'autres concepts, qui sont au coeur de notre travail. Le nom suggère « univers » et « universalité », ce qui évoque l'immensité du monde naturel et notre conviction de travailler ensemble pour le bien commun de l'humanité. Par ailleurs, notre nouveau nom renvoie à « université ». Comme une université, notre organisation est « collégiale », s'appuyant sur la collaboration de groupes divers dont l'expérience dans différentes disciplines et dans la recherche est une composante importante.Vous lirez souvent « Bioversity » parce que c'est plus court, mais nous avons conservé « International » dans notre nom officiel. Ce n'est pas uniquement parce que nos activités s'exercent dans le monde entier et que nos membres, donateurs et partenaires de recherche viennent de nombreux pays, mais parce que nous voulons que nos recherches participent aux efforts internationaux visant à établir des politiques et des plans d'action pour la conservation et l'utilisation durable de la biodiversité agricole.Nous vous invitons dans le monde de Bioversity International.Nouvelle dénomination de notre organisme : Bioversity International (Bioversity, en bref)","tokenCount":"1427"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f3e98b8404d0d9fd6bafae06f7a9e2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/76db1eb0-a179-4945-a495-3898d02d012f/retrieve","id":"172566020"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bf62f431-0186-4af0-9f1e-fa3cdf9f83d1","pagecount":"50","content":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment.IWMI's mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and land and water resources.This paper provides information on the current status of the agricultural extension systems in Central Asia (CA), with special reference to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The report reviews the existing extension strategies, donor-and state-driven initiatives to revitalize the agricultural extension systems, informal linkages that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) play in helping a limited number of farmers, and recommendations on ways to further improve the agricultural extension services in CA. The information related to each country was analyzed separately. This is because, after independence, each republic in CA had initiated their agricultural reforms with specific objectives, and have now established their unique agricultural systems that differ contextually. However, due to having the same history and agricultural system that existed during the Soviet times, these republics have many things in common. This paper (a) starts with a discussion of the modern definitions of the agricultural extension system to set the stage for the analysis framework (to establish a prism through which the existing extension systems within CA can be evaluated); (b) gives a historical perspective to the unified agricultural extension system; and (c) discusses the current status of the agricultural extension system. The report also reviews the current institutional set up and related policies that directly affect the existing agricultural extension systems, and identifies the limitations that need to be overcome in order to make improvements to these agricultural extension systems in these countries. The study shows that:• since independence, countries in CA have undergone an economic transition from being centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems, and this did not include the creation of agricultural extension systems;• except for some donor activities that were carried out to promote agricultural extension systems in CA, the initiatives were often not coordinated or consolidated;• the needs of the three countries in CA (considered in this study) for having improved agricultural extension systems are not similar, but are urgent. There is a clear need that formal extension systems should be revitalized, and the key role in achieving this should be played by the state as mediator, supporter and facilitator;• countries in CA have no national policy framework on the development of agricultural extension systems, which could ensure political and financial commitment from the government and other stakeholders; and• In order to enhance agricultural extension systems, a national policy framework needs to be developed. This framework needs to indicate the priorities of national agricultural development and a viable organizational structure for implementation of these policies.The framework should also include the mechanism of farmers' involvement to increase their motivation and interest.Agriculture is at the forefront of the development objectives of the republics of CA, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Since independence in 1991, these three countries have undergone transitions from being centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems. These three countries -that were under the single agricultural policy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) at one time and had a combined population of 37 million people (Kyrgyzstan -5 million, Tajikistan -7 million and Uzbekistan -25 million) -went through tremendous, heterogeneous agricultural transformations and experienced varying degrees of economic growth.These countries of CA have some of the largest irrigation schemes in the world, which were constructed during the 1960s. The average rainfall in these countries is 200-600 millimeters (mm) and evapotranspiration rates exceed 1,000 mm, which indicates that additional irrigation is necessary for sustainable crop production. Agriculture provides 20-40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of these countries, with more than 22 million people directly or indirectly depending on irrigated agriculture (World Bank 2003).Land reform and farm restructuring was a major component of the transition plan of each country. An extension service of old Soviet systems was incorporated within the former kolkhoz (a collective farm of the former USSR) system and supported through the centralized state. The farm had its own agronomists, veterinary experts, construction specialists, mechanical engineers, economists and irrigation engineers. Farmers were bound to follow pre-defined government instructions. The higher education system (universities and subjective technical universities) used to produce higher-level specialists (irrigation engineers, agronomists, biologists, mechanical engineers, etc.). Middle-level professionals were produced by Technicums (technical schools) and Uchilishe (vocational institutes). The ministries of Agriculture, and Melioration and Water Resources were having their own specialized design and research institutes to deal with the different aspects of agriculture and irrigation. During the vegetation (weeding) and harvest (cotton picking) periods, all the students were sent to the rural areas to help collective and state farms with routine agricultural work as well as to gain some practical life experience. The complete agricultural production system was designed to spend tremendous amounts of money on largescale production and higher-scale outputs.Post-independence (from the Soviet Union) reforms in the agricultural sector in CA varied from country to country:• In Kyrgyzstan, fragmented and small sizes of lands were under private ownership and they had the freedom to grow crops;• In Uzbekistan, farming units were under long-term land lease (ownership) agreements, but the state had a quota system for the cultivation of the main crops (wheat and cotton) and fixed prices for these crops remained;• In Tajikistan, some big collective and cooperative farms remained under private ownership.Although there was no official state quota, farmers were tied down with debts from old dismantled farms and were dependent on futurist companies, which influenced farmers' thinking on cropping patterns.Nevertheless, every state had one similar problem. Before the reforms, as mentioned above, each kolkhoz 1 or sovkhoz 2 had its own specialists (agronomists, hydrotechnicians and head of the kolkhoz) with specialized training in agricultural education to manage the complete agricultural process within these big farms. After the reforms, each individual farmer was responsible for managing their piece of land without any special people in the background. In addition, there are other issues related to extension:• Detachment of research from practice.• Lack of state support for extension.• Farmers had no accessibility to donor-driven extension services due to high costs and lack of awareness.• Findings indicate the requirement of knowledge for 'new' farmers.Agricultural extension in the countries in CA remains a challenge (Qamar 2002;KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide 2008;EBRD 2008;Nazarov 2008). The creation of suitable extension advisory services in CA was not on the agenda of the agricultural reforms. The focus of the reforms was on the privatization of state collective farms (in Kyrgyzstan, partially in Tajikistan, and long lease periods in Uzbekistan) and the distribution of land amongst the public and hundreds of thousands of private farmers (semi-private in Tajikistan and state-owned but long-leased in Uzbekistan). The newly emerged farmers have different backgrounds (school teachers, doctors, police officers, etc.), have limited knowledge of profitable farming and are in desperate need of technical advice. They also need assistance in agrotechnical measures, marketing, inputs, irrigation, etc. The extension advisory services comprise mostly of those persons who worked as specialists on state farms or elsewhere in very narrow agricultural disciplines without any comprehensive knowledge of farm management. The only extension advisory services that exist at present are those supported by donors and based on projects. These are mostly private companies who are more interested in establishing expensive advisory units rather than helping poor farmers in the rural areas. As a result, agricultural productivity is declining.During this study, the technical, discussion and country reports gathered from different sources (the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Bank, national organizations and other agencies working in this field) are reviewed. We have also analyzed the impact of rural development and strengthening of extension services in the late 1970s and 1980s (led by the World Bank (WB), FAO, Asian Development Bank (ADB)) on agricultural sustainability in the developing regions of Asia and Africa. Based on this analysis, this paper draws conclusions and makes recommendations that will help to improve the current agricultural extension systems in CA.1 Kolkhoz -\"… a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labor contributed.\" (Source: www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321400/kolkhoz).2 Sovkhoz -\"state-operated agricultural estate…, titled as Soviet farm…, organized according to industrial principles for specialized large-scale production. Workers were paid wages but might also cultivate personal garden plots. Its form developed from the few private estates taken over in their entirety by the state in the original Soviet expropriations.\" (Source: www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/557139/sovkhoz).There is no single definition of 'agricultural extension' which is universally accepted or which is applicable to all situations. The general concept of extension is a function of providing the required and demand-based knowledge and skills for rural men, women and youth in a non-formal, participatory manner with the objective of enhancing their capacity to undertake farming operations to improve productivity and quality of life (Qamar 2002). Extension is concerned not just with physical and economic achievements but also with the development of the rural people themselves. This involves helping farmers in developing abilities to direct their own future development (Ameur 1994;Axinn and Thorat 1972;Swanson et al. 1990;Umali and Schwartz 1994;Rivera and Alex 2004;Neuchâtel Group 2002).Over time, agricultural extension has become one of the available means to help alleviate poverty and improve food security, by promoting the transfer and exchange of information that can be converted into functional knowledge to develop enterprises for promoting productivity and generating income (Rivera and Alex 2004). Agricultural information systems for rural development are aimed at linking people and institutions to promote better sharing of agriculture-related technologies and knowledge. According to FAO/WB (Qamar 2002), the system integrates farmers, agricultural educators, researchers and extension workers in order to enable them to harness knowledge and information from various sources to improve livelihoods.Traditionally, agricultural extension has referred to the work of a professional body of agricultural experts (often government employees), teaching improved methods of farming, demonstrating innovations, and helping farmers to organize and solve their problems. Extension has also served as a link between farmers to transfer the 'best practices' of one farmer to another, and as a channel to introduce -and sometimes enforce -agricultural policies. Agricultural extension presently encompasses a wide range of activities (in the public, private, nonprofit and nongovernmental sectors), but the exchange of information continues to be the primary focus of extension activities (Umali and Schwartz 1994).The ultimate goal of agricultural extension is to increase the agricultural productivity of farmers, especially small-scale farmers. This involves technological modifications at the farm level and this depends on its impact on development and dissemination of improved technologies, and involves sociocultural and behavioral adjustments (Axinn and Thorat 1972;Ameur 1994;Swanson et al. 1990;Rivera and Schram 1987;Umali and Schwartz 1994). All these changes can only be institutionally possible through well-established links between the state, research, extension and private organizations (or NGOs).Agricultural extension placed in the middle of the huge network of inputs, information and services is often highly inconsistent, particularly in more remote areas, especially in developing countries. Three out of four farmers in Asia have no contact with extension services (Maalouf et al. 1991). Therefore, the main task of the extension services, if organized properly, is to bring together and develop that network. However, the key role of extension services is to link research with farmers in a continuous way. Although it is not the job of extension services to provide inputs (such as fertilizers, seeds and machinery) and services (veterinary and irrigation water), they must make providers of such goods and services aware of farmers' needs and to ensure that these services are provided properly -advocacy and information function.There is a wide range of suppliers of agricultural extension services: the public sector (represented by ministries/departments of agriculture), NGOs, non-profit organizations (e.g., universities and commodity foundations), international research centers and the private sector. The private sector may include: (i) farmer associations whose membership is organized by locality or commodity; (ii) private production and marketing firms such as input manufacturers and distributors, agro-marketing and processing firms, and trade associations; and (iii) private consulting and media companies (publishing and telecommunication firms). Figure 1 shows the results of the worldwide survey that FAO conducted in 113 countries in 1989 (Swanson et al. 1990). The survey confirms the highly dominant role of the public sector in providing agricultural extension services. Approximately 81% of the extension work around the world is carried out through the Ministry of Agriculture or Department of Agriculture, at the national, state or provincial levels. Globally, some 600,000 extension workers are engaged in the provision of agricultural information to farmers (Maalouf et al. 1991;Swanson et al. 1990), of which 95% is carried out by public extension services (Rivera and Cary 1997). Several lessons can be learned from the reviews on the nature and extent of institutional participation in the delivery of extension services across countries. First, private sector extension is generally confined to commercially produced, often high-value commodities. A large bias towards catering to the specialized needs of medium-to large-scale farms also exists. Second, smallholders, if organized into associations, however, can be strong customers as well. Third, fiscal constraints are a pervasive problem in both developed and developing countries. Thus, strategies for (i) streamlining and cost recovery measures, and (ii) promoting the development of private sector extension services, are often necessary and unavoidable. This, however, does not necessarily imply the need for public delivery, because subcontracting to the private sector is also an option. Lastly, considering the limitations of the public sector and the selectiveness of the private sector, the participation of other institutions such as non-profit organizations and NGOs in delivering agricultural extension services will be crucial.Figure 2 presents the key actors that are involved in agricultural extension services and the channels of delivery (Umali and Schwartz 1994). This generic scheme of major actors involved in agricultural extension is taken as the basis for assessment of the existing strategies in countries in CA: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Interrelational analysis between the actors was beyond the scope of this report. Three case studies are presented separately with special reference to their historical background on extension systems during the Soviet period. The Soviet Union had an enormous agricultural research and extension system. The major agriculture-related research institutes were part of the USSR's Ministry of Agriculture under the Agro-Industrial Committee -a governing body of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences (referred to as VASKhNIL after V. I. Lenin). The research themes covered various aspects of the agricultural production process -plant science, genetic engineering, soil science, irrigation (Morgounov and Zuidema 2001;Pray and Anderson 1997). Regional institutes with a zonal mandate had extension services built in.In 1929, a number of elite agricultural research institutes were merged into VASKhNIL. In the Soviet era, development of agricultural science reflected societal development. Since society was highly politicized by the Communist Party, the science was politicized as well. VASKhNIL had a dual role in the Soviet agricultural research system. It was both an association of institutes and an association of scientists. Its structure, and that of agricultural research itself, was marked by a constant flux. Over time, however, two distinct organizational patterns emerged. The first pattern, which dominated in the 1960s, was VASKhNIL as a union of a few specialized institutes, with a significant amount of agricultural research being conducted by institutes under the Ministry of Agriculture, outside VASKhNIL's management. The second pattern shows VASKhNIL as a giant organization managing almost all the agricultural research in the USSR with a complex structure of departments and regional branches (see Figure 3). Regional institutes with a zonal mandate had extension services built in. For example, the CA regional branch of VASKhNIL was based in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.Extension services at farm level were incorporated within the former kolkhoz system and supported by the centralized state. This was a large-scale production system that helped to increase crop yields. The farm had its own agronomists, veterinary experts, construction specialists, mechanical engineers, economists and irrigation engineers. The farmers were just left to follow their pre-defined instructions. The higher education system (universities and subjective technical universities) used to produce five-year higher-level specialists (irrigation engineers, agronomists, biologists, mechanical engineers, etc.), while specialized educational institutes such as Technicums (technical schools) and Uchilishe (vocational schools) produced middle-level professionals.The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Melioration and Water Resources, which were two separate sectors at that time, had its own specialized design and research institutes which dealt with different aspects of agriculture and irrigation. During vegetation (weeding) and harvesting (cotton picking) periods, all students were sent to villages to help collective and state farms with routine agricultural work and to gain some practical field experience. The Soviet research and extension system proved successful to organize large-scale production systems and increase crop yields. A comparison of the yields obtained from the main crops between 1961 and 1990 are given in Table 1. While wheat yields almost doubled during this period, other crops also recorded significant increases in yields. However, some argue that these yield increases were more related to the increased use of fertilizers and farm machinery rather than research and extension services (Pray and Anderson 1997). During the Soviet era, the agriculture industry was developed along with an administrative bureaucratic structure, and an economic policy was defined on a short-and long-term basis. Extension services followed a commodity approach where efforts were concentrated on the technical, administrative and commercial requirements of different crops. Development of the agricultural industry and extension/advisory service systems during the Soviet era in CA (former Turkestan Autonomous Republic) can be divided into six stages:• First stage (1917)(1918)(1919)(1920)(1921)(1922)(1923)(1924)(1925)(1926)(1927) • Second stage (1928)(1929)(1930)(1931)(1932) • Third stage (1933)(1934)(1935)(1936)(1937)(1938)(1939)(1940)(1941) • Fourth stage (1942)(1943)(1944)(1945) • Fifth stage (1946)(1947)(1948)(1949)(1950)(1951)(1952)(1953)(1954)(1955)(1956)(1957)(1958)(1959)(1960)(1961) • Sixth stage  First Stage (1917Stage ( -1927) ) During this period, the government took actions to nationalize the agricultural lands and irrigation facilities. During the process, agricultural lands were taken from big wealthy farmers, and were allocated to small local farmers (Dehkans) and the working class people. Cotton was declared as the major crop for the entire country whereas other crops such as wheat and other consumer goods were imported to the country. Main cotton committees (Boshpakhta Committee) were established to provide facilities for cotton farming, i.e., seeds, credits, agricultural machinery, fertilizers and requisite agricultural implements, as well as grain and other products equivalent to sown raw cotton. These organizations also provided some agricultural extension services to farmers.By the end of 1920s, more than 20 demonstration farms were established in the Turkestan Autonomous Republic. A team of 100 agronomists was established to educate farmers on cotton production techniques at more than 250 locations in the Republic. For development of the agricultural industry, three types of agricultural cooperatives were established:• Agricultural cooperatives mainly engaged in trade, i.e., they acted as intermediaries.• Agricultural cooperatives acted as a contracting party and also dealt with producers on behalf of the state procurement companies. In addition, they provided recommendations on monitoring of crop development, land treatment and irrigation practices. All the costs of these cooperatives were borne by procurement companies and the government.• The third type of agricultural cooperative comprised of representatives from the procurement companies who acted as contracting parties to deliver sorted products to the state procurement companies.These cooperatives were also extending their services by providing knowledge on agronomy, training of mechanization specialists and efficient use of the machinery, and establishment of pilot farms. Agricultural experiment stations were established at field sites where short-term agronomists, technicians and workers were responsible for extension services, part of which was funded by the central budget and the other part by the local budget.In 1925, the Central Executing Committee (CEC) of Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbekistan) (UzSSR) adopted decrees \"On Nationalization of Land and Water Resources\" and \"Land and Water Reforms\" to enhance water resources management (History of Uzbek SSR 1968). As part of these reforms the government initiated the establishment of reclamation associations, which were similar to the present day water user associations (WUA). The major responsibilities of these associations included providing recommendations to the existing Dehkans on efficient water use, operation and maintenance of water supply systems, renovation of irrigation networks and development of new lands. These associations were fully funded by the government. Training of water resources management specialists was the responsibility of the Reclamation Engineering Department of Turkestan People's University and Tashkent Hydraulics Technical College (Aminov 1983).During the second stage, collective farms (kolkhoz) were established in rural areas through the assembling of lands of small Dehkan farms whereas state farms (sovkhoz) were established with full support from the government. Seed farming and breeding works were improved, and research centers for seed farming were established. To carry out mechanization services, MTPs (Machine Tractor Parks) were established and improved. Agro-industrial centers were established under the MTPs, and training activities on agronomy and the efficient use of machinery were conducted. At sites, laboratory centers called 'Yield Rooms' were organized, where a range of short-term courses were provided to Dehkans. A number of research and higher education institutions were also established (Aminov 1983).In order to improve training of the specialists in agriculture and water resources and to enhance the research in irrigation and drainage systems, the Research Institute of Hydraulic Engineering was transformed into the Central Asian Research Institute for Irrigation (SANIIRI) in 1932. The Tashkent Institute of Engineers of Irrigation and Agricultural Mechanization (TIEAM) was established by merging two institutions of higher education -the Institute of Irrigation Technicians and Engineers and the Agriculture Mechanization Institute (Aminov 1983).Third Stage (1933Stage ( -1941) ) During this stage, collectivization reform was completed for the entire country. The agricultural services sector was developed, and the level of machinery supplied and the number of trained technical staff was elevated. This led to improvements in agricultural production. To improve the efficient use of land and water resources and enhance the systems of water supply, water management facilities, pump stations and irrigation facilities were constructed. Agronomists, engineers and hydraulic engineers were recruited by kolkhozes and sovkhozes, and the training of Dehkans was further strengthened. Research institutes expanded their studies in all spheres of agriculture and achieved considerable results.Recommendations of research institutions were delivered to farmers in the form of brochures and through guidelines of public administration authorities in the agricultural sector, and this had a good impact. Based on the recommendations worked out by research institutions (e.g., SANIIRI), new irrigation and drainage networks were constructed, new lands were developed, and training activities on the efficient use of land and water resources were enhanced.The fourth stage fell on the period of World War II, which caused changes in the crop production system by drawing food and equipment supply as well as technical specialists towards the Soviet Union Army. Production of wheat crops was extended along with technical crops like hemp and sugar beet.During this period, crop production decreased due to lack of equipment and fertilizers as well as specialists who had been called up to participate in the war. In addition, soil salinity rates increased, and irrigation and drainage networks deteriorated. Considering this, during the war, political divisions were established under MTPs in order to put into practice the efficient use of resources in the agriculture industry. These MTPs were specialized in guiding the new workers, mainly minor children, women and old men, in the organization of the agriculture industry and efficient use of existing resources (Aminov 1983).During the fifth stage, attention was diverted towards the improvement of machinery supply and increasing its effectiveness. Improvement of lands -that were in poor ameliorative condition due to the recruitment of machinery and labor for World War II -was carried out. Attempts were made to provide MTPs, kolkhozes and sovkhozes with machinery and technical specialists.In order to introduce and train the workers in new and advanced technologies, kolkhozes and sovkhozes recruited new agronomists, engineers, economists and irrigation technicians. Chief specialists were selected from specialists of higher and secondary education, and they were invited to take extension courses. They were supplied with new and scientific literature directly by a number of research and higher education institutes through the regional and district authorities (Aminov 1983).At the beginning of this period, a number of measures were carried out on the development of new irrigated lands with new irrigation and drainage infrastructure, including the construction of reservoirs. Deserts in the Qarshi, Sherobod and Mirzachul zones were developed. Attention was paid to the provision of chief specialists to the kolkhozes and sovkhozes, the establishment of divisions through a vertical administration system, and also to the provision of agronomists and agricultural management specialists to the divisions. During the 1970-1980s, a cotton monocracy emerged in Uzbekistan. Emphasis was given to cotton farms, which were further expanded. Due to the necessity for crop rotation, livestock farming and partial areas of horticulture were advanced (Nikonov 1980;Penn 1977).Specialized livestock and horticultural farms were established in the zones of the foothills and valleys. In order to improve integrated management, they were merged with processing companies into horizontal cooperatives, and agricultural and meat-packing plants were established (Nikonov 1980;Penn 1977). By the end of 1980s, the Former Soviet Union went through economic recessions, and shortcomings in the state administration structure became apparent. There were delays in the payment for the crops produced. The allied republics required using the system of market-oriented relations in making the payment, and this served as the main factor for failure of a system that was not ready for this.The Soviet Union's agricultural research and built-in extension system of the former Soviet republics of CA (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) was a highly organized, fully funded and overcapitalized agricultural research establishment. The built-in agricultural extension system is presented in Figure 4. The new independent republics inherited a large number of research institutions and a huge complement of research staff. Evolution of their economies and agriculture, however, challenges these countries to reform their technological systems including extension to make it responsive and effective (Morgounov and Zuidema 2001). The main actors in the public sector involved in the agricultural extension services are the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the Ministry of Melioration and Water Resources (MoMWR). The MoA has not invested in the creation of extension advisory services in the country. Agroprom, run by the MoA, has officers in all oblasts and rayons but their role is mostly supervisory (reporting to hukumats), as well as collecting data for statistical purposes (including yield forecasting based on highly unreliable methods). In Tajikistan, four levels of administration exist: national, oblast (province), rayon (district or nohiya) and kishlak (village or jamoat). At each level, there is an executive body (hukumat) and an advisory body (majlisi). There are oblast (city) and rayon level administrations (hukumats), as well as village administrations (jamoats). The organizational structure of existing agricultural extension systems is presented in Figure 5. The Association of Dehkan Farms and Businessmen was established in 1996 as a nongovernmental, independent and a self-governed social association. In 2003, the Association was reorganized into the Union of Dehkan Farms and Businessmen (UDFB) of the Republic of Tajikistan. The legal status of this association was again changed in July 2005, when the Union was re-registered as the National Union of Dehkan Farms and Businessmen of the Republic of Tajikistan.The UDFB was responsible for supporting dehkan farms and business persons for the implementation and improvement of the market infrastructure based on strengthening and coordinating farms and entrepreneurs. It also protects the rights of dehkan farms and businessmen and works towards the improvement of qualifications and establishing links with foreign partners. However, so far this association has only had limited success. A serious detriment to the development of the association is the lack of a functioning board of directors. This was not a specific strategy of the decision makers when creating the management structure of the association. It was a consequence of the inability to communicate with members of the association and have their active involvement in the decision-making processes relating to policy and strategy development.There are about 90 initiatives related to agricultural extension currently going on in Tajikistan and most of them are independent initiatives by different donors and projects, which are often small and duplicate the work of each other. There is no unified national level initiative to consolidate all the relevant extension services. In June 2008, key donors working in Tajikistan initiated the development of a Joint Country Support Strategy to improve the coordination of farmer services (legal, business and agricultural extension services).Donors such as the UK Department for International Development (DfID), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), SDC, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and FAO are supporting the unified national Legal Aid and Extension Center Network rather than extending financial assistance to individual centers. It is hoped that the pooling of donor resources will allow a unified approach for the provision of farmer services, create a minimum standard of professional services, provide a single set of information materials for farmers, increase the likelihood of leaving behind a sustainable network, and provide a unified approach for monitoring and advocating the rights of farmers with the Government of Tajikistan. However, there is a need to build on what has already been developed over the past 5-7 years rather than creating another parallel system. Over the last few years, several efforts have been made by international organizations to revitalize the state and initiate public sector agricultural extension services. For example:• In 2004, FAO with MoA established the Agricultural Information Center but this was stopped after funding ended;• The project, \"Support to the setting up of a structure to provide information, training and advice to farmers and other rural businesses in the Khatlon Region of Tajikistan\" (SITAF), established a nationwide organization for extension service providers (ESPs), such as the Agricultural Information Coordination Center (AICC), which was meant for the coordination of research and education. Similarly, this too was stopped after funding ended;• According to the project, Support to the Establishment of a National Agricultural Advisory Service (SENAS) in Tajikistan (SENAS 2008), the top priorities for Tajikistan's agriculture are continuation of land and institutional reforms, resolution of the cotton debt issue, focus on better agricultural productivity, improving agricultural infrastructure and addressing food security issues. The role of the state and the Ministry of Agriculture will be revitalized.According to EBRD ( 2008 Various cotton investors employ agronomists and hydrotechnicians who provide basic training to farmers on how to grow cotton and implement irrigation. In most cases, consultants lack the background in agronomy and irrigation. According to KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide (2008), some farmers perceive agronomists and hydrotechnicians hired by the cotton investors as checkers rather than extensionists.Most of the existing extension initiatives in Tajikistan are donor driven and are related to specific projects. Many NGOs involved in local extension activities are also supported through foreign funding. There is no single wider initiative to integrate and coordinate all such activities. As a result, there is a lack of cooperation between these organizations, which often resulted in duplication of activities and there are many times when they are working in the same area.According to SENAS (2008), there are four organizations that have developed their own extension systems:Information Network (AIN): one in Dushanbe with two sub-offices in Kurgan Tepa and Khodjent. They supported 16 Rural Advisory Information Centers (AIC).• NGO Jovid, supported by the German Agro Action (GAA) and German Development Service, is based in Chkalovsk and their focus is the foothills and the mountains.  The review showed that some private organizations and local NGOs have recognized the importance of the agricultural extension system while the role of the state is weaker and the institutionally sound agricultural extension system in Tajikistan is still missing. However, there is a need to develop a comprehensive extension system that integrates technical, financial, agronomic and irrigation aspects of crop production in which the main role of policy mainstreaming should be taken by the state.The key functions of MAWRPI in relation to extension services include policy, technical and financial support for rendering extension services to help farmers increase agricultural production by means of delivering research results, preparing professional staff through education and development of new technologies. In particular, MAWRPI, in close cooperation with existing extension services and research institutes, integrates the development of relevant information and methodical guidelines on innovative methods of crop rotation, irrigation and tillage to farmers and agricultural producers, and provides assistance in extension services to WUAs on legal, accounting and technical issues.MAWRPI has three wings -agriculture, water and processing industry. The Water Resources Department (WRD) has a strong organizational and hierarchical structure (Basin Water Management Organizations (BWMO) and Rayon Water Management Organizations (WMOs) serving WUAs) and its key and specific task is to organize water use in the national economy based on research, and on an equitable and rational basis. It has 7 (oblasts) BWMOs and 40 RWMOs.The Agriculture Department (AD) has oblast and rayon structures, but is given a higher role in regional and local governance. It deals with a wide range of agricultural issues compared to the water department, e.g., livestock, crop production, fertilizers, machinery, pest management, etc. For example, the deputy governor of oblast and deputy hakim of rayons is the head of ADs. This wing also has a Research and Agricultural Development Department, which includes two to three research institutes: irrigation, land management and plant. It has indirect links with the Rural Advisory Services (RAS) and provides occasional trainings for Advisory Training and Information Center (ATC) staff through associated research institutes.There is the Kyrgyz Agrarian University after Skryabin's name and the Osh Agricultural Institute. They are mostly responsible for education and preparation of professionals to serve in the water and agricultural sectors (engineers, researchers, etc.). However, the reforms in the political structure of the state made these organizations fall under the Ministry of Education whereas previously the educational and research institutes were part of the sectoral agency, MAWRPI. However, informal and methodological links still exist between the ministry and education.After collapse of the Soviet Union and the disbanding of state farms, on-farm irrigation was a problem. Many republics replaced their production brigades with WUAs. In the Kyrgyz Republic, with World Bank support, the WRD established WUAs to take over on-farm irrigation operation and maintenance (O&M). To ensure these were participatory, the Republic passed a WUA Law in 2002. To date, 451 WUAs have been legally registered under this law. As farmers had no experience with participatory associations, an intensive capacity development program was critical for success. Within the WRD of MAWRPI, the WUA Support Units (SUs) at the central (1), provincial (7) and district (40) levels were formed. International consultants and Central SU staff members provided more than 3,000 days of training for staff members of SUs. In turn, SUs have provided more than 47,000 days of training for WUAs. Interactions with SUs and intensive training have strengthened WUA boards and encouraged member participation. Monitoring data documents increased the efficiency of water delivery, while fees paid by WUA members have increased annually in every province. WUAs have now formed 14 WUA federations responsible for off-farm O&M (Johnson III and Stoutjesdijk 2008).The World Bank's (WB's) On-Farm Irrigation Project supported the WUA SUs since 1999, with a USD 29 million project with two main components: (1) rehabilitation of on-farm irrigation infrastructure serving a minimum of 170,000 hectares (ha); and (2) development and strengthening of the associated WUAs to ensure the on-farm system is operated properly and maintained. In order to ensure that WUAs accept the responsibility for the on-farm irrigation system they are expected to repay 25% of the rehabilitation costs, spread over 7 years, with interest not to exceed inflation, as well as a four-year grace period. In addition to collecting service fees from their members to cover the costs of O&M of the on-farm irrigation infrastructure and the WUAs share of repayment for rehabilitation, WUAs are expected to collect the irrigation service fee (ISF) that is to be paid to the water service provider.The team of WUA SUs includes people with expertise in WUA development, training and promotion, water and WUA legislation, financial management, and monitoring and evaluation. The following training materials are developed:• WUA formation.• WUA governance.• WUA leadership.• ISF establishment.• WUA financial management.• Irrigation water allocation principles.• Irrigation system management.• Irrigation infrastructure maintenance planning.Under the Water Productivity Improvement (WPI) project (see section, Agricultural Extension Systems in Tajikistan), the WUA SU in the Osh Province acts as an extension agent complementing the RAS activities of the training of farmers in agronomic practices with a special focus on the efficient use of water. For example, in Uzgen, Karasu and Aravan districts of the Osh Province, a number of farmers are sharing water from the tertiary level outlets through selected and trained leaders of water user groups (WUGs). These leaders are introducing a system of water use that provides a platform for the setting up of WUGs. They are also introducing a system of water measurement through hydro-posts (weirs and gates) with methodological support for the transfer of water payment from a hectare-based to incentive-based volumetric system. Other trainings on the efficient use of water are also conducted.The WUA Support and Regulation Unit and the RAS of the Osh Province work in close connection. Leaders of the outlets, trainers from the WUA Support and Regulation Unit and trainers from the RAS of the Osh Province work together, supplementing each other.The recent WPI project was able to create a well-functioning partnership system, which links knowledge generators (research) with knowledge processors (information center) and existing extension services, that has good ties and trust amongst farmers. The partnership is based on the innovative cycle which is a system that continuously assesses farmers' needs and elaborates corresponding extension messages with regards to water (under the project) as a complement to the ongoing (without the project) agronomic trainings for farmers, and organizes compilation and dissemination of technologies based on existing local or previous knowledge.Many donors are active in Kyrgyzstan, and a number of donor-supported initiatives and projects are related to agricultural extension. Several pilot activities, covering a few rayons/oblasts of the country, have been carried out in support of family farmers, with emphasis on the provision of technical and business advice, group organization and credit. These include projects by the European Union (EU)/Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS), Agricultural Training and Advisory Services (ATAS) in 1994 (sort of training and visit (T&V) system) and the Agri-Business Centers (ABC) projects. SDC aid (provided through Helvetas and Caritas) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH (formerly Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH) started its advisory project in the Oblast of the Osh Province in the spring of 1997. The basic approach to the advisory services has been the same, in that the farm extension advisors visit the villagers on a rotational basis four to five times a week to provide advice. Advisory services and farmer organizations are also provided under the ongoing Sheep Development Project financed by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the World Bank. Implementation of this project commenced at the end of 1996. According to the project report, \"the project has had an enthusiastic response from the farmers, group formation is progressing and farmers visit successful groups in order to learn from their experiences\".Two other donor initiatives, also closely related to the Agricultural Support Services Project (ASSP), are UNDP's field program of lending to joint-liability groups through its Poverty Alleviation Pilot Project and the World Bank's Rural Finance Project which provides agricultural credit to agribusinesses and smaller farms through the Kyrgyz Agricultural Finance Corporation (KAFC). However, farmers below the poverty line who normally cannot afford collateral need additional support.In 1994, the Kyrgyz Swiss Agricultural Project (KSAP) of Helvetas started establishing a rural advisory service in mainly mountainous rayons of Kyrgyzstan with the help of Caritas in generating income with small-scale enterprises. The rayons included Kochkor-Jumgal in Naryn oblast, and Suzak, Bazar Korgon and Nooken rayons in Jalal-Abad oblast. At the beginning, each project had its own advisory topics which were linked to credits in most cases. In 1998, the approach was revised in all projects, when Caritas ceased advisory activities and went for an independent credit line. Helvetas discontinued credit and focused on technical assistance, and GIZ institutionalized the link with the American-funded Agricultural Cooperative Development International/Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance (ACDI/VOCA). In 1997, with the support of Helvetas, participatory advisory approaches were started in Kochkor-Jumgal.Helvetas (Swiss Association for International Cooperation) has been active for 45 years as a development partner of governmental organizations and NGOs in 20 countries, and have been working in the areas of infrastructure in rural areas, sustainable use of natural resources, and education and culture.Since 2001, Helvetas has been involved in implementing different extension projects:• the Rural Advisory and Development Service Foundation (RADSF) through KSAP in the three oblasts Naryn, Issyk Kul and Jalal-Abad, and with specific activities on a national level in the fields of cattle breeding, support to agro-entrepreneurs and an agricultural coordination unit;• Legal Assistance to Rural Citizens (LARC) in eight rayons of Jalal-Abad and oblasts in the Osh Province bordering Uzbekistan;• Agricultural Vocational Education Project (AVEP) in Naryn, reforming the vocational education of young farmers (men and women); and• The Business Promotion Project (BPP), providing entrepreneurs with marketing support and training through the start-up and growth phases of their business development, especially community-based tourism in Naryn and Jalal-Abad oblasts.KSAP and LARC were implemented on behalf of SDC, which is also the funding agency for both projects. RAS is a decentralized organization with branches in oblasts and rayons. Thus, RAS managers are responsible for the development of annual work plans for their respective oblasts, under the overall guidance of the local Oblast Steering Councils (OSCs). The OSCs which comprised of representatives of farmers, NGOs and government agencies from within the oblast, play the same pivotal role as the national RAS.There are some questions with regard to the professional interactions which RAS developed with the local research, NGO and other organizations involved in agricultural production. Actually, the RAS has few links with the Kyrgyz Irrigation Research Institute where RAS uses its staff for its trainings. The linkages with the other research organizations are informal or nonexistent or sometimes occasionally based on specific tasks (non-systematic).A national level coordination office receives all donor and government (to a lesser degree) funds, and contracts oblast and rayon advisory services (branches) on an annual basis. They are basically grown up units earlier established by different donor projects. The yearly contracts are based on annual work plans and there is a performance system to measure achievement compared to plans. RAS have introduced the planning process based on the bottom-up principle. RAS regularly upgrades the qualifications of its field staff. RAS maintains the exchange of experience and dissemination of useful innovations by providing training and consultations. Knowledge transfer is mostly done through the demonstration process.The RAS has 41 rayon and 7 oblast offices; the ATC office operated on the national level. In each rayon office, there are 2 to 4 rayon advisors and various specialists on subject matter are working in each oblast office. RAS staff are normally selected on a competitive and contract basis. In order to meet the rural people's information and knowledge requirements, the RAS strives to render good quality services, oriented to a number of advisory topics. They cover a wide range of topics such as crop production, livestock management, machinery, marketing, farm economy, dissemination of innovations and knowledge, farm management, tourism, handicrafts, business planning, gender issues, small business projects and group development.The RAS annual reports indicate some challenges and difficulties in implementing the tasks due to the low salaries of staff compared with other projects. This affects the motivation of advisers, results in outdated office equipment, ever-changing concepts of the RAS with its each new phase, indifferent attitudes of some RAS staff to their work, increased fuel price, increased office rent, outdated devices and vehicles entailed additional expenditure, and there being many obstacles to realize its mandate (wrong selection of farmers on some advisory topics, sharp decrease of budget, uncertainty about the future of RAS activities, political situation with weak support, unchanged level of staff salaries, whereas the living costs and inflation are increasing from year to year, and this results in losing well qualified advisors).The ATC was initiated under the KSAP due to non-satisfactory development of the internal potential within the RAS system. The objective of the ATC was, \"the overall capacity of the extension staff is improved through a well performing Advisory Training Centre\" (ATC 2007). With the purpose of strengthening the RAS (extension) with knowledge management and capacity building, the autonomous ATC unit was formed within the RAS system like any regional RAS. The ATC specialists and contract trainers are working on farm development, business planning, proper use of plant and livestock production technologies, home scale processing, and marketing, by improving the publication quality devoted to farmers and advisors. Besides, they are also involved in the implementation of the integrated pest management projects.ATC roles include:• acts as resource center. ATC collects information, and processes, prepares, publishes and holds dissemination materials such as pocket leaflets, handbooks, books, electronic information, newspapers and journals on various aspects of agriculture such as pest management, crop development, agrotechnical measures and other subjects.• acts as methodological and training center. The Center provides training of trainers (ToT) on extension to RAS staff in oblasts and rayons. It develops training materials and methods for the local advisors depending on the demand for these materials. For example, in 2007, it trained 20 specialists from the regional RAS on potato pests and diseases. In total, ATC conducted 64 training activities for 755 participants. In its training activities it involves some specialists from the Kyrgyz Irrigation Research Institute and Kyrgyz State Agrarian University.• Provides marketing skills to ras. ATC provides trainings and required capacities on marketing issues to the oblast RAS, so that the branch organizations are self-sufficient and sustainable in the future when the funding stops.Recently, the ATC was reestablished as TAIC, which is also participating in the WPI project (led by IWMI and SIC ICWC and supported by SDC) with an information center role to provide extension approach and ToT support to the RAS and WUA Support Units (SU) of the Osh Province.Training and Extension System (TES) is a Kyrgyz NGO specialized in rural advisory services. GIZ and the Osh State University founded TES in 1997. Their goal was to increase people's income from farming with the help of qualitative training and advisory work. It is based on private consultation with freelance field advisors and trainers served by the TES Center.The focus of TES is on small farms with little to average resource endowment. TES assist farmers in forming interest groups. At the same time, these groups represent a starting point for self-help organizations with different ends such as common marketing and qualification for seasonal loans. TES supports and gives contracts to freelance trainers and field advisors to train and advise farmer groups throughout the year. Training in extension methods and agricultural technologies takes place mostly during the off-season. During the cropping season, TES coach these freelance advisors to better fulfill their roles of supporting farmers. In this way, every year, TES supports more than 50 agricultural advisors, more than 100 farmer groups, and between 1,000 and 1,500 farmers. In return, trainers and advisors pay an annual service fee to TES. Farmers pay a fee for each training that they receive.TES has four departments (Organizational Development, Farmer School, Technical Advisory Services and Publications), bringing in external specialists, trainers and field advisors wherever possible. TES Center is headed by a management board of three senior staff. The Supervisory Board comprises of the founder (Osh State University), a major client (USAID), two TES staff members, and three freelance trainers and advisors.From each group (consisting of 5 to 15 members) a leader is elected who receives a contract from TES to act as field advisor during the entire cropping season. This leader receives additional training (technology and methodology) at TES Center every month or more often, and is expected to carry out practical demonstrations at the group's learning field as well as to monitor the crop of each group member, to organize joint input purchases, work out the delivery schedule with the processor and organize collection or delivery of the group's produce.The practical demonstrations are about operations which have been discussed at the Center, for example, in the case of tomatoes, seedling production, field establishment, scouting for pests, predator release, working out fertilizer and chemical amounts, and anti-erosion measures in irrigation. The field advisor takes the responsibility on behalf of all farmers on the application and spraying of fertilizer. TES agronomists assess all farmer fields three times during the growing season, and according to these results, a gratuity payment to the field advisor is computed.The Policy Support Project (PSP) funded by the SDC was set up in 2007 with the aim of strengthening the capacity of MAWRPI through DAPI, in formulating and implementing agricultural policy by learning experiences and moderating processes. PSP has two key objectives: i) development of rural extension policy jointly with the RAS and KSAP; and ii) PSP assist MAWRPI in the coordination of agricultural projects. There are 61 donor-driven activities related to agriculture existing in Kyrgyzstan: 46 projects, 11 programs, 3 funds and 1 center. The donors are ADB, World Bank, USAID, GIZ, European Commission, UNDP, Swiss Government, Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency (TIKA), Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Figure 6 presents the current organizational structure of the main actors involved in agricultural extension in Kyrgyzstan.Since 2010, Helvetas is implementing the SDC-funded \"On-Farm Water Management\" Project (SEP 3 ). The aim of the project is to use a demand-driven extension approach by training farmers and local communities on the understanding of water as a limiting and important factor for agricultural crop production. SEP works with different organizations that are better linked with farmers (this may include local NGOs, agricultural extension services, WUAs, cooperatives and private businesses). The main approach is that local partners must submit proposals for their projects (which aim at building capacities of farmers in efficient water use at field level) within a duration of 6-18 months. The project has set up a local technical committee, which comprises the local stakeholders, who decide on the most innovative proposals based on SEP criteria. Only agreed projects are supported by SEP for implementation with guidance and supervision from TAIC. Currently SEP and WPI projects are exchanging its materials, reports and performing cross-project evaluation.The process of reforms in the agricultural sector of the country that started in 1992, went through a number of stages ranging from (a) macroeconomic policy to the level of sustainability, (b) the rate of growth achieved as a result of conducting macroeconomic policy and market reforms by the government, and (c) initially during the reforms, property was denationalized and a pattern of nongovernmental ownership of property emerged.In the first stage, the nongovernmental sector was made responsible for denationalization and privatization, and production of major agricultural output. Collective farms and collective property were set up instead of state farms and state-owned enterprises.In the second stage, the collective farms were the staple producer in the agricultural industry; attention was directed towards the establishment of private farms and development of Dehkan farms. The state-owned livestock sector was sold through an auction to private livestock farms. Agricultural cooperatives (shirkat farms), private farms and Dehkan farms were selected as the prospective forms of farming on the results of economic experiments carried out at this stage of reforms, and in April 1998, new laws \"on Agricultural Cooperatives Farms (Shirkat)\", \"on Private Farms\" and \"on Dehkan Farms\" were adopted.Reforms associated with gradual liquidation of agricultural enterprises and their transformation to private farms is considered as the third stage of reforms conducted. The first steps were initial liquidation of shirkat farms that were operating at an economic risk and continued transformation of shirkat farms to private-ownership-based farms as well as formation of various enterprises, in particular, Alternative Machine Tractor Pools (AMTPs), WUAs and agro-firms, serving on their available technology and machinery base.In line with these agricultural reforms, various forms of advisory services emerged. These advisory services developed during the stage of development of reforms, and were formed progressively and based on various patterns of ownership. Certain spheres were covered based on every type of service formed, and each of them corresponded to render specific services to agricultural enterprises based on universality and privatization principles.The service sector and advisory services formed during this period are presented below:• Collective farms were transformed to joint-stock cooperatives (shirkats). Here, the administration was democratized for the sake of appearance only; the economic management board and the main specialists were maintained. The existing divisions were named shirkats, and thereby the service and training measures were continued as they had been implemented before.• Measures to transform the shirkat farms in bulk to private farms were carried out and tested. WUAs and AMTPs, as well as agricultural input production services, were established.• A new structure, Association of Private Farmers, was established in the Republic. Its branches in the regions and districts were also formed, and the association was responsible for providing support to private farmers including assisting in the development of production activities.• The basin water management system was adopted in the water sector. Their task was to organize water resources in the territory in a reasonable way and arrange measures for improvement of irrigated lands.• The private service sector was developed and started servicing on the basis of legal and information spheres.• Advisory services were formed to assist in the production and organizational processes through projects operating with financial support from foreign donors, who served the development of the newly-formed spheres, e.g., WUAs and retail markets.• The system of receiving education and extension in the developed foreign countries was put forth for the enterprises engaged in the agricultural sphere, and qualified specialists were now invited directly for the specialists working in agriculture. The experiences gained from them were implemented at sites.• Research institutions started conducting to-government-order research work on requisite projects on a competitive basis only, and the results achieved were submitted to State Science and Technical Committee and thereby forwarded for direct adoption by the related ministries. In addition, research institutions acted on the order of agricultural enterprises.The next stage was remarkable with the liquidation of shirkat farms (which were the largest forms of agricultural farming), their complete transformation to private farms and allocation of lands on a long-term lease to private farms, and the formation of infrastructural facilities serving the newly established private farms on the base of the liquidated private farms. Presently, advisory services to specialized private farms are being developed. Programs for training and retraining farm managers are worked out, and foreign and local specialists are recruited for their training.During a short period of implementation of reforms, the agricultural service sector developed significantly as shown below:• Maintenance and transport servicing (MTPs under government control, limited liability AMTPs based on farm property, private MTPs, machine pools of technical and pilot establishments under the control of private farmers).• Agrochemical services (regional and district divisions of Uzqishloqkho'jalikimyo, fertilizer selling posts, pesticide laboratories established as a result of privatization, and reorganization of agrarian and chemical laboratories under former shirkat farms, Goskarantin State Inspection, Republican Center for Plant Protection and its branches).• Reclamation and water management service (Basin Irrigation System Authorities (BISAs), WUAs, private enterprises).• Construction services.• Zoological and veterinary services (veterinary divisions under government supply at the districts and veterinary sector related to private sector).• News and consulting services.• Logistic support services.• Agricultural product selection, preparation, recycling and storing services.• Accounting, financial analysis and audit services.• Services of research and special programs based on large-scale projects.There are several reasons for rapid development and diversification of services in the service sector, i.e., the new establishment of such types of farms, small areas of lands, monopoly conditions of service enterprises, their distant location from agricultural producers, weaknesses of the material and technical basis, stress of funds, constraints in credit borrowing, imperfection of leasing relations, and a number of other legal and economic issues.During the past several years, the government has been trying to find ways for sustainable development of the agricultural sector. In this regard, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR) is a responsible organization for the coordination of all agricultural activities including extension service to the farmers in Uzbekistan.As a part of this, MAWR initiated several reforms in the agricultural sector including (i) the creation of private farms in the territory of old shirkats; (ii) establishment of Association of Private Farmers (APF) with offices in each oblast and rayon; (iii) introduction of BISAs within inter-farm systems and WUAs for on-farm systems; (iv) creation of Alternative Machine Tractor Pools (AMTP); and (v) formation of agro-firms to assist the dehkhan and private farmers involved in fruit and vegetable production.Figure 7 depicts the structure of several organizations that provide some elements of agricultural extension services in Uzbekistan. Some of these organizations are government funded, and some are funded by NGOs, universities, farmers' associations, research institutes and others. These organizations are:• Association of Private Farmers (APF)• Rural Business Advisory Services (RBAS)• Agricultural Service Center Despite all efforts, current structural frameworks do not completely meet the needs of farmers. Undefined structural and organizational parameters, lack of stimulation gear and remuneration of labor, and lack of integration of the interests of producers and service providers are some of the problems. In addition to the factors mentioned above, dominating administrative methods of work are not letting the world-renowned technologies and progress in agricultural research to make its way to the farmers' fields.Development of an agricultural extension service in Uzbekistan is becoming a matter of national importance. However, there is no national policy framework on extension service development, which could ensure political and financial commitment of the government and other stakeholders.In the development of an effective extension service, a national policy framework is a basic concern, since it should indicate national agricultural development priorities, outline the organizational structures necessary to implement these priorities and the corresponding institutional linkages, and the extent and nature of the commitment required to encourage farmers to act in a manner supportive of national policy.In addition, there is little incentive among farmers involved in the production of state-ordered crops, cotton and wheat. This is different among the farmers involved in the production of fruits and vegetables, where use of informal extension services is in practice and in high demand.Since 2009, in Uzbekistan, partners of the WPI project and SANIIRI, as a research organization, got together to search and analyze the existing research materials and generate new knowledge with regards to the efficient use of water. The functions of the Information Centre in the project are carried out by the former provincial experts of the IWRM-Fergana project, who have worked in the project since 2002 based in Andijan BISA. The Syr-Darya-Sokh BISA in Fergana, Naryn-Karadarya BISA in Andijan and Naryn-Syr-Darya BISA in Namangan provinces were selected to play the role of extension agencies by providing training for farmers on effective irrigation technologies. The project considers consultations and training in 13 districts:• Five districts of Andijan (Bulakbashy, Marhamat, Shahrihan, Pakhtaabad and Oltynkul);• Five districts of Fergana (Tashlak, Kuva, Altiarik, Baghdad and Furkat);• Three districts of Namangan (Pap, Naryn and Namangan).Through the training centers of BISA, farmers get training in the farmer field schools of the selected WUAs where BISA trainers and advisers render regular consulting services to about 150 farmers that cover 7,784 hectares. One trainer-adviser is assigned for each demonstration field, who works both at the demonstration field and with all farmers of the selected WUA as well. In WUAs, one expert is selected among the others who work in close cooperation with the farmers and trainer of the demonstration field as well, as the trainer organizes the farmer field school in the WUA.Each trainer carries out the monitoring of farmers' fields and since the trainer is an expert, this elicits the needs and requirements of farmers and reveals shortcomings and mistakes made by the farmers when irrigation and agro-technical activities are performed. As stated in previous sections of this report, which were dedicated to the analysis of the existing extension systems in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, the WPI project is trying to fill the gap between research and extension and make sure that knowledge of technologies that can help to increase the efficiency of water use reaches the farmers in a simplified form and in an understandable manner. The absence of the extension services in Uzbekistan did not stop the project, which decided to work with existing BISAs as the organizations are closely related to farmers in delivering their water. Rakhmatilloev (2008) indicates that the following key problems hamper improvements in the performance of Tajikistan's extension services:• Lack of state financing. Insufficient financial support from the government that is required to provide farmers with extension services, to introduce new technologies that lead to the effective use of resources, to conduct field research at farm level and disseminate positive practices among farmers.• Organizational insufficiency. There is no single government body to coordinate numerous consulting, donor and state activities in the water and agriculture sector.• Poor technical facilities and lack of qualified specialists. Lack of modern knowledge and capacity, computers and training equipment; there is a need for new and younger staff, and the retraining of existing personnel.There is a contrast of agricultural extension service providers -two extremes exist: from one side, there is a strong administrative state organizational structure but with weakened capacities and misled staff with overlapping tasks; and from the other side, numerous good skilled and active NGOs supported by donor-specific projects, very scattered and duplicated with a lack of communication between each other and questioned sustainability.KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide (2008) identified the following needs at the Dehkan farm level:• Farm financial management (book keeping, accountability, finance procurement, reporting)• Farm business management (budgeting, cropping activities, input procurement, shareholder participation)• Crop management (irrigation, pest control, weed control, nutrition)• Water management (cropping practices, irrigation scheduling/allocation)Soil fertility (crop rotations, organic matter, green manure, mineral fertilizers)• Genetic characteristics of cotton (varieties, seed quality, seed increase)Resources (infrastructure/equipment/finance)• Input supply (fertilizers, fuel, pest control agents, etc.)• Water supply and distribution (WUAs, maintenance, rehabilitation, gates, regulators, irrigation scheduling)• Machinery and equipment (improvements, efficiency, new technology)• Finance (access to cropping and capital investment finance)The concept of public extension and the provision of continuous advice to farmers are not widely understood. There is no institutional extension system existing in Tajikistan. The state organizations practice a top-down and order approach when working with farmers.Research, education and agricultural policies are isolated from each other. The state funding is being decreased. The management of all three aspects is highly centralized and strictly controlled.The bulk extension is now provided by a number of projects and NGOs. They are geographically focused and based on a subject and have a limited reach. There are some signs of cooperation but this seems to be occurring to a limited extent. Many overlapping and duplications exist. KSAP (2007) indicate the following issues with the existing rural extension services in Kyrgyzstan:• Insufficient financing of agricultural extension services by the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic. At present, extension services are mainly funded by donor organizations. This cannot last forever and by 2011 the funding can be terminated.• Weak coordination of agricultural extension service activities by MAWRPI. Actually no one subdivision of MAWRPI work in this area.• Inadequate level of knowledge in the application of new agricultural technologies, economic issues and marketing.• Weak interrelationships between extension services and the scientific-research and educational institutions, and also with production and processing organizations.• Insufficient number of trained extension staff.• The vision of MAWRPI for further development of rural extension services does not coincide with that of the RAS.• The attitude of MAWRPI towards state allocation of funds for financing rural extension services is not clear.• National authorities are not ready to consider extension services as a priority of the agrarian policy.• High turnover of senior management of the Ministry constrains promotion of the extension policy.The survey conducted by Jooshev and Mityakova (2008) indicates the following knowledge requirements of farmers:• Agro-technical measures (tillage, planting time, crop cultivation, inter-row cultivation, layout and crop rotation).• Irrigation techniques (irrigation terms and irrigation depths, how to receive water, where, when and how to apply), farmer rights and relations with WUA, how much to pay for water, how to determine the volume of water received, measurement of water flow in aryk (small irrigation canal), measuring devices, water losses, how to determine water flow in a furrow and how to identify furrow length, determination of dependence between water penetration of soil, slope, and types of crops.• Marketing service (what crop is profitable for planting in the current year, what seeds are fruitful, where and how much seeds may be bought).• Application of fertilizers and chemical protection of plants.• Introduction of new irrigation technology (sprinkling irrigation, drop irrigation, etc.).• Basic economic knowledge on drawing up of business plans, marketing, estimation of efficiency of capital investments, estimation of actual first cost of output, its price, estimation of efficiency and choice of the optimal development directions of agricultural production.• Legal regulations of land and water use, organization of farms, acquaintance of farmers with their rights and obligations to the state, taxation rules and payments of taxes.• Opportunities and rules of attraction of investors, drawing up of credits and mortgages, establishment of the credit unions.uzbekistan Nazarov (2008) concludes that in Uzbekistan there is no organization that could fulfill the functions of an agricultural extension system, but there are organizations providing elements of extension services. In addition, Nazarov (2008) identified the major gaps in infrastructure, institutional arrangement and availability of extension materials.To identify gaps, a survey was conducted among 198 farmers located in 8 rayons of 5 oblasts of Uzbekistan (Nazarov 2008). The survey results showed the following:• Of the survey participants, 93% indicated that they use services in the agronomy area (agro-technology, pest control and others), 89% indicated using the advisory service in on-farm water resources management, 84% indicated using the advisory services in economic aspects, and 75% indicated using advisory services in legal aspects. The least used services were cattle breeding (3%), veterinary services (20%) and information advisory services (20%).• With regards to questions related to on-farm water management and water productivity, the priorities of survey participants were (i) land reclamation (83%); (ii) water distribution and water measurement equipment, structures and installation (77%); (iii) crop water requirements and irrigation management (water savings) (65%); (iv) types of advanced irrigation technologies (drip, sprinkler) and their implementation (31%); and (v) others (8%).• Answering the question, \"Are you ready to pay for advisory services that meet your needs?\", 78% of survey participants agreed to pay if a high quality and efficient service was provided, 6% indicated that they were already paying for these services, and 16% indicated that \"free was better, even if it was not satisfactory\".• Answering the question, \"What types of services need to be developed?\", 24% of survey participants indicated agronomy (agro-technology, pest control and others), 17% indicated economics (accounting, business plan development), 24% indicated on-farm water management, and 21% indicated that there was 'no need' for development of services. A reason for this could be that many farmers are not familiar with extension services and some are afraid that they would have to pay for the services.• Answering the question, \"What is the best way to extend the knowledge about advanced technologies in agriculture to the dehkan and private farmers?\", 43% of survey participants indicated that the best way was to establish demonstration fields and conduct demonstration activities, 38% have chosen the provision of different training programs and seminars, 12% chose books and brochures, and only 7% have chosen the use of mass media (newspapers, journals, radio, TV) as the best way to extend agricultural knowledge.The major gaps in infrastructure that were identified are as shown below:• Lack of financial resources It calls for increased awareness of the importance of the farming systems approach, particularly at the zonal level and below. However, even changing the current emphasis on the cultivation of single crops and drawing more attention to research on growing a combination of crops, is not easily achieved and requires a number of organizational changes. Research on farming systems is even more difficult to make operational and calls for a high degree of expertise at local research stations. Above all, an effective extension system is needed that is capable of diagnosing field problems and transmitting them to the research establishment. Cernea et al. (1985) recommends the following:• Agricultural extension requires effective organization and management tailored to suit specific situations.• Agricultural extension requires site-specific methodologies and suitable technologies.• Agricultural extension must be relevant and responsive.• Farmer participation is fundamental for sustainable extension.It is easy to define the broad recommendations for institutional change that is needed to reform agricultural extension to meet the changing demands. From this review, it is obvious that current prescriptions include decentralization, pluralism, privatization, cost recovery and involvement of farmers as a key player. History and recent developments around the world illustrates that it must be driven by learning about what works and what does not, and by the nature of local circumstances and context. An analogous approach proposed by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is known as the institutional learning and change initiative, which is trying to adopt agricultural research to address recent challenges and improve its effectiveness (CGIAR: www.cgiar. org/impact/global/index.html). These types of approaches stem from the realization that improving the performance and capacity of a system concerns reflection, learning and incremental changes. If extension policy is to pursue such an approach, what practical steps could CA republics take?• A first step would be to undertake a deep institutional analysis of historical and current experiences of implementing different extension approaches. This should focus on successes and failures and should be undertaken in a constructive manner to devise ways by which these approaches could be modified, bottlenecks removed and institutional arrangements amended. It was obvious during this study that there are very limited studies and analysis of the extension sector, and these are usually not used in extension policy development and planning. This approach, of course, will require a capacity development of local expertise for analyzing complex systems such as extension, which is lacking at the country and sub-country level. Without this capacity countries will remain dependent on international experts to suggest country strategies, models and blueprints.• The next step is to set up pilot projects as experiments in agricultural extension (which already started in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and to some extent in Uzbekistan with donor assistance). While this is not new, such experiments should be coupled with local capacities and institutions (research, state, education, farmer organizations and local NGOs), and they should be involved from the beginning to draw principles of promoting innovation in rural areas. The initiative can then be replicated with some location-specific modifications. While all these are in the process, the wider discussion of the policy framework and strategies (a few recommendations and examples of which are stated above) can be initiated in parallel, but what is most important is the interest from the state because the government should be the initiator of these reforms.• Realizing the fact that technical and financial support from the government is a key factor for sustainability of agricultural extension services, it is recommended that associated departments of the Ministry of Agriculture or other relevant state agencies should be the main actor to play the role of agricultural extension service provider in CA. This is important for the sustainability and continuity, but the state should be the reform carrier to decentralize the extension.• Any external assistance should strengthen the institutional capacity of the state agricultural departments by assisting in developing working relations with all the relevant state organizations (research institutes, academia, state water departments (in our case they are oblvodkhozes), BISAs, BWMOs with its coupled district-level subordination units, input dealers, banks, etc.); development projects (funded through the EU, WB, ADB, SDC, UNDP); NGOs that are supported by the agricultural projects and have relevant advisory experience (UDFB, ZarZamin, CECI and ACTED in Tajikistan; RAS, ATC, Jer-Azigi in Kyrgyzstan; and Association of Private Farms in Uzbekistan); producers; and private companies that are involved in agricultural extension.• The consolidation activities should facilitate the cooperation between the organizations mentioned through consensus building, bridging and dialogue roundtables to develop single strategy on agricultural extension while the major, leading and coordinating role should be given to the state agroproms.• The initiatives to support extension should facilitate and assist Agricultural Departments to establish working and effective linkages with local National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) for long-term and sustainable cooperation. The programs to assist agricultural extension should develop and transfer recommendations on better ways, approaches and methodology (specifics) for provision of extension services to farmers with regard to on-farm water management through adult training, Participatory Rural Appraisal/Assessment (PRA) methods, needs assessment, and how to monitor and evaluate extension activities.• The support programs should facilitate the good working relations and policy uptake of results at a higher level -the MoA through the Agriculture Department for wider dissemination of positive experiences of a comprehensive and sustainable system of agricultural extension by provincial agroproms in the case of the Sogd Province.• The support program should assist and call other players active in developing and supporting agricultural extension to provide innovative capacity and approaches, which should lead the way for farmer participation in diagnosis, testing and dissemination of new knowledge and technologies.• Any state and external joint initiatives to establish extension should participate and support other initiatives to establish national level umbrella institutions or systems (these projects are SENAS in Tajikistan and Policy Support Project by KSAP in Kyrgyzstan), with an appropriate policy framework, sustainability issues (cost recovery) and the possible (new) roles of state agroprom systems (coordination) should be discussed with the appropriate ministries (or relevant departments) and initiating parties based on project experience.This study reviews the existing agricultural extension systems in three countries in CA, i.e., Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. The study shows that after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, agricultural extension services in these three countries have been destroyed completely, resulting in a decline in agricultural productivity. This is especially true for small farmers who cannot afford to hire the services of expensive private extension advisory companies. As most of the newly emerging farmers are ignorant of farming practices and crop production mechanisms, there is an urgent need to establish formal extension systems in CA in order to ensure future food security.The fragmented efforts of establishing extension services by internationally funded projects are filling the gap to some extent but are not sufficient for all farmers in the area. This is because these efforts are restricted to specific areas and usually have specific objectives due to their financial limitations. The extension services provided by KSAP, RAS and ATC (ZOKI) initiatives by WB and SDC, the SENAS program by EU to streamline fragmented extension in Tajikistan and WB's Rural Enterprise Support Project (RESP) in Uzbekistan are doing a reasonably good job. However, these services need to be coordinated with the state-owned extension service organizations.The analysis of current organizational structures showed that all three countries have the necessary institutions, such as the association of farmers in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan or agricultural research and education coordination departments in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Any new initiatives to establish formal extension systems should be revitalized within the existing institutional framework and should be based on existing structures. For this purpose, existing institutes should be further strengthened, reformed and their roles should be redefined. Creation of new institutions will be complex as they will need much more capital and effort to ensure long-term sustainability. To ensure ownership, the state should play the role of mediator and facilitator for the proposed changes. These reforms should integrate the ongoing processes of social, political and economic changes in the countries in CA.This study reveals that countries in CA have no national policy framework for the development of agricultural extension services, which could ensure the political and financial commitment of the government and other stakeholders. Unless appropriate national extension systems are established in CA through institutional reforms, backed by national policies outlined within the context of comparative agricultural advantage of different countries within the region, these countries would not be able to exploit their full potential in agriculture (Qamar 2002;KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide 2008;EBRD 2008;Nazarov 2008).To have effective extension in place, a national policy framework is a fundamental concern, since it should indicate national agricultural development priorities, outline the organizational structures necessary to implement these priorities and the corresponding institutional linkages, and the extent and nature of the commitment to encourage farmers to act in a manner supportive of national policy.","tokenCount":"12966"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36ca98ad7e3f479566e5c2c1e18bbbaa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd8912ee-db0d-443d-acf1-728da28e16ee/retrieve","id":"483048801"},"keywords":["banana","plantain","A and B genome","host plant resistance","virus transmission","aphid vector","Africa"],"sieverID":"e4f58cb8-d6c5-4369-a31c-af524fc2a93b","pagecount":"18","content":"Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD), caused by the banana bunchy top virus (BBTV, genus Babuvirus), is the most destructive viral disease of banana and plantain (Musa spp.). The virus is transmitted persistently by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae). While research efforts have focused on screening Musa genotypes for BBTD resistance, comparatively little work has been carried out to identify resistance to banana aphids. This study assessed 44 Musa germplasm of different A and B genome composition for the performance of banana aphids under semicontrolled environmental screenhouse conditions and in a field trial established in a BBTD endemic location. In the screenhouse, the AA diploid Calcutta 4 had the lowest apterous aphid density per plant (9.7 ± 4.6) compared with AAB triploid Waema, which had the highest aphid densities (395.6 ± 20.8). In the field, the highest apterous aphid density per plant (29.2 ± 6.7) occurred on the AAB triploid Batard and the lowest (0.4 ± 0.2) on the AA diploid Pisang Tongat. The AA diploid Tapo was highly susceptible to BBTD (100% infection) compared with the genotypes Balonkawe (ABB), PITA 21 (AAB), Calcutta 4 (AA), and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), which remained uninfected. The Musa genotypes with apparent resistance to BBTD and least susceptibility to aphid population growth provide options for considering aphid and BBTD resistance in banana and plantain breeding programs.Banana (and plantain, Musa spp. L., Zingiberales: Musaceae) is among the top 20 food crops worldwide [1]. The cooking banana types are among the most important crops cultivated for household food security and income generation by millions of smallholder farmers under subsistence-farming conditions in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where they are largely grown in mixed-crop fields and backyards of household compounds. Banana productivity in SSA remains low at 7.3 million metric tonnes/ha [1], mainly because of the widespread negative impact of several endemic and exotic pests and diseases, including banana bunchy top disease (BBTD). BBTD is caused by the banana bunchy top virus (BBTV, genus Babuvirus) and is the most destructive virus disease of banana worldwide [2,3]. BBTD was first reported from Fiji in 1989 and is presently known to occur in 37 countries. In SSA, BBTD was first reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The virus is presently known to occur in 17 African countries (Available online: https://www.bbtvalliance.org/index.php/bbtv (accessed on 2 March 2022)) where BBTV has since emerged as a serious threat to banana production [3]. BBTV infection of banana plants results in a range of symptoms that generally culminate in a bunchy appearance at the top of severely stunted pseudostems [4]. The virus-infected plants do not produce fruit when the infection starts before flowering, while late infections result in deformed and inedible fruits [5]. Regardless of the time of infection, BBTV infection leads to 100% banana fruit yield loss from the infected plants [6,7].BBTV is transmitted through vegetative propagation of infected banana propagules and by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae), which occurs on plants in the Musaceae [8]. A closely related species, Pentalonia caladii van der Goot, frequently found on plants in the Araceae and Zingiberaceae [8,9], has been shown to transmit BBTV under experimental conditions, albeit much less efficiently than P. nigronervosa [10]. Considering its poor BBTV-transmission efficiency and its generally restricted distribution to non-Musa spp., P. caladii is unlikely to play a significant role in the natural transmission of BBTV in banana plantations. However, P. caladii could be a significant vector in BBTV transmission to other hosts in which BBTV was recently detected, including Heliconia sp. in Hawaii (USA) [11] and Alpinia galanga (L.) Willdenow and Curcuma longa L. in Indonesia [12].The banana aphid transmits BBTV in a persistent, circulative, and non propagative manner [13,14], while there is no evidence for mechanical viral transmission [13,15]. The banana aphid can acquire the virus after at least 4 h of the acquisition access period (AAP) on infected tissue and requires a minimum inoculation access period (IAP) of 15 min to transmit the virus [13]. The aphid retains the virus throughout its life. BBTV-transmission efficiency by P. nigronervosa increases with increased AAP, IAP, virus titer in the source plant, and aphid abundance [13].Several cultural and chemical approaches were developed for BBTD management, including the use of virus-free planting material, quarantine measures, roguing of diseased plants, and use of pesticides to control the aphid vector [16][17][18]. While these approaches were effective in large-scale monoculture banana plantations, they have not been widely adopted by smallholder farmers in SSA due to the low availability of virus-free planting materials, high costs of pesticide use for aphid control, and high labor requirement for rouging-based methods [19,20]. Host-plant resistance to the virus and/or the aphid vector, particularly in smallholder farming environments of SSA, offers the most economical and environmentally sound means for controlling virus diseases [21][22][23][24][25][26]. Previous studies focused on assessing Musa genotypes' resistance against BBTD [5,[27][28][29], while resistance to the banana aphid has rarely been evaluated.This study covers the evaluation of a set of Musa genotypes representing all known Musa ploidy levels and genomic groups (Table 1) to identify resistance to BBTV and its banana aphid vector. Resistance to the banana aphid was evaluated in the absence of BBTV under a semi-controlled environment, while resistance to the aphid and BBTV was assessed over 36 months in the field under natural aphid colonization and BBTV infections. The results demonstrated the differential response of genotypes to both aphid performance and BBTD, and identified promising genotypes with high levels of tolerance to the virus vector and to the disease. Musa genotypes used in this study were sourced from the international Musa collection held in genebanks of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria, the International Transit Center of Bioversity International in Leuven, Belgium, and the IITA station in Yaoundé, Cameroon (Table 1). Virus-free stocks of all sourced genotypes were propagated in vitro at the IITA tissue-culture laboratory in Yaoundé before their use in the screenhouse and field trials. Acclimatized plants were grown in 15 cm diameter pots containing a mixture of pasteurized forest topsoil, sand, and poultry manure at a ratio of 3:1:1 and maintained for 5-6 months in an insect-proof screenhouse at the IITA station in Yaoundé, Cameroon, a BBTV-free area of Cameroon.Virus-free plants of 38 genotypes were evaluated for banana aphid growth potential under screenhouse conditions at the IITA-Cameroon campus in Yaoundé (03 • 51.839 N/ 011 • 7.748 E, ~770 m.a.s.l.) (Table 1). Banana aphids of mixed stages (nymphs and adults) were collected from banana plants at the IITA-Cameroon experimental farm to establish an aphid colony on virus-free potted plants of the cultivar 'Williams' (AAA). The plants were raised for about 55 days (approximately three generations) in an insect-proof screenhouse before their use. Pentalonia nigronervosa identity was established by examining morphological features of at least 20 aphids under a phase-contrast microscope [30]. Twelve plants per genotype arranged in three replicates of four plants each were evaluated. Using a fine camel-hair brush, five 4th instar aphids from stock cultures were gently teased-off the plant and transferred onto an unfurled top leaf of each test plant. All plants of the 38 genotypes were infested with aphids collected from the stock colony on the same day. The infested plants were maintained in an insect-proof cage (70 × 50 × 43 cm). The experiment was conducted from July to September 2013. Aphid census on the whole plant started one week after the transfer of aphids and continued weekly for nine weeks. Plants were taken out of the cage for a brief period for a census of aphids. Apterous and alate aphids were tallied separately. Test plants were watered as needed. Temperature and relative humidity within the screenhouse were monitored with a Hobo Pro v2 logger (Onset Computer Corporation, Bourne, MA, USA) suspended just above the cages in the center of the screenhouse. Temperatures during the experiment fluctuated between 18.4 and 36.2 ), an area in the South Region of Cameroon where BBTD is endemic [6]. BBTD is widely prevalent in the area, with 94.3% of fields with one or more BBTD-infected plants and a within-field disease incidence ranging between 0.17% and 36% (Ngatat et al., unpublished data). The nearest banana farms were at 30, 15, 24, and 1000 m from the field borders in the north, east, south, and west, respectively. This area of the field experiment is located in a humid forest zone with bimodal rainfall. Temperature and relative humidity were monitored with Hobo ® Pro v2 logger (Onset Comp., Bourne, MA, USA) installed under a waterproof shelter, while rainfall data was collected with a Tru-Chek™ rain gauge (Edwards Man. Co., Albert Lea, MN, USA) placed in an open area. Temperatures in the experimental field ranged from 14 to 37 • C with an average of 24.1 ± 0.02 • C, while relative humidity ranged from 35 to 100%, with an average of 89.1 ± 0.07%. Average yearly rainfall for the 3 years was 1806 ± 122 mm.Virus-free, hardened tissue-culture plants of 44 genotypes, including 34 genotypes evaluated for aphid population growth under the screenhouse experiment, were planted at 2 × 2 m row spacing in holes of 30 × 30 × 30 cm. One kg of poultry manure (2.1, 1.3, and 0.8% N, P, K, respectively) was mixed with soil at planting time in September 2013. The experiment was terminated 36 months after its initiation. The experimental layout followed a complete randomized block design with three blocks (=replicates), with an area of 704 m 2 per block and a 4 m distance between blocks. Within each block, all genotypes were planted in plots of three rows and five plants per row for a total of fifteen plants per plot. All plants were free of banana aphids and BBTD at planting. To facilitate and augment the natural spread of the virus, 176 BBTD-symptomatic suckers, obtained from the virus-affected banana fields in the vicinity of the experimental field plot, were planted at the edges of rows between blocks [29]. Aphid infestation and BBTV infection of experimental plants occurred naturally. The field was weeded manually. Dead leaves were pruned as needed. The field was managed under rainfed conditions with no additional inputs during the 36 months of the experiment.Census for banana aphid and BBTD-affected plants were initiated 2 months after planting (MAP) and continued monthly for 36 months. The number of banana aphids (all life stages) was counted on the bottom third of the oldest pseudostem on three plants per replicate (Figure 1) [31,32]. After flowering and bunch production of the oldest pseudostem, aphid census was shifted to the next oldest sucker of the same mat [29]. Occasionally, aphid occurrence was observed on the throat and leaves of the census plants, but they were not counted to maintain the standard assessment to only the lower portion of the pseudostem. BBTD incidence was recorded at the same time of aphid census. All the shoots (pseudostems) of a mat (=plant) in a replicate were carefully checked for the presence of BBTD symptoms. A mat was counted as symptomatic based on typical BBTV symptoms on at least one pseudostem. The time between planting and the first appearance of BBTD symptoms on a plant was evaluated for each genotype. At the end of the experiment (i.e., 36 MAP), leaf samples of all asymptomatic plants were collected for BBTV testing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as described previously [6]. Estimation of the number and weight of bunches at harvest time was not possible due to thefts. shoots (pseudostems) of a mat (=plant) in a replicate were carefully checked for the presence of BBTD symptoms. A mat was counted as symptomatic based on typical BBTV symptoms on at least one pseudostem. The time between planting and the first appearance of BBTD symptoms on a plant was evaluated for each genotype. At the end of the experiment (i.e., 36 MAP), leaf samples of all asymptomatic plants were collected for BBTV testing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as described previously [6]. Estimation of the number and weight of bunches at harvest time was not possible due to thefts.  Aphid abundance, including apterous and alate forms, was estimated for each genotype present in screenhouse and field trials. The area under the infestation pressure curve (AUIPC), which represents the increase in aphid population over time, was computed for each genotype using the modified formula from Shaner and Finney [33].) × (t i+1 − t i ) where i = the ranking of the assessment, n = number of days between i and i + 1 assessment, and y = number of insects at time t. BBTD incidence-based on symptom observation in the field of each genotype was calculated as BBTD incidence = Total mats in f ected Total mats planted × 100. A quantitative summary of disease over time represented by the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was computed for each genotype using the formula from Shaner and Finney [33]where y i is the proportion of infected plants at the ith observation, t i is time in days at the ith observation, and n is the total number of observations. Virus incidence, based on virus-positive leaves by PCR analysis, was calculated as the percentage of infected leaf samples for each genotype. All response variables, i.e., apterous aphids, alate aphids, BBTD incidence, and AUDPC, were tested for normal distribution using the Shapiro-Wilk test at p > 0.05 [34]. Response variables that were not normally distributed were analyzed with the Kruskall-Wallis nonparametric test. Bonferonni pairwise comparison of genotypes was used because of the large number of pairwise comparisons.To select the genotypes that were most or least susceptible to banana aphid and/or to BBTD, in each genomic group for both screenhouse and field trials, four genotypes with an extreme mean (two highest and two lowest) aphid abundance or BBTD incidence were selected and compared. Correlation analysis was used to relate aphid densities in the screenhouse to those in the field on each of the 34 genotypes present both in the screenhouse and in the field. To rank the genotypes, while simultaneously considering their reaction under natural conditions to both banana aphid and BBTD, a heatmap with hierarchical clustering was used for classification based on both AUDPC and AUIPC values for each genotype obtained from the field trial. All statistical analyses were performed with R 3.6.2 package (R Development Core Team), while the heatmap was generated with JMP 8.2 (SAS Institute).Apterous aphid densities were higher on triploid (155.3 ± 21.4) and tetraploid (139.7 ± 13.7) than on diploid (74. 8 ± 10.5) genotypes (χ 2 = 14.7, df = 2, p < 0.001). Alate aphid densities were also greater on triploid (7.4 ± 1.4) and tetraploid (5.3 ± 1.4) than on diploid (1.4 ± 0.4) genotypes (χ 2 = 13.6, df = 2, p = 0.001). A difference was observed among diploid genotypes for apterous aphid abundance (χ 2 =17.7, df = 10, p = 0.006) but not for alate aphids (χ 2 = 13.98, df = 10, p = 0.17) (Table 2). However, both apterous and alate aphid abundance differed among triploid genotypes (χ 2 = 23.4, df = 14, p = 0.04 and χ 2 = 32.2, df =14, p = 0.004, respectively). The highest aphid density was observed on the Waema (AAB), while the lowest density was observed on Ice cream (ABB) (Table 3). The highest alate density was observed on Ebang (AAB), while the lowest occurred on Yangambi Km5 (AAA). Similarly, both apterous and alate aphid abundance differed among genotypes in the tetraploids (χ 2 = 21.5, df = 1, p = 0.03 and χ 2 = 25.2, df = 11, p = 0.009, respectively) (Table 4). The highest apterous and alate aphid densities were observed on FHIA 03 (AABB), while the lowest occurred on T6 (AAAA). Comparison of two genotypes with highest and lowest aphid densities from each ploidy level showed significant differences among the sorted genotypes for apterous aphid (χ 2 = 30.0, df = 11, p = 0.002) and alate aphid (χ 2 = 30.1, df = 11, p = 0.002) densities. Apterous aphid density was highest on Waema (AAB) and lowest on Calcutta 4 (AA), while alate aphid density was highest on Ebang (AAB) and lowest on Calcutta 4 (AA) (Table 5).  Abundance of Banana Aphid in the FieldIn the field trial, there were also large differences among ploidy levels in apterous aphid densities, but, not for alate aphid densities (χ 2 = 22.9, df = 2, p < 0.001 and χ 2 = 5.6, df = 2, p = 0.06, respectively). After 36-months, apterous aphid densities were similar on triploids (10.7 ± 1.4) and tetraploids (10.7 ± 1.3). In case of the diploid genotypes, differences were observed among genotypes for apterous aphid densities (χ 2 = 15.8, df = 8, p = 0.04) but not for alate aphids (χ 2 = 12.1, df = 8, p = 0.15). The highest apterous aphid density was on Chuoi Man (AB), while the lowest was on Pisang Tongat (AA) (Table 6). In the triploid group, both apterous and alate aphid abundance differed among genotypes (χ 2 = 40.5, df = 18, p = 0.002, χ 2 = 39.9, df = 18, p = 0.002, respectively). The highest apterous aphid density was recorded on Batard (AAB), while the lowest was recorded on PITA 24 (AAB). On the other hand, alate aphid densities were considerably lower than apterous aphids on all the genotypes, and the highest density of alates was recorded on Essong (AAB), while the lowest was on Lep Chang Kut (BBB) (Table 7). In the tetraploids, significant differences were observed between genotypes for apterous aphid densities (χ 2 = 34.8, df = 15, p = 0.003) but not for alate aphid densities (χ 2 = 20.6, df = 15, p = 0.15); the highest apterous aphid density was on CRBP 39 (AAAB), while the lowest density was on CRBP 37 (AAAB) (Table 8). Analysis performed on 12 genotypes to sort out the best and the worst genotypes for aphid performance under field conditions, with two from each ploidy group with highest aphid densities and two with lowest aphid densities, showed large differences among the sorted genotypes for apterous aphid densities (χ 2 = 27.7, df = 11, p = 0.004) and alate aphid densities (χ 2 = 20.5, df = 11, p = 0.02). The highest apterous aphid densities were observed on Batard (AAB) and the lowest on Pisang Tongat (AA). The highest alate aphid densities were recorded on Essong (AAB) and the lowest were on Yagambi km5 (AAA) (Table 9).    On diploids, the genotype Chuoi Man (AB) presented the first BBTD symptoms at 2 MAP while it took 36 months to observe the first symptoms on Ney Poovan (AB) (Table 6). On triploids, the first BBTD symptoms were observed at 2 MAP on Waema (AAB), 3 MAP on Williams (AAA), and PITA 23 (AAB), while symptoms were observed only at 36 MAP on Fougamou (ABB) (Table 6). On tetraploids, BBTD symptoms were first observed at 3 MAP the AAAA genotypes Buccaneer, SH 3436-9, T6 (AAAA) and on FHIA 03 (AABB), and the latest at 26 MAP on CRBP 37 (AAAB) and 28 MAP on CRBP 535 (AAAB) (Table 7). Four genotypes-Calcutta 4 (AA), Balbissiana Los Banos (BB), PITA 21 (AAB), and Balonkawe (ABB)-did not show any BBTD symptoms at any time during the 36 months of the experiment.Overall, latent BBTV infection was detected by PCR assays in asymptomatic plants of 13 genotypes, all ploidy considered at 36 MAP at the end of the experiment. Of the dipoids, BBTV was detected in 15.6% of the 45 leaf samples from Kunnan (AB), while the virus was not detected in any of the asymptomatic plants of other diploid genotypes (Table 6). On the triploid genotypes, the highest virus incidence (16.7% for total 6 plants tested) was detected in Williams (AAA); BBTV was not detected in the asymptomatic plants of Yagambi Km5 (AAA), the AAB genotypes (Batard, Ebang, Elat, Essong, Waema), Fougamou (ABB), Balonkawe (ABB), and Lep Chang Kut (BBB) (Table 7). On the tetraploids, 17.8% virus incidence (15 plants tested) was observed on SH 3436-6 (AAAA), while no virus was detected on the asymptomatic leaves of 12 genotypes, including the AAAA genotypes (BITA 2, Buccaneer, FHIA 23, T6), the AAAB (BITA 8, CRBP 37, CRBP 535, CRBP 568, FHIA 21, IRFA 908), FHIA 03 (AABB) (Table 8).No significant difference was observed among the ploidy levels for the disease incidence (df = 2, χ 2 = 0.7, p = 0.7) and AUDPC (df = 2, χ 2 = 0.9, p = 0.7). In the diploid group, significant differences were observed among genotypes for both BBTD incidence (χ 2 = 19.6, df = 8, p = 0.01) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 20.2, df = 8, p = 0.009). At 36 MAP, Tapo (AA) was the genotype with highest disease incidence-100% of the plants expressed BBTD symptoms. Tapo also had the highest AUDPC, which together with its disease incidence indicate that Tapo was the most susceptible genotype to BBTD. On the contrary, none of plants of the wild genotypes Calcutta 4 (AA) and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB) showed any BBTD symptoms at any time during the experiment (Table 6), which along with their virus-free status at 36 MAP indicate that these two genotypes are resistant to BBTD-at least for the duration of our experiment. In the triploids, significant differences were similarly observed among genotypes for BBTD incidence (χ 2 = 32.2, df = 18, p = 0.02) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 34.9, df = 18, p = 0.01); 66.7 % of plants of FHIA 25 (AAB) expressed BBTD symptoms, while no disease was observed on Balonkawe (ABB) and PITA 21 (AAB). Moreover, the highest AUDPC was observed on Yangambi Km5 (AAA) and FHIA 25, while the lowest was recorded on both Balonkawe (ABB) and PITA 21 (AAB) (Table 7). In the tetraploid group, there was no difference among genotypes for both disease incidence (χ 2 = 19.5, df = 15, p = 0.2) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 18.7, df = 15, p = 0.2) (Table 8).Analysis performed on 12 genotypes sorted from the four divergent genotypes of each ploidy group (four from each ploidy group, two with highest AUDPC, and two with lowest AUDPC) showed significant differences among the sorted genotypes for disease incidence (χ 2 = 26.9, df = 11, p = 0.005) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 28.5, df = 11, p = 0.003), the highest disease incidence and AUDPC was recorded on the AA diploid Tapo, while the lowest incidence and AUDPC were recorded on Calcutta 4 (AA), Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), Balonkawe (ABB) and PITA 21 (AAB) (Table 10). Generally, at the field level, average BBTD incidence was 15.3, 26.1, and 34.1%, respectively, at 12, 24, and 36 MAP.The heatmap with hierarchical cluster showed that genotypes were clustered into four groups: A1, A2, A3, and A4 (Figure 2). All the five genotypes in group A1 were highly susceptible to BBTD and least susceptible to the banana aphid, including Figue Sucree (AA), Pisang Tongat (AA), Yangambi Km5 (AAA), and FHIA 25 (AAB). Group A2 included 18 genotypes of different genomic compositions, from moderate susceptibility to both BBTD and the banana aphid. Group A3 included 11 genotypes of different genomic compositions with least or slight susceptibility to both BBTD and banana aphid. Group A4 included 10 genotypes slightly susceptible to BBTD and highly susceptible to the banana aphid (Figure 2). both BBTD and the banana aphid. Group A3 included 11 genotypes of different genomic compositions with least or slight susceptibility to both BBTD and banana aphid. Group A4 included 10 genotypes slightly susceptible to BBTD and highly susceptible to the banana aphid (Figure 2). There was a positive and moderately high correlation between screenhouse and field aphid densities on each of the 34 genotypes present both in the screenhouse and the field (r = 0.529, p = 0.001). The genotypes with the highest aphid densities, in both screenhouse and field trials, were from the AAB genomic group followed by the AAAB group, while the lowest aphid densities occurred on the AA genomic group in both the screenhouse There was a positive and moderately high correlation between screenhouse and field aphid densities on each of the 34 genotypes present both in the screenhouse and the field (r = 0.529, p = 0.001). The genotypes with the highest aphid densities, in both screenhouse and field trials, were from the AAB genomic group followed by the AAAB group, while the lowest aphid densities occurred on the AA genomic group in both the screenhouse and the field (Table S1).Most banana cultivars originated from intraspecific or interspecific hybridization between wild diploid M. acuminata (A-genome, 2n = 22) and M. balbisiana (B-genome, 2n = 22) species of section Eumusa, including diploid (AA, BB and AB), triploid (AAA, AAB and ABB), and tetraploid (AAAB, AABB, ABBB) variants [35]. This study showed that in the screenhouse and the field trials, there was a wide variation in the performance of banana aphids on the Musa genotypes with different A and B genome composition and ploidy levels. In the screenhouse, aphid densities on triploid and tetraploid genotypes were higher than on diploid genotypes. The rates of aphid population growth were faster and reached higher densities on two AAB triploids, Waema and Ebang, than any other genotype. Aphid densities under field conditions were relatively lower than in the screenhouse, but the trend of banana aphid performance on Musa genotypes was similar under both screenhouse and field conditions. For instance, the AAB triploids Batard, Ebang, Essong, and Elat and the AAAB tetraploid hybrids CRBP 39, CRBP 969, and CRBP 535 were highly suitable to banana aphid population growth, resulting in the highest aphid densities both under field and screenhouse conditions. Aphid densities were lowest (about 10-fold lower population) on AA diploid genotypes Pisang Tongat, Figue Sucree, and Calcutta 4 compared with AAB and AAAB genotypes under field conditions. In general, aphids were more abundant on triploid and tetraploid genotypes combining both A and B genomes (AAB, AAAB) than on those combining only A (AA or AAA) or only B (BB and BBB) genomes. Only one genotype, Yawa 2, evaluated in this study corresponds to the ABBT group, which is a natural cross of section Musa (Eumusa) (AA and BB) × section Australimusa (TT). This genotype under screenhouse evaluation supported high densities of banana aphids, but the genotype was not assessed under field conditions due to insufficient planting material.Further studies are necessary to understand the underlying factors contributing to the differential aphid establishment rates in relation to host genomic composition. One aspect of investigation should focus on the thickness of epicuticular wax on leaf-petiole, and pseudostem. For instance, a thick epicuticular wax was reported to increase resistance to black Sigatoka of banana [36]. Several studies have shown that successful aphid colonization and performance are affected by multiple factors, including (i) chemical content of the sap (e.g., nitrogen and carbon levels, and free-amino-acid composition in sap) [37,38]; (ii) defensive compounds that reduce aphid feeding and multiplication rate [39]; (iii) plant physical properties, which serve as barriers to feeding and growth (e.g., leaf pubescence, smoothness or roughness of leaves, the presence of trichomes or the shape and color of the leaves) [40]; (iv) leaf and plant color, which affect attractiveness and landing behavior [41]; and (v) chemical cues affecting landing decision [42,43]. Further studies should consider comparisons of the physical and chemical properties of Musa genotypes supporting low and high aphid population densities to understand the mechanisms contributing differential rate of establishment and population growth on different Musa genotypes evaluated in this study.As observed for most aphid species, apterous banana aphids were more abundant than alates in both the screenhouse and the field. Owing to their higher mobility, alates play a major role in the horizontal transmission of BBTV within and between the fields. Alate abundance is generally linked to increasing density of apterous forms. Consequently, a Musa genotype that supports the establishment of high densities of banana aphids poses an increased risk for the horizontal spread of BBTV and heightens virus spread in the field. In the field trial of this study, Musa genotypes with high BBTD incidence did not support relatively high numbers of alate aphids, and the genotypes with high alate populations were moderately affected by BBTV. Plant viruses are known to induce specific changes in the host plant, modifying the behavior of its vector, which may favor or impair virus transmission. A similar observation was made in a recent study that demonstrated differential emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by healthy and BBTV-infected banana plants of Williams (AAA) and a Pacific triploid (AAB) plantain [42]. Relatively higher VOCs detected in the BBTV-infected plants were attributed to a stronger attraction to alate and apterous banana aphids than in uninfected plants [42]. The diversity and concentration of VOCs were greater in the AAB plantain than in AAA Williams, which implies differential production of VOCs depending on the genomic composition.The Musa genotypes evaluated in the field showed large variations in BBTD incidence ranging from 0 to 100%. BBTD expression varied significantly with Musa genotypes, with the highest AUDPC on the AA diploid Tapo, which conversely was among the genotypes with low aphid densities. This was followed by two AA diploids, Pisang Tongat and Figue Sucree; and two triploids, FHIA 25 (AAB) and Yangambi Km 5 (AAA). Generally, genotypes with only A genome (AA and AAA genomic groups) were more susceptible to BBTV infection, except for the wild diploid Calcutta 4 (AA), which was not infected after 36 months of exposure in the field, compared with genotypes with B genome. In regard to the genotypes with both A and B genomes, triploids can be found throughout the BBTV susceptibility spectrum; for example, the triploid FHIA 25 (AAB) was highly susceptible while PITA 21 (AAB) and Balonkawe (ABB) remained uninfected after 36 MAP in the field. In general, genotypes with more than one copy of the B genome (BB, BBB, ABB, and AABB) showed less susceptibility (0 to <20% incidence) to BBTV infection. For instance, low infection was recorded on the ABB triploids Daru, Pisang Awak, Fougamou, and BBB triploid, Lep Chang Kut. No infection was recorded on the wild diploid Balbisiana Los Banos (BB) and the triploid Balonkawe (ABB). This leads to the hypothesis that Musa genotypes with two or more copies of the B genome possess better tolerance to BBTV infection. However, the exception was the synthetic hybrid FHIA 03 (AABB), which despite having two sets of BB chromosomes showed a relatively high BBTD incidence (62.5%). Another genotype, the synthetic hybrid PITA 21 (AAB), despite having only one copy of the B chromosome, showed a very high tolerance to BBTV infection. Musa genomic studies can shed light on the potential role of the B genome in banana resistance to BBTD. The observations on BBTD occurrence on some of the genotypes in this study corroborate with previous studies [28,29].Wild genotypes often harbour some traits linked to resistance to disease and/or pests, as observed in the present studies with Balbisiana Los Banos (BB) and Calcutta 4 (AA). The diploid Calcutta 4 is known to be resistant to black leaf streak disease (BLSD) caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis [44]. Calcutta 4 (AA) has been used extensively in Musa breeding as a source of black Sigatoka and BLSD resistance [44] and for its partial resistance to banana weevil [45]. Calcutta 4 has also been reported as resistant to some races of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense in subtropical Australia [46], and M. balbisiana accessions have shown resistance to Xanthomonas wilt in a greenhouse trial [47]. The B genome is also known to confer some drought resistance in Musa genotypes [48]. The four genotypes-Calcutta 4 (AA), Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), PITA 21 (AAB), and Balonkawe (ABB)-that showed high tolerance to BBTV infection are of interest for breeding programs. PITA 21, a plantain hybrid developed by IITA and resistant to BLSD, is among hybrids grown by farmers in at least four countries in Africa, including Cameroon and Nigeria [49], where BBTD is present. Balonkawe is a traditional landrace widely used in the Philippines. Both PITA 21 and Balonkawe can be used to broaden sources of resistance to BBTV. However, further research is necessary to assess the robustness of resistance by experimental inoculation of these plants with viruliferous aphids under controlled conditions.The grouping based on reaction to banana aphid and BBTD identified a group of five genotypes that are highly susceptible to BBTD and less susceptible to the banana aphid, including Tapo, Pisang Tongat, Figure sucre, Yagambi Km5, and FHIA 25. The second group of 10 genotypes, Batard, Essong, Ebang, Elat, PITA 21, CRBP 39, CRBP 535, CRBP 838, CRBP 969, and Daru, were less susceptible to BBTD and highly susceptible to the banana aphid. These groupings indicate that BBTD incidence is a genotype trait and is not positively related to aphid abundance on a genotype [29]. Although aphids were found on PITA 21 (AAB), Balonkawe (ABB), Calcutta 4 (AA), and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), these genotypes were free of BBTV at 36 MAP in a BBTV endemic area. The lack of BBTV infection on these four genotypes could result from cases where aphids fed on them may not have been viruliferous, or the plants were difficult to infect by aphid inoculation. However, considering the establishment of the trial in a BBTV hotspot, with high levels of inoculum in the vicinity and the presence of spreader plants (BBTV symptomatic plants), and the same banana aphid population moving randomly in the field, there is a high probability that viruliferous aphids would have spread onto the plants of these four genotypes. However, due to evidently high tolerance, the plants remained uninfected. These genotypes may be resistant to virus inoculation. Hooks et al. [5] stated that despite susceptibility to BBTV, some banana cultivars have some resistance to virus inoculation by the banana aphid. Further experimental inoculation with viruliferous aphids is important to understand the reason for the uninfected status of these genotypes, even after prolonged exposure to BBTV in an endemic location.Musa genotypes evaluated in this study exhibited differential reactions to the banana aphid under screenhouse and field conditions. Aphid densities were higher on triploid and tetraploid genotypes containing both A and B genomes than those combining only A (AA or AAA) or B (BB and BBB) genomes. Similarly, genotypes responded differently to BBTD. In general, Musa genotypes with two copies of the B genome showed high tolerance to BBTV, and none of the plants of four genotypes [PITA 21 (AAB), Balonkawe (ABB), Calcutta 4 (AA), and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB)] were infected by BBTV after 36 months of exposure to BBTV inoculum in the field. These genotypes could be used as a source of resistance for breeding BBTV-resistant hybrids. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanisms contributing to the reduced susceptibility to banana aphid and BBTV.","tokenCount":"5829"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e29e9401d7a5f322f730bfa9324ee0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e1aa6d8-0d11-42ef-8754-e7a232764378/retrieve","id":"1582220906"},"keywords":["S tem Bli ght 5","2 Fusarium Rool Rot 5","3 Fus arium Yellows 5","4 P y thium R ool ROL 5","5 Rhizoc t uni a R OOl ROL"],"sieverID":"8f8102bb-2aa0-4dbb-88f2-f27efdfad34c","pagecount":"138","content":"FRONT COVER: Four field problems of beans. Background. a field severely infect ed with bean common bact.erial bli~ht (H . F. Schwartz): top inserto H.!/íQlhis v;rescens feeding (A. van  Schoonhoven); lower left. manganese to xicity (H . F. Schwartz) ; lower nght. paraquat chemical damage (H . F. Schwartz). BACK COVER: Left, a di sease ohservation trial at the Obonuco Experimental Station of ICA, near Pasto, Colombia (H.F . Schwartz); right. clean seed production of a promi s ing variety a t t he Quilamapu Experimenta l St a tion of INIA, near Chillan, Chile (H . F. Schwartz).C IAT is a nonprofit organ ization devot ed t o the agricul t ura l and economi c developmen t of th e lowland tropies. The Government of Colombia provides support as host country for C IAT and furni s hes a 522• hectare farm near Cali for C IAT' s headquarters . Collaborative work with t he In s tituto Colombiano Agropecuario (lCA) is carried out 0 11 several of it s experimental s tation s and s imilar work is done with nationa! agricultura! agencie s in other Latin American countries. ClAT is financed by a number of donors represented in th e Con sulta tive Group for lnternational Agricultura! Research. During thi s year these donors are the U nited Ste tes Agency for lnternati onal Development {US AID l. the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the w . K. Kellogg Foundation, the Canadian lnternational Development Agency (CIDA), the InternationaJ Bank for Recons truction and Development (mRD) through the lnternati onal Development As soeiati on (IDA), the In ter-Ameri can Development Bank (IDB) and the governm ents o f Aus tra lia, Belgium , t he Federal Republic of Germany , Japan , the Netherlands. Norway, S witzerland and the United Kingdom . In addition, spec ial project funds are s upplied by variou s of the aforementioned entities plus t he lnternat ional Deve! opment Reseatch Centre (IDRC) of Canada and t he United Nati ons Developm ent Programme (UN DP ). Informat ion a nd conclus ion s reported herein do 110t necessa ri !y ren ect t he pos iti on of any o f thc aforcment ioned agencies, foundations or governments ._\"\"r . fffJiATJ ~JtM\" ~~-~Beans comprise an important protein component in the diets oí' mast Latin Ameri can people. Despite their importance , national y ields average on ly 600 kg/ ha, but beans possess the potential to yie ld over 4,000 kg/ ha . This grea l differenee between actua l a nd potential y ields is primaril y ca used by plan t di sease/ in sect pest com ple xes and so il nu tr iti o na l pro blems en cou ntered in rarmers' fields .Thi s booklet is ¡ntended to aid sci en tists, tec hni ci a ns , e xten s ion agents a nd farmers in the identi fi cat ion of production problem s and deve!opment of control measures . As an ai d in fully de scri bing proble m s en countered in the fi eld, sorn e names com monl y used in La tin Ame ri ca are listed in b lu e on lhe right-h a nd margino P hotograph s of fun ga! structures and insects in thi s book are approximately life-s ize, excepl where the estimated magnification is noted under the ph otograph .Bean s grown in the tropies are affeeted by many plant di seases eaused by fungi , bacter ia , viruses and nematodes. A la rger number of plant pa t hogens exist a nd infeet beans grown in the tropie s than in tempera te zones o f the world. In t he tropics be a ns are gro wn almost c ont inuou sly and undee diverse env iro nme n tal co ndition s favorable for in fecl ion by and surviva l of pa thoge ns. Environm e nl a l condition s range [rom hi gh temperature a nd moisture present in tropi ca l lowlan d areas to low tempera ture a nd hi gh moisture presen t in s ub-tropical h ighland areas . Sorne plant path ogen . are restricted lo spec ifi e reg ions; for example, web Bean common mos ai e v irus (B C MVI is a seri ou s probl e m 01' beans throughout the world. Symptom express ion ma l' be affected by s t ra in of the vi rus, degree of re s is tan ce of ~h e bean va riety o r age of the plan t , and different env ironmenta l con ditioll ~ sllch as tempera ture . Leaf sy mptoms inc lude ¡i g ht -and da rk -green mottled or mas ai e pattern s on l eav e ~, whi c h o rte n h a ve a cupped appearance as the leaf edges c url downward s . ¡nfecled lea ve s are ofte n s mall er lh an normal, and mal' ha ve s ma ll bli ster, on the lea l wrfaee (Fi g. 1) . Plant s are often stun ted , an d p ods and bloss oms may be deform ed. BCMV c an be lransmi! t ed m ec han ical ly, by seed (Fig. 21 or by aphids (Fig. 3) Hi gh t emperalures (grealer lh an 26\"C) mal' cau se lhe production 01' loc al necro tic lesi o ns on lea ves (F ig. 4) or plant systemic ne crosi s w hen resistant planto are infec led by s train s of BCMV. This reaction is actually a bl'persensilive res po nse nf the re s ist ant plan t to in fec tion by the v irus. System ic necros i s begin s wilh a s light wilting of y oun g le a flel s al any stage of planl growth; lea ves turn brow n or n ea rl y black and lhe n wilt (Fig. 5), followed by complele plant wilting and dealh, The plan l va sc ular sy stem also becomes necrolic (Fig. 6). T he v iru s cau s es a normal systemic mosa ic react ion al hi g h temperatures in sURcep tib le pla n ts . Bean ye llow mosaic virus (BYMV) has a wide ra nge of hosts including bean s, soybeans, clover and gladiolus. Symptom express ion may be affected by pathogenic slrains of the vi ru s and differences in the resistétnce of planl va rieties. Leaf sy mptoms on beans consist of yellow and green_ m ottled or mosai e patterns (Fig. í), which are more s evere in their express ion than s imilar sy mptoms of bean eommon m osa ie virus (BCMV). Leaves tend to beeome brittle, coneave and glossy. lnfected pods and lea ves may be malformed and distorted. The plant may be seve rel y stunted , much more so lhan stunt ing eaused by BCMV. Spee ific vi ru s strain s ma y cause purpling of the leaf bases of lower lea ves whi c h may resu lt in d eat h of the plan l . BYM V is not lransmilted by seed, but is ea s ily Lransmitted mec hanieally and by aphids.Control measures co nsis t of planting resi~t.ant varieties and contro !lin g the insec t vector population (see Seetion 11 . 11 . Bean Golden Yellow MosaieBean golde n mosaie v irus (BGMV) is a serious proble m in many tropica l area s 01' the world where bean s and li ma heans are gro wn. Leaf symptoms eonsi st uf a y ellow and green mosaic pattern which ma y ca use the infected leal' to cud downwards (Fig. 8). Reeent ly -emerged trifo li ate lea ves show brighl yellow. genera l mosaie patlern s ; these may eont ra s t s harply wilh lhe older leaves wh ich exhibit less dislin e t mosaie sy mptoms (Fig. 9). ¡n feeled planls are easil y observed in lhe field b~ thei r genera l yellow appearance . Sorn e varielies may be s tunted and have malformed pod s (Fig. 10). High popul a tions of lhe whitefly inseet vector (Bemisia taba e!) are necessary t o cause BGMV epidemies (Fig. 111 . BGMV en n be transmitted mec hanica Uy, but is nol seedborne. Weeds ma y a l50 servl: a:; rese rvoirs of in oculum.Contro l measures cons ist of plan ting resista nt or t o lerant varieties and co ntrol of lhe in see t vector populatio n (see Sec li on 11.4). Bean ehl orot ie mot tle virus (BCLMV) does not us ua lly ca use se ri ous losses to bean s. but may frequently be observed. Beeause of a lac k of c ha raeter iza ti on, we have in cl uded under this virus name severa l viru s diseases with si mil ar sy mptoms described by different workers. Leaf sy mptoms inelude ehlorotie mottled patches wit h so rne assoeiated ieaf curling .nd deformation in certain varieties (Fi g. 12) . If infeetio n occurs durin g the early seedling s tage , a sus• eept ible plant m.y be severely stunted and produce a witches'•broom (Fig. 13). Several weeds s ueh a s Sida sp., Euphorbia sp . and other common tropica l weeds serve as reservoirs of inoc ulum . The virus is tran smitted by t he whitefly (Bemisia tabaei).Control mea sures eons ist of planting res is tant variet ies and eontrolling the in seet vector population (see Section 11 .4).Mosaico Rugoso Ampollado Arruga miento Encarrugamiento Mosaico em Desenhos Bean ru gase mosaie viru s (BR MV) produces sympt oms whieh may resemble those ca used by BCMV. Symptoms can vary am ong pathogenie strain s of the virus an d di fferen ee s in the resistanee of pl ant va rieties. Leaf sy mptom s inelude a li ghta nd dark-green mosaie pattern, often aeeompa ni ed by severe lear bl istering, eurling a nd malformation wi th a t hiekened or leathery appearance (Fig. 14 ). Pl ants are often quite stu nted, espeeially if infeeti on oecurs during the seed ling stage of growth. P ods may be malform ed and exhibít a mosaic pattern. BRMV ís transmitted me ehanica l1y, an d by species of Ceroloma a nd DiabrOliea.Control meas ures cons is t of planting res istant varieties and virus-free seed, and eontrolling the in see t vector population (see Seet io n lO.2) .Bean southern mosaic virus (BSMV) has becn reported to occur in many coun• tries of Latin America. The virus may produce circular, brownish-red local lesions ) •3 mm in diameter, or systemie mottle and vein banding symptoms, depending upon the variety inoculated. The mottle symptoms eommonly resemble those produced by BCMV and BYMV , but they are less intense than those produced by the latter two viruses. Leaves may have bli s ters and be malformed . Pod symptoms may consi st of dark-green, water-soaked blotches which are irregular in shape. BSMV is seed-borne and commonly detected by serologieal teehniques (Fig. 15) Control measures consist of plantíng virus-free seed and resistant varieties. Alternaria lear spot can be a problem in locations with high humidity and relatively cool temperatures (l6-24°C). Lear symptoms appear as s mal! reddishbrown, irregula r zona te lesions surrounded by a darker brown border. These lesions grad ual!y enlarge and develop as concentric rings, which often become brittle and fal! out leaving a shot•hole appearance (Fig. 16). Lesions may coalesee and cover large area s of the leaf resulting in partial or premature d efoliati on. Alternaria sp. can cause death of the central growing point of the plant or reduce pl ant vigor. The fungus can also blemish leaves (Fig. 17 Angular leaf s pot of bean s (Fig. 19) , is present in many regions of the world . Infection and development of lhi s fungus are favored by modera te temperatures (18•25°C) and periods of high humidity or moi stu re. Lea f signs and symptom s generally appear first on the lower leaf surface as gray spots, which la ter turn brown and become covered by small columns of hy phae (synnemata) which bear gray-to black -colored conidia (Fig. 20). The les ions are angul ar beca use of delimi • lation by the veins and veinlets . Brown angu lar lesion s are also apparent on the upper leaf surface, but us ually do nol bear synnemata. Pod and stem lesion s are reddi s h-brown and oflen surrounded by a dark-eolored border (Fig. 21) . The pathogen can become seedborne, and transmission also occurs from windblown spores .Control measures inelude erop rotation, planting seed free of the fungus and res ista nt varieties, ando application o f ehemicals (b en omy\\ or thiophanale).-o TESColLetotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magn.) ScribnerBean anthracnose (Fig. 22), is prevalent throughout mos t regioll s oi\" the \\Vorld, espeeially at elevati on s above 1000 m. Infeeti on a nd development by this pathogen are fav ored by cool temperatures (J4•18\"C) and hi gh humidity or free moisture. Spores are disseminated by wind and rain or m ovement through rield, by man, animals and in seet s. Leaf sy mptoms (Fig. 23), initially appear on lower lear s urfa ees and consist of dark briek•red l o black lesions along the leaf veins and veinlets. These lesion s may also appear o n the leaf petiole, branch, eotyledon, stem or podo P od infeetion generally appears as pink or rust •eol ored to blaek spots whi ch develop into sunken ca nkers containing pinkish masses af spores (Fig. 24). The fungu s can become seedborne and cause severe yield losses. Anthra c nose sy mptom s may be ca nfu sed with Ascoe hy ta sy mptoms, however, thei r d irferences are apparent (compare with Seetion 4.4).Control mea sures ¡nelude crop rota tio n, planting seed of re s istant varieties and seed free of the fungu s, and applieation of ehemicals (fentin acetate, captafol or ben omyll. Resistanee is a[feeted by the existenee oC different pathogenie races. Ascochyta leaf spot is primarily a problem at highl and elevations greater tha n 1500 m, and is favored by coo! temperatures and high humidity or moisture. Leaf s igns and sy mptoms con s ist of dark•gray to black zo na t e les ion s (Fig. 25), which may co ntain s ma ll, blac k pyenidia. Lesions ma y also appear on the peduncle, peti• ole (Fig. 26) a nd pod (Fi g. 27), and ca use stem girdle and plant death. Premature leaf drop may oecur during severe epidemics. The fungus can be seedborne.Control mea sures include crop rotation , planting of res L sta nt varieties or seed free of the fu ngus, an d applieation of ehemieals (zineb or be nomyl) .  Chaetoseptoria lear spot can be a problem in regio\"s with m odera t ely cool temperatures and moi st environ ment s. In México infec ti o n usualIy occurs on the prima ry len ves soon after plant emergen ce. Leaf sign s and symptoms cons ist of c ircular les io ns with light-ta n lo cream centers s urroun ded by a reddish-brown border (Fi g. 28). Small gray pycnidia may form in the les io n . Se ve re lear defoli• ation and yield 105S may oee ur. The fungo s is sus peeted t o be seedborn e.Control measures include erap rolat ion. plan ting seed free or the fungus, applieation o f ehemic al, (benomyl) and deve lopment 01' resistant o .. tolerant varie• tieso NOTES . . Leal' si gn s and symptoms consist DI' white angular lesions which may coalesce and appear irregular on the lower surface of lea ves (Fig. 29). The fungus characteristically produces a white floury-Iike growth of mycelium and spores . There may be a light-green or yellow discoloration present on the upper leaf surface, with no evidence of mycelium or spores. Infection generally occurs first on the older leaves and progresses ante new foliage. Severe infection may cau se premature defoliation.Control measures inelude crop rotation, application o f chemicals (thiophanate or benornyl) and development of resistant or tolerant varieties. Gray spot (F íg. 30) ís prevalent at elevatíon s greater than 1500 m where cool temperature and hígh moi sture condition s persi s t. Leaf s igns and symptoms consist of pale-green to chlorotic angular lesions (2 -5 mm in diameter) on the upper leaf surfa ce (Fig. 31). A grayish-white powdery growth of mycelium a nd spores may be prosent in these lesions on the upper leal' surface. A grayish mat of mycelium and spore s is produced on the lower leaf surface (Fig. 32) , and is very characteristic of the fungus. Severe ínfectíon s may cause premature defolíatíon.Control measures include crop rotation, planting resistant varieties and applicatí on of c hemí ca ls (copper hyruox ide or benornyl). Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetz.Botryti s cinerea is the eonidial or sporulating s tage of Botryotinia {llekeliana, and can b e a problem during periods of low temperature and high moisture. In• fection usually occurs at wounds on plant parts such as lea ves, stems or pods, oc seneseent blossoms eol onized by the fungu 5 (Fig. 33). Symptoms appear as a wa• tersoaked, gray•greeni5h area on t he affeeted ti osue, whieh 5ub sequently wilt.s and dies. Seedlings may al so beco me wilted and die. but damage is usually limited to a watery, 50ft rot of pods.Blaek stromata a nd selerotia (up to 4 mm in diameter) may forro in infected tis sue and resemble those formed by Sclerotinia . Apotheeia and / or mycelium may be produced by a germinating sclerotium of B. {uche/iana (Fig. 34), and aceount for variability in virulenee.Control mea sures inelude reducing the plant density, application of ehemicals (benornyl) and dev elopment of res istant va rieti es .  Powdery mildew (Fig. 35) is distributed worldwide and ilS growth is favored by low humidily and fiaderate temperalures. Hawever, the fungus can be preva• lent ayer a wíde range of environmental conditions. Severe darnage may occur if young plants are infecled , however, infeetion is usually noticeable only on older plants and seldom reduces yields. Leaf signs and sy mploms inelude an initiall y darkened area on the leaf which sub sequently becomes cov ered by white, powdery spots, generally only on the upper surface (Fig. 36). These superficial spats may coalesce and cover lhe en tire leaf with a white powder of mycelium and s pores. Seve re infection may cause premature defoliation . lnfecti on may occur on the stem and pods , causing the latter to be malformed and have a brown lo purple discoloration (Fig. 37). Spores may be presenl on the outside of lhe seed s. bul the primary di ssemination of spores occurs by wind currents.Control measures ¡nelude planting fun gus-free seed or seed of resistant varieties and chemical applications (dinocap, lime sulfur or s ulfur). Res istance is affecled by the exi sten ce oí different pathogenic races. ea rly in the season befare nowering. Lear signs and sy mptoms may eonsist of ehlorotie or white spots whieh develop into reddish •brown pu stules or uredia on the lower and upper leaf surfaees (Fig. 38). A pu stule eontains thousa nds of brown urediospores during the growing sea son or dark-brown teliospores near the end of the season, espeeially in temperate regions of the world. The pustules may be surrounded by a ehlorotic or neerotie border (Fig. 39) , depending upon the pathogenic raee, variety and environmental cond itions. Severe infection may cause premature defoliation. Pod infeetion may a l so oeeur (Fi g. 40).Control mea sure s in el ude destruetion of old plant debris, erop rotation, appliea tion of chemieals (oxyearboxin, benomyl or maneb) and planting resistant Or tolerant va rieties. Resistan ee is affected by the existenee of different pathoge ni c raees. Figure 41 illustrates the effeet of rust infection upon a re sista nt and a susceptible varie ty .En/y/ama pe/uniae Speg.Leaf blister smu t oeeurs in many regions of Central Ameriea and the is lands o f the Caribbea n. Leaf signs and symptom s on the upper leaf s urfaee eon si st of grayi s h•bla e k blisters or lesions (Fig . 42) whieh eontain subepidermal masses of blaek ehlarnydospores . Lesions are o ften del imi ted by the leaf vein s or veinlets. lnfeetion usually oeeurs first on the primary Or first and seeond t rifoliate lea ves.C ontrol mea sure s inelude destruetion 01' o ld plant debris, erop rotation . application of chemica ls (carboxin) and development 01\" resistant varieties . Web blight can cause severe yield losses when beans are grown in the lowland tropics where high temperature and moisture conditions persist. Leaf signs and symptoms begin as sma ll watersoaked s pots wich appear to be scalded light green to gray, and often surrounded by a dark border (Fig. 43). The fungu s produces tan •c olored hyphae whieh grow from these spots to uninfeeted foliage , eventually covering the entire plant with a web of hyphae if environmental eonditions are favorable (Fig. 44) . Pods can also be in fected by the fungus. The fungu s produces s mall brown sclerotia (0.2•0 .5 mm in diameter) whieh ca ll survive in Lhe soi l. The fungus can beeome seedborne.Control measures inelude des truction ofplant debris, crop rotation, planting seed free of the fungus , applieation of ehemieals (benom)'ll, and development of varieties with open plant canopies and/or tolerance . White mold is distributed worldwide, and has a very wide range o( hos ts which ineludes most vegeta bies and many weed speeies. This fungus is favored by modera te to eool temperatures, high humidity or moi sture and seneseenl plant tissue (Fig. 45). Symptoms and signs of infeetion initiall y appear as a water•soaked lesion, foll owed by a white moldy growlh On lhe affeeled plan~ organ sueh as a leaf or pod (Fig. 46). This infeeled lissue laler beco mes dry . light•eolored and ha s a ehalky or bleaehed appearanee. Blaek selerotia (1-10 mm in diameter or larger) form in and on infeeted lissue within a few days after infeetion. The enlire plant and its parts may beeome infeeled, but generally infeetion oeeurs on above•ground plant pans. The fungus ca n be ~eedborne, however, it is primarily di sseminated as selerotia Or spores relea sed by a fruiling s trueture eaHed an apotheeium (Fig. 47), produeed from a selerotium buried in lhe soil.Control measures inelude erop rotation, appliealion of ehemieals (PCNB, thiophanate or benomyl), reducing plant densities, and planting varÍeties whieh possess an upright plant architecture with an open plant eanopy, andjor resistance or tolerance.....Pudrición Gris de la RaízMacrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) Ashby Podridao Cinzenta do Caule Ashy stem blight can oceur ín regíons wíth warm temperatures and moderate to hígh moísture condítions. The fungu s ís a pathogen of beans, soybea ns, maiz. and other crops. Symptoms usually appear after soílborne mycelía or sclerotía germí nate and ínfect seedling stems near the soil surface or at the base of developing eotyledons. The fungus produces black, sunken cankers whíeh have a sharp margín and often contaín coneentric rings. The plant growing tip may be killed or the stem may break . Old.r seedling and plant infections may cause stunting, leaf chlorosis, premature defoliation, hypoeotyl and root degradation, and plant death. lnfeeti on is often more pronouneed on one s ide of the plant (Fi g. 48). Older lesions turn gray and often conta in smal! black pycnidia (Fig. 49) or sclerotia (Fig. 50). The fungus can be seedborne .Control measures include planting seed free of the fungus , erop rotation , deep plowíng, applieatíon of ehemicals (benomyl) and development of resi stant varíeties. Fusarium solan; (Mart.) Appel and Wollenw.f. sp. phaseoli Snyder and HansenPodridiio Radicular Seca FusariuID root rot produces symptoms which inelude reddi sh streaks or lesions on the primary root one to two weeks after germination . This discoloration increases in intensity and extent, and may CQver the en tire root system. The red color later turn s brown and longitudinal fissure s or cracks may appear on the ex• terior of the taproot and extend lO the soil surface (Fig. 51). The primary and lateral roots are commonly killed by the fungus and persist as dried remnants, however, secondary roots may develop aboye lesion s on the primary ro ot. The main root and lower plant stem may become infected and eventualIy turn pithy . Small bluish•green masses of conidia may be observed on old lesions . Plants usually are not killed by the fungus, however, yields can be reduced.Control mea sures inelude crop rotation, wide plant spacing, planting in uncompacted and warm soils, application of chemicals (thiram , Ceresan or benomyl) and planting of resistant or tolerant varieties . f. sp. phaseoli Kendrick and SnyderFusarium uxysporum produces symptoms which are easily confused with lhose eaused by F. sola ni infeelion . However, F. oxysp orum infeels through root and hypocotyl wounds and causes a reddish di seoloration ol' lhe vascular sys t em in the roots (Fig. 52), s tem, petioles and peduncles. It causes a yellowing of lower lea ves whieh progresses into leaves located higher on the plant (Fig. 53). The lea ves become progressively yellow and orten senesce prematurely. Sl unl ed pIants oceur if seedlings are infeeted. The fungu s can be seedborne l'rom spores Iocaled on the seed s urface.Control measures include erop rotation , plantíng resistant or tolerant varíeties or seed free of the fungue, and applieation of ehemicals (ethylmercury chloride or hydroxyrnereuric hlorophenol).Pyt hiu m aphanide rmatum (Edson) Fritz .P y thium deb aryanu m Hesse.Pythium myriotyl um Drechs.Pythium ultimum T row.Phythi um but/eri Gubr.Pythium root rot is caused by a compJex oi Py thium•spp. and seJdom causes serious yield los ses . The fungu s can cause root rot, damping off, and stem and branch rot o ¡nitial symptoms appear as elongated water•soaked areas on the lower hypocotyl or roots of seedlings. These lesion s become tan to light • brown in color and may be slightly su nken (Fig . 54). Plant wilt and death may occur in seedJings (Fig. 55) and even in mature plants when environmental conditions sueh as high temperatures and moisture persist, and allow the fungus to progress upwards onto other plant parts. The fungus caro beeome seedborne.Control measures incJude erop rotation, wide plant spacing, adequate soil aeration, planting resistant or tolerant varieties or seed free of the fungus, and application of chemicals (ethylmereury chloride or Busan•72A) . Rhizoctonia root rot produces sy mptoms which inelude reddish•brown sunken canke\" of varying si ze on the root and hypocotyl (Fig. 561. and may cau se damp• ing•off of young seedlings. Th e cankers are usuall y delimited by a well•defincd border a nd become rou gh, dry and pithy as t hey age. lnfection often proceeds into the plant pith and cau ses a brick•red discoloration (Fig. 57) . The fungus ca n be seedborne.Contro l measures inelude crop rotation, shalJ ow planting dept h, wide plant s pacing, incorporating organ¡ c so il amendments. planting res is ta nt or tolerant varieties or seed fre e of the fungus, and arplication of chemi cals (PCNB or chlo• roneb) . Sclerut;um rolfs;; has a wide host range an d produces symptom s which include brown, water-soaked les ions on the stem or hypocoty l jus t benea th the soil surface (Fig. 58). There may be a s light yellowin g of the lower lea ves and premature defoliation . Infection proceeds into the taproot and destroys the corte x, even• tually ca us ing plant wilt and death if environmen tal conditi on, are favor ab le. Signs of infecti on in clude t he presence of white mycelium whi ch adh eres as a co llar around che roo t s or hypoco t yl or to soi l parti cles (Fig. 59) .The fungu s al so produces s mooth spherical white sclerotia (1 -2 mm in diameter) which becorne brown as they mature .Control measures consi s t of crop rotclt ion . p lant ing of res istant or tolerant. varieties, and application of c hem ica ls (dicloran).  T hese ba ct eria are di s tributed worldwide and ca use severe y ield los ses, espe• ci ally in region s with modera te t o h igh tempera tures and moi s ture. lnitial infeet ion by comm on and fu sco us bligh t bacteri a appears a s water -soaked spots on the underside of leaves or leaflets (Fig . 60) . These ' pots sub,equently enlarge irregul a rl y and adjacen! les io ns may coa lesce (Fig. 6 1). lnfe cted reg ions appear fl aceid, and are en ci reled initi a ll y by a narrow zone of lemon •yellow ti ssue, whieh may later tum brown and necrotic . Yellow droplet s ol' bacterial ooze or exudate may be visible on and around les ions. Stems and pods may al so be infecled; pod infeeti on prov ides the opportuni ty for seed discoloration and/or s ubsequent seed tran smi ss ion of the bacteria (Fi g_ 62) .Co ntrol mea sures in clude ccap Totati on, plantin g bacteria -free seed , a nd t ol era nt vari eties , and applieation 0 1 chem ic a ls (copper hydroxide or streptomyei n sul fate) . Pse udo m onas phaseolicola (Bu rk.) Dows.Mancha de Halo T hese bacteria are di s tributed worldwide and can be a seriou s problem (Fig. 63) in regions wi th cool t o moderate temperatures (less than 28\"C) . Init ial sympt oms appear three to five days after infect ion as s mall , water-soaked spots generally on the lower leaf sur face. A halo of greenish-yellow ti ssue later appears a round these water-soaked areas (Fig. 64). Systemic plant chloTOsis with lea f yellowing and malformation may develop without the appearance of much external infec tion . A light cream or s ilver-col ored bacterial exudate may be observed on and around les ions . Stems and pods may also beco me infected and cause subsequen t seed transmission of the bacteria .C ontrol measures inelude crop ro talion, planting bacteria-free seed a nd resistant or tolerant varieties, and application of c hemica ls (copper hydroxide or streptomyc in sulfate) . Resistance is affected by the existenee of different pathogeni c stra ins. Symptoms of root knot nematode infeetion inelude plants which are stunted, yell owish and wilt during the warmest part of the day. Examination of the root sys tem of a n infected plant reveals numerous enlargements or gall s (1 -\\5 m m in diameter or larger) in which the nematodes are located (Fig. 65, left s ide). These galls interfere with the pla nt 's abil ity to obt ai n moisture and nutrient s from the soil and can greatly reduce y ield s. Figure 66 (r ight s ide) s hows feeding da mage by the root les ion nematode.Control meas ures for the root knot and ot her nemat odes inelude crop rotation, application of chemicals (carbofuran, fenamiphos or ethoprop), a nd development of varieties with res is tance or tolerance. Many fungal, bacteria l and viral pa thogens are transmitted on or within bean seed used by farm ers for planting (F ig. 67). T hese pathogens can su rvive for long periods of time, and then infect an d destroy the germinating seedling (F ig. 68) , or survive as epiphytes On the developing plant until en vironmental condition s beeome favora ble for infeetion later in the growing season. Seed storage life, seed • li ng emergenee and vigor, and plant yields can be seriously affected by these pathogens. There are three major control measures which can satis factorily reduce the effects of seed transmission.1. Varieties whieh are resistant or tolerant to infeetion by pathogens will prevent t he buildup of pathogen spores or baeterial eell s a nd as sure the produc • tion of elean seed. However, varíeties which are tolerant to infeetion may s ti ll exhibit sorne seed transm ission which eould provide inoculum for susceptible varie• ties; this seed s hould be handled by one or both of the following measures.2. Various ehemieals are avai lable whieh can be applied a s seed trcatments to destroy pathogenie fungi and bacteria present on or within the seed . Sorne ehem ical s are systemic and can penetrate the seed coat to destroy internal contaminants, while other chemica ls only di s infect the outer seed coat. ehemicals are also used to protect seed produced in the [ield. Foliar applications during the growing season, especially at pod formation and maturity, reduce the incidence o[ pod infection and seed contamination. Suitable chemicals for specifi c pathogen s ha ve already been mentioned in previou s sections. 3. Production of pathogen-free seed can be easily achieved in areas where specific pathogens do not exist or where environmental conditions are unfavorable for pathogen development. However, this requires additional producti on costs and an efficient system to distribúte the elean seed to farmers .Many farmers, especially those working on a smal! scale, commonly keep seed over for future planting. lf resistant or tolerant varieties are unavailable or cheroi• cals are not 'used to treat this seed, several other simple practices are effective for reducing the incidence of seed•transmitted pathogens.a . Harvesting should be as early as poss ible to reduce the period during whichBeans may be attacked by many insect pests which cause defoliation, pod and seed losses on the plant, and 'storage losses. Beans in Latin Americ a are often grown in association with other crops, and in diversified environments which tend to stabi líze insect. populations and maintain al1 equilibrium between pests and their biological control agents . Beans also have a relatively short growing sea son which usually enables the plants to esc ape s ignificant damage and yield loss before insect populations reach serious levels.However, these positive factors are often complicated by current agricult.ural practic es such a s continuous cropping and varietal uniformity. Abus es Iike poorly planned pesticide policies often destroy natural biological control agents or stimulate pes t.s to develop t.olerance to specific chemicals. Some insect pest s are di stributed throughout Lat.in America, while others are restricted to specific growing regions. Problem s caused by these insects are described in the following sections. A large number of ínseels sporadíeally atlaek bean s duríng and s hortly after planl germínatíon. Infes tatí on s of these ínseels are us ually unpredi etable and seldom cause serious oc widespread damage.Crickels usually sever primary leaves or growing poinls from slems (Fig. 701, while moleeriekets and whítegrubs (Fig. 711 feed on underground plant parts eausíng seedling death. Millipedes and anls destroy seed prior to germinatíon.Control mea s ures should rely upon ínseel baits plaeed near the base of the plants. A sa tisfaetory bait formulation may inelude sawdust, coromeal or wheatbran, molasses and trichlorfon or disulfoton . It s hould be applied in the late afternoon. The larvae of many species of noctuid mOlhs can damage bean seedlings . The adult moth lays eggs during the night on seedlings or organie mallero Larvae are usually gray-brown and can be found near lhe base of lhe plant a few centimeters deep in the soil where they feed sublerraneously on the seedling slem and hypocolyl, severing lhe rools and slem and causing plant wilt and death (Fig. 72). Severe seedling losses may occur, especially in moi st or humid areas of lhe field. Stem girdling (Fig. 73) ruay al so occur in older plants whieh wilt(Fig. 74) or are broken by lhe wind. This damage is sometimes confused with that caused by root infeeling fungi.Bait forruulations are effective control measures. Adequate soil preparalion and removal of plant debris by. burning or soil incorporation o ft en reduces pest populations. Preventive ehemical control is nol feasible sinee attaeks are infrequent and unpredictable. The lesser corn stalk borer can be a serious problem. especially in sorne areas of Peru and Brazil. The gray larvae (Fig. 75) en ter the stem just below the soil surface and tunnel upwards into the seedling, causing plant death. Adults lay their eggs in lhe soil or on le.ves, and larvae may form pupal chambers in so il a t tached t o lhe stem (Fig. 76).Control methods inelude e1ean fall owing an d heavy irrigations. Chemical control (with methamidophos, monocrotophos or c.rbofuran) should be directed near the seeds or at the base of the seedlings.  The seedcorn maggot can severely reduce plant den s ity in area s with modo erate temperatures, such as Chile and México. Larvae (white maggots) attack the germinating seed s at the growing point (Fig. íí), and prevent germination or deform the seedlings (Fig. 78). Larvae ean also penetra te the hypocotyL Adult females, resembling the common housefly, lay their eggs in recently disturbed , humid soil high in organie matter.Control is most easily achieved by planting later in the sea son when the soil temperature is higher and seed s germinale rapidly , thereby redueing the expos ure time. Resi s tant varieties may also be planted , or the chemicals earbofuran Or di.zinon may be applied. Several species of caterpillars cause defoliation of bean plant s. Yields are us ually not greatly reduced unless defoliation is severe due to larval feeding . You ng larvae of E. acrea aggregate (Fig. 79), are recognized by their hairiness (Fig. 80) and may vary in color fr om Iight•brown to blaek. Those of U. proleus are easily identified by their relatively large red•brown head capsule (Fig. 81). Feeding damage of U. proteu s is evident as folded leaf sec tions (Fig. 82), beneath which the larvae live. Larvae of Hedyl epta sp. are green, and feed on leaf paren• ehyma ti ssue of lea ves woven together (Fig. 83). Tric hoplusia larvae are pale green loopers whieh may damage pod s and direetly reduce yields (Fig . 841.Biological control is usua lly present since high levels of parasitism of larval stages OCCurs naturally unless broad-spectrum insec ticides have been applied. Ba cillus lhuringien sis is a bacterium which is efreet ive when sprayed o nto bean plants to control the larvae. Trichogramma egg parasites can a lso be re leased in the vicinity of infe s t ed plants. ehemical control (using endosulfanl is possible, however, it is difficult to reach larvae hidden between lea ves which are wQven togelher. Adult chrysomelid beetles vary in color according to lhe species (Fi g. 85) . AlI are a bout 1 cm in length. These insec ts are widely di str ibuled lhroughout bean production regions and can transmit bean rugose mosaie virus. Adults can cause defoliation during the en tire growth cyele of beans, however, certain amounts of foliage damage can be tolerated before yield losses become serious. Seedling damage is usually more severe (Fig. 86), while fl ower and young pod damage al so occur. Larvae feed on plant roots and root nodules, leaving feeding marks (Fig. 87) Or perforation s resembling adult feeding damage. Plants with severe root damage are stunled , and basal leaves lurn yellow with premature senescence.Adult feeding is controlled with foli ar applications of ca rbaryl or di az in on while band appli cat ions of carb ofuran are effective against larva l feeding . The Mexican bean beetle is a serious pest of beans in many regions o f Central and North Ameri ca . Adu\\ts are 5 mm in length and copper-colored with 16 black spots on their back (Fig. 88). Larvae are yellow and covered with branched spines (Fig. 89). Adult beetles and larvae can cause serious defoliation as adult s feed throughout the entire leaf, while larvae reed on the lower leaf s urfa ce usually leaving the upper epidermi s intact. Larvae chew and compress the leaf tissue but only swallow the plant juices. Stems and young pods may al so be dam aged . Adult females attach yellow to orange-colored eggs to the lower leaf surface, and mature larvae pupate whiJe atlached lo lhe leaL Control mea sures inelude des troy ing or deep pl owing o[ plant debri s, reducing plant density, planting resis tant var ie ties or applying chemicals (carbaryl, disul• foton or malathion) . Chemical co ntrol can often be combined with the first spray application for Apion attack (see Sect ion 12. 1).Agromyza sp. Liriomyza sp.Leafminers are often abundant, but generally do not reduce yields. The larval damage appears as serpentine galleries (Fig. 90) and the pupae can be found altached to the leaf (Fig. 91).Control measures are not economically justi fied.Vaginulus plebejus Fisher Limax maximus (L.)While they are not insects, slugs cause seriou. defoliation of beans, especially In El Salvador and Honduras. Mature and young slugs are cylindrical, Ilattened, lack legs and have a browni s h-gray body which is soft and s limy (Fig . 92) . Mature slugs may measure 10 cm in length. The hermaphroditie adults lay egg masses in moist environments beneath plant debris Or weeds, and young slugs maturo in about throe months. They feed on foliage during the night, and hide beneath plant debris and weeds during the day .Control mea sures indude removal of weeds from field borders, de struction of plant debri s and appl•icati on of commereial baits. Se veral species of aphids attack bean planes. T heir feeding seldom cau s es di reet damage to the pl ant, but sorn e species are abl e to transmit viru s partic1es of bean c arnman masaie virus ar bean yell ow masai e viru s. Aphids are small (2 mm) and green to bla ck in color (Fig. 93), depending upon the spec ies. Aphids may be winged or wingless depe nding upon age and density of insect population s. Aphid popu lation s can expand rapidly s ince remales are v lv iparou s.N atura l pred a tors su c h as lady bee tl es and some d ipt erous larvae (syrphid s) The lea/bopper is on e or lhe most economically imporla nt insect pes t s or bean s; il orlen ca uses complete crop los ses . Adults, measuring aboul 3 mm (Fig. 94). and pale green nymphs (Fig. 95) reed on lear unders ide s and pelioles . Lea/b opper damage is apparent on lea ves which have yellowed margins and cup or curl downwa rd s (Fig. 96) . Planls are stunled and have a bushy appearance. Be ans are mosl sen si • live to lea/bopper altack during lhe flowering s lage .Control measures inelude planting during the wet season , and use of mu\\ches, associ ated cropping and resistant varieties . Che mical control is achieved with seed, side •dressi ng or foliar applications o f chemicals s uch as ca rbaly l , dimethoat.e or monocrotophos. Mites do not usuall y cause significant damage but can become serious during the dry season and followin g hea vy appli eatio ns of pestieides. The red spider mite is found on th e lowe, leaf surface (Fig. 97), and is identified by sm all red or brown spots on its abdomen . Feeding damage may be observed as a cluster of pinpoint sized white d ots on the upper lea r surface (Fig. 98). Contin ued feeding cau ses th e lea ves to turn rust-brown in color a nd beco me eovered by webbing (Fig. 99) :The tarsonemid mite is a s mall, pale green m ite whieh is not vi s ible without magnifieation . This mite ca uses the edge, o f yo un g leaves lO roll upwa rds (Fig. 100); lea ves oft en ex hibit a reddish•purple diseoloration on the lowe, surface (Fig. 101) . Continued feeding may cause leaves to tum yellow and fall prem aturely . Heavy feedi ng may also discol or the pods.  Several speeies of whiteflies attaek bean plants. T he ir feeding seldom causes direet damage to the plant, but so me speeies and strains are able to transmit virus particles of bean golden mosaie virus and bean ehlorotic mottle virus. Adults are sma ll white in seets (Fig. 102), about 2-3 mm in length, which often fly up in a cloud-li ke mass when the plant is disturbed . !mmature sta ges are oblong, pale green, and attached to the leaf undersi de (Fig. 103l.Whiteflies a re controlled by natural predators and parasites, or by applications of oxydemeton -methyl , monocrotophos , phorate or aldiearb . The bean pod weevil is a seriou s pes t in Central America and can ca use complete yield 1055 when larval feeding is heavy. The adult weevil, which is black and nearly 2 mm in length, reed s nn flow ers and pods with no apprecia ble damage. The adult remale chews a small hole in the mesocarp of sm all pod s and deposits an egg on or above the developing seed . Thi s damage appears as a sea r on the developing pod (Fig. 104). Larvae, white rounded grubs a few millimeters long, reed down the pod wall lO the devel oping seed whieh then serves as a feeding ehamber (Fig. 105). The larvae pupa le in the pods and adults emerge when the pods approae h ma turi ty.Control measure s inc1ude timely planting (around M ay in Ce nt ral America) , devel opment o f resis tant variet ¡es and a pplication of the chemic a ls carb ofuran, carbaryl. or mo noc rotop hos. Epinotia sp . are lepidopterous pod borers which can be economically important in Peru, Chile and Brazi!. Young larvae are green while older larval stages appear pink. Larvae push masses of black excrement out of their larval tunnels onto the plant surface. Larvae feed on terminal and lateral buds (Fig. 106), or perforate stems and pods. Secondary rotting oflen accompanies the feeding damage in pods.Control mea sures inelude early planting and application of the ehemicals carbaryl, monocrotophos or methamidophos..OHSHeliothis virescens (F.)Heliothis zea (Boddie) Heliothis Helotero Bellotero Yojota HeLiothis sp . may cause sporadi c but severe damage to beans. Larvae are greenish •yellow with longitudinal bands which are oft en reddish•brown in color. Adults lay their eggs on young bean lea ves , and larvae reed on flowers and devel• oping seeds in lhe pods by perforating lhe pod wall directly above lhe seed (Fig. 107). The larva e do not tunnel in si de lhe pod but can destroy several seeds in each podo Secondary rotling often accompanies t hi s feeding and destroys lhe remaining seeds.Control mea SUres inelude the use of Trichogramma egg pa ras ites, or the Bacillu s thuringiensis bacterial pathogen on you ng larvae. The chemicals monocrotophos or meth orny l are also effective controls.12.4 Other Pod BorersMaruca testulalis (Geyer)Laspeyresia leguminis (Heinrich)Otros barrenadore s de las VainasOther pod-boring insects are encountered in ma ny reg ion s of Latin America . Man.lea sp. ¡ay eggs near or on fluwer buds, flowers, young leaves and p ods. Damage u sua ll y res u lt s from pod-boring followed by secondary rotting. Laspeyresia s p. cau se d a mage s imil a r to that of Epinotia, however, thi s borer u sually web ~ pods together_ Adults lay eggs on pods whe re young larvae bore into them an d des t roy the seeds (Fig. 108).Control mea,ure, inelude early planting a nd a ppli c ati on of the chemicals ami nocarb or dimeth oate . Acan/hose elides ob/ec tus is the principa l s tored grain insect in ca 01 high• land regions of Latin America or in le~s tropical counlries such as Argentina, Chile and Mexi co. Adults are gray•brown and measure 3 mm (Fig. 109). Females lay eggs among s tored seed or infest bean s in the field where they lay eggs in crack s or wounds of developing pod s . Young larvae then penetrate the seed which serves 'as the feeding and pupation cell. This cel! becomes vi s ible as a circular window where the larvae feed on the lower surface on the testa . After pupation the adult pus hes or cuts this tissue out and repeals the egg lay ing cycle imme• diately after emergence .Control meas ures inelude dus ting stored, s hel!ed bean s with inert materia ls s uch as crystalline silica, bentonite or magnesium carbonate or protecting stored seed with the chemicals phostoxin or pyrethrins. Seed can al so be protected with vegetable oils and resistant varieties are available.Zabrotes sub{asciotu s is the principal pes t of stored grain in warmer region s (u sually below 1500 m) of the tropies Adult female s are grayish•brown with Iighter eolored spots on the abdomen . Adult males (about 3 mm long) are one•half the size of females and are uniformly gray•brown in color. Zabrot es female s lay eggs and firmly attach them to the seed (Fig. 110). The larvae then hateh and bore through the egg shell and seed eoat in one proeess . The remainder o f the life ey el e is s imilar to that o f A contha see lides o bt ee tus .Control mea s ures inelude s toring bean s in undamaged pods and tl'eating seed. either with vege table oils Ot ehemi cals (phos to xi n orpyrethrin s).In Latin Ameriea beans are grown on many different so il types wh ere different nu tri tional di fi ei enei es or toxie i ti es may I i mi t yield. In Centra l Am eri ea a nd western Sout h Ameri c a , beans a re ge nera ll y grown i n mountain afe a s wh ere Andosois (Ineeptisols) pre domin a te. In these soil s phosphorus deficiency and alumi• nium/ manganese loxicity are the main problems . Between mountain ran ges, beans are grown in valleys whie h genera lly ha ve alluvi al soil s o f high fertility, A1th ou gh beans ex trac t rather large a mounts 01' nit rogen and potass ium from the soil, the mos t commo n nutri t iona l probl em is phosph oru s deficiency. Nitrogen defi ciency may a lso seriou s ly Jimit yields in low organi c matter soils or in soi Is where biological nitrogen fixation is nol effective due to high temperatures or soil restrictions. Potassium deficiency seldom occurs in Latin America. Beans are ext remely susc eptibl e to alumi ni um/ma ngan ese coxicity whieh frequently occurs in acidi e so ds. Am ong the minor element problem s, boron and zinc deCicieney are most eommon ly observed in high-pH so il s or soi ls with a very low content of weatherable minera ls .A nutricional problem is generally diagnosed wit h the use of so il and plan! tissue analyses, as we11 as vi sual observation of symptoms. Sometimes a range of different elements is applied to either s oil or folia ge to observe an y improvement of growth or disappearance of symptoms, so as to identify the specific element limi ting plant growth.Toxicidad de AluminioAlurnini um toxicity occurs in large areas of Latín AmE'rica with acid Oxisol s, Ultisols and lnceptisols. Seans are quite susceptible to aluminium toxicity and generally do not yield well in these soils unless lime is added . Sean yields are affected ir the aluminium saturation of the effective Cat ion Exchange Capacity is over 25 to 30 percent . A1uminium toxicity produces stunted growth and necros is along leaf margins (Fig. 111). Under severe conditions aU leaves senesce and the plantdies (Fig. 1I2, left s ide).A1uminium toxicity is controlled by applying calcitic or dolomitic lime. Six tons lime/ ha was effective on an acidic volcanic as h so il as indi ca t ed by improved plant growth (Fig. 113,background). Applicati on ofbasic s lag and certain rock phos• phatesmay also reduce aluminium toxicity,while such acid-forming fertilizers as arnmonium s ulphate and urea may intensify the problem .  Calcium deficiency is generalIy observed in combination with aluminiurn taxicity in acid Oxi sols and Ultisols. Calcium deficient plants remain small with a poorly developed root system (Fig. 118, right side) . Leaves remain green with a slight yellowing at the margin s and tips, and may crinkle and curl downwards. Internodes are often s hort, producing a rosette-ty pe of plant growth (Fig. 119) . Deficient plants have calcium contents in upper leaves of less than 2 perce nt at flower initiation.Calcium deficiency is controlled by deep inc orporatian of calcitic oro dolomitic lime, Or calcium oxide ar hydroxide . Low rates such as 500 kg/ha generally are sufficient to relieve calcium deficiency , but higher rates are o ften emplayed t o neutralizt:: toxic amounts of aluminium. Calcium phospha te ~ources s uc h as ba si c slag, rock phosphate and superphosphate may con tribute s ignificantly ta calcium nutrition . Copper deficiency is generally controlled by soil application of5-10 kg copper/ ha as copper s ulfate. Foliar application s of 0.1 percent copper as copper sulfate or copper chelates are al so effective 14.5 Iron (Fe) Deficiency Deficiencia de HierroIron deficiency may occur in organic soils Or mineral soils with high pH, especially if free calcium carbonate is present o Deficiency symptoms appear as an interveinal chlorosis 01' upper leaves which later ma)' become uniformly ligbt yellow to whi te (Fig. 120). Normal iron levels are about 100•800 ppm .The dericiency is controlled by foliar application of iron chelates. Magnesium deficiency is controlled by incorporating dolomitic lime or magnes ium oxide, or by baod application of 10•25 kg magnesium/ha as magnesium sulfate. Foliar spray s of magnesium sulfate Or magnesium chelates may al so be used . Manga nese defic iency may occur in organi c soil s or high -p H mi nera l soils. De fi cie n t plants are s tun ted a nd upper lea ves b ecome golden yello w b etwee n s mall ve ins giving a mottled appeara nce on beans a nd soybea n s (Fig. 124). Normal pl ants ha ve man ga n ese conte nts o f 75-200 ppm in upper leaves, while deficient leaves generall y con ta in less t ha n 30 ppm .T he d efici ency is cont ro lled by so il applicati on of 5-10 kg manga nese/ ha as manganese sulfate or manganous oxi de, or by foliar applications o f manganese chel a tes.Manganese tox icity is cornmon on very aci d , poorly drained so ils. Bean s are quite s uscepti ble to manganese to xi c ity and plants show ao in terveina l chl oros is of upper lea ves (F ig. 125) . With severe t oxi c ity , upper lea ves are small , c rinkl e an d c url downward s (F ig. 126) . Leaves gen erally con tai n over 500 ppm mangan ese .The toxi c ity is controlled by liming a nd by improvi ng field drainage. N itrogen deficiency is cornmon in soil s with a low organic matter co ntent , a nd in acidic soils with toxic level s of aluminium or manganese, or deficient lev eIs o[ calcium and pho sphate which reduce effective bacterial nitrogen fixation. Leaves nea r the bOLLom of t he plan! lurn pale gree n and event•ually , uni forml y yellow wi lh discoloration gradually progressing upwards (Fig . 127). Plant 'growth is stunted and yields may be affected. Upper lea ves of deficient plants contain less than 3 percent nitrogen during flower initiation, while a normal plant contains ahoul 5 percenl .Nitrogen deficiency is controlled by inoculating seed with effective strains of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, or by applying a green manure, animal manu re or ch ernical nitrogen fertilizers. The application of 50-100 kg nitrogen/ ha is ge nerall y sufficient , although in sorne soils responses ha ve been obtained with 200-400 kg nitrogen/ ha (Fig. 128, left s ide). Nitrogen fertilizers are generall y ban dapplied at or shortly after seed ing, or as a s plit a pplicati on aL seed ing and !l ower init¡ati o n. Arnmon ium 01' nitrate SOUTces are equally effecti ve. /lOTES ., 14.9 Phosphorus (P) Deficiency Deficiencia de Fósforo P hosphorus deficiency in beans is eom mon on vole ani e ash so ils and in highly \\Veathered Oxisols and Ul tisols. Plants lack general vigor a nd ha ve rew side branches (Fig. 129, left side). Upper lea ves are dark green but sma ll , and bottom lea ves become yellow and necrotic before senescing (Fig. 130) . Phosphoru s deficiency retard s flowering and maturatian (Fig. 131). Deficient pl a nts have less than 0 .35 percent phosphorus in upper leaves at fl ower initiation.Phosphorus deficiency is contro lled by applying, at the time 01\" planting, bone meal, basic slag, s in gle or triple superphosph ate or roe k phospha tes. These treatments shou ld be broadcast and incorporated except for the superph os phate which should be applied in bands in high phosphorus-fixing so ils. The rate of application depends on the phosphorus content of the soi ls and its phosphoru s-fixing capac i ty. H igh ra tes of 200-400 kg P 2 0. / ha of a phosphori c acid ferti I i zer are required for maximum yield in high ph os ph orus-fixing soi ls (Fig. 132, le ft s ide). Potassium deficiency seldom is observed in beans, bul can occur in infertiJ e Oxisols anp. Utisols, or in so ils high in calcium and magn esium. Symptoms appear as yel lowing and necrosis of leaf t ip s and mal'gins, initially on the lower part of the plant, but graduall y exte nding upward s (Fig. 133). Neerotie spotting may also oc eur. Defieient plant o have less than 2 percent potassium in upper leaves al fl ower initiati on, and this level may be laV/er in plant s grown on high caleium 01' magnes lum so il s.Potassium deficiency is generally conlrolled by banding, at the time of planting, 50-lOO kg pOlash (KzO) / ha in the form of either pOlassium chloride or pota:;s iurn sulfate. The sulfa te farm is recommended for soi ls which afe low in avadable sulphur. S ulphur defici ency is controlled by applying 10•20 kg/ ha of element a l slllp hur, or th e use o f s ulfur-conta inin g fertilizers 5uch as simple superphosphate, arnmonium and pota ,;s ium s u iphates. Certain fun g ici des su eh a s El os al may contribute to the s ulfur nut riti on 01' the planl. Zi nc deflc iency occurs in high-pH soi ls Or over-limed aci d soil s with low zinc conten t. lt may be induced by high application uf p hosp horu s. Zinc deficienc y sy mp t oms appea r as an interveinal c hl oros is of upper leaves (F ig. (36), wh ic h la • t er bec ome necrot ie (Fig. (37). Deficient plant s h ave zin c con t en ts be low 20 ppm in th e leaves. while n ormal levels are abou t 40-50 pp m.Zinc defic iency can be co nlrolled by so il app)ication 015-]0 kg zinc/ ha as zinc s ulfate , 0 1' by foliar spray s of 0.5 percent zinc su lfate Of zin c c helates. ferti l izer m ay be plaeed too clase t o seed s. ereat in g problem s ir chemi eals do nol di ss olve and leae h ra pidly in to the rOOl zo ne. Oam age sy mptoms inelude brown or neerot ie tis sue on t he lea ves, us ua ll y al the lear t ips and margin s tF ig. 138). Depending upon the severity of dam age, leaves may be deformed and s tunted in t heir development . Foli age burn can a lso oeeur as neero ti e s pots t Fi g. 139) ir loxie ehemieal spray s drift ont o bean planlS. For examp le, 2.4-0 dam age may oee ur if applied to oth er e rops nearby during moderate t o hi gh win ds tFig . 140) . Phy,iologica l di sord ers ca n be ca used by other c he mi ca ls whic h may contain impurities o r produ cts metaholi zed by so il microorganisms into lo xic by-produ cts, o r aggravated by specifie soi l and envi ronm enta l cond iti on s. lt is beli,'ved t ha t C rAl' recen tl y encountered a si milar si tu atio n in beans , ca lJ ed \"Prohlem X \", whi c h ma~; be caused by cheroica l toxicity in so il s \"'\\lit h a hi gh organic maU er co ntent a lld high pH (Fig. 14   Geo rg e S .  ","tokenCount":"10400"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"037fd12a86d600ebda999483447b82de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/878858cf-0839-4b3a-af1b-cff2a94caeec/retrieve","id":"1132427018"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"859d78e5-a0ac-4987-b173-8cee32cd6fe6","pagecount":"104","content":"This manual is designed lO help farmers and technicians identify th e most common ins ect, disease and so il probl ems of rice in Identification of problems affecting rice production in Latin America MOS l of the problems affecting rice prod uction can be idcntified by knowledge of the varieties auacked, care ful observation of the symptoms and lhe;r panern o f distribution in lhe ficld , and vis ual association o f lhe affeclcd pl a nls or areas with dif-(e re nces in soí l5, irrigation or fertilization practices. Information on soil pH and fertilit y hclps identify nutritional problems\"Most in sec ts are Jarge enough lo be observed; a few are minut e or difficult te detect bul can be identified by lheir feeding habits.Damage is caused by chewing, suck ing and rasp ing in sec ts, lhe first two classes being lhe mast impo rt ant.Damage to Icaves a nd panicles is easily detected, bUI damage 10 rools and ste ms cannO l be determined without pu lling up the plant or cutting open the stems.Many insects inhabit rice fields but not all darnage rice; sorne are beneficial as they fced on other insects. Not only must the ¡nseet and [h e damage eaused be reeognized, but it must also be determined whether the insect populati on can cause economic damagc. Frequently. the damaging insecls a\"re nOl present in suffici ent number to apply in sec tieides.It should be pointed out that specific insectici des have nol been recomrnended for (he control of lhe inseet pests des cribed for three reasons: (1) New prod ucts are continually being developed lo replace exi<ling ones; (2) frequenlly, lhe aVdil ab ility of specific products varies from o ne co untry to another ; (3) nomenclature is not standard .Diseases can attack leaves, stems, panicles and roots; their preso ence is con firmed by discolored, rolted are as of plant tissue in the affected parts. Some diseases are worsened by high nitrogen tert'l'• zation and water stress while in others the presence of thc disease signals a fertilizer deficiency. The hoja blanca disea se is transmittcd by insects whosc presence in large numbers may indicate rhat the di sease will soon appear.Soil problems are usually invol ved when (1) all plants within the area are affected, (2) insects and fungus diseases are nol obvious and (3) the problem is allevialed or intensified by fertilization or by flooding afler symptoms have appeared .Soil problems occur becausc th e plants cannot absorb adequate amounts of a specific nutrient or becausc some nUlrient is ab sorbed in taxic amounts. The following rabie shows the most ¡mportant nutrients and the conditions favoring (he nUlrienl dcficiency or to xicit y. When new lan d is first pUL into rice, many ¡nseels that have been li vi ng in the soil and feeding on the rools of othe r craps are already present in th e field s and can cause severe reduction in the rice stands by eating the ri ce rools and killing th e young pl ants. Commonly found in these areas are large, thick •bodied whitish worms that are always curled up in a U-shaped rorm (P ho to 1) .Th ese are larvae of rather large brownlo black-colored bectles that range in size from 13 lo 25 mm . In sorne cases, the ad ults also reed on the ric e rooLS. The dead plant illustrated (Photo 2) has had ma st of jts roolS deslro ye d by the ¡meets. These ¡nseets attack upland rice roo t5 al any stage of.gro wth but cannot survive in irrigated rice.PhOIOS 5 and 7 . Adult and larva of UssorhOPlrU$ orvzophi1vsThi s ¡nsect is a major pCSl o f flooded ri ce in many counlries.The adult wee vils (Photo 5) feed o n rice leaves leavi ng while lo ngitudinal scars parallel lO the midrib. The adults measure about 3 mm, but in Srazil o ne speci es is ab out 5 l O 6 mm in length. Eggs are laid bclow th e wa ter leve l and th e lar va fee d o n the rice roots (PhOlO 6). The leg less white larvae measure ab out 6 to 12 mm in length (Photo 7).When a considerable portíon o f the roOl system is de stroyed , th e older lea ves become yellow (Photo 8), and the plants may lodge.Chineh bugs are small (3.5 mm) blaek in seel' wilh whili sh Phot o 10. Larva of Spodoptera frugiperda Thi s inseCl IS faund in all ri ce-grow ing areas. The larvae (Photo 10) reed on ¡he le aves or you ng rice plants (Photo 11) . They va ry in co lo r fro m light brown lo green , to almost black and have three yellowish lines on th e back that ex tcnd from lh e head lo the tip of the abd omen. Two of these lines unite 10 form an ¡nverte d \" Y\" on lhe fronl pan of lhe head. The lar vae of a few relat ed species feed d urin g lhe night an d hide in lhe soil during lhe day. This is lhe mast seri o us o f lhe leaf-ea ting ca terpill ars as it is generally prescnt in large numbers and can defaliate a rice field in only a fe w days. The adult butterflies are usually brown in color with sorne yellowish spots on the forewings. The antennas are hooked al the tips (Photo 12). The damaging state is the larva, whi ch is easily recognized by il' green color , by Ihe large hearl-,haped he ad, and by the necklike thorax which ca n be extended or retracted . The tip of the abdomen i, also flattened (Photo 13). The larva rolls ¡he leaf margins of one or more leaves together (Photo 14) lo provi de a protected feeding area.The ¡nsee! is nol considered lo be a serious pes! of rice and is rarely found in numbers sufficient to cause economic damage. This small ¡nseet has caused tremendous damage to rice fields.It transmits (he hoja blanca virus disease a nd is often present in sufficient number to destroy entire fields as a res ult of its feeding. AdullS and nymphs (PhOlO 15) suck the sap from rice leaves and stems and fro m developing panicles during Lhe boot stage. The insects excrete a honey dew substance which attracts (ungí, causing soo ty black spots on the surface of the [ca ves and stems (')hoto 16) . The males are smaller and darker than the females, and l. . nymphs (immature stage) are wingless and have two black stripes running the entire length of the body . This species is distinguisned fram a similar insect, Sogatodes cubanus, whi ch has two black spots on (he back corresponding to the tips of lhe fronl wings (Photo 17).5. cubanu5 is co mmon in rice fields but feeds on grasses and neither transmits the hoja blanca virus to rice nor causes feeding damage.Protection against attacks from thi s inseet and from the virus is obtained by the use of resistant varieties. The varieties in the cenler and on the righl of Photo 18 are susceptible lo mechanical damage by the ¡nseel while the variety on the left is resistant.. . These are small , shin y beetles that feed on the rice leaves.They vary in size from 2 lo 6 mm, and the co lor may vary from bright yellow lo black . So me have characteristi c spots, others may have stripes, while others may be of a salid color. The \\arvae of sorne of these insecls al50 attack the root5 of upland rice. There are a nu m ber of bO lh long-and shon -antenn ae d gra sshoppers th at attac k ri ce. Ph oto 29 shows a common lo ng•horned grassho pp er, Caulopsis cuspidolo. Long-horned grassho pper adults and nym phs reed on leaves (Ph olo 30) and sle ms (Pho to 31 ), produ cing white he ads. Shon -horned gr.sshoppers (Pho to 32) m. y al50 ea l Icaves bUl occasionall y feed on th e developing gra ins (Pho to 33). In mas t rice•gro wing areas, th ese insec ts do no l ca use eco no m ic damage; bU l in Gu ya na and in the Caribbean area, they can ca use significan t damage if no t con trolled. There are four or five species of stem bo rers [hat attack rice in Latin America, bU I only three are cons idered to be important.The mast dam aging and th e most widel y distri bu ted is rhe sugar ca ne bo rer. Th e adult moth (Photo 34) is se ldom seen since it is hidden during lhe day . Eggs are raid on lhe Ic aves, and lhe newly hatched larva may feed on Ih e surface of lh e leaves for a few days befare ente rin g lhe plant through lh e lea f sheaths and lhen boring into lh e stems. The mature larva (Ph oto 35) has brown spo ts o n each scgment o f rhe abdomen but no stripes are prescnt.When lh e plant is attack ed at an carly stage, lhe growing tip may be desl ro yed, producing dead hearts (Pholo 36) . Later altacks produce white hea ds (Pholo 37 ). The white rice stemborer is found from Mexico to Peru and across northern South American from Colombia to Surinam. The white moth (Photo 38) is commonly seen on the uppermost leaf tip,. The whitish or eream-eolored larva (Photo 39) is easily reeognized by its small head, tapered abdomen and the absence of spots or stripes on its ribbed body. In upland rice it can be a serious pest attacking at ground level and feeding upward in the stem. This inseet is not normally a serious pes! in irrigated rice even though present in high populations. Plants attaeked by the inseet usually show a yellowing of the lower leaves (Photo 40). After che pupa stage is complete, the adult exits through a hole (Photo 41). The lesser corn sta! k borer al times seriously damages upland ri ce in Central America and in Brazil. The larva attacks th e base of the plant often ca us ing dea th (P hoto 42). The adult insecl is a slender moth (Photo 43) with grayi sh brown front wings and white rear wings. In the resting posi tion , the wings are folded over the back. The mature larva is blui sh gree n with brow n stri pes and measures about 15 mm . The lar va remains in [he stem only during feeding and is found in the soil at the base of the plant when not feeding. Since the lar vae li ve in the soil , they are controlled by heavy tains.., .,Photo 44. Tibraca limba tiven tris. empty grajn and sjgnificantly reduce yields . later attacks produce lighl and ch.lky grains lhal break during milling (Photo 47). Stink bug damage to rough rice can be detected by the presence of the brown fungus spots which appear at the point where the grajns were piereed by lhe inseel (Photo 48).The pr:ncipal stink bug in northern South America and Brazil is Oebalu5 poecilu5 (Photo 49), which closely resembles other specie5 in Cent ral America and in the Dominican Republic. The small black stink bug is found in Colombia and other parts of Central America . This insect, Alkindu5 otralU5, resembles a 5mall black beetle but belongs to .nother slink bug f.mily (Photo 50) . Rice blast is caused by a fungus that attacks all stages of plant growth. 11 is mest damaging in nursery beds for transplanting. It also attacks the leaves of actively tillering plants, the nades of stems and panicles.Typieal leaf lesions (Photo 52) are diamond shaped (re ae hing 1.5 cm in leng.th) and the center of the lesion is grayish; whereas early ¡nfeelion and resistant reactions cause smaH brown spots that are difficult to distinguish (rom other leaf diseases. Large leaf lesions often coalesce and kili the plants. When nades are infected (Photo 53). the upper portion of the stem dies. Infeetion may occur in any part of the panicle or al the base of the panicle, eausing neek rot (Photo 54). Severe neck rot causes heavy yield losses as the panicle may produce sorne grains that are usually light and have poor miJling reCQvery. Blast spots on (he glumes of seeds are often confused with Helminthosporium and other fungi.Th e disease is di sse mínated by spore5 ca rri ed by wínd . Hígh humidíty¡ prol o nged 50ft rains and co ol níghts favor dise ase development. Hea vy nitrogen supply and den se populati o ns stimul ate the disease . 81 as t is more damaging o n upland than on irrigated ri ce.Vari etal resis tance (PhOIO 55) is the most econom ical way 10 control blast. However, the fungus readily pro duce s new forms that attack re sistant varie ties after one or two years of planting. Car eful water control fo llowing establishment of seedlings and split applications of ni(roge n redu ce leaf blasL Fungícides are frequ ently use d to redu ce ne ck rot loss es and to improve milling quality .Narrow brown lea f spot is primarily a leaf disease that occasionall y causes minor spotting on glumes. The fungus causes ver'l narrow, linear, brown lesions pa ra \\\\ el lO the veins of leaf blades (Ph o to 58) . The lesion s on susceptibl e var;eties are somewhat wider an d lighter brown. Th e di sea se ;5 comman but rarely important. It can cause numerOU5 lesions and leaf drying on matur• ing plants of highly susceptible va ri eties, resulling in so rne yield 1055.Varietal res istan ce is [he onl y prac ticabl e mean s of di sease control. Mest modern varieties are moderately to highly resis tant.Highl y susceptible varieties should be avoid ed in high humidity areas where th e dise ase is co mmon.Leaf sea ld is. fungus dise.se that attaeks the o ld er lea ves. The les ions usually begin al the leaf tips and progress down lhe leaf blade . The lesions commence as water-soaked blotches and develop into large are as encircled by dar k brown bands with lighter brown halos (Photo 59). The zonation eaused by d.rk brown margins and lightcr ¡\"ncr areas is diagnost ico Lesion enlargement results in the drying and death of severely infected leaves. The fu ngus may attack grains , causing glume discoloration and ste rility .The disease is camman on upland rice in Central and Sourh America. It is nol serious on irrigated ri ce. Severe attacks of leaf scald may cause yield 1055, but it is nol gene rally regarded as econo mically important outside of Central America.Heavy nitrogen applications favor disease developrnent, Sorne var ieties are susceptible whHe others are considered to be toleranl or resistant. No efficient fungicide control programs are known .Stackburn disease, caused by a weak fungal pathogen, is an uncommon leaf and grajn problem of minor economic importance . Leaf spots which rarely cause much damage are large and rounded, with dar k brown and narrow margins that encircle the pale centers of the spots like a ring (Photo 60). The light straw-co lo red centers may show numerOU$ 5mall black sclero ti a. The lea f spots rarely , if ever, occur in abundance.Infe c ted grajns show pale spots wjth black dots in the center surrounded by a dark border. The spots are djfficult to distinguish from other di seases. Under favorabl e conditi o ns the fungus may attack a high percentage of grains in the field , ca using seed dis eol • oration. Whe n planted, these grains may result in seedling blight and death of young plants .Specjfjc control methods are unknown.Leaf smut , caused by a fungus, is a widespread , fairly common disease of linle or no economic importance. The fungus causes ,maJl, black ,pots on both sides or the leaves or older plants. The spots are usually linear or rectangular and rarely coalesce (Photo 61). Heavily infected [eaves may lurn yellow . Each spot is covered by an epidermis that when removed by soak ing in water, reveals a black mas> of spores. No co ntrol measures are k-nown or necessary.Leplosphaeris salvinií (HeJminthosporium sigmoideum,ScJerotium Oryz8eJ Stem rOL is an important disease of rice. ¡nfeetion of stems begins near the water l¡ne through wounds, as a black, irregular lesion that enlarges as the disease advances. The fungus produces sclerotia ¡nside the leaf sheath and eventuall y penetra tes the culm (Photo 62). One or two internades are rotted, and tissues are covered with numerous, 5mall , black sclerotia that are diagnostic (Photo 63). The upper leaves of infected stems frequently become yellowish and may die (Photo 64). Rotting stems lodge and yi eld 1055e5 can be high.Sclerotia are distributed in ¡rrigalion water . High levels of nitrogen and wounds caused by ¡nsee!s or o ther agencies favor disease development .Chemical control of stem rol is nOl effective. Burning of straw and stubble reduces the level of sclerotia. Large differen ces in varietal reaction to the pathogen are known, and the use of resislant and/or nonlodging varieties is the most effecti ve control measure . The le,ion, may coale,ce (Pho to 66) and kili ¡he upper lea ve,. Brown sclerotia are often attac hed loosely to {he lesions. Severe ¡nfeelion causes reduced panicle size, sterility and grain losses. Typical leaf blade lesions are shown in Photo 67.The di sease is favored by warm weather and al! factors that give high humidity: heavy density, high {illering and heavy fertilizatíon with nitrogen. The disease appears to be increasing in severity, parallel to the ad op tion of the modern, short va ri eties. It can be severe on upland as well as on irrigated rice .Although no highly resistant varieties are av ailable¡ many are considerabl y more tol era nt than others. The avoidance of highly susceptible varieties and reduced nitrogen ar e the most effective mean S of co n1rol... ..False smut is caused by a fungus that causes conspicuous symptoms, The disease is frequemly observed but has little or no econamic importan ce.Symptoms are seen only in maturing panicles. Infeelian occurs in young panicles; and few (occasionally several) grains are affected per panicle (Photo 70) . Individual grains are tran sformed into greenish yellow spore balls mal eventually turn dark. The spore masses may reach 1 cm or more in diameter.Humid weather fa vors dísease development. Sorne varieties of rice appear to be more resistant [han others, but special control mea sures are not necessary.Hoja blanca, the only rice virus disease in Latín America , is cyelical in nature, causing severe economic losses for several years followed by a period of relative unimportance.The ea sily identified freid symptoms ¡nelude long yellowish white stripes and mottling on leaves (Photo 71 and 72L stunting of the plant (Photo 73), and small, deformed, highly sterile panicles with discolored spikelets. The disease rarely appears befare planls are about tWQ months old and begins in isolated patches that rapidly sprea d to cover the field.The only important vector of the virus is Sogatodes oryzicola.The disease is nal transmitted by seed, soi] or other agents. Fertil-¡zer, density and water have little effect on di sease development and spread .Hoja blanca is controlled al present through plant resistance to the insect vector. A few varieties are also highly resistant to the virus. In sec ticide control of the vector does not satisfactorily control hoja bl anca.White tip , causect by a seed -borne nemato de , Aphelenchoides besseyi, is identifi ed by chlorotic or white leaf tips of o lder planls ( Pho to 74) . Flag lea ves may be twisted, causing incomplete panicle emergence (Ph010 75). Affe cted pan icles are small , hi gh ly ste rile and show di slorted glumes. Resistant vari eties and th orough draining and dryi ng of the soil fo r a fe w day s wh en the rice is about 50 day s old successfufly control st ra ighthead.Many species of birds cause damage lo rice. Ducks and other waterfowl uproot and destroy seedlings in írrigated fields. Many seed ea ters, especially migratory species, cause heavy losses by feeding on grain in th e milk stage (Photo 83) and on mature seeds. Damaged panicles in th e rnilk stage show a typical whitish discolora tion of ¡he glumes (Photo 84).The best control is lo schedul e pl anting lo avoid heading during migratory flights. Varieti es show clear differences in panide damage . AII older, tall varieties having their panicles above the flag leaves are susceptible to bird damage . Short, modern varieties ha ving long flag leaves extending over the panicles escape extensive damage so long as th ey re main ereet and do not lodge. 70Nitrogen defi cie ncy is the mast camman nutr;ent problem in rice fields. The Icaves may vary from pale grec n lo yellow (Photo 85), and tillering and growth are poor (Photo 86).The problem is more serious in upland rice , in fields Wilh poor water control, and in cold or light so¡!s. Nitrogen does nOl persist in lhe soil fo c more than a few weeks and should be applied two to threc times during the growing period lo maintain good leaf color and vigor...Potassium deficiency is difficult to diagnose in young rice si nce the only symptom is a difference in the color of the lower leaves. Plants may be moderalely stunted , but tillering is only slightly reduced. As the plants become older, the lower leaves become yellowish gree n, starting fro m the tips, and begin to droop (Photo 89). With increasing age, the lower leaves turn brown ; and the ye llowish coloratían extends to the upper leaves. In some cases brown spots occur on th e dark grecn leaves. Applications of potassium sho uld be made to the so il shor tl y befare or after seeding.Iron deficiency is a comman seedling disease on neutral or alkaline upland soils (Photo 90), but can also occur on acid soils during periads with little or no rainfa11. The deficiency may persist after flooding alkaline soil (Photo 91) . Mildly affected seedl ings often grow out of the problcm with little damage lo yield.Many abando ned banana planta tions show iron defi cjency symptoms when planted to rice (Photo 92). This is due to copper toxicity caused by the application of Bordeaux mixture over many yea rs. The exccss copper inhibir') th e absorption of iron and produces iron defici ency sym ptoms .Iron deficiency 00 alkaline soils can be avo'ided by transplanting healthy ri ce seedlings into a floo ded fi eld or by a pplying sulfur to lower the pH of [he soil .Preger minated rice may be SQwn iota water if th e field has beeo preflooded for a periad of four week s aod ir the soil is not allowed to dr y during the seedling establishment periodo \" \" \"Mangenese defici ency is nol comman o n the soils currently h eing planred lO rice in Latín Am erica. lt occurs on sandy , highly permeabl e, upland soils where the rapid perco lation o f rain water ¡eaches the ava ilabl e manga nese. Damage does not Qc cur on im pe rm ea ble , flooded so ils.The symptoms are diagnostic and appear as reddish brown strea ks in the leaf blades (Photos 93, 94) .Probably the most practica l control is th e use of foli ar applica. tions of manganese. Soil applicati o ns of 50-75 kg/ha of manganese sulfate can also be used during th e land preparation.. ...lron toxicity is a serious problem that occurs only in strongly aeid, flooded soils with a pH generally below 5.5. Iron toxieity is not a probl~m on upland rice. Two types of iron toxicity -indirect and direct-are recognized and can result in severe damage. In the indireet or yellow type, the roots (Photo 99) are inaetivated by a coating of iron oxide, and the older leaves (Photo 100) become yellowish or orangish in color. The problem is associated with phosphorus deficiency and insufficient development of new roots. In this case, the [eaves have not absorbed excessive amounts of iron . Varietal resistan ce is being observed under ficld conditions (Photo 101).Direct iron toxicity occurs wh en the leaves abso rb excessive amaunts of iron. The first sy mptom is the appearance of many small rust-eolored spots on the tip s of the lower leaves. These spots enlarge and progress down the leaf in rows between the veins of the blade (Photo 102). The mid-vein usuall y remains green and unaffected for severa! weeks after the appearance of the problem . lron to x icity can seriously affect plant growth (Photo 103).Iron toxieity is usually eontrolled by the application of lime to increase the pH¡ by preflooding for four to five weeks prior to planting, or by draining off the flood water without allowing the soil te dry excessively whenever the symptoms begin to appear.Generally ,aJuminum toxicity is nol a serious problem in rice in the western hemisphere. It may be severe in strongly acid (beJow pH 5.0), upl and rice soils; bUl usually after failures with exp erimental plantings in new unknown areas, farmers do nol reptant upland rice.Root growth is greatly reduced and the leaves become yellow with dead leaf tips (Photo 104). These symptoms may be confused with cold temperature damage in tempera te elimates . Symptoms usually accur in the lower parlS of the field where there is a greater amount of water 10 evapora le. Leaf lips 1urn whitish and di e (Photo 105). Ir th e rice is nea ring maturity , white and emply panicles may emerge al heading time.","tokenCount":"4388"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5e4e198ae5fa60be92c767ab1be58020","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c1b76a75-e8c4-4f18-a139-51b6badd9abd/retrieve","id":"1018135675"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"feaeb88a-fc5f-49f4-91d6-e472f3a16a8d","pagecount":"40","content":"La collection Pro-Agro est une coédition d'Ingénieurs Sans Frontières Cameroun (ISF Cameroun) et du Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA).Arbuste de 1 à 4 mètres de hauteur environ, il est cultivé pour ses tubercules et ses feuilles. Les tubercules sont très riches en amidon. Les tiges sont quant à elles utilisées comme matériel de plantation. Consommé tant pour l'alimentation humaine qu'animale, le manioc est très utilisé dans l'industrie alimentaire (pâtisseries, tapioca, pâtes alimentaires, cossettes, …). Avec plus de vingt produits dérivés, le manioc sert également dans l'industrie textile, la production du papier, de colles, d'alcool ou d'amidon.Sa culture procure des revenus importants aux petits producteurs à travers le monde. Les tubercules de manioc, ainsi que ses sous-produits, s'écoulent partout sans difficulté. Les tiges des variétés améliorées sont également vendues comme matériel de plantation.Ce guide permettra aux vulgarisateurs de mettre à disposition des producteurs de la filière manioc des techniques simples et améliorées de production, de stockage et de transformation.De son nom scientifique Manihot esculenta, le manioc est l'une des cultures vivrières les plus cultivées et les plus consommées dans de nombreuses régions du monde.Le manioc est un arbuste ligneux, vivace et ramifié pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 5 mètres de hauteur. Il produit de larges feuilles fortement lobées et spiralées de formes très variables. Lors de leur croissance, les arbrisseaux produisent plusieurs racines tubéreuses de réserve contenant jusqu'à 35% d'amidon, pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 1 mètre de long, et peser collectivement jusqu'à 40 kg. Le manioc produit des fleurs régulières femelles et mâles aux dimensions réduites réunies en petites grappes. L'arbuste produit un fruit de forme de capsule non charnue. Le manioc connaît une meilleure croissance dans toutes les zones proches de l'Équateur : une altitude inférieure à 1500 mètres, une pluviometrie variant de 1000 à 1500 mm/an, et une température comprise entre 23 et 25 o C. Hormis les sols lourds et inondés, il peut se développer sur tous les autres sols ; le manioc préfère néanmoins les sols légers, bien drainés, profonds et riches en matière organique. Il apprécie les situations bien ensoleillées et pousse dans les conditions de hautes températures et d'ensoleillement des régions tropicales et subtropicales. Exigeant en matière d'ensoleillement, le manioc préfère un climat chaud et humide et tolère les longues saisons sèches (6 à 7 mois), ainsi que les précipitations réduites.Le manioc peut être planté seul ou en association avec d'autres cultures telles que le maïs, la banane plantain, les légumes ou les légumineuses. La culture du manioc ne requiert pas beaucoup de main-d'oeuvre, soit généralement 75 à 125 hommes-jour par hectare, de la préparation du terrain à la récolte. Les tubercules de manioc doux peuvent être récoltés au bout de 8 à 10 mois après la plantation, alors que pour les variétés amères, la récolte commence à partir du douzième mois.Par sa résistance aux températures élevées, à la sécheresse, à l'augmentation des teneurs en gaz carbonique atmosphérique, le manioc est très adapté au changement climatique. • Un terrain plat ou légèrement en pente pour éviter l'érosion capable de détruire la terre arable riche en humus. • Des antécédents culturaux favorables : tirer des leçons des maladies rencontrées, de la présence de termites ou autres ravageurs, des mauvaises herbes difficiles à gérer. Ces informations peuvent guider quant au choix du site et aider à mettre en place un programme adapté de protection du manioc.Elle varie selon le climat, la nature du sol, la végétation et le relief. Il s'agit d'ameublir la surface du sol, de l'enrichir en matière organique, et de réduire le développement des mauvaises herbes.• En culture manuelle, il faut procéder au défrichage de la parcelle et labourer le sol. Il s'agit ensuite de procéder à un buttage ou un billonnage dans le cas de sols lourds. • En culture mécanisée, gyrobroyer, labourer et billonner dans le cas de sols lourds.Les bonnes variétés de manioc à planter sont celles riches en matière sèche, conservables en terre, et bien adaptées à la zone de production. Il s'agira de variétés à tubérisation précoce et faciles à transformer.Les boutures de manioc sont généralement collectées dans les champs, en cours de récolte. Les variétés améliorées peuvent également être obtenues auprès d'organismes de recherche ou de développement appropriés.Prélever les boutures de 20 à 30 cm de long sur les parties centrales brunes des tiges saines, âgées de près de 12 mois. Éviter les parties fortement aoûtées ou tendres. On reconnaît les pieds sains par la vigueur des tiges et des rameaux, le feuillage luxuriant, les tiges et les feuilles peu abîmées par les maladies et les ravageurs.En culture intensive, il est conseillé d'alterner la culture de manioc avec un repos sous couverture de légumineuses.En culture associée, il est préférable de planter le manioc en fin d'assolement, juste avant la jachère, car il épuise énormément le sol.Bonnes boutures de manioc Boutures de manioc à éviterAfin d'assurer une reprise homogène, récolter les tiges environ une semaine avant la mise en place et les conserver à l'ombre, dans un endroit bien aéré. On découpera les boutures au moment de la plantation, ou plutôt la veille. Chaque bouture doit posséder 5 à 7 yeux dormants. L'entretien consiste à :• Remplacer au fur et à mesure les plants manquants. Enlever à la fin du 3 ème mois les pousses fragiles et ne conserver que les plus vigoureuses. • Lutter contre les mauvaises herbes en procédant à deux, voire trois sarclages :-premier sarclage : 3 à 4 semaines après la plantation -deuxième sarclage : 1 à 2 mois après le premier sarclage -troisième sarclage : au début de la deuxième année. • Butter dans le cas du semis à plat sur une hauteur de 10 cm, 5 à 6 semaines après la plantation.Sur un terrain vierge ou une jachère de longue durée, la fertilisation n'est pas nécessaire. En culture intensive ou continue, la fertilisation permet de compenser les exportations d'éléments minéraux par la plante.Pour la production de boutures, la fertilisation minérale est privilégiée. Lors de la préparation du sol, apporter de la dolomie à raison de 100 kg par hectare. Deux mois après la plantation, apporter de l'engrais NPK (10 18 18) à raison de 300 kg par hectare, pour un objectif de production d'au moins 25 tonnes par hectare, ou de l'urée (150 kg par hectare), du phosphate tricalcique (100 kg par hectare) et du KCl (250 kg par hectare), pour un objectif de production d'au moins 30 t par hectare.Pour la production de tubercules, la fertilisation organique est recommandée. Lors de la préparation du sol ou au moment de la plantation, apporter de la litière de volaille ou tout autre fumier animal à raison de 10 t par hectare, voire 15 ou 20 t par hectare si le sol est appauvri.Le manioc étant largement planté comme culture de subsistance, le traitement chimique doit être très limité. La lutte culturale devrait toujours être privilégiée.Traitement chimique• Feuilles déformées et présentant des taches jaunes ou vert pâle.• Appareil végétatif réduit.Virose ou maladie de la mosaïque africaine du manioc, causée par un virus transmis par la mouche blanche (Bemisia tabaci) qui pullule en début de saison des pluies et disparaît en saison sèche. La mosaïque est causée par l'emploi de boutures infectées.• Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines.Utilisation d'insecticides à base de Thiamethoxam (Actara®) ou de Pymétrozine (Chess®).• Chancre sur les jeunes tiges et dessèchement de leurs extrémités.• Nécrose brune sur les feuilles.La maladie est aussi transmise par des boutures contaminées.• Utiliser des boutures saines.• Éliminer les débris de récolte.• Taches anguleuses sur le limbe.• Brûlures foliaires avec production d'une toxine.• Flétrissement des feuilles.• Lésions sur tiges avec production d'exsudat.• Défoliation des rameaux. • Petites taches chlorotiques jaunes sous forme de piqûres observées sur la face supérieure de la feuille.• Rétrécissement des feuilles.• Destruction des feuilles terminales qui tombent, donnant aux extrémités des pousses un aspect de \"cierge\".Les acariens (Mononychellus Tanajoa) sont de minuscules créatures non ailées qui apparaissent comme des taches à l'oeil nu, mais peuvent être vues clairement à l'aide d'une loupe de poche. Vertes au départ, les nymphes (acariens immatures) prennent par la suite une coloration jaunâtre. L'acarien vert du manioc suce la sève des feuilles et des extrémités des tiges de manioc.• Planter des boutures saines.• Effectuer des rotations culturales.• Planter en début de saison des pluies.• Maintenir la parcelle propre.• Entre-noeuds plus courts.• Mise en touffe des feuilles donnant un aspect buissonnant.• Déformation de la tige (torsion).• Dessèchement des feuilles.• Pieds de manioc défoliés.La cochenille du manioc (Phenacoccus manihoti) apparaît sur les extrémités des tiges de manioc, la face inférieure des feuilles, et les tiges. Ces cochenilles se couvrent d'une sécrétion abondante de cire blanche et sont caractérisées par l'absence d'ailes, une couleur rose, une forme ovale, et de très courts filaments corporels. La cochenille du manioc pique et suce la sève des feuilles et des extrémités des pousses du manioc. En se nourrissant, elle leur inocule une toxine qui induit de sévères perturbations du développement des plantes.• Planter des boutures saines.• Effectuer des rotations culturales.• Planter en début de saison des pluies.• Maintenir la parcelle propre.• Développement de moisissures charbonneuses sur la plante.• Noircissement des feuilles qui s'assèchent et tombent.En se nourrissant de la sève des feuilles de manioc, l'aleurode (Aleurodicus dispersus) sécrète d'importantes quantités de miellat qui favorisent le développement de moisissures charbonneuses sur la plante.Les adultes, de couleur blanc clair, et les nymphes de l'insecte apparaissent en masse sur la face inférieure de la feuille de manioc, laquelle est couverte d'une abondante sécrétion cireuse.• Utilisation d'insecticides à base de Thiamethoxam (Actara®) ou de Pymétrozine (Chess®).• Pieds de manioc defoliés.Le criquet puant (Zonocerus variegatus) mâche les feuilles, les pétioles et les tiges vertes du manioc. Il défolie les pieds de manioc et débarrasse les tiges de leur écorce.• Ramasser à la main ou détruire les bandes de larves avant leur dispersion.• Repérer les zones de ponte à proximité de la culture et détruire les oothèques.• Piéger les larves et jeunes imagos en utilisant des perches enfoncées obliquement sur lesquelles ils vont se rassembler. Ramasser et détruire les criquets rassemblés sur les perches.• Utiliser des appâts empoisonnés avec un insecticide.• Utiliser des extraits de neem. • Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines.• Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines. Les variétés précoces parviennent à maturité entre 6 et 8 mois en moyenne après la date de plantation, tandis que les variétés tardives nécessitent entre 12 et 18 mois dans des conditions optimales, comme en zone de forêt humide. En zone de savane humide, la récolte des variétés tardives se situe entre 20 et 24 mois après la date de plantation. Le manioc se développe plus rapidement dans les bas-fonds humides que dans les régions de haute altitude.Le rendement varie de 20 à 30 t par hectare pour les varietés locales, et de 25 à 70 t par hectare pour les variétés améliorées. En milieu hostile où d'autres cultures échouent, le manioc est capable d'offrir un bon rendement. Dans des conditions classiques, le rendement peut varier entre 8 et 15 tonnes de tubercules par hectare.Deux à trois jours après la récolte, on assiste à un processus rapide de pourrissement des tubercules. La récolte se fait généralement lors de son utilisation, incluant une petite durée de conservation à l'air libre. Plusieurs méthodes permettent de prolonger de quelques jours la conservation :• Le stockage dans des silos-fosses recouverts d'un toit de chaume.• Le stockage dans de la sciure humide.• L'immersion dans un fongicide à base de Thiabendazole (ex : Mertect SC) et la mise en sacs de polyéthylène. • Le stockage au froid et la congélation.• Le stockage sous bâche en plastique de racines trempées dans de l'eau.La méthode de conservation au champ est la plus utilisée dans les exploitations familiales, mais elle diminue la productivité de la terre qui ne peut être utilisée pour de nouvelles cultures. Les tubercules, facilement attaqués par les rongeurs, insectes et nématodes, deviennent plus fibreux et liquéfiés, entraînant une baisse des propriétés nutritives du manioc.Le manioc est conservé sous forme de cossettes (morceaux de manioc découpés, défibrés ou non). Les cossettes stockées constituent un milieu favorable au développement de nombreux insectes tels que les coléoptères. Parmi les insectes nuisibles, il y a le grand capucin du maïs (Prostephanus truncatus), certaines espèces du genre Dinoderus, le capucin des grains (Rhyzopertha dominica), le tribolium rouge de la farine (Tribolium castaneum), le charançon du maïs (Sitophilus zeamais), la bruche du café (Araecerus fasciculatus), etc. Le grand capucin du maïs est le plus destructeur, pouvant occasionner des pertes de 70% après 4 mois de stockage. Il peut être maîtrisé par la pratique de la lutte intégrée, et surtout biologique, à l'aide du prédateur Teretrius nigrescens.Pour ce faire, il faut au préalable sécher rapidement les cossettes, et dans de bonnes conditions d'hygiène. Les cossettes doivent aussi être conservées dans des structures de stockage offrant une protection suffisante contre les insectes nuisibles et la réhumidification. Les greniers construits en argile ainsi que les sacs et tonneaux en plastique sont les mieux adaptés.Il faut les contrôler régulièrement pendant la période de stockage. En cas d'attaque, il faut les étaler au soleil pour provoquer la fuite ou la mort de la plupart des ravageurs. Il est ensuite impératif de procéder immédiatement à la mouture et à la consommation, afin d'éviter des pertes subséquentes.Dinoderus spp.Bruche du café Charançon du riz Tribulium rougeÉcraser les feuilles à l'aide d'un mortier afin d'obtenir une masse très fine.Faire bouillir de l'eau, ajouter du sel et les feuilles écrasées. Remuer constamment jusqu'à ce que les feuilles soient cuites (15 minutes au moins). Mettre de côté.Frire les oignons, ajouter le lait de coco ou le beurre d'arachide. Quand le mélange commence à bouillir, ajouter les feuilles de manioc cuites. Remuer encore quelques minutes et retirer du feu. Servir avec du riz ou un autre plat principal à base de céréales.Pour rendre les feuilles comestibles, une cuisson des feuilles préalablement hachées ou broyées permet d'éliminer une grande quantité de cyanogènes.• 1 kg de feuilles de manioc fraîches et tendres • 1 boîte de suc de noix de palme (800 g de sauce graine) • Tubercules de manioc ou de macabo (facultatif) Préparation Dans une grande casserole à fond épais, mélanger le suc de palme avec les feuilles de manioc pilées. On peut y ajouter des morceaux de tubercules de manioc ou de macabo préalalement épluchés, coupés et nettoyés (facultatif).  Le manioc peut être transformé sous différentes formes. Une dizaine de sous-produits sont présentés ci-dessous. Avant toute opération de transformation, sélectionner des racines de manioc saines, mûres, fermes, fraîchement récoltées, ce afin d'obtenir un produit de qualité.La transformation du manioc part de 2 produits semi-finis, à savoir la pâte de manioc (fermentée ou non) et les cos settes.Éplucher et laver les tubercules de manioc. Puis, les tremper dans l'eau pendant trois jours afin de les ramollir. Une fois fermentés, les nettoyer en retirant la partie centrale, puis récuperer le manioc. La pâte obtenue est pressée et écrasée pour obtentir une pâte de manioc fermentée servant à la fabrication du bâton de manioc.La pâte de manioc non fermentée sert à la fabrication de plusieurs autres produits : pâtisseries, couscous, semoule, amidon, etc. Éplucher les racines fraîches. Les laver avec de l'eau propre. Puis, râper le manioc. Le râpage est fait soit manuellement, en frottant le manioc contre une feuille métallique perforée, soit mécaniquement, grâce à un broyeur.6.1 Fabrication artisanale de la pâte de maniocLe bâton produit dépend du type de conditionnement utilisé.Quelques types de bâtons de manioc (Cameroun)La pâte de manioc fermentée est déposée sous forme de ficelle d'environ 27 cm de long, sur la longueur d'un ou deux morceaux de feuilles de jonc ou de bananier plantain. Laisser 1 à 2 cm à chaque extrémité, puis rouler la feuille et rabattre les extrémités. Ficeler le tout.La pâte de manioc fermentée est moulée dans une ou deux feuilles d'halopegia azurea, sous forme de fil d'environ 40 cm de long, en laissant 1 à 2 cm aux extrémités rabattues.La pâte de manioc fermentée est assaissonée avec de l'huile de palme, du sel, quelques épices locales et du piment, si souhaité. La pâte jaune obtenue est conditionnée sous forme de pain de mie d'environ 20 cm de long et 5 cm d'épaisseur, et moulée dans un ou deux morceaux de larges feuilles de maranthacées.Pour obtenir 250 kg de cossettes, il faut prévoir 1 tonne de tubercules de manioc frais. Les cossettes sont obtenues après épluchage et découpage en morceaux du manioc. Il s'agit ensuite de tremper les racines pendant 3 à 6 jours, en fonction des saisons. Cette opération dure moins longtemps en saison sèche.Puis, retirer les fibres et faire sécher les cossettes au soleil avant de les conserver dans des sacs propres.Après le conditionnement, les pâtes conditionnées sont cuites pendant 45 minutes.La fabrication de la farine de manioc est faite soit à partir de cossettes séchées, soit à partir de la pâte de manioc non fermentée. Dans les deux cas, le produit est séché, broyé finement, puis tamisé avant d'être emballé.• Piler ou meuler les cossettes pour produire la farine.• Tamiser et mettre la farine dans des emballages appropriés (cuvette, sac, sachet).À partir de la pâte de manioc • Presser la pâte obtenue après le râpage des racines épluchées et soigneusement lavées. • Sécher au soleil sur une toile propre, disposée sur une pente douce.• La pâte est séchée jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit farineuse. Moudre ensuite la pate séchée au mortier ou dans un moulin, pour produire la farine. • Tamiser et mettre la farine dans des emballages appropriés (cuvette, sac, sachet).La toile doit être placée sur un support surélevé et non directement sur le sol.L'amidon de manioc est produit à base de pâte de manioc non fermentée.• Malaxer la pâte de manioc dans une bassine d'eau, à raison de 5 litres d'eau pour 1 kg de pâte. • Tamiser le mélange et récueillir le lait d'amidon dans une bassine. Laisser l'amidon se décanter pendant 1 heure. • Recueillir la pâte qui s'est déposée au fond et la sécher au soleil. On obtient de l'amidon. • Moudre l'amidon et tamiser la poudre obtenue, puis conditionner dans des sacs.La semoule fermentée et cuite, couramment appelée « attiéké », est issue de la fermentation du manioc épluché et broyé. La fermentation est assurée par des ferments traditionnels appelés « magnan ». Les semoules sont obtenues après essorage de la pâte. Elles sont séchées, tamisées, calibrées et cuites à la vapeur pour donner un produit acidulé et légèrement collant appelé attiéké frais. Pour obtenir 100 kg d'attiéké frais, il faut prévoir 200 kg de tubercules de manioc frais.• 70 kg de pâte de manioc non fermentée • 15 kg de tubercules de manioc • 150 ml d'huile de palme raffinée• Éplucher les tubercules de manioc. Les laver, les faire cuire et les laisser refroidir. • Envelopper ensuite dans un sac en polypropylène. Laisser au repos 2 à 3 jours pour obtenir le levain. • Enlever les fibres et laver les racines couvertes de mycélium au moment de l'utilisation.• Préparer 70 kg de pâte de manioc et 7 kg de levain. Mélanger la pâte et le levain et y ajouter environ 150 ml d'huile de palme, puis malaxer le tout. • Mettre le mélange dans des bassines en fibres végétales tressées pour la fermentation, avec égouttage pendant 2 à 3 jours. • Presser la pâte contenue dans les sacs, à l'aide de blocs de pierre.• Émotter à l'aide d'un tamis à grosses mailles carrées de 1 à 2 mm de côté, tout en éliminant une partie des fibres.• Semouler les mottes en réalisant les granules à la main dans une large cuvette, et conférer aux particules une forme lisse plus ou moins sphérique. • Exposer la semoule au soleil pour une déshydratation partielle.• Vanner pour éliminer les fibres. Puis, faire cuire dans un couscoussier.• Conditionner l'attiéké frais dans des cuvettes, des sachets ou des paniers.Le gari est une semoule sèche qui se conserve très longtemps. Une tonne de tubercules de manioc peut produire 200 à 300 kg de gari.• Préparer la pâte de manioc, l'ensacher dans des sacs, et laisser fermenter 2 à 3 jours. • Presser la pâte à l'aide de blocs de pierre ou d'une presse, jusqu'à ce que l'eau cesse de s'égoutter. À noter que la surface du sac doit rester humide.• Émotter la pâte essorée à l'aide d'un tamis tout en éliminant une partie des fibres. • Griller ou rôtir la semoule dans une poêle ou un plateau chauffé.• Après la torréfaction, tamiser le gari afin de retirer les gros morceaux qui persistent, et le calibrer au moyen de tamis en fibres de bambou tressés de mailles différentes qui vont donner ainsi différentes qualités de gari. • Le conserver dans un récipient propre, en sac ou en sachet, pour la commercialisation.Il faut se débarrasser de la bonne quantité d'eau pour éviter que le gari forme des grumeaux lors de la torréfaction. Si l'on presse trop la pâte, le gari ne cuira pas convenablement et deviendra farineux. Pour 20 litres de bière, prévoir 40 kg de tubercules de manioc.• Tremper les tubercules de manioc dans de l'eau pendant 7 jours.• Éplucher les racines et broyer la pulpe.• Ajouter 20 litres d'eau à la pâte obtenue et mélanger. Laisser au repos pendant 3 jours. • Filtrer le jus fermenté. Conditionner la bière dans des jarres ou autres récipients adaptés.Ingrédients pour 4 litres d'alcool à 45%• 4 kg d'amidon de manioc • 1 kg de grains de sorgho • 20 à 30 g de levure de bièrePréparation du malt de sorgho • Trier, nettoyer les grains de sorgho.• Les faire tremper dans l'eau pendant 4 jours afin de les faire germer.• Faire sécher ensuite les grains germés au soleil pendant 2 à 3 jours.• Ôter manuellement les plantules.• Broyer les grains entiers (à savoir l'écorce et l'albumen) pour obtenir la farine de sorgho malté. Le manioc offre des avantages considérables en matière de sécurité alimentaire, avec des rendements stables et élevés, même sur des sols marginaux et dans des conditions pluviométriques incertaines. Les coûts de production requis tels que l'achat des engrais, des produits phytosanitaires et du matériel de reproduction sont minimes.Lorsque les feuilles de manioc se referment sur elles-mêmes, les pieds de manioc peuvent être laissés à l'abandon. Ce qui permet d'optimiser l'utilisation de la main-d'oeuvre sans mettre en danger la production de manioc.La production de racines de manioc est une activité rentable. Ci-dessous, le compte d'exploitation d'un hectare de manioc sur 3 ans : Pour une plantation d'environ 10 000 pieds à l'hectare, avec un rendement potentiel de 30 tonnes, le revenu net s'élève à 840 000 FCFA, à raison de 28 FCFA/kg. En Côte d'Ivoire, la camionnette de 2,5 tonnes se négocie entre 100 000 FCFA et 200 000 FCFA (transport compris).Compte tenu de sa faible durée de conservation, c'est à partir du 10 ème mois qu'il faut rechercher des clients (transformateurs, revendeurs) pour obtenir des commandes fermes avant la récolte (prévue au 12 ème mois).Le gari est un produit très consommé au Bénin. Sa production est donc une source de revenus assez stable. Le tableau suivant présente un compte d'exploitation pour la production et la commercialisation de 825 kg de gari par semaine.C'est une activité rémunératrice qui procure un revenu supérieur au SMIG pour un groupe de 4 personnes. La production et la commercialisation de l'attiéké peuvent générer plus de 5 000 000 FCFA de bénefice annuel. Production et transformation du manioc","tokenCount":"3902"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6ecec90421964f6ff1c627582f74aa75","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0c52c760-33e1-4645-8192-e9f63b92e81b/content","id":"-699717228"},"keywords":["chlorophyll","cropping systems","early vigour","grain yield","nitrogen content"],"sieverID":"9a9be5a9-996d-41a0-aa6e-fd6e4654a05a","pagecount":"15","content":"Previous, research focused mainly on the effects of conservation agriculture (CA) and conventional practices (CP) on crop yield mostly. A study was conducted at five sites in Zimbabwe from 2012 to 2014 to investigate effects of CA and CP practices on emergence, chlorophyll content, early vigour and grain yield of different maize varieties using 12 hybrids and 4 open pollinated varieties (OPVs). The experiment was laid as a 4 × 4 alpha lattice design with three replications. Emergence was higher under CA (75%) at University of Zimbabwe (UZ) in 2012/13 and Domboshawa Training Centre (DTC) (67%) compared to CP (71% and 39% respectively). Lower early plant vigour was observed under CA compared to CP at most sites. CA had lower leaf chlorophyll content during the early crop growth stages compared to CP. However, at some instances, CA had higher leaf chlorophyll content (45 units) than CP (35 units) at 78 days after sowing in Zimuto 2012/13. For maize yield, CA outperformed CP on a sandy loamy soil (3050 kg ha -1 vs 2656 kg ha -1 ) and clay soil (4937 kg ha -1 vs 4274 kg ha -1 ). However, on a sandy soil, CP outperformed CA (1764 vs 1313 kg ha -1 ). Our results suggest that tillage effects on early maize plant vigor, leaf chlorophyll content and the final yield can be site and season specific. Furthermore, a delay of nutrient release for plant uptake under CA systems was found and potentially implies investigations of new fertilization strategies for such cropping systems.Agriculture systems based on tillage and removal/or burning of crop residues pose a threat to food security through accelerated soil degradation (Thierfelder, Mutenje, Mujeyi, & Mupangwa, 2014). Maize yields are reportedly declining to the highest average yield levels of 1.1 tons ha -1 in the past decade (Thierfelder & Wall, 2009). The need to implement more sustainable ways of farming in the smallholder sector is therefore increasingly important. Several ways present potential solutions in addressing food insecurity and soil degradation, and this range from new and adapted maize varieties to good agronomic practices (Cairns, Sanchez, Vargas, Ordoñez, & Araus, 2012). Conservation agriculture (CA), based on minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil organic cover, and the use of diverse crop rotations/associations, has the potential for addressing the current food insecurity and soil degradation on smallholder farming systems (Thierfelder et al., 2014). Compared with conventional plough-or hoe-based cultivation practices (CP), CA practices have been shown to increase and stabilize maize yields in studies conducted in different parts of the world (Govaerts, 2009;Thierfelder et al., 2014;Mhlanga, Cheesman, Maasdorp, Mupangwa, & Thierfelder, 2015). This increase in crop yields under CA could be attributed to increased soil moisture induced by residue retention, increased faunal abundance achieved by reduced disturbance of the soil and residue retention, and increased nitrogen (N) fixation from crop rotations with legumes (Mhlanga et al., 2015;Mutema, Mafongoya, Nyagumbo, & Chikukura, 2013;Thierfelder & Wall, 2009). However, the smallholder farmers still regard CP as an easier farming method based on how easily weeds are controlled at the beginning of the season through ploughing which buries the weeds (Derksen, Lafond, Thomas, Loeppky, & Swanton, 1993). Furthermore, CP improves soil aeration but this benefit is outweighed by the detrimental effects it has on the environment, leading to yield decreases in the longer term (Reicosky, Sauer, & Hatfield, 2011). Moreover, CA in some instances reduces yield through waterlogging, reduced soil temperatures and N lockup (Chikowo, Mapfumo, Nyamugafata, Nyamadzawo, & Giller, 2003).The growth and development of maize is affected by management practices such as soil fertility and weed management. Differences in crop performance are likely to occur between CA and CP as they involve different management strategies. Altuntas and Dede (2009) observed an increased maize crop emergence under CA compared to CP. On the contrary, Hayhoe, Dwyer, Stewart, White, and Culley (1996) found a slow and uneven maize crop emergence under CA compared to CP and this was directly linked to low temperatures under CA systems which are generally triggered by residue retention. Burgess, Mehuys, and Madramootoo (1996) pointed out possible effects of allelopathy of the maize residues usually retained under CA systems to the emerging maize seed. Cairns et al. (2012) investigated in-vivo chlorophyll content in maize and found a strong and positive relationship between leaf chlorophyll content and grain yield. The relationship between the two parameters was stronger especially towards and during maize flowering in the same study. However, because of different soil conditions under CA compared to CP i.e. the temporal unavailability of N through immobilization in maize stover mulched soils, photosynthesis levels are affected especially during the early stages of crop growth (Verhulst et al., 2011a). The temporal unavailability of N is caused by the increased levels of immobilization which is triggered by the high C: N ratio of mulching material such as maize stover (Wortman, 2006). Furthermore, the temporal unavailability of N has an effect on early vigour of the maize crop as growth and vigour are dependent on photosynthesis (Lundy, Pittelkow, Linquist, Liang, Van Groenigen, Lee, & Van Kessel, 2015). Low soil temperatures under CA systems affect germination, vigour and growth of crops (Duiker & Haldeman, 2006). In a study carried out by Verhulst et al. (2011b), the initial maize growth was slower under CA compared with CP although this did not translate into significant yield differences at harvest. The slower initial maize growth under CA may be due to the slower mineralization of N into the soil that could be delayed by up to three weeks (Chikowo et al., 2003).On the other hand, soil tillage increases mineralization of soil organic matter (SOM) because the soil environment becomes well aerated (Barbera, Poma, Gristina, Novara, & Egli, 2012). However, increased mineralization leads into high potential loss of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) from the soil through erosion, leaching and mining by plants (Barbera et al., 2012). As a result, maize under CP can have increased access to soil nutrients leading to high early plant vigour and a higher rate of growth compared with maize under CA (Chikowo et al., 2010). This creates differences in growth of plants under CA and CP cropping systems. Information on effects of tillage systems on secondary growth parameters in maize is still limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different management systems (i.e. CA and CP) on maize secondary traits such as early vigour, leaf chlorophyll content, and grain yield. The hypothesis of the study was that different management systems affect growth and yield of maize (on above mentioned parameters). This was tested on a set of locally produced maize varieties under different environments in Zimbabwe.The experiment was established in the 2009-10 season with maize varieties evaluated under CA tillage system only. For comparison of tillage systems, CP tillage system was introduced in 2011-12 with maize varieties grown in both systems. This current study however, presents data from the 2012-13 and 2013-14 cropping seasons. The study was carried out at five experimental locations: University of Zimbabwe (UZ) (17.73°S; 31.04°E and 1483 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l), Domboshawa Training Centre (DTC) (17.62°S; 31.17°E and 1500 m.a.s.l), Madziva (17.00°S;31.43°E and 1169 m.a.s.l), Hereford (17.42°S;31.44°E and 1054 m.a.s.l), and Zimuto (19.85°S;30.88°E and 1223 m.a.s.l). The soils at UZ are characterized by a high clay content of more than 40% and are classified as Chromic luvisols (Nyamapfene, 1991). Domboshawa Training Centre has soils classified as Gleyic luvisols and has a 5% clay content generated from granitic parent material (Thierfelder & Wall, 2009). Hereford soils are heavy red clays with up to 40% clay content and classified as Chromic luvisols (Nyamapfene, 1991). Madziva is characterized by sandy soils which are classified as Gleyic luvisols generated from granite parent material (Thierfelder et al., 2012). Dominant soils at Zimuto are Arenosols generated from granitic sands of low inherent fertility and less than 5% clay content (Thierfelder & Wall, 2012).Twelve commonly grown maize hybrids and four open pollinated varieties (OPVs) from different sources were used in this study. The choice of maize genotypes was based on commercial availability in Zimbabwe and wide adoption in southern Africa (Kassie et al., 2012). The genotypes can be subdivided into early maturing (i.e. SC403, PAN 413, PHB 3253 and PHB P2859W), medium maturing (i.e. PAN 53,Pristine 1,SC 513,SC 533,SC 635,ZAP 51,ZAP 61,ZS 261,PGS 63) and late maturing (i.e. SC 637) hybrids; and early maturing (i.e. ZM 401 and ZM 309) and medium maturing (i.e. ZM 523 and ZM 525) OPVs.The experiment was set as an alpha lattice design at all sites with the CA and CP plots laid adjacent to each other, replicated three times and blocked four times against slope. At all sites, gross plot size measured 4.8 m × 3.6 m (i.e. 17.28 m 2 ) with a net plot size of 3.8 m × 1.8 m (i.e. 6.84 m 2 ).Residues (maize stover) were uniformly spread over the CA plots at a rate of 3 t ha -1 while residues were removed in the CP plots before disc ploughing to a depth of 25 cm prior to the beginning of the season. Maize varieties under CA were planted in rip lines created by a Magoye ripper (a ripper tine attached to an ox-drawn mouldboard plough) at all sites except for UZ were basins were created with hand hoes during the dry winter period. Basins under CA were only used at UZ due to the unavailability of animal draft power. Under the practice of CP, planting was done using basins at all sites. Maize was planted at 90 cm between lines and 50 cm between plants with 3 seeds per station thinned to 2 to achieve a population of 44, 444 plants ha -1 at all sites. Maize plants in both CA and CP received basal fertilizer [Compound D (7 N:14 P 2 O 5 :7 K 2 O)] at the rate of 14 kg N ha -1 , 12.2 kg P ha -1 , and 11.6 kg K ha -1 at sowing.Top dressing was applied to both CA and CP in two splits, at four and seven weeks after crop emergence to a total of 69 kg N ha -1 in the form of ammonium nitrate (34.5% N). Weeds were controlled by spraying a tank-mixture of glyphosate [N-(phosphono-methyl))acetamide] at a rates of 2.5 l ha -1 , 3.5 l ha -1 and 1.0 l ha -1 active ingredient (ai), respectively, immediately after sowing the seed in the CA plots. In CP plots, weeds were controlled through tillage at the beginning of the season. This was mainly to control grasses and broadleaved weeds. In both CA and CP plots, manual weeding was conducted after crop emergence during the growing period each time weeds reached approximately 10 cm in height or radius for weeds with a stoloniferous growth habit. Maize stalk borer (Busseola fusca L.) was controlled using Dipterex at a rate of 1.6 kg ai ha -1 applied in granular form into the maize funnel at early signs of attack.Rainfall was measured at each site using a standard rain gauge located in an open space next to the experimental location. Readings were taken in the morning after each rainfall event.Soil sampling for fertility analyses was done at each experimental location using the stratified random sampling method in each replicate of each cropping system. Three samples were taken from each replicate using a soil auger at three soil depth levels i.e. 0-10 cm, 10-30 cm and 30-90 cm. A composite sample was then created representing each depth and each cropping system. Soil samples were submitted to the Soil Chemistry and Soils Institute of the Department of Research and Specialist Services of Zimbabwe (DR & SS) to analyze for chemical and physical properties of the soils.Days to 50% emergence were determined by counting the number of seedlings emerging in the two central rows of each plot daily for 10 days. Emergence percentage was recorded as the number of plants which emerged out of plants which were expected to emerge (60 plants) within the two central rows.At 6 weeks after sowing, 5 plants were selected from each plot and height measured from the root crown to the top of the innermost leaf. The number of leaves (omitting the bottom dry leaves) per plant were counted from the same sample and the average number of leaves calculated. To determine the above ground biomass, a destructive sampling method from the border rows was done and 5 plants were selected randomly, oven dried to a constant weight at 65 °C for 72 hours and the dry weight recorded.In vivo chlorophyll content of leaves was estimated using a portable chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502®, Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). Measurements were taken weekly starting from 6 weeks after sowing on the upper most extended leaf on 5 randomly selected plants per plot. However, prior to flowering (i.e. about 9 weeks after sowing) onwards, the ear leaf was used instead as the sampling leaf reached senescence stage as this had the greatest contribution of assimilates to the sink (ear).Grain and stover were harvested for yield determination from the net plot measuring 2 rows by 4.8 m. The number of plants and cobs per net plot were recorded. The fresh cobs and stover were weighed and their weight recorded. A sub-sample comprising five cobs was extracted from each plot and the fresh weight of cobs recorded. A stover sub-sample of approximately 500 g was taken and its fresh weight measured. The stover and cob sub-samples were dried in an oven and the dry weight recorded. The grain weight was determined after shelling for each plot. Grain moisture was determined using a Dickey-john mini GAC® moisture tester and yield was expressed at 12.5% moisture content.Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), generalized linear models, and multiple linear regressions. This was done to identify significant effects of tillage systems on emergence, early vigour and leaf chlorophyll and the contribution of the primary traits to grain yield using GenStat version 12 (VSN International, 2002) statistical packages. Where the effects of tillage systems were significantly different, separation was done using the Tukey's test (HSD) at P < 0.05 probability level.In the 2012-13 season, all sites received above 600 mm of rainfall and had an effective growing season of about 80 days except for Zimuto which had rainfall below 400 mm and an effective growing period of 60 days (Figure 1). There was a short dry spell of about 15 days at Zimuto immediately after planting and a sharp increase in rainfall immediately after planting at DTC and Hereford of about 100 mm in 10 days. In the 2013-14 season, there was a longer growing period of over 80 days compared with the 2012-13 season. However, Zimuto and UZ sites experienced a short dry spell of 10 days after planting in 2013-14 season (Figure 1).Days after planting Soil chemical and physical properties were different at the five study sites (Table 1). Hereford and UZ sites had higher clay content (< 40%) while Madziva and Zimuto had soils with a sandy texture (< 14% clay). Generally the light textured soils had less amounts of phosphorus (P) (< 18 mg/100 g) and potassium (K) (< 0.013 mg/100 g) and were acidic (< 5.9) compared to the heavy textured soils. Heavy textured soils had a pH range of 6-7. Madziva had soil with the lowest clay content (8% in the top layer) and was the most acidic (pH < 6). The highest total N levels (> 50 ppm) were recorded in the heavy textured soils compared with levels (< 34 ppm) in light textured soils. Higher levels of available N under CA compared with CP were found at Domboshawa, Hereford and UZ whilst CP soils had a higher available N content at Zimuto and Madziva. Furthermore, Zimuto and Madziva had more acidic soils under CA compared with CP. However, at the other sites, pH was similar in both cropping systems (Table 1). In 2012-13 season, emergence was significantly (P < 0.05) higher under CA at UZ (75%) compared to CP (71%).Emergence was significantly higher in CP (63%) at Zimuto in the same year compared with CA (43%) (Figure 2). In the 2013-14 season, CA (67%) had significantly (P < 0.05) higher emergence than CP (39%) at DTC. Conventional practice had significantly (P < 0.05) higher emergence at UZ (63%) and Zimuto (80%) compared with CA (58% and 62% respectively) (Figure 2). High emergence percentage showed a positive relationship with grain yield i.e. one unit increase in emergence resulted in 0.19 units increase in grain yield under CA and 0.007 units under CP (Table 2). Grain yield decreased by 0.03 and 0.04 units for every one unit increase in days to 50% emergence under CA and CP respectively (Table 2). The multiple linear regression accounted for over 50% variation on the measured parameters both under CA and CP systems.  In the 2012-13 season, CA and CP had significantly (P < 0.05) different total dry matter weight of the maize plants at all sites. Furthermore, the number of leaves per plant at all sites except Hereford, and plant height at DTC and Hereford, were significantly (P < 0.05) different (Table 3). At four of the five sites (DTC, Madziva, Zimuto and Hereford), CP had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher dry matter compared with CA in 2012-13 season.It was only at UZ where CA outperformed the CP treatment. There was no clear trend of CA and CP effects on plant height at most sites. Significant differences in height were only observed at DTC and Hereford where CP out-performed CA (Table 3). During the 2013-14 season all sites had significantly (P < 0.05) more dry mass under CP compared with CA except at Hereford. More leaves were found in the CP system at UZ, DTC, and Zimuto whereas CA outperformed CP at DTC only. A generally lower total dry matter weight was observed at the sandy soil sites, Madziva (9-39 g/5 plants) and Zimuto (< 36 g/5 plants) compared with the clay soil sites. Note. Means followed by different letters within the same row are significantly different from each other at P < 0.05 probability level.Maize leaf chlorophyll content consistently fluctuated in both cropping systems throughout the seasons (Figures 3 and 4). There was a significant (P < 0.05) difference between CA and CP systems which was more pronounced in 2012-13 season compared with 2013-14. In the CA system, chlorophyll content was lower compared with CP at initial growth stages of maize at Hereford in the 2012-13 season and at Zimuto in both seasons (Figures 3 and  4). At Zimuto, greater chlorophyll content was observed in CA treatments (43 units) compared with CP plots (37 units) towards the end of the season (Figure 3). In 2013-14 season, no differences (P > 0.05) in chlorophyll content were observed at all sites except for Zimuto (Figure 4).  4). At Madziva CP and CA had a maize yield of 1764 and 1313 kg ha -1 , respectively (Table 4). DTC site had 3050 kg ha -1 in CA and 2656 kg ha -1 in CP in the same season. Hereford site had 4937 kg ha -1 in CA and 4274 kg ha -1 in CP. Seasons, sites, and varieties showed significant (P Note. Season (2012-13 and2013-14), Site (UZ (University of Zimbabwe), DTC (Domboshawa Training Center), Madziva, Hereford, Zimuto), System (CA and CP), Treatments (maize varieties).Higher emergence under CA compared with CP was found at DTC. This concurred results by Altuntaş & Dede (2009) who reported high emergence rates under CA compared to CP in clay loamy soils. In their study, favorable soil physical properties for maize seedling emergence, which include lower bulk density, were found under CA compared to CP (Altuntas & Dede, 2009). During our study high soil erosion was observed in the CP treatments at DTC because of the heavy rains received during emergence although erosion rates were not measured. This resulted in poor maize crop emergence under CP compared with the CA system. However, CP outperformed CA at UZ, Hereford and Zimuto. This is in line with observations made by Hayhoe et al. (1996), Griffith, Kladivko, Mannering, West, and Parsons (1988) and Dam et al. (2005) which were mainly attributed to low soil temperatures under CA systems compared with CP. Duiker et al. (2006) reported a delayed and uneven emergence under CA, but this delay did not affect vegetative growth or the final crop yield. Hillel (1998) pointed out that soil with more moisture, a scenario under CA compared to CP, heats up more slowly than a dry exposed soil, and this might explain the low temperature that potentially affected emergence. Moreover, since clay soil has ability to conserve more moisture than sandy soils, heating up of a mulched clay soil is even slower than an exposed bare clay soil. This could have affected emergence under CA compared to CP at UZ and Hereford in 2013-14. Zimuto experienced poor maize emergence under CA in both seasons and this could be attributed to delayed weeding and the little rains received at the time of planting. This could have led to a competition for the available moisture between the emerging maize seedlings and the weeds. Delayed weeding was as a result of the unsuitability of chemical weed control particularly glyphosate under very sandy soils due to its slow degradation nature (Locke et al., 2008). Hence manual weeding competed for labor with the seeding operations at the start of the cropping season. This shows that the success of CA also relies on the management practices being followed by farmers and the type of soils (Giller, Witter, Corbeels, & Tittonell, 2009). These inconsistent results indicate the need to further investigate the effect of CA on crop emergence under different soil types. Furthermore, the effects of planting methods under CA must be explored. However, planting basins and direct seeding have shown high emergence percentage compared to ripping in difference parts of southern Africa (Ngwira, Thierfelder, & Lambert, 2012b;Thierfelder & Wall, 2009).Conservation agriculture has shown the potential to improve soil physical and chemical properties (Altundus & Dede, 2009). This has the potential of increasing crop vigour through an improved nutrient cycling. Although plant vigour is determined by the genetics of a plant species, the environment plays a vital role in the exhibition of plant vigour (Negi, Baskheti, & Bhatt, 2015). Furthermore, an improved emergence gives a better chance of high crop vigour. However, high emergence does not always translate into high plant vigour and final yield (Negi et al., 2015). Vigorous plants are associated with resistance to diseases and pests, and good root development which potentially translate to higher yield (Namuco, Cairns, & Johnson, 2009). Lower dry matter and fewer leaves were generally found under CA compared with CP at the experimental sites during the two seasons. Furthermore lower dry matter and fewer leaves were observed under CA in light textured soils compared with heavy textured soils. This is because light textured soils have lower soil fertility and nutrient supply to growing plants is therefore limited compared to heavy textured soils (Chikowo et al., 2010). In addition, the soil chemical and physical analysis in this study revealed a high nutrient base in Hereford, DTC and UZ compared to Zimuto and Madziva. Moreover, at the light textured soil sites, soils from the CA treatment had less available N compared to CP plots. However, CA treatments at all sites had more total N compared with CP. Hence crops with access to high nutrient supply have better chances of having high vigour. The number of leaves per plant and in-vivo leaf chlorophyll at 6 weeks after sowing were higher under CP compared with CA. Verhulst et al. (2011a) found a slow initial growth in maize under CA compared with CP. This relates to the availability of nutrients especially N during the early stages of crop growth. High C:N ratio in residue types such as maize stover used in this study potentially caused immobilization of N making its uptake by plants slow (Chikowo et al., 2008). However, at DTC and Hereford more leaves and higher dry matter were found under CA compared with CP.High chlorophyll concentration early in the season is a very vital component in a plant's life. It shows how vigorous a crop is performing, and, although it is not the only indicator, gives an indication of the potential yield (Namuco et al., 2009). The chlorophyll content determines the level of photosynthesis and productivity (Egli & Rucker, 2012). Lower chlorophyll content under CA can be explained by a number of reasons, but besides lower temperatures under CA it is mainly due to nitrogen lock-up (Mapfumo et al., 2007;Rasmussen, 1999). Low chlorophyll content in maize leaves under CA has also been observed where different residues are used as soil cover on light textured soil (Mupangwa, Nyagumbo, & Mutsamba, 2016). Carbon and N turnover was found to be 1.5 times slower under CA than CP (Chivenge, Murwira, Giller, & Mapfumo, 2007), which can explain the differences of chlorophyll content between the two systems. Moreover, the extend of differences also depend on clay content of the soil (Chivenge, 2003).Generally there was no significant difference in yield between CA and CP over the sites and seasons. However, higher grain yield was observed under CA compared with CP at DTC in 2012-13 and Hereford in 2013-14. Even though Verhulst et al. (2011b) ascertained a slower growth under CA compared with CP which matches results of current study, this did not translate to yield differences under the two tillage systems. Although some differences were found in the maize growth patterns during the season between CA and CP such as emergence, chlorophyll and some early vigour parameters, this did not translate into yield differences at some sites. However, if these differences are addressed such as poor emergence, lower chlorophyll content at early stages and low vigour, and the potential persistence of foliar diseases under CA systems, yield is highly likely to increase. This study also suggests the need to identify sites which best suits the CA practice. In some sites in this study such as Zimuto, practicing CA showed no yield benefit compared with CP. However, Thierfelder and Wall (2009) found that CA in Zimuto increased yield both on maize and cowpea compared with CP although adoption remained poor. Furthermore, according to this work it is not all seasons that CA results in good yields or CP result in bad yields. Besides, yield performances under CA, other benefits must however, be considered such as reduced erosion and energy use, improvement of soil biological, chemical and physical properties which will bring benefits in the long term (Baudron, Thierfelder, Nyagumbo, & Gérard, 2015).The performance of maize varieties was tested on different soil types and rainfall regimes under two cropping systems (CA and CP) at five locations of Zimbabwe. Based on the results of this study the following conclusions can be made: there is a delay in nutrient accessibility by plants under CA which might be due to the nitrogen immobilization effect of residue mulch in CA systems. This highlights the need for a different fertilization strategy in terms of timing and formulations under CA systems. Chlorophyll content and early vigour characteristics were different under the two cropping systems which indicate the need to select maize varieties that are nutrient-efficient and suitable under CA systems. The study showed that maize yields are affected by a number of traits which emergence and chlorophyll content alone cannot explain. Breeding programs need to select for highly N use efficient varieties to suit CA. Although all the measured establishment and growth parameters showed differences under CA and CP, no grain yield differences were observed at some sites suggesting that if problems under CA such as N lock up are addressed, increases in crop yield are expected. Higher maize yield under CA compared with CP were observed at DTC and Hereford suggesting the site selective effects of CA practices. However, there is need for further investigations as the results of the present study are based on short-term data.","tokenCount":"4672"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1137f2a902ed07fe843e966a2656edec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4cb707f-355e-40e5-acf8-d3b95737d151/retrieve","id":"1020051437"},"keywords":["wheat","field experimental data","heat stress","simulations"],"sieverID":"3d9e36dd-fd66-4a0c-85d0-2843671ffc69","pagecount":"7","content":"The dataset reported here includes the part of a Hot Serial Cereal Experiment (HSC) experiment recently used in the AgMIP-Wheat project to analyze the uncertainty of 30 wheat models and quantify their response to temperature. The HSC experiment was conducted in an open-field in a semiarid environment in the southwest USA. The data reported herein include one hard red spring wheat cultivar (Yecora Rojo) sown approximately every six weeks from December to August for a twoyear period for a total of 11 planting dates out of the 15 of the entire HSC experiment. The treatments were chosen to avoid any effects of frost on grain yields. For the late fall, winter, and early spring plantings, temperature free-air controlled enhancement (T-FACE) apparatus utilizing infrared heaters with supplemental irrigation were used to increase air temperature by 1.3°C/2.7°C (day/night) with conditions equivalent to raising air temperature at constant relative humidity (i.e. as expected with global warming) during the whole crop growth cycle. Experimental data include local daily weather data, soil characteristics and initial conditions, detailed crop measurements taken at three growth stages during the growth cycle, and cultivar information. Simulations include both daily in-season and end-of-season results from 30 wheat models.The Hot Serial Cereal Experiment for modeling wheat response to temperature: field experiments and AgMIP-Wheat multi-model simulations 1 ORIGINAL PURPOSE: The original purpose of this dataset was to support a model inter-comparison (Asseng et al., 2015) as part of the Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AGMIP, http://www.agmip.org/; Rosenzweig et al., 2013). The field experimental data were from the Hot Serial Cereal (HSC) experiment carried out by the USDA Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center and the University of Arizona at Maricopa, Arizona to investigate the response of wheat development (White et al., 2011(White et al., , 2012)), gas exchange (Wall et al., 2011), growth, grain yield (Ottman et al., 2012;), canopy temperature and energy balance (Grant et al., 2011;Kimball et al., 2012) to supplemental heating and to seasonal air temperature from varied planting dates. This dataset is a unique source of information for meta-analyses of the impacts on temperature and heat on crop growth and yield and for benchmarking model improvement against a large ensemble of state-of-the-art wheat crop simulation models.A full description of the experiment site and of the experiment treatment are found in Wall et al. (2001) and Ottman et al. (2012). The most important information for the plantings and heat treatments used in the AgMIP-Wheat project are summarized below for a comprehensive understanding of the dataset and to allow setting up simulations. The experimental site was located at the University of Arizona's Maricopa Agricultural Center, Maricopa, Arizona, USA (33°4'N, 111°58'W, 361 m a.s.l.). Maricopa has a semiarid climate with mean annual solar radiation of 21 MJ m -2 day -1 , a mean annual temperature of 21°C and mean annual precipitation of 164 mm. The soil was a Trix clay loam with low organic matter content described in Post et al. (1988). Wheat crops were sown approximately every six weeks from March 2007 through January 2009. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replicates. Seeds were sown at a rate of 288 seeds m -2 with a row spacing of 0.19 m to produce a final target plant density of approximately 200 plants m −2 . Blocks were strips 11 m wide × 37 m long, allowing three 11 m × 11 m plots per block. A circular (3-m diameter) (Control) plot was identified in the center of each block where plant measurements were taken. On four planting dates, two additional treatments were arranged in each block to yield a 3 × 3 Latin square experimental design, where heated plots were paired with Reference plots. The Heated plots were equipped with infrared heaters arranged to provide uniform warming over a 3-m diameter circular area as described in Kimball et al. (2008) (Figure 1). The Photograph of the infrared heater system. In the centre foreground, infrared heaters are arranged in a circle above a wheat crop (Heated plot), and in the background to the left, the dummy non-operable heaters are arranged in a similar configuration (Reference plots).The crops were irrigated at 100% replacement of potential evapotranspiration to maintain the soil water content at field capacity. Depending on planting date, the total amount of irrigation ranged from 362 to 921 mm. Water was supplied through a surface drip tape irrigation system with drip tapes placed 38 cm between every other row. Heated plots received 8% to 10% more water as a separate supplemental irrigation (except for the first planting on 13 March 2007) to provide a first-order correction for the increased plant-to-air vapor pressure gradient (Kimball, 2005). To guarantee good germination and emergence of the summer planted crops, additional sprinkler irrigation was provided. Soil fertility was managed to avoid nutrient limitations. Fifty to 56 kg N ha -1 and 67 kg P2O5 ha -1 were applied as granular ammonium phosphate at planting, and urea ammonium nitrate was subsequently applied in irrigation water at rates of approximately 50 kg N ha -1 per application with up to four applications (at tillering, heading, anthesis and during grain filling) depending on crop requirements. The date of drilling the seeds into dry soil is the \"nominal\" planting date, and the \"effective\" planting date is defined as the date irrigation water was first applied for seed germination and to fill the soil profile to field capacity, which occurred between one and eight days after the nominal planting date. Each crop was sampled three times during the growing season for biomass and other crop growth parameters. The stages at sampling were before flag leaf emergence, after heading, and final harvest between physiological maturity and harvest ripe stage. Exceptions to the stages at sampling are the first sampling of the 13 March 2008 planting, which occurred between anthesis and the kernel milky stage, and the 13 February 2008 and 12 January 2009 plantings for which plants were also sampled after tillering. For the sampling times before maturity, dry mass, and nitrogen concentration of stems, green leaves, brown leaves, spikes, and crowns were determined. Leaf area index was calculated from the leaf laminae surface area and green area index was calculated from the sum of leaf, stem, and spike surface area. Grain and total plant yields were adjusted to a 0% moisture basis. Dates of crop emergence, anthesis and physiological maturity and final leaf number were determined as described in White et al. (2011). Figure 2 illustrates the exceptional range of grain yield and temperature in this dataset and the impact of the supplemental temperature treatments on grain yield. The entire HSC experiment comprised 15 planting dates, but in both years the crop planted in September and October suffered from significant frost damage and were excluded from the model intercomparison study reported by Asseng et al. (2015), which focused on high temperature impacts. These four plantings are not reported here. Experimental data for these plantings and additional measurements for all plantings, including detailed phenological stages, leaf emergence rate (Haun stage), soil and canopy temperature, vegetation index (NDVI), leaf level gas exchange and water relations, and grain quality data are reported in a separate paper (Kimball et al., 2018).Maximum and minimum values of daily air temperatures were obtained primarily from a weather station at the experimental field. When temperature data were unavailable, data were obtained from an Arizona Meteorological Network weather station (AZMET; http://ag.arizona.edu/azmet) located 1.2 km from the experiment site and were adjusted to match the on-site station values using a regression procedure.The wind and air temperature sensors were at 2-m height on the field mast, whereas wind was at 3 m and air temperature was at 1.5 m on the AZMET mast. Daily solar radiation, precipitation, mean wind speed and mean dew point temperature were obtained from the AZMET weather station. Seasonal (defined based on observed phenological stages) mean air temperature was calculated from daily air temperature, which was derived from the sum of eight contributions of a cosine variation between maximum and minimum daily air temperatures as described in Weir et al. (1984).Figure 2. Final grain yield versus mean growing season temperature for the 11 plantings and the four Heat treatments of the HSC experiment reported here. The dashed lines connect the Control and supplemental Heat treatments of the same plantings. Control, average of the Control and Reference treatments; supplemental Heat, infrared warming (T-FACE) treatment. Data are mean ± 1 s.d. for n = 3 (for the supplemental Heat treatments and the Control treatments of plantings with no supplemental Heat treatment) to 6 (for the Control treatments of the plantings with supplemental Heat treatments) replicates.Results for the Reference and Control treatments were similar (Ottman et al. 2012), so they were pooled and named \"C\". The Heat treatment was named \"H\". Data are reported as mean and standard deviation. Missing data are indicated by \"NA\". Missing data correspond either to plant variables that were measured only at specific growth stages (e.g. grains were harvested only after anthesis) and to crops that died early in the growth season because of the summer heat (planting dates between June and August). In the latter case, final grain and chaff yield and nitrogen mass are equal to zero and the other variables are reported as NA.The fifteen treatments described above were simulated by 30 wheat models (see Supplementary of Asseng et al., 2015). Simulations were carried out using standardized protocols and several steps of calibration. The simulation results reported here are for the full calibration step for which modelers had access to most of the experimental data reported here. For the simulations, the nominal planting dates were used. Some models were executed with water and nitrogen unlimited options. Fifteen of these 30 wheat models also participated in a model improvement exercise (Maiorano et al., 2017), where the HSC dataset was used for model improvement. For these fifteen models, simulation results are given for both the original and improved versions. For the four plantings with Heat treatments, the three replicates of the Control and Heat treatments were simulated. The model inputs for the replicates differed only for the temperature and amount of irrigation. As no differences were observed between the replicates (as in the experimental data) in the data reported here, they were pooled. For the plantings without Heat treatments, only one replicate per planting was simulated. None of the Reference plots were simulated. The experimental data presented here were also used in a modeling study of AgMIP-Wheat where canopy temperature models were evaluated for nine of the 30 wheat models used in Asseng et al. (2015)  (Webber et al., 2016) and in an earlier study where energy balance and canopy temperature simulated by the wheat model ecosys were evaluated (Grant et al., 2011). Measured canopy temperature and energy balance data were reported in Kimball et al. (2018).An overview of the main dataset tables is given in ","tokenCount":"1815"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f598feeeca12ff99c74ee038656f1e0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7190951d-1ff4-46c5-9962-0f49e4ab7c6d/retrieve","id":"786333733"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8778e8c8-9ec5-4704-abfa-f09221d421f7","pagecount":"5","content":"On a recent hot day, water gushed onto Ramanbhai Parmar's lush, green field in Anand, a district in semi-arid western India. The scene was typical of many farms in the developing world, with this exception: An array of solar panels dominated the view.\"For almost my entire lifetime, I had been using electric pumps to draw groundwater and irrigate my fields,\" he told a film crew. Then researchers with the International Water Management Institute, which leads the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), came along and asked if he would consider using solarpowered water pumps. He did, and six months later, he likes the results. He now has access to electricity during the day, while before he had to wake up at night to irrigate his farm. \"Secondly, there is a 50 percent cut in my electricity bills,\" he said.Parmar's experience reflects the groundswell of change occurring in one of the world's most populated countries. The sun increasingly is powering irrigation pumps on farms in India. Solar power is being embraced by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi as a way to help meet the country's massive power needs, while being a \"green\" solution to a growing carbon emission problem.A 'SPaRC' to keep aquifers healthy, put cash in farmers' handsHowever, in a country where groundwater has emerged as the main source of irrigation for smallholder farmers, scientists worry that solarpowered irrigation pumps could threaten aquifers just as much as electric pumps powered by free subsidized grid electricity have. Many areas of western and southern India--where farm power supply is either free or heavily subsidized -already experience groundwater over-pumping. Solar pumps, which offer 2,300-2,500 hours a year of uninterrupted, daytime free energy, could just exacerbate the problem by, in essence, encouraging farmers to use water at will.In the past 18 months, IWMI researchers have come up with what they believe is a practical solution to potential groundwater exploitation by solar pumps: Lower the electricity subsidies to a modest rate and enable farmers to sell back surplus solar power to the utility grid. In other words, WLE would like to position solar power as a crop that farmers can 'grow.' The plan has been dubbed \"SPaRC\" (Solar Power as a Remunerative Crop).\"By allowing farmers to in effect grow solar power as a 'cash crop,' they will be motivated to use such energy efficiently, thereby minimizing the pumping of scarce water,\" said Tushaar Shah, a senior fellow at IWMI. That, in turn, could propel smallholder farmers onto a path of prosperity.In places like Anand, in the westernmost area of India, SPaRC could also be the recipe to managing water resources amid the effects of climate change, including extended hot, dry spells and unpredictable rainfall. \"This project exemplifies WLE's aim to deliver innovative science into practice that unlocks potential value and results in 'triple wins'environmental sustainability, agricultural productivity and equitable social benefits -for more resilient smallholder farming communities,\" said Meredith Giordano, co-leader of WLE's Land and Water Productivity research theme.Getting things done in India often comes down to politics, and IWMI's progress with SPaRC exemplifies WLE's goal of nurturing close working relationships with governments to help them weigh the trade-offs inherent in major natural resource investment decisions. Shah, named a CGIAR Outstanding Scientist in 2002, has a background in economics and public policy, is politically well-connected and has often been called on to advise the government on irrigation policy. He presented the solar power buyback idea to India's finance ministers in 2013 and 2014 and to power secretaries in Gujarat and Maharashtra states in 2015. He also has promoted the approach at conferences and in opinion pieces in major newspapers in India.The Indian government's 2014 budget provided USD 67 million for solar pump promotion. But the National Solar Pump Program is aimed at largescale deployment of solar pumps, which could hurt aquifer health in certain regions of India.India is a big country, with varied climate conditions, so the goals of the solar buyback program vary depending on the region.In dry areas such as Gujarat state, officials want to wean farmers from using powerful electric pumps, which strain power and groundwater resources. In eastern India, where aquifer resources are generally plentiful, the hope is to stimulate agricultural production in an area where, until recently, production had stagnated because of soaring diesel prices.In September 2014, the Karnataka state government in southwestern India introduced a policy in line with IWMI's SPaRC concept, Surya Raitha, a program that encourages farmers to buy solar pumps and sell back excess power to the utility at a guaranteed price. A farmer with a typical 10kwp solar power system (10 kilowatts at peak performance or full sun) is expected to earn about USD 800 a year selling back surplus power, according to state documents promoting the policy.Andrew Noble, former WLE director, said solar buyback provisions have tremendous potential to support aquifer health and address the 'energywater nexus' in the developing world.\"I feel this is potentially a 'game changer' in addressing the challenge of over-extraction of groundwater, a challenge that not only India is facing, but one that certainly could emerge in sub-Saharan Africa,\" Noble said.\"This approach offers to farmers a choice that I believe will result in behavior change without the implementation of full-scale policy reforms. I would expect farmers to be more judicious in the way they pump and use water for their crops in order to benefit from the sale of excess electricity into the national grid.\" A decade ago in Gujarat, heavily subsidized electricity for irrigation resulted in over-pumping, huge financial losses for utilities and political chaos. IWMI researchers led by Shah recommended a tamper-proof rationing of farm power supply with improved quality of service and monitoring of groundwater depletion. Taking these recommendations, Gujarat separated the agricultural electricity feeder line, improved the quality and reliability of service and provided farmers with an eight-hour-per-day power ration on fixed schedules. Gujarat state officials put the scheme in place in 2006.The solution was expensive -USD 250 millionbut aquifers and the utilities are recovering, and the state economy has been on a roll. Gujarat recovered the investment in less than three years through reduced farm power subsidies. The Stockholm International Water Institute, a nonprofit think tank, said that this electricity rationing scheme sparked new non-farm enterprises and improved rural livelihoods. (Not everyone agrees; some say poor farmers have suffered, which perhaps explains why the government of Gujarat has issued half a million new electric connections, especially targeted at poor and marginalized farmers).WLE's solar pump proposal, or SPaRC, has a way to go before being fully embraced. Solar buyback is just one aspect of the plan. Another is to reduce solar panel subsidies. Currently, many Indian states still offer subsidies of 80 to 90 percent for farmers to buy solar panels.IWMI's research shows that the heavy subsidies have created unintended adverse incentives. The subsidies have made it too easy to buy and use solar pumps and have led to potential groundwater over-extraction. They have also enabled the solar industry to raise solar panel prices -increasing their profits and locking some poor farmers out of the market. Elites have captured a lion's share of the subsidies. IWMI recommends lowering solar panel subsidies to a modest amount, but helping poor farmers buy pumps by making bank financing more readily available. Researchers also emphasize the need for solutions to be tailored to local conditions.SPaRC faces an institutional challenge as well. A utility faces high transactional costs if it is required to buy back power from individual farmers. That's because the utility would need to monitor and measure each farm's power surplus.\"We need to find a solution to that challenge, and we believe the best way is by forming solar farmers' cooperative enterprises,\" Shah said. A cooperative could set up one connection on the grid where the utility would monitor, measure and buy back surplus solar power. The co-op then would absorb the costs of monitoring and measuring individual farms and compensating the farmers fairly.Earlier this year, the IWMI-Tata program, with financial support from the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), launched a joint pilot project in Gujarat state to explore climate-smart agriculture with solar farmers' cooperatives. The group is in the process of forming perhaps the world's first Solar Pump Irrigator's Cooperative Enterprise (SPICE) in the village of Dhundi.The cooperative will evacuate surplus solar power generated by its members at a single point in the utility grid. The utility will meter the power being put back on the grid and pay the cooperative a set price, likely between 3.5 and 6 Indian rupees per kilowatt hour. Gujarat recently included the option of the utilities buying back surplus power in its new solar policy. Tata Trusts is interested in supporting a larger, similar co-op with 40 to 50 solar pump farmers in another village.IWMI researchers believe the SPaRC proposal has application to other parts of South Asia, which still depend heavily on diesel power.Noble said it might be more difficult to enact a solar buyback plan in sub-Saharan Africa.\"While this program may have significant positive outcomes in India where you have the infrastructure to support the sale of electricity into the grid, this may not be appropriate for parts of sub-Saharan Africa where the basic infrastructure to move electricity still has to be built in rural areas,\" Noble said.However, he added, that even in areas where the infrastructure is lacking, excess energy produced by solar panels could be used to help meet household needs by powering lights, radios, TVs and recharging cell phones. \"So at the end of the day, I do feel this is a replicable approach that needs to be tailored to fit the context.\"In the past year, Shah has his research to development process to four main points for replication:• Strive for policy change rather than research only for the sake of science• Adopt a broad, cross-disciplinary approach• Focus on problem solving more than hypothesis testing• Generate practical, doable research projects with a quick turnaround India's first sunshine farmerIn June of this year, Parmar, the wheat and banana farmer in Anand district, became the first farmer in IWMI's pilot program to sell energy back to the power grid. He received 7,500 Indian rupees (about USD 120) for the surplus power, generated over a four-month period.At that pace, he would receive about USD 360 a year, equivalent to more than 20 percent of Gujarat's average per capita income. Over time, IWMI researchers believe that farmers, as they weigh the trade-offs between irrigation pumping and selling excess power, will be able to earn close to USD 1,000 a year. ","tokenCount":"1768"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe2bb28122b5bd0eb1231f88c4b375cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b4b7d62-2573-4af4-8ea1-7fc21ea58df2/retrieve","id":"-1206054336"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bef4088e-003b-457b-9d5f-4d102053da84","pagecount":"2","content":"The international Potato Center (CIP) is promoting Orange-fleshed Sweetpotato (OFSP) production, consumption and marketing as an easily accessible source of vitamin A to tackle to vitamin A deficiency (VAD) especially among under five children, pregnant women and lactating mothers in Malawi. CIP has advanced its partnership with public and private institutions in promoting and expanding production and commercialization of OFSP across value chains.Through the Feed the Future Partnering for Innovation (FTF P4I) project funded by USAID and the Root and Tuber Crops for Agricultural Transformation in Malawi (RTC-ACTION Malawi) funded by Irish Aid, CIP is working to promote OFSP production by farmers who will then supply roots to University Industries Limited (UIL) for use in the development of commercial OFSP products. CIP intends to develop efficient and sustainable value chains among farmers, linking vine multipliers to root producers and further facilitating linkages between root producers and agro-processing entities, enhancing different capacities of all key actors along the value chains.As a means for enhancing public-private partnership aimed at supporting smallholder farmers in Malawi to expand their market access and access to improved inputs and technical training, CIP has partnered with UIL in the implementation of the FTFP4I and RTC-ACTION projects. CIP is also working with Government Agencies namely, the Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS) to develop the right OFSP varieties for the right use (Fig. 1) and provide disease-free planting material and the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAES), who mobilize farmers for vine and root production. In addition, CIP works with NGOs such as Concern Worldwide, CARE, United Purpose (UP) (formerly known as Concern Universal), CADECOM, Catholic Relief Services and Save the Children as well as informal marketers of doughnuts (mandazi) and OFSP root wholesalers and retailers. How are we going to make it happen?CIP will provide technical support to 80,000 farmers through the five year RTC-ACTION project of which 8,500 will be empowered on commercialization through P4I and 5,000 by RTC-ACTION. Apart from training on production and acquiring disease-free planting material to increase productivity, farmers are being linked to supply roots to UIL and other fresh markets where farmers can sell roots profitably. CIP has further trained households on OFSP utilization to achieve diet diversity and therefore nutritional security. Small-scale marketers of doughnuts have also been trained on use of OFSP purée (steamed and mashed roots) to improve the profitability of their businesses.• Training of Smallholder farmers: A total of 10,000 beneficiaries comprising of vine multipliers and OFSP producers have been reached in 2017 with trainings on vine multiplication and root production as a business. • Household food and nutritional security: The beneficiaries have been trained to produce more OFSP to cater for household use and sell the excess to earn income. Increased OFSP use supports improved food and nutrition security through consuming the roots and using the generated income to diversity the household diet. • Improvements on OFSP value chain: Inclusion of all actors in OFSP value chain from government agencies, NGOs, multipliers, root producers, traders, processors and consumers imply sustainability in vine and root production and efficient and high quality service to processors and consumers • Small-scale entrepreneurs: Have been trained on use of OFSP purée as a key ingredient for doughnuts and how to fry fresh chips. Doughnut selling is a widespread small-scale business amongst the Malawian women and if adopted, could absorb considerable amounts of OFSP roots. • Enhancements in building public-private partnerships:On a large-scale, CIP has partnered with private institutions (such as UIL) on value addition and processing of OFSP-based products, including crisps (Fig. 2), MADYO soft cookie biscuits, purée and bread. It is anticipated that as the market for value-added OFSP Decentralized Vine Multipliers have been linked to markets to for selling their vines for root production to CIP and other NGOs. Farmers (suppliers) from the targeted districts have been selling OSFP tubers to UIL (Table 1) at U$0.2/kg, a profit generating price (Fig. 4). UIL does not deal with individual small-scale suppliers. This has driven many farmers to organize into groups to be able to aggregate their supply to send to the processor. • Improvements in good agricultural practices: 8,500 smallholder farmers have been imparted with up-to-date knowledge in OFSP production which will improve OFSP yields if consistently utilized. ","tokenCount":"707"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5e10d1e6549a76a44c39544fdbc6ac61","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/99a8c402-e777-4af3-ab68-3ef1dddb6d98/content","id":"-1906719976"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"faba496c-6da2-4a53-9ce9-5d50e5258cfe","pagecount":"70","content":"CIMMYT -the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (www.cimmyt.org)-is the global leader in research for development for maize and wheat and for maize-and wheat-based farming systems. Headquartered at El Batán, Mexico, CIMMYT works throughout the developing world with hundreds of partners to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat systems to improve food security and livelihoods. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR Consortium and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on Wheat and Maize. CIMMYT receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.Figure 1 presents examples of the thermal index and NDVI derived from the UAV against equivalent CT and NDVI measured at ground level. Airborne and ground-based measurements were made on the same day, or days as close as possible to each other. In general, correlations are strong between the two types of measurements, acting as a validation for the airborne derived indices. Correlations between the aerial thermal index and CT tend to be slightly lower than those of the NDVI index. This could be attributed to the higher variability of CT, due to environmental factors, particularly wind speed. The airborne derived thermal index and NDVI have been compared to yield and final biomass to determine how closely the airborne indices and these agronomic traits are related. Figure 2 presents a time series of the relationship between airborne derived UAV and biomass (2a) and yield (2b) over part of the growth cycle of a yield potential trial. As a comparison, the equivalent relationship between ground-based NDVI and yield/biomass is also shown. In general, the airborne measurements show a stronger relationship with yield/biomass compared to the ground-based measurements. This could be attributed to i) the ability of the airborne images, unlike the ground-based point measurements, to remove noise, such as non-vegetation pixels, as well as ii) the instantaneous measurement of plots via the airborne platform, which removes the confounding effect of temporal drift associated with ground-based readings in larger trials. This difference was seen to be significant in all cases excluding those from drought stress environments. Results support the application of airborne remote sensing techniques for high-throughput phenotyping. Time series like the ones above are useful at determining at which point in the growth cycle is it most efficient to make measurements, i.e. at which point in time index X best predicts yield or biomass.The airborne platform also has the potential to estimate other, more novel traits, such as lodging, chlorophyll florescence (Zarco-Tejada et al. 2009;Chapman et al. 2014) and other traits. For example, Figure 3 shows various cross section images taken from a 3D point cloud created using a surface reconstruction algorithm applied to low level, overlapping, RGB images collected off nadir. From the 3D point cloud, it is possible to estimate height, LAI, and if the spatial resolution is high enough, other plant characteristics, such as such as spikes/m 2 .-0. In addition, it might be possible to use low-level aerial imagery to estimate phenology of a plot, via changes in reflectance and plant architecture throughout the growth cycle. This method has already been applied using ground-based and proximal remote sensing methods (e.g. Deery et al. 2014). Figure 4 shows an estimation of spike count, taken from a snapshot of a low level multispectral image. The estimation was calculated via a multistage classification process based on the pixel values. In summary, the aerial remote sensing platform can be applied as a high-throughput phenotyping tool for trait estimation and selection, with such large-scale measurements increasing the probability of genetic diversification in selections. It also has the potential to be utilized for smaller scale measurements to estimate traits that require higher resolution. To optimize these methods, high-throughput automated analysis procedures must be developed in order to process the high volumes of data that are generated and applied.Sivakumar Sukumaran 1 , Matthew P. Reynolds 1 , Marta S. Lopes 2 , and Jose Crossa 1 . 1 CIMMYT, Mexico; 2 CIMMYT, TurkeyIncreasing yield potential per se still remains a major objective of crop improvement programs worldwide (Braun et al. 2010;Reynolds et al. 2012). A significant proportion of yield potential of CIMMYT's semi-dwarf spring wheat lines can be explained by genetic variability for adaptation to agronomic planting density (Reynolds et al., 1994a). Earlier released lower yielding lines showed a higher yield response to reduction in interplant competition-i.e. treatments that increased light penetration to the lower canopy from boot stage onwards, as well as treatments that combined increased light penetration with decreased below ground competition-than more modern higher yielding varieties. The results indicated the sensitivity of low yielding genotypes to plant density and the potential of some high yielding genotypes to perform well both under high interplant competition and reduced interplant competition. In other words high yield potential (HYP) genotypes respond less when interplant competition was reduced than the earlier released low yield potential (LYP) lines.Little is known about the genetic basis of the adaptation of wheat plants to agronomic density, which is significant considering that it is not something that would have been selected for in nature, interplant competition of single plants being of clear survival value. Our hypothesis was that adaptation to high-plant density is a component of yield potential and therefore amenable to genetic dissection. Plants subject to high density tend to reduce the number of grains set, but genotypes better adapted to the \"density stress\" show less reduction in the number of grains per spike. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were twofold: (1) to quantify the effects of plant density on grain yield, thousand kernel weight, and grain number, and (2) to identify genomic regions for adaptation to plant density in the wheat association mapping initiative (WAMI) panel through a genome-wide association study (GWAS).Adaptation to agronomic plant density is a component of high-yield potential important in crop breeding. Earlier studies have shown that progress in genetic yield potential is associated with adaptation to agronomic planting density. In the current study, a wheat association mapping initiative (WAMI) panel of 287 elite lines was assessed for the effects of plant density on grain yield (YLD), thousand kernel weight (TKW), and grain number (GNO); measured on each line of the population planted in four rows. Results of comparing YLD and GNO of two inner (high plant density) rows with two outer rows (low plant density) in each bed indicated a consistent pattern: genotypes that performed best under intense competition (inner rows) responded less to reduced competition (outer rows) while being generally the best performers on aggregate whole plot (inner + outer). TKW was not affected by plant density (Fig. 1).On average, inner rows yielded 37 % less than outer rows, and the yield of inner rows ranged from 40 to 90% of the yield of outer rows. Inner rows had 37 % lesser GNO, with a range of 41 to 88% of outer rows. For TKW, the percentage differences between inner and outer rows ranged from -9% to 5%, indicating that TKW was higher in some inner rows by 9%, and in some cases that outer rows had higher TKW by 5%. On average the inner rows had 1% higher TKW than outer rows, that is not significant. To give a reference point for YLD and GNO in conventional units, values for I+O were calculated on an area basis. YLD per bed (I+O) had a range of 4.2-8.4 t ha -1 , with an average 6.8 t ha -1 (Table 1).   To identify the genetic loci for ADi and to know ADi's association with high yielding sites, ADi was computed as the scaled difference in trait values between inner and outer rows. We calculated ADi for grain yield and grain number as:where ADi is adaptation to density index, YLDo is the grain yield of outer rows and YLD I is the grain yield of inner rows , µ is the grand mean of all data gathered over three years, and µl is the mean of the specific trial. In addition WAMI was also evaluated at 33 international sites (Mexico, Iran, Sudan, Egypt, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, and Pakistan) under two rows per bed system and grain yield was recorded in 2010 and 2011 (Lopes et al. 2012). We used the data to evaluate the hypothesis that adaptation to density index (ADi) is a component of high-yield potential in wheat. Results of correlation biplot analysis indicated that ADi is correlated with grain yield in high yielding environments; suggesting it is a component of high yield potential (Figure 2). Genotyping of the WAMI panel was done through 90K Illumina Bead SNPs array. Association mapping employed using 18,104 SNPs markers for ADi identified a major locus in chromosome 3B at 71cM that explained 11.4% variation in ADi for YLD and GNO (Figure 3). The marker IAAV7721 in chromosome 3B was further analyzed through BLAST search in National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and it resulted in a BLAST hit of SET domain protein gene with 99% identity. SET domain proteins are associated with pollen abortion in Arabidopsis (Xu et al. 2010). This marker was also identified for grain yield in our recent study, often the case for yield and yield components (Sukumaran et al. 2015). GWAS results for the adaptation to density index are shown in Table 2. The marker on 3B was also identified for ADi GNO . Also markers on 1B, 2A, 2D, 3B, 4B, and 6B were associated with the density index that explained 6 to 8 % variation for the trait and with p-values lower than 1.76×10 -05. A number of hypotheses could be tested to explain genetic differences in adaptation to density. For example, a more optimal distribution of chlorophyll b-i.e. light antenna pigments-throughout the canopy that permits increased light penetration to lower leaves, resulting in a greater proportion of leaves operating close to optimal light levels, and therefore increased radiation use efficiency (RUE) (Melis 2009;Ort et al. 2011). Another hypothesis, more difficult to test, is that high plant density-perhaps in response to red/far red light receptors or other responses induced by a \"density\" stress-elicits a plant growth regulator response reducing grain set (Ugarte et al. 2010;Blum 2013). Spikes m -2 were higher in the adapted lines than the non-adapted lines (Reynolds et al. 1994). A third hypothesis would be that lines adapted to density express a tiller dynamic whereby their production and abortion is somehow minimized or optimized.Wheat is grown in Mexico mainly under irrigation in the northwestern and central regions of the country. Mexico bridges a range of latitudes, providing an array of topography, environments, soil types and epidemiological zones susceptible to different diseases. These characteristics offer important information about the performance and adaptability of outstanding wheat lines that eventually may be the basis for the development and international release of high-yielding varieties through the Wheat Yield Consortium (WYC). The evaluated material is listed in Table 1, and the location of the nurseries (environments, E) is shown in Figure 1. Data were recorded for: 1) Plant height (PH); 2) days to heading (DH);3) days to maturity (DM); 4) harvest index (HI); 5) grain yield (GY); 6) biomass (BIO); 7) spikes per square meter (SSM); 8), thousand kernel weight (TKW); and 9) grains per square meter (GSM). HI, BIO and SSM were not considered for Obregon. Data obtained for all recorded variables were subjected to an analysis of variance within each site. Additionally, combined analyses of variance were performed over various locations and regions (northwestern and central) to estimate the statistical significance of effects due to genotypes (G), E and the genotype by environment (GxE) interaction. The AMMI1 programming routine described by Vargas and Crossa (2000) was employed to explain the GxE interaction estimated by the combined analysis of variance.At least significant differences (p<0.05) in PH among genotypes were detected in all locations: in DH, in all locations, except Baja California (BC); in DM, only in Sinaloa (Sin) and Sonora (Son); in HI, only in Guanajuato (Gto) and Jalisco (Jal); in GY, only in Jal and Son; in Bio, only in Jalisco; in SSM, only in BC and Jal; in TKW, in all locations, and in GSM, in Jal and Sin. About PH, DH, DM, GY and TKW, evaluated in all the locations, combined analysis detected highly significant differences (p<0.01) among E and at least significant differences (p<0.05) among G; at least significant differences in GxE interactions were detected for PH, DH, DM and TKW. For HI, BIO, SSM and GSM, evaluated in 4 locations, highly significant differences were detected among E and among G; GxE interactions were highly significant for HI and SSM. Analyzing by regions, lines 41, 29 and 27 were the best for GY in Bajío (Gto and Jal), and lines 8, 20 and 7 were outstanding in the northwest (BC, Son and Sin). As a general average the most yielding line was the number 20 (BCN/WBLL1//PUB94.15.1.12/WBLL1), with 6,417 kg ha -1 .Average GY ranged from 6,647 kg (BC) to 5122 (Jal). Average GY for Gto, Sin and Son were 5,930, 5,239 and 5,814 kg, respectively. Although GxE interaction was not significant for GY, it is important to mention that, considering the AMMI1 approach, Jal and BC were identified as the best locations to discriminate for PH; BC for PH; Sin and Son for DM; BC and Gto for TKW; there was no a good location to discriminate for HI, although BC presented the highest values and Sin the lowest; Jal was the best location to discriminate for SSM. Recognizing that all of these parameters eventually are related to GY, it is considered important to maintain this multi-location approach to better understand their interactions. Wheat is grown in a wide variety of environments, ranging from fully irrigated (e.g. northern India and Egypt), high precipitation (e.g. northwestern Europe, east Africa, southern part of Latin America) and drought-prone (e.g. US Great Plains, most of Australia and parts of Argentina) regions. In these areas wheat production undergoes a series of biotic and abiotic factors and crop improvement requires a precise approach of the needs of crops in each zone, by producers, the processing industry and consumers (Lantican et al., 2002). In Mexico, for example, wheat is grown in nearly every state, although its cultivation is limited by temperature, with the optimum ranging between 10 and 25 ° C (Aguilar, 1991).Wheat breeding worldwide has been of great impact as this cereal has spread to most favorable climates for agriculture, through the development of varieties adapted from tropical climates to the semi-desert or in environments that are located from sea level up to just over 3000 m (Villaseñor et al., 2004). To date, traditional selective breeding has been the main force behind wheat yield; however, \"the records suggest that the advances will not be quick enough to overcome the complex challenges of population growth and climate change. In spite of predicted increases in demand for wheat at a rate of around This document provides the analysis of information for the SATYN Experiment set in five locations in the Bajio and northwest wheat producing regions of Mexico during the 2013-14 wheat growing cycle. Sites of evaluation were located in the states Guanajuato, Jalisco, Sonora, Sinaloa and Baja California. Twenty four (24) bread wheat entries OR GENOTYPES were evaluated and data recorded for: 1) Plant height (PH), 2) days to heading (DH), 3) days to maturity (DM), 4) harvest index (HI), 5) grain yield (GY), 6) biomass (BIO), 7) spikes per square meter (SSM), 8), Weight of 1000 grains (TGW) and 9) grains per square meter (GSM). Days to maturity where not considered for Jalisco and HI, BIO and SSM for Sonora. Data obtained for all recorded variables were subjected to an analysis of variance within each site and combined analyses of variance were performed over locations to estimate the statistical significance of effects due to genotypes, locations and the genotype by environment interaction. The AMMI1 programming routine described by Vargas and Crossa (2000) was employed to explain the genotype by environment interaction estimated by the combined analysis of variance for grain yield.Mean square estimates due to genotypes for measured traits at each location not shown here detected statistically significant differences among genotypes for GY, DH and DM in all locations. Statistically significant differences were also detected among genotypes for PH, BIO, SSM and GSM in at least three locations. Harvest index and thousand-grain weight, respectively, only showed statistically significant differences in Jalisco and Baja California.The combined analyses of variance for variables showing statistical significance for all sources of variation of interest are presented in Table 1. Effects to due locations and genotypes showed a high statistical significance (p≤0.01) for days to heading, days to maturity, grain yield, biomass, spikes per square meter and grains per square meter. With the exception of days to heading which showed a p≤0.05 statistical significance, the genotype by environment interaction showed a high (p≤0.01) for the rest of the variables. Average over locations for genotypes ranged from 3,010 to 6121 kg ha -1 for GY; 83 to 101 cm for PH, 77 to 84 days for DH, 121 to 129 days for DM, 39 to 55 g for TGW, 7.2 to 12.7 t ha -1 for BIO, 176 to 451 for SSM and 7,117 to 15,014 for GSM, Table 3.Correlation coefficients estimated using phenotypic means calculated over locations involving grain yield only showed a closer and positive relationship with biomass (r=0.95) followed by those with SSM (r=0.77), GSM (r=0.76) and PH (r=0.50).The AMMI1 programming routine employed to explain the genotype by environment interaction showed that environments, genotypes and their interaction explained 30.3, 31.2 and 22.2% of the sum of total sum of squares for grain yield in the model, while the first two components of AMMI analysis explained 65.9% of the variation due to the genotype by environment interaction. A graphical representation (biplot graph) of genotypes and environments is presented in Figure 1. On the x-axis grain yield for genotypes and environments is depicted, and on the y-axis stability is measured; that is, values closer to zero are considered stable while those distant from the principal component one (PCA1) are considered unstable. The dotted line perpendicular to the x-axis indicates the average yield of genotypes, so that the genotypes and environments plotted to the left of the x-axis are the lower grain yielding genotypes and environments, while on the right side of the x-axis genotypes and environments showing a higher performance are located.It can be observed in Figure 1 that genotypes 9424, 9402 and 9403 display the highest performance; while genotypes 9412, 9415 and 9410 showed the lowest yields. The Baja California site exhibited the highest grain yields followed by Guanajuato, with both recording above average yields. Sonora, Jalisco and Sinaloa sites show below average yields.  Genotypes showing PCA1 values greater than zero are well suited to environments that similarly have values of PCA1> 0; genotypes and environments interact positively, but respond negatively in environments that have values of PCA1 <0. The opposite applies for genotypes that have values of PCA1 <0 (Samonte et al., 2005). Jalisco and Sonora displayed lower PCA1 values, i.e., they were the most stable; therefore, these environments discriminate genotypes to a lesser extent since most of them had similar responses. Instead, Baja California is the best to discriminate genotypes. Genotypes 9402 and 9424 were notorious for their high performance and stability.Correlation analyses using the particular set of bread wheat entries included in the Stress Adaptive Trait Yield Nursery (SATYN) indicate that there is a close and positive relationship between grain yield and biomass, spikes per square meter, grains per square meter and plant height. These relationships show a considerable opportunity for improving grain yield and its direct components, spikes and grains per square meter, by jointly increasing biomass and plant height. However, a limit to avoid lodging might have to be set for plant height, mainly in irrigated wheat-growing areas having poorstructured soils, like those in northwest Mexico, where levels of organic matter are very low.Genotype by environment interaction continues challenging plant breeders and agronomists who drive crop performance trials over different environments, and can reduce progress from selection. Stability of performance has to be considered an important aspect of yield trials. Although inferences extracted from biplots are valid only when the first PCA or the first two explain maximum variation due to interaction, the AMMI analysis offers the possibility of selecting for yield and stability. In order to accelerate genetic gains from their current rate of around 0.6% p.a. (Sharma et al. 2012), given that genetic bases of cultivar level differences in yield potential is still largely unknown, wheat breeding efforts currently depend on three main approaches: 1) Strategic hybridization to combine complementary yield potential traits; 2) Use of exotic germplasm to complement levels of expression in conventional gene pools; 3) High throughput phenotyping for progeny selection. Using all information available on photosynthetic and partitioning traits, hybridization schemes were designed to combine physiological traits (PTs) with the view to achieving cumulative gene action for yield potential (Reynolds et al. 2012). These approaches have recently delivered new germplasm that expressed both higher yield and biomass compared to local checks at the majority of the 18 international sites where they were tested, as the 1 st International Wheat Yield Consortium Yield Trial (1 st WYCYT) in 2013 (see Reynolds et al. 2014). Progeny from this breeding effort and other material developed using similar approaches are already being used to better understand the genetic basis of yield potential (e.g. Griffiths et al. 2015). The pre-breeding effort is ongoing, and the following data result from subsequent international yield trials and germplasm evaluations in Mexico.The 2 nd WYCYT consisted of 35 new PT lines, seven elite CIMMYT checks (Table 1) and was grown at 26 international sites in 2014 (Table 2), for which performance data is summarized (Table 3). In addition, this report presents information on candidates for the 3 rd WYCYT that were tested in Obregon in 2014 for international distribution later this year (Table 4). It also discusses primary re-synthesized hexaploid lines expressing promising yield potential characteristics (Figure 1) that are candidates for new crosses.Research showed that new PT lines were the best, yielding at 23 out of 26 sites by an average of 10% over the best CIMMYT check at that site, and by as much as 20% (Table 3). When considering all new PT lines, average yield at each site showed superior performance compared to the average yield of all checks at all sites by an average of 7%, and up to 18% at the best site. A PT line (with the pedigree SERI/BAV92//PUB94.15.1.12/WBLL1) expressed the highest average yield across all sites.Above ground biomass was reported for 13 sites and PT lines expressed the highest biomass at all 13 sites, by on average 14% above the best CIMMYT check and by up to 25% at the best site. When considering all new PT lines, their average biomass at each site was higher than the average biomass of all checks, again at all sites, by on average 6%, and up to 12% at the best site.Across all sites, the new PT material was on average one day earlier to anthesis than the average of all checks, expressed the same number of days to maturity, and was on average 2% taller (2cm).  New material coming through the pre-breeding pipelines also showed considerable promise in Obregon, with the best yield expressed 12% above best check in preliminary yield trials of the 3 rd WYCYT candidates (data not shown). This compares favorably with a value of 5% above the best check for the best new line of 2 nd WYCYT in Obregon in 2013, despite substantially larger values in target environments (Table 3).More recent crosses have emphasized the use of exotic germplasm and its impact is clearly seen. Table 4 shows a summary of the crosses that generated the best yielding progeny in Pre Preliminary Yield Trials. A total of 48 lines showed at least 5% greater yield than the best check. What is interesting about the new material is that all crosses involved landraces, and in some cases also re-synthesized hexaploid germplasm. Check SOKOLL 0%There is much exotic genetic diversity available for use in crossing from the recent screenings of a) landraces in the World Wheat Collection, and b) of primary re-synthesized hexaploids, under yield potential conditions in Obregon.Figure 1 shows the favorable expression of biomass of primary synthetics compared to elite checks, indicative of their high radiation use efficiency.The new PT lines were generated by crossing lines with superior expression of a number of relatively simple traits, including photosynthetic capacity (cool canopy temperature, crop growth rate/RUE, stem water soluble carbohydrates) to lines showing favorable expression of traits leading to high grain number and size (spike index, spike density, kernel number, kernel weight). The approach has proven successful in two successive years in achieving genetic gains for yield across a representative range of CIMMYT spring wheat target environments. Very similar results were also found for a trial run in parallel at most of the same international sites -the 3 rd SATYN consisting of lines developed and selected for physiological traits associated with adaptation to warmer irrigated environments -where the best PT lines expressed the highest yields at 19/24 sites by an average of 7%, and a PT line expressed the highest average yield across all sites. Now that improved yield potential and RUE has been identified in new PT lines and validated at international sites, the next step will be to refine the approach in two ways. First, the best performing new lines are being studied side-by-side with their parents in controlled field situations in order to more clearly identify and understand the contribution of respective yield potential traits and their interactions with each other and genetic background. Second, experimental progeny of the most successful crosses will be developed into mapping populations in an attempt to understand gene action for promising traits, as well as to identify candidates for gene discovery, cloning, and marker-assisted selection.The need of increasing grain yield of wheat and the trade-off between grain number (GN) and average grain weight (TGW), reinforced by the negative relationship between these components in the CIMCOG genotypes (Wiersma et al., 2001;Sadras, 2007;Quintero et al., 2014), highlight the aim of improving TKW in breeding programs. Molecular assisted breeding in crops requires uncovering the importance of particular genes in the determination of complex traits as grain yield to improve the efficiency of plant breeding of crops for food production. Identifying the functionally linked mechanisms of yield components, i.e., grain number (GN) and average grain weight (TGW), and understanding their genetic bases, is necessary at the present to boost yield potential of wheat. From a physiological perspective, the knowledge of grain number and kernel weight determination provide important clues for a successful phenotyping and genotyping evaluation. The time-course of flowers, carpels weight, grain length and grain water content studied in the last years offer helpful trails (Ferrante et al., 2010;2013;Calderini et al., 2001;Hasan et al., 2011). Additionally, molecular biology also delivered crucial information to build a physiological-genetic framework. Sugar signaling affecting both grain set and kernel weight (Ruan et al., 2010;Wang and Ruan, 2013), programed cell death and autophagy conditioning grain set (Ghiglione et al., 2008;Wang and Ruan, 2013), the expression of TaExpA 6 gene driving grain length (Lizana et al., 2010) and TaGW2 gene expression modifying grain wide (Bednarek et al., 2012;Simmonds et al., 2014) will be the foundations to identify promising lines by phenotyping and genotyping.In previous evaluations of CIMCOG genotypes carried out in Ciudad Obregón, curvilinear associations were found between grain yield and GN, negative associations were identified between TKW and GN and positive relationships between TKW and grain weight of grain positions G2 were found (Quintero et al., 2014). Promising traits of individual kernel weight (IKW) were detected such as grain volume, grain length and water content of grains, which could be phenotyped in doubled haploid and RIL populations. On the hand, contrasting results were found in the CIMCOG population evaluated in a very high yielding environment like that of southern Chile where a line association between grain yield and GN was recorded. Therefore, the present study has the aim of confirming or refuting previous relationships found in C. Obregón between traits and the promising characters in the environment of southern ChileOne set of 8 contrasting genotypes in the arrangement of thousand grain weight (TKW) and grain number (GN) chosen from the 60 CIMCOG´s genotypes were assessed at the Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Austral (39˚ 47' 18\"S, 73˚ 14' 5\"O) of Universidad Austral de Chile (UACH), Valdivia, Chile, during the 2014-2015 growing season. The set was sown on 27 of August in 2014 under two thinning treatments (control and thinning rows in booting). Plots were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates. At the control treatment the genotypes were sown in plots 2.5 m long and 1.35 m wide, while in the thinning treatment plot dimensions were 3.5 m long and 1.35 m wide. Seed rate was 333 seeds per square meter in both treatments. The thinning treatment was carried out at booting to increase the availability of resources to the remaining plants. The thinning was carried out by removing all the plant of the two closer rows of plants. Additionally, the source-sink ratio was increased in 5 control and 5 thinning plants at heading and 10 days after anthesis by halving the spikes. The plots were irrigated when necessary; weeds were periodically removed by hand and recommended doses of pesticides were used to prevent and control insects and diseases.In the experiment the phenological stages were recorded (Zadoks et al., 1974). The timing of physiological maturity was estimated when grain growth stopped as in Hasan et al. (2011). At harvest, grain yield, GN and TKW were recorded. The individual kernel weight (IKW) and grain dimensions of grain position 2 (the second grain from the rachis: G2) and grain position 4 (the fourth grain from the rachis: G4) of two central spikelets were measured in at least 5 spikes per plot. Grain volume was calculated as in Hasan et al. (2011).Twenty two main-shoot spikes of similar size and development were targeted at anthesis at each plot to follow grain growth. From anthesis on, two main shoot spikes were harvested 11 times (A+5, A+10, A+15, A+20, A+25, A+30, A+35, A+42, A+48, A+54 and A+60). The individual grain weight (IGW) was measured in G2 and G4. At each sampling two main-shoot spikes per plot were harvested.Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), and mean comparison by least significant difference procedure.Correlation analyses were also performed to assess the degree of association between variables.The nine genotypes evaluated in Valdivia in 2014-2015 reached grain yield between 600.7 and 770.8 g m -2 in control treatments although no differences were found (P>0.05). On the other hand, yield components ranged from 11336 to 18018 for GN and from 38.9 to 61.5 g for TKW. On the other hand, plants under the thinning treatment at booting showed grain yield from 865 to 1538 g m -2 . The GN and TKW at the thinning treatment ranged between 15158 and 32204 grains m -2 , and 47.4 to 68.6 g, respectively (Table 1). Taking into account recorded grain yield, the thinning treatment over-yielded the control from 42 to 105%. A positive relationship between grain yield and GN was found, while no association was detected between either grain yield and TKW (P>0.05) and between TGW and GN when all treatments were plotted together (Fig. 1). Interestingly, both GN and TKW were increased by the thinning treatment (Fig. 2), however, the response of GN to thinning was higher than that of TKW taking into account that GN increased 52%, while TKW only 16%, averaged across of the genotypes.   A highly significant association between TKW and grain weight of G2 (R 2 = 0.89, P< 0.001), and between TKW and grain weight of G4 (R 2 = 0.45, P< 0.01) was found across genotypes and thinning treatment (Fig. 3). These associations highlight the need of counteracting the trade-off between TKW and GN by increasing the IGW of grains set in both proximal and distal positions of the spike. On the other hand, no association was found between grain weight of both G2 and G4 and GN (Fig. 4), supporting the hypothesis that the trade-off between the two main yield components could be broken.  Volume and dimensions (length, width and height) of grain were evaluated in grains G2 and G4 at harvest (Fig. 5 and 6).As expected, the IGW of G2 and G4 had a positive and highly significant relationship with the volume at harvest (Fig. 5a  and 6a). Among grain dimensions, the length, width and height of grains were positively associated with the IGW of G2 (Fig. 5b, 5c and 5d) and G4 (Fig. 6b, 6c and 6d). Additionally, IGW of G4 showed good association with both grain length and width (Fig. 6). However, grain length of G2 and G4 seems to be the most promising trait taking into account this trait reached the final value earlier than width and height in the grain filling period (Fig. 7).   This study confirms the trade-off between the main yield components reported previously (Bustos et al., 2013;García et al., 2013), including the CIMCOG genotypes (Quintero et al., 2014). However, this trade-off has been lower in Valdivia.The relationship between TKW and IKW of G2 has been confirmed here as well as the predictive value of kernel length about potential kernel weight, showing that this trait and its physiological and molecular drivers are a key for improving TKW. In addition, kernel wide should also be considered, especially in distal kernel positions. Therefore, expansin and GW2 genes controlling are proposed as promising genetic bases of kernel weight of wheat.The complexity of hormone production and its effects on plants raises a lot of questions about their incorporation into plant improvement programmes (e.g. When and what to measure where? At which phenological stage will hormone measurements provide the most explanatory power in both improvement programme and in mechanistic studies?). It is well documented that pre-anthesis is the key phenological stage where grain number per spike and spike per square meter (m 2 ) can be affected by the environment), while during the post-anthesis stage it is mostly TGW and consequently yield that are impacted. Hormone quantification in key tissues at these key regulatory stages provides us for much scope for analysisGenotypes do not react similarly to the environment and therefore reduce their yield differently, either by the reduction of grains per spike, or by the number of spikes per m 2 , TGW or by combininations of two or three of these responses. In order to determine which hormone(s) is/are relevant to understand some basis of yield resilience, it can important to determine the hormonal signatures in different key tissues at key stages of development. Potentially a very wide range of hormones can be quantified.One approach to understanding key roles for hormonal regulators is to quantify yield components of different genotypes as affected by mild environmental perturbations. Genetic variation in yield and yield components can then be linked to constitutive variation in hormone signatures and the resilience of these signals under environmental challenge. One hypothesis is that the signalling involved in determination of potential yield takes place via the same set of regulators contributing to a stress response, i.e. in stress biology, we are concerned with a perturbation in a regulatory system rather that at a stress lesion per se.Field experiments were carried out at Cd. Obregon CIMMYT station, Sonora State, NW Mexico (27°20 N, 105°55 W, elevation 39 masl). The experimental material consisted of 10 wheat lines from the CIMCOG(acronym of CIMMYT Core germplasm) panel. These wheat lines were evaluated for one cropping season from February to June 2013 under twostress environments (heat and drought) and optimal (yield potential) conditions. The drought stress was applied at mid heading stage (65 days after sowing). The sampling consisted in taking, along the phenology, 4 leaves and 4 spikes per plot and freezeing them into liquid nitrogen. This represented 660 samples. The samples were kept in -80ºc and then freeze-dried to be sent to CIMMYT headquarters (El Batan) for grinding before, in turn, being sent to Lancaster University. During this experiment, ethylene gas produced by leaves and spikes was measured once at heading stage under heat conditions in a first selection of 6 genotypes.In order to associate the susceptibility tendencies determined above to a key phenological stage, seven (7) phenological stages (3 replications) were studied from initiation of booting to anthesis, sampling 4 immature spikes and flag leaves under semi-drought, and 6 phenological (2 replications) stages under heat stress. The samples were taken at 01:00 pm when plants suffer the effects of the highest temperature. Samples were frozen in the field by plunging them into liquid nitrogen. Afterwards, samples were dried using a freeze-dryer and finally ground. The dried ground samples were sent to Lancaster University to be analysed. During this experiment, ethylene gas produced by leaves and spike was measured, at heading stage. A complementary set of hormones has been analysed at this stage (ABA, ACC, CK).All analysis is carried out within the framework of a newly-developed stress index (Thiry et al. 2015 under internal review). As it has been shown previously, a combination of production capacity and resilience, calculated with yield data under stress and non stress conditions, has demonstrated a high correlation with yield under stress.In this paper we discuss the relationships between a suite of hormones, the yield, yield components and the stress indices of a range of genotypes. New methods of ethylene sampling are described and differences between ethylene accumulation in different plant parts at different developmental stages are discussed.Some emphasis is placed on cytokinin accumulation in developing reproductive structures and future plans for perturbation of this key variable are presented.Analysis of experimental results and relationships between hormones and yield components provide a basis for future plant improvement based on the definition of new physiological traits. Results also provide a clear basis for further experimental work to elucidate the mechanistic basis of yield regulation.• Quantitative comparative approaches for genetic potential will be estimated using new stress indices incorporating both estimates of productivity and susceptibility. • New high throughput hormone quantification techniques will be applied on an organ, plant and plot scale with laserbased technology • Incorporation of PGR-defined traits (growth, development, yield and physiology) into crop improvement programs.• PGR-defined progeny will be tested in target environments and promising material specific to stress environments will be identified and assimilated into other pre-breeding activities (targeting International Nurseries and national wheat programmes). • Mapping population will provide new insight into the physiological and molecular basis of genetic variation in GxExM attributable to PGR effects and will further inform future breeding strategyJohn Foulkes Despite a hypothetical limit to HI of ca. 0.65 in wheat (Austin 1982;Foulkes et al. 2011), there has been no systematic progress since the early 1990s from values of ca. 0.45-0.50 in spring wheat and 0.50-0.55 in winter wheat (Foulkes et al. 2011;Reynolds et al. 2012). Evidence shows that the latest progress in yield potential of CIMMYT spring wheat in the Yaqui Valley from 1990 to 2009 in semi-dwarf cultivars is associated with greater above-ground dry matter and grain weight, but decreases in HI over the same period (Aisawi et al. 2015). In this scenario, it seems that biomass is an important determinant of genetic gains in yield potential but it will be crucial to identify traits and markers enabling breeders to discriminate \"useful\" and \"non useful\" biomass to maximize partitioning to the grains, not only for current new high biomass cultivars but also at even higher levels of biomass anticipated from impacts in the area of photosynthesis research.While allocation of carbon to the developing wheat spike determines grain sink strength (a major determinant of yield potential), concurrent growth of other organs competes for carbon (Fischer 1985;Foulkes et al. 2011;Reynolds et al. 2012). Partitioning to spikes could be increased by reducing competition from alternative sinks, especially during stem elongation when grain number is determined. These competing sinks include roots, leaves, stems (structural and soluble carbohydrate DM), and infertile tillers. A potential avenue to increase spike partitioning and HI is to decrease true-stem DM partitioning while increasing the material strength of the stem to maintain lodging resistance (Foulkes et al. 2011).True-stem DM is partitioned between structural and redistributable components, and increasing the proportion of soluble DM has been shown to favor HI in irrigated spring wheat cultivars in northwestern Mexico (Saint Pierre et al. 2010).Strategies to boost spike growth by reducing assimilate partitioning to alternative sinks are complementary to those to optimizing phenology. Optimizing partitioning to favor the spike will mainly increase the rate of spike growth, whereas optimizing phenology will mainly extend the duration of spike growth in the pre-anthesis phase.The complementary trait to spike partitioning, that may be improved to further enhance grain number, is the fruiting efficiency (ratio grain number to spike DM at anthesis, FE) (Foulkes et al. 2011;Lázaro and Abatte 2011). There is clear variability among modern cultivars in FE (González et al. 2011;Lázaro and Abatte 2011). Although a trade-off between these two physiological components is often observed (Gonzalez et al. 2011), encouragingly recent work has demonstrated the possibility to identify genotypes combining high spike DM with a high FE (Lázaro and Abbate 2011).We aimed to: (i) identify genetic sources of wheat expressing favorable values of assimilate-partitioning traits and fruiting efficiency to achieve a step change in HI through screening genetically diverse germplasm and (ii) identify novel traits and mechanisms determining genetic variation in spike partitioning, fruiting efficiency and HI. Results showed a weak positive non-linear (quadratic) association between spike partitioning index (proportion of aboveground biomass in spike, SPI) and grains m -2 at GS65+7d amongst the 26 CIMCOG genotypes (R 2 = 0.16, P= 0.13; Figure 1e). There was a stronger positive linear association between the fruiting efficiency at GS65+7d and grains m -2 (R 2 = 0.40, P<0.001). Plant height ranged from 84-116 cm (P< 0.001), and showed a trend for a negative association with HI (R 2 = 0.12, P = 0.09; data not shown), but was not overall associated with grain yield or above-ground biomass.Spike partitioning index ranged amongst cultivars from 0.21-0.27 (P< 0.001) and was positively linearly associated with HI (R 2 = 0.16, P< 0.05; Fig. 2a). The proportion of the true-stem DM present as water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) at GS65+7 d ranged from 0.11-0.38 (P< 0.001) and was also positively linearly associated with HI (R 2 = 0.11, P = 0.09; Fig. 2b).Spike partitioning index was linearly negatively associated amongst genotypes with true-stem PI at GS65+7d (R 2 = 0.35, P< 0.01; Figure 3); there was no association of SPI with leaf-sheath PI or leaf-lamina PI (Figure 3). Overall these results indicated that, in modern high yield potential CIMMYT cultivars, the true-stem component is competing most strongly with spike growth. In order to reduce true-stem partitioning in the most effective way, it will be necessary to identify those true-stem internodes which are competing most strongly with stem growth during stem elongation.  We investigated the association of DM partitioning to true-stem internodes (peduncle, internode 2, 3, and 4+) with SPI amongst a subset of 9 CIMCOG genotypes with a restricted range in anthesis date (Figure 4). Negative associations between SPI and internode 2 partitioning index (PI) and internode 3 PI were found (P< 0.05; Figure 4); no associations were found for peduncle PI or internode 4+ PI. This indicates growth of the 2 nd and 3 rd internodes competes most strongly with spike growth. Assuming 5 extended internodes per shoot, extension of the 3 rd internode typically occurs before booting, and of the 2 nd internode typically occurs during booting and spike emergence. The lack of a correlation between SPI and peduncle PI may reflect a significant proportion of peduncle extension occurs after anthesis. The average allocation of dry matter to plant components at GS61+7d as either fixed structural DM or soluble redistributable DM is shown in Figure 5 together with the genetic ranges. The design targets to maximize partitioning to \"useful biomass\" in high biomass cultivars include: i) reduced DM partitioning to true stem and ii) increased DM partitioning to true-stem soluble carbohydrate. Our results demonstrate that spike partitioning index can be increased from the current maximum value in the CIMCOG panel of 0.32 to 0.38 by exploiting existing variation for partitioning within the CIMCOG panel, i.e. by combining minimum expression of partitioning indices for competing plant components (leaf lamina, leaf sheath, true stem) observed in the panel (Figure 3). Averaged across 2012 and 2013, genetic variation in grains m -2 was mainly explained by FE rather than SPI. For a subset of 7 genotypes, with a restricted range in anthesis date representative of the full range in FE in the 26 genotypes, a detailed analysis of spike partitioning at harvest (rachis, glume, palea, lemma, awn) was carried out.Results indicated a positive linear association between the partitioning of spike DM to the lemma and the FE (r = 0.84, P< 0.01; Fig. 6a).It can be speculated that a larger lemma fraction may favor floret survival through enhanced lemma photosynthesis and/or that larger lemmas may be associated with a relatively greater assimilate supply within the spike to developing florets which are initiated in the axils of the lemmas. In addition, decreased rachis specific weight was associated with higher FE (Fig. 6b). Our results show strong evidence that grain partitioning is not optimized to take advantage of high biomass and moreover there is unutilized genetic potential that can be exploited. Our analysis in the CIMCOG panel in 2011-2012 -2012-2013 has shown that increased harvest index is most likely to be achieved from combinations of novel traits that include: (1) decreased true-stem DM partitioning to internodes 2 and 3, ( 2) enhanced partitioning to the soluble DM component of during stem elongation and (3) enhanced fruiting efficiency, associated with decreased rachis specific weight and increased lemma fraction. Our data has shown that there is sufficient variation within the CIMCOG panel for these novel traits to achieve a step change in HI in CIMMYT spring wheat to 0.60 from the current maximum value of 0.51 by combining within a novel plant ideotype the biggest expression for 'useful' biomass traits for grain partitioning, including: decreased partitioning to internodes 2 and 3 (0.206; Babax/LR42) to enhance spike growth and decreased rachis specific weight (11.0 mg cm -1 ; Becard/Kachu) and increased lemma fraction (0.256; Pavon) to enhance fruiting efficiency (Figures 3 and 6). We have identified subsets of germplasm with highest expression of these favorable traits (whilst minimizing trade-offs) for strategic crosses in pre breeding at IWYP-PLAT. Applying the knowledge and phenotyping techniques developed here in genetically characterized panels will allow us to maximize exploitation of the radiation-use efficiency advances of IWYP by developing novel traits and molecular markers for \"useful biomass\". Lodging is defined as the permanent displacement of plant stems from their vertical position as a result of wind acting on the stem, and rain or irrigation weakening the soil leading to reduced stem and anchorage strength (Berry et al. 2004). This phenomenon reduces wheat productivity by adversely affecting grain quality (Berry et al. 2004) and reducing grain yield by up to 80% (Easson et al. 1993;Berry and Spink 2012). Reduced height with the introduction of dwarfing genes to wheat during the Green Revolution has increased lodging resistance, however, further reduction of plant height may be limited because these genes could have a direct negative effect on the final grain weight (Miralles and Slafer 1995), reduce water soluble carbohydrate storage capacity (Cossani and Reynolds 2012) and reduce leaf extension rate (Keyes et al. 1989). A minimum plant height compatible with high yields was estimated at between 0.7 to 1.0 m (Flintham et al. 1997) and has been reached in many environments. Wheat height has remained static for several years in some countries such as the UK (Berry et al., 2014). Recently, Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL), which increase height and yield have been identified (Berry and Berry 2015). This discovery may help to explain why plant breeders have found it difficult to improve yield and reduce height simultaneously.A mechanistic validated model of lodging in wheat (Baker et al. 1998;Berry et al. 2003b) calculates the wind speed required to cause lodging based on crop characteristics (e.g. height, yield, stem strength, anchorage strength). The lodging model has identified genetic variation for the stem and anchorage strength of winter wheat in the UK (Berry et al. 2003a(Berry et al. , 2007)). The identification of traits involved in the strength of the stem and root anchorage (stem diameter, wall width, material strength and root plate spread, structural rooting depth) represents a new alternative for breeding for lodging resistance. However, more understanding of the genetic control of these traits and possible trade-offs with yield will be required.A preliminary attempt to quantify the stem strength and anchorage strength required by winter wheat to withstand a 1 in 25 year wind gust in the UK by using the lodging model has been made by Berry et al. (2007). This indicated that substantial amounts of dry matter must be invested in the stem and anchorage system to make plants lodging-proof. This would mean that the maximum harvest index (ratio of grain dry matter to above-ground dry matter) for a 0.7m tall crop yielding 8 t ha -1 would only be 0.42, rising to 0.50 for a crop yielding 16 t ha -1 , which is significantly less than the theoretical maximum harvest index of 0.62 estimated by Austin et al. (1980). Additionally, it is possible that the investment in dry matter for the stem and anchorage system may compete for resources with grain yield determination. The aim of this paper is to quantify the dimensions of spring wheat plants required to avoid lodging in northwest Mexico (NWM) and considers the dry matter that must be invested in support structures to achieve this. A positive regression (R 2 = 0.63; P < 0.001) between the structural stem dry matter per unit length and internode failure moment for internodes 1 to 2 (27 genotypes, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014) and internodes 3 to 4 (5 genotypes, 2013 and 2014) showed that both traits were strongly correlated in spring wheat. According to this regression model where the response variable was the internode failure moment, a fitted value of 100 N mm in this parameter could be achieved with a structural stem dry weight per unit length of 1.13 mg mm -1 or with 1.53 mg mm -1 of overall stem dry weight including WSC (Fig. 2). There was no association between WSC content and internode failure moment for any internodes. There was a positive association between root dry weight per plant and root plate spread among 27 genotypes which had a consistent slope across years 2012 and 2013 but different intercept with an R 2 of 0.74 (P < 0.001). The predicted size of the root plate, stem diameter and stem failure moment required to avoid lodging for a range of crop types and lodging return periods have been estimated by the lodging model and are described in Table 1. The amount of stem and surface root dry matter for a range of crop types and lodging return periods (Figure 3) were estimated from the relationships between stem strength (stem failure moment) and root plate spread with biomass that were described earlier. This shows that a substantial amount of stem biomass must be invested in the support structures of the plant for it to withstand a wind gust with a return period of 25 years. The strong positive relationships between the stem structural biomass per unit length and stem strength (stem failure moment), and root plate spread with root surface biomass demonstrate that breeding for greater yield and lodging resistance will be challenging unless total biomass can be increased. Even with greater biomass, careful optimization of yield and lodging traits will be required to minimize the inevitable trade-offs between traits that develop at the same time.For example, it is understood that the most useful investment of stem biomass for stem strength is in the production of wider stems and stronger material strength, rather than thicker stem walls. It is possible that a shorter lodging return period will have to be accepted in order to maximize average grain yield over several years. A combination of genetic dissection of biomass and lodging traits, together with modeling to identify optimum combinations of traits and genetic markers, will be required to increase yield and lodging resistance.Oscar E. Gonzalez-Navarro 1 , Gustavo A. Slafer 2 , and Simon Griffiths 1  1 John Innes Centre; 2 ICREA and University of Lleida, SpainGenetic gains in wheat yield are to a greater degree related to grain number, rather than to the average grain weight (Fischer 2008(Fischer 2011)), as yield is mostly sink-limited during grain-filling (Serrago et al. 2013). Consequently large gains in yield can be only expected through gains in grain number (Slafer et al. 2014), the most plastic of the yield components (Sadras and Slafer 2012). Grain number is largely determined during the stem elongation (SE) period (Fischer 1985;Slafer and Rawson 1994). Before becoming grains, floret primordia start developing sometime around the initiation of terminal spikelet, which typically coincides with the beginning of SE, and the final number of fertile florets is set at anthesis. It is likely that the duration of the stem elongation phase, within adaptive constraints, is a major determinant of floret number (Miralles et al. 2000;Whitechurch et al. 2007). In aspiring to manipulate grain number and therefore yield, one approach is to manipulate the length of SE. However, to ensure that as many florets as possible are converted to grain it is important to understand the dynamics of floret production. Within the indeterminate spikelets of wheat many more florets are initiated than grains finally produced. This is largely due to floret abortion (Gonzalez et al. 2011).In this study, we have investigated both processes: the implications of different floret development/abortion profiles in selected lines of the CIMMYT Mexico Core Germplasm (CIMCOG) population; and the genetic control of the duration of SE through Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) analysis in the Buster x Charger doubled haploid population. The long term breeding goal is to provide the tools and knowledge to achieve an increase in the period where resources are being partially allocated to the generation of florets, allowing for labile primordia to further develop reducing the risk of mortality (Gonzalez-Navarro et al. 2015) and find genes and alleles that can be selected to extend the period of SE. Finally, we are producing a new set of genetic resources that will enable us to extend this type of analysis to wider CIMMYT germplasm making sure that all of the carbon captured in new high biomass materials is channeled into grain yield.The variation in number of fertile florets within a representative subset of the CIMCOG elite germplasm was much better related to the survival of floret primordia than to the maximum number of florets initiated; both components had a significant variation (Figure 1). This shows that selection for floret survival, rather than peak floret number is likely to be the most productive strategy to increase grain number. An in-depth analysis of line 8 and 9, highest and lowest spike fertility respectively, showed that the two floret primordia proximal to the rachis were mostly fertile, while the most distal florets (florets 6-8) never reached a fertile stage, pinpointing the difference in number of fertile florets to the developmental patterns of intermediate florets (floret primordia 3, 4 and 5). It seems that florets started its development in line 9 with some delay compared to timing of development initiation on line 9 (Figure 2). Genotypes with a higher number of fertile florets exhibited an improved survival of floret primordia that relates to a longer period of development. In order to locate chromosomal positions affecting the time to the beginning and end of SE, three seasons of field experiments with a doubled haploid population of Buster x Charger were carried out using a 90K Illumina SNP based map developed within the EU FP7 project ADAPTAWHEAT. This analysis confirmed the presence of a QTL in chromosome 7A for time to terminal spikelet and two QTLs in chromosomes 2D and 4A with an effect on time to heading (Figure 3). Independent genetic control of time to TS and heading show that marker assisted selection could be deployed to manipulate SE duration. Alternative ways to further increase yield by breeding are urgently required to maintain current levels of food security. Among other traits, further increases in yield potential are dependent on adaptation and fine-tuning of wheat development (Reynolds et al. 2012). Being able to allocate each major developmental stage to the optimal weather condition, seem like a must within the context of climate change. In the work developed so far (whose results are outlined above) we proved the relevance of floret development as a major determinant of grain number (and yield) in wheat and identified QTLs in a mapping population related to the partitioning of developmental time to heading which might be a driving force for differences in floret development. However, to translate this into trustworthy tools for realistic breeding programs we must reconfirm the value of the traits (developmental partitioning and floret survival associated to it) in strategic crosses designed to produce breeding populations for improved yield potential and identify molecular markers in these realistic populations. Therefore, in order to extend the approach outlined above and our other studies of CIMMYT germplasm (Griffiths et al. 2015) we have developed segregating populations using CIMCOG varieties as founders and two common parents, Paragon (UK spring wheat) and Weebill (CIMMYT spring wheat). These populations will allow us to describe the genetic architecture of SE and floret dynamics so that these difficult to score traits can be manipulated by marker assisted selection. Conceptual models of desirable trait profiles are used in wheat breeding to accumulate complementary physiological traits (Reynolds et al., 2009b). Whereas physiological breeding efforts have been focused on improving crop adaptation to abiotic stresses (Reynolds et al., 1998;Condon et al., 2004;Reynolds et al., 2005;Richards, 2006;Reynolds et al., 2009b), interest in raising the yield potential has grown recently (Reynolds et al., 2009a(Reynolds et al., , 2011) ) with promising results to date (Reynolds et al. 2014;Reynolds et al., 2015). Under yield potential conditions, the conceptual models of traits encompass a large diversity of the potential mechanisms that are based on a combination of empiricism within a limited range of environments, as well as some speculation based on the theory (Reynolds et al., 2009b). The identification of these traits and the importance of them should be assessed by whether they fit into frameworks that are appropriate to improve yield. In this sense, only those traits of economic importance showing genetic variation and high heritability can be considered for improvement in the context of plant breeding (Jackson, 2001).It is generally assumed that the genetic diversity for certain traits in elite material is scarce (Able et al., 2007). However, few studies have determined genotypic variation for yield potential related traits in elite wheat lines. Therefore, we can consider these assumptions more theoretical than derived from empirical evidences. The main traits presented in Figure 1 where studied for three years at MEXPLAT (NW-Mexico) in the CIMCOG panel (CIMMYT Core Germplasm) composed by elite wheat lines including the most advanced lines provided by CIMMYT breeders and some historical lines. This work is part of a series of studies related with Wheat Yield Consortium (WYC) activities aiming to achieve yield potential (Figure 1). • Spike Fertility  (González-Navarro et al., 2015) • Avoid floret abortion (González-Navarro et al., 2015) • Hormone signalling (Thiry et al., 2014) • Abort weak tillers • Lodging resistance traits (Piñera-Chavez et al.   2013, 2014)   • Partitioning to grain (HI) (Rivera-Amado et al. 2014;Trujillo-Negrellos et al. 2014) • Adequate roots for resource capture (HI/RUE) (Alderman et al., 2014) SOURCE (pre-grainfill):• Light interception (LI) (López-Castañeda et al. 2014, 2015) • RUE preGF (López-Castañeda et al.2014;Molero et al. 2015) • Photosynthetic capacity and efficiency Pre-GF (Silva-Pérez et al. 2014;Prins et al., 2014) • Mesophyll conductance (Robledo-Arratia et al., 2014) SOURCE (grain-filling):• Canopy photosynthesis (RUE/LI)• Light distribution (López-Castañeda et al., 2014, 2015) • Spike photosynthesis (Sánchez-Bragado et al., 2014a,b, 2015;Molero et al. 2014   (Parry et al., 2014;Carmo-Silva et al., 2014) • Stay green (Trujillo-Negrellos et al. 2014) • RUE (López-Castañeda et al. 2014, Molero et al. 2015) Sixty elite lines of wheat, including the most advanced lines provided by CIMMYT breeders and some historical lines, were grown under yield potential conditions in the Mexican Phenotyping Platform (MEXPLAT), Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico for two seasons (2010-11 and 2011-12) and a subset of thirty lines (CIMCOG-Subset) were grown for another additional season . The subset of 30 lines represented the genetic variability of the whole CIMCOG panel and was used for further analysis.Radiation use efficiency (RUE) was dissected according to aboveground biomass harvested at different times during the growth cycle (Figure 2). Genotypic variation for RUE among the lines was observed (data not shown) with the exception of RUE comprised between initiation of booting and seven days after anthesis (RUE T3-T2 ). The most important periods to determine final aboveground biomass were RUE from canopy closure (forty days after anthesis) to initiation of booting (RUE T2-T1 ) together with RUE during grain filling (seven days after anthesis to physiological maturity, RUE GF ). In addition, RUE GF appeared to be closely and positively associated with yield and thousand grain weight highlighting the importance of post-anthesis photosynthesis to determine final grain yield. The positive correlation between grain yield and grain filling RUE highlights a higher efficiency of the crop to convert intercepted radiation into biomass after anthesis can affect the activity at the sink.In order to achieve high final aboveground biomass (BMat) it is important to produce high biomass in earlier stages (Figure 2) avoiding the loss of fertile stems at the end of the crop (Figure 3a). The positive correlation between biomass measured at initiation of booting with grain number (GNO) together with a positive correlation with water soluble carbohydrates measured at heading (P<0.05, data not shown) highlights the importance of pre-anthesis photosynthesis to increase spike fertility. However, as has been previously reported, this investment in more grains is negatively correlated with final grain weight probably associated with a possible source or source-sink co-limitation during grain filling (Figure 2). Even than under drought stressed conditions investments in early biomass is a desirable trait, no effect (or even negative) was observed under yield potential conditions (Figure 3a). Loss of spikes between seven days after anthesis until physiological maturity was negatively correlated with yield, biomass and radiation use efficiency suggesting than the ability to keep fertile stems during grain filling has a high impact on final yield. This ability is associated with higher RUE along the growth cycle (Figure 3a). The correlation of harvest index (HI) and other sink traits with yield and biomass highlights the importance of these traits to translate the extra biomass into grains (Figure 3b). Theoretical considerations suggest that wheat yield potential could be increased through the genetic improvement of radiation use efficiency (RUE). According to the results, the most influencing periods to increase final aboveground biomass are the ones comprised between canopy closure and initiation of booting and during grain filling. In this sense, further research should be focus on these critical periods in order to increase yield potential. In this sense, due to spikes intercept more than 30% of light during grain filling, further studies to estimate the contribution of spikes to canopy RUE must be assessed.These results highlight the importance of RUE during crop growth in order to maximize yield potential. However, to achieve agronomic impacts, structural and reproductive aspects of the crop must be improved in parallel with RUE.   The ideal crop canopy maximizes interception of solar radiation throughout the crop cycle while optimizing the distribution of light. The latter is important because photosynthesis saturates at about half the intensity of direct sunlight. Hence the maximum rates of canopy photosynthesis are achieved by increasing the leaf area index to values typically above three, and arranging leaves in a more erect posture thereby reducing the proportion of leaves in a light saturated state and increasing light penetration. In fact light interception is generally above 95% for most wheat canopies in favourable environments and modern wheat canopies already have erect or semi-erectophile canopies (Araus et al. 1993).However, there may be scope for further genetic alteration of leaf posture, leaf size or density to alter the architecture and hence the in-canopy light characteristics which influences the extent and dynamics of light saturation (Murchie et al. 2009). An area of canopy photosynthesis that has not been addressed in breeding before is the potential to improve the contribution from spikes. Studies were conducted in genetically diverse elite high-yielding spring wheat genotypes to determine light extinction patterns.Former research work conducted at CENEB showed substantial genetic variation in biomass, total leaves area, number of stems per square meter, leaf area index (LAI), extinction coefficient (k) and light intercepted (LI) by the canopy in a combined analysis of 60 genotypes measured under flat and raised beds during 2010-2011 (Table 1). In general, higher values for all traits were observed under flat planting system (PS). However, the interaction G x PS was only significant for light intercepted and extinction coefficient (k). The obtained k values also presented a wide genetic variation in flat and raised beds, showing there is scope to reduce the proportion of incident radiant energy transmitted in to the soil surface beneath the canopy, and so increasing LI by the canopy, especially under raised beds (Table 1).One of the major aspects to consider in a plant breeding program is the heritability (h 2 ) of useful plant traits present in the available genetic variability. In Table 1, we can observe from moderate to high heritability for all traits in each individual analysis. Heritability was moderate to high for the combined analysis among planting systems with the exception of light intercepted. This can be explained by the G x PS interaction.Genetic variation in LI intercepted by the canopy and its distribution into spikes and top leaves determined in flat beds showed spikes, flag leaf, leaf 2 and the reminder was 1.4, 1.4, 2.0 and 1.9-fold, respectively (Table 2). This has also shown spikes, flag leaf and leaf 2 intercepted more than 80 % of the above canopy incident radiation, and this also allowed us to establish that a longer peduncle and a longer internode between flag leaf and leaf 1 are key morphological traits to permit a greater penetration of light in to lower green leaves (López-Castañeda et al., 2014). The identification of key genetic and physiological factors that may help increase LI and reduce the transmission of radiation into the soil surface beneath the crop canopy, might offer good opportunities to increase yield potential through an increase in dry matter accumulation. A larger LI by spikes can be achieved by an increased spike size, which in turn may lead to an increased sink strength (e.g., grain number and size) and a greater partition of assimilates to the grain during the grain filling period. So, that selection by higher spike LI and lower k values may result in an increase in dry matter production and grain yield. A good example of success in a significant reduction of k values is given by Monteith (1965) and Cooper et al. (1983); these authors showed k to have values between 0.3 and 0.5 and 0.37 respectively, which are higher than the k values obtained in the present research work (mean of k=0.23). The substantial reduction in the k values observed in these studies (≈ 60 %) as compared with the mean of k values obtained by Monteith (1965) and Cooper et al. (1983) represent a clear example of progress achieved through unconscious selection leading to a significant reduction in the proportion of radiant energy transmitted to the soil surface beneath the crop canopy.species (e.g. Yeoh et al. 1980;Galmes et al. 2014). Consequently, without further detailed biochemical examination, variation in V cmax@25 derived from gas exchange may not truly represent the underlying cause of variation in photosynthetic rate and this could lead to problems identifying the genetic basis.There are several different possible routes for altering photosynthetic properties which could lead to increased yield potential. Photosynthetic rate can be increased by raising the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. This could come about because the leaf has a greater nitrogen content and therefore more photosynthetic proteins per unit leaf area. Alternatively, the leaf could alter the internal allocation of nitrogen which could increase Rubisco content at the expense of some other leaf protein(s). Another possibility is that a Rubisco with kinetic properties superior to existing wheat lines could be identified from wheat germplasm collections or wild relatives and used to replace the current form. It is this last option that has the greatest potential to increase yield with the least requirement for additional nitrogen. Justifiably, attention is focused on Rubisco as under normal field conditions, this enzyme has been demonstrated to determine photosynthetic rate and it accounts for such a large fraction of leaf nitrogen.The objective of this research has been to develop a more rapid methodology to screen photosynthetic characters, either in the field or grown in controlled environments. We are now in a position to apply this technique to screen a larger number of genotypes. First, we need to characterise parents of existing recombinant inbred line populations to identify those suitable for detailed screening. A broader screen of elite genotypes is also needed as this may identify better potential parents for new RIL populations. Screening of these populations will then allow the discovery of markers and the genetic basis for the variation in photosynthetic characters. This in turn will enable the identification of parents that can be used in a breeding program to enhance photosynthesis and provide markers that can assist in selection.There is an increasing necessity in raising wheat yield potential and stability (Reynolds & Borlaug 2006;Araus et al. 2008;Reynolds et al. 2011) is increasing in view of the growing challenges imposed by social and climate changes. Moreover, genetic advances fuelled by breeding programs have decreased over recent decades (Reynolds et al. 1996;Araus et al. 2008). There is a need to develop more efficient wheat breeding methodologies, particularly phenotyping strategies, which complement existing (traditional) breeding techniques (Araus et al., 2008). One of the approaches proposed to increase yield potential and improve adaptation to abiotic stresses, such as drought and heat, is to select for higher ear photosynthesis. Hence, ear photosynthesis is thought to play an important role in terms of the source of photoassimilates during grain filling, not only under drought, but also under good agronomical conditions (Araus et al. 1993;Bort et al. 1994;Abbad et al. 2004). Although the photosynthetic contribution of the ear to final grain weight has been widely studied (Araus et al. 1993;Bort et al. 1994;Tambussi et al. 2005Tambussi et al. , 2007;;Maydup et al. 2010;Saeidi et al. 2012), its actual importance in terms of contribution to grain filling is not well understood (Tambussi et al. 2007), which has prevented the settling down of high-throughput phenotyping approaches for this trait. The main objective of this work was to compare different experimental approaches aiming to assess the relative photosynthetic contribution of the ear and the rest of the plant (the culm) to grain filling. Three different techniques were used: inhibition of ear and culm photosynthesis through i) herbicide DCMU application; or ii) by shading each organ; and iii) a non-disturbing approach which compares the carbon isotope composition (δ 13 C) in its natural abundance of assimilates from different plant parts (awns and peduncle) with the δ 13 C of the mature grains. Several advanced CIMMYT lines were tested under good agronomic conditions.Our results from the shading treatments indicate that total photosynthetic contribution of the ear represents 60% of total assimilates going to the grain (Figure 1). Conversely, the DCMU approach assigned a higher role to the culm photosynthesis, but herbicide application in the culm affected the ear, biasing the final grain weight. Nevertheless, results from any treatment of intrusive nature should be interpreted with caution, as unwanted compensatory mechanisms in the remaining unaffected organs could affect final grain weight.In the approach using δ 13 C, the relative contribution of awns to grain filling was also higher compared to the culm, although it depended on water status (assesses through δ 13 C grains ) and the overall similarity of magnitude than the value inferred from the shading approach. Thus, ear photosynthesis (awns) represented on average 60% of the total assimilates going to the grain, and up to 87% when water conditions were less optimal in the most positive interval of the δ 13 C grains (-25.0, -26.0 ‰).Ear contribution to grain filling may yet be underestimated since the glumes were not included in the approach using δ 13 C. Using the δ 13 C approach, we provide a precise tool for assessing the photosynthetic contribution of the ear to grain filling, which can help design crosses to breed new lines adapted to a wide range of environments. However, some considerations should be taken into account in order to apply the δ 13 C approach, such as the sampling methods, avoiding post-harvest respiration.In accordance with the results obtained in this study using different approaches, under good agronomical conditions the contribution of the ear to filling grains was comparable or even higher to that of the rest of the plant. Even under good agronomical conditions ear photosynthesis plays a key role as a source of photo-assimilates during grain filling. This trait has to be incorporated into conceptual models addressing wheat yield potential. Moreover our study advances the development of high-throughput phenotyping tools to assess ear contribution to grain filling. This study may help develop precise phenotyping tools to identify physiological traits such as ear photosynthesis that could contribute to increased grain yield. As far as we know, this is the first report where different experimental approaches of an intrusive and nonintrusive nature, aiming to assess the contribution of ear photosynthesis to grain filling were compared. Martin A.J. Parry Photosynthesis is the primary determinant of biomass with more than 90% of biomass (on a dry weight basis) derived directly from photosynthetic products. There is compelling evidence from free air CO 2 enrichment experiments (FACE) that increasing photosynthesis does increase crop yields provided that other constraints do not become limiting (Ainsworth & Long, 2005). The maximum theoretical efficiency with which the sun's energy can be captured as crop biomass is 4.5 to 6%, although it seldom exceeds 2% and averages less than 1%. Improving this conversion efficiency is an important area of research, with the potential to significantly increase crop yields. The processes underlying photosynthesis are highly conserved in different species and thus progress that is made in a model species should equally apply to crop species (Parry et al., 2011;2013;Carmo Silva et al., 2014).One of the reasons for low photosynthetic efficiency (e.g. of rice and wheat) is that the primary carboxylating enzyme, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), is slow and also catalyses a competing reaction with O 2 rather than CO 2 . Much research has focused on overcoming the limitations of Rubisco either through mining natural diversity (Driever et al 2014) or by genetic engineering (Lin et al 2014a;2014b), and has included attempts to increase the flux of CO 2 to the site of utilisation by Rubisco. Significant progress has also been made toward promoting a plentiful supply of the CO 2 acceptor molecule and Rubisco co-substrate, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), through altered expression of rate-limiting enzymes required for its continuous regeneration.The concentration of CO 2 at the catalytic site of Rubisco is a major determinant of photosynthetic rate and is strongly influenced by both the stomatal conductance (g s ) and the mesophyll conductance (g m ). Differences in physical characteristics lead to the large variation in g m among species (Flexas et al., 2012). One goal was to determine the extent of variation in g m between wheat cultivars.The photosynthetic performance of 13 field-grown cultivars of Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) at the CIMMYT experimental station in Sonora, Mexico, was screened using gas exchange and fluorescence equipment. Mesophyll conductance (g m ) was highly variable even between cultivars of wheat (Fig. 1). Leaf age and water availability were carefully controlled to eliminate their impact on the observed variation in g m , for which reason the observed differences must have been inherent to the cultivars themselves, probably reflecting distinct anatomical characteristics. ","tokenCount":"12801"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e2b91e976beff13c9b16163187ec872","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad4e6f08-7810-48cf-80b1-3c9c4f500fc5/retrieve","id":"-1317670748"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b0c561bd-2b30-4ac0-a788-c81c5865c4e6","pagecount":"1","content":"In the Peruvian highlands, potatoes are the main crop for small producers and an important component of the regional agri-food system. In the highlands, above 3,500 meters above sea level, more than 2,500 varieties of native potatoes are grown, but most of them were not reaching wider markets. Since the early 2000s, the International Potato Center (CIP), in partnership with more than 20 public and private partners, has been using an agri-food system approach to develop biodiversity-based and impact-oriented innovations that benefit small producers and the potato sector in general. We call this the Participatory Market Chain Approach (PMCA) and it is based in principles of open innovation and social inclusion. This work was initiated by the INCOPA 1 project , which developed the PMCA method and used open innovation principles. This project was initially coordinated by CIP between 2001-2010, but the dynamics of the strengthened potato innovation system have continued over time.The research team developed and used the Participatory Productive Chain Approach (PMCA) (Bernet, Thiele and Zschocke, 2006), describing a framework of open innovation systems that:1. Facilitates the problem-solution match and links business opportunities with stakeholders' capacities for generating and developing innovations; 2. Facilitates management of the heterogeneous interests of diverse stakeholders in different dimensions of the agri-food system and helps identify common business-oriented objectives that they can carry forward; 3. Promotes a consultative process through knowledge management that enables incorporating the commercial, technological, and institutional components in the processes of development and dissemination of market-oriented innovations; and 4. Capitalizes on the articulation of ideas for the use of biodiversity, some of which are already in process and other which are seen as future possibilities, but clearly oriented to new ventures and products for the market (e.g., business start-ups around potato biodiversity).As a result of PMCA and the open innovation process, stakeholders (public and private) were brought together and combined their strengths and generated:1. Commercial and demand-driven innovations and new products for the market; 2. Institutional innovations and legal norms that supported competitiveness; and 3. Technological solutions to facilitate innovation.Open innovation helps generate changes at a micro level (i.e., for potato growers) and in the potato sector and agri-food system as a whole. Studies indicate that producers increased their yields and their income, which makes them more competitive to benefit from market opportunities. At the sectoral level, national per capita consumption of potatoes has increased from 65 to 92 kg in Peru in the last decade, while demand for and prices of native potatoes have increased by 55% during the same period. Small farmers in the Peruvian highlands have also benefited significantly from the open innovation process that generated favorable economic policies and Peru's recent growing notoriety as a global culinary influencer (Ordinola et al., 2018). Figure 2 shows the dynamic process to generate different products by multiple private and public stakeholders for both national and international markets based on native varieties that are produced primarily by small producers.  The complexity of biodiversity-based potato agri-food systems in the Andes requires the use of open innovation to develop and promote adequate links between agricultural research organizations, public and private investors, farmer organizations, NGOs, policy makers and different actors along the value chain. The combined strengths of these actors contributed to develop demand-driven products based on potato biodiversity, which have generated income for small producers. CIP acted as a broker by linking a diverse range of public and private oriented stakeholders who generated ideas and innovations that have been taken to the market to varying degrees of success. We conclude that open innovations and methods such as PMCA have contributed to revitalize economic activities in the biodiversity-oriented potato sector in Peru.","tokenCount":"610"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2bb4f2cf73e643c263465a1289c3b5db","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f959819-7c6e-46f5-9201-59b19ef744d8/retrieve","id":"882517677"},"keywords":["Bashiru, M.","Ouedraogo, M.","Ouedraogo, A.","Läderach, P. Smart climate-smart agriculture","smart farming technologies","sustainable agriculture","smallholders"],"sieverID":"400a573f-11cf-4fe9-9976-f5a6a49ea506","pagecount":"13","content":"Small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) need to adopt and consistently practice sustainable agriculture to ensure sustainable livelihoods and food security. However, the adverse effects of climate change are threatening the achievement of this goal. Therefore, farmers within the sub-region need to embrace climate-smart agriculture (CSA) as a means for climate change adaptation and mitigation. This study was conducted to understand, on the one hand, how smart farming technologies are being promoted in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other hand, how farmers are adopting the prevailing technologies. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) procedures were followed to identify 48 scientific papers in sub-Saharan Africa. It was found that promoters of smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa include CGSpace, FAO, National Research Institutions, individual researchers, local institutions, and private institutions. The approach to the smart farming technology discourse in sub-Saharan Africa starts by building on efforts to sustain CSA practices with a gradual shift towards the fourth agriculture revolution innovations. Even where there are efforts to push beyond conventional CSA practices by the private sector, farmers' responses are still low. It is recommended that any intervention to promote modern smart farming technologies to smallholders should build on conventional CSA practices.Sub-Saharan Africa owns more than 60% of the world's arable land with over 85% of farmers operating as smallholders [1]. These smallholders are the primary and secondary pillars of the agricultural sector [2] and hence provide the majority of food production in the sub-region [3]. The sub-region is an agrarian economy, with its economic development dependent on a significant transformation of agri-food systems [4].Unfortunately, most sub-Saharan African countries are unable to embrace food selfsufficiency even though the agricultural revolution is within their reach [5]. Food insecurity continues to rise even in less dry areas such as Nigeria and Ethiopia [6]. There is a consensus among both past [7,8] and present studies [4,9,10] that population increase alongside declining agricultural productivity is the immediate cause of food insecurity in the sub-region. Besides, all these studies explain that the increase in population is putting pressure on food demand, on the one hand, while climate change is threatening crop and animal production, on the other hand. The \"climate change and population dynamics\" discourse is responsible for the imbalances between demand and supply of food in the sub-region.It has been noted that almost half of the world's extreme poor live in sub-Saharan Africa [4]. These are mostly smallholders whose livelihoods are particularly vulnerable 2 of 13 to climate change [9]. Moreover, such farmers in the region are still struggling to raise productivity through conventional farm practices despite the technological revolution in the agricultural sector. Consequently, smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa are challenged by declining yields, depleting natural resources, alongside climate variability [11,12]. The effect of climate change is deeply felt in sub-Saharan Africa [12]. If this is not reversed, resources meant for socio-economic development in the region will be diverted to the fight against climate change.Recent scholars of climate science [4,[13][14][15] have unanimously agreed that efficiency and sustainability in agriculture within the sub-region can be achieved through the introduction of smart farming technologies. The approach of these scientists [4,14] is based on an effective collaboration among actors along the agri-food systems on technology adoption in agriculture. Smart farming technologies refer to the application of innovative solutions to optimize efficiency, productivity, and sustainability in farming [5,16]. Smart technologies consist of land and water management practices, as well as the use of improved breeds that farmers incorporate into their on-farm activities [13,17]. Therefore, the purpose of smart farming technologies is to achieve CSA.Beyond climate action, farmers need to embrace technology to meet the changing population needs. So, in recent times, there has been a gradual shift from these conservational smart practices towards a more advanced view that incorporates elements of the fourth agricultural revolution (agriculture 4.0) which is associated with digital agriculture [18]. Digital agricultural technologies are associated with the use of electronic devices in transforming the agri-food value chain into an inclusive, effective, resilient, and sustainable ecosystem [19]. An example is the use of meteorological data collected by sensors for farm applications from nursery to post-harvest [16]. The data are based on high-resolution multi-band images taken from satellite systems [6]. In smart agriculture, therefore, farms are connected to devices that can monitor, analyze, and make decisions [20].Smart farming technologies integrate elements such as automation, data analytics, connectivity, and artificial intelligence to enable data-driven decision-making and improve various aspects of farming operations [21]. Some notable smart farming technologies include precision agriculture equipment, automation, robotics, farm management information systems, the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, and artificial intelligence [22]. Others, according to [19], include smart weather forecasting, plant protection drones, auto-navigation of farm machinery, and digital humidity control. These technologies, according to [23], open new infinite possibilities for stakeholders and hence extend the production frontier. Apart from this benefit to farmers, smart technologies have the potential to reduce environmental impact through a green revolution [24]. Given these benefits, international organizations and governments are therefore promoting climate-smart agriculture in all parts of sub-Saharan Africa [4].Regrettably, smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa have not been able to respond appropriately to the prevailing smart technologies in agriculture [2,5]. One critical gap is the low uptake of smart technologies among farmers despite their proven potential [9,10,13]. It has been noted that many innovations are transferred to farmers whose understanding of the local farming circumstances is limited [11]. This is an indication of a diffusion gap because some innovations may target the wrong user or not directly address their felt needs. Climate-smart agriculture faces the additional challenge of a questionable conceptual understanding among policymakers [11]. Again, [11] noted that smallholders in the sub-region are characterized by a heterogeneous population, and this means that a single uniform approach will not be adequate in promoting climate-smart technologies in agriculture.Recent studies [16,22] have shown that smart farming technologies, although at a low level, are available to smallholders in Africa. What is missing is the proper packaging of different pieces of technologies and innovations for farmers [1]. This leaves a communication gap between promoters of smart farming technologies and users of the technologies. Another inference is that farmers do not have a utility for the technologies being promoted. The main objective of this study is to understand, on the one hand, how smart farming technologies are being promoted in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other hand, how farmers are adopting the prevailing technologies.Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following specific questions:1.Who is promoting what technology to which group of farmers? 2.What strategies are used to promote smart farming technologies to farmers? 3.How are farmers responding to smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa?After the introduction, the next section of the paper is an overview of the conceptual literature that presents a review of the basic concepts used in the study. Following that is the methodology of the study. After the methodology, the results are presented and discussed under the objectives of the study. The paper ends with a conclusion and recommendation for policy action.This section presents the general procedures for obtaining the results of the study. A systematic review methodology was used to conduct the study. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) procedures were followed to identify scientific papers on the promotion of smart farming technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. These procedures include a literature search, screening for eligibility, data extraction, and data analysis. These procedures were applied at various stages as shown in Figure 1.Recent studies [16,22] have shown that smart farming technologies, although at a low level, are available to smallholders in Africa. What is missing is the proper packaging of different pieces of technologies and innovations for farmers [1]. This leaves a communication gap between promoters of smart farming technologies and users of the technologies. Another inference is that farmers do not have a utility for the technologies being promoted. The main objective of this study is to understand, on the one hand, how smart farming technologies are being promoted in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other hand, how farmers are adopting the prevailing technologies.Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following specific questions: After the introduction, the next section of the paper is an overview of the conceptual literature that presents a review of the basic concepts used in the study. Following that is the methodology of the study. After the methodology, the results are presented and discussed under the objectives of the study. The paper ends with a conclusion and recommendation for policy action.This section presents the general procedures for obtaining the results of the study. A systematic review methodology was used to conduct the study. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) procedures were followed to identify scientific papers on the promotion of smart farming technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. These procedures include a literature search, screening for eligibility, data extraction, and data analysis. These procedures were applied at various stages as shown in Figure 1. The first step of the PRISMA process was to identify scientific publications on the subject under consideration. Guided by past studies [25,26], the identification of scientific publications was performed by searching through Scopus, JSTOR, CGSpace, and Google Scholar databases. These databases were purposively chosen since they contain publications on the keywords of the subject. Multiple strings were used to search in all the databases, which included the following:• (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Sustainable Agriculture\" OR \"Sustainability\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (strategies) AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Promotion\" OR \"Adoption\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Challenges\" OR \"Barriers\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Adoption Strategies\" OR \"Promotion Strategies\") AND (\"Sustainable Agriculture\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\").The search process generated 106 papers from Scopus, 19 from JSTOR, 11 from CGSpace, and 111 from Google Scholar. This first stage produced a total of 247 papers of which 150 were found as duplicates.Next in the process was screening for eligibility. The duplicate papers were removed, leaving 97 papers. The remaining papers were subjected to further screening using inclusion and exclusion criteria. It was found that 18 papers were irrelevant to the subject under discussion, 29 papers did not contain any of the relevant keywords, and 2 were found as draft papers. Therefore, a total of 49 papers were excluded while 48 were found eligible and hence included for a full review, as shown in Figure 1.The eligible papers were reviewed and the results on smart farming technologies being promoted, promotion agents, target farmers, and their location were recorded in Microsoft Excel. Other variables including smart farming promotion strategies as well as their adoption strategies by farmers were recorded for analysis. The data were transferred to SPSS and descriptive statistics were generated and presented using tables and charts. The results are presented and discussed in the next section.The papers considered for review in this study were published by different institutions. Table 1 indicates that 29.2% of the sample papers were published by the Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), 27.1% by Elsevier, and 18.8% of them were published by CGSpace. The further distribution of the remaining eligible papers is shown in Table 1 below. Apart from the source, the papers also vary by year of publication. The period under consideration is 2015 to 2023. However, no eligible paper was found to have been published in 2015. As shown in Figure 2, 29.2% were published in 2021, 20.8% in 2022, and 12.5% were published in both 2018 and 2023. The distribution suggests that there is an acute rise in interest in promoting smart agricultural technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. Apart from the source, the papers also vary by year of publication. The period under consideration is 2015 to 2023. However, no eligible paper was found to have been published in 2015. As shown in Figure 2, 29.2% were published in 2021, 20.8% in 2022, and 12.5% were published in both 2018 and 2023. The distribution suggests that there is an acute rise in interest in promoting smart agricultural technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. Further analysis revealed that the papers linked the application of smart farming technologies to different sustainable agricultural indicators such as environment, food security, income, livelihood, and welfare. The majority (45.8%) of the papers linked the applications of smart farming technologies to food security, and 41.7% linked it to livelihood. The further distribution of this relationship is shown in Figure 3.   Further analysis revealed that the papers linked the application of smart farming technologies to different sustainable agricultural indicators such as environment, food security, income, livelihood, and welfare. The majority (45.8%) of the papers linked the applications of smart farming technologies to food security, and 41.7% linked it to livelihood. The further distribution of this relationship is shown in Figure 3. Apart from the source, the papers also vary by year of publication. The period under consideration is 2015 to 2023. However, no eligible paper was found to have been published in 2015. As shown in Figure 2, 29.2% were published in 2021, 20.8% in 2022, and 12.5% were published in both 2018 and 2023. The distribution suggests that there is an acute rise in interest in promoting smart agricultural technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. Further analysis revealed that the papers linked the application of smart farming technologies to different sustainable agricultural indicators such as environment, food security, income, livelihood, and welfare. The majority (45.8%) of the papers linked the applications of smart farming technologies to food security, and 41.7% linked it to livelihood. The further distribution of this relationship is shown in Figure 3.   The results suggest that the recent smart farming literature is more concerned about food security and livelihood than income, environment, and welfare. This conclusion agrees with the observation in [12] that the immediate effect of climate change is on food security and livelihood. However, income is very important in the analysis of sustainable agriculture but has been given less attention, as shown by the data. The possible explanation is that sometimes income is often treated as a component of food security and livelihood in the literature of CSA and not an independent concept. It is therefore very apparent why climate change interventions focus on addressing the food security and livelihood concerns of smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa.Several actors were found to be promoters of smart farming technologies, as reported by scientific studies. These promoters include CGSpace, FAO, government agencies, individual researchers, local institutions, private institutions, and USAID. Moreover, the approach to this promotion takes the form of government initiative (39.6%), public-private collaboration (43.8%), and private initiative (16.7%), as reported in Table 2. Some specific technologies were identified as being promoted to farmers. Most of these technologies are land and water management practices that are generally classified in this study as conservational climate-smart agricultural practices. These practices constitute 72.9% of smart technologies, as shown in Table 3. Other technologies identified include certified seed, climate-smart cowpea varieties, conservative agriculture, drone technology, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), precision agriculture, and elements of the fourth industrial agriculture revolution. Further analysis suggests that smart farming technologies are being promoted to different categories of farmers. As indicated in Table 4, most modern technologies such as the use of drone technology, GIS, and precision agriculture are being promoted to all crop farmers. Precision agriculture in particular consists of managing crops by observing, measuring, and responding to other variables that can affect the plants [27]. Such precision practices are evident but in a small proportion (2.1%). Besides, the conventional practices are distributed over different categories of farmers, although crop farmers were found to dominate (39.6%) over the others. Apart from this, farmers engaged in cowpea cultivation, dairy, maize, or potatoes are exclusively targeted by some technologies. The promoters of smart farming technologies and the location of their activities have been identified. As shown in Table 5, the institutions that are engaged in the promotion of smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa include CGSpace, FAO, government institutions, individual researchers, local institutions, private institutions, and USAID. This implies that different categories of stakeholders have concerns about farmers' use of smart technologies in the sub-region. The results in Table 5 also show that the technologies are being promoted in different parts of the sub-region such as West Africa (Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria), East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda), Central Africa (DRC), and Southern Africa (Malawi and Zambia). The agencies engaged in the promotion of smart farming technologies do so using different strategies. Some of these strategies are reported in this study (Table 6) and their relative proportions include capacity building (14.6%), co-creation and partnership in scaling (14.6%), the use of extension services (12.5%), and policy action (12.5%). Other strategies identified in Table 6 are advocacy (8.3%), piloting (8.3%), financing (6.2%), research (6.2%), indigenous knowledge (6.2%), the use of the market (6.2%), the climate-smart village approach (2.1%), and Climate Information Services (2.1%). The findings imply that capacity building is the dominant strategy that institutions use to promote smart farming technologies. As argue by [11], some technology-oriented approaches often fail because innovations are transferred to farmers who do not understand the local farming circumstances. This means that the recent approach of technology transfer in sub-Saharan Africa through capacity building can significantly transform towards sustainable agriculture. Meanwhile, a combination of the strategies identified can be a winning combination for smallholders in the sub-region. Farmers use different strategies to adopt smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa. It was discovered that the bundling of land and water management practices is a key strategy used by farmers. As shown in Figure 4, the proportion of studies confirming this is 22.9% of the sample studies. The further distribution shows that 16.7% adopt the practices as a result of a push from socioeconomic factors. Also, 14.6% of the studies indicate that farmers adopt smart farming practices by building on their indigenous knowledge. Another strategy used by farmers is that they adopt technologies that permit knowledge sharing among themselves while others boast their resilience to climate variability by adopting some smart farming practices.this is 22.9% of the sample studies. The further distribution shows that 16.7% adopt the practices as a result of a push from socioeconomic factors. Also, 14.6% of the studies indicate that farmers adopt smart farming practices by building on their indigenous knowledge. Another strategy used by farmers is that they adopt technologies that permit knowledge sharing among themselves while others boast their resilience to climate variability by adopting some smart farming practices. The subject of smart farming technologies in smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa has been given attention by scholars. Scholars of the subject share their research findings with the scientific community mainly through MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace. This implies that MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace are the top three publishers that promote smart farming technologies among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The year of publication also shows a rising interest in the subject of smart farming up to the year 2021, when the majority of the papers were published. After this period, the number of publications has kept declining. The most accepted explanation is that smart farming technologies are advanced innovations that are often used by specialized farms such as those on a large scale. Therefore, the promotion of such innovations among smallholders is gaining little attention in recent scholarly debates.The results show that CGSpace (one of the dominant promoters) often relies on public-private collaboration. Such collaborations are often between CGSpace staff, on the one hand, and on the other hand, government agencies such as the ministry in charge of agriculture and agricultural research in various countries. Besides, local institutions promote smart farming technologies, and this is largely through government initiatives. Such arrangements take place when the government takes action through farmer groups/organizations to promote smart farming technologies among themselves. Contrary to findings that most collaborations are between developed countries [3], the results of this study suggest a changing trend in collaboration among developing countries in response to the integration of technologies in agriculture. The subject of smart farming technologies in smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa has been given attention by scholars. Scholars of the subject share their research findings with the scientific community mainly through MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace. This implies that MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace are the top three publishers that promote smart farming technologies among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The year of publication also shows a rising interest in the subject of smart farming up to the year 2021, when the majority of the papers were published. After this period, the number of publications has kept declining. The most accepted explanation is that smart farming technologies are advanced innovations that are often used by specialized farms such as those on a large scale. Therefore, the promotion of such innovations among smallholders is gaining little attention in recent scholarly debates.The results show that CGSpace (one of the dominant promoters) often relies on publicprivate collaboration. Such collaborations are often between CGSpace staff, on the one hand, and on the other hand, government agencies such as the ministry in charge of agriculture and agricultural research in various countries. Besides, local institutions promote smart farming technologies, and this is largely through government initiatives. Such arrangements take place when the government takes action through farmer groups/organizations to promote smart farming technologies among themselves. Contrary to findings that most collaborations are between developed countries [3], the results of this study suggest a changing trend in collaboration among developing countries in response to the integration of technologies in agriculture.The results in Table 3 also show that CGSpace and local country-level institutions dominate in the promotion of conventional practices, even though all the promoters have at least promoted one of the conventional practices. These findings agree with previous studies [12,13] that the past decades have witnessed the promotion of conventional CSA practices within sub-Saharan Africa. This implies that there exists a gap in the promotion of more advanced smart farming technologies that are featured in the fourth agriculture revolution to smallholders.Besides, CGSpace has innovated some smart farm practices as its climate action intervention, and such practices as highlighted in the literature include high-yielding drought-tolerant crop varieties, Climate Information Services, agricultural insurance, agroforestry, water harvesting techniques, and integrated soil fertility management practices. More recent smart farming technologies such as drone technology, GIS, the fourth industrial agriculture revolution, and precision agriculture are promoted by private institutions and individual researchers. The results provide evidence of conservational smart practices rather than modern innovations. The use of automation, robotics, farm management information systems, the Internet of Things, and artificial intelligence applications, as reported by [22], have not been promoted in smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa.The promotion of smart farming technologies occurs in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa, in economic blocks such as East Africa or Southern Africa, while sometimes being restricted to farmers in some specific countries as illustrated in Table 5. Countries that were noted to have gained from such promotions include DRC, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. It is interesting to note that CGSpace, which is one of the key promoters of smart technologies in agriculture, operates in different parts of sub-Saharan Africa and could extend its intervention to some countries not identified in this study. The possible reason could be the limitations in the methodology of this study. The review methodology included only papers that have been published in the English language, and this can be the reason for this finding being skewed towards Englishspeaking countries. Notwithstanding, some (37.5%) of the promotions take place in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa, while others take place in the southern and eastern parts of Africa. This suggests that no country located south of the Sahara has exclusively been left out in the smart farming technology discourse.The strategies being used vary from promoter to promoter. The results indicate that the extension services approach dominates over the other strategies, and this is used often by local institutions. CGSpace uses capacity building, co-creation, or partnership in scaling, financing, piloting, and research to promote smart technologies to farmers. On the other hand, local institutions can promote smart farming technologies to farmers through policy action. Besides, FAO and USAID are multilateral organizations that also engage in the promotion of these technologies to farmers. The results indicate that FAO does so through project financing while USAID builds the capacities of actors through training.The results in Figure 4 indicate that strategies such as bundling climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and Climate Information Services (CIS), as well as substituting indigenous technologies with more scientific ones, are common among the farmers. The findings imply that a combination of land and water management practices leads to the strategies adopted by farmers as a response to the promotion of smart farming technologies. The next dominant strategies (adoption based on socioeconomics and building on indigenous knowledge) all suggest that socio-cultural dynamics dictate farmers' response to innovations. Concerning past studies, especially [6], farmers are concerned with fostering sustainable management of their natural resources, enhancing ecosystem services, and building climate resilience. The findings of this study are consistent with this view since farmers are responding through land and water management technologies, as reported as the dominant strategy.The results indicate that farmers are responding to smart technologies in agriculture based on their socio-economic circumstances. Farmers' socio-economics covers a broad range of variables including their ongoing practices, as well as the cost of adopting innovations. Similar to the observation in [28], a response to some technologies in agriculture depends on the resources spent on the promotion. By analogy, farmers' decision to adopt will be influenced by their economic capacity in terms of scale economies and expected payoff from an intervention. Besides, in their quest to manage the cost of adoption, farmers rely on information sharing to facilitate the transfer of indigenous knowledge among themselves. This strategy will preserve their culture of farming while reducing the cost of adoption.The findings again suggest that while farmers have recognized the role of their indigenous knowledge in their response to innovations, they have not overruled the importance of scientific information such as CIS. The findings show that 8.2% of the literature reported that farmers bundle CSA and CIS as a strategy for integrating smart practices in their farming. This means that even if they cannot adopt the more advanced technologies, especially those related to the fourth agriculture revolution, they nevertheless underrate their importance in their farming businesses.Several attempts have been made to transform smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa by public and private institutions or a collaboration between the two. The quest to attain sustainable agriculture is pushed by a growing population, increasing food demand, and the threat of climate change. Therefore, a response to these issues necessitates a substantial shift to smart technologies in agriculture.It has been noted from this review that sub-Saharan Africa needs to attain and maintain sustainable agriculture to ensure sustainable livelihoods and food security. However, the adverse effects of climate change are threatening the achievement of these goals. Therefore, farmers within the sub-region need to embrace climate-smart agriculture as a means for climate change adaptation and mitigation. While climate-smart agriculture remains a comprehensive strategy, individual farmers must adopt smart farming technologies as entry points for climate-smart agriculture. This could be a linear path towards a longrun achievement of sustainable agricultural production in the region. On the one hand, smart farming technologies are innovations based on the fourth agricultural revolution. On the other hand, climate-smart agriculture encompasses conventional soil and land management practices in addition to innovations that aim at improving farmers' capacity in the management of soil, land, and water resources.The literature implies that promoters of smart agriculture technologies do not differentiate between climate-smart agriculture and modern advanced smart farming technologies that are being promoted in advanced countries. Therefore, the approach to the smart farming technology discourse in sub-Saharan Africa starts by building on efforts to sustain CSA practices with a gradual shift towards the fourth agriculture revolution innovations. This approach is considered feasible because of its inclusiveness in terms of coverage and local adaptation conditions. Even where there are efforts to push beyond conventional CSA practices by the private sector, farmers' responses remain low.The present paper brings to the fore the prevailing smart farming technologies, who uses them, and where they are used. The discussion also highlights which institution has an interest in promoting which technology to which group of farmers. Although different promotion strategies are being used by different institutions, this review specifies that the use of co-creation/partnership in scaling, as well as building the capacity of farmers, are key strategies that can be used to push farmers to adopt more smart technologies in their farming practices. These findings are unique in providing a strategic direction for farmers and institutions that have an interest in smallholder farmers' transformation.It is important to note that all interventions to promote smart technologies in agriculture among smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa should consider, first, the socio-economic context of the farmers, such as their indigenous practices. The next stage of the intervention should target upscaling the conventional CSA as a necessary condition before any attempt to upgrade to recent innovations as proposed by the fourth industrial agriculture revolution. Any effort to promote smart farming technologies will not succeed without meeting these necessary conditions.Author Contributions: M.B.: extracting materials from databases, summarizing the materials, and making up the write-ups. M.O.: framing the study, guiding the objectives and purpose, and providing relevant reading materials and proofreading. A.O.: discussing the relevance of the study, managing references. P.L.: proofreading, guiding the implications of the findings to meet smallholder farmers' needs. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.Funding: This research is being supported by the CGIAR Trust Fund (https://www.cgiar.org/funders/).","tokenCount":"5009"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ae0a0a3d6cdd3fec71303c2796e158b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd2490a3-7a5c-4144-a680-21bc772cc1f1/retrieve","id":"-2020615472"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dcac8e59-8594-4367-95c9-05d71a961508","pagecount":"2","content":"In late 2018, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) received funding from GALVmed for a research project for the development of a subunit vaccine for African swine fever. African swine fever is a disease that is present in approximately 26 countries in Africa where it poses a problem for pig farmers due to the frequent wipeout of herds, which happens regularly in some areas. In addition, the disease has grown to pandemic proportions in Europe and Asia, including China.There is no vaccine against African swine fever virus (ASFV) and current control is based on culling and biosecurity measures. Therefore, a vaccine could significantly contribute to this control and alleviate the problems for African farmers.African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating hemorrhagic pig disease originating from Africa, first described in Kenya in 1921. It is currently a major problem in Eastern Europe, Asia, China and India where it has spread since it escaped to Georgia from Africa in 2007 (Iglesias et al. 2017). African swine fever virus (ASFV) is present in about 26 countries in Africa, where it poses a serious constraint for pig farmers due to the recurrent wipeout of whole pig herds.There is no vaccine; therefore, control of the disease is dependent on biosecurity and culling of animals. The virus infects domestic pigs, wild boars in Europe and Asia and wild pigs (i.e. warthogs and bush pigs) in Africa. It is transmitted by the soft ticks of the Ornithodores genus in Africa. The transmission system is very complex with several farm risk factors associated such as, lack of fences and routine cleaning of pens (Dione et al. 2017). This complex transmission system complicates the control measures.The virus is a large DNA virus belonging to the Asfaviridae family, sharing some similarities with the pox viruses. It encodes between 151 and 167 genes depending on the isolate. ASFVs are divided into 24 genotypes, all of which have been detected in Africa (Quembo et al. 2018).One of the goals in the project is to identify antigens from ASF which are responsible for the immunity seen using the whole virus for vaccination. It has been shown previously that modified viruses by deletion of genes can confer immunity. Therefore, an attenuated version of ASF isolate was used for immunization of pigs followed by peptide screens using overlapping peptides (pieces of protein) covering the whole virus. The ASF virus which was used was isolated at the border between Kenya and Uganda during an outbreak and was determined as a genotype IX isolate (Gallardo et al. 2007 andOnzere et al. 2018). The virus had a deletion of one gene called the CD2v gene, which was generated in another project.Three groups of pigs (including European and Kenyan local breed pigs, 22 animals in total) were immunized with the modified live virus followed by testing of immune cells. Cells were either white blood cells (PBMC) or a fraction of these, the CD8 cells, which are known as killer cells. They recognize virus-infected cells and kill them. The recognition of the infected cells happens due to small pieces of protein (peptides) of the virus, which are located on the outside of the infected cells. These peptides can be recognized by the immune cells and get killed.In order to determine these peptides which are recognized by the immune cells, the cells are cultured together with pools of known peptides from the virus. If the cells recognize them, they will produce a substance called interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). That can be measured in an assay called enzymelinked immunospot (ELISpot) assay.The cells from the three groups of pigs were tested in ELISpot for recognition of peptide pools corresponding to each gene of the virus. Of the 217 peptide pools tested, 153 pools were recognized by PBMC of at least one animal (2.8 animals/pool +/-3.6, range 1-17 animals) of which 42 pools were also recognized by CD8 T cells of at least one animal (1.7 animals/pool +/-1.5, range 1-6). There were 47 pools corresponding to 41 genes, which were recognized among members of all three groups (6.8 animals/pool +/-3.9, range 3-17). Among these highly immunogenic genes, there were known immunogenic genes, as well as genes that have not previously been identified as immunogenic.Eleven genes have initially been selected for testing immunogenicity and protection against ASF in pigs. The selected genes are recognized by cells from 5-17 animals out of the 22 pigs for the PBMC. The CD8 cells recognized fewer pools with the best antigen recognized by six animals.The antigens are currently being inserted into viral vectors for vaccination of pigs. The viral vectors are human adenovirus 5 (AdHu5) and modified vaccinia virus (MVA), which are both replication-defective, meaning that they don't multiply after injection. Each pig will receive a pool of AdHu5 with selected genes from African swine fever. Then, they will receive a booster with the recombinant MVA with the same antigens inserted as in the AdHu5 vectors. Following this immunization, they will be challengd with the virus to monitor if the vaccine is effective.The first generation ASF vaccine will probably be a live attenuated vaccine, whereas a second-generation vaccine could be a subunit vaccine, which likely will be far safer. Accesses to a vaccine will have a major impact on pig farming in Africa, where many farmers are discouraged from staying in the pig business due to recurrent problems of ASF. A vaccine would greatly improve income and livelihoods for African farmers, which translates to other actors in the value chain.","tokenCount":"909"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b3f835ccecc713f699ae288ea5b91d47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e987da4b-a051-42a1-b48c-e2fda1f9bf57/retrieve","id":"1386455751"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"55d13d95-69f1-4f8c-b0dc-907e42c9abe8","pagecount":"3","content":"Brief for EPMR Field Day (October 8, 1994) Soil Fertility Dynamics in Crop Rotations/Agropastoral Systems (\"Culti-Core\" and satellite experiments at Carimagua and Matazul) In 1993, the CIAT Savannas Program in collaboration with the Colombian nationaJ program, ICA, established the \"Culti-Core\" experiment at the CORPOICNCIAT Research Station at Carimagua on the Colombian Llanos. The goal was to study the biophysical and agronomic processes contributing to sustainability or lack of sustainability in a spectrum of a!t~ve production systems based on component tolerance to soH acidíty. The experiment iucludes \"fertilizer lime\" systems (lime applied at low rates solely as a souree of calcium and magnesium) based on Al-tolerant upland rice grown in continuous monoculture or in rotations with green manures, cowpeas or adapted mixed pastures, and \"remedia! lime\" systems (lime applied to reduce levels of soluble Al in soíl) based on maize in continuous monoculture or in rotations with green manures, soybeans or Iess-adapted but better quality mixed pastures. AH systems are managed to optímize production and minimize soíl degradation by conserving crop residues, maiiltaÍnÍng soil fertility, controlling weeds and other pests, etc. The plots are also large enough to allow grazing in the case of pastures, and to permit the use of conventional machinery which are Iikely to influence soil physíca! and biological properties.\"Culti-Core\" is a multi-disciplinary project involving severa! institutions with complementary types of expertise: . U:l MA' I l!iS1The rice-based (Ufertilizer\" lime) TOtations were initiated in 1993 while logistica! difficulties requlred that instalIation ofthe maize-based (\"remediaJ\" lime) rotations be delayed untilI994. Cereal crops are sown at the beginning ofthe rainy season (about mid-April) and harvested in late-August. The secol}.d crop in the rotations (a grain legume or grecn manure) is sown as soon as possible thereafter. . The fourth crop is now in the field in the case of the rice-based systems while the second crap has just been sown in the maize-based systems. Salient results currently available'at this time are:• average fU'st year rice yields --approximately 3.4 tIha of paddy over an area of7 ha.• a well-established pasrure unrlersown with the rice erop put to anímals 3 months afier harvest • po significant influence ofunrlersown pasture on rice grain yields.• average animalliveweight gains during 3 months ofdry season --333 gramslday • grain legume cowpea yields -approximately 1130 kglha of seed over an area of 3 ha.• marked inercases in mineral nitragen concentrations in the soU profile during the dry season due to incorporation of green manure (1.54 t-dry weightlha) and cowpea crop residues (1.7 tIha) • lower weed infestations in the 1994 rice erop compared to monoculture rice due to the ground cover provided by legumes during the Jalter parí of the previous rainy season. • maize grain yield in the \"remedial\" lime treatments are about 2,5-3 liba (preliminary estimate), somewhat below its potential due to less than ideal germination and emergence.Complementing the Culti-core systems trial on the Llanos are a number of satellite experiments designed lo more accurately assess the nutrient requirements and constraints of component crops, and estímate nutrient losses and use efficiency under alternative management strategies on soils (Oxisols and Ultisols) whose mineralogicaJ properties are not conducive lo the efficient use of nutrient inputs. Experiments include the following:• lime-potassium-magnesium balance trials (Carimagua, Matazul, La Florida) -to determine the optimal balance of lime, Mg and K for component crops, lo study me dynamics of applied cations and soil acidity, and the interaction of amendments on nutrient fluxes, Cate and residual value. phosphorus residual value trials (Carimagua, Matazul) _. to determine the optimal levels of soluble pbosphate fertilizer for the component crops, to characterize the fate of P applications, and to determine the residual value of pbosphate applications and parameterize a model of P residues in highly weathered soils. • silicon response trials (Matazul, La Florida) _. lo identify a potential constraint to rice production on highly•weathered (desilicated) soils.Results obtained thusfar from these experiments demonstrate the following:• strong responses lo Mg in rice and cowpeas with virtually no rice yield without Mg. ,. K requirements of80-120 kglha for rice and maize depending on soil texture. 1 -minor rice (acid soil toleran! O. Sabanas 6) responses lo lime (as calcite) indicating a mínimal lime application of300 kglha as dolomite principally as a Mg source. • somewhat higher cowpea requirements for lime (about 600 kglha applied lo preceding rice crop).• maximum yields (3.5 liba) ofCIMMYT AI-tolerant maize germplasm with less than 1.6 liba of calcite (exchangcable Al saturation reduced to approximately 50%). Without lime (90% Al saturation), yields reduced to 2.6 liba or 77% ofthe observed maximum. . • P rates of approximateiy 40 and 80 kglha produced maximum yields with rice and maize, respectiveiy, suggesting tbat these soils are not as strongly P fixing as expected. Preliminary observations also indicate Iarge residual effects. • rice yield increases of 500-1 000 kglha and a drarnatic reduction in the incidence ofblast when Si is applied, It is intended that these experiments continue for a period of four years to provide both basic data with respect to nutrient requirements ín the Culti-core component crops, but aJso to quantil}-residual effects and nutrient losses in order to more intelligently manage inputs in the long-term trial ., Dynamic phosphorus pools (Brachiaria-kudzu tria~ Carimagua; agropastoral trial, MaWul).At Carimagua,• the microbial P pool was larger in the grass-Iegume pasture compared with the grass alone, which in tum was slightly higher than the native savanna. • microbial P was in general 2-5 times greater than the available P pool measured by the standard BraY2 P soil test. clearly indicating the importance of microbes in P cycling and availability.• grass-legume pasture maintained a higher amount of applied P in the surface soil apparently caused by more efficient cyc1ing ofP through labile P pools compared to grass-only pastures and native savanna. • At Matazu1 farro, • microbial P levels were higher in systems involving rotations of rice with pastures than in rice monocultures.lnvestigations such as these will be extended to the Culti-core experiment to determine whether short-term rotations with grain legumes and green manures have similar effects as those observed in long-term rotations with pastures • I ~","tokenCount":"1018"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"657ae8f502403cbde74d89a9cfc687f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2acd059c-ee39-4572-9fe1-9f97d5fb7cf9/retrieve","id":"-1319775412"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4c95d4fe-ea0b-4e9b-88ea-2d40fe8b1512","pagecount":"41","content":"Bioversity International is a global research-for-development organization. We have a vision -that agricultural biodiversity nourishes people and sustains the planet.We deliver scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity to attain sustainable global food and nutrition security. We work with partners in low-income countries in different regions where agricultural and tree biodiversity can contribute to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation.Bioversity International is a member of the CGIAR Consortium -a global research partnership for a food-secure future.v We acknowledge Olga Spellman (Science Writer, Bioversity International) for English and copy editing of this workshop report and Luca Pierotti for design and layout of the front cover.Cover photo: Seed fair in Hoima Uganda, August 2018. Credit: Bioversity International/G.Otieno.Other photos: International Workshop on Registration of Farmers' Varieties, 4-7 December 2018, Imperial Botanical Beach Hotel, Entebbe, Uganda. Credit: PGRC of NARO Uganda/B.Namulondo.viiiThe registration of farmers' varieties in national and regional seed catalogues -as objects of seed regulation --has been the subject of considerable debate in recent years, at local, national and international levels. Farmers have contributed immensely to the development, management and conservation of a wide range of crop varieties, but national seed regulations generally only focus on crop varieties that are the products of so-called 'formal sector' plant breeding. Article 9 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) recognizes the contribution farmers have made to the conservation and development of plant genetic resources and stipulates that the responsibility of protection of farmers' rights rests with national governments in accordance with their needs and priorities.In addressing these challenges, an international workshop on registration of farmers'varieties was held at the Imperial Botanical Beach Hotel in Entebbe, Uganda, in order to advance the understanding of farmers' varieties and the gains from establishing mechanisms for their registration at both the global and national level. During the workshop, the participants were able to share global experiences from countries where farmers' varieties and evolutionary populations have been registered and have an active supportive legal system. After reflecting on experiences from a range of countries and regions around the world, the participants narrowed their collective focus to the situation in Uganda, andUgandan seed policies and laws in particular.The current legal and policy framework in Uganda comprises the National Seed Policy (2018), the Seeds and Plant Act (2006), and the Seeds and Plant Regulations (2017).However, they only focus on the so-called formal seed system, which produces only 20% of the nation's seed on an annual basis. This legal framework does not provide policy support for the production and distribution by small-scale farmers of quality seed of farmers' varieties. However, the National Seed Policy (2018) recognizes that the informal seed system is strategic in conserving the biodiversity of landraces and meets 80 percent of the seed requirements in Uganda. It also allows the exchange of farm-saved seeds and recognizes quality-declared seeds (QDS). This is encouraging, but the existing legislation does not have provisions that support registration and commercialization of farmers' varieties. This lack of a supportive policy environment denies farmers the right to produce and sell varieties they have helped to create and conserve for generations. Also, the draft policy on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA), which provides a legal framework for registration of farmers' varieties, is yet to be approved by the Cabinet.ix Through participatory engagement of participants from national and international agricultural research institutions, academia, the private sector, farmers' organizations, seed regulatory authorities, politicians and civil society organizations (CSOs), a roadmap for registration of farmers' varieties in Uganda was developed to address the gaps in the current seed laws.One of the critical actions was to push for Cabinet approval of a draft PGRFA policy that has recently been developed through a process of consultation. In addition, the participants discussed other variety registration and seed-certification standards that may hinder or help small-scale seed producers and/or participatory plant breeding.From the sessions, it was observed that most participants had varied understanding of what farmers' varieties are. This is due to a lack of a universally recognized taxonomic or legal definition of farmers' varieties to refer to for clarity. However, the common characteristics of a farmers' variety were identified as the following: having a historical origin, high genetic diversity, local adaptation, recognizable identity, no formal-sector genetic improvement, and association with traditional farming systems. These characteristics were found to be key in defining farmers' varieties. Countries that have set up systems for registering farmers' varieties have introduced relaxed standards.The workshop participants also considered the issue of ownership of farmers' varieties, which in many (perhaps most?) countries is dealt with through separate intellectual property laws. Participants appeared to agree that farmers who have contributed to the development and conservation of farmers' varieties should enjoy rights of control (which could be called property rights) over those varieties, either as groups or individuals. For the case of group ownership, the participants considered the possibility of legal entities in which rights could be collectively vested (e.g. cooperatives, associations, community-based organizations, etc.). It was further noted that a range of different organizations (nongovernmental organizations, local governments, companies) could usefully offer technical support to farmers as collaborators in the variety evaluation and registration process and, subsequently, in seedproduction activities.Therefore, there is a need for champions and commitment from stakeholders, as well as resources to address gaps in the registration of farmers' varieties. It is also necessary to clearly justify the key benefits of registering farmers' varieties and, most importantly, put in place a flexible and relaxed regulatory framework for such registration.Nearly 70 percent of the food-security needs of developing countries are met by smallholders. The expected outputs of the meeting included the following:1. A detailed workshop report on the roadmap towards registration of farmers' varieties and farmers' rights in Uganda.2. A draft for publication in a high-impact journal on the case studies on registration of farmers' varieties.Participatory approaches such as interactive PowerPoint presentations, panel discussions, experience sharing, group work and plenary discussions were used to actively engage participants and make the workshop interesting and productive.Dr John Waswa Mulumba, who presided over the opening session, welcomed the participants and encouraged them not only to enjoy the workshop but also the beauty of Uganda. Dr Mulumba highlighted the significance of farmers' varieties and how they came into being. He noted that farmers are central to germplasm conservation and that germplasm collection and conservation dates way back to our ancestors (early humans).To contextualize farmers' varieties, presentations were made by Bram De Jonge and GloriaOtieno. Both presentations highlighted the importance of so-called informal seed systems, challenges to seed access, benefits and challenges of farmers' varieties and legal (international, regional and national) perspectives on farmers' rights and the registration of Furthermore, the right to seed is a human right according to the United Nations pronouncements on the rights of peasants and people living in rural communities, as described in an article published by International Property Watch: 6...peasants and other people working in rural areas should have the right to seeds. This includes: the right to the protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture; the right to equitably participate in sharing the benefits arising from the utilisation of those resources; the right to participate in decision-making relating to the conservation and sustainable use of those resources; and the right to save, use, exchange and sell their farm-saved seed or propagating material.This right to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed has been a longstanding demand of peasants and civil society groups, in particular in the context of intellectual property protection on new varieties of plants.Article 19 also asks that peasants have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their own seeds and traditional knowledge; and requests that states \"shall take measures to respect, protect and fulfil the right to seeds of peasants.\"The article further requests that seeds of sufficient quality and quantity are made available to peasants at \"the most suitable time for planting, and at an affordable price.\"Peasant seed systems should be supported and promoted, as well as agrobiodiversity.Article 19 further directs, and notes that states shall recognise the rights of peasants to \"rely either on their own seeds or on other locally available seeds of their choice, and to decide on the crops and species that they wish to grow.\"\"Seed policies, plant variety protection and other intellectual property laws, certification schemes and seed marketing laws should respect and take into account the rights, needs and realities of peasants.\"Drs Otieno and de Jonge both stressed the importance of creating an enabling environment and mechanisms for including farmers' varieties more systematically within the scope of national seed regulations. This will make it possible to register farmers' varieties in national catalogues and enable commercialization. Day 1 generally focused on the international perspectives and experiences from countries that have registered farmers' varieties. Day 2 focused on the Ugandan context since it was the focus of the workshop as a practical learning experience and reference for other countries. Day 3 focused on a review of the two days' progress and the need to publish the outputs from the workshop. o Landraces or obsolete varieties.One conclusion at the end of the session was that, while most participants had ideas about the meaning of 'farmers' varieties', there was no unanimously agreed-upon definition. This conclusion is reflected in the existing literature, which shows that there is no universally recognized, taxonomic or legal definition of farmers' varieties to refer to for clarity. 7 This prompted the facilitators to take this up as one of the key topics for further discussion during the subsequent group session.Why is it difficult to define farmers' varieties?Legal and technical/institutional challenges to defining farmers' varieties were raised and these include the following:o Farmers' varieties cover a broad spectrum of types and are not easy to categorize.o Globally, most countries have no relevant legislation to recognize the system under which farmers' varieties are generated and utilized. Farmers' rights and varieties are not prioritized in our legal frameworks. In most African countries, the laws regarding farmers' rights and varieties are still in draft form (e.g. Uganda and Zimbabwe).Therefore, there is a need to advocate the registration of farmers' varieties so that farmers can get value from their varieties. o The characterization and description of farmers' varieties requires data. However, data on farmers' varieties is grossly lacking.o Farmers' varieties should also meet some minimum quality standards, such as purity, germination and freedom from pests and diseases. These standards are not clearly defined, so it is important to define minimum quality standards and an appropriate quality assurance mechanism for farmers' varieties.o What are the implications of the recently approved Genetic Engineering Regulatory Act (2018) on farmers' varieties in Uganda?o How do we address the contradictions in the national, regional and international laws/commitments (e.g. ITPGRFA versus the International Union for the Protection ofo Won't promotion of farmers' varieties erode the gains from investments in and/or compromise the competitiveness of the formal seed sector?o How do we balance the support for farmers' varieties and improved varieties in terms of public investment in their development and use?Both formal and informal seed systems have their unique benefits, so the relevant policies and laws should not create disincentives for the operation of those systems. What is important is to look at the purpose and objectives of the different systems and build structures and mechanisms to support the co-existence of pluralistic seed-delivery systems.Farmers know how to identify their varieties. The key issue would be to link local knowledge to science/action-based research and build beneficial partnerships with farmers, which can be done through characterization of farmers' varieties and participatory plant breeding. Ethiopia  Are traditional varieties competent? Yosef Gebrehawaryat gave a research perspective on durum wheat in Ethiopia, comparing traditional and improved varieties.  Many landraces were observed to mature earlier than the improved varieties.  A yield advantage of 61% was obtained from the best landrace over the best improved variety (Robe).  Landraces had better tolerance to Setoria tritici.  There are two pathways for registration of varieties:o Formal variety release process in which varieties are evaluated in at least three locations for two seasons. Four traditional barley and 2 durum wheat varieties have been released through this process. o One-year characterization of farmers' varieties through PPB and quality-declared seed (QDS) production. Farmers' varieties can be identified by office of agriculture, research center or NGO, and can be registered by a nearby research center or university. Focus is on distinctiveness and uniformity since stability is locally specific. QDS production is inspected and certified by the seed inspection unit. Seed can be distributed through the informal seed system.  In both cases, the registration center is responsible for maintaining the variety and providing prebasic seed. o How do we address the contradictions in international, regional and national laws/commitments (e.g. ITPGRFA versus UPOV)?o With reference to Nepal, the focus is on farmers' varieties with commercial value. What about those with niche/distinct and other values, such as adaptability, cultural value and nutrition? This case could inform our approach/strategies. In the short term, we could focus on those varieties with commercial value and on others in the long term!o How do we ensure that farmers' varieties that are registered in the national variety register and national genebanks remain entirely under the control and ownership of the farmers? Do we need to maintain separate variety registers for farmers' varieties and improved varieties? Who is the custodian of the registered farmers' varieties?o There is a need to devise mechanisms that ensure that registering farmers' varieties do not create disincentives for investments in the formal seed system; thus, there is a need to balance the two systems.o Given the significance of informal seed systems, why do policies still target the formal seed system?These areas of concern were addressed through group discussions.To guide the discussions, the rapporteurs presented a synthesis of the key challenges for registration of farmers' varieties arising from the previous sessions (opening session and sessions 1 and 2). Four groups were constituted, with participants randomly selected. Topics for group discussions were drawn from the key issues arising from the previous sessions as recapped by the rapporteurs. These are presented in table 2.  Identify the variety o Gather preliminary information about the variety (e.g. name, origin, unique known attributes as perceived by the community)  Agree on key distinguishing parameters against which to describe the variety.Use traits known by the farmers o How many traits (could vary per crop)?  Evaluate the parameters on farmers' fields to validate the selected traits  Document the variety descriptor based on participatory evaluation trials  Submit to designated authority for release if it meets minimum requirements 2 Who applies for registration of farmers' varieties? Since farmers are the maintainers, they should own 100% of farmers' varieties, either as groups or individuals  For farmers' groups, it is highly recommended that it should be a legal entity, in order to attach responsibility (e.g. cooperatives, associations, CBOs, etc.)  Interested individual farmers could also register -preconditions for this should be clearly spell out in the regulations  Institutions (NGOs, local government, companies and research) should not register farmers' varieties -they should only offer technical support to farmers as collaborators in the variety evaluation and registration process and, subsequently, in seed production activities Who maintains farmers' varieties? Assess capacity to maintain the variety before granting maintainer rights o Could be a legal or moral person designated in the application (first define the seed source) o Designated public authority or genebank  Field inspections depend on the criteria for registration and/or definition of farmers' varieties -safeguard against loss of variety or specific characteristics Who benefits from registration of farmers' varieties? Moral recognition for owners/maintainers  Farmers who take up these varieties  Opportunity for built-in benefit-sharing mechanism 16 16 3 Alternative mechanisms for quality assurance of farmers' varieties  Suggested that only 4 to 5 morphological parameters be considered in identification of farmers' varieties  Recommended verification of farmers' descriptors for one season by the regulator at the farmers' fields  Define minimum quality standards for seed of farmers' varieties  Relax the formal system to make it work for farmers by reducing costs for registration with the regulator, inspection costs, etc.4Framework/structure for registering farmers' varieties Two mechanisms proposed:  Option 1: Adoption of existing but relaxed framework for national variety evaluation and release o Create flexibility without requiring the submission of strict DUS dossiers/descriptors, which most farmers do not have o Provide the basis for allowing acceptable seed-quality parameters such as QDS, truthful labeling, etc. o Emphasize unique combination of variety attributes preferred by farmers in a particular community/region/agroecological zone  Option 2: Adapting the provisions of the ITPGRFA (Article 9 of which recognizes farmers' rights to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed and propagating material, subject to national law and as appropriate) to the country level o Basis for providing a framework for conservation, access, utilization and benefit sharing of all PGRFA at international and country level.Key issues/comments from first group workThe response received from group work raised additional issues, which are summarized in table 3.Group Key issues/comments 1  Do obsolete varieties qualify as farmers' varieties? Some landraces are not landraces in reality! Response: Only if justified to be significantly different from the original variety through DUS testing.  Can different communities register the same variety?Response: Co-ownership is provided for in the ITPGRFA. Solutions to ownership rights should be guided by the ITPGRFA. There are also provisions for protection of communities. The system for registration of farmers' varieties in most countries is not well establishedunethical individuals/institutions could hijack the process and register farmers' varieties. o There is a need for formal criteria with safeguards to avoid misappropriation and deletion of farmers' varieties. o Cooperatives/societies/associations should be strengthened to register farmers' varieties. o Conflicts of ownership should be guarded against and conflict resolution under the law should be considered.  Formal criteria are needed to link community seed banks/farmers (owners) with national genebanks. Consider self-certification (truthfully labeled) or delegation of seed certification of farmers' varieties as mechanisms to reduce costs.  Focus on building the capacity of farmers to ensure self-regulation through strengthening internal quality-control mechanisms or building local capacities for seed-quality assurance. Coverage of options for the registration of farmers' varieties should initially be limited to application at the national and sub-national level because most farmers' varieties are specific to local farm conditions.  Harmonization across countries and regional economic blocs such as COMESA, SADC, ECOWAS and the East African Community (EAC) can be done later once countries have advanced in employing the options. Remarks by the Hon. Francis GonahasaThe Hon. Gonahasa started his remarks by quoting the key messages he learnt from this workshop: \"Without seed sovereignty, we can't have food security. The harvest is in the seed.\"Uganda is well positioned to feed the region but needs to exploit its potential by taking advantage of its agroecological situation. He thanked the organizers for holding the meeting in Uganda and the international participants for sharing their very interesting and useful experiences. This workshop has contributed tremendously to the process that will guide the different countries in developing internal mechanisms for registering farmers' varieties. He noted that as a legislator, this workshop has empowered him to advocate for farmers' rights from an informed point of view. He promised to include seed issues in the alternative agriculture policy statements published by his office annually, and he requested that stakeholders involve legislators as much as possible in these very useful discussions on important issues in the seed sector. This will help them to legislate better. He welcomed the Minister to give his speech and officially close the workshop.Closing speech by the Minister of Agriculture, Animal Industry andThe Minister was represented by the Director General of NARO, who read his speech. The Minister sent his apologies and thanked OXFAM, NARO, Bioversity International and ISSD Uganda for convening this workshop. He particularly thanked Bioversity international for the tremendous support, knowledge and partnerships at local, national, regional and international levels in the area of advocacy for farmers' rights and conservation, as well as utilization of genetic materials. He also thanked ISSD for the collaboration with MAAIF and NARO in supporting community-based seed production, and farmers for the excellent work in biodiversity management. He welcomed international participants to Uganda and encouraged them not to leave without exploring the \"Pearl of Africa.\" From the various experiences shared, this workshop justified the need for farmers' varieties. He noted that the government crop priorities exclude the most important crops grown by farmers, and he acknowledged the genetic biodiversity that Uganda has. Because of this, the Ministry will fast-track the recommendations of this workshop to ensure that this biodiversity is appropriately managed and utilized. MAAIF has undertaken measures to create an environment that is favourable for the informal seed system. For example, the National Seed Policy (2018) provides for strategic support toward development of the informal seed system and further pledges support toward registration of farmers' varieties. The Minister concluded his remarks by wishing participants journey mercies and officially closed the workshop.The event attracted media coverage from some of Uganda's leading television stations.  ","tokenCount":"3540"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9d4162921f63fd7baf6a0379d139845d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4ec079f0-58a5-41c1-a95c-d2a6b8ac33c9/content","id":"-616852918"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a9d02b1f-354f-4d98-a943-9b40e8ab1a8e","pagecount":"35","content":"Mexico. These samples were grown in a number of different countries under various ecological conditions.Trltlcale Protelns 1   Ev ANGELINA VILLEGAS/ C. E. McDoNALn,' 1 K. A. GILLES ' 1   Undernutrition and malnutrition are currently widespread in many areas of the world. The most serious nutritional problem is protein-calorie malnutrition among children in the developing countries. ( 5,24).There now exists a world shortage in production of animal proteins, which are superior in nutritional quality to plant proteins. Animal production can be expanded neither easily nor rapidly to overcome the deficit. The magnitude of the imbalance between production and need for animal protein will become worse as world population increases. It is anticipated that more and more of the world's need for protein will have to be supplied by the plant proteins, as is already the case among low income groups in many densely populated areas of the world.The total current world protein consumption is estimated to be 120 million metric tons ( 14 ). Of this total, only 30,000,000 metric tons or 25 percent is supplied from animal proteins. The remainder, 90,000,000 metric tons or 75 percent, is plant proteins.Cereals, the principal source of plant protein, represent 60 percent of the world protein supply ( 14). Unfortunately, cereal proteins are deficient in several amino acids that are required by man for proper growth.Nutritional qualities of a protein are determined by the amount and the kind of amino acids which become available to the animal organism during digestion. Cereal proteins are lower in nutritional value than animal proteins. Their lower nutritive value results from a poor balance of essential amino acids. The most limiting essential amino acid is lysine ( 2,4,8,12).In recent years an ever increasing number of food supplements have been developed ( 5,6,24 ) , which can be used to improve the diets in many underdeveloped countries. Unfortunately, these improvements seldom reach the rural people, who generally constitute from 75 to 90 percent of the total population in such countries, and it is among this sector of the population where the worst nutritional problem exists. Doubtless, this situation could be improved markedly if cereals having improved amino acid balance could be made available.In 1964, the mutant gene of corn, opaque-2, was reported to be associated with an increase in the lysine content of corn protein ( 13 ). More recently a second mutant gene, floury-2, also has been shown to affect the amino acid pattern of corn protein ( 18).These discoveries stimulated genetic biochemical research to find other cereal varieties or mutants with genes for high lysine content.Improving the amino acid balance in the protein of small grains through genetic manipulation has been handicapped by inadequate and time consuming analytical methods for analyzing a large number of samples.At present, all methods used for total lysine determination in proteins require previous hydrolysis.The chemical analysis for lysine in protein hydrolysates using ion-exchange chromatography ( 15, 16, 17) has been found to be the most reliable ~md rapid procedure. Automatic recording devices have opened the way to the routine analyses of protein hydrolysates. The main advantages of the method are: 1) reproducibility, 2) accuracy and 3) automation.In the present study, lysine variability was investigated among species and varieties of wheat, rye, Triticale and wheat amphiploids. Concurrently with the survey of lysine variability in the above mentioned cereals, a triplicate sample method was developed for the determination of lysine by ion-exchange chromatography on an automated amino acid analyzer. MATERIALS D,L-histidine and D,L-lysine used were purchased from Nutritional Biochemical Corporation. An amino acid calibration mixture was obtained from Beckman Instrument, Inc. L-lysine monohydrochloride M. A. Grade which was used as a standard for the lysine analysis was obtained from Mann Research Laboratories, Inc. C. Triticum species: Sixty-four samples of, diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species were supplied by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, World Collection of small grains. They were grown in 1964 at Aberdeen, Idaho. Another 26 samples of Triticum species, including 6 amphiploids, were grown at Fargo, North Dakota in 1964.A collection of 125 varieties and species of Secale was supplied by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in Mexico City, Beckman Model 120 B amino acid analyzer was packed to a height of 6 cm with Beckman spherical resin type AA-27 in early work. A single sample was analyzed for basic amino acids.2. A method for triplicate lysine analysis in cereal protein hydrolysates was developed in this study. Stefanye and Spero ( 28 ) first used a replicate-sample method for analysis of simple mixture of acidic and neutral amino acids in 1964.The Benson and Patterson accelerated method for basic amino acids was modified in this study by changing the type of resin for one of different particle size, length of the resin bed, pH and ionic strength of the citrate huffer, and column temperature.Triplicate lysine analyses of cereal hydrolysates were done using this modified procedure. This method gave similar results as compared with those obtained by the Benson and Patterson method for a single sample. Therefore, because of its advantages the triplicate method was used during this study. The working conditions of both methods are listed in Table 1. The sodium citrate buffer 0.2N, pH 5.10 was prepared in the same way as described by Benson and Patterson ( 3), but the amounts of sodium citrate and hydrochloric acid were reduced in order to get the desired sodium concentration and pH as shown in Table 2. In the triplicate-sample method, one sample aliquot of 1 ml is applied to the column. The sample is pushed into the resin with nitrogen p~essure of 30 p.s.i. The column walls are washed thrice with 0.2 ml portions of buffer ( 0.2N, pH 5.10), which also are pushed into the resin with nitrogen pressure. Addition of sample and wash with buffer require approximately 8.5 min. Thereafter, the buffer is pumped through the column ~.r 3.6 min. at 130 p.s.i. with a flow rate of 68 ml per hr. The pump is• then stopped; the column is opened and another sample is applied. After the third sample is added and the column walls washed, the ninhydrin pump is started. Buffer and ninhydrin are introduced into •the coil and the recorder is turned on.The lysine in each sample appears on the chromatogram as a separate peak without overlapping. The histidine which has been slowed in, the elution comes under the ammonia peGk. The first lysine peak appears on the chromatogram in approximately 44 min.; the third lysine peak is completed on the chromatogram at 57 min. Then the analysis is stopped. Regeneration of the resin is made by pushing sodium hydroxide 0.2N through the column for a period of 7 min. with nitrogen pressure of 30 p.s.i. followed by equilibration with the 0.2N, pH 5.10 buffer for 25 min.The lysine content of the hydrolysates was calculated from the peak area using the height-width method ( 26) and standard L-lysine monohydrochloride solution ( 25 p.M per ml.).In the Benson and Patterson accelerated method for basic amino acids ( 3 ) the histidine peak emerges on the chromatogram immediately after the lysine peak ends. Under the conditions of the modified procedure, the histidine elution from the resin is delayed, and the corresponding peak on the chromatogram does not emerge immediately after lysine. The histidine peak appears to come under the ammonia peak. This procedure leaves enough room on the chromatogram for the additional lysine peaks when triplicate samples are applied to the column.The 0.35N, pH 5.28 sodium citrate buffer used by Benson and Patterson and column temperature of 55°C cause the histidine to be eluted centered between lysine and ammonia. The reduction of the pH to 5.10, the sodium concentration of the buffer to 0.2N, and the temperature from 55° to 40°C cause the histidine to change its position in the chromatogram. The use of the resin PA-35 gave better resolution. and sharper peaks than the resin AA-27, and provided an advantage in the triplicate method.When working under the modified conditions described above, and with a resin bed of 6 cm, good resolution of the 3 lysine peaks was obtained .. . . ., :-: . . ~ . : : \\ ! ! : .. . . ., . .... . •:: : .: \\} \\ : ..•\"• ~ r . . :; . . :\\.: :' :.••.•..,. . . .. ..Chromatogram obtained from three 1 ml. aliquots of the amino acid calibration mixture with lysine peak 1 from aliquot 1, peak 2 from aliquot 2, and peak 3 from aliquot 3.3rd peak became largely overlapped by the histidine and ammonia peak. This overlapping is thought to be due to the large amount of ammonia present. The high concentration of ammonia in wheat hydrolysates arises primarily from the cleavage during acid hydrolysis of amide groups of glutamine and asparagine. However, substantial amounts of ammonia may result from breakdown of certain amino acids, notably tryptophan, serine, and threonine. By changing the resin bed length to 9 cm, good resolution of the 3 lysine peaks was obtained with wheat hydrolysates, and the reproducibility cf the results was good. For example, 3 aliquots of 1 ml of a wheat hydrolysate analyzed by the triplicate method gave: 1) 0.173, 2) 0.176, and 3) 0.173 µM. of lysine per ml.The accuracy of the triplicate-sample method was checked by analyzing different amounts of a whole wheat hydrolysate which were all contained in a volume of 1 ml by appropriately diluting with pH 2.2, 0.2N sodium citrate buffer. The results are shown in Table 3, and the chromatogram of this analysis is shown in Figure 2. The amount of lysine that should have been in each replicate was calculated from the lysine value obtained for 1 ml of hydrolysate by the Benson and Patterson accelerated method. The amount of lysine found in each sample in the triplicate-sample analysis was from 97 to 100% of the calculated value. Good accuracy by the triplicate method was obtained also on whole wheat hydrolysate to which different amounts of pure lysine ( 0.5 µM. per ml of solution) were added. The results are shown in Table 4. The total lysine contained in each sample was that calculated from an analysis of 1 ml of the hydrolysate by the accelerated method plus the lysine added. The amount of lysine found in each sample was from 96 to 99% of the expected value.Reproducible results were also obtained in the triplicate-sample method when the buffer flow rate was increased from 68 ml to 80 ml per hr. (pump pressure 15 5 p.s.i. ) . Accuracy as well as resolution of the lysine peaks was maintained, and the analysis time was reduced approximately from 90 min. to 78 min. Analyses of 3 samples using the accelerated method of Benson and 'Patterson would take approximately 3 hr. The triplicate-sample method with a buffer flow rate of 68 ml per hr requires approximately 90 min. and at buffer flow rate of 80 ml per hr only 78 min. Table 5 shows results obtained of one hydrolysate using the two buffer flow rates.  The method used throughout this study was at a buffer flow rate of 68 ml per hr.During the course of this study, single analysis of each ;ample was made for lysine content and duplicate analysis for protein. The lysine content of durum wheat varieties and lines grown at North Dakota and Mexico were investigated.The results of analyses for protein and lysine content of 5 varieties of durum wheat grown at 3 locations in North Dakota in 1966 are given in Table 6. The protein content was relatively high in all the varieties at the 3 locations, but the samples from Fargo had a protein content somewhat lower than those from the other locations.It is customary in the literature to present the results as g. amino acid per 16 g. of nitrogen or in some cases as g. amino acid per 17.5 g. of nitrogen ( 20 ) which is equivalent to 100 g. of wheat protein. Expressing amino acids according to Orr and Watt ( 19) as amount per 1 g. of nitrogen affords the greatest ease of computation, but as yet this method has not been widely accepted ( 21 ) .In this study the lysine has been reported as percent of the protein, because the amino acid balance of the protein is most important nutritionally.The values for the lysine also are given as the percent of the dry sample weight, in order to show clearly that samples with high content of lysine but with low protein content would contribute less lysine than samples with high protein and low lysine in the protein. •Dry weight basis (N X 5.7).h Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.The results in Table 6 indicate that the lysine content of the protein varies little among varieties and in the same variety grown in the different locations. The lysine in percent of dry sample ,weight is higher in the varieties grown in Edgely, because the protein content in general was high.It has been reported previously ( 9,22,25 ) that in bread wheat an inverse relationship exists between the protein content of a sample and the lysine content of the protein up to about 14% of protein. Here, statistical analysis showed this inverse relationship• with durum wheat even though protein contents were considerably higher than 14%. The correlation coefficient ( r) obtained was -0.77 and highly significant.A group of lines and selected plants in a line, as well as one variety of r. turgidum and one variety of r. dicoccum (commonly used as progenitors) that were grown in the same location in 1965-1966, were analyzed to evaluate the variability in lysine content due to varietal difference. Data are shown in Table 7.The kernels from the lateral florets of the spikelets at the bottom and center of the spike were analyzed separately to determine the degree of variability in lysine content among kernels of a single spike. The results showed little variation in lysine content among kernels from the bottom and center of a spike. The small variability observed in some spikes was due to difference in the protein content of the kernels. The lysine percent of dry sample weight showed that the lysine content was maintained almost constant among the kernels at different sites of the spike.However, the lysine content among lines, and in some cases, even among selections of a given line was variable. Line RD-176 selection 2B had a relatively high amount of lysine and a high content of protein. The percent of lysine in protein of selection 7 A was only slightly higher than that of selection 2B, but the protein content was much lower. The same pattern was observed in other selections of lines. The correlation coefficient for the relationship between lysine content and protein level was -0.33 and not significant.The lysine content of the progenitor varieties Khapli ( T. dicoccum) and Barrigon Yaqui ( T. turgidum) was at the same level as that showed by the durum wheats. hDry weight basis (N X 5.7).c Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.Two groups of varieties of spring wheat, one grown in Mexico in 1965, and the other in North Dakota in 1966, were analyzed for lysine content in order to evaluate varietal differences.The results of analysis of 5 varieties of hard red spring wheat grown at two locations in North Dakota are given in Table 8. The .. Jysine contents of these varieties were quite similar. Even though the protein content of the varieties was different in the two locations the lysine level in the protein remained almost constant. The variety Selkirk showed the lowest protein and lysine content. The relation of the lysine content of the protein to the protein level gave a correlation coefficient of -0.4 and not significant. This low correlation may have been due to the high protein level of all the samples. The influence of date of planting and chronology of spike development on the lysine of several varieties of bread wheat grown at Chapingo, Mexico, is shown in Table 9. Kernels from different sites of the primary, secondary, and tertiary spikes were analyzed. In general, the lysine content was more variable among spikes in the first date of planting than in the second. The protein content of the grain was highly variable for the first planting date, and may have caused this variability of the lysine content. This variability may be influence by riitrate and moisture availability, or the temperature during the time of grain formation. The variation in lysine was greater among the primary, secondary and tertiary spike, than among the kernels from different sites of a given spike. The variety Lerma Rojo showed higher variation in the lysine content among kernels from different spikes than the other varieties. The varietal differences in the lysine content were low, not over 0.5%, and can not be considered significant. •Dry weight basis (N X 5.7).•Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.It has been reported that soft endosperm portions of the wheat kernel have less total nitrogen but a greater amount of the basic amino acids than the hard endosperm portion ( 11 ) . Soft endosperm wheats can be expected to contain higher percentages of the water soluble proteins than the hard wheats, with concomitant higher lysine levels in the total protein. However, the protein of the soft endosperm varieties Lerma Rojo, Narifio, and 81% showed lysine contents similar to those obtained from the hard endosperm wheats. The soft endosperm wheats had an unusually high protein level due to nitrogen fertilization. A highly significant inverse relationship between lysine content of the protein and protein level was observed ( r = -0 .68).Small groups of different species of T riticum were investigated to determine if any among them might contain protein with high lysine content.Table 10 shows the protein and lysine contents of different samples of diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species of Triticum. Variability in the lysine content of these samples is evident. The protein content ranged from 9.96 to 27 .00% (dry weight basis) and the lysine of the protein from 2.09 to 3.99%. The negative correlation between the protein content and the lysine level in the protein was highly significant (r = -0.41 ).Lawrence et al. ( 9) reported that T. pyramid.ale, T. sphaerococcum, and T. persicum were the species that have high lysine content 'among the species analyzed. The lysine values of these species obtained in the present work are similar to those reported by them, except for the T. sphaerococcum where lower values were obtained here. No analysis of T. boeticum was reported by these workers.In the present study the species, T. boeticum, was an outstanding group.The high values for lysine in percent of dry sample were due to both high lysine in the protein and high protein content.A group of samples of different species of Triticum, grown at Fargo, North Dakota in 1964 was analyzed also and the results are given in Table 11. Only slight variations were observed in the lysine content of these samples, even though large variations were observed in the protein content. The protein content ranged from 12.04 to 28.16% (dry weight basis), and averaged 18.46%. The lysine content of the protein varied from 2.30 to 3.05% and averaged 2.60%.  The varieties Larionowii and Pancii of the species, T. boeticum had lower lysine content than samples of this species showed in Table 10. This difference may be due to varietal difference or the effect of environment. Reliable comparisons cannot be made among these two groups of samples because the varieties of the different species were not the same and they were grown at two different locations.The lysine values of the T. pyramidale reported in Table 11 are also lower than those shown in Table 10, and the one reported by Lawrence et al.Rye belongs to the genus Secale which is closely related to Triticum. It is known that rye has better protein quality from the nutritional standpoint than wheat ( 8).. A group of varieties and species of Secale were investigated to determine their variability in the lysine content. The results obtaind from these analyses are shown in Table 12. High variability in lysine content and protein level was apparent in these samples. The protein content ranged from 7.17 to 20.6% (dry weight basis) and averaged 13.)4%. The lysine content varied from 2.42 to 4.26% of protein and averaged 3.72%.In general, the lysine content of rye has been reported to be higher than that of wheat ( 4 ). Rohrlich and Rasmus in 1956 ( 23) compared the germ, aleurone and endosperm proteins of rye and wheat. These workers used a tetraploid rye, and did not find qualitative differences between the amino acids of the germ and of the aleurone of wheat and rye, but they noted that the wheat endosperm was lower in arginine and lysine than that of rye endosperm. , • Place where these samples were grown is unknown, with exception of the last four, which were grown at Chapingo, Mexico, 1965. b Dry weight basis (N X 6.25).• Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.From data presented here, it is evident that rye protein is richer in lysine• than wheat protein, and that high variability among samples exists in the lysine level. It is impossible to state whether this variability is varietal or mainly environmental, because the samples were grown in many different parts of the world.. As in wheat, the protein content of rye showed an inverse relationship with the lysine level in the protein, and the negative correlation existed over the entire protein range ( 7.17 -20.6% ). The correlation coefficient was -0.70 and highly significant.The new, man-made amphiploid cereal, Triticale, is a potentially important food crop. Triticale ( hexaploid) is similar to bread wheat in that two thirds of its make-up is tetraploid wheat, but differs in that the other one-third is rye ( Secale spp.) instead of goat grass ( Aegilops squarrosa).Studies from the University of Manitoba have shown that the Triticale from durum wheat •and rye has a high yield potential. Tests on quality have indicated that the Triticale has a high protein content but poor baking quality. Acceptable loaf volume can be produced when the Triticale flour is blended with flour from a hard red spring wheat.Because of these factors it was interesting to investigate the lysine level and variability of the Triticale protein.A group of different lines of hexaploid and octaploid Triticales developed by a group of workers of the University of Manitoba, and grown at Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico, was investigated. In some cases the primary, secondary and tertiary spikes of differerit selections were analyzed, in other cases only one or two spikes. The results are given in Table 13.The protein content of these samples ranged from 11.76 to 22.50% (dry weight basis). The lysine content of the protein varied from 2.55 to 3.74%. 'The averages were 17.48% protein and 3.24% lysine in the protein. In general, the protein level of the samples was high with little variation in the lysine content.Fox and De Fontaine in 1956 ( 7) reported that the total lysine content of one T riticale analyzed by them was between the rye and wheat parent. In the present study, it is not possible to make a reliable comparison between the lysine content in the protein of durum wheat, rye and Triticale, because the durum wheat and rye progenitors used in the development of these lines were not analyzed. However, comparisons of the durum wheats and ryes analyzed in this study indicated that the lysine content of Triticale protein was generally higher than that of wheat protein, and somewhat lower than that of rye protein. The lysine level of Triticale analyzed in this study was similar to that reported by Lebedeva in 1965 ( 10) which only showed value of one sample analyzed.An inverse relationship between lysine content and protein level was found also in Triticale. The correlation coefficient obtained was -0.52 and highly significant.To achieve genetic improvement of protein content and nutritional quality in cereal crops, a wide genetic base should be examined for lysine content in each species. The high lysine character, if found, should be incorporated into varieties or lines with high protein and high yield.The present study includes more than 400 lysine evaluations, however, the number of varieties or species investigated was reduced greatly because in the earlier part of the work the number of analyses for each sample was multiplied when analyzing kernels from different sites on the spike and different spikes of a given variety. • Number corresponds to plant selected, A = primary spike, B = secondary spike.•Dry weight basis (N X 5.7). •• Lysine expressed as 96 of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.Among the varieties and lines of durum wheat analyzed, only the line RD 176 -7A showed a lysine content in the protein of 3.4% (average), with a protein content of 11.03% (average).In the bread wheats, 5 varieties of hard red spring wheat and 3 varieties of soft red spring wheat (from Mexico) were analyzed. The highest lysine value obtained was that showed by the variety Lerma Rojo with an average of 3.03% of lysine in the protein with an average protein content of 14.12%.Among the 16 different species of Triticum, 83 varieties were examined. From the 7 varieties of the T. boeticum (diploid), 5 varieties high in protein were high in lysine. The protein content ranged from 19.40 to 24.46% (average 22.25% ). The lysine content in the protein ranged from 3.05 to 3.50% (average 3.17% ).Five varieties of the tetraploid T. pyramidale showed higher lysine values in the protein (3 .28 to 3 .59 % , average 3 .41 % ) than the varieties of T. boeticum. However, the protein contents were lower ( 11.80 to 13.36%, average 12.49% ).The protein of the hexaploids T. sphaerococcum, T. spelta, T. macha, T. vavilovii, and T. zhukovuskyi, contained lysine levels similar to those showed by the bread wheats.The group of 125 varieties and species of Secale had protein with high lysine content, except for 13 samples with lysine content below 3.0%. The protein content of this group varied greatly (7.17 -20.6% ), while the lysine content varied in the protein (2.42 -4.26% ).Among the 70 samples of Triticale only 14 samples were found with a lysine content in protein below 3.0%. Some of these are octaploid Triticales in which the wheat progenitor was the hexaploid Mayo 64.Lines of the different wheats, ryes and Triticales showing a protein content over 12% combined with high lysine content are shown in Table 14. Samples showing over 4.0% lysine in protein were found only among ryes; however, these haa low protein content, as shown in Table 15.Lines indicated in Tables 14 and 15, may be considered potentially valuable as parental material for breeding programs. However, it should be demonstrated first that the high lysine level of these lines is controlled by a genetic factor. Therefore, they must be tested again after being grown under different environmental conditions which will affect the protein content of the samples.   ","tokenCount":"4551"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa9d2fb4b1f2666ab592bac5783b2e4f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4ce67ace-a440-4efb-835c-2e02db6ba87a/retrieve","id":"-1404093154"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f2ced46e-0919-4dcd-ba62-4a02d3703a68","pagecount":"1","content":"Con la incorporación de forrajes mejorados a los sistemas ganaderos, estos podrían contribuir como sumideros, dependiendo del manejo y características edafoclimáticas, factor importante en los flujos de GEI.Las actividades agropecuarias se han asociado con el incremento de óxido nitroso hacia la atmósfera, ya que las prácticas de manejo (Fertilización y mecanización) contribuyen con la dinámica del nitrógeno, incrementando la emisión de este en forma de oxido de nitrógeno (N 2 O) y limitando el almacenamiento de metano ( CH 4 ). Sin embargo, los sistemas agropecuarios se han constituido en sumideros de gases efecto invernadero (GEI), dependiendo del manejo que se dé a estos.Estimar las emisiones de CH 4 , N 2 O y CO 2 , con el fin de establecer estrategias de manejo en pro de la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático. El trabajo, presenta resultados del \"Estudio de emisión de gases efecto invernadero y captura de carbono en sistemas de pequeños y medianos productores de carne en los municipios Patía y Mercaderes, Cauca.\", el cual se desarrolla en el marco del programa de investigación \"Desarrollo y uso de recursos forrajeros en sistemas sostenibles de producción bovina para el Departamento del Cauca\" financiado por el Sistema Nacional de Regalías, ejecutado por la Gobernación del Cauca y operado por la Universidad del Cauca, el Programa de forrajes tropicales del CIAT y las asociaciones de productores ASOGAMER y COAGROUSUARIOS.Este trabajo está alineado al programa de investigación del CGIAR en cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria (CCAFS). ","tokenCount":"247"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"29fbedb634920610e57547cca287d859","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/efef5173-2630-40a5-98c6-46cb086d0cee/retrieve","id":"-1241470466"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"59cbce45-7aea-45da-83ae-5dc269f09429","pagecount":"4","content":"Food safety standards require the implementation of specific standards from production-to-consumption. The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is now a widely accepted methodology in risk analysis for industrially processed foods. The application of HACCP is a bigger challenge in developing countries where food market channels are less formal.. This study adapted a HACCP methodology to assess health risks at different points in the informal milk marketing network. Key critical control points identified for high total bacterial counts were channels with multiple transaction points which took considerable time from the farm without refrigeration facilities. High coliform counts were associated with the use of plastic versus metal containers. Approximately 13% of samples were adulterated with added water. Recommendations for procedures to improve milk quality and how these can be communicated to farmers, market agents and consumers are proposed and discussed.Milk safety has been debated in Kenya but without much quantitative information for over a decade. This has been especially so since milk market liberalisation in 1992 which was followed by a dramatic increase in raw milk sales in urban areas. As with all food safety standards worldwide, milk safety requires monitoring from production-to-consumption. The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) process, recommended by FAO/WHO (1998), is now a widely accepted methodology in risk analysis for industrially processed foods. HACCP identifies the points in a process that are hazardous, their risk factors and potential level of risk so that \"critical control points\" for remedial action can be implemented. Controls are specific actions taken to prevent health risks. The application of HACCP is a major challenge in developing countries where food markets are mostly informal. Market channels for milk range from direct sales of liquid milk or processed dairy products from producers to consumers, to a long chain involving combinations of private traders on bicycle, public or private transport, milk bars and kiosks, dairy farmer groups, small-scale and industrial processors. About 88% of marketed milk in Kenya is sold unprocessed, outside regulated channels. This paper attempts to adapt a HACCP methodology to assess health risks at different points in the informal dairy marketing network in Kenya.Between March and May 1999, 162 raw milk traders of various cadres were identified and their milk handling practises studied. Traders were selected in a random sample, stratified on proximity to consumers (Nairobi) and producers (Kiambu). Milk handling practices for each trader were both observed and recorded on a questionnaire. Questions included milk procurement (source, time of collection, distance travelled, quality control procedures, type of handling vessels, bulking (mixing of milk from different sources), mode of transport and prices paid); milk handling (time to re-sale, storage, method of cleaning, water source); milk sale (type of buyers, quantities sold, packaging, prices received); and hygiene of premises and personnel. In addition, variable and fixed costs were estimated. One or more milk samples were collected at retail points in sterile tubes from each market agent and total and coliform bacteria in the milk counted using the Standard Plate Count method. Boiling and adulteration of sampled milk were also investigated by the peroxidase test and lactometer, respectively. Bacterial counts were estimated for 80 pasteurised milk samples, purchased from retail shops and tested on the last day of expiry.Two strategies were used to identify critical points (CPs) that were associated with high total and coliform counts in raw milk. The first was descriptive, to define dummy variables for all potential CPs (combinations of sources of milk and agent) and estimate statistics for each CP or group of CPs. These included the calculation of proportions with counts above national standards and the plotting of bacterial counts versus time since collection for each CP to visually assess trends. The second strategy was to include all potential CPs and milk procurement, handling and sale variables in stepwise regression models of the logarithm of total and coliform bacterial counts as dependent variables in the Proc REG procedure (p<0.05 for entry and retention) in SAS. Time since collection of milk was forced into all final models.About 75% of milk samples were collected within two hours of their receipt by traders. Market points with one or more intermediate steps comprised 41% of samples collected. Direct sales occurred between producers and dairy co-ops (20%), hawkers (15%), milk-/snack-bar (13%) and kiosks/shops (12%). Bacterial counts were high (Table 1). At this early point in the retail chain, 58% and 82% of raw milk samples did not meet national standards for coliform and total bacterial counts, respectively (Figure 1). Interestingly, 70% of pasteurised samples did not meet national standards for bacterial counts. Approx. 13% of samples were adulterated with water.Complete data for the regression analysis were obtained for 103 samples. Two market channel types (retail agents other than dairy co-ops and multiple selling steps) and three risk factors: scooping of milk, higher milk temperature and piped water were associated with higher coliform counts (the three risk factors were also associated with higher total bacterial counts) (Table 2). Using both complete and incomplete data records (154 samples), high coliform counts were also associated with the use of plastic versus metal containers (p=0.03). Time in the market chain and distance to retail points showed no significant association with bacterial counts (p>0.05).   The generally high bacterial counts and lack of association with time suggest that most bacterial growth occurred before the first transaction. Given a previous finding that milk sampled fromfarms had low bacterial counts (Ombui et al., 1994), we hypothesize the existence of one (or more) CP(s) between farm and milk market agent. There are numerous possibilities (e.g. time held on farm, bulking), which deserve further investigation. Association of piped water source with higher counts was unexpected and may reflect a relative shortage of water from piped sources. Better milk quality from dairy co-ops is likely due to higher hygiene standards (mainly testing for adulteration, use of aluminium containers and chilling equipment). Otherwise, most milk samples were not chilled and the high bacterial counts (both raw and pasteurised) can be partly attributed to the general lack of a cold chain. One option is the adoption of the lactoperoxidase system (LPS) for milk preservation (see FAO Internet Home Page). However, the widespread adoption of LPS will require its widespread acceptance by national policy makers. The majority of milk that currently reaches consumers, both from informal and formal agents, is below Kenyan national standards. Thus, the boiling of milk, now done by virtually all consumers of marketed milk, should continue to be encouraged. This study shows that some practices of informal market agents, such as scooping of milk and use of plastic containers, could be improved by extension and training. Since bacterial counts were already high on reaching the informal market agents, we will focus on studies to investigate potential CPs on-farm and between farm and market agent. Given the low common practice of boiling, the public health risks from informally marketed milk appear low when compared to the substantial socioeconomic benefits obtained from this system.","tokenCount":"1159"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c906f0846760e23f02e5106eeb79d889","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3d9af067-6f1f-4fda-96af-9ecf019cdae7/retrieve","id":"791376810"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3601792b-d156-4db2-a79e-8f67c503414e","pagecount":"11","content":"The launch of national report on \"Evaluating Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems: Evidence from India\" was organized on 23 January 2024 in Delhi, India. This was under the aegis of CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS) which focuses on building policy coherence and integrating policy tools at national and subnational levels in eight countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Under this initiative, the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) have researched the policy landscape at the national level in India for the food, land, and water (FLW) systems. NITI Aayog, the apex public policy think tank of the Government of India, has guided this research. The study offers key evidence-based recommendations for enhancing policy coherence.The importance of policy coherence in strengthening the means of implementation and revitalizing the global partnership for sustainable development is a core focus of the SDG 17. Policy coherence aims to identify synergies between policies, as well as the unintended consequences that may hamper the impact policy aims to create.The collaborative national level study was on developing a methodological framework on understanding policy coherence in the FLW sectors at the national level. It involved the creation of a database of centrallevel policies encompassing the FLW systems. This resulted in the selection of 60 policies from 12 ministries. From this, seven policies were selected for in-depth analysis through predefined criteria. These policies were Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana -Per Drop More Crop (RKVK -PDMC), Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana -Watershed Development Component (PMKSY -WDC 2.0),Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), National Mission for Clean Ganga -Namami Gange Programme (NMCG -NGP) and Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY). The in-depth analysis was conducted through a consultative approach to gather insights on policy coherence in India's food, land, and water systems. The findings were validated through a national-level consultation workshop organized in June 2023.The launch of the national report was attended by experts from government departments and civil society organizations. During the event, the organizers and authors shared key recommendations from the study with the attendees. This was followed by a panel discussion that initiated deliberations on critical challenges aimed at strengthening policy coherence across various sectors.Dr Sikka welcomed participants on behalf of IWMI and CEEW. He provided a brief introduction about IWMI and stated that the policy coherence report is a joint initiative of IWMI and CEEW. He reflected on the multi-stakeholder consultation meeting co-organized by CEEW and IWMI in June 2023, where Ms. Debashree Mukherjee, Secretary, Ministry of Jal Shakti shared her valuable thoughts on the methodology and initial findings emerging from the study. Building on these suggestions, the report aims to address the issue at the intersection of food, land and water policies. Dr. Sikka mentioned that coherent and convergent policies and programs are crucial for tackling complex challenges common to food, land, and water which are the central focus of the report. Its launch today marks the importance of evaluating policy coherence and laying emphasis on the key learnings and best practices from the case of India that can be relevant in the context of other countries from the Global South. This collaboration between IWMI and CEEW is important for delving deeper into this aspect.Dr. Sikka also highlighted the discussions around the importance of convergence, which is an important element of policy coherence. This began as early as 1998 with the convergence of watershed activities, followed by the convergence of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) with Integrated Water Management Programme (IWMP), and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) (Agriculture Science Centres). This report comprises the analysis of such convergence within a wider context.Following the welcome remarks by Dr. Sikka, Mr Bassi introduced the national report titled \"Evaluating Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems: Evidence from India\". He elaborated on policy coherence as a key focus area of the sustainable water program at CEEW. He also highlighted the importance of collaboration and partnerships for sustainable development and emphasized the consultative process, with the participation of government officials, practitioners from civil society organizations, and researchers, through which policy coherence is understood.Mr Bassi also shared the importance of deep-dives into state level policy coherence and the ongoing efforts of the team to carry out this analysis in two selected states -Odisha, and Rajasthan. He also shared the successful state-level multi-stakeholder consultation held in Odisha in December 2023 under the guidance of the Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Empowerment, Government of Odisha. Shri. Yugal Joshi emphasized the importance of making policies and programs a responsibility of everyone with the inclusion of citizens' participation citing the important case of the Swachhata (literal translation in English is 'cleanliness') Mission in India. With people's participation, we can understand how government policies and programs are affecting the people, in conjunction with important environmental aspects of air, food, water and land.He further reflected on the importance of studying the overall impact of these policies and programs, and the core problem of how we tend to think narrowly about the domain we work in. This needs attention because narrow thinking can result in issues like environmental pollution. Decisions and actions can have unintended consequences which need to be researched. Further, with the introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), environmental considerations have become more prominent. The real-time dashboards of the policies and programs of the Ministry and departments show the impact created and are a platform for informed governance.With the emphasis on these important areas, Mr Joshi mentioned that 'If we do not see convergence in these areas, we need to think about why and how to address it.' Referring to the national level study, he suggested that we need to research how to build more vertical and horizontal coherence in our policies, along with greater institutional coherence in policy implementation, integration of viewpoints from multistakeholders, and consideration of external factors that can affect policy actions and impacts.The IWMI-CEEW presentation offered an overview of Food, Land and Water policies in India. On behalf of the research team, Mr Archisman Mitra (Researcher, IWMI) and Ms Kangkanika Neog (Program Associate, CEEW) presented the study briefly, highlighting the problem statement and context, methodology, findings and recommendations.Ms Debashree Mukherjee (Secretary, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti) shared her reflection on the study through a video message coordinated by Dr. Suparana Katyaini (Programme Lead, CEEW, and Ms. Tejaswi Joshi, Consultant, CEEW). She expressed that the report offers important insights into the interactions between policies in India's food, land, and water systems. She also highlighted the national-level consultation held in June 2023 to discuss the study's key findings and proposed recommendations with the relevant stakeholders. The final recommendations could guide policymakers, researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders toward making meaningful contributions to coherent and effective governance of natural resources. Ms Mukherjee mentioned that two of the selected schemes -ABY and NMCG-NGPare anchored at the Ministry of Jal Shakti. She also talked about how the ministry is encouraged to work with different departments and ministries and is committed to sustainable development and management of water resources in India through an integrated approach. She then congratulated the research team from CEEW and IWMI for their commendable effort and for taking a consultative approach to understanding India's food, land, and water systems.The National Report on Evaluating Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems: Evidence from India was launched by: NITI Aayog: Shri Yugal Joshi, Programme Director DW&S, Niti Aayog IWMI: Dr Alok Sikka, Mr Archisman Mitra, Ms Garima Taneja, Dr Suchiradipta Bhattacharjee, CEEW: Mr Nitin Bassi, Dr Suparana Katyaini, Ms Ekanksha Khanduja and Mr Shashwat Shukla Mr Bassi started the discussion by introducing the panelists and inviting each panelist to share their thoughts on the following:Shri Yugal Joshi, NITI Aayog cited examples from Singapore and India. He stated that Singapore, after independence in the 1960s, faced the challenge of transforming itself into a clean, green, and blue nation. They established a dedicated pollution management unit and ensured all government policies supported this goal.Recognizing the importance of water, they prioritized sustainable water resource management. The key takeaway is the coherence between air, water and land management. Unlike Singapore's top-down approach, India's Swachh Bharat Mission emphasizes inclusivity. The idea is for everyone to participate, with programs like Swachh Bharat Kosh encouraging ministries to integrate cleanliness into their budgets. By involving citizens through initiatives like Swachh Iconic Places and awareness campaigns, the mission aims to foster behavioral change. Women and children are given special focus, with programs like Jal Jeevan Mission involving them actively. All natural resources are limited, and sustainable living is crucial. While the Indian government, through Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate change, is taking steps, grassroots involvement is essential.on sustainable agriculture and community development? Please share emerging innovative mechanisms at the grassroots level that are leading to improvement in the governance of food, land, and water systems.Ms. Parijat Ghosh, PRADAN stated that their policy decisions are aligned, since Pradan works with small and marginal farmers, the findings from the report and the experience from the field really overlaps. The key role of village level collectives in governing Food, Land & Water (FLW) issues are highlighted. The village communities possess valuable historical knowledge that helps in sustainable practices. Deteriorating health often relates to unsustainable food practices. Promoting regenerative agriculture improves both soil and human health, reducing diabetes and anemia. Collaborative discussion and facilitation by village organizations like Gram Sabhas empower farmers to adopt sustainable practices (e.g. integrated pest management, women led FPOs for indigenous crops). Integrating the holistic view of nature held by Adivasi communities is crucial. Participation of women farmers should be increased. Also, engaging children in forest visits and encouraging them to record their learning promotes biodiversity awareness for future generations. The success of FLW sustainability lies in recognizing and harnessing the knowledge and leadership of village communities.agriculture systems in Odisha, please share approaches and practices which would be helpful for other states in India and other developing economies in the world as well.Dr Arabinda K Padee, Principal Secretary, Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Odisha, (sharing his views online coordinated by Dr Suparana Katyaini) emphasized achieving sustainable and climate-resilient food systems. He mentioned that in the past 60 years in Odisha, only three years have been free of extreme weather, while the other years experienced either floods or droughts. The frequency of dry spells is expected to increase in future, necessitating a shift in cropping areas. The Millet Mission, which began in 2017, is a success story that caters to a well-informed audience concerned about ecological footprints and nutritional content. The initiative also focuses on matters of equity and justice. Odisha, known for its participatory and inclusive approach, is recognized as a global model for promoting millets through the Odisha Millet Mission. A key policy lesson from this mission is the \"from fork to farm\" approach, which targets both rural and urban consumers and incentives agronomic practices for enhanced productivity. Climate-resilient practices have been prioritized in recent years as part of adaptation efforts. Procurement in millet schemes involves distribution through government channels, managed by self-help groups with transparent payment systems. The success of these initiatives depends on a strong institutional framework, with WASSAN serving as the program secretariat and collaborating with international and national research organizations. Promoting climate-resilient systems may sound simple, but in reality, requires careful planning and implementation. Dr Alok Sikka, Country Representative, IWMI, emphasized the importance of thinking beyond a specific sector, particularly when it comes to managing water resources. Water is more than just a source; it is a crucial enabler that connects with various sectors such as food and energy. Without proper connectivity between these sectors, effective water resource management becomes challenging. It is essential to consider the convergence of land and water, as they are intertwined and cannot be worked on separately. Community involvement, especially from vulnerable groups, is crucial for achieving convergence and coherence in natural resource management. Strong community involvement has been implemented in programs like ABY and PMKSY, highlighting the importance of inclusivity. Utilizing technology for monitoring and evaluation can strengthen systems like MIS and dashboards. Integrated knowledge management is key in packaging information based on the target audience, as seen in initiatives like Ganga Knowledge Centre. Inter-ministerial and inter departmental coordination is essential for addressing concerns across various sectors. Establishing multi-stakeholder platforms goes beyond government involvement and includes participation from the public, private sector actors, and others. Collaboration is necessary to address water resource management challenges effectively. Another study on fisheries consumption at the household level highlighted the need for increased consumption particularly in low and medium consuming states. Lack of consumption among lowincome households is attributed to limited purchasing power, while medium-income households are often unaware of the health benefits. High-income households face issues related to supply and quality. A combination of policies, including subsidies and a focus on nutritious and sustainable food consumption, is essential to strengthen the agricultural value chain and engage the private sector. The lack of skills in farm mechanization and awareness among farmers pose challenges that need to be addressed holistically. Efforts should be made to match skills acquisition with practical needs in the agricultural sector.6. What are two key priorities to realign governance for better coherence and sustainability in food, land and water systems, and how can they be enabled? (To all panelists)Key priorities emphasized by the panelists:• Going beyond anthropocentric mindsets to include all policy impacts on environmental health and biodiversity. • Measuring outcome and not just outputs for understanding convergence and adopting systems approach. • Engaging the community is crucial in the planning process, with focus on communitybased organizations and a systems approach required to identify key indicators. • Acknowledging the importance of coherence in implementation with a focus on integration of policy efforts where commonality in objectives exists. • Considering the best practices demonstrated existing at sub-national level in planning and revising the national policies.","tokenCount":"2341"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be736cca56f1fd0d97a78b6143273a99","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/933c8c2d-b880-4ab2-9f5c-c903eefdbe46/retrieve","id":"166881128"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3892fc60-2b41-4f44-8e1c-5cb8286b9d23","pagecount":"7","content":"Within the CGIAR Resilient Cities Initiative, RUAF is applying an approach to food system monitoring frameworks and indicators that has been developed, tried and tested in a number of cities globally since 2016. This briefing document shares and explains previous work done by RUAF to develop tools for assessing and tracking food system transformation at both a city and city region level. The experience of conducing indicators work under Resilient Cities contributes to on-going development of the approach and will help inform future applications.The starting point was the City Region Food System 'parent' indicator framework (2018) that became the foundation on which the subsequent MUFPP, CRFS-Resilience and Green Cities indicator frameworks have been developed. These tools are aimed at people who are addressing food system change by working on food policy, strategy and governance using multi-stakeholder processes. These could be researchers, policy makers, local government staff and elected members, food businesses, civil society groups, not for profit organisations.RUAF has used the same design approach for each of the monitoring frameworks listed below although each one offers a different lens to work on food system transformation (see indicator focus notes). This means that they are complementary and to some extent contents can be combined by users. Each of the monitoring frameworks takes a food system approach and offers a 'menu of options' which should be selected and customised in relation to user priorities. The frameworks have been designed to support a participatory multi-stakeholder process over a period of time. The frameworks are multi-functional and can be used to support the development of food policy or strategy, to guide further in-depth research and analysis and to develop ways tracking progress towards desired outcomes. These frameworks have also been linked to SDG goals.RUAF has taken an outcomes approach to developing indicators, as explained in this diagram. There is a logical flow from left to right across the table.A city region food system (CRFS) encompasses the complex network of actors, processes and relationships that are involved in input supply and food production; storage, processing and manufacturing; wholesale and distribution; markets, catering and retail; consumption; and food loss and waste, in a given city region that includes a more or less concentrated urban centre and its surrounding peri-urban and rural hinterland. The CRFS approach reflects the multifunctional nature of the food system. It goes beyond value chains, looks beyond city limits and aims to support inclusive governance of food actors that connects national and local governments. The first phase of CRFS work (2015-2018) developed a toolkit to assess and plan sustainable city region food systems in a way that reflects the multifunctional nature of the food system.Date & status: Developed, trialled, and refined between 2015-2018 during the CRFS1 programme led by FAO & RUAF with the cities of Toronto, Medellin, Quito, Kitwe, Lusaka, Colombo and Utrecht.The CRFS indicator framework is a practical assessment and planning tool designed to help cities: (i) Assess the current status and performance of a CRFS on the basis of a set of performance indicators, following a whole-systems approach. (ii) Identify priority areas for action with clearly defined outcomes and ways of measuring change. (iii) Help with planning strategy and action to achieving the desired outcomes. (iv) Establish baselines and monitor changes resulting from (future) policy and programme implementation.Quick summary: Shaped around six sustainability areas that connect to components of the food system: social sustainability and equity (improved health and well-being); economic sustainability (increased local economic growth and decent jobs); environmental sustainability (improved stewardship of environmental resources); urban-rural integration (improved city region food supply); food governance (improved governance for sustainable food systems); reduced vulnerability and increased resilience. There are 210 possible indicators included in the full CRFS indicator framework. These relate to 9 overarching objectives, 21 desirable 'direction of travel' outcomes and 29 key issues to measure -all of which characterise a more sustainable and resilient city region food system with strong urban-rural linkages ('A Vision for City Region Food Systems', FAO & RUAF) 1 . Based on data gaps and needs and specific policy priorities identified in the CRFS Scan, each city region will need to identify the most appropriate indicators on which to collect data in the CRFS assessment.The focus is both urban and rural. Use of indicators helps to assemble information in response to 'big picture' questions about the longer-term sustainability and resilience of the city region food system and to plan prioritised actions. In addition to the usual practice of defining (or re-defining) indicators as part of action planning in order to monitor progress and assess impacts of interventions, in the CRFS process indicators are used to clarify where attention should be focused from the start.Date: Informed by the CRFS framework (above) and co-designed with cities and developed between 2016-2018. Implementation pilot project with the cities of Nairobi, Quito and Antananarivo in 2019. Over 80 signatory cities are starting to use this monitoring framework (source: MUFPP secretariat, Oct 2022) Purpose: The Milan Urban Food Policy Pact is an international agreement of Mayors, established in 2015 by the then Mayor of Milan. More than a declaration, it is a concrete working tool for cities. The MUFPP monitoring framework was requested by MUFPP signatory cities. It is designed to enable cities to track progress as they adopt the structured MUFPP approach to urban food system transformation and work on their own food policies and strategies. Indicator focus: The focus is on urban food systems. Cities commit to develop sustainable food systems that are inclusive, resilient, safe and diverse, that provide healthy and affordable food to all people in a human rights-based framework, that minimise waste and conserve biodiversity while adapting to and mitigating impacts of climate change. Most cities are currently using the framework to help identify baseline data with which to work in the future in order to track progress over time.Additional resources: Online practical handbook and resources to support cities in adopting their own monitoring frameworks. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4181enDate & status: Developed, trialled, and refined during the second phase of the CRFS programme (2019)(2020)(2021)(2022)(2023). Piloted in five cities: Antananarivo (Madagascar); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Kigali (Rwanda); Tamale (Ghana) and Melbourne (Australia).Purpose: Based on the CRFS Sustainability Indicator Framework, the CRFS Resilience Indicator Framework is also a practical assessment and planning tool but designed specifically to help cities to assess resilience capacities and to multiple hazards with a focus on climate and stresses and pandemics, to guide further research that informs action planning. Following the development of action plans, new refined indicators should be agreed within a customised CRFS Resilience monitoring plan. The ultimate purpose is to support the building of resilient city region food systems.Quick summary: Shaped around food system nodes, this indicator framework helps to explore the specific needs of different parts of the food system in relation to building resilience capacities. These nodes are:• input supply and food production • food storage, processing and manufacturing • food wholesale and distribution • food markets, catering and retail • food consumption • food loss and wasteIn addition, the framework includes indicators on emergency food provisioning, food system governance and natural resources and ecosystem services (which are directly impacted by climate shocks and stresses and are intrinsic to the functioning of all other nodes). There are 150 possible indicators included in the CRFS Resilience Indicator Framework. These relate to 9 overarching objectives, 12 desirable 'direction of travel' outcomes and 79 key issues to measure -all of which together, characterise a more resilient city region food system.Indicator focus: Both urban and rural. Use of indicators helps to guide assessment, more in-depth research and thus assemble information in response to agreed priority areas that relate to the impacts of shocks and stresses and the need to develop resilience capacities. Effective actions can then be identified in response to clearly evidenced needs. In addition to the usual practice of defining (or re-defining) indicators as part of action planning in order to monitor progress and assess impacts of interventions, in the CRFS process indicators are used to clarify where attention should be focused from the start.Date: Draft developed by RUAF 2021-2022.Purpose: Designed to complement and add to the urban food system MUFPP monitoring framework in the areas of Urban Forestry and Greening, Urban Agriculture and Governance.Quick summary: FAO Green Cities Initiative encourages an integration of urban food systems work with urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) and with urban and peri-urban forestry (UPF). New indicators have been developed for UPA and UPF in consultation with leading cities that have been working on 'green urban integration' for several years. The new recommended actions and related indicators complement existing MUFPP urban food system indicators.The focus is on urban ecosystem protection, regeneration and integration -maximizing the provision of ecosystems goods and services; fostering sustainable and climate-resilient practices and technologies to improve local food production and management of urban forests and trees; and promoting sustainable urban and peri-urban development with inclusiveness and green and circular economy.(See related RUAF ppt slides that further explain these different monitoring frameworks.) ","tokenCount":"1497"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"118b87e0331515b6a9b539c0fb56d35c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/374a5eb2-8abf-47ae-b718-646ca3a366a5/retrieve","id":"-1030425779"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d3a935c0-3f02-43b9-83f6-2ff753235eb9","pagecount":"16","content":"n los agroecoslstemas clave de los trópicos. millones d,e famll!as se ~ __ /. encuentran atrapadas en un modestas ~ se está ag9tando, ráp!c'\\amen~e.circulo vicioso de pobreza y La pobreza en las zonas rurales dewadaCi6n de los recursos naturales. lnevltabJementll conduce a la EmptUadas'hacia tierras menos deslntegiac!ón social. Losmlembros, favorables para la agricultura. luchan de I¡i farirlI1a e:mlgran a los ,suburbios por consegulr su sustento en zonas ' urbanos donde,' en vez de ' earaclerlZadas por suelos lnf'értlies e oportunlclades, e;'cuentran máS Inestables. Para consegulr el pan y privaciones. Allí y en el campo. la suplir otras necesidades de 'sus' crlsis de los pobres contribuye a la familias, traJ:¡aJan hasta agoj:ar sus escalada de conflictos y descontento: parcelas 9abrennuevasti=s a la Los actuales conUletos en la zona ~ agricultura., desMcadenando así la 'Andina y en partes de ,Afrléacentral deforestación, la pérdida de la del sudeste de Asia estáR diversidad biológica, la emisión de ,drrect¡ur¡eIfterelaC\\Qn\"do!'l: iIJV~Piíadcro por la q¡¡:enÍadet ~espiré\\1 qe pobrc\",J(, negl'1lcJ ,]josqt~ J;(<l'<:gradacjón del suelo y Sin e¡nbargo. no son enos los úni....,Oo perdedores. En un mUndo Interdependientll., todos están afectado-=por el circulo vicioso -a través de las presiones que generan la ,~olenCia ~ y--la migración masiva hacia las zonas . urbanas; de laredu<¡ción'en la dlsponibllidad de agua limpia; de la pérdida de plantas que @J.W<!anel potenctal <le nuevo,\" alimentos y :. ' , 1.' ,', medictn\"\\>: y. eventualmen te. d~ los cambioj en el clima q,,1 pla,x',ta;,e,.. r . . OS patronea de manejo de la agricultura sea más competitiva en Indica,además, que ¡¡!lntegrar el;.!J... . . tierra agr!cola son el :resultado los mercados locales y mundl¡¡!es. mejOramiento de cultivos con la .. acumulado de decisiones y Una agricultura dinámica y sostenible 'Investigación en el man<tlo de los a.cClonea tomadas por millones de generará Ingresos y empleó, aYl.ldará a :recursos IUlturales, podemos lograr agricultores y por un rifunero satisfacer la necesidad de .comlda y de aún más para m(jorar el bienestar de , :relativamente pequeño de Individuos otros bienes de la población rural y la humanidad y preservar los que diseñan politicas y.estra. reglas de I urbana. y protegerá el legado de la agroecoslstemas del trópico. desarrollo. Nuestra mayor esperanza , naturaleza. de. romper el circulo Vicioso es ~frecerle .a \"\"tas personas \"~:mecan1smos más efectivos' y , fUllbienta1mente sanos paro que la •.' \" ',\",.~ \"0/ 4 1 ' ~~,':, Hacia .e$te fin .• el Centro internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIATl lleva acabo investigación en cinco aspectos 'intinlament~ relacionados:MeJoram.iento, de >cultivos -C(J.r;-SCl:.ración de la diversidad biológiL'2.ManeJe), df'_ plagar; y l,'nfertnedade-s ,,~'aH,j<'h'i Áüe(S\\Ú;'~Ci ,r ~'is~é\"íl1¡rS de    ,~ temor los agricultores es a las plagas y a las enfermedades, porque ponen en riesgo su seguridad alimentarla y sus Ingresos. En muchas partes (C$pedalmente en Afrtca al sur del Sáhara), la población rural está prácticamente Indefensa ante estas adversidades. En lugares donde los agricultores tienen disponibilidad de pestlcldas (como sucede en gran parte de América Latina), frecuentemente caen en el uso indiscriminado de pIagu1cldas, sobre todo en cultivos con un alto valor para los mercados domésticos o de exportación. La dependencia absoluta en estos productos químicos amenaza la salud de agricultores y de consumidores, envenena el ambiente e, b:6n1camente, puede empeorar el problema de las plagas. I!:l mejor antídoto para el temor de los agricultores es el conoClmlento -de la natoraleza de las, plagas y de las enfermedades y de las diversas medidas de control. Para desarrollar y difundir este cOnoClmlento, los científicos del CIAT, en colaboración con las institucIones nacionales, llevan a cabo Investigaclón en manejo Integrado de plagas (MIP). Este es un enfoque efectivo y ambientalmente sano que saca provecho de la combinaclón de diferentes priiciicas de control, con base en un entendimiento profundo del comportamiento y ecología de las plagas y las enfermedades.Loll especialistas en MIP del CIAT desarrollan alternativas, tales como germoplasrna genéticamente resistente y control biológico. Con estos componentes, los Investigadores y los agricultores pueden formular estrategias de MIP para su localidad. Para' hacer el proceso más eficiente, el Centro desarrolla métodos de Investlgacl6n pariictpatlva para los agricultores y promueve ésta y otras técnicas a través de proyectos regionales y mundiales. Los científicos del CIAT están explorando varias opciones que penn!tan a los agriCultores Intensillcar la producción agrícola. sin destruir los suelos de los agroecosIstemas marginales (ver recuadro en la página 12). Por ~emplo, los sistemas de cultivos-pasturas, especJahnente aquellos que Jncluy:en leguminosas forrajeras, aumentan la productiVidad del cultivo y del ganado, al tiempo que restauran la caJl.dad del suelo al Intenslftcar la actiVidad biolÓgica y mejorar su estructora fislca. En muchos casos, las variedades mejoradas y las nuevas agroempresas (en las que se procesan productos tropicales, agregándoles valor) son Vitales paia el fortalecimiento económlco eje los agricultores, tocentivo que los lleva a adoptar prácticas que regeneren los recursos natorales.En última Instancla, el desarrollo de sistemas de produccl6n sostenJbles es un reto local que requlere que los tovestlgadores y los agricultores dlseíien nuevas opctones para ambientes especificos. Para ayudarles , .... dedicado a la I/lvestlgaci6n y el desarrollo agrícolas. Su fortaleza ,depende ,no sólo de la excelencia de cada uno de sus miembros, sIPo de la energia que I/lvierten en esfuerzos conjuntos. Por tal razón, trabajamos arduamente para establecer vinculos con otras tnstitociones a través de la I/lvestigación colaboratiw. organlzada alrededor de proyectos especificos, Nuestro círculo cada vez más amplio de colegas I/leluye otros centros Internacionales, los tnstltutos nacionales de I/lvestlgacl6n, las universidades, las organJzaclones no gubernamentales y el sector privado. Trabajamos con ellos medIante una diversidad de acuerdos, tales como consorcios y redes, a nivel local, regional e Internacional. A través de alianzas estratégicas con Jos Institutos avanzados, hacemos que este valioso conocImIento científico se aplique a los retos más tmportantes de la agrtcultura tropical.Como un servicio a nuestros colegas, el Centro ofrece diversas opciones de capacitación y , conferencias, serviclos especfaHzados de lnfonriacl6n y dOCUIllentacl6n, y un amplio programa de comUnicaciones.La I/lvestlgaci6n del CIAT gira alrededor de proyectos, los cuales proporcionan un mecanismo para Integrar lainVestlgación dentro del Centro y para organizar la cooperación con nuestros colegas. A solicitud del interesado pOdemos hacerle llegar resúmenes de los proyectos.En el Centro trabajan unas 600 personas. Aproximadamente 70 de ellas son investigadores reclutados Internacionalmente en más de 20 paises. Algunos de nuestros científicos tienen sede en Brasil, Filipinas, Guatemala, Honduras, Kenya. Malawi, Nicaragua. Tanzania.Tallandla Y uganda.El CIAT es uno de los 16 centros auspiciados por el Grupo Consultivo para la lovestlgaclón AgrícOla Internacional (GCIAJ). El GCIAl es un consorcio de paises y organtzaclones donantes comprometidos con la agricultura sostenible en el mundo en desarrollo. El grupo es auspiclado conjuntamente por la organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAOJ, por el Programa de las Naciones , Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUDJ, por el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMAJ y por el Banco Mundial.Actualmente el CIAT recibe fondos de los países y organtzaclones llstados en el recuadro de la página 14. Agradecemos sinceramente su compromiso y sus contribuciones.~ \"","tokenCount":"1161"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8ec99ccd528756470d7098db504dd302","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d1df6c8c-7c3b-4ccf-872b-d9bbaac448e4/retrieve","id":"-490653673"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f745ae56-4ef5-418c-b381-17dbd2a5ed81","pagecount":"1","content":"• The conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture • The fair and equitable sharing of benefi ts derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food securityThe Treaty will facilitate access to plant genetic resources crucial for research and plant breeding. Certainty, transparency and standardized practices in the transfer of material will lead to increased and improved fl ows of material. The Treaty will foster the exchange of information and technology concerning conservation and use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.Special nature of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture • There is no individual owner with whom individual contracts for access and benefi t sharing must be negotiated. This lowers transaction costs to benefi t farmers, plant breeders and researchers and ultimately consumers • No requirement for tracking of individual accessions • Recipients must continue to make the materials received available to the Multilateral System using the SMTA • Click wrap/shrink wrap acceptance options • \"Intellectual property or other rights that limit facilitated access to the PGRFA, or their genetic parts and components, in the form received from the Multilateral System\" may not be claimed • Access to PGRFA under development, including material being developed by farmers, shall be at the discretion of its developerSharing monetary benefi ts: • If a product that incorporates material from the Multilateral System is commercialized in a way that restricts others from further research and breeding, a mandatory payment will be made to the Multilateral System. • In the frame of the Treaty's funding strategy, the benefi ts obtained through these payments will be used for conservation and sustainable use Sharing non monetary benefi ts: • Facilitated access to genetic material is itself a major benefi t For questions: Ruaraidh Sackville Halmiton (r.hamilton@cgiar.org), Michael Halewood (m.halewood@cgiar.org), Gerald Moore (g.moore@cgiar.org), Isabel Lopez (i.lopez@cgiar.org)","tokenCount":"315"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fb97c2dac9f397666dec3cca5b5524f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/11e23812-7f52-4431-99d8-9029345d97d1/retrieve","id":"1960752405"},"keywords":["• P676 -6","1","2 Women's Involvement in Decision-Making and Outcomes for Rural Households • P578 -2","4","2 Support to Nigeria Policies OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"704c3f1f-a0fa-4a13-97b7-c4d46183b327","pagecount":"5","content":"This policy [1], launched in 2019 [2] after three years of preparation, was informed by research findings ( [3], [4], [5], [6]) presented by IFPRI staff to the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, civil society, donors, academia and research institutions at various policy events, conferences and seminars between 2016 and 2019 ( [7], [8]). One of these findings is that when women have access to farm inputs and markets and make decisions on agricultural production, either independently or together with their male counterparts, the chances of increasing productivity are very high.IFPRI was a member of the advisory committee for the development of the policy and contributed to the development of the policy's components on training of agricultural officers to identify and address gender issues in agriculture; mainstreaming attention to gender in agricultural extension and climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts; empowering women through building skills of women's groups on financial management (for instance opening and maintaining bank accounts), and monitoring and evaluating implementation of the policy and assessing the differential impacts of projects and interventions on women and men.It is expected that the National Gender Policy in Agriculture will enhance food security and accelerate development in Nigeria.• https://tinyurl.com/rqsne62• https://tinyurl.com/wjkqgtgThe Nigerian National Gender Policy in Agriculture aims to promote the adoption of gender sensitive and responsive approaches in the agricultural sector, and especially to ensure that men and women have equal access to and control of productive resources.This policy [1], launched in 2019 [2] after three years of preparation was informed by research findings ( [3], [4], [5], [6]) presented by IFPRI's Nigeria Country Program staff to the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, civil society, donors, academia and research institutions at various policy events, conferences and seminars between 2016 and 2019. One of these findings is that when women have access to farm inputs and markets and make decisions on agricultural production, either independently or together with their male counterparts, the chances of increasing productivity are very high. Another finding is that women's inheritance rights, though acknowledged in statutory law, are not enforced in customary law.IFPRI was a member of the advisory committee for the development of the policy and worked together with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development's Gender Unit on the development of the policy's components on training of agricultural officers to identify and address gender issues in agriculture; mainstreaming attention to gender in agricultural extension and climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts; empowering women through building skills of women's groups on financial management (for instance opening and maintaining bank accounts), and monitoring and evaluating implementation of the policy and assessing the differential impacts of projects and interventions on women and men.","tokenCount":"449"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"16a68ac919ca82047b604e898613f1ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5b97a49d-8d8d-4cf0-bdfb-2a1120bbe05f/retrieve","id":"1629308970"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5b956a3f-9d56-42d7-96a6-1a7cf0db003f","pagecount":"26","content":"A.INTRODUCTION 1 Land-use change and human environmental impacts are widely recognized as essential components of ecosystems (Vitousek et al., 1997;Western, 2001). Increasing human populations and accelerated land-use change are threatening arid systems across Africa (Ellis and Galvin, 1994), as rapid transformation of arable land has resulted in increased pressure on less productive areas. While this pressure comes from a variety of different sources and has manifested itself in myriad ways, the most intense change has focused on key resource areas. By definition, key resource areas are fundamental components of spatially and temporally variable arid and semi-arid ecosystems and important determinants of ecological patterns and processes (Illius and O'Connor, 2000), and therefore represent areas of disproportionate vulnerability. Land-use change, and especially change in key resource areas, can have important implications for the structure and function of ecosystems at a variety of scales. Biodiversity is one component of the system that appears to be particularly susceptible to human induced change. Even in the savannas of East Africa, where humans have lived for millennia as important elements of the ecosystem (Western, 1982), relatively focused changes in human land-use in key resource areas have far reaching implications for the ecosystem as a whole.Land-use change is a dynamic process -increasing and decreasing through time in response to social, political, economic and ecological factors. The land-use patterns we see in the Amboseli Basin are the product of shifting physical and cultural environments over a period of centuries. With this in mind, however, the dominant trends of increased sedentarization and the gradual expansion of agriculture, both rainfed and irrigated, at one extreme and the development of conservation on the other, have a much more recent history. These changes have fundamentally altered the interactions of pastoralists, farmers and wildlife over the past 30 years (Campbell et al., 2000). While the proximate and ultimate causes of change are a consequence of both internal and external drivers at a variety of scales (Campbell et al., 2003) the primary outcome of these interactions has been the loss of rangeland to crop production and conservation. Focusing on the high potential areas on the foot slopes of Kilimanjaro, and more recently on the swamp systems at the base of the catena, the expansion of agriculture and conservation has resulted in the loss of key resources for both pastoralists and wildlife. As calls for the expansion and intensification of agriculture and conservation increase, it is essential that we develop a quantitative understanding of the implications of these changes for both domestic and wild herbivores alike.The patterns and processes of land use change have received mounting attention in recent years, and while there is no doubt that current rates of change have increased, it is important to recognize that land-use change is part of an historical continuum. Similarly, we maintain that while most land-use change studies focus on uses that result in direct land conversion, land-use change is not a uni-directional process but rather results in a gradient of interactive changes ranging from blanket protection to human dominance. This is particularly true in African landscapes where humans have played a structural and functional role for millennia. For example, the effects of protection, while different in nature, can be just as severe as the effects of human settlement and agriculture (Western and Gichohi, 1993). For this reason we propose to look at land-use not as a one way process of intensification, but rather as bi-directional -with potential for important environmental impacts at both extremes, and at all points along the continuum (Figure 1).But what does land-use change mean for biodiversity? This is still the overarching question that lies at the center of our understanding of human impacts on ecosystem integrity, and a necessary component of any successful conservation effort. Despite the pressing need for an enhanced understanding of the direct linkages between land-use change, the spatial and temporal scope of these processes and the systems in which they interact and evolve often prevents comprehensive study. This research is an attempt to collect highly resolved spatial data at a landscape scale in the Amboseli system of southern Kenya -an area that represents an unusual opportunity to examine the effects of a local land-use gradient on wildlife and livestock. The Greater Amboseli system is highly dependent on the swamps as a key resource with wild and domestic herbivore species alike relying on the water and forage in the dry season. Indeed, the spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the Amboseli system created by the presence of these key resource areas supports far more biomass than predicted based on rainfall alone (Western, 1973;Coe et al., 1976). While the swamps have played (and continue to play) a crucial role in maintaining the diverse community of wild and domestic herbivores in the system, they are also the focus of intensifying agricultural pressure (Campbell et al., 2003). The combination of high biodiversity and rapid and intense land-use change within a single system represents an ideal opportunity for examining the effects of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem function. The Amboseli swamps represent a microcosm of the myriad forces at work in dryland systems across the globe.Amboseli National Park and its dispersal areas have been the focus of a number of long term ecological (Western, 1973), behavioral (Altmann et al., 1996;Moss, 2000), and social science studies (Campbell, 1984;Campbell, 1999;Campbell et al., 2003). While each of these studies has recognized the human species as an essential component of the ecosystem, there have been few attempts to directly link the extensive land-use change within the swamps to the distribution and abundance of large mammals. This study establishes a baseline for further longitudinal studies of land-use change and its impacts on the Amboseli ecosystem, but is primarily concerned with quantifying and characterizing the nature of land-use and its spatial interaction with both livestock and wildlife on the landscape at high resolution.In an effort to increase our understanding of the effects of land-use change on biodiversity in dryland systems our research was guided by three central questions:1) What are the underlying land-use differences between the three swamp systems? 2) What are the implications of these differences in land-use for the distribution and abundance of species and functional groups across the three sites? 3) What are the general distribution patterns of different species in response to water and domestic livestock, and how are these patterns altered by different land-use regimes?The Greater Amboseli Ecosystem of southern Kenya is located along the northern base of Mount Kilimanjaro. The ecosystem is centered on a series of swamps running generally east-west at the base of the catena, and is delineated by the dry season dispersal movements of the dominant large herbivores (Western, 1975). Mean elevations for each of the swamps are Amboseli 1140 m , Namelok 1156 m, and Kimana 1199 m. Annual rainfall is concentrated in two seasons -Nov-Jan and Mar -May with a total annual mean of about 350 mm. Temperatures range from highs of 35° C in February/March and lows of 12° C in July with monthly means between 21° and 25° C (Altmann et al., 2002). Once a watershed for the Panagani River system of Tanzania, the swamps now represent an essentially closed system with water inputs from ground water and local run-on. The entire water system originally consisted of 6 independent swamps -Enkongu Narok, Longinyie, Namelok, Kimana, Lenkati, and Esoitpus (from West to East). This study focuses on the primary swamps within this larger system -Amboseli (including Enkongu Narok and Longinyie), Namelok and Kimana. Soils in the swamp basins are predominantly saline orthic Solonetz and Solonchaks in the seasonally flooded lakebeds, with patches of mollic Andosols and haplic Chernozems around the edges and chromic Luvisols on the uplands and foot slopes (Touber, 1983). Dominant vegetation communities range from Acacia tortilis woodland in the south to mixed Acacia/Commiphora woodland north of the swamps. The swamps and seasonally flooded areas are dominated by Cyperus immensus and Acacia xanthophlea, and Salvadora persica respectively. A detailed description of historical vegetation communities and distributions can be found in Western (1973) with updates on more recent vegetation changes in select areas documented in Atieno (2000)and Odede (2003).In order to achieve the primary objective of this research -to explore the impacts of human landuse change on the fine-scale interactions of wildlife, livestock and water in the Amboseli swamp systems -we focused our counting efforts around the immediate vicinity of the swamps. To examine the primary effects of human land-use change on the spatial distribution of wildlife and livestock we divided the study site into three zones representing different degrees of human landuse impacts (Figure 2a). In a space for time substitution, each swamp along the northern base of Mt. Kilimanjaro -Amboseli, Namelok, and Kimana -represents a point along the land-use continuum ranging from intensive irrigated agriculture to protected area. While the protected area of Amboseli National Park does represent the least human impact, and therefore gives us a sense of what the system might look like in the absence of humans, within this conceptual framework protected areas do not represent \"controls\" but rather treatments along the gradient.Each zone was defined by a 4 kilometer buffer around the boundary of known swamps identified from topographic maps and satellite imagery (Landsat 7 2000). The AMBOSELI National Park zone is centered on the two primary swamps inside Amboseli National Park (Longenyie and Enkongu Narok), which due to its protected status represents the lowest level of human disturbance. NAMELOK represents the highest level of human impact and is centered on the Namelok swamp which was fenced in 1999 to protect emerging irrigated agriculture from wildlife impacts. Intermediate levels of human impact are represented by KIMANA which is centered on a multipurpose swamp used for livestock, irrigated agriculture, and wildlife conservation (Kimana Sanctuary). For logistical reasons the actual count area also includes some buffer areas outside of the initial 4km (Table 1). While animals in this system may well respond to the effects of water up to 30 kms away (Western, 1975) the dominant set of interactions between human land-use, livestock, wildlife, and water that are the focus of this study are played out at much finer spatial scales. Indeed, evidence from similar counts in the Masai Mara Game Reserve of Kenya suggest that the primary response of most wildlife species to water in the dry season occurs within 4 km (Ogutu et al., in prep). Under ideal conditions each of the study zones (treatments) would be separated in space, independent, and replicated. While the reality of landscape scale research necessitates some degree of pseudoreplication (Hurlbert, 1984) it does, however, open a new realm of discovery heretofore unavailable to traditional plot level research. In an effort to limit some of the potentially confounding effects related to distance analyses in overlapping spheres (eg Namelok and Kimana zones), while at the same time preserving the spatially extensive character of the data, zonal boundaries were determined by assigning each sub-block to the nearest swamp edge. This central point approach, building on the extensive literature on piosphere effects, recognizes that the ecological effect of water decreases with increasing distance away from the source (Andrew, 1988;Thrash and Derry, 1999). In this way each point in space is associated with the swamp that exerts the greatest effect. To ensure that each sub-block is analyzed in relation to the nearest primary factor -in this case the swamps -where zones overlap, the overlapping area was divided after the count with each sub-block being assigned to the closest swamp.The data presented here were collected with an ultra-light aircraft in a dry season aerial count in August 2002. Counts were conducted during the morning (0730 to 1130) and afternoon (1430 to 1830) over a three-day period -21 to 23 August 2002 -in order to take advantage of favorable counting conditions (light, weather, animal activity). While under ideal conditions all of the counting would have been done in the morning hours of each day, it was essential to complete the count as rapidly as possible in order to limit the effects of animal movement on counting accuracy eg. double counts and missed animals (Thompson et al.). The study design and flight patterns, which include morning and afternoon flights in each zone, were allocated in order to reduce any bias due to time of day and transect direction.The study area was divided into 1 kilometer transects with the flight line recorded as a route in the GPS (Garmin 12xl). The counting team consisted of a primary observer/recorder, and a secondary observer/pilot. All individuals and groups of animals larger than Thomson's gazelle (18 kilograms) were included in the count (Table 2). When an individual or group was noted within the 500m strip on either side of the transect line the longitudinal location of the observation along the transect was recorded on the GPS with a waypoint, and the perpendicular distance to the transect line was estimated as one of five distance classes (Figure 3). These data together with the species, total number, group size, and woody canopy cover within a 50m radius of the center of the herd was then recorded on a hand held tape recorder by the primary observer. In order to limit observer bias, all counts were made by the primary observer with the secondary observer assisting in the locating and photographing of herds larger than 20 individuals. Estimates for groups over 20 were replaced with actual counts from the photographs when applicable. Air speeds, altitude and counting and flight conditions were recorded at different points along each transect. Transects were oriented north-south in response to the prevailing wind conditions, terrain, shape of the study area, and swamp distribution. Transects were flown at an ideal altitude of 100m. In order to fulfill the assumptions of the DISTANCE sampling protocol that require the detection of all individuals on the transect line (Buckland et al., 1993) a GPS Video Camera was fixed to the ultra-light to record a swath directly under the aircraft. We intended to use this video data to confirm that all individuals were observed, as well as to develop a detailed habitat map of the area using digital samples from the tape. Unfortunately, these data were stolen before analysis could begin.Analyses Data were transcribed from the micro-cassettes and then entered in Microsoft Excel and Access. Statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS and graphic output was produced in SPSS and Excel. Distance analyses were conducted in ArcView 3.2a (ESRI). After initially entering the data in Excel it was imported into ArcView for projection and confirmation. The actual study area (while very similar to the initial planned area) was defined by the area within 5 km of the swamp edge that was sampled during the flights (areas which were counted but which have no observations were included). The raw data were aggregated into 1/9 km 2 sub-blocks for analysis. Distance to water was calculated in ArcView from the distribution of water points collected in the aerial count. Water data was collected as the number of points and source type, but was summarized as present/absent for these analyses. We produced 2 water layers in order to differentiate sources that were available to wild and domestic animals. Domestic animals have access to all water points on the landscape (even water within protected areas, although officially off limits, is in practice used by domestic stock For the wildlife analyses presented here all \"open\" water points within wildlife proof fences were excluded. Distances to water at the sub-block level were aggregated into 333 m. classes in keeping with the grain of the study. The distribution of water and shape of the study area resulted in fewer sub-blocks in the more distant classes (Table 3). To limit the effects of small sample area we eliminated all classes with less than 1km sq from the analysis. When results were disaggregated into study zones, the shortest maximum distance to water was used as a limit for all three zones.The distance of each observation to domestic animals (cattle, donkey, shoats) was calculated with the GIS as well. As with the water analyses, distances were reclassed into 333 m. distance bands for analysis. Distance classes with less than 1 km sq were eliminated from the analysis and the shortest maximum distance was used as a limit for comparisons between zones.C.  The spatial distribution of groups across the study area varied significantly by species (Figures 4al). The protected areas (Amboseli National Park and Kimana Sanctuary) contained the highest mean biomass density (13,725.81 kg/km 2 for protected areas vs. 4045.18 kg/km 2 for the nonprotected areas) and the highest mean species richness (0.34 vs. 0.12 species per sub-block). Domestic livestock (cattle and shoats) were distributed across the area with some groups entering the swamps near human settlements on the periphery of Amboseli, but the highest concentrations occurred in the densely settled areas near Namelok and Isinet. Wild species exhibited variable patterns with wildebeest clustered in the protected areas of Amboseli and Kimana (Figures 4a-l) and zebra more widely distributed across all habitats. Elephants and buffalo, were centered on the protected swamps while impala, giraffe, and Grant's gazelle were relatively evenly distributed across the more wooded southern areas.Human impacts were minimal in the protected areas with lodges and camps within the boundaries and scattered settlement on the edges. Human pressure in the form of settlements and agriculture was notably higher around the periphery of Kimana than in Amboseli. Large concentrations of settlements (bomas) and agricultural plots (sub-blocks with at least some agriculture) were found in both Namelok and Kimana (Figures 4a and 4b). No agriculture was observed in the vicinity of Amboseli National Park. House type (materials used for construction) is an indicator of permanence and may serve as a surrogate for mobility and its correlate, intensity of human disturbance. Dung houses are found in settlements throughout the study area, but grass roofed and tin roofed houses are primarily concentrated in or near the irrigated zones of Namelok and Kimana (Figures 4c and 4d).Quantifying the intensity and distribution of human land-use impacts in the swamp systems of the Greater Amboseli Area was one of the primary objectives of this research. To this end we collected data on the distribution and abundance of human settlements (including house numbers and types), domestic animals (cattle, sheep and goats, donkeys, and dogs), agricultural plots, vehicles and infrastructure. We quantify human land-use impact as a function of four primary variables: house type (type of roofing material used), presence/absence of agriculture, fencing, and domestic animals.Summary data for the entire study area and each separate zone are presented in Table 4. The Amboseli NP area has the lowest quantifiable direct human impact with 3.6% of the total number of bomas and 15.63% of the total number of houses. Similarly, the types of houses in the Amboseli area are primarily mud and dung (95.9%) while most of the houses in Namelok and Kimana are grass (68.9 % and 65.9%) and tin roofed (33.1% and 18.2%). House type is used as an indicator for sedentarization and the ratio of mud to grass and tin houses (Figure 5) suggests the permanency of human settlement and therefore the intensity of human impact.The presence or absence of agricultural plots is also an indicator of human impact as well as a quantifiable variable of land-use change. We recorded the presence of agricultural plots and whether they were currently cultivated or fallow. For these analyses all agricultural plots were pooled in order to indicate all areas altered by agricultural practices. Sub-blocks indicated as agriculture contain at least one agricultural field but are not necessarily covered entirely by agriculture. The following area values are based on the area of all sub-blocks containing agricultural plots rather than the actual area of all plots on the ground. While there were no agriculture plots recorded in the Amboseli area, Namelok and Kimana each had 6.69% and 6.42% of their area covered in agriculture (Table 4).Another indicator of human impact in the Amboseli system is fencing. Fencing data was not collected during the aerial count, but fence distribution is well known and has been recorded elsewhere (Worden unpublished data, Wangui unpublished data). Fences in this area have been designed and constructed to restrict access by wildlife of all sizes ranging from elephants to Thomson's gazelle (periodic failures of the fence allow some animals temporary access to the agricultural areas). The electric fences in Namelok and Kimana were built in 1999 with assistance from the European Union as part of a larger effort to support and stabilize irrigated agriculture in the area. The Namelok swamp encircles the entire Namelok swamp system except for one inflowing spring in the southeast. All agriculture in the Namelok area takes place within the protective confines of the fence. In Kimana the fence is centered on the town of Kimana (to the south of our study area) and its associated springs. The Kimana swamp itself, which is the focus of our study, is not currently fenced. The Kimana study area does include a small section of the Kimana town fence, however. The Amboseli study zone contains no agricultural fencing, but does have some small experimental exclosures limiting access to different species. There is also a larger exclosure around the lodges in the center of the park. While significant for research, these fences have little impact on the species composition and distribution within the park and are therefore excluded from this analysis. Fencing summary data is presented in Table 4. The final variable in our conceptual model of human impact is domestic livestock. In this study domestic animals are both an independent as well as a response variable. In the context of human impacts, the number, distribution and herd composition of domestic animals has important implications for competition with wildlife. On the other hand, as will be demonstrated in the section on Herbivore Response below, domestic animals also respond to both direct and indirect human induced land-use changes. As a component of the human land-use system, we found that Kimana had the highest overall density (42.3 individuals per km 2 ) and biomass density (3640.12 kg/km 2 ). Of that total biomass, 85.7% consisted of cattle and 13.7% of shoats. Similarly, Kimana contained 34% of the total number of cattle and 38% of the shoats over the whole study area (summary data see Table 4).We counted a total of 35,412 individuals of 19 species (3 domestic, 16 wild). Biomass values for each species were calculated based on a population weight (Table 2). All species combined yielded a total biomass of 5,611,376.89 kg, or a total mean biomass density of 8919.69 kg/km 2 . Amboseli had the highest total mean biomass density (11,584.5 kg/km 2 ) followed by Kimana (6830.1 kg/km 2 ) and Namelok (3185.8 kg/km 2 ). Domestic animals contributed 17.0%, 53.3%, and 78.1% to the biomass totals of Amboseli, Kimana and Namelok respectively. Species level totals for the entire counting area, each study zone, and protected and non-protected areas are summarized in Table 5. Species richness (number of species) was calculated for wild species only. The overall mean species richness (mean number of species per sub-block) was 0.29. A comparison between the zones reveals that Amboseli had the highest mean richness 0.291 followed by Kimana 0.173 and Namelok 0.102 (Figure 6).All species were allocated to a functional group based on their feeding habits. Typical functional classifications for large herbivores are based on Hofman (1989) with three general categories of grazers, browsers and mixed feeders. Most species, while showing general patterns of forage preference, have the potential for remarkable flexibility under certain circumstances (Estes, 1991). This is especially true of the browsers and mixed feeders who shift feeding preferences in response to the seasonal availability of high quality forage. This variability is particularly important in a highly seasonal system like Amboseli where forage quality is extremely heterogeneous in both space and time. In recognition of this variability and the low number of browsers and mixed feeding species relative to grazers (browsers=5, mixed =4, and grazers=10), the first two categories were lumped into a single mixed feeder class. Species classification was based on Western (1975) with modifications from Estes (1991) ( see Table 2).Total grazer biomass density (15038.48 kg/km 2 ) was higher than that of mixed feeders (6560.95 kg/km 2 and 2358.01 kgkm 2 excluding elephants), and this pattern held through out all zones. Similarly, the biomass density of both grazers and mixed feeders was higher in Amboseli than in either Kimana or Namelok (Fig. 7). While the nature of this decline was consistent between grazers and mixed feeders, mixed feeder biomass density declined more severely between Amboseli and Kimana (43.14% vs 40.11%) with the decline in grazer biomass density marginally more between Kimana and Namelok (53.75% vs 52.44%). Overall, grazer and mixed feeder biomass density declined 72.3% and 73.0% between Amboseli and Namelok respectively.Distance to Water Water is one of the single most important structuring variables in the Amboseli ecosystem (Western, 1975). While the importance of water may be widely appreciated for arid and semi-arid systems there are surprisingly few studies that document the structural and functional impacts of water on herbivore communities (but see Western, 1975;Owen-Smith, 1996;Redfern et al., 2003;Reid et al., 2003). In this study one of our explicit goals was to document the impact of water on the distribution and abundance of different species and functional groups and the role that human land-use plays in mitigating and altering these relationships/interactions.The distribution and abundance of herbivores over the whole study area in relation to water differed markedly by species (Figures 8a-l). Total mean biomass, total wild and total domestic biomass are all highest near water (Figure 9). At the species level, however, there are important differences in the peak positions of the curves and the magnitude of biomass between species, with two general patterns of water dependence and water independence emerging (classification after Western, 1975).Water dependence is clearly evident in the distribution of buffalo, elephant, Thomson's gazelle, waterbuck, wildebeest and zebra as well as cattle and donkeys. Other water dependent species such as shoats and warthog show a less defined pattern, but still exhibit a general tendency to occur near water (shoats appear to exhibit an independent pattern which may be a result of the long distances traveled to water in the park -see zonal comparisons below, or possibly may reflect the local Maasai perspective that shoats are essentially water independent). Water independent species, including gerenuk, giraffe, and Grant's gazelle, show no clear association with water (and a possibly negative response from gerenuk). Other independent species such as eland, impala, and ostrich appear to have a slight attraction to water with peaks in the intermediate distances between 1 and 3 kilometers.Species richness at the level of the entire study area is positively correlated with water (Figure 10). Similarly, mean grazer biomass is considerably higher near water, and decreases sharply to about 2 kilometers from water where it begins to decline less severely (Figure 11a). The mean biomass of mixed feeders shows a similar pattern, with a somewhat sharper decline, if elephants are included (Figure 11b). If we exclude elephants, however, there appears to be no clear association with water (Figure 11c). This lack of water dependence is consistent with the primarily \"concentrate selector\" (Hofmann, 1989) feeding strategy of these species.In order to determine the effect of land-use on the herbivore-water relationship we plotted mean biomass density as a function of distance from water for each species, including biomass and functional groups, in each zone (Figs. 12 and 13). While most water independent species such as eland, giraffe and gerenuk show little directional change in their distributions, some species such as Grant's, impala, and ostrich show a stronger association with water in the Amboseli park area than in Namelok or Kimana. This pattern is even more apparent in the water dependent species such as elephants, Thomson's, wildebeest and zebra. Plots of the functional aggregations (grazers and mixed feeders) reveal similar trends with markedly higher biomass near water in Amboseli, a slight tendency to occur near water in Kimana, and little or no association with water in Namelok (grazers may even be avoiding water in Namelok).Similar patterns emerge for species richness and functional group distributions between zones. While species richness in Amboseli reflects the trend of decreasing richness with increasing distance from water observed for the whole study area, in both Namelok and Kimana species richness appears to have no association with distance from water (Figure 13). Grazer biomass also decreases with distance from water in Amboseli and less severely in Kimana, but Namelok reveals a slightly more complicated pattern with slightly higher biomass both close to and farther from water with lower mean biomass at intermediate distances. This may be due in part to competition with cattle that appear to occur primarily at intermediate distances from water in Namelok (Figure 14a). The biomass distribution of mixed feeders, is similar to grazers in Amboseli and Kimana, but appears to be independent of water in Namelok (Fig 14b).We suggest that the key variable in this differential distribution between the zones is human settlement. Settlement (boma) distributions, while concentrated within the first three kilometers across the entire study area (Figure 15a), reveal a strong tendency to cluster near water in Namelok and slightly less so in Kimana (Fig 15b). Clustering of settlements around water points alters the spatial and temporal structure of the herbivore community, which has important implications for ecosystem function as a result of the differential susceptibility between species to human disturbance.Distance to Domestic Animals In contrast to settlements (boma), which represent a form of indirect competition through displacement of wildlife, domestic animals have the potential to compete directly with wildlife for resources. One measure of the nature and intensity of the interaction between wildlife and domestic stock is their relative spatial distribution.We plotted the distribution of all wild species (except for hartebeest and oryx due to small sample sizes), total wildlife biomass density, species richness, and functional groups in relation to domestic animals (cattle, donkeys, and shoats). Total wildlife biomass (Figure 17a) and mean wild species richness (Figure 17b) increase with increasing distance from domestic livestock. Grazers show a similar trend with the highest biomass densities occurring furthest from livestock, but mixed feeders appear to congregate at intermediate distances from domestics (Figure 17c). At the study area level three patterns of individual species distributions emerge (Figure 16). The distribution of gerenuk, Grant's and impala show little relationship to domestic animals. Wildebeest and especially buffalo and zebra, on the other hand, appear to be actively avoiding livestock. Elephant, giraffe and warthog (and possibly eland, ostrich, and waterbuck) occur at intermediate distances from domestics. The effects of land-use on the spatial interactions of wildlife and domestic animals are apparent when we disaggregate the data into each study zone (Figs 18 and 19). For example, wildebeest appear to only avoid livestock in Kimana where the permanent presence of settlements and domestic animals may result in direct competition for forage. Zebra on the other hand appear to be avoiding livestock in Amboseli and to a lesser degree Namelok, but occupy intermediate distances in Kimana. While there are some notable exceptions, including the increase in mean species richness at intermediate distances in Kimana (Figure 18a), the general patterns for functional groups (Figures 18b and c) and species level responses (Figure 19) at the study area level appear to hold between zones.DISCUSSION Land-use change in the swamp systems of Greater Amboseli has had a profound impact on the distribution and abundance of both wild and domestic herbivores. Previous studies have noted changes in key species such as elephants (Western and Moss personal communications), woodlands (Western and van Praet, 1973), and browsers (Western, personal communication) within Amboseli National Park. While these studies have added to our understanding of population dynamics in the context of ecosystem change, they have only considered one end of the land-use gradient (Fig 1). By examining the responses of herbivores across a land-use gradient that includes high intensity irrigated agriculture, a mixed agro-pastoral-protected system, and a national park an impression of the effects of land-use change on biodiversity and the role of humans in modifying ecosystem structure and function emerges.These data corroborate other studies that suggest that habitat change within Amboseli National Park is impacting biodiversity (Western, personal communication). In particular, biomass densities of mixed feeding species (and especially those that are almost exclusively browsers, eg giraffe and gerenuk) are considerably lower in Amboseli National Park (Table 5). This is almost certainly the result of the massive decline in woodlands within the park boundaries resulting from as yet unequivocally identified factors ranging from increasing soil salinity and shifting water tables (Western and van Praet, 1973) to compression of an increasing elephant population (Western and Lindsay, 1984). Furthermore, if we consider the National Park alone (excluding the immediate surrounding area included in the Amboseli zone 1), four species from the regional pool sampled in this count are not represented -gerenuk, impala, hartebeest, and waterbuck. These absences may be an artifact of the counting technique in which extremely rare species may not be detected, but their presence in other zones does suggest that the National Park alone is insufficient for preserving biodiversity in this system.It must be noted, however, that while some of the rare species may not be abundant in the National Park, it does seem to provide essential protection for some important species such as buffalo, hippo, ostrich, oryx and Thomson's gazelle. Similarly, the park represents the primary aggregations of the ecosystem's most abundant wild grazers, wildebeest and zebra, and an essential refuge for elephant. In this regard, the National Park continues to operate as the core dry season habitat for the majority of the ecosystem's wildlife. When this central protected area and its low human land-use intensity buffer zone are combined with other smaller protected areas in the context of a mixed land-use system (Kimana Sanctuary) all of the observed wildlife species are represented. It is also important to note the large number of livestock that are using the resources within the park. Due to the collapse of infrastructure on the periphery of the park (Western, 1982) pastoralists and their livestock continue to depend on the swamps for water and, to a lesser degree, forage in the dry season.And what of the other swamps in the system -Namelok (the \"sweet place\" in Maasai) and Kimana, which used to look like a \"miniature Amboseli\"-that were historically important stepping stones for wildlife between Amboseli and Tsavo and Chyulu National Parks (Western, personal communication)? Namelok currently represents the opposite land-use extreme of intensive human impacts and over 50% of the original swamp converted to agriculture (Table 4). The beginnings of irrigated agriculture were evident in Namelok by 1973, with a major expansion of area under crop production coinciding with a period of intense drought in the early 1980's (Campbell et al., 2003). As Namelok swamp became an increasingly important focal point (relief valve) for pastoralists faced with increased competition for dwindling resources, conflict with wildlife inevitably intensified. In an effort to limit the negative interactions of wildlife and agriculture an electric fence, essentially impervious to wildlife, was constructed around the swamp effectively excising this historically important resource from wildlife.The conversion and subsequent fencing of the swamp has resulted in the local extinction of buffalo and hippo, and the virtual collapse of elephant, zebra, and wildebeest populations. All of these species show extreme preference for areas close to water and their declines suggest a significant response to conversion and excision of the swamp habitat. In contrast to Amboseli, the browsing end of the mixed feeders (gerenuk and giraffe) have relatively high densities. These water independent species are less affected by the loss of the swamp and may in fact benefit from an increase in woody plant species that has been observed with sedentarization and intensification (eg. Western, 1989;Tobler et al., 2003) and the loss of ecosystem engineers such as elephants and rhino (van Wjingaarden, 1985;Owen-Smith, 1988;Owen-Smith, 1989;Western and Gichohi, 1993). It is also interesting to note that while Namelok in many ways represents the most human dominated system it does not have the highest livestock biomass density. While this may be an expected pattern in peri-urban and urban environments, the low livestock density relative to that found in Kimana corroborates the hypothesis that the intensification of human land-use in the swamps has negative implications for both livestock and wildlife in 1999.Kimana is a mixed production system that encompasses elements of pastoral, agricultural, and protected systems. While the spread of cultivation occurred somewhat later in Kimana (Campbell et al., 2003), its proximity to a major rural road has meant a rapid intensification and expansion of agriculture in recent years. Concomitant with agricultural expansion has been an increasing interest in conservation which culminated in the establishment of the Kimana Sanctuary in 1998. In many respects the dynamic and diverse collection of land-use patterns and processes of change represented in Kimana are indicative of larger landscape level patterns. As a microcosm of larger scale patterns Kimana may serve as an indicator of possible outcomes given a heterogeneous mosaic of mixed land-use systems.As hypothesized, Kimana had intermediate levels of overall biomass. There were some significant exceptions, however, with a number species having higher densities in Kimana -eland, giraffe, gerenuk, grants, hartebeest, impala, and waterbuck. Hartebeest and waterbuck are both rare grazers while the others are relatively water independent mixed feeders. Domestic biomass density was considerably higher in Kimana than in either Amboseli or Namelok. The data we present here does not appear to corroborate the suggestion by Western (1989) that mixed systems support more overall biomass than either livestock or wildlife dominated systems. In a sense, however, Amboseli itself acts as a mixed system as livestock frequently make use of the resources within the park boundaries despite its protected status. But even if we remove all the livestock from Amboseli there is still more biomass in the wildlife only system. While there may be lingering effects of livestock in the system (ie their impacts are more than just the sum of their biomass), we feel that this is unlikely considering there low numbers overall. It is also possible that this is a result of the relatively focused nature of our sampling design. We think it more likely that the impacts of high settlement densities combined with agriculture, even at low levels, results in an environment which is sufficiently hostile to wildlife to prevent the realization of the synergistic effects of a strictly livestock/wild system. Indeed, the very nature of land-use intensification in the swamps results in the fundamental alteration of human-wildlife interactions, changing a relatively benign/neutral pastoral relationship to an inherently antagonistic agricultural-wildlife relationshipThe interactions of individuals and their environments in space are a central component of landscape ecology. The high resolution aerial counting methodology that we use here stems from over a decade of work in the development of ground based high-resolution techniques (Rainy et al, unpublished data, Reid et al., 2003;Ogutu et al., in prep) in a variety of savanna ecosystems in East Africa. While we are still in the process of refining the aerial methodology it has been successfully applied to other areas in the Greater Amboseli ecosystem. One of the primary achievements of these high-resolution techniques is the effective elimination of overlap in the detection of domestic and wild species which, because of its ubiquity in courser resolution studies, prevents a detailed understanding of the interactions between pastoralists, livestock and wildlife (Reid et al., 2001). Similarly, the continuous nature of the data enables us to consider it geographically as map layers in a GIS  as well as graphically (see distance to water and livestock plots above).If we consider the map output in Figure 4, the nature and extent of different land-use patterns within the three study zones is clear. Of particular importance to our discussion here is the high density and clustering of agriculture and settlements both within and on the periphery of the swamps in Namelok and Kimana. The intensity of human impact is further indicated by the relative abundance and density of \"permanent\" structures in the form of grass (and also tin) roofs. As might be expected, domestic animals are primarily found in the vicinity of settlements in both Namelok and Kimana, but it is interesting to note the long distance incursions into Amboseli National Park that occur on a daily basis (personal observation). Fundamental differences in biology are also reflected in the observed distribution of wild species on the landscape. For example, wildebeest and zebra, the dominant grazers in the system, show similar distributions in Amboseli and the Kimana Sanctuary but fundamentally different patterns in the non-protected areas. The absence of wildebeest from the non-swamp and converted areas suggests that their extreme water dependency and preference for intermediate levels of high quality forage (Andere, 1981;Estes, 1991) results in their virtual elimination in the face of intensifying land-use. In contrast, the ability of zebra to utilize relatively high quantity poor quality forage results in their presence on the drier periphery of the study zones at some distance from both water and settlement. It appears that forage requirements as mitigated through competition with livestock over ride the inherent water dependence of zebra at fine spatial scales.Further indications of the vulnerability of particular species to changes in land-use are apparent in the distributions of Grant's gazelle, giraffe, impala, buffalo, and elephant. The relative water independence and concentrate selector strategy (preference for high quality forage in relatively low quantities) of grants, giraffe, and impala is evident in their preference for relatively woody habitats in the south of Amboseli and away from the primary settlement areas in Namelok and Kimana. These species appear to be relatively resilient to moderate levels of land-use intensification, and in a very real sense may be more threatened by the polarization of habitats that occurs with the segregation of the human and wild systems (Western and Gichohi, 1993) at opposite ends of the land-use gradient. For these more tolerant species the issue may ultimately be one of maintaining a sufficiently dynamic system in both time and space, with a heterogeneous mosaic of habitats, rather than the spatial extent and intensity of human induced land-use change per se. While it appears that grant's, giraffe, and impala may be less vulnerable to habitat loss associated with the conversion of key resources to agriculture, it is important to note that the resulting change in human attitudes towards wildlife may result in the direct consumption and elimination of certain species (especially giraffe) through time.The combined effects of habitat loss and increasing human-wildlife conflict associated with the transition from pastoral to agricultural production are apparent in the distributions of buffalo and elephant. These two species are primarily found in the protected areas and appear to be particularly vulnerable to land-use intensification. Buffalo are only found in the protected areas. Elephants are more common in protected areas, but are known to be wide ranging and spend significant amounts of time in the non-protected areas. The large body sizes and forage requirements of these species may partially explain their preference for protected areas. Another possible explanation, however, is that these species, more than any other except the predators, have significant direct negative impacts on people, livestock, and agriculture. Buffalo are a known reservoir of disease for livestock (Grootenhuis, 1999) and like elephants can cause direct physical damage to people when both depend on the same resources. Similarly, elephants have been known to kill livestock over competition for water sources (especially in the dry season) and their destruction of crops and other agricultural infrastructure is well known. These two species are the most visible representatives of a suite of species that will require protected areas to survive in the face of land-use intensification in Amboseli. Even with protection, however, the porous boundaries and inherent mobility of both wildlife and livestock combined with the direct negative impacts of buffalo and elephant on livestock and agriculture contributes significantly to the polarization of both habitats and attitudes as human-wildlife conflicts increase.Water is an essential resource in the arid savannas of East Africa, and the swamps of Amboseli are well known as an fundamental component of this seasonally dynamic ecosystem (Western, 1973). While the effects of water on community structure at broad spatial scales have been documented (Western, 1975), the responses of herbivores to water at finer spatial scales are less well understood. We suggest that a clear understanding of the fine scale responses of herbivores to water, and the influences of land-use on these relationships, is an essential first step in understanding the impact of herbivore distribution patterns on ecosystem structure and function. High-resolution spatial data of herbivore distributions enables us to link land-use change with our understanding of the potential for herbivores to modify their environment (Laws, 1970;Hobbs, 1996;Augustine and McNaughton, 1998;Adler et al., 2001). This linkage is especially important in arid and semi-arid systems where herbivores have potentially severe impacts on vegetation around water points (Georgiadis, 1987;Andrew, 1988;Georgiadis and McNaughton, 1990;Thrash and Derry, 1999).At the study area level (all zones combined) the two general patterns of water dependence and independence suggested by Western (1975) are corroborated here with some significant inter species variation. As mentioned above, while most of the water dependent wildlife species are most commonly found near water (eg buffalo, elephant, Thomson's, waterbuck, wildebeest, and zebra) the response of the water independent species is more variable. Collectively, we can summarize these distributions as: 1) attraction, 2) neutrality, 3) intermediate, 4) repulsion and 5) push-pull (Figure 20).It is important to note that these curves do not necessarily describe an attraction or repulsion for water per se, but rather the preference for a suite of characteristics associated with proximity to water in a particular landscape (eg. forage quantity and quality, predation pressure, etc). The water dependent species exhibit some form of curve 1 (except warthog), and the water independent species variations of curves 2 (giraffe and Grant's), 3 (eland and impala), and 4 (gerenuk). Ostriches appear to show some slight attraction to water despite their general water independence. These general responses are similar to those found in the Masai Mara Ecosystem (Ogutu et al., in prep), with some intra species variation and the notable exception of a U-shaped distribution with higher densities both near and far from water (Figure 20).Many of these patterns are consistent with our existing understanding of the influence of water in arid systems, but two points warrant further consideration: the scale at which these interactions occur, and the influence of land-use on the relationship between water and herbivores. Western (1975) noted similar patterns of association with water across the greater Amboseli ecosystem, but at much larger spatial scales. With our high spatial resolution counting technique we demonstrate similar patterns at much finer spatial scales revealing some degree of fractal similarity while at the same time suggesting that much of the larger scale pattern is actually driven by very localized interactions between herbivores and water. This characteristic is of particular importance in systems like Amboseli that are dominated by highly vulnerable key resource areas.The potential implications of human land-use change in these key resource areas is apparent when the relationship between herbivores and water is plotted by study zone, or land-use treatment, independently. A close examination of the graphs in Figure 12 reveals a wide range of species-specific responses to water as a function of land-use. For example, a number of the water dependent species such as elephant, zebra, and wildebeest exhibit a displacement from areas near water in the mixed and high human land-use zones of Kimana and Namelok. This displacement is also apparent in the functional group responses (Figure 14) with both grazers and mixed feeders showing a higher tendency to be found near water in Amboseli. There appears to be little significant change in the water independent species, with the exception of both Grants' and ostriches, which suggest some minor degree of displacement.Livestock exhibit similar types of responses to land-use. In particular it is important to note how the preference for areas near water exhibited by livestock in the mixed system (Kimana) is altered under intensive human use (Namelok) and protection (Amboseli). In Amboseli the lack of association with water may be a function of the management of herds as they enter the park for water to avoid congestion at water points, or alternatively may suggest that livestock are drawn to the park for forage as much as for water. In Namelok, the displacement of both shoats and cattle from around water is an indication of the impacts that an intensification of crop production might have on the pastoral system.The direct impact livestock in Amboseli through vegetation modification (eg. Georgiadis and McNaughton, 1990;Augustine and McNaughton, 1998;Adler et al., 2001) and the redistribution of nutrients represents only part of their total effect on the ecosystem. Another significant impact of livestock is the indirect impact they exert through their influence on the distribution of other species (eg. Boydston et al., 2003;Reid et al., 2003;Ogutu et al., in prep). The distribution patterns of wildlife in relation to livestock in the Amboseli swamps during the dry season of 2002 fall within the same general categories as for water (Figure 20). As with water, however, it is difficult to attribute the observed response to a single factor as it represents a suite of effects and factors such as direct competition for forage, facilitation, convergence in habitat preference, and displacement by herders. While an examination of underlying factors may require experimentation, the implications of these factors as revealed in the spatial associations of livestock and wildlife under different land-use regimes is apparent.In this paper we have focused on water and livestock as two of the primary variables driving the distribution of livestock and wildlife in the Amboseli system. While this is consistent with research in other areas (eg Maasai Mara) there are some other important variables that may warrant further consideration. The most important one, which we have only touched on here, is the type and distribution of pastoral settlements. Initial analyses of this data set suggested strong edge effects due to known settlements outside of the sampling area and we are currently developing a distribution layer for settlements on the edges of the study area for analysis. Other potentially important variables that require further exploration include habitat variables such as available forage, tree cover, and soil type, as well as infrastructure such as roads, towns, and tourist camps and lodges. We are also in the process of examining the spatial associations between wild species (inter and intra-specific distances). Although a consideration of feeding strategy and water dependence are central to any analysis of herbivore distribution patterns, future analyses based on other species attributes including body size, and it associated biological characteristics such as metabolic and reproductive rates and mobility, reproductive strategies, and susceptibility to poaching and predation are also warranted.CONCLUSION Land-use change in the swamps of Amboseli has had a significant impact on the composition and spatial structure of the large herbivore community. The data we present here demonstrate how spatially limited changes in land-use -from subsistence pastoralism to small scale cultivation with parallel changes in settlement pattern and intensity -impact the community spatial structure of both wildlife and livestock. Not only does the removal of key resources from the \"grazing\" system have cascading effects on biodiversity and ecosystem resilience/resistance, but it also alters fundamentally the interaction of local peoples with their environment (eg. Newmark et al., 1994). The salient features of land-use change in the Amboseli swamp system have been on the one hand, extreme habitat modification due to protection and compression, and on the other an increasing intensification of human impacts in the form of sedentarization, crop expansion, and fence construction. In general, we see that intensification results in a decrease in total biomass, wildlife and livestock biomass, grazer and mixed feeder biomass, and species richness. The grim outlook that this portrays for wildlife in the Amboseli swamps is somewhat mitigated by the impressive density of livestock biomass supported in Kimana, and the reasonable levels of species richness and wildlife biomass supported in the Kimana Sanctuary. While the effects of land-use are clear at both ends of the spectrum, it is important to note that the lack of significant differences in house density and sedenterization as indicated by roof structures, as well as percent of the area cultivated, suggest that the important differences between Namelok and Kimana may be primarily the result of resource excision (fencing) and associated habitat homogenization. Namelok demonstrates that the extensive loss of habitat observed in the swamps has an effect that is far larger than their total area would suggest, and while the outlook for wildlife in Namelok looks bleak it does suggest that more porous boundaries may offer some hope to both wildlife and livestock. The absence of particular species from the core protected area, in turn, suggests that a balanced approach between protection and human use is essential. The swamps represent the heart of Amboseli's diversity and dynamism, and the loss of these critical habitats to agriculture at one extreme and the extensive habitat modification due to compression at the other, has potentially far reaching implications for the ecosystem as a whole. Central to the survival of Amboseli's diversity and abundance is a conservation and development strategy that maintains a flexible system of management and recognizes both the importance of heterogeneity and the central role of key resource areas to the resilience and stability of dynamic ecosystems.In summary, we suggest that these spatially focused land-use changes have far reaching implications for both conservation and development, with the following points in particular warranting further consideration: • both livestock and wildlife are impacted by the loss of key resource areas • fine scale shifts in species composition and spatial structure associated with human land-use will have impacts across spatial scales • both extremes of human land-use (protected and converted) result in the homogenization of habitats and herbivore communities • land-use change fundamentally alters the interactions of pastoralists, livestock and wildlife • protected areas are essential, but not sufficient, for the conservation of large mammals in the Greater Amboseli Ecosystem F. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was conducted with financial support from LUCID and GEF. We would like to thank the Kenya Wildlife Service for granting us permission to conduct the study, and Alexis Peltier for piloting the ultralight and providing logistical support. We would also like to thank David Western for his intellectual support and stimulating discussions.","tokenCount":"9085"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e324e007717e937bce5927282a65a5c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4871d1e-aa17-42e0-b1ff-ad34b6502dd4/retrieve","id":"761336992"},"keywords":["research options","constraints analysis","scoring model opciones de investigación","análisis de restricciones","modelo de puntuación"],"sieverID":"bc15591c-19f9-4ba5-a7e0-c19a67fc726c","pagecount":"9","content":"Palmira (Colombia).* The views expressed are the authors' own and no official endorsement of the CIAT should be inferred.The common bean is the most important source of proteins for nearly five hundred million people in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) (Cortés et al., 2013); in particular, for low-income earners (Rosas et al., 2000). It is also an important source of nutrition, serving as a source of iron, potassium, magnesium, zinc, and folic acid (Mederos, 2006). In 2010, global bean production was approximately 23,816,123 t, with 24.4 and 17.7% of the world production in LAC and Africa, respectively (FAO, 2014).In spite of the nutritional and economic importance of beans, it is a low-yield crop (Tab. 1). These relatively low yields can be explained mainly by the many kinds of biotic and abiotic stresses that affect the bean during its cultivation (Cardona et al., 1981;Cardona et al., 1982;Schwartz et al., 1982;Morales et al., 1988;Pastor-Corrales and Schwartz, 1994;Kajumula and Muhamba, 2012).Given the importance of beans as a source of protein and nutrition, they have the potential to serve a useful role in both reducing poverty and increasing food security. Reductions in poverty and increases in food security can be realized in several ways. One critical aspect to address these issues is the development and adoption of new crop technologies. The process of advancing crop technologies must begin, however, with the identification of the research priorities that have the highest potential for return on investment (Abdoulaye et al., 2014;Creamer et al., 2014;Kleinwechter et al., 2014;Pemsl et al., 2014). Empirical evidence shows that poverty levels would have been 0.4 and 0.1% higher in Rwanda and Uganda, respectively, in the absence of the development and adoption of improved bean varieties. With regard to food security, it was found that, in the absence of bean varietal improvement, food security would have been substantially lower in both countries (Larochelle et al., 2013). Likewise, in LAC, gains in yields associated with the adoption of improved bean varieties ranged from 100 kg ha -1 in Costa Rica to 350 kg ha -1 in Peru (Johnson et al., 2003).Determining the principal constraints that affect this crop and how these constraints vary regionally is an important step in the effort to develop technologies and knowledge to help improve yields, farmer income and food security in LAC and Africa. One of the challenges in prioritizing research associated with the development of new technologies and understanding specific crops is that different locations have the potential to benefit from different technologies. In order to understand if and how priorities for research would vary regionally, a cross-section of bean experts was surveyed to determine what are, in their opinion, the principal constraints and trends for common bean production and commercialization and the priorities for future common bean research.Although there are quantitative approaches for doing this kind of analysis, such as economic surplus, cost-benefit, and yield gap analyses (Waddington et al., 2010), quantitive approaches presuppose a limited number of potenital scenarios based on a priori knowledge. In order to open the door to possible new priorities and, likewise, to gain improved understanding of the regional variation needed for bean research, we decided to use a qualitative approach both due to its simplicity and the range of opinions it is possible to gather in a short period of time. Using a qualitative approach, a wide variety of experts can participate in the process, opening the door to valuable information that would be impossible obtain with other approaches (Fuglie, 2007).The foundation for this study was a survey that was presented to a number of bean experts throughout the world. The list of bean experts who participated in the survey was compiled from multiple sources in order to ensure representation both in Africa and LAC.First, we received access to the Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) database, provided by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) out of their Uganda office. The database includes information regarding the partners working with PABRA and CIAT in the development of technologies and in the delivery of those technologies. The data is updated annually for most countries where activities are implemented regularly. These individuals have had contact with PABRA-CIAT for a period of 5 or more years.A second list of experts was indentified in cooperation with CIAT researchers based at the CIAT headquarters in Palmira, Colombia. The CIAT bean expert database contains information regarding more than 30 years of work conducted by and in cooperation with the CIAT bean program. Additionally, the survey was also administrated to bean experts who attended the 59 th meeting of the Programa Cooperativo Centroamericano para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos y Animales (PCCMCA) that took place in Nicaragua between 28 April -3 May 2014. Finally, names of additional experts were identified through references made by CIAT researchers and, similarly, based on a literature review of experts who have worked on the topics related to the nine categories on which the research options in the survey were classified.The set of experts came from a broad set of backgrounds and included scientists, crop researchers, university teachers, public and private employees and extension agents. The questionnaire was divided into three sections. In sections A and B, respondents were asked to provide demographic information including their profession and areas of expertise, in which agro-ecological zones their work is focused and what, in their opinion, are the principal constraints in common bean production and commercialization, and the major trend in the next ten years.Section C asked researchers for their opinions on a list of 97 research options. Those research options were classified into nine categories: crop improvement; production technology, agronomy and crop management; seed systems; disease management practices; pest management; genetic resource management; value chains, post-harvest utilization and other uses; and socio-economic policy and impact studies on the common bean. Survey respondents were asked to share their perspective on the importance of 97 research options for helping to reduce poverty and improve food security using a scoring system of importance (not important = 1, low importance = 2, important = 3, very important = 4, most important = 5, and don't know).In order to make the survey available to as many bean experts as possible, the questionnaire was made available in four languages: English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese. A total of 123 respondents participated in the survey. The respondents interacted with the survey in two ways; it was administered in person to bean experts at the PCCMCA meeting and it was made available online via the Survey Monkey web page (https://www.surveymonkey.com/) between 19 of May 2014 and 14 of July 2014. All the answers were translated into English and were merged in a single database to facilitate analysis.A total of 123 respondents participated in the survey; most of them (88.6%) responded to the survey through the web page www.surveymonkey.com and the remainder (11.4%) responded in person at the 59 th meeting of the PCCMCA. The respondents were asked to indicate where their research is focused. In order to geographically classify the research done by the experts, all respondents who indicated expertise associated with issues in a specific country were allocated to the respective geographical region where their country is located.Since some respondents indicated that their research was focused in several regions of the same continent, each expert was counted only once at the continental scale but could be counted multiple times at the regional level. Finally, the respondents who indicated that their research was focused in several continents were assigned to the global category. Unfortunately, three experts, who indicated that they have a national expertise, didn't indicate in what country their research was focused, so it was not possible to geographically classify them. As shown in Tab. 2, 64 experts indicated that their expertise was focused on Africa, while 30 respondents indicated that their research was focused on the Americas. When the respondents were asked about the importance of bean research in their organization, 62% (76 respondents) answered that the common bean is among the priority crops for their organization; 20% (25 respondents) answered that, in their organization, some research on common bean is done, but it is not a priority crop; 11% (13 respondents) answered that the common bean is the highest ranking priority crop for their organization; while 4% (5 respondents) and 2% (2 respondents) answered that their organization rarely or never conducts research on the common bean and that their organization doesn't carry out research on the common bean, respectively.Even though common bean research was not a priority crop in many instances, a majority of respondents indicated that the importance of common bean research has increased over the last five years. When asked about the trends associated with common bean research within their organization in the last five years, 50% answered that the amount of research has increased; 29% answered that it has stayed about the same, and 12% answered that it has decreased.With respect to the respondents' backgrounds, 39% classified themselves as a scientist from a national agricultural research institute, 20% as a research scientist or lecturer at a university, 7% as a research leader or manager from a national agricultural research institute, 7% as a CGIAR center scientist, 4% as a representative of a government organization, 4% as an employee of a private, for-profit organization, 3% as a representative of a non-governmental, not-for-profit organization (NGO), and 3% as an extension agent (Tab. 3).In order to consider how the respondents' expertise might frame their perspective (e.g., that experts in water management in crop production think that the efficient use of water is the most important priority or that experts in pest management think that pest management is the most relevant priority), the respondents were asked about their disciplinary expertise for a comparison of their areas of expertise and their professional disciplinary areas (Tab. 4). The respondents were asked what, in their opinion, were the three principal constraints today and the most important trend for common bean production and commercialization in the regions where their research is focused for the coming decade. Approximately 16% of the respondents indicated that diseases were the principal constraint. Diseases most mentioned include leaf spot (Pseudocercospora griseola (Sacc.) Crous & Braun), common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Smith)), anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magn.) Bri. and Cavi.), and some diseases of the roots, such as bean root rot (Rhizoctonia solani AG 2-2, Pythium sp. and Fusarium solani) (Fig. 1).According to 11% of the respondents, pests are the second principal constraint; followed by market constraints (11%), such as: access to and the high cost of inputs; the low prices received by farmers, the appropriation of a large percentage of profits by dealers, lack of credit, lack of market access, price instability. Issues related to extension and production technologies (EPT) such as low rates of technology adoption, limited technical assistance to farmers, and poor agronomic practices, are also seen as important constraints (Fig. 1).Respondent opinions suggested an expectation for increases in demand and production over the next ten years. The expected increase in demand was attributed mainly to the expected rise in the cost of other sources of proteins and the popularization of bean-based products (such as ready-toeat preparations). Respondents anticipated the development and greater adoption of improved bean varieties with tolerances to the most important biotic and abiotic stresses that affect common bean production and commercialization. Likewise, the respondents expected that improvement in bean nutritional quality will be a principal trend (Fig. 2).Understanding the constraints and trends associated with bean production and commercialization provides context for understanding potential research priorities. In section C of the survey, the respondents were asked to assess the importance of 97 research options on a scale of 1 (not important) to 5 (most important). Since every region has different constraints and needs, and experts from different areas may have different perceptions (i.e., perspectives based on regional need or disciplinary-specific biases), the results of the perceived research priorities (highest average perceptions) are presented by regions and disciplines in Tabs. 5 and 6, respectively.Taking into consideration the cross-section of opinions, the survey yielded several research options priorities. These options included: the development of drought tolerant varieties and water use efficiency; breading for consumer acceptance (improved cooking time and desired texture after cooking); and breeding for high yield. Additionally, the research suggested that institutional measures are needed, such as improving formal seed production and distribution channels and the development of national and regional seed policies (Tab. 5).As was expected, there were differences between the perceived importance of the research priorities between regions. In the case of LAC, the results indicated that the development of varieties resistant to high temperatures is one of the most important research priorities. However, when the regions were aggregated, the priority of resistance to high temperatures is lowered. Similar variation in priorities across regions was evidenced with respect to the management of the whitefly as a priority in LAC and to the management of the bean stem maggot (Ophiomyia sp.) as a key priority in Africa.The experts who characterized their research as global indicated that the highest research priority is the development of varieties resistant to the common mosaic virus, followed by breading for consumer acceptance (improved cooking time and desired texture after cooking); breading for drought tolerance and water use efficiency; phenotypic molecular screening of landraces in search of high value traits for new sources of tolerance/resistance to stress; and  As with all surveys, there was a potential for introduced bias as a function of the respondents' backgrounds. While the ranking of specific priorities varied among the experts in different areas, the overall results indicated that the experts across all of the surveyed disciplines had similar perceptions of the principal research priorities. For instance, consumer acceptance (cooking time/texture after cooking) was among the most highly-valued research options, regardless of discipline. Likewise, breeding for drought tolerance and water use efficiency was among the highly-valued research priorities in seven of the eight analyzed disciplines (Tab. 6).However, in certain cases, there was evidence of biases introduced by the respondents' backgrounds; for instance, experts in crop genetic resources and cropping farming system were the only ones who included germplasm enhancement and pre-breeding and managing crop residues, respectively, into their research priorities. Since, in general, experts of all the disciplines had similar perceptions of most of the research priorities, it was concluded that the respondents' expertise did not introduce any important biases into the results (Tab. 6). The fact that breeding for drought tolerance and water use efficiency was the highest valued research option reflects the overarching concern for drought in Latin America, the Caribbean and Africa. Specifically, it is estimated that 4 million ha are affected by this specific abiotic stress in these regions (Cortés et al., 2013). The major bean producing areas where drought is a significant constraint include: the semiarid highlands of Mexico, the Central America Pacific coast, northeast Brazil, and a substantial portion of eastern and southern Africa (Rao et al., 2013).In beans, drought can lead to poor grain filling, reduction in the number of seeds per pod, and a reduction in the length of the pods, consequently lowering both yield and bean quality (López et al., 2008). Estimates for potential declines in yields due to drought range from a low value of 22% to a high of 71% (Ramirez-Vallejo and Kelly, 1998).The negative effects of drought on yields and seed quality depend on several factors, such as duration of drought, the affected genotype, the capacity of the soil to store moisture, and the atmospheric conditions that affect rates of evapotranspiration (López et al., 2008).The main objective of this article is to identify the principal constraints and trends in common bean production and commercialization, as well as priorities for future common bean research in Africa and LAC. In order to do so, a survey was administered to 123 experts with diverse backgrounds and expertise.The principal constraints that face common bean production and commercialization include both diseases and pests. The diseases, including angular leaf spot (P. griseola), common bacterial blight (X. axonopodis), anthracnose (C. lindemuthianum), and some diseases of the roots such as bean root rot (R. solani, Pythium sp. and F. solani), vary widely in terms of their geography. Pests, on the other hand, tend to be much more geographically specific. For example, the whitefly is a priority in LAC and the management of the bean stem maggot (Ophiomyia sp.) is a key priority in Africa.The respondent opinions suggested a strong expectation for increases in demand and production over the next ten years. The expected increase in demand is attributed mainly to the expected rise in the cost of other sources of proteins and the popularization of bean-based products (such as ready-to-eat preparations). The respondents anticipated the development and greater adoption of improved bean varieties with tolerances to the most important biotic and abiotic stresses that affect common bean production and commercialization. Likewise, the respondents expected that improvement in bean nutritional quality will be a principal trend.Taking into consideration the cross-section of opinions, the survey yielded several research option priorities. These options include breeding and selecting for several traits such as drought tolerance and water use efficiency, improved yields, and consumer acceptance (improved cooking time and desired texture after cooking). Additionally, the research suggested that institutional measures are needed, such as improving formal seed production and distribution channels and the development of national and regional seed policies.As was expected, there were differences between the perceived importance of the research priorities between the regions. In the case of LAC, the results indicated that the development of varieties resistant to high temperatures is one of the most important research priorities. However, when the regions were aggregated, the priority of resistance to high temperatures was lowered. Similar variation in priorities across regions was evidenced with respect to the management of the whitefly as a priority in LAC and the management of the bean stem maggot (Ophiomyia sp.) as a key priority in Africa.In contrast to the regional perspectives, the experts who characterized their research as global indicated that the development of varieties resistant to the common mosaic virus is among the highest research priorities. Interestingly, this option was not among the top five research priorities for experts from either Africa or LAC.As with all surveys, there was a potential for introduced bias as a function of the respondents' backgrounds. While the ranking of specific priorities varied among the experts in different areas, the overall results indicated that the experts across all of the surveyed disciplines had similar perceptions of the principal research priorities.In fact, the regional bias as evidenced above may be one of the most important findings of this effort. As the prioritization process is expanded to include Asia, we believe there will be additional insights to be gained in terms of understanding the overall system of bean production and consumption.The common bean remains an important crop in LAC and Africa. This crop is affected by many biotic and abiotic stresses, many of which have the potential be exacerbated by the effects of climate change. The development of a research agenda to address the constraints and trends identified in this survey can help to increase bean yields, farmer incomes and food security in many regions throughout the world.","tokenCount":"3207"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4d52d81f1a40f18b16b0e8df8452c871","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e5b45ee6-4b05-49b0-955e-f09cfa1b089a/retrieve","id":"-852797384"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6f00b5c3-726b-49ce-8921-9b952ce3bccd","pagecount":"8","content":"A number of climate change initiatives have been underway in Mesoamerica for some time, with a handful of projects dating back more than a decade. Growing recognition of the need to mitigate climate change in recent years has sparked a new set of initiatives at regional and global levels, with new interest in how to promote rural development with climate change mitigation mechanisms. Despite these experiences and interest, policy makers are still struggling with how best to design and implement climate mitigation mechanisms that can benefit communities in the complex territorial scenarios of Mesoamerica. * This paper is based on the publication: Climate Mitigation and Smallholder Livelihoods in Coffee Landscapes: Synergies and Tradeoffs by V.A starting point for addressing some of these challenges can be found in new evidence that underscores the importance of smallholder coffee farmers to potentially mitigate climate change through agroforestry. A recent review has shown that these smallholders may be among the most effective climate allies, as traditional polycultures -most commonly managed by smallholders and cooperatives (Bacon et al 2008) -can outperform other types of coffee management in carbon sequestration (Table 1). This policy brief examines these issues in the light of new research on smallholder coffee agroforestry, recent evidence on sustainable forest management, and experiences with reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation, forest conservation, sustainable management of forests, and the enhancement of carbon stocks (REDD+). In Mesoamerica, it is becoming increasingly clear that smallholder coffee farmers and forest communities can contribute significantly to mitigate climate change, yet existing mechanisms have offered few avenues for benefitting these actors, and in some cases even threaten to undermine their livelihoods. This work examines these challenges and proposes alternative approaches to climate change mechanisms that could generate opportunities to more meaningfully incorporate and benefit local actors.This potential could have substantial impact at large scales, given the importance of coffee production at both regional and global levels. In Mesoamerica, although coffee does not boast the dominant economic position it once held, it remains a crucial source of income and livelihood support to farmers across the region, employing well over one million seasonal workers, and sustaining approximately 290,000 farmers (Castro, et al 2004). These farms are predominantly located in Mesoamerica's mountainous ecosystems, which contain high levels of biodiversity and play key roles in sustaining the middle and upper watersheds that supply urban centers below.Coffee is also important at a global level; land dedicated to its production covers approximately 9.71 million ha in the tropics (FAO 2010). There are approximately 4.3 million smallholder coffee farmers that hold 10 ha or less in 14 of the top producing countries (Jha et al, 2011), which might bring the global total close to the 25 million figure cited in several studies (e.g. Donald, 2004;Gresser and Tickell, 2002).Forest communities and indigenous peoples have also received increasing recognition for their role in mitigating climate change through the sustainable management of forests. An analysis of carbon performed in Mexico has confirmed this potential, showing that the sustainable management of natural forests may hold higher carbon sequestration capacity than forest protection (Masera and Hernendez-Tejeda, 2004). This is significant considering that community and indigenous forests cover more than 10 million ha in Central America, and more than 40 million ha if Southern Mexico is included (Fundacion PRISMA and Grupo Cabal, n.d.).These forest communities also continue to play a crucial role in avoiding deforestation. A review of deforestation by Nelson and Chomitz (2009) found that indigenous forests in Latin America are much more effective in reducing deforestation than protected areas. In Mesoamerica, indigenous peoples and forest communities have curbed deforestation where governments have supported their rights and territories, as observed in the forests of Peten, Guatemala and southern Mexico (Bray et al, 2008), the Bosawas International Biosphere Reserve, Nicaragua (Stocks et al, 2007), and Darien, Panama (Nelson et al, 2001), among others. Moreover, changing economic patterns in Central America are exerting new pressures over forests, in the form of expanding agriculture frontiers, extractive activities, tourism mega-projects and agrofuels (Cuellar et al, 2011). The ongoing efforts of communities to protect their forests from these forces must therefore be recognized in REDD schemes; doing so will be critical Climate change mitigation mechanisms can be perceived as a form of environmental governance, which incorporates the regulatory processes, instruments and organizations through which environmental actions and outcomes are driven or influenced politically (Lemos and Agrawal, 2006). The forms of environmental governance shaped and influenced by these mechanisms must therefore be assessed for their potential to manage the aforementioned trade-offs and ultimately support the livelihoods and goals of smallholders.The most common mitigation mechanism is the market-based approach, which provides direct payments in exchange for carbon sequestration or avoided emissions.A number of regulatory discussions have focused on this method; most prominent among them is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), where negotiations have yet to reach a binding agreement on a post-Kyoto regime which will likely include some sort of trading of carbon credits between developed and developing countries.Existing market-based projects include those that provide direct payments for carbon credits through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Plan Vivo, or the Voluntary Carbon Standard, among others. An example of this approach can be found in the highly cited Plan Vivo project in the Scolel-Te community in Chiapas, Mexico (Nelson and de Jong, 2003), where smallholder coffee farmers have planted trees on their coffee farms to capture and store carbon.Although a handful of market-based projects such as Scolel Te have generated important positive results, the vast majority of territories in Mesoamerica contain complex socio-environmental conditions that are not easily adapted to the market model. Many of these difficulties stem from the Coasean conceptual framework utilized by these approaches, where environmental degradation is understood as the outcome of a 'market failure' in which the market allocation of environmental services by price is unable to incorporate environmental value. This perspective accordingly asserts that as long as property rights are clearly defined, and transaction costs are sufficiently 3Ecosystem services are defined as the direct and indirect benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems (Costanza et al, 1997)and can be categorized into 'provisioning services' (e.g. water and food); 'regulating services' (e.g. climate, and flood regulation); 'cultural services' (e.g. aesthetic or recreational benefits); and 'supporting services', (e.g. nutrient cycling). (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) ljkasjdjfjlsjjfksjfjkjkjjljjljljljjk 1 1 low, owners will bargain amongst themselves until a social optimum is achieved. The policy solution, therefore, is a mechanism that internalizes these values into the market system.The first difficulty facing this approach is not unique to Mesoamerica. The multiple benefits generated by ecosystems at different scales, their interrelationships, and their amorphous and overlapping boundaries make most ecosystem services ill-suited to the requirements of a market good or service. In practice, the market emphasis on low transaction costs means that research to understand these complex relationships are prohibitively expensive; these projects therefore tend to adopt simplified views of complex ecosystem landscapes and focus exclusively on carbon. This simplification generates important 'blind spots' that can undermine key provisioning ecosystem services for livelihoods and adaptation.Second, insecure tenure, resource conflict and the generally disadvantaged position of small farmers and forest communities vis-à-vis other powerful actors imply new sets of risks. In this context, the market focus on efficiency and transaction costs tends to favor the secure tenure and economies of scale offered by large land owners, leading to the exclusion of smallholders and the landless (Rosa et al, 2003). Land grabbing can also present a serious risk as powerful actors position themselves to receive carbon benefits, as recently reported by government officials in Honduras (La Tribuna, 2011). Smallholders and the landless can also be detrimentally affected by neighboring carbon projects, which crowd-out local food production, and decrease demand for wage-labor for competing land uses. Precisely these outcomes were identified in a review of payment for environmental services (PES) projects performed by Zilberman et al. (2008), who found that where land distribution is unequal and income dependence on wage labor is high -characteristics common to territories across Mesoamerica -these systems can bring losses for the poor.Third, communities wishing to participate in these mechanisms frequently find it difficult to meet the high degree of organizational and administrative capacity needed to administer market projects, including managing contracts with external actors, new management rules and other technical requirements.jksjlk Finally, the communities able to overcome these barriers are confronted with new risks, as the expansion of forest cover usually required by carbon initiatives may compete with local food production. Flexibility for livelihood adaptation -especially important in the context of climate change -may also be restricted by rigid land use agreements necessary to ensure climate funds. Moreover, the fluctuation of carbon prices introduces serious risk and could amount to a second volatile market for coffee farmers. This group has already suffered grave impacts from market fluctuations, most recently experienced between 2001 and 2003, which resulted in a 42% loss of employment in the coffee sector in Mesoamerica (Castro, et al 2004). Given the devastating livelihood effects of market fluctuations, policy makers must critically examine the compounded level of risk presented by carbon market volatility.4 2 Most ecosystem services are supplied at multiple scales, and are non-rival and non-excludable, meaning that their consumption or use by one person does not reduce the amount available for everyone else, and no one can be prevented from enjoying the good (Daly and Farley, 2004), making their allocation by markets problematic.jsjljfjljljljkkk lsjjfksjfjkjkjjljjljljljjkjkjkjjkjjjjjjIt is important to note here that opportunity cost is an inappropriate tool to use for land allocated for subsistence, as carbon payments cannot replace the food security offered by subsistence production.PES projects refer to monetary compensation for environmental services, distinct from the alternative of 'Compensation for Ecosystem Services' discussed in this paper. The Zilberman study examined two types of PES: 1) land diversion programs, where lands are diverted from agriculture to other uses; and 2) working land programs, where agricultural production is modified to achieve environmental objectives.It should be added that some projects propose the presale of carbon, or other insurance mechanisms to hedge against the exposure inherent in market schemes. Yet these arrangements frequently merely replace one type of risk for another. The complexities inherent in insurance mechanisms frequently give external actors and lawyers a lead role in their elaboration, constituting serious challenges for a community decision making process around livelihood options. The pre-sale of carbon may also commit a community to a rigid land use practices that may not allow sufficient flexibility for unforeseen conditions or events. In other cases, the operational costs may exceed the anticipated amount, leaving the community with far less benefits than expected.Many of the difficulties and threats associated with market-based mechanisms stem from the Coasean framework that has guided their implementation. PES project managers have frequently dealt with these shortcomings by making ad-hoc adjustments on site in an attempt to fit local realities with the market model. We propose that for most circumstances in Mesoamerica, a more substantial shift is necessary in order to create inclusive compensation mechanisms able to synergistically support broader development goals, prioritize food security and adaptation, and incorporate ecological complexity.The \"Compensation for Ecosystem Services\" framework developed by PRISMA as an alternative to \"Payments for Environmental Services\" provides an important starting point for re-conceptualizing climate change mitigation schemes. \"Compensation\" places an emphasis on support that may be either monetary or non-monetary, and \"ecosystem services\" -those environmental services that benefit humansemphasizes services that benefit local resource users and managers, especially provisioning services such as food, water, firewood, etc. In this framework, these provisioning services constitute the foundation of livelihoods, and must be complemented by a second level of income producing activities (coffee, or timber, for example), to be followed by a third level of compensation for ecosystem services. The third level must support the first two, and ensure that regional and global values do not undermine the benefits ecosystem services provide to local users (Rosa et al, 2003).This approach prioritizes the rights and aspirations of local communities as key elements in equitable and sustainable outcomes. Respect for rights, community decision-making processes and free, prior and informed consent are therefore considered central and indispensable elements for any successful carbon intervention. In addition, Rosa et al (2003) discuss the important potential of CES mechanisms to explicitly incorporate conflict resolution and social capital into Institutional Arrangements (community, local, micro-regional, regional, national, global)Ecosystem Services of Regional / Global Interest (water quality and water regulation, biodiversity, carbon sequestion)(agriculture, agro-forestry, forestry, non-timber products, rural tourism, handicrafts) project designs, thereby opening new avenues to more effectively address these issues. This broader approach towards carbon sequestration allows for a greater variety of mechanisms and arrangements to accommodate disparate socio-environmental contexts, valuing human actions in landscapes, more effectively evaluating tradeoffs, and placing carbon within larger development goals. jskjfkkk These principles proposed in the CES approach must ultimately be translated into concrete policy actions. The myriad design considerations and institutional arrangements at international, national and local levels for climate change mitigation mechanisms are too numerous to mention here. However, they remain largely undefined, and can still be influenced to benefit the smallholders and forest communities that have demonstrated significant climate change mitigation potential. Many of these groups have already made important advances in attempt to shape these mechanisms, by advocating for the respect and expansion of rights as a condition of participation, and by developing endogenous visions for climate change mitigation, such as the Mesoamerican Community Carbon Reservoir initiative.In order to better serve these community efforts, the following points delineate four concrete alternatives for the carbon related policies in the region.jfjaljsljfljjInstead of defining ecosystems individually, carbon could be 'bundled' along with other ecosystem services in order to better incorporate considerations for how climate interventions will affect other important services (Bennett et al, 2009;Raudsepp-Hearne et al, 2010). This approach could illuminate both community and territorial level ecosystem 'blind spots' inherent in a narrow focus on carbon, and thus better support informed decisions on food security and other tradeoffs. jj Nature of Compensation Although payments as compensation have dominated discussions, non-monetary compensation arrangements might be more beneficial and appropriate in some instances. This could be the case, for example, where farmers and communities do not have the organizational capacity to implement market agreements. This compensation could include technical support related to adaptation and agroecological production, livelihood options, or even the strengthening and expansion of rights to land and resources. These projects have the advantage of channeling resources through local organizations and institutions that may be more representative and resilient than new organizations created for carbon projects. Yet they must also succeed where other similar projects have failed, by ensuring the meaningful incorporation of farmers and communities in their design and implementation, and even including researcher involvement in actions for change (Bacon et al, 2005;Castellanet and Jordan, 2002;Fals-Borda and Rahman, 1991;Fortmann, 2008;Kindon et al, 2007). These approaches may be ideal for climate change mitigation, which is research and capacity-intensive. They may also be more attractive to communities where markets for ecosystem services are not compa-tible with local values.The relationship between ecosystem delivery and compensation in carbon interventions is taken for granted in most current discussions, positing that the level of carbon reduction must be exactly commensurate with the level of compensation. An alternative to this approach would be to negotiate fair levels of compensation for the additional efforts of farmers and communities in supporting ecosystem service delivery. Given the enormous costs in establishing baselines, calculating credits and policing efforts necessary to achieve high levels of carbon precision, this approach discussed by Vatn (2010) might present a more efficient and effective use of resources for climate change mitigation. This type of mechanism would be guided more by a rationale of collective action than a market transaction between buyers and sellers and could therefore be more attractive to communities where market valuation 6 6 Vatn (2010) notes that government mechanisms, in contrast to market vehicles, are more common for bundled services, and may be required to overcome transaction costs, especially as more users are included.kdlskñkllklklklkkklkllThe Mesoamerican Community Carbon Re-servoir (MCCR) is an alternative approach to REDD+ promoted by the Mesoamerican Alliance of People and Forests, an organization comprised by indigenous and community forest organizations across Mesoamerica. The MCCR focuses on supporting and strengthening the rights, organizations and territories of the communities that reside in and govern the 50 million hectares of forest represented in this initiative.of resources is at odds with cultural values, and where payments are likely to crowd out non-market values aligned with conservation. Though this approach could indeed represent new benefits, it could also suffer from weaknesses, including high transaction costs, or the potential to disadvantage weaker actors in negotiation processes.Despite significant rhetoric surrounding rights, tenure and conflict, these issues have received scant attention in programs related to carbon mechanisms in Mesoamerica (PRISMA/Cabal, n.d.). Where actions are discussed, solutions are too frequently proposed as the mere formalization of individual property rights, while neglecting collective arrangements critical to the subsistence of indigenous, traditional and peasant communities. These institutions many times provide the most resilient and sustainable foundations for food security at a local level. Moreover, recognizing and supporting community management of resources can often lead to more effective conservation (Molnar et al, 2004) as well as more efficient use of resources in ecosystem service mechanisms (Corbera et al, 2007as cited in Vatn, 2010). Policymakers should thus be careful not to limit tenure discussions to individual property rights, but also seek to understand and support collective institutions that strengthen food security and the sustainable management of resources.These are only a few elements of a broader discussion that must take place regarding how compensation mechanisms can be conceptualized to fit local development aspirations. The design and implementation of these schemes will not be easy, as they will require meaningful community participation at every step, the resolution of complex conflicts, and must contain builtin mechanisms for design revision. Although this type of iterative process may appear complicated and time consuming, these locally driven solutions are far more likely to achieve their desired results than uniform and theoretically eloquent 'grand designs' (Sayer et al, 2008). Challenges for project managers will be to find financing sources willing to support alternative and innovative compensation mechanisms. For national policy makers, a central challenge will lie in developing institutional frameworks able to support and facilitate the diversity of approaches necessary for disparate territorial conditions. Unfortunately, the opportunities for linking broad national and local options with international mechanisms seem to be narrowing. The increasing likelihood of an international carbon market in a post-Kyoto regime has had a homogenizing effect on many voluntary carbon standards, which have tightened their eligibility requirements to more closely adhere to ongoing regulatory processes at different levels, including the UNFCCC (Ecosystem Marketplace and New Carbon Finance, 2009). REDD+ readiness processes in Mesoamerica have also largely focused on establishing the technical and legal frameworks to facilitate narrowly defined carbon transactions (Fundación PRISMA, n.d.), rather than explore innovative pathways to promote an array of diverse options. These trends could significantly limit the avenues of community participation in order to satisfy market conceptions and requirements of offset legitimacy and credibility, as has occurred in previous carbon market mechanisms such as the CDM. (Corbera et. al, 2009) Despite these challenges, Mesoamerica still has a key opportunity to develop alternative forms of climate change mitigation mechanisms that support and promote rural development. The nature of these schemes is still very much under discussion in several international and regional climate change fora. Moreover, policymakers in the region have expressed interest in developing autonomous national institutions appropriate for local realities (Fundacion PRISMA and Grupo Cabal, 2011), while ample experiences with PES and other environmental mechanisms give the region an advantage for pioneering alternatives that benefit rural communities. Coffee smallholders, forest communities and indigenous peoples are already demonstrating their potential as key allies in these efforts, and many have begun to develop their own proposals for carbon schemes. Taken together, these factors constitute a critical opportunity for enhancing smallholder and community livelihoods through innovative climate change mitigation mechanisms. ","tokenCount":"3342"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d83d1dcb7c1791092b565e0d5a4c412e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c17bd917-2f4a-4247-8e6d-d5abe58ad7cb/retrieve","id":"-1089294807"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5a9a942-072e-4d7f-94e0-d87812f55c89","pagecount":"6","content":"Ranking certain CSA practices over others is complex because CSA implies multiple outcomes, which vary with context and scale. All stakeholders should have access to tools and information to help them rank and prioritize CSA practices, taking different criteria and trade-offs into account. Clearly showing the benefits of certain climate-smart agricultural (CSA) interventions over others in a particular context is key to facilitating prudent investment of scarce resources.Prioritization is the process of evaluating CSA practices against a ranked set of desired outcomes in a particular context. The result from a well-designed and implemented process is a set of best-fit practices tailored to a specific context and to the needs of different users, such as government workers, donors, farmers, extension agents and NGOs. The process consists of the following steps:Prioritize among climate-smart agricultural options and benefits for greater impact p2 Many outcomes CSA aims to deliver outcomes across three main pillars: ensuring sustainable increases in productivity, improving resilience and adaptive capacity, and mitigating climate change. Each pillar can be divided into specific outcome indicators. For example, productivity could be measured by yield or income; resilience by soil quality, gender-equitable decision making, or yield stability. Trade-offs and synergies exist between outcomes at all levels, so a good practice in one context may not be so in another context.Many agricultural technologies, practices, and programmatic interventions can be potentially climate smart. They include switching to drought-tolerant seed varieties or more complex practices such as conservation agriculture; practices that target crops (intercropping), livestock (improved fodder) or postharvest processes (improved storage). They also include programs such as early warning systems and index-based insurance.Prioritization processes that match interventions and their benefits to local contextual realities leads to better choices (i.e. 'better bets') among intervention options Prioritize among climate-smart agricultural options and benefits for greater impactThe outcomes from any CSA practice will vary with the local context (e.g. Pittelkow et al. 2014, Byala et al. 2014) including the farming system, biophysical conditions, social, economic and political contexts. This means that the trade-offs and synergies between outcomes for a particular practice can change with context. If practices aren't matched to context, the potential for adoption could be low, (refer to brief 3), resulting in poor or even negative Given all this complexity, how should decision makers choose which CSA practices to implement or promote? A prioritization process allows decision makers to consider their local context and desired outcomes from implementing CSA. The process ranks practices based on desired outcomes. This can be done at any level of decision making from farm to national level. Evidence suggests that demonstration plots and farmer-led initiatives are good ways to improve the uptake of CSA interventions (refer to briefs 4 & 6). In Nwoya district, northern Uganda, farmers in five sub-counties prioritized the CSA practices used in the demonstration plots. First, the farmers described the agroecological zones in their subcounties. Then they generated a list of indicators they would use to rank the CSA practices. They identified the practices that were in use or could be used in the area and evaluated them against the indicators, generating a list of benefits and constraints for each one. The participants ranked the practices in order of preference for use in the demonstration plots. The indicators, their importance, and the resulting ranked practices differed by gender and agroecological zone.1 Prioritizing locally appropriate CSA practices for wider adoption in northern UgandaThe adoption of improved livestock feed baskets in Lushoto, Tanzania was expected to increase milk yields, reduce poverty levels, improve food security, and contribute to greenhouse gas reduction, especially if it was complemented with the adoption of dairy cows. There might be additional costs related to the purchase of improved breeds. However, easing liquidity constraints by increased access to credit (at affordable interest rates and with flexible repayment periods) might provide an incentive to the adoption of improved breeds, and may maximize the benefits using improved feeding.Appropriate policies can create an enabling environment for CSA uptake (refer to brief 1). To assist in the development of national CSA country plans in Tanzania and Uganda, we collected evidence of CSA uptake from the published and gray literature. We then generated mean effect sizes for each practice by combining indicators. Using this data, government officials and other stakeholders were able to rank their desired outcomes from the CSA program, and assessed the practices that would best achieve their desired combination of outcomes (see Figure 3).  ","tokenCount":"736"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6467b77a63418cb24989b122300cefcd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/052e2dcd-9547-4ed6-95e0-5733e204bb95/retrieve","id":"-1323133688"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c426b099-d5ca-422c-a5a3-d08571ea1431","pagecount":"112","content":"The author was born to his mother Tideg Kindmen and his father Mekonnen Gebru in 1983 at Shire town, North West Zone, Tigray regional state, Ethiopia. He attended elementary in Endabaguna elementary school and junior secondary and high school education in Shire Senior Secondary Schools. First and foremost, I am thankful to the almighty God, for his protection, care and guidance leading to the successful completion of the work. With deep appreciation, I would like to acknowledge the help, valuable guidance, advice and constructive comments of my advisor Dr. Yassin Ibrahim and My special thanks also goes to my Co-advisor Dr. Berhanu Gebremedhin for his guidance, moral and encouragement he made to me while developing thesis manuscript.I am indebted to many individuals for their help and encouragement rendered while conducting this study. First, I would like to appreciate to my friends namely, Mr. Gedam Birhan, Mr. Gidey Beyen, Ms. Selam Girmay, Mr. Teklay Tesfay, Mr. Mebrahatom Medhane, Mr. Hailemariam Gebrehaweria, Ms. Genet Hadgu and Mr. Zenebe Gebremedhin for their valuable comments, guidance and encouragement from proposal write up and questionnaire development up to synthesis of this final thesis write up. My special thanks also go to Daniel Desta for his guidance, moral and encouragement from proposal write up and questionnaire development up to synthesis of this final thesis write up, who is working for Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Shire branch and I owe him great respect and thanks.I would like to thank to LIVES/ILRI for the financial grant allotted to my research works. I am duly indebted to Mr. Haile Tilahun, Coordinator of LIVES Project in central zone of Tigray for his all rounded help from proposal write up to thesis production.I thank to all my colleagues of Shire ATVET College for their encouragement during my thesis work. My appreciation also goes to all sample respondents in this study. Finally, at last but not least, I am also grateful to my beloved family for the affections, care, and moral support made to me during my study.     The purpose of this study was to analyze the value chain of cow milk in Laelay Maichew Woreda, Centeral Zone of Tigray, Ethiopia. The specific objectives of the study includes:identifying and mapping the major milk value chain actors, functions and their relations; costs and margins of intermediaries along the milk value chain were also estimated, the main determinants of smallholder farmers' participation in lucrative markets and marketed supply of cow milk were identified in the study. Besides, key constraints and opportunities of dairy production and marketing were also assessed in the study area. Moreover, various marketing agents and their roles, linkages and functions in the cow milk value chain were identified and mapped. Alternative marketing channels from the point of production to the end users were identified and mapped. To address the aforementioned objectives descriptive statistics, econometric models and rank analysis were employed. Of all milk value chain actors producers, café and hotels and dairy cooperative had the highest gross marketing margin which they accounted for 100% in channel I and II, 60% in channel III, and 23.08% in channel VI of consumer's price, respectively. Heckmans' two stage models were employed to identify factors that determine the smallholder participation decision and the amount of milk supplied to the market in the year 2013/14. Hotel, café and dairy cooperative are played crucial roles in the sample markets in the transaction of milk from producers to consumers. Weak oligopoly market type was observed in Aksum town markets with 34 percent concentration ratio. From the Heckman first stage model factors that determine the farmers' participation decision are identified. These includes milk market information (MMI), distance to woreda market (DWM), breed type (BreedT), number of dairy cow exotic and local (NDCEL), milk yield (MilkYD), educational level of household (ELHH), market price of milk (MPM), anticipated market price of butter (AMPB) and Access to dairy production extension service (AcDPExS) have highly and significantly influenced producers' market participation decision. According to the result of second stage Heckamn, milk market information (MMI), distance to woreda market (DWM), breed type (BreedT), number of dairy cow exotic and local (NDCEL), milk yield (MilkYD), Family size (FS), market price of milk (MPM), Access to dairy production extension service (AcDPExS) and were identified to have and highly significantly influenced volume of milk supplied to the market. The milk production and marketing was also constrained by various challenges. According to the survey, producers are suffering from lack of marketing, lack of supplementary feed, water scarcity, low breed milk productivity and shortage of grazing land. Despite the numerous challenges the dairy production still remains profitable business for the smallholders.Chapter One: IntroductionValue chain analysis (VCA) is a method for accounting and presenting the value that is created in a product or service as it is transformed from raw inputs to a final product consumed by end users (FIAS, 2007). According to FIAS\"s (2007) statement, VCA 1 typically involves identifying and mapping the relationships of four types of features: (i) the activities performed during each stage of processing; (ii) the value of inputs, processing time, outputs and value added; (iii) the spatial relationships, such as distance and logistics, of the activities; and (iv) the structure of economic agents, such as suppliers, the producer, and the wholesaler. Value chains can become complex when they reflect multi-stage production systems with multiple types of firms operating in different locations in one country or multiple countries around the world. CSA (2011/12) reports that, Ethiopia is endowed with the largest livestock population in Africa.Although (Berhanu et al., 2007) explain that, Ethiopia ranks first in Africa and tenth in the worldwide with respect to the livestock population. And (CSA, 2011/12) reports that, the cattle population was estimated at about 52.13 million. The indigenous breeds accounted for 98.88 percent, while the hybrids and pure exotic breeds were represented by 0.93 and 0.012 percent, respectively. From the total cattle population, 44.43 percent are males and 55.57 percent females.However, there are a number of fundamental constraints underlie these outcomes. These include traditional technologies, limited supply of inputs (feed, breed, stock, water) poor or non-existent of extension service, high diseases prevalence, poor marketing infrastructure, lack of marketing support service, lack of market information and limited credit services affect the livestock marketing conditions (Berhanu et al., 2007).But (Berhanu et al., 2007) discusses the growing domestic demand, which results from increased urbanization, higher income due to economic growth, and rising population, offers significant incentive for increased market oriented livestock production. 1 In this study, VCA is used to mean \"value chain analysis\" Not\" value chain approach.\" Moreover, Ethiopia produced 3.3 billion liters of milk in 2011/2, worth $1.2billion and imported an additional $10.6 million of dairy products. At 19 liters per annum, per capita, annual milk consumption is well below the world average of 105 liters and the African average of about 40 liters (FAOSTAT, 2011).According to LDMPS (2007), the major sources of milk in Ethiopia are produced from cows (83% of total milk production in Ethiopia) and the remainder from goats and camels in certain regions is particularly in pastoralist areas. As dairying play significant role in the lives of the urban and peri-urban poor households (Yitaye et al., 2007), promotion of the dairy sector in Ethiopia can therefore contribute significantly to poverty alleviation as well as, availability of food and income generation. In Ethiopia, dairy value chain entailed about 500,000 smallholder rural farmers who produce about 1,130 million litres of milk of which 370 million litres of raw milk, 280 million litres of butter and cheese and 165 million litres is consumed by the calves (Mohammed, 2009cited in Betela, 2015).The majority of milking cows in the smallholders milk production are indigenous breeds which have low production performance with the average age at first calving is 53 months and average calving intervals is 25 months. The average cow lactation 2 yield is 524 liters for 239 days, of which 238 litres is off-take for human use while 286 liters is suckled by the calf. But also a very small number of crossbred animals are milked to provide the family with fresh milk butter and cheese. Surpluses are sold, usually by women, who use the regular cash income to buy household necessities or to save for festival occasions (Mugerewa et al., 2009) Even though, the contribution of smallholder dairy producers to economic development is large but, this is realized if smallholder farmers are linked to high value markets and they became benefited from the market (Birthal et al., 2007). and the same author, indicates that Improving smallholders\" access to markets requires close linkages between farmers, processors, traders, and retailers to coordinate supply and demand. Institutions such as cooperatives, producers\" associations, and contract farming are important means of linking producers with markets, as well as a source of credit, inputs, technology, information, and services. But there is concern that 2 Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands or the process of milk production.smallholders may be excluded from the institution-driven value chains. Agribusiness firms, to reduce the transaction costs of contracting with a large number of Smallholders, have tended to contract with a few large producers who can supply large volumes and are capable of complying with food-quality standards. There is also a fear that agribusiness firms may exploit smallholders by extracting monopolistic rent in the output market and manipulating the terms and conditions of contracts (Birthal. et al., 2007) Ethiopian smallholder dairy producers are facing different problem to bring their fluid milk to the market and this remained a concern of different theoretical explanations and empirical investigations. Different factors which exclusion the producers to bring their product to market have been raised by different scholars for example, Ellen (2010) Smallholder dairy producer and Small scale dairy producer have a common interest to bring a product to the market. However, it is not simple to develop and maintain smooth working relations. Both the Smallholder dairy producer and small scale dairy producer operate in a specific context and face constraints that make it difficult for one to respond to the needs of the other. Smallholder producers generally do not have access to all factors that are needed for delivering a product that responds to market demand. They often face strong economic, social and physical disadvantages: in some areas the infrastructure is poor, while in other areas up to-date market information is not always available to everyone. Another challenge is the difficulty in accessing technical advisory services, agricultural inputs and financial services. Dairy sector is a risky business and lack of post-harvest facilities makes it difficult to deliver a consistent supply of good quality produce.Similarly, Berhanu et al. (2006) have also identified different factors which inhibit to bring their product to the market, among the sectors of livestock production system, Dairy production is a crucial issue in Ethiopia where livestock and its products are important source of food and income, and dairying has not been fully exploited and promoted in the country. Despite its large numbers, the livestock subsector in Ethiopia is low in production in general, and compared to its potential, the direct contribution it makes to the national economy is limited. A number of fundamental constraints under lay these outcomes, including traditional technologies, limited supply of inputs (feed, breeding stock, artificial insemination and water), poor extension service, high disease prevalence, poor marketing infrastructure, lack of marketing support services and market information, limited credit services, absence of effective producers\" organizations at the grass roots levels, and natural resources degradation. However, the participation of smallholders to market and volume of milk supply is limited. Lemma et al. (2008) and Yilma et al. (2011) reported that, weak linkages among the different actors in the dairy value chain are some of the important factors that contribute to the poor development of Ethiopia\"s dairy sector.Although, many empirical studies (woldemicael, 2008;Berhanu, 2012;Eyassu, et al. 2011;Girma and Marco, 2013;Betela, 2015) conducted in South Nation Nationalities and Peoples, Dire Dawa city, and respectively most of the studies are on the socio-economic factors and the studies carried out in urban and peri-urban dairy producers those falling to show the factors which constraint the participation of smallholders to market and volume of milk supply and their share of profit margin in the chain.Laelay maichew 3 Woreda has a potential for sustainable commercialization of dairy in the nearest pre-urban and urban towns to market milk and milk products in the form of fluid milk and butter. In this woreda, improved dairy development was started in 1998, with the introduction of Friesian crossbred dairy cows. Following the initial introduction and demonstration, farmers continued to own crossbred cows from different sources.The utilization of These potentials as income generating have been limited due to the lack of capacity and access to knowledge on market oriented high value livestock. Part of the limitation is associated with traditional values and attitudes of farmers. For example smallholder farmers\" value livestock number as household asset or reserves as security to maintain oxen supply and food in times of crises. This traditional value and attitude to livestock is less useful to advance market oriented livestock development. There is a crucial need to change the attitude of farmers towards livestock as income generating business.3 Laelay maichew is a woreda, which is located in Central zonal administration of Tigray region, specifically around Aksum town There are a number of studies specifically examining the value chain of fluid milk of farmers/ producers to identify the actors participate in the fluid milk value chain, the factors which determine from participation and volume supply, profit margin and their constraints and opportunities in other parts of the world and in some part of Ethiopia. However, to the researcher best knowledge, no/little empirical study has been done to analysis value chain of cow milk in the study area as well as in Tigray Region.Therefore, in the study area, there is a gap of information and knowledge on cow milk value chain. The existing information and knowledge gap in the study area are not well known, the actors participate in the chain, market participation, volume of supply, beneficiary from the participant in the chain and how it will develop the milk value chain in the study area. In line with this how smallholder dairy producer households can reach to market and sells its product.So that, this study is proposed to fill the information and knowledge gap as to how the cow milk is reached to the market/customer and identify the actors, beneficiary, constraints and opportunities and how the producers market share.This study tries to address the following questions:1. What do the milk value chain map look like in the study area? 2. Who are the actors involved in the milk value chain? 3. How is the cost and margin distribution among milk value chain participants? 4. What are the main determinants for smallholder farmers\" participation in markets and quantities of sales? 5. What are the key opportunities and constraints of dairy production and marketing in the study area?The overall objective of the study is to analysis value chain of cow milk in Laelay Maichew Woreda 4 ; Centeral Zone of Tigray.The specific objectives of the study are:-1. To identify and map the major milk value chain actors, functions and their relations; 2. To estimate the costs and margins of actors along the milk value chain; 3. To identify the main determinants of smallholder farmers\" from participation in markets\" and marketed surplus of cow milk and; 4. To identify the key constraints and opportunities of dairy production and marketing in the study area.The scope of the study is described based on concept, methodology, geography and time.Conceptual: This study had scope of fluid cow milk value chain, and to cover the identifying actors and mapping the value chain, beneficiary, producer market participation and volume of supply and constraints and opportunities of cow milk value chain.Methodologically: It is a survey study on smallholder dairy producers in which representative sample size has been selected using probabilistic sampling techniques, simple random sampling lottery system. Both quantitative and qualitative data was collected. While analyzing the data, descriptive analysis, value chain analysis and econometric analysis technique was used in line with this the research is focused only analyzing of actors participate, beneficiary, producer market participation and volume supply, constraints and opportunities of cow milk value chain.Geographically: This study was conducted in Laelay Maichew Woreda, in four purposively selected kebeles in the central Zone of Tigray.Time: This study is a cross-sectional survey study.In similar fashion to the scope of the study, the limitations of this study are conceptually, methodologically geographically and time described as follows.Conceptually, this study focuses only on specific dairy product commodity which is cow milk, it analysis cow milk value chain of smallholder dairy producers. It does not see other milk producers\" such as small scale dairy producers and dairy products (butter, cheese etc.)Methodologically, this study is limited to 4 kebeles of Laelay Maichew Woreda.Geographically, this study is limited to Laelay Maichew Woreda in selected 4 \"kebeles\". This geographic scope may limit the representativeness of the study while intending to use it at Zonal or some other higher level administrative structures. Therefore this limits to conclude at zonal.The study have generated valuable information on the cow milk value chain in the study area and that might assist policy makers at various levels to make relevant decisions to intervene in the development of dairy cattle milk production, marketing, processing and designing of appropriate policies and strategies. Governmental and nongovernmental organizations that are intervening through their programs in the development of the dairy sub-sector are expected to benefit from the result of this study. The findings of the study might also be useful to input suppliers, producers, traders, consumers, and marketing agents to make their respective decisions. It may also serve as a reference material for further research on similar topics and other related subjects.In this part of the study the basic concepts of agricultural value chain, value chain, supply chain, value chain actors, dairy marketing systems in Ethiopia, Informal milk trade, formal milk trade, methods for evaluating efficiency of agricultural marketing system, market structure, market conduct, market performance, methods for evaluating marketing performance, marketing costs, marketing margin, empirical reviews and conceptual frame work would be discussed.According to Baloyi (2010), the concept of agricultural value chain has attracted many scholars in the marketing environment. For smallholder farmers to be integrated along the value chain, they must able to comply with market requirement such as economies of scale, good quality and consistency. Transport logistics and the cold chain are necessities for smallholder farmers if they are to participate in the agribusiness value chain. The agricultural value chain is a vertical alliance of enterprise collaborating to ensure a more rewarding position in the market. The vertical alliance means that the agribusiness is connected from the production stage, through the processing stage to the market stage, until the products are in the hand of the consumer.Producer, processors and markers become interdependent in the chain and work together to discuss challenges and share information (AAFC, 2004).Full range of activities which are required to bring a product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformation and the input of various producer services), delivery to final consumers, and final disposal after use (Kaplisnky and Morris, 2001). According to Ssango (2006), value chain is a specific type of supply chain, one where the actors actively seek to support each other so that they can increase their efficiency and competitiveness. They invest time, effort, money and build relationships with each other to reach a common goal of satisfying consumer needs so as to increase their profits.Moreover, Feller et al. (2006) defined that, value chain as the integration of key business processes from end user through original suppliers that provide products, services and information that add value for customers and other stakeholders. Supply chain, however does not necessarily add value. As described by Msuya (2009), value can be added by an increase in price as the result of higher value product, better quality and or better services. In addition, value can be added by increasing in quantity brought about by the larger organisation of smallholders, increased production and acquisition of market share. It is also possible for value to be added by cost reduction as a result of improved productivity.In line to above, the basic characteristic of a value chain is market-focused collaboration: different business enterprise work together to produce and market products and services in an effective and efficient manner. Value chain allows business to respond to the market place by linking production, processing, and marketing activities to market demands.There are three general triggers for developing a value chain:Improve Quality: Competition is becoming increasingly fierce. There is an opportunity to produce the safest food in the world when producers, processors, and retailers track products through the food chain. Premiums also exist for a consistently high quality produced and processed food products.Increase Efficiency: Opportunities exist to lower costs and increase efficiencies in the market by producers, processors and marketers working together.Differentiate Product: Consumers are demanding new products that require supply chain partners to share information and systems or provide unique specialized inputs (e.g. special variety, trademarked process, and unique genetics). These products often require consistently high quality, proof of adherence to protocols and legislated standards throughout the production processing and marketing channels (Muren, 2004 as cited in Raihanul, 2012)It is an integrated process where in a number of various business entities (i.e. suppliers, manufactures, distributors, and retailers) work together in an effort to acquire raw materials, convert these materials into specified final products, and deliver these final products to retailers.The chain is traditionally characterized by a forward flow of materials and backward flow of information (Beamon, 1998).According to Dunne (2001), it is taken to mean the physical flow of goods that are required for raw materials to be transformed into finished products. Supply chain management is about making the chain as efficient as possible through better flow scheduling and resource use, improving quality control throughout the chain, reducing the risk associated with food safety and contamination, and decreasing the agricultural industry\"s response to changes in consumer demand for food attributes.Actors in a value chain may include input suppliers, producers, itinerant collectors (small and mobile traders who visit villages and rural markets), assembly traders (also called primary wholesalers who normally buy from farmers and itinerant collectors and sell to wholesalers), wholesalers (who deal with larger volumes than collectors and assemblers and often perform important storage functions), retailers (who distribute products to consumers), and processors (firms and individuals involved in the transformation of a product) (Kaplinisky and MorrisMoreover, Ssango (2006) defined that, chain actors are those involved in producing, processing, trading or consuming a particular agricultural product. The actors include direct actors who are commercially involved in the chain (producers, traders, retailers, consumers) and indirect actors who provide financial or non-financial support services, such as bankers and credit agencies, business service providers, government, researchers and extensionist 5 .According to Kaplinsky and Morris (2001), Value chain analysis provides a way to understand problems and find ways of improving the situation of the weaker links in the chain, such as those with low returns and little bargaining power. Similarly, Tallec (2006) indicates that, value chain analysis is one of the ways of identifying which activities are best undertaken by a business and which are best provided by others.Likewise, FIAS (2007), Value chain analysis is a method for accounting and presenting the value that is created in a product or service as it is transformed from raw inputs to a final product consumed by end users. Msuya (2009) reported that, value chain analysis is an effective means of conceptualizing the forms, functions and integration that actor takes in the production process, because it shifts the focus from production alone to the varied set of activities that make up the chain. Value chain analysis help in understanding challenges of market access through the identification of nature and extent of barriers to entry along the chain.Moreover, Lusby and Panlibuton (2004), value chain analysis can help to (a) reveal links between producers, exporters and global markets (b) Identify constraints along the chain to competing in the market place (c) clarify the relationships in the chain from buyer to producers and (d) highlight the distribution of benefits among buyers, exporters and producers in the chain.As is common in other African countries (e.g., Kenya and Uganda), dairy products in Ethiopia are channeled to consumers through both formal and informal dairy marketing systems. Until 1991, the formal market of cold chain, pasteurized milk was exclusively dominated by the DDE which supplied 12 percent of the total fresh milk in the Addis Ababa area (Holloway et al., 2000). Recently, however, private businesses have begun collecting, processing, packing and distributing milk and other dairy products. Still, the proportion of total production being marketed through the formal markets remains small (Muriuki and Thorpe, 2001).Milk and milk products in Ethiopia are channeled to consumers through both formal and informal marketing systems. About 95 percent of the marketed milk at national level is channeled through the informal system. In this marketing system, milk and milk products may pass from producers to consumers directly or through one or more market agents. Producers sell the surplus milk produced to their neighbors and/or in the local markets, either as liquid milk or in the form of butter and/or Ayib 6 (O\"Connor, 1992). This system is characterized by no license to operate, low cost of operation, high producer prices as compared with formal market and no regulation of operation (SNV, 2008). The hygienic condition of milk and milk products channeled through this system is also poor. This is mainly due to the prevailing situation where producers have limited knowledge of dairy product handling coupled with the inadequacy of dairy infrastructure such as cooling facilities and unavailability of clean water in the production areas (Land o\"lakes, 2010).In the formal system, milk is collected at the cooperative or private milk collection centers and transported to processing plants. In this system, milk quality tests (principally acidity using alcohol and clot-on-boiling test, and density) are performed on delivery, thereby assuring the quality of milk. This has encouraged the producers to improve the hygiene conditions, storage and transportation of the milk in order to avoid rejection of the product on delivery to the collection center. The formal milk market appears to be expanding during the last decade with the private sector leading the dairy processing industry in Addis Ababa and other major regional towns. However, the share of milk sold in the formal market in Ethiopia (two percent) is much less than that sold in neighboring countries: 15 percent in Kenya and five percent in Uganda (Muriuki and Thorpe, 2001).Although the price of the different inputs into the dairy production varies and is constantly increasing, milk producers continue to get very low amounts for their products as compared to the cost of production. It is therefore important to put a functional control mechanism in place so that producers can get what they deserve. Most farmers live in6 Ayib is Traditional Ethiopian cheese/ cottage cheese remote areas not easily accessible by road to facilitate transportation of agricultural products including milk and milk products to places with storage facilities and selling points. Transportation of fresh milk to any market will take a number of hours to reach the market. The Livestock Development Master Plan Report indicated that only a few farmers live close to the main road system, which gives them basic access between farm and village and from the village to the market (GRM International BV, 2007). Abbot and Makeham (1981) indicated that, factors accounting for efficiency can be evaluated by examining the characteristics of markets such as structure, conduct and performance. These elements measure the extent of deviation from the perfectly competitive norm. The larger the deviation, the more imperfectly competitive is the market, that is on extreme case would be monopoly.According to Kohls and Uhl (1985), Evaluation of the efficiency with which the agricultural marketing system operates forms the crux of analysis of marketing problem. In line with this, the analysts of the market structure, behavior and quantitative evaluation of the efficiency of the marketing system requires concept, theories, methods, data and workable frame works and extremely difficult tasks (Branson and Norvell, 1983).According to Scott (1995), Market concentration refers to the number and relative size of buyers or sellers in a market. Similarly, Bain (1968) Market structure is defined as, those characteristics of the organization of the market that seems to exercise strategic influence on the nature of competition and pricing within the market. The characteristics usually stressed are the number and size distribution of firms in relation to the size of the market, the presence or absence of barriers to entry facing new firms, physical or subjective and product differentiation. Kohls and Uhl (1985), bring into play as a rule of thumb, four largest enterprises\" concentration ratio of 50% or more (an indication of a strongly oligopolistic industry), 33-50 % (a weak oligopoly) and less than that (competitive industry). The problem associated with this index is the arbitrary selection of r (the number of firms that are taken to compare the ratio).Market conduct refers to the patterns of behavior that firms follow in adopting or adjusting to the markets in which they sell or buy (Bain, 1968). Similar description by, Meijer (1994) said that, \"conduct is pattern of behavior which enterprises follow in adopting or adjusting to the market in which they sell or buy\", in other words the strategies of the actors operating in the market.According to Wolday (1994), also the structure and conduct of market participants have a direct implication for the nature of production price relationships between different marketing levels.Market conduct refers to the practices or strategies of traders in maximizing their profits. Among these practices are the use of regular partners, long-term relations with clients, and suppliers, the use of intermediaries, and trade within personalized networks Market conduct deals with the behavior of firms that are price-searchers are expected to act differently than those in a price-taker type of industry (Cramers and Jensen, 1982). Price searchers can determine their selling prices or quantity of output they sell. In addition, they could use their market power to weaken or eliminate competitors example reducing price. According to Abbott and Makeham (1981), conduct refers to the market behavior of all firms. In what way do they compete? Are they looking for new techniques and do they apply them as practicable? Are they looking for new investment opportunities, or are they disinvesting and transferring funds elsewhere?According to Abbott and Makeham (1981), market performance is how successfully the firm\"s aims are accomplished, which shows the assessment of how well the process of marketing is carried out. Is produce assembled and delivered on time and without wastage? Is it well packed and presented attractively? Is its quality reliable and are terms of contract observed? Is the consumption of the products increasing and sales in competitive market expanding? There are such practical indicators of how well a certain marketing system is operating. As a method for analysis, the SCP paradigm postulates that the relationship exists between the three levels distinguished. Performance of the market is reflection of the impact of structure and conduct on product price, costs and the volume and quality of output (Cramers and Jensen, 1982). If the market structure in an industry resembles monopoly rather than pure competition, then one expects poor market performance. Similarly, Meijer (1994) describe that, one can imagine a causal relations starting from the structure, which determine the conduct, which together determine the performance (technological progressiveness, growth orientation of marketing firms, efficiency of resource use, and product improvement and maximum market services at the least possible cost) of agricultural marketing system in developing countries .Market performance can be evaluated by analysis of costs and margins of marketing agents in different channels. A commonly used measure of system performance is the marketing margin or price spread. Margin or spread can be useful descriptive statistics; it is used to show how the consumer\"s food price is divided among participants at different levels of marketing system (Getachew, 2002 as cited in Dirriba, 2013).According to Holloway et al. (2002), Marketing costs are the embodiment of barriers to access to market participation by resource poor smallholders. It refers to those costs, which are incurred to perform various marketing activities in the transportation of goods from producer to consumers.Marketing costs includes handling cost (packing and unpacking, costs of searching for a partner with whom to exchange, screening potential trading partners to ascertain their trustworthiness, bargaining with potential trading partners (and officials) to reach an agreement, transferring the product, monitoring the agreement to see that its conditions are fulfilled, and enforcing the exchange agreement. In line the above, the costs and returns of actors playing various market functions are affected by differences in enterprise size and location, vertical integration of functions, the internal organization of enterprise operations and the nature of horizontal and exchange relations, particularly where the latter are linked with credit (Scarborough and Kydd, 1992).Cramers and Jensen (1982) indicated that, a marketing margin is the percentage of the final weighted average selling price taken by each stage of the marketing chain. The total marketing margin is the difference between what the consumer pays and what the producer/farmer receives for his product. In other words, it is the difference between retail price and farm price. According to Wolday (1994), a wide margin means usually high prices to consumers and low prices to producers. The total marketing margin may be subdivided into different components: all the costs of marketing services and the profit margins or net returns. The marketing margin in an imperfect market is likely to be higher than that in a competitive market because of the expected abnormal profit.Many studies were conducted to determine factors that affect market participation and volume supply of different agricultural commodities. Some of these studies which consider two dependent variables which are market participation decision and marketed volume are stated below. Abay (2007), conducted a study on vegetable market chain analysis in Fogera woreda. He adopted Heckman two-stage model to estimate the probability of farmer\"s participation in a market and market supply level. Abraham (2013), conducted another Study on value chain analysis of vegetables: the case of Habro and Kombolcha woredas in Oromia region, Ethiopia. He adopted Heckman two-stage model to estimate the probability of farmer\"s participation in a market and market supply level. Bedilu (2013), conducted a study on factors affecting camel and cow milk marketed surplus: the case of eastern Ethiopia. Heckman\"s sample selection and multiple linear regression models were used to investigate the factors affecting marketed supply of cow and camel milk in the study area, respectively. Dawit (2010), conducted a study on market chain analysis of poultry: the case of Alamata and Atsbi-Wonberta woredas of Tigray region. He used in the ecometric analysis Heckman two-stage model to estimate the probability of farmer\"s participation in poultry market and poultry market supply level. Woldemichael (2008)  Pomerory (1989), on four fish market using concentration ratio (market share ratio) in Philippines found that 50% of the industry made 80% of the fish purchases.Similarly study conducted by Scott (1995), on potato marketing using marketing margin analysis in Bangladesh indicated that producer\"s price and margin were 1.27 and 67 %, respectively. Rehima (2006), conducted study on pepper marketing chains analysis in Alaba and Siltie Zones in southern Ethiopia using marketing margin analysis found that the gross marketing margin obtained by pepper retailers was 43.08% of the consumer\"s price. The same study reported that producer\"s share and net marketing margins obtained by retailers were 50.7% and 29.47% of the consumer\"s price. Positive interaction among smallholders\" milk producer\"s characteristics, institutional factors, production factors and marketing factor, leads to sustainable increasing milk production and participation in milk marketing in the woreda. However production constraints (for example: dairy breed type, number of milk cow, milk yield, feed, water and disease) have direct influence in amount of milk produced and this has influence on milk marketing participation and volume of sales. This is because when the production is more constrained, the milk marketing system tends to in efficient and imperfect. Marketing factors (are Distance to woreda market, milk marketing information, marketing price of milk and anticipating marketing price of butter)This chapter consists of seven sections. The first section presents a description of the study area,The second section justifies research strategy and design of the study, Section three describes sampling design and procedure, While section four explains the data type, source and collection instrument, fifth section dwells on data collection methods, The sixth section elaborates on method of data analysis, whereas, the seventh section describes on variable definition and hypothesized.Laelay Maichew Woreda has a good agricultural potential and has relatively better agricultural marketing activities due to its location advantage in being closer to the main road and Aksum town. Four kebele\"s were selected for the study. The nearest, medium and distant kebele\"s from Aksum town in order to see the value chain of cow milk in market and to see how the smallholder reach to the market. These kebeles are Dura, Medego, Debrebirhan and Mahibereselam respectively. Dura and Medego are from the nearest distant kebeles the main reason to select these two kebeles from the nearest distant is, both of them are potential in cow milk production but the socio economic of the smallholders in these two kebeles are different and Dura have large irrigation land this is one of source income and this have an advantage to have high dairy green feed therefore these two kebeles are selected from the nearest distant to Aksum town through this reason in order to reduce selection bias.The area has good climatic conditions and this is an opportunity for rearing dairy cows. The agro ecology of the area is tepid to cool sub-moist mid highlands or weinadega. The elevation of the area ranges between 2050-2200masl. The mean annual temperature ranges from a minimum of 12 o C to an average annual maximum of 28 o c and the annual rainfall varies between 500-900mm and rainfall starts in June and ends in September (Laelay Maichew OARD, 2014).Laelay Maichew Woreda has various land use types that could be classified into arable land, irrigated land, grazing land and forest land. The woreda has a total area of 32833 ha of which 9533.57 ha arable land, 7720 ha forest land and 4405.5 ha grazing land. From the land under cultivation 6317.5 ha is rain fed land and 2639.85 ha irrigated land (Laelay Maichew OARD, 2014)Agriculture is the mainstay of the community. The economic activity of the study area is predominantly crop and livestock production (mixed farming system).The crop production system of the study area is dependent on both rain fed and irrigation. Of the community members, 7466 male household head and 1369 female household head a total of 8835 households are irrigation users. The average landholding for households was 1.37 ha with minimum of 0.5 and maximum of 2.25ha (Laelay Maichew woreda OARD, 2014).The major crops grown in the woreda include Teff, wheat, barley, field pea, faba bean, lentil, fenugreek and maize. Teff and wheat are the major sources of daily food of the population.Farmers of the woreda use different soil fertility management practices such as inorganic fertilizing (Urea and DAP) and organic like farmyard manure, compost, crop rotation, intercropping and to build up the supply of available nutrients so as to increase crop productivity as poor soil fertility is one of the crop production constraints in the woreda their crop production system is integrated in such a way that crop residue and straw feeds their animals while the animal waste used as manure and to prepare compost to improve their crop productivity by improving soil fertility (Laelay Maichew woreda OARD, 2014).Livestock constitute an essential part of the farming system in the study area. Major livestock herds in the woreda are cattle, goats, sheep, donkey, chicken, camel, mule and beehive. Oxen are the main source of farm power for plowing, and threshing. In general the study area practices both grazing and cut and carries system for their livestock management (Laelay Maichew woreda OARD, 2014). Hence farmers of the area are a potential prepare compost from the animal wastes and crop residue as both production system are well practiced.Simple assessment was conducted by ILRI on Commodities development potential at kebele levels. The three clusters of action woredas in the central zone of Tigray consist of 63 Kebeles.The field survey showed that dairy is potentially produced at about 77.78% and poultry on about 82.54%. The survey also showed that small ruminants potentially produced on about 77.78% and irrigated crops on about 77.78% of the total kebeles.The clustering kebele potential for specific commodities showed a clear pattern of commodity combinations. For instance, in most of the irrigated sites of Laelay Maitchew Woreda, dairy and poultry has been reported as potential commodities in synergy with irrigation development (Table 1). In the less irrigated potential kebeles, small ruminant and poultry has been reported as dominant commodity combinations. The same is true for Adwa and Ahferom action woredas.Thus, the delineation of kebeles into commodity potential combinations or recommendation domains is useful for developing context specific livestock and irrigation interventions. Relatively commodity potential of Kebeles was assessed using 0-3 scales. Scores indicating 0 = no potential, 1= limited potential, 2 = medium potential and 3 = high potential. Source: LIVES project enteral zone report, June 2013.Laelay Maichew Woreda has an estimated total population of 77,672 of which 35,177 are males and 42,495 are females. From the total 12,231 rural household heads of whom male headed household accounts for 8257 which is about 67.5 percent while female headed households\" accounts for 3974, which is about 32.5 percent. The average household size of the study area is 6 heads per household. The population density of the study area is about people per square kilometer (Laelay Maichew Woreda OARD, 2014). Followed to farming, supportive activities like food for work programs of governmental and non-governmental organizations and selling labor in different infrastructure development projects and in construction building are common off-farm economic source of the of the people.The research was conducted starting from October 2014 to October 2015 and it was based on a cross-sectional survey data in the sense that relevant data was collected at some point in time.The reason for preferring a cross sectional study is due to the nature of the study which is survey on value chain analysis of cow milk and time limitation. The study used both qualitative and quantitative data.The population about which assessment was made is smallholder dairy producer households located in Laelay Maichew Woreda. Those total accounts for 1286 smallholder dairy producer households in the study area.Shortly, the unit of analysis is at household level of smallholder dairy producers in the woreda.To address the objectives of this study, a multi stage sampling method was used to obtain the necessary information. In the first stage the study area (woreda) was selected purposively considering its agro ecological suitability for dairy production, dairy production potentials and based on sponsors\" interest. Secondly, stratified sampling was also adopted in order to come up with homogenous kebele\"s. Hence, the kebeles were selected based on two basic criteria, one distance to Aksum town and potentially for dairy production. Thirdly, smallholder dairy producer households were selected by using simple random sampling.Lastly, sample size of smallholder dairy producers was determined using the table developed by (Bartlett et al. 2001) (annex, 6). According to those authors for 1500 population size and 95% confidence interval 110 sample sizes were determined. By doing so, in this study from 1286 population size, 110 of smallholder dairy producers were selected. Then, value chain actors (input suppliers, traders, collectors, milk processors, etc.) sample was determined based on availability and size. Accordingly, total sample for this study was used 130 (110 are smallholder dairy producers and 20 are other market actors participating in the milk value chain). Finally respondents were proportionally and randomly selected from each kebeles and stated as follows.  For this research the main sources of data were both primary and secondary data sources. And both qualitative and quantitative data were used.Primary data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires from smallholder dairy producers. Personal interview were conducted with dairy production experts from Laelay Maichew Office of agricultural and rural development. Personal interview were conducted in order to gain feedback and for probing purposes; because individuals may be reluctant to issues which they thought are sensitive.The main sources of secondary data for the study included reports of organizations concerning their daily performance and registered problems and businesses books that deal with the business environment, journal articles, different related manuals and reports of other stakeholder institutions. A survey questionnaire for collecting data on the socio-economic characteristics of the target population was designed with a scope limited to only the information that the researcher thought vital for the study. Trained enumerators administered the questionnaire and the essence of each question was discussed before the data collection was actually begun.This fact requires studying the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the general form, question sequence and question formulation and wording in addition in designing the questionnaire, a series of stages was involved. First, initial set of questions were settled for each respondent group which is then discussed with advisors. Next the questionnaire was translated through translation techniques first prepared in English then forward translation was done in to Tigrigna, then debriefing was conducted on the translated questioner. After that backward translation was also conducted in to English. Finally, comparison was conducted with the original questioner prepared in English. Then, the questionnaire was pre-tested on the study area on 10 randomly selected respondents (approximately 10% of the sample size). And further, it was refined and distributed.After distributing the questionnaire, the researcher arranged an interview schedule on issues related to current cow milk value chains in smallholder dairy producer households in particular.The interviewees were done with the woreda Agriculture and Rural Development dairy production expert. The structure of the interview schedule was semi-structured so as to get general information as well as to extract some specific data. Personal interview mode of data collection is preferred due to its high response rate as compared to either mail or telephone interview. Further, the mode provides clarification of the questions.In this study, descriptive analysis, value chain mapping, and econometric methods of data analysis were used to analyze the data collected from the respondents to meet the set objectives of the study.Demographic and socio economic conditions/ features of the sampled household in the study area were analyzed by using descriptive statistics and summarized in table using percentage, frequency, mean and ranking. It was employed in the process of examining and describing marketing functions, farm household characteristics, role of intermediaries, marketing margin value and profit share among milk value chain actors. STATA version 10 statistical package was employed to compute these statistical tools.Mapping a value chain facilitates a clear understanding of the sequence of activities and the key actors and relationships existed in the value chain. This exercise was carried out in qualitative and quantitative terms through graphs presenting the various actors of the chain, their linkages and all operations of the chain from pre-production (supply of inputs) to consumption. In order to map a diagram that clearly depicts the structure and flow of the value chain, the following questions may rise:•What are the main activities carried out in the value chain to obtain the final product?•Who are the operators involved in these activities and what are their roles?•What are the flow of products, information and knowledge in the value chain?•What are the production volumes and the number of actors?•Where does the product (or service) originate from and where does it go?•How does value change through the value chain?•What types of relationships and linkages exist among the various chain actors?•What types of business services are feeding into the chain, including the regulatory and policy framework in which the sector is operating? Where, C = Concentration ratio Si = the percentage market share of the i th firm r = the number of relatively larger firms for which the ratio is going to be calculated Kohls and Uhl (1985) bring into play as a rule of thumb, four largest enterprises\" concentration ratio of 50% or more (an indication of a strongly oligopolistic industry), 33-50% (a weak oligopoly) and less than that (competitive industry). The problem associated with this index is the arbitrary selection of r (the number of firms that are taken to compare the ratio).It is a systematic way to detect indication of unfair price setting practices and the conditions under which practices are likely to prevail. Meijer (1994) said that, \"conduct is pattern of behavior which enterprises follow in adopting or adjusting to the market in which they sell or buy\", in other words the strategies of the actors operating in the market.After having developed the general conceptual map of the value chain, the next step is to analyze the chain\"s economic performance. Production costs margins and price markups, are among the possible measures of chain performance. Here, descriptive analysis was employed to examine marketing costs, margins and value share of the different marketing participants. Marketing margin analysis deals with comparison of price at different levels of marketing over the same period of time. It measures the share of the final selling price that is captured by a particular agent in the marketing chain and always related to the final price or the price paid by the end consumer, expressed in percentage (Mendoza, 1995).No other term associated with agricultural marketing is more misunderstood than the concept of a marketing margin. A big marketing margin may, in fact, result in little or no profit or even a loss for the seller involved. That depends on the marketing costs as well as on the selling and buying price. Because precise marketing costs are frequently difficult to determine in many agricultural marketing chains, the gross and not the net marketing margin is calculated. Thus, the marketing margin should be understood as the gross marketing margin.The formula to calculate total gross marketing margin (TGMM) is given as:The gross (profit) margin is the difference between sales revenue and cost price, expressed as percentage of the cost price or as discounted percentage of the sales price. The net (profit) margin is the same as that of gross margin excluding Value Added Tax. It is useful to introduce here the idea of producer participation, farmer\"s portion or producer\"s gross margin (GMM) which is the portion of the price paid by the end consumer that belongs to the farmer as a producer. The producer\"s margin or share in the consumer price is calculated as: Finally, profit margin can be calculated by deducting operating expenses from marketing margin (Dawit, 2010).Where, TGPM is total gross profit margin, TGMM is total gross marketing margin and TOE is total operating expense.Profit margin at stage \"i\" is given as:GPM i is gross profit margin at i th link; GMM i is gross marketing margin at i th link; OE i is operating expense at i th link and TGPM is total gross profit margin.Heckman selection model was used to identify the main determinants of smallholder farmers\" participation in lucrative markets and marketed supply of cow milk, which is the third objective of the study.If two decisions are involved, such as participation and volume of supply and there is selection bias, in this case Heckman\"s sample selection model is appropriate (Heckman, 1979). TheHeckman two-step procedures first estimate the participation equation (the probability of participating in milk market) and derive maximum likelihood Probit estimates from the coefficient of the participation equation. Using these estimates, a variable known as the inverse mills ratio is calculated. The inverse Mills ratio is a variable for controlling bias due to sample selection (Heckman, 1979). The second stage involves including the mills ratio to the milk supply equation and estimating the equation using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique to estimate the model.The participation/the binary probit model is specified as:Where MMP is milk market participation; i Y is a dummy variable indicating the market participation; i X are the variables determining participation in the probit model; i  is unknown parameter to be estimated in the probit regression model; i  is random error term.Then the parameters can consistently be estimated by OLS over n observations reporting values for i Y by including an estimate of the IMR denoting i  as an additional regressor in equation (7). More precisely the observation equation/the supply equation is specified as:where i Y is the volume of marketed milk supply in the second step; i X are the explanatory variables determining the quantity supply; i  is unknown parameter that shows estimated in the quantity supply; i  is a parameter that shows the impact of participation on the quantity supply; i  is the error term.Constraints of cow milk value chain in Laelay Maichew woreda were ranked based on the principle of weighted average using MS excel 2007 auto ranking method. The following formula was used to compute index as employed by Musa et al (2006):Where, Rn=Value given for the least ranked level (example if the least rank is 10th, then Rn=10, Rn-1=9, R1 = 1). Cn = Counts of the least ranked level (in the above example, the count of the 10th rank =Cn, and the count of the 1st rank = C1).Different variables were expected to affect the value chain of cow milk in the study area. Thus, it is important to define their measurement and identify the potential explanatory variable as well as the symbol to represent them. Accordingly, the major variables expected to have an influence on the cow milk value chain are explained below.This study uses the following two dependent variables in two stages of the value chain analysis Milk Market Participation decision (MMP): Is a dummy variable that represents the probability of market participation of the household in the milk market that is regressed in the first stage of the Heckman two stages estimation procedure. It was taking 1 for the respondents who participate in milk market and 0 for respondents who do not participate in the market.It is a continuous variable in the second step of Heckman selection equation. It is measured in liters and represents the actual supply of milk by sample households to the market which is selected for regression analysis that takes positive values.Credit access: This is a dummy variable which enables milk producers to increase their financial capacity to participate in milk market and to supply more volume milk to the market. Therefore, it is expected to have positive impact on milk market participation and milk marketed volume surplus. 1 for access credit, 0 otherwise.It is a dummy variable. Market information is the information on price, demand, buyers and other relevant information that could contribute for a good decision of sellers. The better information farmers had about the milk marketing the higher would be their participation level and supply volume of milk. Therefore, it is hypothesized that market information is positively related to market participation and supply of marketed milk volume. 1for access to milk market information, 0 otherwise.It is a continuous variable measured in kilometer. The closer the market the lesser the transportation charges, reduced trekking time, reduced loss to spoilage, reduced transaction costs, and reduce other marketing costs. A study conducted by Holloway etal. ( 2002) on expanding market participation among smallholder livestock producers in the Ethiopia highlands revealed that distance to market was negatively related to market participation decision by dairy household. Therefore, in this study distance to woreda milk market is hypothesized to affect market participation decision and volume surplus negatively.Breed type: it is a dummy variable which takes 1 if the cow milk is exogenous breed and 0 if local breed. It is assumed that the exotic breeds are relatively high productive than the local breeds and is hypothesized that this variable is positively related to market participation and marketed surplus.This variable is a continuous variable measured in number of milking cows owned. The entry to milk market and marketed milk volume are assumed to be positively influenced by the number of exogenous breed and local breed dairy cows.It is a continuous variable measured in liters. A marginal increase in dairy production has obvious and significant effect in motivating market participation and volume of milk supply. The variable is expected to have a positive contribution to market participation and marketed volume.It is a continuous variable and measured in years of schooling of the household head. Formal education is hypothesized to have positive influence on market participation and marketed surplus.Farming experience: it is a continuous variable measured in terms of the number of year of cow milk farming experience of the household head; it is expected to have a positive effect on milk market participation and milk supply to market.This is dummy variable that takes a value of 1 if the household head is female and 0 otherwise. It is assumed that the female are responsible for managing and caring of milk related activities and is expected that this to have positively related with milk market participation and milk sales volume.Children below five years old: continuous variable measured in terms of the number of children below age of five in the sample household. Mostly milk as a major food and its importance in children growth is widely accepted and recognized both in rural and urban areas. An increase in the number of children in this age category usually decreases the marketed surplus and therefore it is expected to have negatively related to marketed surplus of milk and reduces the ability of the smallholder in market participation.Family size: this variable is a continuous explanatory variable and measured in terms of adult equivalent. Families with more household members tend to have more labour. Production in general and marketed surplus in particular is a function of labour. Thus, family size is expected to have positive impact on market participation but larger family size requires larger amounts for consumption, reducing marketed surplus.Market price of milk: This is the price offer a farmer receives from selling his produce. It is a continuous variable Birr 7 (ETB) and expected to influence market participation and supply decisions positively. As farmer sees better price the probability of entering a market and volume of milk supply was increase.Anticipated market price of butter: it is a continuous variable measured in Birr (ETB). It is expected to influence supply decisions negatively. As farmer expects better price volume of milk supply was decrease.Income from the non-dairy sources: It is continuous variable measured in Birr (ETB).The variable represents income originating from different sources and obtained by the sample household. Through improving liquidity, this income makes the household to expand production and or/ purchase from market. It also strengthens the household position in coping with different forms of risks. Thus, income from non-dairy source is hypothesized to affect milk market entry decision by household and sale volume of milk positively. Should be also negatively Access to dairy production extension service: This variable is measured as a dummy variable taking a value of 1 if the dairy household has access to dairy production extension service and 0 otherwise. It is expected that extension service widens the household\"s knowledge with regard to the use of improved dairy production technologies and has positive impact on milk market participation decision and sale volume of milk. Therefore contact with extension agent is assumed to have direct relation with market participation and volume of marketed surplus.7 Birr (ETB) is an Ethiopian currency Variance inflation factor (VIF) is used to check multicollinearity of continuous variables. As R j 2 increase towards unity, that is, as the collinearity of X j with the other repressors increase, VIF also increases and in the limit it can be infinite. The larger the value of VIF, the more troublesome or collinear is the variable X j . As a rule of thumb, if the VIF greater than 10, which will happen if R j 2 is greater than 0.90, that variable is said to be highly collinear (Gujarati, 2003).Multicollinearity of continuous variables can also be checked using Tolerance. Tolerance is unity if X j is not correlated with the other explanatory variable, whereas it is zero if it is perfectly correlated with other explanatory variables. The popular measure of multicollinearity is defined as…….Where, Rj 2 is the coefficient of determination in the Auxiliary regression Where, CC is contingency coefficient, χ 2 is chi-square test and N is total sample size.STATA 10 was used to compute both VIF and CC. Among the total sample households heads 82.82% were male and the remaining 18.18% were female headed implying that more of the sample dairy producer households were male.Proportionally, from milk market participants of sampled households, 40.91%, and 6.36% were male and female headed respectively and from milk market non-participants of sampled households, 40.91%, and 11.82% were male and female headed respectively. Regarding their marital status, majority (74.55%) were married and the rest (18.18%) single and (7.27%) divorced. During the survey, there were no households in the sample who has educational background above preparatory level and non-educated.The average number of dairy cow owned by milk market participant (2.25) and non-participant (1.36) showed statistically highly significant difference (table 5). Moreover, highly significant difference in average milk produced per year by participant (1377.98) and non-participant (527.85) was observed. Consequently, the average milk produced per cow per year, by those two groups (participant and not participant) was 689.69 and 425.5 respectively with highly significance difference at less than 1% significance level. It is obvious that milk sold on those participants and not participants were 4.92 liter and 0 respectively and this shows highly significance difference at less than 1% significance level. This might be due to, non-participant households have limited access to milk market information, they have a long distance to woreda market compared to participant and they need to process it. Access to services like credit, agricultural extension and market information has vital importance to promote agricultural households\" production and productivity which thereby increase marketable surplus and ultimately farm income. For farmers, knowing where and when to sell their output is one of the most difficult challenges. If they have no knowledge of current market prices, they can easily be exploited. But gathering information about markets may not be easy, especially for people living in very remote areas (CTA, 2008). Addressing new challenges requires extension to play an expanded role with a diversity of objectives, which include: linking farmers more effectively and responsively to domestic and international markets; enhancing crop diversification; coupling technology transfer with other services relating to input and output markets; poverty reduction and environmental conservation; viewing agriculture as part of a wider set of rural development process that includes enterprise development and non-farm employment; and capacity development in terms of strengthening innovation process, building linkages between farmers and other agencies, and institutional development to support the bargaining position of farmers (Sulaiman et al., 2006).Household respondents were also interviewed whether or not they have access for services like credit, extension service and market information and as depicted in table 6. 75.5%, 65.5% and 31.8% of the total household respondents replied as they have the access for credit services, extension service and market information respectively for their dairy production. The main purpose why they took the money was for fertilizer, seed purchasing and dairy improved breed purchasing. As indicates in table 6, from the total sample respondents 31.8 % get current market information on milk from different sources. There is also statistically significance difference between the participants and non-participants\" access to current market information at less than 1 % significance level. The access to service of the sampled households of the two groups (participant and non-participant) by kebeles credit service was not statistically different in all the sampled kebels but extension service is statistically significance at less than 10 % only at Debrebirhan kebele. Moreover, access to milk market information was statistically significance at less than 1 % at both Dura and Debrebirhan kebeles but in Medego kebele it is statistically significance at less than 5% whereas in Mahibereselam it was insignificant. This part discusses the structure, the function and actors of milk value chain in the study area.The objective is to map and describe the function of milk value chain actors and to identify the costs and benefits of the actors in the chain.According to Anandajayasekeram and Berhanu (2009) Milk producers are very important actor in the milk value chain. They are the producer -sellers.Milk producing smallholder farmers generally sold their milk to the intermediaries and directly to consumer either in the woreda markets or at the neighbuor and thus formed a link in the milk value chain map. Those are the second actors in the value chain of milk and the basis of market participant in milk markets. The producers are mostly smallholder farmers and they are always supplied milk for consumption to rural and urban area in the most efficient way to dispose of surpluses quickly and cost effectively for payment. Traditionally, smallholder dairy producers work as integrated actor and perform two or more functions of value chain. They make husbandry practice, feeding, breeding and milking for their dairy cows and transporting and selling the milk to processer, dairy cooperative and consumers.The dairy cooperatives found in the study area are the second and third link in the milk value chain. They are engaged in producing and buying of milk from farmers and sell it to rural and urban consumers and processers (hotel and café). Dairy cooperatives play important roles in collecting even the small amount of milk which is not encouraged to sell by individuals because the distant they have from the town and selling the collected milk to the various market outlets.These are the last link in the milk value chain they are engaged in buying, processing and selling milk to any consumer coming to their service area. They are sometimes considering as processers and retailers of milk.Consumers are the final users and the most important actor of milk value chain. There were two types of consumer in this milk value chain. Those are consumers from smallest size rural community and from the largest size urban consumers of the study area.Support services do not directly perform the basic functions in a value chain. They refer to general investment and preparatory activities benefiting all or at least several value chain actors simultaneously. They remain outsiders to the regular business process and restrict themselves to temporarily facilitating a chain upgrading strategy. Typical facilitation tasks include creating awareness, facilitating joint strategy building and action and the coordination of support activities (like training, credit, etc). In the study area the support service providers in the milk value chain were credit organizations and extension services.  Milk market channels connect producers, dairy cooperatives, and hotels/restaurants and café to consumers as shown in Figure 5. Six types of market-outlets to sell milk were identified in the study area and the starting point in the milk market channels is the producers and the final users of the products are the consumers. Generally, milk is channeled either to dairy cooperatives, hotels/restaurants and café and then to consumers. Milk marketing channels for the four selected sample kebeles are similar nature as shown below but in kebele Debrebirhan there are Dairy cooperatives which is facilitate the marketing of fluid milk in the area. In the study area the total milk volume marketed per day per total sampled milk marketed was through informal marketing system.Marketing channels in the study area According to, Scott (1995) Market concentration refers to the number and relative size of buyers or sellers in a market. Similarly, Bain (1968) defined Market structure as those characteristics of the organization of the market that seems to exercise strategic influence on the nature of competition and pricing within the market. Many studies indicate the existence of some degree of positive relationship between market concentration and gross marketing margins. It is generally believed that, higher market concentration implies a non-competitive behavior and thus inefficiency. However, some studies also warn against the interpretation of such relationships in isolation from other determinant factors like barriers to entry and scale economies.Concentration ratio for fluid milk market was calculated by taking the annually purchased volume of milk by market participants in liter. In this study, the degree of market concentration was measured using the common measures of market concentration that is Concentration Ratio (C 4 ).Four processors\"/Retailers (Hotel and café) with the largest volume of milk handled were used for the calculation of market concentration ratio of milk traders. As indicated in Table 7, market concentration ratio of the four milk processors\"/retailers in Aksum town was 34% and this figure suggested that the market type is weak oligopoly market type and this result is supported by Kohls and Uhl (1985). This indicates that there are many dairy producers in the Aksum town. Source: survey result, 2015Market conduct refers to the patterns of behavior that firms follow in adopting or adjusting to the markets in which they sell or buy (Bain, 1968). According to Abbott and Makeham (1981), conduct refers to the market behavior of all firms. In what way do they compete? Are they looking for new techniques and do they apply them as practicable? Are they looking for new investment opportunities, or are they disinvesting and transferring funds elsewhere?In this study, the smallholder dairy producers in Laelay Maichew woreda have weak or no organizations. Thus, they lack the power to negotiate. Due to this, they simply take price and other terms like payment deadline from input suppliers and buyers of milk. Therefore, they are not in a position to interact effectively with other stakeholders in the milk market chain. Out of the selected milk producer households, 47.3% are engaged in selling fluid milk whereas 52.7 % are not selling their product. The market participant producers are selling their product through informal marketing system.The costs and returns of actors playing various market functions are affected by differences in enterprise size and location, vertical integration of functions, the internal organization of enterprise operations and the nature of horizontal and exchange relations, particularly where the latter are linked with credit (Scarborough and Kydd, 1992).The performance of milk market was evaluated by considering associated costs and marketing margins. Price per litter for milk was used for the marketing margin calculations. Results of marketing costs and margins analysis were used to determine whether there were excess profits and serious inefficiencies or wide margins are due to technical constraints (such as transportation bottleneck). Margin and cost calculation was carried only for key milk marketing channels.Table 8 indicates different types of marketing and production costs related to the transaction of milk by producers, Dairy Cooperative and retailers (café and Hotel). The structure of production cost indicates that cost of feed was highest in all channels whereas the highest marketing costs (labour and transport) for the dairy cooperative were observed in channel IV, VI and VII. On the other hand highest marketing cost of sugar was recorded for cafe and hotel in channel III and VII.   9 gives an overview of the marketing margin among different actors in different channels.The total gross marketing margin (TGMM) is highest in Channel VII and followed by channel III which accounts for 66.67% and 60% of the consumer\"s price, respectively. Whereas, the milk traders\" (producer, café and hotel and dairy cooperative) accounts highest gross marketing margin 100% in channel I and II, 60% in channel III, and 23.08% in channel VI of consumer\"s price, respectively. TGMM is lowest which accounts 0% of the consumer\"s price and producer's share (GMMp) is highest (100%) in consumers\" price in Channel I and II but lowest (33.33% and 40%) in consumer price in channel VII and III respectively. This is because of, relatively those channel is long from other marketing channels. NMM is highest for café and hotel in channel III and VII which accounts 53.4% and 46.73% respectively. The reason is highest consumer price (30 ETB/liter) in both marketing channels.Heckman\"s two stage model was used for the econometric analysis of milk market participation decision and volume of supply. If two decisions are involved, such as participation and volume of supply, a Heckman is desirable. This model allows the supplier to choose whether or not to participate in a particular market, and if so, to choose the volume of supply. Thus, a Heckman (1979) two-stage procedure is used in which the inverse mill\"s ratio to overcome the problem of selectivity bias and this is calculated from a probit estimation of the decision to sell and introduced into the supply equations.The Heckman two-stage model result for both outcome and selection variables are presented and discussed in the next subsections. Moreover, it is important to check multi co-linearity problem before running the model for both the continuous as well as the dummy variables. The usual measure of multi co-linearity among continuous and dummy variables is Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for association among the continuous explanatory variables and Contingency Coefficients (CC) for dummy variables. To check the multi co-linearity problem STATA 10 was employed and the VIF and CC result are stated in the hypothesized continuous and dummy variables (Annex 3, 4).Results of the binary Probit (participation) equation are summarized in Table 10. In the first stage, households decide whether they will be sellers or not. The decision to participate in the binary market was estimated by Probit maximum likelihood method. Out of the sampled smallholder dairy producer households 47.3 % were milk market participants whereas 52.7 % households were not participants.From fifteen explanatory variables, nine were found to determine the probability of cow milk market participation in the Probit/participation equation. The determinant variables are milk market information (MMI), distance to woreda market (DWM), breed type (BreedT), number of dairy cow exotic and local (NDCEL), milk yield (MilkYD), educational level of household (ELHH), market price of milk (MPM), anticipated market price butter (AMPB) and Access to dairy production extension service (AcDPExS).has a positive and highly significant effect on probability milk market participation decision of cow milk producer households. At less than one significant level (Table 10). The positive and significant relationship indicates that, state of change to access milk market information, probability of participation in milk market increased. Thus, the result implied that, as households accessed to /gets milk market information, probability of milk market participation decision increases by 116% from non-getting/not accessed milk market information dairy producers of households. This result agrees with the finding of Bedilu et al., (2013) who illustrated access to market information by farming households increase market participation of milk significantly.Distance to the woreda market (DWM): as expected distance to the woreda market has a negative relationship with household cow milk market participation decision and was statistically significant at less than 5% probability level. The negative and significant relationship shows that may be due to the reason that the distance to the woreda market increases transportation cost; since milk is highly perishable product and it requires on time delivery and the non-availability of milk collection centers near to producer also the other reason. Hence, the result implied that, as the distance to the woreda market increased by 1 Km, probability of milk market participation decreased by 25%. In other word, as the dairy households become closer to milk market center by one kilometer, the probability of dairy households\" participation in milk market increases by 25%. This is in line with Woldemichael (2008) andHolloway et al. (2002) on expanding market participation among smallholder livestock producers in the Ethiopia highlands revealed that distance to market was negatively related to market participation decision by dairy household.Breed type (BreedT): as it was hypothesized that this variable has positively effect on the household milk market participation decision and was found statistically significant (P<0.10) level. The result indicates that may be the household dairy producers owning exotic breed cow increases milk production per cow, as a result of this, the household increases surplus of milk and this leads to the producer to participate in sells of milk. Therefore, the result of marginal effect indicates that, as households owning exotic breed than local breed cow, probability of milk market participation increased by 245%. This result agrees with the finding of Woldemichael (2008) who illustrated number of cross breed milking cows Shashemane, Hawassa and dale districts\" milk shed.Number of dairy cow exotic and local (NDCEL)፡ It was positive and significantly associated with households milk market participation decision at less than 10% significant level. This result indicates that the highest number of dairy cows exotic and local may have the probability of getting high milk production and this leads the household to make milk market participation decision. Thus, the marginal effect result implied that, as farmer\"s owning number of dairy cow exotic and local increased by 1 dairy cow, probability of milk market participation increased by 43%. This result agrees with the finding of Woldemichael (2008) and Bedilu et al., (2013) who illustrated number of milk cow by farming households increase market participation of milk significantly the case of eastern Ethiopia.The model result depicts that Milk yield as expected had a positive and significant (P<0.1) impact on households milk marketing participation decision. The result indicated that as milk yield gain per dairy cow is increased the household get milk surplus and this may probably have on household\"s milk market participation. Thus, the result implied that, as milk yield increased by 1 liter, probability of milk market participation increased by 0.1%. This is in line with Abraham (2013) who illustrated quantity produced, positive and significant the case of Habro and Kombolcha woredas. Educational level of household (ELHH): it is not found as hypothesized educational level of household has negative effect probability on households milk market participation decision and it was found significant (P<0.05) level. Hence, the result implied that, as Educational level of household increased by one years of schooling, probability of milk market participation decreased by 14.8%. The negative and significant relationship indicates that as educational level of the dairy household improves, may have the probability to see the comparative advantages participating in the other dairy products rather than fluid milk market participation decision and here also improving the level of education of household may be understand the nutritional value of milk therefore household milk consumption improves and satisfying the nutritional requirement. This leads to not to participate the households in fluid milk market. This result not agreed with the finding of Woldemichael (2008) who illustrated educational level of household has a positively effect on households milk market participation decision on shashemane, hawassa and dale districts\" milk shed. But this result agrees with the finding of Dawit (2010) who illustrated educational level of household has a negatively effect on households poultry market participation decision the case of Alamata and Atsbi-wonberta woredas of Tigray.As it was hypothesized market price of milk has positive effect probability on household milk market participation decision and it is significant less than 1% probability level. Thus, the result indicates that, as market price of milk increased by 1 ETB, probability of milk market participation increased by 108%. The positive relationship between the variables indicates that the higher market price of milk may have the probability of an effect to encourage household on milk market participation decision.Anticipated market price butter (AMPB): had negative effect on cow milk market participation of household and was found to be significant at 10% probability level. Therefore, the result of marginal effect implied that, as anticipated market price of butter increased by 1 ETB, probability of milk market participation decreased by 1.8%. The negative relationship between the variables indicates that, have a probability of decreases the fluid cow milk market participation of household for small amount milk producer households as a result of long distance to woreda market and the nature of the product perishability and they may also see the comparative advantages of value added milk product.Access to dairy production extension service (AcDPExS). This variable was expected to positively affect households\" milk market participation decision. However, the divergent has been observed in the result. Access to dairy production extension service was significantly (P<0.05) and negatively affected households\" milk market participation decision. Thus, the result implied that, as access to dairy production extension service contact increased probability of milk market participation decreased by 96%. The possible reason for the negative sign may be is due to the effect of extension system on dairy production this means the households may get an advice on how to improve their productivity and converting the product to long shelf life product rather than participating fluid milk marketing. Therefore, extension service given to the farmers affects the household milk market participation decision. as it was hypothesized this also another factor, which positively affects milk quantity supply at less than 5% significance level. The coefficient result indicates that, as households getting milk market information, increases sales of milk by 1.16 liters from non-getting milk market information households. This result is plausible and suggests that marketable milk surplus of the household in the study area was more responsive to milk market information.Distance to the woreda market (DWM): as expected distance to the woreda market has a negative relationship with household volume of cow milk market supply and was statistically highly significant at less than 1% probability level. The coefficient variable result implies that, as the distance of dairy household farm increase by one kilometer, the sales volume of milk decrease by 0.25 liter of milk. This means in other way, as the dairy households\" dairy farm become closer to milk market center by one kilometer, the dairy households\" milk sales volume increases by 0.25 liter of milk. The negative and significant relationship indicates that may be due to the reason that as the distance to the woreda market increases transportation cost; since milk is highly perishable product and it requires on time delivery and the non-availability of milk collection centers near to producer also the other reason. This is in line with Woldemichael (2008) and Holloway et al. (2002) on expanding market participation among smallholder livestock producers in the Ethiopia highlands revealed that distance to market was negatively related to market participation decision by dairy household.Breed type (BreedT): this variable has positively effect on the household milk volume supply to market participation and was found statistically significant (P<0.01) level as hypothesized.Hence, the coefficient independent variable implies that as the household owning exotic breed than local breed cow milk, the milk volume sales increased by 2.45 liter. The result indicates that may be the household dairy producers own exotic breed cow increases milk production per dairy, household also increases surplus of milk and this leads the producer to increase volume of sales of milk. This result agrees with the finding of Woldemichael (2008) who illustrated number of cross breed milking cows Shashemane, Hawassa and dale districts\" milk shed.with households milk marketed volume at less than 10% significant level. Thus, the coefficient variable indicates that as the households\" owning number of dairy cow exotic and local breed increased by one cow milk, the supply level of milk volume increased by 0.43 liter of milk. This result indicates that the highest number of dairy cows exotic and local may have the probability of getting high milk production and this leads the household to supply more amount of milk to the market. This result agrees with the finding of Woldemichael (2008) and Bedilu et al., (2013) who illustrated number of milk cow by farming households increase market participation of milk significantly the case of eastern Ethiopia.Milk yield (MilkYD): as it was expected the result had a positive and significant (P<0.1) impact on households milk marketing surplus volume. The coefficient variable indicates that as households\" gaining milk yield increased by one liter, the level of milk supply to the market increased by 0.001 liter of milk. The result indicated that as milk yield gain is increased the household get milk surplus and this leads household\"s to supply more amount of milk to market. This is in line with Abraham (2013) who illustrated quantity produced, positive and significant the case of Habro and Kombolcha woredas.Family size: it is not found as hypothesized this variable has negative effect on marketable surplus of milk households and statistically significant at less than 5% probability level. The negative and significant coefficient of family size indicates that the lager the family size, small volume of milk is supplied to market; this means there is high consumptions of milk in the households. The coefficient of the variable confirms that as the member of household family size increases by one person, volume of milk sales decreased by 0.31 liters. In this there is a fact the large size of household has a high labor resource these is also an opportunity for better management of dairy cows but those are needs more volume milk for consumptions as a food. As it was hypothesized market price of milk has positive effect probability on household milk market supply volume and it is significant less than 1% probability level. Hence, the coefficient variable implies that, as market price of milk is increased by one birr (1 ETB), milk market volume sales increased by 1.08 liters of milk. The positive relationship between the variables indicates that the higher market price of milk have an effect to bring high amount of volume milk to market. Bedilu et al., (2013) who illustrated higher market price of milk increases supply of milk to market the case of eastern Ethiopia.Access to dairy production extension service (AcDPExS). This variable was expected to positively affect households\" milk marketed volum. However, the divergent has been observed in the result. Access to dairy production extension service was significantly (P<0.05) and negatively affected households\" milk supply to market. Thus, the result of coefficient variable implied that, as access to dairy production extension service contact increased, the amount of milk supplied to the market decreased by 0.96 liter of sales milk. The possible reason for the negative sign is due to the extension system giving to dairy producers this means the households get an advice on how to improve their productivity and as they are far from the woreda market they are encouraged to converting the product to long shelf life product rather than participating fluid milk marketing. Therefore, extension service given to the farmers affects the household milk marketed supply volum. This is in line with Bedilu et al., (2013) and Abraham (2013) who illustrated access to extension service negatively and significant the case of Habro and Kombolcha woredas. Inverse Mill's Ratio: According to the model output, the inverse Mill\"s Ratio or selectivity bias correction factor (LMBDA) affected the amount of milk supplied to market positively and statistically significant (P<0.01) level and indicates that in Heckman two-stage model, the correction for selectivity bias is significant therefore this model is an appropriate model for this investigation.In order to utilize the resource potentially from dairy sub sector, it is better to identifying the existing constraints and opportunities are paramount importance. Accordingly, the research revealed various challenges faced by smallholders\" dairy producers and other market agents in the cow milk value chain as shown in table 12. The constraints were ranked with 1 as the topmost problem (constraints).and 13 the least problem (constraints). In the study area the cow milk value chain was found to be constrained by a number of factors related to production and marketing which hinder the productivity of the dairy cow and marketability of fluid milk product.,In the discussion part, dairy productivity face problems with plethora of constraints impeding a flourishing the cow milk value chain, of which those considered as major bottlenecks are presented briefly in table 12. The existing constraints was identified and stated in the selected kebeles and woreda level and the extent and significance of the problems and constraints was found differed between Kebeles in the ranking result. Hence, one constraint may be a problem for one kebeles but the constraint may not be necessary a problem for the other kebeles.According to the respondents, there were different challenges in dairy production and marketing system and these are ranked as the major problems and constraints from first to thirteen as stated in table 9. However, the top five constraints recognized by stallholders are critical problem for dairy production and these are the common problems in the selected kebeles. Thus, rank analysis depicts that, the top five constraints are lack of market, lack of supplementary feed, water scarcity, low breed performance and Shortage of grazing land respectively. This is in line with Nardos (2010) reported that, shortage of feed, high costs of feeds, lack of raw materials (ingredients like maize boon and meat, vitamin premix,) for concentrate preparation, milk demand seasonality, lack of formal marketing systems, limitations of land for sustainable dairy development, shortage of animal drug and high price, knowledge gap regarding improved dairying and access for credit for expansion., which leads them to reduce the dairy cow milk productivity.The research revealed that lack of milk market was the topmost problem facing the dairy producers and other market agents (dairy cooperative, hotel and café and consumer) in laelay maichew woreda. The reason is that, low milk productivity, seasonality of the product, religion of the society exist in the woreda market, lac of milk market information, lack of transport, high travel distance to woreda market and perishable nature of the fluid milk these makes it difficult to get accessible market.In the study area, fluid milk reaches to customers through one or a combination of close to 6 marketing channels. Accordingly, the major market participants of milk trade include producers, cooperatives hotel and café (as milk retailers) and consumer. Generally, the marketing chain for fluid milk in the study area remains relatively short, with the majority of consumer purchases made directly from producers, which in turn confirms the relatively unsophisticated nature of the market.Almost all smallholders dairy producer households engage in milk value chain confirmed that there is marketing problems in milk value chain and they ranked it first (Table 12). The major milk marketing constraints mentioned by producers are related with the, problem in information flow and lack of support from concerned bodies and lack of processing and short chain condition of the market.  0769 Where, ------not recognized as constraint/problem at the selected area. Source: own computation, 201Even though, producers are self-source for most of the feed but the lack of supplementary feed is the second most limiting constraint. The available feed resources in the study area are crop residues and hay. So that, the smallholder dairy producers are dependent on these feed type but in todays the producers use concentrated feed to some extent. However, the availability and the price of the concentrated feed was a bottle neck for the producers. This is confirmed by the finding of Nardos (2010) that lack of supplementary feed remains a dominant constraint to small and medium enterprises in Mekelle city.The research shows that water scarcity is the third most important challenge for smallholders\" dairy producers. Water in dairy production is the most important thing for milk production and lives of the animal. According to the respondent water scarcity recognized as an important constraint because of the producers travel to get water on average 1.5 km from the dairy farm of the households and this leads them to reduce productivity of milk gain from individual cow milk.Improved breed cows also require a complementary investment in improved feeds (dairy meal concentrates) to achieve the desired productivity levels. From the research, smallholder dairy producers recognized the low breed performance as fourth most problems. This was explained that low breed performance was limited due to the huge capital requirement. Farmers thus face a decision to remain with local or slightly improved breeds that are generally resistant to diseases and relatively easy to maintain, versus investing in a more costly, risky venture that has implicit regular animal health and improved feeding requirements. Most of the smallholder producers rearing local breed and this lead them to produce low milk product. This is in line with the finding of Woldemichael (2008) and Nardos (2010) that low breed performance remains a dominant constraint to small and medium enterprises in Mekelle city.Smallholder dairy producers are ranked shortage of grazing land as their fifth topmost constraint.The reason for Shortage of grazing land is recognized as topmost problem in the study area, most of the land available in the study area is used for crop production purpose, urbanization and infrastructures such as school, health center and farmer training center. This is in line with the finding of Nardos (2010) that low breed performance remains a dominant constraint to small and medium enterprises in Mekelle city.In the study area, there are huge opportunities for improving the productivity dairy cow and marketing of fluid milk. The existing opportunities for developing the milk value chain in the study area are: Availability of suitable agro-ecology for dairy cow production, growing of different crops and forages. This realized the potentiality of the area for milk production.The Availability of huge market potential for fluid milk is other opportunity. As Aksum is the center of tourist and the hotels and restaurant requires huge amount of milk to provide fluid milk for their tourist. The town also endowed with market opportunity including university and college staff and students, restaurants and hotels in Akum.Relatively well developed infrastructures (asphalted road access to major towns) and communication facilities and telephone access in the woreda and kebeles.Relatively there are emerging small towns in most of the kebeles and urbanization is growing schools are opened staffs and student require milk and other product.The study was aimed at analyzing value chain of cow milk the case of Laelay Maichew Woreda Centeral Zone of Tigray. The specific objectives of the study include identify and map the major milk value chain actors, functions and their relations; estimate the costs and margins of intermediaries along the milk value chain, to identify the main determinants of smallholder farmers from participation in lucrative markets\" and marketed supply of cow milk and to identify the key constraints and opportunities of dairy production and marketing in the study area.Accordingly, this research reveals that the main actors participate in the milk value chain in woreda and those are smallholder dairy producers, dairy cooperative, hotel and café (retailers) and supportive actors. Furthermore, the participant actors identified in the milk value chain are small actors as compared to other agricultural product value chain (milk value chain around Addis Ababa). Likewise, the map of the existing milk value chain simple and short. Therefore, the milk value chain in the study area is not well-developed Additionally, in the study area six market channels were identified. Out of the six market channels, three of them are relatively the highest price market share of actors from final consumer and it accounts 100% in channel I and II and 60% in channel III, and 23.08% in channel VI of consumer\"s price, for producers, hotel and café and dairy cooperatives respectively. This is mainly due to the study area milk producers prefer to sell their milk directly to consumers. However, market prices share of each actor depends on the length of the market chain. So that, as the market chain increased the producers\" price market share decreased or else as the market chain is short the producers price market share increase.Regarding the costs, smallholder dairy producers in the study area incur high costs mostly when they start the dairy production through purchasing of investment items (dairy cow) rather than marketing their produce. The findings in the research indicate that, different types of marketing and production costs related to the transaction of milk by producers, Dairy Cooperative and retailers (café and Hotel). The structure of production cost reveals that feed cost is the highest cost for producer in all channels whereas the marketing costs for dairy cooperative is labor and transport the highest cost in channel IV, V and VI. Whereas, the highest cost for cafe and hotel was recorded cost of sugar in channel III and VI.According to Heckman\"s two stage model the research illustrates that, milk market information (MMI), breed type (BreedT), number of dairy cow exotic and local (NDCEL), milk yield (MilkYD) and market price of milk (MPM) variables have positively and significantly affect the income of smallholder dairy producer households.The empirical result shows, distance to woreda market (DWM), Access to dairy production extension service (AcDPExS) educational level of household (ELHH) anticipated market price butter (AMPB) and family size (FS) have negative and significantly affect related to milk market participation as well as volume supply to market. As a result, those have negative impact in the income of smallholder dairy producer households.While the variables credit access (CreditA), sex of household head (SHH), children below five years old (CBFYO), income from the non-dairy source (IFNDS) and farming experience are recognized as insignificant in the market participation decision and in volume supply. Therefore those variables do not have an impact in the income of smallholder dairy producer householders.In line with the above, the study also points out different challenges in dairy production and marketing system and these are ranked as the major problems and constraints. The top five constraints are lack of market, lack of supplementary feed, water scarcity, low breed performance and Shortage of grazing land respectively. Therefore, due to those reasons milk productivity of the smallholders become low production and this also leads to producers not to participate in milk marketing.To development the dairy sub-sector it requires to provide some insights and this study has made a careful assessment on the Laelay maichew smallholder dairy sector opportunities and major constraints. From the findings of the study it emerges that the woreda\"s dairy sector requires Fourth problem found in the study area, is low breed performance. Most of the sampled households were in need of improved breed for their improved milk production but they were not easily accessible improved breed and the price is too much high it is not affordable by smallholder dairy producers.to address this problems it require various stakeholders, such as, farmers having participate in dairy breeding, input suppliers, traders, research and extension groups, finance institutions, NGOs, government and other actors interested.Finally it is observed that, most of the smallholder dairy producers in the woreda have been using traditional dairy production technique that result in low milk production. Creating awareness and building capacity of smallholder dairy producer for quality milk production is one of the ways to assist dairy producers to build on their resources to create more income by managing their dairy farm skillfully, and fetch a good price in the market. Hence, all concerned organizations (chain enablers) should focus on the provision of appropriate training for both farmers and woreda\"s agricultural development agents on how to manage improved breed dairy cattle and incorporate new technologies profitably in to farm level production strategies. ","tokenCount":"16554"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a8a297ec4505cad69a563d0450c55208","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9cfe345-6de8-4cca-b8c7-3b198c289334/retrieve","id":"1278283921"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"daa552c7-d1d9-4d2d-a804-ca4281f6850d","pagecount":"13","content":"Crop breeding has the potential to enhance agricultural production and respond to the needs of different segments of the population.Women frequently use crops under different constraints from men, resulting in gender inequality in the adoption and distribution of benefits from new varieties.Women often experience unequal access to new agricultural technologies that enhances the gap in agricultural productivity.The main objective of the Call for Case Studies was to document the process of learning and innovation involved in making the change from conventional to gender-intentional breeding with the aim of discovering successful practices and lessons for future efforts.• Identify non documented experiences working on integrating gender research findings into breeding decisions.• Support the documentation of experiences emphasizing the analysis of institutions and processes within the breeding programResults from the call ","tokenCount":"128"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f61083dfc4ac5f206cf740091eb97353","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/44138385-4f6f-4989-a803-8e61799dcb3d/retrieve","id":"1081356278"},"keywords":["Validation","sensitivity analysis","CA","and Farm mechanization"],"sieverID":"11eb80d6-8875-4ebc-9b01-88d7746f7b83","pagecount":"29","content":"The uptake of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in Southern Africa has been slow and low. As a result, most smallholder farmers continue to grow crops under degraded soils using conventional tools and human powered farm operations. This leads to low productivity. Therefore, spatially visualizing areas where conservation agriculture and farm mechanization can be targeted can be crucial to guide targeting and scaling. In this study, a geographical information systems-based multicriteria analysis using the analytical hierarchical process was used to map the suitability of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. This included biophysical (soil, rainfall,  temperature, slope, elevation, land use and biomass)  and socioeconomic (population density, farming system and livestock ownership) as recommended domains. The Super Decision software 3.2.0 was used to generate the final weights through pairwise comparison. ArcGIS Pro 2.6 through fuzzy functions was used to standardise and generate the maps. The results show that over 95% of the land area in Zimbabwe, 73% in Zambia, and 67% in Malawi are suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization. Malawi, however, has a bigger proportion of land (1%) among the three countries with low suitability. There are regional differences with Lilongwe and Balaka in Malawi; Southern, Central, Eastern and Western provinces in Zambia; and Matebeleland South and North, Mashonaland West, Midlands and Masvingo provinces in Zimbabwe being the most suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization. After validation, the suitability map based on varying weights showed higher levels of reliability, resulting in context-specific suitability maps and that the mapping process was robust. Thus, the suitability maps generated from this study can be used for targeting conservation agriculture and farm mechanization by stakeholders and decisionmakers in the three countries.Soil degradation has adversely affected the production capacity of most parts of Africa. The increasing animal and human population coupled with traditional methods of farming are putting more pressure on the soil in Africa (Decaëns et al., 2006). This has in turn affected people's livelihoods, including food security in many countries (Erenstein, 2003).Conservation agriculture has been identified to help reduce soil degradation, enhance crop productivity, conserve water, and maintain yield stability (Tesfaye et al., 2015, Baudron et al., 2012). Conservation agriculture is also crucial in improving the survival of crops during a flood or drought as well as mitigating climate change through soil carbon sequestration (Umar and Nyanga, 2011, Giller et al., 2009, Gjengedal, 2016). According to Marongwe et al. (2012), conservation agriculture promotes crop management, weed management and efficient use of inorganic and organic fertilizers. Therefore, conservation agriculture is one of the promising ways of sustainably growing food or crops in Africa and the world over (Shetto and Owenya, 2007).Several scholars (Erenstein, 2003, Tesfaye et al., 2015, Knowler and Bradshaw, 2007) contend that conservation agriculture adoption and performance differs from place to place due to varying levels of knowledge and mechanization. Thus, it is important to understand, ex-ante where CA and farm mechanization are most suitable to facilitate better targeting. In doing so, there is a need to recognise that factors or domains to consider for generating suitability maps for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization may differ from one country to another. This suggests the need for context-specific factors for mapping the suitability in particular geographical areas. Tesfaye et al. (2015) and Giller et al. (2009) argue that biophysical and socio-economic factors highly influence conservation agriculture and mechanization adoption and performance. Thus, both biophysical and socio-economic are key to map the suitability of conservation agriculture and mechanization. Some smallholder farmers in Southern Africa consider conservation farming to be labourintensive (Ngoma et al., 2016) as well as associated with increased weed pressure (Marongwe et al., 2011). This highlights the need for farm mechanization among smallholder farmers. The adoption of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization are complementary and are important to increase crop productivity, for sustainable food security, and profits while reducing soil disturbance and maintaining soil cover (Liao et al., 2022, Paudel et al., 2023).However, improved mechanization among smallholder farmers requires corresponding technical support to foster sustainability.Mapping suitable areas for conservation agriculture and mechanization practices is important because it can guide where conservation agriculture can be potentially adopted (Bahri et al., 2019). It can also be useful for up-scaling and out-scaling (Tesfaye et al., 2015). Mapping the suitability of conservation agriculture and mechanization can also be used to attract more research and investment in the identified areas. Various methods and approaches have been used to map suitable areas for conservation agriculture in Africa. Chief among the methods is the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). This is because GIS allows the integration of different sources of data. GIS is also effective in capturing, storing, and analysing geographically referenced data. Tesfaye et al. (2015) used slope, soil texture, rainfall and human population, market access livestock and livestock density to map potential areas for conservation agriculture in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi using ArcGIS 10.1. Muthoni et al.(2017) used K-means clustering and geospatial analysis to delineate recommendation domains for scaling improved crop varieties and good agronomic practices in Tanzania. However, both Tesfaye et al. (2015) and Muthoni et al. (2017) used equal weight to the recommended domains and did not conduct any sensitivity analysis. Therefore, the reliability of the results can be questioned.Due to the need to consider local conditions and the complexity and diversity of factors to be considered in producing suitability maps for conservation agriculture and mechanization, multicriteria approaches are ideal (Chakraborty and Mukhopadhyay, 2019, Ouma and Tateishi, 2014, Lin et al., 2019). In particular, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is one approach that has been used in various fields as a multicriteria technique with GIS. This is because of its applicability in making decisions because of its simplicity and because various domains are rated as per experts' priorities (Li et al., 2011, Ghorbanzadeh et al., 2018). Furthermore, the AHP helps to solve complex problems by comparing two factors based on their relative importance (Saaty, 2013, Feizizadeh et al., 2014). However, the mapping of suitable areas for conservation agriculture and mechanization using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) in Africa, particularly East and Southern Africa using varying weights, has not been adequately explored. This is mainly due to the many and complex domains involved in mapping the suitability of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization as well as the failure of many scholars to have stakeholders participate in the mapping process. This approach has however been used in mapping flood vulnerability (Membele et al., 2023).To identify what was required for mapping suitable areas for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in East and Southern Africa, keywords \"mapping\", OR \"suitability mapping\", OR \"adoption\", AND \"conservation agriculture\", OR \"mechanization\" AND \"Africa\" were searched in three databases namely Web of Science, Science Direct and Google Scholar. Some literature was discarded based on the title and after reading the abstract. Additional literature was also considered on account of having been cited in the literature that was considered from the three databases. Hundred (100) journal articles, book chapters and other scholarly work were reviewed and only 40 were more related to the subject. Appendix 1 shows the literature reviewed, the countries covered in the literature, the crop, element, the biophysical and socioeconomic factors conservation agriculture, and farm mechanization they highlighted and whether some maps were produced or provided.Recommended domains that appeared four times or more were compiled and then subjected to experts in Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Malawi to ensure that context-specific domains for mapping conservation agriculture and farm mechanization were selected. Twenty-two experts were purposively selected on account of their knowledge of conservation and farm mechanization in Southern Africa. Six experts were from Malawi, nine from Zambia and seven from Zimbabwe. This information was collected using a structured digital online survey.Various open-source platforms were searched for geospatial data to use in mapping the suitability of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in the three countries. Only data that was available in all three countries was used to facilitate inter-country comparisons. The data collected was resampled to a spatial resolution of 1km x 1km for the three countries. The data was also projected to a uniform coordinate reference system. Fuzzy functions in ArcGIS Pro 2.6 of 0 (low suitability) to 1 (high suitability) were used to reclassify all the spatial data layers into a common scale. The data was aggregated into a composite map in ArcGIS Pro 2.6 using weighted overlay first using equal weights and finally using varying weights generated by experts familiar with Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Then Analytical Hierarchical Process (AHP) in Super Decision software was used to generate the final weights through pairwise comparison. The Super Decision software version 3.2.0 was developed by Saaty (Saaty 2007(Saaty , 2013) ) and it is a free tool that can be downloaded from https://www.superdecisions.com/.From the twenty-two recommended domains that were generated from a review of the literature, experts from Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe generated twenty-four recommended domains (Table 1). From the biophysical factors, the climate domain was removed from the list generated from the review of the literature and was replaced by elevation. From the socioeconomic factors, the attitude domain was removed and replaced by years of conservation agriculture application. Furthermore, population density and farming systems were added by the experts.     When considering only socioeconomic domains, we see that Zambia has more areas suitable for conservation agriculture and mechanization than Zimbabwe and Malawi (Figure 4).   2).The other influential domains included soil (22%) and rainfall (16%). Based on the weight generated in the Super Decision Software's pairwise comparison using the Analytical Hierarchical Process, a final composite map showing the suitability of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe was generated (Figure 6). The map shows that many districts in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe were suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization. Furthermore, moderately suitable areas for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization were in the northern parts of both Zambia and Malawi, and the southern tip of Zimbabwe. The results also show that Malawi has a bigger proportion of land mass with low suitability (1%) for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization (Figure 7) when compared to Zambia (Figure 8) and Zimbabwe (Figure 9). The results further reveal that a considerably bigger size (32%) of land is moderately suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in Malawi. Zimbabwe has the biggest proportion of land suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization (95%) followed by Zambia (73%). At subnational level, areas highly suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization and include Lilongwe and Balaka in Malawi; Southern, Central, Eastern and Western provinces in Zambia; and Matebeleland South, North, Mashonaland West, Midlands and Masvingo provinces in Zimbabwe.The final suitability map that was generated using varying weights was subjected to both quantitative and qualitative validation. The quantitative validation involved overlaying the geolocations of households found to be practising some elements of conservation agriculture in a multi-country survey conducted by CIMMYT and IITA in 2021. Results from an overlay of suitable areas and households practising conservation agriculture show that almost all (98%) of the households that had adopted conservation agriculture in Balaka (Malawi), Choma (Zambia)and Bubi (Zimbabwe) matched. This gives credence to the suitability mapping approaches used in the analysis and suggests that they are both internally and externally valid. Furthermore, one of the experts from Malawi indicated that the suitability map reflected what was on the ground. For instance, the northern parts of Malawi were slow at adopting conservation agriculture and low-suitability areas matched the areas that were currently being used for rice cultivation. Several scholars (Ochola et al., 2010, Roy and Blaschke, 2013, Percival and Teeuw, 2019, Membele et al., 2022) that have used multicriteria approaches in mapping flood vulnerability, conservation agriculture, and water potential have used equal weight. However, results from this study show that the use of equal weight does not give a true picture of areas that are suitable for promoting conservation agriculture and farm mechanization. This is because the equal weight approach shows a gloomy picture with small areas suitable in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. However, the suitability map based on varying weights shows a more realistic picture of suitability in the three countries. In particular, the suitability map showed that Zimbabwe had larger areas suitable for targeting conservation agriculture. Several scholars (Membele et al., 2023, Usman Kaoje et al., 2021, Tesfaye et al., 2015), have used varying weights to map different phenomena. This is because it gives accurate and context-specific results. This situation could be because of the low rainfall that has been experienced in Zimbabwe for a long time. Several scholars (Musara et al., 2022, Mamombe et al., 2016)  Although climate was found in the literature to be an important domain to consider when mapping the suitability of conservation and farm mechanization, the experts removed it as it was already represented by rainfall and temperature. Furthermore, climate was difficult to measure when compared to rainfall and temperature. Rainfall is an important domain because it determines the kinds of crops to be grown in a particular area (Tesfaye et al., 2015, Thierfelder et al., 2015). In this study, areas of low rainfall were considered to have low suitability (Thierfelder et al., 2015, Rusinamhodzi et al., 2011). Areas of higher temperature were also identified to be areas highly suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization. This is because the advent of climate change has contributed to increased temperatures across the world. For example, Erenstein (2003) argues that mulching can help reduce the impact of solar radiation and reduce soil temperature stress in warm areas. According to Kidane et al., (2019), crop yield variability was lower in areas with higher elevation. Therefore, areas with relatively high elevation were considered to have high suitability while very flat and low areas were considered to have low suitability as they can be used for other purposes. Soil with heavy texture was considered to have low suitability due to them being prone to waterlogging while sandy and loam were considered to have high suitability for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization (Rusinamhodzi, 2011). Areas with relatively steep slopes were considered to have a higher chance of adopting conservation agriculture than flat areas (Tesfaye, 2015).Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used as a proxy for biomass. This is based on Chapungu et al. ( 2020), who argue that NDVI is a better proxy for above-ground biomass.NDIV is used to measure and monitor biomass production and vegetation cover. Land use is important because growing crops on unsustainable land reduces crop production and further degrades the land (Li et al., 2017).Livestock ownership has been a big issue in Southern Africa (Li et al., 2017, Giller et al., 2011, Tufa et al., 2023). This is because two schools of thought have emerged. The first school of thought argues that since conservation agriculture is labour-intensive, having more livestock supports the adoption of conservation agriculture. The second school of thought contends that having more livestock reduces residuals which are important in conservation agriculture.Therefore, increased ownership of livestock is not suitable for conservation agriculture. The second school of thought underpinned this study. Population density and farming systems were added to the socioeconomic domains by the experts. Population density was added because areas with high population density tend not to adopt conservation agriculture and farm mechanization as two are more suitable where there is need for intensification (Notenbaert et al., 2013). On the other hand, conservation agriculture promotes sustainable intensification by using improved management practices that foster soil fertility and resilience during dry periods (Marongwe et al., 2011, Thierfelder et al., 2012). Although the farming system was found to be the most important domain in influencing the suitability of conservation agriculture in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, it was hardly used in the literature in mapping the suitability of conservation agriculture so far (Tesfaye et al., 2015, Muthonia et al., 2017, Notenbaert et al., 2013). Therefore, using experts helps to better understand the local context to have more nuanced recommended domains. Tisdell (1996) argues that farming systems are important because they influence productivity. Niles et al. (2015), further argue that the impact of climate change in a particular geographical area was partly a function of farming systems.Due to climate change, some areas that are currently considered to have moderate or low suitability for conservation agriculture may become highly suitable. This is due to the expected changes in the rainfall and temperature. Furthermore, scholars like Thierfelder et al. (2015) argue that most areas in Southern Africa are suitable for conservation agriculture. This is also why the validation of the maps showed a high accuracy level of suitability for conservation and farm mechanization in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The validation of the final suitability map is very important in any suitability mapping process. This is because it enhances legitimacy, usability, and acceptance by the public and decision-makers (Rincón et al., 2018, Mahmoody Vanolya et al., 2019).Furthermore, the use of equal weights and different weights showed a different output of the suitability of conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. This shows that the mapping process was robust and passed the sensitivity test.According to de Brito et al. ( 2019), sensitivity analysis is important in checking the change in weights would result in a change in the output. Sensitivity analysis was crucial in fostering transparency in the suitability mapping results (Membele et al., 2022, de Brito et al., 2019).One limitation of this study was the availability of spatial data for different recommended domains. For instance, out of the sixteen socio-economic domains that were identified by experts, only three were used in this study. This is because the data was not easily available or was not consistent in the three countries. In a spatial data-scarce environment like developing countries, the unavailability of updated and accurate spatial data can be overcome by using proxy spatial data. In this study for instance cattle ownership was used as a proxy for livestock ownership. The availability of accurate, updated and consistent spatial data is a challenge in most developing countries (Kienberger, 2012, Hoque et al., 2019). There is, therefore, a need for developing countries to start working together to ensure that more updated and consistent spatial data is available on open-source platforms as this would increase the usability of spatial data in supporting planning and decision making.The need to better target development interventions has been recognized for a long time, however, interventions proceed without ex-ante guidance. This paper used a geographical information system-based multicriteria decision analysis using the analytical hierarchical process to map areas most suitable for conservation agriculture and mechanization in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The analytical hierarchical process is suitable for this purpose because of its ability to deal with complex decision problems. In particular, the involvement of the experts in generating recommended domains and assigning varying weights provided a more context-specific picture of suitable areas for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in the three countries. The analysis included biophysical (soil, rainfall, temperature, slope, elevation, land use and biomass) and socioeconomic (population density, farming system and livestock ownership) recommended domains. The Super Decision software 3.2.0 was used to generate the final weights through pairwise comparison. ArcGIS Pro 2.6 through fuzzy functions was used to standardise and generate the maps.Results suggest that farming system and the nature of the soil in the three countries were very significant in influencing the final suitability maps. This is because they highly influence the type of crops that can be grown and the potential for mechanization. Further, we found that both conservation agriculture and farm mechanization are suitable in over 95% of the area in Zimbabwe, 73% in Zambia and 67% in Malawi at national level. In Malawi, however, we found that at least 1% of the land area has low suitability for both conservation agriculture and mechanization. This is the largest proportion of land with low suitability among the three countries. There are regional differences with Lilongwe and Balaka in Malawi; Southern, Central, Eastern and Western provinces in Zambia; and Matebeleland South and North, Mashonaland West, Midlands and Masvingo provinces in Zimbabwe being the most suitable for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization.Thus, suitable areas for conservation agriculture and farm mechanization in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe are larger than previously thought. This means that there is a need for up-scaling and out-scaling programmes to encourage more farmers to adopt conservation agriculture in the three countries. With the advent of climate change, even areas that were depicted to have moderate suitability will become highly suitable for targeting conservation agriculture. After validation, the suitability map based on varying weights showed higher levels of reliability.Thus, assigning different weights to the recommended domains resulted in context-specific suitability maps as opposed to using equal weighting. It also showed that the mapping process was robust. As such, the suitability maps generated from this study can be used for targeting conservation agriculture and farm mechanization by stakeholders and decision-makers in the three countries.","tokenCount":"3477"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1f628ad3ff80a7e25004962e6f16e00d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/WP20013.pdf","id":"1296277480"},"keywords":["Andes","Amazon","Coast","dry forest","exotic species","introduced species","mountain zones","native species","tropical rainforest v"],"sieverID":"837a2d00-4910-42d9-afc4-7ff3e30359d5","pagecount":"58","content":"The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of World Agroforestry.iii Articles appearing in this publication may be quoted or reproduced without charge, provided the source is acknowledged. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source.Cover photos, left to right: Prosopis pallida ('algarrobo'), Bixa orellana (annatto), Sambucus peruviana (Peruvian elder) (Jonathan P. Cornelius / World Agroforestry).Many globally important agroforestry species are native to neotropical countries (Table 1). In addition, in neotropical countries, farmers value and use hundreds of other species of local, national or regional importance (Sotelo andWeber 1997, Shanley andMedina 2005). Peru, in particular, is rich in agroforestry genetic resources, probably largely due to the country's large size 3 , ecological diversity 4 , and a long history of use and domestication of plants (Brack 2003).This document aims to provide a reference list of Peruvian agroforestry species, and to contribute to the establishment of priorities for conservation of agroforestry genetic resources.We now briefly expand on these.A listing of agroforestry species has a number of applications. First, as a land use, agroforestry both overlaps with, and, in a sense, transcends agriculture and forestry.Consideration of species from agricultural or forestry perspectives is likely to lead to neglect of species that do not fall naturally into these categories.Second, a list provides a reference point for agroforestry and landscape restoration projects, which otherwise may fail to take into account the full diversity of options available. Awareness of the full range of options permits effective prioritization, whether for conservation, restoration, research or other purposes, and helps ensure that species of potential interest are not overlooked.Finally, a listing of agroforestry species aids in communicating the full conceptual breadth of agroforestry and the diversity of functions it can play in sustainable land management. Currently, such communication in some cases can be impeded by the persistence of narrow concepts of agroforestry, e.g., as simply a plot-level combination of trees and agricultural crops.In the present document, we have expanded on a precursor publication (Cerrón et al. 2018), which was limited to native species, to include exotic species. This permits consideration of a number of ancient introductions, including some that have been considered native by scientists, practitioners or farmers. It also permitsGlobally, ICRAF maintains a genebank of 162 agroforestry species, including both seed holdings and field plantings 5 . Neotropical species are well-represented in this collection (42 species). However, only two species (Bactris gasipaes and Jatropha curcas) are held in field genebanks, and all but seven of the other species, and >99% of the individual neotropical accessions, are Mesoamerican leguminous species. ICRAF, and particularly ICRAF-Latin America, is therefore interested in broadening its holdings of neotropical species, specifically with respect to endangered agroforestry species and populations of South America.Consequently, in 2017 ICRAF initiated a prioritization process aimed at guiding its future genebank activities in Peru. The present document contributes to this process. It also contributes to the prioritization process of the project FuenteS 6 , which is aimed at enhancing capacity in Peru for establishment of seed stands for restoration and genetic conservation, and seeks to inform activities of other governmental and non-governmental organizations.The present document is partly based on the results documented previously in Cerrón et al. (2018). The following description incorporates the methods used in this precursor document, as well as additional methodological elements employed.In generating the list, a wide definition of agroforestry was adopted, i.e., 'any tree, palm or shrub species that is actively managed by farmers.' This reflects prevailing wide concepts of agroforestry; for example, as land use that combines aspects of agriculture and forestry, including the agricultural use of trees (van Noordwijk et al. 2016).In the case of native species, an initial list was compiled based on reports of onfarm use in published and unpublished sources, including books and articles (Brack   2003; Fernández and Rodríguez 2007; Meza and Cornelius 2006; Reynel and Felipe-5 http://www.worldagroforestry.org/products/grunew/index.php/seeds 6 http://www.worldagroforestry.org/project/agroforestry-seed-sources-restoration-and-genetic-conservation-fuentes Morales 1987;Reynel et al. 2003Reynel et al. , 2006Reynel et al. , 2016;;Whaley et al. 2010a;Reynel, Pennington and Pennington 2016), references located in the bibliographic databases Scopus and Google Scholar, unpublished reports (Cerrón et al. 2017;Robiglio et al. 2018;Valdivia-Díaz andMathez-Stiefel 2015a, 2015b), and unpublished databases derived from previous ICRAF research. This process yielded an initial 'long list'. It was evident that the inclusion of many species merely reflected use, rather than active management, while also probably arbitrarily excluding many other species that are occasionally or regularly used by farmers. To avoid such arbitrariness, the final list excluded species that did not meet at least one of three criteria, as evaluated based on the sources indicated above.The three criteria were as follows:• Use for specific agroecological services, e.g., shade for perennial crops, windbreaks, live fences, livestock fodder • Regularly planted by small-scale farmers• Domesticated species or their wild congeners.The resulting list was published in Cerrón et al. (2018) and presented or circulated at public meetings 7 , and in consultation with experts convened in the Peruvian Amazon (Pucallpa), Andes (Huancayo) and Coast (Tumbes). Based on the inputs received, a specific study of the northern zone (Cerrón et al. 2019), and additional sources such as Levis et al. (2017) and Whaley et al. (2010b), a final list of native species was developed.The species were categorized by main ecological regions of use, based on the three main regions of Coast, Andes and Amazon. The highland Amazon zone, sometimes referred to as the 'tropical Andes' 8 was classified as Amazon; therefore, the species classified under Andes are those of the Pacific basin and the inter-Andean valleys.The use of each species was also categorized. Such a categorization is not straightforward, as 'use' encompasses both end-product and agroecological service concepts, and most species produce more than one good or service. Consequently, our classifications reflect main or dominant use. This was based on the above sources and our own observations and experiences, using the following categories:7 I) Peruvian Symposium on Restoration of Amazonian, Andean and Coastal Ecosystems, Lima; II) Regional Dry Forest Congress, Tumbes.8 Equivalent to 'selva alta' and 'ceja de selva' in Peru.agroecological services, food (fruits, spices, beverages), timber, medicine, multiple purposes (when it is difficult to identify a single dominant use) and 'other'.Finally, commercial species included in the list were identified, using criteria such as the inclusion of the species in either the official list of timber species (Serfor 2016) or its inclusion or that of its derived products in the National Classification of Agricultural Products (Minagri 2016).A different approach was used for exotic species, as most of the sources mentioned above cover only native species. Key exotic species were identified from the results of the IV Agricultural Census (INEI 2012) 9 and the official list of timber species (Serfor 2016). 'Principal species' are defined as those species either listed by Serfor, or recorded by the census as being present in dispersed form in more than 1000 agricultural units or with planted area of >100 ha, in the latter case only in units <50 ha. The National Classification of Agricultural Products (Minagri 2016) was used to confirm the scientific names of the species mentioned in the census, which uses common names.The list of introduced species is not intended to include all exotic species used in Peruvian agroforestry, but the principal ones, according to the explicit criteria mentioned. It should be noted that one or more of the three criteria mentioned in the case of native species are implicit in the criteria used for introduced species.Agroforestry species are, by definition, species useful to rural people. Therefore, in a sense, the concept of 'endangered agroforestry species' might seem contradictory: if a taxon is used and valued, then it may not be clear how or why it can be endangered. It is true that many agroforestry species are non-threatened precisely due to their wide use and propagation. However, at least two factors pose threats to the integrity and continued survival of agroforestry species. First, it is not only the species as such that is of interest and value; indeed, the special concern of the present study is with conservation of genetic resources, with emphasis on the conservation of within-species variation, including that of natural origin as well as landraces and cultivars. Such diversity may be threatened by habitat destruction due to land-use change 10 or fragmentation in parts or all of species' ranges, or, in the case of cultigens (sensu Spencer and Cross 2007 11 ), through displacement of traditional varieties and changes in consumer preferences.Second, unsustainable harvesting may lead to local extinctions. Useful or valuable species are often unsustainably managed; short-term needs may prevail, or in other cases, the interests of the majority may be overridden by those of local elites, e.g., in the case of precious timber species.The assessment of conservation status was based on the updated official list of endangered Peruvian plant species (Minagri 2016), supplemented by dendrological guides (Reynel et al. 2003(Reynel et al. , 2006) ) and other sources cited below. These sources were also supplemented by assessments based on the authors' own observations and knowledge, as well as comments on the previous publication by Cerrón et al. (2018).The conservation status of exotic species was not evaluated, because, by definition, they do not have natural populations in the country. However, some aspects related to their genetic diversity are briefly discussed.In total, 238 native or introduced agroforestry species were recorded, representing 59 botanic families.A total of 185 native species were recorded in 56 botanic families: 33 species in the Coast, 76 in the Andes, and 96 in the Amazon. The most frequent families were the Fabaceae (39 species), the Asteraceae (14 species) and the Solanaceae ( 1210 Much of the native forest of the Pacific watershed located in the high Andean zone below the altitudinal limit for tree growth is now reduced to small relict areas. Also, although much of Peru's vast Amazon rainforest is intact, some areas, such as the San Martin Region, are heavily deforested, while annual deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon is of the order of 100,000 ha. In the coastal dry forest, deforestation is proportionally greater than in the Amazon.11 'A plant whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity.' species). The native species are listed by botanic family and scientific name in Appendix A (Table A1) 12 . In Table A2, the species are listed by common name.Of the dominant uses, the most common was agroecological services (53 species), followed by multiple uses (50), timber (39) and food (31) (Figure 1). In Figure 2, the number of species by use and region are presented. However, the figures hide the versatility of most species. For example, some medicinal use has been reported for more than half of the species. Fifty-three exotic species were recorded (Table A3): 45 fruit-or nut-producing species, six timber species (eucalypts and pines) and two agro-industrial species (coffee, oil palm). The 45 edible species include 10 species of the Rosaceae (mainly Prunus spp.) and 14 of the Rutaceae, including 13 of the genus Citrus. Species native to all continents, except Antarctica, are represented. However, around 75% originate from North America (mostly Mesoamerica) or Asia (Figure 3). Some of the American exotics were present in Peru before the Spanish invasion and have often been considered native to Peru (e.g., see Brack 2003). The distribution of food and timber species by region is presented in Figure 4.    Forty native species were classified as threatened to some degree: eight in the Coast (Table A4), 17 in the Andes (Table A5) and 19 in the Amazon (Table A6 14 ).13 Totals do not add up to 53 because some species are native to more than one of the UN regions.14 The regional totals add up to more than 40 because some species are threatened in more than one region.The listing includes many well-known species from the three regions: species such as moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa), mezquite (Prosopis pallida and P. limensis), alder (Alnus acuminata), mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), Brazil-nut (Bertholettia excelsa), ice-cream bean (Inga edulis), lúcuma (Pouteria lucuma), palo santo (Bursera simaruba), peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), elder (Sambucus peruviana), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), tara gum (Tara spinosa), cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) and others. All the foregoing species, and more than 50 others, are also listed in the official Peruvian list of timber species or in the Peruvian Classification of Agricultural Products, or in both. These species include those most likely to be selected for agroforestry, reforestation or restoration projects. However, it is also apparent that many important agroforestry species in the lists (115 species, i.e., 72% of the total)are not captured in these two official documents. These species include dozens of agroecological service and multiple-use species. This observation is not a criticism of either document, but rather underlines the limitations imposed by their stated objectives: for example, there is no reason why a species used principally as a living fencepost should be included in either list. However, it also underlines the importance of clarifying objectives before selection of species for agroforestry, revegetation or restoration projects.Our species inventory eloquently illustrates the diversity of Peruvian agroforestry practice, and how species use is related to social and environmental contexts. The effect of environment on species used is most obviously seen in the numbers and types of native species listed for Coast, Andes and Amazon regions.The number of species is highest in the Amazon, intermediate in the Andes, and lowest in the Coastal Region. This trend is partly 'supply-driven', as the number of native species of flora is much higher in the Amazon than in the Andes, and higher in the Andes than in the very dry conditions of the coast. The trend is also 'opportunity-driven', as (agro)ecological conditions in the coast, particularly, place stringent limits on the variety of species that can be employed, particularly without irrigation.A priori, one would expect a higher number of agroforestry species in the Amazon than in the Coast or Andes. Although these overall trends in agroforestry species richness follow expectations, the differences in numbers of species in the three regions are smaller than might be expected on grounds of their respective floristic richness.In terms of the reported numbers, the relative evenness of species numbers is due to the similarity in numbers of multiple-use and agroecological service trees in the Amazon and the Andes (and, to a smaller extent, in the Coast), whereas the numbers of food and timber trees in the Amazon is an order of magnitude greater than in Andes or Coast. Possibly, this reflects the number of tree species that can feasibly be incorporated into farming practices or used regularly by farming families.Although individual species might not be mentioned frequently enough to be considered important, as a group they fulfil highly significant functions.In the Amazon, there are hundreds of tree species that might be used in some way by farmers, many of which are intersubstitutable (Sotelo-Montes and Weber 1997).Our methodology has certainly captured a subset of the more common or more commonly used Amazonian species of all types. By contrast, due to lower numbers of species in the Andes and Coast, individual species are more likely to be more universally used and recognized. This implies that although, with our methodology, the numbers of commonly used agroforestry species in Amazon and Andes are relatively similar (in comparison to the respective floristic species richness of the two regions), in the Amazon there is a 'reservoir' of other species that could be used in similar ways.The use in Peruvian agroforestry of many introduced species of importance can be explained by two main factors. First, the large diversity of Peruvian (agro)ecologies, corresponding to niches for exotic species from a wide range of tropical, subtropical and temperate environmental conditions. Second, the obvious utility-for on-farm use and commerce-of all of the species listed (all except eucalypts and pines are domesticates). Many of them are widely distributed in countries throughout the world, and it would be odd if Peru were an exception.It is not uncommon in neotropical countries, including Peru, to hear criticism of the use of exotic species, i.e., considering the wide diversity of native species available.The criticism of the use of some species in some sites or microsites is well-founded, e.g., the almost automatic use, in reforestation projects and similar, of the 'easy option' of the widely available, well-known eucalyptus or pine species. However, many of the exotic species listed, 85% of which are food species, have unique properties and are not substitutable by other species. Rather, their success in meeting the needs of commerce and subsistence should be taken as justification for wider promotion of promising native species that can be similarly successful. Such promotion would be part of a diversification agenda, rather than one necessarily associated with replacement of widely used exotic species.Overall, about 21% of the listed native species are considered to be threatened. The proportions decrease from coast (26%) to Andes (22%) to Amazon (18%), possibly due to differing degrees of habitat loss. Each species listed can be considered to be in danger in at least part of its distribution. Nevertheless, before using the listings as a basis for prioritization of conservation activities, several caveats should be considered.First, it may be that the inclusion of some species in the official Peruvian listings reflects wide awareness or usefulness of particular species. For example, palo santo (Bursera graveolens) is an 'iconic' species of Northern Peru, the illegal logging of which has been reported in the Peruvian mass media 15 . However, recent ecological studies in dry forests in Lambayeque found that B. graveolens was the second most common species in 186 transects 16 . This is not to say that B. graveolens is not at risk, but rather that other, unlisted, less 'visible' species may be equally or more threatened.Second, the case of algorrobo (Prosopis limensis and Prosopis pallida) requires specific mention. Their listing as (critically) endangered probably reflects the current high incidence of the dieback syndrome. Although the existential threat of dieback to populations of algarrobo should be taken seriously, it should be clarified that healthy trees of algarrobo are still abundant in Peruvian coastal regions.Third, the list of endangered species includes few domesticated species. In some cases (e.g., Pouteria spp., Theobroma spp.,) were more information available, other species might have been included in the list.Finally, in all three regions, the lack of information on intraspecific diversity implies that these lists represent minimum estimates of the number of threatened agroforestry species; effectively, there is an implicit assumption that populations are not highly differentiated. This is unlikely to be correct. The consequences of not taking into consideration possible genetic differentiation are likely to be much greater in cases where large parts of the range of a given species or a distinctive 15 https://elcomercio.pe/peru/piura/piura-autoridades-decomisan-15-toneladas-de-palo-santo-de-procedencia-ilegalnoticia/16 Personal communication, Tobias Fremout to Cornelius and Cerrón,13.19.19 habitat type have been lost. The concern over lack of information on genetic diversity also applies to domesticated species. It seems unlikely that the Pampa Hermosa population of peach palm is the only endangered land race of agroforestry species native to Peru. For example, varieties of Theobroma bicolor with very different fruit morphology exist, but we are unaware of any information on their conservation status. A definitive list of agroforestry species whose genetic resources are threatened would require much more information and analysis of both genetic structure and reproductive ecology. Indeed, the lack of information on the status of species, although not in itself indicative of endangerment, can be considered a cause for concern.As indicated previously, the aim of this publication is not to present information on the genetic status of introduced species. However, a study of the genetic base of introduced species would be of great interest, and could contribute both to avoiding genetic problems (whether due to inbreeding or, for example, to failure to respond to changing climate) and to improve productivity. In fruit species, such a study could characterize the extent and distribution of common grafted varieties and their rootstocks, as well as the genetic diversity and characteristics of any locally developed land races. In the case of timber species, particularly Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Pinus species, better information on the provenance of material currently in use would be beneficial.One hundred and eighty-five woody species native to Peru that meet our criteria for definition as agroforestry species were identified. They include fruit, timber, multiplepurpose, agroecological-service providers and medicinal species from the Coastal, Andean and Amazonian regions. It is proposed that managers and planners of projects that promote agroforestry, reforestation or restoration should be aware of farmers' use of this wide range of species and that, in project design and implementation, should consider systematically which of these species will best meet farmer and project goals.We have also listed 53 major introduced agroforestry species. We suggest that these too should be systematically considered by project planners and managers, particularly with regard to their income-generating potential. Nevertheless, practitioners should avoid the easy or default option of using easily available exotic species where native species might be more suitable. Our injunction to consider use of introduced species is not an endorsement of the unsustainable practices with which some species are often associated. Introduced species, as much as native species, can be employed within well-designed agroecological practice.We have provisionally identified 40 species as candidates for genetic conservation interventions. Among them are four critically endangered species, according to the Action 4: Make the listing of Peruvian agroforestry species widely available, in order to promote the use of a range of species that adequately address farmers' needs and opportunities.Action 5: Investigate, synthesize and publish information on cultivation techniques and benefits, including ecological benefits, of Peruvian agroforestry species.Action 6: Ensure that key elements of the national environmental and agricultural agenda (e.g., Programa Nacional de Restauración de Ecosistemas y Tierras Degradadas (PNREST), Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), Biodiversity Action Plan) are cognizant of the full range of agroforestry species and their benefits, and that these are reflected in corresponding operational plans.Action 7: Clarify and make available information on genetic diversity and provenance of major introduced agroforestry species.Whaley OQ, Orellana García A, Pérez E, Tenorio M, Quinteros F, Mendoza M, Pecho O. 2010b. Plantas y vegetación de Ica Perú -un recurso para su restauración y conservación. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 93p    ","tokenCount":"3708"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"19c7cf55a8b65da585aa818f27cd1972","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2eaa33c5-93ab-468f-9f3f-e07c90280650/retrieve","id":"-567903696"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4baafb1f-f5ce-4f2d-a21b-f4ed5bc04501","pagecount":"100","content":"multiplication rooting initiation weaning hardening farmers tissue culture producers tissue culture nurseries tissue culture farmers viii Commercial tissue culture laboratories in East Africa Country Name Address ContactBanana is an essential staple crop throughout the Great Lakes region of East Africa. It is also an important source of trade and income. To safeguard sustainable banana production and generate wealth for smallholder farmers, high quality planting material is crucial.Banana in smallholder farmer systems in East Africa is traditionally propagated by means of suckers, which contain pests and diseases. Plants produced through tissue culture are mostly free from pests and diseases (with a few exceptions). There are many further benefits to using tissue culture plants:(1) they are more vigorous, meaning faster growth and higher yields; (2) they are more uniform, allowing for better planned marketing; and (3) they can be produced in large quantities in a short period of time, facilitating distribution of both existing and new cultivars. In other words, tissue culture technology can help banana farmers to make the transition from subsistence to income generation.However, there are hurdles that are limiting widespread uptake and optimal use of tissue culture technology among smallholder farmers in East Africa. Distribution systems of tissue culture plantlets to farmers are one key obstacle. Plantlets are often distributed in large quantities at subsidized prices by various development partners, but this is not sustainable in the long run. Tissue culture plantlets are fragile, and their thriving depends on good management by nursery operators and farmers, especially in the early stages. This knowledge is currently mostly lacking. For nursery operators, the correct handling of plantlets in humidity chambers and shadehouses determines plantlet survival and quality. For farmers, plantlets need to be carefully and properly transported, and receive suitable water and fertilizer to fully reap the benefits.Switching to tissue culture technology from conventional suckers requires different skills and knowledge for both nursery operators and farmers. For nursery operators, training in agronomic and technical know-how, while important, is not sufficient; nursery owners also need business and marketing skills to turn their nursery into a profit-making business. For farmers, the potentially higher production and more uniform harvesting times of bananas will require good business and marketing skills for them to fully benefit. Working together in groups has been shown (in Kenya and Southern Uganda) to strengthen the position of farmers within the banana value chain; however organizing into groups takes additional skills.Promotion of tissue culture bananas has in the past been too focused on commercial tissue culture producers. Therefore, in 2008, a project was launched which aimed at developing improved and efficient pathways to deliver tissue culture plants to less commercial farmers. The project, titled 'Banana tissue culture: community dissemination pathways for delivery of high quality planting material to create markets for African farmers', was funded by the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). The project built on an earlier phase that demonstrated potential for tissue culture technology with smallholder banana farmers. As part of the project, training was undertaken in East Africa of tissue culture nursery operators and farmers. In Burundi and Uganda, over 700 farmers were trained during more than 250 training sessions, and 150 nursery operators during 20 training sessions. In Kenya, farmers and nursery operators were trained together, and 75 training sessions were organized. The training courses were lengthy and detailed, with an individual farmer or nursery operator attending up to 40 training events over the course of 1-2 years. This manual, and the accompanying manual for training of farmers, are based on the training notes from these courses. viThis training manual can be used by anyone involved with training of nursery operators, such as extension agents or applied scientists. The manual is not intended as a guide for nursery operators themselves. The trainings were mostly carried out by a facilitator and an assistant from VEDCO and IITA.The manual is organized into four modules, and each module is divided into sessions. The sessions are based on actual training sessions carried in Central Uganda. Each session was carried out and evaluated three or four times, with adaptation and fine-tuning along the way.Most of the sessions are structured similarly: after listing the 'tools' (personnel and equipment), the activities are given as a series of steps. The actual content for each session is given below this, in a coloured box. Each session concludes with a Q&A section, which includes actual questions posed during the training.We recommend that implementation of any training adheres as closely as possible to the format detailed within the manual. However, modifications according to geography and farmer conditions may be necessary.The modules are organized in the order in which we recommend they be delivered, however they are largely stand-alone and can be interchanged. Within a module, however, the order of the sessions should remain fixed. The entire training course (all sessions from all modules) takes approximately 1-2 years if modules are run sequentially, however modules can be run in parallel to reduce the training period. Some of the modules are relevant beyond tissue culture bananas, e.g. 'Business planning and business skills for nursery operators' and 'Marketing for nursery operators' can be applied to business activities beyond growing of bananas.Aims to raise interest among farmers and other entrepreneurs in starting a banana tissue culture nursery. Explains the basic processes in raising tissue culture bananas.Introduces prospective nursery operators to business planning, including how to keep accurate records, and essential business skills such as benefit-cost analysis and how to access credit.Explains all technical aspects related to management of banana tissue culture plantlets, from purchase at the tissue culture producer until sale to the customer. Includes: production of tissue culture plantlets, i.e. the entire production chain from the mother material until weaning in the nursery; the construction and use of humidity chambers and shadehouses; and transport and handling of tissue culture plants.Explains basic marketing concepts, and begins development of the market chain by linking prospective nursery operators with tissue culture producers and tissue culture buyers. vii Producing tissue culture bananas: a summary Specialized tissue culture laboratories (see table on next page) carry out the first stages of tissue culture banana production. These are:1. Initiation: The meristem is taken from a plant in the field and transferred into sterile, specialized media in the laboratory, where the tissue develops into shoots. 2. Multiplication (1 cycle takes approx. 1 month): Each month, the tissue is subdivided and cultured.How often the tissue is subdivided and into how many shoot pieces depends on the tissue culture laboratory and banana cultivar, but with more multiplication cycles and shoots, the greater the number of plants generated. 3. Rooting: Further to the multiplication cycles, shoots are placed on rooting media for about 1 month where they are induced to form roots and produce banana plantlets.Nursery operators then take the fragile plantlets and put them through weaning and hardening, before they are ready for selling to farmers:4. Weaning (approx. 3 weeks): During this critical stage, plantlets are removed from and gradually weaned from the conditions within a tissue culture flask (100% relative humidity, sterile and no direct sunlight) to the environment of the shadehouse; weaning is usually accomplished using humidity chambers within the shadehouse. 5. Hardening (1-3 months, until sale to farmers): During this stage, weaned plants are exposed to the environment in the shadehouse which prepares them for field conditions.Finally, farmers buy and grow the tissue culture plantlets, in much the same way as banana plants derived from suckers or corm pieces.This module instructs trainers how to carry out an introductory session with prospective nursery operators. The introductory session explains the basic processes of production of tissue culture banana plants, and the business opportunity that a banana tissue culture nursery presents. It aims to stimulate interest among the participants so that they decide to attend future sessions and learn how to run a tissue culture nursery.This training guide is structured as follows:1. Planning for the training session:• Mobilizing participants• Obtaining materials and equipment needed for the session• Preparing the venue for the session.• Delivering the content• Agreeing schedule, timing and location of subsequent training sessions with those participants who want to continue the training.The training session is scheduled for 3 hours, and should be carried out in a single session.Purpose: To reach as many potential participants as possible, provide them with information about the training course and the first training session, and elicit feedback on likely attendance at the first session. Potential participants include anyone who is interested in running a banana tissue culture nursery, and may be people who are multiplying and selling banana plants (suckers), large-scale banana farmers, people who are already running a banana tissue culture nursery, people selling tree plantlets and fruit trees on the roadside, and any business-minded person who may see an opportunity in buying and selling banana tissue culture plantlets. The flyer should ideally be a single page, should be visually attractive, and should be produced in the relevant language or languages (Appendix 1).Key people who can help link the training team to potential participants include agricultural extension workers, banana tissue culture nursery operators, agriculture-related organizations such as NGOs, and influential people in the area such as religious leaders, businessmen, local council leaders and traditional leaders. Explain to the key people, either in a joint meeting or individually, the objectives of the training course and seek their help in reaching potential participants. This help could be passing on the flyers to potential participants, or providing names and contact information of potential participants.Distributing the flyers is a key way to reach and inform potential participants. The training team may distribute the flyers themselves, ask the key contacts to distribute them, or share the task. If the key contacts are helping with distribution, the training team should provide practical assistance such as transport or fuel, mobile phone credit, books, pens and folders.While distributing flyers, try to capture and record relevant information about the recipients, i.e. name, phone number, date of receiving the flyer, and whether they expect to attend the training session. This information will help to plan the training session. Use a feedback form to collect this information (Appendix 2). If key contacts are helping with distribution, provide them with feedback forms and ask them to try and collect the same information.Other ways to reach potential participants include radio announcements, and displaying flyers in communal places such as marketplaces.About 5 days before the training session, contact (by phone or visit) all the potential participants who showed interest in the training session and remind them of the date, time and venue for the session. Review available literature on tissue culture bananas, as well as materials for other farming training courses.Talk to people who have had experiences in writing farmer training materials to learn what it takes to successfully prepare them.After reviewing the literature and consulting experienced people, put together a draft training handout. This should then be shared with as many relevant technical people as possible, and their comments used to revise and improve the document. Finalize and print as many copies as anticipated participants.Additional materials could include posters, flyers or brochures. Obtain or print as many copies as anticipated participants. Also, prepare the attendance form, for collecting information on participants (Appendix 3).Obtaining materials and equipment needed for the session Appendix 4 gives an example of the materials and equipment that might be needed for the training session. Plan and prepare a similar checklist for your session, and use it to collect all the necessary materials and equipment ahead of the session.The venue must be agreed ahead of printing the flyers, so that this information can be included in the flyers.The venue should be a banana tissue culture production facility. The following should be available for the training session:• Banana tissue culture plantlets at all stages of growth• A soil sterilization unit• A plantlet weaning facility (humidity chamber) with plantlets undergoing weaning• A plantlet hardening area (shadehouse) with plantlets at different hardening stages.The venue should be arranged in four 'stations', which will be used to demonstrate the steps for producing tissue culture plantlets, as follows:• Ensure that each station has the necessary supplies and in adequate amounts ahead of the training.The training session has three objectives:1. To introduce the training course and its aim and objectives to the participants 2. To introduce participants to the procedure for producing tissue culture bananas 3. To agree the schedule, timing and venue for subsequent modules with those participants who want to continue the training. 2. As participants arrive, welcome them, show them where to sit and make them feel comfortable. Ask them to register using the attendance form.3. The host opens the training session by welcoming the participants and the training team. The host asks the participants to introduce themselves one by one, including their name, where they live, how they got to know about the meeting, and their expectations from the meeting.4. The host introduces the session. The introduction should include:• The purpose of the session, which is to introduce tissue culture bananas, and the business opportunity of running a banana tissue culture nursery• An overview of how banana tissue culture plantlets are produced• An overview of the business opportunity of running a tissue culture nursery, including:-How to access the plantlets -Current cost of tissue culture banana plantlets from production facilities -Current selling price of tissue culture banana plantlets from the nursery to farmers -Current demand for banana tissue culture plantlets -Any sales promotions that are currently available from tissue culture producers, such as discounts, credit sales, etc.-Requirements needed before starting a tissue culture nursery business (good training in management of the plantlets, capital, etc.).5. The host then hands over to the training team. The members of the training team introduce themselves, including their name, the organization they work for, and their role on the training course.6. The facilitator explains the objectives of the training course. These are:• Teach skills in banana tissue culture nursery operations• Link nursery operators to various sources of knowledge• Help nursery operators communicate and work together• Help nursery operators manage their business finances• Help nursery operators improve their marketing• If required, link nursery operators to financial institutions, especially credit facilities.The facilitator should explain that the training course cannot pay for attendance, transport or plantlets, or provide financial donations for prospective nursery operators to start a business. However, the training is provided free of charge.7. Inform the participants about the other three modules that make up the full training course.Briefly describe the content of each, and why this knowledge is important for nursery operators.8. Divide participants into groups of not more than 10 people, and explain that each group is to move through Stations 2, 3 and 4, in order, one group at a time. One group starts at Station 2 and the others wait until that group has moved on to Station 3; then another group begins at Station 2. Continue until all groups have been through all the stations, then gather the whole group together again at Station 1 for the closing session. Throughout the session, a member of the project team should be available to note and answer any questions from the participants at the different stations.A brief overview of the other modules in this training course.In this module you will be introduced to the importance of having a business plan. To help you stay on top of your finances, and achieve the goals of your nursery, we will help you develop a business plan to keep track of your progress and profit. The module is divided into four parts. The first deals with the basics of business planning, the second is focused on business records, part three deals with benefit-cost analysis of tissue culture nursery operations, and the final part provides information on how to access credit.This module contains all technical aspects related to management of banana tissue culture plantlets, from purchase at the tissue culture producer until sale to the customer. Briefly, it includes: production of tissue culture plantlets, i.e. the entire production chain from the mother material until weaning in the nursery; humidity chambers, for protecting plantlets from desiccation and pests (we will build humidity chambers during the module); shadehouses, for hardening plants after the humidity chamber, and providing protection before they are ready to be planted in the field (we will build shadehouses during the module); and transport and handling of tissue culture plants.In this module you will be introduced to the importance of having a marketing plan. Just like the business plan, the marketing plan will give you direction and goals to work towards in order to achieve the best possible profit from your plantlet sales.Q1: Is the training going to help us set up our own tissue culture producing laboratory? A1: No. The training will equip you with skills of caring for and growing plantlets after they have left the laboratory, and you will be able to make money by selling them when they have been weaned and hardened. Production of tissue culture plants is very expensive and requires different skills that are beyond this project.Q2: Are the subsequent training sessions always going to be conducted here at this venue?A2: Not necessarily. At the end of this session we will agree on the most convenient places, dates and times for the future trainings.Q3: How long will the training course take?A3: Each module has several sessions and each session takes a single day. Depending on the training schedule (e.g. weekly, bi-weekly, monthly), the entire training course could take 1.5 years.Q4: Is there a demand for tissue culture bananas in Uganda? A4: Yes. Tissue culture bananas are in high demand in all parts of the country to the extent that often the supply cannot meet the demand. 2. Demonstrate the process of initiation, using clean suckers.3. Take the group on a guided tour of the tissue culture laboratory. During the tour, show the participants the different stages the cube undergoes up to the time it leaves the laboratory in the test tube, ready for weaning. At the end, show them a culture bottle with plants that are ready to leave the laboratory for weaning.4. Have a short question and answer session with participants, then move them on to the next station. The process of initiation 1. Carefully select source materials (peepers or small sword suckers) that appear healthy (diseasefree) and are growing vigorously.2. Using a hoe or a panga, separate the sucker from the mother plant. This is called the 'ex-plant'.3. Using the ex-plant, demonstrate the procedure of obtaining the material that is taken to the tissue culture laboratory for further manipulation as follows:-Clean the sucker by removing the soil and cutting off the roots to expose the corm. Cut off the pseudostem 30 cm above the base -Pack the ex-plant in a clean nylon bag, label properly and transport it to a clean environment for further manipulation -Wash the ex-plant using tap water to remove mud or other debris -Trim away the outer leaf sheaths, leaf bases, and corm tissue of the ex-plant until you have a 2 × 2 × 2 cm 3 cube enclosing the shoot apex. Care should be taken to avoid cutting through the cube apex -Clean the cube with clean water at least twice. Wash the cube further with water containing a strong detergent and then rinse off the detergent using clean water. Explain the purpose of using the detergent (to wash off any germs). Pack the cube in a clean container.The stages for producing a tissue culture plantlet 1. The initiation process. The cube obtained from the ex-plant is placed on a multiplication-inducing culture medium. A growth regulator is added to the multiplication medium to speed up the process. The banana shoot-tip cultures are transferred to the incubators and maintained at an optimal growth temperature of 28 ± 2°C.2. The multiplication process. The shoot tips start to develop. This can be promoted by adding to the medium relatively high concentrations of cytokinin, a growth regulator.3. The regeneration process. Individual shoot or shoot clumps that have formed are transferred to a nutrient medium which does not promote further shoot proliferation but stimulates root formation (rooting media). After rooting, plantlets leave the laboratory for weaning.Q1: What is the estimated cost of setting up a tissue culture laboratory? A1: It is not easy to come up with a figure, as some of the equipment is often provided by overseas donor agencies. The cost is, however, high.Q2: When you wash the ex-plant in a strong detergent, doesn't this change the genetic make-up of the banana?A2: No, it doesn't. The detergent simply cleans the ex-plants by killing microbes such as bacteria and fungi.Q3: Can this technology be used to multiply our local cultivars?A3: Yes, it can. Local cultivars like Mpologoma, Kisansa, Nakitembe and Musakala are already produced through tissue culture.Q4: Are tissue culture banana immune to pests and diseases when planted in the field? A4: No. Tissue culture plants are mostly free of pests and diseases at the time of planting, but once planted in the field they are susceptible to banana pests and diseases like other banana plants.Q5: How long does it take to produce a plantlet by this method, before it is ready for planting in field?A5: It takes 4-6 months, which is much faster than with normal sucker production. This is one of the advantages of this technology.Q6: How many plantlets can be obtained from a single ex-plant?A6: As many as 200 plantlets, depending on the number of subcultures that are performed during multiplication.Personnel: Banana tissue culture laboratory technician Supplies: Sand, wheelbarrow, forest soil, hoe, manure, soil heating equipment, sisal bags, firewood, polythene bags, water, matches Time: 30 minutes 1. Welcome the group of participants to your station.2. Explain the importance of soil sterilization. This is done to destroy plant pathogens, pests and weeds which may be present in the soil, which is to be used for planting fragile plantlets that have just left the laboratory.3. Demonstrate to participants the practical steps of soil sterilization.4. Have a short question and answer session with participants, then move them on to the next station.1. Prepare the necessary materials: oil drum, water, fireplace and firewood, forest soil, sand, manure, hoes, spade, wheelbarrow and sisal bags.2. Ensure the drum has no holes. Weld some strong metal pipes inside the drum, horizontally and approximately 30 cm from the bottom of the drum, to make a shelf for the soil sacks and keep them above the water. 5. Pack about 10 kg of the mixture into sisal sacks and lift them into the drum so that they sit on the metal pipes. When the drum is full, cover the top of the drum with sisal bag so that steam is retained when the drum is heated.6. Proper sterilization of the soil depends on the amount of firewood used and the intensity of the fire. Generally, after 1-2 hours of a large enough fire, when steam is seen coming out of the soil, the soil should be fully sterilized.7. When the soil is considered fully sterilized, remove the covering sisal bags and leave the drum to cool. After cooling, remove the sisal bags containing the soil mixture and pour the soil onto a clean surface, spreading it out to cool. It may take 2-3 hours, or overnight, before the soil cools completely and is ready to use.Q1: What should I do if I cannot access forest soil?A1: The reason for recommending forest soil is that it is rich in nutrients. If not available, any good, dark soil, especially one obtained from a place that has not had crop cultivation for a reasonable amount of time, may be used.Q2: Can I use chicken manure instead of cow manure?A2: Both types of manure are good, and the type of manure you use depends on availability. However, chicken manure is used up faster than cow manure, so cow manure is better from that point of view.Q3: Will the plantlets fail to grow if I do not sterilize the soil?A3: The plantlets will grow, but you risk subjecting them to various pests and diseases at a stage when they are very fragile.Q4: Do I also need to sterilize the soil in the field where I am going to plant the tissue culture banana plantlets?A4: No, you only need to sterilize the soil for plantlets that have just left the laboratory for weaning and hardening. After that, the plantlets have been conditioned enough to grow in the external environment.Q5: Can I substitute organic manure with inorganic fertilizer when making a soil mixture? A5: Yes, but you need a lot of inorganic fertilizer, which will make the process very expensive. Organic manure is better because it has a soil binding element that is needed for good plant growth.Q6: Is sterilized soil sold in shops that sell agricultural supplies?A6: Unfortunately, we do not know of a single shop that sells sterilized soil at the moment. Anyway, it is better for a nursery operator to make their own soil mixture, since it cuts costs and also ensures quality.Personnel: Banana tissue culture production technician Supplies: Sterilized soil mixture, plantlets in culture bottles that have just left the laboratory, forceps, water, watering spray, watering can, humidity chamber, perforated small plastic containers, polythene bags, a shadehouse with plantlets at all stages of growth (1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month and beyond 1 month) Time: 45 minutes 1. Welcome the group of participants.2. Start by showing participants the structure of the humidity chamber. Explain the importance of the humidity chamber in the production of tissue culture plantlets.3. Demonstrate how to remove plantlets from the laboratory culture containers and pot them into soil, before they go into the humidity chamber. Ask volunteer participants to repeat the process.4. Explain the necessary conditions for the plantlets while in the humidity chamber.5. Show participants the structure of the shadehouse, and plantlets undergoing hardening inside, at different stages of growth.6. Demonstrate the procedure of hardening the plantlets in a shadehouse, and explain the importance of the shadehouse.7. Explain the necessary conditions for the plantlets while in the shadehouse.8. Explain the advantages, disadvantages, myths and facts associated with tissue culture plants.9. Have a short question and answer session with participants, then move them back to Station 1. The humidity chamber helps the plantlets adapt to the external environment. While in the culture bottles, plantlets are under 100% relative humidity and lower light intensities. In the humidity chamber, they experience lower humidity and higher light levels, getting them used to conditions in the field.Removing plantlets from laboratory culture containers and potting them into soil 1. After removing the plantlets from the culture bottles, rinse their roots to remove agar residue which could encourage development of pathogens. If the plantlet has long roots, shorten them to about 2-3 cm, since long roots may break and take more time to establish.2. Plantlets coming out of the culture bottles are not of uniform size and may be clumped.Carefully separate any that are clumped, and sort them according to size.3. Pot plantlets of the same size into small plastic containers (~150 ml) containing sterilized soil mixture. Up to five plantlets of the same size can be potted into one plastic container.• Temperature should be between 25ºC and 35ºC. Lower or higher temperatures can lead to poor plant development.• Keep plantlets shaded. Shades can be constructed using sheeted bamboo poles, grass or leaves and placed on the roof of the humidity chamber. The chamber itself can be kept in a shadehouse or under natural shade (e.g. a tree).• High relative humidity should be maintained by regular misting using a hand sprayer. Humidity can be gradually reduced over time.Procedure for transferring the plantlets to a shadehouse for hardening• Fill the polythene bags (~ 250-350 ml) or containers with a soil mixture and pour some water into the polythene bags.• Carefully uproot the plantlets (coming from the humidity chamber) from their container, one at a time.• Using your index finger or a rod, make an insertion into the moist soil within the polythene bag and carefully insert the uprooted plantlet in an upright position. Plant only one plantlet per bag or container. Cover its entire corm with the potting mix.• Transfer the potted plantlet into the shadehouse for hardening. After about a month in the shadehouse, the plantlets are ready for planting in the field.• Daily watering, either in the morning or in the evening; twice a day (morning and evening) during very dry conditions.• Temperature between 15ºC and 35ºC, with an optimum of 25-30ºC.• A high standard of hygiene is necessary to reduce the risk of damage by pest or pathogens.Caterpillars and mites can be serious leaf pests in the shadehouse. Spraying plants with insecticides can be effective for the control of such pests. • Partial shading is essential especially during the early stages in the shadehouse. Shade can be provided by using a special shadenet to cover the shadehouse.• Disease-and pest-free planting material• Little space needed for multiplying large numbers of plants• Uniform plantlets which provide for consistent plantation development• More vigorous plants, with shorter harvestto-harvest periods and higher bunch weights• Prerequisite for cross-border traffic of planting material• Allows for faster distribution of superior germplasm• Can be used in gene banks to conserve plant genotypes for future use in research or agriculture• Price of tissue culture planting material is usually double that of conventional sucker material• Better plant management and care is needed (watering, weeding and adding fertilizer), especially at early stages• Plantlets are easily infected with pests and diseases if transplanted in pest-and pathogeninfested soils• The number of different cultivars produced and sold by the laboratories may be limited, reducing genetic diversity in the planting material market Q1: Can banana tissue culture plants grow without going through the humidity chamber?A1: Yes, they can, but you will experience much higher mortality and longer weaning periods.Q2: How much does it cost to set up a humidity chamber? A2: A humidity chamber is not complicated to set up -all you need is a tightly enclosed area, with no air coming in or going out. The cost depends on several factors: size, the quality and thickness of the polythene used, labour costs, etc. During our subsequent training sessions, we will review several types of humidity chambers and we will calculate the cost of each.Q3: Where can I buy the containers that are used in the humidity chamber?A3: Any plastic container up to 6 cm in length that can be perforated can be used. Some people have improvised by cutting mineral water bottles. At some companies, ice cream cups are used, which can be bought from shops in Kampala.Q4: How much water is needed to keep the humidity at the required level within the humidity chamber?A4: It is very important that, especially at the beginning, humidity is near 100%. The more airtight the humidity chamber, the less water is needed. Actual amount depends on the size of the chamber.Q5: Where can I buy the recommended shadenet for the shadehouse structure?A5: A couple of shops in Kampala deal in shadenets. It is however recommended to seek expert opinion before you buy one, as some are more suitable than others.Q6: What is the cost of a simple shadehouse?A6: Just like the humidity chamber, costs for shadehouses vary widely according to size or capacity of the shadehouse, the materials you use for support and roofing (metallic pipes or timber), labour costs, etc. During subsequent training sessions, we will demonstrate the different types of structures and you will calculate the costs for the structures you intend to set up.Q7: What is the price of a single plantlet? A7: The price of a single plantlet varies depending on the stage you are buying it. Depending on the supplier, plantlets in culture bottles (just after leaving the laboratory) cost ~1,200 Ugandan shillings (Ugsh; 1 US$ = 1,900 Ugsh on 1/1/10), whereas those that have been weaned (from the humidity chamber) or hardened (from the shadehouse) cost ~1,500 Ugsh. A discount is often given to those who buy in large quantities.Q8: Can plantlets growing in the tissue culture nursery be attacked by pests or diseases?A8: We try to maintain a clean environment to avoid banana pests and diseases, but plantlets in the nursery can be attacked by pests and diseases. Among the most common pests in the nursery are caterpillars which often feed on leaves. If they are a major problem in your nursery, you may opt to use an insecticide such as dimethoate, which can be bought from many agro-chemical shops. Be sure to consult the dealer and carefully read the instructions.Q9: Can tissue culture plants wilt and die during transportation to the nursery?A9: If transportation is not done properly, you may have plantlets wilt or die. In a subsequent session you will learn the best ways of transporting tissue culture plantlets. Remind them of the other modules that the course is offering, and that it is free to attend.2. For those participants who would like to continue with the training, make sure you have their names, contact information and address. Discuss and agree the date, time and venue for the next session with the participants. Tell them you will remind them about the session 5 days before the scheduled date.3. Allow some time for participants to ask questions or clarifications, then thank the participants and close the meeting. The objectives of this module are: (1) to help prospective tissue culture nursery operators make the decision whether to invest money into a nursery business based on sound benefit-cost analysis and(2) to equip them with essential business skills required to run a nursery.The module comprises the following sessions:• Session 1: Introduction to business planning and record keeping• Session 2: Types of records necessary for nursery operators• Session 3: Benefit-cost analysis • What is a business plan?• Why is business planning important?• What is record keeping?• Why is it important to keep records?Conducting the session 1. Open the day's session by displaying the flipchart with the title of the module. Give a brief overview of the module.2. Display the title of the session, and the questions one by one. Have participants brainstorm on each question, and write down the responses on the flipchart. Encourage participants to provide examples where appropriate. Where necessary, supplement the discussion.• Briefly recap the day's session• Communicate the topic of the next session (Keeping records), and the date, time and venue for the session. Ideally the venue will be the same as the current session. Remind participants to bring their pens and books to the next session.A business plan is a written description of your business's future. It's a document that describes what you plan to do and how you plan to do it. A business plan is built on the principles of improving production, increasing profits and/or ensuring sustainability for the business output.A business plan helps an entrepreneur to do the following.1. Set business goals, which clarify the following:-Where is the business going?-What needs to be done?2. Compare the progress of the business with the goals, so that appropriate adjustments can be made.3. Communicate better about the business. For example, business goals in a business plan can be easily explained to other people (e.g. financial institutions, prospective business partners, shareholders), which could benefit the business.4. Obtain capital from private investors, lenders, banks, etc. who will be more likely to invest in a well-planned business.5. Good business planning serves as tangible evidence of your ability to manage, plan and communicate -skills that are needed to operate a successful business.Record keeping is the process of keeping, filing, categorizing and maintaining financial and production information about the business. Record keeping can be accomplished through a variety of methods, from a basic hand record keeping method to an elaborate computerized system. Good records enable business managers to evaluate the performance of their businesses. The evaluation process allows business managers to make informed decisions based on actual (or projected) business performance. Therefore, establishing and using an effective business record keeping system is important for the success of a business.Key information to be recorded includes:• Costs incurred: this information can be summarized by week, month and year• Sales prices received for products sold• Total sales• Clientele contact information.1. Business records allow to calculate precisely the operational costs, sales and gross margins associated with the business in a given time period. Records also allow a business owner to compare the financial situation in a current season with previous years.2. Business records can be analysed over time to identify trends, and help entrepreneurs plan appropriately. Trends can include fluctuations in purchase prices, demand for plantlets, etc.3. Business records allow entrepreneurs to know which of their products are making profits and which ones are running at a loss.4. Business records show how much cash is owed to a nursery owner at any time, and how long this credit been outstanding.Q1: Are the skills we are learning in this module applicable to farm enterprises other than tissue culture banana nurseries? A1: Yes, the concepts we are learning can be used for all farm enterprises.Q2: Would you call a receipt book a record? A2: Yes. Anything that is written down to reflect a transaction or an activity is a record. Prepare templates of the different records necessary for nursery operators to capture essential information. These are: sales receipt (Appendix 1), delivery note (Appendix 3), invoice (Appendix 5), and a business contract (Appendix 7). Print enough for groups to use during the session, and for each participant to take home a set of the four record templates.Write the topic of the day (Keeping records) and the questions that will guide the day's training on the flipchart ahead of the session. The questions are:• What information do nursery operators need to record?• What are the different types of records necessary when operating a business such as a banana tissue culture plant nursery?Conducting the session 1. Have a volunteer participant briefly recap the content of the previous session.2. Open the day's session by displaying the flipchart with the title of the session.3. Display the questions guiding the day's session one by one, and have participants brainstorm on each of them. Write down the responses on the flipchart. Encourage participants to provide examples where appropriate. Where necessary, supplement the discussion.4. Discuss the four types of business records. For each one, ask participants to define its purpose and the type of information it captures. Have participants form groups of 3-4 people, give each group a template of the business record that is being discussed, and have each group record information into the template. Each group should use data that reflect their experiences. If the group has no experience running a nursery, imaginary data can be used. The actual figures used in the templates are not so important at this stage -it is the process that the participants are learning that is important. Ask at least two groups to share their experience regarding adding information into the template.5. Provide each participant with blank templates for each of the four business records to take home, and encourage them to use these to continue familiarizing themselves with the records.• Briefly recap the day's session• Communicate the topic of the next session (Benefit-cost analysis) and the date, time and venue for the session. Ideally the venue will be the same as the current session• Remind participants to bring their pens, books and templates of the record forms to the next session.What information do nursery operators need to record?• Incomes and costs as soon as they are incurred. These should be summarized periodically, e.g. by week, by month, quarterly or annually. By comparing annual incomes to the annual costs, a nursery operator can determine whether he or she has made a profit or a loss over a given period, e.g. a production cycle or a year.• Sales prices received from buyers every time a sale is made. This helps a nursery operator determine periods when the best prices are paid or identify buyers who offer a better price.• Total sales made (including information on volume, cultivars and unit price). This enables a nursery operator to compare sales with previous years and make a forecast for future years.• List of clients who purchase plantlets, with their contacts and location. This list can be used by the nursery operator to inform potential clients about new stock, new cultivars in the product mix, possible business promotions, etc. Also, the list can help the operator to obtain feedback from the clients about their experiences with the plantlets purchased, which can be useful to the nursery operator, and also builds good customer relations.The four essential records are: (1) sales receipt, (2) delivery note, (3) invoice and 4) business contract.A sales receipt is a document that records:• The purchase date• Items purchased• Number of units of each purchased item• The unit purchase price• The total purchase price.Other information that should be on the sales receipt includes:• The name and location of the store or nursery where the purchases were made• The method of payment used (cash, money transfer or cheque).Appendix 1 is a blank template for a sales receipt, and Appendix 2 is a sample of a completed sales receipt.A delivery note is a document accompanying a shipment of goods that includes the description, condition, and quantity of the goods delivered. The delivery note indicates that goods have been delivered to the intended destination and in the right condition. The seller fills the delivery note and the buyer, on delivery, checks the delivery note and signs it if they are happy that all is correct. A copy of the delivery note, signed by the buyer, is subsequently returned to the seller as a proof of delivery.Appendix 3 is a blank template for a delivery note, and Appendix 4 is a sample of a completed delivery note.An invoice is a document issued by a seller to the buyer, indicating the products, quantities, and agreed prices for products or services the seller has provided to the buyer. An invoice indicates the buyer must pay the seller, according to the payment terms. The buyer has a maximum amount of days to pay for these goods and is sometimes offered a discount if paid before the due date.An invoice can be divided into three main parts: the header, body and footer.The invoice header is the top part of the form and includes:• Letterhead: business name, address, telephone, and any e-mail and web address• An invoice number: this is a running serial number, and you should only have one number per invoice issued• The invoice date• Payment terms -how soon you expect to be paid• Customer or client name and address.The invoice body is the middle part of the form and includes a description of the goods you are supplying, quantity, unit of measure, price per unit and total amount for individual items.The invoice footer is the bottom part of the form and includes:• The total amount of all individual items• If applicable, a tax amount and total after tax• Payment instructions, if necessary; e.g. tell recipients how to make out their cash or cheque payment; if you expect payments by wire transfer, you should provide your bank account number and details.A business contract is a legally binding agreement between two parties for exchange of services or goods. For a contract to be valid, an offer must be made and accepted. Using a contract in business dealings helps ensure an agreement is acted on. Failure to honour a contract could result in a lawsuit or out-of-court settlement and payment of damages by the party that fails to honour the contract. The best way to avoid a dispute or potential litigation is to craft a solid business agreement in which you are confident you have negotiated the best terms for your business.There are two types of business contracts.• Oral business contracts: this is a spoken agreement that is as valid as a written contract. Oral contracts are legally enforceable, although they are frequently subject to misinterpretation and they can be difficult to prove in court because they often come down to one person's word against the other.• Written business contracts: these are produced on paper or electronically. Legally, a written business contract is easier to uphold than an oral contract because there is a reference for the agreement. With a written contract, it is easier to prove the terms between the parties and eliminate arguments over who said what.A business contract should be labelled 'contract' or 'agreement' at the top. These are some items it can include:• The date of the contract• Names of the parties involved• Details of the services that your company will provide or receive• Payment amounts• Payment due dates; payments do not need to be made in a lump sum, instead you can make or receive smaller payments for specific services as they are completed• Interest terms for late payments• Deadlines for services• Expiry date for the contract• Renewal terms• Damages for breach of contract• Termination conditions• Signatures of the parties and any witnesses.Q1: If I make a verbal contract with a buyer to supply him or her plantlets on credit, and he or she fails to pay, how do I present my case to the authorities without any written information?A1: Verbal contracts are not recommended as you have no evidence what was agreed. There is not much you can do in this situation.Q2: When making a business contract with a client, what is the maximum duration I should specify in the contract?A2: This depends on the two parties involved in the contract, however you are advised to start with short term contracts of not more than one month. If a client honours his first contract, you could extend the next contract duration.Q3: Can I start operating a banana tissue culture nursery without all the documentation we have learned about?A3: You can start operating a tissue culture banana nursery without the documentation, but it is much better, and strongly recommended, to plan the business properly and keep business records.Q4: Do I need a lawyer when making a business contract with my clients?A4: No, you don't need a lawyer. You could have one or two witnesses when you sign a business contract, to make the contract more binding and the client more likely to honour it.Q5: Do I need to write a sales receipt for small sales?Q5: You are advised to write a sales receipt even for small sales, to help you track your business properly and accurately. The first meeting looks at the fixed costs associated with running a nursery, i.e. costs associated with building a humidity chamber and a shadehouse.1. Make templates that can be used for costing construction of humidity chambers and shadehouses for a banana tissue culture nursery business (Appendices 8, 9 and 10). Print out enough copies so that each participant can take home one of each, and each group of two-three participants can work with one of each during the meeting.2. Write the topic of the day (Benefit-cost analysis: fixed costs) and the questions that will guide the day's session on different pages of the flipchart ahead of the session. The questions are:• What materials are needed to construct a humidity chamber?• What are the costs of the materials needed to construct a humidity chamber?• What materials are needed to construct a shadehouse?• What are the costs of the materials needed to construct a shadehouse?• What are the costs of materials needed to run a tissue culture nursery business?• What is depreciation of assets? How do you compute depreciation of assets?3. Prepare a slide show (computer and projector) showing pictures of different types of humidity chambers and shadehouses. Include a range, from simple, inexpensive structures to more sophisticated, expensive ones. The presentation should be planned so that it does not last more than 10 minutes.4. Make sure ahead of the meeting that the venue has a large white wall, is shaded and has functional electricity sockets. If it is not possible to have a presentation with a computer and projector, print out several photos of humidity chambers and shadehouses, in colour if possible, to show to participants.1. On the day of the meeting, the training team should arrive at the venue at least one hour before the meeting is due to start, to set up for the presentation, ensure that the venue is shaded and arrange the seating so that participants can see the presentation clearly.2 Have a volunteer participant briefly recap the previous session. Ask if any participants need more clarification on the business record forms that were covered in the previous session. Proceed with the day's session after any clarifications.3. Display the flipchart with the title of the meeting.4. Give the presentation on the different types of humidity chambers and shadehouses. If a presentation with a computer and projector is not possible, distribute coloured photos showing the structures. Draw attention to the different materials and inputs each construction needs.5. Display the questions on the flipchart one by one, and have participants brainstorm on each of them. Write down the responses on the flipchart. Encourage participants to provide examples where appropriate. Where necessary, supplement the discussion.6. Have participants form groups of two or three people. Give each group a copy of the three templates for costing the construction of humidity chambers and shadehouses and the tools required to run a tissue culture nursery business (Appendices 8, 9 and 10). Groups should choose the type of humidity chamber and shadehouse they are interested in (low cost, medium cost or high cost), and then attempt to cost the various inputs they would need for the constructions. All the materials used are available within the local communities, and participants should have a good knowledge of actual prices of input materials. However, the actual numbers are not so important at this stage -it is the process that is more important. Participants can add items to the templates that they think should be included. The exercise should take up to 45 minutes. Offer advice and help as necessary during the exercise. After 45 minutes, ask each group to present their budgets for their humidity chamber and shadehouse.7. Wrap up the meeting as follows:• Briefly recap the day's session• Distribute blank templates (Appendices 8, 9 and 10) to every participant and encourage them to try and do their own individual computations for the types of humidity chamber and shadehouse they wish to invest in. Encourage the participants to fill the templates before the next meeting• Communicate the topic for the next meeting (Benefit-cost analysis: operational costs) and the date, time and venue for the meeting. Ideally the venue will be the same as the current meeting• Remind participants to bring their pens, books and the completed templates to the next meeting.1. Have a volunteer participant briefly recap the previous training. Ask if any participants used the templates that were provided at the end of the previous session to calculate the budget for his/her desired humidity chamber and shadehouse. If attempts were made, go through these with the participants.2. Display the flipchart with the title of the meeting. Display the questions on the flipchart one by one. Ensure the participants understand the question, and encourage them to ask questions.Have participants brainstorm on each of them and write down the responses on the flipchart.Where necessary, supplement the discussion.3. Have participants go back to the groups they formed during the previous meeting. Give each group a copy of the templates for capturing operational costs and revenues (Appendices 11 and 12), and have the groups calculate the operational costs and revenues. Participants should use their own experience and that shared during the plenary discussions to come up with relevant figures. The actual figures are not so important at this stage -it is the process that the participants are learning that is important. Participants can add items to the templates that they think should be included. The exercise should take up to 30 minutes. Offer advice and help as necessary during the exercise.4. After 30 minutes, give each group the summary template (Appendix 13) for capturing the costs of construction of the humidity chamber and shadehouse, the operational costs, and the benefits from operating a banana tissue culture nursery business.5. Working with the groups, help the participants to insert figures into the summary sheet. Then have each group compute their benefit-cost analysis, and present it to the main group.6. Remind participants of the overall purpose of this session, which to help participants assess if the business opportunity (buying and selling tissue culture plantlets) is profitable and worth undertaking.7. Wrap up the meeting as follows:• Briefly recap the day's session• Distribute blank templates to all participants and encourage them to use these to do their own computations and benefit-cost analysis based on their desired investment plans• Communicate the topic of the next session, which is the first session of the next module and will show participants how to construct a humidity chamber and a shadehouse. Communicate the date, time and venue for the session.Fixed costs are expenses that do not change as a function of the level of production or sales of the business within a given period of time. The costs associated with building humidity chambers and shadehouses, as well as the cost of the tools used to build them, are examples of fixed costs.Humidity chambers can be simple or sophisticated, as long as they provide the essential 100% humidity for the plantlets during the weaning process.Various materials can be used when constructing humidity chambers. The frame can be built from wooden sticks, metal pipes or timber. Polythene foil or sheet is most commonly used on the frame, to enclose the chamber. The cost of constructing a humidity chamber depends on the materials used and size. Shadehouses also vary in sophistication and cost, for example:• Simple shadehouses made from locally available materials such as bamboo or other wooden sticks, with a roof made from mats of leaves or papyrus. These are usually inexpensive but are not long-lasting.• Medium-cost shadehouses built with timber and polythene sheeting as cover.• Stronger structures constructed from metal pipes grounded in concrete slab with chain links and/or shadecloth as cover, and stone chippings on the floor.• Specialized shadehouses or solar domes. These can be purchased from professional nursery suppliers, but are usually expensive. The cost of constructing a humidity chamber or a shadehouse depends on the materials used, the size (capacity), sophistication of the design, the cost of transport of materials to the site, and labour costs. Below are some example costs for the different types of humidity chamber and shadehouses (see Appendices 8 and 9).Table 1. Costs of constructing a low-cost humidity chamber, capacity 800 plantlets (Fig. 1).Transport and/or related labour costPolythene sheeting 5 3,500 -17,500Bricks to hold the polythene on the ground 20 100 -2,000 Timber/sticks forming the flame ---7,500Glue for holding polythene on the pipes 1 5,500 -5,500Labour (cutting and welding metallic pipes) ---5,000Total 37,500a Ugsh = Ugandan shillings (1 US$ = 1,900 Ugsh on 1/1/10).Table 2. Costs of constructing a medium-cost humidity chamber, capacity 1200 plantlets (Fig. 2).  Operational costs are the expenses which are related to the operation of a business. These costs increase if production increases.Below is an example budget for operational costs for a banana tissue culture nursery business (see Appendix 11). Benefits (revenues) associated with a tissue culture nursery business Table 7 shows an example of revenues received by a nursery operator over two seasons. Appendix 12 is a template that can be used for recording revenues. Grand sales 19,520,000Benefit-cost analysis is a relatively simple and widely used technique for deciding whether to make a change in an existing business or whether to invest in a given business opportunity. In simple terms, it compares costs against benefits to work out whether the entrepreneur will be likely to make a profit or a loss from the venture, and therefore whether they should go ahead.Table 8 shows a simplified example of a benefit-cost analysis for a tissue culture nursery business. Appendix 13 is a template that can be used for benefit-cost analysis. Depreciation of an asset refers to the reduction in value of an asset with the passage of time, due in particular to wear and tear. As business assets are used, their value falls. Depreciation of assets is one of the costs for a business.The information needed to compute depreciation expense includes:• Original cost of the asset• Expected salvage value, also known as residual value of the asset, i.e. the value of the asset at the end of its useful life• Estimated useful life of the asset• A method of apportioning the cost over such life (e.g. straight-line method).There are several methods for calculating depreciation, generally based on either the passage of time or the level of activity (or use) of the asset. The straight-line method is the simplest and most often used technique.Formula for computing depreciation using straight-line method:Annual depreciation expense = (cost of fixed asset -residual value) / useful life of the asset (years)For example, a shadehouse constructed with a budget of 1,000,000 Ugsh, a life of 5 years, and a salvage value of 200,000 Ugsh, will depreciate at 160,000 Ugsh per year: (1,000,000 − 200,000) / 5 years = 160,000 Ugsh.Q1: What are the risks associated with operating a banana tissue culture nursery?A1: Like all businesses, a banana tissue culture nursery business has some risks. These include plantlets dying especially during transportation from the tissue culture producer due to exposure, pests such as caterpillars attacking the plantlets, theft, and lack of a market. However, all these risks can be minimized. For example, plantlets dying during transportation can be avoided by transporting the plantlets during the evening hours when the sun is down, or covering the carrier (truck) with a shadenet while ensuring enough aeration. Control of pests can be achieved by using appropriate pesticides.Q2: How can I estimate how many plantlets will be wanted by the buyers?A2: Determining the demand for your plantlets is very important before you attempt to stock.During the module on marketing, you will learn how to assess and create a market for your plantlets.Q3: Can I stock plantlets all year-round?A3: With the help of a good shadehouse, it is possible to stock plantlets throughout the year. It may however not be profitable since the demand for plantlets is seasonal. The best option is to ensure that you have plantlets ready for sale at the onset of the rains.Q4: The initial investment needed is quite high. What advice do you have for someone who is limited by capital but would wish to start a business?A4: There are several ways of mobilizing capital, such as cashing in your own savings; borrowing from relatives, friends or financial institutions; engaging in joint ventures, etc. The subject of mobilizing capital through access to credit will be dealt with in the next session of this module.• Communicate the topic of the next session (Soil sterilization), and the date, time and venue where it will take place. The venue should be the same as the current session.• Encourage participants to draw up their own budgets for constructing humidity chambers and shadehouses based on the amount of money they have available and the size of business they intend to operate.Plantlets are weaned in the humidity chamber, i.e. they are gradually conditioned to an external environment. The humidity chamber provides the 100% humidity which protects the tissue culture plantlets during weaning. Young tissue culture plantlets have poorly developed cuticles, the stomata do not function properly, and the vascular connection between root and shoot may not be complete. Therefore the plantlets need high humidity to survive.Different types of humidity chambers can be used to wean young tissue culture plantlets. A more sophisticated humidity chamber will last longer but will cost more to construct. A shadehouse is used to harden plants after they have been weaned. There are different types of shadehouses of varying degrees of sophistication. A more sophisticated shadehouse will last longer but cost more to construct.• A simple shadehouse can be made from locally available materials, such as bamboo or other wooden sticks, and roofed with mats of leaves or papyrus.• Stronger, permanent structures can be constructed from metal pipes grounded in concrete slab with chain links and/or shadenet as cover, and stone chippings on the floor.• Specialized greenhouses or solar domes can be purchased from professional nursery suppliers, but are expensive.  Q1: What will happen if I place the plantlets under the shade of a tree instead of a shadehouse for the hardening process?A1: A shadehouse gives plantlets the best conditions for their survival, i.e. protection from direct sunlight (which could lead to desiccation), strong winds, etc. If plantlets are placed under a tree instead of in a shadehouse, especially when they are still young (e.g. just after weaning), many are likely to die.Q2: If I use plastic containers for the humidity chamber, will the plantlets survive?A2: The plantlets will survive in conditions of high humidity (near 100%) and adequate light. Plastic containers are not recommended if they are not transparent.Q3: Where can I buy a shadenet?A3: There are several shops, especially in urban commercial centers, where you can buy shadenets.It is however advisable to buy from a reputable dealer. We have included a few dealers where you can purchase shadenets and many other items that may be used to construct shadehouses and humidity chambers.Q4: How much will I pay for the labour to construct decent structures?A4: The price of labour varies according to location, sophistication of the structure, etc. Unless you are planning very sophisticated structures, humidity chambers and shadehouses can be built without skilled labour, so you can build it yourself.Q5: What is the best timber to use for building a shadehouse? A5: There is not a single recommended type of timber to use when constructing shadehouses or humidity chamber. You should try to find timber that is durable (such as timber from musizi, eucalyptus or muvule trees). You could ask people who have building experience to advise you.6. When the soil is considered fully sterilized, remove the covering sisal bags and leave the drum to cool. After cooling, remove the sisal bags containing the soil mixture and pour the soil onto a clean surface, spreading it out to cool. It may take 2-3 hours, or overnight, before the soil cools completely and is ready to use. So that participants appreciate the difference between bad and good transportation of tissue culture plantlets, have a few plantlets from each of the three categories deliberately transported badly (i.e. expose them to the sun and don't provide them with water).1. Open the day's training session by asking a volunteer participant to briefly recap the previous training session.2. Introduce the topic of the day.3. Discuss with participants the various methods of transporting tissue culture plantlets, including both bad and good methods. Discuss the implications of the different transportation methods.Stress the optimal conditions for transporting tissue culture plantlets.4. Demonstrate the best practices for handling tissue culture plantlets on arrival at the nursery. Explain to the participants the importance of planning ahead of plant arrival.5. After the demonstration, ensure the plantlets are cared for appropriately: deflask the plantlets in the culture flasks and put them into the humidity chamber; put those that are ready for hardening into the shadehouse; and give those that are ready for planting to the participants.• Briefly recap the day's session• Communicate the topic of the next session (Potting and management of tissue culture plantlets in the humidity chamber), and the date, time and venue for the session. The venue should be where the shadehouse and humidity chamber were constructed in Session 1.Tissue culture plantlets should be handled with great care during transportation from the place of production/purchase to the nursery, as follows:1. Duration of transport should be as short as possible.2. Temperature should be between 10ºC and 40ºC.3. Containers should be protected from rain and direct sunlight, which could damage the fragile leaves of plantlets.4. Plantlets should always be kept in an upright position.5. To avoid erroneously mixing cultivars, plantlets should be labelled with the correct cultivar name.Plantlets can be transported in culture flasks, after removal from flasks, or as potted plants. Each requires different care.• Plantlets in flasks: Care should be taken to ensure that the flasks do not break while in transit, by packing them close to each other within the container. On arriving at the nursery, plantlets in flasks do not need to be removed immediately, but can be left for up to 2 days.• Deflasked plantlets: These are the most fragile to transport. They should be placed in a plastic container with adequate water, and covered to maintain humidity and protect them from sunshine. On arrival at the nursery, these plantlets must be potted and placed in a humidity chambers immediately. • Potted plantlets: Transporting ready-to-plant plantlets requires a lot of space and hence the transportation costs are high. The plantlets should not be exposed to direct sunlight for prolonged periods of time; either transport them at night or by providing them with adequate shade. Also, take care to protect plantlets from strong winds while driving, especially if placed on the back of a pickup truck.Plantlets received in flasks or those that are deflasked should be removed from their container and placed in a room with indirect sunlight or fluorescent light. A room temperature of 20-35ºC is ideal. Deflasked plants should be potted immediately.Potted plantlets that are ready to be planted in the field should be put under shade or directly into the shadehouse upon arrival.Tissue culture plantlets can be deflasked at various sizes, but best results are achieved when plantlets are 7-10 cm tall and have a strong root system. Plants should be deflasked in a sheltered, shaded area.1. Open the flasks by removing the cap.2. Dissolve the nutrient medium with water and shake carefully until the plants are freely floating.3. Carefully remove the plantlets from the flask, using either forceps or fingers, and place them in a basin or bucket of water.4. Wash off the nutrient medium from the roots.5. If a cluster of plantlets was produced in a single tissue culture flask, these can be separated into individual plantlets by gently pulling them apart at the base or by cutting through the joint corm tissue using a scalpel.6. Long roots should be carefully disentangled and trimmed back to about 2-3 cm to ease planting and induce increased rooting.Q1: Is it possible to not lose any plants during transit? A1: Plant loss during transport is mostly due to poor practices. With proper care, all plants should survive.Q2: Do you pay a transport licence when transporting plantlets? A2: We have not heard of any nursery operator being asked for a transport licence in Uganda when transporting tissue culture plantlets. The Ministry of Agriculture does however require that anyone transporting planting materials from one district to another has a phyto-sanitary certificate. However, this is not enforced at the moment.Q3: What is the maximum time plantlets should be in transit?A3: This is difficult to say, but the transportation should be done as quickly as possible.Q4: If the leaves of the plantlet burn while in transit, can they still recover when planted? A4: Yes. The plantlet can still grow new leaves, provided the shoot is not broken. Potting plantlets for the humidity chamber 1. Deflask plantlets as explained during the previous session.2. If a cluster of plantlets was produced in a single tissue culture flask, these can be separated into individual plantlets by gently pulling them apart at the base or by cutting through the joint corm tissue using a scalpel.3. Plantlets that are not of uniform size (which occurs often when several plantlets are grown in a single jar) are sorted according to size.4. Plantlets of similar size are potted into the same plastic container containing a sterilized soil mixture. Up to five plantlets of the same size can be transferred into one plastic container.The humidity chamber helps the plantlets adapt to the external environment. While in the culture bottles, plantlets are under 100% relative humidity and lower light intensities. In the humidity chamber, they experience lower humidity and higher light levels, getting them used to conditions in the field. • Temperature should be between 25ºC and 35ºC. Lower or higher temperatures can lead to poor plant development.• Keep plantlets shaded. Shades can be constructed using sheeted bamboo poles, grass or leaves and placed on the roof of the humidity chamber. The chamber itself can be kept in a shadehouse or under natural shade (e.g. a tree).• High relative humidity should be maintained by regular misting using a hand sprayer. The relative humidity should be near 100% during the first week in the humidity chamber, and remain above 90% during the entire time in the humidity chamber. Humidity can be assessed with hydrometers; if these are not available, humidity can be assessed visually: when droplets form on the walls of the humidity chamber, humidity is near 100%. Humidity chambers should be opened as little as possible to prevent water from escaping.New roots appear about 4-5 days after plantlets have been placed in the humidity chamber. Fast rooting indicates good acclimatization, while lack of rooting might indicate an unsuitable potting mix, lack of aeration or inadequate water supply. Plantlets are ready to leave the humidity chamber when they have a well-branched root system, fully developed leaves and a pseudostem diameter about one-tenth of its height. Roughly speaking, larger plants will be ready for transfer to the shadehouse after 1-2 weeks while smaller ones will take longer (3 weeks).Q1: Will pests or pathogens attack plantlets while they are in the humidity chamber?A1: It is unusual to find pests or pathogens attacking plantlets while they are still in the humidity chamber. If this does happen, first isolate the affected plantlets and consult a specialist to control the pest or disease.Q2: If the plantlets fail to reach the expected size within 4 weeks, should I discard them? A2: Normally plantlets spend a maximum of 4 weeks in the humidity chamber. If plantlets still look too weak to remove from the chamber after 4 weeks, there is a problem with conditions inside the chamber. Fix the problem and keep them there a while longer, or discard them.Q3: Can plantlets survive in the humidity chamber without high humidity?A3: No. Plantlets need high humidity, especially during the first weeks.Q4: Can the humidity chamber be placed in a location other than a shadehouse? A4: Yes, as long the conditions for optimal plant growth are maintained (humidity, shade and temperature).   4. Ask participants to label their plants by writing their names and the date they performed the task on the container or plastic sheeting holding the potted plant, then transfer their potted plants to the shadehouse.5. Explain how to manage the plantlets within the shadehouse. So that participants appreciate the importance of maintaining good conditions within the shadehouse, place a few of the potted plantlets (~5) outside the shadehouse and subject them to natural conditions without management (e.g. without watering).6. Wrap up the session as follows:• Briefly recap the day's session• Encourage participate to visit the shadehouse regularly to check on the progress of their plantlets• Communicate the topic of the next training session (the first session of a new module, Marketing for nursery operators), and the date, time and venue.Removal of plantlets from the humidity chamber and potting them for the shadehouse Plantlets are transplanted into containers or black polythene bags after 1-2 weeks growth in a humidity chamber as follows:1. Fill the polythene bags (~ 250-350 ml) or containers with sterilized soil mixture and pour some water into the polythene bags.2. Carefully uproot the plantlets from their container, one at a time.3. Using your index finger or a rod, make an insertion into the moist soil within the polythene bag and carefully insert the uprooted plantlet in an upright position. Plant only one plantlet per bag or container. Cover its entire corm with the potting mix.4. Arrange polythene bags in double rows in the shadehouse, which saves space while allowing for proper leaf development on the side of the open alleys between rows. Label the bags with cultivar name and the date of transplantation.5. Keep plants in the shadehouse in the nursery for a period of 2-4 months, before moving them to the field.• Daily watering, either in the morning or in the evening; twice a day (morning and evening) during very dry conditions.• Temperature between 15ºC and 35ºC, with an optimum of 25-30ºC.• A high standard of hygiene is necessary to reduce the risk of damage by pest or pathogens.Caterpillars and mites can be serious leaf pests in the nursery. Spraying plants with insecticides can be effective for the control of such pests.• Partial shading is essential especially during the early stages in the shadehouse. Shade can be provided by using a special shadenet to cover the shadehouse. Q1: Can plantlets be hardened under a structure without a shadenet? A1: Yes. The key to successful hardening of tissue culture plantlets is the conditions, not the actual materials used. As long as you have something in place to provide shade and protection from pests, plantlets will grow well.Q2: What should I use to protect plantlets from pests like caterpillars?A2: If you see caterpillars on the leaves, you can use pesticides such as cypermethrin (e.g. Duducyper) applied according to the manufacturer's recommended dosage.Q3: Can I put liquid manure on plantlets during hardening?A3: Plantlets are planted in a soil mixture containing cattle manure, and this should be sufficient, so it is not necessary to add liquid manure. However, if you see symptoms of nutrient deficiency in the plantlets during the hardening process, you may add liquid manure.Q4: How long can I keep plantlets in the shadehouse; can I keep them longer if there are no buyers?A4: If plantlets spend more than 3 months in the shadehouse, they will probably be taller than normal plantlets. To keep them looking suitable for purchase cut their stem in the middle to encourage regrowth. a Costs in Ugandan shillings (1 US$ = 1,900 Ugsh on 1/1/10).Q1: If I overestimate the demand for tissue culture plantlets, what do I do with the plantlets left over at the end of the season? A1: Any plantlets not sold have to be kept in good condition until the next season comes around, and this incurs additional costs. Therefore it is best to estimate as accurately as possible the demand each season.Q2: If 40% of my tissue culture plantlets are destroyed by the sun while I am transporting them from the tissue culture producer, am I justified to transfer the cost to my buyers?A2: If you transfer these costs to your buyers, they may not be able to afford the plants, or they may decide to buy from other nurseries. So you are advised not to try and pass on these costs. On the other hand, if the tissue culture producer is the one charged with the responsibility of transporting the plantlets, she or he will have to bear the cost of replacing the plantlets.Q3: If I ask different prices from different clients (discriminatory pricing) when selling plantlets, would that be good for my business?A3: Price discrimination has some advantages (you can get higher prices from some wealthier buyers, and other consumers can enjoy lower prices), but it can also cause problems. Discriminatory pricing may be seen as unfair. It may also incur higher administration costs, because markets need to be separated. We recommend to very carefully weigh the pros and cons of price discrimination before applying it in the business. However, price discrimination can be based on selling different grades of quality for different prices. You can certainly ask a premium price for a premium product.","tokenCount":"12641"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce195c87560b6e591f3f7dc58f967815","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a68f7dbd-63a4-4ace-b1e2-4af7aadea71d/retrieve","id":"-107076862"},"keywords":["Yield Forecasting","CRAFT","Food Security Monitoring and Planning","Crop Outlook"],"sieverID":"ee2ac314-ffd4-4375-a7d4-f381cb8fef53","pagecount":"34","content":"The unpredictability of crop yields in climate vulnerable regions is damaging in many ways, negatively impacting food security as well as imports, exports, food prices, and people's livelihoods. The CCAFS Regional Agricultural Forecasting Toolbox (CRAFT) is an open source, flexible crop-forecasting platform that includes a crop simulation module, a weather and seasonal forecast simulation module, and a geographic information system module. The toolbox aims to provide information to ensure better management of agricultural risks associated with increased climate variability and extreme weather events. It uses historical databases of weather and crop yields and current weather to estimate yields of various crops.Advances in crop forecasting technology and crop modelling help with the estimation of inseason crop yields under a variable climate, which enables stakeholders such as policy makers, line agencies, cooperatives, extension workers, and farmers to better prepare the mitigation strategies to cope with risks. From November 2014 through December 2016, CRAFT was implemented in Nepal to forecast yields of wheat and paddy; forecast levels aligned closely with Ministry estimates. Currently, CRAFT is being tested for yield forecasting at the sub-national level in Nepal. The main objective of this paper is to present the status and performance of CRAFT for food security monitoring in Nepal. It presents the data inputs, the methodology and structure of the model, results and performance, limitations, and assumptions made in forecasting the yields of paddy and wheat for different seasons in Nepal.Crop yield forecasting refers to the prediction of the crop yield or production prior to the time of harvest. Amidst the ongoing climatic uncertainty, crop yield forecasts provide crucial information to many agricultural and food security policies, including food assistance, social safety net and emergency relief programs, agricultural insurance, and management of the agricultural inputs and credit supplies. Yield forecasting depends on data from various sources such as meteorological data (rainfall, temperature, humidity, bright sunshine hours, wind speed, wet spell, etc.), agro-meteorological data (phenology), soil data (water holding capacity), remote sensing data, and agricultural statistics. Models that simulate plant-weathersoil interactions in quantitative terms predict the crop yield over a given area, prior to the harvest, provided no extreme (statistically infrequent) conditions occur. These models are based on a \"common sense\" assumption that weather conditions are the main factor behind the inter-annual (short-term) variations for the de-trended crop yield series (Gommes et al., 2010).Existing early warning tools for food security CRAFT is being used in Nepal, where process-based crop models were used with geospatial databases for arriving at crop forecasts. The tool is also being piloted in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and India.Limited comparison of alternative methods suggested that using a statistical model to condition the output (e.g. simulated yield) of a crop simulation model on seasonal forecasts is simpler to implement and less prone to systematic error than the various methods that have been tested to condition crop model weather data inputs on seasonal forecasts (Hansen and Indeje 2004;Hansen et. al, 2006). The approach used in CRAFT builds on an earlier study that using principal components linear regression to link CGM-based seasonal precipitation forecast fields with model-based estimates of wheat yields in the state of Queensland, on a set of polygons with historic station weather records and dominant soil data, the study predicted yields as a linear function of the first principal component of general circulation model (GCM) seasonal rainfall fields, over a spatial domain extending north and east from Queensland. Prediction skill was tested with hindcast analysis, employing leave-one-out cross-validation to ensure that observations from the year being predicted did not influence the statistical model. Predictions were updated four times, at monthly intervals, starting before the earliest planting in the state. In each case, the model was run with observed weather from the year being predicted through the forecast date, and then with all other years of available weather data from the forecast date until harvest. The forecast distribution was based on the cross-validated hindcast residual distribution (see Hansen et al., 2006).CRAFT uses the same general approach, but is designed to work with gridded input data. The IRI's Climate Predictability Tool (CPT; Mason and Tippett 2016) runs in batch mode in the background, providing the multivariate statistical modelling used to downscale appropriate seasonal predictors (e.g. GCM output fields and observed or forecast sea surface temperature fields) into yields simulated with historic gridded weather data. CPT has more than 15 years of development and has been used by many national meteorological services and regional climate outlook forums to produce, downscale, and evaluate seasonal forecasts. It supports canonical correlation (treating predictor and predictand as spatial fields), principal component regression (treating predictor as a spatial field and predictand as independent points), and cross-validation to avoid over-fitting and the risk of artificial skill.Once yields are predicted or simulated for grid cells containing the target crop, aggregate production is estimated by summing the product of grid cell yields and the fraction of the grid cell devoted to the crop, while ensuring that the grid cell forecast probability distributions are aggregated properly.CRAFT includes the client application with a user-friendly interface and database implementation (Vakhtang et al., 2015). CRAFT integrates two different external engines: a crop simulation model for spatial crop simulations and another for seasonal climate forecasts using the CPT.The crop simulation engine, the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT; Jones et al., 2003), consists of crop simulation models for cereals and many other crops, and the tools to facilitate effective use of the models. DSSAT simulates the crop-soilweather interaction and gives crop yield as output. Likewise, the CPT is a tool that produces seasonal climate forecasts using model output statistic (MOS) corrections to climate predictions from GCM, or for producing forecasts using fields of sea-surface temperatures or similar predictors (IRI, 2017).The workflow in CRAFT starts with management, soil and weather inputs in gridded forms which are utilized by the crop simulation module under DSSAT to produce yields. The CPT module then produces seasonal climate forecasts and integrates with the DSSAT simulated yields to provide seasonally forecasted yields for each of the grids. These gridded yields are aggregated to the domain of interest by a GIS module inside CRAFT. The yields are then compared and calibrated externally against observed data to obtain the final yield forecasts.  The CRAFT architecture uses gridded data schemes for spatial variability with predefined reference grids of 5 arc minute resolutions. Spatial inputs of weather, soil, cultivar and crop management inputs representing the reference schematized grids are initialized and incorporated into the crop simulation model (DSSAT CSM). The crop simulation engine then simulates the crop growth and yields for each individual grid cell based on the predefined inputs. If seasonal predictors are available, the yields are then adjusted using statistical downscaling as described in the previous section. Through spatial aggregation and probabilistic analysis of the forecast uncertainty for both short-term and long-term periods, predicted yield can be determined for a region at different spatial resolutions. (Vakhtang et al., 2015). CRAFT allows hindcast analysis, de-trending, and post-simulation calibration of model predictions from historic agricultural statistics. It includes further options for risk analysis and climate change impact studies on crops. Analyses of the simulation results can be conducted through comparing different scenarios, reviewing the output statistics and visualization with thematic maps.The inputs are added to CRAFT in gridded formats. The pre-processing of the data to assign to each grid was done in Arc-GIS interface. Basically, two types of data inputs are used in CRAFT: spatial and spatio-temporal inputs. Brief explanation of the data is given below:The spatial inputs include soil data, cultivar type, crop management inputs and irrigation mask. These data are more or less constant for a given period of time. Specific details of the inputs used for different seasons are presented in Table 1.The Soil and Terrain Database (SOTER) for Nepal was used as the soil source and the respective properties, such as texture, depth, soil moisture content, bulk density, infiltration  Crop management practices including dates of sowing/planting, irrigation, and fertilizer applications were defined for the crops based on ecological belts: mountains, hills, and plains (Terai). These assumptions were based on the studies conducted by Gautam et al. (2011), Hobbs et al. (1996), Adhikari et al. (1999), and Amgain and Timsina (2005). Details are given in Table 1.Data on crop variety and more importantly the cultivar coefficients are the most important parameters governing the reliability of any crop model. Due to the absence of a clear crop varietal distribution in a spatial scale in Nepal, the crop varieties were chosen as the popular cultivars for each ecological zone. RR-21 for the hills and NL-297 varieties for the plains (Terai) were selected as the popular wheat cultivars. For paddy, Jumli Marshy was selected as the popular cultivar for the mountains, Khumal-4 for the hills, and Mansuli for the plains (Terai). Regarding the cultivar coefficients, calibrated genotypes obtained from the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) were used as the cultivar coefficients.The spatial distribution of irrigated areas across the grids constitutes this input data. Ministry of Agricultural Development's (MoAD) statistics on the district level irrigated area were used for irrigation mask. The ratio of irrigated area to the total area for each district was calculated and this proportion was uniformly distributed to each grid within a district to get irrigated area mask for Nepal.The spatio-temporal inputs include more time variant inputs such as weather data and crop acreage data. Specific details of these inputs used for different seasons are also presented in Table 1.Weather is the major driver of the CRAFT model, and the reliability of climatic parameters determine the reliability of model outcomes (i.e. the yield and production forecasts).Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) ground station data for precipitation and temperature for a time period of 1981 to 2009 on a daily scale were used in the model run.The precipitation data was taken from 163 stations and temperature from 45 stations across Nepal. The stations were selected based on the availability of the weather parameters. These data were interpolated in 5' x 5' schema grids using the nearest neighbourhood method.Near-real time data is a prerequisite to get reliable yield forecasts. Since the availability of near-real time data is lacking in Nepal, the satellite based weather products were opted for supplementing the existing historic climate data till the date of simulation. Beyond 2009, the weather data was supplemented using other satellite precipitation and temperature estimates.The supplementary weather data used was 0.1° RFE v 2.0 data.This data includes the spatial distribution of the areas under cultivation. Crop masks are periodically created for Nepal using the MoAD's district-level statistics on a crop grown area for different stages within a crop season. The ratio of crop grown area to the total area for each district was calculated and this proportion was uniformly distributed to each grid within a district to get a distributed crop mask for Nepal. Due to the absence of reliable high resolution remote sensing products, the statistical area data from MoAD were incorporated.ICIMOD's MODIS based cropped area distribution maps were tried but the data was later rejected due to the poor spatial resolution of MODIS.For the forecast, the crop masks were used twice in a season. The data was availed by the MoAD, once the information from all the districts were collected at the central level. Based on these data, the forecasts were made once during the maturity period and the other towards the end of the season (prior to or immediately after the harvest based on the availability of crop mask). The CPT tool within CRAFT v 2.0 could not be run due to technical issues. As a result, workaround was devised to infill the crop season so as to run the crop model over the season for predicting seasonal yields. As an alternative, the near-real time weather information available from the DHM 1 of 20 synoptic and aeronautical stations across Nepal were used to interpolate the weather conditions for each grid and supplement the weather information until the day of forecast. The weather information for the remainder of the year (the forecast year) was infilled using the data from previous year. These years were assumed as those years with similar annual precipitation from the same station or a nearby station within the nearest elevation. With the complete series infilled for the year, CRAFT was then run to obtain the yield estimates. As the season progressed, the results were assumed to be less uncertain.Lack of available information on crop varietal distribution and management datasets at the grid level was another major limitation to the model. In the absence of information on crop varieties, irrigation, fertilizer input, and cultivated and irrigated area, the model run has been limited to the national level aggregation only. Thus generic management practices quoted in different studies at the ecological zones (mountains, hills, and plains) were selected for the model. Most popular cultivar varieties obtained through field consultations and reports were used in the model based on the ecological zones. This varietal information was further limited by the availability of the field verified cultivar coefficients. Cultivar coefficients available from the NARC were used in the model.Due to unfavourable conditions in the aftermath of the devastating earthquakes in April-May 2015 and the cross-border trade disruption with India during monsoon season of 2015, the agriculture sector was significantly affected. A resulting fuel crisis reduced irrigation application during sowing and crop growth. The condition was further worsened by a weak monsoon (2015) that reduced soil moisture during sowing. To simulate these unfavourable 1 The near-real time data were obtained after an MoU with DHM following a series of discussions between WFP and DHM. 20 conditions, it was assumed in the model that the irrigated areas were reduced by 25% and the sowing was delayed by 10 days. The sowing dates for the hills ecological belt were assumed to be December 11 and for the plains (Terai) to be December 2. The summer and winter, crop assessment missions also affirmed the late sowing of wheat due to insufficient soil moisture.The results from CRAFT are disseminated on a periodic basis in forms of advance estimates, as well as a dedicated section in Nepal Food Security Monitoring System (NeKSAP) publications such as Crop Situation Updates, Food Security Bulletins and CRAFT Reports.Advance estimates obtained through CRAFT were also shared with MoAD and other related stakeholders regularly. The results from CRAFT were also picked up by national media outlets and featured in news articles.CRAFT has performed well with good results at the national scale. With this success, the stakeholders are now demanding its applications at the sub-national level. This, however, suggests the need for further improvements in data inputs as well as the model.Once the aforementioned spatial-temporal inputs were prepared and entered into the model, CRAFT was used first to compute wheat yields by hindcasting to establish the validity of the model across the historical time series, prior to forecast. The model was run to hindcast the production for each year from 1983 to 2013 and the simulated values were compared against the reported production from MoAD for the corresponding years. Hindcasting for each past season was done by allowing the model to run through the corresponding season from the date of simulation for the same year. Due to a lack of adequate information on crop management and varieties over the time series, it was assumed that the varieties and management practices remained constant throughout the years. This has been the key limitation of the hindcast study. run showed a strong correlation between the observed and the simulated yields in Nepal. The scatter plot between the observed and simulated production and coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.88 also indicate that the model performance is satisfactory (Fig. 3). The year-wise hindcasted production values are given in Fig. 4 and Appendix. Similar to the wheat model, CRAFT was used to hindcast the rice production levels from 1991 to 2014. The methodology was same. The simulated values were compared against reported rice production values for each year. With a corresponding coefficient of determination 0.6657, the results suggest that the model still has some room for further improvement (Fig. 5). The year-wise hindcast production values are given in the Appendix.Since paddy is highly sensitive to the climatic inputs, the model results require further calibration (especially with climate parameters) to establish a very sound validity for model application for paddy. This would be a focus of future research where high resolution climatic datasets (e.g. satellite precipitation) will be used to improve the forecast skills for paddy. signalled the end of paddy plantation. The updated forecast is presented in Fig. 4. As shown in the figure, based on the updated area estimate of 29 August 2015, a production of 4,181,298 tonnes was forecasted from a planted area of 1,370,212 ha (a 4.5% reduction from last year). At 4,181,298 tonnes, the forecast was a 12.3% reduction compared to 2014, in the post-earthquake scenario in Nepal. Likewise, in comparison to the normal level, the forecast was a 12.4% reduction.CRAFT was used to forecast the national level wheat production for 2014-2015 for the first time. Two outlooks were provided at different stages of cropping season.For the preliminary wheat outlook 2016 season, the forecast was for production of 2,230,660 tonnes, an increase of 18.5% compared to 2013-2014 and an increase 27.3% compared to the five-year average or normal level.   The results from CRAFT suggest a good applicability at the national level as the final outlooks have adequately matched the MoAD's estimate that is disseminated almost a month after the harvest. These advance estimates have the potential to inform food security related decisions in Nepal. Despite the data limitations, the model has shown good prediction capability for crop yields.As discussed above, the major limitation was the climate data, which has been addressed by using the satellite-based products. However, for a better representation of Nepal's climatic scenario, DHM's station data should be used. Lack of capacity and technical issues surrounding the CPT was another major obstacle in assessing the in-season climate required for the production estimate. Workarounds were devised for further application of CRAFT, it included alternatives to the seasonal forecast module, interpolated gridded climate and soil data. However, there is room for improvement regarding the current limitations on climate data. With the newer versions of CRAFT, a working CPT module would be highly relevant in putting forward 'actual' seasonal forecasts in the estimation process.Likewise, the absence of real-time satellite based crop-masks have restricted the application of CRAFT to the MoAD's district-level area estimates, which has limited the CRAFT capabilities to the district level as the smallest unit of prediction instead of grids. The scenario is similar for irrigation masks.Crop varietal information has been gradually improved as more and more stakeholders are sharing their information regarding varietal mapping in Nepal. The soil database is also being continually explored to ensure better inputs to the model. Frequent transfer of the CRAFT trained focal points in the MoAD and NARC has also been a hindering factor. Regarding the results, the model has been showing good prediction for wheat compared rice.The first phase (November 2014 -December 2016) of CRAFT has seen challenges ranging from technical data and input oriented issues to a more managerial issue in uptake from the counterparts as well as capacity development. Amidst these challenges, CRAFT has increasingly gained its recognition as a potential yield forecasting and decision support tool in Nepal.The progress made towards the aforementioned specific challenges during the first phase of CRAFT implementation are discussed below:The quality of model output depends upon the quality of data available. Hence, the model output can still be improved with more precise inputs especially on weather, crop mask, cultivars and crop management. On the other hand, there is an increasing demand for downscaling the model outputs to sub-national (regional and district) levels. However, availability of disaggregated inputs/data at those levels remains a challenge. The following sections briefly highlights the data issue vis-à-vis refining and downscaling the model outputs.In the absence of a mechanism for regular data provision from DHM to NeKSAP, the real- Another major data gap was the availability of reliable crop acreage data. So far, the MoAD's estimated crop area within the season is being considered as a reference in the model as it is the case with the irrigation coverage. On the other hand, the variety specific crop management data (irrigation, fertilizer application, planting, etc.) is not available at the desired subnational scale. This is also one of the major factors limiting the model capability at the district for CRAFT, with strong demand from the government for sub-national scale prediction, there is need for a coordinated effort by national government agencies and international partners to improve Nepal's crop forecasting system. As an important tool within NeKSAP, there is strong organizational support from the MoAD, DoA, and NARC, which has put forwardCRAFT at the implementation level. However, for a full-scale implementation of CRAFT as a planning tool, the following recommendations for future work have been identified:Climate data: Further research on the climate aspects is highly important. Incorporation of DHM station data wherever possible and inclusion of reliable satellite estimates like CHIRPS, RFe, after adequate blending with station data, is one of the research aspects identified for the next phase. Capacity strengthening of CRAFT personnel and DHM on seasonal weather forecasting using CPT is also a necessity to provide reliable estimates at the sub-national scale. CRAFT is an integral part of it. The enhanced network of trained personnel and students will also help overcome the data constraints.A multi-stakeholder driven network for running CRAFT is envisioned as a technical user group. The group will be comprised of representatives from MoAD, DoA, DHM, NARC, FAO, IRRI, CIMMYT, AFU, TU, and so on, convening each season to run CRAFT and provide production estimates for the season.This will enhance the organizational coordination and will provide a solid basis to work in closer collaboration and share resources and ownership. ","tokenCount":"3650"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a2935df6934c0222065d8f3f1e2420f8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b4221b90-2d4f-4ef7-bec7-f0c0aae87787/retrieve","id":"2095612213"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fda3b961-28a9-4cf9-83e9-573f2710e761","pagecount":"15","content":"Rice-fish coculture is an age-old nature-based practice that effectively utilizes land and water resources and promises to be a viable alternative to rice monoculture for sustainable joint production of rice and fish with socioeconomic and ecological advantages in rural areas. However, qualitative and quantitative studies on such practices to evaluate their socioeconomic vulnerability based on primary data of farmers' opinions are sparse. In this study, we attempted to identify the factors responsible for the success and lapses in rice-fish coculture in five villages of Ziro Valley in the lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. We conducted an exhaustive field survey to collect primary data through questionnaires survey, focus group discussions, and interviews. Then, we analyzed the data by applying artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms to identify the stresses and recommend guidelines to improve farmers' management and decision-making for sustainable rice-fish coculture. The results of the general linear regression, considering fifteen variables, Akaike information criterion, and the decision tree on three important responses of the farmers indicate that the the current practice of rice-fish coculture in the Ziro Valley yields poor returns. We identified that mismanagement of inputs, unwillingness to invest, nonavailability of adequate funds and formal training, and limited involvement of youths in the culture are crucial factors behind poor returns. However, institutional support in managing stocking density, feed, and rice type, along with human resource training, can address these gaps, thereby improving the production and livelihoods of a significant section of the Apatani tribe.Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an indispensable crop that feeds about 50% of the world's population (Jiang et al., 2020) and plays a crucial role in global food security (Mohidem et al., 2022). About 90% of the worldwide rice is produced in Asia (Papademetriou, 2000). India, with an annual production of >130 million metric tons during the year 2022-2023, ranks second in the world in rice production, next to China (Sathoria and Roy, 2022;Barman, 2020;Bhatt et al., 2021). The current production of rice in India marks a 9.61% increase over the last three years due to a 6.22% increase in the area of cultivation and a 3.19% increase in the yield (currently 2809 kg/ha) (Noopur et al., 2023). Continuous improvement in agricultural outcome is a steady step towards achieving the two significant concerns, No poverty and Zero hunger, of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations to reach by 2030 (Jewitt and Baker, 2007;Swaminathan, 2006;Kaushal and Prashar, 2021;Liu et al., 2019;Swaminathan and Kesavan, 2012;Zaveri et al., 2016).Integrated rice-fish coculture system (IRFCS) is an age-old traditional natural practice in China, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, and many other Asian countries that fosters economic and environmental sustainability (Halwart and Gupta, 2004;Koide et al., 2015;Bashir et al., 2020;Ahmed and Turchini, 2021). It effectively utilizes land and water resources, reduces environmental pollution, and is thus a promising and sustainable alternative approach for increasing the production of both rice and fish, with socioeconomic and ecological advantages (Hu et al., 2016;Liu et al., 2020;Sathoria and Roy, 2022;Ahmed and Garnett, 2011;Wang and Gao, 2017;Yifan et al., 2023;Yuan et al., 2022;Chen et al., 2021). Historically, rice field fisheries involving harvesting of fish from flooded rice fields are the oldest form of integrated rice-fish production system in many low and middleincome countries (Freed et al., 2020a). The irrigated spring rice fields have also been successfully used to produce Nile tilapia fingerlings in Bangladesh Barman and Little (2006). With time, the integration has been diversified across countries depending upon the rural communities, socio-economic structures, and livelihood needs. In Bangladesh, an alternating rice-fish culture system, with boro rice cultivation during the dry season followed by fish culture during the rainy season, is the most prevalent rice-fish coculture system, in contrast to a small percentage of rice-fish concurrent system cultivating amon rice and fish together during the rainy season (Dey et al., 2013). Alternating riceshrimp culture with a monsoon rice crop followed by a dry season shrimp crop is also popular in Bangladesh and Vietnam (Dey et al., 2013;Freed et al., 2020a). Collective management of the alternating rice-fish culture system is crucial in boosting farmers' confidence for profitable aquaculture without losing rice production (Dey et al., 2013). In recent years, WorldFish has introduced the concept of community-based fish culture (CBFC) in seasonal floodplains and irrigated systems of Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Vietnam, and Mali, where fish is cultured communally during the flood season, and the same land is cultivated for rice individually during the dry season (Haque and Dey, 2017). The authors reported an increase in average fish production from 124 kg/ha/ yr to 464 kg/ha/yr and approximately 3.74 times more fish income for the households participating in CBFC. However, the concept of the integrated rice-fish co-culture system is relatively new to Africa, except for the traditional rice field fisheries in some countries like Cambodia, where the rice field catch of fish and other aquatic animals constitute about 60% of household consumption (Freed et al., 2020b). In the face of an acute crisis of freshwater throughout Africa, integrating fish culture into irrigation systems has been a viable option to increase overall food production without additional use of water (Dugan et al., 2006). IRFCS in China has been recognized as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS) by the UN Development Program, the Global Environment Facility of the United Nations (UN), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 2005 due to socioeconomic and ecological sustainability (Sathoria and Roy, 2022;Ahmed and Garnett, 2011;Xie et al., 2011;Yuan et al., 2022;Wang and Gao, 2017;Yifan et al., 2023).IRFCS generates multiple benefits, including improved incomes, availability of diverse nutritious foods, livelihood options for women and youth, biodiversity, resource efficiency, waste recycling, and climate change resilience (Xie et al., 2011). Preserving long-term ecological sustainability is one of the key objectives for supporting conventional ecosystem-based farming strategies (Pikitch et al., 2004). Natural farming, conceptualized by the Japanese farmers Mokichi Okada and Masanobu Fukuoka, is an agroecological approach to chemical-free agriculture (Xu, 2001;Kumar et al., 2022).The natural farming system approach or organic farming approach, a holistic approach aimed to maximize production through the use of natural processes, is believed to be a potential alternative approach of functioning in an eco-friendly manner while sustaining and increasing production (Gamage et al., 2023). The main objectives behind such agroecological farming systems were to boost farmers' confidence, economic returns, soil health and ecosystem integrity, and stability of farming systems with the involvement of diversified stakeholders (Prost et al., 2023;Wezel et al., 2020). The government of India is currently engaged in implementing natural farming-based agricultural methods with strategic planning under the national mission on natural farming (GOI, 2024). Several state government organizations are also making every effort to follow such initiatives. For instance, the Andhra Pradesh government has recognized the rice-fish farming system as a possible instrument for expediting the agroecological transition under the Andhra Pradesh Community Managed Natural Farming (APCNF) program. However, such farmers' management organizations face significant challenges in complying the natural agricultural practices due to climate change, such as irregular rainfall, non-availability of funding, shortages of skilled labour, and decrement of irrigated land coupled with rapidly evolving socioeconomic issues, limited strategic planning, policy support, and ecological dynamics, which in turn make significant pitfalls in continuing such natural practices (Jayasankar, 2018;Paul et al., 2023). These challenges potentially develop risks for the unsustainable future of farming communities, threatening the balance of nutrition, food safety, and social security (Dorin, 2022). Attention is now given to exploiting IRFCS as a process to address some burning issues like natural resources utilization, poverty, income generation, equal sharing of benefits, food safety, and environmental security (Bashir et al., 2020;Islam et al., 2015;Yifan et al., 2023;Zhang et al., 2022). Although the concept of IRFCS is a century old, it has hardly been practiced on a large scale as compared to the monoculture of rice and intensive aquaculture practice (Halwart and Gupta, 2004;Liu et al., 2020;Sathoria and Roy, 2022). Moreover, such practices have generally not been the subject of detailed scientific studies from the socioeconomic perspective.The assessment and adjustment of such a conventional management approach are necessary for avoiding potential negative impacts of direct (e.g., fish and rice productivity) and indirect (e.g., self-employment) outcomes that ultimately determine the structure of the supporting ecosystem (Li et al., 2022). Although in the mid-1990s, Heuvel (1996) introduced the conceptualized precision agriculture, the structural information upgrade in agriculture was yet to arise widely in the Indian context. In the era of precision agriculture, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms can enrich farmer management by achieving optimal returns on inputs while preserving resources. By utilizing the new capabilities of such algorithms, one can scrutinize and adjust the IRFCS inputs to increase productivity while using fewer natural resources and labour if data are available (Patr'ıcio and Rieder, 2018;Shaikh et al., 2022).The present research deals with the rice-fish coculture system at Ziro Valley, an age-old traditional practice (N27 o 32 -27 o 37 E93 o 48 -93 o 52) in the north-eastern Sub-Himalayas climatic region of Arunachal Pradesh (Saikia and Das, 2009;Sundriyal and Dollo, 2013;Dollo et al., 2009). IRFCS, locally called Aji Nguyi Assonii, has been a common traditional practice in this valley for several decades among the Apatani tribe (Kacha, 2016a;Saikia, 2023). Apatani tribe practices a natural coculture process where natural resources, bio-degradable wastes, household byproducts, and manures are recycled to cultivate three indigenous tall geographical races of rice such as Emo, Mipya, and Pyaping and produces carps (Saikia and Das, 2015). The farmers exploit the water resources to stock advanced fry or fingerlings of fish, mainly common carp (Cyprinus carpio) singly or in combination with a small proportion of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and different Indian Major Carps (IMC), and culture them for 3-8 months as an alternative source of income (Saikia and Das, 2009;Nimachow et al., 2010). The women are more engaged in cultivating to secure family nutrition and income generation. Although some farmers in Ziro Valley are unwilling to continue the coculture practice mainly for low returns and evolving socioeconomic, environmental, and climatic issues, most of the Apatanians still stick to IRFCS with an urge to preserve the local natural agricultural practices, as rice is the preferred dietary item and make an additional income from fish, especially common carp, which has a high demand in local markets (Asada et al., 2022;Mandal et al., 2021;Saikia, 2023). The Apatani tribe has used common cap farming in rice fields since 1965. However, a rigorous understanding of input type, quality, and actual requirements under the present scenario can make IRFCS lucrative and sustainable. This research intends to explore the socioeconomically essential factors in a landscape under natural biological rhythmicity.We conducted an exhaustive field survey to acquire data to provide new guidelines for farmer management practices and improve decisionmaking in resource utilization. We used statistical methods and artificial intelligence algorithms on the field data set to extract useful information for government organizations and individuals to create additional value. We used regression and decision tree (DT) algorithms, which have been widely used in several fields such as agriculture, determination of ideal input in aquaculture, generating rules for water reservoirs, urban water distribution systems, and many other areas (Loureiro et al., 2016;Perea et al., 2019;Mishra et al., 2021;Kumar et al., 2013). The main objectives of this study were to identify the factors responsible for the success and lapses of IRFCS in Ziro Valley, evaluate the potential gaps, and recommend suitable strategies to escalate and promote Apatani IRFCS judiciously for sustainable rice-fish production in this part of Arunachal Pradesh.The critical contributions of the present study are as follows: First, we surveyed by considering essential factors for such conventional IRFCS chores and socioeconomic factors to explore characteristics of ongoing practice. Since such data types are primarily unavailable, we prepared questionnaires and data that could be a benchmark in the future. Second, we used AI/ML algorithms to assess the vulnerability of sustainable rice-fish coculture practices and to identify the factors that facilitate the advantages and disadvantages of resource management and its socioeconomic impacts. The steps involved a comprehensive discussion on the production analysis and classification of inputs. Therefore, our proposed scheme might also apply to the viability assessment of rice-fish coculture in other areas. Finally, we recommended the critical focus areas that need to be improved for better governance and management of rice-fish coculture systems to mitigate challenges and issues associated with long-term adoption. These recommendations assist the farmers and policymakers in framing future policy for a viable and sustainable IRFCS.The design of the study, starting from the problem identification, techniques involved, identification of the driving forces, stresses, and methodology used to evaluate the impact, has been portrayed in Fig. 1.The present study was conducted in five villages in Ziro Valley: (i)  (Dollo et al., 2009). -Air temperature varies between 6.3 • C and 28.1 • C during summer and 1.0 • C and 18.4 • C in winter. The high water holding capacity of the soil in the valley is suitable for cultivating tall varieties of paddy for a long duration.The valley is located in between high hilly canopy from where several natural streams flow down to the valley with nutrient-enriched water either from upside forest areas or irrigation dams, and the Apatani tribe have an inborn talent for utilizing that water for irrigation of paddy fields by creating clay channels. Local farmers in Ziro Valley used to preserve the natural resources accessible in their rice fields by raising fish and rice through well-designed land-use planning. After passing through terraced rice fields, the water is distributed over the remaining rice fields via artificially made clay canals. Large streams or canals receive overflow water at the lowest elevation. Each paddy field used to have two or multiple trenches constructed erratically or perpendicularly to one another. These trenches are 40-50 cm deep and 30-40 cm wide. The geographical overview of the present study area is presented in Fig. 2.With a total area of 3460 km 2 and situated at the altitudinal zonation of 2300-3000 m higher from sea level, about 592.0 ha of 715.7-ha total wet area are covered by the rice-fish culture (Kacha, 2016b). Many mountain ranges encircle the region, providing the valley with most of its water for agriculture and other purposes. The Apatani tribe is one of the most progressed in Arunachal Pradesh in terms of employment in government sectors and literacy rate. However, the primary food security sources are rice-fish farming. The Apatani farmers are renowned for their innate ability to cultivate rice in hilly areas and irrigate the rice fields efficiently through artificially made canal networks and interconnected draining pipes. They practice IRFCS with tall rice varieties and common carp as the major fish species. Farmers depend on both hired labour and self-labour. The region has well-functioning market Fig. 1. Overview of problem, methodology, and analysis. connections, enabling farmers -to easily market commodities grown in Ziro Valley.We collected primary data through the questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, and interviews. We conducted exploratory research because structured research to study the critical socioeconomic aspects of the Apatani rice-fish culture system is sparse, and structured data were also unavailable. We randomly selected farmers from five villages. The primary criteria for selecting responses were those practicing ricefish farming for at least five years. After confirming that at least 400 farmers were present, the snowball sampling technique was used to recruit about 200 farmers, of whom 186 numbers were taken into consideration for the analysis (Kirchherr and Charles, 2018). We designed a questionnaire to survey the socioeconomic issues related to rice-fish farming and its implications for local livelihoods. We collected the information required through direct conversations between April and May 2023. We also analyzed factors such as age, educational status, ownership of land, income from rice-fish coculture, and some fundamental constraints such as labour cost, poor productivity, and nonavailability of financial support. We cross-checked all the information to ensure the accuracy of data collected from the respondents. We categorized open-ended answers into high, medium, and low or yes and no and performed tabulation by using Microsoft Excel. Initial key informant interviews were conducted to understand the study context, prevalent farming practices, and their socioeconomic impact. These interviews also enabled refining the design of a structured questionnaire. Local enumerators were trained to administer the questionnaire in the local language.First, we compute correlation coefficients followed by principal component analyses (PCA) to evaluate the relative contribution of the variables and use the K-means algorithm for clustering purposes. In addition, we conducted regression analysis and used decision tree algorithms for production analysis to identify critical variables associated with the challenges faced by farmers. All statistical analyses and models were performed and implemented in R, version 3.5.0 (R Core Team, R, 2023). The data set has no missing values.PCA is a method that reduces a dataset's dimensionality while preserving the data's main characteristics. This is achieved by transforming the dataset to a new set of variables (Principal Components or PCs), ordered so that the first few retain most of the variation in the original dataset. Researchers implemented the PCA method in various domains during the last decades as the methodology can identify interrelation within the studied parameters (Ringn'er, 2008). Although the signs of eigenvectors are arbitrary in PCA, variables having the same sign evolve correlativity, and opposite signs become anti-correlativity (Li et al., 2018). We employed PCA to identify the significant factors and obtain an overview of preliminary information on the influence of input variables on rice-fish culture (Mishra et al., 2021).K-means algorithm is a partition technique that allows data to be grouped into clusters so that the objects within a cluster are similar but different in the other groups. A centroid-based partitioning method is used, using the centroid of a cluster to represent it. The K-means clustering technique can help to reveal hidden information in a large dataset; hence, considering clustering results as input variables can improve model performance. Selecting the appropriate number of clusters is among the most influential factors in K-means clustering results. We refer to Mishra et al. (2021) for the detailed steps.Decision Tree (DT) predicts the outcomes of a discrete dependent variable with a finite set of values (class) from the values of a group of independent attributes (Quinlan, 1986;Mishra et al., 2021). The M5 algorithm is a rule-based learning technique and can predict nominal and numeric values (Frank et al., 1998). M5 rule sets are generated from model trees. Model trees are enough to predict numeric and nominal values. The rule algorithm works by repeating model tree building and trying to select the best rule at every cycle. The M5 rule generates the regulations from the M5 tree based on the partial and regression tree (PART) algorithm that was presented. Among the available learning algorithms for decision trees, such as Iterative Dichotomiser 3 (ID3), C4.5 successor of the ID3 learning algorithm, the CART strategy is known to be one of the most successful techniques that can be utilized for both classification tasks and regression analysis (Bhattacharya and Solomatine, 2005). CART is a nonparametric ML method. This feature enables the CART method to freely learn any form of the mapping function from the employed training data samples. CART can use the same parameters in several model parts more than once to detect complicated interdependencies between several parameters. As a result, this algorithm is flexible and powerful. As the CART method is nonparametric, it does not depend on (or belong to) a specific type of distribution (Mishra et al., 2021). However, more training data sets are needed than parametric methods. It is worth mentioning that outliers in the input parameters do not considerably affect the CART performance. There are two main types of decision tree: regression and classification. The terminal node labels in regression trees are constants of or equations that specify the forecasted output value of a given input vector. However, the leaf nodes of the decision tree in classification trees contain a label that indicates the group or class (J) (e.g., farmers who used irrigation or did not use irrigation) to which a given feature vector belongs. The farmers' decision on whether to irrigate is a classification problem with two classes, so a classification tree was used (Fern'andez-Delgado et al., 2019).First, we applied pre-processing to the responses based on 200 farmers (Mishra et al. 2021). We removed the responses for 14 farmers for further analysis based on the following criteria: (i) the farmers who cultivated all three rice types (Emo, Mipya, and Pyaping) (only four farmers engaged in such practice), (ii) the farmers who cultivated amur carp with others (only three farmers engaged in such practice), (iii) the farmers who stocked yearlings of fish (only three farmers engaged in such practice), and (iv) the farmers who used extensively high or very low stocking density of fish (only four farmers engaged in such practice). After exclusion, the overview of the original data set relating to rice-fish management for 186 farmers and their input from the questionnaires are presented in Tables 1-2. To show the variation of the data set, values of the 5th and 95th percentiles were also presented along with the minimum, maximum, mean, SD, and median values.Table 2 demonstrates that the whole rice-fish farming activities are led by females (F-145 and M-41), with an average age of 42.89 years. Therefore, the cultivation practice is dominated by middle-aged people. Regarding land ownership (LO), 183 farmers used their land, whereas only three farmers used their land along with the land owned by others. Therefore, we removed the LO variable (feature) from further analysis as farmers mainly depend on their land only. Most farmers engaged in ricefish coculture are small-scale and use small land areas for cultivation (average area 0.37 ha as shown in Table 1). Farmers' choice of rice cultivation was dominated mainly by the combination of rice varieties Pyaping & Emo (77.95%), followed by only Pyaping (14.51%) and the combination of Mipya and Emo (7.52%). Similarly, most farmers cultured common carp (94.62%), and only a few cultured common carp and grass carp together (5.37%). There exists significant variation regarding the stocking of life stages of fish (LS); the majority of the farmers used fingerlings (58.06%) followed by advanced fry (22.58%) and a combination of advanced fry & fingerlings (19.35%). The present survey reflects a considerable variation in the stocking density of fingerlings (FD), ranging from 250 to 8000/ha (please also see Table S1). The rice-fish coculture in the study area is an age-old natural practice; 44.08% of farmers never used manure. In contrast, 36.55% of farmers used only household waste, and 18.81% of farmers used a combination of various manures. On the other hand, only 8 number of farmers (4.31%) used supplementary feed (SF), while -majority of them (178) never used any supplementary feed. Apparently, only 8 (4.31%) farmers used supplementary feed, and the average use of supplementary feed was-527.16 kg/ha/year. The survey also reflects that the rice-fish coculture practice supports self-employment as the number of hired labourers is significantly low compared to involvement of self-labour; some farmers never used hired labour. However, the most crucial observation is that per-hectares usage of labour fluctuates significantly (please see also Table S2). Most farmers consumed the produce, indicating that the ongoing practice was mainly to fulfill their annual family needs. The results also reflect that 39.78% of farmers have not received any government subsidy (GS), and 87.09% of them have never received formal training (FT). We present the correlation coefficients of the above variables in Fig. 3. Fig. 3 demonstrates the following key points: (i) Production of rice (PR) and production of fish (PF) decreases with the increasing age of the farmers, (ii) PR and PF increases with increased educational qualification of the farmers, (iii) increasing stocking density of fish significantly increases expenditure but does not equally increase PR and PF (please see also Table S1), (iv) PR is highly strongly correlated to the variety of rice cultivated (Please also see Table S4) (v) Formal training (FT) has a positive impact on the production of both fish and rice (please also see Table S4). A moderate correlation is observed between PR and PF (correlation co-efficient = 0.469), indicating that the coculture of rice-fish is worthwhile.For further analysis, we excluded five variables because these were not directly related to the outcomes of PR and PF. These include the consumption of rice or fish CR and CF, the sex of the farmers, and the number of family members (FM). Next, we conducted the PCA to determine the contribution of each variable, and the detailed results are shown in Fig. 4.Results demonstrate that the first PC can reflect only 35.5% of overall variations, which is relatively low (Jolliffe, 2002); however, the combination of the first four PCs can reflect 69.5% of overall variation. We also determined the variables' representation quality on the factor map, called the cos2 map (square cosine, squared coordinates).Note that a high cos2 indicates a good representation of the variable on that PC, and the variable is positioned close to the circumference of the correlation circle. A low cos2 suggests that the PCs do not perfectly   represent the variable, and the variable is close to the center of the circle. The factors such as Age, EQ, GS, MU, RV,PR, PF, and CA appear as some of the critical inputs. This means that those variables preserve as much variability as possible. Although dimensionality reduction is beneficial, in the case of the present data set, we need to balance the further trade-off between dimensionality reduction and information loss because each component fails to capture significant variation. To drive deeper to explore the nature of data, we conducted K-means clustering (Fig. 5) to verify whether we could identify sub-groups in the samples such that the data points in the same sub-group (cluster) remained very similar, whereas data points in different clusters remained significantly distinct. Because principal components are the continuous solutions to the discrete cluster membership indicators for K-means clustering (Ding and He, 2004).  Fig. 5 shows that such sub-groups were challenging to identify which is also in line with results obtained from PCA. Based on the analyses, we excluded two features (variables), Age and EQ, because these were beyond our control to consider as physical inputs in IRFCS. We crosschecked multicollinearity using the variance inflation factor (VIF) and show the measures in Table 3.Note that linear regression is a supervised learning algorithm used for continuous variables. There is a possibility that some variables might be multicollinear in the linear regression model. However, Table 3 reflects no multicollinearity among variables as VIF ≤ 3 (Thompson et al., 2017) exists. Next, we fit the regression equation by considering fifteen variables and the Akaike information criterion. The results are presented in Table 4:Table 4 indicates that the GS, MU, LI, LS, FD, SF, and investments (LC, IC, MC) remain vital factors. Table S4 demonstrates that the average rice and fish production was 1908.98 kg/ha and 323.91 kg/ha, respectively, for farmers who received formal training. In comparison, it reduced to an average production of 1343.64 kg/ha rice and 196.87 kg/ ha fish for those who did not receive training. Similarly, the farmers who did not receive government subsidies obtained a production of rice and fish of 1173.97 kg/ha and 166.81 kg/ha, respectively, as compared to a production of 1576.87 kg/ha of rice and 243.96 kg/ha of fish by the farmers who received government subsidy. Therefore, the above equations make sense. Next, we present the farmers' responses against some crucial questions we have asked during the survey in Table 5.Table 5 demonstrates that 100 (53.76%) farmers confirmed that IRFCS was sufficient to fulfill their annual family need of rice, whereas 65 (34.94%) farmers confirmed that IRFCS was sufficient to fulfill their annual family need of fish. This table also demonstrates that 51 (27.41%) farmers are not interested in expanding the cultural practice. Noticeably, 76 (40.86%) farmers agree that natural calamities (NC), such as flood-like situations in low-lying paddy fields during monsoon, low rainfall, or a decrease in the flow of water in the adjoining river, are essential issues in this practice for some farmers to receive lower returns. Approximately 18.28% of farmers made additional irrigation expenditures to counter the water supply shortage, which increased the expenditure and decreased the net return. This is coupled with the unwillingness to invest, an essential issue for 94 (50.53%) farmers. However, 89 (47.84%) farmers think that the non-involvement of youth is one of the significant constraints behind inadequate return from this cultural practice. Next, we derive decision trees based on the above responses and present those in Figs. 6, 7, and 8.In alignment with the regression analysis, we found that MU, LS, GS, FT, and LI are vital factors. Regarding investment, LC, IC, and MC also remain common. The key observations from the above decision trees are   Overview of farmers' response on key challenges for ongoing practice. as follows: (i) if we consider the fund availability, then the variables FV, MU, and MC appear as crucial; (ii) if we consider natural calamities (NC), then the variables IC, LS, and GS appear as crucial, and finally (iii) when we focus on youth involvement, then the variables FT, GS, and LS appear as key. As an illustration, if we consider Fig. 7, irrigation is essential for producing rice and fish when natural calamity is an issue. For instance, in the case of floods, there was excess water, while in droughts, water was scarce. During the survey, the farmers also stated that in 2022, rainfall was high compared to previous years, resulting in losses for farmers as fish escaped from low-lying paddy fields. The decision trees also reflects it. Noticeably, IC and LS do not appear in Fig. 6 as we focus on fund availability. In this case, MU and MC are more critical.India's rice-fish coculture system dates back almost 1500 years (Mohanty et al., 2004). It is recognized globally as a heritage agriculture practice with ecological and environmental advantages that could expedite agroecological transition (Xie et al., 2011;Saikia and Das, 2009;Nayak et al., 2018;Patr'ıcio and Rieder, 2018). However, the adoption rate of IRFCS is still relatively meager compared to the monoculture of rice (Prost et al., 2023;Paul et al., 2023). Out of the 20 million hectares of land potentially available for coculture in India, only 0.23 million hectares area is utilized for rice-fish coculture due to a lack of knowledge, inadequate technological support, absence of exhaustive management policies, non-availability of capital for farming, limited  access of farmers to essential services, and others (Datta et al., 2009;Sha et al., 2017;Sathoria and Roy, 2022;Nayak et al., 2018). Results of the present study indicate that the rice-fish coculture system in Ziro Valley also suffers from some of these lapses. The level of productivity in IRFCS varies significantly due to the difference in the management of inputs and decision-making, resulting in inconsistency in rice production (357.14-4000 kg/ha) fish (26-538.56 kg/ha). The inconsistency directly demotivates some farmers to continue the rice-fish coculture (Question no 3 in Table 5). It ultimately affects the advancement and continuation of such a traditional nature-based practice in Ziro Valley. The average rice and fish production (1390 and 209 kg/ha, respectively) was somehow low in the Ziro Vally compared to previous reports in the Indian context (Saikia, 2023;Pasupalak et al., 2018;Mohanty et al., 2004;Chakravartty et al., 2017). Therefore, it is of utmost priority to revisit the management of inputs, funding, and institutional support to improve future fate. Cost-effectiveness is significant for any agro-economic practice. Results of the present study indicate an imbalance in input (qualitative and quantitative) in the rice-fish coculture system in Ziro Valley. Consequently, the outcome remains inadequate to meet the annual requirements of many families in the valley. It necessitates a more detailed analysis, and we present here PR and PF in respect of subdivisions of the inputs RV, MU, LS, and FD in Figs. 9-10.Farmers in Ziro Valley grow tall native rice varieties, Emo, Mipya, and Pyaping, during monsoons in terraces (Dollo et al., 2009). However, the Mipya variety failed to improve production, although some farmers preferred to keep the tradition and make it easy to access seed banks. Seeds of this variety are readily available within the household, and due to maintaining natural techniques, the farmers can minimize operational costs, including land preparation costs and other expenses necessary for natural farming. The present study recommends that farmers move towards more productive varieties, such as Pyaping alone or combined with Emo, as these varieties ensure considerably high yield (Kacha, 2016a). However, a preference for native rice cultivars over commercially usable non-native ones was seen throughout north-eastern Indian tribes (Das, 2018).Most farmers have minimal input costs because they primarily use household-produced food, animal, and plant wastes to maintain land fertility. Table S4 reflects a significantly high difference in terms of the output of both fish and rice for the farmers' group who used manure and did not use manure. The farmers need additional investment in supplementary feed or extensive use of household byproducts. Results of the present study reflect that only 4.32% of farmers used supplementary feed (527.15 kg/ha/year), which is inadequate for the average fish yield (Mishra et al., 2021). Many farmers are capital-constrained (Question no 5 in Table 5). Therefore, the insufficient use of manure and feed by a majority of farmers is not surprising.Let us revisit the production outcomes presented in Tables S4 and   Fig. 10, which indicate that farmers should not use the advanced fry (2.5-3 cm). However, the advanced fry is low-cost and readily available, thus attracting the financially constrained farmers. On the other hand, fingerlings (5-6 cm), though more costly, have a higher survival rate and viability than the advanced fry and are considered safe to stock (Ahmed and Garnett, 2011;Mishra et al., 2021). The decision trees indicate that the farmers who received government subsidies in the form of fish fingerling obtained better production.Recall the FD subdivisions as shown in Table S2 and Fig. 10. Several farmers made mistakes by either overstocking or understocking. Therefore, they failed to achieve ideal production in terms of rice and fish. Noticeably higher stocking density costs the capital-constrained farmer more in procuring fingerlings and significantly enhances the total cost of culture and sacrifice investment in LC and IC. The results of the present study reflect that the ideal stocking density of fingerlings might be 4000 to 5000 no/ha. Moreover, results indicated that stocking density maintained at a much lower scale (average 2376.58 no/ ha) than standardized and suggested level (Saikia and Das, 2015;Pasupalak et al., 2018). In addition to four key inputs, Table S4 also reflects that only 5.41% of farmers used a mix of common carp and grass carp. Common carp is the principal species for coculture with rice in paddy fields (Hu et al., 2023) because of the availability of biodegradable byproducts and wastes in rice fields, which are favorable food for this fish species and help the fish grow fast with necessary synergies. Common carp grows fast and can adapt to diverse climate conditions, facilitating its culture in the rice field, and has a high demand in the local market of Ziro Valley (Saowakoon et al., 2021;Saikia, 2023). The results indicate that the combination of grass carp with common carp considerably increases the production of both rice and fish. However, the sample size is limited. But combining common carp with grass carp, which is seldom accepted, may produce severe consequences on rice fields because of grass carp's intense grazing habits (Zhao et al., 2020). Therefore, further evaluation of this aspect is necessary.Research indicates that IRFCS is one of the most economically Fig. 10. Production of rice and fish for different subdivisions of LS and FD.A . Samaddar et al. Aquaculture 595 (2025) 741476sustainable, environmentally friendly recycling approaches (Sathoria and Roy, 2022). The practice can potentially improve people's nutrition levels and alleviate poverty (Nhan et al., 2008;Wahab et al., 2008;Kabir et al., 2015). Implementing a rice-fish coculture system is being attempted in the world's major rice-growing areas to secure food supplies and improve the livelihoods of rural people (Halwart and Gupta, 2004). We evaluated natural method-based IRFCS, and we found that an adjustment of inputs is necessary. Otherwise, a disastrous impact on a wide range of indigenous agricultural techniques might occur (Datta et al., 2017).A few farmers who received formal training were motivated to use the supplementary feed in the form of rice bran or commercial fish feed, used extra irrigation, invested in land preparation, and engaged in additional labour. However, supplementary feed is rarely available in Ziro Valley or is too costly for the poor and marginal farmers to purchase, though some progressive farmers use it to improve productivity. The application of supplementary fish feed could be recommended to enhance overall productivity, but non-judicious use of supplementary fish feed can also improve production costs significantly (Belton et al., 2017). For maintaining the required input balance, government subsidies in the form of critical input support were found to be essential for rural areas in India (Mishra et al., 2022;Belton et al., 2017). A proportion of farmers in this study area are also capitally constrained or unwilling to invest (see Table S4) in feed and additional required expenditure in land preparation.Training, capacity building, and exposure visits could enhance willingness to invest and engage farmers more closely with farming practices (Mishra et al., 2022). In this context, in addition to the factors discussed in Section 4.2, if we look at the labour involvement subdivision presented in Table S2, it is reflected that the usage of the number of labourers is not uniform. Fig. 11 demonstrates that labour is used excessively by some farmers. Farmers are capital-constrained; they might think that an extra physical effort lead to higher production, but this appears misleading. Similar to the previous Section 4.2, surplus labour also extensively bleeds financially constrained farmers. The following Fig. 11 demonstrates that labour is used excessively by some farmers.We are unaware of the actual division of skilled and non-skilled labour, but we found that the farmers receiving proper training are more productive than the non-trained farmers (See Table S4). Therefore, the results of the present study indicate that farmers require resourcemanagement training to maximize production. Intervention by government and non-government organizations is required to overcome these constraints for the widespread adoption and success of the rice-fish coculture in rural areas (Islam et al., 2015).The policymakers in India should consider the problems of initial investment, especially for youths / new farmers with poor and marginal economic backgrounds, and compensate them with farmer-friendly policies, easy-loan schemes, and subsidies on critical inputs. Moreover, farmers should be provided with upgraded/latest technology packages, training to improve farming skills, scientific knowledge, and environmental and socioeconomic education to enhance farmers' confidence to participate and invest and to make the rice-fish coculture a sustainable practice, particularly in North-East India (Sathoria and Roy, 2022).Critical socioeconomic constraints in the rice-fish coculture system in Ziro Valley are the involvement of youth, age, and education of farmers. Results of the decision trees indicate that youth are competent to receive training and utilize government subsidies, which in turn can make the culture sustainable and improve the livelihoods of the farming community. Fig. 12 represents the variation of age and education qualification outcomes.Fig. 12 demonstrates clear evidence that farmers without formal education are less efficient in IRFCS than groups with schooling. Although experience can be the primary issue, the results of the present study indicate that an increase in education produces many positive effects on farming practices, such as transforming technology in practice and enhancing the quality of life. Nonetheless, it is shown that relevant formal training had a significant impact (See Table S4) on production. However, since IRFCS is mainly practiced by middle-aged people in Ziro Valley, there is limited opportunity to enhance their formal education level and introduce formal training effectively. Therefore, it is necessary to motivate youths with a certain level of education to engage in IRFCS and arrange training programs centered on farming systems for them, potentially improving productivity (Mishra et al., 2021).Government and non-government organizations may encourage the youth to engage more and more in nature-based farming systems and shift the cultivation plan from the traditional rice monoculture system to rice-fish coculture systems through capacity-building programs (e.g., seminars, meetings) and pilot projects. Generally, the farmers' families employ self-labour for the culture in Ziro Valley, as shown in Fig. 13.However, when labour is scarce from the family, hiring labour makes the culture expensive and complicates the fund distribution planning. Results of the present study indicate an abundance of middle-aged farmers in rice-fish farming in Ziro Valley, with women forming the major group (Singh, 2023). Survey results indicate that middle-aged women found it a suitable model for securing their family's nutritional needs and income. They were more responsive and engaged and adopted it as regular household work (Baruah and Singh, 2018;Sharma and Goswami, 2020). The Apatani tribe in Arunachal Pradesh is one of the most advanced in terms of literacy rates compared to other tribes, which encourages them to pursue alternative economic opportunities to secure their lives. These days, the young north-eastern Indian population is characterized by a growing migration towards urban areas, abandoning their agrarian history in favor of a more urbanized way of life (Chyrmang, 2012). The farmers in Ziro Valley also exhibit similar phenomena, which is one reason youths are less involved in IRFCS. Additionally, its present feasibility raises questions due to changing socioeconomic scenarios, demand, alternative products, and market prices. These tendencies are typical of farming households in several Indian states, where household consumption is prioritized primarily due to favorable texture and nutritional qualities of self-grown edible agricultural items (Bisht et al., 2020). Similar farming processes play a significant role in food and nutritional security (FNS) and holistic development across the globe (Haque and Dey, 2017;Freed et al., 2020a). It can address urgent issues like the optimal utilization of natural resources, poverty reduction, local income generation, and environmental sustainability (Islam et al., 2015;Wang and Gao, 2017;Bashir et al., 2020). This study recommends that orientation on the part of the farmers to use the inputs and better management of the farms productively would improve their farm output status and contribute to farm-level wellbeing. The current situation made it evident that additional research on the patterns of input distribution, farmers' age, input utilization, and behavioral changes of Ziro Valley's IRFCS outcomes may be required. For instance, the analysis such as benefit-cost ratio (BCR), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and data envelopment analysis (DEA) can provide insights at the micro level. However, during the survey, we did not focus on selling activity and expenditure on inputs, as farmers mostly consumed the outcomes and partially obtained subsidies from the government. Therefore, exact expenditure is missing, and we need to revisit the work from the perspective of commercialization. Future research is necessary to explore these issues. According to the most recent information, government and non-governmental groups may intervene to remove these obstacles for the rice-fish coculture to be widely adopted  and successful in distant locations (Islam et al., 2015).Gender parity and the creation of fresh approaches to draw in more young people could increase the sustainability and effectiveness of IRFCS (Weeratunge et al., 2012). From these insights, recommendations have been made that, to make rice-fish coculture a sustainable practice, especially in North-East India, besides technology packages and training, environmental and socioeconomic education might be necessary to enhance farmers' skill, interest and expertise (Sathoria and Roy, 2022;Feng et al., 2016).Socioeconomic vulnerability assessment for rice-fish coculture needs to be evaluated from time to time to develop new strategies for resource management and improve efficiency. In this study, we conducted an extensive survey to collect data. We implemented regression and decision tree algorithms to improve various evaluation indicators and maintain integrity and continuity from different standpoints, such as food security, ecological and environmental health, and human wellbeing. Results of the study indicate that the ongoing rice-fish coculture in Ziro Valley is an age-old traditional practice, which partially or wholly fulfills the annual family needs of many farmers but requires further improvement in the management of inputs and decision-making to make the cultural system sustainable. Proper training and strategic capacity enhancement of the relevant stakeholders (farmers, government agencies, etc.) are required to rationalize inputs like the selection of fish species, life stages, and stocking density, use of supplementary feed, manure, and labour involvement etc. Thus, farmers required a minimum level of education to receive formal training on scientific knowledge of rice-fish coculture and implement it appropriately in the culture system. Securing existing challenging situations by enhancing the accessibility of crop insurance and providing critical input support may additionally enhance farmers' confidence. Accordingly, the youths with at least higher secondary education can improve the outcome of this culture, so their preliminary education and more attractive work package base policies may involve them in this native practice. It is concluded from this study that government subsidies in the form of fish seed are critical support and one of the fundamental driving forces for a successful rice-fish coculture in Ziro Valley. Government and nongovernment organizations should come forward to motivate the youths, along with suitable strategies towards a gender balance in this coculture system, and to enhance the skills of the present middle-aged farmers for the sustainable development of rice-fish coculture in Ziro Valley. Furthermore, it has been recommended that more thorough research be conducted on the Apatani tribe's behavioral changes in ricefish coculture to pinpoint and address the problems at their root. The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:Ayan Samaddar reports financial support was provided by World-Fish. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.","tokenCount":"7634"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fcec40fc7d04237ee01009c1322f9dc4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/64f8f056-c4ca-4f84-a4ae-9f3e49780bfa/retrieve","id":"1052873738"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0d6feb7d-e0ef-4c4b-ab7f-d810fee9f364","pagecount":"144","content":"The Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) concept represents a paradigm change in the way agricultural research and development activities are carried out in Africa. The concepts build on other models conducting agricultural research and development. The concept has its main root in the innovation system approach; which is a multi-institutional, multi-stakeholder framework that has been successfully used in the industrial development era of the West. The biggest problem with the concept was how to practically use it agriculture considering the sector uniqueness and dissimilarity from the industrial sector. The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) developed the IAR4D concept as a way to implement the innovation systems approach for agricultural development, this concept was packaged as a project and presented to the Consultative Group in International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for funding. The CGIAR council accept the project proposal for implementation as the Sub Saharan African Challenge Program (SSA CP) and requested that the first part of the project should aim conducting a proof of the IAR4D concept.The SSA CP proof of concept was carried out using a rigorous research methodology and was implemented in eight countries of the sub Saharan Africa. The project work involved many agricultural research and non-research organizations, with the core implementation in three pilot learning sites. These include; (a) Western Africa (Kano-katsina-Maradi); (b). Southern Africa (Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique) and (c). Eastern Africa (Uganda, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo) around the Lake kivu regions. The debut knowledge on the practice of the IAR4D concept as documented in this book was largely drawn from the jointly developed framework which is consistently refined by FARA staff; and the implementation of the concept under the socio-economic and cultural conditions of the Lake Kivu pilot learning site.The authors therefore wish to acknowledge the contribution of the following institutions to the development and implementation of the IAR4D concept. The contribution of the sub-regional organization viz.,Transforming the subsistence farming practices into commercial enterprises through market integration is a prerequisite for improving income generation for the smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. This integration could provide the needed levers for intensification of the farming systems, improvement of labor productivity and reduction of poverty in rural communities. The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) has played a significant role in catalyzing the necessary changes in agricultural research and development to improve the availability of food for the population and increased income for farmers while conserving the natural resource base in Sub-Saharan Africa. FARA is actively supporting market integration, policy development and competitiveness drive for the African smallholders.This publication presents a synthesis of methods and lessons learnt in the implementation of the Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) concept within the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program (SSA CP). It relates lessons learnt and impact gained from the program between 2005 to 2010. The SSA CP is the only Challenge program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) program that is targeted at a particular region and it represents an important partnership between the stakeholders in African Agriculture, represented by FARA, and the CGIAR. The IAR4D concept utilizes the principles of innovation systems approach to foster significant changes in agriculture through wholesome engagement of stakeholders in useful partnership, market integration and participatory innovation along technological, institutional and infrastructural realm.The central concept for engineering change in the process of production, processing and marketing of agricultural products in this program is the IAR4D concept. The concept applies a new theory of change to the sector where participatory action research is used to tap into local, entrepreneurial, managerial and scientific knowledge in order to generate innovative solutions fitting the needs of highly heterogeneous and complex stakeholders group. Accordingly, IAR4D promotes changes in skills, mindsets and attitudes of stakeholders in view of improving performances and returns from investment in the production chain. Fair sharing of benefits and risks from the added value resulting from the improved production chain is adequately taken care of within the IAR4D framework as it admits a balance in contributions and rewards through a good value chain analysis and agreed business plan. The operational frame for the IAR4D concept is the Innovation Platform (IP). This is a physical or virtual platform that brings all concerned stakeholders together into an effective dialogue for problem diagnosis, Foreword generation and implementation of solution for a change. The IP could have formal contractual arrangements for progress as it engages private-sector actors, policy makers, and others as part of the process. This will ensure a good combination of public investments and regulations with the innovative commitment of private stakeholders in a fair, inclusive and equitable manner.This book provides the needed guidelines to put the IAR4D concept into motion by setting-up effective Innovation Platforms; it also illustrates the pathway for the functioning of the innovation platform and the achievements of the SSA CP project in the Lake kivu Pilot learning sites.Through this publication the FARA Secretariat provides an evidenced based guide for the application of IAR4D concept in order to foster progress for the African farmers, input dealers, agricultural service providers and market agents in agriculture.Executive Director, FARAAgriculture has high potential for stimulating economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Pengali 2006, Delgado 1995). Currently, the sector provides livelihoods for over 80 percent of the population (Falkenmark andRockström 2005, World Bank 2000) and accounts for 70 percent of employment, 40 percent of exports and 33 percent of the gross domestic product (World Bank 2003).Despite this potential, agriculture is largely dominated by smallholder farmers practising subsistence farming and is largely undeveloped in several countries due to a range of technical, Chapter 1 institutional and infrastructural constraints. Technical constraints often affect agricultural productivity, such as developing high-yielding, disease-resistant and resilient varieties and breeds, controlling diseases and pests, and on-farm natural resources management, including soil, water and biodiversity. They can also limit the capacity for storage, processing and product development. Institutional constraints include inappropriate policies, ineffective markets, and constraints related to the underdevelopment of support services, such as input supply chains, extension services and research organisations. These issues also relate to governance and management rules and how these apply to both intra-and inter-organisational interaction. Infrastructural constraints include a lack of roads, markets and storage facilities, among others.Over the past several years, promising steps have been made towards overcoming some of these hurdles by proponents of agricultural research for development. These players have largely come from inchoate national institutions at the country level and international institutions at the sub-region level. Recently, sub-regional research coordinating agencies have complemented the efforts of these two types of institutions. A good number of technologies have been developed for various commodities -some receiving international, regional and local awards. However, despite their high potential, many of these technologies have not spread beyond the areas where they were developed, resulting in what many term 'islands of success' across the region. Consequently, the number of poor and hungry people has continued to rise (Amoako 2003). About a third of SSA countries cannot produce adequate food to support at least half of their populations (World Bank 2009, World Bank 2004), and there is a great danger that the region will not achieve the target of 6 percent annual growth, agreed by African leaders as the rate needed to reverse the downward economic trend (NEPAD 2003).Quick analysis of the outcomes of research in the recent past has shown that while significant attention has been showered on technical problems, the attention paid to both institutional and infrastructural problems has been either negligible or non-existent. This has led, through a gradual process, to the introduction of integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) as an approach that enables simultaneous work on all categories of agricultural problems through innovative partnerships. Various IAR4D-related concepts are explored in this chapter. Section 2 reviews past efforts to address the poor performance of the SSA agriculture sector, while section 3 examines some of the theoretical underpinnings of the IAR4D approach and section 4 draws some conclusions.Since the 1950s, there have been several waves of enthusiasm for new approaches to address the aforementioned constraints. Socio-political conditions in SSA and changes in approaches to solving the global food problems have prompted donors, development partners and scientists to revise their assumptions about the mediocre performance of agricultural research and development in the region (Rhoades 1990). Various approaches have emerged ever since, as described below. Among others, these have included: farming systems research, farmer participatory research and integrated natural resources management (INRM) (Norman and Matlon 2000, Schiere et al. 2000, Norman et al. 1994, Chambers and Conway 1992, Norman and Lightfoot 1992, Chambers et al. 1989).Farming systems research was developed in response to the dismally low rate of adoption by resource-poor small farmers of the crop and livestock technologies developed in research stations. A systems perspective was needed for the identification, design, development and evaluation of improved technologies and for the creation of new types of partnerships between farmers and researchers. This approach requires greater involvement of farmers -and can lead to their empowerment. Also required were broader implementation strategies, including new forms of partnerships between the different developmental stakeholders and institutions, and a greater liberalisation of political structures and processes.Farmer participatory research mainly emphasised production research, and was planned and carried out by and with the farmers on their own fields (Haverkort et al. 1988, Ashby 1987, Farrington and Martin 1987, Tan 1985, Harwood 1979). Although experimentation by farmers could not entirely replace conventional scientific research, a 'synergistic relationship' existed between the two types of research. This arrangement could benefit the small resource-poor farmer and also contribute to the scientific knowledge base.Analysis of innovations in natural resources management (NRM) in Sub-Saharan Africa, show that most soil and water conservation approaches are supply-rather than demand-driven and largely use the linear 'research-extension-farmer' technology transfer model as opposed to the economic and institutional approach. But over time there has been an evolution in this approach to one referred to as 'integrated natural resources management' (INRM) where processes of adaptive management and innovations are increasingly stakeholder-driven (Thomas 2002). This is showing useful results. In 2006, Dormon showed that where farmers got higher prices, they were motivated to work together to collectively maintain the natural environment and reap the joint benefits. However, a key question revolves around the balance in terms of directing efforts towards the institutional vis-à-vis environmental dynamics.One of the major weaknesses of the above approaches is that they fail to analyse the complex relationships among actors and innovation processes. This called for new approaches that went beyond the simple conventional linear research-extension-farm model, which was being used by many professionals (Hall 2007, Spielman 2005, Campbell et al. 2001, Edquist 2001, OTA 1988, Edquist 1997). These are described as follows:• Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS) introduced a new perspective, providing a framework for soft analysis of the different perceptions and interrelationships among stakeholders. The approach advocated a redefinition of complex problems as 'better' problems (ie, more narrowly defined), as well as the identification of a common objective by all stakeholders. This constituted a significant change from the conventional approach.• The sustainable livelihoods approach was championed by the United Kingdom (UK) Department for International Development (DFID), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs). It stressed the need to focus on the range of available assets (human, social, infrastructural, financial and physical assets such as land), and the risks and vulnerabilities that poor people are subjected to. The approach sought to build policy and institutional environments that would support the livelihoods of the poor without undermining the integrity of the natural resource base.• The Agro-enterprise Development Approach (ADA), developed by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and its development partners, added a market dimension to the sustainable livelihoods approach. By linking farmers to expanding markets, it placed fresh emphasis on the issues of social organisation and the policies affecting market access and trade opportunities. ADA identified markets, conducted analysis for improvement of marketing chains, and strengthened business support services.• The advantage over the ADA of the Competitive Agricultural Systems and Enterprises (CASE) approach, developed by the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) and its partner institutions, is the fact that it is grounded in experimental learning in addition to market development. The central principle behind this approach is that the competitive advantages of particular regions can be greatly increased through a threefold strategy: (a) focusing on well-targeted regional 'industry' clusters involved in particular commodity value chains; (b) strengthening technical, managerial and organisational capacities of the major stakeholders involved in the chain and in related business development services; and (c) facilitating efficient linkages among them.• The Client-Oriented Research Management Approach (CORMA) was developed by L'Institut d'Economie Rurale in Mali and the Department for Research and Development of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security in Tanzania, in collaboration with the Royal Tropical Institute in the Netherlands. It recognised that participatory approaches practiced by agricultural research centres are often not institutionalised, and therefore fail to reach their objectives. A more comprehensive approach was required to achieve the organisational change needed to reorient research towards clients' needs.The inability of research efforts to produce tangible developmental outcomes, especially in Africa, has been the concern of scientists, donors and policy makers in recent years. Naturally, this matter attracted the interest of the new Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA).Shortly after its inauguration in 2002, FARA began an intensive consultation, drawing inputs from a wide range of scientists from research institutions across the world. As expected, this extensive process identified many potential constraints, three of which were most frequently given highest priority: failures of agricultural markets, inappropriate policies and natural resource degradation. But other issues were also prominent, including productivity, product development, nutrition and gender. FARA recognised that treating these issues in isolation was the main flaw of past approaches. A new paradigm was needed to address these issues as well as the aforementioned categories of constraints in a holistic and integrated manner.FARA proposed integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) as a new, holistic way to tackle these problems. IAR4D aims to break from the conventional linear approach of agricultural research and development by engaging multi-stakeholder actors, principally from along the commodity value chains. IAR4D is an evolving concept, aiming to foster synergies among disciplines and institutions to renew commitment to change at all levels, from farmers to national and international policy makers.Consequently, the Sub-Saharan Challenge Programme (SSA CP), coordinated by FARA, has adopted the IAR4D paradigm. The programme's mission is to add value to, and enhance the impact of, on-going agricultural research for development in SSA. The SSA CP aims to provide examples of how processes for systemic innovation can be organised among researchers, practitioners, policy actors, market chain actors and rural communities. This is done in a way that demonstrates how the new technologies, strategies, techniques and policies can be useful, affordable and accessible to end users, and can have positive impacts on their livelihoods.The goal of IAR4D is to improve rural livelihoods and increase food security and sustainable natural resource management throughout SSA. The SSA CP is meant to foster synergies among disciplines and institutions, coupled with a renewed commitment to change at all levels.IAR4D is an innovation-based approach involving many stakeholders and partnerships. It is a continually evolving approach that relies on on-going interactions among actors to identify, analyse and prioritise problems, and find and implement solutions using feedback, reflection and lesson-learning mechanisms from different processes. This requires drawing on knowledge from relevant actors at each stage. IAR4D creates a network that considers technical, social and institutional constraints, in an environment that facilitates learning. Its ultimate aim is to generate innovative solutions rather than mere research products or technologies. IAR4D involves complex mechanisms that may require fundamental changes in the broader policy and institutional framework.The approach largely builds on the experiences of previous approaches, including integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) and integrated natural resource management (INRM), and encompasses market and policy domains (von Kaufmann 2007). IAR4D is an action research approach that integrates the technological, natural resource management policy and institutional components, for various actors. The goal is to find innovative commercial, social and institutional solutions to agricultural development challenges in the face of changing market and policy conditions (Hall andYoganand 2004, Monty 2004). Its strength lies in its ability to capture policy and market factors, in addition to fostering systemic linkages among actors under diverse contexts. Therefore, these actors can have a stake in the process of generating, disseminating and using knowledge for socio-economic impact.Although as an iterative process IAR4D resists precise definition, there have been attempts to encapsulate the concept. As summarised by Hawkins et al. (2009b), 'IAR4D comprises a set of individual and organisational behaviours that promote the integration of stakeholder concerns, knowledge, actions and learning around a theme of mutual interest'. On the other hand, FARA (2007) describes IAR4D as an action research approach for investigating and facilitating the organisation of groups of stakeholders (including researchers) to innovate more effectively in response to changing complex agricultural and NRM contexts for improved developmental outcomes.In general terms, IAR4D is seen as a broad set of processes that, through their interactions, lead to the generation and use of knowledge (Hawkins et al. 2009b). The following features apply:• IAR4D is evolving and brings together a number of trends and ideas.• IAR4D is about change and innovation as an outcome, not just about information, knowledge or technology as a product. It precisely aims at the use of information, knowledge, technology and inventions to generate socio-economic benefits.• IAR4D places research as one of the components contributing to the development process, rather than as its only pivotal point.• IAR4D focuses on processes and performance rather than on products (technologies, policies); to put it another way, improved processes lead to the ultimate product, termed innovation.To achieve the desired outcomes, the conceptualisation and practice of IAR4D needs to go beyond methods to include changes in personal skills, mindsets and attitudes, organisational practices and culture, and the ways in which organisations interact as part of the wider 'innovation system'.The IAR4D approach is based on the following four defining principles that are described in more detail elsewhere (Hawkins et al. 2009b).a. IAR4D integrates the perspectives, knowledge and actions of different stakeholders around a common theme or 'entry point'. The theme represents a research and development challenge, identified by one or more stakeholders. In identifying the challenge, the stakeholders recognise that a broader working alliance is needed to achieve the desired development impact. The interests and actions of the different stakeholders are diverse, ranging from information and technology to business, politics, policy, finance, organisation and management. It is also assumed that there are existing or potential links among these interests. This principle is supported by the theories of positivism and constructivism, as well as by experiences from indigenous knowledge and farmer innovations, participation and participatory research, stakeholder analysis, agricultural knowledge and information systems, and innovation systems (Hawkins et al. 2009b).b. IAR4D integrates the learning that stakeholders gain from working together. Given that all stakeholders in an innovation system have relevant knowledge based on their roles, this knowledge is potentially available among the stakeholders through interactive learning and joint actions. In addition to being a concerted action process, IAR4D is also seen as a mutual and interactive learning process, with stakeholders learning from each other and from their joint experience. For this social and experiential learning to be effective, it requires a conscious and interactive process of planning, action and reflection, monitoring and evaluation, and subsequent re-planning. Reflection is particularly crucial; participating stakeholders become engaged in analysing the outcomes of their own behaviour and the processes in which they are involved.This 'learning cycle' is fundamental to the IAR4D approach and focuses primarily on the processes of stakeholder interaction themselves, rather than on the specific solutions to research and development challenges. Learning takes place at individual, organisational and institutional levels. At the individual level, participants become aware of how their own personalities, attitudes and mindsets may affect their interaction with others. At the organisational level, group members of organisations collectively learn how their administrative and management practices and incentive structures, etc., affect or limit the interactions between individuals within the organisation and between the organisation and other stakeholders. At the institutional level, individuals and organisations collectively learn how they can interact to facilitate innovation. Here individuals and organisations learn how to collectively create an enabling environment that encourages interactions, and how to share information and manage knowledge across networks. As well, local systems learn from other local systems (eg, through national learning platforms), and national innovation systems learn through international platforms. The theory of adult and experiential learning as well as experiences with knowledge management, action research, farmer field schools, learning cycles and learning alliances all support this concept.c. IAR4D integrates analysis, action and change across the different dimensions of development (eg, environmental, socio-economic). This principal is premised on the general and current concepts of sustainable development and multi-functional agriculture that require the interlinked dimensions of such development. These interlinked dimensions include economic growth (linking farmers to markets), conservation of natural resources (soil fertility, biodiversity and limited carbon dioxide production), social inclusion and equity (pro-poor development) and food security. Integrating analysis, action and change across the different dimensions will ensure that IAR4D achieves impact in terms of poverty and pro-poor development. The theory of rural livelihoods as well as experiences with INRM, value chains, social equity and gender frameworks, inter-disciplinary research and development, and agricultural development goals all give support to this principle.d. IAR4D integrates analysis, action and change at different levels of spatial, economic and social organisation. This concept follows the notion of an agricultural innovation systems perspective that implies that research is not the only driver of development, as was implied in the 'national agricultural research system' perspective, or that it even has the central role, as was still implied in the wider 'agricultural knowledge and information system' perspective. Agricultural innovation is an emergent property of the broader 'innovation system'. The agricultural innovation systems perspective sees research as only one of the sub-processes of a framework that encompasses the value chain and the knowledge and information system, as well as policies and institutions that determine the interactions between the components. To be effective at promoting innovations, IAR4D therefore needs to promote change and enhance learning throughout the innovation system, at all levels of organisation. These include spatial (field, farm and watershed), economic (product, firm, value chains and business clusters) and social (individual, group, community, organisations and innovation systems) levels. The systems theory and experiences with farming systems research and client-oriented approaches, as well as with integrated rural development, scaling up and out, agriculture sector policies and strategies, and new institutional economics, have all informed this concept.Over and above these principles, Hawkins et al. (2009a) argue that IAR4D requires a set of individual, organisational and institutional capacities that enables the principles to be put into practice.At an individual level, competencies need strengthening in meta-disciplines (systems thinking, knowledge management, strategic planning, knowing how to learn, effective writing, and use of information and communications technology), in social skills (communication, teamwork, networking and facilitation) and in mindsets (empathy, self-awareness, self-regulation, selfmotivation and social awareness).At an organisational level, structures and processes need to provide the performance and incentives systems that encourage inter-disciplinary teamwork, partnerships with other stakeholders, an emphasis on mutual learning, and effective knowledge management that, combined, work to promote change. Also needed are approaches to impact assessment that go beyond economic returns to include and encourage a broader view of human development.At an institutional or system-wide level, capacity needs to be developed to allow different stakeholders (individuals and organisations, from the public and private sectors) to come together on a level playing field. Currently, there is often an institutional vacuum in this regard, although innovation intermediaries and competitive-funding committees can convene and articulate stakeholders to fill this vacuum. Finding an appropriate way to manage and finance inter-institutional space and the needed intermediaries is crucial, as is ensuring the neutrality of these intermediaries. It is also vital to build trust between the intermediaries and the different stakeholders, as well as among the stakeholders themselves.The IAR4D principles imply that it requires a new way of doing research and development.The IAR4D systems approach involves four dimensions: (a) intensification of subsistenceoriented smallholder farming systems; (b) prudent management of natural resources while intensifying their use; (c) development of more efficient markets; and (d) creation of enabling policies. To foster the integration of these dimensions, IAR4D requires additional supportive mechanisms or pillars: (i) promotion of organisational and institutional changes to enable cross-disciplinary research and development and multi-institutional collaborations; (ii) capacity building for project teams, farmers and scientists; (iii) information and knowledge management; and (iv) continuous monitoring and evaluation and a systemic approach to impact assessment.In an effort to test the IAR4D approach, the SSA CP identified three pilot learning sites, including the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS), where Africa-wide IAR4D experiments would be implemented.The LKPLS is located astride the boundaries of north-western Rwanda, the Kivu region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and south-western Uganda -around the famous Virunga chain of volcanic mountains. The site covers roughly 20,000 km 2 , comprising the administrative districts of Kabale, Kisoro, Ntungamo and Rukungiri in Uganda; all or parts of the provinces of Byumba, Gisenyi, Gitarama, Kibuye, and Ruhengeri in Rwanda; and the territories of Goma, Rutshuru, Masisi and Minova in eastern DRC.Physically, the terrain of the LKPLS is dominated by hills and valleys, with most slope gradients ranging between 12 percent and 50 percent, but some as great as 80 percent. Its climate provides for two cropping seasons each year, with bi-modal rainfall distribution; the long rains occur from mid-February through early June, while the short rains occur from mid-September to mid-December. The average annual rainfall in the entire region ranges from 800mm to 2000mm. Most soils of the pilot learning site are volcanic Andosols, except in some parts in Uganda north of Kisoro and south and east of Ruhengeri, where deeply weathered, lateritic Ferralsols occur. Andosols are relatively fertile and can support intensive farming in the absence of fertiliser inputs; however, they are very susceptible to soil erosion. The Ferralsols are considerably lower in potassium and other cation bases (Pali et al., 2009).Each of the countries in the LKPLS has a unique historical background and operates under a different policy and institutional framework. For example, Uganda has not seen active armed conflict for over 21 years. Policies have been revised but are lacking rigorous enforcement to make them work for the poor. DRC is still regarded as being in active conflict and having policies that have not been revised for decades, if they ever existed. The centralised governance system in Kinshasa has very poor linkages with the provinces. Rwanda has been out of active armed conflict for nearly 16 years, and it has revised many policies to meet the development challenges the country faced after the 1994 genocide.The institutional and policy environment for agricultural research and development must change in order to provide an enabling environment for IAR4D to take off. This also means that the IAR4D concept needs to be prominent on the agenda of ongoing debates on agricultural development issues within the policy, academic and operational communities.At the LKPLS, implementation of IAR4D occurred in phases. The first phase was the inception phase, during which all of the institutional structures and the governance framework were put in place. The task forces were identified, the expected outcomes spelt out and the pilot sites identified. This was followed by the research phase, based on a randomised study designed to prove the effectiveness of the concept of IAR4D.During the inception phase, a validation team was formed to identify critical entry points for cutting-edge research, with a focus on new opportunities and how the site would respond to development challenges. The team was also tasked with: (i) validating the hypotheses proposed by the FARA Secretariat in terms of their relevance to the pilot learning sites, refining them where necessary and suggesting additional hypotheses; (ii) examining capacities within the pilot learning sites to determine how different stakeholder groups could be involved; and (ii) preparing a logical framework with an impact pathway that shows how to integrate the four pillars of the SSA CP -namely, poverty alleviation, food security, environmental sustainability and wealth creation.The validation team found critical entry points for the LKPLS in low productivity, low input use, failed markets, limited access to agricultural credits, lack of (or limited) policy implementation, widespread natural resource degradation and limited adoption of improved natural resource management technologies and methods (FARA 2005). A call for proposals was sent out and three proposals were selected. These addressed the identified developmental challenges and had potential to stimulate the generation of the greatest returns with regards to land, water, labour, capital and tropical livestock units, increased diversification of agricultural and other natural-resource-based enterprises, improved quality of differentiated products including environmental services, and increased market information, market access, and competitiveness for agricultural inputs and outputs. The three projects were integrated into one programme to improve efficiency and provide for a multi-stakeholder and multi-disciplinary environment in which the targeted long-and short-term development impacts could be delivered.The CGIAR Science Council review of the programme, however, recommended that evidence be provided to show that the IAR4D approach is better than conventional approaches (CGIAR Science Council 2005). This required changes to the stated issues and questions, the research design, activities, work plans and budgets. It also implied a need for a joint implementation approach. The integrated programme was then centred on research and facilitation to prove the IAR4D concept, addressing the three research questions posed by the Science Council:• Does the IAR4D concept work and can it generate and deliver international and regional public goods for the end users?• Does IAR4D deliver more benefits to end users than conventional approaches? (ie, assuming that the conventional research and development [R&D] and extension approach had access to the same resources)• How sustainable and usable is the IAR4D approach outside the test environment? (ie, can it be scaled out for broader impact?) Some of the research activities undertaken were tailored along traditional lines and included innovative research on the interfaces between and among IAR4D's four components: (i) technologies for improving productivity; (ii) sound natural resource management; (iii) accessibility and efficiency of markets for smallholder and pastoral products; and (iv) formulation and adoption of policies and institutional arrangements that foster innovation to improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers (see Figure 1.1).To actualise the IAR4D, innovation platforms were initiated across the LKPLS. An innovation platform is a physical or virtual forum that brings together different stakeholders along the value chain of a commodity of interest and/or a system of production. These stakeholders include: individual farmers, farmer organisations and/or rural communities; researchers; non-governmental organisations (NGOs); extension departments; the private sector; and policy makers. The groups should have a common entry point or theme and serve as a forum through which all stakeholders identify issues and/or opportunities, develop joint action plans, share roles, responsibilities and resources, exchange information, track the progress of action plan implementation, and monitor the processes and outcomes of their interactions. A more comprehensive description of an innovation platform has been reported recently (Adekunle et al. 2010, Adekunle andFatunbi 2012). Twelve innovation platforms (four per country) were formed and are operational in the LKPLS. The use of innovation platforms in IAR4D brings on board various stakeholders, technologies and coordination procedures to generate innovative solutions to community challenges (Pali et al. 2009).This book presents the process of how the IAR4D concept was translated into practice, and highlights the results to date. The concept of IAR4D has been discussed in this introductory chapter. The next six chapters examine the use of IAR4D practices in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS). Strategies for setting up innovation platforms are described in chapter 2. Chapter 3 summarises innovation platform (IP) operations. Chapter 4 provides the story of institutionalisation and sustainability of innovation platforms, while policy and institutional frameworks in the LKPLS are presented in chapter 5. Chapter 6 gives selected success stories in the LKPLS, and finally, chapter 7 describes some operations and lessons learnt. Strategies for Setting up Innovation Platforms in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning SiteThe emergence of integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) presents an opportunity to address development problems. IAR4D involves innovative principles and an integrated research agenda, while recognising the need for greater organisational capacities among stakeholders in agriculture. Actualising IAR4D revolves around the successful establishment of innovation platforms (IPs), as mentioned in chapter 1. These are being implemented in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP) to address agricultural development challenges. This chapter presents the stages and experiences of establishing IPs in the LKPLS.IPs can serve as multi-level and multi-stakeholder forums, allowing participants to identify, understand and address complex challenges and concomitant emerging issues. This mutual learning process can mobilise members to achieve an agreed vision. IP formation is a dynamic and highly context-specific process that incorporates all of the essential ingredients for successful innovation. It recognises the value of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) and capitalises on prevailing policies and institutional settings, while involving local leadership.The evolution and timing of IP formation depends on the particular conceptual and local context, specifically the quality of facilitation and the socio-economic, cultural, biophysical, and political environments in which common challenges and/or opportunities are identified, as well as on the capacity of stakeholders to grasp the innovation systems approach, described below. Creating win-win situations with market-led interventions accelerates the process of IP formation. Strong leadership, strategic and operational partnerships, two-way information flows, and dealing with recurrent challenges are all critical to fostering innovation. Some of the major challenges experienced during the IP formation processes included the daunting task of building capacity among stakeholders and dealing with the persistent 'handout syndrome'a phenomenon where communities (especially those coming out of conflict, which have been receiving food aid) expect to subsist on what is received as aid instead of working to produce food and generate income.Innovation platforms were formed in the LKPLS with the understanding that African agriculture is still uncompetitive, mainly due to low adoption of essential technologies for increased productivity (IAC 2004). This low uptake is a result of several factors: inappropriateness of many technologies for the biophysical and socio-economic conditions of smallholder farming; high cost; weak linkages among farmers, extension agents, access to credit and markets; poorly implemented policies; poor infrastructure; and unfair competition from open market operations (Kirsten et al. 2009). The net result of these constraints is the continued practice of subsistence agriculture, which is characterised by minimal inputs and low productivity. This leaves farmers unable to tap the potential of the region for creating wealth through agriculture. As a result, the vast majority of end users remain vulnerable to poverty, food insecurity, environmental shocks and malnourishment -culminating in ill health and a low life expectancy (OECD-FAO 2006, Thorpe et al. 2004).Past agricultural research and development (ARD) efforts have failed to respond to these challenges. This is primarily because interventions are not tailored to address the particular problems of highly heterogeneous complex traditional smallholder farming systems, or because they fail to give due consideration to local knowledge and local biophysical and socio-economic constraints and opportunities. Proponents of ARD focus on the one-way flow of knowledge from researchers to farmers; there are no mechanisms for nurturing the innovative capacity of multi-stakeholders along the value chains, or to allow markets to address the recurrent production and environmental risks inherent in complex farming systems (see Figure 2.1). The current approach to agricultural research is often described as sectoral and fragmented, with little or no involvement of relevant stakeholders. Strengthening linkages among ARD actors is key to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of efforts to raise the economic performance of rural communities (Hall et al. 2006). This requires technology generation that takes into consideration the opportunities and constraints associated with input and output markets. An enabling policy environment is also critical. What is needed is a true paradigm shift from the supply-based ARD approaches to a more demand-driven approach (Figure 2.1).The innovation systems approach (ISA) has emerged as a promising alternative framework to guide ARD work in Africa (Akullo et al. 2009, Hawkins et al. 2009, OECD 2005). It entails systemic analyses to support organisational learning and change at strategic and operational levels. It focuses on institutional change and systemic innovation processes, and how they contribute to economic growth and sustainable development (Lundvall 2006, Edquist 1997, Foray 2000).The functional aspect of ISA is the integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) approach, described in chapter 1.Recognising the potential of the IAR4D approach for Africa, the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) developed, funded and implemented the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP). The programme sought to prove the IAR4D concept in three widely differing agro-ecologies in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), in three regions: West Africa, Eastern andSource: Tenywa at al. 2011Central Africa, and Southern Africa. The aim was to assess the usefulness of IAR4D in generating international and regional public goods, as well as technologies that are better adapted to the needs of end users (FARA 2008).The LKPLS, described in chapter 1, is the pilot learning site for the Eastern and Central Africa region, involving three countries: Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Rwanda. While the three countries share a uniformly mountainous terrain in the study region, their socio-economic and political environments differ significantly. For example, while the DRC is just beginning to emerge from political conflicts, Rwanda has been at relative peace for over 16 years, and Uganda for 21 years. These contrasting situations have proven that implementing IAR4D cannot follow a one-size-fits-all approach. What has been lacking are clear steps on how to identify and involve different stakeholders in problem-solving exercises as stepping stones to IAR4D.Spielman ( 2006) emphasised the need to make ISA operational in order to foster innovation capacity in a systematic way. Note that a major component of the IAR4D concept -and that which differentiates it from other approaches -is the establishment of IPs. IPs are useful tools for building social capital, widely increasing stakeholders' knowledge and strengthening their capacity to mitigate the diverse risks associated with complex farming systems. As such, they aim to circumvent obstacles to better livelihoods by stimulating multi-stakeholder innovation processes, rather than relying on chance learning. Like the IAR4D approach, IPs engender clear stages of formation, including how to identify and involve different kinds of stakeholders in constructive problem-solving strategies and action plans. The next section of this chapter describes the phases and stages of formation of IPs in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS), which is one of the three pilot learning sites in Africa, the other two being in the Kano-Katsina-Maradi areas of Nigeria and Niger (West Africa region) and in the Mozambique-Malawi-Zimbabwe corridor (Southern Africa region).In the LKPLS, IPs were formed around chosen value chains (eg, sorghum, potatoes) selected in a participatory process based on percieved importance by the stakeholders. The selection of sites was dependent on a number of factors, including a range of biophysical characteristics, the network density of development agencies (high or low), soil and water conservation requirements, and the (in)accessibility to markets from a given location. Therefore, a total of 12 IPs were formed in the LKPLS, four in each of the three participating countries (Uganda, DRC and Rwanda). The institutional arrangements of each IP differ depending on the factors surrounding its formation.The formation and operationalisation of IPs in the LKPLS was carried out through a multi-phased participatory action learning approach. This involved a combination of iterative, participative, reflective and integrative desk modelling and field activities, elaborated in three phases: (a) pre-formation, (b) formation, and (c) post-formation. This chapter describes the pre-formation and formation phases. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to detail the operational processes conducted in each of the 12 IPs in the LKPLS, we refer to them when necessary.The pre-formation phase was carried out in five stages, adapted from the Network for Agriculture, Forestry, Aquaculture, and the Environment (AFANet) research learning cycle (see Figure 2.2). These stages include:1. open exploration of different concepts of the IAR4D approach (see  The formation phase was divided into six iterative stages:1. identification of research and developmental challenges 2. site selection 3. consultative and scoping study 4. visioning and stakeholder analysis 5. development of action plans 6. implementation of the action plans.Only the first four stages are discussed in this chapter; the last two are described in chapter 3. All six stages are represented in Figure 2.3. Identifying challenges required an understanding of the research and development constraints affecting the productivity and profitability of a region. Detailed information about this was obtained from literature reviews, secondary data, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, case studies, market chain analysis, institutional capacity assessments, spatial analyses and expert information. In addition, the LKPLS relied greatly on information acquired from a validation study (Mateete et al. 2005) in which five challenges had been identified: producing more food at the lowest cost; diversifying agro-enterprises for wealth creation among the poor; improving markets; sustaining agricultural and natural resources; and refocusing on policies, institutional capacity development and organisational change.The agricultural production functions of each IP are based in a particular territory, which for the purposes of the SSA CP are named 'sites'. 1 Site selection was thus a very important stage in the IP formation processes, and was driven by project-specific criteria. Selection could be straightforward, such as in cases where the aim of the project was to alleviate the impacts of a certain biophysical constraint (eg, poor soil fertility) in a given area. However, in situations that sought to capitalise on existing and/or emerging market opportunities, site selection entailed analyses of socio-economic conditions, as well as the biophysical conditions and, of course, the willingness of the local communities to participate.In the LKPLS, the criteria and methods used in the selection of IP sites differed somewhat from those described by Farrow et al. (2009). The LKPLS selection process required the development of an understanding of the biophysical characteristics, accessibility to markets, and main crop enterprises of a range of potential sites (see Figure 2.4). General steps included: establishing a census of political units; defining low and high market access; modelling of market access; identifying candidate sites; developing a diagnostic tool for site selection; appraising candidate sites; and finally selecting the most appropriate sites.Next, we outline the methodology used for site selection in the LKPLS, highlighting the implications of the SSA CP research design. Some important characteristics of the LKPLS and the stratification of candidate sites are also reviewed. Across the three pilot learning sites, a consensus emerged that each site should be located within a local governmental unit. Local government units offer potential for dialogue with local policy makers; they also ensure positive spill-over effects, entailing utilisation of the experiences gained for up-scaling to other areas outside the study site during the project implementation phase.The sites where IPs were established had a governance structure at multiple levels (regional, national, district and local/sub-county). At the regional level in the LKPLS, three task forces -consisting of partner scientists from CGIAR centres and NARS (national agricultural research systems), local government and the private sector -were working closely on the interactions between agricultural productivity, natural resource sustainability, markets and policy themes. The interactions between these themes implied that the task forces worked in common sites and potentially with common partners. At the same time, the research design asserted that each of the three task forces in the LKPLS worked with four IPs, giving a total of 12 IPs in each pilot learning site. However, because of the challenges the mountainous terrain posed for communication among the IPs, it was decided that more than one IP would be formed in each site. Each IP was considered unique, and the problems and entry points (eg, poor soil fertility) were likely to be different for each task force, even though they would have some partners in common. Therefore, the number of sites was increased one year after the start of project implementation to ensure that 12 IPs were established in 12 distinct action sites (Figure 2.5). Initially seven sites had been selected, then five more were added the following year to meet the requirement for the statistical degree of freedom (FARA 2008). These additional sites were selected based on market opportunities (eg, value addition to sorghum and potatoes to target new market niches) that could lead to significant improvements in the income of smallholder farmers in the LKPLS.The SSA CP research design also required the identification of counterfactual sites for each action site to act as control sites. These sites should be as similar as possible to the action sites with respect to agro-ecology, farming systems, market linkages, culture and demography. Therefore, in each country four sites were chosen: two action sites where a full compliment of IAR4D was used and two counterfactual sites that were left under the conventional extension system (Figure 2.5).Given the limited number of districts (3 rd -level administrative units) within the LKPLS administrative structure, it was difficult to find suitable counterfactuals at that level. The most appropriate size for a site was thus found to be the 4 th -level administrative unit, which is a sub-county in Uganda, a secteur in Rwanda and a groupement in DRC.Although the SSA CP research design anticipated that action and counterfactual sites would be randomly selected from a full census of the potential sites within the LKPLS, certain issues necessitated a deviation from this research design in the LKPLS, including policy issues, market access and agro-ecological considerations. Major differences in policies warranted investigation in the three countries, which were at different post-conflict stages, variably reflecting the degree of stability and economic activities that influence access to capital (social, human, financial, physical and natural resources). This implied a first level of stratification to ensure that the same number of IPs was formed in each country. A further stratification was made based on access to a diverse set of markets: candidate sites were grouped as having either good or poor market access. A final level of stratification was required to ensure that candidate sites were characterised by the same agro-ecology, as well to exclude some areas deemed extremely remote, or unsafe, especially in DRC.From the resulting lists of sites a random selection was made for field visits and site characterisation, as well as for needs diagnosis and village identification. It was clear that even after the three levels of stratification the sites were far from homogeneous, with different marketing capacities, agricultural productivity rates and NRM issues. For this reason, action and counterfactual sites were deliberately paired to ensure that they belonged to the same population. Differences in levels of agricultural research for development (ARD) were also identified. In the end, action sites and counterfactual sites were assigned on the basis of having enough villages of the 'clean' and conventional ARD to provide satisfactory control for the 'IAR4D proof of concept'.As a result of these specific considerations, the complete process of site selection in the LKPLS required seven steps: (a) census of the sub- Much information regarding the characteristics of the LKPLS can be found in the report about the original choice of pilot learning sites (Thornton et al. 2006) and the LKPLS validation report (Mateete et al. 2005). It was felt, however, that the characteristics ought to be revisited and the quantitative approach of the validation report combined with the qualitative assessment of the stakeholders. Consequently, in a partner workshop held in Kigali in October 2007, the members of the three task forces listed criteria that could affect productivity, environmental sustainability and the success of agricultural enterprises. The criteria identified for the site characterisation and variability assessment consisted of: project partners that directly received funds from FARA, farmer organisations and networks; access to markets; rainfall; population density; infrastructure (roads, hospitals and schools); production systems; sources of income; terrain; soils; food security situation; settlement patterns; gender issues; conflict resolution; and land tenure systems. The most important criteria considered for site selection were those that exhibited large variation within the LKPLS, but which were relatively homogeneous within a sub-county, secteur or groupement, to ensure that the design maintains scientific validity.One critical research question was the degree to which the biophysical and socio-economic conditions at the sites affected their engagement with markets, the enhancement of productivity and the investment in NRM. According to López (1992), if institutional factors (eg, access to market, policy) dominate environmental dynamics, new institutions that invest and protect the land emerge, and consequently livelihoods of farmers improve. However, if a technologysupply-driven approach is used farmers are usually reluctant to adopt new technologies. Market access was a key hypothesis for many of the interventions that were being planned for the LKPLS (FARA 2008); therefore, it was considered a key variable in the stratification of sites.The LKPLS was then stratified into sites with good (diverse) market access and those with poor (limited) market access. Selection ensured that each country would have one site with good market access and another with poor market access; counterfactuals were also selected for each of these sites.In choosing markets, the LKPLS followed the methodology developed by the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA 2005) for a regional perspective on access to multiple markets. The spatial distribution of access to markets was based on models rather than observations but was augmented with expert opinion. Four types of markets were chosen: regional markets; cross-border markets or transit points (including minor and major cross-border transit points); national markets; and local markets. All partner institutions were requested to identify markets of each type.The purpose of the characterisation of the candidate sites was to be able to choose sites that would allow the investigation of the efficacy of the IAR4D principles and compare their results with conventional agricultural research and development (ARD) approaches. The action sites and counterfactual sites were stratified according to market access, with one action site having good market access and another with poor market access. This was repeated for the counterfactual sites.Action sites were chosen from the list of candidate sites according to the level of ARD between 2003 and 2008. All villages in each site were classified into two types: (a) 'clean' villages that had neither IAR4D nor conventional projects in the last 2-5 years; and (b) conventional villages that had projects identifying, promoting and disseminating technologies in the past 2-5 years.Sites with the most clean villages were chosen as action sites, while sites with a mixture of clean and conventional villages were chosen as counterfactuals.Final site selection relied on local leaders from the candidate sites and at the next-higher administrative level (district and territoire). Participants completed a semi-structured questionnaire as part of a focus group discussion, and the results were compared using triangulation methods. There were greater differences in the ARD activities between sites than between the three countries. It was also evident that in DRC the counterfactual sites had fewer interventions than the action sites. Differences between poor and good market areas were also not particularly large, but there were fewer interventions and stakeholders in the poor market access areas in all three countries.As presented in Figure 2.6, the choice of action sites aimed to demonstrate the value of bringing together multi-stakeholders to address complex challenges. For example, the Bufundi-Kabale district and Chahi-Kisoro district in Uganda had a low network density of development agencies compared to the counterfactual sites of Rubaya-Kabale and Nyakabande-Kisoro, which had high network density. In the action sites, more work was required to bring the relevant stakeholders on board to address existing or emerging challenges, compared with counterfactual sites. The choice of the three countries, namely Rwanda, DRC and Uganda (Figure 2.7) also presented an opportunity to address agricultural development problems under diverse socio-economic, political, cultural and environmental circumstances. The social network density of the three LKPLS countries was highest in Uganda, moderate in Rwanda and lowest in DRC, reflecting the post-conflict status of each country (about 24, 16 and 2 years respectively). Also, the ease with which relevant stakeholders were brought together to address these challenges corresponded to the length of the respective postconflict periods.The stage for consultations and scoping involved mobilising and building interest among stakeholders including policy makers, farmers, opinion leaders and research and development (R&D) partners at the district level. Key to this process is getting buy-in by local leaders, something which was optional in past approaches. One leader remarked that 'our involvement can make the initiative live or die'. This approach facilitated collaboration, networking and mobilisation of social capital and talent for knowledge-sharing among the stakeholders.For instance, farmers and other stakeholders (including extension workers, local leaders, private sector) met with researchers to better understand the nature of R&D activities as well as biophysical, socio-economic, technological, policy and institutional arrangements. Situation analysis was also undertaken to capture current knowledge, attitudes and practices of stakeholders; as part of the IAR4D approach, this helped explain the region's 'islands of success' and past failed approaches. Table 2.2 and Figure 2.8 outline the key stakeholder groups in addressing problems related to agriculture and rural livelihoods.A key incentive for many actors was being part of an effort to achieve a dream. It helped unleash fresh energy when the going got tough. The visioning process was either researcher-led or market-led. For the first generation (seven) IPs, the researcher-led processes were used. These involved inviting stakeholders to talk about the agricultural problems facing them and the potential roles they could play in resolving them. The market-led processes were used for  the second generation (five) IPs. They involved introducing market opportunities to the target communities and organising stakeholders to learn to tap them. In both approaches, visioning included: defining the desired expectations; developing an inventory of NRM-markettechnology-policy interface constraints and their rankings; and identifying IAR4D-derived ways of overcoming those constraints.During the visioning phase, stakeholder analysis was also conducted to determine the skills, weaknesses, strengths and opportunities of different stakeholders. Then, potential roles were identified for them in addressing the constraints and harnessing opportunities. In addition, the rationale for establishing IPs, including their functions; their principles and guidelines; critical analysis of challenges; capacity building; facilitation; teamwork/collective action and framework; and planning, monitoring and evaluation were all articulated in the context of the SSA CP.Further, through an iterative process, stakeholders internalised the process of forming IPs.Our experience shows that the market-led approach to formation of IPs created quick winwin scenarios that unleashed an innovative capacity, compared with IPs where the members were allowed to deliberate on their problems in relation to their vision. This is because in the market-led approach, stakeholders could easily identify the immediate benefits of being an IP member. Table 2.3 summarises the resources required for the various processes of IP formation.Following the processes described above, much effort and resources were expended to eventually establish the 12 IPs in the LKPLS. For every IP initiation, a scoping exercise was conducted on-site to identify potential meeting participants and to obtain more information on agricultural practices and livelihoods in general. In addition, key NGOs and cooperatives - • Time resources for the different stakeholders to meet• Conduct a stakeholder interaction survey.• Build awareness at the local administration level.• Financial resources • Identify different stakeholders and their potential roles in the IP.• Expertise of the different stakeholder categories• Ensure adequate financial resources to finance the meetings.• An issue to deliberate about • Arrange and implement an IP meeting for the buy-in of the local community. • For a researcher-led IP process, allow the IP to deliberate issues on its own and to make a decision to reject or accept.• For market-led process, sell the market opportunity upon which the IP can be organised (eg, USD200,000 per month worth of market demand for organic pineapple). • If stakeholders reject the researcher-led process, initiate the market-led process to get buy-in. M&E to track the IP formation process • Prepare and plan meetings between stakeholders prior to and after the meetings.as well as some champions -were invited to the initiation meetings. Representatives of NGOs and cooperatives, private sector (banks, microfinance institutions, agro-dealers), and farmers were also invited to establishment meetings. The meetings resulted in the selection of entry enterprises perceived to be of major economic importance.Agricultural innovation arises from various souces: researchers, farmers, development agencies, NGOs, private companies, entrepreneurs and agricultural artisans, among others. To get the most from each stakeholder, there is need for a common platform where interactions among actors are multiple, iterative and evolving, and where the mix of participants reflects the strength of political and institutional interest groups in the area. Innovation platforms (IPs) provide an opportunity to bring together all of the different actors in an area -be they farmers, traders, researchers, NGOs, local government, and universities -to create technical, economic and institutional change. This is normally done in systemic terms, where the flow of knowledge between actors and institutions, and the factors that condition the flow, are central to innovation performance (Hall 2001).In the LKPLS, the situational analysis and visioning processes allowed stakeholders to become aware of the value of participation in IPs. The participatory manner in which IPs were formed empowered the actors to come up with innovations based on their own unique situations. This made it possible to implement IPs in three countries with different socioeconomic circumstances, and showed that the process can be applied to areas outside the test environments. Hall (2001) noted that participatory approaches applied in appropriate institutional contexts are key to increasing knowledge flows between farmers and other parts of the innovation systems. This is not the case with the current R&D approach, in which knowledge is packaged and delivered to farmers by extension agents.Naturally, where social hierarchies are strong, professional and institutional hierarchies will develop simultaneously. The constituents of such structures have organisational ability and experience in policy making, which is necessary for IP formation. Sites where local leaders were involved in the process formed IPs in less time, compared with those where leaders did not participate. However, in the use of such hierarchies, caution must be taken to protect the IPs from being hijacked by leaders seeking to promote their personal interests. The heterogeneous nature of IPs brings together a wealth of experience, allowing the different groups to build on their knowledge. However, this can also bring discontent to the IPs if they are not well nurtured. Facilitators must strive to build trust among the various groups. Once the social fabric, consisting of relevant value chain actors, is developed, the operationalisation of the IPs is dependent on how well the multi-stakeholders are facilitated to access resources to address the existing and emerging challenges. These processes are described in detail in chapter 3. F Murorunkwere, M Kuule, P Mandefu, R Kamugisha Chapter 3Operationalisation of integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) revolves around the successful establishment and functioning of agricultural innovation platforms (IPs).In chapter 2 it was stated that the IP formation phase involves the following six iterative stages:( (6) implementation of the action plans. The first four stages of IP formation were described in detail in chapter 2, and stages 5 and 6 will be described in this chapter (section 3.3).After IPs have been set up, the next logical step is to ensure their proper functioning. In the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS), IP operationalisation was made possible by first ensuring that each IP was composed of a threshold number of members and that the members were registered, as evidence of their commitment. The membership of each IP was required to include relevant stakeholders and/or partners representing a selected enterprise or value chain. The entire membership forms a body called a 'general assembly'. The general assembly is entitled to elect an executive committee to run the affairs of the IP on behalf of the entire membership. The executive committee has the power to co-opt other members with specialised skills or expertise. In addition, the executive committee is mandated to form other committees to assist it in running various sectors or specialised fields of interest for the IP. The composition of the executive committee is balanced in its representation of area coverage, fields of expertise and gender. An important responsibility of the executive committee is to call and convene general meetings on a monthly basis. At these general meetings, major policies, findings and other issues are announced and discussed, work plans are formulated, duties are allocated, and solutions are suggested and discussed with regards to future implementation activities.The functional multi-stakeholder IPs in the LKPLS have formed roughly similar skeletal organisational structures and constitutions, but have tailored these to their local contexts to facilitate smooth functioning when addressing common interests and challenges. Some of these IPs require payment of a one-time membership registration fee and monthly contributions. Some have developed action plans with clear roles, and they meet monthly to review past activities (eg, training, exposure visits, negotiations, policy formulation, monitoring and evaluation) and to make plans for achieving their objectives. However, success breeds new challenges. As these new challenges emerge, new partners and stakeholders with relevant expertise are brought aboard to form task force teams that can look in depth at the issues and devise appropriate solutions.This chapter focuses on the last two stages of the IP formation phase, which focus on IP operationalisation (section 3.3). But before IP operationalisation can take off, certain mechanisms must be put in place to drive the operationalisation processes. These driving mechanisms involve the constitution of committees.Having first agreed to form IPs by assembling relevant stakeholders and partners together, in order for the IPs to start functioning the next step is to constitute committees. To initiate this process, a facilitator must organise a meeting and invite all participating farmers. Other relevant stakeholders and partners from a selected enterprise of common interest should also be invited to attend.One of the main agenda items for this meeting is to elect an executive committee at the lowest local government level (sub-county) to manage the affairs of the IP on behalf of the general assembly (ie, all IP members). In the LKPLS, each IP has elected an executive committee that is generally representative of its membership, in terms of geographic distribution, stakeholder groups and gender. These elected committees are not permanent; they are elected for a one-year term. In addition, depending on circumstances (eg, mistrust), an elected committee member can be replaced.After it has been formed, the executive committee has the mandate to manage the affairs of the IP. The executive committee must first lead the members in compiling the bye-laws and/or the constitution of the IP, which will guide the management of the IP. The executive committee is allowed to co-opt additional members with specialised skills or expertise into the committee.When any significant problem arises, the executive committee can elect or appoint an ad hoc committee or task force team to investigate and make a report of the findings and their suggested solutions, which should be submitted to the executive committee or the general assembly.The executive committees of the IPs in the three countries in the LKPLS are similar in size and composition, but they vary in the way they manage their affairs. For instance, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the executive committee can also form other committees, sub-committees or commissions to assist in running the technical operations of the IP. These technical commissions address the following issues: (a) research, especially on productivity and natural resource management (NRM); (b) markets; (c) credit and audit; and (d) monitoring and evaluation. Because of the vast distances between sites in the DRC, these committees also have 'branches' in villages, which serve as antennae for the executive committee. Currently, each executive committee in the DRC has five or six branches.The moment the executive committee is in place, the IP is ready to become operational. There is no particular formula for starting operations, but one of the initial activities should be to compile bye-laws and a draft constitution, which will be used to guide the IP operations. There should also be a members' register. Once these are in place, IP activities can begin.Initiation of activities starts with planning meetings. These planning meetings include periodic sub-county-level executive committee meetings, monthly general assembly meetings and district-level monthly partner meetings. What happens at these meetings is illustrated by the DRC case (see section 3.4 of this chapter). Two of the most important activities at these meetings are the development of action plans and their implementation -the final two stages of IP formation 2 .Action plans, or work plans, are developed at all levels: at the grassroots level (ie, IP level), at the national level and at the regional level (ie, the LKPLS). It is at the regional level that the action plans are harmonised (see Figure 3.1).In the LKPLS, generally the stakeholders and partners representing various organisations and knowledge groups come together at their monthly planning meetings and develop the IP-level action plans, through a participatory approach. Within these action plans, the roles, responsibilities and site-specific timelines (eg, governance, capacity building, facilitation, experimentation, monitoring and evaluation), methods of implementation and input requirements are all defined. The final work plan (operational plan) of Uganda's Chahi IP is presented in Table 3.1 to illustrate activities and roles at the grassroots level. Some of the input requirements for IP functioning are described in Table 3.2.All site-specific action plans are harmonised with the national-level work plans for site coordination. This is usually done during the monthly national-level site-coordination planning and review meetings. Partners of IPs in each country also conduct monthly meetings for planning and review. The different work plans at the national level are further integrated at quarterly regional planning and review meetings, when common elements are defined and harmonised, and synergies are forged. Emerging issues raised at the IP level, such as the lack of disease-free and pest-free 'clean' planting materials and access to credit, are addressed by task force teams (including relevant stakeholders) at the regional level. The regional-level work plans are in turn submitted to FARA for review and follow-up action (eg, funding).  Action plans can be grouped into two types: operational and strategic. Operational action plans are implemented at an action site, while strategic plans are implemented outside an action site. Implementation of operational action plans is carried out at site, national and regional levels. There are provisions for cross-site input using a participatory action research approach involving planning, action and reflection at all stages (Susman 1983). These implementation activities are often done in a cascading or parallel manner, while other activities, sometimes referred to as 'common activities', are implemented jointly.At the IP-level action sites, steering committees were elected, each consisting of a chairperson, vice chairperson (two in some countries, especially DRC), secretary and treasurer, in addition to members representing various end-user groups from different parishes (in Uganda) and antennes in the DRC. These committees were empowered to make operational decisions (eg, calling and scheduling meetings, drawing up the agenda, deploying staff) and also to liaise with national and regional partners. These committees were also supported by various sub-committees (eg, marketing, production, NRM and monitoring and evaluation).Among other activities, training on various topics was provided for various IP members as requested by the IP, for the purpose of increasing capacity and empowerment. Training topics At the national level, meetings were organised and stakeholders (eg, extension workers) participated to respond to issues raised by the executive committees at the action sites, to make strategic decisions and to raise issues that should be presented to the regional body.Other activities implemented at the national level included: coordination across action sites; facilitation of common activities; enhancement of synergies; and supervision of nationallyrecruited staff (usually two people) in each participating country. In Uganda, the country-level action site coordination body also hosted postdoctoral fellows, adding value to IP processes at the national and regional levels.At the regional level, task force teams were jointly responsible for both the research and facilitation functions of the vertical and horizontal integration of the IPs. At this level the actions of the task force teams included: developing and implementing overall plans; identifying common issues across countries; enhancing synergies and complementarities in resolving conflicts; advising the lead institution; making strategic decisions based on inter-country action documentation; and reporting on coordination across country action sites. Issues raised at the national level are handled by a regional-level team of three task force leaders representing the three implementing countries and responsible for the three main thematic areas: production technologies; NRM; and markets, policy and value addition. At this level, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) as the lead institution oversees the LKPLS and plays a pivotal role in championing the IP processes by responding regularly and promptly to emerging issues, providing feedback, conflict resolution, and by keeping the team together and focused. The lead institution is also instrumental in forging and maintaining linkages with both the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) and with FARA.A common question about IPs is, at what level should they be convened? Our experience suggests basing both operational and strategic meetings at the sub-county level. Higherlevel bodies at the district, national and regional levels should largely tackle strategic issues. Descriptions of some of the activities that have been implemented in the LKPLS are presented in Tables 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5. The next section of this chapter illustrates the routine functioning of the IPs, using the case of IP operations in the DRC and the example of the Maendeleo beans IP.   As already noted, each of the four DRC IPs operates one major crop enterprise (beans, bananas, cassava and Irish potatoes). Each of the IPs has four to six affiliated branches or antennae, for a total of 20 such IP branches in the DRC.New members may join the IPs at any time, so membership is dynamic and variable. New members pay a non-refundable, one-time registration fee, and all members pay an agreed monthly contribution.Each IP in the DRC is managed by an elected executive management committee composed of a president, vice president (usually two), secretary and treasurer, in addition to a number of advisors, and a representative from each antenna or branch IP. Each committee has four sub-committees or commissions, which assist with specific topics or tasks, including: (a) technical issues (research, productivity, NRM); (b) markets; (c) credit; and (d) monitoring and evaluation (M&E). The committees and sub-committees hold meetings to plan and discuss their respective activities.Once a month there is a general IP meeting, attended by all registered members as well as partners and other stakeholders, particularly the research partners. The main purpose of these general meetings is to discuss the activities accomplished during the past month and to plan activities for the next month. During these meetings, the research group responds to technical issues on productivity, NRM and markets. As an example, the next sub-section of this report describes a routine general meeting conducted by the Maendeleo beans IP.One of the scheduled monthly general meetings was held at Rubare for the Maendeleo IP. These meetings are conducted either in the local or national language. They are managed by the executive committee and chaired by the President. On this occasion, the President called the meeting to order at about 10.30 AM, and the agenda was as follows:• Prayers• Introductions• Discussions• Matters arising• Visitors remarksAfter participants had introduced themselves, discussions were held on production, NRM, credit and M&E activities, led by the chairpersons of the four respective commissions. Discussions were centred on activities undertaken during the past month and plans for the next month, with technical backstopping from researchers and other partners. At the close of the meeting, those present were counted and grouped by branch and gender, as shown in Table 3.6. The meeting was adjourned at about 12.00 noon with a closing prayer.There are approximately 27 partners associated with the 12 IPs of the LKPLS, about 11 of which are associated with the four IPs in the DRC. In collaboration with the IPs, the three task force teams (TF1 -production technologies, TF2 -NRM, and TF3 -markets) in the LKPLS are obliged to identify and incorporate partners who will assist IPs in their activities along the value chains.For illustrative purposes, some of the partners in the DRC and their roles are listed in Table 3.7.As discussed in chapter 1, IAR4D is a research-oriented approach to development that incorporates the various perspectives, knowledge and skills of different stakeholders around an issue of common interest. In the LKPLS, post-formation issues for the IPs were influenced by the nature and quality of the multi-stakeholder linkages and interactions, which led the IPs on various trajectories depending on the socio-economic, policy and cultural environments the IPs were operating in. Through joint analysis, planning, implementation, monitoring, research reflections, interactions and learning, the value chain-based multi-stakeholder engagements were drastically improved. This implies that it was important to the IPs to receive timely feedback on options for addressing emerging issues in the productivity-NRM-markets-policy interface, as provided by the relevant task force teams. As a result, such processes served to improve the performance of the IPs in meeting prevailing and projected market demands, and thus assisted them in realising their goals.In the LKPLS, other post-formation IP activities included M&E, impact assessment, feedback and technical backstopping, with reference to the indicators, tools and resources required for the various phases of IP formation and functioning (see Table 3.8). These activities ensured timely identification of problems and solutions as well as timely provision of feedback from relevant stakeholders.Successfully functioning innovation platforms (IPs) have facilitated the development and implementation of solutions to address the issues facing the IP members. But as these solutions Pre-/post-intervention surveys at plot/village level have been found and adopted, new challenges have emerged, requiring further reflection and action. Thus IP activities may continue indefinitely.For example, at the Chahi potato IP in Uganda, initial analysis showed that lack of access to organised markets and inability to get competitive prices were the main constraints. Consequently, negotiations were initiated with the private sector for direct purchase of potatoes from the farmers and delivery to organised markets. After exhaustive negotiations with various actors along the potato market chain, a system of direct purchase from the producers by a group of retailers was established with clear guidelines and a memorandum of understanding (MoU). The assumption was that local farmers had enough produce to meet the market demand. When the arrangement was implemented, it soon became apparent that there were insufficient potatoes to meet the market demand. The situation was reviewed, with the conclusion that productivity must be increased. However, this required improved seeds and other inputs, which required financial support, but such credit was not easy to access from banks.Similar situations have arisen for the Musanganya banana IP in the DRC with Kasiksi banana juice, and also for the Bubare sorghum IP in Uganda with Mamera sorghum porridge. Following successful processing, packaging and branding, and successful linkages to markets, new issues relating to patenting, standards, certification and licensing emerged for the IP members.Likewise, these new issues required dialogue and negotiations to devise appropriate solutions.In the Mudende milk IP in Rwanda, conflicts emerged among the IP members after the IP was linked to Inyange Industries through two competing cooperative societies. This problem required mediation to reach an understanding among the members.Many difficulties have also been experienced in relation to the so-called 'free handout' syndrome in the LKPLS. There were high expectations of free funds and gifts from project personnel. These expectations were particularly high in the emergency areas. Considering that most of the LKPLS IPs are functioning in areas where most of the people are resource-poor due to historical conflicts and injustices, it was quite difficult for them to contribute towards funding the IP activities. Moreover, most of the local IP participants had been used to receiving free handouts (including money) and services from non-governmental organisations, politicians and even directly from the government. Considering this context, some IP activities are currently partially funded by the project. This is likely to continue until the IPs are self-sufficient.Low capacity of partner organisations is another major constraint. It is clear that the IPs in the LKPLS are composed of stakeholders with varying capacities. For instance, the majority of retail traders have limited capital and have largely depended on intermediaries to assist their operations. Likewise, farmers in rural areas have low capacity to contend with the multitude of problems, risks and constraints they face due to low productivity, limited marketing and market forces. The national agricultural research system project personnel also have widely varying backgrounds and levels of experience. Therefore, it has taken a substantial amount of effort and resources to improve the low capacities among different stakeholders (individuals and groups) in order for them to grasp and implement the IP concepts and practices.Clearly, the successful functioning of the IPs still requires continuous backstopping in terms of facilitation and funding support to address current and emerging IP problems, until the IPs are able to stand on their own. Without this ongoing support, the important gains that have been made will quickly dissipate and be lost.Tukahirwa JMB, SO Nyamwaro, R Kalibwani, R Buruchara, MM Tenywa, K Karume, JM Mugabe, R Kamugisha, C Wanjiku, AO Fatunbi, AA AdekunleChapter 4The The rationale for IAR4D is to improve the capacity of stakeholders along agricultural value chains to respond to the rural farmers' needs, as well as to empower the stakeholders to adapt to changing conditions rather than focusing on delivering 'finished technologies' (Sayer and Campbell 2001). Further, the IAR4D paradigm recognises that the traditional approach to agricultural research and development has brought about significant advances, but also that its fragmented and reductionist nature makes it unable to cope with emerging complex challenges.As an approach as well as a process (Figure 4.1), IAR4D is a holistic tool for agricultural research for development, guided by a set of principles and operating within the agricultural innovation system framework. The IAR4D approach can foster synergy among disciplines and institutions, along with a renewed commitment to change at all levels -from farmers to national and international policy makers. As an action research approach, IAR4D facilitates groups of stakeholders (farmers, reserachers, extention agents, private sector and policy makers) to innovate more effectively in response to the changing and complex agricultural and natural resources management (NRM) contexts for improved development outcomes (FARA 2007). An innovation platform (IP), as described by Adekunle et al. (2010) is 'a physical or virtual forum established to facilitate interactions and learning among stakeholders selected from a commodity chain, leading to: participatory diagnosis of problems; joint exploration of opportunities and investigation of solutions; promotion of agricultural innovations along the targeted value chain'. Forming the core of the IAR4D structure, an IP is an informal coalition, collaboration, partnership and alliance of ARD actors who may include, among others, public and private  ) and the NGOs (IMBARAGA, DIOBASS, UNSPPA) all provided critical day-to-day backstopping for the IPs, through nurturing, mentoring, documenting processes and facilitating partnerships, including conflict resolution. These experiences in turn allowed the development of a more coherent system for problem analysis at the IP level and sowed the seeds of integration, which are crucial for IAR4D.Implementation of IAR4D towards generating impact in African smallholder agriculture requires collective action by a range of stakeholders at the local, national, regional and international levels. These include policy makers at decentralised local governments, farmers and rural communities, service providers (advisory, credit provision, suppliers, traders, processors, agribusinesses, retailers, researchers, extension workers and other actors in the chain, such as water boards, water-user associations and other consumer organisations). The process of involving a broad and diverse range of stakeholders across different scales and levels and facilitating close collaboration in all phases of agricultural development has important implications for building institutional, social and human capital, including harnessing unique partnership synergies. To optimise the collective capacity of IP partners to work together requires new and innovative approaches beyond interactive learning, using holistic capacity building methods to meet the needs of different stakeholder groups in a coherent manner.For these approaches to work on a broader scale requires innovative advances in terms of institutions and capacity, to create an enabling environment.Hagmann and Blackie (2010) observed that the divide between research and extension has become increasingly wide and that this inhibits effective feedback loops in the system. This applies to African research systems as evidenced by limited impact and by research agendas driven by supply and discipline rather than by an inter-disciplinary response to actual demands and challenges. Currently, with few exceptions in the LKPLS, notwithstanding individual capacities, the IP partner institutions are greatly lagging in terms of operationalising the appropriate IAR4D approaches and practices. Most of the research programmes in the national agricultural research systems (NARS) and the relevant sub-regional research organisations (SROs) are characteristically fragmented by their focus on commodity types and by their positivist traditions, as described in Table 4.2.It has been noted that positivist traditions are characterised by their approach to understanding phenomena, which involves breaking them down into their constituent parts and then studying these simple parts in terms of cause and effect (Flood 2002). Sellamna (1999) observed that a reductionist science approach is at the heart of the teaching model for transfer of technology that these are mainstreamed in government and partner institutions and given the required policy and resource support to grow on a sustainable basis. Consequently, the key drivers of institutionalisation are capacity building and creation of an enabling policy environment to facilitate the necessary changes at the individual, organisational and institutional levels. The desired changes at these levels can be summarised as follows:a. Changes in individual capacity: To be effective, IP partners must possess competence that goes beyond traditional disciplines to include meta disciplines (eg, systems thinking, knowledge management, strategic planning, experiential learning) in addition to social skills and positive personal attitudes, behaviour and values that allow for successful social interactions when working with others (Hawkins et al. 2008). The aim is to enhance skills and competence towards promoting the science and practice of IAR4D.b. Changes in organisational capacity: Organisations must have standard resources but also organisational processes that facilitate interactions. The organisational change process requires strong managerial capacity in four areas: (i) human and functional linkage management; (ii) management of interactive planning and learning cycles, and outputs; (iii) management of resource investments aimed at process activities; and (iv) informal management (Hawkins et al. 2008). Capacity development and change management support the development of new competencies related to communication, facilitation, and mediation needed to work with diverse stakeholders in identifying and developing new opportunities for technical and institutional innovation.c. Change in institutional capacity: Strengthening capacity at the system or network level involves addressing factors that influence the management of organising and in particular the interactions between organisations and stakeholders. This includes efforts towards formalising the position of IPs in relation to local government structures, with increased roles and responsibilities and with access to respected local champions and government budgeting processes.A holistic approach to capacity building and institutional change towards mainstreaming IAR4D essentially implies action at three levels:Educational institutions:• innovative learning partnerships with other stakeholders to create active and engaging interactive learning environments• curriculum development towards building capacity to deal with complexity• changing institutional culture, including systems of evaluation and reward• strengthening capacity (knowledge, skills, perceptions and attitudes) to facilitate interactive processes for development of hard and soft skills needed for innovation• developing a holistic approach to building human capacity and social organisation that meets the collective and diverse needs of stakeholders.Service providers and end users:• collectively developing capacity to set up and use multiple IPs• collective action and decision-making• empowering all stakeholders to participate actively in IP businesses.Education and service providers:• interactive experiential and social learning emerging from networking• linking education with rural innovations.In response to the need for capacity building to support successful implementation of the IAR4D approach, an intensive and also extensive issue-based programme was instituted to train farmers and IP partners in the LKPLS. Over a period of less than three years, many training courses were provided in at least 14 different subject areas. As reflected by the percentages shown in Figure 4.4, the most popular courses were those on partners' reflections and value addition.The comprehensive training courses provided in the LKPLS had the following results: (1) shared understanding among all partners of the principles and practices involved in IAR4D;(2) problem identification using iterative processes and development of action plans;(3) enhanced capacities of farmer organisations for effective involvement in communication flow, adaptive research and extension, and market aggregation and quality control; (4) enhanced learning by doing; (5) improved capacity of site-level partners for conducting participatory monitoring and evaluation (M&E) that feeds into decision-making at the IP level; (6) strengthened capacity in identifying gaps and addressing them within the IPs; and (7) effective and iterative communication strategies applied at all levels of the IPs.For sustainable functioning, growth and success, IPs require conducive and enabling policy environments that are supportive of IAR4D. Enabling policy environments must operate at the global, regional, national and local levels, and extend also to institutional mechanisms and frameworks. Supportive policies and institutions at the international level include treaties and conventions, while at the national level they include laws and declarations, at the district level they include ordinances, and at the grassroots level this refers to bye-laws. Pro-IAR4D policies are those that create and maintain an overall legal framework that supports IPs and their associated businesses. Hence, an enabling policy environment is one that focuses on relevant government actions such as competitive trade policies; supportive agriculture and NRM laws; removal of technical, legal and administrative barriers to adopting innovations; sound economic policies that trigger increased production; and regulatory frameworks that promote transparency. Put together, all of these elements create an enabling environment conducive to innovative partnerships that can work towards creating impact in the smallholder agricultural sector. Important policy components that would support the institutionalisation of IPs include:a. national strategies in line with the principles and practices of IAR4D b. national institutions as hubs for implementation of IAR4D c. national legal institutions that introduce codes and standards that help to reduce risks and protect intellectual property rights d. means for promoting partnerships while addressing equity issues and farmers' needs and capacities.At the global level, all three countries that are part of the LKPLS are also signatories to international multilateral agreements to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change, such as the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The primary focus of the UNCCD is to halt the loss of natural vegetation and the deterioration of the physical, chemical, biological and economic properties of soil. Subsequent to signing and ratifying the Convention, signatory countries developed National Action Plans (NAPs) aimed at mitigating the adverse impacts of land degradation and climate change on local livelihoods and development. Further, the UNCCD promotes synergy with other multilateral agreements, specifically the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This global policy framework provides a supportive context for IP institutionalisation since agriculture and the environment are closely linked with regard to issues such as climate and soil quality.At the national level, in response high poverty levels, the three participating countries have developed policies aimed at poverty alleviation. Such policies also provide important opportunities for adding value using the IAR4D approach. For example, the Government of Rwanda's Vision 2020 policy articulates a national road map to transform Rwanda's economy from that of a poor nation to that of a middle-income country. Among the seven objectives of this vision is the transformation of agriculture into a productive, high-value, market-oriented sector with forward and backward linkages to other sectors. The vision highlights relevant opportunities for nurturing IAR4D in the course of this transformation of the agriculture sector.In the case of the DRC, the Government is committed to revitalising and developing its agricultural sector as the engine of the national economy. In this respect, the Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction (SGPR) has been developed with a focus on increasing rural incomes and diversifying agricultural exports. Consequently, a Council for Agricultural and Rural Management (Conseil Agricole Rural de Gestion, CARG) was set up under the Ministry of Agriculture and is responding to the structural requirements of the new agricultural policy.In tune with IAR4D principles, the Council's mandate is to address (among others things) the decentralisation and disengagement of the state in extension service delivery, including privatisation of public companies, and to promote the empowerment of farmers, market liberalisation and provision of incentives for private investment in rural areas.Similarly in Uganda, the Government is making efforts to ensure a participatory and broadbased policy-making process that can create the required policy environment. The Government has formulated the National Development Plan (NDP), which envisions a 'transformed Ugandan Society from a peasant to a modern and prosperous country within 30 years' and presents Uganda's forward-looking road map. Central to the NDP is the restoration of agricultural growth as an engine for employment creation, poverty reduction and industrialisation. In line with the IAR4D objectives, under the theme 'Growth, Employment and Prosperity', the NDP aims to increase household incomes, enhance the quality and availability of gainful employment, improve the stock and quality of economic and trade infrastructure, and promote innovation and industrial competitiveness. Other national policy initiatives relevant to IAR4D include the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) Act of 2001, which formalises the national agricultural advisory services as a single government programme integrating all extension programmes for agricultural development. One critical focus of the NAADS is the provision of market-oriented services by contracted service providers based at the sub-county level and controlled by farmers themselves. The farmers are expected to form forums in every sub-county to work with district and sub-county officials in contracting private sector service providers for extension services. Farmers are expected to demand, manage and monitor the advisory services that meet their requirements. In this regard, the formation of an IP with farmers as IP members and also as members of the sub-county farmers' forum would ensure a vital linkage with the NAADS programme and access to agricultural extension services. Another supportive policy to consider is the Decentralisation Policy of 1981, aimed primarily at the promotion of good governance through strengthening of local institutions and improvements in service delivery. Through this policy, the Government of Uganda may be able to provide financial resources for the development of organised groups at the sub-county level. IPs can strategically position themselves to access such resources through local government institutions. Already the IPs of Chahi and Bubare have integrated their work plans with those of their respective sub-counties. This puts the IPs in a good position to receive the available support and recognition from the sub-counties.It is evident, therefore, that at the national level the policy frameworks of the three countries present important entry points for IAR4D. IP plans can be upgraded through synergy with government programmes, further enhancing the sustainability of the IPs.Within the context of generating impact on smallholder agriculture, institutionalising IPs requires simultaneously developing the required institutional/social capacities while building an enabling institutional environment for learning, and application and mainstreaming of collective innovation approaches. These steps, however, cannot be implemented as blueprints but must be flexible and adaptive as the operationalisation and implementation of institutional innovations at national and regional levels are influenced by many local factors. Some of the critical influencing factors are considered to be: the prevailing institutional arrangements, existing levels of interests and experiences in both educational and implementing institutions for doing business as usual, and the willingness of both individuals and institutions to change. Consequently, institutionalisation is a process that is interactive, dynamic and evolving.There are important conditions that should be in place for successful institutionalisation to occur, namely: (i) clear demonstration of utility of the process; (ii) leadership commitment including the necessary resources; (iii) broader participation and effective linkages between stakeholders; (iv) a critical mass of trained actors, system thinkers and champions; and (v) continuous training.Streamlined governance of IPs has emerged as one of the most important foundation requirements for institutionalising IPs. The governance structures of the IPs, especially in relation to the functions that the IPs establish for themselves and their members, are crucial to the institutionalisation of IPs, their relative effectiveness and their sustainability. In the LKPLS, establishing governance structures of the IPs was prioritised and some examples of governance structures for Ntungamo and Chahi IPs of Uganda and a generic governance structure for IPs in DRC are illustrated in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.Overall, the 12 IPs in the LKPLS were developed outside of existing institutional structures through democratic processes. However, a good number of the elected IP leaders were also involved in steering government and other development programmes, further creating important linkages for sustainability. The IP leaders in the LKPLS, including executive and committee members, were popularly elected by the entire membership. Most IPs have constitutions that govern their operations and their business plans. As illustrated in Figures 5  and 6, the committee structures are elaborate, consisting of executive and various committees, such as technical or research advisory, finance and audit, marketing, and M&E committees. However, the committees vary across the IPs and countries depending on the core priority problems being addressed by the IPs. IP committees are organised at village or parish levels, representing operational clusters and -particularly in Uganda -the committees pivot into the lower local governance structures, assuring their sustainability. The streamlined governance structures of IPs present effective management structures while at the same time creating a sense of self-reliance, and generating internal financial resources, based on membership registration and monthly fees as well as IP overheads from marketing initiatives.In Uganda for instance, Bubare and Chahi IPs are operating as community-based organisations (CBO) registered at their respective district headquarters, while Bufundi and Ntungamo IPs are in the process of registration. Chahi, Bubare and Bufundi IPs have instituted a membership registration fee ranging from UGS 1000 to UgShs5000. There is also a monthly contribution of UgShs1000 in the Bubare and Chahi IPs. Leaders are elected by all IP members and they serve on a voluntary basis for a term of three years. The structure for representation is proposed by the IP members; for example, in Bubare the IP leaders are representatives of the eight sub-county parishes (two from each parish), joined by seven ex-officials and an executive of four, while in Ntungamo, the leaders are representatives of the seven participating sub-counties in addition to a chairman.There has been steady growth in IP membership derived from farmer groups. The membership growth is mainly due to the perceived benefits of joining the IP, resulting in spontaneous natural growth of the membership in response to the positive performance of the IPs. The sustained presence of a strong and committed IP leadership -comprising individuals who are respected and trusted among their peers -remains a critical pillar in institutionalisation and sustainability of IPs. Their passion and commitment to the cause at hand is important for maintaining the vision and for continued steering of efforts towards the vision through established missions. Such leadership champions remain important, not only within the communities but also among other actors, especially where change is critical for achieving and sustaining impacts.In considering the benefits of institutionalisation, sustainability is a key issue. It is a well known fact that sustainability is often tagged to financial resources, thus implying the diversification of revenue streams so as not to become overly dependent on a limited range of funding sources. Further, sustainability implies benefits, including programmatic, institutional and political sustainability. Sustainability relates to the continuation of benefits that result from a programme or project. Programmatic and institutional sustainability involves building the internal capacity of a programme/project by attracting competent leadership and staff, developing their technical competencies, being entrepreneurial, flexible and adaptable to changing internal and external conditions. Political sustainability involves gaining government and community support and participation in the programme, networking and collaborating with other like-minded organisations, and engaging multi-sectoral partnerships. All these are relevant aspects of the sustainability of IPs. In the context of the LKPLS, sustainability refers to the increasingly independent existence of IPs from the funding of the parent project, the SSA CP, with clear indications of viability.In the LKPLS, various strategies have been developed to ensure sustainability of IPs. Some of these strategies have included the efforts made in bringing together various stakeholders along agricultural value chains that have facilitated linking farmers to markets within a short time.Given that traders are also IP members, they have contributed positively to finding solutions to marketing challenges. This has occurred in almost all of the IPs in the LKPLS. For example, the Gataraga potato, Mudende dairy and Rwerere chilli IPs in Rwanda have been linked to various markets and processors. Gataraga has been linked to niche markets in Kigali (the Rwandese capital city) and other urban centres, Mudende has been linked to Lake Kivu and Inyange Dairy Industries, and Rwerere has been linked to URWIBUTSO Food Industries. In DRC, Musanganya banana and Maendeleo beans IPs have been organised into marketing groups and linked to Goma, Bukavu and Kinshasa markets. In Uganda, a functional potato traders' group has been formed to link with producers in Bufundi and Chahi Potato IPs. Sorghum producers are now linked to a processor, HUNTEX Industries, and have even branded their sorghum product as 'Mamera', a drink hygienically packed and now selling in supermarkets, food stores and kiosks all over Kabale District and beyond, including Kampala, the capital city.Further, along with farmers, partners such as researchers have been able to identify practical issues for immediate research attention and address them on behalf of the IPs. In Kabale, Uganda, for example, experiments have been carried out to demonstrate the effect of Rhizobia on the productivity of climbing beans, while in Kisoro, in the same country, a weather station has been put up to help farmers predict changes in weather and take appropriate actions.There have also been tremendous capacity building initiatives for the IP members on collective planning, formulation of action plans based on comparative advantages, developing business plans and writing proposals.The 'low-lying fruits' are those close range opportunities available to support institutionalisation.Examples of such low-lying fruits include, among others:a. Aligning with government and other relevant programmes and policies: This is an opportunity for securing resources for IP functioning and for addressing sustainability, thus adding value. A case in point is Rwanda, where IPs such as Rwerere capitalised on the 'one cow per family' policy and programme. Gataraga potato IP has also aligned itself to a government programme that funds the multiplication expansion of the Kinigi potato variety.b. Tapping into government planning cycles: The budget process is a cycle that runs through the entire financial year, and is a very participatory process that leads to the development of budget framework papers. In order to mainstream IPs into local government planning processes, Bufundi, Chahi and Bubare IPs in Uganda worked strategically to ensure that the IPs' work plans and activities were included in local-level development plans and budgets. The strategies used included:• preparing concept papers identifying priority actions and justification, corresponding to the ongoing 'prosperity for all' programmes during the review processes• lobbying key offices, including planning and budget officials• incorporating some local government officials as IP members and leaders.c. Capitalising on inter-IP partnerships: Chahi IP in Uganda was able to capitalise on good inter-IP relationships to access credit from DRC with MECRECO microfinance credit institution, which is also a members of IPs in DRC. Inter-IP partnerships also enable IPs not only to exchange lessons learnt, but also exchange appropriate and adaptive technologies such as disease-resistant high-producing potato varieties.A suitable institution should be identified to provide brokerage partnerships for IP activities. The local government or any other relevant institution could assume responsibility for this. This would be very important in helping to provide information about potential collaborators; brokering a transaction between two or more parties; acting as a mediator for groups that are already collaborating; and helping find advice, funding and support for the innovation outcomes of such collaborations.It is necessary to combine both indigenous technical and scientific knowledge, and to integrate different groups (including local farmers, marginalised and poor actors, traders, and external actor groups like civil servants, researchers, service providers) to build new learning communities and initiatives. It is also essential to pay due attention to overcoming racial, ethnic and gender biases that hamper the participation of marginalised communities, diverse ethnic groups and women. Participatory and experiential learning processes and multi-organisational partnerships, integrating formal and informal agricultural knowledge, science and technology, should be supported. Additional options are needed to extend these processes to the marginalised peoples and areas in ways that respect and uphold their roles, rights and practices.f. Investment in rural education: There should be investment in rural education, complemented by extension and advisory services, farmer field schools and research circles. Dissemination of all available information to all key partner organisations to capture all the implementation processes and activities in action sites is important, as is the training of trainers to carry out on-site capacity building workshops and programmes in IPs to guide the projects.g. Lobbying government for the promotion of linkages: Linkages can be promoted by devising ways of harmonising the differing incentive systems of the actors. More research needs to be done on this and governments should be lobbied to support the linkages, eg, through a supportive policy framework.h. Other sources of funding: IPs should be encouraged to start looking for other sources of financial resources, eg, from local government and from NGOs with similar interests. They should also be empowered with skills in proposal writing and resource mobilisation.Various current and potential obstacles stand in the way of successful institutionalisation and sustainability of IPs.• At the level of education and capacity building institutions, there are problems relating to their usual methods of operating. With deep-rooted traditions of educating by transfer of knowledge, these institutions have little experience in stimulating and facilitating interactive processes of learning by doing involving different stakeholders. Consequently, the institutional support systems needed to build individual capacity and develop organisational capacity for collective innovation approaches are limited or only poorly developed. So while the concept of IPs must continue growing, the capacity building institutions also need retraining.• At the grassroots level, key stakeholders -specifically farmer groups -are weak and marred with chronic internal conflicts, and lacking in best practices when it comes to institutional matters. Therefore they remain voiceless, with limited skills to articulate their needs and negotiate competitively with the private sector and other intermediaries.• While the concept of IPs is still in its infancy, its growth is being interrupted because of limited funding to facilitate continued research and development towards maturity.• Some IPs have experienced uncommitted members, joy-riders and spectators who join and the leave the IPs, but then re-join when opportunities look good. This sometimes causes confusion and conflicts in the management and well-being of the IPs.• Potentially, politicians may want to hijack the governance of successful IPs for their own political gains. This may derail the real objectives of the IP concept, by involvement with the political agenda. The proponents of the IP concept need to be cautious about political agendas and guard against IP derailment.• Conflicts of interest in IP governance may end up killing the concept.• The legal status of IPs is currently a bone of contention among IP stakeholders.• The SSA CP has been primarily acting as a broker, assisting in identifying the actors and bringing them together. Its abrupt withdrawal will, in the short run, leave a gap that is likely to destabilise the IPs.• Funding sources for IP activities are not yet guaranteed and this could result in implementation being fragmented, uncoordinated and under-funded, which could result in discontinuity of critical activities.• There are still insufficient favourable agricultural credit facilities and subsidies for IP activities; these types of funding resources are best-suited to support sustainability.• There is a need for improved human resources to handle IP activities, including scientific knowledge and skills for the development of strategic partnerships and alliances.• Investments in rural education are currently low.While many aspects of the success stories in the LKPLS are demonstrated in chapter 6 of this book, it is instructive to note that the success of an IP emanates from many aspects including its legality. In this respect, it is observed that some IPs, such as Bubare and Chahi in Uganda, are registered as CBOs at the district and sub-county levels. This has enabled them to be recognised as organised entities and has thus made them to succeed in integrating their work plans into the sub-county plans for the year 2010-2011. In this way the IPs are almost assured of receiving local government support as provided for in the Decentralisation Policy. This has also been useful for gaining positive political support, particularly towards the sustainability strategies of the IPs.In an effort to mainstream IAR4D, some countries in the LKPLS have made important strides towards adopting IAR4D. In Uganda, for instance, the general elements that are needed to strengthen capacity for IAR4D and its institutionalisation are outlined in the 'National IAR4D Plan', including a framework for more detailed planning by partner organisations in implementing IAR4D. The vision of Uganda's IAR4D Plan is a 'rural innovation system where individual and organisational behaviour promotes the integration of stakeholder concerns, knowledge and actions around priority development themes, leading to improved organisational performance and improved rural livelihoods'. 5. Creating a secretariat to coordinate IAR4D activities among partner organisations.6. Creating a pool of IAR4D facilitators/resource persons at national and decentralised (zonal/district) levels.7. Integrating stakeholder requirements and IAR4D competencies into university curricula.Overall, the anticipated IAR4D outcomes include: (i) shared and developed national visions of IAR4D and rural innovation processes by public and private partners; (ii) professionals and organisations with increased ability to work within multi-stakeholder arrangements and processes, and hence address complex technical and social challenges; (iii) reduced duplication of activities between different organisations, resulting in more efficient use of scarce resources; (iv) improved guidelines and proposals for, and quality of implementation of competitive grants for research and advisory services; (v) improved coordination between public and private organisations within established agricultural IPs, resulting in more market-responsive, client-oriented and demand-driven research and extension services; (vi) more concerted actions on specific and priority research for development themes (problems and opportunities), resulting in increased impact on rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation.IAR4D also implies changes in university practices. Consequently, pluralistic reforms have been introduced and are being instituted at Makerere University. The University has acknowledged the need to change the methods of teaching and conducting research into complex problems. University graduates have often been criticised for not being focused on problem-solving and hence not meeting the expectations of employers and the communities.To that end, new pro-IAR4D courses have been developed towards offering a Bachelor's degree in Agricultural and Rural Innovations (BARI) in the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension.It has been argued in this chapter that institutionalisation of innovation platforms (IPs) must involve people and institutions with developed capacity (knowledge, skills, mindsets, institutional cultures and modes of learning, and new forms of institutional linkages and collaboration) across a broad range of stakeholder and institutional settings. Institutionalisation of IPs thrives best in institutional environments that are conducive to innovation and that can only be created through the collective and concerted actions of all IP partners. Simultaneously, the enabling institutional environments would provide enabling innovative ways of learning and innovative forms of institutional collaboration across a range of stakeholders and institutions operating at different scales.Several examples from the LKPLS illustrate the great opportunities and efforts made, as well as the persisting challenges to institutionalising IPs. Capacity building remains a priority, especially when it comes to identifying educational organisations that can champion the creation of critical masses of partners advocating for and practicing IAR4D. This requires innovative changes to occur across a broad range of stakeholders simultaneously. Such action may not be an easy task, requiring strong and concerted commitments at many levels (national, regional and global). Overall, government institutions are best positioned to steer the process of IP institutionalisation and sustainability.Wanjiku C, R Kalibwani, SO Nyamwaro, E Birachi, M M Tenywa, R Buruchara, J R Mugabo, L Lubanga, S Mutabazi, M Majaliwa, B Nyamurinda, C Nyaboyisonga, S Mapatano, M A Ramazine, E Nkonya, A O Fatunbi, A A Adenkule Chapter 5Public policy is a purposive and consistent course of action produced as a response to a perceived problem of a constituency, formulated by a specific political process, and adopted, implemented, and enforced by a public agency, such as government ministries and other institutions. Governments establish institutions to implement policies. The integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) strategy can assist in establishing such institutions that cater for all stakeholders, especially farmers at the grassroots level.Poverty has been increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in spite of enormous efforts made through agricultural research and innovation to increase productivity, create wealth and ensure food security at the household level (Clegg 2010, Luiz 2006). Agricultural breakthroughs do not seem to translate into increased incomes and reduced poverty among small-scale farmers on the continent. Several internal factors have been put forward to explain this, ranging from bad governance and corruption, to low technologies, deteriorating ecosystems, population pressure and the effects of climate change (Bayart et al. 1999). External factors include colonial legacy, poor terms of trade, trading raw materials with little value added, fluctuating currencies, high cost of imports, and foreign-aid dependency syndrome (Adepoju 1993). Despite all of the above, little attention has gone into deep examination of the role of agriculture and its management. Agriculture provides livelihoods for over 80 percent of the inhabitants of SSA -it is still the major economic pillar for many countries that can help build Africa's economies. If supported by effective implementation of the right policies and institutional arrangements, agricultural growth can create wealth for the poor in SSA faster than growth in any other sector.In order to improve incomes and food security at the household, community and national levels, it is crucial to formulate, review and implement appropriate policies and to evaluate the institutional environments in which poor agricultural producers, processors, traders and other small-scale entrepreneurs operate. National policies, particularly those addressing trade and the agricultural sector, do exist in each of the three project countries participating in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP). This chapter examines existing policies in the three participating countries to see how they relate to the concepts and practices of IAR4D and its innovation platforms (IPs). It examines how IAR4D can be used to influence the review of policy and institutional arrangements to bridge any gaps that may work against the adaptation and adoption of the IAR4D strategy. It is now acknowledged that an IAR4D approach calls for institutional and information revolution through the use of consultative meetings involving interested stakeholders, including farmers and especially the rural poor. This is seen as a revolution that will not only improve and secure livelihoods, but also promote innovation along agricultural commodity value chains.IAR4D, through its institutional arrangement of IPs, helps farmers form direct links to other stakeholders who are interested in farmers' products and/or interested in alleviating rural poverty in SSA.The following four sections of this chapter cover the contextual setting (section 5.2), the IAR4D conceptual framework (section 5.3), a review and synthesis of selected policies from the LKPLS participating countries (section 5.4), and finally, some conclusions (section 5.5).Each of the three countries that make up the LKPLS appears to have a different policy and institutional framework. These differences can be classified as follows:Uganda has been out of active armed conflict for over 21 years. Most of Uganda's national policies have been revised and many of them are implemented through a devolved system of governance, which involves District assemblies with a parliament and a chairman as the major policy-implementing agencies. However, many of the policies lack rigorous enforcement mechanisms to make them work. This situation presents a favourable environment for IAR4D's IPs to provide grassroots institutions that can enforce the implementations of policies that respond to their needs.The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is struggling to come out of conflict, and there are still localised zones of sporadic conflicts. The DRC's national policies have not been revised for decades. Governance in DRC is highly centralised in Kinshasa, with poor mechanisms linking with provincial governments such as North Kivu Province. No policy document was forthcoming from the provincial office of the Ministry of Agriculture, because drafts sent to Kinshasa had not been returned. The few policies available were simple statements used to enforce policies, such as the seed policy, which stated in a few lines that if farmers test the new seed and they like it, the officers register that as released seed material. This provides a positive environment for testing and distributing new and improved materials from neighbouring countries and other programmes to improve farming in the country. This situation offers a fertile ground for formulating and reviewing policies that would benefit all the actors, particularly those in the agricultural sector, by ensuring that farmers reap the benefits of the supportive policy environment. This situation provides room to develop a policy environment that supports IAR4D.Rwanda has been out of active armed conflict for at least 16 years. Policies in Rwanda have been formulated, reviewed and revised to meet the development challenges that the country faced after the 1990s internal conflicts. Policies are implemented through a devolved system of governance with strong enforcement strategies and effective citizen participation, especially in monitoring and evaluation. The Umurenge Vision 2020 platform structure is the policyimplementing agency under the guidance of local government where a Joint Development Forum is constituted that examines development plans for each district (whether implemented by government or non-governmental institutions), and evaluates work plans and budgets for all stakeholders annually. The Government has established a system where every year development agencies have to apply for a licence to operate in a particular district and the Joint Forum has to verify and approve the application. This implies that policy compliance is enforced. The active participation of the citizens, represented by the district mayor's office, ensures that those entrusted with enforcement do so as required.A number of relevant policies from each country have been selected and analysed from the IAR4D perspective. It is important to see how IAR4D and its new institutional flagship IPs can take advantage of supportive policies. It is also crucial to see where the new approach can contribute to improving existing policies and strengthening institutional arrangements to benefit the poor and where it could contribute more efficiently and effectively to poverty alleviation and sustainable use of available resources and services.IAR4D is operationalised through innovation platforms (IPs). An IP is an institution that brings farmers, researchers, extension personnel, microfinance institutions and bankers, traders, transporters, processors and policy makers to the same table to deal with the challenges facing the farmers at the local level.Figure 5.1 illustrates an IP framework. As the diagram shows, an IP calls for all interested stakeholders (including researchers, policy makers and planners, natural-resources experts, processors, traders and marketing experts) in a given agricultural value chain to come together with farmers and address the challenges along that value chain. For most small-scale farmers on the continent, the most important value chains are those of food crops. In dealing with agricultural value chains, one has to think of the various stages a commodity goes through from production to sale/marketing and finally to disposal. Each of the circles in Figure 5.1 can be expanded into various components forming their own systems. For example, the market framework (Figure 5.2) can be developed from the market component of Figure 5.1.As Figure 5.1 shows, everyone concerned is invited to the table. Note that the circles depicting the farmers and the government are larger; this is because they are the only permanent members of the IP. All the others can come and go and be replaced by new members depending on the issue at hand.Figure 5.2 depicts a section of the platform (a sub-platform) that deals with market access issues. It is possible to identify a set of actors to address that problem and report back to the main IP at an appointed time. From LKPLS experiences, this kind of IP is possible at the grassroots/farmers level where one of the IP members, such as an NGO or a government department, plays the role of a facilitator to get the expected results.The major role of an IP is to provide a forum and facilitation so that actors can come together to address farmers' challenges and seek solutions to the challenges. When farmers' representatives sit at the same table with agronomists, private sector representatives (processors, traders, transporters, banks and other credit institutions) and policy makers (government officials) to address the challenges of a given commodity, solutions are found and implemented in the shortest time possible. There are many such challenges, which may be technological (eg, limited availability of improved crop varieties) or natural resource management (NRM) problems (eg, soil erosion and low fertility), or limited and poor markets for various reasons, including poor road infrastructure, poor market information, and lack of value addition, among others. There could also be policy and institutional arrangements in place that support or act as barriers to agriculture. Where there are policy barriers or a lack of policies, an IP provides a forum for policy review, especially when policy makers are also IP members.The IAR4D approach is people-centred. It is cyclic rather than linear. Thus, if Africa is committed to eradicating abject poverty (especially among smallholder farmers), the methods and strategies currently being used for wealth creation for them must change. African leaders should see African small-scale farmers as the critical decision makers whose ideas must be brought on board to guide agricultural research, policy and development.Consequently, the following requirements of the IAR4D approach are postulated.Source: Developed from discussions among Dr J.J.R. Groot, IFDC Director for East and Southern Africa Division, Dr Brigittee Nyambo, ICIPE and the authors.a. Government policies on production must also address the marketing issues including infrastructure, such as roads and information.b. The small-scale African farmer must be at the same table with the policy maker, the breeder, the agronomist, the banker or credit provider, the trader, the transporter and the processor for value addition, among others, who enter and exit the IP as needed.c. Markets for both food and export crops produced by small-scale farmers must be addressed as production is being addressed.In all three LKPLS countries, a quick review of existing agricultural policies indicates a trend towards increasing production and weak relationships between these policies and trade policies that address marketing of agricultural products. Analysis of the trade policies in the region also reveals a bias towards export markets and very unclear statements on the domestic markets.In addition, a quick survey on farmers' knowledge on policies shows that very few small-scale farmers are aware of policies that guide their farming and marketing of their produce. Many of them see the role of government as 'unfair taxation'.The discussion below is an assessment of selected policies in each country that affect smallscale farmers and that have a direct relationship with the IAR4D strategy. The discussion is at two levels: the national and the community levels. The national-level policy assessment highlighted major issues in connection with the IAR4D strategy, and the community-levels assessment examined implementation of bye-laws and ordinances.Many of the Rwandese policies have been revised and are implemented through a devolved system of governance where their enforcement involves effective citizenry participation for monitoring and evaluation. The Rwanda Umurenge Vision 2020 institutional platform (GOR 2007a) is the implementing agency, under the guidance of local government. There is in place a Joint Agricultural Forum at the district level.The Government of Rwanda's Vision 2020 (GOR 2000) is the main policy that gives guidance on how development activities in Rwanda should be implemented. This policy provides a road map for transforming Rwanda's economy from that of a poor country to that of a middleincome country. Its major objectives are to:a. reconstruct the nation and its social capital, anchored on good governance and underpinned by a capable state b. transform agriculture into a productive, high-value, market-oriented sector with forward linkages to other sectors c. develop an efficient private sector, spearheaded by competitiveness and entrepreneurship d. comprehensively develop human resources e. develop both soft and hard infrastructure f. promote regional economic integration and cooperation.The immediate concerns of the innovation platforms (IPs) are those directly linked with the tenets of objective (b).The Vision 2020 policy addresses current challenges, including: low savings and investment rates; high unemployment and underemployment rates; high dependency on exports of raw agricultural products that are prone to global price fluctuations; 90 percent of the labour force is dependent on agriculture, which remains unproductive and at subsistence levels, with decreasing productivity per unit area, and which faces massive environmental degradation; poor road network; narrow economic base; weak institutions; low levels of human resources development; public debt larger than the GDP; and the genocide legacy.Having identified the national challenges, the Vision's major objectives include, in the short term, the promotion of macroeconomic stability and wealth creation to reduce aid dependency. In the medium term, the goal is to transform the economy from an agrarian one into a knowledge-based one, which will focus on industries that would respond to domestic market requirements. The Vision calls for the participation of citizens by empowering them to participate in development decision-making processes. The Vision also appreciates the role of infrastructure in making it work, especially as the nation creates the environment for privatesector-led development. The private sector is expected to take over as an engine of economic growth. Although foreign direct investment will be encouraged, the Vision forecasts and encourages the development of indigenous entrepreneurs who will form part of the middle class needed for a growing economy.Vision 2020 appreciates that agriculture will still play a crucial role in the economic development of the country. Thus, the Government envisions an agricultural sector producing high-value crops and which is a business venture. As for providing a conducive environment for the implementation of IAR4D strategy, Rwanda Vision 2020 has essentially captured all the tenets of IAR4D -from technologies to NRM, markets and policies. These are all embedded in the transformation of agriculture into a productive, high-value, market-oriented sector with forward linkages to other sectors. However, the policy does not state clearly the institutional frameworks that will carry the Vision through. Nevertheless, Vision 2020 provides room for policies to be formulated that address the institutional gaps. These policies include:• appropriate solutions. Consequently, at each community there should be an established IP for the selected enterprises. These can include as many value-chain enterprises as possible. An IP can begin with one enterprise and then adopt more as they learn and perfect their strategy.At the LKPLS, the policy-technology-market-NRM interfaces have initiated policy-sensitisation programmes to ensure that whatever actions are implemented at the IP level are supported by relevant policies. Policy sensitisation is also designed to make markets work for the poor.Policy issues are being integrated into routine IP activities. For example, under the Rwanda land-consolidation and crop-intensification policies, there are two important policies that IPs in the country have used to their advantage: the policy on control of soil erosion and soilconservation strategies, and the 'one family one cow' (Girinka) programme.Using the Rwerere IP as an example, the IAR4D approach has taken advantage of these two existing policies to address challenges identified by the farmers; namely, low incomes and malnutrition, soil erosion and soil infertility, market access and poor farming knowledge. Specifically, the LKPLS IAR4D team has assisted in with the following initiatives.• Organic chilli peppers were introduced as a high-value product and producers were linked to a chilli processor, Urwibutso, to provide organic chilli production skills and a niche market.• Action de Sud, a partner organisation, is providing dairy animals on credit to the IP members. Send a Cow Rwanda (SACR) is providing dairy farming knowledge and skills. This has contributed to the Girinka programme as well as addressing the knowledge/skill gaps that farmers identified.These actions have resulted in more than 41 households receiving dairy cows (one per household). By the end of 2010, more than half of the cows had calved. Milk production started flowing in an area where there was none. This has certainly contributed to nutrition requirements identified as a challenge by the farmers. In sustaining the introduced dairy animals, four high-value fodder species were adopted and planted extensively on the terraced slopes, further enhancing control of soil-erosion. Manure is taken back to the plots for soil improvement.The Government of Uganda (GOU) is committed to a participatory and broad-based policymaking process. Policy issues are widely discussed and debated in a consultative process involving various stakeholders, such as the cabinet, parliamentary committees and interest groups, at the national and regional levels. Once a policy is launched, the relevant legislation is put in place to ensure a secure and conducive environment for the policy to be implemented.In general, the central government makes national policies in Uganda. These policies then are translated into parliamentary bills and are issued as Acts, which are more detailed and provide clear guidelines of what a person or an institution should do and not do and the penalties imposed in case of any breach. Based on these Acts of Parliament, the policy-implementing agencies (ie, the local government departments) can formulate bye-laws to support implementation. This devolved system of governance gives an opportunity to grassroots communities, including farmers, to directly participate in the policy-making process. Therefore, researchers using the IAR4D approach were able to initiate this process, starting with the IPs. However, the main challenge facing policy implementation in Uganda is enforcement.The This provides a conducive environment for IAR4D in Uganda.Central to the NDP is the restoration of agricultural growth as an engine for employment creation, poverty reduction and industrialisation. The NDP is the basis for the Development Strategy and Investment Plan (DSIP) for 2010/11-2015/16, which places renewed attention on the agriculture sector.The DSIP is the newly revised Ugandan plan to support the improvement of quality and quantity in the agriculture sector (GOU 2009). It consolidates and harmonises all the existing parallel policy frameworks in the agriculture sector into one coherent plan. The DSIP sets the priorities for the five-year period and these will be used as the basis for defining spending plans each year under the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF).In this strategy, appropriate technologies are supposed to be developed and validated for use in the agriculture sector. The DSIP puts markets on a special level. Markets are expected to receive significant improvements in terms of performance, access and value addition. The strategy identifies rural market infrastructure as a key area to be addressed. The strategy has also placed renewed emphasis on restructuring old institutions as well building new ones.It notes that several institutions have been established and are still operational. The idea is to continue addressing the weaknesses of the old institutions, particularly the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). The strategy calls for a review of funding for its relocation from Entebbe to Kampala.A few selected Ugandan policies and Acts that are relevant to IAR4D are briefly described below.The Seeds and Plants Act (GOU 2006) provides for the promotion, regulation and control of plant breeding and variety release, multiplication, conditioning, marketing, importing and quality assurance of seeds and other planting materials, and for other related matters. According to the Act, a National Seed Certification Service in the Department of Crop Protection of MAAIF is responsible for the design, establishment and enforcement of certification standards, methods and procedures. This Service is also responsible for training the people tasked with implementation of the Act, receiving and testing of all new varieties intended for release and multiplication, carrying out field inspection, testing and eventual certification, among other tasks. However, the Act does not propose any institutions for its implementation at the grassroots levels.There is room for policy improvement and it is proposed to have MAAIF train farmer groups in the communities and have them produce certified seed for faster multiplication and distribution. The proposed intervention from the IAR4D perspective would be to select and train IP farmers to provide certified seeds of improved varieties to other IP members and the rest of the community. The training could be provided by MAAIF and related institutions, such as the National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) and the Uganda National Seed Potato Producers Association (UNSPPA).The National Agricultural Research Policy of 2003 is expected to provide sustainable research services that address the needs and opportunities of the poor in a market-driven environment. Its vision is to provide a market-responsive, client-oriented and demand-driven national agricultural research system (NARS), comprising public and private institutions working in tandem for sustainable national economic growth. The mission of the NARS is to generate and disseminate appropriate, safe and cost-effective technologies, while enhancing the natural resource base (GOU 2003).The key principles of this policy include responding to market opportunity, decentralisation of agricultural research activities, empowering stakeholders and promoting the participation of private sector, civil society and farmers. The policy provides for the establishment of NARO to take charge of all matters concerning agricultural research in Uganda. NARO, through its regional institutes, develops research priorities for the different agro-ecological regions. It promotes appropriate, safe and cost-effective technologies that are responsive to market opportunities.Under this policy, IAR4D has a home with NARO, an institution that can bring all the other actors on board.One by-product of the above policy is the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS), which was established by an Act of Parliament in 2001 to support government efforts to eradicate poverty through the privatisation of extension services (GOU 2001). Its mandate, therefore, is to efficiently and effectively provide agricultural advisory services to poor subsistence farmers. NAADS' mission is to increase farmer access to information, knowledge and technology for profitable agricultural production. Extension services are provided to farmers on a demanddriven 4 basis, where farmer groups in each sub-county request a service, which is provided by a private service provider and paid for by the government through NAADS. NAADS is therefore responsible for increasing farmers' access to improved technologies. This has necessitated that demonstration sites be set up in various sub-counties by NAADS. The NAADS programme also provides market-oriented services, but does not link farmers to markets. However, in their groups, the farmers select marketable enterprises that they are interested in and the private services they require (which are paid for by NAADS). In terms of institutional arrangements, the programme is implemented through existing local government structures and farmer organisations. Farmers elect their leaders who represent them at the district and sub-county levels. These leaders then create the farmer forums. This is where IPs can fit very well.However, there is still room for policy improvement since more emphasis needs to be placed on the negotiation of contracts between the farmer groups and the private service providers (eg, input suppliers, traders, transporters). From the IAR4D perspective, the proposed intervention is to advocate for the establishment of guidelines for contractual arrangements between IP farmers and service providers at the national level for faster service delivery.The main objective of the National Trade Policy of 2004 is to improve the capacity for trade negotiations on market access and integration of agro-processing to enhance the linkages that exist between the domestic and external market sub-sectors (GOU 2004). The policy also aims to ensure that goods and services in the domestic market meet the required standards and sanitary measures, and to nurture a private-sector approach with a view to making the domestic market competitive. One of the strategies outlined for the achievement of these objectives is the Marketing and Agro-Processing Strategy (MAPS), which identifies ways in which marketing efficiencies and export opportunities might be improved for the benefit of the country's agriculture sector. The policy highlights the needs to promote competitiveness and raise efficiency of domestic production, stimulate domestic and foreign investment in export-oriented activities, and add value to existing exports, among other things. Although the policy proposes the development of strong private and public trade-promotion institutions, the institutional flagships of this policy are not clear. The establishment of a warehouse receipt system and an agricultural commodity exchange are mentioned, but not elaborated.Given that Uganda appears to have the most devolved policy framework of the three LKPLS participating countries, some policy innovation work was initiated among the four Ugandan IPs. At the policy-environment level, which deals with national-level policy, advocacy activities like holding meetings, dialogues and consultations with individual policy makers (area members of parliament, parliamentary committees and respective line ministry personnel) were conducted on various policy issues.Meanwhile, at the community level (the action domain), various activities leading to the formulation of bye-laws were carried out. Rapid appraisal surveys revealed that the major challenges concerning community bye-laws were not only their poor implementation and enforcement, but also the lack of a review mechanism for maintaining their relevance, and formulating new ones when the need arises. While a number of bye-laws existed -some documented and others not -they were not effective in influencing agricultural performance.Where attempts had been made to review and formulate new bye-laws, efforts were frustrated by local leaders who did not treat this as a priority, found the process lengthy and timeconsuming, or had other political interests.Focus group discussions were conducted with members from selected IPs in Uganda. The first stage of discussions was focused on understanding the Acts of Parliament that affect agriculture and related activities at the village level. The second stage involved reviewing existing bye-laws and other institutional arrangements within the selected communities, by discussing how they influenced operations of the IPs. Information and data gathered from the discussions were analysed qualitatively. Poor implementation and weak enforcement of the bye-laws was identified as one of the most important institutional issues that constrain production activities. Consequently, a process to review and formulate bye-laws was facilitated.The process of review and formulation of bye-laws was initiated at the IP level at the end of 2009. IP members mobilised their respective parishes and villages for this process and produced drafts. The drafts from the different parishes were merged together to form a sub-county draft, which was again taken back for more consultation at the parish level before being presented to the IP at the sub-county level. During the consultation process, back and forth between the sub-county and village levels, issues that were continually being amended included the title for the bye-laws, definitions of terms, actual content of the bye-laws under the different sections and a review of the penalties and fines. At the end of the process, seven sub-county drafts were at different levels of formation in the various IPs. In principle, a completed set of bye-laws (fully discussed from village to sub-county level by the community members) is to be introduced as a motion to a sub-county council meeting, where, after approval by council, the chairman will sign them, and they can then be operationalised in the sub-county. These processes were highly innovative. A summary of reviewed and formulated policy-related innovation is given in Table 5.1.The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is a vast African country with diverse climate and soils, possessing immense potential for high agricultural production. It has an estimated area of more than 80 million hectares of arable land, of which only 10 percent is exploited currently. Due to the existence of massive mineral resources, agriculture is not given the prominence it deserves . The SSA CP is being implemented in North Kivu Province, which has high potential for agricultural production. In fact, North Kivu is a 'bread basket' area for the country.DRC does not have an agricultural policy. According to the officers in the Provincial Office, there is a draft that has yet to be discussed by the parliament. During the colonial period, Level Policy innovation Policy level 1. Advocacy activities, eg, meetings with individual policy makers (area members of parliament, parliamentary committees, respective line ministry personnel) on the following issues:• policy and guidelines on free-range livestock management• critical NRM issues at the four IP sites• road construction• institutionalisation of contractual arrangements between farmers and private service provider in value chains• coordination and establishment of regulations in agricultural input marketing and quality assurance 2. Modalities to be worked out for training and certifying IP members to produce and distribute certified seed 3. Modalities to be worked out to expand markets for agricultural produce within the region as provided for in the East African Community treaty 4. Legalisation of the IP status, and strategic positioning of the IPs to access local government resources as provided for in the Decentralisation Policy Community level 1. Community education and sensitisation programme on the following issues:• bye-law formulation, implementation and enforcement• free-range livestock management 2. Establishment of community structures to handle farmer-related conflicts, community stores, bye-law formulation, implementation and regular review, and strengthening of existing structures 3. Establishment of an incentive system to reward community members who comply with the bye-laws 4. Capacity building of the IPs to be able to mobilise resources for their activities 5. Establishment of modalities to institutionalise IP activities in local government structures the colonial government supported white farmers to grow crops on a large-scale for export. Africans were left to continue their traditional practices. Some attempts were made by the central government in Kinshasa to develop agricultural, trade and food-related policies, but very few seemed to progress to the stage of implementation. The 1990s armed conflicts made the situation worse.The agricultural sector in North Kivu province is mainly supported by international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) under emergency conditions. This means that these institutions can provide free seed and fertiliser and buy grain and distribute as seed depending on their financial status.Like all the other African countries under the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) strategy, DRC as a country is a signatory of the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), whose mandate is to revitalise and develop agricultural potentials in each country and to place agriculture as the engine of national economies. Although DRC has still not initiated the processes of implementing the CAADP strategy, a road map for its implementation has been developed and signed (GODRC, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock 2009).By itself, the DRC agriculture sector does not significantly contribute to the socio-economic development of the country because of its many weaknesses. The low agricultural production has resulted in food insecurity, malnutrition, shortage of quality seed, high food prices, poor development of agricultural products, fish processing and conservation. Consequently, the Government developed the Document and Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction to restore and surpass the level of production that existed before the conflict. It is expected to consolidate the growth of sectors, with a view to achieving the recovery of the agriculture sector, as well as livestock and fisheries, while also increasing incomes in rural areas and diversifying agricultural exports (GODRC 2006).In order to realise the aims of the strategy, in the short term it is necessary to: revitalise the seed centres; strengthen the mobilisation of and support to improved farming methods in rural areas; improve the livestock sector by aiding the reconstruction of herds decimated during the conflict; diversify cash crops; strengthen support to producers through improved access to inputs and dissemination of applied research results; develop and organise agricultural markets; and develop the fisheries sector. However, an institution to implement this is lacking.During the medium term, the strategy is expected to support private initiatives (eg, economic actors, cooperatives) particularly in the framework of facilitation, supply and marketing, and also to support community-development committees, village associations and cooperatives to ensure gradual transformation from traditional farming systems to economic operations. This is where the IAR4D strategy becomes critical as it offers the option of having innovation platforms (IPs) as the implementing institutions.For the rehabilitation of agriculture and livestock (GODRC, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock 2009), the GODRC is implementing several programmes and projects in different parts of the country, with the support of donors. Among the most important and active programmes and projects on the ground are the Multi-sectoral Programme of Emergency Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (PMURR) and the Support Project for the Rehabilitation of the Agricultural and Rural Sector (PARSAR).Both programmes have the following objectives: a. crop production through the provision of clean planting materials and quality seeds of the main food crops b. production of improved seeds (maize, rice, peanut, bean, cowpea, soya bean and cassava) c. publication of the seed regulation, which is under preparation d. rehabilitation of rural roads to improve access to markets for producers e. animal production through training of trainers for the ranchers and fish producers f. Implementation of studies to restart provincial agro-industries for cotton, palm oil, rubber, cocoa, coffee, tea and cinchona in Bas-Congo Bandundu, Kasai, Province Orientale, Kivu and Equateur g. provision of support to the Institute National pour l' Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques (INERA), National Seed Service (SENASEM) and the National Extension Service (SNV) through capacity building h. privatisation of seed farms in the province of Bas Congo.The official extension service is the National Extension Service (SNV), which is no longer fully operational on the ground. Instead, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock has established the Council for Agricultural and Rural Management (Conseil Agricole Rural de Gestion, CARG) to respond to the new policy of agricultural development and restoration strategies, including: the disengagement of the state; the privatisation or restructuring of public and parastatal companies; the empowerment of farmers; the liberalisation of prices and markets; decentralisation; and incentives for private investment in rural areas (embodied in the Agricultural Act).CARG is a structure for cooperation involving various actors in the rural areas, including decision makers, provincial parliament, the provincial administration, private sector, associations and trade unions, farmers, universities and research centres. CARG intervenes at three levels: the central state, the provincial capitals, and the districts. At the grassroots level, it is structured in sectors and territories.The purposes of CARG are to support farmers to form cooperatives, to communicate the content of the Agricultural Act, and to promote agriculture in general.and infrastructure. The most immediate infrastructure need for DRC IPs, for example, is the maintenance of the local transport network.As observed, major constraints and policies affecting the agricultural sector, including taxes, levies, transport infrastructure, utilities, credit, and demand and supply management, seem to be addressed better by membership in IPs. Consequently, IAR4D provides a framework for convergence of successful interventions in agricultural value-chain enterprises.It has also been observed that through IPs, IAR4D has minimised the sectoral approach to agricultural research and development in the region by bringing all policies to the level of the farmer for interpretation and implementation. This has created room for the farming agenda to lead policy analysis and formulation whenever and wherever it arises. This scenario is well illustrated in the case of the IPs in Uganda where soil and water conservation bye-laws have been formulated by the IP members and forwarded to the sub-county and district councils for ratification as bye-laws and ordinances. IPs are also empowering all the actors in the process, including bringing farmers out of the fields to meet traders and processors, policy makers and researchers, bankers and input dealers as equals, to address relevant policies and policy issues or to fill policy gaps where they exist. In the process, IAR4D and IP systems can be institutionalised and attempts are being made to do so, but this faces many challenges due to the 'emergency' mentality of most players in the field.have not been organised either. Where collective marketing has existed, there has also been mismanagement and corruption of all types.Often, production is increased based on speculative promises of anticipated market demands. When higher yields were attained ('bumper harvests'), farmers have faced many risks including poor infrastructure, perishability of their products, poor market access and volatile prices. For many reasons, proven technologies have remained unused. There has been limited valueaddition to produce. The major value-addition challenges have included: poor postharvest handling; storage pests; lack of modern processing technologies (equipment and packaging); limited skills, awareness and capital; untimely harvesting; poor preservation methods; and selling raw (low-value) products. In subsequent seasons, production has apparently gone down. As a consequence, intermediaries and their agents have abounded and filled the vacuum by undertaking some of the market functions, such as bulking, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, transporting and linking to markets. Most of the problems listed have mainly affected food crops.All of the above is likely to change with the advent of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP), which has initiated the integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D) approach of doing research. In using the IAR4D initiatives, multiple stakeholders based on value chains in the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) have been brought together to address common challenges faced by farmers and other value-chain actors. In introducing the IAR4D approaches in the LKPLS, the IAR4D change agents were faced with major challenges, including farmers' expectations of handouts and low participation of the private sector (which expected immediate returns). However, the operationalisation of market-demand driven innovation platforms (IPs) caused a shift in the mindsets of farmers from passive expectation of handouts to active engagement to tap market opportunities. Clear 'win-win' situations resulted and these stimulated participation of private-sector actors, including financial and credit institutions such as Equity Bank and Mutuelle d'Epargne et de crédit au Congo (MECRECO -a microfinance institution based in the Democratic Republic of Congo), processors, traders and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). As a consequence, various successful value-added products have been produced by the IPs in the LKPLS, including a sorghum drink called Mamera (a registered product of Bubare Sorghum IP in Uganda); a local banana-based alcoholic drink (Kasiksi) and juice (Mutobe) by Musanganya IP, in the DRC; potatoes in Gataraga IP, Rwanda; maize in Chahi IP, Uganda; milk in Mudende IP, Rwanda; and beans in Maendeleo IP, DRC.Realisation of these products has been attained largely as a result of the implementation of IAR4D work in the LKPLS since 2008. The work has involved exploration, discovery and exploitation of appropriate innovations and technologies to enhance enterprise productivity, including work in the areas of natural resources management (NRM); market organisation, linkage and penetration; and the use of supportive policies and institutions in an integrated manner. All of these have been directed towards improving agricultural product value chains under the umbrella of the SSA CP long-term objectives, which are to: widen networking through partnerships, enhance food security, increase rural incomes through commercialised agriculture and sustainably reduce poverty, while preserving the integrity of the environment.Within a time frame of about three years, the work undertaken in the LKPLS achieved substantial successes in various aspects, including project integration, teamwork, institutional arrangements, policy innovations and some successful agricultural product value chains. These have been achieved mainly as a result of using the IAR4D approach, which has brought farmers together to interact with researchers, extension staff, traders, processors, policy makers and other partners -working together in a synergistic way to develop strong and sustainable farming value-chain enterprises in the LKPLS. The IPs have provided forums for appropriate facilitation and research in terms of harnessing productivity-enhancing technologies and innovations, capacity building in terms of training and exposure tours, linkages to markets and service providers, and preservation of natural resources. This has enhanced the ability of farmers to conduct their businesses in new and better ways, to attain success within a short time. Frequent interactive meetings have enabled farmers, researchers and other partners to share information and experiences. Knowledge acquisition has occurred through training and knowledge creation and sharing activities (ie, exchange visits, demonstrations and learning sites, use of knowledge from weather stations, and workshops). Through such organised meetings, farmers in some IPs have formulated bye-laws that have enabled them to implement and enforce facilitative rules and regulations, in particular to reverse the degradation of natural resource bases.Practical modern agricultural knowledge and technologies -use of fertilisers, sprayers, soil and water conservation -have been gained. Useful linkages have been made with established institutions and service providers, including MECRECO, National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO), Uganda National Seed Potato Producers' Association (UNSPPA), Uganda National Agro-Input Dealers' Association (UNADA), traders, universities (Makerere, National University of Rwanda [NUR] and University of Kinshasa), the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA). Knowledge has been gained in value addition for potato production and marketing -washing stations, proper storage and potato products (chips and crisps). A culture of ownership has been inculcated into IP members and partners. Members and partners have increased their participatory involvement in IP activities, eg, joint planning and decision-making, unlike in the past when famers acted individually. Communication among members and partners has also increased through social interactions leading to cohesion. IAR4D has contributed to lessening the drudgery and workloads of women given that all work within the IP is shared equally among the members. Some IPs (eg, Bubare and Chahi in Uganda) have gained recognition from local government authorities, through recognition and approval of their bye-laws, and incorporating their work plans into the local government work plans, for example. Some of the impacts achieved have brought positive changes in incomes as well as attitudes.Bye-laws -their formulation, approval, implementation and enforcement, as lobbied for by IPs -seem to be facilitating the implementation of important actions. The systems of punitive measures for failing to comply with given bye-laws are being transformed into reward systems in order to create an encouraging (rather than discouraging) working environment.The following are examples of success stories that have been achieved in the LKPLS within the short time frame of the project.Although proven productivity-enhancing technologies for complex farming systems have often remained 'on the shelves' for lack of critical linkages in the value chains, some of these technologies started to be used after the formation of the IPs. In Chahi Sub-county, in Kisoro District of Uganda, the Chahi potato-based IP had an opportunity to diversify and rotate the traditional crops -partly to take advantage of alternative crop commercialisation and also to safeguard food security. Given that the Chahi farmers had been growing a local maize variety known as Nyakagoye for fresh consumption since time immemorial and that they have been using maize on a small scale in rotation with potatoes and beans, the farmers took the opportunity to expand the production of maize.The opportunity was presented as a result of the IP being linked with an agro-processing industry, PHINTA Investments Ltd, located within the target zone of Chahi IP. Among other things, PHINTA uses grain maize to make feed mixes for poultry production. PHINTA was sourcing maize grain from distant places (over 500km away). Consequently, when an opportunity for diversification came with an assured market for grain maize in the form of a local private company, the growing of a hybrid maize variety (DK8031) spread rapidly, in large part replacing the local variety. The IP approached PHINTA for input support. PHINTA was ready to give the support based on the assurance that it would acquire maize grain from local sources. This linkage resulted in rapid adoption of maize hybrid DK8031 from 18kg of seed in 2008 to 1800kg in 2009, the equivalent to area coverage of 2 acres and 180 acres (0.81ha and 72.8ha), respectively. There were corresponding increases in the purchase of inputs such as fertilisers that had previously often remained on the shop shelves. The local market for inputs increased from USD30 in 2008 to USD3300 in 2009. Between 2008 and 2010, the proportion of farmers growing maize increased from 10 to 35 percent. The average area under maize increased from 1.3ha to 2.7ha per farm, while the total area under maize production increased from 5.3ha to 27ha (Tenywa et al. 2011). This venture became the first major effort to produce maize grain for commercial purposes in the area.Gataraga IP is essentially a multi-stakeholder problem identification and solving forum that brings together multiple stakeholders for visioning, planning and implementing new ideas, practices and services. The IP promotes interaction, creativity, insight and empowerment, with the aim of improving the existing conditions around a common interest or challenge and thereby bringing about desired change. It is composed of 10 villages located in Musanze District of northern Rwanda, where Irish potatoes have been grown for food security and occasional sales for a considerable period. However, production had been declining because of decreasing yields and difficulties in marketing the crop. Although research was undertaken in the past to address these constraints, there was little input from farmers and poor feedback from researchers. A few research outputs were adopted, but yields continued to decline.All this changed after the IAR4D interventions. The IP was linked to markets and this has stimulated increased production and improved postharvest handling for increased shelf life of harvested potatoes and improved quality (see Table 6 These problems included unorganised potato marketing and markets, limited knowledge on efficient potato production methods, inadequate seed potatoes, insufficient manure for soil improvement, and limited transport to market produce. The stakeholders also suggested and prioritised possible solutions to the problems: formation of farmer groups, improving the quality of seed potatoes, improving productivity, and improving postharvest handling and marketing. An action plan for resolving the constraints was agreed upon and implemented.Farmers were encouraged to form groups that could address production and marketing constraints through testing of new production technologies, and that could enhance collective bargaining for acquiring inputs and for marketing activities. Farmers have now formed 26 groups, each with about 25 men and women, and each represented on the IP.First, potato varieties demanded by the market were identified. Although 'Kinigi' was found to be the most popular variety, seed availability of this variety from ISAR remains limited. Options for rapid multiplication of 'Kinigi' were assessed and positive selection is now practised in the field, where healthy, disease-free tubers are selected for further propagation by local farmers. Meanwhile, ISAR -with support from the International Potato Centre (CIP) -has established modern facilities for tissue culture and rapid multiplication of seed potatoes. The next step will be for local seed producers to be identified to produce seed potatoes for the wider community. The Government of Rwanda has already allocated funds for introducing seed multiplication of 'Kinigi'.Participatory assessment of alternative soil fertility-enhancing options is being carried out by farmers from each of the village groups. This includes the use of manure from livestock, with fodder crops grown along contours on field boundaries for feeding to livestock and as live barriers to provide soil-erosion protection in steep hill environments. Five learning centres have been established, which provide opportunities for learning about improved potato production techniques using four improved potato varieties, organic and inorganic fertilisers, correct spacing, pest management and dehaulming (Figure 6.1). After all these IAR4D interventions, potato yields have increased from 6 to 24 tonnes per hectare. Some farmers are actually producing as much as 30t/ha. Regular monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is also undertaken by farmers, who describe the process as being like fertiliser, helping to ensure the crop is grown correctly and that costs and income can be monitored and checked. Local niche markets have been identified, and contracts established with hotels and supermarkets in Kigali and other urban areas (eg, Ruhengeri). These require that potatoes be selected, cleaned, sorted and graded, and, in the case of the supermarket, packaged in 5kg containers (Figure 6.2). Many clients are happy with the quality and quantities supplied (Figure 6.3). Discussions are ongoing between the hotels and the IP to produce and supply potato varieties to meet the different market demands, such as for chips and crisps. A number of potato-washing stations have been established. One of the new washing stations is owned and operated by a lady called Josephine, who is a farmer, trader and a member of the IP. She has been linked to credit providers who have extended credit to her to support production, purchasing and transportation. Some farmer IP representatives have been trained in grading, hygiene and sanitation, preservation and packaging.Since 2009, the marketing partners have been expanding with acquisition of new potato market clients in 2010, rising from five clients in February to ten in December 2010; and the quantity supplied rose from 2.5 to 15.5 tonnes (see Figure 6.4). Farmers who supply their potatoes through the IP marketing arrangements have received RWF30 per kilogram more than the local market prices. Most of these farmers also received commodity market loans from the traders in order to avoid piecemeal harvesting of their potatoes. The traders' sale prices depended on the transport costs, seasonal abundance or scarcity, and their contract with the client. Generally, the prices ranged from RWF160 to RWF250 per kilogram in 2010.The IAR4D approach has catalysed a vibrant IP in Gataraga. The IP is now established and accepted at the district level. Its regular meetings are well attended and there are women on the IP executive and steering committees. The IP is now viewed as a centre for bringing together experts to address farmers' problems. Farmers have taken up leadership roles and the linkages with the IP service providers enable them to seek contributions from different IP stakeholders to address their problems. The IP forums make them equal partners with others.Farmers have expressed a desire for exchange visits -to visit and learn from other IPs -and for the IP concept to be used in other sectors, outside agriculture in addition to extending this approach to other commodities. Thus, the concept and practice has great potential to be scaled up and also to be scaled out to other commodities, even beyond the agriculture sector.However, challenges that remain include the need for more farmers to be involved, and for capacity strengthening and learning processes to continue with production linked to the market. Key to future sustainability will be the ability of farmers to own and lead the IP, which would be driven by the commercial interests of the private sector, with research and facilitation backstopping provided by research and development organisations. The paradigm shift from the traditional research and extension service to an IAR4D approach to rural development through engaging multiple stakeholders (farmers, researchers, government and the private sector) in finding research interventions that build or strengthen the development of value chains has been tested in the LKPLS. In Bubare Sub-county of Kabale District in south-west Uganda, all eight parishes are participating in the Bubare sorghum IP, with stakeholders validating the IAR4D concept by identifying constraints to the sorghum value chain. The IP has pursued value addition as the key driver of sorghum value-chain development. Every household in Bubare grows a traditional sorghum variety that has been used for generations to produce porridge and weaning food for babies. The IP has partnered with HUNTEX Industries (owned by a private partner and a member of the IP) (Figure 6.5) to add value in processing the traditional sorghum into a healthy non-alcoholic beverage called Mamera, which is being sold in shops and supermarkets.The combined power of branding and state-of-the-art processing and packaging facilities have been applied to an existing local product to deliver the value-added non-alcoholic sorghum drink that has been branded and now sells in new up-market outlets, attracting better prices than before and appealing to middle-class consumers. The intervention has become the driver for the sorghum value chain in the region and a model of intervention in other value chains.Mamera is already a registered brand name and is gazetted by the Government of Uganda (GOU). The brand name is associated with the good-quality Bushera (fermented sorghum porridge) in Kabale District and it has attracted big market demands for the sorghum products in Kabale and beyond. This trademark, Mamera, is expected to be used for a number of products that will be produced by Bubare sorghum IP, including malted sorghum flour (a readyto-use flour for home or urban small-scale Bushera makers). Bushera quality parameters were developed by the incubation centre of Makerere University Food Science and Technology Department (MAK-FST).Sorghum, which has been grown traditionally for years, is a socially and culturally important crop, but low yields and tedious work have made it unprofitable. However, it provides a valuable local food, including as a weaning food for babies. Unfortunately, after local preparation it lasts for only three days before spoiling. With IAR4D interventions, the IP took advantage of emerging opportunities and initiated and implemented strategies for increasing production and value addition of sorghum through improved processing and marketing.The Bubare IP is now firmly established and operational with both women and men members participating in monthly meetings. An IP bank account has been opened. The IP executive committee has developed work plans and budgets, which have been integrated into those of the Kabale District Local Council. Interactions with other IPs such as Chahi are taking place to share experiences.The current work plans include the following selected key activities.• Participatory variety evaluation compares a number of improved highland sorghum varieties 5 with the local variety, 'Kyatanombe', to see whether yields can be improved, while maintaining the quality of traditional sorghum.• Learning sites (demonstrations) are established in each of the eight parishes, providing training opportunities for farmers on improving their crop management skills.• Research is being undertaken by HUNTEX Industries in conjunction with Makerere University to identify food processing technologies for further improvement of the sorghum porridge (Mamera) and extending its shelf life. This includes two beverage types, one unsweetened and the other sweetened with locally produced honey.• Market development is on-going using modern packaging and branding the malted sorghum beverage as Mamera.• Agreement must be reached on profit-sharing arrangements between the processor, HUNTEX and the farmers.• Sales of Mamera are already occurring in supermarkets, to the tune of USD1200 per month (for example, see the sales trends during the incubation period as shown in Table 6.2).In addition, the IP farmers have submitted proposals to the GOU to access funding to develop sorghum (and other crop) storage facilities, and have applied for a loan from the Muchahi SACCO.The future for the Bubare IP looks bright. The process of encouraging IP grassroots membership recruitment is on-going at sub-county and village levels, encouraging participation in various meetings and at learning sites. Consequently, this requires continued capacity strengthening, knowledge acquisition and linking further production opportunities to new market opportunities.At the same time, there are opportunities for the IPs to support the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) programme of the GOU. Although NAADS support local identification and prioritisation of problems, they do not bring stakeholders together -the IP forges linkages of this type.NARO has also shown enthusiasm in ensuring that research is demand-led, meeting the real and perceived needs of farmers. NARO-Kachwekano Agricultural Research and Development Institute (KAZARDI) is speeding up the process of providing planting materials of improved varieties of sorghum for the IP through their accelerated breeding and multiplication programmes.5. HLSO3/016, HLSO3/0 17, HLSO3/019, HLSO3/023, HLSO3/025, HLSO3/056.Using the IAR4D approach, some of the weaknesses of policy and institutional arrangements that affect the performance of agricultural products along the agricultural value chains were addressed in the four IPs of Kabale, Ntungamo, Bubare and Kisoro in south-western Uganda.The major purpose of addressing these weaknesses was to identify innovative actions that could be exploited to strengthen policy and institutional arrangements at local community levels in order to improve the performance of the IPs. Interaction with the IP members at the four IPs revealed the need to review the existing community bye-laws, as well as to formulate new ones that were relevant to IP operations.As a consequence, major institutional innovations were instituted in south-western Uganda within a short period of time. These institutional arrangements were meant to enable smooth and harmonious formulation of bye-laws that would strengthen policy-review processes,  conflict management, institutionalisation and sustainability of IPs. Committees were set up to oversee policy sensitisation, review and formulation. Measures for enforcement of these structures were also set up. These arrangements also helped in the formulation and approval of bye-laws.In order to strengthen the policy-review processes, workshops were held for stakeholders on formulation and review of bye-laws and policies, and on empowerment to attain legal status; these workshops were considered valuable. Conflict management was addressed through team-building seminars for IPs, policy advocacy, and meetings with concerned parties (eg, cattle keepers and crop farmers) to facilitate dialogue. To explore issues surrounding institutionalisation of IPs, participatory discussions were held on how IPs fit into African socio-economic development frameworks. For sustainability, participatory engagement was instituted to align IP work plans with the sub-county and district plans, budgets and development programmes (eg, community-driven development programmes).The process of review and formulation of bye-laws was initiated at the end of 2009. IP members mobilised their respective parishes and villages for this process and produced drafts.The drafts from the different parishes were merged together to form a sub-county draft, which was taken back for more consultations at the parish level, before being presented to the IP at the sub-county level. During the consultation processes -from sub-county to village and back to sub-county -the issues that were continually amended included the title of the bye-laws, definitions of terms, actual content of the bye-laws, the penalties, fines and rewards. These processes were similar in the IPs of Bubare, Bufundi and Chahi, where IPs were formed at the sub-county level with members coming from the different parishes in the sub-county. In Ntungamo, however, where the IPs were formed at the district level with members coming from seven of the district sub-counties, the process was a little different: bye-laws were generated by the respective parishes and sub-county drafts were made after the consultation processes.In the IAR4D approach, various stakeholders in an agricultural value chain come together at the IP to discuss and find solutions to problems along the value chain. The stakeholders -who in this case include policy makers and local leaders -sat together with the farmers to solve the challenges associated with the formulation and review of the bye-laws. Policy makers from local government and local leaders who were members of the IPs appreciated the need to have functional bye-laws to protect the farming community and other participants along a value chain. The bye-laws were thus reviewed and formulated and were then approved and signed by the respective councils in Bubare and Chahi.In Bubare, a set of bye-laws entitled 'Bubare Sub-county (Natural Resource Management, Agriculture and Marketing) Bye-laws 2010' were approved at an extraordinary council meeting held on 23 November 2010, and signed (after amendments) for implementation in February 2011 after some sensitisation of the community. In Chahi, the bye-laws entitled 'Chahi Sub-county (Ifatanya Bubasha) Bye-laws 2010' were approved in a sub-county council meeting on 8 December 2010 and signed on 10 December 2010 (after amendments) to be implemented immediately upon signing.During the course of these processes, it was observed that the major challenges concerning community bye-laws were not only their poor implementation and enforcement, but also the lack of a review mechanism to maintain their relevance. It is important to remember at this point that, in spite of its vast natural resources, DRC is one of the poorest countries in SSA, particularly in terms of infrastructure, low formal education levels, high malnutrition and low incomes. North Kivu Province has enjoyed a peaceful postconflict period for only about 1½ years now. Policies have not been revised or reviewed for a long time. Agricultural products and services are provided in emergency situations by both national and international organisations.The Musanganya IP is operated by a management committee, which is answerable to a general assembly comprising all registered members. The management committee in turn has subcommittees and village committees, all of which work in a participatory manner with guidance, contributions and support from the IP's partners. The management committee and subcommittees are elected by the participating farming community. Hence, IP Musangaya has well-balanced management structures in place.Initially, the operations of banana production were based on profitable bulk-marketing opportunities. These opportunities have now been extended to banana transformation (value addition) into extended shelf-life banana products in order to conserve the banana products post-harvest, reduce their perishability and tap into new marketing opportunities in different market segments. So far, experience has shown that value addition of banana products is competitive and has great potential. There are, however, plans for complete removal of banana plantations infected with bacterial banana wilt, to be replaced with tolerant varieties under a programme that grows tolerant plantlets in micro-propagation units. Other challenges and opportunities that have been tackled include: water conservation, soil erosion and fertility; improved production, postharvest handling, crop and disease management; organised exposure visits of farmers to markets and traders to Musanganya for informal market negotiations; value addition by processing and packaging of local banana-based alcoholic drinks (standard and strong wines) and juices that are locally known as Kasiksi, Mutunda and Mutobe, respectively; and promoting environmental stewardship including use of firewood, clean air, micro-environment, and income generation from appropriate forestry harvesting.Achievements so far are that the Musanganya IP is established, operational and has gained acceptance in the district. The IP members have gained wide-ranging skills from various capacitybuilding programmes, including managing micro-propagation units and propagation of clean planting materials, accessing of clean banana planting materials and other improved planting materials, crop management practices, market identification, and banana transformation.There have also been improved household gender relations. Men have joined their spouses in growing improved disease-resistant banana varieties and women are participating in meetings and holding office in the IP. The IP has also established two tree nurseries of 20,000 seedlings each for agro-forestry and afforestation programmes.These achievements have been realised in the face of prevailing challenges. There have been problems in accessing credits, and in convincing some farmers to accept uprooting of infected banana crops, resulting in continuation of contamination of clean plantations. Bananas are an 'incentive crop' in that they take a long time to reach maturity and produce the first bunches after initial establishment. Market access has been a challenge as a result of limited market information and poor infrastructure, difficulties in bulking and conducting group marketing. It is taking a long time to achieve certification of banana by-products.The major highlights of the Musanganya IP have been on two fronts, namely: collective marketing of bananas and banana transformation through value addition (processing). The details of these activities are discussed below.In the past, farmers in Musanganya worked their farms and marketed their produce individually. This practice often forced farmers to sell their primary products prematurely and consequently at low prices, due to their limited individual bargaining powers. Banana producers visited the dispersed local open markets, and the process of selling and buying of their bananas and other products was relatively haphazard. This situation reduced farmers' negotiation powers and made them vulnerable to exploitation by intermediaries. This marketing approach did not guarantee producers competitive incomes since they simply had to take the offered price.This unfavourable marketing situation made it necessary to look into options for collective marketing, market linkages and product diversification. Given that banana was the main cash crop in Mupfuni Shanga Sub-county, it was selected as the entry value-chain enterprise by Musanganya IP.Using the IP as a tool, collective marketing was initiated as a way of avoiding the large numbers of intermediaries that congest the banana market circuit. In this way, the farmers would not only market their bananas in bulk, but would also gain in bargaining power, get competitive prices and therefore increase their incomes. Using an IAR4D rapid appraisal study conducted in two major urban centres in North and South Kivu provinces in eastern DRC, it was recommended that both farmers and traders should get organised in groups to conduct their banana selling and buying businesses. The IP producers were therefore organised into groups to initiate collective marketing of their products and first targeted Goma and Bukavu urban markets. Some of the activities undertaken before bananas reached their final marketing destinations include measuring circumferences of banana bunches, weighing them and offloading the bananas at the market place (Figures 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9). Data collection and analysis of various weights of bunches has shown that the weight of a banana bunch is correlated with the average selling price. The length of the banana bunches also significantly influences the price. This relationship is expressed in the equation below and in Figure 6.6. In the equation, P is the weight of a given banana bunch.Price = 0.0004 P 4 + 0.0311P 3 -0.9518 P 2 + 12.22 P -52.516 with R 2 = 1 (1)Seventeen rounds of marketing transactions were conducted, 12 in Goma and 5 in Bukavu markets, using three types of bananas: plantain, cooking bananas and beer-making bananas. A total of 69 IP members delivered 1706 banana bunches for total gross sales of USD6275.60 against gross purchases of USD4645.30. Plantain was highly appreciated, fetching premium prices compared with the other banana varieties. In order to increase incomes of producers, multiplication of plantain on a large scale was recommended.This pilot organisation of farmers and traders that linked the producers and buyers demonstrated that farmers can increase their incomes through bypassing a number of unnecessary intermediaries in the banana marketing chain. This way, producers are guaranteed stable and competitive pricing of the banana products. The transformation of agricultural products has always been regarded as a way to not only preserve food, but also to add value in order to be competitive on the market. In the past, and as recently as 2010, farmers in Mpfuni Shanga Sub-county were making local banana beer that had poor storage properties and lasted for no more than three days before spoiling. Even worse, the local beer fetched poor prices.Consequently, due to the need to preserve bananas and improve the shelf life of traditional banana beer, the Musanganya IP, with assistance from partners, undertook to transform and add value through processing their harvested bananas into three products -juice and two types of wine. With the IAR4D knowledge interventions of value addition through processing using technology from the University of Kinshasa and Makerere University, farmers are now able to make more refined, sanitary and bottled banana juice (Mutobe), standard wine (Kasiksi) and strong wine (Butunda) that all have longer storage properties and fetch higher prices. The banana juice and wines have longer shelf lives, lasting for months before going bad. The products are packaged and stored in 330ml reused Heineken beer bottles available in the market (Figure 6.10). These processes have so far been done successfully up to the demonstration stage.Profitability calculation of this process gives a substantial production yield of 92.5 percent.The findings from the market study indicate that the drinks are appreciated by both sellers and consumers due to their appearance and quality, taste and alcohol content. The Musanganya IP farmers received their share of the benefits by finding a quick way of selling harvested bananas from the field. Thus, the farmers' income is enhanced in the long run through production expansion. Recent rapid market surveys have indicated that the potential market outlook for these two products appears good -both locally in the rural areas and in urban areas (in bars, shops, kiosks and supermarkets). Indicative prices were USD0.50 for the unprocessed and unbottled 500lt beer, and USD2.00 for the processed and bottled 500lt beer.The banana IP farmers have been organised and trained to select the best banana bunches, pack and store them properly for transportation and marketing to various market destinations within the region. The farmers have been advised to observe and know the types (varieties) of bananas they grow -whether cooking type, beer-making bananas or plantains. Banana type dictates the marketing opportunities for bananas.The process used to produce banana juice and wines served mainly to prevent postharvest losses experienced by farmers in general and by members of the Musanganya IP in particular, and also created another marketing outlet for the bananas.With this method of production and conservation, the IP has made available to local consumers a standardised drink in terms of good quality, taste, alcohol content and physical appearance.The presentation of the products in 330ml bottles tightly closed, with a one-year expiration date adds value.Profits and market availability will make this process a cost-effective annual procedure for farmers and banana producers of Musanganya IP.The next step in the process is to organise the certification and licensing of the banana transformation process from the relevant government authorities and specialised laboratories.After certification and licensing are achieved, manufacturers will be called in by the IP to invest in mass production of the banana products (juices and wines) for large-scale commercialisation.uniqueness of the natural resource base, there have been only limited investments to reduce its degradation. As a result, a large number of people in SSA, especially those who are mainly dependent on agriculture, including those living in the Lake Kivu region of Eastern and Central Africa (ECA), earn less than USD1.00 per person per a day. Despite some remarkable research successes in SSA -including numerous projects to improve food security, incomes and nutrition -the number of poor people in the Lake Kivu region has been increasing.Agricultural research in general has followed the linear model of researcher-extension-farmer. At best, this agricultural research and development (ARD) model from the West and Asia has produced 'islands of success' in SSA.Since the 1970s, various research innovations have been introduced to address the complexity of agricultural systems in SSA. These innovations have included the farming systems research (FSR) approach, farmer participatory research (FPR), rapid appraisal of agricultural knowledge systems (RAAKS), the sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA) and integrated natural resources management (INRM) (Norman and Matlon 2000, Schiere et al. 2000, Norman et al. 1982and 1994, Norman and Lightfoot 1992, Chambers and Conway 1992, Bunch 1989). The number of field-based project activities increased and important experiences emerged to create more space for more innovations for agricultural research and extension, through participation of local communities and building on traditional or indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) (Edquist 1997 and2001). However, all these approaches seem to have failed to address the multiple scales and complex web of interactions, networks and responses within and between physical and social subsystems that change with context, objectives and activities, with different levels of uncertainty, time lags and policy environments (Campbell et al. 2001). As observed, most of these approaches gravitated around the research-extension-farmer model.It was thus hypothesised that the nature of the conventional linear research-extensionfarmer approach -applied to address challenges and constraints of productivity, natural resources management (NRM), market and policy areas independently, when in fact they are all interlinked -was not having an impact in reducing the numbers of poor people in SSA.It is increasingly being appreciated that linear technology transfer is inappropriate in SSA, because of the complexity of the agricultural systems, with regard to their social, physical and economic settings. At the very least, technologies generated through the linear models need complementary organisational, policy and other changes to enable them to be put into productive use.Some of these observations and understandings motivated the Forum for Agricultural Research for Africa (FARA) to introduce a new approach to research and development that is referred to as 'integrated agricultural research for development' (IAR4D). This concept builds on integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) and INRM, coupled with integrated research on productivity enhancement, sustainable NRM, policies and markets. IAR4D is an action-research approach for investigating and facilitating organisations of multi-institutional and multidisciplinary actors (including researchers) to innovate more effectively in response to changing complexities of agricultural and NRM contexts, in order to achieve a shared vision of rural development (Hall andYoganand 2004, Jones 2004). The IAR4D approach was subsequently introduced and established in the ECA region on a pilot basis at the Lake Kivu Pilot Learning Site (LKPLS) of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA CP).A key feature of the IAR4D concept was the application of participatory approaches for the integration of actors in technological, NRM, market, policy and institutional components of agricultural innovation systems (AIS) to respond to changing market and policy conditions and provide commercial, social and institutional solutions that achieve broad and multiple objectives, including poverty alleviation, environmental protection, and social and gender equality. The potential strengths of the IAR4D concept lay in its ability to capture market and policy aspects in addition to fostering systemic linkages and communication among actors in diverse contexts who have a stake in the processes of generating, disseminating and using knowledge for social impact. However, due to its newness there appeared to be limited evidence that IAR4D would likely bring the necessary and sufficient changes to transform smallholder agriculture in SSA into a highly productive, efficient, sustainable and competitive system, while at the same time protecting the environment (Science Council 2005). Consequently the CGIAR Science Council (SC) recommended that IAR4D should first undergo a 'proof of concept' process before its widespread adoption and application.The basis for the proof of concept of IAR4D, implemented under the auspices of SSA CP, was that the approach is considered a better and more effective method for addressing productivity, NRM, market, policy and related challenges simultaneously than the conventional linear approaches. In implementing the IAR4D approach, the aim of SSA CP was to extract scientifically sound and replicable lessons, principles and guidelines for sustainable development. In this chapter, therefore, some key achievements in the proof of concept of IAR4D are highlighted. Also presented in this chapter are some insights into the dynamic processes, challenges, and key lessons and principles learnt to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the multi-stakeholder engagements, linkages and interactions that positively influence the innovation processes at the individual and institutional levels, which are pivotal to the IAR4D concepts and practices.Some of the milestones in these processes were the operationalisation of task forces (teamwork) in integrating three projects into one programme, establishing strategic partnerships, confidencebuilding among teams and individuals, actual implementation of the integrated programme and the establishment of 12 functional innovation platforms (IPs). It was established that in situations where productivity, NRM and market issues were addressed simultaneously, better IAR4D results were registered. The operationalisation of the four elements (productivity, NRM, markets and policy) of IAR4D required strong functional linkages, which were established with various research organisations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the private sector for validating research questions, farmer mobilisation and capacity building, value addition, credit provision and the identification of input and output markets. All these processes were undertaken in a phased way. For everything to work uninterrupted, IAR4D processes require facilitation of a functional and efficient central processing unit (CPU) to address and resolve any emerging dynamic issues.The SSA CP in the LKPLS has evolved considerably through three distinct phases, namely: the inception, the integration of projects into a programme, and finally the implementation (the latter is discussed in the next subsection).Beginning in 2005, initial efforts consisted of defining and validating the LKPLS's challenges, constraints and issues. This involved calling for concept notes and proposals to address the issues, and then selecting three successful teams to implement and champion the processes.The plan was that research and development efforts should focus on the interfaces between agricultural productivity, sustainable NRM, efficient markets and appropriate policies with supportive institutional structures. However, as a result of the CGIAR Science Council review and commentary in 2006, the research design of SSA CP was revised to focus on testing the effectiveness of the IAR4D approach relative to the conventional approaches. This made it necessary to reorganise the original work programmes and plans, which had been conceived by the task forces (teams) in productivity, NRM and markets to work independently, each with three research components. The three task forces operating in the LKPLS were subsequently integrated into a single coherent programme with authentic interconnections among the three task forces. Extensive efforts were made to bring the three task forces to a common level in terms of their thinking and understanding of the tasks, and to make them work as one team for effective implementation of the project and delivery of targeted outputs. Eventually, the task forces integrated and aligned their projects to the revised research design, which is being used as a principal reference in establishing the experimental framework and for evaluating the effects of IAR4D.Considering the importance of sites in drawing lessons that are attributable to IAR4D interventions, action sites and counterfactual sites were selected based on scientific criteria, including representativeness, current state of IAR4D, market access, and availability of geographic information system (GIS) spatial information and other data.Project teams were formed and jointly implemented various activities -including stakeholder identification and analysis, baseline and ex post impact surveys -and established and operationalised IPs. Some of these activities were facilitated in part through pooled financial and material resources. The SSA CP aimed, among other things, to develop principles, practices, options and practical examples of how the processes for systemic innovation can be organised and implemented involving a range of stakeholders from end users to policy makers. The tasks undertaken in the LKPLS involved 27 partner organisations, operating through 12 IPs. There were four IPs in each of the three participating countries -Uganda, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) -and each country had its own diverse range of biophysical, socioeconomic, cultural and political conditions. One of the major concerns when working with such a large group of partners with diverse backgrounds, interests, experiences and skills is to develop a common understanding of basic concepts and approaches. A training module was developed, covering the concepts and practical aspects of IAR4D, and was used to strengthen the capacity of all participating stakeholders in the IPs.During the initial stages of implementation, much of the focus was on establishing multiinstitutional and multi-stakeholder alliances and partnerships, which are the key components of IAR4D. After several rounds of initial consultations, broad guidelines and methods for forming and operating IPs were developed and seven IPs were initially formed during the first stage of the project in 2008. A further five IPs were initiated in 2009. Through extensive consultations, discussions and debates, all 12 IPs identified the major developmental challenges facing agriculture in their locations, and their possible roles in addressing the challenges, as well as potential solutions to the challenges. The IPs also developed action plans with well-defined roles and responsibilities for the various partners. The issues identified varied among the IPs, both within and between countries. Some of the issues identified, for example, include interface constraints of low and declining soil fertility, poor seed systems, certification of organic products, unstructured markets and marketing, limited access to new and existing market opportunities, poor implementation of policies, and limited access to knowledge and exposure to new technologies.The LKPLS project teams facilitated the IP discussions around these topics and, with active participation of all stakeholders, identified potential solutions. The potential solutions involved actions for research, extension, markets, NGOs, private sector (eg, processors, input suppliers, and microfinance and financial institutions) and local-level policy makers. The project teams worked closely with partners in implementing the action plans and in providing the required technical backstopping through various types of capacity building -training, value-chain analysis and identifying new opportunities, among others. A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) programme was developed to monitor the outcomes of various components of IAR4D and to inform the implementing teams about any need for mid-course correction. Progress made is documented and presented in quarterly and annual reports submitted to FARA, and a number of publications are at various stages of development.Only a few achievements and lessons learnt are selected for discussion in this section.During the SSA CP's evolving process (from inception to implementation), the major development experienced in the LKPLS has been the huge transformation, adaptation and flexibility exhibited by the partners as they learned and embraced the tenets of IAR4D.The initial shift involved changing the mindsets of the partners, especially members of the task force teams, from apathy to collaboration, and from competitiveness among three independent projects to one programme with integrated work plans and budgets. The second shift resulted from the recommendation of the CGIAR Science Council to first provide evidence that the IAR4D approach is better than the conventional approaches rather than simply taking that for granted. This implied instituting changes in terms of the issues and questions to be addressed, the research design, work plans and budgets, and the implementation of activities. This change necessitated a joint implementation approach. Despite the usual initial hiccups, several joint activities have been successfully implemented through pooled human, material and financial resources. In addition to defining monitoring indicators and harmonising work plans and budgets, the activities included stakeholder analysis; baseline household, village, NRM and market surveys; and establishment and operationalisation of IPs and linkages with other institutions.All this demonstrates the extent by which the task force partners have transformed in their willingness to learn and embrace the tenets of the IAR4D concepts, particularly networking for joint learning. They have demonstrated accommodative forms of flexibility, collaboration, adaptation and complementarities that explain the successes that have been achieved in the LKPLS. There is new confidence that task force partners will be 'talking the long walk' (ie, preaching and practicing IAR4D).Important lessons have been learned on the establishment and operation of IPs on issues such as the starting points for forming an IP, initiation and engagement of relevant stakeholders, guidelines for working together, formulation and implementation of action plans, definition of roles, resources required, expected benefits, and options for equitable sharing of benefits and liabilities. Innovation platforms (IPs) have also been useful in identifying competences and skills required of graduates from educational institutions (eg, universities) to facilitate multistakeholder processes. This has proved very successful with Makerere University in Uganda.Given that the IP concept was new to many organisations and partners alike, there was limited capacity to implement project activities. This meant that a substantial amount of time was spent in understanding and fostering of IAR4D processes among diverse traditional and non-traditional partners. Consequently, the initial stages of IP formation, consolidation and functioning took longer than expected. Continuous capacity building remains important. Facilitation skills are critical during the early stages of IP formation and development.Integration of resources and partnerships can break down boundaries through tackling obstacles. Integration in education, research, extension and policy domains has shown great potential for overcoming outstanding constraints in terms of human resources, technology generation and use, inefficiently interlinked output-input markets, and unavailability of agricultural credits.Lessons have also been learned on possible conflicts of interest, especially at that local level, and also in terms of differences in perceptions, expectations and interests among stakeholders.It was learned that it was sometimes crucial to involve local leadership in conflict resolutions.Early involvement of the private sector in input supply, marketing and finance provision was also identified as a necessity after realising that such partners were unlikely to attend long or frequent meetings. Hence, it became necessary to institute timely and clear identification of their roles and opportunities for commercial activities in terms of identifying quick 'win-win' opportunities for farmers and other private-sector beneficiaries and build on early successes.In this way, the LKPLS was able to develop rapport quickly with private-sector institutions like the market operators, financial, credit and insurance institutions in committing their time and resources.The IP discussions have clearly highlighted the complex and inter-related nature of the local-level problems, which conventional research has often failed to take into account. For example, the farmers in Kabale and Kisoro districts (Uganda), where the Chahi, Bubare and Bufundi IPs are located, were of the opinion that a particular potato variety was the best for their location because that variety was in greater demand in the market. But this view was not supported by research findings. Interactions with traders revealed that there was market demand for a diversity of potato varieties, and farmers were therefore at liberty to grow any variety suited to their biophysical and socio-economic circumstances. This knowledge resulted in a complete change in the farmers' attitudes and stimulated discussions on possible alternative varieties, which led to the identification of a range of issues that needed to be addressed to enable them to make use of the available opportunities. The issues identified included lack of research-based information on soil fertility management, lack of seed systems to multiply and supply seeds in sufficient quantities, constraints in government policies for releasing new varieties, and problems in accessing agricultural credits to enable farmers to purchase inputs including planting materials. This highlights the importance and value of multi-stakeholder IPs in arriving at solutions that are relevant and acceptable to end users with potential for scaling up quickly.The operationalisation of IPs in the LKPLS proved to be very effective and caught the imagination of other end users outside the IPs faster than was originally anticipated. This was after the establishment of the first set of seven IPs, which took more time and resources than anticipated, with these IPs experiencing a variety of conflicts, including in relation to the lack of free handouts. But the establishment of the second set of five IPs took a much shorter time and was to a large extent demand-driven. There was an overwhelming number of requests for forming these five IPs, received from various stakeholders with an interest in outcomes who had observed the successes of the first seven IPs.In many cases, IP establishment was faster where there were inspiring 'champions' at different levels. These champions helped facilitate teamwork and trust among the relevant stakeholders.It was also found that it is essential that IPs be established where environments are conducive to success. For instance, the not-so-favourable environment in the DRC has, to some degree, hindered the safe movement of IP partners. In particular, a policy environment that is supportive of the agriculture sector will greatly assist in the establishment, consolidation and operationalisation of IPs. For instance, good policies (especially agricultural policies) that provide for district and sub-county level 'stakeholder panels and engagement' can be very useful in helping IP processes to flourish. A case in point is Uganda, where the Kabale, Kisoro and Ntungamo local government authorities have been very receptive and have supported the agriculture sector and permitted IP actions and work plans to be integrated into their own, to support the IP activities. The active involvement of district or local government leaders and traditional leaders in supporting IPs provides the IPs with legitimacy and ensures active participation of other partners.With time, it was realised that the IP concept was applicable to different situations, even outside the pilot sites. This was influenced by IP establishment being regarded as a learning process, requiring changes to suit given contexts, implying that there may not be a specific formula for IP establishment. Market-led approaches to IP establishment created quick winwin scenarios, speeding up the processes of IP establishment.Considering that farmers' field problems are recurrent, frequent assessments are required for reflection and making adjustments. These problems are best handled by empowering IP members to solve them. In the LKPLS, monthly IP partner meetings were designed and implemented for that purpose, among other things.Given the multi-faceted, multi-stakeholder and multi-level partnership nature of IPs, it was found that facilitation was a key element in successful implementation of IAR4D. In the LKPLS, facilitation was taken as akin to a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Identification of appropriate organisations and teams to address the problems, bringing in new players to address emerging issues, ensuring free flow of information and addressing conflicts before they happen or grow into disputes are the key elements of the facilitation process. In addition, because the IAR4D programme is dynamic, the CPU makes it essential to foster new stakeholders and collaborations as required, with appropriate institutional linkages.Participatory monitoring and evaluation processes were also established in which both internal and external quality control and adaptive management of the IPs were assessed for refocusing whenever necessary. The monitoring often focused on the processes within the IPs and many IP farmers found the monitoring procedures for plots and trials particularly valuable. Many IPs in the LKPLS had M&E commissions or subcommittees to undertake the monitoring activities.The outcomes of the M&E programme have shown that significant progress was made in improving the understanding of the IAR4D concept by all stakeholders. The IP in Ruhengeri (Rwanda), for instance, has developed illustrations highlighting the IAR4D processes, which have been shared with other IPs.A number of alternative sources of income have been identified and integrated with existing IP practices in the form of diversification strategies. Some of the diversification processes (particularly in Uganda) are guided by the decision-support system that has been developed for comparing the profitability of different enterprises. This system guides IP farmers in choosing enterprises. It is worth noting that selected examples of successful enterprises are highlighted in chapter 6 of this book. The increased production associated with the successful enterprises highlights a need for strategic measures to protect the farmers from possible price fluctuations, including selling large volumes of produce.Most IPs are now getting involved in value addition of their agricultural products. In Uganda, the Bubare sorghum IP has registered the 'Mamera' trademark as a way of marketing a good quality fermented porridge known as Bushera in the LKPLS. There are possibilities for Bushera to attract a substantial market in the region and beyond. The IP is planning to use the trademark for a number of other products that have been (or are being) developed, including malted sorghum flour. Results from these IPs have also prompted consideration and revision of local policy and bye-laws. Gataraga IP in Rwanda has cleaned, sorted, graded, packaged and labelled potatoes whose outlets are now the niche markets in supermarkets and hotels in the city of Kigali and other urban areas.Most of the successful value-chain enterprises are expanding due to their linkages to markets. The integration of farmers with markets has created new awareness about the need to maintain the quality of the produce. To this end, the IPs have started highlighting the need for appropriate knowledge in product postharvest handling. Farmers need market information and training in storage, cleaning, sorting, grading, packaging, labelling and other requirements for both domestic and export markets. In Rwanda, supermarkets are paying more for deliveries from IPs because they have been attracted by this change in postharvest handling of the produce. In spite of all this, there remains a need for safe postharvest storage for many valuechain enterprises along with local agro-processing for value addition and local marketing.Establishing links with processors (like HUNTEX Ltd in Kabale, Uganda) requires trust between the farmers and the processors. Normally such links are strengthened by establishing firm and fair contractual arrangements, accompanied by reliable technical and financial backstopping.There is also evidence of increased quality and quantity of production of crops and other products like milk as a result of linking to markets. Quality and quantity of crops like beans and cassava is also increasing as a result of improved seed access and crop management.Observations made in the LKPLS show that the establishment and operationalisation of IPs is one of the institutional innovations being advocated for by change agents. Among other reasons, these kinds of innovations are also driven by the need to reduce transaction costs within value chains, and achieve positive margins of value-chain actors'.Preparation and implementation of work plans were undertaken annually in the early years. This involved all partners across the LKPLS. Activities were identified on the basis of the needs of the grassroots levels, their implementation schedules made, roles and responsibilities of partners identified and apportioned among partners. This ensured that there was adequate time for early research and testing to be conducted by farmers on options for addressing opportunities identified in the action plans. This style of collectively implementing identified activities presented clear signals to farmers that the IAR4D processes were not 'business as usual'. IAR4D is clearly linked to participatory action-research and extension, and learning approaches involving learning sites and demonstrations located on farmers' own fields.Attempts were made to balance efforts towards promoting improved NRM practices with increased productivity. Consequently, capacity building for farmers in the use of soil fertility and conservation technologies on a wide scale was intensified. Ways to manage conflicts arising from collective actions on soil and water management were also initiated, especially in the Ugandan IPs where bye-laws to that effect were formulated, accepted and are awaiting approval for implementation.Farmers' access to production and marketing information was essential for the IP processes and other operations. Faster and more cost-effective access to information was tackled for the Uganda IPs. Using Makerere University's Open Distance Learning Network (ODLN) in partnership with Warid Telecom Uganda, a closed user group (CUG) was established to allow fast information flow among a collection of pre-defined IP network users (Figure 7.1). A platform of 200 value-chain actors has been linked using such a facility so that diverse and distant actors are able to hold monthly IP and marketing meetings, thus avoiding the costs of conventional face-to-face interactions. Materials from various SSA CP workshops are also submitted to the ODLN, which translates the materials into local dialects for dissemination to the relevant stakeholders, especially the farmers. ODLN uses different information and communications technology (ICT) support including short message service (SMS), radio and print for faster dissemination. Benefits that have accrued from the use of ICT through ODLN innovations must not be undervalued. Makerere University's ODLN has added value to the SSA CP in the LKPLS through the use of ICT innovations and this has greatly enhanced information flows and communication among the diverse partners. Ultimately, it will be necessary to scale out the activities of this innovation to other IPs in the LKPLS to ensure wider participation and benefits.It is observed that purely livestock-orientated IP activities have been slow to take off. Using the example of the Mudende milk IP (Rwanda), the milk cooling and bulking storage facilities have taken a long time to operationalise for various financial, technical and logistical reasons and the venture would require access to credit or intervention of a private investor. Product theft occurred in many IPs. This was most prevalent in the Muungano potato IP (DRC), where farmers were forced to harvest crops prematurely. Long delays in buyers paying farmers for produce were a serious disincentive for continued production. Such delays were witnessed in Chahi and Bufundi potato IPs in Uganda.Overall, IAR4D has influenced attitudes and behaviour change (ABC) among all actors within the project.Many financial and microfinance institutions are reluctant to give credit to farmers who practise rainfed agriculture. Where agricultural credit could be sourced, it was at high interest rates of up to 37 percent per year in Uganda.Low capacity of partner organisations is another big challenge: IPs are composed of stakeholders with different capacities. For example, the majority of retail traders have limited capital capacity and have largely depended on intermediaries for their operations. Likewise, farmers in rural areas have low capacity to contend with the multitude of risks and constraints they face. The national agricultural research system (NARS) staff members also have different backgrounds. Therefore, it takes a lot of effort and resources to improve their capacity to grasp and implement IAR4D concepts through the IPs.Facilitation of networks is time-consuming, which often causes conflicts with core organisational mandates. The challenge here was that some organisations were not ready to recognise and reward these demanding networking functions.Differences in socio-political situations among the participating countries have influenced the introduction and operationalisation of IAR4D approaches and practices. The three countries are at different stages of post-conflict periods (Uganda has enjoyed 21 years and Rwanda 16 years of post-conflict stability, while DRC is just emerging out of conflict). It was therefore a challenge to conduct research and facilitation in the same way across the three countries. Language also presented a barrier to free communication across networks in the three countries.After finding solutions to the IPs' initially identified constraints, new challenges often emerged requiring prompt solutions. For example, at the Chahi IP in Uganda, initial analysis showed that limited access to markets and inability to get competitive prices for potatoes were the main constraints. Accordingly, negotiations were initiated with the private sector to directly purchase potatoes from the farmers. After long negotiations with various players in the potato market chain, a system for a group of retailers to purchase potatoes directly from the producers was established with well-laid guidelines and a memorandum of understanding. The assumption was that farmers in the area had enough produce to meet the market demand. When the action was implemented, it was quickly realised that there were insufficient potatoes to meet the market demand. The situation was reviewed and the need for increased production was identified as the solution. However, this required improved seed and other agro-inputs, which also required financial support from banks or microfinance institutions. Related situations were experienced with Kasikisi banana juice in the Musanganya banana IP in DRC and Mamera sorghum porridge in the Bubare sorghum IP in Uganda. Following successful processing, branding, packaging and presentation, and introduction to the market, new issues of patenting, standards, certification and licensing emerged among IP members. These required dialogue and negotiations to resolve. Similarly, in the Mudende milk IP in Rwanda, the IP involved two dairy cooperatives to establish successful linkages with the Inyange Milk processing plant. Conflicts emerged thereafter among IP members. This required mediation to reach an understanding among the members.Some stakeholders were still experiencing a dependency syndrome and expected 'free handouts'. This was particularly acute in those areas just emerging out of conflict situations. This required tactical skills for managing the syndrome. Most of the LKPLS IPs are being implemented in areas where most of the people are resource-poor and find it difficult to contribute towards funding the activities. Moreover, they are used to getting free services and other handouts (including money) from the government and NGOs. So far, IP activities have been partially facilitated financially by the SSA CP, and it is yet to be seen whether these IPs will become self-sufficient at the end of the project period. This poses a potentially huge challenge.Some IPs were set up under situations of net food deficits. Moving such IPs to the next level of commercial production (ie, sustainable market surpluses) remains a challenge, especially now that climate change appears to be increasing the frequency of droughts, both within and between seasons. Along the same lines is the challenge of balancing the NGO-driven food security relief programmes against farmer-driven production for the market.In addition to markets, improved productivity in the LKPLS is dependent on adequate seed availability of improved varieties, especially for vegetatively propagated materials such as potatoes, cassava and bananas. This is proving to be a big challenge given that it can take more than two years to produce sufficient quantities of the improved seed varieties to meet the demand from farmers and the market. This often means that farmers have to continue growing unsuitable varieties -especially in the case of bananas in Musanganya IP (DRC). Banana growers in the Musanganya IP also face the complication of uprooting the banana crop and planting alternative crops for a two-year rotation period in the field-cleaning process to get rid of the prevailing banana bacterial wilt disease that has afflicted the local banana plantations -an enormous challenge.Implementation of IAR4D requires time and patience. As evident in the LKPLS, IAR4D innovations are influenced by the quality of facilitation, strong market-led linkages and knowledge-based interactions -and these are highly context-specific. It has also been observed in general that innovation capacity increases with the number and quality of stakeholders. In the LKPLS, successful operationalisation of IAR4D requires a functional and efficient linkage system of Establishment and Implementation of IAR4D in ECA 131 partners and actors to address dynamic facilitation and research issues. This linkage system is likened to a CPU of a computer.Market-led processes are invaluable in catalysing innovations and providing incentives to actors. Creation of win-win scenarios among stakeholders seemed to have enhanced involvement of relevant non-conventional actors such as the private sector and universities. Policy support and involvement of local leaders also appeared to be very useful in fostering the well-being and sustainability of IPs.Although the end-of-project (mid-term) survey was undertaken and completed in the LKPLS, conclusive scientific evidence of the performance of IAR4D approach under the SSA CP has yet to be provided.Cross-border networking needs to be strengthened through regional efforts to address crosscutting issues (eg, cross-border trade).Policy innovations should be continued and expanded beyond the Ugandan IPs. This is especially important in facilitating formation of bye-laws that support and create an enabling environment for systemic innovations to address existing and emerging challenges.The time needed to build partnerships where roles are clearly understood and acted upon in an atmosphere of trust, openness and equity can take longer than originally conceived. It is therefore necessary to have good facilitation, leadership and champions from inception.It is important to ensure adequate capacity among facilitators and other partners for IP coordination and this should be pursued.","tokenCount":"34823"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fc85bb50bf2ab082941da996baa411b1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/58441615-6e4c-4ca9-9411-b140f47d1855/retrieve","id":"1884014008"},"keywords":["Bradyrhizobium sp. USDA 3456","G × E","Nodulation","Promiscuous Soybean"],"sieverID":"2f920073-2fc4-4d12-9c9b-1e1a6f172d36","pagecount":"14","content":"Background: Understanding factors influencing the expression of a trait is key in designing a breeding program. Genotype by environment interaction has great influence on most quantitative traits. Promiscuous nodulation is a trait of importance for soybean production in Africa, because of the soil bacteria Bradyrhizobium japonicum not being indigenous in most African soils. Most soybean cultivars require B. japonicum for nodulation leading to the need for seed inoculation before sowing soybean in Africa. Few cultivars have capability to nodulate with Bradyrhizobia spp. that are different from B. japonicum and native in African soils. Such cultivars are termed \"promiscuous cultivars. \" Field experiments were conducted in six locations in Uganda for two seasons, to investigate the extent of environmental influences on the nodulation ability of promiscuous soybean genotypes.Results: Additive main effect and multiplicative interaction effects showed highly significant environment and genotype by environment (G × E) interaction effects on all nodulation traits. G × E interaction contributed more to the total variation than genotypes. The genotypes Kabanyolo I and WonderSoya were the most stable for nodules' dry weight (NDW), which is the nodulation trait the most correlated with grain yield. Genotype UG5 was the most stable for nodules' number (NN), and Nam II for nodules' effectiveness (NE). The genotype NamSoy 4M had the highest performance for NN, NFW, and NDW, but was less stable. WonderSoya had the highest NE. Genotype and genotype by environment analysis grouped environments into mega-environments (MEs), and four MEs were observed for NDW, with NamSoy 4M the winning genotype in the largest ME, and Kasese B the ideal environment for that nodulation trait.Crop genotypes respond differentially to diverse environments for most quantitative traits [1]. This differential response is known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction. Chandler et al. [2] reported that it is important to understand the causes of the G × E interaction in order to define breeding objectives. Gauch [3] and Yan and Hunt [4] argued that G × E interaction reduces selection progress in a breeding program and makes it difficult to select high-performing genotypes that are stable across locations. The impact of G × E on genotypes can be described by both their stability and adaptability. Stability is defined as the ability of a genotype to perform consistently in various environments. This applies to both high and low performance. Adaptability refers to the ability of a genotype to perform well in some environments and poorly in other environments [5]. Adaptability is handled by stratifying the production area and release of cultivars specifically adapted to each stratum [6]. Bernardo [7] found G × E interaction as both a problem and an opportunity. The author argued that a genotype with little G × E interaction is stable across environments; however, a genotype with high G × E interaction may outperform all other genotypes in specific environments, hence an opportunity to refine specific genotypes to specific environments. For a plant breeding program to be efficient, breeding strategies must integrate the environmental influence on the expression of genes involved in the traits under selection [8]. This is crucial at both cultivar selection and recommendation stages.Promiscuous nodulation in soybean is a polygenic trait [9] of importance in Africa's soybean production. Nodules have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen [10] which provides the plant with the required nitrogen for normal plant growth and soil improvement. Unfortunately, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, the symbiotic soil bacteria required for normal nodulation of soybean, is not present in most soils in Africa [11]. In addition, most farmers do not have access to B. japonicum inoculant that can be used to inoculate seed [12]. Promiscuous soybean genotypes which have the capability of nodulating with indigenous and readily available Bradyrhizobia [13] proved the best alternative, as they can achieve high yield without prior seed inoculation and thus rule out the need to inoculate seeds before planting.Breeding for promiscuous soybean cultivars has proven successful. Scientists at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) have released promiscuous soybean lines which were found to efficiently nodulate with Bradyrhizobium spp. that belong to the cowpea \"crossinoculation\" group [14,15]. Abaidoo et al. [16] detected Bradyrhizobium spp. populations in approximately 74% of the African soils; hence, promiscuous soybean cultivars would yield well without seed inoculation and ameliorate soils for subsequent crops in Africa. However, the genetics of promiscuous nodulation is not well documented and the little available literature is from [15]. They performed a backcross analysis of the dry weight of nodules and found that non-promiscuous phenotype was partially dominant and was controlled by four loci. The authors also based their investigation on leaf color score (LCS) and found that non-promiscuous phenotype was almost completely dominant in LCS. The same authors detected the RAPD marker OPB06 (5′-TGCTCTGCCC-3′) which they reported to be consistent with the soybean genotypes segregating for promiscuous nodulation [17].Several statistical methods are available to assess G × E interaction. These include analysis of variance (ANOVA), site regression analysis (SREG), genotype and genotype by environment (GGE) model, joint regression analysis (JREG), factorial regression analysis (FREG), shifted multiplicative model (SHMM), and additive main effect and multiplicative interaction effects (AMMI). The choice of a model for G × E interaction analyses depends on the objectives of the investigator [18]. Literature search shows that AMMI and GGE are currently the two most frequently used methods for G × E analyses. Several arguments have been advanced for or against the use of AMMI and GGE models. Gauch [19] showed that the advantage of AMMI over GGE resides in the fact that AMMI can distinguish the effects of the genotype and the environment and then assess the G × E interaction in a reduced space with minimum error. Gauch and Zobel [20] judged that AMMI was able to increase two to five times the number of replications, hence suitable for experiments with few replicates. Kandus et al. [18] stated that GGE has been widely used because it allows the visualization of genotype performance in each environment. Shrestha et al. [21] judged GGE as the best approach because it clearly shows the \"which-won-where\" pattern of the genotypes. Naroui Rad et al. [22] demonstrated that both AMMI and GGE are suitable for the demarcation of mega-environments as these authors reported similar results for both models. Moreover, [23] found that the AMMI model, the GGE model and the SHMM were equal in gaining accuracy in research.The objective of this study was to investigate the magnitude of the G × E effect on promiscuous nodulation in soybean.The study involved 12 soybean genotypes that were shown to be responsive to Bradyrhizobium sp. strain USDA 3456 (cowpea-type inoculant) in an earlier study [24] (Table 1).The study was conducted in six sites representing the major agroecologies in Uganda ( At each site, plots of land not previously artificially inoculated with Bradyrhizobia were selected and prepared for sowing following common land preparation methods [25]. Seeds of the 12 genotypes were inoculated with Bradyrhizobium sp. strain USDA 3456 (cowpea-type inoculant). Bradyrhizobium spp. are reported to effectively nodulate promiscuous soybean genotypes [14,15]. Inoculant was obtained from Biofix (Kenya), purified, and incubated in the Soil Science Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) Laboratory at Makerere University. The most probable number (MPN) through serial dilution technique described in [26] was used to grow Bradyrhizobium to 7.91 × 10 9 cells g −1 and then formulated into inoculum using steam-sterilized peat soil as a carrier. Ten grams of sugar was dissolved into 300 ml of clean lukewarm water to produce a sticking agent. The inoculant was mixed with the sticking agent and directly applied on seeds to enhance association between plant and rhizobium. To be sure that inoculants were viable, fresh culture was made at each planting season, and after mixing with peat soil, packets were refrigerated at 4 °C until planting date.The field experiments were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates at each site. Each plot was three rows wide and 5 m in length. The rows were 0.6 m apart with a spacing of 0.1 m between plants within rows, giving an average of 153 plants per plot (170,000 plants/ha). Experiments were conducted for two consecutive seasons: first rainy season (2015A) and second rainy season (2015B) of 2015 at each site, resulting in 12 testing environments (see Table 3). Fields were weeded three times in a season.At each of the six sites, 6-7 weeks after emergence (see planting and sampling dates in Table 3), ten plants per plot were randomly dug up, the root system from each plant was carefully washed, and all nodules were  harvested and counted to determine the number of nodules (NN), and later weighed to determine the fresh weight of nodules per plant (NFW). Thereafter, all the nodules were split and opened to assess their effectiveness. The percentage of effective nodules (NE) per plant was calculated based on the presence of brownish or pinkish pigmentation inside nodules. Nodules were then oven-dried at 65 °C for 4 days [15] and weighed to determine the total nodule dry weight (NDW) per plant.ANOVA was performed for each site separately followed by a combined analysis across sites in GenStat 14th edition (VSN International Ltd., Hemel Hempstead, UK) [27]. No data transformation was needed.The models for analyses were:where Y ijk is the observed value from each experimental unit, µ population mean, L h effect of the hth site, S j effect of the jth season, S/r jk effect of the kth replicate nested to the jth season, E/r jhk effect of the kth replicate nested to the jhth environment (environment = location by season), G i effect of ith genotype, GS ij interaction effect of ith genotype and the jth season, LS jh effect of the jth season nested to the hth location, GLS ijh interaction effect of ith genotype and the jhth environment (site per season) and ε ijkh experimental error.AMMI analysis was performed on each nodulation trait to determine the contribution of the genotypes, environments, as well as their interaction to the total variation. GGE analysis was also performed to determine the mega-environments and visualize the \"which-wonwhere\" pattern. These were done using breeding view graphical user interface with a statistical analysis package [28] embedded in Breeding Management System (BMS) Version 3.0.9.The single site ANOVA (Table 4) showed significant differences (p < 0.05) among genotypes for all nodulation traits measured at most of the sites, except at Iki Iki where genotype effects were nonsignificant for all nodulation traits. Percentage of effective nodules was not significant (p > 0.05) at Kabanyolo and Kamwenge.Season effects were significant (p < 0.05) for all nodulation traits at Nakabango. There were no significant (p > 0.05) season effects for the percentage of NE at Iki Iki, Kabanyolo, and Ngetta, while season effects for NN were nonsignificant at Kabanyolo, Kamwenge, and Kasese. Season had significant effects on dry weight of nodules at all sites except at Kamwenge.There was significant genotype by season effects for NN at Kasese and Ngetta. For NE, significant genotype by season effects was only obtained at Ngetta, while NFW had significant genotype by season effects at Kamwenge, Kasese, and Ngetta. Significant genotype by season effects for NDW was also obtained at Iki Iki and Ngetta. Ngetta exhibited significant genotype by season effects on all nodulation traits. The interaction between  genotypes and seasons was not significant for any nodulation trait at Kabanyolo and Nakabango.In the analysis across all 12 environments, genotype by environment effects was highly significant for NN, NE, NFW (p < 0.001), and NDW (p < 0.05) (Table 5). Highly significant (p < 0.001) genotypic effects were also obtained for all nodulation traits except NE, where there was no significant difference between genotypes across environments. Highly significant environmental effects were observed for all nodulation traits (p < 0.001). The interaction of genotypes × sites × seasons was highly significant (p < 0.01) for all nodulation traits except for NDW. Sites showed significant differences only for NN and NE, while seasons showed significant difference only for NE. The interaction of sites × seasons was highly significant (p < 0.001) for all nodulation traits, except for NE. There was significant interaction between genotypes and sites for NFW and NDW, while no significant interaction was observed between genotypes and seasons for any of the nodulation traits measured.The AMMI ANOVA (Table 6) showed significant effects of genotypes and environments as well as their interactions for all nodulation traits (p < 0.05-p < 0.001), except for the percentage of effective nodules, where genotypic effects were not significant. The first two interaction principal component axes (IPCA) were significant at (p < 0.01) for all nodulation traits. For all nodulation traits, the first IPCA explained more than 50% of the total variation. IPCA1 explained 56.8% of the total variation in NN, 69.86% for NE, 61.13% for NFW and 72.11% for NDW, while IPCA2 explained 43.2% for NN, 30.14% for NE, 38.87% for NFW and 27.89% for NDW.G × E interaction had a substantial contribution to the total variation for all nodulation traits, varying from 9 to 64% (Table 6). The highest G × E effect was observed for NE, while the lowest G × E effect was observed for NDW. Environments had the highest contribution (13-84%) to the total sum of squares for all nodulation traits except for NE, where the highest contribution (64%) was from the G × E interaction. Genotypes had the lowest contribution (3.9-6.0%) to the total variation, suggesting low genetic effect and high environmental effect in the expression of the nodulation traits measured.The AMMI biplots (Fig. 1) showed the genotype Nam-Soy 4M with the highest NN across environments (29 nodules per plant), while K-local had the lowest performance (11 nodules per plant). These two genotypes were both unstable as they are far from the origin with regard to the y axis, while the genotype UG5 proved the most stable.As for the percentage of NE, the most stable genotypes were Nam II, Kabanyolo I, and NamSoy 3. MakSoy 2N was the most unstable, far apart from the origin, and had a relatively high performance across environments (72% of effective nodules). The genotype WonderSoya had the highest performance across environments (74% of effective nodules), coupled with a relatively high stability, while the genotype Soprano had the lowest performance (56% of effective nodules) and was relatively unstable.   With respect to NFW, NamSoy 3 and WonderSoya proved the most stable (closest to the origin), the most unstable genotype was K-local, as it had the longest vector to the origin. The genotype NamSoy 4M had the best performance (744 mg) and was relatively stable, while the genotype Soprano had the lowest performance (347 mg) and was unstable.For NDW, the genotypes WonderSoya and Kabanyolo I were closest to the origin and thus were the most stable, while genotypes K-local and Bulindi 48C had the longest vector to the origin and thus were the least stable. Genotype NamSoy 4M had the highest performance (151 mg), while K-local had the lowest performance (72 mg).Focusing on the environments, Nakabango B was the environment with the highest nodule number, while Kamwenge A and B, as well as Ngetta B, had the lowest NN, followed by Ngetta A and Iki iki B, respectively. With respect to the NE, Kasese A had the greatest percentage of effective nodules, while Iki iki B had the lowest percentage. The highest fresh weight of nodules was found in Nakabango B and Kasese A, while Kamwenge A and B had the lowest performance. The highest fresh weight of nodules was observed in Kasese A and Nakabango B, while Kamwenge A and B had the lowest performance.The mean performance of genotypes for each nodulation trait across environments was subjected to the GGE analysis. The GGE biplots (Fig. 2) plotted the scores of genotypes and environments on the first (PC1) against the second (PC2).The first axis (PC1) explained 56% of the variation in NN, while the second axis (PC2) explained 20%. In total, the first two axes explained 76% of the total variation. The sector convex hull showed three sectors indicating three mega-environments: Kasese A, Nakabango A and B, Kabanyolo A and B, Iki Iki A, and Ngetta A made one mega-environment with NamSoy 4M the winning genotype. Kasese B represents the second mega-environment with MakSoy 3N the highest performing genotype. The third mega-environment included Ngetta B, Iki Iki B, and Kamwenge A and B with K-local the best genotype in that mega-environment.With respect to the percentage of effective nodules, the first two PCs explained 98.5% of the total variation of which PC1 had 97% and the PC2 1.5%. Three megaenvironments were demarcated: Ngetta B represented one mega-environment with MakSoy 2N as winning genotype. Ngetta A and Kamwenge A and B formed the second mega-environment with Bulindi 48C and MakSoy 3N as winning genotypes. The rest of the environments formed the third mega-environment with Soprano, Nam-Soy3 and UG5 as best genotypes.For NFW, the first two PCs explained 75% of the total variation of which the PC1 carried 53%. Two mega-environments were demarcated with Nakabango A and B, and Kasese B forming the first mega-environment with MakSoy 3N as best genotype, and the rest of the environments constitute the second mega-environment in which NamSoy 4M was the best genotype.The two first PCs explained 75% of the total variation in NDW. Four mega-environments were demarcated with interference between them. The largest mega-environment included Kasese A, Kabanyolo A and B, Ngetta A and B, Kamwenge A and B, and Iki Iki A and B. NamSoy 4M was the winning genotype in that mega-environment. However, Iki Iki A and Kabanyolo A also belong to the second mega-environment which they formed together with Kasese B and Nakabango A and B; Bulindi 48C and MakSoy 3N were the winning genotype in this megaenvironment. The last two mega-environments were contiguous. They were formed with Kamwenge A and Iki Iki B for one and Ngetta B and Kamwenge B for the other.Overall Nakabango B proved the ideal environment for NN (Fig. 3a), Ngetta B for NE (Fig. 3b), while Kasese A proved the ideal environment for NFW (Fig. 3c) and Kasese B for NDW (Fig. 3d). These environments had the longest vector, so were the most discriminating; besides, they were the closest to the horizontal axis, so were representative of the other environments.The study showed highly significant interactions between genotypes and environments for all the nodulation traits measured. This is an indication that the response of promiscuous soybean genotypes to Bradyrhizobium sp. USDA 3456 is highly dependent on the site where the genotypes are grown and seasonal variation of temperature and rainfall. For most of the measured nodulation traits, the contribution of the environment to the total variation was higher than the effect of the genotypes and genotype by environment (G × E) interaction, except for percent of effective nodules where the G × E interaction effects contributed more to the total variation than the genotypes and environments effects. A similar trend was reported earlier on 31 Argentinean soybean genotypes by Salvucci et al. [9], who observed 41.9% contribution from environments against 28% from genotypes and 10.7% from interactions to the total variations on NN. However, the same authors reported more contribution from genotypes (30.5%) than environments and G × E interaction, 14.6 and 13.5%, respectively, in the total variation on NDW. The low contribution of the genotypes to the total variation observed in this study suggests that selection in a single environment may fail to achieve sufficient gain. Multi-environment selection is the best strategy suggested by quantitative geneticists to achieve selection gain with traits that exhibit low genetic effect [7,8]. One possible reason for genotypes accounting for relatively lower percentage of variability is the few genotypes (12) tested in this study; low genotype number leading to underestimation of genetic contribution has been pointed out by quantitative geneticists such as [7,8]. Increasing the number of genotypes might result in a higher genetic contribution to the total observed variability.Several authors have reported the importance of the environmental effect on nodulation in diverse legume plants [29][30][31]. Van et al. [32] advocate that the interaction between soybean and Bradyrhizobia can be represented by the disease triangle, whereby a functioning equilibrium between the host plant, microorganism and the environment is important to achieve effective nodulation. Yusuf et al. [33] emphasized that nodulation in soybean is a result of the effect of these three components (genotypes, environment, and Bradyrhizobia) plus their interaction.The GGE analysis showed that different seasons at the same site differ such that a site may belong to different mega-environments, depending on the season. This emphasizes the extent to which the environmental influences are important in the expression of these nodulation traits. Yan and Rajcan [34] defined an ideal environment as having high discriminating power (large PC1 scores) and being most representative of other environments (small PC2 scores). For the NN, Nakabango B was the most discriminating and representative environment, while Kasese B was ideal for NDW. A similar result was earlier reported on soybean yield in Uganda by Tukamuhabwa et al. [35]. These ideal environments are known to resolve accurate genotypic differences, thereby providing breeders with necessary information for selection [35].The average performances of environments showed Kamwenge A, B, Ngetta A, B and Iki Iki B as the poorest performing. The consistently poor performance at Kamwenge and Ngetta needs further investigations. We speculated that the poor performance of these two sites (Kamwenge and Ngetta) could be attributed to soil characteristics and environmental factors. Factors such as soil acidity (pH lower than 5.6), waterlogging, high temperatures, soil salinity, low available phosphorus and calcium, too much nitrogen, anoxia, etc. have been reported to affect nodulation in soybean [36,37]. However, no obvious differences in nutrient content and average rainfall between these two (Kamwenge and Ngetta) and other sites were observed. There is therefore no evidence linking weather or soil conditions to the poor performance of Kamwenge and Ngetta. Besides, authors reported that competition between indigenous and introduced strains can lead to failure in maximizing nodulation potential of soybeans [38]. Hence, we recommend that further research consider the characterization of soil Bradyrhizobia, especially at these two sites to explain the low performance of all the genotypes and suggest solutions to solve that. In Ngetta, galls due to infection by root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) were frequently observed on plants' root system. This could explain the relatively low nodulation recorded in that site, as competition for space and nutrients might have occurred. We also recommend that investigations be made on the interaction between Bradyrhizobia and root knot nematode.This study revealed information that can guide breeding strategies. The nodulation scores measured were number of nodules (NN), percent of effective nodules (NE), fresh weight of nodules (NFW), and dry weight of nodules (NDW). The effect of the environment was high on nodulation traits measured, and the same applies to the G × E interaction. The genetic effect tends to be low compared to the environment effect and the G × E interaction. The genotypes UG5, Kabanyolo I, and WonderSoya, which each showed stability for some of the nodulation traits measured, can be recommended as parental lines to initiate a breeding program focusing on promiscuous nodulation in soybean. The low genetic contribution, high environmental effect, and G × E interaction observed in this study provide very important knowledge that will be insightful for further soybean breeding programs, as multi-environment testing of the genotypes for both cultivar selection and cultivar recommendation is necessary in such situations. In other hand, the study revealed that as far as promiscuous nodulation in soybean is concerned, the sites where this study was conducted should not stand alone as testing environments as it was shown","tokenCount":"3936"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"46b59d86dc93865828d122ba75c2834c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da0ee5d3-4f0f-45ae-aa63-ecf22c64abd7/retrieve","id":"1477449441"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ff337564-be56-4f1c-83c7-4876f608ac46","pagecount":"6","content":"To derive insights from data, researchers working on agricultural experiments need appropriate data management and analysis tools. To ensure that workflows are reproducible and can be applied on a routine basis, programmatic tools are needed. Such tools are increasingly necessary for rank-based data, a type of data that is generated in on-farm experimentation and data synthesis exercises, among others. To address this need, we developed the R package gosset, which provides functionality for rank-based data and models. The gosset package facilitates data preparation, modeling and results presentation stages. It introduces novel functions not available in existing R packages for analyzing ranking data. This paper demonstrates the package functionality using the case study of a decentralized on-farm trial of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties in Nicaragua.Participatory on-farm experimentation approaches are reaching scale in agricultural research [1]. Participatory experiments often collect data as rankings, a format that is less common in other agricultural research settings [2]. A recently developed approach for on-farm experimentation, triadic comparison of technology options (tricot), makes intensive use of data in ranking format [3] and has already generated substantial trial datasets obtained from thousands of participating farmers [4][5][6][7]. Also, a newly proposed approach for synthesizing crop variety evaluation data depends on the analysis of ranking data [8].The analysis of ranking data requires the use of appropriate statistical models such as the Plackett-Luce model [9,10] or the Bradley-Terry model [11]. Functionality for fitting these models is available in R with the packages PlackettLuce [12], BradleyTerry2 [13] and psychotree [14]. However, extended functionality was required for the entire data science workflow, which usually includes: (1) Data preparation and cleaning, (2) modeling and validation, and (3) results presentation. For (1) gosset provides functions for converting and preparing data into a ranking or pairwise format required by the packages PlackettLuce, BradleyTerry2 and psychotree. For (2), gosset provides functions for model selection and validation using cross-validation. In the case of (3), enhanced functionality for plotting model results is provided by the gosset package.The R package gosset provides functionality supporting the analysis workflows in agricultural experimentation, especially for rank-based approaches. The package is available in the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN) [15] and can be installed by executing install.packages(''gosset''). The package is named in honor of William Sealy Gosset, known by the pen name 'Student'. Gosset was a pioneer of modern statistics in small sample experimental design and analysis. As a beer brewer at Guinness, he developed practical approaches to experimentation to compare barley varieties and beer brewing practices [16].The R package gosset is structured following the guidelines described in the manual for creating R add-on packages [15]. This structure consists of files DESCRIPTION, LICENSE, NAMESPACE and NEWS, and directories data, dev, docs, inst, man, R, and vignettes. The package functions were developed following the S3 methods style and are contained in the R sub-directory.Ranking data comes in many different formats. For example, the tricot format consists in a ranking of three items as answers to two questions about the extremes of the ranking (i.e. best and worst). Other data come as numeric rankings. To be able to use these data, they need to be converted in formats that can be used by the model approaches. The BradleyTerry2 and psychotree packages can deal with pairwise comparisons, while the PlackettLuce package can deal with rankings of several items.• rank_numeric converts numeric values into rankings. The parameter ascending indicates if the rankings should be made considering the numeric values in ascending order.The default is ascending = FALSE. This function is useful when the data have been collected as numerical observations, for instance, in an experiment measuring crop yield.• rank_tricot transforms data in tricot format into Placket-tLuce rankings [12].• set_binomialfreq transforms a PlackettLuce ranking object into binomial frequencies, as required by package BradleyTerry2 [13].• set_paircomp transforms a PlackettLuce ranking object into pairwise comparisons for BradleyTerry trees [14].The gosset package complements the R packages BradleyTerry2, psychotree and PlackettLuce, which were designed from a statistical perspective. These packages lack some functionality to work within a more predictive framework. Specifically, they lack functionality to perform more complex variable selection to generalize models across time and space and to evaluate these models in flexible ways. Therefore, gosset contains the following functions.• AIC computes the Akaike Information Criterion [17] for a Bradley-Terry model or a Plackett-Luce model.• btpermute deviance-based forward variable selection [18] procedure for Bradley-Terry models.• crossvalidation performs k-fold cross-validation, where k could be specified by the user. The default is 10-fold. Folds can be provided as a vector for a custom cross-validation, such as blocked cross-validation.• kendallTau computes the Kendall-tau rank correlation [19] coefficient between two rankings with p-values.• kendallW computes Kendall's W (coefficient of concordance) among observed rankings and those predicted by the Plackett-Luce model [20].• pseudoR2 computes goodness-of-fit metrics, such as Mc-Fadden's pseudo-R 2 [21].Bradley-Terry and Plackett-Luce models produce (log-)worth values, which are estimated (log-)probabilities that item i beats all the other items {j, . . . , n} in the same set of items. Given the specific characteristics of these values, gosset contains tailored methods to process these values into metrics that aid decisionmaking and to visualize these worth values.• compare is a visualization approach to compare two different measures or traits [22]. An alternative to linear correlation plots. For instance, in the evaluation of crop variety trials, it allows to compare overall appreciation against yield. Another example is comparing the agreement records from different observers, like yield estimation collected by a technician and by a farmer.• plot provides a ggplot2 plot with improved aesthetics and a large number of customization options as an alternative to the S3 method plot.pltree() implemented by the PlackettLuce package, which provides a base R plot.• regret computes the regret coefficients, the loss under the worst possible outcome; a common heuristic in risk assessment strategy [23].• reliability computes the probability of a set of items outperforming a reference item; a common heuristic in plant breeding [24].• worth_bar creates a bar plot of the estimated worth for each evaluated item.• worth_map creates a heatmap plot of the estimated logworth for all items considering each of the evaluated traits.To demonstrate the functionality of the gosset package, we use the nicabean dataset, which was generated with decentralized on-farm trials of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties in Nicaragua over five seasons (between 2015 and 2016). Following the tricot approach [3], farmers were asked to test in their farms three varieties of common bean. The varieties were randomly assigned as incomplete blocks, each representing 3 varieties out of a total set of 10 varieties. Each farmer assessed which of the three varieties in one incomplete block had the best and worst performance in eight traits (vigor, architecture, resistance to pests, resistance to diseases, tolerance to drought, yield, marketability, and taste). The farmers also provided their overall appreciation of the varieties, by indicating which variety had the best and the worst performance based on the overall performance considering all the traits. To analyze the data, we use the Plackett-Luce model implemented in the R package PlackettLuce [12].The nicabean dataset is a list with two data frames. The first, trial, contains the trial data with farmers' evaluations, ranked from 1 to 3, with 1 being the higher ranked variety and 3 the lowest ranked variety for the given trait and incomplete block. The rankings in this dataset were previously transformed from tricot rankings (where participants indicate best and worst) to ordinal rankings using the function rank_tricot(). The second data frame, covar, contains the covariates associated with the on-farm trial plots and farmers. This example will require the packages PlackettLuce [12], climatrends [25], chirps [26] and ggplot2 [27].To start the data analysis, we transform the ordinal rankings into the Plackett-Luce rankings format (a sparse matrix) using the function rank_numeric We run iteratively over the traits adding the rankings to a list called R. Since the varieties are ranked in an ascending order, with 1 being the higher ranked and 3 the lower ranked, we use the argument ascending = TRUE to indicate which order should be used.Then, using the function kendallTau() we assess the Kendall tau (τ ) coefficient [19]. This approach can be used, for example, to assess what traits influence farmers' choices or to prioritize traits to be tested in a next stage of tricot trials (e.g. a lighter version of tricot with no more than 4 traits to assess). We use the overall appreciation as the reference trait and compare the Kendall tau with the other 8 traits.The Kendall correlation (Table 1) shows that farmers prioritized the traits yield (τ = 0.749), taste (τ = 0.653) and marketability (τ = 0.639) when assessing overall appreciation.  Then, for each trait, we fit a Plackett-Luce model using the function PlackettLuce() from the package of the same name.This will allow us to continue the trial data analysis using the other functions in the package gosset.The worth_map() function can be used to visually assess and compare item performance based on different characteristics.The values represented in a worth_map (Fig. 1) are log-worth estimates. From the breeder or product developer perspective the function worth_map() offers a visualization tool to help in identifying item performance based on different characteristics and select crossing materials.To consider the effect of climate factors on yield, we use agroclimatic covariates to fit a Plackett-Luce tree. For simplicity, we use the total rainfall (Rtotal) derived from CHIRPS data [28], obtained using the R package chirps [26]. Additional covariates can be used in a Plackett-Luce tree, for example using temperature data from R packages ag5Tools [29] or nasapower [30].We request the CHIRPS data using the R package chirps. Data should be returned as a matrix. This process can take some minutes to be implemented.We compute the rainfall indices from planting date to the first 45 days of plant growth using the function rainfall() from the R package climatrends [25].To be linked to covariates, the rankings should be coerced to a 'grouped_rankings' object. For this we use the function group() from PlackettLuce. We retain the ranking corresponding to yield. Now we can fit the Plackett-Luce tree with climate covariates. The following is an example of the plot (Fig. 2) made with the function plot() in the gosset package. The functions node_labels(), node_rules() and top_items() can be used to identify the splitting variables in the tree, the rules used to split the tree and the best items in each node, respectively.We use the function reliability() to compute the reliability of the evaluated common bean varieties in each of the resulting nodes of the Plackett-Luce tree (Table 2). This helps in identifying the varieties with higher probability of outperforming a check variety (Amadeus 77). For the sake of simplicity, we present only the varieties with reliability ≥ 0.5.The results show that three varieties can marginally outperform Amadeus 77 under drier growing conditions (Rtotal 193.82 mm) compared to the reference. This approach helps in identifying superior varieties for different target population environments. For example, the variety ALS 0532-6 shows weak performance in the whole yield ranking, however for the subgroup of higher rainfall, the variety outperforms all the others. Combining rankings with socio-economic covariates could also support the identification of superior materials for different market segments.A better approach for assessing the performance of varieties can be using the ''Overall Appreciation'', since we expect this trait to capture the performance of the variety not only for yield, but for all the other traits prioritized by farmers (Table 1). To assess this, we use the function compare() which applies the approach proposed by Bland and Altman (1986)  [22] to assess the agreement between two different measures. We compare overall appreciation vs yield. If both measures completely agree, all the varieties should be centered to 0 in the axis Y.The chart (Fig. 3) shows no complete agreement between overall appreciation and yield. For example, variety SX 14825-7-1 shows superior performance for overall appreciation when compared with yield. Looking at the log-worth in the heat map of Fig. 1, we can argue that the superior performance of the given variety is also related to taste, marketability and disease resistance. This performance, however, was not captured when assessing only yield.Here we present a simple workflow to assess crop variety performance and trait prioritization in decentralized on-farm trials with the tricot approach. Next steps in this workflow could also utilize other functions available in gosset, Examples include: (1) a forward selection combined with crossvalidation() to ensure model robustness, (2) model selection with btpermute() to consider all possible permutations in Bradley-Terry models, (3) a risk analysis using regret() to support the selection of varieties, and (4) using rank_numeric() to combine legacy data and deal with heterogeneous data from different trials. All of these were previously implemented and validated elsewhere [4][5][6][7][31][32][33].Reproducible and efficient workflows are fundamental in scientific research [34]. The gosset package provides functionality that was not previously available from other R packages and which enabled scientific studies based on the analysis of ranking   [33] applied the Plackett-Luce model in combination with recursive partitioning [12,36]. In these studies, the gosset package supported data preparation, model validation and results presentation tasks. Furthermore, the gosset package is part of a software ecosystem built around ClimMob (https: //climmob.net/), a digital platform for supporting on-farm trial management, which runs trials in more than 10,000 farms per year. Insights generated with the package's functionalities are currently supporting several plant breeding teams in Sub-saharan Africa to select and advance breeding materials [6,33]. Therefore, the gosset package is fundamental in the implementation of large scale on-farm experimentation projects. Refinement of methods and expansion of the approach in breeding programs is supported by an Africa-wide on-farm trial network implemented by the 1000FARMS Platform (https://1000farms.net/).The use of ranking data in agricultural experimentation is currently growing, requiring new appropriate tools supporting analysis and synthesis activities. We developed the R package gosset to support the synthesis and analysis of ranking data, especially in agricultural research. The package provides functions that are not available in existing R packages for analyzing ranking data. This provides a friendlier user environment, streamlining the application of data science in agricultural research. In addition, the package code is open source, making it easier for developers to contribute but also to users to request new functionalities. We provided an illustrative example covering the main functionality across the stages involved in the analysis workflow. Since the package is also part of a growing community of practice in on-farm experimentation, it is expected that its functionality will be improved and expanded, pushed by the members of this community of practice.The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.","tokenCount":"2445"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1dfbbff47374c7c2212647061568257e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d29eab55-6f6a-487a-b938-05ad6f13ec3c/retrieve","id":"1918213125"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8b782d33-ae09-4057-8206-cf2af116d27a","pagecount":"10","content":"~O(jJu t,~8 COlECCION HISTOR!{A El fríjol común Phascolus vulgaris L. t•S lIna leguminosa con alto contenido de proteínas, por lo cual debe estar pre,,;ente en una dicta ade-Clladamcnte balanceada. Sinembargo en mH3:,tro medio ~'u cultivo ha sido típieamente de minifundio y sólq en muy pocas (¡\"\"siones se ha sembrado ext,ensa-m,!)nte. Una de las principales razones para. ello es el at aque de plagas, el c'ual cuando es' fuerte puede rebajar la produeción en un 1000/0. PRINCIPALES PLAGAS En la zona de Palmira el problema número uno del cultivo es el lorito verde Empo~sca kraem.eri R y M (Homoptera-cicadellidae) el cual produce achaparramiento y enanismo 'en las piantas atacadas mientras que las hojas se muestran arrugadas y con a¡:narillamiento •en las márgenes. En segundo lugar se presentan los cucarroncitos de'las hojas , , Diabrotica spp., Cerotoma sp. y otros, los cuales consumen la superficie foliar dejando las nervaduras. En un tercer plano se encuentran los ácaros, de los cuales atacan dos especies: la arañita roja Telranychus deserlorun y el ácaro verde ' Polyphagotarsonemus latus. El primero hace pequei\\as telarañas en el *'1.A. Asistente' de investigación, Programa de Entomología de Fríjol -ClAT.'.Finalmente en la gráfica 3 se observa la fluctuación de la población .. ' de 101'itos vf;¡rdes a lo largo del a¡\\o, notándose aquí la pt'esencia de 2 puntos más altc>s corresjJ(¡mlicntes a los meses de mayo a julio y octubr.enoviembre.Dc lodo esto podemos concluir qu/;) la '(!!)tación llnviostt conUeva poblaciones bajas ~lcl lm'ito y se traduce en un aurnento en los relldimielltos de fríjol, mi/;)ntras. que las épocas secas se caracterizan por un aunlf;¡nlo en las poblaciones del insecto lo clIal cau;:;,i la disminución en los rendimientos. Estás relaciones son má3 notables en el primer semestre.En la práctica esto J.'cpresenia que es recomendable sembl'ar fríjoles únicanH~nte d\\lrante .el primer semestre y hacerJ'o a rncdiados de mo:rzo, al comenzar la estacion lluviosa.Otra decisión que se debe tomar es, qué variedad utilizar, Durante el estudio m.encionado anteriormente se sembraron variedades de grano rojo como: Diacol-calima, lca-Cuali, Ica-Duva y val'iedades tipo caraota (grano negro y pequeflo) como: lea-Tui, lca-Huasano y la variedad mejicana Jamapa. A lo largo del año se pudo obsel'var cómo las variedades de , \" grano rojo son preferidas por los loritos durante el prime\"r me:1 de vida mientras que a partir de los \"4.0 días, éstos prefieren las variedades que se ,encuentran en mejores condiciones,y que corresponden a las caraotas.En la gráfica 2 se puede ohservar cómo los rendimientos obtenidos por lea-Tui son mús altos a los logrados por Diacol-calima. 'En la grárica 3 donde se muestra la fluctuación de la población, se escogió como fecha de muest:r;eo la que se realizó sol)re el cultivo a los 40 días. por \" • . ,considerarse este mnmcnto como el más l'epl\"e~H!n\\alivo del tarnafio de• la población y aquí es visible cómo la población sobre tui es lig~ramente mayor q!le sobre calima.El hecho de' que u 'los 40 días la pobl ¡:¡ción de insectos sea mayor sobre una variedad cCHlsidcracJ::t como rt~sisl(;!ntc indica que las varicdades susceptibles semb¡'uclas conjuntan1t'!ü,), están en muy mala condición, lo cual las hace poco apfitecibles <'.J 100'ito vorde.La resistencia varietal presenté' en Jmi fríjoles de tipo \"caraoto\"; es suficiente en los ~críodos húmedos, pC:1:0 no lo es cuando se si.embran en períodos secos.Además de todas aquellas prácticas agt'onómicas qué se debe/l . , . efectuar de/ltro de un sistema de control intt'grado, como son la adecuada preparación del suelo y demás, es importante tener en cuenta la rotación de cultivos.• En un lote de la granja experimental del CIAT en Palmira, yen, el .cual se sembraron inillterrumpidmnente fríjoles por dos ai1os, se dió el caso de una plaga potencial que adquirió importancia económica, es el caso del chinche de encaje Gal't,;(lpJüa ~!'ICz.i que alcanzó niveles tan altos que necesitó la uplicadón de insecticidas qurmicos para su control ..Son muci!os los insecticidas que se han probado con éxito en el control de plagas del fríjol, pero'se prefiere la utilización de insecticidas granulares de acción sistémica, debido a que son más seguros para los , , , .• , \" \" 6.operarios que las deben aplica!' y a que respetan la fauna benéfica, al actuar únicamente sobre los insectos que hacen daño a las plantas.En siembra» hechas duranle el período húmedo, 1a utilización de variedades resistente,; es suriciente. para obtener •los máximos rendimientos, mientras que el emplp.o de varicdades susceptibles requiere de una aplicación de insecticida granular al momento de siembra (Carbofuran -000 gr Iha) para maximisar los rendimi,~ntos, Cllando se pn'senlrm poblaciones muy altas de Empoaflci! después del primer mes, es acons~1jable la utilización de concentrados emulsionables, prefiriendo dosis bajas de productos sistémicos.Normalmente n.o es Ilc(:esario controlar nillgún otro tipó de insecto ya que por lo gcner.al no alcanzan niveles de importancia eCOnó:l11ca.Ultimamenle. y hasla ahora en forma preliminar, se ha venido investigando con la• pretecciótl química de las semillas mediante el revestimiento del grano. con una capa de insecticida. Inicialmente se presentó el problema dc la baja r,erminación de las semillas así tratadas pero finalmente se ha logrado una fórmula con la cual el porcentaje de germinación es de aproximadamente un 80%. y las plantas provenientes de esta semilla","tokenCount":"863"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/0764537310.json b/data/part_1/0764537310.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"934d6b8af46ad43fe4fa838f4afad378","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be5837af-d221-42e0-958a-ed6072948d22/retrieve","id":"1195016574"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"398bcc38-3e77-4cbb-99a5-7d5f19f5bc3f","pagecount":"3","content":"This proposal aims to promote sustainable intensification of wheat-teff production systems in the Ethiopian Highlands by providing soil series-specific fertilizer recommendations through soil fertility trials based on newly developed soil maps from partner organizations.Rain-fed agricultural areas of East Africa are often food insecure due to rainfall variability and ongoing soil degradation that negatively impacts crop yields. Developing better soil management and/or tillage systems coupled with improved agronomic fertilizer recommendations could potentially increase crop yields of the major food crops. Site-specific sound fertilizer recommendations are especially important given the high cost associated with fertilizers at the port let alone once transported to the agricultural areas. Improved fertilizer use efficiency and determining economically optimum yields fulfills an objective of sustainable intensification.Healthy crops have access to soil that has an active supply of balanced nutrients. Crop plants are living indicators of the status of the overall soil physical, chemical, and biological environment. Plants thrive under ideal conditions, struggle under sub-optimal conditions, and die when exposed to sustained hostile conditions. The ability of plants to naturally resist or overcome biotic stresses is limited by the weakest component of the plant's response mechanisms. Soils depleted of organic matter and with poor structure due to compaction or excessive tillage will have an impaired ability to supply water and nutrients to crop plants. Conversely, soils in good physical condition have aggregates and pores that are conducive to optimal root growth and, with sufficient soil organic matter, have the ability to infiltrate and store the maximum amount of plant available water. Providing high yield potential crops with adequate fertilization generally helps ensure healthy root systems that will improve soil structure, pore space, and soil water relations. In the Ethiopian highlands, the Ethiopian Institute of Agriculture Research (EIAR) is currently conducting fertilizer trials to examine the impact of different blends of fertilizers but not of fertilizer application rates. Proposed activities in this concept note will engage EIAR specialists and to complement their efforts by generating new data on the spatial patterns of yield response to fertilizer application and economic returns using crop models calibrated with the best available field trial data. This improved understanding of the spatial patterns of impact will be translated into proposals for regionally-tailored fertilizer recommendations that would replace the current national blanket recommendations. Better matching fertilizer application recommendations to local climate, soil, and management practices helps ensure that production can be intensified in a cost-effective and sustainable way and, thereby, enhance regional food security. This research will integrate farming systems and build partnerships between ATA, EIAR, IFPRI, the University of Tennessee, and the SANREM CRSP.Objective: Determine soil-specific optimum N, P, K fertilizer rate for teff and wheat in the Ethiopian Highlands. In early April we will have a short planning meeting at ATA to look at the regions' legacy soil maps and corresponding data and compare to the new maps generated by the efforts of AfSIS and ATA. Once we reach consensus on the soil types common to the project target regions we will spend one week minimum at each site evaluating and ground truthing the new soil maps.  From an intrinsic soil fertility standpoint, we propose to take the three most productive and two of the least productive soil \"series\" in the target region and verify through ground truthing that the new high detail soil map is correct.  Soil fertility trials will be conducted on these five selected soil types at five locations located within the project area in the Ethiopian Highlands.o At each location we will use the same five rates of N, P and K (but not as a factorial) with four reps and use the old blanket fertilizer recommendation for the basal application of the other two nutrients. This data would provide 25 sites with each site having 60 actual plots (5 N x 4 reps + 5 P x 4 reps) for both wheat and teff, using 10m by 10m plots. o Following the April meeting plots will be laid out and fertilizer applied just prior to planting wheat and/or teff in early June. Plots will be harvested in September, if mature grain yields will be measured; else plant biomass will be measured and converted to grain yields.  Results from the soil fertilizer responses will be analyzed and used to estimate the soil series-specific, versus old blanket, fertilizer recommendations for the sustainable intensification of wheat and teff in the study region.Data can be generated from the groundtruthing week in April to evaluate the actual precision and accuracy of the new soil mapping technologies. Fertilizer rate plots will be in place before the next crop planting date which occurs after the belg season (short rainy season from February to May) and in time for the kiremt rains (long rainy season from June to September). Depending on harvest date, actual yield data could be available by 30 September 2012. If it is too early to harvest grain we will harvest crop biomass and use common conversions to estimate grain yields.Results from this study will have regional implications as we look at the impact of both soil fertility and soil management systems on the larger food security and climate issues. This research has the potential to benefit farmers and researchers throughout the region as we address these common smallholder and subsistence farming issues that impede regional intensification of food production, both on the subsistence and commercial scales.","tokenCount":"897"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/0784724438.json b/data/part_1/0784724438.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f8cfb49856a242efd256b2ac251732b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://rrr-refugee.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/42/2020/09/rrr-in-refugee-settlements-in-africa-project-brief-series-no-1.pdf","id":"-731045045"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d2fdc7c3-c2f6-429b-ba4a-b69961bcafde","pagecount":"8","content":"The Resource recovery and reuse (RRR) in refugee settlements in Africa project is being implemented in six refugee settlements and their surrounding host communities in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. The aim of the project is to increase the resilience of these communities through the implementation of RRR solutions. This builds on previous research and innovations by project partners in developing, testing and verifying technologies and livelihood models for gender-responsive circular economy solutions to capture energy, water and nutrients, and building resilient food and energy systems for refugee settlements and their host communities.The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that there were 79.5 million forcibly displaced people worldwide at the end of 2019. This included 26 million refugees, of which 6.3 million were hosted in the African continent. The current conflict in South Sudan has led millions to flee into Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. The models and tools used by the international community and the United Nations in conceptualizing the needs and best practices for hosting refugees is currently undergoing substantial revision, as many refugees spend years, if not decades, in camps or settlements. A more robust connection between humanitarian responses and development interventions is required to strengthen the contributions refugees can make to their livelihoods and the local environment, as well as ensuring conflict is avoided with the existing host communities.Complicating the situation is the reality that refugees in East Africa are disproportionately women and children. Families are large and cultural gender norms that limit women's roles are common. Moreover, the lack of sufficient funding for UNHCR means that some supplies that directly impact women's lives, such as food and biomass for energy, are in short supply. Women and children are often required to search isolated areas for firewood, thus exposing them to gender-based violence and other risks. The host communities may have limited access to resources or economic opportunities. To complement the insufficient aid received, a few refugee settlements and their host communities are growing some crops, even though they are faced with the challenges of low rainfall and poor soils. Therefore, there is the need to recover organic residues and grey water for soil nutrients and irrigation water.The overall objective of the project is to pilot and scale up adaptable and gender-responsive RRR solutions for increased food and energy security and sustainable socio-ecological systems in refugee settlements and host communities in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda (Figure 1). Gender integration is a key component of the project, as refugee communities are disproportionately women and children from many cultural backgrounds. A woman displaying trees in a home garden in a refugee settlement in Rhino, Uganda (photo: IWMI).The project was officially launched at the inception workshop held in Nairobi, Kenya, on September 24, 2019, together with partners and stakeholders. Further stakeholder consultations were carried out with key partners at the project sites. The stakeholders that participated thus far include the World Food Programme (WFP); UN-Habitat; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ); Netherlands Development Organisation (SNV); Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI); UNHCR; Office of the Prime Minister, Arua, Uganda; Administration for Refugee and Returnee Affairs (ARRA), Gambella, Ethiopia; and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).Key advice from stakeholders included the need to: (i) address cooking energy as a priority necessity that is aggravating hunger, environmental degradation, and conflict between the refugees and their host communities; (ii) undertake interventions to help refugees and their host communities to produce food to reduce hunger, improve self-reliance and, where possible, generate income; (iii) engage stakeholders for synergy and co-learning, for example, through existing stakeholder committees at each site; (iv) be careful with inappropriate or unwanted interventions that can undermine the trust between stakeholders and the international community; and (v) build on existing innovations in the refugee settlements.As part of the inception stage, the project team made orientation visits to the six sites -Tierkidi and Kule in Ethiopia, Kalobeyei and Kakuma in Kenya, and Rhino and Imvepi in Uganda -and identified the following three pressing challenges facing refugee settlements and their host communities:• Cooking energy poverty: Forces refugees to use food aid as a currency to access firewood and charcoal for cooking. For example, UNHCR provides 10 kg of firewood per person every two months in Kalobeyei and Kakuma in Kenya (Patel and Gross 2019). This leaves a deficit of over 80% in reference to 1 kg per capital per day used in many rural households in the region (Njenga et al. 2019).• Hunger: Families skip meals, reducing the amounts consumed and increasing the number of hungry days. Food supplied to refugees is not sufficient in terms of dietary diversity, thus acute malnutrition and anemia are experienced (WFP 2018).• Land degradation: Refugees harvest firewood and construction materials from the neighboring woodlands, resulting in land degradation and creating conflicts between host communities and refugees.These challenges are worse among host communities, as they do not receive food rations or the cash transfer aid received by refugees and yet the environmental conditions are harsh.Refugees and their host communities are attempting to improve their livelihoods through the adoption of innovative practices. This project will aim to enhance and scale up the required support to bring durable solutions for both refugees and their host communities.Enhancing access to cleaner cooking energy and reducing women's burden while improving environmental sustainability: Sustainable biomass harvesting, conversion of organic residues into fuel briquettes, agroforestry and the efficient use of biomass energy (Figure 2).   ","tokenCount":"901"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/0785191076.json b/data/part_1/0785191076.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..4fffc100016c74845356865b2aa75c6616f20e2b
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"588b68f585eb787f503ef5f5120f3ffb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f172adde-3da8-4032-8afa-58989e7f65ea/retrieve","id":"745300366"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6090baa4-7ddd-40cd-9fd1-b22184274019","pagecount":"15","content":"Irrigation in rural Mali is mostly done from the end of the rainy season to the end of the dry season (between March to May). Irrigation fields are prepared in September and October when water is abundant in the subsurface. Rural farmers are characterized as smallholder farmers with low income and low agricultural productivity due to rainfall variability and depleted soil nutrients. These farmers usually plant vegetable gardens in the dry season to supplement the main cereal crops (maize and sorghum). Vegetable gardens allow these farmers to diversify the food consumed within their households and fight against malnutrition in children and women. Traditional irrigation is mainly practiced using shallow wells, but is restricted by water availability. Recently, rural farmers have started organizing themselves into groups to build solar water pumps for agricultural production and other domestic uses. Some of these farmer groups have been supported by different development projects being implemented within these communities with a focus on promoting solar water irrigation pumps. Africa RISING (AR) has been implementing its research activities in some of these villages, however, within most AR intervention villages the farmers had more hand pumps than solar pumps. The few available solar powered pumps in these villages were primarily constructed for domestic use. This report provides the outcomes of a survey to assess the usage of solar irrigation pumps within the AR intervention villages. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 20 and RStudio.Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the respondents using solar powered irrigation pumps within the Africa RISING intervention villages. The average household size is 27, and age of respondents ranged between 20 to 70 years, with a mean value of 46 years. Farmers are active in rainfed agriculture until a certain age (around 50 to 60 years). Some farmers are actively engaged in vegetable production using irrigation until the age of 70. In the rural areas, old aged farmers that are still involved in agricultural production mainly use irrigation systems for crop production. Female farmers, supported by their children, mainly use irrigation system at homestead for dry season vegetable production.The average number of years for solar powered irrigations pumps in the studied area was 4.55, with an average yearly farm area coverage by each farmer is 0.15 ha. Before the introduction of solar powered irrigation pumps, farmers were using traditional irrigation systems for over 9 years. Survey results highlighted that female farmers are better users (64%) of irrigation systems. (Annex I). The respondents were grouped in three categories as head, spouse and member of the household. Spouse represented 54% of the respondents while household member was 30%, and head of the households represent 16% (Annex I). Despite the presence of many primary schools within the rural area, few people are able to progress up to university. Forty six percent of respondents (46%) did not receive any type of education. The alphabetization system is a local language learning technique accounting for 37% of the education system in the studied area. This was followed by 14 % receiving primary education and 4 % receiving secondary education. The highest level of the education system is the secondary level. Improved irrigation systems require formal training or education, but with more than 80% of respondents being illiterate, it may be difficult for the rural communities to properly use solar powered irrigation systems in the dry seasons.This report presents information regarding solar powered irrigation system as compared to the traditional irrigation system using the SIAF. A minimum of two indicators from each of the five sustainable intensification domains (productivity, environmental, economic, social and human well-being) were considered.Communities in rural Mali are faced with limited access to groundwater reserves and this adversely affects their daily activities. The severity of the water access problem varies from one place to the other and within seasons as well. An analysis of farmers' perceptions on water availability revealed that about 39% admitted to always lacking water within the villages surveyed, whereas 61% described periodical water shortages. In general, all respondents noted that there is significant water shortage during the dry season, a situation which influences farmers' decisions about water use priorities.Residents of the surveyed communities noted that they experienced severe water shortage at least one month every year. The duration and severity of water scarcity depends not only on people's needs but also on the types of water sources available. For example, users of shallow wells observed a longer duration of water scarcity in comparison to those using deep wells. This is because before the end of the dry season, wells dry according to the frequency of use and their depths. Survey results showed that 40% of respondents observed a lack of water for more than four months in the year. Twenty nine percent (29%) of respondents expressed problems with the quality and quantity of water during the three months preceding the start of the rainy season. Durations of water shortage not exceeding one and two months was 18% and 13% respectively.Water sufficiency was assessed for various activities concerning domestic need, livestock water consumption and irrigation purposes. Water from solar powered irrigation pumps was always available for household consumption (60%), livestock water need (28%) and irrigation (15 %). A small percentage of respondents (8%) highlighted they have never used solar pump for irrigation purposes.The study revealed that onion (49%) and tomato (27%) were the two most widely grown vegetables by farmers during the dry season using irrigation systems. Other vegetables produced by farmers include: Pepper, African Eggplant, Amaranth, Okra, and Lettuce. Water quantity supplied to the irrigated fields per day and irrigation intervals for each vegetable crop is presented in Table 2. Result showed that the quantity of applied water ranged between 50 and 1,200 liters per day. These values are in relation to the field size and water availability. The overall mean of the quantity of applied water was 353 liters with a standard deviation of 245.In the studied villages, single vegetable growers (monoculture farmers) are very few. Among the vegetables grown by farmers, onions were the highest water consumers using up 1,200 liters per day with a mean value of 369 liters per day. Results of water consumption for other crops is presented in Table 2.The interval between watering periods (irrigation interval) depended on the location of water source and the amount of water quantity supplied in the previous period. In general, the irrigation interval varied from 12 to 72 hours with a mean value of 14.41 hours. The soil's ability to store water for all vegetables varied from 1 to 5 days with an average of almost two days. The percentage of irrigated land was estimated, and results revealed that 67% of land under irrigation had sufficient water. The source of water varied from 2 to 94 meters depth with an average of 19 meters. Total production (yield and stover) data of vegetable crops produced using solar irrigation pumps are shown in Table 3. Of the vegetable crops produced, pepper had the least yield recorded with 200 kg/ha. The highest yield recorded was for tomato (25,000 Kg/ha). The mean yield production of Lettuce and Tomato varied from 3,167 to 8,547 Kg/ha respectively. The mean yield in Kg/ha for other crops is as follows: Onion (4,355), Pepper (4,310), African Eggplant (5,774), Amaranth (3,823), and Okra (3,511).The study also revealed most farmers in the study areas seldom used vegetable stover after harvest. Most respondents had a difficulty in estimating the quantity of stover produced because they didn't know how to. The stover from onion, and amaranth were directly consumed from farm fields at different times and it was not possible to get the estimated data. The average production of stover showed that Okra had 717 Kg/ha followed by tomato with 519 Kg/ha, while Pepper, and African Eggplant had the lowest stover yields with 517 and 491 Kg/ha respectively. The stover yield from vegetables are used for different purposes such as animals feed, composting and fuel wood. Survey results revealed that 39% of respondents used the stover to feed animals, 34% left the stover in the field to improve soil nutrients (manure), the remaining 27% use the stover as source of energy for cooking.Irrigation of vegetables with solar powered irrigation pump is conducted at the end of the rainy season. Sixty nine percent (69%) of respondents conduct one time irrigation in the dry season, and 24% responded that they conduct two-time irrigation in the year (rainy and dry season). The supplementary irrigation during the rainy season is mostly for Okra and Pepper. Despite the shortage of water in the dry season, 7% of farmers practice irrigation two times.Table 4 shows investment made in solar powered irrigation system by survey respondents. Investment in irrigable water sources was mostly done by projects and unlike solar pumps, most farmers directly make the initial investments for shallow wells. Results showed that the cost of constructing water sources varied from 25,000 to 500,000 FCFA with mean of 156,204 FCFA.In the rural areas, land that is demarcated for agricultural use is almost never sold. However, it can be borrowed or rented. In this condition it was difficult to estimate the cost of land, but some farmers who visited the cities estimated their land value. The average price for their land is 176,818 FCFA, while it varied from 20,000 to 400,000 FCFA. Rural farmers are willing to work together than hire extra labor. The mean cost allocated to labor work per season was estimated to be 3,293 FCFA. The cost allocated to labor work was for constructing shallow wells and mostly the gardening activities. Only 26 % of respondent hired labor, mainly for construction of the shallow wells and gardening.The number of persons working in irrigated fields varied from 1 to 20 with a mean of 4 persons. The time spent in the irrigation field depended much on water availability. It varied from 1 to 9 hours with a mean of 4 hours. The minimum number of working days per week was four with a mean of 6 days. Labor salary per day depend to the location and the work type, the price varied from 500 to 2500 FCFA. Despite the smaller land size under irrigation (an average of 0.15 hectare), there were many vegetables cultivated. The results in Table 5 shows onion occupied largest area with a mean value of 38% followed by tomato (29%). Amaranth and lettuce occupied smallest areas with 13% and 15% respectively. The percentage of consumed and sold vegetables produced under irrigation are shown in Table 6. Results revealed that more than 50% of most vegetables produced were for sale. While Pepper, African Eggplant, Tomato and Okra are for sale most of the times, the production of Lettuce was for household consumption with 59% rate of consumption, followed by Onion (53%), and Amaranth (51%). Income from the sale of vegetable production is shown in Table 7. The results indicated that farmers can get up to 40,265 FCFA per season from selling pepper followed by Onion with 36,457 FCFA. The low-income vegetables were amaranth and lettuce with 6,000 FCFA and 13,919 FCFA respectively. Most of the times amaranth, lettuce and African eggplant are cultivated for household consumption. These vegetables will be available for sale when the production is higher than household need. Producers could gain up to 5 million FCFA from the irrigation in one season. Inspite of farmers' dependence on rainfed agriculture for their livelihoods, they practice irrigation as secondary activity in the dry season to increase household income. Figure 1 illustrated the contribution of solar pumped irrigation system into household agricultural income. Results revealed that solar pumped irrigation contributed more than 40 % of the income for 31% of the respondents. This shows the importance of solar irrigation system in the agricultural development of the area. In 18% of respondent incomes, solar irrigation contributed up to 30%. Additionally, 14 and 15% of respondents indicated that solar irrigation system increased their income by twenty (20%) and ten (10%) percent respectively. For 21% of respondents' agricultural income was increased by five percent. Analyzed survey results indicated that 60% of respondents produce vegetables for household consumption, while the rest did so for other reasons including for sale. Most farmers' household income and nutrition diversity were therefore improved thanks to the use of solar irrigation systems. Meanwhile, there were challenges for non-vegetable producers to get nutritious foods because 69% estimated the unavailability of infrastructure for vegetable production. With regards to skills to use solar pumped irrigation system 54% of the respondents noted that they lacked of basic skills for maintenance work in case the pumps break down.Table 8 highlighted the distribution in percentage of the quantity of vegetables consumed by members of the household. Household members were categorized into six groups: adult female and adult male, youth female and youth male, children female and children male.The average percentage of vegetables consumed by a household member showed that adult females had high consumption rate with 22% of total production. In addition, youth female consumed 18% of the production while adult male, youth male, children female and male consumed 17%, 16%, 14% and 13% of the vegetables produced respectively.Table 8 shows vegetable stover consumption by animals and the resulted weight gain. Number of animals able to feed vegetable stover varied from 1 to 20 with a mean of 4 animals, therefore the total weight gain varied from 02 kg to 50 kg with mean of 11.64 kg. Irrigation is a secondary activity in the rural areas, therefore, whoever conducts the activity has full control on the benefits. In majority of the cases (more than 65%), vegetables produced using irrigation were controlled by the producer. The head of the household is the second person to control the production from solar irrigation. The decision taken on vegetable production using solar irrigation was made by the producer for more than 56% for all vegetables except for tomato which is 50%. The second most important decision maker was head of the household.In rural Mali cultivated farmland belongs to the head of the family, however areas which have never been cultivated belong to the chief of the village. Results indicating ownership of irrigation land highlighted that 43% of the land belonged to the head of the household, and 33% was for the village chief (Figure 2). Most of the times project-initiated irrigation systems are constructed on the property land of the village whose decision make is the village chief. Nearly 6.25 % of the farmers borrow land for vegetable production. Constructing a solar irrigation pump in the rural area is very expensive for ordinary farmers, thus they need support from projects or collective investment through farmers groups within the village. Few government workers in the city can also construct solar irrigation pumps in their village for different purposes. Seventy seven percent (77%) of the respondents noted that NGO funded projects constructed solar pump irrigation systems in their villages, while 21% responded that they contributed to the construction.The survey results indicated that 63% of respondents get information about solar pump irrigation systems from innovation platforms. Communities receive information through farmer group interactions and farmer to farmer exchange learning and this accounts to 60%. Nearly 29% of respondents highlighted that they never received information. With regards to conflict management, 86% noted that there were conflicts arising from the proper use of the solar pump irrigation systems.Annex I   ","tokenCount":"2559"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ff4cdeb5a80627bc2dcc203e3184d21f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H04666.pdf","id":"-1437393470"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9c24a7c8-95c5-4ffc-84b4-e9fe5bc20474","pagecount":"4","content":"Irrigation managers are decision-makers. To make decisions that result in effective irrigation system performance, they need timely and reliable information. A manag er's access to information about water tim ing and irrigation system operations, for example, depends on the good \"'health'\" of communication flows within his agency, information about crop-water needs and the effect of water deliveries depends on effec tive communication between his agency and the farmers. Attempts to improve the flow of information between an agency and its clients should begin with an evaluation of actual communication activities within t~ agency before trying to evaluate the com plexities of communication within the client community at large. Evaluation is often defined as personal judgement, formal measurement, and com parison between objectives and perform ance. Its goal is to improve decision-making by providing comparative information regarding the progress of some activity. The communication audit provides such infodnation. lRobert L. Cowell is Information Program Coordina tor, OMI, Digana Village via Kandy. Sri Lanka.This OM! Management Brief will famil iarize the reader with the concepts involved in using a communication audit as a man agement tool for helping to improve irriga tion system performance through improved communication within the agency responsi ble for system operations. It will discuss some of the methods an irrigation manager might use to evaluate the effectiveness of communication within his own unit, and it will explain what a manager will encounter if a communication audit is conducted on his unit by outside auditors. In the first case, this knowledge is important because it expands the management tools available to a conscientious manager; in the second, such knowledge will assist the auditors in providing the best audit possible.A communication audit is a systematic process of gathering data in three areas: 1) communication climate, 2) communication function, and 3) organizational and com munication structure.Communication climate. The communica tion climate consists largely of the collective perceptions that employees have about the quality of communication relationships and the adequacy of information in an organiza tion. These perceptions affect the em ployees' morale and opinion of the organi zation, and thereby influence their ability to work effectively. The communication cli mate is more crucial in creating an effective organization than communication skills or techniques taken by themselves. An under standing of the dynamics which exist between the kinds of messages, channels, and technologies, and the kinds of people who work in an organization is crucial to assessing the communication climate.Communication function. Communica tion in an organization is effective if it helps employees interact in ways that produce and maintain the organization's products, services, and systems, and helps the organi zation itself operate successfully in a particu lar social, cultural, and politico-economic environment. An organization that cannot grow and change internally as a response to outside changes will not be able to perform work that satisfies the needs of employees and clients alike.Communication structure. Communica tion structure refers to the pattern of regular and repetitive interactions in a communica tion network. An audit focuses on changes occurring in the patterns and how the changes affect other organizational charac teristics. A single change in the network of communication relationshops can ripple throughout the entire organization and have immediate or delayed, temporary or per manent effects on the organization and its members. Communication networks in an organization tend to change over time for severa) reasons: 1) the outside environment changes causing uncertainty and compensat ing activity; 2) the membership of the organization's social ana task groups grow and change; 3) tasks increase in number and complexity, and the work-force changes accordingly; and 4) changes occur in the interplay between power, authority, and responsibility within upper-level manage ment. Clearly, structure impacts on both communication climate and function as they impact on each other to create a con tinuously changing organization.A communication audit must find out what is happening with communication in an organization. To do this, it compares communication activities with other activi ties in the organization, such as labor pro ductivity and product output. And, it com pares these activities at several points in time, or it compares them at a single point in time for several different organizations or units within an organization. Thus, to be really useful, a communication audit should be a study made over time in order to reveal persistent communication activities as well as trends in the interpersonal dynamics operating within the organization. Such a study uses the following format: I) pre study, 2) formal communication audit, and 3) post-audit follow-up study.Timing is important in a communication• audit. For an auditor to \"drop-in\" on an organization or a manager to conduct an independent audit without regard for period ic business cycles like inventory, activities like hosting a nation-wide conference, or staff reassignment is to risk gathering biased data. Therefore, it is essential to know something about the organization before set ting foot on the grounds. The Pre-study should consist of at least a general survey of the organization and a review of the litera ture or products it generates.Organizational survey. This survey con sists of discussions between the auditors and management, and consultations with indi viduals in both the public and private sec tors who have done business with the target organization. Through these contacts, the auditors try to understand something about the organization's operations, its input output economics, its formal management structure, its procedures and rules, its per sonnel movements, and, hopefully, the iden tification of organizational decision-makers and authority figures. The goal is to obtain enough understanding of the organization to focus the formal communication audit.Product analysis. The product analysis is a comprehensive assessment of the organiza tion via its publications, products, and records. The information gleaned from such sources is coordinated with that from the survey, and the result serves as a baseline from which certain comparisons can be made. It also provides information helpful in making decisions about how to approach the formal audit and which instruments will produce the best data.The audit itself is the application of a six stage mix of research methods for identify ing both the over-all communication system in an organization and that organization'S specific communication activities. This mix provides: I) an organizational profile of par ticipants' perceptions about communication events.and operations, 2) a mapping of the organization's communication networks, and 3) a profile of actual communication behaviors.Communication in an organization is ever-changing. It is a dynamic mixture of behaviors, attitudes, and value systems which are influenced by, and simultane ously influencing, the organic structure of the organization and the environment in which it exists. The techniques discussed are designed to attack the problem from as many angles as possible. However, the results of any single audit will show only what communication is really like in the organization at that moment in time. The time involved in a complete audit can vary from a few weeks to several months depending on the size of the organization and goals of the audit. Although the com munication audit is discussed as a system of research tools,' managers can use some of the techniques independently.Questionnaire. One or more formal ques tionnaires can be administered to all or a random sample of employees. The sample can be stratified to reflect a hierarchical organizational structure. The questionnaire can be designed to gather in-depth informa tion about a few specific areas delineated during the pre-study, or it can focus on a broad array of topics. Certainly demo graphic questions should be included, but questions can also be asked about specific operations, organizational and personal goals and objectives, adequacy of commun ication and information flows, and attitudes and opinions.Personal Interviews. Interviewing people is time-consuming and expensive; however, . it reveals a quality of information which questionnaires atone cannot provide. The auditors should interview all management personnel, a random sample of employees at lower levels, and the group that had been previously identified as decision-makers and! or authority figures. Interviews also permit the auditors to follow-up promising lines of inquiry derived from the pre-study or from the results of questionnaires.Communication logs. A communication log is an exact daily record of communica tion activity for a particular individual. Most often management is requested to log the time of communication, the channel used (i.e., telephone, memo, etc.), the source of incoming messages and the receiver for those being sent, and perhaps the general content of the message. The log is main tained continuously for the designated time period, usually 2-3 weeks. Other logs, called \"traffic studies,\" are maintained by secretar ies, switch-board operators, and! or internal messengers and mail service personnel to provide an alternative source of information about communication traffic.Participant observation. One way of gathering information about communication in an organization is to have a trained observer watch people interact. The observer can attend meetings and use assigned codes to record non-verbal com munication behavior, for example. Observa tion can also be used at the coffee break or in the lunch room to get some idea about informal communication networks and the effects of gossip. In this way, the added dimension of interpersonal communication can be overlaid on the more quantitative data to provide depth and richness to the audit. However, the observer must be care ful not to influence interaction by his pres ence or to invade privacy.affected by the layout of the offices and rooms in which it takes place, the proximity of the actors, the kinds of equipment in use, and the physical constraints on interaction. Such physical attributes of the organization and its equipment can have a profound effect on interaction. Again, this analysis can help explain other analyses or enrich the study.work analysis is a method of research to identify communication pathways, roles, and constraints in a given network by ana lyzing communication flows. Every member of the target organization (the boundaries must be clear so that everyone concerned is included) is asked to indicate his or her recollection of communication interaction with the other designated members of the network. It is important to get responses from everyone so that missing data does not bias the results. Furthermore, because net works can exist at many levels in the organ ization, it is vitally important to clearly specify the type of communication under investigation (e.g., written messages about task-related matters, face-ta-face interaction of a social nature, etc.).Because organizational networks tend to be complex, network analysis is usually done on a computer. Computer programs for network analysis are of three types: 1) those that simply aggregate statistical data about the employees, 2) those that divide the employees into subsets according to common factors (block modelling), and 3) clique or cluster detection. The latter type, although more complex, is of more value than the others to an audit because it attempts to identify cliques and small groups according to pre-set criteria. From the results, particular roles can be assigned to the employees according to their place and function in the communication network and a \"'map'\" drawn to illustrate commonly used communication pathways.The timing of the post-study follow-up should be determined as part of the overall strategy for the audit Normally, there should be a delay of several months. A follow-up questionnaire for the entire popu lation or for a random sample and based on the results of the audit can add imnieasura bly to an understanding of organizational dynamics and change. Likewise, a selection of personnel for subsequent personal inter views can identify changes which may have resulted from such factors as a management reorganization. Interviews can also probe more deeply certain questions that may have arisen during the analysis of the audit data. It is important to do another network analysis. Because the network analysis is based on self-reported data, the validity of a single analysis tends to be suspect. Data that correlate hig1ily across time tend to show the more durable characteristics of the net work. Furthermore, changes show up clearly as positions of the actors shift. If such shifts correspond with other information, the auditors can assume they are observing the results of real communication dynamics.Generally, the communication audit ter minates with a final report. This often con sists of: 1) an oral'report with a questions and answers session, 2) an' executive sum mary which focuses on recommendations, and 3) a complete report which includes the results of all the analyses, a cost accounting, and a record of the methodology used and actual data collected for subsequent refer ence. This final report need not be the only report made during the audit. Interim reports and progress reports are often made at particular stages where strategy changes may be appropriate.The communication audit seeks a union of quantitative and qualitative analyses to achieve a depth of evaluation that will reveal a large measure of the true commun ication interaction in an organization. Clearly, no one technique can do every thing. However, the integration of a variety of techniques used over time, each with its 0'Ml strengths and weaknesses, has been shown to provide the most focussed recommendations.Finally, an assessment of communication effectiveness in an organization should be an ongoing procedure. It is important to integrate periodic communication audits into overall organizational activities. In this way, data can be accumulated to show which kinds of communication activities work best for the organization and should be encouraged, and which cause problems and should be changed.","tokenCount":"2226"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e99ee776ca24ea4780eb4bcfde3bd41c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b4bbe77-3b42-42d2-ad43-b69b3c66dcfa/retrieve","id":"-1396330790"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"361bcdd2-1a35-4dae-aebb-7bd713b32979","pagecount":"17","content":"• Calidad Genética: Definición genética del material que se desea conservar, evitando los cambios de la composición del mismo. Guardando lo que se ha confiado por parte de los países y distribuyendo lo que se dice.• Calidad Fisiológica: Consiste en medir la viabilidad de la semillas en donde se determinan cuántas de éstas, están vivas y puedan llegar a convertirse en plantas capaces de reproducirse en condiciones de campo adecuadas.• Calidad Fitosanitaria: Se refiere al evaluación del estado de las sanidad de las muestras asegurando que no se van a distribuir enfermedades. • Control de la contaminación mecánica (uso de código de barras)• Control de la contaminación genética.• Control de la deriva genética.• Control de la erosión genética ocasionada tanto por infección (plagas y enfermedades) como por la deriva genética.• Control de la variación somaclonal, mediante el uso adecuado de medios de cultivo para plantas in vitro, bajo condiciones controladas de temperatura (24 o C) y evaluando los materiales de la colección periódicamente.Se debe reconocer que cada vez que se hace un proceso de regeneración y/o multiplicación, es probable que perdamos una pequeña parte de la integridad genética de las muestras, de ahí la importancia de minimizar estos riesgos El Laboratorio de sanidad de germoplasma tiene la responsabilidad de informar sobre el estado fitosanitario del germoplasma que distribuye el Programa de Recursos Genéticos y otros programas del CIAT certificando que este libre de enfermedades cuarentenarias.La metodología empleada para certificar la sanidad del material genético a transferir se fundamenta en:Resultados de la inspección durante la producción y el beneficio de las semillas.Análisis de sanidad en el laboratorio. •Trabajos (CIAT-NARS) que permitan a los agricultores beneficiarse del banco de germoplasma.• Exploraciones con países que han ratificado el tratado para incrementar la diversidad del banco y prestarle un mejor servicio a la comunidad.• Innovar en el desarrollo de técnicas, tales como rayos X, para optimizar la calidad fisiológica de los materiales.•Seguir con estudios de deriva genética que garanticen la estabilidad y permitan mantener la relevancia a nuestras colecciones.•Estudios de mejoras y estandarización de procesos que ayuden a hacer más efectivos el sistema de conservación de los materiales del banco.• Estudios de costos de la conservación de semillas y plantas in vitro.• Acceso a la información a través de un motor de búsqueda sobre la base de datos ","tokenCount":"384"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"68a0c06f6158af8b1da71f093a06dab0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27a88fe3-c8c5-4bb5-85fb-3b154a0db33b/retrieve","id":"-240477166"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b355d585-1c15-4777-a482-14594c15e4cd","pagecount":"1","content":"Pig raising o ers significant opportunities for improved livelihoods for many households in north-west Vietnam. Traditionally, pigs are a key component of the agricultural systems in this region, and are fed with wild leaves and crop residues. In recent years, intensified production systems have evolved with the introduction of new pig breeds and hybrid maize varieties grown as animal feed. This has led to maize becoming a dominant crop in these mountainous areas, grown on steep slopes and in monoculture, leading to soil erosion and a decline in soil fertility. This research aims at identifying constraints and opportunities to integrate pig and maize production, to improve smallholders' income while making the system more environmentally sustainable by investigating more diverse and profitable crop rotations as well as improvements to soil fertility through cycling of nutrients and organic matter. The results will form the basis for in-depth research on the most promising options.• As a starting point, a broad systematic literature review of peer reviewed publications and grey literature on maize and pig production in Vietnam in general and in the north-west in particular was implemented.• This was followed by a collection of primary data in March 2017 from 4 communes in Son La and Hoa Binh provinces. These provinces were selected because they have the largest area of maize and population of pigs in the north-west. Within each province, we selected one commune with low and one with high market access.• Data were collected using four di erent tools: i) Value chain mapping with local stakeholders; ii) Key informant interviews on value chains; iii) Focus groups discussions with farmers; and iv) Individual interviews with farmers.• A total of 165 actors were interviewed, with between 39 to 44 actors in each of the four communes.There is also an increasing demand for higher quality pig products in urban centres, including for 'naturally raised' pigs (Gautier et al., 2009;Lapar and Toan, 2010). However, so far pig production in the study area seems to be slow in responding to such opportunities. Results from the field work show that the integrated maize-pig system is widely practiced by farmers in the four communes. The main advantages of this system over a specialised pig farm relying on purchased concentrates were listed as (i) better control over timely availability and quality, as maize feed is available on farm;(ii) reduced feed costs by avoiding transport and transactions; and (iii) potentially producing a product for supplying a niche meat market for perceived high quality pigs and/or meeting the demand for \"naturally raised\" pork based on non-commercial feeds. Yet, several disadvantages were also identified during the survey, including: (i) high labour demand of maize production; (ii) di iculties in maize storage, prevalence of aflatoxins in maize; (iii) higher fat content of pork produced with maize-dominated feed; (iv) longer production cycle of pigs fed predominantly with maize compared to balanced commercial feed.The study results highlighted the di iculties the smallholders in these communes have in regard to accessing inputs and services as well as more profitable markets for their pig products. Various options for value chain improvements such as producer groups (Huyen et. Al. 2016), contract farming (Lapar et al. 2007) and a \"preferred trader\" system (Scholl et al. 2016) were discussed with the value chain stakeholders.They agreed that collective action allows smallholders to access lucrative markets.However, these organizations tend to deteriorate once external support is withdrawn.On the other hand, contract farming has by design a strong private sector component and tends to be economically sustainable, but o en fails to integrate small scale farmers in more remote locations.This study has looked at mechanisms to support the improved integration of pig and maize activities to improve smallholders' income while making the system more environmentally sustainable by looking at alternative feed production and feeding strategies. With the main farming systems in north-west Vietnam still being traditional smallholder production, pig producers in this region can take advantage of their relatively 'natural' production practices that have been increasingly valued by specific types of consumers in specific markets. To be able to support such evolution and given the existing maize-pig integration advantages, more research is needed on alternative farm-produced feeds, for example forage legumes, which may complement maize, both for more sustainable feed production and more balanced diets. For these systems to impact household income through better market integration, new institutional arrangements to link pig farmers to markets are required both for inputs and services including extension, as well as for output markets. A possible combination of existing approaches, for example a preferred trader system linked to a specialty outlet in provincial and regional towns, organized around producer groups, will be analysed.Finally, to show that traditionally raised pigs can also provide safe pork, linkages to SafePORK are foreseen.Pork remains an important animal-source food in the Vietnamese diet. Demand for pork has increased over time, largely attributed to population growth and rising income (Nga et al., 2015).   ","tokenCount":"819"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3cefdfd732da4319236fddd7c2935e2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aea54a52-64dd-4ce3-aab7-165a91c25793/retrieve","id":"-779253313"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a81d3724-0090-4b99-bd67-5515f2cdd5db","pagecount":"13","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-Executive summary R is a statistical software and programming language, freely available, for computing and graphics supported by the R Core Team and the R Foundation. R is used among data miners, researchers/scientists, bioinformaticians and statisticians for data analysis and summary. Users have created packages to augment the functions of the R language. However, this tool is sparsely used in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) due to lack of exposure, limited internet access and appropriate training. Subsequently, young researchers/ scientists and graduate students are hindered from summarizing research outputs and, hence generating scientific publications.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has made research and capacitybuilding collaborations with many governmental institutions such as the National Agricultural Research Institutes (NARS) and universities. In the frame of this ILRI, in collaboration with the Royal Society (RS) and John Innes Centre (JIC), organized a series of training workshops on data analysis and basic data wrangling in the R environment for the last two years since 2020 to address the knowledge gap observed among MSc and PhD students. The training was conducted by Abel Teshome (ILRI), Helen Nigussie (AAU), Temesgen Olango (HU), Meki Shehabu (ILRI) and Hailu Lire (EIAR). More than 60 students, including both MSc and PhD candidates, benefited from this opportunity. This report summarizes the objectives of the training sessions, the major training activities, methods and results of the training.The R Core Team and the R Foundation promote R, a statistical programming language and software package for data analysis, summary and graphics. R is used by statisticians, bioinformaticians, researchers/scientists, and data miners. According to user surveys and studies of scholarly literature databases, R is one of the most commonly used programming languages in data mining. Students use this software all over the world to summarize/analyse their research data. Therefore, R is the basic software that every student doing research can utilize freely. However, usage of this software in Ethiopia is limited and students and researchers struggle to summarize their datasets.For the past two years, ILRI, in collaboration with the Royal Society (RS) and John Innes Centre (JIC), has organized a training workshops on basic data wrangling in the R environment at various universities in Ethiopia, including Addis Ababa University (AAU), Ambo University (AU), Hawassa University (HU) and Wachemo University (WU). Each workshop was carried out over five days, to build capacity and address the knowledge gap in summarizing datasets that was observed among the students. The training was given to small cohorts of students, who had to apply and be selected to be trained, to make the training sessions interactive.The workshop on basic data wrangling in the R environment mainly focused on helping postgraduate students (MSc and PhD) and early career researchers to build their capacity in data analysis and visualization. The five days each featured one of the five chapters of the course. The first-day session was focused on acquainting the students with the software, and installing the software and relevant packages. The second and third sessions focused on data wrangling with the dyplr and ggplot packages which are data manipulation and visualization packages, respectively, in the R environment. The fourth session focused on analysis of variance (ANOVA), a statistical method that separates observed variance into different components, and principal component analysis (PCA), a technique for reducing the dimensionality of multivariant datasets to increase interpretability and at the same time minimize information loss. The fifth-day training included an introduction to bioinformatics and the Linux environment, which is an open-source operating system for servers and computers. Since, most research projects in the modern era use the science of genomics, exposure to this tool is beneficial to the trainees.The objectives of this training workshop were to:• Familiarize the participants (students) with R software • Enhance the capability of participants in using R software for data summary and visualization • Provide insight about available R packages, their application and data wrangling using these packages • Address the knowledge/skill gap observed in big data handling among MSc and PhD students • Introduce trainees into the world of genomics and bioinformatics.The participants were graduate students (MSc and PhD) and early career researchers selected by the universities through a competitive process. These participants were from four universities where the training took place: Addis Ababa University (17 trainees; 5 females and 12 males), Ambo University (18 trainees; 14 males and 4 females), Hawassa University (17 trainees; 11 males and 6 females) and Wachemo University (14 trainees; 4 females and 10 males).Deliberate efforts were made to target female participants in the workshops to address the gender gap created in the higher educational system. However, due to the low enrolment of women in higher education, the goal of having many women trainees was not achieved. For example, at Addis Ababa University training, female trainees were 29% of the total participants. Similarly, in the training workshops held at Ambo, Wachemo and Hawassa Universities, the percentage of female participants were 22%, 29% % and 35%, respectively.Since most trainees were new to the R software, the training was given interactively with different hands-on exercises on its aspects and use. The training modules were presents to the trainees at the start of the workshop and each trainee used their own computer, which enabled them to practice after each session. This training workshop on basic data wrangling in the R environment was given for five consecutive days on different applications of the R software. It started from the basics, which includes setting the working directory and installation of the packages, to the more advanced applications containing ANOVA, visualization, clustering, PCA clustering and data wrangling using different packages such as ggplot2, dplyr, and data.table among others. The focus of the training was the different applications of R software in analyzing data. Finally, the participants were introduced to genomics and associated bioinformatics tools used to summarize sequence data.Training topics covered within the consecutive five days are indicated below.The first day of the training began with the introduction to R software. The introduction part included basic and easy concepts of the R software. The day started by showing the participants how to install the R software and the R packages. After the installation, data types in R, setting and getting the working directory were taught.On the second day, the training focused on data wrangling, which includes data cleaning, how to convert the data frame to the data table, why we use a data table, how to create a new column from the existing one and data wrangling with dyplr, tidyr and data.table R packages.At the end of this session, participants were able to clean, reformat and carry out descriptive data analysis using those packages.The third day was about visualization using the ggplot and dyplr packages of R. It showed the trainees how to visualize their data using scatter plots, box plot histograms and other graphics with different R packages.Day 4: ANOVA, clustering and PCA clustering ANOVA is a statistical method that separates observed variance data into different components to use for additional tests. Clustering refers to the assimilation of the same kind of data in groups or clusters to distinguish one group from the others (gathering of the same type of data). Principal component analysis (PCA) clustering is a statistical procedure that allows summarizing of information contained in large data tables using a smaller set of 'summary indices' that can be more easily visualized and analyzed. These three analytical methods in the R software were taught to the participants on day four. Participants were able to practice these three concepts in R software with specific data that was provided.Bioinformatics and Bio-Linux applications and their use, large data management, other analysis like genome-wide association studies and also how to access the high-performance computer through Linux were discussed on the last day of the training.At the end of the workshop, certificates of participation were awarded to participants in the presence of university officials. The organizers and trainers thanked the funders and sponsors of the workshops in each location,. University official praised the organizers for the workshop and the trainees described how they expect to apply the skills they had acquired.Photo 5. Awarding of certificates at Wachemo UniversityAt the end of the workshop participants gained basic knowledge about the R software. They were able to install packages, create working directories in R and also practice ANOVA, visualization, clustering, PCA clustering, and data wrangling using different data that were installed during the training week.After the training session, participants were asked to provide feedback anonymously. Overall, most trainees appreciated the training workshop and gave positive reviews. They appreciated the time and effort put in by the trainers to familiarize them with R software. The trainees also raised some issues to be addressed for the future workshops:• The trainees felt the five-day workshop was too short and they proposed more contact hours. ","tokenCount":"1508"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"400f065d16521e48dc6ebbb52b46e900","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ca73eac-fe32-4e63-bd84-bc1bb1cb7d64/retrieve","id":"-2049110226"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9636262d-c79e-4b2e-883f-05f89df92457","pagecount":"8","content":"Assessments of land and soil health surveys were conducted to improve crop modeling predictions under various climate scenarios and guide more targeted interventions. The Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF) was employed across the project sites to assess multiple indicators of ecosystem health at the same geo-referenced locations. The LDSF provides a biophysical baseline at landscape level and a monitoring and evaluation framework to assess the processes of land degradation and the effectiveness of rehabilitation measures over time (Figure 3). With the LDSF, vulnerable areas that may require more investment in terms of land restoration were identified early on and priorities determined. Better soil health can increase agricultural productivity, build on-farm resilience and contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation.The LDSF provides us with a snapshot of land and soil health at landscape level. The LDSF uses a hierarchical randomized sampling design to assess multiple variables of ecosystem health, including the assessment of drivers that influence soil organic carbon (SOC) -a key indicator of soil health. These data were were used to enable decisions to be made about vulnerable areas where more investment might be required to restore degraded land, for example:Invest in climate-smart soil and land health p2The LDSF helps identify and prioritize necessary investments for healthy land and soil that underpin the success of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) interventions at scale.Figure 1. Schematic of the process of assessing land degradationwhich includes combining biophysical and socio-economic drivers-in order to prioritize interventions.Spatial Patterns of Soil Degradation • Addressing complexity across scales • Socio-economic, biophysical assessments • Understanding processes affecting soil degradation The LDSF was conducted at 100 km2 sites in Tanzania and Uganda to assess baseline soil and land health status. Each LDSF site is stratified into 16-1km2 clusters. Each cluster contains 10-1000m2 plots (Figure 3) where observations of vegetation structure, land management practices, soil erosion, tree and shrub densities, as well as soil properties (e.g., sand, pH, SOC and total nitrogen) were made. These data were used to generate baseline information on land and soil health of the action areas as well as produce predictive maps of soil erosion prevalence and SOC. In addition, these LDSF sites are co-located with the socioeconomic household surveys conducted by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) in order to enable socio-ecological modeling (Figure 2).Crop Modeling Improved soil and land health data were used to improve crop modeling predictions as well as to assess the spatial variability of crop performance under various treatments (Figure 4). ","tokenCount":"415"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ce1805324c143dd6f4b08602541bc50","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/86565b5e-2280-4a02-8d8a-d5362a951299/retrieve","id":"-482477855"},"keywords":["dry spells","moisture stress","rainfed agriculture","supplementary irrigation"],"sieverID":"5d1575bd-be53-4f04-b607-1b10d6a98afe","pagecount":"6","content":"A daily field water balance experiment was conducted for three consecutive years to study the effects of supplementary irrigation on grain yield and water productivity of maize (Zea mays L.) crop in semiarid Olifants river basin, South Africa. Maize average yield under rainfed and supplementary irrigation conditions were 0.78 t/ha (standard deviation of 0.43 t/ha) and 1.90 t/ha (standard deviation of 0.39 t/ha), respectively. Supplementary irrigation with added fertilisation of 14 kg-N/ha during dry spells increased average yields by 185 %. Maize yield was affected by seasonal rainfall and its poor distribution. The average evapotranspiration under rainfed and supplementary irrigation for the three seasons was 574 mm and 640 mm respectively. Nevertheless water use efficiency was significantly greater for supplementary irrigation plots (3.0 kg mm -1 ha -1 ) than for rainfed plots (1.3 kg mm -1 ha -1 ). Furthermore, with mean incremental water use efficiency of supplemental irrigation of 13.7 kg mm -1 ha -1 , implies that 1 m 3 of irrigation water applied timely can produce ZAR 27.4 (US$ 3.4) worth of maize. The values demonstrate the monetary gains from timely and adequate supplementary irrigation to bridge dry spells. The results show significant yield increases irrespective of the season under supplementary irrigation. Based on these results, the potential of supplementary irrigation exist to improve and stabilise smallholder farmer maize yields, thereby enhancing livelihoods.Increasing the productivity of rainfed agriculture which caters for 60 % of the world's food, would make strides towards global food security. However, the potential to improve yields for the growing populations in semi-arid regions, home to 2 billion people of which half are poor (DFID, 2003) depends on appropriate adaptation to rainfall patterns. Even though total rainfall might be adequate for maize cultivation, poor distribution during the growing season results in total crop failure disrupting livelihoods. Researches from semi-arid tropical regions show that the occurrences of 2 to 4weeks dry spells is more frequent than droughts (Botha et al. 2003). Magombeyi and Taigbenu (forthcoming) reported that 14-day dry spells in the Olifants river basin of South Africa occurred with a probability of 0.52, with associated shortfall in the average family food requirement of 500 kg/ha/year occurring once every two years. Similar results from Kenya and Tanzania were obtained by Barron et al. (1999) of 20% -30% chance of dry spells exceeding 10 days. Supplementary irrigation is vital to improving water productivity (produce more crop per unit of water) and stabilising rainfed agriculture in resource constrained semi-arid tropics (Rockström 2002;Rockström et al. 2002;DFID 2003;Mupangwa et al. 2006).Over the years the yields of maize (a staple food) have plummeted in Ga-Sekororo, Olifants river basin. The farmers are vulnerable to recurrent droughts and dry spells which significantly reduce yields and consequently their income, thereby making them fall back on social grants from the central government (Magombeyi and Taigbenu, forthcoming). Furthermore, the high cost of irrigation infrastructure is beyond the reach of resource-constrained subsistence farmers. Full irrigation is not feasible as Olifants river basin a closed basin with 70 % of catchment water consumed by agriculture. This paper reports on the use of field experimentation to quantify the impacts of ex-field supplementary irrigation on rainfed fields to assist farmers in upgrading maize crop yield under climate and weather variability.The study area is located in Ga-Sekororo (part of the B72A quaternary catchment) in the Olifants river basin of South Africa (Fig. 1). The Olifants is a sub-basin of the Limpopo River Basin shared by South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Botswana. The total rural population is estimated at around 56,000 (South Africa Census 2001). The area is characterized by high temperatures, erratic rainfall and recurrent droughts. Rainfall average is 630 mm, with potential evapotranspiration rates of over 1500 mm (actual evapotranspiration is around 840 mm) results in low runoff. According to rating guidelines by Marx et al. (1999) the macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) and cation exchange ratio in the study sites are low (Rasiuba 2007). Maize is grown by more than 70 % (Magombeyi and Taigbenu forthcoming) of the farmers as a stable food for the community even in zones where success is not guaranteed, yet it is still the preferred choice for cultivation.Fig. 1. Location of the study area in northern South Africa, and in the Olifants river basin.Controlled plot experiments were conducted in collaboration with three smallholder farmers with two replicates per farm to determine various parameters for the water balance model. The field layout for the experiment consisted of one hectare plots, with two equal smaller runoff plots of dimensions 4 m × 2 m. The farmers were initially taught on daily field data capturing. The seasons studied were 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008. In the irrigated plots, water was supplied by gravity-fed furrow irrigation system from a weir build across a seasonal stream. Irrigation scheduling was left at discretion of the farmers but measured by a 90 0 V-notch weir. All plots were planted on the same day and farmers agreed on the same farm management strategies. Fertilisation treatment of 14 kg-N/ha per season was applied in all plots except for the 2006/2007 rainfed plot because of little rainfall. Soil moisture levels at 200 mm depth were measured on a daily basis at 12 positions diagonally across the field using a hydrosense neutron probe (Campbell Scientific, Inc. 2001). Daily rainfall and runoff was also recorded from each field. The plots were harvested by hand and the grain recorded.Using data on precipitation, supplementary irrigation, soil moisture, and runoff a seasonal soil water balance over a daily temporal scale for three seasons (2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008) was constructed from Equation (1) (Walker and Ogindo 2003;Zhang et al. 2006).where ECis the evapotranspiration (mm/d), P is the daily precipitation (mm), R is the runoff from the field (mm/d), D is the deep drainage beyond the root zone (mm/d), ∆S is the change in soil-water content in the root zone (mm/d) and I is the irrigated water to the plot (mm/d). Ec was calculated from the A-pan evaporation and maize crop factors (Sinclair and Seligman 1996;Walker and Ogindo 2003) as in Equation .(2) below.where p E is the A-pan evaporation (mm/d), p K is the pan coefficient and c K is the maize crop coefficient for the three growth stages. Deep drainage was calculated from the balance between soil moisture change and Ec in Equation (1) (Grove, 2006). The drainage was considered to be negligible below the maximum crop root length of 1 m depth used as lower boundary for the soil water balance (Ali et al. 2007;Tingem et al. 2008).Water use efficiency or productivity (WP) was calculated from the ratio of yield (kg/ha) to seasonal water evapotranspired (mm) (van Der Zel et al. 1993;Rockström et al. 1998;DFID 2003;Grove 2006Zhang et al. 2006). Irrigation water productivity (IWP) was calculated from the ration yield (kg/ha) to supplementary irrigation water (mm). Marginal supplementary irrigation water productivity (MSIWP) was calculated from the ratio of change in yield to change in irrigation water applied, with other inputs held constant (Ali et al. 2007).3 Results and discussionsThe seasonal rainfall during the three seasons for maize varied from 388 to 1422 mm (Table 1). The 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 seasons were very dry below the long-term average, while 2005/2006 season received above normal rainfall. The average evapotranspiration (EC) under rainfed and supplementary irrigation for the three seasons was 574 mm and 640 mm respectively. The observed EC values are closer to the general maximum (500 -800 mm) required by a medium maturity maize crop for maximum yields (FAO, 2002). The variation of yield with evapotranspiration (Fig. 2) shows good correlation but more data is required to make it conclusive. As EC increases the proportion that satisfies transpiration is increased resulting in higher crop yields. Maximum grain yields in fields with supplementary irrigation ranged from 1.45 to 2.2 t/ha, while yields in exclusive rainfed fields ranged from 0.35 to 1.2 t/ha (Table 1). Similar results were reported by earlier researchers working on maize in South, East and West Africa (Rockström et al. 1998;Oweis and Hachum. 2003). Maize yield was affected by seasonal rainfall (Fig. 3) and its erratic distribution throughout the growing season depicted by soil moisture changes in rainfed plots (Fig. 4a -4c). A good correlation of yield reduction with rainfall (Fig. 3) strongly suggests that lack of water during critical growing periods was the main cause for yield reduction rather than nutrients. Supplementary irrigation with added fertilisation of 14 kg-N/ha during dry spells increased yields on average by 185 % (Fig. 3 and Table 1). Fox and Rockström (1999)  The field results indicate there is a significant scope for improving water productivity in rainfed farming through supplemental irrigation, especially when combined with soil fertility management as reported in other parts of Africa (Rockström et al. 1999;Fox and Rockström 2000).Figs 4a -4c show the variation of soil moisture in the experimental sites for the three seasons from sowing to harvest. In some days soil moisture content fell below the permanent wilting point of the sandy loam soil of 9.5 % volumetric water content (field capacity is 20.7 %) (Mzirai et al. 2001). In addition, the sub-soil acidity (pH < 5) in the study area could have further restricted water uptake by the crop roots (Robertson et al. 2003). Despite high annual rainfall of 1422 mm in 2005/2006 season, the crop suffered from periods of water shortage, during the vegetative stage early in 2005/2006 (Fig. 4a) (18 -32 days after sowing) and flowering (50 -70 days after sowing). In 2006/2007 season (Fig. 4b) water stress occurred in the vegetative and grain filling stages, while in 2007/2008 (Fig. 4c) water stress was experienced from flowering through to grain filling (80 -100 days after sowing) (Rockström et al. 1998;FAO 2002).   Dry spells greater 10 days resulted in soil moisture levels falling below 5 % and below the soil permanent wilting point of 9.5 %. Soil moisture deficits adversely affected plant growth and yield attributes under rainfed plots due to increased total resistance in the soil-plant system resulting in reduced photosynthesis and growth. In 2006/2007 the maize grain yield was drastically reduced to about 350 kg/ha because the soil moisture stress experienced in the early growth stages (12 -25 days after sowing) reduced the crop leaf area index and radiation use efficiency which have direct bearing on dry matter accumulation in plants (Rockström et al. 2002;Ali et al. 2007). The moisture levels can be used to determine the onset of crop stress for the efficient utilisation of irrigation and precipitation (Abraha and Savage 2008). With improved timely and adequate supplementary irrigation coupled with good soil management, farmers will ensure minimum water stress to crops thereby enhancing food security for their families.The MSIWP is a good indicator for assessing the performance of supplementary irrigation management method (Rockström et al. 2002) if higher yields upset cost of supplying additional water. The MSIWP ranged from 9.8 to 16.7 kg mm -1 ha -1 (average of 13.7 kg mm -1 ha -1 ) for 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 seasons respectively (Table 1). The results are higher than 2.5 -7.6 kg mm -1 ha -1 reported in Burkina Faso (Rockström et al. 2002) but on the lower side in comparison with 15 to 62 kg mm -1 ha -1 of supplemental irrigation (Li et al. 2000). With the current (2008) price of maize grain at ZAR 2.0 per kilogram, on average 1 m 3 of irrigation water applied timely can produce ZAR 27.4 (US$ 3.4) worth of maize. The return per m 3 of supplementary irrigation is very high compared to the cost of 1 m 3 water under full irrigation of ZAR 0.5/m 3 . The values demonstrate the gains to be actualized with timely and adequate supplementary irrigation to bridge dry spells.Shifting from exclusive rainfed agriculture to supplementary irrigation agriculture in the study area resulted in increased average WP from 1.3 to 3 kg mm -1 ha -1 (or 131 % increase) (Table 1). The corresponding average yield increase was from 780 kg/ha to 1900 kg/ha. The results are comparable to increased average grain yield of 1.5 kg mm -1 ha -1 with rainfed to 3.5 -10 kg mm -1 ha -1 with supplementary irrigation (Rockström et al. 2002). The yield improvement can be attributed to timely water application to crops to avoid water stress and availability of more soil water for the plant. Similar results from Burkina Faso reported tripling yields of 460 kg/ha to 1400 kg/ha by combining supplemental irrigation and fertiliser application (Rockström et al. 2002). On the other hand, for seasons with severe dry spells, e.g., 2006/2007 in Ga-Sekororo, complete crop failure resulted for all treatments lacking dry spell mitigation such as supplementary irrigation. The results indicate that water harvesting for dry spell mitigation can play a critical role in reducing the risk of crop failure during cropping seasons with severe dry spells.A water balance for rainfed and supplementary rainfed maize was developed. The maize grain yields difference of 1.12 t/ha between supplementary irrigation fields and rainfed fields coupled with incremental water use efficiency of supplemental irrigation of 13.7 kg mm -1 ha -1 , imply 1 m 3 of irrigation water applied timely can produce ZAR 27.4 (US$ 3.4) worth of maize. The results demonstrate the great opportunities that exist for upgrading rainfed agriculture and ensuring food security in rural communities through timely and adequate supplementary irrigation to bridge dry spells. Harvesting rain water in storage facility offers one way of realizing supplementary irrigation. Furthermore, low soil nutrients that characterise the study area can be overcome through better soil fertility management with the overall result of higher water productivity.","tokenCount":"2269"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bb3cf66dcad1aabc48471c7f50856cb4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/668af821-998c-4258-a9ba-fbdd61a80350/content","id":"-972323482"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cf8f99c0-a0b2-4e2d-be54-1e500ac3fca7","pagecount":"17","content":"A critical, yet underexplored, dimension of food systems is how consumer food preferences and beliefs interact with the food environment. We present a consumer-centered approach to identifying options for improving diets. The Value Chains for Nutrition (VCN) mixed-methods multi-disciplinary analytical approach was applied in rural Ghana. Data from in-depth consumer interviews, structured vendor interviews, and (secondary) household consumption surveys were analyzed to assess consumer diet patterns, related norms and preferences, and supply and demand characteristics of a set of empirically defined high-potential nutritious foods. Mapping results onto a supply-demand typology, we identify promising interventions to support increased availability, access, and affordability of these foods. Consumption data suggested that diets among Ghanaians were deficient in key micronutrients and calories. Fresh nutritious fruits and vegetables tended to be grown for home consumption rather than sale due to transportation challenges and seasonality of demand, especially near rural markets. Seasonal availability (fruits and vegetables) and affordability (animal foods) severely limited consumption of many nutritious foods. A set of supply, demand, and value chain interventions to enhance availability and affordability of nutritious foods are presented. Critical to success is to consider the set of interventions along each value chain required for impact.Almost 20% of deaths worldwide are attributed to unhealthy diets, according to the Global Burden of Disease study, (GBD 2017Diet Collaborators, 2019). A food-systems perspective for nutrition is a powerful approach for considering dietary challenges, considering the complexity of factors that determine diets. The food system encompasses all the elements-people, activities, processes, infrastructures, and institutions-that relate to the many processes and activities in the production, processing, distribution and marketing of food (Global Panel on Agriculture & Food Systems for Nutrition, 2016;HLPE, 2017). Research has explored food systems from various angles, including food access to healthy foods (food desserts), consumer preferences, climate change, and value chains, among others. Most of this work has focused on interactions between farmers, consumers, and businesses (processors and retailers) in the Global North.Food value chains (FVC) bring together the actors, activities, and relations involved in bringing food to consumers, and thus form a core component food systems (Morgan et al., 2019). While FVC assessments have traditionally been applied to support the participation of small-scale producers and businesses to alleviate poverty, they are also central to determining food availability, affordability, and quality and are increasingly seen as an important mechanism for improving nutrition. However, most studies linking FVCs to nutrition objectives (often referred to as nutrition-sensitive value chains (NSVC)) focus on a single food commodity rather than considering the basket of foods that comprise the diet and might contribute to nutritional improvement and the extent to which focus on one food could promote unintended substitutions or displacements (Morgan et al., 2019;Nicholson et al., 2021;Ridoutt et al., 2019). Furthermore, even when nutritious food is available and affordable, the socio-cultural drivers that mediate food choices are critical for promoting diet change and these factors have been largely overlooked in NSVC approaches (Morgan et al., 2019;Nicholson et al., 2021;Ridoutt et al., 2019).This study applied the value chains for nutrition (VCN) diagnostic framework presented in Gelliet al. (2015) to rural food systems in Ghana. We present an in-depth analysis of the drivers of food choices among rural Ghanaian consumers, including socio-cultural factors, personal preferences and conventions, and characteristics of the food-market environment (such as convenience, availability, and affordability). We demonstrate how this analysis can be used to diagnose the opportunities for and constraints to improving consumption of a set of preferred nutritious foods, and, finally, to lay out a set of high potential food system interventions for improving diets.The value chains for nutrition (VCN) approach highlights the interplay and interrelatedness of FVCs, consumer characteristics, and the food environment. The food environment mediates the acquisition of food within the broader food system. It refers to the set of structures (physical, social, institutional, etc.) and conditions that determine physical access, affordability, marketing, safety, and quality of food, thus shaping and constraining people's dietary choices (HLPE, 2017). For most rural communities, the food environment consists of the foods they produce or gather, as well as the foods they can purchase from local markets (Downs et al., 2020).The food environment interfaces with a vast set of consumers characteristics to determine food choice (Gissing et al., 2017;Monterrosa et al., 2020;Pitt et al., 2017;Sobal & Bisogni, 2009). The literature suggests that important market environment characteristics have been found to constrain nutritious food consumption, including availability, access (including seasonal shortages and distance or time required to acquire foods), affordability, and diversity of food choices, marketing, and product placement (Downs et al., 2020;Drewnowski et al., 2020;Gissing et al., 2017;Ridoutt et al., 2019). A conceptual framework for food environment research in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) distinguishes between exogenous dimensions of the food environment (e.g., presence of food and market prices) and the those relative to the individual (e.g., mobility, preferences, and purchasing power) (Turner et al., 2018(Turner et al., , 2020)).The latter individual (or personal) characteristics interface with socio-cultural factors to drive food choices and thus are critical to consider when deliberating diet-related policies or interventions (Monterrosa et al., 2020;Morgan et al., 2019;Pitt et al., 2017;Ridoutt et al., 2019). In spite of the documented importance of consumer characteristics-and sociocultural factors in particular-many authors argue that too few studies give sufficient attention to these issues (Monterrosa et al., 2020;Morgan et al., 2019;Pitt et al., 2017;Ridoutt et al., 2019).A number of studies use a FVC approach to design or assess nutrition-focused interventions and policies. FVCs are a useful way to conceptualize the series' of activities, embedded within the broader food system, by which food moves through the food system to reach consumers (Morgan et al., 2019;Ridoutt et al., 2019). However, most of these studies consider the value chain of a single product or product family (Morgan et al., 2019;Nicholson et al., 2021). While valuable, this approach can miss out on benefits and complementarities of considering multiple nutritious foods or fail to consider unintended effects of substitution (Morgan et al., 2019).The VCN analytical approach to identifying food systems interventions to support nutrition was laid out in Gelliet al. (2015) and applied initially in Gelli et al. (2018). The method was designed for analysis of food systems in LMICs, emphasizing both natural and built food environments and tradeoffs and complementarities across FVC. This study builds on Gelli et al. (2018), adapting the method to more strongly center on consumer perceptions and preferences.The VCN approach adapted for this study is presented in Fig. 1. Areas of inquiry follow the linear steps in a value chain-production through consumption-and can be (imperfectly) mapped to three core components of the food system: the food supply system, the local food environment, and consumer choice and diets (Global Panel on Agriculture & Food Systems for Nutrition, 2016;HLPE, 2017). However, the complexity of the set of options and constraints faced by the study population-rural Ghanaian consumer-producershighlights the need for a systems perspective that allows for interactions and nonlinearities among value chain actors and activities. Because consumers in this context are also producers and, at times, market vendors, the interconnectedness between food production and consumption decisions is demonstrated by a two-way arrow.Over the last decade in Ghana economic growth has coincided with decreased undernutrition and poverty. However, important disparities are evident, between rural and urban 1 3 populations and northern and southern regions, in terms of poverty, food insecurity, and undernutrition. In addition, the emerging problem of health risks associated with rising overweight and obesity are a cause for concern. The prevalence of child stunting in Ghana fell from 28.1 percent in 2008 to 18.8 percent in 2014 (Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Health Service, and ICF International, 2015). However, stunting declined much more slowly in rural areas (20.3% versus 13.9% in 2014) and is concentrated in the northern regions. Furthermore, The prevalence of overweight among adults was 14.3% nationally and 24.7% among women in 2017 (University of Ghana et al., 2017). While currently concentrated in urban populations (19.8% versus 9% in rural areas), growing incomes, mechanization, and access to processed foods may begin to shift more of the burden to rural populations globally and in Ghana (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration, 2019).Despite regional diversity in nutrition outcomes, there is evidence that poor consumers throughout Ghana lack access to fresh and diverse of food. Ghana's rural populations are predominantly engaged in semi-subsistence agriculture on small plots, reliance on seasonally limited own-production to access a diverse basket of foods, especially for remote households (Ecker, 2018;Jayne et al., 2016;Signorelli et al., 2017). Despite a growing urban middle class and associated demands for food products, resource-poor smallholder farmers are not well integrated into growing food markets. Urban diets are increasingly made up of processed and imported food products due to changing food preferences as well as an inability of local producers to meet urban demand (Andam et al., 2018;Ragasa et al., 2019). And for the urban poor, the built environment limits regular access to fresh nutritious foods (Aryeetey et al., 2016).Food systems are multi-dimensional and complex and their analysis benefits from a multi-disciplinary and mixed methods approaches (Turner et al., 2018). A critical realist research paradigm allows us to integrate data sources and analyses, assess the relationships between factors under analysis, and generate theory-related and context-based explanations of food systems and diets (Modell, 2009;Shannon-Baker, 2016).We utilize nationally representative secondary data on household food consumption to understand diet patterns and potential gaps in nutritious food consumption. Primary data collected from consumer-producers (48 in-depth interviews) and food and market vendors (109 structured interviews) make up the core of the analysis of the food supply system, the local food environment, and consumer food choice.Primary data were collected in eight study sites across four regions. In line with a purposive maximum variation sampling (Marshall, 1996), the study sites represent a diversity of nutrition situations, agro-ecological zones, and major ethnic groups in Ghana. Four target regions were chosen to represent a diversity of agroecological and ethnic affiliations-Ashanti (Semi-deciduous forest; Ashanti people), Central (Coastal savanna; Fanti people), Oti (Semi-deciduous forest/Savanna; Ewe people), and North-East (Guinea savanna; Bimoba and Mamprusi people). A sub-sample of communities was randomly chosen from the respondents of a previously completed survey to support sample variation and Fig. 1 Value chains for nutrition (VCN) approach for identifying food systems interventions (Adapted from Gelli et al., 2015;HLPE, 2017;De La Peña et al., 2018) 1 3 mitigate bias (Gelli et al., 2019). Within each region, two communities were sampled: one remote (defined as distance to market greater than the mean for the region) and one central (distance less than the mean for the region).Households within the communities were sampled purposively based on a number of factors from the survey data in line with a maximum variation sampling approach. The factors considered include: household expenditures; size of land holdings; ages of heads of household; structure of household to include single-adult headed, dual-adult headed, and polygynous households.48 IDIs were completed, with 28 women and 20 men. The interview instrument included detailed modules with open-ended questions on: preferred foods and eating patterns across seasons; perceptions of nutritious foods; food sharing and allocation; constraints to eating preferred foods; purchase of preferred foods; foods produced and either consumed or sold; household decision-making related to food production; and women's role in marketing of food crops.Food sellers sampling was based on IDI responses on commonly patronized food outlets/sellers. They included community kiosks and food sellers and a key traditional market for each community. Structured food seller interviews asked a mix of open and closed questions about changes in prices and sales of PNFs throughout the year, value addition activities, main buyers, main sources of produce, and business challenges/expenses. When possible, at least two vendors within each food category (fruits, vegetables, legumes, meat/fish, and packaged foods) were interviewed. In total, 17 local food sellers and 92 market vendors were interviewed. Sample characteristics are presented in Table 1.Data were collected from July-September 2018. Except the principal investigator, the research team was Ghanaian and trained in qualitative data collection approaches. Interviews were facilitated in the language most comfortable for the respondent. Interviews led by the principal investigator made use of translators.Data from IDIs were translated, transcribed, and thematically coded using NVivo 12. After an initial coding pass, a set of predetermined codes were applied to the data. Next, codes were organized according to common emergent themes within and across communities. Framework matrices were used for thematic and explanatory analysis. When necessary, data were recoded as the analytical framework evolved. Structured market interview responses were captured in notes templates and subsequently typed in MS Excel. These responses were collated, and patterns of responses were summarized by market and by food type.To select a basket of foods with high potential to improve diets, we triangulated analyses on food preferences and availability in local food environments for foods rich in missing nutrients, yielding a list of commonly preferred nutritious foods (PNFs). These foods are presented with their key nutrients in Annex 1, Table 2 and used to determine which foods to prioritize in the analysis.The secondary data analysis draws from a survey of 2,166 households across all regions of Ghana conducted in March 2016 as part of an impact evaluation of the national school feeding program (Gelli et al., 2019). The survey included a module on a seven-day recall of household consumption and expenditures that was used to provide a breakdown of food and nutrient consumption shares. The nutritional content of individual foods was estimated by using the West African Food Composition Table (FCT) (Stadlmayr et al., 2012). Food quantities consumed were multiplied by conversion factors from the FCT to allow the estimation of nutrient availability by adult equivalent, a proxy indicator for nutrient intake (Fiedler et al., 2012). We employed the recommended daily nutrient requirements for both macroand micronutrients as published in WHO/FAO guidelines (FAO, 2004;WHO & FAO, 2004, 340-342). We first estimated household requirements by nutrient, using household demographics and nutrient requirements by age and gender, adjusting for low to moderate bioavailability for iron and zinc. We then estimated the mean adequacy ratio (MAR), or in this case the nutrient availability adequacy of household food consumption, by dividing the household level nutrient availability from food consumed, by the household level requirements (Fiedler et al., 2012). This analysis also allowed for the identification of the contributions to nutrient intake from the different foods. The analysis of food consumption and nutrient availability/access patterns at household level can also provide some insights on the potential nutrient gaps in dietary intake. For this purpose we employed the recommended daily nutrient requirements for both macro-and micronutrients as published in WHO guidelines. We first estimated household requirements by nutrient, using household demographics and nutrient requirements by age and gender. We then estimated the nutrient availability adequacy of household food consumption by dividing the household level nutrient availability from food consumed, by the household level requirements.Using household food consumption data to characterize diets severely limits the validity of findings for several important reasons. Primarily, as consumption is aggregated at household level, the intra-household allocation of food is not examined explicitly. In order to gauge nutrient adequacy, a major assumption is made on the distribution of food within households based on individual nutrient requirements by age and gender. Evidence on this assumption of equitable distribution within households is scarce. A review of 28 studies across 14 countries found that for energy intake, individual intake fell within ± 20% of estimates from the equitable distribution rule (Berti, 2012). There is evidence also that adult male equivalent estimates are particularly inaccurate for children under 5 (Coates et al., 2017). Furthermore, as food availability is seasonal, a single panel of food consumption data may miss important seasonal patterns.Approval for this study was received by the Ethical Review Board of the International Food Policy Research Institute.Household food consumption data from across Ghana provides critical insights into the existing diets patterns and nutrient gaps. Household consumption data collected from a nationally representative sample of rural households provides an estimate of daily per capita consumption amounts, as well as the corresponding nutrient amounts. Nutrient availability depends on both the intrinsic nutritional content and the amount consumed of a specific food. The analysis presented here focusses on two macronutrients (energy and protein) and three micronutrients (iron, vitamin A, and zinc). 1 3These consumption deficiencies can be better understood by looking at the patterns of the specific foods consumed and their nutrient contributions. Figure 3 suggests that diets include a wide range of staples including maize, cassava, rice and yam, accounting on average for 73% of food and 77% of calories in the north. In contrast, in the south, these foods account for 53% of food and 64% of calories. A wide range of higher-nutrient foods including leafy greens (e.g. kontomire and cassava leaves), fruits (bananas and plantain-which is consumed as a staple food-mango, guava and papaya), beans and peas (e.g. cowpea and bambara bean), and groundnuts are consumed in smaller amounts. Animal sourced foods, including fish, eggs, dairy and meats, are consumed in very small amounts. While overall amounts consumed are low for the whole sample, legumes account for a much higher proportion of calories in the north than in the south. Whereas, in the south, the proportion of calories derived from vegetables and from animal source foods are double that of the north. Oil makes up 6% of calories in the south compared to 3% in the north.In the north, maize alone contributes between a third and a quarter of all the five macro and micronutrients considered. However, the bioavailable supply of nutrients is likely much lower than suggested in Fig. 3. While maize makes up 20% of calories in the south, cassava-a food for which the micronutrient content is extremely low-is consumed in higher amounts.Fish is an important source of high-quality protein and iron in highly a bioavailable form throughout the sample, although consumed in small amounts. Chili pepper provides a significant proportion of both iron and vitamin A (8% and 47% on the north and 17% and 44% in the south). In the south, banana and plantain are also an important source of iron and vitamin A. Egg consumption, though low, is another important source of protein and micronutrients in the diet in the south.Figure 3 also provides information about the market orientation of the north versus the south. While markets and own production are both important across the whole sample, a greater proportion of foods are mostly sourced from markets in the south: 20 of 29 foods are mostly purchased in the south while 17 of 29 foods are mostly purchased in the north. Overall, staples are mostly consumed from own production, except for rice. In the south, all legumes and seeds are mostly purchased, while in the north it varies by type of legume/seed. Chili pepper and tomato are mostly purchased throughout the country. Source: Author's calculations of 7-day household consumption data (Gelli et al., 2019) based on nutrient values in the West African FCT (Stadlmayr et al., 2012). Note: Figures are not adjusted by bioavailability so are likely to be overestimates 1 3Based on in-depth interviews (N = 48) with farm households, diet patterns and preferences were broadly similar across field sites, although specific preferred foods varied between north and south and by region. Ghanaians noted enjoying variety, consuming various starchy staples and different accompanying soups and stews. Staple foods mentioned include maize, plantain, cassava, yam, cocoyam, and rice.In the north, millet and sorghum are also common. Soups and stews typically start with a base of dried fish, onion, chili pepper, and tomato, and include small amounts of ground groundnuts or seeds, vegetables, and-when possible-poultry or meat. In addition to onion, chili pepper, and tomato, commonly preferred vegetables include okra, garden egg (a variety of eggplant), abedru (turkey berry), and different leafy greens (most commonly kontomire in the south and guant in the north). Households throughout Ghana enjoyed many different types of fruits when they are in season. \"Food\" was equated with starchy staples: when describing the foods they like, people started by naming the staple preparation. When prompted, they would also specify which type of soup or stew they like to eat with it. There were some typical combinations-for instance, one eats light soup with fufu (dumpling made from cassava and yam or plantain), okra soup with banku (fermented then steamed maize dough), and stew with rice-and common formulations of the recipes, but there were many different variations.Female Respondent, Central (south): \"We don't eat a single food for a long time to avoid losing appetite for it; there are times I prepare banku and other times I pound fufu and other times I cook rice.\" Female Respondent, Central (south): I eat with light soup, palm soup, and peanut soup. So if I eat light soup today tomorrow I will eat palm soup and then the next day peanut soup.A few processed and packaged food were ubiquitous across the communities interviewed. These included bullion-type flavor cubes (such as Maggie or Onga cubes), tinned tomatoes, and imported rice. Other packaged foods mentioned include bread, tinned or powdered milk, beverages like tea or Milo (a sweet cocoa drink powder), sunflower oil (as a substitute for locally processed palm oil) and tinned fish or meat. Consumers chose brands based on flavor, past use, and expiration dates. In communities in or near a major town center, these processed foods were more commonly mentioned. On the other hand, in some of the most remote communities, households often relied on tinned foods and bouillon cubes to fill the gap when other ingredients were not available.Male Respondent, Oti (south): \"Sometimes the fish for the stew, I mean the dry fish, is not available so if we don't get dry fish then we buy the Tinapa (tinned sardines).\"Although people lamented having to consume the same foods every day due to scarcity, when asked what they would like to consume more of, people often mentioned their favorite typical dish. All communities aspired to consume more rice, the most commonly consumed food that is usually packaged and imported. Many said they would like to consume more beans and more yam. Milo, bread, evaporated or powdered milk, and fruit are also occasionally mentioned as aspirational foods. While people often referred to their ethnic identity to explain why certain foods were eaten in a community, it was common for people to not eat those foods based on personal tastes and preferences.Respondents' conceptions of the nutritional quality of foods largely related to traditional concepts of health and wellbeing. Translations for the term \"nutritious food\" were akin to \"foods that give strength\" or \"foods that give health\".Respondents listed a number of foods they thought were nutritious, such as leafy greens, abedru, and various fruits. Fish was commonly described as beneficial while beef was sometimes described as harmful, and a number of people described skin reactions and other illnesses from eating pork.Most commonly, foods were said to be nutritious because they give strength and energy, build the body, or build blood. The benefits were often described in functional terms, such as supporting one's ability to work hard on the farm, make one's body strong, or withstand or avoid illnesses. Abedru-and sometime kontomire-was described as a \"blood tonic\"; Female Respondent, Ashanti (south): \"If you give birth and they tell you that you don't have blood you can use both the abedru and the kontomire to prepare stew.There were also many references to the dangers of foods that produce phlegm in the body, and debates about which foods were more phlegm producing-cassava, yam, or cocoyam.Female respondent, Ashanti (south): \"The maize-made foods are more nutritious because, you know, there is starch in cassava and we eat it a lot and it does…it produces lot of phlegm in our system.\"Respondents discussed phlegm as something that can weaken the body, for instance worsening the effects of malaria infection. A health benefit commonly ascribed to fruits was relief of constipation and red palm oil was said to improve eyesight. These traditional concepts of healthrelevant characteristics of food are prevalent in other parts of Africa and in Eastern medicinal traditions (Aberman & Roopnaraine, 2020;Bai & Song, 2012).1 3Discussion of intrahousehold allocation explored whether any household members were given priority when food resources are scarce. Across all communities for both male and female respondents, children were prioritized when food was scarce. Eggs were commonly reserved for children, and other animal foods were sometimes prioritized for children. Households said they made sure children ate first because they could not withstand hunger like an adult; when hungry they would cry and could fall ill.Male respondent, Ashanti (south): \"We will share the food small-small but if it is still not enough, we give all the food to the children and then we-the adults-will just get some bread and eat…Because when a child doesn't eat she will cry and worry you and she will not even be able to sleep but being an adult if you don't eat you can still sleep.\"Alternatively, a few households said they prioritized animal proteins for the male head. It was typically considered necessary to serve men first as a sign of respect, though not in all cases. Notably, in the Oti communities all households said men were served first and a number of women said that in times of shortage they went without eating. In no households were women given priority for meals in terms of eating first or ensuring they eat animal proteins before others. Some women explained that these norms resulted in women eating less food:Female respondent, Volta (south): \"I will serve my husband first. Then I will serve my children and serve my grandchildren as well and then I will eat the small that is left.\"All communities faced seasonal barriers to consuming some preferred nutritious foods (PNFs). Some said they simply stopped consuming fresh fruits and vegetables when they were unavailable on the farm. Others noted that market availability of these foods was limited some months of the year even if they could afford to purchase them. Tomato, a key ingredient in most recipes especially in southern Ghana, becomes scarce and expensive during the dry season, and people switched seamlessly to packaged tomatoes in a tin or sachet. This allowed people, even in remote rural communities, to continue to cook with tomato throughout the year. Similarly, chili pepper, another essential ingredient in Ghanaian cooking throughout the country, is commonly used in dried form when the fresh version is not available. Consumers would only reluctantly substitute dried forms of vegetables (leafy greens and okra), except in the north where the taste was more acceptable and dried forms were the most common substitute for fresh vegetables. Abedru is considered a wild food that people typically gather rather than produce or purchase. Fruits like mango, banana, orange, and avocado were enjoyed while in season, but people forgo them when they are not available through own production: these foods were rarely purchased.Different from fruits and vegetables, staple foods are more consistently available. While people sometimes go without their favorite food at certain times of the year, the variety of different staple foods and harvest seasons allowed most households to switch between them rather than experiencing a significant \"hungry\" season.Rice is both an aspirational food and a food that helps households cope with seasonal shortages and time constraints because it can be easily purchased and prepared in small amounts when other staples run out.Substitution was often expressed as an effort to prepare flavorful food even when preferred ingredients were unavailable. For instance, consumers and market vendors in Central and Ashanti Regions noted that groundnut, palm nut, or egusi could be used when kontomire and other fresh vegetables were not available, depending on the preferred recipe. Palm nut soup was the most common substitution for scarce foods.Female Respondent, Ashanti (south): \"If there is no money, we make palm nut soup but if there is money we use abedru, kontomire, and groundnut.\"Similarly, abedru and kontomire were substituted when fish was not available across all regions except for North-East.In North-East, when tizet-the main northern staple food, a dough usually made from millet-was not available, a beanbased version was substituted. Unlike in the south, tomatoes were sometimes considered optional in northern cooking.Male Respondent, North-East: We don't have it [okra and tomatoes] all through the year; there are times we hardly even get some from the market to buy. [Instead], we can use dry powdered okra, or dried powdered baobab leaves (tukara) for soup. For tomatoes, even if we don't have it, we can still prepare the soup.1 3All households interviewed produced food crops, keeping some for home-consumption and selling some. Households balanced competing priorities of keeping enough food for the year and meeting urgent cash needs. These decisions were framed in terms of their subsistence needs rather than profit considerations, lamenting the sale of produce that they would rather keep for home consumption. Quantities produced played a strong role in these decisions: after a household produced sufficient quantities to meet home consumption needs, they would sell the rest. Female Respondent, North-East: \"Often we sell what we have more of; other times, we look at how much of the crop we need ourselves and then sell some of it.\" In cases of highly perishable foods, like fresh vegetables and plantain, people kept what they could consume immediately and sold the excess. In Central Region, a couple of respondents owned refrigerators-a rare asset among rural residents-which made them less likely to sell the fresh foods they produced as it could be stored for longer.The top cash needs addressed with the sale of produce are food, school fees and school-related expenses, clothes and shoes, sundry items such as soap and household products, medical expenses, and investments in property, such as housing or land. In the north, gendered patterns to these priorities arose, wherein women were responsible for purchasing sundries and milling grain but were not necessarily allocated funds for these expenses or allowed to sell food stocks themselves, creating tension related to keep or sell decisions.The food outlets patronized by the sampled households included community-based food hawkers and kiosks, small rural markets, and larger markets that included butchers, cold stores, millers, and other specialty sellers. Many people relied on community-based kiosks as a convenient source of food or to fill the gap before for the next trip to their usual market. Products were consistently more expensive in these kiosks but the convenience encouraged people to patronize them. Kiosks largely stocked less-perishable products such as tinned foods (tomatoes, mackerel, corned beef, bouillon cubes, powdered milk, Milo, oil, salt) and dried fish. But some kiosks also sold locally produced fresh foods, such as fresh tomatoes and abedru. In addition, some remote communities purchased foods such as fresh fish or bread from mobile venders when they drove through periodically selling these products.Communities weighed various factors when deciding which market in the vicinity to patronize. While large markets often have better prices and more options, the time and cost of travel could be a barrier. People said they would forgo trips to the market when they did not have sufficient money to buy their preferred foods or buy foods in sufficient quantities to warrant the time and cost of travel. Instead, they would patronize local sellers to fill immediate food needs. Another consideration for a market trip or the choice of market was convenience or having multiple tasks to undertake at the market; if people were passing through for other reasons they would stop to purchase some food items and people preferred to undertake selling and buying in the same trip, especially in remote communities.Consistent with the food consumption data reported in Table 1, all households reported that they purchased some foods to supplement what they grow themselves. Respondents listed rice, fish, tomato, oil, okra, chili pepper, and cowpea as foods they typically purchased. In addition, consumers purchased many packaged and processed foods, and more of the foods they produced at home when stocks ran out.While most foods in the market were sold with relatively little processing or value addition, there were some exceptions. Groundnut was commonly processed into paste, cassava was processed into gari (dried cassava flakes), fruits were cut for convenience or peeled for esthetics, fish vendors often smoke, dry and/or grind the fish themselves. Chili pepper is dried and ground in the off season. Most of this processing was undertaken by either consumers or by market sellers.We discerned patterns of food sales and availability distinct from our a priori sampling categories: north/south and remote/central. Archetypal rural markets-those primarily serving rural communities wherein agriculture is the primary livelihood but not necessarily corresponding to the \"distance to market\" measure of remoteness used in our sampling-have demand patterns closely connected to farmer production patterns and decisions about whether to keep or sell the produce. While more urbanized markets-those located in large towns or tertiary cities wherein a higher proportion of the population derive their incomes outside of primary agricultural production-have demand patterns somewhat de-linked from agricultural seasons. We refer to these urbanized markets as \"rurban\".In rural markets, sales are less responsive to price changes as consumers tend to have stocks at home from their own production when prices are low. And when stocks run out market prices are high and consumers have limited cash on hand so purchases remain low. Similarly, the prices farmers receive when they have produce to sell, especially for fresh produce, is low. Consumers near these markets tend to consume what they have produced until it is gone, and then only purchase for immediate needs. Alternatively, in rurban markets, sales and prices are less volatile across seasons.For grains and legumes-such as maize, millet, cowpea, and groundnuts-supply increases at harvest time when farmers sell their produce in the market. Traders in the rural 1 3 markets report low sales during this time because most consumers meet their demand for these crops through own production. By the beginning of the next rainy season, farm households tend to run out of their own food stocks so market traders are able to sell more produce. Sales peak just before the next harvest. In contrast, traders in rurban markets said that sales of cereals and pulses peak just after the harvest when high quantities supplied lead to lower prices.Leafy greens were rarely sold in rural markets; traders note that people grow their own rather than purchasing. Whereas garden egg, okra, tomato, and chili pepper were available in all markets. Traders reported more easily selling vegetables early in the rainy season or after the rains when customers are less likely to have them at home. Off-season vegetables were sourced from irrigating producers, or sometimes rainfed producers who harvest a bit earlier than others. After the rains end, traders start to sell dried and ground leafy greens and okra, especially in the north. In rurban markets, leafy greens were included in the list of vegetables for sale. Also, rarely, abedru and cabbage were sold in rurban markets.A range of fruits were available in rurban markets, depending on their harvest season. Pineapple, watermelon, banana, avocado, orange, mango, and guava were found in the markets visited. Fruit sellers in rurban markets noted increased sales in the peak season when supply is high and sales are low. In rural markets, fewer fruits were found, and sales were very low throughout the year due to high prices in the off season and availability at home during the peak season.While some form of dried or smoked fish was available across all markets, other animal foods were less common. Fresh fish, poultry, beef, and pork were only available across northern markets and in rurban markets in the south. Throughout all markets, sellers reported few customers purchasing fresh meat products, except directly after the main harvest season and for festive occasions. In the south, higher sales corresponded to the cocoa harvest, as cocoa is a common cash crop. While in the north, increased sales were tied to the harvest of major food crops like sorghum, maize, groundnut, yam, and rice. Eggs were rarely available in northern markets.In all markets and among village sellers, commercially and locally processed food sales decreased when fresh foods such as fresh tomatoes, garden eggs, and leafy greens were highly available, as processed foods often serve as substitutes.Overall, most traders described increases in sales during local festivals and funerals, while school is in session (due to both school catering and purchase of meals and snacks for schoolchildren), and at the beginning of harvest when more people have cash from crop sales.Traders attributed changes in supply of foods overwhelmingly to the seasonality of production, for fresh foods in particular. Transport delays and poor-quality (or seasonally unpassable) roads are also a major cause of supply limitations, primarily for fish, poultry products and processed foods. Wholesalers may fail to supply at times, either due to these transport problems or for unknown reasons. Traders in one northern market also expressed worry over ethnic tensions and conflicts that periodically limit food supply from producers in neighboring villages.Most sellers across markets reported sourcing their fresh agricultural produce primarily from own production and from farmers in nearby communities, especially vegetables, leafy greens, and fruits. When local supplies dwindle, they may source from neighboring communities or more distant parts of Ghana. In the off-season, tomato and chili pepper were primarily sourced from Burkina Faso through itinerant traders. Cereals, grains, and pulses were often sourced from major markets in North-East and Ashanti Regions, and sometimes from neighboring countries. Fresh fish, poultry, and eggs were typically sourced from wholesalers in the larger urban markets. Small, dried fish were usually sourced from wholesalers in Ashanti. Fresh meat (beef, goat, and sheep) was usually sourced from the north.Markets represented a mix of traditional and modern value chains. While commercially processed food was ubiquitous throughout markets, the food supply system for fresh foods continued to utilize traditional practices and technologies. Perishability and lack of storage facilities constitute the main business challenge identified by traders of fresh agricultural produce. Limited or poor-quality facilities constrain the sale of fresh produce; rather than save unsold produce for the next day, traders are forced to drastically drop prices of leafy greens in the afternoon to avoid wastage. Transportation and associated costs constituted the greatest business expense for traders. These costs included payments to porters to load and unload the goods, payments made at police checkpoints, and the cost of damaged or spoiled goods due to bad roads or vehicle breakdowns. Associated challenges included delays in restocking produce.The preceding analysis of consumer behaviors and preferences and marketing patterns provide deep contextual understanding of the challenges and drivers of consumption of nutritious foods. The next step in the VCN method is to fit the outcomes of this analysis onto a supply-demand typology (low demand and supply, high demand and supply, low demand and high supply, high demand and low supply) to summarize the outcomes and facilitate the identification of complementary interventions and policies. Depending on where the constraints are for these foods-demand, supply, or in the value chain-we can diagnose corresponding investments. For the purposes of this analysis, supply and demand were evaluated based on market vendors' estimations of availability for sale throughout the year, household IDI responses provide information on sourcing, preferences, and substitutions, and analysis of secondary consumption data provides insights into consumption.Fruits and leafy greens are categorized as low supply (seasonal) and low demand in the north and south. They are preferred foods, however they are easily foregone or substituted when they are not in season. Tomato is in high demand in the south but less so in the north; supply is low (seasonal) throughout the country. Chili pepper is in high demand and low supply (seasonal) in north and south. However, for both tomato and chili pepper, modern and traditional processing ensure year-round consumption. There are also concerns about the safety of fresh vegetables related to pesticide residue and other contaminants. Furthermore, the short, localized supply chains exacerbate the seasonally limited availability. Supply and demand for abedru are low. It is a highly nutritious wild vegetable that is a preferred food in the south but consumed in small amounts. It is occasionally traded but more often gathered from kitchen gardens or from the wild.Legumes (cowpea and bean) and seeds (egusi and bungu) are categorized as low demand and high supply. They are often used as substitutes when fresh vegetables are not available or animal foods are not affordable, and so are not consumed regularly or in sufficient amounts. Legumes are not highly preferred (i.e., inferior good), but often consumed outside the home from prepared-food vendors.Fresh meat, poultry, and fish are in low demand and supply, except meat which is in higher demand in the north. These animal foods are eaten in very small amounts, as their high cost makes them a luxury food, consumed by better-off consumers or during times of celebration. In rurban markets, cold stores carry fresh frozen fish and poultry and butchers for pork and beef are found throughout the north. Various types of dried or smoked fish are in high supply throughout the country, and, though they are highly preferred, we consider them low demand. While these fish are a more affordable substitute for fresh animal proteins and they are a ubiquitous addition to recipes throughout the country, they are typically consumed in very small amounts compared to nutritional requirements. Intrahousehold allocation most commonly affects animal foods. Eggs experience low demand throughout our study sites and are in high supply in the south but low supply in the north. In the south they are consumed in slightly higher amounts and more commonly available in markets. In the north they are more likely to be consumed from home production than purchased. Households in all communities said they prioritize eggs for children when they had them, though quantities consumed are very low, especially in the north. Women in these study sites commonly reported forgoing animal foods, especially in Oti communities.Based on the combined results, this section demonstrates how promising interventions can be identified and mapped to different stages along the value chain, as presented in Fig. 4, to address specific of supply, demand, and value chain constraints of nutritious foods, in order to improve diets. While not part of this analysis, cost-effectiveness, political feasibility, or other possible contextual constraints should also be considered when using this approach for program design.Increasing consumption of low demand and high supply foods-such as dried fish, eggs, seeds, and legumes-can be promoted through concerted efforts to increase nutrition knowledge and practices and enhance the nutrient density of local recipes. For instance, approaches to promote wider consumption of eggs have been promoted in Ghana and elsewhere and can build on positive perceptions of these foods as highly nutritious and good for children (Marquis et al., 2018;Morris et al., 2018). Modalities for scaling-up and intensifying nutrition education nation-wide could include enhanced community-based nutrition messaging and school curricula on nutrition. In addition, targeting younger populations will have a greater likelihood of influencing diet preferences that are still developing (Thow et al., 2018, 149). Low demand and high supply foods can be systematically incorporated into food distribution programs such as school meals to enhance diets of school-age children. Even low demand and low supply foods that are characterized by seasonally limited availability like leafy greens and fruits can be incorporated into distribution programs when they are available. Consistent demand for these foods also has the potential to incentivize more and year-round production of these foods. Related research shows that distribution programs can be effective for stimulating local markets and improving children's nutrition, if implementation challenges like highly variable market prices can be addressed in the program design (Gelli et al., 2019).Supply-side interventions are particularly important for seasonal vegetables and fruits. Cultivation of abedru can be promoted in the south to increase supply. Our analysis of consumer preferences shows that fruits and vegetables are preferred foods but that seasonally high prices and food contamination concerns are significant constraints to the stability of consumption. Small-scale irrigation for vegetables-especially leafy greens-and fruit tree varieties with variable ripening periods are examples of production-focused interventions that could alleviate the highly seasonal supply of critical nutrientrich foods. Other research shows that both women and men should be explicitly engaged in irrigation initiatives to support vegetable production for home use (Theis et al., 2018). Such approaches can also smooth out income and effective demand over the year, potentially stimulating rural markets. Concerns about agro-chemical contamination of fresh vegetables also drives preferences for own-consumption of purchase of these foods. Vegetable market development can be supported by addressing these safety concerns.Finally, concerted efforts to decrease waste of leafy greens, fresh fruits, and other perishable supply-constrained nutrition foods would benefit producers, vendors, and consumers. Road infrastructure, mobile cold storage, and other innovative approaches can be strategically developed to increase the availability of these foods, especially in rural markets. Measures to increase the efficiency of value chains and decrease waste have been suggested as a mechanism to address affordability and availability issues (Gelli et al., 2017;Parmar et al., 2017).In addition to demonstration of the VCN method, these results have important implications for Ghana and food systems research more broadly. In Ghana, agriculture sector investment is dominated by activities such as subsidized inputs for grains and commercial vegetables (not commonly consumed by the rural poor), grain storage facilities, and extension support for grain production (Ghana MoFA, 2017). While this approach may increase incomes from the sale of produce, it will not address the seasonal constraints to nutritious diets unless combined with some type of irrigation (plus demand-side interventions), especially for households in communities near rural markets, as well as farmers constrained by land size or limited labor. A different approach should be developed to support these households to produce nutritious foods all year. While also considering opportunities to enhance production and processing of locally preferred nutritious foods near rurban markets.Processed packaged foods are available throughout Ghana, even in the most remote communities. Industrially processed foods are used to bridge seasonal gaps of nutritious food availability, as are traditionally processed foods. Processing of tomato and chili pepper allows consumers to enjoy their preferred flavors and benefit from the micronutrients year-round. However, increased consumption of ultra-processed foods like bouillon cubes when fresh foods are unavailable represents an emerging challenge of the globalizing food system as well as an opportunity for developing more nutritious local and shelf-stable alternatives. For instance, an initiative by the University of Ghana entailed product development research to replace bouillon cubes with healthy alternatives (University of Ghana, University of California-Davis, 2019). Attempts to incorporate smallholder farmers into supply chains for industrial processing of vegetables and fruits have not been highly successful (Boamah et al., 2019), but new technologies applied to traditional processing and supply chains should be explored, to potentially benefit both diets and livelihoods.More broadly, our analysis supports application of a more nuanced conceptualization of market access than the oft-applied, and oft-critiqued (Chamberlin & Jayne, 2013), measures such as distance, time, cost to get to the market. As discussed elsewhere, distance to market not a good measure of \"remoteness\" in our study sites (see Chamberlin, 2012;Chamberlin & Jayne, 2013). Some communities designated as central were in fact extremely isolated from traditional food markets, due to the quality of roads connected to the community and characteristics of the reference market. Combining market access indicators with those that considers the variety and consistency of food supplied can enhance research on how producer-consumers engage with the market and implications for health diets (INDDEX Project, 2018;Pingali & Ricketts, 2014).Finally, the menu of policy interventions arising from the VCN analysis should not be viewed as individual approaches to pick and choose from. Together they provide a set of complementary interventions across different value chains, regions, and demographics. On its own, investments in irrigation for vegetable production will be difficult to sustain if produce cannot be transported to a market with unmet demand. Approaches that miss out on critical food system constraints, including food system governance, are likely to show minimal or short-lived benefits (Boamah et al., 2019). To choose a basket of foods with high potential to improve diets, we triangulated analyses on food preferences and availability in local food environments for foods rich in missing (according to analysis of 7-day recall consumption data) nutrients, yielding a list of high-potential preferred nutritious foods (PNFs). These foods are presented with their key nutrients in the table below and used to determine which foods to focus on in the value chain analysis. We considered differences in preferences between north and south, as well as more localized preferences by region: Ashanti, Oti, Central, and North-East. Some PNFs, including tomato, chili pepper, and okra, were preferred across all study regions, suggesting these foods enjoy wide acceptability to consumers throughout the country. Other foods were specific to particular localities. For example, egusi seed and bitter leaf are more widely consumed in the Oti region while bungu seed and cowpea leaf are consumed in the North-East region Fig. 5. ","tokenCount":"8170"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"90a87d134129570bb0c2da02fa28e705","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/364384dc-b4c2-4b02-96b8-340198e40535/retrieve","id":"-2066112849"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5f023a25-7799-49fe-b509-2421c12fc907","pagecount":"2","content":"New evidence on the aging trend in African farming and the need for an effective strategy to make it more profitable Project Title: P664 -2.1.1 Farm Size, Land Market and Labor Dynamics Description of the innovation: Work by IFPRI and MSU sheds new light on the landscape of the African labor force by debunking the myth of Africa's ageing farmers and demonstrating that Africa does not have a \"youth problem\" but rather faces the broader challenge of promoting inclusive economic development. Instead of focusing on keeping young people in farming, a more effective strategy would prioritize resourcing the millions of rural youth already engaged in farming to make farming more profitable. • Tools and evidence on the economywide factors affecting rural transformation are used by 3 countries to modify policies or expenditures that are better targeted towards raising agricultural growth and rural incomes Sub-IDOs:• 10 -Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices ","tokenCount":"155"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6f7dd93d984b82f584af696ce55cb10e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7d219ee5-db35-4b21-a70f-a95d89f52cf5/retrieve","id":"30228447"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"482dcd44-0362-4ab2-bf96-666eea101ce8","pagecount":"1","content":"1961-1963 aver age 2007-2009 aver age Compos it ion of B r azilian f ood s upply wit h r egar d t o cont r ibut ion t o f at f r om veget able oils .In Brazil the native groundnut has been replaced by soybean as the primary source of fat from plants.Global staples such as wheat and rice became more important in Sudan. Many sub-Saharan African countries with sorghum-and millet-based diets followed the same trend. Newly released infographics show how the so-called \"globalized diet\" has emerged. It's the story of massive change over the past 50 years in the foods people eat, of crop winners and losers, and most of all, of increasing similarity in the food supplies of countries worldwide. Here are ve graphs that together describe some of the the most important changes in food diversity over the past ve decades:Almost everybody eats a lot more than their grandparents did, and it's more diverseGlobal food supplies are on average more than 500 calories per day, per person, larger than they were 50 years ago. They are also more diverse, with both a longer list of di erent food crops, and a more equal contribution to food supplies from each of those crops. Food supplies that were primarily based on single staples a half century ago, for instance rice in Southeast Asia, diversi ed over time to include other staples such as wheat and maize. The same was true for sorghum-and millet-based diets in sub-Saharan Africa, and maize-based diets in Latin America. Nicaragua (Figure 1), for example, reported a 52% increase from 1961 to 2009 in the number of crops contributing to calories in the national food supply, diversifying in particular by incorporating more rice, wheat, soybean, palm oil, and other oil crops. One big caveat-we were only able to assess crops reported in FAO national food supply data, which are limited to measuring 52 crop-speci c foods. While these include the most important crops globally, they certainly don't cover all the plants that people eat. Crops not explicitly listed are either thrown into general categories such as \"cereals, other\" or aren't measured at all, especially if they are only produced on a small scale, for local markets or in home gardens. We need better statistics about what people eat around the world, especially since studies have shown that many locally relevant crops that are invisible in global statistics are disappearing from diets.Comparing countries' current food supplies, we found that both the most and the least diverse were largely nations in Africa and Asia, and on small islands. Looking both at the number and the relative contribution of each of the plants listed in each nation's food supply, Cameroon (Figure 2), Nigeria and Grenada had the world's most diverse food supplies with regard to calories. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Cambodia, meanwhile, had the least, with Afghanistan listing only 30 plants, and with 74% of these calories from wheat alone.If there were crop \"winners\" over the past 50 years, among these would be the \"mega-crops\" (wheat, rice, maize and sugar), which maintained their global importance. The biggest winners, though, were oils such as soybean, palm, sun ower and rapeseed, which progressed from regional signi cance to global dominance as contributors to calories and fat over ve decades (Figure 3). As the winners came to take more precedence in food supplies around the world, traditional cereals such as sorghum, millets, and rye, and starchy roots such as cassava, sweet potatoes, and yam, were marginalized.The diversi cation of countries' food supplies over the past 50 years seems to have largely come about by introducing exotic plants that were originally domesticated in far ung regions of the world. For example, traditional rice-based diets in Southeast Asia diversi ed to include more non-traditional staples such as wheat (originally from West Asia) and maize (Mesoamerica). In related research on the origins of food crops, we found that about 69% of plants consumed around the world are \"foreign\" in the sense that they originated elsewhere. Countries' consumption of crop \"immigrants\" signi cantly increased over the past ve decades, especially in nations that developed new agricultural production industries based on these exotic plants. Brazil's investment in the cultivation of soybean, a crop with origins in East Asia, massively increased the availability of the crop -and of vegetable oil in general -in the country's food supply, while marginalizing traditional plant fats such as groundnut/peanut (Figure 4). As countries' food supplies became more diverse, particularly by increasing the consumption of exotic crops that originated in distant regions of the planet, the global food supply became much more similar. African, Asian, and Paci c Island countries remain the furthest distance from this convergence, and pull the current global average diet (center) a small distance away from the main cluster (Figure 5). In the current decade, the nations that most closely re ect the global average diet include Cape Verde, Colombia, and Peru. While the gure clearly shows that there is no such thing, in reality, as a global average diet, the movement of countries over time closer to this center bolsters the argument that a global average diet has more validity now that it did 50 years ago.  -1 0 0 % -5 0 % 0 % 5 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 5 0 % 2 0 0 % 2 5 0% Each dot represents a country's average food supply with regard to calories in a given decade, including both the number of crops and animal products, and their relative contributions to the food supply. The farther apart dots (countries) are, the more their food supplies di er, with countries at the edges varying most from the global average diet (center).","tokenCount":"957"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fde0cc27ffc6e8febfc2ab5fcacdb214","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89a5b032-1e2e-4256-9f30-9007fd59c7ab/retrieve","id":"1307157498"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3d5958a6-1b30-4bc0-a9a9-6852f38498c1","pagecount":"27","content":"The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) was used to characterize the feed-related aspects of the livestock production system in Matayos, sub-County, Busia County of Kenya. The assessment was carried out through focused group discussions (FGD) and completion of short questionnaires at three sites, representing peri-urban and near tarmac road and typical rural setup. At each site, nine key farmers (consisting of three each) representatives owning small, medium and large-scale farms.The study was carried out on the 22nd of November and 3rd December 2013. The farming system is a mixed crop-livestock production system. Cattle (predominantly local) are the most important livestock species in Matayos Sub-county. Improved dairy production is constrained by inadequate feeds and high cost of disease control in all the wards. Lack of improved breeds in Nasewa and Lwanya and milk marketing are also constraints that require attention to activate commercial dairy productivity. To mitigate these constraints farmers suggested an integrated approach to improve livestock production through (i) expanding the area for fodder crops, using crops that are more tolerant to Napier grass stunt disease and those tolerant to drought, (ii) improving access to animal health and AI facilities to ensure farmers can rapidly upgrade the genetic merit of their cattle holdings (especially in Nasewa and Lwanya), (iii) access to credit facilities to enable farmers invest in livestock production enterprises and also improve the milk marketing strategies.Livestock farming contributes significantly to the economies of Western Kenya (Ojowi et. al., 2001 andKARI Kakamega annual report 2006) through the generation of tangible and intangible products (World, 2005). Within the region, most of the milk produced is marketed informally and is thus an important source of employment and income in rural areas from production at the household level to informal transporters and retailers in the urban centres (EAPP Final Document 2014). In addition, a regular supply of milk improves nutritional security for many rural poor families, provides affordable nutrients to improve the well-being of those suffering from HIV/AIDS and generates more regular household income and jobs than many other farming enterprises in Eastern Africa (Nicholson et al., 2003).The western region is considered a high dairying region because of the favourable climatic conditions and soils (Jaetzold et. al., 2009), but the productivity of its herd is much lower compared to similar regions like Central Kenya and the North Rift Valley because of its poor dairy genetic resources kept by farmers. According to estimates by Waithaka et al. (2002), only 13% of the households are keeping improved dairy cattle. There is a potential to improve production and productivity to attain the levels of other regions with similar climatic conditions. Another major constraint to increase dairy productivity in the highly populated regions of Western Kenya is the inadequate quality of livestock feeds (KARI Kakamega 2006 andOjowi et. al., 2001). This is particularly critical during the dry season when dairy herds are forced to rely on low-quality feed resources, which are nutritionally deficient in energy, nitrogen, minerals and vitamins with minimal or no supplementation. Most dairy farming in this region is practised by smallholder farmers in densely populated holdings. These conditions force farmers to allocate most of the available land to food crops leaving very little for planted pasture/fodders and natural grazing. With increased crop productivity dairy cattle are therefore fed on crop residues and Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach), planted on lands averaging less than 0.2 hectares. However, Napier stunt disease caused by phytoplasma, has since mid-1990's caused forage yield reductions of up to 90% (Lusweti et al., 2004;Mulaa et al., 2004). This is currently the biggest threat to forage production and the dairy sector in the region. According to Mr Sagala of Heifer international Western Region (Personal Communication), there has been a milk yield reduction of 20-40% caused by the lack of feeds, mostly due to the stunt diseases.The challenges call for a combination of interventions. There is a need to improve animal productivity through more intensification and utilization of crop-livestock interactions, and promotion and adoption of genetically diverse, high yielding, and climatically adapted grasses that are tolerant to diseases. Therefore, in order to design site-specific strategies for sustainable feed supply and utilization, the current survey was conducted with the following objectives:• To assess feed resource availability and utilization using the FEAST tool, within the context of the overall dairy value chain, at four specific sites in Western Kenya • To determine the potential of site-specific feed interventions in selected areasMatayos is one of the seven sub-Counties in Busia County lying between latitude 0 o N and 0 010' N longitude 34 O E and 34 Matayos sub-County has a population of 111,345 (53,577 males and 57,768 females). There are 23,826 households and a population density of 567.8 people per km 2 according to the 2009 National Population and Household Census. The community is cosmopolitan with a cross-section of ethnic groups. The residents include members of the Luhya (mainly Khayo subtribe), Luo, Teso, Kikuyus and Somali ethnic groups. Average family size is 6 members and average farm holdings are 1 (one) hectare of land. The major economic activities of the residents include; retail and wholesale businesses, small scale farming, transport business, real estate, hotel industry and buying and selling of cereals. Despite the economic activities, the sub-County is faced with high poverty levels of 60%.The sub county receives a bimodal rainfall pattern which ranges from 1200 to 1500 mm per year with an average annual rainfall of 1350 mm. The long rains are received between March and July while the short rains are received from September to November. The months of January to February are relatively dry. The maximum temperatures range is 26°C while the annual mean temperature is 20°C. The sub-County is dominated by the Low Midland 1 (LM1) and lies at an altitude of 1000 to 1231 m.a.s.l. The soils are well-drained and consist of dark reddish-brown clay (orthic acrisols). The sub county is traversed by River Sio.The study was carried out in three sites in Matayos (Busia County) which are within the sub-humid zone of Western Kenya. The sites included were Lwanya and Nasewa (Matayos ward representing typical rural and transition setup between rural and peri-urban respectively and Busia township location (Burumba administrative ward) representing peri-urban set communities.Participants were selected by the research team comprising of local agricultural/livestock production officers, a research scientist from Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, and local administrators. At each site, 18 to 25 farmers were involved in the Focus Group Discussions (FGD) to provide an overview of the farming system and to identify constraints and opportunities for improving livestock production at the site. Subsequently, 9 farmers were selected from the FGD to take part in the individual interviews.The quantitative data collected during individual interviews were analyzed using the FEAST excel template (www.ilri.org/feast), a feed assessment tool that has been developed to help to design site-specific strategies for feed supply and utilization, The data were presented in tables, graphs, pie and bar charts. The qualitative data collected using the PRA group discussions were synthesized and summarized.In order to characterize the livestock production system, and its potential for enhancing productivity through improved feed and feeding interventions, a three-step approach was performed. Firstly, a synthesis of available secondary data to establish the status of the general farming system in the sub county was carried out, before carrying out the Participative Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise. The second and third stages were focus group discussions and individual farmer interviews, respectively, using the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST), version, Duncan et al., 2012) to characterize the livestock production system and feed-related aspects. The FEAST tool is a rapid and systematic method that combines a PRA (Participative Rural Appraisal) with individual farmer interviews. The PRA provides an overview of the farming system and the livestock production system. It also helps identify major challenges, issues and opportunities within the livestock production system. The individual farmer interview gathers both quantitative and qualitative information, based on the land size owned.The assessment was carried out through two structured group discussions and completion of short questionnaires by key farmer representatives in Nasewa and Lwanya locations/wards on 22 nd November 2013; and Burumba administrative Locations on 3 rd December. Nasewa is a typical rural setting accessed only by an earth road from Matayos town, Lwanya boarders the Busia -Kisumu tarmac road and represents a transition zone between the more rural Lwanya to more urbanised Burumba ward in the Busia Township. The PRA at Lwanya and Nasewa wards was preceded by a PRA training on 21 st November 2013. The composition of the groups is shown in Table 1.2. Participating farmers were chosen by the sub-County Livestock Production Officers, Busia County Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. Overall, 25 persons participated in the group discussion in Lwanya and Nasewa wards and 18 in the Busia Township ward (Table 1.1). From each PRA group, 3 representatives of different wealth classes were chosen for the individual interviews. The following are findings of the assessment and conclusions for further action. The results presented and discussed below are an integrated analysis of the secondary information and the primary data using the FEAST.The average landholdings in the study sites are presented in Figure 1.1. Although Nasewa is typically a rural farming area, the majority of the farming households are categorised as smallholders with land sizes < 1hectare. In Busia township, majority of the farmers fall under small farmer category while in Lwanya, the landholdings amongst the farmer categories are normally distributed.The high and reliable rainfall coupled with moderate temperatures and good soils is suitable for growing crops. About 80% of the county is arable. Therefore, agriculture is an important part of the livelihoods of the people of Matayos sub County.Lwanya has the greatest variety of crops grown (14 crops) while Nasewa and Burumba had 10 crops, despite the small landholdings (Figure 1.2). Maize is the dominant crop in all the locations and is usually intercropped with beans (Figure 1.3). In Nasewa, maize is closely followed by sugarcane and cassava. The next important crops for farmers in Busia township (Burumba ward) was bananas and beans, while in Lwanya it was cassava and beans. Maize is the main staple food crop and supplemented by cassava and beans. Sugarcane is the chief cash crop in the rural Nasewa ward and mostly grown on a few medium and large farms (Figure 1.1). Households in the surveyed areas consisted of approximately 6-8 people.Farmers described two distinct cropping seasons based on the rainfall patterns and the time of crop harvest. The long rainfall season 'Irotso' extends from March to June, while the short rainfall season 'Sirumbi' is from September to November. During the main dry season 'Simiyu' from January to February, no precipitation takes place. Finally, 'Likesa' refers to the harvesting season from July to August and December, and these months are characterized by very low rainfall (Table 1.2). The reduced rains during this period facilitate harvesting of the crops and provide opportunities for utilization of the crop residues as animal feed. Due to well distributed and adequate amount of rains, agricultural activities are mainly rain-fed, except for the 20% of the farmers who live along the course of the rivers and practice vegetable gardening using bucket irrigation during the dry season. Labour is generally available and is mostly required in the rainy season for land preparation, planting and harvesting. In Nasewa and Lwanya, the cost for labour is KES 100 -150 ($ 1.25 to 1.88), plus tea and lunch. In Burumba, labour comes to KES 300-500 per day ($ 3.75 -6.25) without meals. Many of the youth (70-80%) move to the bigger towns in search of alternative livelihoods.Crop production is almost entirely rainfed. Although there is potential for irrigation, adoption of the technology is still low. Bucket irrigation is commonly practised along river valley bottoms. There is an upcoming lower Sio Basin Irrigation Project by the National Irrigation Board. There would be a compensation to farmers, for those farms that would be used for setting up the canals and other structures (unpublished Matayos ministry of agriculture sub-County annual report 2013. The project is expected to cost KES 3 billion/$37,500).From the results presented above, the land is a limiting factor and the present conditions favour maize production during two seasons/year. This provides opportunities for use of crop residues as livestock feed. Intercropping with leguminous crops such as beans and growing of sugarcane further enhances the quantity of the residues available, and the potential for specific interventions to improve the nutritional value of livestock feed  In terms of livestock improvement, most of the farmers use locally available bulls with low genetic potential for dairy as sires for breeding purposes. Only a few farmers use artificial insemination (AI) due to the high cost which ranges from US$ 12.5 to 18.75 (KES 1200 to 1500). A.I. service providers are mainly located in Busia township. Indigenous poultry is also a flourishing enterprise in the three sites (Table 1.4).The most common livestock production systems in Matayos were:• The zero-grazing system with well-designed units, practised by farmers with improved livestock and most common in Busia township (Burumba ward). Farmers in this category practice cut and carry feeding systems. Fodder is often chopped before feeding and supplemented with concentrate feeds. • The semi zero-grazing mainly used for keeping crossbreed cattle. Cattle are kept in a fabricated zero-grazing unit (not build to standard) or tethered in the homestead during the day and provided with feed from the farm or collected from outside. This system is more common in Nasewa and Lwanya. • Tethering and free grazing -mainly practised for local cattle and most common in Lwanya and Nasewa, where there are higher numbers of local cattle compared to Burumba.In Busia Township, the majority of the farmers (70%) keep on average two improved TLU dairy cattle per household (Table 1.5), while in Nasewa and Lwanya they keep on average 1.4 to 1.6 improved TLU per household (Figure 1.4). Majority of the farmers selected for individual interviews had received support from Heifer International (international NGO) which buys starting dairy cows to groups (the pioneer members allocated) and the heifers, from the cows, are passed on to other members as a gift. Both improved and local dairy cattle provide milk, manure and are sold as meat to supply substantial income when the need arises, and to meet other social obligations such as dowries. The improved dairy cattle are also sold as breeding stock. Dairy goat production is still at an early stage with only 10% of households in Busia township, having an average of one goat (Table 1.6). Majority of the farmers (90-100%) keep poultry for eggs, meat, manure and sale for income; and local goats (60%) for sale for income, meat and manure. Generally, livestock input services such as animal feed and veterinary drugs are available but were reported to be costly. Government veterinarians are mainly involved in vaccinations but are unavailable for routine animal health services. Private veterinary services are generally costly for most farmers. For example, treating East Coast Fever (ECF) will cost farmers KES 4,000 ($50) per treatment and between KES 2500 to 3000 ($24-29) for other tick-borne diseases. The farmers also reported that some of the private service providers are quacks and the farmers incur a loss of animals due to treatment failures. The most common diseases are East Coast Fever (ECF), mastitis and interna parasites (worms).Artificial Insemination (AI) services are available in Burumba from private service providers. In Nasewa and Lwanya, the services can also be accessed from Busia Township, but the long-distance makes the service expensive. The cost for single insemination is KES 1,000-3,000 ($12.5-37.5) depending on the breed and is inclusive of semen and transport. Majority of the service providers will charge for a repeating procedure, as the insemination often fail, and can cost the farmers from 50% to 100% of the insemination costs (depending on the distance). Improved bulls are mostly used for breeding at Nasewa and Lwanya at a cost of KES 500 ($6.25) per service, while local bulls are offered at KES 100 ($1.25). Because of diseases, some farmers with high yielders fear using local bulls. Therefore, the high rates of repeats coupled with the high cost of AI in Nasewa and Lwanya contribute to the low numbers of improved cattle.Agricultural and livestock inputs (farm implements, crop seeds, fertilizers, herbicides, pumps, acaricides, feed supplements) are available from agro-vets within the sub-County. Credit facilities for crop or livestock production are available from commercial and micro-finance institutions in Busia town. The majority of farmers lack collateral due to lack of title deeds and/or fear of losing land in the event of default. Farmers also complained of high-interest rates and the short grace period for bank loans. Merry-go-round and Table banking are available within the communities but the capital available is low and cannot support most of the farming activities. The income generated, within the sub-County, is mainly from food crops, livestock and small businesses within and across the Uganda border. There are no major cash crops in the County since the collapse of the cotton industry. From the above information, the farming system can be classified as an integrated mixed crop-livestock production system.About 80% of the farmers in Burumba Township and 10% in Nasewa keep improved cattle. The animals are usually stall-feed using cut and carry forages that are manually chopped with a 'panga' (local machete) or by a motorized chopper. Improved animals are often supplemented with commercial concentrates, such as dairy meal, maize bran and minerals, but not in adequate amounts due to the high costs.Local cattle are open grazed except in Burumba Township where some are tethered (limited grazing area). For the improved dairy cattle, men participate mostly in the forage collection while women participate in the feeding.Napier grass is the main forage crop grown in Nasewa, Burumba (Township) and Lwanya. The hectare planted ranges from 0.2 in Nasewa and Burumba to 0.25 in Lwanya which is inadequate to feed a dairy cow throughout the year (Figure 1.5). Farmers in Nasewa and Lwanya also grow calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus), leuceana (Leucaena leucocephala), desmodium (Desmodium intortum and D uncinatum) and sweet potato on very small acreages ranging from 0.01 to 0.05 again, and this does not meet the dietary needs of one dairy cow. A range of commercial and roughage feeds are purchased to supplement those animals grown on the farm. The purchased feeds (at all the locations) were mainly commercial mixed rations (dairy meal), cracked maize and fresh Napier grass (Figure 1.6). In Burumba, farmers interviewed did not mention Napier grass as a purchased feed. However, at the follow-up telephone call, all the farmers confirmed that 25 to 50% of the roughage consist of purchased Napier grass. Crop residues, mainly maize stovers and sweet potato vines, form the bulk feed during the dry season.Naturally occurring and collected roughage feeds accounts for 64% and 54% of DM in the diet in Nasewa and Lwanya locations respectively, while in Busia township (Burumba ward) this accounts for only 13% (Figure 1.7). A significant contribution (49%) of total DM in Busia township comes from cultivated forage especially Napier grass. Similarly naturally occurring and collected feeds contribute highest ME (Fig 1.8). In Busia township (Burumba ward) cultivated fodder contributed the highest (46%) followed by purchased feeds (24%) while grazing is contributed the least due to the more urban settlement. This pattern could be attributed to the diminishing land sizes and the need for improved nutrition to sustain the improved dairy breeds. Driven by better access to the urban market for the sale of milk, there is a tendency to plant more fodder in order to meet the higher demands. Contribution to CP was highest (73%) from cultivated fodder in Nasewa, while in Lwanya the highest contribution was from grazing (41%) followed by cultivated fodder (37%). In Busia township, the highest contribution was from cultivated fodder followed by purchased feeds (Figure 1.9). The results presented above indicate that dairy production improvements in Matayos sub-County, regarding the nutrient intake, should be targeted to grazing and planted fodder. Supplementation of concentrates, especially in stall-fed animals in Busia township, should also be considered. Crop residues generally contributed the least DM DM, ME and CP intake in all the sites.The available feed resources are shown in Figure 1.10. Natural pasture contributed the highest to the diet of animals, but the availability is lower in December, January, February and March. During these drier months, crop residues and green forage (probably from road reserves and along the rivers) were the most important roughage feed in terms of availability. Residues of maize, sugarcane tops, bean haulms and banana pseudostems are also important feed sources during the dry season. The harvesting index (the ratio of tonnes of utilizable crop by-product to tonnes of primary crop harvested) data demonstrated that 6.7, 4.2 and 7.1.6 tons of crop residues/household can be produced in Nasewa, Busia township and Lwanya, respectively. Weeds from cropping areas, along the riverbanks and roadsides, are mainly provided during the dry season. It was reported that some farmers offer crop residues (during the rainy season), before being let out to graze, in order to avoid the risk of bloating. According to respondents, no incidence of bloating happens if animals are offered some dry feeds like maize straws.   As presented in Figure 1.11, the main contributors to household income vary at specific sites. Cash crops (25%) is the biggest contributor in Nasewa and Busia township, and the cultivated crops are mainly from groundnuts. Dairy production (36%) is the biggest contributor in Lwanya, while food crops (23%) is the second major contributor. Off-farm business contributes significantly to household income (24% at each site) in Nasewa and Burumba but does not contribute to income in Lwanya. The results indicate the general importance of agriculture and livestock husbandry for the livelihoods in Matayos sub-County, with dairy and cash crops predominating especially in more accessible wards of Busia township and Nasewa.  Overall, the main issues that farmers face in the farming systems are listed in Table 1.5. Inadequate animal feeds and costly animal health services were challenges in all the locations. Inadequate animal feeds, especially roughage, was attributed to Napier stunt disease and prolonged drought in all the sites, while limited land was a major constraint to feed production in Nasewa and Burumba (Township). The major disease problems were tick-borne infections, especially East Cost Fever and trypanosomiasis, as this is a tsetse flies infested zone. Cost of treating these diseases is KES 4000 ($50) and KES 500 ($62.5) for ECF and trypanosomiasis, respectively. Improved breeds were a priority in Nasewa and Lwanya. Both diseases treatment was considered to be costly in Nasewa and Lwanya as service providers are all located in Busia town. The cost of AI services ranges from KES 1500 ($18.75) for local semen, to KES 8000 ($100) for sexed semen (inclusive of transport). Farmers in Nasewa and Lwanya experienced high costs related to delayed services, which leads to 1-3 repeats. Bulls are available at a cost of KES 500 ($6.25) but quality and diseases are a major concern to farmers. In Burumba, farmers considered milk marketing to be their third challenge due to lack of organized marketing, coolers/processing plants and competition with milk coming from eastern Uganda and from the North and South Rift Valley Counties of Kenya. Majority of the female farmers in Burumba cited labour and under zero-grazing to be of concern. Lack of credit is a problem for rural farmers but was ranked low by farmers in Burumba (Township). The list of potential solutions in Table 1.5 suggests that farmers require initial assistance from outside to help improve dairy productivity.","tokenCount":"3935"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5342825501b5337423964115f070b42f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48364fcb-5940-4d40-a723-0516c9e37215/retrieve","id":"-1570897051"},"keywords":["Soil nutrients","decision support tools","scaling readiness","nutrient expert","agronomy","technology extrapolation domains","nutrient use efficiency","N:P ratio","landscape location"],"sieverID":"9d1e1d5c-7682-4551-a0b9-a2e4576d35c3","pagecount":"14","content":"This report of the Scaling Readiness of Nutrient Management decision Support Tools project focuses on agronomic trials that serve to inform the development of scalable, field-specific advisory for maize farmers in Ethiopia. These trials were conducted to generate additional information required to make a mobile phone-based nutrient decision support tool -Maize-Nutrient-Manager -more scalable in the context of institutional limitations in fertilizer availability and distribution in Ethiopia. The focus of the trials is on establishing proper N:P ratio's for different fertilization rates with the fertilizers available to farmers in West-Shewa and Jimma (two major maize belts in Ethiopia). The trials were conducted with additional funding from the TAMASA project and in collaboration with EIAR. As the latter institute is involved in conducting fertilizer trials and the development of recommendations, this collaboration also aimed at forming an appropriate entry point for institutionalization of the decision support tool that is being developed.Low yields are pervasive in the smallholder farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). For the region to keep up with rapid population growth and cereal demand, cereal production must increase at least three-fold (van Ittersum et al. 2016). While increased fertilizer use seems indispensable to achieve this increase, current use is often inefficient, which limits productivity (growth) and contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.In order to improve fertilizer use efficiency, current blanket recommendations made at regional scale, may need to be replaced by more site-specific advisory which takes account of the heterogeneity among African smallholder farmers. Yet, government extension systems are often underfunded and lacking sufficient skills to provide more site-specific nutrient advisory. Mobile phone-based Nutrient Management Decision Support Tools (NM-DSTs) have been suggested to improve nutrient advice provision to African smallholders.A scaling readiness evaluation of an existing decision support tool for field-specific nutrient management advice provision -Nutrient Expert® -revealed both operational problems and institutional constraints limiting the scalability of this advisory tool (Sida & Andersson 2018). For instance, as maize growing farmers in Ethiopia generally have only access to two fertilizer blends (NPS and Urea), the tool's focus on balanced N, P and K nutrient supply cannot be translated into fertiliser advice that builds on available blends. In addition, tool use requires expert knowledge, which limits its scalability.Given the institutional limitations of fertilizer availability and distribution in Ethiopia, field-specific advisory can be simplified and made more scalable. However, current data of Nutrient Omissions Trials (NOT) conducted by the TAMASA project cannot be used to formulate such more simple, field-specific advice for different fertilization rates. To generate such field-specific advice, building on available fertilizer blends, requires a focus on N:P ratio's and an advisory tool that can be used by farmers using different fertilization rates.As current fertiliser blends in Ethiopia only contain N and P, the most prominent decision on nutrient balance is the N:P ratio. We hypothesize that the optimum N:P ratio will most likely depend on agroecological conditions (slope, landscape position) and field conditions (soil organic matter, soil pH), the latter being shaped by past management. This study builds on about 20 trials in two main maize belts of Ethiopia. It focuses on nutrient responses within diverse agricultural landscapes, exploring the influence of landscape position, field slopes, and soil texture. Using this approach, we assess the influence of different agro-ecological and field conditions on the optimum N:P ratio .This report summarizes initial findings from this N:P performance trial. Additional analyses, focusing on the economics of different fertilization rates and N:P ratios, or building on plant tissue analysis, will be reported upon later. The effects of different treatments (involving varying N:P ratios and fertilization rates) are presented in this report. This report also discusses implications for tool design and highlights ways forward in the remaining part of the project.Differences in soil fertility are a major factor shaping maize productivity in smallholder farming systems. Smallholder farmers' maize yields can vary substantially -even in the same location -and such differences cannot be explained by differences in fertiliser supply alone. The field's location in the landscape, the field's slope, agronomic management and notably, past agronomic management and input use, are important factors shaping the soil nutrient supply and uptake of nutrients by plants. As a result, nutrient management decision requires a field-specific approach.Although the current version of Nutrient Expert® for Ethiopia does not use different, area-specific calibrations of the underpinning QUEFTS model, results of Nutrient Omission Trials (NOTs) across maize growing areas of Ethiopia revealed considerable variability in soil nutrient supply and fertiliser responses. A pertinent question is therefore whether this variability is geo-spatially distributed -and at what scale -as this may inform the development of area-specific calibrations of any decision support tool.Our earlier analysis of the geo-spatial dimensions in nutrient responses (soil supply and fertilizer response) has identified the relative contribution of field-, farm-, woreda-, and regional-level drivers of variability (Figure 1). While a considerable part of the variability originates at the regional scale, significant proportion of variability in total nutrient responses is predominantly shaped by farm/field-level factors. Regional and farm/field scale factors together explain more than three-fourths (77%) of the total variance in maize yield (regardless of the omitted nutrient). Field-scale factors were found to explain slightly more variance than regional scale factors -43% and 34% respectively, of the total variability in yield in the NPK treatment. In addition, Figure 1 shows that maize response to N fertilizer is strongly dependent on region and field-scale factors, while responses to added P and K are mostly structured by farm/field scale factors. The large variability in soil nutrient supply and fertilizer responses at the farm/field scale legitimizes the development of a field-specific approach towards nutrient management advisory.Figure 1: Proportion of variability in soil nutrient supplies explained by field-, district, and regional-level drivers (N = 492)Figure 2, which focuses on yield responses to N, P and K, shows that almost all of the variability in yield responses to P and K originates at farm scale. Yield response to N are largely explained by regionallevel differences (close to 50% of the variability), such as differences in climate (rainfall and temperature). These findings suggest that in order to improve fertilizer recommendations lower scale than the regional scale should be taken into account. It was on this basis that we designed on-farm experiments that allow for an exploration of lower scale factors shaping nutrient responses, in order to incorporate these into the field-specific nutrient management decision support tool under development. The trial findings presented in this report focus on establishing appropriate N:P ratio's for different N and P rates. Yet, they are also informed by an appreciation of the limitations imposed by current availability of different fertilizer blends. This is reflected in two sets of treatments: the first one building on straight fertilizers (N and P) and a second one, making use of locally available fertilizer blends. Thus, the trials aim to simultaneously establish appropriate N:P ratio's for different fertiliser application rates, and the appropriate mix of fertilizers to be used by farmers, using available blends.Focusing on field conditions that may affect nutrient responses, such as field slope, the field's position in the landscape, soil texture, past fertiliser use and fertiliser use, these trials seek to identify field conditions that may improve nutrient use efficiency (NUE) by minimizing over-application in relatively fertile fields and under-application in fields with poor soil fertility conditions. Thus, with the current trial, we aimed:1. To compare the performance of different N:P ratios and fertilization level (reflecting different investment capacities of farmers) with standard regional fertilizer recommendations. (The N:P ratio's used to translate to 50kg differences in fertilizer use per hectare). 2. To explore a pragmatic approach towards the estimation of the soils' indigenous nutrient supply, by locating the trials at different positions in the landscape, and by recording various field features that can serve as proxies for the field's soil nutrients supply (such as field slope, previous manure and fertiliser use, obtained yields, and past management practices) 3. To develop nutrient response and nutrient uptake datasets for the calibration of a QUEFTSbased, field-specific Nutrient Management Decision Support Tool for diverse soil fertility and climatic conditions in Ethiopia.Trials were conducted in two sites (West-Shewa and Jimma) in two main maize production areas in Ethiopia. Trial site selection sought to ensure good representativeness of different field slopes (flat/moderate/steep), landscape positions (hilltop/hillside/valley), and soil texture types (clay/clayloam/sand/etc.) in each area (Figure 3). Ten experimental fields were selected in each area. Other criteria used for farm and field selection included:• Farmers and fields that represent the main types of farmers and fields in the area;• Commonly used cropping systems and farm management practices, and a range of socioeconomic conditions (low to high resource endowment); • Uniform soil fertility throughout the trial plots as evidenced by uniform vegetation;• Reasonable field size to accommodate all treatments (8 treatments of at least 5.1 x 4.5 meters each) • Accessible fields to allow for frequent field visits.Ten experimental fields were selected in each area, making a total of 20 fields, with 8 treatments, each replicated three times. The varying P rates in the treatments were determined based on two criteria. First, rates were determined so that straight fertilizers could be easily converted into bags (or half bags) of available fertilizer blends. For instance, 62 kg TSP (46% P2O5 ) translates into 12.5 kg P, and 75kg NPS, a locally available fertilizer blend. Second, varying N:P ratios were used as to establish nutrient efficient N:P ratios. Table 1 outlines the different treatments (in kg/ha) and the timing of application. Figure 4 shows the effect of the different fertilizer treatments on maize yield. In Figure 4a, where only the rate of P was progressively increased (respectively 0, 12.5, 25, 37.8 kg/ha P) and the rate of N kept constant at 120.5 kg/ha, there was a gradual increase in maize yield. Increases in nutrient supply resulted in larger yield increases in Jimma than in West-Shewa.Figure 4b shows the performance of different N:P ratio's and input rate treatments, as can be achieved with the available fertilizer blends, NPS and Urea. Although these figures show that although the current regional recommendations (3 bags NPS and 4 bags Urea per ha; treatment 7) the benefit of additional NPS basal fertilizer may be limited -the differences between treatments 6, 7 and 8 (representing steps of one 50 bag increases in NPS) are not significant in both Jimma and West-Shewa. This suggests that higher rates of P may only result in significant yield increases when accompanied by substantially higher rates of N, as suggested by treatments 3 and 4 (Figure 4a). Economic analyses will need to show under what price situations investment in such additional inputs are profitable. Farmers might thus save on fertilizer costs by applying less NPS than the regional recommendation, especially in the West Shewa area. Another tentative conclusion that may be drawn from these findings is that the N:P ratio in applied fertilizers may range between 3.9 and 6.6.A comparison of Figure 4a and Figure 4b shows that equal N and P rate treatments with blended fertilizers tend to outperform straight fertilizers (treatment 3 and 7), although these treatments are probably not significantly different. Observed differences may be a result of different timing of nutrient supply -the blended fertilizer treatment (7) provides some N at planting. Figure 5 shows responses of maize yield to different N and P rates under different landscape positions in the West-Shewa zone 1 . These preliminary results suggest that the maize response to different rates of N and P depend on the field's position in the landscape (see Figure 3 on how landscape position was visually assessed) rather than to the rates per se. This finding underwrites the need for a field-specific approach to nutrient management advisory. For example, maize yield responses to different nutrient rates and ratio's on hillside fields (that are more prone to nutrient loss through erosion and leaching) was consistently below the site mean regardless of the slope. Hilltop and valley bottom fields were generally better yielding. In addition, hilltop and valley bottom fields showed better response to higher P rates even when the slopes were moderately steep.The implication of this finding is that nutrient advisory needs to take account of the landscape position of the field; particularly hilltop fields appear to require relatively more P-fertilizer.Figure 5: The effect of landscape position on the responses of maize to different P rates under constant and variable N rates. The treatments 1-8 are: 1 = Regional N and 0% P (control 1); 2 = Regional N and 50% less P205; 3 = Regional N and regional P (EIAR); 4 = Regional N and 50% more P2O5; 5 = 0% N and Regional P2O5 (control 2); 6 = Common practice (50% less NPS); 7 = Regional N and regional P (EIAR) and 8 = Regional N and 100% more NPS. A) Treatments to are variable P with constant N, b) while those variable P and N rates. The horizontal line indicates the mean for the site (N = 27).Figure 6 shows Phosphorus Use Efficiency (PUE) of maize under different field slopes and N and P rates. Figure 6 underwrites the findings presented in Figure 5. First, an increase in P rate does not necessarily lead to improved PUE, unless the N rate is also manipulated to match the increased P rate (Figure 6a). Second, PUE clearly varies with the location of the fields within the landscape; in fertilizer blend treatments (Figure 6b), we observed a declining PUE especially in hilltop and hillside fields. In analogy to sections 3.2 and 3.3, we also assessed the effect of the field's slope on nutrient response. Findings suggest similar trends, particularly for steep field slopes (Figure 7); grain yields appear to start declining when the N:P ratio drops below 4.8 (treatment 3) (Figure 7a). However, this decline is not statistically significant (low numbers of observations may be a factor in this). Analyses of PUE (albeit also not significantly different) point in a similar direction; steep sloped fields may require higher N inputs. The current multi-locational trials in Jimma and West-Shewa have been informed by an analysis of the TAMASA Nutrient Omission Trials (NOT), which showed that yield variability is often caused by farm or field-level factors. As this project found that institutional limitations in fertilizer distribution within Ethiopia -allowing only for variable fertilizer rates and N:P ratios -the trials explored the effects of landscape position and field slope on varying N and P rates and ratios. Field-specific advisory focused on balanced N-P-K fertiliser advice -as generated by Nutrient Expert® -may be sound from a soil nutrient replenishment perspective, but currently cannot be implemented in Ethiopia (Sida & Andersson, 2018).The preliminary results from the current trials suggest that field-specific factors, such as the field's landscape position and slope may be important qualifiers to be included in field-specific advisory.Including these factors like these may go a long way in fine-tuning current regional scale-based fertilizer advisory, and reducing farmers' nutrient use efficiency. At the same time, such fine-tuning can assist in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG emissions) caused by maize production, although at present these effects cannot yet be quantified. The current trials identified timing of N-fertilizer, field slope and field location along the catena as potential sources of variability in the effectiveness of fertilizer use. These sources of variability can easily be modelled into mobile-based decision-support tools that can adjust advice depending on such field conditions. The next step in our project will be to:1) Further explore the effects of field conditions (notably, soil texture and past management) on nutrient responses; 2) Perform economic analyses on the profitability of the different (fertilizer blend based) treatments; 3) Complete plant tissue analysis, which will enable us understand crop nutrient uptake and use efficiencies. Data analyses on soil nutrient supply, crop nutrient uptake, impact of past management (e.g. manuring, fertilizer residues, legume intercropping etc.), farmers' resource endowment (poor, medium, rich), on the benefits from different N and P fertilizer combinations. These analyses will enable us to better understand nutrient use efficiency; 4) Model the field-scale causes of variability into a simplified decision support tool -Maize-Nutrient-Manager -that is more user-friendly, building on locally available fertilizer blends and (therefore) more scalable; 5) Try to institutionalize the use of this Maize-Nutrient-Manager tool in Ethiopian government's agricultural extension system.","tokenCount":"2706"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c5c30f1c34987829d5cc948c37784141","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e6237879-9e90-41df-8127-d8fed5a05eae/content","id":"-2046611141"},"keywords":["groundwater management","Bangladesh","water use efficiency","boro rice","conservation agriculture","arsenic contamination"],"sieverID":"6a1d69bd-321c-49b1-8465-5e4670b4fad0","pagecount":"51","content":"Headquartered in Mexico, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (known by its Spanish acronym, CIMMYT) is a not-for-profit agriculture research and training organization. The center works to reduce poverty and hunger by sustainably increasing the productivity of maize and wheat in the developing world. CIMMYT maintains the world's largest maize and wheat seed bank and is best known for initiating the Green Revolution, which saved millions of lives across Asia and for which CIMMYT's Dr. Norman Borlaug was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR Consortium and receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks, and other public and private agencies.This book was developed by the International Maize and Wheat Center (CIMMYT) as part of the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia -Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI) project, which is made possible with the generous support of the United States Agency for International Development Mission in Bangladesh.The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia -Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI) initiative is a partnership between CIMMYT and International Development Enterprises (iDE), and is funded by USAID under President Obama's Feed the Future (FtF) Initiative. CSISA-MI seeks to transform agriculture in southern Bangladesh by unlocking the productivity of the region's farmers during the dry season through surface water irrigation, efficient agricultural machinery, and local service provision. CSISA-MI is part of the wider CSISA program in Bangladesh (CSISA-BD), which is a partnership between CIMMYT, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), and The World Fish Center. We are proud of the collaboration with the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) that makes these aims possible.This report was made possible through the support provided by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents and opinions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the US Agency for International Development or the United States Government and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes.             Groundwater is an important resource for livelihoods and the food security of billions of people, and especially in booming Asia's agricultural economies.Globally, groundwater provides approximately 50% of current potable water supplies, 40% of the industrial water demand, and 20% of the water used for irrigation (UNESCO 2003;Molden 2007). In Asia and the Pacific, on average, about 32% of the population uses groundwater as a drinking water source (Morris et al. 2003). However, there are regions where dependence on groundwater for drinking purposes is much larger. For example, 60% of the rural population in Cambodia relies on groundwater (ADB 2007a) and 76% of people who do not have access to piped system depend on tube wells in Bangladesh (ADB 2007b;ADB 2007c).Due to shortage and inconsistencies in surface water supplies, groundwater acts as the mainstay for agriculture in India, Northern Sri Lanka, the Pakistani Punjab, Bangladesh, and the Northern China Plain. In India, groundwater provides about 60% of the total agricultural water use, accounting more than 50% of the total irrigated area (Shah et al. 2003). In the North China plains, groundwater extraction accounts for 65%, 70%, 50% and 50% for the total agricultural water supply for the provinces of Beijing, Hebei, Nanan and Shandog, respectively (Li 2001). Tube well irrigation has helped India and China to move towards food security for their massive population and to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor. In Pakistan, groundwater contributes more than 50% to the total crop water requirements in the Punjab, which produces 90% of the national grain output (Qureshi et al. 2008;Qureshi et al. 2010).Groundwater Agriculture is the major user of water in Bangladesh, with rice cultivation as the single most important economic activity. Rice is the staple food in the country, and is grown on 75% of the total cultivated land, constituting 90% of the total food grain production (BADC 2013). There are three main seasonal types of rice grown in Bangladesh i.e. aus, aman and boro. Aus is rainfed, premonsoon rice, and is typically low yielding. Aman rice is grown during the monsoon (rainy) season and is also lower yielding, whereas boro is irrigated and high yielding rice production grown during the dry winter season (January through June). Due to its comparatively higher yield potential (3.4 tons ha -1 ) compared to aus (1.6 tons ha -1 ) and aman (2.0 tons ha -1 ), boro rice production has expanded in the last two decades (Talukder et al. 2008). During 1991-2013, boro rice production increased from 6.8 to 18.8 million tons whereas the production of aus and aman largely remained constant (Figure 1). Boro rice is currently cultivated by 9.8 million households covering an area of 4.8 million ha, contributing about 55% of the overall rice production in Bangladesh (BBS 2013). Boro has helped Bangladesh to increase its total rice production from 18.3 million tons in 1991 to 33.8 million tons in 2013.The dramatic increase in boro production was due largely to the extensive exploitation of groundwater. Presently, about 80% of groundwater is used for irrigation, of which 73% is used exclusively by boro farmers (Rahman and Ahmed 2008). However, groundwater irrigation also has serious consequences as energy costs are increasing, water levels are declining in the intensive irrigated areas of northern Bangladesh, and groundwater quality is deteriorating. Due to high installation, operational, and management costs, the large-scale development of surface water resources in Bangladesh will remain a challenge in near future. Groundwater irrigation will therefore remain crucial to sustain agrarian growth to meet Bangladesh's future food requirements. Recognizing the important role that groundwater will play in the future to support rural economies within Bangladesh, its availability in terms of quantity and quality must be ensured. Therefore, it is imperative to understand the issues and challenges of groundwater use in Bangladesh and to evaluate options for its sustainable management.The population of Bangladesh was 145 million in 2008, which is expected to increase to 182 million by 2030 under the median population projection scenario. Accordingly, the total demand for rice to meet the needs of this population will increase to 39 million tons. The food demand for wheat will increase by 0.65 million tons from the 2008 consumption level. On the other hand, the food demand for coarse cereals, mainly maize, will increase 1.46 million tons (or by 124%) from the 2008 level (Amarasinghe et al. 2014). Forecasts of boro rice yield, area expansion and production show that the country can meet these targets. However, this will come at a considerable environmental cost because groundwater use for irrigating boro will further increase, which will have serious imbalance in groundwater recharge and discharge in many locations. Despite these looming challenges, management of groundwater is still not high on the agenda of farmers or policy makers.The lack of robust information on aquifer reserves, their withdrawal patterns, changes in quality, and consequences of use for irrigation are poorly understood. This paper fills this gap by reviewing patterns of groundwater development, including the benefits it has imparted in terms of increased crop yields and area cultivated, as well as the problems associated with groundwater development and future challenges. We also discuss the prospects of sustainable groundwater management to support irrigated agriculture in Bangladesh, and conclude with policy recommendations for the rational management of groundwater resources.Bangladesh is largely covered by the alluvium deposited by the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers, making it one of the largest deltas in the world (Ahmad et al. 2001). Bangladesh is a riverine country and boasts a network of over 230 tributaries and distributaries. There are 57 crossboundary rivers, of which 54 are shared with India, with the remaining three entering from Myanmar (Chowdhury 2010). Bangladesh is located at the lowermost reaches of Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system which drains 1.72 million km 2 of land. Crucially, Bangladesh itself comprises only 8% of the watershed (Ahmad et al. 2001;Chowdhury 2010). These rivers are an essential part of Bangladesh culture. They are the country's lifeline and support a diverse agriculture, provide transportation, support industries, and furnish various types of livelihoods for the inhabitants. Surface water irrigation, however, has not been fully exploited, due to poor maintenance and management, and historical negligence in the development of new surface water infrastructure. Conversely, groundwater irrigation has increased dramatically over the last three decades.The total length of rivers within Bangladesh is ~22,000 km. The internal renewable water resources are estimated as 105,000 Mm 3 per year. This includes 84,000 Mm 3 of surface water produced internally as stream flows from rainfall, and about 21,000 Mm 3 of groundwater resources (Rajmohan and Prathapar 2013). Part of the groundwater comes from the infiltration of surface water with an external origin. Since annual cross-border river flows and entering groundwater are estimated to be 1,121,600 Mm 3 , the total renewable water resources are, therefore, estimated at 1,226,600 Mm 3 year -1 (FAO 2011).Bangladesh is located at the lowermost reaches of Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system which drains 1.72 million km2 of land. Crucially, Bangladesh itself comprises only 8% of the watershed. The availability of surface water is not consistent because of seasonal variation. Ninety-five per cent of the surface water in the river system also originates outside the country (Ahmad et al. 2001). This introduces uncertainty in surface water availability. For example, the availability of surface water in 1990 ranged from 3710 Mm 3 during the dry season to 111,250 Mm 3 during the wet season (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 2013). Bangladesh experiences a tropical monsoon climate with significant variations in rainfall and temperature. Average annual rainfall varies from 1,200 mm in the extreme west to over 4,000mm in the northeast (Chowdhury 2010). About 80% of all rainfall occurs during the monsoon from June to September (Figure 3). In the post-monsoon (October-November) and winter period (December-February), only 20% of the annual rainfall is available. Therefore there is a seasonal water shortage depending on the duration of the monsoon.Rice production is the single most important activity in the agricultural economy of Bangladesh. In the dry winter months, more than 70% of crop production is boro rice, which can use up to 11,500 m 3 per ha of water in the production process (Biswas and Mandal 1993;Chowdhury 2010). During the dry season, 58% of the Bangladesh's available fresh water is allocated to irrigation, 41% is used for fisheries and navigation, whereas less than 1% is Page | 14 used by domestic and industrial sectors (Chowdhury 2010). In northern Bangladesh, surface water shortages and the easy access to groundwater through STWs has prompted farmers to extract groundwater for irrigation, industrial and domestic purposes. In southern Bangladesh, however, surface water is abundant, though drainage facilities are largely non-existent.Combined with low-lying landscape depressions that can pool water, and tidal water movement in the estuary system, these factors can cause consistent monsoon season flooding.The food insecurity and poverty nexus is also pervasive in Bangladesh. About 70% of Bangladesh's total population of 152 million is dependent on agriculture (BADC 2013). In the next 25 years, the country's population is expected to increase by 40%, which will increase the rice demand by 29%, unless dietary changes take place. This situation is however complicated because total cultivable land is expected shrink by 4.4% due to increasing urbanization (Hassan et al. 2013), with important ramifications for food security. Despite the increase in aggregate grain production and per capita food availability, Bangladesh is still importing an average of 2.0 million tons of food grain each year to meet domestic demand (Taludker et al. 2008). This imbalance underscores the urgent need to increase land productivity to meet future food security challenges.Until 1970s, the government prioritized the development of surface irrigation schemes such as the Gangees-Kodak Project, Teesta Barrage or Meghna-Dhonagoda Projects. However, despite large investments, success has been limited and only 7% of the total irrigable area envisioned was covered by these projects (Dey et al. 2013). With the introduction of high yielding rice varieties in 1980-90s that responded favorably to irrigation and fertilizer, and which were suitable for boro rice, demand for reliable irrigation increased. Since aquifer conditions were favorable in most parts of the Teesta, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Ganges river floodplain, the attention was diverted to the development of groundwater resources.The installation of deep tube wells (DTWs) 1 started in the late 1960s, but gained momentum in late 1980s. By the 1992, about 25,500 DTWs were installed throughout the country (BADC 2013). Currently, 35,322 DTWs are working in Bangladesh to provide water for irrigation purposes. The expansion of DTWs was followed by the development of shallow tubewells (STWs) 2 with discharge capacities of 10-12 l sec -1 . However, despite visible benefits of groundwater irrigation, STWs were not initially adopted due to restrictions on tubewell spacing and embargo on the import of all types of diesel engines (Dey et al. 2013). Things however changed following the devastating floods of 1988 and subsequent cyclones in the early 1990s.Realizing the need for agricultural machinery to kick-start farming economies back into action, the government lifted all restrictions and embargos on the import of irrigation equipment. Consequently, local markets were flooded with inexpensive and easy to operate irrigation pumps and small (<12 HP) engines, mainly from India and China.However, despite large investments, success has been limited and only 7% of the total irrigable area envisioned was covered by these projects.  3. Low lift pumps (LLPs) are operated by diesel or electric motor for lifting water from different water bodies i.e. rivers, canals or ponds. The discharge of these pumps various from 25 to 100 l sec -1 and mainly used for surface water irrigation. The average area irrigated by a LLP in Bangladesh is about 6 ha (BADC 2013).The increased availability of equipment led to the maturation of Bangladesh's mechanized agricultural economy. Today, in addition to 35,322 DTWs, 1,523,609 STWs, there are 170,570 low lift pumps (LLPs) 3 used for surface water that are operating in the country (BADC 2013). The leap in the population of STWs was linked their suitability to the prevailing socioeconomic conditions of Bangladesh's burgeoning boro farmers (less investment cost, small land holdings, and easy of availability of pumps and spare parts in the local market). The temporal development of DTWs, STWs, and LLPs in Bangladesh is shown in Figure 4. Currently, about 79% of the total cultivated area is irrigated by groundwater, whereas the remaining is irrigated by surface water (BADC 2013).The introduction of high yielding varieties in 1980s revolutionized rice cultivation in Bangladesh. Increased water availability encouraged farmers to grow irrigated boro rice during the dry winter season. Currently, about 4.2 million ha of land is irrigated by groundwater (both shallow and deep tubewells) whereas only 1.03 million ha is irrigated by surface water using low lift pumps (BADC 2013).There was continuous increase in the groundwater irrigated area until 2005, when it slowed. In contrast, area irrigated by surface water expanded more rapidly after 2005. This was probably due to decline in groundwater 23% in 2012, whereas for the same period, area irrigated by groundwater has jumped to 80% from 16% (BADC 2013). The expansion in surface irrigated area may be partially attributable to the availability of low lift pumps that increased access to surface water. Compared to other parts of the country, the area under groundwater irrigation is considerably higher in the northwestern, mid south-western and north-central regions (Figure 6a). On the other hand, the north-eastern and south-central regions have large areas occupied by surface water irrigation (Figure 6b), though not in the same density as found for groundwater irrigation.About 80% of the total groundwater is used in three divisions in the north central and western hydrological zones i.e. Dhaka, Rajshahi and Rangpur (Table 1). In the north-west, groundwater irrigation is likely to continue until the limits of land or sustainable groundwater withdrawals are reached. Dry season groundwater irrigation over a seven-month period depends on adequate recharge in the five-month monsoon period. If recharge is not more or at least equivalent to discharge, round the year irrigation will accelerate groundwater depletion resulting in an excessive decline in water levels. Shamsudduha et al. (2011) conversely found that groundwater recharge is higher in the north-west than the south and north-east, respectively, a function of increased groundwater extraction in the former zones. Their results are interesting as they demonstrate problems with the concept of safe water yield estimated by hydrologists under non-pumping conditions, a result of the high degree of spatial variability in recharge rates, especially in intensively irrigated areas. They contended that deep groundwater extraction may result in increased shallow aquifer recharge via rainfall and surface irrigation, although the current abstraction rates in irrigated areas were nonetheless deemed to be unsustainable in volume. Farmers of these regions have already started switching to more profitable and less water-intensive crops such as maize. If continued, this trend will slow down the water table drawdown.About 90% of the pumps within Bangladesh are run by diesel engines. The remaining 10% use electricity (BADC 2013). Diesel pumps usually have higher costs and lower water extraction capacity than electric pumps (Wadud and White 2002). But despite subsidies on electricity, diesel pumps are preferred by farmers due to low capital costs and mobility ease within small and fragmented farm lands. Increasing power cuts and the generally poor electricity network in many rural areas comprise other potential reasons for farmers' diesel pump preferences.In addition to irrigating their own lands, the owners of STWs also provide irrigation services to their neighbours for a fixed seasonal fee in cash or through payment in produce. These 'informal' water markets are quite mature, and provide one of the most promising institutional mechanisms for increasing access to irrigation from groundwater, particularly for tenants and small farmers. With the expansion of water markets in the private sector, irrigation sellers have adapted their pricing systems to suit farmers' varying circumstances. Water fees vary from one area to another depending on the type of well and depth of water availability. Initially, the most common practice was sharing one-fourth or one-sixth of the harvest with the owner of the pump in exchange for water, or on a fixed cost-per-season basis (Biswas and Mandal 1993). However, with the increasing diesel prices, the market is slowly moving towards water charges on per hour of tube well operation, which approximates volumetric water pricing, though tail-end farmers often bear the brunt of the costs.The substantial drawdown of aquifers due to over-exploitation of groundwater during the last decade has been widely documented (Jahan et al. 2010;Shahid 2011). Using data from the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), we have determined that in areas with water tables less than 8 m in depth, decline has increased significantly over time. Between 1998Between -2002, this , this area was only ~4% of the country's total, but increased to 11% in 2008 and 14% in 2012 (Figure 7). The most significantly affected areas lie in the north-west (e.g., Braind Tract) and north-central (i.e., Madhupur Tract) regions. These are areas of intensive boro cultivation and exhibit declining long-term groundwater trends (Shamsudduha et al. 2009). In the northwestern region, water tables are declining steadily but more slowly (0.1-0.5 m year -1 ), making the use of STWs tapping shallow aquifers unsustainable for intensive boro irrigation (Shamsudduha et al. 2009;Dey et al. 2013).In contrast, groundwater levels are slowly rising in southern Bangladesh, a consequence of seawater intrusion and tidal movement (1.3-3.0 mm year -1 ), creating waterlogged conditions (Brammer 2014). In the coastal zone, three groundwater aquifers are recognized: the shallow aquifer, lower shallow aquifer, and deep aquifer, within 20-50 m, 50-100 m, and 300-400 m of the ground surface, respectively. Shallow aquifers may consequently be salinity affected, whereas little concrete information is available for deep aquifers (Mainuddin 2013). Unlike the north-west, water tables are generally shallow and remain consistent for most of the year, except slight increases during the monsoon season. The existing cropping system is therefore dominated by Aman rice in the wet season, and Boro rice, shrimp or prawn aquaculture (depending on saline and non-saline water availability), and finally leguminous species (lentil (Lens culinaris), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus), and mungbean (Vigna radiate) ) in non-irrigated areas during the dry season. However, the extent of dry season cropping is limited mainly due to lack of irrigation water and soil salinity, meaning that only about 41% of the cultivable area can be irrigated compared to 63% at the country level. There are over 700,000 ha of under-utilized medium highlands that can potentially be brought under intensified cultivation during the dry season by making irrigation available (Chowdhury 2010). Groundwater use in the coastal zone is largely unexploited due to salinity concerns in shallow and lower shallow aquifers, and the prohibitively high cost of DTW installation.Using data from the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), we have determined that in areas with water tables less than 8 m in depth, decline has increased significantly over time. Mean groundwater table depth (m)Groundwater irrigation requires large amounts of energy to lift water from underlying aquifers. Currently, about 32,412 DTWs are electrified; the rest 2910 are diesel operated (BADC 2013). Out of the 1.52 million STWs in Bangladesh, only 0.25 million are electric whereas the remaining 1.27 million are diesel. In 2012, about 49 billion kwh of electricity was generated in Bangladesh, and about 2% of this total generation was used to pump groundwater for irrigation, giving total agricultural consumption of 980 million kwh (BEB 2012). The Government of Bangladesh has consequently introduced a flat tariff system of 0.04 USD kw h -1 . The subsidized cost of this electricity is about USD 50 million. Despite subsidies on electricity, diesel pumps are preferred by farmers due to low capital costs and mobility ease within small and fragmented farm lands. Increasing power cuts and the generally poor electricity network in many rural areas comprise other potential reasons for farmers' diesel pump preferences.In the north-west, diesel operated STWs are used primarily for irrigating boro rice, and partially for supplemental irrigation to aman and aus rice and other crops. During the boro season, average operational hours of deep and shallow pumps are about 1,445 (Table 2). For other seasons and crops, operational hours are considerably lower (300-400 hours). Al-Masum (2012) therefore conservatively estimated that each pump used for boro is operated for 1,800 hours in a year. Shah (2007)  over $7 billion to increase cropping intensity and to expand the use of surface water irrigation (SWI) in southern Bangladesh (MOA and FAO 2012).Groundwater irrigation in South Asia generally has begun to contract in response to increasing energy prices (Mukharji et al. 2009). This squeezing is a combined outcome of three factors: (i) progressive reduction in electrical connections on subsidized rates, (ii) growing prices of equipment, and (iii) increasing diesel prices over the last 10 years (Mukharji 2007). A survey of 2,600 tube well owners conducted in India, Pakistan, and Nepal ranked 'energy cost and availability' as the top challenge for groundwater irrigation, in comparison to 'groundwater depletion' and 'rising groundwater salinity levels' (Shah 2007). However, in Bangladesh, groundwater irrigation is still viable, though propped up by considerable government subsidies.In 2000, the price of one liter of diesel in Bangladesh was equivalent to 2.0 kg of rice, whereas in 2014, the equivalency declined to 1.36 kg (Figure 8). However, due to consistency in the increase of wheat price in relation to diesel prices, the profit margin for wheat remained small (from 2.58-2.27 kg of wheat to buy one liter of fuel). This is perhaps the reason that despite water availability challenges, boro is still considered as the most preferred Rabi cropping. However, this equation would change with further increases in diesel prices, or if subsidies are even partially withdrawn.The cost of lifting water with diesel operated STWs in Bangladesh is USD 51 ha -1 compared to only USD 20 for electrical pumps of the same capacity (12 l sec -1 ). Farmers using diesel operated STWs for boro spend about 57% of their total production costs on irrigation, compared to 42% for electrically driven pumps (Dey et al. 2013). For diesel operated DTWs, energy costs are about USD 70 ha -1 compared to USD 40 ha -1 for the electric pumps of the same capacity (50 l sec -1 ). The energy cost for diesel operated DTWs is consequently 41% of the total production cost of boro, whereas for electric DTWs, it is only 34%. In addition to subsidies on electricity, the higher costs for diesel operated pumps are also due to their low efficiency, which rarely exceeds 25%, compared to 35% for electric pumps (Hossain and Deb 2003). This low efficiency is usually attributed to their sub-standard manufacturing and poor maintenance. The unit price of boro rice in Bangladesh is also directly linked to energy markets. The cost of irrigation for boro has increased from USD 51 ha -1 in 1989 to over USD 141 ha -1 in 2011. If the present trends continue, the irrigation cost of boro rice is expected to reach to US$ 200 ha -1 in 2030 (Dey et al. 2013). As the genetic and agronomic scope for yield increase in rice is limited (Cassman et al. 2003), increasing irrigation costs will reduce farmers' net incomes, further threatening the economic foundations upon which boro rice production is based.Drinking water has been the main focus of attention since the early 1990's when widespread contamination of groundwater by Arsenic (As) was discovered in shallow aquifers of Bangladesh (BGS-DPHE 2001). However, As contamination in groundwater has implications for agricultural as well as potable water supplies. In Bangladesh, nearly 35 million people are at risk from As, as concentrations in drinking water exceeding 50 µg l -1 , the current maximum contamination level (MCL) used in Bangladesh, are common (Nordstrom 2002). Considering the World Health Organization (WHO) MCL of 0.01 mg l -1 As, some 70 million people, would be considered at risk. According to WHO surveys, an estimated 35-77 million people have been chronically exposed to As via drinking water in what has been described as the \"largest mass poisoning in history\" (Flanagan et al. 2012). A survey of 3,534 tube wells in 61 Districts found that the water in 25% of the wells exceeds the Bangladesh standard. High As concentration was mainly limited to groundwater from shallow aquifers with depths less than 100 m (Figure 9).The groundwater from shallow aquifer is not used for drinking also widely used for irrigation of crops, especially for irrigation of rice during the boro season. Crucially, an estimated 24% of the groundwater irrigated boro rice area in the country is using water containing >50 µg As l -1 and about 7% of the area is irrigated with water containing >100 µg As l -1 (Zev et al. 2006). In a national scale survey of shallow tubewell water quality, similar spatial patterns in arsenic concentration were found (Duxbury et al. 2009). The highest concentrations were also found in the south-east and south-central areas below the union of Ganges and Meghna rivers (Figure 10).A considerable body of research has focussed on the risk posed by As laden shallow groundwater used for boro rice production, which can result in paddy soil As accumulation over time (Ahmed et al. 2011b;Panaullah et al. 2009;Dittmar et al. 2010), because inorganic As species in irrigation water are retained in soils by adsorption of mineral oxide sulphate (Duxbury et al. 2009). For example, application of 1 m depth of water containing 100 µg As l -1 would increase soil As in the top 15 cm of soil by about 0.5 mg kg -1 , assuming uniform distribution across the command area. But a non-uniform deposition of arsenic from irrigation water has been found because arsenic is readily absorbed by freshly precipitating iron oxides as reduced irrigation water oxidizes during its flow in irrigation channels and across fields. Accumulation of arsenic in rice field soils is a major concern because of its possible impact on yield of rice (Panaullah et al. 2009;Duxbury et al. 2009) and arsenic concentration in rice grain, and then transfer to humans upon consumption (Duxbury at al. 2003;Williams et al. 2006;Ahmed et al. 2011b).It has been shown that use of irrigation water contaminated with naturally Well depth (m)As (µg L -1 )As (µg L -1)occurring As created a gradient in soil As from 10 to 60 mg kg -1 in a farmers' field and reduced yield of the boro variety BRRI dhan 29 (BR29) from 7-8 to 2-3 tons ha -1 (Panaullah et al. 2009).High concentrations of arsenic in rice grain have been found in many parts of Bangladesh (Meharg and Rahman 2003;Williams et al. 2006;Zavala and Duxbury 2008) but the geographic variation in grain arsenic is not entirely consistent with arsenic contamination in the environment (Daum et al. 2001;Duxbury at al. 2003). A recent study with a large number high yielding aman and boro season rice varieties grown at 10 locations in Bangladesh showed that grain As largely control by the growing environment (Ahmed et al. 2011a). This regional variation in poorly crystalline Fe-oxide (AOFe), the ratio of AOFe to associated As, phosphate extractable As (PAs) and soil pH were important environmental variables controlling arsenic concentration in rice grain.Rice grain with high arsenic could aggravate the health risk of the population of Bangladesh when rice is consumed along with As contaminated drinking water. Daily consumption of 400 g of rice containing 250 µg As kg -1 gives an equivalent intake of As to consumption of 2 litres of water at the Bangladesh limit of 50 µg As 1 -1 . Thus, the risk posed by inorganic As in rice may be considered the same as that from drinking water if bioavailability of inorganic As from rice in the human gut is considered as 100%. Based on groundwater arsenic data from 3,205 locations and rice grain data from 595 locations, Ahmed et al. (2011b) however, showed that geographical variation in arsenicosis incidence was better explained by arsenic intake from drinking water than from rice. The large-scale development of groundwater in Bangladesh over the last three decades has been driven by increasing population, the pressure to grow more food, risk-aversion, the Government's national policy of making boro rice a priority both in terms of food security to assure food supply in the face of potential disasters (e.g., floods, cyclones), the liberalization of agricultural machinery import policies, and the introduction of high yielding rice varieties. The consequences of this development have been the expansion of irrigated area, higher yields and cropping intensities, increased access to drinking water, and an ability to hedge against the vagaries associated with surface water supply. Most importantly, groundwater extraction has helped to lift millions out of poverty. In Bangladesh, the focus unfortunately has however been on the 'resource development', whereas 'resource management' has not received much attention. This situation has nonetheless now turned serious because unregulated exploitation of groundwater has brought key aquifers under severe stress, threatening the sustainability of this resource. The fact that eighty-five per cent of Bangladesh's population still lives in rural areas and earn their living through agricultural activities complicates matters (BARI 2013). Unfortunately there is no simple solution to these complex problems, although for long-term sustainability of agriculture sector, the present pace of over-exploitation cannot be continued without increasingly negative consequences. As such, more concerted efforts are needed to bring a balance between aquifer extraction and recharge, and to find alternative ways to reduce the intensity of energy use in irrigation development, requiring work on both supply-and demand-side solutions.Despite all scientific progress, farmers' irrigation scheduling practices in much of Bangladesh are based on maximum water holding capacity or, worse, on the maximum amount of water a farmer can capture. Due to lack of sufficient knowledge of irrigation scheduling and the threat of nonavailability of irrigation water at the right time, farmers rarely plan their irrigations in advance or attempt to coincide them with critical periods of crop need. Rather, scheduling decisions mainly depend upon visual plant stress (leading to water application at too late a stage), convention (e.g., perceptions that rice requires consistent and deep flooding), and/or in response to availability of water. Application rates are therefore typically higher than crop water requirements and conveyance losses are common. Where hose piping is not used, water is usually delivered through unlined irrigationThe consequences of this development have been the expansion of irrigated area, higher yields and cropping intensities, increased access to drinking water, and an ability to hedge against the vagaries associated with surface water supply.channels to fields that are poorly levelled. The consequent over application of water and inability to properly manage directional flow has in some areas caused the emergence of serious drainage problems (Chowdhury 2010). Even though much of this lost water may be re-captured by the extensive network of groundwater pumps in some regions, re-capture is not possible in areas with saline shallow aquifers. The additional pumping required as a consequence of inefficient application also involves increased energy and financial costs for pump owners.Most efforts over the last two decades have been directed towards the expansion of irrigated area using groundwater. Conversely, less attention has been given to the importance of surface water irrigation and improving the performance of existing irrigation systems to increase water use efficiency at the farm and regional scale (Dey et al. 2006). In Bangladesh, boro rice cultivation is still largely done in a traditional way, i.e. by applying and maintaining flood irrigation, although studies have shown that keeping boro rice fields moist but not flooded 3-4 days after the disappearance standing water did not reduce yields (Kasem 2006).The practice of continual flooding in rice not only wastes scarce water resource but also increases irrigation costs, as most of the irrigation water for boro rice comes from groundwater (Alam et al. 2009). According to BRRI (2000), an average of ~4.0 m 3 of water is typically used for producing one kg of boro rice in farmers' fields, compared to 2.0 m 3 from researcher managed trials. Farmers apply more water in excess of crop water requirements because seepage and percolation rates are higher in rice fields, especially when flood irrigation practices are used. In northern Bangladesh, where water tables are relatively deep, seepage and percolation rates in rice fields are high, i.e. from 4 to 8 mm day -1 , depending on the soil type (Rashid 2008).The seasonal crop water requirements of boro rice varied from 4,840 to 5,720 m 3 ha -1 in Dhaka district and 6,000 to 7,100 m 3 ha -1 in the Barind area (Karim et al. 2009;Rashid et al. 2009). In contrast, water application for boro rice in Mymensingh was 12,800 m 3 ha -1 (Sarkar and Ali 2010), and for the northwestern region, it can go up to 13,500 m 3 ha -1 depending on the texture of the soil (Dey et al. 2013). Rashid et al. (2009) found that in the highlands of the Barind area, where water tables are generally experiencing rapid decline (Figure 7), the average evapotranspiration rate was 5.1 mm day -1 , and the seepage and percolation (S&P) rate was 4.2 mm day -1 in boro season, showing that out of the total applied irrigation water, only 55% was used for ET and the remaining 45% was lost. Even if water losses such as S&P, and nonproductive land preparation is taken into account, only 79% of the applied irrigation is used by the crop, whereas the rest 21% is wasted (Dey et al. 2013). The cost of this excess pumped water is ultimately born by farmers, and ranges from USD 26 ha -1 to 65 ha -1 for electric DTWs, and up to USD 90 ha -1 for diesel operated STWs.Irrigation deployment to boro rice differs distinctly between groundwater sellers (owner of tubewells) and groundwater buyers (farmers). The average amount of water applied to boro rice by the former is 15,300 m 3 ha -1 compared to 10,500 m 3 ha -1 by the latter (Haque et al. 2012). Boro rice yields obtained by water buyers were 4.8 tons ha -1 compared to 5.2 tons ha -1 for water sellers. The yield differences may also be due to higher fertilizer application by groundwater sellers. Due to cost concerns, groundwater buyers apply 42% less water to boro rice under the similar conditions. Therefore water productivities for groundwater buyers are higher (0.43 kg m -3 ) than groundwater sellers (0.38 kg m -3 ). This advocates a high potential for improving on-farm irrigation efficiency by educating farmers.Studies in India and Pakistan have shown many advantages of bed planting in rice-wheat systems (Gupta et al. 2000;Hobbs and Gupta 2003a). Studies in Bangladesh also show that more than 40% water saving can be obtained compared to flood irrigation in case of bed planting, in addition to higher gross margins (Mollah et al. 2009). Despite these advantages, bed-planting for rice-wheat systems in Bangladesh is not well adopted, or where it is, bed planting is most commonly used for wheat, with puddling following in rice. Lack of capital and access to the bed making and zero tillage equipment are considered as major constraints to broader uptake (Krupnik et al. 2013), in addition to farmers' cultural preferences for puddling in rice. Studies done in Pakistan have shown that direct seeded rice uses 30% less water whereas conventional transplanted rice on beds uses 15% less water (Qureshi et al. 2006). The above mentioned measures, however, will only be effective if farmers do not at the same time expand their cultivated area, or increase their cropping intensities (Ahmad et al. 2007).Another potential way to increase water use efficiency in the boro is the alternate wetting and drying (AWD) technique. With AWD, farmers allow ponded water to disappear from the field and infiltrate for several days until the perched field water table reaches 15-20 cm depth. Most available evidence indicates that yield increases under AWD are rare, although higher water productivity is commonly obtained (Bouman et al. 2007). In Bangladesh, yield increases between 0.5-1.0 tons ha -1 have been reported with AWD (Rahman, 2014), though multi-location studies are still lacking. AWD also help to lower concentrations of As in soils, indicating that the method may be a auditable means to reduce concentrations in rice grain (Roberts et al. 2011). Evidence is also increasing that AWD may boost concentrations of essential nutrients, particularly zinc, in harvested rice (Price et al. 2013). Despite these benefits, the adoption of AWD in Bangladesh is relatively poor. The reasons for poor adoption appear to be related to the ways in which irrigation is deployed in Bangladesh, rather than due to failure of the technology from an agronomic standpoint. Fixed-irrigation rate arrangements between water sellers and farmers, non-availability of water on needed schedules, and lack of understanding of AWD are considered as the major constraints in the wide scale adoption (Kürschner et al. 2010). Clearly, further work is needed to investigate viable ways to overcome the current mis-match between AWD technology and the broader socio-political setting if further investments are to be made in promoting its use.The emergence of groundwater challenges poses two very major challenges to the State. First, the performance of currently operational surface water supply systems needs to be improved -in particular the Ganges-Kobadak irrigation project in Khulna and the Teesta irrigation project in Rangpur -to ensure greater accountability and effectiveness. Promising movement is being taken in this direction with the advent of the Master Plan for Agricultural development in Southern Bangladesh (MoA and FAO 2012), and the Asian Development Bank's recent investment in a rehabilitation assessment of these schemes. Secondly, groundwater will have to be managed -for related reasons of quantity and quality -much more aggressively than has been the case in the past. In derivative traditional irrigation philosophy, recharge to groundwater is considered as a by-product of irrigation, though, in today's world, groundwater recharge should be considered paramount for making groundwater sustainable (IWMI 2010).Aquifer management is considered as the most effective away of establishing a balance between discharge and recharge components. This practice is widely used in industrialized countries to recover groundwater reserves. For example, artificial groundwater recharge contributes to total groundwater use at the rate of 30% in Western Germany, 25% in Switzerland, 22% in the USA, 22% in Holland, 15% in Sweden and 12% in England (Li 2001). In recent years, India and Pakistan has also taken serious steps to use harvested rainwater to recharge aquifers. Indian experience of community rainwater harvesting ponds at the village level and introduction of check dams in the Balochistan province of Pakistan are good workable examples (Shah 2007;Qureshi et al. 2008). Rainwater harvesting can also be introduced in public and community wells situated near slums and in villages, draining water from nearby rooftops and seepage infrastructure. Connecting storm water drain lines to tanks and rivers can greatly improve the groundwater position with little effort and maintenance (Qureshi et al. 2008). Similar efforts need to be initiated in Bangladesh, where water availability during the monsoon is much higher than these two countries. Small-scale surface structures (e.g. irrigation tanks -earthen bounded reservoirs constructed across slopes by taking advantage of local depressions and mounds) can be developed to facilitate groundwater recharge and availability. However, the efficacy of investments in rainwater harvesting on a wide scale with regards to the impact on basin availability of water for downstream farmers and costs involved needs to be evaluated (Venot et al. 2007). Sharma and Smakhtin (2006) have suggested the establishment of groundwater protection zones according to the safe yield of the aquifer, in order to avoid negative consequences of groundwater development such as water level decline, land subsidence, and increased salinity. Groundwater protection zones may be classified according to the level of vulnerability to groundwater extraction. North-western parts of Bangladesh where groundwater tables are continuously declining, and resulting in the development of groundwater depression zones might be a potential case for the establishment of \"groundwater protection zone\". However, because this has a clear link with the large scale boro rice cultivation in this area, implementation of these policies needs caution.Although the increase in boro area and production has brought the country to near rice self-sufficiency, this has come at the cost of degradation of groundwater quality and quantity, in addition to the costly energy expenditures required to power irrigation pumps. This situation has brought into question the sustainability of boro rice as a future strategy for Bangladesh's food security. Since rice is a water-intensive crop, it is essential to review whether Bangladesh should continue to primarily grow rice or instead use this water for other income generating or food security contributing crops in which the country has a comparative advantage. In Bangladesh's main boro growing areas, more than 90% of irrigation water is supplied through groundwater. Therefore restricting rice production in groundwater vulnerable areas could therefore reduce the pressure on this resource. The possible reduction in rice production due to area restrictions could be fulfilled through other less water demanding grain crops, for example wheat, maize, legumes, and myriad alternative crops.Wheat production in Bangladesh gained momentum in 1980s when rapid dietary change also took place. Wheat is currently grown on 0.40 million ha, which is only 3.5% of the total area under cereals (BADC 2012). The total wheat production is 1.38 million tons of grain, whereas another 2.0 million tons is imported annually to meet the national demand of 3.4 million tons (BARI 2014). Despite relatively high nutritional value and industrial and commercial applications, area under wheat cultivation has decreased due to replacement by boro rice following increased access to groundwater (Figure 11). Due to reduction in area and less attention on developing high yielding varieties, wheat production has consequently remained low (BADC 2012). In 1999-2000, wheat production reached to its peak (1.83 million tons, however, soon after this it started declining, reaching 0.84 million tons in 2008.Maize is another potential alternative crop to boro rice. Favourable growing conditions result in potential yields in some areas as between 12.0-19.6 tons ha -1 -the highest encountered in South Asia (Timsina et al. 2010). However, despite a significant increase in the maize cultivated area over the last three decades (170,000 ha in 2013 from 2000 ha in 1981), total production is far less than the annual national demand, resulting in imports of over 1.0 million year -1 (BARC 2013). Higher demand for poultry products as a result of changing diet habits are the main reasons for increasing demand for maize. Maize grown area is concentrated in the northwest, and scattered throughout the country in Chauadanga, Kustia, Manikgonj and Comilla districts.Wheat and maize both need very little water (300 to 500 mm) to meet their evapotranspiration demand, especially when they are grown after the rice crop. A significant water requirement of these crops can be met through the excessive moisture present in the root zone from the previous rice crop especially if the strip or zero tillage method is used. Therefore, adoption of these two crops would not only help in controlling declining groundwater tables but also help the country in meeting its food requirements and saving valuable foreign exchange being spent on the import of these two grain items.Groundwater has acquired a pivotal role in boosting Bangladesh's agricultural economy. Increased ease of access to groundwater fundamentally benefited the livelihoods of millions of rural poor. The major breakthrough came with the large-scale adoption of high yielding irrigated boro rice varieties and the expansion of shallow tube wells, which helped to move Bangladesh to near self-sufficiency. Today 80% of all boro rice area is groundwater irrigated, with intensive cultivation largely concentrated in the north-west, where groundwater levels are declining much faster than many other areas. Despite clear evidence that groundwater is being over-exploited, a large number of additional wells are being installed every year. Furthermore, there are serious and growing problems with groundwater quality, and increasing energy demand for vertical pumping of water, which may amplify in future.This suggests that more expensive and poor quality groundwater will be extracted for irrigation in the future. The direct management of groundwater through the introduction of groundwater use rights and limitations on groundwater access by enforcing permit systems will be difficult in Bangladesh due to large number of users, ineffective institutional arrangements, and problems with enforceability and accountability. Such strategies are more feasible where there are few users and the responsible authority has a very clear mandate and capacity. Therefore a well thoughtout, pragmatic, patient and persistent strategy is needed to address the issue of groundwater management. Some of the potential drivers of success necessarily include the heavy engagement of users, refinements in water pricing structures, substantial investments in modern water and agricultural technology, provisions to encourage farmers' transition into less waterdemanding crops, and the development of enabling policies and decision support systems. Policy research should address which options might be best for future groundwater governance in Bangladesh.The frontline challenge is not just supply-side innovations, but rather to put into place a range of corrective mechanisms before the problem becomes either insolvable or not worth solving. The emphasis so far has been on the development of groundwater resources but not on the management and conservation of this resource. Increasing uncertainties resulting from the anticipated negative effects of climate change suggest that groundwater use must be supplemented with the development of surface water resources to meet future water needs. Attention should also be given to areas where groundwater resources are relatively less developed, such as southern Bangladesh, though trade-offs with ground water salinity and arsenic contamination require careful consideration. When considered at a national level, the extension of irrigation in this part of the country could help to reduce pressure on areas where the problems of groundwater exploitation are more acute.Over the last three decades, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) attempted to introduce policies to monitor and regulate (ground) water resources, though practical and sustainable solutions have proven elusive. In 1985, the GoB introduced an ordinance exclusively for the management of agricultural groundwater resources. In this ordinance, licensing was introduced to restrict installation of private tube wells in critical areas where groundwater was falling at rapid rates and/or where groundwater quality was deteriorating.Subsequent laws such as the national environmental policy (1992), national policy for safe water and sanitation (1998), and national water policy (1999) stressed the need for the protection of surface water and groundwater resources. The more recently introduced water act of 2013 makes it mandatory for any individual to obtain a license/permit for large-scale withdrawal of groundwater by individuals and organizations beyond domestic use.However, enforcing laws, installing licensing and permit systems, and the establishment of tradable property rights have so far proven largely ineffective, perhaps due to difficulties in enforcement and accountability, which are characteristic in rural areas. Most policies, including the groundwater management ordinance of 1985, speak of managing groundwater at the Upazila (sub-district) level. However, the management of aquifers beyond administrative boundaries has conversely been overlooked.Important lessons on what does not work in improving groundwater governance could be learned from the management experiences of nearby countries such as India, Pakistan, and China, where permit and licensing systems also failed to yield desirable results. In addition to the reduced reach of the State into rural areas and weak accountability and enforcement, the sheer number of tubewell users is also a major reason for the ineffectiveness of licensing policies in these countries (Shah et al. 2003;Shah 2007;Qureshi et al. 2010). The population of shallow groundwater pumps and socio-economic conditions in these countries bear great resemblance with Bangladesh. Conventional groundwater management through the introduction of permit systems and groundwater use rights, direct and indirect pricing, and delivering groundwater on a volumetric basis are therefore not likely to succeed in Bangladesh either.The success of groundwater management in the Murray-Darling basin in Australia through permit systems lies in the fact that groundwater users' only number in the few thousand. The implementation of regulatory laws is also relatively easy (Shah et al. 2003). In Jordan, permit systems succeeded where efforts targeted DTWs and installation costs were high, while STWs were not considered (Chebaane et al. 2004). Shah (2007) argued that regulating energy prices provided a potent tool kit for the indirect management of groundwater in India. This however was not the case in Pakistan, where increasing electricity prices only forced farmers to shift from electricity to diesel, as has been the case in Bangladesh (Qureshi et al. 2010). As a result, groundwater exploitation continued because it was crucial to meet increasing cereals demands.Institutional solutions to groundwater management are difficult to implement because policy leaders remain under pressure to assure that adequate food is supplied to feed the population and reduce poverty, especially in rural areas. As major investments in surface water and irrigation systems have declined, governments have few options other than to allow the expansion of irrigated agriculture through groundwater development. Due to this dependence on groundwater for rural livelihoods, national governments are reluctant to implement stringent regulation. In the absence of strong political will for effective management of groundwater in Bangladesh, one potential avenue is the promotion of profitable, but less water demanding crops than boro rice, as discussed above. Measures to focus on alternative crops and cropping patterns could be implemented through policy measures to direct international donor investments, as is the case with the Master Plan for the Southern Region (MoA and FAO 2012), though similarly targeted efforts are needed in groundwater using regions.For all this to happen, institutional capacity needs to be enhanced to undertake systematic development and enforcement of legislation and organizational changes to solve entitlement, pricing, and regulatory issues.Reforms also need to address the management and organizational issues of existing institutions, with increased clarity in their roles and responsibilities.In the absence of proper institutional arrangements, evaluation of strategic options and monitoring the implementation of national policies for the public water sector will remain a challenge. Without a single governing authority responsible for the management of groundwater, it becomes difficult to implement policies that attempt to manage resources in a long-term sustainable way. Therefore, in addition to technical solutions, strong linkages between different organizations involved in the management of groundwater resources, and alignment of objectives, will be required.In addition to these supply-side solutions, demand for groundwater also requires management. Despite water shortages, irrigation efficiencies are low and the erroneous concept of \"more water-more yield\" still prevails among farmers. Improving water use efficiencies through the adoption of resource conserving crop management practices such as alternate wetting and drying, direct-seeded rice, and bed planting could help here, though in the case of AWD, effort is required to facilitate water pricing structures that would interest farmers and irrigation service providers alike to reduce irrigation volume in boro rice. Work will also be needed to create demand among farmers for alternative land preparation and planting services, and to develop viable markets for the equipment needed to prepare fields and sow crops using these techniques. Cropping patterns also need to be rationalizedstarting with the promotion of feasible alternatives to boro -considering country needs and the availability and sustainability of aquifers. Decreasing water availability both in terms of quantity and quality suggest that the unchecked expansion of dry season rice cultivation is probably not a longterm option for Bangladesh.There is also a need to work on awareness raising through educational programs for all stakeholders, heavy promotion of alternative crops, and programs to develop strong output markets for these alternative crops. The central elements will be heavy involvement of users, substantial investments in modern water and agricultural technologies e.g. charging water on a volumetric basis or crop specific pricing, fixing quotas for groundwater extraction for different users, facilitate markets for non-rice crops, promotion of alternative cropping patterns, and extra support for farmers making transition to less water demanding crops.The authors thank the Bangladesh Water Development Board and Bangladesh Meteorological Service for assistance with data. This research was conducted under the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia -Mechanization and Irrigation (CSISA-MI) project funded by the USAID Mission in Bangladesh. The contents and opinions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes.About the authors ","tokenCount":"9014"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8bc2dd3c78fe66cd8cad99bebf02de0c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b88e9bb2-479d-4d70-b45b-0fb7314633ba/retrieve","id":"663036093"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"47d09118-9324-4db1-9243-6e62597841d5","pagecount":"11","content":"Note: AII results are significant atp\" .01. Flowering characteristics are ca1culated as an average ofthe scores given by farmers, where O -earlier than Lok l. 50 !le same as Lok 1, and 100 = later !han Lok 1. GW 496 and GW 503 are !he only varieties recommended in Gujarat.The number of farmers that grew each cultivar ís shown below the cultivar name.The base for percent increase for fue yield of the new vatiety vaned because the yíeld of the check variety varied in each trial. HD 2189(1979) Sonalika (1967) ) 19 .. GW 503(1990) LCF HD 21S9 (197921S9 ( ) Sonalika (1987) ) Figure 4. Comparison oC percent area oC varieties before PVS in 1997 and tbree seasons ¡ater in 1999 after introduction oí new varieties in three villages: Kothamba, LadveJ, Thanasavli (Other varieties for UCF were 20/. UP2338 (1995 and 1% Sonalika [1967]; and for LCF, 3% WH147 [1979], 2% Raj 3077 [1989) and 1% GW173 [1993].)• Fanners adop! many cul!ivars and thus increase on-fann biodiversity. In three seasons, the number of varieties grown by Ihe upper-category fanners increased from four lo eighl, and for the lower calegory, from Ihree lo nine. There was significant replacement of Lok 1 by more Ihan one variety.• The proportion ofland planted to new varielies increased significantly, wilh both upper-and lower-calegory fanners (figure 5). Thus, lower-category fanners benefitted from the increased yields of new varielies as much as the better-off fanners.• Out-of-state, nonreconunended varielies Iha! mee! fanners' selection eritería exisl in the country. However, the reeommendation domains delennined by the fonna! system for these varíeties are too narrow.• PVS is a polen! tool forpopularizing recommended cultivars. Variety GW 496 had been released in Gujarat bul its area inereased substantiall y after the PVS programo Participatory on-farm seed priming. Seed priming is a simple, cheap agronomic intervention lO improve gennination and ensure better emergence and proper plant stand, particularly in rainfed agriculture: seeds are soaked in water overnight followed by surface drying before sowing. We extended the approach to the HPPS area ofLunawada to compensate for the late sowing ofwheat because seed priming has been reported to stimulate earlier maturity (Harris et al. 1999).Particípatory experiments on wheat seed priming inHPPS ofLunawada showed a number ofuseful effects (figure 6). Almost aH particípating fanners felt that seed priming induced earlier maturity and that they would use the practice again in the next year. Seed priming a1so increased yield significantly by abou! 5%, since the crop had more tillers per plant and larger spikes from more vigorously growing plants Ihan the control. Participatory crop improvement should be based on a holistic approach to the farmíng system. Baseline surveys are needed to lUlderstand farmers' practices, and following particípatory ínterventions, follow-up surveys are requíred to quantifY changes in the farmíng system. This study has shown that participatory approaches to crop improvement can lead to improved livelihoods and can increase on-farm biodiversity.The study also shows that farmer-participatory approaches are effective in HPPSs (Witcombe 1999), where farmers are benefitting only partially from modem varieties in the period following the Green Revolution. The single intervention of growing a new variety can result in large yield gains. The findings raise questions conceming breeding and extension policies for HPPS, as well as for assuring food security in developing cOlUltries. Rice is the most important monsoon-season crop grown in lhe Punjab. The area under rice has increased progressively over lhe last 20 years, reaching 2.5 million hectares in 1998-99. The average yield of 3.5 t ha• l in 1997-98 (Ihe highest for any state in lhe country) decreased to 3.2 t ha-l in 1998-99 due lo lhe attack of tungro virus rusease. Allhough there has been an increase in the area and total production in lhe state, there has not been any appreciable increase in productivity over the past decade.The increasing area planted lo rice is the result of a decrease in lhe area planted to cotton and other less profitable crops. The increasing area under rice presents a number of problems:• increased water use• problems of soH heallh arising frorn a continuous rice-wheat rotalion• environmental problems, such as lhe effects on human health of chemicals used to control pests and diseases• seasonal use of labor Two features of the large-scale cultivation of rice are relevant lo Ihe present study:l. the widespread transplanting ofrice early in the season, contrary lo extension recommendatíons 2. trends in varietal adoption, such as the widespread cultivation of a single variety We discuss these issues here and presenl evidence in support of an altematÍve approaeh to that of conventional extension: participatory varietal seleetion for new varieties.Time of transplanting is a major factor Ihat substantially ínfluences rice yíe!d. A transplanting schedule has becn recornmended by lhe Punjab Agricultura! University (PAU) to get the highest yie!d and prepare lhe fields in time for the following wheat crop. It is recommended that varieties Jaya, IR8, and aH Punjab rice (PR series) varieties should be transplanted ITom ! 0-20 June, with the exception oflhe early-maturing variety PRI03, which should be transplanted ITom 20-30 June. PAU has issued a general guideline stating lhat where lhe rice area is large, lhe transplanting period should extend equally around 20 June (pAU 1996).Surveys conducted in the Punjab (Singh 1998(Singh , 1999) ) over four years (1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) revealed lhat transplanting in the Punjab starts ITom 1 May (figure 1). By lhe end ofMay, about 22% of the rice erop is transplanted, and by lhe middle of June, about 65% of the crop is already in lhe field. This early planting is more conspicuous in the Patiala district, where about 50% of lhe rice is transplanted by lhe end ofMay and 89% by mid-June. Why farmers praclice early transplanting contrary lo extension recornrnendations is an interesting question, Participatory rural appraisals (PRAs) done with farmers reveal sorne ofthe reasons farmers transplant late:• the availability of tube-well irrigation and a cheap, fia! rate for electricity• the continued employrnent oflabor afier the wheat harvest• the limited choice of early-rnaturing varieties, since high-yielding cultivars tend to have longer maturation periods and need earlier transplantingEarly transplanting ofrice has led to multiple problems such as the foIlowing:• a loweríng of the water table from greater exploitation of ground-water resources (During May and June, the water requirements for crops are at their peak. The early transplanted crop requíres 20% to 30% more water [PAU 1996].)• the loss of nutríents frem evaporation in the extremely hot months, resulting in increased use of chemicals aríd degradation of the environment• an inerease in diseases and inseet pests• less opportunity for green manuringOld varietíes are cultívated on a large area. P A U has reeornmended a number of varieties of rice; however, farmers still prefer to grow old varieties, The varietal surveys conducted by P AU's sernor extension specialist (farm management) showed that 36% orthe area in the stale duríng 1999 was occupied by varieties released 15 years ago, e,g\" PR 106, IR8, Jaya, PR In Patiala, the adoption of nonrecornmended varieties was higher than in the Punjab as a whole (average of 53% over rour years), Among nonrecornmended varieties, Pusa 44 has the highest adoption, Itoecupiednearly 50% ofthe areain the Patiala distriet in 1996 to 1999, Pusa 44 is highly susceptible to bacterialleafblight (BLB), and the large-scale cultivation ofPusa 44 has helped to build up the BLB pathogen, which causes losses in other varieties. However, farmers prefer Fusa 44 for its high yield and resistance lo lodging, Three participatory approaches were used in thís study:24 43 28 47 30 28 28 56 54 50 l. farmer-managed particípatory-research (F AMP AR) varietal trials, in which farmers grow new varieties alongside their local variety under farmcr management, with evaluation of many cultivar traits by hoth scienlists and furmers 2. informal research and development (IRD), in which furmers evaluate new varietíes with little intervention from scientists; evalualÍon is mainly !Tom the examination of adoption trends 3. single-replicate design (mother trials), with aH varieties grown togelher as demonstration plots to assess the relative performance of varieties (researcher-designed but farmer-managed trials)Eleven villages (Kalifewala, Chalaila, Kalwa, Barsat, Bhedpura, Gajjumajra, Kaidopur, Dhengera, Partapgarh, Kartarpur, and Jauramajra) were selected to represent agroclímatic situations in the Patiala district. Three villages(Gajjumajra, Bhedpura, and Barsat) represented salt-affected arcas with soils having a pH hetween 9.0 and 9.5. Ofthese II villages, F AMP AR trials were conducted in six and IRD. in the rest. AH viHages have either metaled or good earthen approach roads. AH of the agriculturalland is irrigated !Tom canals or tube wells.Farmers were selected lo represent small, medíum, and large landholdings. Willingness to experiment with new varieties was tbe key factor in selecting farmers. A total of 497 farmers were involved in participatory research in the kharif(monsoon season) of 1999.Twelve varieties were tested in participatory trials: IR36, IR64, HKR 120, HKR 126, Pant Dhan 4, Pant Dhan 10, Gurjari, Kalinga TIl, Govind, Pusa 834, PR 111, and PR 114. Of these, varieties, PR 111 and PR 114 are recornmended for the Punjab. All other varieties are out-of-state released varieties. Small bags (2-5 kg) of seed (varying according lO the demand of farmers) were given to farmers with the understanding tbat they would grow the new variety alongside their local variety under the same management and that they would participate in the evaluation.The plol area for F AMPAR trials varied from 40-5000 m 2 Mos! trials had an area of more Ihan 1000 m 2 under any variety, Sorne farmers, particularly in IRD víllages, pooled ¡he seed 10 grow a larger area.Researchers and farmers jointly evaluated the trials. Frequent farm walks, focus-group discussions, and household-Ievel questionnaires were used for recording farmera' perceptions. Graín yield data were reeorded jointly; researchers measured the plot size and farmers weighed Ihe plol yield.Demonstration plots of all varieties grown in the same field in a single-replicate trial were grown in aH villages as mother trials.Ofthe 12 varieties tested with farmers, Ihree (IR64, IR36, and PR 114) were preferred but IR64 was ¡he most preferred. We shall restrie! the description of trials to IR64 only. Variety IR64 was tested with 43 farmera (26 in FAMP AR villages and 17 in IRD villages) and compared to Pusa 44.The greatest power of participatory trials was experienced in Ihis study when IR64 was lested over a span oftime representing the whole ofthe transplanting period in Ihe Punjab. This was no! delibera!ely designed bu! was a result of the reasonably large sample size Ihat represented the normal practices of farmers. This was nol possible in earlíer on-station trials that were invariably sown over a restricted, usually late, periodo These on-station trials, done in 1985, 1986, and 1987, did nol iden-tifY IR64 because il yielded less than the check varieties in trials that were transplanted in July.IR64 had a significant yield superiority of 5% over Pusa 44 in 43 trials, givíng an extra 300 kg of grain ha'¡ over a base of 6550 kg (figure 2). IR64 showed the besl performance (a 12% yíeld increase over Pusa 44) when transplanted from 21-24 June. The yield advantage decreased when IR64 was transplanted earlier or laler in June, which fits very well with the exlension recornmendation to spread transplanting equally around 20 June.An important feature ofIR64 ,is Ihat it matures 26 days earlier tban Pusa 44, This trait, along with high yield, favora its adoption in various situations (figure 3).Farmers' perceptions for traits other than grain yield (figure 4) identified IR64 to be superior to Pusa 44 for number of tillera per plant and resistance to BLB, slem borer, and leaf folder. IR64 is shorter so il is resistanl to lodging, whích allows it to be responsive to inputs, Advantages 0lIR64 over Pusa 44 IR64 had the following advantages over Pusa 44:• superior grain quality and higher yields• earlíer rnaturity, leading to a saving of iITÍgation water• resislance lo BLB and tolerance to whíte-backed plant hoppers• resistance to lodging • allowing a green-manure crop Of summer mung (Vígna radiata [L] Wi\\czek) to be grown between the wheat harvest and rice transplantingAdoption and further tesnng of IR64 AH participating farmers saved IR64 seed in 1999 for growing in kharíf2000. There was considerable seed exchange from farmer-to-farmer. Seed demand in kharif2000, from farmers who had seen the trials was considerable, but only five tones of seed could be procured and supplied lo farmers. Sorne entrepreneuriaI farmers and farmers' groups in the state have already become active in producing and procuring IR64 seed.As a consequence of the participatory trials in Patiala, PAU ís retesting IR64 at a number of research statíons under appropriate management. The Krishi Vígyan Kendra (KVK), Patiala, has undertaken large-scale testing on farmers' fields in PatiaIa and other districts ofthe Punjab in kharif 2000.To exploit the advantage ofIR64's early maturity, new agronomic practices and cropping patterns are being tested by the KVK Patíala in more than 40 triaIs with farmers. These are on growing summer mung and green manuring with sesbania in kharif2000.","tokenCount":"2151"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1edf6996dd6d91be73561dea4d07c082","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5fe9cd35-ef6f-4571-9853-da1deb29a018/retrieve","id":"-1624637088"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fc3360f9-1b4a-490e-ba40-6eb5e0997907","pagecount":"48","content":"Tropical (CIAT) en el marco del proyecto \"Diversificación de sistemas productivos de cacao nativo fino de aroma en el Perú para mejorar la productividad y la generación de ingresos\" (DIFFcacao), financiado por el Ministerio Federal Alemán de Cooperación Económica y Desarrollo (BMZ), comisionado y administrado por la GIZ del Fondo para Investigación Agrícola Internacional (FIA) número 81219430.Nuestro especial agradecimiento por las valiosas contribuciones a Teófilo Beingolea Ayala de RIKOLTO; Gesabel Villar,La actividad cacaotera en Perú, tiene un impacto importante en nuestro país ya que representa a más 100 mil familias en 16 departamentos donde se cultiva y genera alrededor de 13 millones de jornales y más de 52 mil empleos permanentes en los diferentes eslabones de la cadena de valor, generando divisas al pais de 302 millones de dólares. Aunado a que Perú es uno de los centros de orígenes del cacao y posee una gran diversidad y variabilidad genética que permite proveer al productor y al consumidor productos diferenciados.El Estado ha priorizado esta cadena y por ello, busca al trabajo coordinado y articulado para lograr su competitividad y sostenibilidad. En la fecha, el Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego (MIDAGRI), a través de la Dirección General de Desarrollo Agrícola y Agroecología (DGDAA) con participación del Grupo de Trabajo Multisectorial 1 , integrado por entidades públicas, privadas, cooperación internacional y sociedad civil ha liderado la elaboración de un instrumento de gestión con la finalidad de impulsar una visión compartida entre los actores de la cadena con objetivos comunes acorde al manejo adecuado de los recursos y genere ingresos dignos principalmente a los productores.En este contexto, la renovación y especialmente la \"renovación de copa\" y la rehabilitación de cacaotales constituye una acción estratégica en las diferentes zonas donde se cultiva, teniendo en cuenta las características propias de las zonas, los principios de agroecología, el enfoque agroforestal, el adecuado manejo agronómico de materiales genéticos nativos con atributos en aromas y sabores para mercados diferenciados con énfasis en cacaos finos.La contribución de la Aliana de Bioversity y CIAT permite mejorar la gestión del conocimiento en la técnica de \"renovación de copa de cacaotales\" con el objetivo que el productor tenga plantas saludables, de alta calidad productiva y con ello fomentar mejores rendimientos a partir de plantaciones existentes mediante el uso de genotipos superiores seleccionados.La renovación de copa de cacaotales es una técnica muy importante para poder mejorar la productividad de las parcelas establecidas, pero hasta ahora la técnica ha sido dirigido al uso de material internacional de alta productividad. Este manual representa la suma de un trabajo de investigación durante 4 años con los cacaos chunchos de Cusco y cacao blanco de Piura y demuestra que la renovación de copa es una alternativa viable y de fácil adopción por los pequeños productore que quieren enfocarse en el uso de los cacaos nativos fino de aroma. Así esta práctica nos ayuda a la conservación de la diversidad de cacao, a uniformizar la calidad e incrementar la productividad de los cacaos nativos de fino de aroma cuando se injerta con material seleccionado para su productividad.APPCACAO está convencida que la renovación de copa de cacaotales enfocándose en cacaos nativos de fino de aroma es clave para asegurar un aumento de producción de cacao de calidad de cero deforestaciones, así mejorando el ingreso del pequeño productor. Los conceptos, técnicas, recomendaciones y lecciones aprendidas descritas en este manual se ponen a disposición de todos los lectores, para que lo consideren como medio de consulta, quienes pueden adoptar y adaptar estas experiencias a las condiciones donde quieran implementar la renovación de cacaotales. Es un gusto felicitar a la Alianza de Bioversity Internacional y CIAT por el desarrollo del presente manual. La Alianza Bioversity International y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) son centros internacionales de investigación agrícola para el desarrollo, que brindan soluciones científicas que aprovechan la biodiversidad agrícola y transforman los sistemas alimentarios de una manera sostenible para mejorar la vida de las personas. Las soluciones de la Alianza Bioversity y CIAT abordan las crisis mundiales de malnutrición, cambio climático, pérdida de la biodiversidad y degradación ambiental.Con colaboraciones novedosas, la Alianza Bioversity y CIAT genera evidencia e innovaciones integrales para transformar los sistemas alimentarios y los paisajes a fin de sostener el planeta, impulsar la prosperidad y nutrir a las personas en medio de una crisis climática.La Alianza Bioversity International y CIAT forma parte de CGIAR, la mayor alianza mundial de investigación e innovación agrícola para un futuro sin hambre, dedicada a reducir la pobreza, aumentar la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, y a mejorar los recursos naturales.En el Perú, en colaboración con socios nacionales e internacionales, la Alianza Bioversity International y CIAT está ejecutando el proyecto \"Diversificando los sistemas de producción de cacao en Perú para aumentar la productividad y los ingresos\" (DIFFcacao).El objetivo del proyecto es apoyar al país a posicionarse como un líder mundial en cacao nativo fino de aroma, posicionamiento informado por avances científicos y desarrollo de capacidades para alcanzar mejoras significativas y sostenibles en la productividad, calidad y valor agregado en sistemas agroforestales biodiversos.Este manual de renovación de copa se enfoca en las experiencias recogidas con los cacaos nativos finos de aroma del Perú: cacao Chuncho de Cusco y el cacao Blanco de Piura.1 El cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) es un cultivo perenne de importancia económica cuyos granos son utilizados en la fabricación de chocolates y productos derivados. Es una fuente importante de ingresos para cientos de miles de productores que conforman la cadena productiva en zonas tropicales.A nivel mundial, Perú es posiblemente el país que alberga la diversidad más grande de cacao, con un sinfín de variedades, muchas de ellas consideradas como cacaos finos de aroma (para más información sobre el tema por favor véase el ANEXO 1).La producción de cacao en grano ha tenido un crecimiento sostenido durante los 10 últimos años, con una tasa promedio de crecimiento de aproximadamente 15%, según cifras oficiales de MIDAGRI (2019). Esto coloca al país, en el 2020, como el octavo productor mundial de cacao y el segundo país productor de cacao orgánico en el mundo (WorldAtlas 2020).En años anteriores la estrategia para incrementar la producción de cacao en el Perú se ha basado principalmente en el uso de clones e híbridos comerciales no nativos. Iniciativas gubernamentales han apoyado la implementación de paquetes tecnológicos con el objetivo de mejorar la productividad a través de la renovación y expansión de plantaciones. Sin embargo, la mayoría de estas iniciativas se han abordado priorizando el establecimiento de plantaciones monoclonales con variedades comerciales internacionales dada su supuesta superioridad comparadas con el material nativo nacional en términos de rendimiento, manejo y fácil acceso a mercados. Entre las variedades no nativas de cacao más usadas en el país destacan CCN 51, ICS 95, ICS 39 y TSH 565.No obstante, en los últimos años cada vez más actores en la cadena de cacao están mostrando interés en la producción de cacaos nativos finos de aroma. La diversidad excepcional y exclusiva de cacaos nativos finos de aroma le da al país una ventaja estratégica. Aunque actualmente los cacaos finos representan apenas del 5 a 10% de la producción nacional, sus volúmenes de exportación están aumentando rápidamente. EnInjerto: La técnica de propagación vegetativa en que una porción de tejido (injerto) se une a una planta establecida (el patrón) y el conjunto de ambos crece como un solo organismo. Esta es una de las técnicas de injertación más antiguas y es usada ampliamente en cacao, sea para renovación de cacaotales o renovación de copa (IICA 2006).Vara yemera: Secciones terminales de las ramas de una planta que se quiere usar como injerto. La vara yemera idealmente es aquella tomada del penúltimo tramo de crecimiento de la rama y posee yemas en estado latente. Una vara yemera se compone de 5 o 6 yemas (Echeverri 2006).Refiere a la diversidad de cacao que se ha desarrollado localmente mediante procesos evolutivas de adaptación natural, muchas veces en interacción con procesos de domesticación humana. En la practica el cacao nativo tiene muchas denominaciones como cacao local, cacao criollo, cacao común, siempre refiriéndose al cacao propio de la zona. Sin embargo, visto que muchos cacaos no nativos han sido introducidos en muchas partes del país hace varias décadas, en el documento haremos mención del cacao nativo como sinónimo de cacao propio de la zona, no necesariamente al cacao que crece en bosques naturales.Reducir la altura del árbol permite facilitar las labores de mantenimiento y reduce el riesgo de accidentes como caídas de grandes alturas al momento de podar o cosechar, ya sea por malas maniobras o por resbalar a causa del musgo mojado por las lluvias. Recuerde la reconversión de copa permite obtener árboles de porte bajo y fácil manejo.La renovación de plantaciones es el remplazo de copa de los árboles de cacao mediante el uso de injertos. Para asegurar la calidad y rentabilidad es preciso el uso de material genético de calidad, es decir, genotipos con características consideradas como deseables (Dalberg e IDH 2015, Sodré y Sena Gomes 2019).Con la renovación de copa, es posible:• Reemplazar la copa original por variedades con características deseables de producción, calidad, resistencia a enfermedades, plagas u otras posibles cualidades de interés;• Rediseñar la arquitectura del árbol y reducir su altura, para así facilitar el manejo tecnificado y prácticas culturales;• Instaurar un manejo agronómico económicamente eficiente y sostenible en el tiempo.• Reorientar el mercado del productor de cacaos convencionales hacia cacaos finos de aroma locales.COPA DE CACAO: ¿QUÉ? y ¿CUÁNDO?3.1. ¿Qué es la renovación de copa? Cuando se aborda el concepto de renovación de plantaciones, es común encontrarse con el concepto de rehabilitación de plantaciones. Ambos conceptos están relacionados, inclusive, pueden complementarse uno al otro. Sin embargo, se trata de procedimientos diferentes y cada uno responde a una necesidad particular. En general la rehabilitación puede considerarse como cualquier práctica de mejora del manejo o rejuvenecimiento de una plantación para incrementar su productividad, sin cambiar los árboles ni sus copas mediante el uso de injertos lo que seria propiamente renovación. En el siguiente cuadro se indican las diferencias entre renovación y rehabilitación (Mejía et al. 2003, Dalberg y IDH 2015):Tabla 1. Comparación entre renovación y rehabilitación de plantaciones de cacao.Reemplazo parcial o total de la copa o árboles de una plantación con material de calidad y/o alta productividad Corrección de las condiciones de una plantación mediante actividades que propicien su rejuvenecimiento e incremento de productividad, por ejemplo, mediante poda y fertilización.Requiere mayor planificación y mano de obra (jornales)Requiere menor planificación y mano de obra (jornales) Fuente: Elaboración propia.Una de las preguntas más frecuentes es cuándo es apropiado hacer la renovación de la plantación.A continuación, detallamos aspectos que deberían ser tomados en cuenta para llevar a cabo la renovación de copa en una plantación:a. Ciclo de vida de la plantación: Puede ser oportuno pensar en la renovación de la parcela, cuando esta tiene rendimientos inferiores a 400 kg/ha/año, incluso cantidades significativamente menores. Es decir, la producción de la plantación ha empezado a decaer y este decaimiento puede estar influenciado por diversos factores, entre los cuales es posible mencionar:• Edad de la plantación: Se estima que la productividad de una plantación empieza a reducirse a partir de los 20 años y deja de ser productiva a partir de los 30 años (Paredes 2003), tomando como referencia variedades comerciales. Es preciso resaltar que esta información debe ser tomada como referencial, y en realidad dependerá de las condiciones de sitio y del manejo agronómico que reciba la plantación. Un primer indicio, es considerar a una parcela como candidata a ser renovada si al menos el 70% de las plantas muestran una reducción de productividad (Ramirez et al. 2009). De modo practico se pueden considerar 10 árboles seleccionados al azar (en las mismas condiciones) y evaluar su productividad, si al menos 7 de estos árboles tienen rendimientos inferiores a 0.4 kg/año de grano fresco, entonces consideré renovar la parcela.• Muerte de árboles: Durante la vida productiva de la parcela de cacao, se pierden individuos, principalmente a causa de las enfermedades que atacan al patrón. Se estima que el número de árboles en una plantación decrece, en promedio, 1.5 a 2 % cada 10 años (datos referenciales tomados de estudios en África). Esto deriva en el uso inadecuado de la parcela y la disminución de la productividad. Puede mejorar la productividad de la parcela, si se reemplazan con individuos nuevos los espacios dejados por los árboles muertos (Orozco 2020).Representación esquemática del ciclo productivo referencial de una plantación de cacao (considerando el uso de plantas injertadas):Establecimiento de la plantación (0 a 2 años)Muerte de las plantas (>60 años)b. Condiciones de la parcela: La falta de manejo de la parcela, sea preventiva o correctiva, repercute en la cantidad y calidad del cacao producido. Antes de intervenir se debería evaluar lo siguiente:• Falta de manejo fitosanitario: La incidencia y severidad de plagas y enfermedades pueden disminuir la productividad. Se recomienda tener un plan de acción sanitario para la prevención y control de plagas y enfermedades. Estas actividades van desde la poda y eliminación de mazorcas infectadas hasta la aplicación de bio-controladores y químicos. El manejo deber realizarse bajo la supervisión de un especialista a fin de encontrar las dosis optimas de productos aplicados, la frecuencia y medidas de seguridad que deben tomarse en cuenta.• Falta de manejo productivo: Comúnmente se atribuye que parte de la baja producción de las plantaciones de cacao se debe la ausencia o aplicación inadecuada de manejo. Todo agricultor debe incluir en sus practicas de manejo control de malezas, fertilización, poda sanitaria y poda de formación, control oportuno y eficiente de plagas y enfermedades, y cosecha oportuna del cacao producido.Inicio del ciclo productivo (a partir de 2 años)Reducción de la producción (a partir del año 30) 10El éxito de la renovación de la parcela dependerá, en gran medida, del compromiso y participación del productor, por ello, es importante comunicarle oportunamente las ventajas, desventajas, retos, beneficio y oportunidades de esta actividad en su finca.Del mismo modo, debe existir un compromiso por parte del equipo técnico a cargo de esta actividad, quienes deben acompañar y asistir al productor durante el proceso de renovación. Atender las inquietudes del productor será crucial para asegurar el éxito.• Manejo inadecuado de la sombra: Plantaciones sembradas a pleno sol son altamente productivas en los primeros años. La sostenibilidad dependerá de los nutrientes del suelo, sin embargo, se espera que la duración del ciclo productivo sea menor. En general plantaciones con demasiada sombra, son poco productivas y más susceptibles a las plagas o enfermedades. Alcanzar un equilibrio de alrededor de 30-40% de sombra permitirá asegurar una productividad sostenida. Hay que elegir especies arbóreas que proporcionen una sombra adecuada que proteja al cacao de la radiación solar, pero que no sea un impedimento para su crecimiento. Especies locales, con copa globosa no muy densa, sin autopoda (la caída de ramas podría dañar a los árboles de cacao) y de rápido crecimiento longitudinal son las opciones más ideales.• Material empleado (genotipo): La alta variabilidad genética en una misma unidad productiva (muchas veces cuando la plantación ha sido establecida por semilla) puede presentar algunas ventajas, como la mayor tolerancia a ciertas plagas y/o enfermedades, pero también algunos inconvenientes como alta variabilidad en productividad entre árboles lo que dificulta la planificación adecuada de la cosecha, pues en muchos casos los ciclos fenológicos son diferentes. Además, la elección inadecuada de los genotipos podría traer problemas sanitarios con genotipos o variedades susceptibles a ciertas plagas y/o enfermedades, incompatibilidad reproductiva o en el mediano y largo plazo problemas debido a una baja resistencia a condiciones de cambio climático.c. Condiciones de mercado: Este aspecto debe ser considerado tanto por el productor como por la cooperativa o asociación, en caso de tratarse de un productor asociado. Migrar de un cacao convencional hacia un cacao nativo fino de aroma, de alta calidad y demanda en el mercado, puede ser una alternativa interesante, sin embargo, requiere de una estrategia a largo plazo y un conocimiento del mercado objetivo. Esto representa un reto, pero también puede ser visto como una oportunidad de entrar a mercados exclusivos que priorizan la calidad y uniformidad del grano de cacao.Antes de comenzar cualquier intervención debe conocerse el terreno sobre el cual se trabajará. Esta etapa, aparentemente obvia, es con frecuencia omitida. Muchas veces la planificación se realiza sobre la marcha y sin los objetivos claros.A nivel de parcela, se recomienda tener en cuenta lo siguiente:• Entender el manejo actual e identificar pautas para mejorar la productividad• Identificar árboles de cacao productivos que no requieren la renovación de su copa.• Identificar árboles de cacao candidatos a renovación de copa; sobre estos árboles se realizarán las actividades descritas en este capítulo.• Identificar árboles de sombra mal ubicados y árboles de cacao que son hospederos de plagas y/o enfermedades. Estos deben ser eliminados.Paralelo al trabajo de diagnóstico de la plantación, es necesario realizar la identificación y selección del material a propagar. Esta es una decisión crítica. Existen dos posibles fuentes de material: jardines clonales o bancos de germoplasma (o cualquier colección de genotipos de cacao) y las fincas de productores o el bosque natural.Indentificar el estado de la parcela Indentificar la condición de los árboles Aplicación de la técnica de injertación más adecuadaLos bancos de germoplasma tienen la ventaja de conservar múltiples copias de cada genotipo lo que ayudará en la obtención de una cantidad mínima de varas yemeras para iniciar con la reconversión de copa. Sin embargo, a largo plazo esto no bastará para abastecer las cantidades necesarias para la renovación de copa en muchas hectáreas de plantaciones. En este caso harán falta jardines clonales o colecciones de trabajo que básicamente son colecciones que cuentan con muchas réplicas de genotipos deseables (injertados en patrones para asegurar la fidelidad genética). Dichos jardines clonales tienen como función más importante la producción masiva de varas yemeras, para apoyar la renovación de copa a gran escala. Una ventaja adicional de trabajar en colecciones establecidas es que muchas veces los materiales de cacao cuentan con datos de caracterización agronómica (productividad, resistencia a plagas y enfermedades, compatibilidad…) y sensorial (calidad de la pulpa y el licor…) que es información muy valiosa para permitir el uso del mejor material según los intereses del agricultor.Sin embargo, la realidad es que muchas veces los genotipos que se quieren usar para la renovación de copa se encuentran en parcelas de agricultores o en bosque natural, y por lo general son representados por un solo árbol. Esto significa que la disponibilidad de material es limitada. En este caso, es importante planificar para asegurar la disponibilidad y cantidad del material de interés que será necesaria al momento de iniciar la renovación de copa. Esto dependerá más de las características de los árboles donadores de material seleccionados que de los requerimientos del proyecto.En la selección de genotipos de cacao nativo fino de aroma de interés hay varios elementos a considerar. A continuación, presentamos algunos de ellos:• Alta productividad, reflejado en mínimo 40 mazorcas por año por árbol, un índice de mazorca (número de mazorcas que se requiere en promedio para obtener un kilo de granos secos) inferior a 20 y peso promedio de los granos de cacao superior a 1 gramo.• Características organolépticas sobresalientes. Un primer indicador en este sentido puede ser la calidad sensorial de la pulpa, pero idealmente se cuenta con una evaluación sensorial del licor preparado de los granos por parte de un catador con conocimientos del mercado de cacaos finos de aroma.• Tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades.• Crecimiento adecuado en condiciones edáficas y climáticas poco favorables, esto puede ser considerado un indicador de vigor.fitosanitario 14Cuando se ha identificado un árbol de cacao (árbol donador) con características deseables para propagar, la disponibilidad de material vegetativo será una limitante. Las alternativas que puede considerar para incrementar la cantidad de material son:• injertar el material deseado en plantas vecinas al árbol donador• injertar el material deseado en plantas colindantes al área destinada a renovar En ambos casos considere los cuidados y criterios que brindaremos líneas abajo para asegurar el crecimiento adecuado de estos injertos. Es importante hacer eso, meses antes de empezar la renovación para contar con material idóneo en la fecha deseada. También es importante obtener información sobre la compatibilidad sexual de cada genotipo a usar. La compatibilidad sexual se refiere tanto a la autocompatibilidad como a la intercompatibilidad.A continuación, algunas precisiones que permiten entender mejor las diferentes formas de la (in) compatibilidad sexual en cacao (Aránzazu -Hernández et al. 2009, Phillips -Mora 2012, Ramirez 2019):• Un genotipo es autocompatible cuando el polen de sus flores tiene la capacidad de fecundarse así mismo, logrando formar mazorcas con granos de buena calidad. En condiciones controladas (polinización manual) se dice que una planta es autocompatible, cuando la efectividad de polinización es mayor al 30%, es decir cuando 30% de las flores polinizadas con el polen de la misma planta resulta en la formación de mazorcas con granos de buena calidad. Cuando la efectividad de polinización es menor de 30% se considera que la planta es autoincompatible• Dos genotipos son intercompatibles cuando el polen de sus flores tiene la capacidad de fecundar a las flores de otro genotipo. Es posible que el polen de un determinado genotipo no es capaz de fecundar las flores de otro genotipo, pero viceversa si, haciendo que dichos genotipos si sean intercompatibles Se considera que existe intercompatibilidad entre dos genotipos cuando la efectividad de la polinización es mayor al 30%. Cuando la efectividad de la polinización es menor al 30% se habla de interincompatibilidad.Un conocimiento mínimo sobre la compatibilidad sexual de los genotipos a usarse en la renovación de copa es recomendable, particularmente cuando el objetivo es usar un número limitado de genotipos. Por ejemplo, si se usara un solo genotipo que resulta ser autoincompatible, o una combinación de genotipos que son interincompatibles la productividad será mínima (Terrreros et al. y Royaert et al. citados por Phillips -Mora 2012). Al contrario, mediante la combinación de diferentes genotipos perfectamente intercompatibles en la plantacion, se puede maximizar la productividad. Por ende, la elección adecuada de los genotipos a usar en los esfuerzos de renovación de copa es crucial para el éxito productivo de la plantación.Estudios preliminares suguieren que la mayoría de los genotipos de cacaos nativos finos de aroma, como muchos de los cacaos Chuncho y cacaos blancos son autoincompatibles. Por ello, si se desconoce la compatibilidad de los cacaos a trabajar se puede trabajar con una mayor cantidad de genotipos, aunque la salida más efectiva sería realizar ensayos de compatibilidad. En este caso Autocompatibles Interincompatibles  En la región Piura, todo se inició en el año 2006 con el descubrimiento del cacao blanco. Este descubrimiento motivó que CEPICAFE, hoy Cooperativa Agraria Norandino en coordinación con las ONG PROGRESO Y AVSF realice un primer diagnóstico que determinó la presencia de este tipo de cacao a nivel de todas las zonas productoras en la región. En los años 2007 -2008 se iniciaron las primeras acciones de identificación, selección y recuperación de árboles promisorios, lograndose la primera selección de 1160 plantas madre con frutos de almendra de color blanca, color rosada y color violeta , con potencial de alta productividad.En el año 2009 la Cooperativa Agraria Norandino, empezó un trabajo de identificación, selección, recuperación y concentración de cacao nativo de Piura en un banco de germoplasma ubicado en el CP La Quemazón -Distrito San Juan de Bigote -Morropón. En este banco se concentraron aproximadamente 25 genotipos de cacao nativo de Piura recuperados de toda la cuenca del Río Bigote, los criterios de selección entre los más importantes fueron los de alta productividad, características organolépticas sobresalientes, tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades y el color de almendra (blanco). En el banco se inició el proceso de evaluación de todos los materiales concentrados y como resultado de ello se seleccionaron los 8 mejores clones, los cuales posteriormente han sido concentrado en dos nuevas jardines clonales; la forma de propagación ha sido a través del injerto, utilizándose como patrón plantones producidos con semilla de la misma zona. La auto e intercompatibilidad de los 8 genotipos fue estudiada mediante experimentos de polinización manual. Esto permitió generar información que actualmente sirve para guiar la combinación de diferentes genotipos en plantaciones de agricultores.Ya en los jardines semilleros a estas plantaciones de 4 años se les viene dando manejo técnico adecuado con un plan de fertilización y fitosanitario que cumplen con las normas de producción orgánica. La poda realizada en estas parcelas es la poda de mantenimiento, la cual se hace entre los meses de agosto y septiembre, en esta poda se elimina ramas innecesarias, así como ramas secas por ataque de Phytophthora palmivora. El riego en uno de los jardines clonales es por gravedad y en el otro es mixto (gravedad y aspersión), este último garantiza que los árboles siempre estén hidratados.Natalio Reyes, sector Cardal, Piura. Productor líder para conservación y uso de los cacaos Blancos de Piura mostrando unos de los genotipos seleccionados por Norandino (Foto F. Yovera). Las plantaciones candidatas a ser renovadas muchas veces son heterogéneas: presentan árboles de diferentes edades, diferentes arquitecturas, diferentes variedades o clones y con muchos años sin manejo adecuado. Por ende, es importante evaluar cual es la mejor estrategia de renovación para cada árbol individualmente. La Figura 5 presenta un árbol de decisiones que sugiere al lector cuales son las intervenciones más adecuadas considerando, principalmente, la arquitectura del árbol y la mensura de las ramas y tallos. Las actividades de renovación deben iniciarse culminada la campaña de cosechas (comúnmente conocida como época de descanso) y antes de la producción de flores.El objetivo de la poda de renovación es producir chupones o brotes basales (es decir en la base del tronco) y habilitar ramas que sirvan para injertar. La preferencia siempre debería ser los chupones basales, ya que estos son de más fácil manejo y será posible formar la arquitectura deseada del árbol. Sin embargo, cuando los árboles cuyas copas se quieren renovar son muy jóvenes, y/o cuando no se logra la producción de chupones basales; la injertación en ramas puede ser una alternativa interesante a ser considerada. A continuación, describimos este proceso.Para estimular la producción de chupones o brotes basales (Fig. 4 & 6) hay que hacer una poda al centro de la copa para permitir el ingreso de luz solar directa a la base del tronco del árbol cuya copa se quiere renovar. Se recomienda realizar esta poda durante el periodo de descanso, es decir mientras la planta no se encuentre formando nuevos hojas , ramas, en floración o produciendo frutos. Puede ser ventajoso podar tocón de unos 20 cm encima del suelo.Después de la poda se debe realizar la fertilización para estimular la aparición de brotes en la base del árbol. Para mayor detalle ir a la sección 4.3.3.Una vez realizada la poda, monitorear el crecimiento de los brotes basales. Solo se deben conservar aquellos brotes que presenten las siguientes características:• Elija el más vigoroso y de crecimiento vertical• Longitud mayor a 20 cm La mejor técnica de injertación varía según la arquitectura del árbol y las condiciones del terreno donde se está trabajando. Para climas cálidos y secos se recomienda realizar la injertación en brotes basales. Para climas cálidos y húmedos la injertación se puede hacer, tanto en brotes basales como en ramas bajas (menos de un metro de altura).   Los brotes basales viables para injertar presentan un diámetro de entre 1 a 3 cm, corteza lisa de color pardo, libre de plagas y enfermedades. Asegúrese realizando un corte en forma de \"T\" por encima del lugar de injertación y observe:• Cambium (parte viva de la corteza) de crema a verde,• Leño de color crema• Presencia de savia,• Sin presencia de enfermedades observables en la corteza como escoba de bruja o pudrición parda,• Después de unos minutos de realizado el corte no se observa oxidación en la rama.Si se cumplen estas características usted está frente a un brote basal o chupón óptimo para injertar (Fig. 7).Evitar hacer cortes de tipo anillado en la base de la planta para inducir la formación de brotes. Estas heridas son la entrada de enfermedades vasculares, ingreso de insectos cortadores y pudrición. Por lo tanto, si se busca generar brotes basales es recomendable siempre comenzar a trabajar en la copa del árbol.La importancia de seleccionar un chupón o brote basal adecuado para la injertación tendrá implicancias para la futura planta. Se seleccionan los brotes basales más cercanos al suelo porque estos se podrán independizar del tocón, formando sus propias raíces. Se recomienda manejar de 3 a 4 brotes distribuidos en la base del patrón, con el objetivo de realizar tres injertos por plantas. En arboles jóvenes que presenten ramificaciones hasta un metro por encima del suelo puede ser ventajoso injertar directamente sobre ramas jóvenes (Fig. 8). En principio, se debería eliminar todas las ramas enfermas, rotas, resecas y viejas del árbol para tener acceso a las ramas más jóvenes sobre las cuales se realizará el trabajo de injertación. También es útil reducir el volumen de la copa para permitir el ingreso de luz en las partes donde se realizarán los injertos. Las ramas viables para injertar deben tener un diámetro máximo de 7 cm, presentar corteza libre de plagas y enfermedades. En ellas debe observar un color pardo claro y sin signos de resequedad ni cuarteamiento. Asegúrese realizando un corte en forma de \"T\" (aproximadamente a un metro de altura desde suelo) y observe:• Cambium (parte viva de la corteza) de color crema claro o amarillo pálido,• Leño de color blanco• Presencia de savia cuando desprende ligeramente la corteza• Sin signos de enfermedades vasculares (escoba de bruja y/o pudrición parda), estos se reconocen como puntos de color negro o marrón oscuro distribuidos en el cambium.• Después de unos minutos de realizado el corte no observa oxidación en la rama.Si se cumplen estas características usted está frente a una rama óptima para injertar (Fig. 9). Situación inicial: Se seleccionaron doce parcelas: 8 en el sector Centro Poblado Echarati y 4 en el sector de Kiteni (La Convención, Cusco). Las parcelas contaban con árboles de diferentes variedades, edades, tamaños y con diferente manejo. se realizaron las siguientes acciones:1. Poda: La situación inicial eran árboles de arquitectura y edades diferentes. En los árboles más antiguos y grandes, se buscó generar brotes basales para injertar, realizanfo la apertura central de la copa a fin de permitir el ingreso de luz directa a la base del tronco. Los arboles jóvenes y pequeños injertos de clones comerciales. En este caso se aprovechó la arquitectura del árbol para injertar en las ramas. Las ramas se limpiaron y se procedió a realizar una poda de rehabilitación (reducción de la copa y eliminación de ramas viejas o dañadas) y sanitaria (eliminando ramas infestadas). En algunos casos injertar en las ramas fue inviable en arboles jóvenes, por ello se procedió a generar brotes basales.Se fertilizó con una dosis de NPK, acorde a lo indicado por los estudios de suelo.Para aquellas parcelas con produccion organica, se utilizó insumos permitidos por la certificacion organica.3. Riego: Solo se aprovechó el agua de las lluvias. Por ello, es importante planificar las actividades a fin de aprovechar lo mejor posible las condiciones climáticas.Desde la aparición de los chupones se realizó la inspección para detectar posibles enfermedades o plagas. Se identifico la presencia de insectos de las familias Cerambycidae y Formicidae y para su control se procedió a retirarlos de manera manual y a quemar maleza y hojarasca para ahuyentarlos. Estos insectos pueden ocasionar quiebres del brote en la base y por ende no se deben usar dichos chupones para injertación (Fig. 10).El manejo adecuado de los brotes basales y su cuidado es crucial para asegurar el éxito de la injertación. La aparición de los primeros brotes ocurrió 30 a 40 días después de la poda. Antes y durante la aparición de los primeros brotes basales se limpió la base de los árboles (eliminando hojarasca y malezas) para incentivar su formación. Se seleccionaron los mejores 3-4 mejores brotes considerando que estos estén distribuidos en el árbol, y se les aplicó, al menos dos veces al mes, Trichoderma sp. para evitar el ataque de enfermedades fúngicas hasta el momento de la injertación. En este estudio se injertaron en múltiples chupones para garantizar que al menos uno sobreviva, pero según el caso se puede optar de injertar en un solo chupón, dependiendo de los objetivos planteados al inicio del proyecto. Una práctica aconsejable, en los injertos más próximos al suelo, es aporcar con tierra con ceniza para estimular el enraizamiento del brote (Fig. 11). 37 36Situación inicial: Se seleccionaron y prepararon doce parcelas (áboles mayores de 10 años) en La Quemazón, San Juan de Bigote. Todas las parcelas pertenecían a miembros de la Cooperativa Agraria Norandino. Se realizaron las siguientes acciones:1. Poda: Considerando la situación sombreada de las plantaciones se realizó la poda drástica para generar una buena entrada de luz directa a la base de las plantas y la ventilación de las plantas. La finalidad fue estimular la aparición de brotes basales. Sin embargo, se observó poca presencia de estos.Esto puede ser debido a las condiciones secas (cacao solo puede ser cultivado con irrigación) o al hecho que el cacao nativo de Piura no genera muchos brotes, o ambos. En este caso se ha estimulado la producción de chupones aéreos o brotes laterales, es decir chupones que aparecen encima de las ramas inferiores de los árboles.Dado que las plantaciones a injertar se manejan bajo las normas de producción orgánica de la cooperativa, y previo al cálculo de fertilización de acuerdo con el análisis de suelo, se ha fertilizado con productos permitidos por la certificación orgánica. El fin de la fertilización es nutrir bien a las plantas para garantizar el éxito de los injertos.3. Riego: realizado por gravedad y con una frecuencia de 15 a 25 días, dependiendo de la ubicación de la parcela y de la disponibilidad de agua. La única fuente de agua son los ríos.Desde la aparición de los brotes cuando se realizó la inspección para detectar cualquier posible enfermedad o plaga. Se identifico la presencia de Phytophthora en ramas y tallos severamente afectados, estos fueron eliminados en la poda sanitaria. El control consistió en raspado de las heridas y aplicación de pasta bórdales (cal + sulfato de cobre). Una de las razones para renovat una plantación de cacao es la alta incidencia y severidad de plagas y enfermedades. Por lo general esto viene dado por un escaso o inadecuado manejo de la parcela, condiciones ambientales favorables para el desarrollo de ciertos patógenos y plagas, y/o por el uso de variedades de cacao susceptibles a estas.Junto con la poda de renovación es necesario realizar una poda sanitaria para eliminar frutos, ramas o tallos afectados por cualquier enfermedad o plaga. La eliminación debe ser total, pues la presencia de tejidos infectados puede contagiar a los futuros injertos. Frutos con algún tipo de enfermedad fúngica deben ser retirados y enterrados, preferiblemente lejos de la parcela. Ramas y brotes infestados deben ser podados y eliminados de la parcela.Se recomienda desarrollar un plan de manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades, que no solo consideré la poda sanitaria como paso previo a la injertación, sino también, el cuidado de los injertos. Sobre esto hablaremos más adelante.La aplicación de hongos antagonistas o entomopatógenos puede ser una alternativa ecológica y económicamente viable. La dosis y aplicación de estos debe ser recomendada por un especialista. Las actividades de campo nos indican que la aplicación de productos comerciales a base de Trichoderma spp. da buenos resultados para el control de enfermedades fúngicas. La dosis usada fue: 800 gramos en 320 litros de agua por hectárea. La aplicación se realizó 3 veces cada 15 días.Para estimular la inducción de brotes basales, brotes aéreos o mejorar la calidad de las ramas a injertar, se debe aplicar después de la poda algún fertilizante alto en nitrógeno. De ser necesario se puede aplicar un fertilizante balanceado, basándose en el análisis de suelo. El especialista o técnico agropecuario encargado de las actividades debe sugerir la dosis y forma de aplicación.Es importante hacer coincidir la programación de la fertilización con el inicio de la época de lluvias, así se asegura el uso eficiente de los nutrientes por parte de la planta. Se recomienda hacer la aplicación de los fertilizantes a 50 cm de la base de la planta, de esta manera se tendrá una producción de brotes.Se debe realizar la cosecha de varas yemeras durante las primeras horas del día, idealmente antes de la salida de los primeros rayos de sol y máximo hasta las 10 AM, o bien en la tarde (después de las 4 PM).Para la cosecha es importante considerar lo siguiente:• Ramas adultas, rectas, sanas y de buena consistencia.• Tener una edad máxima de 2 meses, con brotes a punto de emerger. La vara o rama de cacao entra en madurez a partir de los 3 meses; no se recomienda utilizar varas de esa edad.• Cada vara debe medir de 15 a 40 cm de largo y contener de 7 a 10 yemas o al menos 3 yemas viables y en estado de latencia. Esto lo puede ver en detalle en la Fig. 12.• Corteza integra de color pardo oscuro, sin manchas o quemaduras causadas por el sol o el ataque de plagas y enfermedades.• Hojas sanas y bien desarrolladas, maduras de color verde oscuro. Evitar varas que presenten problemas de sanidad como presencia de escoba de bruja (Moniliophthora perniciosa), pudrición parda (Phytophthora sp.), daños por asta de torito (Hoplophorion pertusa) u otro signo o síntoma de enfermedad o plaga (Fig. 13). Varas con problemas sanitarios aunque tengan un prendimiento exitoso, tendrán problemas en el crecimiento del injerto o incluso la muerte. De igual manera, evitar aquellas varas que presenten roturas, quiebres o heridas.Evite usar varas sin savia, porque no tendrán éxito en la propagación. Puede identificar una vara sin savia, si al cortarla transversalmente, esta tiende a oxidarse en menos de un minuto, presentado primero una coloración amarillenta y luego parda (Fig. 14).A BEs importante garantizar que la planta madre no tenga ningún problema de estrés por déficit hídrico, esto garantiza la turgencia (presencia de savia) de la vara a cosechar. De ser necesario se puede regar la planta en las semanas previas a la cosecha de las varas. Una forma de garantizar varas en buenas condiciones es cosechar solo durante la época de lluvias. Al cortar las varas no tirarlas al suelo. En contacto con el suelo puede causar contagio de enfermedades.Es muy importante de eliminar todas las varas que no cuenten con las características deseadas como se detalla en lo que sigue. Se recomienda el uso de varas de entre 1 y 2 meses de edad. Varas demasiado maduras estarán más lignificadas y con menos savia, por lo tanto, el porcentaje de prendimiento será menor.Por otro lado, varas muy jóvenes, a aquellas de menos de 1 mes de edad y que aún no han lignificado suficientemente, serán más sensibles al desecamiento durante el proceso de injertación, por lo tanto, la mortandad puede ser mayor (Fig. 15). Evitar el uso de varas sin yemas o con yemas que aún no han terminado de desarrollar (Fig. 16), pues, pese a tener éxito en la injertación, su desarrollo será muy lento, pues primero el injerto debe formar yemas que se convertirán en hojas, esto puede tomar más tiempo del estimado, y por lo tanto se perdería una de las principales ventajas de la injertación. Observe la presencia de brotes en los peciolos, si no existen brotes o no están desarrollados, descarte esa vara. 43 42Las varas con presencia de cojines florales (Fig. 17) tienen éxito en la propagación, pero al ser ramas fisiológicamente adultas tienden a producir frutos sin crecer.Entonces producirán en la siguiente campaña. Hay que evitar usar varas obtenidas de brotes basales, si bien es cierto que pueden tener éxito en la propagación, estas no producirán frutos en el tiempo esperado, porque aún se encuentran en un estado fenológico juvenil.Para asegurar el éxito de la injertación, las varas cosechadas deben usarse, de preferencia, el mismo día. Si la vara es cosechada en un lugar diferente al lugar de injertación, es decir, si requiere ser transportada, esto debe hacerse bajo condiciones que minimicen el stress por calor y la pérdida de agua. El paso de los días puede minimizar el vigor de la vara y reducir el éxito de la injertación.A continuación, se bridan recomendaciones para el transporte de varas yemeras. La técnica más idónea dependerá del tiempo d e almacenamiento, así como a las condiciones climáticas a las que estará expuesta la vara yemera.• Transporte de corta duración: Cortar las hojas de la vara dejando el pecíolo. El tamaño sugerido de una vara es de 40 cm. Humedecer una tela de algodón en agua limpia, envolver y empacar en un bolsa plástica o cinta film y amarrar con plástico o cinta de embalaje. No usar sogas, soguillas o rafia para asegurar las varas, esto maltrata a las varas (Figs. 18,19). Se recomienda realizar atados de máximo 100 varas. Para maximizar el uso del material debe cosecharse sólo la cantidad de varas estimadas para el día de trabajo. A fin de evitar el estrés por altas temperaturas, mantenga siempre las varas en condiciones de humedad y bajo sombra. • Transporte de media duración (24 horas de almacenamiento) Cosechar las varas yemeras a primera hora de la mañana, cortar las ¾ partes de la hoja. Envolver un paquete de varas con plástico o cinta film para evitar la pérdida de humedad, sin dejar espacios sin envolver. Empacar usando una tela humedecida. Durante • Recomendaciones para el transporte de larga duración: Primero cortar ¾ partes de la hoja. En este caso, es preferible no cortar los extremos de las varas. Segundo, sumergir ambos extremos de la vara en parafina derretida (cera), esto sellará la vara y evitará perdida de agua (Fig. 20). Finalmente, replique los pasos explicados anteriormente. Durante su transporte las varas deben ser almacenadas en cajas de poliestireno expandido (EPS) o en un cogollo de plátano como empaque. .Para injertar en chupones o brotes basales, se pueden usar las siguientes técnicas:• Injerto púa central• Injerto púa lateral tipo momia• Injerto en parchePara injertar en tejidos más gruesos como tallo o ramas, se recomienda usar las siguientes técnicas:• Injerto púa lateral• Injerto púa lateral tipo momia El esquema en la figura 21 ayudará a tomar una mejor decisión.Se ha verificado que las varas de cacao Chuncho, bajo este método de conservación de larga duración pueden seguir aptos para injertar hasta 3 días después de ser cosechadas.• libre de plagas y enfermedades• libre de plagas y enfermedades• 2 a 3 meses de edad • Ramas jóvenes• Diámetro de la rama: menos de 7cm• Crecimiento a no más de 30cm del suelo• Rama a no más de 1 m (máximo 1,5 m) del suelo• Cambium de color amarillo pálido• Cambium de color amarillo pálido y corteza interior color rosa• Presencia de savia abundante Procedimiento para la injertaciónEsta técnica puede ser empleada para injertar en el tallo de plantones o chupones o brotes basales de árboles más grandes.a Con ayuda de una tijera de podar dividir la vara yemera en secciones, llamados injertos, que contengan un mínimo de 3 yemas viables cada una. Inmediatamente, y en el injerto, con una navaja realizar dos cortes laterales y opuestos entre sí de manera que forme una púa o cuña (Fig. 22a). Considere que la púa debe usarse dentro de los 2 minutos posterior al corte.b Cortar de forma transversal la sección apical del chupón o brote basal a una distancia de entre 30 o 50 cm desde el suelo, este servirá como patrón (Fig. 22b).c Realizar un corte a 3 a 5 cm de profundidad en la parte central del chupón o brote basal (Fig. 22c).d Introducir la púa o cuña del injerto en el patrón (Fig. 22d). Otra alternativa es seguir los pasos a, b y c, y justo antes de introducir el injerto al patrón colocar cinta parafina. En este caso ya no se usa una bolsa plástica, mencionado en f.e Envolver y ajustar ligeramente la unión entre el injerto y el patrón con plástico y asegurar con un nudo de seguridad (Fig. 22e).f Finalizar colocando una bolsa plástica (que servirá de cámara húmeda) sujetada a la altura de la unión del injerto (Fig. 22f). En climas húmedos o lluviosos, colocar simplemente la bolsa sin necesidad de ajustarla.Cuando el injerto haya formado 3 hojas nuevas, aproximadamente 20 a 30 días después de la injertación, realizar un pequeño corte en el plástico que envuelve la unión entre patrón e injerto sin retirarlo. Para desatar el injerto, tenga cuidado con no dañar el patrón. En caso de usar bolsa como cámara húmeda, retirarla después de 20 días.Use el siguiente enlace o escanee el código QR para saber mas: https://youtu.be/ZWlMP3ZG1f0 La metodología de injertación con púa lateral es semejante a la púa central, con la diferencia, que en este método la púa del injerto se coloca en uno de los bordes en un corte transversal hecho al patrón. Es una de las técnicas más usadas por su simpleza y efectividad.a Dividir la vara yemera en secciones, que contengan un mínimo de 3 a 4 yemas viables cada una. En el injerto, inmediatamente realizar un corte lateral en forma de púa (Fig. 23a).b Cortar de forma transversal la sección apical del chupón o brote basal que formará el patrón a una distancia de entre 30 o 50 cm desde el suelo (Fig. 23b).c En el patrón decapitado, realizar un corte por fuera y paralelo al eje del chupón, por aquí se unirá el patrón y el injerto púa (Fig. 23c).d En el patrón, levantar la corteza del corte para introducir el injerto (Fig. 23d). Asegúrese que la corteza del patrón cubra toda la parte cortada del injerto.e Envolver y ajustar ligeramente la unión entre el injerto y el patrón con plástico o cinta parafina. Esto debe hacerse de abajo hacia arriba. Asegurar con un nudo de seguridad (Fig. 23e).f Crear una cámara húmeda, colocando una bolsa de plástico sobre el injerto (Fig. 23f).Cuando el injerto haya formado 3 hojas nuevas, aproximadamente 20 a 30 días después de la injertación, realizar un pequeño corte en el plástico que envuelve la unión entre patrón e injerto, esto permitirá al injerto crecer sin que exista riesgo de ahorcamiento. Tenga cuidado con no dañar al patrón. 20 días después se puede retirar por completo el vendaje.  El injerto tipo momia es una variante de la metodología anterior. Este método es relativamente más fácil de hacer con altos porcentajes de prendimiento. Puede realizarse tanto en tallo como en ramas.a Dividir la vara yemera en secciones, injertos, que contengan un mínimo de 3 a 4 yemas viables cada una. Realizar un corte lateral en forma de púa (Fig. 24a).b Cortar la sección lateral del patrón, tallo o rama lateral, en forma \"T\" (primero un corte transversal (Fig. 24b) y luego un corte vertical (Fig. 24c) a una altura promedio de 30 o 50 cm (en zona húmedas o inundables se recomienda realizar el corte a mayor altura).c Con la navaja levantar la corteza del patrón e introducir la púa del injerto, haciendo coincidir el corte lateral de esta corteza con el corte del injerto (Fig. 24d).d Envolver y ajustar ligeramente la unión entre el injerto y el patrón con plástico o cinta film y asegurar. El amarre debe realizarse de abajo hacia arriba ajustando la unión mientras se envuelve (Fig. 24e).e Envolver por completo (Fig. 24f). No es necesario amarrar el injerto con el patrón usando sogas, rafias o jebe, esto puede dañar al patrón.Cuando el injerto haya formado 3 hojas nuevas, aproximadamente 20 a 30 días después de la injertación, realizar un pequeño corte en el vendaje que envuelve la unión entre el patrón y el injerto. Tenga cuidado con no dañar al patrón. 2 meses después, cortar la cinta de amarre en la parte baja del injerto.Use los siguientes enlaces o escanee los códigos QR para saber más: Injerto púa lateral, variante tipo momia en ramas Injerto púa lateral, variante tipo momia en tallos https://youtu.be/0HJ2Zb2TZYg https://youtu.be/U9F-4nxBqio Esta técnica de injertación consiste en unir un pedazo de corteza rectangular que contenga una yema obtenida de una vara yemera (injerto), con la corteza de otra planta (patrón).Se puede realizar en plantas jóvenes (vivero) o chupones o brotes basales de árboles adultos. Es muy importante que la vara yemera y el patrón tengan el mismo diámetro. Después de efectuada la injertación, las primeras flores aparecen a los 12 meses.a Realizar dos cortes verticales y un corte horizontal en la corteza del patrón a unos 30 cm del suelo (Fig. 25a). Eliminar las hojas inferiores que pueden estar presentes en el patrón.b De la vara yemera extraer una yema en forma de parche, de igual ancho y largo que el corte realizando en el patrón. Para esto, realizar dos cortes horizontales y dos cortes verticales (Fig. 25b).c Retirar el parche de la vara yemera tenga especial cuidado de no quebrar la yema (Fig. 25c).d Inmediatamente colocar el parche en la apertura de la corteza del patrón abriendo suavemente su corteza, de acuerdo con la longitud del parche, hasta introducirlo por completo sin tocar la parte inferior. La lengüeta del patrón abraza 50% del parche sin afectar la yema (Fig. 25d).e Amarrar de abajo hacia arriba, con cinta plástica cubriendo totalmente y presionando ligeramente para impedir el ingreso de agua (Fig. 25e y Fig. 25f).f Este es un proceso muy delicado, por ello se recomienda desinfectar la navaja en cada corte. Puede usar alcohol medicinal al 70%. Después de 15 días desvendar totalmente el injerto. Si la yema mantiene un color marrón claro se logró un injerto exitoso de lo contrario debe volver a injertar. El éxito de la injertación depende en gran medida de la experiencia y habilidad del injertador, de su conocimiento y criterio en la obtención de yemas, de la elección del momento óptimo de injertación y del nivel de detalle considerado en la planificación y logística. Por ello, se puede afirmar que actividades improvisadas casi siempre fracasan. Durante la etapa de planificación debe considerar las condiciones climáticas, factores internos y externos a las plantas los cuales repercuten en la unión del patrón y el injerto.A continuación, se presentan algunas consideraciones para asegurar una injertación exitosa.a Usar herramientas no adecuadas Evite el uso de herramientas no diseñadas para la injertación (cuchillos de cocina, machetes, cutter, etc.). Si bien es cierto que el éxito de esta actividad depende en gran medida de la habilidad del injertador y de las condiciones bajo las cuales se realiza, es recomendable usar las herramientas adecuadas para evitar deteriorar el material a propagar y por seguridad del propio injertador.Se recomienda realizar esta actividad con las herramientas adecuadas. La navaja debe estar afilada y sin presencia de suciedad u oxido. Debe tener en cuenta que la herramienta puede ser un vector de transmisión de enfermedades por eso se recomienda la desinfección con alcohol, antes y después de una jornada de trabajo o cuando se va de una parcela a otra.x Taller de injertación para mujeres en la Quemazón Piura (Foto F. Yovera).El parche tomado de la vara yemera no coincide con el corte realizado en el patrón. Esto ocasiona que el agua ingrese por las zonas libres pudriendo al injerto, además estas zonas pueden ser entradas de patógenos, suciedad, insectos y zona de desecamiento.Si el parche coincide con el corte realizado ambas partes entran en contacto dando como resultado un injerto exitoso. Siempre monitorear el desarrollo del injerto.x b Falta de coincidencia entre el parche y el patrón Evitar injertar en brotes o ramas demasiado altas, por encima de un metro. Esto puede traer problemas a la larga, una vez que el injerto empiece a generar frutos existe algo de riesgo de quiebre o desgajo. Además, puede dificultar el manejo de la planta a futuro.Se recomienda injertar en brotes entre 30 y 50 cm y en ramas por debajo de 1 m de altura. Con esto se asegura que el injerto se desarrolle de manera adecuada y pueda independizarse fácilmente del patrón.c Injertar muy alto x 61 60Descuidar los injertos puede ocasionar deterioro, daño y pudrición en las hojas y guía apical, inclusive la muerte del injerto. En la fotografía se observa un injerto al cual no se le retiro la bolsa plástica (cámara húmeda) de manera oportuna, el injerto fue exitoso, pero no pudo crecer por falta de espacio. Este injerto fue descartado por estar deforme.Se recomienda monitorear constantemente los injertos para identificar problemas y corregirlos oportunamente. El correcto desvendado de los injertos permitirá que crezcan adecuadamente. Retirar oportunamente el vendaje permite que el injerto se desarrolle de manera adecuada, reciba la luz que requiere para crecer y no tenga barreras físicas para desarrollarse. No olvidar de retirar los plasticos usados y depositarlos en un tacho de basura.x g Desvendar agresivamente (daños al patrón)El uso de herramientas inadecuadas, con poco filo y sin la experiencia necesaria, puede ocasionar daños en la corteza, que si bien pueden ser considerados como superficiales, puede ser foco de infección, inclusive puede generar desconfianza en el productor por las malas practicas en su parcela.El uso de una navaja de injertar o un cutter (solo para esta actividad) permite un desvendado limpio y sin dañar el patron ni el injerto.65 64x h No cuidar al injerto de enfermedades y plagas La presencia de enfermedades en injertos puede deberse a una parcela con problemas sanitarios o a varas enfermas que fueron llevadas para injertar. Una adecuada poda sanitaria permite evitar el contagio de los injertos, tambien es preciso verficar que el material a ser usado no presente sintomas de alguna enfermedad. Evite propagar enfermedades.Preparar adecuadamente la parcela antes de la injertación y la selección acertiva del material a propagar permite el desarrollo de injertos saludable y vigorosos. Es necesario el monitoreo constante para prevenir el ataque de enfermedades.x i No usar sellantes Al momento de cortar gradualmente el patron debe aplicarse algun tipo de sellante o cicatrizante, de preferencia a base de cobre para prevenir alguna infección por patogenos. En la foto se observa un patron sin cicatrizante, que a las pocas semanas se seco. Esto por la pérdida de agua o por dar lugar a la entrada de enfermedades ó insectos perforadores.Aplicar una pasta sellante permite prevenir la deshidratación del injerto y cerrar el ingreso a patogenos e insectos. Se puede usar productos comerciales como arbokol classic (Copolímero acetato de vinil-eter) o preparados a base de ceniza, cobre y aceite agrícola. 67 66En esta sección se brindan recomendaciones para el manejo adecuado de los injertos. Se desarrollan a modo de preguntas los aspectos más relevantes del manejo a fin de brindar las condiciones óptimas que aseguren su prendimiento y crecimiento.El momento adecuado para realizar el desvendado de los injertos estará sujeto al monitoreo que haga el responsable de campo. De manera general y en base a la experiencia se recomienda tener presente lo siguiente:Se ha podido observar que en condiciones óptimas (sin extremos de temperatura y precipitación) el desvendado se puede realizar entre los 20 y 30 días después de la injertación. El desvendado deberá hacerse de manera gradual, nunca se debe quitar totalmente el plástico utilizado como vendaje, por ello, el desvendado puede ser considerado un proceso de varias etapas.El momento de desvendar el injerto está condicionado por algunos factores como:-Calidad de la yema (madurez, vigor y turgencia) -Experiencia del injertador -Estado fisiológico del patrón y edad -Temperaturas bajas que retrasan el prendimiento -Régimen de lluvias, puede adelantar el desvendado en caso de lluvias intensas ¿Cómo desvendar?Cada tipo de injerto tiene su particularidad al momento de desvendar. Estos son detallados a continuación:Primero: Tres semanas después de la injertación, y siempre que los injertos tengan más de 3 brotes de hoja nueva con longitud de al menos 5 cm, puede retirar la bolsa que sirve de cámara húmeda.Segundo: aproximadamente 5 días después de retirar la cámara húmeda, y una vez que las hojas hayan crecido pueden hacer ligeros cortes en la cinta de vendaje (con una navaja afilada), esto dejará crecer a las hojas. Dos semanas después puede retirar por completo el plástico que sirve como vendaje.No tener en cuenta este procedimiento gradual resultará en problemas como el quemado de brotes, seguido del desecamiento y muerte del injerto.Tres semanas después de la injertación, y una vez formados los brotes, entre 1 a 3 cm de tamaño, proceda de la siguiente manera: Primero: Con una navaja realizar un solo corte lo más cercano a los brotes de hoja que estén emergiendo; será por esa abertura por donde irán saliendo las hojas a medida que crecen.Segundo: Si el injerto se realizó en una rama, la cinta o plástico utilizado como vendaje debe de permanecer entre 2 a 4 meses, en promedio, para ello se recomienda el monitoreo constante, ya que retirarlo antes de tiempo ocasiona desprendimiento del injerto. Si se injertó en brotes basales este tiempo puede ser menor. Por eso es importante la comunicación entre el responsable de la injertación y el productor a fin de programar un cronograma de visitas para inspeccionar el trabajo.Considere que para plantaciones adultas injertadas en tallos o ramos el vendaje debe de permanecer más tiempo ya que el riesgo de desprendimiento del injerto es mayor.Parche Observar la aparición de los primeros brotes. Antes de abrir los primeros brotes deben tener al menos 1 cm de tamaño. Se recomienda hacer el primer corte de la cinta de vendaje en la parte inferior, para evitar el ingreso de agua, luego continuar con los demás cortes, todos los cortes deben realizarse durante el mismo día. Es preferible descubrir completamente el brote para evitar \"encharcamiento\" de agua.Púa central. Durante el monitoreo, el responsable de la injertación debe observar la vigorosidad del injerto y el desarrollo de los brotes. El desvendado de este tipo de injerto se realiza en dos tiempos.69 68 ¿Cuándo y cómo podar el injerto?La finalidad de podar un injerto es formar adecuadamente la estructura de la nueva copa, para ello se debe de eliminar toda rama que no cumpla con tal fin. Las primeras podas pueden realizarse a partir del sexto mes de injertado y tienen como finalidad formar la copa. El momento óptimo de podar los injertos estará sujeto al constante monitoreo, ya que cada injerto tendrá un desarrollo diferenciado entre sí.Al momento de podar los injertos se recomienda usar tijera de podar de mano. Evite el uso de machetes o sierras muy gruesas.Desde el momento del desvendado el injerto se encuentra expuesto a las condiciones de su entorno, una de ellas es la posibilidad de ser atacado por alguna enfermedad o plaga preexistente en la parcela renovada. Si realizó bien el manejo de las plantas donadoras de varas yemeras y selecciono adecuadamente las varas, no debería existir incidencia de enfermedades a causa de estas.El control sanitario consiste en eliminar ramas con escoba de bruja, Phytophthora u alguna plaga, como asta de torito. A nivel de frutos quitar frutos con signos de escoba de bruja, mazorca negra, moniliasis o insectos perjudiciales como chinches o mazorquero. Se recomienda enterrar estos para evitar futuros contagios.La mejor manera de realizar el control fitosanitario es la prevención. Por ello además del control mecánico recomendado líneas arriba, se recomienda el uso de fungicidas, pudiendo ser orgánicos. Por ejemplo, los productos a base de Trichoderma spp. son efectivos en el control de hongos como la escoba de bruja. Puede usar la misma concentración recomendada en la sección 4.3.2.Despunte o apertura de la copa Después de liberar el injerto, se realiza la poda de la copa del patrón (la planta original) de modo que permita el ingreso de luz. Este proceso es gradual. Tener presente lo siguiente:• Si el injerto se realizó en una rama, se va eliminando la copa del patrón de forma gradual, empezando por las partes más altas, hasta llegar a aproximadamente 1 metro del injerto. Este proceso se realiza cuando el injerto se encuentre en su segunda brotación y haya formado ramas. Hacer esto antes puede causar estrés en el injerto, pudiendo llegar a morir. De igual manera, si realiza el corte muy cerca al injerto este podría secarse.• Si el injerto se realizó en un brote basal, se debe librar la copa desde la parte superior e ir bajando la copa de manera gradual, para permitir el ingreso de luz directa.En todos los casos, debe aplicarse un sellante a base de cobre en los cortes para evitar el ingreso de patógenos. Puede adquirir productos en tiendas comerciales o preparar uno usando ceniza, cobre y aceite agrícola. Hacer esto usando una brocha limpia.Cuando el injerto se encuentre establecido y haya crecido adecuadamente, se debe eliminar la copa del patrón. Para ello considerar lo siguiente:• Si el injerto se realizó en una rama o un tallo, y este haya desarrollado y formado ramas, se debe eliminar todas las ramas del patrón por encima de este a 35 cm. Esto dará espacio para que el injerto forme la nueva copa.• Si el injerto se realizó en un brote basal, eliminar el tronco del patrón a una distancia no menor de 30 cm del injerto. Primero asegurarse que el injerto haya formado un sistema radicular propio. Como ya recomendamos esto se puede conseguir aporcando al injerto, puede usar ceniza para prevenir el ataque de insectos cortadores. Finalizar con la aplicación de sellantes.   • Echeverri Rodríguez, J.H. 2013. Tecnología moderna en la producción de cacao: manual para productores orgánicos. Tercer volumen. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. San Jose, Costa Rica. 57 p.• FEDECACAO -PRONATTA (Federación Nacional de Cacaoteros). 1999. Fundamentos para la Modernización de Cultivos de Cacao y Practicas para el sostenimiento de la productividad. Santafé de Bogotá -Colombia. Sp.• IDH -Dalberg. 2015. Smallholder tree crop renovation and rehabilitation (R&R). 78 p.  (Whitlock et al. 2015). Ha tenido un periodo muy largo de evolución como consecuencia de cambios climáticos pasados y la interacción con fauna y flora antes de la llegada de los primeros humanos a las Américas, hace apenas 15 a 30 mil años atrás (Ardelean et al. 2020). La llegada del humano a las Américas coincidió con el periodo de la última glaciación. Durante este periodo una reducción en la precipitación causó un fuerte impacto en la vegetación del área que hoy día conocemos como la cuenca Amazónica, probablemente cubierta por áreas de bosque húmedo tropical intercalados por bosques secos e inclusive sabanas. Como consecuencia, los primeros humanos que llegaron a la cuenca Amazónica encontraron diferentes áreas boscosas con cacao separados por otros tipos de vegetación a la adaptación a condiciones de crecimiento locales dio origen a diferentes variedades o ecotipos de cacao. Este proceso de diversificación de diferentes poblaciones de cacao, probablemente, ocurrió con mayor intensidad en la amazonia peruana a causa de su cercanía a los Andes, donde las condiciones climáticas se mantuvieron con mayor humedad y donde el aislamiento de poblaciones fué promovido por el sinfín de valles en la ceja de selva.Al encontrarse con esta diversidad de cacaos, las primeras poblaciones humanas iniciaron el proceso de selección de las variedades de mejor sabor de pulpa fresca, las que llevaron a sus campamentos donde inicialmente germinaron entre los desechos de cocina y gradualmente se comenzó a cultivar y distribuir a mayores distancias. De esta manera, el humano se convirtió en el dispersor más importante de cacao hasta el día de hoy. De hecho, es muy probable que el dispersor original de cacao se extinguiera como consecuencia de los cambios climáticos de la última glaciación en combinación con la caza humana.Desde los primeros intentos de selección y cultivo, los humanos comenzaron a ampliar la diversidad de cacao que encontraron originalmente. Como resultado, hoy en día contamos con más de 15 grandes grupos genéticos de cacao a nivel mundial, la gran mayoría con presencia en 77 76Perú (Motamayor et al 2008). Estos 15 grupos genéticos son una combinación de 3 orígenes predominantes: origen natural, origen humano (cultivares), y grupos que son una mezcla entre los dos orígenes. Los cultivares más reconocidos son los grupos genéticos de cacao Amelonado o Catongo del este de Brasil, Criollo de Centroamérica, y el Nacional de Ecuador. De estos, el Amelonado es generalmente considerado como cacao convencional, mientras el Criollo de Centroamérica y el Nacional de Ecuador son conocidos como cacaos nativos finos de aroma. El Amelonado probablemente fue domesticado del material de la zona fronteriza entre Colombia, Perú, y Brasil, y fue distribuido hacia la embocadura del rio Amazonas. Los cacaos finos de aroma probablemente son el resultado de procesos de domesticación en la Amazonia Peruana y Ecuatoriana (Thomas et al 2012).La evidencia más antigua e indiscutible de esta domesticación son los restos arqueológicos de la cultura Moche-Chinchipe-Marañón ubicada en la parte Amazónica del norte peruano y sur ecuatoriano, y data de más de 5.200 años (Olivera-Núñez 2018;Zarrillo et al. 2018). Mediante rutas de negocio transandinos el cacao fue introducido tempranamente a la costa peruana y ecuatoriana donde dio origen al cacao Blanco de Piura y el Nacional de Ecuador que pertenecen al mismo grupo genético (Arevalo-Gardini et al. 2019). El origen genético del cacao Criollo de Centroamérica sigue siendo tema de debate, Algunos defienden que tiene su origen en la Amazonia ecuatoriana y de allí fue llevado a Centroamérica (Cornejo et al. 2018), mientras que otra hipótesis sugiere que el cacao centroamericano tiene su origen en el cacao Blanco de Piura y Nacional de Ecuador (Thomas et al. 2012). Esta última hipótesis se defiende entre otros porque tanto el cacao Criollo como el Nacional de Ecuador originalmente tenían pepa blanca y son aromáticos, y hay evidencia de intercambio interoceánico de cultivos entre Centroamérica y la costa peruana y ecuatoriana (Larranaga et al. 2020).Además, existe la hipótesis que la domesticación del cacao fino de aroma comenzó antes de la cultura Moche-Chinchipe-Marañon más al sur de la Amazonia peruana mediante la selección, cultivo y distribución de los materiales más apetecidos por sus sabor y aroma de pulpa (Thomas 2017;Thomas et al. 2012). De hecho, postula que el cacao Blanco de Piura/Nacional de Ecuador tendría un origen en común con el cacao Chuncho. El cacao Chuncho se destaca por tener una diversidad en sabores y aromas sin par en el mundo que sin duda es el resultado de largos procesos de domesticación a cargo de grupos indígenas, hoy en día representados por los Matsigenka.Está claro que la diversidad única de cacaos finos de aroma en el Perú presenta un tesoro subexplotado, y esperamos que el éxito del cacao Chuncho y el cacao Blanco de Piura en los mercados internacionales pueda multiplicarse en las muchas otras variedades que se encuentran en el campo.","tokenCount":"11103"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ec898b84506423781393acd70c5b3e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6020e479-75d9-407c-85b1-cff3b2f06f71/retrieve","id":"-229861479"},"keywords":["Maximum length","Uniform topography---80m","Rough topography -----60m 1.2. Spacing between bunds","3 -8 %----------VI=1-1.5m","8 -15%----------VI=1-2m","15-20%-------------VI=1.5-2.5m 1.3. Channel dimension","Depth-------50cm","Width-------60cm"],"sieverID":"1c34a01b-4482-4a17-a350-99ef28e88926","pagecount":"118","content":"Part II. Technologies' standard and specifications 1. Channel bund (soil Bund) (The channel is up slope of the embankment) 1.1.Soil bund…..• Height----------60cm (compacted)• Top width-------30cm for stable soil (50cm for unstable)• Bottom width------150cm • Side slope ratio--------1:1 • Burm--------------------20 -30cm• Graded in high rainfall areas (>1000mm) 0.5-1% laterally. • Non graded in low rain fall areas (<1000mm)1.6. Integration • With waterways and cut-off drains,(If graded) • Planting on bunds and fruit trees on the underside of the embankment along the bund. • Hand dug well with rope and washer pump, 1.7. Maintenance • Channel bunds are maintained in a form of fanyajuu terrace until bench is formed.Soil bund…. A level Fanya juu (\"Throw uphill\" in Swahili language) is an embankment along the contour, made of soil and/or stones, with a basin at its lower side. Needs well drained and deeper soil, slopes of less than 15%, controlled grazing, good for quick benching, needs more labour2.1. Maximum length • Uniform topography---80m• Rough topography -----60m 2.2. Spacing between bunds • 3 -8 %----------VI=1-1.5m• 8 -15%----------VI=1-2m• >15% the embankment is not stable due the water pressure coming above and the gravity pull.• Depth-------50cm• Width-------60cm 2.4. Embankment dimensions • Height----------60cm (compacted)• Top width-------30-50cm• Bottom width------120-150cm• Side slope ratio--------1:1• Burm---------------------20 -30cm2.5. Lay out • Graded in high rainfall areas (>1000mm) 0.5-1% laterally.  • Definition :✓ a conservation measure designed to prevent: the loss of soil and moisture through improved soil management and farming practices.✓ it is a rational/balanced land use, proper land and crop management practice to increase agricultural productivity and ecological stability.✓ The underlying factor for the effectiveness of biological soil conservation is the application of land husbandry techniques: that guarantee:➢ adequate ground cover in space and time, ➢ the recycling of organic matter and nutrients in the agro ecosystem• Principles:There are three basic principles through which biological soil conservation prevents soil erosion: ✓ The first principle is prevention of the direct impact of raindrops through the provision of adequate vegetation cover → the vegetation cover being a barrier to both mass and velocity of the raindrop kills the kinetic energy of the raindrop and its erosivity.✓ The second principle is the prevention of concentration of surface flow of water that causes runoff. ✓ The third principle is increasing resistance of the soil to erosion:→ by improving soil aggregates through soil organic matter management ✓ There are several agronomic principles and crop management techniques that can reduce soil erosion and maintain or improve fertility of the soil by providing adequate and all time cover to the soil and improved moisture harvesting.✓ The measures that can be implemented in various situations are:Cont'd✓ Crop rotation is a practice of growing different crops one after the other on the same piece of land • One of the oldest agronomic practices used all over the world ✓ Different crops have different morphological characters (roots and shoots) that enable them exploit the physical resources from different strata. ✓ If the same crop is grown on the same piece of land year after year, the soil nutrients in a given stratum deplete sharply and the crop yield declines ✓ Usually there are few crops, which are the primary targets for improving crop yields through rotation• Some crops restore or build fertility of the soil, while others deplete its fertility. • For instance, legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen and hence enrich soil fertility. • In contrast, cereals such as sorghum and maize deplete soil fertility through their big stalks and biomass, • As a result, rotating cereals with legumes will have positive effect on soil fertility • In addition to fertility restoration and SWC, crop rotation can help to control:-Disease, pests and weed infestation  ✓ Its main purpose is to shield the soil surface from the hot sun and falling rain, minimizing soil crusting, erosion and runoff.creates a favorable environment for soil microorganisms, -encourages rainwater to soak into the soil, -reduces the rate of evaporation from the soil surface, so raises the moisture content of the soil, -It also reduces the temperature fluctuations in the soil.Mulching with Sorghum straw Trash line with crop residues, (to reduce problems related to tillage operations)Mulching of crops with residues to reduce evaporation China's experience in mulching Cont'd✓ Contour cultivation and planting is a practice of ploughing the land and planting crops along contour lines. ✓ It can be adjusted to standard ridge and furrow system to make it effective in controlling soil erosion and moisture conservation ✓ Tie ridging is the most effective tillage method used for conserving soil and moisture and for increasing crop yields in semi arid areas. ✓ Tie ridging is undesirable during years of above average rainfall, because they cause water logging✓ Soil fertility management refers to the practices applied to restore or maintain the physical and chemical properties of the soil to optimize conditions for germination, establishment and crop growth.✓ There are different measures to be used to maintain the fertility of soil and enhance its productive potential. ✓ Some of the measures that are described here below can be used in drier areas :• Fertilization and manuring ✓ The application of chemical fertilizers to the soil is referred to as fertilization while manuring is the application of various manures (e.g. green manure, compost, farmyard manure, etc). ✓ When farmers cannot afford purchasing chemical fertilizers, manuring could be an option for maintaining fertility of the land ✓ Manure Consists of animal dung and urine.-It is the best form of organic manure.-It improves or sustains soil fertility, -Improves the soil texture and structure, and increases its water-holding capacity.-Animal manure contains small amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium nutrients. -Urine contains more nitrogen than solid dung does, and should be collected along with the dung and used as fertilizer. -Chicken droppings make the best-quality manure because they are rich in nitrogen.-The manure is kept covered and out of the rain to avoid loss of nutrients.✓ is a tillage practice aimed at creating favorable soil environment for germination, establishment and plant growth with minimum mechanical soil disturbance ✓ Tillage operations can loosen, granulate or crush or compact soil structure, changing soil properties such as bulk density and pore size and its distribution ✓ CT is therefore, designed to avoid the distraction of soil structure ✓ To increase the organic matter (OM) content in the soil, the adoption of tillage systems with reduced tillage depth and/or frequency (reduced tillage) or of no-tillage (direct drilling, direct seeding, zero-tillage) is important.• Zero tillage (no till) is a tillage practice in which land remains untilled before planting, but planting furrow or hole is opened at planting time• Minimum/reduced tillage is a tillage practice in which the least possible tillage operation is performed to break up hard pans/compacted layers and hence to increase infiltration/water storage capacity of the soil and to minimize resistance to root development.✓ In both cases the application of inputs like Nitrogen fertilizer and herbicides may be a necessity.Minimum tillage for low soil disturbanceCont'dCompost is the final product of organic waste materials that have passed through decomposition processes by microbes ✓ Compost is natural fertilizer that contains readily available plant nutrients, ✓ Made from leaves, weeds, manure, household waste and other organic materials, ✓ Compost is an excellent soil builder. It supplies a wide variety of plant nutrients. ✓ It also creates a favorable environment for soil microorganisms. ✓ It improves the ability of the soil to hold water and withstand compaction.There are two basic methods of making compost: the heap method, and the pit method.• Heap method:✓ is a composting method, which is undertaken in an open area. ✓ In this method of compost making, moisture, temperature and aeration are easily controlled ✓ As water freely drains out there is no problem of excess water. ✓ Moreover, it is easy to turn and mix the material for better aeration and accelerated rate of breakdown.Cont'd• Pit method:✓ is a method, which requires digging of a pit. ✓ In this method, it is more difficult to turn and mix the material for aeration. ✓ It also difficult to control moisture, temperature and aeration. ✓ Water logging problem can easily occur, especially during the rainy season entailing the problem of reduced rate of breakdown of the organic materials. ✓ The pit method appears appropriate in the drier areas where water limitation constrained the practice of compost making.• Site selection for compost making ✓ The compost site should be away from any source of drinking water, a distance of at least 25 m is needed. ✓ But is should not be too far to economize on labor requirement. ✓ A light and simple roof should be constructed (for heap) to reduce moisture losses as a result of the sun and wind in hot season and to restrict loss through leaching. ✓ It is also advisable to locate compost heap or pit far away from a house and place of regular work to avoid flies and the smell of decomposing material.• Organic materials for compost making: ✓ Any organic waste of plant or animal origin will decompose in a compost heap, ✓ But the time required for decomposition will vary with the type and composition of material, and the management situation ✓ The common materials, which can easily be secured, are:-Animal manure (from cattle, equines, sheep, goats, poultry, etc) provides the micro organisms with nutrients. Also it would enrich with (NPK); -Ashes (from burning weeds or fuel wood) will enrich the compost with P and K and increase the population of micro-organisms; -Soil (at composting site) helps to introduce soil micro-organisms.-Addition of N fertilizers only if they are available is desirable to speed up the breakdown of cereal straws. -While P fertilizer is desirable to increase the population of microorganisms, the need of P can be met by using ashes.• Procedures for compost making:✓ both methods of composting follow the same procedure which encompasses the following:→ Select a suitable site → Collect all available organic materials that biodegrade readily → Decide how big to make the pit (or heap) depending upon the available material (2 m wide, 1.5 height/depth and up to 4 m length) → Spread small branches and other coarse materials such as maize or sorghum stover at the bottom of the pit or heap, to a depth of 10-15 cm → Make a layer of organic material about 5-15 cm thick, → Then put ash (half a kilo per square meter) over the organic layer → Then farmyard manure is spread; a good amount of manure would be three kilos per square meter layer, → Spread a thin (1-3 cm) layer of soil on top, → Add more layers of organic material, and of soil or ash, until you have used up all the materials you have, or until the pit is full, → Push a long, pointed stick (or bamboo pole or reed) at an angle all the way into the heap or pit,→ Using a reed or bamboo pole (with the nodes opened up and holes in the side) helps air get into the heap. It also allows you to measure the temperature of the compost better. → Cover the heap with dry grasses or crop residues, → In cold, highland areas cover the sides of the heap with soil, → Let the pit/heap decompose for about 3-5 weeks → After 3 weeks in semi arid areas and 5 weeks in moist areas, the compost should be turned and mixed in order to aerate the heap → Repeat the operation of turning for 1 to 3 times at regular intervals and let the compost mature. → If the steps are properly followed, the approximate duration of the composting process is from 2 -5 months with the shortest in arid.→ Actually, the time required for the preparation of compost will depend on the type and composition of organic residues and operation and management applied.✓ Hedgerows can be defined as narrow rows of dense vegetation with sufficient height above the ground. ✓ Hedgerow can be formed from grasses or shrubs. ✓ Therefore, hedgerows can be called: hedgerows of grasses, hedgerows of shrubs/trees, or specifically, hedgerows of Leucaena, hedgerows of Sesbania, hedgerows of Vetiver grass, etc. ✓Leguminous species like sesbania and pigeon pea can be used to establish a hedge. ✓ Trimming the hedges to a height of 30-50cm prevents from seeding, makes them thicken up, and thereby increases the effectiveness in filtering out soil particles. ▪ This is done with the dual purpose of allowing some valuable grass to grow and to control runoff.• This system is usually not of permanent nature.➢Standard grass strips technology was introduced by different projects but did not meet the expected success, mostly because of the difficulty to control free grazing.Land use: Grass strips are suitable for cultivated land, Agro-ecology: Mostly in medium and high rainfall areas (moist weyna-dega and dega).• Within the context of moisture deficit areas grass strips can be applied in semi-arid areas and but not for arid areas.• In general; They can be effective where there is sufficient rainfall, supplementary irrigation and in-situ moisture conservation.Slopes: appropriate in slopes 3-8%•For slopes 8% up to 15% they may be planted alternatively with bunds (one grass strip -one bund).• In dry areas, grass strips should not be established on slopes > 8%.Types of grass to be planted:✓ perennial and persistent, ✓ compete with and suppress weeds, provide good ground cover, ✓provide physical impediment to flow and hence conserve the soil and moisture ❖ There are number of grass species that can be effective in grass strips, such as Rhodes, Andropogon, Setaria, Phalaris, Vetiver, etc. but, also native grass (e.g. Pennisetum spp.) can be used. ❖ Advantage of using Local / native grass species is that they may be more adaptable to local conditions and tolerant to drought,• Besides, land users are familiar with the purpose and management of such grasses.However, some grasses are aggressive to rapidly colonize the surroundings.• species such as Stylo, Siratro, Desmodium for drier areas, ✓ Takes up land that otherwise might have been used for crop production.✓ The grasses might serve as a refuge for rodents.✓ Planting materials might not be available locally ✓ Not effective in arid areas, ✓ When they are newly established, the strips do not offer much protection against erosion","tokenCount":"2377"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"19f27c46df587cdac4c9eca92e944550","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6ef57c3-4f18-4fd2-a0fa-f2ed7a41db53/retrieve","id":"1587354029"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2b4b23f4-e574-4436-9b6a-90ebf15dd323","pagecount":"9","content":"Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) are known for their nutritional value, boasting high levels of vitamin A, vitamin C, and antioxidants. In addition to these benefits, tomatoes can be highly profitable for farmers who have access to markets. Ensuring a successful tomato crop and maximizing yield however hinges on the quality of seedlings and season-long management practices. Whether sourced from commercial nurseries or grown on-farm, good farm management should place emphasis on seedling establishment to enhance tomato productivity. This brief provides basic advice on how to better manage tomato production in Bangladesh's unique agroecosystems.• Farmers typically plough 3-5 times, followed by laddering. • To aid good drainage and prevent waterlogging, raised beds, which can be established by implements drawn by two-or four-wheel tractors, are suggested. • Beds should be 100 cm wide and 15-20 cm high, with a drainage channel of approximately 30-40 cm between each bed to remove excess water from irrigation or rainfall (Figure 1). This is especially important during the summer season, during which tomatoes may also be grown under protective cover.• Optimal transplanting times: October-November (winter) and June-July (summer).• Transplant in late afternoon to reduce shock to seedlings. • Seedling age is usually 30-35 days but may vary by season.. • Recommended plant spacing is typically 60 cm row to row, 80 cm plant to plant (2,800 plants/bigha or 21,000 plants/ha). • Narrower spacing (60 cm x 40 cm) may be appropriate for varieties that branch less. • Transparent poly tunnels may be used during the summer rainy season, with tunnel height of 120 cm on sides and 180 cm in the middle.3 • Refer to Table 2 for winter cultivation and Table 3 for summer cultivation generalized nutrient management recommendations.• Basal application: Mix all manures, compost, and fertilizers except urea and MoP, then uniformly broadcast them before the final tillage pass.• Top-dressing application: Apply all urea and MoP in two equal splits at 15 and 35 days after transplanting (DAT) and prior to light irrigation Alternatively, use three equal splits of fertilizer, with an additional topdressing at 50 DAT before light irrigation.   • The critical weed management period is the initial 30 days after transplanting. Weed frequently during this period to aid in crop establishment.• Perform additional hand weeding at 40, and 60 DAT, or more frequently, if necessary, to maintain a weed-free field and prevent weed flowering and seed production.• Tomato plants are vulnerable to pests and diseases. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices are recommended and will be detailed in a subsequent tomato crop management brief. • Choose certified seeds of high quality that are free from disease, weed seeds, and insect damage. • Provide structural support for tomato plants using locally available materials, such as bamboo. • Ensure the support structure is adequately tall or wide to support the growing plants.• Secure the structure firmly to prevent it from falling onto the plants.• Figure 2 illustrates two potential alternatives for staking, with each plant being tied vertically to the pole or strings using thread. • The choice of staking method depends on the variety of tomato and the plant spacing, with high varieties requiring specific staking approaches.• Prune suckers (lateral branches in leaf axils) to improve fruit size, as plants with excessive stems yield smaller fruits. Limit to a maximum of two branches for improved fruit quality.• Trim older leaves on lower sections of plants to enhance air circulation and light penetration within the canopy. • Prune diseased branches to prevent the spread of diseases.• Typically, the initial harvest begins around 70 days after transplanting, with subsequent harvests occurring at 7 to 10-day intervals, though this may vary depending on the variety. • If any pest or disease management products have been used, it is essential to adhere to the specified pre-harvest interval. Do not enter the field or harvest crops immediately after any chemical treatment. Wait until the time recommended for harvesting after pest control products have been applied.• The stage of maturity at which tomatoes should be harvested varies depending on their intended use and the distance they will be transported. Seek advice from the Department of Agricultural Extension on maturity stages and how to harvest and market tomato. Note that for many tomato varieties, harvesting can extend over a period of several weeks, during which good crop management practices should continue to be followed. Above top and bottom: Farmers in Jashore, Bangladesh displaying tomatoes grown under protective covering during the summer; Summer grown tomatoes can fetch high prices in the market. . Photo Credit: Timothy J. Krupnik• Tomatoes can be a highly profitable crop in Bangladesh -especially so when grown in the summer-so long as farmers can successfully negotiate appropriate prices at the farm gate for their produce. ","tokenCount":"786"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0d6e38e6f03b3c81f41da01ac63f32bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c29a57c8-21d2-4c62-ad96-1eb63639b615/retrieve","id":"-1167765750"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"effbec49-9cc8-45a5-b84f-c2291dfdba92","pagecount":"130","content":"Self-systematization of small-business experiences existing in the CIALs from Cauca, Colombia, carried out * Diagnosis on situation of the CIALs in Nicaragua, Honduras, Ecuador and Colombia * Project for sustaining CIALs, approved * Diagnosis on situation of the CIALs in Nicaragua, Honduras, Ecuador and Colombia * Preliminary guidelines for establishing an action plan for second-degree farmer organizations, approved * Diagnosis on situation of the CIALs in Nicaragua, Honduras, Ecuador and Colombia * Bargaining capacities of community organizations to negotiate with * extemal agents, increased * Representativa local structures developed in arder to improve the communication of local needs to externa! support agents and the bargaining power of local actorsMaking small business dreams come true in the field: Self-systematization of small-business experiences existing in the CIALs from Cauca, Colombia as a support tool for constructing future visionsObjective: To develop and disseminate participatory methodological approaches, analytical tools, autochthonous knowledge and organizational principies that strengthen the capacity of R&D institutions to respond to the demands of stakeholder groups that contribute to improving levels of well-being and integrated agroecosystem management and conservation (IAEM).Description. Details of the Project 's seven majar outputs for the years 1999-2002 are given in the logical framework. Specific activities on a per-output basis are shown in the following abbreviated work breakdown structure for this year.> Participatory methodological approaches, analytical tools and autochthonous knowledge that lead to the incorporation of farmers' and other end-users' needs in IAEM, developed for interested R&D institutions > Organizational strategies and procedures for participatory research (PR), developed > Professionals and others trained as facilitators of PR > Material and information on participatory methodological approaches, analytical tools, autochthonous knowledge and organizational principies, developed > lmpact of IPRA Project activities, documentad > Interna\\ projects and other institutions supported and strengthened in conducting PR > Capacity of the IPRA team , strengthened Gains > Methods available for incorporating end-user preferences.> Participatory methods applied on a routine basis in CIAT research . > Users involved at early stages in decisions about technology design. > At least three universities in Latin America with capacity to teach PR > methods. > At least 1500 trainees and 45 trainers able to apply these methods in the region. > Self-management increased in at least 100 communitives in at least 4 LAC countries > lncreased focus on adding value to agricultura\\ products through microenterprises created in mature CIALs CIAL methodology scaled up over a large geographic region in at least one NARS and one NGO. Systemwide projects have published results on impact assessment of FPR and GA in PPB, NRM and IPM. Capacity for multiplying FPR in CIALs established in 4 countries. At least 2 second-order associations of CIALs functioning. Documentation of rural agroenterprise development in at least seven CIALs in Cauca pilot zone. Pilot organizational model for 3 telecenters established in one urban and two rural sites of Cauca.Watershed organizational models are being replicated in at least two countries beyond the three pilot sites. Pilot testing of participatory methodologies for rural agroenterprise development in at least one site. Documentation of lessons learned. Participatory plant breeding approach(es) institutionalized in at least three NARS (in Africa, Asia, LAC) on a national scale. CIAL methodology pilot tested in Africa and Asia. At least 15 CGIAR and NARS IPM project leaders trained in participatory methodologies.Participatory IPM projects established in at least 5 CGIAR and NARS centers. Methods for participatory research on N RM at the landscape scale applied in at least one site. This work will benefit poor farmers, processors, traders and consumers in rural areas, especially in fragile environments. Researchers will receive more accurate and timely feedback from users about acceptability of production technologies and conservation practicas. Researchers and planners will profit from methods for conducting adaptive research and implementing policies on natural resource conservation at the micro level. NARS, NGOs, universities, CGIAR SP-PRGA members, SP-1 PM members Organization and management (70%); training (30%} Convenor of SP PAGA, Coordinator of SP-IPM project lnputs to PE-1, PE-3; PE-4, PE-5, IP-1 , IP-2, IP-3, IP-5, SN -1, BP-1; Outputs from PE-3, PE-4, IP-3, BP-1, SN-1. To develop and disseminate participatory methodological approaches, analytical tools, autochthonous knowledge and organizational principies that strengthen the capacity of R&D institutions to respond to the demands of stakeholder groups that contribute to improving levels of well being and integrated agroecosystem management and conservation (IAEM).     ./ Dependent on nature of study;./ Case studies, M& E ./ lnstitutions willing to ¡ activities, documentad e.g., in CIALs: No. of host reports and databases, share ifnnromation countries, total no. (active, impact studies ./ Data available from inactiva, mature), research reference sites capacity, self-management capacity, no. of institutions participating, gender composition, diversity of research topics, no. of people and small businesses benefited, no. of community-service actions, no. of facilitators and trainers preparad, no. of seconddegree organizations formed, no. of requests for publications and traininQ materials 6. Interna! projects and other ./ No. of interna! projects Resesrcher: Luis Alfredo Hernández R.The problems related to farming and to NRM were ranked at 14 participatory diagnosis meetings (PDMs) conducted in Honduras (Colón, the Paraíso, Lempira, Yorito and Olancho). A master list of common problems was compilad.Table 1 shows the distribution of frequencies for each one of the different problem (no. of times that a problem was mentioned in any one of the positions 1-1 O on the preference-ranking matrix). The sample selected for this analysis considers a mínimum of 4 points to run the regressions; in other words, the problem was mentioned in at least 4 diagnoses.The problems identified in the diagnoses were grouped as follows:> SOCIAL: education, housing, food security, healthlmalnutrition, sources of employment, low salaries, drinkable water, latrines, malaria, energy and agrarian policies  Figure 1 shows the trends of the problems by means of regression curves. The most important problems (with probability of being in positions 1-4) were: LAND TENURE (67%), CREDIT {62%), NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (59%) and AGRICUL TURAL PRODUCTION (56%). The problems of average STORAGE (25%) and ANIMAL PRODUCTION (8%).importance (with highest probabilitíes in positions 5-7) were: OPTIONS (45%), SOCIAL (42%) and COMMERCIALIZATION (31%). The problems of least importance (with greatest probabilities in positions 8-10) were PESTS (29%),The regression analyses for each component (with the probability of being in positions 1-4) show that:> For the SOCIAL area, water is the most important (100%), followed by health/malnutrition (75%), food security (33%) and education (25%).> In the area DISEASES AND PESTS IN CROPS, the most important is pests and diseases in basic grains (33%).   > For MONEY the most important are credit (1 00%) and economic resources (33%).> In AGRICUL TURAL PRODUCTION, the most important are input costs (100%), variety and agricultura! production (67%), and production of basic grains (33%).> In NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, the most important is DROUGHT(1 00%), inadequate management and erosion (67%), and deforestation (67%).> In OPTIONS, the most important is training (75%), awareness of need to organiza, and diversification (33%).We can therefore reject the null hypothesis and accept that there are significant differences in the degree of importance assigned to common problems identified via PDM. The analyses of this clustering by areas gave two outstanding results:.,.. The results are congruent with those found for the individual analysis of each one of the components (see •participatory diagnosis of problems, Annual report 1999 CIAT Project SN-3, p. 22) ..,.. The analyses of the areas made it possible to identify what is the most important in each one of them; that is, when the community is referring to an area, the component that they are emphasizing can be identified specifically.Participatory plant breeding with women and small farmers in Africa and Latin America On the Atlantic Coast of Colombia, cassava is a major staple crop and provides an important linkage for small farmers to urban and processing mar1<ets. Glose to 70% of the root production is used for direct human consumption; therefore varieties need to produce well and meet consumar preference requirements.The project goal is to develop impact-oriented breeding methods that can deliver positiva benefits to the rural poor, particularly women farmers in marginal areas.Output 1: Comparison of methods to identify gender-differentiated preferences > Analysis of user groups to identify types within them > Comparison of diagnostic methodsThe methodologies used in Output 1 were as follows:...,. ldentification of user types. The typology of the farmer end-users was updated doing a Rapid Rural Appraisal in the project area. T o identify u ser types, a cluster analysis, using Ward's mínimum variance (1963), was done based on preference criteria elicited in a survey ....,.> A variable named \"consideration,\" which reflects whether a preference criterion was taken into account for each diagnostic method used in the project. This variable was measured on a scale from O to 4, where O is equivalent to no consideration or no answer and 4 was answered by 100% of the people interviewed.> A variable named \"score,\" which measured the quantity and quality of information for each diagnostic method. For this variable, a scale from O to 3 was used, where O means total absence of a criterion, 1 means a criterion without reason, 2 mean a criterion with reasons, but without cause-effect, and 3 mean a criterion with cause-effect reasoning.With these data, a multiple-correspondence analysis was carried out to identify differences between diagnostic methods used in the preferences' elicitation phase.The results for Output 1 were as follows:~ General users. Farmers, middlemen, consumers, starch producers, chip producers and animal feed industry were the general users updated.Jií> Farmer types. Based on the statistics pseudo f and pseudo F and an R 2 = 0.86, five farmer types were identified according to preferences in six stages of cassava cycle growth. Characteristics for each type were described using frequency tables ...,. Middlemen. In this case, three types of middlemen explain 92% of the variability among them . This means that they ha ve different preference criteria for buying cassava ...,. Consumers. With an R 2 of O. 71 , tour types of consumers were identified in the region. There are strong difference among consumers from a village, a small town and an urban consumar ...,. Cassava chip and starch producers and animal feed industry. lt was impossible to run a cluster analysis because the sample size was less than 1 O. However, a comparativa description about preferences in cassava roots was obtained.Comparison of methods. In the case of farmers, there was a preference criteria group for the different growth phases of the cassava crop, which was common to the interview, workshop and survey. However, there were criteria specifically associated with the workshop and the interview. The survey did not have discriminant criteria (Fig. 2). This means that the interview and the workshop provide specific criteria in addition to those obtained with the survey. Comparing costs, the survey provided the cheapest information per farmer, but the additional information provided by the others tools contributed toa clearer explanation of farmers' preferences.For the interview the criterion associated with this tool was cassava canopy diameter in the phase from 60-120 days after planting.At the workshop, the criteria associated with this tool were disease-free cuttings, with high latex content and resistant to drought (in the phase from cutting selection to 60 days after planting), stemborer (Chilomima clarkeil) resistance, thick roots, high starch content and only a few low-level branches in the phase from 120-180 days after planting.O. 7 0.6 IIIH .. r..O. 5 Output 2: More acceptable and productiva varieties accurately targeted and disseminated for poor women and men farmers. Farmers, intermediaries and consumers evaluated diverse genotypes.The methodology for Output 2 consisted of a comparative analysis of farmers', industry's, middlemen's and end-users' prefere~ces at one site (Barranquilla on the Atlantic Coast). In total 15 interviews were conducted in the different user categories (women = 4, middlemen = 3, farmers = 5, industry).The results for Output 2 were as follows:...,. lndustry criteria. The feed industry \"Concentrados del Norte,\" located on the Atlantic Coast of Colombia, has been testing cassava varieties MTAI 8, CM 4843-1, CM 4919-1, !CA-Costeña and !CA-Negrita. They have identified specific requirements for these varieties, which are to be used in dehydrated feed. These clones, transferred by the CIAT Cassava Program to Concentrados del Norte, have characteristics such as a minimum of 34% dry matter (DM), low cyanogen content and an average fresh root yield of 25 t/ha (Table 2). However, these characteristics need to be confirmad with other processors.The challenge was to determine whether the participatory methodology incorporated into cassava breeding ( developed from 1986-1992) identified analyzed and incorporated end-users' criteria. lt should to highlighted that new possibilities of transforming the crop from a subsistence to an incomegenerating alternativa with varieties such as !CA-Negrita and !CA-Costeña, released through Participatory Plant Breeding processes, arose as a result.Women's criteria (fried cassava patties known as bollos). This evaluation revealed that women have their own selection criteria relatad to their particular cottage industry of making bollos, a typical breakfast food made from cassava and white cheese. lt was evident that cassava varieties should meet certain cooking requirements such as high starch content (= good cooking quality) and uniformity of root and flesh (parenchyma) color (yellow or white) (Table 2). These characteristics result in new possibilities for cassava germplasm in relation to this industry.This project may also provide insight into a new perspectiva about cassavarelated women's and family earnings on the Atlantic Coast.The women's familias also contributed to the selection process, providing information on quality-related traits. There are areas where cassava plays an important role in more than one particular market. The broadening of the user base should be an objective in order to improve the effectiveness of the PPB methodology in the future.Middlemen's and end-users' (fresh market) criteria. The most important selection criteria for middlemen were high root DM, root morphological traits, extemal root (dark brown) and flesh color (white), root thickness and length, health (without diseases and insects) andan even surface with no indantations. In addition to having all the pravious dascribad charactaristics, and-usars prefer salecting high-yialding varieties (avg 5 roots/plant) (TablaTabla 3 ravaals an intaresting diffarenca among woman's, middlaman's and and-usar's critaria. Yellow-fleshed clone CM 6119-5 has a high accaptance among tha women (for making bollos) in contrast to tha other two groups. Y ellow flash is of intarmadiate acceptance. This means that for woman the critarion root color could hava two possibilitias: whita and yellow.Nona of tha groups accapted a light brown color of tha axtamal root as in CM 3555-6 (intarmediate to low acceptance) (Table 3).lt was evident that sorne cassava varieties (e.g. Venezolana, !CA-Costeña and SM 1411-5) play an important role in more than one particular market (Table 3)The evaluation process in this project has resultad in the following specific benefits:> Better knowledge of the market system in a given area > Refinement f selection criteria based on cassava farmers, women, middlemen and end-users  Sorne of these temporal and spatial interdependencias are immediately visible, while others such as the relationship between landscape diversity and structure and the occurrence of specific crop pests and diseases are more complex and subtle.The complex and subtle nature of the biophysical interdependencias at play in determining many NRM problams is, however, not the only factor complicating improved NRM. Particularly in hillside regions, agricultura! landscapes are fragmentad among numerous usars; that is, numerous individual decisionmakers. Thus, even if the biophysical interdependencias related to a specific NRM problem are recognized , their effective management requires the individual farmer to coordinate his or her resource management with that of neighboring farmers.This brings a second set of interdependencias into play; namely, the socioeconomic interdependencias that exist between individual landscape users. Sorne farmers depend fully or partially on others for their livelihood; e.g. through their employment as day laborers or the provision of informal loans; farmers rnay belong to different ethnic or religious groups, which may complicate communication and thus coordination between them; previous experiences of cooperation among farmers may have failed. These and other factors shape the individual farmer's willingness to engage in coordinated or collective NRM and thus the ability to manage the biophysical interdependencias inherent in many NRM problems.Outputs. The paper presents a stakeholder analysis methodology (Ravnborg et al 1999), which through a process of continuous and iterativa eliciting of individual farmers' perceptions and interests with respect to their own resource management-their constructionsand contrasting these with those of other farmers forms the basis for joint appreciation and analysis of the biophysical as well as social interdependencias involved in NRM.Underlying the methodology is the assumption that it is the individual farmer's perception of a variety of factors such as biophysical processes relating to NRM problems, security of land tenure and market developments, which--combined with his or her resource endowments and obligations-make him or her act; that is, pursue a specific resource management strategy. Thus an important element in efforts to improve NRM is the eliciting, contrasting, enriching or exploring in depth (based on information from elsewhere; e.g. research) and negotiating these individual understandings of NRM.lt is argued that recognizing and understanding not only the interdependencias that exist among different parts and resources within the landscape but also among the individual resource managers are crucial to solving those NRM problems that require coordinated or collective management. The paper consists of two parts: The first part presents the stakeholder analysis methodology and its theoretical basis, while the second part presents examples of its application, particularly how understandings of biophysical and social interdependencias emerged and were negotiated.The collaborative project proposal and the primary results of the fieldwork were presentad at the local DAN IDA office in Estelí at the beginning of December.  ./ Primary information on the SWOT of small visions for the small ./ Individual work by each small business to determine businesses, generated businesses in rural its weaknesses, opportunities, strengths and threats ./ lnterest in organic crops Cauca.(SWOT analysis) ./ lnterest in visiting the marketing sitas ./ Conferences on:./ Strategic planning guide designad Efforts by CIAT to initiate the development of participatory methods in Mesoamerica, in which the farmers play an active role in the decision-making related to research processes, began in 1993. There were already a number of methodologies that attempted to involve the producers and that formed part of the \"fan\" of alternativas available to R&D projects. But it wasn't until 1996 that the opportunity for the mass dissemination of the CIAL methodology was made possible through the Kellogg Project \"Dissemination of a model for developing agricultura! technology at the leve! of the community, using a participatory approach.\"There were a number of obstacles that had to be overcome in this expansion process, including institutional instability, turnover of agronomists, the lack of commitment on the part of sorne NGOs, and reluctance to change. Despite these difficulties and given the large number of institutions that saw in the methodology tools and virtues that met many of their needs, the CIALs were introduced into the Central American environment.Today there is a team of professionals trained in the CIAL methodology, primarily in El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras, who have formed considerable number of CIALs that are carrying out research projects arising from their communities concerns.A brief summary is given of the status of the methodology in Honduras and Nicaragua, which will be the target of the next phase of the project: \"Sustaining CIALs,\" recently financed by the Kellogg Foundation.2 Investigación Participativa en Centro América (IPCA). u Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA).12 Ibid.Honduras. Table 2 shows the number of existing CIALs, the institution and the agronomist who facilitated the process, its composition with respect to gender, the research topic and the number of familias directly relatad to the Committee that does the research.Photo 1. CIAL Pinabete Playa del Río Salado and the IPCA agronomist, Juan González, planting nurseries of sweet bell peppers for the next research tria/.At present Honduras has 62 groups of which men make up 25.8%, 16.1% by women and 58.1% are mixed groups. The number of familias directly relatad to the CIALs total 582, for an average of about 9 people per group. This figure indicates that many people are sufficiently interested in the Committee to accompany it continually, in addition to those people who are being exposed to the generation and development of technologies. At the end of each cycle, every CIAL should hold a meeting to communicate the results to the community, at which at least 15-25 familias attend per meeting, which increases that figure by 1 000-1500 farmers more who are involved in the process.lnitially, the research topics preferred by the communities were related to maize and common beans, basic staples in their diet and trying to solve the problem of their familias' food security. Today, as can be seen in Tabla 2, there are a larga variety of topics and crops in which the farmers are interested in innovating or resolving the community's concerns.Today there is a team of trained professionals who are applying the CIAL methodology in their respective work area. Their informal group, known as TecniCIAL, applies the CIAL methodology. Their meetings are held every 2-3 months in sorne of the regions where there are CIALs for analyzing and discussing the accomplishments and/or problems related to the implementation of the methodology. This organization originated from the meetings that the IPRA team held during the monitoring and follow-up during the dissemination phase.Other accomplishments include: > The CIALs have been recognized by many other institutions that work in their region or in neighboring areas and are constantly visitad or invitad to participate in important agricultura! and livestock events for presenting or discussing their results.> Parallel to the research projects, the Committees are carrying out their productiva projects as an incentive for the group and at the same time support the investment that are made in the research projects.> The participatory evaluations of technology are already on the agendas of several institutions that recognize the value of the criteria of the farmers who will be the end-users.Men Obstacles to be overcome include:> Apply the criteria for selecting communities and motivating them better in order to minimiza the cases of CIALs that become inactiva because of a deficiency in their application and/or explanation in the meetings with the communities that are approached about forming a CIAL > Continua identifying the strategies for integrating, each time more, the community in the CIAL events and activities to extend their local coverage.> Strengthen the knowledge of the methodology of PR of the Committees to guarantee the results of research and their stability in the community > ldentify mechanisms of self-financing that permits the farmers groups to establish and maintain sufficient funds for the research.> Achieve institutional stability in order to provide continuity to the projects initiated with the farmers > Provide the regional ASOCIAL with sufficient accompaniment by agronomists and business expertise so that they can achieve their consolidation and functioning in search of the CIALs sustainability > Establish mechanisms of participatory monitoring and evaluation that enable the groups to do their own analyses and obtain results for improving the groups' conditions as such.Nicaragua. The CIAL methodology was first implementad in Nicaragua in August 1996. At that time, a group of 17 agronomists from 8 national institutions were trainad. Here it was decidad to use a passive monitoring and follow-up system with much more independence in the use of the methodology by the institutions. This latter fact-together with institutional instability and not having done the course at the time establishad in the yearly operational plan-resultad in the methodology not being widely applied by the participating institutions.Despite the foregoing, there are three institutions that are applying the methodology with great success and interesting results: INPRHU (Instituto de Promoción Humana), UNICAM (Universidad Campesina) and the CIAT Hillsides Program in Nicaragua {Table 3). In contrast to Honduras, these institutions have been working isolatad from one another; therefore, there has been no exchange of experiences among the different groups of farmers or their agronomists.In order to leam about the situation of the CIAL in San Dionisio, an event was organizad in which the farrners could express freely their concepts, both positivas and negativa, relatad to their CIAL. They are also askad to suggest possible solutions. A total of 26 farmers, representing 9 of the 12 CIALs existing in this region of the country, participated. Photo 2. Farmers partícipating at the CIAL encounter in San Dionisia, Nicaragua.The main objective of the meeting was to diagnose the situation of the CIAL by means of group analysis (only the farmers; the agronomists acted as facilitators), which was later presentad in plenary. A summary is presentad of the results obtained in response to the question: What are the positiva aspects of their CIAL?> The community works better when it is organizad. > There is motivation and a desire to work > There are more opportunities to interact with other people in the community.The knowledge and results are shared with the farmers and CIALs from other zonas. New people are joining the CIALs.> They receive visits from agronomists and paraprofessionals, who help them have more experiences and feel more opportunity. They have had the chanca to visit other communities.> There are more relations with the institutions and, consequently, greater exchange of knowledge.> They ha ve learned to select the best variety and learn about new crops.> They learned to manage their crops, know about the type of soil, combat pests with organic products.> They learned to process sorne products of crops such as soybeans.> They have greater knowledge about crop diseases > Women are participating > From an economic standpoint, they have been able to maintain the initial research fund. > New members, who do not have a good knowledge of the CIAL methodology, want to pass to production lots without small-scale trials and confirmation plots.> The people do not like todo research on a small scale. > They are not conducting trials on other crops such as vegetables and grasses > Limitations of land for establishing the trials, and those who do have land have not joined the CIALs > Expand the CIAL activities toward other components of community development.> The institutions do not fulfill their obligations; e.g., the National CIAL encounter.> Sometimes the agronomists visit only the coordinators to conduct surveys, and they do not go to the other farms to taken them new knowledge.Alternativa solutions suggested by the farmers include:> The farmers from the CIALs should be models for the rest of the community.> Have the option to change the persona who is not interested > Speak with the members of the Board of Directors who are not participating and remind them of their commitment. > Seek financing for production-oriented projects: crops, swine and layers).> CIAT provides new varieties for research. > Seeds to reforest > Do work with pasturas in the communities because they have a lot of animals. > Intercede with other organizations so that they can buy land for those who do not have it.Ecuador. At present the CIAL methodology in Ecuador has advanced greatly by means of institutions such as the lnternationallnstitute of Rural Reconstruction (liAR) and the Instituto Nacional Autónomo of Research Agropecuaria (INIAP). These organizations with different objectives-extension and R&D, respectively-have accomplished important things in their areas, which have permitted the formation and strengthening of various groups, especially in lndian communities. In conjunction with other partner organizations, they are working with the farmer groups on a great variety of tapies in search of viable alternativas for their communities (Table 4). > There is a team of professionals capable of disseminating the CIAL methodology and of implementing projects directly with the communities. > The application and adaptation of the methodology in development projects by institutions such as FUNAN, which work with communities in buffer zonas in conservationist projects.> The participation of women in the CIAL project has increased considerably, and there have several groups. Different from the men's groups, the women tend todo research on aspects that are directly relatad to the improvement of their family's diet.Colombia. CORPOICA, after having testad the CIAL methodology in various parts of the Cundi-Boyacense savanna, has adoptad it as one of their strategies within their National Technology Transfer Plan. With this tool, they expect to link the R&D areas very closely, which is fundamental to their operational structure. T able 5 shows the research topics being addressed by the dífferent CIALs. > With the results obtained thus far, CORPOICA has been able to obtain resources, thereby providing continuity to the CIAL project. Donors such as SENA (Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje) and PRONATTA (Programa Nacional de Transferencia de Tecnología Agropecuaria) have financed projects on two occasions.> They are currently gathering information for publishing a book containing articles with the results of the CIAL researchers.> At the institutionallevel, the CIALs have gained recognition although stronger support is requireed to improve the coordination among projects. The participatory methods now forman important part of CORPOICA's conceptual base.> They have a group of agronomists with experience and knowledge of the methodology that will enable them to correct errors in future projects and have groups with a more solid technical and methodological background.> They have supported the tendency of many farmer groups to become involved in community development objectives based on their research results, such as projects for microenterprises, marketing and/or small-scale seed production.> Alliances have been made with sorne UMATAS (Unidad Municipal de Asistencia Técnica Agropecuaria) for financing events together with the CIALs, as well as for financing sorne production Jots.The following difficulties were identified:> Sorne resistance has been found, especially in the Cundi-Boyacense savanna, wíth respect to conducting trials in small plots. They would like to begin with large lots from the onset of the research > CORPOICA requires the agronomists to implement several projects at the same time. Therefore they have not been able to dedícate sufficient time to the farmer groups, to strengthen them methodologically and understand the approximate dimensions of the tria! experiments, the purpose of which is to reduce risk when they do not know much about the new technology being tested.> When there is money involved for fieldwork, the agronomists are attracted by those projects that have the most resources to the detriment of those with fewer resources.> The experiments have developed slowly because the agronomists do not trust the results, inducing the farmers to repeat the tríal in the next cycle.> There is the technical bias of the agronomist, and insufficient attention is given to the methodological process of strengthening the groups' selfreliance. The groups are not very sol id and are therefore susceptible to the institutional problems that atfect their backstopping. > Equal weight is not given to the qualitative and quantitative results because in traditional research , the latter has more valued.> CRECEDs (Centro Regional de Estudios de Capacitación, Educación y Desarrollo) have been withdrawn from sorne regions and the trained personal transferred, which has resultad in abandonment of about 40% of the groups that had been formed.> The personnel have to present short-term results, which impedes the investment of time initially required by the groups for their strengthening.> The process of selecting communities has not been the best; thus great effort has been made to identify more reliable criteria and improve their commitment to conducting field trials.On August 1 O, the WK Kellogg Foundation approved a three-year grant for this project, the purpose of which is to promote sustainable rural development by extending the capacity of poor rural communities to solve their agricultura! and environmental problems, take advantage of economic opportunities and integrate these within broader community development efforts. The project has eleven proposed outputs, focusing on the consolidation of second-order associations of CIALs:> Develop and strengthen second-order associations of CIALs  199i 4 ). With these two groups, the process of doing research with small farmers was begun, based on the demand from the community and the adaptation of the methodology to the conditions of this country.Based on the experiences with 5 groups in 1995, the Participatory Research Project in Central America (IPCA), the following needs were identified: involve more interested institutions and have more agronomists trained in the method. Thus aCIAL course for 9 institutions and 17 agronomists was held in the city of San Pedro Sula. All the participating institutions acquired the commitment to implement the methodology and evaluate it after at least two planting cycles had been carried out in the respective communities where the CIALs had been formed. 13 IPCA and SCD 14 Jimenez, J . 1997. la methodología CIAl: Caso El Recreo municipio la Masica, Departamento de Atlántida. Investigación Participativa de Agricultores para la Agricultura sustentable en laderas. la Ceiba Atlántida. Doc. de Trabajo No. 0011769-02. 24 pp.With the training and follow-up received from the 1 PRA Project and with the impetus from the participating institutions, the number of CIALs and the strengthening of the methodology in the country became more important (Fig. 1 ).Toda y 51 groups ha ve been formed by five institutions. The Committees ha ve been meeting yearly since 1997 in order to share the results obtained in the socallad \"National Encounter of CIALs\" (Memorias 97, 98, 99 15 ). At these events, it is the farmers themselves who-in their own words and with visual aids preparad by them with the help of the agronomist facilitator, present the results and conclusions obtained in their research to their fellow farmer-researchers. At these events two members per Committee and representativas of the sponsoring institutions participate in the process directly or indirectly.These experiences have been important. Sorne CIALs have consolidated as a group and make recommendations to other members of the community. Others with more experience have established small agroenterprises that permit them to give added value to the products derivad from the research process.Given the degree of progress reaching during these years and taking into account the experience of CORFOCIAL, the Corporation for Promoting CIALs in Cauca, Colombia, their coordinator, Alfonso Truque, was invited to the 111 National Encounter of CIALs in Honduras, held in Siguatepeque. He told the Honduran farmers about the Corporation's experience in Colombia and suggested the possibility of creating an organization that would meet the needs of the CIALs in Honduras.After severa! meetings and interna! discussions on the topic, they decided to create Regional Associations, which they initially called the National CIAL Network (Fig. 2).Given the foregoing, the group of agronomists who are in charge of the CIAL methodology, TecniCIAL, was asked to help them develop an action plan that would serve as a guide or map for their futura actions. ASOHClAb.  The general objective was to develop an action plan that pennits the Board of ASOHCIAL to chart the route to follow for consolidating the second-order association of CIALs in Honduras by means of a participatory process. The specific objectives were as follows:> Pennit all the representativas of the tour regional associations to contribute their ideas > Gather infonnation on the different types of associations, their advantages and disadvantages > ldentify the objectives desired for the organization > ldentify actions for fulfilling said objectives > Propase possible verifiable indicators Methodology. The procedure used was based on sorne steps of the methodological proposal for the participatory component of a municipal land ordinance developed by Beaulieu et al (2000) 16 , with certain adaptations that made it possíble to apply wíth respect to the objectives proposed in this study.Four working groups were established, one for each of the ASOCIAL participants. The moderators were the agronomists who backstop the CIAL in that region.The sequence of activities was as follows:IJII-General description of the desired conditions. In a brainstonning session the participants were asked to imagine that within three years (the time when the Kellogg project ends), how they would like to see their organization, assuming that all the conditions had been favorable; in other words \"how did they see the organization of their dreams in 3 years\". The participants were asked to begin their sentences with the words \"1 see\" \"1 wish.\" Emphasis was placed on the vision of what they wanted rather than on possible problems. The moderator made note of the participants' comments in their own words and verified their understanding of the same. The moderator did not seek an explanation of why the fanners wanted something so as not to bias the opinion of the other participants or inhibit their comments.In the description of the \"dream,\" they were told that they could also refer to conditions with which they feel satisfied today or that they have accomplished and about which they feel good.To the extent possible during this exercise and others, the moderator or facilitator grouped or classified the farmers' comments into more general tapies ..,.. Prioritization of the general tapies and their items. Each group was given the opportunity to mention their tour most important general tapies for reaching their dreams/wishes. The votes were tabulated, and the priorities, established ..,.. Presentation of results. Each group named a rapporteur from among the farmers, and the results obtained were presentad in a plenary session ..,.. Where are we. what have we accomplished todav. Although the organization has just begun, an inventory was made of their principal accomplishments or progress related to their organization to date ..,.. Who wi/1 be responsible for what has been visualized in the orqanization of the future? Using the vision desired for the organization, the different items identified in relation to the competency of the ASOHCIAL or the ASOCIAL were analyzed in the assembly ..,.. lt was decided to continue working only with the items related to ASOHCIAL given that each ASOCIAL will do their respective analysis Jater, using this same methodology ..,.. After the brainstorming, the moderators oriented the discussion around the broad tapies that were not mentioned and that have been important for the organization of the CIALs in CORFOCIAL-Colombia (see Box 1 ) ..,.. Preparation of objectives. Given that the objectives were for the national organization, the members of each ASOCIAL were divided into tour groups. Based on the results of the prioritization of the broader tapies, tapies were paired-<>ne of higher prioritization with one of lower prioritization. Then the tapies were assigned at random to the groups of farmers to carry out the work ..,.. For each topic, a specific objective was prepared to cover what the group of farmers hoped to achieve...,.Activities bv objective. For each specific objective, the required activities required to accomplish it were specified. This was done by asking the question: 'Well, now what should we doto achieve the objective that you have just described?\" ..,. Time limit for their achievement. The need to establish time limits by which time the activity should have been terminated is important for commitment and to facilitate their follow-up ...,.). The producers were asked to think about what would be the best way of confinning that each activity has been accomplished as planned. General description of the conditions desired. Based on the foregoing methodology and with the aid of the flowchart, the information in Table 6 was generated on the dream the participants had with respect to their organization. ./ Should have equipment for facilitating CIAL members ./ All members should work with lave for the regional associations' work with ./ Capacity for presentíng proposals and their organization, and everyone CIALs: machinery for microenterprises implementing them at both national should be responsible in carrying out or other necessary equipment and international levels their functions ../ Have the necessary resources to ./ Credit for the regional association of ./ The Board should be well organizad. conduct research CIALs ./ More ASOCIAL regional associations ./ Office equipped with computar in arder ./ Organization that supports ASOCIAL should be affiliated to the ASOHCIAL to have access to information on the projects ./ There should be more participation of CIAL results women../ Should have a display area for showing ./ There should be a follow-up system at their products the national level. ./ Promete the participation of the v' Give added value to the products:./ Dissemination by radio and \"La hora ASOCIAL in the farmers' fairs, artisanal seed production and organic CIAL en Honduras\" on Radio America agricultura! & livestock markets coffeeforexport v' Systematize the experiences and ./ ldentify at both national and exchange information, encounters, international levels the contacts for study tours and workshops exporting its products (e.g., coffee ,./ Dissemination v ia radio programs and watermelon) ASONACIAL newspaper ./ Have a storage system ./ Document experiences ./ Seek way to advertí se the products 57 Priaritizatian af the general tapies. The following scale (1 =1 O, 2=9, 3=8, 4=7, 5=6,6 =5, 7=4, 8=3, 9=2) was used to make a general prioritization by topics, by position occupied (T able 7)  > Although there is a disparity in the degree of knowledge of the farmers in the enterprise that is being initiated, there is strong interest in establishing the third-order or centralizad organization of the CIALs; that is, ASOHCIAL.> The CIALs from each of the four regions are willing to form their ASOCIAL and their national network, which will be called ASOHCIAL.> The institutions that facilitate the CIALs are offering continuous support to the organization of the ASOHCIAL.> The principal lines of action that serve as a guide for the formation and strengthening of their organization were identified.> The Board of Dírectors needs to establish its norms, functions and bylaws for its interna! functioning.> Once the organization has been formed, the Board members should be trained in administrativa and financia! aspects, as well as in the preparation of proposals.> lt is necessary to identify mechanisms for financing in order for both ASOCIAL and the CIALs to become sustainable, thereby permitting continuity in the proposed goals.> The research tapies and the management of natural resources were not discussed in depth as these are tapies related directly with the CIALs, which are the implementers. Challenges. The project propases to install three telecenters that will enable the communities to use, exchange and produce information. In addition to setting up the infrastructure, joint activities are being conducted in arder to determine how the telecenters can link up to the demands of the community, how they can improve the performance of the community organizations and what the impact of the new technologies will be. lnforCauca has at least six basic levels: convocation, setting up of the telecenter, training, operations, research and evaluation.From the onset, CIAT established contacts with the Corporación Universidad Autónoma de Occidente (CUAO) in Cali, known for promoting access to the new technologies. The two entities invitad various community organizations to apply for the position of operators of the telecenters. Of 11 applicants, 7 joined to form a support group that will pennit them to operate a telecenter in central Cauca; and from the remaining organizations, two were selected: one from Cali and the other from northern Cauca. The urban organization is a training center located in a marginal area of Cali, known as the District of Aguablanca, which has more than 450 thousand inhabitants, the majority of whom have migrated from the Pacific Coast and rural areas of nearby provinces.An Association of Paez lndian Councils is in charge of operating the telecenter in northern Cauca. This organization brings together 14 councils. In the zone covered by the Reservation, 65% of the population is Paez lndians; 35% are mestizos (30%) and 5%, Afro-Colombians. lt is in charge of managing and developing productiva and social projects that favor its communities. The Support Group that operates the telecenter in central Cauca is formed by seven organizations, the majority of which conduct research and provide technical backstopping to agricultura! and livestock activities and to rural microenterprises. In this way institutionallinkages were established, bringing together the experience of different organizations committed to the social development of both urban and rural communities.Setting up the Telecenters. This phase included the selection and adaptation of the sites for the telecenters, the acquisition and installation of the technological platform and the selection of the purveyors of Internet.Parallel to this process, the operators of each telecenter (called local coordinators) were selected: 6 half time (2 per telecenter), of which 4 are women and 2 are men, ranging in age from 20-40 years. The most important thing is that these people belong to the communities where the telecenters are located and are thus committed to them, understand the interna! dynamics of the community organizations and, above all, have a lot of enthusiasm and confidence in the project.Training. One of the components that links lnforCauca is the training. lt is present throughout the process as a need to strengthen the skills of the local coordinators and of the members of the community organizations, so that they in turn can become multipliers for other members of the community.The training consists of severallevels. The initial induction describes the telecenters, the world movement of telecenters, and the objectives of the lnforCauca Project. Technical training is provided in management of the software, and sorne training is orientad towards strengthening communication skills, offering tools for improving the performance of the telecenter and proposing alternativas in project management and negotiation.This training is for the local coordinators, with the support of the other members of the organization and of the project coordination. The purpose is to strengthen their capacity to design strategies that guarantee the sustainability of the telecenter, generate its own projects and its own resources with the purpose of developing and expanding the current technological platform, which consists of two interconnected computers, a printer and a scanner.Telecenter activities. At this time, an action plan is being designad for each telecenter, which means establishing schedules, services to be extended, costs of the same and user policies. Each organization is preparing its own plan given that each telecenter operates under different organizations and environments so that their actions do not have to be the same. Nevertheless, parallel to the activities specific to each telecenter, lnforCauca plans to build projects on line to exchange products and services. Considering that two of the telecenters offer their services to rural communities dedicated to the production of food, the initial focus will be on a network for marketing products with the purpose of facilitating and promoting direct contacts and negotiations between the producers and the distributors and end-users in urban areas. This will make it possible for the producers to market their products directly, obtaining better profits and leaming of possible demands on the market. lt is also expected to improve the food supply for the residents of marginal sectors in Cali. Basic production projects were defined to start the marketing network. Afterwards studies will be conducted to determine the commercial viability of these products according to their amounts, characteristics and production methods.The participating institutions-CUAO and CIAT-will develop other lines of action related to technology transfer, training in different fields including environmental and natural resource management, promotion of their business capacity, negotiation and technical assistance for the projects.The project 's Web page is being designad with links to the telecenters, to the community organizations and to each institution's programs. One of the objectives of the Web site is to market products and services, as well as exchange experiences, techniques, agricultura! knowledge, etc. This page will make it possible for the organizations to make available on-line information about the projects that they are carrying out, thereby facilitating possible meetings and strategic alliances.Lines of research. lnitially, the opportunities and risks associated with the implementation of new communication and information technologies in the communities were determinad. Research will be initiated to design communication strategies for the community organizations that are members of lnforCauca. The idea is to diagnose their processes of interna! communication and formulate a communication plan, the strategíes of which make it possible to identify the stakeholders and the linkages among the different organizations and their work with the communities. The proposed methodology is participatory research so that the members of the organizations can be active participants in the design of the strategy basad on the needs of their institutions and of the telecenters. Joint meetings are being preparad to define the steps to follow, the lines of work and the tools to initiate the process.lll> lt has been important to learn about the activities and projects carried out by each community organization and sorne of their information and communication needs. This will make it possible to identify the way the telecenter can contribute to satisfying these demands. In addition, it has provided the information necessary for determining the project's base for initiating the network among producers and consumers.A basic component consists in monitoring the project, evaluating it and measuring the impact of the telecenters over a three-year period. For this purpose a proposal was developed, which includes the participation of the local coordinators and the members of the organizations. Additional resources are being sought to conducta rigorous impact evaluation, the results of which can be shared wíth other projects.Lessons learned. lnforCauca is a project in which 11 organizations are participating. The initial process of approaching them servad to generate confidence and construct a solid institutional base. 1 nforCauca and the organizations are fully committed and willing to support each other, establishing the bases for ongoing communication-aspects that are key for transmitting their action plans jointly. The organizations that form part of lnforCauca all work towards community development, but in different fields. The members of the community organization located in the urban area of Cali have established set periods for complying goals, which are generally fulfilled; while the rhythms tend to be slower for the members of the lndian organization. This has taught us to be aware of the different dynamics of each organization and to take them into account before planning activities or designing tasks.The Organizing Committee consists of representativas from the Association of lndian Councils, the training center in Aguablanca, the interinstitutional consortion from the Central Cauca zone, CIAT and the Universidad Autonoma de Occidente, the general coordinator of the lnforCauca Project, and the coordinator of the T elecenters. This structure has enabled the different actors to feel a part of and committed to the project. lts purpose is to develop an integrated strategy for establishing the T elecenters and to ensure that the stakeholders have the opportunity to express their concerns. Although they are in charge of operating the telecenters, everyone is thinking about how this can best be done. In the case of the lndian organization, some of their members do not trust the new technologies, perceiving them as a threat, making it possible for persons from outside to usurp, for their own benefit, information that belongs to the lndian communities. Consequently, some of them have rejected the project. These situations have been dealt with in conjunction with the leaders of their organization as they trust fully in the project and in the potential benefits of the telecenter. These fears imply, nonetheless, an important issue to bear in mind throughout the project---especially in the evaluation of impact: the effects, both positive and negative, that the technology can have on the communities.Based on the training carried out thus far, we have derivad the following lessons:.,.The learning rhythms and modes are different in each case ..,.The most important aspect of the training is that is a space where the participants get to know each other, exchange ideas, share likes and fears with respect to the new technologies, and begin to plan possible collaborative alliances among the organizations they represent..,. lt has also been meaningful to keep informad of other processes, learn about experiences and put into practice the lessons learned from others. This is particularly true because we are part of a relatively new movement and because there are still many reservations about having access to the new technology.  ~ The advantages and disadvantages of the CIAL methodo\\ogy were discussed, placing emphasis on its application in small animals. There was also an opportunity to exchange experiences in the use of other methodologies. The following points of reflection resultad:)' lt is necessary to form and train agronomists in PR methods starting in their undergraduate studies. )' Follow-up is an essential component for establishing dynamic and interactiva participatory processes.\">' The systematization of the processes and results from the field are essential for disseminating them both within the institution and interinstitutionally.> There is a need to evaluate the impact of applying FPR methods in order to measure their importance, as well asto integrate evaluation criteria. > The need to expand the social role of the organization > The lack of adequate statistical tools > Relation between product and result of the small farmer experimentation and conventional research. The management of the information, its systematization, analysis and feedback into the different research processes are key to these learning processes, considering that all the actors participate in the technological development.A strategy for following up on the process is required in order to leam more about the successes and failures of the diffusion of the methodology in the different contexts of Latín America.This course was held in Sasaima, Cundinamarca with the participation of 21 agronomists from the different regional offices of NOVARTIS in Colombia. This multinational has, for severa! years, been exploring the possibility of involving farmers in their research plots.The overall objective was to apply methods and techniques of FPR to improve etficiency of their agricultura! projects. The specific objectives were to:> ldentify production problems from the standpoint of the producers > ldentify and interpret the local knowledge > lnvolve the farmers in the design of technology trials > lnvolve the producers in the evaluation of technology being testad > lncorporate the feedback from the farmers into the generation of new technology > Give feedback to the community on the results of the trials.> lt was possible to establish the differences between the traditional methods of on-farm research and the participatory processes in which the farmer participates in the decisíon-making > The negativa impact that patemalistic practicas have on the communities was made clear. They leamed that it is better to teach them how to fish than to give them fish .> When the farmers participate in the research process, they feel that the project > is theírs and they are capable of disseminating the technology rapidly.Researcher: Luis Alfredo Hernández ..,.Actors. Agronomists and scientists have been trained to use the matrix in Venezuela (33), Honduras (3) and CIAT HQ-Agroenterprises (2), breeding and pathology programs (6) ...,.Procedure. T each the philosophy of logit analysis and how the information ís processed so that the user can construct and interpret the technologyacceptance graphs ...,.Accomplishments. The tool is being applied in the selection of cassava varieties in the Pathology Program. As a result of this, the project \"Evaluation of the adaptation of cassava varieties with resistance to Phytophthora spp. through participatory research in lndian communities of Mitú (Vaupés Province, SE Colombia) has obtained the following information.Cassava is a staple in the indigenous diet in the Amazon basin, and the marketing of its byproducts provides a source of income. Because of land pressure around Mitú, shifting cultivation with rotations is no longar practicad, which had perrnitted forest regeneration, and plots are not adequately selected. One consequence is an increased incidence of cassava pests and diseases. Root rots, caused by several Phytophthora species, comprise a major production constraint in the region. A survey to determine crop management practicas and their relationships with root-rot incidence found that two-thirds of the indigenous women farmers agreed that rots constituted the main cassava-production problem. The farmers were willing to try new varieties, describing the characteristics that they preferred and helping the researchers choose four chagras (slash and burn cuftivation), each from a different community. The farmers evaluated 1 OCIAT materials and 91ocallandraces according to their own selection criteria for the plant development stage: vigor, plant health, plant height, stems per plant, and days to maturity. At harvest the fanners also had specific criteria for adequate yield, starch content and planting materials (cuttings). The criteria identified resultad in a field book for evaluating cassava varieties in the zone. The farmers preferred the CIAT materials CM 2772-3 (sweet, with yellow pulp) and M Bra 97 (sweet, with white pulp) to the local landraces. Results (Fig. 1) were diffused, with fanners' participation, through meetings with communities along the Mítú-Monfort highway (Vaupés Province) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).A field day was also conducted in one of these communities (Mucura, Mitú township); anda pictographic handbook was published.ll MBra l~ SO'JI.• MV•a lS + MNa6.?:' -MBra97 J 60'JI.-CG40l•ll• CMSll•7 40'JI.-Poty.-~~~. Another organizational model that has been functioning in Honduras is the socallad T ecniCIAL, a group of agronomists who are working with the CIAL methodology in that country. This informal organization originated in the follow-up events to the training offered in Course 1 in 1996. The group began to meet to discuss what was happening in the implementation of the methodology and to analyze the diverse situations occurring in the application of the CIAL method. These meeting were convened and financed every 6 months by the IPRA team. Today the group of institutions and agronomists are the ones who finance their meetings, which are convened according to their needs. Today the TecniCIAL meets at least every three months, and the meeting places are rotated among the four regional offices.The objectives proposed by T ecniCIAL were as follows:> Analyze the different situations occurring the application of the CIAL methodology in the four regions of Honduras In mid-1999 a training course was organizad for preparing trainers from national programs to facilitate CIAL training courses in their respective countries. In addition to their preparation as facilitators, emphasis was placed on providing further training in areas where the participants felt a need; e.g., analysis of trial results. This added to the intensity of the course, and it was found that there was a need for more time to explore certain aspects in greater depth. Consequently, the IPRA team met after the course to discuss the content of the same, anda consultant was given the task of revising the content and developing new materials for a second course. For lack of funds, it was not possible to follow up all the trainees in their respective countries or test these new materials in a second course, after which they will be made available on CD.Software for statistical applications for analyzing preference ranking , final version in Spanish and English:> Title: The purpose was to contribute to the dual objectives of increasing the food security of the farmers in Tropical America, while ensuring the sustainability of the natural resources.Hillside agricultura in Tropical America is characterized by a vicious circle of poverty, which increases the degradation of the natural resources, which in tum increases poverty. The rural populations are torced to cultivate the marginal, highly fragile land. In order to break this circle, the Hillsides Program decided to implement an institutional model for watershed management, capable of designing new tools for management of land-use systems, whereby a decisionsupport tool for managing the information would enable the users to link their local knowledge with externa! knowledge. This model implies an important institutional change, given that the regulatory and punitive measures traditionally employed by the institutions to improve natural resource management (NRM), have proven ineffective.In order to revise the strategy and integrate the different sectors involved in NRM and prepare collective work plans, all the entities working in the Ovejas River watershed were convened at the end of 1992 to participate in a workshop, which led to the creation of the lnterinstitutional Consortium for Sustainable Agricultura in Hillsides (CIPASLA).The consortium, which began functioning with the economic support of international and national organisms, brought together governmental entities, NGOs, grassroots organizations and CIAT in the joint work that they have been carrying out since then. In a gradualleaming process, an interinstitutional relationship has been developed that has made it possible to unify the criteria for action and the definition of common objectives.The participating institutions-based on the assumption that the poverty of the individuals and the weakness of the community organizations are closely linked to the ecological damage in the hillsides environment-are committed to supporting the communities in their search for new options for increasing their income and improving their food security. Although the projects implementad by the consortium are aimed at diversifying production, commercialization and the introduction of new agroindustries, these activities are linked to soil conservation practicas, the integrated management of crops and agroforestry systems, with the intention of providing economic incentives to the farrners in order to facilitate the adoption of ecologically sound practicas.Within the strategy developed by the consortium, the community organization and the development of their capacity for leadership play an important role. The creation of the Association of Beneficiarles (ASOBESURCA), forrned by representativas of the local and village organizations, contributed in great measure to accomplishing this goal. ASOBESURCA is linked directly the Consortium's decision-making processes and has its own budget for financing small productiva projects in the communities, and its relativa autonomy enables it to act as an interlocutor between the communities and the entities, ensuring an ongoing process of consultation. The consortium brings together all the sectors involved in NRM, representing a space for discussion and negotiation that make it possible to develop and implement new technologies that emphasize the more efficient and equítable use of the resources. The participation of all the sectors, including those who are traditionally marginal in decision-making of this natura, ensures the sustainability of the process.The work that CIPASLA has been carrying out over the past seven years has contributed to the strengthening of the community organization and theír leadership capacity, not only because it opened up a space where the communities are representad but also through training in different areas, enabling them to create new organizational forms linked to production and research. They have managed to recover ample degradad zones through reforestation, isolation of areas to protect water and establishment of live barriers, thanks to the large-scale participation of the community.They have contributed to improving the information for conducting basic and participatory research in organic agricultura, validation of agrosilvopastoral systems, use of geographic information systems for decision-making and methodologies for the identification of potential zones for irrigation and indicators of water quality.They generated, validated and adapted alternativa technologies that guarantee food security and developed the implementation of local agroindustries based on marketing studies and support to commercialization networks.Today, this process, begun in 1992, with its difficulties and accomplishments, represents a support model for the replications that are being implementad with similar characteristics in several Central American countries. At the national level, CIPASLA enjoys institutional recognition and has considerable support from the community.The interinstitutional process is in itself an important result of the work carried out. The consortium has established a network of interconnections at all levels, thereby ensuring a constant flow of information and exchange and helping the community reach its objectives.Gracia, T, JA Ashby, M del P Guerrero, JI Roa, CA Quirós andAR Braun. Método CIAL: Guía de Capacitación. Proyecto IPRA, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. (CD-ROM)This training material in Spanish consists of seven sections, each with its respective exercises and support materials, as follows: l. lntroduction; 11.Motivating communities for forming CIALs; 111. Diagnosis; IV. Participatory planning of farmer trials; V. Evaluation, analysis and feedback to the community; VI. Monitoring; and VIl. Confirmation of comprehension of methodology. The materials were revised and consolidated on CD-ROM for distribution to LAC countries.Tabla 1 shows the publications distributed within CIATand externally. Soil erosion is one of the problems that has most affected the development of agricultura and livestock production in Latin America. Soil degradation caused by erosion decreases the productivity of the crops, generating in the long term, a crisis that can seriously affect food security in addition to the hillside ecosystems with adversa consequences for biodiversity and the water table. Therefore, the implementation of soil conservation practicas is fundamental for maintaining crop productiva capacity.In Colombia 27% of the country corresponds to the Andean hillside zones, which account for 70% of the population. 2 The hillsides are characterized by a high density of small farmers, who are poor or extremely poor from the standpoint of unsatisfied basic needs. One of their problems is that land use is limitad to shortcycle crops that require frequent plantings and weeding such as maize, vegetables and common beans. Cassava is another crop with poor ground cover. This leads to problems of runoff and sedimentation, among others.There has been a tendency for farmers not to adopt soil conservation practicas for several reasons: Complicated techniques, technological components that are not linked to other farm activities, lack of technical assistance, high costs, few economic incentives or lack of short-term benefits.An economic incentive could become a very strong motivator for the introduction of technologies such as live barriers, which are rows of perennial plants of dense growth, planted perpendicular to the slope, on the contour, between the crops and prevent erosion and soil degradation in general. Uve barriers not only reduce the rate of runoff but also actas live filters, trapping the sediment carried by the runoff water. Live barriers have several advantages, including: > Biomass from the vegetativa material can be used for different purposes according to the species.> Establishment costs are low, using family labor, requiring few tools and using local materials > Farmers readily adopt them because they are easy to establish. > Maintenance does not require much labor input.Research site. In the township of Caldono fanners have gradually developed an awareness of the importance of conserving their own resources (soils, water, etc.). This is the result of an interinstitutional consortium (CIPASLA) in the province, which has been working with them to sensitize them with respect to the need for conserving their soils and water sources. CIAT, through several of its programs including that of Cassava, Hillsides, Soils and IPRA (FPR) and the demonstration fann SOL, among others, and entities such as Fl DAR (Fundación para la Investigación y Desarrollo Agrícola), CORPOTUNIA (Corporación para el Desarrollo de Tunía) and CETEC (Corporación para Estudios lnterdiciplinarios y Asesoría Técnica) ha ve proposed the use of live barriers. Sorne of the farms in this area have adoptad barrier systems, which are evaluated here. > ldentify what were their reasons for introducing or not the live barriers on their farms.> Determine the production of the live barriers of imperial grass and sugarcane on sorne farmers , as well as on the SOL demonstration farm, to identify tendencias of production according to the different management given to the barriers and to the crops that affect them.Characteristics of the zone. The Cabuyal River watershed is found in the Central Andean mountain ranga of the township of Caldono, Cauca Province. Work was carried out in the villages of Buenavista, La Primavera, La Esperanza, El Cidral, Los Quingos, La Laguna, Santa Barbara, Crucero de Pescador, La Campiña, Potrerillo, Palermo, Cabuya!, La Llanada, El Socorro, El Caimito and San Pedro (township Piendamó). The altitude ranges from 1000-3000 m, with temperaturas ranging from 12-24°C. Annual rainfall ranges from 1000-1600 mm.. lnitially an open-ended survey was conducted in the zone to determine which farms had adoptad the technology of live barriers. Then it was determinad which of these farms had barriers in production, eradicated, recently plantador deteriorated in order to determine the species preferred for planting. The next step was to identify the reasons why the farmers had established these barriers and why sorne of them had been abandonad, had disappeared or were in poor condition so that it was possible to establish not only the negativa aspects of the barriers but also the way they were incorporated on the farms . The final step was to determine the criteria the farmers use to evaluate the performance of these barriers.In consultation with the advisory group, several farms were selected for an indepth study of barrier management and production. In total 8 farms were selected: 4 with barriers of imperial grass and 4 with sugarcane barriers.The species that were most commonly used as live barriers in the zone were imperial grass (56.4%), imperial grass var. Telembí Morado (51 .3%), sugarcane (35.9%), elephant grass (12.8%), king grass (12.8%), vetiver (10.3%) and citronella (5.1%). Sorne farmers had severa! species plantad in barriers.The most frequently cited reasons for using barriers were to control soil erosion (87.2%), use the barrier for feeding their animals (69.3%), to produce food for on-farm consumption (30.8%) orto produce income from the sale of the products; e.g., panela (30.8%), for managing runoff water (28.2%), for use as green manure of crops being affected by soil degradation resulting from continuous erosion (15.4%), or because it was a requisita for obtaining credit for planting another crop (15.4%) (Fig. 1 ).> Of the live barriers established in the zone, those that had greater acceptance because of their easy management and multiple uses were sugarcane (1 00%), imperial grass (86%), dwarf elephant grass (75%) and imperial grass var. Telembí Morado (62.9%).> The live barriers that offer the best projections for futura establishment in the zone are sugarcane (76.9), imperial grass (64.1 %), dwarf elephant grass (30.8%) anda live barrier that was not included in those already established in the zone, which is pineapple (25.6%) Of the live barriers that had been planted as a requisita for obtaining credit, 68.2% have disappeared; 2.3% have for all practica! purposes been abandonad; and only 29.3% are still in production (Fig. 2) ..,.In arder to determine the production of imperial grass, cuts were made on the following farms: SOL, the hillside demonstration farm under CIAT\"s administration; La \"Morabia,\" property of Eliécer Patiño; \"La Forcha\" of Aru Patiño; and \"La Pedregoza\" of Luis Piyimue. The most important results are shown in Figure 3 ...,.The farms where the cane was cut were SOL; \"San Calixto\" of José Amoldo Gonzáles; \"El Morro\" of Hermogenes Soto; and \"La Camelia\" ot José Baicue. The results are given in kg of cane per meter of barrier, which is expressed as 1.4 m 2 , kg of tops per meter of barrier, liters of juice per meter of barrier, and the number of kg of panela produced per meter of barrier (Fig. 4). .,.. Futura work with live barriers in the zone should take into account the species that have proven to have the best projection potential based on the farmers' preferences. Sugarcane has outstanding qualities for controlling erosion and for its multiple uses, which range from animal feed and human consumption to generating income through the sale of products such as panela. Second in importance is imperial grass, which has a very positiva image among farmers as a live barrier. Other alternativas that offer potential are crops such as pineapple, which, although not being used at present, has good acceptance among the farmers and therefore offers good projections for establishment as a live barrier ..,.. The fact that farmers who are torced to implement a practice such as live barriers as a condition for credit tend to abandon it later should be taken into account when designing policías. Those farmers who made the decision to establish the barriers on their own, tended to value them more and became disseminators of the technology ..,... Futura work on live barriers should take into account species that offer multiple options, above and beyond that of erosion control: providing feed for the animals and food for the family, and generation of additional in come (e.g. , vegetable and fruit crops).Theses dealing with the CIALs and other IPRA tools .,.,. Gamero Velasquez, NF, 2000. Evaluación de ocho variedades de frijol (Phaseo/us vulgaris) con productores investigadores, utilizando la regresión logística para el análisis de la información [Evaluation of 8 Phaseo/us vulgaris varieties with farmer-researchers , using logit analysis to analyze the information]. Catacamas, Olancho. Undergraduate thesis, Agr. Eng., ENA, 73 pp.Agricultura plays a very important role in Honduras, where data generated by the Central Bank show that the GNP generated by agricultura in 1998 was greater than that for industry. Among the existing crops, the common bean is a basic staple and represents an important source of income for the small farmer. Agricultura! research in general has been carried out at research centers or experiment stations with all the conditions necessary for successful production. The farmers have not participated in this process, which has made their access to new technologies difficult or in many cases, they are rejected. Given the foregoing the FPR methodology was developed, whereby producers with the support of researchers, identify and prioritize their problems, design their research trials and evaluate alternativas, which leads to the acceptance or rejection of the same.As a complement to PR, the IPRA project at CIAT (Colombia) created the program \"Logit analysis in Preference Ranking,\" which analyzes the farmer's preferences for a given set of technologies. The product is the probability of acceptance of each of the technologies being evaluated. This program was tested for the first time in Honduras to evaluate 8 common bean varieties in the valley of Zamorano, with the participation of 13 producers from tour communities, considerad experts en the bean crop, carried out tour evaluations: seed (dry and fresh), harvesting, cooking quality and flavor.Taking into account the ranking of the producers, their criteria and the results obtained with the program, the variety with the greatest probability of acceptance was El Dorado. The var. SRC 1-12-1, MD 23-24 and Tío Canela 75 had intermediate acceptance and should be included in futura research.The other tour varieties should be excluded from further research given their low acceptability by the farmers and should be replaced by others with greater potential.The program is suitable for any type of research done with producers, and the results complement the criteria of acceptance or rejection that the farmers use. Above all, the program is easy to use and interpret. This too! should be validated with the best varieties of the trials conducted or with other crops from the region ..,.,. Vargas Cárdenas, FH. 2000. Farmers from the region of Y eguare accept improved common bean varieties. BS thesis research. School of Agronomy, EAP at Zamorano, Honduras.The productivity of the common bean crop in the tropics is below yields obtained in developing countries. One of the major reasons for this problem is the use of local varieties that are susceptible to the attack of insects and diseases, in addition to their low yield potential.In 1996 the UNIRIEAP-Zamorano project began PR processes with farmers from CIALs in the communities of Lavanderos and Tabla Grande in the region of Y eguare. The purpose was to facilitate the adoption of common bean varieties and improved lines that are suited to their production systems. In 1999 the Bean Research Program/EAP-Zamorano investigated the criteria used by the farmers in this process, as well as the patterns of preference for the potential accepting and adopting of said varieties and improved lines in these communities.The farmers expressed the need for pest-resistant varieties as these traits ensure a mínimum production for on-farm consumption. The farmers expressed a preference for varieties with a shiny red grain of commercial size (small). They would also be willing to accept darker red-grained varieties as long as their performance were good. The most important aspects related to consumption were smoothness of the grain and a thick broth.The overall acceptance of the improved varieties was 85% in Lavanderos and 75% in Tabla Grande. There is a need to continua work on improving the pest resistance, using the full potential of varieties that perform well under their production conditions. As a result of hurricane Mitch, the destruction of crops throughout Honduras made it necessary to find an efficient form of distributing improved seed to be multiplied by farmers in the spring so that there would be sufficient seed available for the last planting season, which is when production is greatest. In addition to the foregoing, there is the problem that subsistence farmers use poor-quality seed; andas a result, percent germination and seed vigor are low, and yields are poor.EAP-Zamorano was placed in charge of executing a USAID/DfiD (UK)financed development project that included seed production and its distribution, financed by Healing Hands lnternational (HHI). In the region of the Y eguare River, located 45 km to the SE of Tegucigalpa, the effectiveness of three channels for distributing improved seed for artisanal seed production of common beans was evaluated in the communities of Lizapa, Llano del Ocotal, San José de Tabla Grande and Limón. For each the two altitudinal zones, 15 farmers participated (30 producers), and both zones had the three different distribution channels: The CIALs, a Producers' Cooperativa and independent producers.The evaluation of the distribution channels was favorable for the CIALs, which produced 1573.5 Kg/ha, almost double that produced by the other two channels. lt should be mentioned that in addition to the greater production, the CJALs were better organizad and worked together better with respect to research. Their knowledge was better and they obtained higher yields. The production costs were also more favorable for the organizad groups: US$67 for the CJALs and Cooperativas vs. US$212 for the independent producers.As a result of applying the CIAL methodology, severa! institutions have received prices or special mention in their respective countries or institutions. Three cases are presentad here:Project UNIRIEAP, Zamorano, Honduras. 3 This Kellogg Foundation project concluded its activities recently. In their final report they made reference to the impact that the CIAL methodology had had on other sections of the EAP. \"The CIAL as an organizational body played a very important role as it permitted the organizations to be more efficient and obtain greater productivity.\" They also mentioned that the CJALs strengthened agricultura! production in the communities through research projects that the Committees carried out for their communities. In the UNIR project, the CIAL project benefited from the participation of professors, students and, of course, a\\1 the members of the CIALs in the region of Y eguare. They also emphasized the role that the CIALs played in artisanal seed production and its distribution after the disaster of hurricane Mitch in 1998.For the 5th National Forum on Sustainable Agricultura, information was collected on more than 50 experiences of local participation in the management and administration of these processes in both the public and prívate sector. Of these, only four were selected for presentation and discussion at the Forum. Among these was the experience of FEPROH, \"CIAL network Vallecillo Francisco Morazan.\" This experience has been documentad and presentad by the farmers themselves, resulting in great success and the admiratíon of the participants.CORPOICA, Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria, Regiona/1, Colombia. 5 At its headquarters in Tibaitatá, the Regional Director, convened an Interna! Technical Seminar on 14 July as part of the ínstitution's policy to stimulate the scientific and technological work executed by the Corporation's human talent. The purpose was to select the five best works from the Regional office, carried out during 1999.  Methods 1 -Oeveloping a conceptual framework. The process started by developing the CIAT -Hillsides' vision or final development objectives of the research output defined in the conceptual framework for the CIAT-NRM division. These were redefined and discussed at a two-day seminar on organizational processes held in Cali to exchange experiences among the researchers at the reference sites in Pucalpa, Cauca, San Dionisio and Yorito 10 . Then causal uptake paths were developed for each of the Hillsides outputs to the desired development impact or goal. Finally intermediate indicators for each step in the causal uptake path were selected, as well as final development indicators. Afterwards, methodologies and models for impact assessment analysis were defined to ensure that the data collected would be the most appropriate for the analysis. Finally, data collection methodologies, protocols and sampling strategies (including reference-site boundaries and limits) were defined and testad in the field with specific emphasis on institutional and community collaboration.The following tablas summarize the outcomes, indicators and means of verification. These conceptual frameworks are very extensiva, especially for the organizational models; but the exercise has been very useful as a planning tool for developing the impact evaluation methodology and for futura directions of research with institutional and community organization. Such planning is seen as a learning process in itself, in which experiences from action research in the field interact closely with the informal process of exchanging experiences on organizational processes, which has been started among the reference sitas in Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia and Peru.To make the conceptual frameworks for organizational models more operational, a diagram of the research path to development impact was made, emphasizing only important milestones (Fig. 1 ). This framework shows what is the path of desirable milestones that the Project expects to reach and what are the critica! milestones that should be reached to achieve its development vision. Although organizational models are the backbone of the framework, specific emphasis is given to the importance and integration of other CIAT decision-support tools in the process. Methods 2 -lmpact eva/uation in Central America. The fieldwork conducted in Honduras and Nicaragua consisted mainly of semistructured interviews and participatory exercises with regional and local institutions and community organizations, both individually and in focus groups. Furthennore, sorne interviews were conducted with selected communities. The objectives were as follows:..,_ To present and share the process of impact evaluation with the local CIAT teams in Nicaragua and Honduras in arder to increase their long-term \"\" To make an initial assessment of social and human indicators with a focus on institutional collaboration for NRM, agricultura! research and agroenterprise development activities. For this purpose interview guides were preparad, and the Venn-diagram exercise was used.\"\" T o make an initial analysis of the use and usefulness of CIAT decisionsupport tools (DSTs) by key stakeholders in the reference sites and to assess the effect of the DSTs at these sites. This inquiry was based on semistructured interviews as well....,.The products of the fieldwork in Central America are being preparad with some initial analysis. The six major outputs, as well asan initial analysis of the extent to which the critica! path towards development was achieved, are summarized here:\"\" All the interviews and workshops were taped and are transcribed.\"\" A summary of all interviews was written in chronological order (almost complete)\"\" An inventory of the different surveys and interviews conducted in San Dionisio and Yorito has been made. This inventory íncludes the ..../ name of the study ./ content of the survey and/or interview ./ sampling procedure, if available ./ availability of the data set in the CIAT offices or if an agreement is needed with the institution that owns the data set...,.Based on this inforrnation an analysis is being conducted for each critica! path including:.1 a list of proposed indicators for the critica! path .1 an analysis of the extent to which this critica! path was achieved .1 an evaluation of the usefulness of the proposed indicators (This analysis is presentad in more details below. lt should be noted that the paths-to-development impact was generated as a result of ongoing research and continuad feedback, notas a preplanned process. Thus many milestones in the path have either not been completad or only partially so .1 needs for further inforrnation and analysis The set of preliminary development impact indicators developed for the tour types of capitals (human, social, economic/financial and natural) are being contrastad with the development visions defined in the workshops with CLODEST (Comité Local para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Cuenca del Rio Tascalapa, Honduras), REDOLL YS (Red de Organizaciones Locales de Yorito Sulaco) and Campos Verdes. Moreover, the short-terrn expected changas are contrastad with the paths-to-development impact developed for the PE-3 and SN-1 projects.> The stakeholder analysis developed by the Hillsides Project has not been used forrnally to identify institutions and community organizations that form part of Campos Verdes, REDOLL YS and CLODEST given the fact that this methodology was developed for analysis of stakeholder groups within communities.> Nevertheless, an analysis of representation was done afterwards for Campos Verdes, replacing severa! of the community representativas in the association.> In the case of REDOLL Ys an inventory of community organizations was done, and all were invitad to participate in the network, but a specific analysis of interrelations and interests was not done as such.> Formal structural network of community organizations has been established (Campos Verdes and REDOLLYS). > In the case of Campos Verdes the network has not been able to fulfil the objectives of colfaboration and coordination among a diversity of community organizations. Campos Verdes is regarded more as another community organization rather than a network of collaborators.> This may be a reflection of the lack of coordination among the externa! institutions that have each promoted its own community organization at its reference sites. > In the case of REDOLL YS it appears that the participating community organizations do perceive REDOLLYS as a network, but further research is needed to estímate the level of collaboration among them.> The most obvious kind of informal coordination that occurs in both cases is among local leaders who participate in severa! different community organizations at the same time, drawing heavily on their time and resources .Process of interinstitutional coordination facilitated > In the case of San Dionisia no formal coordination structures have been established. Nevertheless, there has been sorne level of bilateral coordination between CIAT and another organization in relation to specific activities. Furthermore, a multilateral type of collaboration is starting to emerge around the SOL (Supermercado de Opciones para Ladera) activities.> In the case of CLODEST a formal structure for interinstitutional collaboration has been established. However important support organizations have withdrawn from Yorito (liGA-Holanda, DRI-Yoro) or been restructured (DICTA -Dirección de Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria de Honduras). This has implications for the leve! of coordination that can be achieved among the institutions participating in CLODEST.A forum estab/ished for coordinated planning > CLODEST is well representad by community organizations; but their actual levels of participation, leadership and decision-making have to be researched further.> The activities coordinated by CLODEST seem to more of an ad hoc natura rather than as part of a coordinated planning process with shared vision for NRM among the participating institutions.> lt may be observad that the organizational processes in Yorito and San Dionisia have followed two different strategies. In Yorito the process has included three steps:.t establishment of a forum for stakeholder involvement and coordination (including institutions and community organizations)In San Dionisia the focus this far has been on strengthening the network of community organizations > An important conclusion for further research on organizatíonal processes is that although it seems that the process of formal collaboration is more advanced in Yorito, there are still problems of participation and real motivation. In San Dionisia Campos Verdes has been focusing more on specific activities than organizational collaboration. However the organization function and the process of informal collaboration is growing. At the sama time all of the institutions interviewed are now asking for institutional coordination, an indication of genuina interest. and institutions at the reference sites are aware and to sorne extent have been exposed to the tools, but they have yet to use them for their own planning and implementation processes. A first assessment of the reasons for this shows that: > The tools are useful to design new projects but are not perceived to be useful for ongoing or finishing projects > The majority of the institutions say they will use the tools in new projects, adjusting them to their specific needs. PRODESSA, for example, would like to apply the market and opportunity identification and evaluation tool, but they would like a more participatory process.> Another option is that they may take sorne ideas and construct their own research process. lmproved land use management > Although there are sorne signs of improved land management (in Yorito it is estimated that 30% of the farmers are using soil conservation measures), it remains to be verified if and how this is relatad to CIAT research activities.> Although production systems are mainly traditional (maize, common beans and coffee), there are small signs of diversification anda growing demand for market and commercialization support. This may indicate that sorne surplus production is starting to be available after satisfying basic food security needs, especially in Yorito.  > lnnovative farmers in Honduras test selected grasses on their farms. > Major problems with respect to forage production identified by farmers in Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.> More than 1 00 farmers start participatory selection of improved forage options > Seed production method by farmers Forage germplasm in its multiple uses-for example, as feed, for suppressing weeds, maintaining and improving soil fertility, and for erosion control-could play an important role in improving the well being of the small-and medium-sized farmers in the Central American hillsides. Adoption-particularly of forage legumes-has been limited, however, possibly due to lack of direct interaction with the farmers.Given the foregoing, it was decided to develop forage germplasm technologies with farmers, using participatory approaches. A combination of agronomic evaluation techniques, participatory technologies, soil indicators, socioeconomic studies and GIS tools were employed. To initiate this process, severa\\ training and planing activities with involved partners were executed, including:.,. In all tha diagnosas the women's participation was significant, axcept at Luquiqua, whare only 18% of tha participants were women. > Most problems were closely related to the lack of feed for animals (particularly during dry periods), soil degradation and lack of firewood .Results of the prioritization of these problems were heterogeneous, but tended to emphasize the lack of suitable planting material and lack of livestock feed particularly during the dry season. The communities had a clear perception of the degradation of soils and deforestation and their inherent negativa effects on the communities.The farmers were motivated to participate in the project because by addressing the aforementioned problems, family income and both family and community nutrition would be improved.Trudy Brekelbaurrf, Verónica Gottref, Dean Hol/ancfFrom 10-14 April, a team of three CIAT consultants traveled to Bolivia to follow up on the initial phase of this institutional strengthening project (see 1999 Annual Report, p. 93). A Planning and Reflection workshop was held outside Santa Cruz. The purpose was to \"Construct a Strategy anda Methodology for lncorporating a Participatory Research Focus in CIAT-Bolivia.\" Specifically, the consultants and their counterparts from CIAT-Bolivia carried out the following activities during the workshop:> Analyzed the conceptualization and focus on PR and come up with a joint definition of the basic concepts for the project > Presented and analyzed case studies with a PR focus in Latín America that are relevant for CIAT-Bolivia (e.g. Campesino-a-Campesino, CIALs, Farmers Field Schools)> Orientad the technical team of the project and researchers interested in using PR methodologies, techniques and tools > Analyzed the mínimum profile of the PR project and make the technical and methodological recommendations for its execution and propose adjustments to the concept note.The CIAT-Bolivia group decided it was important to organiza their interactions on a more formal basis. Thus they decided to form a CIAL (called ClAC in Bolivia) of researchers who have sufficient time, interest and who want to participate. At the same time, the idea of forming a Group of Mentors, whose role would be to support the ClAC, was proposed. The two bodies would maintain a continuous flow of information between them . The members of the ClAC were elected and functions for this Ad Hoc Committee (1 July 2000) were proposed, together with a schedule of the tasks to be carried out. The primary task was to finaliza the proposal of the draft concept note, which was preparad by the CIAT -Colombia consultants as part of the consultancy. CIAT-Bolivia willlook for funds to finance this interinstitutional project, with the possible participation of IPRA and Agroindustry (PE-3).In addítíon to the workshop materials, the CIAT-Colombia consultants gave the group publications to enrich theír experíence wíth respect to: ./ quantifying farmers preferences wíth respect to varietal evaluation based on logit analysis ./ criteria for selecting CIAL communities ./ a typology of participation preparad by the Systemwide Program PAGA ./ brain mapsThe farmer-experimenters project was the initiative of the IAPAR (Instituto Agronómico do Paraná) Production Systems Program with financia! support from PRONAF. An agreement was signed among the Rural Workers Union in Centrai-Southern Paraná, AS-PT A (Asesoría de Proyectos en Agricultura Alternativa) and the IAPAR Production Systems Program. The main objective was to improve the communication among the different actors with respect to the identification of research demands and the development and implementation of institutional R&D projects.The objectives of this consultancy, which was carried out from M ay 4-12, were to: > Visit their farmer-experimenter participatory projects > Presenta seminar on the IPRA experience toa bread audience of extension agents, farmers and researchers, with the purpose of sensitizing them to the importance of the proposal > Collaborate on the preparation of a methodological proposal tor setting up a pilot project on CIALs to be executed jointly with AS-PTA, IAPAR and the farmers.In the visits to the communities, there was an opportunity to interact with sorne farmer-experimenter groups in the townships of Río Azul, lrati, San Mateo del Sur and Antonio Olinto. Field visits were made to experiments prometed by FORUM (farmers) and PSP (Proyecto de Plantío Directo en Centro Sur). Members of PSP, FORUM AS-PTA and the CIRAD-PRIAG Project. At the end of the two weeks, the foundations of an action plan between IAPARIPSP were developed. The purpose is to continua work with the existing farmer-researcher groups in order to strengthen, improve and complement the processes begun with the farmers.Researchers: Carlos Arturo Quirós and José Ignacio Roa Col/aborator: Freddy Escobar, IPRA technícian Support for CIPASLA. Since its creation in 1992, 1 PRA has been providing support to the different activities relatad to the lnterinstitutional Consortium for Sustainable Agricultura in Hillsides (CIPASLA). This year the activities have tended to decrease as several projects have terminated. At present the objective is to present proposals for providing continuity to ongoing work.The institutions that continua participating actively in the area with projects are as follows: CETEC, SENA, FIDAR, CORPOTUNIA, CAC, FEDECAFE, UMATA and CIAT, in addition to local organizations such as ASOBESURCA, CORFOCIAL and the Aqueduct Board. Other institutions such as ICA, the Provincial Department of Agricultura and CORPOICA have continuad to participate actively in the meetings and are currently in the process of presenting projects for beginning or reinitiating activities with the community in the Cabuya! River microwatershed.IPRA's support has been with respect to the following activities: Activities with the Solidarity Fund Committee for earthquake victims in the coffee-growing zone in Caicedonia, ValleResearchers: Carlos Arturo Quirós and José Ignacio Roa Collaborators:Mercedes Mejia, Aydeé Salas, Teresa Cárdenas, Raúl Varela 5As a result of the earthquake in January 1999, CIAT employees contributed to the alleviation of the problem, collecting Ps$19,081 ,581 from among the employees. Other donations were made from the CIAT Social Welfare Fund, the CIAT Volunteers Foundation, a donation from individuals linked to CIAT and others from the Senior Staff of the Center.A Committee, \"Solidarity for Earthquake Victims from the Coffee-Growing Zone, • was created in order to decide how to use and distribute these resources. lt was decided that one of the most efficient ways to help would be to invest these funds in something that was not perishable and that would continue as an R&D project, where the rural communities that were affected would play an active role. In order to accomplish this, it was necessary to enter into an agreement with local institutions that would be the links to the communities and at the same time transmit FPR methodologies so that they could implement the project sponsored by the CIAT employees fund .The following sequence of activities was carried out, in which IPRA participated, was as follows:s CIAT Human Resources office, CRECIAT, UMATA Caicedonia, and Comité Cafeteros Caicedonia, respective/y > The CIAT Solidarity Fund for the coffee-growing zone invited IPRA and other CIAT projects to discuss different alternativas that could be implementad in the zone.> The Committee requested IPAA to present the CIAL methodology, after which they decided it would be a good alternativa that CIAT could offer as am aid to the coffee-growing communities that were affected > Members of the Solidarity Committee and the IPAA Project traveled to the zone and presented the proposal to local institutions: the Cotfee Growers'Committee and the UMAT A.> lt was decided to begin a pilot project, forrning two CIALs in two townships to be defined.> They were given the necessary materials for carrying out the work, including the CIAL handbooks.> Two participatory diagnoses were conducted to identify the research priorities of the communities most atfected by the quake: Montenegro and El Salado.> CIAT Project SB-2 \"Using Agrobiodiversity through Common SeanBiotechnology\" provided the seed for one of the communities that prioritized this crop.> The farrners who forrned the CIALs and the facilitating agronomists from the UMAT A and the Comité de Cafeteros were taken to visit sorne CIALs in the Province of Cauca who have experience in FPA.To date, the following results have been obtained: All the communities where CIALs have been established have as their objective to improve the local agricultura! system. The CIAL methodology seeks to help the community identify their most important research topic and the steps to follow to arrive at alternativa solutions, leaving a local R&D capacity installed. Sorne prefer to solve their problems of food security; others seek innovations because they are unhappy with their current systems. In any case all the groups seek new alternativas to the extent that their research program progresses and the group is strengthened, they begin to broaden their way of thinking and to make projections externally. They seek to improve their existing technologies by making them more efficient and improving the existing technologies or adapting them. This has been the case of many CIAL groups in northern Cauca, who have been working since 1990. Toda y there are 44 active groups doing research, 9 of which have small businesses that offer their community low-cost, good-quality services.The IPRA Project, together with CORFOCIAL, has supported the generation and/or adaptation of agroindustrial implements to local conditions. A local manufacturar of this equipment, Humberto Muñoz, has worked closely with the research team to ensure that the modifications suggested by the farmers are incorporated. In this joint process, the following equipment has been generated: > Maize sheller (Photo 1) > Maize thresher (Photo 1) > Maize crusher > Rice huller (Photo 2)Michel Vales and José lgnacio.Roa 8 Upland rice was introduced for planting on the hillsides of the Colombian Andes by the CIAT-CIRAD collaborative project, which forms part of the CIAT IP-4 Rice Project. CIALs in the villages of Chambimbe, Betania, Totoró and Pan de Azúcar, Cauca Province have been evaluating sorne upland rice varieties. Their interest is to determine which are best adapted to the region's climatic conditions, low-fertility soils and scarce economic resources. They have been supported in their work by two CIAT projects (IPRA and Rice lmprovement, IP-4), their second-order association (CORFOCIAL) and the Municipal Agricultura! T echnical Assistance Units (UMATAs).These communities are trying to meet their nutritional needs by increasing rice consumption. As the area plantad to rice became largar, the farmers had to find a method for mechanizing the process of milling the grain-a very strenuous task for them, especially the women. They used a rustic wooden pestle (pilón) , which consists of a concave base and a cylindrical piece of wood or tree trunk used to pound the rice unti/ the outer husks and rice bran are separated from the grains.A manual huller is therefore an indispensable tool for the postharvest processing of the paddy rice in a rural community that wishes to establish upland rice cultivation for local consumption. In 1999, a second tria! was conducted with the huller so that the farmers could evaluate it and make recommendations to the manufacturar (Photo 2). The final acceptance of the machine among the small fanners belonging to the Cauca CIALs was very high. The prototype machine weighs less than 50 kg, but the next version will be lighter. One person can dehull at least 4 kg of rice in an hour. After the grain has passed twice through the huJier, brown rice is obtained. The machine does not break the grain. The huller is operated manually, but it is possible to hook up a 1-hp motor. A group of small farmers can purchase the huller for US$300.Ata recent FLAR convention, the huller was presentad to the delegates from the Latin American countries and was well received by them. • Photo 1. Members of the CIAL El Diviso, Rosas, Cauca, with the maize thresher and shel/er, from left to right, respective/y. database and establish the linkages necessary to make the connection between them, establishing an efficient network for updating and supplying information for anyone who requires it. This database should also establish linkages and connections with other projects, such as the INFORCAUCA project, offering its services as a tool that helps establish the decision-making in the participating communities and institution. The objectives are to:> Compile and store the information proceeding from the research of projects with the communities > Convert the database into an agile and efficient tool in PR processes > Make it available to the public > Establish a system of feedback with partners who will feed into it and maintain the information system up to dateThe database was created in Microsoft Access, which is compatible with many other software programs and is also flexible with respect to possible future modifications should that be necessary. The structure was designad based on the steps of the CIAL methodology: Motivation, Election of the Committee, Participatory Diagnosis, Planning the trial, Evaluating the technology, Analyzing the results and Feedback to the community. The information is organizad by crop cycle or trial, considering the research phase in which the CIAL is found: Trial, Confirmation, Production Lot and Commercial Lot.At present, the information is being compilad from those institutions that have been partners of the IPRA project in the Dissemination Phase of the CIAL methodology: Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Nicaragua and Honduras. lnformation relatad to the population of the community, geographic coordinates, altitude and principal crops-information of use for generating maps using the GIS system-is also being stored.The database is available to all those who are interested in the topic: institutions and/or farmers who which to consult it. In the near future, it will be included in the Project's Web page.","tokenCount":"17007"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b16d496ad232f1972ef6e8ef582b72a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/28324/WRHEK0","id":"-1713634928"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a23eb5ff-85b5-4126-bbe7-1d1265e4c942","pagecount":"1","content":"Are women more vulnerable to climate change? Do men and women adapt to climate change differently? While there is increasing buzz around the concept of women's vulnerability to climate change, this CCAFS funded project, with IFPRI, CIAT and local partners, is empirically and systemically assessing gender-differentiated climate change adaptation strategies and preferences. In phase 2, the intra-household gender survey was adapted and implemented in other sites in Latin America and Africa. It was adapted to include some of the production information from IMPACT-Lite since that survey has not been implemented in the new sites. Thus, this intra-household survey includes detailed information on household characteristics, household plot ownership, farm production, decision-making, agricultural practices, assets, sources of information, credit, insurance, group membership, perceptions and personal values collected from the primary male and female decision-makers. The following questions guided the development of the survey:  How might men and women be (differentially) affected by long-run climate change and shortterm climate shocks? Do men and women adapt differently to climate change? What are the characteristics and causes of gender differentials in vulnerability/resilience to weather-related risk (e.g. assets, information, empowerment in decision-making, rights, etc.)? What are the adaptation options, strategies and approaches (individual, household or collective) that are available to and preferred by men and women? Do men and women have different perceptions of climate change and climate risk? How do perceptions of climate change, climate risk and personal values shape adaptation decisions and approaches?This information will be used for a wide range of audiences, from communities on the ground to researches, implementers and policy makers to better understand the vulnerabilities of men and women to climate change, how they differ, and what actions can be taken to reduce that vulnerability.","tokenCount":"286"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"de759a4584d2309450fdc8df3e6007b6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f40b9227-6242-4f52-b56b-fee8b48a7bdc/retrieve","id":"1204302324"},"keywords":["maize","abiotic stress","salinity","SNP","association analysis"],"sieverID":"1d35642e-0270-49ff-be28-6a22254db2d3","pagecount":"9","content":"Being a widely cultivated crop globally under diverse climatic conditions and soil types, maize is often exposed to an array of biotic and abiotic stresses. Soil salinity is one of the challenges for maize cultivation in many parts of lowland tropics that significantly affects crop growth and reduces economic yields. Breeding strategies integrated with molecular approach might accelerate the process of identifying and developing salinity-tolerant maize cultivars. In this study, an association mapping panel consisting of 305 diverse maize inbred lines was phenotyped in a managed salinity stress phenotyping facility at International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA), Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE). Wide genotypic variability was observed in the panel under salinity stress for key phenotypic traits viz., grain yield, days to anthesis, anthesis-silking interval, plant height, cob length, cob girth, and kernel number. The panel was genotyped following the genome-based sequencing approach to generate 955,690 SNPs. Total SNPs were filtered to 213,043 at a call rate of 0.85 and minor allele frequency of 0.05 for association analysis. A total of 259 highly significant (P ≤ 1 × 10 −5 ) marker-trait associations (MTAs) were identified for seven phenotypic traits. The phenotypic variance for MTAs ranged between 5.2 and 9%. A total of 64 associations were found in 19 unique putative gene expression regions. Among them, 12 associations were found in gene models with stress-related biological functions.Increasing maize productivity is inevitable for plant breeders in the backdrop of meeting the everincreasing demand for feeding the growing population and decreasing arable lands (Foley et al., 2011;Hansen et al., 2019). In addition to this socioeconomical stress, the wide adaptability of maize exposes it to several major abiotic stresses viz., moisture availability such as drought and excessive moisture, and heat and salinity stresses (Zaidi et al., 2010;Lobell et al., 2011;Smale et al., 2011;Cairns et al., 2012;Enders et al., 2019). In recent years, salinity stress has been gaining momentum causing economically consequential yield losses in tropics (Bänziger and Araus, 2007). Unpredictable environmental variables resulting in increased rate of evapotranspiration due to rise in temperature, and increased inundation of land mass with sea water due to rise in their levels are some of the major factors responsible for changes in soil properties and making it more saline. In addition, unchecked exploitation of ground water is also among one of the key factors in increasing the incidence of salinity (Flowers and Yeo, 1995;Munns, 2002;Shahid et al., 2018). Recent estimates stated that globally, around 1,128 million ha of land was affected by salinity stress (Mandal et al., 2018), which is 20% of the cultivable area and 33% of the irrigated area (Shrivastava and Kumar, 2015).The maize crop is reported to be moderately susceptible to salinity stress (Zörb et al., 2004;Chinnusamy et al., 2005). In general, all crop stages and all parts of maize are affected by salinity stress. In the early phase of crop development, saline affects seed germination by hampering water absorption by germinating seed due to Na + and/or Cl − toxicity that alters the osmotic potential of a soil solution (Hasegawa et al., 2000;Khajeh-Hosseini et al., 2003;Munns and James, 2003;Farsiani and Ghobadi, 2009). The early vegetative phase of the crop expresses stunted growth (Munns, 1993) with suppressed leaf expansion and internodal growth (Qu et al., 2012) due to reduction in cell elongation (Szalai and Janda, 2009) and programmed cell death. The reproductive phase of the crop is affected by micro-sporogenesis elongation of stamen filament, rate of photosynthesis, source-sink limitation, abortion of assimilation by fertilized kernels, which results in reduced kernel number and seed set, and, ultimately, reduced economic yield (Abdullah et al., 2001;Rahnama et al., 2010;Kaya et al., 2013).Mitigating salinity stress through several agronomical and other management practices are available, but adopting those techniques by small-holderand marginal farmers will add up to their cost of cultivation and increase the risk of low returns and even crop failures in some cases, which challenges the sustainability of farmers to adopt those practices (Minhas and Sharma, 2003). Developing salt tolerance cultivars is considered relatively better, suitable for adopt to range of farmers with varied land-holdings and most economical approach. Maize genome being known to express its diversity for diverse environmental scenario (Hoisington et al., 1999) and its rich molecular marker, particularly SNPs resource is an added advantage to develop salt tolerant varieties or hybrids within short span of time through molecular breeding approach (Gilliham et al., 2017). Salt stress in per se and its tolerance mechanism in crops at physiological level, cellular level and phenotypical level are more complex (Farooq et al., 2015). In the maize crop, a number of QTLs were reported for rate of seed germination, salt tolerance ranking, shoot fresh and dry weights, shoot K + /Na + ratio, and Na + and K + concentrations in shoots (Cui et al., 2015;Luo et al., 2017Luo et al., , 2021;;Zhang et al., 2018;Xie et al., 2019). However, studies on salt tolerance of maize and reporting of QTLs/genomic regions for salt tolerance are still very limited in field-grown maize crop for a full crop cycle. Among several molecular breeding approaches, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have several advantages (Frova and Sari-Gorla, 1994;Shikha et al., 2021). They take into account the historical recombination found in a broad panel of diverse germplasm and population-wide linkage disequilibrium (LD) among single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) (Luo et al., 2021). Furthermore, genome-wide scanning can locate genomic regions associated with several stress tolerance mechanism and nullify the complexity to a reasonable extent than relying solely on the phenotypic approach (Prasanna et al., 2021). With this rationale, this study was aimed at (i) managing the stress phenotyping of an association mapping panel consisting of 305 diverse maize inbred lines under saline conditions (ii) identifying genomic regions associated with grain yield and key secondary traits in maize under salinity stress using the GWAS approach.The association mapping panel consisting of 305 maize inbred lines used in this study is an amalgamation of advanced generation breeding lines derived from CIMMYT's tropical and subtropical pools and populations from Latin America, Africa, and Asian maize programs. These lines were selected out of over 1,000 lines evaluated in Asian tropics for their general adaptation under optimal growing conditions. Lines with reasonably good adaptation in Asian tropics were selected for constituting the panel named CIMMYT Asia Association Mapping (CAAM), avoiding sister lines or over-representation of lines derived from any specific pools or populations. The inbred lines involved in this panel were derived from various pools and populations, including several biparental pedigree populations. Further details about the pools and populations of CIMMYT's tropical maize program can be found elsewhere (Edmeades and Heisey, 1997;Zaidi et al., 2016a).The panel was phenotyped the during dry season of 2017 and 2018 in a managed salt stress phenotyping facility at International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) (25.0947 • N, 55.3899 • E), Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE), which is located about 23 km from the Arabian Gulf (Persian Gulf). The soils at ICBA experimental fields are sandy in texture, including fine sand (sand 98%, silt 1%, and clay 1%), calcareous (50-60% CaCO 3 equivalents), porous (45% porosity), and moderately alkaline (pH 8.22). Saturation percentage of the soil is 26% with very high drainage capacity, while electrical conductivity of its saturated extract (ECe) is 1.2 dS m −1 . According to American Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010), the soil is classified as Typic Torripsamments, carbonatic, and hyperthermic (Shahid et al., 2009). A drip irrigation system was used for the field experiments with drippers at a 0.25-m distance and row-to-row spacing of 0.5 m. About 13.3 mm of water per day was used for irrigation. The field trials followed a lattice design, and each entry was planted in a 2-m row length with a plant-to-plant distance of 0.25 m and a row-to-row distance of 0.5 m with two replications. For the first 2 weeks, the experiment materials were irrigated with fresh water to avoid seed germination issues. Afterward, the field was irrigated with saline water with an ECe of 8 dS m −1 . In the reproductive stage, days to 50% anthesis (AD), days of 50% silking (SD), anthesis silking interval (ASI), and plant height (PH) were measured using the standard phenotyping protocol for maize (Zaidi et al., 2016b). At maturity, ears were harvested separately from each plot, and grain yield (GY) was recorded on a per-plot basis. Final grain yield was calculated after adjusting for kernel moisture content at 12.5% for each plot and converted into tons per hectare (t ha −1 ). In 2018, in addition to grain yield, cob length (CL), cob girth (CG), and kernel number (KN) per cob were also measured by capturing digital photographs of harvested cobs of each plot. The ears were properly arranged and placed on a contrast background with equal spacing between the ears to avoid any overlapping. The ears were imaged using a digital camera at a uniform height. An image analysis was performed using the ImageJ software, 1 open-source software using a script (ear analyzer) developed at CIMMYT (Makanza et al., 2018).The linear model lmer from package lme4 of R using REML was used to calculate BLUEs and BLUPs, and variance components were estimated using the META-R (Multi-Environment Trial Analysis in R) software (Alvarado et al., 2020) in which replications, blocks, and environments were treated as random factors and genotypes as fixed factor. A cross-year analysis was conducted following the model described below:where Y ijkl is the trait of interest, µ is mean effect, Env i is the effect of i th environment, Rep i is the effect of i th replicate, Block j (Env i Rep i ) is the effect of j th incomplete block within i th replicate and environment, Gen l is the effect of l th genotype, Env i and Env i × Gen l are the effects of i th environment and environment by genotype interaction, and ∈ is the residue. Broad-sense heritability (h 2 ) was estimated as follows:where σ 2 g , σ 2 g × e , σ 2 e , nEnvs, and nreps represent variance estimates of genotype, genotype × environment interaction, error, number of environments, and number of replications, respectively. Descriptive statistics including mean, minimum, maximum, and Co-efficient of variation were also generated using standard procedures implemented in META-R. Best linear unbiased estimators (BLUEs) from individual year and across years were used for the genome-wide association studies (GWAS).DNA extraction was conducted following the modified CTAB method (CIMMYT Applied Molecular Genetics Laboratory, 2003) on 3-4 week young leaves harvested from each inbred line involved in the panel. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were generated through GBS v2.7 using Illumina Hiseq 2000/2500 at the Institute for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States. Physical coordinates of GBS SNPs were derived from AGPv2. A total of 955,690 SNPs were generated after imputing missing data points by accepting a 5% mismatch with the closest neighbor in small SNP windows across the entire maize database (∼22,000 Zea samples). The criteria for filtering SNPs for GWAS and LD (linkage disequilibrium) analysis were based on Suwarno et al. (2015) but with slight modifications. SNPs were filtered based on a call rate (CR) > 0.85 and with a minor allele frequency (MAF) ≥ 0.05 for the association analysis.Linkage disequilibrium was estimated using 1, 28, and 913 SNPs filtered from the total SNPs with a CR of > 0.9 and a MAF of > 0.1. The extent of genome-wide linkage disequilibrium was estimated based on adjacent pairwise r 2 values and the physical distance among the SNPs using the \"nlin\" function in R (Remington et al., 2001;R Development Core Team, 2015). Average pairwise distances in which LD decayed at r 2 = 0.2 and r 2 = 0.1 were then calculated based on the model given by Hill and Robertson (1968).The SNPs (955,690) obtained for the association panel after imputation were further filtered to 213,043 SNPs using the multiple selection criteria of CR > 0.85 and MAF ≥ 0.05 for the GWAS analysis. The association between the filtered SNPs and the trait of interest was detected by employing a mixed linear model (MLM) in the SNP and Variation Suits v8.6.0 software (GoldenHelix, Inc., Bozeman, MT, United States 2 ). The fitness of the model was determined by observing Q-Q (quantile-quantile) plots (Supplementary Figures 1, 2). A marker-trait association (MTA) with a p-value threshold of ≤ 10 −5 was considered significant. Significant SNPs that fell within or near gene models (> 1 MB) were searched for the putative gene function in maize GDB in B73 RefGen_V3. 3 Gene models having a stress related gene/biological function were considered as candidate genes.The GWAS panel exhibited a highly (P > 0.001) significant genotypic variance for all the traits studied under salinity stress in both individual and across years. Environmental and genotype × environmental interaction variance was also significant for all the traits. The magnitude of genotypic variance and error variance was narrow for individual years, whereas the magnitude of error variance and G × E variance of across year analysis was multi-folded when compared to genotypic variance. Broad-sense heritability of the traits in 2017 and 2018 ranged from 0.4 (CL) to 0.9 (AD), whereas across-year heritability ranged between 0.2 (GYG) and 0.8 (AD) (Table 1). In addition, the standard deviation (SD) of traits during 2017 and 2018 fell within a desirable range for all the traits (Table 1).Mean GY, AD, and ASI in the panel was consistent between individual years and across years. The mean value of GY and ASI was < 4 tha −1 and > 5 days, respectively, with a very wide range for both traits (GY: 1.38-4.69 tha −1 , ASI: 1.18-16.15 days). The mean of PH slightly varied between years and across years, but it had a comparatively narrow range. The low values of GY and higher values of ASI indicate the impact of salinity stress on the reproductive stage of the crop. A similar effect of salinity stress was found on other morphological traits as well.In this study, total SNPs (955 K) were shortlisted to 128,913 SNPs (CR = 0.9 and MAF = 0.1) for linkage disequilibrium (LD) decay estimation, and 213,043 SNPs (CR = 0.85 and MAF = 0.05) were used for the association analysis. The LD decay of the panel was 3.82 kb at r 2 = 0.1 and 1.38 kb at r 2 = 0.2 (Figure 1). In the association analysis for the seven phenotypic traits, a total of 259 highly significant (P < 1 × 10 −5 ) (Supplementary Figures 3, 4) MTAs were identified for the traits under consideration. The phenotypic variance (PV) for MTAs ranged from 9.4 to 5.2%. For reproductive traits viz., GY, AD, and ASI, and 57 MTAs were found with PV ≥ 6%. A maximum number of 69 MTAs were identified for AD (total of 2017, 2018 and across) followed by ASI (59 MTAs) and grain yield (48 MTAs) (Table 2). In individual year, a maximum number of MTAs were identified for AD (28 MTAs in 2017) followed by GY, ASI, and CL (23 MTAs) (28 MTAs in 2018). In across-year GWAS, a maximum number of 25 MTAs were identified for AD. The traits GY, AD, and ASI had a maximum number of MTAs on chromosome 5 followed by chromosomes 2, 3, and 9 for KN, PH, and CL, respectively (Table 2 and  Supplementary Table 1). A total of 15, 8, and 5 MTAs were found to be common between the across-year analysis and any of the individual year for AD, ASI, and PH, respectively (Table 2 and Supplementary Table 2). The SNPs, viz., S5_69435496, S5_69435513, and S5_69435514 were found to have common MTAs for GY and AD in 2017 and across year. Similarly, the SNPs S6_157029418 and S6_87402488 were found to be associated with GY and KN in 2018 (Table 3).In this study, a total of 236 MTAs were found in 113 unique putative gene expression regions. In particular, 11 MTAs: 7 for GY and 4 for AD were found in gene models with stress-related biological functions (Table 4). Notably the SNP S4_83197497, S6_87402488, S7_15827091, S5_191376709 in the gene model GRMZM2G168002, GRMZM2G114337, GRMZM2G478965, GRMZM2G057386 coding for the biological functions like glk49 -G2-like-transcription factor 49, Core-2,AP2-EREBP-transcription factors, which plays important roles in regulating various physiological functions or response to the various abiotic and biotics stress.Maize, a widely adopted crop under a range of climatic conditions, is often planted on salt-affected fields, as many farmlands are salinized (Zaidi et al., 2020;Prasanna et al., 2021). Analyzing the salt tolerance mechanism in maize by studying the diverse maize germplasm and understanding the genetic architecture of salinity tolerance can guide breeding programs aimed at developing salt-tolerant maize varieties (Luo et al., 2017). Apart from use of various agronomical and other biological means of avoiding/circumventing salinity stress, genetic intervention is considered a more viable and sustainable approach. Exploring the diversity and genotypic variability of the association mapping panel for salinity tolerance and identifying genomic regions associated with grain yield under salinity stress may significantly contribute to the development of salttolerant maize hybrids.In this study, mean values of the traits were consistent between and across years, and a very wide range and magnitude of   genotypic variance was observed between individual year and across years for each of the traits, making the panel very amenable for GWAS analysis. The LD decay in the panel based on 1, 28, 913 and SNPs was 3.82 and 1.34 kb at r 2 = 0.1 and 0.2, respectively, which is characteristic of tropical and subtropical maize lines. The high LD (Yan et al., 2009) indicated that the panel is genotypically diverse in nature and favorable for obtaining high-resolution mapping (Yan et al., 2009;Suwarno et al., 2014;Yuan et al., 2019). A similar result of high LD decay was reported in previous association mapping panels developed for biotic and abiotic stresses and quality traits (Zaidi et al., 2016a;Hindu et al., 2018;Rashid et al., 2018;Seetharam et al., 2021). The wide range of phenotypic expression for all the traits indicated that the genotypes responded in different intensities or adopted different physiological mechanisms and pathways to cope with salinity stress. Under salinity stress, the maize crop experiences high osmotic stress because of low water potential (Sümer et al., 2004), ion toxicity (Turan et al., 2010), and nutrient imbalance (Shahzad et al., 2012). In particular, each part of the plant is affected in different ways; for instance, leaf growth and expansion and internodal elongation are affected by accelerated abscission (Akram et al., 2010;Qu et al., 2012), and stomatal conductance is affected by altered water relationships and increased synthesis of abscisic acid, which in turn affects transpiration, photo-assimilation, and sink strength, reduces acid invertase activity in developing maize grains (Farooq et al., 2015), and ultimately reduces kernel set and seed weight (Abdullah et al., 2001;Kaya et al., 2013). Exploiting the existing genetic diversity by integrating the available advanced molecular approach can catalyze the process of developing salinity-tolerant inbred lines and hybrids.In this GWAS study, 259 significant MTAs were found for seven phenotypic traits. The PV % explained by these traits was small (5.2-9.4%) and lower than the observed broad-sense heritability explained based on phenotypic data. This gap, also known as the missing heritability (Manolio et al., 2009;Eskin, 2015), might be the result of non-heritable genome changes, cross-talk between genes, RNAs, environments, statistical limitations, and many other unexplained factors (Slatkin, 2009;Marian, 2012;Zuk et al., 2012;Grandjean et al., 2013). Grain yield and related traits, viz., ASI and AD, had a total of > 50 MTAs (sum of individual and across-year analysis) but only a very few SNPs, i.e., 28, were significantly associated in individual and across years. Reduced commonality might be the result of the statistical threshold that is used in this study. Many associations that actually exist could have been missed reaching significance in any of the experiments. The frequency of \"false negatives\" depends on the number of genotypes and their diversity. The problem is very noticeable in sample sizes less than 500 compared to fewer samples (Beavis, 1997). This reduced commonality of SNPs indicates the complexity and influence of environment and its interaction with genome. A similar result of uncommon SNPs across location and year was reported by Seetharam et al. (2021) in maize for heat stress-related trait association analysis. Apart from this, notably, SNPs S5_69435496, S5_69435513, S5_69435514, S6_157029418, and S6_87402488 had across-year and multitrait associations (GY, AD, and KN). The SNPs reported in this study were also found to be in QTL regions reported in earlier studies. Particularly the SNPs S5_163119125, S5_165071094, and S9_153775211, which were found to be significantly associated with AD-across and SNP S10_147245009, which was significantly associated with PH-across, were in the reported QTLs qSPH5-1 (plant height at saline field), qPHI9, and qPHI10 (plant heightbased salt tolerance index) (Luo et al., 2017). Similarly, the SNPs S1_202305536 (GY-across), S4_235453550 (AD-across), and S7_168994991 (CL-2018) were found to be in QTLs reported for various seedling stage traits like shoot length, root length, root and shoot dry weight in a panel consisting of 348 maize inbred lines (Luo et al., 2021). This multi-trait associated SNPs and SNPs in previously reported QTL regions are of major importance, as they have a potential utility in routine marker-assisted selection/screening in breeding pipeline postvalidation.Associations (MTAs) in the expression region of genomes are of practical interest. In this study, 19 unique putative expression regions with various biological functions were associated with 64 SNPs. Plants develop a complex defensive or escape mechanism to overcome multiple stresses during the crop period through interconnected and diverse downstream signaling cascades by regulating genes (Papdi et al., 2015). A few SNPs that were in gene models (listed in Table 4) were found to a have biological function that is important for stress tolerance. The SNP S4_83197497 was in the gene model coding for glk49-G2-liketranscription factor 49. This G2-like (Golden 2 like) transcription factor plays a role in regulating chloroplast development to optimize photosynthetic capacity under varying environmental conditions (Waters and Langdale, 2009). Other SNPs, viz.-S7_15827091 and S5_191376709, were associated with coding regions for the AP2/EREBP transcription factor. Bodies of literature state that AP2/ERFs are strong regulators of several stress responsive genes and complex networks of pathways in response to stress stimulants in different crop growth stages (Licausi et al., 2013;Li et al., 2015). Similarly, the SNP S6_157569199 codes for crt3, calreticulin3. Calreticulin is a highly conserved and abundant multifunctional protein that is encoded by a small gene family and is often associated with biotic and abiotic stresses (Xiang et al., 2015). Calcium is an essential secondary messenger that mediates plant responses to developmental and environmental clues like salt stress. CRTs play an important role in regulating calcium signaling, assisting protein folding (Jia et al., 2009), etc. Furthermore, some of the SNPs were found associated with regions coding for cupin (S3_187169134), ofp22 (S4_190375543), vp14 (S1_250893506), U-box domain-containing protein-13 (S1_154507157), and expanins (S1_251143915). These regions have been reported to have major role in regulating several pathways in various growth and developmental stages of the crop in response to various stress inducers (Messing et al., 2010;Marowa et al., 2016;Hu et al., 2018). The SNPs/genomic regions identified in this study will be an effective resource to the maize breeding community to catalyze the process of maize varietal or hybrid development with stress tolerance. In addition, separate association analyses can be carried out for various growth stages viz., germination, emergence and early growth stages in same population to conclude with common genomic regions associated with the vegetative and reproductive stages of the crop. Significant SNPs in expressive regions can also be scanned for putative candidate regions associated with different crop stage salinity stress tolerance or pathways that can be utilized for candidate gene approach and followed up by deep sequencing of specific genes identified.","tokenCount":"3960"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"de5327c3ff2935a4956075450d0b8c06","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e9f67e0f-37f6-4399-a6fa-e464553d7e3b/retrieve","id":"1107834529"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"96eb50cf-efa7-43ee-9b7e-04ad8255daf9","pagecount":"15","content":"Field studies were conducted during the 2014 and 2015 wet seasons at Zaria in the northern Guinea savanna and at Iburu in the southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria to determine the productivity of maizesoybean intercropping system. There were four treatment combinations in the experiment: sole maize; sole soybean; maize spaced at 50 cm and intercropped with soybean; and maize spaced at 65 cm and intercropped with soybean. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The results showed that sole cropped maize and soybean generally outperformed the intercropped component crops. Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was greater than 1 for all the intercrop treatments, indicating that it is advantageous to grow maize and soybean in association than in pure stands. Except for 2014 in Zaria, LER for intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm was higher than that for maize spaced at 65 cm. Gross Monetary Value (GMV) was generally higher for intercrops than sole crops except in Iburu in 2015 where GMV for intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm was similar to those of sole maize and soybean. Monetary Advantage Index (MAI) was positive for all intercrop treatments in both locations and years, which shows definite yield and economic advantages compared to the sole cropping systems. This suggests that farmers can intercrop soybean and maize with maize spaced at 50 cm and 65 cm.Maize-soybean intercropping 3 system in this region. Hence, the present study was undertaken to determine the productivity of maize-soybean intercropping system in the Guinea savannas of northern Nigeria.A two-year (2014 and 2015 growing seasons) study was carried out at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) experimental stations at Zaria (11°11'N, 7°38'E, 686 m asl) in the northern Guinea savanna and at Iburu(10 o 16'N, 7 o 46'E, 662 m asl) in the southern Guinea savanna. In 2014, the minimum and maximum air temperatures during the experimental period were 20.1 and 30.9°C (Zaria) and 20.8 and 31.2 °C (Iburu), respectively. In 2015, minimum and maximum air temperatures were 20.8 and 31.4°C, respectively in Zaria. In Iburu, minimum air temperature was 21.1°C and maximum temperature was 31.2 °C. The total rainfall received during the experimental period in 2014 was 941.6 mm in Zaria and 1071.0 mm in Iburu. In 2015, total rainfall was 911.6 mm in Zaria and 1285.0 mm in Iburu (Figure 1). Weather information was collected using WatchDog 2000 Series Weather Stations (Spectrum Technologies, Aurora, Colorado, USA), installed at the trial sites. Prior to establishment of the trials, soil samples were taken from each location in both years and analyzed using routine procedures prescribed by IITA (1982). The dominant soil type in Zaria was chromic acrisols while that of Iburu was cambic umbrisols (World Reference Base-FAO http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-soey/ soil-classification/world-reference-base/en/). The results of soil analysis showed that in Zaria, the soil had 490 g kg −1 sand; 330 g kg −1 silt; 180 g kg −1 clay; organic C of 8.6 g kg −1 ; N, 0.79 g kg −1 ; Mehlich P, 12.7 mg kg −1 ; K, 0.26 cmol kg −1 and pH 6.5. In Iburu, the soil had 560 g kg −1 sand; 240 g kg −1 silt; 200 g kg −1 clay; organic C of 5.5 g kg −1 ; N,0.65 g kg −1 ; Mehlich P, 2.9 mg kg −1 ; K, 0.16 cmol kg −1 and pH 5.There were four treatment combinations in the experiment: sole maize (M); sole soybean (S); maize spaced at 50 cm and intercropped with soybean (MS50); and maize spaced at 65 cm and intercropped with soybean (MS60). Early maturing maize (Zea mays L.) variety 2009 EVDT (mature between 80-85 days) and a medium maturing soybean ({Glycine max (L.) Mer.} variety TGX1951-3F (mature between 100-110 days) obtained from IITA were used in this study. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The experimental field was disc-harrowed and ridged before planting. Each treatment plot had four 5 m-long rows with spacing of 0.75 m between rows. For sole and intercropped maize, planting dates in 2014 were June 21 at Zaria and June 17 at Iburu. In 2015, planting dates were June 30 in Zaria and July 1 in Iburu. Sole maize was planted on the ridges at an intra-row spacing of 50 cm between plants stand with four maize seeds sown per stand and later thinned to two plants per stand. This gave a plant population of 53,333 plants ha −1 . Soybean was also planted at the same time maize was planted.  For sole soybean, seven seeds were planted per stand at intra-row spacing of 10 cm and later thinned to four plants per stand to give a final population of 533,333 plants ha −1 . For MS50 intercrop treatment, the maize optimum population was maintained at 53,333 plants ha −1 . Soybean was planted between maize having 50 cm spacing between plant stands. Seven seeds of soybean were sown between the maize stands at intra row spacing of 10 cm and later thinned to four plants per stand one week after planting. Similarly, for the MS65 intercrop treatment, soybean was planted between maize spaced at 65 cm between stands at intra row spacing of 10cm per stand. The maize population at intra-row spacing of 65 cm was 41,000 plants ha −1 .For maize, the recommended fertilizer rate of 120:60:60 of NPK was applied using a compound fertilizer (NPK 15:15:15) to supply 60 kg each of N, P and K ha −1 at two weeks after planting (WAP) as basal application and urea (46% N) to supply the remaining dose (60 kg N ha −1 ) of nitrogen at 4 WAP. For soybean, recommended rate of 40 kg P 2 O 5 ha −1 in the form of Single Super Phosphate was applied to both sole and intercropped soybeans at planting. Gramaxone (1:1-dimethyl-4,4-bipyridinum dichloride, Syngenta Crop protection AG, Switzerland) at a rate of 1 L ha −1 was applied immediately after planting maize using a knapsack sprayer. This was followed by hoe weeding at 4 WAP.Leaf area index (LAI) and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR) were measured at the flowering stages for both maize and soybean using AccuPAR model LP-80 PAR/LAI Ceptometer (Decagon Devices, Pullman WA, USA). Measurements of incident light above and below the canopies were used to estimate IPAR. Five above and below canopy measurements were taken from each plot and the displayed average was recorded. Three profiles of incident light below canopy were taken: (i) below maize canopy, but above soybean canopy for intercropped maize; (ii) below maize and soybean for intercropped soybean and (iii) the solar radiation measured on top and below the canopy of the sole crops for each plot. The sensor was placed diagonally across the two inner rows, such that the end of the sensor coincided with the line of the plants in each row. LAI of both crops were simultaneously recorded. Measurements were taken under cloud free conditions between 12:00 and 14:00 h. IPAR was calculated as unity minus the fraction of the average below canopy to above canopy measurements of each plot, as follows:where IPAR is intercepted PAR, PARa is PAR (μmol m −2 s −1 ) measured above maize/soybean canopy and PARb is PAR (μmol m −2 s −1 ) measured below maize/soybean canopy.Yield and its components of maize and soybean Data were collected from the two middle rows of each plot leaving the outside rows as borders. Maize was harvested at 90% physiological maturity. For maize, all the plants in a quadrat (1 × 1.5 m) placed across the two middle rows were harvested for dry matter determination. The samples were separated into leaves, stems and cobs. Leaves and stem were then sun-dried to constant weight. The cobs were shelled, weighed, counted and the grain moisture at harvest was then determined using a Farmex MT-16 grain moisture tester (Farmcomp Oy, Tuusula, Finland). Leaf, stem and grain weight were expressed as g m −2 , which was then used to calculate total dry matter (TDM). The number of grains m −2 was also estimated. For grain yield determination, the remaining maize plants from the two middle rows excluding the quadrat area were hand-cut at the soil surface. Maize ears were removed, sun-dried for one week and shelled. Grains were weighed and added to those from the quadrat area and final grain yield was expressed as kg ha −1 .Soybean was harvested at pod maturity. A quadrat (1 × 1.5 m) was placed across two middle rows for the measurement of yield components and dry matter. The samples in the quadrats were separated into leaves, stem, pods and grain and sundried to constant weight. The weights of leaf, stem, empty pods and grain were expressed as g m −2 and summed to obtain TDM. The pods in each quadrat were harvested and counted before threshing. The number of pods and seeds in the quadrat were counted and expressed as units m −2 . Pods from all the other plants from the two middle ridges excluding the quadrat area were harvested, threshed and weighed for grain yield. Grain yield (kg ha −1 ) was calculated based on assumed 12% moisture content. The moisture content of grain samples was determined with the Farmex MT-16 grain moisture tester.The relative advantage of intercropping compared to sole cropping was calculated for each proportion using total LER. LER (LER) was calculated as the sum of the ratios of yield of each component crop in intercropping systems to its corresponding yield under sole crop (Mead and Willey 1980):where Yaa and Ybb are the sole crop yields of crops a and b, respectively, Yab is the intercrop yield of crop a, and Yba is the intercrop yield of crop b. In this calculation crop a is maize and crop b is soybean.Gross Monetary Value (GMV) and MAI were calculated from the yield of maize and soybean in order to measure the productivity and profitability of intercropping as compared to sole cropping of the associated component crops. Crop value in the systems was calculated by converting the Naira value (₦, Nigerian currency; 1 USD = ₦ 200) to US dollars Monetary returns' values were estimated based on the current market price of produce during the harvest period. Therefore, GMV was calculated by multiplying yields of the component crops by their respective current market price. MAI was computed as MAI = (value of combined intercrops) × (LER -1)/LER ( (Layek et al., 2014).Combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) across years was performed for each location using the PROC Mixed procedure of SAS (SAS Institute, 2012). The significance of the treatment effect was determined using F-test. Differences between two treatment means were compared using LSMEANS statement (with option pdiff) of PROC MIXED code of SAS at 5% level of probability. The statement calculates the difference between two means and the standard error of the difference (SAS Institute, 2012).Table 1. Intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR), leaf area index (LAI), number of grains per m2 (NG), total dry matter (TDM) and grain yield (GY) of maize as influenced by intercropping in Zaria: maize + soybean-50 cm (MS50); maize + soybean-65 cm (MS65) and sole maize (M).2014 2015  In Zaria, IPAR and LAI were similar for sole and intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm in both years (Table 1). Intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm had IPAR and LAI significantly lower than those of sole and intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm (Table 1). In Iburu, IPAR and LAI were significantly higher for sole maize than for intercropped maize irrespective of maize spacing (Table 1). Intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm also had IPAR and LAI that were significantly higher than that of intercropped maize spaced at 65cm (Table 1). Number of grains m −2 was significantly higher for sole maize than intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm in Zaria in 2014. In 2015, differences among the treatments were not significant (Table 1). In Iburu, sole maize produced number of grains that were significantly higher than that of intercropped maize in both years. The number of grains was significantly higher for intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm than that of intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm (Table 2).TDM ranged from 645g m −2 for intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm to 872.2 g m −2 for sole maize in 2014 in Zaria. In 2015, TDM ranged from 746.6 for intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm to 947.3 g m −2 for sole maize (Table 1). In Iburu, TDM ranged from 511g m −2 for intercropped maize spaced at 65cm to 768.5 g m −2 for sole maize in 2014 and ranged from 828.9 g m −2 for intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm to 1056.9 g m −2 for sole maize in 2015 (Table 2). In both years, TDM was significantly higher for sole maize than intercropped maize in both locations. Intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm produced higher TDM than that of intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm in both locations and years (Tables 1 and 2).In Zaria, grain yield for sole maize was not significantly higher than that of intercropped maize in 2014 (Table 1). In 2015, grain yield of sole cropped maize was significantly higher than that of intercropped maize and grain yield of intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm was also significantly higher than grain yield of intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm (Table 1).In Iburu, sole maize produced higher grain yield than intercropped maize in 2014 (Table 2). Grain yield of intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm was also higher than that of intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm. In 2015, intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm produced the least grain yield (2241.4 kg ha −1 ) and grain yield of sole cropped maize was not statistically different from that of intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm (Table 2).IPAR, LAI, number of pods m −2 for sole soybean were significantly higher than those of soybean intercropped with maize in both locations in both years (Tables 3  and 4). Intercropped soybean with maize spaced at 65 cm had IPAR and LAI higher than that of soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 50 cm in both years in both locations (Tables 3 and 4). Soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 65 cm produced more number of pods m −2 than those of soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 50 cm. Sole soybean produced number of grains m −2 that was significantly higher than those of intercropped soybean irrespective of maize population in both locations for both years (Tables 3 and 4). In Zaria, soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 65 cm produced more grains m −2 than soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 50 cm in both years (Table 3). In Iburu, soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 65 cm produced number of grains m −2 that was significantly higher than that of soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 50 cm in 2014. However, difference between soybeans intercropped with maize spaced at 50 and 65 cm was not significant for number of grains m −2 in 2015 (Table 4). TDM for sole soybean was significantly higher than that of soybean intercropped with maize in both locations and years (Tables 3 and 4). Difference in TDM between the intercropped soybeans was not significant except in Zaria in 2014, when soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 50 cm produced 13% lower TDM than soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 65 cm (Table 3). Grain yield of sole soybean was generally higher than that of soybean intercropped with maize in both locations and years (Tables 3 and  4). Soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 65 cm produced grain yield that was significantly higher than that of soybean intercropped with maize spaced at 50 cm in Table 3. Intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR), leaf area index (LAI), number of pods per m 2 (NP), number of grains per m 2 (NG), total dry matter (TDM) and grain yield (GY) of soybean as influenced by intercropping in Zaria: maize + soybean-50 cm (MS50); maize + soybean-65 cm (MS65) and sole soybean (S).2014 2015 differ between maize spacing in the intercropping systems. The LER values were 1.18 for maize spaced at 65 cm and 1.19 for maize spaced at 50 cm (Table 5). In Iburu, LER for the maize-soybean intercrop was 1.33 for maize spaced at 50 cm and 1.23 for maize spaced at 65 cm in 2014. In 2015, LER was generally lower than the values in 2014 (Table 6).In Zaria, the GMV was higher for the intercrops than the individual sole crops of maize and soybean in 2014 (Table 5). In 2015, GMV was also similar for the intercrops but higher for the intercrops than the sole crops. GMV for sole maize was significantly lower than that of sole soybean (Table 5). In Iburu, GMV was significantly higher for maize-soybean intercrops than the sole crops and differences between sole maize and sole soybean were not significant in 2014 (Table 6). In 2015, GMV for maize-soybean intercrop with maize spaced at 50 cm was significantly higher than those of the sole crop and intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm (Table 6). MAI was positive for all the intercropping systems in both locations and years (Tables 5  and 6). In Zaria, maximum MAI was obtained with intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm. In 2015, MAI for maize-soybean intercrop with maize spaced at 50 cm was not significantly different from the MAI of maize-soybean intercrop with maize spaced at 65 cm (Table 5). In Iburu, maize-soybean intercropping with maize spaced at 50 cm gave higher MAI than that of maize spaced at 65 cm in both years (Table 6).IPAR and LAI were higher for sole maize in both locations and intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm than intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm in Zaria (Tables 1 and 2). This was because sole maize and intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm were planted at optimum population of 53,333 plants ha −1 and this population was 29% higher than intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm. High LAI increases light interception that translates into high dry matter and grain yield. For maximum crop growth rate, enough leaves must be present in the canopy to intercept most of the incident PAR. When crops are planted at high densities, the efficiency of light interception is improved as a consequence of increases in LAI (Xinyou et al., 2003) and a reasonable LAI is critical to maintain high photosynthetic rates and yield (Xiaolei and Zhifeng, 2002).Number of grains, TDM and grain yield of sole maize were generally higher than those of intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm and the performance of intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm was statistically similar to that of sole maize in Zaria in 2014 (Tables 1 and 2). The better performance of sole maize can be attributed to the fact that the population of maize was optimal. The comparable yield of intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm with that of sole maize may be due to the relatively higher rainfall in Zaria in 2014 than in 2015. This result shows that intercropped soybean did not affect maize performance under favourable conditions in 2014. In 2015, when rainfall was lesser in Zaria and in Iburu where soils are poorer, sole cropped maize outperformed all the intercropped maize (Tables 1 and 2). This may be due to competition for water and nutrients in the intercrop system and we already know that increased competition for water, nutrients, light or any combination of the three ultimately leads to changes in crop productivity levels (Carruthers et al., 2000). The results are contrary to ones reported by Singh et al. (2008), which showed that cereals like maize, sorghum and pearl millet can be used for intercropping with soybean due to their dissimilar growing patterns, morphology, phenology and nutrient requirement.Sole soybean had higher IPAR, LAI, number of pods m −2 , number of grains m −2 , TDM and grain yield than intercropped soybean (Tables 3 and 4). This may be due to competition with the taller maize plant for light as shown by reduced IPAR, nutrients and water. This finding agrees with Muneer et al (2004), who had reported higher seed yield of sole over intercropped soybean. Accordingly, Osang et al. (2015) found that shading by the taller plants in mixture could reduce the photosynthetic rate of the lower growing plants and thereby reduce their yields. Wider spacing of maize to 65 cm between stands increased intercropped soybean yield probably due to less shading and competition for resources with maize plants. Competition for water, nutrients and light are probably the two factors that reduced soybean yield under higher maize density in intercrop (Lesoing and Francis, 1999).The productivity of intercropping was evaluated using the partial and total LER as indices (Tables 5 and 6). According to Matusso et al. (2013) and Egbe et al. (2010) if the LER is equal to 1.0, there is no difference in yield between growing the crop in pure or mixed stand. If the LER is greater than 1.0, there is a yield advantage when both crops were grown as mixed, as compared to pure stands. If however, the LER is less than 1.0, it will be better in terms of yield to grow both crops separately, as it indicates yield disadvantage. Herein, LER was greater than 1.0 for all the intercrop treatments, indicating that it is advantageous to grow maize and soybean in association as compared to pure stands. This shows that intercropping maize with soybean was better than their respective sole cropping. Maize spaced at 65 cm produced higher LER than that of maize spaced at 50 cm in Zaria 2014 because of high partial LER of soybean in the intercrop with maize spaced at 65 cm (Table 5). In 2015, LERs were greater than 1.0 for the intercrops and similar for the two intercrop spacings. This suggests that under the prevailing conditions, maize spacing in the intercrops was not significant. In Iburu, LER was also higher than 1.0 in both years (Table 6). Values were higher for maize spaced at 50 cm than maize spaced at 65 cm in 2014. In 2015, only maize spaced at 50 cm showed any significant advantage over sole crop components. LER higher than 1.0 was already reported in maize-soybean intercropping as compared to monocropping (Matusso et al., 2013;Muneer et al., 2004;Solanki et al., 2011). The higher productivity of the intercrop system compared to the sole crop may have resulted from complementary and efficient use of resources by the component crops (Liu et al., 2006). LER value of 1.01 for maize spacing at 65 cm suggests that intercropping did not confer significant advantage over sole cropping. The maize component contributed more to the total LER of the mixture as shown by the partial LER of maize (Table 6). Ghaffarzaeh et al. (1994) reported that soybean yield tends to be lower whilst maize yield tends to be higher under soybean-maize intercropping systems. In cereallegume intercropping, the cereal components usually tend to have greater competitive ability because of their relatively high growth rate, height advantage and larger root system.The high GMV for all intercrops in Zaria in both years and in Iburu in 2014 and for intercropped maize spaced at 50 cm in Iburu in 2015 suggest that intercropping maize and soybean is profitable. Our results corroborate findings of Seran and Berintha (2010), who reported that intercropping system gave higher cash return to smallholder farmers than growing as the monocrops. The non-significant GMV for intercropped maize spaced at 65 cm in Iburu in 2015 was due to poor performance of component crops during this year as confirmed by the low LER of 1.0.Profitability of intercrops depends on the prevailing price of component crops and may also depend on the productivity of component crops. In this study, the prices of maize and soybean were favourable and this made intercropping profitable for all intercrops in Zaria in both years and in Iburu in 2014. Maize-soybean intercropping with maize spaced at 65 cm was less profitable because of low productivity of both the maize and soybean crop. Based on the economic analysis, intercropping of soybean with maize was more advantageous than sole cropping. In agreement to this, Solomon and Kibrom (2014) reported that GMV of intercrops was higher than sole maize and Sibhatu et al. (2015) reported higher LER and GMV for sorghum-cowpea intercropping system as compared to sole cropping in Ethiopia.MAI was positive for all intercrop in both locations and years (Tables 5 and 6), which shows definite yield and economic advantages compared to the sole cropping systems tested in our study. The highest MAI (US$892) was observed with maizesoybean intercropping at maize spacing of 65 cm in Zaria, 2014 (Table 5), being a consequence of high crop value of soybean. In 2015, MAI was similar for the two maize spacings in Zaria because LER values for the two maize spacings in the intercrop system were also similar. MAI was generally lower in Iburu than in Zaria because of low crop yields and low monetary value of the component crops in Iburu (Table 6). Maize-soybean intercrop with maize spaced at 50 cm gave higher MAI than maize spaced at 65 cm. The lowest MAI of US$15 obtained with maize spaced at 65 cm in 2015 is not surprising because LER for the 65 cm spacing was very low. Accordingly, Ghosh et al. (2006) reported that if LER values were higher, there was also economic benefit expressed with MAI values.The results of this study showed that the productivity of maize-cropping systems can be improved by intercropping soybean between maize plants as confirmed by high LER and GMV. The calculated LER exceeded unity in both maize spacings, indicating that intercropping was advantageous due to higher exploitation of the limited environmental resources. MAI was positive for all intercrops in both locations and years, which shows definite yield and economic advantages compared to the sole cropping systems tested.","tokenCount":"4339"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"58822358dabceb1b2904b60b3a2a9aa8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ce1be068-f523-44a5-a4f1-4a9575d930aa/retrieve","id":"-487496320"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"523e5fa8-4aea-4e26-bbef-b404a6250c48","pagecount":"55","content":"CIP publications contribute important development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement, and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send a copy to the Communication and Public Awareness Department at the address below.Sample cities and towns representing production and consumption zones......................7 Table 2. Samples sizes (number) selected for the study in the six countries of ECA..........................8 Table 3  17. Economic profitability of processing 100 kg of potatoes into chips in Tanzania. ........... 21 Table 18. Economic profitability of processing 100 kg of potatoes into chips in Ethiopia ............. 22 Table 19. Economic profitability of processing 100 kg of potatoes into chips in Burundi.............. 22 Table 20. Economic profitability of processing 100 kg of potatoes into chips in Rwanda.............. 23 Table 21. Annual demand trends of chips consumption in retail outlets of ECA countries ........... 30 Table 22. Price comparisons of domestically processed and imported chips in ECA countries.... 32 Table 23. Estimates of potential chips production in ECA countries by 2008 and 2015.................. 34 Potato is an important food and cash crop in eastern and central African countries. Potato production is growing faster than other major root crops and cereals. Yields are low due to shortage of appropriate varieties, chronic shortage of quality seed of the improved varieties, suboptimal cultural practices, and poor access to market.Most potatoes produced in the ECA region are consumed fresh, mainly boiled. With population doubling every 25 years and urbanization continuing to grow by 13% in the next 10 years, feeding habits are rapidly changing in favor of easy-to-prepare foods such as chips. There is good potential for the growth of processing industry and also good market access for both fresh and frozen potato chips in the region. This study was conducted to make available baseline data on chips consumption, processing, marketing, potential for regional chips trade and its contribution towards improving the farmers livelihoods in the ECA region. The study was carried out from 2004 to 2006 in Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. Two to three cities or towns in each of the countries were selected. A survey was made of household consumers, hotels, bars and restaurants using a structured questionnaire. Further information was also collated from supermarkets and local processors.Demand for potato chips is increasing in the ECA region at household and retail outlets, with most of the growth in the retail outlets such as hotels, restaurants and supermarkets. On average 77% of the high income and 57% of the low income households process their own chips; similarly 80% of the retail outlets process chips for their own consumption. Chips processed in households and retail outlets are fresh and usually of poor quality. It is very common to find chips of variable thickness and length in a given package. Despite poor quality, chips processing in retail outlets is economically viable with net profits from processing 100 kg of potatoes ranging from US$ 11.0 in Tanzania to US$ 126.0 in Rwanda. At the time of the study Kenya had only one frozen chips (Njoro Canning) and four chilled chips processors, Uganda had one chilled chips processor, while the rest of the countries had none.V I Due to lack of adequate and constant supply of good quality chips, five star hotels and big supermarkets import frozen chips either from South Africa or Europe at high prices. In Kenyan supermarkets chips made by Njoro Canning were selling much faster than imported ones because quality was acceptable and prices lower. In Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Uganda the prices of imported chips are higher than locally made chips by 632%, 198%, 228% and 301%, respectively. The experience of Njoro Canning shows that the region has potential to produce acceptable quality chips if potato varieties appropriate for chips making are available and the supply is reliable. This would save large amounts of hard currency for the region in the form of import substitution and the consumers would have access to acceptable quality chips at reasonable prices.The potential for regional chips trade, especially frozen chips, looks very promising because of the existence of Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and East African Community (EAC) whose polices favour inter-regional trade in goods and services, and all the study countries are party to one or both.Although regional chips trade is potentially lucrative, bottlenecks include limited access to processing varieties and processing machines, limited knowledge of processing techniques, high costs of electricity, lack of standards, insufficient and poor storage and transport facilities, poor road network infrastructure, inefficient utility service providers, lack of strong farmer associations, limited flow of information, and inadequate financial intermediaries. Moreover, loose linkages and partnerships between research, farmer organizations and stakeholders stand out as an important constraint.To realize the benefits of regional chips trade for smallholder potato farmers and other stakeholders, improved access to appropriate varieties for processing, wide-spread knowledge of processing techniques, access to processing machines, strong links and partnerships between research, NGOs, farmer organizations, potato producers, processors and traders and enabling regional polices are vital. Working very closely with COMESA and EAC is of paramount importance to have an enabling regional policy in place.The markets for fresh and processed potatoes are distinct. In many countries the important source of new growth in demand is from the processed potato market, especially chips also called \"French fries.\" In industrial countries potatoes are mostly eaten in processed form, with the largest volume as chips. According to the reports of Global AgriSystem (2005), total world trade of potato fries is estimated at 2.5 Million MT for 2000/01. The report also indicated that Netherlands, Canada, and USA are the major players contributing more than 90% of the trade. India is also becoming a substantial market for frozen French fries. It was also noted that the frozen French fries market in India is at a nascent stage with production in quality sector of over 3500 tons per annum, but it is growing at the rate of about 25% per year. The estimated domestic production of French fries in India is about 500 MT. It was reported that in 2005 US exports of frozen French fry only to mainland China was about 227,000 tons and to Greater China about 454,000 tons (Zhang et al. 2009).In contrast, most potato in the ASARECA region is sold fresh and unprocessed. However, there is considerable potential to expand the consumption of processed potato products in urban centers in the ASARECA region. Potato is widely produced in the ASARECA region, ensuring a potentially reliable supply throughout the year. Moreover, potato is a common menu for most of the population, consumed in different ways. This context helps facilitate the expansion of potato consumption by adding value in processed form, mainly chips. The increased demand creation in turn helps boost potato production through utilization of improved technologies and innovations.Adequate baseline information is lacking in the Eastern and Central Africa (ECA) region on potato processing and marketing practices. Hence, there is a strong need to investigate the potential of fresh and frozen potato chips and crisps (called chips in the US) processing and marketing to increase the contribution of potatoes to improving the livelihoods of the poor in the region.This study assessed the existing scenarios and potential of chips processing for the domestic and export markets. The recommendations will lead to improved potato processing and marketing and increased production and productivity of potato through increased utilization of potato technologies. This will boost the potato sub-sector and contribute to CIP's aim to enhance productivity, value addition and competitiveness of potato system in eastern and central Africa.The major objective of the study is to facilitate the development of a processed potato industry to improve livelihoods and increase incomes of communities in the ECA region. Assess consumer preferences for chips in the retail outlets and households. Estimate the quantity of fresh and frozen chips processed and sold in the retail outlets. Assess the status and practices of chips processing industry in the ECA region. The outputs of this study will be extensively and strategically disseminated to beneficiaries through various mechanisms, including publications, workshops, seminars and websites.Evidence suggests that the potato sub-sector is expanding, with more value added products, such as potato chips, mainly due to increasing demands associated with growth of population and urbanization. Population in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is doubling every 25 years (Seyfu, 2004).Poverty is widespread in SSA accounting for 32% of the world's poor, and 50% of the population lives on less than $1 per day. The FAO estimate (cited by Seyfu, 2004) also indicates that there are more than 180 million hungry people in Africa and food needs will double by the year 2025. In Africa, urban population is currently 40% and it will be 60% 20 years from now, implying that the issue of food security will remain high on the agenda of the region.Reports have shown that potato sub-sector in Africa is expanding faster. For instance, during the period 1998-2004, estimates indicate that over 18 million metric tons of potato worth over US$1.9 billion was produced in Burundi, D. R. Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda (Berga and Nsumba, 2005). Potato production has also expanded to non-traditional areas. Adoption of improved varieties has also significantly improved household food security and income. It was also reported that regionally released varieties are being used for processing instead of imported ones in a few cases, substituting for imports. For instance, the use of processing potato varieties, such as Asante and Tigoni in Kenya resulted in an aggregate annual net benefit of KSh 10 million (Kabira, 2002). These varieties covered approximately 10% of all the area under potato production in 2002. Farmer-based improved seed production was also found to be economically viable. For instance, in Uganda, mean returns of 216% and 82% were obtained in 1998 and 1999, respectively, while in Kenya the use of Asante and Tigoni potato varieties increased farmers' returns by 22 -53%. In Ethiopia, ownership of livestock and other animals has increased and overall living standards greatly improved from the incomes of improved potato sales (Agajie et al., 2002). In ECA, the net margin has increased by 280% by using improved potato varieties as compared to the use of traditional varieties. This evidence implies a huge potential for the expansion of the market for processed potato products, especially chips, in eastern and central African region.FAO statistics of 2002 also indicate the fast growth of the potato sub-sector in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The area under potato in SSA accounts for about 5% of the world potato area and it increased by about 250% in 2001 as compared to 1993. The area under potato in the eastern and central African region accounts for 71% of the total area In SSA. The statistics also indicate that the rate of growth in area coverage of potato in SSA is faster than other crops such as wheat, rice, maize, sweetpotato, cassava and yams. This is true partly because commercially-oriented farmers are responding to increased demand from the growing urban centers and subsistence-oriented farmers are responding to shrinking farm sizes. The revenue from potatoes is generally 10 times greater than that from grains. Policy makers have also noticed and believed that potato exports offer a potential source of foreign exchange. The findings also indicate that in most SSA countries potato is a highly commercial crop. Hence, to avoid the risks of commodity trade, policy makers seek value addition as part of trade through potato chips.FAO statistics also indicate that world potato exports increased from 2% in 1983 to 5% in 2001.The value of frozen world potato trade has increased by about 10 times in 2001 as compared to the year 1980. This was because, frozen potato market is growing rapidly as a result of growth in franchised fast food restaurants, growth in global processing capacity especially among majorprocessors. Moreover, rising incomes and urbanization, and lower tariffs from WTO have contributed to the growth of frozen potato market. However, the value of export share of SSA in frozen potato trade was insignificant (about 0.07%) of world total.Sub-Saharan Africa exports frozen potato worth $1,348,000 (9 exporters), while its imports are valued $5,083,000 (30 importers). Trade and production data indicate the potential of expanding potato production generally in SSA and particularly in the ASARECA region.One of the factors that contributed to the fast growth of the potato sub-sector in general and processed potato products, particularly chips is the growth of urbanization. Potato chips were introduced as street food in cities and towns and consumption will increase as urbanization increases.Crissman (2001) observed that national development goals have to focus on agriculture-led economic growth through agro-industrialization, such as connecting farmers to value added markets. It was also noted that cross-border trade responds to different price cycles in nearby markets. For instance, high prices in Nairobi and low prices in Kampala induce flow into Kenya.Moreover, different cropping seasons among the regions induce cross border trades, although such trades are often unrecorded. For instance, the 1994-1995 survey of 11 Kenya-Uganda border posts found $1.8 Million in unrecorded root and tuber exports to Kenya. Such scenarios shed light on the possibility of strengthening regional trade. Kabira (2002) indicated that some of the processing companies have plans to explore the possibility of exporting frozen chips to the neighboring countries. The processors also look for local markets in institutions like colleges, schools, hospitals, the armed forces and other companies. These companies have requested research institutes, such as, KARI-Tigoni to introduce another variety with similar or superior chipping characteristics to Tigoni to reduce dependency on one variety. Kabira's report suggests that since some processors are looking for options of export to neighboring countries, availing information on regional trade will be of great help.A study by Agajie, et al. (2002) on production and marketing of potato in Ethiopia indicates that the total acreage of potato in Ethiopia exceeds 160,000 hectares with an annual production of 1.28 million tones. The production and use of potatoes has also shown a rapid increase in the highlands and mid-altitude areas compared to the 30,000 hectares under potatoes in the early 1980's. The current national average yield of potato in Ethiopia is estimated at 8 t/h. Moreover, the post-harvest loss of potato is estimated at 30-50%. This prompted research to improve the productivity and reduce post-harvest loss of potato. As a result, several improved varieties and associated post-harvest handling techniques have been generated, and productivity has improved to as high as 25 to 40 t/ha. This could lead to an increase in the national annual production of potato of between 4.0 and 6.4 million tonnes. The study has also indicated that potato is one of the most important sources of on-farm incomes for the farmers in Ethiopia. In areas where there is relatively good market infrastructure, potato has become the leading cash crop and one of the most important food security crops to farmers. One of the major problems in potato marketing was low prices offered for ware potato. This was because consumption of potato is not diversified. This suggests the need for assessing chips processing sub-sector and the potential of expanding the market both domestically and regionally.According to potato production and marketing study in Kenya by Okoboj (2001), annual production of potato in 1996 was about 499,000 metric tons. The study indicated that the author did not get any information concerning potato exports from Kenya to other countries in the region. However, it was unofficially estimated that about 10 trucks offload 40 feet trailer loads of potatoes weekly from Tanzania. This indicates that the demand for potato is high in Nairobi and the local supply deficit is supplemented by imports.According to FAO estimates (www.faostat.org), Kenya produced only 360,000 metric tons in 2000 compared to 478,000 metric tons produced by Uganda. However, it is known that Kenya has a higher per capita consumption of potato products in urban areas than Uganda. All these statistics positively illustrate the possibility of expanding urban markets with processed potato products.There is limited formal and informal trade taking place along the Uganda-Rwanda border (Okoboj, 2001). The study identified potato chips as the most popular potato product in urban areas evidenced by the increasing number of fast food outlets. The study also indicated limited border traders. For instance, some traders import potato from Rwanda to Uganda through the Katuna border. Potato trade between Uganda and Rwanda exists informally along other smaller border crossings in Kabale and Kisoro, such as the Kyanika border. Some traders occasionally bring potatoes from eastern D. R. Congo. This evidence indicates the possibility of strengthening cross border trades to enhance the production and productivity of potato. Such existing practices could be strengthened through formal support to ensure the availability of potato as a raw material for chips processing industries.In general, evidence illustrates the considerable demand that exists for potatoes and potato chips in the world in general and in SSA countries in particular. Among the SSA sub-region, a largeproportion of potato is produced in the ASARECA region, implying considerable potential to expand chips marketing among the countries involved. In the ASARECA region, potato is one of the most important food security crops consumed by a large proportion of the population.However, there is a lack of market research on fresh and frozen potato chips processing, consumption and marketing in eastern and central African region. This report, therefore, bridges such a gap and presents baseline information on chips processing, consumption and marketing practices in selected major cities and towns of Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Kenya. Moreover, the report investigates the potential that exists for chips processing, consumption and marketing as a new source of demand for potatoes.The study was conducted in six eastern and central African (ECA) countries: Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda (Figure 1). The study in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda was conducted in 2004/05, while the one in Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi was conducted in 2005/06. Two to three cities or towns in each of the six countries were selected for the study based on potato consumption or production (Table 1). Respondents of the cities were stratified into three homogenous categories based on their status of consumption and processing of potato chips. These were Hotels, Bars and Restaurants, and Households. In addition to these, information was collected from supermarkets and local processors. Since the processing and consumption practices of chips are closely related to different standards and level of wealth, hotels were further stratified into Five, Three, and One-star Hotels, while Bars and Restaurants were stratified into High and low Class categories. Households were stratified into High and Low Income groups. When selecting the required samples of all the categories, a city or town was divided into different segments to make sure that every part of the city or town was included in the study. A total sample size of 225 Hotels, 317 Bars and Restaurants, and 948 household consumers and six chips processing companies were selected for the study (Table 2). Three data collection stages were employed. In the first stage, extensive background information was collected from secondary sources, including published and unpublished materials, and web sites to deepen understanding of the marketing systems of processed potato products. In the second stage, descriptive information was collected from key informants and groups of respondents using a checklist. In this stage, a rapid market assessment survey was conducted to collect qualitative preliminary information from key informants and groups of respondents using a guideline. The first two stages helped design an appropriate questionnaire. In the third stage, the structured questionnaire was developed for different strata of respondents.Three types of structured questionnaires were developed for different strata of respondents:Hotels, Bars and Restaurants, and households to collect quantitative information. The questionnaire was pre-tested to verify the validity of questions and the time for interviews. Even though the standard questionnaire was developed, some modifications were made after pretesting according to the local circumstances of each country. Enumerators were recruited and trained to enable them to collect quality data using questionnaires. Data collected were processed using Excel and SPSS packages. The study countries in Eastern and Central Africa (ECA).The findings established that the main retail outlets for potato chips were hotels, and restaurants and bars. In Ethiopia, Kenya, Burundi and Rwanda 77%, 99%, 88%, and 95%, respectively of the retail outlets were privately owned (Table 3). On the other hand, in Uganda and Tanzania, all the retail outlets were privately owned. Generally, privately owned hotels are more likely to be free and flexible in decision making, risk taking and are more profit-oriented than those owned by the government. The implication is that the chances for easy adoption of new chips processing technologies and expansion of chips in these countries are high. Moreover, all governments in the ECA region are increasingly privatizing state-owned enterprises aimed at enhancing their efficiency and competitiveness in the free market economic systems.Thus, the opportunity for development of the potato chips industry, among others, seems to be promising.The data showed varied scenarios in the hotels and other retail outlets. In Ethiopia, for example, the hotels had 20 years of experience on average ranging from 1 to 57 years and establishment of three star hotels dated back to early 1950's, while one-star hotels were established since late 1940's. In the case of Kenya, the hotels interviewed had on average 25 years of experience ranging from 1 to 102 years. Establishment of five-star hotels dated back to 1902 and that of three-star hotels to early 1950's, while most of the one-star hotels started in early 2000. This trend of hotel and restaurant establishment and development (Table 4) seems to have a direct effect on consumption of potato products (Figure 2). This indicates a 117% growth in volume of potatoes consumed by restaurants from 1997 to 2004, which translates to a simple 16.7% growth per annum. (Source: Kirumba et al., 2004) In all the cities that were sampled for this study, chips are a common menu item in all the bars and restaurants which are either parts of the hotels or independent or particularly franchisedtype fast food restaurants. In all cities that have influx of tourists like Mombassa, hoteliers use menus that are familiar to the visiting tourists and such menus invariably include chips. The trend for establishment of bars and restaurants is illustrated by the data from Ethiopia (Figure 3). It indicates that 67% of the bars and restaurants were established recently during the free market economy. The current free market system of economy has encouraged private investments, including establishment of bars and restaurants with a corresponding increase in demand for fast foods, among which chips are rated highly.Trends similar to this were also observed in the other ECA countries. Therefore, the increasing numbers of such business enterprises gives an indication that there will be a growing demand for potato chips in the region.Age is one of the socio-economic factors associated with utilization of chips and adoption of chips processing technologies. The average age of the overall sample respondents within the study areas of Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda was 39 years ranging from 11 to 75 (Table 5). If we assume that a person starts an independent family life at 19 years of age, a household on average has 20 years of experiences.  n= Sample size Buj -Bujumbura, Kay -Kayanza; AA -Addis Ababa, Na -Nazreth, Aw -Awassa; Nb -Nairobi, Msa -Mombassa; Kla -Kampala, Kbl -Kabale, Ki -Kigali, Gis -GisenyiThe mean ages were higher in the city areas that were designated consumption areas and they varied from 32 in Addis Ababa and Awassa (Ethiopia) to 59 in Mombassa (Kenya). The maximum age of respondents also had a similar trend with Gisenyi-Rwanda being lowest (51) andMombassa-Kenya highest (85).The average family size of the sample households among the high and low income groups of the respondents in Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda is seven and ranges from a mean of 2 to 14 (Table 6). The average family sizes of high income households are higher than those of the low income households. The size of family has a role to play in adopting technologies that require human labor. For instance, chips processing technologies require labor for washing potatoes, peeling, chips making and frying. Moreover, family size affects the demand for products. Large family size, especially children and youths in a household in urban areas, might imply more demand for chips and since the high income groups have larger households, this creates a higher demand for foods associated with the rich such as chips. HI -High income, LI -Low income;Each country had specific varieties preferred for chips processing (Table 7) which, however, was affected by availability. In Ethiopia, 72% of the overall sample hotels purchase potatoes directly from wholesale vegetable markets, while 28% of the hotels get potatoes directly supplied tothem on a daily basis. Direct delivery helps hotels to ensure sustainable supply of the required quantity even at times of supply shortages. Potato varieties preferred by retail outlets in Ethiopia are locally known as Shashemene, Durame, Tolcha and Jalene.Most chips processors in Kenya sourced their potatoes from produce markets near them.Availability in the market and price are the most important attributes chips processors consider when buying potatoes, though shape and size were an important aspect as well. Varieties preferred for making chips in Nairobi and Mombasa were Roslin Tana and Meru Mugaruro, respectively. Other varieties were Tigoni and Kerr's Pink, but the later was not commonly used due to inconsistent supply and higher prices.The most common source of potatoes in Uganda is the retail market followed by supermarkets.An estimated 60% of the respondents from the high income class mentioned supermarkets as a source for their potato. This indicates the change in marketing chain of food, especially for the high income class. It also indicates a premium price for quality as the prices in supermarkets are much higher than those in retail outlets. On the contrary, the most common source of potatoes for the low income class is the retail market that enables low income consumers to obtain the small quantities they normally buy.In Tanzania, the retail markets were the major sources of potatoes for chips processing, while some retail outlets obtain potatoes through suppliers. Source of potatoes for chips is mainly determined by the amount of potato required. For example, a retail outlet that processes five or six kilograms of potato per day may not require a supplier, while those that process 60 to 100 kilograms of potatoes per day require a supplier. A supplier finds it cheaper to buy from the wholesaler than from a retailer. Retail market is also a source of potatoes for 78% of households followed by wholesale market (15%). The common varieties preferred for chips processing are locally named as Arka, Kidinya and Kikondo.In Rwanda, there are no specific sources of potatoes for chips processing, instead potatoes are selected based on required attributes. However, high standard hotels such as Kivu Sun in Gisenyi and Intercontinental and Milles Collines in Kigali, have special suppliers who select good quality potatoes and deliver directly to them. The two commonly used potato varieties for chips processing are named Sangema and Mabondo.In almost all the ECA countries, potato is mainly consumed in the form of chips in the retail outlets (Table 10). The other potato products consumed in retail outlets are boiled, crisps, grilled, mashed and mixed sauce.In Uganda, demands for and rankings of potato products generally vary with the category of retail outlets and also with the size of the enterprise. Within the restaurants, potato products feature as main components of dishes and are highly preferred to other food types, especially amongst the small to medium restaurants. However, within the hotels these products account for a smaller percentage and are mainly accompaniments. Hotels offer buffet with a variety of dishes unlike in the restaurants, where customers order a specific type of food. Chips are the most preferred potato product according to most retail outlets and their consumption is increasing at all socio-economic levels. According to consumer preferences, 83% of retail outlets in the study countries preferred chips to other potato products, with 100% respondents putting chips first in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda. The percentage reduced to 65-79% in Uganda, Ethiopia and Burundi (Table 11). At the regional level, chips were reported to have become standard menus in hotels and restaurants and consumption of chips is increasing in all the income groups. Consumption practices of potato products vary from country to country. In the households of almost all eastern and central African countries, consumption of boiled potato is most dominant cultural dish (Table 12). However, consumption of potato in the form of sauce in mixture with other spices is the most popular cultural dish in Ethiopia. Consumption of fried/grilled potato is also a common cultural dish in Tanzania.The forms in which potato products are consumed are closely related to income levels of households. Low income households consume potatoes in the form of traditional dishes, such as mixed sauce and boiled, while the high income households consume potatoes in western type dishes such as chips, crisps, salads and others. In Uganda, 70% of the households preferred chips to other potato products because of children.In Burundi, the preferences of potato products for household consumption varied according to age and income. The youth and children like potato chips and fried potato, while elders prefer boiled potato.In eastern and central African countries, 80% of the retail outlets purchase potatoes and carry out own processing of chips, usually on orders by customers (Table 13). In Tanzania and Rwanda, all the sampled retail outlets process chips in their own premises. The corresponding figures in Ethiopia and Burundi account for 58% and 66%, respectively. All the high standard retail outlets and most of the low standard ones in ECA countries practice own processing of chips in their premises. Own processing of French Fries is also a common practice of retail outlets in other countries. For instance, quick service restaurants in India, such as Wimpy, was reported to process 70 MT of French Fries per day (Global AgriSystem, 2005). At the time of the study, it was established that there was no enterprise or company that is engaged in processing, packaging and selling of ready-to-fry chilled or frozen chips in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda (Table 14). However, five processors 1 (one frozen chips processor and the rest chilled chips processors) were identified in Kenya. Only one processor of chilled chips was also identified in Uganda. The practice of processing chilled and frozen ready-to-fry chips is relatively more advanced in Kenya.In Kenya, 78% of the overall sampled hotels process their own chips and 22% get fresh chips supplied by processors on a daily basis. The processor in Njoro, named as Njoro Canning, focuses on processing and supplying frozen chips, while other processors supply fresh chips. We suspect that the number of processors may be higher than five, as they are unregistered and operate informally at the back of their business areas or houses. Five chips processors were identified during the study ( 2004) All of the processors are not registered and operate informally and there could be even more processors Njoro canning processes and supplies frozen chips, while others process and supply fresh/chilled chips Two of the suppliers of fresh/chilled chips process 183 tons/annum Supplier of frozen chips (Njoro canning) processes 144 -216 tons/annum Uganda Only one processor (Kitty Enterprise) was identified at the time of the study (2004) This processing plant was at its infant stage (only two years old ) It was focusing on promotion and quality testing of chips It was processing at the time of the study 2 tons/annum Ethiopia, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda No enterprises that are engaged in processing, packaging and selling of ready-to-fry frozen/chilled chips were identified Post processing quality loss is their fear Their major problem is unawareness of processing, packaging, storage, etc. techniques in chips making Njoro Canning has linkages with Tigoni Research Center, KARI, Kenya. Different varieties of potato were given to Njoro Canning for testing and evaluation of their chips quality. Njoro Canning contracts farmers to produce and supply potatoes. It processes and stores frozen chips in its storage depots located at Njoro, Nairobi and Mombassa. Having storage depots especially in Nairobi and Mombassa helps Njoro Canning to immediately supply frozen chips to retail outlets such as hotels and supermarkets on demand.In Uganda, processing of chips is of recent phenomenon. Only one local fresh/chilled chips processor, Kitty Enterprise, was identified during the study. This processor started processing business in 2002, but still has a small processing capacity. Fresh chips are packaged in ordinary polythene bags on which the name of the company is printed. Kitty Enterprise supplies the packaged fresh/chilled chips to supermarkets, such as PAYLESS and UCHUMI. Some of the major problems of this enterprise were lack of skills and knowledge on processing and preservation techniques. These included determination of the shelf life of frozen chips, quantity of preservatives and additives that are adequate for quality chilled chips. Other problems faced by the processor included unsustainable supply and even lack of quality potatoes for chips making, poor post harvest handling of potatoes and lack of capital to strengthen the business. However, Kitty Enterprise plans to build a big factory for chips processing and export frozen chips to neighboring countries.The major reason that initiated the retail outlets to start processing of chips in their own premises was to fulfill the demands of their customers as expressed by 40% -96% of the respondents in the study countries. The second reason is that there is no company that processes and sells ready-toprepare frozen chips in adequate quantities at reasonable prices. Even though frozen chips are imported by all the study countries except Rwanda and Burundi, most of the retail outlets still preferred own processing of fresh chips to purchasing frozen chips. This was for three reasons: first, the retail price of frozen chips is high and it will discourage customers. Second, trade in frozen chips is very limited and not easily and adequately available on the market and third, most of the customers tend to prefer the tastes of fresh chips to frozen chips.In Eastern and Central African countries, the practice of chips processing is common in urban households. Seventy percent of the urban households on average process chips in their own houses (Table 15). It ranges from 45% of urban households in Tanzania to 86% in Rwanda. Chips processing in urban households is also closely related to wealth. Seventy seven percent of the high income and 57% of the low income urban households purchase potatoes and practice chipsprocessing in their own kitchens. In countries where there is no imports of frozen chips, such as Burundi and Rwanda, the proportion of urban households that process own chips is higher than other countries. Processing of fresh chips at household levels is also a common practice in Sudan.It was reported that French fries are either produced at household level, or purchased as imported deep-frozen food from super markets (NL EVD International, 2009). Retail outlets in ECA countries have different capacities of chips processing, ranging from 6.1 tons/annum/retail outlet in Burundi to 33 tons/annum/retail outlet in Tanzania (Table 16). Since households process chips for their own consumption, the quantity processed per household is small, ranging from 0.05 ton/annum in Ethiopia to 0.7 ton/annum in Rwanda.Each of the three chips processors in Kenya on average processed 117 tons of chips per annum.The infant chips processing enterprise in Uganda processed only 2 tons/annum of chilled chips.With increasing demand, the quantity of chips processed in retail outlets and processors is expected to increase. In general, the small quantities processed indicate that trade in chips in ECA countries is not yet strong even though there is a high potential for chips demand and quality potato production suitable for chips making.Processing of French fries was the most progressed economic activity in South Africa. Reports indicate that the South African potato processing industry has grown over the past ten years at a rapid pace and it is still growing fast. The growth of French fries processing industry was mainly ascribed to the expansion of fast food industry, the growth of average income of population and the rapid rate of urbanization (Aartappels, 2010). The report has also indicated that in the year 2008/09, about 380,000 tons of potato was used mainly for French fries processing. Even though chips processing is not a developed sector in the ECA countries, estimation of profitability in retail outlets indicates that it is a worthwhile investment. From processing of 100 kg of potatoes, a net profit of USD 11.0 was obtained from retail outlets in Tanzania (Table 17)and the corresponding profit from processing 100 kg of potatoes in Ethiopia and Burundi about USD 69 (Tables 18 and 19). The profit rose to USD 126 in Rwanda (Table 20). Although the magnitude of the profit varied from country to country, it was positive and highly encouraging.The high potential of ECA region for potato production is also a good opportunity to take advantage of investments in chips processing.     Although domestic processing is the major source of chips in the ECA countries, limited quantity of frozen chips is imported in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania from Europe and South Africa. Companies import frozen chips and distribute to retail outlets, mainly higher star hotels and supermarkets. In Ethiopia, very limited amounts of frozen chips, not exceeding 25 tons, is imported from Europe (mainly from Belgium, Holland and Germany) each year to be used in only two five-star hotels. However, no imported frozen chips is available in supermarkets or other retail shops. In the case of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, relatively large quantities of frozen chips are imported from South Africa and it is also easily available in big supermarkets, such as Uchumi and Nakumatt in Kenya, Shoprite in Uganda and U-turn in Tanzania. For instance, only one company in Tanzania imports about 73 tons of frozen chips per annum and distributes to hotels, restaurants, supermarkets and fast food retail outlets. Importing will remain an important option as far as there is no competitive enterprise in the ECA countries that can process and supply quality and adequate amounts of frozen chips to domestic market in a sustainable manner.Import of frozen potato chips is also a common experience of other ASARECA member countries, such as Sudan. Processing and marketing of frozen French fries are not a strong practice in Sudan and the domestic demand is almost entirely fulfilled by imports from Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia and European countries (NL EVD International, 2009). It was also reported that Sudan is a promising market potential for Frozen French fries as import is increasing from year to year.Burundi and Rwanda did not import frozen chips at the time of this study (2005/06). Burundi, rather, imports potatoes from Rwanda for chips processing. One hotel in Rwanda (Hotel des Milles Collines) used to import frozen chips from Belgium via Sabena airways. However, Rwanda was not importing at the time of the study because of lack of importer.No export of frozen chips was, however, reported in all the ECA countries. The processors in Kenya and Uganda are still at infant stages and they are not able to meet even the domestic demands. Njoro Canning in Kenya is stronger than all the other processors in ECA countries and it has the potential to export to neighbouring countries in the near future.The cold store chain is not a well developed service for frozen chips in the ECA countries. This is because there is no production of frozen chips in all of the study countries, except Kenya. NjoroCanning enterprise in Kenya has a relatively well developed cold storage depots in Mombassa and Nairobi since it produces frozen chips.Other enterprises that provide cold store services are those that import frozen chips. Importers of frozen chips in all the ECA countries, except Rwanda and Burundi, have cold storage chambers for imported frozen chips. Almost all the retail outlets and high income households in all of the countries have refrigerators mainly to store soft drinks, alcohols and perishable stuff. The practice of storing fresh chips in refrigerators is very limited since chips are produced on demand for immediate consumption. Some retail outlets store fresh chips in refrigerators until requests are received to save time when order for chips is highest. Among the retail outlets that do not use refrigerator to store fresh chips, most of them believed that storing fresh chips in refrigerator reduces the quality.Njoro Canning, Kenya, in addition to depots it has in Nairobi and Mombasa, has one cold store at the factory enough to store 200 tons and one refrigerated truck for delivery. Nairobi Airport Service (NAS) has Cold stores and Refrigerated trucks to handle customers' goods at a fee.Horticultural Crop Development Authority (HCDA) has about half a dozen refrigerated trucks which are available for hire. Big supermarkets that are involved in trade of imported frozen chips in all the importing ECA countries have also cold storage chambers.In Uganda, Kitty Enterprise does not have a well developed cold storage system for potato chips except refrigerators. Once processed, the chips are quickly delivered to the retail outlet. In the case of Rwanda, only Intercontinental Hotel in Kigali and Kivu Sun Hotel in Gisenyi have cool storage chambers.In Tanzania, except for the cold store chain operating for Bright Choice Company in handling imported food items, including frozen chips, none of the interviewed retail outlets and households had cold store chain in operation. Bright Choice Company, the only importer of frozen chips to Tanzania, has a well-established cold chain facility, including refrigerated cars and insulated vans for short distance delivery of their products.In the case of Burundi, hotels have refrigerators but the majority of them don't store fresh chips because they prepare for immediate consumption on order. Hotels of very high class have cold rooms, but they don't store potato chips. Some bars and restaurants of high class have cold chambers.Refrigerated transport services are vital especially for perishable commodities such as potato chips. In all the ECA countries, they use refrigerated transport services for chips from ports or points of supply to points of distribution.In the case of Ethiopia, the company that imports frozen chips from Europe is the only enterprise that has refrigerated facility to transport frozen chips from the port of Djibouti to Addis Ababa.In Kenya, transport services are available through road networks, railways, air freights and ports.Kenya Railways has specialized facilities which could handle frozen chips including mechanically refrigerated bogies and iced perishable wagon.In Tanzania, Bright Choice uses ship (shipping agent: MAERSK SEALAND), vans and cars (all refrigerated) for transportation of frozen chips. Frozen chips come from South Africa by ship in refrigerated containers. At Mombassa and or Dar es Salaam ports, the product is taken in refrigerated trucks to the company yards where the product is stored in refrigerated chambers.Refrigerated vans and or cars distribute the frozen chips to customers.In Rwanda and Burundi, there is no demand for refrigerated transport service since there is no import of frozen chips.Despite the fact that all the retail outlets have access to credit services in Ethiopia, only 32% of them had taken credit either to construct new hotels or re-habilitate existing ones. The main sources of credit for the hotels are banks. Other retail outlets did not take credit because they had adequate capital and there was no need for credit. Some of the state owned hotels get subsidy from the government and they did not want to take credit. Since they can provide collateral, all the hotels have expressed that credit services were favorable to them, but faced problems related to credit services. The government is also encouraging investors through provision of long-term loans. In general, credit facilities in Ethiopia are favorable for investments in worthy enterprises.Hotels and restaurants in Rwanda can access credit easily from different financial institutions like banks, Co-operatives and microfinance institutions. Although credit services are available, all (100%) hotels, and Bars & Restaurants visited did not get credit and the reasons given are that they use own capital, high interest rates for some banks and lack of land to expand their businesses.In Kenya, entrepreneurs both small and large could easily access credit facilities from microfinance institutions, commercial banks, and farmers co-operatives.In Burundi, the loan is provided by banks, saving and loan cooperatives and socio-professional mutuality. The loan forms that are found in Burundi are: short term credit for small equipment, midterm and long term credits for important investments. Midterm and long term credits require mostly guarantee or mortgage. There also exists an informal loan system where traders lend money to other traders at high interest rates. The traders with less means borrow money from big traders who are credible with banks. The loan system existing in Burundi is not favorable to small entrepreneurs due to lack of guarantee or mortgage. The two main constraints to credit system in Burundi thus are lack of guarantee or mortgage and high interest rates. It is necessary to improve the credit system in order to promote the potato chips industry.In Tanzania, a high percentage of respondents (87.8%) admitted that credit facilities were available and could be accessed. Respondents from bars and restaurants said that the credit they had accessed was used as capital. On the other hand, many respondents said that they had no need for credit. High interest rates and difficulties in getting loans are main problems related to credit services in Tanzania. It appears that respondents were not interested in getting credit because the repay back period was very short.Whereas there are several financial institutions in Uganda, the majority of entrepreneurs interviewed did not take credit because of fear of failure to pay back the debts. All the small processing units interviewed did not access credit services. Borrowing is not a particularly attractive option. There is fear to obtain credit mainly due to the small volume of sales. On the other hand, the lending costs are high. However, liquidity problems limit the scale of individual trading business, resulting in high costs of operation, high prices and low demand.Government policies in the ECA countries are favorable for importations and investments. The states have established investment promotion agencies to create favorable conditions for investment. There are also Bureaus of Standards and Quality Control in the countries to control the qualities and standards of imported goods. This safeguards the health of consumers and quality of products.In general, there is favorable trade policy in the ECA region. The existence of Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and East African Community (EAC) trade policy favors inter-regional trade in goods and services. All the countries covered in this study, with the exception of Tanzania are members of COMESA and Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are members of the EAC. Then, all the study countries are members of either COMESA or EAC or both and this makes them beneficiaries of inter-regional trade agreements. Trade liberalization program of COMESA aims to create a single economic space in which there is free movement of goods, services, capital and labor (Chanthunya, 2004). The EAC also aims at widening and deepening cooperation among the partner states through policies and programs. In the economic sphere, the EAC will focus on regional integration of trade and investment policy, monetary and fiscal policy, and labor and capital markets (Economic analysis paper No. 2.1, 2001). The trade policy agenda of the EAC aims at turning the three partner countries into a single investment and trade area, in order to increase the volume of trade among them and with the rest of the world. The ultimate goal is to promote rapid economic growth and development, generate employment and uplift the standard of living of the East African people. Eventually, goods, labor, and capital will move freely among the three countries. EAC has now expanded to include Burundi and Rwanda, for which policies will have to be developed. This will further enhance easy and free regional trade.The government policy in Rwanda is very favorable for importation investment in whatever business. A Rwanda Investment Promotion Agency (RIPA) has been created to promote investments by setting up favorable conditions. There exists also the Rwanda Bureau of standards which controls the quality of imported and exported goods.Trade tariffs for frozen chips in Ethiopia are treated similarly to those of other products imported into the country. Importers are expected to pay 30% duty, 15% VAT and 3% withhold tax when 4.6.2 Scenario 2: Processors as a source of chipsIn the ECA countries, only Kenya and Uganda have started processing and trade in either fresh 2 , chilled 3 or frozen chips 4 . These infant processors sell their products to retail outlets (mostly hotels and supermarkets) from where the processed product goes to consumers (Figure 4). This scenario is for the case of only Kenya and Uganda.The third source of chips in the ECA countries is imports. Few companies import frozen chips either from South Africa or Europe and distribute to retail outlets, from where eventually the chips reach consumers (Figure 5). This is the case of Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.2 Fresh chips refer to and are ready for frying with being chilled or frozen 3 Chilled chips refer to chips cooled at -4 degrees centigrade 4 Frozen chips refer to chips frozen at -18 degrees centigrade Youngsters like chips since its price is affordable as compared to prices of most other food items. Chips are sold on the road sides and in kiosks in various packs that can be sold for as low as less than half a dollar, which is suitable for people of various income groups.Income of urban population is increasing from year to year in Africa. The phenomenon of increasing urbanization and tourism industry is closely linked to increasing income of urban households. This contributes to the increasing demand of value added products, such as chips. According to the report on the context of urban development, SSA, the economic growth that has taken place in recent years in Africa is mainly urban-based (The Urban Transition in SSA, 2007).In all of the ECA countries, the most distinctly observable source of new growth in demand is from processed potato market in the form of chips. In urban areas, especially in big cities and towns, chips are a common menu item in restaurants. These restaurants include those found in hotels, independent restaurants and especially franchised-type fast food restaurants. In towns that have influx of tourists, hoteliers use menus that are familiar to the visiting tourists and this includes chips. Demographic trends show that urban growth rates are especially high and that this growth will continue into the future and these markets will become ever larger and more important. It is also important to note that urban areas are also home to most of the economically upper and middle-income families with sufficient incomes to afford higher value processed potato products like chips. The increasing number of hotels and restaurants also indicates an expected increase in potato consumption in cities and other urban centers. For instance, potato consumption in Nairobi grows at a rate of 17% per annum.The prices of imported frozen chips are very high compared to prices of domestically processed chips with the price increments ranging from 198% in Tanzania to 632% in Kenya (Table 22). The high price for imported frozen chips ensues mainly from high transaction costs involved from the point of processing to point of consumption. The big price gap between domestically processed and imported chips creates a good opportunity for the emergence of domestic processors and regional trade in frozen chips in the ECA countries. In general, the following major conditions favor emergence of the potential regional trade in frozen chips among the ECA countries:Transaction costs of domestic processors will be relatively low and the prices will accordingly be lower than imported ones provided that they are able to process and supply acceptable quality of frozen chips.Domestically processed frozen chips are demanded in the market. For instance, NjoroCanning in Kenya processes and supplies acceptable quality frozen chips to supermarkets at a price that is about 80% lower than that for imported frozen chips. According to the views of Uchumi and Nakumatt supermarkets, Njoro Canning frozen chips are cleared/sold faster than imported frozen chips. No complaints were received from customers on the quality of Njoro Canning frozen chips.There are no trade restrictions between East and Southern African countries because of COMESA trade agreement. COMESA has 19 member states, including all of the countries covered in this study with the exception of Tanzania. According to the information from COMESA Secretariat (Chanthunya, 2004), COMESA trade liberalization program states that the main objective of trade liberalization is to create a single economic space among its member countries in which there is free movement of goods, services, capital and labor. This is achieved through instruments such as tariff reduction and removal of non-tariff barriers.Moreover, the principle of free trade regime in COMESA is non-discriminatory. It means same treatment of like products from all member countries and same treatment of foreign like product as domestic product. There is also a \"Zero-tariff\" rule on goods from COMESA countries and no \"Non-tariff barriers\" on COMESA goods. All these evidence suggests the existence of favorable environment for trade among the COMESA countries.Since ECA countries are potentially high producers of potatoes, there can be adequate and sustainable supply of the raw material, as far as the required attributes for quality of potatoes for chips making are maintained. The area under potato is also indicating a tremendous increase over time. For instance, in Ethiopia, the area under potato increased by about 400% in the early 2000s as compared to the 1980s (Agajie et al, 2002). Some evidence in Africa such as FAO statistics of 2002, also support that the area under potato in SSA has increased by about 250% in 2001 as compared to the area coverage in 1993. Among the SSA sub-region, the share of area under potato in the ASARECA region accounted for 71%. According to FAOSTAT database, potato production is also estimated to be growing at a rate of 10% per annum in the ASARECA region and this ensures availability of adequate supply for the raw material. The statistics also indicate that the growth in area under potato in SSA is highest as compared to the area under other crops, such as wheat, rice, maize, sweet potato, cassava and yams. The fast growth for the area of potato was because commercially oriented farmers are responding to increased demand from growing urban centers. Moreover, subsistence oriented farmers are responding to ever shrinking farm sizes. This is because, revenue from potatoes is generally 10 times greater than grains, and energy per hectare per month from potatoes is five times that of grains. Policy makers have also noticed and believed potato exports as a potential source of foreign exchange. In the ASARECA member countries, this quantity of raw material means that about 900,000 tons of chips can be produced in the whole of ASARECA member countries. All the evidence supports that there is a reliable and adequate potential of potato supplies for processing industries.Economic profitability analyses of chips processing in ECA countries indicate that chips processing is a rewarding, lucrative and remunerative investment. For instance, an economic profit ranging from USD 11.00 to 126.00 per 100 kg of potatoes was obtained from chips processing in different ECA countries.These opportunities suggest the potential trade in frozen chips that can be created between ECA countries. In the short run, there is a possibility for Njoro Canning to penetrate markets of neighboring countries, such as Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and others.The ten ASARECA member countries produce potatoes accounting for 71% of the total production in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Evidence indicates that in 2004, the total production of potatoes in the ASARECA region was estimated to be over 14 Million Tons (Berga, 2004).According to sub-sector analysis study for potato and sweetpotatoe, 80% of the total potato produced is ware, 10% goes for seed and 10% is waste (ASARECA, 2005). Out of the total for ware, 85% of it is consumed in its boiled and other forms while 15% of the ware goes for processing.Out of the potatoes allocated for processing, 90% of it goes for chips processing and the remaining goes for crisps and others. After processing, the recovery percentage of chips is 60% while the remaining is peels during processing. The diagram indicating the potential production of chips in the ASARECA region is indicated in Figure 6.According to the potato sub-sector analysis (PRAPACE and ECAPAPA, 2004) in the ASARECA region 10.8% of the total potato produced is allocated for chips processing. After processing, net chips production will be only 6.5% of the total potato produced. With this conservative estimate, ASARECA region had the potential of producing 907,200 tons of chips per annum by 2004 (Figure 6).For countries that are covered in this study, the potential production of chips was also estimated, based on an average of 12 years of potato production. Its forecast was also made for 2015, assuming a 10% growth of potato production per annum. Accordingly, the countries considered in this study have the potential of producing 234,201 tons of chips per annum by 2008 (Table 23).By 2015, the same countries have a potential of processing 296,371 tons of chips per annum.These facts suggest that appropriate and favorable intervention options need to be set in place to exhaust the potential of chips trade in the ECA region.  4.9 Cross-cutting problems in chips processing and trade in the ECA regionThe following cross-cutting problems were identified in processing and marketing of chips in all the study countries.Availability of sufficient amounts of potatoes that meet the required quality attributes such as high dry matter content, medium to large size, white to crème color and oval or elongated shape is generally limited in all the ECA countries. Because of seasonal nature of production, their supply is also irregular and unsustainable. Potato commonly available at the market is very poor in quality and does not fulfill the most important quality attributes required for chips processing. Poor quality of potatoes results in high losses (about 40% on average) and poor quality of chips and other products. It is mainly because of this problem that countries are importing frozen chips to meet customers' demands for quality chips. This has forced spending of hard currency by the countries on imports of frozen chips.Lack of knowledge and skills of chips processing, packaging, frying, storing, additives, preservatives and others is significant in all the countries. The processors, retail outlets and households practice chips processing mostly by trial and error. Information is lacking on dimensions of chips (length, width, etc), type and quantity of oil to be used, suitable equipment, packaging, the duration fresh chips should be stored in refrigerators, types and amounts of additives and preservatives, etc. As a result, the quality of chips processed is mostly poor even though consumers still by them. Considerable proportion of chips is not sellable and this limits the market. For instance, crisps processors in Ethiopia described that it is because of lack of knowledge in the above areas that theydid not yet start processing of chips.Retail outlets of high standards and processors complained non-existence or unawareness on the quality standards for chips. They do not have idea about how quality chips should look like. Especially customers of high class retail outlets (such as hotels and bars & restaurants) demanded quality chips for health concerns. This problem has forced the use of poor quality chips and the resulting low prices.The reason why most of the retail outlets are processing chips by themselves is because of lack of companies that processes and sell ready-to-fry frozen chips. Even though there is a processor of frozen chips in Kenya, it cannot meet the demand of chips in the country. Availability of enterprises specialized in processing, packaging and selling of ready-to-fry frozen chips would potentially increase the demand and growth of the chips industry.The retail outlets, especially low standard ones that did not yet start processing of chips said they had never received requests for chips from their customers. This implies that considerable proportion of the population is lacking awareness about chips. 3. The overall quantity of chips processed and marketed in the retail outlets and processing sectors is still very low in all the study countries, but there is variability among them.4. The lack or unsustainable supply of potatoes that fulfills the required quality attributes for chips processing was reported to be a major problem in all of the ECA countries. Even though few varieties are available that are relatively better for chips processing, their supply is very limited, unsustainable and seasonal.5. The demand for chips is increasing from year to year in the ECA region due to growing urbanization, increasing tourism industry, and the change in food habits.6. ASARECA region has a huge potential of potato production, including the countries where this study was conducted. In this region, potato production grows at a rate of 10% per annum. This implies that the potential to sustainably supply raw material, potatoes, for chips processing exists.7. In all the study countries, processors of potato products, retail outlets and household consumers emphasized that there is lack of adequate knowledge and skills in the processing and frying techniques of chips.8. All the six study countries lack established quality standards for chips processing. As a result, chips that are prepared by processors, retail outlets and individual households have variable qualities and standards. Even in the same package, it is common to see different qualities of chips in terms of length, thickness, crispiness, color and other merits.9. In all the study countries, there are favorable conditions on trade tariffs, investments and inter-regional trade in general. All these countries are members of either COMESA or East African Community (EAC) or both.10. The cold store and transportation chains are not well developed in the ECA countries, as a result there is less trade in frozen chips in the region. The cold store chain available is limited to companies that import frozen chips and retail outlets that store and distribute frozen chips to consumers.11. Among the study countries, four of them (Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and Tanzania) import frozen chips to meet demands of high class retail outlets and high income urban households.12. Chips processing is observed to be an economically feasible and remunerative investment as evidenced by case studies of four countries: Tanzania, Burundi, Ethiopia and Rwanda.Scenario analyses and projections indicate that trade in chips is a promising business sector in the ECA region.Different intervention options for research, extension, development and policy need to be implemented in a participatory and integrated approach to overcome the cross-cutting constraints and strengthen trade in chips in the ECA region. Intervention options include:1. Limited supply of quality potato varieties for processing into chips.  Promote the existing varieties of potato that are relatively good for processing through various methods, such as fliers, public media, manuals, posters and others  Research should focus on generating potato varieties that possess attributes for chips processing demanded by the market.  Establish ware potato producers association and link them to markets to ensure sustainable supply. These associations should be from different agro-ecologies in each country with different seasons of potato production.2. Lack of adequate knowledge and skills on chips processing, storage and frying techniques. Promote available information and training on improved chips processing, packaging, frying, and storage techniques to retail outlets, processors and households. This could be achieved through mass media, such as radio, TV and news papers and print media, such as fliers, manuals, recipes, posters and other relevant materials.  Research needs to be strengthened in generating improved chips processing technologies as per the needs and quality standards of each country. Beneficiaries should be involved in the research processes from planning to consumption stages.3. Non-existence and unawareness of standards for chips processing:  Develop country standards on potato chips according to consumer preferences and existing policy scenarios. These standards should take into consideration available regional and international standards for potato chips as reference.  Harmonize country standards and establish regional potato chips standards to promote inter-regional trade in frozen chips.  Promote the established country and regional standards to create awareness 4. Absence or limited availability of enterprises engaged in processing and selling of ready-to-fry chips: Encourage and strengthen existing processors (in the case of Kenya and Uganda). This can be achieved through promotion of their products and exempting them from taxes until they are well established. This will help them to register and sell their products formally.  Promote investments in chips processing. This could be achieved through dissemination of available baseline information on access and availability of quality raw materials, increasing demand for chips, profitability of chips processing, the possibility of regional trade, favorable investments and trade conditions in the region and other aspects. Promote chips through electronic and print media  Conduct market promotion by giving sample chips free of charge for a limited time as compliments for customers.Stakeholder involvement is vital for joint planning, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of the interventions. It is important for cost and responsibility sharing and avoiding reinventing the wheel by organizations as a result of doing the same thing without proper communication among themselves. The key stakeholders that need to create partnerships and common platforms to overcome the major problems and strengthen chips processing sub-sector are the following with some of their roles:1. The National Agricultural Research Institutes (NARIs)  Creating strong links between research institutes and processors. Processors should be considered one of the key stakeholders in the course of research. For instance, involving the processors in needs assessment and variety tasting for processing  Create enabling conditions for the informal processors to be exempted from taxes until they are well established in their business and then encourage them to be registered and operate formally.  Facilitate potato producers to be organized formally, for instance, in the form of \"Seed and Ware Potato Producers Unions\" and help them obtain legal entity and provide technical backstopping, such as auditing, training and others.  Help the potential frozen chips processors in finding markets for export, especially in COMESA member countries. 4. Development Organizations, such as NGOs, Regional and International Organizations  Help the potential processors in creating enabling conditions for financial services, such as Micro Finance Institutions, capacity building, organizing processors, linking processors to retail outlets, transfer of chips processing technologies through appropriate routes to technology transfer such as pamphlets, posters, mass-media, etc.  Regional and International organizations (ASARECA programs, CIP and others) could help in technical backstopping and capacity building (such as, organizing experience sharing visits, on-the-job trainings, stakeholder consultations, etc.).  Regional and International Organizations could also help in providing competitive grant funds for research and extension works that target strengthening potential chips processing sector.  Transferring findings of the study through websites, publications, organizing workshops and other relevant forums.","tokenCount":"11200"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1041171900.json b/data/part_1/1041171900.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..0f0543655aa0cb7b549114cfc54398d9f0df8100
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/1041171900.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2c02165ca53ef01bc62e38e91e49feca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3175159d-bd12-4603-850c-2dc8777182eb/retrieve","id":"1150904714"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d2d6683-d715-4494-b8ed-920ac7845c56","pagecount":"1","content":"The wild bean P. albicarminus accession G40901 conserved in the Future Seeds germplasm bank (Palmira, Colombia) is currently not available because of lack of seeds for distribution. This living collection has been noted as susceptible to attacks of nematodes and root rots, putting the accession at risk.Phaseolus albicarminus Debouck & N. Chaves Successful P. albicarminus grafts reached 52.8%. In Corrales, the adaptation was 56.5% and in Tenerife 43.5%. Rootstocks #9, #13 and #15 are the ones that best adapted to the conditions of Corrales and Tenerife (Figure 1a, 1b and 1c). The remaining rootstocks had a success rate less than 50%. It was possible to establish 23 plants (grafts) of P. albicarminus (13 in Corrales and 10 in Tenerife).The grafts were carried out with the simplified slit-type method for P. vulgaris, and successfully validated in species such as P. albicarminus, P. albiflorus, P. chiapasanus and a hybrid of P. vulgaris x P. dumosus (Izquierdo & Hosfield, 1982;Gurusamy et al., 2010 ;Sabogal-Carvajal et al., 2022). The grafts remained in a growth chamber programmed with the conditions indicated in Table 1. The grafts that survived were moved to the experimental stations of Corrales (1850 masl) and Tenerife (2200 masl). The experimental design was completely randomized with 3 replications.By the grafting technique, the compatibility of 16 bean accessions (6 P. coccineus + 3 P. dumosus + 2 P. lunatus + 5 P. vulgaris ) as rootstocks to propagate P. albicarminus, was evaluated, therefore reducing the use of original seeds in the multiplication process, reduce/mitigate root problems, and shorten the reproductive cycle of P. albicarminus.  To date, grafts allowed the production of 7 seeds of P. albicarminus (Figure 1d), where it seems that there is no incompatibility due to the species of the rootstock. The goal is to carry out massive grafting in the coming years until completing 2,000 P. albicarminus seeds. ","tokenCount":"308"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1062041584.json b/data/part_1/1062041584.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d9e67cc0e21deeceffe75e87befb12a8f773de88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/1062041584.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1c9f51aaba901c389c09586094db6735","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/541321b9-5fc7-4e6a-a4f0-170d98295949/retrieve","id":"1297672645"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7cfa8690-6b3f-434a-b6e2-671489c9526c","pagecount":"30","content":"Những năm 1960, sản xuất nông nghiệp ở miền Bắc được tổ chức theo mô hình hợp tác xã, việc chăn nuôi trâu được giám sát chặt chẽ. Nhiều phong trào chăm sóc trâu bò béo khoẻ, lấy đội ngũ thanh thiếu niên làm nòng cốt được phát động.Bức tranh gợi không khí náo nhiệt của một đại hội thi trâu, nơi những con trâu béo khoẻ được tập trung tại sân hợp tác xã để bình xét, đánh giá và khen thưởng cho người chăm sóc trâu.  Chuẩn bị thức ăn cho vật nuôi là một hoạt động quan trọng trong chăn nuôi. Hình ảnh cô gái chăm chú thái chuối để nấu cám lợn rất đỗi quen thuộc và bình dị, nhưng cây súng và chiếc túi dết treo phía sau cô lại chính là những yếu tố phản ánh sâu sắc một giai đoạn cả dân tộc Việt Nam đoàn kết, mỗi người dân là một chiến sĩ, vừa sản xuất vừa sẵn sàng chiến đấu bảo vệ Tổ quốc.Lợn đói một bữa bằng người đói cả năm.-Thành ngữ -Ở một góc trại bò, cô xã viên đang ân cần cho bê uống sữa. Trước đây, bò thường được nuôi theo phương thức thả rông, năng suất thấp, không tận thu được phân bón, dễ lây nhiễm bệnh tật.Ngày nay, với những phương thức chăn nuôi mới như bán chăn thả hoặc nuôi nhốt, những trang trại bò được quy hoạch sạch sẽ, thoáng mát, bò được chăm sóc đầy đủ, vừa làm cho sản lượng bò tăng cao, đảm bảo tốt sức khoẻ vật nuôi, vừa bảo vệ môi trường.Bức tranh phản ánh giai đoạn miền Bắc trong những năm tháng hoà bình đầu tiên, bộ đội về nông thôn tham gia sản xuất và giúp bà con xây dựng nông thôn mới ấm no, trù phú.Tranh ca ngợi tình đoàn kết quân dân nồng ấm, đồng thời mang đến cảm giác hạnh phúc của ngày mùa xen lẫn niềm vui lao động bình dị và tình yêu đôi lứa. Dưới nét cọ tài tình của hoạ sĩ, không khí lao động hăng say của buổi cày tập thể được khắc hoạ sống động, hứa hẹn một vụ mùa sung túc, bội thu. Trâu và chim, một to khỏe, vững chãi, một nhỏ bé, hiền lành; một quanh năm lầm lũi trên cánh đồng, một bay lượn tự do trên bầu trời rộng lớn, nhưng vượt trên tất cả, chúng vẫn trở thành bạn bè thân thiết của nhau.Từ hình tượng những con vật hết sức gần gũi, thông qua ngôn ngữ tạo hình đặc sắc, họa sĩ đã khái quát thành một thông điệp đầy tính nhân văn. Đó là sự đề cao giá trị tình bạn chân thật, không phân biệt khoảng cách hay khác biệt. ","tokenCount":"472"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1068204988.json b/data/part_1/1068204988.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..37b75e568453e1625ee0fb71106428987a2dc186
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+++ b/data/part_1/1068204988.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"84bdf95c05ed1ec4936849da7eaeb38e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/855700dc-2bd1-435d-ab6f-d3d59f9dfaf8/retrieve","id":"681204956"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f5c48cba-1ca5-4c45-b71b-5326cf4c9cf8","pagecount":"5","content":"Three years ago, a strategic decision was made to embed a CCAFS researcher within the agriculture group at WBG headquarters. The underlying reasoning behind this approach, i.e. the theory of change, was a belief that if WBG-supported agriculture projects, analytical tools, and knowledge products are designed using the most recent applied research knowledge about Climate-Smart Agricultural (CSA) opportunities, including about Climate Change (mitigation and adaptation) cobenefits, it will increase the breadth and depth of the impacts of these investments. The World Bank is a leading financier of agricultural development projects globally, with investments worth $6.8 billion in 2018, reaching over 30 low-income countries, among others. Thus enhancing the effectiveness of these investments will have considerable impacts globally.The role of the embedded CCAFS researcher has been to strengthen the linkages and collaborative actions of actors at the two institutions (the WBG and CGIAR). Benefits to World Bank programs and its client countries derive largely from better and more direct access to, and use of, CGIAR/CCAFS-generated knowledge, evidence, technology, technical assistance, data, analytical tools, and technical advice in the design and implementation of WBG 'operations' (Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA), investment projects and programs that the WBG develops together with lowincome country governments and others).Interviews of key actors from the World Bank side in this partnership effort suggest that the outcomes-the changes in behavior-toward which this embedded scientist approach is contributing, are being realized in three major pathways and levels:1) Internally, most of the teams in the Agriculture Group that design agricultural sector ASAs, projects and programs-together with client governments and other local partners-appreciate and better understand how to, and are now incorporating, activities and actions that address challenges presented by climate change. 2) Externally, the behavioral change happening in many WBG (low-income) country clients/governments is towards the adoption of climate smart agricultural approaches, policies and actions (CSA). 3) Globally, directors, regional managers and other senior staff at the World Bank are incorporating climate smart approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of their corporate strategy that they present to the World and in international climate and food system negotiations.Outcome pathway 1 -Changes in behavior within the Agriculture Practice Group leading to more evidence-based, forward-looking (to deal with a changing climate) and impactful investments. The CCAFS 'secondment' approach is contributing to innovations in how the World Bank's Agricultural Practice Group does business. In FY2018 alone, technical advice and knowledge products from CGIAR centers and CCAFS shared with project design teams contributed to improvements in at least 65 large agricultural projects and programs in low-and middle-income countries supported by World Bank grants and loans. The key improvement has been the inclusion of CSA activities and actions, enhancing their outcomes related to reducing greenhouse gases while enhancing poor rural peoples' livelihoods. In 2016, only 28% of agriculture projects included actions aimed at addressing climate change. In FY2018, on average across the entire portfolio of new agriculture projects (worth $4.1 billion), 45% of their budgets are dedicated to activities and actions that are contributing to making project recipients/countries more resilient to a changing climate, while contributing to GHG emissions reductions. This is rapid progress towards a goal recently articulated by the World Bank's CEO as having 'all Bank projects' contributing to addressing climate change challenges.The CCAFS embedded scientist has been a member of the Bank's CSA team which facilitates the activities of the CSA Global Solutions Group, a large community of practice within the WBG on CSA that shares knowledge, produces monthly bulletins, leads internal capacity building activities, provides technical advice to task teams, initiates global advocacy activities; all of which have contributed to raising the awareness for CSA within the Bank. In addition, the shift towards including CSA activities in agricultural projects continues to progress with his support, to the development of a 'resilience' framework that will include a rating of the degree to which WBG projects are resilient and are contributing to enhancing resilience to climate change (a challenging task).In the last three years, World Bank task teams have had much more direct access to CCAFS/CGIAR knowledge of CSA opportunities in particular. This has led to a change in behavior within the agriculture group, where people interviewed to collect evidence for this outcome story all agreed they are seeing a more widespread use of the latest research evidence and tools developed by CGIAR/CCAFS and others in the conceptualization and design of projects and programs jointly with government clients in low-and middle-income countries. A robust peer review at concept note, quality enhancement and decision stages of Bank-funded projects is used to assure the best possible likelihood of impact and high returns on investment, but in the past it often did not include expertise and knowledge from outside the WBG. ). This regional joint effort is increasing awareness among policymakers about the impacts of this recurring climate pattern on agri-food systems in five countries, including Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Philippines and Vietnam. • A regional climate resilience knowledge exchange receiving support through the WBG-CCAFS partnership has been organized between the African and Asian agricultural networks COMESA and ASEAN. A Climate Resilience Forum co-organized by the World Bank and COMESA took place in Lusaka, October 2018 and an African Regional Organizations exchange to ASEAN in October 2017. • Innovate ways to disseminate CGIAR knowledge to WB clients and broader audiences were deployed, benefiting from knowledge platforms such as the FARMD.Interviewees gave several additional examples of other country-and regional-level influence and changes in government policies and practices that the CCAFS collaborative approach has contributed towards. These include:• Providing technical advice to the Latin America Region to identify opportunities for the WB on agriculture finance, climate finance and CSA and to support development of analytical products (e.g. Brazil) • Identifying low carbon development agriculture strategies at the national level in Colombia.Outcome Pathway 3. Globally, directors and regional managers at the World Bank are incorporating climate smart approaches and the scientific evidence base supporting them as part of the corporate strategy that they present, including in international climate and food system negotiations.While this is arguably the shift in behavior on the World Bank side that will ultimately have the greatest impact globally, as with the other pathways but to a greater extent, there have been multiple players involved alongside CCAFS. Several high level WBG staff interviewed, however, noted the technical inputs from CCAFS were provided at a critical time towards a joint CGIAR/World Bank submission to the UNFCCC on issues related to agriculture and ongoing collaboration on the global climate change negotiations (COP24). This is significant, as it took a concerted effort over many years by many institutions to get agriculture seriously on the agenda in global climate change processes. Additionally and as an example, in 2015, a first analysis of INDCs with a focus on agriculture, was also instrumental in informing World Bank management and other staff about countries' climate change commitments and were used to inform follow-up discussions with clients and other stakeholders. A discussion paper on Climate Finance and agriculture, was produced and served as the World Bank's contribution/ background document for the 2016 FAO State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA) report. It also helped to inform World Bank project teams in project preparation and was also discussed and disseminated in several global events, helping to inform the global dialogue in this field.Other aspects contributing to achieving positive outcomes. When WBG project leaders, managers and directors were asked what aspects of the CCAFS 'embedded researcher' approach they thought were key, the 'sustained, systematic' nature of the support was uniformly appreciated, alongside 'hands on' help at critical junctures (e.g. in project formulation stages, as well as during negotiations with client governments). The speed and efficiency at getting linked up to key experts, knowledge products (from multiple sources), and exposure to more effective and efficient partnership approaches were also highlighted.In terms of future directions, it was pointed out by most interviewees that a single person can only accomplish so much in an institute as large as the World Bank. One manager thought such a person in each region is needed. The 2-way learning involved was also emphasized; both institutions have lots of knowledge to share and learn from. Most interviewees said that more experienced 'knowledge brokers' are needed at the WBG, and the return on the (relatively small) investment in an embedded scientist has been high.","tokenCount":"1391"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1087188951.json b/data/part_1/1087188951.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..19059a29e3db7159316015dcbfb0ed7d29763447
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+++ b/data/part_1/1087188951.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be45908a06ddc8ea283d492ca7e26a2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor-icraf.org/publications/pdf/CIFOR-ICRAF-Annual-Report-2021-ID.pdf","id":"-675637903"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"46d4315c-9a15-47b2-a590-17eaee1368d4","pagecount":"24","content":"Area penelitian Kantor pusat CIFOR-ICRAF 3 Jangkauan Kemitraan unduhan publikasi kutipan publikasi jangkauan di media sosial kunjungan situs web mitra pendanaan mitra strategis 2,5 juta 50 ribu 927 305 juta 56 juta 159 281 artikel media 3,7ribu Perwakilan seluruh dunia CIFOR-ICRAF beroperasi di 64 negara dan memiliki kantor di 25 negara. Saat ini kami memiliki 739 staf dan 192 proyek aktif. Kami sangat berterima kasih atas dukungan finansial dari para mitra donor kami dan kolaborasi para mitra strategis kami. cifor-icraf.org/partners Untuk informasi lebih lanjut lihat halaman 21. Kesepakatan-kesepakatan selama beberapa dekade dengan negara tuan rumah kami, Indonesia dan Kenya, mencerminkan kepemimpinan global dan komitmen mendalam mereka terhadap hutan, pohon, dan agroforestri.Ada beberapa titik balik yang memberikan harapan baru di 2021: melambatnya laju penularan Covid-19 yang dipicu oleh vaksinasi (walaupun penyebarannya masih belum merata), peluncuran Dekade Restorasi Ekosistem PBB, dan Deklarasi Pemimpin Glasgow Terkait Hutan dan Tata Guna Lahan yang menorehkan sejarah dalam sektor lingkungan hidup dan kehutanan.Pada saat bersamaan, CIFOR-ICRAF juga mengalami dua peristiwa penting: keberhasilan menyelesaikan proses penggabungan dua organisasi yang telah berlangsung selama tiga tahun dan juga sepuluh tahun berjalannya Program Penelitian CGIAR mengenai Hutan, Pohon dan Agroforestri (FTA). Di bawah, pimpinan CIFOR-ICRAF yang didukung oleh kerja sama dengan berbagai mitra kontribusi FTA, telah berhasil membuat jutaan hektar hutan direstorasi dan mendapatkan perlindungan yang lebih baik -dan jutaan orang dengan peningkatan keamanan pangan dan nutrisi beserta langkah-langkah untuk mengentaskan kemiskinan.Kini setelah bergabung sepenuhnya, CIFOR-ICRAF menghasilkan lebih banyak bukti mengenai potensi transformatif dari pohon dan hutan melalui penelitian-penelitian yang terkonsolidasikan ke dalam lima tema terintegrasi (pohon, iklim, tanah, pasar, dan tata-kelola). Tiga pendekatan holistik kami -Platform Kemitraan Transformatif, Lanskap Keterlibatan, dan Produk Unggulan -memanfaatkan sumber daya dan kemitraan di seluruh Afrika, Asia, dan Amerika Latin. Kami menyelesaikan tahun ini dengan proyek awal senilai USD 430 juta dan manajemen internal yang terharmonisasi. Kami juga membuat kemajuan pesat dalam pencapaian tujuan-tujuan Gender, Keanekaragaman dan Inklusi serta memiliki situs web baru yang lebih dinamis (cifor-icraf.org). Selain itu, kami juga telah meluncurkan proses rekrutmen posisi Chief Executive Officer untuk memimpin CIFOR-ICRAF ke tahap berikutnya.Laporan ini menawarkan beberapa solusi untuk menghadapi lima tantangan global. Deforestasi dan hilangnya keanekaragaman hayati, perubahan iklim, disfungsi sistem pangan, rantai pasokan dan nilai yang tidak berkelanjutan, dan ketidaksetaraan. Pencapaianpencapaian yang ada termasuk penginformasian kebijakan nasional di Peru dan Vietnam, menerapkan teknologi baru di Cekungan Kongo dan India, dan menciptakan solusi bersama dengan mitra dan komunitas di Indonesia dan Kamerun, seraya mengintegrasikan pertimbangan hak-hak perempuan, masyarakat adat, dan komunitas pedesaan yang rentan.Proyek-proyek baru menarik yang diluncurkan pada tahun 2021 termasuk Trees Outside Forests in India (TOFI) yang didukung oleh USAID dan Agroforestry and Restoration Accelerator di Brasil dalam kemitraan dengan The Nature Conservancy dan Amazon Inc.1,5 miliar orang telah terhubung melalui Forum Bentang Alam Global (Global Landscapes Forum, GLF), yang terus membuat fondasi baru -terutama pada konferensi iklim PBB di Glasgow, yang sesinya dilihat lebih dari 1 juta kali dari 140 negara. Resilient Landscapes juga dengan cepat menjadi penghubung antara sains dan bisnis, keuangan, pemerintah, dan masyarakat sipil, dengan proyek-proyek baru yang dimulai di Papua Nugini, Serbia, dan Brasil.Bersamaan dengan penyerahan tongkat estafet Ketua Dewan Pembina dari Claire O Connor untuk menyambut Profesor Getachew Engida, CIFOR-ICRAF kini berdiri sebagai satu organisasi yang dibentuk oleh kesamaan nilai. Berkat dukungan dari donor dan mitra strategis kami, serta upaya tak kenal lelah dari lebih dari 700 staf kami, kami berada di jalur yang tepat dalam menerapkan teori perubahan kami dan mewujudkan visi kami mengenai dunia yang lebih setara di mana bentang alam hutan dan agroforestri dapat meningkatkan kondisi lingkungan dan kesejahteraan untuk semua orang.Planet kita dan orang-orang yang hidup di dalamnya berada di tengah-tengah badai yang sempurna yang datang dari lima tantangan global yang saling berhubungan: deforestasi dan hilangnya keanekaragaman hayati, perubahan iklim, disfungsi sistem pangan, rantai pasokan dan nilai yang tidak berkelanjutan, serta ketidaksetaraan. Setiap krisis tersebut memengaruhi yang lainnya, penyelesaiannya memerlukan respons menyeluruh yang mempertimbangkan bagaimana manusia dan lingkungan hidup terdampak dari waktu ke waktu.  Pohon memainkan peran penting dalam nutrisi dan ketahanan pangan orang-orang di seluruh dunia. Baik di hutan maupun di lahan pertanian, pohon memberikan manfaat bagi masyarakat baik secara langsung melalui makanan yang mereka tanam, dan secara tidak langsung melalui jasa ekosistem untuk pertanian, dan pendapatan yang dihasilkan melalui penjualan kayu dan hasil hutan non kayu.Platform Kemitraan Transformatif Nutri-scapes (TPP) mengeksplorasi cara yang lebih baik dalam mengintegrasikan pangan dari pohon liar dan budidaya ke dalam sistem pangan untuk pola makan yang lebih sehat dan mata pencaharian berkelanjutan. Platform ini menerapkan lensa lanskap untuk tantangan-tantangan mendesak dari kerawanan pangan dan gizi dengan mengenali berbagai peran berbeda yang dari pohon dan tanaman pangan di berbagai tempat, mulai dari hutan ke lahan pertanian hingga konsumen perkotaan -dan dengan berfokus pada bagaimana memanfaatkannya untuk mengembangkan solusi-solusi transformatif.TPP bekerja lintas geografi dan proyek untuk menyoroti pertukaran dan sinergi dalam sistem pangan. Sebagai contoh, di Indonesia, TPP bekerja untuk memahami bagaimana konversi ke kelapa sawit di lanskap petani kecil dan konversi hutan bakau di lanskap pesisir memengaruhi pola makan dan pendapatan.Dengan mitra-mitra Zambia, TPP melakukan estimasi representasi nasional pertama dari kontribusi pangan liar untuk berbagai pola makan dunia.Bersama dengan komunitas lokal di seluruh Afrika, para peneliti Nutri-scapes bersama-sama mengembangkan 'portofolio makanan bergizi' yang spesifik. Portofolio ini dirancang untuk mengisi kesenjangan mikronutrien musiman pada pangan lokal melalui kombinasi pangan dari pohon setempat dan eksotis, di samping sayuran, kacang-kacangan dan tanaman pokok lainnya. Kompleks Hutan Mau adalah 'menara air' terbesar di Afrika Timur, yang merupakan pemasok utama air tawar dan sumber daya lainnya untuk enam juta orang di bagian hilir. Dari 2012 hingga 2021, proyek Menara Air Afrika Timur yang didanai BMZ melibatkan masyarakat melalui penelitianpenelitian aksi dan menyatukan asosiasi masyarakat hutan dan asosiasi pengguna sumber daya air melalui kegiatan-kegiatan penelitian dan pengembangan kapasitas untuk mengidentifikasi pengaturan tata-kelola bersama yang adil dan kolaboratif.cifor.org/water-towers Selama lebih dari 200 tahun, perempuan telah mengelola rantai nilai shea, memproduksi minyak goreng dan produk perawatan kulit dari biji pohon shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) baik untuk keperluan rumah tangga maupun perdagangan lokal dan regional. Ini adalah spesies pohon yang paling banyak ditemukan di taman-taman Afrika Barat, dan Burkina Faso adalah pengekspor utama biji shea dan mentega shea.Tetapi selama 20 tahun terakhir pasar telah bergeser untuk memenuhi permintaan yang meningkat dari negara-negara BRICS (Brasil, Rusia, India, Cina, dan Afrika Selatan) untuk Cocoa Butter Equivalents (CBEs) yang digunakan terutama dalam industri cokelat dan panganan.Tren ini, bersamaan dengan perubahan iklim dan perambahan pertanian, mengancam lahanlahan shea dan jasa ekosistem yang disediakannya. Meskipun demikian, hanya dua persen dari target nasional untuk memulihkan lima juta hektar lahan pada 2030 yang telah tercapai.Proyek Globalizations in a nutshell yang dibiayai IDRC-FTA berusaha untuk menguraikan dinamika kompleks dan sifat gender dari rantai nilai shea, dengan tujuan meningkatkan tata kelola lahanlahan shea untuk mengurangi dampak guncangan ekonomi dan iklim pada produsen perempuan.Sebuah analisis sejarah mengenai perdagangan shea sejak akhir abad ke-19 menyoroti bagaimana berbagai kebijakan, kebangkitan kelompok-kelompok produsen lokal dan akses ke pasar-pasar baru mendorong pemrosesan dan pemasaran shea ketika degradasi lahan terus berlanjut. Studi-studi ini menunjukkan bahwa kontribusi FTA telah menghasilkan: peningkatan perlindungan untuk 26-133 juta ha hutan, yang mewakili 24-125 Gt emisi CO2 yang dihindari; 2-35 juta ha lahan yang direstorasi; pengelolaan yang lebih baik untuk 60-204 juta ha lahan; sarana tambahan untuk keluar dan mengurangi kerentanan dari kemiskinan bagi 5,1-19,0 juta orang; dan sarana tambahan untuk meningkatkan ketahanan pangan dan gizi bagi 1,1-3,5 juta orang. © Tom Fisk/ Pexels CIFOR-ICRAF mengharapkan sebuah dunia di mana penduduknya menikmati mata pencaharian yang didukung oleh bentang alam yang sehat dan produktif serta tangguh melalui kekuatan transformatif hutan, pohon, dan agroforestri.Terjadinya krisis global saling memperparah satu sama lain dengan cara yang membahayakan, didorong oleh deforestasi dan hilangnya keanekaragaman hayati, perubahan iklim, sistem pangan yang tidak berfungsi, rantai pasokan dan nilai yang tidak berkelanjutan, dan ketidaksetaraan yang memengaruhi perempuan, penduduk asli, dan kelompok terpinggirkan lainnya.Tetapi pohon -baik di hutan atau di pertanian -merupakan bagian penting dari solusi tersebut.CIFOR-ICRAF memberikan bukti berdasarkan permintaan mengenai bagaimana cara pohon dapat merevitalisasi bentang alam dan mata pencaharian. Lahir dari penggabungan organisasi-organisasi penelitian paling terpercaya mengenai hutan dan pohon -Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) dan World Agroforestry (ICRAF) -CIFOR-ICRAF memanfaatkan gabungan keahlian dan jaringan kemitraan yang luas selama 70 tahun di seluruh Afrika, Asia, dan Amerika Latin.Meskipun mempertahankan badan hukum dan kantor pusat yang terpisah, CIFOR-ICRAF, sekarang beroperasi di bawah satu badan pengurus dan tim kepemimpinan, dengan struktur regional bersama, lima tema penelitian dan tiga pendekatan holistik -Platform Kemitraan Transformatif, Lanskap Keterlibatan, dan Produk Unggulan -semuanya dipandu oleh Strategi CIFOR-ICRAF 2020-2030.Kami memiliki 730 staf yang bekerja dengan penuh dedikasi di 60 negara dan kantor di 25 negara. Kesepakatan-kesepakatan selama beberapa dekade dengan negara tuan rumah kami Indonesia, dan Kenya, mencerminkan kepemimpinan global dan komitmen mereka terhadap solusi berbasis alam. Kami sangat berterima kasih atas dukungan finansial dari 159 mitra donor kami dan kerjasama dari 281 mitra strategis kami.Secara total, kami telah menyelesaikan lebih dari 2.200 proyek senilai lebih dari USD dua miliar di 92 negara. Melalui lebih dari 25.000 produk penelitian kami dan rangkaian situs web, berita, media sosial, dan kegiatan; pesan kami akan terus memobilisasi audiens yang terus bertambah, baik di kalangan akademisi, pemerintah, atau masyarakat sipil.Entitas jaringan CIFOR-ICRAF memperkuat dan memajukan tujuan bersama kami untuk membuka potensi pohon dan hutan dalam memerangi krisis global. Sebagai gerakan global terkemuka dalam bentang alam berkelanjutan, Forum Bentang Alam Global telah menghubungkan 1,5 miliar orang, dari para pemimpin pemuda hingga para donor multilateral besar. Kemitraan Global untuk Hutan, Pohon, dan Agroforestri telah meluncurkan fase kolaborasi baru. Dan Bentang Alam Tangguh, dengan cepat menjadi penghubung penting antara sains, bisnis, dan keuangan.","tokenCount":"1580"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5be6809adbd2d6bf9bee5980650dc5f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/729b2340-67f4-4831-a50b-c50ca2279b87/retrieve","id":"1590988014"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"310c7e41-0a1a-4a85-9e71-3211235e1e34","pagecount":"5","content":"Current lack of progress on gender equality in agriculture and natural resource management suggests that we need to fundamentally and critically question how these sectors approach gender, in order to more substantively and sustainably address inequalities.-Gender transformative approaches represent a shift in how we think about and approach gender in order to address these shortcomings. They seek to tackle inequalities by engaging women and men together in addressing underlying gender barriers. In particular, they can shift constraining gender norms, which are a critical leverage point for enhancing gender equality.While gender transformative approaches have become increasingly recognized as important, there are critical gaps in evidence regarding how they work and their outcomes. But, if better evidence can be built and applied, gender transformative approaches offer a potent opportunity for development programs and investments to make lasting progress toward equality.-With less than a decade left to meet the Sustainable Development Goals, the sobering current global trajectory is one in which it will take roughly 170 years (http://www3. weforum. org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_Gap_Report_2016. pdf ) to achieve gender equality. The current global pandemic has both made gender inequalities more visible and worsened them (https://blogs. lse. ac. uk/covid19/2020/05/18/naila-kabeer-labour-market-inequalitiesare-exacerbated-by-covid-19/) , including in food systems.The lack of progress in reducing inequalities in the agriculture and natural resource management sectors, despite investments in women's empowerment, underscores the need to interrogate and rethink current accommodative gender approaches, which focus on working around -rather than directly addressing -structural barriers.A team of co-authors across CGIAR recently undertook a literature review that identi es and synthesizes two main critiques about current common approaches to gender. Our goal is to help the research and development community respond to the need for new ways to address gender inequality in food systems.First, the literature indicates that current gender approaches have failed to deliver gender outcomes as intended. In particular, while they may \"reach\" women (such as by involving women in trainings), they do not necessarily lead to substantive or lasting empowerment.Second, common gender accommodative approaches only engage relatively super cially with how social change occurs. Current strategies tend to address visible gaps, yet do not take into account that inequalities persist (or return) because of underlying structural factors (http://pubs. iclarm. net/resource_centre/AAS-2012-20. pdf ) , in particular gender norms (https://www . igwg. org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Gender-Continuum-PowerPoint_ nal. pdf ) .Gender norms are the unwritten rules of any given society about the expected behavior (https://www . tandfonline. com/doi/abs/10. 1080/13545701. 2015. 1078485) of women and men. These include what paid or unpaid work and roles are considered \"appropriate\" for different genders in the farm and household, which assets should be controlled by whom, and overall, how women and men should act and interact, including which gender is \"the decision maker\" versus which is the \"caregiver\".Norms vary by context and intersect with other aspects of identity (such as wealth, ethnicity or religion) and other expectations and practices. The fact that gender norms are underlying drivers of gendered practices, but also dynamic and changeable, makes them critical leverage points (https://www . world shcenter. org/content/gender-and-systems-researchleveraging-change) for enhancing gender equality, something that is overlooked by gender accommodative approaches.In response to the above critiques, a growing number of research-for-development institutes and development agencies have developed and applied a range of gender transformative approaches (https://www . cgiar. org/innovations/gender-transformative-approaches/) over the past decade. Following the lead set by the reproductive health sector, CGIAR and partner teams have taken up this challenge (https:// sh. cgiar. org/gender-research-in-sh) by conceptualizing and innovating with gender transformative approaches in and for food systems, including land-based and aquatic food systems (https://www . tandfonline. com/doi/full/10. 1080/09718524. 2020. 1729480) and natural resource governance.Based on these emerging experiences and gender transformative cases from the literature, we have arrived at the following insights about gender transformative approaches as a potential way forward.In terms of outcomes, the transformative approaches used in the cases we reviewed catalyzed at least three types of signi cant-and interconnected-gender outcomes: reductions in underlying barriers (such as gendered attitudes to partner violence); improvements in women's empowerment (such as in decision-making and division of labor); and contributions to other outcomes (such as production practices, nutrition and health).ndings represent a signi cant breadth and depth of gender-related outcomes, including constructive changes across the cases in underlying gender attitudes. As attitudes represent a proxy for norms, this suggests the approaches may indeed contribute to shifts in some underlying structural gender barriers.In terms of how change happens, the cases illustrate two mechanisms that gender transformative strategies have in common: the strategies seek to surface and engage with underlying barriers (norms); and, they engage both women and men as actors in catalyzing equality, rather than focusing only on women. Moreover, the strategies all combine re exive, participatory methods and tools that engage participants as agents in their own social change process.Our analysis also revealed notable gaps. First, there is a lack empirical evidence in agriculture and NRM about outcomes from gender transformative versus accommodative approaches. Although gender transformative approaches do appear compelling, it will be challenging to make informed investment decisions without more systematic evidence on the speci c and relative contributions of different approaches. At the same time, while there are solid arguments and evidence that gender accommodative approaches are insu cient, there are substantive gaps in understanding how to move ahead effectively with gender transformative approaches.We note, in particular, three critical areas in need of further research:Strengthening the contribution of agriculture and natural resource management to gender equality is a pressing development challenge -never more so than now, as COVID-19illuminates and worsens the persistent equity fault lines in food systems. Emerging transformative approaches advance equality (https://www . scielo. br/scielo. php?pid=S0104-83332018000100202&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en) by tackling the limiting ways in which gender has been addressed, including by presenting an alternative to viewing women primarily as instruments of development.If su cient, and su ciently high-quality, understanding and evidence can be built and applied to inform development practice, gender transformative approaches offer a potent opportunity to transition from pervasively slow or regressive trends toward substantive and lasting progress towards equality in food systems.how to more effectively engage with intersectionality (rather than gender only) when working for transformational change; ","tokenCount":"1012"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"41c658e568e063e83843487246576ec4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abb72a50-0daa-4196-8f12-a0f8a5c97c57/retrieve","id":"-63669073"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c692b6a4-6148-492f-ae8f-6a1d6e2fea40","pagecount":"1","content":"El banco de germoplasma de forrajes, hoy operado por el Programa de Recursos Genéticos (PRG) del CIAT fue establecido a finales de 1978. Entre 1978-79, las colecciones de pasturas tropicales fueron progresivamente enviadas al banco para su conservación y estudio. Con el mandato mundial para los forrajes tropicales de zonas bajas, el PRG conserva en su mayoría como colección de semillas 23,140 accesiones de este cultivo (CIAT, 2009). Dado que las actividades de germoplasma -entre otros, la distribución -han tenido lugar desde 1973 hasta la fecha, se han podido realizar algunos análisis de tendencia.La firma de un acuerdo en Octubre de 1994 entre la Organización para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) de las Naciones Unidas y el CIAT, confirmó aún más la función conservadora del PRG. Desde 1995, la distribución de germoplasma a los usuarios externos ha sido sistemáticamente realiza bajo la aceptación de un Acuerdo de Transferencia de Material (SMTA). Entre 1995-1996 la primera designación a la FAO (Ej. el envío de un archivo electrónico de todas las accesiones mantenidas en fideicomiso por el CIAT) tomó lugar con posteriores actualizaciones cada dos años.A diciembre de 2009, el PRG ha recibido accesiones procedentes de 74 países y ha distribuido a 105 países. Un total de 58 países han sido donantes y receptores de accesiones de Forrajes Tropicales (Figura 1).Estas actividades de distribución e investigación relacionadas han sido apoyadas por las subvenciones del presupuesto básico del CIAT (Con aporte del USAID y la Unión Europea), el Banco Mundial, Consejo Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos, the System-wide Programme on Information for Plant Genetic Resources, the Global Crop Diversity Trust, y el Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural de Colombia.Referencias CIAT (2009). Reporte anual. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical. Palmira, Colombia. FAO (1998). The state of the world's plant genetic resources for food and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.  En la Tabla 1, se encuentra un listado con los 20 principales países donantes de germoplasma de forrajes, procedentes de África, Asia, Centro y Sur América. También se puede observar que países como Etiopía se han beneficiado de la distribución que existe con el Acuerdo de Transferencia de Materiales (SMTA); el PRG conserva 273 accesiones de esta país y le ha distribuido 1,165 accesiones (cuatro veces más que su colección conservada) procedentes de 33 naciones. El mismo caso se refleja en países como Perú y Ecuador pero en Suramérica donde han recibido materiales de 42 y 34 países, respectivamente. En Asia, el caso más relevante lo presenta China, del cual se conservan en PRG 278 accesiones con esta procedencia y se han enviado 370 accesiones a este país con 35 diferentes orígenes. El PRG ha enviado un total de 44,398 muestras (13,190 accesiones) a usuarios externos en 105 países alrededor del mundo, lo que indica que un 57% del total de la colección ha sido distribuida.Los usuarios más importantes que se han beneficiado con este banco de germoplasma son los Programas Nacionales, Universidades y otros usuarios como compañías comerciales, agricultores, organizaciones regionales, etc. (Figura 2), utilizando este cultivo para diferentes propósitos tales como la agronomía, el entrenamiento, la investigación básica y aplicada principalmente (Figura 3).  ","tokenCount":"526"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c6608d0827c11eaff54d6f39589079d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/775f836f-5e20-4fbd-bfdd-36232bf60c8d/retrieve","id":"1040174078"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"382411f4-6c48-493e-b83e-412305ba20b6","pagecount":"25","content":"Coffee and vanilla farming play an important economic and social role in the development of Uganda, the tenth largest coffee producer in the world and the second largest in East Africa after Ethiopia (UCDA 2015). Coffee is Uganda's leading agricultural export as between 4 and 5 million 60kg bags are exported. In 2018, 23,000 kg of cured vanilla worth USD6.40 million were exported. The production of the two crops is highly susceptible to the negative effects of climate change. A variety of initiatives by government and the private sector has been introduced to tackle challenges from climate change in coffee. However, the vanilla sector has not been prioritized by the government.The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in collaboration with Catholic Relief Services (CRS) undertook a small project in Uganda to explore existing coffee and vanilla diversification. The study was funded by Sustainable Food Lab (SFL) on behalf of private sector partners interested in potential investment in vanilla production. The objective of the study was to provide recommendations on effective approaches for diversified farming systems in resilient coffee and vanilla.A literature review was conducted of key publications and the knowledge existing on both coffee and vanilla growing and crop diversification. Subsequently, data collection tools and protocols were developed, and a baseline survey was conducted to gather information from smallholder farmers and other key stakeholders in the coffee and vanilla value chains in 2 districts, Kasese and Buikwe. The goal of the baseline was to document existing options for crop diversification among coffee and vanilla farmers working with CRS.The baseline was conducted with farmers within the operational areas of CRS in Uganda. It covered 432 farming households from 7 sub-counties in Kasese and 6 sub-counties in Buikwe. A total of 216 smallholder farmers were interviewed from each district, collecting information from 16 focus group discussions (FGDs) and 2 stakeholders' workshops.Results from the baseline show that the intercropping is the common farming system in the two districts (53%) followed by agroforestry (22%). The majority of the farmers interviewed in both districts have experienced climate shocks that have resulted in loss either of life or of crops and livestock. Coffee is the preferred crop in both districts based on reasons ranging from heritage to issues of security. Although vanilla provided the highest incomes to households, it is not very popular among the farmers as it is a more recent crop than coffee. The survey also found that smallholder farmers diversify crops mainly for providing household food and to boost income. However, a good number of them were seen to practice agroforestry for shade provision (a production requirement for both coffee and vanilla). The common CSA practices used in the 2 districts are mulching (27%), trenches (15%), crop rotation (10%), and cover crops (8%). Practices such as terracing were found to be 10% in Kasese while in Buikwe, 18% of farmers reported the use of compost manure. In Buikwe, the key stakeholders identified were the Uganda Vanilla Farmers Network (UVAN). In Kasese, stakeholders included farmer cooperatives such as the Rwenzori Farmers' Cooperative Union (RFCU). These stakeholders provide farmers with support such as agricultural extension, inputs, and credit services. Based on functional and structural indicators applied to farmers, 4 main farmer typologies were identified during the baseline.The key findings of the survey and potential mitigation measures for challenges were presented and discussed with participating stakeholders in a validation workshop held in Kampala in February 2020. Key recommendations for private sector investment in further coffee and vanilla diversification are given at the end of this report.The baseline results will serve as the basis for future interventions in the 2 districts.The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has over time worked with smallholder coffee farmers to improve production and productivity in the eastern, central, and western parts of Uganda. In collaboration with public and private partners IITA developed the Stepwise approach that has been used to train farmers and give them management options for increased coffee production and resilience to the effects of climate change.With support from the Sustainable Food Lab, IITA collaborated with CRS in a pilot study in 2 districts in Uganda producing coffee and vanilla. The intention was to provide recommendations for a proposal to the private sector on effective approaches for resilient coffee and vanilla farming systems, aimed at promoting intentional multi-commodity and food crop diversification among smallholder farmers. Preliminary knowledge was gathered on the current state of existing coffee and vanilla intercropping and recommendations were made.The goal of the project was to understand existing coffee and vanilla farming systems in order to provide recommendations on effective approaches for resilient farming systems for both crops.The specific objectives were as follows. (1) Collect data on coffee and vanilla production underlining the cropping system, climate smart agriculture (CSA) practices applied by farmers, and the challenges farmers face in crop diversification. (2) Acquire information on best practices in diversification with which IITA, CRS, SFL and private sector partners can tailor future initiatives for resilient coffee and vanilla farming systems in Uganda.More specifically, activities included the following. In cooperation with partners, development of proposal draft.Development of information products (info note, blog).3.1 Literature Review A literature review was conducted in July 2019 to explore publications in scientific journals and other key knowledge sources on the limitations and opportunities for vanilla production in Uganda and specifically, for coffee and vanilla diversified systems. The review concluded that diversification encourages smallholder inclusion in agricultural value chains at different scales towards higher-value crops and a gradual movement into the non-farm sector (Djurfeldt, 2018). Appropriate crop diversification strategies have delivered positive effects, and coffee farmers are expected to be motivated to diversify by growing industrial crops such as vanilla which may also mitigate market risk (Thong Ho, 2017). Crop diversification in synchronized systems has the potential to deliver agronomic and ecological benefits, depending on the characteristics of site-specific ecosystems. The literature review concluded that diversification of coffee and vanilla can provide farmers with options for food and income security, and environmental and natural resource conservation which in the end result in resilience and adaptation to climate change.To verify the site-specific issues in Uganda, the study area was identified as Kasese district in western Uganda and Buikwe district in central Uganda, where CRS is already working with a network of coffee and vanilla farmers. Kasese district consists principally of 3 topographical features: (1) the mountainous areas, which consist of rugged mountain relief;(2) the undulating region at the foothills, and (3) the lowland flat areas in the south and south-eastern parts of the district. Kasese experiences a bimodal rainfall pattern (UBOS, 2017). The first rains are short but fall with high intensity during the March-May season, and the longer rains fall in the August-November season with a low intensity. Annual rainfall ranges from 800 to 1600 mm and is greatly influenced by altitude. Temperatures normally range between 23.9 and 30 o C. Kasese is covered with varied vegetation types: stratified vegetation zones of grassland at between 1000 and 2000 m; montane forest at between 2000 and 3,000 m; the bamboo/mimulopsis zone at 2500 to 3,000 m; the heather/rapanea zone at 3,000 to 4000m; and an Afro-Alpine zone at 4,000 to 5,000 m (UBOS, 2017). The main land use types in the district are crop farming, livestock keeping, fishing, mining, forestry reserves, and national parks. 4.3 Sampling Procedure RFCU and the district local government in Buikwe provided lists of coffee and vanilla producers from the different sub-counties. The respondents who participated in the baseline survey were randomly selected from these lists. A multistage sampling procedure was adopted. This first involved purposive sampling to identify farmers growing coffee and vanilla. Proportionate sampling was then done at sub-county level to identify the number of farmers per sub-county for interviews. Thereafter simple random sampling was done to identify respondents. The randomization was done using R statistical software version 3.6.2, to obtain a proportionate sample number of respondents from each sub-county. Extension staff in the field then contacted Lead farmers by telephone, who in turn contacted selected farmers to inform them of their scheduled interview day. The randomized names of farmers were then given to the enumerators to proceed to the field. A total of 432 households were selected as outlined in Table 1. The baseline survey used a mixed approach of qualitative and quantitative data collection for complementary data collection (Burke and Johnson,2005). The survey was conducted using digitalized questionnaires on tablets, and the data were uploaded online by data collectors while in the field. The qualitative data collection involved stakeholders' workshops and focus group discussions (FGDs). The workshops were conducted in both districts with key stakeholders in the coffee and vanilla value chains to focus on the land use and value chain mapping. The FGDs were conducted with the coffee and vanilla farmers at sub-county level. The purpose of the FGDs was to segment or cluster farmers, based on their different characteristics, to understand the CSA practices adopted by different farmers in the area. Focus groups were designed to have between 7 and 12 participants. The groups were separated by gender such that discussions were held independently between males and females. The quantitative data collection used individual interviews for farmers at household level.The digitized questionnaire was semi-structured with both open-ended and close-ended questions.Enumerators were selected and trained on the use of the digitalized questionnaire. Pretesting of the questionnaire was done with farmers from Luwayo Village in Kawolo sub-county. The latter did not participate in the survey. Data were collected in 2019 from 14 to 23 October in Kasese and from 28 October to 7 November in Buikwe. A total of 432 respondents were interviewed, 216 from each district -as above.Quantitative data were processed, analyzed, and organized in tables using R 3.6.2 and Microsoft Excel. Descriptive statistical values including frequency counts, percentages, minimum and maximum values, plus, averages were calculated to explain general household characteristics. Qualitative information was used to provide in-depth description of each output and analysis to complement the quantitative data. To obtain the typologies of farmers from the quantitative data a multivariate approach was used. Data were reduced to check for correlation among variables. Using a hierarchical clustering approach for mixed data, the farmer segments were created.The farmers in the baseline study were mainly men (75.9%) in both districts. This could be an indication that both coffee and vanilla are male dominated crops. Most men in both districts are above 40 years of age and have an average household size of 8 individuals, including 4 children. Most respondents are married: 91.2% in Kasese and 89.8% in Buikwe. Decision-making in each of the households visited is mainly done by the husband, although a good number of respondents indicated that they make decisions with their spouses. However, the wives do not make independent decisions. The respondents have differing levels of formal education with 57.6% having attained primary education; 26.2% have secondary education with very few having tertiary-level training. The main source of income is farming for 94.1% of respondents, followed by trading at 56.3% across both districts. Other income sources identified included formal employment and riding commercial motorcycles also known as boda-boda. In terms of experience, the farmers had more experience in coffee production (average 17 years) than in vanilla production (average 6.5 years). Most households visited subscribed to at least one group and had reasonable access to extension services, mainly from RFCU and UVAN. Few respondents had access to district extension staff for information on vanilla and for related extension services in particular. The majority indicated that the extension staff do not know where they stay. Some of the farmers have obtained credit from various credit institutions in the last one year. The farmers in Kasese are physically closer to input and output markets (only 3-4 km distance) than the farmers in Buikwe who are 15-17 km away. However, due to the topography, farmers in Kasese have more difficulties in accessing input and output markets. When it comes to climate change, a good percentage of the farmers reported that they have experienced climate change shocks. Those shocks mentioned in Kasese included rivers flooding, and landslides while prolonged drought and torrential rains were commonly identified in Buikwe.Household characteristics are summarised in the tables below:  Using the indicators above, farmers in the 2 districts were segmented/clustered. Four significant farmer categories emerged from Tables 2b and 3. In Kasese district, the farmers in segment IV are older -over 55 years. Those in segment III are young, on average about 31 years of age. Those in segments I and II are mature, about 46 to 48 years of age. Older farmers have more income than all the other categories. The discussions within the FGDs highlighted the fact that most respondents are landowners who have more assets and can access loans to boost their income. From the FGDs, most young farmers inherited land from their parents although some bought the land on which production is carried out. Young farmers have a dependency burden of about 10 members per household (almost like those from households of the older farmers which showed 11 members each). Compared to the older farmers young farmers have a considerable area under coffee and vanilla production. Their experience in production of these crops does not differ much from that of the mature farmers. They are closer to the output and input markets and the agricultural offices. In comparison with the other categories they have better access to services that would support their activities and enhance their production. In addition, most of them have gone to school and attained at least secondary education, a factor that is crucial in their income acquisition and financial management. In Buikwe district, the farmers were between 40 and 50 years of age (segments I, II, III, and IV). The older farmers have the highest dependency burden (14 members) compared to all the others. The 43-year category had the most income from both primary and secondary sources, and the largest land area under coffee and vanilla production. The 47-year old category had more experience in coffee and vanilla production followed by the 41-year old category. In terms of proximity to services, most farmers in Buikwe are near main roads, an indication that they have easier access to markets and extension services than Kasese farmers. The young people in Buikwe are not interested in perennial crops such as vanilla because of the time they take to mature. They prefer to engage in annual crops such as rice and vegetables that give quick cash. However, for extra income, they also offer labor to the older farmers growing coffee and vanilla and are employed in the many factories in the district. The two districts have mainly 4 crop production systems: (1) agroforestry, (2) intercropping, (3) sole cropping, and (4) sub-plots on the main plot area (Fig. 2). Intercropping was identified in 49% of households in Kasese and in 56% in Buikwe as the most practiced system, followed by agroforestry found in 26% of households in Kasese and 18% in Buikwe). Sole crops were mainly done for in maize, sugarcane, and rice grown for commercial purposes while the intercrops were mainly for subsistence crops. Agroforestry was practiced by farmers in the coffee and vanilla gardens because the two crops need a certain amount of shade in order to give good yields. Kasese district stands out in agroforestry as most farmers practice this deliberately to conserve the environment.  Various crops are grown in the different production systems. Figure 3 shows the priority crops in the 2 districts. Coffee and vanilla are most prioritized as cash crops across all respondents. Cocoa was the second prioritized cash crop, followed by sugarcane. There are more farmers engaged in cocoa production in Kasese than in Buikwe where more farmers are engaged in sugarcane production as out-growers for the sugar factories. Banana, cassava, beans, and maize are the most prioritized food crops for the two districts. Yam is another common crop in Buikwe that some vanilla farmers were growing for subsistence purposes. Farmers from both districts could not imagine life without diversification -an indication of the recognition of its importance. Every farmer identified with diversification as the means of survival. Figure 4 below shows the various reasons why farmers diversify their crops. According to respondents there are several reasons for diversification: food (21%) and income (25%) across both districts; and for shade provision -20% in Buikwe and 18% in Kasese. Other reasons for diversification include increased production, risk management, and limited land so that farmers are forced to diversify. Most farmers have less than one hectare and therefore need to grow many crops on a small area to achieve levels of both household nutrition and income as depicted below. For the farmers that grow sugarcane, especially in Buikwe, diversification is the only way to get food for the household as sugarcane production depletes essential soil nutrients for the production of other crops. Farmers in Kasese and Buikwe are faced with various challenges as indicated in Figure 5. The main challenge is from pests and diseases (49% of households in Buikwe and 42% in Kasese) followed by drought in both districts. Other challenges are limited capital and labor required for field management and provision of inputs.Intercropping might not be labor intensive as the requirements are shared among the crops but critical activities, e.g., vanilla pollination, can occur at the same time which then requires the hiring of additional labor. Some farmers (7% of households in Buikwe and 0.4% in Kasese) did not find any challenge in diversification. Farmers suggested solutions to challenges identified as shown in Figure 6 below. To overcome pests and diseases the farmers pointed to the use of pesticides although, at the time of the study, most of them were not using pesticides. To manage the problem of limited labor they suggested hiring labor from neighboring areas. To manage droughts the farmers suggested the use of irrigation and for limited labor, the farmers suggested working in groups and getting loans from microfinance institutions to be able to invest in their activities. Irrigation is suggested for both districts as they both have readily available sources of water in almost all sub-counties. This therefore makes the option of irrigation very appropriate. 5.6 Investment in Coffee and Vanilla Production 5.6.1 Vanilla Investment -Time, Labor, and Finances Overall, the production of vanilla is an intensive investment activity in terms of time, labor, and finances. Farmers in both districts invest a lot of time in it. Most do not hire labor for vanilla production for security reasons and rely on their own labor to curtail theft of their crop. This means that there is a high commitment on time and labor: time in Buikwe was 37% and in Kasese 47%, and labor in Buikwe 42% and Kasese 49% of time was recorded on vanilla production. Financial investment in vanilla production is for the 2 districts can be considered mixed as reported by 52% of households in Buikwe and 34% in Kasese. Farmers in Kasese do incur heavy expenses in guarding their crop from pollination to harvest while farmers in Buikwe have an arrangement with some of the actors such as UVAN who provide security and recover the costs when vanilla is sold after harvest. Most financial investments occur at the time of buying vines, putting up fences, and hiring security guards to protect the vanilla crop. 5.6.2 Coffee investment -Time, Labor, and Finances Generally, the investment in coffee production is not too heavy in terms of finances compared to vanilla: 69% for Buikwe and 58% for Kasese. Farmers in both districts reported investing relatively less money in coffee production. They also reported most of the work was done by family members. Also, coffee is a canopyforming plant as well as being grown under shade and therefore tends to supress weeds which reduces the time and labor required for weeding. That said, a great deal of time and labor was recorded: Labor reported was 38% for households in Buikwe and 33.3% in Kasese, and time was reported as 33.5% in Buikwe and 41.3% in Kasese. These figures seem high since most farmers are dependent on family members for labor. Practices in coffee production include pruning, de-suckering, harvesting, and drying the coffee beans before, as shown (Fig. 8) below. The activities that take most of the farmers' time, labor, and finances were further analyzed. It was found that weeding (18% and 19%), pollination (19% and 22%), looping (15% and 23%) and guarding (15% and 13%) took the most time and labor for the farmers in Kasese and Buikwe districts respectively. Guarding, looping, pollination, and weeding have a high cost burden. Farmers in Kasese hire guards from private security agencies to police their gardens and buy dogs which they have to feed, contributing to the high cost of guarding. The farmers from Buikwe have guarding services paid by UVAN, the cost of which is offset against the purchase of vanilla by UVAN. As the farmers do not directly feel the cost of guarding, they cannot report on this. On the other hand, many farmers in Buikwe as well as in Kasese go on to guard themselves, spending sleepless nights. Weeding, pollination, and looping are the practices that take most of the farmers' labor, time, and financial resources during production.Figure 9 showing level of investment for each of the agricultural activities.Even though vanilla is a labor and time intensive crop, it is also highly rewarding in terms of its contribution to household income. The incomes received by all farmers were higher from vanilla than from any other crop. The box plot (Fig. 10) shows how incomes from the different crops are distributed. The lower tail shows the lower incomes received by 25% of the households; the box shows the incomes received by 50% of the households with the line indicating the median income; and the upper tail shows the highest incomes received by 25% of the remaining households in the study. Vanilla has the best distribution as most farmers earn between UGX500,000 and UGX2,000,000 from their vanilla crop. The farmers in the lower and upper quartiles are very few in Kasese but there are more farmers in the upper than the lower quartile in Buikwe. The distribution of vanilla incomes for the farmers in the two districts is almost evenly distributed from low (UGX500,000) to high (UGX2,000,000) compared to those from cocoa and coffee. Farmers in Kasese also obtain income from forestry, unlike those from Buikwe that receive income instead from yam, tomato, and cabbage. A high number of households in both districts report theft as a key challenge for vanilla production: 34% in Kasese and 36% in Buikwe (Fig. 11). Farmers experience theft from the vines to the beans. In other words, both mature and premature beans are stolen. The tutors that support vanilla vines are also stolen when they have just been planted. Pests and diseases are the second most important challenge. The farmers cannot name them when asked to give an example but they recognize them as challenges. Many of those interviewed linked flower abortion to pests and diseases but FDG discussions showed that this was because fertilization did not take place, especially when pollination is done at the wrong time. Lack of readily available extension information on vanilla production is among the highest challenges -the evidence of this is the farmers' inability to identify pests and diseases affecting their crop. Vanilla farmers were found to have very little information, and very few sources of information, relying mainly on farmer-to-farmer engagement only. It was also noted that vanilla is a delicate crop in terms of handling -the flowers at pollination and pods must be handled with the utmost care. Drought retards yields as pollination is less successful in very dry conditions. In addition, flowering is limited in such conditions. Other challenges were identified, such as price volatility, limited research, inadequate markets, and extension. 6 Coffee Production Challenges Coffee production was found to face several challenges with the most significant problem being cited as pests and diseases (34.5% in Kasese and 44.7% in Buikwe). Other challenges reported included low prices, drought, inadequate markets, and theft with 23.4%, 21.6%, 9.1% and 8.9% for Kasese and 30.5%, 13.3%, 8.1% and 2.0% for Buikwe respectively (Fig. 12). Drought is a key challenge represented by 21.6% of respondents in Kasese and 13.3% in Buikwe. For coffee, information access was not considered as high a challenge as in vanilla. The common CSA practices for the 2 districts are mulching and trenches (Fig. 13). Cover cropping is practiced to a lesser extent. Terracing is common for Kasese because of its terrain; crop rotation and manure application are applied only in Buikwe. Crop rotation is not applied in Kasese due to land fragmentation resulting from a high population density and farmers practice intercropping on the same piece of land for a long time. On the contrary, farmers in Buikwe obtain some compost manure from Sekalala Enterprises of UVAN (which is offset against vanilla purchases), hence the evident manure compost use in Buikwe. The common cover crops are sweet potato and pumpkin Legume cover crops that add nutrients to the soil are not common, except for beans. Many farmers have not embraced CSA practices due to the limited extension information and support on how and when to apply specific practices.  Stakeholder interaction in Kasese district shows the land is divided according to altitude into lowland, midland, and highland (Fig. 14) and that these divisions determine the kind of activities carried out in the different altitudes. The lowland is mainly for fishing, cattle keeping, and mining. The midland is mainly for coffee production, scattered cattle keeping, and some vanilla growing. The highland is used mainly for coffee, banana, and vanilla production. The district is largely surrounded by national parks in the eastern and western parts. In Buikwe, there are different natural resources, industries, fishing, and agro-forestry activities and various crops grown by farmers in almost all the sub-counties in the district. Figure 16 shows how the farmers identified the various natural resources, crops, and economic activities that exist in the various sub-counties represented with symbols. Fishing is done in Lake Victoria and the River Nile. The district also has a good distribution of wetlands and rocks. Cooperatives were more reported by households in Kasese (50%) and farmers' groups were most reported in Buikwe (40%). The marketing agencies interface more with farmers from Buikwe (25%) than from Kasese where the common cooperatives reported were RFCU and Bukonzo Organics. The marketing agencies identified were Kawacom, Esco, and Ndali in Kasese while UVAN, UGACOF, Nucafé and Uganda Industries were some of the identified marketing agencies in Buikwe. Other companies identified were Kiima Foods in Kasese and Bucadef, and Slow foods in Buikwe. NGOs mentioned were Caritas and World Vision. For the government agencies, these were mainly the district and the MAAIF programs such as NAADS and OWC. Results from the study indicate that farmer-to-farmer exchange is the main source of vanilla planting material in both Buikwe (80.7%) and Kasese (78.2%). However, in Buikwe fellow farmers were recorded as 40.6% and the District Agriculture Office at 35.7%. In contrast, in Kasese coffee planting materials are acquired mainly from the fellow farmers (34.3%), nurseries (27.9%), and organizations (24.3%). In general, there is a limited number of actors in the vanilla seed sector. Compared to coffee, the seed sector is relatively more informal and attracts the participation of fewer actors. The main source of extension materials and information for vanilla in Buikwe was reportedly from fellow farmers (33.2%), radio (24.2%), and other organizations (20.6%). In Kasese the main source of extension materials and information for vanilla was from organizations (20%), fellow farmers (19%), radio (16.2%), trainings (15.4%), and farmer groups (12.9%).For the coffee value chain, the dominant sources of extension materials and information for Buikwe were the fellow farmers (28.8%), radios (24.3%), trainings (13.1%), and organizations (12.4%). For Kasese, the major sources of extension materials were also the fellow farmers (22.5%), farmers' groups (21.2%), and organizations (20.8%).  Studies around the world show that crop diversification leads to increased productivity and stabilizes incomes of smallholder farmers. In sub-Saharan Africa, crop diversification features prominently in many countries' adaptation strategies against climate change. Crop diversification has the potential to increase dietary diversity and food availability, thus contributing to improved nutrition. Through crop diversification, farming households can spread production and income risk over a wider range of crops, thus reducing livelihood vulnerability to weather and market shocks. Additionally, crop diversification can produce agronomic benefits in terms of pest management and soil quality, depending on the crop combination in the field. Smallholder farmers in this study were seen to be incentivized to diversify, given the higher income returns that mitigate market shocks.As we consider diversified crop systems we move into the area of living income where various other opportunities for increased income sources can be explored: off-farm activities such as boda-boda taxi services, sale of labor, and other small business opportunities along specific value chains that offer smallholder households Income generation.Private sector engagement and lobbying for more effective PPP collaboration are essential to ensure harmonized efforts. Effective PPP engagement supports the government's creation of a robust but flexible policy and regulatory environment that supports private sector initiatives, ensures smallholder farmers have access to quality planting materials and inputs, and provides a consistent, and harmonized flow of knowledge and extension support to smallholder farming communities. Continued research and development is essential to support evidence-based decision-making and continuous improvement of technologies that allow for adaptation to an ever-changing environment -both from a perspective of climate change and that of price volatility in local and international markets -to ensure sustainable production of high value export crops, while increasing nutrition and food security and improved livelihoods for the producers.Working collaboratively the private sector, development partners, academic and research institutes, governments, and local stakeholders can develop flexible, cost-efficient, and sustainable technologies that increase resilience, nutrition, and food security, and the productivity and marketability of high value crops for export.","tokenCount":"5004"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"509023a45cc406ece183791944aa9599","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1572095a-1fd2-4f17-a443-e774e8b30a48/retrieve","id":"532922048"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4612a0c9-da1b-4553-812b-39988b18508d","pagecount":"2","content":"WITH TWO-THIRDS of the dairy cattle in East and Southern Africa found in Kenya and per capita production double that found elsewhere on the African continent, the country's dairy sector has great potential for creating wealth by exporting dairy products to regional markets, according to the Export Promotion Council (EPC).\"For the sector to fully realise its potential, there is a need to expand its market outlets,\" said Matanda Wabuyele, chief executive of EPC. \"Currently, the country is not only producing below capacity, but also the domestic market is inadequate and cannot absorb all the milk output.\" Kenya's milk production is estimated at about three billion litres annually. According to the Kenya Dairy Board, marketed milk increased from 137 million litres in 2000 to 203 million litres in 2003.On the other hand, the processing factories have installed capacity of 2.2 million litres of milk per day or 803 million litres per year. The industry is currently utilising just over 30 per cent of its installed capacity. Only about 220,000 litres of milk per day are bought by the processors.However, the industry is controlled by small-scale farmers, whose amorphous structure makes regulation and planning of the industry difficult. Some 600,000 smallholders owning one to three cows currently produce 80 per cent of Kenya's milk whose consumption is in raw form.\"Raw milk fetches too little compared with pasteurised milk. To raise production and increase income for the producer, this pathetic trend should be discarded,\" says Fred Ogana, business development manager, Technoserve Kenya, a local dairy consulting firm.Consumers pay Ksh22 (27 US cents) per litre of raw milk, compared with Ksh50 (62 US cents) for pasteurised milk.Yet, despite this, further gains in dairy production and marketing are still constrained by a wide range of problems. Many existing dairy policies predate independence and tend to be discriminatory, with standards biased towards the formal sector.Though the Kenyan dairy industry is highly developed, compared with its regional partners, the country's dairy policies and regulations are still outdated. \"For instance, there is little difference in milk quality between licensed and unlicensed traders, which rather invalidates current official unwillingness to license small traders with no fixed premises,\" says Mr Ogana.In April, Tanzania passed a new Dairy Industry Act, which took into consideration the role of the smallholder whose representatives are to be found on the newly established Tanzania Dairy Industry Board.In Kenya, the first formulation of the Dairy Development Policy began in 1993 after the industry was liberalised. The policy was revised in 1997 and again in 2000. Yet, even after wide stakeholder consultations in 2000, the pace of policy revision has been slow and the Dairy Act remains a proposal.But according to Joseph Munyao, Kenya's Minister for Livestock and Fisheries Development, there should be no haste. \"We need to consider these issues with an open mind, then make appropriate recommendations without compromising the informal sector,\" he says.The industry is also plagued by other problems, including the high cost of inputs, lack of market information, unilateral imposition of tariff and non-tariff barriers in the importing markets, failure of the processors to sustain supplies throughout the year and inability to motivate the identified distributors to increase their sales.However, the poor road infrastructure remains the sector's biggest problem. It is estimated that for every kilometre of poor feeder road, farm-gate milk prices are reduced by three per cent. Yet, none of the cess levied on milk is currently used to improve roads. Kenya's Minister for Planning and National Development, Prof Anyang' Nyong'o, says, \"Large commercial dairy farmers need to develop an outgrower mentality. It has happened in the flower, sugar and vegetable oil industries.\" Prof Nyongo was speaking at a recent dairy policy forum held in Nairobi.It is estimated that 12 per cent, about 365,000 jobs of the national agricultural workforce, is employed for on farm dairy activities.","tokenCount":"637"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aff191c6596f1bf43ee69985c34b64d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b224b2b5-c382-4668-b2eb-9c9a0ea2132e/retrieve","id":"-1203584208"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"59334187-7933-40cc-a24a-4c7426e30a2c","pagecount":"6","content":"o appreciate the role that traditional communities play in the conservation and management of animal genetic resources (AnGR), it is important to understand the social institutions and cultural traditions that define the animal management choices available to farmers. Indeed, social and cultural forces are often the most important factors in diversifying livestock (and livestock production systems) and in developing distinctive breeds.! traditional livestock management practices; ! the role of livestock in culture and livelihoods; and ! the ethnic or community identity to which the farmer belongs.The value of a breed in the lifestyle or identity of a particular social group is what encourages its maintenance. Breeds may have specific, unique traits valued by the community that are not obtained from other 'exotic' animal populations. Breeds may also be valued because of their place in local traditions because of: ! their use in religious or other cultural ceremonies; ! for production of products valued in traditional meals; or ! medicinal practices requiring specific qualities.In its strictest sense, a breed designates a closed or partially closed population. Mating pairs are drawn only from within the population and relationships among individuals are documented. Members of a breed have developed under the same selection pressures and share common ancestry. To be successful, they must constantly change in response to changes in societal needs as reflected in market demand. The change is achieved through selective breeding as well as 'injection' of bloodlines from other breeds. However, for a population to retain its identity as a breed, there has to be less gene flow from outside relative to matings among members of the breed.Social organization and institutions in a community can influence farmers' access to, and management of, household and community level resources, affecting their action regarding the farm AnGR. For example, land tenure and ownership systems vary between and within communities in terms of: private or communal ownership; equitability of distribution; size and number of parcels of household land; and intra-household access to land. A farmer's landholdings and how they are distributed, their sizes and quality may influence decisions about breed choices and allocation of land area among breeds.In comparing the evolution of western agriculture versus that of developing countries, one often encounters the statement that the present day animal (and crop) genotypes (breeds, strains, landraces) in developing regions are predominantly a result of natural selection. On the other hand, those in developed countries are a product of \"many generations of artificial selection.\" This is a misconception.For centuries, farmers in the traditional sector everywhere in the world have used, for selective breeding, phenotypic features, such as:! physical characteristics; ! measures of yield; ! product quality; and ! adaptive attributes.These phenotypic characteristics are used to identify or distinguish breeds. They are often the basis for the names farmers give to specific animal types or strains, usually within a range of animals of a particular type or breed owned by the broader community. Thus, the large diversity of coat color patterns in the Nguni cattle of southern Africa are classified by the Nguni herders into an elaborate system of names. Each refers to a set of color combinations. Phenotypic characteristics are also used in designating preferred or valued traits and as 'criteria' for making selection decisions to achieve selection goals.Recognizing the names farmers give to animal populations is important because the \"farmer-named population\" is the unit that farmers manage and use as basis for selection decisions.The name or description of a population as used by the farmer may not only be related to physical characteristic(s), but could also relate to the original source of the breeding material. Both names and traits, which define these names, may also be related to the biological performance (e.g., egg production, size, shape, color, milk yield or quality, aspects of adaptation, etc.). Farmers perceive these attributes at various stages of animals' growth and development.Livestock populations developed in different socio-cultural, ecological or geographical settings will become genetically distinct as a result of genetic drift and differential selection pressures, natural and artificial. This is true, provided they have been reproductively isolated from other populations developed under different conditions. Thus, the indigenous livestock from different regions of the world should probably be assumed a priori to represent different \"breeds.\" It seems clear that populations with different adaptational characteristics or possessing unique physiological characteristics should be recognized as different breeds. Even if the populations are relatively closely related based upon measures of genetic distance, this distinction should be drawn.Clearly, the traits, which farmers use to identify a 'breed' may be complex and are always deeply embedded in the culture and tradition of the community. Any attempt aimed at improving or conserving the breed has to understand these complexities and they must be taken into account when developing the intervention strategies.Farmers may or may not be consistent in naming and describing breeds or strains. It may happen that even within a village or community, different clans or families have different names for what is essentially the same breed or strain. This may be due to differences in valued traits, functions or other phenotypic characteristics or use of names linked to origin of the germplasm, separately or in combination with valued characteristics. To the extent that these are important not only in understanding the evolutionary history of the genetic diversity in the breed, but also as an input in formulating AnGR management strategies relevant to the communities, it is crucial that any discrepancy in names be discussed and reasons for differences understood.","tokenCount":"914"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ff42ce2cb4c616339be59b9ba5195ed8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f44f66f6-c95d-4c4e-b656-d8bf3f9dad71/retrieve","id":"1875464278"},"keywords":["Gender Analysis","Participation","Improved Haricot Bean","Varieties","Choice","Cameroon"],"sieverID":"d0317d5a-4ba3-4d10-9207-96014eac350e","pagecount":"18","content":"Men and women farmer participation and choice of variety could guide breeding and drive the adoption of different haricot bean varieties. Thus, understanding how gender influences participation and choice of bean cultivation and marketing is fundamental. The study sought to analyse how socio-cultural norms determine women and men, participation and choice of variety for cultivation and sale in Cameroon's West region. A mixed-method was used in collecting data from men and women farmers in six subdivisions in the West region of Cameroon in 2019. Result reveals that women provide most of the labour on haricot bean production than men, who are more involved in selling to national and regional markets. Participation and role were driven by socio-cultural norms of what is expected of men and women in a society where women provide food and men income for household upkeep. Women preferred varieties that were less labour intensive and food taste for household consumption while men went for labour intensive as long as they were market-oriented and high yielding. Thus, breeders should develop varieties that are mostly preferred by women, which meet the market and household demand.veloping countries. They complement cereal crops as a source of proteins and minerals in Sub-Saharan Africa. Women in sub-Saharan Africa play a significant role in agriculture though it has been empirically impossible to verify the share produced by them [1]. They comprise an average of 43 percent of the agricultural labour force in Africa. Among the most important crops that men and women participate in are grain legumes, specifically haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.).Haricot bean plays a significant role in the diets of many households enhancing food and nutritional security, especially amongst poorer producers and consumers [2].In Cameroon, haricot bean traditionally considered a subsistence crop is becoming more commercialised. It is now one of the most produced, traded and consumed food legumes in the country. It is increasingly being used as food in institutions (boarding schools, orphanage homes, prison yards and military camps) that feed their clienteles with haricot beans. The demand from neighbouring countries like Central African Republic, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea has also increased its value as a commercial crop leading to the introduction of fourteen improved bush, semi-climber and climbers bean varieties in 2010 and 2012; red mottled (ECAPAN 021, NUV-99, MAC 55, FEB 192), cream (TY3396-12, MAC 33, NITU), small white (MEX 142), and large white (BGG and 22-GL), yellow (KJ4/3), small red (NUV-109-2, DOR-701), small black (PNN) by Siri et al. [3]. It is a popular crop among small-scale farmers in Cameroon because it can be sown and harvested in a short period of fewer than 90 days, making it possible to have up to three seasons per year.The crop is usually intercropped with maize, cocoyam, cassava and coffee. It is consumed together with cereals, roots/tubers, among others. Haricot bean is high in proteins, fibre, rich in vitamin (folate, thiamine, niacin), minerals (iron, zinc, calcium, potassium, magnesium) and antioxidants (selenium and carotenoids) that offer many health benefits [4]. A recent study from Pan Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) shows that Cameroon has ten biofortified (high iron and zinc content) haricot bean varieties: red mottled (GLP190, MAC 33,NUA 99,; white (MEX142, BGG); cream tripped with black (TY3396-12); cream tripped with red (MAC 55); yellow-green (KJ4/3); black (NUV-6) with the potential to contribute to physical and mental development, reduce blood disorder such as anaemia especially in women of reproductive ages, and improve immune function -a critical factor in the fight against COVID-19.Literature suggests that when traditionally subsistence crops like cassava in Malawi and Nigeria become commercialized, gender issues emerge [5]. This can be attributed to the social norms associated with women's production of food crops and men's production of cash crops. Doss [6] ascribes this gender division of crops to women's responsibility to feed the family and men's responsibility of providing income for the household needs.This study sets out to examine men's and women's participation in production activities and their choice of haricot bean variety. It calls for a \"do no harm\" B. N. and equitable approach, where men and women continually benefit from the commercialization of the crop at different nodes of the value chain. The rest of the paper is organized into four sections: The first section reviews literature on the gender dynamics in bean production in Cameroon, the second section details the methods used in data collection and analysis, the third section, presents the results and discussion section and the last section presents the conclusion with policy implications that foster bean production for the benefit of men and women farmers.As in many Sub-Saharan countries, Cameroon's agricultural sector plays a crucial role in economic growth and poverty reduction. Cameroon's agricultural sector is one of the wealthiest and most diversified agricultural producers in Central Africa, making the country the leading food supplier accounting for 70% of the central African regional market [7]. Cameroon is ranked the sixth in haricot bean production in Africa, and the first in Central Africa estimated at 402,054 metric tons [8]. Haricot bean is the second most frequently cultivated crop after maize in Cameroon [9]. There has been a 12.5 percent increase in haricot bean production between 2013 and 2018, possibly due to the introduction of improved varieties through the Pan Africa Bean Research Alliance project.Thus, contributing to its tremendous shift from being subsistence to a commercial crop.Many Cameroon households rely on it for food and income to meet other needs like school fees and household assets. Gender inequalities in the economic sector hamper growth; thus, removing gender-based barriers in agriculture can substantially contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 5 to realize agricultural growth, gender equality and reduce poverty and hunger. The Cameroonian woman has for have long been the economic backbone of the nation.In Cameroon, women's labour portion in all agricultural activities ranges from 58 to 78 percent [1]. Like Endeley [10], 88.6 percent of women constitute the active labour force in the food crop sector, producing 90 percent of total production; thus, the Cameroonian agricultural sector has a woman's face. Women and men dominate marketing at different levels. Most retail marketing is done by women, while regional and international markets by men.Haricot bean has been considered as a women's crop in smallholder agriculture in Africa. We defined haricot bean as a woman's crop due to the number of women involved and the labour contribution towards the crop's production and marketing. Other scholars like Njuki et al. [11] have defined a woman's crop as those where women provide a significant proportion of labour, same as groundnut in Southern Africa pointed out in Takuji et al. [12]. In contrast, Doss [13], on the other hand, defines a woman's crop as one where the woman has more decision making control in the different production activities.Traditionally women crops have been defined as crops for subsistence and DOI: 10.4236/as.2020.1112079 1202 Agricultural Sciences men crops as cash crops in line with the social norms guiding women and men's activities and responsibilities. Doss [13], for example, women prepare food and men provide cash income for the family. Other studies have defined women's crops based on multiple criteria. For example, in Malawi, haricot bean is considered a woman's crop as 90 percent of the labour is provided by women, who are more knowledgeable about the crop and make most decisions on different activities to be carried out [11]. The transition of crops from subsistence to commercial will have different implications for men and women farmers, which could be positive or negative.From a negative angle, men could continually control women's income incurred from the sale of crops as women repeatedly provide labour. Thus, taking away women's agency to make life-changing decisions on and off-farm, thus disempowering them. These scenarios can be seen in irrigated rice farming in the Gambia, where women's rights to land have been subverted, and they have been turned into hired workers [14] [15]. This is also the case of French bean in Kenya [16], hybrid maize in Zambia [17] and banana in Kenya [18].Positively, commercialization of groundnuts in Zambia's Eastern Province [19], cassava in Malawi and Nigeria [20] and onions in Northern Ghana [21] could result in increased income and food security or not depending on who makes decisions over the sale of produce and use of the income incurred allowing for minimal risk-taking to take advantage of new opportunities. Anecdotal evidence from different case studies in East Africa shows increased productivity as women are more linked to agronomic information and training. Market activities have not changed as men still drive regional and international markets with women more involved in retail markets.Women are moving into the distribution and marketing hubs involved in sorting and processing bean-based products. Given that we are not sure what will happen in the haricot bean sector in Central Africa, specifically in Cameroon, there is a need to understand men and women's participation and choice of haricot bean variety to have targeted interventions and make informed policies that result in an equitable share of profits from the haricot bean crop once commercialized.Women's and men's participation in agricultural production is guided by gender division of labour based on gender roles and responsibilities. These roles and responsibilities differ by crop [21]. In most agricultural settings, weeding, winnowing, harvesting, drying of grains, storage and processing as majorly women tasks, Chayal et al. [22]. Access to productive resources like labour, land, credit, technology, fertilizers and information [11] [13] [23] [24] also influence men and women participation in different crops and agricultural activities. The distance also influences participation of men and women in agricultural production to fields, farm size, human capital, membership to groups, age, wealth index, consumption rate, colour of crop among others as cited in Alene et al. [25] [6] [26] [27]. However, it is not known whether any or most of the reasons Even though haricot bean is considered a woman's crop in Cameroon, there is no empirical study on men and women participation in its production and choice of haricot bean variety. Given that gender disparities exist in men and women access to and control over productive activities, we will be interested in knowing if these attributes or others affect men and women participation and food security and generating income. Understanding the reason behind these differences in gendered participation would inform programmes and policies on achieving SDG 1 and 5.This study assesses men and women participation and choice of variety in production. To meet this objective, we have two research questions: 1) What are the roles of men and women farmers in haricot bean production and marketing?2) What factors influence women and men choice of particular haricot bean varieties?The study was carried out in Cameroon's West region in 2019, precisely in six sub-divisions-Oumbot, Kouoptamo, Bandjoun, Djebem, Nkong-Ni and Penka-Michel, identified as intensive haricot bean production zones in the West region (Figure 1). In addition, dissemination efforts of improved varieties were concentrated in these areas. This region's climate is characterised by two main seasons; the rainy season from about March to October, and the dry season from November to mid-March [28]. Most of the agricultural activities are rainfed since the region is poorly equipped with irrigation infrastructure. The methodology used in this study is a multi-stage sampling procedure. In stage one, the West region was purposively selected as one of the leading haricot bean production hubs. In stage two, three administrative divisions were purpo- To reduce bias and increase gender equity, two hundred and forty farmers were selected using a simple random technique from a list of farmers groups in the different sub-divisions. Thus, forty men and women farmers were selected in each division, making a total of 240 farmers in the entire study. The geographical location of respondents is presented in Table 1.Prior to data collection, three research assistants were recruited and trained to collect data and run a pre-test before going to the field. Three visits were made to the study sites. The purpose of the first visit was to make formal arrangements for entry into the study area and established contact with key institutions and resource persons. The second visit focused on questionnaire administration to men and women haricot bean farmers. Questions were asked on socio-demographic characteristics, roles, responsibilities, participation and choice of haricot bean farming operations. In the third visit, key informant interviews were carried out with selected farmers and key resource persons from MINADER, IRAD and non-governmental organizations to validate or complement information from Foumbot and Penka-Michel sub-divisions with men and women farmers separately. During the Focus Group Discussion (FGD), farmers were requested to explain their choice of variety. Farms and markets were also visited in the different studied areas to get the ground-truth on why farmers preferred certain improved varieties and appreciate those that drive major markets.The majority of farmers are between 30 to 60+ years, with a mean age of 42 years, as shown in Table 2. This mirrors the findings from [29] across 13 countries in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean Findings in Table 2 also revealed that 99.2 percent of the farmers had been cultivating improved haricot bean for more than three years, indicating some experience which can permit farmers to articulate their participation level in haricot bean activities. Fifty-three percent of women farmers have more than 30 years of experience than men farmers, which is possible because women mainly do haricot bean production. The data in Table 2 further shows a lower educational level amongst women compared to men and this might be due to social norms where men education is prioritized over women leading to increased women involvement in farming than men, as pointed out also by Mugonolaa et al. [30].Men and women's role differs depending on the type of farming activity, access, and control over the productive resource or asset. For example, we see more men involved in livestock farming while women were into crop farming.Women's involvement in crop production was significantly different by 1 percent compared to their male counterparts. The reason could be due to the gender division of labour in the farm ownership over household assets. This indicates that even though both men and women are involved in haricot bean production, most activities are done by women. With the introduction of improved varieties, more men have experience than women growing these varieties, and this is probably due to the risk involved in investing in any new technology, but we are seeing an increasing surge of women-70.5 percent-growing improved varieties within 3 to 7 years. During FGD, most farmers in Foumbot said they had cultivated these varieties for more than eight years due to their proximity to the mother station, where seed multiplication of these varieties is done. Thus, proximity and availability also increase years of experience in cultivating these improved varieties.Women and men play different roles in improved bean production and marketing guided by gender division of labour and socio-cultural norms within the household and community. Figure 2 shows us that in our study site, men and women are involved in all farming operations from production to marketing, but their degree of participation differs. For example, women were more involved in ridging (43.7 percent), seed selection (36.6 percent), planting (50.4 percent), fertiliser application (27.9 percent), sorting (44.1 percent), and storage (42.5 percent). Women and children were also more involved in land preparation In activities performed by women and children, men's participation was very low, less than 5 percent or non-existent when it came to weeding, harvesting, transportation, threshing, and drying. Men were utterly absent in weeding but more present in land selection (37.5 percent), even though 31.6 percent of women also took part in land selection. Men and women were both more involved in marketing (45 percent), with men (26.6 percent) slightly more than women (24.1 percent) participating in this activity. During FGDs, men farmers agreed that women contribute the most in haricot bean farming operations, compared to them, despite their domestic duties. A male farmer expressed that men are known to spend time with friends, either drinking or relaxing, while women handled most farming operations before marketing.Thus, in Cameroon's West region, women provide a greater share of labour compared to their male counterparts. This is probably because haricot bean production is dominated by women across many developing countries [13] [23].This also ties in nicely with [30] that women's participation in Africa's agriculture is massive via providing labour for different agricultural activities. Women provision of labour is also tied to their societal expectation, as reiterated by women in the FGDs when they said that they spend more time in farming activities than the men because they have the responsibility of fulfilling their domestic duties while the men engage in other white colour jobs that bring income to the household.Our findings revealed children's participation in almost all farm activities, especially with their mothers. This implies that children's participation in agriculture is thus beneficial to women in rural areas, as seen in their contribution to the majority of the labour in haricot bean operations. Chayal et al. [23] and [22] highlighted planting, weeding, harvesting, drying, and storage as predominantly female activities. These findings give a clear indication that haricot bean production has a woman's face despite men's interest in the crop [31] [32]. However, the men were visible in land selection, and their visibility in this activity reflects the fact that they have more land rights than the women, who are often only granted user/access rights accompanied by restrictive clauses on what should be grown [33] [34].Traditional activities (land preparation and fertilizer application) earlier considered and reserved exclusively for men due to the technical knowledge and manpower are being carried out mainly by women. These findings contradict a study carried out by Akter et al. [35]. Who found out that men dominated activities with high energy requirements or technical know-how. Variation in men and women participation could be attributed to access and control over resources such as labour and land and other input such as credit, seeds, fertilizer and information [11] [23] [24].Women worked with hired labour in all activities except when it came to storage and marketing. On the other hand, men got assistance from hired labour for land preparation, ridging, fertilizer application, and transportation. As gathered during the focus group discussion with women, a greater percentage of hired labour used in threshing and winnowing the crop are men. This might be because these activities involved more strength compared to other types of labour activities.Farmers in Cameroon grow different haricot bean varieties, with some varieties preferred more by men or women. In Figure 3, we see that men and women farmers both grow fourteen of the improved varieties in varying degrees, with men only growing KJ4/3 (climber) variety. Men have a higher preference for MEX 142 (climber), BGG (bush), MAC 55 (climber), NUA 99 (bush), FEB192(bush), NUV-109-2 (climber), DOR-701 (climber); compared to women who have a higher preference for NITU (bush), TY3396-12 (semi-climber), ECAPAN 021 (bush), GLP190 (bush) and PNN (bush). Women and men, preference for NUV 6 (climber) were the same.The difference in choices of variety by gender is probably linked to the division of labour between men and women. Men are growing more climbers than women, and this could be because of the labour involved. Climbers usually provide twice the yield of bush haricot bean, so men's involvement could be ascribed to their social role of providing income for the household and women's food for consumption. To have a clearer picture of men and women's choice of improved haricot varieties, we asked men and women farmers to rank the best four varieties, as shown in Table 3. Men and women ranked varieties differently.There were statistically significant differences in the ranking of the variety by sex, as indicated by significant P-values (P is less than 0.001). Men and women farmers both preferred MEX 142 and FEB 192, while men chose NUV-109-2 and GLP 190 and women ECAPAN 021 and PNN.Ninety percent of men farmers preferred MEX 142, which is a climber compared to 26.6 percent of women, while 72 percent of women preferred FEB 192, a bush compared to 70 percent of men. We see men's shift towards higher yields and markets compared to women's shift towards home consumption. This can be attributed to the different markets targeted by men and women due to socio-cultural norms explained in focus group discussions (FGD) by men and women farmers.While women sell in local markets as retailers, we were informed that men sell in national markets and export their haricot bean to regional markets. This information was reiterated in key informant interviews with farmers and resource persons in the field. We were told that men's preference for MEX 142 and \"I also cultivate climbing and bush varieties such as FEB 192 and GLP 190 respectively due to their early maturing characteristics and also because they are highly demanded both in local and international markets.\"Women highlighted during FGD that they preferred bush varieties to climbers because it is less labour intensive. For example, in the September season, you can weed once when growing bush bean types but about three times with climbers, which takes a longer time to mature. It was also gathered from women that the bush varieties could easily be intercropped with other crops (maize, cocoyam, and cassava) during the March/April season cultivation due to its compatibility.Women's choice for crops that require less labour could be due to the triple burden (reproduction, production, and community managing roles). With more time, women could do more productive activities, generating more income for households.In addition to less labour in the cultivation of bush varieties, women argued that FEB 192 and PNN are more tasteful and mature early (75 to 80 days compared to 90 days) than MEX 142 and NUV-109-2, which makes it a food security net crop during the month of May and June when other crops such as maize and tubers (cocoyam and potatoes) are still in the field and not yet matured to be consumed as food.Furthermore, some women said:\"We are not ready to grow climbers on our plots because it needs greater cash investments (provided by our spouses) such as fertilizer, pesticides, and staking materials.\"Another said:\"I only grow MEX 142 as a joint crop with my spouse because it is mainly for the market, and he provides the necessary inputs.\"In general, this study's findings show that women perceive the production of climbing improved varieties as more time-consuming and labour intensive than bush varieties that are easy to cultivate and have a favourable taste. At the same time, men prefer varieties that are market-oriented with high yielding potentials.Overall, it was observed that gender differences such as maturity, crop yield, market acceptability, the need for cash and food defined the choice of haricot bean variety. varieties are also preferred due to the availability of seeds, which can be saved, easily be gotten from other farmers, and bought from the market. We asked men and women farmers to rank their four best local haricot bean varieties. Men and women all selected the same local varieties in different orders, as shown in Table 4.A greater proportion of the farmers still cultivate Black varieties (97.5 percent), followed by Merengue (92.5 percent), long red grain (80.8 percent), and Senegalese (56.6 percent). While many more farmers cultivate these varieties, 28.0 percent of farmers said they had abandoned local varieties mostly because of late maturity, low yield potentials, susceptibility to diseases, and high input requirements. A greater proportion of men farmers ranked Merengue and Senegalese while women did so for the Black variety and Merengue in the first and second positions, respectively. While women rank the Black varieties in the first position because of its favourable taste and also because consumers like it, the men did so in the fourth position. This explains the high cultivation of the improved PNN variety, which has similar traits to the local Black variety by women farmers compared to the men. In the men farmers, FGD, men who ranked Merengue in the first position, said they did so due to its high yielding potentials, attractive colour, and also because the regional markets highly demand it. This further explains the high cultivation of NUV-109-2 improved variety whose traits characters are very similar to Merengue. For these reasons, farmers and traders have named it the new Merengue. As expressed by women farmers during FGD, the choice of varieties planted depends on their use, either for food or income. Hence, the breeding and promotion of improved or local haricot bean varieties should consider gender differences between men and women farmers. Farmers were requested to rank their four best varieties in relation to the market demand. The findings showed that all the market varieties such as MEX 142, NUV-109-2, FEB 192, ECAPAN 021, and PNN, as shown in Table 5, are cultivated by men and women farmers as shown in Table 3. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that farmers cultivate mostly improved varieties accepted in the market, as haricot bean becomes commercialised. Statistical differences were noticed for MEX 142, NUV-109-2 and FEB 192, ECAPAN 021, and PNN as a greater proportion of men marketed these varieties than women. Conversely, this trend was not the same with PNN as men and women rated it almost equally (Table 5). Doss [13] attributed these discrepancies to the fact that men are often viewed as being responsible for producing cash crops while women are accountable for producing subsistence crops for home consumption and only sell the surplus in the market. In the case of local varieties, Merengue (86.2 percent) and Senegalese (64.5 percent) were the most traded local varieties (Table 6). It is interesting to Black bean is known to be the most consumed haricot bean either in porridge form with maize (\"corn chaff or corn and bean stew\") and pounded with Irish potatoes (\"pilé\" as known in the West region and \"took coni\" in the North West region\").Men's and women's participation in haricot bean production varied, with women providing most of the labour and men involved more in marketing at national and regional levels. Women were sometimes assisted by men and children but carried out most of the production activities. To reduce the time spent on the triple role women play in the household and community, women chose to grow bush bean more because they are less labour-intensive and early maturing. On the other hand, men prefer climbers because it is high yielding and uses less land area.Interesting, men and women cultivated varieties that were demanded by the markets and the different households. With the increase in haricot bean commercialisation, men are more interested in the varieties' market acceptability to generate income and provide household needs.Therefore, breeders should focus on developing bush varieties that attract women farmers since they form a larger proportion of haricot bean farmers.Meanwhile, it should be noted that mere sensitization about improved haricot bean varieties will not translate to the adoption of the varieties unless easy access to seeds and farmers' choices are taken into consideration.","tokenCount":"4504"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"08a577dc2ee7a448c64937773bc55c5d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9a582f10-3a14-4541-805e-e2ef26cd6fe8/retrieve","id":"-733212986"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"32c7687e-8bbb-4410-8b25-adbd7a053c40","pagecount":"8","content":"La Brachiaria brizantha \"CIAT 26110\" ( cv Toledo) es -foriginaria de Burundi , Africa . Fue evaluada por el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, CIAT, Introducida a -Honduras por la DICTA, para ser evaluada con otras gramíneas en la estación experimental El Guanacaste, Comayagua y en varias localidades de Yoro a través del proyecto DICTA-CIAT.Es una gramínea perenne, crece formando macollas de 1.60 metros de altu ra. Produce tallos vigorosos capa ces de enraizar en los nudos que entran en contacto con el suelo, por lo que puede sembrarse en forma vegetativa . Las hojas son lanceoladas con poca pubescencia , alcanzan hasta 60 cms de longitud y 2 cms de ancho. La inflorescencia es una panícula de 40 a 50 cms de longitud , con cuatro racimos de 8 a 12 cms con una sola hilera de espiguillas. Florece entre octubre y noviembre lo que permite utilizarla bajo pastoreo todo el invierno.Resultados de evaluaciones agronómicas en Comayagua, Yorito, Sulaco y el litoral atlántico, muestran que este cultivar se adapta a una diversidad de climas y suelos; al trópico sub húmedo con períodos secos de 5 a 7 meses y precipitaciones anuales de 800 a 1,600 mm y al trópico húmedo con más de 3,500 mm . Crece muy bien en suelos ácidos de baja fertilidad y da excelentes resultados en los de mediana y buena fertilidad. Tolera suelos arenosos y persiste en suelos mal drenados, hasta un máximo de 30 días, después de este período detiene su crecimiento y puede morir.Durante la época seca mantiene más hojas verdes que otros cultivares de la misma especie como el marandú y la libertad. Se adapta muy bien a la sombra , con temperaturas de 18 a 27° C, y crece desde el nivel del mar hasta los 1500 metros. Datos de producción de forraje en diferentes zonas, mostraron un promedio de 4 toneladas de materia seca (ms) por corte, con un 32% de (ms) y de 9 a 11 % de proteína cruda. Durante la época lluviosa y seca, en cuatro sitios diferentes, los resultados fueron de 20 a 30/ Tn/ha/ms por año, en cortes practícados cada 40 días. Resultados en Costa Rica , Panamá y Colombia reportan 32 Tn/ha/ms por año. iembra de semilla de pastos.PASIO 10 LEDO BRACHIARlA BRI%ANIHA \"CIAI 26110\" Los pastos tropicales constituyen el alimento mas barato y abundante para la alimentación de la ganadería bovina . Es por ello que a través de los años el ganadero hondureño los ha utilizado, pero por su condición de especies naturalizadas, adolecen de buena calidad, lo que impide la explotación de una ganadería intensiva y la liberación de áreas frágiles no aptas para este rubro .En base a lo anterior la Dirección de Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria, DICTA, a través del \"Proyecto Investigación Participativa con el Productor en Acción \" -DICTA -CIAT-BMZ-GTZ, han hecho esfuerzos conjuntos logrando identificar y seleccionar una nueva alternativa forrajera, la Brachiaria brizanfha \"CIAT 26110\", conocida como cultivar Toledo y Victoria , con características productivas y de persistencia adaptable a las diferentes condiclones agro ecológicas del país para una ganadería mas productiva y ver.daderamente competitiva .. , . Dirección de Ciencia y Tecnología Agropecuaria DICTA Boulevard Centro América Ave. La FAO, Col. Loma Linda Norte Apdo. Postal 5550 Tegucigalpa, Honduras, C. A. 232•2451,232-6652,235-6025 Fax: 235-6112 E-mail: gtdicta@asdhon.org.hnSe debe sembrar al inicio de las lluvias con semilla gámica; al voleo utilizando de 3 a 5 Kg/ha , en surcos o hileras de 2 a 3 Kg/ha y con espeque (labranza mínima y cero labranza) de 1.5 a 2.5 Kg/ha . También puede sembrarse por semilla vegetativa o plántulas producidas en almácigos .La cantidad de semilla a utilizar depende de su calidad , (valor cultural , pureza y germinación) y del método de siembra . Suelos bien preparados requieren menor cantidad de semilla que con cero o mínima labranza . La cantidad final varía entre 3 a 4 Kg/ha para semilla con valor cultural de 60 a 80% de pureza y 75% de germinación.La emergencia de plántulas es mayor en siembras por chuzo (espeque) que al voleo, esto se asocia al contacto de la semilla con la humedad del suelo y al daño de plagas (hormigas).El sistema de almácigos, en áreas pequeñas, baja la cantidad de semilla por unidad de superficie y disminuye todos los riesgos asociados al establecimiento por semilla (arrastre por lluvias, depredadores, etc.).Esta Brachiaria se utiliza bajo pastoreo en bovinos , los caballos y mulas se comen las hojas tiernas (R. Bradley). Su crecimiento varía dependiendo del clima y del suelo, por lo que se recomienda un período de descanso de 20 a 30 días.Compite con las malezas durante la fase deEn América Latina existen dos cultivares muy conocidos y disponibles de Brachiaria brizantha: La libertad y marandú, con características forrajeras deseables . Con el objeto de compararlos y hacer una mejor utilización de ellos, se ilustran esas características en el cuadro a continuación.  .establecimiento, siendo posible el primer pastoreo a los 3 ó 4 meses. Su alta producción de biomasa le permite cargas mayores a 2 Ua/ha/año, especialmente en el período de lluvias.Se asocia bien con leguminosas forrajeras como: Arachis pintoi, Centrosema , Kudsu y con leguminosas tipo arbustivas como la Cratylia y Leucaena, éstas últimas sembradas en bandas de 2 a 3 hileras cada 10 metros.Por su gran vigor de crecimiento, puede utilizarse bajo corte, aunque los rendimientos no son iguales a los pastos tradicionales como el King-grass, caña, sorgo, etc.Tolera ataques de Rhizoctonia Sp y hongos del suelo como Fusarium Sp, existentes en zonas húmedas en donde el marandú es altamente susceptible.Tolera además el ataque de hongos foliares y es resistente al salivazo o baba de culebra .En Honduras en condiciones de trópico sub-húmedo, como en el valle de Comayagua, inicia su floración a inicios de octubre al final del período lluvioso. En este período, tiene una mejor sincronización de la floraci ón que la decumbens y marandú.La producción de semilla es más tardía que las Brachiarias dictyoneura y decumbens, que florecen al inicio de la época lluviosa, permitiendo su utilización bajo pastoreo durante el invierno.Para una producción de semilla uniforme se deben estandarizar los lotes (cortes de uniformación) en la segu nda quincena de septiembre, así se obtendrá buena calidad de semill a y un mayor número de tallos generativos. Se re comie nda hacer el corte de uniformación a 50 cms de alto, después ferti lizar con 50 kg de nitrógeno, para mejorar el porcentaje de pureza en la semilla.La semilla de este pasto tiene un período de latencia muy corto. Su germinación es de un 40% dos meses después de la cosecha, almacenada a 20°C, 50% de humedad relativa y escarificada con ácido sulfúrico. Seis meses más tarde, la germinación se incrementa significativamente y puede llegar a un 80% de germinación.","tokenCount":"1133"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"87bebd650e9db61939a9188b62da2cd9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/05fdd2d1-31b9-4fec-a35b-3e7a7ed61f1e/retrieve","id":"-685181408"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0cc66729-3415-4b25-a4a7-a1c6e7dc96d2","pagecount":"19","content":"Natural disasters have affected over 750 million people in South Asia (Amarnath et al. 2017). This situation is worsening with climate change-induced factors such as increasingly erratic rainfall, severe floods, and extended dry periods. increasingly intense and frequent tropical cyclones and saline water intrusion are added to these extreme weather events (IPCC, 2014;O'Neill et al. 2017). The global disaster database estimates that in Sri Lanka alone, floods and drought have affected over 27 million people and caused economic losses over USD 2.62 billion since 1966. The hardest hit are the smallholder farmers who have been forced to the poverty line by the incessant onslaughts of these extreme weather events. Most of these farmers live in South Asia and cultivate on less than half a hectare, many are landless.Adaptation to climate change is a vital response to enhance the resilience of these smallholder agricultural livelihoods, more so because of their adverse effect on the food security of the nation. Lack of education and technical skills, poverty, and risks inherent to agricultural investments as well as little access to financial capital are the main reasons for low investments in adaptive capacity enhancements.Diverse technologies have emerged to help these smallholder farmers to manage these agricultural risks. The first technology, which has been evolving continuously over the year, is seed varieties that are more capable of withstanding weather risks such as droughts and floods, which help improve the farmers' adaptive capacity to climate change. More recent technology is the development of financial instruments such as index insurance that transfer risk out of smallscale farming systems by issuing compensatory payments when extreme weather events cause agricultural production to collapse. These two technologies complement each other, as improved stresstolerant seeds protect farmers from moderate weather risks but provide no protection from extreme weather events. Anticipating this, a risk-averse farmer will under-invest in such seeds unless extreme weather events are covered by crop insurance that triggers timely payouts to cope with the financial consequences of such events. Survival of small-scale farming systems, therefore, require integrated agriculture-disaster risk management solutions that combine stress-tolerant seeds, agronomic information and, risk transfers designed to reduce social vulnerability and adapt to climate change impacts both ex-ante (in the anticipation of a possible weather shock) and ex-post (after a weather shock occurs).In response to this long felt need, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and national partners in agribusiness, with support from the CGIAR Research Programs on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), and Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) organized a scaling agricultural insurance workshop to discuss and further strengthen bundled insurance solutions. Seed, insurance and agrochemical companies in the private sector, as well as weather service providers, participated in the workshop which aimed to promote better resilience among marginal farmers through innovative risk transfer solutions using advanced satellite technology, crop models and IoT tools. The holistic approach to managing floods and drought allows the development of comprehensive risk mitigation plans and rapidly disseminates information that enables water resources and disaster managers, communities and farmers to better manage risks related to climate variability and their impact on agriculture and food security.This project implements bundled solutions by integrating seed systems with insurance, climate information, and a package of practices for agronomy, and water management. It aims to reach 25,000 farmers and sensitize over 75,000 farmers. A robust scaling investment plan will be developed with public-private partners to reach the targeted beneficiaries, of which 50% are women, youth, and other disadvantaged farmer groups. IWMI and partners conducted pilot trials in India and Sri Lanka to promote innovations in bundled solutions among vulnerable smallholder farmers and thereby transform agricultural risk management. This workshop strengthens this initiative and seeks to establish strong cooperation among different stakeholders that include the government, private sector, nongovernmental organizations and academic institutions. Key policy makers, implementers, private sector entities (seed companies and the insurance industry) and development partners involved in bundling solutions were among the participants.The workshop seeks to: McDonnell thanked the participants for their presence and commented that various measured are being discussed to help those most affected by climate risk, to get back on their feet again in time for the next harvest. Solutions discussed extended beyond flood and drought monitoring, and cover insurance, seed systems and climate information that predict when extreme weather events would occur to enable precautionary measures to be taken before they happen. These measures have now increased in importance and are being scaled across countries, which illustrates the value of bringing these ideas together in seminars such as these. This seminar will look at what has taken place this far and the lessons learnt, based on discussions with colleagues and partners in research, the government, the CG partners, the insurance industry as well as NGOs. The shared experiences will enable extension of knowledge to more areas in which they could be utilised to bring relief from climate risk.In his introduction to the workshop, Dr. Giriraj welcomed the participants and gave an overview of the sessions. He explained that the program will cover an initiative conducted by IWMI with CGIAR research partner CCAFS, the CGIAR research program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), as well as national partners who have been leading the program in South Asia over the past several years, and expressed his appreciation of CCAFS for their commitment to support this IWMI initiative over the years. The workshop plans to build cooperation among stakeholders and is the first in a series which will look at understanding the importance of bundling insurance solutions and identifying the key scientific research and the gaps in order to determine where the program is presently at and the challenges faced, which could be overcome with the support of the government and private sector partners. This cooperation will facilitate the drawing up of a road map for positioning agricultural insurance, given the severity of climate change impacts and the vulnerable hot spots in Sri Lanka. He made the point that although the development partners in this session were more interested in climate resilience programs per se, a key component of those solutions lies in bundling insurance solutions.Working with the Ministry of Agriculture, Sri Lanka, is an important area that brings policy direction and ensures risk managements are integrated to the wider context of disaster management. The participation of the additional director general at this workshop confirms the Ministry's support.Lessons learnt from the pilot project of the last season and the ongoing project in Sri Lanka will help determine the challenges. A detailed impact evaluation assessment of the achievement of the projects will be carried out to enable a Sendai framework to be drawn up for risk reduction and the achievement of SDG goals. The event today will inform participants of the latest innovations being used to address the critical challenges that affect agriculture and small-scale farmers in South Asia and Sri Lanka, and discuss the steps that need to be taken to scale them up. The challenges faced are both novel as well as old; natural disasters like weather events have been ever-present challenges to farmers, but the present focus is increasingly on adapting to more frequent climate change disasters and building resilience in the food system, to climate shocks. A set of new technologies have been developed and applied to enable small scale farmers to cope with those risks, a lower cost. The bundling of these innovations into a package enhances incentives for farmers to increase their production, build resilience and invest in managing risks. This convergence of synergies is producing encouraging results in the pilot programs undertaken in India and Sri Lanka. This workshop will focus on scaling those innovations to make them available to larger numbers of farmers. Collaboration is essential to enable successful upscaling. The workshop also facilitates bringing public and private partners to work together on further trials that identify action plans and the policy support needed to apply these innovations and mobilise new investments to enable bundled solutions for this purpose. He concluded his remarks by expressing his appreciation to the partners for their invaluable support and commitment in piloting this innovative process in Sri Lanka, and thanked those present for their participation in the workshop.Simon Langan, Director Digital Innovation and Country Manager, Sri Lanka.Dr. Langan affirmed that the workshop is a timely initiative for out scaling. COP 26, the Paris Agreement, the Sendai framework for risks and resilience, as well as sustainability and the Agenda 2030 are at the heart of what is being accomplished in this initiative, which benefits people with good science.Opening remarks by the Chief Guest Dr. Ajantha de Silva, Additional. Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture Dr. Ajantha de Silva declared that the agriculture sector is an important sector in terms of the food security of any country. But agriculture depends heavily on the climate and the weather, and cultivation conditions have altered due to climate change, so it is now vital that all agriculture operations should be based on climate information using well formulated and accurate risk transfer mechanisms. Such an initiative will increase the resilience of agriculture to safeguard farmers and production systems.Assessments at the event of disaster are costly and time-consuming when conducted physically on field, and claims compensations are long drawn. This initiative is timely and important, utilising remote sensing data reduces cost and time, and the Ministry of Agriculture endorses this initiative.Vote of thanks -Mohamed. Aheeyar, Researcher, IWMI Mr Aheeyar expressed his appreciation to the presenters and participants for their valuable inputs and thanked the experts who opened the sessions. He acknowledged the IPCC's declaration on the rapid changes experienced by the climate globally, and declared that Sri Lanka is a major climate hotspot that is further beleaguered by the fact that most of its farmers are marginal smallholders or are landless. This BICSA product will increase the resilience of this vulnerable community and enabled speedy payouts in the event of weather-related disasters. It also supports the mandate of the Ministry of Agriculture of Sri Lanka.TECHNICAL SESSION 1: PROJECT OVERVIEW BICSA Project Overview and Implementation strategy BICSA Scaling framework Giriraj Amarnath,The presentation commenced with an overview of the climate change challenges faced by Sri Lanka.The island has three climatic zones and certain areas have been identified as being vulnerable to weather extremes, on which IWMI has carried out a detailed assessment. Farmers have been negatively impacted by a number of weather-related hazards over the years, which the Disaster Management Centre has been identifying and quantifying. These hazards build deep into the food security and poverty of the country because the lack of financial inclusion and the role of marginal farmers must be understood.The initiative proposed by IWMI will be a flagship project that will look at the wider climate adaptation program and consider mitigation efforts as well, in line with IPCC assessments. Dr. Giriraj outlined the concept of weather index insurance and stated that it circumvents the usual need for a detailed damage assessment by utilising a predetermined index like rainfall or wind to gauge damage that enables fast payouts. This is a product that should be included in farming practices and risk management portfolio. Data can be procured from Sri Lanka's Meteorology Department. private sector weather stations and from satellites. IWMI'S pilot projects use satellite-based rainfall data to design the insurance product in partnership with local insurance companies. The Index insurance process can be easily understood by farmers, which promotes transparency that prompts increasing numbers of farmers to realise its importance.The solution was first promoted effectively in India and Bangladesh which experience regular and heavy flooding. A combination of satellite data and modelling tools was used to understand the depth and duration of the floods and thus define the index values related to the floods. The program has now extended to over 7,000 households, and insurance companies have provided compensation in excess of USD 150,000. It was also recognised under SDG 13 as being one of the best practices to promote climate action.Poor farmers are caught in a low technology gap of low income, low affordable credit due to landlessness and related issues. These issues include an aversion to taking risks due to high input costs, a lack of understanding of how insurance can mitigate risk and low propensity to adopt technology, in addition to their low risk-bearing capacity as a result of poverty. IWMI works with local government and private sector partners in agriculture, meteorology and see ds provision to facilitate the effective adoption of BICSA in Sri Lanka, and looks into the water management solutions that could be supplied to mitigate risk. BICSA is a flexible tool that enables more components to be bundled in as and when necessary. The overall goal of this initiative is to enhance agriculture income.Dr. Giriraj itemized the 9-step guiding principles for implementing the project. Feasibility assessment was carried out with 100 farmers prior to introducing the pilot. Farmers must now be educated on the importance of insurance and better infrastructure among the players must be built. Adopting better practices and providing more varied value-added services are also important components of the program, for instance, the ways and means to help farmers to adapt to organic practices in lin e with new government policies must be determined. The program must also be extended to include more partners in relevant areas. A training will soon be carried out with insurance companies on how to utilize the data sets obtained from ground weather stations and satellites to formulate insurance products. Lessons learnt are important, so monitoring and evaluation will be carried out as well.Weekly rainfall data is being provided for the bundling solutions. IWMI will work with the Meteorology Department to enhance data quality. The success of the project in India confirms the importance of value chain partners in bundling solutions. The project has now been scaled to 15,000 households over three Indian states, with partner support. In Sri Lanka, too, BICSA has been introduced on a small scale and more resistant seeds and agroclimatic advisories have been provided.Dr. Giriraj declared that BICSA is a programmatic approach to building wider system transformation and a better agrarian system for vulnerable farmers, and outlined the project's plans for the future. He said scaling the project was critical, so better strategies for scaling will be discussed and developed with ministries and the private sector. BICSA will be implemented in five districts during Phase 1, namely, Kurunegala, Anuradhapura, Vavuniya, Ampara and Moneragala. BICSA will be provided to another set of villages in the second stage during the Maha season, which will gather new evidence and facilitate lessons learnt. A year later, the project will look at how to promote better capacity among value chain partners. By year-end, the project will consider developing a better dashboard to enable insurance companies to speedily access data sets and open access data to provide a tailored product for farmers.It is also important to determine how to upscale and out scale these initiatives to the country-level for integration into the wider climate resilience programs of the World Bank and other international agencies.Hauke Dahl, Integrated Expert on Scaling, IWMI, outlined a framework that provided solutions on how to structure scaling-related activities and operationalize scaling to achieve systemic change. The science behind adaptive scaling developed by IWMI defined 4 functions to adaptive scaling, namely, niche, reach, accelerate and transform. The BICSA project is now at the accelerate stage, in which partners get involved to create a supportive environment.The project has come a long way, and needs only to reach and complete the transformation stage. This final stage is the creation of lasting change by altering underlying structures and supporting mechanism and perpetuating this to be the new normal. Based on this theory, a scaling model has been developed for BICSA, that is designed to ensure global adaptation and disaster management following an extreme weather event. IWMI's value proposition is two-fold. Firstly, to deliver the science behind disaster risk management, which is the meteorological data that is already available and in use in the insurance industry. The second value proposition is to develop a model to create a pathway for these innovations with scale in the long-term. So, this one stop shop BICSA solution should equip the target group to become more disaster resilient, since it considers all aspects of cultivation risk and provides the tools to avoid the risk. For the theory to work, however, all actors in the state and private sectors in the areas of agriculture, finance, insurance and development should come together to develop commercially beneficial partnerships for the farmers and themselves. A sustainable business case must now be drawn up for the model, and implementing partners brought on board to take it forward.Dr Giriraj presented a table on stakeholder roles in scaling bundling agriculture risk management. The table sets out the contributions from all key partners and stakeholders as well as the benefits and impacts of these contributions. Partners comprise a consortium of public and private sector actors in insurance, seed companies, weather advisories and government agriculture research and extension services, who will work together.The floor was opened to participants to ask questions of the experts. Question. Miller Alexander Rajendran, CEO of Senzagro, Sri Lanka. When weather-based insurance is given to a large set of farmers together, do they all receive the same amount of compensation from a weather event, or is each case individually evaluated? Answer. Giriraj Amarnath, IWMI. That would depend on the type of risk information available and the data that can be developed, satellite-based weather parameters are being considered now. In the case of the present pilot projects, a GN (gramasevaka niladhari division) has been aggregated as a single unit, so claims made will be uniform across that group of farmers. But damage information on production losses as a result of floods or droughts is not usually available at farm unit level in most cases. Quasi information on farm-scale production is available using satellite data which can generate 30-meter farm scale crop information or production data at grid level, since mission data models are now available. We can also go for farm-level indemnity products that could be blended with weather index-based insurance, historical data is needed to design a better product.Question. Miller Alexander Rajendran. Is there any mechanism to underlie the risk in real time? Answer. Giriraj Amarnath. Real-time information is always helpful in managing information during the growing period. From the insurance perspective, this information is necessary to calculate the compensation at the end of the season based on the amount of accumulated rainfall that has deviated from the normal. We are looking for more partners in this initiative, and can look at how your company can collaborate in the coming season.Question. Kasunadari Dissanayake, Agriculture Agrarian Insurance Board. Have you reconciled the satellite rainfall data with the ground level data before developing the index? Also, have you reconciled claims with the ground level information. What are the crops you plan to cover in this program? Answer. Giriraj Amarnath, IWMI. The data is available at the Meteorology Department and has been collected at a 5km resolution. Satellite data allows the capture of the same unit of data over 30 years. In all these instances, satellite data is used with the meteorological data as a validation point. The type of crop is not an important factor in weather-index insurance when considering weather-related perils that impact crops. So, in the previous Maha season only the farmers in Anuradhapura were enrolled and the design was based only on the rainfall index. The product was designed each month and the premium was set for each of those months. Farmers received compensation in the event of excess rainfall.Answer. Ravinda Herath, AGM, Sanasa General Insurance. We calibrate between satellite and ground data to get more reliable product configurations, when modelling the product. We have 30 years of meteorological data, data from weather stations as well as satellite data provided by IWMI, we notice a 10 -15% deviation between ground data and satellite data in some instances. We are developing index insurance based on the rainfall risk. When yield data is available for particular crops, we will be able to develop the corelation between yield and rainfall data. Although we did this for tea, there is little reliable data to evaluate such corelations in short term crops, so we insure paddy and other crops based on rainfall risk.Question: H.K Kadupitiya, Department of Agriculture. Some irrigated areas in one part of sri Lanka can be affected by the weather conditions prevailing in other areas. Has your model considered this? Answer: Giriraj Amarnath. The model can be developed by looking inclusively at both irrigated and rainfed conditions. It is at times difficult to know the source of the supplementary use of water, so only the rainfed fields were segregated for use in the model, as in case of the maize farms in Galenbindunuwewa.Question: Gamini Samarasinghe. Ministry of Agriculture. Once the model is validated, what is the mechanism used to transfer it to the insurance companies or the Agriculture Insurance Board? Answer: Giriraj Amarnath. The mechanism is co-designed and we are presently working with Sanasa Insurance. We would like to collaborate with other insurance companies, too, which is the purpose of this workshop, and will be developing technical guidelines on how future scaling can be carried out by other partners as well. We will be providing them with training on developing on-line tools. The data sets will be operationally available to any user by logging in, which enables the extraction of the data necessary to design insurance for the farmers who have a buyin with that particular insurance company. These are early stages, we look forward to more cooperation and resource mobilization to work in these areas in the coming years. The Moderator invited the panel to express their ideas, share their experiences and indicate their needs from the bundled insurance solution initiative, as partners in this co-developed venture for bringing relief to farmers in Sri Lanka.Question to Ravindra Herath: General Manager, Sanasa General Insurance Company Ltd. How can insurance be part of the value-added package that generates higher income to farmers? Answer. Sanasa has been working in index-based insurance in Sri Lanka since 2010, with the support of donor organizations ILO, IMF, GIZ who are interested in scaling up agriculture insurance , with a focus on index insurance. Earlier initiatives were modelled on ground data but partnership with IWMI has provided access to satellite data. This partnership has enabled us to provide more valueadded services to our customers by providing them with climate information and agronomist services beyond just risk management solutions. A pilot was carried out for 120 farmers in the Anuradhapura area. This solution coupled with insurance met with their approval . Just five years earlier, there were many records of farmer suicides due to their inability to pay back loans. Insurance gives them the peace of mind to increase investing in their crops without going in for loans. Indexbased insurance is a transparent system that helps farmers to determine in advance the compensation they will be paid based on changing rainfall patterns, which enables them to introduce the best risk management practices to their cultivation. These solutions are also acceptable to other stakeholders too, for instance, banks, buy back organisations and input suppliers.What is the role of the government in each of these areas in creating markets for agriculture insurance? Answer: I have changed the market mix to Product, Price, People and Policy, to explain the agriculture insurance market in Sri Lanka. AAIB has been working with paddy farmers in Sri Lanka since 2015, Product is the most important component for these farmers. More information than rainfall is necessary to prepare an index insurance product with less basic risk. Lessons learnt from this project are that using only trigger-level or rainfall data provides less claims accuracy and hence lower customer satisfaction. This is because the basic risk is very high due to the high numbers of climatic regions in Sri Lanka. For better risk analysis, accurate, verified and updated data is needed on a variety of aspects, This includes data on the number of crops to be insured, the type of crops, the number of farmers who will be insured, the spatial location of the farmlands, cultivation dates, the tolerance of the crop variety, historical claim records and the susceptibility to natural damage, although we may not be able to include all these areas in the index .The irrigation factor should also be carefully considered if a good index insurance product is to be designed. About 10% of farmers use rainfall to cultivate. If satellite rainfall data with a small radius is being used, a good co-relation between the data is necessary, as was experienced by AAIB throughout the project. In our experience, the satellite rainfall data is less accurate than the ground data received from the Meteorology Department. The Ministry of Agriculture, the Agriculture Insurance Board and the Agrarian Development Department initiated a project to establish an agriculture information management system for an effective agriculture claims management process.The price or premium is also a very sensitive component for agriculture insurance due to the poverty of the farmers. A study conducted with the IFC discovered that natural claims rates are over 10% but farmers are unable to pay the high rate of premium, so a subsidised insurance scheme is vital. As a non-profit organisation, AAIB has very low rates of premium which private insurance companies may not be able to meet. The bundling with the natural disaster tolerance capacity is a good initiative, but the harvest aspect must also be considered. Some seed varieties with a high flood tolerance have low yield so are not popular among the farmers. So, only using rainfall data without considering a variety of other factors for claims information may lead to dissatisfaction among our customers, the farmers.Policy must also be considered. A free insurance scheme is practiced for six crops namely, paddy, chili, potato, maize, soya bean and big onion. A sum assured of Rs. 40,000/ per acre is paid for full crop damage. Since this is a free insurance scheme, the farmer is not registered with the insurer, and AAIB pays the claim in the event of crop damage. Between Rs. 1,000 million and Rs. 2,000 million is paid annually as agriculture insurance compensation, so a subsidised scheme is necessary.The government has an increased role to play here. Weather -related data should be entered into a database and the government must have a policy to share weather and other related data at no cost even to private insurance companies. The government should also provide the Meteorological Department with a well-spaced and equipped network of weather stations since the Met Department is the sole authority for meteorological data in the country. These stations should have standardised weather gathering procedures plus information on historical data of 30 years. Good data and an effective data sharing process must be introduced to promote research and equip agriculture insurance companies in Sri Lanka.Question to H.K. Kadupitiya, Director, Land Use, Planning and Geomatics Division, Department of Agriculture: What can be done to improve smallholder farmers' understanding of the risks they face?Answer: Since the majority of farmers in Sri Lanka are poor smallholders, they face a number of risks in addition to unexpected weather events. These risks include pests and diseases, price fluctuations, fluctuating market demand as well as the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bundled insurance solutions are invaluable in this context since they also have the flexibility to include other components. These solutions provide farmers with the ability to continue to cultivate despite crop failures, and therefore support food security. The central government carries out research and technological development activities, and this information is transmitted to the farmers through provincial organizations. However, the information communicated to farmers through the provincial setup could be distorted. Therefore, direct communication from the center to the farmers' smartphones would be more effective. The information shared should be two-way, from farmerlevel to government officials as well.How can we empower the farming community through value added services like bundled insurance? Answer: insurance for cultivation is provided by a number of state agencies but only a few private sector agencies offer these insurance products. The Dept. of Agrarian Development works closely with these state agencies for insurance purposes, but its primary focus is to protect the farmer, so insurance is provided to the farmers mainly when the situation becomes uncontrollable. The Department communicates relevant crop and weather information to farmers with a view to helping them avoid disasters. The Department has a gateway to share weather -related and other cultivation information with farmers at district level. Farmers have now become savvy with social media which has become a main vehicle for sharing information. However, this information is gathered using manual methods and only once the damage is done, which gives rise to discrepancies. Also, the focus is only on rainfall data, but the trigger level of rainfall is low and rainfall patterns in Sri Lanka change from village to village. As a result, crop damage due to animal activity may get a higher compensation than crops damaged by floods.Insurance companies that protect the farmer should also share the relevant crop information with farmers throughout the cultivation, but what happens at present is that their involvement is only at the claims stage once the damage is done. . At present, Sri Lanka has no proper system for crop forecasts, the data available is only tentative. The lack of proper data complicates insurance schemes. A database should be introduced to include all necessary information to speedily process claims. Linking data from past damage will also help in claims processing. Financial institutions request insurance facilities when farmers apply for loans, although the Agrarian Bank provides loans without insurance.The bundled insurance scheme is in line with the protection provided to the farmers, and will like all the facilities. It also uses advanced remote sensing technology that circumvents discrepancies in manually obtained data and will enable uniformity across events.Question to R.P Samarakody, Additional. Director General, Disaster Management Centre: Could you highlight the importance of disaster risk transfer in protecting vulnerable communities against livelihood risk?Answer. The Sendai framework has guiding principles to address risk transfer. The first principle is that it is the responsibility of the state to address disaster risk reduction. This risk transfer is twofold, firstly the risk transfer could be to individuals, the next is government intervention.In developing countries like ours, the total risk is borne by the central government. Sri Lanka has a mechanism for DRR which involves dealing at sub-national levels, namely, district, division and grama niladhari. Under provincial councils are local authorities. Local governments are responsible for the welfare and development of the people, and so have a major role to play. Everybody including farmers has a vote to elect their representative to the local authority, who is responsible to look into DRR. Therefore, risk transfer could be carried out at provincial council level as well as at central government level.One of the major drawbacks of introducing insurance as a risk transfer mechanism is its premium. This cost can be shared among the farmer, the central government, the provincial government, and the local government. The Sendai framework also requires strategies to deal with DRR. When comes to disaster risk transfer, awareness and preparedness is important as well as early warnings.However, despite all this there will be a residual risk, which needs to addressed with insurance schemes. A participatory approach is necessary to address residual risk in order to get maximum assistance from stakeholders to address DRR. Diversity among the provinces can be addressed with this mechanism. Insurance is a part of life in developed countries, but in the case of developing countries, some pressure from the central government must be applied on the farmers to take out an insurance cover. If not, the government will have to meet the cost of the farmer's ignorance. On the other hand, if the government is unable to absorb the risk, the farmer suffers. Ideally, insurance should be offered through a private-public partnership. To implement this, the central government should design a framework that includes provincial councils, the l ocal government and partners in the private and public sectors.Question to Chirantha Rajapakse, Marketing Manager, CIC Agrobusiness Pvt Ltd.: What contributions can a government regulator make to building trust in insurance and seed companies' capacity to meet their obligations?Answer. CIC has been working with farmers for over 25 years. A public-private partnership is necessary to implement the project at ground level, and a model must be developed to take this forward. Implementation at ground level will have several challenges as well as benefits. A key challenge is to fill the gap between public and private sector ideologies. It is the responsibility of policymakers in the central government to ensure ground implementation of relevant policies.Working the project as a PPP will improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness, government involvement is vital to add value.A key challenge in Sri Lankan agriculture is to bridge the productivity gap. CIC has been working with government institutions, provincial and district level offices to address this gap by improving farmer awareness. CIC believed that productivity can be improved with high quality inputs. Certain factors must be controlled by the farmers themselves, which include soil fertility and pests and diseases as well as agronomic factors. However, some factors like soil moisture levels influenced by rainfall, are beyond the farmers' control. In this context, this project is helpful in minimising the risk and uncertainty of farmers, and is a key step taken by IWMI to enhance farmer livelihoods. CIC looks forward to partnering in this project by providing high quality seeds and other inputs.Answer: Waruna Madawanarachchi, Executive Director/CEO of CIC Seeds: Agriculture is a devolved function and most of the extension activities are carried out through provincial councils and other line departments that provide affiliated services. So, where public-private partnerships are involved, awareness programs are necessary to get all stakeholders on board, especially those at the grassroots level. The government's recent policy decision to ban chemical fertilizer has also increased the risk factor it is difficult to control weeds in hybrid high-performing paddy.Question to Hauke Dahl, Integrated Expert -Scaling for Sustainability, IWMI: How do we develop a robust agribusiness venture to scale across Sri Lanka?Answer: There is a lot of information on how to develop a robust agribusiness but meticulously following textbook rules is no guarantee of success. This is especially true for the agriculture sector and developing markets. Product design and solutions must be kept simple for the users to understand and apply. But making something simple is not easy, a lot of highly advanced top-down solutions did not come to scale because the product was not user-friendly. It is also important to understand market trends and dynamics and incorporate them into the business model , but this is not easy in the smallholder agriculture sector. Finally, always consider your financing strategy for the end-users.Since the purchasing power of the target group is low and their saving capacity is near-zero, it is necessary to develop sustainable financial solutions. Market uncertainties due to the lack of reliable data and risk assessment tools lead to high interest rates that are a disincentive for farmers to invest, so alternative models should be developed in cooperation with the government, public and private sectors.Question from Hauke Dahl, IWMI to Chirantha Rajapaksa, CIC. Could you elaborate on your observations on the productivity gap and what financial instruments within our sphere of activity could be applied to bridge this gap?Answer: Chirantha Rajapaksa, CIC. We have developed some protocols especially for corn cultivation, which has a huge productivity gap. The average farmer gets a corn yield of less than 2 MT/ acre at 15% moisture level which is very low when compared with developed countries and the genetic potential of the seed. So, this gap must be minimised by increasing the yield. Research carried out with the government during the last season revealed a 89% yield increment using our chemicals, fertilizer and other inputs at the correct levels to increase productivity. We have reached our maximum potential in paddy, but we have a productivity gap for all other crops. So, we need to develop appropriate protocols, identify the right inputs and increase farmer awareness in order to improve the productivity of other crops.Shiromani Jayawarndena, Meteorology department. Since there has been a lot of discussions on meteorological data at this workshop, I'd like to mention that the MET department provides 9-day numerical weather prediction maps which show the daily changes in rainfall patterns, and are available for download by anyone. Additionally, under the daily rainfall summary, a map gives information on the rainfall received at the main meteorological stations during the past 24 hours.The Met department has 110 automated rain gauges that provide data every 10 minutes in near real time, and is also planning to develop a GIS portal which will have 5-year data. All this information will be available to the public. A mobile app with location specific rainfall will also developed which will have a high resolution nine-day rainfall forecast.Question from Chathura Liyanarachchi, Disaster Management Centre (DMC). Have any of the panellists done a study on the sena army worm attack or the locust attack and how they have affected vegetable cultivation? If so, how will the vegetable farmers be protected?Answer: Giriraj Amarnath, IWMI. in the case of the army worm, IWMI is planning to develop a product with Sanasa Insurance and is presently looking at all parameters. Expert experience has also been called in to rationalize the use of weather index-based insurance here. A tool is being developed for India to cover damage caused by the locusts, using global data and in line with FAO guidelines, the progress so far and the tools developed can be shared with DMC.Question from Chathura Liyanarachchi, DMC. 'Despite the fact that farmers have achieved maximum yield, they are unable to sell the produce due to the COVID -19 pandemic. Is there a role that IWMI can play here?'Answer: Giriraj Amarnath, IWMI. These are complex challenges. If the farmers are in the last stages of harvesting, IWMI could introduce the buyback model where the market risk could alert buyers. This model is already in use in India.Answer: R.P Samarakody, Additional. Director General, Disaster Management Centre: The governance mechanism at national, provincial and local levels should be strengthened and links should be forged to ensure that early warnings are communicated to the farmers, because local governance is responsible for the welfare and development of the people in the area. At present, the system is centralized in Colombo.Answer: Ravindra Herath, Assistant General Manager, Sanasa General Insurance. Over 70 crops including vegetables are insured at present under indemnity insurance, very few crops are covered by Index-based insurance. Sanasa has developed pandemic insurance which includes the loss of income. It is a high-risk product so we are looking for claims subsidy from a donor organization to implement this.Question from A. Siva, GIZ, Jaffna. Has IWMI recently explored any flood risk assessment to formulate flood modelling that merges with land use patterns and land cover in Sri Lanka? This would be an effective assessment methodology to identify the areas in which farmers have unforeseen land risk and can map out hydraulic modeling for flood forecast and endanger patterns for river bank and river basin areas and the fluvial surface flow during heavy rain. This flood forecast model will be more appropriate to fix insurance premium rates, as some areas are higher risk and premium rates can be fixed based on the susceptibility of the areas. GIZ worked recently with Sanasa Insurance on the i-farm application for farmers which helped farmers to simplify their insurance application and send them through their mobile phone app. Such a digital system will eliminate paperwork for the farmers and won't necessitate prolonged negotiations during claims.Traditional seed varieties should be used In low lying areas of the country, but these are not available in the local market. So, farmers must be encouraged to store and preserve these varieties through their local farmer organizations to begin a seed bank system, for their future use. Many of these traditional seeds respond well to the organic farming that the government has begun to encourage recently.Giriraj Amarnath, IWMI. IWMI has carried out extensive work on mapping and a fair amount of work on modelling. IWMI also has a country-level database for understanding flood hazards and has also carried out an exposure and risk analysis. However, when considering the scale of the data required, it will depend on the requirements of the user. A tool could be developed for specific user requirements, for instance, a flood modelling tool that combines hydrology and a hydraulic model was developed for work in the catchment areas of a river basin. Area-specific data is not available at this point, but country-specific flood information is available.Moderator Rachel McDonnell brought the workshop to a close, stating that invaluable insights were obtained during the sessions, on the roles of different levels of government and the private sector in partnership with many other organizations, agencies, extension offices, seed companies and meteorological services. She stressed the importance of building on the systems that are already in place, and also reminded the participants of the importance of considering the three areas of Product, Price and Policy when taking the initiative forward. The outreach aspect was also imperative when reaching the farmers and ensuring that they were comfortable with, and included in, this process. In closure, Dr McDonnell thanked all the partners for generously sharing their time, insights and experiences at the workshop.Dr. Giriraj shared the next steps for taking the BICSA initiative forward: Finetuning the roadmap and action plans on scaling BICSA with public and private sector partners from among those present as well as experts sourced from outside . Organizing a training workshop, In partnership with CCAFS, on the 'Capabilities of remote sensing data for weather index insurance' for insurance companies scheduled for 27 May 2021, which will cover a range of subjects that include various aspects of remote sensing, knowledge products and cloud-based platforms,  Organizing a consultation workshop with the Ministry of Agriculture and the Disaster Management Centre on the role of agriculture insurance and risk transfer finance mechanisms, which will be based on policy directions discussed at this workshop. Scheduling a webinar on 'Developing the PPP BICSA scaling model' to be held in July 2021, with a view to simplifying the model and knowing the investment market and coming up with a scalable financial model. Taking forward the inputs provided by the AAIB and other partners to develop a user guide for satellite technologies and tailoring a better dashboard for cross-validating satellite data. Considering gender inclusion strategies in the index design and promoting institutional trust and financial literacy while building capacities among the various users. Studying the pilot evidence gathered in the current Yala and Maha seasons in a co-designed process to come up withs an impact evaluation of the lessons learnt.---workshop conclusion --- ","tokenCount":"7176"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"785d592ed4351579a9d1c2a0f26490c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/08eafbfa-ab80-49cf-a7cc-97dba834ec76/retrieve","id":"-1098304294"},"keywords":["ASI, anthesis silking interval","DMP, days to mid-pollen shed","DMS, days to mid-silk emergence","EASP, ear aspect","EC, number of ears harvested","EHT, ear height","EPO, ear position","EPP, ears per plant","GCA, general combining ability","GY, grain yield","HC, husk cover","IITA, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture","KRS, Kadoma Research Centre","PHT, plant height","QTL, quantitative trait loci","RARS, Rattray Arnold Research Station","RL, root lodging","SCA, specific combining ability","SL, stem lodging","SRC, Stapleford Research Centre Tembo, E., Minnaar-Ontong, A., Menkir, A., Marais, G., Magorokosho, C., & Labuschagne, M. T. (2022). Inheritance of resistance to Fusarium verticillioides"],"sieverID":"55c666c9-34e9-48f2-abd8-d4b10fc7078c","pagecount":"16","content":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important crop in sub-Sahara Africa for both human consumption and livestock feed. Maize use is often limited by ear-rotting fungi, some of which produce deleterious secondary metabolites. The aim of this study was to determine the inheritance of resistance to Fusarium verticillioides as an indirect way of selecting for resistance to secondary metabolites such as the mycotoxin fumonisin that is produced by this fungus, under artificial inoculation and natural infection. Twelve inbred lines from Seed Co that were used as the females, were mated to 12 tester lines from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) that were used as males, using the North Carolina Design II. The resulting 144 F 1 hybrids and six check hybrids were evaluated in Zimbabwe. Artificial inoculation with F. verticillioides was done at Rattray Arnold Research Station in the first season. The general (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) effects for F. verticillioides incidence were variable across sites for the lines and the testers. Six southern African inbred lines had desirable GCA for F. verticillioides ear rot and can be used as resistance sources. Outstanding testers from IITA that had negative GCA for F. verticillioides ear rot and fumonisins were identified. Both additive and nonadditive effects were implicated in resistance to ear rot caused by F. verticillioides and potential lines were identified that can be used in regional breeding programs.Maize (Zea mays L.) plays an important role in the dietary needs of both humans and animals in Zimbabwe and most African countries. Maize suffers from both abiotic and biotic stresses, some of which give rise to secondary problems. Fusarium ear rot, caused by the fungus Fusarium verticillioides (Sacc.) Nirenberg, among other fungi, has been found to produce compounds such as fumonisin, which can be carcinogenic (Franceschi et al., 1990;Gelderblom et al., 1994;Osuchowski et al., 2005;Rheeder et al., 1992). Beside this,other health challenges have been reported in human beings, rats and mice (Marasas et al., 1988;Missmer et al., 2006;Williams et al., 2010). As a result, both the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have placed limits on provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of edible maize of 2 mg per kg for fumonisin analogues B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 , either individually, or in combination. The WHO and FAO normally set the trend for regional bodies such as the European Union (EU) and individual countries. The EU released a legal binding framework on the limits of concentration allowable for both human and animal consumption in the Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1126/2007 in September 2007. Of the several other mycotoxins, the fumonisin level limits are 4,000 and 8,000 μg per kg for human and animal consumption, respectively. For reasons such as a lack of effective regulatory frameworks, these limits are mostly not applied in sub-Saharan Africa countries (FAO, 2004;WHO, 2017). The presence of these toxins may cause serious economic losses to farmers, who have to discard contaminated grains. Feed contamination by mycotoxins also reduces livestock production (Hussein et al., 2001).Commercially available maize cultivars in most parts of the world do not have specific resistance to F. verticillioides and other important mycotoxin-causing fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, possibly because they were developed from genetically related germplasm susceptible to such ear-rot causing fungal species. This is despite the identification of diverse sources of resistance to A. flavus (Brooks et al., 2005;Busboom & White, 2004;Menkir et al., 2008;Warburton et al., 2009;Williams & Windham, 2009) and to F. verticilliodes infection (Busboom & White, 2004;Robertson et al., 2006). These known sources of resistance mainly originate from the temperate zone and are poorly adapted to production conditions in sub-Saharan Africa and most have poor combining ability for yield (Menkir et al., 2008;Warburton et al., 2009). Some sources of resistance adapted to West and southern Africa have also been identified but again with poor combining ability for yield, the most important trait considered in hybrid maize development (Menkir et al., 2008;Warburton et al., 2009). High levels of resistance found in some local sources (landraces) could be attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds such as anthocyanins and phlobaphenes that Salinas-Moreno et al. (2017) and Landoni et al. (2020) associated with low causal-fungi infection rates. Such landraces are characterized by pigmentation that results in plant tissues that are colored red, blue, or black, which are positively correlated with the presence of antioxidants and thick pericarps. Such characteristics could possibly define the pathways or mechanisms for resistance.Breeding for resistance to fungi causing fumonisin contamination can be an effective control intervention, as it is environmentally friendly and can be applied under all socio-economic conditions (Busboom & White, 2004;• Ear-rotting fungi can produce secondary metabolites that cause diseases in humans and animals. • Inheritance of resistance to Fusarium verticillioides and fumonisin was determined. • Additive and nonadditive genetics effects were implicated in resistance to ear rot. • Potential lines and testers were identified that can be used in regional breeding programs. Clements et al., 2004;Gaikpa & Miedaner, 2019;Menkir et al., 2008;Warburton et al., 2009). This, therefore, suggests that even the poor people with low levels of education, which characterize most smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, can immensely benefit from cultivars that are inherently resistant. Robertson-Hoyt et al. (2007) observed a positive correlation between resistance to aflatoxins and fumonisins caused by A. flavus and F. verticillioides, respectively.As such, useful information can be derived from such a correlation as a substantial amount of research has been done in the temperate regions on A. flavus, while in southern Africa, a lot of research has been done on F. verticillioides. Only a few specific genes were found to directly confer ear rot resistance in maize. Gaikpa and Miedaner (2019) who reviewed genomics-assisted breeding for ear rot resistance and reduced mycotoxin contamination in maize, concluded that ear rot resistance was generally controlled by many small-effect quantitative trait loci (QTL). They indicated that genomic selection could be a good tool to select more resistant germplasm in a shorter time. Quantitative inheritance for resistance was also demonstrated by Maschietto et al. (2017) who used a traditional mapping approach involving two biparental Canadian maize populations and found 15 and 17 QTL for Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin contamination, respectively. Eight QTL were common to both traits. The presence of numerous QTL signifies quantitative inheritance.As mycotoxin analysis costs are high, selection for resistance is often done indirectly through visual assessment of harvested ears. Specific plant characteristics can also be selected for, including good husk cover, which limits kernel infection by fungi. Genotypes that tend to have drooping ears after physiological maturity that limits accumulation of moisture in the cob; and silk characteristics that reduce penetration of the fungi into the ear, have reduced the incidence of ear rot (Bolduan et al., 2009). Mukanga et al. (2010) found high genotype × environment interaction (G × E) for the ear rot-causing fungi, indicating that genotypes respond differently to infection in different environments. Artificial inoculation allows the breeder more control when developingresistant germplasm (Bolduan et al., 2009;Bútron et al., 2015;Maschietto et al., 2017;Windham et al., 2003). However, this does not always give the desired outcome, as the causal pathogen may not thrive in the absence of a conducive environment, a vital component of the disease triangle that also includes the reaction of the host plant to the pathogen. Success can therefore be achieved with the correct timing of the infection to coincide with the stage of the plant when it is most susceptible under the correct environmental conditions.Diverse sources can be exploited in breeding for resistance to ear infection by F. verticillioides in maize, as additive and nonadditive gene effects have been associated with resistance to mycotoxin-causing fungi (Mukanga et al., 2010). Genetic variability for F. verticillioides under artificial inoculation was found to be significant (Bolduan et al., 2009). Ouko et al. (2020) found both nonadditive and additive gene effects playing a significant role in the inheritance of resistance to aflatoxins caused by A. flavus. Walker and White (2001) attributed resistance to A. flavus infection to additive gene effects, while nonadditive gene effects were associated with resistance to aflatoxin production. Such studies and findings are important for F. verticillioides which has the same pathway of resistance as that of A. flavus. Where dominance or overdominance is important, use of one resistant line in hybrid formation would lead to masking of the undesired alleles, while in population improvement or line development, segregating populations developed from these sources of variation could be exploited.Commercially available maize hybrids in Africa do not have specific resistance to F. verticillioides, and known sources of resistance are poorly adapted to sub-Saharan Africa and combine poorly for yield and resistance to mycotoxin causing fungi. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the mode of inheritance of resistance to F. verticillioides as an indirect way of selecting for resistance to secondary metabolites such as the mycotoxin fumonisin, that are produced by this fungus, under artificial inoculation and natural infection. The understanding of the inheritance of other agronomic traits of importance is also vital, as resistance becomes useful if it exists within agronomically superior lines. This study is from the perspective of the elite lines being used within the region. These are public maize inbred lines with varying levels of resistance to aflatoxin contamination, and private sector proprietary inbred lines classified as resistant to F. verticillioides. The characterization was done by the respective source organizations before the study commenced.  1). These lines were grouped according to their known reaction to Fusarium ear rot and mycotoxin production, according to the data available within the respective organizations from which the lines originated, as well as their heterotic pattern and geographic origin. The 12 proprietary maize inbred lines included four lines that showed resistance to Diplodia maydis (Berk.) Sacc. and F. verticillioides (SC 1, SC 2, SC 3, and SC 4). Four lines were very susceptible to these two pathogens (SC 5, SC 6, SC 7, and SC 8), and four lines were of unknown reaction to most ear rot-causing fungi (SC 9,SC 10,SC 11,and SC 12). The IITA lines included those with high (IITA 1, IITA 2, IITA 3, and IITA 4), moderate (IITA 5, IITA 6, IITA 7, and IITA 8), and low (IITA 9, IITA 10, IITA 11, and IITA 12) levels of resistance to F. verticillioides and aflatoxin production. The Seed Co lines came from various heterotic groups, whereas the IITA maize inbred lines were of mixed origin but were classified based on their reaction to aflatoxin production (Table 1). The inbred lines were crossed to make F 1 hybrids at Kadoma Research Centre (KRC, 18 0 20′ E and 30 0 6′ S at an altitude of 1,149 m), Rattray Arnold Research Station (RARS, 17 0 40′ E and 31 0 13′ S at an altitude of 1,341 m), and in the winter at a low altitude site in Muzarabani (17 0 40′ E and 31 0 13′ S at an altitude of 1,341 m) in Zimbabwe.The three groups, each containing four lines from Seed Co, were crossed in a North Carolina II mating design (Comstock & Robinson, 1948), with each of the three groups containing four lines from IITA (Dhliwayo et al., 2009). Therefore, each group comprising of four lines from Seed Co was crossed to each group of four lines from IITA (Figure 1). The proprietary lines from Seed Co were used as female parents and the IITA lines were used as male parents to ensure that enough seed was generated as there was enough seed from the proprietary lines for as many rows as may be needed compared with the IITA lines. The 144 generated hybrids were tested in the trials (16 × 9). The seed of the parent lines were increased simultaneously to enable evaluation of lines in replicated trials alongside the F 1 trials. The resulting 144 F 1 hybrids and the 24 parental lines were evaluated in replicated trials side by side at each site in 2 yr of testing, 2012/2013 and 2013/2014. The commercial hybrids SC 535 and SC 719 (resistant to F. verticillioides) and SC 537 (susceptible to F. verticillioides) from Seed Co in southern Africa, and three experimental hybrids from IITA, namely M0826-1, M1124-29, and M0926-8, were included in the hybrid trials to make a total of 150 entries. The experimental design for all trials was an alpha lattice (Patterson et al., 1978). The hybrids and the parental lines were evaluated for their reaction to ear rot in two seasons at three locations in Zimbabwe. The hybrids and the parents were planted in different trials with two replications, two-row plots, 5 m long, spaced 0.75 m apart at a final population density of 53,333 plants per hectare, achieved through planting of three to four kernels per hill, followed by thinning to two plants per hill 2 wk after plant emergence. This was the practice in both summer seasons at a hot spot area at Stapleford Research Centre (17 o 48' S, 31 o 02' E and altitude, 1,470 masl) near Harare, where natural epidemics of Fusarium ear rots normally occur, at KRC and at RARS. At all the three locations in both years, plantings were done between 15 and 30 November. A total of 400 kg ha −1 basal application of fertilizer (7% N, 16% P 2 O 5 , and 8% K 2 O) was done prior to planting. Nitrogen fertilizer was added approximately 4 wk after crop emergence at a rate of 138 kg ha −1 in the form of ammonium nitrate with 34.5% nitrogen. Insects and weeds were controlled when necessary.The hybrids and their parent lines were artificially inoculated with F. verticillioides at RARS only, in the 2013/2014 season. The Fusarium ear rot-severity scores were obtained at all the locations, including where evaluation was done under natural infection. Fumonisin concentration was determined only for the RARS location in the 2013/2014 season. Inoculum was prepared from the six isolates of F. verticillioides obtainedfrom the infected grain that was collected in Zimbabwe from the major maize-growing areas. DNA from the F. verticillioides isolates were extracted and sequenced and compared with DNA sequences of Fusarium species in Genbank (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank) to confirm the purity of the inoculant (Tembo, 2015), which was hence assumed to be virulent and having a high mycotoxigenic potential. Inoculation was done according to Clements et al. (2004) and Warburton et al. (2009), where the spore concentration and the sporulation potential was determined and standardized. The isolates were further increased for purification and drying, to enable easy transportation to the trial site at RARS. The isolates were grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA) (Biolab). In brief, 39 g of PDA was prepared as indicated on the container and sterilized by autoclaving at 121 ˚C for 20 min. The PDA plates were stored at 4-8 ˚C until needed.Transfer of the fungi was done with the aid of a microscope. To avoid anticipated over growing, the lids on the petri plates were sealed with parafilm. The PDA plates were then placed in an ultraviolet light incubator for 14 d at 25 ± 2 ˚C. The F. verticillioides isolates identified from the various samples were blended in equal proportions in distilled water to form a bulk fungal blend that represented the pathotypes existing in the country (Clements et al., 2003(Clements et al., , 2004)). The increase of fungal inoculum was achieved through further propagation on sterile PDA, in petri plates. Conidia were washed from the dextrose agar using 500 ml of sterile distilled water.At the RARS site, artificial inoculation was done in the first season using the method described by Williams and Windham (2009). In brief, 10 ml of F. verticillioides propagule suspension were applied through the Zummo and Scott (1989) technique through the husk of the primary ear at 7 d after the emergence of the silks on every plant within the plot (Warburton et al., 2009;Williams & Windham, 2009). The application was accomplished through the side-needle technique, where a 14-gauge needle was used with 3 × 10 8 conidia. Natural fungal epidemic was anticipated to further increase the disease pressure, particularly in hot-spot areas such as Stapleford Research Centre (SRC).Agronomic traits were recorded and derived before harvesting according to Badu-Apraku et al. (2011). Root lodging (RL) and stem lodging (SL) were derived from the proportion of plants with an inclination of 30 o or more at the base of the plant and the proportion of plants at harvest with stalks broken below the ear level, respectively. Days to mid-pollen shed (DMP) and days to mid-silk emergence (DMS) were determined as number of days from planting to when 50% of plants had started to shed pollen and showed silk emergence, respectively. The difference between the DMS and DMP was recorded as anthesis to silking interval (ASI). Plant height (PHT) and ear height (EHT) were measured as the distance between the base of a plant and the position of the first tassel branch and the position of the top ear, respectively. The other traits measured were ears per plant (EPP), ear position (EPO), and husk cover (HC), which were derived as the proportion of the number of productive ears divided by number of plants, the proportion of the height of ears harvested divided by the height of plants at harvesting time (EHT divided by PHT) and the number of plants with open tips (HC) expressed as a proportion of the total number of ears harvested (EC), respectively.Harvesting was done post physiological maturity when grain moisture content was approximately 18%, roughly 60 d after mid-silking at most sites. Fusarium verticillioides ear rot was evaluated by counting the number of infected ears from each plot of the hybrid and the parent trials and were then expressed as a proportion of the total ears harvested. After drying the ears to 14% moisture, the F. verticillioides ear rot was further evaluated as grain disease score (GDS) at RARS, SRC, and KRC. A sample was drawn from shelled grain for all the ears harvested from each plot and given a score on a scale of 1-9, where 1 represented no visible ear rot and 9 represented complete infection of the harvested grain kernels with F. verticillioides. Infection severity score of 20% or less (1-2) was considered \"good\", 25-30% (3-5) \"intermediate\", and 35% or higher (6-9) \"poor\". The ear aspect (EASP) was a score on a scale of 1-9 where 1 represented a large ear that is free of insect damage and disease and appears to be well covered with well-filled grains, while 9 represented an ear with undesirable characteristics (Badu-Apraku, 2011). Yield data were obtained following hand harvesting and weighing the actual grain yield after shelling and moisture determination with a moisture meter. Grain yield was expressed at a moisture content of 125 g kg −1 (12.5%). After shelling, grain samples from each of the first season plots at RARS, where artificial inoculation was done, were randomly selected and submitted to Trilogy (www.trilogy.co) in the United States for quantification of fumonisin through high-performance liquid chromatography. Fumonisin analogues B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 were quantified for each hybrid and line, by Trilogy, following their company protocols.All data recorded were subjected to analysis of variance using Agrobase Generation II (Agronomix Software Inc., 2018), with replications and incomplete blocks considered random.The analysis of variance was computed using the following linear model:where m = grand mean; G i = effect of ith genotype, L j = effect of jth location, Y k = effect of kth year, B r (L j Y k ) = B replication within jth location and kth year, GL ij = interaction between ith genotype and jth location, GY ik = interaction between ith genotype and kth year, GLY ijk interaction between ith genotype, jth location, and kth year k, e ijkr = the error associated with each observation.The genotypic variance among the hybrids and the parental inbreds were considered random. The variation among hybrids was split into that caused by male inbred lines and females inbred lines. The mean squares for GCA of male lines, GCA of female lines and SCA were tested against GCA of males × environment, GCA of females × environment and SCA × environment interactions, respectively. The GCA and SCA effects were computed with the Proc Mixed model using the COVTEST in SAS (SAS Institute, 2002), following the Hallauer and Miranda (1988) and Falconer (1996) model:where Y ijk is the kth observation on i × jth progeny, μ is the general mean, m 1 is the effect of the ith male, f j is the effect of the jth female, (m × f) ij is the interaction effect, and e ijk is the error associated with each observation.where X f is the mean for female parent, X m is the mean for male parent, GCA f is the GCA for female parent, GCA m is GCA for male parent, μ is the grand mean of the crosses.where SCA x is SCA for a cross, X x is the observed mean value for the cross, E(X x ) is the expected value of cross based on the GCAs of its parents (GCA f , GCA m ).The combined analysis of the hybrids to F. verticilliodes infection revealed significant effects of entry with respect to ER and GDS. All interactions with location, and interaction between location and year (meaning that locations ranked differently for the 2 yr) were also significant. The effects of year, location, and their interaction were significant for ER and GDS. Interaction between genotype and location was significant for GDS (Table 2).Hybrids in which inbred lines SC 2, SC 5, SC 10, SC 11, IITA 1, IITA 7, and IITA 9 were parents, appeared more frequently among the top hybrids that had a mean disease incidence of 0%. Where the inbred line IITA 12 was used, higher levels of susceptibility were observed as its frequency among the most susceptible hybrids was the highest (data not shown).The effects of location, entry, interaction of replication × year and location × year were significant (P ≤ .01) for ER, GDS, GY, and ASI. Significant (P ≤ .01) entry effects were seen for ER, GY, and ASI, year for ER and GDS, entry × year for GDS and GY, and location × entry × year for GY and ASI.In terms of the fumonisin, measured as B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 analogues, GCA was found to be not significant for B 1 and highly significant for B 2 and B 3 (P ≤ .01 to P ≤ .001) (Table 3). The GCA f estimates were highly significant for B 2 and B 3 (P ≤ .01) and not significant for B 1 (P > .05). Inbred line SC 8 had the lowest, although not significant GCA f effects for all three fumonisin analogues, suggesting that the line could confer resistance to this mycotoxin to hybrids that result from crosses where it is used as a female parent. Inbred SC 10 had the most negative GCA f effects for B 2 and B 3 . The most positive GCA f effects were recorded for inbred line SC 5 for B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 (Table 3) implying that hybrids made from it are generally more susceptible to fumonisins. The males showed significant differences (P ≤ .05 to P ≤ .001) for the fumonisins B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 , but the GCA m effects for the males were not significant. IITA 10 had the lowest negative values for B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 . The highest positive effects for B 1 and B 3 were for IITA 12 and for B 2, it was IITA 11 (Table 3).The ear rot (ER) incidence was not significant (P > .05) for both the female lines and the male lines (Table 3). The GCA f effects for the ER were not significant (P > .05), and highly significant (P ≤ .001) for the males lines (GCA m ). Male inbred lines IITA I, IITA 2, IITA 3, IITA 4, IITA 6, IITA 7, IITA 10, and IITA 11 had negative values with IITA 7 having the most negative (−0.44) GCA effect for ER, while IITA 12 had the most positive effect of 0.95 (Table 3). In general, female line SC 8 had consistently low GCA effects for all the characteristics except for ER, while SC 10 had among the lowest GCA effects for the three fumonisin analogues. Line SC 11 had the lowest GCA effects for ER and GDS. Male line IITA 10 had consistently low GCA effects for all characteristics except for ER (Table 3).Across locations and years, of the southern Africa lines used as females, inbred line SC 3 and SC 10 had the highest negative GCA f effects for F. verticillioides ear rot infection (Table 4). Despite artificial inoculation, the difference in ear rot incidence among hybrids was not significant. Inbred lines SC 1 and SC 8 had the highest positive GCA f effects for the ER. The highest and lowest GCA m effects for the male parents were observed for IITA 12 and IITA 1, respectively. The most negative GCA m effects for ER were observed for inbred lines IITA 1 and IITA 7, while the highest positive values were found for IITA 4 and IITA 12.The SCA effects for fumonisin analogues B 1 , B 2 were significant (P ≤ .05) (Table 3). The most negative SCA effects involved IITA 11 crossed to SC 5 and crossed to SC 6 (Table 5). The most positive effects were recorded for SC 5/IITA 12, SC 6/IITA 2, SC 6/IITA 9 and SC 5/IITA 6.The SCA effects for Fusarium ear rot were highly significant (P ≤ .01) (Table 3). Hybrid SC 7/IITA 2 had the most negative SCA effects for F. verticillioides ear rot across all sites in both seasons, although this was not significant. The highest effects were seen for hybrid SC 8/IITA 9 (Table 6).The SCA effects for the ER incidence at RARS where artificial inoculation was carried out, was not significant although the hybrids SC 12/IITA 12 and SC 10/IITA 5 had the lowest negative effects. The most positive effects were recorded for SC 10/IITA 12, SC 1/IITA 6, SC 4/IITA 5, and SC 3/IITA 11 (Table 6).The GCA for the lines which were used as females (GCA f ) was highly significant for GY, DMP, DMS, ASI, and ear aspect (EASP) (P ≤ .001) (Table 7). The female line SC 10 had the highest GCA f effects for yield. The female inbred line SC 10 had the most positive GCA effects for GY, DMS, and ASI while inbred lines SC 4 and SC 1 had the highest GCA effects for DMP and EASP, respectively. The most negative GCA effects were recorded on inbred lines SC 3, SC 2, SC 5, SC 8, and SC 12 for GY, DMP, DMS, ASI, and EASP, respectively (Table 7). The most positive GCA effects for male lines were found for IITA 4, IITA 9, IITA 6, IITA 9, and IITA 12 for GY, DMP, DMS, ASI, and EASP, respectively. The most negative GCA effects were recorded for male inbred lines IITA 1, IITA 12, and IITA 4 for GY, DMP, and EASP, respectively. Inbred line IITA 8 had the most negative GCA effects for both DMS and ASI. The male inbred line IITA 4 had the most positive GCA effects for GY and most negative GCA for EASP which were both significant among the male lines (Table 7).The SCA effects were not significant for GY across all the locations except for SC 11/IITA 3 that was significant (P ≤ .05) with the most negative SCA effect (Table 8). The GCA effects for the constituting line SC 11 in this hybrid, was negative and low while that of the male IITA 3 was positive and low. The most positive SCA effect for grain yield was recorded for hybrid SC 3/IITA 1 (not significant).T A B L E 3 General combining ability (GCA) effects for female and male lines for Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin B1, B2, and B3 at Rattray Arnold Research Station (RARS) and GCA effects for ear rots for grain disease score for RARS, Stapleford, and Kadoma This study showed that both additive and nonadditive gene effects were important in conferring resistance to both fumonisin causing fungi, F. verticillioides and possibly, the fumonisin itself. Although the maternal effects were not anticipated to be important for these two traits, the differences in the magnitude of mean square values for ear rots and, loosely, the fumonisin accumulation between the female SC lines and the male IITA lines (data not shown), suggests existence of maternal effects (Hallauer & Miranda, 1988), with the implication that lower ear rot infection or accumulation of the fumonisins was attainable only when certain lines were used as females or males only. As NCDII provides two measures of the GCA, it allows for the determination of maternal effects in the absence of reciprocal crosses that are achievable through other mating designs, such as the diallel (Fasahat et al., 2016). The inbred lines used in testcrosses showed varying responses in their reaction to fumonisin analogues B 1, B 2 , and B 3 . In terms of gene effects, this was similar to the findings by Ouko et al. (2020) who found additive and nonadditive gene effects to be almost equally important for resistance to fumonisins. There was a contradiction in terms of maternal effects, as they found no significant maternal effects. Low incidences of F. verticillioides were seen across sites and years, which could be attributed to the environment in terms of precipitation that is correlated with humidity at specific stage of plant development. The ear rot disease incidences were low, even under artificial inoculation at RARS, and this should, consequently, translate into low mycotoxin levels. This is despite that the 2nd year of testing was characterized by low rainfall (data not presented), which favors higher disease incidences (Cao et al., 2014). When a dry spell occurs at silking stage, natural barriers or defense mechanisms are circumvented. The period of flowering coincided with the period when there was relatively high precipitation. Links et al. (2020) observed that incidences were high when silk emergence occurred during the dry spell. Bush et al. (2004) did not find extensive ear rot in either year of their study, with an incidence of <22% for the symptoms recorded.Among the lines for which reaction to the most frequently occurring ear rot-causing fungi were unknown, three had negative effects. The most negative GCA effects were observed for SC 10 across environments. This line has been associated with drought tolerance and wide adaptability. Negative GCA effects for a trait, such as ear rot rating, are indicative of the ability of the lines to contribute resistance. In a study conducted by Rose et al. (2016), certain maize inbred lines were found to be resistant to F. verticillioides, fungal target DNA and the fumonisins, and these lines included CML390, US 2540W, RO 424W, and VO 617y-2.The GCA m effects were significant for F. verticillioides ear rot, with the results showing a general trend of separation of the male lines into resistant, moderately resistant, and susceptible groups, as classified by the source institutions. Rose et al. (2016) used some lines that had previously been characterized as resistant, moderately resistant, and susceptible in their studies. The results on the GCA effects revealed that the classification of the IITA lines by their reaction to aflatoxin corresponded to their reaction to fumonisins. This is consistent with findings by Robertson-Hoyt et al. (2007) as lines resistant to aflatoxins caused by A. flavus were equally resistant to fumonisins. Some unexpected results were, however, observed, which would suggest existence of different pdathways for resistance to the ear rot-causing fungi and the resulting mycotoxin, or other nonadditive gene effects playing a significant role. Such deviations were observed for the female line SC 8 that had been classified as susceptible to ear rots and indeed was one of the lines that had the most positive GCA effects for ear rot, while having the most negative GCA effects for the fumonisin analogues B1, B2, and B3.  The public IITA lines used in this study as male lines had been carefully selected for their reaction to aflatoxins, unlike the proprietary lines used as females, which were identified by the source organization as being resistant to F. verticillioides and other ear rot-causing fungi, without any information on their reaction to mycotoxins. Some negative correlations between reaction to F. verticillioides ear rot and the degree of accumulation of the fumonisin analogues were intriguing. Inbred line IITA 11 had negative GCA effects for ear rot while the GCA m for all the fumonisins analogues were positive. Inversely, inbred IITA 5 and IITA 8 had positive GCA effects for ear rot, while the effects for the fumonisin analogues were negative. Such results are contrary to the observations by Butrón et al. (2015) who reported a correlation of 0.97 between Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin contamination. Fumonisins may be present in asymptomatic kernels, albeit at low levels (Bútron et al., 2015). Hybridization by the source organizations usually involves use of adapted germplasm, which at times include some landraces.These landraces usually have different kernel colors that are further selected against to attain the desired kernel color. Such colored grains have been shown to be inherently rich in some phenolic compounds, such as phlobaphenes (Landoni et al., 2020;Salinas-Moreno et al., 2017) that are positively correlated with resistance to the ear rot-causing fungus F. verticillioides. Hence it is not surprising to see some IITA lines having inherent resistance to F. verticillioides, and it can further explain the resistance to aflatoxins associated with them. Use of temperate germplasm in most maize-breeding programs is a common practice as excellent alleles accumulated in advanced programs can be exploited to enhance yield. While focusing on the yield, genes for resistance to mycotoxin-causing fungi can be incorporated into the tropical germplasm.Hybrids SC 5/IITA 12, SC 6/IITA 2, and SC 5/IITA 6 recorded the highest positive effects, hence significant differences were observed for the SCA for the fumonisin analogues, which indicated that they were most susceptible. Male lineT A B L E 7 General combining ability (GCA f ) effects across locations in two seasons for female and male lines for yield and other agronomic traits IITA 11 and female line SC 1 were involved in combinations resulting in low accumulation of fumonisins, which is consistent with the observation that their susceptibility was low, as GCA was negative or close to zero. Maupin et al. (2003) found dominance playing a major role in conferring ear rot resistance. In a different report on resistance to A. flavus ear rot and aflatoxin production, Walker and White (2001) attributed resistance to additive gene effects. Molecular studies have confirmed additive genetic effects for inheritance of ear rot resistance and reduced mycotoxin accumulation. Butrón et al. (2015) studied the genetic control of F. verticillioides in maize lines from different genetic backgrounds under various environments and found both additive and dominance effects important, with little epistatic effects. Paul et al. (2003) studied QTL using the resistant inbred Tex6 and susceptible B73 and identified loci from these two par-ents that contributed to resistance. Chromosomes 3, 4, 5, and 10 were associated with the resistance QTL, suggesting polygenic inheritance of resistance, although large environmental effects contributed towards making most QTL significant in 1 yr only. In the current study, the environmental effects were equally important, as they largely contributed to variation. High G × E interaction for the ear rot causing fungi was reported (Okoth et al., 2017) that necessitates the use of artificial inoculation and possibly manipulation of the environment by ensuring high humidity through interventions such as use of misting.Inbred line SC 10, used as female, had the highest GCA f for yield and generally exhibited negative GCA f for F. verticillioides ear rot across sites, and possibly fumonisins, as observed from the 1-yr data obtained. As with female lines SC 10 and SC 5, positive GCA f across all the sites for grain yield was observed. Positive GCA for yield is desirable as it indicates that the line increases yield. This is not surprising, especially for the inbred line SC 5, as several hybrids with this parent exist in southern Africa, which all have wide adaptability. Inbred line SC 10, in a separate study on genetic diversity involving all the lines in this study, exhibited wide diversity from the two major clusters of female and the male lines (Tembo, 2015). Grain yield GCA for both the female and male lines was significantly different across environments for the lines (GCA f ) and as well as for the testers (GCA m ). This implies high contribution to yield by additive gene effects. The opposite is true for the SCA where there were no significant differences across sites. Observations of both GCA and SCA that respectively explain additive and nonadditive gene effects, have been reported by Long et al. (2004) who found SCA effects to be more important than GCA effects for yield.The mean squares for height-related traits, PHT and EHT, were variable between sites for both GCA f and GCA m . Although these have no bearing on the trait under study, it is important to know how the lines under study can stand as good disease resistance alone may not be useful. Taller plants may be desirable under certain circumstances, where stover is important, if they do not lodge. On the other hand, shortstatured plants may be important in increasing plant density. For leaf disease ratings of gray leaf spot and rust, the mean squares for the GCA f were either always higher than or equal to those of GCA m , which would indicate marginal or lack of maternal effects for such traits. Negative GCA effects for ear rots shown by lines and SCA effects exhibited by hybrids are obviously desirable.Yield is generally a function of both additive and nonadditive effects. For traits associated with flowering, the SCA effects for DMP, DMS, and ASI across all sites in both seasons were significant, indicating existence of nonadditive gene effects controlling duration of flowering. This is consistent with Dhliwayo et al. (2009) who observed significant differences for days to anthesis in different environments. Flowering has a bearing on the ultimate infection by F. verticilioides. Date of flowering determines the length of silk channel as silking may coincide with the period when inoculum is most abundant. Length of the silk channel, maturity that is a function of DMS and DMP, and husk cover, have been associated with ear rot resistance (Butrón et al., 2006;Warfield & Davis, 1996). Bolduan et al. (2009), however, found a negative correlation between silk channel length and both Fusarium ear rot and fumonisin accumulation. There was no evidence of maternal effects for traits such as GY, DMS, DMP, ASI, PH, and EHT.In conclusion, maize production suffers from abiotic and biotic stress factors, of which some contribute to production of secondary metabolites that are detrimental to consumers worldwide. Both additive and nonadditive effects wereimportant in conferring resistance to fumonisins and ear rot. The SCA is associated with nonadditive gene effects such as dominance while GCA is associated with additive effects. This was found relevant to F. verticillioides and the fumonisin accumulation in this study.Ear rot resistance in this study could be attributed to additive gene effects, more importantly, as the GCA f and GCA m effects were significant, although some nonadditive effects were also found to play a role, albeit making a smaller contribution. These findings are consistent with those from several molecular studies elsewhere, where even different sets of genotypes and different environments were used, hence it can be universally accepted to apply in any part of the world.It has been demonstrated that sources of resistance to Fusarium ear rot and possibly the metabolites produced by the pathogens exist, which include those screened and adapted to Central and West African tropical mid-altitude and southern African mid-altitude areas. These sources include those that have previously been screened for resistance to aflatoxin production. Such lines were developed by public and private entities, respectively. While private breeding programs are more focused on yield and its attributes, with other characteristics being secondary, public institutions focus on issues that affect the small-holder farmer who practices farming as both livelihood and business and include traits that are of less importance to private companies. As such, form part of the pedigree of the populations from which lines are derived. Such landraces are inherently rich in some characteristics that are important but may not contain alleles that confer high yields such as the B73 type of germplasm commonly used in some developed temperate regions. The contrast between the two types of germplasm is the inherent poor yields in the landraces and the susceptibility to ear rots and mycotoxins in the B73. The use of public and private proprietary lines has been demonstrated to be beneficial for breeding towards resistance to ear rot-causing fungi. The approach capitalizes on the use of resistance to diseases and possibly the secondary metabolites exuded by such fungi, and the high yields associated with private sector bred maize inbred lines.SEED CO is acknowledged for funding the project.Elliot Tembo: Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology. Adré Minnaar-Ontong: Supervision. Abebe Menkir: Conceptualization; Methodology; Supervision. Gert Marais: Formal analysis; Methodology; Supervision. Cosmos Magorokosho: Methodology; Project administration. Maryke T. Labuschagne: Data curation; Formal analysis; Methodology; Supervision; Writing -review & editing.","tokenCount":"6947"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8281333e97bf45701b44fd51c59c5490","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aefb5a6e-5623-46ea-87fd-c3ef999b82d2/retrieve","id":"1274915235"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a2880c7d-4c34-4609-95ad-4cfedee424d7","pagecount":"28","content":"This report presents the results of the quantitative survey on women and youth empowerment in the agricultural sector in Ghana. The survey targeted producer households using a digital database established as part of the TAFS-WCA baseline study. Data were collected from 404 actors in five Ghanaian regions. The analyses focused on perceptions of decision-making authority over resources, production activities, revenues, and leadership. Particular attention was paid to the disparities between women and men and between age groups. The key results are as follows:• Women have far fewer opportunities to own agricultural assets than men, as do young people compared to their older counterparts.• The agricultural assets held the least by women and young people are water for irrigation, livestock, agro-climatic technologies, and processing equipment.• Processing and marketing agricultural products are two activities in which women earn more money than men do. The economic sectors dominated by young people compared to their elders are the transportation and processing of agricultural products.• Young people have relatively less access to basic agricultural support services than their elders. Women have less access than men to services such as the internet and information.• Women (50.24%) were less likely than men (56.23%) to speak in public regularly.However, young people (62.07%) were more likely to speak in public than older people (52.73%).• More young people feel respected by others than older people do. The proportion of women who felt respected by their partners was lower than that of men.• Most women and young people are active in associations, but a few hold positions of responsibility in their communities.• Women are less able to make decisions about family matters than men, while older people are more able to make decisions than younger people.• Gender analysis showed that the proportion of women able to make decisions related to production activities is generally lower than that of men.• The proportion of young people able to make decisions on the choice of crops, the acquisition of land, the use of agricultural equipment, fertilizers, or labour, and the sale of produce, is lower than that of their elders.• Overall, women contribute less than men to decision-making regarding income from agricultural economic activities, except salaried employment and the processing of agricultural products. Seed production and agricultural production are activities in which young people contribute less than their elders to decision-making regarding the income generated.• Women (55.97%) were just as likely as men (57.06%) to disagree, as were young people (55.43%) compared with their elders (56.76%).These data confirm the existence of numerous challenges to the empowerment of women and young people in Ghana's agricultural sector. These challenges can be addressed by better integrating the underlying social issues. Table 1:        Indeed, it is estimated that between 2015 and 2019, the prevalence of undernourishment increased from a score of 8.0 to 9.3. In 2021, between 702 and 828 million people suffered from hunger (FAO et al., 2022).Africa is not on the sidelines of these trends as the continent has one of the highest numbers of undernourished people in the world (FAO et al., 2015), with around 278 million people being undernourished (FAO et al., 2022). Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a population of more than  (Holger et al., 2022). In addition, poor performance in improving food security in SSA is linked to farmers' difficulties accessing productive resources (CGIAR, 2022).However, agriculture in SSA remains a source of livelihood, income, and job creation (Holger et al., ibid.) for millions of farmers, especially women. Women play an important role in the continent's agricultural sector, accounting for 52 percent of the total population of the sector and are responsible for approximately 50 percent of agricultural work on farms. Women also produce 60-80% of the continent's food (Bomjiwe and Kaaria, 2015). In addition, they are responsible for transplanting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, winnowing, grinding, parboiling, cooking, and marketing field products, among other tasks specific to rice cultivation. This may seem paradoxical, as women find it difficult to be autonomous from their male counterparts (Bomjiwe and Kaaria, ibid.). They have more precarious land rights to agricultural land, less access to credit and training and must work with technologies designed for men (FAO, 2023).These difficulties also hold for young people, who are currently too few to envisage their future in the agricultural sector despite the existing economic opportunities. All these challenges need to be addressed to improve the fight against gender inequalities in African agri-food systems.The One CGIAR Initiative, entitled \"Transforming Agri-Food Systems in West and Central Africa (TAFS-WCA),\" through its Work Package 4, has targeted this. Through its various activities, the initiative aims to tackle barriers to improving the livelihoods of youth and women through entrepreneurship models in food value chains (CGIAR 2021). The strategy is to assess the drivers of gender inequality in the agricultural sector.Therefore, a study on women and youth empowerment in the agricultural sector in West and Central Africa can contribute to this. It aims to assess, using a quantitative approach, the aspects related to the empowerment of women and youth in agricultural production and value chains in TAFS-WCA countries. Thus, this document presents a case study of Ghana.The objective of this diagnostic study is to measure the level of empowerment of women and youth in Ghana's agricultural sector. This will help collect reliable, precise, and sufficient values of indicators that should be used to support gender activities within the framework of the TAFS-WCA. The specific objectives of this study were as follows:• assessed the level of empowerment of women and youth in the agricultural sector in Nigeria.• determine the barriers to women's and youth empowerment in the agricultural sector.• identify opportunities for women and youth empowerment in the agricultural sector.This section describes the methodology used in this study. It proceeds as follows: i) study area and sampling, ii) data collection tool, iii) training of survey enumerators, iv) organization of data collection, and v) quality control procedure and analysis of the data collected.The study was conducted in Ghana during September 2023 and covered four (04) regions of the country including Ahafo, Ashanti, Bono, and Bono Est (Figure 1). These regions are those parts of the country that had benefited from the baseline survey of the TAFS-WCA initiative. A stratified random sampling technique was used to select study respondents. Overall, 404 individuals from 236 households comprised the sample size of this study. Since the focus is on women and youth empowerment in the agricultural sector, mainly in crop production activities, the first criterion of the sampling procedure was being a rice or other key cropproducing household. Second, marital status and relationship with the household head were also considered when selecting individual respondents within a selected household. Third, households headed by women producers were given priority to obtain a significant presence of female heads of household. However, some married female producers who were not heads of household were also regarded, and both their husbands (heads of household) and they were given the survey individually. Finally, care was taken to ensure the presence of young people within the different categories of individuals.The data collection tool used in this study was a structured questionnaire that was designed to measure individual empowerment. It is suitable for assessing the empowerment of women and youth in the agricultural sector in terms of their decision-making capacity. Four main dimensions of analysis were covered: production, resources, revenue, and leadership. The questionnaire also contained information on the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of respondents.The questionnaire was automated using a CSPro Application installed on Android tablets. It was intended exclusively for \"female producers who are heads of household/unmarried\", \"married producers who are not heads of households\", \"wives of married producers who are not heads of household,\" \"married producers who are heads of households\" and \"wives of married producers who are heads of household.\"The study mobilized enumerators trained in data collection. The majority had previously participated in the TAFS-WCA baseline survey. They are essentially individuals with an academic background in agriculture and social sciences and proven experience in Android socioeconomic household surveys. They were trained over two days, mainly on the objectives of the study, the criteria for choosing respondents, ethics and informed consent in research, and the use of tablets (GPS activation, battery saving, synchronization, verification, etc.). The questionnaire for measuring individual empowerment was presented during the training so that the enumerators could immerse themselves in the content of the various modules. It was the subject of an explanation and exchange between trainers and collection agents. Application sessions on tablets were also carried out to master the subtleties of the automated questionnaire.To simulate and test the questionnaire, role-playing was organized among the enumerators.This was followed by a debriefing session, during which each enumerator shared their experience with the questionnaire to clarify certain aspects related to handling the input mask on a tablet.A total of 10 enumerators including 7 men and 3 women were trained in Kumasi (CSRI). After the training, enumerators were deployed in each area. To facilitate the mobilization of farmers and their relatives in the field, lists of sampled households and contacts were made available to them. The survey took place over 10 days. During the training and data collection, the following task has been completed: i) Supervisors and enumerators were well aware of their responsibilities, things to do and not to do during the data collection;ii) Improved the content of the questionnaire from the feedback obtained from the participant's enumerators;iii) Automation of the questionnaire on tablets with CSPro application for data collection; iv) Training of enumerators on the questionnaire and how to use tablets with CSPro application installed on tablets for data collection and how to submission the data collected in the field, v) Submission and verification of the data collected.It is known that outliers, duplicates, missing data, etc. very often taint the quality of the results.These biases are often caused by poorly trained enumerators who deviate from the survey protocol in the field. To overcome this, our data quality control relies on the pair leaders.Their responsibility was to assist with field deployment, identification of survey locations, data collection, and daily information debriefings. After each day, they also organize the reporting of the collected data to the data manager. Once they are transmitted, they are incorporated into a CSPro hosting platform. This platform makes it possible to monitor in real-time the progress of the collection carried out by each investigating officer. This makes it possible to call out to agents in the field as soon as an error is detected and to better visualize the quality and inconsistencies of the data provided (aberration, duplicates, missing data, etc.) to quickly provide solutions during the survey. As another quality measure, control sets were inserted into the questionnaire mask to prevent the interviewers from deviating from the protocol and to ensure a high degree of quality of the data collected.For the data analysis, a grid was developed in agreement with the expert in the inclusion of women and youth and the data manager for the production of the results. Overall, the analysis of the collected data was performed using descriptive statistics with Stata Software. The evaluation covered the dimensions of empowerment, in terms of resources, production, revenue, and leadership.The farmers surveyed are made up of female heads of household (72), male heads of household (169) and married women (163). More than half of the respondents are also women ( 235women compared to 169 men) (Table 1). The farmers interviewed came from two agricultural regions of Nigeria, namely the Bono (9.90%), Bono East (14.36%), Ahafo (%), and Ashanti (56.44%). Overall, the differences in the regional distributions of women and men, as well as youth and adults over 35 years of age, are relatively small and controlled (Tableau 2).  women are slightly younger than men (Table 3). The analysis of the marital status as contained in Table 4 shows that the vast majority (88.61%) of producers surveyed are married. The disaggregation of the data shows that married social seniors (85.62%) are much less important than newlyweds (97.96%). However, men (100%) are much more likely to be married than women (80.43%), as they are very often subject to singlehood, widowhood, and divorce (Table 4). The ability to read and write depends on the level of education. It very often influences the level of autonomy of people in their society. This section presents the results on the level of schooling of Ghanaian farmers (  Statistics show that the average household size of the Nigerian farmers surveyed is around 7 people. Specifically, the size of female-headed households (6.35 persons) is smaller than that of male-headed households (7.24 persons). On the other hand, households with adults over the age of 35 years of age are larger than those with a youth under the head (Table 6). An individual's autonomy is also measured by his or her ability to participate in daily decisionmaking within his or her community, family, and life. In this regard, the results of the study on empowerment in the agricultural sector in Ghana show that the vast majority of producers participate in decision-making on household affairs, including paying for food expenses (99%), whether or not to vote (98.78%), opening a bank account to save money (98.33%), having or not having a contractual arrangement with another actor (98.11%), whether or not to go to a health centre in case of illness (97.73%) and whether or not to enrol children in school (96.51%).(Table 7)In the same vein, the participation of women and young people in decision-making remains high. However, there are some notable deviations in the analysis of specific trends that need to be highlighted. The areas in which women are less involved in decision-making than men are schooling, food and contractual activities. Conversely, when age groups are taken into account, young people generally have a lower level of participation than older people, except in contractual activities (Table 7). Individual autonomy also depends on the ability to make decisions. The data collected fromGhanaian farmers shows gender differences. They indicate that women are less able to make decisions in family matters than men while adults over 35 years old are more capable of doing so than young people (Table 8). Farmers own property is grouped into two broad categories. These are farm and non-farm assets (Table 9). The fact of having them or not affects the living conditions of farmers in general.Surveys carried out in Ghana show that many agricultural assets were accessible to many farmers. On one side, most women and young people farmers owned agricultural assets such as agricultural plots, agricultural labor, agricultural equipment, herbicides/insecticides, chemical/organic fertilizers, improved seeds/varieties and livestock. On the other hand, the agricultural assets they own least are water for irrigation, livestock, agro-climatic practices/technologies, and processing equipment. It also emerges that women have far fewer opportunities to own agricultural assets than men, as do young people compared with their elders (Table 9). In order of importance, non-agricultural assets held by farmers were mainly mobile phones (96.09%), private assets (75.06%), energy/electrical power sources (58.19%), drinking water sources (57.95%) and means of transport (54.28%). The study shows that both women and young people generally have access to private non-agricultural asset ownership. Moreover, the proportion of men who claim owning non-agricultural assets is higher overall than that of women. As for young people, they hold as many or sometimes more of non-farm asset than adults over 35 (Table 10). Farmers' empowerment problems are sometimes due to a lack of support at different levels.This evaluation in Ghana shows that access to support services for farmers varies considerably from one service to another.While most women and young people report having access to extension support and agricultural information, only a minority have access to the internet, credit and value chain training. Young people also have much less access than their elders to basic agricultural support services. As for women, they have less access than men to services such as the Internet and information (Table 11). This section focuses on Ghanaian farmers' participation in decision-making about farming activities in the 12 months preceding the interview. Table 12 show that almost all respondents, i.e. at least nine out of ten farmers, state that they are heavily involved in decision-making in their respective farming activities, including crops or varieties to grow (99.45%), harvesting periods and means (99.39%) and means to obtain farmland (96.79%). It comes back that in terms of participation in decision-making in agricultural activities, the proportions of women and men, as well as young people and their elders, remain very high and fairly close. According to data, most Ghanaian farmers feel that they have a good ability to make decisions on their agricultural activities. On average, eight out of ten farmers, including women and young people, have a high or very high level of decision-making power over all agricultural processes, from choosing crops to selling produce (Table 13).The majority of women and young people demonstrate great decision-making capacity in agricultural activities. Gender analysis, however, shows that the proportion of women likely to make decisions related to production activities is generally lower than that of men. On the other hand, the data is mixed when it comes to age groups. The level of young people capable of making decisions is higher than that of elders, particularly in the phases of soil preparation, pesticide application, harvesting and use of production. On the other hand, the proportion of young people capable of making decisions on the choice of crops, the acquisition of land, the use of agricultural equipment, fertilizers or labor, and the sale of products, is lower than that of their elders (Table 13). Agricultural value chain activities in Ghana are generally income-generating activities.However, they are not always valued enough to the point of providing profits to farmers who are directly dependent on them.Surveys revealed that transport appears to be the activity where few farmers (37.50%) generate income. In addition, eight Ghanaian farmers out of ten on average report earning their income from activities such as agricultural production (95.20%), marketing of agricultural products (93.33%), seed production (90.91%) animal husbandry (88.54%), processing of agricultural products (85.96%) and salaried employment (75.00%) (Table 14)We also observe that the processing and marketing of agricultural products are the two activities where women earn more income than men. The economic sectors dominated by youth compared to their elders are transport and processing of agricultural products (Table 14). The majority of farmers surveyed say that they contribute a great deal or all to decision-making on the use of income from activities relating to salaried employment (75%), seed production (74.82%), agricultural production (69.37%), marketing of agricultural products (67.69%), livestock farming (66.67%) and processing of agricultural products (63.16%). Transport (35.50%) is the activity in which only a minority of farmers contribute to decision-making on the income generated (Table 15).It appears that women contribute less than men to decision-making on income from agricultural economic activities, except in salaried employment and the processing of agricultural products.Seed production and agricultural production are the activities in which young people contribute less than their elders to decision-making on the income generated (Table 15). Just under nine out of ten farmers surveyed (88.37%) were involved in deciding how the income generated should be distributed. The participation rate of women was significantly higher (88.51%) than that of men (88.17%). However, the participation of older people (90.85%) in decision-making about income is much higher than that of young people (80.61%) (Figure 2).  The need to express one's opinion freely can be classified as a primary need. It is also a right.An individual can genuinely flourish and feel integrated into the society in which he or she lives, provided that this right of expression is not impeded.In African rural communities, public speaking is subject to codes. Speech for one or the other cannot be free expression for all. Ghana in particular, our surveys show that majority farmers (54.97%) say that they often/most of the time/always speak in public. More than Three farmers (33.15%) in ten speak sometimes in public. Only 11.88% rarely/never speak in public (Table 16)Analysis of the data also shows that women (50.24%) are less likely than men (56.23%) to speak regularly in public. However, young people (62.07%) are more likely to speak in public than their elders (52.73%) (Table 16). Overall, around nine out of ten farmers surveyed (89.60%) believe that they are free to speak in public. The disaggregation of opinions shows that the proportions of women (88.09%) and young people (88.78%) free to express their opinions are lower than those of men (91.72%) and adults over 35 (89.87%) (Figure 3).  Respect in the household demonstrates the ability of members to express their disagreement.Looking at the data in the table 19 show that more than half of Ghanaian farmers surveyed (56.44%) believe that they are often/always comfortable expressing their disagreement. What's more, women (55.97%) are as likely as men (57.06%) to express their disagreement, as are young people (55.43%) compared to their elders (56.76%) (Table 19). To cope with the challenges of poverty they face, members of rural communities in Ghanaian sometimes tend to organize themselves into groups with a social vocation and financial assistance. the data shows that more than half of farmers surveyed (55.20%) say they belong to an association. Only 6.93% hold or have held political office in their community (Table 20).In general, most women and young people are active in associations. But few of them hold positions of responsibility in their communities (Table 20). These statistics confirm a weakness in the leadership of women and young farmers. The objective of this study was to collect reliable and accurate data on indicators that can positively impact the empowerment of women and youth in the agricultural sector in Ghana.The breakdown of opinions by gender and age shows some notable differences. The study shows that Ghanaian women and young farmers generally have access to private ownership of non-agricultural and agricultural assets. However, the proportion of men who report owning non-agricultural assets is higher overall than that of women. As for young people, they own as many, if not more, non-agricultural assets than adults over 35. Apart from this, women have far fewer opportunities to own agricultural assets than men, as do young people compared to their elders. The agricultural assets they own least are water for irrigation, livestock, agroclimatic practices or technologies, and processing equipment. What's more, young people have relatively less access to basic agricultural support services than adults over 35. As for women, they have less access than men to services such as the internet and information. Data on access to income show that processing and marketing agricultural products are the two activities where women earn more money than men. The economic sectors dominated by young people compared to their elders are transport and the processing of agricultural products.In terms of leadership, the majority of women and young people are active in associations, but few hold positions of responsibility in their communities. Women and young people are also less likely to speak regularly in public. Disaggregation of opinions shows that the proportions of women and young people who are free to express their opinions are still lower than those of men and older people respectively.When it comes to decision-making, the participation of women and young people is generally high. However, women are still less able to make decisions than men, while adults over 35 are more able to make decisions than young people. In production activities, the proportion of young people able to make decisions on the choice of crops, the acquisition of land, the use of agricultural equipment, fertilisers or labour, and the sale of products, is lower than that of their elders. From another point of view, women contribute less than men to decision-making on income from agricultural economic activities, except in salaried employment and the processing of agricultural products. Young people's participation in decision-making on income is lower than that of their elders. On the other hand, women are just as likely as men to express disagreement, as are young people.These results highlight the many social and economic obstacles to the empowerment of women and young farmers in Ghana. They confirm the need for specific interventions to address them.","tokenCount":"4020"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2c50a7c04db1138c26fa16a08df0ca1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/83f8460e-a3cc-4ef2-8bda-cb46a996a5b3/content","id":"1626417636"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7363443-5daf-48e1-aca8-1af443f1f98e","pagecount":"3","content":"Mozambique is a country with a huge agricultural and industrial potential.Agricultural production in the Zambezia, a central province of Mozambique, is concentrated on rice (Oryza sativa L.) (Figure 1) and other crops, such as soybean (Glycine max L.), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), maize (Zea mays L.), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), cassava (Manihot esculenta L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), and tea (Camelia sinnensis L.). Rice is planted in December and harvested during April and is followed by cowpea and sweet potato (Ipomeas batata L.) to restore the soils and feed the people when rice has been harvested (Figure 2).But recently, periods of drought have become longer and more frequent, posing serious challenges for the food security and livelihoods of populations that depend on these crops. Regarding this, crop breeding is a key to unlocking the agricultural potential, where the use of advanced genotyping practices will facilitate Mozambique in addressing these challenges. To speed up agronomic management decisions, in the province, the Zambeze University and the Research Centre of Leadership at Namacurra of the Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique (IIAM), are implementing genotyping practices for diverse uses. These include heterotic group characterization from the Mozambique Genebank at Maputo, the nation's capital, as well as for population improvement in rice, cowpea, and maize.Under this initiative, the IIAM team has started to characterize sorghum materials based on current climate needs in Cabo Delgado, a northern province of Mozambique that shares border with Tanzania. In this region, Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is the main cereal crop grown by the smallholder farmers.Genetic characterization of common bean and sorghum breeding materials with the initially available KASP (Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR) markers (https://excellenceinbreeding.org/module3/kasp) for diverse traits indicated that deeper genotyping needs to be carried out. This can help Mozambican breeding programs better understand the genetic diversity of the materials to be used in further crosses. With the support of CGIAR Excellence in Breeding and the Breeding Resources Initiative (https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/04-enablingtools-technology-and-services-for-genetic-gains/), as well as through funding from Crops to End Hunger, this activity is currently being undertaken using the DArTag medium density panels (https://excellenceinbreeding.org/toolbox/services/mid-density-genotyping-service).Molecular techniques are routinely used in plant breeding programs of developed countries. These techniques are accurate, rapid, reliable and provide a wealth of information that is not available using conventional phenotyping methods. However, establishing all genotyping facilities present its own challenges in the developing countries, where poor infrastructures, lack of funds and expertise present great challenges. Additional constrains include specific logistical requirements and the need for identifying and adopting best practices.The results of CGIAR's collaborative efforts will be crucial for the Mozambican partner's research at their upgraded research stations to further areas adopt technologies at the forefront of modern plant science. This effort is supported by the strong collaboration with CGIAR (www.cgiar.org) together with other leading agricultural programs, such as by the World Bank (www.worldbank.org). These collaborative activities between the CGIAR, CIMMYT, IIAM and Zambeze University will allow better prioritization, faster delivery, and avoidance of work duplication among institutions. Furthermore, Mozambique will have its genebank crop materials characterized, which will function as a baseline for further breeding and integration of molecular work. This will ensure more efficient breeding efforts, and consequently better varieties delivered to Mozambican smallholder farmers. This work is vital to enabling long-term increases in the \"genetic gain\" of breeding programs working on essential staple foods, such as beans, maize, sweet potato, and sorghum. Particularly in the face of climate challenges, genotyping is a necessary tool to bring framers the varieties they need.-----Written by Ana Luísa Garcia-Oliveira, Magalhães Miguel, Jose Acácio, Joaquim Mutaliano, Hermínio Abade, Pedro Chauque, Godwill Makunde, Adam Hunt, Eng Ng Hwa, Michael Quinn, Olga Faftine, Prasanna Boddupalli, Moses Siambi, Maria Isabel Andrade, and Bram  Online version of this story: https://excellenceinbreeding.org/news/advanced-genotypingmozambique-accelerate-genetic-improvement-conservation-and-agronomy","tokenCount":"625"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"08e6d5e75fad2b2acd9678f5cfa36088","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/07fe6785-7d73-4cde-a32f-fdf1d2434ccd/retrieve","id":"-472691820"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"62f56a03-33db-4390-a0e0-2ff6f49191e2","pagecount":"33","content":"Dryland Cereals (DC) welcomes the review, insight and guidance provided by the Independent Science and Partnership Council (ISPC) and the Consortium Office (CO) on our extension proposal. We greatly appreciate the comments that allow us to recognize both the strengths and the areas to improve in our proposal, and thank the reviewers for the opportunity to respond to the review. We have structured our response to address the review comments from both ISPC and CO. ISPC comments are addressed in adherence to the numbered comments elaborated from Page 4 onwards of the review, as well as to the numbering of the serious concerns listed on page 2. CO comments are addressed in adherence to numbering of the comments. Supporting information is presented in three annexes. This response also incorporates the Performance Matrix. In reference to the serious concerns by the ISPC, we have provided information on the results/reports to date as well as ongoing efforts on demand and constraint analysis, and towards prioritization. We submit that the Theory of Change is a work in progress, and yet to be defined further from its generic beginning.The primary demand for dryland cereals is for food in Africa, especially in the dryland regions where these are the principal crops. This continuing demand is reflected in the trend for increasing area under sorghum and millets in Africa over the last fifty years, as shown below against a backdrop of maize, wheat and rice. Also shown is a relatively flat yield chart across the last fifty years for these crops, again against the backdrop of maize, wheat and rice. The figure below emphasizes two points, the first, demand has been increasing in Africa for these crops over the last fifty years likely driven by the rising population, and the second, crop productivity has not kept pace with this increasing demand. This is due to both a lag in crop improvement efforts in these crops relative to maize, wheat and rice, and the extreme environmental conditions and the low-input agriculture under which these crops are grown, relative to maize, wheat and rice. Thus it is immediately evident that crop improvement efforts combined with improved agronomic practices is a must for these crops in Africa, especially in view of the reducing arability of land 1 . Interventions of the BMGF-supported HOPE project (Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancements) for sorghum and millets, that started its first phase in 2009, have demonstrated yield gains from as low as 17 to as high as 141 per cent for these crops through crop improvement and agronomy. In the case of barley, while global trends indicate stabilization in barley area and production, with slow but study increase in productivity, productivity in Africa is lagging behind at 50% of global productivity.Having stated the above, we recognize that further definition, targeting and focus are important as pointed out by the review. This is especially in view of end uses beyond food, and in view of emerging demand for these climate-resilient crops driven by changing climate. The identification of target countries in the original proposal was based on a combination of two factors, namely, cultivated area under dryland cereal crops, and size of the population under the poverty line. During the extension phase, we plan to re-evaluate and redefine the target countries and ecologies based on the proportion of dryland cereal crops grown relative to other cereal crops, while still weighing the size of the population below the poverty line. Towards this, we intend to use information from the ISPC commissioned foresight studies on land use and urbanization in Africa and Asia 2 , along with our own value chain analyses. Our focus on crop improvement for yield enhancement and yield stability (in the face of predominant biotic and abiotic constraints) will continue, while we will further define the quality traits that need to be prioritized for research based on existing or emerging value chains.Food and malting uses of barley in East and North Africa are observed to be on the rise. The baseline for barley in Ethiopia and research priority setting was completed, and reports are under compilation for baseline survey work undertaken in India, Morocco, Iran, Turkey and Kazakhstan in 2013-14. In relation to sorghum and millet value chains, preliminary analyses based on collected baseline data and other information point to the following information.A synthesis of the studies listed herein on sorghum and pearl millet demand and consumption trends to guide R4D priorities in India is presented in Annex 1. In summary, dual-purpose cultivars are a must for both sorghum and pearl millet since both grain and fodder are valued. For both crops the demand for fodder is growing faster. For pearl millet, higher yielding varieties need to be targeted for alternative uses to bring down unit cost of production.Finger millet flour: Growth in middle class demand for weaning foods and healthier blended flours; demand for finger millet flours by hospitals for diabetics, HIV Aids patients. Sorghum flour: Growth in middle class demand for ready-to-eat sorghum products. Sorghum beer: High price of imported barley and malt; lower excise duties than on malted beers; price incentives for smallholders; appropriate low-tannin varieties of sorghum. Poultry feed: Growth in consumer income increases demand for chicken; sorghum and millets are competitive with alternative feeds such as maize; appropriate millet and sorghum varieties with high nutrient content. Fodder: Growth in consumer income increases demand for beef; appropriate dual-purpose sorghum varieties that combine high grain yield with high fodder quality Growth in value chains in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) starts from a low base. For WCA, it is estimated that only 5 % of sorghum and millets enters these value chains.  Commercialization is specific to the country and the crop. In Tanzania, most finger millet is sold, but not sorghum. In Kenya, both sorghum and millets are sold widely. In Ethiopia, very little is sold.  Sorghum fodder is important in Ethiopia, where short-stemmed early maturing varieties have not been widely adopted.  Resilience and food security will remain important farmer priorities in the drylands.We agree with the ISPC comment that the scope for value chain analysis should be defined carefully. The analytical focus of Dryland Cereals in value chain analysis has been on social inclusion, and the effectiveness of inclusive business models in making sure that poorer farmers (including women) benefit from commercialization. For example, the study of the value chain for sorghum beer in Kenya evaluated the performance of the Smart Logistics business model in terms of social inclusion. 3 Thus our emphasis is on studying \"value chains with high growth potential and the potential to raise incomes of poorer households\" (p. 8). Similarly, new work on commercialization of finger millet in Western Kenya has focused how collective marketing benefits women. 4 That is not a \"commercial development activity\" but a research activity to determine to what extent poorer smallholders benefit from value chain development. Dryland Cereals' Flagship 5 plans a number of value chain studies focused on this research question, which is critical for IDO # 4 (increased and gender-equitable income).Since 2012, Dryland Cereals' partners in Ethiopia have also conducted short studies to measure marketing costs for sorghum and millets 5 and quantify demand for sorghum in different uses. 6 Again, this is not a \"commercial development activity\" but research that provides information on the sources of demand which helps research prioritization and on price incentives and transaction costs for smallholders. It is not \"market research\" of the type commissioned by the private sector. Any private firm commissioning market research on a specific value chain would have proprietary rights and likely no incentive to share the results with Dryland Cereals. Though Dryland Cereals does not currently have the expertise to conduct research on all aspects of value chain analysis, we will collaborate with appropriate partners including PIM for those aspects for which we currently lack in-house expertise.The Flagship 3 (Inclusive Value Chains and Efficient Trade) of PIM focuses on the development of tools for value chain analysis. The Lead Center, ICRISAT, is an active participant in this Flagship, and the research on the value chains for sorghum and millets will be done within Dryland Cereals. In terms of work planned on trade in ESA, we plan to contract a partner with expertise in this area. We have already had discussions with the Dept. of Agricultural Economics, University of Nairobi, which has conducted studies on cross-border trade. We also plan to link with PIM's Flagship 3 (Inclusive Value Chains and Efficient Trade), where David Laborde (IFPRI) is coordinating studies on cross-border trade which can provide advice on survey instruments and design. This has already been discussed with Laborde at the Flagship 3 meeting in Washington in June 2014.  Ongoing.The original proposal provided information on demand in South Asia (SA) derived from the National Sample Survey database (1993/94-2009/10) to show trends in household consumption by rural/urban, by income category, and by state (Appendix 4 of original proposal). Since then, regional analyses of household sorghum consumption in India have been completed and reported 7 . Similar analyses have also been completed and reported for pearl millet in India 8 . Demand and supply projections for pearl millet grain and fodder for Western India covering the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana indicate that by 2020 the share of food use in total grain production will decline from 46% to 40%, while the shares of cattle feed (37.5 to 38.6%), poultry feed (7.7 to 9.4%), and alcohol and other uses (8.8 to 11.7%) will increase.We have extended the demand analysis to Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), where datasets were obtained for national household expenditure surveys from the national statistical offices in four countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania), and analyzed. These studies provide descriptive tables analyzing number of consuming households and annual demand (in adult equivalents) disaggregated by demand by rural/urban, high/middle/low income, poor/non-poor, and producing/nonproducing districts. They also determine income elasticity of demand for sorghum and millets, but not using the Almost Ideal Demand Systems model, for which the CRP does not have expertise at present. Reports for these studies are available. 9 A report synthesizing the results across these four countries is in preparation, and is expected to be completed by Dec 2014.With regard to demand analysis in West and Central Africa (WCA), we are currently collaborating with the Sorghum and Millets Innovation Lab (SMIL; USAID-Funded Feed the Future Innovation Lab) at Kansas State University to conduct a regional demand system study that will integrate demand for sorghum, millets, maize and rice. A scoping study will identify the most suitable data sets, followed by an analysis of household demand and demand drivers. Dryland Cereals hopes to conduct this integrated demand analysis in partnership with AfricaRice, which has also expressed their interest to SMIL.The original Dryland Cereals proposal synthesized results from 29 studies on constraints to adoption for improved varieties of sorghum and millets disaggregated by region (Appendix 5 of the original proposal).A more recent study on adoption constraints to improved sorghum in Tanzania identified the availability of information as a key constraint in the adoption of improved varieties. 10 Yet another recent study explored the role of social networks in spreading information about improved sorghum varieties in Tanzania. 11 An adoption study of improved finger millet varieties in Western Kenya has also been recently completed. 12 A new study on constraints to adoption in Mali has been started in 2014.Baseline surveys were conducted in 2012-2013 for five countries in ESA (Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Eritrea, and Tanzania) to identify farmer trait preferences and priorities. Reports for individual countries are being prepared by national partners, and Dryland Cereals is now undertaking a cross-country analysis, with an anticipated completion date of Dec 2014. Dryland Cereals also conducted a multi-disciplinary scoping study to identify research priorities for sorghum in Mozambique. 13 For WCA, new baseline survey data have been produced for Nigeria, Niger, and Mali. 14 Results from these studies will provide an updated overview of trait preferences and adoption constraints that will inform development of product lines.In ESA, we have also used the DREAM model to make ex ante and ex post studies of R&D impacts for Uganda and Tanzania, while a third study for Ethiopia is in the final stage of preparation. These studies provide detailed analysis of economic impacts by variety and by region. Reports are available for Uganda and Tanzania. 15 A major study has also begun in ESA on the competitiveness of sorghum with drought tolerant maize, which will use GIS mapping to identify regions of competitive advantage and use crop models to measure the economic advantage of sorghum over maize under different rainfall scenarios. This is scheduled for completion by Dec 2014.In SA, data-based analysis has been done on outlook and targeting for sorghum and millets in India, albeit with some emphasis on sweet sorghum for biofuel. Reports are available for these outlook 16  The Theory of Change (ToC) presented for Dryland Cereals in Annex 1 of the extension proposal is in a generic form at present, and we are cognizant of the need to define clearly the specific dimensions of the Theory of Change of the program as indicated in the Extension Proposal. Four important dimensions identified for impact for the Dryland Cereals Theory of Change are (1) production of research outputs that meet farmers' requirements, (2) enabling environment for the dissemination of outputs and uptake by farmers, (3) access for farmers to the outputs of Dryland Cereals, and (4) adoption of Dryland Cereals outputs by farmers. Each of these dimensions needs yet to be elaborated, as suggested by both the ISPC and the CO, and we are in the process of doing this. Such elaborate definition of the ToC will enable the identification of necessary strategic expertise or partnerships currently missing, clear assessment of available human resources and infrastructure relative to the accepted scope of the program, and prioritization of efforts for impact and best value for investment.Our analyses of demand, constraints and value chains so far have given a reasonably clear picture of the nature of research outputs required, especially the desirable crop traits to be improved. Information that helps define country-specific targets for research is now in hand, though further granular information on regions within countries is still a work in progress. Our ongoing cross-country/regional synthesis of available information will help determine commonalities in demand and constraints, thus helping prioritization of R4D targets within the program in balance with the budget. Flagship 1 will address these studies, from the socioeconomic perspective, in collaboration with Flagship 5, and the analytical data thus developed will be weighed by the Research Management Team for data-driven prioritization of R4D activities across Flagships 2 and 3. We anticipate and prepare for a feed-back loop of learning, updating and changing implementation as necessary, even as Flagship 1 evaluates prevailing conditions on an ongoing basis for recommendations of changes to the ToC as required. Additionally, it is also planned to conduct a market analysis for the different crops across the target regions/countries to prioritize R4D investments, during preparations for the second phase. The CRP Director does have experience in basic market analyses, with or without calculation of net present values, for commodity crop traits across countries to enable justification or prioritization of R4D investment.Impact of technologies developed as outputs is determined by their adoption. Improved seed is a key output from Flagship 2, and this is the first area we are focusing on to define an apt Theory of Change. Seeds of open pollinated varieties still predominate in cultivation in Africa, though hybrids are gradually being recognized for their enhanced yield, especially in WCA. Even with earnest effort in developing hybrids and producing hybrid seed, both open pollinated varieties and hybrids are likely to prevail in these regions over the next few years. Consequently, two separate avenues are being explored to enable the supply of seed of farmer-preferred varieties or hybrids. We are starting to develop a ToC with the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture (SFSA) which provides technical support to WASP's implementation of the ECOWAS procedures. During 2014, we are partnering with SFSA, which is currently in an exploratory phase of a program aimed at (1) the registration of four Malian sorghum varieties in Mali by their breeders (IER and ICRISAT), and (2) the facilitation of sub-regional acceptance of the newly registered varieties in four neighboring countries, namely, Senegal, Niger, Nigeria and Burkina Faso. In parallel, we are also in discussion with DuPont Pioneer for the development of a ToC, and a bilaterally funded project, for increased rigor in the development and dissemination of hybrid sorghum in Africa.We realize from the ISPC comment that the suggestion given by our Impact Pathway as illustrated in page 3 of the extension proposal is that \"one size fits all problems, cereals, farmer groups and regions\". This is quite contrary to the actual fact, where the five flagships or thematic areas that contribute to the Impact Pathway overlie seven Clusters of Activities, each of which is specific to crop and region.Evidence is present in the various reports cited in the earlier pages of this response, where studies and analytical reporting were specific to crop and country, and in a few cases even to regions within countries.Annex 2 provides information on how most target estimates were derived; some are planned to be reformulated in light of more recent discussions on IDOs and SDGs. It is important to point out that since the submission of the extension proposal there have been ongoing discussions on common IDOs. We are in the process of evaluating with GRiSP, Maize, Wheat and GL how we can learn from each other on defining metrics and setting targets.The recent restructuring of the CRP into Flagships and Clusters of Activities, through a simple flipping around of the structure in the original proposal, is expected to significantly enhance functional effectiveness and implementation efficiency. We recognize that our Flagships are thematic areas. Considering the fact that relatively very little research is done on these crops outside this CRP, especially for dryland farmers, it is critical to include all required R4D activities for these crops within these Flagships/Thematic areas of the CRP, with appropriate prioritization. The Performance Matrix presented herein identifies, but is not restricted to, important Flagship \"Projects\" in the exact definition of this term, for the extension phase. The Performance Matrix also recognizes the fact that benefits flow to R4D partners (NARS, NGOs, development partners) as well as to farmers as ultimate endusers. Feedback loops exist amongst all these Flagships/Thematic areas but most importantly between Flagships 1 and 5.It is recognized that budget and functional emphasis is still skewed towards Flagship 2, and we plan to rebalance this to the extent possible during the implementation of the extension phase such that a balanced R4D portfolio sets the stage for Phase II. Flagship 1 needs a leader yet, Flagship 2 is led by the CRP Director (and will be co-led by two partner organization leaders), Flagship 3 is led by Girish Chander (Resilient Dryland Systems, ICRISAT), Flagship 4 is led by Zewdie Bishaw (Seed Systems, ICARDA) and Flagship 5 is led by Alastair Orr (Markets, Institutes and Policies, ICRISAT). The leadership of Flagships 3 and 5 connects Dryland Cereals in close functional collaboration with Dryland Systems and PIM respectively, while the leadership of Flagship 4 connects Dryland Cereals with the partner Center, ICARDA. Potential co-leadership between ICRISAT and ICARDA is being explored for Flagship 1 for still further enhancement of ties with ICARDA. We do need to state that we are in an experimental phase currently with such leadership assignments for the extension period. Flagship 4 on Seed Systems and Input Services would benefit from private sector involvement by establishing model pipelines for, as example, medium-to large-scale seed multiplication, quality assurance and distribution.Shared or complementary activities between associated CRPs (especially DS, GL, PIM, A4NH, L&F and CCAFS) functioning within the participating centers are expected to contribute to the outputs and outcomes of Dryland Cereals. Capture of all information on shared or complementary activities within the associated CRPs at the participating centers is currently in progress for a clear assessment of work plans and budgets within Dryland Cereals. The information captured so far is presented in Annex 3, outlining existing, planned or potential collaborative activities with DS, L&F, PIM, A4NH and CCAFS. This is a starting effort to compile information on ongoing activities, and \"collaboration role\" is currently loosely presented and need to be defined based on additional information from the CRP offices. Attributions and contributions will be worked out in more in-depth discussions with CRP Directors. Collaborative efforts with Grain Legumes will essentially be in the context of mixed cropping or mixed farming opportunities as a three-way collaboration between DS, GL and DC. In addition to the listed collaborations in Annex 3, the commodity CRPs are currently discussing a Community of Practice for Commodity CRPs that will explore opportunities for collaborations or learning, especially in the areas of genomics, phenotyping protocols, seed systems and input services. This Community of Practice is also expected to improve interconnection between barley and sorghum/millets.As recognized in the proposal and its reviews, Gender is in the early stages of mainstreaming. However, gender-relevant R4D activities do prevail even in current implementation that seems to be not fully recognized by the PIs and focal points for the Clusters of Activities. One major responsibility of the newly hired gender scientist is to work in collaboration with the focal points and PIs to identify such activities, as well as results and learnings from these, and integrate these into both ongoing planning and reporting. This will also enable delineation of budget allocation within each Cluster of Activity towards gender-related activities, and this is expected to be completed in October of 2014 to enable appropriate budget distribution for the extension phase. Another critical responsibility of the DC gender scientist before the start of the extension phase is to identify and assemble gender-disaggregated information available on all four dryland cereal crops, identify gaps, and plan/budget to fill them during the first year of the extension phase. This effort will also feed into further definition and prioritization of gender-related R4D activities within each Flagship and Cluster of Activity.We do recognize that women play distinct roles throughout the dryland cereal value chains, and our detailed planning and POWB for 2015 will prioritize gender-relevant R4D activities along the predominant value chains for each of the four dryland cereal crops. The metrics and targets for the IDOs as currently presented is primarily to ensure that we do not lose sight of the need for a gender dimension in each of our IDOs, and that we work towards gender equity within the IDO targets. Cross-CRP collaborations are already in discussion or early planning for gender research, and the Dryland Cereals gender scientist works closely with the Grain Legumes gender scientist. The Dryland Cereals gender scientist will also connect with gender-related research in Dryland Systems, and also with ICARDA for both barley and dryland-systems gender research.It is very much recognized that internally, within the CRP, there is a need to identify roles of each FP and CoA, and to ensure a coordinated implementation across both participating centers. Flagship leaders, and to some extent the focal points for Clusters of Activities, have yet to fully recognize the need to collaborate across crops, regions and centers. However, Dryland Cereals being still in its early stages, and also relatively early in its exposure to the reform process, this is expected to be less of a challenge as we move forward in implementation.Our partnerships with other CRPs are outlined in Annex 3 as mentioned earlier. We do collaborate closely with Grain Legumes already in administration, including the establishment of a Monitoring and Evaluation platform, development of guidelines for implementation of key administrative activities, the CRP Commissioned External Review etc. We anticipate even closer collaborative functioning, especially in bioinformatics, genomics data management and quality control, once the BMGF and CO supported genomics effort becomes active for sorghum and chickpea at ICRISAT. Finally, the potential for threeway collaborations between GL, DS and DC in cropping and farming systems research in the dryland regions of Africa and Asia is very well recognized.The ISPC pointer towards less traditional partners is appreciated, and we will explore the suggested and similar partnerships. We are currently in discussion with the Javier Ekboir of the Institutional Learning and Change Initiative of the CGIAR regarding an effort in partnership mapping for Dryland Cereals as part of an IFAD-supported project. Among other things, this will allow identification of gaps in regional and strategic partnerships which allow the CRP to focus on developing crucial regional and strategic collaborations for the effective functioning of our impact pathway across all target regions. We are also collaborating with the Syngenta Foundation and discussing potential models of public-private partnerships especially in regard to general terms of agreement and intellectual property.Our efforts to leverage the capacities and models of the Agribusiness Innovation Platform (AIP) of ICRISAT during the extension phase will not be restricted to India. We appreciate and heed the CO's comments on the need for a balanced activities across both research and development partnerships within the CRP. The CO has also correctly indicated the possible reason for the research and development partnership representation within our Impact Pathway.Strategic positioning and prioritization of CRP projects and activities, including those that are bilateral, are critical to its effectiveness in addressing farmer needs and achieving projected goals, as rightly pointed out by both the ISPC and the CO in this and earlier sections of the review comments. As indicated earlier in our response, we are in the process of further defining priorities based on demandconstraint analyses, and will be phasing out and/or adding activities/projects on the basis of data-driven decisions.We recognize the significance of a balanced budget across the Flagship projects and the consequent balanced portfolio of R4D activities along the Impact Pathway, and are working towards this balancing even as we enter detailed planning of work and budget for the extension phase. As indicated by the CO, we will include and add to the budget two specific activities, namely, (1) driving forward an informatics/genomics data back office, and (2) setting up and implementing an informatics breeding management system.The Dryland Cereals Performance Matrix captures the best estimate of outcomes during the extension period, and it is on the basis of ongoing work or outputs prior to the extension phase, and in some cases even prior to the start of the CRP. A detailed list of output targets is presented in the extension proposal. R4D implementation during the first phase of the CRP is dealing with some challenges normal to any change process, and we are in the process of discussing and/or addressing the major challenges that have an impact on effective delivery of outputs and outcomes from the CRP. These are briefly stated here:Current staffing for Dryland Cereals, especially in Africa, is not at par with the scope of the program. Expertise is required beyond breeding (and also beyond traditional breeding) to execute program activities along the entire impact pathway and value chain, in all target regions. Further, some of the CRP focus countries are beyond those where the participating centers currently operate, and gaps exist in R4D interventions of the CRP in these countries.A full description of the various ecologies that the program addresses is pending. This information will provide the basis for the determination of the representation, relevance and sufficiency of current testing locations, and is extremely critical, since one significant expectation from this commodity CRP is the delivery of location-adapted cultivars. Planning based on mega-environmental information is reasonably good in the case of some Clusters of Activities (Finger millet, Pearl Millet in SA), but still needs to be improved especially for West and Central Africa for both sorghum and pearl millet. Availability of information on the full listing and description of agroecologies and available testing sites will however only be a first step, before determining site uniformity, and implementing statistical experimentation and analyses using mixed models, BLUPs and BLUEs.The CRP Director is not currently involved in the performance evaluation of the contributing scientists. At present, this does not create an overly serious issue, but going into the future, the performance of the CRP will need to be further elevated both with regard to quality of science, as well as the comprehensiveness of and approach to research and development partnerships. Participation of the CRP director in performance assessment of all scientific staff contributing to CRP goals will therefore become very essential as the CRP moves into the extension phase, so that the delivery of outputs and outcomes meet expectations.Information flow on plans, funds, and reports of bilateral projects need to be smoother and timely to facilitate holistic planning towards program goals, status check and reporting, as all bilateral activities related to the CRP are reported through the CRP. Increased hybrid sorghum seed production by 5% above 2015 baseline in 1 country each in WCA and ESA. Increased availability of improved seed to dryland cereal farmers in 1 country per region through the initiation or support of functional seed units.Improved seed access to farmers of 1 dryland cereal crop in 1 target country through seed policy intervention.Gender-preferred post-harvest mechanization option to reduce drudgery for 1 dryland cereal crop available for adoption in one country. Uptake of gender-preferred mechanization option to reduce drudgery for 1 dryland cereal crop by at least one local manufacturing company in one country. 20-30% substitution of wheat flour by sorghum in 5% bread-making in Senegal. 20-30% substitution of wheat flour by sorghum in 10% bread-making in Senegal. Increased awareness of market potential/investment opportunities and/or need for policy interventions through market /policy briefs for at least one crop in one target country per region.Increased awareness of market potential/investment opportunities and/or need for policy interventions through market /policy briefs for at least one further crop in one target country per region.Parthasarathy Rao P. Over the years, availability of subsidized rice and wheat through the public distribution system (PDS) has led to a decline in the food consumption of sorghum and millets in India. In addition, the perception of sorghum and millets as inferior food by the younger generation has further contributed to a decline in the use of these crops as food. Lack of awareness about the nutritional value, longer cooking time, low storability, non-availability of value-added products, and higher prices in recent years are some of the other factors contributing to the decline in the food use of sorghum and millets, particularly in urban areas. Despite this, these crops continue to be important staples in the major growing areas next to rice/wheat. Their consumption is higher among the lower income groups relative to richer consumers.Demand and supply projections for pearl millet grain and fodder for Western India, covering the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana, indicate that by 2020 the share of food use in total grain production will decline from 46% to 40%, while the shares of cattle feed (37.5 to 38.6%), poultry feed (7.7 to 9.4%), and alcohol and other uses (8.8 to 11.7%) will increase.Though there is a current shortage of pearl millet grain production in Western India, which is reflected in the higher prices, pearl millet grain in the region will become surplus by 2020 to the extent of 5% if it maintains the production growth trend of the recent past, which is very high (4.22% per annum). Dry fodder will, however, continue to be in short supply and a deficit of 10% is projected by 2020. Income growth, urbanization, and change in tastes and preferences are driving the growth in the derived demand for pearl millet grain in alternative uses like poultry feed. The same factors are driving the demand for pearl millet fodder as livestock feed. Color, size, softness, purity, cleanliness and variety are some of the parameters that are taken into account during negotiation and price determination of fodder. Fodder having uniform color, thin stalk and bright lustre is preferred. Leafy stems, storability of fodder and palatability (quality and taste) are important factors in determining the price of fodder.To address the bulk grain demand from brewery industries, there is a need for development and up scaling of low-cost innovative value chains to link widely dispersed farmers with the brewing industry. To meet the brewing industry demand it is also important to expand the cultivation of pearl millet in summer season, wherever feasible as the productivity of summer crop is about three to four times higher than the kharif crop. There is more scope for contract farming in the case of summer pearl millet, in view of its high-input and high-output production system, which provides favorable conditions for contract between farmers and industry. Varieties with higher starch content needs to be promoted.It is observed that consumption is declining in urban areas as the storability of pearl millet flour is poor and the grains have to be frequently milled to get fresh flour. The longer cooking time for pearl millet rotis and the high degree of skill required for preparing the dough are also responsible for the reduced consumption especially in the urban areas. Thus, the development of technologies for enhanced storability of the flour is a high priority for pearl millet use as food.Using data from NSSO, GOI, it is found that at the all-India level the per capita consumption of sorghum shows a declining trend during the period 1972-73 to 2009-10. The decline is less in the major growing regions. Demand projections at a more disaggregated regional level indicate that direct demand for sorghum from household food consumption in Maharashtra (the major sorghum growing state) is expected to increase marginally in rural areas by 2015 and 2020 compared to 2004-05. The per capita demand for sorghum in urban areas would however decline during the same period.NSSO surveys however, do not capture the consumption outside of the house. Majority of the hotels and restaurants serve sorghum rotis (flat breads) in the menu. The demand from urban households for sorghum is in the form of ready-to-eat food products like bhakris (sorghum roties) that are popular in urban localities. Our surveys indicate that consumption of sorghum bhakris in hotels and restaurants is expected to increase over time.Additionally, there is also a growing demand for sorghum value-added products although from a low base. The last two decades have seen significant changes in consumption habits in India. Urbanization, growing numbers of working women, diversification of diets, and the growth of the middle-class have increased demand for ready-to-use food products or convenience foods. Value addition in the existing value chain of sorghum is limited to physical processing. Processing as a specialized activity for product development in the chain is non-existent. Therefore, product upgrading through the production of ready-to-use products can provide benefits across the different stakeholders of the value chain including the small and marginal farmers growing sorghum.Supply of sorghum through the public distribution system (PDS), especially for rural households, was one of the major suggestions given by respondents of consumer surveys. A second important suggestion in western Maharashtra, particularly by urban households, was to supply sorghum in small packages of 5-10 kg. This suggestion stems from the fact that urban households consume sorghum less frequently and buy in smaller proportions as and when required. This suggestion is also influenced by the consumer constraint in terms of non-availability of processed sorghum (cleaned, graded and packed) in comparison to other commodities (which are available in 1-2 kg packets).Thus, for post-rainy season sorghum, the focus should be on enabling farmer groups to market the grain with proper cleaning and grading in the local and major consumption markets for food use. Simple value addition through cleaning and grading operations is the priority here. Certain specific names like 'Barshi-jowar', 'Shahbaad-jowar', 'Bijapur' and 'Bellary' are preferred for their unique taste and are region-specific, while also important in the export market.The biggest driver for sorhgum is, however, its fodder. This is reflected in the rising prices of sorghum fodder that is growing faster than grain prices, thereby leading to a decline in grain to fodder price ratio.For both sorghum and pearl millet, dual-purpose cultivars are a must, since both grain and fodder are valued. For both crops the demand for fodder is growing faster.CoA 1 (Sorghum in WCA) and CoA3 (Sorghum in ESA): 30-40% increase in sorghum grain yield in 600,000 farmer fields in WCA and ESA, of which 50% of the increase is in women farmers' fields.The projections of 30-50% yield increases in sorghum WCA of IDO1 correspond to the expected changes in yield based on expert opinion. Based on the estimates made by plant breeders and agronomists, calculations were made on (1) the additional yield expected from crop improvement and from crop management, and (2) the expected adoption rate of new technology. Together, these gave an estimate of the increase in supply expected from new technology over a ten-year period. The credibility of expert opinion was evaluated by comparing this projected increase in supply with the projected increase in total demand estimated by the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) developed by IFPRI for millet and sorghum.West Africa, which produces roughly 25% of the world's sorghum, has seen a steady increase in total production over the past 25 years. Most of the increase up to 1995 is attributed to increases in area, although productivity increases also contributed; after 1995, yield increases explain most of the rise in sorghum production in the region. These gains may reflect increased use of improved varieties, better crop management practices (such as fertilizer micro-dosing), as well as increased demand due to population growth and higher world prices for major cereals.In ESA, this is based on the HOPE project projections and findings. HOPE had projected 35-40% increase in the first four years of the project through improved cultivars and associated management practices; it was able to achieve yield increase of 40% using only improved varieties and up to 60% combining improved varieties and improved management options. HOPE had projected to reach 110,000 households in sub-Saharan Africa in the first 4 years, and a jump to 1.1 million within ten years as efficient seed systems value addition/product development and markets are put in place. The four year target was met.CoA2 (Pearl Millet in WCA) and CoA 6 (Pearl Millet in SA and ESA): 20-30% increase in pearl millet grain yield in 800,000 farmer fields in WCA and ESA, of which 50% increase in women farmers' fields In the past, pearl millet cultivars developed at ICRISAT-Patancheru have adapted well in ESA countries. Hence pearl millet hybrids developed at Patancheru and found promising under Indian conditions are/will be tested for their performance in ESA countries. Based on recent results these identified hybrids have shown yield advantage of about 30-40% over local cultivars, hence it is projected that 20-30% increase in pearl millet grain yields will be achieved once the cultivars are identified and adapted in this region.The 20-30% yield increase for barley has been driven from empirical assessment of barley technologies available, and is more realistic compared to 30-50% for other crops in CRP DC. Under drought conditions in dryland regions, new genotypes identified in recent years have demonstrated the potential to contribute 20-30% yield advantage. Further, farmers' participatory assessment of technologies and technology dissemination through participatory approaches are considered significant contributors to the achievement up to 50% yield advantages. In recent years, institutional, policy and market studies have indicated several seed-related issues. If these issues are addressed in the extension and second phases, the targeted yield increases can be achieved.Thus these are realistic targets that can be progressively achieved with the evolution of activities during the duration of the extension and second phases, and have been discussed and agreed upon by the ICARDA panel of scientists. Selection of new varieties; community-based promotion of high potential genotypes with community-organized quality seed production at village level (Village based Seed Enterprises).  Increased soil fertility and better crop nutrition with more integration of legumes as rotation crops or mixed cropping or relay cropping; fertilizers in the form of affordable micro-dosing, subsidized fertilizers and manures when possible with better integration of livestock.  Water productivity improvement technologies such as furrow and bed planting insuring water harvesting through increased water capture in the field and increased infiltration. Mulching techniques including dust mulching and conservation agriculture where ever adapted and community organized on the same principals of local enterprises.Productivity of pearl millet in India has been increasing @ +1.8% per annum in the last 15 years and most of this gain has been achieved through the development of hybrids with improved yielding ability.In India, 60% of the pearl millet hybrids are based on ICRISAT-bred hybrid parents, and occupy about 3 million ha area of the total 5 m ha area under hybrids. Hence, considering the existing rate of productivity increase, 15-20% pearl millet grain yield enhancement and 5-10% stover yield is projected over a period of 10 years (2012-2022).ICRISAT and Partners (National program, Govt., Public sector, Civil Society, Private Sector) are intensively working for productivity enhancement of postrainy sorghum in farmers' fields by transferring the improved cultivars, crop management practices, drought management methods, processing technologies to farmers and providing input and out market linkages under the Harnessing Opportunities for Productivity Enhancement (HOPE) Project on Sorghum and Millets funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Our partnership efforts in last five years under the project helped >42,000 postrainy sorghum farmers directly in Maharashtra stage, India who recorded on an average 39% higher grain yields and 30% higher fodder yields compared to the farmers' practice. Early adoption studies in the project showed that for every primary beneficiary farmer in HOPE, 5-6 non-HOPE farmers benefitted; grain yields increased by 28-35% in different regions, the yield gaps were reduced by 25-30% and incomes enhanced by 33-44%. Improved varieties fetched higher market prices [INR 5000 (USD 85) per t of grain] over locals owing to their better grain quality. To strengthen the seed systems, building on the strength of the HOPE partnership a 'Seed Consortium' was formed in 2013 by roping in the Maharashtra state seed corporation (Mahabeej), a public sector seed production and marketing body in to this effort, which offered buy-back guarantee for seed farmers and the seed production was under taken in 500 ha area during 2013 postrainy season. The certified seed produced during 2013 season is sufficient to cover the requirement of 30,000 farmers in 2014 postrainy season taking the overall outreach of project to 300,000 farmers in five years including the direct and indirect beneficiaries under HOPE project. We targeted seed production in more 1000 ha in this year. Further with the help of International Livestock Research Institute we are monitoring the animal feed quality of all the new postrainy sorghum products in pipeline so that farmers get improved products with higher yield and higher feed quality. Keeping in the mind these activities and experiences we proposed the above IDO which we feel is realistic and achievable.CoA4 (Finger Millet in ESA): 30-50% increase in finger millet grain yield in 300,000 farmer fields, and 20% increase in premium quality marketable grain in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya This is based on the HOPE project projections and findings. HOPE had projected 35-40% in the first four years of the project through improved cultivars and associated management practices; it achieved yield increase of 40% using only improved varieties and up to 60% combining improved varieties and improved management options. A lot of emphasis is being placed on post-harvest handling and with introduction of threshers, tarpaulins and concrete threshing surfaces, farmers produce better quality grain. At the moment more than 10% of farmers have improved their quality grain through use of tarpaulins provided by the HOPE project and others are adopting.CoA3 (Sorghum in ESA): 10-20% increase in profitability of sorghum for industrial use in Nigeria, Kenya and Tanzania; 15-25% increase in profitability of barley for industrial use in Ethiopia, India, Iran and Morocco Sorghum profitability in Kenya and Tanzania will be mainly through sale of the grain to the breweries which are offering a ready market and eliminating middlemen. Higher yielding varieties targeting this market are being developed; these coupled with appropriate management options, efficient marketing system, will increase production and profitability. The figures were derived from current profitability increases from areas producing sorghum for the breweries in Kenya and Tanzania.The demand for high quality barley for malting and brewing industrial uses is continuously increasing in Ethiopia, India and Morocco. In India, recent releases of malt varieties (DWRB 91, DWRB 92, DWRB101 & RD2849), new improved barley germplasm selected from ICARDA by scientists of Iran, Ethiopia, Nepal, Kazakhstan, Turkey and Morocco will help in increasing the profitability of barley in these countries/ regions.IDO 2: Increased and stable access to dryland cereal food, feed and fodder by the poor, especially rural women and children CoA1 (Sorghum in WCA): 50% decrease in the length of the hunger period for 500,000 rural poor households producing sorghum and pearl millet in Mali, Niger, Nigeria and Burkina FasoThe increasing access to sorghum (IDO2) is based on results of opportunities to be pursued that include: creating hybrids to increase yields for a wider range of production systems in WCA, and new, improved plant types for \"dual purpose\" sorghums for grain, feed and fodder uses that would increase the value of the crop. These new sorghum types would strengthen the integration of animal husbandry with crop production, resulting in higher and more stable incomes while improving soil health through increased organic matter cycling. The availability of the full genome sequence and other genetic and genomic tools will enable efficient use of the crop's rich genetic diversity for the improvement of sorghum. This will facilitate the identification and transfer of favorable alleles for stress tolerance (such as phosphorus efficiency, aluminum toxicity and terminal drought), product quality (micronutrient content, digestibility and industrial qualities) and superior agronomic performance.CoA4 (Finger Millet in ESA): 20% increase in the stock of finger millet prior to harvest period for 250,000 rural poor households producing finger millet in Ethiopia, Tanzania and UgandaFinger millet stores for long without insect damage and hence it is a food security crop and food secure households are determined by grain remaining in the granaries at harvest time. With increased production more households will store more grain. These figures were derived from the anticipated yield increases and the number of households to be reached stated above.CoA (Barley in Africa and Asia): 20% increase in the availability of food barley (grain), feed barley (grain and straw) and industrial use at more stable market prices in CRP focal countriesWe have indicated 20% increase in availability in food and feed barley as realistic and achievable. Better information and linkage to markets at local regional and national level, and others ideas such as actions related to value addition are also assets that will be used. The IMPACT model indicates that for sorghum, per capita demand will grow strongly in WCA from below 24 kg in 2010 to 28 kg in 2050. This increased consumption combined with population growth and the moderately high levels of iron (> 40 ppm) and zinc (> 30 ppm) of sorghum grain with considerable variability in landraces (iron > 70 ppm and zinc >50 ppm) can complement the ongoing efforts on food fortification to reduce micronutrient malnutrition in WCA (IDO3).In ESA, this estimate is primarily based on increased level of iron and zinc in improved material.Average annual sorghum consumption in India is close to 5 kg/head. However in predominantly sorghum eating populations the average consumption goes to more than 50 kg/head/year. Sorghum is now included in the food grains public distribution system (PDS) as per the National Food Security Act 2013, India under which sorghum is supplied at a highly subsidized price (INR 1 per Kg sorghum grain) lower than Rice and Wheat and there is marketable surplus of sorghum available for procurement by the Govt for this purpose. This is expected to increase the sorghum consumption. Considering the problem of dietary induced micronutrient malnutrition in India and elsewhere and the potential of biofortification in addressing the micronutrient malnutrition, ICRISAT and partners are working over years on sorghum biofortification with the funding support from HarvestPlus and Dept. of Biotechnology, Govt. of India. We have now improved sorghum cultivars possessing 50% higher grain Fe and Zn concentration than the base level in sorghum (30 mg kg-1 Fe and 20 mg kg-1 Zn). Biofortified sorghum cultivars are at on-farm testing stage and will be commercialized in 1-2 years. We identified rice-fallow sorghum areas in India where the productivity levels are up to 6 t/ha as promising areas for undertaking seed production of biofortified cultivars. With the consumption of biofortified sorghum products the grain Fe and Zn intake will be higher. Therefore we feel this IDO is achievable.CoA4 (Finger Millet in ESA): 30-50% increase in iron, zinc and calcium intake levels from nutrient-dense finger millet by women and children in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and UgandaFinger millet is rich in the above nutrients (40 times higher in Ca and 5.5 times higher in Iron compared to maize, the other commonly consumed cereal and the one more likely to be replaced by finger millet). By just increased consumption of finger millet as a result of increased production this figure will be met.In addition a survey done under HOPE indicated that there is increased consumption of finger millet among the affluent urban community. This is increasing demand which will lead to more production. The 30-50% increase was derived from the projected increase in production. We have stated that 10-15% iron and zinc dense barley is realistic under dryland regions. The Zn and Fe as well as B-Glucan rich germplasm have been identified and genes controlling these traits are being introgressed into advanced breeding lines. Fe and Zn level in barley are high in our developed germplasm and the issue is to favor increased consumption and we have set a medium term strategy to achieve impact at the level of functional food, dietary food and drinks, and exotic new food products.The improved post-rainy sorghum cultivars by virtue of their large grain size and better grain luster (shininess) fetched higher price (20%) in the market. The improved grain and stover yields on farmers' fields increased per-ha returns up to 44% as indicated in HOPE project early adoption study. Further we are training the farmers to add value to grain and stover by cleaning, grading and packing the grain and by making stover in to small pieces at village level to increase their market value. Civil society organizations have established community stover processors at village level for the benefit of farmers.The Govt is establishing small-scale community grain processors so that the farmers can add value to their grain. Women play a major role in post-rainy sorghum production and we encouraged women selfhelp groups (SHGs) to undertake large scale post-rainy sorghum seed production and marketing under the HOPE project. Considering the potential for productivity increase, value-addition and women engagement, we feel that this IDO is achievable.CoA4 (Finger millet in ESA): 25% increase in income by finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum growers and processors in Burkina Faso, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, with 35% of the income by women processorsBased on data from recent surveys showing that finger millet is a staple and cash crop and it fetches more money per unit area of all the cereals in Kenya and Uganda. It is also a cereal with least fluctuation in price hence more people are growing it as a commercial crop; also a number of value added products are now available in supermarkets. These products are mainly from cottage industries run by women. Sorghum has emerged as an important cash crop for the brewing industry and is now cultivated in areas which were not traditional sorghum areas; this has boasted income among the peasant farmers in these areas.CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 20% decrease in acreage of dryland cereals fields requiring re-sowing in WCA,Postrainy sorghum is affected by a number of production constraints and drought is the most critical production determiner. Therefore we are managing the drought through improved rain waterharvesting and water-utilization methods, on-time planting, use of drought tolerant cultivars, application of fertilizers along with seed, seed treatment for effective shoot fly control, optimization of plant population and intercultivation practices and harvesting the crop at physiological maturity. We promoted these technologies to more than 300,000 farmers by now with the partnership efforts under HOPE project and we feel this IDO is achievable.CoA4 (Finger millet for ESA); CoA6 (Pearl Millet for SA and ESA): Increase by at least one the number of cultivars grown by 400,000 pearl millet and sorghum farmers in WCA, 25% of the pearl millet and sorghum farmers in Ethiopia, Sudan and Tanzania and 100,000 pearl millet farmers in India, 30% of the finger millet farmers in Ethiopia, Tanzania and UgandaMore emphasis is being placed on developing more varieties with multiple uses targeting different agrecologies and constraints. For example during the HOPEs 4 year span and average of two varieties per crop per country have been released and are being cultivated by farmers.SA-Pearl millet program is involved in development of abiotic stress tolerant hybrid parents, specifically for drought, heat and salinity tolerance. Both public and private sector institutions involved in pearl millet research are able to develop hybrids for such stressed ecologies using ICRISAT bred hybrid parents, and thus this program targets to increase the number of cultivars in stressed ecologies and increase the capacity to adapt to environmental variability (100,00 farmers in such ecology). Also, hybrids based on ICRISAT bred lines have been found promising in ESA countries like Tanzania and Sudan, and the program will identify promising hybrids for this region.CoA7 (Sorghum in SA): 150,000 households in India adopting improved sorghum cultivars and management practices to mitigate environmental variabilityPost-rainy sorghum is affected by a number of production constraints and drought is the most critical production determiner. Therefore we are managing the drought through improved rain waterharvesting and water-utilization methods, on-time planting, use of drought tolerant cultivars, application of fertilizers along with seed, seed treatment for effective shoot fly control, optimization of plant population and inter-cultivation practices and harvesting the crop at physiological maturity. We promoted these technologies to more than 300,000 farmers by now with the partnership efforts under HOPE project and we feel this IDO is achievable. ","tokenCount":"9079"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4d41a4d426cdfb551a6f55c552c99f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a2fe946-2a02-4e03-b6ba-b2999db61551/retrieve","id":"-1530730166"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5f6bf390-0e26-438f-b667-12f9102e9b5c","pagecount":"37","content":"o Climate change is a major global issue that brings destructive impacts on many countries. In Vietnam, climate change impacts had already dealt major damages and losses to its agriculture sector.o Agriculture in Southeast Asia is already transforming due to many factors including a changing demography in the countries, the growing middle class, regional integration, and climate change. CCAFS aims to play a role in this transformation by implementing climate-smart agriculture (CSA) options that cater to the context-specific situation and needs of its target communities.o Outcomes refer to the changes that happened after using the outputs. An outcome determines if the outputs were used in the first place and if they changed the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and practices of stakeholders.Outcomes also refer to the development of initiatives that benefit large numbers of stakeholders.o This year, CCAFS have started to document the outcomes of its projects implemented in the last few years. This documentation was conducted to prepare the future activities and prioritized outcomes that CCAFS would pursue in the next few years.o The outcomes that would be prioritized must be context-specific, i.e., the outcomes are relevant in the situation where they would be pursued. To identify outcomes that were suitable to specific contexts, CCAFS has been collaborating with its partners at various levels across Southeast Asia. This collaboration would hopefully lead to more funding, and in turn, generate more outcomes in broader geographic areas.o CCAFS SEA and its partners are always ready to assist countries in scaling CSA technologies and practices that improve food and nutrition security and address impacts of climate change. To achieve this scaling, CCAFS is helping countries mainstream CSA into their national programs and projects.o Scaling calls for more closer collaboration among stakeholders as it is already hard to achieve in the first place. Community-based participatory activities, which compose the major works of CCAFS, are even harder to conduct. Stakeholders must discuss to synergize their ideas and elevate their quality of work to achieve scaling.o The Vietnamese government had taken actions to address climate change, specifically climate change adaptation and mitigation actions with CCAFS SEA and other international partners. These climate actions were integrated into the socio-economic plans of Vietnam.o MARD highly appreciates the support of CCAFS SEA on the agriculture sector of Vietnam. Dr. Chu Van Chuong mentioned the risk mapping and adaptation planning project that CCAFS SEA helped develop for the Mekong River Delta (MRD).o Dr. Chu Van Chuong encouraged the participants to share their knowledge and experiences to prepare for the next years that would be dominated by discussions on climate change. He also wished that Vietnam could expand its networks to broaden the reach of its activities.o The focus of the presentation was about the adaptation of MRD and other areas suffering from inundation and salinity intrusion. MRD, specifically, was shown to be divided into six agro-ecological regions. The salinity distribution and rainfall distribution of these regions were used to develop the CS MAP.o The development of CS MAP started by identifying the climate-related risks in the MRD. Based on the risk levels from technical data and local knowledge, the maps were drawn and had eventually guided the crafting of adaptive plans. The plans included adjusting cropping calendar and changing cropping systems.o The risk maps and adaptive plans were polished and verified through meetings with individual provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development offices. After polishing and verifying, they were integrated into the regional plans of MRD.o The adaptive plans reduced the damages on crops and minimized the risks of inundation and salinity intrusion in MRD.o The proposed cropping calendar for winter-spring season 2019-2020 was shown, as well as the status of rice production in autumn-winter 2019 on a monthly basis. o The MCSAS follows a systems approach in agriculture, considering the roles of various stakeholders in the \"system,\" i.e., the agriculture sector, and emphasizing knowledge generation among them. o Through the CPH, innovative and suitable financing services are being designed. This is in line with developing climate-smart business models and understanding the connection between climate change and agricultural risk management.o CPH is involved at the regional and international levels, working with the ASEAN Climate Resilience Network (ASEAN CRN) and the Conference of Parties (23 and 24). In the future, it will expand its support to CSA scaling and capital deployment, together with promoting digital agriculture (developing digital agriculture profile of Vietnam, specifically information and communication technology solutions for aquaculture value chains in the MRD).o Since CSVs are already established, it is now high-time to prove that the CSV concept can be scaled. This project aimed to scale the climate-smart village (CSV) approach in the Philippines, Vietnam, and Laos. Alongside scaling, it searched for pathways to integrate CSA into programs and projects of national governments.o Through knowledge sharing activities in the Philippines (Guinayangan CSV), Laos (Phailom CSV), and Vietnam (Yen Bai Province), context-specific and scalable CSA portfolios, as well as the CSV approach, were promoted. In Vietnam, specifically, two new CSVs will be established.o In Laos, CSVs will focus on the nutritional contributions of CSA. The Laos experience also presents a case for scaling, where community-based seed production was expanded, and seed producers and rice exporters were linked.A manual on community-based rice production was also developed in the process.o The key outputs produced under this project included an info note about the promotion of adaptation platforms in agriculture; climate-resilient agriculture brochures made from the experiences of selected sites under Adaptation and Mitigation Initiative in Agriculture (AMIA) in the Philippines; a report about the advantages of climate-resilient cassava-cowpea intercrop practice in North Vietnam; and primers on CSV profiles in Myanmar.o Emerging outcomes of the project include research on the governance pathway to scale CSA in Southeast Asia. This explores how working with government partners through their major programs can broaden the coverage of CSA services and products.o The publications produced out of this project include the info note, \"Scaling the capacities to adapt to a changing climate: Experiences of the AMIA Climate Resilient Villages, Philippines;\" a peer-reviewed article titled, \"Adaptation, mitigation and food security: Multi-criteria ranking system for climate-smart agriculture technologies illustrated for rainfed rice in Laos;\" and the report, o AWD suitability mapping was conducted in An Giang Province, Vietnam. Geographic information system (GIS) was used to develop climatic suitability maps while participatory approaches were employed to draw adoption capacity maps.o During the AWD scaling workshop, the maps and the mapping process were passed on to the Department of Crop Production and scaling strategies were discussed with eight MRD provinces. After the workshop, representatives of An Giang Province expressed their plans to out-scale the AWD practice.o Through this mitigation-based project, IRRI was able to contribute in the development and implementation of Vietnam's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). They were also able to calculate baseline GHG emissions and run model reduction scenarios, which would be useful in the investment planning and MRV of GHG mitigation activities of Vietnam.o A subsequent step of the project is classifying farmers based on their emission reduction potential. This means that the project will identify farmers who will be \"full adopters,\" \"partial adopters,\" and \"non-adopters.\" Related to this classification is identifying the emission reduction potentials of various rice cultivars.o There are several bottlenecks when it comes to scaling: diversity of and disconnection among actors along the national and local levels; weak capacity and infrastructures for climate services; and government structures.o To overcome these bottlenecks, scaling agents and project implementers must gather data about the end-users (integrate gender and youth as well). From this step, the project was able to develop an assessment framework of climate services value chains.o Afterwards, they must build business models that cater to the characteristics of end-users and their information needs. These models must be tested for their scalability at the national level.o There are already key outputs produced and currently in progress because of this project. An output that was tested and disseminated in Ha Tinh Province were agro-advisory bulletins specifically designed for farmers. Meanwhile, those in progress include a business model for climate services supporting Vietnam's coffee sector and an assessment of practitioners' needs to scale climate services.o The emerging outcomes of this project focus on improved stakeholder engagement in crafting strategies and implementation plans. Such engagement can ensure the uptake of climate services in the agricultural activities of MARD.o In the future, the project will organize learning workshops for high-level officials and policy makers to enable them to add their inputs on climate services and provide feedbacks on the proposed scaling framework.o The process is as important as the outputs. This is an important thought that we should always keep in mind when we aim for outcomes.o In CCAFS, we should be aware of the time we take for data gathering because we are always aiming to generate for outcomes. Aside from time, we should also be mindful in writing the citations of our outputs. Our partners must be highlighted in those outputs as they had major contributions in developing them. In the end, there should be a transfer of ownership from us to our partners.o Regarding the De-RISK project, implementers are already engaging with MARD at the start, ensuring the participation of government partners.o A policy line must be established to ensure that the gender dimension and youth sector are also included in our projects. WorldFish, Tran Van Nhuong, WorldFish o The project aims to scale out the best practices in managing community fish refuges (CFRs). These practices could then improve the climate resilience of CFRs and the nutritional benefits from consuming fish. CFRs also serve as major sources of water for their surrounding communities.o The adaptation practices of farmers include improved fish feeding, pond water management, water retention practices, and postharvest handling, as well as use of stress-tolerant fish.o Men and women differ in the adaptation practices they wanted to prioritize but both agree that stocking large fingerlings is a must.o A total of 5,222 hectares of rice field-fisheries areas are now under an improved management. Fish conservation was deemed effective due to the increase in fish biomass and household fish catch from 2017-2018.o As a source for domestic water use, CFRs led to the establishment of 12 drinking stations enjoyed by 34,000 households, 12 health centers, and 109 schools in 128 villages. The CFRs were also useful during the early drought in 2019 since they provided water to the communities.o CFR groups were able to solicit support from local governments and the private sector amounting to almost USD 300,000. This support would be dedicated to improving CFR activities. o New donors have one common factor: mitigation. Donors are looking for projects that reduce the GHG emissions of the agriculture sector.o Through Thai Rice NAMA, IRRI was able to implement mitigation technologies and practices in Thailand such as laser land levelling, straw and stubble management, AWD, and site-specific nutrient management. These are planned to be scaled through a \"revolving fund\" and direct financial investments, among other activities.o In Vietnam and Bangladesh, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition works with IRRI, national governments, non-government organizations, and other international institutions to reduce the amount of short-lived \"climate pollutants\" in the atmosphere. Specifically, this project aims to support governments to reduce their methane emissions from rice through evidence-based information and strategies.o IRRI is also conducting cost-benefit analyses of mitigation projects. These analyses identify the technologies and practices used, account the costs against the co-benefits of adopting them, and identify impacts, if there are any.o The VnSAT project targeted 30 key rice districts over eight provinces in the MRD with a budget of USD 100 million. Through the project, several issues on rice production were identified, including rice quality, certification standards, and market linkages.o IRRI released a publication titled, \"Climate-smart Rice Production Manual\" for Myanmar. The publication has both English and Burmese versions. A new GHG calculator was also developed for croplands: the Source-selective and Emissionadjusted GHG calculator for Cropland (SECTOR).o ICRAF is working with Ha Tinh Province and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in implementing an ecosystem-based adaptation project for farmers. Called the Ha Tinh SIPA project, it combines the principles of ecosystem services and CSA.o The project aims to improve the adaptive capacity and livelihoods of both male and female farmers in Ha Tinh Province and build the capacities of relevant stakeholders to integrate ecosystem services and CSA.o At the international level, the project supports Vietnam in developing a national adaptation plan, contributing to the \"Loss & Damage\" debate, and crafting provincial adaptation plans with financial components.o The project was able to build networks that facilitate knowledge sharing among farmers. Through these networks, as well as a kick-start fund platform called the Community Innovation Fund, CSA technologies and practices were promoted and eventually adopted. The networks are led by village leaders and farmer champions.o The project utilizes three forms of scaling: vertical, horizontal, and commercial. o Vertical scaling is achieved through government structures, integrating CSA in policies, national programs, and action plans. Horizontal scaling entails expanding the reach of the farmers that adopt CSA. Commercial scaling involves the private sector. o There is no blanket strategy to engage policy makers. The key is to use various approaches and media to reach them. We can also bring them to the field or bring the evidence to them. The evidence must then be economically viable.o Even with the discussions on how to engage policy makers, a major issue still arises from outside the policy circles: working with farmers and the private sector. We must find an approach or a set of approaches that can catch the interest of these stakeholders. o There will be an evaluation of how CPT performed in the Philippine context (CPT performance in Vietnam will be evaluated as well). New datasets will then be developed for CRAFT and seasonal climate and yield predictions will be provided for the Philippines.o In 2017, CCAFS SEA supported the conduct of a survey identifying the CSA practices being conducted in Vietnam. From this survey, a CSA book was published, documenting a total of 90 CSA practices over the entire county.o CSA practices and systems that could contribute to achieving the NDCs of Vietnam were listed, together with those that could support the implementation of the country's National Adaptation Plan (NAP).o A total of 57 prioritized CSA practices and systems were identified for adoption.They were chosen for their potential to contribute in the NAP implementation and Vietnam's NDCs. These include integrated pest management, drip method, grass hedgerow, AWD, poultry, and rice-fish intercropping.o They were grouped into six categories: (1) pest control and production of quality products; (2) protection and sustainable use of cultivated land and water resources;(3) agroforestry and integrated cropping systems; (4) paddy rice production; (5) husbandry; and (6) aquaculture.o The impacts of these CSA practices and systems will be studied. This is to spot locations where they can be promoted and address the challenges that hinder their implementation. All the information that will be gathered will be stored in a database.o The project aims to develop a standard training manual and curriculum on climate-smart rice production for both extensionists and farmers. These materials will cover CSA options that farmers can adopt on their fields, as well as effective communication and extension practices that extensionists can apply on their activities.o o Module 4 was a reflection and synthesis exercise where the participants discussed the best practices in their CSA-related works.o Key outputs include appreciation and understanding of CSA technologies and practices introduced during the roving workshops; proceedings, brochures, and evaluation reports; and re-entry action plans. The action plans discuss how to establish CSVs in Southeast Asia and applying climate-resilient practices in various vulnerable communities.o Through these activities, SEARCA, IIRR, and CCAFS were able to contribute in promoting the concepts and practices of climate-resilient agriculture in Southeast Asia.o In the future, there will be an analysis to determine the degree by which the participants applied their learnings during the roving workshop, a case story book of farmers in Southeast Asia, and another roving workshop in 2021 in Myanmar, Cambodia or Vietnam. o Farmers are more likely to adopt CSAq if it helps them increase their incomes. This was seen in the results of the case study, where economic efficiency and market price are the primary drivers of adoption for CSAq among farmers. o The rural radio campaign called \"Climate Change, i-Broadkas Mo!\" was implemented in 2015 in the Philippines by CCAFS SEA. The campaign was in collaboration with the Philippine Federation of Rural Broadcasters (PFRB) and regional field offices under DA. In 2018, the campaign entered a second phase, which served as its intensified follow-up and extension.o Ready-to-be-aired (RTBA) materials were produced under this campaign, which aims to educate rural broadcasters about climate change and CSA. In turn, the broadcasters are expected to serve as intermediaries of climate-related information that will be disseminated to rural areas in the Philippines.o \"Sa Kabukiran,\" a television-radio program of DZMM, airs the materials produced under this campaign. Aside from DZMM, other radio stations that broadcasted the materials included 87.7 FM DYVL, DYDC FM, and DXMS Radyo Bida 882 KHz. Moreover, the materials were being aired in IBC-6 channel and in social media platforms through Facebook Live.o A total of 276 canned interviews, 285 scripts, 10 radio spots, and 3 jingles were produced under this campaign. These materials were disseminated to over a hundred active members of PFRB, many of which own a regular radio program. The materials were written and aired in major languages in the Philippines: Ilocano, Tagalog, Cebuano, Waray, Ilonggo, Maranao, Maguindanaon, and Bicolano.o The materials were produced during broadcast production workshops organized in strategic areas all over the Philippines. The areas were selected due to their proximity to relevant stakeholders that the campaign can engage with. In Phase 2, the workshop venues were in Cagayan de Oro, Leyte, and Isabela. o The outcomes of the project are promising. Farmers earned a mean yield increase of 19 cavans per hectare, which they attributed from the application of CSA. This yield increase led to a mean increase of PHP 18,000 in farm income per hectare.o For future SOA-CSA programs, farmers suggested they must discuss high-value crops, as well as corn. Their preferred time of the program is 5:00-6:00 in the morning, preferably hosted by male anchors or a male-female tandem and aired in Ilokano language.o The study was led by DA-Regional Field o Technical staff and extension workers who go to the farming communities complement media-based interventions. For instance, they will be the ones to clarify any information that the farmers found vague in media programs.o How is the roving workshop different from a farmer field school? A roving workshop is designed for high-level officials to bring them to the ground, but it can still serve as a learning platform for farmers. In roving workshops, most of the learning occur in the field sites. Moreover, a roving workshop is not something that is conducted every day. It requires long preparation.   The policy areas that can be explored are adaptation and mitigation in agriculture, food loss and waste management, and nutrition and sustainability.  Diets should not be healthy and balanced only, but also climate-friendly. To achieve such diet, food must be familiar to the people, appealing (in terms of cost and taste among other factors), and most especially, accessible to them.  Digital agriculture will play a role in the future of food systems. Innovative adaptation practices such as vertical agriculture can also be adopted. In scaling these practices, there must be safety nets for vulnerable sectors that are being encouraged for adoption.  Currently, farmers are involved in typical large-scale commercial farming, small-scale subsistence farming, small-scale marketing, extensive traditional farming practices, and artisanal farming. By 2040, farmers are hoped to focus more on environmental externalities, land consolidation, and income diversification, among other targets.  Public and private sector investments must be encouraged. The investments can incentivize farmers and de-risk the adoption of certain technologies and practices.  The enabling environment that would facilitate transformation included investments on agricultural infrastructures, support of policy makers, and involvement of private sector.  The roundtable discussion converged on three main themes: modernization, empowerment, and education.  Modernizing agriculture was considered a key step to achieve transformation of food systems and an entry point for CSA. It can be achieved by employing innovative and practical approaches in the farms (shift to high-value crops, adoption of climateresilient varieties, farm mechanization, among others).  Empowerment entails involving and organizing farmers. If they are working as a group (usually as cooperatives), they can collectively participate in agriculture-related activities and in key decision-making processes with their governments. They can also test and eventually adopt together new approaches (e.g. agricultural entrepreneurship) if they see that these are beneficial for their farming.  Education is a critical component to engage the youth sector in agriculture.Closing Remarks, Dr. Le Quoc Doanh, Vice Minister, MARD  CSA may have been mentioned only recently, but climate-smart technologies and practices have long been adopted and utilized before. Still, recommendations are welcome to improve CSA implementation, especially at the institutional level.  Vietnam committed to continue working with CCAFS to minimize the impacts of climate change on its agriculture sector. The CS MAP project was a good case study that they can learn from. It can now be scaled up to support the disaster management activities of Vietnam.  Aside from the CS MAP, CCAFS is also involved in supporting Vietnam on their international commitments, specifically the country's commitment to the Paris Agreement-the NDCs. CCAFS is also assisting the country in implementing its NAP.  Dr. Le Quoc Doanh called on the participants to identify programs that are really aligned with agriculture and encouraged scientists to work together further. Project posters","tokenCount":"3631"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"211b58a4d917b86653662582fbc7e64f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/50ba7e85-3858-4d12-920c-c40539d13221/retrieve","id":"338376534"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a74f1214-73e9-4232-a90f-d50975ecb2b1","pagecount":"13","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.• The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication.• ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.The Technical Consortium for Building Resilience in the Horn of Africa (TC) is a project of the CGIAR, which was formed in 2011 following the effects of the 2011-2012 drought. The main aim of the Technical Consortium initially was to provide financial and technical support to the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and its member states (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan and Uganda) to formulate regional and national investment programmes for the long-term development of ASALs and to follow this with technical support, with particular focus on monitoring and evaluation and the targeting of investments within these plans. These investment plans became the Country Programme Papers (CPPs) for drylands projects for the Member States and the Regional Programming Framework (now the IGAD Drought Disaster Resilience Sustainability Initiative (IDDRSI)), which focused on investment plans to address regional issues for IGAD.The focus of the TC's work at present is to collaborate with different partners, specifically including the governments in the region as their plans develop, to provide tools for measuring the impact of investments on enhanced resilience and to develop decision support tools for better targeting and prioritization of investments or projects. These tools will not only be useful for monitoring the impact of interventions within the national drylands investment plans and provide evidence for rational decision-making and prioritization, but will be applicable for donors, developments, NGOs and civil society when measuring or targeting their projects.It has been noted that there is a gap between the strategies that decision makers use to allocate policy-related investments for ASALs and the analytical techniques that researchers use to model the conditions of ASALs and assess the impact of related interventions. To help bridge this gap, the TC has been working to develop and apply approaches to support evidence-based decision-making and investment prioritization to enhance resilient development trajectories in Horn of Africa (HoA). The result will be a toolbox of methodologies and application processes that facilitate the capacities of the IGAD member states to identify the investments with greatest potential for the highest impact to build resilience to shocks and stressors, in particular to drought, in the HoA.The toolbox will be tailored to elucidate the implications of more focused interventions, for a more specific sub-population of interest, as those details are specified by IGAD or the member states. It will also be able to test how well investments perform under different conditions (climatic and otherwise) and over varied time horizons.The toolbox will be of use to multiple audiences, but the primary focus for application will be to provide tools for the Government of Kenya (GoK) NationalDrought Management Authority (NDMA), to assist with decision analysis and prioritization for investment proposed in the Kenya Ending Drought Emergencies Common Programme Framework (EDE CPF) drylands investment plan. It is also assumed, however, that the conceptual analysis and knowledge gained in the provision of tools to the GoK NDMA will also be of use to other clients such as NGOs, donors and development partners to assist with their decision making processes and that these tools will also have potential for replication in the remaining IGAD member states.The Horn of Africa is predominantly comprised of arid or semi-arid lands, and is a naturally drought-prone region. With increasing pastoral or agro-pastoral land use, the environment and pastoral communities in this region are progressively susceptible to severe drought. In particular, heavy stocking of the land and consequent overgrazing will extend existing droughts, while denuded vegetation is the primary cause of further desertification and an increase in future droughts. This imbalance of livestock requirements and pasture availability results in livestock mortalities and food security issues.It is therefore imperative that such pastoral communities be resilient to an environmental shock such as severe drought, in order to sustain food security in terms of livestock (where resilience applies to the conditions that affect the impact of the shock and the ability of a community to timely recover following the shock). Measuring the resilience to drought of pastoral communities within the Horn of Africa is therefore key to ameliorate or avert further livestock losses in this region, and to support the much-needed paradigm shift from relief to regionand community-specific development.Two components of the drought module have been developed to complement the existing spatial tool 1 . Module A (general drought risk) identifies areas in need of help across multiple sectors throughout the whole region using medium to longterm data on drought exposure risk. Module B (pastoral livestock risk) highlights pastoral and agro-pastoral localities where farmers and dependents may be at risk of significant livestock mortalities in the short-term.1 For more information, please consult Report 13: Spatial analysis for investment targeting -Pilot Tool, Technical Consortium Report Series 1, 2014.Module A:In Phase 1 of the pilot spatial tool generic shocks are considered which may occur anywhere in the IGAD region -taking into account that many shocks (especially economic and social shocks) have a broad geographic focus. However, the tool has been designed to accommodate and produce likelihood of occurrence maps for shocks which occur in specific areas. At the same time, weightings can be adjusted in response to feedback and a full sensitivity analysis, to assess their influence.General drought risk is calculated using a new drought exposure layer based on longer-term datasets (using information gathered in recent decades). It is envisioned that this will be useful to potential investors considering a variety of sectors, such as water management, early warning information systems and conflict reduction. The spatial tool outputs a map and spread sheet that both indicate the average risk of drought on an administrative district basis. The latter two variables are outputs from the livestock -rainfall interaction model and they tend to highlight localities strongly influenced by ENSO phenomena. 2In the outputs of the general drought resilience spatial tool, there is also a new 'Susceptibility to drought' layer. This is based largely on the previous susceptibility/ impact layer (environmental sensitivity, representing those areas that would feel the immediate impact of a drought), but is slightly modified in order to ensure indicators are not used throughout the analysis more than once.In Drought Module A, however, the focus is to assist with targetting locations where the need to build resilience to drought is the greatest. The previous formula for general resilience and calculate the lack of resilience is therefore inverted as follows:likelihood of drought occuring × susceptibility to drought adaptive capacity (inverse of time to recover after a drought) The formula helps identify 'drought hotspots'; where the likelihood of occurrence and susceptibility to drought is high and the potential for recovery is low. This layer is represented in Figure 1 below.Module B:Pastoral drought risk 'Module B: Pastoral drought risk' is based on short-term rainfall estimates and a model of livestock population dynamics at high geographic resolution, and is confined to the pastoral and agro-pastoral land use regions. This module assists with assessing the targeting of investments such as the promotion of stock movement and reduction, would yield greatest gains towards enhancing resilience.The risk of drought layer is based on the projected livestock mortalities in the current year (2014) 3 . This layer is represented in Figure 2 on the following page.  ","tokenCount":"1232"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6b038532d588fbcd6fd09fbaa0870e98","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1291960-d2b2-467d-bcb2-81c8510bb7c4/retrieve","id":"-13141015"},"keywords":["Low-emission development","gender","social differentiation","social equity","intensification","livestock systems","dairy"],"sieverID":"241a61bd-3878-43fd-86cd-59e0e1b2ea46","pagecount":"28","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.As an emerging organizing conceptual framework for agricultural development, climatesmart agriculture (CSA) has consistently focused on technical environmental and productivity outcomes (Notenbaert et al. 2017;Neufeldt et al. 2013, Thornton et al. 2018), without often paying meaningful attention to the social distribution of the costs and benefits associated with pursuing or achieving those outcomes (Taylor 2017;Karlsson et al. 2018). This is particularly true in the livestock sector, which has disproportionately focused on global environmental targets relating to reducing GHG emissions intensities, overlooking measurement of social outcomes that accompany the changes in technical practice.Similarly, the literature that centers on the concept of sustainable intensification (SI) also emphasizes the measurement of environmental and productivity outcomes. Here, \"environmental\" more often refers to localized effects such as soil fertility maintenance or water use. In principle, the SI concept does include a social equity dimension. It is generally underdeveloped (Bullock, Kariuki 2019;Snyder, Cullen 2014) with few exceptions (Fischer et al. 2018;Ndiritu et al. 2014;Theriault et al. 2017).What these two different, though fundamentally compatible bodies of literature share is a conceptual focus that assesses and develops agricultural technologies and practices to simultaneously achieve multiple environmental, economic, and social objectives (Campbell et al. 2014). However, they both typically overlook measurement of social outcomes that accompany the changes in technical practice. Although, applying critical social science perspectives to agrarian transformations helps to highlight how technical change and social change are inextricably intertwined.Most support for climate change mitigation in the dairy sector of East Africa presently focuses on the development and implementation of national policies designed to transform sectors through technological changes in value chains and households. This creates a topdown structure and technical emphasis on low-emission development (LED) interventions, with little attention given to rural landscapes' social equity outcomes. As the global LED agenda begins to take hold in African livestock development planning, it will be important to develop a more nuanced understanding of how intensification, especially in the smallholder dairy sector, leads to socially differentiated costs and benefits. Such an understanding should enable LED interventions to anticipate and accommodate social equity outcomes alongside environmental and productivity outcomes. This, in turn, should support the identification of both synergies and trade-offs between environmental, economic, and social targets in low-emission development.Commercial orientation of production is generally seen as a driver, or at least a necessary precondition, for the adoption of intensification technologies. However, looking at the history of dairy development in industrial countries reveals that rapid commercialization through large-scale investment in intensification also creates a significant risk of concentrating power and land-holding in agrarian settings through uneven distribution of labor and other assets, uneven knowledge and capacities to adopt, the political economies of scale by which profit margins become so low per unit that producers need to increase the scale of their operations to achieve a viable livelihood (Clay et al. 2020;Clay, Yurco 2020). In as much as mitigation interventions are centered on intensification and commercialization, this indicates foreseeable social equity outcomes, which are rarely addressed directly in LED policy and planning processes.At this point, it is important to specify the relationship between LED and intensification in the livestock sector. First, LED in dairy is generally more focused on reducing GHG emissions intensities rather than total emissions. Emission targets are articulated in country specific Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). This is primarily in deference to the first leg of the CSA concept, which is productivity or food security, depending on to whose definition one refers. Thus, one of the primary goals of LED in the dairy sector is to improve production efficiency per unit of product, usually milk or meat 1 . In smallholder dairy production systems, this is typically achieved through the classic suite of intensification technologies, such as keeping fewer animals, while improving feeding, health maintenance, breeds and manure management 2 . Because intensification is the primary means of pursuing LED for smallholders in the dairy sector, the objective of this working paper is to review the literature regarding the relationships between dairy intensification and the social distribution of its burdens and benefits for smallholders. The equity of outcomes can occur at many different scales, within and between households, in communities and at regional scales. While our primary interest is in dairy intensification in Ethiopia, we have broadened the scope of our search to include smallholder dairy in Kenya, which is already much more intensified, to enable some comparative lessons. We decided not to address pastoral systems because both their technical and social organizations fundamentally differed from sedentary smallholder dairying.Independent literature searches were conducted by each of the three authors, using various combinations of the following words and phrases in Google Scholar: intensification, commercialization, agriculture, livestock, dairy, Kenya, Ethiopia, social equity, social differentiation, gender, youth, and women. To be included, an article needed an explicit focus on agricultural intensification practices and some dimension of their socially distributed impacts. Articles that only address technical dimensions of intensification have not been included. The search results were merged into a single library of 44 articles, including a few review articles. Selected articles were coded using NVIVO qualitative analysis software. The primary objective of coding was to analyze prevalent research approaches in the field and their substantive findings. We developed a coding tree to guide the coding of themes and subthemes such as gender, age, and wealth as axes of social differentiation. Any other emergent social factors were included in the analysis.The rest of the paper is divided into three sections. The first section outlines the relationship between LED and dairy intensification. This is followed by examining evidence from Kenya, where dairy intensification and commercialization have been happening for several decades.The next section focuses on evidence from Ethiopia, where dairy intensification and commercialization and in the early days. Finally, the Discussion section distills key findings and observations, explores their implications for LED planning in East African dairy sectors, and then proposes priorities for moving research on this topic forward.Dairy intensification and the requisite technologies and practices that support intensification are intended to improve household income through increased milk production. Most LED livestock interventions relevant to East African smallholders that reduce emissions intensity can be categorized into three broad categories: improving feed quality and availability, manure management, and animal husbandry 3 (Ericksen, Crane 2018). Implementing LED involves a mix of on-farm technical practices, institutional delivery of material, information inputs for improving production efficiencies (Didanna et al. 2018). However, in most East African contexts, development of the dairy sector is often favorably viewed by policy makers, but it is important to recognize how development policies can generate different outcomes in terms of benefits to different communities and social groups (Staal et al. 2008).The literature primarily focuses on how gender roles and practices generate differentiated outcomes for women and men in labor, decision-making over benefit distribution, and livestock resources.Introducing intensification technologies presents both opportunities and challenges within households and communities. Access to improved feed and better cross-bred cows are key technical requirements. However, behavioral incentives related to the household labor devoted to animal care, control over dairy revenues, and the drivers for common action and coordinated supply are critical for engagement in dairy upgrading (Ruben et al. 2017). In other words, dairy intensification requires more than technical options and a better understanding of how the introduction of dairy technologies influences existing, often gender unequal, relationships. Technological changes typically involve renegotiation, reassignment, or reinforcement of roles and responsibilities within households (Ruben et al. 2017). Such changes can alter traditional patterns of access to resources such as milk, land, and income (Gallina 2016).Increased engagement in commercial marketing leads, in many cases, to a shift in intrahousehold time allocation and resource distribution (Fafchamps 2001). Intensification causes changes in intra-household gender dynamics, which can compromise or limit the adoption of new production practices. This is because women, whose labor is typically utilized to support intensification processes, may refuse to engage in costlier and labor-intensive technologies without receiving adequate benefits, such as higher income and improved decision-making power (Udo et al. 2011).Kenya has one of the largest dairy industries in sub-Saharan Africa. The sector is the largest agricultural sub-sector and accounts for about 8% of its GDP (Odero-Waitituh 2017). In Kenya, the focus on intensification of dairy production among smallholder farmers began with independence in 1963 until the late 1980s, but tight government controls hampered its growth (Olwande et al. 2015). However, liberalization of markets in the early 1990s as a result of structural adjustment programs by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) opened opportunities for informal milk trade and led to tremendous growth of the sector (Olwande et al. 2015).Despite increased levels of intensification, limited access to knowledge and information on dairy production, processing, and marketing remains a critical constraint for both women and men farmers (Gallina 2016). The differing roles and responsibilities of women and men in cattle production tend to be systematically overlooked in the delivery of extension services. Consequently, the dissemination of innovative livestock practices and technologies rarely targets women (Gallina 2016). This male bias in the provision of dairy information marginalizes or altogether prohibits women from gaining access to services and subsequently adopting sustainable management practices and technologies. For example, male heads of household in dairy in coastal Kenya were more likely to receive dairy advice from development or extension agents than female heads (Mullins et al. 1996). Beyond gender, youth participation in dairy intensification is also constrained by young women and men's limited access to dairy technical and social services (Bullock, Crane 2020).Smallholder dairy farms depend heavily on family labor (Staal et al. 2008). In recent decades and across various regions, women have been providing a substantial amount of daily labor without concomitant decision-making power over cattle and income (McDermott et al. 2010;Tavenner, Crane 2018a;Mullins et al. 1996;Njuki et al. 2013). Greater intensification increases women's labor burden, especially in households that cannot afford to hire a day laborer (Tavenner, Crane 2018b). Although not as common, wage laborers may provide labor in smallholder dairy systems. Dairy operators hire long-term or casual labor, which creates employment among some of society's poorest segments, including landless households (Staal et al. 2008). For example, in the Kenyan highlands, about half of all smallholder dairy farms employed a full-time laborer, meaning that consideration of the employment implications for the very poor are significant (McDermott et al. 2010).Despite women's significant, often central, roles in small-scale livestock systems, they often exercise limited decision-making regarding livestock enterprises. Women's ownership, circumstances, and livestock types they keep vary by region (Kristjanson et al. 2010).Decision-making over land, cattle, and income from milk sales varies but is often limited. In Kilifi, farm ownership was heavily skewed toward men, with 84% of the study farms reported owned by men (Mullins et al. 1996). In four central Rift Valley counties -Bomet, Nandi, Uasin Gishu, and Kericho -both men and women respondents reported men as being the decision-makers for cattle sales (69% of male respondents and 77% of female respondents), followed by joint decision-making (31% of male respondents and 23% of female respondents). Women were never reported to be the sole decision-makers for cattle sales, and men were reported as the main decision-maker for purchasing cows (Tavenner et al. 2018). Men often control incomes earned from formal milk sales, often larger volumes than the milk that women may sell through informal channels (Tavenner, Crane 2018a).In Kalenjin communities in Kenya, men's ownership of cattle has shaped their control over decision making on production and control of income from cows for generations. Dairy intensification practices among the Kalenjin increased women's labor and reinforced masculinities and men's privileges that include ownership of cows, milk income, and other commodified products (Tavenner, Crane 2018a). Women's ownership in smallholder dairy systems in Kenya is limited. Among the few cases that explore the effects of intensification, there is strong evidence suggesting that intensification and commercialization tend further to disenfranchise women (Tavenner, Crane 2018b). Basu et al. (2019) found that women were responsible for making decisions regarding the quantity of milk to be retained for home consumption, while men controlled the income obtained from milk sales. Dairy intensification has, in other regions of Kenya, been found to concentrate men's control of productive resources and monetary benefits, despite women's contribution to the production system (Tavenner et al. 2018). Njuki et al. (2016) found that, although women gained control over evening milk sales decisions, men increasingly controlled overall total dairy income in advanced intensificationlevel households that sold more milk. A recent study carried out with young women and men in Kenya's Kiambu County, a peri-urban location, found that married women assume control over dairy enterprises and manage cows, milk sales, and join cooperatives, often because men have traveled to the capital or nearby towns in search of off-farm income sources. By contrast, young married women in rural locations, often Kalenjin, exercise limited rights to own dairy cows or control milk (Bullock, Crane in review).Women's control over morning and evening milk, and participation in formal and informal markets, varies widely. Women often have greater control over the evening milk than morning milk and greater decision-making authority over milk sold in local and informal markets (Tavenner, Crane 2019;Kristjanson et al. 2010). Furthermore, the informal dairy economy affords women greater entrepreneurial opportunities than engagement in the formal sector (Tavenner et al. in press).Ethiopia and Kenya are similar in that both countries have policies that support dairy commercialization. In addition, gendered inequalities that limit women's access to productive resources and decision-making in both countries constrain women's potential to benefit from dairy intensification processes. However, evidence from Ethiopia is very limited.One important difference is that milk is not nearly as important in Ethiopian culinary traditions as in Kenya. Country contexts differ markedly in terms of milk's role in diets that influence demand and the level of development of dairy infrastructure and institutions to support commercialization.Ethiopian national support for smallholder dairy transformation is more recent than in Kenya. While the dairy sector's potential to grow has been noted, it has not been intensified and is largely subsistence-oriented. Ethiopia is estimated to have the largest cattle population in Africa, and milk production is dominated by small-scale landholders (Chagwiza 2014). Four main dairy production systems exist: a small but growing commercial sector comprised of large private and state farms; small urban/peri-urban systems raising exotic and local cattle with access to milk collection centers or co-operatives; smallholder mixed farming systems in the highlands using indigenous breeds; and pastoral or agropastoral systems in the lowlands (Staal et al. 2008).Smallholder farmers' market integration has been a key focus of national policies, particularly in peri-urban locations surrounding Addis Ababa. Since the 1960s, three distinct periods can be identified in Ethiopia: the later years of the Imperial Regime (pre-1974), the socialist Derg Regime (1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991) and the structural adjustment and market liberalization policies since 1991 (Staal et al. 2008). Over the last half-century, the main thrust of successive regimes of dairy development policies has been to improve commercial dairy production around Addis Ababa, mainly through promoting improved genetics through cross-bred and exotic cows and related feed and management technologies (Staal et al. 2008). Dairy development efforts in the country have been concentrated in the highlands, especially around Addis Ababa, because they have good access to the urban market and a relatively favorable climate for improved dairy cattle breeds and less animal disease-stress (Staal et al. 2008;Yilma et al. 2011). Dairy technology adoption and the subsequent commercialization of milk are still primarily focused among smallholder farmers in periurban areas of Addis Ababa (Lenjiso 2019).foster the development of the incipient modern dairy value chain to supply the growing urban market in Ethiopia (Chagwiza 2014). The government seeks to stimulate a dairy transformation from a subsistence-oriented production system into a market-oriented system characterized by new technology adoption and improved productivity (MoFED 2010).Development interventions in the dairy sector are intended to contribute to poverty alleviation by increasing smallholder dairy producers' income and creating employment (Yilma et al. 2011).Increasing population, urbanization, and the rise in consumers' income is expected to increase the demand for milk and milk products (Chagwiza 2014). The increasing trend of urbanization and population growth has led to the expansion of specialized medium-to-large scale dairy enterprises that collect, pasteurize, pack, and distribute milk to consumers across of the country (Yilma et al. 2011). However, many challenges, including those related to supply and demand and social, inequalities raise concerns about the potential for commercialization of the dairy sector to be sustainable and socially equitable.The importance of milk in the diet of Ethiopians differs according to the farming systems and socio-cultural contexts. In the lowlands, where livestock keeping is the main occupation, milk is consumed by all societal groups (Yilma et al. 2011). It is important to note that dairy does not have a prominent place in Ethiopian highland culinary traditions, and drinking milk is considered something that is only for young children. In addition, Christians of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, who represent more than 43 percent of the population, abstain from consuming animal products including milk and milk products during fasting, which lasts for about 250 days a year, including a solid 3-month period (ibid). During prolonged fasting periods, both demand and prices are depressed (Chagwiza 2014).Ethiopia's milk marketing system is not well developed, and many smallholder milk producers have limited market access. Milk and milk products are sold in both formal and informal marketing systems. About 95% of the marketed milk at the national level is channeled through \"informal\" value chains (Yilma et al. 2011). One effort to improve markets has been to support the creation of cooperatives to improve commercialization.These organizations have been targeted as key institutions in national plans to foster rural economic development (Chagwiza 2014). In the Selale Oromia region, a recent study found that even poor landholders join cooperatives, which implies that coops may play an important role in poverty alleviation among dairy producers (Chagwiza 2014). Additional constraints that undermine the dairy sector's development include poor veterinary services, particularly with respect to inefficient and untimely artificial insemination (AI) services; lack of crossbreed heifers; shortage of feeds, especially agro-industrial by-products; and inefficient and inadequate milk processing technologies (Yilma et al. 2011).Women in Ethiopia seldom own productive assets, which reduces their access to resources and their say in decision making within and beyond their households (Dito 2011). Marriage and the level of assets men and women bring to the marriage differ from one area to another and have a significant bearing on women's bargaining in the household (Dito 2011).In addition to women's labor, the wealth brought into the marriage by women in the form of livestock, land and household furniture is one of the benefits men expect to gain from marrying and these assets positively correlate with her bargaining power in the household (Dito 2011).Gender divisions household labor and in livestock production are common in Ethiopia. In Northwest Ethiopia, women's tasks include cleaning the stalls, dung processing, feeding, forage preparation and milking (Elias et al. 2015). Men are mainly involved in pen construction, herding, livestock selling, and feeding and forage preparation (ibid). Market integration requires more labor to carry out dairy production activities, such as milking, cleaning the barns and transporting the milk to the collection centers and availability of family labor is often a critical factor determining the transformation from extensive to intensive dairy production systems (Chagwiza 2014). In Ethiopia, where subsistence dairy farming is still widely practiced, dairy intensification has resulted in shifts in dairy roles and responsibilities and intra-household income control structure and shifted the control of milk income from women to men among those household that adopt dairy technologies (Lenjiso 2019).Traditionally, women have played a central role in Ethiopian subsistence-oriented dairying systems and performed most dairy activities, including managing the cows and calves, milking the cows, and processing the milk into cottage butter and cheese for household consumption and for sale in the local market (ibid). The income generated from butter and cheese sold in local markets is an important source of income that women fully control (Lenjiso 2019;Lenjiso et al. 2016). However, intensification, especially adopting new technologies, increased women's intra-household workload and led to changes in cattle management practices in milk market-integrated households (Lenjiso et al. 2016). Overall household incomes from milk increased, but men's income share increased significantly with dairy technology adoption, while women's income share reduced significantly (Lenjiso 2019).In agriculture or dairy, commercialization has been shown to increase family labor demands, which namely fall on women. Despite women's increased labor contributions, they are often simultaneously marginalized or excluded from dairy benefits associated with commercialization, such as increased income and access to markets and services.Agricultural intensification has been a major development priority across Africa for decades.Most research in this domain has focused on technical practices, and their adoption and associated gains in productivity and profitability, outcomes that lend themselves to relatively easy quantitative measurement. However, surprisingly little attention has been paid to the social distribution of the impacts of intensification. Smallholder agriculture in Africa typically reflects gendered roles and, similarly, gendered distribution of costs and benefits within households, so it is logical to expect that intensification will have strong gendered impacts, specifically in the areas of asset ownership, labor, and decision-making over benefits.A recurring theme in this review is that introduced intensification technologies often reinforce men's rights of access and control of dairy assets while increasing women's labor and resulting in women losing decision-making power in domains they once controlled.Women exercise limited rights of ownership to livestock, especially larger livestock such as cows. Gender blind dairy interventions tend to reinforce men's cultural claims to livestock assets, that is commonly linked to women's labor and decision-making power over income.The introduction of new technologies often increases demand for new tasks on farms and women often bear the brunt of new labor requirements.In cases where women control a crop or commodity, commercialization and intensification have resulted in women losing decision making power and access to income streams to men (e.g., milk sales). This is associated with cultural norms relating to men's role as the \"head of household\" and breadwinner. However, it can also be affected by perceptions of formal market relations and financial exchanges as a masculine sphere. Intensification dynamics contingent upon cultural gender norms often reveals the precise mechanisms and outcomes to be context specific. One exception is when a new practice involves capital intensive mechanical technologies, which are viewed as being within men's domain. Because livestock often has highly variable cultural, especially gendered, significance attached to them, sitespecific research is an important step in the careful design of livestock interventions.Research in support of agricultural development, including LED, can be designed to identify gender norms, roles, and dynamics in relation to production activities in households and value chains. Furthermore, although gender gets the most attention, household structure, age, and ethnicity all influence an individual's potential to gain from intensification practices (see Dancer, Hossain 2018). Consequently, intersectional approaches should elaborate on other key variables in social differentiation that affect and are affected by intensification processes (see Tavenner, Crane 2019). Additional research that supports the design of more gender-responsive or transformative agricultural development and LED interventions includes understanding how new forms of income from commercial agriculture are distributed and spent within households, cultural heterogeneity relating to livestock norms, and the role that informal markets play in influencing equitable outcomes from commercialization.To achieve impact, research findings that identify social dynamics relevant to distributional equity need to be translated into practical recommendations that development institutions can use to design and promote equitable outcomes from agricultural intensification and commercialization.In effect, development investors can use research to design gender-responsive or even gender transformative approaches to intensification interventions. By way of an example, where cattle are a masculine domain, rather than trying to improve women's access to cattle-incomes, a gender-responsive intervention could be to promote other activities for women, such as poultry or small stock, where women often exert greater control (see Bebe et al. 2002;Tavenner, Crane 2018b). Women's participation in formal milk markets should be strengthened to ensure their access to milk income. However, this could be achieved only through social interventions and institutional innovations (Lenjiso et al. 2016), which can address gendered disparities within households and markets. On-farm, women tend to spend substantially more time on domestic and dairying activities. Consequently, interventions that support women's benefits from intensification should focus on time-and labor-saving technologies to reduce their household workload.household-based joint trainings to sensitize women and men about the benefits of sharing decision making power and income more equitably. Promoting intra-household planning and decision-making around dairy intensification and commercial development has been shown to have the potential to stimulate a positive family environment (Udo et al. 2007). This involves engaging all family members to develop a common vision, renegotiate the division of labor to meet the demand for increased labor, and share the incentives and economic benefits of enhanced productivity and sustainable natural resource management (Udo et al. 2007).In short, pursuing socially equitable growth targets requires technical interventions to address underlying norms and values that influence the distribution of benefits associated with agricultural intensification. Simultaneously addressing technical, social, and institutional organization of sectors shows some promising ability to achieve greater gender equity (Udo et al. 2007;Ruben et al. 2017). However, it is important to note that the deliberate transformation of gender norms is fraught with ethical considerations relating to cultural self-determination, which should be addressed at a more philosophical level (Tavenner, Crane 2019). ","tokenCount":"4250"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7c07f2248cc88cf075fab04260167128","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eaea6f3c-e16c-4201-863b-eb99e0584f86/retrieve","id":"1964104211"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1864cf0e-8ccf-4b44-9e9b-8c51cf029a43","pagecount":"62","content":"CIP publications contribute important development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears.World Health Organization national planning, as well as the selected states' agricultural development programs. Worthy of mention as well are the academic and research institutions, namely the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta; the National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike; the National Cereal Institute, Badeggi; the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan; and HarvestPlus in Nigeria. We appreciate the inputs to this study of development partners and NGOs, specifically the Catholic Relief Services, the Civil Society Scaling-Up Nutrition in Nigeria, Save the Children, etc. Also, we say a big thank you to all the farmers, processors, marketers, consumers and other respondents who gave their unbiased opinions on biofortification and biofortified crops.We acknowledge the survey team that made the study a reality, specially Dr Chris Ogedengbe and Dr Omoh Omokpedia, who supported Uzoma Chimapam William, Michael Falade and Ibrahim Lawani in data collection, and the project country advocates for reviewing the draft and providing feedback on the findings. Thanks also to Kellen Kebaara for assisting with the editing and layout of this report and to the Communications and Public Awareness Department at CIP-Lima for their support in designing the cover.Our gratitude goes also to the entire project team in Nigeria for their unwavering dedication and commitment to ensuring the success of this study, and in particular the country coordinator, Dr Olapeju Phorbee, and Isiaka Oyerinde.We are indebted to Dr Andrew Onwuemele for working on the data, finishing up the study, putting together the report against all odds and developing the advocacy strategy.About 63% of the women in Nigeria are anemic and 31% are iodine deficient, and close to 30% of under-fives are vitamin A deficient. While the government has instituted several measures to address the micronutrient deficiency challenges, the country continues to report cases of micronutrient deficiency. Biofortification is a strategy for addressing micronutrient malnutrition that can reach the remote rural areas that often are not easily reached by existing initiatives. This justifies the need for biofortification interventions such as the Building Nutritious Food Baskets (BNFB) Project in Nigeria. BNFB is a three-year project (2015-2018) funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. It aims to contribute to the reduction of hidden hunger by catalyzing sustainable investments in the utilization of biofortified crops in Nigeria and Tanzania. This situation analysis employed multiple approaches. Data collection was in two phases. The first stage involved a desk review and content analysis of several documents in which preliminary answers to the specific objectives of the situation analysis were identified. The output from that was a report with preliminary conclusions to be tested during the field visits. The second phase involved field visits and consultations with relevant stakeholders. The main instruments for data collection were questionnaires, a focus group discussion guide and a key informant interview guide. In all, 420 farmers and 735 consumers were systematically and randomly selected to participate in the situation analysis. Qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed in the data analysis. The data collected through the questionnaire were analyzed statistically by relevant descriptive statistics including frequency, percentage, mean, median and cross-tabulation. All data were analyzed with SPSS.Objective 1: Use available data and other information to accurately identify the key actors in the scaling up of biofortified crops and the trends and patterns of consumption of biofortified crops and their products, disaggregated by relevant segments of the country and of the population.  There were several key actors involved in the scaling up of biofortified crops in Nigeria. These included international partners such as HarvestPlus, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Catholic Relief Services, Helen Keller International, the International Potato Center (CIP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) as well as national partners and research institutes such as the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the National Root Crops Research Institute.The first variety of pro-vitamin A cassava was approved for release in Nigeria in late 2011 and about half a million Nigerian farm households were growing its varieties.The level of awareness on biofortification was high among farmers but low among consumers. Over 60% of the farmers surveyed were aware of the existence of biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize but over 61% of the consumers were not aware of the existence of these crops.  Among the states, farmers' awareness on biofortification was highest in Benue, at 83.8%, followed by Kaduna, at 79%, Akwa-Ibom, at 70%, Taraba, at 56.9% and Osun, at 56.7%. Among consumers, awareness of the existence of biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize was high only in Benue state, at 83%.The level of farmers' awareness on the biofortified crops was highest for OFSP, at 55.1%, and then cassava, at 39.9%. Only 5% of the respondents were aware of the existence of biofortified maize.The main source of information on the existence of biofortified crops was markets, which was the source for 48.2% of the farmers, friends for 24% of the farmers and agricultural development programs (ADPs) for 14.8% of the farmers. The sources of information for consumers included friends for 39.3% of them, markets for 33.1% of them and ADPs for 12.7% of them.There was a general low level of awareness among consumers on the benefits of biofortification of crops. Only 25.6% of them accurately identified the benefits of biofortification, compared with 78% of the farmers.  Some 42.2% of the farmers planted biofortified sweetpotatoes, 33.3% planted biofortified cassava and 15% planted biofortified maize. Overall, only 30.2% of the farmers planted biofortified crops.  About 61.1% of the farmers planting biofortified crops cultivated them mainly for consumption, while only 30.3% of them cultivated them for sale.The predominant types of sweetpotatoes, cassava or maize consumed by the respondents were the white types, which are not biofortified. Fewer than 3% of the respondents consumed the non-white varieties of these crops.The consumption of biofortified crops and food products was influenced by the consumers' level of education and location, and the taste and texture of the products.Objective 2: Identify and analyze the barriers and bottlenecks that prevent disadvantaged groups from accessing and benefiting from biofortification, including the social, political and economic conditions that result in shortfalls in the creation of an enabling environment for the scaling up of biofortification.The main barriers disadvantaged groups faced in accessing and benefiting from biofortification included cultural and individual preferences relating to the product attributes; inefficiencies in the credit market, information access, and input and output markets; and their low education levels.Objective 4: Analyze the extent to which biofortification is prioritized in national policies, law, strategies, plans and budgets.  There were five key policies in Nigeria that target malnutrition, but only two specifically mentioned biofortification as a strategy for addressing micronutrient deficiency.The following gaps were identified with respect to policy support for biofortified foods: -The focus of the agriculture policy remained on increasing yields of staple crops; -Nutrition policies focused on direct interventions and largely neglected food-based approaches; -The policy environment in Nigeria did not overtly promote biofortification.Objective 5: Analyze government's (and its agencies') policy and funding priorities as far as nutrition and biofortification are concerned.The sources of funding for biofortification in Nigeria were internal and external. The internal sources were mainly related to the federal government, while the main external sources were HarvestPlus and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.Another source of funding was the New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition.Objective 6: Analyze current institutional and structural bottlenecks to address in order to unlock the value chain for the biofortified crops in the country, including the varietal release policies/criteria and the biofortified varieties currently in the pipeline (for release).  There were nine types of actors in the biofortified crops value chain in Nigeria -farmers, local collectors, national traders, wholesalers, retailers, agroprocessors, home consumers, national agricultural research institutes and the variety release committee.The key constraints in the yellow cassava value chain included underutilization of cassava tubers for industrial purposes, weak linkages between the industrial users of cassava products and processors, poor market information, unavailability of inputs, poor finance, and the short shelf life of yellow cassava roots.The key constraints in the OFSP value chain included the low uptake of the crop in processing, low productivity of smallholder farmers, poor access to farm inputs, low awareness among consumers on the nutritional value of OFSP, poor linkages among farmers and processors of OFSP, short shelf life of OFSP roots, poor market outlay, and poor multisectoral coordination and collaboration among OFSP stakeholders in Nigeria.The key constraints in the maize value chain included insufficient knowledge on good agricultural and postharvest practices; limited knowledge on soil management practices, crop nutrient requirements and other agronomic essentials; aflatoxin contamination; storage pests such as mice, rats and other rodents, which were a source of notable damage to stored maize grain; low yield; and low rates of adoption of the improved technical package by farmers.The quantity of food returned after processing was lower for pro-vitamin A cassava than for conventional cassava, and pro-vitamin A cassava products were more expensive than conventional cassava products.The poor packaging method used by processors for preserving pro-vitamin A content was one of the major institutional bottlenecks.The unavailability of seeds is an important challenge that must be addressed.The inadequacy of the laboratory facilities, which are important for research geared towards improving the texture, taste and color of the biofortified crops, was a key institutional problem.This study gives a clear picture of the situation in Nigeria with respect to BNFB objectives and indicators, and also contributes to improving the understanding on the gaps and the actions vital for the scaling up of biofortification in Nigeria. These outcomes will be useful in designing strategic interventions for scaling up biofortified crops for nutrition security in Nigeria. The following recommendations emanate from the findings of the study:  CIP and HarvestPlus should target more advocacy programs at raising the awareness level on the existence of biofortified crops in Nigeria.CIP should aim for the use of media channels such as television and radio for awareness creation and sensitization programs for stakeholders on the existence and importance of biofortified crops for their health.x  HarvestPlus, CIP and other research institutions should focus on improving the yield, maturity period, taste, color and texture of the biofortified crops based on the preferences of farmers and consumers.HarvestPlus and CIP should develop an intervention specifically addressing the bottlenecks that prevent disadvantaged groups from accessing and benefitting from biofortified crops.HarvestPlus and CIP should advocate for the establishment by the federal government of an institutional framework to support biofortification in Nigeria that is backed by law.CIP should carry out advocacy among the partners in the New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition to ensure that part of their investment in agriculture in Nigeria is directed to biofortification activities.CIP and other partners in Nigeria should conduct advocacy programs focused on policymakers for the mainstreaming of biofortification in agriculture and nutrition policies. CIP should create a biofortification innovation platform that incorporates all the stakeholders around the agricultural farming zones in each state, including farmers, researchers, input dealers, processors, marketers, financial institutions and consumers.-Farmers: on-farm demonstrations on agronomic practices that increase yield and on storage of biofortified crops; -OFSP processors: new processing approaches that improve the taste, texture and dry matter content of the roots and processed products; -Researchers: techniques to develop new biofortified crops with high yields, resistance to diseases and pests, short maturity period, good taste and high nutritive value.  In Nigeria, about 63% of the women are anemic and 31% are iodine deficient, and close to 30% of under-fives are vitamin A deficient and 20% are zinc deficient. 4 While the government has instituted several measures to address micronutrient deficiency challenges, micronutrient deficiency continues to be manifested in several segments of the population.The current efforts to address micronutrient malnutrition include supplementation programs that provide iron and vitamin A capsules to women of reproductive age and children under the age of five through the health sector. Even where supplementation coverage through these programs is high, it only targets the most vulnerable groups, yet micronutrient deficiencies are of public health significance and the entire population needs to have access to adequate micronutrients. Food-based approaches for addressing micronutrient malnutrition have so far largely been limited to commercial food fortification of salt with iodine; cooking oil, sugar and margarine with vitamin A; and wheat flour and maize meal with iron and B vitamins. The promotion of dietary diversification and nutrition-sensitive food production, and nutrition education have not received the focus and sustained attention necessary to effect sustainable behavior change. 5 Biofortification provides an additional strategy for addressing micronutrient malnutrition to reach the remote rural areas often not easily reached by the other existing initiatives.Nutrition evidence shows that added nutrients bred into staple foods under controlled conditions become bioavailable when the food is consumed and are absorbed at sufficient levels to improve micronutrient status. A study in South Africa evaluated the impact on liver reserves of vitamin A of in children fed sweetpotato for five months during the school year and found that those who ate orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) had a positive change in liver reserves of vitamin A compared with those who ate white sweetpotatoes, measured using the modified relative dose response test, 6 which is a semi-quantitative method to evaluate liver reserves. 7 In more recent work among Bangladeshi women, 8 consumption of OFSP 6 days a week over 10 weeks did not show a net gain in the total body reserves of vitamin A over the negative controls but it did contribute to the rise in circulating serum beta-carotene concentrations. With respect to yellow cassava, in vitro studies with cassava showed that beta-carotene content was proportional to the volume consumed and that the genotype did not have an influence on the level of beta-carotene currently available in the germplasm. 9 In studies conducted on animals, the bioconversion factor was found to be 3.7 μg betacarotene to 1 μg retinol despite the fact that the cis-β-carotene composition in processed cassava is 48%. 10 This justifies the need for new interventions for addressing micronutrient deficiency problems in Nigeria, such as the Building Nutritious Food Baskets (BNFB) Project.Although Nigeria recorded a decline in under-five stunting from 41% in 2008 to 37% in 2013, 11 the country still accounted for 11 million out of the world's 60 million stunted children in 2012. 12 The Nigeria demographic and health survey data 13 showed that the nutritional status trend worsened from 24% in 2003 to 23% in 2008, the underweight status from 29% in 2003 to 11% in 2013 and the wasting status from 14% in 2008 to 18% in 2013. There is abundant evidence suggesting that malnutrition is prevalent in Nigeria in general and in northwest Nigeria in particular, where the basic needs of life of food, shelter and clothing often are not within the reach of the majority of the poor. Data for 2013 show that more than half of the children aged under five years from the North West region were chronically malnourished while 36% were severely stunted. 14 Zamfara is one of the states in the region with appalling malnutrition among under-fives, and 34% of the children there were severely malnourished while 56% were chronically malnourished.15The October 2016 Cadre Harmonisé 16 analysis on Nigeria showed that some 8 million people in the northeast were facing acute food insecurity. While the government has geared up its support and humanitarian access to the northeastern states, the situation remained particularly worrisome in the state of Borno, where nearly 60% (3.3 million people) of the population was facing acute food insecurity, including 55,000 who were threatened by famine. 17 The initiative to control and reduce micronutrient deficiency disorders in Nigeria goes back to 2002, when the government adopted as a new strategy fortification of staple foods with vitamin A so that children could easily consume vitamin A in their food. The Ministry of Industry, through the Standards Organization of Nigeria, published mandatory standards for vitamin A fortification for flour, sugar and vegetable oil that year. By 2004, 70% of the sugar, 100% of the wheat flour and 55% of the vegetable oil in the market were fortified with vitamin A. Nigeria is also fortifying wheat flour with iron, thereby helping to protect children and mothers' physical and mental health. 18 In 2004, the Federal Government of Nigeria initiated the Home-Grown School Feeding Programme through the Universal Basic Education Act. That legislation stipulated that at a minimum all state primary schools must provide one meal a day to each student. Food-based approaches for addressing micronutrient malnutrition in Nigeria have so far largely been limited to commercial food fortification of salt with iodine; cooking oil, sugar and margarine with vitamin A; and flour and maize meal with iron and B vitamins. Many rural communities have limited access to commercially processed and fortified foods, and often locally processed and unfortified foods are more readily available to them and cheaper. 19 Biofortification -the enhancement of micronutrient levels of staple crops through biological processes such as plant breeding and genetic engineering 20 -provides an additional strategy for addressing micronutrient malnutrition in Nigeria. Biofortification has multiple advantages, including the fact that it capitalizes on the regular daily intake of a consistent amount of a staple food by all the family members and it has the potential to reach the remote rural areas that are not easily reached by the existing initiatives. These advantages were the triggers for the initiation of BNFB in Nigeria.BNFB was initiated to contribute to tackling the health and other challenges posed by micronutrient deficiency in Nigeria. As a best practice, the implementation of any development intervention program is usually accompanied by systematic efforts to measure its effectiveness and understand its broad impact on its beneficiaries. That approach demands proper knowledge of the existing situation in order to be able to establish the counterfactual of the program. It is in that context that the baseline survey of the BNFB Project was commissioned.BNFB is a three-year project running from 2015 to 2018 and funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. It aims to contribute to the reduction of hidden hunger by catalyzing sustainable investments in the utilization of biofortified crops at scale in the Nigeria and Tanzania. The project adopts a multi-crop food basket approach, advocates for increased investment in the integration of biofortified food crops in food systems and contributes to the sustainable solutions for addressing Tagwireyi, J. (2017). A situational analysis of regional investment, policies, legislations and advocacy efforts of food based approaches to combating macronutrient deficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa: focus on bio-fortification. micronutrient malnutrition, especially in the vulnerable groups of young children and women. The project builds on lessons learnt from and achievements of the Reaching Agents of Change (RAC) Project (2011-2015), which was spearheaded by the International Potato Center (CIP) and Helen Keller International, to scale up the adoption of biofortified crops. The crops BNFB is promoting are high iron beans, pro-vitamin A maize (orange maize), orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes (OFSP) and yellow cassava. BNFB is led by CIP, which along with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), HarvestPlus and the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), forms the consortium of six core partners implementing the project, working together with national partners. The project has two specific objectives:  Strengthen the enabling environment for increased investments in biofortified crops;  Strengthen institutional and community capacities to produce and consume biofortified crops.The primary aim of the situation analysis was to gather analytical data and information that establish the baseline status of the key thematic components of BNFB and the key actors responsible for realizing the objectives of the BNFB Project.The general objectives of conducting the situation analysis were to:  Improve the understanding of decision-makers, partners and all other stakeholders working in biofortification in the country;  Identify the causes of the slow uptake of biofortification, as the basis for recommending actions;  Identify the mechanisms to support national and decentralized planning and development processes, including influencing policies, strategies, budgets and national policies to contribute towards creating an enabling environment for scaling up biofortification;  Identify the current levels of funding and/investments in biofortification by development partners and the government;  Strengthen the knowledge base on the current consumption patterns for biofortified crops and their products;  Map out the key actors, the needs of the population and communities, and the bottlenecks and gaps to be addressed in order to unlock the value chains of the biofortified crops in the country and prioritize interventions that need to be implemented (advocacy, promotion, seed systems, and institutional and individual capacity building and training);  Identify the major policies, strategies and plans in place that favor biofortification and the areas for further policy engagement.The specific objectives of situation analysis were to:  Use available data and other information to accurately identify the key actors in scaling up biofortified crops and the trends and patterns of consumption of biofortified crops and their products, disaggregated by relevant segments of the country and of the population;  Identify and analyze the barriers and bottlenecks that prevent disadvantaged groups from accessing and benefiting from biofortification, including the social, political and economic conditions that result in shortfalls in the creation of an enabling environment for the scaling up of biofortification;  Assess the current investment pattern in biofortification and the main donors to approach to unlock increased investments in biofortification;  Analyze the extent to which biofortification is prioritized in national policies, law, strategies, plans and budgets;  Analyze the government's (and its agencies') policy and funding priorities as far as nutrition and biofortification are concerned;  Analyze the current institutional and structural bottlenecks to address in order to unlock the value chain for the biofortified crops in the country, including the varietal release policies and criteria and the biofortified varieties currently in the pipeline (for release);  Assess the needs of the population and communities, bottlenecks and gaps to be addressed and prioritize the interventions that need to be implemented (advocacy, promotion, seed systems, and institutional and individual capacity building and training opportunities).Mixed methods were employed in conducting the situation analysis, which was in two phases: a desk review involving a content analysis of literature pertinent to the objectives of BNFB, and a field survey with field visits and consultations with stakeholders.The first stage was a desk review during which preliminary answers to the specific objectives of the situation analysis were identified through a content analysis of several documents, including key reports, policy documents, published studies, research and survey reports and relevant grey literature. It also involved a content analysis of available legislation, social policy, budget allocation and expenditure documents in conformity with the objectives of BNFB. The product from this stage was a report with preliminary conclusions to be verified during the field visits.The survey research design was adopted for the study. Generally survey research draws samples from a large population and the conclusions reached from the sample are generalized to the entire population. This design was suitable for the situation analysis, as it was not possible to cover all the states in Nigeria due to cost and time considerations. The design also allowed us to elicit information about attitudes and perceptions, which might have been difficult to obtain using other designs.The total population of farmers in Nigeria and of those involved in the planting of biofortified crops are unknown. Consequently, the sampling design adopted for the situation analysis was purposive. However, efforts were made to ensure that the study covered all the geopolitical zones in Nigeria.The seven states of Akwa-Ibom, Benue, Enugu, Kwara, Kaduna, Osun and Taraba were purposively selected from each of the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria for the situation analysis study. Each of these states was divided into farming zones following a geographical categorization based on the crop types and share of production. With the assistance of the agricultural development programs (ADPs), two farming zones were purposively selected in each state using their cultivation of sweetpotato, maize and cassava as the main criterion for selection. In each of the farming zones, a list of farmers was obtained from the ADP. That list served as the sampling frame from which 60 farmers were randomly selected in each of the selected states. Also, in each of the selected states 105 consumers of at least one of sweetpotato, cassava and maize crops were purposively selected. A total of 420 farmers and 735 consumers participated in the study.In order to achieve the objectives of the situation analysis, both qualitative and quantitative data were gathered from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were obtained from farmers and consumers of sweetpotato, cassava and maize. Secondary data were collected from published and unpublished materials such a key reports, policy documents, published studies, research and survey reports, and social policy, budget allocation and expenditure documents. Some of the secondary sources of data were Tagwireyi (2017), 21 UNICEF, WHO & World Bank (2015), 22 HarvestPlus (2016), 23 the Nigeria Health Sector Component of National Food and Nutrition Policy, and the National Strategic Plan of Action for Nutrition (2014-2019), among others.The main instruments used in collecting data for the situation analysis were questionnaires, an indepth interview guide and focus group discussion (FGD) guide. Questionnaire administration: Two sets of questionnaires were designed for the situation analysis. The first questionnaire was for farmers (see Annex 1). The questions sought information on the farmers' demographics, farming practices, awareness on the non-white cassava, sweetpotato and maize, production patterns and challenges etc. The second questionnaire was administered to consumers (see Annex 2) and the questions bordered on demographics, frequency and pattern of consumption of sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize crops and their products, awareness on non-white cassava, sweetpotatoes and maize, among other issues. Focus group discussions: One focus group discussion was conducted for farmers in each state to establish their awareness on and knowledge about OFSP, vitamin A maize and yellow cassava, how they sourced seeds, how and to whom they sold their produce, and motivation for growing the crops of interest and their challenges. Each focus group consisted of a maximum of eight farmers. Farmers who were growers of at least one of sweetpotato, cassava or maize were recruited through their state ADPs at least two days before the engagement.The respondents for the in-depth interviews included processors; input suppliers for vines, stems and seed; ADP staff; nutritionists; representatives of research and training institutes; aggregators and marketers of biofortified crops.Qualitative and quantitative techniques of data analysis were employed for both the descriptive and inferential analyses of the study. Content analysis was undertaken on data collected through the indepth interviews and FGDs. The data collected through the questionnaire were analyzed using relevant descriptive statistics including frequency, percentage, mean, median and cross-tabulation. All data collected were analyzed with the SPSS.21 Tagwireyi, J. (2017). A situational analysis of regional investment, policies, legislations and advocacy efforts of food based approaches to combating macronutrient deficiency in Sub-Saharan Africa: focus on bio-fortification.UNICEF, WHO and World Bank. ( 2015). Joint child malnutrition estimates: levels and trends. Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition (http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/estimates2014/en/, accessed May 2017).Quality assurance is critical in a survey of this nature, so, in all the stages of the survey adequate measures were taken to enhance the credibility of the exercise and the quality of the data collected.The design of the data collection instruments was tailored to the scope of the study, taking cognizance of the broad goals and the specific objectives as stated in the terms of reference. These helped determine the variables that were included in the data collection instruments. In addition, the decision to design four data collection instruments, i.e. two questionnaires, an FGD guide and an in-depth interview guide, was to ensure that adequate data were collected from the different sources in a complementary manner. This facilitated data triangulation and improved the internal validity and reliability of the instruments as well as the quality of the data. Furthermore, the two questionnaires were pilot tested and, along with the other two research instruments, were thoroughly reviewed and revised several times based on the views and comments of experts in this field. Check questions were incorporated in the instruments to ensure that inconsistencies on the part of the respondents and enumerators in the field were detected during data cleaning and analysis.The research design included measures to preempt the occurrence of ethical issues in the study. In this regard each questionnaire was accompanied with a short consent form that was read to the respondents, and it is only after agreeing to the content of the form that they were allowed to participate in the research.To ensure maximum confidentiality of the research participants, the analysis and presentation of data from the interviews and the FGDs, and the questionnaire administration observed the principle of non-attribution. 24This section presents the main findings of the situation analysis for BNFB. It first deals with the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents to the questionnaire interviews, who mainly were farmers and consumers in the sampled states.Basic sociodemographic characteristics of farmers and consumers are important variables in determining their social and economic behavior. Figure 1 presents the gender distribution of the respondents in the study. More male farmers (73.5%) and male consumers (61.7%) participated in the study.That means that while all the participants' contributions were taken into account in the study, specific statements cannot be traced back to them.   2016) 25 who found that nutritional knowledge was relatively lower among households with low education than among those with better educated respondents. Another explanation is that most of the sensitization and awareness programs for biofortification were conducted in urban areas among educated people. This calls for more outreach to the grassroots communities to increase their knowledge on the value of biofortified crops.  Among the farmers, 89.4% had farmed for at least five years, 52.3% processed their crops for both family consumption and basic income generation, and 47.7% restricted their livelihood activities to farming. Some 52.1% of the farmers were members of farmers' associations and cooperatives, while the others did not belong any farming association.Figure 4 shows farmers' land holding sizes, and most of them had more than 5 acres. Almost 60% of the farmers farmed in lowlands, or fadama 26 land (Figure 5).  A stakeholder analysis was carried out aimed at identifying the key actors in biofortification processes and activities in Nigeria. These stakeholders were later grouped into the categories of international actors and donors, national political actors (legislators, governors), government ministries, universities and research institutes, NGOs and civil society organizations, producers, processors, input dealers, marketers and consumers. Table 1 shows the key actors in biofortification activities. The main actors involved in supporting and promoting biofortification activities in Nigeria included HarvestPlus, Catholic Relief Services, Helen Keller International, CIP, UNICEF, IITA, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI). Others were input dealers, producers, processors, marketers and consumers of biofortified products in Nigeria. The activities of each of these actors in support and promotion of biofortification are highlighted in Table 1.The key actors in the biofortification of crops were asked to name the institutional and structural bottlenecks to be addressed in order to unlock the value chain of the biofortified crops in Nigeria.Their answers are summarized in Table 1. With regard to the crops themselves, the actors observed that (1) the quantity of food returned after processing pro-vitamin A cassava was low compared with the conventional cassava, and was a reason that consumers preferred the conventional type, (2) the prices of vitamin A cassava products were higher than those for conventional cassava products, (3) there was a misconception that biofortified crop products were GMO products, (4) awareness about OFSP and its products was low, and (5) OFSP's texture and low dry matter content were challenges in its uptake.In terms of structural and institutional bottlenecks, the key actors regarded investment in the agricultural extension program as low, and the packaging method for preserving pro-vitamin A content during processing was seen as poor. This calls for capacity building for processors to unlock the value chain of biofortified crops. Availability of funds is also a challenge for all the actors and for all the activities necessary to unlock the value chain of the biofortified crops.Upland Rainfed, 32.7% Irrigated, 8.0%Lowland/ Fadama, 59% Some of the key actors also noted that in some states the farmers' adoption of biofortified crops was high, and increasing numbers of them were looking for the seeds of the crops. Unavailability of seeds has become a major challenge that must be addressed. Furthermore, there was the problem of recycling of seeds by farmers using traditional methods rather than getting seeds from seed companies. This practice has hindered the scaling up of biofortified crops.The inadequacy of the laboratory facilities at NRCRI is a major institutional problem. Such facilities are important for research geared towards analyzing and improving the physico-chemical and sensory properties of the biofortified crops.   According to the Nigeria national coordinator of CIP, since 2011 CIP has implemented several OFSP activities. These are described below.RAC ran over four years and was implemented by CIP and Helen Keller International in Tanzania, Mozambique and Nigeria, as the principal countries, and Ghana and Burkina Faso, as the secondary countries. The main focus was on increasing awareness about vitamin A deficiency and strengthening both the technical and advocacy capacity for the successful utilization of OFSP in nutrition interventions. The project advocated for increased investment in OFSP to combat vitamin A deficiency among young children and women of reproductive age, and also built the institutional capacity to design and implement gender-sensitive projects to ensure wide access and utilization of OFSP in selected African countries.In Nigeria, RAC generated USD 1,262,479.42, which supported vine multiplication, dissemination, production and processing, and the conduct of a gender study on sweetpotato production systems. The project supported advocacy work and capacity development for 16 national advocates to engage and influence policy and 79 technical experts to deliver the training-of-trainers course on 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato'. RAC developed two toolkits on a range of topics related to OFSP, advocacy materials, and OFSP investment guide products targeting investors, implementers and policy-makers. The project strengthened the capacity of the Agricultural and Rural Management Training Institute (ARMTI) to host and run annual courses on sweetpotato. After the project ended ARMTI continued to offer the sweetpotato course on its own on a fee basis. Under seed systems activities, RAC facilitated the production of clean planting materials of OFSP vines for widespread distribution by decentralized vine multipliers and fast tracked the release of two OFSP varieties in Nigeria, King J and Mothers Delight. The project worked with NRCRI to develop a seed multiplication plan for the production of foundation OFSP seed to supply large quantities of clean vine cuttings in Benue, Kaduna, Kwara, Nasarawa and Abuja Federal Capital Territory states. RAC established 6.3 ha of disease-free primary and 4.2 ha of disease-free secondary materials. In addition, it developed a monitoring and evaluation plan and system, systematically documented the process of the project implementation and produced a booklet on the lessons learned, which it shared widely.According to Rainbow Project's technical advisor/project manager, the project, supported by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, was started in 2014 as an offshoot of the investment raised by the first phase of RAC. The aim of the Rainbow Project was to build a community of practice that would effectively contribute to the reduction of food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty in Nigeria through leveraging the unexploited potential of OFSP and improving the market opportunities for all types of sweetpotato. The project was implemented in the seven states of Osun, Kwara, Kaduna, Benue, Nasarawa, Federal Capital Territory and Ebonyi.Between April 2014 and December 2015, which is when the project was implemented actively,  About 50 vine multipliers were identified, selected and empowered to produce OFSP vines for farmers' uptake;  All the ADP extension staff in all the project states and a few others from outside the ADPs participated in the training-of-trainers' 10-day course on 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato' at ARMTI, Ilorin. Almost all of them were further equipped to step down the training to others in their states or locations.Over 35,000 households with children under the age of five years were reached with at least one bundle of OFSP with 100 cuttings of vines to encourage them to start home gardens and to give them access to the nutritious crop.The Rainbow Project collaborated with Helen Keller International on the SPRING Project, where almost 1000 infant and young children's feeding support groups in Benue and Federal Capital Territory were reached with OFSP vines and equipped to plant, process and use OFSP as a complementary food for their babies.In creating an institutional demand for OFSP root, the Rainbow Project successfully advocated for inclusion of OFSP in the Osun State school feeding program, which was accepted by the O-Meal School Feeding Program, began with a pilot of 8 schools, and gradually scaled up to 17 schools before the project ended. Fortunately, the Jumpstarting Project of CIP continued with the OFSP school program. As at December 2016, OFSP pottage was on the menu of not less than 174 public schools in Osun state, consuming about 10 t of the crop weekly and creating a market for OFSP farmers, vendors and other stakeholders. About four private schools in the state also were serving the pottage.The Osun state government has helped to equip the youth with skills related to the OFSP value chain, under the Osun Youth Empowerment Scheme.  OFSP bread, made using then puree, was introduced to bakers and it has now moved from home consumption to commercialization. It was also included in the school menu of Oriade LGA in Osun state.Sensitization activities were carried out among strategically targeted groups, institutions, organizations etc. to create awareness on OFSP for its adoption. Such targets included antenatal clinics, developmental organizations, agricultural shows, market and road shows, eateries, food-based associations, etc. Commemorations of national and international days related to nutrition also were used to sensitize the public on the crop, especially in Abuja, where most of the events were concentrated. Some development organizations were already using OFSP for their programs, disseminating the vines to beneficiaries as part of their nutrition-sensitive agriculture. Such organizations included the Catholic Relief Services under its SMILE Project that is in five states of Nigeria. Some indigenous foods were being enriched with OFSP for household dietary diversity and income generation. OFSP was used in foods such as pap, gari, pastries, edible flours for meals consumed as 'swallows' with soups and sauces, local beverages (kunu and juice), and bread. The leaves were cooked and consumed as conventional leafy vegetables.The Jumpstarting Orange-fleshed Sweetpotato through Diversified Markets Project is a three-year project that began in April 2014 and that seeks to develop OFSP production and markets in Osun and Kwara states. The main activity on the production side has been strengthening the seed system's capacity through the identification and development of a system of decentralized vine multipliers able to provide planting material of high quality and to knowledgeably serve as marketers of their product to promote the crop as well. The primary market identified and promoted in Osun state is the school feeding program, and sweetpotato was successfully integrated into the school menu and is served to students in an expanding number of schools, starting with 8 schools and growing to 174 by December 2016. In Kwara state the focus was more on fresh root market sale and promotion of processed products, emphasizing both the nutritional value and the profitability of the crop. In Kwara the project sponsored a number of participants to the 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato' training-of-trainers' course run by ARMTI. In all its areas of engagement, CIP's approach has been to work closely with federal and state institutions, including the O-Meal School Feeding Program of Osun State, the ADPs in Kwara and Osun states, and a host of other public and private sector partners.The Sweetpotato Action for Security and Health in Africa (SASHA) Project is a 10-year research project designed to improve the food security and health of poor families in sub-Saharan Africa by exploiting the untapped potential of sweetpotato. SASHA is part of the continent-wide Sweetpotato for Profit and Health Initiative (SPHI) co-led by CIP and FARA that aims to reach 10 million households across Africa by 2020. Since July 2015 the SASHA Project has collaborated with NRCRI, Umudike, to develop and test a model for sustainable pre-basic seed production for the timely availability of quality sweetpotato planting materials. Activities are implemented at the two stations of NRCRI in Abia and Osun states and in Kano and Kaduna states. These are important sweetpotato producing areas, and seed production activities are being linked with institutional markets for roots. The specific objectives are to:  Ensure increased capacity for the production of high quality sweetpotato planting materials by the public and private sectors;  Enhance the awareness and commercialization of high quality sweetpotato planting material among stakeholders;  Establish a quality assurance system for sweetpotato pre-basic seed and quality declared seed.SASHA's achievements to date include infrastructure improvement, training in tissue culture micropropagation and screen house management, production of 75,000 pre-basic cuttings, and drafting of seed standards for sweetpotato quality-declared planting material.SASHA has collaborated with the Nigerian government, particularly NRCRI, to provide backstopping for breeding efforts at NRCRI through provision of germplasm and supporting multilocational trials, leading to the official release of the first OFSP variety for Nigeria, Mother's Delight. Further, breeders at NRCRI and other institutions have participated in regional and continental communities of practice, strengthening the national capacity and the regional integration of sweetpotato breeding efforts.BNFB is a three-year project running from November 2015 to October 2018 and is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. It seeks to reduce hidden hunger by catalyzing sustainable investment for the utilization at scale of the biofortified crops vitamin A cassava, vitamin A maize, vitamin A sweetpotato and iron rich beans. The project is being implemented in Nigeria and Tanzania to demonstrate how multiple biofortified crops can be scaled up together at the country level. The project is led by CIP, which along with CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, IITA, HarvestPlus and FARA, forms the consortium of six core partners implementing the project. These work together with national implementing partners on advocacy, policy development, nutrition education, and behavior change communication for demand creation, capacity strengthening and institutional learning to support the scaling up of multiple biofortified crops. The project has two specific objectives: to strengthen the enabling environment for investments in biofortified crops and to strengthen institutional and community capabilities to produce and consume biofortified crops.Farmers and consumers' knowledge and understanding of biofortification play important roles in two main respects. They help farmers in the adoption of biofortified crops for production and consumption at the family level and they help consumers understand the nutritional and health benefits of biofortified crops and, hence, the importance of consuming them at the household level. Figure 5.6 shows farmers and consumers' awareness levels on the existence of biofortified sweetpotato, cassava and maize in Nigeria.The study found awareness on biofortification to be high among farmers but low among consumers. Figure 6 indicates that 61% of the surveyed farmers were aware of the existence of at least one biofortified crop in the study area, while 62% of the consumers were not aware of the existence of any of the biofortified sweetpotato, cassava or maize in Nigeria. This finding has implications for the work to increase the levels of consumption of these crops. Behavior change communication and social marketing, tailored to the specific biofortified products and market contexts, can be used to increase awareness and overcome this limitation.At the state level, awareness on the biofortified crops among farmers was highest in Benue, at 83.8%, followed by Kaduna, at 79%, Akwa-Ibom at, 70% and Taraba and Osun, at 56.7% (Figure 7). Awareness on the biofortified crops among farmers was lowest in Enugu and then Kwara. With respect to consumers, awareness on biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize in Nigeria was high only in Benue, where more than 83% of the consumers indicated that they were familiar with biofortified crops. In the rest of states, less than half of the consumers were aware of the existence of biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava or maize.The level of awareness among farmers on the individual crops was highest for sweetpotatoes, with 55.1% of the farmers claiming awareness of it, followed by cassava, with 39.9% of the farmers. Only 5% of the farmers were aware of the existence of biofortified maize. The low awareness on biofortified maize may be attributed to the fact that it was introduced to famers later than the other two crops (see Table 3). OFSP and cassava were released in December 2012 and 2011, respectively, while orange maize was released in 2014. The study also sought to determine what farmers and consumers' sources of information were with respect to awareness and knowledge on the existence of the biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize. Figure 8 shows that for the farmers the sources of information were mainly markets, friends and ADPs, while for the consumers friends were the most important source, then markets, followed by community events. For the purpose of advocacy and sensitization on the existence and importance of biofortified crops there is need for the integration of radio and television channels, as studies have proven their effectiveness in information dissemination, particularly for low income farmers in rural Nigeria.Although farmers and consumer's knowledge on the existence of biofortified crops is vitally important, their understanding of the rationale behind the introduction of biofortified crops is more crucial as it has implications for farmers' adoption and production of the crops, as well as consumers' preferences and consumption of the crops. There was a generally a low level of knowledge among consumers on the benefits of biofortification of crops, and only 25.6% of them accurately named those benefits, compared with 78% of farmers (Figure 9). This calls for more targeted advocacy and awareness campaigns focusing on nutrition education among consumers throughout the country.  Production of biofortified crops is one of the necessary conditions for their consumption. Hence, it is germane to determine the existing production level for the biofortified crops in Nigeria. At the same time, the consumption of biofortified crops and their products is of utmost importance in the effort to reduce micronutrient deficiency among poor households. This section examines the extant production and consumption patterns of biofortified crops and their products in Nigeria.It was important to establish the proportion of farmers cultivating conventional varieties of sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize among the sampled population. Figure 10 indicates that 51.8% of the farmers cultivated sweetpotatoes, 78.9% cultivated cassava and 92% cultivated maize. Cassava and maize were consumed as staple foods across the length and breadth of Nigeria and this may explain the high numbers of farmers planting them. The study sought to find out whether farmers planted the biofortified varieties and for what purpose. While 42.2% of the farmers planted biofortified sweetpotatoes, only 33.3% and 15% of the farmers farmed biofortified cassava and maize, respectively. This is despite the fact that cassava and maize are the staple crops in the survey states (Figure 11). Overall, only 30.2% of the farmers were   Figure 12 shows that the dominantly cultivated biofortified crop varied by state. Yellow cassava was dominant in Benue, Osun and Akwa-Ibom states and was planted by 89.1%, 67% and 53.7% of the farmers, respectively. OFSP was popular in Kwara, Kaduna and Taraba and was cultivated by 70%, 61.9% and 55.7% of the farmers, respectively. There was no state among those in the survey where biofortified maize was the most cultivated among the three crops. This calls for more advocacy, sensitization campaigns and awareness creation among farmers across the states in Nigeria on the availability of biofortified maize. The staple food preferences in the states may account for the variations in the numbers of farmers planting the biofortified crops. Cassava is the common staple food in Akwa-Ibom, Enugu, Osun and Benue, while sweetpotato is a common staple food in Taraba, Kwara and Kaduna states. For the majority the farmers, cultivation of biofortified crops was mainly for local consumption, and only 30.3% of the respondents cultivated the crops for sale (Figure 13). The low proportion of famers cultivating the crops for commercial purposes has implications for the quantity of biofortified crops in the market and the volumes available for consumers to purchase. It is also an indication of the level of awareness on the existence of biofortified crops among farmers. The study found that most of the farmers had 1-2 ha for planting biofortified crops and only 6.9% of the farmers had allocated more than 5 ha to biofortified crops (Figure 14). The small size of land that farmers were willing to put aside for biofortified crops has implications for the quantity of the crops produced and the quantity made available to consumers for purchase.Although it is possible to plant three crop cycles of OFSP in a year, most farmers planted only one (Figure 15). The level of consumption of sweetpotato, cassava and maize and their products was of interest to the study. Figure 16 shows that almost all the respondents consumed all the three crops. The predominant types of sweetpotato, cassava and maize consumed by the respondents were the white types, which are not biofortified (Figure 17). Incidentally, fewer than 3% of the respondents indicated consuming biofortified sweetpotato, cassava or maize. The main reason the non-white sweetpotato, cassava and maize were consumed was their availability (Figure 18). For sweetpotato, however, slightly more households consumed it for its nutritional value than its availability. Consumption of biofortified crops and food products appeared to be influenced by the educational attainment of the consumers. For instance, 82% of OFSP consumers, 77.4% of the yellow cassava consumers and 87.5% of orange maize consumers had at least a minimum of secondary school level education. Consumer location also was an important factor in the consumption patterns for the biofortified crops, with OFSP and maize having more urban consumers, at 41.8% and 53.2%, respectively, than rural consumers, who were at 39.6% for OFSP and 33.6% for maize. Yellow cassava, however, had more rural than urban consumers, who were at 35.8% and 29.1%, respectively.Household consumption of biofortified crops as staples was influenced also by the taste and texture of the produce or by-products. The majority of OFSP consumers preferred to fry or consume it raw just as they would eat a carrot, because its taste was poor when boiled. In northern Nigeria maize is consumed mostly as 'tuwo', a local staple. Consumers of tuwo prefer white maize because of its superior texture compared to vitamin A maize. This is the reason many farmers who grow maize commercially prefer to grow the white type.Mostly, biofortified food crops were consumed only occasionally and depended on whether their consumers came across them while shopping (Table 4). The main factors considered in the purchase of the products included texture, appearance, taste and serving options. The findings demonstrate that there is a slow uptake of biofortified crops and products among farmers and consumers in Nigeria. The factors responsible for that in regard the three crops of sweetpotato, cassava and maize in the study states are summarized in Table 5 and discussed in the following paragraphs.The main factors affecting the scaling up of biofortified sweetpotatoes included poor access to vines, low awareness on the crop and pest infestation problems. In the case of cassava, the lower starch content of the biofortified cassava compared with the white types, oversupply of the crop and the absence of collaboration among agricultural stakeholders in the state were the main issues. With respect to biofortified maize, the texture was perceived by farmers and consumers as too hard.The main factors hindering the expansion of biofortified sweetpotatoes included pest infestation when the roots stayed too long in the ground after maturity, and the poor access to vines. In the case of biofortified cassava, the problems cited were the lack of collaboration between the state's agricultural associations and the agricultural development program, the unavailability of stems even when farmers were willing to pay for them, and the activities of Fulani herders that destroyed the first planting for many farmers. The main factor identified for maize was the low awareness on its existence among the farmers in the state.The scaling up of biofortified sweetpotato was hampered by its low demand, the absence of accessible markets in which to sell the roots, pest infestation if the roots stayed too long in the ground after maturity, cracking of the roots, and the high moisture content of the roots. Biofortified cassava's expansion was affected by its lower starch content compared with local types, its low awareness among consumers, its poor patronage even in the local markets, and spoilage. The main challenge for biofortified maize was the high preference of consumers for white maize over provitamin A maize.The main difficulties for biofortified sweetpotatoes included its poor awareness, the low demand expected by the growers, and pest infestation if the roots stayed too long in the ground after maturity. In the case of cassava, the constant destruction of the crop by cattle brought by herders to graze, its low awareness among consumers and poor patronage in the local markets were the main difficulties. Other factors included spoilage and poor access to affordable farm equipment for mechanized farming. The main challenge for maize was the farmers' inability to differentiate between biofortified and conventional maize.The slow uptake of biofortified sweetpotato was influenced by farmers' poor access to markets to sell the roots and pest infestation of the roots. In the case of cassava, the factors were several. First, large-scale buyers and processors wanted the cassava tubers to be freshly harvested, a condition that many of the farmers complained was not feasible, as they needed about two days to harvest and transport the crop. Also, the prices offered by the factories were too low to meet the production costs and profit expectations of farmers. These are major constraints to the commercial farmers, who are forced to sell their harvest to small-scale buyers and to reduce their production. There are also the problems of low starch and high moisture content of the yellow cassava. The uptake of yellow maize is hampered by the poor access to land and to subsidized agricultural inputs and materials.The factors responsible for the slow uptake of biofortified sweetpotato included problems of pest infestation, cracking of the tubers, and the poor taste of the OFSP relative to the conventional varieties. In the case of cassava, the issues included (1) low awareness among consumers on the crop and its products, (2) general perception that it was meant for only sick people, (3) marketing challenges, which had forced some farmers to lower their production, (4) low starch content, which is a major detriment since a high starch content is a key requirement for consumers, and (5) poor access to the stems. The main hindrances for biofortified maize included its low awareness among consumers, the lack of markets in which to sell it and pest infestation.The main challenges for biofortified sweetpotato included the incessant pest infestation and the low awareness among farmers and consumers on the crop. Biofortified cassava upscaling was hindered by its low awareness in the states and marketing problems. The main factors considered by the farmers to affect biofortified maize expansion included its low awareness among consumers, poor access to markets and pest infestation There has not been a conclusive definition of the term disadvantaged group because the definitions out there are based on the respective scholar's perspective. So terms such as poor group, vulnerable group and weak competition rival 31 are commonly used interchangeably for disadvantaged groups. But they have one point in common: the main feature of disadvantaged groups is that they comprise people in a disfavored position in the society who are poor in their material life owing to barriers they cannot overcome or to the lack of economic, political or social opportunities. In this report, the concept of disadvantaged groups refers to clusters of people or individuals in those circumstances. Such groups include the poor male and female farmers in rural communities in Nigeria with limited access to the basic necessities of life. In the situation analysis the respondents were asked to identify the barriers that prevented such individuals from accessing and benefitting from biofortification in Nigeria. Table 6 shows those barriers. Cultural and individual preferences around some crops and their products were important bottlenecks for disadvantaged groups in accessing and benefitting from biofortified crops according to 55.4% of the respondents (Table 6). Individual preferences related to product attributes included taste and ease of preparation and cooking. Literature supports this finding, specifically the fact that low income consumers in developing countries are willing to trade off substantial caloric intake for preferred foods. 32 Credit market inefficiency was another major bottleneck for disadvantaged groups in accessing and benefiting from biofortification, as indicated by over 83% of the respondents. Disadvantaged groups have poor access to credit facilities, occasioned by the imperfect rural financial markets. Their inability to provide the needed collateral prevents them from borrowing to invest in crops such as biofortified crops and from insuring crops against the risk associated with experimenting with new crop varieties. This finding agrees with Croppenstedt et al.'s (2003) 33 study, which found that credit constraints significantly interfere with fertilizer adoption. Some 77.3% of the respondents considered informational inefficiencies as a barrier for disadvantaged groups. Biofortified crops, which are particularly beneficial to disadvantaged groups, will not be taken up without information about their value or about how to correctly use them.Studies have shown that the way information is presented can be as important as the content of the information itself. Certain groups may face larger information barriers if information is less accessible to them, such as women in the north.For 71.9% of the respondents input and output market inefficiencies were a bottleneck for the disadvantaged groups in accessing and benefiting from biofortified crops (Table 6). The high prices of fertilizer and other inputs were primary barriers in this regard. Many disadvantaged farmers are poor and are unable to access or pay for the inputs required for biofortified crops. They often have to deal with inadequate infrastructure, missing supply chains or unprofitably high prices. Their poverty status also prevents them from accessing information, which is a sine qua non for the adoption of any technology.Other barriers identified included land market inefficiencies and risk market inefficiencies, as well as low educational qualifications of the disadvantaged groups, which limited their capacity to access new knowledge (Table 6).According to North (1990), 34 institutions are composed of formal rules created by human beings such as statute law, common law and regulations; informal constraints such as conventions, norms of behavior and self-imposed codes of conduct; and the enforcement characteristics of both.Institutions play important roles in the effective and efficient performance of any system. For biofortification to gain the required adoption and to scale up in Nigeria, it requires an enabling institution. A review of the institutions that work in food and nutrition in Nigeria was undertaken to identify those that support the promotion of biofortification. The content of policy documents, policy implementation guidelines and presentations by the Federal Government of Nigeria relevant to agriculture, nutrition and food was analyzed. The study found that there was no specific governmental institution with biofortification promotion as its sole mandate. Although some research institutions such NRCRI were involved in biofortification research, that was not their core responsibility. In 1990 the Federal Government of Nigeria created the National Committee on Food and Nutrition to coordinate and provide leadership in the drawing up and articulation of a comprehensive policy and actions that would considerably reduce malnutrition or eliminate it altogether in the country. That committee at first was domiciled in the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, but was moved to the Federal Ministry of Health in 1993. Now it is in the Ministry of Budget and National Planning. The National Committee on Food and Nutrition prepared the National Food and Nutrition Policy in 1995, which the federal government approved in 1998 and launched in November 2002. That policy set specific targets, which included the reduction of severe and moderate malnutrition among children under the age of five by 30% by 2010 and the reduction of micronutrient deficiencies, principally in vitamin A, iodine and iron, by 50% by 2010. The efforts to achieve these goals included the fortification of staple foods with vitamin A so that children would naturally consume vitamin A in their food. This resulted in vitamin A fortification of 70% of sugar, 100% of wheat flour and 55% of the vegetable oil on the market. The federal government also launched the Home-Grown School Feeding and Health Programme in September 2005 under the coordination of the Federal Ministry of Education. That program aimed to provide one nutritionally adequate meal during the school day. Nigeria has recently embarked on the management of severe acute malnutrition and currently has over 495 community sites across northern Nigeria for the management of acute malnutrition. 35 The Nutrition Division, which is located in the Ministry of Budgets and National Planning, currently serves as the convening government body responsible for scaling up nutrition. It is responsible for bringing together various government ministries and departments including the ministries of health, education, agriculture, women affairs, finance, information, science and technology, and water resources, and the planning commission. All relevant ministries also are engaged through the Nutrition Partners Forum, which meets at least four times annually with its partners, including national and international NGOs, United Nations agencies, donors, businesses and the media, to work on strategy development and take decisions relating to funding and nutrition emergencies. The absence of a specific institution whose key mandate is promoting and supporting biofortification activities is a major drawback in the effort to reduce micronutrient deficiencies in Nigeria.As evidence in favor of biofortification builds up stakeholders are increasingly interested in investing in it to reduce micronutrient deficiency. Investment in biofortification is rated as cost-effective. Hoddinott et al. (2013) 36 estimate that every dollar invested in programs to reduce stunting would generate between USD 24.40 and USD 26.60 in economic returns. According to the World Bank 37 investing in nutrition can increase a country's gross domestic product by at least 3% annually. A recent study by HarvestPlus 38 that used country-level data to rank countries according to their suitability for investment in biofortification interventions identified Nigeria as a top priority country for benefiting from biofortification. The projected total cost of scaling up biofortification of only yellow cassava in Nigeria was USD 25 million. This value is obtained from the ex-ante assessment of biofortification in Nigeria. 39 Funding for biofortification in Nigeria comes from internal and external sources. The internal sources are mainly the federal government and its agencies. However, biofortification funding is limited by the absence of a supportive institutional framework backed by law. There are nine types of actors in the biofortified crops' value chains in Nigeria: farmers, local collectors, national traders, wholesalers, retailers, agroprocessors, home consumers, national agricultural research institutes and the variety release committee. National level traders are the pivotal actors in the national market as they collect the produce from farmers or local collectors in the various states and transport it to the markets in the big cities using hired trailers. From there, wholesalers distribute the produce to retailers to be sold to agroprocessors. Farmers often sell their produce directly to agroprocessors or consumers to improve their profit margin, though they may also sell it to the local collectors or retailers for lower prices. Like the rest of Nigeria's agriculture, OFSP, yellow cassava and orange maize production is entirely dependent on smallholder farmers. But farmers are constrained by factors related to input availability and supply, financing, reliability of markets, marketing logistics, and technical and business knowledge. Without exception, the value chains of the biofortified crops are currently weak and suffer from inadequacies in human and financial resources, institutional structures and infrastructure. In addition to their almost negligible scale in farming, compared to other crops biofortified crops' value chains are plagued with limited production and marketing knowledge and capacity; underdeveloped infrastructure; poor access to finance; an absence of backward investment, especially in processing; and weak to nonexistent linkages between processors and farmers.Tables 7-9 present the constraints and proposed interventions in the value chains of the three targeted biofortified crops in Nigeria.     Many countries have seen rapid acceptance of biofortification by government entities, and national governments have proactively integrated it into their agriculture and nutrition policies. Panama and Colombia were among the first countries to include biofortification in their national food security plans. Biofortification has been included in national nutrition strategies in Rwanda, Ethiopia and Zambia. 43 While Nigeria has a complex and multisectoral policy landscape in the areas of food and nutrition, the integration of biofortification in the agriculture and nutrition policies has received little attention from the government. In this section we map out the government policies, strategies and plans that target the promotion of biofortification.The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development is the custodian of the agriculture policy launched in 2001. The policy promotes import substitution and private sector investment in agriculture. The key objectives of the policy are to achieve domestic self-sufficiency in the major food crops, improve the number of value-added products and increase Nigeria's agricultural exports. need to urgently reduce the high level of malnutrition in Nigeria. The strategy provides for the use of biofortification as a micronutrient deficiency control strategy and aims to promote biofortified staples such as rice and maize in addition to pro-vitamin A cassava and OFSP.The food and nutrition policy was published in 2014. It focuses on addressing the scourge of malnutrition in Nigeria. The policy provides the framework for addressing the problems of food and nutrition insecurity at the individual, household, community and national levels. It provides guidelines for the identification, design and implementation of interventions across the different relevant sectors. The primary focus of the policy is on direct interventions that focus on increasing production and improving processing of agricultural produce. The strategies proposed for addressing vitamin A deficiency include supplementation, fortification and dietary diversification. 44The national guidelines on micronutrients' deficiencies control in Nigeria were published by the Ministry of Health in 2013. These guidelines are one of the main policy documents in Nigeria that recognize biofortification as a viable long-term strategy for the prevention and control of vitamin A deficiency.The policy on science, technology and innovation launched by the Ministry of Science and Technology in 2012 has as its core mission the evolution of a new Nigeria that harnesses, develops and utilizes science, technology and innovation to build a large, strong, diversified, sustainable and competitive economy that guarantees a high standard of living and quality of life to its citizens. While there are no nutrition considerations in this policy, it has provisions for biotechnology research.The nutrition component of the 2006 school health policy of the Ministry of Education is the school feeding program, which aims to provide one adequate meal a day to all children enrolled in schools nationwide. The policy builds upon the government's current National Home-Grown School Feeding and Health Programme, which aims to contribute to the realization of the national and international development goals. So far, there are five policies in Nigeria that target malnutrition as an area of intervention but only two of them mention biofortification specifically as a strategy for addressing micronutrient deficiency. Several gaps can be identified with respect to policy support for biofortified foods:The focus of the agriculture policy remains on increasing yields for staple crops such as rice, cassava, maize, sorghum etc. and is silent on biofortified crops even though they are nutrient dense.Nutrition policies focus on direct interventions and largely neglect food-based nutrition approaches. An exception to this is the mandatory fortification of selected food items.The policies focusing on food supplementation are being implemented by the health sector, especially vitamin A distribution. Implementation of policies on mandatory food fortification has had varying levels of success. Overall, the current policy environment in Nigeria does not promote biofortification overtly. Apart from the agriculture policy and the national guidelines on micronutrients' deficiencies control in Nigeria, no other government policy document targets biofortification as a strategy for addressing micronutrient deficiency. The absence of an institutional framework with the sole mandate of promoting biofortification may account for this. However, some initiatives in the national guidelines on micronutrients' deficiencies control and the agriculture policy that are relevant to the BNFB mandate can be leveraged to facilitate the scaling up of biofortification.This report presents the findings of the situation analysis that was aimed at gathering analytical data and information that establishes the baseline status of the key thematic components of the project and key actors responsible for realizing the objectives of the BNFB Project in Nigeria. The following are the main findings from the empirical analyses with respect to the seven general objectives of the situation analysis, the conclusions and key areas of interventions necessary for scale up of biofortification, and recommendations.Objective 1: Use available data and other information to accurately identify the key actors in the scaling up of biofortified crops and the trends and patterns of consumption of biofortified crops and their products, disaggregated by relevant segments of the country and of the population.There were several key actors involved in the scaling up of biofortified crops in Nigeria. These included international partners such as HarvestPlus, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Catholic Relief Services, Helen Keller International, CIP, UNICEF and IITA as well as national partners and research institutes such as the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and NRCRI.The first variety of pro-vitamin A cassava was approved for release in Nigeria in late 2011 and about half a million Nigerian farm households were growing its varieties.The level of awareness on biofortification was high among farmers but low among consumers. Over 60% of the farmers surveyed were aware of the existence of biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize but over 61% of the consumers were not aware of the existence of these crops.  Among the states, farmers' awareness on biofortification was highest in Benue, at 83.8%, followed by Kaduna, at 79%, Akwa-Ibom, at 70%, Taraba, at 56.9% and Osun, at 56.7%. Among consumers, awareness of the existence of biofortified sweetpotatoes, cassava and maize was high only in Benue state, at 83%.The level of farmers' awareness on the biofortified crops was highest for OFSP, at 55.1%, and then cassava, at 39.9%. Only 5% of the respondents were aware of the existence of biofortified maize.The main source of information on the existence of biofortified crops was markets, which was the source for 48.2% of the farmers, friends for 24% of the farmers and ADPs for 14.8% of the farmers. The sources of information for consumers included friends for 39.3% of them, markets for 33.1% of them and ADPs for 12.7% of them.There was a general low level of awareness among consumers on the benefits of biofortification of crops. Only 25.6% of them accurately identified the benefits of biofortification, compared with 78% of the farmers. Some 42.2% of the farmers planted biofortified sweetpotatoes, 33.3% planted biofortified cassava and 15% planted biofortified maize. Overall, only 30.2% of the farmers planted biofortified crops.About 61.1% of the farmers planting biofortified crops cultivated them mainly for consumption, while only 30.3% of them cultivated them for sale.The predominant types of sweetpotatoes, cassava or maize consumed by the respondents were the white types, which are not biofortified. Fewer than 3% of the respondents consumed the non-white varieties of these crops.The consumption of biofortified crops and food products was influenced by the consumers' level of education and location, and the taste and texture of the products.Objective 2: Identify and analyze the barriers and bottlenecks that prevent disadvantaged groups from accessing and benefiting from biofortification, including the social, political and economic conditions that result in shortfalls in the creation of an enabling environment for the scaling up of biofortification.The main barriers disadvantaged groups faced in accessing and benefiting from biofortification included cultural and individual preferences relating to the product attributes; inefficiencies in the credit market, information access, and input and output markets; and their low education levels.Objective 4: Analyze the extent to which biofortification is prioritized in national policies, law, strategies, plans and budgets. There were five key policies in Nigeria that target malnutrition, but only two specifically mentioned biofortification as a strategy for addressing micronutrient deficiency.The following gaps were identified with respect to policy support for biofortified foods:-The focus of the agriculture policy remained on increasing yields of staple crops; -Nutrition policies focused on direct interventions and largely neglected food-based approaches; -The policy environment in Nigeria did not overtly promote biofortification.Objective 5: Analyze government's (and its agencies') policy and funding priorities as far as nutrition and biofortification are concerned.The sources of funding for biofortification in Nigeria were internal and external. The internal sources were mainly related to the federal government, while the main external sources were HarvestPlus and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.Another source of funding was the New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition.Objective 6: Analyze current institutional and structural bottlenecks to address in order to unlock the value chain for the biofortified crops in the country, including the varietal release policies/criteria and the biofortified varieties currently in the pipeline (for release).  There were nine types of actors in the biofortified crops value chain in Nigeria -farmers, local collectors, national traders, wholesalers, retailers, agroprocessors, home consumers, national agricultural research institutes and the variety release committee.The key constraints in the yellow cassava value chain included underutilization of cassava tubers for industrial purposes, weak linkages between the industrial users of cassava products and processors, poor market information, unavailability of inputs, poor finance, and the short shelf life of yellow cassava roots.The key constraints in the OFSP value chain included the low uptake of the crop in processing, low productivity of smallholder farmers, poor access to farm inputs, low awareness among consumers on the nutritional value of OFSP, poor linkages among farmers and processors of OFSP, short shelf life of OFSP roots, poor market outlay, and poor multisectoral coordination and collaboration among OFSP stakeholders in Nigeria.The key constraints in the maize value chain included insufficient knowledge on good agricultural and postharvest practices; limited knowledge on soil management practices, crop nutrient requirements and other agronomic essentials; aflatoxin contamination; storage pests such as mice, rats and other rodents, which were a source of notable damage to stored maize grain; low yield; and low rates of adoption of the improved technical package by farmers.The quantity of food returned after processing was lower for pro-vitamin A cassava than for conventional cassava, and pro-vitamin A cassava products were more expensive than conventional cassava products.The poor packaging method used by processors for preserving pro-vitamin A content was one of the major institutional bottlenecks.The unavailability of seeds is an important challenge that must be addressed.The inadequacy of the laboratory facilities, which are important for research geared towards improving the texture, taste and color of the biofortified crops, was a key institutional problem.This study gives a clear picture of the situation in Nigeria with respect to BNFB objectives and indicators, and also contributes to improving the understanding on the gaps and the actions vital for the scaling up of biofortification in Nigeria. These outcomes will be useful in designing strategic interventions for scaling up biofortified crops for nutrition security in Nigeria. The following recommendations emanate from the findings of the study:  CIP and HarvestPlus should target more advocacy programs at raising the awareness level on the existence of biofortified crops in Nigeria.  CIP should aim for the use of media channels such as television and radio for awareness creation and sensitization programs for stakeholders on the existence and importance of biofortified crops for their health.  -Farmers: on-farm demonstrations on agronomic practices that increase yield and on storage of biofortified crops; -OFSP processors: new processing approaches that improve the taste, texture and dry matter content of the roots and processed products; -Researchers: techniques to develop new biofortified crops with high yields, resistance to diseases and pests, short maturity period, good taste and high nutritive value. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"891e3800259ff8e0236bf71afeade268","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4606a334-b8d3-4dfb-833a-133a84de3ca8/retrieve","id":"-697924878"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ed9db047-694b-4a51-81e5-e0166fa3d16c","pagecount":"16","content":"Interventions that are robust, cost effective, and scalable are in critical demand throughout South Asia to offset growing water scarcity and avert increasingly frequent water-related disasters. This case study presents two complementary forms of intervention that transform water hazards (floodwater) into a resource (groundwater) to boost agricultural productivity and enhance livelihoods. The first intervention, holiya, is simple and operated by individual farmers at the plot/farm scale to control local flooding in semiarid climates. The second is the underground transfer of floods for irrigation (UTFI) and operates at the village scale to offset seasonal floods from upstream in humid climates. Rapid assessments indicate that holiyas have been established at more than 300 sites across two districts in North Gujarat since the 1990s, extending the crop growing season and improving water quality. UTFI knowledge and experience has grown rapidly since implementation of a pilot trial in western Uttar Pradesh in 2015 and is now embedded within government programs with commitments for modest scaling up. Both approaches can help farmers redress the multiple impacts associated with floods, droughts, and groundwater overexploitation at a range of scales from farm plot to the river basin. The potential for wider uptake across South Asia depends on setting up demonstration sites beyond India and overcoming gaps in technical knowledge and institutional capacity.The South Asia region covers only about 3 percent of the world's land surface area but supports approximately 24 percent of the world's population. Despite steady progress in agriculture and rural development, poverty and food insecurity are endemic across much of the region. South Asia is also one of the most water-stressed regions of the world. According to the AQUASTAT database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the average water endowment for 2013-17 is only 1,100 cubic meters per capita per year (cubic meters per person per year)-well below the corresponding statistic for Sub-Saharan Africa of 3,900 cubic meters per person per year. South Asia is also a region of immense contrast in water resources, with Bhutan most endowed at an impressive 101,000 cubic meters per person per year and the Maldives least endowed at only 80 cubic meters per person per year (for the same five-year period). Water resources management is challenged by the inherent variability in rainfall, which, together with the high level of water demand, brings recurring droughts that severely undermine progress toward Sustainable Development Goals for the region.The highly seasonal, monsoonal-driven rainfall patterns that characterize the region lead to regular flooding. The region has an extensive history of devastating floods driven by high seasonal rainfall or major storm events. Areas badly affected by seasonal flooding are the downstream reaches of the Ganges basin in eastern India and western Bangladesh and along the length of the Indus floodplain in Pakistan. During the dry season, the same areas face critical water shortages when poor monsoons result in drought.The average combined cost of floods in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal is estimated at US$1.53 billion per year, affecting 31 million people from 1971 to 2008 (World Bank 2010). The corresponding figures for drought are US$62 million per year and 26 million people impacted. The costs of groundwater overexploitation in the region do not appear to have been estimated, but the value of the groundwater economy for the agricultural sector alone in the three countries was estimated at US$10 billion per year about a decade ago (Shah 2007).There is already clear evidence of climate change in the region, and it is likely to become more pronounced in coming decades (IPCC 2014;Sharma et al. 2010). Perhaps most significantly, the intensity and duration of rainfall will continue to change, altering the hydrologic cycle, exacerbating extremes in water variability, and leading to more floods and droughts with associated impacts on farmers. In addition, accelerated melting of Himalayan snow and ice may create conditions for more-frequent, highermagnitude floods in the upper reaches of the receiving river basins (Sharma and de Condappa 2013). The consequences of climate change are extreme and complex across the region, and most of the rural population depends on agriculture, most of which is rainfed and heavily dependent on monsoons. Communities are affected differently by climate variability and climate change according to social structures associated with class, caste, ethnicity, and gender (Sugden et al. 2014).Farmers rely on groundwater from the highly productive alluvial aquifers of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and from the hard rock aquifers that underlie much of peninsular India as a drought adaptation measure. Year-round reliance on groundwater for agricultural production has led to significant overexploitation. India's 2013 national groundwater resource assessment revealed that a high proportion of administrative blocks are classified as overexploited, and the situation continues to deteriorate (GoI 2017). Similar trends are also emerging more widely across the region (Qureshi et al. 2010;Saha et al. 2016).South Asia, and India in particular, has rich experience in managed aquifer recharge (MAR) to harvest runoff waters and store the water underground, thanks to watershed development projects and programs by government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (Sakthivadivel 2007). States such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu are actively promoting MAR to replenish depleted aquifers. Such forms of MAR development have been targeted for drought-prone regions of the country with little or no attention given to the wetter, floodprone regions. As groundwater use has significantly expanded throughout the region in recent decades, signs of overexploitation have emerged even in flood-prone regions of the Ganges basin in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (Saha et al. 2016).New approaches to adapt and mitigate against climate change impacts on water supply, agriculture, food security, and livelihoods must be identified and put into practice. There is a pressing need to test and promote evidence-based approaches that are cost effective, socially inclusive, and scalable. There is great scope for innovation leading to integrated solutions that contribute positively toward improved flood, drought, and groundwater management and potentially have far-reaching cobenefits for communities in both rural and urban areas. To be successful, these approaches must be pragmatic, affordable, and developed together with, and owned by, vulnerable farming communities to enhance their adaptive capacity. This case study examines the opportunities and constraints of two such approaches by:• Introducing and giving a brief conceptual analysis of each approach; • Detailing the state of knowledge for each, focusing mainly on performance-and impact-related aspects; and • Outlining the challenges, gaps, and ways forward for wide-scale implementation.The two approaches presented in this case study were developed independently in different states in India (Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh) and have been brought together here for the first time.There are two simple yet innovative approaches that address problems associated with a surplus of water at a time or place and a scarcity of water at another time or place. The first, known as the holiya, is a small-scale intervention at the individual farm level to address problems related to extreme seasonal water variability.The second approach, UTFI, is an off-farm intervention to address the same types of water management issues at a community or river basin level. An overview of the characteristics of the two approaches is shown in figure 1 and table 1 and described below.Although MAR approaches have been applied around the globe over the past six decades (Dillon et al.2018), holiyas and UTFI are novel and have yet to be mainstreamed into development plans, strategies, and MAR guidelines (CGWB 2000). Mainstreaming is unlikely without policy research that demonstrates a solid proof of concept and a viable business case. Holiyas, also referred to as bhungroo, emerged in North Gujarat in the mid-1990s at the grassroots level through spontaneous farmer-to-farmer transmission (Bunsen and Rathod 2016;Garg 2016). NGO-driven efforts since the mid-2000s have boosted implementation to more than 100 systems constructed by NGOs and nearly 200 by farmers. It is likely that water scarcity is one reason behind their emergence because the Patan and Banaskantha districts where holiyas can be found are among the most groundwater-depleted in Gujarat (Shah 2014). The shallow aquifers in the Patan district are alluvial deposits composed of coarse sand, gravel, pebbles, and fine and clayey sand of moderate to high productivity (CGWB 2014). Naturally occurring saline deposits and hydrogeological complexity in the area leads to high variability where saline groundwater is encountered.A holiya system is typically composed of little more than a perforated pipe with the top end housed in a square-shaped concrete collection pit with side lengths of 1 meter or less (figure 1). The pipe diameter is about 100 millimeters (4 inches), and the depth of penetration is usually 8 to 10 meters, though some may be as deep as 25 meters. Ideally, the holiya is positioned within the lowest point in a farm field where it can be most effective in draining monsoonal rains that accumulate from the topsoil's low-infiltration capacity. The holiya acts to reduce or avoid water inundation that damages field crops. Perforations in the lower part of the pipe enable surface water to recharge shallow groundwater by gravity alone and be held within the pore spaces of the alluvial layers. The rate of movement (drift) of infiltrated water within the aquifer is believed to be low, so the recharged water adds to local groundwater storage and can be recovered during the winter or summer months to irrigate crops or for livestock. Little technical knowledge is required for holiya construction. The total depth and slotted intervals of the pipe as well as the method of pipe completion at the surface are among the few critical elements of good design. Costs related to operation and maintenance (O&M) are incurred in pumping out water, desilting the pit, unclogging the pipe, and repairing and replacing the pump.UTFI recharges depleted aquifers with wet-season high flows, adding to local groundwater storage and mitigating flooding in downstream areas (figure 1). The stored recharge water may later be recovered via existing local wells for domestic supplies and irrigation.UTFI can enhance the ecosystem with flood control, groundwater recharge, and dry-season water availability.The socioeconomic and environmental benefits of UTFI are most apparent in large-scale projects that involve upstream-downstream linkages. Clustering individual UTFI interventions within a local community enables scaling up to the small watershed or catchment scale (from tens to thousands of square kilometers).The idea behind UTFI emerged in the early 2010s from MAR trials and desktop analysis in the Chao Phraya basin, Thailand (Pavelic et al. 2012). UTFI implementation has so far focused on the Ganges River basin and has had some similarities to the Ganges water machine concept, which was developed in the 1970s and revisited in the 2010s (Amarasinghe, Mutuwatte, et al. 2015;Revelle and Lakshminarayana 1975).Knowledge of holiyas is based exclusively on two rapid assessment studies carried out in North Gujarat by students under the International Water Management Institute (IWMI)-TATA program in 2015-16 (table 2). The studies were similar in seeking to empirically deduce the holiya functioning as well as socioeconomic and environmental impacts. Bunsen and Rathod (2016) surveyed 41 farmers across multiple villages with detailed work in one village (Ekalva). Focusing solely on this village, Garg (2016) conducted almost 50 interviews with farmers, including owners and non-owners of holiyas, laborers involved with holiya construction, and NGO representatives.The evidence base for UTFI is drawn from research for development project that began in 2015. Studies have focused on pilot testing and evaluation using multidisciplinary approaches at the village scale supplemented by modeling studies at the basin scale (table 2). The scope of activities includes site suitability assessments, pilot testing and demonstration, hydroeconomic modeling, institutions and policy analysis, community mobilization, and capacity building. For this assessment, the findings from those activities are separated into two sets. One relates to villagelevel pilot testing and evaluation, and the other includes analyses at the basin scale to assess opportunities for scaling up. Various project documents have been utilized for this analysis (Brindha and Pavelic 2016;Chinnasamy et al. 2017;CSSRI 2017;Gangopadhyay, Sharma, and Pavelic 2017;Pavelic, Brindha, et al. 2015;Reddy, Pavelic, and Hanjra 2017).Holiyas were evaluated for their technical performance, as well as for their beneficial impacts from an economic, environmental and social perspective. The majority of the holiyas examined functioned effectively. Some did not work well because of poor setting of the pipe depth, inappropriate siting, overextraction leading to high groundwater salinity, low-quality construction materials, pipe clogging from high suspended sediment content, and inadequate attention to structure maintenance.The hydrogeological conditions at a selected location are critical to the performance and long-term functioning of holiyas. For example, holiyas that intercept highly saline deposits face constraints in recovering adequate quantities of fresh water because even low levels of mixing between recharged and native water is a major issue. The specific ways in which hydrogeologic variables influence the capacity to infiltrate and recover water remain unclear.Most holiya owners claim to benefit from extended water access during the growing season and improved drought resilience. In some cases, greater water availability enabled crop diversification. Estimates given by interviewees suggest that agricultural production rose by about 20 to 25 percent, boosting income and improving farmers' drought resilience.Although the capital cost of the structures is reasonable, particularly when farmers organize construction with local contractors, some farmers claim that the cost is a major disincentive. In the Ekalva village, the recent introduction of canal water at a cheaper cost than holiya water could have disincentivized farmers' use of holiyas. However, holiyas remained relevant because canal water is not available yearround or throughout the village.Most farmers interviewed believe the introduction of holiyas to be a success, but this belief is understood only in general terms. No specific type of holiya (either self-constructed or NGO-constructed) was thought to be better than another. Holiya water used for domestic purposes is also perceived to provide health benefits (such as reduced joint pain, stomach pain, and indigestion), presumably when compared to highersalinity tubewell water.Most owners claim to benefit from flood mitigation improvements as well as reduced soil erosion. Other positive externalities emerge where holiya owners drain away problematic flows from neighboring fields. However, during extreme rainfall events, there are limits on the effectiveness of holiyas in averting inundation. Well-off tubewell owners used to sell water to poorer farmers, but this practice has declined since holiyas have been built, easing pressure on groundwater resources and averting the need to deepen tubewells every few years.Farmers in the area have a good understanding of the groundwater system and the role of holiyas in augmenting groundwater resources. Owners of holiyas gain direct benefits from their endeavors and thus tend to learn from their experience and that of other farmers on ways to improvise and improve the design. Simplicity is critical to successful farmer adoption. For example, establishing a pair of holiyas near each other means growers can use a single pump and save on capital costs. Farmers rejected NGO attempts to improve the design by adding a gravel layer to the collection pit to filter water prior to recharge because it added cost and effort with limited perceived benefit. One NGO reportedly assigns ownership to women farmers, but it is not clear whether this achieves the goals of women's empowerment and stronger social outcomes (for example, by greater investments in farm improvements and education).Implementation of UTFI in the field has focused on pilot demonstration and testing on the Gangetic Plain in western Uttar Pradesh in India. The pilot trial site at the Jiwai Jadid village was selected after regional mapping, desktop studies, and field surveys to examine the biophysical conditions and local communities' need for UTFI as outlined in Pavelic, Brindha, et al. (2015).The Jiwai Jadid village in the Rampur district relies almost entirely on agriculture. About 90 percent of the area is under cultivation supported by good alluvial soils and full irrigation coverage from tubewells and canals. A diverse mix of castes resides in the village, and government data show 17 percent of households have below-poverty-line ration cards. Paddy and wheat are the major crops grown. Small and marginal farmers account for 77 percent of the village. More than 90 percent of households in the village own private tubewells for domestic and irrigation supplies. Although small and moderate floods occurred in the decade prior to implementing the trial, overabstraction of groundwater is the village's most critical water resource issue. Further detail of the biophysical and socioeconomic context for the village and wider area are available in the baseline studies (IWMI 2017;LNRMI 2017;TERI 2017).The UTFI pilot rehabilitated a single abandoned village pond with 10 recharge wells (figure 1) sunk into the base to depths of 25 to 30 meters. The wells encountered fine to medium sand layers, with occasional clay lenses, that form the upper unconfined aquifer, which is the source of much of the groundwater pumping in the area. Water is siphoned into the pond from an adjacent canal that receives river flows in the monsoon period. Water, filtered through the wells, recharges the aquifer. In the dry season, the stored flood water is recovered via existing domestic and irrigation wells. An upper blanket of 6 to 7 meters of heavy clay soil meant that well-recharge methods had to be applied. It also accounts for the negligible levels of seepage observed beneath the base of the canal. High population density and intensive year-round cultivation make land availability a constraint. However, ponds owned by the community are often abandoned because farmers have switched from ponds and canals to private groundwater wells as the dominant source of irrigation water.The UTFI system operates in recharge mode during the monsoon months when water in the adjacent Pilankar minor canal is high, signifying an excess of surface water flows as the canal diverts water from the nearby Pilankar River. In the first full season of operation in 2016, total recharge was 40,000 cubic meters over 85 days of operation. A wetter year in 2017 resulted in 60,000 cubic meters of water recharged. With modest refinements in operational management, the attainable volume would be about 70,000 cubic meters per year. Recharge water is silt-laden, with total suspended sediment values in the pond water measured at 300 to 400 milligrams per liter. Intraseasonal declines in recharge rates are observed as a result of siltation from turbid water. Desilting of the pond floor and gravel filter is performed annually, and the recharge wells have been desilted on one occasion using an airlift pump.A series of piezometers around the structure measure groundwater-level changes in the vicinity of the pond.Water-level buildup attributable to UTFI appears to be small because of the physical properties of the aquifer (high aquifer diffusivity) and further masked by the more dominant influence of natural recharge.Detailed water quality monitoring indicates that nutrients, arsenic, and pesticide levels in the recharge water and the receiving groundwater have been detected, but their levels are not a concern relative to the Indian drinking water standard (BIS 2012). However, following recharge, fecal coliforms and some heavy metals, such as arsenic and mercury, are detected at higher levels than both the Indian standard and the World Health Organization drinking water standard in recharged groundwater and all monitored groundwater, including far from the pilot site where impacts from recharge operations are not expected. This strongly suggests that microbial and some heavy metal contamination existed in the Jiwai Jadid village pond prior to the pilot and is unrelated to the intervention, though geochemical reactions stimulated by the recharge activities may have contributed to the mobilization of these contaminants. The microbial pollution of groundwater is not surprising because the village has poor wastewater management and microbial contaminant inputs that appear to exceed the natural capacity of the aquifer for attenuation.Integrated hydrological modeling has been used at the Ramganga basin scale (19,000 square kilometers) to examine the biophysical implications of scaling up and to explore alternative options (Chinnasamy et al. 2017). The model considered a distributed arrangement of UTFI interventions across the basin, capturing between 10 and 50 percent of the cumulative outflow that would otherwise discharge out of the basin under baseline conditions. The results show that, with 50 percent capture, groundwater level declines could be slowed and then reversed with a 7-meter rise in levels across the basin within the 11-year simulation period considered (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010). The increase in groundwater levels over that same period brings cobenefits in terms of an increase in base flow contribution to the Ramganga River. The reduction in net basin outflow would reduce peak discharge, lowering the magnitude (that is, the return period and inundated area) of current floods. For example, a 20 percent reduction in peak flows at the outlet of the basin converted a 15-year flood peak to eight years, a five-year peak to three years, and a two-year peak to just more than one year. The modeling affirms that, in theory, with appropriate basinwide UTFI implementation, flood impacts can be mitigated and both groundwater storage and river base flow enhanced.Based on the trial results (CSSRI 2017), an estimated 17,000 village ponds would need to be converted to reduce outflow by 20 percent of the mean annual July to September flow of about 6,000 million cubic meters (based on the design recharge volume indicated below). In Rampur district alone, where mapping has taken place, there are 1,800 ponds, indicating a high potential for scaling up within the basin. The high degree of extrapolation from the one trial pond to basin scale suggests a high degree of uncertainty in the scaling-up parameters, so these parameters provide only a tentative indication of the scaling potential.Estimates of the UTFI-attributed agricultural output are based on a design recharge volume of 70,000 cubic meters, of which 75 percent is used for agriculture and the remaining 25 percent added to environmental flows. The quantity is enough to irrigate either 8 hectares of summer rice or 11 hectares of maize (table 3). Net economic returns range from US$66 per hectare for dry season rice to US$158 per hectare for maize. IWMI is presently undertaking a more comprehensive assessment of the socioeconomic and environmental impacts at the household and village scales.Community participation in the pilot has been formally registered under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), a long-standing national flagship program focused on natural resource management and livelihood improvement administered by India's Ministry of Rural Development. This provides a formal mechanism for ongoing resourcing to support annual maintenance of the infrastructure. In the two years of implementation to date, MGNREGA provided the mechanism to involve the community to desilt the basin but was unable to handle the redevelopment of the wells, which required capital costs for specialist equipment (an air compressor). Future efforts will seek to further mobilize the community and instead use cheaper, locally available pumps for maintenance.Although the economic incentive offered by MGNREGA is sufficient to mobilize the community to address the hardware components of UTFI, it is not sufficient to address other components that are needed to ensure effective and sustainable functioning over the long term. One of the key challenges is that the village is institutionally weak. There are no self-help, water user, or farm groups or NGOs. The local government (or Panchayati Raj) is the only functioning institution in this village and many surrounding villages.The institutional arrangements for UTFI are under development. Responsibility for the management of the UTFI intervention at the Jiwai Jadid village is being handed over to the district authorities, with links to the Panchayati Raj and the local community. The project team is working to increase the capacity of district officials and the local community to operate and manage the system effectively over the longer term.The local community perceives the benefits of UTFI to be increased availability of water, especially during the monsoon and winter months. Farmers said they spent less time irrigating fields, and householders spent less time and effort collecting water from hand pumps. The community also values the cleanliness in the pilot area, which previously was used for village waste disposal. However, some farmers say the system adds little value because natural recharge already takes place in the wet season, whereas water shortfalls are greatest during summer months. In their view, using canal water for recharge in summer would be most beneficial. This view is contentious because it would create direct competition and risk avoidable conflict with surface water irrigators. Some farmers also perceive floods as having a beneficial effect on soil fertility, reaffirming the view that trading off UTFI with other potential benefits must be given appropriate attention and analysis before larger-scale implementation.UTFI is in theory a gender-neutral approach that benefits men and women equally. However, examination of gender across socioeconomic groups in the village reveals a complex situation. In this village, and throughout the region, women are less visible than men within the public sphere because of deeply entrenched social and cultural barriers. Women do not participate in Panchayat meetings, nor are they engaged in managing community assets. Their social capital and networks are highly constrained compared to men.The direct role for women in UTFI is also limited and reflects their degree of inclusion in village agriculture. Water quality changesNo net impact Where caste-related rules allow, women largely act as laborers.Women believe that UTFI is a domain for men, so few would be willing to maintain the infrastructure, even if financial incentives were offered. Women from upper caste communities are unwilling to undertake O&M or be part of the water committee. Men, on the other hand, are largely willing to undertake O&M and contribute to minor maintenance, but they are not ready to organize themselves to take complete responsibility or ownership for UTFI. They prefer that the Panchayat own the project and MGNREGA be responsible for maintenance. The village's modest economic status means it has little ability to directly contribute to infrastructure, and external financial and technical support is needed.Table 4 summarizes the comparative impacts of sustainability indicators, and an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) in table 5 highlights the advantages and disadvantages associated with the two approaches. Holiyas may be the intervention of choice where local benefits are sought and where a low level of residual risk is preferred. UTFI, on the other hand, addresses larger issues and may achieve more widespread benefits at a commensurately higher level of risk. This risk is largely a reflection of the challenges associated with participatory management of common pool resources. Local farmers know they receive only indirect benefits from UTFI because enhanced recharge for these projects is intended to increase groundwater availability for several farmers in the immediate area. This presents a challenge for effective community participation and highlights the reliance of the community on higher-level institutional linkages to provide capacity, knowledge, and financial resources.The SWOT analysis illustrates that the spatiotemporal and climatic domains of suitability of the two approaches are different (figure 2). Holiyas can capture only small volumes of water and may be better suited to drier climates than UTFI. Holiyas may harvest both storm-related or seasonal floods, whereas UTFI is better suited to larger-scale and longer-lasting floods than those that are rapid or localized.The two techniques, themselves being at different scales, have slightly different potential profiles for scaling-up.There is little documented evidence to suggest that holiyas have been successfully implemented in areas beyond North Gujarat. It is unclear why MAR has boomed in the Saurashtra and Kutch districts to the south and east but not in the Banaskantha and Patna districts, all of which are equally groundwater stressed. NGO-led promotion of the holiya has reportedly led to uptake in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha (Naireeta Services 2018). Similar efforts are believed to be underway in Bangladesh, Madagascar, and Togo, though publications on this topic are not available. Some documentation from a research project in Ghana's northern region is available (Owusu et al. 2017), but field findings have yet to emerge.There have been modest successes in plans for scaling up UTFI, concentrated in areas closest to the pilot site. UTFI has been adopted as a key intervention within the district irrigation plan (DIP) for Rampur, prepared under the national flagship program, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (Prime Minister's Irrigation Program [PMKSY]). Fifty sites are proposed under the DIP with a capital investment of US$1.2 million (₹7.5) over five to seven years. The geographic focus is on the subdistricts categorized as having critically overexploited groundwater.A similar process is anticipated to emerge in the Etah district, 150 kilometers south of Rampur. Opportunities to scale up have been facilitated through close engagement and support provided by district officials and by having a project team member sit on the committee of the district nodal agency of PMKSY. Over the longer term, successful scaling up of UTFI depends on its convergence with government policies and development programs taken forward by state and local governments, NGOs, and the private sector. Some potential entry points to include UTFI in Indian policies and programs include the following:• Sustainable groundwater management is a thematic priority area of the government linked to various national programs including the National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme, Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water, and others.   Note: SWOT = strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats; UTFI = underground transfer of floods for irrigation.The relatively brief duration since the two interventions were initiated, particularly in the case of UTFI, has contributed to the limited level of take-up. At such an early stage, it is worthwhile to explore the geographic areas where there is potential scope for implementation within India and the wider region. Both forms of intervention have prerequisite conditions that must be met before proceeding with implementation. Many of these conditions are common to both (table 6).The potential for UTFI has been assessed throughout South Asia as part of a global-scale assessment, which is likely applicable to holiyas as well by default. Alam and Pavelic (forthcoming) provide specific details of that assessment. In brief terms, a spatial analysis was undertaken at a 0.5-degree grid-scale resolution with results aggregated to the country level. The analysis relied on publicly available data sets of the key indicator parameters for three areas related to floods, droughts, and aquifer characteristics. Ranks and weights were applied to each parameter followed by overlay analysis.The results suggest widespread prospects for UTFI throughout South Asia. A total area of 169 million hectares of crop land is assessed to have moderate to high potential for UTFI across the seven countries considered (table 7). These potentially suitable areas are home to about 80 percent of the region's population (1.4 billion people). The country with the highest potential in terms of land area is India, followed by Pakistan and then Bangladesh.For potential investors and proponents, maps and data of this kind help form the basis for screening and first-level decision making about the feasibility of these interventions and help prioritize steps needed to move forward. A high degree of heterogeneity and local contextual considerations means that within any given region, more-detailed assessments would be needed to narrow the best-suited areas and develop plans for implementation (Pavelic, Brindha, et al. 2015).More detailed exploration of holiyas is warranted based on the rapid assessments' generally positive findings, revealing more than 300 sites established in two districts in North Gujarat.Gaps in knowledge and capacity remain as follows:• Recharge capacity of holiya structures under different hydrogeological conditions • Potential water quality-related health risks for farm households using holiya water for domestic purposes (such as microbial quality or mobilization of arsenic) • Long-term performance and viability of maintaining holiya structures • Economic viability and life cycle costs across different settings • Gender-and equity-related benefits • Local capacity to undertake scientifically based implementation Knowledge in these areas, combined with reconnaissance studies over wider areas, would shed light on the constraints to wider uptake of holiyas in Gujarat and potentially other regions.An interesting parallel to the holiya approach has emerged in the more humid conditions of eastern India, which floods  regularly, and where groundwater dependence is low and water tables are shallow. The shallow water tables preclude consideration of holiyas and UTFI. Instead, the vertical drain has been tested experimentally in the Vaishali district in Bihar (Prathapar et al. 2018). Results show that the drain bypassed a 6-meter layer of clay and better connected the floodwater to the aquifer, draining 26 cubic meters per day on average when groundwater levels started to recede. The vertical drain shortened the duration of seasonal waterlogging in time for the winter wheat crop. It would be useful to examine the scaling-up potential for this approach as well.The state of knowledge and experience on UTFI in the Ganges basin is at an intermediate level, though under a limited set of biophysical and social conditions. As the research progresses, the evidence base for UTFI will be further strengthened. Future research, building upon the existing work described in this case study, should focus on the following gaps and challenges:• Enhancing village participation and ownership through local institutions to ensure effective functioning and performance over the long term • Establishing how climate change will affect water availability and demand and how this would affect the performance of UTFI and parameters for scaling up • Developing practical, comprehensive guidelines, and operating procedures for successful rollout of UTFI programs on the Gangetic Plain • Creating a larger number of demonstration sites to test other hydrogeological, agroecological, and socioeconomic conditions in India and potentially other countries in South AsiaThe findings presented here suggest that holiyas and UTFI offer affordable, practical, and effective ways for individual and groups of farmers to respond to floods, droughts, and groundwater overexploitation. The two techniques offer a range of scales (farm to basin) and contribute to a compelling narrative regarding the transformation of a water hazard (floodwater) into a resource (groundwater). They present an opportunity for South Asian farmers to boost agricultural productivity and diversity, thereby improving livelihoods and drought resilience. Further, the two approaches offer highly desirable, nature-based solutions that are environmentally benign and do not require large infrastructure or transportation of water across great distances.In principle, there is a clear scope to implement these interventions more widely across much of South Asia, but the geographic scope of both approaches has so far been limited to India. ","tokenCount":"5664"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"21782919d30eee3c1825e8362a2df57f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fd189de9-f9a7-4bbd-a948-3650ca20374c/retrieve","id":"1261727171"},"keywords":["Africa","Sub-Saharan. 2. Food-Africa","Sub-Saharan.-Safety measures. 3. Wildlife as food-Africa","Sub-Saharan. 4. Informal sector"],"sieverID":"dfb1beeb-9779-45a9-ad8d-0924cb01a540","pagecount":"284","content":"Animal products are vital components of the diets and livelihoods of people across sub-Saharan Africa. They are frequently traded in local, informal markets and this can pose significant health risks. This book presents an accessible overview of these issues in the context of food safety, zoonoses and public health, while at the same time maintaining fair and equitable livelihoods for poorer people across the continent.The book includes a review of the key issues and twenty-five case studies of the meat, milk, egg and fish food sectors drawn from a wide range of countries in East, West and southern Africa, as part of the 'Safe Food, Fair Food' project. It gives a realistic analysis of food safety risk by developing a methodology of 'participatory food safety risk assessment', involving small-scale producers and consumers in the process of data collection in the data-poor environment often found in developing countries. This approach aims to ensure market access for poor producers, while adopting a realistic and pragmatic strategy for reducing the risk of food-borne diseases for consumers.The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and communities.CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU.For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int Buy one bundle of onions and get a plastic bag for free 6 Peri-urban Accra with humans and animals crowding in the middle of plastic bags 7 A typical slaughterhouse in Nairobi, Kenya 8 A local improved slaughterhouse in Nairobi, Kenya. This type of slaughterhouse was found to be the most contaminated 9 An export abattoir in Nairobi, Kenya. This type was found to be the least contaminated 10 Damp smoked fish in Côte d'Ivoire is normally sold wrapped in newspaper of unknown origin, which could be a source of contamination 11 A milk collector uses the alcohol test to check the freshness of raw milk 12 Using a lactometer to test milk for adulteration in Kenya's informal marketFood-borne diseases have enormous impacts on the health of people around the globe and are of great and increasing concern to consumers, producers and policymakers. In most developing countries, gastro-intestinal disease remains in the top five causes of sickness and death and unsafe food is an important contributor to this avoidable burden.The most risky foods are livestock and fish products and fresh fruits and vegetables contaminated with animal or human waste. Yet these are also the foods of highest potential in providing the proteins and micro-nutrients which poor consumers desperately need. They are also high-value foods, well suited to production by small farmers, hence important sources of income for smallholder farmers.A central premise of this book is that food systems should deliver not only safe food, but also enough food and food that supports the livelihoods of poor farmers and nutrition of poor consumers: safe food should be fair food.This book brings together twenty-five case studies on food safety in East, West and southern Africa. As such, it provides a broad snapshot of issues around a wide selection of livestock and fish value chains. It also synthesises the evidence from the case studies to answer some questions about the relation between food safety and gender, poverty, participation and culture. This is important, as much food safety thinking in Africa is translated from elsewhere and not grounded in contemporary reality.The case studies and syntheses challenge conventional thinking around food safety in Africa: they show how informal wet markets continue to be the major sources of perishable foods and probably will into the near future; they suggest that hazards are not always important if risks can be managed and that traditional food preparation can be surprisingly effective at reducing risk; they find that food sold by the formal sector often has no better compliance with food standards than food sold in the informal sector; they show how important culture is as a determinant of food safety, and why information may not be enough to change food safety behaviour; they argue that food safety problems are usually manageable, most often best solved through stakeholder engagement and incentives, rather than regulation and enforcement.The book introduces an important concept for managing food safety: 'Participatory Risk Analysis'. Over the last decade, risk analysis has been accepted as the gold standard for assuring food safety. It has been adopted by the international community and underpins trade in foods and livestock. However, risk analysis has not had much success in tackling food safety problems in the informal sectors where most of the poor sell and buy their food. Conventional risk analysis is often expensive and time consuming, requires considerable amounts of data and quantitative analysis, and is often led by technocrats. By taking the core concepts of risk analysis, and combining them with development methods such as participatory appraisal and gender analysis, an approach has emerged that can be successfully applied to food safety problems in developing countries. The concept and practice of participatory risk analysis fits well with current ecohealth and one health thinking, which employs multi-disciplinary and multi-stakeholder approaches to solve complex health problems.We are in an era of unprecedented change in Africa, with growth in population, rapid urbanization and changing technical, business and social change. Safe Food, Fair Food provides us with a unique picture of contemporary food safety in diverse systems in Africa. Its lessons on applying risk analysis and engaging stakeholders also provide a very useful participatory approach for understanding and managing food safety in a more dynamic future. Given the rapid socio-economic changes that will occur in Africa in the coming years, such approaches will be critical in challenging conventional thinking and developing and evaluating a variety of needed innovations.John In sub-Saharan Africa, the great majority of livestock and fish products are sold in informal or wet markets, that is, markets which escape effective health and safety regulation, are often untaxed and unlicensed, and where traditional processing, products and prices predominate. Informal markets usually sell food at lower prices than formal markets and are closer and more accessible to consumers. They have other desired attributes including food freshness, food taste, selling livestock products from local breeds, vendors who are trusted and the availability of credit or other services.Markets for livestock products are growing rapidly because of increases in population, urbanisation and shifting dietary tastes. These rapidly growing markets offer an opportunity for smallholder farmers who produce most of the livestock consumed in domestic markets and for all those involved in bringing food to informal markets and selling it. However, smallholder farmers and informal market sellers face rising standards for safety and quality. Our studies show that most consumers say they care about food safety and, what is more, they show it by stopping purchasing products in the wake of food scares about these products.Food sold in informal markets often contains pathogens or substances that have the potential to cause harm (hazards). However, the presence of hazards does not necessarily mean these food products are harmful to human health. For example, studies in Kenya found milk was often contaminated with biological hazards (bacteria); but, because nearly everyone boiled milk before consumption, the risk to human health was low.Our research shows the need to move from conventional, hazard-based approaches that assess the presence of hazards in food to newer, risk-based approaches that assess the likelihood of harm to human health. However, because of their cost and complexity, risk-based approaches have not been widely applied in the informal markets of developing countries. An important part of our research has been to adapt risk-based approaches for developing countries and build capacity in their applications.The key messages from our studies include: Informal markets have a major role in food security and food safety.• The informal sector accounts for 39% of national gross domestic product (GDP). • More than 80% of food is sold in informal markets.• Informal markets are accessible and affordable to everyone.• Informal markets involve many actors other than producers and consumers.• Informal markets are unregulated and non-transparent, thus prone to activities that might compromise food safety.Informal markets are not necessarily dangerous, nor formal markets safe.• Informally marketed food is often safe for human consumption.• Improper post-processing handling is one of the biggest challenges and largely depends on the prerequisites. • Business-oriented attitudes are one of the major risks to food safety in informal markets. • Some risks in both markets are underestimated as they do not cause immediate harm.Hazards are common in informal markets but do not always translate into risks.• Hazards are defined as agents likely to cause harm or damage to humans, other organisms or the environment in the absence of their control. • Risk is the likelihood of that anticipated harm to occur, including the consequences for public health, ecology and the economy. • The identification of hazards in animal-source foods does not estimate the impacts of the hazards in terms of human sickness and death, thus existing food safety regulation is often ineffective and anti-poor. • Risk-based approaches brought new insights and are now standard for food safety issues in developed countries. • Safe Food, Fair Food studies identified at least ten different hazards in food with different levels of risk to public health and local economies.Greater stakeholder participation improves food safety in informal markets.• Participation allows generating data for risk analysis at affordable costs for resource-limited countries. • It proved to be particularly useful in exposure assessment to assess the real risk to public health. • It supported risk communication during risk assessment.xxii Executive summary• It was a feasible method to study social determinants of risk in traditional communities. • There were some constraints in terms of time and lack of finances for implementation and follow ups and in balancing objectives of all stakeholders. • The concept was understood differently by different stakeholders.Farmers, traders and retailers are the de facto risk managers in informal markets.• Contamination of food may occur at any stage in the food value chain.• Risk pathway analysis identifies points where hazards occur from farm to fork and where risk is increased, reduced or eliminated along the way. • Points where management is feasible can be identified and priorities can be set. • Everybody handling the product, and financially benefiting from it, must take responsibility. • Intervention is often simple but frequently lacks basic prerequisites.Understanding values and culture is crucial for managing food safety in informal markets.• Indigenous knowledge often contributes towards food safety. • Eating food is not only for nourishment but also associated with cultural values. • There are different cultural beliefs about risks associated with food.• It can be difficult to change traditional practices that represent high risks.• Some groups are more exposed to risk than others.• Traditional risk mitigation strategies need further investigation.• Cultural background must be considered in risk management and communication.Efforts to improve food safety in informal markets should also be pro-poor.• The poor are more prone to food-borne disease but cannot afford to fall ill.• Risk-mitigating measures need training, skills development and prerequisites.• Linking informal markets to formal markets could decrease local and domestic poverty. • Impact assessment is needed in terms of economic losses and gains on risks that occur.Understanding and managing food safety in informal markets requires a gender perspective.• Men or women dominate or are excluded from different segments of the food value chain, and this varies by culture and geography.• As a result, women and men get different benefits from informal food markets and are exposed to different risks. • In addition to socio-cultural roles affecting health, men, women, the old, the young and other groups may have different vulnerabilities to different diseases. • Informal food production, processing and marketing are of high importance to women's livelihoods and offer new opportunities. • As agri-food chains change and evolve, the opportunities and risks also change.xxiv Executive summaryDelia Grace, Kristina Roesel, Kohei Makita, Bassirou Bonfoh, Erastus Kang'ethe, Lusato Kurwijila, Saskia Hendrickx, Cheryl McCrindle, Kwaku Tano-Debrah, Girma Zewde and Helena MatusseIn poor countries, livestock and fish feed billions. In East Africa, for example, livestock provide poor people with one-tenth of their energy and one-quarter of their protein needs. Fish account for more than half of the animal protein intake for the 400 million poorest people in Africa and South Asia. Meat, milk, eggs and fish are important sources of the micro-nutrients and high-quality proteins essential for growth and health. Studies in Egypt, Kenya and Mexico have shown strong associations between eating animal-source food and child growth and cognitive function, as well as better pregnancy outcomes for women and reduced illness for all. Production and marketing of livestock and fish earns money for farmers, traders and sellers, many of them women. For example, in East Africa, almost half of rural incomes rely to some extent on livestock and fish. India has the largest dairy sector in the world, employing more than 100 million rural farmers. On the other hand, excessive amounts of animal-source food have been linked to heart disease. Animal-source foods are also important sources of biological and chemical hazards that cause sickness and death.Most of the meat, milk, eggs and fish produced in developing countries are sold in traditional, domestic markets, lacking modern infrastructure and escaping effective food safety regulation and inspection. By 'informal markets' we mean:Many of the research activities featured in this book were funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) through the Safe Food, Fair Food project. The first phase of the project ended in 2011 and its main mechanisms were building capacity in risk analysis through postgraduate training linked to proof-of-concept studies, winning over key decision-makers through participation in project activities, raising awareness of stakeholders through workshops and generation and dissemination of research results on food safety in informal markets. Actively linking research with capacity building, proactively engaging with policymakers and use of participatory methods at community level provide mechanisms by which tools and results generated by the research will be used to promote better food safety management in informal markets in sub-Saharan Africa.The project supported twenty-five graduate and postgraduate students from twelve different countries to conduct proof-of-concept studies on food safety. Among the students who have graduated, more than half are working in government food safety departments, holding positions as associated researchers or teaching at universities. Eight training courses were given, with more than seventy participants from academia and public institutions responsible for food safety.Situational analyses of food safety in eight countries developed an up-to-date and user-friendly summary of the food safety situation in each country. National workshops were held in all countries, under the auspices of the risk assessment champions supported by the project. At these workshops, the concept of risk assessment for safer food and enhanced smallholder market access was shared with a variety of stakeholders. Preliminary results from the project and their implications for food safety were discussed. For a full list of publications, please see Annex 2: List of publications from the Safe Food, Fair Food project.In January 2012, CGIAR launched a new research programme on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health. The programme has four components, one of which focuses on food safety in informal markets. Many of the approaches and methods pioneered in the Safe Food, Fair Food project have been incorporated in the major sub-component on food safety.Our studies have shown that informal markets are the most important source of meat, milk and eggs for poor people in Africa and Asia and will continue to be so for at least the next decade. Informal markets often sell food at lower prices, but they have other desired attributes including food freshness, food taste, selling livestock products from local breeds, vendors who are trusted and the availability of credit or other services (Chapter 2).Our studies show that most consumers (48-97%) in informal markets say they care about food safety. They also show it in purchasing behaviour: for example, 20-40% of consumers switch to alternative meats in the wake of animal disease epidemics. Willingness-to-pay studies indicate that consumers will pay a 5-15% premium for safety-assured products and demand for food safety increases with economic development, rising income, urbanization, increased media coverage and education level (Chapter 2).The situational analyses found that decision-makers, too, are increasingly concerned about food safety. The analysis identified key problems at different parts of the farm-to-fork value chain. The analysis also prioritized brucellosis, tuberculosis, salmonellosis and toxigenic E. coli infection as the most important food-borne diseases from the perspective of decision-makers and national experts.Hazards are all things that can cause harm. Bacteria, viruses, parasites, chemicals and fungal toxins in food all have potential to cause harm: they are hazards. Risk, on the other hand, is the likelihood of that harm to occur, including its consequences for public health and the economy. Our studies from many markets in eight countries show that food sold in the informal sector often contains hazards. Moreover, as value chains become longer and more complex, transport larger, more diversely sourced volumes of food and place larger distances between producers and consumers, so hazards tend to increase. Consumer and market value chain studies confirm the bulk of literature that suggests, in some contexts, a high level of disease in developing countries is associated with food. An assessment in Nigeria found a high risk from beef-borne pathogens and suggested beef-borne disease was costing Nigeria nearly US$1 billion per year.However, a series of studies in informal milk and meat markets showed that although hazards are always common in informal markets, risk to human health is not inevitably high. Stochastic models based on data from a number of sites in East Africa showed that milk had many hazards but less risk (mainly because of consumer practices such as boiling which are effective at reducing hazards). In other studies, however, there is a clear link between consumption of foods containing hazards and increased illness. The message is that risk to human health cannot be assumed for informal markets: evidence is required (Chapter 4).Assessment is needed to understand the source of risk. For example, studies beyond the Safe Food, Fair Food project have shown that dairy cattle are the reservoir of cryptosporidiosis, a serious disease in people with HIV and infants. In Nairobi, risk was associated with vegetable consumption and not milk. Similarly in Vietnam, although pork in wet markets had high microbial loads, increased diarrhoea was associated with consumption of vegetables, not meat. Risk assessment allows actions to be targeted to evidence and not misleading perception, that is, directing scarce resources towards control or inspection of the actors, processes or steps in the value chain where most risk is created.Studies by the Safe Food, Fair Food project in East and southern Africa came to the surprising conclusion that food sold in formal markets, though commonly perceived to be safer, may have lower compliance with standards than informally marketed food. This emphasizes that food safety policy should be based on evidence and not perception, and failure to do this may be prejudicial to the poor who dominate and rely upon informal value chains (Chapter 3).Situational analyses showed that only a few of the public health problems were regularly tested and that most food in the traditional or informal sector was not inspected. Where some inspection occurred, it did not follow a farm-to-fork pathway approach, that is, inspection happened only at some points and in a sporadic fashion. In some countries, personnel have been trained in food safety and risk assessment procedures but training is more often oriented to developed country situations and not adapted to local needs or contexts. There is a lack of systematic, risk-based surveillance and inspection because of either lack of infrastructure and laboratory facilities or lack of skilled manpower. Another reason may be lack of a comprehensive approach and understanding of how to address these issues under conditions of poor consumer awareness and demand for remedies of such problems.The existence of a huge food sector that largely escapes regulation, the high level of hazards in food and the massive burden of gastrointestinal illness all suggest that current food safety policy is not working. In our situational analyses of food safety in eight countries, we found that stakeholders often blame insufficient legislation or lack of strict implementation for poor food safety. In recent years there have been several attempts to improve food safety but this 'command and control' method is less likely to work. Paradoxically, legislation can increase the level of risk. A study in Kampala, Uganda showed the importance of poor dairy farmers as risk managers and the paradoxical effects of conventional policy. Thirty practices were described which were used spontaneously by farmers that reduced risk. Moreover, farmers who had experienced harassment by authorities or who believed urban farming to be illegal used significantly fewer risk-managing practices.A study in West Africa found that the Fulani believed milk was in its nature pure and could not be a source of disease. They boiled the milk they sold to customers but not the milk they drank themselves ( Chapter 7).A study in Ethiopia showed the significant role of traditional fermentation in preventing staphylococcal poisoning (reducing the risk by 90%). In West Africa, anthropology studies contributed to understanding of the perception of risks related to milk. For example, if adulterated milk earns more money, women still consider the adulterated milk 'good'. On the other hand, cattle owners consider that if milk is heated, it is 'bad' and has no nutritional value. These findings have led to risk management recommendations.The lack of data is a challenge to understanding risks from animal-source foods. We found that the application of participatory methods in data collection allowed the rapid and inexpensive collection of data to fill gaps in information required for conducting risk assessment. Eight stochastic risk assessments have been conducted partly based on participatory data, showing this method is applicable to developing country food safety problems (Chapter 5).Several studies incorporated value chain mapping. This confirmed that the great majority of animal-source foods flow through informal value chains. Furthermore, several studies found value chains are lengthening in order to supply emerging urban and peri-urban markets, resulting in increased risk (Chapter 6).Food is a gendered commodity and informal food production, processing and marketing are of high importance to women's livelihoods. Our research used gender-sensitive approaches in conducting research (Chapter 9). Of the twentyfive studies supported, eleven focused on products which are mainly managed by women (poultry, smoked fish, milk in West Africa and processed meat), seven focused on issues mainly managed by men (beef and game) and the remainder on products for which men and women were equally concerned.We believe that food safety is a fixable problem. Our studies on milk in East Africa have shown that simple interventions can lead to substantial improvements in food safety. These interventions involved training, simple technologies (such as the use of wide-necked vessels for milk which are easier to clean), social approval, tests for food safety which can be applied by traders and consumers (for example, lactometers to check for added water) and certification of trained vendors (Chapter 4). Economic assessment of the Smallholder Dairy Project in Kenya showed that recognizing the informal sector and training and certification of informal milk traders led to benefits worth US$28 million per annum, thus showing the high potential impacts of better ways to manage food safety. This study and others focusing on the livelihood and gender benefits of smallholder value chains show the importance of multi-sectoral approaches to food safety that consider the incentives for change in a given value chain and the aggregate benefits available to the whole sector by way of rewards being paid for quality and spill-overs in terms of improved market function ( Chapter 7).Our work over the last decade confirms our hypothesis that food safety is an important and growing constraint to smallholder value chains because of its multiple burdens on human health, livestock production and product marketing. The new CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health is an opportunity to bring new resources to tackle this problem. Some of the strategies that guide this programme will be:Prioritization and systems understanding Comparative risk assessment: We need to continue developing rapid, appropriate methodologies that can identify the food safety and zoonoses constraints to value chains and systems and the benefits of addressing these.Risk and socio-economic assessment Integrated measurement of multiple health and economic benefits and burdens is needed to raise awareness of the relative importance of problems and improve resource allocation. Social and economic determinants affect behaviour of both consumers and value chain actors and so are important drivers of food safety. Assessment of incentives at the individual, group and whole chain levels can lead to better risk communication and management.Risk management Risk factor assessment can give insights (often contradicting conventional wisdom) into food safety management and increase the effectiveness and equity of packages of interventions. A substantial part of the risk associated with informally marketed food can be reduced by relatively cheap and simple interventions which are compatible with the incentives faced by specific individuals or coalitions within value chains. Current regulations and inspections based on the presence of hazards rather than health risks to consumers are ineffective at assuring food safety and prejudicial to smallholder farmers and informal value chains. Risk-based approaches can lead to more effective and equitable food safety management.Cross-cutting approaches Integrated, multi-disciplinary or trans-disciplinary approaches to food safety can give added insights, increase ownership, improve effectiveness and generate efficiencies.The introductory part highlights the context of our research on food safety in Africa, the lessons learned about food safety in informal markets and opportunities for future research in this area. In Part 1, the key research messages are presented. Part 2 presents further details of twenty-five proof-of-concept studies. Our intention was to present key findings in a format that would appeal to both specialist and non-specialist readers.Food safety is often considered a very theoretical topic, but it is indeed an issue of regular concern in sub-Saharan Africa. Safer food can generate both health and wealth for the poor, but attaining safe food production in developing countries requires a radical change in food safety assessment, management and communication.Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa Background 1   In developing countries, incomes are low, governments weak and enforcement of regulation poor. As a result, the informal sector is large, accounting for 39% of GDP. Previously undervalued, the informal sector is now recognized as an important provider of employment and engine of economic growth. During the 1970s and 1980s, the informal sector was widely defined as unregulated economic enterprises or activities. Recent definitions have expanded to include small businesses, employment without worker benefits or social protection (both inside and outside informal enterprise), own account workers, unpaid family workers (in informal and formal enterprises) and members of informal producers' cooperatives. In the food sector, informality has the additional meaning of escaping any systematic sanitary inspection and tax payment. In Africa, agriculture, petty trading of agricultural products and selling of food have always been largely informal activities.By these definitions, most food in Africa is produced, processed and sold in the informal sector. For example, in Kenya, Uganda and Mali, raw milk produced by smallholders and sold by vendors or small-scale retailers accounts for an estimated 80%, 90% and 98% of marketed milk in each country, respectively. This is an important source of income not only for small-scale producers (for example, 600,000 farm households in Kenya) but also for intermediaries along the milk value chain such as transporters, hawkers and processors (365,000 intermediaries in Kenya). Our studies confirmed the importance of the informal sector: in Côte d'Ivoire, for example, 90% of milk is produced by smallholders and 80% passes through the informal sector. In South Africa, an estimated 70% of goats are consumed after home slaughter, which is legal. The meat is consumed at village level and seldom reaches the roadside vendors but goat meat provides an important cultural function as well as improving food security in rural areas.Condemned as black market in developed countries, the informal sector is vital for the livelihoods of a large number of people in sub-Saharan Africa. However, most are not self-employed outside the formal economy or not on anyone's payroll because it is their wish or choice. Rather, their chances to be hired by an employer from the formal sector are very small and their work agreements are often of short duration with no legal right to be hired again.Because regulations prohibiting the informal sector are rarely enforced, the sector is accessible to anyone trading anything. Entry is easy; in countries with high poverty rates, people lack sufficient funds for medical care or the formal education and qualifications which entitle them to work in the formal industry. The informal market allows them to make the best out of their limited assets. Producers and vendors do not need to open bank accounts to process cheques or wait for cheques to mature but get paid immediately; the market is 'ready'. At the end of the market day, the revenues (in cash or kind) go back to their families and communities.Our studies on milk production in East Africa showed the importance of informal markets. Most milk is produced by smallholders who usually sell the surplus of an animal-source product such as milk after feeding their families first. Much of the excess is sold to neighbours and some to intermediaries or markets. This surplus, however, is subject to large fluctuation mainly related to seasonal factors such as rainfall patterns and, hence, feed availability. This excludes the farmers from supplying formal markets with consistently large and uniform quantities. In the informal market, there are no standards for sizes or units. Likewise, in South Africa, small-scale and subsistence farmers sell or barter their products (mainly milk, eggs, chickens and live goats or cattle for home slaughter) within the village or settlement. The formal markets, which are closely aligned to transport hubs, do not sell these products. Only in South Africa was there a marked crossover from the formal market with commercial farmers, wholesale (fresh vegetable or fruit markets or abattoirs) or retail (supermarket) outlets supplying informal traders. In other countries studied, the formal sector was much smaller and was not an important supplier for the informal sector.In rural areas, where road infrastructure is poor, most large villages have set market days, allowing people to sell their products provided they meet the local market regulations. In addition to the business, market days serve as a social platform; the latest news is exchanged on current commodity prices, politics or gossip. Therefore, informal markets are vital for social life in areas with little media coverage. The fact that everyone is acquainted with everyone facilitates both vendors and consumers to purchase goods on credit and pay back the debts at individually agreed terms. In our study in Mali, we found that 'trust in the seller' was one of the most important criteria for judging the quality of food.The informal food market never seems to sleep (Figure 1). During the cold season in Nairobi, on the way to work in the morning, one stops at a roadside stall for a steaming cup of tea masala. Although they sometimes resemble proper meals, 'snacks' such as samosa, corn cobs or nyama choma (roast meat) are always available. In Abidjan, it is popular to eat garba or to meet with colleagues at a maquis during lunch break (Box 1). Once back home from work, it is more convenient to go next door to buy vegetables from Mama mboga than to drive into town to the supermarket.Taking food safety to informal markets 13 FIGURE 1 Meat and vegetables being sold at night in Kampala, Uganda.Every consumer is a penny pincher; it does not matter whether rich or poor. Informal markets provide every client with a wide range of products at a cheap price compared to shopping malls or supermarkets. Even labelled goods are sold at a snip and there is always room for bargaining. Moreover, informal markets offer traditional foods with no formal alternative: fermented milk in many African countries, smoked fish or local chicken. The latter are referred to as 'hard' chicken in southern and eastern Africa and poulet bicyclette in West Africa where they are equally popular. These chickens are much preferred over 'soft' chicken sold at formal fast food chains. James Oguttu explains why: 'The soft chicken simply does not fill you up!' However, 'hard' chicken is only available at informal markets (Figure 2). Similarly, traditionally smoked fish is so popular in Abidjan that it employs over 70,000 people and is even exported to the diaspora in Europe.Informal markets can also supply cultural products which formal markets cannot, for example goats for ritual slaughtering in South Africa and fetishes used for traditional medicine or local customs, especially in West Africa. Many informal markets also sell medicines, both modern and traditional, of course without a licence. While these markets are convenient for some, they are vital to the poor. There is not enough to be spent on transport, hence enhanced access to markets leads to increased food security. Self-sufficiency is impossible in the overcrowded peri-urban sprawl in South Africa, but the informal vendor at the corner can provide food. There may be no electricity for cooking or refrigeration and no backyard livestock, but a bowl of cooked porridge and chicken giblets in tomato sauce fills the void at an affordable price. One plate in South Africa costs between US$1 and US$2 and can feed up to four people.In East Africa, the breaking down of commercially available quantities into smaller, affordable units is called the kadogo economy, which allows access to food to even the poorest (Figures 3 and 4). According to Cameline Mwai, in Kibera, the largest slum in Nairobi, milk is even sold by drops and sugar by spoon for tea in the morning.14 Food safety in sub-Saharan AfricaA typical Ivorian maquis is a reasonably priced open-air restaurant under a thatched roof and usually open for lunch and dinner. The standard specials are local sauces (eggplant, peanut or okra) containing chunks of meat or fish accompanied by rice, bread or attiéké (grated cassava), as well as kedjenu, the national dish made of slowly simmered chicken or fish with peppers and tomatoes. Garba (fried tuna served with attiéké, onions and tomatoes) is usually eaten at a little hotel or restaurant locally referred to as garbadrome.FIGURE 2 Anything can be found at the informal market. Vendors selling chickens at Quelimane Market in Mozambique (note the painkillers at the back and the clothes to the right).  The Kenyans call it the 'kadogo economy'. And it is probably one of Africa's most revolutionary contributions to the world, because it solved the problem of how to turn 'poor' people into consumers of modern goods. The 'kadogo economy' is when traders break down the old minimum measure of, for example, a quarter a kilogramme of sugar, and sell it by the spoon. In this way, cooking oil that is KSh5,000 (US$2), and therefore unaffordable for a street cleaner in a small town, can now be bought for KSh50 (US$0.02) per table spoon -and that is affordable for the one tiny meal he has decided to fry in a month. That is why we must never ban coins. Coins are the currency in the 'kadogo economy'. But nowhere has 'kadogo' economics been as truly revolutionary as in the mobile telephone industry. In Uganda, there was a time when the cheapest airtime you could buy was for KSh5,000. At that price, we had a good number of mobile phone subscribers, but the explosion -and the mega profits -came when airtime units became available in KSh1,000 units, then KSh500, and downward. Subscribers quickly shot to over 10 million and never looked back. As always happens, the 'kadogo economy' dynamics that allowed hundreds of millions to get connected, have now become deadly. The 'kadogo' dynamics are putting lethal gin in the hands of children as young as three, yes three, and some alarmed voices are saying it could all but kill off a whole generation of children. . . . Because of the size, cost, and convenient and portable packaging, they [sachets of gin] are easy for children to get. In eastern Uganda last week I learnt that both old and young people carry them in pockets, and sell to children along as they return from school and, even, along village paths! . . . Along with the sachet enguli, good sources told me that drug peddlers have also got into the 'kadogo economy', and distributing the tiniest 'affordable' portions of drugs up-country where police are too few to catch them.Particularly among the Safe Food, Fair Food project participants from West Africa, sentiments became apparent when discussing the question of how important informal markets are to formal businesses. If products have expired or do not meet export standards, such as sizes for fish or bananas, they are usually 'dumped' at informal markets to minimize losses. In South Africa, unsold fruit and vegetables from the fresh produce market, which should legally be trashed, are sold illegally to informal traders.Developed countries in Europe benefit from informal markets in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in West Africa, by exporting milk powder processed from surplus milk. The milk powder is reconstituted at informal markets by adding water, taking advantage of the poor distribution policies in developing countries. However, while these goods compete with the milk products produced by local farmers, they provide cheap food mainly for urban consumers.In Kenya, trimmed off-cuts from export slaughterhouses and blood turned into 'cake' are sold at informal markets as animal feed especially for pigs. Offal, too, is particularly popular among the Luo people, one of the biggest ethnic groups in Kenya, as Cameline Mwai reports: 'When they leave Nairobi to go home for the Christmas holidays, the offal market in the capital city collapses'.In South Africa, commercial farmers are not supposed to sell their products informally. Cattle, sheep and pigs are slaughtered at licensed abattoirs; eggs and milk are sold through wholesale companies or directly to supermarkets. However, informal vendors are often supplied directly by commercial farmers as it is legal for them to have retail markets for small volumes of produce. Offal from slaughtered animals and chickens is sold at the abattoirs directly to consumers, who may be informal vendors or intermediaries who sell it on. Cooked offal is a traditional delicacy in South Africa and is fortunately very affordable (Chapter 28). Heads and feet of chickens are another traditional delicacy that are now being sold to informal vendors by poultry wholesalers and supermarkets. Assuming that inspection is comprehensive, this is a crossover from the formal to the informal market and has the advantage of promoting both food safety (it is slaughtered and inspected at licensed abattoirs and the cold chain is maintained) and food security (it is affordable and accessible to low-income or poor consumers). This delicacy, previously a waste product of poultry slaughter, is also now being exported to neighbouring countries in southern Africa. Vendors of street food, who are often criminalized, are thus among the legal customers of commercial farmers. Many of them purchase all their animal-source ingredients, such as broilers, eggs, milk or packaged meat cuts, in a supermarket before preparing it for their clients in the street (Chapter 26).There is a perception that informal food sales compromise the health of consumers and that there is a danger of a crossover to formal markets. As the preceding paragraph describes, the opposite has in fact been found: poverty, joblessness, lack of infrastructure and expensive transport have resulted in a huge market for affordable and accessible food. Thus, the major supplier has gradually become the formal market as the volumes and price cannot be matched by informal producers. Also, the consumer is very choosy and will go for the best product at the available price, and thus competition in the market is improving the quality and safety of food sold in informal markets. The cell phone revolution and television have possibly had a major impact on how consumers think about food, as even the poorest recognize a need for cleanliness (Chapter 26).Discrepancies in supply and demand were often reported, and they were often brought on by the season. In Mali, there is a shortage of meat and milk from March to June when the herders take their animals on transhumance to the south. In Ethiopia, supply exceeds demand during the seven periods of fasting among Orthodox Christians who comprise about half of Ethiopia's population. During these fasting periods, the milk prices collapse.Informal markets are the primary source of income for many people in sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, competition is very high, often resulting in illegal activity. Many of the Safe Food, Fair Food studies observed the adulteration of milk (Chapter 12,13 and 18) to increase the volume of milk that generates profits. In South Africa, vendors of ready-to-eat chicken are threatened by the constantly smouldering conflict at the taxi ranks (Chapter 26) and require the protection of the municipality authorities. In Kenya, inspectors of the city council collect taxes (approximately US$ 0.35) from each vendor on a market day in order to spend it on waste disposal. During their tour, they confiscate meat which is visibly very dirty. None of the vendors can afford to throw their produce away and this renders the inspectors prone to corruption.Fewer regulatory constraints mean better access to markets and increased income. On the other hand, no regulations at all might result in compromised quality of food products. Apart from diseases that cannot be detected if there is no inspection, actors are often untrained and, as presented in many of the Safe Food, Fair Food studies in this book, are unaware of good hygiene practices when handling food. However, many of those who are aware lack the right prerequisites, such as clean tap water, constant power supply and waste disposal, which were frequently mentioned in all of the study areas. The lack of storage and cooling facilities often result in high losses or practices that jeopardize food safety. Meat is sold at discount prices even though it was not refrigerated for several days, or milk is left in the sun for most of the day. Others favour day-to-day slaughter on demand to compensate for conservation problems such as lack of electricity for refrigeration. At the same time, this is a useful management practice reducing the risk of food-borne disease. Many traders have found ways and means to manage risk by using traditional methods or common sense (Chapter 6) because they lack the right support for a safe working environment. Our studies found that many of the people supplying and working in informal markets are quite knowledgeable about good practices and how to supply safe and quality products. These attitudes are entry points for further improving practices.In sub-Saharan Africa, everyone is part of the informal market: small-scale and commercial farmers, small-scale butchers and big abattoirs, street vendors and supermarkets, cooperatives and intermediaries, rich and poor consumers, municipalities and government departments. The list can be increased by many more: traders of fertilizer and fodder for primary production, public transport and its fuel suppliers and mechanics in order to carry goods to the market, intermediaries facilitating access to markets, municipalities providing electricity and water, and the plastics industry. This connection might seem absurd until one realizes how much plastic is involved in all kinds of markets (Figure 5). If milk, vegetable oil or potable water is sold in small quantities for consumer convenience, it is packed in small plastic bags. If you buy eggs at the market, they are carefully packed in a plastic bag. Whereas clean water seems to be lacking in street markets, plastic bags are abundant and most of the time they do not cost a thing. However, plastic bags are one of the major pollutants as well as a hazard for animals (Figure 6). 20 Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa Mauritania has banned the use of plastic bags to protect the environment and the lives of land and sea animals. More than 70% of cattle and sheep that die in the capital, Nouakchott, are killed by eating plastic bags, environment ministry official Mohamed Yahya told BBC Afrique. Plastic bag manufacturers could be jailed for up to a year. Plastic makes up a quarter of 56,000 tonnes of waste produced annually in Nouakchott, official statistics show. Mauritania's Organization of Consumer Protection head Moctar Ould Tauf said he welcomed the ban, Efe news agency reports. It was of 'particular importance' given the negative impact of plastic bags on the environment, animals and marine species, he said. Environment Minister Amedi Camara said that nearly all of the plastic package waste is not 'collected and is found in the natural environment -land and sea -where they are sometimes ingested by marine species and livestock, causing their death'. The government, local non-governmental organizations and the UN Programme for Development (UNDP) have been promoting the use of new biodegradable bags, the Mauritanian Information Agency reports. Anyone using, manufacturing or importing plastic bags could be fined or sentenced to a year in prison, Mr Camara said. Several African countries, including Rwanda, have already banned the use of plastic bags.For Western travellers, local markets are a way of getting a glimpse of the African way of life. Often, tourists gaze at the incredible choice of anything that is sold here, from buckets to bikes, clothes to calabashes, fish to fetish, groundnuts to goats, spices to souvenirs, pottery to pungent foods. Many are tempted to try it but eventually hesitate as food in the street is denounced as a source of diarrhoea, the ultimate holiday killer.While travellers can afford to switch to alternative food sources from supermarkets or hotels, most of the local people cannot. Many do not even live anywhere near a supermarket and exchange goods with neighbours or at the farmers' market. Do these financial or distance constraints exclude them from safe food?In September 2011, I visited Addis Ababa in Ethiopia to attend the final workshop of the Safe Food, Fair Food project and that was my first time ever visiting Africa. Before travelling to Addis Ababa, I stayed a few days in Nairobi, Kenya to learn about ILRI.Visitors from developed countries to developing countries know that foods in developing countries are very risky and they are also taught something about it. For example, 'Do not drink tap water!' I followed suit and prepared many things before my first visit to Africa: wet wipes to disinfect hands, a painkiller, an insecticide for the prevention of malaria and a digestive. I got vaccinated against yellow fever, rabies, tetanus, typhoid fever and hepatitis A.Staying in Africa, I did not drink tap water and used bottled water to brush my teeth. I was careful to wash my hands before having a meal and I used wet wipes to disinfect my hands after washing them. At the beginning, I did not eat raw foods for a few days. But friends who accompanied me ate them and did not fall sick. These dishes and African fruit looked very delicious, so I decided to try them. And, of course, they were indeed very delicious.In Addis Ababa, I went to a local restaurant. The restaurant sold nyama choma (roasted meat) which I had studied in Japan (Chapter 24) by analysing beef from Arusha in Tanzania. I enjoyed eating nyama choma because my study suggested that it brought no risk of falling sick from campylobacteriosis (although it contained risks of other diseases). The restaurant also sold raw meat which is a traditional Ethiopian dish. I refused to eat it, but Professor Zewde from Ethiopia enjoyed it. Of course, the Ethiopian professor was fine the next day.Fortunately, I enjoyed Africa without any illnesses, as did six of my friends who accompanied me in Kenya. Ironically, of all people, Professor Makita, who is used to staying in Africa, suffered from a bad stomachache. I could not imagine feeling comfortable in African countries before this trip. However, African foods were so very delicious that I did not eat any foods which I brought from Japan. The best discovery of my trip was that I love rice very much!Research from the Safe Food, Fair Food project shows that most of the food marketed informally may not be as dangerous as perceived by many people. In South Africa, the products investigated were generally found to be safe for human consumption; chicken sold at taxi ranks (Chapter 26) and other ready-to-eat meat in the streets mostly originated from formal retailers (Chapter 27) and offal from game farms even stands formal meat inspection prior to sale in the informal sector (Chapter 28). In Ghana, experiments and observation found that fish sauces were not a risk for listeriosis due to the good cooking practices. Likewise in Abidjan, even though shellfish contained both parasites and cholera germs, the risk of infection to people was very low.In Kenya it was shown that beef from a typical local slaughterhouse is just as safe as meat from the local improved slaughterhouse which sells to the domestic supermarket (Figures 7, 8 and 9). In fact, even fewer microbes were found in the informally slaughtered meat. Referring to official threshold levels, they can both be considered safe for human consumption (Chapter 21). Although in Mozambique (Chapter 25), chicken from a local market showed slightly higher levels of microbes, they were still compliant with national standards, and hence safe for human consumption.An export abattoir in Nairobi, Kenya. This type was found to be the least contaminated.  Our studies meticulously investigated whether microbes were found along the food chain. Products were sampled at the farm, intermediaries and retailers and from the products' environment (Chapter 16 and 32). If microbes were found in the raw product, they were either completely eliminated or their levels reduced to such low numbers that they would not cause disease, as shown in studies on shellfish from Ghana (Chapter 32) and Côte d'Ivoire (Chapter 34).However, that does not apply to every product of animal origin, and milk is a particularly delicate case. Nutritious to humans and microbes alike, it proved to be the perfect hotbed of disease. In West Africa, milk is often consumed raw, a practice that dramatically increases the risk for milk-borne diseases such as tuberculosis, listeriosis or brucellosis (Chapters 16 and 19). In East Africa, where milk is commonly boiled or pasteurized, consumers think themselves safe, which could be a fallacy if it is done too long after milking. Some studies showed a high risk of milk containing bacteria that produce toxins causing fever and diarrhoea. While the bacteria are killed during heating, their toxins survive (Chapters 12 and 13). 1  Milk is often fermented in Africa. This is an excellent preservative technique but it can also decrease risk if adequately done and post-processing contamination is avoided. In Ethiopia, it decreased the risk of Staphylococcus aureus 15-fold but in Ghana it did not reduce the Listeria risk. Another study done in northern Ghana showed that 48-hour fermentation eliminated all microbial pathogens; however, this milk was too sour for the consumers. 2A common concern in our studies was that most of the food that was initially safe ended up being contaminated after processing (Figure 10). If food is thoroughly heated and consumed right away, most microbiological hazards can be eliminated. That applies to most of the germs that were in the product all along (for example, bacteria in milk and tapeworm cysts in raw meat) and to contaminants that were introduced to meat, milk and fish because food handlers did not wash their hands. In Tanzania, the ingredients for roast beef and vegetable relish are normally kept on the ground which is obviously dirty. The setting is more complicated in Dar es Salaam where ready-to-eat meat is prepared outside in a hotter and dustier environment than Arusha, where the climate is cool and food prepared inside. Cooling facilities are lacking all over, with the result that in Ethiopia, for example, cheese and raw milk are sold in the open for the entire day and the seller of kitfo (traditional raw minced meat), who normally eats the leftovers at night, falls ill.Sometimes the problem is not knowledge, but the financial incentives to sell products. Safe Food, Fair Food participants recalled a butcher who stored meat he did not sell during slaughtering day in a refrigerator. Every day he added some leftovers and at the end of the week he sold the meat to customers at a discount price, even though he knew that his neighbourhood had experienced several power cuts during the previous week.In the dairy industry in West and East Africa, it seems to be common practice to add water to milk in order to sell larger quantities. Adulteration of milk is not only criminal as the consumer gets less of what he paid for (Figures 11 and 12), but if the water is dirty, the sellers put their customers at risk of falling sick (Chapters 12, 14 and 18). However, this trader is no more criminal than companies adding melamine to milk powder destined to feed babies.But formal is not always safe . . . Food in the formal sector is usually bought and consumed without too much concern. Not many customers question the quality of food at Pick n Pay in South Africa, Shoprite in Tanzania, Sococé in Côte d'Ivoire or Nakumatt throughout Kenya; products are properly canned or bottled, labelled with an expiry date, stored in a clean and shiny environment and are more costly than food sold on the street. Most likely, and different from informal markets, customers will not find eggs with cracks as they are excluded from sale. However, the exception proves the rule.It is not only that canned chicken sold at a leading up-market supermarket chain in South Africa for more than US$8 can be spoiled prior to its expiry date Source: Yolande Aké Assi Datté and, subsequently, the smell of the open can is simply not bearable. It also seems to be a common practice among supermarkets to deliberately sell products to the informal market at a bargain price once they are past their expiry date. Apart from 'overdue' products, formally marketed items can be prone to hazards as well (Figure 13). In 2008, melamine was discovered in formally marketed milk from China. Melamine is a chemical compound which is illegally added to food or feed products to increase the apparent protein content, a practice which presents serious health problems. 3 Previous studies in Kenya found that compliance with standards was no better for pasteurized milk in the formal sector than for informal sector raw milk hawked from door to door; a similar result was found in studies in India.In 1997, 200 people in Abidjan fell sick from salmonellosis due to contaminated hamburger beef prepared and stored in bulk (Chapter 17). An incidental finding in a study in Tanzania showed that milk sourced from informal milk shops, but formally processed, pasteurized, homogenized and packed in pouches, was free of the pathogen under investigation (Staphylococcus aureus) but harboured another potential cause of disease, Bacillus cereus (Chapters 13 and 18).If products destined for export are rejected on the international market, they simply return to the domestic market. Failure to meet quality criteria, such as uniform sizes and weights, on international markets does not automatically render a product unsafe. But what if sub-Saharan Africa suddenly receives second-best goods? During the 1990s, the United Kingdom beef industry went through hard times due to the occurrence of 'mad cow' disease. The English beef originally destined for Durban,  Source: ILRI/Dave Elsworth South Africa was rejected there, relabelled and shipped to Maputo, Mozambique. This way, the problem was simply taken back to the informal markets. In one of our studies, we found that milk rejected by a cooperative in Mali was not destroyed but taken home and, presumably, consumed by the women sellers.It is wrong to generalize and assume that informal markets are unsafe per se. Surprisingly, there is not enough evidence to make strong statements about the Informal markets can be safe 29 FIGURE 13 This can of chickpeas bought from a supermarket in Germany was opened before its expiry date and its contents were found covered with mould.Source: ILRI/Kristina Roesel safety of formal and informal markets. What we do know from case studies is that food from informal markets is often safe and food from formal markets is often not safe.Unsafe food causes many acute and life-long diseases, ranging from diarrhoeal diseases to various forms of cancer. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that food-borne and water-borne diarrhoeal diseases taken together kill about 2.2 million people annually of whom 1.9 million are children. Food-borne diseases and threats to food safety constitute growing concerns to public health and local economies.In countries where detailed attribution data exist, most of the burden of foodborne disease is the result of microbes being transmitted from animals to humans (zoonoses). For example, of the five most important germs causing disease in citizens of the United States of America, four have an animal reservoir and more than 80% of identified deaths from food-borne illness are caused by only three zoonotic pathogens: Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Toxoplasma gondii. Poultry was the food most often implicated (25%) but beef, pork, shellfish and finfish were also important, each causing more than 10% of the total.In the United Kingdom, a similar pattern is seen. There, food safety authorities have developed a method for estimating the relative risks associated with specific foods, dividing the number of cases due to a specific food (as derived from their outbreak database) by the estimated total servings of that food consumed in a year. Between 1996 and 2000, most illness was attributed to eating poultry (30%), complex foods (27%) and red meat (17%). The impacts of food-borne disease include fatalities in vulnerable groups (for example, malnourished infants and people with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)) and, in 2-3% of cases, severe and disabling long-term effects such as joint disease, kidney failure and disorders in the heart, eyes and brain. The latter chronic sequels, of which many policymakers are unaware, probably represent a greater health and economic burden than the immediate disease. Evidence is growing that in developing countries ill health can be not only a personal and household tragedy, but a major factor in causing and perpetuating poverty.Many studies focus on the identification of hazards in animal-source foods but do not estimate the consequences and impacts of the hazards in terms of human sickness and death. Without this information it is difficult for decision-makers to rationally allocate resources for risk management. Furthermore, identification of hazards has led to media scares and consequent loss of confidence in livestock products, resulting in dramatic drops in consumption with negative impacts on the livelihoods of those engaged in the food value chain and consumer nutrition. Hence the need for approaches which identify risk to human health rather than the presence of hazards and which include risk management methods appropriate for poor producers and other intermediaries.For example, studies on milk in East Africa found that although zoonotic hazards were present in as much as 1% of household milk samples, infections in people were at least two orders of magnitude less common. While the small volumes of milk produced and handled per informal sector agent increased the risk of cross-contamination, consumers' widespread practice of boiling milk dramatically reduced the risk of disease.A hazard is defined as any biological, chemical or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause harm or damage to humans, other organisms or the environment in the absence of its control. Risk is the likelihood of that anticipated harm to occur, including the consequences for public health, ecology and the economy. Hazards can include, but are not limited to, microbial pathogens that cause food-borne illnesses with symptoms such as diarrhoea and fever, pesticides that cause poisoning or motor vehicles causing car accidents. Identification of hazards is the first step in performing risk assessment. As a rule, all Safe Food, Fair Food studies looked for hazards in informally marketed food (Table 1).Physical hazards were not investigated, but these could be small stones in fish dried on the beach (see 'When tradition augments risk: fish processing in Ghana', Chapter 7) or glass splinters in a poultry abattoir, as Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos from Mozambique explains. However, since very few abattoirs in Mozambique have glass windows, this is not very likely to occur and the risk for ingesting glass is therefore very low.The following chemical hazards were identified in the course of our research:• polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in traditionally smoked fish;• veterinary drug residues in animal-source products;• high fluoride content in water.This group of hazards is particularly dangerous, as adverse health effects might not become visible immediately. While some chemical hazards, such as fungal toxins or pesticides, cause immediate disease or death, others such as fluoride in water might have a beneficial effect at a small dose (that is, healthy growth of bones and teeth), but long-term exposure to excessive levels can lead to tooth mottling in children or skeletal fluorosis in adults and children. This chronic disease is characterized by very stiff bones and joints and may even affect the spine (Chapter 10). PAHs in traditionally smoked fish proved to have both short-term effects on the women who prepare the fish in small shacks and long-term effects; they suffer from headaches, eye strain and fatigue and are at risk of getting cancer (Chapter 33). Veterinary drugs such as penicillin, accumulating in an animal's liver, might be ingested if withdrawal periods are ignored by producers and veterinarians. If consumed on a regular basis, people can subsequently develop allergies that might lead to a fatal allergic shock (Chapter 31). The chemical hazards listed above were all identified. In Côte d'Ivoire, the levels of PAHs exceeded international standards by far and, given the regular exposure, imply high risk to public health (Chapter 33).The majority of Safe Food, Fair Food studies focused on the identification of biological hazards, particularly bacteria:  Synthesis of identified hazards, assessed risks and critical control points in the Safe Food, Fair Food project.    The presence of microbes alone is not necessarily dangerous. On the contrarydepending on the severity of the disease (a cold is less severe than pneumonia)the danger lies in the number of microbes able to cause disease, whether the food contains this infectious level and whether the person ingesting it is healthy or more vulnerable to disease. People who are more vulnerable to disease are the young, old, pregnant and immunocompromised (HIV-positive): the so-called 'YOPIs'. Pregnant women, for instance, are twenty times more likely than other healthy adults to acquire listeriosis. 1 In pregnant women, listeriosis might result in miscarriage or severe disease in the new born (Chapters 16 and 32).Most of the investigated microbial hazards were identified. Some studies, for instance in Côte d'Ivoire, showed that particular microbes were present in 64% of the milk and roughly 13% of the people consuming it associated it with gastrointestinal disease (Chapter 17). The same milk contained Bacillus cereus strains that were multi-resistant to antibiotics commonly used for the treatment of animals and humans (Chapter 18). The consumption of this milk might not cause immediate illness but long-term effects may become visible when people later suffer from respiratory or urinary tract infections and antibiotic treatment loses effectiveness.E. coli is a microbe that regularly inhabits the intestines of mammals and humans. It therefore indicates faecal contamination when detected in food. E. coli was found in high levels in poultry in Mozambique, yet the levels were still below the national threshold levels and said not to cause disease (Chapter 25). While most of the members of the E. coli family in animals and humans do not necessarily cause disease, some do. Investigations of beef carcasses in Kenya showed that even though levels were not high at the abattoir (Chapter 21), the long time lag between dressing and sale allowed the microbe to multiply on the way to the butchery and into the food at the ready-to-eat restaurant (Chapter 22), thus eventually exposing many people to risk of disease.Almost 23% of the boiled milk in Tanzania was highly contaminated with S. aureus (Chapter 13) and even though otherwise-healthy people suffer from selflimiting diarrhoea or vomiting, YOPIs are more likely at risk when consuming the milk. In Ethiopia, the level of S. aureus in boiled milk was zero, which seems to be good news. However, this could be a fallacy as some strains of these microbes are able to produce a toxin which cannot be destroyed through heating. Milk tested prior to boiling contained high levels of the bacteria, suggesting that even though they were eliminated during boiling, the notorious toxin might still be present in the boiled milk, thus exposing many consumers, in particular the most vulnerable, to risk (Chapter 12). Some other microbial hazards were not identified at all (brucellosis in periurban Nairobi, Chapter 15) or were found at very low levels (thermophilic Campylobacter in Tanzania, Chapter 24 and Brucella spp. in Mali, Chapter 19), even though they were present elsewhere in the countries. Others appeared in the raw product but not in the thoroughly cooked end product, that is, shellfish in Côte d'Ivoire (Chapter 34) and smoked fish (Chapter 32), suggesting the risk to consumers is low even though hazards were initially present.The magnitude and occurrence of risk largely depend on the mode of food preparation and consumption, for example whether it is eaten raw or processed. One Safe Food, Fair Food study showed that traditional techniques such as fermentation of raw milk can reduce the risk of disease by 97%. Bacterial growth is inhibited by increasing acidity which, if the milk is fermented long enough, is likely to render a risky product into safe food at low cost (Chapter 12). In contrast, another Safe Food, Fair Food study in Ghana showed that the level of microbes was relatively low in naturally fermented milk compared to raw milk (Chapter 16). It seemed from the study that this was caused by inadequate fermentation and cross-contamination from unfermented milk through the use of containers. In another study in Ghana, extended fermentation was found to eliminate most pathogens. 2 However, in this case, the disease risk was much higher as only very few microbial cells are needed for infection and fermented milk was consumed every day (in contrast to raw milk that was consumed once every two weeks).These examples show how commonsense management, which focusses on controlling the level of zoonotic hazards in milk and other animal-source foods, may not have much effect on decreasing the risks to human health, whereas other approaches that focus not on the hazard but on the risk to human health can be more fruitful.Faced with this complex challenge of high levels of hazards in informal food, but little understanding of the risks these represent to human health, along with the empirical evidence that small-scale food production and processing offer an important pathway out of poverty and that existing food safety regulation is often ineffective and anti-poor, new approaches are needed.Historically, hazards associated with livestock and animal-source foods were managed through 'command and control' regulation involving inspection and production, transformation and sale backed with litigation in the event of harm. This approach was increasingly unable to deliver food safety, as demonstrated by highly publicized tragedies (such as the E. coli outbreak in Germany in 2011 in which 53 people died 3 and the bovine spongiform encephalopathy epidemic in the United Kingdom in early 2000). This led to a shift in approach from compliance with procedures enforced by external inspection to self-management of risk by empowered organizations. Risk-based approaches brought new insights and are now standard for food safety issues in developed countries, as well as being the basis of rules governing international trade in food products, and are endorsed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) and WHO.One of the first risk-based methodologies was Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), a structured approach to assessing potential hazards, deciding which control points are critical to safety, monitoring these and taking specified remedial action in the event of deviations from these control points.HACCP is widely recognized as an effective and economically efficient approach to food safety control in food processing operations, predominantly because it is based on risk assessment and process control rather than end-product testing; it is starting to be applied to traditional food production systems in developing countries and preliminary results are encouraging. Microbial risk assessment (MRA) is an emerging tool for evaluating the safety of food and water supplies; it takes a systems and pathway approach ('farm to fork'), allowing an assessment to be made of the health risk to the population of interest from specific pathogens, foods or combinations of both.For the last decade, risk analysis has convincingly dominated food safety and trade in animals and animal products. It offers a science-based, structured, transparent method for answering the questions that matter to policymakers and the public alike: Is this food safe? Is the risk big and important? What efforts are appropriate to reduce the risk? Risk analysis has three components: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication (Figures 14,15 and 16). The first step -risk assessment -provides both an estimate of harm and the probability of harm occurring.Having identified and characterized the hazard, it needs to be assessed to what extent the consumers are exposed to the hazard. This helps to understand the 'real risk' associated with the presence of a harmful agent. By assessing the concentration of hazards in food and the number of people who handle the contaminated product, and by determining the frequency and quantity of consuming this food, it is possible to evaluate the risk to individuals and groups of people in a particular  control points and apply strategies to remove or minimize risk (Chapter 6). The third and integral component of risk analysis is risk communication: the iterative process of communicating risk to those affected by it and incorporating their feedback into risk assessment and management. Risk analysis offers a new approach to managing food safety. Not only is it more effective at decreasing risks, but it can also be a bridge joining food safety and livelihood concerns (Chapter 8).Like all dominant ideas, risk analysis is not without its critics. These vary from those who think risk analysis is a sound methodology but requires some improvements, to those who regard it as deeply flawed and liable to abuse. In the latter category are some citizens' groups who oppose a particular industry or decision and frequently criticize the methods and results of risk assessment. They argue that risk analysis is rather quantitative and reductionist and doesn't take into account people's legitimate concerns, and that information emerging from risk assessments is meaningless or invalid. Some go even further, believing that risk assessment is part of a conspiracy organized by agro-business. While many of these concerns are refutable on technical grounds, this does not address the underlying fears and concerns that lead many to reject, for example, vaccines, genetically modified food, pasteurized milk or fluoridated water. This is partly a problem of lack of trust in authorities and is symptomatic of exclusion of stakeholders from decision-making and power. Based on previous analysis and research, incorporating participatory methodologies can improve stakeholder engagement in risk analysis. Since their introduction in the 1970s, participatory methods and techniques have become central tools for community development and have been applied in a variety of contexts and sectors. They are promoted on the basis that they are more effective, more sustainable, less costly and more ethical in their inclusion of the poor in the planning and decisions that affect them, and have been extensively used in livestock research. Sophisticated participatory tools acknowledge power imbalances, vested interests and incentives, and employ methods such as stakeholder analysis, outcome mapping, power mapping and triangulating with different groups to better incorporate viewpoints while preventing capture of the agenda.In developed countries, risk analysis plays a great role in understanding risks in food and reducing food-borne diseases. Although there are always challenges in risk assessment even for these countries, risk analysis has become the gold standard for assessing food safety risks to human health. Risk assessment in developed countries benefits from a lot of records and information; increasingly, doseresponse relationships (the probability of illness given the amount of microbes which a person ingests) are available and, in this case, risk can be assessed using public source data supplemented with surveys of hazards and consumption.In developing countries, food-borne disease is a huge problem. Diarrhoea is the second largest cause of child deaths, following pneumonia. Risk analysis can be a powerful tool to reduce the burden of food-borne diseases in these countries too. However, lack of resources to generate public data and the predominance of informal markets, where information is even scarcer, have been great challenges. The Safe Food, Fair Food project used participatory methods in risk assessment of informally marketed foods to generate necessary data in the analysis at affordable costs for resource-limited countries.Our research used established frameworks but adapted them to the context of developing countries by incorporating participatory thinking and approaches. The main framework used was MRA by the Codex Alimentarius Commission which 46 Food safety in sub-Saharan AfricaA tool that we often start our group work with is proportional piling (Figure 17) to assess the changing herd composition in the course of one year. Using counters such as beans or pebbles to represent all the cattle (or other relevant species) in the village, you can find out what proportion stays in the village and what proportion leaves as well as the different reasons for herd exit. These could be sales, gifts or death. If death is among the reasons for exit, piling continues to investigate the reasons for death (for example, accident, starvation or disease). This activity can be continued for specific diseases and can help in identifying disease incidence and causes of mortality. Nevertheless, caution is required when interpreting the results as farmers usually describe signs of disease and do not provide confirmed laboratory test results.Generally, this exercise is very well perceived by livestock farmers, partly because we do not ask the livestock keepers about the number of animals kept or their herds in particular, details that farmers are normally not comfortable discussing for various reasons. However, for best results, it is advisable that this exercise be used if the management practices are the same among the members of the focus group.Other very informative and well-perceived tools in participatory epidemiology are the seasonal calendar and geographical mapping. Whereas the former captures temporal variations of disease or other production constraints, such as rainfall patterns, the latter visualizes village infrastructure including (animal) health care facilities, water sources or grazing areas and helps to identify institutional gaps or potential sources of infection and cross-contamination.has been established by WHO and FAO as the world reference institute for food safety. The Codex Alimentarius framework consists of hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure assessment and risk characterization. Participatory methods proved particularly useful in exposure assessment (Figure 18).An outline of our approach for participative risk assessment is:1. Identify and characterize hazards and dose-response relationships by literature review. 2. Understand the logic of exposure to a risk by using the fault tree approach (Figures 19 to 22  Source: Mahmoud El Tholth 4. Quantify the contamination and bacterial growth by epidemiological survey and literature review (Figure 27). 5. Quantify risk mitigation practices along value chains by using rapid rural appraisals and interviews. 6. Develop risk models integrating parameters obtained through Steps 1 to 5 and run by computational algorithms, such as Monte Carlo simulation (Figure 28 to 31). 7. Identify the variable that influences the result the most by performing a sensitivity analysis. 8. Collect more biological samples for the variable identified as the most sensitive to reduce uncertainty of the risk estimated. The risk would be reduced most efficiently by a control option targeted to it. 9. Recommend areas where risk can be reduced most efficiently, based on modelling and qualitative assessment.In addition to risk assessment, participatory methods were applied in studying social determinants of risk mitigation in traditional communities. People in rural Mali bought milk from sellers they trusted (Chapter 20) whereas for people in East Africa, price was the most important attribute when they bought milk. Such understanding of social determinants is useful in disseminating key messages for an intervention (Chapter 8). In the course of our research, the results of the risk assessments by participatory methods and their usefulness in food safety risk analysis in informal markets were presented to government stakeholders. Many of our researchers felt that time was a major constraint when using participatory methods for risk assessment. However, it is undeniable that participatory methods can gather information much more rapidly than formal surveys. Moreover, participation was found to have many advantages. Raising awareness (on both sides) while obtaining data on consumption behaviour and food handling practices, as well as the analysis of food samples, was found to be very useful in order to get the 'big picture' (Figure 32). Participatory methods facilitate the quick generation of data on consumption and production habits directly from the people who can be used for risk assessment and identifying supply channels at the same time.Alexander Heeb and Nenene Qekwana argue that education is the key to food safety as it changes people's perceptions. This, however, is only achievable by listening and talking to the people and through observation. The bottom-up approach of participation allows identification of the 'real' problem of the people most affected. Many of the Safe Food, Fair Food studies showed that much of the investigated food was contaminated due to poor sanitary prerequisites, poor 50 Food safety in sub-Saharan AfricaAmount of BaP in smoked fish three times higher than fresh fish and exceeding the maximum limit of 5ppm Source: Yolande Aké Assi Datté (unpublished manuscript) personal hygiene or faulty preparation practices. Participation also makes it possible to benefit from indigenous knowledge for risk mitigation (Chapter 7).Participation works through hands-on experience, not theoretical or technical knowledge (Box 6). In trypanosomiasis projects in West Africa, extension personnel carry out microscopic examination of blood smears from cattle in the field. When they find the blood parasite, they show it to the cattle owners to give them an idea about the disease-causing microorganism in the blood of their animals. This way, the farmers who have seen their cattle wasting but never visualized the culprit become more aware of how small microbes are or what they actually look like. They will understand much better why teams of researchers come with cars and lots of strange equipment and keep them away from work for a whole day to sample all their cattle.Participation is by nature including, not excluding, and defined as 'the action of taking part in something'. 1 In participatory learning and development, we often define different levels of participation from being present by order (a low level of participation) to actively taking charge (a high level of participation). Group discussions proved to be opportunities for participants to speak freely about  anything they wanted to say; they felt included and gained self-confidence to speak up. Since the participants spoke in front of their peers, their answers could be validated, and since the facilitator moderated the discussion, the concept proved to be a good negotiation and mediation tool. The contributions of stakeholders to improve their own situation created ownership and increased effective management of risks. Joy Appiah from Ghana assumed that there would be little resistance to risk management when recommendations were developed during discussion among the participants. He also took advantage of techniques such as mapping a seasonal calendar for disease in cattle in his study area (Figure 33). The Source: Spengler (2011) activity revealed that disease in cattle was most common with the onset of the rains. Farmers attributed this to their animals eating 'too much fresh grass' but not with disease caused by microbes.Another advantage of participatory methods, as compared to literature review or laboratory analysis only, is the physical presence of the researcher at the study sites. Apart from the social acceptance among participants, the researcher is able to verify the validity of responses obtained during interviews (for example, 'Do you wash hands prior to milking your cow?' or 'How many times a day is manure removed from the cow shed?'). Animal welfare concerns that would not have been noticed without the actual observation can be addressed, too. Nenene Qekwana, who investigated ritual slaughter practices in South Africa, explains how free-roaming animals are caught, how bulls are wrestled down and how they are eventually killed by stabbing a spear in the heart. However, this can be inhumane and a form of torture to the animal if not done properly.Observation allows identifying 'risky' habits that otherwise would not have been reported and can help in disease control planning (Figures 34 and 35). That was the case in Kasarani in peri-urban Nairobi, where Flavien Ndongo observed risky practices that exposed people to brucellosis. In his study area he did not find brucellosis in milk. However, if it were to be introduced to the area from elsewhere in the country, high-risk behaviour in Kasarani implied risk to public health. Unfortunately, poor compliance with existing regulations was also observed. For instance, blood from abattoirs was let into a river at night even Can participation improve food safety? 55Raw milk production at farm (Prevalence and concentration) This analysis was developed using production to consumption framework. The use of this framework's exposure pathway is split into three modules. Source: Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina (unpublished manuscript) though a collection tank was in place. Quarrels with neighbouring businesses were leading to illegal activities.Many participatory tools were used in the Safe Food, Fair Food project. The main participatory tools are visual, including seasonal calendars for diseases, village maps, chapati (or Venn) diagrams showing the importance of institutions, ranking, rating and matrix scoring. We also used more conventional approaches in participatory ways, including one-to-one interviews (either completely open or in a structured form using interview guides), on-site observations using checklists, workshops, trainings, focus group discussions and cooking experiments ( Box 7).  Sampling of blood at a health care centre to test for brucellosis.During sampling, information was also collected on animal husbandry, milking and food handling practices in order to identify risky habits.Key informant interviews proved to be excellent tools to get acquainted with the informants and to establish trust, which was crucial for later microbiological sampling as many participants feared fines. Moreover, by answering questions, the respondents actually challenged their own behaviour. Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina reported that consumers interviewed in Abidjan who used to drink a lot of raw milk later came to prefer pasteurized milk after they considered the risks associated with drinking raw milk. In South Africa, venison offal from commercial game 60 Food safety in sub-Saharan AfricaTo aid disease reporting in South Africa, farmers have been taught to use a score card to help them identify diseases from symptoms the cattle are showing. The score cards contain short phrases or pictures and the farmer checks abnormalities (i.e. temperature, ticks, vomiting or diarrhoea). As cell phones are all over, they call or text Dr Shashi Ramrajh whose diagnosis is based on assessing the score cards. She then tells the farmer what medication to get from the health care worker who is provided with a pharmaceutical kit. However, 'there is little point in educating farmers when they do not have drugs or equipment to use. If I train farmers on the use of thermometers, then I should be able to give them one so they are able to put their training into practice,' Ramrajh argues. She is aiming to provide farmers with basic tool kits containing drugs and treatments for wounds, which can be added to as training is provided. However, this will require funding, which Ramrajh currently does not have.Source : New Agriculturist, November 2011. www.new-ag.info/en/focus/focus Item.php?a=2303  Source: Kebede Amenu Source: Marisa Spengler farms used to be discarded, despite passing primary meat inspection. However, it is now used as food after Shashi Ramrajh interviewed key stakeholders living near game farms and found evidence of a market and demand for offal in the local communities (Chapter 28).Focus group discussions, although not always considered a participatory tool, proved to be very fruitful in various ways. The answers are most likely honest as 62 Food safety in sub-Saharan AfricaThe ability of Listeria monocytogenes to survive domestic cooking was tested by contaminating smoked fish (tuna, mackerel and herrings), koobi (tilapia) and sundried sardines with a control organism and using the fish to prepare two kinds of soups commonly consumed in Ghanaian homes: light soup prepared with tomatoes, garden eggs (eggplant), onions and pepper as the major ingredients and groundnut (peanut) soup, prepared with groundnut paste, tomatoes, onions and pepper as the major ingredients (Chapter 32).The recipes for the soups and methods of preparation were recorded during informal focus group discussions with some young women (average age 24 years) who were involved in food preparation in their homes. At the end of the discussions, the preparation steps, average cooking times and regular ingredients often used for making the soups were agreed upon and used for experimental cooking in the laboratory.Freshly smoked fish (tuna, mackerel and herrings), koobi and sundried sardines were then deliberately heavily contaminated with a control organism. Although Listeria monocytogenes generally occurs at low doses in foods, this high level of contamination was selected to assess possible outcomes in worstcase scenarios. The soups were prepared by some women from the focus group according to the method agreed on in the focus group discussion. Cooking started at the same time for all the soups. Total cooking times were 45 minutes for light soup and 75 minutes for groundnut soup, with respective average boiling temperatures of 99.2°C and 106.5°C. The experiment was repeated twice at five-day intervals (that is, three separate cooking experiments in total).Immediately after each cooking, the fish were removed from the soups and prepared for the detection of the Listeria monocytogenes control organism. In both types of soup, it survived in at least one sample of each fish product, suggesting that at high levels of contamination, the pathogen could still be present in fish used to prepare the soups, and could thus present a risk to consumers.they are verified by the rest of the group. Sometimes, even more information is revealed than anticipated. In the case of a study in Pretoria (Chapter 26), street vendors of chicken came together for the first time during the survey and, after initial reservations, talked and discussed freely. The discussion helped to establish contacts for future networking and encouraged group spirit. Following the meeting, the vendors formed an association to deal with issues such as pest control.Focus group discussions with South African policymakers from different departments, all directly related to public health but with overlapping responsibilities (Chapter 31), were difficult to organize due to busy schedules. They also turned out to be very frustrating when the participants became aware of the importance of exchange and communication between the departments. The very same frustration proved to be a catalyst; weaknesses were identified and possibilities to collaborate on a technical level were eventually evaluated.In Mali, group discussions had an immediate effect when farmers exchanged knowledge about breeds, supplementary feeding in the dry season and how to handle abortions or stillbirths in cattle. At the same time, risk factors could be identified. In Tanzania, farmers learned about testing possibilities and treatment options for milk (Chapter 13).Participatory tools were usually complemented by individual but anonymous questionnaires. These were helpful to obtain individual data on consumption and husbandry practices as well as symptoms of disease. In Mali, a woman reporting fever and joint pain and handling aborted material from cattle was later found to have contracted brucellosis (Chapter 19). In Côte d'Ivoire, people suffering from a chronic cough were examined for tuberculosis at local tuberculosis centres. Lung flukes transmitted by shellfish consumption, however, can cause the very same symptoms and were thus investigated at the tuberculosis centres. The flukes could be ruled out, but it was interesting to see that more than three-quarters of the patients with chronic cough also tested negative for tuberculosis; this surprising outcome calls for more in-depth studies to reveal the cause of chronic cough.Edgar Mahundi recalled that when he gave feedback to the authorities, they closed a butchery which sold spoiled meat. The butchery's entrance had a sign announcing 'Cheap beef sold here' and many people queued in front of it. Following the study, local health inspectors started inspecting the butchery once a week. Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos reported a similar incident in Mozambique. However, one of the poultry abattoirs that had been closed twice before was shut down again while she conducted her survey. After this, the owner of the butchery asked to participate in one of the training workshops to get advice on how to improve the sanitation of the butchery. Today, university students are taken there for presenting best practice examples of local abattoirs.Often, the initial research questions raised by the students later developed their own dynamics. Many of the students received inquiries from farmers, butchers or vendors who wanted to participate in training on food safety, complying with the project's finding that training (especially on prerequisites) is crucial for safe food. In Tanzania, the farmers now want a platform with agricultural officers to improve the quality of their products. However, this is still not implemented, thus risking the trust and motivation of the participants.Follow-up visits and funding are vital to make participatory interventions last. When John Kago made a second visit to an abattoir in Kenya which he had previously surveyed, he observed that the attendants had put effort into cleaning the working surfaces. Cameline Mwai, who held workshops in an export abattoir, reported after a follow-up visit to the abattoir six weeks later that workers were still not provided with soap and paper tissues. The owner stated that 'it was stolen anyway'. Hot water was only accessible to the meat inspector.The Safe Food, Fair Food participants considered funding and time limits to be the main constraints to using participation as a technique for risk assessment. Despite all the advantages, one-to-one interviews and focus group discussions take at least two hours, excluding all the time used for preparation of questionnaires and checklists, and actually getting to the meeting venues which are sometimes in remote rural areas (Figure 36).To meet a considerable number of stakeholders at government level seems to be impossible because of their busy schedules. But even nyama choma sellers in Arusha are very busy men; every hour they spend talking to someone and not 64 Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa FIGURE 36 'No hurry -doni doni!' When using participatory techniques in Mali, the researcher needs to set aside time for socializing over several rounds of green tea! selling roast beef, they lose money. Edgar Mahundi failed to organize group discussions with vendors due to insufficient funds. However, he interviewed the pub owners while they were working. He found that participatory methods were often not so successful for traders and businessmen, partly because they are often very busy but also because they don't always want to discuss their business in a group consisting of their competitors! In such cases, interviews with key informants when they are at leisure may be more useful.When dealing with government officials, lunch and free accommodation seem to be 'incentive' enough in the Republic of South Africa. Further northeast, it is common among government officials to claim 'expenses' for attending meetings, which is obviously their job. The former term 'allowance' has been replaced by the Latin per diem, meaning per day. They actually get paid twice for the same thing. Of course, the underlying problem is that governments often do not have sufficient money to pay them a proper salary, and often no money to allow them to work in the field effectively. As a result, the project often had to fill this gap. But when projects have to pay officials to be part of research for improving things for everyone, why should someone wonder that the beef or chicken vendor wants to be remunerated as well?There are also ethical issues around participatory processes which are not always addressed; people should not be forced into taking part in interviews or activities aimed at obtaining information from them. The concept of participation and its advantages for all the parties involved must be clearly explained prior to the survey. In one of the Safe Food, Fair Food studies, milk sellers in Tanzania refused to participate because they believed that contamination could only happen at the farm level. They had no idea about the possibility of re-contamination of food due to bad handling practices and were afraid that their shops would be closed down. Therefore, finding participants sometimes proved to be a challenge. Others were simply not present in the study area during the survey, depending on the season. For instance, the Fulani herders in West Africa moved their cattle to a different location in the dry season, whereas crop farmers were not available right after the onset of the rains as they were busy planting their fields.Funds must be available to avoid students using their own resources such as private cars. The lack of expertise to organize meetings, workshops and trainings in terms of logistics was also found to be a challenge and could be integrated in preparatory training of future proof-of-concept studies. Language posed another obstacle; the participants of a survey might speak English or French but mostly it was not their first language. If a researcher did not speak the first language of the survey participants, it was hard to establish trust. Translators were able to help in most cases although some information might have been lost because they did not have the technical background for in-depth explanations. Language was mainly a challenge when working with local ethnic groups such as the Ovahimba in southern Africa (Chapter 27) and the Fulani in West Africa. The latter also do not like to talk to women, something which complicated work for Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina in Côte d'Ivoire. Shashi Ramrajh also reported initial reservations because of her being a woman. In Mozambique, gender was not a constraint, but Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos lost her camera when she visited a local market. The vendors mistook her for a health inspector who wanted to fine them or close down their food stalls. Similar experiences were reported in all studies, suggesting fear of authorities or competition. In South Africa, where Nenene Qekwana wanted to interview a vendor's customer, the vendor refused because he thought the researcher would 'steal' his clients.Ignorance and attitude were issues at some points. The consumers' association in Maputo was not interested in a follow-up workshop where preliminary results were presented. The management of a Kenyan export abattoir considered themselves 'beyond HACCP', even though the carcasses there were found to be contaminated. The abattoir was stage-managed whenever there were audits and during the study and everyone was preoccupied with International Organization for Standardization (ISO) certification.The different perceptions about what participation is and what it is not need to be discussed. The social construction of participating groups must be taken into consideration in order to follow the right protocol. Permission needs to be obtained from government departments, the village heads and individuals. In the studies carried out in West Africa, it was observed that if the chief was present during an interview, everybody gave the same answer. On the other hand, it was not possible to manage the assessed risks without the support of the traditional authority. Valentin Koné legitimately asked 'How do you tell the 80-year-old chief who has never fallen sick from drinking raw milk to start boiling his milk? After all, we will be the main contact person instructing and guiding his local community when risk management interventions will take place.'Interviewed consumers may under-or over-estimate their daily intake of the investigated food, thus posing a level of uncertainty. Fortunately, this can be modelled using computer software. However, researchers always have to be aware that they are only exposed to the participants' lifestyles to a certain extent. Joy Appiah recalled that in Ghana, people are ashamed of poverty so the researcher would be directed to 'best practice' farms. This is unfortunate as solutions are most urgently needed in poverty-stricken areas. Flavien Ndongo suspected that the extension worker facilitating the survey also took him to the 'best' farmers as he was surprised not to find any evidence of brucellosis in Kasarani (Chapter 15). The longer the food chain and the more the individuals in it, the greater the likelihood of risk and the need for objectives to be balanced (Figure 37). Therefore, multidisciplinary teams are needed to assess the risk and its increase or decrease along the value chain.One of the key innovations of our approach was to add 'participation' to 'risk analysis'. Indeed we coined the phrase 'participatory risk analysis' to describe this new method of assessing, managing and communicating food safety in informal Multidisciplinary and complex value chain approach for the benefit of public health.Source: Nick Taylor, University of Reading, and Jonathan Rushton, Royal Veterinary College markets. Our general conclusion was that, compared to conventional risk analysis, participatory risk analysis was faster, feasible, friendly, inexpensive and easy to carry out. • Contamination of food may occur at any stage in the food value chain.• Risk pathway analysis identifies points where hazards occur from farm to fork and where risk is increased, reduced or eliminated along the way. • Points where management is feasible can be identified and priorities can be set.• Everybody handling the product, and financially benefiting from it, must take responsibility. • Intervention is often simple but frequently lacks basic prerequisites.• Risk pathway analysis is used to establish individual HACCP systems in formal and informal markets alike. • More consumer-level studies are needed to evaluate to what extent consumers are exposed to hazards in foods.At dawn, most of the workers at the slaughterhouses in Kenya are busy at work. They have to start as early as 0400 hours to ensure that there are sufficient carcasses ready for the transporters and the butchers at 0500 hours. However, most of the slaughtering is done between 0530 and 0800 hours.The butcher needs to buy carcasses at different places. Dagoretti is a complex of four slaughterhouses and supplies the bulk of the beef that is consumed in the capital city, Nairobi (Figure 38). Sourcing animals for slaughter is done by businessmen, most of whom do not own meat retail outlets. They have specialized in delivering the live animals to the abattoir from various sources, sometimes from as far as 300 kilometres away. The butchers then buy the live animals from these businessmen and pay the slaughter fee to the abattoir owners. Some of the businessmen sourcing the live animals pay for slaughtering the rest of their animals and then later sell the carcasses in quarters or halves to different small-scale butchery owners.Eldoret is an example of a fast-growing town in Kenya. It is located 310 kilometres west of Nairobi. One major slaughterhouse there was built during the colonial days in the 1940s. There are three more small slaughter slabs in the area. Live animals are sourced by the butchery owners from the surrounding farms. A few of the major butchery owners may also sell quarters or halves of the carcasses to minor meat outlets.FIGURE 38 Meat at one of the four slaughterhouses in Dagoretti that supply the city of Nairobi.The Eldoret slaughterhouse was built to serve the population surrounding the town in the 1940s but since then, the town's population has grown significantly. The slaughterhouse built for the Kenya Meat Commission is under the municipal council of Uasin Gishu district. It clearly shows that it has seen better days.Inspector in chargeThe meat transporters are major stakeholders in ensuring the safety of the meat (Figure 39). Most of the butchery owners do not transport their own meat but meat transporters are contracted to deliver the carcasses to the retail outlets and charge according to the distance and weight of the meat. The mode of transportation may be by bicycle, motorbike or motor vehicle mounted with boxes that have been approved by the veterinary officer. The boxes are mandatory and usually made of corrugated iron sheets or aluminium. Most of the boxes have two compartments: one for the meat and the other for the intestines and tripe. The boxes have no coolers. They are a familiar sight on the busy roads of Kenya's cities. The transporters are usually contracted by many butchery owners and thus heap many carcasses in the boxes at a go. The carcasses are offloaded at the butcheries en route and transport may take between 30 minutes and four hours under ambient temperatures of 18-20°C.Loading and offloading may be done by the same person and clothes are rarely changed in between. Some slaughterhouses have their own staff for loading and offloading and at the butchery it may be done by the attendant. The butcheries are strategically located near the consumers or close to traffic hubs. Usually, a rail is mounted on the walls and carcasses are hung on hooks made of iron or stainless steel. A wooden log is used as a board for chopping the meat with a machete prior to weighing and selling it to the consumers. The meat may stay at the butchery for one or two days until it is sold. Some of the butcheries have freezers to store leftover meat. Intestines and tripe may be sold along with the meat but most of the time the same equipment is used for both. Wiping the equipment with a dishcloth is the only means of cleaning. Once a day, the equipment and working surfaces are cleaned with soap and cold water. The chopping board is scoured by scraping off pieces of meat and is then lubricated again with fat from fresh meat.Food-borne diseases are the result of ingestion of food contaminated with microorganisms or chemicals. The contamination of food may occur at any stage in the process from production to consumption ('farm to fork' or 'stable to table ') and can result from environmental contamination, including pollution of water, soil or feeds. 'The ordinary udder flora, inflammation of the mammary gland, the milker and the environment are the main sources of microbes in milk and milk products', Marisa Spengler describes. 'When milk leaves the udder of a healthy cow, the amount of contamination is very low and usually not health-impairing. The risk of contamination increases along the production chain as the milk moves towards the end consumer.' 'Food safety is not only sensitive in terms of public health', Kaiza Kilango explains. 'It also has to be seen from an economic point of view. Whose budget should be used if an outbreak occurs? If the source of contamination is clear, it is much easier to delegate management and enforce allocation of financial means. The data also enable a fast and efficient response in the case of an outbreak.'Objective parameters are already in place. Total bacterial counts in milk reflect its storage temperature and the time elapsed since milking, as the bacteria naturally 72 Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa FIGURE 39 A private transporter who delivers meat to butcheries in highly populated or frequented areas.Source: John Kago occurring in milk as well as pathogens will multiply quickly if the milk is not cooled. They might cause spoilage and possibly pose risks to human health. Coliform counts in milk indicate the level of hygiene, since these bacteria mostly live in the intestinal tracts of people and animals and thus their presence in food is a sign of faecal contamination. East African countries have already harmonized standards for some products including milk (see www.eac-quality.net).The magnitude of risks and hazards can be quantified for each point from farm to fork by laboratory analysis of food specimens. Participatory methods complement the process as they help to explain why activities either increase or reduce the risk. As high-risk behaviour -such as the consumption of raw milk in West Africa -increases risk among certain parts of the population, it will be possible to develop means of communication adapted to individual groups. This is called risk targeting and is an important part of risk analysis.Figures 40 and 41 show how the bacterial load in milk in Ethiopia increased between the farm level and pasteurization. While boiling seemed to eliminate the microbes, interviews and observations revealed that certain factors, such as the pooling of milk, increased the risk of contamination. In Tanzania one Safe Food, Fair Food study showed that milk was only pooled at kiosk level and found to be contaminated, thus rendering all efforts by farmers and vendors useless (Chapter 13).In Kenya, beef was found to be contaminated at every step from the abattoir (Chapter 21), during transport and at the butchery (Chapter 22), with the highest Source: Desissa (2010) levels of contamination observed when the meat was closest to the consumer. Fortunately, cooking or frying of meat eventually reduced the risk, but highly contaminated raw meat is not a good thing to have in your kitchen or fridge because it can contaminate other foods or objects. In Kenya, we found some good practices in place but they were not likely to be adequate because other practices were missing. A box separating tripe and meat is only useful in combination with Source: Spengler (2011) adequate cooling. It is also necessary to avoid the cross-contamination that can occur as a result of heaping several carcasses in the same box.Analysis of risk pathways helps to understand the whole process. At farm level, feeds, faeces, bedding material and soil may transfer bacteria into the food (Chapter 18). Improper cleaning of utensils, use of poor-quality water to clean the udder and equipment, and poor personal hygiene of the milk handlers are all examples of potential sources of contamination and disease (Chapters 10 and 11).Food safety has long been tackled by using traditional methods and common sense. It is in every culture's interest to develop practices and customs that reduce the risk of falling ill. Many farmers and traders use traditional ways and means to increase the shelf life of their products, to manage risk and hence to reduce the risk of food-borne disease. Milking is done early in the morning and butchers source meat from abattoirs in the early hours of the day. Many favour the day-to-day slaughter and sales to compensate for conservation problems such as lack of electricity for refrigeration. Drying, curing and smoking are still used to conserve animal-source products, and numerous Safe Food, Fair Food studies showed that risks due to bacterial hazards were highly reduced by heat treatment, such as thorough cooking of fish and meat or boiling of milk.One Safe Food, Fair Food study showed that traditional techniques, such as fermentation of raw milk, can reduce the risk of disease by as much as 97%. Bacterial growth is inhibited by increasing acidity and if milk is fermented long enough, it is likely to render a risky product into safe food at low costs (Chapter 12). Ethiopian farmers store raw milk in containers smoked with branches from the African olive tree (Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata), locally referred to as ejersa (Figures 42 and 43). The smoke is said to enhance the taste of the milk and is supposed to have antimicrobial effects (Chapter 11). However, traditional risk management is less likely to develop where foods or hazards are relatively recent.The path does not end at the milk shop or the butchery; we also need to investigate modes of preparation of the food and consumption habits and frequencies. Safe Food, Fair Food studies showed that thorough cooking or boiling eliminated lung fluke stages in shellfish (Chapter 34), bacteria in fish (Figure 45) (Chapter 32), pathogens in chicken (Chapter 24) and contaminants in meat (Chapter 27) and milk (Chapter 14). In Mali, communities eat meat from animals that died of disease because they can only afford to buy live animals for certain ceremonies (Chapter 20). However, they always cooked the meat for at least an hour and had never associated eating meat with disease.   On the other hand, risks are higher where animal-source products are consumed raw, such as raw meat in Ethiopia (Chapter 7) or raw milk in Côte d'Ivoire and Mali. A study in Ghana found that even though the people studied did not drink a lot of raw milk, they consumed half a litre of unboiled fermented milk daily and thus were exposed to some degree of risk (Figure 44) (Chapter 16).The assessment of risks along the food value chain allows determination of where risks can be managed most efficiently by identifying critical control points (CCPs). These are points, steps or procedures at which intervening techniques can be applied and where a hazard can be eliminated or reduced to an acceptable (critical) level, thus reducing the risk of ingestion. The most common CCP is cooking. An essential characteristic of a CCP is that people should be able to set limits within The evolving risk of ingestion of Listeria monocytogenes in smoked fish in Ghana.Source: Bomfeh (2011) which the process stays (for example, boil for at least 30 minutes). However, most of those in the informal market do not have set limits; rather, they work by estimates and 'guesstimates'.The research question of the Safe Food, Fair Food team in South Africa was whether it was possible to use participatory risk assessment within a food chain approach using HACCP and prerequisites for hygiene and sanitation.The HACCP system (Box 10) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identification, assessment and control of hazards during production, processing, manufacturing, preparation and use of food to ensure that food is safe when consumed. 1 The system is applied following a logic sequence:1. Assemble the HACCP team. 2. Describe the product. 3. Identify the intended use. 4. Construct the flow diagram. 5. Confirm the flow diagram on-site. 6. List all potential hazards and conduct a hazard analysis. 7. Determine CCPs using a CCP decision tree (www.who.int/foodsafety/fs_ management/en/intro_haccp_figures.pdf). 8. Establish critical limits for each CCP.Farmers, traders and retailers are risk managers 79The acronym HACCP, which stands for Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point, is one which evokes 'food safety'. One cannot write about the HACCP system, however, without giving credit to those who conceived it, that is, the Pillsbury Company, together with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the United States Army Laboratories at Natick, who developed this system to ensure the safety of astronauts' food. In the thirty years since then, the HACCP system has become the internationally recognized and accepted method for food safety assurance. While it was originally developed to ensure microbiological safety of foodstuffs, it has been further broadened to include chemical and physical hazards in foods. The recent growing worldwide concern about food safety by public health authorities, consumers and other concerned parties, to a great extent due to WHO's advocacy in this field, and the continuous reports of food-borne outbreaks have been a major impetus in the application of the HACCP system. Source: www.who.int/foodsafety/fs_management/haccp_intro/en/index.html 9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP. 10. Establish corrective action for deviations that may occur. 11. Establish verification procedures. 12. Establish documentation and record-keeping.The Safe Food, Fair Food studies have proved participation to be a good technique for investigating food value chains and it can be combined with qualitative (presence of a hazard) and quantitative methods (that is, level of bacterial load). The results can be used as a basis for audit checklists, guidelines and better explanation through visualization (Figures 46 and 47).In general, HACCP can work well for large, formal organizations where people are used to a lot of record keeping. However, it is quite impractical for most of the small, informal sector businesses where processors and sellers may be illiterate. We recommend a modified HACCP which takes into account the core principles but does not require complicated procedures.Even where organizations aspire to have or require a HACCP plan, for it to be effective, a strong foundation of safety-related prerequisites is essential. Such programmes are not specific to a single product, as is the case with CCPs. Instead, they serve to control the environment in which processing occurs. Prerequisite programmes include the implementation of good manufacturing practices, sanitation standard operating procedures, recall programmes, employee hygiene and training, product labelling and coding, facilities design, equipment maintenance and equipment calibration.WHO identified the need to communicate a simple global health message, rooted in scientific evidence, to educate all types of food handlers and ordinary consumers. Five Keys to Safer Food is a global health message which explains the basic principles that individuals all over the world should know to ensure safe food handling practices and prevent food-borne diseases. The Five Keys to Safer Food and associated training materials were developed to provide countries with materials that are easy to use, reproduce and adapt to different target audiences.Translated into 67 languages (including Kiswahili, Tswana and Zulu), mainly on initiative from countries, the Five Keys to Safer Food message serves as the basis for health promotion campaigns and educational programmes in more than 100 countries and is used to train food handlers in restaurants, canteens, street and market places, small processing businesses, hospitals, health care centres, schools and at home. Recognized as an international reference source, the message is also extensively used in emergency situations to prevent and control outbreaks of diseases such as cholera. Source: Mwai (2011) 82 Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa WHO actively promotes the dissemination of the Five Keys message and its adaptation to the local level, and to this end has developed the following educational materials:• The Five Keys to Safer Food poster which contains the key message, specific instructions and explanations as to why the safety measures are important. The Learning by Ear programme (www.dw-world.de/dw/0,,11908,00.html) of the German international broadcaster Deutsche Welle examines the challenges that young Africans face and engages listeners in an informative and entertaining way. The programme is a lively mix of in-depth reports, radio dramas and feature stories that provides listeners with an opportunity to get the necessary skills to succeed in Africa today and to discover a whole new world of knowledge. It is particularly popular among the youth who can identify with the actors in the plays. This way, even sensitive topics such as awareness of diarrhoeal diseases and HIV/AIDS are heard. Learning by Ear is available in six languages (English, Kiswahili, French, Hausa, Portuguese and Amharic) during various broadcasting times on different frequencies.Source: www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,3564140,00.html. The programme is supported by Germany's Federal Foreign Office.People think that raw milk gives them strength and good health and according to their perception, milk is not associated with any problems. They believe that 'you will never get sick if you drink raw milk'. The quality of milk is judged by its colour, taste and odour. But even more important to the consumer is the level of faith and trust in the seller.Usually, milk is consumed raw soon after milking. Additional milk is fermented, a traditional way to preserve it, which can also reduce the level of some microbial hazards. The milk is collected in a container and kept in the house for 24 hours. In the local language, the product is referred to as non-non koumou.Cheese is also consumed in Cinzana. To prepare it, a goat younger than three months is slaughtered and the content of the stomach (containing rennin) is mixed into the raw milk. The blend is then kept in the house for 24 hours. After the milk is coagulated, it is pressed in a cloth to remove the remaining liquid. The solid part is then dried under the Malian sun. In Cinzana, cows are normally milked by men while women milk the goats. Women are also in charge of fermenting and preparation of cheese. Fish has long been recognized as an important part of Ghana's food basket.Being the cheapest source of animal protein, it is consumed throughout the country and is reported to contribute about 60% of animal protein in Ghanaian diets. The product also features prominently in family budgets, where it has been estimated to account for about 20% of household food expenditures and up to 26% in poor households. Accordingly, as of 2008, the annual average per capita consumption of fish in Ghana was estimated at 20-25kg, which at the time was about twice the world average of 13kg.Fishing is therefore an important economic activity in the country. It is reported that as far back as the 1700s and 1800s, Ghanaian fishermen were actively involved in marine fishing along the coast of the country as well as in neighbouring Benin and Côte d'Ivoire. At that time, very simple and inefficient tools were used and catches were meant primarily to meet domestic demand. After the country achieved political independence in 1957, the government made significant investments in the fishing sector. These included acquisition of fishing technologies (such as vessels for industrial-scale fishing) and infrastructural developments (such as the construction of a harbour and a boatyard) that were deemed to be important for the rapid development of the sector. These encouraged individual participation in the fishery trade and introduced mechanized and efficient ways of fishing, which together contributed to making Ghana a major fishing nation in West Africa.While the government made capital-intensive commitments, traditional rulers (chiefs) in most fishing communities ensured adherence to cultural practices aiming at the sustainability of fishing activities. For example, fish were offered some protection from humans by a traditional decree; no fishing activities were allowed on certain days of the week or periods within the year. This is practised even today. While some may view this as a superstitious ritual, it does have a preservation sense: it prevents over-exploitation of fish stocks. But are humans, the eventual beneficiaries of all fishing activities, protected from the fish? Could fish be a vehicle for hazards that could make its consumption a risky endeavour? The answer, of course, lies in the safety of the products at the point of consumption, which in turn depends on the manner in which they were processed, distributed and prepared.Whereas massive investments have been made to increase fishing capacity in Ghana, relatively little has been done for the processing of fish. The country still relies on the use of traditional methods, such as drying, smoking, salting and fermentation, to process fish, particularly for the domestic market (about 80% of fish landings in Ghana are processed traditionally). Since Ghana consumes more of its fish landings than it exports, any compromise on the safety of these products is most likely to affect the domestic consumer, especially given that the strict importation safety checks in international markets are non-existent on the domestic informal food markets where the products are mostly sold.Sun drying, one of the traditional methods of fish processing in Ghana, involves very simple operations; fresh fish are rinsed in water and spread on the ground to dry under the sun. When dry (usually after three days, depending on weather conditions), the products are gathered into heaps with brooms, collected into baskets and are ready for the market (Figures 49 to 52). This method, although highly economical, is not without risk. By drying fish on the bare ground, several kinds of microorganisms, including pathogens, could contaminate the fish and end up on the consumer's plate -uninvited -if not eliminated during food preparation. Although dried fish is mostly cooked (possibly eliminating some pathogens), consumption of the product without heat treatment is not uncommon. Consumers could therefore be exposed to ingesting these harmful organisms and cooking will not remove hazards such as toxins or chemicals. A study in Ghana showed that coliform bacteria were found in sundried fish on the informal food market. These germs are mostly associated with unhygienic handling or contact of food with soil; sundried fish has gone through both. When sweeping dried fish from the ground with brooms, solid non-food materials, such as stones, splinters of glass and hardwood, and other potentially hazardous materials could be collected along with the fish. Ingestion of such physical materials has obvious health implications. Most consumers are also familiar with the unpleasant experience of biting into sand or stone when consuming sundried fish which has caused tooth loss in some instances.Other methods of traditional fish processing also have food safety challenges. For example, studies have reported that the bacterial load of smoked fish is low immediately after processing, but increases as the product moves along the distribution chain and worsens on the informal food market due to improper handling. It is apparent that traditional methods of fish processing and handling in Ghana involve practices that could add to the food safety risks associated with foods sold on the informal market. Ironically, whereas campaigns are ongoing to promote the consumption of traditional foods in Ghana, efforts at ensuring their safety seem to be struggling to catch up. To ensure availability of fish (and foods in general) in Ghana to safeguard food security, traditional methods of food processing cannot be done away with. These methods should, however, be improved into forms that are affordable and easy to implement. For such improvements to deliver the best results, they should be developed with the indigenous people through participatory approaches. When this is done, the chief source of animal protein for most Ghanaians will receive an added key value -safety -with the welcome assurance that sundried fish, for example, can be enjoyed without losing a tooth.   The community of Port-Bouët has always been part of Abidjan in Côte d'Ivoire.When the country was under French rule from 1893 to 1960, Port-Bouët was a trading post. Most of the fishermen from the countries near the sea came to Port-Bouët to exchange their goods and many of them settled down, got married or moved with their families. Ever since, the Ashanti, Alladjan and Fati people have lived together peacefully.While the men usually catch the fish, the women smoke and sell the fish to feed their families. Today, women still use the same technology as their mothers and grandmothers did in the past. Smoked fish is popular among the people of Abidjan but it is also exported. Women use the money they earn to send their children to school. Moreover, smoked fish is also important during cultural ceremonies in the local community such as weddings, funerals and baptisms. Smoked fish is consumed by everyone -old or young, male or female -as it is known to be very nutritious and rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals and fat to gain or regain strength.During interviews with the women, however, I observed certain practices that could be risky when smoking the fish (Figure 53):They used branches from rubber trees, which contain a lot of resin.The temperature was very high.They used metal sheets to build their ovens. • They smoked the fish for a long time.To ensure safe production of smoked fish and therefore the economic benefits, we need ways of mitigating the risks which are in accordance with these women's ancestral traditions and hence acceptable to them.Cameline Mwai, John Kago, Kaiza Kilango, Kebede Amenu, Marisa Spengler, Fanta Desissa, Joy Appiah, Haruya Toyomaki, Kevin Kabui and Kennedy Bomfeh Eastern Africa is a block of neighbouring countries comprising Burundi, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. It is one part of sub-Saharan Africa where the economy mainly depends on agriculture.Livestock are integral components of the people's livelihoods and play multiple roles and meat of different livestock species is consumed. However, the preparation and consumption of meat products are affected by cultural and social beliefs. Depending on the cultural group habits, both the type of product and the way it is prepared can be different. These practices might have positive or negative impacts on the safety of the meat products. Therefore, the identification of such practices can be a useful tool in assessing and managing the risks associated with these food products.In Ethiopia, meat is consumed cooked, semi-cooked or raw. Consumption of raw meat is widespread in both rural and urban areas. According to a legend, raw meat consumption started during the Italo-Abyssinian war in 1935. To avoid being spotted by Italian soldiers, the Ethiopians changed from cooking their meat to eating it raw. The notion was that lighting a cooking fire at night could reveal their ambush to the Italians. However, it is likely that the custom Source: Yolande Aké Assi Datté is much older than that (Figure 54). Today, the practice is carried out predominantly with the belief that raw meat consumption indicates strength and courage among young men. Red meat from the loins, diaphragm, hump and thighs is preferred. This is either consumed just after slaughtering or during the same day. Generally, consumers are aware of food-borne diseases that can be transmitted through the consumption of unwholesome meat. However, they have different perceptions of what 'unwholesome' meat entails. For example, some people do not consider infection with tapeworms through meat to be harmful (see Box 16).In Tanzania, red meat is mainly sold in butcheries and either prepared by women for home consumption or sold as roast beef (nyama choma in Kiswahili) and skewer beef (mshikaki) by young men (Figures 55 and 56). In most Tanzanian towns, roast beef is sold in beer bars while skewer beef is sold in the streets at vendor stations or by hawkers. After being grilled, a piece of roast beef is taken from the grill and cut into pieces on a cutting board. It is then kept on a plate before being served with a stiff porridge (ugali ), roast banana or alone. For eating, most of the consumers use their bare hands, washed with water of unknown quality. The price of roast beef is high compared to that of skewer beef, leading to most of the vendor stations being found in the densely populated peri-urban areas where low-income groups live. The operators of these stations are often people with minimal education and have neither official medical records nor health certificates. The skewer beef is mainly prepared in the morning and consumed in the late afternoon and evening and often left exposed to dust and flies.Raw meat served with injera, Ethiopian pancake-like bread.  In a survey to assess the knowledge of tapeworm infection in central Ethiopia, the following conversation occurred between a researcher and a consumer named Abebe.Researcher: 'Have you ever suffered from tapeworm infection?' Abebe: 'Who told you that tapeworm infection is a disease?' Researcher: 'Do you consider tapeworm infection to be normal?' Abebe: 'A man without tapeworm is not really a man.'Most meat is sourced from butcheries and on some occasions, animals are slaughtered at home. Most of this meat is inspected by veterinary meat inspectors but there are exceptions! There are 42 ethnic groups in Kenya. The Kikuyu, for example, traditionally believed that meat safety could be tested by feeding it to a cat before eating it. If the cat ate the meat, it was considered to be safe and vice versa. Covering a piece of meat with hot ashes and observing what happened was another common test: the meat was considered unsafe if it produced a 'pop' sound (suspected to carry anthrax). Visible dirt during slaughter was avoided by spreading clean banana leaves on the ground and placing the carcass on them. During skinning and dressing, the meat was often hung on trees or up in the huts to prevent it from getting dirty. The preparation of African sausage (called mutura in Kikuyu, meaning 'to stuff the intestines') involves the use of fibres collected from banana trees. These fibres are used to tie the stuffed intestines at either end to avoid spilling the meat. The large intestines are first cleaned with water and then stuffed with boiled meat mixed with raw blood. The small intestines, however, are prepared by squeezing the dung out before roasting them. This is done mainly by men while women do the boiling and cooking of the other meat. Most of the meat is eventually eaten boiled, fried or roasted but some communities such as the Maasai eat raw meat and drink blood during certain occasions, especially initiation ceremonies when young men (morans) are entering adulthood. The kidneys of a cow are some of their favourite parts and eaten immediately after slaughter. Home slaughter is mainly done during traditional rituals, Ramadan or Christmas.James Oguttu, Shashi Ramrajh, Margaret Molefe and Alexander HeebSouth Africa has more than twelve ethnic groups, each with its own way of producing food of animal origin. Different practices are applied during slaughter and for the preservation of meat and each of these ethnic groups also has its own way of assuring food safety. The law provides for the traditional slaughter of animals for religious and cultural purposes. In such cases, killing of animals is done by different methods such as using bare hands, stabbing the back of the neck, stunning, shooting on the forehead, or casting the animal down and slitting its throat. In some of these instances, the method of killing does not allow thorough bleeding. Traditional methods of killing animals may have an effect on the meat's quality; meat from animals that are insufficiently bled has a poor shelf life and is tough if not left to mature. There also may be issues when cultural practices clash with animal welfare standards! Slaughter as practised by the Tswana, Ndebele, Pedi and Tswati For celebrations such as weddings and funerals, these ethnic groups believe that a cow should be slaughtered at the celebrant's house. They believe that the flowing of the cow's blood will please the ancestors and bless the occasion. In the event of a death, the flowing of blood allows the deceased to depart in peace. The uncle of the deceased decides how the animal will be killed, either by plunging a knife through the back of its head or by shooting it. Where a knife is used, those present use their pocket knives which are cleaned with ordinary water. This is not recommended, as it could lead to contamination of the meat. The law recommends the use of knives that are sterilized for such slaughter.The Ovahimba generally store meat without cooling it but keep it on the roof of their huts or hung on a tree, out of the reach of their dogs and other animals. In most cases, meat is not stored longer than overnight. If there are amounts of meat that cannot be consumed by the members of a clan within a reasonable time, they are usually given away to other clans in the area. From time to time, larger amounts of meat are dried by hanging them from the roof of a hut or on a tree. This procedure is therefore similar to that for making biltong. The Ovahimba prefer to eat meat that is well cooked or roasted instead of raw meat, therefore, the meat is always well done. A fireplace with wood is used as a source of heat (Figure 57). The meat is then served with spices and porridge. Seasoning is done prior to cooking or roasting the meat and may be• Indigenous knowledge often contributes towards food safety.• Eating food is not only for nourishment but also associated with cultural values. • There are different cultural beliefs about risks associated with food.• It can be difficult to change traditional practices that represent high risks.• Some groups are more exposed to risk than others.• Traditional risk mitigation strategies need further investigation.• Cultural background must be considered in risk management and communication.Sub-Saharan Africa is home to some 874 million people 1 living in 48 different countries and speaking more than 1,000 different languages. Most Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam, but many also follow traditional religions. This multifaceted religious life has a strong influence on people's perceptions, motivations and practices, especially in the rural areas where knowledge is reverently transferred from one generation to another.96 Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa repeated during cooking. The water used for cooking is fetched from a tap situated about 1km away and ferried in large containers that are carried by donkeys.When asked how they would know if a piece of meat was no longer good for consumption, the Ovahimba explained that they would tell by the look and smell of the meat. Such meat, they stated, would be given to their dogs rather than being eaten. They claimed never to have fallen sick in any way after eating meat.Himba by the fireplace.The Safe Food, Fair Food project included research from 25 students originating from twelve different countries and investigating food safety in eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa. All of them investigated food-borne hazards and risks by using participatory methods (Chapters 4 and 5). Even though many of them did research in their home countries, observations and interviews with stakeholders needed to be facilitated by translators and local authorities who were well known to everyone involved. The students all agreed that a high level of sensitivity and respect was needed when doing research in rural Africa.The Safe Food, Fair Food team was very diverse, ranging from microbiologists and nutritionists to veterinarians and a social scientist. Participation took into account the social background of all the key actors related to the food product under study. This multidisciplinary approach followed the One Health concept to attain health for people, animals and the environment alike.The population in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa is often perceived as being less educated because many cannot speak English, French or Portuguese or do not know how to read and write. However, much knowledge in most African cultures is based on oral tradition. For hundreds of years, indigenous knowledge has been handed down from one generation to the next. Given that many of these cultural groups still exist today, it might be an option to consider their ways of dealing with risks associated with food.All over Africa, fires are used to prepare meat. During the night, wild predators would not come anywhere near a fireplace to take the meat and throughout the day, meat on the fire scared off nuisance flies. In South Africa, a big pot used to be left on the fire, meat and vegetables were constantly added and the stew literally simmered for hours over hot coals. This is still practised today by both locals and visitors and is known as potjiekos (pot food). Long cooking times have proved to be one of the most effective and feasible ways of eliminating disease-causing microbes but it is not the best way of retaining nutrients. Moreover, cooking in iron pots has been associated with other health risks.Solar energy is a rich resource in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa and sundrying is an effective method of preserving meat by extracting water. The water in raw meat and fish serves as a medium for the multiplication of microbes. Thus, drying is one of the most common practices for preserving these food products, not only in Africa but elsewhere in the world. Sometimes, the food is impregnated with salt and spices that catalyse drying and add extra flavour. In South Africa, even today, meat from domestic animals is still sliced, dried and eaten as biltong. Fish from the great freshwater lakes in East and southern Africa is left in the sun for several days and then stored before being cooked in a sauce with tomatoes and onions. Along the coast in West and East Africa, fish is traditionally smoked over fire.Storing food off the ground, eating food while it is still hot and washing hands before eating are well-known good hygienic practices. However, washing hands could pose a health risk if the water is not clean or if soap is not used. Increasing populations result in people and animals sharing the same sources of water (Chapter 10), leading to increased risk of people contracting water-borne animal diseases (Chapter 11). Some traditional practices are still useful today for contributing to food safety. In eastern Africa, women separate 'bad' and 'good' milk, thus mitigating the risk of cross-contamination during pooling of milk. Additionally, they use locally produced pots made of unbaked clay to store their milk at home. These pots serve as a 'refrigerator' due to the cooling effect of evaporation. The women usually cover these pots with nets or a cloth to protect the milk from flies or dust.Milk is particularly important to West and East Africans. In the rural areas, where cooling facilities are lacking, surplus milk is often fermented into sour milk, yoghurt and cheese. What is called ergo in Ethiopia is known as maziwa lala in Kenya and féné in Mali. Joy Appiah from Ghana noted that the fermentation of milk confers some safety for consumers as it produces acid which kills some of the germs in milk. However, the backslopping method (adding a portion of previously fermented milk as starter culture to initiate fermentation of a new batch) is a potential source of contamination. Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina found that fermentation could not guarantee a uniform product and that acid was sufficient to inhibit growth of all pathogens (Chapter 17). Fermentation is not only used for milk and dairy products but also for the production of Ethiopian yeast-risen flatbread, injera, which is traditionally made out of flour from grains of the local lovegrass species, teff (see Figure 54).Most Africans eat their food with bare hands, sharing the same plate with several people as part of their culture (Figures 58 and 59). With the absence of toilets and water for washing hands, there is a high risk of diarrhoeal disease, though not necessarily zoonotic. As Sylvain Gnamien Traoré from Côte d'Ivoire concludes, indigenous knowledge can improve food safety but traditional misperceptions can result in adverse effects.According to John Kago from Kenya, diarrhoea and stomach ache are the most common problems associated with food poisoning. However, not everyone associated this with disease-causing microorganisms in the food or poor hygiene. Cameline Mwai is from Kenya's Kikuyu ethnic group and she recalled that if her people eat outside their homes ('chips in town') and fall sick afterwards, they associate diarrhoea with food eaten somewhere else and mostly because of 'too much oil' rather than infectious disease. Therefore, they only eat food that is well done when they eat out. People in her home village slaughter and consume meat without prior inspection, which she considers ignorant behaviour, and she does not understand why they do not take advantage of her profession as a veterinarian.In Tanzania, Edgar Mahundi reported that people were indeed aware of diseases being transmitted by eating contaminated meat. People in Arusha vividly  Source: Antoine Bassa Yobouet recalled the 2007 outbreak of Rift Valley fever that killed more than 100 people who had eaten infected meat. They were also aware that too much meat can cause diseases such as gout, but nobody knew about campylobacteriosis being a hazard in the most popular dish, nyama choma.Ethiopians love to eat raw red meat, Fanta Desissa states. Some know about the associated risks and take their own precautions by drinking katikala, a local liquor made of grains containing 75% alcohol, as they eat raw meat. Similar customs have been observed in Germany where people drink herbal liquor after a heavy meal as a digestive. In France, this small tot is called eau de vie (water of life), a clear, colourless, fruit brandy.Marisa Spengler, a Safe Food, Fair Food participant from Germany, observed that in Ethiopia, most villagers considered raw milk to be 'good' and did not associate disease with milk consumption. Some of them did, however, but went to traditional healers or paramedics if they suffered from diarrhoea or fever. In her study area Siraro, diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal infections were among the top ten diseases; the cause remains mostly unknown but contaminated food and water are the likely culprits.In East Africa, it is commonly known that milk should be boiled to prevent disease and fast deterioration, whereas in West Africa, boiling of milk is not widely practised. All Safe Food, Fair Food participants from Mali, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana confirmed that boiling milk is a taboo (Chapter 20). There are more than 12 million Fulani, the traditional cattle herders, who are found everywhere from Senegal to Cameroon. Cattle occupy a central position in the society, with the Fulani often putting the welfare of their animals above their own. For the Fulani, milk cannot make people sick. The most dominant group in Mali are the Bambara, originally farmers. Nowadays, they keep some livestock, partly to use the organic manure for their fields and partly as a financial back-up for hard times. The Bambara often hire a Fulani to look after their livestock as they are considered to be 'real herders'. Therefore, they are largely influenced by Fulani practices.Antoine Bassa Yobouet adds that if the Fulani suffer from diarrhoea after drinking milk, it is not called a disease because they drink the milk to prevent constipation in the first place. Those who get sick are simply not used to it or drank too much at once. Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina explains that others consume raw milk in the morning because they are normally in a hurry to go to work and thus do not have time to boil it first. They believe that 'plain milk' can cause 'malaria' although this is not because of the milk per se but the microbes it contains. These microbes may have been introduced into the milk during handling. For yet others, disease might be associated with food consumed at the same time as milk. 'Malaria' actually refers to the symptom of fever and is often linked to the bread that accompanies the milk. However, it is scientifically inconceivable that milk can transmit malaria. But linking it with this food-borne disease refers to the symptoms (vomiting, fever or headache) that are often experienced by those who consume milk of poor microbiological quality. This is a false and dangerous conclusion, as these symp-toms are similar to those of diseases such as tuberculosis or brucellosis (Chapter 19) and treatment for malaria would not help.In Ghana, Joy Appiah recalls farmers who usually report a surge in the prevalence of cattle diseases with the onset of the rains. They attributed it to the consumption of fresh grass. The majority of Ghanaian consumers surveyed mentioned diarrhoea as a usual and direct consequence of consuming raw milk. However, none thought that the consumption of unwholesome food could result in symptoms such as spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, premature births and even epilepsy, which were worryingly common among them. Furthermore, some others who had come to the conclusion that raw milk consumption could cause illness said their antidote was to consume it less frequently, oblivious to the fact that a single exposure might be enough for infection and consuming less milk is bad for their nutrition as well as the domestic dairy industry. Some ethnic groups in South Africa believe that disease derives from a person but not from germs. They call it 'bad hand' and refer to witchcraft. Nenene Qekwana carried out research on traditional slaughter rituals in South Africa and explained that if people got sick from ritually slaughtered meat it was because the ancestors were not contented with the sacrifice. If people got sick after eating food at a funeral they associated it with the dead person being angry with somebody.Certain cultural and religious beliefs expose people to a higher risk because of certain practices, as in the case of Muslims who are found all over in Africa with higher numbers in the West. The end of the Ramadan fasting season is likely the Understanding values and culture is crucial for food safety management 101In Ghana, consumers associate diarrhoea with the consumption of raw milk. Even though bacterial infestation of milk might be one reason, it could also be lactose intolerance, as documented by Kretchmer (1972), 2 which is considered to be high amongst blacks (Scrimshaw and Murray 1988). 3 Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest lactose, a sugar found in milk. People who lack the enzyme required to break down this sugar in the digestive tract experience symptoms including abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhoea and nausea soon after drinking milk. Lactose intolerance is said to be a handicap. However, it is actually part of human evolution. In the past, milk was given to children only. After weaning, the number of enzymes digesting the milk sugar eventually decreased. This natural development became a handicap when adults started drinking milk or eating yoghurt, butter or cheese. most important Islamic festival. Some 80-90% of Malians are Muslims and when the month of Ramadan is over, the entire country bustles with preparations for la grande fête de Tabaski (Eid al Adha or the Feast of the Sacrifice). After the morning prayer, thousands of male sheep are slaughtered in accordance with the rules in the Holy Qur'an. After the animals are slaughtered, the entire family takes part in preparing the big feast. The head of the family trims and dresses the carcass. The children help to cut the carcass into pieces and hang it off the ground. They will later leave the house to wander the neighbourhood giving meat to relatives or people in need in return for gifts for their own family. While the sheep is taken apart, the women gather in the kitchen and boil rice, chop vegetables and stir the stew with meat and offal. Several courses are served throughout the day and eating is the main activity, only interrupted by drinking glasses of green tea.In theory, because of Islamic religious law, Muslims are not exposed to certain diseases of animal origin as they are not allowed to eat carrion, blood products or pork, all of which are considered dirty. 4 However, due to their customs, they might be at risk of exposure to other diseases (Figures 60 and 61). They also follow certain rules of etiquette that save them from hazards. Among Muslims, the left hand is reserved for bodily hygiene and considered unclean. Thus, only the right hand should be used for eating.According to Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos from Mozambique, Seventhday Adventists are not allowed to eat fish that do not have fins and scales. The Seventh-day Adventists are known for presenting a 'health message' that recommends vegetarianism and expects adherence to the kosher laws, 5 that is, abstinence from pork, shellfish and other foods that are said to be 'unclean'. Therefore, Seventh-day Adventists will most likely not suffer from infections with lung flukes which can be transmitted through consumption of shellfish, as investigated in Côte d'Ivoire (Chapter 34).Religious rules and risks associated with food of animal origin are relatively easy to identify compared to thousands of customs practised on the level of ethnic groups or even families. The Maasai in East Africa are basically the counterpart of the Fulani in West Africa who believe that 'the true Fulani is the one who loves raw milk'. The Maasai believe that God has given all the cows to them only, so if anyone else has cattle, it is because at some time in the past they stole the animals from the Maasai. When the Maasai practise transhumance, their lives depend on their cattle. They live off the raw milk and even drink the blood from the live animal without killing it. This practice has also been witnessed among herders in South Sudan (Figure 62) and leaves them highly exposed to contact diseases such as anthrax, brucellosis and zoonotic tuberculosis.Because of a lack of knowledge of the bacterial hazards associated with raw milk, many ethnic groups put the most vulnerable members of their communities at risk. Mothers in Ethiopia, Mali and Côte d'Ivoire mean well when they give their children and the elderly raw milk every day, so long as the family cow is Source: ILRI/Kristina Roesel lactating, as milk is considered to be a nutritious source of energy. In some ethnic groups in South Africa, it is the old women who get to eat the aborted foetus of an animal, whereas young women are forbidden to do so as it is said to cause abortion. These young women must also not eat eggs or cheese, as it is widely believed that doing so would cause them to enter puberty too early. Many of these eating habits seem to be related to fertility. In some ethnic groups in South Africa, if old men are 'struggling', they are supposed to eat red offal to improve virility. In West Africa, this feature is attributed to raw milk and raw crabs.All these cultural peculiarities have to be considered when assessing, managing and communicating food-borne health risks. Assessing these risks is one big test which the participants of the project tried to tackle. After identifying them, ways and means of managing them need to be set up and implemented. Here another challenge arises: how do you convince an 85-year-old Fulani chief in Mali, who never suffered from food-borne disease, to suddenly change his beliefs and habits? After all, he is the key person in the village advising and leading the entire community. While appreciation has grown of the high costs of food-borne disease, the costs of food safety are sometimes forgotten. Everyone wants improved quality but someone has to pay the price and those who cannot afford to may have to go out of business. The informal market can no longer operate in traditional ways. Urbanization, globalization, technological change and agricultural intensification are changing the way in which markets function. As markets evolve, there is a natural tendency for formal standards to become stricter and better enforced and for private-sector standards to proliferate. The costs of meeting standards will fall disproportionately on small producers as they need to change most. This 'retail revolution' is occurring more slowly in sub-Saharan Africa, but change is already evident. In Kenya, supermarket sales are growing at 18% per year and accounted for 20% of retail urban food by 2003. Smallholder production is expanding but there is less evidence that smallholders are improving the quality and safety of food they sell. Indeed, many people think that smallholder farmers are unlikely to produce food of adequate safety and quality in the absence of incentives and support. The benefits of food safety are reaped by consumers, so there is a public health argument for helping smallholder farmers to improve their practices. Farmers who cannot meet standards will be excluded from the higher-value domestic and international markets starting to emerge in Africa. This raises the real possibility that unless something is done, poor Can food safety be pro-poor? 107Following his inauguration speech at the opening of a new dairy, the president of the dairy cooperatives, Alou Karagnara, decided to send his children and all of his nephews to school. His village called Bakawêrê is located about 17 kilometres away from the dairy and is home to people of the Djawambé ethnic group who are traditionally livestock keepers and normally do not take their children to school.During his survey (Chapter 19), researcher Ibrahim Sow chatted with Alou, who said he had never thought that they could ever sell their milk through channels like the new cooperative and had never imagined speaking in front of a camera. In response to the question on what he regrets most in life, he said that he regretted not having learned how to read and write.'What prevents you from sending your children to school?' the researcher asked. 'Nothing,' replied Alou. 'It was simply our tradition not to send our children to school. I had never been to one until the dairy organized training courses at a school. There, we learned about good breeding practices and their advantages.'The dairy helped the community to improve productivity of their animals through better livestock management that included providing feed supplements. The supplements can be obtained from the dairy against interest-free credit. Access to marketing channels and additional jobs that have been created also helped increase the revenues of rural communities. Alou plans to send his children and nephews to school by bicycle as the nearest school is 10 kilometres away from their village.PAFLACIN is the French acronym for Projet d'appui à la filière lait de Cinzana (project to support the dairy sector in Cinzana). The dairy was opened in 2008 with the aim to benefit five different groups: livestock owners, wives of dairy farmers, herders, unemployed youth and consumers. The project has set up six cooperatives to promote the collection and processing of milk, supply wholesalers, retailers and end consumers with pasteurized and fermented milk, and render technical and social services like loans to producers (Figure 63). farmers will lose market share, miss out on opportunities offered by the Livestock Revolution and become increasingly marginalized.As well as opportunities lost, the inability of the smallholder value chain to meet safety standards exposes participants to harassment from authorities. In Kenya, for example, the costs incurred by milk traders as a result of operating informally included bribes to police, discarded milk and confiscated milk cans; these amounted to 38% of the total market margins accruing to traders (total revenues less procurement costs). Unfortunately, there is little evidence that 'command and control' and harassing small-scale farmers and traders actually improves food safety. Indeed, it may make things worse. A study on peri-urban dairying in Kampala found that farmers who (incorrectly) believed that urban dairying was legal were more likely to carry out risk-mitigating procedures such as using metal milk containers and washing containers with hot water and disinfectant. This is only to be expected. Once something becomes illegal, there is a 'race to the bottom' and little reason for people to invest in good practices.Risk analysis offers a new approach to managing food safety. Not only is it more effective at decreasing risks, but it can bridge food safety and livelihood concerns. The first component of risk analysis, risk assessment, generates an estimate of negative health impacts of a hazard as well as the likelihood of their occurrence. This Source: Sow (2011) information can then be compared with economic data on the costs and benefits of smallholder production and marketing (including externalities such as income opportunities for poor women or environmental degradation from abattoirs), and the costs and benefits of risk mitigation.This allows decision-makers to set appropriate levels of protection based on evidence rather than anecdote and subjective preference. Moreover, the focus on a 'farm-to-fork' pathway approach allows the identification of risk mitigation points along the food value chain. This can help identify interventions that maintain market access for smallholders. Risk analysis is also compatible with the development aims of African governments as shown by a recent regional conference in which African countries, recognizing the importance of food safety and their limited capacity to assure it, called for a risk analysis approach and capacity building at national level.Occasionally, it is said that in countries which are food-insecure, food safety cannot and should not be a priority. This attitude is being replaced with a more holistic perspective that sees food security and food safety as inter-dependent (Box 21).Everyone is part of the informal market (Chapter 2). However, those supplying it are not there because they like operating informally but because they have to make a living. The poor not only dominate informal markets but are also the most vulnerable to disease. They only see a doctor if they cannot work anymore and this leads to a vicious cycle: they are not paid for the time they are not working and sometimes spend more than they can afford to receive treatment at a hospital. It is even worse if several members of the family are ill and not able to work. If they cannot afford medical care they are at risk of life-long disabilities or long-term debt. Moreover, not being able to work in the fields can result in food insecurity.The WHO quantifies the burden of disease by using metrics such as disabilityadjusted life years (DALYs). One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of 'healthy' life. The sum of these DALYs across the population, or the burden of disease, can be thought of as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal health situation where the entire population lives to an advanced age, free of disease and disability. 1   Can food safety be pro-poor? 109Life expectancy is low in developing countries where food security is often seen as more important than food safety due to high levels of undernourishment in the population (Unnevehr 2003). 2   DALYs for a disease or health condition are calculated as the sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to premature death in the population and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for reported cases of the health condition: DALY = YLL+YLD.By calculating these metrics, the WHO determined the two leading causes of disease burden to be infectious disease: lower respiratory infections and diarrhoeal diseases. In countries with good data, it is often the case that livestock and fish products are the foods most commonly implicated in food-borne disease. Given that people share 60% of their diseases with animals, that is not surprising. Moist, nutrient-rich foods such as meat and milk also provide a better environment for bacteria to grow than dry foods such as cereals or vegetables.But as well as being implicated in making people sick, livestock and fish also contribute to good health through the nutrients they supply. In poor countries, livestock and fish feed billions and provide them with energy and proteins. Fish account for more than half of the animal protein intake for the 400 million poorest people in Africa and South Asia. Meat, milk, eggs and fish are important sources of the micro-nutrients and high-quality proteins essential for growth and health.Many of the Safe Food, Fair Food studies found post-process contamination to be a main problem for food safety in informal markets. Ironically, most of the measures that mitigated the risk of food-borne disease along the value chain did not require heavy investments.There is agreement among the Safe Food, Fair Food participants that if hygiene were practised the poor would benefit. A study in Côte d'Ivoire showed poor hygiene leads to post-process contamination of milk. If European Union (EU) quality standards were implemented, 60% of the milk in the study area would have to be discarded per day. However, many stakeholders of informal food value chains seem to lack either training on good personal hygiene and good manufacturing practices or the prerequisites such as potable water and electricity to work in a sanitary environment. Sometimes they lack both. The situation is far from uniform. We found that many dairy farmers in Kenya and Tanzania observed good practices such as washing hands before milking and cleaning the udder of the cow, while dairy farmers in other countries often did neither.Good hygiene practices are open to everyone and it is the responsibility of governments to provide adequate frameworks and preconditions. Children must be taught while they are still young that it is healthy to wash their hands with warm water and soap before eating. Keeping food covered and cool as well as thorough cooking must be promoted among mostly female vendors. However, campaigns like this need to be coordinated by government agencies and thus require collaboration and communication between departments that hold mandates related to food safety. There is often better success if messages are marketed in such a way as to make behaviour change socially desirable rather than just focusing on a health message.A big problem in all the countries where we worked was the disconnection between policy and practice. In South Africa, government officials were reported to be too rigid on enforcement of regulations with no provision for training or skills development. In West and East Africa, existing regulations were reportedly not properly enforced. We argue that this is because the policies and regulations are often inappropriate and based on 'inspect and punish' rather than 'explain and support'. This is an area where participatory approaches to risk management can be much more effective than top-down measures.Mali is home to more goats and sheep than people. Eight million cows produce 300,000 litres of milk annually. However, the country still relies on imports, especially to meet the rising demand for milk by the growing number of urban consumers in the cities. This presents an opportunity for rural dairy farmers to benefit from new urban markets, if their produce is safe for human consumption and actually finds its way to the big cities.The formation of cooperatives linked to dairy plants in rural areas, such as PAFLACIN in Cinzana in Mali, has had great benefits. Dairy farmers are able to pool their milk and supply it to the dairy plant which then sells it to wholesalers who supply the retailers in the urban centres. The women who are involved in most of the milk handling and trading are trained in milk hygiene and quality improvement. They learn to use lactometers to measure the density of milk and detect unfair and unsafe adulteration of milk. They do basic tests to assess the level of contamination of raw milk and they learn to pasteurize the milk, a practice that previously had been unknown and even condemned by the dairy farmers who are mostly Fulani to whom milk is sacred. However, work still needs to be done to address the bias of the women boiling milk for sale but not for home consumption. In addition, the set-up and running costs of cooperatives can be a challenge to this model of milk supply.Cooperatives are one way to link informal with formal markets (Figure 64). Shashi Ramrajh found another way. With many years of experience as a veterinarian Can food safety be pro-poor? 111 FIGURE 64 Crossovers only from formal to informal markets.Informal processing and marketingInformal production in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, she regularly supervises 'game harvests' at commercial game farms. Dozens of impala antelope are shot during the night and procured to the export abattoir following evisceration in the field and primary meat inspection. The meat is sold to end consumers who can afford it, the pluck (heart, liver and lungs) is processed into pet food and the tripe (intestines), head and feet are left behind for the vultures. Since the heads are still covered with muscle and tripe is also rich in protein, Ramrajh investigated whether there was demand for venison offal in local communities living next to game farms (Figure 65). It was found that there was indeed demand for offal but until then, the game harvesters had not considered supporting their neighbours with animal-source protein that had passed meat inspection and was safe for human consumption (Chapter 28).Recalling Edgar Mahundi from Tanzania who said 'Safeguard the informal market and you safeguard the society', more efforts for the benefit of the poor are necessary because they are the main producers and consumers in the informal markets. Fanta Desissa adds: 'With the key findings of the Safe Food, Fair Food project, we now have to go back and build capacity through training at all levels.' Notes It is the dawn of a new day in one of the sleepy villages that dot the majestic and expansive Great Rift Valley in Kenya. Sharon Kibet, a middle-aged woman, wakes up, braving the cold morning to milk her two dairy cows and prepare her children for school. She warms some water and later heads to the makeshift milk parlour where the cows gather upon seeing her. She calls the first cow by name and, like a faithful servant, it heads to the parlour where she embarks on milking. She washes the udder with a cloth and the water she had warmed and proceeds to wipe off the excess water using her hands. She applies milking salve and starts milking. She repeats this with the other cow and thereafter, releases both to graze in the expansive pasture. She sets part of the milk aside for breakfast while the rest is put in a yellow plastic 3-litre container ready to be transported to the milk collection centre which is less than half an hour's walk from her homestead. The dairy cooperative she belongs to has organized farmers around her area into dairy management groups, each with a maximum of 15 members. Each group constitutes a collection centre where farmers leave their milk awaiting transportation to a cooling plant about 10km away and onward to the processors in the big city. The transporters fill the milk from the collection centres into 50-litre aluminium containers. It takes two to three hours before they collect all the milk from the different collection centres and transport it to the cooling plant (Figures 66  and 67).• Men and women dominate or are excluded from different segments of the food value chain, and this varies by culture and geography. • As a result, women and men get different benefits from informal food markets and are exposed to different risks. • In addition to socio-cultural roles affecting health, men, women, the old, the young and other groups may have different vulnerabilities to different diseases. • Informal food production, processing and marketing are of high importance to women's livelihoods and offer new opportunities. • As agri-food chains change and evolve, the opportunities and risks also change.Gender aspects of informal markets for animal-source food 115Various tests are carried out on the raw milk to check for adulteration or contamination before it is accepted. Some of the bulked milk is rejected and the farmers concerned will have to bear the losses. Unfortunately for Sharon, her milk was in one of the containers that were rejected. She will have to either painfully pour the rejected milk away or take it back home. It is particularly bitter for her that she does not get an explanation of whose fault it was that the milk went bad. She walks off wondering whether tomorrow will be a better day. Almost two-thirds of the world's 925 million poor livestock keepers are rural women, and women often predominate in urban agriculture, which fits well with their traditional care-taking and house-holding roles. Women often have greater involvement in keeping poultry and small ruminants and men in larger animals; dairying is an interesting exception where the roles of women and men vary dramatically between cultures.Animal slaughter is also often differentiated by gender with women being responsible for killing poultry typically inside the home, but most slaughter of larger animals outside the home being done by men. Small-scale processing of animal products to make traditional products is frequently a woman's task while more modern, industrialized operations (such as dairy cooperatives) are often dominated by men, at least in managerial and ownership roles.In Africa, the majority of perishable food, such as livestock and fish products and fresh vegetables, is sold in small-scale, traditional markets which may be called 'informal' or 'wet' markets. They are typically covered or open markets run by local or municipal authorities, which consist of tens to hundreds of small kiosks, tables or spaces on the floor where food and other products are sold. These markets often lack refrigeration, electricity, running water and proper 116 Food safety in sub-Saharan Africa FIGURE 67 Bulked milk being offloaded at the cooling plant.Source: Kevin Kabui waste disposal. In most cultures, both women and men can sell and buy in these markets but there are often gender differences depending on the products and place. They succeed in serving a broad range of customers with lower prices and at quality that is often equal to and sometimes superior to that of supermarkets.Street food, whether sold by itinerant vendors or from pavement establishments, is another important part of the informal food sector. It is a source of inexpensive, convenient and nutritious food and is especially important for the poor who lack resources to prepare meals at home. In Ghana, for example, a study found that among the poorest quintile almost 40% of the total food budget goes to purchasing street food compared to just 2% in high-income households. Animal-source foods are among the most commonly sold street foods in most countries and often are derived from animals kept in cities. In most African countries, the majority of street food processors and vendors are women, while the majority of customers are men. As well as being one of the few livelihood strategies open to poor women, the street food sector is of great importance to the economy. In South Africa, it is probably the single largest informal sector employer, in Harare around 9000 people are involved in street food vending (of whom 81% are women) and in Ghana the street food sector employs more than 60,000 people and has an estimated annual turnover of more than US$100 million.Almost everywhere in Africa, women are responsible for preparing and cooking food for consumption. This often includes acquiring the fuel needed for cooking, often wood, charcoal or animal dung. Pollution resulting from cooking over open fires or basic stoves has been linked to the deaths of 4 million people annually; women and children are most at risk.Women have an important role in producing, processing, selling and preparing food. These roles may have negative and positive impacts on their health and may also lead to differences in health outcomes for men and women. While some of this difference is attributable to biology (for example, women are more prone to auto-immune diseases and pregnancy brings many risks to health), differences in health and nutrition states are also attributable to gender. In some cases, men or boys may experience worse health outcomes.Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviour, activities and attributes that determine the power relations between men and women. It is a central organizing principle of societies and often determines the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution. Gender analyses take a close look at women's relationships with men and how these relations define women's roles, rights (access to and control of resources), division of labour, interests and needs. This analysis can help explain social determinants for undesirable health outcomes and hence help find ways to better prevent them. Some of the questions which gender analysis can help answer are:• How do the differing roles of women and men affect their exposure to hazards? • How does the biology of women and men, young and old, healthy and sick affect their vulnerability to different diseases? • As food systems undergo change and evolution, how might this advantage or disadvantage different women and men? • How do women and men differ in their capacity to manage risk and how can we best enhance risk management?The next sections set out some of the findings from our case studies especially relevant to gender considerations around food in informal markets.In our studies, we found that milk production in West Africa was often dominated by men. For example, in Ghana, men own the cattle and are responsible for milking, feeding and care; women and girls may assist with cleaning, collecting water and feeds. However, the women were responsible for the boiling and fermentation of the milk as well as its sale. This is true even for Muslim groups, where women's roles are often more confined. Similarly, in Mali, local milk production is in the hands of the men, except for milk from small ruminants (Figure 68). Often, Fulani herders -who are considered the 'true cattle keepers' -are hired to take care of the animals at dairy farms of other ethnic groups. The milking of the cows is done by either the male Fulani herders or the male children in the family. The man as the head of the family hardly ever does the milking himself, and the women must not do it at all. However, the very moment the milk pours into the calabashes, it belongs to the women who take it to the market or prepare it for home consumption.In one of the areas we studied in Kenya, informal urban smallholder dairy production is dominated by women; they actually hire men for labour. It is also the women who decide how and where to market their animals and how the money will be used. They may share the profits with men but do not have to. This pattern changes in the more commercialized urban dairy units. Moreover, in the rural areas, and depending on the ethnic group, men have more power in dairy cattle production and decision-making. Even in these communities, women usually have an important role in feeding, watering, milking and disposing of the milk. This is not the case for the butcher trade which is dominated by men. The Safe Food, Fair Food project surveys on beef safety in peri-urban Kenya (Chapters 21 and 22) found only two female butchers; all of the other value chain actors were men.These different roles of men and women naturally lead to different benefits and risks. In West Africa, men are more at risk from occupational zoonoses associated with direct contact with cattle during milking, while in Kenya farms where women are milking the situation is reversed.It was found in Mali that cows are only slaughtered and eaten when diseased or when they die of exhaustion. In such cases, the men who slaughter the cows may be exposed to occupational diseases such as brucellosis or anthrax. However, since the meat is subsequently thoroughly cooked, the risk to consumers -who are both men and women -is low. During traditional ceremonies, the meat is grilled by men who do not wash their hands prior to food preparation as they assume hazardous bacteria will be killed when the meat is roasted. The rest of the edible carcass is then cooked by the women of the community and shared among everyone during the feast.Gender segregation, and hence segregation of risks and benefits, was also seen with artisanal coastal fishing in West Africa. Men are responsible for the fishing but women are in charge of the on-shore processing (smoking) and marketing. In our survey in Côte d'Ivoire, the smoking process was found to be a high-risk practice for the women who are exposed to carcinogens such as PAHs (Chapter 33). Almost 90% of the 423 respondents of the survey were women, 59% of them with Source: Valentin Bognan Koné no secondary education. Smoking and selling fish is an important source of livelihood and one that women dominate. Most of them considered the revenues from their business as satisfactory but complained about symptoms related to the smoking process (headaches and eyestrain). Fish is consumed by men and women alike, so nutritional benefits can be considered similar.In our study in Ghana (Chapter 32), women also had the main role in drying and selling fish. In addition, more than 60% of the fish consumers were women. However, this study did not find higher risks because the food-borne hazards identified were eliminated by cooking. So in this case, women capture benefits from processing, sale and nutrition without having to bear much extra risk.In some cases, consumption patterns also varied by gender or other social grouping. A related study in Nigeria, for example, found that women were more likely to eat offal and men to eat muscle meat (flesh). This has also been reported in Somalia. Offal can be more contaminated than flesh, especially in the case of intestines. However, some offal such as liver can be even more nutritious than flesh.In some cases, women may bear more of the risk because of greater vulnerability to pathogens. The study in Ghana was actually motivated when the lead researcher put two interesting findings together: first, the discovery for the first time of an important zoonotic disease in sheep in Ghana which he knew could cause abortion in women and, second, a worryingly high rate of abortion among women in some parts of Ghana. This zoonotic disease, listeriosis, caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, is considered to be one of the most important causes of food-borne illness in Europe.Our study found that milk consumption levels were similar between men and women in Ghana; in fact, women made up a slight majority of consumers (55%). Unfortunately, the survey also found that there was a risk that milk could be contaminated by bacteria at the point of consumption. This was largely driven by the practice of drinking milk that had not been boiled or pasteurized. However, although women had the same level of exposure to the bacteria as men did, their health risk could be much higher. This is because many pathogens, especially Listeria monocytogenes or Brucella abortus, present more risk to pregnant women and their unborn babies. In case of an outbreak of listeriosis, 20-30% of people falling sick are likely to die.Mortality in babies, pregnant women, elderly people and immune-compromised is estimated to be as high as 80-99%. Sadly, almost half of the interrogated women in our survey in Ghana (Chapter 16) had experienced spontaneous abortions, about one-third of them more than once. Almost 86% had experienced at least one case of stillbirth. Most of these lost the baby during the third trimester of the pregnancy. In food safety, we often talk about YOPIs -that is, the young, the old, the pregnant and the immune-suppressed -as being at most risk, as these are the groups that are most likely to have serious illness from food-borne disease.There is often concern that supporting newer, larger and more industrial agri-food enterprises can actually be detrimental to women, because openings in these industries are more easily filled by men. One way of preventing this is to ensure that development interventions are targeted at women or at least help them to participate.In one study in West Africa, we found that new dairy cooperatives that were intended to benefit women processors succeeded at this. However, the higher standards these cooperatives introduced had some unanticipated effects on health risks.In Mali, the women who traditionally process the milk are mostly married to the dairy farmers. They are in charge of the storage, processing and sales of raw, fresh and sour milk to customers in the villages. When the small dairy farm PAFLACIN was set up in Cinzana, Mali (Box 20), the traditional marketing channels started changing. Many of the women who formerly processed the milk were trained by PAFLACIN and began working for the cooperative that supplied the dairy plant. They collect the milk from producers and pasteurize it before delivering it to the dairy where it is eventually sold. While milk for sale is normally pasteurized, raw milk is still consumed at home (Chapter 20). The cooperative buys the milk from the women if it complies with certain quality standards like freshness and freedom from adulteration with water. Milk that does not meet the quality standards is rejected and is mostly processed into féné for home consumption; this may pose a health risk to the women and their families.In Abidjan, milk production and marketing in the local dairy sector is dominated by men because the milk producers are largely immigrants who are not married. Africa is urbanizing rapidly, but in many places young men predominate among the new migrants to cities. This can mean that women are inadvertently displaced from their traditional occupations.It is not only women who are at risk from changing food markets. Previously, in West Africa, hired herders were paid in kind with milk for their work, but today they are often paid in cash. This is because nowadays, women in Mali and Mauritania have better access to markets and can generate cash from selling the milk: money which can then be used to cover for expenses other than labour, such as food items. However, the herder stands to lose an important nutritional benefit. Not only the herder; one of the popular foods purchased with the 'milk money' is milk powder which is later reconstituted and fed to the children.Other studies show that informal marketing can open new opportunities for women. In Mozambique, contrary to most of the other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, there are a number of women involved in cattle trade as agents and intermediaries, the goat value chain is dominated by men and the informal poultry chain (as is usual) is dominated by women. Other projects in Kenya have found that women's pastoralist groups can successfully manage the traditionally maledominated trade of transporting and marketing goats.The fact that a few women are found in traditionally male occupations such as butchering suggests there may be openings for greater participation of women in some value chain activities. In many cases, the formal sector may also discriminate against either men or women. For example, in Mozambique, as in many African countries, it is only men who are employed in the formal poultry slaughterhouses, whereas in many developed countries the majority of poultry slaughterhouse employees are women. This suggests there are also opportunities for improving the efficiencies of the informal sector by expanding the employment base. In other cases, for example slaughter of cattle, participation of women is limited by the lack of labour-saving equipment as well as the challenging work environment.Findings from our studies in South Africa show that the majority of informal vendors involved in the sale of ready-to-eat chicken and chicken by-products in Tshwane, Pretoria are women between 25 and 50 years old (Chapter 26). The majority of the informal outlets are run as private business and only very few young people and males are involved in the trade. The majority of the women have completed secondary education; some of them even tertiary. These women traders run their businesses in the streets rather than inside open market areas provided by the municipalities for a daily fee in order to exploit areas with numerous clients such as bus terminals, taxi ranks and industrial sites which are sometimes violent working environments (Chapter 26). The vendors work for about 10-12 (sometimes up to 15) hours a day without taking a break, sometimes starting as early as three in the morning when commuters leave for work. But because it is their own business, they are able to capture many of the benefits of their hard work. Moreover, the products they sell are nutritious, attractive to their target audience and largely safe.Several of the studies considered possible interventions that would increase the ability of women and men to manage risks. For example, in the case of smoking fish in Abidjan, the use of certain types of wood reduces risk. Many of the risks around exposure to milk-borne pathogens are also linked to lack of knowledge and skills on safe processing.Given the important role of women in informal markets and the wide variation between men's and women's roles, risks and opportunities, it is clear that taking into account gender is important for understanding and improving informal food markets.Examples from the Safe Food, Fair Food project studies help show how gender awareness can ensure:• Men's and women's differential exposure to agriculture-related risks are better understood, particularly as it relates to health outcomes. • Women have increased capacity to manage risks and are more involved in the surveillance of risks. • Women directly benefit from interventions designed to reduce agricultureassociated diseases, taking into account roles and responsibilities that may put them at increased risk of exposure.Water is an important resource for the well-being of an ever-growing population, for a wide range of uses in agricultural, industrial and domestic activities (drinking, sanitation, cooking, etc.). Worldwide, the increasing deterioration of the quality and safety of water associated with declining resources, mismanagement and environmental pollution is becoming a challenge for development. These problems are even more pronounced in developing countries where technical, socio-economic and political commitments in the utilization of natural resources such as water do not exist.Clean water is essential for the production of clean and safe livestock products. Livestock require water for drinking and large amounts of water are used for cleaning animals and their environment, as well as for abattoir operations. Water is also required for cleaning and sometimes as an input in the transport, processing, retailing, storing and cooking of livestock products. Shortage of water is one of the major problems faced by livestock keepers in tropical areas such as Ethiopia and there is an intricate interrelationship between livestock and people often sharing the same water sources. In this respect, the objective of this study was to assess the sources, quality and accessibility of water for livestock and people as perceived by farmers.The study was carried out in two districts in the Ethiopian Rift Valley region -Siraro and Lume -representing different challenges related to the quality and quantity of water in Ethiopia. The production systems of both districts are characterized by mixed crop-livestock farming. Lume is located about 70km south of Addis Ababa in the midlands and has a sub-humid climate. Reportedly, seasonal feed and water shortages are the second most important constraints to livestock production in the area. 1 Although there is relatively more water available in Lume District than in Siraro, it is believed to be highly polluted with effluent from industrial activities such as tanneries and abattoirs. The Siraro District is located about 308km south of Addis Ababa and is characterized by flat topography and frequent droughts resulting in chronic water shortage for both humans and animals. This is an area especially vulnerable to climate change.A total of 320 households in four villages of each district were randomly selected to participate in a household survey. Prior to the interviews with the households, the objectives of the survey were explained and consent was sought. The interviews followed a structured questionnaire which had been translated into Oromo, a commonly spoken language in the study area. The result of the questionnaire survey was supplemented by farmers' group discussions and keyinformant interviews.The interviews and discussions aimed at finding out how farmers perceived access to clean water, where they sourced it, whether availability was a seasonal challenge and how they used the existing resources. The farmers talked about historical events related to water problems and how these problems were tackled in the past. Likewise of interest were livestock management practices in terms of feeding, housing and breeding. Assessment of the level of knowledge and the attitude of farmers about water diseases was another important aspect of the study. Consumption and handling practices were described and various questions on environmental hygiene discussed.Water scarcity was ranked as the first and second major constraints to livestock management in Siraro and Lume districts, respectively. A word of caution here: in discussions with farmers, they often place greater emphasis on issues they know the research team is interested in. Other studies on animal disease in Ethiopia show that farmers consider livestock disease to be the major constraint! Based on the preliminary findings, the farmers and their livestock have insufficient access to safe water; the majority of households in Lume (60%) and Siraro (97%) reported that water was scarce for livestock and people with a peak during the dry season from December to March. Based on this survey, only 31% and 2% of the households in Lume and Siraro districts, respectively, had access to improved water sources (household piped connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs or protected roof rainwater collection) within a 30-minute round trip from their homesteads.People and livestock in Lume used various alternative water sources (for example, rivers, lakes, hand-dug wells, standpipe boreholes, springs and dugouts), whereas in Siraro District, the Bilate River was the only permanent source of surface water. The river marks the extreme southwestern border of the district and is very inaccessible for most communities (about 25km straight-line map distance).Here, motorized boreholes constituted the common improved water sources in all seasons. Due to high competition for the boreholes, dugouts and cisterns were used during the rainy season.One-year outpatient case records were obtained from the health offices of the respective districts to assess the occurrence and health impacts of water-related diseases in humans from June 2009 to June 2010. Malaria, internal parasites and diarrhoea were the most commonly reported infections. Additionally, 4.4% of the respondents in Lume and 14.4% in Siraro reported having suffered from diarrhoea in the six months preceding the household interviews in July 2010.Water-related livestock illness or death was reported by 12.5% and 16.9% of the respondents in Lume and Siraro, respectively, during 12 months preceding the survey. The supposed reasons for livestock illness or death included drinking polluted river water (a common complaint in the surveyed villages located downstream of Mojo River, Lume), drinking stagnant water, sudden access to water after long deprivation and infection with liver flukes after grazing in waterlogged areas. It is not clear how these perceptions of water-related illness reflect actual causality.Samples of drinking water for people were collected from the source and at the point of consumption. People in the study sites obtained their drinking water from rivers, wells and pipes and stored them in containers. However, at the time this chapter was written, the results of the physical, chemical and bacteriological analysis of the water samples were not yet available. Preliminary results, however, showed that water samples from rivers, dugouts, springs and hand-dug wells were highly contaminated with E. coli indicating faecal contamination. Water from boreholes was found to be free from E. coli but the fluoride content was above the maximum limit for drinking. In small quantities, fluoride is essential for healthy teeth and bone development. However, long-term exposure to high levels of fluoride in drinking water can lead to dental fluorosis (mottled teeth). In children and adults alike, high amounts of fluoride cause skeletal fluorosis. This chronic disease is characterized by less flexible, stiff bones and joints and may even affect the spine.Better management of surface water through fencing of dugouts or provision of watering troughs for livestock can minimize contamination with livestock faeces. Existing indigenous methods of rainwater harvesting such as dugouts and cisterns, to mitigate water scarcity, should be promoted. Industrial pollution of Mojo River, which is the main source of water for livestock in Lume District, must be tackled by involving the various stakeholders, especially the owners of the abattoirs and tanneries that are reported to discharge their effluent into the river. Kebede Amenu holds an undergraduate degree in veterinary medicine and a Master of Science in tropical animal health. From 2002 to 2009, he worked as a lecturer at Hawassa University. In June 2009, he started his PhD and completed it in February 2013.Assessment of water sources and quality for livestock and farmers in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia: Implications for health and food safety.Kebede Amenu, • Most of the water and milk in Lume and Siraro districts in Ethiopia is not suitable for direct consumption and poses risks to human health. • Only about 5% of sampled water sources were safe for consumption.• Bacterial contamination of water varied with the region (lower in Lume than in Siraro). • Industrial effluent was highly contaminated and released directly into rivers.• Processed milk products showed no reduction of the bacterial load.• Milk spoilage was mainly due to contamination with bacteria, some of which caused disease.Water is vital for every living creature on earth. Humans and water are intricately related and people rely on water for both consumptive and productive reasons. Water contaminated by microbes or chemicals can adversely affect human health. WHO frequently issues guidelines for drinking-water quality. 1 However, water of acceptable standards is often not accessible in rural areas of developing countries such as Ethiopia. This implies that farmers might be obliged to use poor-quality water for drinking as well as for various livestock operations. Water used in milk production and processing should comply with quality standards equivalent to those for drinking water.The quality of water and milk is not necessarily monitored, especially in rural parts of developing countries such as Ethiopia. It is not clear to what extent water and milk are contaminated and where contamination occurs. Therefore, this study was carried out to assess the quality of water (at source and point of consumption), raw milk and fermented milk products in Lume and Siraro districts in rural Ethiopia. The study took place between July and August 2011.Lume and Siraro districts in Ethiopia represent two characteristic situations in developing countries with regard to the challenges of availability of water of adequate quantity and quality for domestic and livestock uses. In Lume, surface water is relatively more accessible than in Siraro where chronic shortages of water prevail. However, the water in Lume is exposed to pollution from industrial effluent from tanneries and abattoirs. Both water scarcity and pollution pose risks to human and animal health.Mixed crop and livestock farming is predominant in both districts. Farmers in Lume mainly grow teff (Eragrostis tef), wheat, maize and barley, and keep poultry, cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, mules, horses and bees. Siraro District is about the same size as Lume (600 square kilometres) and is home to about 168,000 people, as well as a considerable number of domestic animals similar to those kept by farmers in Lume. Farmers in Siraro grow mainly maize, haricot beans and potatoes. Additionally, raw milk and traditional dairy products are consumed in many of the homes of the estimated 300,000 people living in the two districts.Most of the milk is consumed at home (by 67% of households in Lume and 91% in Siraro), either raw or processed into sour milk (ergo), cottage cheese (ayib), skim milk or yoghurt. Results of the questionnaire survey indicated that approximately only 39% and 5% of respondents in Lume and Siraro, respectively, boiled milk prior to consumption. 2 The raw milk was stored in containers smoked with branches from the African olive tree (Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata), locally referred to as ejersa in the Oromo language. The smoke is said to enhance the taste of the fermented product and is also thought to have antimicrobial properties.For production of ergo, the raw milk is placed in a gourd and stored in a warm place to induce natural fermentation. After approximately 24 hours, the product is similar to sour milk. When ergo is further processed by churning, the fat is removed and the residue (buttermilk) is heated to 40-50°C until the curd and whey separate. The cheese generated from this process is called ayib. If there is any surplus of milk, it is mainly marketed through informal channels by either giving it to servants as wages in kind or selling it to neighbours or hotels (32% in Lume and 7% in Siraro). Only about 2% of milk in both districts was channelled to milk collection centres for further processing or sales.Water samples were taken from the commonly used sources in Lume and Siraro, namely rivers, dugouts, cisterns, rainwater from roofs, hand-dug wells and public borehole pumps. The samples were analysed following the WHO guideline protocol to determine physical and chemical parameters, as well as the bacterial counts of E. coli and total coliforms which are indicators of faecal contamination. E. coli in particular is internationally accepted as a key indicator of faecal contamination and the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality indicate that E. coli should be absent.The results showed that only about 5% of the sampled water sources could be regarded as safe for human consumption. E. coli, if present in water, would be more likely found in surface water than ground water. In this study, the organism was isolated from a sample of borehole water in Siraro. This could be a sign of very poor sanitation facilities resulting in excreta reaching the groundwater or defects in the pipe system of the pump.While water from borehole pumps in Lume was the least contaminated of the sampled water sources, rivers in the district were found to be highly polluted with industrial discharge and untreated sewage. Results of the chemical analysis showed that manganese concentrations exceeded WHO threshold levels by about 30% in water from hand-dug wells in Lume and dugouts in Siraro. Water sampled from boreholes in Siraro exceeded these cut-off points by 60%. Long-term exposure to high levels of manganese can lead to neurological disorders. The levels of chromium, which is toxic and carcinogenic, were also high and fluoride levels exceeded the WHO threshold by 20% for water from hand-dug wells in Lume and by 100% for borehole water in Siraro. This observation has been further investigated as part of a separate study (Chapter 10). In general, the analysis shows that water in commonly used sources was more contaminated in Siraro District than in Lume District.Raw milk samples for microbiological analysis were taken from storage containers in homes and at the milk collection centre and from containers used to transport milk to the collection centre. The analysis revealed that all samples had high levels of E. coli, total coliforms and total aerobic plate counts. E. coli was detected in the milk obtained from the udder, indicating an infection of the cow's udder. The rate of contamination increased slightly along the production chain, probably due to poor handling and storage, but the findings suggest that the problem of poor hygiene starts at farm level.Similarly, samples of traditional sour milk (ergo), locally produced soft cheese (ayib), yoghurt and skim milk were analysed for microbial quality. Ergo, ayib and skim milk had consistently high levels of E. coli and total coliforms as well as several spoilage bacteria. Some of the samples were contaminated with pathogenic species such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Escherichia and Salmonella.Several practices were observed during and after milking that could account for the high counts of bacteria in the raw milk samples. Before milking, the farmers cleaned the udders of the cows with dry hands or with water that was not of potable quality. Furthermore, the first squirts of milk that contain the highest levels of bacteria were not discarded. After milking, the teats were not dipped in antiseptic to prevent udder infection and the farmers only cleaned their hands with cold water from the same contaminated water source. None of the farmers in the study sites cooled the raw milk.Fanta Desissa, Kristina Roesel, Kohei Makita, Akafte Teklu, Girma Zewde and Delia Grace• Sale and consumption of raw milk are common in Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.• Staphylococcus aureus was present in milk at increasing levels from farm to milk collection centres. • Traditional processing of milk into local yoghurt and cheese plays a role in reducing the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning and protecting public health.Milk is a very good source of energy, protein, calcium and Vitamin C, especially for infants and children. Despite all the beneficial effects, milk can be a source of disease; the consumption of raw milk is particularly risky but still popular amongst numerous people in sub-Saharan Africa (Chapter 20). According to a report by UNICEF/WHO, 1 Ethiopia has the world's fifth highest number of annual child deaths due to diarrhoea. However, the cause remains mostly unknown. Staphylococcus aureus is a major cause of food-borne intoxications and outbreaks throughout the world because it is widespread and able to persist and grow under various conditions (Chapter 13). Staphylococcal food poisoning is one of the most common food-borne diseases in the world; it is caused by ingestion of a toxin that is produced by certain strains of the bacterium in food. The toxin resists heating to 100°C for at least 30 minutes, rendering it indestructible by pasteurization. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating and abdominal cramps are symptoms of staphylococcal food poisoning. The symptoms last for one to three days, the severity usually depending on the amount of contaminated food eaten and the levels of toxin ingested as well as the general health of the patient.Raw milk has been reported to be a known vehicle for disease-causing microorganisms for more than 100 years and disease outbreaks associated with the consumption of raw milk occur frequently. In Ethiopia, the consumption and informal marketing of raw milk are very common. As a result, the possibility of occurrence of staphylococcal food poisoning is highly likely. However, there is a lack of data on the occurrence and magnitude of S. aureus in cow milk at different points of the dairy value chain in the country.A risk in the context of food safety is the combination of probability and consequences of adverse health effects following the ingestion of food that harbours foreign agents (see Chapter 4). The separation of risk into two components is useful since it may be managed by actions to reduce both the probability of food intake high enough to cause disease and the consequences for public health and the economy. Whether or not there are public health implications associated with S. aureus in raw milk in Ethiopia depends on whether the microorganism and its toxin are present in the milk in the first place. The frequency of consumption of the milk and the quantity of microorganism and toxin ingested needs to be evaluated, as well as the factors that might reduce or increase the risk of ingestion by the end consumer. This assessment would help the authorities to manage the problem as they would know what risk factors to address. They would also be able to communicate the risk to the public in a way that would not cause panic among consumers but would provide alternatives for maintaining health.The dairy industry in Ethiopia is growing steadily and a shift towards a market economy is creating opportunities for private investments in urban and peri-urban dairying. Smallholder farmers also have the opportunity to benefit from the growing demand for dairy products through income and employment generation, resulting in poverty alleviation in the rural areas.Debre Zeit is located about 45km south of Ethiopia's capital city, Addis Ababa. The local Ada'a-Liben District Dairy and the Dairy Product Producer and Marketing Cooperative Society procure 24,000 litres of milk daily. The study found that 80% of the milk is supplied by urban farmers and the rest by peri-urban farmers. More than half of this milk is delivered to local milk collection centres, with a 10-fold higher share from urban farmers. From the collection centres, the milk is sold to processing plants in Debre Zeit and Addis Ababa and thus enters the formal market. The remaining milk is used for home consumption or sold to neighbours and milk bars. At milk bars, it is boiled and served to customers or used for traditional processing of yoghurt.During the survey, more than 200 milk samples were obtained from farms and milk collection centres to test for the presence of S. aureus. The results indicated a very high prevalence of the organism along the dairy chain, with increasing levels from farms (44%) to milk collection centres (72%) where raw and contaminated milk was sold to consumers. Moreover, one-third of consumers drank raw and home-made fermented milk. Milk in peri-urban areas was found to be more contaminated than that sampled in urban areas, supposedly due to cross-contamination with unhealthy herds and poor handling practices during transportation.About one-third of the 170 people interviewed drank half a litre of raw milk daily. Referring to the contamination rates shown in the present study, about 0.7% of the milk that is produced in Debre Zeit per day is likely to contain S. aureus and thus 333 out of the 95,000 people in Debre Zeit could fall ill from staphylococcal food poisoning every day.Interviews with key informants along the marketing chain made it possible to identify numerous points where the milk might have become contaminated with the bacteria. Dairy cattle were probably the main source of contamination of raw milk with S. aureus, as cows with asymptomatic udder inflammation may shed large numbers of the organism into the milk. Out of 24 respondents, 22 (92%) said their cows had recently experienced inflammation of the udder. Contamination from human handling is also possible as about 25% of the world population carries one or two strains of S. aureus on their skin and hair or in the nose and throat.Milking was done by hand early in the morning and in the evening, after which the raw milk was stored outside the house awaiting delivery to the collection centres. The milk was stored at a mean temperature of 20°C for about three hours in either metallic (70.6%) or plastic (29.4%) buckets. Because S. aureus doubles every 15-30 minutes, one cell can multiply into more than 2 million within seven hours, which is enough time to allow for the production of sufficient amounts of toxin to cause disease. There is normally a 12-hour time lag between milking and pasteurization at the processing plant.At the collection centres, the milk is checked for adulteration with water and contamination with hair, hay or faeces, after which it is collected in metal cans cleaned with soap and piped water. Only milk from cooperative members is purchased and pooled into a 50-litre container. The cooperative sells about 10% of the milk to the local community, local hotels and restaurants and the remainder is procured by the cooperative's processing plant and eventually sold to wholesalers that supply milk to various outlets in Addis Ababa.Boiling of milk is a common practice in hotels and restaurants as the owners are familiar with the risk of food poisoning associated with consuming raw milk. However, they had no information or awareness of the possibility of S. aureus being introduced to milk by unhygienic handling. Regular training or health check-ups were not reported.The common practice of storing milk at room temperature and transporting it in plastic containers, coupled with a lack of knowledge on the public health risks associated with consumption of raw milk and unhygienic milk handling, increases the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning in urban and peri-urban Debre Zeit.However, quantifying the likelihood of the risk would require an assessment of the prevalence of S. aureus in milk and the level of toxin produced. Unfortunately, this was not done due to resource constraints and represents a substantial knowledge gap requiring further investigation.Despite these alarming results, previous studies show that traditional fermentation of milk inhibits the growth of disease-causing microorganisms, including Staphylococcus, due to the action of lactic acid produced during fermentation. The present study found that about one-third of the sampled population, 95% in periurban areas and 13% in urban areas, did not boil milk before drinking it. However, 82% of them stored the milk at room temperature for at least one day.The fermentation of raw milk into traditional sour milk (ergo) and cottage cheese (ayib) was popular in many homes. Production of ergo involves leaving raw milk in a clay pot for three to five days at room temperature during which time spontaneous fermentation takes place through the action of the naturally occurring milk microflora. Ergo may also be used as a raw material in the production of ayib, whereby the fermented milk is regularly stirred, and with increasing acidity, the fat is skimmed off and used as butter while the residue curd is made into cheese.Stochastic modelling showed that traditional fermentation reduces the risk of staphylococcal food poisoning more than 15 times compared to the risk in raw milk. The risk of staphylococcal food poisoning is only 19.7 per 1000 people per year. Further analysis showed that initial bacteria counts and temperature affect risk the most. This means basic training on hygienic milk handling can significantly improve public health through reduced risk of staphylococcal food poisoning. However, there are other bacteria in raw milk likely to cause disease (Chapter 19), thus further investigation is required into how long milk needs to be fermented to render it safe from disease.Traditional risk mitigation strategies should be promoted, as well as training on hygienic handling and storage of milk at all levels of production and marketing. There is a need to increase awareness of producers and consumers on the importance of boiling milk before drinking it. Quality assurance along the value chain should be institutionalized and enforced at collection centres prior to pooling the milk. Raw milk should be particularly monitored by public health inspectors and further research should be carried out on quantifying the levels of toxin production in milk by S. aureus.Fanta Desissa was awarded his Master of Science degree in tropical public health from Addis Ababa University in 2010. He holds a veterinary degree and works as a lecturer in veterinary medicine at Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia.Quantitative risk assessment of consuming milk contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus in Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.Fanta Desissa, 1 Kohei Makita, 2,3 Akafte Teklu, 1 Girma Zewde 1 and Delia Grace In Tanzania, about 95% of the produced milk is consumed at home and seasonal surplus is marketed in urban centres through informal marketing agents. In Temeke Municipality, an urban district of Dar es Salaam, milk is sold to neighbours, local restaurants and milk kiosks where unpacked milk is retailed. These shops have mushroomed to meet the growing demand of the growing urban population. At kiosks, the milk is boiled before sale and served hot. Sometimes part of the raw milk is fermented and sold as sour milk.Previous studies in central Tanzania found that bacterial contamination of milk and dairy products with Staphylococcus aureus was common. S. aureus occurs frequently as part of the normal microflora on the skin and in the nasal passages of humans and other mammals. However, it can cause pimples, skin infections, abscesses, pneumonia and even blood poisoning. Of particular relevance to the food processing industry is the ability of some strains of S. aureus to produce toxins that cause staphylococcal food poisoning, which ranks as one of the most prevalent causes of gastroenteritis worldwide. Within one to six hours after consuming contaminated food, staphylococcal food poisoning can cause diarrhoea, vomiting and cramps. People who are otherwise healthy recover rather quickly, but in susceptible individuals it can be fatal.Boiling milk prior to consumption easily kills the bacterium but the toxins it produces are heat-stable and survive the boiling process. Therefore, it is important to avoid the bacteria from multiplying in the milk in the first place. Where does S. aureus start growing and producing toxins? There are various possibilities, for example the cow can suffer from an udder infection, which means the milk is contaminated right from the start (Chapter 12). In Tanzania, it is known that S. aureus is the chief cause of udder infections in dairy cattle. Raw milk contamination may also arise if the milker's hands are dirty or if the cow's udder is not washed before milking. Bulking of raw milk in unclean containers is another source of contamination with S. aureus. In addition, holding milk for long periods without cooling it leads to rapid growth and multiplication of the milk bacteria. In brief: because up to 50% of the population are healthy carriers of S. aureus, contamination of milk with the organism could occur anywhere from farm to consumer.The study was carried out in Temeke Municipality which is one of three districts that form Dar es Salaam, the biggest city in Tanzania. An estimated 1.1 million people live in Temeke along with 5000 beef and 4000 dairy cattle. As data on milk quality in the area were unavailable, the main research questions were: Is milk really contaminated with S. aureus? If so, where does the contamination occur? Internationally approved protocols were used to assess microbial contamination, complemented by participatory methods at every step of the dairy chain from farm to consumer. More than 20 milk kiosks were randomly selected and their supplying farmers were traced back and consumers identified.Facilitated by local extension staff, 29 smallholder farmers who owned at least one cow were visited twice. During the first visit, questionnaires were used to obtain information on the animals, farmers' knowledge of udder infections, the process of milking, the handling of the milk, farmers' knowledge of health risks associated with milk consumption and perceived factors affecting milk quality. All of the cows were milked twice a day, in more than half of the cases by an employee or a member of the farmer's family. Practices were reasonably good, although there was room for improvement. All of the milkers washed the udders before they started milking and around 75% used warm water; fewer used one cloth per cow to dry the udder. Washing the udder with warm water removes dirt and bacteria, while keeping the skin of the udder dry reduces infection. Using one cloth for each cow to dry the udder prevents transfer of bacteria and dirt from one animal to another. In fact, using a shared cloth for several cows may be worse than using no cloth at all. Only 17% of the milkers washed their hands with water and soap; the rest used water only.Almost 90% of the farmers had encountered udder infections in their animals. However, only 21% used post-milking teat disinfection which is known to be effective in preventing udder inflammation. During the second visit, milk samples were taken directly from the udder of the cows and tested for S. aureus. About 25% of the samples tested positive for the presence of S. aureus and it can be assumed that this represents the occurrence of udder infections in Temeke Municipality.Seven vendors (who were also suppliers of participating milk kiosk owners) were identified and interviewed. Intermediary sellers are not common as most farmers sell their milk directly to neighbours or milk shops. More than 25% of the vendors did not use any form of quality control checks before buying milk; most assessed the quality of the milk by simply looking at its viscosity and colour. None of the vendors pooled milk from different farmers because most of them knew that bulking milk could result in low quality and an increased health risk due to crosscontamination. All of the vendors used plastic buckets for handling the milk, a practice that is not recommended as plastic containers are known to be vulnerable to bacterial contamination as they are difficult to sterilize. However, none of the samples of milk from vendors was found positive for S. aureus. This is likely due to the small sample size (only seven vendors); hence it is difficult to be sure of the real status of milk sold by vendors.Health officers in the respective wards facilitated access to randomly selected milk kiosks where fresh unpacked milk is sold. Data were collected by questionnaires and group discussions. We found that 85% of surveyed kiosks obtained their milk directly from farmers and the rest were supplied by vendors. Only half of the milk was chilled upon arrival at the milk shop after being transported on foot, by bicycle or public transport. Almost half of the kiosk owners did not use any form of quality control when receiving the milk for further sale or processing. However, many kiosk owners knew about the clot-on-boiling test to test whether the milk is no longer fresh and has started souring. The acidity of sour milk causes it to clot if boiled. Just like the vendors, kiosk owners stored milk in plastic containers but unlike the vendors, kiosk operators pooled milk from different sources, especially when demand was high.The survey also assessed personal hygiene of milk handlers and hygiene facilities of the sales premises. About 95.5% of sampled premises had toilet facilities accessible to staff and customers. However, only 32% had hand basins with running hot water. Soap was used by about 82% of the staff for washing hands and utensils. Those without basins but with running hot water cleaned the milk handling equipment in the same bowl used for washing hands. Only one milk shop had a hygienic hand dryer, suggesting that the milk handlers in the other shops dried their hands either with cloths or nothing at all. Cloths get dirty after a while and can be another source of contamination of hands that were clean after washing.All sampled milk kiosks stored the milk in refrigerators. However, electricity supply is often erratic with frequent interruptions and there is no monitoring of the storage temperatures. Only one kiosk owner out of the 22 surveyed had received formal training on food hygiene and only 59% of the staff working at milk kiosks wore clothes that were visibly clean. Following the interviews, discussions and observations, two samples were taken from each milk kiosk: one of raw milk just received from the farm and the other of boiled milk to be served hot to customers. The results showed that both the raw and boiled milk samples were contaminated with S. aureus to the same extent. This suggests that S. aureus in the raw milk received from the farm was eliminated through boiling but reintroduced into the boiled milk through contamination at the milk kiosk. Likely sources of contamination include poorly cleaned storage containers, contaminated equipment, or poor personal hygiene of those handling the boiled milk.Almost all of the milk kiosks served their boiled milk hot because they believed that it was free from microbial contamination. This was also what the consumers preferred. We interviewed 120 consumers at the sampled milk kiosks about their perceptions on the quality and safety of milk. Consumers considered five different attributes to determine the quality of milk: viscosity, colour, taste, smell and cream at the top. During the focus group discussion, the majority of respondents said they normally drank milk from a kiosk which had a dust-free environment and where the workers were generally clean. Unexpectedly, almost 72% of the consumers were aware of health risks associated with the consumption of raw milk. This was surprising as former surveys suggested that only 21% of consumers were aware of milk-borne hazards. The most familiar health problems were stomach aches, diarrhoea and tuberculosis. This high level of awareness of milk-borne health risks could be one reason for the preference of buying boiled milk served hot. The consumers proactively suggested that health officials should train kiosk owners and farmers on milk hygiene. Furthermore, they suggested that milk collection centres should be registered and the milk inspected by health officials.The milk kiosks also sold chilled milk which was not sourced from informal market channels but formally processed (homogenized and pasteurized) and packaged in pouches. Four samples of processed, packaged milk were purchased in each ward and tested to compare their contamination status with the milk that was marketed informally at the same milk kiosks. All of the samples of pasteurized, packaged milk were free of S. aureus but surprisingly all of them contained Bacillus species, another potential milk-borne pathogen (Chapter 18). Among other species of bacteria that were isolated from most of the milk samples in informal shops in Temeke was E. coli which is associated with udder infections in cows and gastroenteritis in humans.The results of the microbiological tests showed that 23% of the milk sampled at sale in milk kiosks was contaminated with S. aureus. From the interviews, it was found that the milk kiosks sold an average of 1792 litres of milk daily and consumers reported drinking about a quarter a litre of milk each per day. These data were used for statistical modelling which revealed that every day, 953 people purchase milk from milk kiosks in Temeke Municipality and therefore an estimated 217 consumers are likely to buy contaminated milk.The East African standard for microbiological quality of milk establishes the maximum acceptable levels of bacterial load in milk depending on whether it will be further processed or sold as raw reconstituted milk. In this present study, 27% of the milk served hot at milk kiosks exceeded these cut-off points with increasing levels from farm to milk kiosk. The bacterial load was reduced significantly after boiling, indicating the effectiveness of the combination of time and temperature in killing bacteria. Unfortunately, boiling of milk does not always eliminate the risk of food poisoning as in the case of S. aureus. Its numbers might have increased during transportation of milk from the farm to the kiosk such that by the time the milk was boiled, it would already contain a high level of heat-stable toxins produced by S. aureus.Dairy farmers and milk sellers should be given simple and practical training courses on hygienic milk handling. These training courses should be planned and prepared by researchers and implemented by extension workers. It is important that all milk handlers in the value chain be made aware of their important role and responsibility in protecting food from contamination or deterioration. Kaiza Kilango is a food analysis officer at the Tanzania Food and Drug Authority and previously worked as a nutritionist at the Tanzania Red Cross Society. In 2011, he was awarded his Master of Science degree in human nutrition from the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro, Tanzania.Food safety in milk markets of smallholder farmers in Tanzania: A case study of peri-urban wards in Temeke.Kaiza Kilango, 1 Kohei Makita, 2,3 Lusato Kurwijila 4 and Delia Grace The dairy subsector in Kenya is among the largest components of the agricultural sector, contributing 14% of the agricultural GDP which accounted for 24% of national GDP in 2009. 1 The subsector has grown steadily over the years, with annual milk production rising from an estimated 2.8 billion litres in 2003 to more than 4 billion litres in 2009. 2 The monetary value of exports of milk and milk products (mainly long-life milk and powder milk) has also been rising steadily over the years from an estimated 100 million Kenya shillings (KSh) to more than KSh1 billion in 2008. Unlike many West African countries, Kenya imports only 2% of processed milk and milk products mainly for certain tastes and preferences and to cater for the tourist and expatriate communities. Farm gate price, animal productivity, herd size, access to support services and rainfall patterns have been identified as determinants for the domestic milk supply. 3  Smallholder dairy farmers contribute more than 75% of the country's annual milk production. However, most of the milk is marketed informally to neighbours or at local markets and its quality is frequently questioned. Continuous upgrading of the dairy value chain is crucial for Kenya to maintain its market leadership. Inefficiencies must be eliminated to make the milk fit for regional and international export markets.An earlier study conducted by Makokha and Fadiga (2010; see Note 3) in randomly selected households in Nairobi and Eldoret found that consumers were willing to pay more for improved milk quality, based on the price, smell and hygiene. This led us to consider whether a feasible system of payment based on milk quality standards could be introduced. On the domestic level, this would result in higher payment for all dairy farmers who meet the desired quality standards and, at the international level, it would help increase exports and subsequently create more jobs in Kenya.We conducted a study to determine the quality of milk in an area representing the dairy industry of Kenya and the opportunities for farmers to exploit a qualitybased payment scheme. Milk samples were collected to compare bacteriological and compositional quality with existing national standards for raw milk and to find out about farmers' perceptions of milk quality attributes and practices associated with variations in milk quality. We hypothesized that if farmers understood the benefits of a quality-based payment system and supported it, it would be easier to implement such a system.The study was carried out in Limuru and Eldoret. Limuru is located on the eastern edge of the Great Rift Valley, some 40 kilometres northwest of Nairobi. Its residents rely mostly on farming and a shoe factory for employment. Eldoret is located in western Kenya and is currently the fastest growing and fifth largest town in Kenya. In Limuru, the study was conducted in zones that supply the Limuru Dairy Cooperative Society with milk. In Eldoret, the study was conducted in Metkei and Kipsaos dairy cooperatives.Milk samples were collected at collection centres that were selected based on accessibility and the number of farmers supplying them with milk. The milk samples were collected from every third farmer who brought milk to the collection centres and analysed for microbiological and compositional quality. In Kenya, the microbiological quality standards for raw milk are set by the Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS), which are somewhat lower than European standards.The compositional analysis of the milk was done using a Lactoscan, a machine that can easily analyse the contents of the milk such as fat and proteins. Using these data, the nutritional value of the milk sample can be determined. The more nutritious the milk, the more money the farmer should be paid. Conversely, milk that does not meet the quality standards should not receive the same price as milk that meets or exceeds them. Moreover, farmers who adulterate milk by adding water to sell more volume should be penalized. Not only is adulteration of milk illegal, but adding water from dirty sources presents a health risk to the consumer. Preliminary findings suggested that milk was adulterated with added water in Limuru and, to some extent, in Eldoret.Milk is rich in vitamins that are vital for good eyesight (Vitamin A), healthy growth of bones (Vitamin D), protecting body tissue from radicals (Vitamin E) and blood clotting in wound healing (Vitamin K). As these vitamins are soluble in fat, the fat content of milk indirectly represents the content of fat-soluble vitamins. The average fat content of milk in Eldoret was higher than that of the milk in Limuru but in both towns, the average milk fat content exceeded the KEBS specification of 3.25%. Protein content in the milk from Limuru was below the KEBS specification; this could be as a result of dilution through added water or poor animal feeding.Results of the microbiological analysis found that 75% of the milk samples were of good quality, according to the KEBS specifications for total bacteria count and the remainder graded as unacceptable. Farmers whose milk was sampled were asked to fill in a questionnaire on their husbandry and milking practice. The questions and subsequent discussions aimed to find out about the farmers' knowledge of aspects of milk hygiene and their knowledge, perceptions and attitudes on quality-based milk payment schemes.In both study areas, the majority of farmers washed their hands before milking and used water and soap. In addition, almost all washed the cow udders before milking. Unfortunately, most of them did not dry their hands or the udders, increasing the risk of contamination from dirty water running into the milk. The majority of farmers were located within 1 kilometre of a milk collection centre. In Limuru, all the farmers delivered their milk to the cooperative in aluminium cans while in Eldoret, the use of plastic containers for milk was still prevalent. As plastic containers are difficult to sterilize, their use is not recommended.More than 75% of farmers had access to potable water although some used more than one water source including community pumps, rivers and streams. The use of dirty water for cleaning milk containers increases the risk of bacterial contamination. Most of the farmers knew about the proper use of antibiotics to treat dairy cows and the importance of adhering to the withdrawal period for milk from cows undergoing treatment. Most of the respondents from the two study sites said they would be in favour of a quality-based system of payment for milk if given appropriate incentives such as credit and animal feeds.Some aspects of animal husbandry such as feeding, as well as milking hygiene, need to be improved. The milk testing structures that are in place need to be strengthened to enforce existing regulations. Kevin Kabui holds a Bachelor's degree in veterinary medicine from the University of Nairobi. He has worked for the project Heshimu Punda (respect the donkey) in Mwea and at the Dagoretti slaughterhouses in Nairobi as a veterinary officer in charge of hygiene. He is involved in training animal health assistants at the Animal Health and Industry Training Institute (AHITI) -Ndomba. This study was undertaken as part of his specialist degree in veterinary public health at the University of Nairobi.Flavien Ndongo, Kristina Roesel, Kohei Makita, Marianna Siegmund-Schulze, Hans-Peter Piepho, Delia Grace, Erastus Kang'ethe • Brucella was not present in the sampled milk in Kasarani, peri-urban Nairobi.• Exotic cattle breeds do not seem more susceptible to brucellosis than local breeds. • Farmers, traders and retailers have risky practices that increase the risk of brucellosis and other milk-borne diseases such as tuberculosis, or diarrhoea caused by faecal contamination of milk. • Marketing of milk through cooperatives proved to be safest and should be promoted.Dairy production in Kenya started before independence with the establishment of large-scale commercial systems in the central highlands in the 1950s. The indigenous zebu cattle were upgraded with European dairy breeds imported from South Africa to build up foundation stocks. When many colonial farmers left after independence in 1963, the large-scale production systems shifted to small-scale farming accompanied by an increase in the population of high-grade dairy cattle such as the Holstein-Friesian known for their high milk yields. Today, 80% of Kenya's dairy sector is supplied by small-scale farmers. The recent migration from rural to urban hubs resulted in a relocation of the dairy industry into and around the cities. In 1994, about 17% of urban households in Kenya kept cattle, a phenomenon also found in other East African capital cities where more than 50% of the households rely on livestock production as their secondary source of income. With the limited size of farmland, the breed preferences of farmers are strongly influenced by the milk production potential. Therefore, Friesian and Ayrshire are the most preferred exotic breeds for high milk yield, with Ayrshire providing a high fat content.Cities have become crowded and the lack of space can compromise hygiene. Moreover, the population is growing at a pace much faster than infrastructure for sanitation or sewage can grow. Though good for the producers, the rising demand for animal-source food will further enhance these problems. With crowding of people and animals, the occurrence of diseases that humans can contract from animals becomes more likely and requires action from local health authorities. Some of these diseases threatening the dairy sector are salmonellosis, listeriosis, tuberculosis and brucellosis. A recent study identified brucellosis in cattle, a disease that has often been reported in Kenya, as a major priority for prevention and control on account of its impact on animal and human health. 1  Brucellosis is a bacterial disease which humans (and other mammals) acquire through direct contact with infected animals, by eating or drinking contaminated animal products such as unpasteurized milk or cheese, or by inhaling the airborne bacteria. In humans, the disease causes flu-like symptoms, including fever, weakness, weight loss and malaise. 2 These flu-like symptoms can also be mistaken for malaria (Chapter 19) and have been regularly reported in Kenyan clinics, with several cases diagnosed as brucellosis.The crowding of animals and people in cities, coupled with a rising demand for dairy products in urban areas, puts pressure on dairy farmers to increase their supply. However, even though exotic breeds are known for higher production yields, they are also more susceptible to certain diseases. The present study therefore investigated the prevalence of brucellosis in peri-urban Nairobi as well as practices along the local milk marketing chain that might increase or decrease the likelihood of Brucella -the microorganism that causes brucellosis -ending up in the consumer's milk.Kasarani Constituency in Kenya's capital city, Nairobi, is home to more than 300,000 people. Many cattle are kept in Kasarani but the occurrence of brucellosis had not been investigated prior to the present study. The survey was facilitated by the local extension officer. Samples of raw milk were collected from 100 farms and 20 milk shops and tested for the presence of Brucella. In addition, focus group discussions were facilitated to learn more about animal husbandry and milk processing practices to assess whether they increased or reduced the risk of brucellosis.Brucellosis is more visible in pregnant cows where it causes abortion or premature calving, and can lead to temporary sterility, death from blood poisoning and decreased milk production. Other cows and bulls get infected if they ingest materials that were contaminated with afterbirth materials, the aborted foetus or raw milk. The disease can also be contracted during natural mating by blood or vaginal discharges. Cattle are normally not treated if infected. In areas with low occurrence of the disease, the animals identified are mostly culled, whereas vaccination may be carried out in areas with high occurrence. Otherwise, preventive measures and hygienic practices, such as wearing protective clothing when handling abortions or calves as well as boiling raw milk, are effective.Interviews and discussions with 100 farmers showed that they owned herds ranging from as few as one to three, to as many as fifteen cows. Most of them kept exotic breeds such as Friesian and Ayrshire or crossbreds and used artificial insemination as a breeding technique. A small share kept local breeds such as zebu and borrowed the neighbour's bull for mating for reproduction. While exotic breeds are said to be more susceptible to disease, artificial insemination reduces the risk of transmission as semen purchased from good sources is usually free from disease.Eighty-five per cent of the farmers kept their cattle in zero-grazing units. Because they do not own land on which to plant fodder crops, they spend a lot of money to buy fodder. On the other hand, they also reported high milk production and easier management and prevention of animal diseases such as liver flukes. They did not know about the possibility of bacteria contaminating the Napier grass which they sourced from peri-urban areas. The remaining 15% of farmers grazed their cattle as they believed grazing 'makes the animals stronger and healthier'. However, grazing increases the risk of infection with brucellosis. More than half of the milk from grazing cattle was consumed at home or fed to calves and the surplus sold to intermediaries, milk shops or directly to consumers.Only 1% of the respondents used a machine for milking, implying that the rest of the farmers are at high risk of infection if the cow carries the bacterium. If cows abort, the foetus is handled with bare hands and always buried. If properly done, this is as safe as burning of contagious material as practised by farmers in West Africa (Chapter 19). Despite most of the farmers in Kasarani having at least ten years of experience in dairy farming, their level of knowledge on brucellosis was low. Similarly, low levels of knowledge on brucellosis were observed at the marketing level. Of twenty retailers, only one knew about brucellosis as a disease that can be transmitted through raw milk. In general, retailers were aware that milk can transmit diseases but were not able to name specific diseases. Therefore, they boiled the milk sold at their shops but not the milk which they took home. They were convinced that 'it is the duty of consumers to boil it themselves'. They either collected milk from the farmers or were supplied through intermediary sellers. Most of the milk came from outside Kasarani and was pooled with that collected from the area, increasing the likelihood of mixing good and bad milk.Short milk marketing chains minimize the extent of milk handling, thus limiting the likelihood of milk contamination. Most of the milk in Kasarani was sold directly to consumers, thus minimizing the chance of introducing bacteria during long transportation routes with multiple handlers. Milk collected at cooperatives was usually pasteurized before sale, effectively killing any milk-borne pathogens and significantly reducing the risk of brucellosis. Moreover, the milk was normally boiled before consumption which is a very effective risk-mitigation strategy. However, the retailers should not leave it to the consumer to boil the milk as a few of them use raw milk for fermentation.All of the milk sellers produced maziwa lala (sour milk) -similar to féné in West Africa (Chapter 20) or ergo in Ethiopia (Chapter 12) -which is produced by spontaneous fermentation of raw milk. Even though lactic fermentation inhibits the growth of milk-borne pathogens, its effect on Brucella is not yet fully estimated. Higher-income consumers preferred to buy pasteurized milk as they viewed pasteurization as a guarantee of quality and longer shelf-life, and appreciated the convenience of packaged milk for transport and storage.The present study found that none of the milk samples contained Brucella, which is good news. However, this finding cannot be generalized to the milk chain in Nairobi or the entire country. Since the sample size was not large enough to detect a low prevalence of brucellosis, further investigation should be carried out, making sure to avoid sampling bias in the selection of participating farmers. In the present study, it was the extension officer who chose the participating farmers and they might have represented best practice examples only.Knowledge of the prevalence of brucellosis in various districts could help local extension workers to provide advice to farmers not to purchase animals or fodder from infected areas. Additionally, it would be easier to identify infected animals and isolate them to break the cycle of transmission. However, if farmers, traders, retailers and consumers were better educated on the disease, they would be better able to intervene and reduce the risk of transmission of brucellosis and other milkborne diseases. Farmers should use protective clothing when handling raw milk and when attending to cows experiencing difficult calving, and should send for the veterinarian or extension officer if a cow aborts.Farmers and milk sellers should be trained on milk hygiene and good manufacturing practice. The marketing channel from farmers to consumers via cooperatives has proved to be very safe and should be promoted and developed (Chapter 8). Future epidemiological investigations on the presence of Brucella in milk in peri-urban Nairobi should be carried out.Flavien Ndongo holds a Master's degree from the University of Hohenheim in Germany and is pursuing postgraduate studies at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montreal.Choice of breeds and husbandry practices influencing the safety of milk and milk products in smallholder dairy farms in peri-urban Nairobi, Kenya, focusing on brucellosis.Flavien Ndongo, 1 Kohei Makita, 2,3 Marianna Siegmund-Schultze, 1 Hans-Peter Piepho, 1 Delia Grace, 2 Erastus Kang'ethe 4 and Anne Valle Zárate Joy Appiah, Kristina Roesel, Kwaku Tano-Debrah, Betty Bediako Amoa, Mohammed M. Alpha, Kohei Makita and Delia Grace • This study is the first ever assessment of Listeria monocytogenes in milk sold in Ghana. • Detection of Listeria in sheep led to investigations of the disease in food which is a common source of human infection with the microorganism. • There is a high risk of acquiring listeriosis from milk sold in informal markets in Ghana. • The risk is especially high for fermented milk products because they are highly contaminated and consumed in relatively large quantities on a daily basis. • The risk of listeriosis from raw milk is low because milk is often boiled before consumption. • Boiling milk reduces the risk of listeriosis.In 2002, the Ghana Health Service spent approximately US$11 million in the health care sector. A significant part of this expenditure was for the treatment of diarrhoeal diseases, which also accounted for the loss of 3.4 million working days and associated productivity losses. Experts consider microbial hazards in food to be one the most frequent causes of diarrhoeal disease. More than 60% of all human infectious diseases are shared with animals and, like other animal products, milk is a common source of food-borne infections. Milk consumption in Ghana is low compared to the average per capita consumption in sub-Saharan Africa. However, it has been increasing over the past years and Ghanaian consumers now tend to prefer fresh local dairy products over imported milk powder. With more than half of the population living in urban areas, the convenience offered by long-life dairy products has become more important.Generally, dairy production in Ghana is mostly pastoral and agro-pastoral with traditional cattle breeds predominating and little complementary feeding practised. This results in very low milk productivity which cannot meet consumer demand. Poor distribution policies, inadequate milk collection systems and unattractive prices offered for locally produced fresh milk led Ghana to rely on imported butter and skim milk powder to meet the demands of the formal market. Milk powder is reconstituted into liquid milk and may be further processed into yoghurt. But as well as low productivity, there is also concern about the safety and quality of locally marketed milk. If the burgeoning demand for milk and milk products is to promote the local dairy industry and offer a pathway out of poverty for farmers, then the milk sold must be safe for consumers.Some milk-borne diseases such as tuberculosis and brucellosis are well understood, while others are new and many have never been properly assessed in developing countries. These emerging and less well-known food-borne diseases are often of high concern to the public and policymakers alike. Listeriosis is an example of a food-borne disease of high scare potential, as witnessed by the socalled 'Listeria hysteria' which struck Europe when French cheeses were linked to illness in people. Listeriosis has all the characteristics of a disease that could seriously threaten Ghana's nascent market for home-produced milk: a new disease, capable of serious and unpleasant illness, very difficult to eliminate and impossible to identify by sight or taste.Listeriosis is usually caused by eating food contaminated with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes which is globally known to occur in 37 mammal species and 17 bird species as well as in shellfish, fish species and people. How does the microbe get into food? It is normally found in soil and water; animals can carry it, sometimes even without appearing ill, then contaminate food such as meat and dairy products. The bacterium is hardy and can even survive in a refrigerator. It has been found in a variety of raw foods, such as uncooked meat, vegetables and fruit, 1 as well as in products that were contaminated after cooking and processing, such as soft cheeses, sausages and smoked seafood (Chapter 17). Raw milk and products made from it are particularly likely to contain the microbe. Healthy children and adults occasionally get infected but they rarely fall ill; the disease primarily affects YOPIs. Often preceded by diarrhoea, these people usually experience symptoms such as fever, muscle pain, stiff neck, headache, confusion, loss of balance and convulsions. Pregnant women are about 20 times more susceptible to listeriosis than other healthy adults. They typically experience a mild flu-like illness. However, infections during pregnancy can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery or life-threatening infections of the newborn. If babies are infected during labour, it may lead to death or infections in the brain (meningoencephalitis) that cause life-long disability. People with clinical AIDS have a weak immune system and are 300 times more likely to develop listeriosis than healthy people. 2  In the event of an outbreak of listeriosis, 20-30% of people falling sick are likely to die; the rates of death in infants, pregnant women and elderly and immuno-compromised people are estimated to be as high as 80-99%. Therefore, many countries have a zero-tolerance policy to the presence of L. monocytogenes in food, as scientists are still not sure about how many Listeria cells are enough to cause disease in people. Incidentally, in Ghana, detection and surveillance of L. monocytogenes is not routinely done and thus there is no policy for it. However, recent years have seen increasing reports of human illness compatible with listeriosis. Additionally, raw, unpasteurized milk is regularly consumed in some communities in Ghana, especially among the Fulani ethnic group (Chapter 20).Like many emerging food-borne diseases, listeriosis has not been properly assessed in many developing countries. In Ghana, scientists first found evidence of Listeria in sheep. This stimulated research into the occurrence of Listeria in food products, as food is a common transmission pathway of disease from animals and the environment to people. This example of One Health in action shows the importance of good communication between veterinarians and doctors.The study described here took place in Ashaiman Municipality, located in the Greater Accra region some 4km from Tema and 30km east of Accra. The region has the highest urban growth rate in Ghana (4.6%) and diarrhoea ranks fourth among the top ten diseases. In 2009, meningitis accounted for a large proportion of notifiable diseases in the district, with many cases having occurred in Ashaiman. At Tema General Hospital, 513 cases of spontaneous abortions were recorded in 2008. A study in Ghana showed that raw milk from informal markets in the country is highly contaminated with several pathogens. Some retailers try to eliminate the germs and decrease spoilage by heating the milk in pots without any temperature control. The present study was conducted to investigate the risk of consuming raw milk and its products that may be contaminated with L. monocytogenes. It is the first study on the risk of exposure to listeriosis from raw milk in Ghana. The survey aimed to assess the level of L. monocytogenes in informally marketed milk and, therefore, investigated milk samples taken along the food marketing chain from farm to retail outlets and consumers. Potential sources of contamination were identified and the habits of sellers and consumers of raw milk products were assessed to identify their level of risk of exposure to listeriosis.Participatory research takes into account all stakeholders involved in the marketing chain. By using tools such as diagrams, maps, analytical games, story-telling and group discussions, it is possible to identify hazards and habits that either increase or decrease risks to public health. At farms, seasonal calendars were drawn to assess disease periods and symptoms (Chapter 5). They showed that most cattle fell sick at the onset of the rains; farmers attributed this to the abundance of fresh grass. Farmers were able to describe symptoms in their cattle that suggested the occurrence of certain diseases. Deep dry chronic cough accompanied by weight loss, for example, indicated tuberculosis and was frequently reported. Udder inflammation (mastitis) did not occur very often but was very important to the farmers as milk is the most important animal-source food for the Fulani. When the udder is inflamed, milk loses its natural colour and smell and starts clotting. The calves eventually refuse to suckle and milk production stops. Animals turning in circles (a symptom of listeriosis in cattle and sheep) was reported to occur, yet it was not regarded as a disease but a bad habit and treated unconventionally by blows to the back of the animal.Milk production varied depending on the season and herd production ranged from 0.75 litres daily in the late dry season to 135 litres daily in the rainy season. Retailers often complained about insufficient supply of milk from farmers during the dry season. As a result, some farmers adulterated the milk with water or sold reconstituted milk by mixing milk powder and water. On the other hand, in the rainy season, retailers received too much milk and often complained about a lack of adequate storage facilities for the milk. Based on reports from the retailers, who were exclusively women, raw milk was the least popular product. None of the retailers sold more than seven litres of raw milk per day. The demand for boiled milk was slightly higher but still much lower than that of fermented milk. The retailers sold at least 100 to 150 litres per day and one even reported selling more than 500 litres! Whereas raw or boiled milk was not refrigerated, the fermented milk was kept chilled with big ice blocks inside the storage container. The ice blocks are purchased from vendors who make them by filling polythene pouches with tap water and packing the pouches in a freezer. Hygiene is generally poor and quality control non-existent. For example, before adding the ice blocks to the milk, the blocks may be crushed with an unclean object on an unclean hard surface.The consumer survey revealed that decisions on where to buy milk were based on attributes such as taste, availability and affordability of the product. Many of them consumed fermented milk on a daily basis, either at the milk shop or at home. During fermentation, milk sugar (lactose) is broken down by bacteria into lactic acid. Because many Africans are intolerant to lactose, fermentation is a good strategy for increasing the digestibility of milk. Other forms of milk were consumed less frequently; boiled milk was consumed twice a week and raw milk only once a week. Raw milk was mostly taken home and half of the respondents said they boiled the milk before drinking it.Consumers were also asked about the occurrence of diseases and their symptoms. Four out of five reported symptoms could be attributed to listeriosis. However, the symptoms could also be due to other diseases such as malaria or the flu, which are probably more common. Most said they never experienced mental changes or convulsions after the initial symptoms (sometimes a sign of listeriosis), but the study found that people were often reluctant to report these signs as there is social stigma attached to mental illness. Sadly, almost half of the women surveyed had experienced spontaneous abortions and about one-third of them more than once. Almost 86% had experienced at least one case of stillbirth, with most of these losing the pregnancy during the third trimester.To find out if milk was contaminated with L. monocytogenes, milk samples were taken at the farm and at the retail shop before and after boiling. Samples of fermented milk were also examined. Microbial analysis showed that the milk samples were contaminated with L. monocytogenes at all levels of the marketing chain, but contamination levels increased as the milk moved from the farm to the retailer. Boiling of milk resulted in a significant decrease in the numbers of L. monocytogenes, whereas levels in fermented milk were found to be as high as in the milk before it was boiled at the retail shop. Overall, fermented milk had the highest probability to cause illness because consumers drank it most often and in high quantities. Boiled milk also had a high probability for causing listeriosis for the same reason, although it had the least probability per serving. Raw milk at the farm was least likely to cause illness because milk was rarely consumed raw.The surveyed consumers reported that they had experienced symptoms indicative of listeriosis, for instance the high occurrence of spontaneous abortion, meningitis and diarrhoea. The handling of milk by many different people can contribute to the increased risk of microbial infection, including listeriosis. Other practices that may increase the risk of disease include hand milking of several animals in dirty surroundings without hand cleaning in between cows and bulking of raw milk collected from several farmers without separating milk that is contaminated. In addition, the raw milk was collected in unapproved containers, which are difficult to sterilize, and transported over long distances without being cooled, thus allowing for spoilage bacteria to multiply quickly. This was compounded by the fact that retailers did not refrigerate the milk. On the positive side, however, both retailers and consumers reportedly boiled milk before drinking it, significantly reducing the level of contamination and thus exposure to Listeria. However, most consumers preferred fermented milk which was found to be highly contaminated with the microorganism.An improved, standard way of processing fermented milk products would reduce the risk of listeriosis deriving from fermented milk products. As Listeria is known to survive in acidic media, a certain level of acidity needs to be achieved for a certain period of time to eliminate the microbe. However, people do not like fermented milk that is too sour. Another control option would be to ensure that milk is boiled prior to fermentation. It is also important to avoid crosscontamination of boiled or fermented milk with unclean utensils or those used to store or handle fresh milk.Joy Appiah holds a Master of Food Science degree from the University of Ghana, Legon and presented this study at the 15th World Congress on Food Science and Technology in South Africa.Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina, Kristina Roesel, Antoine Bassa Yobouet, Solenne Costard, Adjehi Dadié, Kohei Makita, Delia Grace, Koffi Marcellin Djè and Bassirou Bonfoh • Milk in the study site was highly contaminated with bacteria originating from faeces or the skin and hair of humans and animals. • A small proportion of producers were responsible for a high proportion of risk to human health. • Personal hygiene during milking, handling and selling was poor.• The udders of cows and hands of milkers were identified as primary sources of milk contamination. • Boiling the milk prior to consumption was not a common practice.• Seventy per cent of consumers were at risk of illness from buying and consuming contaminated milk. • If international quality standards were applied, 1 the majority of the milk would have to be discarded, causing significant economic losses to dairy farmers.Food-borne diseases include a wide spectrum of illnesses and are a growing public health problem worldwide. While most food-borne diseases are sporadic and not reported, outbreaks may take on massive proportions. In 1997 in Abidjan, 200 people fell ill from an infection with Salmonella enteritidis following the consumption of hamburgers in a modern fast-food restaurant. The majority of them had to be hospitalized. 2 The occurrence of Salmonella typhi in Abidjan has significantly increased from 3% in 2006 to 22% in 2008 and the microorganism was responsible for the deaths of thirteen people following the consumption of contaminated maize porridge in Bangouanou. In the same year, nine people fell ill in Alépé after eating manioc contaminated with three types of dangerous microbes at once: Salmonella, Staphylococcus and Clostridium perfringens. 3   Salmonella species, Staphylococcus and Clostridium are all examples of bacteria that cause zoonoses, that is, diseases that are present in animal hosts and can be naturally transmitted from animals to people. Many of the studies reported in this book focus on zoonoses as these are among the most common food-borne diseases. However, food safety experts also have to worry about diseases that are not zoonotic. This study draws attention to the role of milkers as possible sources of contamination.The most common clinical presentation of food-borne disease takes the form of gastrointestinal symptoms that range from mild to severe diarrhoea and vomiting followed by dehydration, which may require medical treatment or even hospitalization. In developing countries, many people lack access to affordable medical care so would rather work while suffering from mild food poisoning or take a few days off work and return when the diarrhoea stops. However, even if diarrhoea is mild, the patient is likely to be shedding a food-borne microorganism and many of the food-borne diseases are communicable.In Africa, HIV/AIDS, lower respiratory infections and diarrhoeal disease are the leading contributors to the overall burden of disease. 4 Being sick for whatever reason means reduced productivity, less income and reduced quality of life, especially in the informal market where people do not have health insurance and only earn their wages if they show up for work. Not only are poor people more likely to fall sick, but falling sick keeps people poor.Food-borne disease is an important public health and economic problem, but in Côte d'Ivoire it is difficult to obtain accurate estimates of its occurrence (WHO 2002). 5 Milk and dairy products have been found to contain Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. and Staphylococcus aureus (Chapters 12 and 13), all recognized to have the potential to cause disease in humans. The informal sector accounts for up to 80% of the local dairy production in Abidjan and supply largely depends on subsistence farmers who face a weak production infrastructure and hardly make enough profit for reinvestments. Furthermore, large parts of the population do not boil their milk prior to consumption.However, even though all these aspects are obvious, it is not clear to what extent producers, vendors and the consumers themselves contribute to the dissemination and multiplication of microorganisms that could cause disease. Small informal dairy farms have been established in urban and peri-urban Abidjan to meet the growing demand for milk by the urban population. The present study aimed to better understand the structure, status, management and performance of the informal dairy chain in Abidjan to identify risky practices and to safeguard consumer health.Producing, handling and consuming practices were examined through questionnaires and focus group discussions and helped shed light on production systems, milking practices and risk factors related to milk handling (Figure 22). The farmers were all male and 94.1% were of Fulani ethnicity (the Fulani are pastoralists by tradition). The farmers originated from Mali, Burkina Faso and Guinea and practised traditional animal breeding (Chapter 20). They did not physically separate animals of different species (cows, weaned calves, poultry, goats and sheep) at the farms. In addition, udder inflammation (mastitis) was reported in 6.7% of the farms in the two months preceding the survey. However, milk from infected cows was still sold. On average, eight cows were kept per farm. Milk production was very low, with each cow producing about 1.3 litres per milking. Milk production had decreased by 20% in the year preceding the survey and farmers attributed this to inappropriate treatment (especially of udder inflammations) by the farmers themselves as well as a lack of fodder.Prior to milking, 87% of the milkers did not wash their hands, and not a single cow's udder was washed; also in 87% of the cases milking utensils were not properly cleaned (that is, they were rinsed with cold water only). At selling points, part of the milk was stored in bottles and left to ferment before being collected at night by customers who had placed orders for fermented milk. Leftover unsold milk at the end of the day was either stored in a refrigerator for sale the following day or taken home for consumption or production of fermented milk or liquid butter. However, around 6% of farmers sold leftover milk that had been stored for up to three days at ambient temperatures of around 30°C. Although a relatively low proportion of farmers sold such milk, its consumption could result in many cases of illness. In food safety surveys, we often find that a small proportion of producers or sellers are responsible for many cases of food-borne illness.To assess the level of milk contamination along the production chain, samples of milk were collected from the farm to the point of sale and analysed for the presence of disease-causing microorganisms that are normally not found in milk but in faeces or on the skin, hair and in the nose and mouth of humans and animals. The presence of these pathogens in milk indicates contamination as a result of unhygienic milk handling.The results showed that 76.5% of the milk was contaminated with several species of pathogenic bacteria. Of the raw milk samples taken from the udders of cows, 81.5% were of good microbiological quality compared to 35.3% at the point of sale. The udders of cows and hands of milkers were identified as the primary sources of milk contamination. The equipment of farmers and vendors as well as the surroundings at the farm were identified as secondary sources of contamination. In addition, 24.7% of the milk samples contained antibiotics and 50% of the raw milk on sale was adulterated with water.The investigation of local raw milk consumption patterns showed that 51.6% of the respondents did not boil their milk before drinking it and 12.8% of consumers reported illness after drinking raw milk, citing symptoms such as diarrhoea, vomiting, fever and stomach cramps.Antoine Bassa Yobouet, Kristina Roesel, Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina, Adjehi Dadié, Kohei Makita, Delia Grace, Leo Meile, Koffi Marcellin Djè and Bassirou Bonfoh • Informally marketed milk in Côte d'Ivoire is heavily contaminated with Bacillus cereus, a potential cause of food poisoning. • The study team isolated strains which had the ability to produce toxins and were resistant to several antibiotics. • Contamination tended to increase along the value chain; raw milk at farm level was less contaminated than milk at retailer shops. • The presence of Bacillus cereus in milk was highly related to its presence in the environment, milking practices and the maintenance of the cold chain. • In most cases, milk was consumed raw, thereby increasing the risk of contracting food-borne infection associated with Bacillus cereus.Milk has been called the 'ideal food' and plays an important role in human nutrition. While in the past it was mostly consumed by people in the rural areas, it is now also popular in urban and peri-urban areas. In Côte d'Ivoire, national milk production covers barely 10-18% of the demand for milk and dairy products. Most of this milk (92%) is supplied by small-scale farmers who raise their cattle in the traditional way and practise transhumance (the moving of cattle from place to place to make best use of seasonally available feed). These milk production activities are important in West Africa and generate one-third of the total income in rural households. However, the government has introduced a policy to promote dairy farming in peri-urban areas. Currently, the unregulated informal sector accounts for 80% of the country's milk production, distribution and marketing. The complex milk production chain is an important source of livelihood, but is prone to contamination at every level. As a result, the nutritious attributes of milk can be negated by hazards to the health of consumers (Chapter 17). There is a variety of infections that escape the public health sector surveillance system. Contamination of milk with bacteria of faecal origin is a common cause of foodborne illness. However, another microbial cause of disease -which is also an indicator of environmental contamination -is Bacillus cereus.Bacillus spp. are large bacteria which normally live in water and soil. They produce spores that are exceptionally resistant to unfavourable conditions like heat or drought. Although most species of Bacillus are harmless, some can cause disease in humans and animals. The most infamous is probably Bacillus anthracis which causes anthrax in humans and animals.Bacillus cereus causes food poisoning similar to that caused by Clostridium perfringens and Staphylococcus aureus (Chapters 12 and 13). In the case of Bacillus cereus, some strains produce a toxin in food which cannot be destroyed by cooking and gives rise to vomiting within 1-5 hours of ingestion. Other strains produce a toxin in the human body once the bacterium enters the bowel; this toxin causes diarrhoea within 8-16 hours following ingestion.The present study examined fifteen farms in peri-urban Abidjan to investigate whether Bacillus cereus was among the microbial contaminants in informally marketed milk in Côte d'Ivoire. The sources of contamination and potential health risk to consumers were also investigated.In all of the fifteen farms examined, milking was done by hand. Our observations indicated likely contamination of the milk with Bacillus cereus from water and soil. The cowsheds were unsanitary, with cows lying in their own dung. Prior to milking, most milkers washed neither their hands nor the udders of the cows. While milking, they often dipped their fingers into the milk to use it as a lubricant to help them milk faster. Only one out of fifteen farmers reported cleaning his utensils after milking and only one-third of the respondents filtered their milk.Traders and retailers reported that the milk they received from the farms was not cooled and, upon receipt, was bulked in a single storage tank. Thus, if the milk from one supplier was contaminated, then there is a higher chance that the entire batch in the tank will be spoiled. Adulteration of milk by adding water was relatively widespread among retailers, with 47.1% of them reportedly adding water to the milk before selling it. Not only is adulteration of milk illegal, but it also presents a health risk to consumers if the added water is dirty.Most of the milk retailers opened for business at 0530 hours and worked for long hours along roadsides under plastic-covered sheds or parasols, causing the milk to be exposed to the sun, dust and vehicle exhaust fumes. At around 1030 hours, they would heat up the milk for about thirty minutes to reduce spoilage. However, in the case of Bacillus cereus, this practice is risky as the heat causes any bacterial spores present to germinate into cells which can double every twenty minutes and spoil the milk. Leftover unsold milk at the end of the day (about a quarter of the milk stock) was refrigerated overnight and sold early the following morning before the next delivery around 0900 hours.A total of 150 milk samples from fifteen farms were collected for laboratory analysis. The milk was sampled from the udders and the milking containers. In addition, swabs were taken from the skin of the udders and the hands of the farmers as well as from the close environment of the animals. Samples of milk were also collected from fifteen milk shops. Water samples for analysis were taken from the sources used by the farmers (for cleaning of equipment) and by retailers (as they added water to the milk prior to selling it to their customers). Half of the respondents obtained their water from a public water supply while the other half used water from ponds.Bacillus cereus was found in about 27% of the milk samples at farm level and 41% of the samples taken from pooled milk of the vendors. If the milk were to be assessed according to the EU standards for food safety 1 then all of the samples of the vendors' pooled milk would be judged as contaminated beyond acceptable limits with either poor (57.1%) or unacceptable (42.9%) microbiological quality.Consumer interviews revealed that about 13% of those consuming raw milk had experienced diarrhoea, fever, bloating, vomiting or nausea -with varying degrees of severity -within 20-36 hours of drinking the milk. It is interesting to note, however, that some people who routinely boiled their milk before drinking it also reported similar symptoms. It is therefore crucial to undertake a proper diagnosis following a microbiological protocol prior to medical treatment with antibiotics or de-worming pills because there are numerous causes of diarrhoea.The presence of Bacillus cereus in food does not necessarily imply a health risk to humans because not all strains are pathogenic. Whether a strain makes one sick depends on its ability to produce toxins that cause vomiting or diarrhoea and the number of bacteria ingested. In total, ninety-four strains of Bacillus cereus were detected, most of which were diarrhoea-causing strains and none of which was able to produce toxins that cause vomiting. The toxins that cause vomiting are produced by the microorganism as it grows in the milk, cannot be destroyed by pasteurization and are harder to detect. Thus, the absence of this strain of Bacillus cereus was good news.Given the high levels of contamination in milk sold in informal markets and poor hygienic practices along the chain from farm to retail shops, boiling of milk before consumption would help to reduce public health risks from milk-borne pathogens. However, interviews of 188 consumers revealed that 54% of them consumed their milk without first boiling it, almost all drank raw milk at least once a week and one-third drank raw milk daily. This finding is in sharp contrast to findings of studies in the informal milk markets of East Africa where nearly 100% of urban consumers boil milk before drinking it. This is not done always with food safety in mind, but because they prefer to consume milk in tea or porridge which are prepared by boiling. Once again, we see the importance of cultural practices in affecting risk.In Côte d'Ivoire, food poisoning is commonly treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics like tetracyclines. Therefore, part of the study determined whether this group of antibiotics was still effective against the strains of Bacillus cereus which had been identified. The shocking result was that 92% of the strains showed resistance to tetracyclines. The survey found that 60% of the farmers used oxytetracycline to treat mastitis and residues of this antibiotic were found in several milk samples throughout the study sites. This suggests widespread non-adherence to the stipulated withdrawal period for milk from cows undergoing antibiotic treatment, a practice which can lead to the emergence of strains of bacteria that are resistant to several types of antibiotics. Ciprofloxacin, a broad-spectrum antibiotic, was found to be ineffective against 72% of the Bacillus cereus strains.There is need to raise awareness among farmers, traders and consumers that they should boil their milk prior to consumption and to cool it quickly before storing it at low temperatures. In addition, there is need for education on the proper use of antibiotics and the public health implications of the misuse of antibiotics.Antoine Bassa Yobouet works as a researcher at the Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Côte d'Ivoire. From 2010 to 2011, he spent fourteen months at ETH University in Zurich, Switzerland to conduct his laboratory work, and is currently analysing the data to complete his PhD thesis.Bacillus cereus risk assessment in raw milk produced in traditional dairy farms and consumed in the informal dairy sector in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.Antoine Bassa Yobouet, 1,2 Sylvie Mireille Kouamé-Sina, 1,2 Adjehi Dadié, 1 Kohei Makita, 3,4  Ibrahim Sow, Kristina Roesel, Kohei Makita, Delia Grace, Solenne Costard and Bassirou Bonfoh• The prevalence of brucellosis in Mali is generally lower in rural areas than in urban areas. • The inhabitants of Cinzana in rural Mali have habits that increase the likelihood of infection with brucellosis, in particular consuming raw milk and handling aborted material. • Our study did not find the disease present in sheep or goats.• Symptoms of brucellosis can be mistaken for malaria which is treated differently.Approximately 15 million people inhabit Mali, with the majority living in the southern regions of this vast country covering more than 1.2 million square kilometres. The Sahel is the horizontal transition to the north of Mali whose borders reach deep into the sparsely populated Sahara desert. Following cotton and gold, livestock farming is the third most important contributor to the country's GDP, of which one-quarter is from farmers in the rural areas. Mali's goat population exceeds its human population by 1 million and the country is home to 11 million sheep and 9 million cattle providing 300,000 tons of milk per year. However, supply of milk and dairy products is still not sufficient and the country relies heavily on annual imports of milk powder worth more than €30 billion to cover the demand. The Malian government has therefore started to implement dairy development projects to cover the supply for an ever-growing urban and peri-urban population. These dairies aim to optimize collection of milk from small-scale farmers for processing (pasteurization and packaging) and sale through wholesalers to the formal markets in urban and peri-urban areas.Small-scale farmers are organized in cooperatives, which are business organizations owned and operated by groups of individuals for their mutual benefit. 1 The cooperative's committee appoints members who are in charge of collecting the milk and selling it to the dairy farm. The dairy farm trains these collectors in good hygiene practices and processes the milk prior to procurement. However, once a dairy farm is well established and business runs smoothly, expansion and intensification are the natural consequences.Microbiological hazards are the main food safety concern in the dairy sector. They originate from animals that carry disease, the environment, milk handling equipment and milk handlers. Brucellosis is one of the major zoonotic diseases and is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. It is present in Mali, affecting 30% of cattle in urban areas and 4% in rural areas.Brucellosis is a disease of mainly cattle, swine, goats, sheep and dogs. Humans contract the disease from animals through direct contact with infected materials like afterbirth or indirectly by eating animal products or inhaling germs from the air. Consumption of raw milk and cheese made from raw milk is the major source of infection in people. It is considered to be an occupational disease for people who work in the livestock sector but human-to-human transmission is very rare. 2  In humans, brucellosis can cause a range of symptoms that are similar to the flu and may include fever, sweats, headaches, back pains and physical weakness. Severe infections of the central nervous system or lining of the heart may occur. 3 In women it may lead to miscarriage, while men may suffer from a painful inflammation of the testes. Brucellosis can also cause chronic symptoms that include recurrent fever, joint pain and fatigue.The flu-like symptoms of brucellosis, in particular the recurrent fever, mean it is often confused with malaria and therefore misdiagnosis can occur and the wrong treatment be prescribed. While malaria is caused by a blood parasite, brucellosis is caused by the bacterium Brucella against which the standard malaria treatment is not effective. Treatment with antibiotics is possible for brucellosis but can be difficult as several antibiotics need to be combined. Depending on the timing of treatment and severity of the illness, recovery may take a few weeks to several months and largely depends on access to drugs and their regular intake over a long period. The entire population of Mali is at risk of malaria and over 80% live in high-transmission areas. In 2009, only 32% of febrile children received any anti-malaria medicine. 4  Brucellosis is likely to have a significant socio-economic impact in rural areas where people largely depend on the trade of dairy products. Hence, a survey was carried out in central Mali in the region of Ségou. According to the 2010 WHO World Malaria Report, this region is the only one of Mali's eight regions with no data available on the occurrence of malaria. The site was selected because it is easily accessible, has large numbers of cattle and goats for dairy production and has a local dairy plant installed. The municipality of rural Cinzana comprises 72 villages and is home to about 37,000 people. It is located in central Mali just south of Ségou, about 240 kilometres east of Bamako. The household survey covered twelve villages, including three that were attached to several cooperatives supply-ing the Projet d'Appui à la Filière Lait de Cinzana (PAFLACIN) dairy. The dairy was opened in 2008 with the aim of benefiting five different groups: livestock owners, wives of dairy farmers, herders, unemployed youth and consumers. The project has installed six cooperatives to promote the collection and processing of milk, to supply wholesalers, retailers and end consumers with pasteurized and fermented milk (for féné, see Chapter 20) and to render technical and social services like loans to producers (Chapter 8).Using participatory methods such as questionnaires and focus group discussions, the local milk marketing chain was mapped. Complementary information on livestock management practices and milk consumption habits was obtained to describe attitudes and practices that might lead to risky behaviour. Livestock husbandry in rural Cinzana still follows rather traditional ways, such as extensive grazing and feeding on leftovers from the previous harvest. Before farmers run short of fodder, they take their cattle on transhumance to the south in the region of Sikasso. Cattle, sheep and goats are the most popular animals in the region and are kept for multiple purposes including savings, production of natural manure for the crops and, most importantly, production of milk.Normally, cattle belong to the entire community but the owners get the milk of their own cows. However, there are exceptions depending on the ethnic group of the farmers. Whereas the Bambara (traditionally farmers) keep cattle for prestige and insurance, the Fulani and their cousins the Djawambé have always been cattle herders and define themselves by their animals and sincerely revere them. The sale of a cow or a bull indicates there is a major problem in a family or there is an urgent need for a lot of money; the sale is normally decided by the male head of the house. The sale of a goat, on the other hand, can be decided by other males in the family or the elder women. While the male head of family decides which animal is sold or killed for sacrifice, the women are in charge of the milk. Depending on the ethnic affiliation, the milking is done by (hired) Fulani herders (Chapter 20), male children or both. The man as the head of the family hardly ever does the milking; the women must not do it at all.In the villages that deliver milk to the project dairy for processing, the family first takes its share for home consumption. The rest of the milk is collected by members of the cooperative every morning and delivered to the dairy by motorcycle. In the rainy season when there is plenty of milk, it is delivered in separate containers, whereas in the dry season the small amounts of milk are pooled for transport. The herds of the families delivering to the plant are mainly managed by the heads of the families in order to keep track of the revenues. The other villages appoint somebody to collect the milk and deliver it to the Cinzana dairy in Ségou or they sell it individually in nearby towns on market days. The milk is normally pooled and transported on foot, by waggon or vehicle.During the household survey, all the respondents stated they consumed cow's milk without boiling it first. Goat milk was consumed raw by 98% of the farmers. Colostrum (the first milk) was not consumed for reasons of taste and was used for feeding the calves and kids.During sampling of blood from humans and animals, information on the female animals was obtained. About 12% of farmers reported their cows had aborted once, approximately 2% twice, while 27% reported their female goats had aborted once, 4% twice and 1% three times. Abortion often occurs in the dry season when food and fodder are scarce. Almost 75% of respondents reported they handled the aborted material of their goats; for instance, they would handle the foetus with bare hands and later burn it. Whereas the latter reduces risk of transmission of brucellosis, touching the aborted material with bare hands makes transmission very likely.However, to assess whether brucellosis was present among humans, cattle and goats in the area, blood and milk were sampled. Almost 6% of the cattle and slightly over 1% of the goats tested positive for brucellosis. The test applied is very fast and suitable for mass screening in the field but reacts to some other microbes as well. Therefore, confirmatory laboratory tests were carried out on the initial positive samples. From the confirmatory tests, it turned out that none of the animals in Cinzana tested positive for brucellosis. Amongst the 213 people who were tested, only one was found to be infected with brucellosis, a 44-year-old woman of the Djawambé ethnic group who normally consumed milk raw. During the interview, she reported experiencing fever, fatigue, joint pain and having handled aborted material. She came from a village where cattle are managed individually rather than by the group.It is important to confirm the presence of zoonoses with tests of high accuracy as field screening tests may be unreliable. Even though the prevalence of brucellosis appears low, infected animals in the herds must be detected and systematically eliminated. In areas with intensified livestock production, such as cities, vaccination schemes should be introduced. Producers should be trained on brucellosis and safe handling of milk and aborted materials. The training could be facilitated by PAFLACIN. Milk must be boiled or pasteurized prior to consumption. The cultural perception of raw milk must be taken into consideration when setting up awareness programmes (Chapter 20).Ibrahim Sow holds a veterinary degree and a Master's degree of applied microbiology from the University of Bamako in Mali.Investigation on the risk of brucellosis linked to the production and consumption of milk in rural Cinzana, Mali.Ibrahim Sow, 1 Kohei Makita, 2,3 Delia Grace, 2 Solenne Costard Valentin Bognan Koné, Kristina Roesel, Gilbert Fokou, Kohei Makita, Delia Grace, Gnabeli Y. Roch and Bassirou Bonfoh Key messages• In our study, milk and meat were ranked the most important food products.• Different perceptions of quality of milk for home consumption and milk for sale led to bias in behaviour; at home, milk was almost always consumed raw whereas milk for sale was boiled. • People believed raw milk was best and could never make people sick. Boiling of milk was considered a disruption of the social order. • Meat was mostly consumed from sick animals or from those that died of disease, but was thoroughly cooked. • Milk that did not meet quality standards was not always thrown away or processed to make it safe. In some cases, it was consumed with minimal processing. • The trade of milk and meat in the informal market was mainly based on trust in the producer rather than price or hygiene of the setting. • One source of milk or meat fed many people.The rapid urban growth in African cities is accompanied by an increase in demand for meat, milk and fish products. This growing urban demand for animal-source foods is sometimes difficult to cover through domestic production. In Mali, however, the government and development partners have initiated strategies to tackle this issue on a local level to avoid increasing dependency on imports. The population of cattle in Mali is approximately 8 million and the country has millions more sheep and goats; this should be adequate to meet the domestic demand for milk. However, dairy production and productivity are still low. Thus, dairy farms and cooperatives were established to upgrade the local dairy sector through formal milk processing whereby raw milk is tested before procurement and pasteurization and staff are trained in basic hygiene.In semi-arid areas of West Africa (such as much of Mali), livestock keeping is one of the main livelihood strategies of millions of rural populations. Since dairies are accessible to rural farmers, they are now able to gain access to markets formerly out of reach for them. Despite all these efforts, risks of food-borne diseases are believed to be increasing. What are possible reasons for this? Is it because people are ignorant about food hygiene or because they simply set different priorities? Is it that we are becoming more aware of problems that were always there?According to social scientists, people's knowledge and perception of reality becomes embedded in the institutional fabric of society. Reality is therefore said to be socially constructed. Definitions of terms such as health, disease, quality, risk or hazard are therefore interpreted subjectively.When defining quality, microbiological and other standards have been extensively studied but may exclude one key factor: the consumer (who could simultaneously be a producer, transporter and intermediary). Consumers make strategic decisions and follow their own interests but technical experts may consider their behaviour as irrational. Marketing experts, for example, know that quality responds to consumer expectations which are constantly changing. Consumers' decisions depend on several factors such as level of education, economic background, social environment, ethnic affiliation, and so on. For this reason the perception of what is hygienic varies greatly between, say, Africa and the United States of America.Thus, the safety of food products of animal origin needs to be addressed by additional sociological and anthropological approaches. To understand why people are more or less exposed to objective risks, one must understand their subjective perception and examine how they produce, process and consume products of animal origin. Consumption habits are largely influenced by status within the value chain (producer, intermediary, processor, seller or consumer). Habits, beliefs and the social status of a population determine their perception of the quality and safety of food and the consideration of exogenous (quality standards set by government) and endogenous (religious views) factors are helpful instruments for mitigating risks in animal-source food.The data in the study were obtained through questionnaires, individual interviews, focus group discussions and observations. Unlike most food safety studies, it involved anthropologists. It focused mainly on the producers of milk and meat because they are also consumers and know most about the local methods of production, collection, marketing and consumption. The participants in the study represented all the ethnic groups residing in the study area. In African countries, many ethnic groups share the same resources and are intricately related in production chains. Therefore, ethnicity can be an important determinant of one's health.The Bambara are the largest of Mali's approximately thirty ethnic groups. They are mostly farmers who grow millet, sorghum and groundnuts among other food crops. Another significant proportion of the population consists of the nomadic Fulani (also known as Peul or Fulbe). Though they depend on livestock for their livelihoods, the Fulani consider their animals to be of much more value than merely economic; livestock are the pillar of social and cultural life and are associated with many social, therapeutic and economic functions. Somewhat similar beliefs of the central position of cattle exist among the pastoralists of East Africa.The study area of Cinzana covers about 1100 square kilometres and is located in the centre of Mali in the Sahel zone where most of the people have been seminomads, farming and raising livestock in a system of transhumance. Approximately 40,000 people live here and are mostly Bambara and Fulani. Other groups are the Sarakolé (traders), Bobo (cotton farmers), Bozo (fishermen), Somono (fishermen), Mianka (farmers), Djawambé (livestock keepers, cousins of the Fulani) and Mossi (craftsmen). They all live together in harmony, their common tie being Islam except for one Christian village in the study area. Social life is mostly marked by Bambara culture, for instance social hierarchy and respect for the elders.Direct observations revealed that distances between the seventy-two villages in rural Cinzana were quite substantial (7-29km), limiting the influence of media to run sensitization campaigns. It was also observed that traditions had a strong influence on husbandry practices, and rules of basic hygiene were sometimes neglected in favour of traditions. Moreover, solidarity between the people was also found to be very common within communities, especially when animals were sick or about to die. Sick animals were slaughtered and every member of the community bought a piece of meat from the owner at a small fee. This money was supposed to support the farmer who had experienced the loss of an animal.The question of the perception of quality, consumption habits and risk management was tackled in face-to-face interviews in 207 households in the twelve villages. The study sought answers on social and economic factors, risk mitigation strategies for milk and meat, risk management strategies and suggestions for improving food safety. These interviews were facilitated by a mediator and took place in a local restaurant with the head of each household or his deputy. It was remarkable that each household head sometimes fed more than fifty people, mostly his sons and their families or his younger siblings if he was the first-born.Prior to the interviews, the village chiefs were asked for permission to undertake research into their respective territories. With respect to the traditional hierarchy and religion, the Imam or the priest needed to be involved too as they are usually involved in local decision-making or problem-solving. The field-based research was done during the rainy season when farmers are normally busy planting, selling or grazing their animals. As a result, it was sometimes a challenge to interview the farmers as scheduled. Travel was difficult during the rains as many roads were rendered impassable by flooding or muddy sections. Some villagers found it hard to accept researchers at their homes. They initially thought the researchers were on a development aid mission and were not very pleased, having received many others in the past who failed to leave a positive impact.Milk is the most important food of animal origin in rural Cinzana. The Fulani are traditionally herders and therefore milk is always accessible to them. The Bambara, who used to be farmers, have diversified their activities due to seasonal shortages of rain. Manure from goats is commonly used for fertilizing their fields, and cows are kept as a financial backup for hard times. Thus, they have also increased their milk consumption. On average, over 90% of people consumed milk without any prior heat treatment (Chapter 19). For the Fulani, it is unacceptable to boil milk as it is considered a life essence because of its highly nutritional value and thus vital for physical well-being, health and strength. During transhumance, raw milk is the only food that keeps the herders alive. Boiling of milk is thought to result in loss of its beneficial attributes, leaving it as a simple 'white liquid'. It is even believed that boiling milk leads to burns of the teats or mastitis in the animal whose milk is heated. The Bambara, who have just recently discovered livestock keeping, rely on and trust in the knowledge of the Fulani who they consider the true herders.There are similar beliefs about special properties of camel milk among some camel keepers in East Africa; camel milk is often consumed as a nutraceutical (a food with health-giving properties). It is interesting that similar beliefs around the special properties of raw milk are held by some people in the United States of America; some buy shares in a cow because the only way it is legal to drink raw milk is if you own the animal.Milk also serves several religious purposes like sacrifices. It has been observed that especially on Fridays (holy day in Islam), raw milk is consumed in the company of the entire community. Homemade sun-dried dumplings accompanied by raw milk are frequently given out to children, neighbours or people in need. During wedding ceremonies, raw milk is served as an appetizer during the reception of all the invitees. Therefore, milk is a common tie of the social structure in rural Cinzana. However, a few people boil milk prior to consumption but these are mostly those who have lived away from their rural homes, for example young people who have migrated to the cities in search of employment.If milk is not consumed raw or boiled, it can be eaten as féné (partially fermented milk). Traditionally, féné is made from raw milk. The dairy in Cinzana, however, made féné from pasteurized milk. Féné is popular in remote villages without regular access to fresh milk, such as Bobo village in the study. Although fermentation can be effective at inhibiting some milk-borne pathogens, partial fermentation of milk will probably not result in the production of enough lactic acid to inhibit pathogenic bacteria and thus should be considered a risky practice. However, the health risks of féné have not been widely studied, thus little is known about them.If milk must be bought, the most important attribute is trust in the person who sells it. Good milk is considered to be cow milk that is not mixed with that from other species or milk powder. Other criteria are the yellowish colour of the milk, viscosity, clotting and homogeneity. Camel milk, for instance, is considered 'too liquid' and therefore not popular.Meat is consumed infrequently. Healthy cows are not slaughtered for meat as it is preferred to keep them alive for milking. Most people also cannot afford to buy meat on a regular basis. If meat is bought, it is normally from an animal that died of disease or exhaustion. The meat is bought from the local butcher at a reduced price, cooked thoroughly and served in a sauce. However, meat is a crucial part of the meals eaten during feasts at religious ceremonies, weddings and baptisms. The community members contribute towards the purchase of an animal which is then slaughtered and part of the meat roasted by men and the rest cooked by the women of the community and shared among everyone during the feast.In the streets of bigger towns, local butcheries with a rotisserie attached are common. These butcheries are called dibitéries and are comparable to the nyama choma pubs in East Africa. The owners are mostly livestock keepers and animals are either brought to their facility or collected from farms in case a sick or dying animal is too weak to walk to the abattoir. At the butcheries, there is no inspection of the meat by state or private veterinarians. The interviewed households named three attributes that were most important to judge whether the meat was suitable for consumption: the meat must be of red colour, still covered with some fresh blood and fat must be clearly visible. However, these physical attributes are not very useful in determining microbial contamination. Meat was only bought from trusted people (friends, neighbours or relatives) and the cleanliness of the butchery was an important aspect that customers considered during purchase. Once the meat was cooked, there was no need to worry about risks to health.The livestock in rural areas in Mali is mainly in the hands of male Fulani, Djawambé and Bambara. Milking of cows and goats is done twice a day. The morning milk is for sale whereas the evening milk is reserved for feeding the family. In the dry season, only surplus milk is sold once the family is fed. Milking is usually done after the morning and afternoon prayers. Before prayers, the hands are normally washed with water and are still considered to be clean once milking starts. During the milking, it was observed that fingers were habitually dipped in the milk. The farmers considered it necessary to grease the teats with milk and they were not aware that this practice presented a risk of milk contamination. The milk is collected in calabashes that are later cleaned with water after the morning milking is complete and left to dry in the midday sun. Soap is normally not used to clean the calabashes as the inner surfaces are not smooth and thus harbour soap residues that taint the taste of the milk. Instead, leaves from commonly found bushes are used to scrub the containers and calabashes.Traditionally, processing of milk was done by the wives of the dairy farmers who were in charge of storage, processing and sale of raw, fresh and sour milk to customers in the villages. When the PAFLACIN dairy was set up in Cinzana, the traditional marketing channels changed. Many of the women who formerly processed milk started working for the cooperative that supplied the dairy. They collected the milk from producers and pasteurized it before delivering it to the dairy where it was eventually sold. While milk for sale is normally pasteurized, raw milk is still consumed at home.Although dairy plants are not operating in every village of Cinzana, the producers have started selling their milk to the cooperatives or directly to the dairy. The raw milk is tested for freshness and adulteration. Milk that passes the test is pasteurized (if not already done at cooperative level), processed into féné, then sold to private individuals or wholesalers, the latter providing access to markets previously not available before the establishment of PAFLACIN (Chapter 8). Milk that does not pass the quality test is rejected and is mostly processed by the women into féné, which may present a health risk. This study suggests that in poor countries, valuable livestock products are not likely to be discarded even if they fail to meet defined quality standards.Risk mitigation should focus on educating consumers, especially the farmers' families who prefer to sell milk that meets dairy industry standards but drink that of lower quality. However, education and raising awareness are not enough when practices are the result of deeply held cultural beliefs. It is important to understand risks and try and mitigate them in culturally appropriate ways. Project officers and promoters of public health must raise awareness among consumers but these efforts should not be focused on the farmers only but on all players in the complex process of production, processing, distribution and consumption.Valentin Bognan Koné holds a Master's degree in sociology from the Université Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Côte d'Ivoire. He was the only social scientist in the first phase of the Safe Food, Fair Food project.Social representation and perception of the quality of animal-source food in Cinzana, Mali.Valentin Bognan Koné, 1,2 Gilbert Fokou, 1 Kohei Makita, 3,4 Delia Grace, 3 Gnabeli Y. Roch 2 and Bassirou Bonfoh In 2011, Central Europe was ravaged by an outbreak caused by the bacterium Escherichia coli that was found in contaminated sprouts from one producer. Within five weeks, over 4000 people in Germany fell sick and forty-nine people died, including one in Sweden. Unusually, it had mostly affected people who were healthy, female and over 20 years of age. Cases occurred in fifteen countries outside Germany, mostly in people with travel links to Germany. 1 E. coli is commonly found in the gut of humans and warm-blooded animals. While most strains are harmless, some can cause severe food-borne disease. The infection is usually transmitted through consumption of contaminated water or food, such as undercooked meat products and raw milk. Symptoms of disease include abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, which may be bloody. Fever and vomiting may also occur. Most patients recover within ten days, although in a few cases the disease may become life threatening. 2 The bloody diarrhoea can sometimes develop into haemolytic uraemic syndrome which has the potential to cause kidney failure and death. It is a severe complication as some of the strains produce a toxin. This group is called verotoxin-producing E. coli.Long before the outbreak in Germany, another strain of E. coli called O157 capable of producing the same symptoms had been found in faeces and raw milk from urban dairy cattle herds in Nairobi. The same culprit was identified in 1992 in a 2-year-old boy suffering from bloody diarrhoea in Malindi Hospital on the Kenyan coast. The government thought the country was safe as only one case was reported. It is commonly known that diarrhoea is ranked very high on the list of diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Many cases of diarrhoea have been reported at Kenyatta National Hospital but the causes are unknown. It is also not known how many cases of kidney failure can be attributed to E. coli but were not diagnosed as such. Officially, amoebiosis is the most common diarrhoeal disease diagnosed by microscopy. Amoebiosis results from an infection with amoeba and is characterized by watery to bloody diarrhoea, though it is not as dangerous as E. coli infection. However, tests are rarely done to determine if bloody diarrhoea is due to E. coli or amoeba infection.Since E. coli is part of a family of bacteria that has previously been identified in beef carcasses in Nairobi, the present study was designed to assess the likelihood of meat being contaminated during slaughter. This can happen when carcasses get in contact with faeces from the slaughtered animals during flaying and dressing.Three slaughterhouses with different levels of hygiene control -classified as local, local improved and export -were selected for the study which was carried out in 2009. A total of 300 animals were tracked along the slaughtering process to sample faeces and carcass swabs. Faecal samples from the rectum were taken from each animal after stunning to trace how many animals were responsible for contamination of the meat. Two carcass sites -flank and brisket -were swabbed after flaying, evisceration and cleaning. In total, seven samples were taken from each carcass.Out of 2100 samples, 280 (13.3%) were positive for E. coli. Further tests were done to find out whether the strain O157 which causes bloody diarrhoea was among them. Indeed, 4.3% were positive for E. coli O157 and some were found to be toxigenic.The probability of a carcass being contaminated with E. coli O157 was 4.8% in the local improved abattoir, 3.8% in the local abattoir and 2.9% in the export abattoir. However, these differences are not statistically significant, thus the risk of contamination is the same irrespective of the type of abattoir.More research on handling, transportation and slaughter processes must be done since some of the slaughterhouses have adopted more standard sanitary operating procedures. The government levy of US$1-3 per carcass that is charged in local and export slaughterhouses should be allocated for inspectors as enforcement of existing laws is crucial.Nairobi City Council regulations state that contaminated meat must be confiscated. Routine sampling of carcasses and workers should be done as part ofJohn Kago, Kristina Roesel, Erastus Kang'ethe, John Wangoh, Kohei Makita and Delia Grace • Only a few strains of E. coli are capable of causing disease. • E. coli was detected in meat at the slaughterhouse and contamination levels increased along the value chain. • Personnel involved in handling, transporting and selling meat are poorly trained and are a significant source of contamination. • The risk of purchasing tainted meat from butcheries is high due to multiple malpractices.According to the Export Processing Zones Authority in Kenya, exports of beef in 2005 earned the country KSh34.4 billion (about €400 million). The country's beef sector is supplied mainly by small-scale traders and is therefore largely informal. Data from Kenya's Ministry of Agriculture indicate that the humid weather in 2010 helped raise the annual red meat production to 430,000 tons against domestic consumption of 330,000 tons. Nonetheless, Kenya's livestock export remains restricted by the EU and some countries in the Middle East due to the failure to meet safety standards. 1 Good farming practices, good hygiene practices and HACCP have been identified as helpful measures of meat safety control 2 but the informal meat industry with its numerous players is very hard to monitor. Escherichia coli O157:H7 was found in the guts of ruminants and on the surface of meat in abattoirs in Nairobi (Chapter 21). Sporadic outbreaks have shown that improperly cooked meat, raw fruits and vegetables contaminated with the bacteria can cause diarrhoea and sometimes even kidney failure and death. E. coli is not hazardous by nature and only some strains cause disease. While the regular strains lead to diarrhoea if large amounts are ingested, only 10 to 100 individual microbes of the dangerous strains like O157:H7 can cause disease. Therefore, the presence of E. coli is generally used to indicate faecal contamination of food. If contamination is high, chances increase that some of the contaminants include E. coli O157:H7.The study suggests that good hygiene at the slaughterhouse and during transportation can eliminate contamination and cross-contamination of meat with E. coli O157:H7. Following the confirmation that meat is contaminated at slaughterhouse level (Chapter 21), investigation focused on determining the level of bacterial contamination between loading of meat at the abattoirs and offloading at retail shops. Handling practices were surveyed by interviewing and observing chain actors.The largest slaughterhouses in terms of throughput and supplying local butcheries in Nairobi, Limuru and Eldoret were selected. They are either privately owned or under the control of the local authorities. Meat transporters using vehicles mounted with veterinary-approved boxes and supplying two or more butcheries were involved. These butcheries were included in the survey too.Surface swabs of carcasses were taken for laboratory analysis as the carcasses were loaded into the vehicles at the slaughterhouses and offloaded at the butchery. The temperature and humidity inside the transportation boxes were measured as these two factors influence the rate of bacterial growth and spoilage. At the butchery, working surfaces were sampled to determine contamination levels. By observing the process and interviewing the workers, practices that might compromise meat safety were identified. Preliminary findings show that E. coli O157:H7 was found at every level from loading to offloading with the highest occurrence on working surfaces and equipment at the butcheries.Transporters seem to lack formal training on meat hygiene which became apparent when almost all of them reported that they did not wash their hands frequently. The loaders used white coats for protective clothing which were either privately owned or hired from people near the slaughterhouses. However, the coats were not changed in between loading sessions. Loading was done by carrying the carcasses on the shoulders, resulting in the coat becoming bloodstained. Working surfaces were not properly cleaned and transportation boxes lacked cooling facilities.One cell of E. coli doubles every 20 minutes. Therefore, high levels of contamination at the slaughterhouse will result in multiplication of the organism during transport (one hour or more) to levels high enough to cause disease. E. coli O157:H7 is quite hardy. It can survive for extended periods in water and soil, under frozen and refrigeration temperatures and in dry conditions. It also can adapt to acidic conditions. The organism is destroyed by thorough cooking or pasteurization. 3  Most of the workers at the butchery were aware of the importance of frequent hand washing and knew that spoiled meat can cause disease and that intestines should be stored separately from meat. On average, two out of every 100 carcasses during loading at the slaughterhouses were contaminated with E. coli O157:H7, as were four out of every 100 carcasses during offloading at the butcheries. A followup visit the following day revealed that three carcasses at the slaughterhouses were contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.At the butcheries, cloths were used to wipe the benches, knives, weighing scales and wooden chopping board after contact with intestines and before handling the meat. There was no use of hot water to sterilize the implements and surfaces. Most of the butcheries used wooden cutting boards which are easy to chip and hard to clean. To avoid this, the boards are scratched off with the knives and fat from the meat is applied in the morning before starting work. The board is then used the whole day and only wiped clean the following morning.Many of the butcheries did not have a working refrigeration system and stored the meat for up to three days, thus encouraging the growth of E. coli in the meat. In some butcheries, leftover meat was reportedly stored in deep freezers though power blackouts were sometimes experienced. Most butchers prepared ready-toeat food in their premises; cooking is likely to eliminate E. coli. However, crosscontamination of the cooked meat can occur if it is cut on the chopping board used for raw meat.Butchery owners and their staff regularly received complaints from customers about the meat being tough or foul smelling. The preliminary conclusion is that most of the transporters and butchers were poorly educated on good hygiene practices. They had not received any formal training on hygienic meat handling but had acquired skills on the job by observation. Data on the level of spoilage will indicate the likelihood of infection after consuming meat from local butcheries.The personnel along the meat value chain must be properly trained in hygienic aspects and good hygiene practices and compliance with the cold chain must be promoted. Innovative ways are needed for improving practices along the value chain as currently many actors are not observing good practices. Legal Notice 110 of 2010 allows for classification of slaughterhouses based on throughput and facilities. It lists a requirement for personnel working in slaughterhouses/meat transportation to have obtained certain qualifications. However, they should also maintain their knowledge through a certain number of training courses in a year.John Kago holds a Bachelor of Science degree in food science and technology from the University of Nairobi. He carried out this study towards his Master's degree from the University of Nairobi. He was previously a tutor at the KenyaCampylobacteriosis is a widespread infection caused by the bacterium Campylobacter. Livestock and poultry are the main source of Campylobacter as they can carry the bacteria in their intestines without being ill. The organism is transmitted by eating raw meat or drinking raw milk contaminated with faeces. Water that has been polluted with Campylobacter is another source of infection in humans.The most common symptoms of Campylobacter infection include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. Symptoms usually start 2-5 days after infection and last for 3-6 days. Specific treatment is not usually necessary, except to replace electrolytes and water lost through diarrhoea, but antimicrobials may be needed to treat severe cases and the carrier state. 1  A very low number of Campylobacter organisms (fewer than 500) can cause illness in humans. Only one drop of juice from raw chicken meat can infect a person. In some cases, the infection may lead to chronic health problems like damage in joints or nerves, and in people with compromised immune systems, Campylobacter occasionally spreads to the bloodstream and causes a serious lifethreatening infection. 2 A special feature of some types of Campylobacter is that they grow best at temperatures above 45°C; they are referred to as thermophilic (heat loving).In Tanzania, the occurrence of campylobacteriosis is not well studied, especially in the informal markets where 80% of local inhabitants buy their food. The municipality of Arusha in central Tanzania is home to about 300,000 people 3 and about five times as many cattle. By regulation, slaughter of all animals is carried out at a modern abattoir owned by the Arusha Meat Company. 4 The meat is then sold to private butcheries. Several bar owners buy meat from the private butcheries and prepare it for sale to customers as roast meat.Popular ready-to-eat meat products in Arusha are roast beef (nyama choma) and skewer beef (mishikaki), which are normally served with ugali, a stiff porridge made from maize flour. Bananas and vegetable stew (sukuma wiki) as well as semi-cooked or raw cabbage mixed with chopped tomatoes and onions are often eaten as an accompaniment.The aim of the present study was to investigate whether thermophilic Campylobacter was present in raw and roast beef in Arusha and to assess possible public health risks associated with ready-to-eat roast meat products.Arusha Municipality is divided into a northern and a southern part, the latter characterized by a higher population density and fewer sanitary facilities available. Samples of raw meat were collected from butcheries while samples of roast and skewer beef were collected from local beer bars (pubs).Thermophilic Campylobacter was found in one-quarter of all sampled beef products in the municipality. Its occurrence was five times higher in beef sold in the poorer southern part of the municipality than in the northern part. Bacteria were detected in raw meat but contamination levels were significantly higher in meat served at the beer bars. Possible sources of contamination can be identified by using a fault tree to trace the steps from the live cattle to the customer's plate (Chapter 5). If the animal was not infected prior to being slaughtered, the meat can subsequently be tainted at the abattoir, during transport to the local butchery and at the butchery itself. In the present survey, the sampling of meat only started at the butcheries where it was found to contain thermophilic Campylobacter. Further investigation on the source of initial contamination is therefore necessary.Thermophilic Campylobacter was detected in over 20% of samples of roast beef served to customers. Again, the occurrence of microbial contamination was higher in the southern part of the municipality. However, more investigations along the supply chain are needed to identify the sources of contamination so that appropriate preventive measures can be put in place. Skewer beef was generally more contaminated than roast beef; this might be due to the larger surface area providing an even greater breeding ground for bacteria.Discussions with consumers and pub owners revealed that nyama choma and mishikaki are very popular in Tanzania. Beef was the favourite meat of more than 75% of the respondents. Most private households surveyed reportedly ate beef about three times a week. The pub owners sold about 3500kg of roast meat and 165kg of skewer meat a day.When purchasing raw beef, customers and pub owners usually judged the quality of the meat by its fresh red colour and fat content and bought the meat before noon. More than 50% served or ate it within 30 minutes of cooking. Almost 75% of the respondents considered good personal hygiene practices such as washing hands as very important. However, 75% of pub owners had never received training on food hygiene. Therefore, it was not surprising that none of the respondents knew about campylobacteriosis. When asked what disease is commonly associated with food, people mostly mentioned gout which they thought was caused by eating too much meat. They also mentioned Rift Valley fever, a disease that can result from direct contact with the blood of infected cattle during slaughtering. In 2007, Kenya, Somalia and Tanzania suffered from an outbreak of the viral disease which killed hundreds of people and, seemingly, many locals recalled this vividly. 5  Taking into account the handling and consumption practices of the consumers and that 500 Campylobacter organisms can make a person fall ill, it was calculated whether the level of Campylobacter detected on samples of ready-to-eat beef in Arusha posed a public health risk. It was found that 13% of the healthy population are at risk of infection, with immunocompromised people at higher risk. Every day, about 1800 people are exposed to the risk of campylobacteriosis from 16% of servings of roast beef and 35% of skewer beef.Additional studies on the concentration of Campylobacter at different stages of the value chain are needed to identify the sources of contamination and quantify the risk to consumers. Public health programmes, consumer awareness and training of food handlers should be promoted. Budgetary allocation should be made towards regular inspection of food outlets by health officers as well as laboratory testing of food samples.Edgar Mahundi holds a Master's degree in veterinary science. After several years in private practice, he worked as veterinary officer at the Ministry of Livestock Development and Fisheries in Tanzania until he took up his current position as drug inspector at the Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority in the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare in Dar es Salaam.Food safety risk assessment of thermophilic Campylobacter and marketing channels of beef in Arusha Municipality, Tanzania.Edgar Mahundi, 1 E.D. Karimuribo, 2 Kohei Makita, 3,4 H.E. Ngowi, 2 Delia Grace 3 and Lusato Kurwijila 2  1 Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority; 2 Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania; 3 International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya; 4 Rakuno Gakuen University, JapanNyama choma (roast beef) and kuku choma (roast chicken) are popular ready-to-eat foods in Tanzania. A separate study revealed that beef in Arusha is contaminated with a bacterium -Campylobacter -likely to cause severe diarrhoea in people (Chapter 23). The same study estimated that every day, approximately six new cases occur per 1000 people in Arusha. People with a feeble immune system are probably even more at risk. The author recommended determining the concentration of Campylobacter at the various steps along the supply chain. People can only fall sick if they ingest enough bacteria. His calculations were based on contamination levels published in medical literature which assessed the average load of bacteria in other study areas. These figures do not necessarily have to apply to the situation present in Arusha.In Tanzania, people suffering from diarrhoea do not always seek medical attention depending on their budget and distance from the health care centre. Therefore, diarrhoea is most likely to be underreported. If people seek medical care, the cause of diarrhoea is hardly investigated because of the costs involved. Campylobacteriosis is not a notifiable disease, thus health care centres are not likely to provide information on whether it is a problem in the area.The common routes of transmission for Campylobacter are faecal-oral and the ingestion of contaminated food such as raw meat, milk or water. What could be the route of transmission in Arusha? Eating undercooked chicken and beef could be a possibility. For this reason, the present study sought to assess the level of thermophilic Campylobacter in raw beef and roast meat sold in beer bars. The study found that there was no risk of contracting campylobacteriosis by eating roast beef or chicken at local restaurants in Arusha. Only one out of 70 samples (1.4%) of roast chicken was found to contain Campylobacter.In addition to microbiological assessment, the study also interviewed butchers and bar owners who sold the roast meat to identify other possible routes of Campylobacter transmission related to meat handling practices and the personal hygiene of the meat handlers. They were asked about how they handled the meat and the facilities they used to store, prepare, cook and serve the product.It was found that less than a quarter of the 30 butchers and 40 bar owners interviewed had a refrigerator. However, all the respondents used tap water during their operations. Half of the respondents said they had been trained in basic hygiene practices. Therefore, it was surprising to observe that most bar owners did not use separate knives and cutting boards for the raw and roast meat, a practice that greatly increases the chances of cross-contamination of cooked meat. Crosscontamination is also possible if utensils used to cut raw meat are used to prepare the vegetables that are served along with the nyama choma or kuku choma.Are these practices due to ineffective training of pub owners on food hygiene? Do the local health authorities regularly update pub owners on food-borne hazards, or is it just not cost-effective to buy separate knives, cutting boards and plates for raw and roast food? These questions need to be investigated in future through participatory techniques.The separation of raw and roast products -including the utensils for preparation such as knives and cutting boards -should be promoted. Meat handlers should be trained in personal and processing hygiene. Health authorities should assess the compliance of trained food handlers and consider the implementation of incentives. The government could support budgetary allocation to investigate the level of contamination of thermophilic Campylobacter in chicken.Haruya Toyomaki undertook this research during his final year of studies towards a Bachelor's degree in veterinary medicine at Rakuno Gakuen University in Japan.Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos, Kristina Roesel, Cheryl McCrindle, Helena Matusse, Saskia Hendrickx, Kohei Makita and Delia Grace • Investigating food safety in the informal sector can be challenging; it is much easier for regulators to engage with agri-business than with independent small-scale operators! • Poultry meat is contaminated at all levels of the market chain from farm to sale, with highest contamination in live bird markets. • Lack of food safety prerequisites and low levels of awareness on hygienic practices were identified as the main reasons for contamination.Since independence from Portugal in 1975, Mozambique has been battered by civil war, economic problems, natural disasters and hunger. Gifted with rich and extensive natural resources -including water and recently discovered gas, coal and mineral sources -Mozambique's present-day economy is considered one of huge potential as its assets have remained largely untapped. On arrival in Inhambane, the fifteenth-century Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama was reportedly so charmed by the locals that he gave the area the name terra da boa gente (land of the good people) 1 and since peace has arrived in Mozambique at last, tourists are pouring into the country that is stretched out between the Indian Ocean, South Africa, Lake Malawi and Tanzania with its enticing magical islands, sandy beaches and laid-back hospitality.Some of the best cuisine of the region, blending African, Indian and Portuguese influences, is found here and always served with a dab of piri piri (hot chili pepper) alongside. Among seafood and freshwater fish, inteiro com piripiri (whole chicken in chili pepper sauce) is particularly popular.The Mozambicans themselves enjoy their local backyard chicken, also known as 'hard chicken'. Most of them do not trust in chicken 'that is fully grown within five weeks' and are reluctant to buy meat imported from Brazil or Australia. Fortunately for local producers and consumers who like local products, the amount of imported chicken has decreased significantly over the past years thanks to a fast-expanding national poultry sector.However, the risk to human health of consuming poultry meat obtained from both the formal and informal market is unknown in Mozambique. According to the Ministry of Health, diarrhoeal diseases remain an important cause of illness but it is unknown whether and to what extent poultry meat consumption contributes to this. In other countries, including many in Europe, poultry has been shown to be a major source of food-borne disease and diarrhoeal illness, which may be a reason to view poultry in Mozambique with caution. Since poultry is a major component of the diet and a valuable and affordable source of protein for all levels of society, the present study aimed to investigate poultry to identify potential hazards and their likelihood of occurrence. The study considered the entire marketing chain in a 'farm-to-fork' approach, as this is considered the best way to understand how and where food safety problems occur.At farm level, food safety begins with the suppliers of agricultural inputs to farmers and those involved in food production, since materials such as pesticides and veterinary drugs pose different risks and therefore require specific attention. Special attention is also needed when animals are slaughtered at abattoirs as this is a common point for contamination with health hazards. Food retailing involves the sale of foods in supermarkets and shops and in the informal sector, such as street-food vendors and market stalls. Practices and conditions regarding storage, transport and distribution of foods can have an influence on product safety. Food safety does not end at the point of sale. Improper handling and preparation by consumers often negate the food safety measures introduced by other sectors in the earlier stages of the food chain. 2  HACCP was first developed to ensure food was safe for astronauts in space voyages, as illnesses in these circumstances would be intolerable. Since then, it has become the universally recognized and accepted method for food safety assurance. Hazards and their points of entry into the food chain can be identified and feasible measures taken to reduce the risk of consumers ingesting food that can cause disease.This study investigated and described the value chains for poultry production in Maputo, the capital city of Mozambique. The study applied prerequisite tools for HACCP in small-scale poultry production in Maputo. In this way, it was possible to identify the stages of the value chain that could compromise or increase the safety and quality of the end product.Mapping a value chain involves a lot of logistics. At first, the livestock service and the central laboratory in Maputo were approached to establish contact with the head of the provincial livestock services, who in turn contacted the national poultry farmer association. In cooperation with TechnoServe, a United States-based non-profit organization, the study team held a workshop with farmers and processors from abattoirs and government-accredited meat inspectors, municipal members, researchers and academics. Before visits to production and marketing sites were facilitated, a lot of letters needed to be exchanged in order to link up inspectors with abattoir managers, poultry associations with farmers, and consumer associations with the study in general. The preliminary results were taken back to be presented during a second workshop.During visits to informal markets, first-hand information from vendors was obtained to complete the map of the marketing chain for street-vended chicken. This mission proved to be a challenge! A lot of explaining was necessary to make the concept of participation clear to all participants. In a country with sixteen major ethnic groups where not everyone speaks Portuguese, misunderstandings were on the daily agenda. The most striking example was somebody mistaking the researcher for a health officer who had come to fine the vendors or close down the food stands; the researcher's camera was snatched and thrown in a water tank! Thankfully, another butcher voluntarily joined the survey to learn from the findings of the research.A total of 330 samples of poultry meat from freshly slaughtered and frozen fowls were randomly collected from formal abattoirs, live bird markets and farms. Contamination rates were assessed by using 3M™ Petrifilm plates. This all-in-one plating system is a very handy method to quickly detect and quantify various microorganisms. It is designed to be as accurate as conventional methods used in the laboratory, with the special benefit of being handy in the field. Therefore, it is often used for testing foodstuffs throughout the world.The results showed a significantly higher microbial load in live bird markets (63%) than at farms (40%) and formal abattoirs (39%). The detected microorganisms are good indicators of the level of contamination. Good hygiene practices and good manufacturing practices are easy to assess. The results suggested that poultry meat from live bird markets was more risky than poultry purchased from the formal sector or directly from the farm. However, the comparison was not entirely fair because samples from markets were at point of sale and samples from abattoirs were at point of slaughter. As contamination increases with time, we would normally expect birds at point of sale to be more contaminated than those freshly slaughtered. Other studies in Vietnam and the Gambia focusing on point of sale only found that meat sold in the formal sector (supermarkets) was actually more heavily contaminated with microbes than meat sold in traditional (wet) markets.However, all meat samples from the three market channels in Maputo province were contaminated with microorganisms of faecal origin and could therefore have the potential to cause diarrhoeal disease if not washed, cooked and stored properly.These objective results correspond with the observations made at all stages of the marketing chain. The cold chain was not maintained during transportation from the formal abattoir to retail shops, and chicken meat sellers used the same water through the poultry processing in an open environment under high ambient temperatures. Weather patterns in Maputo are characterized by a rainy season (22-31°C) from November to March and a dry season (13-24°C) from April to October. 3Following these preliminary results, a hygiene assessment system is proposed for all market channels, with focus on the critical points that were identified during the study and that can be easily controlled and monitored. For the hygiene plan to be effective, a strong foundation of safety-related prerequisites is essential. Regular training in hygiene practices is crucial at every level of the food chain. Raising consumer awareness might be an incentive, as demand for quality products influences supply. Audit checklists based on the HACCP plan resulting from this study can be used by inspectors to maintain suitable standards. Moreover, it could be the basis for developing a set of standards for a code of practice for poultry producers and processors (good agricultural practices, good hygiene practices and good manufacturing practices). The role of the inspection services and collaboration of inspection authorities with the poultry industry association should be reinforced to improve the quality of final products.Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos holds a Master's degree in veterinary science and obtained her specialist degree in veterinary public health at the University of Pretoria in 2012. After working as livestock programme manager for World Vision and the UK Department for International Development, she coordinated the Southern Africa Newcastle Disease Control Project in Mozambique (Australian Government Overseas Aid Program) and now holds the position of veterinary public health officer at the Ministry of Agriculture in Mozambique.Prerequisites for HACCP in small-scale poultry production and processing in Maputo, Mozambique.Ana Bela Cambaza dos Muchangos, 1 Cheryl McCrindle, 1 Helena Matusse, 2 Saskia Hendrickx, 3 Kohei Makita 3,4 and Delia Grace James Oguttu, Kristina Roesel, Cheryl McCrindle, Saskia Hendrickx, Kohei Makita and Delia Grace • Street food is very popular in South Africa. While previous studies have focused on pathogens in street food, this is the first study to assess the risk associated with contaminated food. • Street vendors source the chicken meat mostly from formal retailers such as supermarkets or commercial farms (suppliers with means to produce safe chicken). As a result the market chain is very short. • Traders are aware of risks associated with food of animal origin and have developed risk mitigation strategies. • The working environment proved to be an important source of contamination of street-vended food. • Unavailability of potable water and lack of proper infrastructure for the production of safe food have led to the quality of street-vended ready-to-eat chicken being compromised by faecal and environmental contaminants and pathogenic organisms like Staphylococcus aureus.The multibillion-rand minibus taxi industry carries over 65% of South Africa's commuters 1 and is expected to be even more important in the future in light of the country's growing urban population. The taxi industry consists of minibuses, dominating 90% of the market, and metered taxis active in the remaining 10% of the market. The turnover of the sector comprising 20,000 owners and 200,000 employees is estimated to be more than 16.5 billion South African rand per year (approximately €2.1 billion). 2 Unfortunately, the highly competitive taxi industry has been heavily embroiled in aggressive conflicts that have claimed thousands of lives. 3   Violence is not the only threat to commuters at taxi ranks in South Africa. In September 2011, about 40 people, including several children, collapsed at a taxi rank in Rustenburg, North West, in a suspected poisoning incident. The victims told medics they had fallen ill after eating food at a nearby restaurant. 4  An estimated 2.5 million people live in Tshwane metropolitan area, 5 which is among the biggest metropolitan municipalities in South Africa. It forms the local government of northern Gauteng Province including the city of Pretoria. Pretoria is just 50km from Johannesburg and is expected to form part of a megalopolis of 20 million people within the next 10 to 15 years.In many African cities, informal markets are an integral part of the food supply network and are particularly important to the urban and peri-urban poor as sources of affordable ready-to-eat foods. In South Africa, taxi ranks are the most popular food-vending posts due to the high frequency of a broad clientele. Informal food vending is a major contributor to South Africa's economy, with about 44.7 million rand spent on street food outlets in Gauteng in 1994 alone. In other parts of Africa where there have been extensive studies on informal food markets, income is usually three to 10 times higher than the prevailing minimum wage. Studies show that informal food vending is particularly important to women, the first victims of increasing unemployment and subsequent poverty.With chicken consumption growing along with the informal market, the question as to whether street-vended chicken and its by-products are safe for human consumption is the logical consequence. By proving that informal markets are well established and provide the poor in urban areas with affordable and wholesome food, evidence generated could enhance growth of the sector, leading to increased job creation while securing the income of the vendors and ensuring that consumers have access to wholesome and nutritious food.Preliminary findings of this study show that the majority of informal vendors involved in the sale of ready-to-eat chicken and chicken by-products in Tshwane are women aged between 25 and 50 years. The majority of the vending outlets are run as private businesses. Very few young people and males are involved in the trade. The majority of the vendors have attained secondary education, with a few holding a tertiary qualification.Using a structured questionnaire and focus group discussions with informal traders, the marketing chain for street-vended chicken was established. Observations using checklists for hygiene audits were also applied to identify risky behaviours during food preparation. This was complemented by microbiological sampling of ready-to-eat chicken prepared in various ways.Three sources of chicken for informal traders were identified, all of which are linked to the formal market. Street vendors, who cook and sell broiler meat, buy the chicken from butchers and supermarkets which are usually supplied by accredited wholesalers (formal sector). Vendors who sell off-layers (spent hens) source them directly from commercial farmers and slaughter them at their homes. In some instances, informal intermediary sellers collect and slaughter the chicken before delivering them to the vendors. According to the South African Meat Safety Act of 2000, slaughter of animals outside designated abattoirs is prohibited if the meat is for sale and not for home consumption. Therefore, the slaughter of birds either by the vendors themselves or the intermediary sellers is deemed illegal.We found that most vendors did not hold a certificate of acceptance, a permit issued by the department of health authorizing them to operate as food vendors. Despite this, the informal vendors generally followed good basic hygiene practices such as keeping short fingernails, wearing protective clothing, keeping food covered and over fire, and not picking up food with bare hands. The structures where meat was prepared and sold were very rudimentary: for example, operating under a tent on bare ground that was not cemented and in surroundings that do not meet basic requirements for siting a food-vending outlet. Many vendors work in open areas that are prone to flooding during the rainy season and exposed to dust during the dry season. Microbiological analysis of chicken showed evidence of contamination. The environment is a significant contributor to contamination of ready-to-eat chicken, given the number of samples that were positive for coliforms and not faecal contaminants.Though the vendors studied adhered to some hygiene principles of preparing food that is safe, there is a problem when food has to bought and taken away to be consumed later. In such instances, the food is presented in various ways: wrapped in a newspaper or packed in plastic bags or polysterol foam boxes. Depending on where the packaging materials are stored and how they are handled and cleaned, this practice could increase the risk of contamination of food. However, when food is eaten directly at the vending site, it is served on plates that are washed between servings. Even then, previous studies showed that this practice too has potential to introduce germs into the food because some vendors will offer the dishwashing water to their customers for washing their hands. Water analysis returned samples that contained faecal contaminants (E. coli); this implies that the water used by some of the vendors is not potable.Focus group discussions revealed that to most vendors, cleanliness of the working environment ranks first among the factors that compromise food safety. The respondents considered it the greatest constraint in producing safe food and gave examples such as rats infesting most of the stalls or operating in open areas where food is exposed to dust, among others.The ready-to-eat chicken was tested for the presence of indicators of faecal contamination and some well-known pathogens associated with food. Just under half of the samples tested were positive for Staphylococcus aureus and the number of positive samples varied between markets, though not significantly. Risk analysis based on information obtained in this study and published data from other studies show that the likelihood of contracting staphylococcal food poisoning following consumption of chicken sold on the informal markets in Tshwane metropolitan area is low (0.73%).On the contrary, fewer samples were positive for E. coli and coliforms (faecal and environmental contaminants, respectively). While the presence of E. coli indicates faecal contamination, occurrence of samples with exceedingly high coliform counts but negative for E. coli suggests that the environment is a contributor to food contamination. This finding was expected given the poor conditions under which the food is prepared.Observations and interviews revealed that vendors have adopted strategies to mitigate microbial risks associated with their products. They have adopted measures which ensure that displayed food is not held for prolonged periods: for example, chicken for sale ready to eat is prepared in small amounts to allow for it to be finished before more chicken is bought or brought from home and prepared.The focus group discussions further demonstrated the existence of systems by which vendors are able to tell if their food caused food poisoning. For example, customers return and complain to the vendors personally in case of illness after eating food from their stalls. Given the risk of losing clientele with repeated incidences of food poisoning, vendors are forced to ensure that the ready-to-eat chicken they sell is safe for human consumption.The survey and interaction with the vendors during focus group interviews have already had a positive spin-off. Following the focus group discussion with one of the survey groups, the vendors from that market decided to explore the option of forming either an association or a cooperative to facilitate dealing with common issues such as rat infestation at the stalls. Before the survey, they had not realized the need for having a common voice (Chapter 5).The demographic survey of the vendors shows that mostly adults of employable age are involved in the informal trade. This indicates that the sector contributes to job creation in the Tshwane metropolitan municipality. Given the economic benefit of informal food vending, the municipality needs to provide prerequisites for production of safe food such as well-constructed food stalls suitably located so that food is protected from environmental contamination and easily accessible to the customers. This will enhance both the viability and the sustainability of the sector.According to the Meat Safety Act of 2000, the inspection of poultry is not mandatory. In view of this, it is advisable for the municipality to encourage the vendors to establish the equivalent of slaughter slabs in the red meat industry for slaughter of chicken by vendors and the intermediaries who supply chicken sourced from commercial farms. These could be established in homes or at farms where the chickens are sourced. This would help enhance the safety of the chicken sold by the informal vendors.Much as the risk of contracting staphylococcal intoxication was low -which is good news for the sector -the high prevalence of contaminated products is a concern. In view of this, training is needed for the vendors on hygienic food production. Given that the majority of the vendors completed secondary education, provision of training on the principles of food hygiene seems feasible. Moreover, this should not be a problem since most run their businesses either on a personal or a family basis. Furthermore, inspection at informal markets shouldAlexander Heeb, Kristina Roesel, Cheryl McCrindle, Shashi Ramrajh, Kohei Makita and Delia Grace • Meat products marketed informally were found to be safe for human consumption. • The quality of an initially safe product is compromised after processing due to inadequate prerequisites and handling practices. • Training will be of little use unless adequate infrastructure is provided.• Marketing channels to sell game meat products are in place but not communicated. • Game meat sources perceived as safe must be reviewed critically.South Africa is characterized by a rich cultural diversity but also by strong disparities between developed and developing areas, resulting in large discrepancies between the rich and poor. Increasing rates of unemployment also resulted in an increase of self-employment, mostly in the informal sector. In 2007, about 25% of the population was unemployed and about 15% was active in the informal sector. The country's informal sector thus remains relatively small compared to those of other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Street food vending has been considered to be the single largest employer in the informal sector and a major contributor to the country's economy.The present study involved informal traders of seven towns in northern KwaZulu-Natal where 80% of the population lives below the poverty line. These traders, mostly women, run their businesses in the streets rather than in open market areas provided by the municipalities for a daily fee, in order to exploit areas with many customers such as bus terminals, taxi ranks and industrial sites. The vendors work 10-15 hours a day without taking a break, sometimes starting as early as 0300 hours when commuters leave for work.Most of the traders sold their products from fixed premises and the sale of meat products was the primary source of income for almost all of them. Interviews showed that half sold only one product and beef was most preferred, followed by chicken. Additionally, one-third also sold less expensive products such as offal from impala (Aepyceros melampus). Almost all vendors sourced the raw meat from formal retail outlets such as butcheries or supermarkets. Therefore, the products can be assumed to have passed primary as well as secondary meat inspection and to be safe for human consumption, at least until they enter the informal market.Price was the most important attribute that consumers considered when buying meat; less important were the type of meat and the relationship to the supplier. Most informal traders could afford to pay US$3.50-5 per kg of red meat at supermarkets or butcheries; cheaper cuts of beef and lamb could be purchased within this price range and special cuts were about twice as expensive. Prices at the abattoir were affordable but obtaining meat was hampered as the minimum sale quantity was 200kg. Lamb was generally more expensive than beef, and goat meat was not encountered in the formal retail shops (Chapter 31).When the raw meat from the formal retailer was grilled and cooked for sale, it entered the informal market. Therefore, samples of raw meat and end products such as fried steaks, beef stews, chicken stews, gravies and salads were obtained to assess their overall level of contamination. Whereas three-quarters of the samples of cooked meat were of acceptable quality, all of the raw meat samples proved to be of unsatisfactory quality. It is unlikely, albeit not impossible, that raw meat sourced from a formal retailer was unsafe for human consumption (Chapter 3). Assuming that the bacterial load must have been reduced during the preparation of the meat prior to selling it, more interviews were carried out with the vendors who had been sampled before in order to identify the source of contamination.Unfortunately, the second survey revealed that unsuitable prerequisites (infrastructure and utilities such as running water, sanitation, rubbish disposal and electricity) are the major constraints of the street vendors. These are likely to be the major source of contamination which resulted in 'only' satisfactory results in the laboratory. Almost all vendors stated they would build a shelter if they could improve something about their stand. Indeed, roofs, floors and walls proved to be inadequate.Nearly every vendor lacked cooling facilities and half of them claimed that their biggest constraint was the lack of water. When observing the sites, it turned out that hardly anybody had running water available. They brought their own water from home and many times, the same bucket or bowl of water was used to wash hands, utensils and dishes. One respondent reported that he would have to 'steal' water from the nearby petrol station in order to avoid transporting water on a daily basis. Most of them lacked drainage facilities for dirty water and 16% lacked access to public toilets.Electricity was also not available to most of the vendors; only one had access to a refrigerator. The stand of this particular vendor was a self-made shack, and at night he relied on the security guards employed by an adjacent supermarket to keep an eye on his premises. Another respondent used a gas refrigerator, which most of the other vendors could not afford. Hygiene practices were generally poor, most likely due to a lack of knowledge. All but one respondent handled food and other things such as money and cigarettes without washing hands in between.Almost all of them reported that they grilled and cooked the meat products. Most of the food was sold right away, and storage times were generally short. Through these practices, they reduced the risk of contamination of the cooked food products which were sold to consumers. Some retailers bought the raw meat in the morning and prepared it at home before selling it in the streets. Others stored the meat in cooling boxes but most of them transported and stored the meat without cooling (one for even a week!) prior to cooking. At the end of the day, leftovers would be taken home to eat although some respondents tried to sell them the following day (Chapter 4). Even though these preconditions must be improved, the quality of meat products marketed informally is considered to be safe for human consumption.In order to see if game could provide an untapped supply of nutritious and inexpensive offal for informal street vending, we conducted an additional survey among biltong hunters. Generally, they hunt for recreation rather than for meat. If they trade, they shoot 'on order', give away the meat for free or sell it to butcheries and supermarkets. Biltong hunters commonly use slaughter facilities provided by game ranches if no evisceration takes place in the field. Unlike commercial game harvesting, standards and regulations are almost non-existent for biltong hunters. Those trading the meat can directly sell it to licensed butcheries and supermarkets instead of delivering it to registered game abattoirs, as this is not yet required by South African law. Only 5% of biltong hunters had attended training courses to become professional hunters, and most courses attended focused on weapon safety and competency rather than food safety.As the meat is not inspected at any point and a cold chain is not maintained, the quality of the meat was investigated (Chapter 29). The survey also investigated possible risk factors associated with this kind of meat production. Trophy hunting can be associated with negative effects on meat quality from the animal being stressed over a longer period (missed shots or being chased for a long time). In case of abdominal shots, the bowels might be damaged, resulting in faecal contamination of the meat. However, the interval between the killing of the animal and bleeding is one of the most important parameters for meat hygiene and food safety. If bleeding is delayed and blood remains in the vessels, this will result in poor quality and multiplication of bacteria in meat.According to the biltong hunters, the greatest obstacle for further expansion of the game meat market was inadequate promotion and support, including the provision of a cold chain from farm to supermarket. The survey revealed that most of them had not considered selling the offal. However, the locals frequently asked them for the offal. While biltong hunters cannot guarantee consistent quantities and quality of game meat and its by-products, commercial game harvesters can (Chapter 28). While almost all the informal traders purchased their meat from formal sources such as supermarkets or butcheries, they had little access to meat from licensed game abattoirs. Why? Hunters and game harvesters do not see marketing potential for game meat and would rather throw it away in the bush to feed the vultures. This study and others (Chapter 28) prove that this is a waste of resources which could easily be a source of food and cash to those in need (Chapter 8).The first part of the study showed that marketing channels do exist that could include game meat and edible by-products in the future, and the biltong hunter survey suggested there was potential supply. We also sought to find out whether consumers would purchase this kind of product. During the survey, traders were encouraged to cook the game meat for themselves and they found that they liked the taste of the game meat stew. The informal meat traders were happy to include game meat in their product range, given that it was made available cheap and legally. After proving that the demand was there, possible sources of supply were investigated. Marketing chains for game meat provided by occasional biltong hunters and commercial game harvesters were established to find out whether supply and demand could be linked.If prerequisites such as running water, public toilets and electricity are provided by the municipalities, training in basic hygiene must be regularly carried out. Consequently, minimum requirements based on national hygiene regulations should be enforced by regular check-ups.Game meat products can be traded informally, if meat inspection is assured at the harvesting level. Therefore, participatory risk assessment should involve biltong hunters as part of the informal market.Alexander Heeb undertook this study on risk assessment of game meat products in South Africa towards a Master's degree at the University of Hohenheim. He works as a meat inspector at a formal abattoir in Germany.The meat obtained from trophy hunting, culling and harvesting indigenous game animals has been used in the past by biltong hunters and local butchers and for export markets. The edible by-products, currently discarded, could be exploited as a potential niche meat product and used as a source of protein in low-income communities (Chapter 27). Such edible by-products are heads (including the brain which is known for its rich content of omega-3 fatty acids), feet and offal.Offal refers to the internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. There are two kinds of offal: the red offal or pluck (comprising the liver, spleen, kidney and lungs) and the green/rough offal or tripe consisting of the stomach and intestines. The word offal derives from late Middle English and probably suggested afval meaning 'fall off' 1 or 'waste' in Dutch. Therefore, it is sometimes perceived as food of inferior quality which is rather unjust! If served meticulously cleaned and thoroughly cooked, it is considered a specialty in many cultures. The French make sausages out of it. In the United States of America, it is a crucial part of the Philadelphia Pepper Pot. In the south of Germany, it is cooked with vinegar and wine into a delicious stew, while in Japan the stew is known as motsu. In Africa as well, green offal is popular in many cultures. The Yoruba of Nigeria call it saki and use it in various stews. In Eritrea, it is served stir-fried in butter with liver, ground beef, lamb or goat and spiced with berbere (chilies). The Kikuyu of Kenya love their matumbo and it is said that 'if Kenya's Luo people leave Nairobi to go home for the Christmas holidays, the local offal market in the capital city collapses' (Cameline Mwai). In South Africa, tripe are known as mala mogodu and eaten as a stew with hot pap. 2  Why would anybody throw away food in a country where more than onequarter of the population is living on less than US$1.25 per day and where the national income distribution is among the most unequal in the world? 3Proper nutrition is a powerful good: people who are well nourished are more likely to be healthy, productive and able to learn. Good nutrition benefits families, their communities and the world as a whole. Malnutrition is, by the same logic, devastating. It blunts the intellect, saps the productivity of everyone it touches and perpetuates poverty. 4  South Africa is rich in wildlife and the game meat market seems to be a multimillion-euro business. South African game animals are usually extensively ranched under natural conditions and the marketing of game meat as an organic product has great potential (Chapter 27). Constraints on the utilization of edible by-products of game meat include lack of recognized food value chains in informal markets, food safety concerns and limited market access. Therefore, a value chain for the 'harvest' of impala (Aepyceros melampus) was established with all stakeholders from shooting to secondary meat inspection. They included game harvesters at the beginning of the process, informal traders at the possible outlet and veterinarians along the way. The first-hand experience 'from farm to fork' proved to be very helpful in identifying needs and capacities.Samples were submitted to an accredited laboratory for microbiological assessment in line with EU guidelines and veterinary procedural notices. Structured and informal interviews were held with stakeholders, including veterinarians, game harvesters and informal traders. Scenario planning and decision tree analysis were used to develop a feasible food marketing chain. Based on identified hazards along the marketing chain, critical control points were estimated, mostly time and temperature parameters as well as possible contamination from a dirty working environment.Commercially hunted game destined for export originates mostly from privately owned land or government-owned natural reserves. The hunting normally takes place during the South African winter months when temperatures are low enough to keep meat spoilage at bay. If cooling facilities are readily available, hunting can be done all year round. The game ranches that produce for export are required to register with the local controlling authority and are issued with a licence which is renewed every year. Harvesting teams -comprising the driver/hunter, the spot-light operator and the field meat inspector -and game depots must be registered too. Before the start of a harvest, the vehicles and equipment need to be inspected in order to secure compliance with valid standards.The hunting is mostly carried out at twilight by registered professional hunters. The animal is blinded by a spotlight and shot in the head; missed or inadequate shots are very rare. In many respects, this slaughter is much more humane than that experienced by cattle that are often transported over long distances to abattoirs, a process that is much more stressful than the precision killing of wild animals at night.After an animal is shot, it is bled in the field with a sterile knife and given an identification number. It is then hung by the hind legs onto the side of the collecting vehicle. Normally, animals are hunted one by one and the collecting vehicle delivers the carcasses to the depot once sufficient numbers have been shot. If the carcasses are not eviscerated in the field, they must reach the game depot within two hours after the fatal shot, otherwise the intestines turn into a perfect breeding ground for spoilage microbes.At the depot, the 'dirty team' removes hides, feet and heads: everything outside which might be dirty. Another team only deals with the 'clean' inner parts of the carcass and removes the internal organs, weighs the remaining meat and loads it onto the chiller truck. Prior to loading, everything needs to be inspected by an accredited health official and each carcass and its pluck is marked with identity tags. The red offal is sent to the export abattoir together with the corresponding carcass. They are tagged together and the red offal is put into a plastic bag and attached to the carcass it was taken from. All livers with flukes are condemned at primary inspection.The carcasses must reach the export abattoir within 72 hours, and prior to offloading, the seals are checked for integrity. The abattoir is approved by the EU, and the processing procedures must follow stringent regulations. The South African standards for the export of game meat consist of an intensive residue monitoring programme as well as health and hygiene requirements before export, and the meat is inspected again at its final destination.The red offal undergoes secondary inspection at the export abattoir and is then sold as pet mince. The rough offal never reaches the game depot but is discarded to the 'vulture restaurant' at the game farm. During the survey, samples were taken to see whether offal from impala that had passed primary meat inspection was suitable for human consumption.At the other end of the marketing chain, participatory risk analysis was used to investigate the feasibility of using edible offal as a source of protein to address food security issues in poor communities bordering game parks in South Africa. Existing marketing channels had been identified (Chapter 27) and focus group discussions indicated that vendors were willing to cook and sell game offal in informal food markets or at schools.The traditional meat product known as biltong is now popular among many South Africans as well as foreigners. It is even being exported, as noted by the various companies that advertise biltong on the internet. 1 The word 'biltong' is derived from the Dutch bil (rump) and tong (tongue or strip). It can be produced from any species of animal, but preferably cattle and wild ungulates such as kudu antelope, springbok or ostrich. It is a raw, salted, dried meat product with different spices added according to the specific recipe and is consumed without cooking or rehydration. Some recipes are family secrets. Biltong was originally prepared by hunters who ventured inland from coastal areas and needed a source of protein that did not decay in the hot African sun. It was described as early as 1851, well before the Great Trek, an eastward migration away from British control in the Cape Colony during the 1830s and 1840s by the Boers (Dutch/Afrikaans for 'farmers').Little research has been done on food safety aspects of biltong, even in South Africa. The last seminal research published on this product was over 40 years ago. 2  But since then, the making and marketing of biltong has evolved considerably, with customers now preferring a softer, moister product. Legal requirements are already in place to monitor the quality and safety of meat and meat products in South Africa. These are the Meat Safety Act No. 40 of 2000 and the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act No. 54 of 1972. It is a legal requirement that all meat destined for export must be inspected, sampled and tested. However, the fact that biltong is a raw, dried, salted meat product often flavoured with spices makes the use of routine microbiological tests difficult.It is rather difficult to distinguish normal beef biltong from other dried meat strips that could have originated from a poached animal. Bush meat is an escalating industry that is not easily monitored, thus it is possible that dried bush meat strips could enter the human food chain. Springbok biltong is highly regarded, but one may sometimes hear about biltong from 'sitbok', meaning 'the antelope that sits down' (that is, the baboon)! Substitution of high-quality meat products with cheaper alternatives of inferior quality is a problem in the meat industry. It is also a problem for people who cannot eat certain types of meat because of culture or religion. For this reason, it has become important in the industry to identify the species of origin of fresh and processed meat. The identification of the species of origin of raw and cooked meat would help apply stricter monitoring and regulation of meat products such as biltong and protect consumers from fraud and potential health risks. This is an effective way to monitor meat from illegal abattoirs and informal bush meat outlets that is passed off and sold as beef.Furthermore, it is very important that all meat comes from healthy animals and that strict hygienic practices are adhered to during slaughter and processing of the meat into biltong. Contamination of the raw meat could occur during the slaughter process and when cutting and handling the meat in the process of making biltong. Biltong is made from the prime meat cuts, usually the silverside, topside, rump and sirloin cuts. All the recipes require that the meat cuts be salted and marinated in vinegar. Depending on the recipe, different spices and chemicals are then added to give biltong its distinctive taste and texture. These substances should always comply with the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act.A value chain for biltong was mapped using information from direct observation and structured interviews with value chain actors at biltong kiosks, service stations, supermarkets and butcheries. Participatory methods have proved to be a good technique for investigating food value chains as they can be combined with quantitative methods such as laboratory tests. Random samples of labelled beef biltong produced and marketed by formal and informal channels were tested to verify that it was indeed beef and not any other type of meat labelled and passed off as beef.The microbiological quality of beef biltong in informal and formal markets in the Tshwane municipal area of Gauteng was also assessed according to national standard tests. During mapping of the processing chain, handling and hygiene practices were assessed by a checklist for national hygiene audits. Possible risky practices were later modelled in validated statistical computer programmes to estimate the risk and distribution of pathogenic organisms that might be present in biltong.The analysis showed that the odds of buying contaminated biltong were twice as high at informal biltong kiosks as at the formal market. The value chain assessment revealed an increased risk of consuming contaminated biltong as a result of packaging it in newspapers (rather than a plastic or vacuum bag), slicing of meat (rather than hanging) and handling of the meat by several traders. These factors can be addressed easily by regular quality checks.Market research at local taxi ranks and group discussions with farmers showed that biltong could be a lucrative business for small-scale cattle farmers as there is high local demand for biltong. Processing biltong from beef of communal cattle slaughtered at a small-scale, registered abattoir could increase value added income for small-scale farmers and improve nutritional security for consumers as it is a protein-rich product and can be stored for a long time without refrigeration. After deducting all input costs -such as for transport, processing and the commission for the retailer (usually 10%) -the farmer's net profit is US$6 per kilogram of beef.A communication and incentive strategy should be developed to alleviate microbiological food safety hazards, in particular those due to unhygienic processing and marketing.Erika van Zyl is a veterinarian and holds a Master's degree from the University of Pretoria in South Africa where she works as a lecturer. She previously worked in a private veterinary practice in Pretoria.Hazard identification and characterization for quality control of biltong through application of appropriate microbiology and biotechnology methods.Erika Van Zyl,  Traditions involving the use of animals at special occasions have been performed all over the world for thousands of years. From Christmas and Thanksgiving turkey, Tabaski rams and Easter eggs, to scapegoats and birds released in Southeast Asia, examples abound. Ritual slaughter means slaughtering livestock for meat following a prescribed method of killing an animal for food production. Animal sacrifices, by comparison, involve motives beyond mere food production. Traditional slaughter is the killing of animals by people without training or licence and without following any prescribed method of killing. Dhabiha, for instance, is the method of slaughtering animals prescribed by Islamic law (Chapter 7), whereby the animal is killed by a deep incision to the front of the throat with a well-sharpened knife by an authorized person who utters a prayer before killing. Only if everything complies with Islamic law is the meat considered permissible to be eaten by Muslims (halal). Food that is in accordance with the Jewish dietary laws (kashrut) is called kosher, meaning fit or clean.Slaughtering (shechita) follows principles that are similar to those in Islamic law, the common tie being humanity -avoiding unnecessary pain for the animals -and aversion to eating the flesh of a dead animal. However, there are concerns that animal suffering may be greater with this form of slaughter than methods which involve trauma to the brain stem.In present-day Africa, traditional religions play an important role in cultural understanding and awareness of people within their communities. 1 For many of them, traditional rituals and ceremonies are performed to address personal problems, to show respect towards the ancestors and for celebrations such as weddings and childbirth but also for funerals. 2 The animals most often slaughtered in traditional African ritual ceremonies are goats, sheep, cattle and occasionally chickens. There are about 2 million goats in South Africa 3 but less than 0.5% of them are slaughtered at registered abattoirs. 4 Presumably, the remaining 99.5% are used for traditional or informal home slaughter. 2,4,5 An unknown proportion of this slaughter may fit the definition of ritual slaughter.The consumption of uninspected meat can compromise the health of those eating it. In many ritual or traditional slaughter practices, meat is not inspected and very little research has been done on food safety issues. Most animals used for ceremonies are traded informally and there are no accurate figures available on South Africa's goat market. However, it is estimated that in KwaZulu-Natal, an average of 10,000 to 12,000 live goats are sold per month.The study described here aimed to determine the risk associated with eating meat from ritually slaughtered goats by investigating cultural practices and informal food chains in South Africa. The different ritual slaughter procedures were first identified. Many practitioners were interviewed and they sometimes facilitated visits and even allowed their photographs to be taken. During these visits, hygiene practices were observed: for example, to what extent protective clothing was worn, whether carcasses were handled hygienically and whether animals were slaughtered in humane ways. The interviews helped to assess the procedures in detail and the hygienic precautions taken. The practitioners were interrogated on attributes that determined why particular animals were chosen and to what extent they were aware of diseases that derive from slaughtering practices and particular animal species.Ritual slaughter practices are complex and there is no simple way to explain them as they involve a lot of steps and inputs. There are numerous hazards that have been identified and complex risk pathways that are intricately related. The interviews showed that, in general, the level of awareness of diseases was low and everyone involved in slaughtering and meat consumption is exposed to the risk of disease. For instance, one practitioner who was interviewed said that one of the reasons a person can fall ill following the consumption of meat is if 'the hand of the person that slaughtered the animal is not right'.There are strict control measures in terms of access to these ceremonies which again complicated the collection of data. Preliminary results show that a lot remains unknown about these practices and there are several hazards associated with them, including occupational health risks and possible zoonotic and foodborne diseases. Cultural beliefs can also result in different groups being exposed to different health risks and nutritional benefits. For example, some people reported that kidneys were not fed to children 'to avoid them from suffering from kidney problems while still young'.Quantifying the risks associated with these practices therefore proved to be very challenging as in many of the communities, the meat is not allowed to leave the ceremony. Taking samples for laboratory examination was hardly possible. However, despite the difficulty of quantitative risk assessment, participation as a technique for risk assessment proved to be an excellent tool to better understand the ritual slaughter of animals. Hazards were identified through observations and first-hand narration. By taking into account who was involved in the slaughtering, what part of the animal was used for what purpose and by whom, and whether raw or processed meat was used, it was possible to identify which groups of people were more exposed to risk than others. Participation also allows for the slaughter methods to be evaluated and culturally acceptable alternatives suggested, taking animal welfare into account.Standardized African slaughter methods for goats are required in order to prevent and reduce food-borne and occupational hazards. Investigations need to be made into cultural beliefs as well as slaughter methods that are acceptable, safe and humane. Local veterinarians must work closely with the traditional practitioners.Nenene Qekwana holds a Master of Medicine degree in veterinary science and is a lecturer in veterinary public health at the Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria. He has authored a chapter in an Italian book on ritual slaughter: Cenci Goga B and Fermani AG. 2010. La macellazione religiosa: Protezione degli animali e produzione igienica delle carni (available at www.pointvet.it/web/index. php?com=ermes&option=index&id=648).Occupational health and food safety risks associated with traditional slaughter practices of goats in Gauteng, South Africa.Nenene Qekwana, 1 Cheryl McCrindle, 1 Saskia Hendrickx, 2 Kohei Makita 2,3 and Delia Grace 2  1 Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa; 2 International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya; 3 Rakuno Gakuen University, JapanAnimal health relies heavily on veterinary drugs for controlling diseases. Movement of animals and animal products is a potential method of transmitting diseases within and between countries, thus compromising regional and international trade. Human health is inextricably linked to animal health and livestock production through zoonotic and food-borne hazards. The study described here assessed the dietary intake of organic persistent pollutants, pesticides and veterinary drugs in food of animal origin sold at informal markets in South Africa. The actual dietary intake depends on the kind and quantity of animal products consumed as well as the presence and degree of contamination. Therefore, it was necessary first to assess the production and consumption patterns of livestock products and fish. Additionally, the legal and political framework with regard to subsistence and communal farmers was evaluated.The livestock and fisheries sectors in South Africa are affected by various extraneous conditions such as weather patterns, disease occurrence and consumer preferences. However, growth and development are expected as national demand for animal-source food increases in line with overall population growth and urbanization. The South African population grew at a rate of almost 2% per year from 44 million in 2005 to 49 million in 2010. In addition to the increasing population, consumer dietary habits have changed and there is greater awareness of the pros and cons of eating foods rich in fatty acids and animal protein.This study reports the results of surveys and a 'Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats' (SWOT) analysis conducted on livestock and fisheries farming and consumption of animal-source foods in South Africa. The findings provide information on the current state of affairs, highlighting the constraints and opportunities for the sector that will enhance competitiveness and improve both local and export performance.The SWOT analysis was conducted by four multidisciplinary working groups of six to nine people including members of the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF), the Department of Health (DOH), the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), the National Regulator for Compulsory Specifications (NRCS) and the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) as well as the pharmaceutical and food processing industry, academic and research institutions, farmers and consumers. Topics addressed included livestock farming practices and current government policies, production inputs such as feeds, the role of agriculturists in food safety education, food processing and handling practices, food preparation practices of retailers, vendors and caterers at home and point-of-sale, markets, shelf life, storage, transport and preparation. Additional information was obtained through annual reports and newsletters from DAFF and the food industry.South Africa has three capital cities: Cape Town, as the seat of Parliament, is the legislative capital; Pretoria, as the seat of the President and Cabinet, is the administrative capital; and Bloemfontein, as the seat of the Supreme Court of Appeal, is the judicial capital. Just as divided as the location of state authorities, responsibility for the safety of animal-source food is also very fragmented. This complicates the implementation of policies at national, provincial and local levels.Different aspects fall under national government departments (DOH, DAFF, DTI, NRCS and SABS). There are also a number of non-governmental stakeholders and role players involved. At international level, these include the FAO, WHO, OIE, Codex Alimentarius and ISO. At national level they include the South African National Accreditation Service, SABS, ISO and the private sector standards used by producers and processors of animal-source food. At local level, there are provincial and municipal regulations in charge of the implementation of national directives as well as private standards of supermarkets, butcheries, dairies and other retailers of animal-source foods. As a result, lines of responsibility are not always well understood as they sometimes overlap or are inconsistently applied. In May 2009, a new cabinet was formed and set its focus on the livestock and fisheries sector as a strategy for developing the rural economy and improving productivity and livelihoods in rural areas.South Africa occupies the southern tip of Africa, its long coastline stretching more than 2500 kilometres from the desert border with Namibia on the Atlantic coast, southwards around the tip of the Cape of Good Hope, following north to the border with subtropical Mozambique on the Indian Ocean. South Africa covers a land surface of more than 1.2 million square kilometres (world rank 25); 69% of this land is suitable for grazing and livestock farming. The 1994 elections ended the apartheid regime and resulted in a land reform policy, land redistribution and restitution determined by the Land Rights Act. This law aimed at the creation and maintenance of an equitable and sustainable land dispensation resulting in the social and economic development of all South Africans. Previously disadvantaged individuals and victims were supposed to obtain benefits. To reverse the damage caused by land mismanagement, the government set up the Comprehensive Agricultural Support Programme in 2004 to promote sustainable development and use of natural resources. Today, South Africa runs a dual agricultural sector with a well-developed farming sector on one hand and subsistence or communal farming on the other hand.The SWOT analysis found that there is a high demand for livestock products. The livestock sector is the largest agricultural sector and animal production has increased over the past six years with poultry and cattle dominating the market, followed by field crops and horticulture. The consumption of chicken has increased and already exceeds the total consumption of red meat. There is a lack of data on goat meat consumption due to cultural or religious taboos (Chapter 30). The fisheries sector is well established and produces 600,000 tons per year (including molluscs and crustaceans) but aquaculture is under-exploited.The SWOT analysis also showed a substantial lack of data on the number of subsistence farmers and their produce, and post-land reform settlement seems to be ineffective. The farmers do not have adequate knowledge about the management of livestock and related finances. Moreover, the emerging rural communal farmers do not utilize the available natural resources to their full extent due to various reasons such as lack of investments in rural areas, budget constraints for production inputs and lack of skills. In general, they have been left behind and have only minimal influence on policies. They are mostly told what to do and do not question the underlying policy.Consumption behaviour is considered to be another weakness. The South Africans call themselves the 'Rainbow Nation' as the population is very diverse. About 79% of South Africans are of Black African ancestry, 9% Whites, 9% Coloured and 3% Indians/Asians. Up until 1991, the South African constitution divided its habitants into four groups: Blacks, Whites, Coloured and Asians. Even though this division does not exist in the constitution any more, many South Africans as well as government statistics maintain this classification. 1 The demographic, religious and cultural diversity results in different consumption patterns. Whereas some are influenced by the media in their eating habits of pork (risk of cardiovascular diseases) or poultry (unjustified fear of avian influenza), others like or dislike animal-source food for religious (Muslims do not eat pork) or cultural reasons (seafood phobia of Blacks).There is a need for DAFF to implement its integrated rural development policies with a particular focus on the sustainable utilization of natural resources. The land reform project ought to be resuscitated in order to redistribute the land and provide agricultural education and training as well as extension, advisory and veterinary services to subsistence farmers. One priority should be the retention of skills to encourage the transfer of skills from white farmers to black farmers and avoid production losses. On a communal level, data on farmers and their produce must be collected in order to analyse demand and supply. Optionally, seafood and fish consumption should be promoted and the security of farmers should be improved.There are other factors affecting the development of the sector. Stock theft and even killing of farmers are serious problems that the government should address, in addition to poaching and over-fishing. Climate change and environmental issues might cause an increase in natural disasters such as floods and fire. Farmers need to have adequate access to land and water sources as well as finance models, in light of increasing input costs of fuel, equipment, animal health care and animal feed. There is a shortage of academic institutions devoted to teaching of applied regulatory toxicology and aquatic animal health. Furthermore, since one responsibility is shared by two authorities, the registration of veterinary medicines and stock remedies is regulated just as poorly as is the monitoring and surveillance of veterinary drugs for animals intended for human consumption. Africa needs a comprehensive veterinary legislation which covers animal disease control, registration and control of veterinary drugs (including insecticides manufactured for administration to animals), food safety including food protection, prevention and elimination of zoonoses, aspects of laboratory animal facilities and diagnostic laboratories as well as health care education and extension.To estimate the chronic dietary intake of pesticides and veterinary drug residues, further research is necessary and currently under way. This involves evaluation of the patterns of consumption of eggs, dairy, fish, sea food, meat products, alternative indigenous protein sources and honey. Subsequently, the most widely consumed products of animal origin such as milk, chicken, liver, eggs and meat will be IS GHANA THREATENED WITH DISEASE FROM ITS HEAVY FISH CONSUMPTION? Kennedy Bomfeh, Kristina Roesel, Kwaku Tano-Debrah, Firibu K. Saalia, Betty Bediako-Amoa and Delia Grace Key messages• This study is the first ever assessment of Listeria monocytogenes, a serious and emerging pathogen, in fish in Ghana. • Listeria monocytogenes was detected in all fish products purchased from informal markets in the study area. • Contamination levels were low, hence the risk of ingestion and infection was generally low for otherwise healthy consumers. • Poor post-process handling practices could be the main source of contamination. • A control organism used to simulate a worst-case scenario survived domestic soup preparation.Listeriosis is an infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. In several countries which have good information on the health effects of different pathogens, it is considered the leading cause of death among food-borne bacteria. Listeriosis is fatal in 20-30% of cases and up to 75% in individuals with a compromised immune system. In pregnant women, infection can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery or infection of the new-born. Apparently healthy individuals infected with the organism show such symptoms as fever, muscle aches and, sometimes, nausea or diarrhoea. If infection spreads to the nervous system, headache, neck stiffness, confusion, loss of balance and seizures may occur. 1 Human listeriosis is not documented in Ghana. However, cases of the disease in sheep have been reported. Listeria has also been found in coleslaw from restaurants as well as in raw milk and dairy products from informal markets in the country and ready-to-eat meat and fish products.Ghana's fishery sector accounts for 3% of the national GDP and employs about 10% of the population. While men are mostly responsible for fishing, women are in charge of on-shore processing and marketing. The marine sub-sector is the most important source of local fish production. It delivers more than 80% of the total supply and consists of three main categories: small-scale (artisanal on canoe), semi-industrial (or inshore) and industrial. 2 About 60-70% of the domestic marine fish supply comes from artisanal fishery. 3 The most important marine resources are small pelagic, especially the round sardinella, flat sardinella, anchovy and chub mackerel. These species account for about 70% of the total marine fish landing. 4  While fish accounts for more than 50% of the country's earnings from nontraditional exports, the most important use of fish in Ghana is domestic consumption. The average annual per capita fish consumption in the country is estimated at 20-25kg, which is much higher than the world average of 13kg. Fish accounts for more than 25% of food expenditure in poor households and for up to 60% of animal protein in the Ghanaian diet. People along the coastal areas consume the majority of fresh catch and inland areas are more frequently supplied with processed fish, mainly smoked and salted.Salting, drying and smoking have been used for many years to preserve fish. Drying slows down spoilage since bacteria, yeast and moulds generally cannot grow without enough water. Unfortunately, Listeria is an exception to this rule as it can grow in food that has high salt or low water contents. Furthermore, it can grow at very low temperatures (-1.5°C), so refrigeration alone is not enough to inhibit it.In the absence of recorded cases of human listeriosis in Ghana, it was of interest to investigate whether consumption of traditionally processed fish poses a health risk. Illness largely depends on the number of organisms ingested. In laboratory tests, one bacterium showed the potential to cause disease in humans. 5 However, this problem is still the subject of heated discussions among experts. Most at risk are children, the elderly, pregnant women and people with a feeble immune system (for instance, those infected with HIV). This vulnerable group makes up a significant number of people in Ghana. Therefore, it was necessary to know which fish products are commonly consumed and how much is normally eaten at a time.The commonly consumed products were identified through a survey of 450 consumers in Jamestown and Madina (in Accra) and Tema New Town (in Tema, near Accra). They were later sampled from five informal markets and analysed microbiologically to determine the presence and concentration of Listeria monocytogenes.The suspects were:• sundried sardines (Sardinella aurita)• hot-smoked marine fish o tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) o herrings (Sardinella eba) o mackerel, locally referred to as salmon (Scomber japonicus) • salted-dried o tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) locally known as koobi, from domestic freshwater lakes o ray fish (Dasyatis centroura) locally known as kako • salted and fermented fish locally called momoni, made from marine fish bought by processors at a lower price as the fish would have otherwise been discarded.Listeria was detected in 93% of smoked mackerel, 80% of smoked tuna and 67% of the smoked herrings. Even though the bacteria were found in smoked fish, concentrations were generally very low. Salted and sundried fish were less contaminated than smoked fish. Risk assessors are detectives, but the 'crime' they investigate is food contamination. In this case, researchers wanted answers to the question: Where did the fish get contaminated? Was it in the sea, on the boat, in the port, at the market or in the kitchen? To answer this question, typical processing chains for smoking, salting and drying were examined. Fish samples were taken along these chains from raw to processed products to determine the possible presence and concentration of Listeria.The organism was detected in at least one sample from each step in the processing chains, except in frozen fresh mackerel and herrings, and hot-smoked fish (tuna, mackerel and herrings) sampled immediately after the smoking. We found that the source of contamination was most likely improper handling of the products after processing. Observations at the processing sites showed that sanitary facilities such as toilets and potable water sources were not available. Moreover, water used for washing the fish proved to be contaminated. However, the organism was not found in smoked fish right after the smoking but was found in the product at the point of sale to the consumer. In the markets, the fish were handled with bare hands and wrapped in materials of questionable cleanliness. It is therefore most likely that the product that was rendered safe during smoking ended up being contaminated at the point of sale. In another study in Ghana (Chapter 16), it was found that fermented milk not only contained Listeria but that this represented a public health risk. Would the same be true for fish?Listeria can be eliminated by thorough cooking. Therefore, the survival of the bacterium in domestic cooking was evaluated in the laboratory by deliberately introducing large amounts of a control organism into some traditionally processed fish and using the contaminated fish to prepare typical Ghanaian soups using local recipes identified through a focus group discussion (Chapter 5). The experiment simulated a worst-case scenario. Additionally, Ghanaian street food was purchased and analysed for the presence of Listeria.While some of the control organisms survived the experimental cooking, street food samples were found to be uncontaminated. Ultimately, falling sick with human listeriosis largely depends on the number of the bacteria ingested and the susceptibility of the person who eats the fish. In the survey, most consumers reported eating more than 200g of smoked mackerel and tuna at a time. However, due to the low contamination levels, the risk of a healthy person ingesting enough bacteria to fall sick was generally low.The participants in the survey also gave information on the consumption patterns among the elderly, children and pregnant women in their households. This helped to assess whether and to what extent this highly vulnerable group was at risk. For example, for smoked tuna, whereas the risk of illness for the low-risk group ranged from one in a million to one in a hundred million, the risk of illness for the highly vulnerable group ranged from one in ten to one in a hundred.The findings of this study contrast with those of the study on Listeria in fermented milk in Ghana, which found the risk to consumers was relatively high. Of course, fish has been consumed on a large scale for a long time in Ghana, while a large market for fresh milk is only starting to develop. It makes sense that when foods have been eaten for a long time, people will develop practices that reduce the risk of getting infections from them.The United States of America and the United Kingdom follow a zero-tolerance policy for the presence of Listeria in food. They argue that a minimum infection dose is not known and laboratory tests have shown that one single bacterium is able to cause disease. On the other hand, most countries in the EU have set tolerance limits with zero tolerance for infant food and food products given to the elderly or in hospitals. In the EU, listeriosis occurs at about the same rates as in the United States of America and the United Kingdom, suggesting that a zero-tolerance policy does not necessarily offer more protection to consumers. European experts argue that tests are not yet 100% reliable and Listeria is a widespread bacterium and difficult to eliminate, thus zero-tolerance regulations hamper international trade.Very high quality standards for food obviously have costs; these include more expensive production and the destruction of food which does not meet the standards. In Africa, these costs fall most heavily on poor people who cannot afford expensive production and who often do not get enough food. High standards also make it difficult for Africa to trade with other countries. According to the former secretary general of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, the EU regulation on fungal contamination of peanuts 'cost Africa US$750 million each year in exports. And what does it achieve? It may possibly save the life of one citizen of the EU every two years.' 6 There is a lot of debate on what are the most appropriate standards for African countries; risk assessment can shed light on the matter by estimating the health impacts of different standards.Yolande Aké Assi Datté, Kristina Roesel, Axel Sess, Henry Biego Godi, Mathias Koffi, Patrice Kouamé, Bassirou Bonfoh and Delia Grace • Diaspora populations offer an emerging market for African traditional foods, such as smoked fish, but may also be vulnerable to health risks associated with them. • The study team found that more than 71% of smoked fat fish in Côte d'Ivoire is contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). • The contamination exceeds the limit set by the EU for fresh fish.• Identifying high-risk practices is the first step in taking action to change them;the study successfully identified high-risk practices including using resinous wood for smoking of fish. • Only 10% of the producers knew about the risks associated with PAHs; this low level of awareness is a major obstacle to improving practices. • Food safety is not just for the consumer; people involved in processing can also be exposed to high levels of hazards.It is said that 'when Paris sniffs, Abidjan catches a cold'. In an increasingly global world, connected by social and trade networks, no country stands alone. Partly due to historical links, there is a large community of Ivorian expatriates in France and, like many expatriates, they are hungry for the foods of home. This study came about after an incident whereby French regulators detected PAHs in fish smoked in Côte d'Ivoire and exported to France. PAHs are formed by the incomplete combustion of coal, oil, petrol, wood, tobacco, charbroiled meats, garbage or other organic materials. Most PAHs are pollutants and have no known use. A few are used in medicines and to make dyes, plastics, pesticides and wood preservatives. The primary sources of emission are petroleum refineries, fossil fuel (coal and oil) power plants, wood product manufacturers, asphalt roads, motor vehicle exhaust, volcanoes and fires of all types (bush, forest, agricultural, home heating and cooking). They recently came to attention as a potential hazard to people who eat barbecued meats. Smoked and barbecued meats and fish may contain high levels of PAHs as a result of the smoking process. Exposure to PAHs can irritate the eyes, nose, throat and bronchial tubes. Contact with the skin can cause irritation or allergic reaction. Very high levels may cause headaches and nausea, damage the red blood cells, liver and kidneys, and may even cause death. The International Agency for Research on Cancer cites a number of PAHs as 'probably carcinogenic to humans' and others as 'possibly carcinogenic to humans'. 1  PAHs enter the body by inhaling contaminated air or consuming contaminated food or water. Skin contact with heavy oils or other products (creosote, roofing tar, other tars and oils) containing PAHs will result in uptake too. Hence, PAHs are not only food hazards but also occupational hazards, and those smoking food are at risk. These chemical pollutants are poisonous to aquatic life and birds in the short to medium term. They are moderately persistent in the environment and can accumulate in the body, especially in fat. The concentration of PAHs found in fish and shellfish is expected to be much higher than that in the environment from which it was taken.More than 80% of the fish landing in Côte d'Ivoire is traditionally smoked for sale in the local market and for export. During the smoking process, benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) -the PAH of reference which is likely to cause cancer -can be released. In 2006, a European by-law 2 determined the maximum acceptable levels of specific contaminants in food produce (BaP in smoked fish) and thus required surveillance of all smoked products destined for export to the EU.In 2007, BaP was discovered in smoked fish from Côte d'Ivoire destined for export to Europe. In Europe the main purchasers of these fish products are the West African diaspora. This incident proved that the application of these regulations is a severe setback for this profitable market in Côte d'Ivoire. Smoked fish accounts for 0.73% of the total export volume which corresponds to 2.3% of foreign exchange, and the sector employs approximately 70,000 people who feed another 400,000.The present study aimed to assess formation of PAHs in smoked fish and understand the practices that increase risk of exposure to PAHs. The ultimate aim was to promote safe smoking of fish marketed in Côte d'Ivoire. Factors that might increase the formation of PAHs during traditional fish processing, storing and preserving were investigated in four main centres in Abidjan: Port-Bouët, Boulay Island, Yopougon and Adjamé. These areas are close to the Gulf of Guinea where fish is traditionally smoked and marketed informally. The study team visited the production sites and interviewed producers, sellers and consumers of smoked fish, facilitated by the local authorities and local non-governmental organizations, consumer associations and producers in the informal sector. Samples of fish were also collected and tested.Fish at the smoking site is received either fresh or frozen. The frozen fish is defrosted, and, depending on the type of fish, scaled. After rinsing, the fish is prepared for smoking (folded whole or in pieces). After draining, the fish is smoked for 45 minutes to one hour until it is cooked but damp. Afterwards it is cooled and sold or smoked again for another hour on a weak fire, resulting in dry-smoked fish (this largely depends on consumer demand). The final product is wrapped in paper or plastic, stored and sold on the local market.Almost 90% of the 423 survey respondents were women, 59% of whom did not have secondary education. Most of them considered the revenues from their businesses to be satisfactory. Fat fish was preferred for smoking because the fat content enhances the taste as flavouring substances are mostly soluble in fat. The fish is smoked on home-made metal ovens, and 85% of the respondents said they smoked both sides of the fish at hot temperatures for more than two hours. Branches of rubber trees (Hevea spp. from the spurge family) were used for fuel by two-thirds of the operators.The results of the survey showed that only 10% of the people questioned knew about the risks related to PAHs released during traditional smoking of fish. Concern over PAHs is relatively recent, and information about emerging hazards, especially those with complicated names and causes, may take a long time to trickle down to the people who need the information most. Although they were not aware of PAHrelated risks, many participants had experienced fatigue, headaches and eyestrain. This could be due to many causes, but given the high levels of PAHs in the smoked fish, it is very likely that it is due to high levels of occupational exposure. During the visits to the markets, high-risk practices were noticed such as the use of resinous wood (branches of rubber trees) and high smoking temperatures. These practices, together with information gained from face-to-face talks, led to the conclusion that there is a risk of PAHs being formed during traditional smoking of fish.The EU uses BaP as a marker for the occurrence of carcinogenic PAHs and has set the maximum level in fresh fish at 2µg per kilogram and 5µg per kilogram for smoked fish. 3 These levels are said not to cause long-term adverse effects on the health of consumers. The fat content of 49 samples of fresh and smoked fish was determined by validated international standards and compared to the maximum levels for BaP set by the EU. Fish at the study sites exceeded these threshold values by far; four-fold in fresh fish (8.53µg/kg) and more than five-fold (28.64µg/kg) in smoked fish. Over 71% of smoked fat fish tested was contaminated with BaP, with higher BaP levels in higher fat content fish.The survey also determined the average consumption per person of fresh and smoked fish. Using these findings and estimates by the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment in the Netherlands, it was calculated that the consumers of smoked fish in Côte d'Ivoire are exposed to an almost two-fold higher risk of falling ill with cancer. Thus, apart from trade restrictions, Ivorians are likely to face increased risk of cancer if traditional methods of smoking and processing fish continue.Zoonotic diseases are often under-diagnosed. One reason is that the symptoms are often similar to those of more common diseases and laboratory tests that would allow differential diagnosis are often not available or too expensive. Brucellosis is a good example; it is so often wrongly diagnosed as malaria that suspected cases of brucellosis are identified by medical history of 'malaria that does not respond to anti-malarial treatment'. Twenty-one million people live in Côte d'Ivoire, 31,000 of whom are said to be infected with active tuberculosis. 1 Chronic cough is one of the symptoms of tuberculosis, although it may be caused by other types of infection, for instance lung fluke infection. What if the chronic cough of these patients is due not to the bacterium that causes tuberculosis but to something else? The present study investigated the presence of lung flukes in shellfish sold in markets in and around Abidjan and the possible link between shellfish consumption and chronic cough in patients at tuberculosis centres.Lung flukes are one of the many types of worms that infect people. Humans can become infected with worms in numerous ways: schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is transmitted through contact with contaminated water, soil-transmitted helminthiasis (liver flukes) through infective soil and lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) through mosquito bites. Transmission via food is yet another route which currently affects more than 40 million people worldwide, specifically, via food related to water such as fish, shellfish and water plants. More than 70 species of the class of worms called trematodes (flukes) are known to infect humans through food but they are widely unknown, partly due to their complex life cycles and geographic distributions. Lung fluke infection (paragonimiasis) is among the four most important of these neglected tropical diseases. 2  Humans are the definitive host of lung flukes, that is, the host where the adult stage of the worm lives. The eggs are coughed up by people and may also be found in human faeces if secretions from coughing are swallowed. Once shed, the eggs develop into larvae and invade snails in fresh water where they transform into cercariae (a stage of the complex life cycle) and are shed into the water again. They seek a crustacean, such as a crab, crayfish or shrimp, where they develop into another form that is infectious to the definitive host (humans). A person who eats infected freshwater crabs or shrimps can become infected and the worms invade the lungs. Other definitive hosts such as pigs, dogs and cats that eat shellfish can also shed eggs in their faeces and thus perpetuate the cycle of infection. The symptoms of lung fluke infection in humans are tuberculosis-like and include blood-stained sputum, chronic cough and chest pain. 3  Lung fluke infections can be easily avoided by ensuring that fish, crabs and shellfish are well cooked. Treatment is easily administered with deworming medicine. Unfortunately, if symptoms of lung fluke infections are mistaken for those of tuberculosis, the patient will be treated with very expensive antibiotics that are not effective against worm infections. Differential diagnosis is therefore crucial. Raw shellfish from brackish saltwater is host to another agent likely to cause disease in humans: the Vibrio bacteria, including Vibrio cholerae that causes cholera. 4 Because shellfish are an important source of food in Abidjan and are associated with two major diseases -lung fluke infection and cholera -the study team investigated the possible risks of shellfish consumption to human health.Hundreds of samples of shellfish were taken from markets in and around Abidjan and around 12% were found to contain lung fluke stages. In addition to testing of shellfish, several hundred patients at tuberculosis centres and children at schools were tested for worm infections by sampling stool and sputum. Worm eggs were found regularly but none were from lung flukes. This finding excluded lung flukes as the cause of chronic cough in the sampled patients. The study then sought to investigate at what point these parasites were eliminated. Some 120 households in Abidjan were interviewed on shellfish preparation and eating habits. Almost everyone in Abidjan eats shellfish either occasionally or regularly. Over 80% of respondents said they cooked their shrimps and crabs thoroughly for more than 45 minutes. This is the most effective means of mitigating the risk of transmitting disease and can explain why -despite a high prevalence of lung fluke parasites in shellfish in the markets -the risk to human health is low. A key finding from our food safety research is that high levels of pathogens in food do not necessarily correspond to a high level of risk to human health, and therefore careful risk assessment is essential.However, one observation from our study was left unexplained: more than three-quarters of the coughing patients who tested negative for lung flukes also tested negative for tuberculosis. This calls for further investigation to reveal other possible reasons for chronic cough among inhabitants of Abidjan.Every year an estimated 3-5 million people worldwide fall sick from cholera and 20% develop acute watery diarrhoea which causes several hundred thousand deaths. Cholera outbreaks are closely linked to inadequate environmental management. Peri-urban areas are particularly at risk where people are crowded and basic sanitary infrastructure is not available. The short incubation period of Vibrio cholerae of two hours to five days enhances the potentially explosive pattern of cholera outbreaks. 4  Nearly 10% of the shellfish sampled contained Vibrio spp. but our study found that Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera, was absent in the shellfish. Nevertheless, the practice of prolonged cooking also helps to reduce the load of other disease-causing bacteria that may be present in the shellfish, thereby rendering it safe for human consumption.Although the traditional practice of prolonged cooking of shellfish is effective at reducing the risk of bacterial infection, cross-contamination of other foods should be avoided, for example by separating raw shellfish and foods such as vegetables during purchase, transport, storage and preparation. Utensils used for preparing shellfish should be thoroughly cleaned before using them for other food. As earlier mentioned, the possible reasons for chronic cough in tuberculosis-negative patients should be investigated further. Risk for Vibrio and Paragonimus infections linked to shellfish consumption in Côte d'Ivoire.Sylvain Gnamien Traoré, 1,2 Régina Krabi, 1,2 Koffi D. Adoubryn, 3 Aka Assoumou, 3 Solenne Costard, 4,5,6 Kohei Makita, 7 Delia Grace, 6 Marina Koussémon 1 and Bassirou Bonfoh 2  ","tokenCount":"66786"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a6d4dcfc075a1c4c8578d45b08d96867","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ef406ec-05e2-46a3-920d-90afd971c38b/retrieve","id":"1098638278"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e0fd0409-606b-4f95-8f93-b13bf135add8","pagecount":"108","content":"Figura 28. Porcentajes de acuerdo a la granulometría de las partículas gruesas obtenidas con el molino-tamiz y comparadas con la exigida por la norma NTC 267 para harina trigo. .... Figura 29. Porcentajes de acuerdo a la granulometría de las partículas finas obtenidas con el molino-tamiz y comparadas con la exigida por la norma NTC 267 para harina trigo......... El objetivo de este trabajo fue estudiar el proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano, proponiendo una nueva alternativa para el uso de las hojas de yuca, obteniendo un producto de mayor valor agregado y de alto valor nutricional con 22,7% de contenido de proteína, 10,9% de cenizas, 6,8% de grasa, 11% de fibra, 7,80% de humedad y 3,9 mg de hierro y 58 mg de vitamina C por cada 100g de proteína digerida. Se utilizaron tres variedades de yuca HMC 1, MCOL 2436 y MCOL 1505, cosechando entre tres y seis meses, se estudió el efecto del uso o no de desinfectante en las hojas y en los equipos que se utilizaron en el proceso de elaboración; se realizó picado y rallado de las hojas de yuca y fueron secadas solar y artificialmente. La metodología comprendió la definición de las condiciones de operación en cada etapa de proceso y la línea de proceso para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano. La harina obtenida fue evaluada en pruebas de digestibilidad de proteína, materia seca y energía, y en la elaboración de una harina precocida con una inclusión de un 2,5% de harina de hojas de yuca en la formulación. Finalmente se determinaron los indicadores técnico-económicos de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para estimar los costos requeridos para implementar esta alternativa tecnológica.The objective of the present work was to study the process of obtaining flour from cassava leaves for human consumption, as an alternative use for this organ, with the aim of developing a more nutritious source of flour, of higher aggregated value and nutritional value with 22,7% of protein, 10,9% of ashes, 6,8% of fat, 11% of fiber with 7,80% of moisture and 3,9 mg of iron and 58 mg of vitamin C in 100 g of edible protein. Three clones were used (HMC-1, MCOL 2436 and Mcol1505), harvesting times (three and six months). The effect of disinfecting leaves was also assessed; leaves were grated, chopped and dried under sunlight or in hot-air ovens. The methodology included the definition of operational conditions for each step, as well as the definition of the processing line to obtain the flour. Flour so obtained was evaluated for protein, dry matter and energy digestibility. It was also tested the inclusion of 2,5% of leaf-derived cassava flour in a precooked flour made of different starch sources. Finally, technical-economical indicators were also estimated to establish the implementation costs of this technological alternative.La realización de este trabajo de grado fue posible gracias a la colaboración incondicional recibida por parte del Consorcio Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Apoyo a la Investigación y Desarrollo de la Yuca, CLAYUCA y del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, CIAT.La exitosa culminación del trabajo se debió a la formación y seguimiento brindados por parte de la Universidad del Cauca.Deseo expresar mi reconocimiento especial y mi gratitud a todas las personas e instituciones que de alguna u otra forma colaboraron en el desarrollo de la investigación.Las hojas de yuca son un producto que ha sido subutilizado en el cultivo de yuca, actualmente se usan principalmente en la elaboración de productos para alimentación animal, en especial de rumiantes, ya que actúa como fuente de proteína sobrepasante, ya que esta pasa al intestino y es digerida por el animal y no es consumida por las bacterias ruminales (Becerra y Castaño, 2006). Estas hojas poseen contenidos de proteína, vitaminas y minerales que actualmente se conocen pero no se aprovechan en el desarrollo de tecnologías para la elaboración de productos para consumo humano (A&S, 2004). Las hojas de yuca podrían pasar de ser un subproducto de la especie utilizada de la obtención de raíces de yuca a ser un derivado de alto valor agregado.Colombia es uno de los países más avanzados en el cultivo de la yuca, ya que en este país existe uno de los principales centros mundiales de investigación sobre yuca como lo es el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical y a nivel nacional el Consorcio Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Apoyo a la Investigación y al Desarrollo de la Yuca, como también la Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria, donde se han realizado grandes investigaciones y logrado avances en el mejoramiento del cultivo principalmente en la obtención de variedades de alto rendimiento, resistentes a plagas y enfermedades. Sin embargo, para aprovechar estas investigaciones y promocionar el uso de este cultivo, se deben generar nuevos productos que permitan utilizarlo de una forma integral.En Brasil se han realizado investigaciones en el uso de hojas de la yuca para consumo humano. La mayoría de estas investigaciones han utilizado este producto incorporado en mezclas alimenticias que han sido consumidas por personas con deficiencias nutricionales o con problemas de salud por bajos niveles en el organismo de vitaminas y minerales (Brandão y Brandão, 1991).Aunque la principal desventaja de las hojas de yuca es su contenido de ácido cianhídrico, estos niveles pueden ser disminuidos con un proceso eficiente en la elaboración de harina de hojas de yuca. En países como Indonesia y Tanzania, las hojas de yuca se consumen frescas como cualquier otro vegetal haciendo una cocción previa (Maeda, 1989). En Perú son consumidas en cápsulas o tabletas como complementos nutricionales (A&S, 2004).La harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano no cuenta con la promoción y el apoyo comercial que debería tener, sin embargo esta puede ser una opción para dar mayor valor agregado y utilizar el aporte nutricional de un subproducto del cultivo de la yuca. La inclusión de harina de hojas de yuca en alimentos para consumo humano es una alternativa alimentaria. Por esta razón, se deben establecer métodos y estrategias para la producción de una harina de alta calidad que sirva como materia prima para la elaboración de productos comerciales como sopas, tortas y productos extraídos.Al respecto este proyecto busca contribuir al desarrollo científico sobre el proceso técnico para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano. En consecuencia, la metodología seguida comprendió la definición de variables y niveles de operación en las etapas de cosecha, limpieza, picado, secado y molienda, con base en el análisis de la información tecnológica disponible. Así, se utilizaron tres variedades de yuca HMC 1, MCOL 2436 y MCOL 1505, cosechando entre tres y seis meses de edad, se estudió el efecto del uso o no uso de desinfectante en las hojas y materiales y equipos, se realizó picado y rallado de las hojas y fueron secadas al sol y en un secador de circulación de aire caliente 40, 50 y 60 ºC. En las etapas de proceso evaluadas en la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca se realizaron los siguientes análisis: contenido de proteína, microbiológico, HCN y granulometría, para determinar la calidad del producto de salida en cada etapa de proceso. Con base en estos resultados, se definieron las condiciones de operación y la línea de proceso de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano.Adicionalmente, se realizaron análisis de digestibilidad en ratones para determinar el grado de digestibilidad de proteína, materia seca y energía, utilizando una dieta control (base caseína 12%) y dietas con sustitución de harina de hoja de yuca en 10 y 20%. obtención de una harina precocida a partir de cultivos fortificados, utilizando las tecnologías de extrusión y secado de rodillos, para la precocción de una mezcla de harinas en cuya composición se incluyó la harina de hojas de yuca en un nivel de 2,5%.Finalmente, se determinaron los indicadores técnico-económicos para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano para estimar los costos de mano de obra, equipos e insumos que requiere un productor de yuca que desee implementar esta opción tecnológica para dar mayor valor agregado al cultivo de la yuca.Uno de los principales problemas de la humanidad, hoy día, lo constituye el hecho de que su población aumenta constantemente sin guardar relación su crecimiento con el desarrollo de nuevas fuentes alimenticias. El mundo se enfrenta a graves problemas que amenazan la subsistencia del género humano, entre ellos: el hambre, la desnutrición, la destrucción del medio ambiente y las enfermedades (Buitrago ,1990).La situación de desnutrición que se observa en muchos países en vía de desarrollo, donde la población registra altos niveles de deficiencias nutricionales y el constante aumento de precio en los alimentos de la canasta familiar, insta a la búsqueda de alternativas que sean económicas, de alto nivel proteico y con un contenido adecuado de provitaminas y minerales que permitan que las personas con problemas de desnutrición reciban un alimento con características apropiadas para su alimentación.El uso del cultivo de yuca es una alternativa para crear seguridad alimentaria en el mundo, para mejorar la disponibilidad de alimentos. Por lo tanto, incentivar este cultivo e incorporar nuevos cultivos según las condiciones climáticas y ecológicas, permite tener variedades de alimentos para el autoconsumo.La yuca es un cultivo importante en países asiáticos, africanos y sudamericanos, principalmente, por su participación en los sistemas agrícolas y por su aporte a la dieta de la población tanto humana como animal. Adicionalmente, es un cultivo cuya producción se adapta a ecosistemas diferentes, pudiéndose producir bajo condiciones adversas y climáticas marginales. Las hojas de yuca, de acuerdo a estudios recientes, presentan contenidos altos de proteínas, vitaminas y algunos minerales, encontrándose al nivel de la espinaca y la quinua, además de las propiedades medicinales que también presenta (CLAYUCA, 2005). Las hojas son una parte de la planta que aún no es aprovechada en nuestro país como alternativa para el consumo humano aunque sus características nutricionales lo permitan.La sociedad exige cada vez un mayor nivel de calidad en los alimentos que se consumen tanto a nivel nutricional como de sanidad en los mismos, esta es una oportunidad que permite considerar la elaboración de una harina de hojas de yuca con un alto valor nutricional y que cumpla con los requerimientos de calidad para consumo humano.La yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) junto con el maíz, la caña de azúcar y el arroz, constituyen las fuentes de energía más importantes en las regiones tropicales del mundo.Es originaria de América del Sur. La yuca fue domesticada hace unos 5.000 años y cultivada extensivamente desde entonces en zonas tropicales y subtropicales del continente (Cock, s.f.).Actualmente la yuca es un cultivo muy importante en las regiones tropicales del mundo (latitudes menores a los 30°), que van desde el nivel del mar hasta los 1.800 m.s.n.m. Si bien el principal producto económico son sus raíces, las hojas de la yuca también tienen un excelente potencial y son extensivamente utilizadas en África y Asia, ya sea para alimentación humana o animal (Ceballos y Ospina, 2002). Es una planta perenne, perteneciente a la familia Euphorbiaceae, es monoica, de ramificación simpodial y altura máxima de 3 m, ideal para uso agroindustrial debido a la producción de hidratos de carbono en las raíces y de proteína en la parte aérea. Es un arbusto herbáceo, o arbolillo, con hojas dactiliformes (FAO, 2005).Dentro del género Manihot se han clasificado alrededor de un centenar de especies, entre las cuales la única cultivada comercialmente es Manihot esculenta Crantz, cuyos sinónimos son: Manihot utilissima, Manihot edulis y Manihot aípi (Domínguez, 1981).Según Domínguez, 1981, la especie Manihot esculenta es denominada popularmente como yuca (norte de Sur América, América Central y las Antillas), mandioca (Argentina, Brasil y Paraguay), tapioca (sur de Sur América), cassava (UE, UK, USA), guacamote (México), aipi y macacheira (Brasil), suahili, mhogo o mowogo (África).Las variedades de yuca se dividen en dos grupos: variedades amargas, con raíces que contienen 0,02-0,03% de ácido cianhídrico y variedades dulces, con raíces que contienen menos de 0,01% de ácido cianhídrico. La mayoría de las variedades comerciales pertenecen a este último. El contenido de ácido cianhídrico tanto en las raíces como en las hojas depende no sólo de la variedad, sino posiblemente de las condiciones edafoclimáticas (Rosero, 2002).La yuca se ha convertido en un alimento muy importante en la dieta de muchos países africanos, asiáticos y sudamericanos debido a su alto contenido calórico y a la facilidad del cultivo a tolerar condiciones ambientales extremas. La yuca es apreciada porque presenta adecuada adaptación a diferentes ecosistemas, alta tolerancia a la sequía, gran fortaleza frente a las plagas y amplias facilidades de almacenamiento. La mayor parte se cultiva en fincas de pequeños agricultores y en áreas agrícolas marginales. Por lo tanto, una proporción importante de la producción no se registra en las estadísticas de manera adecuada y precisa. La yuca es un cultivo que podría considerarse estratégico dadas sus posibilidades de aportar al desarrollo de regiones marginales del país. Se considera un cultivo típico de economía campesina, presentando un promedio de área sembrada por finca que oscila entre una y cinco hectáreas, una oferta atomizada y sistemas de producción atrasados. Gran parte de su producción se orienta hacia el mercado en fresco (Domínguez, 1981).1.1.1 Producción mundial y nacional de yuca. La producción mundial de yuca estimada por el Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural y la Corporación Colombia Internacional en el año 2004 es 195.574.112 t cultivadas en un área de 17.870.626 ha y con un rendimiento de 10,94 t/ha. debe a la importancia de este alimento en la lucha contra el hambre en el mundo. Figura 1. Producción y área mundial del cultivo de yuca en el período 1995-2004. Fuente: Corporación Colombia Internacional, 2005 Por continentes, Asia, África y América representan casi la totalidad de la producción mundial de yuca:• En África, el cultivo de la yuca es muy importante, debido a la seguridad alimenticia que provee, siendo un cultivo resistente a las sequías, las cuales son muy persistentes. En este continente se concentra la mayor producción de yuca siguiendo en importancia al continente asiático.• El panorama que abarca el período de 1990 a 2002 presenta un bajo crecimiento e incluso descenso en la producción de este producto.• Los principales países productores de yuca son: Nigeria, Brasil, Tailandia, Indonesia, Congo, Ghana, India, Tanzania, Mozambique (véase Figura 2).• Después de los principales países productores se destacan Angola, Uganda y Vietnam.En América Latina sobresalen Paraguay, Colombia, Cuba y Perú. En los mercados externos la yuca es un producto de autoconsumo en los países productores, se comercializa seca para la industria productora de alimentos balanceados, sin embargo, su comercialización a nivel mundial es bastante reducida. Al deteriorase rápidamente, la yuca se debe consumir o procesar justo después de cosechada, lo cual obliga a someterla a procesos para garantizar su protección (Corporación Colombia Internacional, 2005).Como se observa en la Figura 3, las importaciones de yuca a nivel mundial han sido muy volátiles desde el año 1994 hasta el 2003; del año 2002 al 2003 se presentó un alza en las importaciones en valor y volumen después de un descenso en el 2001. La importación de la yuca está estrechamente vinculada con los requerimientos crecientes de yuca por parte de la Unión Europea para complementar la alimentación de su enorme plantel animal y para la producción de almidón (Corporación Colombia Internacional, 2005). En Colombia, la yuca representa estabilidad económica y social para amplias zonas del país donde es cultivada por pequeños agricultores pobres. Con un 4,5% el cultivo de yuca ha mantenido relativamente estable su participación en el área sembrada del país durante los últimos diez años, aunque hacia el año 2003 presentó disminuciones. Por ejemplo, entre el año 1996 que fue el año de mayor superficie cosechada y el año 2003 se observa una disminución de aproximadamente 13,77% y los porcentajes varían en la superficie a través de los años; esto debido a oscilaciones en precio, demanda y oferta de la yuca (véase Figura 4). Entre 1992 y 2003, la producción de yuca en Colombia varió entre 1,6-2 millones de toneladas no mostrando una dinámica importante, ni una tendencia definida.  1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Años Hectáreas Fuente: DANE, 2004 Según la información del Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural, en el 2003 la producción nacional de yuca se concentró en la Costa Atlántica, ya que participó con el 27,01% del total nacional, seguida por Centro Oriente con el 10,34%, Occidente con el 5,50% y zonas templadas con el 1,83%, el resto de la producción se divide en otros departamentos que no hacen parte de las zonas de influencia del cultivo de yuca. Los departamentos con mayor producción en 2003 fueron Córdoba (11,76%), Santander (10,4%), Antioquia (7,75%) y Sucre (8,15%), cuya producción participó en el total nacional con porcentajes similares a los del área sembrada, excepto en el caso de Antioquia. Este departamento presenta los mayores rendimientos del país después de Risaralda (22,3 t/ha) y Quindío (15,2 t/ha). Es así como Antioquia sólo participa con el 5,6% del total del área sembrada en el país pero representa el 7,75% de la producción nacional.1.1.2 Zonas de adaptación de yuca en Colombia. Se tienen diferenciadas cinco zonas productoras de yuca en el país. Según sea la zona agroecológica del país, se tienen diferentes variedades de yuca adaptadas a estas (Ospina, Gil y Pelaez, 2005).• Zona 1 (Costa Atlántica). Esta zona tiene sembradas 11.130 hectáreas de yuca industrial, representado en los departamentos de Córdoba (4.300 ha), Magdalena (2.580 ha), Atlántico (2.150 ha) y Sucre (2.100 ha). El 80% del volumen producido en esta zona es ofrecido a las plantas de alimentos balanceados. Las variedades cultivadas son principalmente clones regionales como la Venezolana (MCOL 2215) 1 , Mona Blanca y variedades mejoradas como: Verdecita (MCOL 1505), ICA Negrita (CM 3306-4), ICA Costeña (CG 1141-1), MTai 8, Corpoica Sucreña (CM 3355-6) y Corpoica Caribeña (SGB 775-2).A esta zona pertenecen los departamentos Arauca, Meta y Casanare. Actualmente se encuentran sembradas 3.850 ha de yuca industrial, aunque esta yuca se destina más al consumo en fresco por deficiencia en el secado y en algunos casos cercanías a la capital de la república como lo son los departamentos de Meta y Casanare. En esta zona se requieren clones resistentes a enfermedades (superalargamiento y bacteriosis), tales como: ICA-Catumare (CM 523-7) e ICA-Cebucán (MCOL 2277-2), Corpoica Reina (CM 6740-7), Brasilera (MCOL 2737) y Corpoica Vergara (CM 6438-14).• Zona 4 (Valles Interandinos). Cobija las regiones del Valle del Cauca y el eje cafetero. Su principal uso es consumo en fresco. Las variedades empleadas son: MCOL 2066 (Chirosa Gallinaza), en Quindío y Viejo Caldas; HMC 1 o ICA Armenia (Manihotica P-13), ICA Catumare (CM 523-7). 1 Nombre del clon o variedad en el banco de germoplasma de CIAT• Zona 5 (Áreas Templadas, especialmente, la Región del Cauca). Con un área sembrada de 4.300 ha de yuca industrial, donde el sector más beneficiado es el de los rallanderos ya que en su gran mayoría la producción es destinada a la obtención de almidón. Solamente son utilizados los subproductos como afrecho y mancha en la elaboración de dietas para animales. Esta zona está ocupada por la variedad regional 1.1.3 Usos de la yuca. Este producto se ubica en cuatro mercados según los usos principales del mismo: como raíz fresca y procesada para consumo humano, como insumo en la industria alimenticia, como materia prima en la industria productora de alimentos balanceados para animales y como producto intermedio en la industria no alimenticia. Uno de los productos más importantes derivados de la yuca es el almidón que se usa en grandes volúmenes en la industria de papel y cartón, la industria alimenticia, la industria textil y farmacéutica. Además se obtienen una amplia gama de almidones modificados, jarabes de glucosa, dextrosa y alcohol entre otros.También son usadas las raíces frescas para consumo humano, raíces frescas para consumo animal, productos fritos, productos deshidratados, productos congelados (trozos, puré), productos empacados al vacío (trozos semicocidos y esterilizados) y productos derivados del proceso industrial (corteza, fibra, cascarilla).Entre los productos deshidratados, se encuentran los tradicionales, las hojuelas y la harina de yuca, hay harinas para alimento animal y para industrias alimentarias, entre las industrias alimentarias, se cuenta con las panaderías, las bases para sopas, las carnes procesadas, las pastas, las bases de bebidas y los productos fermentados; como el almidón agrio.Las hojas de la planta de yuca (véase Figura 5), al igual que las de cualquier otra planta, son los órganos en los cuales se realiza el proceso fotosintético. El número total de hojas producidas, su tasa de producción y longevidad son características varietales que cambian según las condiciones ambientales (Domínguez, 1981).Figura 5. Hojas de yuca.La yuca presenta hojas compuestas por la lámina foliar (hoja propiamente dicha, y consta de dos caras que son: el haz o cara superior y el envés o cara inferior) y el pecíolo (tallito que une a la lámina foliar). La lámina foliar es palmeada y profundamente lobulada, según el cultivo la lámina foliar es de diferentes colores; morado, verde oscuro y verde claro, son los colores básicos. El pecíolo puede tener una longitud de 9-20 cm, es delgado y de pigmentación variable (verde a morada) dependiendo de la variedad. La lámina foliar por lo general presenta un número de lóbulos impar, entre 3-9 de acuerdo a la variedad, sin embargo esto puede variar en hojas de la misma planta. Los lóbulos miden entre 4-20 cm de longitud y entre 1-6 cm de ancho. Los lóbulos centrales son de mayor tamaño que los laterales (Domínguez, 1981).En el CIAT se han tomado 3 denominaciones básicas para identificar la forma de los lóbulos: lineal o recta, abovada y pandurada; sin embargo, en otras instituciones tienen una clasificación más amplia que incluye además las formas elíptica, lanceolada y oblongolaceolada (Domínguez, 1981) (Véase Figura 6). Figura 6. Formas de los lóbulos de la lámina foliar de las hojas de yuca. El tamaño de las hojas de yuca depende del cultivar, sin embargo las condiciones ambientales influyen fuertemente; las hojas que se producen en los primeros 3-4 meses son más grandes que las hojas que se producen cuando la planta se encuentra en una edad más avanzada, entre el cuarto mes y la cosecha de las raíces, esta tendencia es común en todas las variedades de yuca, pero existen grandes diferencias varietales en el tamaño máximo de la hoja. Algunos clones de yuca presentan áreas máximas de hoja individual de 800 cm 2 /hoja. El tamaño de la hoja puede variar y reducirse por falta de agua (Connor, Cock y Parra, 1976). Además una planta que presenta una mayor edad fisiológica presenta menor concentración de proteínas, pero mayor contenido de fibra y materia seca (Ceballos, 2002).Las hojas de yuca son caducas, es decir, se avejentan, mueren y se desprenden de la planta a medida que esta se desarrolla. Durante los primeros tres meses del cultivo, la formación de hojas tiene prioridad sobre la formación de las raíces de almacenamiento; después la planta disminuye la formación de hojas, pero almacena almidón en las raíces, lo cual genera una disminución de nutrientes en las hojas (Ceballos y Ospina, 2002).El índice de área foliar (IAF) aumenta entre los 3-6 meses de edad del cultivo y luego baja gradualmente a medida que las hojas más viejas caen, debido a la falta de luz en la parte basal y a la disminución de la tasa de formación de hojas (Rosas, Cock y Sandoval, 1976).A temperaturas de 24 °C o más altas las hojas de yuca alcanzan su expansión total aproximadamente a las dos semanas después de iniciar su crecimiento. A temperaturas más bajas el desarrollo es más lento (Cours, 1951).Si los niveles de HCN son altos en las hojas de yuca, el producto final presenta altos índices y por lo tanto no resulta apto para el consumo humano; sin embargo los procesos de secado liberan en gran porcentaje los contenidos de HCN en la yuca, de esta forma es preferible que la variedad seleccionada esté clasificada como dulce, aunque se debe tener en cuenta que no es completamente seguro que las variedades dulces presenten bajos contenidos de HCN en las hojas, ya que se puede presentar lo contrario; contenidos altos en hojas y bajos en raíces (Rosero, 2002). En consecuencia lo anterior obliga que al procesar las hojas de yuca se realicen varias pruebas de análisis del contenido de HCN durante el proceso y en el producto final.La producción de yuca forrajera se ha incentivado como alternativa a las necesidades nutricionales requeridas por la alimentación animal, ya que el follaje de yuca se usa en la elaboración de dietas de animales. La producción de yuca forrajera representa el mayor potencial de utilización del cultivo para la alimentación animal, aumentando el número de plantas por hectárea a 111.000. Mediante la siembra con espaciamiento de 30 * 30 cm, se obtiene un rendimiento de materia seca de 30 t/ha durante un año, haciendo cuatro cortes o cosechas (cada 90 días) de toda la parte aérea de la planta.Por ello, es recomendable destinar los cultivos a un solo objetivo, para raíces o para follaje, con el fin de obtener rendimientos máximos (Moore, 1976).La yuca manejada como planta forrajera en sistemas integrados tiene un alto potencial para la producción de proteína de alto valor nutritivo. La hoja de yuca contiene altas cantidades de ácido cianhídrico que para los rumiantes no presenta problema gracias al proceso de detoxificación de estos elementos por los microorganismos del rumen. En contraste, para animales monogástricos la hoja de yuca debe ser secada al sol o ensilada en condiciones anaeróbicas, para reducir su toxicidad a tal punto que no cause problemas en ellos. Sin embargo, se utiliza también harina de forraje de yuca la cual es secada al sol para producir heno que se muele para la obtención de harina, que actualmente se utiliza en la alimentación de cerdas en período de gestación, aunque por su alto contenido de fibra presenta limitaciones al suministrarla a cerdos durante el crecimiento y en pollos de engorde (Domínguez, 1981).El follaje de yuca al ser suministrado a los rumiantes en forma fresca o como heno, actúa como fuente de proteína sobrepasante, es decir como proteína que pasa al intestino y es digerida por el animal y no es consumida por las bacterias ruminales, permitiendo mejorar la utilización de la energía, así como las ganancias de peso y la eficiencia alimenticia en dietas (Becerra y Castaño, 2006). Por lo tanto, puede ser una alternativa a las fuentes proteicas convencionales como son las harinas de soya, de maní y de pescado.La producción de follaje depende de diversos factores tales como, cuando la planta es sometida a estrés hídrico, se afecta la producción de biomasa y aumenta la cantidad de proteína extraída del forraje; cuando la planta crece rápido debido a condiciones ambientales favorables, disminuyen los contenidos nutricionales por el efecto de dilución, es decir que los nutrimentos absorbidos se distribuyen en mayor cantidad de materia seca (Rosero, 2002).Según Howeler 2 , las variedades adaptadas en regiones templadas con buenos rendimientos que se llevan a condiciones casi a nivel del mar, son más eficientes en la producción de biomasa aérea.Los arbustos de yuca pueden cortarse como follaje cuando tienen de 3-4 meses de edad. Se cortan a 40 cm del suelo y se pican en trocitos pequeños a mano o en una picadora de follaje fija. Para que las hojas presenten buenas características se debe hacer la cosecha entre 2-4 meses y mantener el cultivo durante 1-2 años, ya que en estas condiciones es más fácil obtener un producto de alta calidad y máximo rendimiento (Buitrago, 2001). Es importante tener en cuenta las variables que determinan la calidad nutricional del follaje y el mayor tamaño de hoja, así, se aumenta la cantidad y calidad de material para proceso.Estudios realizados por Rosero, 2002, confirman que en yuca forrajera los contenidos de proteína y HCN a diferentes tiempos de cosecha, varían en el tiempo.Las Figuras 7 y 8 muestran que después de los tres meses de cosecha el contenido de proteína y HCN, para las variedades HMC 1 y MCOL 1505 con densidad de siembra de 40.000 plantas, comienza a disminuir.  1.2.2 Valor nutricional de las hojas de yuca. La hoja tiene un 77% de agua, 8,2% de proteína cruda, 13,3% de carbohidratos solubles, 1,2% de grasa, 2,2% de fibra cruda en base húmeda y se ha considerado como uno de los vegetales verdes con mayor concentración proteica (Necochea, 2002).Las hojas de la yuca presentan características nutricionales y virtudes que pueden llegar a ser revolucionarias en el mundo de la alimentación y la salud. Su alto contenido nutricional dada la presencia de sus 18 aminoácidos esenciales, las convierte en un alimento mejor que la quinua, la kiwicha y la soya. Contiene minerales como hierro, calcio, potasio, fósforo, magnesio, cobre y zinc, que es uno de los más importantes en la alimentación humana; también alto contenido de beta carotenos y vitaminas A, B1, B2, B6, B12 y C. Posee vitaminas como la niacina que es un depurativo y desintoxicante poderoso, el ácido fólico que es una poderosa vitamina antianémica y el ácido pantoténico que evita el deterioro de los tejidos de la piel (A&S, 2004).También se encuentran diferencias en los aminoácidos al ser comparados con leguminosas y cereales como la quinua y la soya, en la Tabla 1 se observan diferencias en aminoácidos tales como glicina, histidina y en algunos muy importantes como en la metionina y la leucina que en las hojas de yuca superan marcadamente los contenidos de alimentos como la soya y la alfalfa.Tabla 1. Comparativo de aminoácidos esenciales en g/100g de proteína en base seca. La composición nutricional del follaje de yuca varía en calidad y cantidad, según el tipo de cultivar, época de corte, densidad de siembra y proporción entre hojas (lámina foliar más pecíolos) y tallos. De acuerdo a los nutrientes requeridos, la parte de la planta que se use determina su composición, por ejemplo, si sólo se utiliza lámina foliar, el contenido de proteína sería de 23-28% en base seca, pero si se incluyen los pecíolos y las ramas verdes apicales el contenido se reduciría de 18-21%, una relación inversa se apreciaría en el contenido de fibra que suele ser alrededor de 9% para lámina foliar, pero que aumenta a 20-25% cuando se incorpora toda la parte superior de la planta (Domínguez, 1981) (Véase, Tabla 2).Tabla 2. Contenido de nutrientes en hojas de yuca.  (Buitrago, 1990).Figura 9. Moléculas de los glucósidos cianogénicos linamarina y lotaustralina.El ácido cianhídrico es liberado naturalmente por la acción de la enzima Linamarasa con la Linamarina; el contacto de la enzima con la Linamarina ocurre cuando los tejidos sufren daños mecánicos por trituración o por destrucción de la estructura celular de la planta o tejidos (Domínguez, 1981). Tanto las hojas como las raíces son susceptibles a la liberación de ácido cianhídrico cuando son picadas, en este momento la proporción de cianuro libre aumenta rápidamente a rangos de 30-40% en raíces (Gómez, Santos y Valdivieso, 1981).Se considera que el ácido cianhídrico libre es el que produce efectos tóxicos en el organismo, mientras que el ácido cianhídrico ligado no lo hace, a menos que sea hidrolizado para desarrollar su efecto tóxico (Buitrago, 1990).Figura 10. Reacción de hidrólisis de los glucósidos cianogénicos con la linamarasa.El nivel de glucósidos cianogénicos total presentes en las raíces y follaje de yuca, determina diferencias entre variedades amargas (de mayor toxicidad) y variedades dulces (menor toxicidad), según experiencias del CIAT en manejo de variedades de yuca 3 , las variedades menores de 180 ppm de HCN (en base seca) se clasifican como variedades dulces, las que poseen entre 180-300 ppm se clasifican en el rango intermedio y las que tienen un contenido de HCN mayor 300 ppm son consideradas como variedades amargas (Domínguez, 1981).Durante el ciclo de desarrollo de la planta, las concentraciones de HCN en los diferentes tejidos fluctúan y esto depende en gran medida de factores externos como la temperatura, condiciones edáficas, variedad, edad de la planta, manejo del cultivo, altitud, deficiencia de potasio, disponibilidad de agua, entre otros (Barbosa, 1972y Cadavid, 2001).De acuerdo a la edad de la planta, la concentración de HCN es mayor o menor en las hojas, este es un aspecto que se debe tener en cuenta para la realización de las cosechas, ya que la concentración de cianuro en las hojas varía, siendo mayor en hojas tiernas o jóvenes que en hojas al final del ciclo vegetativo de la planta de yuca. En general, las hojas poseen concentraciones similares a las encontradas en las cáscaras de las raíces (Domínguez, 1981).La dosis letal mínima de ácido cianhídrico en los humanos es de 60 ppm y el consumo prolongado de pequeñas cantidades de éste puede originar deficiencias proteicas y problemas fisiológicos serios, en casos extremos un consumo alto de esta sustancia puede provocar intoxicación. Con la ayuda de la enzima rodanasa, el cuerpo humano destoxifica el cianuro mediante la formación de tiocianato, la síntesis de rodanasa impone una demanda adicional de aminoácidos de las reservas del cuerpo, principalmente de aquellos aminoácidos que contienen azufre, por lo tanto el consumo regular de yuca provoca que la síntesis de proteínas vitales para funciones corporales se perjudique; razón por la que, se presentan enfermedades asociadas a la exposición constante a los cianógenos de la yuca y la deficiencia de proteínas, como el Konzo que en países como Mozambique se ha presentado y es identificado por síntomas como rigidez de los músculos, vomito, nauseas, palpitación, debilidad, diarrea, dolor de cabeza (Padmaja, 1995).La mayoría de los síntomas de intoxicación se pueden asociar con la afinidad del ácido cianhídrico con iones metálicos como el del hierro y el del cobre. El radical -CN reacciona con el ión hierro de la hemoglobina y forma cianohemoglobina, hecho que imposibilita el transporte de oxigeno en la sangre; asimismo, dicho radical forma complejos con algunas enzimas que tienen iones cobre (i.e., citocromo-oxidasa), afectando ciertas reacciones del metabolismo intermediario (Buitrago,1990).Para eliminar parcial o totalmente el contenido de ácido cianhídrico de la yuca se pueden utilizar diferentes métodos de procesamiento, entre los cuales se encuentra la deshidratación artificial, la cocción en agua, o el secado solar. La deshidratación natural por cocción de los rayos solares es un sistema seguro para destruir el ácido cianhídrico sin afectar la acción de la linamarasa. Normalmente, los trozos de yuca secados al sol contienen niveles de cianuro menores a la obtenida con secado artificial. Ya que la reacción hidrolítica se favorece a largos tiempos y bajas temperaturas. No obstante la eliminación de HCN por secado artificial a temperaturas por debajo de 60 ºC o por cocción en agua son métodos que aseguran una eliminación de HCN efectiva (Domínguez, 1981).1.2.4 Estudios realizados con hojas de yuca. Las hojas de yuca han sido utilizadas desde hace décadas por los indígenas de algunas regiones de Brasil y Nueva Zelanda, estas personas tomaban las hojas de la planta y realizaban un proceso artesanal que resulta bastante sencillo; ellos recogían las hojas, posteriormente las lavaban, machacaban para suavizarlas, las hervían y las incluían en sus comidas. La hoja de yuca puede utilizarse en la preparación de sopas o guisos, ya sea en pequeños trozos o picadas; en países como Tailandia se observó la cantidad y calidad del producto que se desechaba al cosechar las raíces de la planta, por lo tanto se inició la producción de comprimidos de hojas de yuca y retoños tiernos de yuca, como fuente de proteína (Rojanaridpiched, 1977). Las hojas y retoños se pican y posteriormente se secan en hornos. Después del secamiento las hojas se muelen hasta convertirlas en polvo (Lancaster y Brooks, 1983).En estudios realizados se encontró que antiguamente las personas que consumían las hojas de yuca no presentaban enfermedades como el cáncer de próstata, cáncer de mama, cáncer de ovario, gastritis, diabetes e hipertensión, a diferencia de quienes no las consumían (A&S, 2004). Se han obtenido también beneficios para la gastritis, úlceras gástricas, hepatitis, tifoidea, asma, rinitis, trastornos circulatorios, tratamiento de la próstata, cistitis, artritis, entre otros. Por lo cual en Perú han sido comercializadas en forma de tabletas para consumo humano y en Brasil se utilizaron en un programa alternativo de alimentación, dirigido por Clara Brandão, para niños de escasos recursos con deficiencias nutricionales, mostrando excelentes resultados (Brandão y Brandão, 1991).Uno de los sectores de la población infantil que puede ser beneficiado con los estudios, son los grupos de infantes que reciben meriendas escolares en escuelas o en guarderías a cargo de madres comunitarias, donde se podría incluir el producto en las dietas de los niños realizando mezclas con algunos alimentos, de tal forma que se convierta en un complemento de estos.Muestra de ello, son los estudios realizados por la investigadora Clara Brandão y Rubens Brandão,1990 en Brasil, quien utilizó este producto mezclado con otros convirtiéndolo en parte de la dieta de personas de bajos recursos y con problemas de desnutrición. En los estudios realizados en Brasil, se logró disminuir la desnutrición en un 16% por un consumo periódico del producto, por medio de un programa en centros asistenciales y escuelas donde se suministraba el producto, el cual permitió el desarrollo y la rehabilitación nutricional.Los cursos eran dirigidos a madres, médicos, enfermeras, trabajadores sociales y maestros y fue llamado \"Prácticas Alternativas de Nutrición\". En la formulación del producto se mezclaban hojas de yuca con otros productos como papa, zapallo, maíz verde rallado, maíz partido y zanahoria rallada; para crear un alimento con alto nivel nutricional a bajo costo.Con este programa se comprobó que los niños aumentaban de peso y estatura en pocos meses. En la Tabla 5 se muestra el comportamiento de la desnutrición en Brasil durante el programa de nutrición. Fuente: Brandão, 1990 Actualmente en Colombia, las hojas de yuca sólo han sido utilizadas en alimentación animal, en la dieta de rumiantes utilizando las hojas o el follaje (hojas y tallos tiernos) de plantas sembradas para la producción de raíces (Domínguez, 1981).1.2.5 Productos comerciales elaborados con hojas de yuca. En algunos países como se ha mencionado anteriormente, las hojas de yuca han sido utilizadas como un producto comercial para el consumo humano. En Perú, las hojas de yuca son procesadas para obtener como producto final unas cápsulas que son comercializadas dentro y fuera del país.En la Figura 11 se presenta una fotografía del producto envasado y su promoción en una pagina de internet.Figura 11. Producto elaborado a base de hoja de yuca por Peruvian Natural Products.Fuente: Peruvian Natural Products, 2005En Brasil las hojas de yuca también son utilizadas como un producto comercializado en diferentes regiones, las hojas de yuca son sometidas a un proceso de extracción de la proteína, donde las hojas son molidas y posteriormente separadas en dos fracciones después de prensar: el jugo y el material fibroso, luego se somete a una extracción parcial o exhaustiva. El uso de estos procesos permite la obtención de concentrados y proteína aisladas a partir del jugo o de la torta de hojas de yuca. Los primeros pueden alcanzar niveles proteicos del 70% y los segundos podrían alcanzar niveles del 90%. Partiendo de la ventajas que representa un concentrado proteico se podría decir que partir de hojas de yuca se tendría un producto altamente funcional y de fácil distribución, consumo, transformación y comercialización (Le Guerroué y Douillard, et. al., 1996).Por otra parte en Indonesia, las hojas de yuca son clasificadas como uno de los vegetales más comunes; por esta razón la producción de hojas de yuca en este país es estimada en 0,5 -0,7 millones de toneladas por año. Ellos cosechan algunas hojas jóvenes de los cultivos de yuca sin afectar la producción de raíces. El consumo de 400 g de hojas de yuca equivale a ingerir de 45-50 g de proteína de origen vegetal, por lo tanto ellos consideran que la utilización de hojas de yuca, como un suplemento en la dieta haría un aporte a la solución de los problemas nutricionales del país. (Wargiono, Richana y Hidajat, 2001).Figura 12. Obtención artesanal de concentrado de hojas de yuca en Brasil.Fuente: Kennedy, 1993La digestión se define como un proceso físico-químico que descompone las moléculas constitutivas de los alimentos en moléculas más pequeñas o en componentes que pueden ser absorbidos del lumen del intestino al torrente sanguíneo para que estos finalmente sean aprovechados por el organismo en la constitución de tejido y combustión de energía celular.El análisis químico es el punto de partida para determinar el valor nutritivo de los alimentos, pero el valor real de los nutrientes ingeridos depende del uso que de ellos pueda hacer el organismo (Maynard y Loosli, 1975).La disponibilidad es una propiedad inherente a una materia prima alimenticia y está relacionada o determinada por la constitución física y química del alimento, la concentración de los nutrientes y los factores limitantes o antinutricionales que marginan la disponibilidad de estos nutrientes. La disponibilidad para aminoácidos de la proteína de las materias primas se define como la proporción del contenido en la dieta que es digerido, absorbido como tal en el intestino delgado, y por último utilizado para la síntesis de proteína (Blas, 2000).La digestibilidad representa una serie de transformaciones físicas y químicas conducidas por la acción de las enzimas digestivas, la eficiencia de la digestibilidad depende de condiciones como acidez y por supuesto de las propiedades físico-químicas y estructurales de la materia prima que esté expuesta a la acción de las enzimas digestivas. Debido a esta relación entre propiedades físico-químicas y estructurales de la materia prima y la acción de las enzimas digestivas sobre las moléculas del alimento, resulta necesario evaluar la digestibilidad de los alimentos que son utilizados o que tienen un potencial de utilización en la alimentación. De este modo, la digestibilidad de un alimento es un indicador de la calidad nutricional del mismo, aún más confiable que la composición nutricional de éste (Ceballos, López y Posada, 2004).El organismo animal requiere de distintos nutrientes y de los cambios metabólicos que se producen en ellos para atender a las funciones del mismo. Por eso hoy muchos de los problemas de nutrición son estudiados con pequeños animales; uno de ellos es la rata. Los procesos de crecimiento, reproducción y lactación pueden investigarse de mejor forma, y así determinar el valor de los diversos alimentos para estas funciones (Maynard y Loosli, 1975).Los animales de laboratorio son muy útiles para establecer muchos de los principios fundamentales de la nutrición, además son ventajas importantes el bajo costo de los animales, su alimentación y cuidado, y el tiempo que dura un experimento es más corto, por ser más breve el ciclo vital de la especie. El estudio con animales pequeños sirve a modo de experimento piloto para obtener mucha información preliminar con mayor rapidez, bajo costo y menor riesgo, que cuando se hace directamente en el consumidor final del producto, además puede justificar el costo de inversión de éste ya sea para consumo humano o animal (Ceballos, López y Posada, 2004).Un ensayo de digestión y determinación de la digestibilidad supone registrar todos los nutrientes consumidos y las cantidades de ellos que se expelen en las heces. Es imprescindible que las heces recogidas contengan la cantidad total de residuo no digerido de la cantidad medida de alimento consumido (Maynard y Loosli, 1975).Para la colecta de las heces se utilizan varios métodos. En los animales omnívoros y en los carnívoros puede usarse alguna sustancia no digestible, de fácil identificación, denominada indicador. El indicador se suministra exactamente antes de que comience la ingestión de la ración del objeto de ensayo y de nuevo al terminar esta ingestión. La recogida de los excrementos comienza cuando en ellos aparece el primer indicador y termina cuando se presenta el segundo. Es necesario que el indicador sea fisiológicamente inerte y no debe contener ningún elemento de los que se estén investigando, cuanto menos difundible sea la sustancia, mejor. Se usa mucho como indicador el óxido férrico, óxido crómico y hollín, sin embargo ninguno asegura exactitud (Domínguez, 1981).Existen otros métodos como el de dietas purificadas, el cual consta de fuentes purificadas de los diversos nutrientes. Por ejemplo, las proteínas son suministradas en forma de caseína; los carbohidratos, en forma de almidón y sacarosa; la grasa, como manteca de cerdo o algún aceite; los minerales, como sales químicamente puras; y las vitaminas, como compuestos cristalizados puros. El método de la dieta purificada ha sido la fuente de buena parte de nuestros conocimientos modernos en materia de nutrición, incluyendo la fisiología de las vitaminas, el establecimiento de diferencias en la calidad de las proteínas y una información más exacta relativa a muchos elementos minerales.En el caso de la proteína que es objeto de estudio, la influencia de los distintos niveles proteicos puede estudiarse mediante la inclusión de varios niveles de caseína (la cual tiene una absorción en el organismo de casi el 89%), sin cambiar en nada el resto de la ración, mientras que si se agregase la fuente natural de la caseína, esto es leche, ello introduciría numerosas variables porque la leche contiene nutrientes adicionales a la caseína. También se puede tomar como blanco una ración con caseína y otras raciones sustituyendo parcialmente esta por otra fuente de proteína, lo cual permite comparar las diferentes fuentes proteicas.En el caso de las proteínas la ración recomendada por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) y la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO) para el adulto sano es de 0,8 g/kg de peso/día. Estas proteínas deben ser de buena calidad, al menos un 40% de ellas y aportar entre un 12-15% del valor calórico total de la dieta que se ingiere. Hay que tener en cuenta que es prioritario el aporte de carbohidratos, de lo contrario se utilizarán como fuente energética y se necesitaran en mayor cantidad.Ciertas enfermedades pueden requerir una disminución en la cantidad de consumo de proteínas, por ejemplo enfermedades de riñón o de hígado. En la actualidad el consumo está muy por encima de estas recomendaciones, hay que tener en cuenta que este aumento si se realiza con base en fuentes animales incrementará la grasa y colesterol de la dieta (Díaz, 2002).La digestibilidad de la harina de hojas de yuca es importante dado su contenido de fibra dietaria, la cual es la parte de todo alimento vegetal como cereales, frutas, verduras y leguminosas que no pueden ser digeridas por el organismo. Las ingestas promedio de fibra de un adulto son de unos 15 g/ día. Aunque no existe una recomendación establecida, se considera un consumo adecuado entre 25-30 g/día. La cantidad de fibra vegetal presente en la dieta no debe ser nunca inferior a los 22 g/día. Se ha añadido una nueva recomendación en el sentido de que la fibra aportada no debe estar constituida únicamente por fibras insolubles (con celulosa), sino que un 50% del total corresponderá a fibra soluble (con pectinas). Con base en sus propiedades físicas y su efecto fisiológico en el organismo, la fibra dietaria se clasifica en fibra insoluble y fibra soluble. La fibra insoluble consiste principalmente en celulosa, hemicelulosa y lignina, este tipo de fibra se encuentra en el salvado de trigo, granos integrales y verduras. La fibra soluble comprende gomas y pectinas; por lo tanto las hojas de yuca contienen fibras insolubles, sin embargo estas fibras pueden generar problemas en la digestibilidad. Es importante el consumo de fibra tanto soluble como fibra insoluble, por los efectos mecánicos y metabólicos y además porque sirve como protector contra altos niveles de lípidos en la sangre y otras enfermedades como enfermedad cardíaca, obesidad, hernia hiatal, cálculos biliares, enfermedad diverticular, pólipos y cáncer colorrectal durante la adultez (Vargas, 1996).Las fibras pueden generar también problemas en la absorción de proteínas, minerales entre otros. Se han realizado investigaciones acerca de la digestibilidad de la proteína contenida en hojas de yuca donde se encontró una digestibilidad cercana al 80% en hojas jóvenes y de 67% en hojas más viejas. Sin embargo se encontró también que los porcentajes de utilización de la proteína son bajos, estos llegan a 32% en hojas jóvenes y 39% en hojas más viejas, aunque esto puede mejorar aumentando la digestibilidad a un 61% cuando se adiciona el aminoácido limitante que, en este caso, es la metionina (Lancaster y Brooks, 1983). Los taninos condensados en las hojas de yuca, podrían ser parcialmente responsables de la baja absorción de la proteína al consumirla, debido a la formación de complejos indigeribles tanino-proteína o efectos de los taninos sobre la actividad de la enzima (Reed et. al, 1982). Cuando los tallos son incluidos en la elaboración de dietas a partir de hojas de yuca, el nivel de fibra aumenta y la proteína disminuye (Rosero, 2002).Es importante conocer la disponibilidad de la proteína de hojas de yuca y la absorción de estas por el organismo humano. Se debe mantener el equilibrio entre el valor calórico total (VCT) y el aporte proteico; entre el 12-15% del VCT de la dieta se debe aportar en forma de proteínas, priorizando el aporte de carbohidratos entre un 50-55% del VCT. La ingesta proteica debe ser, como mínimo, de 0,8 g/kg peso teórico/día (Gómez, 2000).Se debe guardar un equilibrio entre las proteínas de origen animal y de origen vegetal en el adulto (proteínas de origen animal = proteínas de origen vegetal) y en el niño (proteína animal, bastante más que proteína vegetal) (Gómez, 2000).La digestibilidad de una proteína es uno de los condicionantes del índice de calidad de las proteínas. Se define como la fracción de nitrógeno ingerido con el alimento y que es absorbido en el tracto gastrointestinal. Se expresa en porcentaje: D = (N absorbido / N ingerido) * 100La digestibilidad ideal es 100%. Las proteínas de origen animal poseen una buena digestibilidad, lo que implica una buena absorción, mientras que las de origen vegetal, la suelen tener generalmente inferior (Gómez, 2000).Hay factores que, con independencia de la proteína de la que se trate, pueden modificar la digestibilidad entre ellos tenemos; las condiciones de procesamiento y el almacenamiento de los alimentos; el contenido en fibra insoluble y la cantidad total de fibra de la dieta ingerida.Durante muchos años, los problemas de desnutrición han dependido de dos factores importantes como las deficiencias nutricionales de los alimentos y los malos hábitos que se han tomado a medida que los avances tecnológicos y la evolución de las ciudades en el mundo son más acelerados. Por lo tanto, hoy se buscan alternativas para suplir las necesidades de contar con alimentos que brinden al consumidor beneficios nutricionales, tales como: un buen contenido de vitaminas, minerales y aminoácidos esenciales.De acuerdo a lo anterior, al elaborar una harina a partir del forraje de yuca con un alto nivel nutricional, dado los aminoácidos esenciales que contiene, se aprovecharía la parte aérea de la planta no sólo en la alimentación animal, sino también en la humana, lo cual permitiría que los cultivadores cuenten con una nueva alternativa para el uso del forraje de yuca.Este estudio busca elaborar una harina de hojas de yuca que es un producto que se puede incluir en la formulación para la elaboración de panes, galletas y utilizarlo en sopas, arroz entre otros y darle su uso como complemento alimenticio incluido en otros productos para consumo humano y aportando un buen valor nutricional en la dieta diaria de la población con problemas de desnutrición y en especial a la población infantil que es la más afectada.Actualmente, en Colombia se tienen problemas de desnutrición que a través de los años se han tratado de superar, en algunos casos se ha logrado que la desnutrición no sólo en niños sino también en mujeres embarazadas y adolescentes se disminuya. Sin embargo, existen deficiencias nutricionales en muchas regiones de Colombia tales como la costa pacífica, donde se tiene el mayor índice de mortalidad por desnutrición. Además se registran otras regiones con problemas de desnutrición como Cauca/Nariño que presentan 24,5% de su población, seguida de otras como Tolima/Huila/Caquetá con 18,9% y una de menor porcentaje como Valle/Atlántico/Bolívar que presentan un 7,3% (UNICEF, 2005).Diversos factores se pueden desencadenar por la mala nutrición tales como las complicaciones en la gestación, en el parto y enfermedades que podrían ser evitables o fácilmente curables; esto puede acortar vidas o limitar las capacidades de una persona.Adicionalmente la presencia de grupos de personas desplazadas de sus tierras que llegan a las ciudades y no encuentran oportunidades se ven afectadas por deficiencias nutricionales que generan enfermedades.La desnutrición en niños y niñas ha venido siendo un problema de interés en Colombia desde el año 2000 por parte de organizaciones como UNICEF, estas entidades han aplicado estrategias para que la desnutrición se disminuya a través de los años; por ejemplo entre 1990-2000 se redujo en valores significativos la desnutrición aguda, crónica y global. El país cuenta con un Plan Nacional de Nutrición (1999-2005) que propende por una adecuada alimentación y nutrición tanto en el nivel individual como colectivo y ha desarrollado acciones de seguridad alimentaria orientadas a los hogares y grupos más vulnerables.Los niveles de desnutrición registrados en la Tabla 4 indican los cambios en % registrados en los respectivos años. Puede notarse que a pesar de registrarse mejoras, aun se presentan índices inaceptables para una sociedad en desarrollo por tanto, existen razones para seguir trabajando en el desarrollo de alimentos con alto valor nutricional, de fácil producción y preparación, y de bajo costo para satisfacer las necesidades de poblaciones con deficiencias nutricionales y de bajos ingresos. Consecuentemente a la necesidad planteada de buscar nuevas opciones para el uso de la harina de hoja de yuca, y a la generación de productos de alto valor nutricional, y a bajo costo. el presente estudio definió como objetivo general:• Estudiar el proceso técnico para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano.Y como objetivos específicos:• Determinar el proceso más adecuado para el secado de las hojas de yuca.• Definir las condiciones de operación y la línea de proceso de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca.• Determinar los indicadores técnico-económicos de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano.En este capítulo se describen los aspectos relacionados con la cosecha de yuca forrajera, es decir la utilizada para obtener como materia prima principal follaje de yuca. Se describen las etapas de producción de harina definidas y las condiciones que deben tenerse en cuenta para la obtención de una harina de hoja de yuca para consumo humano de excelente calidad.La cosecha de lámina foliar de yuca se puede realizar de diferentes formas. De manera industrial existen formas eficientes, como la cosechadora de discos que se observa en las Figuras 13 y 14, este tipo de cosechadora se gradúa para realizar el corte a 40 cm de altura, sin ocasionar mayores daños a la planta.Figura 13. Cosechadora de discos. Figura 14. Cosecha Mecánica.La cosecha de hojas también se puede realizar de forma manual haciendo el corte de las plantas utilizando guadañas o machetes, en la Figura 15 se observa cómo se realiza el corte conservando la altura de 40 cm (véase Figura 16). Este tipo de corte hace el proceso un poco más lento.Figura 15. Cosecha manual de yuca forrajera. Figura 16. Cultivo de yuca forrajera.En la poscosecha de las hojas se inicia el proceso de obtención de la harina que consta de las siguientes etapas: recepción y pesaje de material cosechado, selección y adecuación, pesaje de lámina foliar, lavado y desinfección, picado, secado, molienda-tamizado y empaque.En esta operación se recibe el follaje de yuca tallos y hojas (lámina foliar y pecíolos), y se hace el respectivo pesaje de toda la materia prima, con el fin de determinar los rendimientos del cultivo y cuanto material se produce por un área especifica del mismo.Esta operación se realiza teniendo en cuenta la sanidad del producto. Se eliminan hojas que presenten daños mecánicos (golpes, cortaduras, hojas marchitas), ataque microbiológico, o por insectos, así como el material extraño, es decir, palos, piedras o partículas distintas a la materia prima en cuestión. La adecuación de la materia prima seleccionada consiste en retirar de las hojas los pecíolos y dejar solamente la lámina foliar que es el producto de interés.Esta operación se realiza con el fin de medir la cantidad real de lámina foliar que ingresará al proceso de transformación y así determinar el rendimiento del proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca (lámina foliar).Esta etapa permite obtener un producto limpio y de mejores características microbiológicas. En la etapa de lavado se utiliza agua limpia y preferiblemente se utiliza una solución de hipoclorito de sodio en una concentración de 20 ppm. Es recomendable realizar una desinfección de los equipos de proceso (tinas, picadora y bandejas de secado) utilizando una solución de 50 ppm.Esta operación busca reducir de tamaño las hojas y facilitar el secado dado que el área de transferencia de calor de la materia prima se aumenta. Pero adicionalmente, tiene como objetivo principal la liberación del ácido cianhídrico, la cual ocurre de forma natural cuando se realizan cortes, propiciando así que la linamarasa actúe sobre la linamarina (glucósido cianogénico ligado) que con este tratamiento se convierte en libre.Los equipos que se usan para esta operación son la sertaneja y procesadoras de alimentos en acero inoxidable.El secado es la operación con mayor relevancia dentro del proceso de obtención de harina de hoja de yuca porque es en ella donde se completa la reducción de los contenidos de HCN en el producto final, además ayuda a mejorar la calidad microbiológica del producto final. Esta etapa puede realizarse por dos métodos: solar y secado artificial.Para secar la lámina foliar de yuca utilizando secado solar; el gasto de energía es nulo pero el tiempo de secado es prolongado, lo que no garantiza en todos los casos la calidad del producto final dada la contaminación ambiental.Así el material se dispone sobre bandejas, tal como se realiza para el secado de trozos de yuca, de tal forma que cubra toda la superficie de las bandejas exponiéndolas al sol y al ambiente. Este método de secado condiciona el proceso dado que depende de las condiciones climáticas, favorables para épocas de verano, lo cual implica retrasos en la producción se presentan dificultades con el clima.En el secado artificial, se usa un secador de bandejas de circulación de aire, también llamado secador de anaqueles, de gabinete, o de compartimentos. El material se esparce uniformemente sobre bandejas de metal de 10-100 mm de espesor de lecho. El secado no debe superar los 60 ºC para evitar que se inhiba la acción de la linamarasa sobre los glucósidos cianogénicos.La molienda es la operación que determina el tamaño de las partículas. En esta etapa la materia prima pasa a través del molino que es el equipo usado para obtener la reducción de tamaño requerida. El molino es un equipo usado en diferentes materias primas y existen diversos diseños y tipos del mismo.Dentro de los equipos existentes de molienda se encuentran el molino de aspas, molino de martillos y el molino-tamiz (molino que consta de aspas giratorias y por medio de cizalla con un tamiz realizan la reducción de tamaño), los cuales son muy usados cuando se muelen materiales de no altas durezas como es el caso de las hojas de yuca secas.La harina obtenida es pasada por varios tamices o conjunto de ellos (Ro-tap). El tamizado es una operación básica en la que una mezcla de partículas sólidas de diferentes tamaños se separa en dos o más fracciones, pasándolas por un tamiz. Un tamiz tiene cierto número de aberturas de igual tamaño que actúa como medidor múltiple de aceptación y rechazo, permitiendo que cada fracción obtenida sea más uniforme en tamaño que la mezcla original. Para el tamizado se utilizan una serie de tamices de prueba que tienen aberturas en una sucesión fija, la serie más usada es Tyler.Existen equipos de molienda que tienen acoplado el sistema de tamizado, lo cual permite realizar estas dos operaciones en una misma etapa de proceso.La harina es empacada en bolsas de papel multipliego o bolsa de polipropileno; que son empaques de resistencia y confieren conservación al producto final.El almacenamiento de la harina de hojas de yuca se realiza en forma de arrumes sobre estibas de madera, en bodega, permitiendo el acceso rápido y la limpieza; protegida de la humedad, de luz directa y de contaminación por cualquier tipo de insectos.Inicialmente se realizó una revisión y evaluación de la información técnica suministrada en libros, artículos y revistas relacionados con el tema, donde se encontró la posibilidad de procesar hojas de yuca para consumo humano utilizando la lámina foliar.Durante el desarrollo del proyecto se llevó un orden lógico y secuencial de cada una de las etapas de ejecución descritas en este capitulo; en la primera etapa se exponen las actividades necesarias para la elaboración de la harina de hojas de yuca, los equipos utilizados y las condiciones bajo las cuales fue posible la realización de los ensayos experimentales; en la segunda etapa, del producto obtenido se evaluó la digestibilidad de la proteína, materia seca y energía para determinar su potencial nutricional al ser incluido en la dieta, finalmente, se describen las actividades llevadas a cabo para determinar los indicadores técnicos y económicos de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca. La materia prima utilizada para el desarrollo de los ensayos, fue cosechada de los cultivares de CLAYUCA, ubicados en los lotes del CIAT y en los cultivares de Villarrica (Cauca).En este estudio fueron utilizadas las variedades de yuca HMC- El diseño experimental utilizado para cada uno de los análisis comprende los siguientes métodos (cada uno con un nivel de significancia del 95%):• Análisis de HCN: diseño experimental factorial de 2 2 .• Etapa de secado: Completamente aleatorio con tres repeticiones.• Etapa de picado: Completamente aleatorio con tres repeticiones.Con ayuda de la herramienta estadística SPSS 9.0 (nivel de confianza de 95%) fueron seleccionadas algunas de las operaciones más adecuadas en la determinación de la línea de proceso óptima para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano.Inicialmente se realizó una revisión y evaluación de la información técnica suministrada en libros, artículos y revistas relacionados con el tema, donde se encontró la posibilidad de procesar hojas de yuca para consumo humano utilizando la lámina foliar. Para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca, se siguieron diferentes pasos para establecer una línea de proceso con operaciones definidas y obtener un producto en buenas condiciones de salubridad, calidad y funcionalidad.Para determinar la línea de proceso, se utilizaron las plantas de las variedades MCOL 2436 y HMC 1 para realizar los ensayos que permitieron establecer el orden y las condiciones de operación del proceso, seguido a esto se utilizó la variedad de yuca MCOL 1505 para aplicar la línea de proceso encontrada y observar las diferencias en el contenido de proteína, extracto etéreo y cenizas (Wendee -Van Soest), como también la eliminación de HCN (ESSER, modificado para hojas) durante todo el proceso, para las plantas cosechadas a los tres y cinco meses de edad.estandarizó la técnica de análisis para la determinación de HCN en hojas de yuca, ya que el método ESSER, el cual es aplicado particularmente a productos derivados de las raíces de yuca, cuando se utiliza en hojas de yuca no permite que la lectura en el espectrofotómetro sea clara, debido a que las hojas presentan un alto contenido de clorofila la cual tiñe la muestra; por lo tanto fue necesario evaluar el uso de NaCl y carbón activado que permitieran realizar una mejor extracción del HCN para el análisis. Para este ensayo se utilizó la variedad de hojas de yuca disponible en el momento MCOL 2436 de seis meses de edad. Esto se realizó para estandarizar la técnica y así poder utilizarla en la determinación del contenido de HCN en hojas de yuca.Se seleccionaron tres variedades de yuca HMC 1, MCOL 1505 y MCOL2436, de acuerdo a los siguientes criterios:• Disponibilidad: Teniendo en cuenta la ubicación del proyecto. Las variedades son adaptadas a la zona 4 valles interandinos y fueron sembradas al inicio del proyecto, en las poblaciones de Villarrica (Cauca) y en el campo experimental de CIAT, Palmira (Valle del cauca).• Tipo de variedad: Las tres variedades seleccionadas fueron variedades dulces con contenidos de HCN por debajo de 180 ppm en base seca (en raíces) (Domínguez, 1979).Dadas las condiciones de crecimiento de los cultivos de CLAYUCA en el CIAT, se estimó que el contenido de HCN en las hojas de yuca tendría valores similares al de las raíces.en un área de 50 m2, a 1 x 20 m, es decir 1 m de separación entre caballones y 20 cm entre plantas, en este espacio se tienen 250 plantas.Para la variedad MCOL 1505 el primer corte se realizó, de forma manual a una altura de 40 cm aproximadamente para garantizar el rebrote de la planta para la cosecha a los cinco meses. El follaje (tallos y hojas) se pesó para determinar la cantidad de follaje que se obtiene por cosecha y luego determinar el porcentaje que de éste corresponde a lámina foliar.Se seleccionaron las hojas que presentaban el color verde característico de la hoja de yuca y se descartaron aquellas que presentaban daños y colores diferentes, es decir lámina foliar amarilla, café o con manchas. Para la adecuación de la materia prima se procedió a retirar tanto tallos como pecíolos.A la lámina foliar obtenida de la variedad MCOL 1505 a los tres y cinco meses de edad se le realizó análisis del contenido de proteína (Método Kjendalh) y contenido de HCN (ESSER, modificado para hojas).Dado que la contaminación puede ocurrir por el manejo inadecuado del producto en cualquier fase de la cadena ya sea en la etapa productiva, poscosecha, transformación, comercialización o en su consumo, la lámina foliar fue lavada y desinfectada con el fin de que el producto final tuviera características microbiológicas adecuadas y aceptables de un producto para consumo humano. Para ello se usaron como parámetros los requerimientos de calidad que exige la norma NTC 267 para la harina de trigo ya que no existe una norma para harina de hojas de yuca, los análisis se realizaron en el laboratorio microbiológico Microlab.Un lavado adecuado permite obtener un producto aséptico y una reducción de la población microbiana presente. En esta etapa de proceso se evaluó el uso o no de desinfectante para determinar el efecto de éste sobre la calidad microbiológica del producto obtenido con la variedad HMC 1 de tres meses de edad.En la etapa de lavado y desinfección los equipos de proceso utilizados (picadora, recipientes plásticos y bandejas de secado) fueron lavados con jabón y para la desinfección se utilizó una solución de hipoclorito de sodio a una concentración de 50 ppm.Con base en los resultados obtenidos, los ensayos para la variedad MCOL 1505 a tres y cinco meses de edad se realizaron utilizando limpieza con agua y desinfección con hipoclorito de sodio.En esta etapa se tuvo como finalidad reducir el tamaño de las hojas para facilitar su secado y eliminar el ácido cianhídrico. Se utilizó un diseño estadístico completamente aleatorio con tres repeticiones y un factor con tres niveles. En esta etapa se evaluó la técnica de picado por medio de la utilización de tres métodos: para el primer ensayo se empleó una picadora mecánica marca Nogueira, modelo Sertaneja Master, diseñada para picar palma, yuca, banano, y en general diversos tipos de forrajes, tiene una capacidad de 1.5 t / hora. Está formada por una tolva de alimentación acoplada a un cilindro ubicado horizontalmente, provisto de cuchillas de corte, las cuales rotan por medio de un motor de 2500 rpm y potencia de 9 HP. Para el segundo ensayo se utilizó un procesador de alimentos marca ESSEN, equipo muy utilizado en cocinas industriales, este equipo funciona con un motor de 5 HP y con un disco de picado. Para el tercer ensayo se utilizó el mismo equipo con un disco de rallado.Para estos ensayos se utilizó la variedad de yuca MCOL 2436 de seis meses de edad.Primero se determinó el contenido de HCN de las hojas frescas y posteriormente se realizó el tratamiento de picado utilizando la sertaneja y la procesadora de alimentos usando el disco de picado y el disco de rallado (véase Figura 17). Inmediatamente después del picado, las muestras fueron llevadas a análisis de contenido de HCN con el método ESSER.Figura 17. Pruebas de Picado.De acuerdo a los resultados obtenidos se seleccionó el procedimiento más adecuado para esta operación, el cual fue aplicado a la variedad MCOL 1505 a los tres y cinco meses de edad.La etapa de secado se dividió en dos ensayos, el primero consistió en evaluar el uso de un secador de circulación de aire caliente a diferentes temperaturas y determinar la mejor condición utilizando como variable de referencia el contenido de HCN. El segundo ensayo comparó el resultado obtenido en el primer ensayo con el uso de secado solar, teniendo en cuenta como indicador el análisis microbiológico de las muestras secas.La variedad de yuca MCOL 2436 de seis meses de edad se utilizó para comparar el secado usando un secador de circulación de aire caliente marca DESPATH modelo VF23, a 40 ºC, 50 ºC y 60 ºC (véase Figura 18). En este secador, las hojas de yuca fueron esparcidas en bandejas con un espesor de 2 cm y un área transversal de 0,48 m2, se secaron durante un período de tiempo de 18-20 horas, el tiempo se determinó según la información del laboratorio de calidad de yuca del CIAT. La comparación de la eficiencia de las tres temperaturas se logró evaluando la eliminación de HCN (Método ESSER) en el secado.Figura 18. Pruebas de secado con el secador de circulación de aire caliente.La variedad HMC 1 de tres meses de edad se utilizó en un nuevo ensayo para la comparación del secado solar con el mejor resultado del ensayo anterior. El secado solar se realizó en el patio de secado de raíces de yuca de CLAYUCA utilizando bandejas inclinadas, sobre las cuales se colocaba en promedio 2 kg de lámina foliar por bandeja, con un espesor de lecho de 5 cm y un área de 1,7 m2. Las bandejas permanecieron expuestas al sol y fueron cubiertas con otra bandeja para protegerlas de contaminación ambiental y evitar que fueran arrastradas por el aire. El tiempo de secado fue aproximadamente de 24 horas o más, dependiendo de las condiciones del clima. El secado con un secador de circulación de aire caliente de las hojas de la variedad HMC 1 de tres meses de edad se realizó de acuerdo a las condiciones encontradas en el primer ensayo y de esta forma establecer una comparación entre los dos tipos de secado teniendo como referencia los resultados de los análisis microbiológicos (métodos NTC 4519, ISO 7251, NTC 7698, NTC 7698, NTC 4574, NTC 4779, NTC 4679) del laboratorio Microlab (véase Figura 19).Figura 19. Pruebas de secado con el secador de circulación de aire caliente vs. el secado solar.De acuerdo a los resultados obtenidos se seleccionó el procedimiento más adecuado para esta operación, el cual fue aplicado a la variedad MCOL 1505 a los tres y cinco meses de edad.Con el objetivo de determinar una granulometría adecuada y comparable de una harina para consumo humano similar a la harina de trigo cuya granulometría, según la norma NTC 267, exige que el 98% de las partículas pasen la malla 212 µm. Para este ensayo se utilizaron las hojas secas de la variedad HMC 1 de cinco meses que se molieron utilizando el molino de aspas, el molino de martillos y el molinotamiz.El molino de aspas marca Thomas-Wiley, modelo 4 poseía una criba de 0,5 mm. El molino de martillos construido en la planta de procesos de CLAYUCA, tenía placas de acero templado fijas u oscilantes montadas en un eje de rotación las cuales giraban a velocidades variables y poseía una criba de 0,8 mm. El molino-tamiz construido en la planta de proceso de CLAYUCA, consistía en un cilindro con un eje central con paletas el cual rotaba a velocidad variable y poseía una criba de 177 µm.Posterior a la molienda, se realizó el tamizado de las harinas obtenidas por medio de un equipo Ro-tap, el cual constaba de un juego de tamices marca Tyler de varios micrajes.  3.3.9 Empaque. Para el empaque se utilizó la técnica empleada por CLAYUCA para almacenar harina de raíces de yuca y de batata, por lo tanto se usaron bolsas de polipropileno.Aplicación en otros trabajos. La harina de hojas de yuca de la variedad MCOL 1505 de cinco meses de edad se utilizó como materia prima para la elaboración de un producto precocido a partir de una mezcla de harinas, de cultivos fortificados, de fríjol, arroz, maíz, batata y yuca. Este producto fue elaborado usando dos tecnologías de precocción: extrusión y secado en rodillos. La formulación de la harina precocida fue arroz 30%, maíz 15%, fríjol 25%, yuca 17,5%, batata 10% y hojas de yuca 2,5%. Estos productos fueron elaborados en el marco del proyecto de grado de Ingeniería química de la Universidad del Valle: \"Estudio de la Obtención de un Alimento Precocido a partir de Cultivos Biofortificados\" realizado por los estudiantes Angélica Combariza y David Sánchez. En el Anexo A se pueden observar algunos de los resultados de esta aplicación.3.4.1 Diseño experimental. Para la prueba de digestibilidad se utilizó un modelo de parcelas divididas con variables repetidas, se conformaron tres bloques compuestos por tres ratones cada uno, a los cuales les fue asignada una dieta de manera aleatoria. Dado que se tomaron mediciones de las variables repetidas en el tiempo, el modelo de análisis es el siguiente:En donde, Y ijk : Medición de la variable de respuesta tomada en el bloque i, tratamiento j y día k ß i : Efecto del bloque i T j : Efecto del tratamiento j (ßT) ij : Efecto de interacción entre el bloque i y el tratamiento j d k : Efecto del día k e ijk : Error experimental, cuya distribución es normal con promedio cero y varianza s².En donde Bloque * Tratamiento es el término de error adecuado para realizar la prueba F para Tratamientos, mientras que en las pruebas F para día y la interacción Tratamiento * Día se utilizó el error experimental.Las hipótesis de diseño experimental fueron:H 0 : No hay diferencias entre promedios de tratamientos.H 0 : No hay diferencia entre promedios de días.H 0 : La diferencia entre promedios de tratamientos no depende del día (interacción).Todas las hipótesis son válidas. En la interpretación se debe tener en cuenta que tiene prioridad la interacción, pero como esta puede no ser significativa en todas las variables, se procede a interpretar sus componentes (tratamientos y días).Con el fin de determinar la absorción de nutrientes de la harina de hojas de yuca de la variedad MCOL 1505 de tres meses de edad y compararla con la digestibilidad de una dieta de buena calidad, se realizó un análisis estadístico mediante la utilización del paquete estadístico SPSS versión 9.0.Para esta prueba se elaboraron tres dietas: una dieta control sólo con caseína (como fuente proteica), una dieta con caseína y con inclusión de 10% de harina de hojas de yuca y una dieta con caseína y con inclusión de 20% de harina de hojas de yuca.En ambas dietas se utilizó la variedad MCOL 1505 de tres meses de edad.Todas las dietas fueron formuladas isoproteicas e isoenergéticas. La dieta control se prepara con 12% de proteína (caseína), 10% de azúcar, 6% de aceite, 60% de almidón de maíz, 6% de fibra y 6% de premezcla de vitaminas y minerales. En el caso de las dietas con inclusión de harina de hojas de yuca se reemplazó la proteína (caseína) por la harina de hojas de yuca en porcentajes de 10 y 20%.Las pruebas de digestibilidad se realizaron con ratas raza Wistar, y se distribuyeron en jaulas metabólicas, equipos que permitían hacer la recolección de excretas por medio de colectores especiales y tenían recipientes para suministrar el alimento y agua, de forma independiente, y a su vez controlar la cantidad consumida.Para la realización de las pruebas se utilizó un período experimental de 15 días, con 7 días de acostumbramiento a las dietas y 8 días de toma de muestras. Durante el ensayo se evaluaron los tres tratamientos (control, inclusión 10% de harina de hojas de yuca e inclusión 20% de harina de hojas de yuca) con tres repeticiones por tratamiento. Se realizaron análisis de digestibilidad de proteína, materia seca y energía a las dietas suministradas, se utilizo la técnica del Laboratorio de Nutrición Animal de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia sede Palmira. El período de acostumbramiento se realiza con el objeto de que los animales limpien su tracto digestivo y se acostumbren al tratamiento o dieta; en estos días el animal recibe el alimento pero no se tiene en cuenta pesos de sobrantes ni tampoco las excretas. A partir del octavo día se empiezan a tomar las excretas de cada rata.Las excretas colectadas se limpiaron para evitar la presencia de pelos y partículas de alimento en ellas, en segundo lugar se pesaron y se registró el dato de cada día, las excretas se guardaban en un congelador en frascos que estaban debidamente marcados con el número de la rata y la dieta que esta se encontraba consumiendo. Al final de la toma de muestras cada frasco de excretas se liofilizó para obtener las muestras secas y sólidas y así efectuar los análisis de materia seca, proteína y energía.Para determinar la digestibilidad aparente se utilizó como base el protocolo utilizado por la formula que se utiliza para hacer el cálculo de la digestibilidad es la siguiente:Se calcularon los costos de producción utilizando la línea de proceso definida en las pruebas anteriores y teniendo como base un modelo utilizado por CLAYUCA -CIAT manejado para la producción de harina de raíces de yuca por la Ingeniera Sonia Gallego de manejo poscosecha de CLAYUCA 5 .En la Tabla 5 se registran los promedios de los contenidos de HCN total y libre en hojas frescas de la variedad de yuca MCOL 2436, con las cuatro técnicas de análisis de determinación de HCN usadas: sin NaCl (2,5%) y sin carbón activado, sin NaCl (2,5%) y con carbón activado, con NaCl (2,5%) y sin carbón activado, con NaCl (2,5%) y con carbón activado.Tabla 5. Comparación de técnicas de análisis utilizadas para la determinación de HCN en hojas de yuca. La selección de la técnica más adecuada se realizó con base en los más altos contenidos de HCN obtenidos, es decir en donde se obtuvo una mayor extracción de este compuesto, dado que según Rosero, 2002, en las variedades dulces de yuca los contenidos de HCN en raíces son bajos pero pueden presentar valores altos en hojas. Así, las mejores técnicas de análisis fueron las que no utilizaron carbón activado e incluyeron o no NaCl (2,5%); siendo la técnica con la adición de NaCl (2,5%) y sin la adición de carbón activado la que presentó la mejor extracción de HCN. Basado en los análisis estadísticos con el método de Duncan se observaron diferencias significativas al comparar los métodos, como se observa en la Figura 21, donde el mejor resultado se presenta con el uso de NaCl (2,5%) y sin el uso de carbón activado, por lo tanto se seleccionó esta técnica de análisis para la determinación de HCN total en hojas de yuca. Se omite el resultado del análisis de HCN libre, dado que no es relevante en el proceso por su facilidad para volatilizarse.4.2.1 Tiempo de cosecha. Las variedades de prueba MCOL 2436 y HMC 1 fueron cosechadas a seis meses la primera variedad y a tres y cinco meses de edad la segunda, dado que, según Rosero, 2002, las plantas de yuca contienen una mayor proporción de nutrientes en las hojas durante los primeros seis meses de edad. Por otro lado, la variedad MCOL 1505 fue cosechada a tres y cinco meses de edad y se obtuvo un rendimiento de 16.000 kg/ha.La variedad MCOL 1505 fue evaluada en contenidos de HCN total y libre iniciales, para determinar la diferencia que presentan con el producto terminado. En la Tabla 6 figuran los resultados de los análisis realizados por el laboratorio de calidad de yuca para el HCN en el CIAT. Tabla 6. Contenido de proteína y HCN libre y total de la variedad MCOL 1505 con edad de tres y cinco meses. Para esta variedad se presenta un incremento del contenido de HCN total y libre al aumentar la edad de cosecha. Sin embargo, los contenidos de HCN en las hojas de yuca dependen del tipo de variedad y de las condiciones edafoclimáticas como fertilidad, manejo del suelo, disponibilidad de agua y clima, entre otras; por lo cual diferentes variedades cosechadas en una misma época pueden presentar diferentes contenidos de éste y una misma variedad cosechada a diferentes tiempos puede presentar este tipo de variaciones (Rosero, 2002).En la Tabla 7 se presentan los resultados obtenidos del análisis microbiológico de la variedad HMC 1 a la edad de tres meses que se utilizó para evaluar la efectividad del secado solar frente a la utilización de un secador de circulación de aire caliente.Tabla 7. Análisis microbiológico -lavado con agua y desinfección con hipoclorito-secado solar. En la Tabla 8 se muestran los resultados del análisis realizado para una muestra de hojas de la misma variedad, las cuales fueron lavadas y desinfectadas y que se les realizó un secado utilizando el secador de circulación de aire caliente. Se observó que en las hojas secas no hubo presencia de Eschericha coli y tampoco de hongos, demostrando que la desinfección con hipoclorito de sodio favorece la disminución de la población de los diferentes grupos de microorganismos al ser complementada con un método de secado adecuado para el proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca. Así se determinó que, contrario al secado solar, el uso del secador de circulación de aire caliente permite una mejor calidad microbiológica al cumplir con los parámetros de calidad exigidos por la norma NTC 267 para un producto de consumo humano.Tabla 8. Análisis microbiológico -lavado con agua y desinfección con hipoclorito-secador de circulación de aire caliente. Adicionalmente, en todos los ensayos, los equipos y materiales se lavaron y desinfectaron con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio de 50 ppm.4.2.4 Técnica de picado. En la Tabla 9 se muestran los promedios de los contenidos de HCN total y libre de la lámina foliar de la variedad de yuca MCOL 2436 a seis meses de edad, la cual fue utilizada para evaluar la técnica de picado más eficiente para la eliminación de HCN. Se utilizó la sertaneja y la procesadora de alimentos con el disco de picado y con el disco de rallado.Tabla 9. Comparación de la eliminación del contenido de HCN en lámina foliar de yuca utilizando diferentes equipos de picado. La técnica de picado más efectiva para la eliminación de HCN en la lámina foliar fue en la procesadora de alimentos con el disco de rallado; esto se debe a que hubo un mayor rompimiento de tejidos de las hojas, lo que favoreció la acción de la enzima linamarasa PROMEDIO HCN libre sección transversal de 1,7 m2), permite una mayor eliminación de HCN, ya que las hojas están expuestas al calor por mayor tiempo, favoreciendo así la reacción hidrolítica de la linamarasa para la transformación del glucósido cianogénico ligado en libre, ya que según Cooke y Maduagwu, 1978, los procesos de secamiento lentos a baja temperatura remueven el cianuro residual de manera más efectiva que los rápidos, sin embargo, en el caso de las hojas de yuca, a pesar de ser éste un buen método, microbiológicamente no resultaba conveniente para el producto final. 4.2.6 Técnica de molienda-tamizado. En la Tabla 11 se registran los resultados obtenidos del análisis granulométrico realizado a las harinas de lámina foliar de yuca obtenidas luego de utilizar los tres equipos de molienda: molino de aspas (criba 0,5 mm), molino de martillos (criba 0,8 mm) y molino-tamiz (criba 177 µm).Los resultados muestran que de los tres molinos utilizados sólo el molino-tamiz (criba 177µm) permitió obtener una granulometría de acuerdo al parámetro que exige la norma NTC 267, esto es, que el 98% de las partículas pasen la malla de 212 µm, es decir el tamiz No. 70. Por ello se seleccionó este molino para la etapa de molienda-tamizado del proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca en la determinación de la línea de proceso.Este molino permite obtener dos tipos productos: una harina de partículas gruesas y una harina de partículas finas, en cantidades porcentuales de 53% y 47% respectivamente, lo que representa una diversificación en sus usos.Así, de las harinas obtenidas utilizando este equipo, la harina fina presentó una granulometría donde el 94,3% pasó el tamiz No. 70, valor que, aunque difiere en un 3,8% del parámetro exigido por la norma, aún es aceptable para una harina de tipo comercial; la harina gruesa, por su parte, presentó una granulometría donde el 85% no pasó el tamiz No.Tabla 11. Granulometría de las harinas de lámina foliar de yuca utilizando tres tipos de molinos.No Lo anterior permitió identificar el comportamiento de las partículas en la etapa de molienda-tamizado mediante el uso de cada uno de los equipos de molienda.Figura 26. Porcentajes de acuerdo a la granulometría obtenida con el molino de aspas y comparadas con la exigida por la norma NTC 267 para harina trigo. En la Figura 30 se observa la línea de proceso determinada con todas las especificaciones encontradas para cada operación durante el desarrollo de los ensayos.Figura 30. Línea de Proceso.Esta línea de proceso fue aplicada a la variedad de yuca MCOL 1505, cosechada a los tres y cinco meses de edad, para la obtención de harina de hojas.En la Tabla 12 se observan los resultados del análisis proximal realizado a las harinas de hojas de yuca obtenidas de la variedad MCOL 1505 a tres y cinco meses de edad, respectivamente.Tabla 12. Resultados de los análisis proximales de harina de hoja de yuca. Como se observa, la edad de cosecha influye sobre los contenidos de proteína y fibra cruda de la harina obtenida a partir de lámina foliar de yuca. Así, los contenidos de fibra y proteína aumentaron al aumentar la edad de cosecha del follaje de yuca. Los contenidos de cenizas son altos; explicables por la presencia en la lámina foliar de yuca de minerales tales como hierro, zinc, potasio, fósforo y calcio, entre otros. Se destaca el alto contenido de extracto etéreo que presentaron las harinas obtenidas. Según Buitrago, 1990, las hojas de yuca secas presentan un contenido de proteína de 22,7%, cenizas 10,9%, grasa 6,8%, fibra 11% con humedad base de 7,8%, valores que están muy cercanos a los obtenidos en la harina de hojas de yuca con la variedad MCOL 1505.En las Figuras 31 y 32 se observa que aplicando la línea de proceso determinada, se logró que los contenidos de HCN se diminuyeran en gran proporción. En la Figura 31 el porcentaje de eliminación de HCN total entre la lamina foliar fresca y la harina obtenida es del 92,6%, lo cual indica que la línea de proceso permite una eficiente disminución del compuesto, favoreciendo de esta forma la calidad del producto final.Figura 31. Eliminación de HCN de la variedad MCOL 1505 de tres meses de edad. Como se observa en la Figura 32, en todas las etapas de proceso se produce una liberación de HCN. Analizando los resultados de los análisis de eliminación de HCN total, se observa que se pierde 11,46% en la etapa de lavado y desinfección, 57,3% en la etapa de rallado, 95% en la etapa de secado y 96% en la etapa de molienda-tamizado. Siendo en la etapa de rallado en donde se elimina el mayor porcentaje de HCN, seguida de la etapa de secado que con relación a esta elimina 88,2% de HCN.Figura 32. Eliminación de HCN de la variedad MCOL 1505 de 5 meses de edad.  La digestibilidad, cuando los niveles de inclusión son del 10%, conserva en los tres casos niveles intermedios que permiten pensar que este nivel de inclusión es adecuado para su incorporación en la elaboración de un producto para consumo humano. De aquí que niveles menores de inclusión en las dietas pueden ofrecer mejores resultados, ya que la digestibilidad será mayor; por el contrario, niveles de inclusión mayores pueden presentar problemas, probablemente por altos contenidos de fibra, lo cual genera deficiencias digestivas del producto final y además disminuyen la digestibilidad del producto. En general, se presentan tendencias similares, en donde en cada día las dietas mantienen su \"status\", es decir, Control > HHY10% > HHY20%. Esto traduce que la interacción dieta x día no es significativa.El porcentaje de digestibilidad de la harina de hojas de yuca como fuente total de proteína, es decir, con inclusión del 100% en la dieta, se calcula con la siguiente fórmula, que sigue el principio de aditividad: Como se observa, si se utilizara la harina de hojas de yuca como fuente total de proteína, el porcentaje de digestibilidad es de 49,67%; por lo tanto, para aumentar este valor es recomendable mezclar con otras fuentes de proteína animal o vegetal para mejorar las cantidades del aminoácido limitante y complementar su valor nutricional.Adicionalmente, en estudios realizados se encontró que la digestibilidad de la proteína de hojas de yuca estaba cercana al 80% en hojas jóvenes y 67% en hojas viejas, sin embargo el porcentaje de utilización es bajo, con 32% en hojas jóvenes y 39% en hojas viejas, aunque esto se podría mejorar si se mezclaran las hojas con alimentos ricos en metionina, que en este caso es el aminoácido limitante (Lancaster y Brooks, 1983).Otra razón por la cual el valor de digestibilidad se puede presentar así, es por que cuando se calcula el valor de proteína cruda pueden ir incluidas sustancias nitrogenadas no proteicas que no significan mucho para la alimentación y por lo tanto disminuyen el porcentaje de digestibilidad 6 .Para la determinación de los indicadores técnico-económicos de la producción de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano, se tuvieron en cuenta los aspectos técnicos relevantes del proceso y los costos de los equipos necesarios para que este proceso pudiera ser implementado por un productor de yuca forrajera que desee obtener harina de hoja de yuca para consumo humano, siendo esta una nueva opción de mercado para su agroindustria.4.6.1 Evaluación de los aspectos técnicos de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano. Las etapas del proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca son los definidos en la línea de proceso determinada (véase, Figura 36).Figura 36. Línea de proceso para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano.4.6.2 Evaluación de los indicadores económicos de la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano. Partiendo del hecho de que el proceso estudiado fuera implementado por un productor de yuca forrajera, que vea en este mercado una nueva opción para comercializar el follaje de yuca diferente al sector de alimentación animal, se realizó la determinación de los costos para la producción de yuca forrajera por hectárea y los costos de los equipos en los cuales el productor de yuca tendría que invertir para poder obtener harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano.• Costos de producción de yuca forrajera. En las Tablas 13 y 14 se presentan los costos de producción de yuca forrajera por hectárea y por kilogramo de producto fresco.Tabla 13. Costos de producción de yuca forrajera por hectárea, 100 toneladas de forraje fresco / año. • Costos necesarios para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano. En la tabla 15 se presentan los costos de producción de harina de hojas de yuca a las condiciones evaluadas en este estudio, se debe tener en cuenta que muchos de los valores utilizados corresponden a las cantidades y costos manejados en CIAT por lo tanto los costos reales pueden incrementar el valor del producto.Tabla 15. Información básica de los costos de producción de harina de hojas de yuca.Harina de hojas de yuca INFORMACIÓN BÁSICA (kg)Follaje por tanda (1)  200,0 Producción de harina de hoja de yuca por tanda (2)  22,0 Producción de harina de hoja de yuca por semana (3)  66,0 Producción de harina de hoja de yuca por mes (4)  264,0 Producción de harina de hoja de yuca por año (5)  3168,0 FACTORES DECONVERSION Factor de conversión Follaje de yuca/Lámina foliar 1,80, Factor de conversión Lámina foliar/Harina 5,02 Factor de conversión Follaje/Harina 9,09En la tabla 16 se presentan los costos de los equipos de proceso y en la tabla 24 se registran los costos variables y fijos para el proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca.Tabla 16. Inversión inicial en equipos para producción de harina de hoja de yuca. En la tabla 17 se encuentra la información de los costos referentes a materiales, equipos (con sus respectivos costos por depreciación y mantenimiento), mano de obra y otros insumos requeridos en el proceso.Tabla 17. Información de los costos para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca. unidades/kg de harina Insumos Materia prima (Follaje de yuca) (8)  kg 32,50 9,09 Agua de proceso (9)  m3 1.300 0,012 Energía de proceso (10)  kWh 196 2,15 Empaques Unidad 300 0,01 Desinfectante (Hipoclorito de sodio) (11) m3 1,77 0,0000025 Mano de obra (12)  Hora-Hombre Notas Aclaratorias: (1) Cantidad de follaje fresco de yuca a procesar para obtener lámina foliar con la que posteriormente se obtendrá harina.(2) Equivale a la producción de dos días por tanda.(3) Equivale a la producción de 3 tandas por semana.(4) Equivale a la producción de 4 semanas por mes.(5) Equivale a la producción de 12 meses por año.(6) El costo de los equipos utilizados en el proceso son estimados, ya que son equipos de laboratorio que están sujetos a frecuentes cambios. (7) Los costos de producción se obtienen para las condiciones del CIAT.(8) Precio del follaje fresco de yuca puesto en planta.(9) Precio del agua en zona industrial.(10) Precio de la energía en zona industrial.(11) Hipoclorito de sodio de concentración 5,25% P/V. (12) Se supone un jornal de trabajo de 8 horas diarias a $15.000. (13) El costo del mantenimiento corresponde al 4% anual sobre la inversión inicial de los equipos. (14) La depreciación se calcula sobre 10 años, basado en la inversión inicial de los equipos.Con base en los cálculos realizados a las condiciones planteadas en este estudio el costo de producción por kilogramo de harina de hojas de yuca fue de $3.270. Sin embargo, los costos de este producto se podrían disminuir si se realizan algunos ajustes en el proceso como reducción en la inversión de equipos y utilización de fuentes de energía más económicas. El costo de mano de obra podría ser más barato, y para hacerlo más rentable sería preferible que el proceso lo realizara un productor de yuca forrajera, que no tuviera que pagar por el costo de materia prima si no que la tuviera disponible en cultivos propios.• Para la obtención de harina de hojas de yuca se puede utilizar cualquier variedad, ya sea de yuca dulce o amarga; ya que los procesos de rallado y secado garantizan una eficiente eliminación de HCN, obteniéndose contenidos bajos en el producto final.• Un lavado eficiente de las hojas y su posterior inmersión en piscinas de hipoclorito de sodio a una concentración de 20 ppm y adicionalmente el lavado y desinfección de equipos de proceso con una solución de hipoclorito de sodio a una concentración de 50 ppm permiten obtener una harina de hojas de yuca con calidad microbiológica aceptable.• El tratamiento de rallado de hojas de yuca en comparación con el picado permite una mayor liberación de HCN, dado que con este tratamiento los tejidos de las hojas quedan más expuestas a la acción de la linamarasa sobre los glucósidos cianogénicos.• La temperatura de secado de las hojas de yuca más adecuada es la de 60 °C, niveles superiores inhiben la acción de la enzima sobre los glucósidos cianogénicos. La liberación de HCN se favorece a largos tiempos de secado y temperatura alrededor de 60 °C cuando se utiliza un secador de circulación de aire caliente.• Desde el punto de vista nutricional, el uso de harina de hoja de yuca para consumo humano es recomendable en niveles de inclusión máximo del 10%, ya que presenta digestibilidad mayor que la inclusión del 20%. Así, niveles de inclusión mayores producen niveles de digestibilidad menores y poco favorables para el consumidor.• La inclusión de harina de hojas de yuca hace un buen aporte nutricional en la elaboración de otros alimentos en cuanto a niveles de proteína, vitaminas y minerales como complemento nutricional para hacer de mejor calidad los productos finales.• Bajo las condiciones en las que se elaboró la harina a partir de la lámina foliar de yuca, se encontró que, económicamente, los costos de producción son altos si el producto se dirige a personas de bajos recursos, sin embargo haciendo ajustes en el proceso y produciendo mayores volúmenes estos costos podrían ser menores.• Para garantizar una harina de hoja de yuca para consumo humano que sea competitiva en el mercado es necesario utilizar sistemas de secado artificial e implementar buenas prácticas de manufactura en todo el proceso de obtención; con el objeto de minimizar los riesgos de contaminación y asegurar niveles altos de inocuidad y calidad del producto final.• Realizar estudios comparativos del proceso aplicado a diferentes variedades de yuca.• Realizar estudios que demuestren la interferencia de los cortes del follaje a diferentes tiempos sobre la producción de raíces en la planta.• Evaluar el efecto de las condiciones edafoclimáticas en las de hojas de yuca en el contenido de proteína y HCN a través de diferentes tiempos del cultivo.• Sería importante realizar ensayos con inclusiones iguales o menores a 10% de harina de hoja de yuca en productos diferentes tales como arroz, pan, galletas, fideos que sean consumidos por algún grupo de personas específico, y de esta forma realizarles pruebas de aceptabilidad del producto.• Realizar estudios utilizando otros equipos de secado, preferiblemente más rentables económicamente, de tal forma que sea aplicable a un productor tradicional de yuca.• Dado que el uso de la hoja de yuca se debe a su contenido nutricional, se deben realizar estudios que determinen el efecto de los tratamientos tecnológicos sobre la harina de las hojas de yuca y su composición en proteínas, vitaminas y minerales.• Evaluar económicamente la producción de harina de hojas de yuca a gran escala.• Se recomienda realizar estudios del uso de subproductos de proceso de obtención de harina de hojas de yuca para consumo humano (tallos y pecíolos), en la elaboración de camas para pollos y en dietas para la alimentación animal, dando así un uso eficiente a los residuos del proceso.Evaluación de la incorporación de la harina de hojas de yuca obtenida en la elaboración de una harina precocida a partir de cultivos biofortificados La harina de hojas de yuca obtenida se utilizó como materia prima en el marco de un proyecto de grado de Ingeniería Química de la Universidad del Valle. En este proyecto se utilizó la hoja de yuca en la elaboración de un producto precocido a partir de cultivos biofortificados, utilizando dos técnicas de precocción: secador de rodillos y extrusión. Así, la harina de hojas de yuca se mezcló con harinas de fríjol, arroz, maíz, batata y yuca en la siguiente proporción : harina de arroz (30%), maíz (15%), fríjol (25%), yuca (17,5%), batata (10%) y harina de hojas de yuca (2,5%), en el Cuadro 5 se observa la composición de cada una de las harinas utilizadas y su composición nutricional, como también la del producto final.  La harina fue extruída y secada en rodillos y el producto obtenido fue comparado con productos comerciales como bienestarina, siete granos y soya-plátano. En la figura 1 se observa que el índice de solubilidad en agua (ISA) de la harina precocida elaborada en el secador de rodillos fue similar al ISA obtenido para la harina de bienestarina, lo que indica que el producto presenta características favorables de solubilidad en agua y niveles altos de digestibilidad, ya que la solubilidad es un indicativo de esta.Figura 2. Comparación del índice de absorción del alimento con inclusión de harina de hojas de yuca y otros alimentos comerciales. Adicionalmente, como lo muestra la Figura 2, el índice de absorción de las harinas precocidas elaboradas es mayor al de las harinas comerciales (bienestarina, soya -plátano, siete granos), además se observa que el producto extruído presentó un valor de IAA mayor que la harina elaborada con secador de rodillos. De acuerdo a lo anterior, los más altos resultados representan una mejor capacidad de reconstitución en agua del producto.• Análisis estadístico para la etapa de picado (Diseño Completamente aleatorio con tres repeticiones) Subset for alpha = .05Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 3,000. a.","tokenCount":"16787"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ad369390b97c998402a428753424880","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06421b0f-4b3f-4246-a12c-34d719396f58/retrieve","id":"1652118945"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ce3e78e3-6554-4db0-ae8f-098825b30c68","pagecount":"2","content":"In Tunisia, citrus faces salinity problems especially in coastal areas where several aquifers are reported to be affected by seawater intrusion. Citrus orchards are endangered by citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and consequently Tunisian growers are now replacing sour orange, the commonly used rootstock sensitive to this disease, by tolerant rootstocks. This work aims to study the response to saline water irrigation of two old years trees of Citrus clementina var. Hernandina and Citrus sinensis var. Washington Navel grafted on five CTV tolerant rootstocks (Citrange C35, Citrange Carrizo, Citrumelo Swingle 4475, Volkamer Lemon and Cleopatra Mandarin) and on sour orange as control, through symptomatic observations and morphological analysis. The experiment was performed under field conditions in a sandy loamy non saline soil at the experimental station of the INRGREF situated at the Cap Bon peninsula in Tunisia. Trees were irrigated twice a week according to citrus water requirements based on Penman Monteith equation and the electrical conductivity of irrigation water was about 4 dS/m. For the two citrus species, the intensity and frequency of chlorosis symptoms appeared after 6 months of saline water irrigation to assess the sensitivity of combinations grafted on different tolerant rootstocks were measured. The tree canopy volume estimated with hemispherical photography treated with CANY-EYE software showed that the greatest canopy was with Volkamer Lemon, followed by Cleopatra mandarin and Sour orange. The same trend was observed in relation to growth rate diameter, plant height and pruning wood biomass. Moreover, Washington navel orange showed more tolerance to chlorosis than Hernadina clementine. Differences between citrus combinations were more pronounced with Hernadina than with Washington Navel.viral infections occurring in the infected areas, either through molecular tests based on (1) reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with multiple molecular markers (MMM), (2) single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis of the coat protein (CP) gene, or (3) by biological indexing on indicator woody plants. In the present study, CTV isolates recovered from Lattakia, Jableh and Tartous (the Syrian coastal region) during 2017 were graft inoculated onto different indicator plants (Citrus aurantifolia, C. aurantium cv Madam vinous and C. paradise cv Duncan). Each isolate was grafted in three replications and the new shoots inspected for foliar symptoms and growth alterations, including stem pitting. The presence of CTV was confirmed by a TaqMan-based quantitative real-time RT-PCR (qPCR) for broad spectrum detection. Furthermore, to differentiate CTV genotypes, a one-step multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay was carried out using TaqMan probes and primers that can distinguish T3 and VT (virulent genotype) from T30 (mild genotype). Results showed different symptoms on indicator plants, particularly on leaves such as leaf cupping, yellowing and stunting. However, even up to one year, no severe stem pitting symptoms were observed. Molecular tests confirmed the occurrence of VT-like genotypes associated with several field infections. The VT-genotypes are generally associated with severe field symptoms in other citrus growing areas, as also confirmed by the development of severe stunting and yellowing detected in our bioassay on Madame Vinous and Duncan grapefruit. It is therefore important to monitor and prevent the further spread of the isolates harboring the VTgenotypes, which under different management conditions and in presence of different scion/rootstock combinations may cause severe damage to the citrus crops. In Tunisia, faba bean (Vicia faba) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum) are considered as strategic crops because of their economic and social relevance and significant direct contribution towards the national food balance. However, production levels of these crops remain quite low which is often attributed to abiotic and biotic stresses that are prevailing in the major growing areas. Viruses causing yellowing and stunting symptoms represent one of the major constraints that reduce the genetic potential of most cultivated species and varieties. To characterize these viruses in Tunisia, field surveys were conducted in five main regions (Béja, Bizerte, Cap-Bon, Jendouba and Kef) during 2018 and 2019 growing seasons. A total of 389 faba bean and 182 chickpea samples with yellowing and stunting symptoms were collected and tested by tissue blot immunoassay","tokenCount":"660"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"95136997deb50c180efe08208a134d11","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e6240b1e-d3b6-41e3-aebf-412cff931f36/retrieve","id":"2142712902"},"keywords":["8 .,, ---larjlllfannlag-llld~ol--1...","---\" \" \" \" ' -. . ... liS 847434 ® Dalaofpt-ol\"\"\"\"\"\"\"'\"' 0710.87 -87141 dancowllhRulolllllll EPC(IsauoolalllllllpleonlytDan-'1.","-h","~","l CE1VS CDRPORAnON"],"sieverID":"76573314-bdb0-4ccc-b483-9fbcf9b3b410","pagecount":"151","content":"Appllcotlon nurnbdr-8AG9Zt7.1 ® Detaatmlng te.UA& ® Prlarllr 24.12.114 us l8lill24 ®1m. a. e 12 N 15/oo @ Appllc:ant BJLIU.YANDCOIII'IIINY® ---' 1 -ond-loramplllylng,delocllng,lllid/or-.g-ocldoeq\" -llllnaeold -A purlftad a a u -enzyma 1s -a.at has norManle daJ•geolla a.atlilablllty 10 tho enzymo.--PrafandJiy tho enzymals -lrom  ® The prasent lnvention 1s dired8d to a procesa tor amplifylng 81 1eas1 0118 specllic nuclelc add sequence conlalued In a nuclelc add or a mbdulu ol nuclelc aclds wheraln eadi nuclelc add consisls ol two aap¡uala camplemenlai y 8lrands, of aquel or unequallenglh whlch procesa comprtsas:(a) treallng eadi o1 the two strands ol eadi different apecillc nuc1e1c add sequance baing amplified wlth a primer under condilions liiiCh thal for eadi different sequence belng BJnplilied an -ISion product of eadi J)llmer ls aynlheslzed whlch ls ~ to a nuclalc add s1rand wheraln aaid primera are seladed ao 88 to be IIUbstantlally ~ to the dllferent strands ol \"\"\"\" specllic sequence liiiCh thal the -• • procluCI Sfiilheslzed lrorn 0118 po1mer when 11 ls aap¡ualed lrorn 1ts cornplement, serws 88 a lemplala tor synthesls o1 an -ISioii product ol the olher primer (b) seperating the po1mer -ISion product from the l8mpl8las on whlch they wwe synthaslzed to produce slngle-siJanded malecules; and(e) trea11ng the alngl-.mad rnolacules geuetaled lrorn 8lap (b) wlth the pr1mera of 8lap (a) under condilions liiiCh thal a J)llmer -ISioii product ls syn1heslzed using eadi of the singla strands produoed In alap (b) as a lemplala--(UIQ---® PniC88a ror ampllfylng and c1e1ac11n0 nuctelc acld aequences.® The present lrMintlon provldea a procesa for delecting 1he rx-108 or absaiiC8 of al leas! one speciflc nuc1e1c acld saquenc:e In a 118111ple or dlsllngulshlng _ , two dlfferent nuclelc acld saquences In sald 118111ple -each nuclelc acld saquenc:e to be del8d8d cons1sts of two separa18 strands whoch procesa comprfses ampfofytng the speciflc sequence or sequances (11 present) by (a) lr8ating the 118111ple wilh 0118 ollgonucleolida primer lor each of 1he two strands of each dJflaren1 speciflc nuclelc acld sequence belng delected under hybridlzlng condltions such thallor each strand of each dJflaren1 sequence belng del8d8d an extanslon product of each primer ls syntheslzad whk:h ls complemenfaly to each nuclelc acld 8lnlnd -..In sald po1menl \"\"' selectad so as to be subslantially complemenlal y to each 8lnlnd of each speciflc sequence 8UCh lhal the exteuslon product syn~ from 0118 prtmer when ft ls sepstaled from fts complemenl, serws as a templa1a lor synthesls of an extenslou product of the other (30) Pr1ority\" 25.02.1986 us 833368 22.08.1986   @tfl lll II!J63(1988)  7~9:fJ~~S:fJ97*~~7ffl~-f~:;r. 7-f7:;r. :;r. HoweD (54] aDNED CAUUPLOWI!R MOS.UC VIRUS DNA AS A PLANl' VEIUa.E [75] lavador Stepllcn 1L Hnell, Del Mar Cllú. [73] Asslpee: Tilo Reseals oflllo l1DiftniiJ ol CaJJfaraJa, llertdey Colú (21] AppL No. 1.221  PiJed. 243,330 Mar 13,1981 (51] (Sl] (SS] (56] IDt. a.  210-212 (1977). Ma¡het et oL, VlDaJosy wL 80, pp. 3&-37S (1977). HoweiJ el ol., SclcDce wJ. 208, pp. 126S-1267 (11111. 13, 1980). (11] (45] 4,407,956 Od.4, 1983 Prltrrtu7~ E. Tueaboltz AltDmq, A&arl.  (7S) \" ' --Dmd S. E. a.eaa. Foster 01)' Cald' (73) AalgDee: Smq¡me TCII Logia Olq¡widloL, Palo Alto, Cald' ( 21) Appl. No. 618,388 [22] FiJed.(51) 1m. a. ErUdl, OakJand -Anlbolm, Woadland Hdls; GJeau T (73] 1 1 [21] (ll][60](51][52][58) [56] Alllpee-NOIICe:AppL No.FiJed.  Human MIIJOF HuiOoompoi¡Dillly Complex Geue OC.:lbeta\" PnJc. Nlll Acad. Sea. USA 81 5199 (1984) Oklda e1 al, \"'eDe OrpDizalioD ofDC lUid DX Subre-of lhe H!llllllll ~ HISI\"\"'\"\"P\"'lrillty Oomplc:J\" PnJc. NatL Acad. Scl USA 82. 3410 (1985).Salser \"'OOUllll cDNA sequeuces: A gc:uenl Tech- Rossl el al, J BiDL CIJmr., 257 9226-9229 (1982).l'rlnrtny ~-Marllnell A-. ...,.,.,.  [ 1 (ll) (22] (63)(51) [52) lnveutor Karr B. No. '191,308  Filed. Oct. 25    Calon and Robertson, Nucldc Midl R. ..ardl. vol 7 PP. 1445..ardl. vol 7 PP. -1456..ardl. vol 7 PP. (1979) ) Rossl et al J JJiJJI. C1rmJ. 257 9226:9229 (1982)      [73} Amsnee ComeD R-.11 Fw tet&ren, IDc..[ 1 Nodce: 1be porllol1 oftbe term oftlus parmt llllhoeqaeal 10 laL 31 71111 has beeD discllmted (21] AppL No.    No. 4,945,1150. (51) IDt. a.  240.4, 243, 252.3, 235, 6    rJS.4, 74:.3259-3263 (1977).Mllliads e1 a1., ID Vilro J!ocbslns otllacleriopho¡e ).DNA, 256-268.  No. 12, Doc. 1987   Tecb., wL 5 pp. 27-37 (1987). Suford, Trcads ID lboteclmology wl 6, pp. 299-301 (1988). ltldD, .. al.,~ 'VOL 327 PP. '10-73 (1987). ltldD, .. al., Proc. Na!l.  Acad. Sd., wL 85 pp 4~309 (1988). KJem. .. al., Jl!ncrclmnlogy wL 6, PP. 559-563 (1988). 1olmstoD, .. al., Sc:oc:ace. wL 240, PP. 1538PP. -1544PP. (1988)). MePherson et al. (~] DNA SEQUENCE FOR ENHANCNG 11IE D'l'JaENCY OF 'J'IlANSCIIJP'ION (75]  RoiJert ICQ West VIIICOUYa' bolh ofCIDada (73] Asslpoe: M~ C0mpuJ SL Lows, Mo.(ll] App1 No m,600 (22]   l'lll!t Tissue Callare-'lbeory 1!1111 Pncdce, edded by S. S. Bbo,JWBDI l!lld M. K. RazdaD (1983)  PP. 91-99 Klshor et aL, lDd.1 &p. BmL 24, '100-?0Z (1986).ICishor et aL, l'lallt Cott Rep., S. 391-393 (1986). Fraley et al. [54]  1221 Piled. Oet. 28, 1993 Rdaled V.B. Appllra!lm Dala [63] e ,, 1 or s.. No. 615  . 327-336 (1982).Jlea:e:ta..llsl et al, BllllO. ' PP. 987-w.l (1983).USOII5352605A 1111 Patent Namber 5,352,605[45] Date of Patent: Oet. 4,1994 Ma1ip el al, Mol«. Ga. GtML, 151 pp. 291-296 (1977).De OreYe el al, NtltiiiW. 30, pp. 752-755 (1982).I'GIIeldlc el al, AllluJia IR Gomblout. Ni11L Aaot Sd. USA 14. 1913-1917 (11177).  54-64 (1983). AblqaiJI, el al., \"f)rmppete Nudoolfde SoqaeJII:e afllmmo Masoac V11ro RNA3\" 1 Mol. ll!oL 153. 23411 (1981) lfecl¡petb, etal., '1..amlldal'llll&e Ptamob:r UI!Od ID l!allima: l!lpn:aloo ara~ C3ae\" MoL Gen. o.n.t. 163. 1117-313 (11178)  1\"\"-7 E 1 iCF P \"\"\"' L Slaoa AIRinooJ A8\"ft4 111' Jlho-Willlllm J IJoac; Rldmd p - [57)   17 Qolms, lll Danrlaa .....   4 The plant genenc resources held m trust by CIAT will be made avaxlable through an MfA adopted for system-wxde use m the CGIAR Thls Agreement states that the recxpxent wxU take no steps to restnct the matenals' further avaxlabxhty to other mterested parbes The Agreement also states that the recxpxent will not claxm ownershxp over the matenal The mater~alls held m trust underthe terms of an agreement between CIAT and'FAO and the reclplent haS no rlghts to obtam lntellectual Property R1ghts (IPR) on the germplasm or relatad lnformat1onThe Reclpient may reproduce the seed and use the matenal for agncultural research and breedmg purposes and m ay cflstribute lt to other partles prOVIdad the recip1ent IS also wdllng to accept the condruons of thls agreement ( 1)The Aeclplent, therefore hereby agrees not to clalm ownershlp overthe germplasm to be received nor to seek IPR over that germplasm or relatad informat10n He/She further agrees to ensure that any subsequent person or instltution to whom he/she may make samples of the germplasm available ls bound bythe same provlsion and undertakes to pass on the sama obllgat100s to futura ree~p1ents of the germplasm CIAT makes no warrant~es asto the safetY ortrtle of the material nor asto the accuracy or correctness ,, any paS$port or olher data providad Wlth the material Nelther does 1t make any warrantles asto lhe ¡uallty avallabillty or purlty (genet1c or mechanlcal) of the material being fumishad The phytosanltary :onditlon of the material is warrantad only as descnbed in the attached phytosanltary cert1f1CBte The \\eclpient assumes full responsiblllty for complymg w1th the roop1ent nat1on s quarant1ne/b1osafety egulat1ons and rules asto 1mport or ralease of genet1c mater~al lpon request CIAT w111 furmsh 1nlormat100 that may be ava1lable m add1t1on to whatever 1s lurmshad The Rec1p1enl lherefore hereby agrees notlo cla1m owncrsh1p over lhe germpldsm lo bo rece1ved nor -• to seek IPR ovor that germplasm or relatad mforma11on lle/She furlher agrees lo wsure lhal any subsequent perf.on or mslltUllon to whom he/she may make s.1mples of lhe gennplusm avadablo 1sbound by the same prOVISion and undertakes lo pass on lhe same ouhgat1ons lo futuro roc1p1en1s of the germplasm CIAT makes no warranlles as lo lhe safety or 11Ue of the matenal nor as lo lhe acc.uracy or correclness of any passport or olher dala prov1ded w1th lhe malenal Nollhor does 11 make any warrant1es as lo the quahty avadabihly or purlty (gene11c or mechamcal) ollhe malcnal bo1ng furmshcd The phylosamlary cond111on of lhe matenaiiS warranted only as described 1n the alluchcd phylosamlary ccrllhcale Thc Rec1p1en1 assumes full respons•bd1ly for comply111g w1lh the rcc•p•cnt na11on :. quar unllncltJiosufely regulat1ons and rules as to 1mport or ralease of gene11c malenal Upon requesl CIAT wdllurmsh mlorma11on thalmay bt. av11labh 1n 1dú1llon tu wh lit. ver 1 ... lunu,ht.d Wllh lhe seed Rec1p1en1s are requested lo furm:.h CIAT pcrlorman<.o dula wllt.<.lt.ú duru1g t. valua11onsThe mulenulls supphed expre:.sly condll1onul on ac...ct:.pllnc.   Faümg mutual consent, such dispute may be subrmtted, at the request of etther FAO or the Centre to an arbttral tnbunal composed of three members Each party shall appomt one arbttrator The two arbttrators thus appomted shall destgnate by mutual consent the thlrd arbttrator who Will act as the pres11hng arbttrator of the tnbunal (e) If Withm two months after the rece1pt of a party s notúicauon of the appomtment of an arbttrator the other party has not notúied the first party of the arbttrator he has appomted, the first party may request the Secretary General of the Umted Nauons to appomt the second arbttrator (If Withm two months after the appomtment of the second arbttrator the two arbttrators have not agreed on the chotee of the pres1dlng arbttrator such prestdlng arbttrator shall be destgnated by the Secretary General of the Umted Natlons at the request of etther party (e) Unless the partles to the dl$pute dectde otherwtse the tnbunal shall deterrmne 1ts own procedure (f) A maJonty vote of the arbttrators shall be suffictent to reach a declSlon whtch shall be final and bmdlng for the partles to the dispute ARTICLE 14 AMENDMENT (a) FAO or the Centre may propose that the Agreement be amended by g¡vmg nouce thereof (b) Ifthere lS mutual agreement m respect ofthe amendment, the amendment shall enter mto force on whatever date 1s set, and be reported to the next sesston of the Cormmsston. Data mput for SAMMDA T A    s e•ther a word, phrase, symbol or deslgn, or comblnation of words, phrases, symbols or dealgns which ldentifies and distinguishes the source of the goods or services of one partt from those of others. A servlce mark ls the same as a trademark axcept that it ldentifies and distlnpulshes the source of a service rather than a product.Throughout thls application the tarms •trademart<• and •mark are used to refer to both trademarks and seiVIce mark.s whether they are word mar\\<s or other ~s of marks. Normally, a mark for goods appears on the product or on lts packaglng. Whlle a service mark appears in advertislng for the servicas.A trademark ls diHerent from a coprright ora patent. A copyright protects an original artistic or literary work; a patent protects an invention. For copyrigh inlormation call the Library of qongress at (202) 707•3000.fstablishlng Tra®~Rigbts • rademark rights añSe rom either (1) actual use of the mark. or (2) the fillng of a proper application to register a mark in the Patent and Trademark Offioe (F'íO) stating that the applicant has a bona fide 1ntention to use the mane in commerce regulated by the U.S. Congress. (See below, under •rypes of Applications, • for a discusslon of what ís meant by the terms commerce and use 1n commerce.) Federal resJistratlon ls not required to establish rights In a mark, nor is ít required to begin use of a mark. However, federal ragiStration can secura benefits beyond the rlghts aCQulred by merely uslng a mark. For example, the owner of a federal registration is presumed to be the owner of the mark for tha goodS and services specified in the registration, and to be entitled to use the mark nationwide.1 -;h;;;• are ~-~~i~.t;d-but di;ii~~-iYP~~ ~i-ri9hls-i0arña-rk:ttie-rigtittc) i&Qister and-the righi to use. •c -anerany,•-u;e-r.rsr ---.. ,arty who either uses a mark in commerce or files an application in the PTO has the ultimate right to reglster that mart<. The PTO's authority js limitad to determining the right lo reglster. The right to use a mark can be more compllcated to determine. This is particularty true when two parties ha ve begun use of lhe same or similar marks without knowJedge of one anolher and neither has a federal registratton. Only a court can render a decfsion about the right to use, such as lssuing an lnjunction or awarding damages for infringement. lt should be noted that a federal reglstration can provide significant advantages to a part}' involved In a court proceeding. The PTO cannot provtde advice oonceming rights in a mark. Only a private attomey can provide such advice.Unlike copyriQhts orpatents, trademark rights can last lndefinitety if the owner oontinues to use the mark to identify its OOOds or servaces. The tenn of a federal trademark repistration is 1 O years, with 1 0-year renewal terms. However.6etween the fifth and sixth year after the date of lnitia registration, the registrant must file an affidavlt settlng forth certain informatlon to keep the registration alive.lf no aftldavit ls flted, the registration is cancelad.An applicant may apply forfederal registration in three principal ways. (1) An applicant who has already commenced using a mark in commerce may file based on that use (a •use• appficabon). (2) An applicant who has not yet used the mark may SP.ply based on abona fide intention to use the mark in commerce (an •¡ntent-to-use\" appllcation). For the J?Urpose of obtaining federal registration, oommerce means all commerce whlch may lawfully be re_gulated by the U.S.Coñgress, for example.lnterstate commerce or commerce between the U.S. and another country. The use in commerce must be a bona flde use in the ordínary course of trade, and not made merely to reserve a right m a mark. Use of a mar1< in promotion or advertising before the product or servlce is actually províded under the mark on a normal commercial scale does not quallfv as use in commerce. Use of a mark in purely local commerce within a state does not qualify as •use in oommerce.• lf an applicant files basad on a bona fide mtention to use in commerce, the applicant will have to use lhe mark in commerce and submit an anegation of use to the PTO before the PTO will register the mark. (3) Additionally, under certain intematlonal aQreements. an appfiCélnt from outslde the United S1ates may lile In the United States based on an application or registraban in another oountry. For information regarding applications based on intematlonaJ agrae• ments please call the information number in this application.A United States registration provides protectlon only in the United States and its territories. lf the owner of a mark wishes to protect a mark In other countries, the owner must seek protection in each country separately under the relevant laws. The PTO cannot provide informatlon or advice conceming protection in other countries. lnferested partles may inqulre directly In the relevant country or ils U.S. offices or through an attomey.~o Ma~ Ele an Aoffai,tion? e app ICation mus aÍied in the name of the owner of the mark; usually an individual, corporation or partnership. The owner of a mark oontrots the nature and quality of the goods or services identifaed by the mark. The owner may submlt and prosecute its own application for registration, or may be represented by an attomey. The PTO cannot help select an attomey.foralgn APPiicaot~ Applicants not living in the United States must designate in writing the name and address of a domestic representativaa person reslding in the United States .. upon whom notices of process may be served for proceedings atfecting the mark. • The appllcant may do so by submitting a statement that the named person at the address indicated ls appointed as tht: appllcant's dOmestlc representatlve uñder §1(e) of the TrademarkAct. The applicant must slgn thls statement. This person w\\11 receive alt oommunlcatlons from \\he PTO unless the applicant ls represented by an attomey In the United States. An applicant not reqúired to conduct a search for confhct•ng marks prior 10 applytng wlth the PTO. However, sorne people find it useful. In evaluatlng an applicatlon, an examlning attorney conducts a search and notlfles the applicant if a confticting mark ls found. The applicatiOn fee, whlch covers processlng and search coS1s. wlll not be refunded evan lf a conflict ls found and tha mark oannot be reglstered.To determine whether there ls a conflict between two marks, the PTO determines whether there would be likelihood of confuslon thatls whether relevant consumers would be likeiV to associate the goods or services of one party wíth thoae of the other party' as a result of the use of the mar1<s at lssue by both partí es. The principal factors to be considerad In reachlng thls declslon are the simllari!}' of the marks and the commercial relationshlp between the goods and servfces identHied by the marb. To find a conflic\\, \\he marks need not be \\dentical and the goods and secvices do not ha ve to be the same.The PTO does not conduct searches for the public to determine if a conflicting mark is regis1ered. o~ is the subject of a pending application except as noted above when acting on an ap¡>licatlon. However, there are a vanetv of ways to get this sama type of inlormation. First, by s>erforming a search In the PTO public search library. The search library is located on the second floor of the South Tower Building, 2900 Crysta' Orive, Ar1ington. VIrginia 22202. Second, by visiting a patent and trademark deposito~ library. These libraries ha ve CO-ROMS containing the trademark databáse of registered and pending marks. Finalty, either a prívate trademark search company, or an attorney who deals with trademark aaw, can provk:fe trademark reglstration information. The PTO cannot provide advice about possible confticts between marks.faws & Rules Governing Federal Regístratioo lt is advisable to submit a stamped, self-addressed pos1card with the application specifically listing each ítem in the mailing, that is, the written appllcation, the drawing, the fee, and the speclmens (if appropriate}. The PTO will stamp the filing date and serial number of the application on íhe postcard to acknowledge receipt. This will help the applicant if any item is later lost or if the applicant wishes to inquire about the application. The PTO win send a separata official notification of the filing date and serial number for every application about two months after recelpt.1 of the 'TM. • \"SM\" and \"®\" Symbols Auyone who claims rights in a mark may use the TM (trademark) or SM (servfce mark) designatlon with the mark to alert the public to the claim. lt ls not necessa~ to have a registration, or even a pending application, to use these deslgnations. The claim mayor may not be valid. The reglstration symbol, ®. may only be used when the mark is registeredin the PTO. lt ls improper to use thls symbol at any potnt before the registration issues.~ili~Date • Eillng Becejpt heTO is responslble for the federal registration of trademarks. When an application is received, the PTO reviews it to determine if lt meets the minimum requirements for receiving a fillng date. lf the application meets the filing requirements, the PTO assigns it a serial number and sends the applicant a receipt about two months after filing. lf the mínimum requirements are not met, the entire mailing, including the filing fee, IS retumed to the applicant.About four months after filing, an examining attorney at the PTO reviews the application and determines whather the mark ma-y be reglstered. lf the examlnlng altorney determines that the mark cannot be registe red, the examining attorney wlll issue a retter listing any grounds for refusal and any corrections required in the applicatlon. The examintng attomey may also contad the applicant by telephone lf only minor correctlons are requlréd. The appllcant must respond to a~ o~ections withln slx months of the mailing date of the letter, or the application wlll be abandoned. lf the apphcant s response does not overcome all objections, the examlnlng attorney will issue a final refusal. The appllcant may then appeal to the Trademark Tria! and ,Appeal Board, an admin•stratlve tribunal within the PTO.A common ground for refusalls llkelihood of confu_.oo between the oppfica.ot'a mork ond a r~ltterod ma11<. Marks whlch are merely doscrlptlve In rolation to the applicant'a gooda or servicee, oro feature of the goods or JGrvlces, may also be refused. Marks conslstlng of geographlc terms or aurnamee may also be refuaed. Marka may be refused for othor reasons as well.~ublicalion for Opposition there are no objections, or lf the applicant ovorcomes all oblections. the examlnlng attorney wlll approve the mark for publication in the Offlclal Gazette, a weekJy publicatlon of (he PTO. The PTO wilf senda NOTICE OF PUBLICA-TION to the applicant lndicatlng the date of publication. In the case of two or more applications for similar rnarks, the PTO wllt publtsh the application with the eartiest effective filing date first. Any party who believes it may be damaged by the registration of the mark has 30 da y& from the date of publicatlon to file an opposition to reglstration. An e>pposition ls similar to a formal proceeding in the federal courts, but is held before the Trademark Tri al and Appeal Board. lf no opposilion ls filed, the application enlers the next stage of the registration process.Jssuance of Certlficate of A~lst@tjon or Notice or Allowance lf the application was based upon the actual use of the mark in commerce prior to approval for publication, the PTO will re~ster the mark and lssue a registration certiflcate about 12 weeks after lhe date the mark was published, lf no opposction was filed. lf, instead, the mark was published based upon the applicanrs statement of having abona flde lntention to use the mark in commerce, the PTO will issue a NOTICE OF ALLOWANCE about 12 weeks after the date the mark was published, again provided no opposition was filed. The applicant then has siX months from the date of the NOTICE OF ALLOWANCE to either ( 1 Art applicant who files its application based on having a bona fide intention to use a mark in commerce must make use of the mark in commerce before the mark can register. After use in commerce begins, the applicant must submit:• lhree specimens evidencing use as discussed above; • a fee per class of goods or services in the a_p_plication: and The previous infonnation about specimens. identifications of goods and services and dates of use is also relevant to filing an AMENDMENT TO ALLEGE USE or STATEMENT OF\" USE. Failure to file the necessary papers in proper form wlthin the time provided may result in abandonment of the application.   A FAVOR DE:.3Cormn1ssioDer for Patents and Trademarks' 71? ~ ~l.~ . Redbl -----------------------------  ","tokenCount":"3782"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"30e9467f3eb2209d58a5c8c447ebcb01","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2064f742-bb2b-438a-928d-5d3c2f21e06a/retrieve","id":"1324932697"},"keywords":["Partout dans le monde Cabosse : risque élevé","déconseillé Graines : risque faible Baguette : risque modéré","quarantaine intermédiaire conseillée"],"sieverID":"384f45c5-6c6b-480f-b245-50ad0f15bfd7","pagecount":"90","content":"CacaoNet est un réseau international pour les ressources génétiques de cacao coordonnés par Bioversity International avec un comité de pilotage et des groupes de travail, composés de représentants de diverses institutions travaillant dans le domaine du cacao et d'organisations qui soutiennent la recherche sur le cacao. CacaoNet vise à optimiser la conservation et l'utilisation des ressources génétiques de cacao comme fondement d'une économie cacaoyère durable (des agriculteurs aux consommateurs, en passant par la recherche), en coordonnant et en renforçant la conservation et les efforts de  recherche d'un réseau mondial d'acteurs des secteurs public et privé. http://www.cacaonet.org/ Bioversity International est une organisation de recherche pour le développement. Nous avons comme vision que la biodiversité agricole nourrit les hommes et préserve la planète. Nous apportons des preuves scientifiques et proposons des solutions pratiques et politiques pour utiliser et sauvegarder la biodiversité agricole afin d'atteindre une sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle durable à l'échelle mondiale. Nous travaillons avec des partenaires dans les pays à faibles revenus dans les différentes régions où la biodiversité agricole peut contribuer à l'amélioration de la nutrition, de la résilience, de la productivité et à l'adaptation au changement climatique. Bioversity International est membre du Consortium CGIAR, un partenariat mondial de recherche pour un futur sans faim. www.bioversityinternational.org/ Citation: End MJ, Daymond AJ, Hadley P, éditeurs. 2014. Guide technique pour les tranferts sécurisés de matériel génétique de cacaoyer. Révision des Directives techniques FAO/IPGRI No. 20.Ces directives présentent les procédures techniques permettant de minimiser le risque d'introduction d'organismes nuisibles lors des mouvements de matériel génétique pour la recherche, l'amélioration et la sélection végétales, l'exploration ou la conservation. Soulignons que ces directives ne sont pas destinées aux envois commerciaux liés à l'exportation et l'importation de matériel génétique.La collecte, la conservation et l'utilisation des ressources phytogénétiques et leur distribution mondiale sont essentielles aux activités de recherche sur lesquelles s'appuie la mise en oeuvre des programmes internationaux d'amélioration des espèces agricoles et forestières.Inévitablement, les mouvements de matériel génétique font courir le risque d'introduire accidentellement des organismes nuisibles 1 lors du transfert de la plante hôte, tout particulièrement pour les pathogènes à tendance asymptomatique, comme les virus. Pour réduire ces risques, il est nécessaire d'observer des mesures préventives et de pratiquer des tests rigoureux afin de s'assurer que le matériel distribué est indemne d'organismes nuisibles qui pourraient s'avérer un danger phytosanitaire.Ainsi, tout mouvement de matériel phytogénétique, tant international qu'interrégional pour la recherche (dont les biotechnologies végétales), à des fins de conservation et d'amélioration, s'adosse à une information complète et actualisée du statut phytosanitaire du matériel phytogénétique. En outre, il est essentiel de connaître les réglementations nationales pertinentes et actualisées régissant l'exportation et l'importation de matériel phytogénétique dans les pays concernés.Les recommandations énoncées dans ces directives s'appliquent aux petits envois spécialisés utilisés dans les programmes de recherche, tels la collecte, la conservation et l'utilisation aux fins d'amélioration des ressources phytogénétiques.Les normes en matière de mesures phytosanitaires, par exemple l'évaluation du risque des organismes nuisibles (FAO 2008), doivent être prises en compte lors de la collecte et du transport du matériel génétique.Cette révision des directives techniques pour le cacaoyer a été conduite par le groupe de travail Safe Movement de CacaoNet 2 , un réseau international pour les ressources génétiques du cacaoyer. Des experts des ravageurs du cacaoyer ont contribué à titre personnel à l'élaboration de ces directives techniques et ne représentent pas, ou ne sont pas mandatés par, les organisations pour lesquelles ils travaillent. Ces directives sont destinées à procurer la meilleure information phytosanitaire possible aux institutions impliquées dans l'échange de matériel phytogénétique à petite échelle à des fins de recherche. Bioversity International et les experts ayant contribué ne peuvent être tenus responsables d'éventuels problèmes résultant de l'utilisation de l'information contenue dans ces directives techniques. Celles-ci reflètent le consensus et la connaissance des spécialistes ayant contribué à cette révision mais les informations fournies demandent à être régulièrement mises à jour. La liste des experts ayant contribué à ces directives techniques est présentée dans cette publication. Toute correspondance quant à cette publication devra être adressée à Bioversity International.Ces directives sont écrites dans un style concis pour alléger ce document et en faciliter la mise à jour. Outre les références spécifiques citées dans le texte, des lectures complémentaires sont suggérées (surtout pour la distribution géographique, les milieux et autres informations spécifiques).Ces directives sont divisées en deux parties. La première partie énonce les recommandations générales et techniques sur les procédures sécurisées de transfert de matériel génétique de cacaoyer et indique les structures de quarantaine intermédiaire existantes quand cela est approprié. La deuxième partie couvre les phyto-ravageurs à prendre en compte lors de la circulation internationale ou régionale du matériel génétique de cacaoyer. L'information donnée sur un organisme nuisible particulier n'est pas exhaustive mais se concentre plutôt sur les aspects les plus pertinents concernant la sûreté des mouvements de matériel génétique. Il est extrêmement difficile d'éradiquer des pathogènes d'une région ou d'un pays, et même de faibles niveaux d'infection ou d'infestation peuvent aboutir à l'introduction de pathogènes dans des secteurs vierges. C'est pourquoi aucune information spécifique sur les traitements sanitaires n'est indiquée dans les descriptions de ravageurs. Une analyse du risque phytosanitaire (Pest Risk Analysis -PRA) permettra de connaître les options de gestion les plus appropriées pour chaque cas. Des précautions générales sont présentées dans la section Recommandations générales.Pour être utiles, ces directives doivent être actualisées aussi souvent que nécessaire. Nous saurions gré à nos lecteurs de porter attention à tout développement demandant éventuellement une révision des directives comme de nouveaux enregistrements, de nouvelles méthodes de détection ou de lutte.Références FAO. 2007. Cadre de l'analyse du Risque Phytosanitaire. ISPM No. 2 (2007)  Le rôle des centres de quarantaine intermédiaire est d'empêcher la diffusion des organismes nuisibles et des maladies lors des mouvements de matériel génétique d'une région à une autre en soumettant ce matériel à un processus de quarantaine dans un pays où le cacaoyer n'est pas cultivé (afin de minimiser le risque d'introduction de ravageurs/pathogènes dans le système). La quarantaine intermédiaire est particulièrement importante quand le matériel à planter est transporté sous forme de baguette de greffage, matériel pouvant héberger des virus latents.Les centres de quarantaine intermédiaire actuels sont les suivants : Des stations de quarantaine post-entrée sont présentes dans certains pays producteurs de cacao et sont utilisées principalement pour le matériel nouvellement importé dans le pays en question. La durée de la quarantaine post-entrée peut varier de six mois à deux ans. Dans quelques cas, les structures de post-entrée sont aussi utilisées pour des mouvements de matériel génétique dans le pays.Les centres de quarantaine post-entrée en fonction pour le cacaoyer sont les suivants :Outre les directives spécifiques pour les organismes nuisibles/maladies présentés dans les sections suivantes, les recommandations générales ci-dessous s'appliquent : L'analyse des risques phytosanitaires doit précéder le mouvement du matériel génétique (voir les sections sur les organismes nuisibles spécifiques).Le matériel génétique doit être obtenu de la source la plus sûre possible, par exemple à partir d'une collection en quarantaine intermédiaire testée pour les pathogènes. L'envoi de cabosses entières est FORTEMENT déconseillé.En cas de transfert de matériel comme des semences, un substrat inerte et stérile (vermiculite ou perlite, par exemple) est préférable à un substrat organique (par exemple, la sciure de bois). Le matériel d'emballage utilisé doit être incinéré ou autoclavé après usage.Le transfert de baguettes de greffage de région à région doit s'effectuer via un centre de quarantaine. n cas d'échange international, les baguettes de greffage doivent être traitées avec un mélange fongicide/pesticide approprié lorsque cela est spécifié sur le certificat d'importation du pays destinataire.Après greffage dans le pays destinataire, tout matériel végétal superflu doit être incinéré ou autoclavé.Le transfert de matériel génétique doit avoir lieu en consultation avec les autorités phytosanitaires régionales appropriées tant dans les pays d'exportation que dans les pays d'importation. Les normes internationales pour les mesures phytosanitaires, telles que publiées par le Secrétariat de la Convention Internationale pour la Protection des Végétaux (CIPV) (https://www.ippc.int/) doivent être respectées.Conformément aux règlements de la CIPV, tout matériel transféré au niveau international doit être accompagné d'un certificat phytosanitaire. Transporter du matériel génétique de cacaoyer sous forme de baguettes de greffage se pratique quand le destinataire demande une copie génétiquement identique d'un génotype particulier (par exemple, si le génotype en questionpossède des caractères utiles particuliers en sélection).  Lors de la coupe des baguettes, il est conseillé de suivre les recommandations générales suivantes :1. Le matériel doit être prélevé sur des plantes qui ne montrent aucun signe visible d'une activité phytopathologique ou phytoparasitaire.2. Les outils de coupe doivent être stérilisés (par exemple en utilisant de l'éthanol à 70%) entre chaque plante. Le matériel in vitro doit être envoyé dans des boîtes transparentes scellées contenant un milieu stérile. Il doit subir un examen avant son expédition et immédiatement à sa réception à destination. Idéalement, le matériel in vitro doit être indexé pour la présence de pathogènes systémiques dans une structure de quarantaine. Tout matériel infecté ou contaminé doit être détruit.Les expéditions de pollen ne sont PAS conseillées à partir des zones où la présence de Moniliophthora est avérée en raison de la possible contamination des échantillons de pollen par des spores du champignon.Lors d'envois vers d'autres régions, le pollen doit être examiné en microscopie optique pour déceler la présence d'organismes nuisibles visibles. Tout pollen contaminé doit être détruit.Les bourgeons floraux peuvent être transférés pour une utilisation en culture de tissu. Ils doivent être stérilisés en surface avant envoi.Thresh JM. 1960. Mesures de quarantaine destinées à intercepter le matériel de propagation du cacaoyer infeste par les virus sévissant en Afrique occidentale (Quarantine arrangements for intercepting cocoa material infected with West African viruses). FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 8:89-92.   Nécrose du cacaoyer (Cacao necrosis virus, CNV: genre Nepovirus) est sérologiquement lié (mais relativement éloigné) du Tomato black ring virus.Les plantes infectées présentent une nécrose des nervures, le long de la nervure centrale et des nervures principales et, aux premiers stades de l'infection, un dépérissement terminal des tiges. Aucun gonflement ne se développe dans les racines ou les tiges.Cette maladie est rapportée au Nigeria et au Ghana (Owusu 1971, Thresh 1958).Probablement par un nématode vecteur (Kenten 1977). Le même auteur décrit une transmission par les semences de 24% dans les hôtes herbacés Glycine max, Phaseolus lunatus et P. vulgaris. Une transmission mécanique ou par la sève a aussi été décrite par Adomako et Owusu (1974) en utilisant la technique développée pour le Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV).Les particules sont isométriques et d'un diamètre de 25 nm.Aucune. Une plante infectée ne peut être soignée.Comme pour le CSSV: Genre: Badnavirus. Greffer sur un porte-greffe Amelonado (cultivar de cacaoyer sensible) et rechercher la présence de symptômes sur toutes les parties de la plante résultante (Voir Section 5.2 Baguettes de greffage). Bénin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Togo (Brunt et al. 1996, Thresh, com. pers.).L'infection naturelle par le CSSV a été décrite pour Adansonia digitata, Bombax spp., Ceiba pentandra, Cola chlamydantha, Cola gigantea et d'autres espèces forestières. Corchorus spp. ont été infectés expérimentalement.Le CSSV est transmis par au moins 14 espèces de cochenilles (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).Alors que des résultats PCR positifs ont été obtenus par l'utilisation d'amorces spécifiques du CSSV sur de l'ADN de semenceaux issus d'autofécondation d'arbres infectés, aucune expression du CSSV n'a pu être décelée chez ces semenceaux, ni visuellement, ni par \"transcription inverse\" (RT) PCR (Ameyaw et al. 2010). Il n'y a donc aucune preuve de transmission du CSSV par les semences. Par ailleurs, les plantes peuvent être infectées quand les graines sont inoculées par les cochenilles vectrices infectées ou par transmission mécanique avec du virus purifié.Les particules sont bacilliformes et mesurent 121-130 x 28 nm.Aucune. Une fois qu'une plante est infectée, elle ne peut être soignée. Cependant, comme la plupart des maladies virales, la maladie peut être contenue ou évitée en isolant les plants sains par des barrières d'espèces immunes contre le CSSV.   Ce virus est décrit seulement en Sierra Leone (Blencowe et al. 1963, Brunt et al. 1965).Présence de zones jaunes visibles sur les feuilles. Aucun gonflement sur les tiges ou les racines.Pas de transmission par les semences. Facilement transmis par inoculation de sève par le biais de nombreuses espèces herbacées.Les particules sont isométriques et mesurent environ 25 nm de diamètre.Aucune. Une plante infectée ne peut être guérie.Se référer au paragraphe ci-dessus Cacao swollen shoot virus et à la Section 5.2 Baguettes de greffage.Blencowe JW, Brunt AA, Kenton RG, Lovi NK. 1963  Parmi les différentes maladies affectant les cacaoyers, les maladies fongiques constituent une contrainte majeure. Certaines ont une distribution mondiale alors que d'autres sont limitées aux régions de culture du cacao situées dans les Amériques, en Afrique et en Asie du Sud-Est. Dans les sections suivantes, différents experts ont résumé les informations de base sur les différentes maladies fongiques considérées d'importance économique. Une compilation des résultats de la recherche concernant la pourriture brune, la moniliose et la maladie du balai de sorcière a été publiée par Fulton (1989).Fulton RH. 1989. The cacao disease trilogy: black pod, Monilia pod rot, and witches' broom. Plant Disease 73:601-603.Mis à jour par Karina P Gramacho 1 , Nara GR Braz 2 et Julio CM Cascardo 21 CEPLAC/CEPEC/SEFIT. Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, km 22. Itabuna, BA, Brésil Email : Karina@cepec.gov.br 2 UESC, Rodovia Ilheus-Itabuna, km 16, Bahia, Brésil.Moniliophthora perniciosa (Stahel) Aime & Phillips-Mora (Syn. Crinipellis perniciosa)Parmi la variabilité existante de ce champignon, on cite deux principaux biotypes, les biotypes C et S. Des variants du biotype C semblent exister selon l'origine géographique (par exemple Equateur, Pérou, Brésil, Bolivie).Bien que M. perniciosa induise de nombreux symptômes sur les poussées végétatives, les fleurs, les coussinets floraux et les cabosses, l'hypertrophie de la croissance des méristèmes végétatifs infectés (balais) reste le symptôme le plus caractéristique de la maladie du balai de sorcière (Fig.    Les basidiospores, seules propagules infectantes de M. perniciosa, peuvent infecter tous les tissus méristématiques du cacaoyer (Purdy et Schmidt 1996). Peu après l'infection, le pathogène établit une relation biotrophique avec son hôte, durant laquelle le champignon est homokaryotique, intercellulaire et non-ramifié (Calle et al. 1982, Muse et al. 1996, Orchard et al. 1994, Silva et Matsuka 1999). À ce stade, il cause une hypertrophie des tissus, une perte de la dominance apicale et la prolifération des bourgeons axillaires. La dissémination se fait par le vent.Bien que M. perniciosa semble pouvoir être transmis par les semences, le transfert des fèves reste la méthode la plus sûre de transporter le matériel génétique. Les fèves peuvent être collectées sur des cabosses apparemment saines, traitées par un fongicide au cuivre ou au métalaxyl pour réduire le risque de transmission du pathogène.Il est conseillé de maintenir le matériel nouvellement introduit dans une serre protégée des insectes et sous stricte surveillance dans une station de quarantaine pendant un an en testant l'absence de maladie avant sa libération pour les utilisations communes.prématurée montrant un modèle en mosaïque vert et jaune. Dans les cabosses infectées, les fèves se nécrosent et s'agglutinent en une masse compacte (Fig. M. roreri semble être un champignon anamorphe ; cependant, un mécanisme cytologique, qui semble peu actif dans la nature, lui permettrait une reproduction sexuée (Evans et al. 2002).Les cabosses sont infectées par les spores qui restent viables pendant plusieurs semaines et peuvent résister à l'exposition à la lumière solaire. La dissémination se fait par le vent. Les infections naturelles ont seulement été observées sur les cabosses, bien que l'inoculation artificielle de fèves par des spores ait produit de jeunes plants infectés. En conditions naturelles, la transmission de la maladie par des graines infectées n'a pas été observée et est peu probable.L'homme est responsable de la propagation de cette maladie sur de grandes distances et au-delà des barrières géographiques. Les infections cachées peuvent avoir un rôle très important dans la dissémination de la maladie dans de nouveaux secteurs. En plus des précautions à prendre lors des mouvements de matériel végétal décrites ci-dessous, il faut noter que les spores peuvent aussi survivre sur les vêtements, les chaussures et sur le corps humain. Donc, après la visite d'un secteur infecté, des mesures appropriées doivent être prises avant d'entrer dans une région non infectée (destruction ou lavage approprié des vêtements et des chaussures utilisés, pas de visites dans des zones indemnes de maladie pendant quelques jours, etc.).Puisque les fruits sont les seules parties de la plante de cacaoyer infectées par M. roreri dans les conditions naturelles, les efforts de quarantaine doivent essayer d'empêcher tout transfert de fruits à partir des zones infectées vers de nouvelles exploitations, territoires ou pays.    Mis à jour par G Martijn ten Hoopen 1 et S Nyassé  Erwin et Ribeiro (1996).Les Phytophthora spp. peuvent attaquer toutes les parties du cacaoyer mais les manifestations principales de ces straménopiles sont :-La pourriture des cabosses -une pourriture brune, ferme, de la cabosse (Fig. 8.3.1), qui représente le principal symptôme de la maladie -Le chancre de la tige -lésions sombres et déprimées sur la tige -La rouille des plantules -nécrose étendue des feuilles et des tiges des plantules.Sept espèces de Phytophthora ont été identifiées sur le cacaoyer (Appiah et al. 2003, Appiah et al. 2004a, Nyassé et al. 1999, A.D. Iwaro, com. pers.) propager Phytophthora spp. sont la construction de routes, la récolte de bois de construction, l'exploration de mines, le commerce de pépinière et la randonnée.La responsabilité humaine est la plus probable dans la propagation à grande échelle de Phytophthora. Les zoospores de Phytophthora ayant une vie relativement courte et étant sensibles aux pesticides et à la sécheresse, il est relativement facile de lutter contre le risque de dispersion des zoospores sur des cabosses entières par une application/immersion de pesticide (par exemple un mélange de métalaxyl et d'un composé de cuivre pour P. megakarya) (Opoku et al. 2007).Les symptômes d'attaque de de P. megakarya apparaissent environ entre une à deux semaines après l'infection (en général, les symptômes de la pourriture de la cabosse par Phytophthora apparaissent rapidement après infection). Une mise en quarantaine juste après l'introduction durant cette période permet de déceler facilement les cabosses malades et de les éliminer.Les parties végétatives suivantes peuvent véhiculer ces straménopiles lors de leur commerce et transport : Fruits (cabosses) : Dans les premiers stades, l'infection des cabosses est invisible. Dans les stades suivants, elle est facilement reconnaissable, signalée par des lésions (taches brunes fermes) et la production de zoospores sur les lésions (Fig. 8.3.1) Racines: des structures latentes de Phytophthora sont souvent trouvées associées aux racines de cacaoyer -invisibles à l'oeil nu  Tronc/branches : particulièrement quand les chancres sont présents (Appiah et al. 2004b)  Milieux de culture des plantes : Ils peuvent contenir des inoculums de Phytophthora.Les graines sont peu susceptibles de véhiculer ces straménopiles lors de leur commerce et transport.En ce qui concerne les feuilles, en théorie, des kystes de Phytophthora peuvent être présents sur les feuilles et survivre pendant un certain temps. Un traitement phytosanitaire et des conditions sèches (pas de pulvérisation de la plante entière mais un arrosage du milieu de culture) devraient suffire à éliminer ce (faible) risque.Comme P. megakarya est plus agressif et cause des pertes de rendement plus importantes que P. palmivora (Appiah 2001), il faut accorder une attention particulière aux mouvements de matériel végétal au Ghana, au Togo et en Côte d'Ivoire, où P. palmivora et P. megakarya sont présents. Quelques zones de production dans ces trois pays ne sont pas encore affectées par P. megakarya. Le symptôme initial le plus caractéristique de ce dépérissement avec nécrose vasculaire est une chlorose généralisée d'une feuille, habituellement sur la deuxième ou troisième poussée foliaire en dessous de l'extrémité, avec des taches vertes de 2-5 mm de diamètre, ça et là (Keane et Prior 1991). Cette feuille tombe en quelques jours et les symptômes se développent progressivement sur les feuilles adjacentes (Fig.  (Prior 1980).La limite méridionale est la côte papoue de la Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, mais l'hôte original inconnu pourrait exister au nord de l'Australie. Il n'y a aucune mention de la maladie en Afrique ou dans le Nouveau Monde.Avocatier.La formation de basides et la libération de basidiospores se produit principalement la nuit après que les basidiocarpes (fructifications fongiques) aient été humidifiés par la pluie (Keane et al. 1972). Prior (1982)  La propagation de la maladie est aussi limitée par le taux relativement faible de sporulation du champignon. Une infection ne produit des basidiocarpes que si la chute des feuilles se produit en période humide et ces basidiocarpes ont une durée de vie courte. Par conséquent, moins de 10 % d'une abscission foliaire induite par la maladie aboutit à la production de basidiocarpes (et donc de basidiospores). Les aspects épidémiologiques de la maladie sont discutés plus en détail par Keane (1981) et Keane et Prior (1991).Les basidiospores ne présentent pas de dormance et de l'eau libre est nécessaire pour la germination des spores et l'infection. Elles germent en 30 minutes si les feuilles restent humides mais la croissance s'arrête une fois que l'eau s'est évaporée (Prior 1979). Le premier signe de pénétration se produit après 12 heures, avec un gonflement de l'extrémité du tube germinatif pour former un appressorium qui adhère à la surface de la feuille. Des cellules épidermiques adjacentes ont montré un brunissement suite à la présence du champignon. Souvent l'infection ne progresse pas plus loin, mais parfois des hyphes de pénétration se forment sous les appressoria. Il n'a pas été observé d'hyphes pénétrant dans les éléments du xylème des nervures bien que Prior (1979) ait observé des stries de cellules mésophylliennes décolorées allant de la surface à la gaine entourant le xylème. Au laboratoire, après dépigmentation et coloration, les hyphes en croissance ont été observés dans la feuille inoculée aux alentours des nervures (Keane 1972, Prior 1979) mais cela n'a pu être relié aux spores vides restées sur la surface foliaire. Il a été montré (Prior 1979) que la rosée se forme en premier sur les poils et les glandes situés sur les nervures des jeunes feuilles de cacaoyer. Cela pourrait piéger les spores et pourrait expliquer les cas de pénétration juste sur les nervures, comme observé par Keane (1972).Jusqu'à présent, les tests de pathogénicité n'ont réussi qu'avec des plantes inoculées exposées aux conditions naturelles de température et de dépôt de rosée. Tout comme la sporulation, il semble que l'infection exige des conditions très particulières, difficiles à simuler en laboratoire. Dans ces essais, les symptômes se déclarent chez de jeunes semenceaux de 3 semaines environ 6-9 semaines après que les basidiospores les aient infectés pendant les périodes nocturnes de rosée (Keane 1981) ou après qu'ils aient été inoculés par une suspension de basidiospores (Prior 1978) ; chez de jeunes plants de 6 mois, les symptômes se développent après 10-12 semaines (Keane et al. 1972).Les pics d'occurrence de la maladie au champ s'observent quelques mois après les pics de pluviométrie saisonniers (Prior 1980(Prior , 1981)). Le champignon pénètre les feuilles jeunes qui commencent alors à se développer après le début des pluies. La branche ou le jeune plant pousse encore pendant trois à cinq mois avant que le champignon ne se soit suffisamment ramifié pour provoquer les symptômes de la maladie dans les feuilles attaquées ; en conséquence, les premiers symptômes apparaissent sur la deuxième ou troisième poussée foliaire derrière l'extrémité en croissance.Ceratobasidium theobromae peut coloniser le système vasculaire des cabosses : cela peut se révéler important pour les mesures de quarantaine et la potentialité de transmettre la maladie via des cabosses infectées distribuées pour les semences. Cependant, aucune infection n'a été jamais détectée dans la graine et Prior (1985) a écarté la possibilité de transmission par les semences.Voici une liste des parties végétales susceptibles d'être porteuses du champignon lors de leur commerce/transport :-Fruits (cabosses) : Hyphes ; à l'intérieur ; invisibles.-Feuilles : Hyphes ; à l'intérieur ; visibles à l'oeil nu.-Racines : Hyphes ; à l'intérieur ; invisibles.-Tiges (aériennes)/tiges/troncs/branches : Hyphes, organes de fructification ; à l'intérieur ; à l'extérieur ; visibles à l'oeil nu.Parties végétales non connues pour être porteuses du champignon lors de leur commerce/transport :-Milieu de culture accompagnant les plantes -Graines.Des plantes entières ou des boutures ne doivent pas être envoyés à partir de zones infestées par C. theobromae. Lorsque du matériel clonal est exigé, il doit provenir, si possible, sous forme de baguettes, de régions indemnes de maladie. Les baguettes de greffage provenant d'une région infestée doivent être envoyées à une station de quarantaine intermédiaire dans une région indemne de maladie et greffée sur des porte-greffes issus de graines collectées dans des régions indemnes de maladie. Le greffon doit être conservé pendant trois poussées de croissance et confirmé comme indemne de C. theobromae avant prélèvement des baguettes et envoi à la destination finale.Dans des pays comme la Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, il a été constaté qu'une période de quarantaine post-entrée de six mois dans une serre d'ombrage bien isolée fournit une bonne opportunité pour détecter le VSD et ce traitement a remplacé l'ancienne recommandation d'une période de quarantaine post-entrée sur une île isolée.L'examen microscopique des sections transversales de baguettes de greffage et de pédoncules de cabosses est une précaution supplémentaire contre les risques de transmission de la maladie parce que les hyphes du pathogène sont de grande taille et facilement détectés. Les hyphes ont été décelés dans les pédoncules et le placenta des cabosses issues de branches malades mais les graines de ces cabosses ont germé normalement et il n'y avait aucune preuve de transmission par les semences. L'immersion de graines dans une solution de 1g/L de propiconazole + 5g/L de métalaxyl a causé une réduction faible mais statistiquement significative de la hauteur de tige du jeune plant. Cependant, la longueur de racine et le pourcentage de germination n'ont pas été affectés et ce traitement prophylactique des graines peut être utile lorsque les autorités de quarantaine exigent des précautions complémentaires.L'examen microscopique des sections transversales des baguettes de greffage, pour vérifier la présence d'hyphes de C. theobromae dans le xylème peut être une précaution complémentaire pour assurer l'absence d'infection à la station de quarantaine et est conseillé (Prior 1985).Bien que les fèves ne semblent pas transmettre la maladie, une immersion de précaution dans un fongicide du groupe des triazoles a été préconisée (Prior 1985). Les autorités de quarantaine en Malaisie exigent actuellement que les graines soient traitées avec du thirame. Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, CEP 37200-000, Brésil Email : mlucio@ufla.brVerticillium dahliae KlebahnIl existe plus de 200 espèces principales de dicotylédones, dont des plantes annuelles herbacées, pérennes et forestières, qui sont les hôtes des verticillioses (Agrios 2005). Les symptômes généraux sont l'épinastie (Fig. 8.5.1 A), le jaunissement, la nécrose et le flétrissement ou l'abscission des feuilles (Fig. 8.5.1 B-D), suivies de retard du développement ou de la mort de la plante (Resende et al. 1996). Selon Fradin et Thomma (2006), le flétrissement débute en général à l'extrémité d'une feuille infectée, dans les plus vieilles tiges puisque l'invasion est acropétale (de la base à l'apex). Dans le cacaoyer, les plantes infectées présentent généralement un flétrissement soudain suivi d'une nécrose de la feuille et des poussées foliaires. Des types semblables de symptômes défoliants (Fig. 8.5.1 B) et non défoliants (Fig. 8.5.1 C) peuvent se produire sur le cacaoyer comme sur d'autres hôtes. Par exemple, sur le coton, Schnathorst et Mathre (1966) ont décrit des pathotypes de V. dahliae défoliant ou non défoliant, mais d'autres auteurs (Bell 1973, Ashworth Jr 1983) ont suggéré un continuum de symptômes lié à l'agressivité relative parmi les souches de V. dahliae, plutôt que l'existence de pathotypes distincts. Généralement, on pense que le symptôme de flétrissement survient à cause du stress hydrique causé par l'occlusion vasculaire alors que la défoliation peut aussi impliquer des déséquilibres des régulateurs de croissance. Ainsi, Talboys (1968) a suggéré que la défoliation est liée au niveau de stress hydrique, tandis que Tzeng et DeVay (1985) et Resende et al. (1996) ont mis en évidence une augmentation de la production d'éthylène, respectivement, chez des plants de coton et de cacaoyer inoculés avec des isolats défoliants comparés à ceux infectés par des isolats non défoliants.Dans des sections de tige, on peut voir une décoloration brune des tissus vasculaires (Fig. 8.5.1 E, F). Un brunissement, des thylloses (Fig. 8.5.1 G) et des dépôts de gommes et de gels (Fig. 8.5.1 G) peuvent être observés à l'intérieur des nervures. Les niveaux des symptômes observés dépendent principalement de la concentration d'inoculum, du pathotype de Verticillium, de la variété végétale et du stade de développement de la plante, de la température, de l'humidité du sol et de la nutrition, particulièrement la teneur en potassium (Resende 1994). L'infestation des racines par les nématodes parasites peut augmenter l'occurrence et la sévérité des maladies causées par des champignons telluriques comme V. dahliae (Johnson et Santo 2001).Les Verticillium spp. sont des champignons telluriques de distribution mondiale, responsables d'une maladie vasculaire aboutissant à des pertes sévères du rendement et de la qualité chez plusieurs espèces cultivées (Subbarao et al. 1995).Verticillium dahliae et V. albo-atrum sévissent dans les régions tempérées et subtropicales, mais sont moins destructeurs sous les tropiques. Par déduction de sa distribution géographique, V. dahliae semble être favorisé par des températures plus élevées que V. albo-atrum (Fradin et Thomma 2006, Resende 1994). Verticillium dahliae est plus destructeur dans des climats plus chauds tandis que V. albo-atrum sévit sur les espèces cultivées dans des latitudes nordiques avec des climats humides. Des attaques sévères, après des conditions particulièrement sèches ou d'engorgement, peuvent causer la mort d'un cacaoyer apparemment sain et vigoureux la semaine précédente (Resende 1994).Au Brésil, cinquième pays producteur de cacao, la verticilliose est un grave problème dans les États de Bahia et d'Espírito Santo (Resende et al. 1995, Agrianual 2009). Cette maladie, plus commune dans des régions soumises à des précipitations insuffisantes, cause jusqu'à 10 % de mortalité annuelle sur des cacaoyers en zones non ombragées (Almeida et al. 1989).La verticilliose fait partie des maladies graves du cacaoyer en Ouganda causant jusqu'à 30 % de perte de rendement (Emechebe et al. 1971). Sa présence ancienne dans ce pays pourrait expliquer pourquoi le cacao n'est pas devenu une culture d'importance en Ouganda (Leakey 1965, Resende et al. 1995, Sekamate et Okwakol 2007). La verticilliose a récemment été rapportée de la Province du Nord Kivu en République démocratique du Congo, très probablement suite à une diffusion depuis l'Ouganda. Verticillium dahliae a aussi été trouvé sur le cacaoyer en Colombie (Granada 1989, Resende et al. 1995).Le coton et de nombreuses espèces dicotylédones.Verticillium dahliae Kleb. est un champignon colonisant les racines avec un cycle de vie nécrotrophique. Cette forme anamorphe d'ascomycète, appartenant à la famille des Plectospharellaceae, classe des Sordariomycètes, est un agent causal commun de maladies de dépérissement chez de nombreuses espèces cultivées (Domsch et al. 2007).Le mycélium végétatif de V. dahliae est hyalin, habituellement ramifié, septé et multinucléé (Fig. 8.5.2 A). Les conidiophores sont érigés, portant les spires de phialides divergentes en forme d'alêne mince. Les conidies sont ellipsoïdes à ovoïdes (Fig. 8.5.2 A), de 15-50 (-100) µm de diamètre, hyalines, principalement unicellulaires, de 3-8 µm de long et sont produites sur de longues phialides positionnées en spirale autour du conidiophore verticillé (Resende 1994, Gomez-Alpízar 2001, Fradin et Thomma 2006). Les microsclérotes, qui sont les structures de latence, sont généralement observés.Les deux espèces de Verticillium, V. dahliae Klebahn et V. albo-atrum Reinke et Berthold, sont très similaires. Taxonomiquement, V. dahliae se distingue de V. alboatrum principalement par la présence de microsclérotes (Fig. 8.5.2 C) comme structures de latence pouvant résister aux conditions environnementales défavorables jusqu'à 13 ans (Schnathorst 1981, Resende 1994). Les températures semblant favoriser V. dahliae sont de 25 -28°C ; elles sont de 20 -25°C pour V. alboatrum de (Resende 1994). V. dahliae induit une maladie monocyclique, ce qui signifie qu'un seul cycle de maladie et de production d''inoculum se produit pendant une période de pousse. Verticillium albo-atrum peut, au contraire, produire des conidies sur les tissus végétaux infectés, transmises par voie aérienne et propageant la maladie. Les maladies causées par V. albo-atrum peuvent donc parfois être polycycliques (Fradin et Thomma 2006).Comme la verticilliose est une maladie monocyclique, les taux d'inoculum de V. dahliae dans le sol (microsclérotes par g de sol) à la plantation jouent un rôle essentiel dans le développement du flétrissement chez de nombreuses espèces cultivées (Xiao et Subbarao 1998, 2000). De nombreux genres et espèces sont colonisés par V. dahliae, y compris des membres des familles Malvaceae, comme le cacaoyer et le coton, Solanaceae, Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Papilionaceae, Labiatae et Chenopodiaceae (Resende et al. 1994).Le cycle de vie de V. dahliae peut être divisé en trois phases : l'une dormante, l'autre parasitaire et la dernière saprophyte. Une adaptation unique de ces organismes est que, jusqu'aux stades avancés de la colonisation vasculaire, le pathogène se limite exclusivement au xylème, lequel contient des fluides à faibles teneurs en sucres, acides aminés et sels inorganiques divers (Resende 1994). Lagermination des microsclérotes dans des sols infestés est stimulée par les exsudats racinaires et le tube germinatif pénètre dans l'hôte par les racines, poursuit sa croissance inter-et intracellulaire dans le cortex et s'étend au xylème. L'invasion systémique se produit quand des générations successives de conidies sont produites et transportées par la transpiration du xylème aux parties aériennes de la plante (Veronese et al. 2003). Il a été décrit que la colonisation de la plante à ce stade semble alterner des cycles de prolifération fongique et d'élimination fongique, l'élimination étant vraisemblablement induite par les réponses de défense de la plante (Fradin et Thomma 2006). Pendant la nécrose tissulaire ou la sénescence de la plante, le champignon entre dans la phase saprophyte. En plus des tissus vasculaires, les tiges et les racines de la plante sont aussi colonisées. Dans le cas d'une infection par V. dahliae, de grandes quantités de microsclérotes sont produites (Fig. 8.5.2 B et 8.5.2 C).Des efforts doivent être faits pour empêcher l'introduction du pathogène dans les principales régions productrices de cacao. Il est nécessaire d'appliquer des restrictions aux mouvements de matériel génétique dans les secteurs où la maladie est absente et de collecter des baguettes de greffage dans des secteurs indemnes. Si le matériel végétal provient de zones infectées, il doit être placé dans une station de quarantaine, aux fins d'observation et d'analyses puisque le champignon peut rester latent à l'intérieur des tissus végétaux. Des symptômes de décoloration vasculaire sont souvent observés. L'absence du pathogène doit être confirmée par l'isolement direct dans un milieu gélifié alcoolisé avant l'envoi (Freitas et Mendes 2005). Verticillium dahliae peut être isolé à partir du xylème de racines, de tiges, de branches, de branchettes, de feuilles voire de graines. Les travaux récents de détection des deux espèces de Verticillium ont principalement porté sur l'utilisation de sondes d'hybridation d'ADN. Un test ELISA sur V. alboatrum est utilisé en France pour évaluer des pélargoniums certifiés (CABI/EPPO).Selon Pereira et al. (2008), la lutte contre cette maladie peut être effectuée par l'utilisation de la résistance génétique associée à des mesures culturales, comme l'utilisation de plantules saines, la destruction des résidus végétaux infectés, une fertilisation équilibrée, l'irrigation et l'application appropriée de fongicides systémiques, bien que l'utilisation de ces produits puisse être impraticable, puisque le champignon peut survivre dans les débris végétaux ou dans le sol, comme les microsclérotes. Une résistance génétique serait souhaitable mais aucun matériel doté d'un niveau de résistance satisfaisant n'est encore disponible, bien que le cv. POUND 7 se soit révélé partiellement résistant à la maladie à la suite de tests de \"criblage\". Carmen Suárez-CapelloUniversidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo (UTEQ), Quevedo, Equateur, Email : csuarez@uteq.edu.ec Les arbres infectés montrent un feuillage mou et brun, sur une branche unique ou sur l'arbre entier, selon que seule une branche ou la tige principale a été infectée. Le premier symptôme est un jaunissement et un flétrissement lent de la partie de la branche ou de l'arbre infectée, qui brunit progressivement. En général, le Mal de machete se reconnaît par un feuillage brun et mou restant accroché à l'arbre et ne tombant pas, même en secouant la branche ou l'arbre (Fig. 8.6.1). Les scolytes à ambrosia du genre Xyleborus sont attirés par les arbres malades et forent dans les branches ou la tige principale (Saunders 1965). Leurs déjections sont poussées à l'extérieur de la tige ou de la branche et se déposent à la base de l'arbre en masses légères, pulvérulentes, premier signe positif du Mal de machete (Fig. 8.6.2). Il est fréquent de repérer les déjections avant même le jaunissement visible de l'arbre.Cette forme specialisée du complexe Ceratocystis est apparemment associée aux hôtes Theobroma cacao et au genre apparenté Herrania, d'autres espèces de Theobroma ne se sont pas révélées sensibles (Engelbrecht et al. 2007).Le flétrissement du cacaoyer par Ceratocystis (comme Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis et Halstead) a été décelé à l'origine sur le cacaoyer en Équateur occidental en 1918 (Rorer 1918). Il a été rapporté en Colombie après 1940, au Venezuela en 1958 (Thorold 1975), au Costa Rica en 1958 (Thorold 1975) et également en 1958 à Trinidad (Spence et Moll 1958). Les rapports concernant la maladie s'étendent du Guatemala (Schieber et Sosa 1960) et de l'Amérique centrale au nord de l'Amérique du Sud, y compris l'Amazonie péruvienne (Soberanis et al. 1999), l'Equateur, la Colombie et le Venezuela (Thorold 1975). Au Brésil, la maladie a été repérée dans le sud-ouest de l'Amazonie (Rondônia) en 1978 (Bastos et Evans 1978) et plus récemment à Bahia (Bezerra 1997), qui est à l'extérieur de l'aire d'origine de T. cacao. La maladie serait aussi présente en Guyane française (M. Ducamp, com. pers.).Deux sous-lignées étroitement apparentées existent dans cette espèce, l'une d'Équateur occidental et l'autre comportant les isolats du Brésil, de Colombie et du Costa Rica. Les deux sous-lignées diffèrent peu dans leur morphologie mais sont inter-stériles et possèdent des marqueurs microsatellites uniques (Englebrecht et al. 2007). Englebrecht et Harrington (2005) différencient l'espèce C. cacaofunesta par sa pathogénicité sur le cacaoyer et la localisent en Equateur occidental, au Brésil, au Costa Rica, et en Colombie. Cette différenciation explique certainement la variation de l'agressivité observée en inoculations artificielles (C Suárez-Capello, observation personnelle).En général, C. cacaofunesta s'introduit dans les plants de cacaoyer par des blessures récentes, comme lors de l'émondage ou des blessures de récolte des cabosses (Malaguti 1952) et se déplace dans l'hôte via le xylème secondaire. Les scolytes à ambrosia du genre Xyleborus attaquent souvent le bois d'arbres infectés (Saunders 1965), d'abord attirés par l'odeur forte de banane que le champignon dégage. Les déjections qui sont poussées à l'extérieur de la tige ou de la branche quand les scolytes creusent leurs galeries, contiennent un inoculum viable du champignon (comme spores asexuées; conidia et aleurioconidies à parois épaisses) (Iton et Conway 1961) et peuvent faciliter sa diffusion par le vent ou les éclaboussures) vers les blessures d'autres arbres (Iton 1960). Les lames de machette sont un autre moyen efficace de propagation du champignon (Malaguti 1952).Le champignon se déplace dans le xylème, se concentrant souvent dans les faisceaux vasculaires, les teintant profondément partout où il croît. Il se déplace systémiquement et lentement dans la plante comme un champignon de flétrissement vasculaire, mais il tue plus aisément le tissu parenchymateux. Le champignon tue aussi les tissus du cambium et de l'écorce, provoquant un chancre sur la tige ou la branche, d'habitude associé à un affaiblissement de l'arbre. Les chancres par Ceratocystis sont seulement visibles à la fin du processus d'infection sur des arbres matures; sur des jeunes plants âgés de six mois inoculés par le champignon, les symptômes peuvent mettre six à huit mois à se déclarer, selon le degré de résistance de la plante.Le champignon sporule abondamment sur les surfaces de coupe de branches malades. Ces tapis de spores produisent des périthèces (organes de fructification) (Fig. 8.6.3) qui exsudent des masses de spores gluantes qui seront dispersés par les insectes. Ces tapis se caractérisent par une odeur de banane qui attire les scolytes qui s'en nourrissent, devenant ainsi vecteurs extérieurs en plus de faciliter la dissémination du champignon dans le tissu de cacaoyer par leurs galeries.Les arbres infectés le sont sévèrement à leur base, peut-être à cause de blessures infectées près du niveau du sol. Les spores dans les déjections dispersées par le vent ou les spores véhiculées par les insectes se nourrissant du champignon peuvent infecter des blessures récentes. Le terme 'Mal de machette' vient de l'association de telles infections avec les blessures provoquées par une machette.Le mycélium du champignon est aussi infectieux que les spores (tant les conidies que les ascospores) ; ces dernières germent aisément sur l'eau sans dormance; après pénétration, le mycélium croît de manière importante dans les tissus de cacaoyer bien avant qu'un quelconque symptôme ne soit visible.Les parties végétatives susceptibles de propager le parasite lors de leur commerce/transport sont les suivantes:-Racines : Hyphes ; installées intérieurement; invisibles -Tiges (en surface)/pousses/troncs/branches : Hyphes, organes de fructification ; portés intérieurement et extérieurement ; visibles à l'oeil nu.Parties végétales non connues pour véhiculer le parasite lors de leur commerce/transport :-Graines.   Rosellinia pepo Pat.Rosellinia paraguayensis Starb, décrit une seule fois sur le cacaoyer à Grenade (Waterston 1941).Le pathogène tellurique Rosellinia spp. provoque des symptômes sévères de maladie aérienne ne ressemblant pas à ceux causés par beaucoup d'autres maladies des racines. Chez le cacaoyer et le caféier, les premiers symptômes sont un jaunissement et un dessèchement des feuilles, une défoliation, le dessèchement des branches et finalement la mort de l'arbrisseau ou de l'arbre. Les fruits immatures tendent à mûrir prématurément, restent vides de fèves, deviennent noirs et se dessèchent si on ne les récolte pas (Merchán 1989, 1993, Mendoza 2000, Ten Hoopen et Krauss 2006).Bien que R. bunodes et R. Pepo produisent des symptômes externes semblables, des différences existent en ce qui concerne la forme du mycélium sur les racines. Sur les racines, R. pepo est présent sous forme de filaments ressemblant à une toile d'araignée grisâtre qui noircissent et s'agglomèrent en une masse laineuse. Sous l'écorce, des sortes d'étoiles blanches peuvent être observées (Fig. 8.7.1). Rosellinia bunodes montre des filaments branchus noirs fermement attachés aux racines qui peuvent s'épaissir en noeuds irréguliers (Fig. 8.7.2). Rosellinia bunodes peut s'observer à l'extérieur comme à l'intérieur de l'écorce des racines (Fig. 8.7.3) et peut s'étendre bien au-dessus de la surface de sol en conditions humides (Sivanesan et Holliday 1972).En Amérique latine, il semble que Rosellinia et Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (autrefois C. fimbriata, voir également le Chapitre 8.6 de ce guide) cohabitent puisqu'on les trouve souvent ensemble sur le cacaoyer (Aranzazu et al. 1999, Ten Hoopen et Krauss 2006). Les symptômes d'un des pathogènes pourraient masquer la présence de l'autre.Rosellinia bunodes et R. pepo sévissent dans les zones tropicales d'Amérique centrale et du Sud, en Afrique de l'Ouest, dans les Caraïbes et en Asie. La distribution de R. pepo est probablement plus restreinte que celle de R. bunodes (Waterston 1941, Saccas 1956, Sivanesan et Holliday 1972, Holliday 1980)  (Waterston 1941, Saccas 1956, Booth et Holliday 1972, Sivanesan et Holliday 1972, Aranzazu et al. 1999, Ten Hoopen et Krauss 2006).Nombre de ces hôtes sont souvent trouvés en association avec le cacaoyer.Les attaques de Pourridié à Rosellinia se caractérisent souvent par une apparition en foyers (Fig. 8.7.4) qui s'étend circulairement en raison de la façon dont le pathogène infeste les plantes environnantes. Il est généralement admis que les Rosellinia spp. se propagent par contact direct des racines entre plantes hôtes (Aranzazu et al. 1999) et à ce jour, le rôle des ascospores ou des sclérotes n'est pas clair dans l'épidémiologie. Il n'existe aucune preuve que les outils des agriculteurs jouent un rôle dans la propagation de la maladie.Les points d'infection initiale sont souvent associés avec des arbres d'ombrage mourant ou déjà morts. Le système racinaire en décomposition permet l'infection par Rosellinia qui produit par la suite assez d'inoculum pour pouvoir infecter des arbres sains (Ten Hoopen et Krauss 2006). L'impact économique de Rosellinia se traduit par la perte progressive des arbres producteurs, la destruction des arbres infectés et les coûts directs de la lutte. En outre, un agriculteur ne peut pas replanter une parcelle infectée pendant plusieurs années.Rosellinia bunodes et R. pepo ont des besoins similaires en termes de sols et de conditions climatiques. Les deux organismes sont souvent associés aux sols acides, riches en matière organique (Waterston 1941, López et Fernández 1966, (F Aranzazu, FEDECACAO) Mendoza et al. 2003). Dans ces zones où les deux espèces sont présentes, il n'est pas rare que toutes les deux infectent un arbre en même temps.Les parties végétales suivantes sont susceptibles de véhiculer la maladie :-Racines -Troncs/branches -Milieu de culture des plantes pouvant héberger un inoculum de Rosellinia.Parties végétales peu susceptibles de véhiculer la maladie :-Cabosses -Les graines ne semblent pas transmettre la maladie -Feuilles.Les plantes entières ou des parties de plantes ne doivent pas être envoyées à partir de zones infestées par Rosellinia. Lorsque du matériel clonal est exigé, il doit être fourni sous forme de baguettes provenant si possible de zones indemnes de maladie. Les baguettes provenant de zones infestées doivent être envoyées à une station de quarantaine intermédiaire située dans une zone indemne de maladie et greffées sur des porte-greffes issus de graines collectées dans des zones indemnes. Si la baguette provient d'un secteur infesté, il faut faire attention que l'arbre-mère et tous ses voisins ne montrent pas de symptômes de la maladie. Le cycle de vie du ravageur est illustré dans la Figure 9.1.4. Les femelles peuvent pondre de 40 à 100 oeufs (maximum 300). Les oeufs ovales, fortement aplatis et mesurant 0,6 mm de long, sont habituellement déposés séparément près des sillons sur la surface de la cabosse. L'éclosion des oeufs se produit en à peu près trois jours, passant lors de leur maturation d'une couleur orange à presque translucide. Les larves nouvellement écloses forent immédiatement les parois des cabosses (Fig. 9.1.5). À l'intérieur de la cabosse, les larves s'alimentent pendant 14 à 21 jours de mucilage, de pulpe, de placenta et parfois des téguments des cotylédons. Une fois matures, elles forent la paroi de la cabosse (Fig. 9.1.6) et entament leur pupaison dans des cocons soyeux sur les feuilles, les cabosses ou dans les litières de feuilles séchées au sol (Fig. 9.1.7). Les pupes changent de couleur au cours de leur maturation passant de vert clair à gris sombre.Les adultes, d'environ 5 mm de long avec une envergure de 13 mm, apparaissent après 6-8 jours de pupaison. Les ailes antérieures des adultes nouvellement apparus montrent une raie en zigzag blanche avec une tache jaune-orange à l'extrémité. Actifs la nuit, les adultes se reposent le jour en recroquevillant leurs   Colin Campbell  En transférant du matériel végétal tel que des baguettes de greffage, il faut veiller à les collecter sur des branches qui ne montrent aucun signe visuel d'insectes vivants ou de dégâts causés par des insectes. Les baguettes doivent être traitées avec un pesticide approprié selon les directives locales. Toutefois, comme certains oeufs d'insectes peuvent ne pas être éliminés par une immersion dans un pesticide, il est conseillé à la réception des baguettes que les plants greffés soient maintenus dans des serres à l'épreuve des insectes et examinés chaque jour pour y détecter la présence d'insectes.Enrique Arevalo-Gardini 1 , Betsabe Leon Ttacca 1 , Manuel Canto-Saenz 2 et Virupax Baligar 31 Instituto de Cultivos Tropicales, Tarapoto, Pérou. Email : e.arevalo.ict@terra.com.pe 2 Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima, Pérou. Email : mcanto@lamolina.edi.pe 3 USDA-ARS. Beltsville, Maryland, USA. VC. Email : V.C.Baligar@ars.usda.gov Les nématodes parasites jouent un rôle très important dans la production de cacao. La présence de galles de nématodes sur les racines de cacaoyer est connue depuis 1900 (Sosamma et al. 1979) et la plupart des premiers travaux sur le diagnostic et la lutte contre les nématodes chez le cacaoyer ont été effectués dans les pays producteurs de cacao d'Afrique occidentale et en Jamaïque (Meredith 1974). On connaît un grand nombre de nématodes parasites associés à des plantes de cacaoyer saines et malades. Le cacaoyer est gravement affecté par les nématodes Meloidogyne spp. et les pertes estimées varient de 15 à 30 %, mais peuvent atteindre 40 à 60 % (Fademi et al. 2006). Les dégâts causés par ce nématode sont les plus importants sur les jeunes plants, où les pertes peuvent atteindre 100%. Cependant, les pertes réelles de rendement causées par d'autres genres de nématodes sont encore méconnues. D'après les conclusions publiées, d'autres nématodes peuvent être aussi nuisibles au cacaoyer que Meloidogyne spp. quand leurs populations sont élevées (Fademi et al. 2006).Plus de 25 genres de nématodes endoparasites et ectoparasites sont associés au cacaoyer (Sosamma et al. 1979, Campos et Villain 2005). Meloidogyne spp. a été décrit comme étant le plus destructeur en raison de sa pathogénicité et de sa grande distribution dans toutes les régions de production de cacao. Campos et Villain (2005) ont présenté une liste de plusieurs espèces de Meloidogyne attaquant le cacaoyer et les pays concernés. Elles comprennent M. arenaria (Brésil), M. incognita (Nigeria, Inde, Malaisie, Venezuela, Brésil), M. exigua (Bolivie), M. javanica (Malawi, Afrique centrale).Les plantes infectées montrent une réduction de hauteur, de diamètre et de poids sec. Le dépérissement de la tige, le flétrissement, le jaunissement et le brunissement des feuilles, la formation de petites feuilles et le dessèchement des feuilles, qui tombent avant que la plante ne meure, sont des symptômes communs d'une infestation par les nématodes (Fig. 10.1). Les plantes infectées montrent des gonflements des hypocotyles et des racines. La formation de galles sur les racines, la rupture du cortex, une désorganisation totale de la stèle, la destruction du xylème, du phloème, du péricycle et de l'endoderme ainsi que l'arrêt brutal de l'extrémité racinaire avec des racines nourricières maigres sont d'autres symptômes observés sur des racines infectées (Fig. 10.2) (Asare-Nyako et Owusu 1979, Afolami 1982, Afolami et Ojo 1984, Campos et Villain 2005).Le nématode à galles des racines du cacaoyer a été décrit pour la première fois en 1900 (Sosamma et al. 1979). L'infestation par les nématodes sur le cacaoyer est répertoriée dans la plupart des régions productrices de cacao du monde (Tableau 10.1). Elle a été décrite partout en Côte d'Ivoire, au Ghana, au Nigeria, à São Tomé, en Inde, en Malaisie, à Java, aux Philippines, en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, en Jamaïque, au Venezuela, au Costa Rica, au Brésil, en Equateur, au Pérou, en Bolivie (Sosamma et al. 1979, Lopez-Chaves et al. 1980, Sharma 1982, Crozzoli et al. 2001, Wood et Lass 2001, Campos et Villain 2005, Arévalo 2008). Il est crucial d'effectuer une inspection minutieuse du matériel à planter pour détecter la présence de nématodes lors de toute procédure de quarantaine (Oostenbrink 1972). Les plantules obtenues dans la pépinière doivent être examinées avec attention pour la présence de Meloidogyne avant leur transplantation. Si une infestation est suspectée, le matériel végétal ne doit pas être transplanté avant un traitement des racines par de l'eau chaude. Quand cela est possible, des matériels résistants ou immunes aux nématodes doivent être utilisés pour la propagation (Taylor et Sasser 1983). La lutte chimique par des produits némastatiques contre Meloidogyne dans les racines des espèces pérennes déjà établies n'est pas efficace. Au Nigeria, Alofami (1993) a contrôlé les nématodes dans un sol de pépinière par un traitement au nématicide Basamid et une stérilisation du sol par la vapeur. ","tokenCount":"8452"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dc3fa047d5b4fe9f5aa185ae72ad5a6c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d68338f8-8b53-470f-8b5d-db244d3c1fd6/retrieve","id":"1435694332"},"keywords":["sweet potato","orange-fleshed","needs assessment"],"sieverID":"1011e97f-4b64-48d7-9a34-b0f6e018b355","pagecount":"5","content":"The study was carried out to generate baseline information on production, marketing and utilization of sweet potato in Northern Ghana. The assessment was carried out using Rapid Rural Appraisal tools, including focus group discussions, key informant interviews, seasonal calendars, problem solving tree, decision making matrix, problem census and prioritization matrix. Northern and Upper East Regions reported higher yields ranging from (3 -3.6) tons/acre of fresh sweet potato if fertilizer was applied. Upper West had lower yields of about (1.4 -1.8) tons/acre of fresh sweet potato (No fertilizer applied). Northern and Upper East Regions also had a benefit-cost ratio of 2.5 compared with that of the Upper West Region of 2.05. Lack of planting material was a major limiting factor to the expansion of sweet potato production especially in Northern and Upper West Regions. Lack of good market sources was an important limiting factor to production in all regions. 5 varieties were identified in upper east region with 3 and 4 identified in Northern and Upper West Regions, respectively. This was mainly based on flesh and skin colour of the sweet potato, with orange-fleshed sweet potato being well-known at each location.With more than 133 million tons (FAOSTAT, 1998) in annual production sweet potato ranks the most important crop in fresh weight basis in developing countries after rice, wheat, maize and cassava. In Ghana, annual production is 90,000 tons from an area of 65,000 ha (FAOSTAT, 2006). A recent study by CORAF/IFPRI (2006) indicated that roots and tubers contribute the most to agricultural growth in West and Central Africa and the most to Ghana's agricultural growth as well. Current information available from Ghana's CSIR-CRI shows that roots and tubers account for approximately 40% of Ghana's GDP whilst cereals account for 7%. Ghana is not providing the necessary production support services to the crop to harness its huge potential for food security and poverty reduction (Sam and Dapaah, 2009). A major source of concern in sweet potato production is storage, Marketing and utilization. The tubers are sold within twofour weeks after harvest. The production status per region of Ghana and their relative contribution to national production is shown in Table-1 below. As part of activities to promote the production, marketing and utilization of sweet potato in general and more specifically the orange flesh sweet potato by International Potato Center (CIP) Ghana, a sweet potato community need assessment was carried out to generate relevant information to describe the prevailing sweet potato production, marketing and utilization in northern Ghana. The results of the community analysis was expected to guide CIP Ghana to identify entry points and to help in the design of interventions for implementation in the selected districts of the three northern regions and also serve as a data base (reference point/measuring scale) against which progress can be measured. The sweet potato farmer's needs assessment was carried out using qualitative Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) tools developed by Robert Chambers, which included focus group discussions (FGDs), key informants interviews, seasonal calendars, problem solving tree, decision making matrix, problem census and prioritization matrix, and personal field observation. This was aimed at gathering information on the production, marketing and processing and utilization.Besides that some secondary data was obtained through desktop research of literature on existing studies already done on similar subject. Focus group discussions were carried out with randomly selected farmers within the project districts. This was guided by a pre-printed checklist designed to meet the information needs of this assignment. Key informants interviews were conducted, basically engaging in a conversation with key stakeholders in the district such us district MoFA monitoring and evaluation officers and the crops officers.The proposed sampling strategy used included zoning by region, purposive sampling, randomization, and stratification. Within the Northern sector of Ghana, three regional zones were created to represent the different climatic areas. This included the northern region (Guinea Savanna), the upper east region (Sudan Savanna) and the upper west region (Guinea Savanna). Two communities were purposively selected within each region, giving us six communities in all. Sites in Upper West and Northern Regions were chosen to coincide with benchmark sites for a multi-partner CGIAR systems research and development program. Farmers were also selected because of their involvement and commitment to sweet potato production. Out of the selected communities, some sweetpotato farmers were randomly selected to take part in the study. The selection of farmers was stratified to give representation to both male and female farmers. In all about 212 farmers took part in the survey.The results from the Rapid Rural Appraisal are presented here. This covered all the six communities in the three regions. There were three major varieties that were found across all three regions and described in Table-2 above. These were ranked from the most important to the least important (1, 2, and 3) with respect to the following attributes; Taste/consumption, Sweetness, Yield potential, Resistance to Pest/ diseases attack, Fibrous nature, Market Demand, Market value, Dry matter content and ease of processing. The rankings are then summed up and the variety with the least sum of score is the most preferred and the one with the highest sum of scores is the least preferred. These rankings were done in all six communities. The analysis in Dimabi is shown in Table-3 above and the summary from all community analysis is provided in Table-4 below. From Table-4 above, in northern region all the two communities ranked the purple white variety as the most preferred. However Dimabi community ranked white variety second and the orange orange variety as the least preferred. Cheyohi however ranked orange orange as second and white as the least preferred.In the upper east region, Nikongo ranked orange orange variety as the most important, followed by purple white and then white white variety. In Kpaliga purple white was most preferred, followed by white white and then orange orange. For the upper west, the two communities were consistent and ranked orange orange as the most preferred, then white as the second and then purple white as the least preferred. From Table-7 above, northern and upper east regions reported higher yields with a mean yield of 3.3 tons of fresh sweet potato per acre of land cultivated. Upper West has the lowest yield of about 1.6 tons/acre of fresh sweet potato. The reason given for such low yields was non application of fertilizer. It is possible to increase yields from this area when fertilizer is applied.The gross margins of Northern and Upper East are about 450.00 GHS compared to that of the Upper West Region with 205.00 GHS. Northern and Upper East Regions also have a benefit cost ratio of 2.5 compared with that of the Upper West Region of 2.05. It is economically feasible to increase cost by applying fertilizer and still increase your returns on investment. With regard to average sweet potato farm size per region, Upper East Region has the highest with average of about 5 acres followed by northern region with about 0.75 acres and then Upper West with an average of 0.50 acres.Constrains to sweet potato production were identified across the three sites to include; lack of planting materials, stealing, weevils and termites attack, poor rainfall pattern, poor market prices, and poor storability of sweet potato. Reasons and coping strategies for this constrains were identified as shown in tale 6 above.The lack of sweet potato seed was mention as one of the major limiting factors to the expansion of their sweet potato farms especially Northern and Upper West Region. Though Upper East Region acknowledged this, they however mention lack of sufficient farm implements to plough their fields to be their major limiting factor to increase production. All the regions recognize the lack of good market sources as an important limiting factor to production. They unanimously agreed that with the availability of good output market it will motivate them to expand production. Sweet potato production is mainly mono cropping across all the three regions.About 5 varieties were identified in upper east region with 3 and 4 identified in Northern and Upper West Regions respectively. This was mainly based on flesh and skin colour of sweet potato.It is economically feasible to increase cost by applying fertilizer and still increase returns on investment. General there are great potential for the development of sweet potato in these regions of the North if the concerns raised are addressed. The regions soil and climatic conditions support the growth of the sweet potato.We also want to recommend that a detailed study should be done through household survey using structured questionnaires in order to provide more quantitative estimates on the production, post-harvest losses, processing and utilization of sweet potato in Northern Ghana.","tokenCount":"1439"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d86c83e8a1a068c05febb14739218971","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b79d15f-093b-43a0-8e26-6f4ac12ee1dc/retrieve","id":"-148682298"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"89544c25-b2bd-45d8-a1fd-d2e976f4e526","pagecount":"2","content":"The impact of improved bean production technologies in northern Tanzania C ommon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) together with maize and rice are the major food crops of smallholder farmers in Tanzania. It is estimated that over 75% of rural households in Tanzania depend on beans for daily subsistence. The common bean is an important source of protein for low-income families in rural and urban areas providing about 38% of utilisable protein and12-16% of daily calorific requirements. Despite its lower calorific value, the cost per calorie from beans is lower than that from maize. This makes beans a cheaper source of protein for the poor and one of the most important strategic crops in efforts to eradicate poverty and food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa.The government of Tanzania (GOT) initiated a national bean research programme (NBRP) in the early 1980s with the objective of identifying highyielding varieties that are also resistant to diseases and insect pests. Over the last two decades, the NBRP in collaboration with Sokoine University of Agriculture and other organisations have released five improved bean varieties, with support from the GOT, CIAT and the Eastern and Central African Bean Research Network (ECABREN). The improved bean varieties developed are: Lyamungu 85, Lyamungu 90, Selian 94, Selian 97 and Jesca. In addition to the varieties, several improved production practices were disseminated.The objective of this study was to document the impact of the improved bean technologies on the livelihoods of rural farm households. The NBRP conducted the study in collaboration with CIAT and ECABREN between July and December 2004 in north eastern and north western Tanzania. A sample of 306 farm households was selected from six districts representing three bean cropping systems (maizebean, banana-coffee-bean and bean pure stand), and in two agro-ecological zones (low altitude and high altitude). Data was collected by interviewing farmers using a structured questionnaire. Household-level impacts of improved bean varieties were analysed in terms of adoption rates, yields gains, changes in household incomes and consumption; and farmer perceptions on variety preferences, gender and impacts on food security.Wealth ranking done by key informants classified 29% of households in the sample as poor, 50% as medium wealth, and 21% as rich. Cropping systems with the highest concentration of commercial bean farming (Monduli and Karagwe) had the highest percentage of rich households (40%) and the lowest percentage of poor households (17%); while the mainly subsistence banana-coffee-bean cropping system (Moshi, Rombo, Karagwe) had the highest percentage of poor households (37%) and the lowest percentage of rich households(19%).Most of the households (85-94%) in all zones were male-headed with one wife. Most farmers had attained primary education (75-91%). The average farm size cultivated by the low wealth category is 3 acres while the rich wealth category cultivates 11 acres. Men own the land in 83 percent of the households, while women own land in 12% of households. The average bean plot size for the rich is 2 to 4 times that of low wealth households. Men's bean plots are more than twice the area of women's plots.The results of this study confirm that adoption of improved bean varieties and bean production technologies have made significant positive impacts on the livelihoods of rural farm households in northern Tanzania. Results include improvements in household food security and incomes; poverty reduction, increase in amount of food available during periods of shortage, and savings in fuelwood consumption.Overall survey results show that 76% of farm households grow improved varieties. In 2004 the quantity of improved variety seed planted was equivalent to 54 % of all farmers' seed. Adoption of improved varieties was highest (89%) in semi-commercial bean cropping systems (maize-bean and bean monoculture), and lowest (67%) in subsistence cropping systems (bananacoffee-bean). The most widely adopted improved varieties were Lyamungu 85 and Lyamungu 90, grown by over 70% of farmers. Adoption rates for Selian 94, Jesca, and Selian 97 were very low (1-10%). The low adoption rates are attributed to limited farmer awareness of the varieties and limited access to start-up seed; hence the need to promote them more vigorously and extensively.Most farmers sold beans, with 64% selling more than 50% of their output, indicating that beans are evolving from a staple to a dependable cash crop. Its growing prominence puts more pressure on researchers to emphasize market traits in breeding programmes. In cropping systems where beans are mainly intercropped with bananas, coffee, legumes and roots, there was concern about poor adaptation of certain new varieties to intercropping. In these areas where land is scarce, there is need for varieties capable of yielding well under stress due to low soil fertility and high crop density.Estimated annual contribution of beans to household income was 45%, of which improved varieties accounted for 64%. In monetary terms, this value translated into TShs 460,478 (419 USD) from improved varieties, compared to TShs 143,143 (130 USD) earned from unimproved varieties. Most of the income gains went to adopters: they earned three times more income from beans than non-adopters.While income from unimproved varieties increased by 59% over the last five years, average income from improved varieties grew by 197%. In comparison, the increase in bean consumption by farm households was much less than income. Average annual consumption of unimproved varieties five years ago was 86 kg, almost the same as improved varieties at 96 kg; both had increased slightly to 92 kg and 114 kg respectively by 2004. The greatest beneficiaries were the rich farmers: their income from improved varieties increased by an average of 341%, compared to an increase of 105% for the low wealth category.Household food security was strengthened as a result of households having more output available for consumption and more disposable income from bean sales.Increased female involvement attributed to growing improved varieties was reported in relation to: decisions on growing beans (45%), how much beans to sell (39%), who sells beans (47%) and who controls income from beans (41%).It is evident that past research has made a significant impact through development of high yielding varieties and production technologies. However, the overall impact on productivity is limited due to less than expected yield gains realised by farmers. Average improved variety yields were 40% of the attainable yields of 1.5 to 2.0 metric tones per hectare under optimal management. This was because of:Major success realised to date has been due mainly to Lyamungu 85 and 90. Only small quantities of other improved varieties are being grown by farmers because of limited awareness and limited accesses to seed. More vigourous promotion using a multi-channel dissemination approach and involving other stakeholders (NGOs, farmer research groups) is needed.Climbing beans represent a major opportunity for achieving major gains in productivity especially for farmers in land constrained regions such as Kagera. Researchers must develop bean technologies that guarantee high productivity under monoculture and intercropping systems.The major challenge to boosting bean production is for research to address emerging major biotic and abiotic stresses which threaten to reduce the gains made from previous advances. Susceptibility to diseases, pests, and drought were ranked highest among traits to be improved. Most of the traditional bean growing areas are increasingly experiencing erratic and insufficient rains. There is therefore a need to place more emphasis on developing drought tolerant bean varieties.","tokenCount":"1195"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"08e55bf165c3ff8dcd5d7ab513cc1631","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7f369cd-0f85-4406-9b1f-a6cf4e67b715/retrieve","id":"1493767043"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"80bc8e59-4e8e-4faa-82e2-d13ada37e4cf","pagecount":"33","content":"Li-chăn is a project under the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock which aims at stimulating system transformation through bundled livestock-based interventions in North-West (NW) Vietnam, covering the areas of livelihoods, environment, equity, and market access to benefit highland farming communities. The project has been co-designed by both international and national partners. It is funded by the Livestock CRP and co-In the Northwest Highlands (NWH) of Vietnam, the main feeding system for cattle and buffalo are mainly through tended native pasture (74%), stall feeding using crop residues and free grazing on communal land and forests. Feed and forage quality is generally of low quality resulting in low livestock output. Intensifying beef cattle production has been identified as a way of increasing livestock productivity and income of smallholder livestock farmers in this region (Huyen et al., 2010). Currently, cattle production systems have begun transitioning from extensive to semi-intensive and intensive systems (Ba et al., 2015). However, to fully achieve this goal, measures need to be put into place to address constraints of animal husbandry including feed-related challenges such as winter feed shortage.Pig production also plays an important role in the livelihoods of livestock farmers in the NWH region.In remote areas, pig production is associated with indigenous pig breeds characterized by low productivity but well-adapted to local harsh conditions and showing better resistance to diseases than improved pig breeds (Le et al., 2016). Bản pigs are mainly fed with available feed resources such as rice bran, corn, banana trunk, vegetables, and leaves. Although there is a long-standing tradition of Bản pig production, farmers have limited knowledge in feed practices for pigs which greatly affects the productivity and health of the pig herd.Assessments carried out in 2020, in Mai Son district identified the main feed-related challenges in the region including shortage of winter feed, poor diets and low yield and poor quality of available forages (Hammond et al., 2021). Most households rely on crop residues and collected feed such as rice straw, sugarcanes tops, banana stem, maize, sweet potato etc. Some villages have communal pastures where animals can graze (Atieno et al., 2021). However, the available feed is of either of low quality or limited especially during winter. Bản pigs have a high fat content and less lean meat which lowers the market value leading to low returns to the farmers. There is limited knowledge on suitable forage types and management, feed processing and preservation (Atieno et al., 2021). The results of this assessment informed the design of feed interventions to help address these challenges. This study aims to assess locally suited feed intervention strategies for cattle and pigs, for improved animal nutrition in the Mai Son district, Son La province, located in the Northwest Highlands of Vietnam.The study area is located in 2 communes (Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong) of Mai Son district, Son La province, has different types of farming systems ranging from grazing and extensive systems at the mountain tops to mixed crop-livestock systems at the bottom of the mountains, with varying socioeconomic and ecological conditions (Hammond et al., 2021). The study location is divided into 4 farming system types (A, B, C1 and C2) based on accessibility i.e., distance to the main road or nearby market, and production system. Six villages were selected for interventions in the 2 communes (Table 1).⮚ Type A -intensive systems in the lowlands with good market access and relatively better capacity for innovation.⮚ Type B -mixed crop-livestock systems in the mid-altitudes with mainly Thai ethnic minorities ⮚ Type C1 -remote extensive system in the high altitudes, with low access to market, fragile environment, mainly Hmong ethnic group ⮚ Type C2 -remote mixed crop-livestock system in the high altitudes, with low access to market, fragile environment, mainly Hmong ethnic group To propose context-specific measures on animal nutrition, feed-related challenges need to be identified. In 2020, a survey was conducted in 6 villages of Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong communes, Mai Son district, Son La province, using the Gendered Feed Assessment Tool (G-FEAST) (Atieno et al., 2021). G-FEAST was designed to identify opportunities and constraints in animal feeding practices for different household types by assessing the availability and use of local feed resources, identify challenges and constraints affecting livestock production through the gender lens, opportunities for improved animal nutrition and propose context-specific interventions on livestock feed for improved animal nutrition (Lukuyu et al., 2019a;Lukuyu et al., 2019b). The G-FEAST survey informed the design of context-specific feed interventions to be implemented in Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong communes such as promoting improved forage varieties, knowledge on better utilization of crop residues, feed processing and preparation and feeding regimes (Atieno et al., 2021).Based on this survey, feed interventions were designed as follows:1. Improved animal nutrition: Trainings on feed utilization, processing & preservation, and feeding regimes for cattle/buffalo and pigs 2. Improved forage varieties -Promote adoption of improved forage varieties -high yielding, high nutrient, cold-tolerant varieties.Farmers in the intervention villages were trained on different animal nutrition techniques such as feed processing and preservation, better utilization of crop residues, feed mixing and improved diets for cattle and pigs. About 145 farmers (70 men and 75 women) participated from the six villages of Chieng Chung and Chieng Luong communes (Table 2). Most of the invited households participated in the trainings while in some villages e.g., Buom Khoang, recorded more participants in attendance. More female participants enthusiastically participated in the hands-on practical sessions including preparation on silage and urea-treated rice straw, feed mixing and feed fermentation. The training approach used was interactive and allowed participants to actively participate and freely ask questions and seek clarifications. Some farmers took notes and videos of the training sessions. At the end of each day, a game was organized where participants competed in answering questions related to the training topics. This enabled the project team to note what farmers learned and highlight the key areas that farmers needed to remember and was also a way to help farmers to discuss amongst themselves and consolidate the skills learned.A willingness survey was also conducted after the training to note the number of farmers willing to adopt the techniques covered during the training. More than 50% of farmers attending the training expressed willingness to adopt various feed technologies (Table 3). Six months after the training while conducting monitoring of farmer-led forage trials (section 2), follow-up interviews were done with 49 farmers who were also growing introduced forages, to assess the uptake of the animal nutrition techniques from the training. Out of 49 farmers interviewed, 17 reported already applying one or more of the techniques they had learned in the training. The farmers also reported benefits from applying feed techniques such as reduction in labour and time for feed preparation. For instance, some farmers now prepare enough silage and store for a longer time as compared to before the training. Cattle prefer to eat more of the silage. Farmers preparing fermented pig feed using probiotics reported they no longer need to cook resulting in reduced fuel cost and less firewood for cooking feed.The proposed forage varieties included 4 grasses (Mulato II, Mombasa guinea, Green elephant and Ubon paspalum), and 3 legumes (Ubon stylo, Arachis pintoi and rice bean). These varieties were selected as they are high-yielding, high quality and cold-tolerant, characteristics best suited to address feed challenges in the study area. Farmers were first given an overview of proposed forages then asked to fill in a checklist to select from the proposed forage varieties that best suit their needs and farming systems (Table 4). Farmer-led field trials were set up in the 6 intervention villages with interested farmers to assess the potential of forage varieties in improving the feed basket for increased livestock productivity in the study area. In May 2021, the Livestock CRP Feeds & Forages flagship provided seeds and planting materials (seedlings and stem cuttings) (Table 5) to a total of 155 households. Field demonstrations on different ways of growing forages were conducted in each village, after which the farmers applied the same techniques in their own farms.  Various planting methods were used for selected forages depending on the system and farmers' preference. Examples include cut-and-carry mono-crop plots, grasses planted on contours, intercropping with annual or perennial crops, ground cover etc. Farmers applied varying amounts of fertilizers (NPK, urea, manure). Details on how to grow, manage and utilize the 7 forage varieties can be found in the field manual and factsheets (https://bit.ly/3CC0vHE; https://bit.ly/2ZU1dll).Trial monitoring was conducted by project staff with the support of local stakeholders. The Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute (NOMAFSI) was the main local partner leading trial setup and monitoring. Data collection (germination rate, height, biomass yield [fresh matter (FM)]and farmer preferences, dislikes, and challenges) was done on selected farms in each village -> 3-5 farms per crop per village.Approximately 25 ha were planted with improved forages across the 6 intervention villages (Table 6). This is a significant increase in area grown with forages in all the 4 farming system types. Type A villages reported an average increase in area from 0.01 ha to 0.06 ha per household, Type B -from 0.01 to 0.04 ha, Type C households-from 0.02 ha to 0.06 ha. Green elephant grass showed a high germination rate of >81% across all farming system types except in Type C1 with 79% (Table 7). Average yield ranged from 33.8 -82.1 tonnes FM/ha with Type A and C2 recording the highest biomass of > 82 ton/ha after the second harvest while Type C1 reported the lowest yield as farmers did not apply any fertilizer. All farmers showed high preference (100%) and expressed interest to continue growing this variety as it is high yielding, grows fast, has soft leaves and stem and is liked by cattle and buffalo. However, when harvested too early or fed in large quantities, green elephant grass contains a lot of water which can cause bloating and diarrhea in cattle. Germination rate ranged from 71-84% and was highest in Type C2 (84%) and lowest in Type A villages (71%) as it temporarily stopped raining after sowing. There were also issues with poor sowing and land preparation techniques and some seedlings eaten by chickens especially in unfenced plots. Biomass yield was lowest in Type C1 (11.8t FM/ha). Highest preference for Mombasa guinea was reported in C2 village because of high rate of germination and growth, and liked by cattle when fed in moderate quantities.Similar to green elephant grass, Mulato II also showed a germination rate of 74-86% in all system types except in Types A and C1 due to poor land preparation and sowing methods, high temperatures and also seedlings damage by chickens. Average yield after the second harvest was 41.9-51.1t FM/ha except for C1 (12.8t FM/ha). Highest preference for this variety was reported in Type C households. However, 48% of Type A households reported low preference for Mulato II due to low germination and yield in some farms as compared to green elephant, hairy leaves and not liked by cattle and buffalo were further factors contributing to low preference.Ubon paspalum recorded a high germination rate in Type A households (86%) and lowest in Type C1 and B (63-66%) attributed to poor land preparation and sowing methods, high temperatures and also seedlings damage by chicken. Type C1 also recorded the lowest yield of only 10.6t FM/ha. Most households reported high to medium preference while 50% of C1 had low preference for this variety. High preference was attributed to soft leaves and stem and liked by cattle when fed in moderate quantities. However, as with other grasses, cutting young Ubon paspalum and feeding large quantities caused digestion-related problems such as bloating and diarrhea in cattle.Stylo germinated well in Type C farms (80-84%), however the highest yield was reported in Type B after 2 harvests (26.4t FM/ha). Preference for Ubon stylo was medium to low as farmers complained about low yield, difficulties to manage, tough stem and not liked by cattle and goats even when fed in moderate quantities.Rice bean had the highest germination rate out of the 7 varieties ranging from 82-100% with Type C1 reporting 100% germination of sown seeds. As rice bean was planted later in the rainy season, low yields were reported at the time of sampling with only 1 harvest. Most farmers reported high to medium preference and intend to continue growing rice bean because it is a multipurpose -purpose crop (seeds can be used as food, biomass as feed, and because of additional benefits of improving soil health) and has a high germination rate. One constraint reported is the slow regrowth after the first harvest.Of all the 7 forage varieties, Pinto Peanut had the lowest germination rate (57-65%), lowest yield (2-4t FM/ha) and lowest preference particularly in Type C1 (60%) due to low germination and yield, and slow growth. Surprisingly, Pinto peanut was expected to have a higher uptake and preference in C1 (extensive system) as it is best utilized as a ground cover under trees and tolerant to acidic soils predominant in this area. However, the farmers who showed high preference for pinto peanut reported benefits of adopting this variety as they could feed it to pigs, chicken, and cattle, and for ornamental use because of its beautiful blossom.-Forages are mainly fed for cattle and buffalo. Moreover, there is a small number of farmers who fed the promoted varieties to pigs and poultry (chicken, local goose and ducks). In this case, forages were often chopped and mixed with rice bran or maize meal. -There was an increase in the number of forage varieties grown by farmers who previously relied on local Napier grass and to a lesser extent -Guinea grass, in addition to food-feed crops such banana, maize etc. -Increased amount of feed available for livestock was reported and animals had enough to eat.-Cut-and-carry systems helped to increase the availability of forages near the farms and family house, especially during rainy days when grazing is difficult. -Increased transition to intensive systems, from grazing to stall feeding especially in Type A households. -Growing forages reduced the cost and time of collecting native grasses from paddy fields and forests and prevented harvesting grass contaminants such as herbicides. Farmers had more time for other on-farm and off-farm activities. -Increasing the availability of forages resulted in few farmers expanding their herd size.In the frame of Li-chăn project, the photovoice method was used as a participatory monitoring and evaluation tool to document change stories from farmers' perspectives (Wang & Burris 1997). Farmers gave their own reflections on livestock development including the benefits of growing improved forages, feed preparation and preservation for improved nutrition and productivity of livestock. These stories were featured in a virtual exhibition -Livestock Development in Vietnam from Artists' and Farmers' Perspectives -developed in collaboration with the Vietnam Fine Arts Museum (https://bit.ly/3BylpGr). Farmers shared stories on benefits of applying different methods of feed processing and preservation such as increased availability of feed, high preference of silage by cattle, increased weight gain of pigs fed with fermented feed. They also reported increased forage yields from selected varieties and availability of livestock feed, preference of their animals to different forages, challenges encountered when introducing new varieties to their animals, and plans to increase adoption of these forages. Below are some stories on adoption of animal nutrition techniques and improved forages. livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff8-story-thuan \"My wife is going to cut grass in our field about 100 metres from home. It often takes her about 30 minutes. This is Guinea grass provided by the (Li-chăn) project for trial planting. In addition to rice bean, we grow three varieties of grass: Mombasa guinea, green elephant and Mulato II. We have harvested 17 kilograms of Mombasa Guinea grass, 15 kilograms of Mulato II grass and 35 kilograms of green elephant grass on an area of four-square metres. Rice bean is planted to harvest its foliage for feeding the cows. The productivity is satisfactory. Currently, these varieties are suitable for the soil, but I don't know if they are drought tolerant during the dry season. The chopped rice bean and green elephant grass are accepted by the cattle. The stem of Mombasa guinea grass is too hard for them, but they can eat the leaves. I'm planning to plant more green elephant and Mombasa guinea grass next year because they are tall and easy to harvest.\"Narrator and photographer: Lường Văn Dũng (Thai ethnicity) Person in the photo: Lường Thị Liến (Thai ethnicity) livestockpanorama.ilri.org/en/livestock-development-farmers-perspective/ff23-story-dung \"Dụ is weeding the green elephant grass field of the Li-chăn project. The field is about 1,000 square metres, growing green elephant grass at the foot of the hill and Mombasa Guinea grass at the top. I have decided to raise more cows and build a shed. So, I want to try and find out which grass variety is better before scaling up so that I have enough fodder for my cattle. Currently, I have three cows and one buffalo. I have enough grass because I have sugarcane leaves in the dry season. However, there will be a shortage of fodder if I expand the herd. In Chiềng Lương commune, we run out of fodder in April and May because there is no longer a supply of sugarcane leaves. From June to October, the fodder supply is sufficient as elephant grass is available. From November, sugarcane tops are used to feed the cattle again.\" -Provide more seeds and planting materials for new, improved forages to be tested by farmers.Farmers who did not register for some varieties would like to expand the area for forages and test these varieties. -Organize follow-up technical trainings on feed processing, feed mixing, preservation of feed for winter, cultivation of forages. -Provide technical advice on crop production to achieve high biomass yield such as irrigation methods, support with inputs such as fertilizers, equipment e.g., chopping machines to reduce labour and time spent on feed processing. -Support access to credit facilities or capital for farmers to increase and expand investments in livestock production.Language barrier: The study area is mainly occupied by ethnic minorities (Thai and Hmong) and some farmers do not understand Kinh language (Vietnamese) nor English. This can pose a challenge when conducting trainings and usually requires the help of a translator.Accessibility: Some villages are difficult to access especially during the rainy season e.g. Xam Ta, Buom Khoang, and sometimes Oi village.Travel restrictions limited follow-ups to guide farmers on forage management and utilization. However, forage factsheets were developed and adapted to address issues raised by farmers such as appropriate cutting time, feed mix and use.• Farmers reported low preference for forage legumes due to low germination, slow growth, tendency to be outcompeted by weeds, low biomass yield and low palatability when fed to animals. • Forages harvested when too young and fed in large quantities to animals caused digestive complications as young leaves and stems contain high water content. When left in the field for long periods before harvesting, the leaves and stem became too hard for the animals to eat. Farmers also complained that Mulato II having hairy leaves and stems caused discomfort during cutting. • Despite being trained on feed processing techniques such as chopping and feed mixing, almost all farmers tended to feed their cattle with one forage variety at a time. This led to livestock not quickly getting used to eating these new and improved forages. • Some techniques such as silage preparation are labour intensive requiring several steps and materials e.g., nylon bags, basins, and collecting forages and crop residues. If farmers do not apply the recommended rate and proportion of raw materials, the silage quickly goes sour and cannot be stored for a long period.Highest preference was reported for 3 grass varieties (Green elephant, Mombasa guinea and Ubon paspalum) due to their high germination rate, high biomass productivity and good palatability. Moderate preference was expressed for forage legumes (Ubon stylo, rice bean, Arachis pintoi) and Mulato II. Overall, farmers expressed willingness to expand land area to grow more improved forages. Preliminary results reported high biomass yields and increased feed availability for livestock. However, it is still early in the project to evaluate the impact of interventions on livestock productivity, labour savings and changes to household income. Continued monitoring and evaluation of promoted feed interventions should be done to assess impact on socio-economic and productivity indicators.Forage management approaches such as appropriate cutting time, not harvesting too early or late can ensure animals get high quality feed. There is a need to find a balance between animal health, forage biomass and quality. Fencing forage plots can protect seeds and seedlings from being destroyed by wandering animals such as poultry. Inputs such as application of fertilizers are important to increase biomass yield especially for areas with poor soils.Adoption of high yielding, high quality forages and feed techniques can improve livestock production for smallholder livestock farmers in NW Highlands, who mainly rely on low quality forages and crop residues. To increase forage area, small-scale farmers can multiply planting materials, harvest seeds from legumes (e.g., rice bean, stylo) or use vegetative cuttings for grasses and Arachis pintoi. These planting materials can also be shared with or sold to other interested farmers. As winter feed shortage is the main feed-related challenge in this area, monitoring the on-going forage trials and adoption of feed techniques in the upcoming winter season will inform appropriate changes to the feeding strategy.Hands-on trainings and on-farm practical demonstrations for farmers on forage management and utilization, feed processing and preservation is crucial for optimum use of forages to achieve improved animal nutrition. Maintaining a gender balance during flagship activities also saw more female farmers actively participating in practical trainings.A seed system network analysis in Northwest Highlands of Vietnam reported government agencies and traders as the main sources of forage planting materials while dissemination is primarily from farmer to farmer especially in beef-oriented systems (Leyte et al., 2021). In this study, seeds and planting materials were sourced from local seed traders and government institutions multiplying and disseminating planting materials. ","tokenCount":"3659"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a1bf6e4ff1e6791da64b51fe208f30f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87ba8a33-ae73-46a0-9751-87dd70606d0e/retrieve","id":"-61988788"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"27bf70be-5546-46ea-890d-5e661efa4754","pagecount":"4","content":"A well-drained, deep friable soil will support maize/cassava mixture.Maize should be planted as soon as the rains become steady in March/April in the rainforest areas, and May in the southern guinea savanna areas. Cassava should be planted immediately, but not later than three weeks after maize planting.Plant at 90 x 45 cm with 2 plants per stand to give a population of 48,000 plants per hectare at a seed rate of 30.00 kg/ha using 2 seeds per hole.Plant at 90 x 90 cm to give 12,300 plants per hectare. Cuttings should be from mature stems with about 5 nodes and 20-25 cm long.NOTE: Test the maize seed for viability before planting.FOREST AREAS: Under continuous cultivation, apply 300 kg (6 bags) of NPK 25: 10:10/ha, at planting as band or broadcast application, to give 75 kg N, 30 kg P 2 O 5, and 30 kg K 2 O/ha. SAVANNA AREAS: Apply 400 kg (8 bags) of 25:10:10, 100 kg (2 bags) of single superphosphate and 3-5kg of zinc sulphate per hectare at planting as band or broadcast to give a total of 100 kg N, 58 kg P 2 O 6 , 40 kg K 2 O, 14 kg S, and 1-2kg Zn/ha.for more than two years, it is advisable to carry out soil test before any further fertilizer application.MANUAL WEEDING First weeding should be done 2-3 weeks after planting maize, and the next one before the second application of fertilizer, while subsequent weedings are done as necessary.Apply Primextra® or Lasso/Attrazine® at the rate of 5:1/ha i.e. 125 CC/10 (2 gals) of water pre-emergence.Plant maize early to minimize attack by disease and use recommended cassava varieties that are known to be resistant to the most important diseases as bacteria blight and cassava mosaic diseases.Stem borer attack should be controlled by applying 1.68 kg active ingredient of Vetox® 85/ha, i.e., 3 standard match box filled to the level per 4.5 liters (1 gal.) of water. Two applications, the first at 2 weeks after planting, and the second 2 weeks after.Spray monocrotophos (Azodrin® or Nuvacron®) at the rate of 28 ml/10 litres (2 gals) of water when there is an attach.Termite hills in the field and surrounding areas should be located and destroyed. Apply Nogos 50™ to destroy termite hills at 25-4.5 liters of water per hill depending on hill size. For the control of the other pests and diseases of maze and cassava in this mixed crop, please refer to control measures in this crop of maize or cassava.Rodents: Keep the plots and their surroundings free of weeds to minimize attack.CASSAVA: Spread the harvesting over consumption period or harvest as required over 12-18 months.MAIZE: 1500-2500 kg dry grains/ha.CASSAVA: 10-15 tonnes of fresh tuber yield/ha.CRIB STORAGE: Protect maize cobs with Actellic® at the rate of 1 part Actellic® to 5 parts of water, or 20 kg Actellic® (2%) dust/kg cob.AIR-TIGHT CONTAINER OR SILO STORAGE: Dry grains should be protected with Phostoxin™ or Detia™ at the rate of 1tablet/25kg maize (or 50 kg maize).Information and Communication Support for Agricultural Growth in Nigeria (ICS-Nigeria) is a project which aims to increase the quantity and quality of information available for increased agricultural production, processing, and marketing and also strengthen the capacity of farmer assistance organizations to package and disseminate information and agricultural technologies to farmers for the alleviation of rural poverty.ICS-Nigeria is funded by the USAID.","tokenCount":"561"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1c2902717d73040aabc15b3b40379a82","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bac14665-0ef5-4641-9896-794c68d9be9f/retrieve","id":"554506778"},"keywords":["climate change","bottlenecks","challenges","policy analysis","nationally determined contributions (NDC)","Paris Agreement (COP 21)","vietnam"],"sieverID":"22c0a972-504a-4499-bb1d-70dfe8b81073","pagecount":"15","content":"Agriculture is both highly sensitive to climate change and a major global emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG). With growing international pressure to curb global emissions through the 2015 Paris Agreement and mounting climate change-related losses in agriculture, countries are in need of an increasingly robust agricultural policy framework. This paper takes an in-depth look at the agricultural sector in Viet Nam, contributing to a better understanding of the main bottlenecks in implementing the Paris Agreement, evaluating the relevance and impact of selected barriers for the implementation of current climate policies and their implications for nationally determined contribution (NDC) design. To address these questions, an exploratory mixed method approach was employed: (i) identifying and mapping key policies, (ii) reviewing global literature sources on barriers, (iii) conducting stakeholder interviews (n = 25), and (iv) follow-up quantitative surveys (n = 16). The interviews revealed numerous barriers within Viet Nam's institutional setting that acted to impede the creation and implementation of climate policy. As seen in other countries, insufficient inter-ministry collaboration and information sharing restricted the overall success of climate policy, with poor representation of non-lead ministries in drafting and inadequate channels for bottom-up engagement also considered major constraints. These coupled with gaps in financing make for fragmented policies that often lack clear implementation guidelines, particularly at a local level. The NDC process presents an opportunity for Viet Nam to coordinate their cross-sector climate response around a single international agreement, facilitating greater inter-ministry information and data sharing, while utilizing the technical and financial support provided through international partners to build capacity in this vital area.The 2015 Paris Agreement (PA) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) required all participating countries to propose greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets in the form of intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs). These commitments became NDCs when participating governments ratified the PA in November 2016.Viet Nam, which ratified its NDC on 3 November 2016, has recently published (July 2020) an updated NDC with marginally more ambitious mitigation targets, including an unconditional commitment of 9% by 2030, compared with business as usual (BAU), which could be increased to 27% conditional on sufficient international support (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020).Developing countries, in particular, have placed great emphasis on the role of the agricultural sector in achieving GHG emission reductions stipulated in their INDCs (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016). Globally, agriculture needs to reduce emissions by 1.0 Gt CO 2 eq•year −1 by 2030 to meet its contribution in remaining below 2 • C warming by 2100. However, current feasible options for agricultural development achieve only 21-40% of this requirement (Wollenberg et al., 2016). Agriculture, excluding land-use change and forestry, contributes 25% of Viet Nam's total emission, making it the second largest emitter behind the energy sector (Climate Watch Data, 2014). A recent study on Viet Nam by Escobar Carbonari et al. ( 2019) identified 22 mitigation measures for agriculture and 19 for FOLU with a cumulative mitigation potential of 405.3 Mt CO 2 eq (2020-2030) of which FOLU contributes about 73%. Agroforestry and livestock practices were found to have negative marginal abatement costs at -USD155.12/t CO 2 eq and -USD58.38/t CO 2 eq, respectively; land use change interventions including forest protection and restoration were found to have the highest marginal abatement costs at USD156.25/t CO 2 eq. The adoption of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) in rice was also shown to have a significant mitigation potential at negative costs.As in other countries, the challenge for Viet Nam is to reduce emissions from agriculture while minimizing damage from climate change and reducing social vulnerability (Christoplos et al., 2017). These impacts are already apparent, with Viet Nam ranked sixth in terms of total climate-related losses from 1999 to 2018 (Eckstein et al., 2019). This is a direct threat to 43% of the population who rely predominantly on agriculture for their livelihood, many of whom are smallholder farmers (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2017). Viet Nam's topography, with eight agro-ecological zones, composed of mountains, two river deltas, and 3,260 km of coastline, leaves it highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The Mekong Delta, Central Highland, and Northern Mountainous regions are characterized as highly vulnerable due to a combination of sea level rise, flooding, droughts, and landsides (Parker et al., 2019). Mean temperatures in Viet Nam have increased by 0.26 ± 0.10 • C every decade since 1971, approximately twice that of the global average (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007;Nguyen et al., 2014). By the end of the century, sea levels are projected to have risen in Viet Nam from 55 cm (RCP4.5) 1 to 77 cm (RCP8.5) (Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and 1 A Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) is a greenhouse gas concentration trajectory adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for its fifth Assessment Report (AR5) in 2014. There are four pathways (2.6, 4.5, 6, and 8.5) representing radiative forcing values ranging from 2.6 to 8.5 W/m 2 by the year 2100.Climate Change, 2016). This would have profound impacts on rice production in the Mekong and Red River Deltas (Neumann et al., 2015;Smajgl et al., 2015).For Viet Nam to pursue a course of action that will adapt to and mitigate the impacts of climate change, the country will have to confront and overcome a raft of barriers. While the list of potential barriers identified in previous studies tends to be exhaustive (Biesbroek et al., 2013), the principal barriers in the literature include (a) financial constraints (Adger et al., 2007;Wreford et al., 2017); (b) the capacity to respond to the risks posed (Lipper et al., 2014;Rebugio and Ilao, 2017); (c) poor diffusion of relevant information (Amundsen et al., 2010;Brown et al., 2010); and (d) lack of coordination and collaboration between government institutions and non-government actors (Spratt, 2009;Long et al., 2016;McElwee et al., 2016). This paper builds on the existing knowledge of barriers through an extensive review of the literature both in Viet Nam and globally. The emerging categories formed the basis of semistructured interviews with key stakeholders, exploring the reality in Viet Nam. Where possible, conversations on barriers were pegged to specific policies identified through a review of the Viet Nam framework. Finally, a quantitative survey shared with interviewees following the interview elicited a rating for severity and difficulty to overcome of the major barriers identified.Through the above methods, this paper identifies, analyzes, and prioritizes the different barriers that hinder Viet Nam's fulfillment of their NDC commitments and the wider challenges of agricultural development under climate change. Conscious of the needs of the policy maker, we use qualitative and quantitative methods to prioritize barriers, in a systematic way, focusing on both government and non-government actors. This approach goes beyond that of similar studies that fail to attach a magnitude or importance to specific barriers, reducing their policy relevance. As such, this paper offers a unique insight into the barriers facing climate change policy, clearly identifying actionable interventions for policy makers to improve policy uptake.We define barriers as \"obstacles that can be overcome with concerted effort, creative management, change of thinking, prioritization, and related shifts in resources, land uses, and institutions\" (Moser and Ekstrom, 2010). In this section, we briefly review the literature on barriers to adoption of climate policy, identifying key areas that persist across different spatial, temporal, and socioeconomic scales. We categorize barriers, identifying the stages in the policy cycle where they occur. We initially grouped barriers based on existing synthesis reports (Adger et al., 2007;Clar et al., 2012;Biesbroek et al., 2013;Antwi-Agyei et al., 2015;Long et al., 2016;Wreford et al., 2017). This initial grouping was adjusted in light of a broader survey of the literature, reviewing 47 papers on barriers (see Table 1). The categories that emerged from this analysis included institutional, informational, financial, behavioral/psychological, and technical barriers. In the following sections, we explore the underlying drivers for the different barriers and their impact on the different stages of the policy life cycle. Political will Smit and Pilifosova, 2003;Füssel, 2007;Clement and Amezaga, 2009;Moser, 2009;Nilsson and Swartling, 2009;Smith et al., 2009;Lebel et al., 2011;Clar et al., 2012 Top down approach Smith et al., 2009;Lebel et al., 2011;Castillo et al., 2012 Engagement in policy formation , 2001;Ohno, 2009;Spratt, 2009;Lebel et al., 2011;Madzwamuse, 2011;Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015;Landauer et al., 2015;Ampaire et al., 2017;Cochrane et al., 2017 Inter-ministry cooperation Adger, 2001;McCarty, 2001;Moser, 2009;Nilsson and Swartling, 2009;Ohno, 2009;Smith et al., 2009;Spratt, 2009;Amundsen et al., 2010;Biesbroek et al., 2010;Brown et al., 2010;Burch, 2010;Lebel et al., 2011;Madzwamuse, 2011;Sietz et al., 2011;Castillo et al., 2012;Harvey et al., 2014;Lipper et al., 2014  , 2015;Van Tran et al., 2015;Long et al., 2016;McElwee et al., 2016;Ampaire et al., 2017;Wreford et al., 2017Informational Accountability Moser, 2009;Amundsen et al., 2010;Biesbroek et al., 2010;Reij et al., 2009;Moser and Ekstrom, 2010;Clar et al., 2012;Landauer et al., 2015;McElwee et al., 2016;Cochrane et al., 2017 Insufficient knowledge brokerage Barnard et al., 2007;Howden et al., 2007;Moser, 2009;Smith et al., 2009;Spratt, 2009;Castillo et al., 2012;Stuart et al., 2012;Doughty-Grajales, 2013; Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015Financial capacity Shanks et al., 2004;Füssel, 2007;Moser, 2009;Clement and Amezaga, 2009;Nilsson and Swartling, 2009;Smith et al., 2009;Sietz et al., 2011;Biesbroek et al., 2013;Doughty-Grajales, 2013;Hoa Le Dang et al., 2014;Dinesh et al., 2015;Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015;Landauer et al., 2015;Zimmer et al., 2015;Ampaire et al., 2017;Wreford et al., 2017 Technical Capacity for implementation, enforcement and verification Shanks et al., 2004;Mitchell, 2006;Adger et al., 2007;Füssel, 2007;Smith et al., 2007;Moser, 2009;Smith et al., 2009;Spratt, 2009;Amundsen et al., 2010;Jantarasami et al., 2010;Doughty-Grajales, 2013;Harvey et al., 2014;Phuc and Nghi, 2014;De Jalón et al., 2015  Investment, 2015;Zimmer et al., 2015;Ampaire et al., 2017;Rebugio and Ilao, 2017;Wreford et al., 2017 Expertise and awareness of climate issues Adger et al., 2007;Moser, 2009;Spratt, 2009;Amundsen et al., 2010;Brown et al., 2010;Doughty-Grajales, 2013;Dinesh et al., 2015 Unsurprisingly, institutions 2 play a vital role in a country's ability to effectively respond to climate change. This is well-grounded in the literature, with institutional structures, processes, and engagement in climate change activities frequently cited. Government institutions drive the design, implementation, and monitoring of climate policy to such an extent that their \"political will\" is a major determinant of policy success (Smit and Pilifosova, 2003;Füssel, 2007). Political will is an essential tool to overcome bureaucratic resistance and risk aversion in confronting complex problems like climate change (Smith et al., 2009). A lack of political will in national policy making provide only weak incentives to local policy implementers, resulting in reduced uptake (Clement and Amezaga, 2009).Governments that practice a \"top-down\" approach to climate policy implementation have less awareness of the barriers that persist at lower levels and as such may fail to attach the appropriate enablers to policies (Smith et al., 2009;Lebel et al., 2011). Such a hierarchy can result in unrealistic targets, incentivizing lower-level officials to misrepresent the reality on the ground, thus leaving those at a policy level unaware of the context-specific feasibility, capacity for implementation, and ultimate success rate of the policies they design, further exacerbating the disconnect between policy makers and implementers. Transformative change in the agricultural sector often emerges through a combination of feedback responses to external pressures, not following an organized, top-down, framework (Vermeulen et al., 2018). Studies identified a \"lack of engagement in policy formation\" as a major barrier to successful policy design, isolating drafting groups from the needs of multiple stakeholders (Madzwamuse, 2011;Landauer et al., 2015;Ampaire et al., 2017). It is part of a wider problem of \"inter-ministry cooperation\" that affects all aspects of the policy cycle (Brown et al., 2010;Sietz et al., 2011). The failure of ministries to cooperate on crosscutting climate change issues was the most commonly cited barrier in the literature. The failure to approach climate policy in an inclusive manner can create \"legal restrictions and no enabling support, \" by which existing laws, policies, and regulations, together with established procedures, block the transformative change required (Moser, 2009;Lipper et al., 2014).Decision makers need timely and accurate climate data to support their responses to climate change (Howden et al., 2007). Moreover, the information must be disseminated and understood on multiple levels within and outside the government (Spratt, 2009). Accessible and transparent knowledge sharing, resulting in the development of actionable advisory on climate issues and responses, is key (Moser and Ekstrom, 2010). Therefore, in situations where data and information are not shared, \"insufficient knowledge brokerage\" represents a serious barrier to the design, implementation, and monitoring of policies. This is particularly relevant for the highly fragmented agricultural sector with millions of farmers who are both a data provider and a user. The World Resources Institute (2014), identifies five principles of good governance for the implementation of climate policy; effective information sharing can contribute to the attainment of three, namely, policy coordination, transparency, and stakeholder engagement, the other two being clarity of role and responsibility, and institutional capacity. As a new and complex field, climate change governance can lack clearly defined responsibilities, resulting in a breakdown in knowledge transfer (Clar et al., 2012). Consequently, new policies fail to take into account all available information and expertise, leaving them poorly targeted. The role of aggregating and distributing climate change-related information is often not clearly defined, resulting in a lack of \"accountability, \" reducing the flow of information on policy enforcement, implementation, and monitoring (Moser and Ekstrom, 2010). Therefore, a lack of leadership and accountability at local levels is a major bottleneck to information dissemination, policy implementation (Amundsen et al., 2010), and financial accountability (Biesbroek et al., 2010).The incorporation of NDC objectives (both unconditional and conditional) into the national policy framework and the subsequent fulfillment of those policies will require considerable mobilization of national and international financing (Hedger and Nakhooda, 2015). Therefore, \"financial capacity\" restricts both the human and operational capacity needed for effective climate change governance (Adger et al., 2007;Biesbroek et al., 2013;Phuong et al., 2018). Through the review of the literature, financial capacity emerged as a major determinant of successful policy design and implementation, with indirect impacts on institutional, informational, and technical barriers. A recent UNFCCC report reviewed the NDCs submitted by all participating governments in the PA, to assess the different barriers and enablers. The report found that from the 133 developing country NDCs analyzed, economic and financial barriers are the single largest factor in both adaptation and mitigation activities. Economic and financial enablers were also the most commonly cited enabler (85-88%) for technology development and transfer, listed in NDCs (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2018).Viet Nam's report on financing the country's response to climate change found that of the five ministries most involved in climate change activities, 18% of their total budget was allocated to climate change (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2015). Of this, 88% was used for resilience-building activities, such as large infrastructure projects (more than half of which went on irrigation schemes). Only 9% was for science and technology and 2% for policy and governance. While climaterelated spending is increasing, it is essential that policies include financial planning to ensure that their outcomes are financially feasible (Christoplos et al., 2017). In reality, some policies are developed as plans or \"expressions of interest\" with the purpose of mobilizing international finance to support the fulfillment of the identified objectives (Korbee et al., 2019). Budgeting reform that promotes cross-ministry budget allocation and planning will be essential for Viet Nam to capitalize on available funding for climate change activities, channeling budget lines across ministries and their departments to where they are most impactful. Such steps will require improved institutional coordinating and steering (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2015).Prudent climate policy can include elements that conflict with current policy, inviting political interference (Ampaire et al., 2017). Countries where agriculture is an important component of the economy tend to resist mitigation activities in the sector due to the perceived risks to production (Wreford et al., 2017). They often fear impacts on competitiveness or on food security, especially among poor smallholder farmers (Lee et al., 2007). Sometimes \"conflicting values and interests\" stem from institutional overlaps between ministries, as their roles are unclear, resulting in inconsistencies in implementation. For example, Malaysia promoted the lucrative rubber industry to the detriment of their own forest protection targets, a result of having a separate ministry for forestry and plantations (Pacheco et al., 2012).Governments often do not make decisions on the time horizons needed to tackle slow-onset issues, such as climate change. \"Short-term thinking, \" conflicting political priorities, and economic factors all contribute to poor policy design (Nilsson and Swartling, 2009). This might be more prevalent in lowerincome countries, with weaker or less systematic involvement of actors from across government (Berrang-Ford et al., 2011). Cultural factors are also important in determining the success of climate policy. Barriers that reflect personal beliefs or experiences often represent deeply held values (Moser and Ekstrom, 2010), making them harder to overcome than material barriers (De Jalón et al., 2015).Climate change is a new and complex policy field, resulting in gaps in the capacity of the different actors, which can act as a barrier to effective policy design, implementation, and monitoring. \"A lack of expertise and awareness of climate issues\" is a major factor resulting in poor strategic planning of agricultural policies (Ampaire et al., 2017). Because of their inability to articulate climate change issues, local officials can struggle to obtain finance from non-government sources (Ampaire et al., 2017). Projects often require the \"technical capabilities for implementation, enforcement and monitoring\" to be demonstrated before they are approved, with the failure to do so constraining national and local governments efforts to secure additional funding (Füssel, 2007;Hoa Le Dang et al., 2014).To identify and prioritize the prominent barriers, an exploratory sequential-mixed method approach was employed (Creswell, 2013), with multiple tests on the relevance and severity of different barriers through the convergence of different sources (Patton, 1999;Carter et al., 2014). Triangulation of different methods allowed for a more complete and holistic portrayal of the data (Jick, 1979). The research approach followed three stages (see Figure 1).First, an extensive review of the current literature on barriers was conducted, reviewing 47 papers, through which a system of classification was established. The subsequent findings provide an insight into the different forms of barriers known to be impacting climate policy adoption, forming the basis for probing interview questions and a baseline to assess the Viet Nam context against. A key word search was conducted, exploring both academic and gray literature through which further sources were cross-referenced. The barriers were sorted and grouped to the point where the five categories emerged. The literature review included an in-depth analysis of the current policy framework and the implementing institutions (see Figure 2), identifying potential bottlenecks.For stage 2, stakeholders who were directly related to the policy process were interviewed with a snowball sampling method employed, allowing for the inclusion of others outside the initial sample (Heckathorn, 2011). Stakeholders were identified amongst government ministries active in the field of agriculture and climate change (N = 9). We supplemented FIGURE 1 | Stages of the survey process. Review of secondary data on policies, institutions, and barriers was followed by semi-structured interviews with the key actors to identify barriers and then Quantitative surveys to evaluate severity and difficulty to overcome them. these with development partners (N = 8), multilateral and bilateral donors (N = 4), and national and international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) working on research and development (N = 4), conducting 25 interviews in July-November 2017. The contents of the discussions were recorded in note form, with the notes subsequently coded to facilitate the categorization of the barriers. The coded results support the narrative in the discussion section by identifying areas of agreement and disagreement between the different actors. All interviewees were required to give verbal consent to their answers being recorded and used in this study; this was in accordance to and approved by the Imperial College Research Ethics Committee (ICREC).The interviews were semi-structured, lasting 1-2 h and included a set of open-ended questions, which offered flexibility and allowed for a detailed discussion (King and Horrocks, 2010). Themes included the interviewee's role and experiences in climate policy, knowledge, and understanding of NDCs; barriers in policy design, implementation, and monitoring; and steps to overcome the barriers (interview questions can be found in Appendix 1 in Supplementary Material). The results of the interviews were coded to identify the frequency with which interviewees confronted the different classifications of barrier identified in the literature. The frequency of each barrier identified, broken down by stakeholder group, can be seen in Appendix 2 in Supplementary Material.As previous surveys on barriers were criticized for failing to present their findings in a format accessible to policy makers (Ampaire et al., 2017;Climate Policy Workshop, 2017). In stage 3, a survey with the same key stakeholders was conducted (16 ultimately participated) asking them to rate the barriers for severity and difficulty to overcome. This third stage supports and validates the findings of the interviews and allows policy makers to prioritize actions according to impact and manageability, improving confidence in the accuracy of the study (Denscombe, 2014).The Results and Discussion section is built on the findings of the above steps, supporting the more quantitative findings with qualitative narrative from the key informant interviews. The paper does not directly quote the respondents in order to protect their anonymity but rather builds conclusions around the convergence of their opinions. Other studies that use similar approaches include Sietz et al. (2011) andDe Jalón et al. (2015).The results section is structured to first analyze the current policy framework, looking at how it has evolved over time, the current objectives, and what progress has been made to meeting them (section Current Policy Framework and Institutional Setting). The contents of this section are based on a review of the existing policy documents, with commentary supported through the existing literature and key informant interviews. This is followed by the presentation and analysis of the identified barriers, exploring the different categories that emerged, how they are impacting agriculture in Viet Nam, and how they can be overcome.The domestic climate change agenda in Viet Nam lagged behind that of international agreements, with climate change not entering the national discourse until 2008 3 . A decade later, climate change has been integrated into all levels of government, from the Central Committee of Party (CCP), to sector-and region-specific action plans. This rapid mainstreaming of climate change into policy may have outpaced the advances on climate change capacity with implications for implementation. The emergence of new climate change policies from resolutions down through strategies to specific action plans can be observed in Figure 2.The CCP plays a prominent role in shaping the direction of policy within the country through resolutions. The 2008 resolution on Agriculture, Farms and Rural Areas 4 included the text, \"take measures to adapt and respond to global climate change.\" This leads the way for the incorporation of climate change responses into agricultural policy. The National Assembly (NA), which works below the CCP, converts policy directives into legislation (laws, codes, resolutions, and ordinances). The NA elects the prime minister (PM), who heads the central government. The PM oversees the creation and dissemination of national policies, in the form of decrees, decisions, and directives. These are issued to ministries (Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015), whose ministers are accountable to the PM to carry them out and relay feedback from the provinces (McCarty, 2001).Ministries are each mandated to specific areas, with tasks allocated accordingly. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) is responsible for National Target Programme to respond to Climate Change (NTP-RCC) (see text footnote 3), the National Climate Change Strategy (NCCS), 5 and the subsequent action plan 6 (see Figure 2). The NTP-RCC, which is heavily weighted toward adaptation, emerged at a time when Viet Nam recognized that climate action coupled with economic restructuring and energy security gave access to international finance (Fortier, 2010;Zimmer et al., 2015). The Support Programme to Respond to Climate Change (SP-RCC) was established by MONRE in 2009, to facilitate the implementation of the NTP-RCC. It funds scaling up of climate change responses in Viet Nam and provides a forum for the government and development partners to discuss the policy direction, creating a policy matrix aimed at fostering a better enabling environment (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2015). Development partners offer concessional loans for the implementation of actions set out in the matrix. Six donors participate in the SP-RCC, raising USD872M in 2009-2014 (Agence Française de Développement, 2014). The SP-RCC shows that Viet Nam acknowledged the climate impacts of its development pathway and the need to reduce global emissions (Zimmer et al., 2015).The Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI) shapes the direction of investment in climate change. It is the lead ministry for the Viet Nam Green Growth Strategy (VGGS 7 ), a policy orientated toward mitigation. The VGGS was approved to address the environmental and socioeconomic challenges that Viet Nam faces by greening the growth model to meet the competing demands. Where the NCCS failed to make specific targets for reduced emissions, the VGGS stipulated that GHG emissions for the period 2011-2020 would fall by 8-10% compared with those in 2010. The VGGS was followed 2 years later by the National Action Plan on Green Growth (NAP-GG), 8  The local government plays an important role in implementing climate change policy in Viet Nam's agricultural sector. Many national strategies have provincial equivalents with the objectives tailored to the provincial context. The Provincial People's Committee (PPC) oversees province-specific programs and implements climate policy at the provincial level (Kerkvliet and Marr, 2004). Ministry departments provide technical, financial, and other forms of assistance necessary to execute national policies in the provinces (Rebugio and Ilao, 2017). Below the PPC are the District and Commune People's Committees (DCP and CCP), which execute programs on the ground level. Agricultural Extension Centers (AECs) of MARD provide networks of extension officers that work at the commune level. Local organizations, such as the Farmers' Union and the Women's Union have a lot of influence in Viet Nam, disseminating and implementing programs among their members (Rebugio and Ilao, 2017).It is within this framework that the PA will be implemented, the foundations for which were in Viet Nam's INDC (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2015). Viet Nam published an updated NDC in July 2020, with modified adaptation and mitigation contributions. The mitigation component saw Viet Nam increase its unconditional commitment from 8 to 9% and its commitment conditional on international support from 25 to 27%, with mitigation measures in the agricultural sector contributing 0.7 and 3.5%, respectively (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020). Emission reductions in the agricultural sector are to be achieved through \"the application of improved management practices and technological solutions in cultivation and husbandry; improving diets for animals; shifting crop production structures; changing land-use methods; applying technology to treat and reuse by-products and waste in agriculture and livestock production; and developing organic agriculture\" (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 7 Decision No. 1393/QD-TTg. 8 Decision No. 403/QD-TTg. 9 Decision No. 819/QD-BNN-KHCN. 2020). Viet Nam's updated NDC also identified some of the likely challenges facing its implementation and the measures to address them; these challenges will be reviewed alongside the identified barriers in the following section, making recommendations specific to the agricultural sector. The analysis in this paper will also build on the challenges identified in the NDC, using global literature to strike comparisons with other countries facing the similar issues and quantifying their severity and difficulty to overcome in the context of Viet Nam's agricultural sector.The government approved the Plan for Implementation of the Paris Climate Change Agreement, 10 which will incorporate NDC objectives into the national framework. The process is also supported by the updated Law on Treaties 11 . The success of the agricultural sector in meeting its NDC contribution will therefore depend on the effective integration and promotion of policies within this complex framework. This process will need to take into account the existing policies under the different Ministries, avoiding overlaps and conflicting objectives. While following the existing top-down structure, efforts must be made to ensure all national-level policies are supported with localized implementation plans.This section presents the findings from the 25 key stakeholder interviews and subsequent surveys. Organizing the barriers according to their severity and difficulty to overcome better enables policy makers to prioritize potential entry points for improved policy implementation and uptake. Where relevant, we cross-reference our conclusions with published information from Viet Nam.Of the five barrier classes identified from literature review (Table 1), institutional barriers, such as inter-ministry collaboration and top-down structure were deemed the most severe and hardest to overcome in the case of Viet Nam, according to the policy stakeholders (Figure 3).Climate policy in Viet Nam draws on elements mandated under multiple ministries, which requires good collaboration across ministries and their departments. Inadequate collaboration was cited as a major barrier to building a comprehensive policy framework in agriculture (Figure 3). Interviewees acknowledged weak horizontal and vertical linkages between ministries and departments at national and provincial levels stifled their ability to create a coherent strategy on climate change. Within ministries, cooperation between departments was considered inadequate. MARD, which consists of eight formerly separate ministries, still experiences limited integration between the different departments. A key implication of this situation is poor knowledge brokerage across ministries, departments, international organizations, and NGOs (Dusík and Kirsch-Wood, 2019), with information and data valued as a commodity to be traded rather than openly distributed. Although inadequate FIGURE 3 | Stakeholders' perceived severity and difficulty to overcome of the barriers identified in the interviews, using the rankings from the survey results. The number following the barrier name is the frequency the barrier was identified in the interviews (N = 25). The ranking for severity and difficulty to overcome is from the follow-up surveys (N = 16). A table showing a breakdown of the different stakeholder groups that make up each category can be found in Appendix 2 in Supplementary Material.knowledge sharing has been identified by stakeholders as one of the most severe barriers, it was also ranked as one of the easiest to overcome. Therefore, increased sharing of information can be considered a \"quick win\" and may be an important first step in facilitating improved inter-ministry collaboration on a wider range of topics. By avoiding the need for departments to purchase data or conduct their own data collection activities, the overall quality and availability of data would be improved. However, this will still require a concerted effort from a coordinating body, due to complex power relations, interdependencies, limited capacities, data validity issues, and divergent methodologies and baselines.The process of drafting policy is crucial in determining how successful the policy will ultimately be, requiring input and backing from across the relevant ministries. When drafting national policies, ministries must comply with regulations on drafting/issuing policy documents 12 and with the decree on the function and responsibilities/duties of government agencies 13 . These state that the PM will assign ministries and agencies to lead the relevant drafting processes. Agricultural policy is mandated to MARD as the lead ministry. MARD assigns drafting to a body of senior officers representing the formulating institutions, appraising agencies, technical organizations, experts, and researchers (Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015). The drafting body can draw on outside expertise, such as research institutes, universities, experts, and relevant organizations as necessary. The drafting group then clears the legal status of the draft with the Ministry of Justice (MOJ). The draft is then distributed to other ministries for comment, which allows the ministries to consult with and provide feedback from other actors affected by the policy (Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015). The process allows other ministries, the regions, and NGOs to contribute to policy.The National Climate Change Committee (NCCC) is an example of a cross-ministry body set up to facilitate mainstreaming of climate change into policy. It consists of highlevel officials, chaired by the PM, to create a forum to discuss climate change issues. The NCCC has been effective in debating climate change matters, but some interviewees believe that topics discussed were either not included in subsequent policies or were insufficiently emphasized. The failure to harmonize policies from different ministries causes policy overlaps, which in turn results in policy inflation at the local level with different policies containing the same or similar objectives. Lower levels of government become \"swamped\" or \"paralyzed\" with bottlenecks. Both overlaps and large amounts of policy were moderate or lowseverity barriers that were moderately difficult to overcome. The rapid policy inflation is driven by the creation of strategies and plans, which is seen as an application for funds, which may or may not be granted. Those policies that are not funded exist but are unlikely to ever achieve the objectives set out within them. It is crucial, therefore, that the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and MPI are involved throughout the process so that policies with insufficient backing are not ratified. Respondents felt this would reduce the clutter and the resulting complexity within the current framework.Provincial governments, service providers, and local communities play only a peripheral role in the formation of national policy (Spratt, 2009). Several interviewees cited the need for more \"bottom-up\" engagement in policy design. One observed that although the local government has very little influence over national policy, it had greater local freedoms than the top-down structure suggests, representing a more multidimensional power balance. All major national policies go through a review process at the provincial/city level where they provide specific guidelines for implementation. In practice, however, this rarely takes place at the extent needed to fully integrate provincial, bottom-up feedback into the national policies, leaving provinces to adapt national policies to local realities. This can leave national policies open to interpretation by individuals who are not experts, creating a trade-off between local knowledge and expertise. Provincial officials are more aware of the direct impacts of climate change on their communities but are constrained in influencing policy due to the bureaucratic top-down structure that persists. The updated Viet Nam NDC identifies the need to strengthen human capacities at national and provincial levels, to grow the knowledge of government officials on climate change, and to provide them the skills needed to access investment capital for climate-related activities (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020). The final stage of the policy process involves a review of the draft document that was prepared through consultation. Interviewees noted that the draft can be altered at this stage, changing elements that may have been agreed previously. This frustrates those contributors who see their inputs misrepresented or omitted.The interviews found that research, private, and NGO officials are actively engaged in designing and implementing climate change policies when given the opportunity to do so, with development partners often acting as technical advisors in policy design. For example, the NDC design process received technical assistance from UNDP and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). The Climate Change Working Group (CCWG) is a forum through which NGOs operating in Viet Nam communicate with national policy makers. While there are mixed opinions among the respondents on the effectiveness of such bodies in influencing policy, the coherent message it produces helps to bring key issues into the policy dialogue. Similar initiatives to engage with the private sector and researchers could help to further improve the policy process. The private sector's ability to influence policy is mixed, with some actors heavily involved while others struggle for representation. We could find no formal mechanism through which the private sector can provide its views to the government, with individuals relying on personal relationships or status of their company. As a result, smaller enterprises with less direct access to policy makers struggle to make their views known.The process of decentralization that has occurred in Viet Nam resulted in the incremental transfer of fiscal and administrative responsibilities to the provincial level (Fritzen, 2006). However, the hangover from central control is still apparent in many provinces, with respondents noting a sharp drop-off in human and technical capacity at local levels, something also reported in the literature (Dinesh et al., 2015;Rebugio and Ilao, 2017;Phuong et al., 2018). The decline in capacity is often more acute in poorer provinces (Fritzen, 2006) with interviewees rating the problem moderately severe and difficult to overcome. The provinces have increased autonomy over their budget, which if not harmonized with top-down policy making, creates conflicting agendas. Should these issues be resolved, decentralization has the potential to bring about a greater responsiveness and accountability of local leaders, with resources being better matched to local needs (Smoke et al., 2006). Provincial initiatives without horizontal coordination can cause inconsistencies across provincial plans, such as fragmented and conflicting land-use plans (Nguyen et al., 2020). This limits provinces' capacity to influence national policy, as the government requires large studies spanning multiple provinces for evidence-based policy design. Harmonizing budget lines from national policies with additional expenditure from provincial budgets will optimize the use of scarce financial resources to achieve meaningful outcomes. Regional steering committees are one of the tools that have been used with some success in the Mekong, strengthening cross-province initiatives on climate change and other development issues (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2015;Korbee et al., 2019). Low levels of inter-sectoral and inter-regional budget planning are identified as a major challenge to climate change adaptation activities in the updated Viet Nam NDC. Enhancing the coordination role of the National Committee on Climate Change and the Advisory Council of the National Committee on Climate Change could therefore be an effective countermeasure for improved budgetary alignment for crosscutting issues (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020).Communication between ministries and their departments tends to be in one direction, with little feedback from the provincial to national level. Provincial departments are required to provide ministries with reports on their attainment of targets to meet national policies, with future funding dependent on their performance. This, in some instances, creates an incentive for local authorities and provincial governments to misreport; there is also no mechanism for critical feedback or recommendations. The PPCs and the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development work well together on provincial matters. Action plans of national policies, such as the NCCS and VGGS contain detailed information on responsibility for specific objectives and completion dates. Local implementers often lack incentives to execute these national policies, for which they have little accountability, creating conflict with the national-level actors. Poor implementation planning was ranked as a barrier with low severity and difficulty to overcome; however, those working at a provincial level cited it as a major issue in effective implementation. The low scores may be explained by the larger number of national actors taking part in the study, failing to see the impacts of poor planning at the local level. Local authorities lack clear guidance on how to achieve the objectives of the broader national policies, citing as barriers \"budget, \" \"technical capacity, \" \"legal framework, \" and \"evaluation tools.\" Respondents noted the need for both bottom-up and top-down governance. Urwin and Jordan (2008) concluded that neither a top-down nor bottom-up approach alone will be sufficient to represent the enabling or constraining effects of different climate policies, installing the virtues of an inclusive approach to governance with input and coordination across all levels. This type of combined bottom-up and top-down governance is promoted under the Mekong Delta Plan as an effective mechanism to promote locally explicit large-scale actions to combat salinization (Korbee et al., 2019).The NDC process harbors a great potential to break down many of these barriers. Being a single national document, containing contributions from each sector, there is a greater potential to harmonize the response across the Ministries, ironing out any overlaps or conflicting objectives. The review process involved more bottom-up engagement than what occurred with the INDC, with provinces and cities consulted on numerous aspects. The NCCC already forms a steering committee that coordinates across ministries to achieve the broader objectives. The major barrier for the future will be to incorporate the objectives of the NDC into to the sectoral plans and policy frameworks. The 9% unconditional target is seen as achievable, because many of the requirements to meet it are already included in the VGGS, NAP-GG, and ARCCARD 14 . These policies will nonetheless require local-level support in capacity building and finance, especially in the poorer provinces (Morgan and Trinh, 2016). Meeting the 27% target is conditional on international support, which we discuss below.Financial barriers identified in the literature survey (Table 1) were mirrored in the interviews (Figure 3). Interviewees noted the need to adapt to changes in the sources of finance and better use of the funds obtained. Because they were key to successful implementation of policy, financial barriers ranked as high severity and high difficulty to overcome. With Viet Nam's transition to a lower-middle-income country in 2010, bilateral official development assistance (ODA) in Viet Nam fell by almost 25% from 2015 to 2017 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2018), and the trend is likely to continue as ODA priorities shift following the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The government has recognized that it needs to promote climate change policies that support their ongoing development with economic co-benefits, referencing the VGGS and its hybrid approach to mitigation and development. This is consistent with the government's policy to become an upper-middle-income country by 2035 (World Bank and Ministry of Planning and Investment of Vietnam, 2016), which requires yearly growth of 6.5%.Viet Nam has signaled that reaching the more ambitious 27% reduction target in its NDC is conditional on it receiving support from the international community. Bilateral and multilateral funds are seen as one of the major delivery mechanisms through which Viet Nam will receive this support. Viet Nam has already had some success in securing international funding for 14 Action Response to Climate Change and Agriculture Rural Development.climate change projects. In 2016, it obtained a Green Climate Fund grant to improve resilience of coastal communities and mangrove restoration and another in 2018 to promote energy efficiency in the industrial sector. Both government and nongovernment interviewees signaled ways in which Viet Nam could better manage ODA, including improved project monitoring and evaluation (M&E). This is changing, with ODA in the form of soft loans now requiring that funds are allocated to provincial accounts, ensuring sufficient budget is made available for implementation. This has encountered some resistance with interviewees reporting that some provinces prefer not to receive large loans if the objectives are not aligned with their current strategy. This in turn gives the provinces more power to determine the success of policies in receiving sufficient financing and therefore meeting their objectives.The private sector is playing an ever more prominent role across agricultural value chains in Viet Nam (Christoplos et al., 2017). The success of the agricultural sector in achieving the objectives of the NDC will therefore depend on the private sector and the areas in which it chooses to invest. The private sector is active but tends to focus on individual issues, often failing to meet the wider national objectives. Both government officials and private sector interviewees acknowledged the need for better collaboration. Priambodo et al. (2013) suggests that Viet Nam has a high potential for the formation of private-public partnerships (PPPs), where private entities work with the government, sharing skills and assets to deliver better outcomes. The mobilization of private sector investment was seen as an opportunity to stimulate further growth and fill the gap left by falling ODA. However, the current market mechanisms in Viet Nam presents a number of challenges through a complex business culture, which deters potential investors. The updated NDC identifies measures that improve the policy framework in support of PPP development as a priority for attracting investment in mitigation technologies, building investor confidence, and aligning public and private sector approaches (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020). Such initiatives have already been seen through the Agricultural Cooperation Dialogue between Viet Nam and Japan, which has explicitly been set up to facilitate PPP within the agricultural sector (Moreddu, 2016).The extent to which policies are enforced and the impacts verified are critical for their effective implementation and the realization of their objectives. As it stands, the limited enforcement and monitoring of climate change policies in Viet Nam are considered a major barrier, and one that is hard to overcome. Policy enforcement is further complicated by the large and fragmented policy framework, reduced technical capacity at local levels, and low levels of inter-ministry collaboration and data sharing. However, the most important factor driving the enforcement of policies is the political will behind them. Viet Nam's political system has proven itself highly effective in enforcing policy; for example, Viet Nam's national commitment to electrification resulted in the rapid development of electrical infrastructure in rural areas, with 100% of the population achieving electricity access in 2017, up from <50% in the early 1990s (Asian Development Bank, 2011;World Bank Data, 2020); however, instances of environmental degradation persist where the political will was not sufficient to ensure the enforcement of policy commitments (Schiappacasse et al., 2020).To understand the political will behind the climate change policies in the agricultural sector, one must understand the competing pressures faced by policy makers and the potential trade-offs they face. At a national level, insights can be taken from the energy sector, where the BAU scenario shows emissions quadrupling from 2014 to 2030 to sustain high levels of economic growth and energy security (Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2018;Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020). Agriculture faces many of the same issues, with measures that reduce emissions often considered to be detrimental to other objectives in the sector, such as increased productivity, food security, and rural poverty alleviation (Institute of Policy and Strategy for Agriculture and Rural Development, 2015). There is therefore a need to highlight the potential co-benefits of mitigation measures in achieving broader objectives supporting the development and modernization of the agricultural sector in Viet Nam. In recent years, climate-smart agriculture has been promoted as an approach that can help the sector meet its mitigation commitments while simultaneously achieving improvements in productivity and strengthening climate change resilience, with an increasing body of evidence on its potential effectiveness across these three priority areas (Nguyen et al., 2017;Escobar Carbonari et al., 2019).The establishment of a robust measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems and M&E frameworks will support greater levels of accountability in the implementation of climate policies and provide a more effective barometer for measuring the enforcement and verification of mitigation targets. The updated Viet Nam NDC includes a series of measures to strengthen enforcement and verification, in order to meet the requirements set out by the enhanced transparency framework (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2020). Considering the high perceived severity of poor enforcement and verification on the implementation of climate policies in the agricultural sector, measures to establish the enhanced transparency framework should be prioritized in the early stages of the NDC implementation process.The paper finds a comprehensive policy framework for agriculture in Viet Nam, with climate change adaptation and mitigation integrated at all levels. The central government is wellequipped in terms of capacity to meet the challenges posed by climate change, with an in-depth knowledge on its impacts and appropriate responses. However, we found barriers that act to undermine this progress. Many of these are not unique to Viet Nam but reflect the wider challenges of responding to a new and evolving threat.The institutional setting in Viet Nam was found to encompass a number of barriers to the successful creation and implementation of climate policy. Insufficient inter-ministry collaboration and rigid, top-down structure posed challenges in responding to the crosscutting issues of climate change. Moreover, the drafting of policy was hindered by inadequate collaboration and bottom-up engagement, thus creating a fragmented approach to policy making, with different ministries each drafting their own policies, prompting policy overlaps and rampant policy inflation, which in turn overwhelms local implementers. This-coupled with low technical capacity, inefficient and inadequate systematic guidelines and instructions for climate actions, limited funds, and no enforcement at local levels-created an implementation gap.While steps have been taken to resolve the issues of climate change mainstreaming through the creation of the NCCC, further work is needed to ensure all policies have the financial backing and localized implementation plans needed for the fulfillment of their objectives. To meet the conditional 27% GHG reduction target stipulated in the NDC, Viet Nam, donors and the private sector need to align their activities with national and localized strategies. For Viet Nam to become a more appealing option for multilateral, bilateral, and private sector finance for climate change activities, it must ensure that systems are put in place, which encourage investment through greater transparency and reporting. This needs to be done through the establishment of robust MRV and M&E systems for climate-related activities in the agricultural sector. The implementation of the enhanced transparency framework to achieve these ends should be a priority for the initial phases of NDC implementation. Such a system would facilitate bottom-up feedback, instilling greater capacities at lower levels while ensuring policy is accountable and responsive to the needs of implementers. Additional benefits of an MRV system would be the creation of standardized and centralized data, improving information sharing within government and with non-government actors.of the results from the key informant interviews and follow up survey, using his extensive knowledge of the systems, and process of the Vietnamese government. J-FLC reviewed the various iterations and helped conceptualize the findings. BH reviewed the various iterations and provided insight into the government workings in Vietnam. PL assisted in the design of the methodology and review of the various iterations. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.","tokenCount":"8294"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fb4653ebd469664613103cc6ebd1ef55","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2c37b60d-5be8-4c51-bbe8-a24a14ad1f0f/retrieve","id":"-618708581"},"keywords":["Improved cookstoves","Gender","Agroforestry systems","Climate change mitigation","Innovation","Honduras"],"sieverID":"6b430975-3f18-4544-9b49-b035a3448060","pagecount":"64","content":"Women-led agroforestry and improved cookstoves in Honduras: Field evaluation of farmer-led gender-transformative strategies for low emissions agriculture. CCAFS Working Paper no. 125. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark.Ryan Hottle holds a doctorate in environmental science from The Ohio State University. He has expertise in climate change mitigation and adaptation, soil health, and sustainable development.Email: hottle.7@osu.eduThis report provides a case study and evaluation of a CCAFS-supported action research project to support women's and men's innovation in the design and implementation of improved cookstoves and high diversity agroforestry-coffee systems in the municipalities of Yorito, Sulaco and Victoria in the department of Yoro, Honduras. The project was implemented by the Foundation for ParticipatoryResearch with Honduran Farmers (FIPAH); Local Agriculture Research Committees (CIALs)autonomously run farmer organizations with female and male leadership; and PROLINNOVA. The purpose of the case is to summarize the approach and outcomes of the project.Honduras is the second poorest country in Central America. It has a per-capita income of 1,880 USD in 2010 (IFAD, 2012). The country ranks 121 out of 187 on the United Nations (UN)'s Human Development Index (HDI). An estimated 63.8 percent of rural households face extreme poverty, lacking basic needs such as clean water, sanitation, and adequate food security (World Bank, 2012).Extreme poverty is largely a rural problem, with the majority of poor living in the hillside areas of the interior. Lack of access to education, medicine, employment and water combined with low agricultural productivity and lack of land tenure create self-reinforcing poverty traps. Rural women, indigenous groups, and the youth are generally the poorest and considered most vulnerable. Womenheaded households constitute approximately 9 percent of the country's agriculturalists. According to IFAD (2012), smallholder women farmers make on average 30 percent less than households with men.The objectives of the project \"Women-Led Agroforestry and Clean Cookstoves\" were to foster farmer-led innovation (recognizing, supporting and enhancing innovations in agricultural systems already being made by farmers and farming communities while directly involving them in the innovation process in the case of exogenous technologies and practices); promote gender equity by balancing decision making, power, and control of resources by women; and support low-emissions agriculture by transitioning practices toward more sustainable, less-greenhouse gas intensive agricultural practices which simultaneously increase farmer productivity and resilience. The outcomes were measured using a number of empirical data collection methodologies including surveys, soil sampling and laboratory analysis, and field data collection for estimating above-and below-ground biomass carbon.In the study sites for this project, women have been involved in the construction of \"Eco-Justa\" model cookstoves to reduce fuel wood use and improve indoor air quality. The stoves cost approximately 1,000 lempiras (48 USD) to construct, making it cost prohibitive without project support. Past studies have found that the use of improved cookstoves is associated with 63 percent lower levels of particulate matter and 87 percent lower levels of carbon monoxide compared with traditional stoves.Using a survey, the project found that 80% of the surveyed women decreased their consumption of firewood by 50% as a result of the project. The most significant benefits of the cookstoves reported by women during the evaluation were the cleanliness, speed of cooking and reduced fuel wood use.Agroforestry-coffee systems were established on a total of 16 hectares (ha) of land divided into 49 smaller plots that were planted and managed by women farmers with varying assistance from men in 18 participating communities in Yorito, Sulaco and Victoria. High diversity polyculture agroforestry systems increase household nutrition diversity and resilience, reduce the likelihood of flooding, provide shade to reduce soil moisture losses, increase above-and below-ground carbon pools, fix nitrogen, and provide fuel wood sources. All the agroforestry systems used coffee as the principal understory species, and additionally, diverse fruit tree species, logging and shade/firewood species and condiments, according to the interests of the participating women.One of the main research aspects of the project was to estimate carbon sequestration within the agroforestry plots. In order to accomplish this, carbon sequestration measurements and estimates were made for both the soil and biomass stocks. Measuring soil and biomass carbon sequestration is an essential strategy if ever the project planned to become part of a voluntary or compulsory carbon market for trading offsets. Four events were carried out with the participation of 65 women and 16 men in four communities to train farmers on the methodology needed to measure biomass and soil carbon, and how to use equipment and field books. Extensive soil sampling was conducted by the CIALs. Overall, the results showed a high degree of heterogeneity between and within communities.The data were not sufficient to show increases in soil or biomass carbon stocks.An important aspect of the project was providing coffee leaf rust (CLR)-known as \"Roya-\" resistant strains of coffee to farmers who had had their crops damaged or destroyed by the disease. CLR reached epidemic proportions in 2012, devastating coffee crops across North, South, and Central America including Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru. CLF is a fungal disease spread through direct contact of infected plants. While CLR has generally affected lower-latitude coffee production, the disease appears to be spreading at higher latitudes, possibly as the result of climate change. CLR significantly decreased coffee production, reducing an important income source for farmers. The International Coffee Organization (ICO) estimated that in 2012 CLR resulted in the loss of $500 million and cost 374,000 jobs.Both women and men farmers considered the availability of improved CLR-resistant varieties of coffee, specifically Lempira and IHCAFE-90, a main feature of the project. While there were obvious benefits of the new CLR-resistant varieties, the limited genetic diversity may also eventually increase susceptibility to future mutated varieties of coffee rust or other plant diseases altogether. Ojo de Gallo (a fungus, Mycena citricolor) and Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) are two other potentially harmful diseases that could negatively impact coffee production, particularly with warming temperatures expected with climate change which is expected to increase the spread of pests and disease. Planting of a single variety of coffee (Lempira) or a limited number of varieties could significantly hamper the resilience of coffee systems to new strains of CLR or new pests and pathogens. One of the main potential improvements to the project and future projects would be to seek greater genetic diversity of coffee varieties and to allow farmers to conduct participatory action research using different varieties of coffee with different management techniques.Overall the project was viewed to be highly successful. An unofficial measure of this success was how many women farmers were interested in joining the project after they viewed the progress being made by women farmers involved in the project. A key strength of the project was that it will continue to provide benefits for a significant period of time even after the project is concluded. As the coffee plantings mature and as the agroforestry trees continue to grow and bear fruit, the income generation of the women involved, and their households, will continue to benefit.The following innovations contributed to project outcomes.▪ Technological innovations: high diversity polyculture agroforestry systems, rust-resistant, shade-grown coffee, improved cookstoves and the use of traditional and novel organic soil amendments such as compost, manure and lime.▪ Social innovations: increased access to, and control over, land for women and youth training.Engaging men in activities led by women had the effect of increasing men's recognition, respect, and support of women led initiatives.▪ Scientific strategies: extensive soil analyses and the development of a methodology for calculating above-and below-ground carbon storage increased the long-term contributions of the project and may provide new methods for data collection in the future.▪ Economic innovations: direct income provision and greater knowledge and control over household budgets.The project was not without room for improvement: specifically, the farmer's knowledge of farmerled crop breeding and research could have been harnessed to test a wide variety of coffee varieties under different conditions, using soil fertility amendments for example. The use of only two varieties of coffee could cause greater vulnerability in the future. Likewise, the selection of agroforestry species seemed, at times, not to reflect the needs or wants of farmers; and some selections seemed inappropriate for the growing conditions. Better data collection systems that use text-based data entry could allow for easier data transfer, aggregation, analysis and sharing. This, in turn, would allow for better data quality and quantity, and could increase the ability to share research based on these studies.The project would have benefitted from more robust species selection for agroforestry plantings and established metrics for analyzing project outcomes to enable better assessment of the project. The following threats to the continuation and long-term impacts of the project were identified: The use of real-time internet-based database management was suggested as a way to increase the rigor and usefulness of experiments. Furthermore, \"organic,\" \"fair trade\" and \"carbon negative\" labelling, micro financing and lending circles were suggested for their potential to increase farmers' incomes.Ideas and critical areas identified in the agricultural and natural resource management sectors show an increased focus on water, micro-catchment and terra-forming projects to prevent soil erosion and improving cooking efficiency through complimentary strategies such as selection and drying of fuel wood.Overall, the project provides a model low-emissions, climate resilient and gender transformative project. The needs of both women and men farmers were extremely well addressed, evidenced by the fact that many men and women farmers asked to be part of the project. The practices were sustainable and likely to lead to increased resilience of rural households to climate impacts. The benefits will likely be significant and sustainable, as the coffee and agroforestry systems mature. Key factors for the of the project were: the experience of farmers with innovation and participatory research; engagement of men in women-led projects that led to slow, organic changes of men extending more recognition, respect and support of women within key social structures (the implementing organization, farmers' organizations and households); the strong history, knowledge and working relations of FIPAH with farmers on the ground; and an extremely well designed and executed project, which took into account the needs of farmers.Honduras is the second largest Central American country. It borders El Salvador and Honduras to the west, the Pacific Ocean and Nicaragua to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. It is well endowed with fisheries and arable land, including 1.8 million hectares of cropland and 2.5 million hectares of pasture (FAO, 2001). Approximately 39 percent of the country is forest, and 27 percent is under agricultural production. Nearly 40 percent of the workforce is directly involved in farming; much higher proportions are in rural areas. Much of the land area is covered in mountains, giving rise to the nickname \"the Tibet of Central America.\" The varied topography and microclimates of Honduras makes it an ideal location for diversified production, particularly of high value fruits and vegetables.Honduras is a low-to middle-income country, with six out of every ten rural households living in extreme poverty, according to the World Bank (2012). While the country has recovered from the global economic recession in 2008 and 2009, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at around 2.8 to 3.7 percent per annum, the country continues to be hindered by economic inequality, violence(it has the highest homicide rate in the world), and external price shocks, particularly to the agricultural sector, which has lost two-thirds of its purchasing power mainly due to decreases in key agricultural outputs such as coffee and bananas (World Bank, 2012). Honduras has an estimated population of nearly 7.5 million people, with a mean population density of 65 people per square kilometer (World Bank, 2012). The demographic profile is predominately youthful: more than 34 percent of the population less than 14 years old.Honduras is generally divided into three distinct geographical areas: the interior highlands characterized by mountainous terrain where the vast majority of smallholder farmers live, the Caribbean lowlands in the northern region, and the alluvial plains near the Gulf of Fonseca. In the fertile north, banana, sugar cane, and palm oil are widely cultivated, although much of this land and production is controlled by two major multinational corporations, Dole Food Company and Chiquita.Both companies export nearly all of their production. In the south, which experiences more frequent drought, cattle, sugar cane, cantaloupe, and prawns (shrimp) are cultivated. In the central highlands, coffee, beans, maize, timber and cattle are the main agricultural outputs.The project was based in the interior highlands, which constitutes around 80 percent of the land area and is where most people live. The elevation of this area varies widely, from 500 to 2,485 meters above sea level, giving rise to a wide gradient of agro-climatic conditions that are mediated by temperature, elevation, and aspect (orientation on the mountain). This results in a wide variety of microclimatic conditions. Much of the land is difficult to traverse or cultivate and therefore has remained poorly developed or with low agricultural yields.A depression runs from San Pedro Sula eastward to the Gulf of Fonseca providing an important transportation corridor across the country. Flat valleys consisting of grass, shrub, and woodlands are scattered across the highlands, where the majority of settlements (including the capital, Tegucigalpa)and commercial agriculture takes place. Smaller farm operations and subsistence agriculture is relegated to the steeper terrain, where there is less potential for mechanization, poor transport, lack of water, sanitation and electricity, and shallow soils highly susceptible to erosive forces. These factors combine to create significant poverty traps for the people that inhabit the hillsides. The ecological communities in the highland areas are diverse with open woodlands of pine forests, oak, and grasslands in the western and central highland areas. In the east, dense, broadleaf forests occupy much of the terrain. There are fragments of dense rainforest that once dominated the country that can still be found in the highest areas, where land clearing has not taken place.Smaller farm operations and subsistence agriculture are relegated to steeper terrain, where there is less potential for mechanization and poor transport, lack of water, sanitation and electricity, and shallow soils highly susceptible to erosive forces. This combination creates significant poverty traps for the people that inhabit the hillsides. Photo: Ryan Hottle.For the past several decades, analysts have pointed to Honduras as a country that has the potential for significant growth in the agricultural sector. This is due to a number of factors, including: a substantial proportion of land that continues to be underutilized by, for example, low efficiency livestock operations and traditional management of crops such as maize and beans that tend to result in low yields. For example, Smeltekop et al. (2005) reported that the national bean yield was around 700 kilograms per ha, while yields from experimental trials in research plots gave as much as 2500 kilograms per ha using best management techniques and improved varieties. Another reason for the high estimated potential is the substantial amount of land that is fallow each year. Lastly, the proximity of Honduras to developed countries such as the U.S. and Canada or rapidly developing countries such as Brazil provide opportunity for a strong export market.The soils in the highlands, while highly heterogeneous, are relatively poor compared with other Central American countries due to the lack of rich volcanic ash. Many neighboring countries benefited from the deposition of volcanic ash from the \"Volcanic Axis,\" which provides the parent material for rich \"andic\" soils characterized by amorphic (non-crystalline) minerals, specifically imogolite and allophane, along with amorphous iron and aluminium minerals which bond strongly with organic matter and therefore provide the basis of strong soil formation and organic matter accumulation. The Volcanic Axis largely bypasses Honduras: only the Western plateaus received significant ash deposition. Much of the rest of Honduras has soil that is characterized by a high degree of weathering, low activity clays, low cation exchange capacity (CEC), and low levels of soil organic matter (SOM) accumulation. Soils of Honduras include orthic and plinthic acrisols; chromic, humic, calcic and dystric cambisols; rendzinas; ferric luvisols; gleyic luvisols; and dystric nirosols (Timms, 2007).More than 80 percent of land in Honduras has slopes exceeding 20 percent (Thurow and Smith, 1998) and is considered to be highly erodible. Cárcamo, Alwang, and Norton (1994) estimated that cultivated soils in Honduras were losing soil at rates of more than 300 tons per ha per year. The maximum rate of soil formation in the tropics is considered to be 1 ton per ha per year and, thus, such large rates of erosion are highly unsustainable. Inequities in land distribution and tenure have resulted in resource-poor farmers occupying much of the steep terrain, which is highly vulnerable to soil erosion particularly after mechanical cultivation or shifting cultivation (\"slash-and-burn\") agriculture.As soils are eroded, subsistence farmers (\"minifundistas\") are often driven to clear more land for cultivation, further exacerbating the degradation process and undercutting food security.Honduras has bimodal rainfall pattern with two distinct growing seasons: the first growing season \"Primera\" which has the highest level of rainfall (around 720 mm) and the second \"Postrera\" which has less (~560 mm) which quickly diminishes. Subsistence farmers often plant using a relay system with the vast majority of maize (Zea mays) planted during Primera, followed by common bean (Phaselus vulgaris L.) during Postrera. Approximately 60 percent of beans are grown during the Postrera season due to their relatively short maturation period (Rosas, Erazo, and Moncada, 1991).Droughts in either of these seasons can greatly diminish productivity and lead to increased food insecurity. Droughts are categorized into two types within the semi-arid tropical regions of the world including Honduras: terminal (end-of-season) drought through which which the crop relies on banked soil moisture for flower production and seed filling, and intermittent drought, which is less predictable and depends largely on climatic conditions. Strategies to increase water-holding capacity (WHC) and moisture retention within the soil profile can hedge against terminal drought, whereas intermittent drought is more difficult to deal with. Already an increase in temperature of 0.7 to 1°C has been observed throughout Central America. This is likely to increase evapotranspiration rates, decrease soil moisture and lead to increased crop stress particularly during times of drought. While no significant changes in annual precipitation have been found ,there has been a trend toward increasing frequency of both drought and high rainfall events that appear to becoming more intense (IPCC, 2013).The geographical location of Honduras between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans makes it extremely vulnerable to a variety of climatic conditions, including tropical storms, flooding, droughts, sea level rise and hurricanes (i.e. cyclones). Honduras also tends to be strongly impacted by changes in sea surface temperatures and oscillations in oceanic warming, such as the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO). Whether the intensity and/or frequency of cyclonic activity in both the Atlantic and Pacific is likely to increase due to climate change has been ahotly debated topic within the scientific research community. Recent studies have found a likely increase in the intensity of cyclones and an increase in frequency of intense cyclones despite potential decrease to total cyclone activity (Knuston et al., 2010) 1 .In October 22, 1998, on the tail end of 1997/1998 El Nino event (which was the most powerful El Nino ever recorded), Hurricane Mitch struck the Honduras mainland from the Atlantic on October 29.As much as 928 mm of rainfall fell, causing severe flooding, landslides, and road cuts. An estimated 1.5 million people were left homeless, 70 percent of the population was left without drinking water, 70 percent of the transport infrastructure was destroyed and damaged, crop exports dropped by 9.4 percent, and 7,000 fatalities were reported. The total direct economic damages were estimated at more than 2 billion USD and another 1.8 billion USD in indirect damages.According to a 2013 report by Germanwatch, formulators of the Global Climate Risk Index (CRI), Honduras, Myanmar and Nicaragua were the countries most affected by extreme weather events from 1992 to 2011 (Kreft et al., 2014). Honduras experienced 60 extreme weather events and an estimated 329 climate change-induced deaths per year.1 \"[F]uture projections based on theory and high-resolution dynamical models consistently indicate that greenhouse warming will cause the globally averaged intensity of tropical cyclones to shift towards stronger storms, with intensity increases of 2-11% by 2100. Existing modelling studies also consistently project decreases in the globally averaged frequency of tropical cyclones, by 6-34%. Balanced against this, higher resolution modelling studies typically project substantial increases in the frequency of the most intense cyclones, and increases of the order of 20% in the precipitation rate within 100 km of the storm centre. For all cyclone parameters, projected changes for individual basins show large variations between different modelling studies\" (Knutson et al., 2010).  Honduras is the second poorest country in Central America. It had a per-capita income average of 1,880 USD in 2010 (FAO, 2012). The country ranks 121 out of 187 on the United Nations (UN) Human Development Index (HDI). An estimated 63.8 percent of rural households face extreme poverty lacking basic needs such as clean water, sanitation, and adequate food security (World Bank, 2012b). Despite high levels of poverty, Honduras has made progress with the proportion of the population in poverty dropping from 61.5 percent in 1991 to 47.5 percent in 2006(World Bank, 2012b). Most of the gains, however, have been made in urban areas. Extreme poverty is largely a rural problem: the majority of poor live in the hillside areas of the interior. Lack of access to education, medicine, employment and water combined with low agricultural productivity and lack of land tenure create poverty traps.Rural women, indigenous groups, and the youth are generally the poorest and considered most vulnerable. Women-headed households constitute approximately 9 percent of the country's agriculturalists. According to FAO (2012), smallholder women farmers make on average 30 percent less than households with men. An estimated 71 percent of indigenous communities are impoverished; they work either as farm labor for land owners or move from tract to tract as subsistence farmers (FAO, 2012).Women in rural communities face the additional burden of domestic labor, isolation, and low-levels of education, literacy, and self-esteem. They are frequently tasked with caring for dependents, collecting fuel wood and water, meal preparation, and growing fruits, vegetables and grains in home gardens (hertos familiaries). In coffee-growing regions they are expected to pick cherries from the bushes during the harvest period with little or no compensation from men who tend to control cash crops. Only 2 percent of land titles in Honduras have been allocated to women, and there is often minimal financial services available for services like loans to start up small businesses (FAO, 2012).Gender-based violence is also disturbingly common throughout Honduras and Latin America, as a whole often referred to as \"femicidios\" (femicide). Gender disparity is likely to limit poverty reduction, as gains in economic growth are often hampered when large inequalities exist (Bourguigon, 2002). Discrimination both within and outside households can therefore impede poverty alleviation and economic growth.During the project evaluation informal interviews with farmers (both women and men) and farmer groups were conducted. The interviews revealed that water quality and quantity, access to markets and fair prices, competition from wealthy land owners, the impacts of climate change, and pests and diseases (principally coffee leaf rust or \"Roya\") were among the most significant concerns. These findings were similar to those found by Hellin and Haigh (2002) in a questionnaire administered to 213 smallholder farmers which found pests and disease, drought and irregular rainfall, low productivity, quality of land, availability of land, and lack of economic resources were considered to be among the principle challenges. See Table 2.Source: Hellin and Haigh (2002) In project areas visited by the evaluator, farmers reported that the most critical need for most farming communities was water quantity and quality for direct consumption and irrigation. Farmers explained that contamination of upstream water sources from human waste caused water contamination negatively impacting human health in many households. Communities also voiced a related concern that large coffee plantations would require large quantities of water for removing coffee cherries from the pulp. This process could provide for a compostable organic, but often ends up polluting local waterways, thus further limiting the supply of fresh water, particularly for downstream users. One farmer predicted that the many plantations coming into maturity in the next two-to-three years would dramatically increase water demand. In several villages there was only a single water tank for the entire community to use, which raises the question as to how increasing demands for water will be met.Maize and beans, as well as agroforestry crops such as bananas (Musa), papaya (Carica papaya), pepper (Piper nigrum), support household food security and sometimes income generation. For some farmers, coffee represent as much as 70-80% of household incomes, although there were many farmers who did not grown coffee at all. Challenges such as mountainous terrain, poor roads that reduce vehicle speed, and lack of vehicle ownership combine to make the transportation of farm products to market difficult and relatively expensive. Often farmers reported not receiving a fair price for their crops and having little control over price gauging.Competition from large-scale plantations-specifically coffee plantations-was raised as a significant concern by many farmers in the target communities. First, many farmers expressed concern that coffee plantations owned by wealthy landowners who mainly live in the city were the cause of significant environmental problems. Many of the large-scale plantations were established through complete denudation of the landscape, followed by replanting of a coffee monoculture without any sort of vegetation. Farmers explained that this has caused mass erosion and sedimentation of drinking water. They also worried that such a massive expansion could lead to water shortages as significant quantities of water are needed during the process to refine the cherry (the freshly picked coffee) to a green bean (ready for roasting).Second, large-scale plantations caused increased competition for market access. Owners of large-scale plantations have greater access to wealth and resources, for example, and can afford to replant with more expensive rust-resistant varieties of coffee and pay for transportation to market.Many communities raised the issue of climate change, particularly in reference to the timing and strength of rains. Adequate rainfall is especially critical at planting, growth, and harvesting phases, but excessive rainfall can wash away seeds, lead to \"dampening off\" or rotting of newly emerged plants, or create field conditions difficult to plant or harvest. Some farmers reported experiencing more days of intense sunlight, while others said rainfall was becoming less predictable. It was difficult to determine whether the concerns resulted from farmers' own observations or as a result of the educational workshop, the evaluation process itself, or having been told the purpose of the visit. In any case, the farmers appeared aware of climate change and understood the potential problems that may likely result. Some farmers collect meteorological data (rainfall and temperature) as part of the participatory seed-breeding program. Data collection by farmers could be a key entry point into greater thinking about climate change and adaptation strategies. A list of the climate impacts reported by farmers is found in Appendix 2.In interviews, many farmers in the CIALs reported that coffee makes up as much as 70-80% of their earned annual income, although not all farmers reported growing coffee. They expressed concern that pests and diseases-particularly CLR-may negatively impact production, possibly exacerbated by climate change. Coffee diseases and pests, such as CLR, decreased yields by 40-80% across much of Honduras in 2012, having a devastating impact on livelihoods and food security. Rainy conditions, for example, provide a better environment for transport and infestation of bacterial and fungal diseases.Most farmers reported that they often can't afford fungicides to treat crops and are therefore at greater risk than large coffee plantations when new strains of pathogens attack crops.The objectives of the project were:1. Farmer-led innovation: to recognize, support and enhance innovations in agricultural systems already being made by farmers and farming communities while directly involving them in the innovation process in the case of exogenous technologies and practices.2. Gender equity: to balance decision making, power, and control of resources by women.3. Low-emissions agriculture: to transition to more sustainable, less-greenhouse gas intensive agricultural practices which simultaneously increase farmer productivity and resilience. The CIALs, with coordination from FIPAH, conducted research on improved cookstoves and womanmanaged shade-grown agroforestry systems. Two workshops were developed for the planning and design of the agroforestry plots. Women and men discussed climate change, the vulnerability of affected groups, and impacts on food security and on local economies. The workshop also provided information on species selection, allowing the women to select which type and how many trees to plant. The intention was that women would have control over the tenure of these plots and the resulting income stream from the coffee (a significant cash crop) and the agroforestry species including plantains, avocado, pepper and other condiments, as well as species for fuel wood, timber and nitrogen fixation. Workshops provided training for farmers and student interns to test for above and below ground carbon pools in order to calculate carbon sequestration over time. Samples were analyzed and organic matter contents were found for the baseline sample.In total the project engaged 49 women in the design and implementation of climate change-related experiments using stoves and agroforestry systems.  programs that aimed to maximize the productivity of farmers (e.g. yield per ha) to addressing larger challenges including socioeconomic and environmental goals such as poverty alleviation, increasing resilience particularly of vulnerable populations, improved food security, human health and nutrition, increasing ecological health and biodiversity, climate change mitigation, and so forth. This shift in focus has generally been viewed as a critical reprioritization within the fields of agriculture and sustainable development to focus on more meaningful outcomes that in the past had been largely ignored or simply unaccounted for.The reprioritization toward larger socioeconomic and environmental goals, while widely recognized as vital, also presents challenges and adds complexity in designing, evaluating, and measuring projects because the interventions and innovations seek not merely to increase yield, but to address more complex challenges that can have unpredictable and sometimes unintended impacts. Such a focus requires understanding not only of agronomy and soils but also of rural development, sociology, ecology, climatology, gender studies, among others, and ideally a strong working knowledge within many fields and an integration of these knowledge sets. This project aimed to incorporate those goals.A main objectives of the project was the establishment of fruit, condiment and timber plantings integrated with shade-grown coffee on a total of 16 ha of land divided into 49 smaller plots that were planted and managed by women farmers with varying assistance from men in 18 participating communities in Yorito, Sulaco and Victoria.Species planted in the project area included peach (Prunus persica), lemon (Citrus lemon), mandarin (Citrus reticulate), orange (Citrus sinensis), nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), allspice (Pimenta dioica), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), Inga (Inga niopo), and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla). All the agroforestry systems used coffee as the principal understory species, and added diverse fruit tree species, logging and shade/firewood species and condiments, according to the interest of the participating women. In addition to providing participants with the benefits of shade-grown agroforestry plots, the high diversity polyculture agroforestry systems provided models to the larger community. One female farmer stated, \"I want to show that women can do this. I want to show them that we can do it, and we can do it sustainably without the need for expensive and harmful chemicals.\" High diversity polyculture agroforestry systems reduce the likelihood of floods and soil water evaporation, increase above-and below-ground carbon pools, fix nitrogen and provide fuel wood sources. On average they can lead to the net accrual of biomass 5 to 10 times the biomass of conventional cropping systems (IPCC, 2000), although this is highly dependent on conditions such as climate, tree species, planting density, soil type, and management strategies (Nair, 1993). Small-scale agroforestry systems in the tropics can sequester 1.5-3.5 tons of carbon per hectare per year (Montagnini and Nair, 2004). In addition to cycling and storing greater amounts of carbon than traditional annual monoculture row crops, agroforestry systems are also capable of producing diverse outputs, including highly nutritious fruit and nut crops, medicines, edible fungi, saps and resins such as latex, timber and raw materials for craft and construction, and many other non-timber forest products. Many species of leguminous trees such as Inga fix atmospheric nitrogen, thereby increasing nitrogen available to plants. Returning organic carbon from trees in the form of leaf litter, prunings, and fine and coarse roots can enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) levels far beyond what cropland alone is capable of, thereby increasing the potential productivity of the given piece of land. Difficulty extracting and quantifying root biomass presents significant uncertainties, yet it is well understood that root systems (which make up 30% or more of total tree biomass) likely contribute large quantities of carbon to deep soil layers (Young, 1997).Agroforestry systems may also provide a hedge against negative effects of climate change, as tree crops are often more resilient to extreme weather conditions including droughts and flooding. The canopy structure of agroforestry systems greater reduces raindrop impact, increases water infiltration into the soil profile and decreases runoff. Because trees have deeper root structures, they are often able to extract nutrients and water from lower layers of the soil, thereby decreasing competition with shorter rooted annual crops (Nair, 1993). Trees also buffer from drought stress by creating shaded microclimates that reduce evapotranspiration and conserve soil moisture. These benefits may be extremely important in the context of Honduras, considering the already high soil erosion rateswhich have been reported to be as much as 300 tons per ha per year-and possible increases in the frequency and/or intensity of heavy rain events and droughts.In some cases, women decided to plant further away from their homes either because that was the only location land was available or because higher elevations would better suit coffee production. In some cases, women made the decision to locate fruit trees near the house, setting them apart from the rest of the agroforestry system, both for convenience and to prevent pilfering of fruit. In other cases, the family will move from their communities at harvest time to where the agroforestry plot is located. This is a common practice amongst families who own coffee in the region.In the municipality of Victoria, 24 agroforestry plots were established with a total area 8.15 hectares.Ten of the plots were located less than 500 meters from people's homes, while the other 14 were located further from homes. The location of planting depended mainly on access to sufficient land. In the municipality of Sulaco, 8 plots were established in five communities, with a total area of 2.8 hectares. Of the 8 plots, only 3 were located less than 500 meters from the house. To access the other plots, the women have to walk more than 30 minutes. In the municipality of Yorito, 17 agroforestry plots were established with 17 women farmers, in an area of 5.12 hectares. Of the 17 plots established, 6 of them are located at less than 500 meters from the house.The plots for agroforestry that were near homes included fruit trees that give fruit at different times of the year and have high value. Far away plots were more likely fuelwood species integrated with coffee trees in more mountainous terrain. The distant plots were located where land was available to land-poor farmers, especially women. They planted where they had relatives who could watch the trees and protect the harvest, or the families would go and camp out at harvest time. If their plots were successful, men would allocate space within plots closer to home for some tree-planting.While the benefits of the project were many, many women undertook a heavy labor burden to test the viability of their innovations, with variable support from the men in their families. In some cases, sons, husbands, brothers, and fathers assisted with site clearing and planting (the most burdensome tasks). In other cases, women farmers did the vast majority or all of the work. Some women reported the work being challenging and being largely unaccustomed to the labor. Others took great pride in showing the community what they could achieve on their own. The agroforestry component of the project was not without room for improvement. It appeared that women farmers had limited ability to actually design agroforestry systems and to select varieties of species to be planted, as nearly all of the women chose similar, if not exactly the same, types of plantings. Some of the species selected (particularly the citrus varieties and peach) appeared to be particularly ill-suited to the growing conditions, and in some cases there was relatively high mortality rates.An important aspect of the project was providing CLR-, or Roya-, resistant strains of coffee to farmers who had had their crops damaged or destroyed by the disease. CLR reached epidemic proportions in 2012, devastating coffee crops across North, South, and Central America including Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru. CLF is a fungal disease spread through direct contact of infected plants. While CLR has generally affected lower latitude coffee production, the disease appears to be spreading at higher latitudes, possibly as the result of climate change.CLR significantly decreased coffee production, reducing an important income source for farmers. In 2012 and 2013, Peru and Guatemala, respectively, declared states of emergency. Large crop losses across Central America and Caribbean countries led to all-time price highs, as too few resources, ignorance of early warning signs, insufficient and inaccurate fungal treatments, poor training, lack of infrastructure and conflicting scientific recommendations combined to limit swift, effective actions.The International Coffee Organization (ICO) estimated that in 2012 CLR resulted in the loss of $500 million and cost 374,000 jobs.Rust-resistant, shade-grown coffee varieties (Lempira and IHCAFE-90) significantly reduce the risk of Roya, but they are generally considered to be \"less quality\" coffee varieties due to their relatively high acidity and the acidity's impact on taste. An additional concern, discussed below, is that planting only one or two varieties of coffee could create future problems by setting the stage for more coffee disease and pests to flourish.Farmers considered the availability of improved CLR-resistant varieties of coffee, specifically Lempira and IHCAFE-90, a main feature of the project. While there were obvious benefits of the new CLR-resistant varieties, the limited genetic diversity may also eventually increase susceptibility to future mutated varieties of coffee rust or other plant diseases altogether. Ojo de Gallo (a fungus, member replied that, \"getting access to numerous coffee varieties would be very challenging in Honduras. ICAFE [Instituto Hondureño del Café] manages coffee in Honduras, including all the varieties. Moreover, given the very limited amount of time to get the funding spent, further research would have been impossible.\" Certainly, given limited time and resources as well as the benefit of hindsight, it is apparent that the recommendation of incorporating and testing a large number of varieties would be difficult.Many people in developing countries rely upon traditional biomass for cooking and heating and are, as a result, exposed to extremely high levels of indoor air pollutants, including black carbon soot, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, polycyclic aromatics, and dioxins. These products of incomplete combustion have been linked to pulmonary-cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarctions, eye infections, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease resulting in an estimated 1.8 to 2.0 million deaths per year. This is more than HIV/AIDS (1.8 million per year), tuberculosis (1.3 million), diabetes (1.3 million), traffic accidents (1.2 million), and malaria (0.7 million). The impacts of poor indoor air quality from traditional cooking predominately impacts women, who are nearly always tasked with food preparation, and children. Practically all the mortalities occur in developing countries-approximately half the mortalities are children under the age of five. By 2050, the number of deaths per year is expected to rise to 3.6 million. Disaggregated data on the health impacts of cooking and heating with biomass for Honduras could not be found for the country level. Clark et al. (2009) conducted a cross-sectional survey of 79 Honduran women cooking with traditional and improved cookstoves in which they monitoring of carbon monoxide and particulate matter of less than 2.5 micrometers in size (PM2.5). The study found that the use of improved cookstoves was associated with \"63% lower levels of personal PM2.5, 73% lower levels of indoor PM2.5, and 87% lower levels of indoor carbon monoxide as compared to traditional stoves. Women using traditional stoves reported symptoms more frequently than those using improved stoves.\"The project used the \"Eco-Justa\" model cook stove, a rocket elbow-type stove named after Doña Justa Nuñez of Suyapa, Honduras, who helped to design it. The stove is one of many versions often referred to as \"rocket stoves\". The Eco-Justa is a relatively simple stove constructed around an insulated, \"L\" shaped combustion chamber which increases the high heat temperature and oxygen availability, therefore leading to a cleaner burn and producing fewer products of incomplete combustion associated with deteroriated indoor air quality. The cleaner burn and greater transfer of heat leads to less fuel being burned. The Eco-Justa stove is formed from two ceramic cylinders made of a mixture of clay, manure and tree resin. Ashes are often used for insulation. A sealed metal cooking surface or \"plancha\" sits above a stove made of bricks, and a chimney carries the smoke outside. Other models of rocket stoves may have holes in the plancha. Under the chimney, a flue collects the soot and ashes and needs to be cleaned periodically. Tortillas can be directly cooked on the surface of the metal plancha, and other food can be cooked in pots and pans. The stoves were often built to accommodate firewood to be stored underneath the stove, which helps the drying process. The improved cook stoves cost around 1,000 lempiras (~48 USD), with the steel portion of the stove costing around 700 lempiras (~31 USD). Most of the components (brick, sand, manure, ash, and cement) could be acquired locally: the stove pipe and metal plancha constitute the greatest costs.According to FIPAH's findings, \"An evaluation of the Eco-Stoves showed that 80% of the surveyed women had decreased their consumption of firewood by 50%.\" The most significant benefits of the cookstoves reported by women during the evaluation were (1) decreased cooking time, (2) increased cleanliness, and (3) decreased fuelwood use, which also meant less time spent gathering fuel wood.One woman from the La Esperanza CIAL reported that, \"The improved stoves are more beautiful and help keep the kitchen cleaner.\" In Guachipilin, many women have to travel long distances to collect fuel wood, so the decrease in the use of wood had an important impact on decreasing drudgery and increasing time for other activities.Not all women reported that the stoves actually reduced fuel wood use, yet they said they were happy with their stove mainly because it took less time to prepare a meal and because it made the house much cleaner and more comfortable since there was less smoke, ash and soot deposited in the house.Many women reported difficulty using the improved cookstoves until training was provided on maintenance issues. Training focused on removing ash and cleaning out the combustion chamber.. Once they received the proper training, users reported having no problems and viewed the stoves favorably. Two women farmers from a CIAL shared that other women in their community wanted to join the CIAL once they saw the benefits of the project. \"They only want to join the CIAL now because we are getting these stoves.\" They added that they had to do a lot of work for many years to be part of the CIAL. This comment demonstrates that the stoves were considered desirable, since other women outside of the CIALs wanted them. One of the FIPAH organizers commented that the women were not nearly as interested in the establishment of agroforestry plots as they were in the improved cookstoves, but that the stoves provided the impetus for them to try agroforestry. It should be noted that the stoves were generally unaffordable for most households, without assistance from the project. Some women farmers not only learned how to build the stoves, but they also made modifications to the stove design to better suit their needs. FIPAH reported that, \"an oven was added and then redesigned to make it more compact, and thus more effective in cooking food and keeping it warm, and more efficient in using fuel. Four women involved in the project generated income from the construction of the stoves. At the same time, financial mechanisms were identified which could push forward the diffusion of this technology led by women of the community.\" One woman interviewed during the evaluation process reported she had started her own small business by building Eco-Justa model cookstoves for neighbors in her community after having participated in the construction of her own stove during the project. At the time of the evaluation she said she had constructed more than 20 cookstoves, earning extra income in the process. She planned to build more in the future, as they were extremely popular within her community.A survey conducted among the participants to assess the use and effectiveness of the improved stoves found that 80 percent of the women surveyed reported a decrease in fuel use by 50 percent. While it was likely beyond the scope of the project, the use of empirical data-gathering would have benefitted the evaluation of the efficacy of cookstoves in decreasing fuel wood consumption and/or decreasing indoor air pollution. Fuel wood demand could have been monitored by women by estimating daily/weekly usage either using a baseline or control group to measure changes in consumption as a requirement of having been involved with the project. Many technologies, such as particulate matter and carbon monoxide monitors, that have emerged in recent years could provide data on exposure to air pollutants from cooking. 2Mitigation of climate change in the agricultural sector can be delivered either through reduction in emissions from increased fertilizer efficiency or decreased fossil fuel emissions (for example) or through carbon sequestration, which decreases atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations by increasing carbon stocks in soils or biomass. As discussed earlier in this paper, agroforestry systems are generally able to cycle and store much higher levels of carbon than conventional annual monoculture systems. Thus, a main research aspect of the project was to estimate carbon sequestration within the agroforestry plots. To accomplish this, carbon sequestration measurements and estimates were made for both soil and biomass stocks. Measuring soil and biomass carbon sequestration is an essential strategy if the project planned to become part of a voluntary or compulsory carbon market for trading offsets.The project team trained 65 female and 16 male farmers in four communities on the methodology needed to measure biomass and soil carbon and how to use equipment and field books. Extensive soil sampling was conducted by the CIALs, which was then analyzed by labs at the Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA). Soil samples were collected at a 30 cm depth from the surface. Soil organic carbon was reported as soil organic matter (SOM) which, by standard practice, contains 58 percent total organic carbon (TOC) 3 . The project, however, used a factor of 29 percent to convert between SOM and TOC. (See Appendix 9 for soil analysis results). Other soil characteristics measured included pH, N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and B.Overall, the results showed a high degree of heterogeneity both between and within communities. In the municipality of Victoria, 24 soil samples and analyses were conducted. The results of the analyses indicate that in the parcels located in 6 of the communities of this municipality, the average % C in the OM of the soil is 2.10%, which is above that of the soils in the plots located in the other municipalities in the study. The community of Urracal had average % C values of 3.53, which had the highest carbon contents, likely a product of the use of plots located in the forest area for the establishment of the agroforestry systems. In La Fortuna, soil samples analyzed reflect a tendency of the soils to have more acidic pH levels (4.9-6.4), with average pH of 5.28. These values are influenced by the agro-climatic conditions of the community, notably precipitation above 2500 mm annually leading to more rapid leaching and acidification. The results from soil analysis carried out on 8 farms located in the municipality of Sulaco, demonstrate an average of 1.78 % C of the soil, values that are much lower than in the plots in Victoria. In Higuerito, three farms had average values of 2.33 % C, which is considerably higher than the sampled municipal average. In relation to pH, in general the soils of the municipality of Sulaco show a tendency to be slightly acid (average=6.4).Above-and below-ground biomass was estimated using a rapid assessment method from empirically gathered data. The methodology for the estimation of carbon stored in the biomass of the trees in the agroforestry plots was carried out using a method of rapid measurement consisting of:• Measurement of 2 sample points inside the plot of ½ Manzana (Manzana=0.7 hectares.) or 4 in a plot of 1 Manzana in a diameter of 15 meters.• Inside of this plot, the height of the plant is measured and the diameter at chest height (DAP) is taken of all the trees with DAP of 5 cm, or with a circumference greater than 15.7 cm/tree.• Estimation of the biomass contained in the foliage at the soil surface, through random measurement of 1 m 2 calculated from the dry weight of foliage contained in this area of surface soil.Estimation of carbon storage was carried out on 11 agroforestry plots where 12 species of native trees were found, including logging and firewood species. In general, women farmers were receptive to the use of the methodology, especially for the collection of field data, but there were some weaknesses in carrying out the calculations required for the estimation, since many of the women do not have the literacy or numeracy skills required to perform the work. Assistance from FIPAH in measuring soil carbon sequestration was therefore required. In order to accomplish this, FIPAH provided training to youths between 16-18 years in basic methods for data collection and surveying required for estimating above and below ground carbon storage. No data was available at the time of this publication to report on the findings from the biomass carbon storage.The evaluation found that there are significant hurdles to accurately measuring and evaluating soil carbon stock changes particular with the rigor necessary to tie into voluntary and compulsory carbon markets. While training farmers in data collection and monitoring is laudable, this may be a task better performed by trained experts since many farmers reported difficulty in taking measurements and performing calculations necessary to establish robust measurements of carbon sequestration. A further difficulty was the timeframe of the project was insufficient to establish gains in soil and biomass carbon stocks. A large body of research shows that changes in soil and carbon stocks often take several years to decades to take place (e.g., Powlson, Whitmore, and Goulding, 2011). Thus, the timeline of the project was not extensive enough to find significant changes. This points to the need for more continuous and longterm funding by donors and institutions.Overall the project was highly successful for a number of important reasons, but not without room for improvement. An unofficial measure of the project's success was how many women farmers outside of the project were interested in joining after they viewed the progress being made by women farmers involved in the project. FIPAH reported that, \"They have expressed their enthusiasm for the potential to improve their income and produce more food for their families, and in improving the quality of life, especially of their health, through the use of improved stoves and the incorporation of new practices.Other women have shown an interest in participating as a result of learning about the experience that the women participants have had with the project.\"We attribute the success of the project to how well it (1) incorporated traditional and indigenous knowledge systems particularly in the design and implementation of agroforestry systems, (2) engaged men, which led to \"slow, organic changes\" within FIPAH and the CIALs as men extended more recognition, respect, and support of women-led initiatives, (3) used rigorous needs assessment and participatory action research design (i.e. stakeholder engagement) throughout the duration of the project, with CIALs taking the lead on major aspects of the project, (4) incorporation of best management practices including modern scientific understanding, (5) targeted gender equity project outcomes specifically through targeting land tenure for women and reducing drudgery associated with fuel wood collection and exposure to indoor air pollutants, (6) used accurate and reliable indicators standardized across projects to assess impacts especially for economic changes, gender outcomes and greenhouse gas and carbon storage, and (7) took advantage of farmer-led data collection experimentation.A key strength of the project was that it will continue to provide benefits for a significant period of time after the project is concluded. While the cookstoves provided an immediate tangible benefit, the agroforestry and coffee plantings will continue to provide increases in production, income, nutrition, and food security for the women involved in the project and their households. Male farmers reported being more open to accepting the control and sharing of land, resources, and household income with women. Facilitating women leaders to drive the changes themselves and engaging men farmers from the start enabled change to arise largely from within FIPAH and the CIALs in an organic manner that has facilitated sustainable impacts The project was not without room for improvement: specifically, the farmer's knowledge of farmerled crop breeding and research could have been harnessed to test a wide variety of coffee varieties under different conditions, using soil fertility amendments for example. The use of only two varieties of coffee could cause greater vulnerability in the future. Likewise, the selection of agroforestry species seemed, at times, not to reflect the needs or wants of farmers; and some selections seemed inappropriate for the growing conditions. Better data collection systems that use text-based data entry could allow for easier data transfer, aggregation, analysis and sharing. This, in turn, would allow for better data quality and quantity, and could increase the ability to share research based on these studies. These limitations, which likely resulted from the limited amount of time to design and implement the project, are undoubtedly outweighed by the many successes of the project. Providing women with access to land and control over labor, resources, and income is an innovative and straightforward approach to increasing gender equity while promoting a more resilient and sustainable agricultural system. The impacts and next stages of this project should be followed to better understand the continued impacts, successes and lessons learned.1. Long-lasting income generation potential for women and farming households. Because coffee and other agroforestry crops can remain productive for decades, there are likely to be lasting economic benefits that appreciate over time. 3. Clear and strong gender equity impact that will likely continue. FIPAH reported that, \"The Yorito CIAL has incorporated a gender committee to strengthen the development of capacities and financial resources for women organized in the CIALs of the region. The goal is to improve their access to financing and to support access to the means of production for women of the region organized in CIALs.\" 4. Direct focus on needs of community and women farmers rendered the project highly relevant, and women farmers had a strong reason to participate and stay involved. 5. Specific targeted approach directly improved livelihoods for both women and men farmers. Agroforestry and shade-grown coffee could become standard practice in the area over time.1. Limited selection of species for agroforestry plantings. Nearly all of the women planted similar, if not identical, tree species. Some tree species appeared particularly ill-suited to growing conditions (particularly citrus varieties and peach); in some cases there were relatively high mortality rates. 4 The project appeared to only use two strains of coffee, both CLR-resistant. This is risky in the long-term to farmers, as CLR is not the only disease that can significantly impact productivity and yields. For example, Ojo de Gallo (Mycena citricolor fungus) and the coffee berry borer beetle (Hypothenemus hampei) are also potentially harmful, and CLR-resistant varieties are not more resistant to them. Many farmers are replanting the Lempira variety almost exclusively because of its high yields and natural CLR-resistance. This effectively reduces the coffee gene pool and makes further outbreaks of mutated CLR-resistant varieties more likely.CLR-resistant varieties may lose their resistance over time, as was documented with the \"Kent\" strain in India, where there was a near complete loss of resistance over a 10-year period. Loss of CLR resistance was also documented in some varieties of C. iberica and C. canephora. The monoculture use of Lempira across Honduras is a significant risk, and it could prove to be a significant but preventable error in decades to follow.No experimentation design for planting. The farmers would have been capable of doing an experimental design for planting, but there was no system for collecting data on the effectiveness of new plantings over time.3. Significant trade-off for quality. CLR-resistance is generally created when Arabica and Robusta coffee varieties are crossed. While Robusta is not considered to be a high quality variety, it does exhibit good CLR-resistance. Thus, the CLR-resistant varieties are generally considered to be of inferior quality to pure Arabica varieties. 54 Ants appeared to be a major cause of defoliation among the citrus, and a strategy for controlling ants may be necessary. On the other hand, simply planting more regionally appropriate species may be the best course of action.5 Robusta (coffea Canephora), typically produced at lower altitudes, is more disease-and pest-resistant (partly because of its higher caffeine content), and typically produces a larger crop than Arabica. It is usually much cheaper. In 2014, the future market for Robusta is $0.70 per pound, while Arabica is $1.14 per pound. Actual delivery prices for both species range from much lower for the lowest grades of Robusta to more than $10.00 per pound for small lots of Arabica. Good horticultural practices and dedicated growers could produce better quality Robusta, but it is unlikely to compare favorably to good Arabica.1. New strains of pests or pathogens could negatively impact coffee plantings. This may be especially true where large-scale monocultures of single coffee varieties (i.e. Lempira) have been replanted. Honduras as a whole is at risk due to over-reliance on this single coffee variety.2. Lack of maintenance of stoves or improper use could reduce efficiency, eliminate health benefits, or lead to discontinued use among households. While this is a threat, it did not appear to be immediately likely, as many farmers seemed to improve construction techniques and maintenance over time.may reduce incentives for farmers to engage in practices that increase above-and below-ground carbon sequestration. Many women reported having little participation in growing crops beyond home gardens or were only involved in particular processes of production such as weeding, harvesting, winnowing, etc., but not decision-making about agriculture. Having control over land and production was novel to most ,if not all, of the women farmers involved in the project. One farmer reported that having control over a small plot provided greater control not only over agricultural production but also over money and the use of household income. Access to land seemed to offer a large leverage point for the empowerment of women at a greater level, which also elevated women's status in their communities. At the same time, men have become increasingly supportive of women's role in such experiments. Many see benefits to the family as a whole in reducing demand for firewood and increasing the cooking quality of stoves. Men also see value in diversifying their farm production with fruit and coffee trees, and of supplying their families with wood for fuel and small building projects.There are also social benefits noted by the women and men belonging to CIALs. Learning to experiment together and to solve problems socially has increased confidence among members. This translates into an ability to address other problems that threaten local lives and livelihoods, including land grabs and threats of violence. This should make further technical innovation more likely. The work FIPAH is doing with the targeted CIALs strengthens social and technical capacities in a way that recognizes the interaction between the two domains of human experience.As a result of the experience of the PROLINNOVA project, the ASOCIAL Yorito has incorporated a gender committee to strengthen the development of capacities and financial resources for women organized in the CIALs of the region, with the goal of improving their access to financing and to support access to the means of production for women of the region organized in CIALs.About 35% of the participants in the project have more than five years' membership in a CIAL, the remaining 65% have at least two years organized in the CIAL. Members enjoy the improved sense of confidence that comes from learning new technical skills and appreciate the social solidarity that comes from solving problems together. These skills become resources when new experiments are introduced into FIPAH's network. FIPAH's work encouraged a slow, organic change in gender relations, with increasing decisionmaking authority and access to resources for women. Specifically:• 51% of the women report that the husband participated in all the activities including establishment and management of the agroforestry plot, while 30% report that the husband participated in at least 3 activities and 16% report that the husband had no role in the establishment and management of the agroforestry plot.• 51% of the women consider that they control the plot, either because it was ceded to them by the husband or because it is their property. 16% consider that the control of the plot is shared by them both, and 33% consider that the husband continues to control the plot.It is apparent that the experiments are designed to meet multiple local needs, including an array of direct consumption and income-generating needs. Specifically:• 42.5% of the women participating in the project report that they participated in all activities of their farm plot, including design, establishment, management, and monitoring of the plot. These women also expect to benefit from their labors as a family. Thus far, there appear to be few problems with men taking over the benefits of the agroforestry systems and the carbon sequestration -should the latter benefits materialize -but this is a subject to continue monitoring.• 100% of the participants report that one of the criteria of selection of the fruit species included good adaptive capacity to the locality, family consumption, or sales.• At least 52% of the women interviewed considered one of the selection criteria of the logging species to be the value of the wood, the rest of the group considered diverse selection criteria. It is important to mention that 27% of the plots established already had forestry species inside the plots.• 82% of the women interviewed reported that the principal criteria for the selection of condiment species was for domestic use (medicinal and food use), and the 18% remaining selected the condiment species with an eye to sales.• 77.5% of the women participants considered that one of the selection criteria for firewood species in their plots was either its use as shade in the agroforestry system or for domestic firewood.Direct income provision for women was one of the strongest potential impacts of the project. Notably, economic gains are likely to: 1) increase over time as the plantings mature and 2) endure for a long period of time (typically coffee plants take 3-5 years to bear fruit and can last for 40 to 50 years of good production).Women farmers report having greater understanding of and control over household budgets, the costs of production, and the potential for income generation as a consequence of their participation in the CIAL. This knowledge and control, the women farmers reported, was likely to grow with the project and with their participation in the CIAL.Asked whether they expected to keep control over their incomes, some women said that they would be in charge of the incomes, while others stated that it would be used much like the rest of the income that the household receives, and joint decisions would be made about spending and saving. Some women reported that they were more likely to spend the money on expenditures to benefit the whole family (improvements to house, books and school uniforms for children, etc.), whereas men may be more tempted to spend it on items for themselves (e.g. a motorcycle). Thus, some women reported that the whole household was likely to benefit if women were given greater control over household financial resources.Youth training of 16-18-year-old women and men in the basic science of carbon sequestration and surveying (collection of above-and below-ground carbon sequestration data) built ownership and capacity within the CIALs. Involvement of youth, one CIAL explained, is critical to extending the progress made by the CIALs to the next generation. In one community, the CIALs organized a youth CIAL that was explicitly created to foster youth leadership and innovation.Involvement of youth, one CIAL explained, is critical to extending the progress made by the CIALs to the next generation. In one community, the CIALs organized a youth CIAL that was explicitly created to foster youth leadership and innovation. Many facilitators at the bi-annual conferences held by the CIALs were facilitated and led by young professionals. Such involvement is likely to provide a bridge to future generations and keep the organization diverse in terms of age and experience, allowing it to maintain relevance even while many young people attempt to find jobs outside of farming.analysis. \"If this then that\" at IFTTT.org provides a free service which has this capability. This could be a game changer in terms of data gathering and reporting, particularly by projects that rely on farmers without direct access to computers but who do have access to cell phones. e. How many hours/days did it take to plant the agroforestry plot? f. How much maintenance is required to maintain plots? (How much time weeding, fertilizer/fungicide application, harvesting, etc.?) g. What is the total yield from crops? (Yield for particular coffee varieties? Yield for particular agroforestry crops?) h. Yield data: total yield, days to flowering, days to maturity etc. i. Soil: color, texture (which could be correlated with more rigorous soil tests that have already been taken in order to lower costs but still arrive at useful conclusions) j. Meteorological data: rainfall (gauges), temperature etc. k. Disease Prevalence: extent of CLR prevalent, photos from phone of pests l. Plant nutrition: tissue color, root nodulation m. Plant desirability: color, taste, ease of preparation, etc. n. Geographical data: elevation, soil type, etc. o. Carbon sequestration data: tree mass (diameter at breast height, estimated height), leaf litter, soil carbon data, etc. p. Cook stoves: fuel wood use without improved cookstove, fuel wood use with improved cookstove More explicit publication strategy: It should be possible to generate at least three to five peerreviewed publications for an extended multi-country project of this nature. This will require a more planned approach, however, and one in which project teams are more explicitly involved in the writing process throughout the project from the beginning stage through final analysis.In-country literature review on food security, gender and climate: Each project team, in conjunction with the program team, could conduct literature reviews of food security, gender, climate change impacts, and past projects that have attempted to address these issues prior to project implementation or as part of the application process. This would (a) provide a solid means of assessing the knowledge and rigor of potential project teams, (b) create a learning environment for both the project team and program team to more fundamentally understand and assess current contexts, future challenges, and successes and failures of projects that have been implemented in the past. This would also assist in developing a strong project design, and the outcome could generate a publishable paper for each project team, increasing their motivation.Baseline needs assessment and survey of specific communities and households: Prior to project design, project teams could be tasked with conducting a thorough needs assessment in the villages and households with which they plan to work. This could consist largely of the survey methodology described above. While the results of the needs assessment would probably not be able to be directly published, making this phase a separate deliverable would increase project team compliance.Limitations, omissions, and miscalculations of the survey methodology could also be identified by the project team and the methodology could be corrected.A period of time after project implementation is completed, a followup survey on both farmers involved and not involved in the project could be conducted to assess project impacts. Results of the pre-and post-implementation survey could be used to generate a publication, in addition to the more empirical data gathering strategies.Empirical data-gathering strategies: Data gathered through more empirical \"physical science\" approaches, such as yield and plant characteristics (disease resistance, time to flowering, height, leaf area index, etc.), soil analyses, carbon sequestration, could be used to generate a research paper either for each individual project or for all three projects as a whole. Standardization of methodologies (described above) would be extremely helpful if cross-comparison is desired.Seek greater genetic diversity of coffee varieties: For example, afarmer may plant 3-5 different types of coffee using randomized block design and then report on yield, disease resistance, time to fruiting, and other key parameters of the various varieties. Thus would be useful in choosing future plantings, depending on soil type and elevation. More diverse plantings may also hedge against future pest or disease outbreaks. The Central Coffee Research Institute in Balehonnur , India has developed multiple CLR-resistant strains (e.g. Sln 5-A, Sln 5-B, Sln 6, Sln 9, Changraka) that may be worth testing alongside Lempira and IHCAFE-90. The Costa Rican Coffee Institute (ICAFE) has also developed a CLR-resistant variety called Obata that is reported to have a similar quality to 100% Arabica varieties, while providing predictable and homogenous yields.Capture and re-use coffee-based by-products: According to one estimate, the average European cup of coffee or espresso (125 ml) requires 140 liters of water -a ratio of coffee to water of 1 to 11,000. Capture and re-use of coffee-processing organic matter (such as cherries) and wastewater may play an important role in reducing water shortages, decreasing loading of streams with organic matter, and improving soils. Processing alternatives to the \"wet process\" such as the \"semi-wet process\" and \"dry process\" may also be considered for reducing water use.Further test rock dusts for needed soil nutrients: Initial analyses of local rock dust showed high levels of phosphorus and calcium, two essential plant nutrients that were found to be at low levels in several of the sampled soils. Many farmers have already been experimenting with rock dusts, and several were discussing the potential of setting up microenterprises around the use of rock dust. Better testing, training, and equipment for processing rocks into rock dust is needed. For example, some farmers were trying to use metamorphic rocks containing high quantities of quartz (made up primarily of silicone crystals) as a source for rock dust. Such rocks were unlikely to have many available plant nutrients, whereas rock dust made from volcanic rocks is more likely to have the needed nutrients.Simple trainings could help farmers identify which rocks are most likely to be beneficial for crops.Provide training on planting techniques, especially for women and youth: While many women managed successful plantings, it was evident that most male farmers were more experienced.Strategies for increasing planting success include: early stage cover-cropping (e.g. cow pea, velvet bean, and runner bean, as well as other leguminous crops, particularly those with high nitrogen fixation potential), bean intercropping (as was done in many locations), greater use of woody nitrogen fixers (higher density plantings with intention of 90% removal for fuel wood and other purposes), and the use of swales (described below) and micro-catchments.6 Intercropping and cover cropping can reduce soil erosion and increase plant available nitrogen-two critically important outcomes for small-scale farmers in Honduras who are farming on steep slopes and on nitrogen deficient soils.Engage in community work: Many women farmers reported difficulty planting, particularly when they did not have assistance. \"Barn-raising\" style plantings, where the larger community or CIAL is involved in the process of transplanting coffee and agroforestry saplings, may accomplish a lot of work in a short period of time as well as increase farmer-to-farmer innovation. More experienced farmers can share planting techniques, fertilizer recommendations, etc. during the critical time of planting, leading to an increase in transplanting survival and, later, yields.Integrating home gardens into agroforestry projects may help spur greater interest among women farmers. It was evident that household gardens were well tended by many women and throughout the visit women farmers were observed consistently collecting seeds and other germplasm from plants in household gardens that they found useful, beautiful or interesting as they travelled from house to house. Home gardens can provide important sources of nutrition, aesthetic beauty, sense of place, and habitat for biodiversity, especially pollinators. Importantly, home gardens may also help the project gain increased interest in the agroforestry portion of the project by women farmers.Build capacity in integrated pest management of CLR and other coffee pests and pathogens during workshops and training exercises: For an example of a list of measurements to take in order to ensure adequate pest management, see appendix 4.Further farmer-led experimentation: The project was successful in equipping farmers to conduct research on farms, but the scope of the experimentation could expand. A participatory action research approach generally advocates that farmers should not only participate in the research but also should help decide the experiment. An example of a potential is in the appendix.Explore \"organic,\" \"fair trade,\" and \"carbon negative\" certification of coffee and other farm products: The CIALs provide an ideal model and vehicle for certification programs that could be facilitated by FIPAH or other organizations. This would increase farmers' access to higher value markets.Include micro-financing and lending circles: With facilitation by CIALs or FIPAH, micro-finance could increase access to improved cookstoves, CLR-resistant coffee plants and other innovations valued by farmers but too expensive for them to purchase outright.Increase focus on water, especially water catchment and storage at the household level for household consumption and potentially small-scale irrigation: Nearly every CIAL identified water quantity and quality as a principal challenge. Experimentation could be done on a wide variety of water catchment systems, including ICB totes and above-and below-ground ferro-cement tanks. Most CIALs reported that they relied upon a single large water tank for an entire community. Water from local streams, causes a high risk of contamination, particularly in downstream communities.Additionally, if the community tank were to run out or if it becomes contaminated, there is very little redundancy in the system for people to find alternative water sources. Household tanks (or at least neighboring houses) that collect rainwater from roofs of houses, solar dryers and other structures would increase the number of tanks, thereby mitigating the threat of contamination or shortages, while decreasing the amount of time spent collecting water, a task assigned to women.Ditches on contour with elevation (otherwise known as \"swales\") could be a critical tool for reducing erosional losses, providing better access points on steep slopes, preventing runoff, and encouraging water infiltration. Various water harvesting earthworks could be seen in many locations, but they were not extensive and lacked appropriate design. Many women were working on nearly 45-degree slopes, causing difficulties in planting, pruning, weeding and harvesting. Swales decrease difficulty and aggravation while maximizing environmental and agronomic benefits.However, creating extensive micro-catchment systems often involves a lot of difficult and time consuming labor, a particular obstacle for some women farmers. The aforementioned community work, or \"barn-raising style plantings\" could be a novel way of creating an extensive micro-catchment system on a plot or farm. Excellent Development, a United Kingdom-based non-governmental organization that works in Kenya, has used \"barn-raising\" to implement large-scale implementation of swales at community levels for the past two decades.Improve cooking efficiency through complimentary strategies: Selection and drying of fuel wood and proper maintenance of cookstoves, although often overlooked, provide important low-cost strategies that can simultaneously lower health risks and increase cooking efficiency. ","tokenCount":"12712"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5cf9caed02b2a0e091919211f363fbdc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c174350f-63d6-41e2-8be0-c24a0df2eccf/content","id":"1968777799"},"keywords":["soil calcium","dolomitic lime","soil pH","soil potassium"],"sieverID":"b5fc8206-76fd-4ec6-8346-6e7f9351e8fa","pagecount":"11","content":"Introduction. Maize (Zea mays L.) production in La Frailesca region, Mexico, is limited by sandy soils, low in potassium (K), and with acidic arable layers and subsoils. There is information on the management of lime but not on amendments that could be used for subsoil acidity -such as gypsum -nor on the interactions between amendments for soil acidity and K fertilization. Objective. To evaluate the effects of K and gypsum on maize and on previously limed soils. Materials and methods. The evaluations were conducted in farmers' fields in La Frailesca region, Chiapas (Mexico) in 2016 and 2017. Four gypsum rates (0, 1.25, 2.5 and 5 t ha -1 ) and four K rates (0, 60, 90, and 120 kg ha -1 as K 2 O) were factorially combined in a randomized block design, with three replicates. In both years, before the beginning of the experiments, dolomitic lime was applied to the experimental area following standard practices. Responses of crop yield, soil exchangeable K, Ca, Mg, and Al, and soil pH were obtained. Results. Maize yields increased with gypsum (stabilizing at 1.25-3.0 t ha -1 ), and K (stabilizing at 70-120 kg ha -1 of K 2 O) applications. In soils, K application increased exchangeable K content, while gypsum increased exchangeable Ca content and pH, and decreased exchangeable Al content. Liming increased pH Ca and exchangeable Ca and Mg contents, and lowered the exchangeable Al content in the top 7.5 cm of soil. Conclusion. Soils with exchangeable K (≤0.3 cmol c kg -1 ) were responsive to K fertilization. The positive effects on yields from gypsum were probably linked to a greater Ca supply in the top 7.5 cm. These results are encouraging about the benefits of the combined application of dolomitic lime, gypsum, and K, but longer evaluations are needed to properly determine the effects of gypsum on subsoil acidity.Soil acidity seriously limits agricultural productivity in La Frailesca region of Chiapas (Mexico) (16°14'00''N, 93°16'09''W). Recently available results from a survey of 236 farms show average pH of 5.2 (±0.9), with exchangeable acidity higher than 0.5 cmol c kg -1 -considered by the authors as a critical limit for plants -in 64 % of them, and deficient K contents in 58 % of the samples (López-Báez et al., 2019).Since the mid-1980s producers and agronomists in the region have been using agricultural lime to amend acidity in the plow layer (Buerkert et al., 1990;Hibon et al., 1992). Lime is typically mixed into the soil to maximize its effect, since it has low solubility in water and would otherwise tend to remain in the surface centimeters (Sumner, 1990).There is evidence that soil acidity in La Frailesca can extend below the plow layer, at depths practically unreachable with available tillage implements (Tasistro & Camas-Gómez, 2015). However, there is almost no published information about the management of subsoil acidity in this region.The most commonly used amendment for subsurface soil acidity is gypsum (Shainberg et al., 1989;Sumner, 1990;1993) due mainly to its potential mobility into the soil. Positive crop responses to gypsum are typically prompted by its readily raising of the concentration of Ca in soil solution (Shainberg et al., 1989) that leads to improvements in Ca availability and eventually to the promotion of root growth in low Ca-acid soils (Van Raij, 2008). Additionally, gypsum can be beneficial by providing S and/or decreasing the activity of Al in soil solution by increasing ionic strength and transforming it into less toxic forms (Zoca & Penn, 2017).Exploratory experiments conducted In La Frailesca have shown positive effects on maize (Zea mays L.) yield of dolomitic lime, gypsum, and K in soils with acidity in their plow layer and subsoil (Tasistro & Camas-Gómez, 2015).Based on these circumstances, the objective of this study was to evaluate the responses of maize and soils to a range of rates of K and gypsum in previously limed soils.Introducción. La producción de maíz (Zea mays L.) en la región de La Frailesca, México, está limitada por suelos arenosos, bajos en K y con capas arables y subsuelos ácidos. Existe información sobre el manejo de cal, no así de enmiendas como el yeso que servirían para la acidez del subsuelo, ni sobre las interacciones entre tales enmiendas y la fertilización potásica. Objetivo. Evaluar los efectos del K y el yeso en maíz y en suelos previamente encalados. Materiales y métodos. Las evaluaciones se realizaron en campos de agricultores en La Frailesca, Chiapas (México) en 2016 y 2017. Se combinaron factorialmente cuatro dosis de yeso (0, 1,25, 2,5 y 5 t ha -1 ) y cuatro de K (0, 60, 90, y 120 kg ha -1 como K 2 O) en un diseño de bloques al azar, con tres repeticiones. En ambos años, antes de iniciar los experimentos, se aplicó cal dolomítica al área experimental con base en las prácticas estándar. Se obtuvieron las respuestas del rendimiento del cultivo, pH y K, Ca, Mg, y Al intercambiables del suelo. Resultados. El rendimiento del maíz aumentó al aplicar yeso (estabilizándose a 1,25-3,0 t ha -1 ) y K (se estabilizó a 70-120 kg ha -1 de K 2 O). En los suelos, la aplicación de K aumentó el K intercambiable, mientras que el yeso aumentó el Ca intercambiable y el pH, y disminuyó el Al intercambiable. El encalado aumentó el pH Ca y los contenidos de Ca y Mg intercambiables y disminuyó el Al intercambiable en los 7,5 cm superiores. Conclusión. Suelos con K intercambiable (≤0,3 cmol c kg -1 ) respondieron al K. Los efectos del yeso sobre los rendimientos estuvieron probablemente relacionados con el aporte de Ca en los 7,5 cm superiores. Estos resultados indican posibles beneficios de la aplicación combinada de cal dolomítica, yeso y K, pero faltan evaluaciones de los efectos del yeso en la acidez del subsuelo.Palabras clave: calcio del suelo, cal dolomítica, pH del suelo, potasio del suelo.The study was conducted in maize growing in farmers' fields under rainfed conditions (typically from June to October) in two locations (Raquel and Hermilo) in 2016, and two other locations (Edray and Francisco) in 2017, all with acid sandy soils classified as dystrudepts (Soil Survey Staff, 2014), typical of La Frailesca, Chiapas, which had at the beginning of operations the characteristics presented in Table 1. The levels of exchangeable bases ranged between very low and moderately low according to Castellanos-Ramos et al. (2005).Soil analyses at the end of the maize cropping cycle could only be made in November 2017 (Edray and Francisco sites), using composite samples made from 18 cores obtained from the six central furrows in each plot at two depths (0-7.5 and 7.5-15 cm), including the area where the fertilizer had been band-applied.The pH was determined potentiometrically in water (pH w ) and in 0.01M CaCl 2 (pH Ca ) with a 1: 2 soil: water ratio; K, Ca, and Mg, were extracted with ammonium acetate 1N pH 7 (Knudsen et al., 1982), and extractable Al with KCl 1N (Lin & Coleman, 1960). Effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was calculated as the sum of exchangeable bases + KCl-extractable aluminum, while Al and Ca saturation (%) was calculated by dividing exchangeable Al and Ca by the ECEC.Table 1. Soil characteristics at two depths at the beginning of the studies of the responses of maize (Zea mays L.) and the soils to a range of K and gypsum rates in previously limed soils, in the Raquel and Hermilo locations in 2016, and Edray and Francisco in 2017. La Frailesca, Mexico.Cuadro 1. Características a dos profundidades de los suelos al comienzo de los estudios de las respuestas del maíz (Zea mays L.) y los suelos a un rango de dosis de K y yeso en suelos previamente encalados, en las localidades Raquel y Hermilo en 2016, y Edray y Francisco in 2017. La Frailesca, México. Rainfall in 2016 and 2017 was 1,359 and 1,782 mm, respectively, higher than the historical average for the study area which is 1,115 mm (Serrano et al., 2006).The treatments consisted of a factorial combination of four rates of agricultural gypsum (0, 1.25, 2.5, and 5.0 t ha -1 ) and four of K (0, 60, 120, and 180 kg ha -1 of K 2 O), using KCl as the source, arranged in a randomized block design with three replicates. Each experimental unit had eight rows 6 m long and 80 cm apart. The four central rows were harvested manually, excluding 1 m in the row headers. The grain yield is expressed on a 14 % moisture basis.The statistical analyses were done with Genstat (VSN International, 2018), using a probability level of 5 % to define the significance of the analyzed effects.The agricultural gypsum used originated from mines; it was applied manually four to five days before planting, and left on the surface. Two days after sowing, KCl was applied manually in a band and buried next to the seeds, together with 20 % of the total N (40 kg ha -1 , as urea) and 100 % of the P (60 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1 , as triple superphosphate). The remaining N was side dressed and buried at around V6, also as urea.Seven days before sowing all the experimental areas were treated with commercial dolomitic lime following standard practices for the region, which include incorporation using disk harrows to a depth of 10-12 cm.In 2016, the variety 'V561' was planted in both locations, while in 2017 the hybrids 'DK7500 A' and 'DK390' were used in the locations Edray and Francisco, respectively. In conventionally prepared soil, one seed was sown manually per hole, with an initial density of 65,000 seeds ha -1 . Seeding dates in both years were within the normal range for the region, and standard agronomic management practices were followed to keep the experiment free of weeds, pests, and diseases.In both cropping cycles and all locations, maize yields increased in response to K and gypsum applications, with no significant interactions between the two factors being detected.The positive response of maize yields to K applications (Figure 1) followed a linear-plateau model, showing increasing yields up to 120 kg ha -1 of K 2 O in three locations, and up to 70 kg ha -1 of K 2 O in location Hermilo. In locations Raquel, Edray and Francisco, crop response to gypsum followed a linear-plateau model with maximum yield at 1.25 t ha -1 of gypsum, while in location Hermilo the response was parabolic, with an increase in yield up to 3 t ha -1 of gypsum (Figure 2).The results of soil analyses at both depths (0-7.5 cm and 7.5-15 cm) at the end of the season in 2017 in locations Edray and Francisco, showed that the application of K resulted in significant increases in soil K (Figure 3), whereas the application of gypsum brought about increases in exchangeable Ca (Figure 4). However, the decrease in Al saturation, because of gypsum application, was detected only in the upper 7.5 cm of the soil in location Edray (Figure 5).In both locations, gypsum increased pH Ca at 0-7.5 cm (Figure 6); no effects were detected at 7.5-15 cm, where pH Ca averaged 3.6 and 3.8 in Edray and Francisco locations, respectively.The comparison of the values of some soil properties measured at the 0-7.5 cm and at the 7.5-15 cm depth intervals, in soil that did not receive gypsum, allowed an estimation of the effects of the blanket application of dolomitic lime made before the beginning of the study. Liming improved the acidity conditions in the top 7.5 cm of soil by increasing pH Ca , exchangeable Ca, and Mg contents, and by lowering Al content (Table 2).          Maize yield responded positively to K and gypsum application (Figures 1 and 2) as could be expected by the locations' low initial soil K and Ca contents (Table 1). However, the effects on yields observed in location Hermilo differed from the other locations: less K and more gypsum were needed to reach the plateau, probably because its soil had the highest initial soil K and a lower initial soil Ca contents (Table 1).The effects of K application on maize yields can be related to the higher soil exchangeable K measured in the soil at the end of the 2017 crop cycle (Figure 3). The absence of crop response after 70 kg ha -1 of K 2 O in location Hermilo, and 120 kg ha -1 of K 2 O, in the remainder locations, is indicative of other yield limiting factors.At both locations in 2017, soil exchangeable Ca augmented in the top 15 cm of soil, and although the greatest increase was observed at the upper 7.5 cm, these results suggest that at least part of the gypsum moved between the upper 7.5 and 15 cm. This might have been related to the high rainfall in 2017, since faster responses, associated with greater S and Ca availability, have also been reported for areas of high pluviosity in Brazil (Sumner, 1993). Nevertheless, the limited effects of gypsum at greater depths, in spite of the abundant rain received in 2017, point out to factors that slow down its effectiveness such as it not being mixed into the soil and the reported slow dissolution of mine gypsum in water (Shainberg et al., 1989;Sumner, 1993). Also, adsorption of SO 4 -2 to soil colloids retards its leaching (Borkert et al., 1987). This process might be important in the soils under study since preliminary soil characterization using the procedure described by Sumner (1990) has shown ((A Tasistro, personal communication, 2014)) that soils in La Frailesca were responsive to gypsum.Gypsum can also boost crop yields through the reduction of exchangeable Al (Shainberg et al., 1989;Sumner, 1990;1993). Although gypsum decreased Al saturation in the upper 7.5 cm of the soil in location Edray (Figure 5) the range of Al saturation values in which the response was observed (<12 %) was below the 25 % critical level for maize (Espinosa & Molina, 1999). These low values of Al saturation were the result of the lime application made to all the experimental area prior to the beginning of the study. Thus, it is unlikely that the effect of gypsum on Al was associated with the crop yield response.Gypsum does not neutralize or form acids so its reported effects on soil pH are typically small -in the order of 0.2-0.3 pH units -including both increases and decreases. Effects such as the increases shown in Figure 6 may result from the interaction of several mechanisms: the balance between H + and Al +3 (which can hydrolyze and release H + ) exchanged for Ca +2 , and OHexchanged for SO 4 -2 , soil heterogeneity, and problems associated with sampling (Borkert et al., 1987;Sumner, 1993;Zoca & Penn, 2017). Any of those mechanisms could have acted in the present case, plus an additional one related to the presence of carbonates as impurities, unfortunately non quantified in the gypsum used, which are common in natural gypsum deposits (Zoca & Penn, 2017).Together, the responses of maize yield to gypsum and to soil exchangeable Ca and pH, suggest that the latter maybe limiting at gypsum rates lower than 1.25 t ha -1 in locations Raquel, Edray and Francisco, and 3 t ha -1 in location Hermilo. At higher gypsum rates, maize yield reached a plateau, while soil exchangeable Ca and pH kept increasing, a situation indicative of other more important yield limiting conditions.The blanket application of dolomitic lime worked as intended: it increased pH and exchangeable Ca and Mg contents and lowered Al content in the top 7.5 cm of soil compared to the 7.5-15 cm depth (Table 2). Moreover, these results indicate that lime was effectively mixed in the top 7.5 cm, which is about 2/3 of the working depth (10-12 cm) of the disk harrow used to incorporate into the soil after its application. This depth is greater than the 1/3 of the working depth of the implement that Beegle (1996) considered as a standard, probably because two passes were made.However, despite its increase, the pH remained in the low range. This could be explained because the effect of limestone as a corrective of acidity can be reduced if it is applied jointly with gypsum, since the latter saturates the soil solution with calcium, decreasing the speed of the calcium carbonate hydrolysis reaction (Borkert et al., 1987). One study recommend that lime be applied early enough before gypsum (60-90 days) in order to provide optimal moisture conditions for the reaction between the lime and soil particles (Borkert et al., 1987). This interval is much longer than what was followed in the present study.Maize growing in soils with less than 0.3 and 1.9 cmol c kg -1 of K and Ca, respectively, responded to K and gypsum. The effects of the latter were probably associated to its supplying Ca, although the addition of S may have also been important.The beneficial effects on grain yield of liming showed in the top 7.5 cm of soil through decreased Al saturation, and increased pH, and Ca and Mg contents. At the end of the first crop cycle after application and in spite of the favorable moisture conditions, the effects from gypsum were mostly confined also to the top 7.5 cm of soil.The increase in soil K and Ca in such a shallow depth was sufficient to bring about positive responses from the crop because the rainfall during the study period was very favorable. The situation might have been different under dryer conditions when the roots would have been limited in obtaining water from deeper layers because of their higher Al saturation.Longer term evaluations are needed to determine the evolution of the effects of gypsum on characteristics deeper in the soil under more varied climatic conditions.","tokenCount":"2954"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e9ce38c8e08655a8f9d3d0c81a594f43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/33b050a8-5905-4190-bdea-43eb1ca048c7/retrieve","id":"1096499421"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ab77db44-6047-4851-8310-19344e031623","pagecount":"10","content":"RNA viruses exist within a host as a population of mutant sequences, often referred to as quasispecies. Within a host, sequences of RNA viruses constitute several distinct but interconnected pools, such as RNA packed in viral particles, double-stranded RNA, and virus-derived small interfering RNAs. We aimed to test if the same representation of within-host viral population structure could be obtained by sequencing different viral sequence pools. Using ultradeep Illumina sequencing, the diversity of two coexisting Potato virus Y sequence pools present within a plant was investigated: RNA isolated from viral particles and virus-derived small interfering RNAs (the derivatives of a plant RNA silencing mechanism). The mutational landscape of the within-host virus population was highly similar between both pools, with no notable hotspots across the viral genome. Notably, all of the singlenucleotide polymorphisms with a frequency of higher than 1.6% were found in both pools. Some unique single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with very low frequencies were found in each of the pools, with more of them occurring in the small RNA (sRNA) pool, possibly arising through genetic drift in localized virus populations within a plant and the errors introduced during the amplification of silencing signal. Sequencing of the viral particle pool enhanced the efficiency of consensus viral genome sequence reconstruction. Nonhomologous recombinations were commonly detected in the viral particle pool, with a hot spot in the 3= untranslated and coat protein regions of the genome. We stress that they present an important but often overlooked aspect of virus population diversity.R NA viruses are one of the fastest-evolving biological entities known. Due to their high mutation and recombination rates, viral populations exist within hosts as a cloud of nonidentical but similar sequences, often referred to as viral quasispecies (1). The generated variability, coupled with natural selection, population bottlenecks, and stochasticity, shape the structure of virus populations, which was shown to have important implications in virus fitness and pathogenicity (1). With the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS), in-depth studies of viral populations within a host became possible. In the past few years, several in-depth population studies have been conducted on human (2) or animal pathogenic viruses using NGS (3)(4)(5). Less attention has been given to plant-infecting viruses; several studies have been carried out using Sanger amplicon sequencing of a limited number of molecular clones (6)(7)(8)(9)(10). All NGS in-depth within-plant virus population studies reported to date employed amplicon sequencing, focusing on only a particular part of the viral genome (11)(12)(13)(14). However, different parts of the viral genome can be subjected to different selection pressures (15,16); thus, whole-genome characterization of virus populations would give a more complete picture.High background levels of host nucleic acids and the high diversity of viral populations complicate the reconstruction of a complete consensus viral genome sequence from NGS data. Moreover, within-host viral population studies demand high sequencing coverage (10,000ϫ and more). Most of such studies include a preamplification step for the amplification of complete or partial viral genomes (2). Such an approach allows us to achieve great sequencing depth easily; however, it can distort the variation occurring in primer-annealing regions (17) and affect the detection of other variants, which are epistatically connected with those regions. Moreover, this approach requires specific knowledge about viral genome sequence, since the sequences of PCR primers used for the amplification of the viral genome have to be known in advance.A more generic solution is the enrichment for viral nucleic acids before sequencing library preparation, employing the characteristics of different viral sequence pools within the host. In plants, the sequences of RNA virus origin constitute several different pools: RNA molecules packed within the virions, doublestranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules, and virus-derived small interfering RNAs (vsiRNAs). dsRNA molecules can arise through replication or the action of plant RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Shorter stretches of dsRNA-like structures also can be produced by intramolecular base pairing between different parts of the viral genome. In plants and invertebrates, viral dsRNA molecules represent a substrate for the generation of 21-to 24-nucleotides (nt)-long virus-derived small interfering RNAs (vsiRNAs), which result from the activity of dicer-like proteins (18).Deep sequencing of vsiRNAs has been used efficiently for the reconstruction of consensus viral genome sequences from plants (19) and invertebrates (20). It is a relatively time-efficient, affordable, and generic method, and as such, it is widely applicable. It was observed that different variants could be detected in the pool of vsiRNAs (21). However, no comparisons have been made yet to test if the variation observed in vsiRNAs reflects the full diversity of viral populations. To fill this gap, we have used a sequenceindependent, preamplification-free deep sequencing approach to investigate and compare two different pools of RNA virus sequences from the infected plants: single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) isolated from purified viral particles (VP pool) and vsiRNAs (sRNA pool). Deep sequencing of viral RNA directly from purified viral particles was performed only in a few cases and was shown to be highly efficient for enrichment for viral nucleic acids (4,22,23). Here, we have used the recently developed CIM monolithic chromatography-based approach for fast purification of viral particles (24).Potato virus Y (PVY)-potato was used as a model system. PVY, a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus and a member of the genus Potyvirus (family Potyviridae), is one of the most important potato pathogens and is distributed in potato-growing regions worldwide (25). In this study, the highly pathogenic recombinant strain NTN was investigated.Our two main aims were to (i) compare the efficiency of the approaches for the consensus virus genome sequence generation and (ii) compare the within-host population structure inferred from the two viral sequence pools. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were compared between the samples using a stringent filtering strategy; a low-frequency SNP detection algorithm and technical replicates were used to discriminate real SNPs from reverse transcription (RT), PCR, and sequencing artifacts. The VP pool was investigated additionally for recombination events. We hypothesized that the diversity of vsiRNAs and RNA isolated from viral particles show a highly similar mutational landscape.This study presents the most comprehensive whole-genome characterization of within-plant virus population to date and al-lows independent validation and comparison of variants by sequencing two different pools of virus sequences within the same plants. The study provides a firm baseline for future studies of plant virus population diversity and dynamics after bottleneck (transmission by vectors, systemic movement within host) or radiation (spread to a new host) events.Preparation of infected plant samples. PVY (strain NTN; isolate NIB V 151)-infected Solanum tuberosum cv. Pentland Squire plants were propagated in stem node culture (in vitro) and transferred to soil. After 3 weeks, whole green parts (leafs and stem) of 60 plantlets were harvested. The leaves and stem of each plant were divided in two pools, one used for the purification of viral particles and the other for small RNA isolation. First, for the isolation of small RNAs, equal amounts of young leaf, old leaf, and stem were sampled from each plant and pooled (amounting in a total of 1 g of plant material). Subsequently, all of the remaining harvested material (16.74 g) from the same plants was combined and used for purification of viral particles. For a detailed scheme of the experiment, see Fig. 1.Purification of PVY particles and isolation and fragmentation of viral RNA. Viral particles were purified using convective interactive media (CIM) monolithic chromatographic supports as previously described (24). Chromatographic fractions containing purified viruses were pooled and subjected to total RNA isolation using TRIzol LS reagent (Life Technologies, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) by following the manufacturer's instructions. Prior to sequence library preparation, isolated PVY RNA was fragmented using a NEBNext magnesium RNA fragmentation module (NEB, Ipswich, MA, USA). The fragmentation and end repair procedure followed the Illumina directional mRNA-Seq sample preparation guide (15018460, Rev. A, 2010). The size and quantity of purified fragmented viral RNA was assessed with the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer using an RNA Pico chip (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA).Isolation of small RNAs. Total RNA was isolated from pooled plant material (1 g) using TRIzol reagent (Life Technologies, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) by following the manufacturer's instructions. RNA was separated in 15% urea-polyacrylamide gel. The band corresponding to the size of small RNAs (cloud of the smallest size, ϳ10 to 50 nt) was cut from the gel and crushed. Crushed gel pieces were soaked in 700 l of 2.5 M NaCl with 0.1% ␤-mercaptoethanol at 4°C overnight. Samples then were spun down, and 700 l supernatant was transferred to Freeze 'N Squeeze columns (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). The remaining gel pieces were washed with 300 l of 2.5 M NaCl with 0.1% ␤-mercaptoethanol, which was added to Freeze 'N Squeeze columns. The columns were spun at 5,000 rpm for 1 min. Resuspended RNA was cleaned using a 0.5 volume of chloroform, precipitated with 1 volume of isopropanol, and washed with 75% ethanol. Finally, the pellet was air dried and resuspended in 10 l of RNase-free water.Library preparation and sequencing. Illumina TruSeq sequencing libraries were prepared for both fragmented RNA isolated from purified PVY particles (VP) and small RNAs (sRNA) according to the published protocol (26), with the following modifications: (i) reverse transcription reactions were made in a reduced (50%) volume; (ii) in the final PCR enrichment step, a 4ϫ concentration of forward and reverse primers was used. The libraries were size selected in 10% native polyacrylamide gel, and the DNA was purified from the gel using chloroform-isopropanol extraction. The size distribution of purified libraries was inspected on a Caliper LabChip GX using an HS DNA chip (PerkinElmer, Hopkinton, MA, USA). The libraries were sent for sequencing on an Illumina Hiseq2000 platform in single-end 50-nt mode to Fasteris Life Sciences SA (Plan-les-Ouates, Switzerland). In order to confidently discriminate real SNPs in the population from RT, PCR, and sequencing artifacts, we used technical replicates. Two library technical replicates were prepared (from the RT step onward) for each sequence pool, amounting to a total of 4 samples (sRNA1, sRNA2, VP1, and VP2).Reconstruction of consensus genome sequence. Subsamples of 500,000 reads were used for the reconstruction of the consensus genome sequence to achieve optimal performance of the algorithms (the performance of de novo assembly algorithms is not optimized for very high sequencing depths; up to ϳ100,000ϫ in our case). Velvet 1.2.10 ( 27) and the CLC Genomics Workbench 6.0 (CLC bio) de novo assembler were compared initially. The latter showed better performance (significantly longer contigs); thus, it was used for all subsequent analyses (using default parameters, with the minimum contig length set to 50 nt). Parameters of assemblies were compared between sRNA and VP pools, and contigs were mapped to reconstructed consensus complete viral genome sequences to define the proportion of genome they cover for each of the samples. The analysis was repeated on 10 subsamples, and the results were plotted using R 3.0.2 (28). The reconstructed PVY complete genome sequence was deposited in GenBank under accession number KM396648.To define the ratio between viral and host genome sequences, reads from each set first were mapped to the reconstructed PVY genome (KM396648). We removed reads shorter than 15 nt because they could map nonuniquely. Reads that did not map to PVY then were mapped to a published potato genome sequence (International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration [INSDC] assembly no. GCA_000226075.1). CLC Genomics was used for the mapping. The depth of coverage for each position of PVY genome was exported from CLC Genomics and normalized to the sample with the lowest total read count (ϳ11.67 million reads). The data were visualized as a line plot using R 3.0.2 (28), with lines being smoothed using the smooth.spline function (spar ϭ 0.3).Analysis of PVY within-plant population structure: SNP calling. For SNP analysis, a stringent data filtering and trimming strategy was used before mapping to avoid false-negative results: (i) the reads containing ambiguous bases (Ns) were discarded; (ii) for sRNA samples, 21-to 24nt-long reads were selected, and for VP samples, reads longer than 24 nt (25 to 50 nt) were selected; (iii) test alignments were made and mismatch profiles per read position were inspected (Fig. 2), and then positions Ͻ5 and positions Ͼ45 were trimmed from VP reads and positions Ͻ5 and Ͼ21 were trimmed from sRNA reads; and (iv) reads containing nucleotides with a Phred Q score lower than 20 were discarded. Filtered and trimmed reads were aligned to the reference consensus genome sequence obtained by de novo assembly as described above (accession number KM396648). Several mapping algorithms were tested (CLC Genomics Workbench, bowtie, bowtie2, and RazerS3). RazerS3 was selected as the most suitable for our particular case (very short reads of variable length) and was used for the construction of final alignments, allowing no gaps and a minimum 90% identity match. SAMtools view (29) was used to randomly sample the alignments to comparable sequencing depths (the average depth of coverage was then ϳ8,000ϫ for each of the samples). The resulting alignments were used for SNP calling using LoFreq (30). LoFreq allows the detection of variants with frequency lower than the average sequencing error rate. It uses Poisson-binomial distribution-based modeling of sequencing errors for each site in the genome separately, considering position-specific Phred quality scores as well as sequencing depth of the position to distinguish legitimate SNPs from sequencing artifacts (30). Thus, error probabilities are computed for each SNP separately without depending on a universal arbitrary frequency cutoff value. However, the algorithmic filtering implemented in LoFreq can account only for the mistakes arising during the last sequencing step of the process. To further eliminate false positives, which could arise during RT or PCR, we used two replicates (from the RT step on) for each of the samples. Thus, SNPs called by LoFreq were filtered, and only the ones occurring in both replicates were considered reliable. This filtering approach allowed us to confidently discriminate real SNPs from the RT, PCR, and sequencing noise, discovering SNPs in the range of 0.06 to 50% (see Fig. 4b) without the use of an arbitrary frequency cutoff value. Moreover, for comparisons between the pools, we used the lofreq.unique script implemented in the program to further filter out the SNPs which did not have sufficient sequencing depth in all of the samples (30).SNPs were annotated for possible amino acid changes (synonymous/nonsynonymous mutation, consensus amino acid, and variant amino acid) using an in-house-made script. Additionally, the corresponding BLOSUM62 score for each of the SNPs was obtained from the BLOSUM62 matrix (31).Correlation of SNP frequencies between replicates and between pools was calculated and plotted (see Fig. 4c to f). First, frequencies of SNPs present in both sRNA replicates were compared. Second, the same analysis was made for VP pool replicates. Third, frequencies of SNPs found in both pools (sRNA and VP) were compared. Finally, those SNPs also were sorted by frequency and each SNP was ranked. The ranks of the SNPs in one pool were compared to the ranks of the SNPs in the other pool.Analysis of PVY within-plant population structure: recombination detection. For the detection of nonhomologous recombination events, only reads from the VP pool were used. Reads longer than 25 nt first were mapped to the consensus PVY genome and then to the host (potato) reference genome. Reads which did not map to either of them were extracted, and ViReMa (32) was used to detect possible virus-virus nonhomologous recombination events (seed length set to 20 nt, removing PCR duplicates). To further assess the robustness of the results, the same analysis was repeated with longer seed lengths (22 nt and 24 nt). Seed length represents the number of nucleotides used by mapping algorithm for the beginning alignment to the reference. Thus, increasing seed length should increase the specificity but decrease sensitivity of the method. To confirm the reliability of the ViReMa approach for the detection of recombination events, 10 of the most frequent recombination events and 5 other randomly chosen ones were further evaluated. We constructed simulated recombinant sequences, spanning the region of 25 nt before and 25 nt after recombination events detected by ViReMa. The ViReMa input reads then were mapped (using CLC Genomics Workbench) to this simulated sequences. We then visually inspected the mapping for each of the simulated recombinant sequences to ensure there were recombinant reads covering each of the tested recombinant points. Since the sRNAs are too short (21 to 24 nt) to be analyzed for recombination signal using ViReMa or other existing bioinformatics tools, we tried to detect recombination signals by mapping the sRNA sample reads to the same simulated recombinant sequences and then visually inspecting the results.To search for possible recombination hot spots in the PVY genome, only recombination events supported by two or more nonidentical reads in both replicates were considered. Such a conservative filtering approach significantly reduced the number of the detected recombination points; (b) Relative frequencies of mismatches per position in the read after the test mapping. The higher mismatch frequencies observed at the 5= and 3= ends of the reads were trimmed (the positions shaded in gray) and were not used for subsequent SNP calling. however, we were able to reliably exclude possible artifacts of the wetlaboratory and analysis procedure. The number of filtered recombination points was counted in each 10-nt-wide window across the PVY genome and visualized as a histogram.Circos 0.65 (33) was used for the visualization of the results. The square root of relative frequencies of filtered SNPs, their BLOSUM62 scores, and detected recombination events were visualized in a circular plot (see Fig. 5).Nucleotide sequence accession numbers. Raw sequencing reads from this experiment have been deposited in the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA) under accession numbers SRR1556759, SRR1556760, SRR1556761, and SRR1556762. The consensus viral genome sequence has been deposited in NCBI GenBank under accession number KM396648.Illumina deep sequencing resulted in 13 to 24 million reads for four prepared libraries (Fig. 2). The size distribution of sRNA libraries implied excellent enrichment for sRNAs (prominent 21to 24-nt peak) (Fig. 2a). It was previously shown that the small RNA library preparation could introduce a bias in the frequency of represented sRNAs, likely due to the strong adaptor-sRNA base pairing (34). To compensate for the bias, RNA isolated from VP was fragmented in similarly short fragments (reads of VP libraries range in length from 10 to 50 nt) (Fig. 2). Thus, the similar size of fragments in both types of libraries allowed us an unbiased comparison of the two pools (VP versus sRNA).Sequencing RNA isolated from purified viral particles enhances reconstruction of consensus viral genome sequence. De novo assembly of reads obtained by sequencing fragmented RNA from purified viral particles repeatedly (two replicates with 10 500,000-read subsamples) produced one contig encompassing the complete or nearly complete viral genome sequence (9,278 to 9,761 nt) (Fig. 3b). De novo assembly of small RNAs resulted in several shorter contigs (with a maximum length of 611 to 2,543 nt in different subsamples) (Fig. 3b), which did not overlap; the N50 (the parameter used to describe the quality of assembly) was considerably lower for sRNA assemblies (Fig. 3b). The sRNA contigs covered the majority of, but not the complete, viral genome (up to 826 nt not covered by contigs) (Fig. 3c).In both cases (VP and sRNA), the entire genome was covered when mapping the reads to the reconstructed PVY complete genome sequence, with no zero-coverage regions (Fig. 3e). In VP samples, viral sequences amounted to 89% of the sample, whereas in sRNA samples they amounted to around 54% (Fig. 3d). There was a low level of contamination with background host sequences in VP samples (only 2% of the reads). In sRNA samples, a higher proportion of reads mapped to the host genome (38%), probably mostly representing potato endogenous small RNAs. The remaining reads (8 to 9%; denoted as \"other\" in Fig. 3d) did not map to either of the genomes and may represent host sequences not sufficiently similar to the published potato genome sequence, which corresponds to Solanum phureja (a closely related diploid potato species), but it also may include sequences of other taxa present in plants and recombinant viral sequences (as confirmed by recombination analysis). The depth of sequencing coverage across the PVY genome was variable but high in both cases. The genome was more uniformly covered in the case of sRNAs, whereas in the case of the VP pool, a notable peak in coverage was observed in the 3= region of the genome (Fig. 3e).The mutational landscape is highly similar between VP and sRNA pools. SNP analysis, following rigorous filtering using rep-  SA1 in the supplemental material). The frequencies of variants ranged from 0.06% to 49.86% (Fig. 4b). Eighty-one SNPs were present in both pools. Twentytwo SNPs were found only in the VP pool, and 40 were found only in the sRNA pool. After excluding the sites with uneven coverage across the samples (using the lofreq.unique script), 16 SNPs were confirmed to be unique for the VP pool and 29 for the sRNA pool (Fig. 4a).The correlation of common SNP frequencies was nearly perfect (R ϭ 0.99) (Fig. 4c and d) between the replicates. The correlation of SNP frequencies for the 81 SNPs present in both pools (VP and sRNA) was strong (R ϭ 0.85) (Fig. 4e). Moreover, when comparing ranks of the SNPs instead of their frequencies, there was even higher interpool correlation for approximately the first 30 ranks, which largely correspond to the SNPs with frequencies higher than ϳ1% (Fig. 4f, outlined area).All of the SNPs which have a frequency of 0.6% or more in the VP pool also were discovered in the sRNA pool. From the opposite perspective, there was a 100% rate of SNP discovery in the VP pool only if this SNP had a frequency of 1.6% or more in the sRNA pool (Fig. 4b).The SNPs were distributed across the entire genome of PVY, with a possible cold spot in the VPg coding region (Fig. 5b and c). The annotation of SNPs shows larger amounts of nonsimilar amino acid substitutions (lower BLOSUM62 scores) in the P1 and NIb regions of PVY polyprotein (Fig. 5a and d).Recombinant viral sequences are common in VP pool. The recombination analysis of the VP pool with the ViReMa algorithm suggested that 0.5 to 3% of reads are recombinant viral sequences (result dependent on the seed length: 20, 22, and 24 nt). However, this represents an extreme underestimation. The short length of reads constituting our libraries (15 to 50 nt) did not allow us to detect the majority of recombination events. According to Routh and Johnson (32), a theoretical maximum efficiency of recombination detection with the ViReMa algorithm can be estimated using the following calculation: there are 49 possible cutting sites in a 50-nt read at which a recombination may occur. With a search seed of 20 nt, recombination events occurring in the first or last 19 cutting sites of the reads will not be detected, leaving 11 possible sites. Therefore, a theoretical maximum efficiency of recombination can be calculated as 11/49 ϫ 100 ϭ 22.4%. Using the same formula, the theoretical maximum efficiency of recombination detection using a seed length of 22 nt is 14%, and using a seed length of 24 nt it is 6%. Correction for theoretical algorithm efficiency was made by dividing the detected number of recombinant viral sequences by the approximate theoretical efficiency of the algorithm. Because our data set contained different read lengths, we could perform only a rough estimation using the most represented read length (50 bp) for the corrections (also being the most conservative one). Thus, considering the theoretical efficiency of recombination detection, we can roughly estimate that the \"real\" proportion of recombinant sequences amounts to 7 to 15% (Table 1). This is in accordance with the study of Routh and Johnson (32), where, with a similar approach, 8 to 13% of sequences encapsidated in flock house virus (FHV) particles could be annotated as recombinant viral sequences. Detailed results are presented in Table 1.For further analysis, we filtered the detected recombinant events conservatively: only the recombination events confirmed by at least two nonidentical reads in both replicates were considered reliable. This way, we excluded potential experimental and analysis artifacts. With the seed length set to 20 nt, 2,295 (706 unique) filtered nonhomologous recombination events were revealed. Plotting the observed recombination points on the PVY genome revealed a notable hot spot of such events present in the 3=-untranslated region (UTR) and coat protein (CP) region of the genome (Fig. 5e and f). When the specificity of recombination detection was increased by setting seed lengths to 22 nt and 24 nt, the number of detected recombination points decreased to 668 (217 unique) and 38 (16 unique), respectively. Nevertheless, iden-tical hotspots were identified in the viral genome (Fig. 6a). The predicted hotspots (Fig. 5e and f) coincide with the notable peak in the depth of sequencing coverage (Fig. 3e). We tested if the observed pattern could be explained only as a correlation between the number of detected recombination events and the depth of coverage. No notable correlation could be observed (Fig. 6b). Manual inspection of recombination events confirmed the reliability of the ViReMa approach, since all 15 tested simulated recombinant sequences were covered by recombinant reads. No recombinant events could be detected (using the same simulated sequences) within the sRNA pool (see Materials and Methods for details about the analysis). Through a carefully planned experimental and analysis approach, we compared the diversity of two separate but coexisting viral sequence pools within a plant: virus-derived small RNAs and RNA isolated from purified viral particles. Both of the approaches tested here proved to be efficient for the enrichment of viral nucleic acids from infected plants. However, the isolation of viral particles was shown to be superior when considering the purity and relative amount of viral nucleic acids. It also performed better when the reads were used for de novo reconstruction of the consensus viral genome sequence. Thus, sequencing RNA isolated from purified viral particles is highly efficient when characterizing unknown viruses. The main drawback of this approach could be the length of the purification process. This was, however, greatly reduced in our experimental setup by using a novel purification approach based on CIM monolithic chromatography (24). On the other hand, the sRNA sequencing technique is a more time-efficient and generic approach. It allows us to detect many different viruses without a special protocol modification, and as such it represents a first choice for virus screening or diagnostic usage.To explore and compare the mutational landscape of withinplant virus populations, we predicted SNPs present in both of the investigated pools. Using a stringent filtering approach, we were able to reliably detect variants with frequency as low as 0.06%, which is the highest resolution, obtained in whole-genome studies of plant virus populations to date. Confirmation of identified variants in two independent pools of sequences provides additional reliability for investigating the diversity of viral populations. We showed that the SNPs of two distinct viral sequence pools overlap greatly. All of the mutations with frequency higher than 1.6% were detected in both pools, implicating a highly conserved mutational landscape between VP and sRNA pools. Nevertheless, both of the pools contained some unique SNPs, which in all of the cases had low frequencies (up to 1.6% in the sRNA pool, up to 0.6% in the VP pool).The occurrence of these pool-unique SNPs can be explained by several scenarios. First, it could be a result of a genetic drift in localized virus populations within a plant. Even though special care was taken to ensure representative sampling for both of the pools (Fig. 1), it is likely that mutations from a very recent and/or localized replication event would not occur in both of the pools. Moreover, in the case of sRNAs, unique SNPs could arise as random mutations through viral genome replication (dsRNA) but may later be negatively selected during viral genome encapsidation. Second, they also could arise through errors introduced by host RNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the generation of secondary vsiRNAs (18). The possibility of technical artifacts should not be completely excluded, because the extremely low input concentrations of the current protocols do not allow us to exactly equilibrate the amount of molecules between the pools before the ligation reaction. This could result in a dropout of low-frequency variants in some of the libraries. Nevertheless, since we observed unique SNPs in both of the pools and the frequencies of SNPs between technical replicates and between the pools have a good correlation, it is not likely that observed unique SNPs would arise solely as a technical artifact of unequilibrated molecule counts.Several studies reported prominent hotspots and cold spots in depths of vsiRNAs coverage across the viral genome (35,36). Different explanations have been suggested for these observations, including biological explanations, e.g., connecting the hotspots with predicted secondary structures in viral genomes (23,36), as well as library preparation-connected ligation biases (34). In other cases (37,38) such patterns were not observed. In our study, vsiRNAs were uniformly distributed across the PVY genome without prominent coverage hotspots or cold spots (Fig. 3e). In addition, the evenness of coverage was greater for sRNA samples than for chemically fragmented viral RNA (Fig. 3e). The pattern of vsiRNA coverage is specific for different plant-virus systems and should be evaluated in each specific case. However, one can speculate that even if notable cold/hotspots in coverage are observed, they do not greatly affect the relative frequency of detected variants but only reduce/enhance the resolution in such regions of the viral genome. Moreover, such a variation could be taken into account, when comparing the samples, filtering the positions with uneven coverage across the samples.Recently, some studies have shown that recombination events should be approximately as common as mutations in the evolution of RNA viruses (32,39,40). A recent study (41) illustrated this phenomenon in the case of tobacco etch virus, a member of the same (Potyvirus) genus as PVY. We used an algorithm (32) which allowed us to detect nonhomologous recombinant reads in the VP pool. The reads in the sRNA pool were too short to be included in the analyses. The results of our study implicated that roughly 7 to 15% of the VP reads obtained in this experiment represent recom- binant viral sequences originating from nonhomologous recombination events. This is congruent with the data obtained for flock house virus (FHV), where a similar methodology was used (32). A relatively high proportion of nonhomologous recombinant sequences in virions highlights an important but rather understudied part of the variability in virus populations. Further studies should be made that employ an approach which would allow the straightforward distinction of in vivo recombinants from artifactual recombinations that may have been introduced through library preparation. Here, we have used a conservative approach to reliably distinguish in planta recombination events from possible artifactual recombinations by stringently filtering the recombination events based on their occurrence in both of the sequenced technical replicates. This allowed us to perform a high-resolution mapping of nonhomologous recombination events on the viral genome, which indicated hot spots for recombination events in the 3=-untranslated region of the PVY genome as well as in the 5= and 3= ends of the coat protein gene. The mechanism and relevance behind this interesting pattern should be further explored.In the potato-PVY system, both of the sequence pools investigated allowed reliable determination of low-frequency SNPs in virus populations. We showed that sequencing virus-derived small RNAs captures a highly detailed picture of the within-plant virus mutational landscape compared to the RNA packed in viral particles. The deep resolution obtained with each of the approaches would allow us to track in detail the fluctuations of variant frequencies in population studies of plant virus evolution and emergence. Both tested methods have their advantages and disad-vantages; small RNA sequencing would allow an easier, quicker, and more generic method to explore within-plant virus population structure, whereas deep sequencing of RNA isolated from viral particles provides an additional insight into the recombination events, which are an important but often overlooked source of diversity in viral populations. The presented comparison can serve as a firm baseline for the employment of both methods in within-plant virus population studies.","tokenCount":"5319"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"435f19f1ce605e221a99fb892601d46a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6193fd9-f519-43de-8f55-cc90967e2ba4/retrieve","id":"-168733157"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f9bec48d-56a4-4a27-8a06-72376813a691","pagecount":"16","content":"Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA) district agrifood systems assessment aims to provide a reliable, accessible, and integrated evidence base that links farm production, market access, dietary patterns, climate risk responses, and natural resource management with gender as a cross-cutting issue in rural areas in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. It is designed to be a district-level multiyear assessment. Using data collected in March-April 2023, this data note describes the types of unhealthy foods people are eating, where they get those foods, perceptions about key unhealthy foods, and from what source they receive information about different unhealthy foods. This is one of a set of data notes that, together, provide a holistic picture of the agrifood system in the district.TAFSSA's district-level agrifood systems assessment included interviews with three respondents per household: a female adult (aged 20+ years), a male adult (aged 20+ years), and an adolescent (aged 10-19 years). A description of the household and respondent sampling strategy is provided at the end of this data note.In this data note, you will find information on background characteristics of the households and individuals who were interviewed. This is followed by information on the types of unhealthy foods people are eating, which was measured using two methods. Respondents were asked about the unhealthy foods they ate the day before the interview (24-hour recall) and about how often they ate certain unhealthy foods in the past week (food frequency questionnaire). The 24-hour recall was conducted using the Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS) application, which also captures when (at different eating occasions such as breakfast, a snack between breakfast and lunch, lunch, etc.) people ate each unhealthy food item.In addition to what people eat, you will find information on where they get their unhealthy foods.Finally, you will learn why people choose to eat certain unhealthy foods. Respondents were asked about the availability, accessibility, taste, and other factors that may influence their decisions to consume certain unhealthy foods. Diets were measured by asking people about what they ate or drank on the previous day, from the time they woke up until the time they went to bed and did not eat or drink anymore. This includes all foods, both healthy and unhealthy, consumed at home and away from home. This data note focuses only on the unhealthy foods, which were categorized in 7 groups (see box on right). The Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS) application (Bromage et al, 2021) 2 was used to capture this information.Among the 9 GDQS unhealthy food groups (7 unhealthy food groups plus red meat and high-fat dairy, which are unhealthy when consumed in excess), we have excluded two -refined grains and baked goods, and white roots and tubers. These were excluded because the consumption rates for these two food groups approached nearly 100% among all survey respondents, as these foods constitute staple dietary items or the most consumed sources of carbohydrates across the study regions. We show the percentages of individuals who consume foods from the 7 unhealthy groups (Figure 3), commonly consumed foods and beverages within unhealthy food groups (Figure 4), how many times per day people eat unhealthy foods (Figure 5), and who eats unhealthy foods at various eating occasions (Figure 6).  ✓ Around 44% of male adolescents consumed sweets and ice cream, nearly 1.5 times more than male adults.✓ Female adults and adolescents consumed more sugar-sweetened beverages and fried foods at home than their male counterparts.✓ Male adolescents consumed 1.5 times more sugar-sweetened beverages than male adults.✓ Male adults and adolescents consumed more than 1.5 times of purchased fried food than their female counterparts.✓ Compared to female adolescents, male adolescents consumed 2.5 times more red meat. ✓ More than 50% of total unhealthy foods consumed were sweets and ice creams for all respondents except for adult males. Sugar, biscuits, and cane sugar were the most common items.✓ Within the purchased fried foods group, the specific foods consumed differed across respondent types.These figures show the percent reporting consumption of each food and beverage for each GDQS unhealthy food group.Only the foods and beverages consumed in larger proportions are indicated by name. The width of the outer blocks for each food or beverage shown is scaled according to the relative percent reporting consumption of that food or beverage.The size of each block in the inner circle reflects the sum of all percentages across all foods and beverages reported as consumed for that unhealthy food group. ✓ Unhealthy foods were mostly consumed during breakfast followed by afternoon and dinner among all respondents.✓ Both female adults and adolescents consumed more unhealthy foods during breakfast compared to their male counterparts.✓ Compared to female adolescents, male adolescents consumed more unhealthy foods at lunch and in the afternoon, and 1.5 times more at dinner.In addition to the GDQS, which provided information about all unhealthy foods consumed in the previous 24 hours, we selected a set of 6 \"sentinel unhealthy foods\" (see box on right) to better understand how frequently these common examples of unhealthy foods are consumed, where people buy them, and their perceptions about these foods.Respondents were asked about where they purchased these unhealthy foods (haat, retail shop, or other sources) (Figure 7) and how frequently they consumed these foods in the past 7 days (Figure 8).For the three most-consumed unhealthy foods (biscuits, fried foods, and instant noodles), we examined people's perceptions about some key aspects. These included whether they know of a vendor who sells the food, if the food is safe to eat, easy to acquire near where they spend most of their time, is not too expensive, is fast and easy to prepare, tastes good, fills their stomach, is nutritious, and if their family enjoys eating it (Figure 9). Understanding these perceptions provides insights into drivers or barriers of food choice.\"Others\" includes weekly market, city market, mobile vendor, and road market. Haats are wholesale markets where foods are sold in bulk directly by manufacturers/ farmers/ artisans at a fair price, in permanent or semi-permanent infrastructure.Retail shops means fixed or mobile individual shops where foods are sold directly to the consumers and include local grocery stores, specialized shops, vegetable/fruit shops, restaurants, and tea stalls.✓ Among households that purchased instant noodles, chips, biscuits and baked sweets, more than 80% of households purchased these foods from retail shops.✓ Deep fried foods and tea/coffee with sugar were commonly purchased from other sources such as weekly markets, city markets, mobile vendors, and road markets. ✓ Around 41% of adults consumed tea/coffee with sugar every day.✓ Most adolescents consumed instant noodles and biscuits and baked sweets, with more than 40% consuming these foods multiple times a week. ✓ Around 90% of respondents considered instant noodles and biscuits to be easy to acquire and prepare. ✓ Nearly all the respondents knew a shop that sells instant noodles, biscuits and deep fried foods. ✓ Deep fried foods were considered tastier and stomach filling and were preferred for family enjoyment by adolescents compared to instant noodles and biscuits.✓ Biscuits were considered more nutritious, affordable, and safer to eat by all respondents. We selected 25 wards in the district with a probability proportional to the number of households that reside in each ward. Within each ward, we conducted a household listing to identify eligible households, that is those with adolescents (10-19 years From the households with adolescents, we randomly invited 20 households to participate in the survey. If a household refused, we replaced that household with another randomly selected eligible household, to retain a total of 500 households in the district. Thus, the findings reported in this data note are representative of rural households from this district that include an adolescent.Within households, one adult female aged 20+ years, one adult male aged 20+ years, and one adolescent aged 10-19 years were selected as the respondents for the survey. When multiple adolescents were living in a household, the oldest adolescent was selected. In some households, an adult male was not available (often due to migration for work). In such households, the female was the only adult respondent (See Table 1 for respondent sample sizes). At the beginning of the interview, the adult in the household primarily involved in agriculture (either male or female) and the adult primarily responsible for food purchasing (either male or female) were identified as the primary respondents. ","tokenCount":"1380"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b995c389372fa5f52678d2a3c823fa6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9f84e38-90bb-4e24-ad0a-278052b2fb3f/retrieve","id":"856105919"},"keywords":["baseflow separation","highlands","interflow","phosphorus","runoff","soil loss","Sub-Saharan Africa","watershed"],"sieverID":"007519c1-ecd9-432a-9c66-28ef8af706de","pagecount":"18","content":"Establishing worldwide sustainable and phosphorus efficient cropping systems is urgently needed because the supply of suitable phosphate rock is limited, and excess phosphorus in streams causes eutrophication. One of the impediments in the developing world for sustainable P practices is the lack of studies on P transport and its eventual disposition in the environment. One of these regions with few studies is the Ethiopian Highlands, with permeable volcanic soils. The objective was to establish baseline data on P watershed export in the (sub)humid highlands. Two contrasting watersheds were selected near Lake Tana. For 2 years, stream discharge and sediment, total P, dissolved P, and bioavailable particulate P concentrations were determined at the watershed outlet. The first watershed is the 57 km 2 Dangishta, with lava intrusion dikes, forcing subsurface flow through faults to the surface and preventing gully formation. Subsurface flow was half of the 1745 mm annual precipitation, and surface runoff and erosion were minimal. The second watershed is the 9 km 2 Robit Bata with 1,420 mm precipitation. The banks of several river banks were slumping. The upper part of the watershed generates saturation excess runoff. A hillslope aquifer in the lower part provided interflow. The average sediment concentrations of 10.5 g L −1 in the stream in Robit Bata (11 times that in Dangishta) reflected the sediments from banks slipping in the stream. The hydrology and the soil loss directly affected the phosphorus export. In Dangishta, the total P concentration averaged 0.5 mg L −1 at the outlet. In Robit Bata, the average total P concentration was 2 mg L −1 . The bioavailable particulate P concentration was only twice the concentration in the runoff water. The low phosphorus content of the subsoil slipping in Robit Bata moderated biologically available particulate P at the outlet. Average dissolved P concentrations for both watersheds were around 0.1 mg L −1 in the low range found in temperate climates. It reflects the difference in length of time that phosphorus fertilizers have been applied. Our research concludes that commonly implemented practices such as strengthening river banks and stabilizing gully might not lead to improved water quality in Lake Tana.As a result of the increasing population and intensification of agriculture, anthropogenic phosphorus pollution is reaching dangerously high in freshwater basins worldwide (Bennett et al., 2001;Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2018). It leads to eutrophication resulting in seasonal hypoxia (Rabalais et al., 2010), harmful algal blooms, and production losses in aquatic ecosystems (Turner et al., 2006;Li et al., 2014;Watson et al., 2016). Moreover, the supply of the most suitable phosphate rock is limited, and more efficient use of phosphorus improves the life of the P reserves and prevents lake eutrophication.While the phosphorus loads in water bodies have decreased in rural settings in the USA and Europe (Nyenje et al., 2010), the opposite occurred in major lakes in sub-Saharan Africa. For example, Lake Victoria has become eutrophic (Gikuma-Njuru et al., 2005). In Lake Tana, the largest Lake in Ethiopia, P concentrations have exceeded 0.08 mg L-and are the main driver behind the recent water hyacinth expansion (Dersseh et al., 2019). Best management practices need to be developed to prevent further water quality degradation in the many African Lakes. The design of best practices in the humid monsoon climate with over 1 m precipitation in 4 months requires understanding how the complex hydrogeology interacts with the P transport. One of these regions is the Ethiopian Highlands, where sediment loss and P concentration in rivers and lakes are increasing, despite governmental sponsored projects constructing best management practices on agricultural land.In humid tropical Ethiopian Highlands, where infiltration rates are generally greater than the rainfall intensities, runoff is produced by saturation excess from periodically saturated areas (Guzman et al., 2013;Tilahun et al., 2013). As soils saturate during the monsoon, the groundwater tables intersect with the soil surface. Overland flow may occur on the degraded hillsides where perched water tables, in soils with a hardpan, reach the surface during the storm. In areas with little vegetation cover, this can lead to significant erosion, especially when the saturated areas are prone to gulley formation (Guzman et al., 2013;Steenhuis et al., 2013;Tilahun et al., 2013;Zegeye et al., 2016;Dagnew et al., 2017;Zegeye et al., 2018;Mhiret et al., 2019). In addition, hydrology in Ethiopia's volcanic landscape is affected by cracks, fissures, faults, and pipes. Watersheds in the headwaters usually cannot close their water budget. Thirty to seventy percent of effective rain (rainfallevaporation) leaves the watershed through faults, not the outlet. For example, east of Lake Tana, 60% of the effective rain flows to the Takeze watershed in the Rib watershed (Adem et al., 2020). Another example is the drinking water in Bahir Dar that comes from a spring in the lower Gilgel Abay. These springs have the same outflow pattern as rivers, with most flows during the rain and decreased flows during the dry phases (Nigate et al., 2016).Sediment concentrations in watersheds in the Ethiopian highlands were the greatest at the start of the rain phase due to the formation of rills in the plowed cropland (Guzman et al., 2013;Steenhuis et al., 2013;Tilahun et al., 2013;Zegeye et al., 2016;Dagnew et al., 2017;Zegeye et al., 2018). Later in the rain phase, expansion of the valley bottom gullies (up to 10 m deep!) became the primary source of the sediment (Tebebu et al., 2010;Zegeye et al., 2016). Basin-wide estimated soil loss ranged from 25 to 37 Mg ha⁻ 1 a⁻ 1 for watersheds with gullies (Lemann et al., 2016;Zimale et al., 2016;Haregeweyn et al., 2017;Zimale et al., 2018). At the same time, watersheds without gullies generally had losses of less than 10 Mg ha⁻ 1 a⁻ 1 (Moges et al., 2016;Adem et al., 2020).Phosphorus can be lost in the dissolved and particulate form. The portion of the sediment-associated P can be biologically available (bio-available particulate phosphorus or BAPP) (Uusitalo et al., 2001;Ellison and Brett 2006;Bender et al., 2018). In lakes, an equilibrium exists between the sedimentassociated BAPP and dissolved P (Reynolds and Davies 2001;Ruttenberg and Sulak 2011). Catchment properties control the transport of the dissolved and sediment-associated P forms, including land use and management, topography, hydrological and erosion-sedimentation processes (Bowes et al., 2005;Donn et al., 2012;Chow et al., 2017). Up to 92% of the annual total P load can be lost during storm events (Gao et al., 2010).Throughout the landscape, features such as agricultural land, gullies, flood plains, wetlands can act as a source or a sink depending on their location and P form (Moges et al., 2016;Macintosh et al., 2018;Ezzati et al., 2020). Riparian buffer strips, vegetated valley bottomlands act as a sink for particulate P but a source for dissolved P (Heathwaite 2010;Collins et al., 2013). Moges et al. (2016a) and Guzman et al. (2017) noted that dissolved P in the stream during baseflow was equal to the groundwater P concentration in the saturated valley bottoms. The seasonally or inter-storm relationships of concentrationdischarge (C-Q) could be investigated by plotting the P concentration as a function of the discharge (Thomas et al., 2016;Moatar et al., 2017;Heathwaite and Bieroza 2021).Despite the recent publications on hydrology and sediment transport process and dynamics in the Ethiopian highlands (e.g., Guzman et al., 2013;Zegeye et al., 2018), our understanding of P export remains limited. In the Science Citation Index, we found three studies with limited P export data for watersheds by Moges et al. (2016) and Guzman et al. (2017) and Alemu et al. (2017). In addition, two plot studies were published that report on P export from various land uses by Grum et al. (2017) and Mulualem et al. (2021). Dersseh et al. (2019) and Kebedew et al. (2020) measured phosphorus concentration and the degree of eutrophication. Thus, the objective is twofold. 1) to establish a baseline for phosphorus losses from a watershed and 2) to quantify the effect of runoff mechanisms on dissolved, particulate, and bioavailable P. A better understanding of the bioavailable phosphorus and dissolved phosphorus fractions is essential for adaptive management of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Scavia et al., 2014).Dangishta (57 km 2 ) and Robit Bata (9 km 2 ) watersheds are found in the northern Ethiopian Highlands, within the Lake Tana basin (Figure 1). Dangishta is located within in upper reaches of the Gilgel Abay that drains to Lake Tana. The climate is a moist subhumid with an annual temperature variation between 10 °C and 25 °C and a yearly average rainfall of 1745 mm during the last 10 years at the National metrological Agency (NMA) weather station 5.6 km from the watershed outlet. The rainfall distribution is a unimodal type with 90% that occurs between May to October. Robit-Bata, at the south-eastern edge of Lake Tana, drains direct to Lake Tana. It has a sub-humid climate with temperatures between 11 °C and 27 °C. The annual rainfall is 1,420 mm, of which 85% falls between May and September.The topographic characteristics of both watersheds vary. Dangishta's elevations range from 2036 to 2,400 m (Figure 1). The stream length is 34 km. More than 78% of the area is flat to undulating, with slopes less than 8% (Table 1). Compared with Dangishta, Robit Bata is at a lower altitude with elevations that range from 1828 m near the outlet to 2030 m at the upper part of the watershed. The stream length is 6.1 km. Only 55% of the area in Robit Bata is flat to undulating.The geology of both watersheds is characterized by massive basalt bedrock overlaid by different soil types (Walker and Yimam 2018;Tilahun et al., 2020). The primary soil types in Dangishta are Regosols, Alisols, Nitosols, and Vertisols (Yimam et al., 2018). The soil layer over bedrock thickness increases from the bottom to the upper part of the watershed (David Walker et al., 2018). In Robit Bata, Vertisols are predominantly found in the lowland areas, and Eutric Nitosols in the upper part of the watershed (Abidela Hussein et al., 2019). Deep soils are located around the middle slope and decline in depth downslope and  upslope. The upper half of the watershed is severely degraded with shallow soils, and the hillsides are characterized by hillslope aquifers (Tilahun et al., 2020). Both watersheds have highly conductive surface soils. The infiltration rate is only exceeded by rainfall intensity 2.5% of the time (Yimam et al., 2018;Tilahun et al., 2020). Otherwise, the watersheds are hydrologically very different. In Dangishta, after the rain infiltrates, excess water flows laterally through faults in the volcanic rock. It appears as springs downstream in the watershed where the flow is blocked by volcanic dikes, creating a water table close to the surface during the rain phase (Figures 2A,B). Like other seepage areas, the lateral conductivity is high (Mendoza and Steenhuis 2002;Zhao et al., 2020). Eucalyptus or grassland covering approximately 32% of the watershed (Table 2) are found on these seasonally saturated soils. The volcanic dikes (Figure 2A) which are across the stream also prevent gully formation.In Robit Bata, the degraded upslope soils with thin soil (Figure 2C) become rapidly saturated during a rainfall event resulting in saturation excess runoff (Tilahun et al., 2020) and, therefore, a much quicker response time to runoff generation than Dangishta. Volcanic dikes are absent in Robit Bata. Hence an active gully is located upstream of the flume at the watershed outlet (Figures 2D,E). In Robit Bata, which has few seasonally saturated areas, the combined acreage of grassland and eucalyptus is under 10%.In both watersheds, crop-livestock farming is dominant. Approximately 65% in Dangishta and 74% in Robit Bata of land is cultivated during the rain phase (Table 2; Figure 3). Rainfed cereal crops are \"tef\" (Eragrostis tef), maize (Zea mays), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), and barley (Hordeum vulgare). Soils are prepared at the onset of the rainy season in June and July using oxen-drawn plows. Fertilizers for rainfed crops are applied in the form of DAP (di-ammonium phosphate) and blended fertilizer NPSZnB (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, zinc and boron), manure, and compost in split doses in July and mid-August. According to the local Bureau of Agriculture, the average applied P fertilizers in Robit Bata watershed was 21 kg P ha −1 , and in Dangishta, 20 kg P ha −1 .In Robit Bata, small-scale irrigation in the dry season (October to December) using shallow groundwater is practiced on 117 ha or 13% of the land (Table 2; Figure 3). The main irrigated crop is khat, a mild narcotic perineal small bush, tomatoes, green pepper, and onions are grown as well with irrigation. The applied fertilizer dose for vegetables and khat varies among farmers, but the average application is 6 kg ha −1 P. Irrigated acreage in Dangishta was negligible.  Discharge, suspended sediment concentration, total and bioavailable particulate and dissolved phosphorus were measured at the outlet of both watersheds in 2017-2018. In addition, the physical and chemical soil properties and precipitation were measured.In Dangishta, the rainfall was recorded both years with a tipping bucket (Figure 1). The number of tips was recorded every 10 min. Missing precipitation data were obtained by linear regressing the locally measured data with the rainfall recorded at the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) weather station located at a 5.3 km distance (Supplementary Figure S1). The coefficient of determination R 2 was 0.83. In 2017, precipitation data for Robit Bata were obtained from the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) Zenzelima weather located at a 3.4 km distance. In 2018, precipitation was measured on-site using a tipping bucket which recorded rainfall at 5-min intervals.Stream discharge was measured by manually recording stage height at the outlet of the watersheds with paid local observers (Figure 1). In Robit Bata, the gauging station was at the concrete culvert under the highway from Bahir Dar to Gondar. In Dangishta, the gauging station was situated in the natural stream channel where the bedrock was at the surface. During storm events, water flow depth was recorded at 10-min intervals starting when the streamflow became turbid. Measurements were halted when the flow depth returned to base flow levels. Baseflow was measured twice a day at 6:00 AM and 6:00 PM. Each stage reading was accompanied by a surface flow velocity measurement using the float method over a distance of 10 m. By taking the 90% of surface velocity, the mean velocity was obtained. Discharge was calculated as the product of wetted cross-sectional area and mean velocity. The stage-discharge curve was obtained by plotting the discharge obtained from the surface velocity against flow depths (Supplementary Figures S2, S3).Samples of 34 events in Dangishta and 47 events in Robit Bata were collected over the 2-year study period. Depending on the rainfall magnitude, rainfall-runoff response and falling limb, between 4 and 15 water samples were collected per storm event. The water samples were taken with an interval of 30 min for Dangishta and 10 min for Robit Bata as the rainfall response and lag time differed between both watersheds. The samples were filtered using 32-cm diameter Whatman filter paper with a pore size of 2.5 μm. The filter paper and soil were ovendried at 105 °C for 24 h and weighed to determine the sediment mass captured per liter of discharge.Phosphorus concentration of the various fractions was analyzed using 500 ml water samples collected simultaneously as sediment determination. The total P was determined by acid digestion of the unfiltered sample according to the method in (Baird et al., 2017). The dissolved P was measured in water filtered through Whatman filter paper with 0.45 μm pore size. The bioavailable particulate phosphorus was determined by NaOH chemical extraction using 180 ml of the unfiltered sample. The detail of the method is described in Sharpley et al. (1992). The BAPP concentration is the difference between extracted NaOH P concentration and the DP concentration. All P forms were measured using the standard molybdenum blue method and detected by UV/Vis spectrophotometer lambda 32 at 880 nm (Murphy and Riley 1962).Soil sampling was conducted on May 18, 2017 for Dangishta and June 5, 2017 for Robit Bata. Five composite soil samples were collected from the topsoil at 0-10 cm depth under rainfed cultivated land, eucalyptus tree and grassland in each watershed. A total of 30 composite soil samples, 15 from each watershed, were analyzed. Air-dried samples were sieved through a 2-mm sieve and analyzed to determine organic matter using Walkley-Black method (Walkley and Black 1934) and available P (P ca ) by Bray I method (Bray and Kurtz 1945). Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method (Beretta et al., 2014).A hydrograph separation was performed to evaluate potential differences in rainfall-runoff responses in both watersheds. The discharge hydrograph was separated into surface runoff components (storm event flow), baseflow, and interflow. The Parameter Efficient Distributed (PED) hydrological model was employed for the flow separation.The PED (Parameter Efficient Distributed) model is a semidistributed hydrological model developed for the sub-humid Ethiopian highlands. The model has been widely applied in the highlands of northern Ethiopian (Collick et al., 2009;Steenhuis et al., 2009;Tessema et al., 2010;Zimale et al., 2017;Moges et al., 2017;Guzman et al., 2017a,b;Tilahun et al., 2013Tilahun et al., , 2015Tilahun et al., , 2020;;Ochoa-Tocachi et al., 2018). The landscape is divided into four units, three of which contribute flow to the outlet and are simulated by the PED model. The PED is run at a daily time step. It updates the water balances for the three zones, calculates groundwater tables for the three zones and predicts discharge at the outlet consisting of interflow, baseflow and direct runoff at a daily time step (Tilahun et al., 2013a(Tilahun et al., , 2015)). More information about the model is provided in the Supplementary Material Section S1.Monthly loads of sediment and P fractions were calculated based on the observed concentrations in the baseflow measured once a day and 34 storm events in Dangishta, and 47 storm events in Robit Bata. The monthly flow weighted average concentrations, C m were calculated first by multiplying the observed concentrations C i (ML −3 ) and dischargewhere n is the number of measurements in the m th month. The monthly load L m [M T −1 ] was then calculated by multiplying the average concentration C m [M L −3 ] for the month with the volume of discharge V m [L³T −1 ] during the m th month.where for the m th month, L m is the load, V m the volume of runoff and C m the concentration.Sediment and phosphorus concentrations were plotted as a function of the discharge, similar to Guzman et al. (2013).Like Liu et al. (2008) and Guzman et al. (2013), the scatter in the data was reduced by dividing the rainy monsoon phase into several groups. Grouping was based on cumulative effective precipitation, Rce defined as precipitation minus the reference evapotranspiration (P-ET). Groups of storms in the \"early\" period occurred when cumulative effective rainfall, Rce was less than 150 mm (Rce < 150) and in between 150 and 300 mm (150 < Rce < 300). Another group of storms occurring between 300 and 450 mm (300 < Rce < 450) and between 450 and 800 mm, delineated as the middle part of the rainy season. Finally, the storms occurring between 800 and 1,200 mm (800 < Rce < 1,200) or greater than 1,200 mm (Rce > 1,200) are defined as the late part of the rainy season.For the hysteresis loops in the concentration discharge relationship, storm events were selected with a minimum of the two concentrations measurements on each rising and falling limb. Eighteen storms in Dangishta and 27 in Robit Bata fulfilled this requirement. The sediment, total P, and biological available P hysteresis loops were characterized according to the methodology proposed by Lawler et al. (2006) and later modified by Lloyd et al. (2016). The direction of the hysteresis loop can be either clockwise, counter clockwise, or mixed.One-way ANOVA multiple mean comparison test was used to compare the mean scores of soil properties in two watersheds for different groups of land uses (eucalyptus trees rainfed cropland and grassland). The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was employed to investigate the link between sediment-associated bioavailable phosphorus (BAPP) in the storm event samples and soil available P under three different land uses. R version 4.0.2 was used for data analysis and visualization, and SigmaPlot 12.5 for statistical analysis.The soil texture of the topsoil in both watersheds was similar and could be classified texture-wise either as clay loam or loam. Soils in Dangishta had a clay content of 32%, which was slightly greater than Robit Bata at 25% (Table 3). Soils are of volcanic origin, with soils in Dangishta being more acidic than in Robit Bata. Cropland in Robit Bata had the lowest organic matter content. In Dangishta, the organic matter was also less than for eucalyptus trees and grasslands. The soil available phosphorus was significantly greater in Dangishta than in Robit Bata (Table 3).Due to fertilizer applications, the soil available P in the cropland was significantly greater than in either the grassland or eucalyptus plantations in both watersheds.The daily rainfall of Dangishta and Robit Bata in the 2 years is shown in Figure 4. The highest recorded daily event was 123 mm on 7/21/2017 (Robit Bata) and 60.5 mm on 8/28/2017 (Dangishta). The intensity of the rainfall ranged between 0.02 and 1.4 mm min⁻ 1 in Dangishta and between 0.05 and 1.8 mm min⁻ 1 in Robit Bata (Supplementary Table S1). Generally, these rainfall intensities were less than the soil infiltration rates except in saturated areas (Tilahun et al., 2020).The PED model was used for hydrograph separation by simulating the subsurface and direct runoff at the outlet. Five parameters were calibrated: the portion of the watershed with a shallow restrictive layer, periodically saturated and located near the stream, deep soils that contained the aquifer. The aquifer in Dangishta was simulated as a first-order reservoir with a halflife of 15 days and Robit Bata as a zero-order reservoir with a travel time of 80 days from the groundwater divide to the stream. The calibrated values of the parameters are discussed below and formally shown in Table S1.1 in Section 1 of the supplementary material.   In both watersheds, approximately half of the rainfall became recharge. However, the rainfall-runoff response was distinctly different. In Dangishta, the water balance closed, and the precipitation minus the evaporation was nearly equal to the discharge at the outlet over the 2 years. As expected, the greater rainfall in Dangishta resulted in greater discharge (Figure 4; Table 4). In Robit Bata, the water balance did not close. Analysis with the PED model showed that only 80% of the precipitation could be accounted for as discharge on an annual basis after subtracting the evaporation. In Dangishta, the subsurface flow was blocked by volcanic dikes and surfaced as springs before the outlet. In Robit Bata, flow through the faults was not blocked and therefore could pass by the watershed outlet.The contribution of surface runoff and subsurface flow (both interflow and baseflow) to the total discharge is shown in Figure 4. The hydrograph separation with the PED model showed that almost all discharge at the outlet in the Dangishta was subsurface flow. Only a small portion (less than 5%) was direct runoff (Supplementary Table S1.1). It is not uncommon that most water leaves the watershed as interflow and baseflow in volcanic tropical watersheds (Toohey et al., 2018).Although the subsurface flow contribution in Robit Bata was around 67%, it is much lower than in Dangishta (Table 4). A part of the simulated subsurface flow, the interflow originated from approximately 10% of the area near the river and had a short travel time as described in (Supplementary Table S1.1). The remaining subsurface flow from 50% of the watershed area had a long travel time. The river flow disappeared within about 4 months after the rain phase ended (Figure 4B). The direct runoff generated on the shallow soils over bedrock (Tilahun et al., 2020) was in addition to the subsurface flow. The direct runoff per unit area was 14-18%, much greater than in Dangishta. The greatest storm discharge was also recorded in Robit Bata. Approximately one-fifth of the surficial watershed did not contribute flow to the outlet. Fewer springs were observed in Robit Bata than in Dangishta and reflected less interflow contribution.Representative examples of concentration of the suspended sediment and P in the discharge at the Dangishta and Robit Bata outlet during individual storms are shown in Figure 5. Differences in flow paths between the catchments resulted in different sediment and P removal rates. In Dangishta, except for the two events (Figures 5D,E), sharply increasing peak concentrations of particulate-associated P fractions were absent because interflow and baseflow were dominant at the outlet. The suspended sediment and associated particulate P are negligible compared with the concentration in the surface runoff (Steenhuis et al., 2009). The event hydrographs (grey shaded) in Robit Bata are characterized by surface runoff and resulted in shorter duration, higher and sharper discharge peaks than Dangishta, mainly due to subsurface flow (Figure 5). In Robit Bata, the sediment and total P (TP and BAPP) similar to the discharge exhibited high peaks. The peaks occurred predominantly before the peak discharge (Figures 5H,J-L).In Robit Bata, most sediment at the outlet originated from the channel section with unstable banks slipping in the channel (Figures 2D,E). The sediment peak concentrations in Robit Bata ranged from 20 g L −1 or 2% (Figure 5L) to 60 g L −1 or 6% (Figures 5H,J). These high sediment concentrations have been observed in watersheds with actively eroding gullies in Ethiopia (Zegeye et al., 2018;Akale et al., 2017).The DP concentration in the discharge at the outlet behaved differently compared to the particulate P and sediment concentrations (Figure 5). Overall, DP concentrations varied little throughout the events in Dangishta. In Robit Bata, the greatest DP concentrations were generally observed during the recession flow (i.e., the falling limb). In the discussion, we will examine the differences in sediment and P concentrations and loads in the two watersheds.Over the entire 2017-2018 study period, on average, the concentrations in the discharge at the outlet in Robit Bata compared to Dangishta were 11 times greater for sediment, four times for TP, a factor of two for BAPP, and in the same order for DP (Figure 6). Precipitation (and therefore discharge) starts in Dangishta earlier than in Robit Bata, and thus Dangishta reports a concentration in May, while in Robit Bata, the creek was still dry.Despite the higher recorded discharge in Dangishta, sediment and associated total P loss were much lower than in Robit Bata because the sediment concentrations were much smaller (Table 5). The Dangishta on average annual sediment load at the outlet is fifteen times lower than in Robit Bata (Table 5). The TP load was three times lower.The BAPP flux was found to be over the 2 years in Robit Bata was 1.4 times that observed in Dangishta (Table 5). However, the proportion of potential bioavailability of particulate P of all P (sum of TP and DP) was greater for Dangishta. The BAPP made up 30% of the P lost in Dangishta but only 15% in Robit Bata (Table 5). The DP contributed only 14 and 4% (quotient of the export of DP and all P lost). The DP lost in the discharge in Robit Bata was less than half of Dangishta (Table 5).Two representative watersheds in the upper Blue Nile basin are compared. Dangishta has many lava intrusion dikes, while in Robit Bata, volcanic dikes were absent. The streamflow was separated into surface and subsurface flow by using the PED model. In Dangishta, the PED model predicted direct runoff from only below 5% of the total discharge at the outlet (Supplementary Table S1.1; Figure 4A). The rest of the flow was baseflow through faults and fissures in the volcanic bedrock but surfaced before reaching the stream. The lava dikes forced the baseflow to the surface. In Robit Bata, the direct flow was one-third of the total discharge originating from approximately 20% of the watershed (Supplementary Table S2). The upper part of the watershed generated saturated excess from the shallow soil profile during the rainstorm. The Robit Bata PED subsurface flows were dominated by interflow, which is similar to reports by Tilahun et al. (2020). The results also agree with Guzman et al. (2017) and Tilahun et al. (2015).The dikes also prevent the formation of gullies in Dangishta. Surface erosion was, therefore, minimal. The average sediment concentration at the outlet was 0.55 g L −1, equivalent to less than 3 Mg ha⁻ 1 . In Robit Bata, sections of the main channel were unstable, with gully banks slumping in the river. The upper part of the watershed generated saturated excess from the shallow soil profile saturated during the rainstorm. The lower watershed portion had deep soils, and a hillslope aquifer provided interflow through faults. The average sediment concentrations of 10.5 g L −1 in the Robit Bata stream reflected the sediment from riverbank erosion in unstable portions of the stream channel and gully formation. These sediment losses of 70 Mg ha −1 a −1 are higher and are common in many watersheds with humid climates (Amare et al., 2019). Gully initiation starts after clearing the forests and continues until the landscape finds a new equilibrium between transport of the excess rainfall to the outlet (Smolska 2007;Nyssen et al., 2008;Tebebu et al., 2010).In Dangishta, total P in the streamflow at the outlet was on the average of 0.5 mg L −1, commonly seen in developing countries with temperate climates (Sharpley et al., 1992;Boardman et al., 2019). In Robit Bata, the average total P loss was four times greater than Dangishta at almost 2 mg L −1 . This ratio is less than the 11 fold difference in sediment concentrations, but like other studies where gully erosion increases the total P load (e.g., (Fox et al., 2016)). The biologically available particulate P (BAPP) concentration in Dangishta was 0.17 and 0.30 mg L −1 in Robit Bata. Thus only different by a factor of two in concentration in the runoff water.On average, the dissolved P concentration for both watersheds was around 0.1 mg L −1 . These concentrations are in the low range of agricultural watersheds in temperate climates worldwide surveyed by Sharley et al. (1992) and similar to the average of 280 watersheds in Minnesota, USA, with an average crop cover 72% crops across sites (Dolph et al., 2019). The relatively low DP concentrations reflect the difference in time that phosphorus fertilizers have been applied between the developing and developed countries. Only during the last 15 years, the Ethiopian government has made phosphorus fertilizers available to farmers to boost agricultural production. Dissolved P concentration during high flow events was near 1 mg L⁻ 1 when the runoff of fertilized agricultural fields contributed to the discharge at the outlet.The following sections discuss how the different hydrology and soil loss affect the export of the various forms of phosphorus out of the watershed.The biological available particulate phosphorus (BAPP) is an important factor in the eutrophication of the shallow Lake Tana, where the wave action suspends the bottom sediment. Consequently, it is of interest to compare available particulate P in the soil (P ca , Table 3) in the watershed with that at the outlet. The biologically available phosphate concentration on the sediment can be calculated as the quotient of the BAPP concentration and the sediment concentration in the water (BAPP/SS). Comparing watersheds, Figure 7 shows that despite the two times greater BAPP concentration recorded in Robit Bata than in Dangishta (Figure 6), the sediment biological available P (BAPP/ SS) was lower than in Dangishta. Averaged over the 2 years, the BAPP/SS was 34 mg kg⁻ 1 in Dangishta and significantly greater than the 4 mg kg⁻ 1 in Robit Bata.The available soil P concentration (P ca , Table 3) is compared with the sediment biological available P (BAPP/SS) in Figure 7A). Available soil P was measured with the Bray method and BAPP with 0.1 M NaOH during storm events. In the USA, the soil data of Kleinman et al. (2001) shows, after removing the outliers, that the 0.1 M NaOH extracted 1.6 times as much P as the Bray method. Within the scatter of the data and taking the conversion factor account of the two extraction methods, the sediment available P concentration (BAPP/SS) in Dangishta was less on the average but in the same order as the grassland and the eucalyptus trees in the valley bottom (Figure 7). It is consistent with the subsurface flow path of the water, which does not transport the fertilized upland soils to the outlet. Hence the sediment and soil concentrations are similar (Huijun et al., 2010). Although in the same order, the sediment concentrations are less than the valley bottom soils because of phosphorus desorption in the interflow with a low P (Weihrauch and Weber 2021).In Robit Bata, in contrast to Dangishta, the biological available particulate P in the sediment (BAPP/SS) was many times lower than soil available P, P ca , measured for all three land uses (Figure 7B). It is caused by pickup of subsoil low in P by the stream in the gully, offsetting the sediment high in P from the upper part of the watershed. The subsoil in the highlands is still low in P, unlike in developed countries where soil eroded from the bank might contain legacy phosphorus (Dolph et al., 2019).The difference in source and transport pathways for the sediment and the phosphorus during runoff events can be understood by studying the hysteresis relationship between discharge and concentration of SS, TP, BAPP and DP (Tananaev 2015;Thomas et al., 2016;Moatar et al., 2017;Mhiret et al., 2019;Heathwaite et al., 2021). For the two watersheds, 45 runoff events with a minimum of two observations discharge and concentrations pairs of SS, TP BAPP, DP on the rising limb and two on the falling limb were analyzed. Three types of hysteresis loops were identified: clockwise, counterclockwise, and mixed. Examples are given in Figure 8, and all loops are summarized in the excel files in the supplementary material. The clockwise loops occur when peak concentration arrives before the peak discharge. The counterclockwise arise when the concentration peak occurs after the discharge peak. Mixed loops occur when the concentration peaks are found both before and after the discharge peak (Bowes et al., 2005;Lefrançois et al., 2007;Zegeye et al., 2018;Vale and Dymond 2020).There was a significant difference among the watersheds. In Dangishta, 18 loops were analyzed, 75% of the sediment SS-Q loops were clockwise, and 20-30% were counterclockwise (Figure 9A). Although the stream channel is stable, sediment is deposited between storms and settled in the stream. When the discharge increased, the sediment was remobilized, but since sediment was limited, the concentrations were lower during the falling limb as the sediment source has run out. Mixed loops were not observed in Dangishta. In humid-topics of Brazil, Gellis (2013) reported a similar finding that the previous storm events supply sediment to the channel. In-channel sediment became the source of sediment on the rising limb of the next event.In Robit Bata, 27 storms were analysed. In 2017, 60% of the suspended sediment concentrations and discharge (SS-Q) loops were clockwise loops, and 40% were mixed (Figure 8B). In 2018, 65% had clockwise loops, and the remainder was mixed with one counterclockwise (Figure 9D). The clockwise loops are expected when the sediment source is close to the outlet (Bender et al., 2018). Zegeye et al. (2016) observed the same pattern of clockwise and mixed hysteresis loops at the outlet in a gully with unstable and slipping banks. Since most of the sediment originates from unconsolidated sediment of the slipping bank in the gully, any sediment signal from the upper part is obscured. In Robit Bata, 70% of the TP-Q loops over the 2 years were clockwise and thus behaved similarly to the sediment SS-Q loops, although mixed SS-Q loops became clockwise TP-Q loops (Figure 9E). The phosphorus (TP-Q) loops were clockwise, such as on August 23, 2017 (Figure 8B). The concentration of P is greater before the peak, and the sediment concentration was both after and before. It means that TP concentration per Gram of sediment increases before the peak of the discharge. During falling limb in mixed loops, the sediment originated from gully with unstable and slipping banks and has a lower TP concentration per Gram of sediment (Figure 7). In Dangishta, the type of phosphorus loops diverged from the kind of sediment loops in several cases. Figure 9B shows in 2017, 60% of TP loops are counterclockwise, and in 2018, 50% of the loops are either counterclockwise or mixed. Less than half of the loops are clockwise. In the cases where the SS-Q loops were clockwise and the phosphorus (TP-Q) were counterclockwise. It indicates that TP concentration per Gram of sediment increases after the peak of the discharge. The sediment is initially high because it is the sediment that was deposited in the steam between storms when the DP concentration was low (Figure 5). The sediment after the peak originates from the land surface with a greater TP concentration per Gram of sediment.The dissolved P (DP-Q) loops behaved the same in both watersheds but differed from the SS, TP and BAPP (Figure 8). In Dangishta, 65% of the dissolved phosphorus (DP-Q loops) are counterclockwise in the 2 years (Figure 9C). In Robit Bata, counterclockwise loops increased above that for sediment and TP (Figure 9F). The DP is a mobile fraction and can be transported via surface runoff, interflow, and baseflow (Evans and Davies 1998). At the onset of the rain phase, the DP followed a clockwise response predominantly similar to the other P fractions. However, as the season progressed, a perched groundwater table developed and the upland became connected with the downhill area. The contribution of interflow and baseflow to streamflow became the major portion of the discharge at the outlet (Figure 4). Higher DP contributions that entered streamflow via sub-surface processes resulted in counterclockwise loops. Fortesa et al. (2020) noted that when the pathways in the watershed become connected, the hysteresis loops become counterclockwise.Similar to an earlier study (Guzman et al., 2013), the rainy monsoon phase was divided into intervals of cumulative effective rainfall to assess the transport of sediment, particulate and dissolved fractions of P as a function of discharge (Figure 10). Daily concentrations of sediment and P were plotted as a function of average daily discharge. Although some trends were the same (i.e., high sediment concentration at low flows at the beginning of the rainy period), the regression coefficients were very low, unlike Guzman et al. (2013) (Figures 10A,E). In the watersheds analyzed by Guzman et al. (2013), the runoff was generated by overland flow, and gully erosion was minor. In this study, the decreasing rate of rill erosion during the rain phase was responsible for the decreasing sediment concentrations at the outlet. In Dangishta, surface runoff was minimal, and the daily concentration decreased with the increase in interflow and baseflow as the rain phase progressed (Figure 4). In Robit Bata, dilution by interflow occurred for the smaller storms. Still, the maximum sediment concentration remained the same during the growing season due to the pickup of sediment from the gully (Figure 10E). The daily total P concentration behaved similarly to the sediment concentration (Figures 10B,F). With the progression of the rain phase, the TP concentrations decreased for the same amount of discharge. However, the R 2 coefficients for the relationship between the total P concentration and discharge were poor similar to the sediment. Curious was that the BAPP concentration and discharge had a decent R 2 for cumulative effective rainfall intervals of 450-800 mm in the Robit Bata watershed (Figure 10G).Remarkably, the dissolved P concentration and discharge were linearly related in the Robit Bata watershed with R 2 > 0.55 for 300 m or more cumulative effective rainfall (Figure 10G). In Dangishta, the relationship was linear for the cumulative rainfall interval between 450 and 800 mm (Figure 10D). Theoretically, this linear relationship can be obtained by assuming that the interflow concentration is small compared to the storm flow and the interflow is constant during each cumulative rainfall interval. These are reasonable assumptions since the DP concentrations are the same as the groundwater in the valley bottom, and as Figures 10D,G show, the intercept with the x-axis is small.Appropriate landscape measures need to be implemented to reduce P export in these watersheds to improve downstream water quality, such as Lake Tana, where water hyacinths have rapidly expanded. Measures are proposed to decrease sediment loss to improve the water quality of the lake (Ayele et al., 2016;Bartley et al., 2020). However, this research shows that reducing sediment loss, actually might decrease lake water quality. The reasoning is as follows. Recent investigations in the relatively shallow Lake Tana found a positive correlation between the BAPP sediment concentration and the dissolved P concentration in the lake water (Kebedew et al., 2020). This study shows that in watersheds with gullies (e.g., Robit Bata), the BAPP concentration per unit sediment exported is much lower than watersheds without gullies (e.g., Dangishta). Thus, stopping the gully sediment from entering the lake will increase the BAPP sediment concentration of the deposited soil on the lake bottom. Hence, the mixing increases the dissolved phosphorus concentration in the lake water, promoting water hyacinth growth.Another management practice advocated in the USA and other developed countries consists of buffer strips near the stream to remove P from the runoff water before entering the stream (Georgakakos et al., 2018;Young et al., 2019). In the (sub) humid Ethiopian highlands, the near stream area is saturated after the middle of the rain phase. They are, therefore, unsuitable for growing crops and are used for grazing animals and eucalyptus and thereby act as a natural buffer. So near stream buffer strips exist already. Conversely, drainage of these periodically saturated near stream areas for crop cultivation is expected to enhance the transport of P to the stream significantly.Finally, a practice implemented in the Ethiopian Highlands to stop soil loss and associated particulate P are 50-60 cm deep infiltration furrows with bunds (Dagnew et al., 2017). It has not been successful in (sub) humid highlands due to the lack of maintenance (Gebregergs et al., 2021;Mhiret et al., 2021). The current trend of replacing cropland with eucalyptus trees might effectively decrease P loads since increased acreage of eucalyptus trees reduced the runoff volume by delaying the start of runoff after the dry phase (Mhiret et al., 2019).Consequently, designing landscape interventions in the humid tropics will require further study since the results of our research lead to the conclusion that commonly implemented practices need further adaptation for the (sub)humid highlands.One of the impediments in reducing P loss in developing countries is the lack of experimental studies on P transport. This study was conducted in two contrasting watersheds (Dangishta and Robit Bata) in the Ethiopian highland. The first watershed was the 57 km 2 Dangishta, with many lava intrusion dikes, forcing interflow to the surface and preventing the formation of gullies. The average annual rainfall is 1745 mm, and 65% of the area was cropped. The second watershed was the 9 km 2 Robit Bata with 1,420 mm average annual precipitation and 87% of the land cropped. In Robit Bata, sections of the mainstream were unstable, with banks slumping in the river.Three factors in these tropical (sub) humid highland watersheds affected the phosphorus loss compared with temperate watersheds: climate, geology and past application of fertilizers. The annual rainfall in (sub) humid climates is over 1,200 mm, of which around 80% falls in the 4 months. The high rainfall greatly enhanced the transport of P from the watershed compared to the most temperate climates, where annual rainfall often does not exceed 1,200 mm and is spread throughout the year. In addition, underlying volcanic-derived geology greatly affected the P losses. It varies among the watersheds. In Dangishta, 95% of the estimated stream discharge reached the stream through faults in the volcanic bedrock, surfacing at the lava dikes. Consequently, in Dangishta, the total erosion and particulate P losses were relatively small and comparable to watersheds in temperate regions with less rainfall. In the Robit Bata with active gullies in the main channel, the sediment losses were 11 times and total P losses four times greater than in Dangishta. Only under exceptional circumstances, these concentrations and loads occur in temperate climates. Dissolved P losses in both watersheds were in the low range found in western countries with a temperate climate because phosphorus fertilizers have been applied recently. In the past, shifting cultivation was used to maintain fertility, but the increasing population density made it unfeasible.Based on findings that legacy P negatively affects the stream water quality in temperate climates where agricultural land has been cultivated for centuries, phosphorus export is expected to increase in these tropical watersheds where fertilizer application has just started. Finding ways to reduce phosphorus exports is therefore critical to reverse the water quality deterioration in Lake Tana. Our study aids in prioritizing watersheds for treatment. Further study is required on what practices will be most effective.","tokenCount":"7507"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"18c2dee216203486c870f19e9ae2e530","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.iita.org/dataset/4fe7c1eb-6f64-4271-ba44-4f0c5b84665b/resource/6594a430-be2b-4d21-bce8-4ac7b79b8be0/download/iita-maize-sop04-genotyping.docx.pdf","id":"79564717"},"keywords":["Crop","Maize Function","Genotyping SOP # IITA-MZ-SOP0 Revision # IITA-MZ-SOP04-01"],"sieverID":"2db69c75-6c8a-4d1e-8425-4b29dbb1ba05","pagecount":"8","content":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal that plays a crucial role in alleviating food insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) due to its high yield potential, and low cost. It is an important staple food crop that over 900 million people depend on (https://www.cimmyt.org). Maize is highly nutritious and contains 72% starch, 10% protein, and 4% fat. It is a rich energy source, supplying about 19.5% calories, and it is the world's highest supplier of calories. However, its production is constantly hampered by a plethora of abiotic and biotic stresses. Plant breeders have used conventional breeding methods for crop improvement; however, this method can be laborious, expensive, and easily influenced by the environment. To complement conventional breeding methods, molecular markers were used. Molecular markers are not affected by the environmental factors, crop developmental stages and are also ubiquitous throughout plant genomes can be incorporated into the breeders' toolbox. Molecular markers can be used for quality control (genotype identification), marker-assisted selection, and genomic selection.The goal of this SOP is to create a step-by-step procedure and precise instructions on some laboratory operations including leaf sampling, storage, freeze-drying and DNA isolation.Genotyping This document covers the procedures involved in samples preparation, freeze drying and storage.All  • The extraction plate is kept on ice throughout the sample collection process.• Two wells are usually left empty to serve as control for the genotyping process ▲Young tissue materials are required to get higher molecular weight DNA and also to make grinding tissue materials into a fine powder easy. • The samples are then transferred into the -80 0 C freezer before freeze-frying.• When ready for freeze-drying the samples are removed from the freezer and transferred into a lyophilizer at a temperature of -50°C and pressure of 5.0 pas for 72 hours.• After freeze-drying, the extraction plates are capped firmly and stored at room temperature until DHL shipment.▲Storage of plant tissues for genotyping is important to avoid degradation of DNA.Note: It is important to note that some genotyping platforms prefer genomic DNADNA extraction is performed in the \"DNA extraction laboratory/room\". This laboratory is exclusively used for this purpose and is free of DNA amplicons.▲The laboratory must be equipped with all necessary lab equipment (set of pipettes, pipette filter tips, gloves and lab coats) that are exclusively used in this room. Lab coats and gloves must be changed when changing rooms. Note: prolonged grinding cause DNA degradation.• Add 600ul of CTAB extraction buffer to each sample and incubate at 65°C in the thermomixer shaking at moderate speed for 30 minutes.Note: Invert or gentle tap tubes once every 10 minutes to properly homogenize the tissue with extraction buffer (be cautious not to splash the buffer while inverting).• Remove tubes from the water bath and allow them to cool for 5-10mins.Centrifuge at 3500rpm for 10mins• Transfer about 500ul aqueous phase into new tubes and add 500-600ul chloroform: isoamylalcohol (24:1) into the tubes. Mix gently with continuous rocking for 5-10min.Genotyping • Transfer the upper aqueous later to new well labeled tubes and repeat the chloroform: Isoamylalcohol wash.• Transfer about 400ul of the upper aqueous later into new tubes.Isoamylalcohol for the third time.• Add 600ul 100% ice-cold (stored at -20 o C) isopropanol (2-propanol), mix gently for about 5 min (or gently invert for about 50 times) to precipitate the nucleic acid.Optional step: Keep tubes in the freezer (-80 o C) for about 60minutes.• Centrifuge at 3500rpm for 30 min to form a pellet at the bottom of the tube.Discard the supernatant.Note: Centrifugation while the tubes are still very cold will either result to very small pellet or no pellet at all.• Add 400ul of 70% ethanol; flap the tubes gently to let the pellet float for ease in washing. Centrifuge for 15 min and discard ethanol by decanting.• Air dry pellet until ethanol evaporates completely.• Add 96ul of distilled water and 4ul of RNase into the dried pellet and store in -20°C when the pellet dissolves completely.▲Avoid frequent freeze thawing of the genomic DNA, required quantity should be diluted and worked with.• Prepare 0.8% agarose gel for checking DNA quality.• For the DNA quality check carefully weigh 0.8 grams of agarose and dissolve in 100ml of 1X TBE.Genotyping SOP # IITA-MZ-SOP0 • Melt the solution in a microwave for 3 mins, then cool to about 60 o c and add 5ul ethidium bromide.• Pour the mixture gently on to a balanced gel tray before it polymerizes.• Add 3ul of the DNA solution to 3ul of 6x bromophenol blue loading dye. Mix briefly and load 5ul of this mix on to the agarose gel.• Run the gel at 80volt for about 1 hour.• Capture the gel image on the Gel documentation system• Check the DNA concentration and purity using NanoDrop Spectrophotometer Note:There should not be air bubbles in the middle of the gel▲All reagents are checked for their date of expiry before use.▲Thaw frozen reagents completely to room temperature before use.▲To minimize contamination risks, ensure all reagents are aliquot in single-use-volumes and stored appropriately. ","tokenCount":"832"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1c392262f937ab5dcd624bf900e139c2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/39a25c38-015a-4041-a5c4-f7252a611e2c/retrieve","id":"1492193355"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"13741c2e-193c-4111-a384-58c8575e5816","pagecount":"16","content":"es familles européennes pourraient bientôt mettre le fonio à leur menu. La céréale africaine (Digitaria exilis) fait partie de ces aliments de plus en plus nombreux dont on reconnaît les bénéfices pour la santé et qui sont vendus aux consommateurs du Nord pour prévenir les maladies et améliorer la qualité de vie. En pleine croissance, le créneau de ces aliments dits fonctionnelsou \"aliments à usage de santé spécifique\" (FOSHU) au Japon où le concept est néoffre des opportunités intéressantes aux producteurs du Sud, d'où provient la majorité de ces aliments.La promotion du fonio en Europe fait partie d'un projet financé par l'UE, qui vise à améliorer le régime alimentaire tout en procurant des revenus aux producteurs locaux. Le fonio est plus riche en magnésium, zinc et manganèse que d'autres céréales ; il est riche aussi en acide aminé soufré, important pour la transmission nerveuse et le bon fonctionnement du coeur.Généralement définis comme des aliments qui ont des effets bénéfiques pour la santé au-delà de leur simple valeur nutritionnelle, les aliments fonctionnels émergent comme un important créneau commercial. Selon la Banque mondiale, leur part de marché dépasse celle des aliments biologiques. Leur marché mondial en forte croissance est déjà estimé à 72 milliards $ US (57,4 milliards €) par an.Dans l'industrie, on appelle cette nouvelle approche de la production alimentaire \"nutrition positive\". La multiplication des recherches sur les liens entre alimentation et santé favorise ce secteur en pleine expansion. Les consommateurs sont soucieux de prévenir la maladie et de garder la forme jusqu'à un âge avancé et les gouvernements, face à l'augmentation de l'espérance de vie et à Illustration : © Intactile DESIGN l'explosion des dépenses de soins de santé, désirent promouvoir des régimes alimentaires plus sains. Cette tendance ouvre de nouveaux horizons pour les producteurs ACP.Selon un rapport récent de la Banque mondiale, les aliments fonctionnels offrent de meilleures marges bénéficiaires et leurs prix au détail sont habituellement de 30 à 500 % (!) supérieurs à ceux des aliments traditionnels.Il n'existe pas jusqu'ici de définition bien établie de ce qu'est un aliment fonctionnel. En termes pratiques, c'est un aliment naturel bon pour la santé ou auquel ont été ajoutés des éléments bénéfiques tels que vitamines, antioxydants (substances naturelles aidant à éliminer les radicaux libres néfastes des cellules), fibres alimentaires ou probiotiques. Ces derniers sont des microbactéries alimentaires, très en vogue auprès des consommateurs du Nord. Un aliment fonctionnel peut aussi être un aliment auquel on a retiré des composants, tels que les mauvais acides gras saturés. Certaines définitions incluent les aliments contenant des OGM.La technologie agroalimentaire évolue à grands pas et trouve de nouvelles façons de produire des aliments fonctionnels, par extraction et fortification. Les isoflavones (substances bénéfiques produites presque exclusivement par certaines légumineuses) peuvent être extraites du soja et ajoutées à des produits destinés à réduire l'ostéoporose (maladie osseuse), améliorer le fonctionnement cardiovasculaire et soulager les troubles de la ménopause. On étudie aussi la capacité des glucosinolates (composants naturels de certaines plantes, particulièrement de la famille des crucifères) à détoxiquer le foie. Plusieurs produits sur le marché contiennent des stérols végétaux ou phytostérols, constituants naturels de plantes comme le soja et le maïs, qui, ajoutés aux aliments, réduisent le cholestérol.On sait que de nombreux aliments traditionnels (fruits, légumes, herbes) sont bons pour la santé. Les pays ACP produisent déjà toutes sortes d'aliments fonctionnels naturels. Les choux ont des propriétés antioxydantes, l'avocat réduirait le cholestérol, les tomates sont riches en lycopène -un antioxydant majeur associé à la réduction du risque de cancer de la prostate -et les poissons gras tel le thon sont une source d'acides gras oméga-3 qui protègent des maladies cardiaques et du diabète.Dans les pays ACP, un large éventail d'autres produits pourrait être déployé sur ce créneau : le curcuma (ou safran des Indes) pour ses propriétés anti-inflammatoires, l'ail, dont les c o m p o s a n t s organo-sulfurés feraient baisser le cholestérol, et des aliments dérivés de micro-organismes tels que les champignons et les algues. Certains thés comme le rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) et honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia), originaires tous deux d'Afrique du Sud, sont riches en flavonoïdes antioxydants, qui renforcent les défenses contre les allergies, virus et cancers. Ils rencontrent déjà un succès considérable sur les marchés étrangers. L'Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis), très cultivé dans les Caraïbes, entre dans la composition de quantité d'aliments fonctionnels et l'acérola (Malpighia glabra) ou cerise des Barbades, très riche en vitamine C, commence à se faire connaître hors de ses Caraïbes natales. Des huiles végétales largement produites en Afrique de l'Ouest offrent des perspectives intéressantes comme base d'\"huiles fonctionnelles\" enrichies de substances bénéfiques. Au Japon, des huiles enrichies en vitamine E et phytostérols sont déjà disponibles.\"Le problème, c'est que la plupart de ces produits intéressants sont repris et développés hors des régions ACP\", indique Denzil Phillips, consultant phytologue au Centre pour le développement de l'entreprise, qui insiste sur la nécessité de protéger les droits de propriété des communautés locales afin qu'elles ne soient pas exclues des bénéfices.Le succès des aliments fonctionnels est pour une large part affaire de marketing.Sans aide, l'accès des petits producteurs ACP à ce nouveau secteur sera difficile. Selon Denzil Phillips, \"il y a de grandes opportunités sur le marché des aliments fonctionnels, mais aussi des obstacles\". Leur développement requiert de gros investissements scientifiques et, dans de nombreux cas, il faudra améliorer les technologies de récolte, de transformation et de stockage. Les producteurs ACP auront aussi besoin d'aide pour l'emballage, car certains de ces aliments sont extrêmement sensibles : seul un conditionnement spécial peut sauvegarder leurs précieuses propriétés.La réglementation de l'UE relative aux nouveaux aliments, qui interdit l'importation des denrées dont l'innocuité n'est pas démontrée, est une grosse pierre d'achoppement. L'absence de cadres réglementaires risque également d'entraver leur essor. Il n'y a pas encore de consensus international sur les règles de sécurité, même s'il est envisagé d'intégrer ces aliments au Codex Alimentarius de la FAO et de l'OMS.En Europe, le programme FUFOSE (Sciences des aliments fonctionnels en Europe) prépare le terrain pour une approche commune de l'évaluation de ces aliments. Certaines organisations travaillent à fonder scientifiquement leurs supposés bienfaits. Pour que ces \"aliments miracles\" profitent à la santé publique -et que les producteurs ACP bénéficient des retombées commerciales -, les consommateurs devront avoir pleine confiance en leur efficacité.La mode des aliments fonctionnels pourrait aussi avoir des répercussions régionales, dynamiser la demande sur les marchés locaux et contribuer à la prévention des maladies. Au Sénégal, deux grands hôpitaux de Dakar ont mis le fonio au menu de leurs patients diabétiques. Un indice glycémique très bas est l'une de ses multiples qualités nutritionnelles (voir Spore 111). Les aliments enrichis ont déjà un impact positif sur la santé publique dans des pays où les carences en micronutriments et vitamines sont fréquentes. L'ajout d'huile de palme rouge au régime alimentaire des femmes et des enfants du centre-est du Burkina Faso a permis de réduire le déficit en vitamine A (voir Spore 111). La farine enrichie en fer se répand aux Fidji et le projet Sorgho africain bio-enrichi développe une variété dont les taux en acides aminés essentiels, vitamines, fer et zinc sont supérieurs.Les aliments fonctionnels n'offrent toutefois pas de solution à la faim et à la malnutrition, dont les causes réelles sont la pauvreté et l'accès insuffisant à la terre. Qui plus est, une alimentation variée sera toujours préférable à un régime monotone d'aliments enrichis, sans compter que l'excès de certains additifs peut s'avérer dangereux. Les consommateurs tout comme les producteurs ACP ont besoin d'être plus informés. Aussi fonctionnels que soient ces aliments, il est trop tôt pour parler de révolution alimentaire. a forêt tropicale, qui occupe 6 % de la surface terrestre, disparaît au rythme de 14 millions d'hectares par an, selon la FAO. Une menace pour les quelque 240 millions de personnes qui y vivent et pour tous les riverains qui en tirent un revenu ou un emploi.La déforestation est liée à la surexploitation des bois tropicaux à des fins commerciales, mais aussi et surtout au défrichage des terres par les populations rurales. L'idée d'associer les communautés locales à la gestion de la forêt pour mieux la préserver n'a fait son chemin dans les milieux du développement qu'à la fin des années 1970. Auparavant, les actions de conservation consistaient principalement à créer des zones protégées d'où les populations étaient exclues car considérées comme un risque pour le maintien de la biodiversité (voir Spore 112). Depuis, il est devenu peu à peu évident pour les bailleurs et les politiques qu'on ne peut protéger la forêt et ses ressources aux dépens de ses habitants.Parmi les ressources, il y a le bois, bien sûr, mais aussi les produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) : fruits, feuilles, écorces, bois de feu, viande de brousse et plantes médicinales, dont la récolte et l'utilisation ont été dans bon nombre de pays (Cameroun, Niger, Ouganda) le point de départ d'une gestion communautaire. D'après le directeur du Centre de recherche forestière internationale (CIFOR), \"les petits agriculteurs et les populations locales sont aujourd'hui propriétaires ou disposent de droits d'usage à long terme sur environ un cinquième des forêts dans les pays en développement, mais en contrôlent bien plus de manière informelle\".Conformément aux recommandations du Sommet de Rio de 1992, de plus en plus de pays admettent désormais le principe d'une participation des communautés locales à la gestion des forêts. Dans de nombreux pays africains, l'État est passé d'une approche purement répressive, héritée de la colonisation, à un dialogue plus ou moins ouvert avec les populations.En Gambie, les communautés locales ont obtenu l'exemption des restrictions au prélèvement et à l'utilisation des produits forestiers et sont dispensées des redevances et des permis normalement requis. En Sierra Leone, l'État les aide à négocier directement des contrats avec les exploitants. Aux Seychelles, des comités consultatifs issus des communautés locales sont habilités à donner leur avis sur toute nouvelle réforme forestière. En Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, une centaine de communautés autochtones tirent bénéfice d'une gestion écologique des forêts sur une superficie d'environ 200 000 ha. D'autres pays ACP parient sur le développement des aires forestières protégées tout en associant les populations à la mise en valeur de zones écotouristiques. Ainsi, le programme de Conservation centrée sur les communautés (CCC) de l'Institut Jane Goodall, présent en Afrique du Sud, au Congo, en Ouganda et en Tanzanie, s'attache à la protection des grands singes en concilliant biodiversité et traditions culturelles. Des opérateurs privés associent également les populations locales à la gestion et à la protection des aires écotouristiques.Quelles que soient leurs retombées positives, ces initiatives souvent soutenues par des ONG ou des bailleurs de fonds étrangers ne peuvent se développer durablement sans un cadre politique et juridique solide. La définition précise et la reconnaissance formelle des droits des communautés est un préalable indispensable à toute action d'aménagement durable. Quelques pays ACP ont franchi cette étape législative. C'est le cas au Cameroun où une loi de 1994 établit les droits d'usage des communautés. Depuis 2001, celles-ci peuvent signer une convention avec l'administration pour exploiter une forêt. En Guinée équatoriale, une loi similaire existe depuis 1997. Au Mozambique, une loi de 1999 fixe les droits des populations y compris celui d'être consultées pour l'attribution de permis d'exploitation à des tiers. La récente loi forestière d'octobre 2006 au Liberia reconnaît pour la première fois l'importance du rôle des communautés dans la foresterie.Toutefois, disposer d'une loi ne garantit pas son application. En cinq ans, seules 55 forêts communautaires ont été reconnues officiellement au Cameroun sur quelque 340 demandes enregistrées. Les coûts extrêmement élevés et la complexité des démarches sont les principaux freins à l'application de ce statut, qui suppose un accord préalable au sein des communautés sur le partage des retombées financières.En Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, Forest Trends, organisation internationale indépendante, insiste dans son rapport 2006 sur la nécessité de sensibiliser davantage les communautés sur leurs droits et d'enquêter sur les cas de \"corruption potentielle\" impliquant responsables de l'industrie du bois et politiciens locaux.La garantie des droits des communautés est la pierre angulaire d'un aménagement décentralisé des forêts tropicales qui, en Afrique, restent encore largement sous la tutelle des gouvernements. Le passage de flambeau ne peut profiter à la forêt et aux communautés que si celles-ci disposent de technologies compatibles avec une gestion durable de ces milieux et sont formées à la gestion financière des ressources tirées de la forêt. Mais cette bonne gouvernance passe par la reconnaissance préalable des savoirs des communautés locales et des peuples autochtones, qui ont été trop souvent déracinés et déresponsabilisés.Voir Repères page 10Autrefois considérées comme les premières destructrices des forêts et de leur biodiversité, les populations prennent aujourd'hui en main la gestion de forêts communautaires.Très souvent encore hors de tout cadre juridique.Photo : © Syfia International L es scientifiques des pays ACP, tout comme leurs collègues d'autres pays, ont besoin de se tenir au courant des dernières avancées dans leur discipline, de diffuser le plus largement possible les résultats de leurs travaux et de communiquer voire collaborer avec leurs pairs dans d'autres pays.Depuis une dizaine d'années, l'omniprésence des nouvelles technologies a considérablement modifié la production et la circulation de l'information scientifique et technique (IST). En théorie, Internet offre aux chercheurs du Sud la chance de mieux s'intégrer à la société mondiale de l'information et du savoir. En réalité, si les TIC sont un formidable accélérateur au Nord, elles sont paradoxalement, par certains aspects, un facteur d'exclusion des chercheurs du Sud, en raison du manque de moyens des centres de recherche et des établissements d'enseignement.Les éditeurs de revues scientifiques de référence, au Nord pour la plupart, sont massivement passés de la diffusion exclusivement sur papier à des formules d'abonnement incluant des versions électroniques, tout aussi onéreuses sinon plus. Les revues électroniques étant en grande partie financées par l'édition papier, il en est résulté de fortes augmentations du prix des abonnements (près de 10 % par an en moyenne au cours des dix dernières années). Des hausses difficiles à assumer pour les centres de recherche, surtout ceux des pays en développement qui n'ont souvent qu'un très petit budget de documentation.Les producteurs institutionnels d'IST se sont également laissés séduire par le formidable potentiel de diffusion d'Internet : ils créent leurs propres sites, portails et lettres d'information, abandonnant même parfois l'impression de bulletins ou d'ouvrages auparavant diffusés aux chercheurs du Sud.En isolant les chercheurs, la fracture numérique, née de l'inégalité dans l'usage et l'accès aux TIC entre pays riches et pauvres, contribue à la \"fracture scientifique\". Unanimement jugée pénalisante pour les pays en développement, la fracture scientifique est aussi dommageable pour la recherche mondiale, privée ainsi de regards et d'apports différents. Ce constat a conduit le Sommet mondial de l'information de Genève (Suisse) de 2003 à reconnaître dans sa déclaration de principes la nécessité de \"promouvoir un accès universel, avec égalité des chances, pour tous, aux connaissances scientifiques, ainsi que la création et la diffusion des informations scientifiques et techniques, y compris les initiatives entreprises en vue d'assurer un accès ouvert aux publications scientifiques\". Le Nouveau partenariat pour le développement de l'Afrique (NEPAD) a lui aussi fait de cet objectif l'une de ses priorités.De multiples initiatives visent à rétablir un équilibre en donnant aux chercheurs, aux enseignants et aux étudiants des pays en développement l'accès gratuit ou à prix réduit à des revues et des publications. C'est le cas du Système de recherche mondiale en ligne sur l'agriculture (AGORA), né en 2003 d'un partenariat entre la FAO et des éditeurs de revues scientifiques (37 aujourd'hui). Quelque 850 institutions du Sud peuvent déjà consulter en ligne 900 revues et publications. AGORA s'élargit actuellement à une centaine de pays à faibles revenus.Depuis juin 2006, CGVlibrary, la bibliothèque virtuelle du Groupe consultatif pour la recherche agricole internationale (GCRAI), permet d'interroger les principales bases de données sur l'agriculture, la sécurité alimentaire, la pauvreté et l'environnement.Sous réserve de disposer d'une connexion à haut débit -et c'est loin d'être le cas partout -, les chercheurs du Sud ont donc virtuellement la possibilité de s'informer en temps réel de l'actualité de leur discipline. À condition aussi de ne pas se perdre sur la Toile et d'avoir appris à y naviguer. Le foisonnement des sites est tel qu'il a fallu créer des portails thématiques aux contenus parfois redondants. En plein développement, le système du fil RSS permet désormais d'être informé en temps réel et sur un seul écran des dernières nouveautés de quantité de sites sans perdre du temps à les ouvrir et à les visiter.Un autre besoin particulièrement pressant des scientifiques est de faire connaître leurs travaux le plus largement possible. Cette visibilité est d'autant plus importante pour les scientifiques ACP que le volume de leurs publications a fortement diminué au cours des dernières années. L'Afrique, par exemple, a perdu au cours de la dernière décennie 20 % de parts de marché dans l'arène des publications mondiales indexées, selon un rapport sur La science en Afrique à l'aube du  Enfin, à l'heure de la mondialisation, les chercheurs doivent pouvoir échanger avec leurs collègues où qu'ils soient. Il est également important qu'ils puissent faire connaître leur point de vue dans les grands débats en cours sur des sujets comme la modification génétique ou la propriété intellectuelle, qui les concernent au premier chef. Le site Scidev.net, lancé en 2001 par l'éditeur de la revue Nature avec le soutien de la coopération britannique, leur permet de faire entendre leur voix et de suivre l'actualité scientifique du développement. Des sites spécialisés hébergent des groupes de discussion où les chercheurs peuvent intervenir et dialoguer. Dgroups, par exemple, consacré au développement international, abrite près de 2 000 forums à participation libre ou sélective.Rebrancher la recherche des pays ACP sur la science mondiale n'est pas qu'une simple question d'équité. C'est une nécessité vitale pour tous les pays à l'heure où le \"village global\" a tant de solutions à trouver pour survivre.Voir Repères, page 10• Information scientifique et TICArchive ouverte : Désigne un réservoir où sont déposées des données issues de la recherche scientifique et de l'enseignement et dont l'accès se veut ouvert. Cette ouverture est rendue possible par l'utilisation de protocoles communs.    Des scientifiques ont identifié un gène qui permet au riz de survivre plus longtemps en immersion totale, ouvrant ainsi la voie au développement de variétés résistantes aux inondations. Cette innovation résoudrait l'un des défis les plus anciens de l'agriculture et pourrait améliorer la vie de millions de riziculteurs.Le riz est la seule céréale qui tolère la submersion, mais la plupart des variétés meurent en cas de submersion complète prolongée. Lorsque la plante est sous eau, elle n'a plus assez d'oxygène et de dioxyde de carbone pour réaliser la photosynthèse et respirer. Elle meurt habituellement au bout de quatre jours. Les pertes annuelles de riz dues aux inondations sont estimées à plus de 1 milliard $ US (786 000 €).À l'aide des techniques de cartographie génétique, des chercheurs aux Philippines et aux USA ont identifié un groupe de trois gènes liés aux processus biologiques qui rendent le plant de riz résistant à l'immersion. Ils se sont ensuite concentrés sur l'un de ces trois gènes, le Sub1A. Ils ont découvert que, lorsque celuici est surexprimé ou suractivé, une variété de riz normalement intolérante à l'immersion devient tolérante. Des chercheurs de l'Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD, France) ont identifié le gène de la résistance à l'une des plus graves maladies des rizières africaines : la panachure jaune du riz. Le virus, transmis par un insecte, provoque de fortes baisses des rendements rizicoles depuis une quarantaine d'années en Afrique.Après avoir observé que certaines variétés de riz échappent à la maladie, les chercheurs ont identifié un gène, Rymv1, qui doit interagir avec le virus pour que celui-ci se développe, mais dont la forme observée chez les variétés résistantes ne permet pas l'interaction.Par la suite, des croisements conféreront cette résistance à des variétés de riz à haut rendement, particulièrement affectées par la panachure. La sélection variétale sera confiée au Centre du riz pour l'Afrique (ADRAO) et à des instituts de recherche nationaux en Côte d'Ivoire, à Madagascar et au Sénégal.  ■ La crise ivoirienne a été une chance pour les producteurs de bananes burkinabé. Le ralentissement des échanges entre les deux pays a permis au Burkina de raffermir sa filière banane. Lui qui, il y a quelques années, importait de son voisin l'essentiel de sa consommation en produit à présent 15 000 t par an, de quoi couvrir ses besoins et même exporter vers le Mali et le Niger. Au Burkina Faso, parmi les cultures irriguées, la banane est celle qui rapporte le plus aux producteurs.      Si vous êtes producteur ou exportateur en Afrique de l'Ouest et que vous souhaitez vendre des produits agricoles aux États-Unis, en Europe ou au Japon, ce fascicule d'une quarantaine de pages, illustré de sympathiques dessins, vous aidera à y voir plus clair.Vous découvrirez d'abord les principales réglementations de ces pays avant d'aborder les six grands programmes de certification volontaire (label bio ou équitable, par exemple) avec leurs objectifs, avantages et contraintes et la marche à suivre pour les obtenir. Un carnet de bonnes adresses sous forme de liens vous permettra d'aller plus loin sur Internet et de suivre notamment l'évolution des réglementations. L'auteur propose plutôt de tenter une \"révolution doublement verte\". Comme la révolution verte, elle doit permettre d'accroître notablement la production et être économiquement viable mais elle doit en outre respecter l'environnement. Elle fait appel à l'écologie scientifique et aux mécanismes du vivant : contrôler plutôt qu'éradiquer les mauvaises herbes ou les insectes, améliorer les conditions de vie des animaux plutôt que de les traiter aux antibiotiques. Il ne s'agit plus de maximiser les rendements en artificialisant le milieu et en forçant la nature à coups d'engrais et de traitements chimiques. Il s'agit plutôt d'utiliser au mieux les fonctionnalités de l'écosystème, pour améliorer durablement la production, par exemple en recyclant la biomasse, en préférant les cultures associées à la monoculture, en pratiquant la lutte biologique contre les prédateurs.Proche de l'agriculture biologique, la révolution doublement verte n'exclut pas pour autant l'utilisation raisonnée d'intrants. Elle suppose aussi une nouvelle politique agricole basée sur l'équité, qui ait pour objectif de sortir les petits agriculteurs du cercle vicieux de la pauvreté.Une belle idée dont l'auteur reconnaît lui-même qu'il est difficile d'évaluer les résultats et la faisabilité. Sa cellule de veille sur la grippe aviaire met à la disposition de tous les acteurs de cette sensibilisation (agents des services vétérinaires, agents des parcs et réserves, vétérinaires privés, animateurs, groupements de producteurs, animateurs de radio rurale, personnel technique des ONG) une mallette pédagogique astucieuse et vraiment conçue en fonction de son public. Chacun des outils qu'elle contient peut ainsi être adapté en langues locales.Vous y trouverez dix exemplaires d'un livret explicatif, un guide d'animation, un fascicule \"Saynètes de sensibilisation\" et du matériel audiovisuel sur cédérom : de petites pièces de théâtre enregistrées et filmées vous aideront à animer des réunions et à faire passer les messages de vigilance. Une des critiques adressées aux OMD est de faire l'impasse sur les pratiques populaires. De tout temps, les populations ont en effet cherché à sécuriser leurs conditions de vie à travers des pratiques économiques populaires et une multitude de mécanismes de redistribution et de solidarité. Pour les auteurs, cet oubli condamne à l'avance les politiques associées aux OMD à échouer en matière de développement humain.  Cet ouvrage décortique les mécanismes de ce courant chaud. À l'aide de mots simples et d'explications claires, il aide à comprendre ce qu'il appelle \"la singularité équatoriale\" : en bref, le stockage et le transport de la chaleur du soleil par les océans, des tropiques vers les régions tempérées. Une mission essentielle qui contribue à rendre notre planète habitable.En quelques décennies, l'océanographie a beaucoup progressé dans l'étude de l'influence des océans sur le climat. D'une approche purement descriptive et géographique, elle est passée à une approche plus analytique et géophysique. Les progrès techniques, comme le GPS, combinés à ceux de la météorologie permettent désormais de prévoir avec de plus en plus de précision les variations climatiques et de mesurer le rôle essentiel que l'océan y joue. Un grand nombre de personnes interrogées souhaitent que le futur site Web de Spore donne accès à des documents en texte intégral, des liens vers des sources d'information, des articles de fond, de nouvelles rubriques, des dossiers thématiques et un service d'alerte e-mail. Certaines ont aussi demandé des groupes de discussion. D'autres aimeraient y trouver un calendrier d'événements et des offres de formation, régulièrement actualisés. Enfin, des demandes concernent le traitement de thèmes spécifiques, qui vont de la médecine traditionnelle à la lutte contre les ravageurs, et une meilleure couverture de certaines régions, en particulier les Caraïbes.Le CTA digère tout cela à présent, pour voir comment mieux servir à l'avenir les utilisateurs de Spore en ligne. Affaire à suivre, donc. Gardez bien cette rubrique à l'oeil !  Un blog régulièrement alimenté montre ses activités, photos à l'appui :http://fgeorgeslemaraicher.blogspot.com/ @ P endant très longtemps, les agronomes africains ont été formés pour travailler dans des bureaux (ils sont d'ailleurs appelés les ingénieurs en col blanc). Ils continuent à être formés pour travailler dans les bureaux alors que le contexte socio-économique africain a complètement changé.Plusieurs actions devraient être menées pour remédier au constat qui est fait dans Spore. Par exemple :• changer entièrement les programmes de formation des agronomes africains, conçus au moment des indépendances pour répondre aux besoins de l'époque, et devenus obsolètes. Il faut concevoir des programmes qui répondent à la nouvelle donne africaine, voire mondiale. L'agronome africain doit de nos jours être formé pour s'installer à son propre compte, pour créer des entreprises agricoles et non plus pour attendre d'être intégré à la fonction publique ;• revoir les politiques agricoles des pays africains, fondées uniquement sur le principe des aides et financements des pays riches, lesquels sont rapidement engloutis dans des projets mal conçus et inadaptés. Les gouvernements africains devraient penser plus à des politiques qui mettraient des terres à la disposition des jeunes agronomes, à des crédits de financement des projets agricoles conçus par les jeunes et mis en oeuvre par eux. Orienter la politique agricole des pays ACP dans cette direction pourrait contribuer à la résolution de l'épineux problème des jeunes agronomes africains.\" Calixte Midjangninou, du Bénin, estime que cette analyse et ces propositions \"ne sont pas tout à fait défendables\".\"Les programmes de formation ne sont pas aussi obsolètes que le dit Aurélie. Sinon à quoi aurait servi l'insertion des enseignants dans des réseaux régionaux et mondiaux, cadres d'échanges et de co-apprentissage par excellence où chacun acquiert de nouvelles connaissances qu'il valorise en améliorant le contenu des cours et des pratiques ?De nouveaux sujets ont émergé, qui n'ont pas été auparavant enseignés à l'école ou à l'université. Exemples : la microfinance, la société civile, les OGM, etc. Il est vrai que certains enseignants ne se donnent pas la peine d'améliorer le contenu des cours, mais ce sont des cas isolés à ne pas généraliser.Le contenu des cours -même si des efforts doivent être consentis pour les améliorerme semble être plus ou moins adapté à l'entreprenariat. Une formation orientée vers l'initiative privée ne peut être qu'une porte de sortie pour les États qui cherchent des solutions à la question du chômage.La vraie question se situe au niveau des politiques agricoles, en termes de moyens pour encourager l'initiative privée et le marché. En effet, l'entreprenariat agricole nécessite des moyens financiers que les États africains se refusent à mettre en place. Les banques agricoles sont rares sinon inexistantes. Heureusement, quelques ONG, avec des moyens très modestes, s'investissent dans l'accompagnement financier et matériel des micro-entreprises agricoles.De plus, l'entrepreneur agricole doit faire face au marché qui, dans presque tous les pays africains, lui est défavorable. La politique des États consiste à ouvrir les marchés aux produits des pays du Nord alors que les conditions sont réunies pour assurer la souveraineté alimentaire des pays du Sud. Je crois, comme Aurélie, que les politiques agricoles dans les pays d'Afrique doivent être revues afin de donner l'envie aux jeunes agronomes de s'installer.\"Norindin Bamogo, du Burkina Faso, rejoint Aurélie sur certains points.\"Les agronomes ne sont pas faits pour travailler dans les bureaux mais en campagne. Cela pose le problème de l'implantation de nos écoles et institutions d'agronomie, qui très souvent se trouvent en ville. Le mieux serait de les placer là où les étudiants agronomes pourraient se confronter directement aux réalités du monde agricole.Les programmes d'enseignement ne sont pas forcément à revoir. Il y a des écoles qui suivent bien l'évolution des connaissances. Par exemple, l'Université de Ouagadougou accueille chaque année des professeurs des universités de France et de Dakar pour dispenser des cours et animer des conférences avec les étudiants. Il s'agit plutôt d'adapter les enseignements aux réalités du terrain dans chaque pays.L'installation privée des agronomes serait intéressante comme toute autre entreprise.Cependant, le domaine de l'agriculture est particulier. Dans un pays comme le mien se pose le problème de la rareté des terres cultivables, déjà insuffisantes pour les paysans eux-mêmes, source de véritables conflits. Les installations privées s'avèrent souvent difficiles.Oui, il faut revoir les politiques agricoles des pays africains. De nouvelles politiques de financement doivent être élaborées. Il faut faciliter la création de banques agricoles pour un financement assez flexible des projets. De nouvelles politiques de commercialisation doivent être aussi élaborées, notamment en faveur des jeunes. Tout cela nécessite une concertation interafricaine afin de mieux défendre nos productions.\" Blandine Laure Tientcheu, du Cameroun, apporte quelques nuances à certains points de vue d'Aurélie.\"Au Cameroun où j'ai fait mes études d'agronomie, le programme de formation n'est pas du tout obsolète. Le gouvernement a réussi à rendre très pratique cette formation (40 % de celle-ci est consacrée à la pratique). Les agronomes ne sont pas formés pour les bureaux, au contraire. Le ministère de l'Agriculture les recrute comme agents de vulgarisation des villages et ils travaillent avec les ONG et organisations paysannes.L'agronome africain veut bien s'installer à son propre compte, mais il se heurte à plusieurs problèmes. Le foncier tout d'abord : les terres appartiennent à l'État ou sont communautaires. Il est difficile pour un individu de posséder des hectares de terrain à exploiter. Le financement ensuite : les banques financent difficilement les projets agricoles car le risque d'échec est assez élevé. Par son manque d'expérience, un jeune agronome a une faible valeur marchande auprès des banques. Et quand bien même une banque financerait son projet agricole, il lui faudrait un apport personnel qu'il n'a pas.Enfin, l'agriculture africaine ne peut se développer que sur la base d'une politique commune des pays africains. À l'intérieur, les États doivent s'organiser en mettant en place et en soutenant des sociétés de développement ou des coopératives agricoles qui pourront utiliser efficacement nos jeunes diplômés.\" ","tokenCount":"5093"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bc0317eb977a6b8b4ab799992b7b213c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/403c8608-62c3-4d7a-a06f-84b274475780/retrieve","id":"625655064"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5586a03a-e0f8-499b-9601-e977e532e020","pagecount":"20","content":"Para desarrollar un instrumento de apoyo a la toma de decisiones, es de vital importancia detenminar cuáles son las necesidades que se deben satisfacer, qué util idad pocrá prestar dicho instrumento y cuáles serán sus usuarios. Los resultados y su análisis están presentados para cada pregunta de la encuesta y se ilustran con gráficas. En el caso de las preguntas abiertas (por ejemplo: cuando se pedia nombrar problemas), la gráfica correspondiente ilustra el número de personas que mencionaron un problema especifico. Otras preguntas requerían que la persona encuestada jerarquizara una serie de problemas sugeridos. En éste caso, se calculó el promedio del puntaje obtenido para cada problema.Se ha enfocado principalmente al municipio de Puerto López, que es nuestro municipio •piloto\" para el desarrollo de una herramienta de apoyo a las decisiones. Sin embargo, queremos que la herramienta sea aplicable a otros municipios, por lo cual entrevistamos a personas no sólo de Puerto López, para conocer cómo varia la problemática, de un municipio a otro.El conocimiento de los problemas que se quieren resolver mediante una mejor plan~icación, nos ayudará a decidir sobre cuáles decisiones se apoyarán, y cuáles preguntas se ayudarán a responder.Hasta la fecha, hemos realizado y recibido un total de 50 encuestas, 22 para Puerto López y 28 para los demás municipios. Las personas entrevistadas fueron más que todo; alcaldes, planificadores, secretarios de planeación, representantes de asociaciones, funcionarios directores encargados de actividades agropecuarias e investigación, (UMATA, CORPOICA, ICA, etc.). la mayoria de las encuestas se respondieron durante una visita a la zona de estudio, entre el 16 Y el 31 de Octubre.Las gráficas muestran, por una parte, los resultados obtenidos para Puerto López, y por otra, para el conjunto de los otros municipios. En la medida en que se realicen más encuestas, estaremos actualizando este infonme. Posterionmente, redactaremos un infonme con las graticas correspondientes, a cada municipio.Las preguntas 1 al 6, se referian a la identificación de los encuestados, por lo cual el informe se desarrolla a partir de la pregunta 7• Además de los mecanismos mencionados, sa ofreció la opción de que las personas pudieran hacer referencia a dos más, para los cuales también se han hecho las correspondientes gráficas.En ésta pregunta, se pidió al encuestado que diera una calificación de O a 10 a cada uno de éstos mecanismos y a los señalados por ellos, de acuerdo con el nivel de influencia que su institución tuviera sobra ellos. Para éstas gráficas, se calcularon los promedios de las calificaciones que los encuestados dieron a cada mecanismo.Nivel de poder o de Influencia de las Instituciones referente al tipo de uso del suelo, en Puerto López. En Puerto López (Gráfica 1), se percibe que las instituciones tienen gran interés e influencia sobre el Ordenamiento Territorial ya que éste aspecto obtuvo la mayor calificación, la promoción de ciertas prácticas agrlcolas con los productores se ubica en un segundo lugar, seguidamente se encuentra el nivel de influencia sobre los productos que se cultivan en el área y por último, la influencia que se tiene sobre el establecimiento de créditos.Nivel de poder o de Influencia de las Instituciones referente al tipo de uso del suelo, en otros municipios. Los resultados obtenidos en los demás municipios (Gráfica 1), a éste respecto, se percibe como la promoción de ciertas prácticas agrlcolas con los productores se encuentran en primer lugar, y el Ordenamiento Territorial en segundo lugar, caso contrario al de Puerto López. En las entrevistas que tuvimos con los encuestados, pudimos percibir menor interés en el tama de O.T . por parte de unos, algunos no sablan qué es el O.T .Para los productos que se cultivan en el área y el establecimiento de créditos, el nivel de influencia por parte de las instituciones sobre ellos, resulta ser similar al de Puerto López. • Promoción de ciertas pnlctlces _\"rlcolas con los productores  Se puede notar que, afortunadamente, hay buena intervención de las instituciones en cuanto a los aspectos agrícolas y ambientales . 12 ,---------------------------------, Esta es una pregunta abierta, sin faclores sugeridos, pues es muy importante conocer, de entrada, cuales son los problemas reales y actuales que impiden el desarrollo de los productores, según la percepción de los encuestados. El objetivo de ésta pregunta era más de conocer estos problemas que de jerarquizar su importancia.Factores que Impiden el desarrollo agrfcola de pequeftos agrícullorBS, en Puerto l6pez y otros municipios (Gráfica 3). La gráfica muestra que la falta de créditos es percibida como el factor limitante más importante para el desarrollo egrlcola. El pequeño productor se sienta incapaz de asumir obligaciones bancarias ya que los intereses son muy altos .• , • • Seguidamente. en orden de importancia se encuentra la falta de polltcas de mercadeo; los precios del mercado no favorecen al productor por lo que no cuentan con garanlfas que aseguren la rentebilidad de sus produclos. Se suma a esto el atraso tecnológico y la falta de maquinaria. que dificultan el adecuado proceso agr[cola.En su orden se encuentran también; la falta de apoyo institucional. la falta de educación y el mal uso del suelo. el contar con terrenos infértiles y el dal\\o qua se hace a los recursos naturales. [a faMa de vlas y la inseguridad. Por último. la preocupeción por el desbordamiento del rlo (Meta) es un problema sumamente importante pues podrla detener aún más el desarrollo del municipio de Puerto López. Pocas personas lo mencionaron. pero es una preocupeción que sobresale en las conversaciones con los habitantes. Factores que impiden el desarrollo agrlcola de grandes producto ..... en Puerto L6pez y otros munlclp[os (Grtrflca 4). Para los grandes produclores. el mayor impedimento es la falta de polltcas de mercadeo. viéndose nuevamente afectada la rentabilidad que podrlan obtener de sus cultivos. Esta situación es común tanto en Puerto López. como en otros muricipios.La gráfica muestra diferencias entre la importancia que se da a cada uno de los factores por parte de los dos grupos; es asl como mientras en Puerto López • el boleteo parece ser un factor menor; en los otros municipios. éste se considera como otro de 108 más importantes. Para Puerto López. se encuentra en tercer lugar. el factor de los altos costos de insumos. y el monopolio rel'erente al uso de la terra ( pestiza[es y ganaderla). Seguidamenta. tienen e[ serio problema de la importación de produclos al municipio. y por último se encuentran la falta de asistencia técnica. la falta de educación. la falta de v[as de acceso. la insegurided y la inconsciencia ecológica.No señalan en ningún momento. los factores de falta de • infraestructura para la recepción de productos, el control del rfo en sus riveras y la rentabilidad en las cosechas .El caso de los otros municipios se contrapone con al anterior, ya que el tercer lugar corresponde al factor económico, a la falta da asistencia técnica y de educación. Luego, en su orden de importancia están; el monopolio referente al uso de la tierra, la falta de vlas, la inseguridad, y los a~os costos de insumas. Rnalmente, como factores de menor incidencia, se tiene la falta de irtraestructura para la recepción de productos, el control del rlo en sus riveras, la rentabilidad en las cosechas y la importación de productos a los municipios. 14,.• o ..,• Loa Ineumos con aU08 co.toa .. Factor económico.OMonopollo: p •• tlzale. y ganad.rla.OSoleteo. Grupo. annadoa/orden público.• Clmportaclón.. 'nconclencla ecológica.PREGUNTA 9, (GRAFICA 5,6,7,8) Hemos sugerido 14 problemas que suponemos pueden presentarse en el municipio, con el objeto de que /os encuestados den un grado de importancia a cada uno de ellos y asl poder sabar hacia qué punto deba dirigirse nuestro instrumenlo de apoyo a las dacisiones con mayor prioridad. Además de los problemas sugeridos, consideramos que las personas conocen otros que también pueden mencionarse, por lo cual se da la oportunidad de que safialen por lo manos dos que consideren importantes.Jerarqulzaclón de problemas sugeridos en Puerto L6pez (Gráfica 5). De /os problemas sugaridos, se da prioridad a la solución de la falta de marcado local , la falta de presencia del sector agrolndustriel , al uso inadecuado del suelo con respecto a sus caracterfsticas y a las poIfticas nacionales dañinas; para lograr al desarrollo agrfcola sostenible en el municipio. En • •• grado de importanda sigue a los problemas mencionados: la tendencia a la formación de fincas grandes, la falta de extensión sobre alternativas agrlcolas, las vlas de transporte inadecuadas y la baja fertilidad de suelos. Finalmente, el hecho de que muchos propietarios de tierras viven fuera del área, la falta de inversión exterior, la inseguridad, los créditos insuficientes para los pequeños productores, la deficiencia en el servicio de transporte y la falta de servicios básicos (energla, alcantarillado, etc.), se encuentran ubicados en un grado de prioridad menor, sin dejar de ser importantes en todo momento.JERARQUlZACION DE PROBLEMAS SUGERIDOS EN PUERTO WPEZ.GRAFICA 5 .14 En Puerto López se considera que el de mayor urgencia es la falta de una reforma agraria integral, dándole un segundo lugar al hecho de que no se está usando la tierra de acuerdo a sus condiciones de fertilidad.En un tercer lugar, ubican la tenencia de tierra, y este factor tiene relación con el de reforma egraria. La capacitación y asesoría a los egricu~ores resulta ser una necesidad fuerte ya que la mayoria de ellos no tienen conocimiento, por ejemplo, del tipo de suelo que tienen y que este se debe manejar teniendo en cuenta sus caracterlsticas. Además, es claro que la causa de la existencia de muchos de los problemas es la ignorancia acerca del manejo que deben hacer de los recursos naturales, pruebe de esto es el mal manejo que se hace de las riveras de los rfos, en especial del no Meta.Nuevamente, la falta de apoyo para adquirir créditos a largo plazo y con bajo Interés se presenta como uno de los problemas que los aquejan. De igual forma reaparece la inquietud •• por la baja rentabilidad que se obtiena da sus sistemas de producción (consecuencia de las poIWcas de mercadeo). Como último factor pero también de importancia, ubican la falta de estímulo y concienaa para hacer empresa. De manera verbal, la mayorla de los encuestados marifestaron la falta de apoyo institucional y la falta del sentido de pertenencia por parte de cada uno de los habitantes.JERARQUIZACION DE OTRO TIPO DE PROBLEMAS EN PUERTO LOPEZ. GRAFICA6. • Capacitación y 88880ria a los agricultores.• Plazo y créditos suficientes.DTenencia de tierras.[J Falta de estimulo y conciencia para hacer empresa. • Falta de reforma agraria Integral.• Falta de Investigación y paquetes tecnológicos alternativos. • Baja rentabilidad de los sistemas de producción.[J Uso de la tierra de acuerdo a BUB condiciones de fertilidad Jerarquización de problemas sugeridos en otros municipios (Gráfica 7). A diferencia de Puerto López, el mayor grado de prioridad fue adjud icado al problema de las vlas inadecuadas. Los créditos insufiaertes para los pequefios productores, la falta da mercado local, el uso inadecuado del suelo con respecto a sus caracteristicas, las pollticas nacionales da/linas y la inseguridad, se podrla decir que se encuertran ubicados en un segundo rango en el que se distinguen distintos grados de Jerarquización.Durante nuestra visita al Meta, pudimos percibir que en algunos de los otros municipios se cuenta con un poco más de desarrollo agrlcola, sin afirmar que su desarrollo es óptimo. De esta forma, los problemas como: la falta de extensión sobre alternativas agrlcolas, la tandencia a la formación de fincas grandes, la baja fertlidad de los suelos y la falta de inversión exterior se encuentran ubicados, en forma descendente, en un tercer rango ., JERARQUIZACION DE PROBLEMAS SUGERIDOS EN OTROS MUNICIPIOS. GRAFICA7.12 ~------------------------------, Para los encuestados, los otros problemas de mayor importancia son la falta de apoyo instilucional y la conservación de las fuentes hldricas. Algunos son consientes de que el recurso agua puede acabarse en algún momento y más aún son consientes de que este se esta acabando por el mal uso que se da a las cuencas de los rlos. En sagunda escala han ubicado los altos costos de insumos agropecuarios, el monocultivo y la presencia de plagas y enfermedades. Estos tres podrían traducirse en la falta de asesorla técnica, la falta de capacitación en cuanlo a controles biológicos y a abonos orgánicos y la ignorancia en cuanto a efectos resultantes de un buen o mal manejo del suelo (monocultivo).Afortunadamente, reconocen que la planificación agrlcola es una necesided urgente de satisfacer. Los encuestados mencionan también el inconveniente que se les presenta por no contar con suficientes vlas de transporta terrestre, fluvial y aéreo. Para ellos, la reforma agraria no esté en primer plano pero si le dan buena importancia. La organización del mercado, el desarrollo de sistemas agroecol6gicos y 8Ostenibles, la falta de sistemas de intonnación, la no existencia de agroindustria y la importación de alimentos, estén más o • • menos enmarcados en última escala, sin querer decir que estos no sean importantes, o que no deban recibir soluciones eficientes y rápidas.,. • Fa\" de alatemu dalnJonnecl6n .• La con\"l'VKlón dit 1 .. toen'\" htdra.• incumplimiento de .. agrolnduárla.• No. Importadón de aJlrMnlaa.• Planltlc.:i6n 8gI'Opec:u.rIII.• PREGUNTA iD, (GRAFICAS 9, 10). ¿CUAL ES SU VlSION DE COMO DEBERlA SER EL DESARROLLO AGRICOLA DEL MUNICIPIO?En Puerto López (Gréllca 9). Gran parte de los encuestados del municipio consideran que éste tiene grandes potencialidades agrlcolas. Es por esto que la v isión de diversificación agrlcola marca la pauta de cómo puade darse mejor su desarrollo. Una pequena parte considera que, para el desarrollo del munidpio, se debe concientizar al agricultor con talleres de uso del suelo y ofrecerle altemativas de producción e incentivos. Manifiestan además que si se lleva a cabo una reforma agraria, el desarrollo del municipio seria integral. A un nivel un poco més bajo, consideran que el munidpio debe tecnificarse de acuerdo a sus caractarlsticas y necesidades, afirman que bene la capacidad para que en él se desarrollen actividades industriales y empresari ales, y que deben extenderse créditos para los agricultores y los pescadores, que se deben crear cooperawas agrlcolas y centros de acopio. Con menor frecuencia se mencionan las opciones da la ganaderla, la actividad mercantil, la economla campesina, la necesidad del sentido de pertenencia por la zona, la planificación egrfcola y el cambio o supresión de las UMATAS para mejorar el desarrollo egrfcola.VISION DEL DESARROLLO AGRlCOLA PARA PUERTO LOPEZ. GRAFICA9.9 . ---------------------------~ • Conclantlzando al campe\"no con tall.,... d .. uso del su81o, []OHarrollo tKnlco HptH;Ialiudo -Ve,\" la r.gI6n y al cultivo.[) Mercadeo.• Ganaderfa.[) Indumlal/Empr-..I1. 1.• Reforma agRllf1a.e DIv.raHlcación agr1c:ota.• ConRrvacl6n da l •• r1wnu d. loa rfos.• Crédftos para agr1cuttor. y ~.DCreadón de ~Iy •• agricola •.• Crur centnM de acoplo.• Mancomunado.• Econolmfa cam~lna.• S.m:Ido eS. p«t8n8ncla.• Planificación agricola.• Apoyo • pequal\\os y mec:Uanos agrlculto,...Visión del desarrollo agrfcola para otros municipios (Gréllca 10). En los demás muridpios, para un buen desarrollo agrtcola, se menciona que se debe tecnificar de acuerdo a las caracterfsticas de los suelos de la región . .lnduatrlallEmpruartal.11 Cultivo do palma \"ncana. El propósito de ésta pragunta, es poder conocer, de acuerdo a la experiencia de las personas a través del tiempo, cuáles opciones agrlcolas han dado buenos resultados para e! desarrollo de! municipio, cuáles podrfan retomarse si es que no se están realizando en la actualidad y cuáles no se deben implementar. Para ceda opción, deben cumplirse ciertas condiciones, éstas han sido señaladas al mismo tiempo por los encuestados. La relación resultante de éstos aspectos (opción -condición), se muestran en las siguientes tablas:Opciones agrlcolas prometedoras para Puerto López. Frut_.Capacitación al productor.Pitia.Promoción material vegetal.Buenas pollticas enfocadas al desarrollo sgrlcola.Yuca.Orden público.Arroz.Inversión privada.Malz.I ncentlvos.Especies nativas forestales. Seguridad.Cualquier cultivo.Maja-repéW1:o de tierras En Puerto L6pez (Gnlfica 11): La mayorla de los encuestados coinciden al afirmar que en Puerto López hay suficientes áreas naturales, hecho que beneficia en gran parte al municipio pero que debe mejorarse.En olros municipios (Gráfica 12): Las opiniones se contrarrestan, pues aunque una gran parte de los encuestados afirman que cuentan con suficientes áreas naturales. en su orden una menor cantidad afirman que hay pocas, otra cantidad aún menor dicen que hay demasiadas y por ú~imo unos pocos aseguran que no cuentan con áreas naturales en sus muricipios.• o En Puerto L6pez (Gréflca 13). La conservación del medio ambiente resulta ser el criterio que, para los encuestados, se debe tener en cuenta en primera instancia, ya que este es el sistema que involucra todos los factores necesarios para el inicio y desarrollo de la vida.Seguidamente anotan que se debe tener conocimiento de los sistemas de producción rentables y de carácter alimentario que puedan implementarse en el muricipio, asl mismo corno el uso potencial y la vocación de su suelo.•• Manifiestan además que debe brindarse educación con respecto a temas agrlcola, ambientales, etc. En un mismo nivel de importancia ubican el saber como uti lizar los recursos que se encuentran disponibles, como mejorar el mercado e incentivar el interés por el cuidado de las riveras de los rlos.Finalmente, a un nivel más bajo, se encuentran otros criterios que pueden estar relacionados con algunos de los anteriores como son; la creación y el cuidado de reservas naturales, la disminución en la cantidad de latifundios existentes, la planificación del uso en función del relieve y de las caracterlsticas de los suelos. 8rCriterios que se deben taner en cuenta para et uso ' de la tierra en otros municipios (GrMlca 14). El mercado, los sistemas de producción rentables y de carácter alime~ario y la existencia de muchos latifundios son ubicados en un primer nivel por los actores de los munidpios. Además del cuidado de las reservas naturales, y en su orden el conocimiento de los recursos que están disponibles, el acceso a educación sobre temas agrlcolas, ambientales, etc. y el uso de la tierra de acuerdo a sus pendientas, tipos de paisaje, conservadón del medio ambiente uso potancial y vocación del suelo . En Puerto (Gráfica 15): Para los encuestados, la diversidad de productos agropecuarios y¡ la disminución del desempleo y la inseguridad serian el resultado más favorable de promover la creación de minifundios. Un poco menos de las personas encuestadas consideran que los minifundios podrlan llegar a formar la despensa alimentaria del municipio y a ser el factor que favorezca el desarrollo económico del municipio.Otr cantidad menor de personas manifiestan que los minifundios deben integrarse y que con éstos seria más fácil hacer una buena distribución de los recursos (queriendo decir, que serian una oi'!IIInización eostenible).. Por úlUmo, unos mencionaron su papel en la creación de recurso agricolas, otros consideran que no tienen ningún efecto y alros manifiestan la posibilid~que brindarlan estos para la crla de especies menores.Papel que piilIrfan tener los minifundios en otros municipios (Gráfica 15). En los otros municipios se considera a los minifundios como la clave del desarrollo económico del municipio y el medio que permitiría la disminución del desempleo.En orden descendente, otras personas se~alan que éstos pueden llegar a ser la representación adecuada de una despensa que satisfaga las nacesidades alimentarias de los habitantes. Por ú~imo, manifiestan que éstos pueden dar pie al desarrollo microempresarial y a la diversidad de productos agropecuarios.PAPEL QUE PODRIAN TENER LOS MINIFUNDIOS EN LOS MUNICIPIOS.. ---------------- • Rec.Agri.• DespenllB alimentaria ","tokenCount":"3177"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"496e3c9859a5213df7edbd50908c775a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6ef47014-8dd7-4504-8c13-d61d3e8dba74/content","id":"1774133042"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dede226a-f0ce-4fb0-aab4-04f92623a232","pagecount":"49","content":"The company has a well-established research and development department that is led by highly trained and experienced plant breeders to produce its own early generation seed rather than rely on mainstream research institutions.Sustainable access to early generation seed (EGS) is important for efficient supply of quality certified, standard and/or quality declared seed of improved high-performing crop varieties. Some studies have been conducted from a global perspective on the delivery of EGS with a major focus on the economic analysis and identification of effective pathways for sustainable supply. This study was designed to establish the best practices and critical factors for the delivery of EGS for grain legume and dryland cereal crops in selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and parts of South Asia.A literature review of specific business models applied in SSA and India was conducted. More information was gathered through in-depth interviews with specific key informants drawn from the respective institutions or agencies that were studied. The models include public-sector or research-led models, private -sector models, and public-private partnership models.This working paper presents a synthesis of best practices and approaches through which the specific business models ensure the production and supply of breeder and foundation seeds. The paper identifies practices involving mechanisms for planning, financing, infrastructural facilities required for EGS production, incentives to promote pure line crop EGS production by the private sector, and the methods of production.The study reveals critical constraints for EGS production and supply, including seed market vagaries; the short shelf life of some crop seeds like groundnut; limited maintenance breeding efforts; low quality of breeder seed; lack of infrastructure to produce EGS; breeder seed production does not match the demand for production of foundation seed while foundation seed production does not match the demand for production of certified seed; and high costs of supervising and managing various groups of seed outgrowers.Interventions that build the capacity of seed producers to effectively plan EGS production requirements, guided by a seed roadmap, and product cycle management are needed. The public research institutions need to be strengthened with facilities that enhance their capacity to produce sufficient quantities of breeder seed at the required time. Besides, the proceeds from the sales should \"revolve\" to enable the unit to make further investments and carry out all the necessary operations in a timely manner. This requires consultation with Governments to set up financial management structures that provide an easier accountability process. Incentive schemes should be developed to encourage investment in the production of pure-line grain legumes and dryland cereals by the private sector as well as enhance their role in popularizing new varieties.Improvement and enforcement of quality assurance and control systems by breeding programmes, including modern technological methods should be considered. Importantly, a handover system that includes lisencing and pre-orders would help to bridge the supply and demand disparity.Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is dominated by smallholder farming characterized by low crop productivity attributed to many factors including underperforming crop varieties. Breeding efforts have resulted in the development and release of improved varieties that address production constraints including the biotic and abiotic stresses. The estimated contribution of seed quality to a crop's total production is about 15-20% and largely influences the response of other efficiently managed inputs (FAO, 2018). The importance of seed as basic input for sustainable agriculture cannot, therefore, be overlooked. Access and availability of quality seed require an integrated and effective seed supply system that is capable of generating and delivering seed of improved varieties to farmers at affordable prices. The uptake of these improved varieties is however constrained by limited availability of quality seeds caused in part by disfunctional early generation seed (EGS) value chains. The delivery of EGS in SSA is a major bottleneck affecting the performance of the seed value chains for key staple crops (Context Network, 2016).Sustainable access to EGS (breeder and foundation seed) is important for efficient supply of quality certified and/or quality declared seed of improved high performing crop varieties (Ojiewo et al., 2018). Numerous studies have been carried out to analyze EGS business models from a global perspective with a major focus on conducting financial analysis and identifying effective pathways for sustainable supply of EGS (Lion et al., 2015). However, there is limited understanding of country-specific experiences of how they ensure production and supply of EGS in the various production environments. This study was therefore designed to fill this information gap to analyze past and current experiences and identify the best context-specific practices and the critical factors constraining access to EGS for non-hybrid grain legume and dryland cereal crops in SSA given the various business models. The study focused on the following questions; a) How is the production of early generation seed organized? b) What practices are enabling sustainable production of EGS? c) What are the critical challenges for the delivery of EGS?The general objective of this study was to examine EGS business models used by various public and private institutions. The specific objectives were to;-Describe how the production of EGS is organized -Establish best practices for EGS production within specific business models -Examine the critical challenges to EGS production across business models.This study adopted a qualitative research approach and involved a review of secondary information on selected EGS business models in SSA as well the single case of India in South Asia, complemented with key informant interviews. The business models investigated can be grouped into three categories, i.e., public-sector led models, private-sector driven models and publicprivate partnership models. More information was gathered by conducting in-depth interviews with specific key informants drawn from the respective institutions, agencies and companies that were studied. Given the prevailing circumstances with the COVID-19 pandemic, the interviews were conducted using an interview guide administered by phone and in some cases through email.This section provides an overall categorization of the business models studied (Table 1). Aspects of; the type of crop seeds produced, the type of EGS produced, the geographical coverage of the produced EGS, where the model is financially independent or subsidized, seed production approach, whether a pre-ordering system is in place, cash flow strategy and the legal status of the business model are considered.Generally, the business models legally fall under; public, private and public-private depending on the type of institution that's is applying the model. Most the models are subsidized especially during the initial stages of establishment especially in setting up buildings, seed handling facilities and production infrastructure in some cases. Some private companies including; Premer Seeds Ltd, in Nigeria, Soprosa-Sarl in Mali, and NARO Holdings Ltd S4S also continue to subsidize their operations by entering into public-private arrangements with national and international research centers as a strategy to subsize itheir business operations especially in acquiring seed production and handling infrastructure.The public-sector led models operate in a semi-autonomus manner, however they often remain subsidized through payment of staff salaries by the establishing organizations, including use of resources such as land and transport facilities. Most public-sector led and public-private models such as the ICRISAT SRF in Malawi and Tanzania, NARO Holdings Ltd S4S model in Uganda; KALRO; use the seed revolving fund approach as a cash flow strategy to ensure EGS production. All the business models heavily rely on seed production through out-grower schemes. The geographical coverage for most of public sector led seed units is largely for national consumption except for the private seed companies such as QBS, Premier seeds Ltd, Nigeria and LCIC that have explored wider regional markets in their business strategy. However, the regional markets are mainly for marketing and distribution of hibrid maize and hybrid soybean varieties. More details are illustrated in the Table 1. The KALRO Seed Unit (KSU) was established in 1997 with the primary objective of promoting the uptake and commercialization of crop varieties that were not picked up by private seed companies. The crops of focus were mostly legumes such as common bean, mungbean, soybean, and the open-pollinated cereal crops such as OPV maize, wheat, sorghum, finger millet as well as horticultural crops (Omanga, 1998). The unit started its operations with a focus to produce EGS but along the way started to produce certified seeds too. KSU works together with breeders and contracted farmers to produce EGS as well as certified seeds. The KALRO Seed Unit (KSU) works with about 2,500 farmers per season with support by the umbrella organization KALRO itself. The key partners include the CGIAR centers CIAT, ICRISAT, CYMMIT as well as WorldVeg Center. These research centers support the unit with the breeder seed. The unit also partners with some private seed companies that it licenses to produce foundation seed of some crop varieties. KALRO Seed Unit operates smaller units at the organization's semi-autonomous research centers located at various parts of the country where they implement specific research mandates. For instance, the seed unit at KALRO Kakamega produces OPV maize, common bean, soybean, groundnuts, sorghum and finger millet. Common bean and maize are the leading crops constituting more than 75% of the total seed production with sorghum, finger millet and other legumes constituting less than 25% of seed production at the unit.KALRO approach to EGS supply KALRO provides the initial seed grant that the Seed Unit uses to initiate EGS production activities. KSU then engages breeders to produce seed that includes breeder and pre-basic seed classes. Basic seed production is contracted to selected and willing farmers who operate as individuals or are grouped into units called Seed Industry Development Units (SIDUs). KSU operates between 25-30 SIDUs per season. These farmers and groups are based in one locality and are required to plant the same variety to provide acceptable field isolation. This strategy is similar to the seed village community seed production approach used in India to maintain varietal purity. KSU, seed merchants, extension and KEPHIS provide technical and quality control support services throughout the crop cycle. The seed merchants specifically ensure compliance of seed outgrowers directly under them to strict seed production rules and regulations. The produced seed is processed by outgrowers and collected by KSU staff at between 13-15% moisture content for further conditioning to 12%-13% moisture content. KSU trains farmers on how to clean, treat and package the seed to ensure proper post-harvest handling. The produced EGS is sold to private seed firms and development projects. The foundation seed price is set in a way that ensures selfsustenance in the long term.The sale of foundation seed is accompanied by a document from KSU which authenticates the EGS material being supplied. This document must be produced before the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service undertakes seed certification. Once the seed is sold, KSU retains 80% of the proceeds from sales for further seed production and 20% is remitted to the organization KALRO. Apart from working with contracted farmers, KSU also licenses private seed companies to produce foundation seed. The licensed seed companies pay some royalties to KALRO to sustain this.Joint planning: KSU conducts national annual meetings to plan and make strategies to improve its performance. Projections of seed demand are made during these meetings and are based on the number of clients demanding seed. Seed pricing is also agreed upon during these meetings.Revolving fund: An initial one time grant is provided to the Seed Unit by the KALRO to initiate seed production activities and thereafter, 80% of the proceeds is injected back into seed production and development of relevant infrastructures such as seed processing and storage facilities.Licensing private seed companies: Large companies with the capacity to produce EGS are licensed to produce seeds of certain crops through payment of royalties to the mother organization KALRO. By receiving royalties, the KALRO generates funds that are occasionally injected into the various Seed Units to facilitate seed production activities.Incentives for farmer seed producers: Seed production being a restrictive and costly enterprise, KSU has put in place mechanisms that incentivize farmers to take up contracts to produce seed and build on their trust and integrity to work together. Contract farmers are given seed loans which are recovered when they deliver the produced seed to KSU. KSU also offers a premium price of about 20-30% for the EGS produced by outgrowers compared to the price offered by other buyers of seed and grains in order to ensure the produced seed is sold to KSU. These incentives have built trust between KSU and its contract farmers and also ensured farmers' commitment to produce seed.Irrigation system: KSU has invested in the establishment of irrigation systems to enable offseason production and also cope with the frequent dry spells caused by climate change effects.Partnerships: For breeder seed supply, KALRO does not only rely on its breeding programmes but works closely with the CGIAR centers CIAT, CIMMYT and ICRISAT among others.  (Jonnes et al., 2006, Kassie et al., 2009). Improved varieties are channeled through the Ethiopia Seed Enterprise (ESE) through the Regional Seed Enterprises (RSEs) which produce, process, distribute and market pre-basic and foundation seeds for legumes such as chickpeas, beans as well as cereal crops such as sorghum, maize, and malt barley among others (Ojiewo, et al., 2018).Breeder seeds are produced by the EIAR's National Agricultural Research centers and supplied to ESE. The ESE produces pre-basic and foundation seeds of various crops at its four farms that are located in different agro-ecological zones of the country based on the official demand projections from the regional Bureaus of Agriculture. Both cereals and legumes EGS is produced; however, the ESE produces more cereal crops seeds (maize, wheat, and teff) compared to the legume crops beans, chickpeas, and lentils as indicated in Table 2 (Atilaw et al., 2016). The ESE may also contract other public and private farms, seed producer cooperatives, and smallholder farmers to produce foundation seeds (Ojiewo et al., 2018, Akpo et al., 2020). The seed production trend is present in Table 3.Ethiopia has an established system and process of seed demand forecasting (Dey and Bezabih, 2021). EGS forecasting is performed at various administrative levels based on established demand for certified seeds. The process starts at the Woreda agriculture office, where crop, variety, and seed producer data is collected and compiled from the seed producer cooperatives, and submitted to the Zonal agriculture office, the Regional Bureau of Agriculture, and the Cooperative Promotion Agency. The Regional Bureau of Agriculture formats the submitted seed demand data by crop, variety, seed class, seed quantities needed, and seed producers and accordingly informs the EGS producers and the regional Cooperative agency. The bureau also specifies the demand gap and requests the Ministry of Agriculture to fill any gaps through allocation of EGS.The Ministry of Agriculture compiles the submitted EGS demand data and analyzes the capacity of EGS suppliers at federal level. It also provides EGS demand data to the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and the public EGS producers and seed enterprises. The ministry also facilitates contractual arrangements between EGS seed producers and commercial seed producers that had demanded the EGS. The entire process is detailed in Figure 1 and Table 2 below.  -Ethiopia has an established \"bottom-up\" system and process of seed demand forecasting.-The ESEs and RSEs annually receive a national budget allocation through the Ethiopian ministry of agriculture for carrying out EGS production activities. -Partnerships with development projects that have seed delivery interventions with the purpose of improving crop productivity and livelihoods.-The seed demand forecasting process is not digitized and uses non-rigorous econometric approaches. -Market information is rarely used in the estimation and forecasting of seed demand resulting in unreliable estimations. -Lack of digitized data archives to enable panel and trends analysis of seed production.This makes estimation of seed demand shifts difficult. -Seed data adjustments made at the different administrative levels are not transparent and well documented. The unit was created in 1998 with the objective of improving the supply of EGS for major crops and contributing to a sustainable private seed industry in Niger. The unit is overseen by a technical seed committee that comprises breeders and has a coordination office with representatives at the research station level. The role of the technical seed committee is to plan and evaluate the unit's performance. The unit enjoys a semi-autonomy status from INRAN, runs its own separate account, and is given priority access to production fields. The unit has for the last five years been producing an average of 20.5MT of pearl millet, 6.5MT of sorghum, 6.8MT of cowpea, and about 4MT of groundnut EGS annually.Breeder and foundation seeds are produced by the Seed Unit at research institutes or any other institutions responsible for the release of varieties. However, a private company can produce foundation seeds only under the supervision of the INRAN Seed Unit. It is mostly done through a contract between the seed company and the Seed Unit. In some cases, a seed company having technical capacity can access breeder seeds for the production of foundation seeds without a contract. The supply of breeder and foundation seeds from 2014-2018 is summarized in Table 4. In India, EGS production is organized and streamlined in such a way that seed producers place orders and receive seed allocations through a systematic demand planning process involving State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutions, State Seed Corporations (SSCs), the National Seed Corporations (NSC) and licensed private seed companies through National Seed Association of India (NSAI) with the supervision of the Government of India (GOI) (Context Network, 2016;Kalyanrao, 2011).Research institutions (SAUs and ICAR) are responsible for producing and supplying breeder seed to both the public and private seed companies (i.e SSC, NSC and licensed Private sector-led companies). The SSC, NSC and licensed Private sector-led companies produce the foundation seed. Indents from the various seed producing agencies are collected by State Departments of Agriculture (SDAs) and submitted to the Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare (DACFW) in the Ministry of AgricultureThe DACFW compiles all submitted information and sends it to the crop project coordinator at ICAR, who then allocates production responsibility to the appropriate SAU/ICAR institutions. The compiled indents must be forwarded to ICAR at least 18 months in advance. The ICAR-DAC annually holds a seed review meeting in which the actual production of foundation seed by different research centers is planned and allocated. Figure 2 illustrates the planning process. The following features characterize and have contributed to the success of the India rice EGS system according to the previous EGS study (Context Network, 2016) -Bottom-Up demand forecasting and production planning process -Strict adherence to calendar of operations -Breeder seed supply often exceeds demand -Financial sustainability is assured through dedicated and reliable public sector funding for commercially valued research and seed production. -Institutionalized process, resourcing and organizational-level accountability exist to meet annual breeder seed demand requirement. -Private seed producers depend on out-growers for foundation seed production and commonly maintain breeder-quality seed on their farms. -Agro-dealers support seed company decision-making with information on demand and farmer preferences thereby encouraging the formation of feedback loops -Government and political authorities consider rice to be critical to the nation and, therefore, it enjoys government support through grants, schemes in addition to the budgetary allocations. -Conducive policy environment and government support for the role of the private sector, combined with effective advocacy from the National Seed Association -The role of private actors in providing agricultural extension and popularizing new varieties is enhanced.Infrastructural deficiencies in terms of cold storage, seed processing and seed quality assurance testing equipment which affect the maintenance of seed production efficiency and quality.Poor quality assurance systems from public institutions seed which sometimes fail genetic purity. This results in loss of trust from private seed companies that are forced to carry out purification of lines.The breeder and foundation seeds in Burundi are produced and supplied by the specific research centers of Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi (ISABU). Additionally, the CGIAR centers IITA, CIAT, ICRISAT, and IRRI also supplement supply of EGS through ISABU (Mabaya et al., 2021).ISABU's approach requires the commercial seed producers to apply to the respective research centers for foundation seed with an advance 10% payment of the total cost of seed (Mabaya et al., 2021). The pre-order system has greatly improved the availability of EGS in Burundi. The preorder approach allows EGS producers to estimate the size of their market and the needs of farmers based on the seed bookings made by buyers. The rate of satisfaction with the availability of foundation seed by commercial seed producers in the country is currently considered \"excellent\" for rice at 83%, and \"good\" for maize, beans, and wheat at an average rating of 71.3% (Mabaya et al., 2021; https://www.kit.nl/project/private-seed-sector-development-burundi/).Premier Seed Nigeria was founded in 1984, initially as Agricultural Seed Ltd (AgSeed) owned by the Multinational Leventis Group of Companies. AgSeed was later acquired by Pioneer Hi-Bred Seed International and was renamed Pioneer Hi-Bred Seed Nigeria Ltd. In 1994 it became a limited liability company officially named Premier Seed Nigeria Ltd. The company which is involved in breeding and seed production activities for maize, sorghum and rice as its main crops is one of the largest seed businesses in Nigeria today. Among its activities, it produces and supplies early generation seed for the above mentioned cereal crops as well as vegetables. The company sources its materials through its various collaborations. Premier seed ranked 11 th in the 2019 access to seed index for Western and Central Africa. It has demonstrated strengths in research and development, marketing crop varieties from its breeding program throughout Nigeria and its governance and strategy such as setting targets for improving smallholder farmers' access to quality seeds.The company has built strong partnerships with international and public research institutions, non-government organizations as well as farmers. Premier seeds partnered with CGIAR centers, national research centers and NGO's like Sasakawa Africa Association.The Company has a 70 hectare research farm with irrigation facilities which is used for the multiplication of foundation seeds for different crops and the breeding of new maize inbred lines for the development of new hybrids. The farm is also used for conducting nationally coordinated trials involving the NARS and CGIAR centers. The company also operates a highly developed outgrowers scheme comprising of highly trained and motivated farmers to produce high quality foundation seeds for certified seed production.The company operates a highly developed outgrowers scheme which comprises highly trained and motivated farmers to produce high quality foundation seeds for certified seed production. This diversified approach creates a system that reduces potential production risks.The company has a 70 hectare research farm with established irrigation facilities which is used partly for the multiplication of foundation seeds. This enables the company to ensure a continuous supply of early generation seed all through the year.Through partnerships, the company receives breeder seed as well as parental lines of improved hybrid varieties developed by other research institutes and also ensures the sustainability of its own research wing as well access to additional resources.The history of producing sorghum seeds comes from the fact that sorghum is a cereal used traditionally by 80% of Malians as food. SOPROSA-Sarl together with ICRISAT and the national research institute partners sought to commercialize high-performing varieties. SOPROSA-Sarl produces sorghum foundation seeds with the support of Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER).Breeder seed is supplied by the sorghum breeder at the national research institute IER. The company annualy receives 300 to 400kg of sorghum breeder seed from the IER. SOPROSA-Sarl has invested in solar irrigation equipment to ensure reliable all year-round production of foundation seed on its farm.Enabling factors for sorghum EGS production and supply by SOPROSA-Sarl -Working closely with international organizations such as the Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), ICRISAT, SYNGENTA Foundation to advance the country's core seed policies through strategic research. -Financial support to the national research institute IER to produce breeder and pre-basic seed -Irrigation facility enabling the production of foundation seeds throughout the year.The challenge is the initiation adotption of new varieties by other value chain actors. To address this challenge, SOPROSA liaises with the sorghum breeders at IER to create awareness and promote the new varieties.LCIC is a private entity specialized in the production and marketing of foundation seeds of cowpea, soybean, rice, and hybrid maize. Its focus is to ensure the production of good quality foundation seeds as well as building and supporting other seed sector players whose performance depends on seed quality availability. These other seed sector players are seed companies, outgrowers, agro-dealers, farmers, processors, government entities as well as nongovernment investors and donors in the seed sector. The company thrived with initial support from the West Africa Centre for Crop Improvement (WACCI) in form of breeder seed and startup capital from AGRA. LCIC operates on a crop diversification strategy with a larger proportion of seed products portfolio coming from maize and soybean hybrid seeds. For instance, the company supplies more hybrid maize foundation seed which constitutes more than 60% of its product portfolio when compared to other crops. It produces on average 8 tons of hybrid maize seed and 5 tons of soybean foundation seed.-Build private-public partnership to scale up the production of hybrid seeds -Operate a mixed seed enterprise strategy that combines hybrid cereal crops with legume crop seeds -Establish 20 acres drip irrigation farm for in-house breeding, line maintenance and seed multiplication -Invest in cold storage facilities for seed maintenance.Irrigation system: LCIC has 20 acres drip irrigation system for in-house breeding and line maintenance which enables all year-round seed production. Cold storage facility: This has enabled storage of EGS in large quantities for a longer period thereby avoiding seed deterioration and enabling maintenance of seed quality.The ECOWAS has a seed regulation that allows for regional marketing of seed released in two member countries. LCIC markets seed varieties in several countries beyond Ghana (Mabaya et al., 2021).This was initiated by ICRISAT in Malawi in the year 1999 to address the problem of limited access to quality legume seeds that the private seed sector is often reluctant to invest in, but also to reverse the situation of smallholder farmers relying on informal seed channels. The initiative was a public-private partnership involving ICRISAT working together with the Malawi Seed Alliance (MASA), Seed Traders Association of Malawi(STAM) and some commercial entities such as Kakuyu Farm. It was established initially to provide high quality foundation seeds of improved varieties in a sustainable manner and at a reasonable cost, starting with groundnut with the eventual inclusion of other crops including pigeonpea (ICRISAT, 2017).The SRF activities started with production and supply of groundnut foundation seed through a one-time financial grant from USAID, and continued to run with further support from Irish Aid and other partners with well defined roles as indicated in Table 5 (Bossuet, 2017). The seed revolving fund model has nurtured a solid private seed industry that has resulted in a boost in groundnut production. It does this by providing high quality seed of improved varieties at a reasonable cost (Monyo and Varshney, 2017). Make key decisions on varieties to produce based on market needs, required seed quantities, coverage strategy, quality assurance system and seed pricing USAID, IRISH AID Provided Funds in form of starter grantsThe SRF approach to EGS production -Seed producing clubs of 10 -15 smallholder farmers are trained in seed production, management and group dynamics. -These clubs are contracted by the SRF to produce foundation seeds, which are then bought back at agreed prices. -Small growers are given the pre-basic seeds on credit from ICRISAT, while individual larger farmers, who could also be contracted to multiply seeds for the SRF, have to pay for the EGS in advance. -The foundation seed is then sold to local seed companies for multiplication into certified seeds. -Seed companies then sell seed to a larger number of farmers through agro-dealers.-Proceeds of the seed sales realized are ploughed back to cover operational costs such as staff, inspection and certification, warehouse, seed packaging and transport. The fund is able to engage more smallholder farmers on yearly basis.The revolving fund enables supply of foundation seed on a cost recovery basis without much emphasis on profits and has been able to include other legume and cereals crops such as pigeonpea and rice (ICRISAT, 2017). Figure 3 illustrates a simplified SRF model. To date, the scheme has demonstrated growth with the support of an alliance of seed producers in the country that now account for over 54% of legume seed produced in Malawi. By 2010, the scheme had delivered more than 200 tons and 1,200 tons of breeder seed and foundation seed, respectively (Monyo and Varshney, 2017). The model registered a remarkable growth of more than 2,000 MT (Okori et al., 2016) of groundnuts and pigeonpea foundation seed by 2015. Other seeds supplied through the model include rice. However, more than 80% of the foundation seed produced comes from groundnuts with pigeonpea constituting less than 5% (Okori et al., 2016).To ensure the sustainability of the SRF, the MASA consortium makes key decisions on varieties to produce based on market needs, required seed quantities, coverage strategy, quality assurance system and seed pricing (ICRISAT, 2017). Through the the SRF strategy, the seed system can cover seed production related costs such as warehouse worker wages, seed packaging, transportation as well as engaging more farmers in the seed business every year. The SRF management gradually is being shifted from ICRISAT to MASA as local seed ventures get more involved. The scheme is therefore funded through a revolving fund that grows based on the sale proceeds of the foundation seed to selected local seed companies and NGOs working on food security, who in turn produce and sell certified seed to the government and farmers.Capacity building of Seed producers: The foundation seed producers are trained on seed production, management and group dynamics. This ensures seed producers have the required skills to produce quality EGS and also creates a sense of trust amongst the seed producers as well as other players in the EGS value chain. Availability of breeders Seed: Research (breeders) ensured breeder seed is readily available on annual basis to seed producers for production of foundation seed to supply seed companies. Contract seed production arrangements: Farmer groups and individual farmers with a proven track record in seed production are given contracts to produce foundation seed. The contract agreement ensures production of the required quantity as well as market for the produced EGS.The seed producers initially receive seed loans and following successful payback they are given more seed to produce on a contractual basis.Almost all stakeholders highlighted the lack of capacity by Seed Services Unit (SSU) as one of the major bottlenecks in the Malawi seed value chain. There is limited human and infrastructural capacity in the SSU. This problem is exacerbated by the seed production fields that are small and scattered over wide geographical locations given that the seed producers comprise smallholder farmers working in groups or individually. This geographical dispersion requires substantial human and physical resources to facilitate EGS quality regulatory services.The production of breeder seed is largely dependent on rainfall and there is minimal and almost insignificant use of irrigation technology and yet the distribution and total amount of rain received in Malawi in recent years has been unfavourable to crop production.The initiative aims to sustain the production and supply of EGS and other seed classes for groundnut and sorghum in Tanzania through a more business-oriented and sustainable seed delivery system. The strategy is to strengthen public-private partnerships that support sustainable production and delivery of various seed classes of sorghum and groundnut with ICRISAT playing mainly a process facilitatory role. The private seed companies are engaged to produce and deliver seeds of improved varieties that fit certain market demand and market quality. Additionally, the initiative is built along the existing markets by working closely with specific off-takers operating across the country. The inclusion of off-takers in the model secures the market for each seed class thereby paving the way for pre-ordering.The They have put in place the necessary infrastructure like an irrigation system and cold storage facilities are in place and also have in terms of the human and financial resources with the capacity to produce seed. However, accurate seed demand forecasting is still a hurdle because seed off-takers do not provide timely and accurate seed indices. The promotion of new varieties plays a major role in ensuring sustainability.The initiative arose following a threat to household food security caused by severe crop losses due to maize lethal necrosis (MLN) disease that occurred in Kenya in 2011 (FSNWG, 2013). Kenya's agricultural extension service recommended farmers to plant crops other than maize to contain disease spread in the Rift Valley region highlands. Farmers chose to plant common bean given its status a key staple crop in the country. Egerton University in collaboration with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) developed medium-to high-altitude bean varieties with disease resistance. The university partnered with local seed companies to commercialize three new varieties from 2011 to 2014.The university and the seed companies signed contracts through which the university sold breeder seeds to the seed companies who received non-exclusive rights for multiplication, upscaling and commercialization. The University promoted and marketed the new varieties with financial support from AGRA in 2014.The spread of disease created an urgent need for action which resulted in the University and seed companies reaching an agreement to provide breeder seeds. The cost of producing one ton of breeder seeds was approximately US$2900. In the agreements, the university did not charge the seed companies licensing fee, but the companies were required to pay a 5% royalty on their gross sales to the university. Development partner AGRA funded marketing efforts which involved promotion activities to create awareness among variety users and stimulate demand once the licensing agreements had been signed.Breeding efforts by the university were driven by climate change models that predicted increased production areas suitable for common bean (Ramirez & Thorntorn, 2015) which in addition to severe maize crop losses attributed to MLN disease resulted in efforts to stock breeder seeds in anticipation of future needs (Cramer, 2018).The breeders were eager to see the varieties reach farmers and therefore helped to align them with commercial interests through working with seed companies. The university ensured breeder seeds were in stock and quickly shared it through an agreement with local seed companies.The university worked with seed companies that they had previously worked with and as a result, there was some level of trust between the university breeders and the seed companies that the contracts would be honored and the correct royalties paid. The seed companies were then able to bulk up the breeder seed and obtain the necessary approvals to produce certified seed to market to farmers especially those that needed an alternative to maize (Cramer, 2018).-There was sufficient trust between the actors and smooth coordination for contract establishment and EGS (breeder seed) was readily available -The contract agreements with seed companies built trust with the university breeders -The royalties paid by seed companies reinforced this trust and further motivated the breeders to stock sufficient quantities of breeder seeds -The non-exclusive rights to multiply seed enabled many seed companies to participate in EGS supply -The anticipated future need and foreseen demand created through climate change modeling also motivated for the breeders and seed companies to avail EGS -The breeders being able to align the public good (varieties) with commercial interests -The donor directed financial resources to market and stimulate demand rather than producing the much need foundation seeds.Despite the achievements and relative success in this model, it was a one-off initiative to address a crisis that required quick intervention and therefore raises some sustainability concerns. However, it offers some insights and lessons for EGS delivery and especially for legumes.The Uganda EGS system has a multipronged seed delivery approach driven through joint efforts between National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), the Integrated Seed Sector Development (ISSD) Uganda and the Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). EGS of common bean, rice, groundnuts, potato, cassava and sesame is produced through the NARO Holdings Seed for Seeds (S4S) seed enterprise, Zonal Agricultural Research Institutes (ZARDI's) and Lead farmers who are part of the Local Seed Business (LSB) system (Figure 4). In this arrangement, the National Agricultural Research Institutes of NARO maintain the production of the breeder and pre-basic seeds through their respective crop specific breeding programmes; S4S, ZARDI's and LSB Lead Farmers produce the foundation seed; MAAIF provides seed regulation and certification services and ISSD Uganda facilitates the process by building capacity in terms of establishing a centralized seed handling infrastructure system comprising of installing an irrigation system and 60MT cold room seed storage facility at S4S and facilitate inspection services by MAAIF Seeds Certification Unit through the ISSD plus project interventions.Basic seed production is centrally coordinated through S4S by contracting the ZARDI's and Lead Farmers in addition to producing at its own farm and eventually bulks the produced seed for processing and packaging and sales at its facilities located at Kigumba farm.NARO is the lead player in this initiative. The key partners in this initiative are ISSD, AATF and MAAIF. The partners play the supportive role of building the capacity of outgrowers to produce seed, support quality assurance services by facilitating seed inspection by ministry officials, variety promotion activities and marketing. NARO Holdings role involves monitoring production volumes on site and coordinating processing and packaging activities.NARO Holdings in its approach uses outgrowers to produce EGS in an arrangement where seed producers are given the initial breeders seed without directly paying for it. The cost of the breeder seeds supplied to the outgrowers is factored into the buying price of produced foundation seeds. NARO Holdings buys back the produced seeds where the seed companies then pick it up. In planning the quantities to produce, NARO Holdings directly solicits seed orders from seed companies and Local Seed Businesses and produces as per market demand. NARO Holdings collects all the produced seed to process, pack and brand.NARO Holdings also works directly with the national research institutes which produce EGS and pass it on to NARO Holdings to market it. This has particularly been the case with rice seeds under the PRIDE project. Both parties agree to a Memorandum of Understanding that ensures efficient distribution and utilization of proceeds from seed sales that in a way allows for continued production of EGS. In the agreement, NARO Holdings remits 80% of the proceed back to the research center for seed production, 15% goes to the producing institute's Non-Tax Revenue account and 5% is retained by NARO Holdings for its operational costs. There is a possibility within this arrangement for the breeders to closely work with farmers to produce the seeds under researcher guidance as a cheaper option for them. Challenges encountered by S4S-NARO Holdings -The S4S lacks financial autonomy due to institutional bottlenecks such as the non-tax revenue policy and protracted procurement processes. These bottlenecks curtail the timely reinvestment of funds generated from seed sales to sustain EGS production and supply. -It is expensive to deliver breeder seeds to outgrowers and also pick up the produced seeds for processing as they are widespread over the country -Some seed companies do not place their seeds requirement orders early enough to allow for seed demand planning.How the challenges are being addressed -Establish more production units across zonal institutes and charge them with the responsibility to collect seed orders from seed companies and LSBs within the zone before the beginning of the season on behalf of NARO Holdings. -Decentralizing seed processing rather than the current centralized system.QualiBasic Seeds (QBS) is a foundation seed (FS) company established in 2017 with the headquarter in Nairobi, Kenya and subsidiary operations in Zambia and South Africa with the target to produce for specific regional markets. It was established by the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) as an EGS (foundation) production entity in SSA to effectively and efficiently supply high quality foundation seed for small and medium enterprise (SME) seed companies on the continent with a start-up grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF). The company was established to address the acute technical, infrastructural and financial challenges the seed companies face in the maintenance, multiplication and timely supply of quality foundation seed, critically essential to improve farm productivity by smallholder farmers.The company has invested in large production infrastructure in all the three countries of operations comprising of pre-foundation seed production facility for purification through hand pollination, processing and cold storage facilities.QBS supplies parent seed for hybrid and OPV maize that is predominantly coming from the public research programmes. Due to demand from customers (seed companies and farmers), the company has added common beans as a secondary product to their portfolio in Kenya and are considering other crops too particularly the oil seed crop soybean and hybrid rice. The legume crops are considered secondary products because they are planted for the maintenance of soil health in the hybrid maize fields. The company is currently selling a total of 135 inbred lines and single cross maize hybrids.-Qualibasic has invested its resources into contractual partnerships with commercial farmers to produce the basic seeds and environmentally controlled storage facilities as well as seed processing and handling equipment. One of the criteria for selecting outgrowers is possession of an irrigation system on the farm. QBS annually produces 100MT of hybrid maize foundation seed. -Common bean seed \"piggy-backing\" hybrid maize seed. The common bean is in this case grown as a secondary crop from the perspective of integrating legumes in the hybrid maize seed production cycle for maintenance of soil fertility in the fields.Challenges experienced by QBS -Still a young company with a narrow customer base -Unplanned extra orders from customers. Customers tend to come last minute and increase their order for the seed -Market vagaries on the side of seed companies. Seed companies are developing their businesses in uncertain market environments. This affects their production planning -Untimely breeder seed deliveries by breeding programmes.-Maintaining isolation distance by outgrowers. They however address this by selecting outgrower farmers that are also commercial vegetable producers because they do not grow maize, so isolation distance is attained. Vegetable producers also have irrigation systems installed in their farms and also have a lot of labour at hand. -Slow seed certification services and acquiring export certificates -Low quality of breeder seed. Breeding programmes sometimes supply genetically impure breeder seed, especially with the common beans. They developed a protocol for raising the genetic purity of their products through hand pollination but this however increases production costs. QBS also uses the \"SEED ASSURE App\" to ensure seed purity. The app provides production reports in which it raises flags if there are any issues like pests, diseases and off-types. The app can be used offline in the field and gives reports along with field photographs once connected to the internet -The legumes like common beans have a shorter shelf life (about 5 years) compared to maize that takes over 18yrs in cold storage with over 90% germination. -Breeder seeds production does not match demand. This forces the foundation seed companies to wait for the breeder to go through another cycle of production to obtain the required amount of breeder seed.The brewing industry in Ethiopia is fast growing with large international brewers such as Heineken and Diageo present in the country considering local sourcing of raw materials for beer production. Local sourcing is a key component of Heineken's strategy of partnering for growth in Africa and seeks to financially empower farmers and their communities. Heineken sought to source malt barley within the country which posed far more benefits to Ethiopian farmer livelihoods and government in terms of savings on foreign exchange rather than importing.Heineken's local sourcing approach was implemented through the CREATE project. In 2013, Heineken signed a Memorandum of Understanding for a 4-year malt barley sourcing programme together with the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation, the NGO EUCORD and Ethiopian Government institutes, the Agricultural Transformation Agency and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research with the two government institutions charged with the responsibility to produce and supply EGS (Heineken, 2013). Heineken supported the development of new malt barley cultivars Grace and Traveler. Based on on-farm trials, Traveler emerged best performing with improved productivity levels. To ensure increased easy access and availability of quality certified seed, efforts were made to multiply the variety Traveler to guarantee supply of malt barley seed to all contracted smallholder farmers.The maintenance of released varieties and the production of a breeder and basic is done by the agricultural research institutions that have developed the varieties and basic seed production is the responsibility of ESE which has three basic seed farms on which it produces seed for specific crops suitable to the ecological conditions. The Gonde-Ethaya is a farm for highland crops and Shallo and Kunzila farms are fit for mid to lowland crops spanning an area of 2,100 ha with a potential annual seed production capacity of 4,500 tons. The ESE also contracts EIAR research farms to produce basic seeds.The beer company Heineken had ownership of the malt barley varieties but provided financial support to EIAR and ESE to respectively produce breeder and foundation seed. The financial support supplement EIAR's and ESE's national annual budget allocation to carry out its mandate of producing breeders seed. -Seed contract agreements: Heineken provided financial resources through contract agreements with EIAR and ESE for the production of breeder and foundation seed. -Pre-secured seed and grain markets: The Seed Producer Cooperatives that are contracted to produce certified seeds for malt barley grain producers provide a ready market for the basic seeds.The business models studied in general demonstrate differences in the structural organization of EGS production in the respective categorization as public sector, private sector and public-private partnership models. The structural organization of the models is assessed in terms of how EGS production is done, seed production facilities and determination or estimation of seed demand (Table 5).In general, breeder seed production remains the responsibility of the breeders. Most NARS organizations operate Seed Units that operate as semi-autonomous from the mother organization. The units are provided startup grants which are then maintained as a revolving fund for further investments and maintenance of EGS operations. Outgrowers schemes are also instrumental as a cheaper alternative in terms of acquaisition of land and labour for production of basic seeds as opposed to producing on research station farms. However, some NARS institutions such as KALRO, INRAN, Niger's IER also provide licensing agreements that allow seed companies to produce basic seeds without the obligation to sell back to the NARS Seed Units as the case with the out-growers.The foundation seed companies such as QBS and LCIC operate in close partnership with the public sector and international research centers. These partnerships have enabled the companies to invest heavily in establishing production, handling and storage infrastructure. The private partner in a PPP arrangement such as the Heineken malt barley case in Ethiopia provides financial support to the NARS to produce and supply the required basic seeds as well as ensuring its off-take by commercial seed producers that are contracted to produce certified seeds. Pre-securing of markets from grain off-takers is another strategy adopted in the Tanzania case. The system allows for the collection of seed orders from clients and the use of the information for subsequent planning of seed production thereby establishing a pre-order system of EGS delivery.The private sector-led models such as LCIC, Premier Seeds Nigeria Ltd, Soprosa-Sarl produce seed on their extensive farms with irrigation and cold storage facilities to enable seed production throughout the year without affecting seed quality given the low multiplication rate of most GLDC crops. Some of the public sector-led models such as EIAR, INRAN, ICAR and some centers of KALRO do have the same facilities but are not adequate enough for sustainable EGS production. Business models involving public-private collaborations have invested in irrigation and cold storage facilities which are attributed to cofunding by partners and support from donor agencies.The BMGF supported QBS in Kenya through AATF and LCIC in Ghana through AGRA. Most public sector-led models do not have these facilities in place as a result of the low budget allocation and therefore over-dependence on donor funding.This is a very important aspect in planning production that is contributing to the bottlenecks in supplying EGS in sub-Saharan Africa. While most of the models studied did not have a clearly defined system of determining seed demand (Table 5), some business models demonstrated viable approaches for the estimation of seed demand. For instance, the EIAR, ICAR and ISABU business models employ a pre-order system in which certified seed producers place seed orders or indents before the beginning of the season. The advantage in this is that the EGS producers get to know how much to produce and have committed seed buyers before seed production. Some business models have put in place mechanisms through which they ensure reduction of risk in the production EGS. The public-sector models for instance have mechanisms for to protect the seed producer units against production losses, provision of seed grants, seed loans, provision of land for seed production, payment of staff salaries, and provision of breeder seed to ensure consistency in production. The establishment of a private enterprise by Heineken in the case of malt barley in Ethiopia ensured reduction of risk to produce EGS in addition to providing financial support in form of a grant for seed production activities. Pre-securing of markets through advance payments by clients such as the 10% pre-payment in the ISABU-Burundi case; and contract agreements with seed and grain off-takers reduce risk and uncertainities for the seed producers.This is important to enable continuous production through the year, a feature that is impossible with reliance on rain-fed production. Production of EGS is sometimes affected by climate factors in form of dry spells or droughts and seasonal rainfall patterns. Irrigation system-based production mitigates climate change associated production risks. This is well adopted by the private seed companies QBS, LCIC, IITA GOSeed, premier seed Ltd in Nigeria and some NARS agencies like KALRO in Kenya, INRAN in Niger, NARO in Uganda. The level of investment in irrigation facilities is however very poor among the NARS institutions.EGS production requires effective seed demand planning. This has however proven a challenge and not just for only the pure line grain legume and dryland cereal crops but other crops too due to weak and inconsistent seed demand planning by certified seed, quality declared seed (QDS) and grain producers. Investing in long-term cold storage facilities is important for dealing with effective seed demand forecasting challenges in addition to the risk resulting from over production. Long term cold storage enables the seed producing agency to meet the unexpected demand by allowing them to produce in excess and supply as the need arises without compromising seed viability. This strategy is mainly adopted by the private foundation seed companies like QBS in East Africa and LCIC in the West African country Ghana. In India, the institutions producing EGS are well-established with extensive infrastructure in terms of land, equipment, infrastructure, staffing and most importantly with reliable funding through government grants. On the other hand, most NARS institutions in SSA are not adequately equipped with these facilities.Access to EGS is sometimes limited due to the occurrence of great distances between seed producers and the EGS producers. In Uganda, NARO and ISSD Uganda addressed this problem by engaging the ZARDI's to produce foundation seed so as bring EGS supply services closer to the seed producers within the respective agro-ecological zones. This also has the advantage of minimizing costs for coordination and management of outgrowers besides bringing EGS supply services nearer to off-takers. This approach is employed by KALRO in Kenya, EIAR in Ethiopia and NARO Holdings in Uganda in which seed producing units are established at specific agroecological zones.Local Seed Businesses (LSBs) are community-based seed producers producing the QDS class of seed. Most community-based seed producers are located far away from research centers that happen to be the source of foundation seed and therefore frequently experience challenges accessing foundation seed due to the great distances involved. In Uganda, the ISSD Plus programme in collaboration with NARO's breeding programmes selected and built the capacities of some LSB's to produce foundation seed to be used for the production of QDS and in Burundi the seed poducers also sell the EGS to other less specialized seed rpoducers, through the preordering system thereby creating a competitive market system.Outgrowers are generally employed to produce foundation seed by both private companies and the NARS breeding programmes. However, with climate change effects and risks, EGS production requires outgrowers that are resilient. It is important to select progressive commercial farmers with irrigation systems installed in the farms to cope with production risks attributed to climate change as well as enable seed production throughout the year. The QBS business model uses this approach by selecting outgrowers' using criteria that ensure conformity to seed production regulations and requirements as well as adaptation to the production risks. The outgrowers are selected based on a criterion that includes the outgrower being a horticulture farmer. This ensured the isolation distance for maize seed production is secured within the production environment and at the same time ensure an irrigation system in place for the management of climate change associated production risks. This enables the company to forego the high cost of investing in the establishment of the much needed irrigation systems themselves.It is vital to ensure breeder seed is readily available when required. It can be an incentive for seed production especially with emphasis on developing market systems. Market development can be done through establishment of a pre-order system along with facilitating creation of networks between seed producers to specific clientsThe main challenge with the supply of non-hybrid crop EGS is the lack of interest from private seed companies due to the associated low economic gains. However, this study reveals the possibility of interesting private seed actors into producing the non-hybrid legume crop seeds as a secondary crop planted for the primary purpose of crop rotation to maintain soil fertility in outgrower fields. For instance, QBS in East and Southern Africa introduced common bean to its hybrid maize foundation seed outgrowers in Zambia due to the need to manage the declining soil fertility in their fields by crop rotation. This provided a cheaper alternative for maintaining soil fertility in outgrowers fields and at the same time an incentive for the seed company to produce common bean seed as a secondary product in its seed portfolio. This strategy may offer low profitability but renders satisfaction for both seed producer , its clients and partners.Delivery of improved varieties to uptake pathways goes hand in hand with promotion activities to stimulate demand for the seeds. Some business models address this through facilitating dissemination and access to information to popularize the improved varieties. For example, the IITA' GOSeed uses an e-commerce platform to disseminate information and promote the improved varieties they produce. Stimulating demand is very important as it ensures the off-take of the produced EGS.Forecasting and determination of seed demand is critical for EGS delivery. This is especially key for a functional EGS system for legume crops given the small volumes of seed produced in a given time coupled with the high risk of not selling which can result in perpetual under-estimation of demand as a mechanism to reduce risk. A pre-order based estimation of demand is useful in determining the amount of seed to produce based on client needs. The system minimizes risks associated with client behavior but can ensure commitment from the clients.The production of certified seed is sometimes affected by delays in the delivery of foundation seed from research institutions. This stems from the occurrence of systemic challenges that affect the timeliness in the production, processing and delivery of seed to its intended users.This is because seed companies are operating a business in uncertain environments characterized by unexpected demand resulting from humanitarian livelihoods emergency response programmes which may sometimes initially be impossible to predict. This affects seed production planning, especially at the EGS level.Legume crops seed like groundnut has a relatively shorter shelf life (about 5 years) compared to maize for example that takes over 18 years in cold storage and still be good with over 90% germination. This is especially a problem when there are no cold storage facilities thereby resulting in severe losses during storage.Breeder seed from public institutions sometimes exhibits genetic impurities. The implication is for seed companies to subject the impure breeder seeds through a variety purification process to increase genetic purity. This process takes time eventually affecting the availability of foundation seed and therefore resulting in untimeliness and failure to meet existing demand at a particular point in time.EGS production requires seed production and processing facilities. This includes irrigation facilities to enable production throughout the year, seed processing and long-term storage facilities. The much shorter shelf life of some GLDC crops seed also necessitates investment in long term storage to enable EGS producers deal with the problem of market vagaries and climate change effects on seed production and viability. The importance of investing in long-term cold storage facilities is demonstrated by the private foundation seed companies like QBS and LCIC whose performance largely depends on producing and storing in excess to meet client needs in addition to irrigation assisted production. Most NARS institutions are however not or inadequately equipped with these infrastructural facilities.The analysis of the business models in this study emphasizes the need for a systemic approach to address the bottlenecks in the delivery of EGS in sub-Saharan Africa. The study highlights seed demand forecasting as a critical factor that is persistently constraining the production of early generation seeds among others. Addressing the problem of seed demand forecasts requires joint efforts by value chain actors and fostering the creation of relevant actor linkages that ensure the functionality of each component of the seed and commodity value chains. It is necessary to put in place a system in which seed production decisions are informed by the actions of other actors in the value chain. This study, therefore, recommends a pre-order system business model with emphasis on fostering and creating viable linkages with value chain actors including seed system players and grain off-takers. This approach will enable informed seed production based on market needs.This study also highlights gaps within the business models that emphasize other bottlenecks in the EGS systems of GLDC crops in sub-Saharan Africa. They include poor breeder seed quality, untimeliness in the delivery of breeder seed, unmatched breeder and foundation seed production and lack of adequate seed production infrastructure. These gaps equally need to be systemically addressed. The following actions are therefore recommended:-Strengthen breeding programmes with seed production support facilities that enhance their capacity to produce sufficient quantities of quality breeder seed at the required time. -Develop incentives that motivate investment in the production of the non-hybrid grain legumes and dryland cereals by the private sector as well as enhance their role in popularizing and stimulating demand for new varieties. -Improve and enforce quality assurance systems for breeding programmes to address the problem of the poor quality breeder seed that necessitates the need for further selection and purification of lines/varieties due to genetic impurities. -Build the capacity of seed value chain actors on effective seed demand forecasting.-Securing seed markets in advance by linking seed production with grain off-takers.","tokenCount":"9862"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"090f973cd0056f03d0e1b10ff4a2b6f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51620d2e-77e4-462e-b60b-fc574f04113f/retrieve","id":"1190243832"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e12f4d34-40e5-47ba-9dbd-3be2092499cf","pagecount":"64","content":"PABRA's focus is to improve bean productivity, use, and commercialization for the benefit of smallholder farmers and urban populations. Our goal is to enhance food and nutrition security, and income generation of poor communities in a gender-equitable and environmentally friendly manner. www.pabra-africa.org PABRA is facilitated by the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). The Alliance delivers research-based solutions that harness agricultural biodiversity and sustainably transform food systems to improve people's lives. Alliance solutions address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. With novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis. The Alliance is part of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future. https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org N.Palmer (CIAT)From the Director I am delighted to present this report, which showcases the success and impact of the Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) and its journey of transformation over the past 25 years. As PABRA evolved, the power of beans to positively change lives in Africa became clearer and grew much stronger.At the heart of the success and impact are the innovations, dedication, and commitment of all those involved throughout PABRA's history -from the research institutes in Africa, international and national government agencies and non-governmental organizations, and regional economic communities to the smallholder farmers, entrepreneurs, funders, and investors who have partnered with PABRA to generate positive impacts through the power of beans. Together, we have all improved the performance of beans in Africa. Despite Africa's food security being challenged by social crises, climate extremes, and economic shocks, PABRA's approach has enabled the bean sector to thrive, thus positively impacting livelihoods throughout Africa. Indeed, beans are not just a subsistence crop, but an income earner for millions of smallholders and the national economy at large. By helping to improve soil fertility while withstanding limited soil moisture, high temperatures, and less rainfall, beans enhance the resilience of our agri-food systems.The dedication of all PABRA partners shines a light on what is possible. Collaboration and diversity among our growing partnerships demonstrates the power of all institutions combining synergies towards a common vision to achieve greater impact. Through a process of learning and adapting, we have become more empowered to improve the performance of the bean value chain -from farmers to consumers.Our long-term commitment to generate better beans that nourish a growing population reveals lessons for the future of agri-food systems. PABRA demonstrates the use of science and partnerships to effectively scale innovations at continental, regional, subregional, national, and local levels. Coordination across scales has enabled PABRA to solve problems, alleviate constraints, and unlock bottlenecks, thus developing the sector through dynamic and expanding market demand.The challenges to nourish and feed a growing population within the planetary boundaries and having the capacity to manage climate extremes are immense. Nevertheless, PABRA provides an example of what is possible when innovations are embedded in a diverse, multi-level, and coordinated alliance of people and institutions.Please join me in celebrating the power of beans in Africa and PABRA's 25 years of transformation. \"Beans are a superfood, \"Beans are a superfood, a powerful contributor to a powerful contributor to reducing poverty, improving reducing poverty, improving nutrition and health, nutrition and health, generating jobs, and being generating jobs, and being kinder to the planet\" kinder to the planet\"The release of 657 new bean varieties, in 31 countries of Africa over 25 years, which have reached more than 37 million farmers (58% of whom are women), along with good farm management have more than doubled yields in many cases, thus significantly improving nutrition, health, and food security in Africa.Bean quality has improved as well. Advances in iron and zinc biofortification empower beans to provide more dietary protein and micronutrients to more than 400 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), especially women and children living in rural areas and vulnerable urban settlements.More than 5 million households in 10 African countries have seen a 30% increase in household income, with some farmers earning an additional US$800 to US$1,000 per hectare with the use of improved varieties and good agricultural practices. Impact assessment studies 1 have shown that, when smallholders use an additional 10 kg of improved varieties, this raises per capita consumption expenditure by 9% and increases the probability that a household is food secure by 6% while decreasing the likelihood of being poor by 6%. Beans are a powerful contributor to reducing poverty, improving livelihoods, and creating jobs.1 Katungi EM, Larochelle C, Mugabo JR, Buruchara R. 2018. The effect of climbing bean adoption on the welfare of smallholder common bean growers in Rwanda. Food Security 10(1):61-79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0753-4Gender equality and youth inclusion form the heart of all PABRA initiatives and impacts. Using a reach-out, empowering, and transformative approach to fostering change, we have enhanced the technical capacity of more than 50% of the women across the value chain. Of the more than 14.6 million households that have accessed climate-smart and farmer-and marketdemanded improved varieties from 2017 to 2021, 58% are led by women. Of the 3.5 million farmers that were linked to more profitable markets, 49% were women. Of the more than 11.3 million Africans who have consumed high-iron beans in 15 SSA countries, 53% were women. And, of the half a million bean value chain actors who have been trained by PABRA, 73% were women. Our approach has empowered and continues to empower women. This is illustrated in Zimbabwe and Burundi, where women's participation in decisionmaking bodies increased from 30% in 2015 to 50% in 2021.PABRA takes on the challenges of climate change. Our improved varieties mature early in 65 to 90 days, thus helping to reduce the risk of drought and harvest failure. In addition, improved pest and disease tolerance and access to timely climate information enables farmers to further diminish risks. As a result, many smallholder farmers are already achieving significantly higher bean crop yields, thus enhancing their household income and food security.Strong partnerships within the three PABRA regional networks, their constituent national research organizations, and the private sector enable the process of change. PABRA helps to not only coordinate and prioritize research, but also facilitates the timely dissemination of promising varieties and complementary innovations and the sharing of lessons learned across SSA. The national agricultural research systems (NARS), many of whom are founding members of PABRA, are key entry points in the development and dissemination of bean research. Based on agreed complementary and synergistic roles, PABRA helps to inform national and regional bean programs priorities and activities by providing a space for leveraging and integrating support and resources, joint implementation of activities, and mutual learning and performance reporting.PABRA's approach is diverse, dynamic, responsive, and agile. PABRA removes constraints that hinder the performance of entire bean value chains -from farmers to consumers.The success of PABRA has come through:• Supporting institutional development Social conflict, climate extremes, and economic shocks along with the high cost of nutritious foods and growing inequalities continue to challenge food and nutrition security in SSA. Despite this difficult context, PABRA will continue to:• Expand the power of demandled bean breeding with increased attention to farmer and consumer priorities, using innovative financial models, and through regional and international partners• Assure greater smallholder profits from improved bean varieties that produce larger harvests and earn higher return on their investments More than 11.3 million people in Africa (53% women) have eaten high-iron beans to address food and nutritional security at the household level in 15 SSA countries. More than 275,000 school-age children (51% girls) in Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Cameroon, and Zimbabwe now regularly enjoy high-iron beans in school feeding programs (https://bit.ly/3wACako). This bean consumption has been shown to improve school performance (https://bit.ly/3R5CBLQ).In Tanzania, the number of schools serving high-iron beans increased from 23 in 2018 to 492 in 2021, with a population of 238,972 pupils. In Madagascar, absenteeism declined from 10 days a month to 2 days a month when school children consumed a nutrition collation composed of 40% bean flour three mornings per week.PABRA has also developed and promoted healthy, nutritious, and convenient bean-based products that have been obtained or consumed by more than 5.2 million children, women, and men across Africa.In Ethiopia, shifting from old varieties to improved beans on 1 hectare increases per capita household annual consumption by 23% and, if combined with fertilizer application, increases per capita annual consumption by 37%. In Rwanda, beans can provide 75% of women' s daily iron needs.N.Palmer (CIAT)• Influence national policies to create an enabling environment that attracts greater public and private investments in the bean value chains Concerned about the declining bean production and productivity with a growth in demand, PABRA was established in 1996 to enhance food and nutrition security, income generation, poverty reduction, empowerment, and the health of poor communities through bean research, capacity building, networking, and partnership building.Today, PABRA, facilitated by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT (the Alliance), is a mature model of research and development partnership. Through effective and stable governance (Figure 1), it brings together NARS from 31 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, the Alliance, and more than 934 value chain actors (private and producers' organizations) in three regional networks that have a joint planning framework to coordinate research implementation and achieve synergy in outcomes.Through the Bean Corridor Approach, PABRA has adopted a food system approach that links consumption to responsive production systems supported by demand-led research.PABRA has boosted the power of beans to improve livelihoods across Africa by being: The approach provides lessons for the global agri-food system to effectively meet these challenges and advance towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).PABRA uses the power of science, innovation, and partnership to benefit smallholder food producers and consumers. It is a participatory approach that enables a wide range of value chain actors to contribute to the development of breeding strategies and varietal selection. These considerations include bean grain size, color, and cooking time, higher iron and zinc, as well as resilience to the major biotic and abiotic production constraints.3. The long-term approach taken by all partners, including national governments, private-sector partners, and international funding agencies 4. The ability to work at all levels in the value chain, bringing all stakeholders together 5. The focus on innovations that will improve livelihoods through effective market engagement 6. Demand-driven multi-disciplinary research that can be applied in various contexts.Importantly, PABRA has focused on building institutional capacity for all those involved in its partnerships Through a long-term commitment to people and partnership since 1997, PABRA and its members have:• Delivered improved bean varieties to over 37 million African farmers, with 800,000 farmers directly trained in the management of improved varieties across 22 countries• Released over 657 new bean varieties across 27 countries that increase yields• Enabled the use of high-iron and highzinc beans that improve nutrition in vulnerable communities, households and individuals• Provided commercial opportunities for women bean entrepreneurs both on-and off-farm• Linked more than 1.4 million farmers with more profitable markets.This impact has been generated by a long-term commitment by all stakeholders and a willingness to shape the direction of PABRA through:1. At the heart of PABRA's success over 25 years is its ability to be dynamic, responsive, and agile, and to build partnerships that deliver benefits and impact to smallholder farmers and other value chain actors and consumers. This impact has been underpinned by longterm engagement and partnerships with national governments and long-term sustainable investment by international development agencies, led by the Governments of Canada, Switzerland and the USA since 1997.In 1996, when PABRA was being designed, beans were a staple crop in the subsistence agriculture sector facing significant production challenges.During the early focus on farm productivity through improved varieties, on farm management and functioning seed systems, regional bodies were maturing.As PABRA developed, the challenge of sustainable scaling was identified. This needed to be resolved to deliver the greatest benefit to millions of smallholder farmers and consumers. These challenges, with the support of effective leadership, drove a transformation in PABRA that enhanced its capacity to respond to demand. This demand response is multi-layered: first responding to smallholder farmer demand through such innovations as disease-resistant and early-maturing varieties to combat the challenges of climate change; then to consumer demand with the development of nutrition-rich beans that can be cooked and processed more efficiently, thus saving labor, women's time in the kitchen, and resources; and to the changing demand of investors wanting to deliver wide-scale nutrition outcomes through diet diversity.partners engaged in addressing these challenges and identified the potential of beans to improve livelihoods in African food systems. At this stage, the African bean sector was largely informal and had spare capacity with research and development actions disconnected in several countries.  • Participatory plant breeding building on CIAT's pioneering work in participatory breeding. 4 The approach embraces new forms of cooperation between farmers and researchers for the selection and testing of new varieties along with innovative strategies for local seed production and distribution.• Demand-led breeding, which increases the availability and adoption of high-performing crop varieties that meet consumer and market demand, and harnesses private-sector investment in the bean value chain. This approach has been expanded in recent years in the partnership between PABRA and the Demandled Breeding (DLB) project (www. demandledbreeding.org/), which has used beans in Africa as an example of how to identify farmer and consumer preferences to guide bean breeding programs. The approach is applicable to many other crops.• Impact-oriented seed systems foster partnerships for scaling up access to quality seed. This evaluates diverse models of seed production and delivery, supports farmerinformed choices, catalyzes private seed enterprise development, and shapes policy to the benefit of millions of smallholder farmers through the adoption of new varieties.• Product corridors are used to enhance the business environment by improving linkages and providing coordination among farmers, researchers, seed suppliers, buyers of products, and consumers, and engaging with policymakers to support investment in bean value chains and cross-border trade.• Gender mainstreaming integrates a gender perspective into the preparation, design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of approaches with a view to promoting equality between women and men, and combating discrimination, thus making sure that women have access to production assets and benefits from the value chain while also having an enhanced role in leadership and decision-making. For example, PABRA works with the CGIAR Gender, Diversity and Inclusion (GDI) Knowledge Hub, when developing new bean varieties that meet women's preferences. 5• Private partnerships have been used to leverage public funds, enhance efficiency, and improve the adaptation of innovations to demand with the aim of fostering wider and faster diffusion and sustainability.• Improving school meal programs mainstreams the integration of high-iron beans in school meals to ensure that school-age children have access to nutritionally balanced and healthy diets, thus catalyzing community-based (women-owned) food businesses. The release of new varieties has grown since the inception of PABRA (Figure 3).A total of 54 iron-and zinc-rich varieties improve nutritional outcomes. Smallholder farmers use multiple-stresstolerant and climate-smart varieties (early-maturing, drought-tolerant, pest-and disease-tolerant) to adapt to the challenges of climate change.The pest-and disease-tolerant varieties enable farmers to use more efficient and effective management systems and reduce on-farm losses.The introduction of new varieties to African farming systems alongside improved farm management has, in some cases, doubled yield and driven an 86% increase in the area of bean In addition to these on-farm improvements, opportunities for entrepreneurs, particularly youth, to provide farm services have arisen. Using mechanization to decrease labor on-farm provides income and increases the productivity of the farming system.Introducing a new variety and farm management practices does not, in itself, lead to adoption and practice change.Empowering women agri-preneurs to offer multiple services and generate impacts These bags are triple-layered, airtight, and sealed, thus preventing insects from burrowing into the seed. Within six months, she was surprised to find that none of the bean seeds had been attacked by bruchid. This was proof enough for her to invest in more bags. She uses the bags not only on beans but also on other crops such as maize and rice.The profit she made from selling seed was used to buy two cows, eight goats, and four pigs to include in her farm. She also paid her daughter' s university fees and built her own store for the grains. She now supplies seed of new varieties, including high-iron bean seed, to 100 smallholder farmers (98 women and 2 men) in her community. Empowering women entrepreneurs such as Ms. Kabirori has helped women to increase crop productivity and seed production beyond beans and improve their incomes and family livelihood while delivering quality agri-services, supporting their communities, and raising their social status.As such, a significant contribution from PABRA has been a focus on effective methods to scale innovations. Bean grain processor in Tanzania -G2L Company Ltd.G2L is working with more than 7,500 smallholder farmers in four regions in Tanzania to benefit all those in the value chain. Beans now provide 25% of G2L' s grain business revenue with 6,000 t annually. G2L is partnering with research institutions, local government, and lending institutions to support the development of the whole bean value chain in Tanzania. Focusing on building farmer capacity and enabling access to new bean varieties and access to suitable finance, G2L has developed an approach that benefits all those involved in the value chain.Another important outcome is the ability for smallholder farmers to adapt early-maturing varieties, climatesmart agricultural technologies and practices, as well as climate information services. PABRA developed and deployed a Digital AgroClimate Advisory (DACA) tool to enhance bean value chain actors' ability to respond to climate challenges.A key outcome for PABRA is the significant contribution that improved bean varieties make to better nutrition. More than 37 million smallholder farmers accessed, farmed, and consumed beans with improved quality from 2004 to 2021. In Rwanda, high-iron beans (RWR2245) improved yields, increased own consumption, and provided an additional 4.7 mg of iron per day (https://bit.ly/3crNN6H), more than a quarter of the recommended daily requirement of 18 mg/day for women.More than 277 SME start-ups (69 led by women) have taken advantage of new commercial opportunities and played a significant role in linking more than 3.5 million smallholder farmers (51% women) to growing market opportunities. These SMEs provide significant opportunities for women and youth to engage in commercial activities, such as providing farm services and processed bean product development that enhance the overall performance of the value chain.\"PABRA has been a major contributor to the CGIAR impact areas\"Common bean is a major component of the diet of the urban and rural populations of Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa. Beans provide iron and zinc, which are essential to the health and well-being of African women and children, and also protein, which is essential for the entire household of women, men, and children.The release of 657 new bean varieties, which have reached 37 million farmers,Impressive impacts have been achieved by PABRA, with significant contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The focus to understand impacts continues, with recently commissioned impact assessments that will determine economic benefits through cost-benefit analysis in Zimbabwe and Burundi. The analysis will consider investment and operational costs and benefits derived primarily through increased revenue and income for farmers and value chain actors.along with good farm management has more than doubled yield in many cases. In Ethiopia, beans are grown by more than 3 million smallholders on more than 290,000 hectares of land and account for 3% of the land planted to grain crops, with yield increasing at more than 6% per year, since 2003. A total of 65% of the area allocated to beans has improved varieties grown by 57% of the farms. From 2003 to 2021, in Uganda, yield improved from 0.7 to 1.5 t/ha; in Ethiopia, yield has expanded from 0.7 to 1.8 t/ha; and in Tanzania, yield increased from 0.5 to 1.3 t/ha. In conjunction with this yield increase, there has been an 86% increase in bean production area throughout Africa. In Rwanda, farmers who adopted improved high-iron variety RWR2245 increased yield by 20% and increased the length of time beans are consumed from own production by 19-20 days and decreased the length of time beans are purchased for consumption by 22-23 days (https://bit.ly/3crNN6H).This increase in yield and area of production has contributed to providing dietary protein to more than 400 million people in Africa, especially women and children living in rural areas and poor urban consumers. To determine additional nutritional effects, studies of high-iron beans versus normal beans were conducted with young women in Rwanda, most of whom were iron deficient or anaemic. After four and a half months, the group eating high-iron beans showed a statistically greater increase in haemoglobin (3.8 g/L), log serum ferritin (0.1 log μg/L), and total body iron (0.5 mg/kg). 11 Furthermore, other studies revealed that consumers of high-iron bean demonstrated superior cognitive ability, increased neuron activity, and superior work capacity. More than 37 million smallholder farmers accessed, cultivated, and consumed improvedquality beans from 2004 to 2021.With the bean yield increase, there has been an 86% increase in bean production areas throughout Africa. More than 800 t of seed of improved bean varieties are now being sold to smallholder farmers for production in central Uganda. Productivity has increased up to fourfold with improved varieties and good farm management. The increased production provides more nutritious diets for households in the community as well as increasing income. The success comes from working with and building capacity of the entire value chain. The approach of linking institutions, public and private, around a common goal with both farmers and consumers plays a key role in delivering impacts in Uganda.Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods, and JobsThe PABRA partnership has seen a 30% increase in household income for 5 million households in 10 African countries. For example, from 2003 to 2021, smallholder farmers who adopted improved bean varieties in Zimbabwe saw seasonal income gains of US$500−800 per hectare under rainfed conditions and US$1,000 per hectare under irrigation. In addition to the income increases, analysis shows that, when 10 kg of additional improvedvariety bean are planted, this raises per capita consumption expenditure by 9% and increases the probability that a household is food secure by 6% while decreasing the likelihood of being poor by 6%.A total of 277 SMEs (69 womenowned) commercializing bean have also been supported by PABRA, which has enabled more than 1.4 million farmers (51% women) to have new market opportunities. This improved market engagement has also provided employment for more than 300,000 men and women throughout the value chains.The scaling of good agricultural practices (GAP) has had significant impact on environmental health and biodiversity. Smallholder farmers are using chemical inputs more efficiently and effectively, thus diminishing environmental impact. Improved bean yield through efficient use of inputs and GAP also means less land clearing, contributing to improved environmental health. Consumers are becoming more interested in the environmental impacts of food consumption patterns and are providing incentives to continue and improve agricultural practices. Increased yield also contributes to environmental health benefits. The environmental impact of shorter cooking time for beans is potentially large through decreased demand for fuel for cooking, hence less destruction of forests for wood and charcoal. The growing of beans contributes to increased nitrogen in the soil through atmospheric nitrogen fixation and provides organic nitrogen sources for companion crops or subsequent crops in rotation. Straw left behind after the grain harvest is valuable for soil fertility and animal feeding.Women and youth have been a key focus of PABRA. Of the more than 37 million households that have gained access to improved seed, 58% are represented by women. Of the 3.5 million farmers that have improved their market access, 50% are women. Of the more than 10 million Africans who have consumed high-iron beans in 15 SSA countries, 53% are women. And, of the 501,716 bean value chain actors who have been trained by PABRA, 73% are women.The use of improved varieties has bean crops maturing early in 65-95 days, thus avoiding climatic stress conditions, such as drought. In Rwanda, when smallholder farmers have access to and use climate information, they achieveRising temperatures will decrease the area suitable for bean production by 30% to 50% in Eastern Africa in the 21st century if adaptation does not occur. New varieties are a key part of an effective adaptation strategy. Of the new varieties released, 52 are early maturing, 38 are drought tolerant, 180 are multiple stress tolerant, and 412 are pest and disease tolerant. These traits are used to address the challenges of climate extremes.The 2016 drought in Malawi caused maize crops to fail. Improved climate-resilient bean varieties developed and distributed by PABRA and its partners in Malawi were able to be successfully grown and harvested, thus delivering nutritional security and income for farming families. Following the benefits of beans to address climate extremes, Malawi partners are now evaluating the effects of maize intercropping and fertilizer application on bean productivity.Adapting to climate extremes with the support of new varieties can also improve productivity. In Uganda, farmers who adopted two climate strategies (using drought-tolerant/earlymaturing varieties in conjunction with adjusting planting times based on weather information) harvested double the amount of beans compared with those farmers who did not use the climate adaptation strategies.significantly higher yield than those that do not use the available climate information. In Ethiopia, access to higher-yield beans that are resilient to pests, diseases, and drought enabled more than 2 million farmers to triple production from 117,750 t in 2004 to 378,802 t in 2021, with yield rising from 0.75 to 1.6 t/ha from 2004 to 2021 (https://bit.ly/3TqOaPf).From farm to household, community, country, and continent The key success factors for PABRA follow:The most important success factor for PABRA is its approach to working with partners and supporting the institutional and individual development of those partners. The direct training of 4,000 national research partners, more than 100 postgraduates, and more than 460,000 smallholder farmers and other value chain actors is a small indication of the dedication to institutional development. However, the approach is much deeper. PABRA works with all actors in the value chain, the research bodies that develop innovations to scale, and the policy agencies that develop an enabling environment. PABRA strengthens the capacities of its members for the benefit of the African bean sector. The other important institutional development approach is to enable the connection across countries, through regional networks, value chains, and bean corridors, and throughout the continent to learn and develop from tested experience, supporting each other in the ongoing development of the bean sector. Finding solutions to specific bottlenecks through a multidisciplinary approachPABRA has focused on the right bottlenecks and solved those problems along the value chain. This approach ensures impact for smallholder farmers and consumers. A key part of this success is the ability to use a multidisciplinary approach, in partnership with other organizations, to invest in and implement innovations that enable the whole value chain to improve in a sustainable manner.Founded in the evidence derived through research, over 25 years, PABRA has always built partnerships that enhance value and deliver benefits for key stakeholders. Partnerships with research institutes within and beyond Africa have been important. EngagingThe ability to respond to economic shocks rapidly is a key feature of more resilient agri-food systems. One way in which PABRA is ensuring improved capacity to respond to economic shocks is to get improved seeds into the hands of smallholder farmers faster. This enables improved productivity and income generation in a shorter period of time.A unique private-sector partnership was formed to enable this to happen in Kenya. PABRA worked with a Kenyan business, Bubayi, to identify customers for new bean varieties. The partnership was able to produce certified seed in 4 years, a process that usually takes 10 to 12 years.with value chain actors throughout the bean corridors of Africa, which has been supported by African regional bodies and economic communities, has enhanced the impact of PABRA. These partnerships have benefited PABRA through engagement in prioritization, dissemination, scaling, adoption, and co-investment to deliver benefits in a complementary manner.Initiated by CIAT (now the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT), who formed a consortium with key regional bean bodies and 31 NARS, the approach of PABRA has benefited from insightful and committed leadership at several levels. Governance arrangements have also been able to respond to new partnerships and continue to resolve emerging challenges, through regional steering committees and an overall PABRA steering committee with authority and responsibility for setting priorities. The stability of committed leadership is also an important factor, with only three directors leading PABRA over its 25 years. Important leadership and governance roles have been played by national governments and more recently by the private sector, with the approach developing into a shared leadership model. This shared leadership supports shared decision-making and the ability to engage with emerging opportunities and investments.The motivation of PABRA has always been to have beneficial impact on smallholder farmers and consumers through the more effective use of beans.To this end, PABRA has taken an open approach to the most effective delivery mechanisms to achieve this benefit at scale. PABRA has used informal and formal approaches, government-based systems, the private sector, and NGOs to ensure that impact is maximized. PABRA has also been willing to engage in innovation, such as digital platforms, to ensure that this impact continues, and is tailored to the needs and context of different countries and communities.Bundling innovations in various ways has been a constant approach for PABRA. Breeders have bundled multi-stress genes into new varieties. As these new varieties emerge, these technological innovations have been bundled with financial and policy innovations to ensure that enabling environments are in place to maximize impact. Research partnerships have also been bundled effectively together with CGIAR and the NARS of both developing and developed countries, and various research disciplines have been bundled together to maximize the likelihood of impact. As these research approaches have been effectively bundled, PABRA has also ensured the bundling of research, extension, adoption, and capacity building to ensure that innovations reach scale effectively.PABRA has shown a constant ability to evolve with a long-term commitment, which is essential for impact. PABRA has demonstrated adaptive management of all resources, responding to demand and evolving methodologies to improve impact. This has been demonstrated in the development of seed systems that have improved farmers' access and evolved approaches to ensure the maximization of benefits for women and youth. PABRA has also evolved to address emerging challenges, such as the need for improved nutrition, the empowerment of women in all aspects of the value chain, and breeding work and capacity to respond to climate change.All of PABRA's efforts have been focused on delivering impact, particularly for smallholder farmers and consumers. With this focus, PABRA has always ensured an inclusive approach, enabling women and youth to gain significant benefit through their engagement with growing opportunities within bean value chains and throughout bean corridors.As agricultural systems move from subsistence to market engaged, men often take greater advantage of the opportunities to improve income. PABRA has been instrumental in supporting women and youth entrepreneurs to engage in employment and commercial activities as markets provide greater livelihood opportunities. In addition, PABRA' s efforts to decrease bean cooking time and develop processed bean products have been highly beneficial for women.PABRA is a multi-donor and investment platform. Since inception, PABRA has benefited from the long-term commitment of three founding external investors through the international development agencies of Canada, Switzerland and the USA. They have also provided important stability of external funding to which additional bilateral projects can be added at the country level to support specific outputs, while contributing to the overall outcomes and impact of PABRA. The long-term commitment of CIAT (now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) and the funders of CGIAR has also provided stability in staffing and institutional support. In addition, the founding external funders have provided an investment framework for other donors, governments, and private-sector investments. The continuous funding has allowed PABRA to have a long-term vision and program planning and to take innovation to scale sustainably.\"PABRA is ready to continue to generate impacts in the face of food insecurity, climate extremes, and social equity challenges\"The futureClimate, security, resilience, crisis, nutrition, women Africa's food security is being challenged by climate extremes, social crises, and economic shocks. PABRA will continue to take on such challenges by enabling the bean sector to thrive. PABRA will expand its role as an investment platform for both the public and private sector. Working with a broad array of these partners will assure our future success.PABRA is a key part of the agri-food transformation in Africa, with a proven track record of developing regenerative and resilient agri-food systems that deliver lower-cost nutritious foods enjoyed by many.PABRA, an ever-evolving investment platformPABRA's future focus will:• Expand the power of demand-led bean breeding with both increased farmer and consumer priorities, using innovative financial models, and by regional and international partners• Assure greater smallholder profits from improved bean varieties that produce larger harvests and earn higher return on their investments The development of PABRA over 25 years has been gratefully underpinned by investment by a group of bilateral and multilateral donors, the philanthropic sector, and PABRA member country governments. This investment support will remain critical to PABRA and the bean sector in Africa as PABRA continues to generate significant impact.PABRA also recognizes the importance of engaging the private sector (conventional financial service providers and impact investors). These newer investors will likely focus on mediumand long-term issues that have an impact on the transformation of the bean sector in Africa. Private-sector investors will look for opportunities to derive economic outcomes within a shorter time through a focus on areas that engage a growing market, such as seed supply, alternative packaging, and cooked products. Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) investors will be willing to engage in a longer timeframe and look at more undefined areas of investment, such as the provision of ecosystem services through the smallholder bean sector.","tokenCount":"5674"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e70659d8ad1f8eb2b26e21c8dc066635","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6df1d914-441e-4191-b5ab-3fab0538e3ce/retrieve","id":"1720093235"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"878d0e68-3071-4494-a3fb-f369c3ce4fe9","pagecount":"29","content":"Expanding Utilization of Roots, Tubers and Bananas and Reducing Their Postharvest Losses (RTB-ENDURE) is a 3 year project (2014)(2015)(2016)  Sweetpotato is the third most important food crop after cassava and bananas in Uganda. Currently, sweetpotato is number one food crop in the Lake Victoria region. Uganda is now the leading producer of sweetpotato in Africa, and second only to China in the world. Increased production has been achieved more from area under cultivation than from increased yields, which over the past decade have remained fairly consistent at a national average of approximately 4.5 tons per hectare. The crop has potential benefits to poor farm households and urban consumers especially when other crops fail or in specific seasons before the main harvest.• Sweetpotato is currently being developed as a means to address one of the most serious health and nutrition problems of Uganda, Vitamin A deficiency which is a major risk factor for pregnant and lactating women. The Orange Fleshed Sweetpotato (OFSP) cultivars contain particularly high levels of carotenoids and are equaled only by carrot as a source of pro-vitamin A. Sweetpotato tubers provide a source of carbohydrates, calcium, ascorbic acid (vitamin C).• Sweetpotato roots may be eaten boiled, steamed or processed into simple products such as chips, bread, local brew/drink, juice, pancakes and composite flour (mixed with maize, millet and soya flour).Some of the products from sweetpotates• In some communities, tender (young) sweetpotato leaves are consumed as a vegetable.• Food security crop and cash crop in urban markets in other districts.• Sweetpotato contributes about 20% of total crop residues provided by vines, noncommercial sweetpotato roots, peels which are very good source of livestock feed.• Sweetpotato residues (small roots and vines) can be fed to livestock (pigs, goats, sheep, rabbits and cattle) and in the processed vines and roots can be chopped into small pieces made into silage to feed livestock.• Studies conducted at the National Livestock Resources Research Institute showed that sweet potato vine-based partial milk diets can be used as substitutes to reduce the cost of rearing a calf without adversely affecting its health and yet save more milk for consumption and processing.(a) Production constraints:• sweet potato weevils• drought• lack of planting materials• labour shortage• lack of farm implements• land scarcity• low soil fertility• vertebrate pests of moles, rats and pigs (b) Marketing and post-harvesting handling constraints:• low price• lack of market• high labour costs• unavailability of transport• information on processing• weather fluctuations• labour shortage in processingMajor sweetpotato varieties in Uganda include Orange Fleshed Sweet Potatoes, Ejumule, NASPOT, Dimbuka, Rangira, Bwanjule, New Kawogo, Tanzania, and Wagabolige. Preference depends on sweetness, lack of fibres, in-ground storability, early maturing, drought tolerance and tolerance to diseases. Table 1 shows average tuber yield of some of the varieties in Uganda. • The crop grows on a variety of soils, but well drained light and medium textured soils with a pH range of 5.5-7.0 are more favorable.• A well distributed rainfall of 750-1000 mm per year is considered most suitable for the crop with a minimum of 500 mm in the growing season.• The site should be at least 50 meters away from old sweetpotato crop to minimize spread of pests and diseases from old to new crop.• Sandy loam soils give the best yields. In a proper crop rotation, sweet potato can follow either cereals such as maize, sorghum, rice, finger millet or legumes such as beans.• Land preparation is done using either a hand hoe or oxen/tractor drawn plough. The operation aims at turning over the topsoil so that plant residues are incorporated in the soil.• Deep cultivation (at least 15cm) improves the oxygen supply in the soil, thus favoring the growth of bacteria that help in decomposing organic matter.• The compacted parts that have been trampled by humans, animals and tractor become loose again, thus increasing aeration, water infiltration and good drainage.• Sweetpotatoes are grown from vines which are normally cut from a sweetpotato garden or sprouts from old sweetpotato gardens.• It is recommended to select planting material from healthy vigorous crop (2-3 months old), vines from old crop produce a less vigorous crop and poor yield.• Cut the top 30cm of the vine for best results. The middle part of the stem can also be used if there is shortage of planting material.• Plant the vines within 7 days after cutting to avoid loss in quality.• If not planted on time, cuttings can be stored under shade or in a cool well aerated place.During storage roots develop at the base of the cuttings, the vines harden and establishment becomes faster.• Organic fertilizers (composted manure, green manure) releases nutrients slowly and therefore should be applied as a basal fertilizer (incorporated when making mounds or ridges).• During growing period, the plants form dense foliage with rapid vine growth. .• Sweetpotatoes are planted at the beginning of the rain season to get best results,• The vines are grown on mounds and ridges of varying sizes. A mound should be 100cm wide and 60cm high, the distance between mounds should be 1m. Ridges are spaced at 0.5m from each other.• The planting operation involves pushing the lower part of the vine cuttings into the soil, such that they are nearly horizontal. Three vines are planted per mound (4-5 vines can be planted on extremely large mounds like in Buganda). Vines are spaced 30cm from each other on mounds or ridges.• With adequate soil moisture and good soil fertility, sweetpotato vines will cover a large area within one month.• Thoroughly weed your sweetpotatoes twice; within one month after planting and two months after planting by pulling them gently; if possible avoid deep digging with a hoe or other tool that disturbs the feeder roots that quickly spread throughout the bed.• Water is especially important as plants grow and roots spread.• Sweetpotato production can be constrained by pests and viral diseases that cause yield reductions, potentially from about 50 percent to even as much as seventy percent.(a) Sweetpotato weevilThe sweetpotato weevil is the most serious insect pest of sweetpotatoes worldwide.(b) Sweetpotato hornwormSeveral viruses currently recognized as significant constraints to sweet potato (SP) in Uganda, listed roughly by their frequency of occurrence, include: Ring rot is caused by the common, soil-borne fungus Pythium spp., which also parasitizes many other plants. Infected roots have sunken, chocolate colored lesions that tend to extend laterally and often form a ring around the sweet potato.The soft rot extends into the interior as illustrated. Losses generally occur late in the season during cool, rainy periods. Symptoms may be confused with Rhizopus and bacterial soft rots and souring. Ring rot usually does not spread in storage. The disease can be managed by harvesting prior to cool, wet periods.Fusarium root and stem rot, caused by the fungus Fusarium solani, is a common field and storage rot. The rot extends deep into the sweetpotato and is firm and dark tan in color.Internally, elliptical cavities form in which a white mold develops.The soil-borne disease may be spread by infected transplants. The base of mature stems may become swollen and distorted.Generally, pests and diseases can be managed by applying integrated pest management (IPM) methods. These include: (a) planting healthy vines, (b) planting a new crop 50m away from the old field, (c) early planting, crop rotation, (d) destruction of infested plant parts and (e) destroy volunteer crops.Sweetpotatoes are usually ready to harvest just as the ends of the vines begin to turn yellow, or about 4-5 months after planting depending on variety. To avoid injuring roots, find the primary crown of the plant you want to dig, and then use a digging fork to loosen an 18-inch wide circle around the plant. Pull up the crown and use your hands to gather your sweetpotatoes. To make digging easier and get the vines out of your way, you can cut some of them away before digging.Harvesting the roots in piecemeal (removing big roots and creating room for small ones) can start at 3 to 4 months. Wholesale harvesting takes place when the crop is mature (4-6 months)Sweetpotato is generally consumed in fresh form, but where weevil attacks limit the length of time that roots can be kept underground prior to harvesting, they can be harvested, chipped, and sun-dried to make products such as inginyo and amukek. Sweetpotatoes can be baked, roasted processed into dry chips, pounded into powder to make other delicacies like cakes, cookies, pancakes, etc.Sweetpotato roots are bulky and perishable unless cured. This limits the distance over which sweetpotato can be economically transported. Production areas capable of generating surpluses tend to be relatively localized but dispersed, which leads to a lack of market integration and limits market size. Moreover, production is highly seasonal leading to marked variation in the quantity, and quality, of roots in markets and associated price swings. There is little commercial processing into chips or flour, which could be stored for year round consumption for use in ugali, bread and cakes, or processing into fermented and dried products like fufu. Sweetpotato consumption tends to decline as incomes rise, a change often linked with urbanization, partly because it is perceived as a \"poor man's food\" but mostly because of the change in relative prices of root crops compared to grains in urban areas due to transport cost differentials.• Roots can be stored in the ground for an additional period but they are attacked by weevils when soil is dry and cracked. This leads to a marked seasonality of supply with substantial price variability and deterioration in quality as the dry season progresses. Seasonality of supply creates a barrier to increasing per capita consumption and income earning possibilities both for fresh sales and for processing.• Farmers have developed \"In ground storage and piecemeal harvesting\" technology to maintain the supply of fresh sweetpotato for as long as possible. In Uganda this involves staggered planting, so that crop will not all mature simultaneously, and in ground storage of roots after maturity, for up to six months. Piecemeal harvesting is an indigenous practice which may reduce weevil losses as more superficial and potentially damaged roots are harvested first.• Farmers in areas with marked dry seasons in Uganda sun dry sweetpotato to extend the period when it may be consumed. In Uganda, roots are sliced (amokeke) or crushed (inginyo) before drying. Amokeke is reconstituted whole as a breakfast food and inginyo used for flour to produce atapa, a starchy staple.• In Tanzania roots are sliced fresh or after boiling before drying. These products can be stored for six months.• Dried products are mostly used for home consumption with limited commercialization, probably because they are not competitive with dried cassava chips. Slicing and drying by hand is labor intensive for processing large quantities when fresh storage would be preferable, but is an option for dealing with small quantities at a time. If farmers could store fresh roots they could benefit from higher prices at the end of the harvest season.• Sweetpotato can be chipped and dried. At the village level, women slice the sweetpotato into thin round chips by hand. Commercially oriented operations require an investment in chippers, with manual, bicycle driven and motorized versions available, and drying racks.• Dried chips can be milled to make sweetpotato flour. This adds more value for farmers, and reduces volume for transportation, and was financially viable in a pilot trial. But it is difficult for farmers to maintain quality (a) because they cannot determine moisture content and may mill chips which are not properly dried and (b) it may contain impurities as farmers use public mills.• The largest flour market is for staples such as ugali. White fleshed sweetpotato flour would have to compete on price and quality with cassava and maize flour in this market.Since fresh sweetpotato tends to sell at a higher price than cassava this could be difficult.• The best market for sweetpotato flour would be as a substitute for wheat flour in the production of the snack foods, chapattis (flat unleavened bread) and mandazi (doughnuts) and porridge, where sweetness is not an issue.Although sweetpotatoes are a good source of energy (roots) and protein (vines), they are highly perishable. In order to make good use of sweetpotato residues (vines and roots) there is need to conserve them in form of silage which has the potential to mitigate seasonal feed shortages and help cope with seasonal feed prices fluctuations that many smallholder livestock farmers experience. It also provides opportunity to reduce waste in urban market and at household level as well as it can open up business opportunities for youth and women Sweetpotato silage is a method for preserving vines and roots in a succulent condition in a silo. Well-made sweetpotato silage is a wholesome and nutritious feed for all classes of cattle and pigs. Sweetpotato silage is made by fermenting chopped vines and roots of noncommercial value in the absence of air and can be stored for up to a year. Its protein content and digestibility makes it an excellent complement to grass feeds (Table 2).• A plastic sheet (about 0.1 mm thick) is spread over the ground.• Material for making silage is chopped using a forage chopper or a panga and placed on the sheet or cemented floor (Figure 1).• The material is entirely covered with a plastic sheet.• Proper tread pressure has to be applied, and complete sealing is required.• The size of a silo depends on the number of raising animals.• It is necessary to make steps to prevent damages on the plastic sheet by field mice or birds.Table 3 shows estimated cost of materials required to produce 500 kgs using stack silo method. The calculations are based on the assumption that the farmer gets the vines from her/his field. A trench silo can be built by simply digging the ground, but it is better to place plastic sheets inside to prevent loss (Figure 2).Compressing the material before to keep out air Proper tread pressure also has to be applied, and complete sealing is required.Table 4 shows estimated cost of materials required to produce 500 kgs using trench silo method. The calculations are based on the assumption that the farmer gets the vines from her/his field. (3) Plastic bag silo This is a plastic bag with the thickness of about 0.1 mm and silage materials are packed inside (Figure 3). Commercial imported plastic bags are available although they are very expensive. Plastic bags for fertilizer and feed may be reused for cost-cutting. There are many methods of making silage but use of plastic tubes is one of those suitable for smallholder dairy farmers Advantages:• Plastics silage bags are an economical alternative to traditional silage storage systems, such as pits and silos when related, harvest and storage losses are considered. • It is an effective way for preserving feed with minimum nutrient loss (the anaerobic environment that is created eliminates spoilage from the growth of yeasts, moulds and adverse bacteria while maintaining essential proteins and nutrients). • Allows farmers to store silage anywhere they need it. A well graded and well drained ground surface is all that is necessary. • The silage is completely sealed in the bag. This means that all the acid is retained in the silage, unlike that in pit silage when it seeps out through the bottom of the pit as effluent. This compensates for the longer pieces of forage and poorer compaction than that found with silage machinery, so that the quality of the silage is just as good. • Ensiling in a bag avoids the hard work of having to remove silage, as it has to be from a pit, when it has to be dug out every day. • Because the whole bag is fed out to the animal, it means the rest of the silage which is in the other bags is not exposed to air at removal and is therefore unspoiled. Much of the silage in pits has been found to be spoiled due to poor sealing and exposure to air every day when the silage is removed for feeding. • The bag is easily stored and easily portable so that any member of the family can carry it to the feed trough for the cow.• The importance of pest control to prevent damage on the bags,• Containment and disposal of the plastic, once silage is removed from the bag,• The need to chop the green mass, as chopped material tends to make much better silage, because more air can be squeezed out of it during the packing process, and the small pieces cannot puncture the bag• Most losses of silage during the process occur due to:o Unnoticed bird/rodent damage to the bags resulting in spoilage loss. o Too wet (gaseous/seepage losses) or too dry silage (spoilage).Table 5 shows estimated cost of materials required to produce 500 kgs using trench silo method. The calculations are based on the assumption that the farmer gets the vines from her/his field. Bags must be packed with chopped raw materials, compressed as much as possible to remove the internal air and then sealed completely. The number of bags is determined freely in accordance with the operation size. It is necessary to watch out for damage on the plastic bag by field mice, birds and dogs.Silage making process using plastic bag silo (a) Select a good strong plastic bag with high density (from fertilizer bags to shopping bags) with capacity from 5-50 kg of fresh chopped green fodder. Imported plastic bags used in silage making are now available (b) Harvest fodder at a time when the feeding value is still high (before it flowers). (c) Wilt the forage in the sun for about 1 hour to reduce the moisture content. (d) Chop the forage into small pieces of about 1-3 cm long before ensiling. (e) It is important to time the cutting of the forage so that the cut forage is not sitting for more than a day waiting to be chopped and ensiled, otherwise it will become mouldy or to dry. (f) Weigh the material. (g) Add fermentable substrate at ensiling e.g. molasses or maize bran. The addition of either molasses or maize bran is to act as preservative. Molasses should be mixed with water at the ratio of a 1 part molasses with 2 parts of water to make it easier to apply (Table 6). The greatest challenge that farmers face when making sweetpotato silage is how to control the high moisture content in the sweetpotato vines. Typically, vines are wilted prior to making silage to remove excess moisture. However, many farmers have found it difficult to wilt sufficiently large volumes of vines which often results in spoilage during the silage making process. The spoilage is due to excess water accumulating at the bottom of the silage container. This leaflet explains an innovative way of enhancing compaction and draining excess effluent (liquid waste) from the tube silo method of producing silage.A silo is an airtight place or receptacle for preserving green feed for future feeding on the farm. To make an improved plastic tube silo you will need:• One 95 cm length, 4 cm diameter plastic (PVC) pipe (your drainage pipe)• 2.5 meters of 1000 gauge silage tubing (made of polythene), sold in 1 m diameter rolls • 230 cm of flexible rubber tubing, 2.75 cm in diameter • One 4 cm plastic tap which should have the same diameter as the pipe or a piece of soft wood if a tap is unavailable• A metal rod 0.9 cm in diameter for making holes on the PVC pipe • 7 meters of sisal twine • 3 wooden poles (can be cut locally), at least 1.2 m in length and 5 cm in diameter • 1 used 200 liter empty drums • 8 kg of molasses • 16 to 24 litres of water (depending on the dryness of the roots and vines)• 2 nails (length, 6cm)• 190 kg of fresh vines and 90 kg of fresh storage roots to make 250 kg silageTo make the tube silo:Step 1In the drainage pipe make 2 holes using a knife (4 cm from one end and 8 cm from the other end (this end will serve as the outlet), each 2.75 cm in diameter (the same as the diameter of the flexible pipe), and one on each side of the pipe as shown in Figure 4. Step 2Heat the nails with a wood or charcoal fire. Drill small holes for drainage using the hot metal rod through the PVC pipe and in the flexible rubber tubing at intervals of 1 cm throughout their entire lengths as shown in Figure 4.Step 3Pass the rubber tubing through the top holes in the drainage pipe, so that the open ends of the tubing align at the bottom of the pipe as shown in Figure 5. Step 4To make a good seal at the bottom of the silage tubing, first open up the tubing. Then on one open end (that will be the bottom of the tube), make even pleats about 20 cm long starting from the end towards the centre on each side of the tubing. Then twist the pleats together and tie off with the rope making a strong knot. Then turn the tubing inside out, so that the tied knot is on the inside (Figure 6). Step 5Make a 3.5 cm diameter hole using a knife at the side of the tube, about 43 cm from the tied knot. Then take the joined drainage pipe and rubber tubing and fit it into the inside of the silage tubing so that the bottom of the drainage pipe goes through the newly made hole, extending about 20 cm beyond the hole. Using the twine, tighten the plastic around the drainage pipe as shown in Figure 7. Step 6Fit a plastic tap or a piece of soft wood to the bottom of the exposed drainage pipe so that no effluent can flow out when the tap is turned off.Step 7To make a compacting drum measuring 86 cm in diameter and 120 cm in height first remove the top and bottom of each drum to make it hollow. Look for a shaded place to make and store the silage. Then cut each oil drum on one side, so that when joined the total diameter matches that of the silage tubing. To join the 2 drums together running lengthwise, have a welder make on each side 3 joints and one 75 cm long rod bent on one end to fit through the joints as shown in Figure 8. Step 8Place the silage tubing inside the closed compacting drum, letting the excess tubing fold over the sides of the drum at the top. Ideally, the diameter of the tubing should be the same as or slightly larger than the drum for best results (Figure 9). Step 9To prepare the material for ensiling, chop the sweetpotato vines and roots to be ensiled into pieces not more than 2.5 cm long (Figure 10). A motorized chopper can be used Step 10Prepare the molasses and water mixture by mixing 8 kg of molasses with 2 to 3 times as much water until the mixture can flow easily (Figure 11). Step 11Fill the tubing with alternate layers of the chopped vines and roots and the molasses/water mixture. Each layer of vines and roots should be 20 to 30 cm high; then sprinkled with the molasses mixture until it is thoroughly wet on top. Each layer must be compacted before adding the next layer. One person can compact using feet as shown in Figure 12. Step 12Bunch the excess tubing at the top together, remove all excess air so the plastic is in touch with the ensiled material and tie a tight knot, using the twine. Place heavy stones on top of the silo to ensure continued compaction during fermentation (Figure 13).Step 13Remove the rods to remove the compacting drum. Anchor the filled tube silo with three poles to prevent the silo from collapse due to drainage of excess effluent from the silo (Figure 14).  Well-prepared sweetpotato silage is bright or light yellow-green in color, has a strong smell similar to that of fermented milk and has a firm texture. Poor quality silage tends to smell similar to rancid butter or ammonia. Sweetpotato tube silage should be stored under shade, for example in a store. Rodents like rats that could tear the tube need to be controlled. When feeding, open the tube and after removing the amount needed, remember to re-tie without trapping air inside.How much does it cost to make sweet potato silage?One tube holds about 250 kg chopped, well compacted silage. An example of the average cost of making one sweetpotato silage tube is indicated in Table 7. Total amount (UGX) Fuel and oil for chopper 0.5 5,000 2,500 1000-gauge polythene tube (meters) 2.5 6,000 15,000 Chopping and ensiling process (labour) 1 20,000 20,000 Molasses (litres) 8 2,000 16,000 Cost of making the drum and the drainage pipes (these are made once and can be used many times) 1 180,000 180,000Total cost of making one tube of silage (excluding the drum and the materials used to make the drum)Estimated cost of making 1 kg of silage: UGX 214 (full costing of the polythene tube included. However, if carefully used it is possible to reuse the polythene tube up to 4 times, thus reducing the cost of making silage).Silage is ready for feeding at least 30 days after making it. Silage should be fed as soon as possible, preferably within a few hours after opening the silos. After feeding, the feed troughs must be cleaned out to prevent any remaining silage, which will spoil, contaminating the next feed out. Silage can be provided to animals in number of different recipes based on its composition and the breed and use of the animals. In general silage should be used up to 25 kg per day for 550 kg animal and up to 5 kg for sheep, pigs and goats (Table 8). ","tokenCount":"4333"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"24611bda1c7c79c6564f570b4915090e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ad8e0aa-6881-4426-b407-e91c0cf4dfa9/retrieve","id":"-349327929"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5a9bd290-d378-41c2-baaf-8b714a2c1043","pagecount":"14","content":"-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP): Potato virus detection CIP -SOPXXX, v.1.1.Fuentes, S. 2022. Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP): Potato virus detection CIP-SOPXXX, V.1.1.• All fields marked with * are requiredLoop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a single-tube technique for the amplification of specific nucleic acid sequences and a low-cost alternative to detect certain diseases. It has the potential to overcome many of the limitations of PCR-based methods (cost and complexity of thermal cycling equipment).LAMP uses 4 primers (forward and reverse internal primers and external primers) and a DNA polymerase with strand displacing activity to generate amplification products that contain single-stranded loop structures to which further primers can bind without the need for thermal denaturation. The addition of a third pair of primers (loop primers) can increase the rate of LAMP reactions (Figure 1 Top). Amplification by LAMP proceeds extremely efficiently and can result in the accumulation of 10 9 copies of the target sequence in less than 1 hour without thermal cycling. Like PCR, LAMP can be used to detect RNA targets by incorporating a reverse transcription step to generate cDNA prior to amplification; reverse transcription and LAMP can be carried out in one tube using a thermostable reverse transcriptase.LAMP is tolerant of substances originating from plant material which can be inhibitory to PCR, so it is often possible to use crude extraction methods instead of conventional nucleic acid extraction methods such as CTAB. This enables testing to be completed in the field, since the Genie instrument (OptiGene, Horsham, UK -Figure 1 Bottom) is a portable, battery operated, and low-power platform for real-time fluorescence monitoring of isothermal amplification reactions (such as LAMP) which is suitable for on-site use. This procedure for LAMP testing covers the steps on how to use a field-deployable LAMP assay in the diagnosis of potato virus for PLRV, PVY, and PVX (the major viruses infecting the crop worldwide). It includes different steps from collecting samples, processing of them for nucleic acid extraction, preparing LAMP reaction, setting the Genie instrument, and recording of results.When working on nucleic acid extraction and preparing mastermix reactions always wear gloves to minimize RNase contamination. Use only clean RNase-free disposable plastic pipette tips when using the supplied reagents.Wash containers, glassware, etc., thoroughly after handling. Keep container tightly closed.• Field grown plants, fresh and dried leaves.Plants are of acceptable quality for RNA extraction if correspond to the following characteristics:-Fresh leaves collected the same day or the day before (maintained a 4˚C).-Dried leaves with green color (brown color indicates degradation/ oxidation of the sample). • Use the following formula: 60 g Polyethylene glycol (PEG 200) + 930 µl 2 M KOH + 39 ml autoclaved distilled water.• If needed, adjust the pH of the Alkaline PEG200 by adding drops of potassium hydroxide (or sodium hydroxide) until the pH reaches around 13.3.• The Alkaline PEG buffer should be stored at room temperature either in a dark bottle or a bottle wrapped in foil to protect it from light.Custom primers (oligos) are usually packaged lyophilized. Add them the amount of TE Buffer or NFW needed to make the 100-micromolar stock solution (print on the oligo tube).• Oligos spinning in the bottle: Upon receiving the oligos, spin the tubes briefly before opening.• Adding TE buffer or NFW: Add the stated amount of TE buffer or NFW to resuspend. TE buffer should be used for long term storage.• Pipetting and storage: Mix by pipetting or vortex and store at -20°C until required.   Positive (target) and negative (no target) control from virus-infected plant and \"healthy\" plant, respectively, are included in the LAMP reaction.Control host plant nucleic acid (cytochrome oxidase, COX)A LAMP assay has been developed for the detection of host plant nucleic acid (cytochrome oxidase, COX). This assay can be used as a control to allow confirmation of negative results (i.e., to confirm the success of nucleic acid extraction).positive positive negative negative","tokenCount":"640"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9e14b314f4f45b0b9e7b12b3337e37fe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f36a4fcd-0f41-469e-972c-e4e7f92fa9f6/retrieve","id":"-1760166216"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5bfb8070-9757-4a14-a52e-6ab731529d4e","pagecount":"92","content":"and the United States of America. ILCA conducts its own research programme, works closely with national agricultural research systems (NARS) in collaborative research projects and seeks to develop the research capacities of NARS by providing specialised training programmes and a range of information services.ILCA's publication series include Research Reports, Monographs and a quarterly journal, as well as conference proceedings and quarterly ILCA Newsletter. Responsibility for ILCA publications rests solely with the Centre and with such other parties as may be cited as co-authors.Among the ways in which governments intervene in the livestock subsector, the most prevalent, and arguably the most important, is interference with prices. Price intervention policies are often implemented with the aim of achieving certain broad objectives which, in developing countries, include output expansion, government revenue generation, improvement of income distribution, stabilisation and inflation control. In pursuing these objectives, governments possess a wide variety of policy instruments which can be manipulated directly with the intention of achieving the desired objectives. For example, they can establish price controls or price supports to benefit consumers and producers, respectively, or they can impose import duties and export taxes to raise government revenue. In addition to direct measures, indirect forms of government intervention including exchange rate adjustments can also influence the production, consumption and trade of livestock products.In reality, sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries have pursued a wide variety of pricing policies, differing in the choice of instruments as well as in their objectives. The effects of these policies on production incentives have also been varied. The multiplicity of objectives and their instruments suggests that in some cases conflicts will arise between the desired objectives and the policies pursued to achieve them. The likelihood of such conflicts is heightened when, as often happens, the different ministries of these countries are interested in different objectives. The ministry of agriculture, for instance, may advocate higher farm prices to encourage output expansion while the finance ministry may be interested in interventions that raise revenues. In this situation, one of the contributions of price policy research will be to quantify the effects of different policy options in order to permit an informed discussion which can lead to better decision making and an improved incentive system.The broad objective of this study is to review, analyse and present evidence concerning the effects of livestock pricing policies on production incentives in a sample of SSA countries. In what follows, the experiences of six SSA countries are profiled. These countries, namely C6te d'lvoire, Ethiopia, Mali, Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe, were selected on the basis of their livestock population, production, trade and consumption. Data were collected through interviews with policy makers and livestock marketing officials and from a wide range of primary and secondary published documents.To introduce the subsequent discussion, Chapter 2 examines the growth and performance of the livestock subsector in the study countries. It demonstrates the diversity of situations and experiences with respect to production, consumption, export and import of livestock products.Chapter 3 considers the multiple objectives of price policies in the selected countries and analyses the principal instruments employed to influence Chapter 4 assesses the impact of government producer and consumer prices. The discussion intervention on price incentives. The final chapter highlights similarities and the diversity in objectives discusses the effect of intervention on the welfare of and policies dealing with the livestock subsector and producers and consumers and on foreign trade and also examines the compatibility of policy goals with government revenue. It concludes by highlighting their instruments.the main findings of the study.This chapter examines the main features of the livestock subsector in the selected countries by assessing trends in production, trade and consumption of certain livestock products. The discussion is confined to cattle, sheep and goats (the three ruminant species presently included in ILCA's research agenda) and to the food products derived from them (i.e. meat and milk). The policy implications of the observed trends are briefly discussed to set the context for the discussion of pricing policy that follows.Although there are many similarities in the livestock production systems of SSA, there are also important variations. Such variations reflect differences in climate, availability of grazing land and incidence of diseases such as trypanosomiasis. In the countries selected for this study, pastoral systems account for the bulk of ruminant livestock production, except in Zimbabwe where cattle ranching and mixed crop-livestock production systems are very important.Aggregate meat production and related data for the selected countries are shown in Table 1. The selected countries together account for almost half the total meat production (by weight) in SSA Per capita meat production varies, from about 8.5 kg per person in Nigeria to 25.3 kg per person in Sudan, reflecting substantial differences in population and pastoral resources among the countries considered. Beef accounts for 41% (by weight) of total meat production in the selected countries. It is followed in importance by goat meat (12%) and mutton (11%). Domestic milk production is also important, but Sudan alone accounts for over 50% of total milk production in these countries (Table 2). When products are weighted by equivalent border production of goat meat, lamb and mutton though this declined by 1983-85. For the selected periods, total meat production per capita increased modestly in two countries, remained about constant in one and declined in three.Per capita milk production also varied from country to country over the 12-year period 1971-73  Source: FAO (1986a) and FAO (1987) for 1983 figures.prices, the value of beef is the highest, followed by milk, mutton and goat meat, in that order.Aggregate meat shares, however, conceal important country variations in production. The share of beef in total meat output varies among countries from 29 to 64%. For goat meat the share is 4 to 16% and for mutton and lamb, 1 to 18%. The share of beef is high and about equal in Sudan and Zimbabwe despite enormous differences in production systems. The goat meat share is high in Nigeria and Mali but very low in Zimbabwe and Cote d'lvoire.Trends in meat and milk production Per capita meat production levels are shown in Table 3. In spite of the limitations of the production data from which these estimates are derived, the ratios do provide an indication of relative change over time. Per capita beef production declined over the period 1971-73 to 1983-85 in all the selected countries, except Sudan. During the 1971-73 to 1977-79 period, only two countries, Mali and Sudan, showed a slight increase in per capita to 1983-85 (Table 4). In one country (Sudan), there was a substantial increase in production, while per capita milk production either declined or remained constant in the remaining countries. The underlying causes of these different production performances are varied, but may include natural disasters (e.g. acute recurring drought) that reduce feed availability, access to external markets and government economic policies. The effects of government economic policies on production incentives are examined in detail in Chapter 4.Table 5 shows the level of meat consumption in the study countries. Total per capita meat consumption in 1983-85 varied from about 9 to 25 kg reflecting differences in meat prices, income, population and agricultural resources among countries.Except for Mali in recent years, beef is the principal meat consumed in the study countries. Beef accounts for between 54 and 64% of total meat consumption in Zimbabwe, between 48 and 59% in  1971-73 1977-79 1983-S5 1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1971-73 1977-79  Sources: Meat production data from FAO (1987;1989); human population data from World Bank Atlas (various years) and FAO (1989). Source: Meat production data from FAO (1987;1989); human population data from World Bank atlas (various years) and FAO (1989).  1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1971-73 1977-79 1983  Sources: FAO (1985); ILCA (1987b).Sudan, and between 27 and 47% in the remaining countries.Although sheep and goat meat are widely consumed, their relative importance varies among countries. In 1983-85, the share of sheep and goat meat in total meat consumption was 36% in Mali compared with 6% in Zimbabwe. Overall, the meat products considered here together account for more than 50% of the total meat consumed in the study countries.Per capita milk consumption also differs greatly among countries, from about 8 kg liquid milk equivalent (LME) in Nigeria to more than 80 kg in Sudan in 1983-85 (Table 6). The wide variation in milk consumption is partly explained by differences 1980s in Sudan, consumption declined in Nigeria and Cdte d'lvoire over the same period. In all other countries, per capita consumption of milk was lower in 1983-85 than in 1971-73.The annual growth rates of total domestic production and consumption of the livestock products considered here appear in Table 7. While growth rates such as those cited in Table 7 are only rough estimates, it would appear that increases in consumption have exceeded domestic production increases by a substantial amount, particularly for milk. The growing gap between domestic production and consumption is further confirmed by the net trade data presented in the next section. Sources: FAO (1987;1989); FAO trade yearbook (various issues); ILCA (1987b), and World Bank Atlas (various years) in dietary habits. As indicated later on in this chapter, the percentage of total milk consumed that is imported varies from about 5 to 89%, and imports have been rising rapidly in recent years.Table 5 shows that between 1971-73 and 1983-85 per capita beef consumption fell in five countries and increased only in one. Per capita sheep and goat meat consumption which had risen significantly in Mali and to a lesser extent in Sudan in the 1970s, rose very little in the early 1980s in these two countries. In the remaining countries per capita consumption fell. The share of sheep and goat meat in total meat consumption increased significantly in Mali, but fell in all the other countries. Per capita consumption of milk rose in the 1970s in C6te d'lvoire, Nigeria and Sudan (Table 6). While the growth was maintained into the earlyThe diversity of trade activities in meat and milk in the selected countries is illustrated by the data presented in Tables 8, 9 and 10 for beef, sheep and goat meat and milk, respectively. Live animals make up the bulk of meat exports which are directed mostly towards neighbouring African countries. Ethiopia and Sudan export live animals to the Middle East. Zimbabwe is the only country that exports beef to the EEC under the Lom6 convention.With respect to beef, four out of the six countries were net exporters between 1971-73 and1983-85 (Table 8). Export volumes, however, declined in three and increased only in one. The remaining two countries -Cflte d'lvoire and Nigeria -have been net importers. Tlie level of imports in the former has been nearly constant over the past 15 years, but imports rose significantly in the latter.    1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1983-85 C6te d'lvoire 0.0 0.1 0.  1971-73 and 1977-79 are from FAO (1985) ) and include meat and live animals in terms of carcass weight. To obtain figures for 1983-85, trade data on fresh bovine and canned meat (ILCA, 1987b;FAO, 1989) were added to the meat equivalent of live cattle traded. The latter was calculated using FAO (1986a) carcass weights as conversion factors.Sources: FAO (1985;1986a;1989);FAO trade yearbook (1985); ILCA (1987b).Table 9 shows that Sudan, Mali and Ethiopia have been net exporters of sheep and goat meat. Over the period considered, exports from Mali more than doubled and rose appreciably in Sudan, while Cdte d'lvoire and Nigeria were again net importers.Trade in goat meat, lamb and mutton was insignificant in Zimbabwe.Trade in milk consists mostly of dried, condensed and evaporated milk imports. As suggested earlier, milk production in the study  1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1971-73 1977-99 1983-85 1983-85 Cote d'lvoire 0.0 0.0 0.0 4J Source: FAO (1985;1986a;1989); FAO trade yearbook (1985); ILCA (1987b).  1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1971-73 1977-79 1983-85 1983-85 C6te d'lvoire 2.5 1. Trade data on milk include fresh, dried, condensed and evaporated milk and are expressed in terms of liquid milk equivalent (LME) using FAO (1978) conversion factors, i.e. 1 kg fresh milk = 1 kg LME; 1 kg dried milk = 7.6 kg LME and 1 kg condensed/evaporated milk = 2 kg LME.Source: FAO trade yearbook (various issues).countries has been growing more slowly than demand. The result has been a substantial increase in imports (Table 10). In liquid milk equivalent (LME) terms, milk imports to the study countries increased by 10% a year between 1971-73 and 1983-85. The rapid growth in imports has been stimulated by the availability of subsidised skimmed milk powder from developed countries which has been increasingly used as food aid. C6te d'lvoire and Nigeria import more than 50% of the milk products they consume, Mali imports about 15% while the remaining three countries import between 5 and 10%.Although the output, consumption and trade trends presented above need to be interpreted with caution, their underlying message is clear:production of meat and milk in the study countries over the last 15 years has risen only slightly or has declined. The gap between production and consumption, which was very narrow at the beginning of the period, has widened significantly. As a result, there has been a growing tendency to import to meet demand, particularly for milk. Domestic production has been unable to satisfy demand due to a variety of constraints, including environmental and technological problems. However, the incentive policies pursued by most governments have also contributed significantly (Schultz, 1978;World Bank, 1981;World Bank, 1983). Often the effects of these policies have run counter to the producers' interests, though such was not the intention. For example, policies that place ceilings on meat and milk prices at the producer and retail levels or impose export taxes have been blamed for inhibiting growth in production while subsidising domestic consumption.The realisation of expanded and sustainable meat and milk production has also not been made easy by the numerous goals pursued within the livestock subsector and the lack of agreement on trade-offs between policies. For example, rural dairy production is labour-intensive and the employment effects from its expansion can be substantial. For rural producers with relatively modest incomes, it can be reasonably argued on equity grounds that governments should consider protecting them from concessionary imports; whereas livestock policy goals, if they are formulated to provide \"cheap\" milk to urban consumers may lead to an altogether different set of policy recommendations.Thus, understanding the interrelationships and conflicts between objectives and policies is a critical step towards designing and implementing more effective incentive regimes. The multiple objectives of pricing policies and the trade-offs inherent in the pursuance of such objectives are examined in detail in the next chapter.In almost every country, developed and developing alike, governments intervene in agricultural markets. In particular, all African states formulate and implement policies which affect agricultural and food prices. The reasons for government intervention in price determination are many and varied. This chapter begins with a description of the process of price formation in a free market in order to provide a benchmark against which subsequent discussions of government intervention in pricing policy can be viewed. It then reviews the multiple objectives of livestock price policies in the selected countries and analyses the main instruments employed to influence both producer and consumer prices. It examines the conflicts that often arise among the different policy objectives and assesses the appropriateness of some of the instruments in use. It concludes with a discussion of the arguments that have been advanced to rationalise government intervention in pricing policies.The process of price formation and the level of prices in a free market can be used as the norm by which market behaviour and prices obtained under government intervention can be evaluated. In this respect, it is useful to consider first, a situation where a commodity market in a given country is isolated from the world market and, second, a situation where free trade is possible. Given the characteristics of the study countries, it is also helpful to distinguish between the product for which a country is a potential importer (say, milk) and that for which a country is a potential exporter (say, beef).In Figure la, the supply curve Sd shows the quantity of milk supplied per time period at different prices by producers in country 1. The demand curve Dd shows the quantity of milk demanded per time period at different prices by consumers in the same country. Since in this example the market for milk is isolated from the rest of the world, the market-clearing equilibrium is achieved with quantity Q sold at price P .In Figure lb, the supply curve S represents the total quantity of milk supplied to the world market per time period at different prices by all other countries. D represents the quantity demanded from the world market by all other countries. Market-clearing equilibrium is established in the world market with Q traded at price Pw.If the barriers that previously prevented trade with international markets are now removed, the outcome is quite different from the earlier result without international trade. Milk can now be traded at the border of country 1 at price P , the world price,5 which is below the domestic market-clearing A distinction can be made between interventions due to market failures and interventions arising from other motives. The former set of interventions can be justified on theoretical grounds, but the general body of literature on the price policies of developing countries takes a very negative view of the latter. It is the latter set of interventions that are considered in this chapter. It is assumed here that since the production and consumption of milk in country 1 is very small in comparison to the quantity traded internationally, the effect on the world price of country l's market becoming integrated with the rest of the world trading system is negligible. This is sometimes referred to as the\"small country\" assumption. The same assumption holds for the second case described in Figure 2.price, P . Domestic demand increases from Q to Qd and domestic supply falls from Qo to Qf. The gap, Qd-Qs is now imported from the world market at price P .Figure 2 illustrates the second market situation where a country is a potential exporter of beef. When the domestic market is isolated from the world market, Q of beef is sold at price P . With free trade between country 2 and the rest of the world, domestic consumption decreases to Q , domestic production increases to Q , and a quantity equal to 0 -Q is exported to the world market at price P .Figures 1 and 2 also show the welfare gains/losses resulting from trade. Figure la indicates that by importing milk at P , consumers in country 1 are better off in two ways: they can buy their original quantity of milk Q at the lower price Pw, and they can increase the amount consumed to Qd. Their welfare gain is the area abfc, which is sometimes referred to as the increase in consumer surplus. This increase in consumer surplus is the amount of money consumers would have been willing to pay to consume the additional quantity Qd-Oo but do not need to pay because they can purchase all the milk they want at P . This gain in consumer welfare is obtained partially at the expense of domestic producers. In the absence of trade, total producer revenue is equal to abjg; total producer cost is bjh. The producer surplus or income is equal to the difference, abhg. With the fall in price to P , producer incomes fall by the amount abed. This is a loss in producer welfare which accrues to consumers because of the fall in price.It is obvious from Figure la that consumers have gained more than producers have lost. Consumers could reimburse producers for their losses and would still be net gainers by areabfd. This triangle represents the gains from trade.Similarly, in Figure 2 the welfare gains from free trade in beef compared to the situation where country 2's market is isolated from the world market, are represented by the area of the triangle bcf. This is the excessof the gain in producer surplus, abefd over the loss in consumer surplus, abfdThese results thus indicate that trade can provide a net gain in economic surplus for countries 1 and 2. Although not shown here, it can also be demonstrated that with free trade a country can maximise the welfare gains from trade. However, several important points are hidden in the apparently simple analyses presented above.First, the world price P , is usually quoted in foreign currency (e.g. US dollars). To make Pw comparable to the domestic price, P , a conversion at some exchange rate is required. The rate that is used obviously has a significant effect on how P compares with P .Second, as shown above, the opportunity to trade internationally creates several adjustments in the domestic commodity market. For one thing, it changes the price facing domestic producers and consumers of the commodity in question. This has important implications for income distribution and resource allocation and, perhaps more importantly, for other commodities and the entire economy.Third, international commodity markets are notoriously unstable and fragmented. For livestock products, this instability arises partly as a result of climatic and biological conditions and partly due to inadequate information and knowledge about current and expected economic opportunities. The result, often, is wide fluctuations in world prices which, in turn, can cause large fluctuations in the incomes of farmers or, in the case of exporting countries, in foreign exchange earnings.These fluctuations can go beyond what a government is willing to accept and hence may attempt to institute some measure of price stabilisation.The points raised above, while by no means exhaustive, do provide a basis for understanding why governments have rarely been prepared to allow free international trade and accept the prices that ensue from it. While government pricing interventions may arise out of a misunderstanding of the relationship between trade and social welfare, often the departure from free trade arises because a government wants to achieve objectives that may pertain to safeguarding public welfare or raising government revenue. The next section examines some of these objectives.Although there are many different objectives behind livestock pricing policies pursued in the study countries, they can be summarised under six headings, viz: food self-sufficiency, export promotion, stabilisation and inflation control, government revenue generation, improved nutrition and employment creation. The specific livestock development objectives pursued in each of the selected countries are shown in Table 11. While the objectives are, to a certain extent, mutually reinforcing, in a number of cases there can be conflict between them. The following notes sketch the main features of the objectives listed summarily above.The self-sufficiency objective Of all the stated objectives, the basically consumer-oriented objective of attaining meat and milk self-sufficiency ranked as the most common. As Table 1 1 indicates, this objective is sought after by all the study countries. This is not surprising given the nutritional importance of meat and milk in the diet and the political risks associated with shortages of these products. Equally important is the desire to reduce dependence on imports in the face of foreign exchange shortages and unpredictable world prices.Ideally, the self-sufficiency objective could be achieved by following a producer-oriented price policy. This was the approach followed by the Republic of Korea in the 1960s and particularly since 1970 with respect to rice. By raising the real producer price of rice and implementing other price-related incentive measures, Korea was able to achieve self-sufficiency in rice in 1977 while the yield of rice per hectare outstripped that of Japan and the United States (Paukert, 1988).While similar policies could, in principle, be applied to the livestock subsector, this has not usually been the practice in SSA where priority has been given instead to cheap food policies that have benefited consumers more than producers. As can 6. Self-sufficiency was an important goal in the study countries from the early 1970s to the early 1980s. Government documents now refer to the goal of improved food security in livestock projects. The two terms are often used interchangeably, but they are not synonymous. Food self-sufficiency aims at meeting all the staple food needs of a country from domestic production. It is a narrower concept than food security which aims at ensuring access for all at all times to a level of food sufficient for an active and healthy life (World Bank, 1986a). The two key components of food security are food availability (through domestic production and/or trade) and food access (through home production or purchase). 7. Defined as the ratio of domestic production to total consumption. be seen in Chapter 4, even in those instances where producer prices have risen, restrictive trade and exchange rate policies have been partly responsible for those increases.More importantly, judging by the production and consumption trends presented in the previous chapter, self-sufficiency in meat and milk has not been achieved for any considerable length of time in most of the study countries. In fact, the selfsufficiency ratios7 of meat and more so of milk have tended to decline over the last 10 years, although there are considerable fluctuations in the ratios among countries and between consecutive years. Thus, while the Korean example and other similar cases indicate that appropriate pricing policies can move a country toward the goal of self-sufficiency, inappropriate policies, on the other hand, can lead to outcomes that are exactly opposite to those intended or at least stated. It is important to note here that most of the study countries, undoubtedly, possess considerable animal resources. However, there are virtually no detailed analyses of the comparative advantage that each country has in the production of particular livestock products. Such studies dealing with issues concerning international markets, appropriate border price policies and foreign exchange management, can give policy makers an idea of the feasibility or desirability of achieving self-su fficiency by providing a unified framework for assessing the advantages that a country has in the production of meat and/or milk.This objective stems from the desire of most governments to improve the contribution of the livestock subsector to net foreign exchange earnings. It is another frequently expressed production objective of livestock products pricing policy. As Table 1 1 indicates, it is important in four of the six selected countries.Generally, the rate of growth of exports will depend on the stimulus from export markets and on the incentives provided by domestic price and trade policies. However, even with a strong external stimulus, domestic price policies may still impede the growth of exports in several ways. First, it is obvious that exports of livestock and their products will increase only if growth of production exceeds growth of domestic consumption. This might require producer prices to rise to border price levels to spur production and restrict consumption. But if prices are controlled at both the producer and consumer levels, this may discourage production and encourage consumption -the opposite of the desired effect of promoting export.Secondly, the manner in which the state intervenes in export marketing can have a profound impact on the level of exports. In most SSA countries, export marketing is under tight government control, when not a state monopoly. These intervention agencies have been used in the past as instruments of taxation with often negative consequences for exports.In addition, inappropriate exchange rate policies can have deleterious effects on the development of the livestock export sector. Indeed, it has been argued that part of SSA's decline in agricultural exports stems from lack of international competitiveness as a result of overvalued exchange rates, export taxation etc (FAO, 1986b;Oyejide, 1986). The relative importance of these direct and indirect price control policies in promoting or inhibiting the growth of livestock output, including exports, in the study countries is examined empirically in Chapter 5.8. Among the livestock exporting countries considered in this study, government parastatals intervene directly in export marketing by pun. h.ising and exporting livestock and animal products in Ethiopia and Zimbabwe, while the parastatals provide only regulatory and service functions in Mali and Sudan.The inflation control and market stabilisation objectivesLivestock production is inherently unstable given its dependence on climatic and other environmental conditions. This instability is a major source of price fluctuations for livestock products. The stabilisation objective can take two forms: price and income.With respect to the former, the aim is to minimise price fluctuations with a view to shield both consumers and producers from the full impact of erratic nominal price variations. The income stabilisation objective, on the other hand, is basically producer-oriented. For instance, Nigeria's agricultural policy document states that one of the policy objectives of the livestock subsector is to improve and stabilise rural income emanating from livestock production and processing (Nigeria, 1988). The aim here is to reduce the fluctuations in prices which may lead to an undesired change in real incomes of producers. Virtually all the countries studied included price stabilisation objectives in their agricultural policies. A common mechanism for reducing abnormal fluctuations in agricultural prices is for a government agency to act as buyer and seller of last resort, entering the market to purchase supplies when prices are very low and selling later when diminishing supplies drive up prices. However, this kind of measure has not been applied to the livestock sector of the study countries mainly because of the perishability of the products, relying instead, on consumer price controls in countries pursuing this objective (e.g. Cote d'lvoire, Mali, Sudan and Zimbabwe). At the same time, pricing policies aimed at reducing year-to-year fluctuations have been pursued, particularly in Zimbabwe, to protect producers against losses caused by the vagaries of weather and price fluctuations in the world market.At this point, it is perhaps useful to distinguish between seasonal and erratic (i.e. atypical) price variations. Seasonal price variations ofa regular type serve a useful purpose by reconciling demand with seasonally changing supply and production costs. Conversely, erratic price variations create uncertainty for producers which may retard specialisation and lead to faulty production decisions. Also, low-income consumers are particularly vulnerable to sudden price surges. Thus, attempts to eliminate seasonal price fluctuations altogether by relying, for example, on consumer price controls often destroys the incentive for private sector inter-temporal arbitrage and increases the need for further government intervention. A policy aimed at reducing erratic price variations, on the other hand, can help lessen the uncertainty about future prices. This can encourage private dealers to engage in inter-temporal arbitrage, for example, by buying animals in areas of feed shortage and moving them to areas with more fodder or processing facilities to overcome problems ofperishability. These practices will also benefit consumers ultimately. However, this requires making the distinction between seasonal and erratic price variation, which is rarely done.Another pertinent point is that some economists have argued that what is of crucial importance to producers is stabilising their income, not stabilising the prices of their produce (Stiglitz, 1987). Their argument is that if price and quantity are negatively correlated, stabilising prices may actually exacerbate the fluctuations in income. There is some validity in this argument, particularly with respect to beef production, since other studies have established that the short-run slaughter response is almost always in a direction opposite to the current change in domestic producer price (Rodriguez, 1985;Jarvis, 1986).Turning to the inflation control objective, the underlying motive is that it is necessary to keep down producer prices in order to make exports competitive and to constrain consumer price increases which could put upward pressure on wage levels and the prices of manufactured goods. However, a fact that is often ignored is that price policy alone cannot be used to keep inflation in check. The experiences of some of the countries studied indicate that price controls will fail to curb, and may even exacerbate, inflation. This happens when the fixed prices for meat and milk and other consumer goods are too low in relation to existing supply and demand. Scarcity of goods sold at controlled prices rapidly develops, and a parallel market is created with prices higher than would exist in the absence of price controls. Producers faced with unattractive prices shun or reduce their supplies to the official marketing agencies and sell instead on the parallel market. As a result, the proportion of goods sold at the controlled prices falls, while the proportion of parallel market sales grows, with an inflationary effect. Sudan and Zimbabwe have lately experienced this problem with regard to milk and meat, respectively.The government revenue raising objective Another objective of pricing policy is to raise revenue for government development tasks. The principal source of government revenue is, of course, taxation. Hade taxes (e.g. import tariffs and export taxes) are commonly used in all the study countries. In Mali, for example, the World Bank (1975) estimated that export taxes together with other levies and fees (e.g. butchers' and cattle dealers' licences, slaughtering fees etc) contributed about 6% of total public revenues (amounting to FCFA 11 612 million) in 1970-72. Apart from generating revenue, trade taxes also have an important influence on the prices received and paid by producers and consumers: export taxes on livestock products tend to lower domestic prices, while import tariffs tend to raise domestic prices.In addition, pricing policy has often been pressed into service to raise government revenue because most developing countries lack an adequate administrative base for imposing direct taxes. The main instrument for this is the marketing board that purchases livestock products at low prices and either resells them domestically or exports them, at higher prices. The difference, which constitutes the government's profit from livestock price policy, can be a significant addition to government revenue.The Livestock and Meat Corporation (LMC) of Ethiopia and the Cold Storage Commission (CSC) in Zimbabwe were partly set up for this purpose. Unfortunately, over the last few years, the governments of Ethiopia and Zimbabwe have had to subsidise these agencies instead of deriving revenue from them. In the case of the CSC, the problem arises partly because it has the responsibility of purchasing beef for domestic as well as export marketing. Until 1983, Zimbabwe pursued a cheap beef for consumers policy. CSC's export earnings were used to subsidise and lower the consumer price of beef. Thus, the Government of Zimbabwe was indirectly taxing producers while subsidising consumers. Even then the export earnings of the CSC could have added to government revenue, but the government chose instead to use the funds to reduce the cost of keeping consumer beef prices low.This objective plays a prominent part in the justification of pricing policies in two of the study countries (Table 1 1). Its aim is to increase the level of household consumption of animal proteins -superficially, a highly praiseworthy objective. Its implementation is, however, problematic.Ideally, for this objective to be achieved, producer prices need to be high enough to provide producers adequate incentives to expand output while keeping consumer prices low enough, or at least designed in such a way as to enable the poorer classes to benefit more than the wealthier ones. But a marked increase in the prices of meat and milk to encourage production can have a significant impact in threatening the standard of living of urban workers, leading to demands for higher wages and creating inflationary pressures in the economy. Moreover, attempts to increase food prices suddenly, as in Sudan in early 1985, have frequently been the immediate reasons for strikes and riots. However, attempts to suppress consumer price increases through subsidies can put an enormous strain on government budgets, leading to increased government borrowing and a possible expansion in the money supply that in itself can be inflationary. Zimbabwe, for example, experienced problems emanating from escalating consumer subsidies in the 1970s and early 1980s.More importantly, the use of consumer subsidies means favouring the urban sector (rich and poor) at the expense of the rural population since such schemes are easier to administer in cities than in inaccessible rural areas. Also, if consumer prices are reduced by paying producers low prices, urbanitcs (rich and poor) again benefit at the expense of rural dwellers and this may discourage expansion of output. Thus this objective, meritorious at first sight, can be very negative from the point of view increasing production and the equitable distribution of benefits, if adequate care is not taken in its implementation. In terms of concrete achievement, available evidence presented elsewhere (Williams, 1989) indicates that not much progress has been made toward the attainment of this objective, for example, in Nigeria. The situation is not largely different in Zimbabwe, the other country pursuing this objective.stem the tide of rural to urban migration and ease the pressure on social amenities in the cities. Further, since average rural incomes are often several times lower than average urban incomes, it is not surprising that governments concerned with long-term agricultural development are willing to consider using pricing policy to encourage more labour intensive livestock production systems.High producer prices that will provide the incentive for expanding production through adoption of innovative approaches constitute a necessary condition for the attainment of the employment creation objective. As can be seen from the next chapter, real livestock producer prices increased slightly over the past decade in two of the countries pursuing this objective. Nevertheless, evidence of an upward trend in real producer prices does not resolve the question of whether these prices rose enough to encourage the kind of investment needed to create additional employment opportunities. Besides, other technical production problems and economic policies pursued in some of these countries have worked to offset whatever incentive was forthcoming from the rising producer prices. For example, in Nigeria beginning in the 1970s the government established a number of dairy processing plants near the major urban centres. The milk for processing was to come from associated government dairy farms and from local collection. However, the inadequate purchase prices offered by the plants made local milk collection difficult . The plants' production activities started relying on reconstituting imported powdered milk which was cheaper than locally produced milk because of depressed international prices and appreciation of the real exchange rate of the Naira during this period. Thus, both internal and external factors have militated against the attainment of the employment objective. The picture just painted for Nigeria is not altogether atypical of the situation in the other countries attempting to implement this objective.The idea underlying this objective is to use pricing policy to provide rural employment through expanded livestock production, processing and marketing. The labour intensive nature of some aspects of livestock production (e.g. dairy production) suggests that the direct and indirect employment effects of expansion can be substantial. Such rural employment opportunities can help toBefore examining the conflict inherent in attempting to implement the aforementioned objectives, it will be useful to review briefly the instruments through which livestock pricing policies are applied. Although there are a variety of intervention tools for influencing livestock product prices, the main instruments in use in the study countries are summarised in Table 12. As the table clearly shows, no single instrument is ever used alone in a country. Frequently, a number of instruments are used concurrently. Understanding the interrelationships between instruments is of crucial importance in designing effective price policies. In what follows, the pricing instruments listed summarily in Table 12 are discussed under four major headings: price controls; price subsidies; import measures and export measures.Price controls Controlled or administered producer prices are used by governments in some of the countries studied to implement purchase price policies for basic food and exportable commodities. A complementary instrument, in the form of a marketing board, is usually employed in conjunction with price controls. Despite the great difference in the countries' situations, the basic approach is to establish fixed or minimum producer prices for the commodities under consideration, with a parastatal purchasing part of the total output. In determining the level at which to fix producer prices, various considerations including technical, economic and political factors are often taken into account. An example of this basic model is provided by the producer price policy of Zimbabwe with regard to beef and milk.The parastatals responsible for the purchase and marketing of these two commodities are the Cold Storage Commission (CSC) and the Dairy Marketing Board (DMB), both under the control of the Agricultural Marketing Authority (AMA). The producer price-fixing process begins when the AMA conducts initial hearings with farmers' associations on the cost of production incurred within alternative commercial farming systems. Based on the submissions of the farmers' associations and on the trading accounts received from the CSC and DMB, the AMA makes recommendations on producer prices to the Ministry of Agriculture. The latter also holds meetings with farmers' associations to get their views on pricing issues. On the basis of these meetings, the ministry's own cost estimate of production, and on the AMA's recommendations, the Minister of Agriculture in consultation with the appropriate senior officials then decides on the appropriate producer prices to recommend to the Ministerial Economic Co-ordinating Committee (MECC), which is composed of the ministers of the relevant ministries. After considering AMA's proposals, MECC makes recommendations to the cabinet where the final decision on producer prices is taken. The producer prices arrived at in this fashion are then implemented by the CSC and DMB in their purchases of beef and milk from livestock producers.There are variations to this process of producer price fixing in terms of the relative weight given to economic and political considerations. However, some aspects of this basic approach can be found in Ethiopia and, to a limited extent, in Sudan especially with regard to milk produced by the government-sponsored Kuku Cooperative Dairy Production Scheme and in the cattle ranching and fattening operations of Socidtd de ddveloppement des productions animales (SODEPRA) in northern Cdte d'lvoire.Having decided on producer prices to be paid by parastatals, governments may again intervene by stipulating the prices at which their agencies must sell their products on the domestic market. In cases where the agencies' domestic selling prices (set by government) are inadequate to cover their handling costs and the costs of purchasing products at the government-guaranteed producer prices, subsidy payments may be needed. For example, in Zimbabwe in 1984 and 1986, the CSC needed 8.5 million and 6.0 million Zimbabwean dollars, respectively, because of trading deficits incurred as a result of government control of both purchase and wholesale selling prices (CSC, unpublished data).At the other end of the spectrum, consumer prices set by official decree are also prevalent in most of the study countries (Table 12). This instrument is normally intended to check price rises in order to hold down increases in the cost of living and to make livestock products available to low-income consumers at affordable prices. The consumer prices set in this manner are, therefore, ceiling prices. Frequently, a subsidy is involved as indicated, for example, by a Zimbabwean government policy document which noted that \"for a number of decades past governments pursued a policy aimed at keeping the prices of basic foodstuffs, i.e. maize meal, meat ..., as low as possible, whilst at the same time set producer prices at a level high enough to guarantee that consumer demand was met. Such a policy involved direct government intervention through the payment of subsidies to bridge the difference between official procurement prices and official selling prices since any increase in producer prices, if allowed to be passed on to the final consumer, would place an unacceptable burden on the majority of the population at the lower income level\" (Zimbabwe Gov't, 1988).While rationing appears to be an important complement to consumer price controls as it limits demand to the amount of goods available at the fixed price, it is not commonly used in the study countries. Thus, in the absence of rationing, consumer price control tends to be either ignored or, when enforced (at considerable financial cost to the government), give rise to a parallel market with much higher prices to consumers.Furthermore, past experience in some of the study countries has emphasised the frequent tendency for price control regimes to be unduly rigid, raising difficulties when changes are required as happened, for example, in Sudan in 1985. Also, consumer price controls can hinder the flow of good quality animals to domestic markets, especially during periods of limited supply, because butchers may hold back on purchases due to doubts about their ability to operate at reasonable profit margins. The net effect is to reduce beef supply in those areas where price control is enforced. However, price controls are increasingly recognised as the wrong instrument for providing cheap food to urban consumers and for carrying the main burden of antiinflationary policies. For these reasons, as well as prodding by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, decontrolling of prices is now taking place in virtually all of the study countries applying this instrument.Input subsidies are an integral part of livestock price policy in two of the study countries (Table 12). The motive behind input subsidisation is to provide incentives to producers, not by raising the price of their products, but, rather, by lowering their costs of production. Measures, which may include subsidies for credit, concentrate feeding, veterinary services, transportation and reduced import duties, are frequently designed to bring about increased livestock production by encouraging producers to use modern technical packages. In Cdte d'lvoire, for example, SODEPRA provides subsidised feeds, drugs and veterinary services to livestock producers in the northern part of the country.In Nigeria, immediately after independence, regional governments helped finance the introduction and distribution of concentrate feeds to pastoralists. Also during the oil boom, i.e. 1975-1983, the federal government made credit available to livestock producers at concessionary rates to promote the use of new inputs. In addition, the government has been encouraging commercial banks to lend to livestock producers by absorbing some of the risks involved through the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme. This scheme, established in 1978, guarantees loans made by commercial banks to the agricultural sector and thus serves to lower the price of credit for those seeking capital to invest in food and livestock production. Loan guarantee statistics showed that between 1978 and 1986, total guaranteed loans amounted to 316.9 million Naira out of which 173.9 million, or about 55%, went to livestock production.Moreover, the Nigerian Government has sought, albeit unsuccessfully, to cheapen the price of land for livestock and other agricultural production projects. The government's land decree of March 1978 reserves for the state governments, rural land not under active exploitation. The prime objective of the decree is to make it easier for the state governments to acquire land for public purposes, including the establishment oflarge-scale grazing reserves and ranching schemes. Unfortunately, as argued elsewhere, these input price reducing measures have not been totally effective in raising the level of livestock production in Nigeria (Williams, 1989). For the most part, these instruments have been manipulated to benefit the large-scale commercial livestock producers at the expense of the small-scale pastoralists who account for the bulk of livestock production in the country.In contrast to input subsidies intended primarily for producers, consumer price subsidies represent a real effort to keep down the prices of food including livestock products consumed by most of the populace. The cost of this policy is borne either by agricultural producers in the form of low purchase prices or, more often, by the government. Once implemented, consumer subsidies are difficult to withdraw or to reduce substantially. However, because governments naturally attempt to limit this cost in one way or another, there are a number of differing subsidy instruments.The most general, i.e. untargeted subsidy, consists of subsidising the consumer prices of a few selected items, usually beef and milk, with no restriction on the quantity bought and open to everyone. Although this could benefit all income classes to the extent of their purchases of the subsidised commodities, more often than not, the urban population benefits most on account of its higher incomes and political clout. Such an untargeted subsidy frequently runs counter to the goal of equity, and may actually increase inequality. At the same time and because of the extent of consumer coverage, it is an extremely costly policy putting a huge burden on government budgets. This policy instrument of consumer price subsidy is used in Zimbabwe, particularly with respect to beef, and less explicitly in those countries (e.g. Sudan and Mali) where governments attempt to enforce consumer price controls.Another instrument that is also implicitly used in Zimbabwe is targeted subsidies which attempt to direct consumer subsidies to certain designated groups, for whom low-priced food is essential, while containing budgetary costs. The containment of budgetary costs is pursued indirectly through geographical targeting and self-targeting. Geographical targeting is based on locating retail shops in areas inhabited mainly by low-income groups. For example, the CSC in Zimbabwe has established a number of tru-stores (i.e. retail outlets) in high population density areas to provide consumers with low-quality beef at affordable (i.e. effectively subsidised) prices.The self-targeting approach, which relies mainly on the fact that different income groups have different food consumption habits, has also been advocated in Zimbabwe as a way of reducing the budgetary costs to the government of beef and milk subsidies. Its justification lies in the fact that low-grade beef and milk consumers dominate the domestic beef and milk demand in Zimbabwe. For example, a government policy document estimates that demand for low and high quality beef stands at 92 and 8%, respectively, of total domestic demand. The same document goes on to state that \"our domestic market is dominated by low-income consumers and is extremely sensitive to price changes\" (Zimbabwe Gov't, 1988). Similarly, sterilised milk, with a longer shelf life, is more popular in the rural areas than fresh milk. Thus, subsidies are concentrated on low-quality beef and sterilised milk consumed predominantly by the poor, rather than high-grade beef and fresh milk consumed relatively more by the middle-and upper-income classes.Import tariffs are one of the traditional and most widely used instruments for raising the prices of imports and are used in virtually all the countries studied. They can be manipulated to give local producers whatever degree of protection is desired by insulating domestic prices from international price fluctuations and from the effects of imports subsidised at their source. This is precisely what the government of Cote d'lvoire has done to stem the downward pressure on domestic cattle and beef prices arising from imports of highly subsidised beef from the European Community (EC). Since 1983, the Ivoirien government has imposed import duties of approximately 25% on beef imports from the EC to lessen the negative impact of such imports on domestic beef prices.Import duties are also frequently used to generate revenue and discourage the consumption of certain products. In Nigeria, for example, the 1961 federal government's budget statement provided the justification for subsequent use of this instrument for raising revenue by claiming that tariff increases were imposed upon goods consumed by the better-off classes of the community. The statement added that \"no one could reasonably maintain that imported meat, butter ..., constitute indispensable or significant items in the family budget of the low income groups which form the bulk of our population\" (Nigerian Gov't, 1987).Thus, tariff increases were imposed to serve as an indirect consumption tax and to raise revenue for the government. Between 1977 and 1986 imported livestock products attracted custom duties ranging from 10-30% of the c.i.f. value of the imported products.Moreover, quantitative import restrictions, effected through import licences, foreign exchange allocations, physical quota limits on imports and outright bans constitute another quick-acting and powerful livestock policy instrument that is widely used in some of the study countries to protect domestic producers against competition from cheaper import supplies. These measures are also used to serve other ends. For instance, a 1988 Nigerian Government policy document maintained that \"to serve as an incentive for increased production, government's ban on the importation of beefand other meats will remain in force\" (Nigerian Gov't, 1988). However, a more powerful reason for imposing these measures, and one that is rarely made explicit, is the windfall gains that often accrue to those with rights to import licences and quotas. In the case of Nigeria, it is now well understood that prior to the introduction of the foreign exchange market in 1986, those responsible for trade restrictions together with those who had access to import licences and foreign exchange allocations were able to gain from the rents implied by the price differential between domestic and world prices. Thus, a reasonable inference is that rent-seeking is at least partly responsible for the implementation of these import-restrictive measures in some of the study countries.Export taxes, licences, quotas and bans These export-restricting instruments are widely used in the livestock exporting countries included in this study, to lower domestic prices and frequently to prevent local prices from rising to international levels when the latter lie above the former. They are also used to ensure that domestic consumption demands are met before any export. Thus in July 1986, the Government of Sudan imposed a ban on livestock exports in order to satisfy domestic consumption. Prior to that time and beginning in the late 1970s, there was a 5% export tax on small ruminants and their meat products, while export duties of 20 and 15% were imposed on cattle and beef, respectively.1 In addition to these taxes, a would-be exporter, amongst other things, must obtain an export licence, pay an initial export registration fee and subsequently an annual export registration renewal fee and must also set aside 30% of the quantity intended for export for the domestic market. The official taxes and fees paid for exporting cattle originating from Nyala in western Sudan in 1983/84 are itemised in Table 13.The specific nature of the taxes and other fees imposed on the export of livestock and meat products in Sudan is not unique to this country. They are common in some of the other exporting countries studied, including Ethiopia and Mali. While variable taxes and levies, as temporary measures, can improve domestic price stability, a long-term sustained use of these price control instruments inevitably negates the incentive to producers and carries the danger of introducing significant price distortions to the disadvantage of the livestock subsector in the long-run.Having briefly discussed the objectives and instruments of livestock pricing policies in the study countries, the issue of economic and political trade-offs between the different objectives and the difficulties often encountered in achieving desired objectives through the chosen policy instruments are examined in the next section.The review of livestock price policy objectives in the previous section emphasised one central pointthe multiplicity of objectives, both in the context of individual countries as well as for all the study 10. The export duties on cattle and beef consist of a 15 and 10% export tax based on the frce-on-board (f.o.b.) value of exports and a 5% development tax on each product based on the free-alongside-ship (f.a.s.) value of exports. 11. For a detailed account of the official levies on the export of livestock in Mali see Delgado (1980: p. 378). b. Actual registration fee amortised and pro-rated over the number of animals exported. c. Total levies may vary slightly between different producing areas due to differences in local market charges.Sources: Sudan Gov't (1986); LMMC (1984). countries as a group, with a consequent scope for conflict and contradiction.In the first instance, the possibility of conflict between price policy objectives is indicated by the fact that, in five out of the six countries studied, the national policy included as objectives both the provision of producer price incentives and the stabilisation or lowering of consumer prices. The dilemma here is how to ensure cheap food, including meat and milk, for consumers without depressing producer prices to the extent that incentives for increased production and marketable surplus are jeopardised. Moreover, most governments want to safeguard the nutritional welfare of urban dwellers and poorer income groups, while at the same time trying to avoid the disruptive effects that rising and unstable livestock product prices can have on the cost of living and consequently on wage levels. In principle, with an appropriate set of pricing instruments, it should be possible to reconcile these conflicting objectives, but this is rarely achieved.This brings us to the second important point which is that, even when an apparently non-conflicting set of objectives (e.g. export promotion and employment creation) is chosen, attempting to implement them all through a single pricing instrument may create conflicts and inconsistencies. For example, if higher producer prices are used to pursue the aforementioned objectives, this may encourage increased production, employment and may even result in exportable surplus. However, if producer prices are too high, domestic demand may drop and exports may become uncompetitive thus dampening the growth of output with a possible decline in employment.A somewhat different issue is the extent to which the choice of a pricing instrument is dictated by a primary concern for livestock policy objectives, rather than for macro-economic objectives largely external to the livestock subsector. For instance, a key macro-economic variable for the livestock subsector is the exchange rate. As can be seen in the next chapter, until recently virtually all the study countries maintained an overvalued exchange rate that adversely affected the livestock subsector by shifting the terms of trade against exports and in favour of imports and non-tradeables. Governments often responded to the resulting trade imbalances by placing stiff tariffs or quotas on imports; and yet these same measures have been frequently justified on the grounds that they will bring about the realisation of food self-sufficiency.Similarly, there is a potential conflict between achieving domestic livestock production objectives through the price mechanism and maintaining external trade balance. The tradeable nature of livestock products and production inputs implies that the choice of a particular set of pricing intervention instruments (e.g. import tariffs/quotas, export taxes/subsidies and exchange rates) can have a considerable impact on both the performance and fortunes of the subsector, the overall balance of payments and the growth of the national economies. The point is simply that when pricing instruments are used to achieve, say, macro-economic objectives, they may have an indirect ill effect on livestock policy objectives as they were not implemented with the latter in mind, resulting in inconsistencies between macro-economic objectives and livestock policy objectives.These problems are further compounded when pricing decisions affecting the same commodities or inputs are made by a variety of government departments. For example, as indicated in the previous section, it is not uncommon to find the producer prices of meat and milk being determined by a ministry of agriculture, while a ministry of trade and commerce is responsible for fixing consumer prices. At the same time, interest rates for credit schemes and the foreign exchange rate that affects the domestic price of exports and imported livestock products, are usually set by the ministry of finance or the central bank. Frequently, definite positions based on different criteria are assumed by the different government departments before co-ordination of their pricing decisions is taken. In some cases, such co-ordination is inadequate or non-existent. As a result, there can be confusion regarding objectives and approaches and the pricing instruments may be used in ways different from those originally intended.Altogether these problems raise doubts as to the degree of effective control that governments have in using the price mechanism to achieve some of their declared livestock policy objectives. It is fairly obvious that several of the goals discussed in the previous section are conflicting, yet governments in most cases still pursue them. The question is raised: Why do governments persist in pursuing these goals through price intervention policies? This is examined in the next section.Although there now exists a wide variety of arguments on why governments intervene in agricultural pricing, two strands of the debate are relevant to this study. On the one hand, some economists like Stiglitz (1987) have argued that to understand the nature of government interventions in agricultural markets, one must approach the problem from the perspective of the second best. The main problem is that most developing countries do not have the administrative capacity to implement an effective and equitable income tax system. As a result, the marginal social cost for implementing an income tax system may be unduly high. According to Stiglitz, failure to recognise this fact, i.e. the lack of a first-best solution to revenue generation, has given rise to much of the controversy over state intervention. Thus, naive views advocating non-interference and free markets, or even the more sophisticated view based on optimal tax theory that government should not impose trade taxes, become untenable once it is recognised that government has limited instruments for collecting revenue (implying that some distortionary taxation is necessary) and redistributing income (so that one way of improving the welfare of the poor may be through taxes on commodities consumed by the rich, with revenue so generated used to subsidise the poor).On the other hand, those in the public choice tradition like Robert Bates (1981) argue that misguided price intervention policies pursued by governments in Africa are the result ofshort-sighted decisions made by rulers on the basis of political self-interest. For Bates, the impartiality of the state cannot be taken for granted. Rather, the elite controlling state power often pursues policies designed to maintain itself in power. He argues that policies which appear incomprehensible and irrational make perfect sense when viewed from this angle. Thus, price intervention policies which exploit the rural sector in many African countries can be understood once it is recognised that farmers and pastoralists make poor coalition partners because of their limited political power and resources extracted from them are used to benefit the elite directly or strengthen its power by appeasing the better organised and more powerful urban population. Similarly, Ghai and Smith (1987) argue that government control over the agricultural marketing system (through marketing boards, import licences and foreign exchange allocations) brings with it control over substantial resource flows that governments may use for their own purposes or allow different groups or individuals to enjoy as a way of dispensing political patronage.Undoubtedly, the various perspectives of this debate on government intervention are valuable and need to be carefully scrutinised. Nonetheless, the wide variety of policies pursued by governments in the study countries and their different outcomes suggests that the relative importance of these relevance of these different perspectives in explanations will differ from country to country. The explaining the behaviour of governments in the evidence presented in this chapter on the objectives study countries, and instruments of livestock price policies shows the Having examined the goals of livestock pricing policies and the main mechanisms through which prices are influenced in the study countries, attention is turned in this chapter to an analysis of the official price data on livestock products. The price data are analysed with a view to determine how successful governments have been in meeting some of their stated pricing policy objectives and to measure the impact of price intervention policies on production incentives and consumer prices. The methodology used for the analysis is set out in Appendix 1. The sources and limitations of the data used and the constraints which they impose on the interpretation of the results are also discussed in Appendix 1.In what follows, we first examine empirical evidence on the real producer prices and the real border equivalent producer prices of livestock products. Next, variations in the two prices over time are analysed and nominal protection coefficients (NPCs) are estimated to establish the relative degree of implicit taxation or subsidisation of producers. The trend in real consumer prices is then examined and NPCs are also estimated for consumers. The chapter concludes by drawing out the implications of the results for livestock production incentives and for government effectiveness in influencing prices to achieve their objectives.Real producer prices, obtained by deflating farm-gate prices by the consumer price index (CPI), provide a direct, albeit incomplete, measure of incentives provided to livestock producers when technology and prices for inputs are held constant. The incentives are transmitted through the cost of consumer goods as measured by the CPI and will generate income and work/leisure substitution effects as a result of changes in the real returns to labour.1 Viewed in this light, the incentive (disincentive) effect arises when the prices received by the producer exhibit a significant upward (downward) trend relative to the cost-of-living index as measured by the CPI. This means that producers receive an incentive when nominal producer prices rise faster than inflation and a disincentive when domestic inflation exceeds the rise in nominal producer prices and thus erodes the purchasing power of producers' income. In countries where producer prices are fixed, real producer prices will rise when official prices are raised much faster than inflation, possibly through liberalisation of marketing and pricing policies. Conversely, infrequent or insufficient adjustments to officially fixed nominal prices coupled with high domestic inflation will bring about declining real producer prices.12. For a discussion of the rationale and limitations of using the CPI as a deflator of producer prices, see Appendix 1.13. In principle, it is possible to distinguish between three related kinds of price incentives to producers, viz: incentives to encourage the substitution of work for leisure with the ultimate aim of increasing the output of a commodity; incentives to promote the production of a domestic commodity over other competing domestic products; and incentives to stimulate the domestic production of a commodity in order to reduce the volume of competing imports. The discussion in this section is limited only to the first kind of incentives since competing domestic products and imports are not explicitly considered here. However, the incentive system in a country may encompass all three kinds.The estimated rates of growth ofreal domestic producer prices in the study countries between the early 1970s and mid-1980s are shown in Table 14. Some caution is required in comparing results across countries and commodities. This is because for one of the study countries, Mali, a CPI does not exist. Instead, the food price index (FPI) has been used to deflate producer prices. Moreover, while similar time periods were used for beef and mutton, a slightly different time period was used for milk due to the non-availability of data for one year in one of the study countries. Nonetheless, the table indicates that there were four statistically significant cases of increases and two statistically significant cases of decreases in the real domestic producer prices of the commodities surveyed. If the signs of the non-significant coefficients are examined, the table shows that on balance there was a general picture of upward movement in real producer prices. The pattern, however, varies among commodities even within the same country. For example, in Cote d'lvoire the producer price for beef fell, while it increased for mutton over the same period.Real border equivalent producer prices (RBEPPs) were also estimated for the study countries in order to assess the opportunities available to producers through international trade and to provide a basis for comparison with real domestic producer prices.14 For each commodity, the RBEPP was estimated by converting a world representative price into local currency using the official exchange rate and then deflating by the domestic rate of inflation. The estimate thus obtained provides an indication of the real value of the border price in domestic terms and will vary from one country to the other depending on the rates of exchange and domestic inflation.The rates of growth of real border equivalent producer prices are shown in Table 14. In principle, the lower the rate of inflation and/or the higher the rate of devaluation of the exchange rate, the greater will be the tendency for the RBEPP to rise in local currency terms. Conversely, countries with a high rate of inflation and a relatively constant exchange rate, i.e. countries allowing their currencies to become overvalued will show a rapidly declining RBEPP. Table 14 underscores this latter point for all the study countries. As the table shows, RBEPPs fell in real domestic terms in all the countries studied. If this result is taken together with the fact that the real domestic producer price rose in some countries and fell less rapidly than the RBEPP in others (see also Figures 3 and 4), the implication is that the ratio of domestic producer price to BEPP will, at least, show a moderate increase in most of the study countries. This point is largely confirmed as we shall see later on in this chapter.At this juncture, it is useful to examine a slightly different issue relating to the degree of price variability in the study countries. As discussed in Chapter 3, one policy objective that is frequently mentioned by most governments is price stabilisation. Table 15 gives an indication of how successful the study countries have been in minimising year-to-year variations in producer prices. Judging by the coefficient ofvariation, except for mutton in Cdte d'lvoire and milk in Mali, real domestic producer prices have fluctuated less than RBEPPs over the entire period covered. This finding is also partly confirmed by Figures 3,4 and 5. When the entire period covered is divided into two subperiods, the above result remains largely unchanged. With respect to beef in Cote d'lvoire, Mali, Sudan and Zimbabwe, in the period 1970-78, the coefficient of variation in RBEPP was at least four times as high as the coefficient of variation in real domestic producer prices (see Appendix 2). Further, if the variation in real domestic producer  1 to 12.Source: Estimated from data collected from the study.prices is considered alone, the results indicate that for beef in Cote d'lvoire, Nigeria and Zimbabwe and for mutton in Cote d'lvoire and Nigeria, the variation in domestic producer prices was higher in the period 1970-78 than it was in the period 1979-86. However, the opposite seems to be the case for beef and milk in Mali and for beef, mutton and milk in Sudan (see Appendix 2). For Sudan, part of the explanation for the higher coefficient of variation in real domestic producer prices in the period 1979-86 (compared with 1970-78) lies in the successive devaluations of the Sudanese pound which started around 1979 and continued for much of the 1980s. The devaluations which were necessitated by structural imbalances within the economy led to wide fluctuations in food prices, including the prices of livestock products.Overall, the results suggest that in comparison with RBEPPs, a certain degree of success was achieved in the study countries in minimising the year-to-year fluctuations in real domestic producer prices over the period considered. Interestingly, it also indicates a point made earlier on in Chapter 3 about the unstable nature of world commodity markets. It shows, for beef in particular, just how unstable the beef industry would be in the study countries if it were exposed to unrestricted world prices.As noted under the discussion of real producer price trends, it appears that a certain amount of incentive has been provided to livestock producers through the rise in real producer prices of some of the commodities surveyed. Real price trends, however, provide only a partial picture of the complex interaction of sector and macro-economic policies on production incentives. To provide a better measure of the effect of price policy interventions on production incentives, the nominal protection coefficient (NPC) -which is defined as the ratio of the domestic producer price to the border equivalent price -can be used to assess both the level of taxation against (or subsidisation of) livestock production and the scope for increasing incentives. By comparing domestic producer prices to the maximum that could be offered to producers through international trade (i.e. border price less domestic marketing costs), the NPC provides an indication of the taxation (or subsidisation) rate for producers and thus, a measure of the distortion of production incentives. 16 An NPC equal to one would indicate that at the official exchange rate the producer is obtaining the equivalent of the world price and, in this sense, is neither being taxed nor subsidised. A coefficient greater than one would suggest subsidisation, while a coefficient of less than one would indicate that governments are taxing producers of the commodity in question. Given the latter situation, there exists the scope for increasing price incentives by raising the domestic producer price to the same level as the border equivalent price.In Table 16, the estimated NPCs17 for the producers of beef, mutton and milk are presented.18The results indicate that, except for beef in C6te d'lvoire, policy measures in the study countries have implicitly subsidised livestock producers over the period covered. When the NPCs for beefand mutton are compared, the latter appear higher than the former mainly as a result of higher domestic mutton prices in the study countries.In explaining inter-country differences in the NPCs, it is useful to distinguish between importing and exporting countries. For the livestock products considered in Table 16, Cote d'lvoire and Nigeria are net importers. In the case of milk, all the countries considered in Panel B of the table can be classified as net importers for most of the period covered. In these circumstances, we would expect the domestic price for these products to rise in relation to the border price because ofthe increasing need to import to meet the domestic deficit. This indeed occurred to some extent in most of the importing countries, with beef in Cote d'lvoire being the only major exception. If this fact is taken together with the decline in the real border equivalent producer price in these countries, we would expect the ratio of producer price to border price to rise over time for beef, mutton and milk in the importing countries. This expectation is largely confirmed by the results in Table 16. Figure 6  Source: Estimated from data collected from the study countries by the author.16. While the NPC represents a simple and straight forward measure of price incentives (or disincentives), it suffers from the disadvantage that only the product price is considered, and not the prices of inputs. More complex measures such as the Effective Protection Coefficient (EPC) and Effective Subsidy Coefficient (ESC) which take the prices of inputs into consideration require data on farm budgets which were not available in most of the study countries. In any case, given the low level of purchased inputs in ruminant livestock production in the majority of the countries studied, it is most likely that the NPC will closely approximate these other measures. 17. A major problem in estimating NPCs relates to the choice of an appropriate world market price to use as a reference price since a number of different world price series exist. A description of the world price series used for this study is provided in Appendix 1.18. Since the NPCs presented in Table 16 were estimated using official exchange rates, it is to be expected that this will lead to a significant upward bias in the NPCs of those countries with overvalued exchange rates.19. Although the rise in the real producer price in some of the importing countries was statistically insignificant (as shown in Table 14), the sign of the coefficients suggest an upward trend. For mutton in Nigeria, the fall in the real producer price was small and statistically non-significant.shows the gradual rise in the NPCs for milk producers in Mali, Sudan and Zimbabwe.In Mali, which is a livestock exporting country, the real border equivalent producer price for beef fell markedly between 1974 and 1975 and remained at a depressed level until about 1981 (see Figure 3). The real domestic producer price also fell but not as rapidly, thus leading to a rise in the NPC over the period covered.In Sudan, another livestock exporting country, the lucrative export market provided by the oil rich Gulf states and the frequent devaluations of the Sudanese pound from 1979 onwards indirectly led to a rise in the real producer price of meat products. At the same time that the real domestic producer price was rising, the real border equivalent price was declining. The result was a substantial rise in the NPCs of beef and mutton over the period considered.With respect to Zimbabwe, a beef exporting country, the fall in the NPC for beef, particularly between 1984-86, was caused by a rise in the real border equivalent price coupled with a moderate fall in the real domestic producer price (see Figure 3). The rise in the border price was in large part due to Zimbabwe's realistic exchange rate policy during this period. Although the nominal producer price increased between 1984-86, domestic inflation increased much faster leading to a fall in the real producer price. The overall effect of the divergent directions of these two prices was a decline in the NPC for beef.For each commodity considered above, the underlying causes of annual changes in the NPCs may be analysed by a simple decomposition. A cursory glance at the equation used to derive the NPC (see Appendix 1) will show that three variables (the nominal producer price, the exchange rate and the border price) determine the value of the NPC. Following Jaeger and Humphreys (1988), the NPC is decomposed using a difference equation which for small changes approximates the total derivative of the NPCs three components or sources of change (see Appendix 3). Examining these changes in conjunction with trends in real price changes can help explain the underlying pattern of changing production incentives. The NPCs for mutton and milk in Cote d'lvoire and Mali, respectively, have been decomposed in the above fashion and the observed changes are explained below.We examine first the NPC for mutton in Cote d'lvoire which is shown in Figure 7   NPC between 1980-82 and1983-84 was primarily a result of nominal devaluations which have the effect of making international prices appear higher in domestic currency terms. At the same time that border prices were going up, rising inflation caused the real producer price to drop (Panel C of Figure 7), thus contributing to the fall in the NPC in those years.In the case of milk in Mali, the decomposition of the NPC shows that nominal producer prices remained unchanged between 1971-72 and 1973-75 with the result that changes in the NPC in those years were entirely due to changes in exchange rate and international price (Figure 8, Panel B). The changes in the latter two variables were quite small and consequently the changes in the NPC were minimal. Between 1983 and 1984, a large nominal producer price increase helped raise the NPC above the NPC values of the early 1970s. As Panel C indicates, there was also an upward trend in the real producer price around this period.Overall, what these decompositions have clearly shown is that the scope for governments in the study countries to raise incentives for livestock producers depends on a number of factors including policies affecting the formation of nominal producer prices, macro-economic policies influencing the rate of inflation and the exchange rate and international livestock products prices. While governments can act directly to influence the first three factors, only indirect action may be possible in the case of international prices. For the two Francophone countries included in the study, the room for manoeuvre on exchange rate management is even limited given the fact that their currencies are tied to the French franc.The Consumer Price of Livestock Products One prime objective of governments in the study countries is to keep the consumer price of livestock products down in order to restrain rises in the cost of living. The data in Table 17 indicate that, with the exception of milk, governments have not been entirely successful in this respect. Although there was a statistically significant fall in the retail price of beef in Zimbabwe, for meat products in general there was a rise in retail prices. The rise in Sudan was particularly high. Given the fact that in some countries official rather than market prices were used, and because meat shortages at times led to the development of parallel markets with meat being sold at prices higher than the official ones, the rise in meat prices could have been higher than the figures in Table 17 suggest.   17).Source: Estimated from data collected from the study countries by the author.variation, the fluctuations in retail prices almost parallel those of producer prices. In order to establish the extent of subsidisation (or taxation) of consumers, NPCs were also estimated for consumers and the results are presented in Table 19.In the case of consumers, an NPC of less than one implies implicit subsidisation, while a coefficient greater than one means implicit taxation. For meat products, the results in Table 19 show that in the period between the early and late 1970s, there was a gradual shift away from subsidisation to taxation of consumers. Implicit taxation of consumers continued till the mid-1980s in most countries, the only exception being with regard to beef in C6te dTvoire and Zimbabwe. This result is in agreement with the trends in meat retail prices reported in Table 17. Throughout the period covered, milk consumers were subsidised in Mali, but were implicitly taxed in the remaining countries (see Figure 9). These results thus show that in the majority of cases, the objective of keeping retail prices down for the benefit ofconsumers has not been fully realised. The only caveat is that the NPCs shown here may overstate the actual level ofconsumer taxation since the official exchange rate was used to estimate them.   1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1         One major task of policy analysis is to measure the effects of alternative policies in ways that are useful for decision-making. This chapter quantifies the costs and benefits resulting from price intervention policies in the study countries. Specifically, changes in production and consumption brought about by price distortions are estimated for three distinct periods between 1970 and 1986. Changes in the welfare of producers and consumers, as well as in the foreign exchange bill and government revenues are also estimated and compared with other key economic variables. The chapter begins with a description of the theoretical model on which the analysis is based and then continues by detailing the data sources. Results of the study are presented next, followed by some concluding thoughts.The results presented in this chapter are derived using the standard partial equilibrium framework based on the Marshallian concept of economic surplus (see Currie et al, 1971;Lutz and Scandizzo, 1980;Bale and Lutz, 1981). In this approach, current policy interventions such as tariffs, export taxes, quotas and subsidies are analysed in relation to a policy without any distortions. The method permits the estimation of the real (i.e. volume) and monetary gains that could be obtained if the major commodity markets in a country were fully and simultaneously liberalised. Each commodity market is considered separately and the estimates of gains and losses in each market are aggregated country by country. This single market approach implicitly ignores linkages between commodity markets and this represents a major limitation of the method used here. Nonetheless, the assessment of efficiency and welfare effects using the partial equilibrium framework may provide reasonably good first approximations of the order of magnitude of the impact of distortions caused by livestock policy interventions (see Lutz and Saadat, 1988). Graphical representation of the partial equilibrium model is presented in Figure 10 using the case of an export tax as an example of a distortionary policy. SS' represents the domestic supply function and DD' the domestic demand schedule. To keep the analysis simple no distinction is made between producer and consumer price. The export tax is P -P .. As a result of this distortion, producers only obtain a price Pd as compared to Pw. They produce Q. instead of Qw and incur a producers' welfare loss of ACDH. However, consumers benefit from the lower price; they increase consumption from C to C. and obtain a consumers' surplus gain of ABGH. Under this policy, exports fall from Qw -Cw to Qd -Cd and foreign exchange earnings for the country drop from Pw(Qw -Cw) to Pw(Qd -Cd) while the government obtains export tax revenues of BCEF.This basic analytical structure of the partial equilibrium model can also be represented by a set of equations as shown below. The formulae allow for differentiation between producer and consumer prices: Change in production, dQi = EsidPiQi/P; Welfare gain of consumers, Gc = dPiQ -NSLc ( 6) Change in foreign exchange earnings, dF = Pwi(dQi-dCi) (7) Change in government revenue, dRg = dPi(Qi-Di) (8) where:Esi = own-price supply elasticity of commodity i, Edi= own-price demand elasticity of commodity i, dPi = impact of distortion on price, Qi= domestic production of commodity i, Pi= domestic producer (or consumer) price of commodity i, Ci = domestic consumption of commodity i, and Pwi = border equivalent producer (or consumer) price of commodity i. Equations 1 and 2 measure the changes in production and consumption as a result of a price distortion. Equations 3 to 6 quantify the typical efficiency and welfare changes associated with price policy interventions. Equations 3 and 4 represent the net efficiency losses in production and consumption to society as a whole. In evaluating these equations, if domestic prices move toward border equivalent prices (i.e. a shift toward free trade), then NSLp and NSLc are benefits (gains) to society. If, as in the case of the imposition of an export or import duty, the trend is away from free trade, then the values reflect costs (losses) to society. Equations 5 and 6 measure the welfare changes or the extent ofmonetary gains and losses ofproducers and consumers. They give an indication of the \"redistribution\" of income, between producers and consumers, caused by the instituted price policies. Equation 7 measures the change in the foreign exchange bill due to government intervention in the pricing of the commodity in question. It is the difference between the actual bill and what it would have been without intervention. Equation 8is interpreted analogously.The welfare gains and losses expressed in equations 3 to 7 can be related to the corresponding areas in Figure 10 as follows:Eq. 3 = CDE; Eq. 4 = BFG; Eq. 5 = ACDH (loss); Eq. 6 = ABGH; Eq. 7 = CwCjFG + QdQwDE (loss); and Eq. 8 = BCEF.DATA SOURCES Apart from the summary measures ofdistortion, i.e. the nominal protection coefficients presented in the previous chapter, other basic parameters required for the evaluation of welfare effects are the elasticities of supply and demand. Although a few studies have attempted to estimate demand and supply elasticities for livestock products in sub-Saharan Africa, serious methodological and data problems tend to make the reported estimates to be numerous and diverse (see Rodriguez, 1986 and1987;Khalifa and Simpson, 1972;Olayide andOni, 1969 and1972;Doran et al, 1979). Because elasticity estimates can differ widely, a range of plausible elasticities has been assumed for the analysis reported here. The elasticity ranges assumed were largely based on a careful review of the empirical estimates provided in the sources cited above and also in Braverman et al (1985) and Askari and Cummings (1976: Table Bl, pp. 405^M)7). In all cases, long-term supply elasticities were assumed to range from 0.3 to 1.0 for beef, from 0.5 to 1.25 for mutton and 0.6 to 1.50 for milk. Long-term demand elasticities were from -0.5 to -1.05 for beef, -0.6 to -1.25 for mutton and -0.66 to -1.2 for milk.The other basic data used for the calculations are presented in Table 20 and parts of Tables 21, 22 and 23. Three periods 1970-72, 1977-79 and 1984-86 were chosen in order to show changes resulting from price intervention policies over time. Thus, the data and the empirical results presented later on represent the average annual values for the periods specified.Tables 21, 22 and 23 present the gross effects of price distortions on real variables. A summary of gross monetary effects by country, obtained by aggregating the estimate of gains and losses for all the commodities considered in each country, is 20. NSLp and NSLc are, in theory, net efficiency fie. economic) losses in production and consumption, respectively.However, the literature generally refers to them as net social losses. Therefore, in order to avoid confusion the terminology normally used in the literature is retained here. 21. Available evidence from some of the studies cited above suggests a negative price elasticity of supply for beef in the short run. In the long run, all studies agree that the price elasticity of supply is positive. In the analysis reported here positive supply elasticities are used. However, it should be noted that if negative supply elasticities are assumed, the results may be different from those reported here.shown in Table 24. In these base results, no attempt has been made to correct for the effects of exchange rate distortions. However, in order to separate the effects of currency overvaluation from that of specific tariffs or equivalent interventions, nominal protection coefficients were re-estimated using adjusted exchange rates . The recalculated NPCs were then used to estimate the net real and monetary effects of price distortions for the period 1984-86 only. These net estimates (i.e. net of exchange rate distortions) are presented and compared with gross estimates in Tables 26 and  27.In general, the results depend on the magnitude of the price distortions as measured by the gross (or net) nominal protection coefficients, the responsiveness of supply and demand as measured by the supply and demand elasticities and on the absolute levels of demand and supply of the commodities in question.As Tables 21-23 show, the gross real effects of the price distortions are often sizeable. This is evident in the case of beef in Zimbabwe and milk in Mali. These two cases will be used to explain the results reported in Table 23 for 1984-86.The discussion in Chapter 3 and the NPCs presented in Table 20 indicate that in the period 1984-86, the Zimbabwean government pursued beef pricing policies that implicitly subsidised producers and consumers. The magnitude of impact of these price interventions on production, consumption, human welfare and trade depends on the elasticities of supply and demand. If we use the low supply and demand elasticities given in Table 20, we see that the the pricing policies pursued in Zimbabwe, in 1984-86, which gave positive protection to producers, increased beef output by 3400 1 (Table 23). However, the implicit subsidy to consumers at the same time increased consumption by 17 500 1, eventually reducing exports by 14 100 1.The case of milk in Mali is quite similar. The milk pricing policies pursued in 1984-86 also implicitly subsidised both producers and consumers. Using the low elasticities, we see that milk production increased by 10 100 t, but consumption also increased by 58 000 t. Thus, compared with a situation not influenced by price distortions, imports increased by 47 900 1. Since, in reality, total imports during this period amounted to about 32 000 t, a policy of non-intervention in pricing decisions would have made Mali more than self-sufficient in milk production. However, the level of milk imports into Mali due to price policy interventions was less in 1984-86 than in 1972-73 (47 900 1 vs 103 100 1; see Table 21). This suggests some improvement in milk pricing policies between the two periods considered here.With respect to the gross monetary effects of price distortions, the total net social losses in production (i.e. losses in production efficiency that society as a whole has to bear) aggregated for the commodities studied in each country, ranged from US$ 0.3 million for Zimbabwe to US$ 141.5 million for Nigeria in 1984-86, using the low elasticity assumption (Table 24, panel A, column 2). The total net social losses in consumption (i.e. economic losses that society has to bear due to consumption changes caused by price intervention) ranged from US$ 5.8 million in Zimbabwe to about US$ 660 million in Nigeria (Table 24, panel A, column 3). Compared to the efficiency-type losses, the welfare-type gains (losses) for producers and consumers were larger. For example, using the low elasticity assumption, the welfare gains to producers in 1984-86 were from seven times (C6te dTvoire, Nigeria and Sudan) to 40 times (Zimbabwe) as large as the net social losses in production during the same period (compare columns 2 and 4 in panel A, Table 24). On the face of it, this suggests a gradual shift away from discrimination against producers. On the other hand, consumers appeared to have gained even more than producers from pricing policy interventions in Cote dTvoire, Mali and Zimbabwe during the same period (compare Columns 4 and 5 in Table 24). In these three countries, foreign exchange earnings appeared to have been negatively affected by the particular policies pursued. For most of the period covered, Nigeria and Sudan obtained net revenues from the interventions, whereas the policies of the other three countries were such that the government incurred a deficit. This implies that taxes, if any, were more than fully offset by subsidies.Aggregating the gross monetary effects of intervention conceals one important point: that for commodities with negative protection (e.g. beef in Cote dTvoire in 1984-86), the (monetary) welfare losses to producers will always be much larger than the efficiency losses. Thus, on both welfare(i.e. equity) and efficiency grounds, there are cogent reasons in advocating for a move away from negative protection of livestock commodities.Comparison of the gross monetary effects of price distortions with some key economic indicators (Table 25) shows that producers' monetary gains in relation to agricultural GDP vary from 0.1% in Cdte d'lvoire to 17.4% in Sudan in 1984-86. The changes in government revenues due to pricing policy interventions compared to official development assistance (ODA) were relatively small for those countries which receive large foreign aid flows (e.g. Sudan and Mali) and very large for Nigeria which obtains little aid. The changes in foreign exchange earnings in relation to ODA were quite large for all the countries studied. The above comparisons and the ratios obtained appear to justify continued attention to pricing policies, along with other macro-economic policies, in order to ensure a more efficient incentive system for livestock production in the study countries.Thus far, the analysis has been conducted without adjusting for exchange rate distortions. However, it is widely known that for part of the period covered in this study, governments in all the study countries intervened in the foreign exchange markets either directly, through exchange rate restrictions (as in Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe), or indirectly through import tariffs and licences (as in COte d'lvoire, Mali, Nigeria, Sudan and Zimbabwe), with the result that their currencies were typically overvalued. Currency overvaluation acts like a tax on exports and like a subsidy on imports. These distortions are in addition to those created by direct pricing policy instruments such as import duties and export taxes. Therefore, as previously explained, an attempt was made to correct for exchange rate distortions by using adjusted exchange rates (instead of official exchange rates) to convert border prices into domestic currencies. The adjusted exchange rate as estimated here is the official exchange rate in a base year adjusted by the ratio of domestic to international rates of inflation (see footnote 22, page 41). The estimated adjusted exchange rates are presented together with the official exchange rates in Table 28 of Appendix 4.Based on the adjustments and relative to the base year (1970), it appeared that the official exchange rate in all the study countries, except Zimbabwe, was overvalued in 1984-86. By contrast, the official exchange rate was undervalued in Zimbabwe during the same period.In principle, if the official exchange rate is overvalued (undervalued), the use of an adjusted exchange rate in computing NPCs would make the latter smaller (higher) in absolute terms. Thus, ifwe consider the NPC for a producer, the use of an adjusted exchange rate in place of an overvalued exchange rate would reveal a larger negative distortion against commodities with initial negative protection or a reduced positive distortion for goods with initial positive rates of protection. The magnitude of the changes in NPCs would depend on the degree of currency overvaluation. The results obtained by using revised NPCs, based on adjusted exchange rates, are presented in Tables 26 and 27 where they are also compared with the results obtained using official exchange rates.Before looking at the results, a few comments are in order at this point. First, the method used to adjust the exchange rates assumes that they were in equilibrium (i.e. neither over-or undervalued) in the base year, 1970. Ifthis assumption does not hold, the adjusted exchange rates will not fully reflect the extent of distortions in official exchange rates, but will still give an indication of the level of distortions relative to whatever the situation was in the base year. Second, in theory, the adjustment of exchange rates should also have significant impact on domestic prices and, possibly, on the elasticities of demand and supply of the commodities under consideration. However, these other effects were not considered in the analysis reported here. Despite this limitation, the results obtained are quite interesting.In Table 26, the gross estimates were obtained by using NPCs calculated with official exchange rates, while the net estimates were derived by using revised NPCs based on adjusted exchange rates. A comparison of the gross and net volume figures indicates that, for those countries with overvalued exchange rates in 1984-86 (e.g. Mali, Nigeria, Sudan and Cdte d'lvoire), there would be greater reductions in exports and/or greater increases in imports if adjusted (i.e. undistorted) exchange rates were used in the analysis in place of the official exchange rates. Thus for a beef exporting country like Sudan, Table 26 shows that exports of beef would be 19 200 tonnes lower if NPCs based on adjusted exchange rates were used. Similarly, for a beef importing country like Cote d'lvoire, imports of beef would be 1400 1 higher.Although these results may appear counter-intuitive at first, they are entirely consistent with the estimated NPCs and the pattern of overvaluation of currencies in the study countries between 1984 and 1986. The results obtained for beef in Cote d'lvoire can be used to throw more light on the data shown in Table 26.The NPCs estimated for beef producers, using the official exchange rate, showed a negative protection for beef production in Cote d'lvoire between 1984 and 1986. As explained above, the use of an adjusted exchange rate in place of the official, overvalued, exchange rate would reveal a larger negative protection for beef. The net effect would be a reduction in production, as shown in Table 26. At the same time, beef consumers were being implicitly subsidised. However, the use of an overvalued exchange rate masks the magnitude of the implicit subsidy to consumers. The use of an adjusted exchange rate reveals that the subsidy, and hence the consumption that it engenders, is much higher. Since the change in imports is obtained as the difference between the change in production and consumption, the net effect is a higher level of imports. The reduction in beef exports for a country such as Sudan can be explained similarly. The estimates in Table 26 thus indicate the kind of masked distortions (or wrong market signals) that an overvalued exchange rate can create.With respect to the net monetary effects (Table 27), the use of revised NPCs further exposes the hidden distortionary effect of overvalued exchange rates for producers, consumers and governments alike. Mali and Nigeria represent two prime examples of how an overpriced exchange rate adversely affects producers and governments, while benefiting consumers. For Mali, a comparison of the gross and net monetary estimates show that for the period 1984-86 producer welfare effects switched from being positive to negative (i.e. producers suffered monetary losses), losses in foreign exchange earnings were three times higher, while the increase in benefits to consumers was about twice as high as in the base case. At the same time in Nigeria, welfare gains to producers and government revenues became significantly reduced, foreign exchange earnings switched from being positive to negative, while consumer welfare losses became substantially reduced compared to the base case.Overall, what these results suggest is that, for example, in a country with average NPCs for producers of 0.7 and an exchange rate which is overvalued by 25%, a narrow focus on removing direct price distortions will be inadequate. The imbalances that cause exchange rate distortions will need to be addressed at the same time that reforms of direct livestock pricing policy are being pursued.This study has tried to examine the objectives and instruments of livestock pricing policies in a selected sample of SSA countries. A major objective of the study has been to provide a cross-country comparison of the effects oflivestock pricing policies on production incentives, producers' and consumers' welfare and government revenues. Based on the findings of this study, it appears that since the early 1980s there has been a reduction in the level of price discrimination against livestock producers in the study countries. This reduction in taxation has come about through the institution of a variety of direct and indirect policy measures and represents an improvement over the situation in the 1970s.However, there still exists scope for improving price incentives in the study countries. Ordinarily, some of the measures already instituted such as liberalisation of agricultural marketing and currency devaluation should help raise real price incentives. But these measures will have the desired effect only to the extent that they are not offset by increased domestic inflation. If governments are able, through appropriate fiscal and monetary policies, to reduce inflation, this can serve to support and strengthen the other more direct measures aimed at improving real price incentives. This implies that macro-economic policies and specific sectoral measures designed to raise price incentives need to be closely co-ordinated if they are to provide maximum benefit to livestock producers.While the focus of this study has been entirely on the effect of livestock pricing policies on output, it is fair to acknowledge that there are also structural impediments to increased livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa. These include climatic and disease problems, inadequate infrastructure and research and extension services. Lack of attention to these other factors will weaken whatever improvement is achieved in the area of pricing policy. Thus, simultaneously with pricing reforms, investment in research and infrastructure will have to be made in order to achieve sustainable livestock production in the study countries and elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa.    Pb is the border equivalent producer price at the farm gate; P is the world price; T represents ocean freight and insurance charges;(P + T ) represents the c.i.f. price which was converted to local currency at the official exchange rate; Td represents handling, transport and marketing charges from port to the domestic market; C. represents transport, processing and marketing charges from farm gate to domestic market.For an export commodity, the border equivalent producer price at the farm gate was derived in a slightly different way. In this case, ocean freight and insurance charges were deducted from the world price to give the f.o.b. border price. From the latter, transport, processing and marketing charges from the farm to the domestic market were deducted and the value of by-products added to arrive at the border equivalent producer price. In symbols:where:V. is the value of by-products. In all cases, the reference market was assumed to be the largest city -usually the capital city.However, the case of Mali deserves special mention. Although Mali was classified as an exporter, the border equivalent price for Malian producers was not estimated as explained above.The land-locked nature of the country and the fact that Mali's traditional export market had always been COte d'lvoire necessitated a different approach. Thus, for beef and mutton in Mali, the border equivalent price was estimated by using c.i.f. price in Abidjan port rather than Pw as the starting point of the analysis -the assumption being that Abidjan is the place where beef from Mali will have to compete with imported beef.Also at this point, it is worthwhile to briefly examine the world market prices used in this study as reference prices. Due to the existence of a number of widely differing world price series for livestock products, it is difficult to find a single price series that will be adequate for all purposes, i.e. that will take into account the specificity of meat grades as well as the diversity that exists between different types of exporters on the one hand and between importers and exporters on the other. Nevertheless, to provide a common basis for comparison between countries, for each product considered in the study (e.g. beef) the same world price was used for all the study countries. This approach suffers from the shortcoming of not properly accounting for the regional trade flows among neighbouring countries (this was taken into consideration in the case ofMali as discussed above), but the approach is justified in the sense that it provides a common basis for comparison among all the study countries and better reflects the extent of distortion of domestic prices.Thus for beef, Argentinian f.o.b. prices for frozen boneless beef were used. These were converted into carcass weight equivalent prices for the estimation of border equivalent producer prices. For mutton, London wholesale prices for New Zealand frozen whole carcass were used. Both prices were taken from the IMF Financial Statistical Yearbook. The world price for reconstituted milk was obtained as a composite of the prices of skim milk powder and butteroil. Both prices were taken from various issues of the FAO Commodity Review and Food Outlook.Throughout Chapter 4, real prices have been computed by using the consumer price index (CPI) to deflate actual producer and consumer prices. The CPI was used as a deflator of nominal producer prices in order to estimate the producers' real purchasing power and its incentive (or disincentive) effect on livestock production. For the same set of prices the producer price index (PPI) could have been used, instead of the CPI, to give an idea of the net return to livestock production vis-a-vis other agricultural production activities. However, the CPI was the only readily available and most consistent price series in all the countries studied. The analysis was.therefore, confined to the use of the CPI alone.The CPI published in the IMF International Financial Statistics Yearbook was used for each country, except Mali. In the case of Mali, a CPI did not exist prior to 1988. The ILO Yearbook of Labour Statistics, however, contains a food price index (FPI) for Mali and this was used to deflate nominal prices in that country.Real border prices were computed by deflating nominal border prices (obtained as explained above) by the CPI or the FPI in the Malian case.  Gov't (1985); LMMC (Livestock and Meat Marketing Corporation, Sudan) (unpublished data). 5. AMA (1980;1986).   Sources: ILO (1981;1988);World Bank (1986b); IMF (1987), and data collected from the study countries.     Note: Border prices have been converted at official exchange rates.Sources: World Bank (1986b); IMF (1987), and data collected from the study countries.         Note: The milk considered here is evaporated and condensed milk in the case of Nigeria, while for the rest of the countries it is reconstituted milk.Source: Estimated from data collected from the study countries by the author.) ","tokenCount":"17856"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0257ab0991981fd1134c823eb62ca3d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c95674df-d6bf-40b4-bbcf-92c674fd8544/retrieve","id":"2057218672"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fd23a48d-5480-46e3-b332-0c377937be2c","pagecount":"11","content":"• \"what would the wasting have been had it been measured in a different month of that year?\" • To do this, the project had two main objectives:1. Explore seasonal variability in the wasting prevalence• WHZ (real-valued)• Wasting (binary)• Severe wasting (binary))• Birth order Wealth associated with reduced wasting.Month that the survey was conducted -is this food production related?The year of survey also important -indicated that wasting reducing over time.No geospatial data was significantdoes this tell us something?Extreme Drought associated with higher wastingThe month of collection is associated with wasting -showing a switch between higher and lower wasting Data -we are able to predict monthly wasting using a simple model of month, year and location for Bangldadesh Extreme drought was associated with wasting in Nigeria and Ethiopia.Proxy metrics need careful consideration -NDVI not related to anything directly, but it could be converted to length of growing season Seasonality in wasting each year -linked to rainfall and harvest periods, can be seen in all country'sExplore if some of the JME database, DHIS, MICS data on nutrition can be synthesised to make a larger database to integrate into the analysis.Proxy metrics need careful consideration -NDVI not related to anything directly, but it could be converted to length of growing season We estimated geospatial metrics for food production related issues (ie drought, temperature, rainfall).Food access wasn't considered here. Access to markets is also crucial and could be estimated using the CPAS code.The Jameel Observatory for Food Security Early Action is an international partnership led by the University of Edinburgh collaborating with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Save the Children, the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL) and Community Jameel.Based at ILRI in Nairobi, Kenya, we combine the local knowledge and concerns of communities facing on-the-ground threats of hunger with innovations in data science and humanitarian action; teaming up to devise solutions that can predict, prepare for, and overcome climate-related food security and malnutrition challenges in dryland areas. jameelobservatory.org / info@jameelobservatory.org With a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence","tokenCount":"337"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f4d31751ed014c36f77ce632cb6742fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a8fdfa08-03ec-41e3-8caa-9e4a827f9401/content","id":"-1947198250"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"75716fec-2614-468a-87b6-bf3a4c09b8b6","pagecount":"27","content":"plot -> field field -> regional regional -> national Our big picture is to develop remote sensing solutions for wheat rust detection at regional / national scale. The goal is to explore UAV and VHR satellites for rust detection. As a first step, a field trial experiment was carried out. Field Trial Experiment focuses on early detection of and high throughput phenotyping for wheat rust diseases.Six improved bread wheat varieties with varying rust resistance levels:   Box plot showing recorded yield per variety and treatment block1 AUDPC X : AUDPC for Scenario X; 2 AUDPC W : AUDPC for Scenario W; Note: Due to the delay in fungicide treatment, incomplete control for YR was obtained in treated plots, meaning that yield losses would likely have been higher under a complete control. VHRS sensors performed weaker than UAV due to the lack of sensitivity of their multispectral instruments in terms of spectral resolution (broader vs. narrower spectral bands) and spatial resolution (1-2 m vs. 5 cm).Thank ","tokenCount":"164"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1665025205.json b/data/part_1/1665025205.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4fe227c27fc80fdc29a3de735c9105e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d83cf6df-6231-4a47-ba0f-01fc8c329ab2/retrieve","id":"-884900760"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eca4f3e5-fe2d-4991-9d8c-fa693edcb70e","pagecount":"10","content":"Lisímaco Alonso*, Miguel Angel Viera** y Rupert Best***Existe un gran potencial en los países tropicales de América Latina para la utilización de la yuca seca en la alimentación animal. Hay, además, buenas perspectivas para incluirla en la alimentación humana como fuente de calorías en productos elaborados junto con otras materias primas; ejemplos de éstos son las harinas compuestas para sopas y coladas, el pan y las pastas. Se ha creado así la necesidad de desarrollar métodos de secado que sean eficientes, confiables respecto a la calidad del producto, y factibles técnicamente y económicamente, de manera que estos tres aspectos se consideren dentro de las condiciones socioeconómicas de los países en vías de desarrollo antes indicados.Entre los diferentes sistemas de secado hay dos que, por requerir relativamente baja inversión y presentar un manejo sencillo, despertaron interés y fueron considerados en los programas de investigación del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Son ellos el secado natural y el secado artificial en capa fija.En los años 70 se adaptó en el CIAT una tecnología para el secado natural de la yuca, que se aplicó en la Costa Atlántica de Colombia a escala comercial en un proyecto de colaboración con el Fondo de Desarrollo Rural Integrado (DRI); el proyecto se orientaba al establecimiento de pequeñas empresas campesinas que produjeran yuca seca para la alimentación animal. En el año 2000 había más de 180 plantas de este tipo establecidas en Colombia.El secado natural depende completamente de las condiciones climáticas, lo que restringe su uso en las épocas lluviosas del año. Por lo tanto, con el objeto de prolongar el período de secado y posibilitar el suministro continuo de yuca seca, se escogió un secador de capa fija con circulación artificial de aire caliente. Este sistema se evaluó utilizando diversas fuentes de calor, tales como diesel, gas propano, carbón mineral y un colector solar.En este capítulo se presentan los resultados de dicha evaluación y se discute el empleo del secado artificial en las condiciones actuales de producción y comercialización de la yuca en la Costa Atlántica; también se estudia este método como alternativa en la producción de yuca seca para el consumo humano.El método de secado más económico que haya usado el hombre desde tiempos remotos es el secado natural. Este método fue estudiado por varios investigadores para secar la yuca, tanto en pisos de concreto como en bandejas verticales o inclinadas, durante la década de los 70 (Roa, 1974;Best, 1978;Thanh et al., 1979). Estos estudios permitieron entender mejor los factores que más inciden en el proceso, tales como el estado de subdivisión de los trozos de yuca (tamaño y forma geométrica), la densidad de carga y las condiciones ambientales.A pesar de las mejoras hechas en las técnicas de secado natural y de las ventajas que ofrece éste sobre el secado artificial (en términos de costos de inversión y operación), es un método que no se puede emplear en regiones donde las condiciones ambientales sean desfavorables. En éstas, el uso de secadores por tandas, con aire ambiental o aire caliente o con una combinación de ambos, en circulación directa a través de una capa o lecho fijo, es una alternativa económicamente más favorable para América Latina que el empleo de secadores artificiales continuos y de gran capacidad (Crown, 1981;Freivalds, 1982).Paralelamente a las investigaciones del secado natural, se llevaron a cabo estudios de secado en capa fija, con miras a determinar los mejores parámetros de operación, la altura de la capa, y la temperatura y velocidad del aire para secar trozos de yuca.• Chirife y Cachero (1970) hallaron que con capas hasta de 12 cm de altura no se reduce apreciablemente el tiempo de secado con flujos de aire superiores a 5000 kg/h por m 2 , y la temperatura a la que los trozos se tuestan a bajos contenidos de humedad (menores que 35%) ocurre por encima de 84 °C. Estos autores también encontraron que no se presenta un período de velocidad constante y que el movimiento interno del agua contenida en los trozos es el mecanismo que controla el proceso desde el comienzo, lo que resultó confirmado posteriormente por Webb y Gill (1974) y Akhtar (1978).• A una escala mayor, Rossi y Roa (1980) y Ospina (1980) experimentaron con un secador de 15 m 2 de área, acoplado a un colector solar de 100 m 2 de área absorbente, y usaron modelos matemáticos para determinar el mínimo caudal de aire que se debe aplicar cuando la temperatura y la humedad relativa varían. Reportaron que, para capas de 30 cm de altura, el caudal aplicado varió entre 47.5 y 102.5 rn 3 /min por tonelada de trozos de yuca colocado en el secador, cuando la temperatura del aire fluctuaba entre 40 y 20 °C y la humedad relativa entre 25% y 55%.• Toh (1973) investigó el secado de pulpa rallada de yuca en varios niveles de temperatura, caudal de aire y densidad de carga, en un secador continuo de túnel. La pulpa había sido secada previamente hasta una humedad de 50% (en base húmeda) en una filtro-pensa. Para calentar el aire utilizó un quemador de kerosene. El consumo de combustible varió exponencialmente con la densidad de carga y aumentó (en menor grado) cuando se incrementó el caudal. Toh encontró que no era apropiado, para las condiciones del experimento, calentar aire a temperaturas mayores que 70 °C, por el alto consumo de combustible.• Con este mismo material (pulpa rallada prensada), Seng (1976) evaluó el empleo de un secador rotatorio y continuo. Al combustible utilizado se atribuye un 55% del costo total de la operación; aun así, el empleo de este sistema podría competir, en cuanto a costos, con el secado tradicional al sol para las condiciones de Malaysia, donde se desarrolló el estudio.• Un estudio de factibilidad económica para el establecimiento de una planta de secado artificial de trozos de yuca seca fue hecho por el Centro de Investigaciones en Tecnología de Alimentos (CITA), en 1974, en Costa Rica. Se encontró que el proyecto es factible, con rentabilidades de 11% sobre la inversión total y de 16% sobre la inversión fija, si se opera con una capacidad mínima de 10 t/ha durante 20 horas por día y 200 días por año. Partiendo de este estudio se montó la planta que fracasó a causa de su mala ubicación y de la incapacidad de la zona para suministrar la materia prima necesaria.Los estudios mencionados indican que los parámetros de control, cuando se trata de minimizar los costos de operación y obtener yuca seca de buena calidad, son el estado de subdivisión del material, la temperatura y el caudal de aire que se aplique. Además, para que el proceso sea factible, se debe garantizar un suministro continuo y adecuado de materia prima.El estudio experimental se llevó a cabo en dos fases:• En la primera se evaluó un secador de 6 m 2 acoplado a un colector plano de radiación solar de 30 m 2 de superficie. El secador y el colector se construyeron en el municipio de San Juan de Betulia, departamento de Sucre, en la región conocida como Costa Atlántica de Colombia.• La segunda fase se realizó en el CIAT con dos secadores, uno con 2 m 2 y otro con 6 m 2 de área de secado, acoplados el primero a un quemador de carbón y el segundo, independientemente, a quemadores de gas propano y ACPM 2 .Para evaluar los secadores con las fuentes de calor mencionadas, se varió la cantidad de trozos colocados en ellos para obtener diferentes caudales aplicados por tonelada de trozos de yuca fresca. La temperatura del aire se rebajó a los valores obtenidos con el colector y se fijó en 50 y 60 °C para los combustibles utilizados.Las raíces de yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) fueron cosechadas cuando los cultivos experimentales tenían de 8 a 10 meses de edad. En la primera fase se empleó la variedad local Venezolana, sembrada en la Costa Atlántica, y en la segunda la variedad Manihoica P 12, cultivada en el CIAT.Las raíces de yuca fueron trozadas o picadas en el prototipo de máquina denominada Tailandia, que consistía en una estructura metálica con una tolva de alimentación y un disco vertical giratorio. El disco tenia 6 filas de agujeros de, aproximadamente, 25 mm de diámetro, que cortaban la yuca en forma de tajadas. En la Figura 24-1 se presenta la máquina picadora.Los trozos producidos por esta máquina medían de 60 a 80 mm de longitud, de 25 a 30 mm de ancho y de 7 a 10 mm de espesor. Junto con el trozo típico se producían también trozos más pequeños y partículas finas o ripio. Los porcentajes obtenidos de toda la muestra son los siguientes: 42% para el trozo típico, 34% para trozos más pequeños y 24% para el ripio.Para los ensayos de la primera fase se empleó el sistema presentado en la Figura 24-2, que consta de un secador de 6 m 2 , un ventilador centrífugo y un colector solar plano de 30 m 2 .Figura 24-1. Máquina picadora de yuca tipo Tailandia.Figura 24-2. Secador de trozos de yuca que emplea un colector solar para calentar el aire.El secador es una cámara construida con materiales disponibles en la región, de 3 m de largo por 2 m de ancho. El área de secado es un piso falso conformado por láminas de acero galvanizado, perforadas en 3% del área total con agujeros de 3 mm de diámetro. Las láminas de 1 m x 2 m estaban soportardas con vigas de madera a 60 cm del suelo.El ventilador (marca Dayton, referencia 3CO73) hace circular el aire por el sistema mediante aletas curvadas hacia atrás que son accionadas por un motor eléctrico de 1 HP.El colector solar de 30 m 2 de superficie absorbente se construyó sobre un piso de concreto de 6 cm de espesor que tenía paredes de bloques de concreto. Como medio absorbente de la radiación solar se emplearon láminas acanaladas de zinc pintadas de negro mate que se colocaron dentro del colector, entre el piso y una cubierta de plástico calibre 6; ésta estaba soportada por una estructura de madera y malla de alambre de tipo gallinero, como se muestra en la Figura 24-2.Para esta fase del experimento, realizada en el CIAT, se utilizaron los dos secadores. El de 2 m 2 se acopló mediante un ventilador centrífugo (marca Dayton, referencia 3CO73) con un conjunto (quemador de carbón intercambiador de calor). El quemador de carbón de tiro natural consta básicamente de una cámara de combustión u hogar con parrilla estacionaria. El intercambiador de calor es de doble tubo concéntrico, con aletas longitudinales en ambos lados del tubo interior, por el que fluían los gases de combustión. El aire de secado circula por el espacio anular formado con los dos tubos. Este sistema se muestra en la Figura 24-3.El secador de 6 m 2 se acopla independientemente a dos unidades de calentamiento, una de gas propano y otra de ACPM. La unidad diesel (ACPM) consta de un motor (marca Lister, modelo LTI) de 7.5 HP, acoplado directamente a un ventilador axial (marca Lister); mediante transmisión por correa, la unidad impulsa un generador (marca Markon) de corriente eléctrica de 1.5 KVA (kilovoltioamperio), el cual proporcionaba la corriente necesaria para el funcionamiento del quemador de ACPM (marca NuWay Benson). La unidad de gas propano (marca Farm Fans, modelo 116SH) consistía en un ventilador axial y un quemador de gas. En las Figuras 24-4 y 24-5 se presentan las unidades de calentamiento, a base de ACPM y gas, que se acoplaron al secador.Los quemadores de carbón y ACPM calentaban el aire indirectamente, es decir, no se mezclaba el aire con los gases de la combustión.Los quemadores se conectan con los secadores por medio de ductos de medición AMCA (Ashrae, 1977).El caudal de aire se determinó con un anemómetro de aletas, un tubo de Pitot y un manómetro inclinado de escala 0 a 2.4 pulgadas de agua y precisión ± 0.02. En la cámara plenum de los secadores se midió la temperatura del aire Figura 24-3. Secador artificial de capa fija con quemador de carbón para calentar el aire.Figura 24-4. Sistema de calentamiento con ACPM, acoplado a un secador de capa fija.con un termómetro de mercurio de 120 °C y precisión de ± 1 °C.El estudio del colector solar se hizo entre febrero y marzo de 1984. Los resultados se clasificaron en dos grupos. El primer grupo contiene la evaluación del comportamiento del colector solar; el segundo, la capacidad del secador cuando se utilizó el colector como elemento de calentamiento de aire.Los resultados de la evaluación del colector se presentan en el Cuadro 24-1. El período diario de operación del colector iba desde las 7:00 hasta las 19:00 horas, tiempo en que calentó un caudal de 106 m 3 /min hasta una temperatura promedio de 36 °C. La temperatura inicial del aire ambiental era, en promedio, de 31 °C.La humedad relativa del aire descendió desde 62% hasta 46%. La eficiencia del colector, definida como la razón entre la cantidad promedio de energía ganada por el aire y la energía de la radiación solar incidente, fue de 63%, que es un valor normal, según Rossi y Roa (1980) para este tipo de colectores.En el Cuadro 24-2 se presentan los resultados obtenidos cuando se acopló el secador al colector solar. Al aplicar diversos caudales de aire se obtuvieron diferentes tiempos de secado, que se expresan en horas netas de períodos que van de las 7:00 y las 20:00 horas, y, también en días; se incluyen las horas de la noche en que se suspende el proceso. El número de tandas que se pueden secar por semana, considerando el tiempo de secado, se determinaron sobre la base de que no se procesan nuevas tandas cuando la última termina después del medio día. Esta norma se adoptó porque no se garantiza la calidad final del producto por la siguiente razón: los trozos se deterioran cuando se secan con interrupciones y no se reduce su contenido de humedad a un nivel inferior a 35% en el primer día. Cuando esto ocurre, los trozos presentan al final un color amarillento, un indicio general de un mal procesamiento que les da mal aspecto. Lo mismo sucede cuando el tiempo de secado se prolonga por más de 2 días.Aunque es posible funcionar después de las 20:00 horas, no se usó ese tiempo porque la reducción del contenido de humedad de los trozos, a las bajas temperaturas obtenidas con el colector en esas horas, no justificó el gasto de energía eléctrica empleada en el sistema.Según el Cuadro 24-2, se obtuvo la mayor capacidad de secado por semana cuando se aplicó un caudal de 118 m 3 /min por tonelada.Figura 24-5. Sistema de calentamiento a base de gas propano, acoplado a un secador de capa fija.Cuadro 24-1. Valor a de los parámetros en que opera un colector solar plano de 30 m 2 de superficie absorbente b . En el Cuadro 24-3 se presentan el valor de la inversión y el costo de producción de un sistema natural y de uno artificial con colector solar. El sistema artificial tiene mayor costo inicial por la unidad de motor-ventilador y mayor costo de producción por la reposición del plástico y el consumo de energía eléctrica; por lo tanto, no compite con el sistema natural. Además, no es éste un sistema independiente de las condiciones ambientales.El empleo de un colector solar para secar artificialmente la yuca, un producto cuya humedad inicial es alta (60% a 65%) a las temperaturas relativamente bajas que se obtienen (34 a 38 °C), requiere caudales altos; esto incide en tamaño del colector y del ventilador, lo que limita la capacidad del sistema a una cantidad de 2.5 a 3 t de producto seco por tanda.En el Cuadro 24-4 se presentan los resultados del secado artificial con tres combustibles disponibles: carbón mineral, gas propano y ACPM; muestra también la eficiencia global del proceso para las diferentes condiciones de operación, y los costos de la operación a causa del empleo de combustible. Con los caudales aplicados y los niveles de temperatura dados, se pueden secar trozos de yuca hasta dejarles un contenido de humedad de 12.3%, en un tiempo de 5.5 a 10 horas, dentro de una jornada normal de trabajo. El consumo de combustible fue mayor cuando se usó carbón que gas propano. Se observa también que, cuando aumenta la temperatura o el caudal aplicado, se reduce el tiempo de secado pero se hace un mayor consumo de combustible y, por ende, se llega a un costo más alto.La mayor eficiencia se alcanza con el gas propano, seguido por el ACPM y el carbón; entre estos dos no hay diferencia apreciable. La mayor eficiencia obtenida con propano se debe a que el calentamiento del aire es directo, dado que éste se mezcla con los gases de la combustión.A pesar de que el secado con carbón presenta menor eficiencia y mayor consumo de combustible, arroja el menor costo de operación debido al precio por kilogramo, relativamente bajo. Se observa que a mayor caudal y mayor temperatura se obtienen los más altos costos de operación y que en esto la diferencia entre el carbón y el gas propano es mínima; por tanto, la elección entre ellos debe basarse en la disponibilidad del combustible y en el costo de los equipos de combustión y calentamiento. En el Cuadro 24-5 se presentan estos costos, que incluyen los quemadores, intercambiadores, ventiladores y controles que conforman cada unidad. El resultado final continúa favoreciendo la opción del carbón mineral, que presenta menores costos tanto de inversión como de operación. a. Costos de los elementos del sistema: cámara (30 m 2 ) = $200,000; colector solar = $220,000; motor ventilador = $600,000. b. Esta diferencia se debe a la reposición del plástico y al consumo de energía eléctrica en el secado artificial.Cuadro 24-4. Efecto de la temperatura y del caudal aplicado en el tiempo de secado y en el consumo de combustible y en dos parámetros (eficiencia y costos) del sistema de secado artificial de yuca con tres diferentes fuentes de calor a .Temp Temperatura promedio de aire ambiental = 26 °C. Humedad de los trozos de yuca (%) inicial = 61 ± 2; final = 12% (interpolada).Poder calorífico de los combustibles (kcal/kg): carbón = 6,700; gas propano = 14,000; diesel = 41,000. Eficiencia de los quemadores (%): carbón = 60 ± 5; gas propano = 95 ± 2; diesel = 76 ± 2. Precios de los combustibles en 1985: carbón = $6.5 por kg; gas propano = $30 por kg; diesel = $11,000 por galón. b. El sistema de calentamiento diesel, por sí solo, proporciona temperaturas de 50 °C. c. t se refiere a toneladas de trozos de yuca fresca. ACPM = diesel. d. t se refiere a toneladas de trozos de yuca seca.Los quemadores de carbón son equipos de transferencia de calor en los secadores artificiales y presentan ventajas sobre los de gas propano o los de ACPM. Se hace, por tanto, un estudio económico de cuatro alternativas de inversión, que parten de las condiciones actuales de producción y comercialización de la yuca seca en la Costa Atlántica, donde se está afianzando la tecnología de la yuca seca. Los datos de costos se expresan en pesos colombianos de 1985.Los principales supuestos de este análisis se presentan a continuación:• Capacidad de producción: se determina según la capacidad de una planta modelo de la Costa Atlántica, que se calcula en 538 t de yuca seca por año.• Precio de la materia prima: $8,000/t de yuca fresca, valor reportado por las plantas de secado durante la operación del año 1985.• Factor de conversión de yuca fresca a yuca seca: 2.5; es decir, se requieren 2.5 t de yuca fresca para producir 1 t de yuca seca.• Precio de venta por tonelada de yuca seca a 12.3%: $27,200 (85% del precio del sorgo en 1985).• Consumo de carbón: 450 kg/t de yuca fresca a un precio de compra de $6.5/kg.• Días laborables por semana: 6.• Métodos de secado:-Natural en pisos de concreto -Artificial en capa fija y aire calentado a 60 °C con carbón mineral.Los precios de la yuca fresca y la yuca seca varían durante la vida útil del proyecto; para el análisis se toman en moneda constante, es decir, son deflactados por el mismo índice.En el Cuadro 24-6 se describen las cuatro alternativas de inversión que se consideraron:-La alternativa 1 corresponde a una planta modelo de la Costa Atlántica, que opera durante el verano (de diciembre a abril) durante 20 semanas por temporada anual.-La alternativa 2 es igual a la alternativa 1, pero opera 15 semanas más, durante los períodos de transición de invierno a verano y verano a invierno, o en regiones donde el verano se prolonga un poco más, como sucede en los departamentos del nordeste de la Costa Atlántica, donde ocurre un veranillo.-La alternativa 3 opera durante 50 semanas del año, 20 semanas con un sistema de secado natural en piso de concreto y 30 semanas de la época lluviosa con un secado artificial en capa fija.-La alternativa 4 también opera durante 50 semanas por año, pero empleando solamente un secado artificial.La inversión en equipos (máquinas picadoras, secadoras y motores), en herramientas del proceso y en capital de trabajo se presenta en el Cuadro 24-7. El capital de trabajo se estimó como el dinero necesario para captar materia prima durante un mes de operación; varía para cada planta, porque el período de operación anual es diferente en cada una y su capacidad de producción es igual; por tanto, unas plantas manejan mayores volúmenes de yuca fresca que otras por mes.En el Cuadro 24-8 se presentan los costos de producción por tonelada de yuca seca. El costo de procesamiento comprende mano de obra, mantenimiento y consumo de energía eléctrica y de carbón.Con respecto a la inversión, el menor valor está en la alternativa 4; sin embargo, tiene los costos de operación más altos.Con los datos tabulados se calculó la rentabilidad o tasa de interés igualando el valor presente de los ingresos al valor presente de los egresos. El cálculo se hizo utilizando un computador personal.Las cuatro alternativas resultaron económicamente factibles, y sus rentabilidades fueron 26.4%, 37%, 12.6% y 12.4%. La alternativa 2 es la más rentable porque emplea las instalaciones durante un período más amplio, y con bajos costos de operación y de inversión.Los datos económicos del análisis son válidos para la temporada de verano, en la que se produce yuca seca. En las épocas de invierno, la producción de yuca seca es nula, dado que actualmente se emplea un secado natural; por tanto, el precio sube y llega hasta $37,000 por tonelada o aun más, siempre que se mantengan restringidas las importaciones de sorgo y haya escasez de éste en el mercado.Es razonable esperar que, cuando haya oferta de yuca seca todo el año, el precio tienda a estabilizarse en un punto de equilibrio entre la oferta y la demanda o se hagan acuerdos para estabilizarlo; por esta razón se consideró el mismo precio para todas las alternativas, a pesar de que éstas funcionan en diferentes temporadas del año.Cuadro 24-7. Valor de la inversión y capital de trabajo en cuatro alternativas de inversión de secado de yuca, en 1985. Por otro lado, el precio de captación de la yuca fresca sufrirá variaciones de la época seca a la lluviosa, por dificultades en la cosecha, la recolección o el transporte, o por escasez. Aunque la materia prima es el renglón que más incide en los costos de producción, se consideró también el mismo precio para ella en el análisis de las cuatro alternativas porque no hay información que permita predecir un precio confiable durante la época de lluvias. Se sugiere, por ello, que para hacer rentable un proyecto de producción de yuca seca o expansión de la capacidad durante todo el año, la planta de secado, además de estar ubicada en una región productora de yuca fresca, debe desarrollar su infraestructura y poseer cultivos propios; así puede garantizar el suministro de materia prima a un precio estable.La oportunidad de evaluar la tecnología de producción de yuca seca, mediante la creación de una agroindustria en la Costa Atlántica de Colombia, ha permitido introducir mejoras al proceso de producción; éstas no se hubieran podido lograr si el trabajo se queda a nivel experimental. Estas mejoras se han manifestado en la disminución de los costos de producción y en el consiguiente aumento de las utilidades del proyecto.La producción de yuca seca y su utilización como fuente de calorías para sustituir ciertos cereales (especialmente el sorgo) en la alimentación animal, ha generado una demanda creciente de ese producto en el mercado. Para satisfacer esta demanda hay que desarrollar tanto la producción como el procesamiento de la yuca.-En cuanto a producción, es necesario aumentar el rendimiento por hectárea y la superficie cultivada. Así se podrá producir yuca para el mercado fresco, que paga mejores precios, y para la industria de la yuca seca.-En el campo del procesamiento, el empleo de un sistema de secado natural obliga a trabajar durante la época seca del año y a procesar volúmenes grandes de yuca fresca en este período; se distribuirá el producto durante el resto del año. Por tanto, aumentarán los costos de inversión que requiera este aumento de capacidad y el almacenamiento.En cambio, el uso de un secador artificial de capa fija y con carbón mineral como fuente de energía es la mejor alternativa para hacer posible oferta de yuca seca todo el año. Además, permite mejorar la calidad del producto, lo que puede ser una ventaja cuando se pagan incentivos por la calidad o se comercializa el producto para la alimentación humana; en este campo se pueden lograr mejores precios de venta.Dadas las condiciones del estudio hecho, los dos sistemas, el secado natural (SN) y el artificial (SA), son opciones rentables. El SN ofrece mayores utilidades que el SA porque presenta menores costos de inversión y de operación; sin embargo, las dos alternativas de operación se pueden complementar para lograr aumentos en la capacidad productiva.Un colector solar para el SA de la yuca no es factible porque se requiere mucha energía para evaporar la gran cantidad de agua que contiene la yuca fresca; esa energía no se puede suministrar con las temperaturas que se obtienen con este sistema.Se recomienda hacer un estudio de sensibilidad para establecer el efecto del precio de la materia prima, del precio de venta, del factor de conversión de yuca fresca a yuca seca, y del consumo y precio del carbón en la","tokenCount":"4427"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c8f14131c476e8db5b76fb26aab7d4a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/749845df-2c8b-488f-a86f-e1431e7c1958/retrieve","id":"827994106"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"01b55db9-9c69-44cf-ba3a-99f01bc2de6e","pagecount":"29","content":" Tener conservado a Largo Plazo (-18 o C) el 95% de las colecciones de semillas de fríjol y de forrajes al año 2017, cumpliendo los siguientes criterios: Calidad Genética  Cantidad de semillas  Calidad de secado de la semilla  Calidad Fisiológica (Germinación >=85%)  Calidad Fitosanitaria (Libre de enfermedades cuarentenarias) Todo el material conservado a LP debe estar disponible para los usuarios a nivel mundial Debe haberse completado los duplicados de seguridad en los bancos del CIMMYT, México y en la Bodega Global de Semillas en Svalbard, NoruegaCon la falta de una de estas características: No se logra la ganancia neta para el cumplimiento de los objetivos de conservación a LP, ocasionando reproceso = Metas afectadas  Riesgo en la pérdida de un material  Baja disponibilidad del material  Traslado de las colecciones a otro lugar QUÉ SE ESPERA….Son objetivos en las actividades de producción:•Conservar la integridad genética de las accesiones manejadas durante los procesos de multiplicación y regeneración.•Llevar cada una de las accesiones al tamaño adecuado que permita cumplir con los propósitos del banco.•Contribuir en la identificación, caracterización y evaluación del germoplasma conservado en el PRG VALOR DE USO.Hay que aumentar la semilla original preservando su integridad genética, y asegurando su estado fitosanitario y su viabilidad al más alto nivel, para permitir la distribución internacional.Para el cumplimiento de estos objetivos, los Grupos de Producción de Fríjol y Forrajes cuenta actualmente con cuatro estaciones con ambientes contrastados en Popayán y Santander de Quilichao (Cauca), Palmira y Tenerife (Valle)Fuente: CIAT-PRG,2014Es el aumento de la muestra o población a cantidades necesarias para los procesos de conservación y distribución.POCA SEMILLA  El Laboratorio de sanidad de germoplasma tiene la responsabilidad de informar sobre el estado fitosanitario del germoplasma que distribuye el Programa de Recursos Genéticos y otros programas del CIAT certificando que este libre de enfermedades cuarentenarias.La metodología empleada para certificar la sanidad del material genético a transferir se fundamenta en:Resultados de la inspección durante la producción y el beneficio de las semillas.Análisis de sanidad en el laboratorio.  Se estableció el control operacional para las áreas de Conservación de Semillas. Se caracterizaron los procesos. Se hizo una tabla de seguimiento y medición para el QMS. Se crearon indicadores relevantes para los procesos en mención.  Conocer el tiempo de respuesta a una solicitud de materiales Demuestra la efectividad de respuesta a la entrega de los materiales, cuando un usuario solicita semillas.  ","tokenCount":"401"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b320c75dd72f00ecb912eb000de378b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ec28736a-8c2a-4055-a46d-acfb6eb79086/retrieve","id":"728268636"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6093eee3-43d5-4c1b-ba13-dda7f81f35b3","pagecount":"51","content":"Sub-output 1. An Integrated Control Method for Cassava Root Rots in Colombia (E. Alvarez) Activity 1. Evaluation of hot-water treatment of cassava cuttings, and the effect on CBB in the field at Santander and Quindío Cuttings from three cassava varieties growing in Quindío Department, affected by cassava bacterial blight (CBB), were treated to evaluate the severity of CBB on shoots and saprophytes on stakes. Cuttings were immersed in water at 49 °C for different times (thermotherapy), given 5 minutes immersion in a chemical suspension (Captan, 1.5 g/Lt and Benomyl, 1.5 g/Lt) or Ecolife® 1 cc/Lt (suspension from citrus seed).Previous treatment by thermotherapy for 10 min, 24 h before thermotherapy during 1 h, and thermotherapy for 49 min without pre-treatment, did not affect the number of shoots/cuttings nor shoot length. In CM 523-7 and HMC-1, thermotherapy increased the number of shoots per stake. Using thermotherapy for a long time increased the presence of saprophytes on stakes. Ecolife and chemical treatment were not effective in controlling saprophytes grown when cuttings were treated by thermotherapy. Although CBB severity was low, in HMC-1 (the susceptible variety) CBB had 1.8 on the severity scale, while thermotherapy over a long time after pre-treatment decreased the disease more than thermotherapy at 1 h after pre-treatment or 49 min without pre-treatment. Table 1.1. Effect of cassava-cuttings treatment by thermotherapy to control saprophytes and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis affecting stakes. Variety a Coefficient of correlation between yield and concentration of Trichoderma in soil. b Coefficient of correlation between rotten roots and concentration of Trichoderma in soil. Activity 5. Controlling Sphaerotheca pannosa, causal agent of powdery mildew of rose in Colombia Sub-output 3. Disease Management Components and IPM Strategies and Tactic developed for Bean Root Rots in Africa. (R. Buruchara) Activity 1. Indigenous knowledge, perceptions and traditional management of bean root rots in southwest Uganda1 2.5 t/ha chicken manure + 300 kg/ha of the chemical fertilizer Agropremix® (15% N, 10% P 2 O 5 , 12% Zn, 2% B, 0.75% Cu, 3% S, and 0.01% of Mo) 2 2.5 t/ha chicken manure + potassium sulfate (180 kg/ha K 2 O) 32.5 t/ha chicken manure + potassium chloride (180 kg/ha K 2 O) 42.5 t/ha chicken manure + thermotherapy (stakes immersed in water heated over a wood fire to 49°C for 49 min) 5Trichoderma strain 14PDA-4 (1 × 10 4 conidia/mL) 6Trichoderma strain 19TSM-3A (1 × 10 4 conidia/mL) 7Cassava variety La Reina (CM 6740-7) 8Stake selection 92.5 t/ha chicken manure (traditional farmer's practice)For all treatments, chicken manure was incorporated at 2.5 t/ha. The cassava regional variety Verdecita (M Col 1505) was planted with vegetative seed obtained from a farm located in San Jerónimo, where the disease was present. The two best strains of the Trichoderma fungus were selected to control Phytophthora spp. in in vitro tests and in the greenhouse. Cassava stakes were inoculated with Trichoderma by immersion for 10 min in a suspension with a concentration of 1 × 10 4 conidia/mL. We then applied 100 mL of the suspension at the base of each plant, and again every 45 to 60 days throughout the crop's cycle. Stakes were selected for their health and from the middle parts of stems.The experimental design used for these plantings was a randomized complete block design with three replicates and 20 plants per treatment. Treatment 6 was applied only in San Jerónimo.Following farmers' customs, for the San Jerónimo trial, dolomitic lime was applied at 500 kg/ha and fertilizers were applied 35 days after planting. In contrast, in Mondomito, fertilizers were applied at planting and no lime was applied. The performance of the elite genotype CM 6740-7 ('La Reina') was evaluated.In the Santander de Quilichao trial, heat treatment did not affect germination (data not shown).The 'Verdecita' planting material was of lesser quality, whereas 'La Reina' had a high germination rate.Plant height and stake production per plant were greatest when the trial was fertilized with Agropremix. Table 2.1 shows the effect of the treatments on yield and incidence of rotten roots.All treatments surpassed the control in stake production per plant. Yield under all treatments in San Jerónimo was very low because of low-fertility soil and the plot's history of six cassava crops previous to the trial. Chemical fertilization did not increase yield, whereas treatments with Trichoderma 14 PDA-4 and selection of stakes improved yields by 33.6% and 25.8%, respectively, although root-rot incidence was higher than for the control. In contrast, Trichoderma 19 TSM-3A helped reduce root rots. Potassium sources also helped reduce rots. The variety La Reina showed no root rots.The Mondomito trial could not be harvested because of public order problems. The different control practices for Phytophthora spp. were evaluated for disease incidence and severity, and for yield in four field trials in the Municipalities of Montenegro and La Tebaida.Two experiments were established on the Farms \"El Jardin\" (La Tebaida) and \"Guayaquil\" (Montenegro) to evaluate the effect of some management practices for controlling Phytophthora spp. Variety HMC-1 was used, and the treatments were as follows:Treatment 1 Fertilization with KCl (180 kg/ha K 2 O).2 Fertilization with K 2 SO 4 (180 kg/ha K 2 O).3 Farmer fertilization: Farm \"El Jardin\" applied 350 kg/ha of a mixture of ammonium sulfate and borax at a rate of 50:1.5; Farm \"Guayaquil\" applied 500 kg/ha of a mixture of Nitrax-DAP-KCl at a rate of 1:2:2. Fertilizers were applied 45 days after planting. 4 Stakes given thermoterapy (49°C for 49 min). 5 Stakes immersed for 5 min in Orthocide® (captan, 4 g/L of the commercial product) and Ridomil® (metalaxyl, 3 g/L of the commercial product). 6 Stakes immersed in Lonlife® (ascorbic acid) at 4%. 7 Biological control: stakes immersed for 10 min in a suspension of Trichoderma (1 × 10 4 conidia/mL), strains 19TSM-3A and 41 PDA-3A. The area around the stake was treated with 100 mL/plant of the fungal suspension. 8 Varietal resistance, using genotypes 'HMC-1', 'ICA Catumare', 'M Per 183' ('Peruana'), and the local variety 'Chiroza' (M Col 2066).The experimental design was a randomized complete block design, with three replicates and 20 plants per treatment. The treatments with thermoterapy and Trichoderma were as described for the trials in Cauca (Treatments 4,5,and 6).The highest yields were obtained with the crop management practices suggested by CIAT: stake immersion and periodic applications of a suspension of the biological agent Trichoderma strain 14 PDA-4. Compared with local practices, applications of potassium sulfate and potassium chloride improved yield. The incidence of drying was only 13% (scale of 2 or 3), a low level for evaluating the effects of treatments. In general, germination and plant development were good.The application of Micobiol® increased plant height considerably (Table 2.2). The percentage of germination in the Quindío trials was reduced by heat treatment (40%-68.3%), compared with the same treatment in Cauca (98.3%), probably because the temperature at the bottom of the oil drum was too hot, being higher than 49°C. These results suggest that more trials should be carried out to adjust the technique. Old and/or very thin stakes are probably more negatively affected by temperatures. Germination of plants treated with thermotherapy was very low (26.7%-68.3%; Table 2.3), compared with the same treatment in Cauca (98.3%). The temperature was possibly inappropriate because a different container was used to that in the Cauca experiments. At Farm \"El Jardin\", the highest cassava yield was obtained with 'ICA Catumare', which surpassed by more than 20 t/ha the varieties HMC-1, Chiroza, and M Per 183, whose yields ranged between 32.0 and 38.7 t/ha. At Farm \"Guayaquil\", 'ICA Catumare' and 'HMC-1' surpassed 'Chiroza' (Table 2.4). b. Farm \"El Jardin\": ammonium sulfate + borax (50:1.5) at 300 kg/ha. Farm \"Guayaquil\": Nitrax-DAP-KCl(1:2:2) at 500 kg/ha. c. At Farm \"Guayaquil\", Orthocide® was replaced by copper oxychloride. d. Oil drum on wood fire, with the water's temperature at 49ºC for 49 min. Farmers' fertilization management, which involved high doses, led to the highest yields, but also to the highest incidence of root rots. Although Farm \"Guayaquil\" obtained the higher yield (28.9 t/ha) with the Trichoderma strain 41 PDA-3A, it was not consistent with what happened on Farm \"El Jardin\", where yield (28.3 t/ha) was much lower than the control without fertilizer (47.9 t/ha; Table 2.5).When potassium sulfate was used, root rots were not present. Stake treatment with Longlife® led to the greatest reductions of root rots. The varieties most affected by root rots were Chiroza and M Per 183, whereas variety HMC-1 had the least root rots. The Trichoderma strain 19 TSM-3A helped perceptibly to reduce root rots, although the resulting yields were not good (Table 2.5).At Farm \"El Jardin\", 65-day-old plants were affected by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis in some treatments. The bacterium was not present in treatments with K 2 SO 4 , thermotherapy, nor in the genotypes 'ICA Catumare' and 'Chiroza', which have shown acceptable resistance to the disease, whereas 'HMC-1' and 'M Per 183' are susceptible. As the crop aged, incidence of the bacterium became insignificant. At Farms \"Las Mercedes\" and \"El Jardin\", where incidence of cassava bacterial blight is high, some 35-day-old plants were evaluated as being affected by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis in treatments with KCl, farmers' control, Trichoderma spp., chemical control, and in genotypes 'M Per 183' and 'HMC-1'.   Based on the chemical analysis of cassava roots (Table 3.1), Fe, Mn, and Zn contents increased in a downward direction on the slope, where nutrient content is expected to be higher. Although fertility is expected to improve downwards on the slope, cassava yields and root rot decreased perhaps because Fe and Mn increased to levels that affected yields by interfering with the absorption of other nutrients. The coefficient of correlation between yield and Fe, Mn, and Zn contents was, respectively, -0.61, -0.99, and -0.91 (Table 3.2). The coefficient of correlation between percentage plants suffering root rot and Fe, Mn, and Zn contents was, respectively, -0.57, -0.99, and -0.89. The correlation between percentage rotten roots/plant was also high and negative for these same elements. Plans are to establish trials to analyze whether these elements increase the resistance to root rot.  Evaluating Trichoderma in soils of the Departments of Cauca and Quindío, Colombia.To better understand the dynamics of Trichoderma populations in the soil, samples of soil were taken on four farms during the harvesting of trials.Samples of soil (3 g each) were taken from each cassava plot established in the field that had been inoculated with Trichoderma strains and also from the non inoculated check (numeral 2), and then diluted in 27 ml distilled water (base solution) and serial dilutions prepared (from 10 -1 to 10 -4 ). Each dilution was agitated by vortex and placed on 0.1 ml V8A and PDA culture media; 100 g/ml penicillin, 25 g/ml chlortetracycline, 100 g/ml PCNB, and 25 g/ml Bengal Rose were added. Petri dishes were incubated at room temperature with light. Trichoderma colony counts were performed up to two weeks after placement in culture media. Plots where Trichoderma had not been applied presented a relatively high natural population, although lower than inoculated plots. In Cauca, the natural population of Trichoderma is low probably because of the soil's low organic matter content. Although the use of molecular markers could improve the detection of Trichoderma, it is still impossible to quantify these populations with these tools.A high correlation was observed between yield and concentration of Trichoderma in the soil. The correlation with root rot incidence, although negative, was not very high, indicating that the evaluated strains do not affect pathogen control significantly. On the contrary, strain 41PDA-3A showed a correlation of 1.0 with root rot, indicating that plots with higher concentrations presented greater root rot (Table 4 Pastor-Corrales reported the inhibitory effect of leaf extract from tabog (Swinglea glutinosa) on the causal agent of anthracnose (Colletrotrichum lindemuthianum) and Ascochyta blight in beans. This study aims to evaluate a plant extract and several fertilizers for their effectiveness in reducing populations of S. pannosa var. rosae and in controlling disease development in roses under greenhouse conditions.In the first semester of 2001, six experiments were established at the farms \"El Ciprés\" (Gachancipá), \"Megaflor\" (Madrid), and \"La Valvanera\" (Chía), in the Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. At \"El Ciprés\", four experiments were carried out on cultivars Aalsmeer Gold and Charlotte to validate the efficiency of each of 6 methods of controlling powdery mildew. At the other two farms, different packages or combinations of these have being evaluated for disease control on cultivar Aalsmeer Gold.At the beginning of each experiment, the rose beds were heavily inoculated with the pathogen. The high inoculum pressure meant that, for these experiments, there was no need to artificially inoculate the plants. Some selected beds received no disease control throughout the experiment.At \"El Ciprés\", spray applications of the various control products were carried out on all stems in selected plots, using a motor pump (Maruyam) with two nozzles and automatized pressure between 25 and 30 pounds. Foliage was wetted completely with a given product every 7 days.Applications in Madrid and Chía were done with a 1-L pump, which was pressurized manually. Every 4 days, only selected and marked stems for evaluation were sprayed. Between 1 and 2 L were needed per plot for each application.To prepare swinglea extract, healthy leaves of shrubs established at CIAT (Palmira, Valle del Cauca) were cut. We used 100 g of swinglea leaves per liter of drinking water; then liquefied the leaves and strained them through six layers of gauze. Before application, we added 1 mL/L of Inex-A® solution as a dispersing agent and adherent. For the experiments in Madrid and Chía, 50% ethanol was used to obtain the active ingredient in greater quantities. Because of problems of plant poisoning in some rose plants, the quantity of swinglea leaves was decreased from 100 to 30 g/L. Between applications, the extract was stored in cold rooms at 2ºC on the farms.The following foliar fertilizers were evaluated: monobasic potassium phosphate (KH 2 PO 4 , 13.6 g/L) and dibasic potassium phosphate (K 2 HPO 4 , 17.4 g/L). After observing plant poisoning, dosage was dropped to 8 and 7 g/L for monobasic potassium phosphate and dibasic potassium phosphate, respectively (experiments 3 and 4 at \"El Ciprés\"). In Chía and Madrid, two doses of monobasic potassium phosphate were evaluated: 8 and 1.5 g/L (Table 5.1). Sodium phosphate (16.1 g/L) was not assessed because this high dosage can cause plant poisoning in roses.In these two municipalities, we are also evaluating phosphoric acid (1 mL/L) and Nutriphite® (2 mL/L; assimilable phosphorus 434.0 g/L, soluble potassium 403.0 g/L; Biagro Western Sales, Visalia, CA, USA).Treatments were carried out with Elosal® (80% elemental sulfur at 1 mL/L), Rubigan® (0.6 mL/L), Stroby® (kresoxim-methyl, 0.25 mL/L), and Meltafun® (Meltatox or dodemorph, 2.5 mL/L). We also applied a mixture of Meltafun® with Rubigan® (fenarimol, equal dose). We added 1 mL/L Inex-A® to all treatments, except the two with Rubigan®.The efficiency of plant washings was also evaluated, using large quantities of water.To date, we have established five experiments, each with treatments using healthy and infected plants. At CIAT, the effectiveness of the fungicides mentioned previously is being evaluated. Under favorable conditions, pressure of pathogen inoculum is high and artificial inoculations have been carried out only occasionally. The treatments are applied weekly (experiments 1-3) or every 3 days (experiments 4 and 5). The effectiveness of an extract, frozen and conserved at -20ºC for 3 months, was compared with fresh extracts. Extracts obtained with 50% ethanol and 50%, 25%, and 10% thinner were also included.The following products were evaluated for their efficiency in controlling powdery mildew:Swinglea extracts diluted in:Swinglea extracts:• Pulverized (after drying at 55ºC overnight) and diluted in water • Pulverized (after drying at 55ºC overnight) and diluted in 50% ethanol • Frozen and conserved at -20ºC for 3 months, then prepared in water • Mixed in a solution of water and monobasic potassium phosphate (13.6 g/L)• Mixed in a solution of water and dibasic potassium phosphate (17.4 g/L)Resistance inducers (fertilizers):• Dibasic potassium phosphate (17.4 g/L)• Monobasic potassium phosphate (13.6 g/L)Fungicides:Biofungicides (based on plant extracts):• Laurel (Laurus nobilis)• Hairy beggar-ticks (Bidens pilosa)• French marigold (Tagetes patula)The last two plant extracts were fermented for 6 h in 50% ethanol.Biological products:• Lixiviated worm compost (200 mL/L) • Citric emulsion (2.5 mL/L)• Ecolife® (1.5 mL/L)• Lixiviated banana bunches fermented with Acetobacter spp. under anaerobic conditions • Lixiviated compost of fruits and vegetables (to 50%) such as red pepper, tomato, grape, Andean blackberry, pineapple, eggplant, melon, yellow passionfruit (Grajales S.A., La Unión, Valle del Cauca) for about 3 monthsNegative control was drinking water.The Sabana de BogotáIn each plot, we evaluated 20 stems (\"El Ciprés\") or 9 stems (\"Megaflor\" and \"La Valvanera\"), previously identified. The stems selected were those with the largest number of infected leaves. Each stem was numbered, using tape. These plants were not harvested until the experiment was completed. The stems located at the extremes of each plot and close to streets were not included in the evaluations. Each stem was evaluated for severity of powdery mildew according to the following scale:1 = Healthy stem 2 = Some leaves on the infected stem show mild leaf symptoms, beginning infection (lesions between 4 and 6 mm in diameter), only 1 to 2 leaves infected 3 = Stem moderately infected, lesions being larger than 7 mm on more than 2 leaves and appearing white 4 = Most leaves on the stem are infected, the area infected per leaf is relatively large, the disease attacks both leaves (more than 3) and stem, as much as half the leaf surface infected 5 = Many infected leaves, leaves totally invaded, with small colonies on more than 5 leaves per stem.Leaves that had very small colonies of the fungus were recorded as infected. Data were stored on Excel, a computerized program for calculation.At the end of each experiment, we evaluated incidence, number of infected leaves per stem, and sporulation (scale of 1 to 3, where 1 = no sporulation and 3 = abundant sporulation).For the experiments at CIAT, we evaluated incidence, number of infected leaves per stem, and sporulation (scale of 1 to 3, where 1 = no sporulation and 3 = abundant sporulation).For all experiments in the Sabana de Bogotá, the experimental design of randomized complete blocks was used. Each trial had three blocks or replicates. A treatment was assigned at random to each plot. At CIAT, the experiments were carried out with two or three blocks.We used the statistical package SAS to carry out an analysis of variance for each experiment, and determined significant differences according to Duncan's α = 5%.At \"El Ciprés\", six methods of control were evaluated under conditions of very high pressure from powdery mildew inoculum on two rose cultivars. Each experiment was repeated twice. The swinglea extract reduced incidence and severity in all experiments in \"El Ciprés\" (Table 6.The swinglea extract prepared with drinking water lowered disease incidence and the number of infected leaves per plant, especially in cultivar Charlotte. However, no significant difference in susceptibility was detected between 'Aalsmeer Gold' and 'Charlotte'.The treatments with the monobasic and dibasic potassium phosphates fared better than those with Stroby® and Rubigan®. Monobasic potassium phosphate was slightly more effective than dibasic potassium phosphate, and was better than Stroby®, because it reduced the rate of increase in incidence and severity. Reducing the dosage of monobasic phosphate from 13.6 to 8 g/L did not diminish its effectiveness in controlling powdery mildew.Chemical treatment with Stroby® was more effective than with Rubigan®. Elosal® had the least effect on the disease. Differences between treatments were greater for 'Charlotte' than for 'Aalsmeer Gold'. The biofungicides best controlled disease in cultivar Charlotte. For cultivar Aalsmeer Gold, differences among treatments were not detected, although the biofungicides were slightly more effective than chemical treatment with Stroby®.In two experiments at Madrid and Chía, doses of the products used were reduced to prevent plant poisoning. Washings with water were also included. These experiments also included combinations of different control methods (Table 6.1) to reduce the problem of plant poisoning. The swinglea extract is now prepared with alcohol (50% ethanol), because it does not induce plant poisoning and extracts a larger volume of the active ingredient. The final concentration of alcohol is 30 mL of 50% ethanol per liter of swinglea extract. At \"Megaflor\" (Madrid), disease incidence and severity in cultivar Aalsmeer Gold were reduced by an application of swinglea (Table 6.3). A mixture of Meltafun® and Stroby® was the most effective treatment at the two farms. Monobasic phosphate did not control the disease. No plant poisoning was observed on the farms when the modified extract of swinglea and monobasic potassium phosphate were used together. Plants under chemical control, cultural control, and the expensive integrated control in the three replicates presented green lesions that were either circular or long and narrow extending from leaf base to tip.Note, however, that the fungicides Stroby® and Rubigan® did not control the disease effectively. That no treatment, including Stroby® and Rubigan®, lowered disease incidence or severity is of concern, even though they did reduce the rate of increase in the disease. The reason is that most of the experiments were carried out with beds carrying many infected stems, most of which were very unhealthy. The experiments indicate that initiating control while disease incidence is still low is more effective. With the more frequent applications used at \"Megaflor\" and \"La Valvanera\", for example, applications every 3 days instead of 7, efficiency of control improved. That is, the short time between infection by and sporulation of S. pannosa is taken into account. In the experiments at Madrid and Chía, Meltafun® was also evaluated. This fungicide was not available in Colombia when the experiments at Gachancipá were established.   After one semester of the project's second phase, we conclude that swinglea extract and monobasic potassium phosphate are effective (comparing the results obtained in six field experiments) low-cost alternatives, with very low toxicity to humans. In contrast, the chemical treatments Stroby® and Rubigan®, which are widely used in the Sabana de Bogotá, belong to the high toxicological categories I and II, respectively.As explained in \"Materials and Methods\", more evaluations are being carried out to determine the efficiency of each control method and their efficiency when combined in different packages for disease management. In the second semester, experiments will also be established on different farms to analyze the effect of different genetic groups found on the farms on the efficiency of control methods. Evaluating fungicides, swinglea extract, and foliar fertilizers under greenhouse conditions, CIAT, PalmiraTo generate new alternatives for managing powdery mildew, CIAT is continually evaluating, in the greenhouses, the efficiency of plant extracts, resistance inducers, lixiviation, and others. Those practices that are currently the most efficient are being evaluated on farms.We found we could improve the swinglea extract (Table 6.4). The mixture of swinglea diluted in a solution of water and monobasic potassium phosphate is a highly efficient alternative, taking into account the considerably diminished percentage of infected leaflets per plant, and was more effective than chemical treatment with Rubigan®. This suggests that the combination of two mechanisms that act differently may increase effectiveness in disease control. The results obtained at CIAT show that extracting swinglea with 50% alcohol is a better alternative. This extract is now being evaluated on farms around Madrid and Chía.These experiments need to be continued at CIAT. Several products cause plant poisoning, which means the problem must be minimized, together with improving product preparation and application methods, and reducing dosage.Lixiviation of compost with 50% fruits and vegetables for about 3 months affects sporulation in the fungus and disease incidence. A lixiviated fruit compost was obtained from Grajales S.A.(La Unión, Valle del Cauca). We plan to evaluate this potential biofungicide in experiments at Madrid and Chía.Laurel, hairy beggar-ticks, and French marigold did not show control over powdery mildew, compared with Rubigan® (Table 6.5). Possibly, fermenting these plants in water for several days will improve their efficiency.   Ash (200 g per plant), organic matter (200 g per plant) from dead leaves taken from forest soil, and a mixture of both at a 1:1 ratio were evaluated by farmer participatory research methodologies for their effects on the yield of four native cassava varieties. Cassava was grown in chagras, which are small plots of slash-and-burn agriculture in rain forest. Farmers were women from four Tukano indigenous communities at Mitú (Vaupés). When ash was incorporated into the soil, the vigor scale was good (2.02 for yellow and 2.15 for white varieties), compared with traditional management (3.08 for yellow and 3.38 for white varieties). Incorporating organic matter gave yellow varieties 2.65 in the vigor scale and white varieties 2.38. Cutting selection without amendments had superior behavior to traditional management (Table 8.1.).In Cucura community, the assay showed better yield with ash alone, then mixed with organic matter, and then using cutting selection. Root rot percentage was lower when ash is incorporated in the soil. Traditional management, without ammendments or cutting selection, had the lowest root yield and higher root rot. Other chagras will be harvested in November (Table 8.2.).   Four applications of 250 g per plant of the same treatments and chemical fertilizers (Di-ammonium phosphate at 4 g per plant and potassium chloride at 4 g per plant) were made, one per month, to evaluate the control of Phytophthora capsici under greenhouse conditions at CIAT, inoculating young stems of M Bra 12 by the wounding method. Plants were planted in 28-kg pots containing soil from Mitú.Disease decreased when organic matter and chemical fertilizer were incorporated into the soil, while higher dry matter production was obtained by incorporation of a 1:1 mix of ash and organic matter (Table 8.3.). Cassava is a staple of the Amazon indigenous diet, and the marketing of its derived products provides a source of income. Because of land pressure around Mitú (Department of Vaupés, southeastern Colombia), shifting cultivation is no longer practiced with rotations, which had permitted forest regeneration, nor are plots adequately selected. One consequence is an increased incidence of cassava pests and diseases. Root rots, caused by several Phytophthora species, comprise a major production constraint in the region. Through surveys and meetings with communities, a crop management diagnostic was made and its relationships with root-rot incidence determined. Two thirds of the indigenous women farmers agreed that rots constituted the main cassava-production problem. The farmers were willing to try new varieties, describing the characteristics that they preferred. Based on the diagnostic, the researchers offered to indigenous to evaluate varieties with rot tolerance. Activities planning and evaluations were made with active communities participation and women diffused results. The indigenous helped the researchers to choose four chagras (farming plots), each from a different community. The farmers evaluated ten CIAT materials and nine local landraces according to their own selection criteria for the vegetative stage: vigor, plant health, plant height, stems per plant, and days to maturity. At harvest, the farmers also had specific criteria for adequate yield, starch content, and planting materials (stakes). The identified criteria led to a field book for evaluating cassava varieties in the zone. The farmers preferred the CIAT material CM 2772-3 (sweet, with yellow pulp) to the local landraces. Results were diffused, with farmers' participation, through meetings with the Department's Institutional Group, nongovernmental organizations, and communities.Two field days were also conducted, and two pictographic handbooks published.Foliar aspersion (20%) and soil application (50%) of liquid compost, twice weekly, were evaluated on cassava growth as fertilizer effect. Compost sources were plantain, fruit and vegetable, and organic matter processed by earthworms. Water was applied as control.Plant height was measured every 2 weeks and foliar chemical analyses were made 1.5 months after the first treatment. Plants with foliar treatment were taller than with fertilized soil. The tallest plants were those with fruit and vegetable application. Plantain liquid compost had better performance in soil applications.Mineral content in young leaves from plants treated with fruit and vegetable compost was higher than with other composts, showing high content of K, enough P, Ca, and Mg, and low N and S, according to CIAT (Figure 10.1.). However, mineral contents obtained by foliar aspersion of fruit and vegetable compost were higher than in the control. With this product applied to the soil, P, K, Ca, and Mg were higher in leaves, than in the control.  Foliar aspersion (20%) and soil application (50%) of liquid compost, two times a week, were evaluated on cassava growth, as fertilizer effect. Compost sources were plantain, fruits + vegetables and organic matter processed by earthworms. Water was applied as control.Plant height was measured each 2 weeks and foliar chemical analyses were done 1.5 months after first treatment. Plants with foliar treatment were higher than soil fertilized. The highest plants were those with fruits + vegetables application. Plantain liquid compost had better performance in soil applications.Mineral content in young leaves from plants treated with fruits + vegetables compost were higher than other composts, showing high content of K, enough of P, Ca and Mg and low of N and S, according to CIAT (Table 11.1). Although, mineral contents obtained by foliar aspersion of fruit and vegetables compost were higher than control. With this product applied to soil, P, K, Ca and Mg were higher in leaves, than control. Cassava cuttings from varieties M COL 1505, M PER 183, and CM 523-7, immersed for 10 min in 35%, 50%, and 70% liquid compost from plantain and organic matter processed by earthworms, were planted in a field in Ginebra (Valle). They were compared with chemical treatment with Captan (1.5 gr L -1 ), Benomyl (1.5 gr L -1 ), and Dimetoato (1.2 cc L -1 ). Figure12.1.shows the higher effects of chemical treatment, followed by organic matter from earthworms at 70% and 50%.Applications were made every 15 days during the first 4 months, and 21 days later, to evaluate the effect on cassava plants' growth and yield. The trial is in progress. Visits were carried out with 46 cassava farmers in Valle del Cauca and Cauca. Surveys were done to identify current pest problems, present farmer pest control and crop management practices and farmer perceptions, needs and priorities. In addition, systematic sampling was done in farmers' fields to identify pest problems and design a general pest damage scale.The cassava pest complex is associated with a larger number of natural enemies that play an important role in maintaining some pest populations below economic injury levels. For this reason, chemical pest control is considered a \"last option,\" as indiscriminate pesticide use could reduce the effectiveness of natural or applied biological control. However the very high populations of whiteflies observed in farmers fields, is an indication that natural biological control is not effective or the most effective biocontrol agents are not present. This has forced farmers to apply chemical pesticides as an alternative to whitefly control. This is considered a short term alternative until effective biocontrol agents, especially entomopathogens, can be identified and resistant cassava varieties can be multiplied and made available to producers. Four experiments have been designed and are being carried out to determine effective pesticide practices and recommendations for whitefly control. Results that will be presented are preliminary as there are on-going experiments.Preliminary experiments were carried out to design field methodologies for evaluation of the effectiveness of chemical pesticides. These were done at the farm \"El Bohio\" located in Santander de Quilichao (Cauca), 1000 m.a.s.l. with the cassava variety MBra 12. One month after planting foliar applications of 8 commercial products were made. These included Biomel (refined vegetable oils), Bioneem (neem extract), Bioterpeno (natural terpenoids), confidor (Imidacloprid), oportune (Buprofezin), tamaron (Metamidofos), sistemin (Dimethoate), and cipermetrina (generic). They were applied at the commercially recommended doses. The experimental design was completed randomized blocks, with 8 treatments, a control and four replications. Evaluations were initiated at the first sign of whiteflies, using a population scale, and after the first evaluation, evaluations were made every 15 days.In this experiment (Finca El Bohio) products with new or novel active ingredients are being evaluated for whitefly control, using the cassava variety \"Parrita\" (MCol 2758). The experimental design is completely randomized blocks with seven treatments, a control and four replications per treatment. The products tested include, Confidor (Imidacloprid), Oportune, Eltra (Carbosulfan), Actara (Tiametoxan), Polo (Diafentiuron), Epingle (Piriproxifen) and Citronela extract, all at commercially recommended doses. Product application and evaluations were made as cited in Experiment 1.This experiment was carried out in \"Agrovelez,\" an industrial size cassava plantation, in Jamundí, Valle del Cauca, with the cassava variety \"Reina.\" Eight, doses are being tested as well as several different forms of application (Table 1.1). The experimental design is completely randomized blocks with 7 treatments, one control, one commercial control and four repetitions per treatment. In preliminary trials, Confidor or Imidacloprid gave the best results for A. socialis control. In this experiment, carried out under greenhouse conditions several new products, including Actara (Tiametoxan) and Eltra (Carbosulfan) were compared to Imidacloprid for A. socialis control, using a completely aleatory design, with three treatments and an absolute control. Cassava leaves were immersed in the pesticide solution (commercial doses), and whitefly adults were released into leaf snap-cages. Mortality was evaluated after 48 hours. Experiments with higher than 10% mortality in the controls were discarded.This survey shows that cassava producers in the area surveyed do not employ a uniform criteria in cassava crop management (Table 1.2). As can be seen numerous varieties and fertilizers are used within the same zone. Some varieties, such as chiroza, a very consumer popular eating variety with good fresh market value is grown throughout all the municipalities. Several types of fertilizers are applied and there is no consensus as to rate, nor time of application. Several herbicides are used for weed control, including round-up, gramoxone, karmex and estelar, as well as hand weeding or cultural practices, and there is considerable variation in doses and time of application.A comparison between farm size and pest complex and populations indicates that cassava plantations of less than 10 ha. have a greater pest complex than larger plantations (Figure 1.Whiteflies predominate on these smaller farms. This greater diversity if probably due to the fact that the smaller farms tend to be traditional cassava growers, planting cassava for numerous years, so pest species and populations have, over time, had the opportunity to establish. Larger farms are more recent plantings and pest problems have not yet established nor accumulated to higher populations. However, as can be observed (Figure 1.2), whitefly populations are already high on these larger plantations, owing to the flight capacity or mobility, aided by wind currents, of whiteflies. These results confirm that some pests may become more problematic as plantation size increases.  Results from the different biological and chemical pesticide evaluated for A. socialis control were similar (Table 1.3). The biological products, biomel, bioneem and bioterpeno required additional applications (6 rather than 5 for other products). Only 3 applications of Imidacloprid (Confidor) were required to maintain low whitefly populations and this pesticide was the only treatment giving significantly different results (Table 1.3). The other products did not present results significantly different from the control.  The effects of the different products on adult populations were not significantly different from the control (no application) (Table 1.4). Buprofezin and Imidacloprid showed a significant difference in egg population from the control, but not between treatments.These results show that it is difficult to control A. socialis with conventional biological and chemical pesticides. As indicated earlier this may be due to the cerosine covering of immature A. socialis stages, that may provide protection, rendering pesticide applications ineffective. Metamidofos (Tamaron) and Dimethoate (Systemin) were at one time effectively used to control A. socialis, but due to continued applications, A. socials may now be resistant to these pesticides. Many of the products have been continually used for a considerable number of years to control whiteflies and may now be losing their effectiveness.The methodology employed in this experiment permitted better knowledge of whitefly behavior over time, and was used in subsequent experiments.  Results from this experiment show that tiametoxan gave the most effective control of A. socialis adults. All other products gave results not significantly different from the control (Table 1.5). The best treatment for reducing egg populations was imidacloprid, when compared to the other products but did not differ significantly from the control (Table 1.5).The effects of these products on Nymphal populations indicate that several, including piriproxifen, tiametoxan and imidacloprid, gave results significantly different from the control (Table 1.5). Citronela, the only biological pesticide evaluated in this trial, did not provide significant differences from the control (Table 1.5). Results from this experiment show that only tiametoxan and carbosulfan gave results significantly different from the control for adult A. socialis control (Table 1.6). For eggs, imidacloprid was the only treatment that presented significant differences. For nymphs, all treatments were significantly different from the control, with tiametoxan giving the best results, followed by imidacloprid.Tiametoxan gave the best results over the two experimental sites, Santander de Quilichao and Jamundí, especially for adult and nymph control. Imidacloprid gave the next best results.  Confidor (Imidacloprid) was applied in three forms, a suspension, stake treatment, and as a granular.All treatments gave results significantly different from the control for adult control of A. socialis (Table 1.7). The drench treatment with a concentrated suspension or stake treatment gave the best results but not significantly different from the other treatments.The best treatment for reducing egg populations was applying imidacloprid as a drench, concentrated suspension at the time of planting. (0.6 lt./ha).Nymphal results were similar as those for adults in that all treatments differed significantly from the control. Imidacloprid applied at the time of plating in concentrated suspension in drench from gave the best results (0.6 a d0.8 lt./ha).Results show that a drench application at the time of planting, using a concentrated suspension at a doses of 0.6 or 0.8 lt./ha. Gives the best control of A. socialis.  Evaluation of imidacloprid, tiametoxan and carbosulfan for whitefly control in the greenhouse.These results indicate that greenhouse testing gives optimal results of A. socialis control. All treatments gave significantly different results from the control and all products resulted in whitefly mortalities over 73% (Table 1.8). These results support finding from field trials. The three products, imidacloprid, tiametoxan and carbosulfan also gave the best control in field trials. These results also indicate that those methodologies employed for greenhouse testing of products are reliable for field extrapolation.  The survey of cassava producers has provided considerable information and is an aid in executing this project as it allowed us to know the needs and priorities of cassava farmers. It also provided important information on farmer crop management practices.In addition the survey provided important information on the cassava pest complex, identifying whiteflies, A. socialis, as the most important pest in the complex. The differences indicated between small (<10ha) and large (>10ha) plantations, although important at present, need to be observed over time, and needs to be compared to cultural practices, especially planting dates and patterns, varietal mixtures and pesticides used, particularly on the larger plantations.Preliminary results with biological and chemical pesticides indicate that control of whiteflies will be difficult and may be costly. Only a few products were effective and the results of the biopesticide were/are disappointing. Confidor (Imidacloprid) was the only product that gave effective control of nymphs; nymphal control is essential for reducing whitefly populations. Tiametoxan also gave adequate control for nymphs.Drench applications with a concentrated suspension at planting time at 0.6 to 0.8 lt./ha. Effectively reduced populations of eggs, nymphs and adult whiteflies (A. socialis).Anthony C. Bellotti, Claudia María Holguín, José María Guerrero, Adriano Muñoz, Carmen Elisa Mendoza (CIAT-EAT). However, to develop dissemination strategies and increase the rate of technology uptake by small-holder farmers, there is need to first understand local knowledge, farmer perceptions of the diseases and their relative importance to other constraints, and traditional management strategies.In-depth informal and formal surveys were carried out in two study sites in southwestern Uganda districts of Kabale and Kisoro where bean root rots (BRR) are a serious problem but where dissemination of management technologies had never been carried out. Informal surveys were designed to target \"knowledgeable\" farmers (35 in both study communities) and data collection procedures used included participant observation, key informant and group interviews, informal discussions and field observations conducted over the growing period of the crop (three months).The formal survey based on a structured questionnaire was carried on 100 farmers.The local names for root rots in the study areas (Kabale and Kisoro) are Kiniga and Churisuka respectively. Literally Kiniga means, \"is angry and commits suicide\" while Churisuka means \"coming home with only a hoe and no harvest\". The names depict the effect of the disease on beans and its importance, assessed on the basis of the effects on the crop. Generally, damage to beans (due to diseases) is categorized into \"soil and rain diseases\". BRR is considered a soil disease because of rotting of roots while foliar diseases are regarded as \"rain diseases\" because of their association with rain.Disease Recognition: Most farmers (94 %) recognize and clearly describe above-the-ground symptoms of BRR (yellowing), while a lesser but significant number (64%) associate rotting of roots with BRR. A few think above-the-ground (yellowing) and below-the-ground (rots) symptoms are two distinct and unrelated problems. Development and appearance of symptoms is a well-understood process and 85% observe symptoms at the 2 nd and 3 rd leaf stage. However, symptoms and effects of root rots and bean stem maggot (BSM) are largely undistinguished.Conditions associated or considered to cause BRR include poor soils, continuous cropping, use of poor seed, water stagnating in fields, too much rain or drought conditions. The latter further testifies the lack of distinction between the effects of BRR, BSM or even soil fertility. Too much rain implies heavy down pours resulting in high moisture content in the soil.The destructive effects of root rots were early on associated with bad omen by some communities, which used certain rituals to \"chase it away\" without success. Other traditional management practices that have been used are varietal changes and adjustment. Sixty percent of farmers have made changes to their traditional varieties. About 50% and 40% of farmers stopped growing large and medium sized seed respectively due to their susceptibility. Forty-eight percent introduced small sized seed because of their tolerance to root rots and high yields. Sixty percent adjusted components of varietal mixtures by either removing large seeded (36%), planting only medium and small seeded (17%), increasing small seed proportions within the mixture (16%) or simply reducing the proportions of big seed (14%).A number of cultural practices are carried out routinely for reasons other than managing root rots. These include manuring (63%) to improve soil fertility, \"seasonal rotation \" (100%) to meet needs for other crops, fallowing (54%) in very poor plots to improve soil fertility, planting on raised beds or ridges (90% in Kisoro) to avoid flooding, growing beans as a sole crop particularly climbers (91%), intercropping (94%) and terracing (71%). Whereas some of these practices are useful IPM components (manuring or planting on raised beds) against root rots farmers do not appreciate them as such.The above clearly show that:-Farmers have a good knowledge of the above-the-ground symptoms and overall crop damage caused by BRR based on their observations -Farmers associate the disease with certain soil and environmental factors. However, due to reliance on (\"easily visible\") symptoms (yellowing, wilting) effects of (\"invisible\") BSM and soil fertility are easily confused as being due to root rots. This is a major diagnostic weakness that can result in the use of wrong or rejection of appropriate management practices. -Traditional management practices having useful effects have been limited to varietal manipulation leading to reduction or elimination of large and introduction of small seeded components in varietal mixtures. -Certain practices (manuring, planting on mound or ridges) are routinely used for other reasons and are not appreciated as components in the IPM of root rots.Results obtained clearly show the need for using a learning approach in introducing and dissemination of IPM technologies against root rots (and BSM) among the communities studied. However, the understanding of the farmer traditional knowledge of BRR gained should enable development of appropriate materials information to fill gaps in farmers' knowledge. Farmers believed \"Ootheca came with the rains and went with the rains\", however, having realized that Ootheca developed in the soil within their own fields, they were eager to learn more about the biology and development in relation to their production circumstances. We encouraged farmers to sample soil for the appearance of the different stages of the pest in the learning plots. In addition we undertook a lab and screenhouse study to understand the details of Ootheca biology.Mating pairs of Ootheca were collected from the field and caged with a petri dish of loose soil. They were monitored for oviposition and all eggs laid were collected, counted and incubated under ambient temperature conditions. Neonates were removed and placed in soil with a potted bean plant. There were 168 such pots. Each week 6 pots were removed randomly and sampled for larvae. Head capsule widths (HCW) of all larvae collected were measured. Frequency distribution of the HCW was plotted and the number of instars determined.The developmental parameters of Ootheca eggs and larvae are described in Understanding factors that influence bean stem maggot population dynamics Introduction BSM ecology is not well understood and this leads to difficulties in predicting population changes. This year we monitored BSM species population dynamics in relation to various climatic variables and the incidence of parasitism. The data could be used to develop models for advisory forecasting the pest's populations.Beans were planted on weekly basis at Selian, Arusha (ca 3 0 S and 1380 m.a.s.l.). Plants were removed at 3 weeks after emergence and all insects extracted and sorted into species using puparial characters. Other plants from the same group on each sampling occasion were placed in a paper bag and sealed to determine adult or parasite emergence. Parasites are stored for later species determination.  O. spencerella was dominant throughout the monitoring period (Figure 2.1). There was always a decline in BSM populations to the lowest level during April each year, but populations were high in May to August. The population increases and decreases of the parasite population appear to follow the BSM population trends very closely. Rainfall (a) does not appear to be a major factor, even though low populations in April coincided with periods of high rainfall. These periods also coincide with the planting of beans in the Arusha area. Delayed planting often results in high BSM infestation. Farmers experience high bruchid infestation in their harvested produce after a few weeks of storage. This forces them to sell their produce soon after harvest for low prices. They were unaware of bruchid infestation in the field.A sequential harvest program was initiated with the community in Sanya Juu (N. Tanzania) to monitor the relationship between time of harvest and bruchid infestation. Beans were harvested at physiological maturity, and at two weekly intervals thereafter for 4 weeks. The harvested beans were grouped into split and intact clean pods and according to the number of holes (pod borer damage). The grains were extracted from the pods and stored in sealed paper bags for 8 weeks. The grains were then examined and all emerging insects were collected and recorded, grain damage was also recorded. The data were analyzed and discussed with farmers.Results: Grains from pods that provided access for bruchid entry; pods with pod borer damage and split pods (as a result of delayed harvesting) were more attacked than intact pods (Figure 3.1). Also pods harvested at physiological maturity had significantly less damage than later harvested pods. Grain damage increased progressively with weeks after physiological maturity (Figure 3.2). Each week of delayed harvest resulted in 7 % grain infestation by Acanthoscelides obtectus. Among the Wasambaa in Lushoto District of Northern Tanzania, farmers harvest soon after physiological maturity (early) as a tradition and sell their produce soon after harvest without much time in storage, either because they are aware of the high bruchid infestation associated with delayed harvest or that they sell wet seed to take advantage of the seed weight. The farmers' claim they gain more from the early harvest than if they harvest late. Grain harvested this way and air-dried was kept for 4 months without bruchid emergence. For longer term storage, farmers add dust or sun-dry or smoke the harvest and this protects the grain for much longer.Kwasi Ampofo, Hendry Mziray.","tokenCount":"8051"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b8f86a8b686147169db362a66b2232a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/67b32a99-154d-4690-a637-e4f0801156fa/retrieve","id":"1803969797"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e4eb0288-994f-432f-8eb0-b6b084769b65","pagecount":"6","content":"Luego, dicho concepto evolucionó para ser parte estratégica del Programa de Desarrollo Económico de la oficina CARE en Nicaragua. La idea continuó desarrollándose y así CRS retomó la iniciativa en 2003 y junto con CIAT continuaron con la idea llevándola a escala regional en Centro América. De esta manera, nació la Alianza de Aprendizaje en Desarrollo Empresarial Rural (AdeA) y continúa nuestro vínculo como organización, siendo CARE miembro fundador junto con CRS, Universidad Nacional de Agricultura UNA Catacamas-Olancho, La Agencia de Cooperación Alemana GTZ, CIAT y Swisscontact.Los excelentes resultados obtenidos en el proyecto piloto realizado por CARE en el 2002 y su valor agregado como espacio para conectar diferentes tipos de actores, aprender, compartir, innovar y mejorar las formas de trabajo con socios locales, motivaron a CARE a continuar con el vinculo en la Alianza.Este informe presenta los elementos más relevantes de la participación de CARE como miembro de la Alianza de Aprendizaje en Centroamérica, con el propósito de compartirla y mejorarla en futuros esfuerzos.El eje de sistematización de este documento se centra en la hipótesis de que la \"Alianza de aprendizajes ha innovado al conectar diferentes tipos de actores para potenciar el trabajo que vienen adelantando en el tema de Desarrollo Empresarial Rural\", analizando desde la perspectiva de CARE, no sólo los CARE Nicaragua en la Alianza Por Álvaro Ponce aprendizajes y actividades propias de la organización en este proceso, sino los elementos que evidencian cómo CARE ha innovado y aprendido a partir de mejorar sus relaciones con sus socios locales y otros actores que trabajan el tema.CARE desde hace muchos años ha desarrollado alianzas en diversos sectores, salud, agua, saneamiento y educación, etc. No obstante, estas experiencias no han sido sistematizadas para aprovechar la riqueza del aprendizaje generado. Las relaciones en estos espacios y en el sector desarrollo económico eran -y aún muchas lo son-, principalmente dadas por la implementación conjunta de proyectos, donde las relaciones se limitaban a la ejecución de acciones puntuales que justificaban \"estar juntos\", pero no se daban con el objetivo de lograr el aprendizaje organizacional y social. Así mismo, el tema de gestión de conocimiento no estaba inserto de forma clara en nuestros programas.En este sentido, la búsqueda de vínculos y asocios previos a la implementación de un proyecto con el fin de lograr aprendizajes no era una práctica. Previo a la Alianza, CARE participó en el grupo de aprendizaje de Manejo Integrado de cultivos en el Occidente de Nicaragua, donde hubo un fuerte esfuerzo en la vinculación con redes y asociaciones de productores. Con esta experiencia se logró incidir en la aprobación de la ley de En este contexto, la principal motivación de CARE al ingresar en la Alianza de Aprendizaje fue fortalecer sus conocimientos en el área de desarrollo económico, mercados y el enfoque de cadenas, mediante el intercambio de aprendizajes y conocimientos útiles según los programas y proyectos de la organización. Además, la Alianza representaba una oportunidad para estrechar los vínculos entre las distintas oficinas de CARE en Centro América al coincidir con su proceso de integración en una oficina regional con programas de Desarrollo Económico en los cuatro países de CA4 1 .Otros factores del contexto que contribuyeron a la participación de CARE en la Alianza, tienen que ver con los enfoques y acuerdos de la cooperación internacional del momento que requerían un trabajo por sectores y con la participación del gobierno, el auge del sector privado y los procesos para la firmas de los tratados de libre comercio, contribuyeron a la vinculación de CARE a la Alianza para aprender y hacerle frente a las nuevas exigencias en el mundo de desarrollo.En 2003 a partir de la experiencia adquirida con el proceso de aprendizaje en Desarrollo Empresarial Rural en Estelí en el 2002, CARE con el apoyo de CIAT, desarrolló ciclos de aprendizaje para la atención a pequeños y medianos productores en el Norte de Nicaragua junto con la Red Nicaragüense de Comercio Comunitario (RENICC), El Instituto Nicaragüense de Promoción Humana (INPRHU), La Central de Cooperativas Agropecuarias de Jalapa, (CCAJ), la Organización no gubernamental OCTUPAN y la Empresa de Asistencia Técnica (CONOAGRO.Algunas acciones importantes desarrolladas en el marco de la Alianza de Aprendizaje han sido:• En 2003 se realizaron réplicas del ciclo de aprendizaje sobre fortalecimiento de aspectos empresariales y el enfoque de cadenas de valor a grupos comunitarios, con el propósito de insertarlos en los mercados y lograr una comprensión de su dinámica. Para esta iniciativa de 30,000 dólares desarrollada en Estelí, Madriz y Nueva Segovia, se retomó el modelo de alianzas para impulsar el aprendizaje y mejorar acceso y generación de vínculos con mercados. Por estos resultados, los directores han comenzado a poner interés al tema de las Alianzas y a comprender mejor las ventajas y oportunidades, sin embargo este tema con ellos se debe de trabaja con mucha eficiencia, claridad y diplomacia.La Alianza ha generado buenos resultados, ha innovado con el uso de nuevas formas de comunicación y coordinación, que se pueden evidenciar en el reconocimiento de experiencias promovidas por nuestros socios locales como las mujeres productoras de papel orgánico de La Tunosa, los empresarios de las flores, los productores de peces, entre otros, y en los vínculos con redes y organizaciones donde se han compartido productos de información y experiencias interesantes.Actualmente, existe un diálogos más abierto y un poco más de confianza entre los socios, lo que se evidencia en un manejo distinto de la información, ahora ésta no es \"la piedra mejor guardada\" sino la que mejor se utiliza y se comparte. Hay mas sinceridad en los planteamientos críticos entre los socios, en algunas ocasiones fuertes discusiones y enojos que luego se han convertido en aprendizajes.Existen mejores relaciones internas en la organización entre los líderes de programas en Centroamérica y el espacio ha logrado una mejor camaradería entre colegas, desarrollando lazos no sólo laborales sino vínculos de amistad interinstitucional. De forma personal, ha mejorado el abordaje de conflictos interinstitucionales y las capacidades de negociación.Por otra parte, hoy:• Hay acciones con el sector privado para formular propuestas conjuntas sobre Responsabilidad Social Empresarial y asocio con el sector privado. • Están en marcha réplicas de los ciclos de aprendizaje con socios locales como EMPSA, Cooperativas de productores, Universidades e INPYME.• Se han promovido intercambios de experiencias entre actores de los diversos países de Centroamérica, como resultado, los socios locales han adaptado e institucionalizado los enfoques y metodologías de Desarrollo Empresarial Rural, como es el caso de EMPSA [Ver experiencia], INPRHU, RENICC, CCAJ de Jalapa, OCTUPAN, MOPAF-MA y CONAGRO.Entre los factores del contexto que han contribuido a esta situación actual se encuentran los enfoques y nuevos acuerdos de la cooperación internacional que requiere de un trabajo integral con distintos sectores y el gobierno, así como el auge del sector privado y los procesos para la firmas de los tratados de libre comercio en la región. De igual forma, las estrategias de crecimiento económico y reducción de pobreza, apuntan a la necesidad de contar con Alianzas para incidir en políticas y estrategias de desarrollo local, nacional y regional. La situación política en el país ha sido un factor a tomar en cuenta para cualquier esfuerzo conjunto de cara a la continuidad lógica y la sostenibilidad, igualmente la situación de atención urgente que generan los desastres naturales en la región y las crisis económicas.No obstante, a pesar de los logros alcanzados aún no existen conceptos ni ideas finales claras sobre la continuidad de la Alianza en el sentido de su sostenibilidad tanto conceptual (futura dirección, prioridades, roles, liderazgo etc.), como económico. En este sentido, durante una reunión del Comité de Dirección de la Alianza en Estelí realizada en julio de 2007 se desarrollaron ideas sobre algunas formas para continuar pero aún se debe finalizar y presentarse a los directores de las organizaciones socias.Por parte del programa de Desarrollo Económico de CARE Nicaragua se mantiene el interés de apoyar en la gestión de recursos al interior de la Organización y con otros donantes.Es importante aclarar que la participación de los socios de la alianza no depende sólo de recursos sino también de voluntades personales y de las voluntades de los decidores, en el caso de la Alianza de Aprendizaje, se ha hecho evidente que el conocimiento y la información han sido una razón de fuerza para motivar la vinculación de organizaciones, por lo que la escasez de recursos no debe ser la principal limitante para una participación activa en procesos de aprendizaje.En la experiencia de CARE, las lecciones aprendidas son:• Es necesario desde un inicio dejar muy claro los roles, compromisos y poner sobre la mesa los intereses que cada actor tiene con respecto a la Alianza, así como discutir la gobernabilidad de la alianza, estableciendo compromisos claros y una planificación más objetiva y menos ambiciosa. • Es pertinente mejorar los vínculos y la documentación a escala local para contar con más evidencias en la gestión de información e incidencia con decisores de políticas y entes que tienen responsabilidad en el desarrollo económico local, especialmente en procesos de negociación que afectan a los grupos con menos poder, los tratados de libre comercio, políticas de importación -exportación o formas de seguros que protejan a los menos favorecidos. Asimismo trabajar en mecanismos para mejorar la comunicación y vínculos entre los procesos que se desarrollan en cada país y mayor intercambio de experiencias. • La poca información que llega a los tomadores de decisión de las instituciones no permite que los participantes cuenten con el tiempo que requiere la alianza, por lo que sería importante lograr que el tema de Aprendizaje sea insertado en los planes organizacionales y lograr así una política institucional que defina los recursos disponibles para lograr una participación sostenida y efectiva para el aprendizaje y el intercambio de información. • En consecuencia con lo anterior, es necesario desarrollar una estrategia de sistematización de los procesos de la Alianza desde su inicio para generar productos de información que puedan ser compartidos en diversos espacios.","tokenCount":"1654"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"50f18148cd580376be826a249c497544","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040757.pdf","id":"1683746853"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ee9983e-7a6c-4333-814f-98682bb35b20","pagecount":"57","content":"The Participatory Irrigation Management and Development (PIMD) program is Cambodia's strategy to ensure sustainable utilization of irrigation system in water resource sector (RGC 1999). In turn, this program will enable farmers to take over the management of their irrigation systems and contribute to increased productivity and profitability of the irrigated agriculture sector. The Strategy for Agriculture and Water endorsed by the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) clearly identifies the PIMD program as the core element in the development of sustainable irrigation (RGC 2006(RGC , 2007)). PIMD is premised on the idea that community participation and ownership will improve the performance of irrigation systems and result in operational sustainability. The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC), in accordance with its Circular No. 1 on Sustainable Irrigation Policy (1999) devolves the responsibility for all aspects of scheme operations to Farmer Water User Communities (FWUCs). Specifically, PIMD is defined as an irrigation system management where farmers (through the farmer water users communities or FWUCs) take the lead in: (1) specifying what irrigation services they will receive, (2) managing delivery and financing of those services, and (3) identifying what support services they require (RGC 2003a). The government is then tasked with regulating the irrigation sector and together with other organizations, providing support services and building the capacity of the FWUCs.MOWRAM is tasked with reviewing and evaluating all irrigation systems with the potential to effectively serve the development of national economy, standardizing the statutes of the Farmer Water Users' Community (FWUC) to facilitate the organization of farmers, and cooperating with the concerned ministries to create the FWUCs. These tasks are in addition to carrying out feasibility studies and constructing irrigation systems to supply irrigation water to farmers' fields in an efficient and sustainable manner (Sinath 2003(Sinath , 2001)). MOWRAM has been implementing the PIMD program since 2000. It is tasked with implementing the PIMD program in 24 provinces in the country. As of September 2007, a total of 144 FWUCs have been created and officially recognized. An inventory of irrigation systems in 1993-1994 by the Mekong Secretariat listed over 900 irrigation schemes in Cambodia comprising over 300,000 ha (Sinath 2001). At the current pace of FWUC establishment, MOWRAM needs guidance on how this process can be facilitated and its effort made more effective.The PIMD program implementation currently lacks a master plan or a roadmap for its implementation in Cambodia. Several studies are currently focusing on the identification of opportunities and constraints in the PIMD implementation under CKH 3008 \"Support to the definition of Agricultural Sector Policies\" funded by Agence Française de Développement (AFD) and the Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system together with these studies will lead to the formulation of a master plan. More importantly, this M&E system will provide a systematic database of all information necessary to enable the Royal Government of Cambodia to (RGC 2003b): (1) better plan and supervise the implementation of PIMD; (2) further revise and develop the PIMD policy and strategy; and (3) mobilize additional resources for further actions in support of PIMD. Specifically, the M&E system will obtain all pertinent data, create an appropriate database and issue timely reports on PIMD (RGC 2003b). The database should include information on the following components (RGC 2003b): (a) condition of irrigation schemes prior to intervention; (b) progress and problems encountered in building capacity implement PIMD successfully and provide essential support services; (c) progress and problems encountered in establishing and building capacity of FWUC; (d) progress and problems encountered in participatory infrastructure improvement; (e) outcomes of FWUC development, infrastructure improvement and provision of support services; and (f) impacts of FWUC development, infrastructure improvement and provision of support services.MOWRAM is responsible for coordinating planning and implementation of the M&E system for the PIMD program. Establishing an M&E system involves four steps: (1) identification of information requirements, (2) selection and definition of indicators, (3) collection and management of data, and (4) reporting and use of M&E results.To pilot the M&E system, MOWRAM set up a Working Group for Irrigation System Management (WG-ISM) to monitor and assess the organization and development of Farmer Water User Communities in Takeo, Kampong Speu and Kampong Cham provinces. Nine schemes where the FWUCs have been formed under different projects, have been selected for this pilot M&E. To be able to cover the nine schemes, the WG-ISM members involved in the field work were divided into three teams of three staff each. Each team collected data for three schemes under the supervision of IWMI:Group 2 Group 3Tan Naren Uk Channarith Sorn Serey Chan Sopheak Nuon Soveng Earm Sophorn Sreng Tiang Laing Sokim Kouy Sinak Each team spent three days for each scheme. The first day was spent on explaining the objectives and background of the fieldwork and interviewing the FWUC chairmen, vice chairmen and some group leaders to obtain secondary data. The second day was spent on focus group discussions for committee members (with one WG-ISM staff doing this), farmers (two staff did this), and combined farmers and committee members (by all three staff). The third day was spent interviewing agencies with links to the studied schemes. Two staff members were assigned to do this. The third member of each team was assigned with filling data gaps from the first day interviews. The entire fieldwork was completed in 21 days.The identification of information requirements and selection of indicators was undertaken prior to the fieldwork by the WG-ISM with the assistance and support of the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). The indicators selected are intended to monitor implementation, outcomes and impacts as presented in the following sections. Some basic characteristics of the systems are also included. Ideally, baseline information should be collected for each irrigation system before PIMD is implemented in order to have information that can be used to compare the impact of the implementation program. Monitoring of the same indicators after PIMD implementation will help establish whether the program is progressing well and is succeeding in achieving its objectives. To address this concern in this pilot M&E, a recall approach was applied where respondents are asked about the situation before the program. The implementation indicators cover various aspects of FWUC functionality such as organizational and financial management, and systems operation and maintenance. The outcome and impact indicators cover physical improvements to the system, water availability, area irrigated, yields, crop diversification, cropping intensity and increase in incomes.For consistency in data collection across irrigation systems, a list of basic area and system characteristics and guide questions are used in key informant interviews, focus group discussions and other participatory rapid rural appraisal (PRA) activities. Specifically, a structured questionnaire was implemented during the focus group discussion with FWUC committees and group leaders and farmers. Appendix 1 contains the survey questionnaire with the basic information required and the guide questions. The key informants included members of the FWUC committee, group and sub group leaders, officers of provincial and district level agencies and farmers. The other PRA activities included system mapping, drawing of cultivation calendar, mind mapping and problem ranking. The focus group discussion with farmers was used to validate the outcome indicators and the provincial and district officers provided information on agency linkages and support services. Appendix 2 gives the detailed schedule of the fieldwork and data collection. An important aspect in data collection is ensuring the quality of data collected. Part of this aspect is finding obvious errors and making corrections while the data collectors are still at or near the site and while the collector still remembers the circumstances of the interview.The original data and information obtained from the questionnaires were in Khmer and translated into English. To better manage the data, they were entered into the computer soon after the collection. At present, the data are in Microsoft Excel format. A data management staff should eventually be appointed to maintain and update this database, and put in place a more systematic data storage, retrieval and processing protocol which will include creating data management guidelines, having data entry and handling protocols and report templates.On reporting and use of M&E results, the MOWRAM Working Group produced its first M&E Report based on the data collected (MOWRAM WG-ISM 2007). The report satisfies some key principles for M&E such as simplicity, providing pertinent information that can be used as input into planning, focused on key findings using formats that are brief, clear and highlight the main points and more likely to be read by \"busy\" stakeholders. The report focuses on 4 key aspects for each of the schemes surveyed: (1) basic physical characteristics of the scheme, (2) annual maintenance and renovation implemented, (3) key issues pertaining to the FWUC and scheme operation, and (4) priority needs of the scheme and FWUC. The M&E reports should aim for brief and concise reports in easy to read formats. This report is organized as follows: the following section presents selected basic characteristics of the nine schemes covered; the third section examines the progress of FWUC establishment and the fourth discusses the outcomes and initial impacts; this is followed by a summary of findings and the last section provides some recommendations in improving the M&E system and database.Selective information on the characteristics of each scheme are presented in Table 1. Eight of the nine irrigation schemes surveyed were constructed during the Pol Pot era. The schemes were then rehabilitated under different projects and one was partly rehabilitated using government social funds. The Phlauv Touk scheme which was originally built in the Pol Pot period, had been extended and rehabilitated under the PRASAC project. The key physical characteristics such as water sources, type of scheme, and reservoir capacity for each scheme are provided in Table 2. Seven of the nine irrigation schemes are shown to have reservoirs with capacities ranging from three to 42 million m 3 . Kork Kandal and Thoam Ney schemes were rehabilitated to serve a dual purpose of irrigation and flood control. In two pumping schemes with canal systems only, water is pumped out from the main canals and transported into the secondary and field canals by private contractors. These contractors have signed agreements with the FWUCs, local authorities and the Department of Water Resources and Meteorology (DOWRAM). Four of the nine schemes directly feed from the Mekong river while two feed from its tributaries. One scheme is completely dependent on rainwater. Consideration of socioeconomic factors is essential for understanding scheme characteristics and should contribute to making sound decisions. Socio-economic data should complement the physical profile for each scheme. The data collected in this pilot M&E include information on the number of farmers per scheme, average sizes of lands, type of crops and cultivated areas per season. Six of the nine schemes included in this M&E pilot can be considered small to medium scale covering a thousand to over three thousand hectares (Table 3). The average landholding characterizes smallholder farming with areas ranging from 0.3 ha in Chan Thnal to slightly over a hectare in Seventh March scheme. Paddy is the main crop in all the schemes. Wet season cultivation is practiced only in Chan Thnal and Tumnub Santesok while dry season cultivation is practiced in all the other schemes. In Phlauv Touk, two crops are cultivated in the dry season. Understanding the institutional context of PIMD and FWUC formation is as important as knowing the physical and socio-economic profiles. The institutional characteristics provide information on the structure and functions of the institution. In the irrigation sector of Cambodia, the farmer water user community (FWUC) became the central body in irrigation system management when the government embraced the policy of irrigation management transfer (IMT) or participatory irrigation management (PIM) in the late 1990s. The FWUCs were formed or strengthened to enable them to manage rehabilitated irrigation systems mostly built during the Pol Pot era.Table 4 reports the year the FWUCs were formed in the surveyed nine schemes. It is interesting to note that in five schemes, the FWUCs have been formed as far back as 1995-7. These FWUCs however, had to be revived as a prerequisite to rehabilitation of the schemes, which were funded under various projects. All the farmers within the irrigation scheme are considered members of the respective FWUC with the ascribed membership. The FWUCs in all schemes, except Thnoat Te, follow the standard statute prepared by the MOWRAM and register with the MOWRAM (Table 5). Thnoat Te is still in the process of registering. According to the given statute of FWUCs in Pracas 306, the basic functions of the FWUC are: (1) to manage irrigation schemes, (2) collect irrigation service fee (ISF) to cover the cost of service delivery and operation and maintenance (O&M), (3) bring together farmers who have farming land in an irrigated area and form a group for facilitating the supply of irrigation water to them, (4) supply adequate water for irrigation to the members, (5) acquire knowledge of management, O&M of the irrigation system and financial affairs, (6) increase the yields and seasonal cropping, and (7) facilitate support from the government.The FWUC is responsible for: (1) the collection of the ISF that it determines, (2) the preparation of a work plan, (3) the formulation of statutes (constitution), contracts and internal regulations of the community, (4) the maintenance of the irrigation system to enable the provision of irrigation for the whole season, (5) the management and distribution of water to all members, (6) the strengthening of use, management and improvement of the irrigation system in an efficient manner, and (7) the resolution of problems within the community.In this report, whether FWUCs are functional or not is assessed in terms of how they perform their functions and responsibilities with respect to four key areas of organizational management, financial management, system operation and system management. Under organization management, four sub areas are examined: (a) structure, (b) leadership, (c) decision making, and (d) record keeping. On structure, the sub groups, groups and FWUC committees are defined as functional by the degree of their involvement in the operation and maintenance of their irrigation schemes and the carrying out of their defined functions. Organizational management is an essential element in an organization's development. In this context, we focus on structure, leadership and decision making. With the farmer water user communities (FWUCs) as the key institutions in carrying out PIMD, monitoring progress of PIMD implementation is equivalent to assessing the organizational management of FWUCs.Comprising the structures of FWUCs are the farmer water user groups (FWUGs) which are in turn composed of sub farmer water user groups (SFWUGs). In all the irrigation schemes, except Banteay Thleay and Seventh March, the FWUGs were formed based on administrative boundaries of communes and the SFWUGs have been formed based on village boundaries. The FWUGs and SFWUGs in Banteay Thleay and Seventh March irrigation schemes were formed based on some hydrological boundaries. However, these hydrological boundaries are not very clear. Of the SFWUGs formed, only those in Tam Lap, Phlauv Touk and Tumnub Santesok are functional (Table 7). The FWUGs in seven irrigation schemes are functional while the core members of the FWUC committee are functional in six schemes. In some schemes, there are a few positions which are not functional at all. No. SFWUGSTable 8 presents the implementation of activities by the SFWUGs, FWUGs and FWUCs. The SFWUGs established in Tam Lap scheme are involved in implementing most of their main activities more regularly than those in other schemes. In Banteay Thleay and Seventh March schemes, the SFWUGs are partly functional with a few leaders implementing only some of the activities. Comparing across structures and schemes, the FWUGs appear to be more functional than the SFWUGs and most of the FWUGs implement some of the main activities of the FWUCs. The existing core members of the FWUC committees in all irrigation schemes are involved in implementing their given roles and responsibilities regularly. Most of the main activities are being regularly implemented by the core FWUC committee members in Tam Lap, Kork Kandal, Phlauv Touk and Seventh March (Table 8).In the majority of the irrigation schemes, the SFWUGs are very weak. They are either defunct or functional at a very low level. These weaknesses are largely due to weaknesses in the process of their formation. Specifically, most of them have been formed without identifiable irrigation boundaries and had much less incentive to be active and cooperate. Majority of the SWUGs have been formed based on village boundaries which do not match irrigation boundaries. Some of the SFWUGs (e.g. Kork Kandal, Seventh March) were formed only to fulfill the requirements for FWUC registration. In addition, system deficiencies prevented the active involvement of the sub-groups in implementing their given roles and solving field problems as this was beyond their capacities. The lack of clear assignments and corresponding training also contributed to the groups' being inactive.Leadership is a key aspect in organizational management. It is important in ensuring effectiveness in organizations. The functionality of the FWUC committee, group and sub group leaders is central in the sustainability of FWUCs. Table 9 sums up how the leaders are selected, how involved they are in their functions and whether farmers are satisfied with the leadership. The leaders carry out the tasks and responsibilities specified in their FWUC statutes. The core members of the FWUC committee comprise the Chairman, first Vice Chairman, second Vice Chairman and third Vice Chairman. The chairmen and vice chairmen were selected through elections among farmers in all the schemes expect in Tam Lap, where they have been selected by sub groups. Some positions for vice chairmen are not functional in Chan Thnal and Seventh March schemes.The Chairmen of the FWUCs in Tam Lap, Kork Kandal and Phlauv Touk are found to be highly devoted in carrying out all their assigned roles and responsibilities. Particularly, the service of the Chairman of Phlauv Touk is evaluated by farmers as very good. Farmer satisfaction is measured subjectively in the survey. Rather than \"yes\" or \"no\" answer, it was decided to capture to some extent the \"degree\" of satisfaction or dissatisfaction by giving five choices ranging from \"very weak\" (when farmers are least satisfied) to \"very good\" (when farmers are most satisfied). So, if many farmers rate their satisfaction with their leaders as \"good\" to \"very good,\" then they are likely to be impressed by the leadership in their respective schemes. 1   The chairmen of the FWUCs in the rest of the irrigation schemes, except for Tumnub Santesok, carry out most of their responsibilities. All the core members of the FWUC committee in Tam Lap irrigation scheme actively implement their given roles and responsibilities and their services have been evaluated by farmers as good. The Vice chairmen in all the irrigation schemes except Chan Thnal and Tumnub Santesok, implement most of their given roles. The Vice chairman of Chan Thnal implements only part of his given roles and responsibilities while all the core members of the FWUC committee including the Chairman in Tumnub Santesok irrigation schemes implement only a few of their expected roles and responsibilities.  The positions of first and third Vice Chairmen of the FWUC are not functional and remain vacant in Thoam Ney irrigation scheme. The person who held the position of first Vice Chairman has been selected as a commune chief while the person selected for third Vice Chairman is not interested to get involved in FWUC activities. Also, the second and third Vice Chairmen of Seventh March scheme are not functional as those selected to hold the positions do not have any leadership qualities.Overall, the involvement of sub group and group leaders in FWUC activities in the majority of the irrigation schemes is relatively weak. In some schemes, these positions are nominal and not functional. In Banteay Thleay, the farmers are not even aware of the existence of such positions. Improper selections and unclear assignments/responsibilities are the reasons for the low level of functioning of group and sub-group leaders. The functionality of majority of FWUCs largely depends on how active the core members are and in some irrigation schemes, on the strong leadership of the chairmen.Decisions made are as important as the process which led to the decisions. The quality of decision making contributes to how organizations are successfully managed. The meeting of FWUC committee is the forum for collective planning and decision making for each scheme. These committee meetings are held more frequently and with majority of farmer members in only three schemes participating (Table 10). While these meetings are held weekly during cultivation period in one scheme, no such meeting is held in three schemes. In these three schemes, decisions are made by the FWUC chairmen. Where decisions are made without the buy in of members, less cooperation and contributions can be expected. In Table 10, it appears that this aspect of organizational management is still relatively weak in majority of the schemes. Good record keeping is a must in managing organizations. Maintaining quality records should contribute to well informed decisions. The following basic records are supposed to be maintained by FWUCs as attested to by the farmers and MOWRAM-PIMD staff: (i) list of members, (ii) minutes of meetings, (iii) record of land holdings, (iv) fee collection record, and (v) financial record (e.g. record of cash and fund utilization). All these five records are maintained by FWUCs in four schemes (Table 11). The qualities of records maintained in Tam Lap and Phlauv Touk are reported to be good. The Seventh March FWUC maintains four records while the FWUCs in the other four irrigation schemes maintain only financial records. While records are maintained by FWUCs, there is no uniformity in the type of records kept apart from financial records. Record keeping appears to depend on the knowledge and ability of FWUC chairmen and other committee members. As they are, the records kept cannot fully support the FWUCs functions nor make possible review of progress of activities. In many schemes, the information required for some decisions are not available.Financial management serves as the backbone for organizations. For FWUCs to function, they require financial resources. FWUCs need to raise funds to support their activities. After system rehabilitation, the responsibility for O&M and emergency repair is supposed to be transferred gradually by government to FWUCs in the span of five years. The first year after rehabilitation, the government covers 80% while the farmer members cover the remaining 20%. This sharing continues until the fourth year with government share decreasing and those of farmer members increasing by 20% per year. On the fifth year, the farmer members are expected to fully cover O&M and emergency repairs.Before the FWUC formation, there was no mechanism for charging farmers for water (RGC 2003c). The total cost of construction, operation and maintenance fell upon government. Without income from water charges and with generally limited government resources, MOWRAM and later on the local authorities, were unable to provide maintenance to keep existing systems operational. Without good service, farmers will be unwilling to pay even minimal water charges.Tables 12 and 13 illustrate how the FWUCs are managing with respect to their finances. For FWUCs which have been around for sometime, there is already more experience and confidence in collecting of irrigation service fees (ISFs). For instance, the FWUCs in Banteay Thleay, Thnoat Te, Phlauv Touk and Chan Thnal have been continuously collecting ISFs since 1998 (Table 12). In Banteay Thleay and Phlauv Touk, the ISF is collected by private contractors involved in pumping water as part of their contractual obligation. In Tumnub Santesok scheme, the ISF was collected only for one year. This may reflect the lack of motivation of leaders to collect and incentives for farmers to pay because not much improvement and benefits are felt. Collection of ISF is the only source of funds for FWUCs in six irrigation schemes. FWUCs in Banteay Thleay and Phlauv Touk are able to collect fees from boats using the main canals although the ISF remains the primary source of income (Table 13). Auctioning of fishing rights in the reservoir is the main source of income for the Seventh March FWUC. This FWUC also charges a toll fee for vehicles passing through the reservoir bund road and does not collect ISF (Table 13).As of the survey period, seven schemes have remaining funds from past collections after deducting all expenses. In three schemes, all the collected funds are fully spent while in one scheme, the fund is not spent on any activity. In most cases, the FWUCs used their funds for major and minor system repairs and to pay committee members. Four FWUCs maintain bank accounts. System operation is basically concerned with allocation and distribution of water to farmer members. The demands involved in system operation depend on the available structures in each scheme. Table 14 reports the available canal systems for each of the irrigation schemes. The Tumnub Santesok scheme has only main canals. In Kork Kandal and Phlauv Touk, no tertiary level structures are available. Table 17 gives the water availability for cultivation in both seasons as reported by farmers. The quality of the service of FWUCs in system operation highly dependent on the level of involvement of the respective core members of the committee, FWUG and SFWUG leaders, and on the availability of operational systems more than water availability. For instance, in Kork Kandal, the inadequacy of water is mainly due to the location of some lands and lack of field canals. In Thnoat Te, the inadequacy of water is mainly due to the lack of proper canal systems and control structures. In Seventh March irrigation scheme, water inadequacy is a management problem related to operating the feeder canal gate during floods. In this scheme, the position of the second Vice chairman who is responsible for water distribution, is not functional. In Tumnub Santesok, farmers have inadequate water due to the shallow reservoir. The problem of inadequate water is reduced in schemes where the FWUCs are involved in water distribution. Specifically, towards the end of the season when water in Tam Lap is insufficient, the FWUC start pumping water from a stream. Farmers are quite happy with this service. In Kork Kandal, the core members of the FWUC and some group leaders are involved in water distribution to mitigate irrigation problems.In Banteay Thleay, farmers have irrigation problems even if water is available at the main canal. Water distribution in this scheme is the responsibility of private contractors who are apparently not performing as they should. However, in Phlauv Touk where the private contractors are also responsible for water distribution, the FWUC is more involved. Specifically, the FWUC develops the overall plan which includes water distribution to the fields. According to farmers, the quality of service in this scheme is relatively good. In Chan Thnal, although water is adequate, the lack of adequate structures at the field level prevents the delivery of a better service. In Tumnub Santesok scheme, the FWUC uses a lottery system to allocate water when there is not enough in the reservoir to irrigate the total coverage area.System maintenance includes major and minor repairs of headworks and canal system. A well maintained system will make possible better system operation and delivery of quality service. Before the formation of the FWUCs, system maintenance in the functional irrigation schemes was limited to some minor repairs in reservoir bunds and main canals as organized either by the village or commune chiefs (Table 18). Minor repairs of secondary canals were implemented only in one irrigation scheme. There was no maintenance work at all in Tumnub Santesok irrigation scheme before the formation of the FWUC. As described in Tables 19-20, the FWUCs are involved in implementing both minor and major maintenance except in Tumnub Santesok, where the involvement is limited to minor repairs.To be able to gauge performance of system maintenance before and after FWUC establishment, farmer satisfaction is measured by its \"degree\" of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The rating ranges from \"very weak\" (when farmers are least satisfied or happy with the outcome) to \"very good\" (when farmers are most satisfied or happy with the outcome). A \"moderate\" rating means that the farmers are just about satisfied with the repairs. Farmer satisfaction on the quality of minor repairs was mostly moderate (Table 18). With the establishment of FWUCs, there was a clear body responsible for system maintenance at different levels. In all irrigation schemes, the FWUCs are involved in maintenance. In eight of the nine schemes surveyed, the FWUCs are involved in both minor and major repairs. These schemes regularly do minor repairs of reservoir bund and headworks. In Tumnub Santesok, system maintenance is limited to minor repairs of canal system.Maintenance is either directly done by FWUC members or through contracts with private contractors for bigger repairs or individuals for small repairs. In Kork Kandal, Chan Thnal and Seventh March, the minor repairs are contracted out using FWUC funds. In other schemes, the repairs are done as a group work of farmer members. Yes Some earthworks (turfing)Tam Lap Yes Some repairsRegularly GoodRegularly GoodTable 20 sums up the participation of FWUCs in major repairs. Comparing the engagement of FWUCs in minor and major repairs, it is apparent that they do mostly minor repairs. In Thnoat Te, Chan Thnal and Seventh March, the FWUCs are involved in some major earthwork repairs of the reservoir bunds. However, more FWUCs are involved in repairs of main canal and secondary canals. Interestingly, three schemes are even investing in concrete structure repairs. All the major repairs carried out by some of the schemes were undertaken through contracts paid by funds collected by the FWUCs. The performance of contracts in major repairs however, seems less impressive as in minor repairs. More farmers expressed only moderate satisfaction as opposed to the generally good rating that they gave to minor repairs done through contracts. Outcomes and impact indicators can gauge whether the PIMD program, through the establishment of FWUCs and rehabilitation of schemes, is effective and successful. The physical changes, water availability, irrigated area and agency linkages basically capture the outcomes while yield and cropping intensity quantify the impacts of the program. The specific indicators used to capture these outcomes and impacts are given in Table 21. Improvements in physical system in terms of increases in control and conveyance structures and other infrastructures are good indications of positive outcomes. The physical structures in each scheme have been rehabilitated under different projects. Table 22 shows that in a number of schemes, some control structures were added. In the nine schemes, the total number of gates for headworks has doubled while the control structures for main canals increased by six folds. Water availability is effectively the main outcome of FWUC formation and system rehabilitation. However, without quantitative measures of how much water was distributed, flowed into the canal systems and reached the fields of farmers, some qualitative indicators are utilized. The farmers' perceptions on water adequacy, reliability and flexibility at different sections of each scheme are used to capture the quality of system operation and water availability. 3 A five step rating ranging from \"very weak\" to \"very good,\" is used to measure the degree of farmers' satisfaction. A \"very weak\" rating for adequacy means water was not enough to grow crops; \"moderate\" means water was just enough; and \"very good\" means there was more water than required. For reliability, \"very weak\" means water supply was not regular or available when needed while \"moderate\" means water was available at critical times. A \"very good\" rating would mean that water is always available. On flexibility, a \"very weak\" rating means water service cannot cater to specific or additional requirements farmers may have while \"moderate\" means water service can cater to specific needs. A rating of \"very good\" for flexibility means water is available for any use at any time. According to farmers, the quality of service in most of the schemes particularly in middle and tail sections, was in the range of weak and very weak before FWUC establishment. 3 Farmer satisfaction is measured subjectively in the survey. Also, instead of a \"yes\" or \"no\" answer, it was decided to capture to some extent the \"degree\" of satisfaction or dissatisfaction by giving five choices ranging from \"very weak\" (when farmers are least satisfied) to \"very good\" (when farmers are most satisfied). A caveat here is that the responses reported may not be directly comparable across farmers. Nonetheless, if many farmers rate the service as \"good\" to \"very good,\" then it is likely that the quality of service is really acceptable. Before the formation of the FWUCs, full dry season cultivation with all farmers within the scheme planting, was possible only in Thoam Ney (Table 27). There were some dry season cultivation in Tam Lap, Thnoat Te and Seventh March while in three other schemes, no cultivation was possible. With the formation of FWUCs and the corresponding rehabilitation of systems, dry season cultivation became possible in all schemes except for Tumnub Santesok. Increase in number of farmers Irrigating entire scheme command areas effectively benefit all farmers within the scheme. (Table 28). This is the case for all schemes in the study except for Chan Thnal and Tumnub Santesok. The farmers who practiced dry season cultivation in two schemes were unable to cultivate their entire land before the formation of FWUCs. Yields are indicators of the impact of the PIMD program. An increase in yields indicates an improvement in agricultural productivity partly brought about by better irrigation service resulting from the program. Relatively high paddy yields are registered after FWUC establishment in schemes which were unable to cultivate in the dry season without irrigation (Table 29). Interestingly, for schemes like Thoam Ney and Thnoat Te, which were already producing rice before the FWUC establishment, no improvement in yields is observed. It appears that irrigation has had little impact on these schemes. One possible explanation is that these schemes were already cultivating even before the FWUC formation because they had water and only a few areas in Thnoat Te had water problems (Tables 26-27). While irrigation improved the water situation in Thnoat Te, the increase in yields for the few farmers with water problems may not have been substantial to change the average yield for the entire scheme. Only the Seventh March scheme shows a clear increase in land productivity after FWUC establishment. N/A means not available.Cropping intensity is another program impact indicator. Water availability leads to higher cropping intensity which in turn will result in higher productivity and a positive program impact.Table 30 shows how much cropping intensity has increased with the availability of water made possible by system rehabilitation and FWUC formation. Before the FWUC formation, the cropping intensity was 100% in Thoam Ney and Chan Thnal only. Cropping intensity increased in all irrigation schemes after FWUC formation. In Phlauv Touk scheme, cropping intensity increased to 200% as farmers cultivate two dry season crops.  Before FWUC After FWUC This report illustrates the information that can be obtained and initial cross scheme analysis that can be undertaken with the pilot M&E database that the MOWRAM WG-ISM collected using participatory rapid appraisal. This pilot M&E was carried out with the assistance of IWMI from the development of the initial set of indicators, to providing guidelines for the fieldwork, to implementation and collection of data, and writing of initial reports.The M&E data collected has a wealth of information not all captured in this report but can be utilized in future reports. These variables include: other administrative area profile such as number of communes and villages per scheme, location and layout maps, number of families and average land size per village, land tenure, other (minor) crops cultivated and cropping system, crop calendar, whether farmers have lands in other schemes or rainfed areas and their average sizes, cost of production for paddy and other crops, amount of produce sold, selling price for paddy, average incomes from paddy and other crops, sources of credit, FWUC awareness of PIMD, provincial and district officers knowledge on PIMD basics, FWUC statute and functions and mobilization of farmers, and areas that need further capacity building. These data should help better capture the physical profile of the schemes, progress of FWUC implementation, and outcomes and impacts.• It is clear that the nine FWUCs in this pilot M&E database are at different stages of development, maturity and overall functionality. These differences are brought about by various factors at play within and outside each FWUC. Internal factors include organizational management, quality of leadership and decision making, understanding of financial aspects and system operation and maintenance. Among the external factors are the actual state of physical infrastructure, capacity of agencies assisting in the implementation of PIMD and strengthening of FWUCs, the type and quality of support services these agencies are extending, markets for products and inputs.• The sub groups of the majority of FWUCs are weak. The difficulty to form strong groups based on physical or administrative boundaries that do not match irrigation boundaries, is an important concern for project implementers. It appears that not much attention has been given to these sub groups and it would appear that the main motivation for establishing them was to fulfill the requirement for registration with MOWRAM.• The leaders of the groups and sub groups are relatively weak and are yet to fully function. In the majority of irrigation schemes, the functionality of FWUCs is largely due to the core committee members' active involvement in carrying out of their roles and responsibilities. In several FWUCs where some of the committee members are not active, the FWUC functionality depends on the chairman.• All irrigation schemes are collecting funds. Collection is more stable where private contractors are involved in collecting. It is not clear however, whether the collected amounts are enough to fully cover O&M of emergency repair and whether collection will really be sustained. If schemes will not be properly maintained and will be unable to provide good service, the farmer members will have no incentive to continue payment. Collection of incorrect ISF may lead to system deterioration and a vicious cycle begins. There are indications that O&M funds are not enough (RGC 2003c). The national government is largely dependent on external support to carry out system rehabilitation while the FWUCs may not be collecting adequate funds to meet their requirements.• All FWUCs are involved in system operation and maintenance. Apparent system deficiencies make it difficult to deliver really good service to farmers. Only two of the nine schemes have system operation plans that shows how relatively weak the FWUCs are in this core function. The involvement of group and sub-group leaders in system operation somehow improves the quality of service.• System improvements were largely focused on the main and secondary structures. Most of system rehabilitation done can be considered partial as tertiary and field level structures are yet to be built.• System maintenance decisions are made by the FWUC committee. Where the committee is weak, the chairman makes the decisions. Similar to system operation, there is no system maintenance plan. System maintenance is done on an ad hoc basis and depends on availability of funds. Also, it is not clear whether the FWUC committee members tasked with maintenance have the necessary technical knowledge and skills to do quality maintenance.• A project identification report in 2003 admitted that farmers and local authorities, supposedly tasked with providing technical support to FWUCs, \"often do not have the knowledge to improve and repair systems that are technically unsound\" (RGC 2003c). Because of this shortcoming, many structures failed shortly after rehabilitation. The rehabilitated system did not perform as expected and even caused inundation problems. It is not clear how much things have changed given that farmers and FWUC committees identified structure-related concerns as still the most important constraints in increasing productivity and delivering better water service.• Despite the seemingly bleak overall picture described above, system rehabilitation and the establishment of FWUCs brought about several positive outcomes. System management before the formation of FWUCs was the responsibility of local authorities. These authorities acted only on farmer requests and the quality of service was generally poor. In some cases, no one took charge of system management. After the FWUC formation, the responsibility for system management went to FWUCs. When they took the management responsibilities (including addressing water shortages and conflicts), system operation in all schemes improved. The areas in each scheme with water problems were reduced.• After the formation of FWUCs and rehabilitation of systems, the cultivated area in each scheme increased. The number of farmers who received irrigation water also increased. Paddy production increased.• Agency linkages increased after the establishment of FWUCs. This increase means that there are more service providers to support the FWUC in each of the rehabilitated scheme.• According to farmers, the main benefit of FWUC formation and system rehabilitation is having water for cultivation. With available water, dry season cultivation and production of paddy became possible. Some farmers in a couple of schemes even reported improved living conditions. It is not clear however, how many farmers feel this improvement.• It is critical that MOWRAM is clear on the purpose and uses of the M&E system and database. Once the purpose is clear, the most appropriate indicators can then be identified.For instance, more quantitative indicators can be collected if the objective is to assess the technical capacities and states of each scheme so that rehabilitation projects can be better designed. For instance, MOWRAM can then collect data that would gauge of irrigation efficiency such as timing, flow rate, irrigation scheduling and farmers' participation in scheduling, duration of irrigation applications. If the objective is to better measure impact on poverty, aside from incomes, demographic background, assets, non-farm sources of incomes, and consumption patterns can be collected. Also, instead of per season data, monthly data can be collected to capture monthly variations in consumption and coping strategies of farming families. If the idea is to determine the potential for diversification to make farming in each scheme more viable, more detailed information on agricultural inputs and markets will have to be collected. Tracking and quantifying of impacts of PIMD should be part of a useful M&E system. To do this, farm level monitoring and data collection will be required and the appropriate data collection methodology used. A more immediate need is to strengthen the capacity to collect quality data that can be used for more systematic analysis. The capacity to carry out quantitative impact analysis will have to be developed within MOWRAM. Else, it can partner with research organizations with existing capacity for such analyses, e.g., Cambodia Development Resource Institute (CDRI) or the academia.• Scale up the M&E to more irrigation schemes to get a better idea of the PIMD implementation and FWUC formation.• Aside from continuous training for the WG-ISM staff, other MOWRAM staff should also be trained in collecting, processing and analyzing M&E data.• Train FWUCs in proper record keeping so that their data can feed into progress monitoring and evaluation and MOWRAM will simply collate.• Decide on the frequency of conducting M&E. Progress evaluation can be done more frequently. Impact evaluation can be done periodically (e.g. 2-3 years). PIMD and partner agencies can modify this responsibility matrix as deemed appropriate.• The increased linkages with other agencies which provide various supports to the FWUCs can be exploited. MOWRAM should take its coordinating role more explicitly to leverage the various supports to create greater impact. For instance, where local government has little power to take the initiative, MOWRAM can partner with other more active and capable nongovernment organizations or with private contractors as done by the PDOWRAM in Phlauv Touk and Banteay Thleay.• For an M&E system to be useful, MOWRAM-PIMD should strive to produce simple and timely summaries of results tailored to the requirements and context of decision and policy makers.• Lastly, an M&E system and database should be a dynamic system which will continually change to better serve the needs and requirements of the agencies it is supposed to contribute. First, it should be flexible and well suited to the capacities of MOWRAM and the needs of its client farmers/beneficiaries. With changing needs and improving capacities, more quantitative measures can be collected and farm level analysis of impact be carried out.• Refine the main questionnaire. The questionnaire should be revised based on the experience gained by the WG-ISM in applying it by identifying the data that difficult to collect, totally not available, not relevant, etc. ","tokenCount":"7416"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e02c14882923c5df7739f34665e2d88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4192d78f-5620-4638-a7cf-71f956dbdd3a/retrieve","id":"1870783807"},"keywords":["Agro-physiological characteristics","Burundi","highlands","potato genotypes","warm areas"],"sieverID":"96d349de-558e-45a1-b7a4-2180ba73364a","pagecount":"10","content":"Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) have been grown for decades for home consumption and commercial use in highlands of Burundi where temperature is lower than in the lower lands. All attempts to introduce them in the lowlands of Burundi failed because the material tested always appeared not to be suitable to this hot environment with regard to tuber yield and other agronomic characteristics. A set of 15 potato genotypes presented as more tolerant to high temperatures was hence introduced in 2004 from the International Potato Center (CIP) and tested together with nine local varieties in various environments for three years. From the coolest environment (16.9°C) to the hottest one (26°C); fresh tuber yield, dry tuber yield, tuber dry matter concentration and harvest index decreased significantly. However, combined analysis indicated that, if heat tolerant cultivars are grown in the lowlands of Burundi, a fresh tuber yield of 13 t ha -1 or more should be expected whereas a non suitable cultivar like Ndinamagara (Cruza 148) would produce only 2.7 t ha -1 . Contrary to what was expected, an early maturing variety (Victoria) and a late maturing clone (395194.9) performed satisfactorily in both cool (highlands) and warm conditions. Four clones (390663.8, 395194.9, 388972.22 and  388611.22) and one variety (Victoria) were found to be the most suitable for the Imbo region (warm areas). Furthermore, the hot climate negatively influenced the tuber set, and therefore, tuber number was lower (23.3 tubers per plant in highlands and 7.1 in lowlands). The agronomic implication is that the Imbo region could be appropriate for consumer potatoes but not economically appropriate for seed production. The seed could be multiplied in highlands and then brought to Imbo for commercial production. Despite the satisfactory fresh tuber yields obtained by these genotypes under high temperatures in comparison with other genotypes or the average national potato yield reported to be 2.7 t ha -1 by FAO, we believe that their potential was not achieved and higher yields could be obtained with better crop management. Therefore, there is need to carry out complementary studies on agricultural techniques aiming at increasing the yields obtained so far.As in other developing countries, potato crop (Solanum tuberosum L.) is increasingly becoming a cash crop in Burundi. However, the national production estimated at 26.000 t year -1 (FAO, 2008) is still low compared to the quantity required for feeding more than eight millions of people (Burundi_Tribune, 2009), mostly in the cities. Unfortunately, this gap is expected to grow bigger and bigger due to the increase in population and urbanisation. Therefore, three alternatives are possible to overcome this problem. The first scenario is to increase the productivity where potato is already grown. The second scenario is to introduce the crop where it has never been grown before such as in the hot micro-climates of the Imbo region. And the last way to solve the problem is to import potatoes from abroad. This study falls under the second scenario. Our overall goal is introducing potato crop in lowlands agrarian systems by determining the effects of temperature on main agro-physiological characteristics under field conditions. That is why we evaluated a couple of CIP (International Potato Center) genotypes with expected potential for lowlands adaptability. Our objective in the long run is to be able to recommend to farmers and other stakeholders varieties to grow in the lowlands of the Imbo region.Even if potato is not grown so far for consumption in lowlands, several trials have been conducted there since 1989 by ISABU scientists (ISABU, 1989;ISABU, 1990;ISABU, 1993) and students from University of Burundi (Furero, 2000;Mpfubusa, 2003). All those trials were carried out independent of each other. There was no coordination and the germplasm used differed among the trials. Moreover, the trials were also exclusively located in the same hot environment and comparison under the conditions of Burundi with regions at lower temperature was not possible. Also, yield data expressed in tuber fresh weight were not converted into dry matter production. Therefore, it was quite difficult to come out with clear answers to questions such as which genotypes to grow in Imbo region despite prevailing high temperatures. This study could be an answer to these questions.Experimental sites. Three experiments were carried out in four locations and through three years: Mugerero (801 masl) and Mparambo (892 masl) situated in lowlands, Gisozi (2091 masl) and Ryansoro (1833 masl) located in the highlands . The first experiment was conducted in 2005 in Mugerero (lowlands). The second experiment (2006) was conducted in two sites: in Mparambo but also on the same site as in 2005 in Mugerero. Conducted in 2007, the last experiment was carried out in multi location trials involving both highlands (Gisozi and Ryansoro) and lowlands (Mparambo). During the whole study, the average temperature in lowlands (Mparambo and Mugerero) ranged from 24.4 to 26°C whereas in the highlands it ranged from 16.9 (Gisozi) to 19.4°C (Ryansoro). Within the same period, the maximum temperature in highlands was always less than the average temperature found in lowlands. The maximum temperature ranged from 29.7 to 31.1° C in lowlands against 23.8 and 22.5°C at Ryansoro and Gisozi, respectively. In highlands, the average annual rainfall is around 1400 mm against 900 mm in lowlands. All trials were installed during the dry seasons. That is why furrow irrigation was applied in lowlands at one-week interval and not in highlands where we planted in marshlands (with shallow water table ).Genotypes used. Out of 15 clones bred for hot climates by CIP and introduced in Burundi in 2004, five promising ones (CIP01, CIP02, CIP03, CIP04 and CIP05) were selected and planted in all our experiments. The CIP numbers for those genotypes are as follows: 388611.22 (CIP01), 388972.22 (CIP02), 390663.8 (CIP03), 395193.4 (CIP04) and 395194.9 (CIP05). For practical purpose, codes are hereafter used instead of CIP denomination. All of them are virus resistant potato clones safely kept at CIP headquarters for public access (CIP, 2008). In addition to clones, we also planted three varieties which were released in Burundi several years ago. These varieties are Ndinamagara (also called Cruza 148), Victoria (381381.20) and Ruhanyura (382171.4). In this study, these varieties are coded as follows: NDINA standing for Ndinamagara, RUHA for Ruhanyura and VICTO for Victoria. Unlike the two last varieties cited, NDINA is known to be a late maturing variety. It is also the most cultivated potato variety in the country. However, tubers of NDINA are not appreciated at the market, especially for chips consumers, due to the intrinsic vascular discoloration. A purple pigment is seen in the centre when a tuber is cut into two pieces thus, some people in the cities call this variety \"Mauve\", meaning purple in French. This is an indicator of high content for anthocyanins in this variety as reported in literature (Storey & Davies, 1992). Introduced for the first time in 1998 (Harahagazwe, 2006), VICTO is the most popular variety in Uganda where it was released for the first time in September 1991 (Low, 1997). Due to its high yielding ability, RUHA was released for the first time at Buyengero (Harahagazwe, 2003). Table 1 describes briefly the genotypes used in the experiments.These clones contain Ryadg gene from S. tuberosum ssp. andigena which confers extreme resistance to PVY (Bonierbale of CIP, personal communication). Clones are presented according to the descriptions given by the International Potato Center (CIP, 2008) while the varieties are described according to the Burundi National Potato Catalog (Harahagazwe, 2006).  Experimental design. Trials were conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replicates. Each plot contained 30 plants in two rows of 15 plants each. For both trials, we planted at 80 cm in-between rows and 30 cm between plants within rows, meaning a plant population density of 4.17 plants m -2 . Cultivar NDINA was used as a crop border. Crop management for our trials was applied as normally recommended by the National Agricultural Research Institute (ISABU). In each planting hole, we put around 500 g of organic manure from cows.On average, we added in each hole 14.3 g of N-P-K fertilizer (595 kg ha -1 ). This was equivalent to the application of 85 kg ha -1 of Urea, 340 kg ha -1 of DAP and 170 kg ha -1 of KCl which represents 100-150-100 units of N, P 2 O 5 and K 2 O respectively. Plants were protected against late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary by spraying Ridomil Gold MZ 68WP and Dithane M-45 in an alternated manner. Dimethoate was also sprayed in order to control aphids.Experimental data collection and analysis. Several parameters were recorded from the planting date to harvest time. The major parameters collected are listed as follows: emergence rate, ground cover, plant height, leaf area index (LAI), specific leaf area (SLA), tuber yield, tuber dry matter concentration and harvest index. We used a wooden grid divided into 100 rectangles, viewed from above while held in hand by two persons, when measuring the ground cover. For each plot, three plants were harvested in order to determine LAI using ImageJ technology. At the same time, the samples were separated into different organs and then dried up in a laboratory using an oven at 105°C for 72 hrs so that we could calculate SLA, dry matter concentration and dry matter yield. Pests and diseases were assessed at every field visit. Although the fungicides were sprayed, late blight was observed in highlands on two genotypes. Therefore, its severity was visually measured as the percentage of diseased shoots (stems and leaves) in comparison to the entire healthy plants for each plot. First, we analysed data per trial separately according to a RCBD model except for the dry matter concentration for which we ran the completely randomised block (CRB) design model because tubers were sampled at random without blocking (Gomez & Gomez, 1984). For a couple of variables, we analysed the genotypes versus environments data in a combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) over sites in which the block source of variance (error a) refers to blocks within environments (Gomez & Gomez, 1984).In the combined analysis (ANOVA), treatment observation ger Y -for genotype g, environment e and replicate r -is partitioned into (1) an additive model with three parameters, namely the grand mean µ , genotype deviation , and the error term ger ε as follows (Gauch, 1992):In case of significant (p<0.05) main effects (genotypes and locations) and interaction, we furthermore analysed in GenStat, the variability of genotypes over locations with an additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMII) model, since it combines ANOVA and principal component analysis (PCA) into a single analysis by decomposing the non-additive residual or interaction of ANOVA (Equation 1) into PCA axes 1 to N (Equation 2), and a residual. In the PCA, part of the model after removing the grand mean estimated by Y , the model uses eigenanalysis to partition a treatment observation ger Y into (1) a multiplicative model with PCA axes 1 to N, (2) a residual, if not all PCA axes are used, and (3) the error as shown in the following equation (Gauch, 1992): The most attractive attribute of AMMI is that it generates a biplot consisting of means versus interaction PCA1 (IPCA1) which displays both the mean variable and interaction scores of the genotypes and environments on a single plot (Gauch, 1992;Gauch, 2006;Tai, 2007). Reading this biplot requires knowledge of its interpretative principles. Among symbols of the same kind either for genotypes or for environments, displacements along the X Axis indicate differences in main (additive) effects, whereas displacements along the Y Axis reveal differences in interaction effects. On the other hand, for the symbols of different kinds, the AMMI model provides the expected variable value. The main effects for genotypes reflects breeding advances while the main effects for environments express the overall site quality (Gauch, 1992). However, when a genotype is closer to an environment on the biplot, it does not mean that the genotype is superior in that environment (Gauch, 1992;Yan & Kang, 2003).Haulm characteristics. The seed used was in a good physiological state and all experiments showed high emergence rates. In general, all the genotypes emerged well in all environments except RUHA which showed significantly (p<0.05) lower emergence than the other ones in the following environments: Gisozi (51.7 %) and Ryansoro (86.7 %) for highlands and Mparambo 2006 (28.3 %) for lowlands. Therefore, this variety had the lowest emergence rates in all altitudes (Fig. 1A). This may be explained by its genotypic background (Harahagazwe, 2006).After emergence, some genotypes produced very tall plants in highlands like NDINA (79.6 cm in Gisozi) and in lowlands such as CIP01 (67.9 cm in Mparambo 2007) and RUHA (65.8 cm in Mparambo 2007) while CIP03 prooved to be small (44.8 cm in Gisozi) especially in highlands (Fig. 1B). The response of plant height to the environment (temperature) differed among genotypes. CIP01, CIP03 and VICTO became taller when the temperature rose from highlands to lowlands (Fig. 1B) even if the plants were generally tall in highlands. As discussed later in this paper, these three genotypes belong to the best genotypes group in terms of tuber yield and components in lowlands, meaning a possible relationship between the variables for this particular material. The positive relationship between the plant growth (plant height) and temperature has been reported in various studies (Benoit et al., 1986;Wolf et al., 1990).From highlands to lowlands, ground cover for all genotypes decreased significantly (p<0.001) as shown in Figure 1C. The best genotypes for ground cover in highlands (Gisozi) turned out to be NDINA (92.3 %), CIP05 (91.1%), VICTO (90.2%), CIP04 (84.6%) and CIP02 (84.5%; Fig. 1C). In lowlands, the following genotypes gave good ground cover; CIP01 (58.3%), CIP05 (54.7%) and VICTO (53.1%).In highlands, the inoculum of Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary causing late blight was so high that CIP03 and CIP04 did not respond to chemical sprays. Three months after planting, shoots of these genotypes were damaged up to 75% in all plots at Ryansoro. In the same area, bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum yabuuchi was observed on some genotypes: NDINA (0.8%), CIP03 (0.5%) and RUHA (0.3%). In lowlands, Fusarium wilt was the most important disease. Fortunately, all genotypes did not show the same level of susceptibility as the difference between them was significant (p<0.001). The most susceptible genotype was CIP02 with 25% of wilt. Other genotypes followed in this order: RUHA (12.8%), CIP01 (11.7%), VICTO (8.7%), CIP03 (8.6%), CIP04 (6.5%), CIP05 (2.6%) and NDINA (0.5%). In general, visual observations showed that plants were more diseased in lowlands than in highlands independent of the type of genotype or disease.Tuber yield and components. Genotypes CIP05 and NDINA showed a high potential in terms of number of tubers produced. In high altitude (Gisozi and Ryansoro), they produced respectively an average of 37.2 and 32.8 tubers plant -1 across the two sites. On the contrary, CIP03 and CIP04 produced lesser tuber number than the rest of the genotypes in highlands, the most suitable environment for tuber set. In lowlands, CIP05 produced up to 10 tubers plant -1 , all trials included (Fig. 2A). In the same environment (lowlands), tuber set for the remaining genotypes ranged from five (CIP04) to eight (CIP01, NDINA and VICTO) tubers plant -1 .Comparison between genotypes showed that CIP03 and CIP04 produced large tubers across all environments tested weighing 55.5 and 49.3 g each, respectively. Even in lowlands where tuber size was expected to decrease, these clones produced large tubers measuring up to 54 and 50.1 g tuber -1 , respectively. CIP05 and NDINA produced small tubers in all environments and thus, had a small proportion of big size tubers especially in highlands (Gisozi) where their tubers were significantly different (smaller) from tubers of other genotypes (Fig. 2B). In this particular environment, only 24.4% of tubers produced by CIP05 were larger than 40 mm against 26.5% for the variety NDINA (Fig. 2C). In lowlands, tubers of these two genotypes remained smaller compared to other genotypes especially for NDINA (12.1 %) even if the rate of CIP05 was slightly higher than the one obtained in highlands (30.7%).We found a highly significant linear regression (r 2 =0.881***) between the tuber weight and the proportion of big size tubers (Fig. 3A) as expected when Figure 2B and C are compared each other.In general, the material used in our experiments performed as well as what is normally found in the Eastern and Central Africa in terms of dry matter concentration. In Kenya, for example, potato dry matter concentration varied   from 19.5% with cultivar Kenya Karibu to 21.3% with cultivar Kenya Mavuno (Lung'aho et al., 2006). In our experiments, two clones (CIP05 and CIP04) showed very high tuber dry matter concentration across all environments; 21.4 and 20.4% respectively. They were always members of the group of the best genotypes except in Ryansoro (highland) where CIP05 was better than any other genotype (Fig. 4A). Clone CIP03 was third with a dry matter concentration of 19.6 %. In the same conditions, variety RUHA appeared to contain more water than other genotypes in most environments (Gisozi, Mparambo 2006 andMparambo 2007). Even in Ryansoro, it had the lower dry matter concentration in the group of genotypes with lower dry matter. Furthermore, the mean per region (highlands or lowlands) of this variety did not reach the 18% of dry matter concentration required for human consumption (Woolfe, 1987) as clearly illustrated by Fig. 4A. The same figure shows that all genotypes reached the international standard except the varieties used (NDINA, RUHA and VICTO) when grown in lowlands. For example, tubers of NDINA contained 16 % of dry matter in lowlands when all seasons were considered. More interestingly, all those clones appeared to be higher yielding than NDINA and RUHA with a minimum difference of 1.0 and 0.6 t ha -1 of tuber dry matter, for the two latter genotypes respectively.Potatoes and other Andean tubers are known to be highly productive species due to their harvest index (Condori et al., 2008), even higher than other species of worldwide importance used for food including grains and oil-seed crops (Kooman, 1995). However, this harvest index (HI) is variable. In highlands, lower values of HI were obtained with varieties, NDINA and RUHA. NDINA, whose HI was 0.18 in Mparambo 2007 (lowland) and 0.24 for all seasons conducted in lowlands, appeared to be the last one on the list in terms of HI value when grown in lowlands, together with CIP02 (Fig. 4B). On the basis of the standard errors of differences between the genotypes means, all genotypes were efficient in allocating assimilates to tubers in highlands with an average harvest index of 0.86, except three of them (RUHA, CIP05 and NDINA), whose average index was 0.75 only.In highlands (Gisozi and Ryansoro), four genotypes were always among the best ones for fresh and dry tuber yield (Fig. 5A and B). Those genotypes are CIP02, CIP05, VICTO and NDINA. In lowlands, NDINA lost its yield performance (8.0 t ha -1 of dry matter in highlands versus 1.1 t ha -1 in lowlands 2005), whereas CIP01, CIP02, CIP03 and CIP05 were part of the best genotypes in three out of four environments (location x year) representing lowlands. For example, CIP03 produced up to 2.5 t ha -1 of tuber dry matter in this environment, all seasons combined. AMMI analysis. On the basis of AMMI analysis carried out on several parameters, two genotypes were noted to have an outstanding behavior. Clone CIP05 showed to be potentially more performing than the other genotypes on the AMMI biplots (Fig. 6). In all tested environments, except for Mparambo 2006 which was affected by floods, this clone was always among the best genotypes (not statistically different from the best genotypes according to the standard errors of differences between the means), for the following parameters: fresh and dry tuber yield, dry matter concentration and tuber number per plant. It is outstanding to find a late maturing genotype, CIP05, to remain performing in hot conditions because the opposite is common due to the short duration of the growth cycle (He et al., 1998;Spitters, 1987). Furthermore, this clone took first rank in tuber number (18.8 tubers plant -1 ; Fig. 6A), dry matter concentration (21.4%; Fig. 6C) and dry tuber yield (4.9 t.ha -1 ; Fig. 6E). However, the large number of tubers produced by CIP05 was compensated by the small size of tubers (26.3 g each on average) as shown on Fig. 6B. According to this figure, the small tuber size of CIP05 is not expected to change over environments due to its lower IPCA1 score in absolute value obtained with the AMMI analysis.The second outstanding genotype is variety VICTO. Figure 6E shows this genotype has IPCA1 score closer to zero with regard to dry tuber yield, meaning that it is less susceptible to interaction with environment. This variety performed similarly as late maturing genotypes (NDINA and CIP05) for most of parameters studied in highlands (cool environment) despite its early maturing trait. This stability of VICTO was already reported in the Democratic Republic of Congo for fresh tuber yield (Mutombo et al., 1998).   . Also, the more a main effect (genotype or environment) is closer to the horizontal line, the more it is less susceptible to interaction (Gauch, 1992).Thus, these two genotypes can be expected to have a relatively stable behavior across environments. Their adaptability is wide and they may be planted in more environments than others. Also, less preliminary studies are needed before recommending them in new locations but with similar environments. However, in the case of uncontrolled conditions of late blight, VICTO is susceptible to this disease according to regional literature (Kankwatsa et al., 2002;Kankwatsa et al., 2003;Mulema et al., 2008;Namanda et al., 2004). This limits the situations where VICTO may be recommended as an outstanding genotype.With regard to the harvest index, four genotypes seem to have the same and promising behavior if we look at biplot presented in Figure 6F. Those genotypes are CIP01, CIP03, CIP04 and VICTO. Across all environments, their average harvest index was 0.64. The implication of this statement is that those genotypes are genetically equipped to provide a good tubers/total biomass ratio wherever they are grown.In highlands, NDINA and CIP05 performed very well for most of the studied agro-physiological parameters. For example, both NDINA and CIP05 produced in Gisozi 0.91 kg m -2 of tuber dry matters. In experiments carried out in Rwanda, Tunisia and The Netherlands, the highest dry tuber yield was found at Wageningen in The Netherlands. It ranged from 1.02 to 1.63 kg m -2 (Kooman et al., 1996a). In our experiments, the performance of NDINA and CIP05 may be explained by their late maturation even if quantitative data on growth cycle are not presented in this study. It is indeed known that the length of the growth cycle is a crop characteristic which affects markedly the total dry matter production and thus, the dry tuber yield (Spitters, 1987;Kooman, 1995). The higher tuber yield of late maturing genotypes is associated to a more vigorous growth and to a longer duration of the photosynthetically active leaf area allowing a greater tuberisation during tuber bulking (Spitters, 1987;Kooman et al., 1996b;Silva, 2006). The two genotypes (NDINA and CIP05) were late maturing to the extent that the time of harvesting experiments was determined according to the end of their growth in all locations except in Mparambo where these genotypes were harvested before the final end of the cycle.However, the two genotypes produced small tubers across all environments. This may be due to the large number of tubers produced per plant. There was a kind of compensation meaning that what was gained on one hand (tuber number) was lost on the other hand (tuber weight) and the two parameters were inversely related as commonly observed (Deblonde and Ledent, 2001). In fact, we found a strong negative linear regression (r 2 =0.905***) between these two parameters using the data from the multi location experiment conducted in 2007. The ability of CIP05 and NDINA to produce a lot of tubers comes from their genotypic background as already reported for the NDINA (Harahagazwe, 2006). Therefore, this small tuber size of NDINA and CIP05 could decrease their value on the market because the chips become smaller in comparison to big size tubers. This is in addition to the vascular discoloration of NDINA tubers.The analysis of the relationship between tuber dry matter production per unit area and ground cover in the multi location experiment conducted in 2007 showed that the linear regression was significant in highlands (p<0.001) and across all sites (p<0.05). Figure 7 shows that the two regression lines are parallel meaning their respective slopes are the same. By increasing ground cover, an increase at the same time of tuber yield is expected. To achieve this, genotypes with high ground cover rates may be used but this may be also obtained through cropping practices like plant spacing. That is one of the explanations to the high yielding ability of CIP05. Its ground cover was among the highest across sites. However, tuber yield was only partly ground cover dependent with a coefficient of determination of 0.50. For example, in the multi location experiment conducted in 2007, dry tuber yield decreased from 7.9 to 2.5 t ha -1 [corresponding to a decrease of 68 % from highland (Gisozi) to lowland (Mparambo)] whereas ground cover decreased from 84.6 % (in highland) to 61.5 % (in lowland). Other factors like harvest index and hormonal system play a role. In hot conditions, gibberellins known to stimulate haulm growth while suppressing tuber production are found in stolon tips in high quantity in comparison with the growth inhibitors (Menzel, 1980).Even if the overall means were low in lowlands (10.8 t ha -1 of fresh matter) due to limitation from high temperature, some genotypes performed quite well compared to the national average fresh tuber yield of 2.6 t ha -1 (FAO, 2008). If we highlight only two genotypes, clone CIP03 yielded 19.4 t ha -1 (equivalent to 3.8 t ha -1 in dry matter) and CIP05 produced 18.6 t ha -1 (equivalent of 3.5 t ha -1 in dry matter) in Mparambo 2007. In terms of fresh tuber yield, because potato yield is rarely expressed in dry matter in the regional studies, these clones produced almost three times as much as the best yield (6.8 t ha -1 ) obtained at Butole (1115 masl of elevation) in Democratic Republic of Congo (Mutombo et al., 1998). Even in areas of Burundi where potato is traditionally grown, it is common to obtain lower yields than those produced in lowlands in our experiments with CIP03 and CIP05. The national potato yield given by FAO seems to be static since 2004 (FAO, 2008). Contrary to all expectations, this fresh yield is even much less than the 3.8 t ha -1 of dry tuber yield obtained from CIP03 in lowlands.The combined analysis indicated that, if heat tolerant cultivars are grown in lowlands, a tuber yield ranging from 10 to 16 t ha -1 with an average of 13 t ha -1 should be expected whereas a non suitable cultivar like NDINA would produce 2.7 to 10.2 t ha -1 with an average of 6.7 t ha -1 . The yields obtained in our tropical lowlands for the tested clones appear promising when it is compared to the average market yield in the United States of America, obtained under favorable conditions for the potato crop (Kooman, 1995). This national yield used to be 26 metric tonnes fresh weight of tubers ha -1 (Ku et al., 1977). Amongst all genotypes tested, clone CIP03 performed quite well in many aspects when it was grown in lowlands. This early maturing and short clone was excellent in dry tuber yield, fresh tuber yield, weight per fresh tuber, dry matter concentration and harvest index across all environments. In addition, tuber set and dry matter did not vary so much from highlands (Gisozi) to lowlands (Mparambo) whereas fresh weight increased even up to 10 g tuber -1 considering results from the multi location trial conducted in 2007. This clone could be considered as the ideotype for this lowland environment. Thus, CIP03 appears to be more appropriate in lowlands than in highlands. However, CIP03 appeared to be very susceptible to late blight in highlands where strong chemical control was mandatory.On the other hand, NDINA seemed to be the opposite of the C1PO3 clone. As a tall and late maturing cultivar, NDINA was in lowlands very poor for many characteristics: fresh tuber yield, dry tuber yield, weight per fresh tuber, proportion of big size tubers, dry matter concentration and harvest index. Highly performing in highlands, NDINA is counter-productive when grown in lowlands. It should not be used there even if it showed to be less susceptible to Fusarium wilt than other genotypes. Because NDINA is the most commonly grown variety in the country since 1980's, its use in lowlands by farmers may have completely discouraged them from any other initiative to test other genotypes. That could explain why potato is not grown so far in the Imbo region.Findings of the study suggest that, in highlands of Burundi, the National Potato System should focus on six genotypes out of the five clones and three varieties we tested. Those genotypes are: CIP05, NDINA, VICTO, CIP04, CIP02 and CIP01 with special care to the first clone even if its tuber size is small. CIP03 and RUHA were less performing than the other genotypes. However, due to their high susceptibility to late blight, prophylactic measures should be taken when growing VICTO and especially CIP04 in this environment. In lowlands, the release program may start with four clones (CIP03, CIP05, CIP02 and CIP01). Variety VICTO should also be included. At the same time, use of NDINA or RUHA is not recommended in hot conditions. However, when growing potato in lowlands with genotypes listed above, special attention is required because Fusarium Wilt may compromise the yield and quality of tubers especially for susceptible material like CIP02 and CIP01.Contrary to all expectations, CIP05 and VICTO appeared to be of adequate agro-physiological performance in highlands and lowlands despite a late and an early maturation for CIP05 and VICTO, respectively. This behavior may imply that the two genotypes can be grown in any environment within the ecological zones studied and that few preliminary tests would be necessary. But, when the inoculum pressure of late blight and/or Fusarium wilt is very high in the case of VICTO, more preliminary trials with control measures should be conducted.","tokenCount":"5081"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"25de48cf866f6eb9a44e800381ab5bcf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c185b1c6-a028-45a9-8fa5-81a1273b8a5a/retrieve","id":"-1027926114"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aee964cd-8552-415c-9f41-eb7614bd581b","pagecount":"2","content":"o Through Community Seed Banks (CSBs), 3532 farmers have been reached with improved seed for newly released varieties of pigeonpea, pearl millet, and sorghum.o Good agricultural practices (GAP) in vegetables ensured farmers had a yield advantage of 128%, a gross margin advantage of 131%, and a 75% reduction in pesticide use.o Maize-gliricidia-pigeon pea intercropping improved grain yield by 33-50% and gross margins were 4 times higher than maize monoculture.o Planting groundnut rosette disease varieties (GRD) hedged by aphid and GRD tolerant varieties helped farmers in reducing disease pressure by up to 30%.Feeding o A vegetable leaf-based chicken feed ration validated with farmers increased survival rate of chicks by 12.5%, growth rate by 47%, egg production intensity by 26.7%. Feed costs were also reduced by 50% and the profit margin was 3 times higher when compared to freerange chickens. o Hermetic storage using PICs bags reduced grain loss by more than 85%.o Application of 2 geospatial models -Impact based Spatial Targeting Index (IBSTI) and the Extrapolation Suitability Index (ESI), helped the project team in identifying areas with high potential impact for scaling out specific technology options and to visualize potential risks associated with scaling-out beyond the environmental conditions encountered in the trial sites.3 Natural resource management (NRM)Soil & water management o In situ rainwater harvesting methods like ripping and tied ridges, helps farmers in semi-arid areas to reduce runoff by more than 11%, get better their yield by 86 -160% and as a result have higher gross margins between 14-21 times higher than conventional tillage.o Planting fodder grass and legume fodder like Napier, Desmodium or Lablab on contours in an 1100 mm rainfall ecology reduced soil erosion on farmer's fields by between 20 -60%, increased maize yields by 15 -25%, and increased moisture storage by between 31 -58%.o Introducing Napier, Napier + Desmodium, and Napier + Lablab on contours in maize fields in a 1100 mm rainfall ecology increased maize yield by 15, 22, and 25%, respectively; reduced erosion by 25, 45, and 60%, respectively; increased moisture storage by 31, 57, and 58%, respectively; and resulted in net income increases of 10, 15, and 30%, respectively.Fertilizers o Farmers who were mineral fertilizer skeptics, have had a change of heart after results showed that that correct application guaranteed a maize grain yield increase ranging from 22 -444% (depending on agro-ecology) and better gross margins of between 102 -1435 USD/ha.o Correct application of farmyard manure by farmers resulted in a maize grain yield increase of between 46 -65% with gross margins ranging from 12 -388 USD/ha. Combining manure (3 t) and P (10 kg/ha) as Minjingu Mazao increased maize grain yield by 123-283% in the highlands, 33-181% in the mid-altitudes, and 24-199% in the lowlands of northern Tanzania.","tokenCount":"455"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e7591125810507354561d6a888a09f02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6bb0a55-5bae-4cc8-9d4d-71ba335d17ea/retrieve","id":"2144902424"},"keywords":["water deficiency","water use efficiency","tied ridges","Zai pits","conventional tillage Citation: Bagula, E.M.","Majaliwa, J.-G.M.","Basamba, T.A.","Mondo, J.-G.M.","Vanlauwe, B.","Gabiri, G.","Tumuhairwe, B.","Mushagalusa, G.N.","Musinguzi, P.","Akelo, S.","et al"],"sieverID":"19d0e674-0aa9-425f-bb2d-4b187d1b46de","pagecount":"21","content":"Maize (Zea mays L.) productivity is constrained by water shortages in the predominantly rainfed agriculture of the tropical semi-arid Ruzizi Plain, in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The region is characterized by a high seasonal and inter-annual rainfall variability and a frequent occurrence of consecutive dry days within growing seasons. Consequently, planning water utilization in rainfed agriculture has become complex, as appropriate soil water conservation (SWC) practices are lacking among most smallholder farmers. Identifying practices that increase water use efficiency (WUE) along the slope gradient is crucial for supporting maize production in the region. In this study, we assessed, for three growing seasons, the effectiveness of two SWC practices (tied ridges and Zai pits) in improving the WUE of two maize varieties along three slope gradients (0-2, 2-8, and 8-15%) in the tropical semi-arid Ruzizi Plain. In this area, rainfall amounts (142-289 mm) were consistently below the evapotranspiration demands (356-533 mm) across the three growing seasons. Tied ridges recorded the highest grain yield (2.16 t ha −1 ) and WUE (15.23 kg mm −1 ), especially at low slopes, when compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. For all SWC practices, WUE decreased with the slope gradient (p < 0.01). Furthermore, a decrease in stored soil water (SWS) at silking and maturity stages (milk, dough, and dent stages) negatively affected the WUE. The variety had no significant effect on grain yield and WUE. Root biomass (RBM), shoot biomass (SBM), and leaf area index (LAI) at the flowering stage were the most associated with the WUE (R 2 = 58.5%). In conclusion, tied ridges showed potential for improving maize WUE and yield in the water-deficient conditions that characterize the Ruzizi Plain, and could be promoted to improve the maize productivity among smallholder farmers.Soil water deficit is one of the main factors affecting maize (Zea mays L.) productivity in rainfed agriculture in the sub-Saharan African (SSA) drylands [1,2]. About 40% of maize growing areas in SSA experience drought episodes, leading to substantial yield losses of 10-60% [3]. Water is a critical factor for maize production, which requires attention in water-deficient areas to sustain the crop productivity. Generally, maize performs optimally in regions that receive an annual rainfall of 600-1000 mm [4]. In the drylands of SSA, maize requires 450-600 mm of water seasonally for its optimum growth and development due to high evaporative demand [4]. Water used by the crop is sourced mainly from the soil moisture reserves and rarely meets the crop requirement in drought-prone areas. In the semi-arid regions of SSA, a rainfed maize crop yields ~15 kg ha −1 of grain per 1 mm of evapotranspirated water [5,6]. Thus, the management of soil water from rainfall is crucial to reduce the water deficit in dryland areas. The soil and water conservation (SWC) practices in most African countries have remained traditional and inappropriate in addressing the currently experienced water deficit. More efficient SWC practices are needed to improve the WUE of different crops and to cope with the increasing water scarcity associated with climate change [1,7].Various SWC practices, such as minimum tillage, stone alignment, stone barriers, Zai pits, half-moon, hedges, terraces, trenches, and tied ridges have been widely tested in different rainwater stressed regions of SSA [8][9][10]. Their effects on WUE, especially under low rainfall conditions, have been well documented [11][12][13]. In those regions, practices, such as tied ridges and Zai pits, showed potential in improving the grain yield and WUE of maize and other cereal crops by saving water and reducing runoff and nutrient losses from erosion [1,2].In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), maize is the most cultivated cereal crop, with a total annual grain production of 2.07 million tons from 2.68 million hectares in 2018 [14]. The Ruzizi Plain is among the regions with the highest maize production potential in the eastern DRC. Maize became the leading staple crop in that region since the African cassava mosaic virus and the cassava brown streak disease outbreaks that devastated cassava farms in the eastern DRC [15,16].The Ruzizi Plain experiences a soil water deficit as a result of the imbalance between the cumulative annual evapotranspiration (1300-1500 mm) and the annual rainfall (500-900 mm). Furthermore, rainfall is poorly distributed across the cropping season and its availability does not always match with water demands at particular maize growth phases [17]. There is, therefore, a need to increase the maize WUE in the Ruzizi Plain, which is dominated by sandy soils with low water retention capacity and rapid water percolation [18,19].The WUE has been defined as the grain yield achieved per unit of water consumed or transpired by the crop [20,21]. Therefore, the two ways of improving WUE in rainfed agriculture could be either using more water resources for transpiration or fixing more carbon per unit of transpired water [22]. The physical, engineering, hydrological, and agronomic practices can be used to maximize transpiration by minimizing losses from runoff, drainage, and evaporation. Nyakudya et al. [23] showed that improving crop transpiration efficiency could be achieved by converting rainfall efficiently into transpiration. Practices that minimize rainwater losses need to be tested in local soil and landscape (slope gradient) conditions to increase transpiration efficiency. However, little is known in most SSA drylands, and especially in the Ruzizi Plain, about the magnitude of the effects of the slope gradient on the effectiveness of SWC practices.Previous studies in the Ruzizi Plain [24][25][26] focused on the effect of selected SWC practices on maize grain yield and physiological parameters without considering the influence of the slope gradient and varieties on maize WUE. One of the major challenges in achieving a high WUE using SWC practices is the amount of available water resources. Due to the lower amount of rainfall received yearly compared to the crop water requirement, maize grown in the Ruzizi Plain obtains most of its seasonal rainfall during the first months and, thus, experiences sporadic drought at critical phases, such as flowering and grain filling [27,28]. Several studies reported that SWC practices as a strategy to increase WUE are unreliable below a certain crop available stored water threshold [29][30][31]. Thus, efforts to improve WUE using SWC practices could be undermined by low water supply [21]. It is noteworthy that stored soil water deficit often coincides with critical growth phases when maize water demand is high. It is, therefore, important to investigate how water storage at different growth stages affects the maize WUE under different SWC practices in the Ruzizi Plain. Maize absorbs ~45% of its water requirements during its critical growth periods (prior the tasseling to mid-milk stages). Each single plant needs 8-9 mm of water daily during the flowering period. An early drought occurring two weeks before flowering can reduce grain yield by 25% [32]. The yield loss may exceed 50-60% if the water stress coincides with flowering [27,32].The objectives of this study were as follows: (i) to determine variations in evapotranspiration, rainfall, and water storage under the Ruzizi Plain's climatic conditions; (ii) to assess the relationships between the maize growth parameters and the WUE under different SWC practices along the slope gradient; (iii) to assess trends of water use by the crop and supply by rainfall during critical maize growth phases in the Ruzizi Plain, eastern DRC.This research was conducted in the Great Tanganyika basin, specifically in the Ruzizi plain (near the Uvira town). The Ruzizi Plain is spread over three countries, namely Rwanda, the DRC, and Burundi, and covers 175,000 ha (Figure 1  The Ruzizi Plain has a type Aw4 tropical climate according to the Köppen climatic classification. This climate is characterized by a bimodal rainfall regime. The long rainy season commences in October and ends in February, while the short rainy season starts in February and ends in June. The short rainy season is followed by a four-month dry season (June to September). The Ruzizi plain receives an average annual rainfall ranging from 600 to 900 mm [17,28]. Minimum and maximum temperatures are 18 and 32 °C, respectively, with high daily variations (14 °C). For estimating water supply and climate conditions for maize growth and development, weather parameters (rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity) were recorded using an automatic weather station (Davis Vantage Pro2 Weather Station) installed ~500 m from the experimental site (Supplementary Table S1). During the study periods, the maximum temperatures varied from 30.4 to 32.2 °C while the minimum temperatures ranged from 15.2 to 19.4 °C. The average temperature was 24.4 °C. The actual evapotranspiration (ETc) was generated using the FAO-56 crop coefficient equation, as follows:where ETo is the potential evapotranspiration calculated using the Penman and Monteith equation, and Kc the maize crop coefficient, which is a function of physiological stages [33]. We assume that the sand-related soil texture and semi-arid climate characteristics of South Texas as described by Piccinni et al. [33] are close to the Ruzizi Plain soils and, thus, use a similar Kc value. Ruzizi Plain soils belong to various types linked to different geological formations. The geological history of the Ruzizi Plain is linked to the great tectonic movements that shaped the landforms of East Africa [19]. The bulk density of these soils varies between 1.28 and 1.65 g/cm 3 . The texture is predominantly loam to sandy loam. The soil of the experimental site was analyzed for each plot at the three slope gradients. Composite soil samples were collected at depths of 0-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm before implementing SWC practices and sowing. A total of five composite soil samples were collected at each slope gradient along the diagonal using a soil auger of 20 cm depth. These soil samples were then bulked prior to the analyses of soil chemical and physical properties. The soil pH was determined by a digital pH meter at a 1:5 (solute-solution) ratio. The soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined by wet oxidation using the Walkley and Black method [34]. Total nitrogen and available phosphorus were determined using the Kjeldahl and modified Olsen methods, respectively [35]. The soil texture was determined by the hydrometer method [34], while the soil bulk density was determined using the core method in which core samples were oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h. Soil water characteristic curve elements, such as permanent wilting point at 1.5 MPa, field capacity at 0.033 MPa, saturation point at 0 MPa, and hydrodynamic properties, such as saturated hydraulic conductivity, were estimated using the Saxton and Rawls [36] pedotransfer function for loams and sandy loam soils.The experiment was conducted under a 3 × 3 × 2 factorial design for three growing seasons (November 2017 to March 2019) as specified above. We used three factors, namely slope gradients (0-2, 2-8, and 8-15%), SWC practices (tied ridges, Zai pits, and conventional tillage) and varieties (Ecavel and Bazoka). Each SWC practice and each variety were replicated three times at each slope gradient. Ecavel is the most widely cultivated maize variety in the Ruzizi Plain, while Bazoka is a hybrid variety introduced in 2016 from Uganda. Ecavel is an open pollinated variety with a growth cycle of 90-110 days and a yield potential of 1.5-3 t ha −1 . This variety is recommended at altitudes of 800-1300 m above sea level. No report on its drought resistance exists [15]. On the other hand, Bazoka, a drought resistant variety which averages two ears per plant, is perfect for silage, and has good grain quality, with superior yields (3.6 to 4 t ha −1 ). Its growth cycle is 130 days (data retrieved from NASECO SEEDS website: http://www.nasecoseeds.net/, accessed on 1 December, 2020). Each subplot was 4 m wide and 6 m long.The Zai pits technique consisted of excavating a shallow depression of 15 cm depth and 35 cm diameter [37,38]. Zai pits were spaced out 80 cm between planting rows and 50 cm within rows. Tied ridges were built by raising the earth to 50 cm height with a 20 cm diameter. To avoid erosion, ridges (6 m) were partitioned every 2 m. Damage to the ridges was continuously repaired throughout the season. The distance between ridges was 80 cm, as described by Araya and Stroosnijder [39] and McHugh [40]. The tillage was carried out at a depth of 15 cm using a hand hoe for the conventional tillage. Maize seeds were sown at an 80 and 50 cm spacing between and within rows. Fertilizer was applied in the form of NPK (17-17-17) at the planting date and urea (46-0-0) was used as a top-dressing fertilizer at the rate of 120 kg ha −1 and 25 kg ha −1 , respectively. Weeding was carried out 14, 42, and 60 days after sowing (DAS) to keep the fields clean throughout the growing season.The global equation of the stored soil water (SWS) as suggested by Mueller et al. [41] was used, as follows:where SWS is the stored soil water. The inflow components are daily rainfall (P) and irrigation (which was zero for this study). The outflow components included daily surface runoff (R) and daily downward drainage (D). Rainfall (P) was collected using an automatic weather station equipped with a tipping bucket rain gauge. Surface runoff (R) was collected using bounded runoff traps installed in each plot. Each runoff trap was equipped with a V-gutter to collect and transport runoff water into a storage tank of 0.4 m 3 . The storage tank was connected to a 20 liter container in case of overflow. The runoff volume collected was converted to water depth (mm) by dividing it by the plot size.The downward drainage (D) was collected by a drainage system tray of 50 cm depth and 50 cm diameter installed in each plot. The tray was filled with the on-site soil and the amount was estimated based on the bulk density. Thus, 122, 127, and 130 kg of soil were filled for slope gradients of 0-2, 2-8, and 8-15%, respectively. Maize was sown on the tray to maintain water suction and nutrient fluxes. The volume of drainage water was converted to water depth (mm) by dividing it by the plot size.The SWS was estimated daily and calculated by cumulating daily values for different growth stages for the three growing seasons. Growth stage designations were based on the crop coefficient developed by FAO-56, as suggested by Piccinni et al. [33]. These were converted into their equivalence as suggested by Udom and Kamalu [42] and Dong et al. [43]. These included the initial (VE-V3), crop development (V4-VT), mid-stage (reproductive stages R1-R3, silking to milk), and end-stage (R4-R6, dough to physiological maturity) designations.Plant height, stem diameter, internode distance, leaf area index (LAI), root biomass (RBM), and shoot biomass (SBM) were collected. Ten maize plants were selected randomly for growth parameter measurements for each plot at the flowering (mid-) stage. Plant height was measured from ground to the plant apex while the internode distance was measured between two nodes using a ruler. For the stem diameter, a digital calliper was used at ~10 cm above the ground. The leaf area index (LAI) was then calculated by dividing the total leaf area (LA) by the total plot area. The LA was estimated using a generalized leaf area calculation, as follows in Equation (3):where LA is the leaf area, L is leaf length, W is the leaf width, and α is the weighing factor that equals 0.75 for the tropical maize [44,45].For RBM, an excavation of roots embedded in soil was performed, which consisted of opening a pit (surface area of 0.25 m 2 ) to a depth of 0.30 m, perpendicular to the sowing bed. The root-soil mixture was then carefully shaken to extract the roots. The roots were washed with tap water and dried before being weighed and brought to the laboratory. Shoots were weighed before being sent to the laboratory for drying. Root and shoot samples were oven-dried at 75 °C for ~72 h and re-weighed. Root/shoot ratio (RSR) was estimated using dry root and shoot biomasses.The maize was harvested at maturity, at 105-110 DAS for Ecavel and 121-125 DAS for the Bazoka variety, depending on the cropping season. A 5.2 m × 3.5 m (18.2 m 2 ) harvesting area per plot was selected for yield measurement. Harvesting was carried out manually when all leaves and husks were completely dry. The cobs were separated from husks and then sun-dried at 15.5% moisture content. Thirty maize cobs were randomly selected per plot to estimate the number of cobs, the number of rows per cob (NRC), and the number of kernels per row (NKR). Subsequently, the kernels were separated from the cobs; their length (LCP) was measured using a digital calliper. The grain was then separated from the cobs, and sun-dried again to ~15.5% moisture content. The final plot grain yield was then extrapolated to yield per ha. The harvest undex (HI) was estimated by dividing the grain yield by the total dry biomass (root and shoot).The WUE was obtained by comparing harvested rainwater (stored soil water) per SWC practice with harvested maize grain yield as suggested by Yang et al. [20] and Liu et al. [46]. The WUE was expressed in Equation ( 4), as follows:where \uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4A is the water use efficiency, \uD835\uDC4C\uD835\uDC4C the maize yield (kg ha −1 ), and \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC46 is the stored soil water during the crop growing season.Data were analyzed using R 3.5.3 software. Data normality was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The mixed model analysis with restricted maximum likelihood (REML) was used to assess the treatments' statistical differences. The SWC practices, slopes, and varieties were considered fixed effects, and the three seasons and replications were random effects. Models were tested using the Akaike information criterion (AIC), and the one with the smallest value was selected. Thus, the interaction effect model (SWC × slope × variety) was selected for growth parameters, yield, and WUE analyses, as recommended by Roy [47]. When the treatment effects were statistically significant, standard error of difference (SED) post hoc range test was used to determine how the treatments differed from each other at an alpha level of 0.05 [48]. The relationship among variables was assessed using a multiple linear regression model. All predictors' value data were normalized to avoid the influence of some parameters with larger values on the estimator. The collinearity was checked for removing inter-correlated variables.Table 1 presents the soil physical and chemical characteristics of the experimental fields. Supplementary Table S2 shows no significant variations in soil physical and chemical parameters before implementing the SWC practices (p > 0.05). There are, however, significant differences in some parameters for slope gradient and soil depths. From Table 1, a significant variation in the coarse fraction for different slope gradients (p < 0.05) and soil depths (p < 0.05) was observed. The coarse fraction did not vary significantly with soil depth for the slope gradient of 0-2%, and it was 2.5% on average. A similar trend was observed for slopes of 8-15% but with an average of 29.3%. The coarse fractions were 4.69, 45.6, and 34.6% for the depths of 0-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm, respectively, for the slope gradient of 2-8%. The soil texture was a sandy loam for all depths of all slope gradients, except for the slope of 0-2% at 40-60 cm soil depth where the texture was sandy clay loam. The bulk density varied with soil depth (p < 0.05) but showed no variation with the slope gradient (p > 0.05). The averages of 1.15, 1.33, and 1.41 g cm −3 were recorded for the depths of 0-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm, respectively. The saturation point (at 0 MPa) was 40.2% while the field capacity (at 0.03 MPa) was 14.03%. For soil organic carbon (SOC), the result shows a variation in SOC for slope gradients (p < 0.05) and soil depths (p < 0.05) (Table 2). SOC was higher at slopes of 0-2% (27.03 g kg −1 ) compared to slopes of 2-8% (20.4%) and 8-15% (16.9%). The SOC varied with different soil depths, as follows: it was 34.4, 19.1, and 10.8 g kg −1 at soil depths of 0-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm, respectively. The soil pH varied with slope gradients (p < 0.05). The highest pH was recorded at the slope of 8-15% (8.4). Here, LAI = leaf area index, SBM = shoot biomass, RBM = root biomass, RSR = root/shoot ratio. Means followed by the same letter within a row are not statistically different at 5% p-value threshold.The characterization results of the atmosphere's ETc demand compared to the amount of rainfall received during the three growing seasons is presented in Figure 2. Rainfall of 204.7, 289.5, and 142.3 mm were recorded from sowing to harvest for seasons 1, 2, and 3, respectively. In contrast, the demands for evapotranspiration (ETc) were 360.7, 532.7, and 356.2 mm, respectively. On the other hand, several days without rain were recurrent, representing 52.9, 66.9, and 71.5% of the days in seasons 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Despite the relatively low amount of rain received during season 1, its rainfall distribution was better than season 2. In season 2, the amount of rainfall at silking (70.5 mm) was lower compared to 80.3 mm rainfall received in season 1. Season 2 received the least rainfall (0.5 mm) during the physiological maturity phase compared to 56.2 mm rainfall registered in season 1. More rainfall was recorded during the establishment and active growth phases (V4-VT) in season 2 (178.3 mm) than in season 1 (45.7 mm). Season 3 was exceptional, receiving only enough rainfall during the establishment phase (40.8 mm), while the other growth stages had less water than seasons 1 and 2, though it was well-distributed. Maize variety significantly affected the stem diameter and SBM only (p < 0.05). The Bazoka variety had the largest stem diameter (9.73 cm) and the highest SBM (6.02 t ha −1 ) compared to Ecavel (7.18 cm and 5.5 t ha −1 for stem diameter and SBM, respectively).All maize growth parameters varied significantly with slope gradients (p < 0.01) (Table 2). The mean plant height and internode distance were highest for the slope of 0-2% (210.03 and 15.37 cm, respectively) while the lowest means were recorded for 8-15% (161.18 and 12.44 cm, respectively). The LAI and SBM recorded the highest values at the slope of 0-2% (2.63 and 6.36 t ha −1 , respectively) and the lowest at 8-15% (1.11 and 4.79 t ha −1 , respectively). No significant differences in RBM and RSR were observed between slopes of 0-2 and 2-8% (2.6 t ha −1 and 0.42, respectively), but these were significantly different at 8-15% slope (1.97 ha −1 and 0.37, respectively).The SWC practices significantly affected maize growth parameters (Table 3 and supplementary Table S3). Tied ridges and Zai pits recorded the highest plant height, at 196.04 and 184.20 cm, respectively, compared to conventional tillage (169.67 cm). Zai pits had the largest stem diameter (10.30 mm) compared to tied ridges (8.89 mm) and conventional tillage (6.92 mm). Tied ridges and Zai pits recorded the highest internode distance, SBM, and RSR compared to conventional tillage. Looking at the sunlight interception, the highest LAI was recorded on tied ridges (2.07), followed by Zai pits (1.81) and conventional tillage (1.62). This implied that the photosynthetically-active radiation was better under tied ridges during the vegetative growth phase than the other SWC practice (Zai pits) and the conventional tillage. Here, LAI = leaf area index, SBM = shoot biomass, RBM = root biomass, RSR = root/shoot ratio. Means followed by the same letter within a row are not statistically different at 5% p-value threshold.The interaction between the slope and SWC practices were significant for LAI and interfoliar distance (p < 0.05). The tied ridge SWC technique recorded the highest internode distance at the 0-2% slope (16.1 cm) while Zai pits had the highest internode at the 2-8% slope (13.76 cm). Tied ridges had the highest LAI for the three slope gradients. At the slope of 0-2%, Zai pits had a similar LAI (2.55) as conventional tillage (2.61). At the slope of 2-8% (1.06) and 8-15% (0.80), conventional tillage had the lowest LAI (Figure 3). The interaction between SWC practices and varieties and between SWC practices, slope, and varieties showed significant differences only for stem diameter and internode distance. Yield components were not significantly different for the two test varieties (p > 0.05). However, yield components varied significantly with slope gradients. The length of cob per plant (L.C.P.) was highest at 0-2% (18.9 cm) and lowest at 8-15% (11.14 cm). The same trend was observed for NRC and NKR (p < 0.05). The highest values for these two traits (12.8 and 35.23 for NRC and NKR, respectively) were recorded at the slope of 0-2%. The SWC practices influenced the NRC and NKR (p < 0.05). No effect of SWC practices on LCP was observed (p > 0.05).Figure 4 shows that the grain yield and harvest index (HI) varied with slope gradient (p < 0.01). Grain yield also varied with SWC practices, while HI did not vary with SWC practices. The grain yield was highest at the 0-2% slope (2.67 t ha −1 ) and the lowest at 8-15% (0.38 t ha −1 ), showing a decline of 85.7%. The HI was 0.43 for the slope of 0-2%, while it was 0.07 for the 8-15% slope. Based on SWC practices, tied ridges had the best yield (2.16 t ha −1 ) when compared with Zai pits (1.48 t ha −1 ) and conventional tillage (1.58 t ha −1 ). The yield increment due to tied ridges was 38.7% compared to conventional tillage.Maize yield was influenced significantly by the interaction between SWC practices and slope gradient (p < 0.01). The difference in yield among SWC practices was observed at slope gradients of 0-2 and 8-15%, while at slope gradient of 2-8%, no difference was observed between SWC practices. Tied ridges registered the highest yield (3.55 t ha −1 ) at the slope of 0-2% and the lowest at a slope of 8-15% (0.14 t ha −1 ) for conventional tillage. No difference in yield was observed between SWC practices at the slope of 2-8%. This implies that biomass conversion to yield was most efficient on tied ridges than Zai pits. The WUE was significantly different for the three growing seasons (p < 0.01). The highest WUE was observed in season 1 (16.44 kg mm −1 ) and the lowest in season 3 (5.33 kg mm −1 ). While receiving more rain, season 2 performed less than season 1. No significant difference on WUE was attributed to variety (p > 0.05). There were significant differences for WUE due to slope gradients (p < 0.01). The slope of 0-2% showed the highest WUE (15.23 kg mm −1 ) compared to slopes of 2-8% (10.94 kg mm −1 ) and 8-15% (3.28 kg mm −1 ). The SWC practices significantly affected the WUE (p < 0.01) across the growing seasons (Figure 5), with tied ridges recording the best score. This SWC practice produced 13.22 kg of maize grains per each 1 mm of water consumed, while conventional tillage and Zai pits showed no significant differences. Tied ridges increased the WUE by 27.2% as opposed to Zai pits.The interaction between SWC practices and slope gradient was significant (p < 0.01). Tied ridges had the highest WUE on slopes of 0-2% (19.15 kg mm −1 ) and 8-15% compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. There was no statistical difference between Zai pits and conventional tillage on these slopes. No significant differences in WUE were observed for the slope of 2-8% regardless of SWC practices. However, Zai pits were efficient at the 8-15% slope compared to conventional tillage. Tied ridges were efficient for slopes of 0-2% and 8-15%, although they were not efficient on the slope of 2-8%. The deviations of tied ridges to the control were 61.36% for the slope of 0-2% and 379.9% for 8-15%. Compared to the control, the Zai pits technique was an inefficient SWC practice in the Ruzizi Plain for the slopes 0-2%. The influence of season, SWC practices, and slope gradient are presented in Figure 5. The variation in stored soil water (SWS) among selected SWC practices along the slope gradient is presented in Figure 6. In general, the SWS followed a similar trend as the rainfall (Figure 2), meaning that the higher the rainfall, the higher the SWS. The SWS variations were attributed to seasonal effects (p < 0.001) and the slope gradient (p < 0.001), but not to SWC practices (p > 0.05). The interaction between season, SWC, and slopes gave the significant difference during the growing season (p < 0.001). In the three seasons, the higher SWS was observed under tied ridges for slopes of 0-2% (193, 219, and 125 mm, respectively) compared to Zai and conventional tillage (Supplementary Figure S1-S3). For a 2-8% slope gradient, tied ridges performed well only in season 2, while for slopes of 8-15%, the storage benefits of the tied ridges are considerably lower and similar for conventional tillage and Zai pits. This performance also depends on growth phases. The efficiency of water retention decreased with a slope gradient at 25.5% for the 2-8% slope and 40.7% for the 8-15% slope. Multiple regression analysis (Figure 7) revealed that RBM, SBM, and LAI influenced WUE with a coefficient of determination (R 2 ) of 58.5%. Among the crop parameters, LAI had the highest influence on WUE compared to RBM and SBM (Y = 2.956 β 1 + 1.24 β 2 − 0.32 β 3 − 2.44, where β1, β2, and β3 are LAI, RBM, and SBM, respectively). The increase in LAI and RBM tended to increase WUE, while increasing SBM tended to decrease WUE. The influence of LAI, RBM, and SBM on WUE varied with SWC practices (p < 0.01) and slope gradient (p < 0.01). The effect of LAI on WUE was relatively more important on tied ridges compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. It implies that an increase in water storage by tied ridges during the vegetative growth stage improved the LAI, which consequently influenced the WUE. In contrast, RBM affected the WUE more in conventional tillage with an estimate of 2 (R 2 = 0.67) compared to Zai pits and tied ridges (Figure 7). The increment in SBM had no effect on WUE under tied ridges and Zai pits, while it significantly improved the WUE on conventional tillage. Shoot biomass accumulation had no effect on WUE, especially when the maize crop received sufficient water at the establishment and crop development stages. The SBM accumulation had no benefit to WUE under water stress conditions at the last two stages (cob filling and maturation), irrespective of the season. The water demand for ETP was higher when the SBM was high. The influence of LAI and RBM on WUE significantly varied with slope gradient (p < 0.001) (Figure 7). The highest influence of LAI on WUE was observed on the 0-2% slope (2.3, R 2 = 0.69) compared to the 2-8 and 8-15% slopes. For RBM, the same trend was observed, with the highest influence recorded on the slope gradient of 0-2%, followed by 8-15%. For SBM, the influence on WUE was independent of the slope gradient (p > 0.05). Generally, WUE depended significantly on total water storage during the three growing seasons (R 2 = 41.02%). However, based on the weather characteristics of the Ruzizi Plain, SWS influenced the WUE differently during different maize developmental stages (Figure 8). The influence of SWS on WUE at the reproductive (β 1 ) and maturity growth stages (β 2 ) can be modeled by the following equation: \uD835\uDC4C\uD835\uDC4C = 0.165β 1 + 0.0886β 1 − 5.03, with R 2 = 72.94%. No influences of SWS at the establishment and active vegetative growth stages were observed. The highest influence of the SWS on WUE was observed at the reproductive and maturity phases. An increase in SWS at the active growth stage tended to slightly reduce the WUE. For the last two growth stages (cob filling and maturation), the highest influence was observed on tied ridges compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. The influence of tied ridges was highest compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. During the three-growing seasons, the Ruzizi Plain received between 147.5 and 284.7 mm of rainfall and experienced an average of 52.9, 66.9, and 71.5% days of no rain for the three consecutive seasons, respectively. These rainfall values were below the 450 mm needed for optimal maize growth. This water supply and demand imbalance implies that maize farmers need supplemental irrigation or, alternatively, to harvest rainwater through SWC practices for optimum plant growth and development [49]. Udom and Kamalu [42] showed that maize requires 48.6 mm of water at the establishment stage, 247 mm at the active vegetative growth stage, 126 mm at the cob silking stage, and 34.4 mm at the maturity stage. In most of the seasons, the maize crop was under a water deficit although seasons were characterized by different rainfall patterns and distributions. The highest rainfall received at initial stage was 40.3 mm in season 3, 178 mm at the active growth stage in season 2, and 80.3 mm at the silking stage in season 1. Maize was exposed to water stress mostly during the physiological maturity stages, especially for seasons 2 and 3, while in season 1, maize received 56 mm, which is high compared to the results of Udom and Kamalu [42].This study demonstrated that both tied ridges and Zai pits can significantly increase maize growth parameters (plant height, LAI, stem diameter, internode distance, RBM, and SBM). Differences were probably due to the larger amount of water retained by tied ridges and Zai pits compared to the conventional tillage during the first two growth phases. The increase in biomass has been influenced by practices and slope gradients that allow for storing more water. Many reports from several sub-Saharan African environments showed similar trends to the current study and showed that tied ridges improve maize biomasses (root and aboveground biomasses) and LAI compared to conventional tillage [40,50].No difference in SBM was observed between Zai pits and tied ridges on slopes of 0-2 and 2-8%. However, a significant difference was observed with conventional tillage on all slopes. On the slope of 8-15%, tied ridges showed the highest values of SBM compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. Zai pits and tied ridges cumulated similar biomasses during crop establishment and active vegetative growth stages due to their ability to save more water. At those two maize growth stages, water was sufficiently supplied in all seasons. At these stages, the quantity of water saved, under Zai pits and tied ridges, was comparable, while it differed from that of conventional tillage. The effect of water supply in optimizing root and shoot biomasses, LAI, and other growth parameters has been demonstrated by Zhang et al. [45].The tied ridges, as a SWC practice, was efficient in improving maize productivity under water-deficient conditions. In fact, tied ridges recorded the highest WUE on slopes of 0-2% compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. No difference in WUE was observed on slope gradient of 2-8% among the three selected SWC practices. This can be attributed to the high water saving capacity of tied ridges, especially during the last two crop growth stages. During the experiment, the loss of water by runoff was low on plots where maize was grown under tied ridges. It was also lower at the slope of 0-2% compared to maize grown on slopes of 2-8 and 8-15%. This significantly improved the SWS during the three growing seasons. Our findings agreed with Wolka et al. [1] showing that tied ridges positively affected stored soil water and WUE in low rainfall areas (<1000 mm year −1 ) in 83% of the trials conducted in sub-Saharan African drylands. An earlier review on tillage research for eastern Africa, especially in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Malawi, also found that tied ridging positively affected grain yields [51]. Xiao-long et al. [52] showed that with different rainfall levels (230, 340, and 440 mm), tied ridges led to increased maize water use efficiency by 77.4, 43.1, and 9.5%, respectively, compared with conventional flat cultivation. These authors explained that tied ridges tend to increase lateral and vertical flows in ridges, which in turn improves water storage. Small amounts of rainfall are more likely to be retained in the micropores and constitute the soil water reserve. Large amounts of rainfall increase soil waterlogging, resulting in a significant decrease in oxygen amount, affecting the WUE. Tied ridges showed the highest potential for saving water compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. Similar observations were experienced by Grum et al. [53,54] and Cofie et al. [55] in the Sahelian region. The highest SWS observed at the slope of 0-2% compared to 2-8 and 8-15% could be attributed to the cumulative effect of reduced runoff and enhanced infiltration. Tied ridges were efficient in controlling surface runoff compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. Many scholars noted the ability of tied ridges to reduce surface runoff [1,56] and to induce a favorable distribution of soil water for a better water and nutrient use efficiency [1,40]. The earth elevation of ridges, set perpendicularly to the slope direction, partly explains the results. It reduces the overland flow speed, retains the water in the soil profile, and forms an onfield storage pit [1,50]. Keating et al. [38]'s study in Benin showed that Zai pits cannot reach satisfactory results in water retention if rainfall is below a reasonable threshold (minimum 400 mm with a soil storage capacity of 50 mm). There is no structure for conventional tillage to reduce surface runoff [1]. Some research conducted in Ethiopia and in Kenya showed that the potential of tied ridges remains limited by the amount of rainfall and the level of soil aeration. Some scholars [57,58] showed that the tied ridge is limited by variations in seasonal rainfall, which can significantly affect crop yields. In addition, the resulting aeration stress could have decreased yield because crop plants require oxygen for proper water and nutrient uptake, and the presence of excess water in the root zone might have disrupted the normal functioning of the roots [59,60]. Grum et al. [53] also reported that, in Northern Ethiopia, tied ridges alone did not significantly increase grain yield or plant biomass compared to the control. The author also explained the excess of water in the root zone as being from successive and intensive rains which caused aeration stress and reduced yield and biomass.The results showed that an increase in WUE across the three seasons was positively linked to LAI and RBM, while it was negatively correlated with SBM. Leaf area index (LAI) was significantly affected by water stress, although effects varied with SWC practices and slope gradient. The LAI was always low under most water-stressed treatments, such as the conventional tillage, irrespective of the slope gradient. It was also low under tied ridges and Zai pits at the slope of 8-15%. Our findings agreed with those of Zhang et al. [31] and Pandey et al. [61] who showed that the highest LAI value for grain maize was obtained under conditions of no water stress. Some authors have found that LAI is in a strong linear relationship with maize WUE (R² = 0.79) [62]. It is noteworthy that Song et al. [63] found out that low water availability induces low LAI.During the three growing seasons, tied ridges showed the highest WUE on the slope of 0-2% compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. In contrast, tied ridges recorded similar SBM on the same slope gradient compared to conventional tillage. On the slope of 2-8%, no difference in water use efficiency was observed among the three SWC practices. Tied ridges recorded similar biomass on the same slope gradient as conventional tillage. On the slope of 8-15%, both SWC practices recorded low WUE. Tied ridges recorded the best WUE and SBM compared to Zai pits and conventional tillage. It is noteworthy that maize biomass is established during the crop vegetative development growth and yield during the last two stages. Many scholars [41,64] observed a linear relationship between maize biomass and yield. They found a positive relationship between biomass and water demand for optimum photosynthetic activity. Therefore, Zai pits saved less water to satisfy the water demand of maize than tied ridges on the slope of 0-2%. Thus, that low water-saving characteristic later hindered reproductive phases of maize, resulting in a low WUE. At the slope gradient of 2-8%, water conservation efficiency was reduced for both SWC practices. The water demand to maintain maize biomass was not met for both SWC practices and, therefore, no difference in WUE was observed between the three practices. The conventional tillage developed less biomass in its early growth stages, and its water demand was low, such that it managed to achieve a similar WUE to Zai pits on slopes of 0-2% and both (Zai pits and tied ridges) on slopes of 2-8%. Many authors support the statement that accumulation of aboveground biomass during active vegetative stages may negatively impact maize productivity if the last growth stages are under water stress [32]. Yu et al. [65] performed a meta-analysis of 80 peer-reviewed publications on water use efficiency under stress and suggested that high WUE is not always associated with high biomass. Therefore, it is important to maintain low biomass when maize water requirement cannot be satisfied at later stages.The challenge in satisfying the water demands of maize grown under Zai pits and tied ridges for certain circumstances was affected by the rainfall and SWS distribution during the three seasons and during the growth stages. The results showed an influence of stored soil water during the last two crop stages on WUE, while no influence of SWS was observed at the initial and crop active development stages. Many researchers have shown that the most critical period of maize for water is three weeks before flowering and two weeks after. For example, Ge et al. [66] and Qi et al. [67] have shown that short-duration water deficits during the vegetative growth period caused a 28-32% loss of dry matter weight. Çakir [68] stated that a single irrigation omission during sensitive growth stages can reduce grain yield by up to 40% during dry years. However, some studies conducted by Comas et al. [32] supported our results and identified the timing of water deficit outside of this critical period that could reduce water consumption and minimize yield losses. For Çakir [68], the highest yields were observed when there was no water stress in all growth stages and when maize was under water stress during the vegetative growth stage. Comas et al. [32] also showed that plants given sufficient water during the entire vegetative period followed by stress later during the maturation period had dramatically low yields. Other scholars, such as Sah et al. [49], showed that water drought stress at the end of the flowering and grain filling stage results in severe negative effects on phenological and yield traits of maize. Results of this research indicate the benefits of applying deficits during the late vegetative period if there is a chance that the water supply could be inadequate to meet water requirement during the maturation period.This study also has limitations, especially in estimating the value of the cultural coefficient (Kc). Although the Kc values obtained by Piccinni et al. [33] are used worldwide, especially when research is conducted in the dry land conditions of South Texas, it is still necessary to determine them experimentally for better accuracy. Many authors report that the Kc value can vary with water availability during the crop cycle [69][70][71]. These authors showed that evapotranspiration values show more significant variability under high water stress. Therefore, we adopted an estimate based on stored soil water to highlight the effect of SWC practices on WUE.Our recent study showed that tied ridges could potentially reduce long-term effects of climate change to certain extent in the Ruzizi Plain [72], as also supported by the present study. Therefore, we are calling for farmer support structures to promote such SWC practice in the Ruzizi Plain to cope with present and future rainwater deficits affecting maize production. Future studies should compare the gap between maize performance under these yield limiting conditions (142 and 289 mm rainfall water) with a high irrigation treatment (600 mm) in terms of water replacement. By doing so, it would be possible to identify potential maize productivity even with other limitations. Furthermore, to fill the gap between the yield potential and current yields in the Ruzizi Plain, research should assess the influence of high yielding varieties and soil nutrients on maize yields along with water management.This study assessed the effect of selected SWC practices on maize development, SWS, and WUE along the slope gradient in the Ruzizi Plain. The highest SWS was observed under tied ridges for the slope of 0-2%. Tied ridges also recorded the highest WUE and grain yield on slopes of 0-2 and 8-15%, while no difference in grain yield was observed on the slope of 2-8% for all tested SWC practices. Decrease in SWS during the silking and maturity stages negatively affected the maize WUE and grain yield. Tied ridges provide an opportunity to cope with water scarcity in the Ruzizi Plain and, thus, can be adopted to improve maize crop productivity. Its efficiency could be improved by supplemental irrigation during severe water deficit periods.The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/land11101833/s1, Figure S1: Variation in soil water storage among selected SWC practices along the slope gradient in Ruzizi plain for season 1; Figure S2: Variation in soil water storage among selected SWC practices along the slope gradient in Ruzizi plain for season 2; Figure S3: Variation in soil water storage among selected SWC practices along the slope gradient in Ruzizi plain for season 3; Table S1: Weather data of the experimental site; Table S2: Statistical analysis of soil characteristics of the experimental site in Ruzizi plain, eastern DR Congo, Table S3: Effects of SWC, variety and slope gradient on maize growth parameters across three growing seasons in the Ruzizi plain, eastern DR Congo. ","tokenCount":"7692"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"67e7f8c53cd9c20a84390965c0fbe2cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5ff85ac6-0ac8-4e26-bb34-303911849210/content","id":"761442440"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e13a611c-3073-4d0b-8d69-b3c1ab64eafc","pagecount":"60","content":"In 2017, CIMMYT and partners were at the center of global responses to several grave challenges to maize and wheat agriculture. In South Asia, we supported the fast-track release by Bangladesh of a new variety that resists wheat blast, a deadly and mysterious disease that appeared for the fi rst time in the region in 2016. In Afr ica, our staff coordinated with global, regional, and national partners on an integrated strategy to control fall armyworm, a pest fr om the Americas that since 2016 has devastated over 1.5 million hectares of Afr ica's maize. In the Americas, CIMMYT provided Haiti with 150 tons of improved maize seed to assist farmers and replenish emergency reserves as part of the nation's recovery fr om crippling earthquakes, droughts, and hurricanes. Successful resource mobilization this year included exciting new directions and partnerships, such as the agreement with Henan Agricultural University, China, to open a joint maize and wheat research center, or the launch with Nestlé in Mexico of a responsible sourcing collaboration in which thousands of Mexican farmers will use sustainable practices to produce more than 220,000 tons of maize and wheat.In support of the dynamic new CGIAR research portfolio for 2017-22, CIMMYT is providing leadership and guidance and will oversee the new Excellence in Breeding Platform. CIMMYT's total grant revenue reached US$133.5 million in 2017 against US$134.1 million in 2016, a minor reduction of 0.5%. The 23.3% increase in bilateral funding towards a total income of US$ 53.4 million in 2017 against US$ 43.3 million in 2016 has off set the decrease in CGIAR Research Program (CRP) funding income: US$ 80.2 million in 2017 versus US$ 90.8 million in 2016. As of this this year, CIMMYT presents its Financial Statements under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) only. The notes to the Financial Statements further explain the IFRS transition process CIMMYT has undertaken. We off er sincere thanks to funders and other partners and stakeholders for your unwavering support of CIMMYT's mission, especially in today's uncertain and challenging circumstances. We are proud to work with you as a signifi cant force for good. Martin Kropff N i c o l e L . B i r r e l l Director General Chair, Board of TrusteesCIMMYT's Management and Board of Trustees (\"Board\") acknowledge that eff ective risk management is essential to good governance, the execution of CIMMYT's overall strategic direction and enhanced decision-making processes, especially active management of strategic, operational, fi nancial, compliance and reputational risks inherent in the nature and location of its activities.The Board has responsibility for ensuring that appropriate risk management strategies and practices (\"RM System\") are in place at the Center. An eff ective RM System is required to enable Management to identify , monitor and mitigate signifi cant risks related to CIMMYT's mission and objectives, while also identify ing opportunities to further those objectives. The RM System also underpins assurance to funders, partners and other stakeholders that, in its actions and use of resources, CIMMYT is adhering to sound governance standards.In recent years, the Board and Management have taken several steps to enhance the RM System:• in 2016, the Board adopted a refr eshed Risk Management Policy (\"RM Policy\"). The RM Policy includes a fr amework (\"RM Framework\"), based on ISO 31000, which prescribes risk management activities to be undertaken by Management and seeks to ensure that new issues/concerns raised by stakeholders are addressed• in the same year, CIMMYT embarked on a risk management enhancement strategy, concentrating on strengthening infr astructure, controls, systems, and people. This included ongoing reviews of internal controls designed to eliminate or mitigate risks• in 2017, the outcome of a Risk Maturity analysis further guided the renewal process• a substantial amount of fi eld work and workshops throughout the year re-articulated the top risks facing CIMMYT and provided a basis for systematic refi nement of appropriate risk responses -to accept, mitigate, transfer or eliminate the risks -with a focus on high-priority institutional risks and those identifi ed in Regional Offi ces, Experimental Stations and for the CRPs led by CIMMYT• a new Risk Appetite Statement, currently being refi ned, will enable the RM System to be more dynamic and responsive to the evolving environment• risk management objectives have been embedded in performance evaluations of staff who facilitate and supervise the process. Additionally, work plans of all Management and staff implicitly include risk mitigation objectives, which are endorsed by Management and assessed as part of the performance evaluation process. CIMMYT's on-line performance evaluation soft ware is being modifi ed to include risk management (in objective setting and performance evaluation)• CIMMYT has implemented improved good-faith reporting mechanisms for staff (a third-party helpline is now available across all CIMMYT locations globally) and related Management reporting mechanisms• the notion of opportunity as an upside of risk has been introduced and work continues to identify and systematically realize benefi ts fr om such opportunities, and• a Combined Assurance Map is being developed to help ensure that appropriate assurance is in place for key areas of CIMMYT's operations and that the assurance obtained fr om diff erent parties is coordinated eff ectively.During 2017, the CGIAR System Council approved a risk management  amework for the CGIAR System, outlining roles and responsibilities for the member Centers' Boards and Management. CIMMYT's practices align closely with those requirements.The Board has an Audit, Finance and Risk Committee (\"AFRC\") which meets periodically throughout the year and reviews both adequacy and eff ectiveness of CIMMYT's RM System as well as risk-related statements to be included in CIMMYT's Financial Statements. The design and eff ectiveness of the RM System and internal controls are also subject to ongoing review by CIMMYT's Internal Audit Unit (\"IAU\").The IAU is independent of CIMMYT business units and reports on audit results directly to the Board through the AFRC Chair.The Board recognizes the need for continuous improvement in response to emerging trends within the sector, requirements fr om internal and external stakeholders and potential threats at CIMMYT's operational locations. It is fi rmly committed to fostering a culture of continuous learning and improvement to achieve a level of practice appropriate for CIMMYT's needs.April 2018For the Year Ended 31 December 2017, CIMMYT management is required to prepare annual fi nancial statements and is responsible for the accuracy and reliability of the fi nancial information. The accompanying annual combined fi nancial statements of Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo Internacional and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo A.C. (CIMMYT) for the year ending 31 December 2017, have been prepared in accordance and compliance with lnternational Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and Advisory Notes released by the CGIAR System Organization.It also requires management to ensure that the Center keeps proper accounting records that disclose, with reasonable accuracy, the fi nancial position of the Center. Management is also responsible for safeguarding the assets of the Center. Management accepts responsibility for the preparation and fair presentation of fi nancial statements which are fr ee fr om material misstatements whether due to fr aud or error. They also accept responsibility for:i. Designing, implementing and maintaining internal control necessary to enable the preparation of fi nancial statements that are fr ee fr om material misstatements, whether due to fr aud or error;ii. Selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies; andiii. Making accounting estimates and judgements that are reasonable in the circumstances.CIMMYT's fi nancial reporting system provides Management with regular, timely and accurate views of its operations and enables Management to identify and discern risks while at the same time providing a reliable basis for the annual fi nancial statements and management reports.CIMMYT is supported by its Internal Audit Unit to provide regular and ongoing internal audits and recommendations regarding the adequacy and eff ectiveness of the Center's policies and procedures. The Board of Trustees exercises its responsibility for these annual fi nancial statements through its Audit, Finance and Risk Committee. This Committee meets regularly with Management and representatives of external and internal auditors to review matters relating to fi nancial reporting, risk management, internal control, and auditing.Management is of the opinion that the fi nancial statements give a true and fair view of the state of the fi nancial position of the CIMMYT's fi nancial aff airs and of its operating activities for the year ended 31 December 2017.Nothing has come to the attention of management to indicate that the Center will not remain a going concern for at least twelve months fr om the date of this statement.       As of and for the Years ended December 31, 2017 and 2016 (In thousands of U.S. Dollars)The accompanying notes are an integral part of and should be read in conjunction with the accompanying financial statements. These combined financial statements have been prepared in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (\"IFRS\"), as issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (\"IASB\"). They were authorised for issue by the Organization's Board of Trustees on April 24, 2018.An explanation of how the transition to IFRS has affected the reported financial position, financial performance and cash flows of the Organization is provided in note 22.In accordance with the Mexican General Law of Commercial Companies (Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles) and the bylaws of CIMMYT Int., the Board of Trustees approves the financial statements.In accordance with the Mexican General Law of Commercial Companies (Ley General de Sociedades Mercantiles) and the bylaws of CIMMYT, A.C., the General Assembly approves the financial statements of CIMMYT, A.C.These combined financial statements, with accompanying financial information, are presented in United States Dollars (\"Dollar\" or \"$\") which is the Organization's functional currency. Except as otherwise noted, all financial information presented in U.S. Dollars has been rounded to the nearest thousand.Preparation of these combined financial statements in conformity with IFRS requires management to make judgments, estimates and assumptions that affect the application of accounting policies and the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, income and expenses. Actual results may differ from those judgments, estimates and assumptions.Judgments, estimates and assumptions are reviewed on an ongoing basis. Revisions to accounting estimates are recognized prospectively.(a) Judgments-Information about judgments critical to application of accounting policies (that is, having the most significant effect on the amounts recognized in the combined financial statements) is included in Note 5g (iii) -useful life of property and equipment.Information about assumptions and estimation uncertainties that pose a significant risk of causing a material adjustment in the year ending December 31, 2017 is included in Note 14 (c) -measurement of defined benefit obligations: key actuarial assumptions.The accounting policies set out below have been applied consistently to all periods presented in these combined financial statements, unless otherwise indicated.Cash and cash equivalents are comprised of cash on hand, bank current accounts, fixed term interest bearing bank deposits and publicly listed securities. The Organization considers all highly-liquid debt instruments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less to be cash equivalents. Restricted cash is detailed in note 6.Transactions in foreign currencies are translated to functional currency at the exchange rates prevailing on the dates of the respective transaction.Monetary assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies are translated to the functional currency by applying the exchange rate at the reporting date. Non-monetary assets and liabilities that are measured at cost in a foreign currency are translated to the functional currency at the historical exchange rate. Foreign currency differences are generally recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income.ii. Foreign operations-The Organization's foreign operations relate to research activities outside Mexico, being executed primarily through CIMMYT Int's Regional Offices, which have the U.S. Dollar as functional currency; accordingly, no translation to the Organization's presentation currency is required. Foreign currency transactions and balances in CIMMYT Int's Regional Offices are treated according note 5(b)i for translation to the functional currency (c) Employee benefitsi. Short-term benefits-Short-term employee benefits are expensed as the related service is provided by employees or obligation incurred by the Organization. A liability is recognized for the amount expected to be paid at a future date if the Organization has a present legal or constructive obligation to pay this amount as a result of past service provided by the employee, and the obligation can be estimated reliably.A defined contribution plan is a postretirement benefit under which an entity pays fixed contributions to a third party, with no legal or constructive obligation to fund further payments. Obligations for contributions to defined contribution pension plans are recognized as an employee benefit expense in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income in the periods during which services are rendered by employees. Prepaid contributions are recognized as an asset to the extent that a cash refund or a reduction in future payments is available. Contributions to a defined contribution plan that are due more than twelve (12) months after the end of the period in which the employees render the service are discounted to their present value.In accordance with Mexican Labour Law, the Organization provides seniority premium benefits to its Locally Recruited Staff contracted in Mexico (\"Mexican LRS\") under certain circumstances. These benefits consist of a one-time payment equivalent to twelve (12) days wages for each year of service (at the Mexican LRS's most recent salary, but not to exceed twice the legal minimum wage), payable to Mexican LRS with fifteen (15) or more years of service, as well as to certain Mexican LRS terminated involuntarily prior to the vesting of their seniority premium benefit. Costs associated with these benefits are provided for based on actuarial computations using the projected unit credit method. In other countries where Locally Recruited Staff are contracted and where the Local Labor Law provides for staff seniority premiums benefits or gratuities, the Organization has accrued similar provisions.The Organization's net obligation in respect of long-term employee benefits other than pension plans is the amount of future benefits that employees have earned in return for their service in the current and prior periods; that benefit is discounted to determine its present value.The Organization provides a subsidy for postretirement health care benefits to certain retired Internationally Recruited Staff (\"IRS\") and their eligible dependents. IRS become eligible for post-retirement benefits after meeting certain age, legal and service requirements. The postretirement benefit plan, contingent to annual Board of Trustees' approval, is a subsidy which includes cost-sharing features, such as annual deductibles and coinsurance payments. Retired IRS have varying contribution requirements. Costs associated with this benefit are provided for based on actuarial computations using the projected unit credit method.The Organization announced in 2017 adjustments of the eligibility criteria and reductions of the subsidy benefits being offered to eligible IRS.Termination benefits are recognized as an expense when the Organization is committed demonstrably, without realistic possibility of withdrawal, to a formal detailed written notice to either terminate employment before the normal retirement date, or to provide termination benefits as a result of an offer made to encourage voluntary redundancy. Termination benefits for voluntary redundancies are recognized as an expense if the Organization has made an offer of voluntary redundancy, it is probable that the offer will be accepted, and the number of acceptances can be estimated reliably. If benefits are payable more than twelve (12) months after the reporting period, then they are discounted to their present value.End of service benefits for IRS such as costs of return flights and shipment of personal effects are accrued during the duration of the employment contract. Because of the unstable political and security context in countries where the Organization operates, a provision for end of service benefits for international staff has been included.Due to the status as an International Organization and the privileges granted by the Mexican Government to CIMMYT Int., and due to the status of CIMMYT, A.C. as a non-for profit Civil Association (\"Civil Association\"), no provision for income taxes has been made in these combined financial statements.Funder accounts receivable represent amounts recoverable from funders for restricted grants promised or pledged for which grant conditions have already been materially met. Funder accounts receivable are stated at their gross principal amounts, less any allowance for doubtful accounts. The allowance for doubtful accounts is initially created once the recoverability of collectible balances becomes doubtful based on the management's periodic review and analysis of the receivable balances from funders accounts, as well as an assessment of the prevailing and anticipated economic conditions. If subsequently, as part of the periodic analysis of funder receivable accounts, management concludes that a previously created doubtful account becomes uncollectible, the outstanding grant receivable balance is written off against the earlier created allowance for doubtful accounts.Inventories are measured at the lower of cost and net realizable value. The cost of inventories is based on average cost. Inventories are assets held in the form of materials or supplies to be consumed in the Organization's operations or in the rendering of services. They comprise materials and supplies not directly expended at the time of their purchase, such as scientific supplies, automotive parts, building materials, petroleum products, office and other general supplies.The cost of inventories applied to operations is based on the average method, and includes expenditure incurred in acquiring the inventories, and other costs incurred in bringing them to their existing location and condition.Inventories are written down to net realizable value on an item-by-item basis. The allowance for inventory obsolescence is deducted from the respective asset. The amount of write-down of inventories to net realizable value and all losses of inventories are recognized as an expense in the period the write down or loss occurs.Land and buildings are initially recorded at acquisition cost.The Organization considers as equipment items to be capitalized items with an estimated useful life beyond one (1) year and costs in excess of two thousand and five hundred dollars or its equivalent in foreign currency.Equipment is recorded at acquisition cost.Cost includes the purchase price and all other incremental costs incurred in bringing the asset to its present location and into condition for its intended use.Any gain or loss on disposal of an item of property and equipment is recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income.ii. Subsequent expenditure-Subsequent expenditure is capitalized only if it is probable that the future economic benefits associated with the expenditure will flow to the Organization.iii. Depreciation-Depreciation is calculated based on the depreciable amount, which is the cost of an asset, less any residual value.Depreciation is recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful life of each part of an item of property and equipment, since this most closely reflects the expected pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the asset. Land is not depreciated.Property and equipment acquired through restricted grants are depreciated over the shorter of its project life and its useful life. Intangible assets consist of software only.Intangible assets that are acquired by the Organization and have finite useful life are measured at cost less accumulated amortization.ii. Subsequent expenditure-Subsequent expenditure is capitalized only when it increases the future economic benefit as embodied in the specific asset to which it relates.iii. Amortization-Amortization is calculated to write-off the cost of intangible assets over their estimated useful life using the straight-line method and is recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income.Amortization method and rate used for each amortizable software is three (3) years, except for software acquired through restricted Grants which is amortized over the shorter of its project life or its useful life.Amortization methods, useful life and residual values are reviewed at each reporting date and adjusted where appropriate.Prepaid expenses primarily include expenditures related to purchase of services that are received after the date of the combined statement of financial position and in the ordinary course of operations.Represent grant payments received in advance from funders for restricted grants, for which the grant conditions have not yet been met. This category also includes amounts payable to funders when funders require reimbursement of unexpended grant balances.These represent amounts to be paid in the future for goods or services received, regardless of whether billed by the supplier or not.A provision is recognized if, as a result of a past event, the Organization has a present legal or constructive obligation that can be estimated reliably, and it is probable that an outflow of cash or other economic resources will be required to settle the provision. If an outflow is not probable, the item is treated as a contingent liability.Non-derivative financial instruments comprise cash and cash equivalents, restricted cash, accounts receivable and accounts payable.The Organization initially recognizes accounts receivable and accounts payable on the date of origination.Financial assets and liabilities are recognized initially at fair value plus any directly attributable transaction costs. Subsequent to initial recognition, these financial assets and liabilities are measured at amortised cost using the effective interest method.The Organization derecognizes a financial asset when the contractual rights to the cash flows from the asset expire, or when it transfers the right to receive such contractual cash flow through a transaction in which substantially all the risks and rewards of ownership of the financial asset are transferred to a third party.The Organization derecognizes a financial liability when the Organization's contractual obligations are discharged, cancelled or othersiwe expire.Financial assets and liabilities are offset and the net amount presented in the Statement of Financial Position if, and only if, the Organization has a legal offset right and intends either to settle on a net basis or to realize the asset and settle the liability simultaneously.A financial asset is assessed at each reporting date to determine whether there is any objective evidence of impairment. A financial asset is impaired if objective evidence indicates that a loss event has occurred after the initial recognition of the asset, and that the loss event had a negative effect on the reliably estimated future cash flows of that asset.Objective evidence of impairment of financial assets includes debtor's default or delinquency.Organization considers evidence of impairment for receivables at a specific asset level. All individually significant receivables are assessed for specific impairment. All individually significant receivables found not to be specifically impaired are then collectively assessed for any incurred impairment that has not yet been identified. Receivables that are not individually significant are collectively assessed for impairment by grouping together receivables with similar risk characteristics.An impairment loss in respect of a financial asset measured at amortized cost is calculated as the difference between its carrying amount, and the present value of the estimated future cash flows discounted at the asset's original effective interest rate. Losses are recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income and reflected in an allowance account against receivables. Interest on the impaired asset, if any, continues to be recognized through the unwinding of the discount. When a subsequent event causes the amount of impairment loss to decrease, the decrease in impairment loss is reversed through the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income.The carrying amounts of the Organization's non-financial assets, other than inventories, are reviewed at each reporting date to determine whether there is any indication of impairment. If any such indication exists, then the asset's recoverable amount is estimated.The recoverable amount of an asset is the greater of its value in use and its fair value less costs to sell. In assessing value in use, the estimated future cash flows are discounted to their present value using a pre-tax discount rate that reflects current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the asset. For the purpose of impairment testing, assets that cannot be tested individually are grouped together into the smallest group of assets that generates cash inflows from continuing use that are largely independent of the cash inflows of other assets or groups of assets (the \"cashgenerating unit\").An impairment loss is recognized if the carrying amount of an asset or its cash-generating unit exceeds its recoverable amount. Impairment losses are recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income. Impairment losses recognized in respect of cash-generating units are allocated to reduce the carrying amount of the other assets in the unit (group of units) on a pro-rata basis.The Organization recognizes revenue as follows:Income for funder grants is recognized in the same accounting period in which related expenses are recognized.ii. Rendering of services-Income for rendered services is recognized in the accounting period in which the services are rendered.The Lead Center of a CRP is required to include in its statement of activity expenses incurred by subcontracted Centers and the corresponding revenue.Partners Centers must include in their statements of activity, expenses incurred for each CRP and the corresponding revenue.Funders may designate use of the funds they contribute to the CGIAR System in three ways:Window 1 (W1) -portfolio investments: funding allocated to the entire CGIAR portfolio of approved system-wide investments prioritized and allocated by funders collectively through the System Council -supporting the CGIAR as a whole.Window 2 (W2) -program investments: funding allocated by funders individually to any component (CRP, Platform or other initiative) of the system-wide portfolio as prioritized, defined and approved by the funders collectively through the System Council.Window 3 (W3) -project investments: funding allocated by funders individually to projects that are defined by the funders themselves and that are aligned with system-wide investments, but otherwise only use the CGIAR system for its transactional capacity to process funds.The Organization is required to support the CGIAR system entities and governance costs by contributing two percent of its funder income for projects related to the CRP Research portfolio.The Organization receives the W3 contribution net this of two percent CGIAR cost sharing percentage to cover expenses related to CGIAR system entities and governance costs supporting the CGIAR CRP research portfolio.CGIAR IFRS guidelines require Centers to harmonise reporting by recognizing one hundred percent of W3 funder income along with the two percent system costs, instead of reporting a net amount. The Organization will implement this change in 2018.Government grants are initially recognized as deferred income at fair value if there is reasonable assurance that they will be received and that the Organization will comply with the conditions associated with the grant; they are then recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income as income on a systematic basis over the useful life of the asset.Grants that compensate the Organization for expenses incurred are recognized in the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income on a systematic basis in the periods in which the expenses are recognized.Other revenue may consist of the following components:Sale of goods-Sales revenue is recognized when certain conditions have been satisfied:(a) The Organization has transferred to the buyer the significant risk and rewards of ownership of the goods; (b) The Organization does not retain effective control over the goods sold; (c) The amount of revenues can be reliably measured; (d) It is probable that the economic benefits will flow to the Organization; and (e) The costs incurred in respect of the transaction can be measured reliably.If the Organization acts in the capacity of an agent rather than as the principal in a transaction, then the revenue recognized is the net amount of commission made by the Organization.The Organization's finance income and finance cost include interest income, interest expense and foreign exchange effects. Interest income or expense is recognized using the effective interest method.Cash The purpose of the IBP is to support and promote the use of advanced plant breeding technologies and knowledge in order to increase agricultural productivity, enhance food security, and improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers throughout the developing world.The IBP is supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the World Bank (collectively, the \"Supporter Organizations\") and is governed by an independent Board of Trustees.As host agent, the Organization does not take economic title of the goods acquired and disposed of by the IBP.Although the Organization collects the revenue from final funders, all credit risk is borne by the IBP.Liability due to the IBP in the combined Statements of Financial Position represents the resources provided by the Supporter Organizations that are held in the Organization's bank accounts and managed by the Organization as a host agent until the Board of Trustees of the IBP determines their distribution or application.The activity of the IBP is not recorded in the Program accounting records, and therefore such activity is not presented in these combined financial statements; instead, it is accounted for through changes in \"funds in trust\" within the Statement of Financial Position. (Exhibit 5 provides a breakdown of the program expenditures.)The Organization's related parties include its Key Management Personnel and their related parties. During the start-up phase the Organization provided working capital to BISA which was later consolidated into a loan. In 2014 the loan was partly written-off and a partial provision has been created for the entire remaining loan.The parties will continue to address the outstanding amount as BISA activities continue in 2018.(2) The Payroll administration of IRS salaries is outsourced to the Association of International Agricultural Research Centers (AIARC).Details of the Organization's property and equipment and their carrying amount are as follows: The Organization has exposure to the following risks from its use of financial instruments:This note presents information about the Organization's exposure to each of the above risks, the Organization's objectives, policies and processes for measuring and managing risk, and the Organization's management of net assets. Further quantitative disclosures are included throughout these combined financial statements.The Organization is a not-for-profit organization that neither actively engages in the trading of financial assets for speculative purposes nor write options. The most significant financial risks to which the Organization is exposed are described below. Market risk is the risk that changes in market prices, such as foreign exchange rates and interest rates, will affect the Organization's income or the value of its holdings of financial instruments. The objective of market risk management is to manage and control market risk exposures within acceptable parameters.The functional currency of the Organization is the U.S. dollar. However, the Organization is also engaged in foreign currency transactions.With respect to monetary assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies, the Organization's policy is to ensure that its net exposure is kept to an acceptable level by buying or selling foreign currencies at spot rates when necessary to address short-term imbalances.The following significant exchange rates have been applied during the year.Year-end spot rate 2017 2016 $ 19.7354 20.6640 For the periods presented, the Organization did not have any holdings in variable interest rate financial instruments.The Organization executes transactions in different foreign currencies, such as the US Dollar, Canadian Dollar, Australian Dollar, Euro, Indian Rupee, Mexican Peso, among other currencies. In addition, it maintains foreign currency bank balances, mainly in Mexican Peso. The volume and amount of transactions executed in Mexican Peso is considered material as it is related to the location of the Organization's HQ in Mexico.Management has not quantified the potential impact on the Statement of Activities and Other Comprehensive Income and net assets from fluctuations in the relevants exchange rates (sensitivity analysis), but the Organization is reducing its foreign currency exposure by maintaining its foreign currencies balances in relation to the expected operational cash flow in each currency.Credit risk is the risk of financial loss to the Organization if a funder or counterparty to a financial instrument fails to meet its contractual obligations and arises principally from the Organization's receivables from funders and investments and cash equivalents.The Organization's exposure to credit risk is influenced mainly by the individual characteristics of each funder.The cash and cash equivalents are held with banks and financial institution counterparties, which have a minimum global scale credit rating (S&P, Moody's and / or Fitch) of BBB+ for Mexican Institutions and A for International Institutions.The carrying amount of financial assets represents the maximum credit exposure.The maximum exposure to credit risk at the reporting date is shown below: The movement in the allowance for impairment in respect of trade and other receivables during the year was as follows:Balance at 31 December 2016 $ 3,343 Increase in allowance 947Balance at 31 December 2017 $ 4,290At December 31, 2017 and 2016, there was an allowance for doubtful accounts receivable of $2,647 and $1,700, respectively, related to contributions from several funders that have indicated they are not expecting to be able to pay their outstanding balances, mainly due to economic circumstances. Additionally, an allowance of $1,643 related to the BISA loan was recognized for both years.Liquidity risk is the risk that the Organization will encounter difficulty in meeting the obligations associated with its financial liabilities that are settled by delivering cash or another financial asset.The Organization's approach to managing liquidity is to ensure, as far as possible, that it will always have sufficient liquidity to meet its liabilities when due, under both normal and stressed conditions, without incurring unacceptable losses or risking damage to the Organization's reputation.At December 31, 2017 and 2016, the Organization did not have any available lines of credit, and its total current assets exceeded its total current liabilities.The Organization follows the CGIAR's Reserves Guidelines to maintain sufficient net assets for meeting the Organization's operational and strategic needs and to maintain confidence of funders. This is achieved with efficient cash management, constant monitoring of Organization's revenues and long-term investment plans mainly financed by the Organization's operating cash flows.The Organization believes that it has complied with all aspects of contractual agreements, grants and funder restrictions that could have an effect on the combined financial statements.The Organization is involved in a number of minor claims arising in the normal course of business.It is expected that the outcome of these matters will not have significant adverse effects on the Organization's financial position and results of operations.Claims include:I. likely legal, arbitration, and severance costs related to employee separations; II. expected legal costs to resolve dispute with adjacent land owner for residual water drainage onto the Organization's land at one experimental station, and; III. resolution of the Organization's obligations outside Mexico.The Mexican Government undertook audit processes related to the MASAGRO project for fiscal year 2013, for which an audit report was published in February 2014. The Organization has invested considerable time and effort in collaboration with the Mexican Government Auditors to clarify the reported issues. Although the final audit findings for the 2013 audit are pending, CIMMYT Int. has received indications of a resolution in the Organization's favor and therefore no provision has been recorded. 2015 and 2016 (and can also be consulted at the Organization's website).Because FG2 is not recognized as an international accounting standard, the CGIAR System Organization decided that all CGIAR Centers (with the exception of one Center Headquartered in the U.S) and the System Organization would prepare their financial statements in accordance with IFRS (FG2 will no longer be used).Amounts reported in the Organization's combined financial statements in accordance with FG2, differ from amounts reported in accordance with IFRS, mainly due to the following: a) Property and equipment-Under FG2, items of property and equipment, acquired through the use of grants restricted for a certain project were written-off in the year of acquisition; for IFRS purposes, those items of property and equipment are depreciated over the shorter of the project term and the asset's useful life.Under FG2, the Organization recognized a provision for employee termination benefits; for IFRS purposes, termination benefits are recognized at the earlier of when the Organization can no longer withdraw an offer of those benefits and when it recognizes any related restructuring costs.Additionally, under FG2, interest cost associated with post-employment benefits was recognized within total expenses; and for IFRS purposes, is recognized as a finance cost.Adjustments in property and equipment affected grant revenue under IFRS, while monetary grants for the acquisition of research equipment are recognized under the deferred income method: depreciation of the asset is recognized over the same period that the corresponding revenue is recognized. For the year ended 31 December, 2017 (In thousands of US dollars)  For the years ended December 31, 2017 and 2016 (In thousands of U.S. Dollars) ","tokenCount":"5966"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e7ad19319c185d883d0397813e5b6c6b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/17a506bb-de73-41f5-931a-89bc11757d41/retrieve","id":"-311906064"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6a0cff0a-1190-4cfc-a9b0-4b7f947ccc26","pagecount":"2","content":"Fig. 1 The e ect of large (left), medium (middle) and small (right) size roots on the number of roots that survive after storing ten roots for 7 months under Triple S. (credit M. Cherinet)The length of the dry season varies across the agro-ecologies of Ethiopia where orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) is being promoted. Tigray region is unimodal with a nine-month dry season; whereas Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) is bimodal with a three to six-month dry season. There are also differences in farming systems within Ethiopia underlining the importance of validating the technology with farmers before recommending Triple S for wider use.We would like to test, validate and develop context specific protocols for Triple S for the different lengths of dry seasons in Ethiopia.Participatory validation of the Triple S protocol has been completed in two woredas (districts) of Tigray region (Enderta and Hawzen) and four woredas of SNNPR (Hawassa Zuria, Mirab Abaya, Humbo and Kedida Gamela).We are working with model farmers, the regional Agricultural Research Institutes and the offices of the woreda Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resource Department (BoANRD) in Tigray and SNNPR. The results from the study are being taken up and implemented by other projects which are promoting OFSP in Ethiopia.In SNNPR where there is a three to six-month dry period; a participatory evaluation of the original Triple S protocol and two traditional vine conservation methods were conducted under farmer conditions.In Tigray region where the dry period is nine months, an on station trial was first conducted to test the effect of root sizes and de-sprouting on the survival rate of the OFSP variety \"Kulfo\" over different lengths of storage. Then the results from the on-station experiment were validated with farmers. However, there was no local conservation method in Tigray to compare with Triple S so farmers evaluated the use of large, medium and small roots for sprouting and quantity of vines produced (Fig. 1).We started with discussions with the woreda BoANRD experts, followed by selection of farmers, sensitization meetings with farmers on the loss of planting material during the dry season and formation of farmer research groups (FRGs) (Fig. 2). One volunteer farmer from each FRG hosted the validation trial. What have we learned so far?• In SNNPR, 87% of roots sprouted successfully after 3-5 months of storage in Triple S. In comparison, all the roots buried in wet soil and the vines planted under shade plants such as ensete, the dominant traditional method, did not survive the dry period (Fig. 3). • The Triple S method also showed the lowest weevil infestation compared to the two traditional methods of conservation practiced in SNNPR (Fig. 3). • Large-sized roots (at least 250 grams) are more effective for Triple S in areas with a nine-month dry period i.e. Tigray. However, large roots require a larger container which should be taken into consideration when planning Triple S. • To minimize weevil infestation, in SNNPR it is recommended to use roots for Triple S storage that are planted in the rainy months (June) and harvested just at the end of the rainy season (end of October).    ","tokenCount":"519"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"127605ab977663d2fead2e99070d1d4c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d00593d5-a8b3-4e34-b55a-46ea536d873c/retrieve","id":"-952653153"},"keywords":["Oryza sativa","breeding program","crop modelling","traditional and modern genotypes Taxonomy Agriculture, Biological Sciences"],"sieverID":"b92bab8a-ddf3-46b0-8413-e6d04e234e17","pagecount":"51","content":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications.Dear Editor, Please find submitted our paper entitled \"Upland rice breeding led to increased drought sensitivity in Brazil\". In this study we analyze the upland rice breeding program strategy from 1980 to 2013. Based on crop modelling and historical observed farmer yields data set we showed that the strategy adopted by the upland rice breeding program led the modern cultivars to be less resilient to drought stress. We also discussed the recent improvements done in the upland rice breeding program strategy for minimizing the drought sensitivity of modern cultivars as well as actions that can further improve the current upland rice breeding program.We look forward to hearing from you in due course.Yours sincerely, Alexandre Bryan Heinemann Ecophysiologist Researcher at Embrapa Arroz e Feijão Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Embrapa) Santo Antônio de Goiás/GO alexandre.heinemann@embrapa.br +55(62) 3533-2153 | Fax: (62) 3533-2100 www.embrapa.br/arroz-e-feijaoRice production in Brazil is divided in two systems: lowland rice (LR) and upland rice (UR). Although 88.2% of total Brazilian rice production comes from LR cultivation in southern Brazil (Embrapa Arroz e Feijão, 2017), UR plays an important social and economic role in central Brazil. The UR crop system is located in the Brazilian savannas (states of Mato Grosso, Rondônia, Tocantins and Goiás) -the main upland rice growing area of Brazil and the largest rainfed rice growing area in Latin America. UR cultivation in central Brazil is critical to the food security of a large proportion of the farming and non-farming population (Martínez et al., 2014;Oliveira Neto, 2015). Moreover, the strong dependence on rice supply from the south is a concern due to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (Cunha et al., 2001;Cirino et al., 2015), and logistical challenges to supply rice to the tropical regions (central-west, north and northeast of Brazil). Additionally, UR is a crop rotation option to the more common soybean-maize system in the savannah region (Heinemann et al., 2017).In spite of the importance of the UR crop system, its cropped area has reduced by 70 % in the last two decades (see Table S1). During this period, UR has been replaced by lower risk, higher revenue crops (i.e. soybean, maize, cotton) due to low grain yields, quality and high agro-climatic risk (Heinemann et al., 2017;Martínez et al., 2014;Pinheiro et al., 2006). The high levels of agro-climatic risk may be related to the UR breeding program strategy, which since the 1980s adopted direct grain yield selection and wide adaptation primarily in the most favorable (i.e. stress-free) areas (Embrapa, 1981;Heinemann et al., 2015), and only recently incorporated a drought tolerance breeding program (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2018). Targeted selection toward the most favorable environments (i.e. unstressed conditions) has been shown to be inefficient when the climatic conditions differ significantly from optimal (Chapman et al., 2003;Chenu et al., 2009;Tardieu and Hammer, 2012). Moreover, the complexity of Genotype-by-Environment interactions in an area such as the Brazilian savannah can hinder plant breeding progress for: (i) wide adaptation across the target area; and (ii) adaptation to specific types of environments within the target area (Chenu et al., 2011;Dreccer et al., 2007;Löffler et al., 2005).Here, we hypothesize that the focus on direct grain selection for wide adaptation to the undivided target area has led a systematic reduction in the capacity of MCs to maintain yields under drought stress. To this aim, we parametrized and evaluated the ORYZAv3 rice crop model for three cultivars that represent the three phases of the UR breeding program in the period 1986-2013 described by Breseghello et al. (2011Breseghello et al. ( ): 1980s (1986Breseghello et al. ( -1992Breseghello et al. ( ), 1990s (1993Breseghello et al. ( -2002Breseghello et al. ( ), and 2000s (2003Breseghello et al. ( -2013) ) and we also analyzed historical observed yield (farmer yields) for the same period. Cultivars included in the analysis are Douradão, a landrace representative of varieties grown in 1980s; and two MCs: BRS Primavera, a cultivar released in 1990s which reached up to 45 % growing area by the end of 1990s (Ferreira et al., 2017;Heinemann et al., 2015) and BRSMG Curinga, a cultivar released in 2000s representative of genotypes in the period 2003-2013. We conducted simulations using ORYZAv3 for the period 1980-2013 using observed weather station data for four states in the Brazilian savannah (Goiás, Rondônia, Mato Grosso and Tocantins), and estimate the yield sensitivity to drought by comparing waterlimited, well-watered and historical observed yield (farmer yields). Finally, we discuss our findings in light of the current UR breeding program strategy and suggest potential avenues for the program to produce cultivars that are adapted to specific drought environments within the UR region.The study region is located in central Brazil between 7 to 20 °S and 65 to 45 °W (Fig. 1).The region encompasses 90% of the upland rice production in Brazil (837,687 ton in 2017, IBGE -http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/), and represents a tropical savannah climate with a mono-modal rainfall pattern. Total precipitation ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 mm per year.Our analyses intend to investigate whether the selection practices in the UR breeding program have led to greater drought sensitivity through time, and specifically across three phases of breeding: 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. Therefore, we selected three cultivars grown in Brazil in the period 1986-2013, according to the following criteria: i) importance in one of the phases (1980s, 1990s and 2000s) of the UR breeding program during the period of 1983-2013 (Breseghello et al., 2011).ii) breeding program importance; that is, used as parental lines and/or as check varieties for new lines; andiii) varieties containing notable differences in their eco-physiological response to drought stress, arising from distinct adaptive mechanisms (e.g. variations in flowering time, biomass partitioning and water-use efficiency traits);The three selected varieties were Douradão, a landrace representative of the period 1986-1992 (1980s); BRS Primavera (Primavera, hereafter), an improved cultivar representative of the period 1993-2002 (1990s); and BRSMG Curinga (Curinga, hereafter), an improved cultivar representative of the period 2003-2013 (2000s).Here, Douradão was considered as traditional cultivar (landrace) and Curinga and Primavera as modern cultivars (MCs). Douradão is a short-cycle (~95 days) old-type cultivar made available commercially in 1979, has low grain quality (longer grain but thicker than the preferred by consumers at present) and is able to withstand adverse conditions of water deficit mainly due to its low number of leaves in the main stem (lower biomass production) and short cycle (Heinemann et al., 2009(Heinemann et al., , 2011(Heinemann et al., , 2017)). Primavera was released in 1997 using germplasm introduced from CIAT (International Center for Tropical Agriculture). It is a semi-early maturing cultivar (~100 d), considered the first upland rice cultivar combining high yield and grain quality value (long-slender grain), taking over formerly released varieties. Primavera was sown in about 45% of the upland rice region late 1990s and early 2000s (Heinemann et al., 2009). Curinga is a modern type cultivar released in 2004 by Embrapa Rice and Beans and partners using genotypes (indica x japonica background) introduced from CIAT. It has medium to long cycle (~115 d from emergence to physiological maturity), moderate resistance to the main diseases and high grain quality. Among the three cultivars, Curinga has the highest potential yield under favorable conditions (Heinemann et al., 2017).Field experiments were conducted for the purpose of model parameterization (Sect. Daily weather data from fifty-six sites was gathered from a previous study (Fig. 1) (Heinemann et al., 2015). This dataset consists of daily observations, from 1986 to 2013, originally gathered from the Brazilian Meteorological Institute (INMET, http://www.inmet.gov.br), and thoroughly checked and corrected for gaps and errors (see Heinemann et al. 2015 for further details). Using the locations of the weather stations, the region was divided in sub-regions by Thiessen (or Dirichlet) polygons to be able to carry out spatially-explicit simulations (Heinemann et al., 2002(Heinemann et al., , 2015)). For each sub-region, the four most prevalent agricultural soils classes (totaling 93% of all the soils in the region), i.e. Oxisols (~45%), Ultisols (~18%), Entisols (~15%), Plinthosols (~15%), were then selected from a Brazilian soil database (Benedetti et al., 2008; available at http://www.esalq.usp.br/gerd/BrazilSoilDB_08VI05.xls, see Fig. 1 for soil classes distribution). These data were then used to derive soil hydrological properties following the same procedure applied by Heinemann et al. (2015). Supplementary Table S3 describes physical and hydrological soil properties.Upland rice historical observed farmer yield data were obtained from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE -http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/). This survey dataset (farm yield, hereafter) is collected from a network of cooperatives and farms, then organized by IBGE by county and represents all cultivars cropped in a given region.However, we note that the cultivars Douradão, Primavera and Curinga were widely grown during the time they represent in this study (1980s, 1990s and 2000s, see Section 2.2 -Selected germplasm).We use these data in order to provide a benchmark comparison with simulated yields and their sensitivity to drought, with the consideration that much of the yield progress at farm level is due to the adoption of new cultivars released by the UR breeding program. For the states of Mato Grosso, Rondônia and Goiás, the UR historical observed farm yield is available from 1986 to 2013, whereas for Tocantins it is available from 1990 to 2013.In this study, we have done the analyses of drought impact (drought risk) by state.According to MAPA (Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Cattle and Supplying; http://www.agricultura.gov.br/guia-de-servicos/registro-nacional-de-cultivares-rnc), after 1995, the upland rice breeding program must specify the state(s) for which a new cultivar released is adapted to (Primavera and Curinga are adapted to the four states analyzed here). Based on that, we aggregated the farm yield (observed farmer yield) time series as well as the simulated yield (described in Sect 2.7) by year and state.In this study, we applied the ORYZAv3 crop model (Bouman et al., 2001) to assess cultivar response to drought stress conditions in Brazil. ORYZAv3 is a process-based rice simulation model developed for a wide variety of applications in rice research (Bouman and van Laar, 2006;Li et al., 2013). The model predicts growth and yield as influenced by local environmental conditions, agronomic practices, and cultivar traits. Its strong ability to quantify the influence of soil water on rice growth and yield (Bouman and van Laar, 2006;Feng et al., 2007) allows to evaluate the response of rice cultivars under drought stress (Li et al., 2013). We simulated the water dynamics using the 'PADDY' soil water balance module. This is a one-dimensional multi-layer (up to 10) model that simulates soil water balance for a variety of growing conditions (e.g. puddled or nonpuddled), with free or impeded drainage at a given depth in the soil profile. The 'PADDY' module is described in detail by Boling et al. (2007). The same study demonstrated that the model is suitable for rainfed conditions. ORYZAv3 has been used to quantify rice yield gaps at global, national or regional scales (Boling et al., 2010;Espe et al., 2016;Laborte et al., 2012), to provide a cost-effective screening method for drought-tolerance (Li et al., 2013) and for determining drought-stress profiles for upland rice in Brazil under current (Heinemann et al., 2015) and future climates (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2018).Model parameterization is here referred to as the process of deriving cultivar-specific coefficients using field data. In this study, we parameterized the ORYZAv3 model for cultivars Douradão and Curinga, and obtained parameters for Primavera from a previous study (Heinemann et al., 2015). For consistency, the parameterization process of Douradão and Curinga followed the same method employed by Heinemann et al. (2015) for Primavera. The method consists in first calculating crop development rates using the six experiments for phenology calibration (see PHE in Table 1). Next, crop growth genotype-specific parameters, i.e. specific leaf area; light extinction coefficient; assimilate partition coefficients between organs; leaf senescence coefficient; remobilization rates of carbohydrates to storage from reserve pools of stem, root, and leaf;and drought sensitivity, are derived using a genetic algorithm (see Li et al., 2013). The iterative genetic algorithm used the five experiments with growth measurements (see GRO in Table 1) and was run until the differences between field measurements and simulated outputs were minimized in a given number of iterations (10,000). The process was stopped either when the maximum number of iterations was reached, or when the differences between the measured (LAI, leaf, stem and panicle biomass) and simulated values were within the range of measurement deviations.Model evaluation focused on assessing the differences between measurements and simulations for the variables measured in the EVAL dataset (flowering and physiological maturity dates, and end-of-season yield; Table 1). The root mean squared error (RMSE), mean bias and Pearson correlation were used as measures of model skill.Simulations were performed for a range of sowing dates (8 dates between 1 st Nov and 10 th Jan), for each soil class (4), and weather station region (56) for the period 1986-2013, using recommended agronomic practices. Simulations were initiated in February, regardless of sowing date, to allow for the establishment of a realistic soil water profile on the basis of rainfall patterns occurring before sowing. Simulations were performed for yield potential (Y ns , i.e., well-watered) and for water-limited yield (Y wl , i.e. rainfed), but without nutrient, pest or disease limitations. The latter is also referred to as attainable yield (Lobell et al., 2009). For Y ns simulation, we used automated irrigation supply when the moisture content in the top 30 cm of soil was 20 % below the field capacity. These simulated scenarios represented the effects of the weather variations in the study region across time (sowing dates x years) and space (soils x locations) for each yield level (waterlimited and not-limited).Using the simulation results, we quantified drought impacts for the three cultivars analyzed (Curinga, Primavera and Douradão). The method described by Heinemann et al. (2016), whereby the relative drought impact or relative drought risk (RDI, %) is computed as the relative difference between simulated attainable yield (Y wl ) and simulated yield with no water limitation (Y ns ) (Eq. 1) was used. Similarly, the drought impact (DI, kg ha -1 ) was computed as the arithmetic difference between Y ns and Y wl (Eq. 2). Both Y ns and Y wl are computed as the average yield in a given period of interest (e.g. 1986-2013) for a given site.[Eq. 1]where i is cultivar RDI i represents the drought risk across time within geographical regions when cultivar i is cultivated in a water-limited environment. DI i can be defined as the theoretical yield losses caused by water-deficiencies from the interaction between site-specific environmental variables (e.g. soil types, sowing dates, and weather shifts across the years) and growing varieties.The ORYZAv3 crop model showed good performance for predicting UR phenology. The model predicted flowering, and physiological maturity dates of the PHE (phenology calibration) dataset accurately (Supplementary Fig. S1A-B) considering all cultivars. The physiological maturity date showed the largest RMSE (3.93 days, Supplementary Fig. S1B). For the EVAL dataset (Supplementary Fig. S1D, E), the RMSE values for flowering and physiological maturity date were 2.86 and 2.45 days, respectively. Yield evaluation based on the EVAL dataset showed low values of RMSE and bias (407 and -154 kg ha -1 , respectively, Supplementary Fig. S1F). ORYZAv3 also captured well the inter-annual variability of yield for the three cultivars from 2004 to 2012 (Fig. 2). Yield overestimation was observed for some years, probably due to blast disease incidence stronger in these years in the METs (multi-environment trials).Model parameters captured well the cultivar differences for growth and phenology (Supplementary Table S5 and S6). For instance, the earliness of cultivars Douradão and Primavera was captured by the higher development rate in the vegetative period (DVRJ = 0.001019 and 0.001031 (°Cd -1 ), Supplementary Information Table S5). Similarly, there is a faster development rate for Douradão during the reproductive period (DVRP = 0.000732 (°Cd -1 ), Supplementary Information Table S5). Curinga, the most modern cultivar of the three, has the slowest development for the vegetative period (DVRJ = 0.000690 (°Cd -1 ), Supplementary Information Table S5), and the highest for the reproductive period (DVRP = 0.002470 °Cd -1 , Supplementary Information Table S5).The relative leaf area growth rate (RGRL; °Cd −1 ), which represents the leaf development in the exponential phase (until LAI = 1) was higher for the MCs (Supplementary Table S5). As RGLR is empirically derived from field experiments with no nitrogen limitation, MCs show better nitrogen use efficiency at the beginning of growth. The fraction of total dry matter allocated to shoots (FSH) was higher for the MCs during the vegetative period (DVS = 0.43, Table S6), showing the capability of MCs to have higher biomass accumulation. On the other hand, Douradão has higher fraction biomass partitioned to roots, which is represented as 1-FSH.We assessed the differences in drought impact (DI) across cultivars using the difference between Y ns (simulated yield with no water limitation) and Y wl (simulated yield with water limitation, i.e. rainfed) as described in Sect. 2.8. In general, we found substantial variation in drought impact across the cultivars. The relative (absolute) drought impact varied between 24 % (894 kg ha -1 ) and 33 % (1,542 kg ha -1 ) (Fig. 3). Similarly, the distance between probability of exceedance curves for well-watered (Y ns ) and water-limited (Y wl ) conditions varies widely across cultivars and states (Fig. 4). Results show that the older cultivar, Douradão, has the lowest absolute and relative drought impact (DI=894 kg ha -1 , RDI=24%, on average across the entire study region), followed by the modern cultivars (MCs), Primavera (DI=1,375 kg ha -1 , RDI=29 %) and Curinga (DI=1,542 kg ha -1 , RDI=33%) (Fig. 3). Douradão showed the lowest distance between the probability of exceedance curves for irrigated (i.e., simulated yields with no water limitation, Y ns ) and rainfed (i.e., simulated attainable yield, Y wl ) conditions (Fig. 4, full and dashed green lines, left panels), indicating this landrace is less affected by drought events in the study region.MCs (Primavera and Curinga), on the other hand, showed the highest distance between the probability of exceedance curves for irrigated (Y ns ) and rainfed (Y wl ) conditions (Fig. 4, full and dashed yellow and red lines, middle and right panels), therefore indicating that MCs are more affected by drought events in the UR target area. This effect is most marked for Curinga, which is the most recent release of the three varieties analyzed here.Figure 5A shows the spatial distribution of relative drought impact (RDI, in percentage) for the three cultivars. For Douradão, drought impact is generally low across the study region, except for specific pockets in the south of Tocantins, north-eastern Goiás, and eastern Mato Grosso. By contrast, for both MCs (Primavera and Curinga), drought impact is higher, with major areas in southern Tocantins, northern Goiás, and south-western Mato Grosso with RDI values above 45 % yield reduction due to drought.Since as stated earlier (Sect. 2.2), these three cultivars represent the UR germplasm released by the breeding program and used by farmers in the last three decades (1980s, 1990s and 2000s), the differences between the three cultivars described above reflect changes in drought impact across time. Fig. 5B illustrates the changes in RDI across decades; these are computed as differences between RDI between cultivars. The difference between the RDI of Primavera and Douradão reflects the change in drought impact between 1980s and 1990s; the difference between Curinga and Primavera reflects the change between 1990s and 2000s; finally, the difference between Curinga and Douradão illustrates the total change in drought impact (i.e. between 1980s and 2000s).The overall change 1980s-2000s (Fig. 5B) varies between 2.3 % to 24.6 % (mean 12 %), with the majority of the UR growing area showing changes between 10-20 %, and only south-western Mato Grosso showing changes greater than 20 %. Changes in drought impact are larger between 1980s and 1990s (mean 30 %) compared to the changes between 1990s and 2000s (mean 18 %).A different way of analyzing the need to address drought tolerance in the breeding program is by comparing farmer yield and water-limited simulated yield (Y wl ) or its ratio (farmer yield/Y wl ). The closer the farmer yield is to Y wl , the more difficult it would be to increase on-farm yield without explicitly addressing cultivar sensitivity to drought.Farmer yield is generally below both, simulated Y ns (well watered) and Y wl (water limitation) (Fig. 6). In all four states, historical observed farm yield increased through time (Fig. 6, black squares), likely reflecting adoption of both new cultivars and better management practices. On the other hand, Y wl tended to either stay relatively constant or to decrease slightly. In all states and decades of breeding, therefore, the average on-farm yield became closer to Y wl with time (Table 2 and Fig. 6). Notably, for the states of Rondônia and Mato Grosso, characterized by having UR farmers with intermediate level of technology (i.e. infrastructure suitable for mechanical cultivation, receptive to new technologies and grow rice at commercial scales), the observed yield in 2013 is almost as high as Y wl (Fig. 6, Table 2). Conversely, the states of Goiás and Tocantins have the greatest susceptibility to drought (Table 2) but are the furthest away from reaching Y wl .We observed that an average increase of 12 % in drought impact has occurred between 1980s and 2000s (Fig. 5A). Plotting simulated well-watered yield (Y nl ) and drought impact as a scatter plot reveals the drought sensitivity (i.e. yield reduction from drought per unit of well-watered yield) of the different breeding phases (see Fig. 7). Importantly, while the largest increase in drought impact occurred from 1980s to 1990s (Fig. 5B), the largest increase in drought sensitivity occurred from 1990s to 2000s (Fig. 7).The cultivars, landrace (Douradão) and MCs (Primavera and Curinga), show differences in the development rates (Supplementary Table S5), with Douradão being the shortest and Curinga the longest cycle. Heinemann et al. (2009) note that panicle differentiation (PD) were observed at full development of leaf 10 for Curinga (at 8-9 for Primavera, and at 7-8 for Douradão). The same study showed that the main stem final leaf number ranged from 12 to 13 for Curinga (11-12 Primavera; 9-10 Douradão) (Heinemann et al., 2009).According to Liu et al. (2013), who studied changes in rice cultivars in three decades (1981 to 2009) in China, one of the main changes involved increases in the actual thermal time requirements to complete the growing period as a result of reduced development rates and photoperiod sensitivity and extended grain filling period, to maintain and increase yield and to compensate the negative impact of warming on the length of the growing period. Here, we found changes in cultivar characteristics related to phenology similar to those of Liu et al. (2013), and, while we did not analyze global warming, it is clear that the decision of the breeding program to perform direct selection on potential yield as well as to fix flowering time to around 80 days to minimize the photoperiod sensitivity (Breseghello et al., 2011) have led to such changes.The three cultivars also differ in the transpiration process. The MCs, based on osmotic adjustment, are not able to maintain the leaf turgor in the reproductive phase supporting stomatal conductance under lower leaf water status (Heinemann et al., 2011). These cultivars showed a lower average fraction of total transpirable soil water (FTTSW) that can be depleted from the root zone before reduction in transpiration occurs. Consequently, they have higher effective use of water, the major engine for agronomic or genetic enhancement of crop production (Blum, 2009), and are better adapted to express their potential yield in the most favorable areas considering low intensity occurrence of water deficit (Heinemann & Sentelhas, 2011;Heinemann et al., 2011). On the other hand, the landrace, Douradão, has greater stomatal closure under drought at the cost of lower potential production. Compared to the MCs, this cultivar has a higher FTTSW that can be depleted from the root zone before reduction in transpiration occurs (Heinemann et al., 2011). Since the response of Douradão is also related to low yield reduction under drought, the higher FTTSW that can be depleted from the root zone before reduction in transpiration occurs in this cultivar can be seen as a \"cautious\" response to protect the soil water reserve, which increases WUE or transpiration efficiency at the crop scale (Kato et al., 2008;Sinclair et al., 2007).Additionally, according to our results, MCs have higher ability to partition more biomass to the shoot than the landrace (FSH, Supplementary Table S6). Consequently, in wellwatered situations, they have higher biomass accumulation and yield. Conversely, the landrace has higher ability to partition more biomass to the root, and, as already described above, higher stomatal closure. This result is consistent with field observations, in which Douradão was found to withstand water deficit conditions, showing higher yields than modern cultivars in environments with moderate to severe water deficit (Heinemann et al., 2017). In general, therefore, previous studies indicate that drought adaptation traits such as greater root length density, shorter cycle, less stomatal sensitivity to drought for higher water use efficiency have been systematically bred out of the UR material in the period 1980-2013.The implications of these changes are crucial for the performance of cultivars in farmers' fields, where water stress situations can be observed frequently (see Heinemann et al., 2015). For instance, longer growing cycles are helpful for biomass accumulation in both stem and grain, but lead to more risk of being exposed to reproductive and terminal drought stress, which is prevalent across central Brazil, and especially in the states of Goiás and Tocantins (see Heinemann et al., 2015, for drought stress characterization).Similarly, under severe water stress, previous studies have shown that Douradão's ability to withstand drought is due to a greater root density in all soil layers, except in the initial layer (0-20 cm) (Guimarães et al., 2017).It is well known that modern plant breeding has been more successful in favorable growing conditions than in unfavorable conditions (Araus et al., 2002;Byerlee & Husain, 1993;Hemamalini et al., 2000). The adopted UR breeding strategy, direct grain selection and wide adaptation is cost-effective and efficient, with mean yearly genetic gains of 45.0 kg ha -1 (1.44 %) from 2002 to 2009 in the undivided UR target region (Breseghello et al., 2011, also see on-farm yield increases in Fig. 6). Nevertheless, optimal conditions in the UR growing region represent only 19% of total UR target area, with the remaining 81 % experiencing either terminal, reproductive, or joint terminal-reproductive drought stress (Heinemann et al., 2015). Therefore, the changes in drought impact and sensitivity reported here are a direct result of the breeding strategy during the period 1980-2013 (but see Sect. 4.3.1). In such a strategy, the screening of the early generation (nursery) is done in a single site, Santo Antônio de Goiás, GO, latitude: -16.47; longitude: -49.28, under stress-free conditions. Nevertheless, according to Heinemann et al. (2008Heinemann et al. ( , 2015)), the nursery site (Santo Antônio de Goiás, GO, latitude: -16.47; longitude: -49.28) is classified as a highly favorable environment for UR growing where stress-free conditions are predominant. This implies that new crop varieties are exposed to abiotic stresses only at later breeding stages, when genotypes are fewer and genetic variation lower.Additionally, testing sites for 'multi-environment trials' (METs) are not selected on the basis of environmental characterization, and when drought is prevalent in trials, these are generally discarded. As demonstrated here, these selection practices indeed increase the risk of developing genotypes specialized for highly favorable areas that do not have enough plasticity and hence do not respond well under stressed conditions.The increase in drought impact and sensitivity has several implications for farmers and more broadly for the economy of the UR growing region, as follows,  Farmer yield has been getting closer to water-stressed yields, even if potential yields have been increasing. This means that well-watered (Y nl ) and water-stressed yields (Y wl ) have been decoupling. If such decoupling continues, further increases in on-farm yields from the adoption of newly released varieties will not be possible. This implies that further gains via use of more fertilizer, use of machinery, or greater adoption of high yielding cultivars (such as Curinga), may only result in marginal increases in onfarm yield. Therefore, if increases in UR production in Brazil are to be realized, especially in the face of continuously declining growing areas (Heinemann et al., 2017;Martínez et al. 2014;Pinheiro et al., 2006) and climate change-induced yield reductions (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2018), the UR breeding program should seek to develop new cultivars with high potential yield that maintain their productivity under drought. Because breeding targets potential yield and wide adaptation to the undivided target region, the effectiveness of breeding gains differs across states due to their differing environmental conditions (Goiás and Tocantins being more water-limited than Mato Grosso and Rondônia). This means that, in addition to the possible decoupling described above, farmers in states where the climate is less favorable realize a smaller portion of the increases in potential yields. This can be seen in Fig. 6, in which onfarm yield progress for Mato Grosso and Rondônia is greater than for Goiás and Tocantins. The lack of drought adaptation mechanisms in modern cultivars increases cropping risk for farmers, leading to major shifts in crop cultivation. UR played a very important role in the expansion of the agricultural frontier in central Brazil, from the 1970s to 1990s, with a peak of 5 million hectares cropped in 1987 (Martínez et al., 2014). Currently, due to the low profit margins and the sensitivity of UR yield and quality to rainfall distribution, it is not a major component of the central Brazil agricultural production area anymore, being replaced by soybeans, maize and cotton. This trend may increase if drought becomes more prevalent due to climate change (see Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2018), resulting in further decreases in rice production, and more dependence on rice production from southern Brazil.For yield gains to be realized in the UR production region, adjustments in the breeding strategy are required. The following sections discuss some already existing and future strategies for improving the UR breeding program.As stated above, improvements have already been taking place in the UR breeding program. These include adjustments to the conventional breeding pipeline (Sect. 4.4.1), the creation of a drought-tolerance breeding program (Sect. 4.4.2) and the use of marker-assisted selection (Sect. 4.4.3). The three strategies are described below.The current UR breeding program strategy was adopted by Embrapa after 2002 and has focused on population improvement based on two main breeding methods: modified pedigree and recurrent selection. Through conventional breeding, the strategy aims to enhance the genetic stability and to explore the genotype by environment interactions through adaptability. The fourth generation genotypes, F2:4 or S0:2, are screened in five locations (METs). This early evaluation is a modification of the pedigree method with remarkable results (Martínez et al., 2014). This implies exposing the progenies to a range of environments. The best progenies, based on the joint analysis of all METs results are selected for single plant selection (modified pedigree) or recombination (recurrent selection). The same concept is applied in generation F6 to F10 (pedigree method). The F10 elite lines are tested around 40 sowing dates per year (MTEs -some locations have 2-3 sowing dates) spread out in the UR target region. Based on that, the UR breeding program is expected to select high yielding elite lines with capacity to respond favorably to environmental changes and with highly predictable performance in the UR target region (Colombari Filho et al., 2013). The current breeding strategy resulted in a highyielding cultivar with a medium tolerance under stressful conditions, BRS Esmeralda, released in 2013 (Castro et al., 2014). While our study only covered the period 1980-2013, adoption of BRS Esmeralda after its release is substantial (adoption area for season 2015/2016 estimated at 93,500 ha; ca. ~30% of total UR production area) http://bs.sede.embrapa.br/2016/index.html). Future studies could analyse the sensitivity of BRS Esmeralda to drought with the methods we used here to determine if the post-2002 breeding strategy is indeed reversing the 1980-2000 trend of greater drought impact and sensitivity.In 2004, the UR breeding program started a specific program for drought tolerance (with conventional breeding techniques and recurrent selection). While no commercial genotypes have been released yet, it is expected that drought tailoring will help addressing some of the concerns discussed in Sect. 4.2. The improvement of drought stress tolerance is done by exploiting crosses using germplasm collections of broad genetic diversity, sometimes expanding to wild species as well through population breeding using the recurrent selection breeding method. This program is conducted in a drought prone located at Porangatu, GO (latitude: -13.88, longitude: -50.05) where post-rainy season cold stress is not a limitation for growing rice (Martinez et al., 2014). Sowing is done at the end of April/May, during the dry season, with irrigation supply for the plants. The experiments are irrigated only up to 45 days after emergence, after which water deficit is imposed up to harvest (Guimarães et al., 2015). The water stress applied is severe, generally leading to yield reductions greater than 50 %. The first drought-tailored commercial varieties are expected be available by 2020.Markers significantly associated with traits of interest (grain number, grain filling, panicle elongation, root characteristics (architecture, diameter, length, volume and projected area)) are under development in order to speed up and facilitate the breeding program for drought tolerance. In the context of population breeding, marker-assisted recurrent selection. (MARS) consists of improving the mean population value through successive cycles of recombination of genotypes selected via MAS.While a number of breeding strategies are already in place to address concerns of increasing drought sensitivity, further improvements are possible through targeting breeding for specific environments (Sect. 4.4.1), taking into account drought stress profiles and environmental co-variables in statistical analyses for genotype selection (Sect. 4.4.2), and adjusting the time of planting for screening trials in the drought tolerance program (Sect. 4.4.3). These strategies are discussed below.For a breeding program to be a successful it must have clear targets and priorities. In this study, we demonstrated that the UR breeding program strategy adopted in 1980s led to developing genotypes adapted to highly suitable areas (mostly predominant in the Mato Grosso and Rondônia states). Selecting UR genotypes with wide adaptation for an extensive (from 7 to 20 °S and from 65 to 45 °W) and heterogeneous in terms of environment (climatic and soil) and socio-economics (farms technology levels) target region is a difficult task (Borges et al., 2012;Breseghello et al., 2011;Reginato Neto et al., 2013). Based on a study of stability and adaptability of Brazilian UR elite lines (from 27 years of METs, Colombari Filho et al. 2013), showed that crossover interaction among sites was higher than among years, which makes the selection of cultivars with wide adaptation in an undivided UR target region complex. We also know that implementing an environment-specific germplasm selection strategy is not economically feasible, since UR is not as high profit a crop as soybean and maize; there are only a few seed companies interested in replicating seeds and they prioritize cultivars with broad adaptation with more marketing options as opposed to cultivars adapted to specific environments (Breseghello et al., 2011). In addition, the UR breeding programs are basically conducted by public institutions which depend of governmental budgets and resources required for separate efforts to develop new varieties need to be appropriately justified (Fischer et al., 2012). However, based on the arguments showed in this study, a differentiated strategy that isolates drought stress profiles is recommended, since this would allow to control for GxE interactions (Heinemann et al., 2015(Heinemann et al., , 2016)). The best strategy would be to divide the UR target region in two environments: a) specific adaptation to stress-free conditions (i.e. selection for yield potential) which covers highly suitable areas in the Mato Grosso and Rondônia states; and b) wide adaptation to drought, or selection for yield under drought, weighted by the probability of different drought profile conditions, mainly for the Goiás and Tocantins states. This is especially important since it has been projected that drought will continue to be an important limiting factor for UR under future climate (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2018).The modified breeding strategy (explained in Sect. 4.3.1) results in high-yielding cultivars with an intermediate tolerance under stressful conditions (BRS Esmeralda, Castro et al., 2014), and therefore still leaves risks to farmers that adopt such varieties. It enhances wide adaptation and has led to improved genotypic stability, but selection weights equally all stresses, and there is no consideration of environmental co-variables (e.g. weather, soil water contents) in the statistical analysis. Due to the diversity of stresses found in the UR target region (Heinemann et al., 2015), it is suggested that breeders consider the drought stresses in the 'multi-environment trials' (METs), and co-variables in their analyses. This will not only allow performing selections for more specific drought situations, but also tracking yield gains under different conditions more effectively.In the Brazilian UR target region, UR is grown in the rainy season, with relative humidity rarely below 70% during flowering. In the drought prone site Porangatu, rice lines are tested during the dry season to avoid any rain. Flowering occurs in the middle of the dry season, where air humidity is around 20 to 30%. Low air humidity leads to reduced spikelet fertility even in the well-watered treatment, which may act as a confounding factor in the genotype selection for drought tolerance. Therefore, we suggest that the sowing date be brought forward to the end of February, when air humidity conditions are closer to that of the actual UR growing season. In the UR target region, there is no drought stress in the vegetative phase (Heinemann et al., 2015) and therefore some rain in the vegetative phase is unlikely to mislead selection. However, there is a risk that in some years the rain will lengthen and adversely affect the trial. Rain shelters are the best solution in such situations. Besides that, we also suggest that the drought intensity and time be consistent with the drought profiles reported by Heinemann et al. (2015). They    S1. Santo Antônio de Goiás, GO, (EVAL dataset, see Table 1) and simulated yield (dashed line). Bars extend to 1 standard deviation of observed yield.      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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d699d60e754ea54b75092aa97731a6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dwri.gov.np/un2023waterconference/Position-Paper.pdf","id":"-835717416"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8d884dcc-ba77-44f9-963d-be85bd0b5c22","pagecount":"32","content":"Water is one of the most valuable resources required to sustain life, livelihoods, economy and ecosystems. Nepal is endowed with abundant water resources, including rivers, lakes, and glaciers, which support our livelihood-related activities, agriculture, energy, biodiversity conservation, tourism, water supply, sanitation and hygiene sectors. However, the effects of climate change, population growth, and rising water demand are putting considerable strain on our water resources.As the Secretary of the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation (MoEWRI), it is my pleasure to introduce this position paper on enhancing water security in Nepal, which will be presented at the United Nations 2023 Water Conference in New York. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and challenges of water resources in Nepal and priority directions and actions for enhancing water security. This position paper stresses the importance of a holistic approach to water management for sustainable and equitable development that considers the priorities and needs of all stakeholders, such as policy, implementation, farmers, youths, women, local communities, business and science communities and conservation sectors. It emphasizes the need for transformative actions to tackle water system challenges in the changing context. It also recognizes the importance of adaptive water policies, governance, scientific and local knowledge, technologies, innovations, gender equality and social inclusion, and financial and institutional capacity development to strengthen our water systems to adapt to the impacts of climate change and ensure sustainable water access for future generations. This position paper also notes the need for increased investment in water infrastructure and technology, which can aid in the optimization of our water resources for productive uses. It stresses the critical importance of collaboration and partnership, both within Nepal and with our international partners, in addressing the complex challenges of water security. I believe this position paper will provide valuable insights and recommendations for improving Nepal's water security, and I look forward to presenting it at the United Nations 2023 Water Conference. I would like to thank the authors of this paper for their tireless efforts in producing this valuable document. During the consultation workshop held on 13th March 2023, we received valuable feedback from the wider stakeholders and the author team has incorporated those comments to the extent possible. I greatly appreciate the feedback. I would like to thank International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Nepal office for supporting in this process.Achieving a balance between water use for development and the environment is a critical issue for global water security. It is imperative to develop and manage water resources to ensure water security, considering both benefits and risks associated with water use. However, water security is challenged by climate change, such as rising temperatures, melting glaciers, changing precipitation patterns, floods and droughts. Other socio-economic changes such as migration and managing water demand for competing sectors exacerbate water security challenges. In Nepal's context, enhancing water security requires managing water resources in the domestic, agricultural, hydropower and industrial sectors while maintaining water requirements for environmental use and minimizing the risk of disasters, as defined by Nepal et al. (2021).Being the headwater of the Himalayan rivers and having a wide topographical variation (from 70 masl to above 8,000 masl), Nepal is unique in terms of ecological and socio-cultural diversity and richness in tangible and intangible cultural resources (NPC 2019a). There are 125 castes and ethnic groups and 129 languages belonging to four linguistic communities. There are 118 types of ecosystems, 75 types of flora, 35 types of forests, 11,971 species of plants, and 11,861 species of animals. Private and family forests and agro-forestry in private farms conserve biodiversity. Nepal's success stories in community-based management of water, land and natural resources (e.g., community forestry, farmer-managed irrigation systems) are widely recognized. Over 60% of foreign tourists visiting Nepal visit conservation areas and community forests (NPC 2019b: 186). In terms of institutions, the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) was established in the early 1980s, realizing the need for holistic management of water resources in a coordinated approach. Building on the uniqueness and success of the Millennium Development Goals, the Government of Nepal (GoN) is prioritizing efforts to pursue and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, including the target set by the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Reduction, and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. The GoN has been aligning its efforts and interventions to fulfilling the obligations to international frameworks. For example, Nepal prepared a 2019 Climate Change Policy, National Adaptation Plan (NAP) and the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Considering the relationship of water to other resources, the GoN is streamlining its efforts toward the security of water and related sectors (e.g., energy, food, ecosystems).Water security interventions can deliver inclusive development, build the resilience of mountain springs, water systems and biodiversity systems at scales, gender equality, youth empowerment, enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers, and socio-economic development of the people living in poverty and marginalization (IWMI 2019, Khadka et al. 2021). In Nepal's context, water security is essential to achieve the national vision of \"Happy Nepalis, Prosperous Nepal\". Therefore, it is important to emphasize this on all global platforms to align the efforts of the global community supporting Nepal in this endeavor. One such platform is the UN 2023 Water Conference scheduled for March 22-24, 2023 in New York.The UN 2023 Water Conference, co-hosted by the Governments of Tajikistan and the Netherlands, is being held nearly five decades after the first UN Water Conference was held on March 14, 1977, in Mar Del Plata, Argentina. The 2023 conference will focus on sustainable development and integrated management of water resources to attain social, economic, and environmental objectives. The conference aims to mobilize water action and create political momentum for achieving SDG 6 (ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all). The GoN is participating and organizing a side event at the conference. The Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MoWRI) is coordinating as the focal ministry (for the conference) with stakeholders for effective and impactful participation of the GoN. This position paper is prepared to inform and influence the international community for technical and financial cooperation to address Nepal's water security problems. It highlights Nepal's growing water security concerns and proposes solutions to address the challenges in developing and managing water resources and promoting inclusive socio-economic progress. It highlights water resources in Nepal, the issues and challenges of water resources development and management and ways to achieve water security in the country. With this document, GoN aims to share its position with delegates at the UN 2023 Water Conference. From the challenges of climate change to the importance of equitable water access, Nepal's perspective will be a vital contribution to the ongoing global dialogue on water security.Water resources can contribute to poverty alleviation, economic growth and overall development in Nepal (NWP 2005). It plays a crucial role in sustainable development, which encompasses social, cultural, economic, and political values. The contribution of water is vital to the attainment of several SDGs, including climate, food security, energy, environment, poverty, gender equality and health. Climate change poses a significant challenge to our economies, societies and the environment, and water security is a means to achieve water-related goals and objectives agreed upon internationally, as outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.Water resources are critical to health. Water and sanitation-related diseases are among the top ten most serious public health issues and the top five reasons for death in children under five (WaterAid 2017). Under-five mortality is 33 per 1,000 live births, with 25% stunting and 8% wasting, which is a nutrition crisis (MoHP et al. 2022). Ensuring safe water for drinking, sanitation and other activities, especially by women, poor and marginalized sections of society is a challenge, despite the country being declared open-defecation-free in September 2019. Nepal is progressing toward achieving SDGs by 2030.The basic water supply coverage is 95% but the safely managed water supply is only 19%. Access to basic sanitation services is 95%, but access to safely managed sanitation services is only 61% (CBS and UNICEF 2020).Water resources availability: Nepal has 225 billion cubic meters (BCM) of water annually. Of this total, groundwater accounts for 8.8 BCM (estimates range from 5.8 BCM to 11.5 BCM) (Shrestha et al. 2018). The major challenge is the variable water availability which means too much during the monsoon season when over 80% of precipitation occurs. Water scarcity is high during the remaining eight months, leading to water stress and droughts. Climate change exacerbates such variabilities (Pandey et al. 2020b) and has the potential to create regional disparity because of a probable drop in lean season flow in the medium term because of the retreat of glaciers and increased evaporation.Rivers and water hold great significance in Nepal as they serve as a symbol of humanity, social equity, and justice while also connecting people to nature, religion, and culture. However, water use and services in Nepal have improved over the years, and only 10% of water resources are now used. Agriculture is the largest user, with over four-fifths of the total water used. Of the 2.2 million hectares of potentially irrigable land, nearly 50% have access to irrigation infrastructure and nearly one-third of the irrigated land has year-round irrigation facilities. Still, 40% of irrigable land in the southern plain is to be irrigated where the productivity is relatively high compared to hills and mountains (DWRI 2019). Lack of reliable access to enough water when needed has resulted in lower crop intensity and lower land and agriculture productivity. In the domestic sector, only one-fifth of the population has access to a safe piped water supply, reflecting constraints in accessing adequate quantity and quality of water for drinking. Being a water-rich country with favorable topography, Nepal has a high potential for hydroelectric generation. However, little over 2,000 MW, out of 43,000 MW feasible potential, are harnessed. There are significant prospects for investment in water infrastructure development in Nepal.  2021). Some policies related to agriculture and lands are pro-poor, gender-and socially inclusive. They offer to promote water-food-energy nexus programs targeted at smallholder farmers, including youths and women entrepreneurs. The National Land Policy 2019 and the National Youth Policy 2015, for example, create an environment for local communities, including youths, women, smallholder farmers and marginalized people to participate in and benefit from the design, adoption and scaling of water-saving technologies, water adaptation practices, agricultural water management, and irrigated agri-food systems and value chains. The National Disaster Risk Reduction Strategic Action Plan (2018-2030) provides a long-term vision for contributing to sustainable development by establishing Nepal as a disaster-safe, adaptable and resilient nation (MoHA 2018).Nepal is yet to fully utilize water resources to improve livelihoods and environmental conservation (Biggs et al. 2013). In the SDGs costing, the GoN has estimated that one-fifth of the agricultural intervention is expected to go for expanding and improving irrigation, for which an annual investment of NPR 7.9 billion (approx. USD 67 million) is estimated from 2016 to 2030 (NPC 2018). Out-migration has resulted in some changes in gender roles, especially in the maintenance of the systems, the functioning of water user associations and irrigation planning absent male members (Suhardiman et al. 2023). Women and smallholder farmers can produce high-value crops and generate income with access to groundwater in the dry season (Sugden et al. 2020). Harnessing the potential of water for food security, health and a clean environment with consideration of gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) is a key development opportunity (van Koppen et al. 2022). Climate change poses a serious threat to water resources for socio-economic development in multiple ways such as altering water availability, deteriorating water quality and exacerbating waterrelated hazards and disasters. In recent years, Nepal has witnessed rapid melting of glaciers, drying springs, extreme climatic events, cascading and compounding hazards and disasters. Nepal must cope with these challenges to use water resources for socio-economic development (Joseph and Shrestha 2022).A community-based approach to water, land and natural resources management: Nepal is well-known for its community-based water and natural resources management (WNRM) approaches (Pradhan et al. 2022). Over 91,000 communitybased WNRM institutions and their associations are in operation (Khadka et al. 2021). The roles of community institutions and their associations and networks in conservation, management and sustainable uses of water, forest and degraded land restoration are well-documented. The Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) is a community practice of irrigation governance. Over 70% of the irrigation systems in Nepal are managed by FMISs, while 30% are Agency Managed Irrigation Systems (AMIS) (DWRI 2019).Nepal is rich in water resources with high precipitation levels (rainfall and snow) and runoff. However, the imbalance between availability and demand either due to strong seasonality (four-fifths of water availability during one-fourth of the year) or access or degraded quality has made usable water availability below the physical availability. Increasing water demands due to an increase in population or urbanization or increasing evapotranspiration from farms due to climate change have created an imbalance between demand and supply. Nepal has observed declining surface water resources, groundwater and spring flow across the middle mountains. For example, about 70% of the spring discharge has decreased over the last 10 years in western Nepal (Adhikari et al. 2021). Springs are the lifeline of mountain communities and decreasing the water flow of springs has caused serious implications for local communities (Sharma et al. 2016). The rising temperature has decreased snow and glacier storage, indicating a decline in water availability in the downstream region.The degradation of both surface and groundwater quality is a serious concern. This is due to several factors, including a growing population in urban areas, unplanned urban development and direct discharge of solid waste and wastewater into rivers. Aquatic ecosystems are no longer supported by rivers in urban areas, degrading the aesthetic value of the river and riverine environment and ultimately degrading the urban environment (Giri et al. 2022). Development practices (e.g., haphazard road construction) and deforestation have also contributed to degraded water quality. Natural contaminants like arsenic have affected inhabitants using groundwater as the major source of drinking water in southern Terai districts. Similarly, river water has high sedimentation during the monsoon season which has changed river morphology in the plain areas, including aggradation and degradation in some areas. In recent years, excessive sand mining has resulted in environmental degradation, ecosystem disruption, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters.Climate change poses a significant challenge to Nepal's economies, societies and environment. Studies indicate that Nepal has experienced a 2.5 o C increase in maximum temperature in the last four and half decades (DHM 2017). The climate projections suggest that the future will be much warmer and wetter. The average temperature and precipitation are likely to increase by 1.7 o C to 3.6 o C and 11% to 23% by the end of the century under moderate and extreme climate scenarios (RCP 4.5 and 8.5, respectively) (MOFE 2019). Although there are uncertainties in climate projections, temperature-related trends carry a higher confidence than precipitation trends. It is creating new challenges and exacerbating existing ones, leading to a range of impacts such as extreme weather events, water-related hazards, water scarcity, and declining food production. These impacts can have far-reaching consequences, from increased poverty and hunger to forced migration and conflict. Water-related risks are attributed to climatic drivers and other socio-economic and environmental changes such as land use and cover change, changes in population dynamics and migration, steep slopes and rugged topography, fragile geologies and strong seasonality of monsoon rainfall. The combined effect of climatic and non-climatic changes is an increasing risk of floods, glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), and landslide dam outburst floods (LDOFs). They are increasing the risk of cascading and compounding disasters. For example, in the Melamchi disaster in 2021, cascading disasters were triggered by anthropogenic and climatic factors and processes at various locations along the Melamchi River (Maharjan et al. 2021). The economic and social impact of such a disaster is high as these disasters cause loss of life and property, displacement of populations, and adverse impact on agriculture, water quality and quantity and ecosystems (Bhandari et al. 2020). For example, in 2021, extreme precipitation events in western Nepal damaged the ready-to-harvest paddy on 110,000 hectares of land. Natural disaster prevention and mitigation must be integrated into development strategies to address these challenges.Over the past few decades, Nepal's urbanization has risen sharply as more people move to urban areas in search of better employment prospects and service access. At least 30% of the population will be urban in 2031, compared with 18% in 2016(MoAD 2016)). This phenomenon has put pressure on existing water infrastructures and therefore affects access to water. Low-density water infrastructure is also hindering adequate access to water. People without access to improved sanitation and basic water services account for 10.8 million and 3.5 million people, respectively. Only 19% of the population has an improved drinking water source on the premises (CBS and UNICEF 2020). The functionality of the water supply system is an issue, with only 28% of the water supply being reported to be functioning and almost 40% requiring major repairs (DWSSM 2019). Thus, actual access is far below the reported access to the water supply. Non-traditional irrigation technologies, small-scale multiple-use water systems, and solar-powered pumps are gender-friendly water solutions for agri-food systems and increasing economic opportunities for women, returnee migrants and smallholder farmers. However, subsidies for irrigation technologies are yet to be targeted properly and there is room for improvement in making water sector institutions more inclusive.Institutional arrangements for water management governance are dynamic at scales more complex at the federal level. Water governance requires coherent policies, including multi-stakeholder dialogues, data-driven decision-making and planning, and capacities for enabling newly established provincial and local governments to plan, implement and monitor water development and share benefits equitably. The 2015 Constitution of Nepal has mandated all levels of the government their roles and responsibilities regarding water by ensuring single and common rights for water resources, irrigation and water supply (GoN 2015). While the MoEWRI is the key ministry for hydropower, irrigation, water-induced disasters and other key aspects of water resources development and management at the central level, the Ministry of Water Supply oversees water supply for drinking and sanitation. The WECS guides water and energy resources management. Eight other sectoral ministries also implement water-related interventions at the national level. A dedicated ministry at the provincial level looks after water resources development and management. Intergovernmental and intra-governmental coordination and relationships that emerged in the federal context are very complex. It requires coordination and cooperation across the sectors to achieve development outcomes from sustainable water management.Several policies related to water resources, irrigation and disaster risk reduction need revisions to align the functions and roles of three levels of the government and related sectoral public institutions. Absent federal water laws and rules, there is limited policymaking and lawmaking at the national and provincial levels (DRCN 2020). Lack of clarity on roles among public water institutions and overlapping responsibilities pose barriers to effective coordination to provide reliable water services (Sharma and Adhikary 2020). There is a need to strengthen intra-and intergovernmental coordination and participation of multi-stakeholders in water sector policymaking, practices and capacity building. In addition, it is necessary to empower local water user groups and their networks to plan and implement water supply and management guidelines. Programs are needed to promote climate-resilient technologies for water use and conservation. Indigenous knowledge is commonly practiced at the local level for water conservation. Development systems should be promoted along with scientific knowledge to ensure future water security.Community institutions are important stakeholders in delivering water security, adopting and scaling climate-resilient irrigation and water technologies, as they play a critical role in policy advocacy, sharing information and investing in sustainable conservation, management, water use and natural resources (Pradhan et al. 2022). It is important to promote multi-stakeholder dialogue (MSD) platforms and knowledge forums to connect governments, private sector actors, water user associations, research institutions, academia and development partners to discuss challenges and opportunities for scaling good practices and technological innovations on water resources management to help design targeted and workable solutions.Enhancing water security in Nepal in the context of climatic and non-climatic change includes maximizing water-related benefits and minimizing disaster risk. Key strategies toward that endeavor are summarized below.Access to a safe and sustainable water source is imbalanced because of economic water scarcity. Equitable and secure access to safe water is a prerequisite for minimizing the risk of waterrelated disease to communities and ensuring sustainable development. Ensuring food security through agricultural productivity requires yearround irrigation (YRI), which requires investment in irrigation infrastructure and its operation and maintenance. Given the seasonality of water availability in Nepal, investment in water storage must be prioritized to achieve YRI and other secondary benefits. Keeping healthy watersheds and springshed with their conservation and wetlands management is crucial for ensuring sustained water supply to mountain communities. Monitoring groundwater resources with spatial and temporal resolution is also important for avoiding the over-exploitation of groundwater resources. Water is a key input to hydropower, the main source of energy in Nepal. Ensuring adequate access to water for hydropower has a critical role in energy security. Energy security contributes to the socio-economic development of Nepal.The goal for a healthier aquatic environment is to ensure that no wastewater (domestic or industrial) is discharged directly into freshwater bodies without recycling and nutrient recovery to regulate the influx of solid waste and maintain a flow regime. This is essential to ensure adequate environmental flow (eFlow) into rivers and lakes both in quantity and quality and to meet the spiritual and cultural needs (sFlow) of many who use these water bodies for rituals. This requires interventions in river and watershed protection. Nature-based solutions are cost-effective with benefits for the environment, biodiversity, livelihoods and economies, which also promote climate change mitigation and adaptation and disaster risk reduction. It avoids net loss of biodiversity that support rural livelihoods. Implementing and monitoring nature-based solutions helps prevent the illegal discharge of effluents and needs to be prioritized to sustain the aquatic environment. The low penalties for non-compliance to eFlows than the economic value of energy generation by using that amount of discharge in hydropower projects need to be reviewed. The existing capacity of wastewater treatment infrastructure in Nepal cannot treat all the wastewater generated in the country's urban centers; therefore, more investments are required for wastewater treatment infrastructure. Measures for reducing waste through reduction, reuse and recycling need further promotion. All these initiatives can be implemented effectively in partnership among government agencies, the private sector and local civic groups, including academics and spiritual leaders.Hydro-meteorological information, forecasting and warning systems are key to reducing and managing risks of water-induced disasters. Unfortunately, Nepal faces challenges in collecting and processing this information due to limited data collection systems, technical human resources and models. Integrating disaster risk reduction into sustainable development requires decisionmakers, professionals, and vulnerable populations to have sufficient knowledge, understanding and skills. Exchanging information about disaster risk reduction will improve these abilities and encourage a culture of safety. It is essential in Nepal to consolidate local management and communication capabilities. It is also necessary for experts, meteorologists, climatologists and hydrologists to work together to develop effective early warning systems with governments and communities so they have the means to respond to the challenges from a rapidly changing climate. The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology has been shifting its manual data collection systems to real-time data acquisition systems. However, this information needs to be translated to real-time risk (such as flood forecasting) and effectively communicated to the local communities for action and building resilience. Similarly, to lessen the negative effects of climate change on its infrastructure, economy and culture, it is essential to emphasize the need for climate-resilient infrastructure. Loss and damage have been evident in various forms, including floods, droughts, loss of agricultural productivity, displacement of people and other climate-related disasters. Addressing climate change requires global and coordinated collaboration by resource mobilization, including climate finance.Nepal has progressive GESI policies (GoN 2015, NPC 2019a). Nepal's Constitution recognizes the role played by natural resources in meeting people's basic needs. It considers access to safe water, sanitation, and a clean environment as fundamental rights of all. The water sector's policies are gender-aware. The Irrigation Rules 2000 ensures that at least 33% of the members of water user committees should be women. The Irrigation Policy 2013 (GoN, 2013) calls to make irrigation development gender and socially inclusive. The Water Supply and Sanitation Act 2022 (MoJJFA 2022) recognizes the right of every citizen to drinking water and sanitation. The Act provides for equity consideration in fees for identified marginalized groups or individuals affected by calamities and women's representation in intergovernmental coordination committees.The country has made progress in gender equality and women's empowerment, especially in the political sphere. Women make up 40% of the elected representative in local government. Including marginalized and diverse social groups in the local government has created an enabling environment for inclusive water decision-making and planning. Their representation in the federal parliament and provincial assemblies is 37% and 34%, respectively. Although women's participation in decision-making is still low, women's inclusion in public service has increased significantly in the last decade because of the affirmative action policy. Currently, 26% of the workforce in the public service are women (MoWCSC 2021). Public, private and community institutions need to build capacity to implement these progressive policies to better deliver water services and technology transfer to farmers, women and marginalized groups and other stakeholders.Nepal has adopted Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) as a principle to conserve and develop water resources using the hydrological boundary as a unit of resource management as directed by the Water Resources Strategy ( 2002) (WECS, 2002) and National Water Plan 2005(WECS, 2005). The IWRM principle suggests that water must be considered holistically in its natural state and in balancing competing demands from other sectors (e.g., domestic, agriculture, industrial, cultural and environmental). However, sectoral silos still dominate resource practices in Nepal. Water, energy, food and ecosystems are interconnected and Nepal needs to consider the sectoral water demands while balancing the sustainability of ecosystems dependent on water resources. Due to the interconnectedness of water, energy, food and ecosystems, sectoral policies should reflect nexus thinking. Water can be a sustainable and inclusive solution to create local employment and improve livelihoods. For this, more investment and development priorities should be given to scale up climate-resilient irrigation and water supply technologies by developing the capacities of local governments, water user associations, farmers, youths, women and men, water professionals, the private sector and civil society (Sharma et al. 2016, Shrestha et al. 2017). Nepal was among the first countries to produce a preliminary SDG Report in 2015 (NPC 2019b). In collaboration with key development stakeholders, Nepal set country-specific SDG-related targets to be achieved by 2030. Nepal has mainstreamed the 2030 Agenda into its national plans and policies, including the 15th Five-Year Plan, the national budget and sectoral plans. Nepal has introduced the National WASH Management Information System (a web-based geospatial platform), enabling a national monitoring system for WASH, which has been rolled out to 451 rural municipalities and 81 local governments, allowing them to prepare a costed WASH plan.Nepal has several success stories of communitybased natural resources management. Community forestry, farmer-managed irrigation systems, locallevel water use master plans, community-based tourism and community-driven WASH programs are examples. Over 42,000 Water Supply and Sanitation User Committees provide drinking water and sanitation services (DWSSM 2019). Nepal's community forestry has been a successful model for increasing the production and conservation of natural resources such as water and forest resources while offering livelihood assets for local communities (MoFSC 2016). Over 22,000 Community Forest Users Groups are mobilizing 53% of the households to manage around 40% of the national forests (GoN 2022b). Indigenous and local communities collectively utilize indigenous, traditional and local knowledge to deal with climatic and non-climatic stresses (MOSTE n.d.). Local practices of water conservation and use, such as multiple-use water systems, restoring dug wells, rainwater harvesting, ponds, water storage tanks and drip irrigation are contributing to an increase in income and food security of smallholder farmers (GC et al. 2019). Involving local communities in decision-making and empowering them to manage water sources and other natural resources help promote sustainable development in Nepal.The GoN recognizes the roles of research, technology transfer, information and data governance to better prepare for and respond to the risks posed by climatic and non-climatic hazards. The National Adaptation Plan 2022 estimates the need for USD47.4 billion to implement priority programs, including water resources and energy, WASH, forests, watershed and GESI, livelihoods and governance (GoN 2022). Investment is needed to promote and scale climate-resilient and smart WASH technologies, water research and capacity building at all levels.Evidence-based policies and programs are a prerequisite for the success of any intervention. Sufficient investment in developing reliable data, management and access is necessary to ensure appropriate evidence for intervention. Priority areas for advancing research and knowledge generation include promoting a culture of data sharing on water (periodic review of data availability, gaps and intervention requirements) and exploring and promoting technological innovations and associated tools. Developing and operationalizing an institutional mechanism for multi-stakeholders and inclusive science-policy-practice dialogues could be a vehicle to promote the practices and ensure research for development and its uptake. Although the GoN recognizes the importance of research for water resource management (MoEWRI 2020), funding is limited to water science, research and innovation. Investments in a water security information system as a solution for data and information are pathways for promoting research and innovation for achieving water security in Nepal. Partnerships with universities, research centers, and other like-minded organizations are key to mobilizing resources for developing and updating water security information systems and knowledge generation.The principles of 3C (Cooperation, Coexistence and Coordination) are the mechanisms for the intergovernmental relationship among the three levels of government mandated by the 2015 Constitution (Article 232). There is a need for crosssectoral coordination and collaboration to reduce overlapping interventions within and between the sectoral line agencies, ministries, departments and related institutions and entities.The stakeholders of the water sector include governments, development and business communities, the private sector, research and academic institutions, local institutions and rights holders (youths, women and men farmers, forest users, gender minorities, people with disabilities and indigenous peoples) have an important role of delivering water security, adopting and scaling up climate-resilient irrigation and water technologies. They also play a critical role in policy advocacy, sharing information on and investing in sustainable conservation, management and use of water and natural resources (Pradhan et al. 2022). Multi-stakeholder water-energy-foodecosystem platforms at scale can foster crosssectoral collaboration for integrated management of water and natural resources. Water receives limited priority for development investment and discourses. In 2020-2021, the government allocated NPR 43.1 billion for the WASH sector, which is 2.9% of the national budget (WaterAid 2020). Irrigation development interventions largely focus on large-scale infrastructure and canal irrigation systems, which require continuous operation and maintenance. Equal emphasis is required to promote small-scale and farmer-led surface and groundwater irrigation systems accessible to smallholder farmers, women and marginalized groups to improve agricultural productivity and food and nutrition security in the country. 1The use of water resources for socio-economic development requires stakeholder capacity to be strengthened through regular investments in capacity-strengthening programs and technology transfer. A balance in capacity among the three levels of government, especially in addressing key challenges of water resources development and management is required.Nepal shares its rivers with China (upstream) and India (downstream) and is an important constituent of the Ganga Basin, generating 70% of its dry season and 45% of its average annual flow. While there are a few bilateral water-related agreements with India, they are mainly project-centric and lack a holistic approach to river basin management. Strong natural upstream and downstream linkages mean that cooperation among riparian countries of the larger Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin must address regional water concerns from floods to drought, hydropower, food production, environmental protection and riverine transport (Pandey et al. 2020a). Cloudbursts and heavy precipitation in Nepal have consequences for the floodplains of India. Nepal has also experienced disasters that originated in China. One in 2016 was from a GLOF and severely affected 36 MW of Bhote Koshi hydropower. About 21 potentially dangerous glacial lakes (Bajracharya et al. 2020) pose serious threats to livelihoods and infrastructure. To reduce similar disasters and open avenues for new areas of cooperation (e.g., inland navigation), meaningful regional cooperation is needed to improve real-time data collection of key climatic and hydrological parameters and early warning systems in key strategic areas. Regional cooperation among key Himalayan countries is critical and can help minimize disaster risk and maximize benefits. Regional cooperation can also be instrumental for water resource development. When Nepal develops enough hydropower, regional cooperation can facilitate crossborder energy trade.The GoN has committed to achieving socioeconomic development through water management in a changing climate. Aligning with international frameworks, including SDGs, Paris Climate Accords, Sendai Framework, the GoN has made progress in preparing national policies, strategies and plans on water management, irrigation development, WASH, climate change adaptation and resilience building, GESI, research and innovation.Nepal's approach to water security requires rethinking several aspects of water governance to achieve the SDG targets and those posed by climate change. During the second UN Water Conference (March 2023), the GoN wishes to highlight the common concerns of the Least Developed Countries and the Global South.• The new governance system is an opportunity for advancing the SDGs: Nepal's 2015 Constitution and the federal system of governance, along with the country's commitments to SDGs, offer opportunities for bottom-up, inclusive and equitable development in the water sector. There is a need for national capacity building on policy reform, narrowing climate information gaps, promoting climate-informed decision-making, and resilient water infrastructure (GoN 2022c). Integrated Water Resource Management has had a significant impact in changing the policy discourse in the past, but, today, it has been expanded to include links with food, energy and the environment through the nexus approach. New concepts such as virtual water and water footprints of not just food but also other items of daily consumption that require water in their production have to be fed into policy thinking to encourage 'doing more with less' at all levels of governance.","tokenCount":"5695"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b353e91252d5da26c77d633746242fdc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3fedd6e-a87d-4803-a348-36382241c919/retrieve","id":"218091152"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"854d2aeb-07f3-482a-9177-764eacd7d3e7","pagecount":"106","content":"The authors are especially grateful to: • IITA staff for financial and logistic support.YIIFSWA project manager and other members, who facilitated the implementation of the project.All supervisors and enumerators who participated in the field activities; their dedication, meticulous attention to detail, and buoyancy throughout the training and field work are unparalleled. We would also like to thank the operational states and Local Government Areas for providing excellent counterpart assistance to support the data collection. We appreciate the involvement of the Agricultural Development Programs who provided assistance in identifying the randomly selected communities and notifying the communities prior to data collection. Their commitment to improving community food security is commendable.Special thanks are due to Professor Felix Nweke who provided guidance and supervised questionnaire design, sample selection, data collection, analyses and report preparation for the complimentary rapid baseline survey.The authors would like to thank also everyone who actively took part in the complimentary baseline study and played a role in accumulating the experiences, thus contributing to developing this document.Finally, the authors would like to acknowledge the participation of farmers, extension agents, and local leaders from the project areas in providing considerable amounts of information during the surveys.The Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa (YIIFSWA) project was initiated to assess and understand the yam-based systems in order to identify the opportunities of interventions that could potentially help to increase productivity in the region. The project consists of two phases: the inception phase and impact study phase. During the inception phase, a baseline study was conducted in different yam-growing communities aggregated on agroecological zoning into the southern Guinea savanna (SGS), the derived savanna (DF), and the humid forest (HF). A complementary baseline survey was commissioned in addition to the substantive data collected within the same yam belt of Nigeria aiming at measuring directly yam yield from farmers' fields in order to get more accurate crop yield estimates. The baseline studies aimed at understanding farmers' livelihoods in yam-growing areas to increase agricultural productivity in Nigeria and also to serve as benchmarks to assess changes brought about by the YIIFSWA project in future. The goal of the baseline surveys was to measure the key economic and social indicators before implementing the major components of the project.Data was collected by means of structured questionnaire and a set of qualitative interview questions for focus group discussions to capture household and community specific information. The main survey design was based on a multistage, random sampling procedure, drawing on the universe of households from yam growing areas of Nigeria. A random sampling procedure was used to select 800 households within the yam belt.The households were characterized by male headship with 97% of households headed by males. This pattern of headship distribution is characteristic of most developing countries. Although more than half of the household heads had attended school, the average number of years of schooling was low. A large household size was observed which may be attributed to the propensity of adult sons and daughters to remain in the parental household. The dependency ratio shows that there are more adults (> 15 years and < 64 years) than dependents (children below 15 years and adults above 64 years).Land was by far the major natural capital for smallholder farmers in yam-growing areas of Nigeria. The average amount of land available for farming was about 2.4 ha with the largest area being found in the SGS. Out of the total farming land, about 64% was allocated to yam and only about 4% was owned and used by women. The average number of oxen owned by respondents was small with a highest number in the SGS followed by the DS and HF. The number of donkeys and horses owned by a few respondents was negligible. In all the surveyed households, every active member of a household had at least his/her own hand hoe considered as a prerequisite for farming except in the HF where there were not enough hoes for all active members in the household. The assets most frequently owned by households were chairs, machetes, and beds. Other productive and household assets owned were not common in all the sampled households, providing evidence that farmers are not equipped to manage their croplands properly. Items such as carts, grain mills, pumps, cars, jewelry, wooden and metal boxes, and fish ponds were almost non-existent in the households' assets basket.Tractors were absent from the list.Most rural economies in developing countries have diversified income-generating activities, and farming was the most important occupation of the heads of households (about 96%). Other occupations were relatively minor occupations in the study area.About 17% of respondents had access to information on new yam varieties during the last cropping season and most of them through government extension services (59%), farmer coops or groups (24%), traders/ agrodealers (23%), or neighbor/relative farmers (14%). These sources appeared therefore to be the most promising avenues for promoting new technologies. Other common sources of information in use reported were radio, town criers, mobile phones, religious leaders, and community head secretaries.x About half the respondents needed credit and only a small number (less than 17%) had access to it. Most households kept poultry, then goats, doves, and finally sheep. Instances of piggery enterprises and the keeping of rabbits and other livestock such as grasscutters were negligible.An important number, about 42% of farmers, reported being a member of a formal/informal institution in the last 3 years. Findings revealed that the main membership developed in the study area was of farmers' associations (43.4% in the male group) and women's associations (42.9% from the female group), followed by religious groups for both men and women.In the surveyed area, priority has been given to yam over cash crops and food crops of less importance even though this is lower in the SGS than in other zones. Across the different agroecological zones (AEZs), the distribution of crops grown varies tremendously with yam being the most important everywhere. About 35% of households intercropped their yam with mainly cassava and maize while 40% of households rotated their yam mainly with cassava, maize, and guinea corn. Mounding is the most widespread seed preparation method used for yam production as it enhances rooting depth. The average number of mounds (9615) is lower than the recommended number of 10,000 mounds/ha with a spacing of 1 m × 1 m.The use of commercial, inorganic fertilizer in yam production was uncommon and generally the application rates seem to fall too short of the \"recommended\" nutrient levels by extension to expect good yields. Failure to apply the proper rate of fertilizer or its non-use is explained by (i) the fact that farmers lack information about the specific type and quantity of fertilizer to apply; and (ii) their perception about the use of fertilizer affecting negatively the taste and storage of yam. Also the low quantity of fertilizer applied is linked to its exorbitant price.The productivity level from recall-based information was generally low (about 9.4 t/ha), as a consequence of declining soil fertility resulting from intensified land use and poor soil management, high pressure of pests and diseases associated with poor management practices, and a lack of adequate inputs. Yam yielded better in the HF (10.4 t/ha), certainly owing to the addition of soil amendments which might have improved performance and subsequently yield; intercropping in the HF might also have helped to alleviate the pest and disease problems.Yield from the field measurement was about 19 t/ha. Yam yields measured were higher than those reported through recall-based information. This might not be unconnected with the fresheness of tubers with high water content and farmers' inability to recall accurately. The difference in yields between the two approaches could also be linked to farmers milking pattern. Most farmers milked their fields before actual harvests. This procedure leaves an unaccounted substantial part of their harvests on the fields which were not taken into consideration in yield estimation. The lowest yields were observed in the HF probably as a result of the high incidence of pests and diseases ravaging the zone. Notable among the pests and diseases observed during field measurements were nematodes, scale insects, and white flies.The annual estimated costs per hectare of yam production including family labor were about N349261 (equivalent to about US$2225) and were reduced when excluding family labor to about N120818 (US$770). The production of yam is severely constrained by two important cost items: labor and seeds. Labor had the largest share of the total cost (about 83%) followed by seeds (about 8%, costs of seed being influenced and undervalued due to the milking system mostly adopted for seed multiplication). Family labor was the most important share of the labor cost (78% of the total labor charges). There are substantial variations in the gross margin (GM) across the zones. The differences in profitability are no surprise as they could also be attributed to differences in productivity as well as to differences in input and output prices. As depicted in the findings, the GM is positive in all the surveyed areas (N526552 or US$3354 per ha) denoting the profitability of yam production with a relative advantage for production in the HF despite the high costs.xi Apart from the high cost of labor and seed in yam production, a range of other factors constrained yam production and storage such as insect pests and disease followed by input supply more pronounced in the DS; low soil fertility more reported in the SGS and DS; rodents and drought, mostly found in the SGS; water-logging perceived as a problem more in the DS than in the other AEZs; lack of improved varieties more prominent in the HF; shortages of land and staking material more reported in the HF; and others, such as theft more important in the HF and DS. Households reported about 14% of their yam stored rotten and 14% sprouted. Only 2% of the yam was lost through other causes, such as rodents and theft. Among AEZs, the rotting rate was predominant in the HF while sprouting was highly pronounced in the SGS. The highest level of other losses was observed in the HF.In the survey, farmers provided information on how they utilized the yam they have as total available stock; 6.8% was reported as carry-over stock from the previous harvest. Yam utilization does not vary significantly across the AEZs. The proportion sold from recall-based information is 61% while from farmers' fields about 58% of yam harvested was designated for sale. Yam is more of a cash crop and therefore a potential crop for income generation. The results indicate that the village market is the most important point of sale followed by the main/district market. Yam is primarily considered a man's crop and all the agricultural activities are predominantly carried out by men. However, this does not exclude women from involving themselves in some of the activities, such as marketing and trading. Results indicate that farmgate selling remains almost entirely a male domain. Since men mostly produce the crop, this leads them to take the decision about the disposal of their output. The situation reverses at the main market where women mainly dominate sales. Brokers/ middlemen buy yam directly from farmers for resale and get the major share of the profit, though they also take the most risk. Cutting out this intervening layer between farmers and customers might help farmers to get a higher price for their produce. The study called for regulatory measures to be set for improving the yam marketing system at the rural/primary market level. The marketing problems of small farmers as some of them reported emanated from their dependence on brokers/middlemen for credit. This puts farmers in a highly unequal trading relationship with the buyers of their produce. Therefore, improving the ability of farmers to have access to the market and strengthening their bargaining position are recommended as the central focus of any policy for yam market reform.No improved varieties were identified in farmers' fields. No adoption of improved yam varieties in the surveyed communities was therefore reported for the main reason that farmers had no access to seeds of improved varieties. Other reasons considered to have inhibited the adoption of improved varieties could be (i) a minimum requirement of cultivable land for demonstrations; and (ii) continuous seed multiplication might have affected improved varieties released so they were no longer easily distinguished from a wide range of local genotypes, especially since these new varieties were released without any friendly local name. Adoption under the current situation suffers from difficulty in the reliable identification of improved varieties which might have been renamed or mixed with existing landraces. For easy tracking, the project should focus on giving friendly names to new varieties before their release. Effective varietal introduction schemes need to be set in order to allow the stable integration of a new variety into the local seed system to ensure better transfer and adoption levels of yam improved varieties. Low awareness about the most preferred landraces was reported. Varietal characterization needs to be investigated to confirm or otherwise whether there is any relation between the improved yam varieties released and the landraces most commonly reported as most preferred. Two main factors limit farmers from planting their best variety: low availability of seeds followed by inadequate financial abilities.An important number of households (about 37%) have experienced food shortages and, of these, about 5% had shortages through the year; some households were unable to produce food surpluses for sale. Households that reported they had experienced food shortages are in a range of 34 to 47%; the highest proportion of such households was in the HF, followed by the SGS with about 38%; the DS had the lowest number. These figures are a sign of food insecurity in the region because when an important proportion of households claim to experience food shortages, this is an indication of vulnerability. Among the households that experienced food unavailability, the most common coping strategies used to mitigate the shock were as follows in order of importance: borrowing food or relying on help from friends/relatives; limiting the variety of foods eaten; reducing the number of meals eaten daily; relying on less preferred foods; limiting the size of portions at meal-times; and seeking jobs inside the community.Food expenses accounted for a considerable share of households' expenditure, a characteristic of most poor countries. About half of the respondents were found to be poor using the relative poverty line while about 44% of households were found to be poor using the absolute poverty line. The level of poverty seems to be lower in yam-growing areas compared with the Nigerian rural poverty line of 69.0% in 2010 (World Fact Book 2013).Poverty indices vary across the AEZs with the highest incidence in the SGS, possibly as a result of returns to variations in natural assets and geo-climatic factors. At the level of gender, female-headed households show a higher poverty rate and their poverty tends to be deeper and more severe. Also, there is a low level of access to capital assets in all the surveyed areas. Therefore, the framework for microfinance policy and other microenterprise institutions should be reviewed to accommodate special consideration of the rural poor. This is expected to enhance access to credit in the rural areas where the majority of the poor reside. This will induce income growth through increased marginal productivity of rural households. Generally, there is no consensus among economists-and policymakers, businessmen, academics, and practitioners as well-on how best to address poverty but from this study, tackling the various constraining factors limiting productivity might be the right prolog to fast-tracking poverty reduction. This may suggest the need to revisit food and poverty policies.A mix of effective policy actions including that designed to specifically benefit women and the poor in the SGS (highest incidence of poverty) is required to reduce their number but this impact on the poverty gap might be achieved only by lifting out of poverty those who were closest to the poverty line. Other interventions could better address the situation of the very poor by bringing them closer to the poverty line by focusing on raising productivity in yam-growing areas in ways that promote broad-based increases in food security and incomes.The households reported to rely on government's support were in a minority in proportion (about 33%) with the lowest number of such dependent households (about 29%) observed in the SGS. An important number of respondents (about 58%) did not have confidence in the skills of extension workers and rely on their own knowledge. The worst scenario and the largest number (about 60%) were observed in the SGS. From the survey, many other issues were raised by respondents aiming at redesigning programs and policies intended to maximize production, ensure food security for the country, and improve the lives of yam farmers. These include the following: (i) Rural infrastructure development; (ii) Taxes and tariffs on farm products to be revised;(iii) Agricultural inputs or related purposes which are often unable to respond to the needs of yam producers made relevant; and (iv) Provision of financial facilities and promotion of yam as a mandate crop. Programs and policies based on these issues should be designed to regain the trust of farmers and foster increased production.In general the findings suggest that there is great scope for improving yam production and productivity once key constraints, such as high costs of labor and low productivity due to pests and diseases and the lack of improved planting materials, are addressed. Furthermore, the fact that a substantial proportion of yam is allocated for sale is indicative of the size and potential of the crop as a source of income generation. There is an urgent need to target key investments for lowering farmers' cost of production for faster growth in productivity. This will require the following: (i) Making available more funding for agricultural research through breeding and agronomy; (ii) Strengthening extension services to reach farmers with agronomic and management practices;(iii) Improving infrastructure to reduce input cost prices, and (iv) Developing the existing value chain.Yam (Dioscorea spp.), a vegetatively propagated crop cultivated for its underground edible tubers, is a very important food and income source for millions of producers, processors, and consumers in West Africa. About 48 million t are produced annually in this sub-region on 4 million ha. The five major yam-producing countries (Bénin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo) account for 93% of the world's production. Nigeria alone accounts for 68% of global production. The crop makes a substantial contribution to the amount of protein in the diet, ranking as the third most important source of supply, much more than the more widely grown cassava, and even above sources of animal protein. Hence yam is important for food security as the mainstay for at least 60 million people and income generation with a domestic retail price of US$0.49/kg for the 36 million tons produced in Nigeria where 31.8% of the population depends on yam for food and income security; yam is also integral to the socio-cultural life in this sub-region (IITA 2012).Despite its importance in the economy and lives of many people, the crop faces a number of constraints that significantly reduce its potential to support rural development and meet consumers' needs for an affordable nutritional product. Through consultations with stakeholders and value chain actors in 2010 the major constraints affecting the yam value chain sector in West Africa were listed and prioritized.The unavailability and high cost of high-quality, disease-free seed yam emerged as the first constraint, followed by the high levels of onfarm losses of tubers (almost 30%) during harvesting and storage, low soil fertility, and high labor costs associated with land preparation and staking. Other constraints included diseases due to viruses, nematodes, and fungi (anthracnose). Scale insects and termites were reported to affect tuber yields in some areas. These constraints identified by the stakeholders agree with the earlier research findings by Manyong et al. (2001) who attributed the declining trend in yam production to deteriorating soil structure and low fertility, the prevalence of noxious weeds such as speargrass, and the low yield of varieties grown by farmers. These effects are experienced more in the dry savanna agroecologies where yam cultivation is rapidly expanding due to the reduction in available arable land in the traditional moist humid areas. Increasing intensification of yam cultivation has also raised the incidence and severity of field pests and diseases. Pests, such as nematodes, mealybugs, and scale insects, are transferred from the field with the tubers into storage where they continue to multiply and cause damage leading to higher tuber losses and a reduced market value (Ampofo et al. 2010;MEDA 2011). These prioritized constraints have therefore formed the basis for interventions by the Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa (YIIFSWA) project.Therefore, the objective of this study is to collect primary data on a number of indicators to be used for measuring the progress in production, storage, and marketing which may be attributed to the implementation of the current YIIFSWA project in the target areas in Nigeria. There is no updated information available on what people know, do, and would like to do in relation to yam. However, this information is extremely important for monitoring progress as a result of the project. Therefore, the baseline survey seeks to do the following:• Establish baseline values of indicators of intended outcomes against which future measurements can be made of changes in behavior, systemic capacity, and impact on the conditions of households and individuals.Gather and analyze information that will assist the YIIFSWA project's stakeholders/partners in designing or modifying appropriate interventions or generate information for further refining the project's logframe and M&E plan.Validate the needs and priorities of communities identified in the project document.The Yam Improvement for Income and Food Security in West Africa (YIIFSWA) project is a 5-year initiative granted by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to work with other stakeholders in West Africa to identify the opportunities that could potentially help to increase yam productivity in the region.The project aims at doubling the productivity of yam; this would stimulate a sustainable increase in incomes for smallholder producers and contribute to their food security and economic development.The project is concerned mainly with the major producing countries, Ghana and Nigeria, in addressing the major challenges in the yam sector through the following objectives: (i) Strengthen small-scale farmer and trader market linkages, particularly in less accessible production areas, to realize benefits from increased ware yam productivity and market demand. (ii) Strengthen capacities and empower smallholder farmers in the yam value chain. (iii) Establish sustainable availability of high quality seed yam on a commercially viable (price competitive) basis in targeted areas. (iv) Reduce postharvest losses and improve product quality. (v) Develop technologies for high ratio propagation of high quality breeder and foundation seed yam. (vi) Evaluate and scale-out yam production technologies with improved and local popular varieties. (vii) Identify more effective prevention and management tools and strategies for pests and diseases. These objectives are supported by cross-cutting components: monitoring, evaluation, and learning, and communication and information dissemination.In addition to the above objectives the project seeks to answer the following questions during implementation. (a) Will the competition at the farm level between the use of yam for seeds and for food be reduced as a result of the increased use of other productive seed propagation methods? (b) Will productivity and the area planted to yam increase as a result of the reduced production costs? (c) Will the reduced production costs allow more smallholder farmers, especially women, to engage in increased production? (d) Will more smallholder farmers, especially women, be engaged in commercial production as a result of an effective marketing infrastructure? (e) Will reduced production costs lead to reduced prices while ensuring profits for smallholder farmers?In order to achieve its goal, the project adopts a holistic and sustainable approach in which technology development is grounded in a partnership of researchers (national, regional and international), service providers and supporting organizations (such as extension agencies, NGOs), the private sector, farmers, and traders.To this end, a series of related activities involving key stakeholders from the pilot communities and other relevant groups has been implemented in the planned project countries to date. These include the socioeconomic survey.This report consists of eleven sections. Section one gives an introduction to the study. Section two presents the methodology used for the study. Section three describes the characteristics of the households and their livelihood capitals. Section four depicts the yam-based cropping system in place in the surveyed area. Section five provides estimates on yield and profitability in producing yam. Section six discusses yam utilization and marketing while adoption of yam varieties is presented in section seven. Section eight gives the livelihood shocks and poverty indicators in the study area. Section nine expresses some institutional issues. Section ten reports the complementary survey commissioned to measure yam yield from farmers' fields. Lasly section eleven gives a summary of findings and draw implications of the study.This section provides the details of the baseline survey design in terms of collection methods, questionnaire design, and applied statistical analysis.The sample for the baseline survey was drawn up to provide estimates of the \"before project\" measurements of selected indicators related to yam production. For this purpose, many communities were targeted including those in the current project and those likely to be included in future. In addition to the project villages, nonintervention communities with similar socioeconomic characteristics were considered as control communities.The survey design was based on a multistage, random sampling procedure, drawing on the total households from yam-growing areas of Nigeria.In the first stage, several strata were considered subsequent to the project's first planning meeting and identified in selecting purposively eight states: Niger, Nasarawa, Benue, Ebonyi, Enugu, Kogi, Edo, and Oyo (Table 1). These included administrative boundaries (states), areas with high yam production potential, representativeness in different production systems (seed-based, ware and seed yam, low fertility, drought), and security. The production systems/environments considered are appended in Annex 6.The second stage involved the selection of 20 Local Government Areas (LGAs) based on probability proportional to the level of yam production in each LGA. Due to the security problem in Niger state, an adjustment was done by reducing the number of LGAs selected there and adding more to the state with the lowest number.The third stage retained for the study 200 communities based on probability proportional to size in each selected LGA. The communities selected (Annex 5) included the sample communities (project clients) and control communities from the same geographical zoning. The selected communities were considered on a limited set of variables. These included type of agricultural activity, size of landholding, gender of farmer, location, and (to the extent possible) poverty level, in such a way that the treatment and comparison communities would have roughly comparable levels of yam production at the baseline.Finally a total of 800 households were selected with equal probability from each community. The sampling frame including all households in the surveyed communities was developed by extension agents in collaboration with community heads as a source list and the last stage involved a random selection of farm households through a random number generator available in Microsoft Excel: RAND(). LGAs = Local Government Areas NB. The national figures for yam production used were from the 2009 agricultural production survey (NPAFS 2010).The surveyed areas in Nigeria are therefore depicted in Figure 1. The need for quantitative and qualitative information about households requires a statistically plausible sample of the target population. Accurate sampling is important to minimize the risk of sampling bias and to allow inferences about the population to be drawn with a statistically estimatable level of confidence. The Confidence Interval Approach was used to estimate the sample size.Under simple random sampling, at the 95% confidence level desired, the sample size n must satisfy the formula:Where, Z = value of the standard variate at a given confidence level and to be worked out from the table showing the area under normal curve, at 1.96 corresponding to a 95% confidence level; N = Total populationProvided that response rate is 100% n srs = 380/r = 380/0.95 = 400 given 95% response rate.Under cluster sampling, for the results to be usably reliable, we apply a default value of design effect of 2.0 as follows: To assess and measure the impact of the YIIFSWA project on producers' income and food security, a list of indicators related to income and food security, as well as to aspects associated with yam, was established through brainstorming ideas, assessing each one and narrowing the list using the SMART technique. The technique summarizes key criteria and asks, \"Is the indicator Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Trackable?\" Household annual expenditure will be measured through disaggregated sources by individual expenditures and then expenditures from common sources such as agriculture will be added. Some alternative variables, such as proportion of main occupation of the household head and asset ownership, will also be measured.Households living below poverty line, food security status, coping ability from different shocksFrequencies of shocks/crises households faced in the last year and then strategies used to manage loss and damage resulting. Anthropometric measurements. List of technologies adopted by the households (not so large).To calculate cropping intensity, first gross cropped area will be calculated and then divided by the net cropped area and multiplied by 100.The number and percentage of participating farmers that have adopted appropriate technologies will be measured. Diversity index. Yield and net return in terms of monetary value/unit of land will be calculated both full and cash cost basis for yam.Distance to farms and markets, modes of transport to farms and markets, access to services, and inputs to improve food security.The number and percentage of farmers/farmers' groups that have access to services and inputs will be measured and also their linkages with sources of innovative technologies.The number and types of services received by the farmers through visits between farmers and service delivery agencies will be recorded. These indicators form only a part of all the data collected for the study. Thus, it is possible to complement the indicators with additional data. Qualitative data were collected about the surveyed villages and village lives and especially about the sources of vulnerability affecting them. The qualitative data were used to link the results to the local context and to provide more profound information about the interrelations between different aspects affecting local livelihoods and yam production.Data were collected by means of existing information (studies, reports, etc.), a structured questionnaire, and a set of qualitative interview questions for focus group discussions to capture community-specific information. Obtaining high quality data was the motto of the survey and, as recommended by Puetz (1993), this depends on enumerators who are motivated, well trained, and well supervised.The structured questionnaires were administered by enumerators under supervisors, all trained in two different methodology workshops organized by IITA. The enumerator training was conducted for two full days and the training agenda included project background, survey objectives, and a review of questionnaires, practice sessions, demonstrations, and logistics/scheduling. A number of simulation sessions were done to familiarize enumerators with questions in the household questionnaire for a successful collection of information. Also a complete review of the questionnaires was made on the same day in the vicinity of the sample households to permit revisits for errors to be corrected where necessary.Enumerators for each state were identified after training and testing for the whole survey. The process was guided by factors such as (a) academic qualifications and minimum level of experience in data collection. (b) willingness to work for long periods of time, (c) ability to speak the local language fluently in each given area as well as the ability to interact with people of different ethnic groups in different environments, and (d) familiarity with the places where the field work would be conducted.Supervisors were chosen based on extensive experience in data collection and familiarity with the survey areas. They were trained and confirmed after an interview to make a follow-up of the whole data collection process. They were associated with the whole data collection process and undertook the second quality check right in the field before the questionnaires were accepted.A field data collection schedule was developed with the assistance of Agricultural Development Project (ADP) agents to organize teams and assign villages according to geographic proximity. Geographic proximity in this case refers to the relative distance between the selected villages and a logical sequence for traveling without retracing routes, rather than simply those villages that were most conveniently close to the road. Regarding the number of communities and distances between them, often up to three supervised teams were deployed in separate vehicles to each of the targeted administrative LGAs to complete household interviews following the schedule; data collection was undertaken from 2 July to 16 August 2012 after a preliminary tour of one week organized to set the potential enumerators' recruitment process.Field teams participated in coordination and debriefing meetings which were held each evening following each day's data collection. This gave each team the opportunity to correct forms and review any questions or concerns. After the first day, survey teams had progressively fewer concerns about how to ask questions or code responses. The survey team leader had regular communication with all team supervisors to ensure progress and respond to questions generated during data collection, via phone or in person, depending on the limitations of communication technology.IITA was responsible for quality control of the primary data on a daily basis. Every evening, the enumerators and the field supervisors checked each household questionnaire for inconsistencies and errors. Data were regularly packed after a thorough checkup and sent to IITA-Ibadan for entering into the SPSS database. Data entry work was centralized in Ibadan and six data entry clerks including two ladies were consulted for the task.The scale of analysis or level of aggregation defines the extent of the proposed intervention and depends on the goals and availability of data and information. In general different levels of targeting could be distinguished and lower-level scales could be aggregated or merged into a higher level scale, thus reducing precision but increasing the extent. Criteria to distinguish uniform clusters differ between targets from domain to domain and depend on the goals of targeting. Interventions could be relevant at the state level; recommended yam varieties are relevant at the level of the farming system and not at the agroecological zone (AEZ) level.Traditionally, the Farming Systems Approach has given strong emphasis to the targeting of recommendation domains. In practice, this has often led to agroecological zonation, which is relatively time and development neutral. Considering geography as a critical factor affecting the livelihoods of the poor, this study uses general geographical zonation which combines geographic information with physical, biological, or socioeconomic data. Therefore data on agroecological zoning was considered by classifying communities in Nigeria into the SGS, DS, and HF. The main characteristics of these AEZs are provided in Annex 8.Data analysis at the first level made use of computations which generated secondary variables such as indices and yields.The yield for yam enterprise means the total farm output/unit of land. The equation for calculating average yield is as follows:Where, Y ij = average yield by i th household for j th yam enterprise in kg/ha, O ij = output for i th household from j th yam enterprise in kg, P ij = plot of land for i th household for j th yam enterprise in ha, n = number of households involved in j th yam enterprise.Profitability can be assessed using different methods including benefit-cost ratio, economic surplus models, economic efficiency estimation, and gross margin (GM) analysis. In this study, GM was used as a proxy for profitability. Profitability analysis allows the viability of yam enterprises to be verified across various zones and helps in the selection of the most efficient yam enterprise, having some influence in the resources allocation. The merit of GM includes enabling the profitability of most economic activities to be assessed. An added advantage is that GM can be easily understood and has a logical interrelationship between economic and technological parameters. Fixed costs have not been included because for most poor rural people fixed costs were not reliable. In most cases, farmers do not have permanent working tools. Tools such as pangas, hoes, machetes, buckets, and utensils that farmers possess and use in the production process are not properly recorded in terms of money value and purpose of purchase; GM was therefore done to establish whether the use is economically profitable. The basic equation for GM computation is presented in equation 5:Where, GM ij = average GM earned by i th household for j th yam enterprise in N; P ij = unit output price received by i th household for j th yam enterprise in N /kg; Q ij = quantity marketed/valued by i th household for j th yam enterprise in kg; TVC ij = total variable costs incurred by i th household for j th yam enterprise in N; n = number of households involved in j th yam enterprise.Generally, GM is quoted per unit of the most limiting resource, which is usually land, on a per hectare basis (Malcolm et al. 2005).At the second level, descriptive analysis offered a general picture of the livelihood situation such as ownership and distribution of livelihood assets, contexts, and strategies.The unit of analysis used in poverty measurement continues to receive critical scrutiny. The debate revolves around what is the most appropriate unit: the family, the household, or some other entity. The poverty estimates should be calculated for individuals and not households, even though the data are almost always related to households.The most common practice in setting relative poverty lines is to use some proportion of the arithmetic mean or median of the distribution of consumption as in many studies. Consumption expenditure/capita is then used to determine whether the household falls below the poverty line set as two-thirds of mean annual/capita expenditure. Legitimate comparisons of poverty rates between one country and another can be made only if the same absolute poverty line is used in both countries and to allow such cross-country comparisons of poverty rates is notoriously difficult. This study makes also use of the World Bank international poverty line of average daily consumption/capita equivalent to US$1.25/day. The monetary unit used in this study is the US$ at an exchange rate of N157 for US$1.The concept of poverty is applied in this study to situations at the household level and a recall period was used to capture information on the different subcomponents of household expenditure: expenditure on food, beverages, and tobacco, non-durable goods and frequently purchased services; semi-durable and durable goods and services; and non-consumption expenditure. For details on the household consumption module, refer to the household questionnaire in Annex 11.All purchases by household members and items received as free gifts were valued and recorded at the current prices. The items consumed as out-of-home produce were valued at the current farm-gate/producer prices; rent for an owner-occupied house was computed at current market prices. Food consumption includes food consumed from own production, purchases, and free collection/gifts.Expenditure data were collected on an item-by-item basis. The expenditures were then aggregated according to the recall period used and by broader sub-components of expenditure to the household level. After which, all the different sub-components of the expenditure were aggregated to derive the total expenditure at the household level. There is a distinction between consumption expenditure and total expenditure. The former refers to expenditure excluding non-consumption expenditure, whereas the latter includes the non-consumption expenditure sub-component.Further adjustments were made in the construction of the consumption aggregate that was later used in the estimation of poverty estimates. These adjustments included accounting for inter-temporal and spatial price variations, the revaluation of foods derived from own consumption into market prices, and finally accounting for household composition.There are a number of aggregate measures of poverty that can be computed. The formulas presented here are all based on the fact that the survey represents a simple random sample of the population, which makes them relatively easy to understand.By far the most widely-used measure is the headcount index, which simply measures the proportion of the population that is counted as poor, often denoted by P 0 . Formally,Where;Np is the number of poor and N is the total population.For reasons that will be clearer below, it is often helpful to rewrite (6) as ( 7):Where; I (.) is an indicator function that takes on a value of 1 if the bracketed expression is true, and 0 otherwise. So if expenditure (y i ) is less than the poverty line (z), then I (.) is equal to 1 and the household would be counted as poor.The greatest virtues of the headcount index are that it is simple to construct and easy to understand. These are important qualities. However the measure has some weaknesses. First, it does not take the intensity of poverty into account. Secondly, it does not indicate how poor the poor are, and hence does not change if people below the poverty line become poorer. Moreover, the easiest way to reduce the headcount index is to target benefits to people just below the poverty line, because it is cheapest to move them across the line. But by most normative standards, people just below the poverty line are the least deserving of the poor.A moderately popular measure of poverty is the poverty gap index, which adds up the extent to which individuals on average fall below the poverty line, and expresses it as a percentage of the poverty line. More specifically, it defines the poverty gap (Gi) as the poverty line (z) less actual expenditure (yi) for poor individuals; the gap is considered to be zero for everyone else. Using the index function, we have:Then the poverty gap index (P 1 ) may be written as:This measure is the mean proportionate poverty gap in the population (where the non-poor have a zero poverty gap). Some people find it helpful to think of this measure as the cost of eliminating poverty (relative to the poverty line), because it shows how much would have to be transferred to the poor to bring their expenditure up to the poverty line (as a proportion of the poverty line). The minimum cost of eliminating poverty using targeted transfers is simply the sum of all the poverty gaps in a population; every gap is filled up to the poverty line. However, this interpretation is reasonable only if the transfers could be made with perfect efficiency, for instance, with lump sum transfers, which is implausible. Clearly this assumes that the policymaker has a lot of information; one should not be surprised to find that a very \"pro-poor\" government would need to spend far more than this in the name of poverty reduction. At the other extreme, one can consider the maximum cost of eliminating poverty, assuming that the policymaker knows nothing about who is poor and who is not. From the form of the index, it can be seen that the ratio of the minimum cost of eliminating poverty with perfect targeting (i.e., Gi) to the maximum cost with no targeting (i.e., z, which would involve providing everyone with enough to ensure they are not below the poverty line) is simply the poverty gap index. Thus, this measure is an indicator of the potential saving to the poverty alleviation budget from targeting: the smaller the poverty gap index, the greater the potential economies for the poverty alleviation budget from identifying the characteristics of the poor-using surveys or other information-so as to target benefits and programs.To construct a measure of poverty that takes into account inequality among the poor, some researchers use the squared poverty gap index. This is simply a weighted sum of poverty gaps (as a proportion of the poverty line), where the weights are the proportionate poverty gaps themselves; a poverty gap of (say) 10% of the poverty line is given a weight of 10% while one of 50% is given a weight of 50%; this is in contrast with the poverty gap index where they are weighted equally. Hence, by squaring the poverty gap index, the measure implicitly puts more weight on observations that fall well below the poverty line. Formally:The measure lacks intuitive appeal, and because it is not easy to interpret it is not used very widely. It may be thought of as one of a family of measures proposed by Foster, Greer, and Thorbecke (FGT) (1984), which may be written, quite generally, asWhere;α is a measure of the sensitivity of the index to poverty and the poverty line is z defined in this study as two-thirds of mean annual per capita expenditure, the value of expenditure per capita for the i-th person's household is x i , and the poverty gap for individual i is Gi = z-x i (with Gi = 0 when x i > z)When parameter α = 0, P 0 is simply the headcount index. When α = 1, the index is the poverty gap index P 1 , and when α is set equal to 2, P 2 is the poverty severity index. For all α > 0, the measure is strictly a decrease in the living standard of the poor (the lower your standard of living, the poorer you are deemed to be). Furthermore, for α > 1, it also has the property that the increase in measured poverty due to a fall in your standard of living will be deemed greater the poorer you are. The measure is then said to be \"strictly convex\" in incomes (and \"weakly convex\" for α = 1). Another convenient feature of the FGT class of poverty measures is that they can be disaggregated for population subgroups and the contribution of each subgroup to national poverty can be calculated.Although the FGT measure provides an elegant unifying framework for measures of poverty, it leaves unanswered the question of what is the best value of α. Moreover, some of these measures also lack emotional appeal.The measures of poverty depth and poverty severity provide complementary information on the incidence of poverty. It might be the case that some groups have a high poverty incidence but a low poverty gap (when numerous members are just below the poverty line), while other groups have a low poverty incidence but a high poverty gap for those who are poor (when relatively few members are below the poverty line but with extremely low levels of consumption).In the study area female-headed households accounted for only 3% of the total (Table 3). This pattern of headship distribution is characteristic of most developing countries. The highest number of female-headed households was found in the HF, probably due to the fact that this AEZ occupies the coastal areas consisting of tidal swamps, interspersed with numerous creeks and lagoons which could have attracted men to non-farm activities. Although more than half of the household heads have attended school, the average number of years of schooling is low. The majority have just completed primary education with the lowest number being found in the SGS, meaning possibly that most people there develop a high interest and tendency to go to Islamic schools. Household size determines the availability of the household labor supply and Table 3 indicates a large household size for the study area which may be attributed to the propensity of adult sons and daughters (unmarried or married) to remain in the parental household. Moreover, a large household size tends to be allied generally with rural areas characterized by pronatalism and extended family relations. The dependency ratio shows that there are more adults (> 15 years and < 64 years) than dependents (children below 15 years and adults above 64 years). More households in the SGS tended to have more able-bodied members than dependents compared with other zones. Detailed information on the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of respondents by states is presented in Annex 1.Natural capital refers to the natural resource stock from which resource flows and services important to livelihoods are derived. Land was by far the major natural capital for smallholder farmers in yam-growing areas of Nigeria. The average amount of land available for farming was about 2.4 ha (Table 4) with the highest amount found in the SGS. Out of the total farming land, about 64% was allocated to yam and 18% of the yam land was for seeds. About 4% of the total farming land was owned and used by women. Women are in a disadvantaged position in terms of access to land, not being associated with inheritance practices.   Figure 2 shows in Nigeria the inequality of yam land distribution with the smallest holding category for smallholder farmers with less than 2 acres. This confirms the fact that in yam production areas, most of the land is allocated for yam.Strengthening women's rights to land ownership would contribute to gender equality and poverty reduction since women are responsible for most food production.Physical capital is created by economic production. It includes basic infrastructure and producer goods needed to support livelihoods. Basic infrastructure refers to the physical environment that helps people to meet their basic needs and be more productive in livelihoods; producer goods refer to productive capital that enhances income and personal consumption. It comprises productive assets, household quality, and consumer durables. Productive and household assets include machinery, tools, and items of equipment that are important determinants for production.As for the ownership of working animals, some of the animals are used as means of transport, pack animals (horses and donkeys), or as draft animals (oxen). In the whole surveyed area, the average number of oxen owned by respondents was small with most in the SGS, followed by the DS and HF. Few respondents reported that they owned donkeys and horses and the number was negligible. No one amongst the respondents owned a horse in the HF. Detailed information on the ownership of working animals is presented in Table 5.Other productive and household assets per capita are required for agriculture in all its ramifications. As shown (Table 6), in all the households surveyed, every active member 1 of a household had at least his own hands considered as the prerequisite for farming except in the HF where the number of hoes reported was insufficient for all active members. The assets most frequently owned by households were chairs, machetes, and beds.All of these items are important in managing yam fields. Other productive and household assets owned were not common, providing evidence that farmers are unable to manage their croplands properly. Items such as carts, grain mills, pumps, cars, jewelry, wooden/metal boxes, and fishponds were almost nonexistent in the households' assets basket. Tractors were absent from the list.The mode of transport used from residence to field was an issue to look at, as it affects productivity. Farmers travel within a given radial distance from their residences to fields for farming. The most important means of transport used were motorcycles and going on foot with a different perception of the distance between their residences and farms expressed in terms of minutes of walking time (Table 7). Bicycles were used for the closest farms at a distance of about 21 minutes of walking time. The most distant farms that took the longest time to reach were reported from the riverine areas where other means such as canoes or boats were used to reduce the walking distance radius estimated at about 2.4 hours.1Active agricultural population in the study area using these assets to be more productive refers to the population in agricultural households that is within the age group from 15 to 64 years.  Distance to fields could have effects on labor input and productivity and thus on yields and total production. Walking to farms for between 21 minutes and more than 2 hours reduces field work time. Chisholm (1979) provides numerous cases, mainly from West Africa where, for instance, intensive cultivation tends to drop off beyond 2 to 4 km (i.e., one hour's walk) from the residence. Apart from the reduction in labor intensity (mandays/season), other concerns as follows might need to be taken into consideration.The quality of the labor input (i.e., care, attention,) could also suffer because of the extra weariness and the need to perform most of the labor during the midday heat.Protection of pre-harvest yam against vermin or wandering livestock could be very difficult on distant fields with other sources of losses such as human theft of standing yam similarly more difficult to prevent.Use of land by poor smallholder farmers could be reduced and distant landholdings can become concentrated in the hands of richer peasants who own good means of transport.In conclusion, reduced labor intensity, land shortage with land disputes and general social insecurity, and the choice of crop could be the salient effects of the journey-to-field problem. Human capital refers to farming and non-farming occupations, labor availability, education, skills, leadership potential, nutrition, and the health of household members that together enable people to pursue livelihoods. Most rural economies in developing countries have diversified income-generating activities which might have an effect on a household's decision whether or not to adopt improved agricultural technologies. The major types of income-generating activities that were identified in the course of the study are presented (Fig. 3). Evidently farming was the most important occupation of the heads of households in the project area. Most household heads (95.9%) had farming as their main occupation. Other occupations were relatively minor.Extension workers or information providers help farmers to translate research results into an improvement in livelihoods. Extension or information services are expected to make farmers more likely or more able to adopt improved technologies and practices, and thus increase yield. Training or spreading information is one of the prime movers of the agricultural sector and has been considered a major means of technology dissemination. This aims at improving the productivity of agricultural systems and enhances the quality of life of rural farm households.In the surveyed area, a small number of respondents (less than 20%) had access to extension/information services during the last cropping season under consideration in all the types of services. A small number of respondents (17%) had access to training or information on new varieties during the same period (Table 8). The SGS had the highest number of respondents who had access to information on new varieties; the HF had the lowest. The details are presented in Table 8.  Rural farmers are not noted for producing enough food, probably owing to certain constraints that lead to a lack of access to timely and up-to-date information which would have enabled them to achieve optimal yields from their farmlands. Such information is highly desired by these farmers and can be made available to them only via extension services. As depicted in Table 9, a few households got the information from the radio, TV, and NGOs, and a negligible number from a research center. About 7% of the respondents obtained information through the government's extension service, 3% via farmers' groups, about 3% via traders and agrodealers, and about 2% through their neighbors/relatives. None was informed through a private company, farmers' field school, newspaper, mobile phone, town hall meeting, or farmers' training center. The sources which appeared to be the most promising avenues for promoting new yam technologies are the government's extension service, farmers' cooperatives or groups, neighboring farmers or relatives, and traders/agrodealers. More emphasis should be put on the HF.Despite modern information technology when telecenters should provide rural farmers with prompt and reliable information about what is happening in the areas of improved varieties, better methods of cultivation and fertilizer application, and pest and weed control/eradication, old sources of communication still exist in the surveyed area including town criers, secretaries of village heads, and religious leaders, as well as village meetings, radio, TV, newspapers, and mobile phones focused on varietal information dissemination.Discussions with 33 separate groups of men and women with a minimum of eight members/group indicated that the most common source of information in use is the radio (Fig. 4). All households reported that they use the radio and among the users, about 70% trusted the information received from the radio. Apart from the radio, the common means used were town criers, mobile phones, religious leaders, and secretaries of village heads. Other means were uncommon or absent.Other ways of delivering messages or information to the rural farmers reported in the surveyed area include video/film centers, drama, dance, folklore, group discussions, meetings, exhibitions, and demonstrations. These have a different focus which is not necessarily on agriculture. Most of these occur rarely while a few are inaccessible to all respondents.  Financial capital refers to the financial resources that people use to achieve their livelihood objectives and includes flows and stocks that can contribute to production and consumption. It includes savings, income levels, variability over time, and distribution within society of financial savings, flows or stocks of capital, for example, livestock holdings, and access to credit (formal or informal). The financial capital enables people to adopt different livelihood strategies.Investment in agricultural technologies by smallholders is often limited by financial capital constraints such as credit. Access to credit facilities is an important tool for poverty reduction because it takes care of the needs of the disadvantaged groups in society, such as the very poor, the physically challenged, the youth, and so on.Results show that a larger percentage (about 50%) of respondents needed credit and only a small number (less than 17%) were able to obtain it (Table 10 and Fig. 5).Non-working livestock are life-supporting assets to the poor. They represent financial capital that enhances the quality of life as they have the potential to generate quick cash for owners when there is an urgent need for money; they can feed humans with meat/milk and add manure to the soil. They are also a source of security to the smallholders who depend heavily on such assets during periods of unexpected crop failure.  Most households in the study area kept poultry, followed by goats, then doves, and finally sheep. The instances of piggery enterprises or of keeping rabbits and other animals such as grasscutters were negligible (Table 11).Social capital refers to the social resources upon which people draw in pursuit of their livelihoods. This includes any membership of a social group or network that increases trust, ability to work together, access to opportunities, reciprocity, and informal safety nets.In rural communities, membership of formal or informal institutions offers opportunities to boost agricultural production by providing various forms of support to farmers. In the surveyed area an important number of about 42% of farmers reported that they had been members of any of the institutions in the last 3 years. Male and female groups were reported and some respondents belong to more than one group. Results (Table 12) indicate that the main membership developed in the study area is in farmers' associations (43.4% in the male group) and women's associations (42.9% from the female group) followed by religious associations for both   groups. The other type of groups including yam producer and marketing groups had a small membership size, probably because of limitations in group formation or lack of assistance to members. Other memberships were uncommon or nonexistent.Farmers reported they had had their first membership of institutions six decades ago and this was increased after two decades from 16.8 to 76.8% in the male group; in the female group, the membership increased from 6 to 90% after four decades. Most farmers from the male group (94%) belong to institutions, more as officials (58.3%) than as ordinary members (36.4%). On the other hand in the female group, more of them (95%) were ordinary members (59.8%) than officials (38.2%).Apart from membership in organizations, other social resources upon which households draw in pursuit of their livelihood objectives are developed through interactions, relationships that could facilitate cooperation and increase the ability to work together. Results from Table 13 indicate that about 95% of respondents have been living in their community for more than 10 years, a sufficient time for interactions to an extent that people could have developed confidence in others.Despite the life together within the community, respondents could rely only on about 7 to 8 relatives/nonrelatives in critical situations and more trust was built on outsiders for critical support. The internal lack of trust could be as a result of past experiences. More reliance was developed in the SGS compared with other zones (Table 14).The number of potential yam buyers inside the community is lower than that outside because all the residents were yam farmers (Table 15). Competition was not pronounced and such a situation favored the buyers.  Yam-based SystemCropping systems across the zones are characterized by tremendous diversity and the predominant form of crop husbandry in the case study area is the yam-based system. Within the system, farmers combine crops with different growing periods and develop highly diversified cropping patterns. This behavior must be explained by the intention of maximizing returns from limited resources.Areas under cultivation are generally small and the primary objective of farmers is to meet subsistence needs followed by income generation through the sale of surplus food production. The range of local soil and climatic conditions, resource availability, and markets or farmers' tastes and preferences allows a wide variety of growing crops across the different zones. The most widely cultivated crops were roots and tubers. Of these, yam was the most important and most widely cultivated. Cereals were next to the roots and tubers in terms of relative importance, as reflected in the percentage of households growing them, especially maize (Table 16).On the other hand, grain legumes and vegetables were not widely grown; the industrial crops being uncommon or absent. Farming practices vary depending on the farmers' production objectives, such as food and income generation. Yam is grown sometimes as an intercrop with other crops. About 35% of households intercropped yam with other crops (51% of cases with cassava and 32% with maize as the main second crop) certainly to minimize the risks and being consistent with the goals of security and year-round subsistence needs. Intercropping seems to help in maximizing the space, water, and nutrients available. The intercropping practice decreases progressively from the HF to SGS (Fig. 6).Apart from intercropping, rotation was also used to restore soil fertility to their land. About 40% of households reported using rotation with other crops. The pattern varies from zone to zone and more yam plots are rotated in the DS (Fig. 7). Cassava (58% of cases) was the first previous season main crop grown followed by maize (20% of cases) and guinea corn (10% of cases).  Almost all the yam plots were farmer-owned in all the AEZs. A few were rented while borrowing was uncommon (Fig. 8).Almost all plots were managed by men. The small number of women who were involved in management increased slowly from the DS to the HF. Women had hardly ever been involved in the SGS (Fig. 9).  The major soil types in the study area in Nigeria, according to FAO/IIASA/ISRIC/ISSCAS/JRC (2009) soil taxonomy, are fluvisols, leptosol, plinthosols, acrisols, ferrasols, lixisols, luvisols, nitosols, and vertisols. Farmers perceived that the soils in the SGS are quite different from those in the DS which in turn are different from those in the HF in terms of soil fertility, slope, depth, and type/color. These soil types vary in their potential for agricultural use (Fig. 10). Soils reported in the HF were more fertile with a better slope than those in the DS and SGS. Deeper and black soils were more pronounced in the DS; more farmers in the HF perceived their soils as being brown. The perceptions of farmers seem to align with the evidence that more soils in forest zones are better than in the other zones. An important number of farmers do not use any soil and water conservation method (Fig. 11). In places where conservation was practiced, only mulching was considered, followed by terracing. Other methods were uncommon.In the project area (Fig. 12), mounding is the most widespread seed preparation method used for yam production as it enhances rooting depth.Mounds are constructed manually in rows or at random. The number of mounds reported varies from one household to another and from one zone to another (Table 17). The average number of mounds is lower than the recommended 10000 mounds/ha with a spacing of 1 m × 1 m. This number varies depending on the mound size and yam spacing and also with the decision of the producer, as reported.   The analysis on intensification refers in this study to the use of inputs within the farming system. The common means of enhancing soil fertility in small farm agriculture has been to use chemical fertilizers to increase food production.Amon and Adetunji (1970) recommended rates of 25 to 56 kg N/ha (with or without 56 kg K/ha) for the alfisols of southwestern Nigeria. Traditionally, farmers produce yam on fertile soils after long periods of fallow because of the crop's high nutrient demand. Nowadays, increased pressure caused by natural catastrophes, the ever increasing human population, and the use of agricultural land for housing, roads, industry, and other human activities has drastically reduced the fallow period, resulting in a decline in the fertility of soils and the loss of their ability to support the required biodiversity (Ojating 1997). Fertilization is crucial to sustaining crop productivity under continuous land use. Today the recommendation for fertilizer application is about 100 k/ha for basal fertilizer and 50 kg/ha for top dressing.Few respondents use fertilizer in yam production. Generally, the application rates fall short of the \"recommended\" nutrient levels to expect good yields (Table 18). Also, as yam is susceptible to pests and diseases, the proper use of chemicals at a \"recommended rate\" is required for their control. No study has been done with recommended rates of pesticide.The steady decline in yam yields and profitability is attributed to low input use associated with agronomic and husbandry practices. Failure to use fertilizer or to apply the proper rate is explained by the fact that (i) farmers lack information about the specific type and quantity of fertilizer to apply and (ii) the use of fertilizer negatively affects the taste and the storage of yam. Also the low quantity applied is linked to the exorbitant prices that were perceived by farmers as staggering and unaffordable. High input cost is also linked to inadequate competition among dealers and the inefficient distribution system for farm inputs. Detailed information on fertilizer and pesticide use by states is available in Annex 2. It has been not easy to estimate yam harvest. Yam harvests were determined using farmers' memory recall on the quantity/number of tubers harvested in a given area in each locality and the average weight of a randomly sampled series. For more information on calculation, refer to the metrics in Annex 7. The cropping system generally affects the crop yield and the productivity of yam was low compared with its potential. Average yam yields, a major determinant of profitability, has been on a steady downward trajectory, most probably as a consequence of declining soil fertility resulting from intensified land use and poor soil management. Yam sole yielded better than that under intercropping with an exception observed in the HF (Table 19). The addition of soil amendments in the HF might have improved yam performance and subsequently yield and intercropping in the HF might also have helped to alleviate the pest and disease problems.The productivity level farmers reported was low certainly due to the high pressure of pests and diseases associated with poor management practices and lack of adequate inputs. High yielding crop varieties might be necessary to increase productivity in the study area. Detailed information on yam yield by state is available in Annex 3.In conclusion recall-based yields in 2012 from the surveyed area were 27.9% lower than the average national yam yield reported by FAO (2013). Our results suggest that farmers might be underestimating their harvests.We draw readers' attention that another study was commissioned on yield estimates from field measurement within the same yam belt using different methodology. For more details on the findings from field measurement, an interested reader is referred to Chapter 10.Various costs were incurred for producing yam. The major cost items were basal fertilizer, top dressing fertilizerurea, manure, seeds, labor (land preparation and planting, staking and roping, weed control, harvesting, and transportation), oxen/tractor hire, herbicides and pesticides, and land rent.All costs were reported with fixed costs excluded because for most poor, rural farmers fixed costs are not reliable. In most cases, farmers do not have permanent working tools. Tools such as hoes, machetes, buckets, and utensils that farmers possess and use in the production process are not properly recorded in terms of their monetary value and purpose of purchase. Labor, the primary input most farmers put into agriculture, is one of the more difficult items to value because for most farm household members off-farm employment is not really an option. The valuation of rural family labor has been an area of economic debate. Also for most household  members (e.g., women, children, old men, and young boys), there are no paying alternatives to on-farm work. Unpaid family members have stronger incentives for getting farm work done in a careful and timely fashion than hired non-family members. This is because members of the farm family can expect to share directly or indirectly in the net farm income but hired non-family farm labor generally can not. Assuming the labor market is competitive, rural wages for hired labor are used as a proxy to approximate the (replacement) cost of the days utilized or required by a farmer for various tasks. The labor was retained as mandays and a manday is the work one person would normally do in a working day of 8 hours (official working hours) to carry out a specific activity (Oduor 2002). In farming activities, the number of working hours in a day varies depending on the area and the activity. The labor cost of various activities may also vary, not only from place to place but also from season to season, depending on the demand for labor and its availability (Oduor 2002). However, for the development agent to survey and establish the actual unit cost for different activities in a particular area, we consider the wage rate in the community as the basis for estimating labor cost (Oduor 2002) as depicted in Table 20.The valuation of rural family labor has been an area of economic debate, as said before, and two cases were considered in this section: (i) the returns to land and management excluding the opportunity cost of family labor and (ii) the returns to land where the opportunity cost of family labor is included in the total variable costs. The annual estimated costs per hectare of yam growers including (incl) family labor in the study area were about N349261 and were reduced when excluding (excl) the family labor to about N120818 (Table 21). Among the cost components, labor had the largest share of the total cost (about 83%); family labor was the most important (78% of the total labor charges) followed by the cost of seeds. Contrary to empirical studies (Agbaje et al. 2005), the costs of seed in this study have been undervalued due to the milking system mostly adopted for seed multiplication. Most of the yam fields are planted with own produced seed yam whose costs were not easily estimated, for the reason that seed yam is not meant to be sold according and consequently has no cost value. Detailed information on costs of production by state is available in Annex 4. The variable costs of yam production did vary widely across the AEZs depending mainly on hired labour cost rendering yam production very costly in the HF (Table 21). Most of the farmers interviewed reported differently the price received for their produce. Total production was valued by multiplying the production by the farmgate price received for the product. Value of the total production per hectare of land was about N647370 in all the surveyed areas with the highest pronounced in the HF (Table 22).The relative profitability of the crops was conducted by computing the gross margin (GM) for yam that was planted across different zones. This was done by subtracting the value of variable costs from the value of the total production. In this study we compute two forms of GM; (i) the returns to land and management excluding the opportunity cost of family labor and (ii) the returns to land where the opportunity cost of family labor is included in the total variable costs. The gross incomes and variable costs for selected crops excluding the opportunity cost of family labor are presented in Table 22. The gross revenue is the monetary value of the total produce or the total harvest. It measures the total receipts received from the sales of produce including the value of any retained output. Operational costs for this study included the monetary values of all inputs used including seeds, fertilizer, manure, oxen/tractor rent, purchased chemicals, and labor (hired and family). The results for the three categories of variables (gross revenues, operational costs, and GM) are further disaggregated by AEZ and presented in Table 22. There are substantial variations in GM across the zones. The differences in profitability are no surprise as they could also be attributed to differences in productivity, as well as to differences in input and output prices. As depicted in Table 22, the GM is positive in all the surveyed areas, denoting the profitability of yam production with a relative advantage for production in HF despite the high production costs.It may be concluded that yam production practices in HF were more rational and efficient compared with those in other zones and the positive GM suggests that there is potential for the adoption of new varieties in the surveyed area.Constraints limiting yam production and postharvest handling need to be identified to provide a basis for appropriate interventions. A range of factors constrained yam production and storage. These include insect pests, diseases, waterlogging, drought, rodents, low soil fertility, shortage of staking material, inadequate input supply and storage facility, land shortage, high cost of labor, lack of improved varieties, and others such as theft (Table 23). Results presented in Table 23 indicated that the high cost of labor was reported to be the most important constraint in all the surveyed zones with farmers that lack capital and liquidity. This was followed by insect pests and diseases. Other important constraints mentioned were an inadequate input supply that was very pronounced in the DS, low soil fertility more reported in the SGS and DS than in the HF, rodents and drought mostly found in the SGS, waterlogging perceived as a problem more in the DS than in the others, lack of improved varieties more prominent in the HF, shortage of land and staking material more reported in the HF, and others such as theft that were more important in the HF and DS.The results by gender (Fig. 13) show that female-and male-headed households perceived the constraints in their production and storage of yam produce to the same extent except that inadequate input supply and waterlogging were reported as more important by female-headed households than by male-headed households.Lack of seed yam is an important constraint to yam production which was not mentioned for the fact that most of farmers use as seed for planting their own produced seed yam which is either a tuber, i.e., the crop or a milked yam. Serious complaints were made during discussions had in focus groups with men and women about seed yam. All farmers reported lacking \"good quality\" seed yam defining good quality as yam that is be pest and disease resistant and would consequently yield better; this as to reveal seed yam as one of the major constraints.The stresses faced during producing yam or after harvest were reported at different levels, from less severe to highly severe. In general, about 34% of all respondents reported the level of constraints faced as severe and and 25% as highly severe, with negligible differences among different AEZs (Fig. 14).  After yam harvest, their transportation and storage are done manually and farmers are sometimes pushed to sell their tubers immediately after harvest, generally at uneconomical prices, to avoid postharvest losses. The bulky nature of tubers and the fast rate of perishability due to their high moisture content make them less convenient for transportation and storage than other crops such as cereals, hence increasing their losses after harvest. It has not been easy to establish a reasonable estimate for the percentage of postharvest losses that may be sustained by a yam crop. Postharvest losses at the production level were determined using farmers' memory recall limited to major causes of losses. About 97% of households lost had 14% of their tubers to rot while 94% had them sprouted. About 23% of the respondents lost 2% through other causes such as rodents and theft (Table 24). Among the AEZs, the rotting rate was predominant in the HF; sprouting was highly pronounced in the SGS. The highest level of other losses was observed in the HF.Coping facilities were developed by farmers to control the losses that occured. An important number of farmers reported construction of yam barns in the compound followed by room storage as important storage facilities (Table 25). A small number of households raised huts and sheds in the field. Keeping tubers under trees and even leaving them in the soil after maturity were some of the options used to prevent losses. Other methods used included covering tubers with weeds. When the households are compared by gender (Fig. 15), an important number of female-headed households reported the use of barns in the compound as storage facilities. More of them than of male-headed households left tubers under trees or in the soil, probably for the easy solutions these represent.  Farmers participate in yam production for three main reasons: household food supply; income generation through marketing ware yam; and the production of planting material (seed yam) to meet their own needs with some income from the sale of surplus seed yam. In the survey, farmers provided information on how they utilized the yam they have as the total available stock; of this, 6.8% was reported as carry-over stock from the previous harvest. Information was collected for the quantity sold, quantity used as in-kind payments, used as seeds, given out as gifts/donations, and consumed. Based on this information, percentage shares of the quantity allocated to each of the five purposes were computed. Figure 16 depicts information on utilization which does not vary significantly across the AEZs. As depicted, the proportion for sale is the most important (about 61%). Another important share of about 22% is allocated for seeds and 14% for home consumption. Other forms of utilization were uncommon or nonexistent.In conclusion, yam is more of a cash crop and is therefore a crop with potential for income generation.Yam tubers are generally sold on a cash and carry basis and prices based on perceived size and quality of tubers (Phillips et al. 2013). In order to buy or sell goods, farmers travel within a given radial distance to market. In the surveyed zone, farmers perceived differently the distance between their residence and market expressed in terms of minutes of walking time. Half of them frequently use motorcycles as a means of transport to reach the market, a distance of about half an hour (Table 26). Among those farmers interviewed, 19% said their residences were within a 48-minute walkdistance to market using a vehicle. Frequently, the distance they go to board a vehicle is estimated to be longer than that using a motorcycle and a bicycle. Farmers who walked perceived walking as being faster than using a vehicle or cart.The findings depict the poor quality of the road infrastructure in the surveyed communities that is suspected to be a contributory factor to high transport costs.  As indicated by Phillips et al. (2013), some exports to neighburing countries such as Benin, Togo, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad reportedly exist and appear small compared to the quantities of yam consumed by domestic consumers. Even though Nigeria is the world's largest yam producer, overseas exports seem to be negligible (Phillips et al. 2013). At the national level, three main types of markets exist in or surrounding farmers areas. The results indicate that in general the village market is the most important point of sale followed by the main/district market usually outside the village and located at an urban area (Fig. 17) with some differences observed within the AEZs. The significance of the village and main market sales is explained partly by the relatively higher retail price obtained there than that at the farmgate.Various reasons push farmers to sell their yam at different periods. Two main reasons lead them to a particular sales period: either they make early sales just after harvest at an uneconomical price because of a \"hot\" need of money or good sales at a later period when the crop has become scarce.Most of the respondents reported the period of February-April as the peak of sales after their harvest around August-December (Fig. 18).  In conclusion, yam is primarily considered to be a msn's crop, and all the agricultural activities are predominantly carried out by men. However, this does not exclude women from involving themselves in some of the activities such as marketing and trading where they do. Meanwhile brokers/middlemen and urban grain traders or wholesalers have increased, acting as both buyers and later as sellers, and mainly buying yam directly from farmers for resale. In the absence of market information, farmers do not receive fair prices and the middlemen get the major share of the profit, though they also take the most risk. Cutting out this intervening layer between farmers and customers might help farmers to get a higher price for their produce. The study called for regulatory measures to be set for improving the yam marketing system especially at the farmgate level. The marketing problems of small farmers, as some of them reported, emanated from their dependence on brokers/middlemen for credit. This puts them in a highly unequal trading relationship with the buyers of their produce. Therefore, improving the ability of farmers to have access to the market and strengthening their bargaining position are recommended as the central focus of any policy for yam market reform.The most important mode of transport was the hired vehicle followed by public transport (Fig. 21). Other means were negligible and almost absent. Other means such as canoes/boats were also mentioned, especially in the HF and DS.  The perception of farmers gave an insight into the attributes likely to motivate them in selecting and using a certain type of yam. Such attributes are of three kinds: agronomic, market, and economic; cooking and utilization. To understand better farmers' criteria for selection and determine their perceptions on varieties, the study used a qualitative analysis based on ranking, weighing varieties against the attributes using their frequency of occurrence reported by households in each AEZ. Communities and households assign priorities and rank varieties they produce as summarized in Table 27. Assessment of farmers' preferences among local alternative varieties could provide useful feedback for research and extension. New technologies to be developed for households to adopt should be based, in addition to financial profitability, on this range of criteria such as risk, compatibility with farmers' values, and difficult-to-quantify benefits that were often omitted from economic analyses. This analysis could not only provide a list of the selection criteria used by farmers but could also help to clarify the relative weighting of the criteria employed by farmers when making selections.About 10% of the varieties were reported unnamed. Some of the names found across different AEZs (Table 27) could be duplications and this might be due to the composition of the ethnic groups existing in each surveyed AEZ.The study found that there were many different local names of yam within the three AEZs. The most common varieties observed across the zones are Hembamkwase, Ame, Pepa, Giwa, and Aloshi in the SGS; Amula, Ogoja, and Gbangu in the DS; Obiaturugo, Iguma, Nwagba, and Ekpe in the HF (Table 27).From the results by gender (Table 28), the perceptions are quite similar in terms of preferences between households headed by males and by females. This could be due to the fact that both are oriented to a commercial cultivation of the same varieties with a high market demand. No released improved varieties were identified in the field during the survey. Lack of access to seeds was the main reason for the failure of good, new varieties to be spread among farmers. Breeders are usually responsible for breeder seed multiplication and a government seed company may be responsible for the multiplication and distribution of certified seeds and a commercial seed production sector to market and distribute the seeds. This system may have not been effective giving farmers little or no opportunity to obtain seeds. Other reasons considered to have inhibited the adoption of improved varieties could be: (i) a minimum requirement of cultivable land for demonstrations; and (ii) continuous seed multiplication might have affected the improved varieties released so that they can no longer be easily distinguished from a wide range of local genotypes, especially since these new varieties were released without any friendly local name. Adoption under the current situation suffers from the reliable identification of improved varieties which might have been renamed or mixed with existing landraces.Effective varietal introduction schemes need to be set for several years in order to ensure the stable integration of the new variety into the local seed system. Although the dissemination of information about new varieties is often viewed as an extension function, breeders may need to actively encourage and help the extension service by: (a) preparing information packages for new releases, (b) leading participatory varietal selection and front-line demonstration programs, (c) ensuring that large enough quantities of seeds are available for on-farm testing and demonstration, (d) organizing field days, and (e) participating in agricultural fairs, to ensure a better transfer and adoption level of farm technologies. However knowledge about landraces' varietal preference could be of help in planning new interventions. Varietal characterization needs to be investigated to confirm or otherwise any relationship of these most preferred varieties to the improved varieties released. Also, for easy tracking, the project should focus on giving friendly names to new varieties before their release.Awareness is one of the significant predictors of the decision to adopt. Among the available yam landraces, farmers reported varieties they consider as most preferred for their specific characteristics, such as yield potential, maturity period, taste, color of the flesh, poundability, storability, etc. About 36% of surveyed households (Table 29) reported awareness about their preferred varieties. One of these is \"Sudan\", an introduced landrace from IITA, originally from Puerto Rico, with its name from Sudan United Mission which disseminates the variety. Fify-seven of such known varieties were reported with more diversity pronounced in the SGS, followed by the DS; the smallest number was reported in the HF. The ecological differences prevailing in these AEZ might have contributed to the observed differences in varietal diversity. Varietal characterization needs to be investigated to confirm or otherwise any relationship of farmers' reported most preferred landraces to the improved yam varieties released. As shown, (Fig. 22), more male-headed than female-headed households were aware of these most preferred yam varieties. In addition, male-headed households had heard of more varieties than female-headed households, probably because from the beginning yam was perceived primarily as a man's crop.\"Exposed\" households learned about their most preferred yam varieties from multiple sources (Table 30). The most important channel was the farmers' group, followed by the seed stockists. Farmers' groups played a predominant role in the SGS and HF while relatives/neighbors took the lead in the DS.The most important communication channels should be used to disseminate information about improved varieties. Female-headed households were mainly made aware through relatives/neighbors; male-headed households were informed through farmers' groups, followed by relatives/neighbors (Fig. 23).   Figure 24 shows the diffusion of farmers' most preferred varieties. The awareness started from 1948 in the DS, 1965 in the SGS, and 1967 in the HF. Progressively, the number of respondents made aware increased until a peak was observed, first in 2007 in the HF and 2 years later in the SGS and DS. The total has decreased slightly.The graphic (Fig. 24) indicates a small gradual increase denoting a slower creation of awareness until an optimum before a slow-down. A strategic analysis could be considered to maintain the awareness rate or more rapid growth.About 36% of the responses stated they got the first seeds from retailers followed in decreasing order by farmers' groups, on-farm trials, local seed producers, farmer-to-farmer seed exchange, and other less important sources (Table 31). The source varied according to the AEZ (Table 31). An important number of households got their first seeds predominantly from seed retailers in the SGS and DS and from on-farm trials in the HF.  The findings in Table 32 show that most of the first seeds were bought with cash, followed by gifts in all the surveyed AEZs.According to Asumugha et al. (2007), acquiring seed yam accounts for over 40% of production costs because of many constraints in the system. Many factors could determine the quantity of the first seeds that farmers acquired and this quantity is low in this study, from 1 tuber to a maximum of 1600 (Table 33). Despite the information the farmers might have received on the quality, the quantity acquired is limited, probably because they were not well informed the first time. This might indicate that farmers did not rely on the credibility of different sources about quality. This might have reduced their interest and demand. Most of the surveyed households (84%) who were aware of the most preferred varieties had planted them (Table 34). The same proportion planted them this season and almost all of them planned to plant them in future, certainly because of how good theyfound them. The biggest number of households that had ever planted and continued to plant the most preferred varieties was found in the SGS. The smallest number was in the DS. All the households in the DS and HF are willing to plant in future.All the female-headed households (Fig. 25) that had once planted the best landraces planted them this season and will plant them in future; this indicates that the interest they developed in these varieties is greater than that of male-headed households.Several factors can limit farmers from planting their best variety. The households which were aware of the best varieties and responded to this question gave a number of reasons for not planting them. The main reason for non-adoption was the availability of the seeds followed by financial abilities (Table 35). The few householdspecific reasons vary from one AEZ to another as depicted (Table 35). Seed availability prevails as the first and only reason in the HF while complemented by other reasons in the SGS and DS.In conclusion, best varieties that are expected to perform better and enhance performance are likely to be widely adopted provided that farmers are aware of them.    Willingness to pay is a reflection of the maximum amount a farmer thinks a best variety is worth. Exact measurement of the consumers' willingness to pay is essential for pricing product innovations. In this case, market research often relies on hypothetical approaches to gauge consumers' demand. These methods are known to be considerably biased. Til date, there is no convincing approach to eliminate these biases. A nonincentive-aligned direct approach, i.e., direct questioning, was used in this study.Hitting a price point that most farmers could be willing to pay for a variety that has the desired qualities and is enough for planting one hectare varies accros the area (Table 36) and 21% were willing to pay above the average amount indicated. The difference might depend on the personal assessment of the value of the product.This section depicts the shocks faced by a household in pursuit of its livelihood strategy and exposes the values of poverty indices by comparing the household data collected on food and non-food consumption and expenditure. The use of income as a poverty indicator has been criticized as being more difficult to measure accurately and instead the use of expenditure as a poverty indicator has been preferred. Household expenditure, which is the cost of goods and services acquired for private use during a survey reference period, is considered to be a suitable substitute because it is relatively less variable than household income since consumers may not make long-term adjustments to spending if they believe that changes in their income are only temporary.In pursuit of its livelihood strategy, a household always faces shocks, either common or specific in nature. Food deficit was the main shock experienced by the majority of households across the surveyed areas. This type of vulnerability was drawn from the qualitative analysis considering the respondents' perception about the number of households influenced by food shortages and the frequency of food shortages during the season.Assessing family's food consumption in the past 12 months uses farmers' memory recall on different food shortage scenarios. An important number of households (about 37%) experienced food shortages in the study area and about 5% of these had shortages through the year (Table 37). Households reported the experience of food shortages in a range of 34 to 47% with the HF holding the highest proportion of households experiencing the unavailability of food, followed by the SGS with about 38% and the DS with the lowest. These proportions are important, probably because of the decline in productivity attributed to factors including deteriorating soil structure and fertility, inadequate yield potential of popular varieties, prevalence of noxious weeds, as well as increasing levels of field and storage pests and diseases and high tuber losses in storage. However, they are a good indication of food insecurity in the region because when an important proportion of households claim to have experienced food shortages it is an indication of vulnerability.Food surpluses for sale could not be produced by all households. As indicated (Table 37 and Fig. 26) the households able to produce a surplus are in the minority, being fewer than one-quarter of the number of those unable to do so.  Among the households that experienced food unavailability the most common coping strategies used to mitigate the shock were as listed by importance in Table 38: borrowing food or relying on help from friends/ relatives (18%); limiting the variety of foods eaten (18%); reducing the number of meals eaten daily (18%); relying on less preferred foods (16%); limiting portion size at meal-times (11%), and seeking jobs inside the community (10%). The coping strategies vary as shown in Table 38. The top strategies used by households by AEZ were as follows: limiting the variety of foods eaten in SGS, reducing the number of meals eaten daily in DS, and relying on less preferred foods in HF.The total expenditure included household expenditure on consumables and expenses on non-food items. Under food expenditure, all the food items consumed by the household during a year were collected. Food consumption includes food that the household has purchased, grown, and received from other sources. The total expenditure on food was obtained by aggregating expenditure on all food items whilst the total expenditure on each food group was obtained by aggregating expenditure on all food items falling within a group. Restrict consumption by adults in favor of children 1.Borrow food, or rely on help from a friend/relative 18.Have no food of any kind in the household 1.0Sleep at night hungry because of not having enough food 0.Go a whole day and night without eating anything 0. The different types of staple foods consumed in each household were enumerated and the physical quantity of each food item consumed in a year was estimated. Staple foods that were purchased, self-produced, or received as a gift were included in this estimation. The foods were then aggregated to give total staple consumption. Staple foods consumed outside the home were left out of this estimate because of the difficulties associated with accuracy in the conversion of purchased food into physical quantities. A comparison among staple foods (Annex 9) indicates that yam is still the most consumed staple in the surveyed area using consumption figures for each household which were converted into per capita consumption by dividing the total quantity consumed in a year by the number of adult equivalents. For non-food expenditure, all non-food items and services purchased by the household during the given reference period were also collected. On average, households spent 68%, a considerable share of their budget, on food (Table 39). When the food ratio is compared by AEZ, the highest was reported in the HF and it is clear that those who live in the SGS and DS spent more on housing, education, transport, electricity, and health, etc., than those who live in the HF.The high level of the food ratio in the surveyed area is characteristic of most poor countries and the poverty measurement can be calculated on a household basis, i.e., by assessing the share of households below the poverty line. However it might be better to estimate the measures on a population basis, in terms of individuals, in order to take into account the number of individuals within each household. From the welfare measure, such as per capita consumption and the poverty line, a number of aggregate measures of poverty are computed.Individual consumption is used to generate poverty measurements belonging to the family of indices derived from the Foster, Greer, and Thorbecke equation to answer the following questions: How many are poor within the yam-growing areas of Nigeria? How poor are they? And how deprived are they?According to Department of Census and Statistics (2008) in Sri Lanka, poverty or the poor exists where some persons fall short of reasonably defined minimum levels of well-being, such as access to certain levels of consumption or income, housing, health, and education facilities, and certain rights recognized according to the standards of human needs and the socioeconomic conditions of the society.The basic measure of poverty is the size of the population which falls below the poverty line and the same is reported as the incidence of poverty by the poverty headcount index as a percentage of the total population. The depth of poverty or the poverty gap provides information regarding how far the population is from the poverty line. Poverty severity takes into account not only the distance separating the poor from the poverty line but also inequality among the poor.As already mentioned earlier, two poverty lines were used for poverty measures: the relative poverty line set as two-thirds of the mean annual per capita expenditure and the standard international poverty line of $1.25/ day/capita to allow the cross-country comparisons of poverty rates that are notoriously difficult. In the surveyed area (Table 40), the poverty measures using the two different methods have the same trend even though the two measures cannot be directly compared. About half of the respondents were found poor with the relative poverty line while about 44% of households were found poor using the absolute poverty line. Poverty indices vary across the AEZs with households in the SGS at greater risk of being in poverty with the same tendency in poverty severity and depth. The development of the agricultural sector is possible through institutional arrangements.During the survey, households were asked to provide information on services received from government officials and to assess the effectiveness of institutions on agriculture.Households were asked whether they (i) rely on government support (subsidies, food aid, etc.,) if their crop fails; and (ii) are confident of the skills of government officials, including extension workers, in doing their job. This section also brought in some of the institutional issues discussed in the previous sections.The types of support provided by government, such as subsidies and food aid, play a key role in the development of the agricultural sector. As depicted (Fig. 27), all the households do not rely on government support, especially in the case of crop failure. The households reported to rely on government support were in a minority (about 33%) in the surveyed area (Fig. 27).Government officials working in agriculture have a crucial role to play in fostering agricultural development for agriculture to be one of the most satisfying and rewarding ways to make a living. For some yam-growing households, complaints were made concerning government officials, such as extension workers. They reported they did not know their extension agents. For others, the advice they provide is not reliable and this leads to poor harvests. In the surveyed area as depicted (Fig. 28) an important number of respondents (about 58%) did not have confidence in extension workers' skills and rely on their own knowledge with the worst scenario (about 60%) being observed in the SGS.In conclusion, from the farmers' perspective, trust has been lost in government support in the case of crop failure and confidence about the skills of officials. Programs and policies should be designed to regain trust and foster increased production.From the survey, many other policy and institutional issues were raised by respondents aiming at redesigning programs and policies intended to maximize production, ensure food security, and improve the lives of yam farmers. These include the following:• Rural infrastructure to be developed to improve rural-urban transport and market linkages.Taxes and tariffs on farm products to be revised. • Agrodealers, used mainly to distribute agricultural inputs or related purposes, should be able to always respond to the needs of yam producers.A major effort in education, training, and the provision of credit to be initiated and developed.Rural agricultural cooperatives in agroprocessing, storage facilities, and marketing to be developed and, where necessary, rehabilitated. Producer groups need to be organized and trained as market-oriented entrepreneurs, able to develop production capacities, based upon diversification of their produce, that are specifically driven by urban market demand.Also, through farmers' reports, there is a very limited understanding of government policies relating to natural resource management, the rationale for those policies, and what they are intended to achieve. This is leading to resignation as poor people see government policies as being intended to exclude them from access to land and fuelwood. A complementary baseline survey was commissioned in addition to the substantive data collected within the same yam belt of Nigeria. This study aims mainly at measuring directly yam yield from farmers' fields in order to get more accurate crop yield estimates. Some related socioeconomic and community level characteristics were also collectedThis survey is based on a sample survey of yam producing areas of Nigeria and all yam agroecologies, namely, the humid forest, derived savanna, and southern Guinea savanna were covered in selecting five states, namely: Edo, Ebonyi, Benue, Nasarawa, and Oyo. In each state, three communities were selected randomly and making a total of 15 communities (Figure 29 and Annex 10). The sample size was determined by the time resource available for the survey which was November and December 2013. In each community a stratified random sample of three households was selected. Members of the community were assembled and requested to group themselves into three by size of their yam production operations, large, medium, and small; in each group one farm household was selected randomly. The household yam farm size categories were unique to each community and varied across communities. Field level data was generated from 44 yam fields cultivated in the 2013 season by 45 farm households across the three agroecologies surveyed. The time period when the survey was conducted was also an element of sampling. Yam planting dates vary depending on agroecology and in some cases on the yam variety, such as early or late maturing varieties. Each variety has a growing period at the end of which the variety must be harvested to avoid crop losses to damage. This means that the harvesting time for different varieties with differing growing periods and planting times was spread over several months in the year which could not be accommodated by the limited time frame and other resources available for the study. For this reason, the peak season of November and December when most mature yam was still in the field was purposely selected; most early maturing varieties had already been harvested and could not be represented in the yield sample taken.Data were collected through oral interviews of the selected farmers and through direct measurements in the yam fields. Oral interviews were conducted with structured questionnaires which were designed and pretested. There were three structured questionnaires, one administered at the community level (Annex 13), one at the household level (Annex 14), and the last at field level (Annex 15). Respondents to the community level interviews were all yam producers, men and women, in the community who were interviewed as a group. Information collected at this level was such as would not vary with farm household, such as availability of market and other rural infrastructure. The community level interview was conducted in the village square and on some occasions in the community hall depending on the wish of the community leaders.The head of the household and spouse, where applicable, were interviewed at the household level in their home for information that would vary across households such as characteristics of the household, available resources, yam production objectives, etc. At the field level, the field owner responded to the oral interview for information such as production methods, yam varieties grown, plans for sale, and for home consumption of yams to be harvested, etc. The field level interviews were conducted in the various yam fields.Yam yield and field area were measured with guidance from the owner of the field. Field area measurement was done with Global Positioning System (GPS). Yield measurement was based on a sample plot of about 50 square meters harvested close to the center of the field, weight and numbers of stands and tubers were counted. The yam was purchased from the farmer at the market rate; the initial plan was to leave the yam for the farmer after he was paid but extension guides and survey labor scrambled for it. Measurement was done regardless of yam variety and fields that had been milked for seed yam production were skipped in yield measurement.Local farmers were used as labor for harvesting, they and the survey farmers were paid the wage rate obtained in the community. Enumerators who conducted the interviews and took the field area and yield measurements were in all cases experienced scientists from IITA and the national R&D institutions in the survey countries.A few days after the field work for data collection which lasted 20 days between November and December 2013, the questionnaires were reviewed by the YIIFSWA scientists who led in the field data collection. The data were transcribed by data entry clerks who were university graduates. After the transcription, the YIIFSWA scientists went through the data in a verification exercise before analyses began. The verification was a continuous process because in spite of cross checking the questionnaire before transcription and the transcribed data, errors kept showing in the process of analyses. But none of the problems observed at the various stages of checking called for a revisit to survey sites. This is credit to the the scientists who serves as enumerators. Data were entered into Excel sheets.Data were analyzed using Stata and the production/yield data for yam were reported in terms of clean weight, i.e., free of earth and mud.The GPS was used to measure area. This system is very accurate, compared to the previous methods used before like farmers' estimation and P 2 /A methodology, based on the unique relationship and relatively stable relationship between a given field's perimeter squared (P 2 ) and its area (A). The measurements of the sample plot and total area were recorded.Production is estimated using a weighing scale. As the field is harvested, all harvested yam from the field were weighed and recorded.One reason for limited R&D attention to labor-saving technologies in African agriculture is the wrong assumption in R&D circles that relative to other inputs such as fertilizers, farmers have labor because of the large farm household sizes. The implication of the observed large yam farm households, average of about 12 persons and ranging from 1 to 35, in Nigeria, is that onfarm labor availability depends on the composition of the households (Table 42). Many of the large households are composed of aged women in polygamous families and many school age or younger children whose contributions to farm work are minimal. This means that household size could be a misleading proxy for labor availability in yam production.Most of the yam farm households had one yam field each; less than 5 percent of them had more than one. Average yam field size was 1.82 ha per household (Table 43).In Nigeria yam is produced under long fallow rather than under shifting cultivation. Nigerian yam farmers' return to grow yam on land previously planted with yam every three to five years; in between, other crops could be grown on the land. The fresh tuber yield was higher in the SGS than that in other zones probably due to less observed pest and diseases (Table 44). An attempt was made to disaggregate results by scale of production; however, the observations with respect to some of the categories were not accompanied with enough degree of freedom to make assertive statements. Therefore it was dropped.In some agroecologies yam is staked, sometimes elaborately. Nigerian yam producers carry stakes, usually split bamboo or suitable branches of other plants to yam fields in agroecologies such as the humid forest and derived savanna where the environment calls for elaborate staking of yam. In the southern Guinea savanna where there is more sunshine, staking of yam is less elaborate-yam vines are directed to twine on stalks of corn and guinea corn intercropped with yam.Sole cropping was not common. Most of the farmers practiced intercropping and relay cropping. Farmers aim at maximizing yield on a given piece of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be used by a single crop through intercropping and relay cropping. Cassava is the most common crop intercropped or relayed with yam. Other crops include sorghum, melon, and beans. In virtually all cases, yam is gown in mounds; the exception, as observed in the YIIFSWA complementary baseline survey, is a relatively small niche area along the banks of River Niger with light and deep alluvial soil. The size varies depending on soil depth.Yam mound making is not only laborious, it is backbreaking; in later sections of this working paper it will be shown that cost of labor for mound making is one of three biggest constraints to yam production expansion, other major constraints are yam pests and diseases and the high cost, scarcity, and low quality of seed yam. But apart from mound making all yam production operations are labor intensive because all of them are performed with the hand hoe, machete, and digging sticks without any form of a labor-saving technology.Problems of yam pests and diseases, especially nematodes and viruses are ubiquitous.In yam production, the seed is the tuber, i.e., the crop. Yam producers purchase part and produce part of the seed yam they plant. Yam is widely produced with purchased inputs, especially the seed yam and hired labor; chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticides are used but not commonly. About 58% of yam harvested after discounting for seed yam is sold. This observation constitutes indisputable evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in Nigeria.The study reveals that yam is mostly produced in villages that are remote from urban centers with limited health, sanitation, educational, farm input, etc. facilities. Some of the heads of most yam producing households are aged; the young ones are among them because of family traditional obligations or lack of exposure to urban employment opportunities. The mainline yam farmers have zero or little formal education. All these have negative implications for progress toward improvement of the yam food sector.Yam production demand for labor, seed, and other materials such as stakes is high; if these inputs are not provided as required or even if provided but not in a timely manner, suboptimal crop performance results. For this reason, inputs available in the household are frequently supplemented by purchase from external sources, especially when the crop is produced for sale, which is more often than not the case. This section assesses levels of use of various purchased inputs in yam production and tries to establish the circumstances under which the inputs are purchased with an aim of suggesting measures that if implemented can motivate farmers to expand the level of use of the purchased inputs where such can help improve resource-use efficiency in yam production. Inputs used in yam production which may be secured from sources external to the household include seed yam, labor, farmland, chemical fertilizer and herbicides, and mechanical and mechanized vehicles for use in field-to-home transportation. Only one or two yam fields in the survey were cleared mechanically. Therefore, the use of machinery in yam production was uncommon.Yam fields surveyed were on plots of farmland acquired by inheritance, plots allocated by the village central authority, or plots purchased or rented from neighbors for a fee in cash or kind. Farmland was considered a purchased input if it was purchased or rented for a cash or kind payment. Hired labor, i.e., labor paid for in cash or kind, was used in various combinations with family labor for land clearing, seedbed preparation, sowing, weeding, and harvesting operations. For each operation hired labor was considered used if the operation was executed mostly or in full with hired labor.Farm transportation is here referred to as field-to-home transportation because in areas where yam is not stored in the field it is stored at home, often for security reasons. Mechanical field-to-home transportation was by bicycle and hand-pushed cart or wheel barrow; mechanized transportation was by motorized vehicles such as motorcycles, tractors, and other four-wheeled motor vehicles. Bicycles, hand-pushed carts or wheel barrows, and the motorcycles were usually owned by some of the smallholders. Four-wheeled motorized vehicles such as taxis and tractors were available locally for hire on a custom basis. Farmers with large quantities of yam output often rented tractors or taxis for transporting yam on an individual basis where farm road conditions permit. On-farm transportation equipment is considered a purchased input if it is a bicycle, cart or wheel barrow or motorized vehicle such as motorcycle, tractor, or other motor vehicle even if owned by the farmer since the equipment is purchased and is maintained with running expenses incurred in cash.In Nigeria, 14% of the yam fields surveyed were acquired by purchase, 14% by renting, 70% by inheritance, and 2% by allocation from community leaders. Therefore, use of farmland as a purchased input in yam production was not common.Frequently, a yam field is planted partly with purchased and partly with farmer's own produced seed yam. Farmers interviewed were asked to state, for each field, how many out of 10 seed yams planted were purchased and how many were own produced; this information was converted to a percentage. Approximately 40% of seed yams used by the surveyed farmers were purchased and 60% own produced. There were fields planted with only purchased seed yams (Fig. 30).15% 0% 1-99% 100% Usage of hired labor in yam production is widespread. For example, hired labor was used for at least one of the five farm operations, namely land clearing, seedbed preparation (mounding), planting, weeding, or harvesting in about 95% of the fields in Nigeria (Table 45). The widespread use of hired labor can be explained by the high labor requirement in yam production. The hired labor was more commonly used in land clearing, seedbed preparation, and weeding than in sowing and harvesting. More detailed analyses of the survey data presented elsewhere reveal that mounding and weeding require more mandays of work than land clearing, planting, and harvesting.Inorganic fertilizers were used in 25% of yam fields surveyed in Nigeria. There is a concern of farmers that fertilizer may have negative effects on food quality and storability of yam produced. Therefore, there is need for further study to inform farmers of the positive effect of the use of fertilizer in yam production.Herbicide was used either for land clearing, weeding, or both. For land clearing, herbicide was used in only 17 percent of the surveyed yam fields. The chemical was more widely used for weeding in about 52 percent of the surveyed yam fields.Field-to-home transportation of yam was widely mechanized, especially in Nigeria where yam was transported by head load from only 5% of the fields surveyed to home, from 20% by non-motorized vehicles, and from as much as 75% of the fields by motorized vehicles.The yam sales information is based on farmer estimates of how they planned to use yam in the field when harvested. To facilitate the estimation process, the information was solicited on a field-by-field basis. Each farmer was asked how many out of 10 portions of total yam in the field he or she planned to sell for each of his or her yam fields. This represents the yam planted purposely for sale and not surplus over consumption needs.  The result shows that about 58% of yam harvested after discounting for seed was designated for sale on average. The farmers' estimates of the number of portions of yam they planned to sell varied from a minimum of about 29% to a maximum of 80 percent (Table 46). There was no field in the survey where a percentage of yam harvest was not designated for sale.In conclusion yam is produced with low technologies for labor saving, seed production, and yam pest and disease control. Yam is grown on mound seedbeds which vary in size in Nigeria depending on soil depth.The difficulty of finding sufficient seasonal migrant hired labor for yam mound making is one of the biggest constraints to yam production expansion; other critical constraints are the yam pest and disease problem and the high cost, scarcity, and low quality of seed yam. Findings depicted indisputable evidence that yam is produced as a cash crop in Nigeria.Yam is widely produced with a range of purchased inputs depending on need of the farmer to supplement family supplies, on farmer access to the inputs, and on the farmer's assessment of the value of the purchased input in yam production.Hired labor is the most frequently used purchased input in yam production among the farmers surveyed because family supplies are too low compared with need.11The results of the baseline study provide an overview of the livelihoods of the surveyed yam-producing communities in Nigeria. Although all aspects of people's lives and livelihoods are certainly not covered, those aspects connected with yam-growing areas that could be controlled by new interventions are dealt with. Thus, a number of relevant implications are to be taken into consideration when implementing various activities.• This study establishes that the majority of the rural household heads are engaged in farming activities as the major source of income with an attendant low income despite the priority given to yam over cash crops and food crops of less importance. Yam is produced with low technologies for labor saving, seed production, and yam pest and disease control leading to a low level of productivity. Therefore there is a need to develop a yam seed system and to encourage farmers to adopt improved agronomic and husbandry practices, such as ridging as a seedbed preparation method, to reduce labor costs. This should be associated with the introduction and adoption of high yielding crop varieties and advocacy on efficient inputs use, necessary to increase productivity. A significant gap was observed between yam yields measured and those reported through the recall-based information technique. This might not be unconnected with the fresheness of tubers with high water content and farmers' inability to recall accurately. The difference in yields between the two approaches could also be linked to farmers' milking pattern.Notable among the pests and diseases observed during field measurements were nematodes, scale insects and white flies.The high level of the food ratio is characteristic of most poor countries. Two poverty lines were used for poverty measures and an important proportion of respondents were found to be poor. Poverty indices vary across the AEZs with the highest incidence of poverty in the SGS, maybe as a result of returns to variations in natural assets and for geo-climatic reasons. At the level of gender, female-headed households show a higher poverty rate and their poverty tends to be more severe and deeper. Also, there is a low level of access to capital assets in all the surveyed area. Therefore the framework for microfinance policy and other micro-enterprise institutions should be reviewed to accommodate special consideration for the rural poor. This is expected to enhance increased access to credit in the rural areas where the majority of the poor reside. This will induce income growth through increased marginal productivity of the rural households.In addition, a mix of effective policy actions including that designed to specifically benefit women and househods in the SGS is required to reduce the number of the poor but this might do so only by lifting out of poverty those who were closest to the poverty line. Other interventions could better address the situation of the very poor by bringing them closer to the poverty line by focusing on yam which is found to be more of a cash crop and by raising productivity in ways that promote broad-based increases in incomes.No improved varieties were identified in the field during the survey. The adoption of improved yam varieties in the surveyed communities has been non-existent for the main reason that farmers had no access to seeds of new varieties. Other reasons considered to have inhibited the adoption of improved varieties could be: (i) a minimum requirement of cultivable land for demonstrations; and (ii) continuous seed multiplication might have affected improved varieties released to the extent that they could no longer be easily distinguished from a wide range of local genotypes, especially since these new varieties were released without any friendly local name. In the current situation, a lack of reliable identification of improved varieties which might have been renamed or mixed with existing landraces makes any level of adoption difficult.Effective varietal introduction schemes need to be set for several years to ensure the stable integration of the new variety into the local seed system. Another aspect this project could look at is on the perspective of innovation systems since we know that economic progress depends as much on institutional as on technological innovation. The main problem will be how and with what to reach the millions of resource-poor farmers that are only weakly integrated into organizations and the market. Improved yam varieties to be Annexes   ","tokenCount":"20504"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3f098417d21150f3c6bd7315d150d12c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/82875b5c-0415-4f81-8f17-27c20ad5a9a0/retrieve","id":"-1190833793"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e563e1a1-4758-4b03-97ee-1d6080bcb4a2","pagecount":"1","content":"Los valores registrados permiten apoyar la toma de decisiones en cuanto a las estrategias del protocolo de Kyoto (Articulo 3.4) y post-Kyoto, que reconocen el potencial fundamental de la agricultura, de las tierras de pastoreo y de los suelos forestales para capturar carbono; servicio ambiental, que requiere el aporte de recursos nacionales para promover y gestionar la formación de sumideros de carbono en los suelos agrícolas, articulada a la política de Pago por Servicios Ambientales para la construcción de paz (2017).El carbono (C) se puede almacenar en diferentes compartimentos del ecosistema, principalmente en el suelo, que acumula dos veces más que la atmósfera y el doble de la vegetación (biomasa área y raíces); donde la cantidad y capacidad del almacenamiento depende de las características del suelo y del manejo realizado. Los suelos agrícolas están entre los mayores depósitos de C del planeta, convirtiéndose en sumideros potenciales de CO 2 , permitiendo de esta manera mitigar los efectos de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI).Determinar el stock de carbono del suelo bajo cuatro sistemas de uso agropecuario de Colombia.Los resultados indican que los stock de C fueron mayores para el sistema silvopastoril (259.046 ton C ha -1 ), Café sin sombra (242.633 ton C ha -1 ) y café con sombra (199.976 ton C ha -1 ); registros que se pueden explicar por la diversidad de especies vegetales (sistema silvopastoril) y la edad de los sistemas cafeteros, que llevan más de 10 años de establecidos; condición que evidencia que producciones de tipo perenne, con o sin algún tipo de laboreo en el suelo, favorece el incremento de los stocks de carbono en profundidades mayores (a partir de 30 cm). Los valores para la pradera con Brachiaria fueron menores (131.517 ton C/ha -1 ), posiblemente por las prácticas de renovación (arado y rastrillado), actividad que pudo liberar C hacia la atmosfera, posibilitando reservas moderadas de carbono en las primeras capas del suelo.Este póster está licenciado para utilizarse bajo la licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) 2017-09. Diseño: José Luis Urrea (CIAT)El trabajo, presenta resultados del \"Estudio de emisión de gases efecto invernadero y captura de carbono en sistemas de pequeños y medianos productores de carne en los municipios Patía y Mercaderes, Cauca.\", el cual se desarrolla en el marco del programa de investigación \"Desarrollo y uso de recursos forrajeros en sistemas sostenibles de producción bovina para el Departamento del Cauca\" financiado por el Sistema Nacional de Regalías, ejecutado por la Gobernación del Cauca y operado por la Universidad del Cauca, el Programa de forrajes tropicales del CIAT y las asociaciones de productores ASOGAMER y COAGROUSUARIOS.Este trabajo está alineado al programa de investigación del CGIAR en cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria (CCAFS).Póster presentado en Gráfico 1. Acumulación de carbono por profundidad para los cuatro sistemas evaluados.Gráfico 2. Acumulación de C por perfil completo de suelo.Izquierda: muestras de suelos de los cuatro sistemas evaluados para análisis de carbono. Centro: muestreo para análisis de densidad aparente y curvas de retención de humedad. Derecha: muestreo de GEI con cámara estática cerrada. ","tokenCount":"508"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"91e2e6bd5d9ef3cec74d10f294c7010a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef975ebd-25a8-4143-b673-0cd550c7ad63/retrieve","id":"-2092526391"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8b1010ee-0c1d-4bd6-947d-84595b66b5ea","pagecount":"28","content":"Written by E.M Minja and Edited by M Pyndji ~CSQm J_ U!'il l A\" DE 1 ~I FOIl\"ACI'\" y (Ju\\,UMUHACIOII 2 o ENE. 2005 For distribution to Village Information Centres (VICs) in bean growing areas in eastern, central and southern Africa 1 r~CSWJU ,,~ ~~E~.f•• IUlur.h.ar ... n .rt COlE(OON HIS10RICA Visit to H lean IPM farmers by CIAT Director General Farm Atrlc:w Babati F' o Boxe75 e.b.tI, ManyarllTo familiarize with bean IPM farmer group activities and progress for the DFID/CPP Project on technology promotion among bean farming communities at the Hai district project site.The CIAT DG shared information with farmer groups at four village sites in the district (Kwasadala, Kyeeri, Shari and Sanya Juu).Kwasadala, Kyeeri and Shari presented group reports in Kiswahili (Appendices) , songs and drama on IPM. Sanya Juu village was reached last in the evening just befo re dark and the groups quickly presented a song and drama that were followed by discussion.The IPM farmer groups at this location were the first to set up a village information centre (VIC) . This village borders the forest belt on Mount Kilimanjaro at an altitud e of 1700 -1800 metres.Crops include coffee, beans, maize, potato, different vegetables, temperate fruits, marginal banana production and livestock at zero grazing.Farmers used to rely on coffee for their needs but the recent low coffee prices and increases in input    Kujenga chumba chenye ukubwa wa mita 5x7 na kuweka samani za ki-maktaba.Wafadhili pamoja na kuwashirikisha Wanakijiji kikamilifu katika kazi za mikono na michango ya fedha.Mahitaji mengine yatakuwa Vitabu vya fani mbalimbali, Majarida, Vipeperushi na Luninga (Video) .Rasilimali (wanaume 5, wanawake 25).Kwenye ploti ya Uraa tuliotesha maharage pamoja na mahindi. Tulitumia madawa ya asili mfano mfori, mkojo wa ng'ombe na mafuta ya taa.Kwa kuua inzi wa maharage tulivundika udongo kwenye mimea. Aidha tulitumia mbolea za asili mfano maghughu, majivu na NPK kama mbolea ya kiwandani kwenye mahindi.Mafanikio: Mafanikio yaliyojitokeza ni kwa wanakikundi kujifunza kutumia mbolea na dawa za asili pamoja na kuotesha kwa kutumia vipimo na kwa wakati unaotakiwa kwa maharage na mahindi.Matatizo: Matatizo yaliyoko ni juu ya uwezo wetu mfano hali halisi ya ukame uliokithiri kitendo kilichofanya mifereji kukauka . Pia ufinyu wa ardhi ya kututosha .Mgeni rasmi tunakutakia kila la heri urudipo makwenu utufikirie kuhusu mbegu za kisasa zilizopo za mahindi na maharage.\"UPENDO UTAFITI GROUP\"","tokenCount":"383"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8dd2a4964593fd1fed58568b6446c826","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/09c762ee-c37f-47bf-a31e-7ff3e276b1e3/retrieve","id":"-1389174017"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"831529b7-8b9d-4e9a-8e6e-02a95d3ac983","pagecount":"64","content":"IPGRI's mandate is to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic resources for the benefit of present and future generations. IPGRI works in partnership with other organizations, undertaking research, training and the provision of scientific and technical advice and information, and has a particularly strong programme link with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Financial support for the research agenda of IPGRI is provided by the Governments of Australia,This report draws upon the research and personal experiences of the various authors. It also reflects discussions with representatives of various agencies. We would especially like to acknowledge the contribution to these discussions of Ineke van Winden of the Dutch Interchurch Relief organization (SOH) and Dr. Jaap Hardon of the Dutch genebank (CGN, Wageningen). The concepts presented here were discussed at a meeting in June 1995 with senior staff at IPGRI Headquarters, Rome. We thank Pablo Eyzaguirre, Toby Hodgkin and B. Landon Myer for their comments and editorial suggestions. Financial support for the preparation of the report was provided by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). Opinions expressed are those of the editors and contributors alone.The report is intended to stimulate debate and further research on the linked issues of seed supply and genetic resource management in rural communities recovering from war, civil strife, and disasters. It deals with experiences in three West African countries and complements other work such as the CGIAR 'Seeds of Hope' initiative.This report considers the impact of war, civil strife, and low-intensity conflict (LIC) on plant genetic resource management, where crop plant genetic resources are still partly (or mainly) conserved in situ by small-scale agriculturalists. The following sets of issues are covered: war and LIC and erosion of plant genetic resources; relief, rehabilitation and management of plant genetic resources; policy and practical options to link effectively the fields of relief, rehabilitation and plant genetic resource management. The impact of war and LIC on the management of plant genetic resources is traced through linked case studies of rice genetic resources in the ecoregion of the upper West African coastal zone from Senegal to Liberia. This zone has been affected by three major conflicts: the war of independence in Guinea-Bissau, 1962-75, the civil war in Liberia 1989-1996, and the insurgency of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone, 1991-97. The cases are rendered more significant, executive summary E from the perspective of managing genetic resources, by the possible importance of long-term geneflow between the local African species of cultivated rice and West African cultivars of Asian rice. LIC has had a doubly disruptive effect on the management of plant genetic resource in the West African rice zone. It has damaged formal-sector (state-run) genetic resource management facilities, and equally importantly, has brought about major changes in the patterns of social cooperation through which local seed systems are managed. The impact on the flows and distribution of crop genetic diversity is likely to be considerable but as yet is unquantified. In seeking to understand war damage to seed systems it is stressed that plant genetic resource management is social as well as technical work. Change in the interaction of social and technical factors must be taken into account when seeking to rehabilitate seed systems in the aftermath of war. Although seeds sometimes survive conflict, there may be major shifts in patterns of labour mobilization or in commercial relations of agricultural production. These changes in agrarian social relations are liable to profoundly affect the working of seed systems. Rehabilitation solely directed towards the restoration of the status quo may be misplaced effort. The report considers some of the ways in which seed issues might be effectively addressed in relief and rehabilitation activity. Where informal seed systems have collapsed, new alliances linking refugee/displaced farmer groups, relief agencies and specialists in managing genetic resources are needed. The report suggests some ways in which these new actor-networks might be fostered, while avoiding dependency C implications associated with conventional relief. Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) and other relief and rehabilitation agencies operating in war zones address seed issues, and have some desire to further improve their sociotechnical capacity in this area. Some agencies would welcome better briefing on both technical and social dimensions of seed-relief activity, including some background on the implications for the management of plant genetic resources. Institutions managing plant genetic resources must themselves change to meet the needs of these new client groups. The report discusses how genebank facilities might open their doors to NGOs and refugee and displaced farmer client groups in wartorn regions. Some suggestions include improving the socioeco-nomic passport data for accessions, ascertaining what relief and rehabilitation agencies need to know about seed issues, reorganizing genebank information systems to meet these needs, and developing the disaster preparedness of genebank facilities through joint exercises involving NGO personnel. Recent work on humanitarian assistance in African war zones makes clear that relief aid must be designed against a sound background analysis of the causes of conflict, to guard against the danger of relief aid fuelling further conflict. The report ends with an overview of a model scheme that seeks to address some of the basic food-security needs of waraffected rural communities in the West African rice zone while taking account of local conflict dynamics.war and crop genetic resources 1 The importance of crop plant genetic resources Global food security depends on a relatively small number of staple food plants. Currently rice and wheat are the two most important. Crop plant improvement has depended on the management of genetic resources, historically through protection and selection by farmers alone, and more recently through manipulation by breeders drawing on modern genetic theory. Since science has no capacity to create genes, agricultural progress will continue to depend on the rational management of the world's existing stocks of crop plant genetic resources. Additionally, we should note that in many poor countries with a low investment in science and technology, farmer management and selection complemented by sciencebased plant improvement will continue to be an important aspect of the total management of plant genetic resources. West Africa is one region rich in crop genetic diversity which continues to suffer the effects of war and civil strife.Plant genetic resources are not distributed evenly across the planet. The greatest store of genetic variation within a crop tends to be found in the regions where wild ancestors are to be found, and where some local cultivar groups (landraces) still exchange genes (and thus co-evolve) with natural ancestors. Some regions in which habitat diversity is especially high are known not only for the genetic richness of single crop species but also for crop species diversity. These regions were identified by the Russian plant geneticist Vavilov and are now named 'Vavilov Centres' in his honour. The management of genetic resources in these Vavilov Centres is a matter of great concern, and war and civil dislocation in such regions is especially problematic.The loss of plant genetic resources (genetic erosion), often accelerated by social dislocation, is not less significant in the case of more localized, lesser known crops. Some of these crops may only be partially domesticated, and little studied in the scientific literature. A recent survey of Africa, a continent normally considered poor in plant genetic resources by world standards, has revealed literally hundreds of crop types falling under the headings of significant but little studied or unknown and/or forgotten (Vietmeyer 1996). This source demonstrates that Africa is poor not in crop plant genetic resources themselves but in documented knowledge of such resources accessible to outsiders. Furthermore, world rankings of the lesser crops fluctuate: cassava, for example, has changed from being a regional staple in the 15 th century to a crop of world importance today. Some of the world's current neglected and partially domesticated crops may one day assume much wider significance. Current progress in genetic engineering increases this likelihood. Thus there is growing acceptance of the idea that global food security depends on much more than protecting genetic resources of highprofile crops in high-profile centres of diversity.The post-Cold War world has seen an upsurge of forms of low-intensity conflict (LIC). This type of warfare involves vigilante or bandit-style militias fighting among themselves or against regular state forces.The recent increase in LIC is a symptom of the state in crisis, especially in Africa and some parts of the former Eastern bloc. In Africa in particular, LIC feeds on rising numbers of disillusioned young people, in a fast-growing population, blocked in their aspirations for education and jobs. These young people, part-educated, parturbanized, tend to be as anti-peasant as they are anti-government (Richards 1996a). Farming communities and isolated government research stations are equally vulnerable to, at times, barely coherent terrorist attack. Thus the spread of LIC damages both the in situ processes through which peasant farmers maintain local landrace materials and ex situ genetic resource conservation in government research centres.More than three-quarters of the world's armed conflicts were located in either tropical and sub-tropical regions or in rural areasThis type of warfare involves vigilante or bandit-style militias fighting among themselves or against regular state forces.According to one estimate, the world in 1994 was experiencing 23 major armed conflicts (defined as events with more than a 1000 deaths per year) and 82 minor armed conflicts (events with less than 1000 deaths per year).Early African rice still growing well in Poturu, Sierra Leone in 1992 despite disruptions from fighting and agrarian communities. At least 11 of the major conflicts and 30 of the minor conflicts were concentrated in the poorer countries of the tropical zone, where genetic resource endowments tend to be both high and underdocumented, and where farmer-managed in situ protection of crop genetic resources remains significant. Africa, a continent of 49 exceptionally poor countries with only weakly developed formal procedures for managing ex situ plant genetic resources, was especially badly affected by LIC, experiencing nine major insurrections or civil wars in 1994, in addition to a number of other more localized insurgencies.Rice in West Africa is a good example of a localized plant genetic resource of potential global significance threatened by LIC. The West African rice zone is defined as that region of the Upper Guinea coast, running from Senegal to Côte d'Ivoire, where rice is the sole or major staple crop. Here, farmers make use of two cultivated species of rice -introduced Asian rice (Oryza sativa) and locally domesticated African rice (Oryza glaberrima). Two probable wild ancestors of African rice are found growing alongside cultivated rice and may continue to exchange genes with cultivated African rice. A basic agrarian feature of the West African rice zone is that the greater part of rural society (men and women, young and old) is directly involved in rice cultivation (Linares 1981;1992). This contrasts with the situation in the savannah zone. Rice was once cultivated in inhospitable riverine settlements mainly by slaves; upland peasants grew dry grains (sorghum and millet). Today riverine rice is often a women's speciality crop (Carney and Watts 1990).The timing of the spread of O. sativa from Asia to Africa is unknown. West African rice zone Porteres (1976) attempts to reconstruct a likely scenario for the emergence of African Rice cultivation, drawing upon ethnobotanical evidence. Porteres identifies three areas of rice germplasm diversity in West Africa: the Inland Delta of the Upper Niger in present-day Mali, the Gambia-Casamance-Guinea-Bissau coastalriverine zone, and the Guinea Dorsal which covers the watershed between the Upper Niger and rivers draining to the Atlantic coast. Today, these three foci are associated with three distinct techniques for growing rice (Dresch, 1949): flood advance and recession agriculture in the Inland Delta (Harlan and Pasquereau, 1969), estuarine wetland cultivation along the coast (cf. Linares, 1981, van der Drift, 1992), and dryland-wetland catenary cultivation on the regional production environments of west AfricaThe three main regional production environments of West Africa are: q coastal wetlands rice cultivation, q riverine advance and recession agriculture, and q forest dryland cultivation systems. They intersect in a triangle with its base running along the coast from the Sherbro estuary in Sierra Leone to Cape Mount in Liberia and an apex around Kissidougou in Guinea-Conakry. Guinea Dorsal (Richards, 1986). However, Porteres never collected rice in Liberia and Sierra Leone, and his model may be skewed by this omission. Richards (1995) proposes an alternative, less centric, scheme for the distribution of rice genetic resources in the region (cf. Harlan, 1976), assuming progress towards domestication to have been quite widely distributed throughout the forest-savannah transition zone in ancient times. This alternative model draws attention to the significance of the meeting and mixing of germplasm from several separate ecospecific domestications. Such convergence may have been widespread, but seems most likely to have occurred where the three main regional production environments intersect (see box opposite, and map). Dense refugee populations may actually be quite good for in situ genetic resource management, since there are more hands available to collect and sift material and greater incentives to make adaptive experiments. The possibility of measuring directly the genetic erosion in war zones is hard to imagine except for the uncommon existence of an adequate baseline data set. Rice researchers in Sierra Leone have access to one such data set for rice germplasm use in a village on the Liberia-Sierra Leone border in 1989 (Davies and Richards 1991). However, for the most part an indirect approach is the only one feasible. Molecular methods offer ways of testing hypotheses about patterns and processes of the distribution of rice genetic resources in the region. Recent work on O. sativa, O. glaberrima and presumed ancestors, using techniques of isozyme and DNA analysis, confirms the separate evolution of O. glaberrima as a cultivar and the plausibility of a relationship with O. barthii. In the future it may be possible to use such techniques (cf. Dally and Second 1990;Glaszmann, 1987Glaszmann, , 1988) ) to clarify the ancestry of different varieties and establish baseline indices of genetic variability within local populations.Saidu Kamara) on the upland rice farm, where bunches of harvested rice have been left to dry on the tree stumps.war and rice: three case studies 2 The three country case studies described here suggest some of the typical consequences of war for farmer-based seed systems in the West African rice zone. It is important to note that seed systems are sociotechnical ensembles; this chapter shows that damage to the social fabric of a seed system is as significant as direct physical loss of seeds. Insurgency in Liberia began on 24 December 1989 in rural Nimba County in northeast Liberia and spread rapidly to all parts of the country. The core of the insurgency was a small group of 100-150 fighters, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL). The specific aim of the NPFL was to overthrow the regime of Samuel Doe and install NPFL leader Charles Taylor as president. Many NPFL recruits were conscripted from among the youth of rural Nimba County, a region known to be strongly opposed to the Doe regime. This transformed the NPFL into a movement with a strong ethnic character, later to be opposed by other ethnically based movements using similar recruitment and insurgency tactics. At one stage the NPFL controlled up to 90% of rural Liberia, with only Greater Monrovia beyond its direct control, but the rural districts subsequently became divided between several competing armed factions. Many rural Liberians, unarmed and defenceless low-resource farmers, adhered to none of these factions, but found life impossible when menaced by marauding gangs of illdisciplined and often very young fighters. Combatants were given only rudimentary training in skills of guerrilla warfare, and elaborated for themselves a range of dirty tricks and bizarre punishments such as the 'tabay', a form of torture with soaked ropes tightening upon the victim as they dried, to terrorise local rural populations into submission. Field commanders were often young teenagers and the idea that war had rules, other than those they chose to invent for themselves, came as a surprise. Faction leaders were often quite ignorant of the atrocities being carried out in their names, and overall control of combat exercized by Taylor and his rivals was at times only nominal. In this climate of unpredictable and uncontrolled violence it is not surprising that a large proportion of the population of rural Liberia sought relative safety either in Greater Monrovia or as refugees across the international borders in Sierra Leone, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire. Agricultural production was effectively halted in large parts of rural Liberia, as up to a million people -well over half the rural population of prewar Liberia -found themselves living as refugees.Prior to the war, small farmers relied primarily on traditional rice farming and other cash-crop cultivation to earn income. The escalation of the civil war destroyed markets and made it physically too unsafe to farm. Subsistence activities, the basis of traditional rice production in rural Liberia, came abruptly to an end when the farming communities were displaced, sometimes fleeing into Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea. Farmers without kin in these two countries were forced into neighbouring villages with the hope CHAPTER 2 WAR AND RICE that the conflict might soon be resolved. Others remained in rebel-captured areas, but were unable to farm for fear of counterattack.Hunger was soon a pressing concern in both rural and urban areas; food shortages worsened due to the predatory actions of competing factions mounting road blocks on major transportation routes. Wage, festive and reciprocal labour, the main sources of labour for traditional farmers, quickly broke down. Few farmers had money to pay wages. It seemed too foolhardy to contribute to reciprocal labour arrangements when from day to day it was uncertain whether or not social groups would become scattered by fighting.In the turmoil of sudden and vicious attack, many Liberian farmers fled their farms, frequently abandoning all their belongings including farm implements and stored seed. Initially, much seed rice was lost not to looters but to animals and moisture in abandoned farms. Those farmers lucky enough to save some planting materials were forced to use seeds for food because of the general economic chaos in war-blighted areas. Others sold what little seed they had left, tempted by vastly inflated market prices for food. In border regions many farmers sold planting materials with the specific intention of acquiring enough money to move over the border into Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone or Guinea. Even farmers who decided to stay put found it preferable to sell planting materials to avoid constant harassment from hungry militias, now victims of the economic chaos they had created. Rebel forces and other displaced people would roam the villages in search of stored rice seed. The gun was a passport to any food item the hungry militia fighter required. Soon, therefore, combatants had eaten their way through subsistence farmers' stored rice, including planting materials carefully selected and preserved for their high adaptability to local planting conditions. Lofa, Bong, Nimba and Grand Gedeh counties, once among the main rice-producing areas of Liberia, were soon reduced to an agricultural standstill, through random terror attacks, sudden displacement of population and subsequent near total loss of locally adapted germplasm.The displacement of the civilian population and farmers has a fundamental impact on local management of plant genetic resources because the labour supply is disrupted, thus rendering many routine agricultural activities, including labour-intensive seed selection, storage and exchange, impossible. Widespread fear of attack limited farming to small plots close to villages, or secluded 'corners' in the forest well away from main roads and paths. The vast majority of Liberian civilians were too terrified to farm. Most preferred to seek safety in refugee camps or cities, depending upon the availability of relief foods,rather than risk farming in the bush unprotected. The multiplication of militia groups in Liberia (at maximum eight), absence of regular uniforms and recruitment of parturbanized school dropouts and the young unemployed, meant that it was often impossible to distinguish between friend and foe, even where groups maintained some nominal ethnic or regional alle-giances. Groups recruited new fighters by capture, and any conscript tempted to refuse would either be killed or forced into slavery. Militias needed slaves to undertake carrying tasks, or to fell the trees, slaughter wildlife, and dig the diamonds through which the factions gained the cash needed to buy further supplies of arms and ammunition.Where displaced The impact of the war on managing plant genetic resources in Liberia is relatively simple to summarize. Due to lack of land and farm labour, and loss of suitable seed through abandonment, consumption or theft, the stock of indigenous rice cultivars became highly depleted over seven years of conflict ranging over nearly all parts of the country. Even when stored, local rice seeds rapidly lose viability in humid, tropical conditions. Farmer-based genetic resource management systems may be beyond revival without outside help in several of the areas most badly affected by population displacement. Whether rice cultivation can ever return to the same environments, and under the same production systems, now that a fragile peace has been restored, remains to be seen. Almost certainly, old rice varieties have dropped out of production, but many of the more important types may be recovered from collections or chance survivals. There is also a question as to how well prewar varieties will meet farmers' needs in new post-conflict agricultural situations. However, this does not mean that Liberian rice agriculture should be subject to a rapid externally driven programme for the transfer of exotic planting materials. Liberian farmers were before the war skilled in selecting and adapting rice landrace materials to suit their changing needs. Postwar, the issue is not recovery of old seeds versus introduction of new seeds. Farmers may have abandoned or lost familiar seeds, but so far we have found no evidence, or see any reason to suppose, that war has caused Liberian farmers to lose their capacity to select. It may be more important to consider how best to support farmer seedselection capacities, and how to provide the right kind of mix of old and new materials upon which this intact adaptive capacity might be exercised.The main feature of the Liberian case study was a general disruption of rural livelihoods due to conflict. With half or more of the rural population displaced local seed systems experienced massive disruption. The early stages of the related insurgency in Sierra Leone, a spill-over from fighting in Liberia, were less intense, and there was a partial agricultural recovery once the initial RUF invasion was checked. The Sierra Leone case introduces us to some of the subtler damage sustained by seed systems. A local seed system is more than just seeds and storage. It also comprises the practices, knowledge and social relations which farmers use to promote the usefulness of crop genetic CHAPTER 2 WAR AND RICE resources. These elements are especially vulnerable to disruption where insurgents aim to control civilians through terror tactics. To fully understand the nature of the damage sustained by seed systems as a result of the RUF invasion we must first attempt to characterize such seed systems and explain how they functioned in Sierra Leone during periods of peace and stability.There are many similarities among the cultures and practices of rural ricefarming communities across Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau. Accordingly, this description of villagelevel management of plant genetic resources in Sierra Leone may be regarded as approximately applicable to other parts of the West African rice zone as well. The data have been collected over a 15-year period monitoring local seed systems and have contributed to the following case study.Farmers actively and consciously manage plant genetic resources by collecting and screening unfamiliar rice planting materials. Locally this is described as experimentation, and farmers know that off-types are more often found in edge-reaped material (where spontaneous outcrossing with an adjacent variety is more likely). Some farmers consciously interplant different types (e.g. African and Asian rices) in a single plot, in the hope of reaping hybrid material (Longley and Richards 1993). At any one time farm households typically deploy between two and six distinct rice selections adapted to the main on-farm ecologies and soil types.The number of distinct rices in any one average-sized village (of 250-500 people) totals about 20-40 types; nation- In a country-wide sample survey (1987) formal sources (i.e. projects) accounted for only 6% of rice seed acquisitions. A further 19% of rice seed was acquired through local purchases. Loans-inkind from rice merchants accounted for a further 19%. But 55% of all seed rice came through informal non-market sources (including exchange 30%, and gifts or loans from friends and kin, 19%). Most seed acquisitions described as gifts from friends or kin were in fact loans-in-kind from patrons to clients, under the customary arrangement of one bushel at planting time for two at harvest (lonei hou, in Mende). Of local gifts, purchases, loans and exchanges, 37% came from friends and neighbours, including patrons, and 24% from relations. It is considered courteous to pass on small amounts of any interesting seed acquisition to friends and kin so that they can experiment for themselves. Anything interesting but hard to acquire is likely to be backed up by giving it to friends or kin in another neighbourhood, to help ensure that it can be recovered in case of loss. The head of the household generally bears the main responsibility for managing major transactions in the seed system . Heads of household expect to store seed rice for next year's planting, and to negotiate bulk seed loans or exchanges. Males head most (85-90%) of the Sierra Leonean farming households, so decisions about seeds tend to be a male preserve. However, harvesting is an activity divided evenly between men and women, and the senior women of the household are responsible for seed management during the harvest (including roguing of offtypes). Women also reserve seed for use on their own private rice plots. The harvest is mainly sold to replenish personalFarmer change of seed selection 1983-87 was the norm rather than the exception. Three sets of factors may account for these changes: q involuntary changes (e.g. seed rice consumed in a period of severe hunger and replaced by a loan from a neighbour); q voluntary changes (e.g. to match a variety to conditions on a newly cleared farm, or replace mixed seed); and q changes resulting from successful trials with new material.savings or small stocks of trading capital. Women perform all threshing tasks. The decision to rogue mixed harvested material may be taken by women if they suspect later processing difficulties; some varieties are especially hard to clean for cooking.Women are especially knowledgeable about rice variety differences related to processing and cooking (cf. Gay 1989). Women sometimes reserve off-types for experimentation, especially material suited to the wetland environments where they tend to plant their private rice for cash.Women are also assiduous exchangers of planting materials for experimentation, valuing seeds as small tokens of everyday friendship and social solidarity.Women's involvement in seed management needs to be underlined for rural communities from the Gola Forest, on the Liberia-Sierra Leone border, eastwards into Liberia, where men are less involved in planting and harvesting activities than in central Sierra Leone. Gay (1989) considers women to be the main seed selection experts among the Kpelle in northwest Liberia. Seed expertise seems to be relatively less gendered among groups such as the Kpa-Mende and Temne further west in Sierra Leone.In general, it is important to note that informal seed systems, through which rice landrace populations are maintained and improved, depend very much on maintaining common courtesies and confidences of village social life. People make token gifts of seed to each other and loan serious amounts of seed for planting because they have confidence, that in a relatively settled and stable world, they will receive a return, or that one good turn will deserve another. In short, the informal seed system only works when the informal social institutions of village life remain in working order.Physical destruction is an obvious serious consequence of war. The Liberia case illustrates graphically how war results in direct loss of seed. Lightly armed insurgents burnt houses and barns rather than waste bullets, and many secret stores of seed rice went up in flames. Rebels and soldiers fed from the land, looting and eating seed set aside for planting. But beyond such physical losses, war corrodes the social confidences upon which informal seed systems rest. In Sierra Leone the RUF found no natural allies in the countryside. Enclaved in forest wilderness the movement's leaders taught principles of guerrilla warfare reflecting the experience of movements like Shining Path in Peru and Renamo in Mozambique. These lessons included instruction in the strategic advantage of dividing a hostile citizenry through trying to rake up the embers of old quarrels. RUF cadres sometimes carefully spied out rural communities, painstakingly compiling information on which families were party to chieftaincy or land disputes, perhaps noting meanwhile which households were Muslim, which Christian, etc. In the course of an CHAPTER 2 WAR AND RICE RUF attack, cadres might seek to involve disgruntled parties in a chieftaincy dispute, by prompting them to carry out violent acts of revenge. Or the houses of only Christians, or only Muslims, might be burnt in a raid. The RUF did not have a religious programme, but such actions divided neighbour against neighbour and made it easier for a numerically weak and lightly armed enemy secreted in nearby forest to maintain future control over civilians hostile to the RUF cause. It is common to find that these social wounds are very slow to heal. Households where one or two young people were suspected of joining in a looting spree after an attack might find themselves excluded from labour-sharing arrangements, weakening agricultural efficiency and collective food security. Much of the everyday confidence upon which the seed system rests evaporates in the face of the dirty tricks deployed by modern exponents of sociologically smart lowintensity guerrilla conflict. It follows that rehabilitating the seed system is not only a technical matter, but must also tackle crucial social issues, such as how neighbours might be encouraged to begin to cooperate once again.The third case study shifts attention to the macrosociological context within which seed systems operate. War often brings profound economic and social changes. The pattern of post-war recovery in the agrarian economy of Guinea-Bissau rendered prewar agrarian technology inappropriate. Plant genetic resource management must respond actively to these changes. New technical choices may be needed, based on careful analysis of basic changes within society and economy.The 12-year independence war, from 1962-1974, particularly affected mangrove rice farming, the main source of food production in Guinea-Bissau. As might have been expected, rice production decreased significantly during the war. However, production further decreased in the period after the war ended, contrary to expectations for post-war recovery and in spite of the introduction of specific rehabilitation projects. To understand this phenomenon, it is necessary to understand the way in which the social organization of mangrove rice farming changed as society was reconstituted after the war.Post-war rehabilitation The main rice producers in Guinea-Bissau are the Balanta who make up 32% of the population. Extended families and even entire villages were the major production units. Mangrove-rice farming requires large labour groups that can be deployed at specific points in the agricultural cycle. To meet this demand, the patrilineal family compound, pang, was the major source of labour input, land and harvest management. A range of genetic material was used that was adapted to differences in quality of the parcels within the land allotments. These generally ranged from upland plots (sweet or male) to lower swampy and tidal fields (salt or female) fields. The diversity in the crop germplasm also enabled farmers to cope with wide fluctuations in the timing and volume of the rains.The elders were responsible for the selection, separation and stocking of the seeds from the entire harvest. As a part of this selection, small experiments were executed on variety, seeding and transplanting methods in transition zones from one type of soil to another, in relation to the actual or expected rainfall. Local knowledge, and the mobilization of the labour potential, were major pillars of the mangrove rice farming system. However the large-scale development of rice farming in southern Guinea-Bissau, from the 1890s onwards, was only partly based on the expertise and dynamics of the Balanta. Largely underestimated was the fact that the rapid expansion of rice farming, corresponding to a massive migration movement of Balanta from the central Oio regions westward to the regions of Cacheu and Quinara, and south towards Tombali, was stimulated and partly organized by colonial entrepreneurs, known as ponteiros. As the shift away from the slavetrade towards agricultural exploitation in Guinea-Bissau was seen to be irreversible, these colonial entrepreneurs made pacts with traditional landlords, and opened new territory to migrants, called pontas.Eventually, the Balanta took over the land and labour management of rice the impact of war the impact of war on local seed systems and management procedures of plant genetic resources is both direct through looting and destruction of seed reserves and indirect, via changes in social organization, as communities displaced by war attempt to regroup. CHAPTER 2 WAR AND RICE production while the ponteiros focused on trading and seed management. Balanta were supposed to sell their rice to the ponteiros, to whom they also turned for assistance in times of scarcity. Ponteiros became a regular source of rice credit. Shaping local values through commerce (white rice was 'good rice' and local red rice came to be regarded as pig food), they began to play a significant role in the management and input of genetic resources.The urban-based PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) started its actions in the southern border area with Guinea Conakry in 1962. The PAIGC started its mobilization through traders and other local entrepreneurs, who spoke of the local lingua franca, Crioulo and, like the indigenes, were also deeply dissatisfied with Portuguese rule. Among the first Balanta to join the struggle were ambitious young men, who had already started a career outside the village context, attending mission schools and being employed in the shops of ponteiros. Consequently, the first wave of Balanta mobilization caused a physical and social dislocation of young men. Eventually, Balanta mobilization became widespread, and was controlled by the elders, who had by now become allies of the PAIGC. Despite this rapprochement between the PAIGC and Balanta village elders, military mobilization introduced a more outward orientation of youngsters, and the loosening of established labour relations, especially those crucial to successful mangrove rice production. Although the southern regions of Guinea-Bissau were freed from Portuguese rule at an early stage, the situation there remained dangerous, and agricultural production conditions stayed uncertain. Some authors (e.g. Rudebeck 1974) state that the PAIGC was able to profit from considerable rice harvests in Tombali, but the overall picture indicates that large areas of the tidal flood plains known as bolanhas were damaged or left unused.The 12-year long independence war affected mangrove rice farming in the first place because the Balanta rice farming peoples formed the majority of the armed guerrilla against the Portuguese army. As a result of its strategic and economic importance, the main riceproducing area, in the southwestern province of Guinea, saw intense fighting and suffered extensive damage. Many Balanta were displaced during the war. Some went into the bush to join the guerrillas, while others fled to safe havens or were moved by the colonial authorities into strategic villages.One of the major consequences of destruction and dislocation was the deterioration of the dams and dykes which were the main water-control structures in the rice polders or bolanhas. This caused salinization of the soil which could only bereversed after intensive labour input during several rainy reasons. Moreover, rice reserves decreased, or in some villages disappeared entirely, leading to a considerable loss of genetic resources. In some areas local varieties almost disappeared, while in other areas there were severe shortages of planting materials and farmers were forced to plant any available seed. As a result of these conditions, rice production decreased significantly during the war. In spite of rehabilitation projects concentrating on technical assistance (mainly repairing water control structures and distributing planting materials, such as ROK5), production declined even further after the war. The reasons behind the failure of these rehabilitation efforts are dealt with in more detail in Chapter 3.The key point to note is that the impact of war on local seed systems and management procedures of plant genetic resources is both direct through looting and destruction of seed reserves and indirect, via changes in social organization, as communities displaced by war attempt to regroup. In this particular case, war weakened the social ties at the village level which are essential for mobilizing labour groups in mangrove rice farming in Guinea-Bissau.Rice varieties wellsuited to prewar social conditions, notably the salttolerant varieties adapted to the main mangrove tidal areas, were no longer appropriate under the drastically altered conditions of post-war labour supply. War had ultimately deprived elders of their power to command the large numbers of young men necessary to work the extensive mangrove wetlands.Rehabilitation efforts were misdirected, by concentrating on varieties such as ROK5, which was suited to the relatively large-scale labour mobilization of the prewar situation. A more successful programme would have sought to support other rice farming econiches, including the associated inland swamps more easily worked by individuals and smaller household groups.Three points can be highlighted from the case studies.War is a direct threat to crop plant genetic resources through looting and displacement of the farming population. Direct damage is especially serious when, as in the case of Liberia, farming is halted for seasons at a time. Several parts of Liberia have now suffered an almost complete collapse of rice agriculture for five seasons in succession. This clearly has major implications for the management of plant genetic resources, and steps must be undertaken to plan a major physical rehabilitation exercise based on crop plant genetic resources in use in crossborder regions. If actual genetic material needs to be reintroduced, it may not be the same as the prewar germplasm. Seeds are needed urgently for farmers to grow food, but the material may need to contain sufficient diversity to allow post-war farmers to select and adapt the material to the new conditions. The refugees living and farming in these cross-border regions may be a major human resource to be engaged in planning and executing such rehabilitation work.Local seed systems depend for their continua-tion on complex and delicate social arrangements, which are easily threatened by warfare. The threat is especially grave in low-intensity conflicts, as in Sierra Leone, where insurgent movements seek deliberately to foment social disharmony to further their own strategic ends. For this reason the rehabilitation of the seed system cannot be considered a technical matter alone. One of the implications of the case described above is that farmers may require new incentives to cooperate in seed exchange to overcome fear and hostility. At the same time young people recruited into Liberian or Sierra Leonean style militia forces must be assisted towards a more positive assessment of local management of plant genetic resources.In the longer term, war may accelerate or cause a change of direction in processes of social and agrarian change. In such cases rehabilitation efforts must be subject to careful critical review of the continuing relevance of prewar seed technologies. The Guinea-Bissau study offers a useful lesson in this regard: rehabilitation agencies seized on the post-war reconstructing opportunity to bring about a further modernization of the rice-farming practices of the Balanta by emphasizing the introduction of a salttolerant, high-yield, modern variety adapted to the main mangrove rice ecology. The rehabilitation and development schemes failed to realize that war had undermined established social relations of production in this major ricegrowing region of Guinea-Bissau. Thus the wrong approach to modernizing the seed system was attempted, with predictably poor practical results.This chapter looks at instances of seed assistance to farmers in wardamaged communities in the West African rice zone. Again, different lessons can be learnt from each of the case studies. Humanitarianassistance agencies in Liberia supplied displaced and refugee farmers with seed, but with little attention to broader issues in the management of plant genetic resources. Seed supply to war-affected farmers was effective in Sierra Leone because agencies with detailed knowledge of local farming conditions were involved.The key conclusion arising from assessing the longerterm experience in Guinean Bissau is that rehabilitation must take account of warinduced socioeconomic change.  In 1992, some rice seeds were given by UNICEF to the Ministry of Agriculture to be distributed to farmers around Monrovia. Farming tools and seeds (but not locally adapted types) were distributed to displaced people and farmers in the Greater Monrovia region. One UN official told us that he was not aware that there were significant differences in types of rice needed for seed in Liberia. He would have taken account of this issue had suitable and timely technical briefing been available. Unfortunately, as at present, advisory documentation is unavailable.CARITAS International is another relief organization catering to the needs of farmers from Danane (on the Côte d'Ivoire border) and Monrovia. In early 1991 when the farmers in Danane refused to allow Liberian farmers to farm on their land, CARITAS negotiated for farm land for use by Liberian refugees. In addition to securing land, CARITAS also gave the refugees maize and rice seeds. A large quantity of rice seeds was acquired locally, from markets in Man and Danane. This was an opportunity to secure locally adapted cultivars. However, the seed purchases were made by Catholic priests apparently unaware of the different types needed. When it came to distribution it was found that the seeds had become mixed. The seed was all sown in upland farms, with consequent poor results. The improved maize seed, however, grew profusely and yielded very well.The Ivorian government (sympathetic to the NPFL cause in the Liberian war) supplied about 40 000 bags of seed rice for displaced and dislocated farmers in areas controlled by the NPFL militia. The seeds were brought to Danane and stored in a warehouse given by the city mayor of Danane. Instead of free distribution to displaced farmers, as had been originally intended, much of the seed was sold, allegedly by staff of the self-styled Ministry of Agriculture of Greater Liberia (the name adopted by Taylor for territories under NPFL control). Some of the consignment did, however, reach Taylor's administrative headquarters at Gbarnga for onward distribution to farmers in Janeah Refugee Camp, Forecariah District, Guinea.NPFL-held territories. It is unclear whether the seeds donated by the Ivorian government were similar to the seed types used by Liberian farmers in their prewar rice cultivation practices.In general, it would seem that there is little awareness among relief and rehabilitation agencies working in Liberia of the need for locally adapted rice seed. Few practical steps were taken to ascertain which varieties were needed where and in what quantities, or to plan for the multiplication of these varieties to assist post-war reconstruction. Small-farm agriculture in Liberia was almost ended by seven years of hostilities. Now there seems some prospect of peace, the seed-rehabilitation issue needs to be addressed in a comprehensive and co-ordinated manner.Prior to the war some rural development projects had built up considerable experience working with farmer rice selections, and some of these locally adapted types had found their way into the catalogue of the government's Seed Multiplication Project. During a lull in hostilities in 1992 some of this experience was drawn upon to plan seed assistance to war-displaced farming populations. This experience is worth some detailed review since it provides precedents for further schemes sensitive to the issues involved in managing plant genetic resources.The total number of farm families dislocated by insurgency in Sierra Leone is not known with any accuracy. About 40 000 farming households were dislocated in the first main phase of RUF activity, 1991-92, when the conflict was confined mainly to about one fifth of Sierra Leone along the border with Liberia. Later activity by the RUF in the north and west of the country created new refugees on a larger scale. The RUF was never a large movement (with perhaps only 3000-5000 combatants) and attacks, though widespread throughout rural Sierra Leone from 1994 onwards, remained essentially sporadic. Away from the roads rice farming continued in many areas, and intensified in some cases, making use of labour input of young men driven out of the diamond mining districts by fighting. Perhaps in all about 33-50% of the 350 000 prewar farming households in Sierra Leone were displaced by the conflict.Like Liberia, Sierra Leone has a flexible land tenure system. Strangers generally find it relatively easy to gain access to land for annual cultivation. During the early stages of the Liberian war up to half a million refugees were settled and given land to cultivate in Sierra Leone and Guinea without being forced into camps. Access to land is less of a constraint for refugees and the displaced than seeds and tools. Communities may be generous with land, but the capacity of the local system to supply seeds and other farm inputs is The Bo-Pujehun Project was a rural development project established at the beginning of the 1980s with a mandate covering smallfarm agricultural development in central-southern Sierra Leone, funded as a co-operation between the German aid programme and the Government of Sierra Leone. With about half its operational area affected by insurgency in mid-1991, the project opened a small relief and rehabilitation programme late that year. Earlier farming-systems analysis by the project had confirmed the value of local landraces of rice, and that these remained competitive with improved releases in the view of farmers. Theproject was thus highly oriented towards management of plant genetic resources, having had earlier experience running a landrace-improvement programme called 'the panicle selection scheme' for dryland rice farmers. This background awareness of the long-term significance of management issues in small-scale farm development helps explain why the Bo-Pujehun relief programme in 1992 focused on distributing limited amounts of wellchosen planting materials (e.g. 2000 bushels of seed rice) backed up by highquality supervision, rather than taking the bulkoriented path to seed relief pursued by some other agencies. Measuring success in terms of amount of seed distributed, rather than in terms of its quality and effectiveness in application, other agencies sometimes expressed surprise at the limited character of the Bo-Pujehun programme. Unfortunately the resurgence of fighting in much of Pujehun District in 1994 made it impossible more fully to evaluate the comparative success of the two approaches. Even so, it is highly relevant to describe some of the apparently successful features of the Bo-Pujehun programme.Throughout the Pujehun District, farmers were driven out of their villages during the early part of the 1991 farming season. Any crops already planted were lost, and stocks of planting materials destroyed, looted or abandoned to pests. Farmers' and traders' stocks of cash-crop produce (oil palm, kernels, coffee, cacao, kola) were also looted or destroyed. In some cases, farmers also lost coffee plantations close to villages, cleared on army orders to create free-fire zones and reduce the risks of ambush. The most urgent need of displaced villagers returning home in late 1991 was for relief supplies of food, clothing and basic household items to tide them over to the harvest season August-December 1992, in addition to agricultural inputs for the forthcoming farming season. Some tree crops were harvested during the 1991-2 dry season, and households with access to such crops were able to set aside a small amount of capital to buy farm inputs, primarily seed rice. The price of seed rice rose to Le 8000/bushel in the war zone, twice its cost in other parts of Sierra Leone. Many farmers trekked to neighbouring chiefdoms, sometimes 50 km or more, to buy seed rice, or borrow from sympathetic relatives. Some households exchanged palm oil for rice at the rate of one tin of oil for one can (0.5 bushel) of rice.Two further difficulties hampered agricultural recovery in 1992. The first was unseasonably early rainfall, a major factor that periodically limits output on upland rice farms in the project area. Rainfall hampers burning off vegetation, with the result that extra labour is needed to clear the farm, the soil is less fertile and weed seeds survive to cause problems later. Early rainfall, one year in seven on average, is often the trigger for an exceptionally severe hungry season in the following year (Richards 1986).The second difficulty was the sharp deterioration in agricultural labour supply. This labour bottleneck was particularly severe due to extra labour demands imposed by the effects of early rainfall. Prewar, labour shortage was the leading limiting factor in small-scale agricultural production in the war zone, especially in areas most affected by diamond-mining activities. The RUF conscripted both male and female young people, as potential converts to their cause, or simply to serve as labourers for militia groups in the bush, cooking, fetching water and carrying supplies. Some of these young people then perished in the fighting, or were summarily executed as suspect rebels by government troops. Others withdrew with the RUF towards the Liberian border region. Only a few were successful in escaping and returning to their villages without harassment. Jimi-Bagbo, a chiefdom headquarters in Bo District overrun in June-July 1991, had a prewar population of about 1000. Over 80 young people were captured by the RUF in the 1991 attack and two-thirds of this number remained unaccounted for in September 1992. Some households, with two or three young people carrying out farm work when the rebels first arrived, were attempting to manage farms without any youth labour inputs at all in 1992. Typically, young men aged 15-24 should comprise 7-9% of the total population in villages in the project area in normal times. The 1992 ratio for Jimi was less than half that. Reduced labour availability is perhaps the single most important factor affecting relief and rehabilitation activities in Liberia and Sierra Leone. Some doubts were expressed about theemphasis on quality rather than bulk of seed distribution by agencies more familiar with food aid logistics and evaluation criteria. In the Bo-Pujehun rehabilitation, however, it seems the right choice was made. The relief programme distributed seed to farmers' groups registered with the project during the prewar period. These groups had some success in raising counterpart funds for community development activities, including various projectsponsored construction programmes, by growing and selling rice and other commodities. Farmers' groups became village seed-multiplication projects, using starter inputs from the relief programme to generate seed stocks for 1993 in situ. Seed inputs delivered to these groups by the project included carefully chosen local landrace materials. Other relief programmes were limited to seed selections available from the Seed Multiplication Project. This restricted them largely to the distribution of a limited range of researchstation releases, such as ROK3, 16, 17, CP4, etc. The first three of these are in fact research selections from local landraces, while the fourth is a longestablished and popular cross between two introductions from southeastern Asia suited to wetlands with low watercontrol. All four varieties were appropriate to farmers needs. But throughout the war zone farmers were keen also to secure niche-adapted hardy local cultivars, neglected prior to the war, but known to be especially well adapted to farm conditions under conditions of continuing uncertainty. Unable for security reasons to venture far beyond the village, many farmers were forced to clear short-fallow land of very low fertility, where weeds and birds also proved a problem. Lacking labour, many households were unable to carry out familiar labour-intensive tasks, such as the maintenance of improved wetland farms.In this situation farmers needed specialized cultivars with ability to survive on very poor soils, tolerate less weeding and pest control, or grow within specialized local ecologies, such as riverine wetlands or iron-toxic swamps. Where these types were available they helped supplement activities on the main farm, spreading labour peaks and increasing the duration of the harvest period. Among the required specialized varieties were floating rices used in farming the riverine grasslands along the lower Waanje and Malen rivers. Short-duration hardy types were required for special lowland (bului) farms, where cultivation prior to the main farming season produces a small harvest for family consumption during the mid-rainy season hunger period.It was possible to meet a significant number of these special requests for local hardy and nicheadapted types through the Mogbuama purchasing arrangement. The matching of available germplasm to groups' needs and preferences was far from complete, however. With good prior organization and the right professional capacity, relief organizations could do more, not only to minimize the germplasm losses occasioned by war, but also to maximize the availability of these specially adapted types whose value only becomes fully apparent in emergency situations.War changes the social conditions under which small-scale farmers produce crops. With careful thought, relief and rehabilitation work that takes into account the management of plant genetic resources can sometimes be set up to encourage useful innovation by farmers seeking to adapt in the post-war recovery phase. Changed labour-supply conditions is one of the most important factors to be considered. Experience in the Pujehun District in 1992 suggests that farmers may be quite prepared to experiment with new seed types and to reorganize farm production in quite radical ways, provided it leads to better utilization of available household labour. There is often a mismatch between the kinds of circumstances war-blighted farmers find themselves addressing and the sorts of innovations offered by conventional rural development sources. Many of these programmes assume intensified inputs of labour to improve the utilization of over-populated land. War imposes a different set of demands.Farmers may have to cope with less than ideal farm sites while absorbing the physical losses of labour (or the breakdown of established labour-sharing arrangements, especially where these are dependent on significant levels of social harmony and trust). This is why post-war recovery may seem at first to be a step backward, as most farmers' first attempts aim to recover the resources and to revive the techniques that allowed prewar agriculture with limited labour. They also recognize a need to innovate to cope with artificially accelerated conditions of land-system breakdown.In the flux of post-war recovery, many farmers are alert to the need to surpass the simple revival of old technologies. Studies offarmers' utilization of rice seeds in Sierra Leone, based on a national sample in 1987, showed a 20% uptake of research station releases, but also a small but significant uptake of neo-traditional rice innovations that could not have come from the research sector (Lipton et al. 1989)  1991). Tiri mont rais has been assigned provisionally by Malcolm Jusu to O. glaberrima on account of its simple-branched upright panicles, pear-shaped grains, and short ligules characteristic of that species. It is awaiting further investigation as a possible intermediate type.The grains are exceptionally small, and the seed coat dark in colour.Mogbuama farmers have used the variety with great enthusiasm and it is now widespread in the villages of the northern Kamajei chiefdom under the name sifoe-wangali. One particular advantage as a hungry season rice is that it seems relatively unattractive to birds, due perhaps to the grain size as well as the colour and the toughness of the seed coat. A small amount was obtained by the Bo-Pujehun relief programme in late 1991 (with difficulty, since Mogbuama farmers are still Displaced farmers were enthusiastic about early African rice. Pujehan, Sierra Leone, 1992 paul richards in the process of multiplying this variety for their own use) and distributed to Pujehun farmer groups on a trial basis in 1992. A group at Koranko-Kpaka planted 2.5 butter cups on 26 May and harvested 14 threepence pans (an inputoutput ratio of 1:25) on 13 September.The speed and yield were major talking points, and members of the group planned to reserve all seed for multiplication purposes in 1993. A stand of the same rice at Lagoh, Barri Chiefdom, planted on 20 June, was in flower on 17 September. The farmer group owning this sample was highly interested in its performance because of its short duration, and because it had survived unscathed by birds during a short resurgence of fighting shortly after planting. This group also planned to reserve as much as possible for seed purposes in 1993.Enthusiasm for adaptive experimentation by groups of farmers undergoing post-war recovery is not restricted to seed innovations alone. In some cases, particularly in the Barri chiefdom, farmers have learned the value of growing rice in the dry season. Reports indicate that in Potoru, before the rebel invasion, only one farmer did this on a regular basis despite an unusually large area of developed swamps in the chiefdom. However, several of the rehabilitation groups intended to continue the practice on their own initiative in subsequent seasons having experienced the benefits of dryseason rice cultivation.It is important to clarify which members of the seed-multiplication groups are most skilled in managing plant genetic resources. We have noted that despite some general similarities in rice production systems across Sierra Leone and Liberia, there are often important differences in the relative roles played by men and women, and that these differences sometimes have a major bearing on the allocation of responsibility for seed accession.The Bo-Pujehun relief programme sheds light on this issue. In a meeting to evaluate the impact of the seed-distribution programme in 1992, group at Lagoh-Barri confirmed that in this part of southeastern Mende, women are principally in charge of the rice harvest. This is similar in much of the border zone and Liberia more generally, but unlike Mogbuama, and central and northwest of Sierra Leone. Women in this part of Sierra Leone are aware of the need to manage plant genetic resources, and claimed to understand and practise panicle selection independently of project initiatives. Men only assist with rice harvesting and seed management, and are more concerned during the main rice harvest period with other aspects of bush work, including the harvesting of palm oil bunches.Women make the main decisions about which rice to cook and which to keepas seed rice, how to store batches set aside as seed,and where to hide these batches when they think (as in the aftermath of fighting) the seed will be under severe pressure from large numbers of indigent would-be consumers with strong social claims on household resources. In general, Mende women frequently emphasize their skilled knowledge of how to 'keep' things. From discussions, it was clear that men and women had interestingly divergent ideas about which of the varieties lost in the insurgency should be the focus of recovery efforts. Women in Lagoh mentioned gbapoi as a priority, for example, whereas men were more interested in nduliwa and bundubai. Some of these differences are explained by the differential properties of local rices when evaluated according to a number of distinct use dimensions. Lipton et al. (1989)  The evaluation of the Bo-Pujehun programme in 1992 included a brief visit to Mogbuama to assess whether there had been any adverse reaction to the removal of 500 bushels (18 200 L) of landrace materials by the project. To secure supply, the project offered rates slightly above the local price in late 1991 and farmers seemed to think the good prices during the Christmas period were beneficial. This is a time of year when, just after the harvest all villagers have available rice, and a rise in preChristmas sales tends to depress prices; accordingly, this influx of purchases in the local market helped the majority of villagers.There was a general air of satisfaction with the Bo-Pujehun purchases, since the local rice trader Young girl gleaning rice from an upland rice farm.(and main agent for the project) promptly reinvested some of his profits from an exceptionally busy trading season by buying stocks of white rice in Bo. This he sold to Mogbuama people at Bo prices, plus transport, to encourage them to continue to supply landrace materials in 1993. Timely availability of white rice at reasonable prices during the rainy season helped overcome the widespread production bottlenecks farmers faced as a result of unseasonably early rainfall, and there was some confidence locally that purchases of seed rice on behalf of the project might easily be doubled.Despite ambushes and attacks along the main Freetown highway 7 km to the south, Mogbuama farmers report increases in areas of land cleared for rice production in early 1995, suggesting that even in conditions of more general destabilization there are still some parts of the rural economy functioning. From this it would seem that there is still some scope for repeating the earlier Bo-Pujehun initiative in purchasing landrace materials for farmer rehabilitation in the main war zones.In other areas, however, the capacity of the local informal system to meet these seed-rehabilitation requirements is hampered by deliberate damage inflicted by the insurgents to local trading capacities. In the small chiefdom headquarters town of Sahn-Malen in Pujehun District there were 25 or more resident stranger-traders before the RUF invasion in 1991. In 1992 only five or six were left. Pursuing a revolutionary anti-trader rhetoric, the insurgents targeted and executed a number of traders to establish their populist credentials with farmers allegedly under the exploitative grip of these village 'usurers'. The merchants who could fled, and have been reluctant to return. Mainly Guinean Fulas and Mandingos, these small-scale merchants were essential to the performance of the local cash-crop economy, advancing farmers money against purchases of coffee, palm produce, cacao and kola (among other commodities). Farmers often use credit from traders to fund other productive activities (e.g. hiring labour, purchase of seed rice, etc.).The rebels tried to rationalize to villagers the hostility to traders by claiming that a Fula merchant had opened fire on one group of insurgents in the initial incursion across the Liberian border. These stories are similar to ones circulating in Liberia that NPFL opposition to the Mandingo stems from two Mandingo merchants having revealed an earlier plot to assassinate President Doe. It seems more likely that the antitrader animus originates from both a simple strategic consideration (a desire to gain the political support of highly indebted villagers), and from a more general ideological propensity among the core ex-student political leadership within the RUF to see all mercantile activity as inherently corrupt and corrupting.In 1992 the cash-crop trade had reverted mainly to itinerants, such as the Fula kola traders who The post-war strategies of national and foreign development agencies in Guinea-Bissau were aimed at restoring mangrove-rice farming. Apparently one of the underlying premises of these strategies was that this rehabilitation could be achieved by concentrating upon technical assistance. These efforts included repairing water works with modern materials, machinery or labour investments, mobilized through food for work programmes. They also included distributing rice varieties, notably ROK5, and other technical inputs. Balanta communities, it was assumed, would then resume their prewar activities, labour organization and production systems.The engineers based their strategy on a stereotypically static image of Balanta society, which they believed still prevailed, or could be resurrected in the aftermath of war. This image of society was based on certain presuppositions about these peoples' culture: Balanta were known to be independently minded, tradition-oriented, cohesive, and everywhere focused on their major crop, rice. The assumption of the technical assistance agencies was that given the facilities for rice farming offered by aid programmes, the old Balanta society suppressed by war would spring back into life.A comparison of pre and post-war social organization in Guinea-Bissau reveals two major changes integral to rice farming. First, the crucial relationship in Balanta society between elders and young men had broken down during the war. After the war, young men were no longer directly controlled by their elders, but sought sources of income outside their villages, and/or tended to produce rice on their own account. Secondly, elders shifted the focus of their political action from controlling their sons' labour towards the management of economic activities at the village level more broadly, mainly through their control over certain ritual processes.The most important consequence of these trends for rice farming was the fragmentation of units of management and labour mobilization (simply put, there was a shift in organizational focus from the village/compound level towards household units). In turn, the large lower fields in the mangrove ecosystems were no longer used as they had been before the war. As agrocommercial entrepreneurs disappeared after the war, Guinea-Bissau (now independent) followed a model of state-controlled economic development. In practice, the state-controlled armazens do povo were not able to effectively replace the ponteiros. Interestingly, the ponteiros largely remained outside every analysis or study on mangrove rice farming; they simply had no place within the development strategies and social planning of the 1970s.Surprisingly, a number of the most influential of these colonial entrepreneurs joined the Marxist PAIGC administration. By neglecting the nature and importance of these two sets of changes, rehabilitation strategies which seemed sensible from a technical point of view were directed primarily in a socioeconomic context which no longer existed. This explains in part the disappointing results from the introduction of ROK5. Up to the late 1980s, production had hardly improved over war-time levels. Over 50% of fields in the mangrove zone had fallen into disuse. Labour migration to the capital and neighbouring countries intensified after independence, and rice imports continued to increase.In the immediate postwar period there was a considerable shortage of locally adapted mangrove rice cultivars, many of which had been lost during the conflict. ROK5 was introduced as the main alternative. Technically, this release was well-adapted to mangrove soil and water conditions in Guinea-Bissau. The variety gave high yields and its colour, taste and cooking time were also locally acceptable. But for ROK5 to be a success it was necessary to move back into full-scale cultivation of the main mangrove wetlands. Water control structures were rehabilitated or improved, but this alone was not enough. The key factor in the successful cultivation of the main mangrove areas is an abundant supply of well-organized labour. Before the war this was supplied by 'age grades' of young men often working on the scale of an entire village or village section under the co-ordinating authority of the village elders. The war changed this relationship, and undermined the authority of the elders. Outmigration reduced the pool of available labour; even when young men were available for the work they now preferred to work independ-Fence constructed to keep pests out of a swamp rice plot.ently, farming the associated (rain-fed) wetlands better suited to this purpose and growing crops other than rice on uplands. As water-control structures in rice cultivation are viewed as a marker of technical progress elsewhere in the world, it seemed clear to the newly independent Marxist government and aid agencies that rehabilitation of the mangrove farms was a priority.Another important factor involved in the input of genetic material was the ponteiros. Since their activities were aimed at European markets they had a clear-cut preference for white-skinned, fast-cooking varieties of rice. This preference influenced farmers' decisions, since rice was cultivated as a cash crop as well as for subsistence. However, local cultivars of Asian Rice and all varieties of African Rice are red-skinned, leading merchants and rice cultivators in the mangrove rice zone in Guinea-Bissau to select against these varieties for economic reasons. Since red skin colour is a dominant Children playing on the back door step, under okra seed which has been kept by their grandmother (Sernor Fatmata Kamara). characteristic, farmermanaged supplies of whiteskinned varieties tended to become more mixed over time. In the prewar situation this gave the ponteiros a strong vested interest in maintaining stocks of locally adapted seeds with the desired qualities to ensure that the rice they bought from farmers had the desired characteristics. Ponteiros thus became an integral link in the local seed supply chain, and their disappearance after the war may have been as disruptive of local management of plant genetic resources as the war itself.The idea of isolated, autonomous Balanta communities hid the prewar role of the vital commercial networks through which mangrove rice producing villages and families were linked. For ideological reasons, politicians, scientists and development experts largely neglected these commercial networks. They were more concerned with the progressive socialist development of post-war Guinea-Bissau. It is worth noting that these commercial networks, integral to the rise of mangrove rice cultivation in Balanta country, were not dead but only dormant; as a consequence of recent economic liberalization they have experienced a renaissance.The case of Guinea-Bissau clearly shows the extent to which prewar and post-war situations may differ. This has direct relevance for the way agencies interested in farmer rehabilitation in the aftermath of war view their task.The main genetic input in the rehabilitation of rice farming after the Liberation War (1962)(1963)(1964)(1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974) consisted of ROK5 seed material. Although this has positive characteristics and was technically adjusted to the environment, it is a seed choice that implicitly assumed that the prewar socio-economic organization of the farmers (with a relatively large scale labour mobilization demand) would be readily revived. In reality land management and labour organization in rice farming was rapidly fragmented after the war, ultimately affecting the household unit of production. This had immediate consequences for the level of land and labour management, as lower, more productive and more labour-intensive fields were no longer used to the same extent as before the war.In addition, the postwar disappearance of the agrocommercial entrepreneurs, a vital set of actors in the prewar rice farming complex, had serious consequences for the rice economy. This void effected not only commercialization, but also the local management of rice genetic resources when an important stimulus to seed selection was removed. Relief and rehabilitation programmes initiated aid, as water management infrastructure was restored or improved and new planting materials were introduced, under the assumption that farmers would make use of these facilities automatically. Due to the radical changes which the war had created in the fabric of rural agrarian society, these efforts proved largely unfruitful.Successful seed assistance to war-affected farmers that is sensitive to management issues in plant genetic resources is feasible in the kinds of conditions currently experienced in countries of the West African rice zone, but two requirements stand out. There is need for good local knowledge of adapted seed types, and for cooperation from farmers in areas outside the war zone. As experience in Liberia has revealed, not all aid agencies have the requisite local knowledge. Where an entire country has been repeatedly destabilized over successive agricultural seasons (as in Liberia), cross-border assistance in recovering locally adapted planting material seems to be called for (a point developed in Chapter 4 below). Moreover, war is a social as well as a military process. Post-war relief and rehabilitation is often much more than an attempt to recover the original status quo; seed assistance may have to embed itself within complex processes of warinduced and post-war social change. Diverse sections of society (men and women, young and old) may find themselves engaged and affected by military processes in very different ways.The post-war situation demands new and diverse crop genetic resources: It is a common experience in many wars that returning fighters do not easily find their place within wardistorted social formations. Inter-generational tension may result, and have a marked impact in a variety of ways, such as patterns of labour mobilization in agrarian societies. The Guinea-Bissau material indicates that crop plant genetic resources are not just adapted to specific econiches, but can also be specific to certain forms of labour organization. In addition, post-war conditions may dictate large changes in crop-type preferences as a result of alterations in the social relations of farming production. These changes need to be monitored and their significance for selecting and maintaining crop genetic resources fully and carefully evaluated. Specifically, every post-war rehabilitation initiative needs to understand exactly how conflict has altered the distribution of power and authority among the generations and between the genders as well as identify the implications of these changes for agricultural production systems.the management of plant genetic resources and post-war recovery 4 This chapter addresses two questions. First, to what extent has war affected the institutions and procedures for managing plant genetic resources in the three case-study countries? Second, what role might management of plant genetic resources play in post-war recovery? Answering the second question we point to a new and potentially valuable cooperative linkage between management institutions and humanitarian assistance.Formal responsibility for managing plant genetic resources is vested, in all three case-study countries, in national agricultural research systems (NARS). Rice researchers in all three countries collect and characterize local germplasm to improve rice. They also collaborate with international centres in the CGIAR system. IITA (in Ibadan, Nigeria) had a rice research programme for Africa, and IITA plant explorers collected about 500 local varieties in Sierra Leone in the mid-1970s. A duplicate collection was lodged with the national rice research station at Rokupr, but was lost in 1980, when cold storage equipment was looted from the station during action by the security forces to quell a riot of daily paid workers. IITA has more recently relinquished responsibility for rice in West Africa to a reconstituted WARDA, based in Bouake, Côte d'Ivoire. At a global level, formal management of plant genetic resources in the three case-study countries is supported by the major rice genebank collections maintained by IRRI in the Philippines, and by the policy work and technical support of IPGRI.Rice researchers in the three countries collaborate, both bilaterally and through the CGIAR-system networks, in exchanging local germplasm and improved releases. A Liberian landrace selection, LAC23, was rereleased in Sierra Leone as ROK17, and has been adopted extensively by dryland farmers in that country.Similarly, the Rokupr salttolerant release ROK5 was promoted extensively in Guinea-Bissau in the postwar recovery phase.The destruction of ex situ rice germplasm collections at Rokupr in 1980 serves as a warning that such collections are vulnerable to looting by ill-paid government security forces as well as irregulars. Rokupr was briefly threatened by RUF activity in January 1995 and again in February 1996, and staff were evacuated to Freetown. Some scientific staff returned to the station after a few weeks, and relatively little damage was sustained. By their nature, physically sprawling facilities in relatively inaccessible country districts, research stations are hard to secure against the proliferation of armed groups and bandit gangs of the kind that lingered in the aftermath of a period of more formal conflict, as in eastern Nigeria after the Civil War 1968-70.In Thus, post-war recovery seems to call for something entirely new in terms of organizational arrangements and practical initiatives. This new system (detailed below) should be a hybrid of some aspects of existing formal and informal practices together with new elements arising from practices more normally associated with the work of relief and rehabilitation agencies, and supported by international genebank facilities. There is (we have discovered) some willingness on the part of the interests involved in managing plant genetic resources, war-affected farmer groups and the relief and rehabilitation agencies, to contemplate practical outcomes from this unprecedented convergence of interests. As yet there exists no clear idea about how to build on this convergence; we seek to address this issue in the remaining sections of the chapter.According to preliminary informal enquiries addressed to a number of British and Dutch based organizations, relief and rehabilitation agencies are potentially interested in the idea that post-war recovery initiatives in Africa might have explicit components involved in managing plant genetic resources. There is now the need to discuss scenarios as well as practical and action-ready, proposals.These comments focus on a number of conceptual reorientations that might be necessary if the worlds of relief and genetic resource management are to find common ground. The first of these conceptual reorientations has already been noted in the discussion on efforts to develop Seed supply to farmers seems on occasion to be managed as an extension of food aid. It is seen as an exercise in getting a standard bulk commodity in place as speedily as possible. Food aid oriented agencies often do not easily understand what is different about seed aid, and the new standards and criteria against which the effectiveness of such aid must be judged. The manager of a relief programme in one of our case studies, having procured large supplies of seed rice on the world market, was frank enough to tell us that no attention was paid to varietal suitability. He had simply never been briefed about the issue, and was surprised to find that not all seed rice was equally suitable to conditions in the country concerned. However, he was willing to change things in future if timely expertise could be made available. It is this kind of invitation to which the management community should seek to respond.Conversations with relief and rehabilitation agency staff during the preparation of this report brought to light a second potentially important opportunity for managing plant genetic resources. Many agencies are acutely aware of the potential danger of food aid dependency developing among groups of refugees and people displaced by conflict. One way to counteract such tendencies may be to seek ways to link relief and rehabilitation activities with longer-term rural development initiatives. Currently there is an important debate taking place within the agencies about why these two spheres of activity have been so separate in the past, with somewhat distinctive institutional cultures, and how to bring about better linkage and cooperation in future. Efforts to manage plant genetic resources might be a perfect focal point upon which some of these initiatives might converge, since the kind of management schemes for plant genetic resources outlined have drawn from the first phase of relief activities, namely getting inputs to displaced rural people to allow them to survive the paul richards CHAPTER 4 MANAGEMENT AND POST-WAR RECOVERY immediate aftermath of war. There is also potential to develop this into longerterm rural development initiatives by stimulating farmers' interest in innovation processes as they adapt to unprecedented post-war circumstances.  van Hintum 1994). Even more importantly, accession passport data typically tends to under-represent the kind of social-economic, cultural, and agronomic data likely to be of most use to relief agencies. Farmers' groups and their NGO agents are concerned with issues such as which landrace in a region should be collected and multiplied in anticipation of a sharp post-war deterioration in labour supply; what equivalents exist for temporarily unavailable landraces most suited to women's special needs; and what are the best hardy, short-duration types for a given area. To understand whether or not a genebank facility is able to accommodate the needs of new client groups (wardamaged farming communities/relief agencies), testing of the facilities in question against specific sets of circumstances will be required.We suggest approaching these concerns in the following way. A number of workshops should be organized to bring together, in the first instance, specialists in managing plant genetic resources and field staff of relief agencies familiar with the post-war rehabilitation of farming communities (in time it might be possible to incorporate representatives of these communities directly into the process). The task of these workshops should be to build specific conflict and catastrophe scenarios. From these scenarios a list of questions would be generated to determine how the information and collecting systems of genebank facilities can best accommodate farmer needs when rehabilitating wardamaged communities. This type of activity would serve to develop a mutual understanding of the issues raised by professionals from both the management and relief fields, and lead towards the reorganization of collections and information-support systems in ways that would improve genebank disaster preparedness.In more general terms, it is vital to identify the practical role of the genebank: whether national and international collections should seek to develop some of the diverse activities of the world's major museums and libraries, or if research is the only remit (Eyzaguirre and Iwanaga 1996).  The more important role for genebanks is as a source of information about locally adapted planting materials and possible landrace substitutes (from neighbouring regions). Currently most genebank collections may not be optimally (or even well) organized for supplying this type of information. A recent assessment of the barley collections in a Dutch genebank highlights the problem of irregular collections, and much basic characterization work still remains to be done on even the best-managed collections ( van Hintum 1994). Even when available, this information tends to be oriented towards the needs of breeders and not relief agencies. In light of these problems, we propose three initiatives to improve genebank support for the post-war recovery constituency:1) New collecting protocols for genebank accessions need to be developed which include the kind of socioeconomic passport data of greatest potential significance to relief agencies. Some idea about what data could be incorporated can be gained from a managementspecialist review of the onthe-ground experience of relief and rehabilitation agencies trying to reactivate informal systems damaged by conflict. Recent efforts by IPGRI to revise the collecting forms to include socioeconomic and ethnobotanical information are one step in this direction (Eyzaguirre 1995).2) The current effectiveness of existing genebanks and collection networks should be tested, using a number of potential (or actual) war and disaster scenarios, to meet the information needs of relief and rehabilitation agencies. This might be done through organizing country-focused NGO-genebank workshops in which the participants developed their war/postwar-recovery scenarios to evaluate the genebank facility in question. Such workshops might provide an effective way to develop better reciprocal understanding among agency staff of management issues of plant genetic resources in war-torn societies.3) Working relationships need to be established between genebanks and on-site relief agents, for example through creating fellowships and bench facilities for refugee specialists in the management of plant genetic resources actively associated with the work of relief agencies. Such a refugeevisitor programme might have as one of its central aims the characterization of collections from the standpoint of rehabilitation needs, linked to ongoing relief and development transition projects in countries undergoing postwar recovery.We conclude this report with a discussion of some practical possibilities for facilities, relief agencies and farmer groups in a transnational web of mutually reinforcing interactions (a seed-safety actor-network). We propose calling this the regional seed safety web (RSSW). In an ideal model the RSSW should be in place before conflict arises. The present challenge is to construct such webs in conditions of ongoing conflict and post-war recovery. We propose to start the process of webbuilding in a 'bottom-up' manner, trying whenever possible to adapt the first steps in this new seed security initiative to the work patterns of relief agencies in the field.The initial activities will be undertaken through the agency of a new type of emergency-oriented, seedsecurity management team we term the security collecting mission (SCMsmall teams of management specialists of plant genetic resources accompanying emergency relief workers in the field).Minimally, an SCM would comprise a genetic resources specialist/breeder, a social scientist familiar with local crops and farming environments, an NGO liaison officer, and representatives of refugee/ displaced farmer groups. The SCM team would be trained, cleared and ready to follow emergency feeding programmes. Such feeding programmes generally require prompt registration of refugees and displaced people, and a SCM might use this registration exercise as an entry point to assess longterm needs for locally adapted varieties and potential germplasm losses. Displaced or refugee farmers may have lost control of their bulk seed supplies, but grain genetic resources are in fact often quite durable. With suitable early warning, many apparently lost seed types will be readily recoverable provided an assiduous search is instituted and researchers have a clear idea of their targets.1) The first major task of a SCM will be to record what planting materials refugees or displaced farming populations depended on in their home areas and in what proportions. This establishes a baseline from which to assess how seed needs might have changed in the current environment. It also builds a framework for planning the process of securing and multiplying stocks of adapted materials for an eventual return home. The SCM will then need toThe aim of the SCM is to secure the following outputs within a 3-year time scale: q basic information from refugee and displaced groups about seed losses q security collecting of threatened material q preliminary assessment and characterization of key germplasm resources advice to relief agencies about seed acquisition and distribution policy q advice to refugees/displaced farmer groups about locally adapted planting material for their new situations q seed multiplication activities involving refugee/displaced farmer groups to secure supplies of appropriate planting material for returning farmers q participatory analysis with refugee/ displaced farmer groups of social changes induced by war affecting farmer-managed and local seed system activities q social research with farmers' groups to rebuild or replace existing seed systems q monitoring and evaluating the impact on genetic resource distribution, food security and livelihood security q monitoring and evaluating war and post-war recovery programmes.decide, on the basis of these data, whether the varieties in question are already known to science, whether starter supplies for multiplication can be acquired from existing regional genetic resource collections, and whether this is a purely local variety requiring collecting and characterization. Reference will be made to information networks maintained for this purpose by a series of participating regional institutions (see below).2) The SCM should then organize meetings with refugee/displaced farmer groups at an early stage of the recovery process to elicit refugees' own ideas about a possible strategy for recovering important material. Even in peace time farmers often acquire starter seed through unusual routes (viable seeds scattered in the bush by birds, or attached to clothes, loads and packing materials). Alternatively, seed search activity may be something to be linked to food for work programmes and undertaken by children or older or weaker refugees unable to do more physically demanding farm work.3) A third step at this stage is for the SCM social scientist to map local seed systems. Ultimately this process seeks to understand whether conflict has entirely disrupted the seed systems and if so what prospects might exist for rehabilitation, while also seeking to begin to analyze war as a social process and open discussion with displaced groups about key social aspects of seedsecurity issues. Two key examples of this from the Guinea-Bissau case study would be the commercialization of the seed system and the relationship between labour mobilization and seed choice. 4) Working in close consultation with relevant relief agencies and refugee/ displaced farmer representative groups, the SCM will then assume the responsibility to plan and implement a seed collecting, multiplication and redistribution strategy for displaced, returning and resettled farmers. The SCM will expect to assist displaced farmers to adapt to new environments by acquiring and organizing the multiplication of appropriate locally adapted planting material. Where material has to be imported for refugee or returning farmers the SCM will expect to advise relief agencies on their seedacquisition policies.5) The SCM will stimulate and co-ordinate refugee/displaced farming groups to multiply scarce but important varieties as reimbursement for relief assistance. This component of SCM activity seeks to address the problem of dependency among refugee populations. The intention is to ameliorate the logistical bottleneck of finding suitable sources of planting materials when the focus shifts from relief to rehabilitation. Multiplication activity is intended to help focus the explicit attention of displaced farmer groups on the social aspects of seed system issues (such as the disruption to existing arrangements, and on the possible need for social innovation by refugee/ displaced farmer groups themselves to overcome these disruptions).Where women are key CHAPTER 4 MANAGEMENT AND POST-WAR RECOVERY agents in the seed-recovery process the social scientist on the SCM must understand gender issues, or a gender specialist must be added to the team. It is expected, given the particular significance of women rice farmers in managing local aspects of the informal seed system in Liberia and eastern Sierra Leone, that much of this activity will be focused on women's groups. The Pujehun rehabilitation experience in 1992 will also assist, where women expressed enthusiasm for the idea of a system of inter-village, cooperative, seed-exchange activities under their direct control. Higher levels in the regional seed security webThe intention behind the priority focus on SCM is not only to meet an urgent practical set of needs, but also to create a context in which higher level changes in genebanking activities are induced by the need to support SCM-type activities.Including SCM in the work of relief and rehabilitation agencies will strengthen the case for continued support and also induce the organizational reform of the management of plant genetic resources in waraffected regions. The continuing success of SCM will be ensured by efforts to create and sustain baseline data, back-up information systems containing suitable socio-economic as well as biological data, and collections of wellcharacterized and adequately sampled plant genetic resource accessions (with duplicates distributed across the region for security purposes). This implies careful attention to the dynamics of regional cooperation in the management of plant genetic resources in a political climate clouded by the regional tensions which cause or exacerbated conflict in the first place. In a particular sense, gene conservation authorities will have to become concerned with international relations. Seemingly, the West African rice zone has some of the necessary institutional frameworks already in place. WARDA, one of the newest and smallest international research centres in the CGIAR system, has been able to maintain coordination of rice research issues despite the existence of national, and Anglophone-Francophone politicalrivalries affecting the course of the present conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone. In several respects it is atypical, having existed previously as a regional cooperative venture supported (on paper at least) mainly by the governments of African rice-growing countries. Only recently has it joined the CGIAR system as a venture with strong African roots; an African director, and a majority of African scientific staff, might prove to be a timely solution to the kinds of diplomatically delicate situations that inevitably arise in attempting to build an effective system of regional cooperation in the management of plant genetic resources across a number of planes of political cleavage.Earlier it was stressed that rehabilitating seed systems cannot be regarded as a technical activity taking place in a political vacuum. Additionally, WARDA is now committed to a policy of complementary support and capacity building in national research organizations. In the past its research programmes to some extent rivalled or overrode existing national programmes. This emphasis on complementarity and support should prove an effective basis for forging cooperative management activities designed to support recovery in wardamaged environments. Therefore we envisage a regional seed security web for rice in West Africa which might involve all national research centres with a rice speciality, coordinated by WARDA, with technical support and capacity building inputs from IPGRI. Each institution would make contributions to the information system, take part in data collecting exercises, maintain collections (including strategic duplicates), and undertake seed gathering and characterization work related to seed security and post-war rehabilitation.Where possible, individual contributions would serve in a dual capacity. They would contribute to the overall seed security web while also fitting specific needs, such as national programmes for low input and sustainable agriculture targeted at low-input farmers. Additionally, the participating institutions would be encouraged to develop effective working links with the NGO sector and relief/rehabilitation programmes on a research contract and consultancy basis (for example, seconding personnel to SCM teams) via these NGO links with farmer groups (including refugee and displaced farmer groups). The participating national institutions would also be encouraged to take part in baseline and monitoring exercises in the management of plant genetic resources, either from the more general standpoint of exercises to prepare for disasters, or in response to specific postwar rehabilitation needs.At a general level, the management system for plant genetic resources being proposed above would represent a shift in institutional culture. The system moves away from the idea that agricultural research is primarily a question of accelerated CHAPTER 4 MANAGEMENT AND POST-WAR RECOVERY growth of output. It tends towards the notion that maintaining, restoring or creating sustainable livelihoods is a focus of perhaps equal or greater importance. In the context of conventional agricultural research, genebanking is viewed as a service. The kind of distributed seed security web advocated here, by contrast, is no longer a service to a tiny group of agricultural professionals, but a way of conceptualizing and activating a vision of sustainable agriculture in poor countries facing turmoil and insecurity. Such a web would serve a double purpose -it would be a way of conserving plant genetic resource material, but also a way of protecting regions against food insecurities associated with the disaster of war. Daunted by prospects of mounting costs of security operations, the international community now talks increasingly about 'conflict prevention'. One of the lessons of the region examined in this study is that warfare becomes increasingly the only option for armies of youngsters cast loose by war-induced collapse of rural economies. Opportunities to exit this vicious circle arise at unpredictable moments. It would be tragic if such options were foreclosed by the loss of biotechnical viability of local agricultural systems. Thus it needs to be understood clearly that a properly thought-out and tried-and-tested system for the management of plant genetic resources in warprone regions is an essential concomitant of conflict prevention.The challenge, going beyond existing humanitarian assistance, is to establish and support plant genetic resources management institutions, formal and informal, that: q contribute to better rural livelihoods q create rural alternatives to militia warfare q function to protect biotechnical viability of agricultural systems even during episodes of conflict q support post-conflict reconstruction initiatives.This is an agenda for the plant sciences on the scale of the post-1945 Green Revolution, though starting from different premises. Far-reaching debate about appropriate strategy, technique and institutional development is now needed to arrive at effective practical proposals. This document is offered as a stimulus to such debate.","tokenCount":"15670"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8f8867b48af2c8adcea01ea7c997977b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46dab9e2-385d-4e2c-8ad7-ad6e128901d3/retrieve","id":"1071205510"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"35308fb3-9bae-42a9-b26b-daf4a45824fd","pagecount":"24","content":"First and foremost, we want to recognize and appreciate the invaluable efforts of the Athi-Kapiti Conservancies and Ranches -ILRI Kapiti, Swara plains/Game Ranching, Machakos ranching, Lisa Ranch & game sanctuary, New Astra, Olosira conservancy, Naretunoi conservancy, Maanzoni owners Association, Lukenya Wildlife Conservancy (Malinda B@T), Kasanga Ranch (Lukenya Hills Nature Sanctuary) and Konza Technopolis. Your unwavering commitment to organizing and coordinating volunteers played an instrumental role in ensuring the smooth and efficient execution of the game count.A special word of thanks goes out to the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS)-Machakos County Warden and the Rangers for their outstanding support in deploying rangers to accompany our dedicated volunteers during the game count. Your presence not only enhanced the safety of the participants but also inspired a sense of confidence and security as we conducted this vital task.To The Wildlife Foundation (TWF), we extend our appreciation for your commendable role in coordinating the game count on triangle 1 and 2. Your expertise and meticulous planning were crucial in ensuring that the data collected during the count will be accurate and invaluable in guiding future conservation efforts.We also want to express our gratitude to Save Giraffes Now (SGN) for actively participating in the game count in Swara Conservancy.Finally, we want to extend a heartfelt thank you to all the volunteers who dedicated their time, energy, resources, and passion to make this game count a success. Your enthusiasm and willingness to be part of this conservation effort are genuinely inspiring. We hope you enjoyed the experience and that it leaves a lasting impression on your hearts..The Athi Kapiti conservancies and ranches wildlife game count was conducted on 4 th June 2023. The count aimed at establishing the current wildlife population and spatial distribution in the Athi Kapiti landscape following concerns raised by landowners of declined wildlife populations in the area after a severe drought and increased human activities. Subsequent counts will help in identifying wildlife trends and possible impacts of the expanding and continuous anthropogenic activities that peril wildlife existence in the landscape.The game count was conducted in eight conservancies. Each conservancy established blocks to guide in data collection totaling to 43 blocks. The participants were divided into groups with each block having at least 3 participants; a driver, an observer and a recorder. For each block data were recorded in a data sheet and on a mobile phone in the CyberTracker app.The highest number among herbivores were respectively recorded for common zebra (N=3787), Thomson's gazelle (N=3022), Grant's gazelle (N=1531) and impala (N=1167). Lower numbers were recorded for Masai giraffe (N=374), eland (N=214), warthog (N=226), wildebeest (N=171), Coke's hartebeest (N= 17), gerenuk (N=44), lesser kudu (N=10) and stein buck (N=1). The Coke's hartebeest and wildebeest recorded a low number compared to the usual numbers that have been observed before the severe drought. Among birds, a select number of birds were recorded. Ostriches recorded the highest on the count among birds (N=530). Other birds observed were grey crowned crane (endangered), Kori bustard (near threatened), martial eagle (endangered), tawny eagle (vulnerable), grey heron (least concern) and Ruppel's vulture (critically endangered). Five species of carnivores were recorded: bat eared fox (N=3), black backed jackal (N=42), hyena (N=166), cheetah (N=2) and lion (N=1). One python was recorded. Baboons (N=209), Sykes monkey (N=93) and vervet monkey (N=92) were also observed. Small mammals such as rock hyrax, mongoose, ground squirrel, African hare and porcupine were recorded as well as ad hoc observations during the game count.Maanzoni, Lukenya wildlife conservancy (Malinda ranch) and Kasanga ranch conducted a game count on 7 th May 2023 which is a month prior to the joint game count. The three conservancies used the same methodology used during the 4 th July game count. The data of the three conservancies' game count is summarized separately and well stipulated in this report.Wildlife counting is a fundamental practice in conservation and wildlife management to enable wildlife population estimation and identify distribution patterns and trends. This ecological approach informs conservationists, landowners and policy makers on factors that may affect a given species such as drought, disease, land use changes etc. It can assist to maintain the wildlife population at a given range through interventions related to land use change, disease eradication and mechanisms or mitigations against drought. Continuous monitoring of wildlife population provides intelligence on the regulating factors on the abundance and distribution of species and wildlife trends.The Athi Kapiti landscape is an important biodiversity area which is a dispersal area for wildlife connecting Nairobi National Park, Oldonyo Sabuk National Park, the Amboseli ecosystem and the Masai Mara. Additionally, the landscape serves as a breeding site for wildebeest. The landscape is currently facing pressure from human population increase and expansion of the urban areas. The landowners within Machakos county, Kajiado county and Makueni county have continuously protected this area through ranching which allows both wildlife and livestock to use the land resources. To document the critical importance of this landscape for wildlife, the Athi Kapiti Wildlife Conservancies Association (AKWCA) organized a joint game count to account for the wildlife population, its distribution and possibly the impact of the severe drought experienced in the area between November 2022 and March 2023 as well as the impacts of increased human activity. Landowners and volunteers were involved in the count adopting a citizen science approach, which is increasingly used by ecologists in wildlife data collection. The approach is based on the concept of the 'wisdom of the crowd' that ensures collective reasoning.This game count was conducted with the aim of establishing the spatial distribution and abundance of wildlife within the Athi Kapiti plains. Continuous game counts will help monitor and establish wildlife distribution patterns, population trends and possibly the effects of extreme weather and anthropogenic activities.The Athi Kapiti landscape is on the southern side of the Nairobi National Park bordering the Ngong hills on the west and stretching between six counties, namely Nairobi, Machakos, Kajiado, Makueni, Kitui and Kiambu. The Athi Kapiti plains cover an estimated area of 4,000 square kilometers. The area has an altitude that ranges between 1533 metres (5,030 ft) and 2145 metres (7,037 ft -the peak of Ol Donyo Sabuk National Park). Its vegetation is characterized by rolling savannah grasslands, bushlands and subsections of forest vegetation. It is covered with ridges, seasonal and permanent rivers, open savannah plains, and hills that border both the west and the east side of the landscape.The Nairobi National Park and Athi Kapiti ecosystem dispersal area is recognized as a Key Biodiversity Area (KBA). The Status of the system is classified as \"Critically Endangered\" in Kenya's fifth national report to the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Athi Kapiti Landscape is critical to wildlife and rangeland conservation. It plays an essential and unique role in connecting the wildlife populations of Nairobi National Park to the Amboseli, Magadi, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Tsavo ecosystems and to the Masai Mara-Serengeti ecosystems. It hosts a wide variety of East Africa's ungulates, predators, and over 500 species of birds.The landscape is home to several endangered wildlife species, including the White-backed Vulture, the black rhino, wild dogs, and the Masai giraffe. Part of the reason why Athi Kapiti plains are preferred by most ungulates is the vast open plains with shorter grass that is more nutritious than the old hard and unpalatable long grass within the Nairobi National Park. Wildebeests and zebras also prefer vast open and short-grass characteristic during the calving and wet seasons. This leads to ungulates preferring to graze in the open areas, south of the park that forms the Athi Kapiti. This ecosystem also helps in enhancing genetic variability in protected areas by helping to reconnect these isolated populations.Traditionally, the Athi Kapiti landscape was inhabited by Masai pastoralists who used the vast plains to rear livestock alongside the existence of wildlife and the Kamba people who practiced subsistence farming, beekeeping and livestock rearing. With the region's proximity to Nairobi, rapid urbanization and industrialization continue to threaten conservation objectives within the area as people and industries move out of the capital city into the suburbs, the Athi Kapiti landscape remains a favourite choice. Over the years parts of the Athi Kapiti plains have developed into an urban area inhabited by diverse cultures that have also dictated a change of land use and economic activities. This can be clearly seen with increased infrastructural developments and fencing that significantly impact wildlife habitats, movement and distribution. Wildlife dispersal areas have been considerably affected, thus threatening the wildlife populations in the region. The Athi Kapiti plains consists of 13 conservancies and ranches in Machakos county, Makueni county and Kajiado county namely: Naretunoi conservancy, Olosira conservancy, Machakos ranching, Swara plains conservancy, ILRI Kapiti, Maanzoni wildlife estate, Lukenya wildlife conservancy, Kasanga ranch, Lisa ranch, Konza technopolis, New Astra, Yoani farm and Ulu conservancy. The game count was conducted on 4 th of June 2023 with eight conservancies and ranches participating. For this game count, Malili area was added due to the abundant wildlife that has recently been observed in the area. For logistical reasons, Malili area was counted together with Lisa ranch and New Astra. To avoid double counting and to ensure systematic data collection, each participating conservancy or ranch delineated three to ten blocks: ILRI Kapiti (10 blocks), Machakos ranching (6 blocks), Swara plains (6 blocks), Lisa, New Astra & Malili (4 blocks), Konza technopolis (3 blocks), Olosira conservancy (6 blocks), Naretunoi conservancy (8 blocks) totaling to 43 blocks.The materials needed for the count included a data sheet, camera, and a pair of binoculars, writing materials, a mobile phone with the CyberTracker app installed and a wildlife spotter guide. The participants had been trained on data collection and recording using the CyberTracker app and data sheet three days prior to the game count to allow time for cross checking and confirmation.The game count was conducted on 4 th June 2023 with participants leaving for their blocks at 0600hrs to be able to spot predators. Each group had at least three participants; a driver, a spotter and data recorder. The team drove/walked around their block counting the actual animals sighted as per counting protocols and recorded sightings in the data sheet and CyberTracker app which automatically geo-referenced the location of animals.All herbivores and carnivores were systematically recorded on the datasheet and in the CyberTracker app. Among birds, a selection of large birds was recorded systematically as well whereas the option was provided for other birds of interest to be recorded ad hoc. The same applied for any other species of interest observed during the count not pre-listed on the data sheet or in the CyberTracker app.After the count, data was downloaded, analyzed and for select species presented in distribution maps as shown in the results section. The distribution maps have hexagons measuring 500m by 500m showing the density of a given animal in the given location using color coding.The results of the count are summarized in the table below indicating the number of individuals of each wildlife species counted per conservancy or ranch and the overall totals per species. The maps below show the abundance as well as spatial distribution of different species of herbivores as well as ostrich recorded in the study area.Common zebra recorded the highest number (3787) with Naretunoi conservancy recording the highest at 1078 accounting for 28% of the total, followed by Lisa, New Astra & Malili (21%), Olosira conservancy (17%), Swara plains (16%), ILRI Kapiti (9%), Machakos ranching (7%) and Konza (2%).Thomson's gazelle recorded the second highest number during the game count (3022) with Olosira conservancy accounting for the highest number recorded at 30%, followed by Naretunoi conservancy (21%), Machakos ranching (15%), Lisa, New Astra & Malili (13%), Swara plains (12%), ILRI Kapiti (8%) and Konza (1%). The Thomson's gazelle is fairly widely distributed in the conservancies.   A total of 374 giraffes were recorded during the count. The giraffes were fairly distributed in the conservancies. 22%, 21%, 19%, 15%, 15%, and 8% accounting for Swara plains, Naretunoi conservancy, ILRI Kapiti, Lisa (Astra & Malili), Olosira conservancy and Machakos ranching respectively.A total of 171 wildebeest were recorded during the count, with majority 86% counted at Naretunoi conservancy and 8%, 4% and 2% being counted at Swara, Machakos ranching and Lisa respectively.A total of 214 eland were recorded with majority being recorded at ILRI Kapiti, Naretunoi conservancy, Swara plains and Lisa translating to 36%, 28%, 16% and 14% respectively. Five species of carnivores were recorded: bat eared fox, black backed jackal, hyena, cheetah and lion. A total of 166 hyenas were counted with majority being counted at Machakos ranching and Swara plains. A total of 42 black backed jackals were counted during the game count with majority at Machakos ranching and Swara plains. In total, 3 bat eared fox, 2 cheetahs and 1 lion were recorded during the game count.Three species of primates were recorded: baboon, Sykes monkey and vervet monkey. A total of 209 baboons, 93 Sykes monkeys and 92 vervet monkeys were recorded.A total of 530 ostriches were recorded during the game count. The ostriches were evenly distributed in the conservancies with majority being sighted at Lisa and ILRI Kapiti. One python was sighted at Naretunoi conservancy. Among other herbivores counted during the game count were bushbuck (N=2), dik dik (N=27), duiker (N=17), lesser kudu (N=10), stein buck (N=1) and warthog (N=226). Other mammals sighted were African hare (N=17), ground squirrel (N=18), rock hyrax (N=7), mongoose (N=1) and porcupine (N=4).The game count conducted on 4 June 2023 established the spatial distribution and abundance of wildlife populations within the Athi Kapiti landscape. It was the first time a systematic count was done in all participating conservancies and ranches at the same time using the same methodology and as such was setting a baseline for various wildlife populations in the area.The observation of a wide range of species, from big cats, to critically endangered birds, Masai giraffe and a python, confirm the critical importance of the Athi Kapiti ecosystem for wildlife.As the distribution maps per species show, the highest diversity of herbivores was found in the northern and eastern parts of the study area. Common zebra, Thomson's gazelle and Grant's gazelle were fairly widely distributed in the conservancies and occurred in large numbers in the central parts as well.In terms of total numbers, common zebra and Thomson's gazelle are most abundant with over respectively 3787 and 3022 individuals counted per species, followed by the Grant's gazelle with approximately half that number at 1531 -a species known for coping well with drought. For eland, warthog and Masai giraffe the total numbers were in the range of 214-374 individuals.According to landowners, the Coke's hartebeest and wildebeest recorded a low number (17 and 171 respectively) compared to the usual numbers observed in previous years, most likely caused by the severe drought. The 17 Coke's hartebeest were recorded during the game count in only two conservancies; Machakos ranching and Naretunoi conservancy. Estimation of species and wildlife trends is challenging due to seasonal movements of wildlife. Continuous monitoring of wildlife population will provide more robust data on the abundance and distribution of species and changes over time. It will also provide insight on regulating factors.Regular game counts will help monitor and establish wildlife distribution patterns, population trends and possibly detect the effects of extreme weather events as well as anthropogenic activities.Establishing wildlife trends and (projected) changes in distribution patterns can show the increased impact of human activities threatening wildlife in the landscape. It can provide the evidence-base to help design effective measures to mitigate such impacts and ensure the continued existence of healthy wildlife populations in the Athi Kapiti landscape.Maanzoni, Lukenya wildlife conservancy (Malinda ranch) and Kasanga ranch are located North of the Nairobi-Mombasa highway. The three-conservancies amount to over 10,000acres. The game count was conducted on 7 th May 2023. Blocks were delineated in the conservancy to avoid double counting. Volunteers used the same methodology described above.The results of the count are summarized in the  Impala recorded the second highest number of 180 among the herbivores with Maanzoni accounting for 47%, Lukenya wildlife estate 31% and Kasanga ranch 22%.A total of 170 zebras were recorded during the count with 48%, 35% and 17% being recorded in Maanzoni, Lukenya wildlife conservancy and Kasanga ranch respectively.   Only one wildebeest was observed during the game count at Lukenya wildlife conservancy. Other herbivores observed during the game count were; warthog (N=9), dik-dik (N=9), Mountain reedbuck (N=1), squirrel (N=1) and common duiker (N=9)Two species of primates were observed during the game count. Baboons (N=26) and Vervet monkey (N=16).A total of 34 ostriches were recorded during the game count with Maanzoni accounting for 59% and Lukenya wildlife conservancy 41% ","tokenCount":"2772"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ddd614dde617410eac8d80dc4b4bd2bd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8802958c-bd85-4357-ae46-94087f330a79/retrieve","id":"-118816875"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3ba0665c-9142-4f06-b724-c2460a866720","pagecount":"3","content":"The Kenya government, businesses, conservation groups and utilities launched Africa's first Water Fund today. The Fund is designed to provide a sustained water supply to a system that delivers water to over 9.3 million people and to generate US$21.5 million in long term benefits to Kenyan citizens including farmers and businesses. This landmark initiative will cut costs for hydropower and clean water while addressing water flow and soil erosion issues in the Upper Tana River basin. The Nairobi Water Fund will expand on a successful, global Water Fund model -bringing public-private partnership and innovative financing for watershed conservation into Africa, where water is one of the most valuable and scarce resources. This is especially timely as people across the globe celebrate World Water Day and are looking for innovative solutions to meet our water needs.Spearheaded by a private-public Steering Committee comprising The Nature Conservancy, Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company, Kenya Electricity Generating Company, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority, Water Resources Management Agency, as well as the water technology company Pentair, East Africa Breweries, Coca-Cola and Frigoken Horticulture, the Nairobi Water Fund is a practical, scientific financial mechanism to ensure water security for all.\"The Nairobi Water Fund arrives at a critical time for millions of farmers, businesses and communities whose livelihoods are directly tied to the health of Kenya's largest river and its lifeblood,\" said Fred Kihara, The Nature Conservancy's Nairobi Water Fund Lead. \"Secure, clean water is critical for businesses and farmers to survive, and for the 60 percent of Nairobi residents that already lack adequate water supplies.\"The focal point of the new Nairobi Water Fund is the upper reaches of Kenya's majestic but troubled Tana River. Soil erosion and low water supplies impact businesses, farmers and communities, increasing costs and limiting access to this essential resource. The Tana provides 95 percent of Nairobi's water and half of Kenya's hydropower-generated electricity. The Tana is also vital to Kenya's food security as it supplies water to a million farms in one of Kenya's most productive and economically important regions.\"Nairobi has seen growth in water demand grow tremendously over the past years. We are planning a major investment in expanding our water supply where we are working with neighboring counties. At least 30 percent more water is needed,\" said Engineer Philip Gichuki, CEO of Nairobi City Water & Sewerage Company who also chairs Nairobi Water Fund.The Water Fund will establish a revolving fund and a public-private partnership endowment, including stakeholders like Pentair, Coca-Cola, East African Breweries and utility companies like KenGen, to support land-conservation measures upstream. Key strategies include reducing sedimentation, improving dry season water flows, increasing the efficiency of water used in agriculture, reforestation and other economic and social benefits for communities, farmers and businesses.The Nairobi Water Fund's Business Case, created by The Nature Conservancy and its scientific partners Future Water and The Natural Capital Project, shows that investing at least US$10 million in on-the-ground environmental management efforts for the Upper Tana River over a decade will: Reduce sediment concentration in rivers by over 50% (varying by watershed and time of year). Decrease annual sedimentation in the Masinga hydropower reservoir by 18%.  Increase annual water yields across the priority watersheds by 4%, increasing to 15% during the dry season in some locations.The business case also shows that over a 30-year period the improvements will return more than twice that much, providing US$2 in benefits for every US$1 invested.Fund financial supporters have already funded a two-year pilot phase, which is enabling 5,000 farmers to adopt conservation measures. These projects have provided critical lessons as the Water Fund as it gets to full implementation. For example, Priscilla Ngacha, who belongs to the Green Belt Movement, founded by Kenyan Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, the late Wangari Maathai. Her team of \"Green Rangers\" consists of community farmers recruited to plant trees and adopt soil and watershed conservation practices.\"When I first came to this upper part of the catchment, I found very few trees,\" said Ngacha. \"That's changing now, as our Green Rangers give farmers the financial and technical incentive to improve soil management.\"That translates into big benefits -not just for the health of the Tana River's whole ecosystem but profits -the bottom line for investors.\"Investing in the Fund means weighing up trade-offs and making smart investment decisions,\" said Matthews Murgor, Catchments Manager, KenGen. The utility company expects savings of US$6 million in avoided interruption and increased water yield. \"Ultimately, that means better infrastructure and lower bills for consumers,\" he added.The success of the Fund will depend on expanding public and private financial support to capitalize a US$15 million endowment that will enable soil and water saving interventions to continue in the long-term and over an expanded area. Carefully planned monitoring will ensure that Fund-sponsored activities deliver the benefits they promise. For example, researchers from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, a member of the CGIAR Consortium, will work with Kenya's Water and Resource Management Authority to provide evidence on the effectiveness of interventions in retaining soil as well as changes in sedimentation levels in the river.\"We're using our research to guide management options tailored to specific areas of the watershed that can simultaneously protect the environment, boost agriculture productivity and lower the cost of delivering clean water,\" said Fred Kizito, Senior Soil Scientist, International Center for Tropical Agriculture.The goal is to put a stop to water security threats, while protecting the environment and generating community returns. That is within reach, but the business case shows the need for more support from major Nairobi water users and donors interested in an innovative approach to development, climate change and conservation.In 2000, The Nature Conservancy helped develop a Water Fund in Quito, Ecuador, with an initial investment of only US$21,000. Today the fund stands at more than US$10 million. The Conservancy and its partners' growing global portfolio of Water Funds now includes over 32 initiatives which provide a steady source of funding for the conservation of more than seven million acres of watersheds and secure water supplies for nearly 50 million people.\"This is a chance for Kenya to lead the way in Africa -to spearhead a program where benefits for ecosystem services bring major benefits for all,\" Kihara said.Resources -Nairobi Water Fund Business Case, Photos & Video ###","tokenCount":"1048"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9461af6193eef00383a3cb2f1925877e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b4a1b20b-266b-4a62-a5cb-b0ea6b6b7edb/retrieve","id":"1054201607"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c16290a8-e18c-432d-ad75-ba21d1bf3f87","pagecount":"2","content":"Este proyecto se diseñó para evaluar la variabilidad genética del sorgo al sembrarlo en los suelos ácidos tropicales. Usando mapas de clasificación de suelos del Africa y la localidad en que se obtuvo originalmente un material particular de la colección mundial de sorgo, se seleccionaron algunos cultivares para su evaluación en áreas de suelos ácidos. En CIAT Quilichao, Colombia se diseñó una técnica confiable de selección de campo para observar la tolerancia al aluminio. Usando un nivel de saturación de aluminio de 60-65% los genotipos susceptibles mueren mientras que los que sobreviven van desde plantas severamente afectadas hasta plantas casi normales. Se han evaluado un total de 1250 cultivares de la colección mundial, 1400 líneas en mejoramiento y dos poblaciones de entrecruzamientos aleatorios. Actualmente se está evaluando un número adicional de 1000 cultivares africanos . Se ha distribuido semilla de los cultivares más tolerantes a los programas nacionales de Colombia, Venezuela, Perú, Brasil, Panamá, Indonesia e India.1/ Proyecto Sorgo INTOSRMIL/CIAT, Profesor de Agronomía, Universidad Estatal de Mississippi.-• • -2-Los resultados de investigación han demostrado que existe una gran diversidad genética en la tolerancia del sorgo al aluminio. Los mejores cultivares provienen de Uganda y Kenya. Sin embargo, estos materiales exóticos son buenos únicamente como fuente de variación genética.El problema de los suelos ácidos tropicales parece ser un complejo de muchos factores relacionados todos con la toxicidad de aluminio. Sus interacciones con un sistema radical amplio, la asociación con micorriza, la disponibilidad de calcio en el subsuelo y la tolerancia a la sequía son obvias.Se han conducido ensayos regionales de rendimiento en las principales áreas de suelos ácidos de América del Sur utilizando cultivares con las condiciones agronómicas más deseables. El uso directo de un cultivar exótico será probablemente el primer paso de los programas nacionales en América Latina en la liberación de nuevos materiale s . Las líneas mejoradas en el proye cto se convertirán en los híbridos del futuro tolerantes al aluminio.","tokenCount":"323"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"63a968e0c9b1dc6060cf187c5f9b5b3c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48372962-c28a-4f5f-9a83-f9fe5351e781/retrieve","id":"-558284747"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"55e13b04-890b-4a26-b9d3-eeb70b04c5b6","pagecount":"183","content":"The Excellence in Breeding Platform is to be seen as part of the CGIAR Portfolio of Research Programs and Platforms. It will support the network of partners (CGIAR centers, NARS, local private breeding sector) that are developing new cultivars/breeds and conserving genetic resources within eight Agri-food Systems CGIAR Research Programs (AFS CRPs) and the Genebanks Platform. The Platform will develop international public goods and its know-how and tools will also be accessible to cultivar development programs that work on other commodities (e.g., vegetables) or in non-target (i.e., high-income) countries. Similar to the organization of breeding programs and platforms in multinational, multi-crop companies, the Platform will support the adoption of cutting-edge tools and services that are in demand by multiple commodities and CRPs, exploit economies of scale to reduce costs, and accelerate learning and use of best practices across commodities and CRPs. The Platform will develop, explore and improve access to tools and approaches that are difficult to develop at the commodity level; meanwhile, commodity-specific and cross-cutting research common to a group of crops or animals (e.g., legumes, vegetatively propagated crops, livestock, fish) will be carried out within the respective AFS CRPs (Figure 1).Agenda and products: At its onset, the Platform's agenda will contain five modules identified as being most in demand by the AFS CRPs and the Genebanks Platform:1. Breeding program excellence: Generic tools and services to support breeding program excellence across CGIAR and NARS breeding programs, based on: (1) common metrics and standards for monitoring performance and indicators of genetic gains in researchers' and farmers' fields; and (2) advice, including from the private sector, on product and breeding program design, tool implementation, and dissemination.2. Trait discovery and breeding tools and services: Drawing on the innovations taking place in breeding and research programs worldwide, lower the transaction costs to identify, access and adopt newly emerging tools that support trait discovery and breeding. This module also provides the web platform where user groups upload successful applications from all modules and feedback from users is captured.3. Genotyping/sequencing tools and services: (1) Procurement and coordination of common genotyping/sequencing services; (2) in collaboration with Module 5, customization of generic tools to support the sampling to data analysis pipeline; and (3) access to advice, including from the private sector, for the effective use of genotypic/sequencing information in breeding programs.Importance of genetic improvement: Over the past decades, genetic improvement has increased agricultural productivity, reduced the pressure on forests, changed the nutritional profile of crops, and made agricultural production more resilient to diseases, pests and droughts. Without genetic improvement, food prices would be substantially higher and more forest land would have been lost to agriculture (Evenson and Gollin, 2003;Stevenson et al., 2013). It is estimated that between 30-60% of the yield increases in farmers' fields can be traced back to breeders changing the genetic make-up of crops, while the rest is due to improved agronomy aligned with better functioning markets and extension systems. Relevant to the developing world, stress tolerance breeding has also resulted in yield increases under conditions that are similar to farmers' real conditions such as drought, low fertility, and waterlogging (Septiningsih et al., 2008;Weber et al., 2013), and averted losses or restored production after the emergence of new devastating diseases (Singh et al., 2011). Research into nutritional traits has resulted in the first bio-fortified crops being released and grown by farmers (Johnson et al., 2015). Examples in livestock include, in the developed world, the myostatin gene (Grobet et al., 1997) and increased milk yields in cattle and, in the developing world, the prolificacy Booroola genes in sheep (Nimbkar et al., 2005).The challenges ahead: In spite of these successes, the breeding programs targeting the developing world will need to deliver higher rates of genetic gain to cope with the 21 st century challenges of 50%-60% greater demands for food commodities, climate change and natural resource constraints. Climate change will reduce crop productivity by about 5% for every degree of warming above historical levels (Challinor et al. 2014). At breeding gains of 1%, this alone will require breeders to speed up current efforts substantially, and even more so considering increasing demands (Fisher et al, 2014). However, the pace of technological modernization in breeding programs targeting the developing world is inadequate and varietal turnover in most countries is slow. Partial modernization of methods and approaches has taken place mostly in the larger CGIAR breeding programs, yet with no formal exchange of methods and approaches across commodities. Mechanization, digitization, or use of DNA markers in forward breeding or quality control are done in proof-of-concept type projects while they urgently need to be mainstreamed. Most breeding programs do not have sufficiently rigorous product profiles, enough quality analysis support or enough multi-location yield testing to confidently select and identify cultivars that can rapidly replace current cultivars. Likewise methods to accelerate genetic gains in livestock, such as better recording of production traits, the use of statistical models to predict genetic merit, the use of genetic marker information in selection programs (Henderson, 1975;Goddard and Hayes, 2007;Clark and van der Werf, 2013) or the use of new reproductive technologies (Kasinathan et al., 2015) have inadequately benefited the developing world.Increasing both the rate of genetic gain delivered directly by CGIAR breeding programs and improving their ability to support the modernization of national systems is the key scientific challenge facing the system, and the purpose for the proposed Platform. Individually, even the largest CGIAR breeding programs are too small to support rapid modernization by adapting and mainstreaming state-of-the-art breeding technologies such as found in the multinational private sector. Together, coordinated and supported by the Platform, the programs serving smallholders in the developing world can raise the rate of genetic gain they deliver much more effectively.The relevance of genetic gain: Accelerated genetic gain is a key outcome of the Platform. It is also a generic concept upon which breeding theory is based and breeding methods are designed. Interventions can be targeted and prioritized based on how they influence six factors that influence genetic gain: the genetic diversity that can be accessed (genetic variance); the precision with which a trait can be measured (heritability); the selection intensity applied (population size); the relevance of the trait for the target environment/for the user (selection environments and product concepts); the length of the breeding cycle, including the time required to replace old with new cultivars/breeds; and costs. Many interventions that accelerate genetic gains are, to a significant proportion, generic and can be applied to a range of traits. For example, genome-wide selection, once mastered in a routine breeding process, can be applied to any target trait, including yield potential, drought or heat resilience, nutritional quality or any other complex trait. As a result, interventions that accelerate genetic gains have high leverage for tackling present and future challenges to food and nutrition security, and climate change adaptation.The quest for accelerating genetic gains is one of the most rapidly evolving science and technology areas given that genomic and marker-assisted selection, bioinformatics, remote sensing and genome editing have great potential for step changes in how breeding is done. More specifically, with the advances in genomics, we are just beginning to understand the wealth of genetic diversity available within crops and animals, which are the building blocks for future cultivars and breeds, and could be much more deliberately deployed to increase the productivity and resilience of agricultural systems (Gorjanc et al., 2016;McCouch et al., 2012;Vikram et al., 2016). New and more cost-effective genotyping and phenotyping technologies allow realizing greater productivity, stress resilience, or nutritional value with greater precision and speed, including through gene editing. Applications of these technologies rely on the ability of breeding programs to process much greater amounts of data, and within a shorter time frame. Capturing and fully integrating genomic and phenotypic data in the breeding process will both accelerate cultivar development and contribute to the genetic analysis of traits and discovery of genes that can be used by other breeders and researchers.Economies of scale count: Successful R&D investment by the private sector and the larger public sector in crops (maize, rice, wheat) and animal products (milk, meat) accelerated genetic gains through a wide range of interventions, including: clear product conceptualization; improved research management and organization; leveraging diversity; higher quality phenotypic data; genomic selection and more precise marker-assisted selection; predictive analytics and more prescriptive pipelines; faster breeding cycles and seed movement; automation of seed handling, image phenotyping and seed chipping; stewardship practices that ensure greater genetic purity and integrity, improved data tracking and inventory management; and other technologies and operations that reduce costs and allow breeders to turn the wheel faster, with greater precision and at larger scale (Butruille et al., 2016). Many of these changes require specialized support services, including high tech platforms and interdisciplinary teams that are only affordable if they support a substantive number of breeding programs. Achieving higher genetic gains in CGIAR and NARS breeding programs will require the exploitation of economies of scale that can only be achieved by aggregating demand and capacity across programs, centers, and commodities.Challenges to breeding programs that target the developing world: Progress in the breeding programs of multinational seed companies in the North is in stark contrast to the smaller and independently managed public and private sector breeding programs serving the developing world. Most do not have the necessary investment to translate knowledge-and capital-intensive research insights into streamlined breeding tools. And while publicly accessible academic research provides a vision of what could be achieved with modern tools, there is a huge gap between proof-of-concept research and its practical application in actual CGIAR and NARS breeding programs. Many breeders know that, for example, genome-wide selection or image-based phenotyping would accelerate their breeding gains but de facto cannot apply these approaches in their programs due to lack of access to or investment in specialized know-how, tools and support services.Why public sector investment: Market realities do not support a model wherein a few multinational companies do the breeding for the entire world. Environments are too diverse and returns on investment not high enough for many crop/target environment combinations to be focused on by the multinational breeding sector. This is particularly true in low-and lower-middle-income countries. Of the R&D investments by the private breeding sector, we estimate that less than 5% is invested in programs targeting low-and lower-middle-income countries (derived from Heisey and Fuglie (2011) and expert estimates), yet it is in these countries where 45% of the global area sown to major staples is located, and 48% of the world population and 84% of all poor live (Table 1). Low returns to R&D investments has resulted in a situation where even large, well-resourced companies in Sub-Saharan Africa market obsolete hybrids that are over 20 years old, simply because no competitor is forcing them to change their product line. As a result, farmers have inadequate access to breeding gains. For the animal breeding sector in low and middle income economies, the private sector has mostly concentrated on disseminating improved breeds (especially dairy cattle and chicken) developed in the developed world with almost no investment in R&D. Most of these introductions have met with little success because the introduced breeds are not well adapted to perform cost effectively under the low-input systems that predominate the low and lower middle income economies. The challenge is to enable breeding programs that target these regions with services that allow them to capitalize on cutting-edge technologies and know-how which up to now have only been available in the multinational breeding sector and to incentivize seed systems to deliver new products more quickly, and replace obsolete cultivars.To enable staple crop and animal breeding programs targeting the developing world to make step changes in increasing genetic gains of cultivars and breeds delivered to farmers, for impact on food and nutrition security, climate change adaptation and development at large.The Platform agenda will be directed at the needs of public and private sector breeding programs targeting farmers in low-and middle-income countries.Local public and private sector breeding programs can be divided between those that do pure cultivar selection [i.e., select and release new varieties and hybrids from among varieties and hybrids generated by CGIAR centers or larger NARS (\"cultivar selection programs\")] and others that make their own crosses and generate their own varieties and hybrids (\"cultivar development programs\"). There is no statistics available on the number of these programs yet we can make an estimate based on the rationale for public and private sector investments.In the case of the public sector, breeding investments depend on the agricultural R&D budget and the relative importance of the crop. Public breeding programs are largely (sub-)nationally scoped. Assuming a lower limit of 100,000 (upper-middle-income countries) to 250,000 (lower-middle-income countries) to 1,000,000 hectares (low-income countries) for NARS having adequate funds to initiate a breeding program, we estimate that there may be 250 cultivar development programs conducted by NARS on CGIAR mandate crops (Table 2; yellow highlighted cells). Many crops have too small a target environment to warrant an adequately funded national cultivar development program, resulting in over 500 crop/country combinations that rely mainly on cultivars generated by CGIAR centers or neighboring NARS (Table 2; green highlighted cells).In the case of the private sector, many more seed companies produce and sell seed in the developing world than actually breed new cultivars. Initiation of a cultivar development program depends on the size of the target environment, the purchasing frequency and the value of the seed (both higher for hybrid crops) and the costs associated with production, storage and transportation (bulk, phytosanitary concerns with vegetative propagated crops). As a result of the lack of a viable business case for private investment in breeding in most crops, cultivar development programs can only be found in a few regional and national companies focusing on hybrid or cash crops and higher yielding environments. The great majority of local seed companies focus on producing seed bred by the CGIAR or NARS. Overall we estimate that 200-300 local companies are or may be interested in initiating stronger R&D efforts, either by conducting their own trials and selecting cultivars (instead of solely using data from NARS and the CGIAR) or by initiating cultivar development. Equally, the large number of companies found in the developing world livestock sector deal mostly with the supply of semen for dairy breeds, and none undertake activities to develop new breeds.The CGIAR is the most prominent source of germplasm and breeding know-how to the developing world, providing valuable genetic diversity both in the form of parental lines for use in breeding and as finished cultivars for dissemination. Through agri-food systems (AFS) breeding programs focused on the main commodities 1 , 11 CGIAR centers maintain breeding pipelines and/or genebanks, access new technologies and know-how from a wide range of public and private sector partners, and help local public and private sector breeding programs improve their own programs. In the case of crops, the reach is enormous. 94% of all germplasm exchanged internationally by contracting parties of the International Treaty of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) are being distributed by the CGIAR (Table 3). Since 2007, 37 % of those samples were sent to recipients in Asia; 20 % to recipients in Africa; 15 % to Latin America and Caribbean, 11 % to Near East, 10 % to Europe and 4 % to North America. Approximately 75% of the materials have been improved by the centers (FAO, 2015). In the case of livestock, breeding is conducted as part of the Dairy and Chicken Genetics Gains Program and the Sheep and Goat Community Based Breeding Programs, undertaken by ILRI and ICARDA, and of fish through Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) programs run by WorldFish. Between 2007 and 2015 WorldFish distributed 561,000 fry or fingerlings to 137 institutions.As noted above, many countries and seed companies directly use the cultivars developed by the CGIAR while others both use them directly and adapt them through their own national or privately funded breeding programs. A CGIAR-led initiative will benefit both types of programs, either by NARS and local seed companies getting access to better cultivars and breeds, or by programs being enabled to prioritize, contribute to and adopt the tools and research management approaches adopted or developed within the proposed Platform.   By increasing the effectiveness of breeding programs targeting the developing world, the Platform will thereby contribute to the achievement of eight Sustainable Development Goals outlined by the United Nations ( SDGs 1,2,3,8,12,13,15 and 17).The Platform does not have an independent R&D agenda; rather, it supports the AFS CRPs and external users in generating the sub-IDOs. The Platform tools will be generic and can be applied to a range of traits and species. They will make trait mobilization and breeding more efficient and effective. As a result, cultivars and breeds required by farmers and consumers are better defined and more effectively developed by the AFS CRPs and external users. The Sub-IDOs in Table 4 list the predominant AFS breeding targets. The expectation is that Platform tools will be applied mostly to these Sub-IDOs. Through its work on standardization and metrics in Module 1, the Platform will help align the results-based management (RBM) framework of AFS CRP breeding programs and make investment needs more transparent.This Theory of Change for the Platform will be the foundation for the monitoring, evaluation and learning plan. It will limit its implementation on monitoring and assessing the research outcomes achieved (green arrows in Figure 2), associated outputs (see further below Table 7), interventions, assumptions and risks (Table 5 and 10), while each AFS CRP will monitor and assess its own Theory of Change (red arrows in Figure 2) and assess the Platform's contribution to these.   A • There will be continuous development of new tools • Breeders and associated disciplines are willing to contribute best practices, validate others, and provide feedback • Existence of an enabling environment allowing scientists to take risks, innovate and learn from failures• Active facilitation of CoPs where everybody learns and shares • User involvement in needs assessment, validation and testing of tools The Excellence in Breeding Platform seeks to ensure that tools and services for accelerating genetic gains are being taken up by a significant number of breeding programs targeting low-and middle-income countries, mostly working through and with the AFS CRPs. The Platform will enhance:(i) Science capacity through CoPs and external consultancies around distinct topics (breeding excellence, trait discovery and breeding, genomics applications, phenotyping, mechanization and automation, bioinformatics and biometrics) which promotes a culture of learning and collaboration. The Platform will invest in members documenting tools, and in Platform personnel and consultants adapting those tools for a wider range of users, as part of a web-based \"Toolbox\". The Platform will develop a list of internal and external experts for breeding program organization, work flow management, use of genotyping/sequencing and phenotyping tools, biometrics, mechanization and automation. AFS CRPs or external users may also contract them individually for specific consultancies and coaching. In the area of biometrics, with scarce human resources across the CGIAR, emphasis will be placed on expanding the number of biometricians trained in using Platform tools by linking up with universities in CGIAR target countries. Cross-commodity training courses will be organized and aligned with major scientific meetings and focus on train-the-trainer approaches. The Platform will promote an accreditation system for training programs and seek systematic feedback on the value of training programs and experts. Cross-cutting AFS CRPs (FTA, RTB, DCL, Livestock, Fish) will help adapt and broaden applicability to under-invested and challenging commodity groups. Capacity building effectiveness will be measured through tool adoption and demonstrated use.(ii) Gender in research design and impact pathways by ensuring that women farmers and end-users are represented in cultivar/breed design of AFS CRPs, and actively ensuring women are included in communities of practice, expert advisory groups, training events and Platform staffing to accelerate skill development and job opportunities.(iii) Results-based management, governance, learning and knowledge sharing by establishing a CGIARwide Breeding Program Assessment system with metric analysis to assess program output, efficiency and effectiveness as part of Module 1. This will support management decisions within and across CRPs to systematically improve breeding programs across the CGIAR and NARS. The approach is to provide an incentive for greater excellence and support such ambitions with capacity building, best practices and targeted investment. The work of the Bioinformatics Module will create greater compatibility and interoperability across breeding-relevant tools at the database, analysis and user interface levels, which is also the basis for meaningful open-access to the large volume of germplasm-related databases within the CGIAR.(iv) Stronger capacities in technology dissemination and upscaling through the web-based knowledge base for best practices (\"Toolbox\") which will be organized by use cases and user types. The Platform is to enable AFS CRPs and external users globally to use the Platform's training modules and knowledge base for their own training programs, and encourage new users to provide feedback to Platform tools and services. It is expected that a large number of graduate students will become users of Platform tools as they are implementing projects in the areas of trait discovery, molecular breeding, phenotyping or quantitative genetics. They may be linked to the Platform through their supervisors in the AFS CRPs or access the tools as external users.Annex 5 'Capacity Building' provides further details.Scientific leadership will be provided by Platform and Module Leaders to be identified based on competitive processes, once the proposal is approved. They should have crop-and animal-related expertise. Competitive advertisement of these positions needs to be balanced with the ability to interact with each other, members and users, implying that positions and activities should be based in major breeding hubs (centers, ARIs). Module Leaders may be appointed initially on a part-time basis or shared with AFS CRPs or existing projects. Administrative positions will include one admin/finance support staff. It will contract expertise in M&E and communications. Other services and expertise (legal, human resources, risk management, grants management, monitoring and evaluation, internal audit, open access management) will be provided by the Lead Center, which will also issue and contract external audits.Principles: The Platform Leader will report to the Platform Steering Committee (PSC) which is to be kept lean and appropriate to the size of the budget, balanced by: ( Members need to bring expertise relevant to the Platform (breeding program management, breeding, genomics, phenotyping and/or bioinformatics). They need to be familiar with outside opportunities (emerging innovations, tools and services) and the requirements of users, i.e., breeding programs targeting the developing world. Members are appointed for an initial two-year period, after which 1-2 members will be replaced on an annual basis, for terms that are not to exceed five years. While the AFS CRPs will be requested to nominate candidates who could serve as PSC members, the ultimate decision will be taken by the PSC. The PSC relies on the active participation of all of its members and will hence execute annual self-evaluations that may result in the replacement of a member with suboptimal participation.The PSC will meet twice per year, face-to-face or virtually, and more often if the agenda requires. Decisions require the agreement of 70% of members. Meetings will be open to self-sponsored observers representing other AFS CRPs, centers, external members or funders. Once a year, the PSC will organize a virtual interchange with Platform users and other stakeholders where it will account for Platform activities and seek first-hand user feedback.The PSC will provide strategic oversight of the Platform, priority setting and the evaluation of results, and be accountable for the performance of the Platform. It approves Platform specific policies and strategies, including those related to the selection of contractors and consultancies, the conflict of interest management and intellectual asset (IA) management. It oversees workplans and budgets, the results-based management framework, and the systematic collection of user feedback. It will monitor and ensure the effective exercise of expert advisory committees in each module, and the appropriate allocation of resources that benefit \"weaker\" and \"stronger\" commodities. It is part of the Reference Committee for external evaluations, evaluates the performance of the Platform Leader, interacts with the Director General (DG) of the Lead Center and, at least once per year, with the Lead Center Board.Expert Advisory Groups will provide specialized advice at the Module level and ensure ownership and feedback from the wider constituency. Composed of up to 10 AFS members (that could come from CGIAR centers, ARIs or NARS) and external experts, they meet virtually on a regular basis and face-to-face once per year. They provide feedback to the Module workplans and performance, prioritize needs and investments, critically assess proposals and recommend alternative interventions, champion the Platform's activities among their respective constituencies and contribute to the performance assessment of the Module Leader.The Lead Center will be selected on a competitive basis once the Platform Proposal has passed the review by the Independent Science & Partnership Council (ISPC) and Fund Council in the 2 nd quarter of 2016. The Selection Committee will consist of one vote per Center involved in breeding (CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICARDA, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IITA, ILRI, IRRI, WorldFish). Criteria for selecting the Lead Center are:• Experience in leading multi-center platforms, CRPs or other major initiatives under the supervision of external Steering Committees. • A vision and commitment to modernizing breeding approaches for the good of the whole system. The Platform proposes an budget from US$ 10 million (Base) to US$ 15 million (Uplift) per annum to execute its agenda which is approximately 5% of the AFS CRPs' overall investments in germplasm development. The outcomes associated with Base and Uplift Budgets are explained in Table 8. Initially, US$ 2 million of W1&W2 funding will be used to initiate Platform activities with the Platform Leader and part time leaders for Modules 1-5, contracted from members for their ability to initiate the CoPs and webbased Platform activities. As donors contribute additional W2, W3 or bilateral funding, leadership and management costs will be equally distributed across all funding sources, resulting in the W1&W2 allocation for the Base scenario. Details for these scenarios are provided in the Section \"2.8 Detailed breakdown of the costs\", in Tables 12 (Base budget), 13 (Uplift budget), 14 (initial W1&W2 use), and 15 (W1&W2 use as W3 and bilateral support become available). Module-level budgets (Base and Uplift) are presented by work package in the 'Objectives and targets' section of each Module. The level of funding per Module is driven by the workplan. Financial risks are outlined in Table 11, Risks 7.01 to 7.04.Given that the host institutions for Platform and Module Leaders and external contractors are yet to be determined on a competitive basis, the same cost assumptions were used for all implementers, whether Lead Center, collaborating Center, NARS or ARI, using the actual costs of similar operations at CIMMYT. They were aligned with the personnel and consultants to be hired by the Platform and the type of activity of the Module. An annual inflation/budget growth of 5% was used. Services contracted by AFS CRPs or external users for individual use are not included in the budget. The Platform would provide those services at cost (e.g., external experts) or users will pay third-party providers directly. No budgetary support will be recovered from members during 2017 -2022. Such an approach will be assessed in 2021. Any income negotiated earlier, such as from the private sector, would be accounted for as bilateral income.The main cost drivers are personnel, investments in members (e.g to test use cases and provide Module documentation), consultant time, activities contracted to ARIs, training days, access to server capacity and need for other equipment (genotyping, phenotyping).AFS members include CGIAR Centers, NARS, the private sector and ARIs, and budgets allocated to AFS members and to training could go to CGIAR Centers, NARS, the private sector and/or ARIs. Funding of contributors is linked to the deliverance of agreed milestones.Personnel includes the costs of: Internationally and locally hired staff and students, and their benefits and allowances. Given that the locations of Platform and Module Leaders are yet to be determined, CIMMYT staff costs and personnel policy were used. As a CGIAR-wide survey showed, they are representative of the costs at most other CGIAR centers. International staff benefits and allowances include medical and life Insurance, retirement, costs of children's education (up to high school), housing and utilities, recruitment costs including shipping and transfer, and professional development. Even though a benefit for international staff, costs of car purchase are included in Capital Equipment, and costs of car operation are included in Other Supplies and Services. Local staff benefits include medical and life Insurance, social security, other benefits as per local labor law, retirement, recruitment costs and professional development.Student benefits include medical insurance. Given that some units use research assistants and students interchangeably, an average value was extrapolated from past use in units with similar activities.Travel includes the costs of: Air fares, subsistence and local transport of Platform personnel and consultants.Capital Equipment includes the costs of: Platform assets with a value greater than US$ 2,500, including cars, local servers and other ICT infrastructure, software licenses, and equipment associated with phenotyping, genotyping, the web platform and communication specifically acquired or leased for the purpose of executing the Platform's activities.Other Supplies and Services include the costs of: W1&W2 allocation: Initially, US$ 2 million of W1&W2 funding will be used to initiate Platform activities with the Platform Leader and part time leaders for Module 1-5, contracted from among its members for their ability to initiate the CoPs and web-based Platform activities (Table 14). As donors contribute additional W2, W3 or bilateral funding, costs of leadership and management will be equally distributed across all funding sources, resulting in the W1&W2 allocation as shown in (Table 15)Budget ownership: The Module Leader will be responsible to use the budget to deliver Module outputs and outcomes, aligned with the RBM defined in the first 6 months. Budget use will be discussed in view of the RBM on a quarterly basis. Budgets may be realigned based on the evolution of costs, new projects coming on board, unexpected bottlenecks, user feedback and other external factors.Annual variations: Budget use is guided by the RBM framework. Significant variations will be explained in the annual reports.Major capital investments: Server space.  The System Office will establish a contract with the Lead Center. Based on available funding, the Lead Center will give host institutions the go-ahead to appoint the Module Leaders which are typically expected to be affiliated with teams of scientists and specialists with similar expertise at their host institution. The Platform Leader will take an active role in the appointment of Module Leaders by host institutions.Modules will be supported by Expert Advisory Groups whose initial members are listed in Table 6. Given the current dominance of CGIAR members, efforts will be made to rapidly engage partners from ARIs, NARS and the private sector to complement the skill base of CGIAR researchers. A much larger number of AFS CRP affiliated scientists and external members are expected to take active part in implementing the Platform agenda as members of the CoPs. Table 7 provides an overview of materials, services and sites provided or brokered by the Excellence in Breeding Platform and which are described in more detail in the individual Module sections.Access: Materials, tools and information about services and sites will be accessible through the web platform managed, maintained and backed up by the Lead Center or by the organization responsible for tool development, in which case the access and safeguard obligations will be specified in the subcontract.Databases will be accessible from member institutions, and developed and maintained with AFS CRP funding following CGIAR open-access principles.Platform support: Materials will be developed or adapted with Platform funding while capitalizing on commodity-specific activities and know-how in AFS CRPs, among external members and experts. The training budget supports virtual workshops, documentation and face-to-face training of personnel within of CGIAR centers and NARS that are key for reaching a wider user community (train-the-trainer approaches).User support: Users will pay for individualized services including advice from consultants, genotyping and sequencing services, analyses of physico-chemical composition and functional properties, and access to experiment stations and computational infrastructure. AFS CRPs will integrate Platform materials in training targeted at their own partners.The Platform is designed to draw its input from communities of practice, which it actively facilitates, and provide its products as open-access information. The Platform is therefore to be funded for its objectives by pro-bono investors. They may include private sector users in high income countries that may benefit from the Platform's activities. Such benefits are to be assessed on a regular basis and balanced in view of the highly desirable private sector's contribution of tools, information and know-how to the Platform. As a solid user base is being established, the Platform will assess its ability to move towards a membership or user-paid model over several years. Such an assessment will be done in 2021.Result-based management: Access to materials, sites and services will be documented as part of the Platform's RBM framework which is to ensure: results and user orientation; learning and adaptation through the use of performance information; accountability and transparency for results that are acquired and reported in a transparent manner; and utilization-focused, flexible implementation of RBM tools based on context and needs. For the same purpose, its design engages members and users in governance, management, execution and the provision of feedback. The RBM framework will be documented using a monitoring, evaluation, learning and impact assessment (MELIA) plan to be designed at Platform and Module Level and which is to support the Platform's results-oriented management of strategy, results, people, resources, processes and measurements, aligned with the guidance given by the CoP for MEL at the CGIAR level. Beyond analyzing the performance of the Platform using indicators at the output, outcome and impact levels, the key assumptions of the theories of change, and the critical risks, the monitoring plan will define a set of indicators that quantitatively and qualitatively measure contributions to and use of Platform materials and services. Baseline information will be established in Year 1 aligned with the capacity needs assessment. External evaluations and impact assessments will be implemented in Years 3-6 to assess relevance, efficiency, quality of science, effectiveness, attributable impact and sustainability. The information gained from internal monitoring, external evaluations and impact assessments will be the basis for the Platform's learning as part of its annual planning and reporting cycle, and used to adjust its strategy, agenda, processes, and use of human and financial resources.  The Platform is being created based on two pillars: (1) value to be created for users; and (2) an accountability framework between the AFS CRPs and the Excellence in Breeding Platform. During the development of the Platform proposal, AFS CRPs user types (larger crops, smaller crops, fish and livestock) defined the Platform benefits that will compel them to use the Platform's products (Table 9). More details are provided in Annex 2. They also agreed to establish an accountability framework between the AFS CRPs and the Platform which will become part of a membership agreement. External members may join. The AFS CRPs see this inter-relationship as crucial for the Platform's success and different from the independent nature of previous platform-type activities such as the Generation Challenge Program.Obligations of AFS CRP members viz the Platform: Members develop and implement agreed standards that have been defined to create mutual benefits. They will contribute to and use common Platform metrics to describe breeding excellence; it will be one quality control system the CGIAR designs and implements consistently. AFS CRPs only use the tools that meet their needs. AFS CRPs provide feedback on how Platform standards and products are being used and add value. They report the extent of use and justify why alternative services are being utilized. Using Platform support, AFS members document new approaches they individually develop and contribute or adopt as part of the Platform's knowledge base.The Platform uses the PSC and Expert Advisory Groups, both with AFS CRP membership, to prioritize Platform solutions for implementation and to critically assess alternative uses. The Platform will use members' and wider users' feedback to optimize tools and agenda, with a clear focus on cross-commodity opportunities. It will document use and value addition to materials, services and sites provided by members, and ensure due attribution. It will define user requirements for services (timelines, quality). It will publish its MELIA reports including an assessment of Platform performance by users, i.e., how well and often services are being used. When applying for funding, it will demonstrate the value of using/not using Platform recommended solutions.Value will drive use and orientation of Platform activities. As the Platform evolves, it will expand its membership to include external members.Members are active contributors to the Platform's products. They may come from CGIAR centers, ARIs, NARS and the private sector. They provide tools and information developed as part of their own mandates and activities, and may receive platform funding to adapt or document such tools and information prioritized in view of meeting Platform objectives. They contribute to testing the products before they are released to the wider public. They have an active interest in the Platform's existence and performance due to the facilitated exchange of best practices, and access to better materials, sites and services.Members have the opportunity to be represented in Expert Advisory Groups and the Platform Steering Committee.Contractors execute distinct activities prioritized by the Platform's management processes. They may be sourced from members or non-members, based on \"best-for-the-job\" principles. They also include experts with private sector experience.Users access the Platform's products based on license agreements accepted when accessing the Platform's materials and service-related information. They provide feedback through the Platform's user review tool developed as part of Module 2. As part of its communication strategy, the Platform will make a distinct effort to increase interactions with far-from-source users, in particular NARS breeders, so to provide value in proportion and appropriate to their needs. Principles and approaches: The Platform is committed to the effective and efficient management of intellectual assets (IA) to maximize impact, in line with the CGIAR Principles on the Management of IA. This will be done by: (i) incorporating IA management into the project lifecycle; (ii) aligning CGIAR IA Principle requirements with local legislation, markets and practices along with private sector interests;(iii) ensuring due diligence to allow for dissemination of outputs, supported by (iv) appropriate intellectual property management expertise. The Platform will take advantage of the Genebanks Platform's policy module for technical backstopping regarding compliance with the ITPGRFA, Nagoya Protocol, and national implementing laws. It will liaise with the Genebanks Platform to make contributions to the governing bodies of those agreements, promoting an enabling environment to share genetic resources and associated data.The Lead Center will ensure that the Platform and its contractors and consultants assume their accountability for the appropriate implementation of the CGIAR Principles for the Management of IA and the CGIAR Open Access and Data Management Policy through: IA tracking; negotiation and drafting of agreements; compliance with international treaties including the Convention on Biological Diversity and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGFA); compliance with country laws and regulations on genetic resources; ensuring ethics in research and privacy protection; and contributing to CGIAR and center policy updates.Assets, dissemination channels, challenges and legal contributions: The Platform will manage several types of IA, including data and information products, know-how, germplasm, new tools, traits. They will be distributed through open-access repositories, information channels adapted to the needs of specific target groups, partnership approaches and capacity development (see Annex 3).The Platform will contribute to implementing the CGIAR Open Access and Data Management Policy (\"CG OADMP\") by: (i) Objective: As a service platform, excellent and proactive two-way communication with stakeholders and its implementation team will be crucial to its success (Table 10). External communication will be in support of fostering and discussing joint vision and approaches; assessing needs and priorities of diverse users implementing breeding programs with different levels of sophistication; advertising the Platform's goals and value propositions; providing online tools, data and online help to users; attract investors and providers of innovation, tools, services and advice; receive user feedback and metrics. Internal communication will be in support of executing the Platform agenda efficiently and effectively, fostering joint vision and approaches; developing, implementing and adjusting the workplan based on external feedback; and exchanging Platform documents, data and tools under development.Stakeholders: External stakeholders include investors; existing and potential users and members and providers of innovations, services, advice and in-kind contributions; and the general public. The internal implementation team includes: Platform Steering Committee, personnel, consultants, contractors, collaborators, members of communities of practice and pilot users.As a global Platform interacting with a large number of users and a substantive group of implementers, web-based interactions will be the lifeline to many of its operations, next to physical meetings and workshops, publications and news features. Given the Platform's purpose and type of products, the majority of stakeholders -including users -are expected to be internet-savvy and able to make use of web-based approaches. In addition to the public section, the web platform will manage restricted areas accessible to members and the implementation team only. The Lead Center will be responsible for providing or contracting appropriate services that ensure secure and high availability of Platform tools and services. The PSC and Lead Center Board oversee the implementation of an appropriate risk management framework for the Platform, such as the one shown in Table 11, to manage the main risks. Risks include: loss of physical, information or intellectual assets; non-compliance with CGIAR policies; non-adherence to agreements entered into with the CGIAR, partners, staff, subcontractors and collaborators; inefficiency of operations or failure to deliver valuable products to a significant number of users in time; environmental hazards; change management and finances, and other risks as prioritized by the PSC and Lead Center Board. The framework includes a risk management approach, a risk leader and controls to monitor the implementation of the risk management approach. Risks will be classified on a 1-5 scale for likelihood, impact, risk severity and management effectiveness. The Lead Center will put in place appropriate insurance for staff, assets and legal claims.  8. Initially, US$ 2 million of W1&W2 funding will be used to initiate Platform activities with the Platform Leader and part time leaders for Module 1-5, contracted from among its members for their ability to initiate the CoPs and web-based Platform activities (Table 14). As donors contribute additional W2, W3 or bilateral funding, costs of leadership and management will be equally distributed across all funding sources, resulting in the W1&W2 allocation for the Base scenario as shown in (Table 15).In 2017, the Platform counts on W3 and bilaterally funded project activities valued at US$ 4.59 million dollars, of which US$ 1.66 million are managed by CGIAR centers, the rest by independent entities (Integrated Breeding Platform) or ARIs (Table 16). Other activities from external members could likely be linked to the Platform, such as projects funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation with NARS and the University of Queensland, or the National Science Foundation and United States Department of Agriculture funded investments in root and tuber databases. However ARI and NARS led projects are unlikely to financially report their activities as part of the Platform. The Platform will seek to make collaboration agreements with these projects so to optimally position its agenda.Budget components of the Platform Management and Support Costs are detailed in Table 17.    Breeding is a cyclical product development process that must be integrated from product profile design through to dissemination and cultivar replacement. The purpose of the process is to deliver a stream of improved breeds that raise the productivity, food security, and incomes of farmers and consumers in the developing world. These products must be delivered by breeding organizations with sufficient information to induce governments and seed companies to support them, extension systems to promote them, farmers to adopt them, and end-users to purchase them. Technical and process innovations must be aggressively sought, and their effectiveness rigorously evaluated against these goals.Many breeding programs serving smallholders in the developing world do not have the capacity to manage this process end-to-end. Indeed, there is surprisingly little standardized information available that would characterize germplasm development or genetic gains across the breeding programs of the CGIAR, NARS and the private sector, making it difficult to invest strategically to improve performance. Project funding fosters proof-of-concept type investments that may be applied in a few breeding populations only and without an overall appreciation of the quantitative impact such an intervention may or may not have on the overall development goals.The CGIAR proposes to change this. Module 1 proposes to develop a CGIAR-wide breeding program assessment system with metrics to assess program output, efficiency and effectiveness. Once achieved, portfolio management decisions could be implemented within and across CRPs to systematically improve breeding programs across the CGIAR and, hopefully, those managed by NARS. The purpose of the characterization is to provide an incentive for greater excellence, and support such ambitions with capacity building, best practices and targeted investments. Achievement of development goals are quantitative goals. Effective change will not come from individual projects but from the extent to which the CGIAR and NARS are able to mainstream state-of-the-art breeding strategies in a sufficiently large proportion of the breeding programs that will provide the cultivars that farmers will grow in future in the developing world.While it is most breeders' intent to improve the performance of their programs, the CGIAR could go further by more systematically defining best practices and providing measures that characterize how far public investment reaches and what changes may be needed. Practical evidence comes from the private sector and the genebank community. Given the private sector's abilities for programmatic investments, they use detailed product definitions driven by clients' needs; routinely assess program strengths to determine the likelihood of success and direct resources accordingly; and manage a stage-gate advancement process with defined speed-to-farmer objectives. They also manage the introduction and withdrawal of their products from the market as new generations of cultivars emerge from the pipeline. The framework allows a systematic capture of results to determine if the program meets its objectives (Figure 1.1). These basic management principles are incorporated into a continuous improvement program with an over-arching portfolio strategy. In the case of the CGIAR genebank community, they successfully implemented a best practices discussion and standardized metrics approach across species in collaboration with the GCDT, which contributed to substantive improvements and clarified investment needs. The Excellence in Breeding Platform aims to do the same for cultivar development.The CGIAR proposes to establish and follow a common format to set demand-driven targets, drive and accelerate the transparent development of breeding germplasm and cultivars, drive dissemination, and measure program progress, both within the CGIAR system and with NARS partners. Membership in this community-driven effort and publication of associated metrics will result in a transparent assessment of the success and bottlenecks of breeding programs and will lead to a greater ability to direct support to high-payoff investments. The implementation of a common breeding program assessment will also enable a systems perspective of similar technical challenges within and across each CRP which will support internal improvement processes and identify areas of investments for AFS CRPs (commodity-specific) and the Excellence in Breeding Platform (cross-commodity).Strategically, a common breeding program assessment system will implement higher professional standards and result in better outcomes across CGIAR centers and NARS. It to be community-driven so as to encompass the needs and bottlenecks of the highly diverse commodities. Also, the approach must not promote trade-off decisions between commodities, given that they individually meet critical needs of low income farmers and consumers. Instead, the focus should be on elevating best practices and standards systematically, with tools and processes that are effective and adaptable to smaller and larger breeding programs.The great majority of CGIAR and NARS breeders chose their careers in order to help alleviate poverty.They strive for excellence. The advantage of a common implementation of best practices will be the ability to compare and improve individual programs, which will be largely driven by breeders striving to get access to the information and services they need to deliver the best results possible. Programs should be able to access advice for aligning their approaches with best practices, while other programs may serve as learning platforms, fostering intra-and inter-CRP collaboration in breeding and breeding support functions. Donors will have the ability to more precisely follow the progress of breeding programs and deliver support where needed, or invest in \"game changers\". The goal of Module 1 is to develop an excellence management and support process for breeding programs that will be broadly appreciated and accepted across the CGIAR and by its donors. Given the diversity of the AFS CRPs, each commodity is expected to adapt the common template to their breeding needs without compromising the ability to successfully compare and contrast across the AFS CRPs. The intent of the Module is not to impose an additional layer of monitoring but to implement best practices in each of the CRPs that will improve genetic gains and accelerate the breeding process. A key element of the Module will be to provide the research leaders of CRPs, Centers, and NARS with a much stronger understanding of how cultivar development pipelines should be managed and assessed. Better understanding, current and potential abilities, and bottlenecks allow breeders, research managers and investors to target investments for program improvements.The Breeding Program Excellence Module will be organized into five work packages (Table 1.1).1. Developing a standard template and approaches for monitoring breeding program performance, which includes developing a common set of metrics that will assess genetic gain. The first work package will address three components of a standardized continuous improvement cycle: (i) a standard process to set demand-driven breeding targets and product profiles linked to needs assessments; (ii) components for breeding program assessment (germplasm management and evaluation, phenotyping strategy, trait mobilization, molecular and data analysis, breeding methodology decisions) that can help assess the programs' ability to achieve their breeding targets; and (iii) a standard approach to define breeding program metrics. Genetic gain is a technical term used in breeding theory to describe the change in a quantifiable trait resulting from selection per breeding cycle or unit of time. Given the diversity of needs (trait discovery to cultivar development, traits ranging from stress resilience to productivity to quality and nutrition), CRPs should think carefully when selecting metrics. Poorly designed approaches or metrics could achieve the wrong results. This work package will thus be conducted in collaboration with a CoP of breeding leaders in each AFS CRP, and by Module personnel and contracted experts generating, through crucial site visits, an initial understanding of points of intervention for improvement within the major breeding programs. The CoP will be able to build on private sector experiences and a breeding program assessment tool which is currently being administered and refined by the University of Queensland.Based on the approaches defined in work package 1, AFS breeding programs will execute an internal program assessment and collect the metrics defining breeding program scope and abilities to achieve their breeding targets. The insights will be incorporated into a commodity-and breeding programspecific strategic plan documenting current investments and prioritized improvements. The assessment, metrics and resulting plan will be peer-reviewed to achieve a similar standard across the system. AFS research managers and breeders can use the assessment and plans to prioritize improvements and monitor program success. The same information will be useful to AFS CRP portfolio reviews; they should follow a similar process but the program reviews should be conducted with external reviewers. The Module will summarize commodity-specific insights in a system-wide analysis of current investments and prioritized improvements aligned with the needs of different species. Through the CoP, it will review the usefulness of the standardized system and further improve it.3. Support breeding programs for needed improvements through consultancies, investments, and/or simulations. Breeding program assessments and strategic plans will identify program gaps. Programs will be able to catch up on best practices through consultancies, workshops and the development of joint funding proposals targeted at highest priority needs. Module personnel will support the documentation of best practices as part of the Module 2 Toolbox, also for use as training material. This may include common approaches to: market research and product profile definition; a stage-gate advancement system that can be used to assess germplasm advancements as a way to measure program efficiency and effectiveness; and managing product deployment and withdrawal.A similar characterizations of NARS breeding programs is highly desirable. Interested NARS will be involved in discussions as tools are being developed.The needs and constraints of CGIAR and NARS breeding programs differ. While CGIAR breeding programs need to address diverse needs, the mandates of NARS extend beyond where the CGIAR typically engages, and trade-off decisions (e.g. investment in personnel versus operational resources and capital) may follow different incentives. NARS participation will be voluntary, yet can be promoted if investors decide to support improvement plans with NARS that complete the assessment of their programs.There has been much debate about how to reliably measure genetic gains in farmers' fields and be able to link them to development goals. In collaboration with the CoP of work package 1 and socio-economists, current approaches will be reviewed and best practices established at various levels of investment or given different purposes, so that the CGIAR will emerge with a stronger approach for monitoring the reach of improved cultivars and their benefit to farmers, as well as more authoritative statements on germplasm-related impacts on achieving past and future development goals. It is well established that standardized systems for comparing programs through metrics can upgrade performance (Cooper and Edgett, 2005). Highly productive programs are client-focused, carefully design and target their products, do front-end planning, implement a process of metrics, accountability and continuous learning, use a stage-gate advancement program, take responsibility for clearly identifying products that should be disseminated, have a dissemination plan, and practice transparent and effective portfolio management.While Module 1 will define metrics for the overall breeding program, CoPs in Modules 2-5 will improve best practices within distinct areas (trait discovery, distinct breeding processes, genotyping, phenotyping, automation, mechanization, design and analysis. Standardization of methodologies will drive comparability, greater data quality and data coherence (e.g., for multi-environmental trials to systematically integrate climate and management data), and allow peer review. Monitoring breeding program performance and metrics can be summarized in CRP reports and used in peer-reviewed articles.Through combined membership and active participation, the Platform is expected to become an authoritative voice for current and prioritized new investments, and actual impact. There is the assumption that breeding program leaders can provide a transparent and critical assessment of their breeding programs. This thesis has yet to be proven and verified through peer review and expert consultancies. The thesis however has its best foundation in members of the AFS CRPs unanimously subscribing to this Module as part of planning the Platform proposal.There are different reasons and methods for assessing genetic gains, and different ways to ensure progress. Breeding programs measure progress against program objectives, such as critical traits defined in the program strategy. The ability to maintain positive genetic gains in each breeding cycle, and their extent, is a direct measure of a program's success. Different species and different traits advance at different rates, but the measure of the \"incremental gain\" over unit of time is a standard way to ensure progress. By monitoring the presence or absence of best practices, which can be qualitatively recorded, the potential for enhancing breeding program performance and genetic gains can be assessed.Enhancing breeding program performance as such will not indicate to what extent new cultivars, a program or project has generated impact in farmers' fields or will contribute to development goals. While germplasm development may be the most impactful activity of the CGIAR, there is no common approach to impact assessment. Different studies may assess adoption, attribution, return to investment and breeding for one trait versus improved cultivars. They may also include or exclude farmer-recycled seed, base their information on breeders, informants or farmers' feedback or genotyping, and with different assumptions for establishing baselines, resulting in highly incomparable results. For most traits, genetic gains can be measured by comparing germplasm of different ages under relevant environments and management conditions. The slope of improvement over unit of time is the genetic gain measured. However, several qualitative traits, such as disease resistance or the ability to meet quality standards, are rarely measured as quantitative progress. Also, changing from 2 disease resistant cultivars to 20 in one unit of time is a different kind of achievement. Socio-economic analyses may go beyond and assess cultivar impact on livelihoods, and the reasons for adoption, dis-adoption or non-adoption. By assessing different methodologies and defining their purpose and limits in discussion between breeders and socioeconomists and considering formal and informal seed impact pathways, the Module intends to clarify best practices for assessing or measuring ex-ante and ex-post germplasm impacts.Investments by AFS CRPs: CGIAR centers and NARS have their own individual ways of defining and organizing breeding programs for highly divergent commodities (seed or vegetatively propagated, crops and animals), with little or substantive investment. Still, different breeding programs can be divided into distinct stages that can be captured with metrics and described by process (e.g., using molecular breeding, or not). System level benefits include: (i) breeders becoming part of a performance management framework that allows them to improve their performance based on best practices used in similar circumstances; (ii) research directors and program leaders using best practices for managing and supporting cultivar development pipelines; (iii) accelerated implementation of state-of-the-art breeding and impact assessment practices; (iv) awareness and use of opportunities to share resources and expertise; (v) common metrics in the CGIAR translate into more sharing of information across commodities, environments and programs and extending it to other breeding programs targeting the developing world;(vi) coordinated and more rigorous approaches increase data standardization, cross-system prioritization of investment and medium-and long-term returns on investments in crop research.In collaboration with Module 5, the Platform will manage a centralized repository of information that will also be used by AFS CRPs for reporting purposes.The surge of novel and aggressive pests and diseases, land and water scarcity, desertification, and increased carbon emissions are realities that CGIAR and NARS breeding programs must and have incorporated into their strategic plans. A recent global meta-analysis found that decreases of about 5% in crop productivity are expected for every degree of warming above historical levels (Challinor et al., 2014). Without acceleration of breeding gains, this would require half a decade of breeding investments to simply keep agricultural production at the same level. Given the crucial role of the CGIAR breeding programs, the ability of the AFS CRPs to optimize improvements in genetic gains while climatic conditions change and become less stable is a proxy to determine how well we are able to buffer agricultural production in the developing world. Implementing better breeding practices among CGIAR and NARS in general will contribute to better cultivars reaching more farmers at greater speed. Also, in several instances, the genetic ability or traits associated with mitigation of severe environmental changes are \"bottleneck\" traits. The breeding programs' ability to develop \"bottleneck\" trait solutions is critical to initiate a more structured approach to breeding in which disruptive genetic innovations can be better supported when made transparent to investors. Typical examples are genetic gains in less favorable areas that are more vulnerable to climate change, such as coastal deltas being affected by salinity intrusion as a consequence of the rise in sea level, and rainfed areas prone to drought and floods.The Module has an explicit capacity building approach because it improves skills in strategic planning, breeding program management and client focus, and publishes standardized metrics, descriptions of breeding programs and impact assessment approaches, information that is so far lacking. CGIAR and NARS breeding programs will benefit from experts contracted for their private sector expertise and that will provide an outsider view of realistic improvements within individual programs. Private sector expertise and best practices sourced from among centers and NARS will be used to develop the breeding assessment system. Metrics and strategies will inform breeders, research managers and investors how to assess breeding programs and increase the returns of their investments. This is expected to lead to increased capacity of partner organizations, as evidenced by rates of investment in agricultural research.A scientific workshop will be organized among breeding leaders, socio-economists involved in impact assessment and seed sector specialists to conceptualize various impact assessment approaches and their purposes. The Module will manage a list of best practice sites and external experts that can assist at training venues and for external breeding program assessment.The primary beneficiaries of this Module are farmers in low and middle income countries. Intellectual property will be produced by and for breeders, research managers and investors in breeding programs targeting low-and middle-income countries. The Module will produce, describe and display peerreviewed information generated by the AFS breeding programs and external members. They may originate from the public or private sector.If any information or methods are sourced from the private sector, the Module will ensure proper stewardship of their intellectual property as well as intellectual property belonging to other parties for which permission to use has been granted. All parties using third party intellectual property must do so as part as part of any agreement they sign for this Module.Intellectual assets developed with Platform funding are made available to the public under appropriate licensing conditions. In circumstances where third party intellectual property is utilized, conditions may be added as permitted under Section 6 of the CGIAR Principles on the Management of Intellectual Assets, which establishes the conditions for 'limited exclusivity' or 'restrictive use' agreements.Research papers, policy briefs, conservation protocols, training materials, written submissions to international policy fora, will be made public through publication on the Platforms' own website and or through publication in journals as open access. Software and web tools will preferably be open source and be made available under suitable open access licenses.The Module requires a Module Leader, ideally with private sector experience and also familiar with the constraints of CGIAR and NARS breeding programs. The Module Leader will report to the Platform Leader with the Expert Advisory Group contributing to performance assessment. The Module must be close to the clients, ideally client \"owned,\" i.e., housed within an entity that has breeding programs and experience or understanding of different breeding systems relevant to the developing world. Primary candidates to host this Module include CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICRISAT, IITA, ILRI and IRRI.The Module Leader will work with a CoP of breeding leaders from the various AFS CRPs. This group will meet virtually and occasionally face-to-face to define standardized metrics and descriptions of breeding programs, and will also draw on private sector expertise. One representative for each AFS CRP will become member of the Expert Advisory Group for this Module. They are responsible for managing the process, according to the standards proposed by the CoP. They take critical decisions where opinions differ, ensure completed metrics and breeding program assessments within their AFS CRP, and contribute to further improve the system. As NARS show interest to implement the breeding program assessment, the membership of the Expert Advisory Group will be adjusted accordingly. The Module will contract external experts with private sector expertise that will contribute to developing the breeding assessment system, assist in training and coaching, and can be contracted by members for an external breeding program assessment. As a new Platform, there are currently no other sources of funding. Development of new tools in the multinational trait research and breeding sector typically focuses on the key commodities; these tools are subsequently modified to meet the needs of secondary and tertiary commodities through integrated proprietary systems adapted to the workflows of the organization. In the case of the non-multinational breeding sector (CGIAR, ARIs, NARS, smaller companies), many of the newly emerging tools for trait discovery, mobilization and cultivar development originate in diverse commodity-specific pockets, driven by user demand. Tools developed in one commodity (specific crops, trees or animals) are largely inaccessible to the broader breeding community due to substantive transaction costs, originating from: (i) lack of knowledge of which tools are available; (ii) lack of direct access; (iii) difficulty in application due to data reformatting, pipeline assembly and computational power;(iv) the time required to learn about new tools, their value and application; (v) inability to afford IP; (vi) the tool is not sufficiently adapted to meet user needs; and (vii) lack of understanding of how to best implement tool(s) in a breeding or discovery process. Even for established processes such as a lab information and field trial management, information is not readily available in the pros and cons of offthe-shelf solutions and how to integrate them in commodity-specific discovery and breeding processes.As a result, many CGIAR, ARI, NARS, smaller company researchers and breeders invest in developing their own commodity-specific solutions rather than adapting and adopting others, thereby reinventing the wheel with varying success, given the need for in-depth understanding of increasingly complex research questions and processes. This diverts resources to the development and maintenance of tools rather than to their application and, what's worse, results in more complex breeding and discovery applications succeeding only at a low rate and with great delay. The most recent and potentially more powerful tools are not adopted as users do not have information on how their application would benefit them, nor the ability to quickly embed the tools in their workflows; they also have no access to training or interpretation expertise, and lack understanding of how to restructure their workflows to optimize the return on investment when using a new approach or tool. Alternatively, a new approach is suggested by enthusiastic researchers as a step change in enhancing genetic gains without associated use case evidence or information on the modifications needed for discovery and breeding programs to fully capitalize on the value of the approach, resulting in erroneous applications and waste of resources.Module 2 therefore aims to generate a platform where: (i) tools to accelerate and/or strengthen trait characterization, mobilization and cultivar development are identified out of the public and (accessible) private sector; (ii) information on how to restructure workflows and incorporate tools to maximize their benefit is exchanged; (iii) tools are more widely tested, needs and investment/development priorities are set; (iv) accelerated awareness and uptake of the best tools are supported through consultancies, and virtual or face-to-face training. This Module also has cross-cutting function. It develops the \"Toolbox\" where the knowledge base created in the other modules will be made available and feedback from users will be captured. The feedback will inform the workplans of the other modules. Also, many tools and applications are increasingly data-intensive and need bioinformatics and biometrics support. Therefore, this Module will be crucial to aid the Bioinformatics Module in priority setting. The grand challenge to be addressed is to accelerate effective application of existing and newly emerging tools that support trait identification, mobilization strategies and breeding approaches, reduce the time CGIAR researchers spend in tool identification, testing or development, and increase time and effectiveness of application in actual breeding programs for the delivery of new or improved traits to farmers.The Module targets breeders and researchers associated with AFP CRPs and any interested external user.We estimate that the Module will initially reach 60 key users from the CGIAR, NARS and ARIs associated with the AFS CRPs. Once established, the Module will maintain a powerful platform for discussing the usefulness of tools in real-life breeding and discovery applications, in particular for the more resourceconstrained breeding programs targeting low-and middle-income countries, reaching several thousands of users by the end of 2022. This estimate is based on the download frequency of best practice documentation, software and other documentation already available (in uncoordinated format) from CGIAR centers.The Module will accelerate trait discovery, trait mobilization and cultivar development workflows through: (i) the formation of a web-based \"one-stop\" catalogue (\"the Toolbox\") of bioinformatics, phenotyping, genotyping, mechanization, automation tools and approaches and their application in a reallife discovery and breeding context ( (iv) development and adaptation of a system to facilitate stand-alone and pipelined data analyses interconnecting multiple in-house and third party reviewed software and database tools. An example is shown in Figure 2.2. It describes how several data-intensive applications (different colors) result in an interconnected workflow of recommended tools (many off-the-shelf) and approaches for discovery (genome-wide selection) and breeding (genomic selection) applications. Though conceived, tried and tested for one species and trait, the documentation both highlights missing pieces (\"needed tools\") and allows others to contribute and catch up with best practices instead of reinventing a complex wheel. The Module will be organized into three work packages (Table 2.1):1. Development of a toolbox to support trait discovery, mobilization and breeding. This work package focuses on developing, updating and maintaining a web-based platform to facilitate the description, review and use of tools and workflows relevant to modern and state-of-the-art discovery and breeding applications, resulting in a practical toolbox for researchers and breeders that can be structured by use cases and types of users. Hence, in collaboration with the CoPs in each module, the Toolbox will be populated with a wide range of trait discovery, breeding, phenotyping, genotyping, mechanization, automation and bioinformatics tools, workflows and use cases currently used by the AFS CRPs, the Genebanks Platform and external members, and relevant to various types of users. The Toolbox will be set up through Module 5. The web platform will use an \"Amazon\" review type approach (such as AnswerHub) to facilitate reviews and issue reports. The Toolbox will be updated by members adding and reviewing new tools/ approaches/suppliers, and unused or poorly reviewed entities will be removed, to work towards a knowledge base of best practices.Fostering toolbox adoption and its dynamic use. This work package documents and uploads new tools and approaches for trait discovery and breeding, with a strong emphasis on user participation, priority setting and capacity development. The Module Leader will work with a CoP, made up of diversity analysts, trait discovery specialists and breeders from the AFS CRPs and the Genebanks Platform and external members, and the leaders of other modules to document \"missing\" features, develop use cases relevant to applied trait discovery and breeding programs and prioritize needs for approach and tool development.It includes approaches for pipelined data analysis. Input from Module 1 will be used to assess how ready various CGIAR centers and NARS may be to use new interventions. The Module will be tasked with considering these specific needs in priority setting. User feedback is critical to plan Platform evolution as a whole and, given that many tools increasingly require some sort of bioinformatics support, to give clear guidance to the Bioinformatics Module on what software or database tools to adapt and mainstream within the Platform. The CoPs are key to drive the active participation and feedback from a wide range of users so as to capture a broad range of expertise and opinions in an efficient manner.The capacity development component of this work package focuses on two main activities: first, the development of better documentation, where required, of extant tools with a strong emphasis on modular \"how to\" YouTube-type videos and short webinars that can be recorded and linked to tools, workflows and data analysis pipelines within the toolbox. This will include implementation guides on how to restructure a breeding workflow to gain more value from tool and pipeline implementation; this will be linked to specific use case information. This type of information is in strong demand. As an example, a YouTube video released in May 2015 as part of Seeds of Discovery project was viewed 1190 times by January 2016 (Romero, 2015). Second, more intensive face-to-face training of users on implementing specific workflows will be conducted, linked to existing scientific meetings. We anticipate training 40-125 users annually. The work package will also identify internal and external experts that can help trait mobilization and breeding teams to implement fast and low-cost strategies based on their individual needs.3. Source and ground-truth innovative ideas through an incubator. This work package focuses on brainstorming, discussion and potential ground truthing of blue sky ideas. In association with relevant scientific meetings, forums will be held to discuss physical and virtual cross-disciplinary blue sky ideas. The objective of these forums is to enable researchers within and outside AFS CRP to propose and discuss the application of high-payoff novel approaches to plant and animal trait discovery and breeding targeting the developing world. The forums will promote closer linkages between AFS CRPs and upstream labs and students. Participation of key donors is required to enable potential incubation of project ideas. Instead of testing new ideas in a disconnected manner, coordinated testing and discussion through/by the Platform CoPs could become a powerful approach for directly assessing emerging technologies for genetic gains enhancements in realistic breeding programs. We anticipate that these incubator forums would be held once to twice a year, each with an attendance of 30 to 50 people.Use of Module resources among work packages are projected in    CoPs provide user-based feedback on tools, workflows, suppliers and pipelines, using an Amazon-style review system. Source innovative ideas through an incubator Physical and virtual blue sky discussions associated with scientific meetings, to raise and discuss ideas for highpayoff approaches and discuss and design the incubation of project ideas. Allocation of modest resources to validate technologies in the incubator while jointly seeking additional funding to test more substantive \"game changers\".  The Trait Discovery and Breeding Module does not aim to force solutions and approaches on members and users; instead, it seeks to work in an interactive and dynamic manner to enable access to information on new phenotyping, genotyping, mechanization and automation tools, bioinformatics components and pipelines, computational capacity, training and implementation that can help increase the rate of genetic gain. Existing tools and know-how from the AFS CRPs will form the initial basis of the \"catalogue\" of tools and methods (the toolbox; Figure 2.1). This will be complemented by solutions from Modules 3-5 and those available from ARIs and the private sector. Through its systematic landscaping and transparent, nonconfrontational discussion of user-driven tools and approaches, the Module is essential for identifying both the \"best tool for the job\" across the system and step changes in how genetic gains can be achieved.It will ensure that development of new solutions within the Excellence in Breeding Platform, no matter where they come from, stay end-user-driven and address needs of CGIAR and NARS.The private sector is well known for modifying entire breeding processes and pipelines in order to fully capitalize on the investments and benefits of introducing new tools and approaches into the research and breeding process. Across the AFS CRPs and the public sector in general, similar information remains hidden and unavailable. By providing this information through tools and approaches tested and tried by the various CoPs, the Module ensures that AFS CRPs and external users are able to build on each other's insights, be more successful in applying data-intensive trait discovery and mobilization strategies and breeding approaches, and reduce the time necessary for developing and enhancing the quality of new cultivars. Driven by their individual searches for better tools, the AFS CRPs are linked to the most relevant public and private knowledge and tool providers worldwide, which gives a solid knowledge base to populate the toolbox created.Incorporation of tools in the platform and the deployment of pipelines will be needed to follow a series of documented requirements. Tools can only be placed on the platform if supported by a CoP member. Also, those submitting the tool will be required to provide evidence supporting successful tool application.Pipelines supporting entire workflows will need to demonstrate repeatability and have implementation protocols.The ability to seamlessly move between software components will be critical in terms of workflow success, given that users will not want to repeatedly re-format large data sets; furthermore, some users lack the necessary coding skills to do this efficiently. Bioinformatics systems such as Taverna-Galaxy exist to aid this transition. Supported by the Bioinformatics Module in dual functions, they will be used: (i) as a catalogue of analysis scripts, software and visualization tools; and (ii) to enable users to custom-build those analysis platforms that are most relevant to their needs with the assistance of their own AFS CRPs or the Platform Bioinformatics Module. Once tested, these pipelines can be shared (with clear attribution) with others via the catalogue, enabling use by the wider breeding community. The number and location of users of pipeline access and downloads will be monitored to measure adoption.To most appropriately gauge the value, usefulness and understanding of tools and pipelines, an Amazonstyle review system (such as AnswerHub®) will allow users to post reviews and address specific issues. User reviews of tools, workflows and pipelines will provide important feedback to monitor utility and adoption by geographies, and to enable the identification of cross-AFP CRP challenges to be addressed by the Platform. Tools, workflows and pipelines that repeatedly receive poor reviews will be assessed and, if necessary, removed from the system.There is an increasing number of CGIAR-ARI collaborative projects, with collaborators on all continents, that develop tools and assemble pipelines for data-intensive trait discovery and breeding applications, such as the Genomic Open Source Breeding Informatics Initiative (GOBII), Genomic Selection for Resource Use Efficiency (GS-RUSE), GenomeHarvest, Seeds of Discovery (SeeD), Genomic Tools for Sweetpotato Improvement (GT4SP) and others. AFS CRPs and external users will develop specific tools and their documentation, driven by commodity-specific needs. Others, in search of new tools, will access the web platform to use, test and provide feedback on tools, participate in training sessions and meetings and use suitable tools within their breeding programs. Although targeted at upstream users and breeders who rely on data-intensive tools, the Platform, through its generic design, will be able to support other types of applications in high demand by lower-tech users such as laboratory information management systems, bar-coding applications and open-source algorithms for statistical analyses. It is expected that the user base for this Module will diversify in the medium term, based on strengths of the breeding programs, and drive demand and direction for/of the Platform.Benefits to AFS CRPs, the Genebanks Platform and external users. Based on currently available tools implemented so far only in individual research and breeding programs, the Toolbox will enable users to: (i) accelerate cultivar development; (ii) mobilize traits through breeding integrating advanced breeding technologies (such as breeding design simulation, cross-prediction, use of high-density genomics data for genomic selection, gene-to-phenotype models, and test-to-target environment predictions) with trait pipelines and GxE information; and (iii) quantify genetic diversity and identify and validate useful alleles, haplotypes and genotypes based on genome-to-phenotype information on germplasm groups prior to rapid use in precision breeding. Users will have lower tool self-development and maintenance investment; be able to access a wider range of solutions and innovations; access practical recommendations on use; and benefit from more informed selection and implementation of tools and approaches.Outcome at the portfolio level. The Module will accelerate the implementation of state-of-the-art trait discovery, mobilization and breeding approaches within CGIAR and NARS genebanks and breeding programs targeting the developing world. Greater use of genetic resources held in CGIAR genebanks, genomic selection, and the integration of genomic, phenotypic and environmental data rely on such tools becoming more widely accessible; otherwise breeders and projects could have the ideas, concepts and ambition to do so, but no access to the tools that would allow them to operationalize the concepts. A greater rate of successful upstream breeding projects and their faster implementation will result in greater use of genetic diversity and faster breeding progress by CGIAR centers and NARS.Coordination with the Big-Data, Information and Knowledge Platform. As agreed at the portfolio level, the Excellence in Breeding Platform will establish with this Module a unified approach for managing large genetics/bio-informatics data and applications, while the Big-Data, Information and Knowledge Platform will focus on socioeconomic and environmental data and applications. While the breeding process as such is well defined, facilitating clear roles and responsibilities of the two Platforms, there will be use cases that link genetic applications with environmental and socioeconomic data and that will require interaction between the two Platforms, in particular as big picture scenarios and research questions are being tackled to help the CGIAR and other research organizations set their science agendas.This Module assesses and promotes generic tools that accelerate genetic gains for a wide range of traits.A focus on climate change, most prominently heat and drought tolerance, is at the forefront of all AFS CRPs. Abiotic stress tolerance traits are complex and in general not as easy to select for, as, for example, disease resistance. They require genome-wide research and selection approaches to be in place and workflows and data analysis approaches to be combined with improved phenotyping tools. Thus one could say that if the CGIAR does not master efficient workflows for these more complex traits, breeding gains for stress tolerance will stagnate at current rates, making this Module (and the Platform) a crucial component in the overall climate adaptation strategy of the CGIAR and its partners.The web platform structure, associated information and training modules developed through this Module's toolbox follow use cases (\"how to\" then \"what to\"), such as \"if you want to implement approach X or tool Y in your breeding pipeline, here are specific tools you may want to adopt, and their interconnectivity and database requirements.\" Given added time requirements, members are encouraged to involve students in documenting use cases for upload.Capacity building focused on use cases will be enabled through virtual meetings and direct face-to-face training associated with major scientific meetings. It will follow a seminar and online meeting structure.Formation plans for each course/module will be developed and a series of questions posed pre-and posttraining in order to assess whether the course achieved the outputs stated in the formation plan. Capacity building impact will be measured in part through tool and pipeline adoption and integration within breeding and research programs. Given that training information requires more than a member uploading a tool or workflow, experts will be hired to review particular use cases and document requirements and suggested uses. They are also resource persons for consultancies. Capacity building activities will be assessed through attendee questionnaires and later through assessment of which approaches have been successfully adopted by breeding/research units.Primary recipients of capacity building in the first phase of the project are CGIAR, ARI and NARS scientists directly involved in AFS CRP upstream breeding implementation. In a second phase and as use cases evolve and diversify, capacity building activities can be streamlined based on user needs for low-to hightech applications. Given the extensive involvement of AFS CRPs in capacity building, network analysis should be conducted to identify those individuals and groups that are key to better enabling technology and knowledge dissemination.Intellectual property will be produced by and for breeders and researchers implementing data-intensive trait mobilization and breeding applications, with particular focus on the requirements of users from lowand middle-income countries. The Module will produce, describe and display materials, technologies, and tools ranging from equipment, software, methods, traits, germplasm, and management technologies to information databases and publications. They may originate from the public or private sector.Members contributing to this Module shall ensure proper stewardship of their intellectual property as well as intellectual property belonging to other parties who have granted and confirmed permission to use. All parties using third party intellectual property must do so as part of any agreement they sign for this Module.Intellectual assets developed with Platform funding (including tools, germplasm, inventions, improvements, data, processes, technologies, software, trademarks, publications and other information products) will be made available to the public under appropriate licensing conditions. In circumstances where third party intellectual property is utilized, conditions may be added as permitted under Section 6 of the CGIAR Principles on the Management of Intellectual Assets, which establishes the conditions for 'limited exclusivity' or 'restrictive use' agreements. Open-source solutions are preferred to facilitate interconnectivity and wide adoption of tools.Management of pay-to-access third-party commercial software, computational infrastructure or expert advice may require cross-member licensing agreements which may benefit providers and could allow for greater use. User feedback on the web platform will demonstrate if tools or services are performing poorly or difficult to connect. The web administrator will need to ensure that user feedback is based on fact and any conflicts of interest will have to be clearly disclosed.The Module requires a Module Leader which will also be the Platform Leader and a web administrator.Resources are made available to AFS CRPs or external members to contribute to the knowledge base, given that such documentation will require additional time investment, using competitive processes. Drawing on existing collaboration among AFS CRPs, ARIs and the private sector, the Module will seek to collaborate with those with substantive tool development expertise, including the CAAS, CIRAD, CSIRO, the Boyce Thompson Institute, Diversity Arrays Technology, the Genome Analysis Centre, INRA, IRD, the James Hutton Institute, Kansas State University, the Roslin Institute, Wageningen University, USDA, and others. Specific expertise from industry will be requested and may need to be contracted.The Module must be close to the clients and, ideally, client \"owned,\" i.e., housed within an entity that has both discovery and breeding programs and experience or understanding of different breeding systems relevant to AFS CRPs. Primary candidates to host this Module include CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICRISAT, IITA, ILRI and IRRI. The host institution needs to be able to provide adequate server capacity and connectivity.The Expert Advisory Group will include members contributing to the CoPs with balanced representation of AFS CRPs, Genebanks and external members. This group will meet virtually to review Toolbox performance with the Module Leader, and will also meet with Module Leaders to review and prioritize needs to be addressed through software improvement projects, documentation and training, and which key tools to move from the test phase to wider scale-out. A minimum of five members of the group representing five AFS is needed to make decisions. Members of the Expert Advisory Group are responsible for sourcing wider feedback from their respective constituencies and promoting the Platform's availability | P a g e As a new Platform, there are currently no other sources of funding.Please describe main key activities for the applicable categories below, as described in the guidance for full proposal While there may always be the need for some specific in-house genotyping, the Module will mainstream a shift to flexible and efficient out-source provision across the AFS CRPs, thus enabling broader resource-effective application within breeding and research efforts.To broadly integrate genomics in discovery and marker-assisted selection in breeding, a number of enabling steps specific to the generation of genotypic data are required, including: (i) lowering the costs of genotyping; (ii) ensuring appropriate data turnaround time; (iii) use the most appropriate technology for the desired application; and (iv) creating an environment of change that drives adoption of more efficient and cost-effective technologies and enables the move from low-throughput to high-throughput systems. These challenges are addressed through the Genotyping Module. Other challenges related to the successful application of genotypic data in research and breeding applications are addressed in the Bioinformatics and Trait Discovery and Breeding Modules with input from bioinformatics, biometrics and application experts.The strategic rationale for the Genotyping Module lies in exploiting economies of scale and accelerated learning. The cost of genotyping is an issue of economy of scale, as single projects -or, indeed, single AFS CRPs -do not have enough purchasing power to negotiate prices with the private sector. Through aggregation of demand, AFS informed forecasting and streamlining of processes, the Genotyping Module can negotiate better terms and conditions. Also, during application in breeding, sampling, DNA isolation, genotyping and data analysis need to be done within a short period of the life cycle of the species of interest. Independently of pricing, if genotyping cannot be conducted in a time effective manner, it will not be adopted in breeding. Negotiating defined and guaranteed data turnaround times with service suppliers is hence crucial, as is commitment on the part of the breeding programs to forecast sample submission times and volumes, so that service providers can schedule their work. Monitoring client satisfaction and collection of metrics related to genotyping volumes are important features that will be facilitated by the Toolbox in Module 2, which will also manage the knowledge base for the entire Platform.The choice of optimal technology is not always obvious and made more complex given the rapid evolution of genotyping and associated data analysis approaches. The development and sharing of use cases and implementation guides are critical enabling devices empowering users to be more aware of the suites of technologies and suppliers available. This will benefit all commodities, plants and animals, and particularly those AFS CRPs that have conducted little work in this area. Understanding which technologies have been applied successfully, where and how to best apply technologies in a cost efficient manner is critical to allow smaller commodities to leapfrog many of the testing and evaluation stages larger commodities have gone through. In addition, monitoring the genotyping technology environment to help identify the next technology that may be applied in breeding and discovery enables programs to make decisions regarding application of technologies that may have longer shelf lives.The Module will divide its work into three discrete work packages to meet the overall aim of the Genotyping Module (Table 3.1), aligned with three currently funded projects (Table 3 1. Capacity enhancement. This work package will offer experience and guidance on the use of genotyping in different research and breeding applications. Through the development of use cases and implementation guidelines, this objective will help groups optimize and apply genotyping effectively in their work. Researchers working on smaller crops/ livestock/ fishes with minimal genomics exposure will learn from the knowledge and expertise in major crops such as wheat, rice and maize. Knowledge dissemination will be conducted through the online Toolbox developed in Module 2 and through faceto-face or online training. The Platform will maintain a list of internal and external experts to advise individual members on the use of genotyping in different research and breeding applications.This work package will provide support and access to companies and in-house capacities providing highly competitive, cost-effective genotyping supplies and services. This Module will negotiate with groups and companies for cost, turn-around time and quality of genotyping supplies and services. The objective will be to fund the verification of 10 assays for existing validated trait markers on a new platform (developing an assay for known markers and testing the assay across 94 samples) per AFS, when a new supplier is suggested by an AFS or external user, or approaches the Platform directly. This will enable AFS CRPs to judge the service supplied. Members of the Platform will have access to the best service provider through a common contract. Aggregating the genotyping demand from different AFS CRP is a pre-requisite for obtaining the lowest genotyping cost.It requires strong and well-organized planning and sample aggregation systems on the part of both breeding programs and service providers. Based on demand aggregation and specification of types of genotyping and preferred suppliers, incentive prices (the higher the combined volume, the lower the price; agreed on turn-around times and data formats) for high-throughput, automated genotyping services to AFS CRPs will be finalized. The Module will seek to provide access to both low-and highdensity genotyping services. As for low-density genotyping services, a partnership between Intertek Group PLC and CGIAR centers (currently ICRISAT, IRRI, CIMMYT, IITA) is already being developed, led by ICRISAT and supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (B&MGF). This collaboration will facilitate access to competitive, quality service for 1-10 markers at a price affordable to the current breeding programs. As for high-density genotyping services (i.e., genotyping-by-sequencing, arraysbased single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping; per se sequencing), the Module will explore options with different providers such as Intertek Group PLC, BGI-Shenzhen, Macrogen Inc., DArT Pty. Ltd., Affymetrix Inc. and Illumina Inc. In addition, CIMMYT, ICRISAT, ILRI [BeCA] and IRRI [GSL] have in-house facilities developed either individually or through public-private partnerships which can be considered potential service providers. This Module's objective will be to work with the Platform's Bioinformatics Module 5 so that the data generated from any low-or high-density genotyping platform may be efficiently curated, analyzed and stored through appropriate tools and databases.This work package will work in close collaboration with ARIs and the private sector to assess the latest technology improvements and developments for both DNA extraction and genotyping. ARIs are often the earliest adopters of technologies for discovery, whereas the private sector adopts in an industrialized production-oriented manner for breeding. Use cases of collaboration with ARIs from individual AFS CRPs will be examined to provide information on the applicability of the latest technology. The work package will be continuously prospecting technology advances and will advise and guide the AFS programs accordingly. Under an uplift scenario, this objective could explore cross-AFS testing of new technologies and strategic investment in technology access; this could encompass not only new genotyping methods but also sampling technologies such as automated seed chipping.Use of Module resources among work packages are projected in Table 3.3. The main cost drivers are explained in Table 3.4.   Multi-national companies have fine-tuned the estimation of demand volumes and timing and have optimized systems to meet the genotyping and sequencing needs of their major commodities. They generate large efficiencies and keep costs down by spreading them across many individual breeding units.Genotyping is typically implemented in-house with focus on a few genotyping technologies. While effective for the private sector, this may not be an optimal method for the CGIAR, which deals with a wider range of commodities and use cases, and overall substantially lower investments. Therefore, the Platform's predominant choice will be flexible, out-outsourced approaches that can be selected based on use cases and readily changed as technologies evolve. In-house options will be considered as Platform-promoted solutions where competitive in terms of price and turn-around time.The aim of this Module is not to be prescriptive but to broker access to supplies and services demanded by multiple AFS CRPs and to negotiate guaranteed best pricing and service standards (data quality, turn-around time) from suppliers, based on volumes submitted and with prices decreasing as the combined volume increases. Initial interactions with new service providers will require test genotyping to assess and compare outputs of different platforms. Clients of selected platforms and service providers will be required to provide feedback on service metrics and perceptions of quality against a client-defined list of minimum quality criteria. These customer and service provider satisfaction surveys will be used to formulate reviews which will be made public through the web platform developed in Module 2.AFS clients will be supported through the provision of recommendations regarding the inclusion of blind replicates and controls as part of a user guide of recommended best practices compiled by AFS, service providers and other experts. Service providers who fail to meet quality metrics will be removed as suppliers from the Genotyping Module. AFS groups who fail to supply tissue or DNA of adequate quality to service providers will be offered training in collaboration with service providers.The array of technologies available for genotyping range from single-plex markers to sequence-based applications such as genotyping-by-sequencing. The choice of a specific technology depends on the specific application (e.g., selection for a few markers versus genomic selection), genomic complexity of the species of interest, trait complexity and the availability of resources such as reference genomes. The current focus when genotyping for both discovery and breeding is on SNP and presence/absence variation. Technologies range from single-plex, single-marker assays to genotyping-by-sequencing. Currently, re-sequencing and whole genome sequencing are used for SNP discovery applications but not for genotyping. The current focus will be on technologies specifically generating genotypic data rather than sequence data as such.The current panel of technologies available offers a somewhat bewildering array of potential methods and applications. Even within commodities where genotyping application is more routine, the selection of methods is not always obvious. To better enable selection of technologies across ASF CRP projects, the Genotyping Module will serve two functions. The first is to develop and provide use case and implementation documentation to better enable technology selection, and link AFS CRPs with external experts. The second is to monitor and, through discussions with early adopters in ARIs and the private sector, to evaluate the technological advances in genotyping and provide feedback on trends to the AFS community through the Toolbox described in Module 2.Investments by AFS CRPs and external users. Users of the genotyping brokering service are expected to invest time in the generation of accurate forecasting data for their genotyping and supply needs. Accountability for the forecast data will lie with each member and when services are brokered. Members will have to guarantee their minimum order volume to obtain the lowest possible pricing. Given that the number of samples are contingent on funding of (often short term) projects, such forecasts will never be very precise. Contracts will seek to broker incentives systems which will further lower prices if greater volumes are being achieved. Still, the AFS need to provide projected demand in real time and have much stronger forecasting accountability, which may need to be tied to members' contractual obligations. Users of genotyping services will be responsible for meeting quality standards for sample submission and for providing feedback. Attempts to consolidate requirements and broker access to improved genotyping pricing have been made previously through the Generation Challenge Program (GCP). Issues (price, data turnaround) were sometimes not shared with the GCP to enable clearer resolution of common issues. It is hence essential that the Module Leader receives clear feedback on any issues and concerns to facilitate empowered actions.The costs of converting existing high-demand, gel-based markers to SNP-based markers and proper validation of the latter are borne by the individual AFS supported by expertise provided by the Genotyping Module. Covering the costs of genotyping materials and supplies is the responsibility of the individual AFS CRPs or genebanks, as are associated costs for sampling and DNA isolation, quantification and quality assessment and for sending samples to service providers. The AFS will provide use case and implementation information to the Genotyping Module and will work with the Module to document and periodically review these in a clear and consistent manner. Knowledge of new technologies and suppliers developed/discovered within individual AFS will be shared with the genotyping platform enabling cross-AFS access and opportunity for exploration.Benefits to AFS CRPs and external users. The Genotyping Module will provide individual AFS with access to lower cost, timely, quality guaranteed, state-of-the-art genotyping services. More effective and cost efficient services will enable breeders to adopt genotyping technologies within their breeding programs and, at the same time, offer opportunities to broaden discovery and application. Enhanced use of genotyping has strongly benefited the larger multinational companies by improving quality control and accelerating genetic gains through faster selection of superior germplasm/individuals. Dynamic application of genotyping within the AFS offers opportunities to broaden the genetic diversity of breeding by initiating many more crosses and using genotypic selection to rapidly and cost effectively lower population size and advance only those entities of higher genetic merit.Outcome at the portfolio level. Adoption of the most appropriate low cost, efficient and effective genotyping technologies will enable and enhance the application of genomics-assisted breeding and discovery across AFS CRPs and support the characterization of CGIAR genebank holdings. Greater understanding of genetic diversity and tracking of desirable genomes during the selection process in a costefficient and streamlined manner are essential for breeders in the AFS CRPs to be able to enhance rates of genetic gain and develop more diverse breeding products, including by more proactive understanding and use of diversity, applying greater precision and intensities during selection, rapidly and repeatedly recombining the best alleles, saving on phenotyping and nursery costs, or ensuring better quality control and fewer errors in the breeding or seed production process.Selection of relevant traits and markers and broadening the genetic basis for climate change-related traits are at the core of most AFS breeding programs and need support from suitable high-throughput genotyping platforms. Drought, heat and waterlogging tolerance are complex traits whose breeding gains can be accelerated with genome-wide selection approaches (Beyene et al., 2015;Rouf Mir et al., 2012). With the unpredictability of weather conditions increasing and new pest and diseases emerging, strategies for establishing greater resilience in agricultural systems need to introduce more genetic variability and polygenic resistance in crops and animals, both of which can be facilitated with genomic information (Chakraborty and Newton, 2011). These are well-known concepts, shown and tested in proof-of-concept type projects, yet investments have been lacking to mainstream suitable approaches in major breeding programs targeting climate change-affected regions in the developing world. It is not an individual research project but the overall volume of breeding germplasm developed by CGIAR, NARS and private sector partners that needs to benefit from best practices in order to result in effective climate change adaptation of agricultural commodities grown by farmers in the next decades. The Excellence in Breeding Platform intends to change this by enabling access to user-tested tools and approaches that support streamlined genotyping (Modules 3 and 5) and phenotyping (Modules 4 and 5) for climate change-relevant traits within an actual breeding context (Module 2).Capacity building in the first two years of the project will focus on those scientists directly involved in the Genotyping Module, including: (i) relevant platform upstream genomics implementation staff; and (ii) CGIAR and NARS breeders in the AFS CRPs. Training will focus on building capacity in forecasting, and in defining and implementing quality sampling and tracking procedures for effective service implementation. In addition, specific expertise and training on marker conversion will be sought to be able to convert currently used gel-based markers to more efficient SNP-based markers.In a parallel program phase, capacity building activities will be expanded to focus on upgrading the skills of CGIAR and NARS breeders. This will be done using both virtual and face-to-face meetings and aligned with training done in Module 2. The CoP associated with the Genotyping Module will work on specific use case implementation guides. The use cases will provide specific focus on the genetic complexity of the trait or species, and the desired discovery or breeding outcome. Implementation guide contributions will focus on practicalities of implementation and will provide recommendations on critical junctures such as sample tracking, inclusion of quality control measures and breeding program modifications to maximize the value from genotyping applications. The adoption of new genotyping or sequencing technologies in breeding programs is a significant undertaking. In some cases, a major change in the structure and size of the breeding populations may be needed. Breeders may need to suspend ongoing activities while they begin to implement a new strategy, or they may run the two strategies in parallel, slowly reallocating resources from one to the other; the latter option would require significant additional resources for breeding programs. Breeders will hence need to consider these issues when designing their implementation strategy.The Platform will serve as a broker of genotyping services. Products submitted to and data generated by genotyping service providers will remain the intellectual property of the users with neither the Platform nor the service provider gaining any rights to the germplasm or data. Members of this Module will need to sign an agreement that contains the requirements for Platform service use and supply provisions. Platform staff will negotiate services with input from finance and legal experts. Pricing agreements reached with service providers will, if required by service providers, remain confidential.Members contributing to this Module shall ensure proper stewardship of their intellectual property as well as intellectual property belonging to other parties who have granted and confirmed permission to use. All parties using third party intellectual property must do so as part of any agreement they sign for this Module.Intellectual assets developed with Platform funding (including tools, germplasm, inventions, improvements, data, processes, technologies, software, trademarks, publications and other information products) will be made available to the public under appropriate licensing conditions. In circumstances where third party intellectual property is utilized, conditions may be added as permitted under Section 6 of the CGIAR Principles on the Management of Intellectual Assets, which establishes the conditions for 'limited exclusivity' or 'restrictive use' agreements. Open-source solutions are preferred to facilitate interconnectivity of tools and wide adoption.Management of pay-to-access third-party commercial software, computational infrastructure or expert advice may require cross-member licensing agreements which may be beneficial to providers and could allow for greater use. User feedback on the web platform will demonstrate if tools or services are performing poorly. The web administrator will need to ensure that user feedback is based on fact.A Module Leader will be recruited from among the executing partners with substantive genotyping activities linked to an active breeding program (CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICRISAT, IITA, ILRI, IRRI). This person must have experience with: application of different genotyping methods in breeding, medium-to high-throughput genotyping, liaison with service providers, and the complexities of different breeding systems and legalities of relevant AFS members and their host countries. Specific expertise of genotyping applications in breeding from the industry will be requested and paid for as needed to better inform the approaches in this Module. Three other part-time positions are required to consolidate logistics and forecasting in Asia, Africa and Latin America. These positions can be recruited from within existing AFS.The Module Leader will report to the Platform Leader with the Expert Advisory Group contributing to the performance assessment. An Expert Advisory Group will be formed composed of members contributing to the CoP, with no more than one member per AFS CRP plus genebanks. This group will meet virtually to discuss applications and request specific input from experts, take accountability for forecasting information, define quality criteria for respective applications, discuss and agree on the brokering of specific services, document progress and issues, and define which needs should be addressed through training in collaboration with Module 2. A quorum of five group members representing five AFS is needed to make decisions. Each AFS CRP has to agree to be part of a brokered contract. AFS CRPs who do not commit may still solicit services from providers but they are not guaranteed the same negotiated terms. Members of the Expert Advisory Group are responsible for sourcing wider feedback from their relevant constituencies and to promote the availability of the services.Platform Lead Center's Name: CIMMYT Module title: Module 3: Genotyping/sequencing tools and servicesCenter Location of Platform Leader:Total Module budget summary by sources of funding (USD) In the Module budget by natural classification, the budget for Platform Leader, Module Leaders and AFS members is summarized in the line items Personnel, Travel, Capital Equipment, and Other Supplies and Services. The Module budget by participating partner describes who manages (not who uses) the budget. E.g. the Platform Leader manages all subcontracts to AFS members and external contractors and consultants for streamlined issuing of such contracts. The Platform Leader also manages the open access budget.Other sources of funding are described in Table 16.Gender Although the cost of genotyping has rapidly decreased over the past two decades, phenotyping costs have remained relatively static (Fiorani and Schurr, 2013;Furbank and Tester, 2011;Rahaman et al., 2015). Phenotyping remains by far the most expensive and time-consuming activity for breeding programs. It is hence essential to implement improvements that lead to greater genetic gains including: precision and highthroughput remote or ground sensing technologies such as tractor or airborne sensors (Araus and Cairns, 2014) or 3-D laser scanning (Vadez et al., 2015); improved analyses of genotype-by-environment-bymanagement (GxExM) interactions; increased efficiency in routine physico-chemical analyses; and mechanization and automation of seed preparation, field and greenhouse trials. These advances increase genetic gains by: (i) minimizing environmental variability in field trials and increasing the precision of measured traits (Araus and Cairns, 2014); (ii) increasing the relevance of selections or the choice of appropriate parents; (iii) enabling breeders to measure traits at greater speed, in particular those associated with abiotic stress tolerance, disease resistance, biomass production, bulking of underground storage organs, or rooting patterns (Khan et al., 2016;Villordon et al., 2012;Zaman-Allah et al., 2015); (iv) supporting the collection of greater quantities of non-destructive data at lower cost to increase population sizes (Cooper et al., 2014); (v) when used in combination with genomic selection training populations, supporting a better understanding of the genetic architecture of traits (Cobb et al., 2013;Hammer et al., 2006); and (vi) reducing human error in the management of breeding programs.Mechanization, automation, precision and high-throughput phenotyping have attracted huge investments in high-income countries. This Platform intends to exploit high leverage investments and quick wins that can be implemented in CGIAR and NARS breeding programs. We propose to develop a CGIAR-wide community of practice and a hub for phenotyping support services to facilitate mechanization and automation, reduce the cost of routine phenotyping for selection, and increase adoption of high-throughput phenotyping tools and GxExM analysis tools across the AFS CRPs and external users. CGIAR breeding programs have the capability to simultaneously and repeatedly generate massive amounts of phenotype data through the use of remote sensing applications that result in improved and more rapid assessments of yield, biomass, flowering, stress tolerance or disease resistance (Araus and Cairns, 2014;Fahlgren et al., 2015;Ghanem et al., 2014). The current bottleneck is caused by having to convert such data to real-time \"breeding values\" for a large number of plots and progenies that are simultaneously being measured, and link this information with genotype information to routinely feed into gene discovery and cultivar development programs. Joining efforts among CGIAR programs and with public and private sector capacities in high-income countries will greatly accelerate the identification and extension of best practices among CGIAR breeding programs and NARS partners.The private sector and ARIs have made substantial investments and advances in the development of tools and strategies to capture and analyze phenotypic information (Furbank and Tester, 2011). As a result, this Module will focus on vetting, promoting and understanding existing technologies across CGIAR and NARS breeding programs to improve operational excellence rather than the development of novel phenotyping tools within the CGIAR.The grand challenge is to drastically increase the quantities of high quality phenotype data in order to accelerate genetic gains in breeding programs of the CGIAR and NARS partners. Although some phenotyping challenges are specific to a single commodity or AFS CRP, many phenotyping traits and methods are generic (e.g., field-based remote sensing, routine physico-chemical laboratory analysis, approaches to mechanization and automation). Expertise in this area, however, is scarce, often requires interdisciplinary insights (physiology, quantitative genetics, biometrics, data analytics and management), and should be shared for more rapid progress. In addition, phenotype data represent, by definition, interaction with an environment. GxExM interactions are a major challenge for selection, especially for complex traits such as yield, and need to be addressed as a top priority, particularly in the context of genomic selection and geneto-phenotype predictions. This Module would help foster exchange between teams dealing with similar issues as a means of progressing toward best practices (e.g., Kholova et al., 2013;2014;Vadez et al., 2012).Likewise, breeding programs face common challenges to mechanize and automate routine phenotyping, access reliable low-cost physico-chemical laboratory analyses, and reduce environmental variability in field trials while under budget constraints and while using outdated research station infrastructure. Baseline metadata, weather data, the equipment used, and the way that data are stored and managed are largely out of date, not systematically collected, or not available at CGIAR-wide level. CGIAR and NARS breeding programs will be analyzed as part of Module 1. These data, augmented with other lines of inquiry regarding routine physico-chemical analysis capacities and their costs, mechanization and automation in breeding programs, and management and infrastructure in research stations, will be used to establish a baseline for Platform members from which recommendations for \"quick wins\" can be made including inexpensive service providers and low-cost/state-of-the-art phenotyping equipment. The results of this baseline assessment will help the CGIAR as a whole, as well as individual centers, NARS, CRPs and investors, to identify strategic priorities for high leverage capital investments.The Phenotyping Module will be organized into four work packages (Table 4.1).1. Establishment of best practices for phenotyping and environmental analysis through a community of practice. This work package assesses the types of phenotype data collected, adoption of high-throughput tools and methods, and barriers to adoption of modern phenotyping strategies among members for accelerating the development and implementation of best practices among a wider range of users. In addition to this community of practice being open to ARIs, NARS and the private sector, Module staff will link with existing plant phenotyping networks (e.g., European Plant Phenotyping Network), the private sector and advanced research institutes (ARIs) to assess current state-of-the-art approaches, develop online learning tools and videos in collaboration with members (to be featured in the Module 2 Toolbox), organize joint capacity building workshops and facilitate access to existing phenotyping platforms for training or use. Members' benefit will consist of accelerated adoption of best practices and faster adoption of recent advances in the capture and analysis of image-based phenotyping.Members will also share best practices in GxExM analysis and gene-to-phenotype models for improving selections and predicting target environments and management practices for new cultivars, building on ongoing work in certain crops (e.g., Kholova et al., 2013) and external teams (e.g., Hammer et al., 2006). The specific targets are to assess the commonality of this challenge, develop data standards to support generic GxExM analysis and gene-to-phenotype predictions, and test and adapt generic tools to breeding programs targeting the developing world.2. Support services from ARIs for A. experimental design, data management, and analysis of precision and high-throughput phenotype data, and B. GxExM analysis and genotype-to-phenotype predictions. This work package is to ensure that CGIAR and NARS breeding programs receive the support and capacity needed to design well-conceived high-throughput phenotyping and GxExM analysis protocols. The core idea would be to give them access to existing expertise, technology, know-how available particularly in ARIs. For example, in the past few years the capacity to image plants/crops has increased tremendously. Spectral imaging enables researchers to \"see\" plants/crops from a multitude of spectral signatures. Unfortunately, scientists still need to carry out a lot of basic work to turn these extremely rich data into information that makes biological sense. Several ARIs and centers work on linking spectral indices to critical phenotypes.Once they take this critical step, breeding programs can increase the number of traits and plots they can evaluate, thereby increasing selection intensity and providing data that can be used to understand genetic trait architecture. This work package will also help facilitate the integration of available tools for GxExM analysis and gene-to-phenotype predictions. It will establish the necessary linkages with the management concepts and standards developed for environmental data by the Platform on Big-Data, Information and Knowledge.Breeding programs can increase their operational efficiency by identifying and using dedicated service laboratories within and outside the CGIAR system to generate routine phenotype data (e.g., physico-chemical composition and functional properties) rather than attempting to generate all information \"in-house.\" This work package will increase the phenotyping capacity of CGIAR and NARS programs by identifying reliable laboratories for assessing these properties in plant and animal materials, making sure such information is available to users and negotiating group rates. Specific targets include a survey of laboratories, capacities and costs in coordination with the assessment of breeding programs in Module 1, quality audits of proposed service laboratories within and outside the CGIAR, and a list of vetted service labs with negotiated costs for generic physico-chemical and plant functionality phenotyping services which can be updated annually.and NARS breeding programs, as well as infrastructure and management of research stations. Many CGIAR and NARS breeding programs are poorly mechanized and still rely on planting and harvesting by hand. Likewise, decades-old research station infrastructure is in decline and requires updating. In order to increase breeding program efficiency, CGIAR and NARS must mechanize, automate, and invest in research station upgrades, including modern planting equipment, fully automated combine harvesting (for grain crops), and precision irrigation. The 2017 targets are a series of coordinated assessments of the current state of mechanization and automation across the CGIAR and NARS, suitable equipment and mechanization tools available for each commodity, and current state of research station infrastructure. Based on this information, we will recommend \"quick wins\" to participating breeding programs (e.g., sample tracking and laboratory workflows which increase operational efficiency and reduce errors with relatively little financial investment) and generate an inventory of robust and easy-to-service mechanization and automation approaches suitable for developing world conditions. Given that quite a range of CGIAR and NARS breeding programs are co-located, the information will also be used to develop recommendations for high-priority investment needs that Centers and AFS CRPs should strategically invest in and to design and implement training courses for experiment station managers.Use of Module resources among work packages are projected in Table 4.2. The main cost drivers are explained in Table 4.3. The rapid technological progress in certain fields such as imaging is opening tremendous opportunities for the phenotyping community, but also poses a number of challenges. One of these challenges is to be carried away by the capacity to generate scores of phenotyping data -for instance, terabytes of dense image data (3-D, hyperspectral data cubes) -that have little immediate biological relevance and use in breeding. The scientific quality of this Module will be ensured in part based on its capacity to organize a community of practice that involves relevant partners (CGIAR, ARI, private sector, NARS) and that is capable of harnessing recent technological advances and applying modern tools and strategies to generate relevant phenotypic information which contributes to improved efficiency in cultivar development. There are several international groups who are working in this area. The focus will be on building from the achievements of those groups and ensuring the adaptation of approaches that can be implemented in the context of breeding programs in the developing world.Science quality will also arise from the increased quality of the data that are generated. However, it is not sufficient to consider quality only from the standpoint of the techniques that are used to measure a number of plant traits, or the number of repeated measurements that are taken. Documenting datasets with rich metadata on experimental conditions is often overlooked and is an equally important target of this community of practice (minimum datasets), especially with regard to GxExM interactions that sink so many breeding efforts. Therefore, the community of practice will need to work toward developing an ISO 9000 quality management approach.Overall, the aim of this Module is to increase the rate of genetic gain in CGIAR and NARS breeding programs by improving targeted phenotyping, minimizing environmental variability in field trials, and generating more precise phenotyping information (improved experiment station infrastructure and precision phenotyping of targeted traits). Therefore, the scientific quality of this Module should be demonstrated by increased selection efficiency across CGIAR and NARS breeding programs. The relevance of various datasets can be assessed ex-ante using selection indices that are based on heritabilities and genetic correlations with target traits (Richard et al., 2015), through association mapping studies (Pauli et al., 2016), or ex-post through actual selection experiments (Rutkoski et al., 2015).In collaboration with the phenotyping efforts within each of the AFS CRPs, science quality can be monitored through:• Publications on phenotyping in the AFS CRPs (methods, data, genetic analysis of key traits, etc.)• Evidence of increased utilization of precision phenotyping and best practices in CGIAR and NARS breeding programs• ISO data standards (metadata, weather, etc.)• Increased selection efficiency in CGIAR and NARS breeding programsIn the area of mechanization and automation, substantive experience exists in the private sector, yet approaches need to be selected that are cost-effective in view of the size of breeding programs and robust and suitable given environmental conditions and available local technical support. As cross-systems data from work package 1 become available, the question is whether technological options could be developed in collaboration with low-tech savvy countries, such as China or India, that are more aligned with the needs and nature of breeding programs in lower-income countries (smaller-scale, decentralized, multi-purpose, easy-to-repair).Investments by AFS CRPs and external users: Within the CGIAR alone, there are a substantive number of projects that advance crop-specific learning in cassava (root biomass estimation through ground penetrating radar), chickpea (climate change resilient chickpea), maize (drought, nitrogen use efficiency, heat, virulent diseases), rice (drought, nitrogen use efficiency), sorghum (climate change resilient sorghum) and wheat (heat, drought, yield potential, virulent diseases). Benefits to AFS CRPs and external users include: (i) website with up-to-date information on relevant and tested phenotyping tools and approaches; (ii) accelerated learning of best phenotyping practices; (iii) investments in safe-bet equipment (versus those that may soon become obsolete or do not warrant the investment); (iv) access to a pool of consultants to help set up phenotyping platforms and resolve technical problems; (v) access to labs that provide high quality physico-chemical composition and functional properties assessments at best prices and with appropriate turn-around times; (vi) freeing up of resources through mechanization/automation and for expensive in-house lab analyses; and (vii) linkages to existing phenotyping entities in high-income countries (International Plant Phenotyping Network; European Plant Phenotyping Network), the private sector or specific CGIAR crops (such as the Expert Working Group on Wheat Phenotyping).System-level benefits include: (i) scientists find needed information readily, reducing transaction time and the risk of costly mistakes; (ii) accelerated implementation of high-throughput or other best phenotyping practices; (iii) faster turn-around, more precise selection and greater selection intensities; (iv) faster genetic gains by incorporating more information into selection indices; (v) CGIAR scientists and external users move towards greater coordination of research protocols resulting in greater translatability of information across labs, environments, and crops; (vi) coordinated and more rigorous phenotyping approaches increase the application of shared data, increasing the medium-and long-term returns on investment in crop research; and (v) increased scope and better standardization of data provide more reliable inputs for crop simulation models that can be used to predict big picture scenarios, helping the CGIAR and other organizations to set science agendas.In collaboration with Module 5, the platform will manage a centralized repository of information about emerging and applied technologies, suppliers and users, experiences, rating of their application, cost and reliability, suppliers of technologies and information, cumulating experiences that are currently mostly found at crop-specific level (e.g., Pérez-Harguindeguy et al., 2013), so as to become a focal point for proposing and disseminating standards based on precedent and approval rating.To maintain global food security, with the added challenge of climate change, crop research needs to adopt an integrated approach for best leverage of technology, expertise and infrastructure (Reynolds et al., 2016). The development of improved cultivars that can cope with the stresses of climate change is a major challenge with unified efforts across the AFS CRPs, implying that the methodological discussions in this Module will predominantly focus on \"phenotyping for climate change.\" General circulation models do not accurately predict future rainfall but all consensually predict increases in temperature. Therefore, the focus will be on phenotyping approaches that allow estimating temperature impacts on the length of phenological stages, reproductive biology or evaporative demand and plant water status.Phenological stages such as flowering and maturity are usually evaluated by doing simple but tedious measurements. The development of remote sensing techniques to measure flowering can increase breeding program efficiency. For instance, legume flowers have a specific spectral index that can be used to pinpoint flowering time. An inventory of methods and approaches will help to compare the effects of temperature on reproductive biology across crops and to account for confounding temperature effects on both phenology and reproductive biology (e.g., Prasad et al., 2006). Studies on the effect of high temperatures on evaporative demand and plant water status are ongoing in a range of crops. Transpiration response to increased vapor pressure deficit is being measured and mapped in several crops (e.g., pearl millet, Kholova et al., 2010Kholova et al., , 2012;;sorghum, Gholipoor et al., 2011;maize, Yhang et al., 2012;cowpea, Belko et al., 2013;chickpea, Zaman-Allah et al., 2011;peanut, Devi et al., 2009). High-throughput methods for measuring transpiration have recently been developed (Vadez et al., 2015 -https://youtu.be/M1bMpYvpcRc) and will be promoted through this Module.Human capacity for phenotyping will be developed by making information available through the web platform, virtual meetings, exchange visits and biannual meetings among members, linked to relevant conferences. As part of the Toolbox in Module 2, a phenotyping website with updated resources, new literature, training materials and phenotyping protocols will be maintained as a resource base that AFS CRPs can use in training courses or workshops, particularly with NARS. Much of the material will be developed through the community of practice with a particular focus on easy-to-use, low-tech, standardized phenotyping protocols. Existing trait evaluation protocols and training materials from centers and ARIs will be complemented with videos that show and explain the phenotyping cycle, from conceiving the experiment to data capture and analysis, or detail aspects such as calibration of equipment, use of sensors, experimental design guidelines to allow high-throughput phenotyping with large numbers of genotypes, as well as best practices for storing and labeling planting materials to avoid mistakes and collect efficient metadata.Coordinated assessments of the current state of needs, infrastructure, mechanization and automation will be used to develop recommendations for high-priority investments with greatest systems pay-off. In collaboration with Module 1, experts will be hired (from centers, ARIs or the private sector) to review existing capacities (station management, scope of operations, work flow mechanization/automation, environmental characterization, physico-chemical analyses and trait phenotyping capacities, phenotypic data storage, and processing capacity) and advise on high leverage investments that support best practices for medium to high-through phenotyping. New data processing pipelines will be made available through the Module 2 Toolbox in collaboration with Modules 2 and 5.The primary beneficiary of this Module are farmers in low and middle income countries wherein the tools to be created will benefit the wider scientific research community around the world. The Module will produce, describe and display materials, technologies, and tools ranging from equipment, software, methods, traits, germplasm, and management technologies to information databases and publications. They may originate from the public or private sector.Members contributing to this Module shall ensure proper stewardship of their intellectual property as well as intellectual property belonging to other parties who have granted and confirmed permission to use. All parties using third party intellectual property must do so as part of any agreement they sign for this Module.Intellectual assets developed with Platform funding (including tools, germplasm, inventions, improvements, data, processes, technologies, software, trademarks, and publications) are made available to the public under appropriate licensing conditions. In circumstances where third party intellectual property is utilized, conditions may be added as permitted under Section 6 of the CGIAR Principles on the Management of Intellectual Assets, which establishes the conditions for 'limited exclusivity' or 'restrictive use' agreements.Open-source solutions are preferred to facilitate inter-connectivity of tools and wide adoption.Management of pay-to-access, third-party, commercial software, computational infrastructure or expert advice may require cross member licensing agreements which may be beneficial to providers due to greater use. User feedback to the web platform will demonstrate if tools or services are poorly performing. The web administrator will need to ensure that user feedback stays fact based.Two scientists/experts will be hired or contracted to manage this Module, in collaboration with members participating in the community of practice. The first position will manage work packages 1 and 2, in interactions with Modules 2 and 5, and the Big Data Platform. The second position (a consultancy in the Base budget) will manage work packages 3 and 4. The position(s) can be posted at either the Lead Center or another member that has (an) applied breeding program(s) targeting the developing world. Using a widely advertised competitive process, 1-3 ARIs will be selected to provide support services the analysis of precision and high-throughput phenotype data, GxExM analyses and gene-to-phenotype predictions.Options are CEPLAS, CSIRO, JIRCAS, Kansas State University, Rothamsted Research, the University of Arizona, the University of Barcelona, the University of Cordova, the University of Talca and others. Resources will be made available to AFS CRPs to contribute to the Platform's knowledge base, given that such documentation will require additional time investment. Temporary contractors and/or graduate students may be brought in to conduct baseline surveys.An Expert Advisory Group will be formed with designated representatives from DLC, FTA, Livestock; MAIZE, RICE, RTB, WHEAT and the Genebank Platform. This group will meet virtually and provide feedback on the Module's workplan and performance and the performance of contributors; map phenotyping platforms and initiatives inside and outside the CGIAR; encourage interactions between phenotyping platforms; propose co-investments, for example, in a global network of managed-stress sites; coordinate testing; and advise on suitable troubleshooters to solve technical problems. AFS CRP members will receive a set amount of support services for each commodity/center. Additional services/time will need to be paid based on costs. Lists of recommended/trained contractors will be compiled by the scientists employed by the Module. As a new Platform, there are currently no other sources of funding.  Modern breeding programs rely on information infrastructure that transforms increasingly large and diverse data into valuable information and place it in the hands of researchers and breeders at critical decision points. Advances in phenotyping, remote sensing, and genomic technologies enable the collection of vast quantities of valuable breeding data. In their raw form, and without standardized protocols and nomenclature, these data are difficult to store, manage and utilize. However, when coupled with effective data collection, data management, analysis pipelines and decision support tools, these data can be transformed into coherent information that leads to new insights, more effective breeding decisions and greater rates of genetic gain.The benefits of integrated data and bioinformatics tools in breeding are clear. Leading breeding companies have shown that it is practically possible to harness them, both through substantive investments and by supporting informed decision-making with defined stage-gate criteria. CGIAR partner institutions as well as many small-and medium-sized breeding programs have not quite succeeded in realizing this potential. Most prominent challenges to reciprocate \"a one software approach\" for public users has been: the diversity of needs and sizes of breeding programs; the development of software independently from institutions that could ensure future maintenance and upgrades; insufficient user engagement to prioritize, test and provide feedback; and governance dissociated from use.At the same time, software tools, computer processing and storage capacity, as well as practical experience with integrated breeding workflows, have become more accessible. The development and implementation of application programming interfaces (APIs) enable coherent, interoperable, adaptable data management and analysis workflows (\"pipelines\") from available, tested and individually evolving bioinformatics components developed by ARIs, CGIAR centers and the private sector. Today, a range of components are available that allow collecting, curating and storing data in a rapid manner to enable turn-key analysis, breeding decisions and client interfaces, both from the private and public sectors (such as GrinGlobal, GeneSys, the Breeding Management System [BMS], Breeding4Rice (B4R), and others). APIs allow these systems to be integrated in a coherent manner and assemble data from multiple sources in support of both genetic resources and breeding programs.The grand challenge for the CGIAR and this Platform is to enable access by CGIAR, NARS and SME breeding programs to up-to-date, robust bioinformatics and biometrics tools and services that support trait discovery and selection decisions. With Module 2 (i.e., users) prioritizing tool and pipeline development needs aligned with well-defined breeding and trait discovery strategies, the Bioinformatics Module will coordinate the technical implementation of software and pre-packaged software pipelines with multiple partners. It will identify, document and, when necessary, develop informatics and biometrics tools to support data management capabilities, data curation and annotation workflows, analysis pipelines, and decision support. It will incorporate practical trial and sample management tools with genealogy, phenotypic, genomic and environmental information, support testing and backstop implementation. Module interventions should (i) lead to better documented and more robust bioinformatics and biometrics tools that are useful to a wider range of users; and (ii) encourage the collaborative development and implementation of a transparent and cohesive system-wide strategy that will make current and future bioinformatics and biometrics investments more impactful.Applying lessons learned from earlier initiatives, the Module will: (i) pursue well defined, frequently applied breeding and trait discovery strategies rather than attempting to provide a generic approach for breeding programs of all sizes; (ii) take actual breeding and research workflows as the point of departure and develop practical solutions that will be tested in specific programs; generalization will only be attempted after progressive adoption beyond the case studies has proven that the solutions work; (iii) identify and adapt existing tools that can be integrated via the nascent Breeding Application Programming Interface (BrAPI) into a modular and integrated pipeline to suit trait discovery, current and advanced breeding needs and workflows; and (iv) only invest in and link up with tools that are backed by reputable institutions as part of their core mandate, so as to ensure a reasonable guarantee of future maintenance and upgrades.The Module will allow AFS CRPs, the Genebanks Platform and external users to save time and resources when acquiring bioinformatics tools and reduce the considerable risk involved in tool acquisition, development and implementation. This cost reduction and experience-sharing will be valuable for all breeding and trait discovery programs, but particularly so for smaller programs that might otherwise not be able to adopt more comprehensive, integrated breeding approaches.Based on current bilateral investments, the initial focus will be on improved management and use of phenotypic, genealogical and genomic data in crop breeding and research. Tools and workflows for animal and fish breeding and trait discovery will be considered in an opportunistic way, exploiting synergies where breeding or discovery processes more closely align and where user prioritization indicates high return on investment. Success will open up the possibility of more advanced options, for example, incorporating remote-sensing data to link breeding applications with more detailed target environment characterization or supporting the use of gene editing. As such, this Module will be critical for the technological and methodological advancement of breeding programs.The Module will provide modular and integrated pipelines to support specific trait discovery and breeding workflows and support services for CGIAR, NARS and local breeding companies to implement advanced breeding strategies. It will focus on six work packages (Table 5.1) integrating with existing bilaterally funded projects (Table 5.2).1. Analyze pipelines and tools to clarify user and technical requirements related to selected trait discovery and breeding case studies. This work package will define and document prioritized case studies with distinct user groups as part of Module 2 to ensure practical relevance and ownership by users, whose involvement in Agile Software Development, Iteration Planning and User Acceptance Testing is critical to the success of the outputs of the Module.2. Develop modular and adaptable pipelines to support breeding workflows for the selected case studies and implement a common BrAPI. Configurable data management, analysis and decision support pipelines will be defined and implemented for the case studies. The current landscape of available tools will be mapped and grouped logically into pipelines, with common BrAPI, developed based on an analysis of existing APIs, and building on established standards and mechanisms to ensure compatibility and interoperability across tools at the database, analysis and user interface levels. The implementation of the case study workflows will incentivize a joint strategy for data access and exchange across application softwares and development of inbuilt commonly-used, routine statistical analyses. The pipelines should be flexible so they can evolve as knowledge, methodologies, technologies and needs change.3. Support the development of databases and tools to complement and expand the usefulness of existing bioinformatics initiatives. Several CGIAR and external projects develop fundamental bioinformatics resources, systems and tools that are beneficial to all crop and livestock breeders and researchers, such as for: new alleles discovery from genebanks (Seeds of Discovery), genome-wide association (Seeds of Discovery), genealogical and phenotypic data management (BMS, B4R, CassavaBase); the design of field trials (Agricolae, KDXplore); phenotypic data capture and curation (KSU Fieldbook, KDSmart, KDXplore); genotypic data management and display (GOBII, KDXplore, G4R, GDMS, Flapjack, South Green) high density genotyping data and allele mining (IRIC tools); and data warehousing (Germinate). Case study breeding workflows will reveal gaps in terms of tools, user interfaces and desirable links between tools and with external databases. This work package will develop and adapt new databases and/or tools to address such gaps. Platform co-investment will be conditional on compliance with the BrAPI and associated data standards. In cases where a commercial software option would offer the best value, the Platform provides an avenue to collectively negotiate preferential prices.4. Define and implement metadata and data standards to facilitate data flows between tools and data sharing. Defining data standards and defining and capturing a suitable amount of metadata in ontologies is a \"must have\" to ensure linkage across and within workflows and data sets, most prominently passport information, pedigree, global/permanent unique germplasm IDs (GUIDs/PUIDs/DOIs), trait and agronomy ontologies, genetic information and environment conditions, among others. Metadata and data standards will be operationalized through the BrAPI. They will be aligned with standards developed by the Global Information System of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources, and build on the work of the existing Crop and Agronomy Ontology Community of Practice and other initiatives (Planteome, Agroportal, NDEx, QTLNetMiner).5. Establish a community of practice (CoP) and provide access to bioinformatics and biometrics advice, services and resources. A CoP will be formed among the bioinformatics and biometrics teams of AFS CRPs NARS and ARIs to: develop relevant component tools; facilitate collaboration for large-scale work; establish core operational guidelines; generate and share knowledge on tools and best practices; assess and plan for the sustainability of supported tools; and address capacity development needs. Software developers will be encouraged to adhere to guidelines/best practices, verified through automated checks. As bioinformatics and biometrics technologies and methodologies will continue to evolve, the Module will manage a distinct amount of resources to test, compare and validate emerging methodologies prioritized by Module 2 in collaboration with users. The CoP will seek to train biometricians at universities in CGIAR target countries to use Platform tools and data analysis approaches, and maintain a list of trained resource persons. The work package will invest in brokering access to computational infrastructure. Opportunities will first be sourced from within AFS CRP networks to gain access to free or very low cost facilities at CGIAR centers or ARIs while working with commercial providers on pay-per-use solutions.6. Advance sustainable deployment and maintenance of tools and applications. The tools used in the modular pipeline to support selected breeding and research workflows will need to continually evolve; therefore, sustainability of software development and maintenance will be an important selection criterion for choosing a tool. Although a number of the bioinformatics software development projects cited in Objective 3 have donor support for the next several years (Table 5.2), funding for continuing support and development is uncertain. It is therefore imperative to plan ahead for resources to support post-deployment maintenance and improvement of tools supporting the developed pipelines.Use of Module resources among work packages are projected in Table 5.3. The main cost drivers are explained in Table 5.4.  In contrast to a multinational breeding company, this Module deals with a wide range of researchers and breeders that work in different (CGIAR, NARS, ARI) institutions on a much larger range of commodities and with breeding applications ranging from upstream research to downstream, field-based implementation. Science quality will be ensured by a clear definition of the challenges and problems to be addressed. Based on lessons learned from the past, investments must be user-driven, and prioritization will be defined under Module 2.Investments The CGIAR, through the Excellence in Breeding Platform's very active role in further developing and implementing the BrAPI, will be crucial in making it the standard across a range of applications and generating a critical mass of users and uses. This will be achieved by defining a practical and useful breeding API and by making BrAPI compliance a condition for investment in data generation, storage or analytical tools.An open-source approach will bring indisputable benefits, particularly lower costs and potentially a larger and more diverse community of developers. It will also come with significant challenges. An open-source community will not simply coalesce around these projects and undertake maintenance and continuing development. There may be a loss of coordination with development happening at geographically dispersed locations, each keen on addressing highly nuanced needs. Therefore, an open-access approach will only be successful if the Platform is able to aggregate and credibly respond to user needs through the investment of substantial resources.The Platform, its Steering Committee and Module Leader will have important roles to play in overseeing that these principles are followed and that user feedback is systematically monitored, analyzed and transparently reported, and management decisions are made accordingly. This will be tracked through the MEL plan of the Platform. Improvements in selection efficiency that are attributable to the use of the tools and attendant services would be the ultimate proof of quality, and efforts will be made to track them.There are many developers that could develop software tools. However, software tools will need to be maintained and updated. The Platform will only invest in and link up with tools whose developers have an inherent interest in maintaining them as part of their core mandate. Investments focused on improving and linking established components guided by user demand will prevent the Platform from becoming responsible for an increasing amount of software tools. Instead, they increase the value and use of existing tools (also by interconnecting them), which gives the originating CGIAR center or ARI greater incentive to maintain and update them.This Module will provide tools and services to support trait discovery and breeding activities, with priorities set by users and a governance approach that incudes users. As the Module and Platform provide true value to users, the number of users and, as a result, internal and external in kind or financial investments are expected to increase.Investments by AFS CRPs and external users: This Module represents an opportunity for users to acquire tools for data management, analysis and decision support, provided they are prioritized by several CRPs. The breeding programs in AFS CRPs and those of external users will need to allocate resources to use cases that may apply to one CRP only, other specific adaptations and configurations, IT infrastructure and services, and the data management and biometrics capacity required for their work. When asking for bioinformatics investments from the Platform, AFS CRPs and external members will need to identify users who will need to allocate time to clearly define the prioritized use cases with developers, actively test new software and provide timely feedback. In return, they will have access to tools pioneered and tested in collaboration with other users. Once scaled-out, the wider range of users is encouraged to provide feedback and highlight related needs and issues, as this will guide future bioinformatics investments.Given that AFS CRPs will select the case studies, they have an incentive to deploy tools and technologies to their partners through established structures and mechanisms, thereby ensuring sustainable adoption of the tools and breeding pipelines.The Bioinformatics Module will deliver tools and technologies that will support modernization of breeding and trait discovery in the AFS CRPs and other stakeholders, increase the speed with which better varieties can be developed and attendant economic benefits of can be generated (Alpuerto et al., 2010). Given similar challenges, the Module will reduce redundant investments across the centers and CRPs, thus allowing each member to progress further. This implies joint priority setting and standards that often require larger users with their own bioinformatics and biometrics investments to make some compromises, adjust workflows and redirect their own bioinformatics support. To smaller breeding programs that cannot afford to make significant investments in their own bioinformatics and biometrics, it will give access to otherwise inaccessible tools and approaches, and to bioinformatics and biometrics capacities within the system.The Bioinformatics Module will facilitate the pooling of resources for costly and specialized activities that presently can only be individually pursued by each institution and AFS CRP; and provide a framework for more formalized collaboration for the diverse initiatives in this area. Through mapping the software landscape and common user interest, it will bring coherence to the various efforts, which will result in improved interoperability and compatibility, enabling customization to meet unique needs while staying within defined parameters that enable individual breeding efforts to benefit from tools, knowledge, methodologies and technologies generated by others. The economies of scale gained will accelerate the development of tools and pipelines. Users, together with the Platform, will for the first time establish an overview of bioinformatics system use, user feedback and future priorities, which will hopefully be used by investors.Coordination with the Big-Data, Information and Knowledge Platform. Use cases that link genetic applications with environmental and socioeconomic data will require and rely on alignment with the standards, approaches and bioinformatics systems coordinated by the Big-Data, Information and Knowledge Platform. The two platforms will also coordinate access to computing capacity.Climate change implies that breeding has to catch up on productivity lost due to higher temperatures and greater frequency of abiotic stresses in the developing world. The data management, analysis and decision support tools, applications and pipelines done by the Platform will enable faster and more accurate selection of alleles contributing to enhanced climate challenge adaptation and climate resilient breeds that mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Genetic improvements are not based on easy and simple fixes but require improved genotypic and phenotypic information for which bioinformatics tools are absolutely fundamental to expedite the process of collecting data, analyzing and assessing traits and advancing breeding generations to meet the pace set by climate change.As local environments become more unstable, extreme variability of localized weather conditions and the increased incidence of unpredictable extreme weather events pose a challenge beyond long-term climate shifts. The establishment in this Module of pipelines and APIs to transfer primary breeding data between different systems using standard ontologies will facilitate crop simulation modelling. This will in turn accelerate ideotype design and provide tools that help interpret phenotypic data on breeding populations in multiple changing environments.The Bioinformatics Module will augment the knowledge and skills of crop improvement scientists with a view to improving their access to and use of information, analytical tools, and associated methodologies and technologies. In collaboration with Module 2, the substance of the capacity building efforts will focus on transferring vital skills in using suitable tools and resources related to experimental design; data collection, management and analysis; molecular markers; and breeding decision-making, using actual use cases described by the CoPs in Modules 2-4 for which bioinformatics tools have been developed.While Module 2 will facilitate joint training opportunities, both virtually and face-to-face, the CoPs of bioinformatics and biometrics specialists will provide trainers, mentors and technical backstopping to partners of AFS CRPs. Train-the-trainer approaches (breeders, biometricians, bioinformatics personnel) will be used for face-to-face sharing of knowledge with the large number of NARS and SME partners and collaborators. Capacity building will be crucial to create a critical mass of appropriately skilled NARS scientists who will hasten the adoption and application of modern breeding approaches in their respective regions and countries.Biometrics and bioinformatics personnel with a good understanding of the breeding process and quantitative genetics are incredibly scarce. The Module will seek to link up with biometrics personnel at universities and bioinformatics staff in private companies to improve access to competent personnel and widen the knowledge base within an extended CoP. Other capacity building efforts (such as supporting post-graduate students and upgrading crucial ICT equipment) will be beyond the Platform's immediate scope and will have to be undertaken by the individual AFS CRPs, bilateral and multilateral initiatives.The Module will predominantly build on and promote open-access components (bioinformatics resources, systems and tools) from the CGIAR and ARIs for the benefit of the wider scientific research community, with particular focus on low and middle income countries. Contributors shall ensure proper stewardship of their intellectual property as well as that belonging to other parties who have granted and confirmed permission. Users will access the Platform's open-access components under standard licensing conditions that will ensure that the tools remain available for use by the wider scientific community, as well as derivative products when possible. The Platform will distinguish between testing environment (access by members only) and tools that are being promoted for wider use. Responsibility for use of tools will remain with the user.The Module will promote the data dissemination by helping to identify the best public data warehouses and/or repositories for sharing the data types covered by the Platform, such as Germinate, and supporting their further cross-cutting development as necessary. Supported bioinformatics resources are to provide adequate permission control to manage public/private access to data from a single source and/or to provide tools for transferring data from internal systems to public systems via web services or data output formats that can be readily deposited in the recommended repositories.In some instances, users will be able to link Platform components with proprietary software from the private sector. At this stage, the latter contributes a relatively small proportion of the components. It will be an expression of the success of the Platform if private sector contributions increase. Management of pay-to-access third-party commercial software, computational infrastructure or expert advice may require cross-member licensing agreements which may be beneficial to providers due to greater use.The Module Leader will need to be able to link with (and indeed should be co-hosted together with) one of the main CGIAR bioinformatics projects (Table 5.2). The person needs to bring technical and management skills to manage a large, multi-institutional, cross-cutting bioinformatics program and be able to quickly develop an in-depth understanding of the current initiatives, their relevance in an applied breeding context and user feedback, in order to develop an overall strategy for the Module's investment. This needs to take place in a constructively consultative manner with both users and leaders of the existing initiatives.Within the overall CoP for bioinformatics and biometrics, the leaders of the existing initiatives form the Expert Advisory Group for this Module. They will define mutually acceptable guidelines/best practices and ensure that milestones are met and delivery targets achieved. Execution of the Module's agenda will be done preferably through these members, i.e., by expanding the capacities of bioinformatics teams of existing, well performing projects, or through other external providers of software components that become linked to the BrAPI. Access to Platform funding and the users' voice from Module 2 will give existing project teams an incentive to grow together, follow standards and seek future funding jointly, and aligned with user priorities.The contracting of implementers is to be open and transparent. The delivery of outputs has to be serviceoriented. Selection of tools will have to respond to demand across various stakeholders. The CoP will require proactive moderation by the Module Leader for a clear process, decisions and results. Several of the existing projects have separate management and/or advisory bodies. In interaction with individual donors, Platform members should seek to reduce redundant investments in independent advice and instead increase investments in the commonly agreed agenda.Platform Lead Center's Name: CIMMYT Module title: Module 5: Bioinformatics and data management tools and servicesCenter Location of Platform Leader:Total Module budget summary by sources of funding (USD)  2,461,193 3,101,892 3,256,987 3,419,836 3,590,828 3,770,369 3,958,887 21,098,798In the Module budget by natural classification, the budget for Platform Leader, Module Leaders and AFS members is summarized in the line items Personnel, Travel, Capital Equipment, and Other Supplies and Services. The Module budget by participating partner describes who manages (not who uses) the budget. E.g. the Platform Leader manages all subcontracts to AFS members and external contractors and consultants for streamlined issuing of such contracts. The Platform Leader also manages the open access budget.Other sources of funding are described in Table 16.  The The Lead Center IP & Legal will intervene in the following parts of the project management lifecycle:Planning Direct and/or participate in drafting of documents for work plan, data management, knowledge management, and dissemination of results. IP & Legal will handle contractual obligations including subgrants to ensure appropriate planning. If appropriate prepare preliminary FTO assessment for dissemination of results.Draft and negotiate agreements, including material transfer agreements. As needed, monitor work scope, risk issues and legal issues in moving forward with project.Draft commercial licenses, if necessary, for dissemination of outputs.Assist with any audits, if necessary.If appropriate prepare preliminary FTO assessment for dissemination of results.Assist in implement methods and tools such as legal documents and legal language to be incorporated into documents used in the project lifecycle End of the project Administrative closeout, ensure sharing of information and/or materials and closing out contract and tracking finalization of any confidentiality clauses.1. Accountability for the appropriate implementation of the CGIAR policies will be provided through contractual obligations with partners. CGIAR Centers will apply CGIAR policies along with their internal policies and procedures. To the extent possible, non-CGIAR partners will be encouraged to apply CGIAR policies; alternatively, IA management aligned with those policies will be secured through IA management plans and contractual obligations.2. Implementation is subject to available budget; capacity building for incorporation of CGIAR policies into project planning & implementation will be developed and provided through guidelines, trainings, etc.their related datasets by means of persistent identifiers. Use of ontologies and controlled vocabulary to map units, traits, environmental conditions, etc., will be required to facilitate the data integration across scales and studies. The Platform will work with the Big Data Platform and the AFS CRPs, to explore emerging software designed to automate or semi-automate data annotation processes, such as the Agrotagger tool (http://aims.fao.org/vest-registry/tools/agrotagger-1).Operations: Budgets for personnel and infrastructure will be allocated to ensure the following routine and on-demand operations are properly carried out, both as part of the Platform and Module Leaders' budgets and those of members:• Implementation of suitable repositories and tools (on demand). [CG OADMP § 4. • Training activities covering relevant topics to ensure proper staff knowledge and engagement to accomplish envisaged Open Access and Open Data objectives (on demand).Coordination and decision-making (e.g., workflows/procedures, capacity, governance). Based on OA and OD inventory and plans developed at Module level, procedures and governance recommendations that should be followed CRP-wide will be made by the Module Leader and Expert Advisory Group of Module 5, reviewed by the other modules and approved by the Platform Leader and Platform Steering Committee.Narrative for required resources (e.g., human and financial). The following Table shows the minimum additional resources estimated for OA/OD activities of the Excellence in Breeding Platform. Additional resources may need to be allocated at Module level once OA and OD plans are elaborated in more detail and member's contributions and capacities are defined.Annual resource requirements for OA/OD activities of the Excellence in Breeding Platform.Staff for data curation, data quality assurance prior to final publication, metadata tagging, data storage, coordination with other centers and units and implementation of procedures and workflows related to information product management.Staff for license management, data storage, counseling on information product management and coordination with other centers and units (10% ","tokenCount":"25817"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be1a1fe2fffd0b8bda66d4ac1ffd87a8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aa87f15a-a89f-4ac3-8493-c2ef11d825d6/retrieve","id":"-145828659"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ab7ead14-b4dd-4fd1-85e7-f77d4e3bf1ce","pagecount":"297","content":"Fu tu re H arvest is a n o n-p ro fit organ izatio n th at bu ilds aw areness an d su p po rt for fo o d an d en v iro nm en tal research fo r a w o rld w ith less po v erty, a health ier h u m an fam ily, w ell-n o urished child ren , an d a better env iron m ent. F u tu re H arv est su pp o rts research , p ro m o tes p artn ersh ip s, and sp o nso rs pro jects th at b rin g th e resu lts of research to ru ral co m m u nities, farm ers, an d fam ilies in A frica, L atin A m erica, an d A sia. It is an in itiativ e o f th e 1 6 fo od an d env iro n m ental research centers th at are p rim arily fun d ed th rou g h th e C o n sultativ e G ro up o n In tern atio n al A gricultu ral R esearch . F utu re H arv est, P M B 23 8 , 202 0 Pen nsy lv an ia Av enu e, N W , W ashing to n , D C 2 0 00 6, U S A Tel: (1-2 0 2) 4 7 3-47 3 4 e m a il: info @ fu tu re ha rv e st.o rg w eb : h ttp ://w w w.fu tu reharvest.o rg T h e C on su lta tive G ro up on In te rn atio na l A g ric u ltu ra l R e se arc h (C G IA R ) w o rk s to p ro m ote fo o d se cu rity, p ov erty eradication , an d soun d m an agem en t of natu ral reso urces th ro u gh o ut th e d evelop in g w orld. C G IA R , T h e W orld B ank , 18 18 H S treet, N .W., W ashing to n , D C 2 0 43 3 , U S A Tel: (1-2 0 2) 4 7 3-45 0 2 e m a il: c g ia r@ c giar.o rg w e b : h ttp ://w w w.c gia r.o rg In recent years th e C G IA R h as em b ark ed o n a series of Sy stem w id e Prog ram s, each o f w h ich ch an n els th e energies o f in tern atio n al cen ters an d n atio n al ag en cies (inclu d in g research institu tes, n o n-g o vern m ent o rg a niza tion s, u n iv ersitie s, an d the p riv ate se c to r) in to a g lo b al re sea rc h en d e av o r on a p a rticu la r th e m e tha t is central to sustainab le agricultu re, fish eries, an d fo restry. T h e p urp o se of th e C G IA R P ro gram o n P articip atory R esearch and G en der A naly sis for Tech no lo g y D ev elop m ent an d In stitu tion al In n ov ation (PR G A P ro gram ) is to assess an d d ev elo p m eth o do lo g ies an d o rg anization al inn o vation s fo r g end er-sensitiv e particip atory research an d to app ly th ese in plant breed in g, and cro p an d natu ral reso u rce m an agem ent. T h e PR G A P ro gram is co spo n sored by 4 o f th e 1 6 cen ters th at m ak e u p th e C G IA R : th e Intern ation al C enter fo r Tro p ical A g ricultu re (C IAT ), w h ich serves as th e con v ening center; the In tern atio nal M aize and W h eat Im p ro vem ent C en ter (C IM M Y T ); th e In tern atio nal C enter fo r A g ricultu ral R esearch in th e D ry A reas (IC A R D A ); an d the In tern atio n al R ice R esearch In stitute (IR R I). PR G A P ro gram activities are fun d ed by C anad a s In tern atio n al D ev elop m ent R esearch C en tre (ID R C ), th e F ord F ou n dation , the R ock efeller F ou n dation , an d th e go v ernm en ts o f G erm an y, Italy, th e N eth erlan ds, N ew Z ealan d, N o rw ay, an d Sw itzerland . C IAT s m issio n is to red u ce h un g er an d po v erty in th e tro p ics th rou g h co llab orative research that im p ro ves agricultu ral prod u ctiv ity and n atural resou rce m an ag em en t. H eadq u arters in C ali, C olom b ia. C IM M Y T is a n on p ro fit scien tific research an d training o rg an izatio n en g aged in a w orldw ide research p rog ram fo r su stain ab le m aize and w heat sy stem s, w ith em ph asis on h elping th e p o or w h ile p rotectin g n atural reso urces in d ev elo p ing co un tries. H ead q u arters in M ex ico C ity, M exico . IC A R D A s m issio n is to im p ro ve th e w elfare o f p eop le th ro ug h agricultu ral research an d training in th e d ry areas in p o orer region s of th e d ev elo p in g w orld . T he C enter m eets this challeng e b y in creasing th e prod u ctio n, p rod u ctiv ity an d nu tritio n al q uality of foo d to h ig her sustainab le lev els, w h ile preserv in g or im p rov in g th e reso urce b ase. H ead q uarters in A lepp o , Sy ria. IR R I is a no n pro fit ag ricultural research an d trainin g center establish ed to im p rov e th e w ell-being o f p resent and future gen eratio ns o f rice farm ers and co n sum ers, particularly th o se w ith lo w in com es. It is d ed icated to h elping farm ers in d ev elop in g cou n tries p ro du ce m ore foo d o n lim ited lan d using less w ater, less lab or, an d few er chem ical inp u ts, w ith ou t h arm in g the en viron m ent. H eadq u arters in L o s B aaeos, T h e Ph ilipp in es.Public-sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are increasingly using participatory methods to widen the adoption and impact of a range of technology innovations in agriculture and natural resource management (NRM). Examples of these technology innovations are: new crop varieties, improved crop husbandry, or changes in the management of soil, water, or forest resources. The growing scarcity of resources for research outside the private sector places increasing demands on researchers to provide evidence that the costs of participatory methods are justified by the results. Carefully conducted impact studies are needed to provide convincing evidence that client participation has been a good investment in the past and will continue to be so in the future.Although researchers using participatory methods have observed the success of the approach in a variety of fields, and documented results in a number of case studies, the impacts of using participatory research in contrast to other approaches are rarely systematically analyzed and recorded. This absence of well-documented analysis gives rise to important yet unanswered questions that are critical not only for the long-run credibility of participatory methods, but also for the survival of the principle of user or client participation in research and innovation. Ashby (1996) outlines these questions as: 1. What degree of user participation is appropriate at a given stage in the innovation process? 2. What approaches to farmer participatory research and gender analysis (PRGA) are most effective for different types of technologies: e.g., knowledge or management intensive? 3. Are farmer PRGA approaches broadly applicable? 4. How do we measure benefits and monitor performance in relation to different goals (of various stakeholders)? 5. What are the costs? An objective of using gender/stakeholder analysis is to assess how best to involve all stakeholders in the innovation process. This requires that we consider what patterns affect development among the stakeholders, analyze what activities the different types of stakeholders carry out, and assess with what resources different stakeholders work. Gender and stakeholder analysis does not always directly provide answers to agricultural production or NRM problems. But, it does provide means of raising questions about links between and among different stakeholders and agricultural production or NRM. Moreover, carefully conducted and documented gender/stakeholder analysis builds a solid basis for developing strategies to incorporate gender issues that are key to the success of development efforts (for gender analysis frameworks see for example: Wilde andVainio-Mattila 1995, Lingen 1997). Similarly, a sound assessment of the impacts of gender/stakeholder analysis provides convincing evidence on how effectively it meets the overall goals of the development efforts.This introductory essay analyzes the main features of work being done to assess the impact of applying participatory research approaches and gender analysis to processes of innovation in agriculture and NRM, as a basis for recommending new directions for understanding and achieving greater impact in the future. We begin with a brief review of the status of impact assessment on PRGA. We discuss the main gaps in current work in the light of these key concepts of impact assessment. Next, we propose a general framework for assessing the impacts of using participatory research approaches and gender analysis. In this context of the framework, we also refer to the empirical cases of impact assessment, which are presented in the following chapters of this book.A most important feature of the enormous body of work in progress using participatory approaches for rural development, agricultural innovation, and NRM is that the adage \"a rose is a rose is arose\" in no way applies. A high diversity of objectives and expected impacts are attributed to participation, making it a complex task to define the most important impacts for assessment in relation to different stakeholders' interests. These impacts range along a continuum from efficiency or functional types of impact to capacity building and empowerment. For example, participation is used to improve the design and adoption of an agricultural technologyan efficiency outcome. A somewhat different outcome attributed to participation is that of local people's improved capacity to manage soil and water resources sustainably, and to maintain local control over this management.Another feature of the diversity of expected impacts attributed to the use of participation is the lack of discrimination between process outcomes and final or \"technology\" outcomes. For example, a participatory approach to technology development can have an effect on the way experiments are carried out (process outcome) and thus on the number and type of people adopting the final technology hence capturing the economic benefits from adoption. The way the research is carried out, in other words, whether it is participatory or non-participatory, will also have a direct impact on the costs of doing research.Similarly, the impact of using a participatory approach is often confounded with the impact of the innovation (technology) introduced using it. Why is this important? First, confounding these two impacts may overestimate that of participation by attributing to it results that could be accomplished by introducing the same innovation without a participatory approach. Typically, the impacts of participatory projects are measured in absolute terms, as project impacts achieved to date (see for example Hinchcliffe et al. 1999 for a review of impacts of 23 watershed management projects). To measure the impacts of the given participatory approach, we must compare the achieved project impacts to those that would have been achieved if the project had used a non-participatory approach. Published studies include little evidence on the impacts of participatory research compared to a non-participatory, counterfactual case. Even where an attempt is made to measure the impacts compared to a counterfactual case, too little attention is paid to appropriate choice of case. A counterfactual study is typically difficult to establish because of the selection bias inherent to the participatory research: the participating communities are not usually randomly selected and participation is voluntary, giving rise to selection biases.The same situation holds true for the use of gender analysis: many objectives and expected impacts are attributed to gender differentiation. At the same time, gender analysis is applied with little systematic discrimination. How variances in use might produce completely different impacts is not carefully analyzed either. Three basic types of application are common in agricultural or environmental research and development. A \"diagnostic\" use of gender analysis involves describing who does what and when in agricultural production and in the management of natural resources. It involves describing who controls resources and makes decisions about them; and who benefits from this distribution of power and responsibility (Feldstein and Poats 1989) in order to call attention to differences between men and women and their likely effects. Two other action-oriented uses of gender analysis can be termed \"design-\" and \" transferoriented.\" Design-oriented applications of gender analysis use an understanding of gender differences to develop specific innovations tailored to the different resources and capabilities of women. Such innovations are often, but not exclusively, designed to mediate or overcome inequity effects of gender differences. Transfer-oriented applications of gender analysis use an understanding of gender differences to ensure women's access to innovation. This approach is used to mainstream access to and use of innovations that are expected or assumed to be of similar utility to men and women.A second feature of this body of work is that the cause-effect relationships expected to lead from participation to any given impact or combination of impacts are seldom explicit. As a result, the many varieties of participation in use are loosely associated with a large set of equally diverse outcomes. Little work has been done to examine whether the expected results of participation are well grounded in demonstrable or replicable cause-effect relationships. This makes it difficult to generalize about the impact of participation, to understand what contributes to success, or to predict with any accuracy what the impact of a participatory intervention is likely to be. Such lack of clarity about the causes of success and failure makes it difficult both to scale up the geographical coverage and to predict how many participants benefit.Even if a participatory project successfully achieves its set objectives, without an explicit impact analysis framework no basis exists for understanding how and why it worked or for reproducing its effects on a broader scale, in other sites, or with other target groups. This section addresses the need for an explicit impact analysis framework by presenting and illustrating the use of several concepts specifically for the impact assessment of participatory research approaches and gender analysis. Some useful guidelines and frameworks for impact assessment and project evaluation are available (Horton et al. 1993, Murphy 1993, Rossi and Freeman 1993, Alston et al. 1995, SLM-IM 1998, Ezemenari et al. 1999). This section discusses some of the key elements that can be drawn from the general impact assessment literature. Some specific elements are also developed that are needed to understand what difference is made to the impact of agricultural innovations by including participatory approaches and gender differentiation.Here, we define impact assessment as: \"An assessment done at a given point in time, and its objective is to measure the expected and unexpected impacts of the project. The timeframe of the analysis can be backward looking (ex-post) or it may be a forward looking (ex-ante) analysis. Project impacts are evaluated by comparing situations or conditions: before/after, with/without, or achieved/expected comparisons.\" Here we must differentiate between \"impact assessment\" and \"monitoring and evaluation\" (M&E). We define M&E as an on-going activity throughout the project life and its objective is to monitor the process of implementation and feed back information about the process. This book has a separate section on M&E where McAllister provides an extensive framework for M&E in NRM (chapter 7). The M&E framework she presents has many similar components with the impact assessment framework presented in this overview chapter. She also discusses many tools in participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E). Da Silva et al (chapter 8) describe the process of developing and implementing a participatory monitoring plan implemented for a project in Brazil. They discuss two types of monitoring, with and without indicators, and draw some conclusions from the learning process. Campilan and Prain (chapter 9) report on a Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) -Users' Perspectives With Agricultural Research and Development (UPWARD) experience in using self-evaluation as an approach to help researchers assess their own practice of participatory research. Seven case projects from five Asian countries are briefly described.\"Who does the impact assessment?\" is a question that is often asked when planning the impact assessment work. Some approaches assume that the person doing the impact assessment is an objective evaluator who has no other stake in the project. In reality, the evaluator is usually a project staff member and has a stake in the assessment's outcome. Who designs the assessment tools and determines the indicators used in the impact assessment is important and we will also try to address this in our framework.The impact assessment framework we propose describes six key concepts: 1) Who are the stakeholders in the impact assessment and what are their impact interests? 2) What are the most important impacts to be measured? 3) How does the project scope and approach influence the impact? 4) What are the cause-effect relationships hypothesized to lead to impact? 5) How do we measure the impacts? 6) How do we judge the success of the project?A stakeholder in the proposed impact assessment framework can be anyone who has an interest in PRGA: anyone, who participated in the project, evaluates the project's usefulness, financed the research, or uses the results.Different stakeholders often have different ideas in terms of a given project's expected impacts. The stakeholders' impact expectations may differ in two ways: 1) different stakeholders may have different sets of expected impacts; and, 2) different stakeholders may have different priorities among all expected project impacts. The first is an issue of consistency between how different stakeholders understand and perceive project goals. The second is an issue of the 5 magnitude of impacts and the difference between stakeholders' priorities-that in the end will influence how different stakeholders view the project's \"success\" and actual achieved impacts.Different expectations need to be considered at the beginning of the impact assessment work when determining which impacts to assess. Expectations also need to be taken into account at the end of the assessment when the project results and success will be viewed differently by different stakeholders because of their different expectations. For example, consider the following scenario: a project's objective was to increase rural women's income, but in its implementation, only men participated (for various and mostly legitimate reasons) and as a result, men's incomes increased. Clearly the incomes of the participating rural households increased-but when asked, men, women, donors, project staff, and the person doing the assessment viewed the success of the project very differently.Hence an essential starting point of impact assessment is to assess what are the expected impacts of different stakeholders and compare whether they are consistent with the project goals and actual implementation. Once we have compared various stakeholders' expected impacts to the project goals, what does this tell us? It tells us if the expectations were sufficiently clarified at the start and if the beneficiaries' opinions affected the project goals. If expectations were not well clarified, where do we go from there? Do we assess the project according to the expectations of a certain stakeholder group or groups or according to stated project goals? We will address this issue next.Typically a project evaluator judges the project's success by measuring if the goals were achieved. Assessing the impact expectations of various stakeholders gives a range of impact/s that the evaluator might expect to find, given the project goals, but also allows the definition of some unexpected impacts based on information from the stakeholders' impact expectations.Defining which impacts to measure is the starting point for focusing the work and determining the methods to be applied. Limited time, budgets, and skills make it impossible to assess all potential impacts. Thus the reasons why certain kinds of impact need to be assessed must be identified. The purpose of the impact assessment is to understand the innovation's economic benefits to the users so an economic rate-of-return study may be appropriate, but is not sufficient for most participatory projects. We need to understand how the process benefited different stakeholders; hence a more descriptive and illustrative adoption study may be required. When concern is raised about equity, the benefits to different beneficiary groups must be assessed. A concern also exists about the effects of the participatory process and the proposed innovation on human capital or the environment, and so a social and environmental impact assessment is needed.We need to distinguish between different types of potential project impacts to capture their complete range. We define three categories of impacts: process, technology, and costs.Process impacts, when assessing the effects of using a research approach or methodology, are generally of two types: (1) feedback to research for technology development, and (2) social and human capital formation impacts. Process impacts relate to the entire innovation process and particular types of participatory approach used. The hypothesis here is that stakeholder participation in research results in technologies that are more consistent with clients' needs. Examples of process impacts are: •= Project's research objectives are consistent with clients' needs because clients are involved in project planning. •= Participating clients are empowered to carry out some of their own experiments and seek and find solutions on their own. •= Clients have technologies available to them that meet their criteria. •= Many intended users quickly adopt the technology. •= Participating clients investing resources into the research process strengthens their commitment.Technology impacts are related to the technology's adoption and the direct economic benefits to its users. Technology benefits are not realized until the \"end\" of the innovation process. All the potential process impacts at different stages are aggregated into final technology impacts. The same technology impact can be attained from many combinations of different types of participation at different stages. Examples of technology impacts are an increase in the: •= Number of adopters among the intended users. •= Income among intended users. •= Equity: the income share of the poor in the community is stimulated more towards the income share captured by other groups.Cost impacts of participatory approaches are of two different types: project and participant costs. Both process and technology impacts have direct implications on the costs of research. Cost-effectiveness of a given technology or research approach cannot be assessed until the end of the innovation process. Examples of cost impacts are: •= Total research costs are reduced allowing resources to be allocated to other uses. •= Most costs are incurred early in the project cycle. •= Some of the research costs are transferred to beneficiaries.Given the variety of potential impacts to assess, starting simply with the most obvious and most easily valued impacts is best. For example, in participatory plant breeding (PPB) it is easiest to start with the directly measurable productivity changes that can be valued by market prices. In NRM projects, for example, intervention may prevent soil erosion that would otherwise disrupt a downstream or \"off-site\" agricultural activity such as a fishery or irrigated fruit plantation. The net change in fish or fruit production due to controlling soil erosion can be identified and valued. Each of these examples has secondary impacts that are also important, but for the impact analyst it is best to start with the impacts that are most easily identified and valued. Secondary impacts can only be assessed if time and resources allow.The impacts of using participation or gender analysis can be expected to vary, depending on the stage in the innovation process at which they were applied. Farmer participation at different stages of innovation can have different impact on the technology or innovation design, as well as the potential adoption/acceptance among the intended users. Farmer acceptance of the technologies being developed is more assured if they participate early in the design stage. When planning and setting goals, farmer participation may help to steer the research in a more focused fashion and more directly towards farmers' priority needs. Commonly, farmer participation steers research in completely unanticipated directions. Similarly, who participates at different design stages may lead to different priorities being identified for different beneficiaries.Defining project scope: stages of innovation. The participatory innovation process can be divided into three stages: design, testing, and diffusion. For each of these, farmer participation can have a different purpose: •= The design stage is when problems or opportunities for research are identified and prioritized, and potential solutions to priority problems are determined. The outcome of the decisions made at this stage is an array of potential solutions. These solutions can be any of the following: a completely new solution is invented and needs to be tested; a new application of an existing solution is identified as having potential, but needs to be tested; or an existing solution can be used, but needs to be promoted. •= The testing stage is when potential solutions chosen for testing are evaluated. Decisions are made about who does the testing, and where and how it is done. The outcome of this stage is recommendations about the innovation or technology to intended users for mass distribution. •= The diffusion stage involves building the awareness of recommended solutions among future users. It involves decisions about when, to whom, and in what way to build awareness, supply new inputs, and teach new skills to future users. The outcome of decisions made at this stage is full or partial adoption, or no adoption.Many projects do not necessarily begin at the design stage. For example, a project of participatory varietal selection may begin at the testing stage: farmers are asked to evaluate a sample of materials, using their own selection criteria etc. So, when we analyze the impacts of that particular project, we cannot expect wide-scale adoption (= a diffusion stage outcome) if the project's scope was the testing stage only. Also, note that \"stages of innovation\" is not the same as \"project cycle.\" Each project, even if only carried out at the \"testing stage\" of the innovation process, has its project cycle of planning, design, implementation, monitoring, etc. It is also a typical scenario that a participatory project may trace through the stages of innovation through various paths: it may begin in testing stage, and given the findings decide to go to the design stage next and so on.In chapter 2, Weltzein et al. provide interesting empirical evidence about when projects are actually involving farmers in the research process. In conducting their overview of over 40 formal-led PPB projects to date, it became clear that most programs involved farmers in the testing of varieties, materials that were genetically fixed and often already released. (The authors refer to \"farmer-led PPB\" as situations where the farmers' own crop development or seed supply •= Collaborative: The decision is a shared decision between farmers and scientists involving organized communication with each other. Scientists and farmers know about one another's opinions, preferences, and priorities through organized two-way communication. The decisions are made jointly; scientists or farmers do not make them on their own. No party has a right to revoke the shared decision. •= Collegial: Farmers make decisions collectively in a group process or individually by those who are involved in organized communication with scientists. Farmers know about scientists' opinions, preferences, proposals, and priorities through organized two-way communication. Farmers may or may not let this information affect their decision. When this type of participatory research is initiated, a scientist may be facilitating farmers' collective or individual decision making or may have already built farmer ability to make the decision without outsider involvement. Farmers have a right to revoke the decision. •= Farmer experimentation: Farmers make the decisions individually or in a group without organized communication with scientists.Why does it matter who makes the decisions in the participatory process? For example, if outsiders/scientists make all the key decisions without farmer participation in the early stage of an innovation process, then farmers cannot influence many features of the innovation that are fixed by those decisions. The outcome of the participatory research is different when scientists and farmers plan together in the early stage and share key decisions, thus increasing the likelihood that the farmers' top priority is addressed. The outcome of participatory research is different if farmers make all the planning decisions and only consult scientists late in the process when problems arise. Table 1 presents a \"checklist\" for assessing the participatory approaches. You can use it to define the type of participatory approach you have been using in the past, are currently using, or plan to use in the future. Then consider what types of impacts you can realistically expect given the type of participatory approached applied and at which stage.It is illustrative of the state-of-the art in PRGA impact assessment that none of the empirical projects presented in this book specifically articulate the type of participatory approach that was used. Only the purely methodological chapters discuss the different approaches. Another issue that is often overlooked is that of how well the participants represent the general population or the target group they are intended to represent. Little attention is paid to explaining how the participants were selected or to understanding how the choice of participants selection may lead to different results, and the impact it may have on the characteristics, and hence the adoptability, of the resulting technology.Defining who participates: types of gender analysis. Who participates in the different decisions is potentially a determinant of the impact of the participatory process on the research results -particularly technology design, and thus the design of the outcomes of farmers' using the resultant technology. We define gender analysis as a particular case of stakeholder analysis where gender is the chief discriminating variable for defining the stakeholder group of interest. Stakeholder analysis also considers, for example, wealth, occupation, age, or ethnicity, as important discriminating variables, which -like gender -are also, determinants of the type and level of impact of participatory approaches and technical change. When, to whom, and in what way to teach new skills needed for adoption? SOURCE: Lilja and Ashby (1999b). a.Stages of innovation: A = on-farm research (scientists alone without organized communication with farmers), B = consultative (scientists alone with organized communication with farmers), C = collaborative (scientists and farmers jointly through organized communication), D = collegial (farmers alone with organized communication with scientists), and E = farmer experimentation (farmers alone without organized communication with scientists).Our framework for analyzing how using gender analysis affects the research process as well as the technology design and adoption distinguishes three ways of using gender analysis in the innovation process. •= Diagnostic gender analysis: When gender differences in the client group(s) for the research are described and different problems or preferences are diagnosed, but this information is not taken into account in priority setting, design of solutions for testing, or their evaluation and adoption. Diagnostic gender analysis may conclude that gender differences are not an important criterion for designing the research; or it may identify gender differences as an obstacle to adopting technical solutions for men or women members of the client group. •= Design-oriented gender analysis: In addition to describing gender differences in the client group, and in their problems and preferences, different research and development paths are designed that take into account gender-based constraints, needs, and preferences. Design-oriented gender analysis may result in men and women developing and adopting different technologies, which may require different dissemination approaches. •= Transfer-oriented gender analysis: In addition to describing gender differences in the client group, and in their problems and preferences, different adoption and dissemination paths are designed to overcome access to and adoption of a given technology known (or assumed to be) of similar importance to men and women. Learning-oriented gender analysis results in the same technologies being disseminated to men and women in different ways.Uses of gender analysis can be classified using Table 2 to identify the stage in the innovation process when analysis of gender differences was used, and when gender might contribute to different outcomes for men and for women.Table 2.Checklist for types of gender analysis.Stage of innovation/Type of gender analysis a DESIGN 1 2 3 1 Was the client group differentiated by gender at the research initiation stage? X X X 2 Were different topics, opportunities, or problems defined for men and women at diagnosis stage? X X X 3 Was analysis made of whether men and women's preferences differ about what is the most important or highest priority problem or opportunity for research? X X 4 Were different available solutions identified for men and women? X X 5 If it was decided that the available solutions were insufficient and other solutions needed to be generated, were different solutions sought for men and women? X X 6 When deciding the relative importance of solutions to be tested, were the differences between women and men's priorities analyzed? X X 7 When deciding which solutions were to be tested, were some women's and some men's solutions chosen for testing? X X TESTING 8 Was the client group for evaluating potential innovations or technology options differentiated by gender?X X X 9 When deciding whether to test on farm, or on station, or both, were the potential differences in women's and men's opinions analyzed? X X10 When deciding what aspects of innovation or technology option are important to evaluate, were preferences analyzed by gender?X X 11 Was it determined whether women and men have different yardsticks for measuring what is an acceptable solution or not?X X12 Was it considered whether men and women wanted to recommend different solutions to other farmers? X X DIFFUSION 13 Was the client group for awareness building, and validation and dissemination of tested innovation or technology options, differentiated by gender? X X 14 Were the differences between men's and women's preferences considered when deciding when, to whom, and in what way to promote awareness of solutions and publicize information about it? X 15 Were the differences between men's and women's preferences analyzed when deciding when, to whom, and in what way to supply new inputs needed for adoption? X 16 Were the differences between men's and women's preferences analyzed when deciding when, to whom, and in what way to teach new skills needed for adoption? X SOURCE: Lilja and Ashby (1999a).a.Types of gender analysis: 1 = diagnostic-oriented, 2 = design-oriented, and 3 = transfer-oriented.You can use the Table 2 checklist to define the type of gender analysis you have been using in the past, are currently using, or plan to use in the future. Then consider what types of impacts you can realistically expect given the type of participatory approached applied and at which stage. Inclusion or exclusion of gender analysis in various stages of innovation leads to different process outcomes and impacts. Some projects were more specific about describing the type of gender analysis they applied than they were in describing the type of participatory approach used, but in many cases gender analysis was not specifically described other than describing number of women participating or how men's and women's preferences differed. In chapter 4, Hagmann et al. provide an example of a project learning process over a 10-year period in Zimbabwe. Through interaction with farmers as recorded in many illustrative examples, the authors trace the learning process, which leads to developing a new approach to agricultural extension in NRM issues, one in which stakeholder and gender differentiation is an integral part of the extension efforts. In chapter 5, Paris et al. provide an example of a PPB project that is carefully conducted and genderdifferentiated. They give a good example of a diagnostic gender analysis conducted at the beginning of the study and the description of the progress so far made in conducting designoriented gender analysis.The impacts of participation are realized through a chain of cause-effect relationships starting from the type of participation implemented, and a particular stage in the innovation process.The cause can best be understood as the participatory or gender analysis approach applied and the stage in the research process when it was applied. The effect can be understood as the hypothesis about expected impact yet to be tested empirically. For example, through collaborative maize evaluation trials, with farmer participation, conducted at the technology design stage (= cause), researchers understand farmer priorities about desired maize characteristics, and may identify some new, shared priorities for maize research. The hypothesis of the expected impact (= effect) would be that \"research priorities change,\" which can be then empirically tested.The rigor and credibility of an impact assessment is improved if the cause and effect relationships hypothesized as leading to a possible impact are specified beforehand by formulating a verifiable impact hypothesis. This formulation aids and guides data collection processes, because specific data requirements for impact hypothesis testing are more easily deduced. This can be done for desirable and expected impacts, and for undesirable and unexpected impacts.For example, farmer field schools (FFSs) often use collegial participation in which farmers make decisions collectively in a group process involving organized communication with technical experts (\"scientists\"). In this example, collegial participation is introduced at the diffusion stage of an integrated pest management (IPM) and crop improvement program. Farmers make decisions about which the client groups are for validation and dissemination; they decide how to promote awareness of IPM solutions, how to supply new inputs, and how to teach new skills. The hypothesis about the process impacts of the collegial participation in the FFS in this example might be: \"As a result of collegial participation, farmers' skills to self-manage a field school on IPM will increase.\" Indicators of increased management skills that could be used to test the hypothesis might be: \"Farmers continue to run the FFS over time without outside contributions; they set up new FFSs, which they run in neighboring communities; they expand the FFS to include new topics other than IPM\".Farmers' increased management skills to run FFSs may be the most important impact for some stakeholders in this example. But other stakeholders may give equal or higher importance to the understanding effect of using collegial participation in the field school on controlling serious crop pests because of adopting biological control IPM practices. The chain of cause-effect relationships that the impact assessment needs to flesh out in this example would include the effect on the adoption of IPM practices of the initial FFSs organized with collegial participation, as well as the effect of new schools organized by these farmers. The extent to which adoption of practices introduced through the IPM field schools led to control of serious crop pests would be assessed. The hypothesis about the technology impacts in this example would state: \"An increase in the control of serious pests can be attributed to the observed increase in the adoption of biological control IPM practices.\"An important reason for making the process impact hypothesis, as distinct from technology impact hypothesis, can be illustrated from the following example. Suppose that the impact assessment finds that farmers did continue to run FFSs with collegial participation, to set up new ones, and to introduce new topics. The study also showed that adoption of the biological control IPM practices introduced through the FFSs was low and that no significant increases in the control of the crop pests targeted was observed. In this example, the effect of collegial participation implemented through self-managed FFSs was to increase farmers' management skills; but the approach did not have the anticipated technology impact. Now suppose, in this example, that the impact study also found that farmers had introduced some new crops and crop rotations and disseminated this practice through the FFSs, altering land use and reducing the crop area suffering from pests targeted for biological control. Farmers participating in the FFSs had less area in the crop affected and a more diverse enterprise. A process impact hypothesis could be formulated: \"As a result of collegial participation, farmers' understand IPM problems better and are better able to invent and disseminate new solutions to these.\"In chapter 2, Weltzein et al. show that in most of the participatory, formal-led, breeding programs that they reviewed, intermediate expected impacts are well defined. However, in most cases, the empirical validation of these anticipated impacts has not yet been reported. Similarly, in chapter 3, McGuire shows that expected impacts in most farmer-led, plant breeding projects are well defined. In both cases it seems that the explicit cause-effect relationship is not as well defined. Many formal and farmer-led projects have not yet carefully analyzed how the approach they used resulted in a certain outcome. To replicate the results at other locations, this also must be understood.In chapter 4, Hagmann et al. are able to make some specific cause-effect conclusions and show that addressing a certain gender-related issue, for example women's ability to be elected as chairpersons, leads to a specific impact achieved. In this example, it leads to a rise in confidence that allowed women to negotiate more for their needs than before. Table 3 gives further examples of cause and effects of two different participatory approaches applied at various stages of innovation. (For more details see Johnson et al 2000).Effect: Criteria for accepting/discarding technologies changes to reflect criteria of both farmers and scientists.Effect: Farmers/communities enhance their own testing and evaluation skills with an increased knowledge of scientific methods of experimentation and evaluation, and improve their ability to negotiate joint solutions with other stakeholders who may have different opinions.Effect: The number of potential adopters within the target group increases because the specific technologies selected for recommendation are more appropriate given farmers' criteria and constraints.Cause: Researchers learn about farmers' opinions about researcher-designed diffusion mechanisms.Effect: Farmers identify the best technology diffusion method from an array of possible methods that scientists designed or proposed.Effect: No impact expected.Cause: Researchers understand farmer's opinions about how technologies are diffused and adopted, including any new ideas that result from the collaboration.Effect: Farmers and scientists identify the best technology diffusion method from an array of possible methods that farmers and/or scientists designed and/or proposed.Effect: Farmers/communities learn what is involved in mass diffusion of technology such as the complexity of adoption decisions and the importance of complementary inputs, e.g., seeds, credit, or information.The probability is increased that potential adopters for whom the technology is appropriate will be aware of it and be willing and able to adopt it.Effect: Moving from contractual to consultative or collaborative forms of participation generally increases the costs of doing research at the particular stage where it is incorporated. However, it may reduce cost at subsequent stages. Effect: Collegial research reduces research costs at the stage where it is implemented because costs are transferred to farmers.Once the impact hypotheses are clearly defined, we must identify manageable and relevant indicators in order to measure or observe the full complexity of a given impact. Both 'generic' indicators, which are based on agreements with external stakeholders such as project staff and researchers, and 'internal' indicators, which are mainly used by local stakeholders and vary from place to place, should be used. The set of indicators needs to provide sufficient information about the impact area to be observed, and indicators need to be meaningful for different users of the information. Using the same IPM example, a process impact hypothesis of a collegial-type project at the testing stage could be: \"Farmers enhance their own testing and evaluation skills with an increased knowledge of scientific IPM methods of experimentation and evaluation.\" What type of indicator would be relevant to measure this type of expected impact? In this case, the tool to measure the given impact would probably differ significantly depending on whether scientists or farmers designed it.Once all the indicators are defined for the process, technology, and cost impacts, the appropriate data collection methods must be defined for each. Individual interviews and formal surveys, as well as focus group interviews are needed. Also, the existing historical data sources need to be identified.Process impacts, especially those of social and human capital impact, have value, but cannot often realistically or easily be measured in monetary terms, and hence are often measured in qualitative and descriptive terms. The aggregate impact of the process impacts is the technology or the innovation, which itself can usually be valued in monetary terms. In chapter 1, Probst provides an extensive discussion on how to measure natural and social capital, and provides examples of the indicators to use.It is important to note that we can measure reasonably well the economic benefits arising from technology or innovation adoption in terms of changes in income or in terms of whom captures the new income from the change caused by the innovation or technology. However, the positive impact on income does not always mean increase in total income, it can also mean a more stable income or a reduction in the previous trend of decreasing incomes. The measurement of economic benefits to users is often fairly straightforward; for example, estimating the value of increased production or reduction in pest damage due to the new technology, or estimating the reduction in income losses due to soil degradation. It is important not to try to deduce any secondary impacts of economic benefits without further analysis, such as project impacts on improved nutrition or better education, because change income alone does not contribute to these changes in expenditure. For example, a new technology is expected to increase the welfare and empowerment of women as a result of an increase in the income controlled by women. The cause and effect relationships leading to an expected change in income can be hypothesized from the theory of equilibrium wage determination and household decision-making models (Lilja et al. 1996). The effect of an increase in income on empowerment and its effect on women's welfare require the testing of separate hypotheses.Cost data often seem difficult to obtain. It is useful to note that costs and benefits have symmetry: a benefit forgone is a cost, and a cost avoided is a benefit. For example, a value of intervention that prevents soil erosion can be approached from both sides: direct costs and costs avoided. In this case, 'costs' would include the capital and operation costs of implementing the soil erosion project, and 'costs avoided' would be the value of reduced need for chemical soil improvement. When market prices cannot be used directly, it may be possible to use surrogatemarket technique. This technique uses the market prices of substitute or complementary goods. For example, the value of an unpriced environmental amenity, such as clean air, may be a factor in the price of marketable asset, such as land value. Analysis of the land price differentials among the areas with differing air quality may give an indication of an implicit price for this unpriced environmental amenity (Dixon et al. 1996).Projects in this book, except Bellon et al. (chapter 10), did not look at cost impacts of the approach used specifically. In chapter 6, Gami and Justice provide an example of the analysis of the cost of farmer-evaluated as compared to traditional technology. They used simple partial budgeting, which is often sufficient to draw the preliminary cost impacts of the technology created or evaluated through participatory means. Their analysis did not, however, look at the costs of the approach itself, in addition to the cost of the technology.Any comparison for assessing impact needs to have defined the type and amount of a difference attributable to the intervention that will be considered significant, or evidence of successful impact. In other words, a boundary between the successful or desirable condition and the unsuccessful or undesirable condition needs to be explicitly defined. For this purpose, threshold values or qualitative states can be established for impact indicators. For example, a land management intervention can be considered sustainable at farm level if the needs of the farmer are satisfied and natural resources are conserved. Indicators for farmer satisfaction include crop yield, net farm income, and frequency of crop failure. Indicators for naturalresource conservation include soil depth, organic carbon, and permanent ground cover. In the final assessment, each indicator value needs to be converted into index values, which indicate if it is at a sustainable level. The final sustainability index can be obtained by calculating the average of both indices (farmer and natural resource conservation). The higher the value, the more sustainable the intervention has been at the farm level (for more details, see SML-IM 1998).The present book devotes several chapters to empirical results of the impact assessment work from recent and on-going PPB projects. Bellon et al. (chapter 10) describe a project in Mexico that tries to determine the possibility of improving maize productivity while maintaining or enhancing genetic diversity. They assess the welfare impacts of farmer participation in landrace improvement using farmers' perceptions of germplasm and knowledge gained through participation, analysis of genetic diversity using phenotypic characteristics, and molecular markers, and the economic analysis of efficiency and distribution of benefits among socioeconomic groups. Monyo et al. (chapter 11) describe the farmer-participatory development of a new pearl millet composite population in Namibia. The constituent varieties in this composite were jointly identified-by farmers for preferred traits and by the breeder for their suitability to improve yield and agronomic characters. The value of involving farmers is evidenced by the rapid adoption of pearl millet varieties. Courtois et al. (chapter 12) describe the first year results and further anticipated impacts of a farmer participatory breeding program for rainfed rice in eastern India. Authors discuss the issues and lessons learned during the course of the project's first year.Several chapters are also devoted to results of the impact assessment work in participatory NRM research. Hamilton and Norton (chapter 15) describe the experience in assessing the impacts of a participatory IPM project. Their methods include both qualitative and quantitative impact assessment indicators. The quantitative approach involves evaluating the overall participatory research program first, and then separating out the portion of benefits due to participation or to gender analysis. Loevinsohn et al. (chapter 13) report on an evaluation of an IPM project in Kenya. This pilot project uses the FFS approach. The authors provide insights into the costs, benefits, and institutional implications of the choices that policy makers in the national and international agricultural research institutes must make when taking up participatory approaches. Vernooy et al. (chapter 14) present the work in progress of the CIAT \"Hillsides Project\". The authors describe a set of instruments they have developed to support and improve decision making about the management of natural resources through collective action at the landscape level.Probst (chapter 1) identifies some key aspects that need to be considered when we look for success factors and the eventual impact of PRGA activities. These success factors include the type of NRM problem; social, biophysical, and political conditions; the approach to NRM research; and methods of M&E. Although Probst discusses these key success factors in the context of NRM, in many cases they are also applicable to plant breeding. McGuire (chapter 3) also discusses some of the factors that contributed to the success of farmer-led PPB projects, in terms of obtaining set goals.Both Probst and McGuire discuss the specific factors to which we need to pay attention in order to improve the success of the participatory research, and hence achieve its goals. However, the overall success of a given participatory project must be assessed in comparison to some base case. To make the final assessment about the success of the participatory project, we need to consider two levels of comparison. We need to measure first the project impacts, and second those of the given participatory approach; we must compare the achieved project impacts to a counterfactual case (control).When we measure the impacts that will arise \"with\" the project and compare them with the situation as it would be \"without\" the project, we are measuring the incremental net benefits arising from the project investment. This approach is not the same as comparing the situation \"before\" and \"after\" the project. The before-and-after comparison does not account for the change that would occur without the project and thus may lead to an erroneous statement of the benefit attributable to the project investment (for further discussion, see Gittinger 1982).Choosing the counterfactual can be difficult because of the selection bias problem that is inherent to many participatory projects. Projects often choose, or are required to work in, certain regions, and selection bias arises because the participating communities and participating individuals within the communities were not randomly selected. If projects purposefully select certain communities to participate in the project, it is difficult to determine if the same results would have been achieved even in the absence of the project, or if the same approach would yield the same results in another community. To answer these questions, we would need to replicate the project in several different types of communities and have control communities that would have the same characteristics as the study communities.Another type of selection bias also occurs because participation is often voluntary, and, because people can choose whether to be part of the project or not, those people who will participate may not be representative of the total population. For example, those choosing to participate in the varietal selection trial may decide to experiment on the new plant varieties in their own fields because they have large landholdings and can better carry a risk of crop failure than can others in the village. Assessment of such persons' willingness to experiment on their own fields with the test varieties would lead to an erroneous assessment of the project's impact on farmer experimentation (see more details on selection bias in participatory research in Johnson et al. 2000).Few of the projects presented in this book paid specific attention to the selection bias or how to deal with it, so available empirical examples are lacking: McGuire (chapter 3) highlights some conceptual challenges for assessing the impact of farmer-led PPB. One such is a basis for comparison: no case used formal controls (i.e., parallel work in conventional breeding), and even a retroactive comparison is difficult as most cases had no formal work that directly corresponded with project activities. Rossi and Freeman (1992) describe some choices of the appropriate types of controls:•= Randomized: Individuals are randomly placed into two groups, those that receive the intervention and those that do not. This allows the researcher to determine program impact by comparing means of outcome variable. •= Constructed: Individuals to whom the intervention is applied are matched with an \"equivalent\" group from whom the intervention is withheld. •= Statistical: Compares participants and non-participants controlling for other characteristics that may be statistically different between the two groups. •= Reflexive: Participants who receive the intervention are compared to themselves before and after receiving the intervention. •= Generic: The impact of the intervention of beneficiaries is compared with established norms about typical changes occurring in the target population. •= Shadow: The judgement of experts, program administrators, and/or participants on what is ordinarily to be expected for the target populations are compared to actual outcomes. In most PPB projects, the most logical counterfactual case is the existing conventional breeding program.In many cases, impact assessment is concerned with the impact of a project that has multiple and possibly conflicting objectives or impact expectations caused by differences in stakeholders' perceptions about project goals. For example, a project may be perceived as having an objective of increasing both income and equity. The relative importance of different objectives (expectations) has to be decided in order to assess the overall success of the project. This is because specifying a distributional objective, such as placing additional emphasis on the benefits to women, implicitly argues that an extra unit of income to a woman is weighted more than an extra unit of income to an average man. It also implies a belief that the opportunity cost to society of meeting the objective by distorting research investment is lower than the cost of meeting it entirely with other policies. Therefore, to assess the success of the overall project impact, the implementing agents need to specify how much they are willing to trade off in efficiency gains for achieving more of the equity (empowerment) gains.The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Program on PRGA for Technology Development and Institutional Innovation organized a 2 nd International seminar in Quito, Ecuador from the 6 th to the 9 th of September 1998. The central objective of the seminar was to understand the status of existing knowledge about the impact of various approaches using PRGA in agricultural or natural resource management. Over 100 researchers and development professionals attended the seminar.In addition to papers commissioned by the PRGA Program, most of the papers in this book were collected through an open call for papers on existing experience of the PRGA practitioners in NRM and in plant breeding. These papers were intended to briefly describe lessons learned from past experiences. Specifically, authors were asked to focus on tools and methods for conducting impact assessment of participatory research or gender analysis. They were asked to describe the lessons learned from impact indicators/welfare criteria used for assessing the success of the PRGA, and provide examples and reasons why some approaches were successful or unsuccessful in achieving impact/welfare gains. Authors were also requested to list their hypotheses and suggestions about how tools/methods could be improved to be more useful in the future projects. The guidelines for authors at the Quito meeting are set out below.•= Research or development initiatives involving farmer participation and gender analysis in the use and conservation of genetic resources, in particular plant breeding, OR •= Research or development initiatives involving stakeholder participation and gender analysis in NRM. Natural resource management may include, for example, use and conservation of biodiversity, IPM, watershed management, forestry or agroforestry related activities, soil and water conservation, agrosilvopastoral or range management, but is not limited to these. Individual or collective action or both may be included.The following points should be discussed: 1. Assessment of the success or lack of success of using participatory approached or gender analysis is included. What difference did participation make to the success or lack of success of the work being reported in achieving its objectives? What is the timeframe? What was the situation before participation was introduced? How did this change as a result? What difference did using gender analysis make to the success or lack of success of the work in achieving its objectives? What is the timeframe? What was the situation before and after? 2. Clear description of the process is given.What process, methodology, tools, or techniques were used to implement participation and/or gender analysis? What does the impact assessment tell us about the appropriateness or 20 deficiencies of the process or methodology used? Are there different stages or steps in this process, and what differences in impact occur over time? 3. Explanation of how impact is defined is included.How is the impact of participation defined? Are there indicators or criteria to describe the outcomes of the participation or of differentiating beneficiaries or stakeholders by gender? Is the quality or quantity of their participation being monitored for example? Are the effects of any changes in participation being detected, and how are these effects defined and measured?Were there effects identified in the answer to Question 1 above that were not predicted, or included in monitoring, but that the authors recommend taking into account in future? 4. Impact of using gender analysis is defined.What effects of using gender analysis are expected and how are they being measured? Were there effects identified in the answer to Question 1 above that were not predicted, or included in monitoring, but that the authors recommend taking into account in future? 5. Examples of tools and methods used in impact assessment are given.How are the effects of participation being assessed? What methods or tools are used? Who is involved and what are their roles in assessing the impact of the participation? What works? Give examples and reasons why some tools were successful in achieving impact/welfare gains? What methods or tools for assessing the impact of participation or gender analysis have not worked and why? What is being done to assess the effects of differentiating beneficiaries and/or participants by gender? Is there any comparison between differentiation by gender with their other characteristics, such as how poor they are or the natural resources they manage or control for example 6. Analysis of the lessons learned is included.What lessons were learned about doing impact assessment? How could the approach to monitoring/evaluation/assessing impact be improved? What questions are left unanswered? Were any unanticipated effects observed that could be usefully documented in future, and if so how? Who should be involved in impact assessment, and what should their roles be? How could we improve tools/methods for doing monitoring, evaluation, and impact assessment to be more useful in the future?The papers chosen for presentation were divided into the following categories based on content, each of which forms a separate section in this book:•= Part 1: Types of participation and their impact This section outlines definitions of types of participation and focuses on questions such as: \"Why we are doing impact analysis, what impacts are we measuring, and for whom is the analysis\"? The PRGA Program commissioned all the chapters in this section.•= Part 2: Types of gender/user differentiation and their impact In the second section, types of gender/user differentiation are examined and related to the expected impact of the PRGA research.The third section draws from practical experiences assessing the impact of participatory research and gender/user differentiation, and authors examine contrasting approaches to participatory methods for M&E.The fourth section concentrates on specific research design issues to enable measurement of the impact of PPB. The main research design elements for assessing the impact of using participatory research are identified and related to specific cases, both formal-and farmer-led PPB.•= Part 5: Measuring the impact of participatory NRM The fifth section examines the specific research design issues to enable measurement of the impact of NRM. Major elements of research design in participatory NRM research are identified, and related to the specific cases of NRM projects.PART 1:Natural resource management (NRM) deals with decision making related to the multiple and competing use (including protection) of the limited natural resource base (i.e., water, atmosphere, soil, plants, and animals), and with organizing, implementing, and controlling resource use (Schwederski et al. 1997, p 23). When related to agriculture NRM may include, for example, activities in the fields of: use and conservation of biodiversity, integrated pest management (IPM), watershed management, (agro) forestry, soil and water conservation, irrigation, and range management. Management of natural resources is complex because of temporal and spatial biophysical interdependencies such as individual and common property resources, long-term and off-side effects, social dimensions, side-specific variations, and risk of conflict arising among different resource users (Table 1). Thus institutional and organizational innovations are needed, apart from site-specific technical innovations.What has international agricultural research contributed to NRM? What is the mandate of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)? Its mission is, through strategic and applied research, to contribute to promoting sustainable agriculture for food security in the developing countries. The focus is on increasing agricultural productivity, safeguarding natural resources, and helping people-centered policies for environmentally sustainable development. In addition to continuing its work in high potential areas, the CGIAR is particularly committed to addressing the problems of the poor in less-endowed areas (CGIAR 1995).How can agricultural research better respond to the needs of poor farmers and effectively contribute to successful and sustainable NRM compatible with improved agricultural productivity? The CGIAR Systemwide Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis (PRGA Program) is a concerted attempt to increase the impact of agricultural research by improving the methods and practices of research. In many cases where services are most effectively delivered, they are \"co-produced\" with the clients (Ostrom in Evans 1996, p 1035;Ashby and Sperling 1995). A variety of approaches labeled as participatory have evolved in NRM and have been in use for about 20 years. However, most experiences in developing participatory innovation for NRM have been gained in development efforts rather than in research. Evidence is lacking of what works and does not work under different conditions, and of what are the critical success factors (Toomey 1998). The PRGA Program aims to assess and develop methods for gender-sensitive participatory research in NRM and to identify lessons of success through action research and case studies. What factors are decisive for NRM research to be successful? Project success is generally assessed in relation to goal attainment and the impact achieved. However, projects can be evaluated in different ways and the goal-based focus of evaluation has alternatives (see Figure 1 ). Also, the impact can be caused both by using research products (innovations) and by the process of innovation development. Here we assume that, although oriented towards equity and poverty alleviation, the overall desired impact of NRM would be to increase (or maintain) natural capital (e.g., increasing soil fertility, biodiversity, maintaining ecological functions, reforestation, and improved water quality); as well as building the less visible social and human capital (see Figure 1 ) to maintain natural capital and benefit from it in the long run. To identify factors that influence the extent of NRM research success, we must take a broader perspective (Figure 1). Some factors can be assigned to site-specific frame conditions that are largely out of researchers' control; others can be assigned to the research approach that researchers can adjust.Based on a literature review, which is far from exhaustive, this chapter tries to frame the debate by illuminating key aspects that need to be considered when we look for success factors in NRM research. They are (Figure 1):•= The type of NRM problem ( ) and the frame conditions ( ), •= The approach to NRM research ( ), including •= Methods of impact assessment, monitoring, and evaluation ( ). The NRM Problem (Figure 1 )The type of NRM problem has implications on the mandate, roles, responsibilities, and commitment of different actors within an innovation process for solving that problem.Positivist science assumes that only one reality exists that can be \"objectively\" measured with scientific tools. However, an NRM problem identified by researchers might not (yet) be perceived as a problem by resource users, or might be of minor relevance in contrast to other problems that are actually more pressing from the farmer (holistic) point of view. Problem perception will even differ among different stakeholders that have divergent interests and priorities. People perceive different realities because of their sociocultural, economic, religious, gender, or age group differences. Research has to take farmers' perceptions and knowledge seriously to be successful because:(1) Farmer \"insider\" knowledge complements researcher \"outsider\" knowledge, and(2) The perception of resource users will ultimately determine their willingness to make a decision on changing their behavior and to put innovations into action.The initiative to tackle a perceived NRM problem can come either from the farmers' side asking for outsider support (demand-pull on research, e.g., by rural people's organizations) or from outsiders aiming to change farmers' behavior and promote their adoption of innovations. In any case, NRM research can only be successful if the perceptions of those who are acting in the resource context are put at the center of considerations. Dialogue and mutual learning can help to create awareness and a common understanding of problems as a basis for joint action.Who owns the particular resource? Who is the primary decision unit? Who receives the benefits?In the continuum of property rights, we have exclusively private property rights (private goods) at one extreme and no property rights at all (public goods) at the other. In NRM we frequently deal with common pool resources, which belong to an intermediate category, the primary decision unit being a group of individuals (Murty 1994, p 581). According to Garder et al. (1990, p 335), common-pool resources are sufficiently large that excluding potential beneficiaries from their use is costly. Assuming that resource users are individualistic, resources held in common are doomed to over-exploitation (\"tragedy of commons\"). On the other hand, Richards (1997) argues that policies favoring individual resource privatization have resulted in high environmental and welfare costs and increased pressures on common property management regimes, especially if market-oriented NRM is promoted among indigenous groups with limited previous market exposure (\"tragedy of the non-commons\"). Bromley (1992in Murty 1994, p 582) makes a distinction between common pool resources and an open access regime. The latter has no primary decision unit: every individual has a privilege to use the resource since no one has the right to stop him doing so. Keidel (1995in Picciotto 1997, p 355) suggests another classification of goods and institutional patterns (Figure 2). Thus three options exist for managing common resources: (1) market, (2) governmental regulation, and (3) voluntary collective action. The market failure in the management of commons has been recognized in certain cases, and the inefficiency of governmental regulation, because of the high cost of policing large resources without people's participation (Murty 1994, p 582, 593). Given that the state-property regime predominates in many countries, incentives need to be provided to the local communities to secure their participation in managing these resources (Murty 1994, p 582, 583). The success of participatory NRM will largely depend on a fair appropriation of benefits.The sense of the term \"participation\" needs to be reconsidered in this context: Who is participating in what? Where is the ownership (property, primary decision unit, mandate, or initiative)? Do individuals participate in \"higher tasks\" that are rational from the perspective of a group or state? Or do officials and private institutions provide services, participate in or support farmers' affairs? At what scale is the NRM tackled (field, household, village, watershed, or region)? Who has to be addressed (individuals, local groups etc.)? The nature of an NRM problem indicates what kind of outside support and inputs are needed, for example, technologies, knowledge, and facilitation. Do farmers lack knowledge, for example, on insect pests and ecological principles? The farmer field school (FFS) approach to IPM aims at farmers acquiring such knowledge through discovery-based learning in especially designed learning situations. This entails solving problems for which solutions already exist and that are \"rediscovered\" by farmer groups (Loevinsohn et al. 1998b, p 2). According to Loevinsohn et al. (1998a, p 8) the FFS is, however, unsuited to discovery situations where farmers do not have answers to problems and nor does anyone else. In this case, a greater concentration of experimentation and (joint) research efforts is needed.Whereas IPM is a knowledge-intensive NRM task, watershed management is rather management-intensive, requiring organizational innovations at local level next to technical features. Loevinsohn et al. (1998b, p 2) distinguish \"discovery\"-oriented efforts to find solutions to specific resource management problems from \"literacy\"-oriented initiatives that try to build farmer and community capacities to manage resources on a continuing basis. Researchers may argue that development is not their job, and that it may be inappropriate to expect agricultural researchers to be drawn into such activities for which they have neither the skills nor the resources (Bebbington et al. 1994, p 10-11). Consequently, NRM research is likely to be more successful if cooperation and networking with other institutions leads to synergy and a complementary provision of services. NGOs, for example, can play a crucial role in helping farmer associations develop the administrative and technical skills required to become strong and independent partners to research organizations (Bebbington et al. 1994, p 27).Frame Conditions (Figure 1 )The economic and political frame conditions (i.e., the setting of the NRM context) clearly have an influence on \"what works and what does not\" and on the outcome and impact of participatory NRM research. Much depends on policies that affect agriculture, for example, price policy, security of tenure and rights regarding land, service infrastructure in roads, and credit and input supply (Chambers et al. 1989, p xvii).A prominent lesson from projects supported by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ, German acronym) is how greatly participatory development approaches depend on political and administrative environments that are conducive. This particularly concerns some form of \"democratic\" political decision making and a functioning system of local government. In contrast, where decentralization remains limited to a deconcentration of government administration and services, and financial resources for local development are not handed over but remain with central government or the line ministries, the danger is that -in the absence of resources at local level -a few participatory islands appear. These are nurtured by project support and resources, but destined to vanish as soon as external funding stops. Roles often remain limited to participating in work and, increasingly, in taking over costs. A political empowerment is rarely intended (Scherler et al. 1998, p 13).To what extent does the success of participatory NRM research depend on pre-existing features (endowments) of the society and policy that are relatively difficult to change in the short run? Or can synergistic relations be built in the relatively short run even under unlikely conditions (constructibility view) (Evans 1996(Evans , p 1036))? This leads us to the issue of \"social capital\". What stock of social capital is needed as a precondition for successful participatory NRM (research)? And how far can social capital be built through participatory approaches?The concept of social capital has gained currency over the last decade in the development discourse of anthropologists, sociologists, political scientists, and economists. Coleman (1988) and Bourdieu (1993) largely developed the concept, and it received more recent spurring from Putnam (1993a) andFukiyama (1995). Social capital has become a key term of the development lexicon (Harriss and deRenzio 1997, p 920;Wall et al. 1998, p 300). The concept promises a new and potentially fruitful linkage to other disciplines that use the idea of capital, particularly to economics (with economic capital) and ecology (with natural capital) (Wall et al. 1998, p 318).In the early post-war period, when economists turned their attention to economic development, they thought that the key difference between rich and poor countries lay in the amount of physical capital owned. According to Ostrom (1994, p 527-528) physical capital is the arrangement of material resources to improve flows of future income. The 1960s saw the remarkably successful Marshall Plan assistance in Europe and the disappointing experience of foreign aid in less developed countries. At this time the concept of capital was broadened to include human capital, which is the knowledge and skill that individuals bring to the solutions of any problem (Ostrom 1994, p 527-528). \"New institutional economics\" have broadened the focus to include the incentive structures that lead to the accumulation of physical and human capital and technological progress (Clague 1997, p 13). Attention has turned to the institutional requirements for economic growth such as legal frameworks, social networks, and relations of trust, summed up under the heading of social capital (Nederveen Pieterse 1997, p 140-141). Harriss and deRenzio (1997) and Wall et al. (1998) made a substantial review of recent theoretical and policy literature on social capital.Based on different perspectives social capital is interpreted and defined in many ways, Putnam's usage being the most common. Some interpretations are:(1) Putnam (1993b in Harriss anddeRenzio 1997, p 920).Features of social organization, such as networks, norms, and trust, which facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit. Working together is easier in a community blessed with a substantial stock of social capital. The social capital embodied in norms and networks of civic engagement seems to be a precondition for economic development and for effective government. Development economists take count: civics matters.(2) Coleman (1990, p 302 in: Harriss anddeRenzio 1997, p 921-922).In Coleman's account, social capital is defined by its function. Social capital is not a single entity, but a variety of different entities having two characteristics in common. The entities all consist of some aspect of social structure and they facilitate certain actions of the individuals who are within the structure. Like other forms of capital, social capital is productive. Coleman argues that social capital can constitute useful capital for individuals through (a) the significance of insurance, related to the obligations and expectations arising in social relationships; (b) the information communicated through social relations; and (c) the ways in which the existence of norms and effective sanctions facilitates action. (3) Patricia A Wilson (1997).According to Wilson, the term social capital has been used to describe what the Frenchman Alexis DeTocqueville observed in the USA in 1835-a propensity for individuals to join together to address mutual needs and to pursue common interests. (4) Bourdieu (1993, p 32-33 in Harriss anddeRenzio 1997, p 921).Bourdieu argues that one can give an intuitive idea of social capital by saying that it is what ordinary language calls \"connections\". By constructing this concept one acquires the means of analyzing the logic whereby this particular kind of capital is accumulated, transmitted, and reproduced. One also acquires the means of understanding how it turns into economic capital and, conversely, the means of grasping the function of institutions such as clubs or, quite simply, the family, the main site of accumulation and transmission of that kind of capital. Bourdieu regards different forms of capital as cumulative and interchangeable (Nederveen Pieterse 1997, p 141). ( 5) Ostrom (1994, p 527-530).Social capital is the arrangement of human resources to improve flows of future income. The presence of physical capital is usually obvious to external onlookers, but social capital may be almost invisible unless serious efforts are made to inquire about the ways that individuals organize themselves and the rights and duties that they follow. ( 6) Wilson (1995in Wilson 1997, p 746-7).Just as the inter-personal aspects of total quality management (TQM) ushered in trustbuilding and team-building to the private and public sectors, so the concept of social capital brings these values center stage in the so-called third sector: civil society. Social capital is a determinant of local economic development, it promotes business networking, shared leads, equipment and services, joint ventures, faster flow of information, and more agile transactions. Social capital is essential for maintaining and enhancing the value of public goods. ( 7) Auty (1998, p 470).In the context of local vulnerabilities to (environmental) hazard, social capital will reflect both the quantity of social cooperation (e.g., whether responses to cope with environmental hazards take place within households or collectively between households) and the quality of this organization inclusiveness (e.g., transparency and accountability of decision-making institutions).Of course some voices also draw attention to the \"dark sides\" of social capital:(1) Nederveen Pieterse (1997 p 142-143).First, social capital is particularistic; networks have boundaries and boundaries are exclusionary. The other side of embedment is exclusion; the other side of trust is risk. Accordingly, social capital may be a strategy of risk management. Second, social exclusion and closure facilitate trust and cooperation by ensuring that relations are predictable and the leakage of resources prevented. Third, concentrating social capital has long been a fundamental strategy of power (clubs, cartels, organized crime, etc.). Fourth, cooperation can also be a competition strategy (e.g., alliance policies and nonaggression pacts. (2) Bebbington et al. (1994, p 23-25).Rural peoples' organizations do not represent an ideal of rural democracy; we cannot and should not expect a single organization to represent all interests in a village. Working with local organizations may not always enhance the equity of a research project's impact. (3) Beall (1997, p 950) Synergy between representatives of communities and governments might reinforce and cement relationships founded on patronage and clienteles. (4) Ostrom (1994, p 528) Some groups can use all forms of capital to gain advantage over other groups or even to harm them while benefiting from the harm.Therefore, developing trust among and across boundaries (classes, gender, status groups, minorities, etc.), shared membership, and horizontal ties seem to be important for positive social capital (Nederveen Pieterse 1997, p 143;Harriss and deRenzio 1997, p 924). Wall et al. (1998, p 319-320) and Harriss and deRenzio (1997, p 932-933) conclude that for the concept of social capital to be useful analytically, different usage (depending on theoretical roots) and different levels of analysis must be recognized. For example, Harriss and deRenzio (1997)  distinguish: (1) Family and kinship connections.(2) (Wider) social networks or \"associated life\" (e.g., \"networks of civic engagement\" or \"local associations\").(3) Cross-sectoral linkages -combining different resources and different kinds of knowledge (\"complementarity\", \"mutually supportive relations between public and private actors\"). (4) Political capital -constituted by the norms and networks that shape the relations between civil society and the state; informal institutional arrangements that may lead on the one hand to clientelism, rent seeking, and exclusion, and on the other hand to effective representation, accountability, and participation (\"embedment\"). ( 5) Institutional and policy framework -the set of formal rules and norms that regulate public life in a society; it can influence the formation of other forms of social capital, but it also represents in itself a resource that facilitates coordinated action by citizens. (6) Social norms and values -defined by widely shared cultural beliefs and the effects these have on the functioning of a society as a whole.In view of its importance to local economic development and for the maintenance of natural capital, social capital formation (i.e., social capital building) seems to be a central task for development planners (Wilson 1997, p 34). But, how can social capital be created?(1) Putnam (1993b, p 180) states that social trust, norms of reciprocity, networks of civic engagement, and successful cooperation are mutually reinforcing. Where no prior example of successful civic collaboration exists, barriers of suspicion and shirking are more difficult to overcome (p 174 in Harriss and deRenzio 1997, p 923-924). This deterministic and unsatisfactory way of \"path dependence\" is criticized.(2) Investing in social capital frequently takes the form of bargaining over which rules will be adopted to allocate benefits and costs of collective action (Ostrom 1994, p 558-559).Creating the social capital that makes physical capital operational over the long run is something repeatedly done by individuals who successfully use physical capital (p 530). If external agents of change do not take into account the delicate balance of interests embedded in social capital, then when investments in physical capital are undertaken, efforts to improve productivity can have the opposite effect (p 559).(3) As Coleman notes, most forms of social capital are created or destroyed as by-products of other activities (Coleman 1988, p 118 in Nederveen Pieterse 1997, p 143;Harriss and deRenzio 1997, p 922). (4) Coleman suggests that the relation between state-sponsored activities and social capital is a \"zero-sum\" relation, in which government involvement leads to atrophy on informal networks, diminishing social capital (Coleman 1990, p 321). But, other authors argue for synergy, implying that civic engagement strengthens state institutions and effective state institutions create an environment in which civic engagement is more likely to drive (Evans 1996). ( 5) Social capital is built in a humble, piecemeal way through countless decisions of individuals about whether to get involved, and once involved how to proceed (Wilson 1997, p 745-746).It is also built through individuals stepping out of isolation, enjoying being connected, and taking over responsibility for their public lives (Wilson 1997, p 756). ( 6) If social capital is a self-organizing system, what is the role of development planners in social capital formation? Wilson argues that professionals can become catalysts of productive social capital if they learn the tools (participatory methods and action research, organizational learning, dynamic systems analysis, and communicative action), skills, and values of social capital building (Wilson 1997).Although the concept of social capital is still weak and needs further theorization and operational planning, we can conclude on the one hand that a substantial stock of social capital being part of the frame conditions is likely to be a success factor for NRM (research). On the other hand, the process of participatory NRM research itself is likely to make a contribution to social capital building, thereby increasing the probability of NRM turning out to be successful.The type of agriculture to which an NRM problem is related is another issue referring to the frame conditions that deserves attention. The Brundtland Commission identified three types of agriculture (WCED 1987, p 120-2 in Chambers et al. 1989, p xvii-xix): industrial, green revolution, and resource-poor. Industrial and green revolution agriculture are both relatively simple in their farming systems, often with large fields and monocropping, uniform in their environments, and low-risk. Conventional agricultural research has been successful with these types of agriculture, because standard methods of agronomic research have generated technology packages that are simple and amenable to widespread adoption in uniform and relatively low-risk environments.Resource-poor agriculture can be characterized as complex in its farming systems, diverse in its environments, and risk prone. It is found mainly in rain-fed areas, often undulating and with fragile or problem soils, and includes farming lands in highlands, dry lands, and wetlands. The physical, social, and economic conditions within resource-poor agriculture are highly variable and differ more from those of research stations. Consequently resource-poor farmers have been slow or unable to adopt many of the recommendations flowing from agricultural research (Chambers et al. 1989, p xviii-xix). For NRM research related to this type of agriculture to be successful, new methods, thinking, and values have to enter into science and agricultural professionalism.Research includes dimensions such as research organizations and partners, the context/process (origin of research topic, use of results, follow up, etc.), the underlying conceptual framework (research objectives, assumptions, hypotheses, theory, and school of thought), and the research tools used (Hoffmann 1992, p 271;Adolph 1997, p 48). These elements, designed to meet the beneficiaries' requirements, need to be defined and well matched within an approach (Figure 3). Emphasizing only a single element is of no use; the whole approach cannot be better than its weakest part.Figure 3. What needs to be defined and well matched within a research approach (altered from Hoffmann 1992, p 271).Conceptual framework (objectives, theory ..)Tools and methodsAs Hoffmann (1992, p 272) stated, in the case of approaches to agricultural extension, existing (research) approaches do not follow taxonomic systems for classification and designation. Names of approaches are frequently not self-explanatory; in many cases they can only be understood if one knows their history: Descriptions of approaches range from single case studies to general and abstract recommendations. Taking the above-mentioned definition of approach as a yardstick, descriptions covering the whole system are rarely complete; nor are recommendations made on under what circumstances the approach could be applied elsewhere, and what kind of adaptations had to be made.Looking at different approaches one can identify diversity and contrasts, thereby encountering distinctive features and dimensions, which help to classify the approaches: It has to be stressed that the term \"participation\", like many other words in development jargon, is so widely and loosely used that its meaning has become blurred (Mikkelsen 1995, p 62). Many authors have tried to distinguish different kinds of participation.(1) Mikkelsen (1995, p 63) makes an important distinction between two different types of participation, transformational and instrumental: two major alternative uses of participation center around participation as an end in itself or as a means to development. As an end, participation entails empowerment, and helps promote ideological or normative development goals such as social justice, equity, and democracy. In the alternative form, participation is interpreted as a means to efficiency in project management. In reality the two rationales for participation are often present together.(2) Biggs (1989, p 3) describes four different modes of participation. They are: contractual (scientists contract with farmers to provide land or services), consultative (scientists consult farmers about their problems and then develop solutions), collaborative (scientists and farmers collaborate as partners in the research process), and collegial (scientists work to strengthen farmers' informal research and development systems in rural areas). ( 3) Pretty (1994) distinguishes among seven different levels of participation: passive, information giving, by consultation, for material incentives, functional, interactive, and selfmobilization.The opportunities for, and degree of, farmer participation vary considerably according to the different \"strata\" of the research process. These are:(1) Basic research -to generate new understanding of biological processes, (2) Strategic research -to solve specific research problems, (3) Applied research -to create new technology, and (4) Adaptive research -to adjust technology to the specific need of a particular set of environments (ISNAR 1984 in Farrington andMartin 1988, p 15-16).If farmer participation moves upstream in formal research from the adaptive and testing phases to include pre-adaptive phases (e.g., setting research priorities and defining criteria for success) several benefits could result. These might include real problems more quickly solved, research resources more efficiently used, and better relations with farmers (Ashby 1996;Toomey 1998).Thinking about participation also involves questioning who should participate in NRM research-representatives of a population or only local experts and innovative farmers (Ashby 1996, p 19)? The CGIAR is particularly committed to addressing the problems of the rural poor. The PRGA Program twins gender analysis with the development of participatory research methods because rural women form a growing proportion of the very poor (feminization of poverty) (Toomey 1998, p 10). Gender and stakeholder analyses are thus important tools for ensuring that user participation includes women and marginalized groups.Recognizing that different people and different communities react differently to similar events, and given the diversity of NRM problems and of site-specific frame conditions, and changes over time, it must be stated that there is no best way to conduct research. Researchers have no absolute rules, no \"best practice\", they can follow to know exactly what to do in a particular situation. A framework for success may also become a recipe for disaster when applied indiscriminately and without careful consideration of the respective context (Peters 1997). A \"marketing approach\" successful in industrial or green revolution agriculture, is in many cases inappropriate in resource-poor agriculture, where more empowering participatory approaches might be needed, and vice versa. Approaches can only be developed within their unique context; they cannot be selected, transferred, or even copied. Because research has to react to changing social and environmental circumstances over time, continuously adjusting and further developing, a given approach is indispensable (Hoffmann 1992, p 271-276).However, a comparison of successful and less successful cases can help understand general principles, concepts, lessons learned, and patterns identified across several cases that might serve as broad guidelines for forming and developing a site-specific approach. The World Bank, for example, identified four basic principles for agricultural extension:(1) Situation specificity, (2) Financial sustainability, (3) System flexibility, and (4) Participation (Hayward 1989in Hoffmann 1992, p 274).How far these general principles also apply to NRM research, and how to refine them, must be investigated. Approaches that are developed and adjusted based on such principles are more likely to be successful. Descriptions of cases rarely reflect or explicitly identify the factors (inherent in approaches) that were decisive for a project being successful. Some exemplary recommendations and potential success factors follow.To decide a research topic, initiative, or planning:(1) Ensure beneficiary participation in planning and incorporate indigenous knowledge and ideas into the project design (Adolph 1997, p 81). If the initiative for a project comes from outside, people perceive the project activities as a \"free gift\", which they can either accept or refuse, but not modify (Adolph 1997, p 88). (2) Widen the impact of participatory research by involving farmer organizations in the research process -instead of individual farmers being the researchers' point of contact (Bebbington et al. 1994, p 3). (3) For gender analysis, stakeholder identification -involve marginalized groups, including equity issues; create subgroups to target particular beneficiaries (Bebbington et al. 1994, p 25;Ravnborg and Ashby, 1996).To implement:(1) Keep close and transparent interactions between the project implementing agency and villages (Adolph 1997, p 82); mutually exchange information, create a dialogue (Mazzucato and Niemeijer 1996, p 19-20).(2) Provide a forum for analysis and negotiation of diverse interests (Ravnborg and Ashby 1996).(3) Have beneficiaries make contributions (in cash or kind/labor) (Adolph 1997, p 82). (4) Build confidence: the pace of programs and projects must be slow to build motivation, confidence, and rapport amongst all the groups involved (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995, p 15). ( 5) Create learning situations in the farmer environment (Mangan 1997).To evaluate and follow up:(1) Self-evaluation enriches the learning process in institutions.  (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995, p 15). ( 2) Follow-up on the issues that farmers identify as problems (Adolph 1997, p 53).(1) Actively encourage the capacity of individuals and institutions to innovate and experiment.Predicting the technologies that may be appropriate in a particular time and place is impossible. Future technologies will supersede the good ones of today. What needs to be made sustainable is the process of innovation itself. (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995, p 14).(2) Take a broader approach, e.g., including income generating components in the project design (Adolph 1997, p 82), multidisciplinary research (Janssen and Goldsworthy 1996).(3) Apply a constructivist, \"soft systems thinking\" approach, particularly in watershed management, because here one deals with a multitude of actors with diverging interests, objectives, and priorities. In the soft systems approach, research becomes a learning process during which all actors together explore the world (Adolph 1997, p 49). Perceptual barriers in understanding and accepting participation can be traced to the tradition of Western science that is built on repeatability, reducibility, and refutability. When confronted with the complexity of real world systems, \"the response of science has been to retreat into the comparative safety of isolating variables to be measured\" (Bell 1994). This in turn can lead to a form of methodologically enforced tunnel vision in which science ultimately \"fools itself into believing its own objectivity\" (McArthur 1997). (4) Researchers alone cannot develop hypotheses. Confront those concerned. The research process needs to follow an inducible logic, attempting to identify an underlying principle for observed phenomena or problems, instead of collecting evidence for a predefined hypothesis (Adolph 1997, p 51).Design research tools in such a way that they allow all those concerned to express themselves freely, using their own frame of reference (Adolph 1997, p 52).(1) Use joint approaches and networking with allies; creating a \"lobby group\" to coordinate activities, learn from experiences, and achieve an increased impact (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995, p 16;Hagmann et al. 1997, p 14). Cooperate with local development agencies, which can provide support that researchers cannot give (animation, awareness-raising, non-formal education, etc.) (Bebbington et al. 1994, p 15). ( 2) Include all actors and service providers in innovation and learning systems (no separation of research and extension) (Hagmann et al. 1997, p 17).(3) Facilitate the innovation process, i.e., taking the initial innovator's risk, resolving conflicts, etc. with an external organization (project) (Hagmann et al. 1997, p 14). (4) Clarify roles -those of the different institutions, such as governments and NGOs, involved in joint approaches to NRM (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995, p 16). ( 5) Change staff attitudes and behavior towards farmers through training, structural changes (job descriptions etc.), and create an incentive structure (Hagmann et al. 1997, p 15). ( 6) Be flexible -external institutions must be flexible and responsive, and ready to learn with farmers. A thoroughly designed and preplanned project is not a good project (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995, p 15). ( 7) Have a strong philosophical framework for deep-seated changes within an organizational culture (Hagmann et al. 1997, p 15). (8) Keep a continuity of staff/personalities within organizations (Hagmann et al. 1997, p 15).It must be re-emphasized that each approach must be developed within its respective context and needs to be continuously adjusted over time. Even if an approach was designed in a highly promising way, the quality of implementation must be taken as a yardstick, i.e., concept and reality must be distinguished when approaches or processes are linked to impact. Barriers and obstacles to implementation might for example arise because of \"people problems\" such as power struggles, emotional outbursts, delayed action, and misunderstandings.Numerous success and failure factors are interacting and influencing a project's process and outcome. They are not universal in their significance and the influence of a single factor depends on others. They are cumulative and can add up to a major effect. Hence, the ability of a (research) project to (1) identify such factors influencing its process and outcome, and (2) be able and flexible to react to them are assumed to be major keys to success. This leads us to monitoring and evaluation (M&E) as an important tool to systematically support management and learning within a project.The understanding of \"research approach\" and \"participation\" is characterized by enormous diversity. In the same way, monitoring and evaluation are all embracing terms that can mean different things to different people and institutions. Although the term \"monitoring\" goes hand in hand with \"evaluation\", they differ (Abbot and Guijt 1998). Reducing definitions to a common denominator, one can state that:(1) Monitoring consists of regular, periodic recording of information and collection of data.(2) Evaluation focuses on (systematically) assessing information, including information generated from monitoring to help decide on courses of action to be taken (Campilan and Buenavista 1997, p 7).According to Patton (1997, p 23), the general definition has three interrelated components: (1) the systematic collection of information, (2) about a potentially broad range of topics, (3) for a variety of possible judgements and uses.Evaluations can thus include several kinds of purpose, focus, data, and design (Patton 1997, p 22)  (Campilan 1997, p 86;Abbot and Guijt 1998). To survive, farmers are also \"tracking change\" to learn, adapt, and innovate. The challenge is to build on this inherent capacity so that M&E becomes a more effective tool for achieving research and development goals (Campilan 1997, p 86). The importance of local people assessing and monitoring change in their environments is acknowledged, for example, in the concept of grassroots indicators (Hambly 1996).A traditional approach has been to define project or program evaluation as determining the extent to which a program attains its goals. However, evaluation can and does involve examining much more than goal attainment, for example, project implementation and process, unanticipated consequences, and long-term impacts (Patton 1997, p 23). Table 2 provides a framework, which helps place and classify different approaches to M&E (such as social or environmental impact assessment and participatory monitoring and evaluation). Table 3 lists examples of NRM-related cases. Patton (1997) advocates \"utilization-focused evaluation\", which begins with the premise that evaluations should be judged by their utility and actual use. This evaluation answers the questions of clearly identified primary intended users who are responsible for applying evaluation findings and implementing recommendations (p 21). It does not promote any particular evaluation content, model, method, theory, or even use. Rather it is a process for helping primary intended users select the most appropriate content, model, methods, theory, and uses for their particular situation. Intended users are more likely to use evaluations if they understand and feel ownership of the evaluation process and findings; they are more likely to do so if they are actively involved (Patton 1997, p 22). Monitoring and evaluation have an impact if the results stimulate thinking, confirm certain impressions, provide new impetus, and are used to make decisions. In some cases, the process of engaging in evaluation can have much or even more impact than the findings generated. Individual changes in thinking and behavior, and program or organizational changes in procedures and culture can occur among those involved in evaluation as a result of learning during the evaluation process (Patton 1997, p 90, 99). Assessing the Farmer Field School Approach (Loevinsohn et al. 1998b) Comparative analysis of IPM technology generation in Nicaragua (Nelson 1994) Impact of farmer field schools (Kenmore 1997) Participatory pest analysis (Mangan 1997) Watershed management (WSM) 22 participatory watershed development projects -case studies of the processes and impacts (Hinchcliffe et al. 1995) Comparison of participatory WSM to a top-down approach in India (Adolph 1997) Farmers' workshop as a tool in evaluating WSM (Adolph and von Oppen 1997) Participatory WSM in India (Shah 1994) Soil conservation Historical environmental impact assessment (Showers and  Community environmental monitoring, Australia (Alexandra et al. 1996) General guidelinesProcess monitoring (GTZ 1993) Participatory impact monitoring (Germann et al. 1996) Systematization (Selener et al. 1996) Evaluating technology with farmers (Ashby 1991) Impact monitoring of sustainable land management (Herweg et al. 1998) PM&E (FAO 1990) Logframes to monitor farmer participatory research (Farrington and Nelson 1997) Landcare and catchment groups (Woodhill and Robins 1998) This is why PM&E has become a growth topic and shows much promise: from increasing accountability to enhancing participation, improving mutual understanding, increasing local level capacity, and sustaining partnerships between different stakeholders (Abbot and Guijt 1998).Because no single operational definition exists of \"participation\" (see Figure 1 ), different definitions exist of PM&E, from stakeholder groups providing information during consultation processes to an internal process largely controlled and owned by villagers for their benefit.In their review of \"Participatory approaches to monitoring the environment\", Abbot and Guijt (1998) found that although much is written about PM&E relatively few practical experiences are documented. Most approaches appear to be highly participatory in data collection (monitoring), but only a few involve stakeholders in the early stages (designing the monitoring process) and later stages (analysis/evaluation and dissemination of monitoring findings) (Abbot and Guijt 1998).The Users' Perspectives With Agricultural Research and Development (UPWARD) (1997) and the Participatory Methodologies Forum of Kenya (PAMFORK) (1997) conducted further reviews of PM&E experiences from different sectors such as agriculture, public service, health, environment, and community development. Participating in M&E adds value in:(1) Recognizing multiple objectives and perspectives/enhancing mutual understanding.Even if farmers and researchers agree on the goals and objectives of a project or proposed innovation, they are likely to differ about the criteria they feel should be used to assess the impact and appropriateness of a particular technology or resource management strategy. One of the greatest potentials of PM&E is in viewing the project from different angles and combining multiple perspectives of different stakeholders (Campilan and Buenavista 1997, p 11) and in developing strategies for collaborative assessment (McArthur 1997, p 15). PM&E thereby promotes dialogue among the stakeholders (PAMFORK 1997, p 5).(2) Being a dual tool.It is a management tool to help project participants improve their efficiency and effectiveness. It is also a learning tool to increase awareness and understanding of the various factors affecting the project, thereby increasing their control over the research and development process (Campilan and Buenavista 1997, p 10;PAMFORK 1997, p 5;UPWARD 1997, p 88).(3) Promoting empowerment, ownership, and capacity building.PM&E empowers and promotes ownership (PAMFORK 1997, p 10). Direct involvement in monitoring leads participants to develop a sense of responsibility, enables the direct translation of new insights and attitudes into action, and increases the capacity to distinguish natural changes from those induced by management (Alexandra et al. 1996 in Abbot andGuijt 1997). (4) Facilitating transparency and accountability among stakeholders (PAMFORK 1997, p 6).(5) Recognizing and enhancing gender parity leading to positive development (PAMFORK 1997, p 5). (6) Resolving conflict (ideally, but in certain instances it may also create conflict) (UPWARD 1997, p 89). Stakeholders bring to the PM&E platform their respective agenda and interests. (7) Efficiency -collecting and processing information with higher relevance and less effort (Guijt and Sidersky 1996).Despite these potentials of PM&E critical aspects and trade-offs also exist, for example:(1) Trade-offs inherent in PM&E refer to the balance between (a) \"scientific rigor\" and \"local participation and practical utility\", (b) information that is \"good enough\" and \"soon enough\", (c) \"standardization or scaling up\" and \"site-specific indicators\" (Abbot and Guijt 1998).(2) The process is costly in terms of money, effort, and time. Project stakeholders can be expected to participate in M&E only if they see this as relevant and if the outcomes directly benefit them (Campilan 1997, p 68).(3) The initiative comes from outside. Few cases illustrate how institutionalization of PM&E is carried out and whether it can be sustained beyond the project life.One should view PM&E as a complement, rather than a substitute for the more conventional M&E (McArthur 1997, p 15). However, given the large-scale and long-term nature of NRM problems, the need to involve multiple stakeholders, to improve land literacy and to conduct collective landscape monitoring (see Table 1), PM&E is likely to be a key factor for successful NRM research. That is, if it can be effectively incorporated into an ongoing research process. Systematic reflection on monitoring results and regular feedback are prerequisites for detecting successes and failures, and the underlying causes. Based on such systematic learning, institutions might come to the conclusion that their research approach needs adjusting, the research topic redefining, additional partners seeking out, et cetera.At first it was assumed that the overall desired impact of NRM would be to increase (or maintain) natural capital and to build (the less visible) social and human capital. But, how do we measure if these desired changes occur? Aspects of \"natural capital\" are usually measured by regular observation and collection of mainly quantitative data on biophysical variables (e.g., soil moisture, soil nutrient and organic matter content, number of pest species and beneficiaries, yield, number of trees planted, water run off, etc.). Apart from the whole range of scientific methods and parameters available, there are also local (grassroots) indicators to measure changes in ecosystems (Hambly 1996). The degree of accuracy needed depends on the purpose and the end use of the data collected. In some cases, precise data are unnecessary and it might be sufficient to describe the direction of change toward or away from improvement instead of determining absolute figures. Guijt and Sidersky (1996) experienced that for farmer-to-farmer extension and donor reporting, exact organic matter content was less important than knowing that six out of ten farmers had noticed a significant change in soil humidity as a result of planting along contour lines. Abbot and Guijt (1998) defined three categories of participatory methods for environment monitoring:(1) Methods based on visualization techniques of PRA (e.g., mapping natural resources), (2) Those using oral testimony to uncover patterns of environmental and social change, and (3) Those based on adapting methods of ecological assessment to make them more accessible to local people (e.g., inventories of resources and wildlife surveys).In contrast to the more tangible natural capital, social processes and social capital are difficult to measure, and M&E commonly rely on qualitative documentation of emerging changes and trends. Burdge andVanclay (1995 in Ross 1997, p 2) believe social impacts include all social and cultural consequences to human populations of any public or private actions that alter the ways in which people live, work, play, relate to another, organize to meet their needs, and generally cope as members of society. Cultural impacts involve changes to the norms, values, and beliefs of individuals that guide and rationalize their cognition of themselves and their society. Ross (1997) gives examples of guiding theoretical models (community response model, social organization model), that help to elaborate indicators for social impact assessment. Also, social capital as a variable needs to be made operational in specific indicators. Examples of suggestions and attempts for measurement are summarized below.(1) Wall et al. (1998, p 314) presents a summary chart with indicators used by the three featured theorists Bourdieu, Coleman, and Putnam (Table 4). (2) The Inter-American Foundation is known for its participatory grassroots approach to community development in Latin America.  Sampson et al. (1997in CGIAR 1998) attempted in Chicago to measure social capital (or what they called \"collective efficacy\" = \"social cohesion among neighbors combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good\"). The authors gauged the degree of two related variables -\"informal social control\" and \"social cohesion and trust\" -by asking residents questions about their neighbors' behavior. They also asked questions such as: How strongly do you agree that: (a) People around here are willing to help their neighbors, (b) This is a close knit neighborhood, (c) People in this neighborhood can be trusted, (d) People in this neighborhood generally do not get along with one another, and (e) People in this neighborhood do not share the same values?The CGIAR's PRGA Program aims at generating methodological knowledge related to NRM research that synthesizes lessons of success across different cases. This will lead to accumulated wisdom -guidelines and principles towards more successful NRM research -that help decision makers and researchers develop approaches. These principles cannot be applied indiscriminately, but must be adapted to the specific context.Based on literature and our own considerations, some potential success factors attributable to the frame conditions on the one hand, and to the research approach on the other, are outlined in this paper. Such theoretically derived success factors need to be verified and completed through empirical studies. Questions for analyzing different cases might be:(1) What is the concept/approach of this case (objectives, theory, project design, history, tools/methods, organization, partnerships)? (2) How far is the case in line with theoretically derived principles for success? (3) Is the program implemented as designed? What are the barriers to implementation? (4) What is the outcome or impact of this case (technical or institutional innovations, adoption or adaptation; distribution of benefits; natural or social capital building, unintended effects, etc.)? (5) What are the underlying causes for success or failure? (6) Are there processes and strategies for learning about strengths and weaknesses? (7) What has been learned by stakeholders involved in the research and development process? Have any adjustments been made in the approach as a result of learning?How \"success\" is defined in NRM research and by whom (researchers, local people, poor, men/women, etc.) has to be clarified. Success is mostly assessed in terms of a project's visible biophysical or economic output (natural and economic capital building). On the other hand, equity and poverty-orientation, and the non-visible social dimensions of impact are frequently neglected. More attention should be paid to the potential contribution of participatory research approaches to \"social capital building\". This requires further efforts to develop methods and indicators for the operating and measuring of \"social capital\". Formal sector institutions (e.g., national plant breeding programs, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research [CGIAR] institutes, or extension services) are increasingly experimenting with farmer participatory approaches in plant breeding to strengthen farmer production systems in different ways. In contrast to \"farmer-led PPB\" projects (McGuire et al. 1999), those led by the formal sector have a strong institutional orientation. Formal-led PPB programs have an obligation to feed information back to the formal research sector, and to feed forward to farming communities. They are expected to improve or complement the formal sector research system (e.g., refining breeding strategies) or possibly reorientate entire programs. Mostly, formal-led PPB programs also involve strong linkages to the formal variety release and seed production system. Finally, scientists involved in formal-led programs have a mandate to extrapolate their results beyond the individual farmer or community with which they work, and programs often need to show the advantages of farmer participation compared to breeding work centred at research stations or standard on-farm approaches. Thus this dual need to focus on endusers and on the formal sector institutions themselves shapes the types of participation, the types of products used or targeted, and the types of data needed for formal-led PPB programs (Weltzein/Smith et al. 1999).Formal-led participatory breeding programs are relatively new. Most of the cases identified date from the last 10 years, with only two or three initiated earlier. Mostly they were relatively small in scale, working only at one or two sites and usually involved fairly intense types of direct farmer and scientist interaction. We would characterize much of this small-scale research work as functionally motivated and aiming at \"functional participation\", that is, trying to understand better what farmers want or need to feed back insights to formal research for improving future on-farm productivity. Formal-led PPB programs that have addressed what may be called capacity building or more empowering approaches (\"empowering participation\") are those programs that have tried to scale-up the work to involve more farmers, representing more households, and a larger target region. These programs have more often focused on farmers' skill building needs, and have searched for a clear division of labor between farmers and scientists that builds on the comparative advantage of each and that ultimately devolves much of the decision making to farmers and their communities.Most of formal-led PPB to date (some 40 different field programs) have centered breeding efforts on major crops, that is, the crops to which the formal sector normally gives priority. Should researchers truly move to strengthen the minor crops (also known as \"neglected crops\"), the division of responsibilities and types of participation with formal-led PPB could radically change, with researchers offering strategic support to what are essentially farmer-driven programs.Formal-led PPB programs can have a diversity of overarching goals, and hence a diversity of anticipated impacts. The most common goals have been to contribute to increased production in farmers' fields and to increase farmer income through developing and enhancing the adoption of suitable, usually improved, cultivars. These are the basic goals of any formal-led breeding program, and participatory approaches are often experimented with to achieve them more effectively and more efficiently. In this context, formal-led PPB programs sometimes seek to refine their knowledge of farmers' needs or preferences, or reorient general breeding directions such as type of base germplasm used, the priority traits sought, and the management and organization of station trials. Institutional and organizational changes that facilitate decentralization and/or scaling up of the breeding program often come hand in hand with these efforts to meet farmers' location-specific varietal needs.Biodiversity enhancement is another broad goal towards which some PPB programs strive. Participatory breeding programs with this goal tend to work more often with the farmers' own germplasm or a combination of local and exotic materials; many also involve farmers in the screening of a wide range of varieties in the preadaptive stages of research, either in on-station trials or in community plots. In several cases, PPB programs have also released populations or have purposely promoted breeding strategies that result in heterogeneous materials.Another important goal of PPB programs is to provide benefits for specific types of users (e.g., the rural poor, women, and farmers with marginal soils) or to deliberately address the needs of a broader range of users. Such a goal necessitates an extensive diagnosis among well-defined types of potential user and stakeholder groups. This goal is often in contrast to traditional centralized breeding programs, which work under the assumption that benefits from routine station-based research or research-controlled on-farm trials are \"user neutral\".When addressing issues related to improved adoption of breeding products and/or biodiversity enhancement, PPB programs often find themselves confronted with the need to address modifications in policy, whether these be seed regulations or variety release criteria and procedures. Most modifications are sought to accommodate the expanding and institutionalizing of approaches that better serve farmers' aims. These may include modifications in the scales of testing and of desired cultivar adaptation, the kind of data required for release, and the number of cultivars released at any one time.Finally, some programs specifically work towards enhancing the farmers' own breeding process, that is, providing technical knowledge and insights so that farmers themselves are more successful in their own selection and seed production efforts. This skill-building goal is often addressed together with a more general effort towards strengthening the capacities of farming communities to interact and derive and demand benefits from the formal research institutionswhose mandates are to address local-level needs.In conducting an overview of formal-led PPB programs, we became aware of how much the goals set for PPB programs shape the entire research design and of secondary effects that PPB programs achieve. Set goals greatly influence what is on offer (skills or varieties), the type of germplasm used, the type of farmer involved, the scale worked at, the trial design, and the seed multiplication procedures. However, we found that the goal-setting process itself was rarely articulated or transparent-that is, goal setting was not seen as something that needed to be discussed within and between the scientific and farming communities.Table 1 summarizes the primary goals guiding 40 PPB programs that the formal sector has initiated or led. The comprehensive review shows that most (78%) programs have focused on various aspects of production increases, the same goals toward which classical breeding programs strive. The programs examined have most often targeted marginal environments, where impact from classical breeding programs was less than expected or completely unsatisfactory. Thus, many programs were oriented toward identifying better varieties, those that offer clear advantages over farmers' own local varieties or locally-available cultivars. Often linked with this objective has been the need of scientists to better understand farmers' selection criteria and preferences for a range of traits, possibly traits with which farmers have had no previous experience (68% of PPB programs). This knowledge usually feeds back directly into on-going breeding efforts, to change priorities for testing and selection criteria. Another closely related objective, of specific importance to marginal environments, is the possibility of releasing varieties adapted to specific zones of cultivation (13% of formal-led PPB programs). This category includes two different motivations: empowerment, and benefits to specific users.Although the review identified programs that targeted other goals, such as enhancements in biodiversity or farmer capacity-building directly, these were most often deemed secondary goals in the overall PPB program. It thus appears that the full range of goals has not been systematically explored in formal-led PPB programs (and that the full range of potential impacts has not been identified). The relative narrowness of present aims shaping PPB work is perhaps a feature of the newness of the approach. Certainly future efforts should more consciously aim to explore the bounds of the potential of different participatory breeding approaches.The technical process of variety development for any crop of any pollination or propagation system can be classified into three major steps. These constitute the technical process of plant breeding and variety development. Schnell (1982) describes them as:(1) Generating variability, (2) Selection, and (3) Testing of experimental cultivars.The first step is achieved in most programs by making deliberate crosses between diverse parents with complementary trait combinations. In some specific cases, this could also be achieved by assembling germplasm on a larger scale, for example, at the beginning of a new program. In some cases, breeders use mutagenesis to induce new variability within a target breeding material. In cross-pollinated crops, where population improvement methods are common, the building of base populations and the generation of new progenies for testing, are part of this step of generating variability for further improvement activities.The second step comprises the process of narrowing down the new variability generated from a few thousand or hundred plants or progenies to a limited number of potential new varieties, usually about 10 to 40, and often referred to as experimental varieties. In selfpollinated crops, or when developing hybrid parents this is usually referred to as selection in segregating generations. In population improvement schemes this is the phase of progeny testing. For clonally propagated crops this is the phase of narrowing down the many new clones to a few clones with more planting material for more detailed testing. At this stage usually only minimal seed or planting material of every plant, progeny, or clone is initially available. During this process of narrowing down numbers, the quantity of seed or planting materials is also built up to allow more thorough, multi-location testing of candidates that usually have to fulfil a set of minimum criteria, that is, experimental varieties. Thus the seed increase ratio of the crop partly determines the length of this stage.Step three is the testing of these experimental varieties for productivity traits, their range of adaptation, and acceptability. The experimental varieties are tested in replicated trials over an increasing number of locations, with increasing plot sizes. This testing phase normally begins with trials that are named initial variety or hybrid trials, and continues until varieties are proposed for release and/or distribution. This classification helps compare among different crops and crop types. It also allows comparing and optimizing resource allocation in the different stages of a program. Comparing results from long-term breeding research within this framework allows comparing across species and within a crop; and technical education in plant breeding is often conducted within the framework of these categories. Because education in plant breeding is mostly technical in nature, it is usually limited to these three stages.A successful breeding program, however, needs two additional stages that go beyond purely technical issues. The technical process needs to address and be matched to fit a set of identified goals and objectives with well-defined targets for the breeding program. Primary and secondary goals need to be identified, as discussed above. To fulfil them, specific objectives for the breeding program must be identified and prioritised, and targets set. In identifying appropriate objectives and targets for a breeding program, knowledge about the target farming system(s) and farmers' needs are important, and farmers' selection criteria is helpful. Although breeders are rarely trained to elicit this type of information, farmer participation can be a powerful tool to achieve a meaningful reorientation of a breeding program.To be successful, the technical process of the breeding program also needs to feed into an efficient system for varietal release and dissemination, that is, an identified system for delivery of the technical product to potential users. Evaluations of past impact of breeding programs have often pointed out that weaknesses in such delivery systems limit or slow adoption. In view of the unsustainability of large-scale, state-run or directed efforts for seed production and distribution in many developing countries, areas for reflection might be the strengthening of the local seed sector or the catalysing of more local seed suppliers (whether private sector or otherwise). Some estimates suggest that, worldwide, the local seed sector provides at least 80% of farmers with most of their seeds (Cromwell et al. 1992).To examine the potential for, and actual farmers' involvement in, this whole process of a breeding program, it may help to depict these stages in a cyclical fashion (Figure 1). This makes it clearer that feedback between the different stages is possible and should be institutionalised in programs. In participatory breeding projects, many of which are exploratory to a large extent, envisaging this feedback and influencing and opening up opportunities throughout the cycle of stages of the program for farmer input is particularly important, even if the degree of input may vary by stage.In conducting the overview of formal-led PPB work to date, it became clear that most programs involved farmers in the testing of varieties, materials that were genetically fixed and often already released. Several programs addressed the setting of breeding priorities and targets. Relatively little work has been done on exploring farmers' contributions to setting overall goals of a breeding program, generating variability, or selecting experimental varieties from segregating populations. The variety diffusion process is a step that has also received relatively little attention, but is starting to attract interest.Most PPB efforts to date are focused on staple food crops or are in areas with locally important quality preferences. For instance, several PPB programs were found with the staple potato in the Andes, but not in Central America where potatoes are something of a luxury vegetable. Rice PPB was found in Asia and Africa, but not in Latin America where rice is grown with mechanized production as more of an industrial crop. None of the cases examined dealt with crops grown using mechanized production. Of the crop experiences examined, most (24 of 46 crop examples) are with self-pollinated crops, followed by cross-pollinated crops (15 examples), clonally propagated crops (7 examples), and agroforestry tree species (two examples). For all crop types, most of these projects involved farmers in some form of participatory variety selection, and few involved farmers in generating variability or selecting within segregating populations (Table 2). Several of the projects linked work on varietal selection with achieving a better understanding of farmers' selection criteria and varietal needs. This information usually feeds back into breeding programs immediately and affects the setting of priorities. However, only a few projects implicitely involved farmers in jointly setting overall priorities. Classification is, of necessity, approximate. We took description of stages of the breeding as a guideline (Schnell 1982).Although our working definition of PPB limits it to selection within a species, a few comments on between-species selection are needed. The recent review includes two cases where farmer-participatory methods were used for selection among tree species for potential use in agroforestry breeding projects (Franzel et al. 1995). Clearly situations exist where selecting the most appropriate species is a necessary first step before any type of breeding work is contemplated.In addition to pollination biology, the seed increase ratio of a crop (i.e., how many seeds can be harvested from one plant) also influences the type of participation feasible and the farm-level impact. In crops with low seed increase ratios, it may be difficult to produce enough early generation seeds to allow for on-farm testing of progenies with a representative set of farmers. In such cases, community representation and community plots are possibly the better route for involving more farmers in the evaluation process.Similarly, the sowing method that farmers use may limit the type of trial design, which is feasible for farmers' fields, and thus the kind of experimentation that farmers can do. In regions where hand-sowing in hills is predominant, one can easily envisage testing many varieties in a relatively uniform part of the field. If sowing is done by machine, only a few large plots are possible. The time available for optimal sowings may also vary. For many dryland crops, this is the critical factor for successful cultivation, thus only trial designs can be implemented that do not slow down the process of sowing. If this sowing time is also highly unpredictable, the researcher will find difficulty in being present at the time of sowing and farmers will be mostly fully responsible for trial designs and their implementation. Another factor that may influence the type of farmer participation envisioned is the level of diversity among the locally grown cultivars. In highly diversified cropping systems, with a range of differing crop uses, new germplasm may require more long-term testing with a wider variety of users, and for a broader range of uses, before farmers can take adoption decisions.These observations show that the biology of the crop and crop management systems in the target region also determine the type of participation in a breeding program.A way of differentiating farmers' contributions to a participatory breeding program is to examine the nature of this contribution. We have identified four main thrusts where farmers:(1) Contribute key information based on their knowledge and experiences, (2) Contribute genetic materials, (3) Conduct trials, and (4) Select and evaluate germplasm.In the cases we examined, farmers' knowledge was often integral to achieving a better understanding of the varieties farmers presently grow. Farmers' descriptions of their cropping system, major constraints, key aspects of the farming system, and social institutions are all information that makes an important contribution to the orientation of a breeding program. Another important requirement for a breeding program is to understand farmers' needs and preferences for the specific traits of a crop. This kind of understanding often leads to descriptions of appropriate type of varieties, a reorientation of the breeding program in terms of selection strategy, and germplasm used for breeding. Farmers' knowledge is also essential to better understand a local seed system, and opportunities for increasing its efficiency and its ability to serve a wide range of farmers.In some of the cases we examined, the description of locally-grown varieties in the target areas allowed breeders to become familiar with the varieties that farmers grow and helped breeders choose appropriate materials for testing and breeding that could fulfil some of the farmers' basic requirements; or it allowed the breeder to choose materials for testing that differ sufficiently from the locally grown varieties for key traits (Witcombe et al. 1996). The description of the local process of seed production and management is another example where farmers' information was key to a program's success. Based on a careful analysis of farmers' strategies for seed potato, production technologies for improved seed health and storage conditions were developed in the Andean region and in eastern Africa (Haugerud and Collinson 1990). Another example where farmers' information played a key role in orientating the breeding program, is the work on pearl millet in the desert region of Rajasthan. Farmers in this region do not differentiate particularly between different varieties, but rather between different plant types. They associate strongly between adaptation to specific growing conditions and specific plant types. Farmers who regularly produce their own seed often select panicles representing very different plant types for their seed lots. For a breeding program targeting this region, adoption of any new variety will depend on its capacity for contributing to the success of these diverse seed lots (Dhamotharan et al. 1997).This type of farmer contribution thus provides breeders with necessary information for identifying the appropriate type of variety, both in terms of genetic make-up (hybrid or heterogeneous open-pollinated variety) and in terms of key plant traits. Similarly, research efforts aimed at improving institutional support for seed production and distribution can derive key interventions from a sound analysis of farmers' information. Better understanding key 63 production constraints may allow breeders to modify the testing environments on the research station to test materials more effectively for key adaptations. This understanding, especially when combined with an understanding for the major uses of a crop or varieties, will also help breeders reorient their programs and be better able to meet farmers' key needs.These examples indicate that the types of impact that a PPB program can expect from letting farmers contribute their information to the joint program are largely related to making research more effective and improving the dissemination of new technologies. Farmers' information may have some impact on the level of biodiversity maintained in the target farming system if the breeders start targeting a wider range of plant types, or if more variable types of varieties are available for dissemination as a result of these discussions with farmers.An important advantage of explicitly searching for and including farmers' knowledge for developing and implementing a PPB program is that it is easy to involve many farmers and, with appropriate care, stakeholders can also be involved who are often overlooked or excluded (e.g., women, poor farmers, and minorities). Discussions with farmers on specific topics related to the breeding effort do not have to be conducted during the growing season when farmers' time is often limited and valuable.Farmers often contribute genetic materials to breeding programs, especially participatory breeding programs focusing on adaptation to specific stresses, production systems, or niches. Specific quality traits or crops, for which little breeding has been done so far, rely strongly on farmers' contributing their own genetic materials to a joint breeding effort. In such cases, farmers' genetic materials are commonly key to success.Farmers' genetic materials can be used in different ways. In a few cases with crosspollinated crops, the farmers deliberately create new variability by facilitating outcrossing between highly diverse types of varieties, often their landrace and an introduced modern variety. These outcrosses often reveal enormous genetic variation and many new combinations of traits. In the case of pearl millet in Namibia, one such population was used as the base for creating a new breeding population (Bidinger 1998). In several cases, farmers have contributed landraces as parents for crossing, or for targeted improvement efforts. A good example for this is the project on breeding for chilling tolerance in rice in Nepal. Breeders identified the local landrace in a series of tests as highly tolerant of chilling temperatures during the early growth phase and during grain filling. This variety was crossed with a high yielding, chilling-susceptible variety. Farmers used the progenies from this cross for selection of a new variety (Sthapit et al. 1996).Farmers' varieties usually form the basis for further improvement in projects that mainly aim at improving farmers own skills in improving the genetic composition of their varieties and seed stocks. An example is a project, led by the national program of Honduras and Cornell University, with a component of teaching farmers techniques for pollination control for maize in a region with a high degree of local varietal diversity (Gomez 1996). Thus the base material for the efforts for improvement are the farmers' varieties or possibly other materials that are available to them.Farmers' genetic materials often broaden the genetic base of the participating breeding program considerably. The material derived and disseminated from these efforts can also represent a wider range of diversity than the products of previous efforts. The use of farmers' genetic materials sometimes contributes to conserving landrace materials in the local farming system, particularly in cases that focus on building farmers' skills. The types of impact that were observed or expected from using the farmers' genetic materials have been mostly related to enhancing biodiversity or conserving local germplasm in the farming community and enhanced productivity in specific production systems.In almost all the cases examined, farmers manage trials on their own land as part of the PPB program. Farmers normally decide how to experiment, that is, they choose the field for growing the trial(s), manage the nutrients and other aspects of crop husbandry, choose the control variety, and contribute to the trial design. In many of the cases where farmers evaluate stable varieties, this contribution is key to the breeding program's success. Farmers provide the appropriate testing conditions, which enhance the selection program's efficiency.An example is the work with potatoes in Ecuador, where farmers test varieties over a wide range of altitudes and fertility conditions. Research stations do not cover this range of altitudes, and usually do not manage trial fields at different levels of input. In this case, farmers selected new desirable clones for adoption after only 2 years of testing, whereas officially released varieties had scarcely been adopted earlier (Andrade H, personal communication, 1998).Another example where farmers' trials are key to the joint breeding effort is the case of pearl millet in southern Africa, where farmers grow nurseries of diverse pearl millet varieties and germplasm accessions usually in community plots for selecting material for further testing on their own farms. In this case, the farmers' fields also provide more appropriate testing conditions and better access to farmers (Monyo et al. 1997). More farmers can come and see and assess the new breeding materials.The key impact from farmers' contributing trials to a participatory breeding effort is an increase in research efficiency through providing appropriate testing conditions. Through onfarm trials, farmers get early access to new genetic materials and have the option to adopt these varieties. Increases in productivity and initial adoption can be immediate results from farmermanaged trials. This would normally lead to further dissemination and adoption of the new varieties. Farmers may also decide to use them in their own breeding work and thus influence the level of genetic diversity in their farming system. Farmers' experimentation with new germplasm is a powerful tool to create the basis for a range of impacts on-farm. However, among the cases examined, several report that poor farmers or women can experience greater difficulty in growing trials. Better-off farmers often have more time to devote to farming or have a stronger role in decision making about land allocation on their farm. If poor or women farmers are among the targeted group, specific planning is needed so that they can benefit from the planned activities.This contribution of decision making among a set of varietal choices goes beyond providing information alone. Farmers in these cases make judgements based on multiple criteria; they decide which trade-offs to make and which combination of traits to favour. These are often complex decisions because numerous traits can be considered and because differences between individuals may be small for individual traits. To identify materials that contribute new opportunities for enhanced productivity or stability of production requires an intimate knowledge of the target farming system, production system, and social system.In many PPB programs, farmers make the final selection decisions, for example, among entries in an on-farm trial, or among entries in larger nurseries grown on-farm or on-station. Selection usually involves evaluating a variety for a number of traits in combination simultaneously. Trade-offs are assessed between the different traits, for example, yield potential and earliness, or panicle size and tillering behaviour. A farmer is often the better judge in predicting which combination of traits may have potential use for specific growing conditions and production goals on his farm or in his area of cultivation. Several well-documented cases show that farmers' selections indeed performed well, better than breeders' selections, in the conditions for which they were selected (Sperling et al. 1993). Breeders often find it difficult to have a broad enough understanding of the diversity of growing conditions and the corresponding relative weaknesses of the local cultivars to make appropriate selection decisions that anticipate the full range of potential adoption possibilities. Thus, farmers' involvement in decision making can have far reaching impacts and often leads directly to more adoptable varieties especially in areas where none were before. Researchers usually gain a better understanding of farmers' assessment processes and can thus target their program better towards meeting these needs.Most programs use several types of contributions from farmers and to different degrees. They also change their organizational set-up to adapt to the needs of the farming communities and to improve the program's impact. The fast and comprehensive learning experience for the participating scientists is a basis for these rapid changes in the operational forms of PPB projects. The other basis is the rapidly increasing role of farmers in the decision-making process and in guiding the project toward other areas of work (e.g., seed system support) to improve the scope and scale for impact.Impact of PPB projects led by formal sector institutions was analyzed for both groups of partners in this process: the farmers, their families, their communities, and associations; and the researchers and their institutions. The farm-level impacts have in many cases exceeded researchers' expectations.Like any type of plant breeding, PPB is a process that may take 2 to 5 years to have initial results and still several more years before its true impact begins to be realized. Recognizing this, a group of PPB practitioners (drawn from the plant breeding group of the Participatory Research and Gender Analysis program) has begun conceptualizing a set of intermediate impacts with accompanying indicators.Table 3 shows two examples of possible intermediate impact indicators being used in two ongoing PPB field programs. A challenge of this developing PPB work is to assess the trade-offs of aiming for different intermediary impacts-and ultimately goals.  Changes in orientation of breeding program. Many participatory breeding projects were initiated in regions that are marginal in terms of the environmental conditions for crop growth and productivity increase. These regions are often where plant breeding programs have had limited prior impact. The PPB research targeting these types of environment has examined the suitability of specific breeding strategies in achieving better genetic gains under such conditions through insights gained from farmers, and farmer expertise in selecting among plants, progenies, or varieties. Such close interactions can profoundly influence the overall strategy of an evolving breeding program.An example is the pearl millet breeding program of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). The program is for the dry zones of the state of Rajasthan, and was initiated in 1989 in response to findings indicating that local landraces tended to show higher grain yields under severe stress conditions. The approach taken was to improve testing sites in the target region and develop breeding populations using the local germplasm. Farmers were involved in the project implicitly to identify their needs and preferences and thus contribute to refining the program's goals and objectives. The initial findings of this work indicated that farmers in different regions and representing different social strata and gender had widely differing preferences and needs (Weltzien-R et al. 1998).A more detailed understanding of farmers' seed management practices revealed that farmers often use small quantities of modern varieties as components of seed mixtures and thus considerably broaden the genetic base of their own seed lots. Farmers could thus enhance their chances of obtaining increased yields under better growing conditions. At the same time, poor farmers, especially women, expressed concern over this practice of mixing improved varieties with local ones, because the seed produced from these mixtures shows less adaptation to the predominantly poor soil conditions. Poor farmers are often dependent on seed from better-off farmers, but the seed these provide does not serve the poor farmers' needs as well as it used to. Because poor farmers dominate in these regions and better-off farmers also own field with poor soils, the breeding program decided to fill this gap by focusing its efforts on developing materials specifically targeted towards poor fertility soil conditions and a higher stability of grain yield. This constituted a profound change, because it required changes in the management of research station fields and in the germplasm base for breeding, and further research into the methodology for achieving these goals, including sharing responsibilities with farmers. The program also helped a local nongovernement organization (NGO) identify farmer-preferred sources of landrace-type seed for increase and distribution to those farmers who are facing difficulties with seed production. In collaboration with the national authorities, steps were initiated to change release procedures for pearl millet so that varieties specifically adapted to these marginal conditions would have a higher chance of being identified as superior by the national variety testing scheme, and thus a chance to be released.Another example where farmers' involvement in the breeding program has led to profound changes in the orientation and operation of the breeding program itself is the case of potato breeding in Bolivia (Thiele et al. 1997). The research program focused on developing techniques for farmer evaluation of potato clones, which had previously been tested for potato late blight resistance and yielding ability on research station trials. During these experiments, the researchers gained an understanding of farmer-relevant criteria, which have been incorporated into the breeders' selection strategy on-station. At the same time, farmer groups are now involved routinely in evaluating a larger number of clones on the research station and subsequently on their own land. These farmers usually remain involved with the breeding program and often multiply seed potatoes for further distribution in their villages. Thus farmer tests have become an integral part of the routine testing procedure for new potato clones in Bolivia.Because farmers were involved in the selection in segregating generations, a rice variety (Oryza sativa) was bred that combined the high level of chilling tolerance of landrace rice varieties of the Nepal mountains with the increased productivity from modern varieties. So for the first time the farmers in these hilly regions could benefit from a plant breeding effort targeting their region (Sthapit et al. 1995;1996). Initial adoption of this variety was high and, more interestingly, the success of farmers' selection encouraged them to continue further selection in this and other material. They were thus carrying the process further even with reduced support from researchers (Sthaphit, personal communication, 1998).Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) breeding in Brazil was successful through involving farmers in breeding a variety that combined disease resistance (Macrophomina and Fusarium wilt) with the preferred seed coat color, drought adaptation, and yield characteristics for the dry zone of northeastern Brazil. Farmers were involved in selection in segregating materials on-station and later in testing experimental varieties on their own farms. Before the variety could be formally recommended for cultivation in this region, farmers were growing it and demanding more seed (Zimmermann 1995).Farmers in a remote area of India, where soils are highly degraded and production is subsistence oriented, could identify varieties of several major crops that provided them with new options, more food, and greater stability of production (Witcombe and Joshi 1996;Witcombe et al. 1996). The documentation of adoption of the rice variety \"Kalinga III\" is a good example of the spread of a variety identified through farmers' participation in variety testing. This study shows that adoption of the variety began in the study villages the year following the first trials conducted by farmers. Seed of the preferred variety began spreading to other villages in the second year following farmers' trials. Although the project helped spread the seed in several ways, much of the found spread resulted from farmers' own initiatives in selling and giving away seeds to others, inside and outside the village. The spread of this variety continues, but official release in the state of Rajasthan (where the project is located) pends and thus government subsidies for producing and distributing seed of this variety are not available to farmers. A study of the impact of this one rice variety, identified through farmer participation, estimates rates of return for the overall project between 47% and 70%. This figure is as high or higher than for regular successful, non-participatory agricultural research. This indicates that participatory research with a comparatively local focus, and thus a smaller target region, can have similar rates of returns. In this case, it was mainly because this variety provided farmers with great yield benefits and more production stability. The advantage of participatory variety testing is precisely that these attributes can be rapidly identified because varieties are being tested under a wide range of conditions that farmers manage themselves.Breeders have often worked under the assumption that benefits of new varieties are scale-and user-neutral, that poor and rich farmers, or men and women can achieve the same type of benefit from these new varieties. In many cases of widespread adoption, differences in preferences and potential benefits were observed, but the conventional approach to breeding (of variety release and of extension) has often been unable to offer effective solutions to meet these diverse needs.Participatory approaches are often designed to involve as partners in their program a wide range of farmers representing different social groups, gender, or otherwise differentiated groups.These approaches potentially have the in-built capacity to respond to specific groups' needs and to make use of different user talents. Women in particular are often plant breeders in small-scale farmer production systems, responsible for domesticating wild species, selecting germplasm, and saving seed.In many instances, women's criteria may be significantly different from men's-dual involvement in breeding/selection is necessary to meet each partner's needs. In Mali, maize evaluations showed men putting production and early maturity as the main criteria, with women focusing on organoleptic and processing aspects (Kamara et al. 1996). Rice work in West Africa had a similar gender division, with scientists from the West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) reporting that men focused on yield and yield-related traits, such as plant vigor, and women concentrated on quality attributes, such as bold grains.Involving women in PPB can confer benefits for all the community not just poor women. Over a 3-year period, Rwandan experts selected a pool of varieties (21 separate bean types) that outdid breeders' choices in their own production terms by up to 33%-and met quality characteristics of interest to diverse community groups (Sperling et al. 1993). Not involving women or poor users may bring negative, not just neutral, consequences. In the Gambia, men's production systems involved almost 100% adoption of high yielding variety (HYV) rice, and female production systems remained based on the use of Oyza glabberima, a rice species indigenous to West Africa. This wholesale adoption by men marginalized women's products and transferred other rice lands into the hands of men who received all benefits from commercial sale (S. Hecht, personal communication, 1998, citing the work of J. Carney).The overview of formal-led PPB cases pointed to specific ways in which PPB has helped researchers focus their efforts on the poorer sectors and highlighted some strategies for addressing their particular needs:(1) Testing in low-input situations, (2) Emphasizing the development of some early varieties (often grown by farmers among an array of varieties that fill different use niches), (3) Paying attention to multiple crop uses in the selection process, (4) Identifying a diversity of varieties so as to stabilize production, and (5) Ensuring that varieties grown for the market have characteristics that can fetch good prices.Varietal diversity increased. Many of the examined cases of PPB involve farmers in the testing of more varieties than traditionally takes place during the adaptive or extension phase of formal research. It is commonly observed that farmers' selections differ as their needs differ, for example, farmers who own poor land tend to prefer different varieties than farmers who have better fields. Women farmers often select more explicitly on grain quality characteristics and make different choices than do men farmers. The outcome of PPB programs is usually that different farmers in different communities select different varieties and thus PPB in most cases has contributed to increased varietal diversity.A clear example is the \"Informal Research and Development\" (IRD) program initiated in Nepal with the explicit objective of increasing the varietal diversity of rice varieties suitable for early planting under irrigated conditions (chaite rice) (Joshi et al. 1995). Potentially useful rice varieties identified by researchers were distributed to about 1800 households in the target area for this project. Farmers were given some written information about the variety they received and were encouraged to compare it with their own variety in their own fields. Researchers did not participate in these evaluations, but returned 2 years later to a sample of the recipient farmers to assess the effect of the approach.The follow-up revealed that about 35% of farmers who had received a seed packet had adopted from one to four varieties of the six distributed for testing. In this area, a single cultivar was dominating cultivation prior to the participatory work. Most of the farmers who decided to adopt a new variety belonged to the group of farmers who regularly produce sufficient or surplus food for their families. Only 15 % of the adopters belonged to the food deficit group. Interestingly, the preferences for specific cultivars seemed to differ between farmers belonging to these different groups, indicating that they have different needs for cultivars and their key characteristics. A conclusion of this report is that not any one single variety could meet all these needs. This IRD approach proved to be a powerful tool for offering a wide range of diversity to a wide range of farmers.Similarly impressive PPB results relating to enhanced varietal diversity occurred in two major cassava-growing regions of Colombia: a seasonally dry ecosystem in the north (an area with poor soils and 800-1000 mm rainfall annually, bimodally distributed), and more recently the highlands of southwest Colombia (Iglesias et al. 1990). Researchers from the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) and a branch of the Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA) initiated a participatory crop improvement effort in 1996. The aims were to learn more about farmer criteria for choosing cassava varieties for consumption, marketing, and processing, and to evaluate traits within a genetic base that had not been preselected, hopefully to generate varieties that were both more acceptable and more \"biodiverse\". An average of 28 communities per year were involved in the clonal evaluation effort in northern Colombia, with community participation organized via chip-drying cooperatives.Researchers quickly realized that effective varietal comparisons could be made only if the planting material for local varieties and new breeders' clones was produced under similar conditions, to avoid bias caused simply by its health and vigor. This concern was addressed by producing all planting material in a common location under conditions approximating those of the farmers. It also became clear that farmers and researchers often used different terms for variety evaluation; a glossary of farmer evaluation terms was compiled.Farmer evaluations of advanced clones from cassava breeding programs resulted in the release of three new varieties in northern Colombia (a significant addition to the two varieties in use). Through this process, researchers acquired a better understanding of farmers' selection criteria and were able to quantify certain of them in ways that would facilitate researchers' selections (e.g., farmers' preference for \"hard\" roots corresponded to roots of over 35% dry matter.) A unique aspect of this work is that researchers developed a cost comparison between their farmer-participatory approach and traditional variety evaluation, indicating that data points from farmer-participatory trials cost about US$ 0.50 and those from typical researcher-managed advanced yield trials cost about US$ 0.80.Changes in variety release procedure and seed production system. Centralized fora or committees for any individual country usually enforce variety release procedures. Needs of specific regions, especially in marginal areas, and those specific consumers or users are not easily considered in such centralized procedures. As PPB tends to reveal such differentiated needs and those for diversity, recommendations on how to change the existing release procedures are often a direct result of working more closely with farmers. Participatory research also contributes to making farmers more aware of these procedures and can spur ways for farmers to initiate policy changes.A PPB program in India is working to encourage formal committees to give greater official weight to farmer evaluations. The program argues that data synthesized from farmer varietal evaluations (i.e., qualitative assessments) should be used as a base for varietal release decisions. In many cases, such data may be more predictive of future adoption than the standard yield measurements, which form the core of most release decisions (J. Witcombe, personal communication, 1998).Work with potatoes in eastern Africa further demonstrates how standard, but more rigid, procedures can become more flexible. A thorough survey and enhanced interaction between farmers, breeders, and social scientists led to changes in the selection and release procedures for potato varieties in Rwanda. The main difference was that testing of varieties for release was done under no external input conditions. The program resulted in the release of several new varieties during the first 5 years, a short time. Farmers readily accepted these varieties and two varieties could be found countrywide 5 years later (Haugerud and Collinson 1990).Often PPB goes hand in hand with recommendations to develop or build on local, more decentralized seed systems, which can provide location-specific varieties that farmers themselves effectively multiply and distribute. For instance, prior to the civil strife in the early 1990s, both Rwanda and Burundi Ministries of Agriculture and Rural Development tabled plans for decentralizing seed services-partly to accommodate more decentralized breeding (Sperling, personal communication, 1998). Programs of PPB are also increasingly including seed production components, which are integrated and innovative, to quickly deliver the positive impacts that PPB can achieve. Good examples of this come from the PPB and seed work with cassava in Colombia (Iglesias et al. 1990) and with potato in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador through a set of collaborations between the national seed projects and the Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) (Thiele et al. 1997;Thiele 1999).Organizational innovation often proves central to the kinds of impact that PPB programs strive to achieve. Decentralization of screening can link testing to truly local conditions, and give a leap to the seed multiplication and diffusion process. Several PPB programs have considered organizational innovation to be at the core of their work.An example is the barley breeding research of ICARDA in collaboration with national programs in Syria and northern Africa. The program has shown that decentralizing the breeding program is essential for achieving genetic gains under growing conditions that are common in farmers' fields (i.e., low external inputs) and the high frequency of drought stress and frost during the flowering and seed set stages of crop development. The program has achieved initial forms of decentralization by developing new research stations located in the target region of the specific breeding programs (Ceccarelli et al. 1996). At present, it is experimenting with further decentralization through testing breeding material in farmers' fields in the initial stages of the selection program. In this case, the key partners in the research are a few farmers chosen for their interest in barley improvement and their willingness to accommodate a relatively large researcher-designed and researcher-managed experiment in their fields. Initial results indicate that this further decentralization is highly effective and the breeding program is benefiting from farmers being involved in the selection process.The issue of decentralization (and its mirror, scaling up) was the direct subject of investigations in the Great Lakes' Region, in both Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Several options for decentralization were \"tested\": through the extension service, through self-designated farmer research groups, and through farmers' cooperatives and women's groups. Several seasons of testing showed the most effective channel, for both feedback to research and feed forward to farming communities was the women's groups and cooperatives (which, in this case, were female). In the Rwandan instance, the women's group (supported by an NGO, COOPIBU) multipled and distributed a ton of bean seed before the other organizations made the final decision on which varieties to multiply. The DRC cooperative, \"Women United for the Development of Burhale\" (Femmes solidaires pour le développement de Burhale [FESODEU]), chose to multiply and market their selections packaged in small packets of 50 to 100g to their 5000-strong membership and sold all the multiplied material in a matter of weeks. However, using such groups results in sporadic rather than a more universal coverage (Sperling 1994).The WARDA is also pursuing the issue of decentralization, and on an impressive scale. With its National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) partners in 17 West African countries, WARDA has initiated PPB programs with a focus on experimental varieties (in some cases also released) relatively late in the selection process. The group is evaluating, with partners such as extension and development agencies, NGOs, and cooperatives, the effectiveness of testing varieties with farmers'participation (M Jones, T Dalton, and N Lilja, personal communication, 1998).This review of about 40 formal-led PPB programs demonstrates that a wide range of impacts were achieved through use of participatory approaches, despite the short time that most of these projects have been in operation. Through the close collaboration of farmers and formal researchers, breeding progress was made in regions where variety improvement efforts of centralized programs with large uniform target regions have been less than successful. Farmer participation opened new opportunities for reducing the lag-time between variety testing, release, and adoption; and, through making new germplasm available to farmers in experimental quantities, the basis for adoption was repeatedly laid. The improved understanding of local seed production and dissemination systems allowed researchers and project managers to overcome specific seed system constraints and to make targeted interventions to overcome seed supply problems quickly. This helped farmers gain access to the desired seeds rapidly, from known and reliable seed sources. Farmer participatory breeding programs also led to new alliances between research and development organizations. As a result, changes occurred in the orientation of breeding programs and in variety release procedures, and changes in formal seed regulatory policies were recommended and in some cases (in Latin Amercia, Africa, and Asia) implemented.Achieving specific benefits for specific user groups, such as poor or women farmers, really only became possible through participatory research programs. Enhancing their capacity to voice their concerns and needs was a major outcome of programs that explicitly targeted this type of goal. Such user-driven programs were also often those that had a complementary strong capacity building component-to strengthen farmers' own breeding, selection, and seed management skills. In the cases examined, such skill building proved integral to the scaling-up of the specific participatory breeding effort.Although the impact of PPB to date has been impressive, this review of programs also highlights that many options for farmer participation in the plant breeding process are yet to be explored. Having more widespread goals, focussing on a broader range of crops, working with explicitly more diverse user groups, and experimenting with organizational options may identify wider and more varied benefits that PPB can achieve.Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB) denotes a range of activities that seek closer user involvement in crop development and/or seed supply. PPB promises to meet different (although possibly conflicting) goals: improved crop development, biodiversity conservation, and farmer empowerment. We can draw a useful distinction between \"formal-led PPB\", where farmers join a formally initiated process of crop development, and \"farmer-led PPB\", where the farmers' own crop development or seed supply systems receive support. These systems are not completely distinct, and possible starting points for PPB may extend along a continuum. Formal-led overshadows farmer-led PPB, both in the literature and the way in which PPB is usually conceived. However, farmer-led PPB deserves more attention. Farmer breeding remains important wherever formal systems fail to fulfil the needs of all users, particularly where environments (ecological and socioeconomic) for crop growth and use vary, or differ greatly from those tested by formal breeding. Farmer breeding is also the main force for development for so-called minor crops. For these reasons, and because formal seed supply may not be timely, nor affordable, nor offer suitable diversity, farmers' own sources (farm-saved seed, local sale, exchange) continue to supply 80% of planting material worldwide.Considerable activity, initiated by grass-roots social movements and (less heralded) by farmers themselves, suggests that farmer-led PPB may be more prevalent, and be found in different places, than we realize. Different possible objectives for farmer-led PPB point to multiple definitions of impact. Moreover, basing work in informal systems points to different perspectives on \"participation\" than seen in formal-led PPB. Here, we explore these issues through 11 documented case studies of farmer-led PPB, which reveal different approaches to supporting farmers' systems of crop development and seed exchange (McGuire and Manicad 1998).Table 1 lists cases. Briefly, the Beej Bachao Andolan (BBA) is an independent farmers' initiative to collect, test, select, and promote diverse varieties of different crops. Both the Comités de Investigación Agricola Local (CIALs) and the Sustainable Agriculture and Village Extension Project. (SAVE) organize farmers' groups to test and promote new varieties and technologies. Several CIALs developed local seed production enterprises. The communitybased center, CONSERVE, collects and conserves regional rice varieties; training farmers to evaluate and further breed this diversity. In Guanxi province, China, women farmers in two different villages organize selection to regenerate locally valued maize varieties. Projects in Alternative Agriculture (PTA) support communities of small holders across Brazil to evaluate, conserve, and further breed farmers' varieties of maize. The Relief Society of Tigray (REST) supports community seed banks for variety conservation and affordable seed supply to Tigray farmers, mobilizing skilled farmers for local selection and storage. The Seeds of Hope (SOH) project sought to resupply to Rwandan farmers valued varieties that were lost during the genocide, using farmers to identify material. Users' Perspectives With Agricultural Research and Development (UPWARD) organizes farmers' groups to collect and conserve local varieties through community seed banks. A century ago, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) mailed millions of seed packets of novel varieties and species to farmers for testing, adaptation, and selection. Finally, the Escuela Agrícola Panamericana (EAP)-Zamorano Agricultural School promotes the continued use and development of local maize varieties, training farmers in selection methods. Farmer-led PPB is based in farmer practice and is distinguished by its wide range of possible approaches for support, including germplasm, skill development, promotion of links among users and between institutions, and indirect approaches. Work with germplasm includes input of materials, support to storage, improving germplasm access, and making good or novel material more \"visible\". Indirect needs involve market development, education and promotion, and policy lobbying.Informal institutions such as local nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are more prominent than formal-led PPB. The nature of institutions supporting PPB influences program goals as well as approaches and capacities for impact evaluation. For example, informal institutions may place 79 more emphasis on developing farmers' critical awareness, but less on formal monitoring and evaluation, than do formal research institutions. However, for all cases and types of institutions, assessing impact (especially for empowerment-related objectives) and weighing trade-offs among objectives pose considerable challenge. Finally, farmer-led PPB offers different meanings for \"participation\"; because corresponding non-participatory (i.e., formal) work is usually absent, assessing the impact of participation per se is difficult.Working with farmers helped meet a wide range of objectives through PPB. For crop-related goals, in many cases the supply of previously unavailable crops or varieties helped farmers to increase their cropping options. Farmer participation was valuable in collecting germplasm, screening it for local adaptation, and supplying it to others, helping to rapidly identify and promote promising material (e.g., PTA, SAVE, CIALs, USDA, BBA, CONSERVE, and REST). Further, in some cases farmers themselves selected and improved crops according to their own objectives (e.g., Guanxi, REST, USDA, PTA, CONSERVE, and EAP). Farmers did this both of their own accord and encouraged by skills-support from project interventions-most notable in the last three examples. Support frequently involved the supply of exotic material, although in some cases the \"visibility\" and thus the awareness and use of local germplasm was increased. Farmers' seed systems were also involved to ensure access to such materials, especially for poorer groups (e.g., CONSERVE, REST, PTA, and Guanxi). Local seed storage systems, using traditional or adapted methods effectively enhanced local germplasm availability; and often also served as in situ conservation, keeping material in use that might otherwise have been lost to the region (e.g., BBA, CONSERVE, PTA, REST, and UPWARD).Participation is essential for meeting other, non crop-related objectives, such as skillsenhancement, devolution of decisions, and empowerment. Farmer involvement shaped approaches and helped determine training priorities for skills' development in breeding and germplasm evaluation, contributing to successes in SAVE, EAP, CIALs, CONSERVE, and PTA. Often, farmers share skills among themselves (both local \"good practices\" and new skills). For example, in breeding, a few cases tried to enhance a process that was already occurring. Some cases sought a deep level of participation, presenting farmers or farmer groups with a choice of goals to pursue, tailoring approaches to individual or local needs. Others worked with farmers to develop critical awareness of related issues, such as genetic resource and seed release policy (e.g., CONSERVE and PTA). Such approaches aim for user empowerment.Although women dominated two cases (SOH and Guanxi), only UPWARD described using gender analysis, successfully linking women's roles with seed conservation. For diagnosis and impact assessment, differentiation by stakeholders in general and by gender in particular, remains a major gap in PPB work to date.Occasionally, PPB is less successful, particularly with highly technical activities (e.g., selection and evaluation or documentation), because of limited knowledge (either of farmers or institutions) or local resource limitations, such as insufficient land. However, farmers sometimes compensated by adjusting goals and practices or by seeking technical assistance or training. The nature and level of farmer participation, the supporting institutions, and the types of relationships they establish, strongly shape the impact of PPB.Two aspects of \"participation\" are important in farmer-led PPB and distinguish it to some extent from formal-led work: subject-position and objective of participation. The subject-position (who involves or supports whom to do what) shapes perspectives on participation. Formal-led projects usually seek to involve farmers to varying degrees in their activities. Perspectives in farmer-led work tend to vary more. Projects may be externally or farmer-initiated and may try to support farmer processes such as seed exchange or not intervene in particular processes (although projects may count on them for impact). BBA and Guanxi are examples of farmer initiatives with little outside support. Participation can only be understood from a position within the community. Further, participation may aim for agricultural or social development objectives (compare Okali et al. 1994). Farmer-led projects have a greater tendency to pursue transformative goals with participation, with a strong emphasis on empowerment.With these aspects in mind, we consider processes of participation. Farmers directly involved in PPB activities broadly group into two: those who experiment and those who are poorer or seed-insecure. More formal institutions that introduce new germplasm or skills correlate well with the first group, and the second group relates more to local initiatives supporting local seed systems for security and diversity of access. Some cases, such as PTA or CONSERVE, target poorer farmers, while UPWARD organized both a women's group and a (male) tribal group. Others (e.g., SOH and SAVE) acknowledged barriers to poorer groups participating.Several cases (e.g., CIALs, SAVE, and UPWARD) successfully involved farmers through groups, some were formed especially for project work, while others (e.g., CONSERVE, PTA, REST, and EAP) derived from existing local institutions such as cooperatives, labor unions, or farmer organizations. Guanxi and BBA worked through informal local associations in their own communities. The relationship between such groups and the wider community was little examined. The institutional association of groups influences their accountability; for example, member-driven institutions with structured involvement (such as cooperatives) may be more transparent.Lead collaborators are often self-selected out of individual interest, or are taken to represent a particular group (often, but not always, elected by the group). Some cases collaborated with farmers recognized as local experts. Assessments suggest that focusing on a smaller group of skilled collaborators can save time and facilitate technical work, especially if that group has a specific role in farmer breeding or seed supply. However, the needs and preferences of particular stakeholders may be missed if no broader input is given, or they may be cut off from dissemination. The project UPWARD offers both positive and negative examples; their women's group effectively linked conservation to a gender-specific role in household seed security, but their tribal group (male, élite) had poor ties with the community.Just as work often developed from germplasm input to evaluation, adaptive trials, seed multiplication, and local sale, the roles of participants also evolved. Farmer groups often became more independent with experience, starting new activities or demanding specific services or support. For instance, farmers considered forming new associations for training others (e.g., CONSERVE) or seed production (e.g., CIALs and SAVE).The participation of broad groups of users is most important in diagnosing problems (a stakeholder analysis of the seed system) and in setting goals. Some cases (CONSERVE and PTA) developed analytical frameworks with farmers to diagnose local constraints to farmer breeding, and chose approaches similar to those mentioned in this chapter's introduction. However, some cases began strongly inclined to certain goals, such as conservation. This influenced other choices, such as type of germplasm, and sometimes conflicted with other farmer interests, as seen in UPWARD. These issues of problem diagnosis, involving different users, and institutional inclinations, merit much further attention.With a wide range of goals, cases defined impact in different ways. Central to most cases were germplasm and breeding-related objectives:(1) Increased choice of acceptable varieties (CIALs, SAVE, PTA, BBA, USDA, CONSERVE, and SOH).(2) Improved varieties that better meet user needs in yield, quality traits, stability, etc.(CONSERVE, PTA, REST, EAP, and Guanxi). These are measured by: (a) Adoption rates, (b) Farmer or formal evaluation, and (c) Income (includes that from seed sales -USDA and CIALs).(3) Seed system goals are related to this, improving access of material to users via:(a) Enhanced \"visibility\" or greater awareness of useful germplasm and where to find it (REST), (b) Increased local knowledge of performance, e.g., locally relevant evaluation information (CIALs, SAVE, PTA, BBA, and CONSERVE), and (c) Better availability through sufficient, timely, and affordable supply, such as through community gene banks (REST, UPWARD, and PTA). ( 4) Support for alternative (e.g., low-input) cropping systems (CONSERVE, BBA, and PTA).Objectives in skills enhancement for breeding, selection, or testing usually were to impart new skills to farmers, addressing gaps in knowledge and practice (EAP, PTA, CONSERVE, and CIALs). However, some cases sought to extend local \"best practice\" among farmers (REST, Guanxi, and BBA), although they did not explicitly state this as an objective. In either case, indicators include skills that are learned correctly, learned flexibly and adapted to local contexts, and transferred.Many cases sought biodiversity-enhancement (BBA, CONSERVE, PTA, REST, SOH, UPWARD, EAP) where:(1) More varieties and species are in active local use, (2) Local capacity for conservation (ex situ or on-farm) is enhanced, and (3) Local material is valued and used more.Indicators considering diversity at the genetic level were less common. Some cases considered an important outcome to be improved links:(1) Among farmers, with more exchanges, group meetings, workshops, or other informal encounters, and (2) Between farmer and formal institutions, with more visits or germplasm exchange events.Finally, empowerment was a common objective, seen in terms of:(1) Improved self-reliance, (2) Increased farmer control over resources and decisions (often related to processes previously abandoned; PTA), and (3) Enhanced capacity, seen at three levels:(a) Skills -capacity developed in germplasm management or breeding (EAP, CIALs), (b) Systems -capacity developed in research skills, awareness of seed systems, and germplasm collections, e.g., farmers can identify and access germplasm and test its applicability (BBA), and (c) Policy -capacity developed to critically understand and influence the direction of research or of relevant policy areas, such as intellectual property rights (IPRs), germplasm access, and seed policy, e.g., farmers develop positions on farmers' rights and germplasm exchange (CONSERVE and PTA).Some cases tried to assess the nature of participation, in terms of how many and who were involved and to what depth. Again, subject-positions reflect how \"participation\" is perceived. Usually, externally initiated projects that formed farmer groups made some attempt to specify the nature of participation and the level of involvement of different user groups. The projects of EAP, CIALs, UPWARD, and SAVE noted women's participation (low except for UPWARD), although only the last two projects specified social status/wealth of participants. Other projects reflected farmer-initiatives or local institutions (NGOs, farmers' groups, or associations), whose internal dynamics are little known (e.g., BBA, CONSERVE, Guanxi, REST, and PTA). Overall, cases did not differentiate impact by user groups (e.g., according to wealth or gender). Only SOH, with its large survey, specifically evaluated access to benefits for different user groups.Among cases, the terms of impact vary with different goals, and the processes for assessment were both externally and internally initiated. A few cases had more formal, external evaluations (SAVE, REST, and CONSERVE), while SOH conducted two formal, random sample surveys to measure the effect and social scope of their seed supply activities. Although most cases sought feedback from farmers to some degree, CONSERVE and PTA had participatory evaluations using indicators from earlier participatory problem diagnosis and goal setting with farmers. Analysis and negotiation of new goals between farmers and NGOs were explicitly related to conceptual frameworks. Internally initiated assessments (e.g., BBA and Guanxi) were not described, but are presumably more informal and participatory in the broad sense in that users themselves determined progress and modified their goals over time. Overall, participatory methods among cases involving more formal institutions were little discussed. However, few cases provided detail on the process of diagnosis or goal setting, which is implicit in farmer-only initiatives. This is unfortunate, as farmers' own indicators for PPB work could offer many insights.Methods for assessment included meetings where users discussed impact issues, or seminars or workshops with dispersed groups or individuals (e.g., PTA, CIALs, and EAP). For instance, a workshop involving some former trainees enabled EAP to assess how effectively skills were transferred, and to estimate the number of farmers to whom these skills were passed. Most cases noted farmers' enthusiasm (or lack thereof) for seed, training, or conservation work, often using this as an ex post justification that the initial problem diagnosis was correct. For example, SAVE remarked that the incredible popularity and wide use of its seed packets indicated that farmers had lacked access to new sources of germplasm. Only the CIALs undertook a cost-benefit analysis to show savings in extension staff time from farmer participation, although the USDA calculated financial benefits up to 1916 from novel crop and variety introductions, showing that these greatly outweighed the (considerable) costs of collection and distribution to farmers. On the whole, tools and approaches for assessment receive little detailed discussion; the lack of reflexive discussion and of processes for diagnosis or assessment, makes it difficult to analyze methods comparatively.Although assessing some crop development goals, such as yield, is relatively straightforward, only a few cases (CIALs, CONSERVE, PTA, and EAP) reported formal measurements of performance. Other cases rely on farmers' own assessments; PTA in particular noting farmer preference for information from single large plots rather than small replicated plots from formal testing. Assessments of other agronomic or performance characters, or the number and diversity of testing sites gave little detail, although this was certainly an issue when users or environments varied greatly. Measuring impact on biodiversity impact poses more challenges; only SOH is directly measuring genetic diversity, although other cases considered diversity at the level of morphological varieties. Some conceptual challenges for assessing the impact of farmer-led PPB remain unaddressed. One such is a basis for comparison: no case used formal controls (i.e., parallel work in conventional breeding), and even a retroactive comparison is difficult as most cases had no formal work that directly corresponded with project activities. Another conceptual challenge is that of trade-offs between different objectives. How crop genetic diversity may interact with production-related goals (two goals that several cases combine), or the relationship between breeding strategies and farmer empowerment, is complex. Such trade-offs carry important implications for PPB methodology. Baselines (largely absent) are needed to evaluate changes. Better analytical frameworks to relate different goals and to put farmers' decisions (e.g., for diversity use) in a social and ecological context could greatly help in weighing trade-offs and in projecting future impact. Current research (e.g., IPGRI 1996) may help to fill this gap in the future.PPB activities congruent with existing practices, roles, and institutions, such as farmers' selection and exchange, tended to be more effective. Diagnosis, particularly of gaps or limiting factors to farmer breeding, was important for this, and a stakeholder analysis of local seed systems is necessary to disaggregate needs and roles by different users. CONSERVE and PTA effectively worked with communities to diagnose needs, developing their own analytical frameworks to allow decentralization and give local groups greater choice of goals. Linking local groups through meetings or through networks (especially for cases aligned with social movements) can facilitate such decentralization through further exchanges of experience, spread of germplasm and ideas, and the formation of new groups (e.g., CIALs, PTA, SAVE, and BBA). However, explicit consideration of user-differentiated needs and impacts was sparse in most cases and remains an important gap in all PPB work. Some approaches helped impact. Targeting specific users (e.g., tenants or women) at the outset helped some cases to focus support strategies. Species focus, or testing site locations and conditions, can help target specific groups (although equally it can exclude them). Other technical choices can help keep participation broad, such as supplying seed in small amounts to keep prices low, reaching more farmers, or avoiding that seed become a resource of interest to local élites (e.g., SAVE and USDA). Finally, working through groups can allow involving those with time constraints (such as the very poor), and enable difficult activities for individuals (e.g., testing in multiples sites or variety isolation) to take place (e.g., PTA, Guanxi, and SAVE). As with networks, groups can help make superior germplasm, skills, or practices more \"visible\", and facilitate farmer-to-farmer extension and exchange. Nonetheless, more information on internal group dynamics, and on how such groups relate with the broader community, will be needed to assess user-specific impact.As demonstrated by SOH, poor or socially marginal users may lack access to germplasm despite its local availability. Support to local seed systems was useful for improving some users' access to germplasm, whether for local (e.g., REST) or exotic (e.g., PTA) materials. Some cases enhanced farmers' ability to assess material through training in more formal screening techniques, or through organizing wide testing (especially for novel species) and documentation, to evaluate across different management and environmental conditions.Often, local storage effectively improved germplasm access or short-term conservation, although this benefited from links to existing roles and activities. Farmer evaluations enhanced the value of such collections, although usually for their own rather than more formal use.Developing skills that addressed knowledge gaps (e.g., pollination biology -EAP) or specific applied goals (e.g., isolation of desired types -Guanxi and PTA) was widely appreciated and effective. Flexible, farmer-centered approaches, and focus on basic principles helped farmers adapt techniques to their own situations. These are effective working guidelines, although only EAP describes specific training methods.Projects lacking diagnoses of user needs and practices had difficulty in maintaining interest. A lack of clarity with participants about objectives can also jeopardize work. For example, existing home gardens made UPWARD's separate establishment of community seed banks redundant. Also, tribal leaders had little interest in production, which did not mesh well with the NGOs' interest in conservation.In some cases, support from other institutions could help in PPB work and impact assessment, especially where knowledge or resources are limiting. For example, although farmers can understand and describe morphology, important aspects of biodiversity may still be missed. Although documentation and baselines are necessary to accurately assess changes in biodiversity, they remain weak areas because participants have not received support and often continue unconvinced of their potential value. Despite the potential for technical backstopping and complementary institutional roles, few attempts to forge links between NGOs or farmer groups and formal institutions have built lasting or two-way ties. Counting on such links early in a project's development could pose problems. Barriers to cooperation, both structural (economic or policy) and cultural (distrust), lie between these highly different types of institutions and need to be understood and addressed for future work to build better links.Goals, perspectives on participation, and approaches to evaluation are manifold. No single PPB approach or definition of participation can address all perspectives in farmer-led PPB. However, attention to seed systems was a common factor in farmer-led PPB for problem diagnosis and for considering access to benefits. Participation is particularly important in diagnosing needs and in setting goals, and helps later evaluation to also be participatory. Nevertheless, more transparency among stakeholders in setting goals would improve some cases. Frameworks for considering support approaches can help by looking at factors that may constrain farmer breeding, and proper baselines would help assess impact. However, this still needs to consider farmers' crop development, biodiversity conservation, and empowerment as a process, and look to userdifferentiated impacts.Many questions remain unanswered for PPB practice. For instance, in skills development, what subjects are most important, and what methods allow for flexible, adaptive learning? Approaches for testing or selection to address highly diverse or variable environments or users' groups also need more attention. Future work that explicitly compares different tools and methods (for diagnosis, training, breeding, etc.) would be valuable, although more reflexive discussion helps in all cases. From the multiple objectives, possible outputs (both products and processes) are diverse. A common set of criteria for assessment across different case studies may be of limited use at this stage.Internal evaluation, especially for local initiatives, is important and links to other goals for local independence and empowerment. Farmers' indicators and opinions are important, but more attention needs to be focused on how these relate to others' indicators, especially where other types of institutions are cooperating. Indicators for some goals remain difficult and understanding trade-offs between different types of goals or approaches is highly challenging. Helping to guide projects in decision making requires more than just good baselines; it requires conceptual frameworks for understanding processes (such as farmer decisions affecting on-farm genetic diversity), and assessing trade-offs, both with goals and methodologies.Future work must pay greater attention to a stakeholder analysis of how needs and benefits differ by user, also including non-farmer stakeholders, who have scarcely been considered to date. Evaluating differences in user accessibility to germplasm or to knowledge, as done in SOH, may be useful here. Horizontal exchange of germplasm, skills, or information is an important aspect of farmer-led PPB, and needs more attention in evaluating impact. Finally, farmer-led PPB raises important policy issues, suggesting that changes in policy or researcher attitudes should also be monitored.Institutions are important to farmer-led PPB. The relationship between institutions and communities structures the effects on different users. Further, despite their potential, interactions between different types of institutions to support work and evaluation remain weak. At the very least, the level and quality of institutional interactions need to be prioritized in future impact indicators. Some important proponents of farmer-led PPB are closely tied to social movements and genetic resource politics. For institutional cooperation (and, indeed, farmer-led PPB) to develop, we need a better understanding -and respect -of diverse perspectives on PPB and participation, and of the tensions that can arise among institutions. Agricultural research and extension are often male dominated domains. The introduction of women's projects, and more recently the gender perspective and gender differentiation, are issues frequently taken as a fashion rather than as a substantial contribution to rural development.However, the reality in many societies in Africa south of the Sahara is that male labor migration into towns over several decades has resulted in a situation where female-headed households outnumber male-headed ones in the rural areas. Also, even in the male-headed households, women often carry out the main agricultural work. The question arises: are the men the farmers or are they merely the husbands of the farmers? For research and extension to be successful, agents must address the people who work on the land-men or women.The project Conservation Tillage for Sustainable Crop Production Systems (ConTill) began in 1988 as a research project with two research stations, one near Harare and one near Masvingo (300 km south of Harare). The project was based in the Institute of Agricultural Engineering (IAE) of the Department of Agricultural, Technical, and Extension Services (AGRITEX), the national agricultural extension service. Researchers of the department who wanted to expand their work on soil erosion elaborated the initial project concept. The goal was to test different conservation tillage techniques. After testing on the research station, the extension service was to disseminate the proven techniques to smallholder farmers to halt the alarming rate of soil erosion. The user group of the project results was the extension service for whom the project was to develop extension messages; and farmers were the indirect target group. The project approach reflected the thinking of the department at that time, following the transfer of technology (TOT) model, where researchers develop technologies, extension hands them down to farmers who are left as recipients of \"proven\" technologies and who are expected to adopt them. Social issues in general and that of gender in particular were not considered at the start because the project was simply expected to develop technical solutions.The project decided to embark on an on-farm trial program in 1990 because on-station research proved to have little effect. Adaptive on-farm trials were initiated in which farmers were encouraged to test and adapt a researcher technique. Again, at this stage the project did not carry out a gender analysis and did not consider gender-specific issues.In the first year of working with farmers in on-farm trials, the importance of social issues, communication, gender, and participation were revealed as major issues. The active involvement and dialogue with male and female farmers during that year revealed that the TOT model did not suit smallholder conditions and different extension approaches had to be considered. The dynamics, more insights, and analysis during the work with farmers caused the on-farm component of the project to develop into farmer participatory research. In 1994, the lessons of the action learning process were synthesized into an approach for participatory innovation development and extension and practiced as a new extension approach in seven intervention areas (Hagmann et al. 1997;1998a). This approach is being integrated into the extension department (Hagmann et. al 1998b).Two baseline surveys that considered stakeholder analysis and gender issues were carried out: in 1991 in Gutu District and in 1994 in Zaka District of Masvingo Province. The needs and interests of men and women in terms of labor distribution, work organization, crop preferences, and access to resources were identified according to household categories, which were classified according to household headship. To highlight the diversity within female-headed households they were divided into de facto (where the husband has migrated to town) and de jure (comprising widows and unmarried women). Table 1 gives an overview of the situation, which is representative of many areas in Zimbabwe.In the working area 40% to 60% of all the households are female-headed, but only slightly more than 10% of these participate in agricultural extension training. Even in male-headed households women carry out most fieldwork and have more agricultural knowledge than do men (Schäfer 1998). These figures may partly explain the low output and success of extension. In agricultural extension, only about 10% of the extension workers are female.De facto female-headed households are the wealthiest. High remittances from their husbands who work in towns enable them to hire labor and draught power and to buy fertilizer if required. However, this situation also makes the households more independent from the agricultural output and can result in low production because of low interest in agriculture. The poorest people in rural areas are the de jure female-headed households. Widows in particular belong to the most disadvantaged group in society. They still have access to land (which is officially registered under the husband), but have few resources for production.Decision-making competence is highly variable. In male-headed households, men (officially) make most decisions on agriculture. However, women traditionally cultivate certain crops, such as groundnuts and vegetables. In female-headed households, women make most decisions except in cases where the husband comes home regularly. Communication within families, within communities, and between farmers and extension workers proved to be insufficient. This situation is a source of disagreement and conflict and renders any development intervention ineffective unless these issues are specifically addressed.As part of the extension department, we initially did not want to impose too many new procedures. Therefore, the on-farm program began conventionally and left the farmer selection and initiation to the local extension workers. They chose mainly male farmers who often were also members of the master farmer club on which extension focused its training. The project stressed partnership and invited these selected and interested (male) farmers and the extension worker to the research station and explained and discussed the future joint venture in detail.Assuming that families operate like typical core families, we thought that although the women did not join their husbands at the research station, these farmers would inform their wives of what occurred. Water being a major problem in the area, the farmers were interested in a number of soil and water conservation techniques of which they were asked to choose one to test on their fields. They were interested and eager to test a tillage system called \"tied ridging\", which provides obvious benefits in water conservation. A visit to farmers' fields and a method demonstration was agreed upon and a date planned. At the end of the visit to the research station, both the extension worker and researchers believed they had successfully initiated the program in a participatory manner. The reality proved them wrong (see Situations 1). Situation 1: Information flow: Where is the blockage? A week after the visit to the research station we made a follow-up visit to these farmers. Naturally we assumed that after visiting the research center the farmers would discuss their impressions with their families and explain what they wanted to do and what had been agreed. Mr Mapuranga had visited the research station, but was not at home when we visited. Assuming that his wife would be well informed we asked her about progress in implementing what was discussed at the research station. To our surprise, she knew nothing of her husband's visit and refused to implement any trial because of this. The reaction of other wives also surprised us. Whenever the husband was not available they simply invited us to leave a message. Few appeared interested in discussing the matter with us.A similar occasion happened 3 years later, when the farmers again wanted to visit the research station. Lack of transport permitted including only one person per household. We stressed the preference of a balance of women and men. The visit went well, half of the households being represented by women and half by men. A week later we specifically assessed the information flow by asking the person (husband or wife) who did not take part in the visit what information their partners had given them. Where wives had visited the station all the husbands were well informed except one. In the households where husbands went to the station, in only two out of 16 cases were their wives well informed.Situations like these reveal weak communication within the families, particularly between husbands and wives. The information flow appears to follow the hierarchical structure in which the male head of household is not obliged to inform other household members, but females and children are accountable to the male head and therefore information flows smoothly in this direction. We also realized that communication among female members of the household is better than that between the sexes. The same applied to communities; farmers complained that their leaders never reported on the meetings and courses they attended.The different perspectives of men and women on certain issues further complicate communication. For example, they were revealed strongly during a farmer workshop when the problem of land shortage was analyzed. Men were convinced uniformly that land pressure is simply a result of unequal land distribution, whereas women maintained their view in a heavy debate that too many children are the reason for land shortage and therefore birth control should be practiced. Generation conflict strains communication in the families yet further, so that it is difficult to speak of a homogenous family unit. Sociocultural change has contributed to a disruption of family relationships and communication (Hagmann 1993;Nyagumbo 1997). This fact must be specifically considered in the framework of an outside intervention.These revelations question the conventional extension approach. Another part of the learning process in the project showed that male domination in extension limits its attraction for women. Several factors explain the low attendance of women in extension meetings:(1) Suspicion and jealousy make it difficult for de facto female heads of household to attend extension meetings; their husbands in towns often do not allow their attendance. In areas where the male extension worker is known to have relationships with female farmers, their attendance is minimal. At present, only about 10% of extension workers are female.(2) Male-dominated extension focuses on the main (cash) crops whereas women are more interested in women's crops, food security, and diversity in nutrition.(3) Extension training focuses on the master farmer program to obtain a certificate, which requires a certain degree of literacy. Because of the education system, women are usually less educated (Lacher and Dikito 1991) and therefore can easily feel excluded and withdraw. (4) Women's workload (particularly caring for children) limits their availability for meetings.(5) Training facilities do not accommodate the women's needs (e.g., those breast-feeding were not allowed to enter certain facilities).Extension meetings and training sessions are mainly based on teaching through oral communication. Written or visual material would help better information flow within the family through sharing and debating, but hardly any is produced and given out to farmers. Therefore women who do not attend the meetings are solely dependent on the husband's verbal information. If he has misunderstood or forgotten parts of the lessons, no wonder the women, who carry out most of the fieldwork and who should finally translate this knowledge into practice, are lost and become skeptical about new ideas.Decision-making processes and rationales in farming families determine innovation development and extension. These processes are highly complex and can only be assessed through close monitoring and a trustful relationship with individuals. Often men and women stressed that the husband makes most of the decisions in the family and in farming, but the longer we knew these families and the more we interacted, the opposite turned out to be true (see Situations 2). Situations 2: \"Leading from behind.\" Mr Mambama, a farmer, was introduced to us as influential and the best cotton grower in the area and insisted we hold demonstrations on his farm. However, this was without the knowledge of his three wives. All preparations were made and researchers and other farmers went to his farm, but he was not there. His wives told us that the demonstrations could not be carried out because the head of household was not at home. Attempts were made on two more occasions, but both times he could not be found. Later, we discovered that the wives had been against the demonstrations. The famous and respected cotton grower did not want to lose face and felt ashamed to tell us that his wives had made their decision and boycotted him. Therefore he hid whenever he saw us coming. Whose priorities count? After a good harvest, we were interested in how the income from crop sales would be spent and who decided on these issues. Mr Tiri and his wife had a good harvest. We had known them for over 2 years and during a visit we asked Mr Tiri informally how many bags he would sell and how the money would be spent. He hesitated and put the number of bags at \"about two cart loads\". He quickly added that he would buy roofing material for the house with the money, and particularly stressed that he and no one else in the household makes such decisions. A week later, Mr Tiri was not at home, but his wife was working in the field. We asked her informally about crop prices, grading, and the usual problems. She was satisfied with prices, but they had not yet spent the money earned. She hesitantly added, \"I think we are going to buy a cow, but baba (the head of household) decides on such issues anyway.\" We returned to Mr. Tiri's homestead 3 weeks later and he proudly announced that he had bought a cow. These stories contradict the husbands' presentation of their position given below.Situations 3: Male generosity. Mrs Jena is a highly dedicated and successful de facto female head of household. During a field tour her husband, who lives in town and was never interested in farming, was present. He tried to present his wife's experiments and commented on our recognition of her work by emphasizing that her success was due to his influence and advice. The husband's property. In one case, the wife obtained a Master Farmer certificate and the husband (a teacher) wanted to insist that it be issued in his name because she was his wife.Analyzing these examples, it appears that women's status and power in decision making is much higher than perceived from outside. Proverbs such as \"if you want something from father, go to mother\" highlight women's position in the cultural tradition. Extension, however, is based on the outside perspective and does not consider real power relations. The examples in Situations 2 reveal that the decision-making criteria can hardly be modeled because they depend on power relations in the household and on spontaneous, situation-specific parameters that are highly dynamic and gender specific. Purely economic rationales have rather low priority. Therefore, technology development based on economic criteria alone is far too reductionist.We also realized that factors (e.g., resources and beliefs) tended to be highly variable between households such that there was no typical or average family situation. Also these social factors, for example household headship, tended to change quickly (Situations 4).Addressing a moving target. The Gwarimbas were one of eight households recommended to the project by extension staff. At the start of the season up to January, Mr Gwarimba headed the household. In February, he was sent to prison for 10 months for allegedly stealing a donkey. That left his wife as head of household. In May, she found employment in the local township and the eldest daughter assumed household headship. She married 3 months later and the next eldest took over as head. So within 1 year, this particular household changed from male-headed to mother female-headed to eldest daughter female-headed to second daughter female-headed. This was not a unique situation. In hardly any of the households and groups where we worked was the household headship stable over several years. Obviously, a differentiation and related planning in research and extension based on categories of household headship that are assessed in a baseline survey at a given time would be irrelevant in such a dynamic system. Technologies geared towards male or female farmers only might not address the households needs.Local institutions (traditional and modern) are increasingly recognized as the backbone for sustainable rural development. Interventions to strengthen existing local institutions are highly important and require a thorough analysis of their functions and roles in the rural society. The role of gender is a crucial factor that needs to be understood. Again, this can only be assessed successfully through long-term observation in a process of change (Situations 5).Situations 5: Don't trust the \"big men\"! On a field day we were introduced to the committee members of the farmers' club. One member was an ancient woman. The members stressed that she held the post of treasurer, the most important on the committee. They explained that the post makes or breaks most clubs and therefore requires a completely honest person, one who not even the chairman can persuade to abuse the club's finances. According to the committee members old ladies are best fitted for this post. The big man chairs. Group gardens are typically women's domain. Men are also involved, but women carry out most of the activities. We learned about a garden group with 20 members, one of whom was a man. He was nominated as the chairman of the group, although he was a builder and usually unavailable.The use of Venn diagrams is a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tool for analyzing local organizations. Venn diagrams revealed that women perceive institutions as important for certain functions (e.g., natural resource management) differently than do men. Further differences existed between the perceptions of young and old women and men. Women tended to be closer to the traditional institutions and men, particularly young ones, considered \"modern\" institutions such as village development committees and councilors more important. These differences must be considered in project implementation, where a forum or platform has to be built on which rural people can negotiate these different perspectives and can agree on the local institution and the appropriate members, male or female.An important problem with de facto female households was revealed in community workshops when the husbands working in town were unavailable. The husbands sometimes did not support important decisions, because they did not participate in the workshops. A way of overcoming this problem is to organize workshops at weekends when there is more likelihood of everyone's attendance.The experiences with regard to research and the technical development of innovations revealed differences in the behavior of male and female farmers. Overall women were more the technology testers and men more the innovators. Women expected clear guidelines and instructions on how exactly to carry out steps A to Z and then would rigidly and reliably follow them. Once these were agreed upon, most female-headed households were serious and reliable partners. However, when adapting and modifying technologies, developing their own ideas, and initiating their own experiments became involved, then men were more innovative. Many male farmers were not serious and reliable, but came up with new ideas and experiments much faster and more often than did women. They were more open to experimenting and taking risks. This pattern can be explained by women's traditional roles in the family hierarchy where they are more the executors and implementers (the decision \"takers\") of decisions made by elders and men. Within the given decision framework, however, women were able to create their own space. The rigid hierarchical structures were largely a result of colonial structures. Women's avoidance of high risk is part of the food security strategy, for which women feel more responsible because, for example, they raise the children.Many de facto female-headed households that received substantial remittances from husbands in town proved to be farm managers rather than farmers. As soon as they could afford to do so, they hired a cheap permanent laborer or casual laborers who carried out most of the fieldwork. An extreme example of this is when one woman apologized for her weed-infested field with the excuse that her laborer had left and never came back. So, she could not do the weeding. Depending on the commitment of the female farmers, high external resources can result in high production or, because of their independence, in low production. In some cases the husband in town has to make certain decisions. This can be disastrous if planting should be carried out and the woman has to wait for the husband to come and give the go-ahead. These cases, however, are rare and Schäfer (1998) found that women are proud of being able to make their own decisions.The methodology to consider the gender perspective that was applied in the project consisted of a developmental framework in the form of \"Training for Transformation\" (Hope and Timmel 1984). It emphasizes a more egalitarian development, includes both sexes equally, and offers more specific tools to strengthen the involvement of women and other gender sensitive methods.This training program was developed in Kenya in 1974 and adapted to Zimbabwean conditions by Hope and Timmel (1984). It originates in the pedagogy of Freire (1973) and is built on developing the conscience through participatory education, where learning is based on experience in the living world of the actor. Teaching therefore consists of dialogue via problem posing, which means facilitating communication and asking questions to help groups find the causes and the solutions themselves, instead of the teaching of \"foreign\" knowledge and realities. TFT provides concrete methods to implement Freire's approach and empowers local people to control their lives through actively participating in their own development and sharing ideas and knowledge. It stresses the importance of both males and females participating and cooperating in organizational development to build institutions that help people become self-reliant. It aims at strengthening dialogue, people's confidence (e.g., slogans like \"nobody knows everything and everybody knows something\"), and their ability to take criticism; and it integrates social analysis to help groups find the root causes of problems (Hope and Timmel 1984).Freire's key principles form a philosophical framework that is relevant for any individual living in a society and it can be applied to many situations in life. Its major strength is that various characters with different attitudes and in different mainstreams accept and agree on these 99 principles. It manages to integrate and unite these often-conflicting interests under the umbrella of the key principles. In Shona society, sociocultural change has weakened the social coherence and security that was based on traditional roles, rules, and regulations. Therefore, according to our experience, a new \"umbrella\" that can replace, or at least partly substitute, the old security is particularly important because the desire for social harmony is extremely strong and dominates most individuals' decisions. Without providing a platform to develop the new \"umbrella\", cooperation and leadership structures in rural communities will remain weak and often dominated by the unresolved social conflicts, which also adversely affect innovation development and extension.Farmers were introduced to this framework in awareness-raising workshops with the whole community, where both men and women were invited specifically. The methods in the form of codes used (pictures, songs, slogans, and proverbs) proved highly efficient in strengthening women's involvement. Regular follow-ups to TFT are built in to different stages of the process.Gender issues or relations were never made an isolated, specific topic because this would have created aversions and sometimes resistance on the part of some extension workers and on the farmers' side. It proved more efficient to put the goal (e.g., technology development or spreading of knowledge) in the forefront and discuss gender perspectives that emanated as constraints or potential in the goal's achievement. In this way, the role of gender and the required changes were taken seriously because they were directly seen in relation to achieving the desired progress. Briefly, the consideration of the gender perspective was seen as an important tool in the development process, but not as a goal or an end in itself. This insight resulted from experience in the department of extension where, in an affirmative action, a campaign on gender issues had been run several years before. Training workshops for higher-level extension staff were held and in the project planning everything was to be carried out \"with gender in mind\" or \"with the specific consideration of women\". The campaign had almost no effect at farmer level and at higher level resulted in resistance against gender issues, particularly among men. It was a typical outside-driven effort where a concept was pressed on people without going through a learning process.In our approach, the facilitators were responsible for encouraging the equal involvement of both sexes. The facilitators were extension workers from the department of extension and nongovernment organizations (NGOs). Their main task was to empathize with gender issues and ensure that both sexes felt addressed specifically. In many cases, they had to encourage women or delay men as needed. Therefore, these facilitators went through a learning process while interacting with farmers to internalize the gender perspective. Training of extension workers became an important focus. Training in gender issues was not an isolated activity, but went alongside that for participatory approaches. Specific methods and tools were applied as given below.Give women the chance to articulate themselves. Two methods fit under this category. First, whenever discussing with the male head of household or in workshops, we asked the women if they would like to join the discussions, or we directed questions to them specifically to involve them and to give value to their opinions. Women followed this invitation willingly in most cases and articulated themselves well if given the chance. Men also usually reacted positively. This method might be culture-specific, but proved the most crucial element in equally involving women and men in discussions. Often women seemed eager to contribute; they only needed a formal invitation from chairpersons or facilitators, who have to break the usual pattern and emphasize the importance of equal participation.In the second method, women and men were specifically invited to participate in extension meetings, community workshops, field days, look-and-learn, or evaluation tours. This has been effective and after some time it became the \"new culture\" that both participate equally.Create awareness for gender-specific perspectives and priorities. Four methods were used here. First, in workshops, forming small groups according to gender and age (e.g., young and old women and men, in problem, needs, and potential analysis) was an efficient tool to create an awareness of differences in perception and priorities caused by gender and age. Plenary presentations of their results and consequent discussions increased the value and importance of women's perspectives and made men understand these.Second, the use of proverbs, codes, and songs related to gender were useful tools that were mainly used indirectly in situations where gender was not discussed as the specific issue.Third, when discussing new technologies, specific consideration was given to the impact on male and female farmers in terms of resources, labor, and skills. Such PRA methods as seasonal diagrams and matrix scoring were useful in this context. The gender perspective was always discussed in view to its impact on a technology and not on gender per se.Fourth, when meetings and workshops were planned the time that women could also attend was taken into consideration (e.g., weekends or non-working days) and venues were negotiated to accommodate everybody.Create situations where women can prove their capabilities. Two methods were used. First, in role-play, exercises, and during discussions often women-specific tasks and abilities are required. For example, on topics such as gardening and women's crops, and other operations that women usually carry out, men participate in the discussions, but are less competent than are women. The recognition of these tasks as equally important raises the confidence of women and at the same time makes men realize the knowledge and competence of their wives.Second, women as chairpersons for group discussions, as presenters of their experiments, and other positions where they could expose their capabilities was important in making men recognize women's potential.The impact achieved through addressing gender issues was measured qualitatively and quantitatively. It would be miraculous if such a process flowed without problems and resistance from some actors. In one case, for example, a husband did not allow his wife to participate in a 2-week course in TFT, but did not openly say so. Such incidences were normal in the process, but often 1 year later, when such positions were renegotiated properly among these actors, things changed and the formerly resistant persons became sometimes the drivers of the process themselves. Often the resistance had to do with fears of losing face and power. The facilitator had to identify this and then buffer some of the fears through recognition and discussions with the individuals. The process of participatory development involves changes in attitudes and paradigms that require time and endurance.All the examples of impact show a common denominator: the strengthened self-confidence of the actors. Confident people are unafraid to share ideas and they tend to be unafraid of renegotiating and bargaining for their roles and powers. This process and the tools applied enabled a new dialogue and communication that has increased the accountability of local leaders to the people because their functions and roles were also negotiated by the villagers in the process of empowerment through strengthening self-confidence.The project internal monitoring of the process allowed follow-up on gender-specific impacts. Some of the general project impacts follow.(1) In farmer and community workshops we monitored the participation of male and female farmers. After introducing TFT, participation was mostly equal. In workshops where both sexes were specifically invited (by farmer leaders), 30% to 50% of those attending were women, whereas only 10% were women in ordinary extension meetings. The verbal contributions of women went up to over 50% in some cases, but was overall slightly less than men's contributions. (2) Women's interest in experimentation increased greatly. Often they became more active than men, and the reliability and quality of research increased. Several times during evaluation tours women openly showed that they knew more about trials than did their husbands, or corrected their husbands when they tried to \"show off\". This could be a sign of changing authorities because of the recognition of women's knowledge. (3) Women's role as technology testers rather than innovators remained, but women caught up in the number of self-initiated experiments. They preferred small trials where little risk was involved, but produced a high number of good experiments and valuable ideas (Table 2). Within these innovations several different ideas were being generated and tried. b.De facto female-headed households were those where the husband had migrated to town; de jure femaleheaded households comprised widows and unmarried women.(1) Women who were rather shy and quiet gained considerable respect from other farmers because of their good presentations of their experiments (see Situations 5). The \"learning by experimenting\" process and the acknowledgement of non-formal, non-scientific knowledge built up their knowledge and the confidence to expose it and share it with other farmers. (2) In some of the local institutions, women were elected chairperson. The rise in confidence allowed women to negotiate more for their needs than before (see Situations 6).(3) According to men whom we asked about changes, they claimed to be more aware now of the important contributions of their wives in farming and realized the benefit of wives also going to the meetings. Respect for women may have increased. (4) According to observations and discussions with women, their self-esteem, their confidence, and their pride in being a farmer have increased because of acknowledgement and building up of knowledge based on experience. Together with TFT and tools to negotiate power relations this may have improved relationships between men and women in the communities.Their capacity for self-organization has visibly improved (see Situation 7, 8).The silent speak. Mrs Magura usually behaved like a farmer's wife. Although she participated in workshops and always joined researchers in discussions with her husband, she was quiet and did not appear too interested in sharing ideas. One day we took visitors to their farm and Mr Magura, who normally explained about the farm and their experiments, was not there. Mrs Magura did not hesitate to explain all the experiments and answer all questions well and confidently. She even showed some of her own experiments of which we were unaware. Her husband's absence was her chance to prove herself even more capable than he was.Bargaining for new social norms. Mr Gwaungana, a farmers' club chairman had two wives, one running a vegetable market in the nearby growth point and the other \"helping him in the fields\".In the framework of the ConTill Project, mid-season tours were organized where farmers share and exchange experience and ideas that emanate from their experiments. For these tours around the village, men and women were specifically invited and both sexes were active in discussion.With most households, husband and wife presented together, but Mr Gwanungana presented his experiments alone. Soon after he began, the women in the group interrupted him and asked for his wife to come forward also and explain the trials with him. Mr Gwaungana told the group that he would have liked his wife to be present, but she was shy and therefore had stayed at home. The women in the group criticized him openly for hiding his wife and not allowing her to interact with other farmers. They said that men like Mr Gwaungana prevented their wives from fully participating. Finally, Mr Gwaungana apologized to all the women present before proceeding with the discussions on \"his\" experiments. The new norm that women should be equally presenting and interacting was strengthened in this community.Guarding self-discipline. After a community workshop, farmers decided they wanted to revive their traditional work organization and formed groups to work together in the fields. It went well until that season's harvest when one woman no longer went to work in the others' fields. The group did not confront her, but decided to go to her field and harvest it for her. After this, the woman was one of the most active persons in the group.Negotiating for leadership qualities. The kraal head is a highly respected traditional leader in the communities, which also often have other formal or political positions. During a review and re-planning workshop, farmers were asked to review their activities by group according to village. During the report back to the plenary, one village group said that they had nothing to present because nothing was worth reviewing in their village. Other participants insisted that they share their reasons why nothing went on. After much probing by the participants, the wife of the kraal head of this village stood and stressed that the main problem was the kraal head, who did not give any feedback after going on look-and-learn tours and workshops. All the other villagers agreed with her and were relieved. The kraal head was quiet, but later explained that he had been unaware of the consequences and promised to improve on this leadership quality. Later we heard from villagers that he now shared ideas more openly and kept them informed.(1) Simple, lightweight implements that can be used with donkeys (which women preferred in agricultural work) were developed because women articulated their needs. (2) Issues in which women were specifically interested obtained more weight in discussions and experiments (gardening, certain crops, food security, and bakery and soap-making cooperatives etc.), many independent from the project. (3) The increased understanding of biophysical processes and technologies that were developed and their adoption (in some cases up to 80% of households practiced these technologies) has resulted in increased yields, diversification of crops, improved soil and water conservation, and other non-agricultural, income-generating activities.The learning process in the project was used for conceptual development. The lessons learned were iteratively molded into an approach to participatory extension and innovation development based on experimentation (Hagmann et al. 1997;1998a). During the process, we worked closely with the local extension workers. Their role-change from teacher to facilitator took time and required continuous training and learning efforts while working with farmers. This learning experience was used to develop a training strategy for extension workers. At present, the approach is being scaled up in the extension department, and extension workers are being reoriented in a training and learning process of about 2 years duration. Stakeholder and gender differentiation is an integral part of this training.The practical experiences and pitfalls were eye openers to the ConTill project and forced the (male) researchers to learn what gender differences mean in reality. As biases and their related problems became known, the conventional \"norms\" in research and extension were more questioned. This action learning process with regard to gender resulted in the following insights that were identified as crucial for success of the project.(1) Outside interventions normally interact with community or family representatives, who are mainly men. This is a trap because power relations and decision-making competence in the families and in the communities indicate that women greatly influence the decisions announced by men. Therefore, an intervention should not be satisfied in interacting with representatives, but should try to include the hidden decision makers and strengthen their confidence to express themselves. (2) With up to 45% of de facto female-headed households, rural communities are \"incompletely represented\" in most of the workshops et cetera. Many decision makers are only part of the communities at weekends. This has implications on the timing of community workshops.(3) The weak communication and information flow necessitates facilitating communication between the various actors as a major focus of the external interventions. A platform, methods, and tools for negotiation at community level must be developed. (4) Whom to address, the farmer or the farmer's husband? The focus should not be women or men separately because the distribution of tasks is not homogenous but highly variable and situation specific in each household. In agricultural research and extension, those who work the land should be addressed, be they men or women. The definition of a farmer should be 105 clarified and both sexes should be addressed together and equally as farmers. Addressing male and female farmers separately in agricultural extension can worsen communication and the information flow in families. (5) Stakeholder and gender differentiation is one part of the process. More important is the debate on the different perspectives, the negotiation of underlying interests and roles, and the \"stakeholder and gender\" integration under a newly emerging common framework. This process of differentiation and integration is the foundation for successful innovation processes. (6) The implication for research and extension would be to facilitate identifying the problem and needs with the presence of both men and women, to rank priorities together and according to gender, and then to develop the extension program together. A choice of technological options should be developed together to correspond to farmers' (male and female) criteria, which are highly diverse and situation specific. (7) All farmers, but female farmers in particular, have a wealth of knowledge based on experience. However, extension is based on formal knowledge, which is communicated orally. To value farmers' knowledge, a shift towards experiential learning is needed. Extension has to build upon the farmers' knowledge system rather than impose scientific knowledge with the objective of replacing traditional knowledge, which intimidates illiterate people in particular. This shift will increase women's confidence and position. (8) Self-confidence, self-esteem, and the value of being a farmer are generally low. In the colonial era, African farmers were looked down upon as being backward and uneducated.Eradicating and replacing indigenous farming practices by concentrating on commodities and the commercialization of African agriculture was the goal. This has largely destroyed self-esteem, pride, and to a certain extent cultural identity (Page and Page 1991;Madondo 1995). This trend continued in the post independence era because the paradigms were not changed (Madondo 1995). Therefore, reviving and strengthening self-esteem and confidence are ultimate goals of human development to increase people's self-empowerment.Intensive interaction and dialogue with farmers helped deepen the insight of project staff in the social set-up of rural communities and families, which had not been possible with a quantitative survey. The real issues such as power and social organizational problems only came out because of the intervention of the action learning process when individuals in the system reacted for or against change. This process revealed the true roles of the various actors and their interests, whether they were women, men, local leaders, businessmen, government field workers, or bureaucrats. Our insight reminded us strongly of the statement of Kurt Lewin, a founder of action research, \"If you want to know how things really are, just try to change them\". Without a process intervention (e.g., had we just carried out a gender survey) the real facts would not have been revealed and a pretended harmony would have overshadowed gender perspectives and conflicts. This lesson challenges sole analytical research approaches by outsiders.The following conclusions and recommendations were drawn from this experience.(1) A static situation analysis at the project's start is important, but the real issues and priorities only reveal themselves during an intervention when the system reacts towards the intervention. Therefore, problem analysis is an iterative process itself. If taken seriously, the gender issue will always be revealed as crucial in such a learning process. Being sufficiently flexible to take up such results and adapt the project concept and planning in a cyclical way is likewise crucial. Logframes can be counterproductive to such a process if followed rigidly for project implementation. A strong component of process monitoring and documentation needs to be built in as a benchmark for changing activities according to new insights. (2) An action learning with people is basic. Mistakes are unavoidable, but admitting them, learning the lessons, and improving is important. This requires high flexibility in technical and management terms, but is a successful way to work with people and not for them.(3) The process should be both human-and technology-centered. Development of human capacity in terms of self-organization, strengthening of confidence, and negotiating roles and power must be seen as a way of making research and technology development and extension more efficient. (4) Human capacity specifically includes that of women who are the backbone of African agriculture. Therefore, the point is not whether gender differentiation is needed, but that we must consider people as farmers (female or male) who work the land. The gender perspective should be in-built to any serious development process. Promoting gender differentiation as an isolated theme or component can be counterproductive (e.g., women's projects) because they prevent the people themselves negotiating gender roles. (5) Strengthening of confidence via action learning and increasingly recognizing one's own capabilities and functions in society are the most important elements that lead to selfempowerment. The necessary situations must be created. (6) The tools and methods for addressing gender are culture specific and should be developed and adapted with local experts. No blueprint is available because gender priorities may differ by project and the tools must be situation specific. However, one method should be universally applied: give women the chance to prove their capabilities wherever possible. (7) At a time of rapid sociocultural change, gender roles and relations are highly dynamic.Therefore, building a platform is important, one on which rural people themselves can negotiate for new roles, functions, norms, and for new power relations. Roles can be more favorably negotiated via technical issues than via discussions on gender because the advantages of any changes must be concrete and obvious in real life situations. The process requires skilled facilitators at various levels. (8) Stakeholder and gender analyses and differentiation are crucial for identifying specific interests, but too limited if these interests and roles are not actively debated, negotiated, and re-integrated towards change.107Action learning was the dominant vehicle in the development of the ConTill Project. The learning process happened on two levels: farmers learned through experimenting and the project itself learned through the cycle of action and reflection. Project concept and approach underwent drastic changes in this process and the gender perspective emanated as a crucial and required specific action.Some historians of agriculture believe that women were the first to domesticate crop plants and thereby initiated the art and science of farming. While men went out hunting, women started gathering seeds from the native flora and began cultivating those of use as food, feed, fodder, fiber, and fuel. Women traditionally were seed selectors. Even today, this tradition continues in many parts of the developing world (Swaminathan 1985). However, there are fears that the Green Revolution with the introduction of new varieties will totally take away women's traditional responsibility of seed conservation (Shiva 1988). In low input farming systems, women traditionally were the managers of germplasm (Satheesh 1996). But, modern practices have pushed seed into a market economy outside the village community, and have displaced women from their original role. Women farmers should be included whenever possible in germplasm enhancement and conservation programs, particularly in unfavorable rainfed lowland environments where they are the principal users of rice products and byproducts.Encouraging women farmers to participate in the process of germplasm enhancement and conservation is important for achieving positive impact on poor rice farming families in rainfed environments. Household food security (and child food security) is strongly linked to women's access to income-generating technologies. Including women in the early stages of technology design ensures that new technologies can be adopted rapidly (CIAT 1997).As emphasized by Quisumbing et al. (1995):\"Reductions in asymmetries between men and women in access to agriculture and other resources, the use of women's expertise in the early evaluation of new technologies, e.g., new rice cultivars in rainfed environments, are essential in sustaining food security.\" Thus, high priority is given to strengthen, consolidate, and mainstream both participatory research and gender analysis (PRGA) in international, national, and local agricultural research under the System Wide Initiative on Farmer Participatory Research and Gender Analysis in Plant Breeding and Natural Resource Management (CIAT 1997). 110 This chapter presents preliminary findings in developing methodologies for incorporating gender perspective into the farmer participatory plant breeding (PPB) work at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).Researchers have highlighted the importance of including women as early evaluators of crop varieties (Fresco 1982;Ashby 1989;Paris 1989;Sperling 1995). In a farmer participatory research (FPR) project on pearl millet breeding for marginal environments, Weltzein et al. (1995) invited both men and women to evaluate the station trials. Farmers from the village with poorer soil conditions, who had experience with some of the cultivars in their own fields, appeared to prefer a new type of material derived from combining high tillering local varieties with large panicle modern varieties. Men and women from this village equally preferred this type. However, male farmers from the new village with better soil conditions preferred this type of material much more than did women from the same village. These women selected mostly material with large panicles and high grain yield potential. The follow-up discussions indicated that for women from these villages, grain yield, early availability of grain, and ease of harvesting by hand (lower panicle number and lower plant height) were the main considerations for making selections. For the men, stover yield and quality appeared a stronger concern. However, whether the women's criteria were considered in the plant breeding objectives is not mentioned.In Andra Pradesh, we can cite two examples of divergent preferences revealed through matrix scoring. After matrix, scoring pigeon pea varieties against 10 criteria, women farmers indicated they would not again grow a variety released by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). This was despite their higher yields and greater pest resistance, and because of their bitter taste (Women of Sangams Pastapur etc. and Pimbert 1991 in Chambers 1997, p 180). In an FPR study on rice breeding in the high altitudes in Nepal, Sthapit et al. (1996) found that the evaluation scores among male and female farmers in Chhomrong village showed significant agreement. Women farmers reported that they would like to decide on variety selection after the postharvest evaluation. Consumers preferred whitegrained rice to red-pericarped rice because it saves women time in milling. While visiting the farmers plots female farmers commented in a group discussion: \"If we can change our local rice into white grain rice it will save a lot of our (women's) time. We spend 1 to 2 hours extra in dehusking rice until we get white grain. Machhaapuchara-3 has both grain and more straw. It has long panicles and grains are plenty. It matures with the local one and the plant is taller. If it tastes good, we would like to continue this variety.\" Sthapit et al. (1996) also observed that women farmers are particularly skilful in assessing postharvest traits such as milling recovery, and cooking and eating quality of rice. Expert women farmers for this purpose can be identified from a village workshop. Men farmers are more skilful in assessing the standing crops for yield potential, management requirements, and threshing criteria.111 Two studies in Africa described women's knowledge and criteria for varietal selection, but whether their criteria were considered in rice research was unclear. For example, among the Kpelle rice growers in the rain forests of central Liberia, women use and recognize over 100 different varieties of rice. As Gay (1982( , p 23 in Jiggins 1986, p 16-19) , p 16-19) describes: \"Women save the seeds from harvest, select what is to be planted in the new season according to the land which is under cultivation and also can choose precisely what fits her tastes and the conditions of her land.\"To test knowledge on rice varieties, Gay (1982in Jiggins 1986) designed an experiment where people would sit back-to-back and give each other, in turn, enough information for the receiver to pick out, from 25 freshly harvested stalks, the variety that the sender had in mind. Some women, usually older women who were senior wives and leaders in their cooperative work groups, could send and receive information about rice varieties with only two or three errors in 25 attempts. Conversely, some men could scarcely get two or three correct answers in the same test, and no man scored as high as the best woman did. Moreover, these women used categories that formed a clear and systematic framework for describing rice. They mentioned such features as husk and seed color, length at the tip of the rice, size of the grain, ease with which the husk can be removed, length of time required to cook, and suitability to different types of soils and terrain. Hansen (1995) emphasized that clear gender differences exist in local plant genetic resources in food and agriculture (PGRFA) management. Women are local seed selectors for the range of end-use criteria relating to the household food requirements, for example, palatability, taste, color, smell, and cooking time. Women's focus on the household economy provides a balance to market-oriented pressures that emphasize high yield and uniformity. To the extent that a gender division exists, where women are responsible for food crops and men responsible for cash crops, the task of managing PGRFA commonly follows similar gender division. In the study villages, women are responsible for local PGRFA management for cowpea, beans, finger millet, and sweet potato.In evaluating gender impact and the work of the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs), Jiggins (1986) made three recommendations:(1) The IARCs' work would benefit from exploring the existing seed technologies and varietal preferences;(2) The relevance of the IARCs' work would increase if they better understood the relation between desired seed or stock characteristics and domestic processing, preservation, and preparation of foodstuffs for consumption and sale; and (3) The IARCs should give sufficient attention to collaborative investigation, through the national agricultural research systems (NARS) and with other research and technology development centers, on how present benefits derived from multiple use of biomass might be alternatively provided as monocropped modern varieties (MVs) grown for yield become more widespread.In September 9-11, 1996 a group of 50 researchers and development professionals attended an international seminar and planning meeting on PRGA in Cali, Colombia. The four thrusts identified for the PRGA Program on Plant Breeding were to:(1) Assess and develop participatory breeding methods including the user at given stages in the breeding process, (2) Critically look at the issues of user differentiation and gender analysis along the seed technology chain, (3) Explore different organizational options, including alternate divisions of labor between farmers, scientists, and nongovernment organizations (NGOs), and (4) Look into the implications of decentralization for the design of seed support services.The goal of the PRGA Program on PPB is to develop, test, and refine methodologies of PRGA as they apply to the development of new technologies in germplasm enhancement.In March 1997, a farmer PPB program for rainfed rice (see Chapter 12) was developed at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in collaboration with NARS in eastern India. The aims were to test the hypothesis that farmer participation for rainfed rice breeding can help develop suitable varieties more efficiently, and to identify stages along a breeding program where farmer interfacing is optimal. The project has two components. The first is a plant-breeding component, which aims to develop and evaluate a methodology for participatory improvement of rice for heterogeneous environments, and to produce and improve adoption of material suiting farmers' needs. The second is a social science component, which aims to characterize cropping systems, diversity of varieties grown, and crop management practices of rice farmers; and to elicit farmers' selection of criteria and their reactions to a range of cultivars and breeding lines.In 1998, we began to incorporate gender concerns in the on-going PPB project conducted by IRRI scientists in collaboration with NARS in eastern India. The strategies for incorporating the gender perspective were by:(1) Developing methodologies for assessing male and female criteria of useful traits of rice varieties of male and female farmers;(2) Developing participatory approaches that include male and female farmers in selecting new rice lines; (3) Further enhancing women's knowledge and skills in germplasm conservation; and (4) Enhancing NARS' capacities in conducting male and female farmer participatory approaches in rice germplasm enhancement and conservation in rainfed rice environments.We initiated the gender study in two villages, Mungeshpur in Faizabad district and Basalatpur in Siddathnagar district, eastern Uttar Pradesh. These are the same villages where the PPB project was conducted. As Table 2 shows, most of our respondents belong to the lower social class who have small sized landholdings. Females are younger and have lower literacy rates compared to males, and have over 20 years of farming experience. In both villages, rice / wheat mixed with mustard is the dominant cropping pattern, occupying more than half the cultivated area. The rest is grown to different crop sequences and crop combinations depending on the land type, supplementary irrigation, and availability of labor.Rice is the dominant crop grown during the monsoon season (kharif). In the lowlands in Basalatpur, farmers grow rice only during this season, occupying 92% of all cultivated land. Pigeon pea (2%) and green fodder (3%) were grown on the uplands and the rest (3%) left fallow. Crop diversification is higher in Mungeshpur where 75% of the cultivated area is planted to rice and the rest distributed to pigeon pea (4%), maize (3%), sugarcane (4%), green fodder (5%), vegetables (1%), and other crops (1%). Fallow occupies 7% of the area.In the winter season (rabi) in Basalatpur, 70% of the cultivated lands are left fallow because of the flooding of low-lying areas from December to January. Wheat mixed with mustard occupies 14% and mustard occupies 13% of the total cultivated land. Pea mixed with mustard, potato, and other crops each occupy 1%. In Mungeshpur, wheat with mustard occupies 74% of the area planted during this season. The rest is planted to gram with mustard (6%), fodder (6%), pea with mustard (4%), mustard (4%), potato (4%), and vegetables (1%). Fallow occupies 1% of the area.The extent of female participation in rice production is high in both villages. Some tasks in rice production and postharvest operations are gender specific. Land preparation and application of chemicals are men's responsibilities in both villages (10% of fertilizer application is done by women in Basalatpur). In Mungeshpur, women from the lower social status dominate in pulling of seedlings (100%), transplanting (70%), weeding (80%), application of farm yard manure (60%), harvesting (82%), and threshing (82%). In Basalatpur, men and women equally share in the pulling of seedlings and harvesting. Women do the transplanting of seedlings (100%), and most of the weeding (75%), with men doing most of the spraying (90%). Basalatpur is more mechanized, using tractors for land preparation and threshing, but in Mungeshpur bullocks are used for preparing the land and threshing is done by hand. Postharvest activities such as seed selection, storage, dehulling paddy manually, hand threshing, parboiling rice, and making rice puffs-all done within the homesteads-are major responsibilities of the females. Aside from their significant contributions in crop production, they take care of dairy cattle, collect green animal fodder, and feed and tend livestock. Thus, the women are responsible both for most of the crop and livestock operations and they are users of the byproducts, particularly when men are engaged in non-farm jobs (Paris et al. 1996).Despite the significant contribution of women in the farming systems, women are rarely consulted on farm-related matters or included as cooperators in on-farm experiments, particularly in germplasm enhancement. Several ways have been suggested in which breeders might incorporate farmers' selection criteria. One approach is for breeders to elicit farmers' selection criteria. Another is to use a fully participatory approach to cultivar selection wherein breeders along with farmers select the most promising lines. Here, selected lines are further screened on farmers' fields using farmer-managed on farm trials. A third approach is to obtain farmer assessment of advanced lines grown in experiment stations and assessment by other farmers of new rice cultivars grown by farmer cooperators. However, in these approaches, male scientists tend to include only male farmers. Thus, efforts are now being made to include women in the various activities in conjunction with the farmer PPB project in eastern India. These activities are: (1) surveys eliciting farmers'selection criteria, (2) farmer participation in on-going experiments on varietal selection, and (3) farmers' assessment of new rice lines at different stages of production including postharvest.In June 1998, we interviewed 15 males and 15 females from separate households and different social groups in Mungeshpur, Faizabad district and Basalatpur, Siddathnagar district. We first asked each farmer what traits he or she considered in selecting rice varieties in the upland and lowland fields. To assess how farmers valued each trait, we asked the question: \"If you had 100 paisa, how much would you pay for each trait?\" The value in paisa allocated to a particular trait corresponded to the weight or importance given by farmers. We summed the weights per trait of all respondents in each land type and took the proportion of each trait to all traits mentioned. Because many traits are interrelated we reclassified them in consultation with a plant breeder. For example, we grouped traits such as ease in dehulling and milling recovery under postharvest quality.Table 3 shows selection criteria of male and female farmers for different land types and villages. Preliminary findings in Basalatpur show that male and female farmers agree upon the most important traits they look for in varieties for the uplands. The popular traditional varieties here are \"Bengalia\", \"Oriswa\", and \"Kuwari-Mashuri\". These are short duration (90-110 days) and medium height varieties. The average yields are 2.5 tons per hectare. Farmers prefer short duration rice varieties in the uplands because of the importance of growing early winter crops such as oilseed, linseed, pulses, peas, and potato. \"Bengalia\" is also better eaten after being parboiled otherwise its grains easily break. Women in Basalatpur use the traditional rice varieties for making puff rice and \"Churra\" (like cornflakes). For women who continue to use the traditional method of hand pounding rice, postharvest qualities such as easiness to dehull and high milling recovery are additional useful traits they mentioned that men did not mention.For lowland areas in Basalatpur, both male and female farmers agreed upon the important traits for lowland rice varieties. High grain price is an important consideration for farmers here because they sell the traditional varieties of rice in the market. These, like \"Kalamanak\", command a higher price, as high as Rs25.00 per kg because of good taste and aroma. \"Kalamanak\" gives low yields at 1.5 to 2 tons per hectare. In contrast, grain price is not an important consideration in Mungeshpur because rice is mainly used for home consumption and seldom sold in the market.In Mungeshpur, males and females agreed upon important traits in selecting varieties for the uplands. Women gave more important consideration to postharvest qualities and grain quality such as bold and pure grains. For the lowlands, both males and females cited better grain yield, medium duration (125-135 days), biomass, and resistance to abiotic stress as their selection criteria for lowland rice varieties. Women gave higher weight to better adaptation to specific soil type and grain quality. Women mentioned additional useful traits for varieties in the uplands and lowlands that were not mentioned by men-competitiveness with weeds and postharvest quality. Weeds are the major problem in the uplands, particularly when rice is direct seeded. In the lowlands, weeds are more prevalent during drought. These additional traits are related to the roles and responsibilities of female family members (e.g., hand weeding and feeding rice straw to livestock).These initial findings indicate that, although these women farmers have lower access to education and extension services compared to men, they are knowledgeable about useful traits for developing rice varieties suitable to specific environments. Breeders can use farmers' criteria with their own criteria for selection. During the 1998 monsoon season, two farmers from each of the villages of Mungeshpur and Sariyawan (rainfed neighboring village) of Faizabad district and Basalatpur of Siddathnagar district were selected to check the performance of 13 rice genotypes on their fields. The genotypes were 10 advanced lines from a shuttle breeding program from Uttar Pradesh and three released varieties for lowlands. Of 15 varieties, only 13 rice genotypes could be tested, because two varieties did not germinate during seedbed preparation. Of the 13 genotypes in Basalatpur, two are scented varieties (\"Kamini\", which flowered in 136 days, and \"Sugandha\" flowering in 124 days). Scientists distributed the seed through the farmer PPB project. In this approach, breeders select the most promising lines with farmers. Including female farmers as cooperators gave them an equal chance to participate in decisions in selecting rice genotypes.The average rice yields obtained by the two female farmers were higher (2 t/ha in Mungeshpur and 3.3 t/ha in Sariyawan) than those obtained from the male -managed farms. Average yields were below 2 t/ha because of the infestation of pests and diseases at the time of maturity. This indicates that if women are given equal access to improved seeds and farm management skills, they can be better farmers.Ten farmers (five females and five males) visited the individual plots and ranked the 13 rice genotypes grown on farmers' fields past maturity stage. Farmers were asked to rank the 13 rice lines from 1 (excellent) to 13 (worst) on the basis of visual assessment. The rankings of the new cultivars by the farmers generated an n x k matrix, where n are the lines being evaluated and k are the farmers evaluating the crop performance. Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance (W) was used to measure the agreement in rankings among male farmers, among female farmers, and the correlation between male and female farmers' ranking. High and significant correlation values indicate close agreement on the ranking of the 13 rice genotypes by men and women in the sample.Table 4 shows that in the two villages, male and female evaluators were in close agreement in the ranking of the 13 lines. The W's were highly significant, revealing that farmers' ranking is acceptable. In Mungeshpur, PVS3 (NDR-973004) was ranked highest by both males and females because it matures early and yields better compared to the local check (Mashuri). Both PVS3 and PVS13 are resistant to abiotic stress. In Basalatpur, both male and female farmers rated PVS2 as the best variety because of its higher yields (3 to 3.5 t/ha) and early maturing compared to \"Kalamanak\", which matures after 160-165 days.Including women farmers at the early stage of germplasm enhancement and varietal selection is necessary for the adoption of suitable rice varieties in stressed environments. However, we encountered several problems in increasing their participation. Some of these were:(1) It was difficult to find female scientists in agricultural universities who were willing to do fieldwork under adverse conditions and work with a team of male scientists. Farmer participatory research becomes a full-time activity particularly during the peak seasons when evaluation has to be done. Because of social restrictions, male scientists tend to exclude women farmers in the project. (2) Harvesting and threshing small quantities of new rice cultivars impose more drudgery on female cooperators. Dehusking paddy manually and hand threshing the small quantities of new rice cultivars for identification and evaluation were too laborious and time consuming. Thus, researchers and field workers had to help women during the harvesting and threshing phase.(3) There were too many lines to evaluate. Instead of rating 13 lines, women farmers prefer to evaluate a maximum of six rice lines on their small fields. Moreover, because of lack of new seed and failure of seed to germinate, few farmers were able to participate in the farmer participatory varietal selection. (4) Female cooperators should not just include those from the lower social status. Upper caste women who are de facto heads of households, who have long-term experience in farming, and who are willing to \"experiment\" and make decisions should also be included as cooperators in the experiments on rice varietal selection.  Where varietal lines differ, the first given is that used in Basalatpur, the second that used in Mungeshpur. c.Kendall's coefficient of concordance (W); * = significant at P = 0.01. 120 These preliminary findings indicate that although women have less access to education and extension services, they are as knowledgeable as men in identifying the useful traits in rice varietal selection because of their active participation in almost all crop operations, and their specific use of rice products and byproducts. Given proper guidance and technical knowledge, women can contribute strongly to seed-related activities such as faster adoption of improved rice varieties, better management of new seeds, and conservation of rice germplasm. We will continue to validate these findings at other sites, particularly during the sensory evaluation test, and further develop methodologies for including women in plant breeding and plant varietal selection.Although mechanization of rice transplanting will offer benefits to Nepali agriculture, it may also bring high social and economic costs by displacing rural labor. Because women and children perform almost all rice transplanting in Nepal, the arrival of \"powered\" machine technology would affect their labor disproportionately. Already, powered rice transplanters are becoming common in the Indian states of Hariyana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh. If the adoption rate for this machine follows the same pattern as for the Indian combine harvester, it will probably reach Nepal Terai soon. These powered transplanters can greatly disrupt and displace traditional labor patterns. Such social upheaval is often assumed to be the necessary price to pay for modernizing agriculture. We believe this need not be the case.In the Nepal Terai, as in the rest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, farmers are experiencing increasing labor shortages during the paddy season, especially during rice transplanting. Current transplanting practices are relatively labor-intensive, requiring 30+ laborers per day per hectare transplanted. Powered rice transplanters are already in use on Nepal's southern border. Developing and adopting mechanized manual rice transplanters favors powered rice transplanters in several respects: manual transplanters represent an intermediate technology that is locally manufactured, affordable to small-scale farmers, and gender neutral. Like the larger powered transplanters, the manual one and the accompanying push row weeder have many advantages over hand transplanting. They require less precise land preparation; create conditions for better water and weed control; allow for the planting of seedlings 15-20 days earlier; and reduce the inherent drudgery in hand transplanting.The idea of introducing a manual rice transplanter in Nepal is not new. The Agriculture District Office (ADO) in Rupandehi District previously tried to mechanize rice transplanting using a manual transplanter. Although no available reports or documents are available from this project, the ADO staff informed us that their testing and demonstrations elicited little response from farmers.In June 1997, three local outreach or research agencies were invited to take part in the new program: ADO, Bhairahawa, the National Wheat Research Program (NWRP), Bhairahawa, and the Nepal Community Support Group (NECOS), a permaculture 123 nongovernment organization (NGO). Each participating agency was to provide access to a group of women farmers with whom they had previously worked. However, the agencies disagreed with regard to the \"gender orientation\" of the program. In a spirit of compromise, two largeholder male farmers were included in the \"small-scale farmers\" program, in addition to the two smallholder women's groups.The primary objectives of the program were to:(1) Describe and identify current transplanting practices and problems;(2) Elicit farmers' expertise and perspectives for the research and evaluation of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) manual transplanter and weeder;(3) Compare the cost of current farmer practices with costs associated with using the IRRI sixrow manual transplanter; (4) Evaluate whether women farmers could use this machine, both socially and physically; and (5) Ascertain whether any changes in the machine's design could enhance or ease its operation by women farmers.Efforts to implement farmer participatory research (FPR), which is stated as an important goal of the Nepal National Agricultural Research Council (NARC), have been met by a reluctance to involve farmers in the research process until a technology has been \"proven\". National and international public sector research in agricultural engineering has typically embraced a paradigm based on a linear, top-down transfer of technology (TOT). Machines developed and \"perfected\" on research farms flow down the TOT pipeline to researcher-led farmer field trials (FFTs), and finally to farmers waiting at the \"bottom\" to buy. Douthwaite et al. (1998) and Starkey (1986) point out that this research orientation has often failed in its efforts at farmer adoption of technology. Cases in point are \"improved\" germplasm that farmers deem unsuitable during large-scale FFTs; or, in agricultural engineering, machines that were researched and developed by engineers from International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) and national agricultural research systems (NARS), but farmers never adopted. The failure to clearly understand farmers' needs and wants, and the resulting inefficiency of such programs, is a prime reason that funding agencies have shied away from public sector agricultural engineering programs in developing countries (Douthwaite and Bell 1998). At a time of shrinking agriculture research budgets and donor fatigue, particularly in the field of agricultural engineering, the \"top-down\" development of technologies has wasted precious research time and resources. Many see FPR as a set of methodological tools that will speed the development and extension of farmer-tested, farmerapproved technologies. Dr Eugene Saari, South Asia Regional Pathologist of the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) emphasized this in his farewell address at the NWRP, Bhairahawa. He encouraged researchers to include farmers earlier in the germplasm selection process as a way of saving precious resources and to speed up the development time of new \"farmer approved\" wheat varieties.124The synthesis of basic agricultural engineering research and FPR methods was first tested in an earlier FPR program focusing on the Chinese Hand Tractor Program sponsored by CIMMYT, Nepal in collaboration with NWRP and others. In the present project it has resulted in a partnering of farmers, local workshops, blacksmiths, agricultural engineers, and researchers. From the project's start, these stakeholders are engaged in an on-going process of evaluating results and adapting the research methodology. In this way, the problem-solving capacity of the group and the project as a whole are made more dynamic.In the first year, two separate training sessions were held at NWRP. Fourteen female and eight male farmers from agency-selected villages took part. The first training session combined classroom instruction and fieldwork. Participants were first introduced to the mechanized transplanting process and given an overview of seedbed construction and the economics of the transplanter and weeder. The group then received hands-on practice in the making of two \"mat type\" seedbeds. In the days following training, we visited the locations to help groups make their own seedbeds.The second training session was held 3 weeks later, when the seedbeds at NWRP were ready for transplanting. After a review of the first session, the second focused on field operation of the transplanter. During the practical, trainees took turns transplanting 0.06 hectares of seedlings. In the following weeks, 0.05 hectares were transplanted at Bankati (women's group), 0.02 hectares at NECOS (women's group), 0.06 at Karhiya (large-scale farmer), and 0.05 hectares at Bewoora (large-scale farmer). Thereafter, two types of push row weeders were provided to the groups for their use.Agronomic data were collected with the help of the farmers throughout the rice season. Socioeconomic data (on farmers' actions, reactions, and suggestions) were collected during the many field visits through participant observation and informal individual and group interviews.The machine used was designed by IRRI (and manufactured in India) to simplify earlier more complicated picking and planting mechanisms (Table 1). Its operation involves two motions: a downward stroke to pick up a group of 3-7 seedlings from a seed tray and plant them in the soil; and an upward stroke to release them and move the tray laterally to present new seedlings for the next cycle. With proper training, small workshops could easily fabricate the machine using locally available materials. The Agricultural Implement Research Center (AIRC), Birganj has already successfully produced a transplanter in its small workshop (personal communication, Chief Engineer G. Sah, AIRC, 1998).125 Below we list considerations to be taken into account for successful use of a transplanter. The farmers easily made the required seedbed preparations with minimum guidance from the trainers. However, their follow-up seedbed management was lacking. Under the traditional method of seedbed preparation, farmers do not check on newly broadcast seeds for several days. The new technology demands that the seedbeds be watered several times a day in the first 4 to 5 days. Compounding this problem is the fact that the seed mat is grown on a thin layer of soil (1.5 cm) that is placed on a plastic sheet. This means that the mat cannot pull water from below the sheet and thus relies on sprinkle irrigation during the first 5 days and on flood irrigation after this. The end result was that not even large-scale farmers adequately watered the properly constructed beds. The mats showed large areas of seedling mortality, especially along the more vulnerable outside edges.On the other hand, farmers demonstrated ingenuity both by correcting inefficiencies in seed mat preparation and loading, and by adapting indigenous tools for use with the new technology, with the added benefit of reducing the need for externally provided tools. In one instance, when the seedling mats were too thick, farmers improvised by slicing soil from the mats to obtain the required thickness. Farmers did not like the straight butcher knife that was provided them, instead opting for their own local sickles to cut the mats to size. The manual, and therefore our training, insisted that the seedbeds \"had\" to be cut with a special knife and measuring tray, yet they quickly tired of cutting precisely sized mats with the special measuring tray provided them and started \"eyeballing\" the cuts. Although their seedmat slices were sometimes too narrow or too wide the farmers were able to make them fit in the machine simply by quickly \"cutting and pasting,\" and, despite our continued objections, these mats worked well in their machines. In another instance, the manual called for a special carrying tray (and an additional monetary outlay) to take the mats from the seedbeds to the rice fields. Again, ignoring our protests that group members would damage the seedlings, they began transporting seed mats in their traditional baskets, because they said the trays were too bulky. Time and again, healthy stands of rice demonstrated to researchers that the farmers were experts in the care of rice seedlings.Examining how easily women operated machines produced mixed results. Those women whose machines experienced mechanical difficulties believed that operating all day would be too hard, even if a small group shared the work. Conversely, women who had a chance to use the properly functioning machines thought that a group of three to four women could easily operate the machine all day. Additionally, from our observations we found that although husbands and sons were also anxious to try operating the machine, they were content to \"let\" the women operate it themselves.During the actual planting process the machine performed well, even in unleveled fields, provided that standing water levels were below 5 cm. The amount of time between deep plowing and transplanting varies by soil type and/or soil structure. Working with the farmers we found that fields plowed by bullocks needed only 10 to 12 hours to settle sufficiently for transplanting. Conversely, fields plowed by four-wheel tractor (deeper plowing by nine-tine cultivator) must be allowed to settle for longer (24 to 48 hours) to prevent the transplanter from sinking too deeply in the puddled soil. This problem occurred only on the research farm's fields and large-scale farmers' fields, where large tractors were used.Difficulty in transplanting was also encountered when standing water was deeper than the recommended 1-5 cm. In this case, the machine did not operate properly and thereby reduced the stand (number) of hills. Again, such areas should be drained 1 to 3 days before transplanting.The most significant problem that occurred was with the machine itself. Together with the farmers, we found that several times the machine did not manage even a single pass in the small khets. The work would have to stop for the machine to be adjusted or the chain restored in position. This was highly discouraging for researchers and farmers alike. Nevertheless, at other times the transplanter would work as advertised for at least several passes, giving both farmers and researchers a promising glimpse of the machine's potential.The push row weeder is made to slide on its front skids between the rows of rice and to mechanically uproot and bury weeds with the trailing rotor blades. Manual weeding requires an average of 120 person hours to weed one hectare. Conventional single-row machines weed in 80 to 90 hours per hectare. A double-row machine can weed 1 hectare in 25 to 35 hours, but may be too difficult for most women to push. The potential advantages of the mechanical weeder include reduced labor costs for weeding, the promotion of green manuring, and budget savings through reduced spending for chemical fertilizers. When the weeder was used on time, farmers reported that the machine worked effectively and decreased the time required for this job. However, problems arose for farmers who began their first weeding later than the recommended 21-day maximum. After this period, the weeds can form a strong mat that the machine is unable to uproot and bury. These farmers were forced to revert to hand weeding. Another problem reported by farmers was that our locally manufactured weeder, made with heavier gauge material, was too heavy and sank into the mud. The local workshop was notified, and will use lighter gauge material for future weeders.Table 2 gives the agronomic data collected. The Bankati women's group had the largest yield (4841 kg/ha), which is nearly double the district average of 2500 kg/ha. The success surprised both the women and the scientists. The women remain wary about investing in this technology, however, because of excessive breakdowns of the machine.The Piparahiya women's group had the smallest yield, 1914 kg/ha. This group is situated in a particularly impoverished area and is among the poorest farmers of the entire district. Upland, non-irrigated field conditions and a lack of fertilizer use are both consistent with this observation. Despite the dismal yields and machine breakdowns, this group said it recognized the potential value of the machine, and was the first to ask to be included in the following year's program.The yields for the two large-scale farmers were well above their own reported averages. They are both interested in participating in next season's program and intend scaling up their experiments with the machine. They also faced recurrent breakdowns of their machines. However, they feel that were the machine of better quality, it could be made to work more effectively. Both large-scale farmers expressed the opinion that this machine represents a means of overcoming their current labor shortages. Also, they felt that it could reduce their crop establishment costs by at least 30%. From farmer interviews and discussions, and from reviewing the IRRI-reported capacity of the transplanter, we have conservatively estimated variable costs involved in traditional transplanting versus mechanized transplanting with the IRRI model. With the traditional method, it takes 25 people 1 day to transplant 1 hectare. With the manual transplanter, it takes 2 people 1 day to transplant 0.25 hectares. Additional savings are possible with the mat-type seedbeds. Under the traditional method, it takes 6-10 local laborers 1 day to uproot and bundle the seedlings for 1 hectare. Using seed mats, it takes 1 person 1 day to cut seed mats for 0.25 hectares. Under traditional conditions, it takes 43 person-days to transplant 1 hectare. Using the transplanter and wet seedbed method, it takes 12 person-days to transplant 1 hectare. In our calculations, we use a wage of 50 NRs per day per laborer under traditional practices and 60 NRs per day for skilled operators of the transplanter (food not included). Plowing costs average just over 2000 NR per ha. Traditional methods cost 2000 NR for plowing and 2150 NR for transplanting, a total cost of 4150 NR. The improved method costs 2000 NR for plowing and 720 NR for manual transplanter, a total cost of 2720 NR. The net savings per hectare are therefore 1430 NR.Carefully preplanned demonstrations are critical for avoiding negative demonstration effects for the farmers. We experienced a few unavoidable problems with the machine during several of the transplantings that dampened enthusiasm among some of the small-scale farmers. We found that the Amar Industry IRRI Model transplanters were of variable quality and that several machines had to be modified locally to reduce breakage. Encouragingly, the local workshops that we partnered with are confident that they can improve the quality of the transplanter.129We believe that the difficulties experienced with water stress and seedling mortality could be resolved by using perforated plastic sheets as has been done in India. This would allow the seedlings to pull moisture through the sheet from the underlying soil and thereby reduce the necessary number of waterings to one or two per day.Finally, more in-depth training for machine operators is essential to the successful extension and adoption of the manual rice transplanter. These training sessions would focus on seedbed and seedling preparation, machine maintenance, adjustment, and trouble shooting.The average woman in our study was able to operate the transplanter effectively, but exerted more effort on the average than did men. For women to be able to work all day without great fatigue, it seems that the smaller 5-or 4-row versions of the machine are needed. It has also been suggested that these smaller and lighter versions may be appropriate for the smaller terraced khets in the mid-hill rice regions.The farmers and user groups used the manual rice row weeders to varying extent. However, although their reactions to the weeders were noted, no agronomic or economic data were collected. This weeder provided potential benefits through both green manuring and labor savings, which warrants further study.Several earlier attempts at small farm mechanization in Nepal proved unsuccessful. This is in direct contrast with the reactions of our own farmer groups. A possible explanation for an increase in farmer enthusiasm, mentioned by farmers and agricultural researchers alike, is an emerging, region-wide labor shortage. When earlier demonstrations were conducted, farmers had little difficulty finding laborers, whether family members or locally hired, to work in their fields. Today, however, larger-scale farmers go as far as Bihar to find labor. Perhaps this explains why they have approached our program with enthusiasm and a willingness to take risks in experimenting with new labor saving machine technologies.Another reason for our preliminary success may be the participatory research approach itself. In the past, agricultural engineers have tended to view their machines as finished products needing no further modification or improvement. In contrast, FPR methodology recognizes that, no matter how \"perfected\" by the research and development process, all technologies evolve and are modified to suit local needs and conditions. This is perhaps even more the case for machine technologies. Although agricultural engineers originally developed the manual transplanter, our farmers became active researchers and innovators once the transplanters were brought to their own farms, where they could be experimented with under their own conditions and on their own terms. Rather than introducing the technology using the traditional, top-down, \"take-it-or-leaveit\" approach, we instead worked in partnership with farmers to adapt this technology to their own needs and conditions. As other researchers have noted, FPR has, prima facie, several drawbacks such as lost opportunities for agronomic data collection, numerous delays, and increased research costs. However, we believe that richer data have been gained than lost. Had the experiments been conducted as research station trials, (with four to five seasons of data required before going to farmers' fields) we would not have learned that: 130 (1) Farmers employed time and cost saving shortcuts, (2) Women farmers can operate the machine effectively, (3) Local workshops can fabricate the machine, or (4) Even with training, farmers have significant difficulty with seedbed management. This comes in addition to a wealth of agronomic data generated all in the first year of the experiment. We feel that the advantages of this FPR methodology more than compensate for its shortcomings. Indeed, the FPR methodology meets the challenge of higher standards of project efficiency that donors demand. Finally, this preliminary research demonstrates the potential of the manual transplanter to achieve the best of two worlds: to minimize and eliminate the negative effects of mechanization on rural women; and to offer small-scale farmers an opportunity to participate in, and benefit from, the imminent mechanization of Nepali agriculture.133 CHAPTER 7Community-based projects on natural resource management (NRM) present special challenges for participatory research (PR) because of the complexity of social and institutional arrangements that govern local access and rights to resources, underlying power dynamics within the community, and competing and divergent local interests in how natural resources are used. In the context of NRM, PR provides a forum through which local people contest or legitimize rights to resources. Monitoring and evaluating PR processes can help make these underlying social dynamics explicit, and help researchers guide the process. This chapter examines the challenges and proposes an approach for monitoring and evaluating PR for community-based NRM projects. It is based on work conducted during an internship at the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) for two natural resource programs: the Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program, which works in South East Asia, and the Alternative Approaches to Natural Resource Management in Latin America and the Caribbean (MINGA). This chapter relies on a combination of literature review, visits to projects in the Philippines, past field experience using qualitative research methods, and consultation with program officers, project researchers, and the IDRC evaluation unit. The views expressed here are the author's sole responsibility and do not necessarily represent IDRC opinions.\"Participatory research\" is broadly understood and includes a plethora of tools and methodological approaches. Rooted in ideological and radical social movements, which mobilized local people to challenge existing power regimes, PR has become increasingly popularized as a means of capturing local knowledge and perspectives and for involving local people in research and development activities that affect them (Freedman 1997, p 774-775;Selener 1997). The term is used to describe various types and levels of local participation, representation, and control over the research process. It includes consultative participation from which researchers make decisions about community needs and interventions, farmer-researcher partnerships in designing and implementing on-farm experiments, involving communities and user groups in decision making about new management practices or resource boundaries, multistakeholder processes involving different scales of resource management, and so on. Different types and levels of community participation are described elsewhere (Biggs and Farrington 1991, 134 p 56-57;Pretty 1994, p 41;Selener 1997). Biggs and Farrington (1991) differentiate farmer PR as contractual (farmers lending land to researchers), consultative (researchers consult farmers and diagnose their problems), collaborative (researchers and farmers are partners in research), and collegiate (researchers encourage existing farmer experimental activities).Participatory research may involve local people at different stages of the research process, and different interest groups within the community may be represented and participate in different capacities at these stages. The rationale for using PR may be functional or empowering. Functional participation encourages local involvement as a means of improving the effectiveness, efficiency, and usefulness of the research to local people. The goal of empowering participation is to empower marginalized people by strengthening their capacity in decision making and research (Ashby 1996, p 16-17). The rationale for PR use can also combine functional and empowering, and this may influence the tools chosen, the extent of local participation, and the level of representation of different groups. Advocates of PR as a means of local empowerment argue that gaining \"power\" or \"ownership\" over the research process is a step towards gaining power in society (Selener 1997). If \"empowerment\" is a goal, local institutional and individual capacities must be strengthened by involving local people throughout the research process, in identifying and defining problems, collecting and analyzing information, planning possible solutions, and mobilizing local action for change. Because PR is interpreted broadly, for evaluation purposes we need to \"categorize\" or \"differentiate\" its use in a project to gain a meaningful understanding of how a particular participatory approach contributes to the research results (Found 1997, p 117).Increasingly, interdisciplinary and PR approaches are recognized as essential to address the complex nature of NRM issues, involve local communities in the process, and promote sustainable and equitable NRM systems. Issues of NRM present special contextual challenges for PR. At the community level, natural resources are governed by complex, overlapping and sometimes conflicting social entitlements, and traditional norms (private versus common property rights, differential security of tenure and use rights, etc.). Social identities, relationships, and roles negotiated along such lines as gender, kinship, ethnicity, status, age, or occupation both shape and are shaped by access to and use of natural resources. Local level resource entitlements are often further complicated by incompatibility with regulations and management practices at higher levels of governance. To be effective for NRM, PR approaches often require collaboration between different levels of governance and the involvement of many stakeholders.Different stakeholders (within the community and outside) have different values, perceptions, and objectives concerning NRM issues, depending on individual context (how the individual experiences the social and natural environment) and social-cultural identity. This has implications for PR. Representation and meaning of \"community\" and \"community interests\" for NRM are \"produced in the context of struggles over resources, which form part of the 'practical political economy' through which different parties defend interests and advance claims\" (Li 1996, p 508). Underlying power differences between these different actors shape interaction and negotiation between them (both within the community and between the community and outside groups) and this can influence whose \"interests\" are represented. Participatory processes can provide an opportunity for less powerful groups to contest existing power relations and resource rights. But, they equally provide a forum for more powerful or politically aware groups to further legitimatize status quo wealth and power relations or to assert preferential rights over resources in the name of \"community interests\" (Scoones and Thompson 1994, p 21). This is especially true for common property or open access resources, for which resource entitlements may be open to interpretation. Participatory research is essentially a political process. Power and social dynamics underlie all participatory activities, particularly group activities; and influence whose perspectives are articulated, especially when conflict exists between interests of groups of disparate power or social status.Participatory research methods for NRM need to identify the range of stakeholders, illuminate their unique perspectives, and involve them in problem solving and decision making about NRM issues that affect them (Allen 1997, p 634). This approach is rooted in non-positivist and constructivist paradigms (Guba and Lincoln 1989, p 26-43;Pretty 1994;Scoones and Thompson 1994, p 22) that recognize:(1) The existence, value, and legitimacy of different kinds of knowledge, particularly \"popular,\" \"local,\" and \"indigenous\" knowledge, (2) That information and knowledge are not value free, and the selective choice of information or knowledge empowers some people and dis-empowers others, and (3) That knowledge and information are constructed by context, that no single \"explanation\" or \"theory\" exists for a given body of facts, and that the choice of theory is dependent on values Participatory methods combined with multi-stakeholder approaches can be applied to construct a common understanding among different stakeholders of disparate power and negotiate a common conceptual framework through which to address problems. A fundamental issue for monitoring and evaluating PR for NRM is to assess whether important stakeholders have been identified and whether or not they have participated and how.Deciding on what is \"adequate\" stakeholder representation will depend on the nature of the research questions, who are the users of the resource, which stakeholders will be affected, and the nature of property entitlements for the resources being considered. Probably the participation of different interest groups is especially important for common property issues because of the risk that certain marginal groups will be excluded from access to important livelihood resources if their interests are not adequately represented in the research. Not all stakeholders, community groups, or individuals will want or need to have the same level of participation in the research, but they should at least be consulted or they may resent the research, withdraw from the process, or actively undermine it. Usually, stakeholders who need to be represented in some capacity include individuals or groups who:(1) Can influence the project outcome because of the power they hold, their ability to influence opinion, or the useful knowledge or skills they possess (including leaders within the community, government officials, or other groups), (2) Will be directly influenced by the research (including less powerful groups that may not be able to participate actively, but whose perspectives need to be considered), and 136(3) Are willing or able to play a leadership role in NRM, social and environmental monitoring, problem solving, and conflict management.Community-based management of natural resources requires local institutions for collective decision making, which can define and ensure local compliance to regulations for resource use. \"Institutions\" refer to \"regularized patterns of behavior\" that endure over time, based on underlying rules or social norms (Leach et al. 1997a, p 11). Institutions do not always take organizational shape, and can be formal or informal (e.g., cooperatives versus kinship or friendship networks). They include such social arrangements as marriage, economic systems, patron-client relations, labor exchange, and credit or loan systems. Institutions exist at multiple and overlapping scales (e.g., household, community, and state), and are often interdependent. They are dynamic and change over time as peoples' behavior evolves according to social, political, or ecological changes. Combinations of institutions often shape environmental change.Resource management draws upon multiple institutions; and local people support claims to resources or environmental goods based on different institutions that sometimes overlap. In cases where institutions for community-based NRM exist in an organizational form, relations of power and authority usually underlie these. Such organizations frequently exclude the interests of subordinate or marginal groups and act in favor of a particular representation of \"community\" interests. To represent the diversity of interests within a community, community organizations need to increase representation of marginal groups that may stand to lose from the process, and to encourage participation of individuals or groups with organizational skills, authority, and legitimacy in the eyes of the community.Participatory research for community-based NRM projects often calls for building, transforming, or strengthening community organizations or institutions. This requires analyzing how local institutions relate to NRM and whether or not these are compatible with the ultimate goals of community-based NRM (whether they support local participation, democratic decision making, equity, poverty alleviation, and resource sustainability or conservation). Explicitly supporting institutions that strategically improve the access and rights of marginal groups to resources will be important to meet goals of equity and improving the conditions of marginal groups (Leach et al. 1997b). Because social institutions are dynamic and evolve according to changing social and natural influences, PR that aims to strengthen institutions demands a learning process approach, which encourages critical reflection linked with action.Social and natural environments are constantly evolving. For local people to sustainably manage their natural resources, they must understand how their actions affect the ecosystem, and must develop skills to monitor and analyze the ecological and social results of their management decisions and be able to adapt their practices accordingly. Those PR projects involved with NRM must encourage initiation of locally based participatory management and evaluation (PM&E) processes that are accessible and relevant to local people, and encourage them to identify indicators of change and sustainability that are easily measured and sufficiently accurate.Monitoring and evaluating the PR process can strengthen researcher understanding and awareness of the social dimensions of the community and the underlying power relations and struggles over resource rights that may affect genuine participation and \"manipulate\" the reality represented. It can also help researchers assess the process of institutional transformation. Information from systematic monitoring and reflection during the research can help researchers guide the process and adapt the methods to better enable articulation of marginal interests, recognize when group activities need to be disaggregated by gender or social group, and progress towards more equitable research results. This type of continual assessment of the research process is particularly important when PR attempts to represent the views of marginal groups and women that the \"interests of the community\" may submerge (Li 1996, p 505).Many factors influence the outcomes of using PR methods to contribute to community-based NRM that is sustainable and equitable. Some of these factors are project-related (project variables). These include research questions, project design and management, time frames, priorities and needs of the donor and research institution, human and financial resources, participatory methods used and context in which these are applied, choice of which stakeholders to involve, and the attitudes, values, and abilities of the researchers. Other variables lie outside the scope of the project (externalities or context variables) and form the immediate and larger setting in which the project is placed. Such contextual variables include the political context, natural environment, culture, social, and economic situation. Pomeroy et al. (1996) distinguish between three levels of externalities:(1) Supra-community level (e.g., government legislation, international, regional, and local market forces, security of land rights for indigenous groups, modes of governance, and level of decentralization of decision making), (2) Community level: intra-community power and patronage dynamics, diversity of different groups, interests in the community (e.g., ethnic, socioeconomic, occupational, and age) and relationships between these groups (e.g., gender relations, resource management institutions and norms, culture, and local land tenure), and (3) Individual or household level (social identity based on gender, ethnicity, class, economic status or age, workload and livelihood responsibilities, access to and control over productive resources, decision-making power within the household, livelihood roles, etc.).These variables can either constrain or enable local participation in research by affecting the ability or willingness of an individual or social group to genuinely and honestly contribute to the research process. Certain contextual variables can be addressed during the research if researchers are explicitly aware of them and monitor and assess them. The resulting information can be used to adapt and improve research design and methods by building on enabling factors or by minimizing constraints and risks.Interaction between the researcher and the \"participants\" shapes the results of the research. Interaction between the researcher and community is defined by underlying power differences, based on such factors as formal education versus popular knowledge, urban versus rural background, differences in social and economic status, and gender roles. Researchers influence participatory processes and outcomes by their choice of questions and methods and by their 138 attitudes, personalities, and facilitation skills (Mayoux 1995, p 245). Researchers often see themselves as experts, and may have difficulty in devolving authority over knowledge, particularly in cultures with rigid social hierarchies.Researchers' values and understanding of community heterogeneity and social and power dynamics will influence the interpretation of \"community\" interests and priorities. Researchers may intentionally or unintentionally manipulate the research process and results by favoring certain perspectives (e.g., by focussing attention on more articulate individuals or organized groups). Further, researchers' academic desires for results that will bear peer review and support publications may dissuade them from allowing community members to direct the research and define their own objectives. Together, these \"researcher\" variables will affect the nature and outcomes of the research process, perceptions of who \"owns the research\", who in the community it positively or negatively influences, the sustainability of the outcomes, and so on.Local people's perceptions of the research process will influence their willingness to participate. Research activities may be perceived as both foreign and highly formal (Mosse 1994, p 505), especially when more powerful stakeholders are present. Local people may be reluctant to express their interests, may give \"correct\" or \"expected\" responses, or may present needs that they feel fit the agenda of the researchers. Their responses are often based on perceptions of what they can gain or lose by providing certain information, and suspicions about how the results will be used (Mosse 1994, p 504).Past community experience with research and development projects, and perceptions of potential benefits can influence community motivation to participate in new research activities and can bias local people's responses. The increasing popularity of participatory approaches and the accessibility of tools for researchers has sometimes led to indiscriminate use of these methods. Further, isolating research from action can negatively affect local people's perception of research. Communities become suspicious if they are involved in many participatory processes with no obvious results (\"participation overload\" or local burnout). Why should people want to participate in exercises that do not offer them a practical benefit, even if the ultimate \"goal\" is in their strategic interests (Found 1997, p 118;Goyder et al. 1998, p 7)? Researchers sometimes undervalue the opportunity cost of participation for local people, especially when assuming that participation is in the people's best interests. Participation of marginal groups and women may itself add to their work burden or decrease their leisure time (Mayoux 1995, p 246;Goyder et al. 1998, p 10). The value of local participation to the research and to the local people needs to be critically assessed before a participatory approach is assumed appropriate, and before deciding on the level of local involvement in the research.Time and resource constraints imposed by the project, research institution, or funding agency can limit how effective PR is as an empowering process, and place constraints on how much local representation and involvement is feasible. Also, methodologies that encourage community participation may unintentionally overlook the interests of certain groups in the community and may construct the information and priorities presented and the decisions made (Mosse 1994). Power and social relations underlie and influence all participatory processes and their outcomes. Group participatory exercises can provide an opportunity for researchers to observe how people interact and to study power and social relations, but group exercises can also obscure social complexity and legitimize dominant views as community consensus (Goebel 1998, p 279). Bias of results may occur because certain groups do not participate or cannot articulate their perspectives because of underlying social and power dynamics in group activities. Certain groups or individuals (especially women and marginal groups) may be unable (or unwilling) to participate because of livelihood and time constraints, powerlessness, et cetera. Cultural, social, and religious norms may define who attends meetings and makes decisions and fear and shyness may inhibit participation in group activities. Willingness to participate will also be affected by disinterest in the research process or distrust of how the research results will be used (Mosse 1994;Mayoux 1995, p 246-7).Reliance on the opinions of village leaders, key informants, or existing local organizations to determine who should participate in the research and to identify important issues can lead to a misrepresentation of local interests (Freedman 1997, p 776). Involving such groups is usually necessary, but assuming that they represent the interests of the whole community is naive. Local leaders may use the process as a political platform and may advocate in their own best interests, which may conflict with those of other groups. Also, participatory methods may be biased in favor of information that can be easily gathered by these methods or that can be visually depicted (Mosse 1994, p 517). Research results may also be misrepresented in documentation and summarization, and important minority perspectives may be lost even when special effort has been made to ensure representation of these groups.The main clients interested in monitoring and evaluating PR are donors, researchers, and sometimes the community. These different groups tend to have distinct information and evaluation requirements. Three main reasons for evaluating PR include:(1) Project management -to systematically learn from and adapt the research approach as the project proceeds, according to what has been successful or not and to enabling and risk influences such as social and power dynamics that affect the research process and results. (3) Accountability -to justify the research strategy and expenses to funding agencies through credibly illustrating the link between PR methods and project outcomes, so that researchers can be accountable to donor agencies, and for program accountability to funding bodies (government, tax payers, etc.).Two overall goals of PR can be considered in monitoring and evaluation. The first is participation as a product, for which the act of participation itself is an objective and an indicator of success. The second is participation as a process to meet research objectives and goals (Rocheleau and Slocum 1995, p 18-19;Cummings 1997b, p 26). For evaluation purposes, PR generates products of the following kinds.(1) The participatory process, methods, and tools that were chosen or developed for the research.Who was involved, how, and at what stage of the project will shape its ultimate outcomes and reach. Participatory research approaches developed during the project can be considered both as an objective or output of the project and a means for meeting other project objectives.(2) Outputs describe the concrete and tangible consequences of participatory activities. They include information and product outputs (e.g., information from participatory baseline analysis or community monitoring, and new agricultural practices or technologies developed with farmers). Outputs also include tangibles such as numbers of people trained, farmers involved in on-farm experiments, and reports or publications produced from the research. \"Participation\" itself can be considered an output. (3) Outcomes describe the intermediate impacts that can be attributed, at least in part, to PR.Outcomes result both from meeting research objectives and from the research process itself. They can be negative or positive, expected or unexpected, and encompass both \"functional\" effects of PR (e.g., greater adoption and diffusion of new farming practices) and intangible \"empowering\" effects (e.g., improved community confidence or self-esteem and improved local ability to resolve conflict or solve problems). ( 4) Impacts describe overall changes in the community (negative or positive) and may include overall social and development goals. Desired impacts of PR for NRM include sustainability of livelihoods and natural resources, empowerment of communities, decreased poverty, improved equity, et cetera. Assessing the impact of a PR project is extremely difficult because development impacts are influenced by many factors external to the project and are often observable only in the long-term. For evaluation purposes, considering outcomes as \"intermediate\" signs of impact is more realistic. (5) Reach. The concept of reach crosscuts all PR products. Reach describes the scope of who is influenced by the research combined with who \"responds\" or acts because of this influence. Participatory research is assumed to influence reach by involving marginal groups and communities throughout the research process rather than treating them as passive \"beneficiaries\" of the research results. Participatory methods are anticipated to improve equity and appropriateness of results, the distribution of research costs and benefits, and the persistence of behavioral change at the community level.Indicators can be defined for the different products and stages of PR. In practice, differentiating between process, output, outcome, and reach of PR can be indistinct and artificial because they are often \"sequential\" and \"time-dependent\". Therefore, it does not always make sense to differentiate between them in evaluation.Evaluation of PR for NRM projects must be situated within parameters that influence the appropriateness and feasibility of different participatory approaches. These parameters determine realistic expectations from different PR projects. The parameters include the nature of the research question, the initial \"capacity\" of local people and researchers involved, the values and 143 Evaluate process and outcomes. By nature PR is experimental, and requires that the methods and objectives initially outlined in the proposal are continually redefined and adjusted iteratively in response to contextual influences and input from participants. Therefore, evaluation based on whether or not the expected activities and results initially outlined in the proposal were achieved is not the best approach. More useful is considering how well the research process was adapted to move toward meeting the ultimate outcome objectives, and how the research has progressed towards meeting this. At some point in the project, clear objectives will be set, and relevant indicators for measuring progress towards these can then be determined at that time. Objectives should be stated in such a way that the results can be measured.The most important and interesting outcomes of PR tend to be intangible and social in nature, and are best measured qualitatively. However, many evaluations tend to focus on outcomes that are quantitatively measurable. Exclusive focus on this type of information is unlikely to provide a useful analysis of PR projects. Qualitative analysis is important for explaining why changes have occurred, while quantitative analysis is useful in establishing the relevance of changes. Quantitative and qualitative indicators can be used together to validate each other.Different individuals or stakeholder groups (within and outside the community) will have different interests in the project, and will interpret and experience the research process and outcomes differently. These groups will have distinct perceptions of what the project outcomes were and which ones were most important, and may have different criteria and indicators for positive or negative changes resulting from the project. This may depend on their level of involvement in the research process, the extent to which the project has directly affected them, and their individual expectations, interests, and values.For PR projects addressing NRM issues, it will often be necessary to understand outcome from multiple perspectives, some of which may conflict. It is therefore important to establish whose perspectives are needed in evaluation. This will depend on the nature of the NRM project and the goals of the evaluation.The process of comprehensively understanding the outcomes of a PR project may call for involving various stakeholders in the community in negotiating the terms of reference and indicators for the monitoring or evaluation process. Understanding outcome from the perspective of different groups requires an open-ended, qualitative approach that does not limit evaluation to pre-defined indicators.(1) Different scales of stakeholders in the research process, (2) Researchers and research institutions (improved research capacity, better understanding of participatory processes), (3) Community and groups within the community (more equitable decision-making processes, improved management structures for NRM, improved livelihoods, etc.), and (4) Policy makers (changed attitudes and behaviors, increased openness to community involvement in decision making).144Use locally appropriate indicators. Comparing the effectiveness of different PR approaches by comparing across projects is sometimes useful from a program perspective. However, defining standardized indicators for comparison across projects is difficult because standard indicators often have little meaning in the local context or measure different changes than intended. A better approach is deciding on broader questions for which locally defined indicators and locally relevant criteria might provide information.Consider logical sequences rather than try to prove causality. Research design inherently assumes that PR activities, outputs, and outcomes are causally linked. However, validating a causal relationship between these is impossible because of the many contextual influences. A central challenge for evaluation is to determine which changes in the project site were caused by factors outside of the project's control and which can be attributed to the project. Also, what the effects of the research were on the area outside of the project site or on non-participants (the \"reach\" of the results).Attempts at establishing causality have used \"quasi-experimental\" evaluation designs for comparing research versus non-research situations, using a community similar to the research site as a control group (Pomeroy et al. 1996;Olsen et al. 1997). Although imperfect, this approach may be acceptable when assessing biological or physical changes. However, involving a \"control\" community in time-consuming activities to evaluate social changes is ethically questionable when no mandate considers that community's interests. Further, this approach places significant demands on human and financial resources. An alternative approach, which uses \"non-participants\" or \"non-beneficiaries\" in the research site as a control group, ignores the fundamental evaluation question of \"why\" these people did not participate, and whether or not the research had an influence on non-participants. A more feasible and appropriate approach to \"quasi-experimental\" evaluation is to establish credible relationships between the participatory activities, outputs, and outcomes, through monitoring and evaluating the process and defining simple indicators to measure progress.\"Process evaluation.\" This approach assesses the process of reaching the final results (how something happens) rather than basing evaluation on whether defined objectives were reached (Patton 1990, p 94). It also encourages the monitoring of intermediate indicators of progress, and therefore can serve to guide the research in process and to facilitate an understanding of the linkage between research process and results. Evaluating the process encourages assessing the research on criteria such as:(1) How well the researchers were able to adapt the research approach and goals to the context, (2) Whether the community participated and had a role in shaping the process and design of the research, and (3) Whether a positive move was made towards desired outcomes. This moves beyond assessing the attainment of predefined objectives, which ignores the evaluation questions that are the most illuminating for PR projects.\"PM&E\" or \"self-evaluation.\" This approach encourages using evaluation as a learning tool and allows perspectives of different stakeholders in the community to be articulated. It also provides information to feed into the research process, enabling researchers in partnership with the community to renegotiate and adapt goals and methods during the project according to emerging issues (see also under In-project phase). \"Responsive and naturalistic evaluation.\" This method encourages the collection of qualitative responses from different stakeholders, community groups, and individuals who have been influenced by the project influenced. This \"constructivist\" approach to evaluation recognizes that \"truth\" and \"fact\" are subjective and allows different perspectives to emerge and conflicting interests to be articulated (Marsden et al. 1994, p 31;Dugan 1996;Fetterman 1996). The constructions and interactions of the evaluation's stakeholders set its boundaries (Guba and Lincoln 1989, p 42).A simple form of LFA can provide a matrix for making explicit assumed causal relations between PR activities, outputs, and impact goals (Cummings 1997a, p 588-590;Olsen et al. 1997, p 6). This can be used both as a project planning tool and as the basis for a preliminary evaluation plan, outlining relevant questions, indicators, and methods for measuring degrees of progress, and designating who will undertake the monitoring activities. Researchers can tentatively develop the LFAs during preparation of the project proposal, and adapt and fine-tune them with monitoring information as the project progresses.Although LFA matrices provide a useful framework within which evaluation and project management approaches can be developed, these require specific objectives and strategies to be defined at the beginning of the project when the least is known, and often without input from the community. This creates the risk that log frames become a \"straitjacket\" and an impediment to adaptive learning, which is necessary for effective PR (Olsen at al. 1997, p 10). Logical framework analysis is best used as a planning tool to guide research design being adjusted as the research progresses, rather than as a strict framework for which PR projects are accountable.Participatory research can be monitored and evaluated at different stages of the project cycle (pre-project, in-project, and post-project), and different stakeholders may be involved at each stage (Figure 1).Donor agencies can assess the PR approach at the stage of proposal development. The appropriateness and feasibility of the proposed methodology can be roughly anticipated by examining the context (environmental, social, and political), existing capacity of the researchers and research institution, and the goals of the project.Main factors for donors to consider when assessing PR proposals are listed below. Assessing the existing capacity and experience of the research team and institution for undertaking PR, and their motivation for using a participatory approach, is important to establish training needs and to judge the feasibility of the research strategy presented in the proposal. Questions that can be considered include:(1) What past experience have the researchers and institutions had with PR projects? (2) Does the research team include a qualitative social scientist (anthropologist, rural sociologist, etc.)? Does the research team include female researchers? (3) Have the researchers had training or experience with social or gender analysis, PR tools, evaluation, group facilitation, et cetera? What type of training and experience do they have? (4) Does the structure and management of the research institution accept participatory approaches? (5) Is the PR approach outlined in the proposal realistic for the research team to apply effectively, given their capacity and experience and the support of the research institution?The appropriateness and quality of the PR process and methods. The appropriateness and feasibility of the proposed methodology can be assessed for its relevance to the stated research objectives and the likelihood that key stakeholders or community groups will be identified and 147 their perspectives addressed. Methodological questions that can be considered at the project development stage include:(1) How do the researchers understand \"community,\" \"gender,\" and \"participation\" in the project proposal? Does evidence exist that researchers understand the multitude of different interests and possible conflicts that may arise from the research, or is community cohesiveness assumed? Is this understanding evident in the design of the methodology, or only through the use of the \"appropriate\" terminology? (2) What is the value of a participatory approach for the research, and is this the best approach?How will the research, and importantly the community or stakeholders, benefit from participation? Are PR activities obviously related and connected with other parts of the research strategy? What types, level, and scales of participation will be most effective or feasible to address the research questions, and does the research methodology support these? Is the proposed methodology \"tool-driven\" or flexible to focus on reaching project goals? (3) Is there an attempt to identify the stakeholders or resource user groups who are likely to be influenced by the project? Which stakeholders or community groups need to be involved, and are these included in the research process? How has this been decided? What scale(s) of stakeholders need to be involved for the project to have the desired outcome? (4) Is the process intended to strengthen local institutional and individual capacity and decisionmaking ability? If so, does the methodology encourage devolving control of the research process to the community? (5) As part of the baseline analysis, is the micro-political context to be assessed? Are local institutions to be analyzed (for equity in decision-making and representativeness of different interests)? Are social, power, and gender relations in the local community to be analyzed? How are these relations likely to influence the research methods? Does the methodology outline how the researchers will deal with this (e.g., through disaggregation of methods)? If stakeholders of different scales (community representatives, government, etc.) are to be involved, how will power differences be handled? (6) Does the project strategy include a mechanism for feedback of information from participation? Is the methodology flexible to adapt methods if they prove ineffective in allowing representation and participation of certain groups, or according to intermediate results? Does a systematic process for communication exist between different researchers, local participants, et cetera to share and reflect on research results and plan research direction (e.g., regular meetings)?The social, political, and environmental context and associated risks. Although PR can result in significant benefits for local people and marginalized groups, risks associated with the approach are inherent. Two types of risks can be considered: that the research will fail to meet its goals; and that the research, in meeting the objectives or through the research process, will unintentionally cause harm to the community or to specific groups within it.The potential enabling factors and social risks of PR, or from involving or not involving specific stakeholder groups, can be anticipated before the project begins and can be ranked (high, low, likely, unlikely, on a comparative scale between 1-5, etc.) (Sawadogo and Dunlop 1997, p 601). Recognizing and tracking such factors and risks will also help establish what changes can be attributed to the research and what is beyond the scope of project influence, and helps anticipate the relative importance of representation of different groups and disaggregation of research methods. The costs, skill, and time required for having greater social differentiation and representation in the research process must be balanced against the livelihood risks to certain groups if not adequately represented.Questions that can be considered for preproposal risk assessment can be outlined as:(1) Does a risk exist that not involving certain stakeholders will provoke them to obstruct the research process? (2) Do local participants run security and livelihood risks if they become involved in an empowering process of which the ruling group may not approve (because of national politics and governance, community leadership, local patronage relations that place certain groups in subordinate positions, etc.)? How will the project handle this? (3) Do researchers or project staff run political or security risks if the participatory process is perceived as a threat to the political or local establishment? (4) Does the research approach have potential to further disempower certain groups in the process of enhancing the resource rights and livelihood security of the \"community\"? This consideration is especially important if the project deals with common property resources, and when uses, needs, and interests are conflicting. \"Who stands to benefit from the approach and how, and who may be further disadvantaged? Who is enabled or constrained? Whose economic circumstances or security of tenure is at stake\" (Li 1996, p 505). ( 5) What are the potential risks to the community resulting from inexperienced researchers using PR methods inappropriately? Some examples of such risk could include: (a) Exacerbating or initiating conflict in the community by making power relations explicit or by unintentionally directing benefits of the research to specific individuals or social groups, (b) Further marginalizing certain social groups by not understanding how the research and participatory process might affect them negatively or by not recognizing them as important stakeholders to include in the process, and (c) Inadvertently aiding elite members of the community in increasing their power, access, and rights over resources by further legitimizing their claims through \"participatory\" activities such as boundary and resource mapping or tree-planting, which may effectively lead to land privatization. (6) How will the research strategy deal with creating community expectations for concrete development interventions that are likely to arise from local participation in the research? When PR is not linked with concrete interventions, even if researchers are transparent with the limitations of their work, community groups may still anticipate practical benefits. A mechanism must be available within the research strategy to meet certain practical needs early in the process.During the project, \"on-going\" and formative monitoring and evaluation can be integrated into the research strategy as part of an iterative and reflective process. Information from systematic monitoring of the process, methods, and intermediate results (outputs and outcomes) can be fed into the research to influence its direction and design. This \"adaptive management\" approach 149 enables researchers to track research progress by detecting incremental signs of outcome and impact. It also helps them assess which groups are participating and being influenced by the research, and identify and confront undesirable results or constraining factors (Robinson et al. 1997, p 806;Margoluis and Sagafsky 1998).The PM&E approach involves local people in monitoring and evaluating changes, which directly affect them in the natural and social environment. Local people informally assess changes in their environment and monitor and analyze benefits from changing farming practices, exploring new livelihood options and so on as part of their daily lives. Outsiders usually initiate formal PM&E processes to capture a community perspective of the progress or impacts of a research or development project. Like other PR approaches, PM&E is used broadly to describe different levels of community participation and control over the process. Participation in evaluation spans a gradient from complete community-controlled monitoring of environmental change, to researchers consulting communities on impacts of interventions, to the \"participation\" of field workers and researchers in evaluation (as opposed to external evaluations by funding agencies), with little focus on community involvement (Rugh 1986;Davis-Case 1990;Marsden et al. 1994;Woodhill and Robins 1998).For PR, coupling an adaptive management approach with PM&E methods is appropriate to capture community perspectives on research results and to involve the community in directing research design. In the context of a research project, PM&E methods can be used:(1) As a research tool (e.g., farmers monitoring changes from their own experimentation and sharing the data with researchers), (2) For project management (e.g., for researchers to track the process and intermediate results and adapt research design accordingly, or for learning and organizational change), and (3) For facilitating local empowerment and strengthening community capacity to sustainably manage natural resources by helping local people develop systematic methods for tracking the results of their management decisions and activities (Guijt et al. 1998, p 28).The results of PM&E can complement external evaluations. However, involving local people in monitoring and evaluation can be a time-and resource-consuming process. Further, the process does not necessarily benefit them directly nor contribute to empowerment, and has an opportunity cost in terms of local people's time, which should not be undervalued (Goyder et al. 1998, p 6). The benefits and drawbacks of encouraging PM&E in a research project are outlined below.(1) Researchers and communities benefit directly from the lessons of the evaluation, unlike external evaluations from which the learning tends to be retained with the institution sponsoring the evaluation, and in which the information needs are often different from those of the project researchers and community. (2) Information from regular monitoring and evaluation is defined by the community's and researchers' needs and used to help direct the project or, if defined by the community for its own purposes, to track environmental and social change and help in decision making.(3) Researchers and the community have \"ownership\" over the results, and are more likely to internalize the lessons learned than if an external evaluator were to present them. (4) PM&E integrated into project research strategy will help strengthen the capacity of researchers and communities in evaluation, and in conducting PR; and (5) Monitoring and assessing the PR process should encourage researchers to be more reflective about the research strategy and methods. Hopefully it will make researchers more alert as to how these methods enable or do not enable representation of different stakeholders, and to the social dynamics and relations of power that influence the outcomes of these processes.(1) PM&E can require significant time commitment both on the part of the researchers and the community.(2) Programs may question the objectivity of the results of participatory evaluations conducted by researchers, and may challenge their validity for accountability purposes.(3) By devolving the responsibility of evaluation to researchers and the community, the information gathered risks not meeting the information needs or level of accuracy required by the program or other users (policy makers, etc). ( 4) The results of participatory evaluation may not be credible or not meet the needs of governments and policy makers who may also be interested in the outcomes of the research. ( 5) Indicators and questions from PM&E will differ between projects if they are defined in a participatory way, which may make it difficult to compare outputs and outcomes of different participatory approaches between projects.In addition to ongoing PM&E facilitated by researchers, external evaluations during the project provide important outside feedback on how the research can be improved. This may also involve PM&E methods to gain community and special group perspectives. Participatory evaluation exercises facilitated by an external evaluator in ongoing projects can combine \"external\" evaluation with training of researchers in evaluation tools and PM&E, and can act as an entry point for encouraging more systematic monitoring in the research.External, post-project evaluations are useful to establish conceptual and practical lessons from different case studies of projects that have used PR approaches. Post-project reflection on what methods worked well or less well in different situations provides important insights for future research design. It may sometimes be useful to evaluate a project that has already been finished for several years (3-5 years later). This can provide knowledge about the longer-term results of the research, such as the persistence of resource-use changes initiated by the project, the sustainability of new resource management institutions, or the continued use and adaptation of farming practices developed in the project. Evaluation several years after project activities have ended may be particularly beneficial for participatory NRM projects because of the lengthy time period for certain benefits to be observable. At the same time, it becomes increasingly difficult to attribute such outcomes to the research as time passes.to be adapted to the local context and respond to community input. Guiding questions to assess this in monitoring and evaluation include those following.Have the researchers clearly explained the limitations and scope of the PR activities to the local people? Are locals aware of these limitations or do they have unrealistic expectations? Are they aware of and understand the overall goals of the research? Motivation for participation. Are local people participating? In what way (consultative, active in experimentation or in defining research priorities, etc.) are they participating? Why are people motivated to participate? Is participation voluntary or compliant? Is participation based on getting people to do what the researchers want, or genuinely focussed on establishing local needs and priorities? Do local people perceive that they are benefiting from their participation in the research? How is the research process benefiting from community participation?Relevance of the methods and approaches to the local context. Is the participatory methodology \"tool\" driven or focussed on answering research questions and meeting overall project goals? Are the methods and tools effective for encouraging participation and representation, for strengthening local capacity, for enabling community-ownership of the process, for progressing towards the objectives and goals of research? Are field workers making use of existing information sources such as field notes and informal observations rather than relying on participatory tools to gather information that is already documented elsewhere?Adaptability of the research approach. Is there a process for feedback of information to the research design from participatory processes? Is there a systematic mechanism for occasional interaction between researchers and locals to reflect on the research process and intermediate results? Are the \"results\" from community participation informing the research design? Are the research goals and methods being redefined and adapted as the research proceeds?The researchers' abilities and attitudes are likely to evolve and change over the course of the project because of increasing experience working with local people. Using PR methods is expected to increase researchers' respect of local knowledge.Have the researchers' attitudes to local participation and respect for local knowledge changed since the start of the project? Do they seek local views to include in the research and to inform the research process? Are they seeking input from marginal groups, such as from women?Abilities of the researchers to adapt the process. Are the researchers modifying the process and methods to meet research needs and in response to community input, or are they following the exact methodologies presented in PR tools manuals? Are researchers analyzing social and gender relations underlying participatory methods, and modifying them accordingly?Researchers can monitor and document representative and \"genuine\" participation of different community groups. Indicators of representation must be more revealing than quantitative information such as \"how many people\" or \"who\" attends meetings, although these are also important. Monitoring should also record selective and relevant qualitative information such as:(1) Who speaks? Does one person or group dominate discussions and what is their social status? Do women participate actively in discussion? (2) Descriptions of the social dynamics of the event, especially conflicts or major arguments, and (3) Descriptions of how decisions are made, whose views are most valued or listened to, how conflicts are managed and whose interests have been served. Whose views hold more weight? What position do they hold in the village? (Goebel 1998, p 284).Group participatory events provide researchers with an opportunity to observe and critically assess social and gender interactions between individuals and groups, and so provide information on the nature of social and power dynamics in the community (Goebel 1998, p 284).Although the importance of segregating different interest groups in PR is becoming increasingly accepted, social and power relations may be based on many aspects -clan, wealth, age, gender, knowledge, occupation, witchcraft, et cetera. Researchers may not always know enough about the community to know these different interests, how people divide differently around different issues, and what form local power relations take. A method for establishing the basis of difference in the community without predefining criteria and groups is presented below. Also, critical analysis of group exercises will help identify different power and interest groups, and provide researchers with important insight about when such groups should be segregated.Branching tree method for assessing group differentiation in the research process A method for assessing the extent to which researchers have identified different stakeholder groups and encouraged their participation and representation in different research activities uses a pictorial \"branching tree\" analogy. The \"tree\" is the research activity or question, the \"tree branches\" are the stakeholders and groups of people identified and involved, and the \"sub-branches\" are subsequent divisions (ethnic groups, gender, etc.) or \"subsets\" of these groups (e.g., women with and without land) (Goyder et al. 1998, p 8).Semi-structured interviews can be held with different groups or individuals (including locals who have a stake in the research, but who are NOT participating or who have stopped participating). These can provide important perspectives on why people choose to participate or not, and whether or not they feel adequately represented in the research process. World Neighbors has used participatory ranking methods with local people to score the level of participation of different social groups in each research activity and when different research tools are used (Bandre 1998, p 47).In addition to the researchers' field observations, local participants can evaluate the effectiveness of different research methods. Local people can provide important feedback about which tools they find understandable, with which they feel comfortable expressing their perspectives, and so on. Participatory methods such as preference ranking can encourage local input on preferred tools, and can provide important insights for adapting these methods to make them more effective or for use in other areas. Such assessment can be disaggregated by social group to consider different perspectives (Goyder et al. 1998, p 18). Guiding questions for assessing the \"quality\" of participation and representation include those below.Stakeholder identification, power, and social analysis. Have important stakeholders and community \"interest\" groups been identified? How were they identified? Were they \"predefined\" or did the groupings emerge from the research process? Has an effort been made to understand and deal with power and social dynamics and assess how these affect relationships between different stakeholders or groups? Has an attempt been made to understand the link between livelihood activity, resource use and entitlement, and the social relationships between different community groups and stakeholders, and to understand how this influences their interests in the research?Have different interest groups at least been consulted? Are those who wish to take part able to do so? Are important views being articulated (including those of marginal groups and women, where necessary)? Are the methods being disaggregated when necessary to ensure that all groups affected by the research (including less powerful people) are able to express their perspectives? When appropriate, are perspectives of different stakeholders differentiated in decision making, in conflict management, in needs assessment and planning, et cetera?Is the \"scale\" of participation appropriate to the research question and the resource management issues being addressed? Do relevant stakeholders (NGOs, companies, government, community, etc.) participate at different levels of governance when this is appropriate? Are all stakeholders who use the resource represented in some way in the participatory process? (At least consulted?) Does a process exist for managing conflicting interests between different scales of stakeholders in such a way that negotiation is not biased in favor of the interests of more powerful groups?Participatory research is thought to catalyze social change by increasing local awareness of problems and issues, mobilizing local people to develop their own options and plans for dealing with problems, and strengthening local capacity to act on these plans. The short-term goal of mobilizing local people to solve immediate practical problems is intended to lead to longer term shifts in power relations in favor of less powerful groups (Selener 1997). In most NRM projects that use participatory methods, social transformation, in the form of improving local capacity and institutional norms for managing and using resources productively and sustainably, is an important research goal. When considering the \"transformative\" potential of the research we 155 must also consider how the research has contributed to shifting power dynamics within the community, and between the community and outside groups.Theories of social change and local empowerment highlight certain stages and criteria that are considered essential for this process to occur. Empowerment must be clearly defined if progress towards this is to be assessed and if indicators of empowerment are to be developed. Indicators of empowerment encompass personal and socioeconomic and political changes, and can be established for groups or communities or at the level of the individual. Processes of PR can be evaluated on whether or not they meet the criteria thought to be important for encouraging social change and contributing to local empowerment. These criteria include the points below.Has the research process increased local awareness of issues? Have the research process and methods mobilized or facilitated local people to develop local options for improving their situation? Are local people better able to make informed decisions about NRM?Local people participating in decision making, planning, and \"action\" to address problems. Is the participatory process facilitating local involvement in decision making and action to address problems? Does an improvement show in their ability to make collective decisions and to \"equitably\" resolve conflicts between different groups in the community? Do local people have increased ability to act collectively in community interests? Do they have increased understanding of the different needs in the community?Perceptions of \"ownership\" of the process. What is the local perception of who the research is for and of its purpose? Who controls the research questions and agenda? To what extent do the researchers (or the community) define the issues and questions? Are local people involved in identifying and defining research priorities and plans, in data collection and analysis, in defining solutions and action plans, in monitoring the results of their activities or experiments and defining their own indicators and criteria for success?Has the research identified and made explicit the existing individual and community-level capacities (e.g., existing resource management institutions, decision-making and negotiation processes, and conflict management skills)? Is the research process strengthening these individual or group capacities and organizational skills? Is it contributing to individual and community awareness of local problems and strengthening their ability to deal with them effectively? Is it strengthening community capacity and motivation to continue activities such as resource management, or is community motivation dependent on mobilization by the researchers?Creating linkages between stakeholder groups. Have the researchers identified existing linkages (e.g., between local government and community) and areas where linkages need to be made to effectively address the research problem? If appropriate to the research question, have the researchers been able to encourage participation of stakeholders at different levels of governance and create linkages between these stakeholders? Have fora or networks been established for negotiation or information sharing between these different groups, or between groups of similar interests (e.g., farmers)?Empowerment and social transformation. Has the process changed local people? Do they have an increased awareness of their own situations? Do they have an increased awareness and appreciation of the realities and interests of other groups or stakeholders? To what extent did the investigation prompt action?Participatory research has been criticized for lack of rigor and accuracy, for being subjective, and for bias in favor of specific local groups or individuals (Pretty 1995, p 178). Researchers are sometimes called upon to justify the approach and establish credibility of the results. Can we be confident about the \"truth\" of the findings? Can we apply these findings to other contexts or other groups of people? Are the findings reliable (would the results be the same if the research were repeated)? How can we be certain that the biases, motivations, and perspectives of the investigators did not construct the results (Pretty 1995, p 178)? Reliability of the research is implied if certain measures were included in the research process, and this can be considered when evaluating PR. Indicators of reliability include:(1) Lengthy or intense contact between the researchers and local people to build trust and better understand the research context and local social dynamics and institutions, (2) Triangulation of process and results by using different methods for the same data, or by having different researchers involved in collecting the same information, (3) Cross-checking the results of PR with local participants to ensure validity, and involving local people in analysis of results to ensure that the views represented are really theirs, (4) Peer or external review of results and research process, (5) Reports that include contextual descriptions and quotations from local people to capture the complex social reality and include multiple local perspectives and experiences, and (6) Documentation of the research process and keeping of daily diaries reflecting on it.Many outcomes of PR for NRM are diffuse and long-term, and notoriously difficult to measure and attribute to a particular research project or activity. However, certain outputs and outcomes commonly evolve from such projects. To consider the contribution of the participatory approach to these outcomes, considering their \"intangible qualities\" in addition to their existence is most interesting (e.g., for community organizations developed as an output, to consider qualitative features such as how representative they are, how decisions are made, etc.). Evaluation of the \"nature\" of these outcomes rather than their \"existence\" alone requires a qualitative approach such as semi-structured interviews on key issues with various groups in the community. Further, because different individuals and community groups will have different perceptions of what the outcomes of the research were and which were important, multiple perspectives must often be obtained.Methods of PRA such as social mapping and well-being ranking exercises can be used to identify stakeholders and understand differences in well being as part of baseline analysis. Ranking of well being can help identify the marginal groups in the community and establish local criteria for what makes them vulnerable. Disaggregated baseline analysis or semi-structured interviews targeted at different social groups at intervals during the project can help determine differentiated impact as the project proceeds.Baseline information on community situation. These should include:(1) Livelihood analysis: investigation of community differentiation, how these different groups interact with the environment through livelihood roles or access to resources, and capabilities of different groups, (2) Ecosystem analysis: assessment of the dynamics of ecosystem transformation, microenvironments and how human action is contributing to environmental change, and (3) Institutional analysis: assessment of formal and informal behaviors and institutions that govern human interaction with the ecosystem and with each other. Questions that may illustrate qualities of these outputs that will reflect on the participatory process include: (a) Whose knowledge and perspectives have been documented? (b) What was the research context in which the knowledge was generated? (Were groups disaggregated when there were conflicting interests or power differences? Was this information collected from a variety of stakeholders or community groups?)Community identification, prioritization, and analysis of problems and plans for addressing these. Who in the community was involved? What was the research context in which the knowledge was generated? How were issues prioritized and plans made? Whose perspectives do they represent and how was this negotiated? How were conflicting interests managed?New technologies or production systems developed in partnership with local people and researchers. These include agroforestry, soil conservation, farming systems, et cetera. Are these based on priorities identified by local people and were local people involved in the development or experimentation process? Have local people adapted the experimental approach in other aspects of their livelihood (evidence of improved capacity)? Have others, who did not participate in the study, taken up the innovation (evidence of reach)? Have people been teaching each other?Were existing local institutions and organizations identified and assessed for whose interests they represent, for compatibility with sustainable resource use, or for democracy in decision making? Did the researchers build upon institutions that strengthen the strategic interests of subordinate people? Who is actively involved in the relevant organizations and how did they participate in the research? Is there an active leadership? Whose interests do the organization or leaders represent? Are the interests of less powerful groups represented? Are the organizations and leaders accountable to the community and do they represent important stakeholders? Are they legitimate in the community's eyes? What is the motivation for involvement? How are conflicts resolved and decisions made?Community-based management systems. Are local people able to systematically monitor the ecological results of their activities and adapt those that are not sustainable? Can they enforce sustainable practices? Have they the authority to ensure compliance? Is representation equitable? Is there an effective forum or mechanism for conflict resolution concerning use of common resources? Are methods for decision making improved or more representative of various interests? Are less powerful voices included in decisions? Is there strength in the leadership? Is there a system of accountability, and to whom is the system accountable?Capacity building at the community level. Is there increased awareness of issues and problems? Are local people better able to make informed decisions about NRM? Are they able to formally monitor environmental and social change (have they been trained in PM&E methods)? Is there an improvement in their ability to make collective decisions and to \"equitably\" resolve conflicts between different groups in the community? Do they have an increased understanding of different needs in the community? Do they have the institutional and individual capacity to effectively adapt their management processes for farm or common resources according to changing external and internal pressures? Have their organizations been strengthened? Are local people better able to act collectively in community interests and to access external support for community needs?Capacity building at the researcher level. Are researchers more conscious of social relations and how these affect the research? Are they better able to adapt participatory tools and approaches to fit the context and the information needs of the research and the people? Are they better able to facilitate participatory processes to enable different perspectives to be articulated?The many contextual variables, which influence PR processes, make monitoring and evaluating PR multi-dimensional and complex. The diversity of NRM research projects that apply PR methods, and the differences in understanding of what \"participation\" in research implies, makes it difficult to compare successes and failures between projects or to generalize about successful PR approaches. Further, because the different groups involved in PR projects have different indicators and criteria for project success, it is important to understand whose perspectives are needed to inform on specific issues or outcomes, and to seek these views in evaluation.Evaluation approaches for PR need to assess the research process and project outcomes. They must be flexible to encourage awareness of unanticipated changes and understanding of different perspectives of results, should be locally relevant, and must consider negative, unplanned indicators. A useful way to monitor and evaluate PR is to integrate this into the project cycle from the project design stage. Ideally, such an approach will benefit the donors, the community, and researchers by improving overall research outcomes and generating better understanding of the applicability and benefits of different participatory approaches in different contexts. Because PR approaches cannot be standardized between projects and need to be adaptable and responsive to the local context, evaluation of the research process is essential for evaluating PR. Further, this approach will systematize researcher learning from monitoring the methods and intermediate outcomes, helping them to improve research strategy, ensure representation of important stakeholders, incorporate community perspectives into the research, and improve progress towards desired research goals.In 1993, the Assessoría e Serviços a Projetos em Agricultura Alternativa (AS-PTA), a Brazilian nongovernment organization (NGO), began a new activity, the Paraíba Project, involving two organizations of rural workers and several communities in northeastern Brazil. In 1996, a systematic effort was made to implement the monitoring and evaluation of the impact of this process of participatory innovation. For this purpose, a research project was set up in partnership with the International Institute for Environment and Development IIED and Centro de Tecnologias Alternativas de Zona de Mata (CTA-ZM). This project received financial support from the Department for International Development (DFID).The AS-PTA works in the Agreste, an arid region of Paraíba (considered the poorest state in Brazil) characterized by vast environmental variation, with diverse natural flora and widely varying agricultural systems. Despite this context of great diversity, almost all small-scale farmers have the same basic problems: intense pressure on the natural resources (particularly soil, vegetation, and genetic diversity), and an accentuated decline in agricultural income with the successive disappearance of various cash crops. This last is clearly the first priority of the local farmers.The Paraíba Project was created to address these problems. It is a local agricultural development program, led by AS-PTA, in the municipalities of Solânea and Remígio and more recently Lagoa Seca. A technical team of six professionals with differing training and experience carries out activities. They work with rural animators who are active members of the Sindicatos de Trabalhadores Rurais (STRs) designated for this task. These STR members dedicate much of their time to sustainable agricultural activities, organizing meetings and exchange visits, visiting farmer-experimenters, training members of the seed banks, et cetera. For this work they receive a small salary from the STR with the help of funds from the Paraíba Project. The STRs are the principal partners of AS-PTA in the project and are indispensable for the sustainability of the work. As the process of agricultural experimentation evolves, they contribute to the discussion of innovations and the diffusion activities. The community associations and groups of farmerexperimenters (organized around subject interest groups) are also actively involved in the Paraíba Project's activities. Those who fund these activities are also important participants.Currently the project's main priority is to improve production systems, with the prospect of working with aspects of commercialization and postharvest processing. The work focuses on generating and diffusing innovations for family farms. Innovations include developing technical proposals (e.g., new consortia or techniques for soil preparation) and social innovations (e.g., community seed banks). Institution-building activities for the local organizations and establishing linkages with other actors (e.g., civil society organizations, other NGOs, and government institutions) are also promoted.The project works on the principle that farmers (male and female) will be the future administrators of the continuous process of innovation and change. For this reason they are involved in all aspects related to generating and diffusing innovations. Nevertheless, not all of them are equally interested in participating in all these aspects. Thus a team works with three different levels of farmer participation:(1) A nucleus of about 10 farmers, the animators, (2) A group of about 80 farmer-experimenters, and (3) A general \"public\" of farmers in community associations, currently covering 430 families in 30 communities in three municipalities.Farmers' participation has been important for the project from its beginning in 1993. In that year, a participatory diagnosis was made of two agroecosystems, conducted with 30 farmers and representatives of the STRs to analyze the crisis of family farms in the region and identify possible solutions. This study served as the basis for project activities in the following years. Since 1994, these farmers-together with the AS-PTA technicians and animators from the STRs-have been developing a process of participatory evaluation and planning. This is done through yearly seminars with some 40 farmers participating. The results of the monitoring feed into this process.Considering the different levels of farmer participation, how can a process of monitoring that contemplates the interests of the different actors (community associations, interest groups, STRs, and AS-PTA) be made viable? This challenge has faced the project since 1996.To date, many of the impacts are related to the search for more sustainable agricultural practices for the agricultural activities in the region. Progress has also been made in strengthening the social organization and collective action. The team feels it is on the right track with the participatory approach, without which progress would have been much slower. Meanwhile, results are as yet insufficient both from the standpoint of geographic coverage and of the impact obtained with families.To complement results, it was decided to set up a participatory monitoring plan (PMP). This involved a series of seminars with the AS-PTA, STRs, and animators participating, where the most important aspects related to setting up the PMP were discussed. The preparation of a monitoring schedule and its constant revision is described later.The PMP is divided into two: one part considers indicators and the other does not. Both parts cover the principal work areas of the Paraíba Project, but not all activities are included.Given the many activities, it was decided from the start to prioritize work areas in the fields of generation and diffusion of innovations (Table 1). Within these areas, the most important activities were prioritized: community seed banks, control of the banana beetle (Cosmopolite sordidus, a Coleoptera destroying the banana pseudostem), contour lines (diffusion), and animal breeding (generation). Over time, an important difference could be seen between generation and diffusion of innovations when it came to monitoring. These processes are presented in more detail below. Each diffusion activity has a variety of objectives, each of which has a series of possible indicators (short-and long-term) that cannot be totally monitored. For this reason the selections were made based on the key objectives for working with family farms. Even then, despite the effort to prioritize, 22 indicators remained to be followed-a considerable number.After selecting the indicators, the data-collection tools were defined for each one. Both conventional instruments (e.g., individual interviews) and more participatory ones (e.g., community maps) were used. This was also an interactive process. The IIED facilitator suggested two or more methods for each indicator drawn from a list of possibilities (use of information cards, maps, transects, evaluation matrices etc.).Next, the group discussed the viability of each tool and selected the most suitable ones, adjusting as required to improve their adaptation to the indicators, the team's skills, and the cultural context. Maps, flow charts, and information cards were selected as the best tools to apply in the initial data-collecting stage. Once the instruments and the indicators were defined, the frequency and programming of data collection and analysis were established. Thus, a \"monitoring schedule\" was developed with a clear distribution of tasks.The monitoring of community seed banks is given to illustrate participatory monitoring with the use of indicators (Table 2). The other three activities monitored used a similar model. Table 2 shows that to monitor the three main objectives of this activity, a series of indicators were chosen. In reality, however, some changes had to be made. The indicators related to the organizational aspects and management of the seed banks were not monitored because the datacollection instruments used could not be adjusted to reality. The data obtained with the information cards made it possible to monitor other indicators that had not been prioritized initially. This learning experience led us to incorporate new indicators in the PMP. No specific method outlined, use made of indicators already selected, e.g., maps.Tables 3 and 4 give further insight to the type of information obtained. These data for two indicators for the seed bank were used to evaluate activities developed by the Community Seed Banks. The reflections regarding these activities were mostly made on the basis of the monitoring results.  Bank member spends 47% less for seed than nonmember Proportion of easy or difficult access to seed Bank member: seed from bank stored 76%, seed from sharecropping and purchased 24% Nonmember: seed from bank stored 48%, seed from sharecropping and purchased 54%a. G = germination; M = moisture; -= no data. b.The partners decided to monitor these indicators every 2 years. In terms of quantity, the Solânea results were more consistent than were those of Remígio. In Solânea, the number of banks and stock expanded although the total number of families did not change. This means an increase in volume of seeds used by each family. Conversely, in Remígio the total seed stock decreased, as did the number of members attended. These facts led to a critical revision of the project. We concluded that the conditions required for managing a large number of banks did not exist because community organization was weak. Therefore we decided to curb expansion of this type of work and concentrate efforts on supporting the management of the existing banks.With respect to experimentation, only those activities related to feeding livestock were prioritized initially for the PMP. In 1997, however, the interest groups (IGs) for small potatoes and yam were also considered.When experimental activities were monitored more systematically, a series of objectives and indicators were selected for the livestock breeding IG in 1996. The initial idea was to collect data on forage production at each cutting, and on new forms of postharvest treatment and storage of the forage.During the process we found that, although a single idea was being tested, farmers were experimenting with a great diversity of proposals. This caused difficulties in collecting and systematizing the data. The indicators selected (e.g., comparison between advantages and disadvantages of the possible forms of producing forage) were not measured because to do so required comparisons among farmers' experiments. How could advantages and disadvantages be compared when experiments varied from one farmer to the next? The solution was to substitute two of the comparison indicators for others that registered the farmers' opinions about the advantages and disadvantages of the different proposals on a yearly basis. Some of the activities related to the small potatoes and yam IGs were incorporated in the dynamics of the PMP. Monitoring was done on the basis of indicators identified by the farmers. As with the livestock breeding IG, difficulties were encountered with the small potatoes IG given the great diversity of proposals. The contrary was true for the yam IG, which had a proposal for a rotating fund with common objectives defined by the group. It met around a single proposal. This permitted greater clarity in identifying objectives and indicators that served to monitor the experiments of diverse farmers. Monitoring of the concrete work carried out by the other two IGs will require a better definition of the proposals to be implemented.The above shows that the format for monitoring experiments is not yet satisfactory. The role of the IGs in the process also needs to be defined more clearly to identify strategies for participatory monitoring of their experiments.Initially, the PMP monitored much of the diffusion of innovative practices and techniques and, to a lesser extent, the generation of proposals. In 1997, other dimensions of the work were incorporated in the work plan. It was decided to increase areas for monitoring that were also crucial for the development process:(1) Expanding and strengthening partnerships, (2) Methodology development, (3) Design of a new union (STRs) model, (4) Strengthening the organizations (AS-PTA), and (5) Intervention in public policies.The nature of the work developed in these areas is different from that of technology diffusion and generation proposals. Attempting to construct a tree of objectives and specific 168 indicators did not seem a viable methodology. Thus the option selected was to experiment with a methodology used in Bangladesh, which eliminates the need for indicators (Davies 1998). The Christian Commission for the Development of Bangladesh (CCBD), which works to combat poverty on a large scale, has used this method. Its objectives are qualitative in nature and thus difficult to \"measure\" in concrete terms. The essence of this monitoring method is the response to a set of questions formulated each month. The questions identify what was the most important change that occurred in the diverse areas of work during the period under consideration. Each of the groups involved in the work lists all the changes in relation to each area and then they choose only one as the most important. This information is recorded on paper, describing the \"what, where, who, and when\" of the event under consideration and explaining why this change was the most important of all. The periodic recording of this information makes it possible to monitor the principal changes occurring in the work area.We decided to experiment with the \"Significant Change\" method from December 1997 onward. The AS-PTA and each of the principal partners (STR-Remígio and STR-Solânea) applied the method in separate groups. The responses to the questions were socialized in plenary sessions. Then a report was prepared on the spot and distributed among the partners. The method is being applied every 3 months. The most significant changes in the year will be evaluated in the forthcoming Annual Evaluation Seminar. Table 5 shows the results of the application of the method in May 1998.The first impression, having applied this method, is that it appears easy to understand and implement; is quick to apply; and has the advantage of causing partners to reflect and facilitates constant re-planning. On the other hand, an overall evaluation of the set of significant changes (or incidences) remains pending. Only with this can we more clearly affirm that this method meets our monitoring needs in the four areas.Who is participating? Three groups are involved; they collaborate with the monitoring in the sense that they evaluate the development of joint activities:(1) Men and women farmers, (2) Representatives of the STRs (most of whom are farmers), and (3) AS-PTA technicians.As in the Paraíba project overall, these three groups have for the last 2 years been involved in the diverse activities of the PMP in different ways. The AS-PTA has made an effort to involve the direct beneficiaries-especially the farmer-experimenters-in all phases of the Plan. Nevertheless, we recognize that the individual families that we attend do not automatically become full participants in the project. Thus the plan concentrates on the information needs of the strongest partners-the AS-PTA and the two STRs. Although farmers as a group did not participate as principal actors from the start, the STRs represented them. But, we confirmed that a significant number of farmers are becoming involved. The plan has not found a satisfactory manner of accompanying the experiments being conducted by the IGs. The challenge also remains of involving the community associations in the PMP.Table 5.Expanding and strengthening partnerships: Most significant changes or events that occurred in the first 5 months of 1998 at three STRs a , Paraíba, Brazil. It is tempting to want full participation from all those involved. Nevertheless, not everyone is interested and some do not have the time required, as the different levels of actual participation demonstrate. Some participants are intensely involved in all stages of the process, but others only want to hear about the results. In this sense, our efforts to involve the funding groups more actively in discussions have not produced the expected benefits.These findings offer several points for reflection. First, sufficient time must be given to developing an initiative of this nature. Working with diverse partners and differentiated groups means that time must be found on the different agendas, and diverse interests must be conciliated. Second, we should learn to live more peacefully with the idea of different levels of participation.To the extent that the different actors mature and become more involved with the overall work, their interest in participating in the monitoring and evaluation phase will also grow.Being able to manage a constantly transforming reality is critical for a methodology that facilitates learning, such as our PMP. Frequent changes occur in diverse aspects of the impact monitoring and evaluation process. Within these changes, three stand out:(1) As the whole process evolves, so the actors involved change, (2) As the actors change, their roles within the process could also change, and (3) External factors (e.g., government programs or climatic variations) affect the activities to be monitored, generating distortions.This situation creates challenges for a focus based on evaluating the temporal evolution of data linked to the same indicator. This means that the partners should have the capacity to continually construct and review what they are monitoring, keeping in mind that this situation creates difficulties in data interpretation.The question of who is involved bears a certain relationship to that of who benefits from the impact evaluation.The AS-PTA played an important role in getting the Plan established and used the data produced in reports and texts. The same data have also been of great use in its periodic discussions about evaluation-both internally and with its partners.What is useful for the STRs? The data have been useful in the discussions evaluating work progress. To cite one example, the decision to reorient the work with the Seed Banks was made after data showed that malfunctions were occurring in the municipality of Remígio. However, it remains to be seen whether the STRs are benefiting from this information in other ways. Are they using the information in their internal discussions? Have the data been useful in their relations with other local actors? We recognize that some benefit has occurred, but we find that it remains far from ideal. What can be done to improve this situation?We find that the funding agencies have also benefited, because their needs are most probably taken care of through the provision of better quality information. Moreover, they have never informed us of their specific needs.Finally, we should ask whether it is in the farmers' interests to be involved in the monitoring of impact in a manner that does not contribute directly to their decision-making requirements. Care should be taken to not force their participation nor assume that people will benefit from participating in the monitoring process. The Seed Banks are an example. The banks contain a quantity of seed for meeting the needs of much of the community. Each farmer needs to have seed available at the start of the planting season, but does not need data about the total quantity of seed distributed by the Bank. On the other hand, certain data on the functioning of the Bank are useful for the community. This point should be analyzed case by case. The system that we set up clearly makes sense for the collective or institutional actors (e.g., AS-PTA, STRs, communities, and IGs). This should be taken into account.We are trying to reinforce the overall learning process, characteristic of the Paraíba Project focus through participatory monitoring and impact evaluation. What we question and what is not yet clear is how sustainable this will be. What part of the monitoring process will be maintained in the future? Should the method be just to develop indicators related to the prioritized objectives or simply out of curiosity, investigate the impact of the work systematically? At what level should the monitoring activities be sustained: groups of farmer-experimenters, the AS-PTA team, the STRs? These questions need to be answered soon to examine monitoring and evaluation in a more realistic and pertinent fashion. (1) Linking users and researchers for more effective and locally relevant innovation, (2) Bringing sustained benefits to small-scale farmers, especially women, in less favored farming areas, and (3) Working with households and communities as key actors in problem diagnosis and action research.The UPWARD network has carried out field projects in three areas of root crop R&D: genetic resources conservation and use, crop management, and processing-marketingconsumption. Apart from addressing these problem areas, projects also served as vehicles for field testing and promoting participatory R&D approaches. The network realizes that the best persuasion for promoting wider acceptance of user participatory R&D is to prove its practicality and value via its field application. Over the years, UPWARD researchers have reported varying success in building users' perspectives and participation into the R&D process. They have drawn attention to the strengths and weaknesses of such an approach, while pointing out possibilities for its further rethinking (Campilan 1997). A major program task at hand is to critically review these field experiences as part of program learning.The mission of UPWARD (1994-98) was to support the participation of technology users in R&D so as to increase the sustainability of root crop agriculture and food systems in Asia. Its goals were to:(1) Support research that leads to sustainable improvements in Asian root crop agriculture and food systems, (2) Test, adapt, and disseminate participatory research methods and tools, and (3) Build the capacity of Asian professionals and institutions in user participatory R&D. * Users' Perspectives With Agricultural Research and Development (UPWARD) -Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Philippines.From about 50 projects, in six countries, which UPWARD has implemented since 1991, seven longer running case projects were selected. These projects (Table 1) have accumulated relatively more experience with user participatory R&D, having gone through the three project phases conceptualized by UPWARD:(1) Diagnosis and assessment -situation analysis, needs assessment, problem identification, and resource inventory, (2) Action research -planning, development, and testing of feasible technological options to address identified problems and opportunities, and (3) Local R&D management -scaling up, phasing over, institutionalization, and capacity building.UPWARD is in the final stage of synthesizing results of the self-evaluation for input to strategic planning in the next program cycle.Interest in the participatory approach is growing, but little empirical evidence exists to show its concrete contributions to agricultural R&D. The UPWARD network made a deliberate effort to field-orient its projects attempting to move from concept to practice and conversely to provide grounding as it \"theorizes\" inductively from these field experiences. Through the case studies, we could glimpse how researchers assessed the need for and feasibility of putting UPWARD's user participatory approach in a field project setting.A participatory assessment of home gardens in northern Philippines revealed the invaluable role that these production systems play in the food security of low-income households. The same study revealed that women were the primary home gardeners and that limited research and development support was given them despite the socioeconomic importance of home gardens to households. In deciding to address this gap, a subsequent action research was carried out, specifically to work with women home gardeners in participatory technology development for introducing improved crop management practices.Taking the household, and not the farmer, as unit of R&D intervention, was most appropriate in a parallel home garden project in southern Philippines. To show the significance of the home garden, its niche within the household's overall food production and consumption system had to be located. A household framework allowed the project to examine the contribution of the home garden to a household's total food production, how home garden practice was influenced by the family's developmental cycle, and how the wife-home gardener's role complemented that of the husband as field cultivator. It also highlighted the interdependence between the sociocultural diversity of households and the biological diversity of gardens. The impact of a specific problem like bacterial wilt on a community's food system was most evident in the Nepal hills where potato is a staple food. To manage the disease, the spread of the pathogen had to be controlled by implementing 3-year rotation and quarantine measures. However, complying with the integrated disease management (IDM) approach, as suggested by researchers, meant that households would somehow be deprived of the opportunity to produce adequate staple food over time and space.In the same project on bacterial wilt management, the need for biological and social science research was necessary to understand and develop solutions to the disease problem. The IDM approach needed expertise in social facilitation and inter-institutional collaboration to mobilize the entire community in enforcing agreed rules and sanctions while being sensitive to their sociocultural and political dimensions. In realizing that bacterial wilt was more than just a technical problem, the project had to build interdisciplinary teamwork, and interdisciplinary thinking by each team member.For commercial sweet potato farmers, faced with the problem of declining soil fertility, accessing local and scientific knowledge was key to introducing a cost-effective soil management innovation. It meant combining local indicators of soil degradation with standard soil testing procedures done by researchers. Participatory on-farm trials also resulted in identifying a fertilization scheme that combined farmers' practices and the use of externally produced fertilizer as the most feasible technological option.In Indonesia, implementing an innovative yet complex approach such as the farmer field school (FFS) required involving a diverse mix of institutions. To introduce sweet potato integrated crop management (ICM), the project had to involve and capitalize on:(1) A local nongovernment organization's (NGO's) previous experience with the approach, (2) The institutional influence of a national root crop research center, (3) The technical backstopping of a university, (4) The local influence of village-level political units, and(5) The interinstitutional networking of an international research center.Canna is a high-value root crop in Vietnam, being the main source of starch in the processing of transparent noodles among household enterprises. As an annual crop, however, canna supply is limited and farmers are unable to fully meet the volume requirements of processing enterprises. Sweet potato can fill this gap as a potential supplementary and cheaper source of starch, and as a crop of shorter maturity. However, research is needed to develop technologies for combining sweet potato and canna starches that would result in noodles acceptable to the discriminating taste of Vietnamese consumers.starch mixes and adapted traditional processing techniques, and traders and consumers, whose sensory evaluation of final products guided further technology refinements.Meanwhile, with potato cultivation expanding in a remote county in southern China, a wider range of varieties needed to be evaluated for local adaptability and acceptability. Researchers provided farmers with access to a limited amount of seed of new varieties. Farmers then tried them out on their farms. From one season to the next, farmers discarded some of the varieties and added newer ones in a continuous process of varietal evaluation through the researchers' facilitation.The ultimate and ideal goal of user participatory R&D is for users to assume leadership and manage their own research activities, with external R&D professionals facilitating local initiatives by providing complementary expertise and linkages to relevant resources.The longer-term objective of the FFS in Indonesia was to institutionalize the learning group approach at the community level. A select group of FFS graduates underwent further training to become facilitators of subsequent FFS activities, with the aim of creating multiplier effects. Those who completed the training of trainers' reported an increased level of competencies in the substantive aspects of ICM. However, they felt inadequately prepared to immediately take over the facilitation role, suggesting the need for continued support by researchers and indicating that a much longer \"phasing over\" period is necessary.Meanwhile, to institutionalize the community-based management approach for bacterial wilt, the Nepal project facilitated the formation of village committees to oversee implementation of the IDM measures, which were essential in eradicating the pathogen. The critical role of an effectively functioning local R&D system was demonstrated in one village where the pathogen was successfully eradicated through the committee's strict enforcement of crop management guidelines as agreed by the community. In another village, where the committee disbanded, bacterial wilt infection increased instead.The case projects sought to examine evidence of the impact of user participatory R&D on the project by addressing the question: How did user participation influence project processes and outcomes? Rather than starting with a predetermined assessment framework, part of the task was to explore how various project stakeholders, individually and collectively, defined \"impact\", how projects sought to measure this, and what would be considered as acceptable evidence.Although each case study project evolved its own specific methods and tools, the following common features characterized the impact assessment of user participation.(1) Participatory assessment of participatory research.For any R&D project to rightfully claim being participatory, it has to share with local people the control and influence over all aspects of the project, including monitoring and evaluation. This basic principle governed project efforts in developing an approach to impact assessment of user participation. Thus, impact assessment became part of the case project's participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E).(2) Levels or dimensions of assessment.Impact was assessed in terms of three levels or dimensions. The first was at the community level, by determining changes in farmer behavior, household dynamics, and on-farm. The second was at the local agency level, by determining changes in capacities, priorities, and R&D practices of community-based agencies (e.g., field offices of government ministries or NGOs) working directly with farmers. The third was at the level of external R&D institutions, by determining changes also in terms of capacities, priorities, and practices, but of R&D institutions sponsoring and/or initiating the projects. (3) Stakeholders' planning of project PM&E.Involving users in impact assessment did not begin with implementation, but at the planning stage. A stakeholders' workshop was usually organized to determine the need for project PM&E, identify the expected impacts, decide on impact indicators, determine the target users of assessment results, and explore ways for involving local people in assessment through user-friendly methods and tools. (4) Shared assessment responsibilities.In seeking to make the participatory assessment approach operational, project stakeholders needed to agree on sharing responsibilities for carrying out various assessment tasks that had been identified. Usually, stakeholders were willing to be involved only when they were convinced that the assessment results were directly of use to them. As such, researchers realized the need to point out, especially to local people, how impact assessment could benefit them, such as input to farm decision-making. (5) Regular validation workshops.A key activity in implementing project PM&E was the regular validation workshop. It served as the culminating activity of a cropping season and/or R&D phase. During a workshop, researchers and users present and discuss results of monitoring activities in the preceding period, and plan future project directions and follow-up activities. Farmer leaders may present findings of a season's on-farm trial while project stakeholders use diagnostic data to conceptualize a subsequent action research phase. (6) Assessment of technical and socioeconomic dimensions.As an interdisciplinary research project, impact had to be assessed in both technical and socioeconomic terms. This was most relevant especially for projects aiming at biodiversity conservation or sustainable agriculture, where the combined perspectives of technical and socioeconomic researchers were needed to fulfil standards of science quality as a whole, or for each of the disciplines involved. (7) Exploring opportunities for \"quasi-experiments\".Although an experimental design would have been ideal to establish cause-effect relationships, it often was not feasible (e.g., for ethical reasons) or appropriate (e.g., because of complex multiple causality in the field) when impact assessment was undertaken under a naturalistic setting. The case study approach was usually used instead of having \"control\" and \"treatment\" groups. Nevertheless, some instances offered a project opportunities to conceive of \"quasi-experiments\", such as by monitoring a comparison group selected ex ante, or when a participating village or community dropped out of the project.Impact of user participation on a project was assessed in terms of influence both on the processes (i.e., implementation) and outcomes (i.e., results and post-project effects). As an example, Table 2 provides preliminary findings of process and outcome impacts on the case projects included in the self-evaluation. Technologies developed applied directly to address urgent needs (Vietnam: starch and noodle processing) Improved user capacities as in-built output Group learning method applied to address extra-project concerns (Philippines: soil management) Co-ownership of project outputsLocal community attributed IDM success to their critical contribution to project (Nepal: bacterial wilt management) A learning experience for technical researchers Adoption of participatory approach in subsequent research projects (China) a.ICM = integrated crop management, IDM = integrated disease management.During the workshop where case studies were presented and discussed, participants also raised issues and concerns relating to impact assessment of user participation (UPWARD 1997). These are listed below under four thematic categories.People and institutions define and interpret impact assessment differently. A first key step is for project stakeholders to arrive at a shared perspective of its underlying principles and concepts. Many researchers do not yet fully appreciate the value of impact assessment as both a learning and management tool.Participatory research demands participatory impact assessment. Using participatory methods does not necessarily mean that the assessment is less scientific. On the other hand, participation adds scientific rigor because various stakeholders bring in different levels of analysis and views of reality. On the other hand, promoting participatory assessment does not imply a total rejection of conventional approaches. They are complementary and can be used jointly or singly at different stages of the project. When participatory assessment is most useful, and when other approaches may be more appropriately used, must be determined.A wide range of methods and tools is already available for doing impact assessment. Projects need to choose methods that are user-friendly to all those who participate in the assessment. Exploring non-conventional methods is especially useful to help participants overcome communication and social barriers and articulate their views more effectively. The methods to be selected are those that help yield information that are of direct and practical use to the project. Often PM&E deals with sensitive, confidential, and even controversial information. Methods must conform to accepted ethical standards in the research and development profession.A project seeks to make impact assessment widely participatory, but identifying who should and should not be involved can be difficult. Decisions must be made on which actors are relevant and what group size is optimal for effective assessment.Impact assessment involves different types of participants, and different levels, modes, and timing of participation. The composition and role of participants can therefore change together with the broader R&D process and project cycle. Moreover, impact assessment is a natural battleground for actors seeking to secure power and influence. Stakeholders bring to the assessment platform their respective agendas and interests. Ideally, impact assessment helps resolve project conflict, but in certain instances it may also create conflict.How indicators are identified, defined, and measured largely determines assessment outcomes. As in the case of many social concepts and phenomena, indicators for assessing \"participation\" are difficult to establish. Innovative ways are now available for measuring types and levels of participation. However, the process dimension of participation must not be missed.Projects need to go beyond the conventional indicators of effect and impact. A project may overlook its other significant achievements because they are not adequately covered by the set of indicators usually prescribed for impact assessment. The use of multiple indicators and measures contribute to overall reliability and validity. A project can combine technical and social indicators, as well as scientific and local or indigenous ones.Establishing causal relationships is an unresolved issue that merits attention in subsequent meetings or workshops. Under a naturalistic setting, isolating other factors is deemed inappropriate if not impossible. Researchers should therefore be open to the possibility that project impact is attributable to a confluence of factors including, but not limited to, user participation. Singular impact may be only attributable where a rigorous and simplified set of cause-effect relationships have been established, which on the other hand runs the risk of \"oversimplifying\" field realities.In a recent external program review of UPWARD, the reviewers (Guzman and Horton, 1997) concluded that specific effects apparently could not be attributed to specific causes. They concluded that although changes occurred at field level, UPWARD was only one of several forces contributing to them. Therefore these changes are best seen as joint results of the collaboration, and not as \"impacts\" of UPWARD alone. In the future, UPWARD might want to extend its innovative work in PM&E to developing a new approach for assessing the benefits of its collaboration with individuals and organizations PART 4:The varietal and genetic diversity of the maize landraces grown in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca State, Mexico, reflects the management practices of the farmers who have grown them for thousands of years. These landraces are of commercial and non-commercial value today to the farmers who grow them. They are also of global value to future generations of maize producers and consumers, including those who will reside in and far from the region.Environmental changes, economic development, and changes induced by policies such as those of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), may make growing and managing maize landraces less attractive for Oaxacan farmers. But, the predicted decline in maize production following maize price reductions stipulated by NAFTA has not yet occurred. Taylor et al. (1999) show how a fuller understanding of village economies in Mexico can explain this apparent paradox. Farmers are concerned about meeting their needs on a daily basis, and the varieties they choose to grow are not necessarily those deemed most desirable for the conservation of genetic diversity. If we ask farmers to give up the maize varieties they choose to grow to cultivate other maize varieties of greater potential value for conservation purposes, we will be asking them to pay a price today for the benefit of future generations.Can collaborative crop improvement benefit farmers today while maintaining or enhancing genetic diversity for tomorrow? Can we encourage farmers to conserve maize genetic resources for future generations by increasing the economic return they earn currently from growing landraces? The farmers of the Central Valleys of Oaxaca are already conserving maize genetic resources de facto. Can we reduce their opportunity costs? Some farmers have decided to continue cultivating landraces although modern varieties are available. The adoption of modern varieties in the region is negligible. Some detailed studies conducted in areas of crop diversity (Dennis 1987;Brush 1992;Meng 1997;Bellon et al. 1998a;Perales 1998;)  The goal of our pilot project in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca is to determine whether maize productivity can be improved while maintaining or enhancing genetic diversity. The project is funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), and the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP). We define maize productivity broadly in terms of yield, stability, or other characteristics of interest to farmers. If maize diversity and productivity can be enhanced, both the individual welfare of farmers today and the future welfare of society will increase. Eyzaguirre and Iwanaga (1996), Riley (1996), andQualset et al. (1997) proposed linking agricultural development to genetic resource conservation. Figure 1 conceptually depicts this idea, which is central to our project.Conservationist perspectiveTo implement the project, we first need to identify the structure of the crop populations and which crop populations or sets of populations should be conserved. This process involves identifying the crop populations and characteristics that show the most potential for genetic gains, that are of greatest importance to farmers, and that contribute the most to genetic diversity. Second, we need to identify which types of farmers are more likely to conserve crop populations. Finally, we need to determine which participatory strategies should be used to improve the crop populations.In the first, diagnostic, phase of the project we conducted some of the research necessary for the first two points. The data collected during this phase also constitute the baseline to assess the impacts of our project in the future. The purpose of phase two of the project is to address the third point by comparing three different types of farmer participation in landrace improvement. Welfare impacts will be assessed using economic analysis, farmers' perceptions, and genetic analyses. Samples of 152 maize populations were collected from farmer experts in 15 communities in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, based on the extensive experience of the INIFAP breeder in that zone. Farmer experts were identified through previous work and by other farmers in the communities.Communities represent well the variation in rainfall conditions of the region (1310 to 1839 masl), and the variation in maize races and diversity of maize uses by farm households.To measure morphophenological and yield characteristics that serve as the basis for analyzing the genetic structure of these maize populations, trials were established on site and on the Tlaltizapán Experiment Station. Trials included the 152 populations, 17 historical accessions from the INIFAP and CIMMYT germplasm banks, and one improved population of the local landrace. Statistical analysis of the data reveals considerable phenotypic diversity among the populations of the race \"Bolita\", suggesting a medium to high level of genetic diversity (Taba et al. 1997). Breeders from INIFAP and CIMMYT selected promising materials from these populations based on their criteria (Taba 1998).Landraces contribute to the welfare of farmers and their households by providing a range of attributes or product characteristics that are consumed on the farm as food or feed or sold in the market. Although \"yield\" is clearly important, it has many components and is not the only characteristic that farmers value. These include attributes related to consumption and production. Farmers also recognize that trade-offs are to be had in choosing varieties because positive and negative traits are often associated. Farmer welfare can be improved by: enhancing the positive and reducing the negative contribution of traits that farmers consider to be important; and decreasing the trade-offs associated with growing certain varieties. To assess this, we need the farmers' own evaluation of their landraces.We elicited farmers' preferences regarding the maize populations that were collected during visits to demonstrations at several of the sites. Farmers from the region, including the experts who donated samples, were invited to evaluate the 170 populations on site at physiological maturity and harvest. More than 400 people participated in the field days, although not all were maize farmers (defined as any farmer who plants maize). Participants \"voted\" for as many populations among the 170 as they wished. Farmers' preferences were then related to their key socioeconomic characteristics. To analyze voting patterns, groups were formed by applying a multivariate clustering technique to socioeconomic characteristics. Choices were compared among socioeconomic groups, and between men and women (summarized in Bellon et al. 1998b).The percentage of votes for each landrace was regressed against a set of agronomic variables measured in the trials, including those that breeders used to rate the landraces, and others we considered to be relevant to farmers (e.g., ear and grain characteristics). The variables used by breeders were good predictors of farmer voting patterns. This suggests that both take into consideration similar traits for their ratings. However, evidence also showed that farmers take additional variables into consideration. The variables tested only explained a part of the variance, which suggests other factors not measured may be important to farmers. Overall, consistency was shown between the materials selected by breeders for improvement and the populations receiving most farmer votes. However, exceptions also occurred, which is consistent with the suggestion that farmers take additional characteristics into consideration. An example was a variety that was highly popular among women farmers, but was not selected by breeders in this first phase, and will be included in the work of phase two.The information on preferences can be tested and grounded statistically by comparing these responses to those of farmers included in the sample survey, which includes men and women respondents in 240 households (summarized in Smale et al. 1998a). In the sample survey, a rating method was used to elicit information on the extent to which maize characteristics are demanded and supplied by the varieties grown by farmers. The list of characteristics to consider was based on the informal discussions with farmers when seed was collected. Survey findings showed that the most important characteristics to both men and women members of farm households (although their relative rank differed) were drought-tolerance, resistance to insects in storage, grain weight, avoiding low yields, and the taste of tortillas. The first four characteristics are notably related to grain yield-which is a complex trait-and the fifth is a characteristic that varies according to subjective evaluations and is therefore difficult to enhance through breeding.We have also conducted a preliminary assessment of the market for grain of maize landraces in the Central Valleys to determine whether the market values any characteristics. Grain shape and grain health alone appeared to influence price, and vendors of special maize products did not frequently express a preference for using certain types of maize to produce them-often depending on the cheaper, lower quality maize imported into the region (Risopoulos 1998). Because many of the variety characteristics that households care about are not reflected in market prices for shelled grain, their value is implicit and specific to each household. Although shelled grain has market prices in the town markets that are dispersed throughout the region, only an estimated 5% of production of maize landraces enters these markets. This implies that it does not make sense at present to choose characteristics for improvement based on hedonic valuation with market prices, as might be the case under other circumstances (Unnevehr 1986).Combining participatory plant breeding with a goal of on-farm conservation requires the identification of the most genetically desirable maize populations. They are not necessarily those of importance to farmers. The populations that are the least costly to support in an on-farm conservation program would be those of greatest current importance to farmers, because farmers have reasons for growing them. To identify the most suitable candidates for on-farm conservation, we must combine information about the relative importance of crop populations to the farmers who grow them with the results of genetic analyses (Figure 2; Bellon and Smale 1998). Genetic modeling and genetic diversity analyses based on data from a subset of survey farmers are planned for the second phase of the project. The sample survey data have helped us identify homogeneous groups of farmers in terms of their management of maize diversity. Farmer management of diversity includes variety choice, seed procurement, supply and exchange, and seed storage practices (Bellon et al. 1997). A critical feature of farmer management of maize diversity in Mexico is that farmers have different strategies for procuring seed (Louette 1994;Aguirre 1999). Strategies include both saving seed from the previous season's harvest and mixing, exchanging, and replacing it with the seed of the same variety obtained from other farmers. These management strategies affect the intra-varietal genetic diversity of maize, and have implications for the type of participatory breeding strategy most likely to produce genetic gains that farmers can realize.The survey data, combined with the qualitative information from the monitoring survey, deepen our understanding of the way seed is exchanged among farmers and helps us identify \"seed curators\", \"seed suppliers\", and seed distribution systems in the community. Such key farmers may serve as the basis of a local seed industry for the products of participatory plant breeding. We will continue to identify them during phase two of the project, as farmers do or do not decide to participate and we learn more about them.We have chosen three types of farmer participation in landrace improvement to compare in phase two of the project.Farmers are consulted about which landraces and which characteristics should be improved. Relatively few landraces are chosen from the original set. The breeder decides which breeding methods to use to achieve genetic gains. The materials that result are grown in farmers' fields and evaluated in the field with them.Participation type 2. Farm households are exposed to a wider array of landraces, including the improved materials resulting from participation type 1. They are also provided with information about the performance of these landraces in different locations and circumstances (e.g., under drought and adequate moisture). They are invited to take seed samples for experimentation from those populations they find interesting.Participation type 3. Farmers who express interest are trained in seed selection and management techniques and in principles to help them maintain the characteristics of their landraces. In designing and developing the techniques with farmers, particular emphasis will be given to selecting and improving maize for resistance to storage insects.Impacts have multiple dimensions and can be documented in different ways. In this project, we have chosen to assess the welfare impacts of the three types of farmer participation in landrace improvement using:(1) Farmers' perceptions of germplasm and knowledge gained through participation, (2) Analysis of genetic diversity using phenotypic characteristics and molecular markers, and (3) Economic analysis of efficiency and the distribution of benefits among socioeconomic groups.We also intend to compare farmers' evaluation of landraces and their characteristics before and after participation and by type of participation. In the baseline survey, we asked farmers to rate the landraces they grow with respect to characteristics of interest, and to rate the importance of the characteristics in meeting their objectives. Characteristics included both consumption and production traits. The rating for any population with respect to each characteristic expresses the extent to which it \"supplies\" characteristics. Weighting these scores by the relative importance of the characteristics enables us to determine the extent to which supply meets the \"demand\" of the farmer. A scalar \"attainment index\" can be calculated for each maize population, serving as an indicator of its utility or use value to farmers. Estimated attainment indices can be compared between time periods. A difference in attainment indices may express either change in the supply of the characteristics resulting from breeding, or shifts in the demand for the characteristics resulting from changes in farmers' preferences. We can analyze changes in the \"demand\" or \"supply\" of characteristics separately and assess their independent contribution to changes in the attainment index. In this project, we are initially most interested in estimating changes in the \"supply\" of characteristics as it relates to the three types of farmer participation. However, changes in \"demand\" also determine the effect of project activities on farmer welfare, and we cannot assume that the demand parameters are static. We will also calculate variety attainment indices for men and women. Because of the different responsibilities that men and women have within the household regarding seed procurement and exchange as well as seed selection and management, all evaluations must be conducted from the viewpoints of both men and women participants.There is no single most accurate or most appropriate indicator of diversity in crop genetic resources.There are many indicators, from the number of farmer-named varieties to indices based on molecular data (Meng et al. 1998). In our project, as already mentioned, a primary interest is the use of molecular markers.A major practical issue in assessing the potential to conserve genetic diversity on-farm is how to link farmers and their management strategies to the evolution of specific maize populations that can be sampled and monitored over time. To develop this linkage, we have grouped the farmers from our sample survey into homogenous groups with respect to management of diversity using a multivariate clustering technique (Franco et al. 1998). From each of these groups a random subsample of farmers has been selected, and from each farmer we will collect samples of all the maize populations grown every year for the next 5 years. Other types of experiments and data collection will provide information of a more general scientific nature regarding the role of participatory crop improvement in on-farm conservation.Private economic returns. Economists mostly believe that farmers need an \"incentive\" to use new varieties or seed-a net benefit in terms of resource expenditure and returns to resources utilized in that activity. Each type of participation requires farmers to invest time and money. Will farmers be rewarded by earning additional yield? CIMMYT has funded some pilot studies related to whether or not farmers find it worth their time to use improved methods of mass selection (a participatory crop improvement strategy) for maize in Mexico. Our results are sufficient to question the strategy for three reasons:(1) Frequent seed loss and farmer practices of mixing seed for the same variety from the harvests of different farmers suggest that genetic gains may not be realized, because genetic gains require the retention of the generations of the same seed from successive harvests (Rice et al. 1998);(2) Large environment-induced variation confounds genetic effects for some traits (Cleveland et al. 1998); and (3) Farmers may not perceive it as a viable means of modifying maize varieties under their conditions (Louette and Smale 1998).These findings are not at all conclusive, but are suggestive. First, improving methods of mass selection, in the form (for maize) of seed selection from the plant in the field, is only one participatory crop improvement strategy. Second, the methods promoted may not always have followed \"best\" scientific practice, although they may have followed optimal practices in terms of simplicity and the time investment of farmers relative to the value of potential returns under their own conditions.Further, not all farmers need to adopt the practices or landraces we are studying for genetic diversity impacts to be realized. A loss of seed by one farmer does not necessarily translate into a net loss to the community. One farmer can take advantage of the genetic gain produced by other farmers in the community by purchasing or being given the seed. At least some farmers will need to benefit from the activities, however, to keep producing the genetic gain embodied in the improved seed and associated seed selection or management practices. This underscores the importance of understanding local seed systems for maize landraces.Other economic values are associated with this project. Maize genetic diversity is a public good externality of farmer choice of maize varieties (Smale et al. 1998b). This means that:(1) More than one farmer in the project region can benefit from maize genetic diversity simultaneously; and (2) Farmers make the choice of the varieties they grow without being able to know or fully consider the effects of their decision on the genetic diversity of the maize grown at the community or regional level.Evaluating this source of value with any degree of accuracy is exceedingly difficult. The project's goal is to enhance the economic return that farmers can earn from growing landraces today as a means of encouraging them to help conserve maize genetic resources for future generations, including their own descendants and other producers and consumers. The project addresses equity between generations, or how much this generation pays for the benefit of future generations. The fact that this project addresses other types of economic value is important given the common misperception that economic models relate only to pecuniary or monetary issues so that questions of the distribution of income among social groups (equity) and across generations (intergenerational equity) must be dealt with separately (Alston et al.,p. 298).Economic theory provides some principles to begin the analysis of the distribution of benefits among socioeconomic groups. If the project is successful enough to shift the supply of grain from maize landraces and reduce the price of grain, the most critical issues determining the distribution of benefits among social groups are:(1) Whether the market for the grain of maize landraces in the project area should be considered as an open (to trade) or closed economy; (2) Whether the government has a producer price support policy, either in the form of buying grain stocks or providing support payments; and (3) The supply and demand elasticities in maize markets, and land and labor markets.When either (1) or (2) holds, the world determines market prices exogenously. Any shift in the supply of maize that results from the use of new practices will not be accompanied by a change in prices received by farmers or paid by consumers. All benefits are transmitted to farmers who sell more maize than they consume (net producers or commercial farmers), as compared to those who buy more than they produce (nonfarm households or net consumers) (Akino and Hayami, 1975).If the economy is open (no. 1 holds), but the government supports the price (no. 2 also holds), the entire economic gain is captured by the innovators and fixed factors in agriculture, namely those who use the practice first and are land owners (Sadoulet and de Janvry 1995). How benefits are distributed among producers depends on elasticities in land and labor markets, and factor shares in production, which factor is used more intensively as practices change, and ownership of factors (Helmberger and Chavas 1996).When neither (1) nor (2) holds, prices are determined endogenously. Consumers reap most of the benefits from lower grain prices and expanded production. Non-farm households and households unable to meet their grain needs benefit unambiguously from more output at a lower price. Adopting farm households who are net consumers, or net consumers who become net producers after adopting, gain. Those who do not adopt the innovation and produce more than they sell, lose. Adopting farm households who are net producers may gain or lose, depending on the supply and demand elasticities for maize (Renkow 1994). Elasticity is just the percentage change in quantity for a percentage change in price. It refers to the extent of the response of consumers and producers of grain or inputs to price changes. The more elasticity the greater the quantity response to a change in price. Net consumers gain differentially, depending on the demand elasticities for maize and the share of maize in their budget (Pinstrup-Andersen 1977). The higher the quantity consumed and the larger the absolute value of the price elasticity of demand in lower income groups, relative to consumption and elasticities in the higher income groups, the more favorable is the distribution of benefits for the lower income strata. When producers gain benefits, they are distributed among producers according to factor ownership, factor shares, the factor intensivity of the technical change, and supply and demand elasticities in factor markets.Information needs. To estimate the total private benefits and relative economic efficiency of the practices, the following information is needed, for each type of participation:(1) An estimate of the yield gain or savings per hectare that is associated with the strategy, in farmers' fields, (2) An estimate of the cost of achieving that yield gain or savings, both in terms of project investment and the time invested by farmers, (3) Appropriate prices to value the yield gain and the time invested by farmers, (4) The incidence of use of the strategy, among farmers and over time, (5) An understanding of which factors shift the demand and supply of local maize in the Central Valleys, including migration, changes in income, and long-term trends in maize area and yields, and (6) An understanding of how current maize policies in Mexico affect the demand and supply of local maize in the Central Valleys.To investigate the distribution of benefits, or equity of the project, the following type of information is also needed:(1) Items 1-4 above, disaggregated by social group, (2) Estimates of supply and demand elasticities for local maize markets, labor, and land markets, and (3) Estimates of the share of total maize produced and consumed by social group.Other approaches of economics. Alston et al. (1995) presented the most comprehensive methodology for evaluating the impacts of agricultural research using the economic surplus approach, on which the method summarized above is based. A participatory crop improvement activity might also be evaluated more simply using a special case of this approach-standard cost benefit analysis. For example, we can use this approach to answer questions such as: What is the minimum use of new practices that would be needed to cover the costs of labor, management, and materials invested in each type of participation? This type of question is easier to answer with limited data and a brief time period of observation, although the assumptions on which it is based are restrictive.We have completed the diagnostic phase of the project in which we collected data that forms a basis for assessing the project's impacts. We identified which types of farmers are more likely to help in the conservation of crop populations.The next phase of the project compares three different kinds of farmer participation in landrace improvement using economic analysis, farmers' perceptions, and genetic analyses. If, as we expect, maize productivity is enhanced and genetic diversity maintained or improved, then:(1) Participating farmers earn economic benefits from the activities, (2) They perceive that their varieties have improved or their knowledge has expanded, and (3) The methods employed have no effect or positively affect the genetic diversity of the maize grown in the region.The success of the project would secure economic value from the conservation of maize for future generations of farmers and consumers residing in and far from the project region. The distribution of benefits among different socioeconomic groups participating and not participating in the project can be analyzed. Methods that have been developed previously for other types of research can be adapted to analyze the impacts of this participatory crop improvement project.Farmer-participatory breeding is a new approach to variety development, in which farmers are involved, more closely and at earlier stages than before, in the process of variety selection and breeding. Closer interaction with farmers allows breeders to understand exactly what characteristics farmers look for in new varieties. Breeders can then pick out germplasm with these traits, and use them to improve local varieties or develop new ones. Varieties developed using this approach are more likely to be adopted and lead to increases in productivity than those developed through conventional methods.This chapter describes several methods used by the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC)-International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program (SMIP) to involve farmers in cultivar development.Adoption of improved cultivars will depend on whether or not they meet farmers' needs and have qualities that farmers consider important. Breeders must therefore understand farmers' needs for specific plant characteristics (such as maturity period) and their preferences and priorities for specific plant and grain traits (such as color and taste). To develop cultivars that are \"better\" than the farmers' or those that meet farmers' expectations we need to understand to what varieties farmers have access at present, their characteristics, and uses. This need not be checked every year, because farmers' varieties usually do not change frequently. However, an evaluation at regular intervals of 4 to 5 years is advisable.Conventional breeders have tended to evaluate farmers' varieties without obtaining farmer input, an approach that is time-consuming and expensive (finding and collecting the varieties, planting them out, studying their growth habits, etc.), and often leads to incomplete or inaccurate information, particularly relating to the end use of a cultivar. Involving farmers directly to generate the information is faster and less expensive (Hardon and de Boef 1993;Sperling et al. 1993). This also results in more complete information. A recent workshop on farmer 199 participation in plant breeding held in Namibia highlighted the potential benefits of this new approach (Heinrich and Monyo 1998). For example, out of the roughly 1000 pearl millet germplasm accessions from Namibia, farmers recognized three major groups-\"Shawana\", \"Shangula\", and \"Ekishi\" (Table 1). They could clearly distinguish differences between the groups in maturity, palatability, stalk strength, and other characters. This is exactly the type of information sought in germplasm evaluation exercises and much of which the farmers already had! Poor seed set, low yields Thus, involving farmers in the evaluation of promising genetic materials will help identify material that appeals to the farmer, thereby reducing the danger of spending scarce research funds on duplicating what the farmer already knows, or developing products that might be rejected.The SMIP has tried several methods of soliciting farmer input to the breeding program. These approaches involve one, or a combination of, the following methods:(1) Structured group interviews, (2) Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) -matrix scoring and ranking of varieties, (3) PRA -pairwise scoring and ranking, (4) Direct observation, including group interviews, and (5) Use of morphologically diverse nursery for trait selection by farmers.Both the group interview approach and the PRA technique of matrix scoring and ranking involve working with farmer groups. The main difference is that matrix scoring and ranking provide an organized framework in which farmers develop and synthesize their own information rather than researchers having to extract and synthesize it. As such, we found the PRA technique less prone to researcher bias.Experience has taught us that when trying to get information from a group, it is important to ensure that group members are knowledgeable about the subject being discussed. For example, during the workshop in Namibia, matrix scoring and ranking was done by two groups of \"farmers\". One group was composed of 10 older men, and the other of seven younger women from a local women's group. Both groups were from the same community. The men knew more about local varieties than did the women, and were in more agreement (within their group) regarding the names and characteristics of different varieties. The women, on the other hand, were more knowledgeable about food quality and the processing traits of the varieties. Consequently, information on types, number, and agronomic characteristics of varieties grown in the community was easily sourced from the men, whereas information on processing and food quality traits was more easily sourced from the women.Direct observation of cultivar performance, either on-farm or on the research station, can also be useful, particularly for obtaining quantitative information (e.g., days to maturity or plant height). However, normally, direct observations are more useful together with group interviews or matrix scoring and ranking, rather than either method alone. The primary information can be gathered quickly through discussions with farmers, and can be quantified and verified over time through direct observation.We consulted over 200 farmers who participated in a field day organized at Mahenene Research Station, in the major grain-producing area of northern Namibia, during the 1993-94 season. Many of the participating farmers were also hosting on-farm trials in the area. These farmers were interviewed individually and in groups. They were asked to select their preferred varieties from more than 150 under the national testing program at the station. Of the six varieties that were on demonstration and also under on-farm verification, most farmers selected Okashana-1 and SDMV 92040. Both these varieties are early maturing, drought tolerant, and have large grains and good threshing characteristics. SDMV 90016, which came third, was not bold-seeded, but had cream-colored, medium-sized seed (1000 kernel mass 10-12 g, compared to 12-14 g for the other two). Interestingly, a few experienced farmers commented that they thought SDMV 90016 would be less susceptible to storage pests because of its seed shape (wedge). During a later study examining relationships between grain physical characteristics and storage pest resistance, we found that SDMV 90016 was one of the most resistant varieties (Table 2). ICMV-F 86415 was the least preferred variety. It succumbed to drought, had poor seed set, displeasing color, did not thresh well, and performed poorly in sandy environments.Pairwise scoring and ranking is an effective method for obtaining information on farmers' priorities. Researchers set the objectives of the exercise, but farmers do the investigation, analysis, and presentation of results, while the researcher plays a facilitating role. We first used this method when looking for a pearl millet ideotype for Namibian farmers (Ipinge et al. 1996b). To come up with an ideotype, farmers were asked to list all the positive traits they would like incorporated into future varieties. Farmers and researcher then went into the field to evaluate varieties for these priority traits. Each variety received a rating score for each of the traits after a discussion among the group to agree on scoring. The positive traits in all varieties with highest scores were listed, and these again prioritized pairwise (Tables 3 and 4).From this exercise it became clear that the pearl millet ideotype for Namibia will have the following characteristics -early maturity, drought tolerance, large hard grains (for resistance to storage pests), and will thresh well. It will be preferably taller than Okashana-1, but with strong stalks that will not lodge (Ipinge et al. 1996b). In fact the Namibian farmer prefers an \"Okashana type\" variety with improved storage pest resistance and improved lodging resistance (Monyo et al. 1996) (Table 4).Both methods (i.e., direct observation and pairwise scoring and ranking) involve working with groups of farmers, who identify their needs and preferences for specific plant and grain traits. Pairwise scoring and ranking, however, provides a framework in which farmers themselves develop a priority ranking for preferred traits (e.g., whether early maturity is more important than grain yield or grain color). The researcher's perspectives are also less likely to present bias. Scientists of ICRISAT in southern Africa and their National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) partners have combined these two approaches to develop morphologically diverse nurseries for farmer trait selection.This approach used by SMIP has been particularly successful. The nurseries contain many lines -local landraces, traditional varieties from elsewhere, and improved varieties. These are deliberately chosen to represent the full spectrum of variation in several important criteria, for example, height and seed size. Farmers are invited to view these nurseries, rank their preferences, and discuss their rankings in detail with breeders. Some farmer groups visit the nurseries every fortnight throughout the season, providing continuous and detailed feedback. For example, this approach helped us quantify farmers' preferences for large grains. Less than 1.1 grams per unit length was considered small (unacceptable), 1.1 to 1.4 grams medium (acceptable), and large (desirable) grains weighed above 1.4 grams per unit cm length.Another benefit from this approach is that of broadening the local germplasm base by introducing exotic material containing specific farmer-preferred traits. Farmers usually conduct their own \"breeding programs\", practicing selection to improve yield or specific traits (Richards 1989). Once breeders understand (through participatory evaluation) exactly what traits the farmers are seeking, they can introduce a variety or germplasm line that has the specific characteristic, and farmers can introgress into local varieties. For example, Namibian farmers wanted bold-seeded pearl millet, but their landraces were almost invariably small-seeded. Large, bold-seeded iniadi germplasm was introduced by ICRISAT from Togo that led to the development of the first pearl millet variety ICMV 88908, locally known as Okashawa 1 (Witcombe et al. 1995). Gradually, the frequency of bold seeds in the local germplasm has been increasing through introgression between iniadi and local landraces.Namibian farmers were seen to deliberately plant Okashana-1 alongside local cultivars, aiming to exploit natural cross-pollination to introgress traits (e.g., grain hardness and stalk strength) from landraces into Okashana. The resultant \"outcrosses\" were more vigorous than Okashana-1, with larger heads and stronger stalks, and farmers deliberately selected them to provide seed for the following season. A woman farmer, Maria Kaherero, used this approach for 4 seasons, from 1989 through 1992. In 1992, breeders selected a group of these improved plants from her field. During the same season, over 200 farmers visited an especially designed morphologically diverse nursery and several elite nurseries at the Mahanene Research Station looking for \"ideal\" varieties and identifying preferred traits. Eventually, breeder and farmers jointly selected 30 varieties. These were then intercrossed with the original Maria Kaherero plants for three seasons to create a participatory breeding composite population, named the Maria Kaharero composite (MKC).A detailed analysis was made comparing MKC with two other composite populations, the farmer's germplasm composite population (FGC) containing local germplasm and NC90, which were developed using conventional methods. The FGC population required on the average 71 days to reach half bloom, compared to 63 days for NC90 and 62 days for the MKC population. Table 5 presents means and ranges for maturity, kernel size, and yield for the three populations. Figure 1 shows the maturity frequencies in the three populations. The frequencies of early maturing types (<65 days) was low in FGC, accounting for only 20% of the accessions, but as high as 85.5% in NC90 and 97.9% in MKC. This instance showed that joint selection by breeder and farmer was stricter on earliness as a selection criterion than selection by the breeder alone. Up to 14.5% of the material in NC90 required more than 70 days to reach half bloom, compared to only 2.2% in MKC. When NC90 was being developed (using conventional breeding procedures), grain size was not considered a particularly valuable trait. As a result, the seed size distribution in this composite -unlike MKC -did not contain a significant large-seed fraction, and was almost similar in this respect to the FGC population (Figure 2). 0.30.40.5 0.60.7 0.8 0.9 11.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 2.12.73.3 3.9 4.24.5 0  Mean kernel sizes for the FGC and NC90 populations were medium (1.227 g and 1.300 g), and MKC had large kernels (1.441 g) (Table1). Most accessions in FGC (40%) and NC90 (42%) had medium-sized kernels. However, most accessions in the MKC population (51%) had large kernels. Small kernel size in the MKC population accounted for only 12% compared to 36% in the FGC and 28% in the NC90 population (Figure 2).Figure 3 shows grain yield distribution in the three populations. The MKC population was as good as NC90, with grain yield distribution ranging from 0.01 t/ha to 4.19 t/ha. This is a significant improvement over the FGC population. The frequency of high-yielding accessions (i.e., yield >3.30 t/ha) in MKC (21.6%) was higher than in NC90 (18.2%). The highest-yielding accession in FGC yielded only 1.3 t/ha. Thus, compared with the NC90 population developed through conventional breeding methods, the MKC population developed through participatory breeding was better overall in the distribution of early-maturing and high-yielding accessions, and showed significant improvements in seed size. MKC was far superior to the local germplasm population-on the average, MKC varieties matured 10 days earlier, gave double the yields, and had grains that were 17% larger than FGC varieties. The main contribution of participatory variety selection to Namibia's pearl millet breeding program was provision of early maturity pearl millet varieties that often provided higher average grain yields, and improved the probability of harvest when rainfall is poor. These varieties have allowed farmers who plant with the first rains to obtain a grain harvest up to 1 month earlier than is possible with traditional varieties. The new varieties have also enabled farmers to distribute their labor through multiple plantings and performing different crop management practices on a more timely basis because they can obtain some harvest even by planting late in the season.From the start, Namibia's national breeding program had participatory breeding as an important component and involving farmers in the determination of new varieties for the country was mandatory (Ipinge et al. 1996a). Since its inception in 1990, the national program has released three pearl millet varieties, all with farmer participation. These are Okashana-1 (released in 1990) and two new ones, Okashana-2 and Kangara both released in 1998.The rapid adoption of pearl millet varieties in Namibia shows the value of involving farmers in the process of selection. By 1998, improved pearl millet varieties accounted for about 45% of the nation's pearl millet area. The internal rate of return to public investments in the development and dissemination of new pearl millet varieties in Namibia is calculated at 60% (Rohrbach et al. 1999). This high rate of return in Namibia was attributable to three major factors.(1) Okashana-1 was quickly identified from ICRISAT nurseries as adapted to Namibia's needs and agroecologies.(2) National scientists had the foresight to consider the preferences of small-scale farmers from the earliest stages of variety selection. The farmers quickly recognized the value of early maturity as a complement to their late maturing traditional varieties. From the time of first nursery introduction to the release of the variety took only 3 years. (3) The rapid adoption of improved pearl millet varieties in Namibia was stimulated by public investments in seed production and dissemination with strong donor and government support.The success of the pearl millet improvement program for Namibia has increased the confidence of the public research and extension services in their capacities to promote technological change. Small-scale farmers have started to demand even better varieties and have gone to the forefront in pursuing this through their active involvement with researchers in new cultivar development. Farmers are now involved from the stage of identifying parents to actual development of composite populations and derivation of new varieties from these composites. Ongoing monitoring of investment returns will ensure that this foundation laid down through researcher farmer partnerships remains productive.Almost 45% of the world's rice land is rainfed (IRRI 1997). These areas depend solely on rainfall and runoff for water supply. Rice yields are low and fluctuate widely because of highly variable rainfall patterns. The rural poor of Asia are concentrated in rainfed areas. Rice is their staple food and rice production is their major economic activity. Reducing poverty for these populations will require a major increase in agricultural productivity, which entails, among other factors, a higher and more stable rice yield. A challenge facing the agricultural research sector is to develop rice varieties for these complex rainfed environments and make them available to farmers.Classical breeding approaches for developing improved rice varieties have been highly effective in the relatively homogenous irrigated ecosystem. In contrast, the success of such an approach has been limited in rainfed environments because of high levels of agroecological diversity. Farmers' social and economic environments are diverse and interact with biophysical factors resulting in a multitude of rice-based systems, each demanding specific management strategies. Despite continued effort to develop suitable varieties for these environments, the adoption rate has remained low and farmers rely predominantly on traditional rice varieties.  Poor adoption of varieties released for these environments may be caused by several factors such as poor adaptation of improved varieties, limited access to seeds, and a range of socioeconomic constraints (Figure 1). Obviously, the problem of limited access to improved varieties reflects institutional impediments and is better addressed through institutional and policy reforms. However, if the modern varieties currently available are poorly adapted to these rainfed environments, the breeding strategies utilized need to be re-examined. Problem tree for poor adoption of rainfed rice varieties.The world's largest concentration of rainfed rice is in eastern India (Assam, Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and west Bengal). This region grows nearly 58% of India's 40 million hectares of rice. More than 80% of the total rice area in eastern India is rainfed. An estimated 450 million people in the region depend on wet season, rainfed rice as their major source of livelihood (Singh 1991). In this region of Asia the potential impact of better rainfed varieties can be the highest.In India, rice research institutions or universities manage the genetic improvement of rainfed rice varieties. The system has multiple actors and is strongly regionalized. The process has started to change in recent years with the introduction of new breeding approaches like the shuttle breeding program of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)-International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). However, the breeding programs they conduct are mostly classical. Two major features of conventional breeding programs are relevant in the current context. These elements are (1) selection is undertaken mainly on research stations, and (2) the limited participation of farmers.High genotype x environment (G x E) interactions that characterize rainfed environments call for a decentralized approach to breeding. Conventional breeding programs are conducted at research stations that are meant to be representative of the target environments. However, research stations represent only a small proportion of the target environments. Breeders working in these stations tended to focus on one part of the environment population, usually the one dealing with the most favorable conditions, where impact is easier to achieve.Little farmer input has occurred in defining selection criteria. In the best situations, these criteria are defined through discussions with social scientists, extension agents, and farmers, although this consultation seldom takes a structured or systematic form, nor are results formally analyzed. The conclusions that breeders reach from these discussions may be erroneous because of poor sampling, unconsciously biased use of questions, and lack of rigorous analysis of farmer's input. Agroecological variations are generally taken care of in setting up the goals of the breeding program, but farmers' divergent needs and priorities, which vary according to their social groups (ethnicity, cast, gender) or degree of market integration (subsistence versus commercial orientation), are seldom formally taken into consideration. Because of genetic correlation between traits, breeding work involves trading off one trait against another. This trade-off strongly influences the end product. The trade-off criteria for farmers and breeders might be different. However, farmers' trade-off among different criteria is rarely captured in these breeder-driven programs.In the body of the classical breeding programs, participation has been basically absent. Breeding work involved hybridization between complementary varieties. Parents for hybridization are chosen that carry the traits identified in the above-mentioned informal consultation. Using breeding stations breeders then select from among the segregating generations the progenies that combine traits of interest and simultaneously fix the lines through successive selfings. After a few generations, these reasonably fixed lines are tested, first at the breeding station, then at substations representative of different subecosystems, and lastly in farmers' fields, under researcher or farmer management. So farmer participation occurs in the last steps of the process, but most of the on-farm testing is done late in the process with a limited number of very advanced lines, when the variability Organizational chart of the project. For acronyms see page XXX.At each site, two to three villages were selected to cover the existing diversity in the area (Table 1). The bases for selection were the dominant agroecological conditions and especially the hydrology, the extent of adoption of modern varieties, the degree of market integration, and the ethnic composition of the population. In each village, a variable number of farmers was selected based first on their willingness to participate in the project. When more volunteer farmers than needed were found, criteria involving the importance of agriculture and more specifically of rice for their household, their cast, gender, and education were used.We decided to tackle problems sequentially to optimize the utilization of resources. To allow an easier scaling up of this type of project in the future, we needed to delineate what operations ought or ought not to be participatory. If better selection by farmers within well-chosen existing varieties or advanced breeding lines (participatory varietal selection [PVS]) was enough to substantially increase the rate of adoption then farmers' participation in the breeding process itself might be unnecessary. We considered PVS as having possibly a high payoff in such situations. Also, it would serve as a starting point for developing a methodology for interaction between farmers and breeders for a fully-fledged participatory breeding program (PPB). However, PVS will not improve adoption if \"off the shelf\" varieties that are attractive to farmers do not currently exist.To deal with such situations, a PPB component in which farmers selected from segregating materials was also included in the project. The PPB involved testing of F 4 or F 5 material derived from diverse genetic backgrounds, including as a parent traditional varieties that are generally locally adapted, to create suitable material de novo. While PVS was conducted at all sites, PPB was carried out from the first year in the rainfed lowland sites and from the second year in the upland site (Table 2). Benefits from involving farmers in a breeding program arise in two ways. First, testing of varieties on farmers' fields rather than at a research station means that selection is done in a more representative environment. This is the effect of decentralization. Second, involving farmers in determining the goals of the breeding program and in determining the selection criteria and actual selection of preferred germplasm could make developed varieties more relevant to farmer conditions. This is the effect of participation. These two types of benefits are not mutually exclusive as both can be realized through a carefully designed participatory program. The framework developed permits separating the effects of decentralization per se from farmers' participation. The effect of decentralization is examined through a comparison of materials selected by breeders from experiment station trials and farmer field trials. The effect of farmer participation is judged by comparing the materials that farmers and breeders select in the different locations.Similar sets of material were tested on station and in farmers' fields to allow comparison of farmers' and breeders' choices in two of the steps of a breeding program (evaluation of advanced lines and selection in segregating generations). In the upland site, another dimension was taken into account by comparing farmers' management to breeder's management in farmers' fields, still with the same set of varieties.Farmers were provided with a diary and a pen to write down their observations on the different varieties at any time of the crop growth. To complement these individual evaluations, group visits were organized for each site two or three times during the cropping season at relevant phenological stages. Farmers and breeders were asked to evaluate the materials and indicate on what criteria they based their choices. Farmers were also encouraged to see other varietal trials during their visits to the research station and to express their preferences on the material to be included into the next season PVS set.Farmers' and breeders' selection criteria were compared in two different ways. First, traits of varieties that they selected from varietal trials were compared. This comparison depends on the nature of material evaluated. Second, farmers' and breeders' selection criteria were elicited directly using the survey method. This approach provided a more general basis for obtaining selection criteria. Comparing the two sets of results also permitted a check on how consistent the groups were in applying selection criteria derived from this method.Although the principle of parallel on-farm and on-station runs was retained for the PPB component, only one farmer's field was used at each site (Table 2). A limited number of farmers, chosen for their expertise, participated in this activity. At some of the sites, some training on the principles of plant breeding was given to the farmers involved. Farmer and breeders performed separate selections. The selection criteria applied were the same as those chosen for evaluating the fixed lines. Material selected one season by a given group (farmers or breeders) and at a given site (on-farm or on-station) was replanted the next season for further selection at the same site by the same group of people, and so on up to fixation of the lines. The divergence of the four sets of material will be evaluated at the end of the project.The first annual report of the project (IRRI et al. 1998) gives specific details per site on implementation of PVS and PPB.To capture the diversity of rice production systems, a two-stage stratified sampling approach was used for village and farmer participant selection. In the first stage, the survey villages were selected on the basis of the criteria described above (i.e., extent of adoption of modern varieties, degree of market integration, and ethnic composition of the population). Within each of the selected villages, farmer selection was conducted to capture the diversity of production systems, based on farm size, ethnicity, caste, gender, educational status, subsistence/commercial orientation, and access to inputs.The selected farmers were interviewed more thoroughly. The survey was based on their memory recall. Social scientists and plant breeders jointly designed a set of three questionnaires, which were pre-tested in several locations. The first questionnaire recorded the general characteristics of agricultural systems, the second collected information on rice production practices, and the third elicited farmers' selection criteria and their perceptions regarding the varieties they grew.A proper analysis of participation by gender was considered necessary, because farmer perspectives on varietal characteristics are likely to differ by gender. To achieve this, a mix of both female and male farmers was selected, and linkages were developed with an on-going project on gender analysis, which is being implemented at some of the research sites. Questions on participation by gender in rice production and decision making were included in the questionnaire.A range of methodologies to evaluate material and selection criteria and disaggregate gender effects will be explored. A methodology that will be tested is the use of graphics depicting a number of different traits, and asking women and men to rank the traits according to their importance. Another method will be the use of seed samples when ranking (relative and absolute) the rice varieties. Women and men will also evaluate the cooking and eating qualities of the rice lines and varieties tested on their fields.Except in Cuttack, where there were exceptional rains and submergence problems, the experiments were successful and both agronomic observations on the varieties and farmers' and breeder's opinions on their performances and attributes were collected. The villages chosen covered the diversity of local agroecological conditions, but were mostly situated within a radius of 50 km around the breeding station. Even in such small regions, location appeared to be a major source of variation for yield: for example, large differences occurred in behavior of the varieties between sites in Faizabad (Table 3). An analysis of the G x E interactions between the different villages and the station remains to be made to quantify the extent of these variations for different traits.Only preliminary conclusions can be drawn from comparing farmers' and breeders' opinions on the varieties grown in these trials because of incomplete statistical analysis of the results and the absence of connection with the social science data. The results from Hazaribagh where three onfarm and one on-station trials were scored by 15 farmers and two breeders showed an excellent consistency among farmers' opinions measured by a highly significant Kendall coefficient of concordance for all trials (Table 4). The coefficient of concordance among breeders was higher than among farmers, but not always significant because the significance of this statistic is highly affected by the number of rankers. The concordance between farmers' and breeders' opinions varied from trial to trial, from excellent on-station and in one village to poor in the two other villages.  A highly significant W indicates a good agreement between the rankers. b.15 farmers and two breeders.The agreement between farmers and breeders is better when obvious differences between varieties are observed, as in Cuttack where a situation of extreme submergence stress was encountered. The way the ranks are attributed, with rankings of only the preferred varieties (a solution often favored by farmers) versus ranking of all varieties, also affects the results as observed in Raipur. The rankings at the different sites were not always well correlated to the observed agronomic performances of the varieties indicating that yield was not the only factor that farmers or breeders took into account.Although the data from socioeconomic surveys have not yet been fully analyzed, some preliminary findings on varietal choice and adoption of improved varieties are worth discussing. A major factor that determines varietal choice is the conscious attempt of farmers to match varieties to the environment. For rainfed rice, this means an adaptation to the hydrological conditions of their fields. Each field position in the topo-sequence corresponds to a risk of drought or submergence. The drought risk increases from the bottom to the top of the topo-sequence and submergence risk decreases along the same path, associated with progressively lower water depth and earlier recession of the water. This translates into different ideotypes for the different situations, especially in terms of resistance to abiotic stresses and duration: long duration, photoperiod sensitive varieties are well adapted to the bottom lands, but the photoperiod-insensitive upland varieties have to be early to escape the terminal drought. Plant height is also important: a tall variety would work better in high water depth and a semi-dwarf variety would fit in shallow-depth medium lands. Clearly the toposequence location is the main determining factor for varietal choice. The more variation between their fields, the more varieties the farmers grow. The number of varieties grown under strict upland conditions is lower than in the lowlands, probably because the upland area constitutes a more homogeneous agroecological zone (e.g., Hazaribagh, Bihar, Table 5). The general pattern is to have a few dominant varieties for each hydrological situation and a significant number of secondary varieties, with some grown by only one farmer. Such a situation indicates a risk of biodiversity erosion because these rare varieties can more easily be lost. The finding that the varietal choice of rice is driven by hydrological conditions is hardly a surprise and vindicates the strategy of existing breeding programs organized according to this parameter.  At some sites, farmers' and breeders' selection criteria closely matched and at others they differed. The value of farmer participation may be rather limited when selection criteria used by breeders and farmers are similar. It is thus essential to understand the conditions under which the criteria converge or diverge. Our early results indicate that the convergence was closer in areas where production systems are more market-oriented. In subsistence-oriented systems, the higher diversity of farmer goals can lead to a divergence in criteria. The results highlight the need for prior characterization of production systems for judging whether or not participatory breeding is useful.Farmers seem to respond to a multiplicity of concerns and needs by growing a range of varieties in rainfed systems. For example, some varieties are valued for their straw quality, some for grain quality, some for earliness and some for high yields. Similarly, varieties are also valued for their adaptation to a specific agrohydrology. The survey results indicate that some farmers grew as many as 12 varieties. Studies have shown that using a diverse range of varieties is a rational strategy in highly variable rainfed environments. Because a single or only a limited number of varieties cannot be relied upon to address a range of farmer concerns, varietal improvement programs that are geared towards generating a broad range of options are likely to be more successful in these environments. An important challenge is to predict which traits will continue to be valued by farmers as production systems undergo changes and become more closely integrated with the market.An issue in participatory research is to define when the degree of farmer involvement and commitment is adequate for the project purpose. Sometimes, participation is equated with the use of farmers' fields although farmers and researchers may have little or no interaction. To encourage a truly participatory interaction between farmers and breeders, we included only those farmers who were willing to be involved in the project purely on a voluntary basis. Although some of the breeders felt that farmers also stand to gain by interacting with the breeders (through access to new seeds, information, etc.), not all farmers considered participation as being rewarding in that way. Although participation may be voluntary, whether or not some form of compensation should be given to farmers (especially to small-scale farmers) is an ethical question if some of the experiments failed. Sustainability of a purely voluntary participation through the breeding cycles could also be a concern. Also, voluntary participation can lead to a bias if voluntary farmers have characteristics (such as educational status and wealth) that may not be representative of the target group. On the other hand, participation induced by pecuniary or nonpecuniary benefits can result in other types of biases.Involving farmers with different socioeconomic characteristics is desirable so that the range of variability can be captured, but social contexts often make this difficult to achieve. For example, involving women farmers in the project was difficult at many sites because women were rather reluctant to participate in activities that required continuous interactions with researchers who were mostly male.To provide optimum growth conditions and to facilitate comparisons, researchers recommend certain practices that farmers do not currently use. Such recommendations create potential difficulties for farmers who are unfamiliar with these practices. At some sites, planting density was low because farmers attempted to follow the recommendation of planting in a row, despite a lack of familiarity with this method. Obviously, a balance needs to be attained between what may be desirable for scientific analysis and what is feasible for farmers.At some sites, farmers have indicated their desire to voluntarily expand the area under lines they evaluated as superior. This is an early indication that the project may have led to identification of suitable varieties in the ecosystem tested. Of course, the extent to which farmers respond and persist with such enthusiasm remains to be seen.Developing a methodology for an effective partnership between breeders and farmers is a major objective of the project. The framework developed is comprehensive enough to permit the testing of several hypotheses regarding the potential value of farmer participation in breeding programs for rainfed rice. The project was implemented simultaneously at several locations so that the possible value of participatory breeding in a range of environmental conditions could be assessed. Implementing such a comprehensive methodology at a number of sites simultaneously meant that researchers and farmers had to deal with various types of issues, such as:(1) Organizing dialogue between breeders and farmers, (2) Assuring the timely supply of seeds, (3) Arranging and participating in multisite trial establishment, (4) Management and evaluation, and (5) Coordinating the overall activity.These partnerships have considerable transaction costs, which, although often not valued in money terms, are real and non-trivial. A fully functional participatory breeding program would have to somehow find ways of reducing these transaction costs. Our experience in the project agrees with the view expressed by Bentley (1994) that effective farmer participatory research requires both institutional and personal commitments on a sustainable basis.A project of this type where alternative breeding approaches are being assessed needs to be continued for several years because the differences between the lines selected by farmers and those selected by breeders will take that long to be clearly observable and for the traits to stabilize. This longer time requirement, which is a typical feature of breeding programs, thus requires a long-term commitment of both breeders and farmers. A risk exists of farmers losing interest in continually participating in the experiment.The farmer field school (FFS) is a group learning approach to building capacity among farmers in integrated pest management (IPM) and other aspects of natural resource management (NRM). This chapter reports on an evaluation of a pilot project in Kenya, one of the first to adapt to African conditions the approach pioneered in Asia. International partners in the project are: the International Institute of Biological Control (IIBC), the Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MOALDM), the Coffee Research Foundation (CRF), the Kenyan Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF), and the Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). The Global IPM Facility provided financial support.Two purposes motivated the evaluation. First, Kenyan and international partners in the project were considering a follow-up to the pilot phase and needed to understand what it had accomplished. Second, the evaluation serves as a case study within a wider review of different types of participatory research and development. It is intended to provide policy makers of the national agricultural research systems (NARS) with greater insights into the costs, benefits, and institutional implications of the choices they must make when taking up participatory approaches.The project was motivated by concerns over the environmental, health, and economic effects of the expanding use of pesticides in the Kenyan highlands. It developed an FFS model drawing on available IPM knowledge, trained trainers from MOALDM and KIOF, and over a 6-month period in 1996 conducted FFSs in four districts of the coastal and central provinces. The FFSs focused on two crops within a diverse agricultural system -coffee and vegetables (cabbage or kale and tomato) -that typically receive the greatest applications of pesticide.The FFS aims to enlarge the concepts and principles that farmers have at their disposal as they manage their agroecosystems. This is done through experiment-based learning, in groups usually of 15-20, which meet in and around farmers' fields. Among the IPM principles that are emphasized are the promotion of natural biological control, the link between crop nutrition and tolerance to pests and diseases, and the careful observation of field and environmental conditions before taking soil or pest management decisions. The group discusses management options before testing them in a common \"IPM field\". The importance of trying out options, whether proposed by extension or by the farmers, and of continuing such experimentation after the FFS, is repeatedly stressed. Front-line extension workers led the Kenyan FFSs, which continued for an entire crop season, meeting once a week. Important elements of the Kenyan FFSs included a preliminary participatory rural appraisal to focus the curriculum at each site on local concerns, visits among the groups to stimulate innovation, and farmer contribution to the FFS's costs.Participatory research and development (R&D) in the area of NRM typically has one of two objectives.(1) \"Discovery\"-oriented efforts work with farmer experimentation to find solutions to specific resource management problems to which no one has a clear answer. (2) \"Literacy\"-oriented initiatives, on the other hand, attempt to build farmers' and communities' capacities to manage resources on a continuing basis. Of course, this entails solving problems, but these are largely problems for which solutions already exist, somewhere. In essence, the groups concerned rediscover them. The Kenyan IPM project was conceived as a pilot effort for a wide scale literacy-type program. However, as we shall see, farmers and trainers at times confronted problems that were more than locally new.Participatory R&D initiatives can also be distinguished in terms of the scale of resource management they employ. The Kenyan IPM project focused on management at the level of the individual farmer and on the decisions she makes over the resources in and around her fields. Although group learning was a central feature of the FFSs, collective decision making was not featured. However, as farmers and trainers found, several common property aspects demand attention and may be critical for the long-term success of efforts aimed at promoting IPM.Figure 1 illustrates the framework that guided the evaluation. Participatory R&D interacts with the local, farmer-led innovation system and attempts to stimulate and often to focus it. The intervention may be to some extent separated from the innovation system, as in the FFS, or it may be immersed in it, in the fields, pastures, forests, et cetera where innovation takes place. This evolving system rests on the five basic processes that underlie any Darwinian system. In agriculture, they are driven by the actions of farmers, whether alone or in concert:(1) Invention: Farmers decide to alter a practice and proceed to try these variants or options (\"variant and \"option\" are used interchangeably in this chapter). Variants may also be introduced from elsewhere. (2) Recombination: Farmers combine variant practices in more complex innovations. This may happen after watching how new practices perform in their own or others' fields, reflecting, and discussing with other practitioners. (3) Movement: Farmers move within their communities and beyond, carrying with them knowledge of their existing variants and examining others that they encounter. (4) Selection: Farmers decide to try in their own fields a variant that they encounter or themselves devise. They may also decide to abandon a variant they currently use. The first act can be seen as adding members to the population of users of that variant (i.e., births), the second as reducing it by deaths.(5) Preservation: Variants are remembered and taught. Rules or traditions may reinforce them.Farmers' selective choices, in aggregate, give rise to birth, death, and dispersal rates of these variant practices and, over time, to change in land use practices at the level of landscapes (for a fuller treatment, see Loevinsohn 1998;Loevinsohn and Simpson 1998). In turn, these changes have impacts in the social, environmental, and economic realms.Inputs from partners + Design choicesOther influences socio-cultural, economic, political, natural, etc. Assessment can occur at the level of the intervention considering the contributions that the various actors made to it and its outputs, for example, in terms of knowledge gained. This was essentially the focus of a participatory evaluation conducted with graduates 5 months after the FFSs ended. The current evaluation drew on this and concentrated on the projects' impacts in the seasons beyond the FFS. The immediate level of impact is on the five basic processes: here assessment considers, for example, how successful the FFSs were in influencing graduates' decision making on their own farms (selection), in affecting the diffusion of ideas (movement), in introducing and stimulating innovation (invention), et cetera. A further level of impact, on farmers' land use practices, integrates the above effects. Finally, impacts can be assessed in terms of social change, enhancement of the environment and natural resources, and improvement in the economic situation of households and communities. How impacts at these three levels are assessed depends on the intervention's objectives. A literacy-oriented project like this one values changes in the five basic processes that make it possible for farmers and communities to respond creatively to changed conditions or new opportunities. Equity, the evenness with which different social groups are affected, is another perspective on impacts and was also valued by the project partners. A discovery-oriented initiative would likely assess changes differently, for example, putting a premium on the novelty of land use options that result from the intervention. Some of these different perspectives are examined in more detail in Loevinsohn (1998).Figure 1 does not indicate how the insights from evaluation are used and how they feed back into the local innovation system. In the present study, impact assessment served the interests of the institutional partners and the International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR). Clearly, however, many graduates wished for more immediate use, notably in terms of developing follow-up to an initiative that they considered unfinished. We return to this issue later.The evaluation took place over a 25 day period in late 1997, just over 1 year after the end of the FFSs. Graduates of the FFS and a control group of nearby farmers of similar characteristics (e.g., age, sex, and wealth) were interviewed individually. More focused interviews on gender effects and economic impacts were conducted in an FFS site (Githunguri) and a nearby village. We also interviewed each of the four FFS groups (for details see Loevinsohn et al. 1998).We asked farmers what planned changes they had made in any management practice from one year to the next (Okali et al. 1994). We asked them the source of these changes -whether from their own invention, borrowed from another farmer, or taken from the FFS -and whether they had modified or subsequently abandoned them. We also inquired to whom the farmers had spoken of their experiences in the FFS and who had shown real interest. We then followed up with a sample of these \"diffused farmers\" to assess what use they had made of what they saw and heard. Demographic methods (Loevinsohn 1998;1999) were used to analyze changes in specific practices and to project their spread within and beyond the FFS communities.Capacity to manage resources. This was addressed specifically with respect to pest and crop management, and was defined as the ability to make better decisions in situations beyond that in which the FFS took place, and on a continuing basis. \"Better\" is judged from the farmer's perspective, in relation to his or her management objectives. We assessed capacity in terms of several indicators:(1) The extent to which IPM principles and practices were applied to crops other than those targeted in the FFSs, (2) Farmers' responses to hypothetical, but realistic, situations that required the independent application of IPM principles, and (3) The extent to which farmers' drew on their own ideas in experimentation.At the community level, we looked at capacity in terms of the role the FFS groups play in diffusing and further modifying IPM principles and practices, and in tackling common problems, such as marketing. Equity in terms of the spread of knowledge among men and women and among different age classes was also determined.An in-depth study in the all-women's group in Githunguri sought to determine what effect FFS participation has had on householdlevel decision making and women's status.Environmental effects. These were assessed in relation to the workdays lost that farmers attributed to pesticide poisoning, and their perceptions and indicators of soil productivity changes.Economic effects. Changes in production costs and the value of the harvest were assessed in a financial cost-benefit analysis from the farmer's perspective. On the basis of the pilot program's results, the viability of an expanded IPM program was assessed by cost effectiveness analysis.Impact and prospects within partner organizations. Finally, to gain an understanding of institutional impacts and prospects, we interviewed officers of MOALDM, CRF, KARI, and KIOF at field, supervisory, and national levels. We used a framework for institutional analysis that directs attention to factors influencing institutional capacity, motivation, and performance. We do not elaborate on these findings in this chapter because of lack of space, but they can be found in Loevinsohn et al. (1998).The FFS appears to have had significant impacts on innovation by graduates. Figure 2 shows that they have made significantly more planned changes in their farming practices than have nearby control farmers. Importantly, the changes are apparent both on crops that were and were not dealt with in the FFS, suggesting that graduates are not just blindly applying what they learned. The most frequent changes have been with respect to non-chemical pest management practices, particularly in the uptake of botanical, physical, and cultural controls. Also widespread have been changes in soil and nutrient management practices, notably increased use, improved preparation, and more focused application of manure and compost. Mostly these practices were introduced and experimented with in the FFS, but some existing practices (e.g., the \"9-hole\" planting system in which organic material is placed in pits that also serve to retain moisture) spread from group to group during exchange visits organized by the FFS.The changes in farmers' pest and crop management practices are reflected in a substantially reduced reliance on agrochemicals, including synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, and fungicides. Again, the effects are visible on both the crops that were and were not targeted in the FFS. Figure 3 shows that, in comparison to control farmers, graduates use much less fungicide on potato, which was severely attacked by blight in the heavy rains of the El Niño year of 1997. Many FFS graduates relied on a locally developed control measure based on milk powder that is said to delay disease progression.Graduates have usually found that the options explored in the FFS perform adequately on-farm. However, some measures (particularly non-chemical pest control) have shown themselves problematic in certain conditions. This has resulted in several farmers abandoning options. Others have modified them or recombined them with other measures. For example, the milk powder solution against blight is said to work well under low disease pressure, but under high humidity, farmers have found they can only achieve adequate control by supplementing it with a synthetic fungicide. Graduates have spread what they learned during and after the FFS to other farmers, both within and outside their villages. We found that, on the average, graduates had spoken with about four persons who showed \"real interest\" in the innovations with which they were working. Of contacts, 30% lived outside the FFS village, suggesting a potential for rapid spread. The \"diffused farmers\" in turn implemented some of the ideas they had seen and heard of, and many were intending to put others to use. These results show that variants of agricultural practices are being taken up, abandoned, modified, and diffused to varying extents in different situations. What is the overall effect of these actions? Demographic analysis can be used to analyze the dynamics of practices, projecting into the future on the basis of these initial findings, 18 months after the FFS. These analyses must be interpreted with caution. They assume that the options will continue to be born and die at these same, initial rates. Clearly, this cannot be true indefinitely, if only because diffusion must eventually saturate the pool of potential practitioners. Nevertheless, the demographic approach provides a useful assessment of the early fate of new options, whether they are likely to expand soon, or whether they are headed for local extinction.Figure 4 illustrates the projected use pattern of improved coffee pruning, one of the most popular of the crop management options that farmers were exposed to in the FFS. Abandonment of the option has so far been limited and diffusion slow, but significant. On this basis, the option is expected to spread (Figure 4A). When we asked farmers about the source of their innovation, all responded that it had originated in the FFS, or in one case from extension (Figure 4B). Thus, improved pruning appears to be following a classic adoption process (Rogers 1983). The option, invented elsewhere, is being taken up with little evidence of modification or further experimentation (although farmers did have a chance to examine the practice in the FFS plot). Some other soil and crop management practices appear to be following similar patterns. The pattern is different for many of the non-chemical pest management practices. As mentioned earlier, farmers have encountered some problems including lack of efficacy under some field conditions and labor constraints. Figure 5A indicates that botanical pesticide practices are, on current trends, likely to evolve differently in the tea and non-tea growing areas. In the latter (Githunguri, Wundanyi, and Karigu'ini), diffusion is outstripping abandonment and the practice (more accurately suite of options) is set to spread. The sources of farmers' innovations are diverse The situation in the tea growing area (Othaya) contrasts markedly. Here, the demands on family and especially on women's labor are much greater. Several women told us that they do not have time to collect plants and prepare the pesticides, largely because of the time needed for harvesting tea. This is reflected in a high rate of abandonment of the options. As the model shows, they are set to die out if present trends continue. We see from the source of innovation analysis that fewer graduates innovate with botanical pesticides than in the non-tea areas and that all of these take their ideas unmodified from what they learned in the field school. A contributing factor to the failure of local innovation is that the FFS group no longer meets in Othaya and does not serve as a forum to discuss ideas and practices and to promote recombination as it does elsewhere. Even if different farmers were trying different variants, an important point of exchange of information on their performance is absent, slowing the technical evolution that the graduates, and those in contact with them, can realize.Farmers, particularly women farmers, in the tea zone do not appear to have ideas and options within their reach that meet their needs in vegetable pest management. In this situation, a literacy-oriented approach is out of place. What is needed is one focused on discovery that seeks to develop and refine more time-efficient control methods (e.g., through augmentation of natural biological control, or by extending the shelf life of botanical formulations). This would require a more engaged participation of research-minded persons who can make available the most up-todate thinking and options.(A) (B) The foregoing discussion provides important evidence regarding the ability of graduates and to some extent their communities to employ what was learned in the FFS in different situations. Graduates have applied principles and adapted practices to other crops than those treated in the FFS (some report that they have also used them in their animal husbandry). They have, in at least some of the sites, modified and recombined options that were not performing well. They have also shown and explained options and principles to many other farmers. The FFS cannot be held responsible for all these effects. For example, the FFS did not create the dedication with which some graduates have gone about educating their neighbors, in one case organizing a training session for another women's group. The most that can be said is that the FFS provided new ideas, which farmers have found useful, that it encouraged experimentation, and that by working through groups it buttressed farmers' adaptation of practices and principles.Can anything be said, however, about the capacity to apply principles and adapt practices on a continuing basis? It might be thought that an evaluation 18 months after the FFS would have little to show on this score. However, attention to the health of the basic evolutionary processes can provide some important indications of the likely future performance of the local innovation system.Invention. Although overall rates of innovation (birth rates of new options) are much higher among graduates than control farmers, the number of innovations that originated from farmers own ideas is lower (Table 1). In principle, the FFS gave equal weight to ideas put forward by farmers and those presented by trainers: testing and trying options is a value that the FFS attempts to convey. But, testimony from farmers suggests this was not always the case. However, although the FFS possibly devalued farmers' ideas, another explanation must be considered, namely that farmers in 1996-97 were already occupied with so many new ideas coming from the FFS that they did not have time to work on their own. Further evaluation, once graduates have had a chance to work through these ideas, will help clarify whether the FFSs have indeed had any lasting effect on farmers' inventiveness. Selection. Testimony from graduates during the participatory evaluation suggests that some of the FFS trainers did not always encourage experimentation by farmers. Experiments that had been run in the Training of Trainers course were in some cases repeated in the FFSs, even when farmers made it clear they were inappropriate (e.g., tomatoes grown out of season). However, farmers also stated that other trainers were more successful in these terms. Among the indicators we used to gauge the impact of the FFS on farmers' decision making were graduates' reactions to the following hypothetical situations.(1) A company salesman was recently (in a nearby village) promoting a new pesticide, which he says kills (local name for the diamond-back moth) better than (a popular insecticide). What will be your reaction if he brings the same message here? (2) What will you do if, next season, you find an insect you have not seen before eating the leaves of your maize crop?The answers were assessed in terms of how far they indicated (a) reliance on farmers' own resources (e.g., exercising independent judgement, trying first on a small scale), and (b) the application of IPM principles (e.g., primary reliance on non-chemical methods, ensuring plant nutrition). In both terms, graduates scored significantly higher than did control farmers (Figure 6). Together with other indicators, this suggests that on the whole the FFS has had a real and beneficial effect on graduates' decision making. Movement. Diffusion of IPM principles and practices has, on the whole, been relatively rapid in the period since the FFS, and men and women can be seen to have contributed equally to this. However, the process has tended to be rather gender-specific: men were found to diffuse primarily to men and women to women (Figure 7). In theory, this could lead to highly unequal benefits going to men and women farmers unless care is taken to ensure equal representation in the FFSs. In practice, much will depend on the extent to which knowledge is shared within the household. Evidence on this score is mixed: some graduates claim the flow has been efficient, others that new ideas have encountered resistance. Further follow-up will be needed to assess the effect of gender-specific diffusion. Potentially more worrisome is the evidence regarding age class-specific diffusion. Neither men nor women graduates reached out much to the young: farmers under 30 years of age constituted only 10% of the \"diffused\" group. The composition of the FFSs was also skewed against the young: only 5% were farmers under 30 years of age. Local institutions: group processes and collective action. The FFS groups remain active in three of the four villages and continue to play roles in stimulating invention and recombination. It seems unlikely, however, that these functions alone will be sufficient to maintain active interest if an input of new ideas on which to work is not available, from whatever source. The extension system has yet to provide this, and continuing links with other groups have not been maintained. However, at least two of the groups are branching out in new directions, in particular running credit schemes drawing on members' savings. Such multiple functions may be critical to the groups' survival.Several of the groups believe that real progress is only possible if they move beyond their current level of exploitation. Marketing is a particular area where they see opportunity for this. Local consumers recognize the quality of their vegetables (taste and appearance are more important than low pesticide residues), but are not prepared to pay a higher price. Links with quality and nascent organic markets in the cities have not been established and marketing issues and skills did not figure in the FFS curriculum. The groups' reputation for quality produce can be seen as a common property resource that can be intelligently managed for the benefit of their members. Attaining an adequate scale of production will be critical, and groups may find an advantage in developing marketing arrangements jointly.Taking together the evidence regarding the capacity of graduates and their groups to make better management decisions in different situations, and on a continuing basis, it can be said that the FFSs have had some real impact, but that important gaps exist. The importance of following up on the brief intervention is clear. Social effects. Men and women farmers were about equally represented in the FFSs and, after graduation, have innovated in similar ways on their own farms. As we have seen, however, graduates, particularly women, have considerably abandoned labor-intensive crop and pest management measures in the tea zone suggesting that benefits to this group will be limited. Githunguri, where the intensive study was conducted on the consequences for women of participating in the FFS, is not in the tea zone and hence could not shed light on this issue. However, particular attention was paid to the effects on women graduates of the coffee-related aspects of the FFS. Coffee in Kenya has traditionally been a man's crop, as they dominate in its management and hold title to the trees. The skills that women graduates acquired appear to have had two effects. First, some women have engaged in contract labor for coffee pruningunheard of before the FFS. This has given them an extra source of income, besides the selling of vegetables, which is the most common income generating activity for women in the region. Second, women have also increased their role in coffee management on their own farms (Figure 8), because many husbands have recognized their expertise and come to value their opinion. The fact that many Githunguri men find off-farm employment in nearby Nairobi has likely facilitated these changes. What effect this greater role in management has had or will have for the women is not clear. The coffee trees and their proceeds remain in the men's hands, as does membership in the coffee cooperative, which brings with it some privileges. These relationships have not changed, nor did the project aim at affecting them. It may be that with time, and in combination with other secular trends, women's greater role in coffee management will erode some of these structural inequalities. A nearer term prospect is that they will gain more influence in household decisions over the use of coffee revenues, decisions that are already taken jointly to some extent in many households. Follow-up investigation will be needed to clarify this.As noted above, farmers' use of pesticides have been substantially reduced. A single indicator of pesticide-related health effects was assessed: days lost to illness that farmers attributed to pesticide poisoning. Although many reported days lost in previous years, only two non-FFS farmers reported 5 days lost in 1996-97, compared to one FFS graduate (2 days). The difference is of course not statistically significant. However, over a wider area and a longer time, reductions in pesticide use of the magnitude found here would be expected to yield substantial benefits in terms of chronic and acute illness (Rola and Pingali 1993;Kishi et al. 1995).Farmers have also increased their use of manure and compost. All FFS graduates (20) reported that their soils had improved in quality over the past 2 years. In support, they cited a range of evidence, including increased abundance of certain indicator plants and improved soil texture. In comparison, only 45% (10 out of 22) of control farmers thought their soils had improved. Some graduates cited specific benefits; for example, better tolerance of mid-season droughts from improved moisture retention.Economic effects and projections. The economic benefits from these changed practices are significant. Considering only the savings from reduced agrochemical use, they amount to Ksh 8600 per year ($145 per year per household). They are likely complemented by other economic and environmental benefits to which assigning an accurate monetary value was not possible. A financial analysis that makes conservative assumptions about how long these benefits last (3 years), and the rate at which IPM practices spread and are taken up by neighboring farmers, suggests that the project repaid its costs ($48,000) with just the four FFSs that it conducted. Trainers in Asian countries typically conduct two FFSs per year, and if we assume the Kenyan trainers worked at this rate and that these field schools had the same benefits ($12,800) and costs ($4500) as the initial ones, the benefit-cost ratio after one more year would be 2.2. The greater intensity of supervisory involvement in the pilot phase is among the factors that need to be weighed in projecting results to a wider scale (Loevinsohn et al. 1998).Among the design elements of the participatory process that our evaluation suggests have been most successful has been the impetus given to the movement of ideas by organizing group visits. This has resulted in the rapid spread of several options, particularly in the areas of soil and nutrient management. However, in the aftermath of the FFS and without outside support, the groups have yet to find the means to continue the visits or to identify other groups with whom exchange might be worthwhile. Also successful has been the discovery-based learning that went on in the FFSs. Through observation and simple experiments, farmers learned key principles, such as the importance of natural biological control and the capacity of crops to tolerate substantial early defoliation, which have in turn given rise to a range of innovations, including several attempts by farmers to enhance biological control. We also witnessed the confidence with which farmers showed insect parasites to visiting extension officers, who were clearly taken aback.Consistent and effective encouragement to farmer experimentation is the design element of the FFS that has proven most problematic. The confidence of graduates in experimentation clearly varies considerably, a variation that doubtless predated the FFS. Similar variation was evident in the skill with which some of the trainers took on the facilitation of the FFSs. Encouraging farmers to find solutions to their own problems, rather than providing them answers, represents a considerable departure from the usual extension practice and requires more than a single Training of Trainers course and a season-long FFS to master. An expanded project should pay particular attention to improving trainers' skills in this area and seek to assure quality.Several difficulties beset the impact assessment of FPR, indeed of any significant intervention of this kind. These include the problem of linking action to effect in a complex environment in which many factors intervene, and the risk of presenting a highly partial view of impacts based on an evaluation conducted at only one point in time (particularly as here, relatively soon after the intervention ended). In the present case, problems of the first sort have been eased by the use of a control group of nearby farmers, making it possible, for example, to rule out price changes or weather as explanations for the marked decrease in pesticide use by graduates.The evaluation framework, based on evolutionary theory, has also proved useful with these problems. It helps in attributing effects to the participatory intervention by setting out a path between them, and indicating intermediate points where consistent results should be sought. For example, the economic benefits that graduates realize from reduced expenditure on synthetic pesticides on a range of crops can credibly be linked to the FFS because innovation in and spread of alternative control measures are evidenced and because farmers appear to be making their selective decisions differently. Conversely, where benefits are not being achieved, as among women farmers in the tea zone, the framework helps elucidate where the problem arises. In this case, the pest control options themselves are being selected against, and local innovation to adapt them appears strongly limited, possibly because of a breakdown in the group processes.The framework also helps with the problem of evaluation \"snapshots\". We learn not just how many people are using a particular option at one point, but also how many users are \"dying\" and how many are being \"born\", thus making it possible to project use patterns into the near future. More sophisticated models incorporate the spatial dimension of spread, based on information of where the \"diffused\" farmers reside. But, beyond the quantitative, demographic analysis, careful attention to the \"health\" of the five basic evolutionary processes provides a basis for assessing the continuity of innovation, which is critical to the ability of rural communities to respond to accelerating change, and central to any meaningful definition of sustainability.A problem we encountered in the evaluation was in censusing farmers' innovations and assessing their experimentation. Farmers' initial responses in an interview often understate the range of new options they are trying. More is involved than finding a common vocabulary. Some innovations are recalled only after a time, after the memory is jogged. Some are forgotten. We also met graduates who seemed reluctant to admit they had modified an option introduced in the FFS, apparently because they felt it might be somehow disloyal. Would a more participatory approach to monitoring and evaluation, in which farmers themselves were asking or noting, in a more immediate fashion than we were able to achieve, help overcome these problems? Possibly, but would farmers have an interest in doing it? Would they be interested by the health of their innovation system, that is, beyond the emergence of particular innovations? And can the framework be made sufficiently accessible to them? These questions remain to be explored.1. Participatory method for identifying and classifying local soil quality indicators at microwatershed level (Turcios et al. 1998). 2. Photographic analysis of land use tendencies in hillsides (Lopez 1998). 3. Participative mapping, analysis, and monitoring of natural resources in a watershed (Vernooy et al. 1998). 4. Methodology for analyzing groups of interest for collective management of natural resources in micro-watersheds (Westermann et al. 1999). 5. Identifying levels of well being to construct local profiles of rural poverty (Baltodano and Méndez 1998). 6. Atlas of Yorito and Sulaco, Yoro (Honduras) (Barreto et al. 1999). 7. Identifying and evaluating market opportunities for small-scale rural producers (Ostertag 1998). 8. Use of simulation models for ex-ante evaluation (Estrada et al. 1999). 9. Developing processes of organization at local level for collective management of natural resources (Beltrán et al. 1998).In assessing the overall use and utility of the methodologies, answers to the following questions will be sought:(1) Do people use the guides? (2) Which people use them-men, women, poor farmers, rich farmers, technicians, policy makers? (3) How many people use the guides? ( 4) For what kind of decisions are they used? (5) Has the quality of these decisions improved? (6) As a result, has a positive impact been made on the natural resource base? Different techniques are used or being developed to assess (monitor and evaluate) the progress of the various research activities, the involvement of different user groups, and the usefulness of the methodological instruments.The area of research in Nicaragua is the watershed of the Calico River, located in the southern part of the department of Matagalpa, about 125 km northeast from the capital, Managua. The Calico River is a tributary of the Great Matagalpa River. The watershed covers about 170 km 2 , including the municipality of San Dionisio (145 km 2 ) and small parts of the neighboring municipalities of Matagalpa, San Ramon, and Terrabona. It forms part of the central hillsides range of the country and is characterized by a semi-arid climate (1100-1600 mm of rainfall per year). Altitude ranges from 350 to 1250 meters above sea level. Agriculture is mainly smallscale farmer production systems based on a combination of maize-beans, dual-purpose livestock, and coffee in the higher altitude zones. Land tenure is highly uneven, with an important number of landless households estimated at about 15% of the families (Baltodano et al. 1997).The major problems confronting the population are poverty, lack of health and educational facilities, poor housing conditions, dependence on maize and beans (no or few production alternatives), soil degradation, scarcity of water, and deforestation. According to a 1996 poverty study using income and expenditure indices, 76% of the population in the San Dionisio municipality is estimated to be poor; and the municipality is among the group of poorest municipalities nationwide (Arcia et al. 1996). Our own findings, based on the elaboration of rural poverty profiles using local perceptions of well being, confirm this high percentage of families living under conditions of poverty. People in the watershed identified key factors contributing to this situation (Baltodano et al. 1998) as:(1) The scarcity of both animals and land, which causes many farmers to rent land, (2) The difficulty in constructing a proper and decent house, and (3) The low income obtained from farming, which forces many to work additional hours as day laborers.A participatory workshop was held on watershed management in September 1997 involving a mixed group of 30 watershed inhabitants (women, men, farmers, nongovernment organization (NGO) staff, and representatives of ministries and the municipal government). They analyzed key problems affecting the watershed landscape and the livelihood of the population at various levels (community, micro-watershed, and watershed) as being land degradation, deforestation, and water scarcity and pollution. The participants also identified the existence of several conflicts between neighboring communities about access to (drinking) water, and between community members more generally and the Natural Resources Ministry about the illegal cutting and extraction of lumber. Conflicts about land also persist (Vernooy 1997).The organizational situation encountered at the start of project activities, could be characterized by the uncoordinated presence and interventions of some NGOs: Programa Campesino a Campesino (PCC), Cooperative for American Remittances Everywhere (CARE), Proyecto de Desarrollo de San Dionisio (PRODESSA)-Union de Campesinos Organizados de San Dionisio (UCOSD), Organización de Desarrollo Sostenible Agricola (ODESAR), and The Indigenous Association of Matagalpa.Each of these operates in one or more of the seventeen rural communities in the Calico River watershed providing technical support (e.g., soil conservation techniques, reforestation, diversification, and postharvest treatment), credit, and marketing support and training, sometimes serving simultaneously, but independently, the same rural households. We defined this situation primarily in terms of an opportunity for action, for:(1) Contributing to improved participation at the municipal (San Dionisio) and watershed levels, in particular by people from rural areas, (2) Stimulating better coordination and thus increasing the impact of efforts and avoiding duplication, (3) Facilitating harmony contributing to conflict resolution, and (4) Exploring options for the development of an integrated management plan.In meetings and conversations with staff of NGOs and members of the CDM, we learned that they were aware of the lack of coordination, duplication of efforts, and the opportunities for more concerted actions. However, as several of those interviewed pointed out, no initiatives were undertaken to do anything about this situation.We took these problems into account and considered lessons learned from other project experiences (Vernooy 1998a) to define some working principles (or hypotheses) to guide the research steps. The working principles are based on the assumption that improved participation by local people is a prerequisite for improved resource management. They are:(1) Building and involving local organizations is used as a means of changing the ways in which local groups interact with each other and with the broader society (Uphoff 1992). Here the goal is to attain greater and more equitable control over resources (Claridge and O'Callaghan 1997) to: (a) Amplify the range of options of the less privileged (e.g. women, ethnic minorities, and the landless), (b) Enhance their involvement in policy-making processes at the regional or national levels, (c) Provide space for more people to make their voices heard, and (d) Improve the quality of their involvement.(2) Watershed resources are used by a variety of direct and indirect users with different and sometimes opposing or conflicting interests, or stakes-hence the concept of stakeholders (Malanson 1993). This is particularly true in the highly agroecologically diverse hillsides environments such as can be found in Central America (usually with high population densities). To organize for sustainable management at the watershed level we must therefore identify these stakeholders and recognize that stakes could change over time. This requires a continuous analysis of the configuration of stakeholders and stakes (Cernea 1989;Anderson White and Ford Runge 1995).(3) A forum is provided for analysis, discussion, and negotiation where ideas can be exchanged and initiatives planned. This is important to allow stakeholders to participate. The building of trust is essential, but may take time and patience. Recognizing the strengths and weaknesses (comparative advantages) of different players is also a key principle that helps build the required trust.(4) The process of organizing needs to focus on defining (new) rules and norms for equitable resource use (Bromley and Cernea 1989). This will require informed communities (user groups, stakeholders) with the capacity to engage in dialogue and to undertake particular tasks. This in turn requires an appropriate level of community or grassroots organization, based on managerial capacity at the local level involving both rural institutions (with rules and regulations) and organizations (Campbell 1994).(5) Local-level monitoring of resource use is required to ensure compliance and regulation (Ravnborg and Ashby 1996). To achieve better resource management practices through cooperative actions, rules, and sanctions, local people and those cooperating with them must have a good understanding of the resource dynamics (e.g., soil dynamics, nutrient flow, and water cycles). Monitoring will help raise awareness among local decision makers about the interdependencies of resources and, if carried out collectively, can easily create ownership, skills, confidence, and credibility.(6) Building linkages between local communities and the level of national institutions and policy makers helps local actors exert a demand for services and influence policy agendas. This includes the integration of government into the local planning process so that interests and concerns are taken into account, and the sourcing of technical assistance and expertise transfer.(7) Integration and working in concert are important objectives of the organizing process. The ultimate goal of developing more sustainable management practices is to integrate planning efforts from the level of farm to micro-watershed to watershed. This requires bringing together the direct users of the resources who are living and/or working in the watershed. However, outside or external users of the resources may also exist, and efforts will need to be made to likewise involve them in planning efforts. They may have different interests compared to the users living in the area; this would require bridging or negotiating internal versus external interests in the watershed (Ashby et al. 1998).Research was or is being carried out on a series of interrelated subjects. A project objective is to develop indicators and procedures for the local management and monitoring of the natural resource base, with a focus on the micro-watershed level. Two activities are underway to achieve this objective:(1) Identifying local soil indicators as an input for the design of a \"soil quality score card\", and(2) Participatory mapping and analysis of the natural resource base at the micro-watershed level as input for the design of an indicators set for resource base monitoring.The aspiration behind these activities is to develop more manageable yet sensitive indicators for diagnosing and monitoring the local resource base.In 1997, based on fieldwork in the Cuscateca watershed, Danli, Honduras (Burpee and Turcios 1997), a preliminary \"soil quality score card\" was developed using locally determined indicators of soil quality. The card was designed using the results of a series of workshops in which farmers define and rank, as a group, sets of local indicators that define soil quality. Subsequent workshops in Yorito, Honduras and San Dionisio, Nicaragua provided additional results allowing a refinement of the methodology. In Nicaragua, the work on local soil indicators is carried out in close cooperation with the Universidad Nacional Agraria (UNA). The refinement includes:(1) An analysis of soil formation factors and processes, (2) Practical guidelines for the organization of a Feria del suelo or Soil Fair, during which farmers themselves analyze a number of physical and chemical soil characteristics or properties such as pH, organic matter, texture, structure, consistency, and color, using soil samples from their farms, and (3) The differentiation between indicators that on the one hand define (more) permanent characteristics, which are therefore difficult for intervention and, on the other hand, changeable or manageable soil characteristics (at the short-or medium-term), which would allow farmers to intervene more easily by changing agricultural practices (Turcios et al. 1998).Reactions from farmers and technicians who participated in the workshops in Honduras and Nicaragua have been strongly positive. Through verbal feedback and written evaluation questionnaires, which were handed out at the end of each workshop (see below for an example), they have manifested that this methodology is useful to better understand soil dynamics, including soil depletion, and that it should be diffused widely at the community level.How did you like:•=The work with the soil samples (Soil Fair)?•=The presentations about soil quality?•=The integration of local soil indicators with the analysis of diagnostic properties? And •=Did you understand what the researchers explained?•=Do you believe that other farmers should learn this methodology? A challenge ahead is the revision of the draft \"score card\". The revision will take into account recent results, \"score card\" distribution at the community level, and the monitoring of its use and utility by different farmers (men and women) with land in different parts of the watershed, different soil types, and production systems.Recently, we completed a series of participatory micro-watershed analyses and related workshops to present the methodology and results (Espinoza and Vernooy 1998;Vernooy et al. 1998). This activity involved small groups of local key informants, men and women, in each of the fifteen identified micro-watersheds-farmers and/or local technicians, promoters, or assistant-mayors who know the area well. These analyses include gender-\"sensitive\" resource mapping and a description of land use (agroecological zones), the state of forests, water resources, crops, wildlife, domesticated animals, pastures, soils, and the identification of limitations and opportunities for agricultural production and NRM in the area. Based on the findings of these analyses, a preliminary set of natural resource indicators was developed and validated that will be used for monitoring purposes and for comparing the state of the natural resource base in the different micro-watersheds.The aim is to present the results of these analyses to key local decision makers, such as the mayor of San Dionisio, state agencies, and NGOs operating in the watershed and to the recently created Association of Community Organizations (which is considered a key stakeholder \"in the making,\" see below). The results will allow decision makers to identify priority zones for action: because natural resources are already degraded or may critically become so soon, or because areas offer opportunities for alternative management practices.Based on findings of verbal and written evaluations at the end of workshops, we may conclude that local people have successfully participated in and assessed the development of this methodology. A key assessment factor will be what use local decision makers at the microwatershed and watershed levels make of the tool in the assignment of resources and activities.In terms of strengthening organizational processes in the area (an objective of the Hillsides project), in 1997 the CIAT Hillsides team came to an agreement with the PCC in San Dionisio to form Comités de Investigación Agrícola Local (CIALs), or local agricultural research committees. The idea is to provide local communities with a methodology to carry out a participatory research process focussing on and solving a locally felt NRM problem (to be identified in a participatory problem analysis); and as such enhancing local organizational capacity (Ashby 1990;Ashby et al. 1997). Simultaneously, CIALs are seen as potential building blocks for an organizational process and structure at the micro-watershed and watershed levels dealing with cross-boundary NRM problems and opportunities. CIALs could become involved in carrying out experiments at the landscape level dealing with, for example, pest management, soil erosion, or fire and fire control.Four CIALs were formed in 1997 and have functioned relatively well during the first cycle of experiments, according to evaluations carried out by the CIAL members themselves. These evaluations included an auto-evaluation form that each committee members completed on:In addition to the auto-evaluations, we are monitoring the impact of the CIALs considering the following criteria or indicators (see also Humphries 1998):(1) The number of people involved and the quality of their participation in the different stages of the research process (represented by an escalera or ladder), (2) The degree to which CIALs and community members see experiments carried out as successful (viable solutions for identified problems or the identification of new opportunities such as promising, unknown varieties of maize and beans), (3) Commitment to continue experimenting in 1998, for example, on a larger scale or involving more farmers or integrating soil conservation measures, (4) The number of new farmer-leaders emerging (men, women), (5) CIAL involvement in watershed level initiatives, (6) CIAL linkages with one another (exchange of ideas and results within the watershed), and (7) CIAL linkages with other research and technology entities, such as the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA).In 1998, four more CIALs were formed. The eight CIALs together decided to organize themselves into a regional association.A second activity in the organizational area has been the formation, facilitated by the CIAT team, of an inter-institutional committee to reforest the Calico River borders. Members of this committee were selected from the CDM and include, among others, representatives from the Ministries of Health and Education, and the PCC. Upon suggestion from the CIAT team, one CIAL member and a farmer owning land along the Calico River were invited to join the committee. The committee prepared a project proposal based on a diagnostic study coordinated by the PCC and CIAT. The Hillsides Project provided seed funds to start the project allowing for the establishment of a tree nursery. Recently, additional (core) funding was obtained.To assess the project's progress and the functioning of the inter-institutional committee, which is expected to put into practice some of the working principles identified, a participatory monitoring exercise of the organizational process was carried out with committee members in June 1998. The exercise identified strengths and weaknesses, which simultaneously could be considered as impact indicators (Beltrán et al. 1998). In addition to this analysis, the committee agreed to write a case study of their initiative with the support of the CIAT team. This case study will be used, among others, as part of a training guide on developing organizational processes at the local level.A third organizational initiative concerned the formation of a multi-stakeholder-based Association of CIALs representing a variety of interest and user groups, such as the Drinking Water Committees, church-based groups, the network of community healthcare workers and community midwives (parteras), the CIALs, and the PCC network promoters.This Association, called \"Campos Verdes\" or Green Fields (still setting its early organizational steps) will as a first function support initiatives at local, user-group, or community-based levels to improve water, soil, and tree management with the support of a smallgrants fund provided by the Hillsides project. At the same time, we expect that the association will provide space for a more demand-driven process of technology development and development assistance as well as for management and managerial capacity building. Members of the association have expressed interest in creating chapters of the association at the community level also. To assess the achievements of the Association a set of indicators will be developed together with Association members allowing us to keep track of progress, failures, strengths, and weaknesses. Themes or topics that could be assessed, taking into consideration once more the seven working principles, are (with possible indicators in parentheses):(1) Community participation (representation by sector or territory, ability to articulate and defend local demands, input into decision making, and participation of women), (2) Coordination (capacity to share information, number and quality of proposals developed by more than one participating organization, and number and quality of agreements achieved), (3) Leadership and management capacities (ability to organize meetings, accounting capacity, number of new community leaders trained, and number of resolved conflicts), and (4) Linkages (participation in other decision-making bodies such as the CDM).Building on these activities, plans were made for late 1998 to organize a participatory planning workshop about organizational and institutional aspects, decentralization, and policy making at the watershed level. The intention is to look at what organizational activities and structures exist (community-, NGO-, and government-based), where they operate, what they do and do not do, and if and how an organizational process and structure at the watershed level could be built upon these. This would facilitate more participatory, effective, and efficient natural resource planning and management. In terms of impact assessment, the aim here also is to define a set of indicators that participants can use to monitor progress in terms of organizational process and in terms of achieving defined goals.It is too early to measure the final impact of the development of the methodologies and the (new) organizational forms that are emerging in the Calico watershed, but so far people have taken on the ideas and methodologies with enthusiasm and made considerable efforts. New paths are being explored to deal with issues that affect people's livelihoods and a sense of \"a watershed that unites\" (i.e., the social construction of the watershed) is emerging. The research process in participatory action gives local people the opportunity of collectively analyzing and reflecting on their own situation and of discovering linkages (and gaps) among various levels of the ecological and socioeconomic organization within the watershed. It also provides space to formulate alternatives for problems being faced and to test these alternatives in practice, at the community, micro-watershed, and watershed level.The preliminary lessons learned can be divided into methodological and organizational ones, both of which we believe have a wider applicability.We need to develop a variety of methodological tools that local people can use themselves to map and analyze resources and resource use; to plan, organize, and execute collective action; and to monitor and measure progress and impact. Developing these tools requires time and continuous validation through direct user involvement in the testing of the methodologies and through validation and evaluation workshops. A combination of auto-evaluation techniques, such as questionnaires, case-study presentations, analysis of strengths and weaknesses, and sets of local indicators, has shown to be effective and useful.Combining diagnostic research, such as the agroecological mapping and zoning of the watershed and the identification of critical areas for intervention, with participatory actionoriented research (e.g., the CIALs and the formation of multi-stakeholder-based committees) enables a focus on providing information about the state of the resource base at various levels. This is seen as a prerequisite for involving users of these resources in problem and opportunity analysis to facilitate actions that can be developed quickly.Natural resource management research requires an inter-disciplinary perspective (e.g., soils and micro-watershed analyses need to be placed within the socioeconomic context of user-groups and multiple interests). It also requires the understanding of the interconnectedness of different levels: plot, farm, community, micro-watershed, and watershed.Dealing with different organizational levels at once (through an iterative process) is useful in deciphering interdependencies between community, micro-watershed, and watershed levels (e.g., effect of water flow and soil erosion). Working with the CIALs, the participatory resource mapping with small groups of key informant and the strengthening of community organizations are examples of how this could be done.Making an early start is useful, by setting activities in action to bring people together and to learn by doing (e.g., presenting ideas, working together, collectively planning, and participatory monitoring). Create space for discussion about problems and solutions and for assuming responsibilities for new initiatives (e.g., the reforestation project). A starting point here is the strengthening of local groups and the building of bridges among them.The CIALs have shown to be a good starting point. They present a means for local people to organize themselves around a specific topic (research) and solve a locally felt problem. More support is needed for these kinds of local initiatives, and to involve these local organizational forms also in municipality and watershed affairs, such as land use planning, reforestation, and water distribution.\"Horizontal\" and \"vertical\" linkages need to be strengthened simultaneously and thus fill the institutional gap. Examples are links among CIALs through the formation of a regional association, and between CIALs and the national research and technology transfer centers, and links between organizations operating at community level and between them and NGOs, ministries, and the municipality.Integrated pest management (IPM) focuses on biological and management-intensive multidisciplinary solutions to pest problems. It is thus a logical candidate for participatory research. Finding better means for solving pest problems is high on most farmers' agenda, and farmers often have significant pest management knowledge and an interest in IPM experimentation. Gender analysis is also a logical component of IPM research, because women make, and are affected by, pest management decisions. For these reasons the Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support program (IPM-CRSP), a global IPM program funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), has taken a participatory approach to IPM and has incorporated both a gender-analysis research component and gender-equity programming.The program, now in its fifth year, has developed sizable research programs in seven countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean, and has built an impact assessment component into each. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the experience to date in assessing the impacts of participatory IPM (PIPM).Although IPM research has always tended to be participatory among large commercial farms, participatory IPM research with smaller farms is a relatively recent phenomenon (Bentley 1990). Among small farms, PIPM research has focused to a great extent on a farmer field school (FFS) model through which farmers and specialists discuss IPM philosophy and approaches throughout a growing season. Farmers are encouraged to share their indigenous knowledge and to design their own experiments (van de Fliert 1993). Although not rejecting the FFS model for downstream research and training, the IPM-CRSP has explored ways of linking farmer participation to more upstream or basic research, and has emphasized the linkages among farmers, scientists, consumers, bankers, marketers, and policy-makers. This newer PIPM continues to emphasize farmer participation in setting the research agenda and in conducting onfarm experiments, but also recognizes that many factors influencing the generation and adoption of IPM technologies and strategies are off the farm or research station, and these factors can also require client-driven research. * Virginia Tech.The PIPM process (Figure 1) begins by identifying site collaborators and other stakeholders, gathering secondary information, and designing both a baseline survey and a participatory appraisal (PA). Site collaborators and other stakeholders help identify possible foci for the program, geographic sites for experimental work, possible commodities, and so forth.Three types of activities are used to establish IPM research priorities. The first type is a baseline survey, which serves to identify farmers' pest perceptions, pest management practices, and decision-making processes, socioeconomic characteristics of farm households, and other information depending on the additional institutions surveyed. Care is exercised to include both male and female heads of households. This survey provides a baseline against which evaluation can occur downward. The second type of activity is a PA, which is undertaken following a training session on PA methods for both natural and social scientists. This training is relatively brief and to the point, and takes place the day prior to going into the field for the analysis. The PA itself takes from 1 to 2 weeks and-together with the baseline survey and a brief prioritysetting workshop following the PA-helps to develop a preliminary assessment of research priorities. The PA is not confined to farmers and community leaders, but includes bankers, marketers, agricultural professionals, policy makers, and others. A community advisory council is established and asked to participate in setting priorities. The third type of activity is the field monitoring of pests and beneficial organisms. Farmer collaborators are selected for the first set of experiments, and monitoring is conducted on their fields for two seasons to help refine pest priorities. These collaborators include both women and men.While monitoring is underway, farmers and scientists work together to design, test, and evaluate IPM strategies and systems. In some cases, pot, greenhouse, or micro-plot experiments are conducted first, but in all cases, basic farm-level experiments of IPM practices and strategies are conducted. Social science research is undertaken on policies, institutions, and social and gender factors that may affect pest management decision making and the development and adoption of IPM.As research output is produced, outreach and information exchange takes place. Scientists may interact with a national extension service or with nongovernment organizations (NGOs), in addition to direct contact with collaborating farmers. Increasingly, information is spread electronically in addition to publications, workshops, field days, and other more traditional means. The FFS approach is an excellent way to both generate and spread information if sufficient resources are available to reach large numbers of farmers. Community advisory councils can be useful for spreading IPM information if proactively empowered.Impact assessment is an essential part of the PIPM process. Assessing the economic, environmental, and social implications of alternative technologies feeds directly into recommendations for farmers and policy makers. Gender analysis is an important component of impact assessment. More aggregate assessments can also help set priorities and justify an IPM program to funding sources.Figure 1. Suggested participatory integrated pest management (PIPM) process (from Norton et al. 1999). The IPM-CRSP is a global program that by mandate focuses at least 50% of its resources on horticultural export crops and at least 35% on transitional production systems. This two-part mandate has resulted in variation among the types of farmers and collaborating institutions incorporated in countries where the CRSP is working. In Guatemala, for example, the stakeholders' meeting and PA led the CRSP down a path of close collaboration that began with farmers, but continued up the marketing/regulatory chain through local export cooperatives, government inspection agencies, and US supermarket chains. The Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología Agrícola (ICTA), the Universidad del Valle, a technology transfer NGO (Altertec), a horticultural export promotion firm (EXPRONT), and the Escuela Agrícola Panamericana (EAP) at Zamorano are involved, among others. Purdue, Ohio State, Virginia Tech, and the University of Georgia are primary US collaborators. Protocols have been developed that begin with farmerdriven IPM research, but carefully specify residue tolerances and other product specifications that facilitate passage through export channels to the United States. Gender analysis has focused on the impacts of export crops on women's labor, decision making, and income.In Mali and Uganda, much of the IPM research has focused on pest problems of food crops for local consumption. Differences in the gender-segregated division of labor and male versus female use of pesticides were found between Mali and Uganda, and research has helped identify determinants. Local institutions have been primarily the national agricultural research systems and local universities, whose capacity levels require much more institution-building than in Guatemala. In the Philippines, the IPM program includes both food and export crops in a ricebased vegetable system. The level of development of the local institutions, which include the Philippine Rice Research Institute, the University of the Philippines at Los Baños, the National Crop Protection Center, and the International Rice Research Institute, is higher than those in Africa. The sites in the country include one where farmers are not organized among themselves and another where they are cooperatively organized. The primary focus has been on integrated systems approaches to pest management, including a significant policy component, but with less concern for export market protocols (because the products do not enter the US market).The above discussion provides only a brief introduction to a few of the sites on the IPM-CRSP. It illustrates, however, that impact assessment of participation and gender analysis must differ across sites, because the nature of participation of off-farm institutions differs. Over the past 5 years, some outputs have been produced on the CRSP, including IPM systems and technologies and institutional changes. Evaluations have been undertaken and others are currently underway. Although gender analysis is an integral part of the PIPM approach, relatively little evaluation of the impact of gender research has been completed. Consequently, the remainder of this chapter focuses on evaluating participation.Evaluation of PIPM research includes both qualitative and quantitative dimensions and approaches. The quantitative evaluations contain both rough indicators and more detailed analyses. A major rationale for taking a participatory approach is to have more widespread and sustainable impacts. Therefore, impacts of participatory research, including PIPM, should not be qualitatively different than impacts of other research, except that they should be larger, reach more people (of both genders), and last longer. The techniques for assessing the overall research itself should be similar to those for non-participatory research. Extra steps are required, however, for separating out the effects of the participatory approach. Separating out the impacts of participation requires impact analysis of a with-and-without or a before-and-after situation. In the case of the IPM-CRSP, the before-and-after situation is relevant to Guatemala, which had a vegetable IPM program before the IPM-CRSP. In the case of the Philippines, the IPM-CRSP introduced the first vegetable IPM program in the site, even though a rice IPM program existed, including FFSs. Therefore the evaluation approaches must be different for assessing the impacts of participation or gender analysis in the two sites.Qualitative evaluations focus on factors that may be difficult to quantify, yet are important to the long-run success of the research program. They often involve assessments of impacts on institutions and beliefs. Examples are those made under the IPM-CRSP as to whether the research systems involved in the program have institutionalized the PIPM approach such that it will continue after the CRSP no longer provides financial support. This evaluation for the Philippines site included an assessment of the degree to which:(1) PhilRice has established an IPM unit within the institution that is an integral part of the institution, (2) The unit follows a participatory approach, (3) The core budget of PhilRice is gradually picking up the components, activities, or particular expenses that CRSP initially funded, (4) The number of employees sent out for training have returned and are part of the program, and (5) The private sector supports the PIPM program, in money or in kind.Qualitative evaluations with farmers are also important and are based on both baseline surveys and participatory appraisals. Farmers are asked in an initial baseline survey about their pest management practices and their perceptions of pests and benefits. Follow-up surveys are then used to track changes in those practices and perceptions.Quantitative impact evaluations of PIPM research include simple indicators of the type that funding agencies increasingly call for, and more detailed assessments. The former include items such as number of participants adopting, changes in per capita income or pesticide use, or number of women farmers attending a training program. The advantage of these indicators is that they are relatively easy to obtain even if they only indicate a potential correlation with an impact rather than an actual impact. A simple indicator that was used on the IPM-CRSP was the dollar value of the reduction in snow pea exports to the United States when Guatemalan snow peas were rejected at the US border. The IPM-CRSP undertook research and developed a protocol that the US Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) accepted so that snow peas were again allowed into the United States.Indicators that carefully track cause and effect and involve more extensive data collection and multi-step analysis are potentially more accurate. That every result from every piece of research will be quantitatively evaluated is seldom expected; often, subjective information can be included as part of the information used in the evaluation. On the IPM-CRSP, participatory research is used to develop and extend IPM systems to increase farm incomes and improve environmental quality and health. Therefore, impact evaluations are underway to measure changes in incomes as well as the size and value of environmental and health improvements. Because the program is just under 5 years old, only partial evaluations have been completed and many of them involve projections of future impacts as research pays off over a long period of time. The Global Bureau of USAID funds the program, so results are expected to have impacts beyond the specific country where the research is undertaken, necessitating estimation of crosscountry spillovers of benefits. A challenge in assessing impacts of participation is to accurately assess the effects of research participation in one region on other regions where participation is less intense.Quantitative impact evaluations on the IPM-CRSP begin with the baseline survey so that changes in practices can later be identified. Then, for every intervention developed on the CRSP (such as biological control techniques and changes in cultural practices for pest control), inputs, outputs, and prices are recorded for basic budget analysis. Farmer participants also evaluate the interventions to assess acceptability for consumption, competition for time, etc. Particular attention is devoted to measuring change in pesticide use. Secondary information is also gathered on total production and prices in the country and region for the commodities affected by the research. Price responsiveness is estimated (i.e., elasticities are obtained). For some commodities (in two countries) we have begun to use geographic information systems (GIS) to map out potential areas of adoption based on a series of characteristics.For aggregate impact evaluations, the models used are relatively simple economic surplus models. The first of these analyses on the CRSP was completed in the Philippines and provides information on the total direct economic benefits. Because there is no before-and-after the CRSP case in this site, sorting out the portion of the aggregate benefits caused by participation and gender analysis will have to be based in part on comparing the timing and extent of spread in villages with and without participation. An initial baseline survey was completed in villages where participatory research eventually took place on the CRSP and in villages where it did not. A follow-up survey will be used in 1999 to track differences and help assess the benefits of participation. The benefits of gender analysis are measured primarily through the economic value of the increased adoption of IPM interventions. Assessing the extent of that increased adoption will be based on structured surveys backed by participatory appraisals. Also in the Philippines, a detailed assessment of the health and environmental (H&E) benefits of the technologies developed on the IPM-CRSP is nearing completion in a PhD dissertation. The H&E benefits of participation can later be apportioned from the total H&E benefits through making use of survey information on adoption.Many of the impact assessment activities on the IPM-CRSP, such as the follow-up baseline surveys, are programmed for 1999 (at the end of year five), and several assessment activities have been initiated. Some preliminary results are available for the five research sites that received most attention during the first 5 years (the Philippines, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mali, and Uganda). In the Philippines, these assessments include qualitative and some quantitative indicators, and in the other sites the results are primarily qualitative. Several outputs and impacts during the first 4 years of the IPM-CRSP are summarized in IPM-CRSP (1998).Among qualitative impact indicators, PhilRice established an IPM research unit within the institution that draws on scientists from each division, but has its own research assistants. The unit conducts research in the fields of about 25 collaborators and established a strong working relationship with the largest onion growing cooperative in the country. The cooperative also provided a tract of land to the IPM program for long-term experiments. The planning and reporting procedures established for the IPM unit in PhilRice influenced the procedures employed elsewhere in PhilRice, according to its director. PhilRice puts a significant amount of its own resources into the IPM program and is funding the entire farmer-training component. Four Philippine scientists received PhD-level training and one MS-level training on the CRSP. Also, several others received short-term training. The initial participatory appraisal proved essential for establishing priorities in the first work plan and targeted appraisal activities since then were particularly helpful in identifying gender-differentiated decision making with respect to pest management.The Philippine institutions and farmers received the participatory approach well. Members of the cooperative were particularly receptive, indicating the importance of the local institutional setting in facilitating agricultural research. The IPM-CRSP generated some promising results, and farmers who were involved in the CRSP were the first to adopt them, as might be expected. Because only in the last year or so have IPM-CRSP research results been available for adoption, farmer adoption is in its initial stages. About 125 farmers can be identified as having adopted results thus far, which is only a tiny share of the potential audience. Training materials and programs to reach a wider audience are being prepared and initiated. Fortunately, PhilRice has a strong farmer training program in rice and thus including vegetable IPM in the program should enable relatively rapid dissemination. Clearly for widespread adoption, no matter how participatory the research program is, linkage to a farmer training programs is crucial.Quantitative economic assessment of the PIPM program included a budgeting out of all the inputs and outputs associated with all experiments conducted in the program. This budgeting helped first in identifying the profitability of the interventions, so that factors other than yield differences or pesticide use could be considered when making recommendations to farmers. The cost changes derived per unit were also available for aggregate impact assessment when combined with information on actual or potential adoption. A working paper is in preparation with the specific impact results.The value of H&E benefits of IPM-CRSP interventions are being assessed using the results of a contingent valuation survey conducted a few months ago in the region where the IPM-CRSP is working. Household members were asked questions that enable us to assess how much they would be willing to pay for pest control measures that reduce H&E problems. This information is being combined with estimates of the extent of pesticide reductions that is projected to be associated with IPM-CRSP interventions. Details of the analysis and results will soon be available.An aspect of the participatory approach that did not work well in the Philippines was the community advisory council. Feedback from farmers and others who were involved directly in the research was much more helpful in modifying the research program. The council seems to be rather an artificially constructed entity and it has no real power, while the cooperative and other farmers have a direct, day-to-day stake in the research results.In Guatemala, less emphasis was placed on farm-level activities during the participatory appraisal and more on discussions with the whole range of actors in the marketing chain. The focus crops are non-traditional horticultural exports, thus the stringent demands of the international market, with respect to crops and to phytosanitary conditions, heavily influenced both crop selection and pest management practices.A target crop is snow peas. In 1996, Guatemalan small-scale farmers lost an estimated US$5.7 million because their snow pea shipments to the United States were rejected because of a leaf miner problem detected at the US border. Some IPM-CRSP researchers identified the leaf miner as already being present in the United States, and they worked with APHIS to have the ban on Guatemalan snow peas lifted while simultaneously conducting research to solve the problem. Participation of personnel from ICTA (the primary government agricultural research institution), the major snow pea processors and exporters, growers, regulatory and other government agencies, a local NGO, and other institutions contributed to solving the leaf miner problem in a timely fashion. The previous establishment of a PIPM program, which brought all these organizations under one umbrella, was an essential ingredient to success and demonstrates the importance of including organizations beyond the farm gate, particularly when export crops are involved.The PIPM program has been well institutionalized in Guatemala, with the government supporting half the program's costs. The program also included the participation of several undergraduate students at the EAP, Zamorano, Honduras, who have completed undergraduate theses. The PIPM program demonstrates the high value of student participation in an on-farm agricultural research program, because students graduate with an appreciation for participatory research. The Guatemala site has produced useful scientific results under the PIPM program. Quantitative assessment of their value is not yet complete.Lessons can be learned from the Jamaican site on the IPM-CRSP. The initial PA was probably the most extensive of all sites, and a textbook approach to participatory research was followed at the outset. Subsequent progress was slower than in the Philippines or Guatemala, however, despite the advantages of proximity to US scientists and a strong set of collaborators at the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), the regional organization responsible for much of the agricultural research in the region. It appears that despite careful PA, scientists were slow in developing a sense of cohesion among themselves. The lengthy initial workshop on PA methods may have alienated some of the scientists; some reported that training in and use of all available PA tools was both unnecessary and inappropriate to the field setting.  empowerment,44,67,79,82,105,134,135,138,[78][79][80][81][82][83]71,84,110,190,  ","tokenCount":"84652"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2094dd5e05381103e26f74a9cab1921f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f3f6b17-009e-4332-aab2-bf61710c516b/retrieve","id":"1432831920"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f273da69-de44-4453-b148-2f1614004b30","pagecount":"10","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).The durum wheat sector is constrained by several interwoven problems such as a lack of adaptable and stable varieties, low grain quality of grains for industrial consumption, and underdeveloped durum wheat production agronomic packages as well as an undeveloped market value chain. Exploiting existing diversities of DW for productivity, resilience, and quality products is vital to solving the problems associated with the supply side as well as quality speculations. The major task is ensuring farmers' access to diverse varieties, developing production strategies that enhance production quantity and produce quality, and creating a sustainable. These works need to be done in major DW-producing regions and areas within regions as the production settings including the social environment of each locality greatly vary. The development of durum production systems that suit specific agro-ecozones is vital. Both the quantity and quality of DW grain are affected by several edaphic (soilrelated), management, and climate factors. Literature shows that DW grain quality is the result of genotype, growing environment, agronomic management, and their interactions. Unless we carefully address systematically the quality issue and marketlinkage part, the huge investment made in the identification of superior FVs, and their genetic improvement could add little to the ambition of food security and import substitution of the Ethiopian government. Agronomic field management practices for durum wheat such as seeding rate, soil fertility management, and climatic conditions particularly rainfall and temperature are also the major limiting factors for the productivity and quality of durum wheat grains (Geleta et al., 2002). Different research works have been done on seed and fertilizer rates for limited improved durum wheat varieties in Ethiopia. However, we have been using blanket recommended agronomic practices, such as sowing date as well as seed and fertilizer rates, for our landrace materials so far since we couldn't find any research done for Ethiopian durum wheat landraces. These blanket recommendations often fail to take into considerable factors like soil types, variety types, and other agroecological and socio-economic factors. For instance, the prevailing blanket fertilizer recommendation rate is different from place to place and even unaffordable for most smallholder farmers. Organic agriculture is of particular interest regarding healthy, ecologically friendly produced food since inputs of chemicals such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, preservatives, and growth regulators are avoided. It relies on crop rotation, animal manures, crop residues, legumes, green manures, and biological pest control methods. As a result, consumers have become more aware of healthy and safe food produced with low environmental impacts. The environmental impact of pasta production has been mainly related to the cropping system, the production techniques of semolina, and the adopted packaging (Bevilacqua et al., 2007;McCoy, 2002). Thus, organic farming represents another viable option for reducing the environmental impact of pasta production. Thus, studying agronomic traits such as seed rate, fertilizer rate, and sowing date will enable us to manage the logging problems of Ethiopian durum wheat landrace genotypes and minimize the costs of fertilizer for farmers. Therefore, this activity is initiated to evaluate some agronomic practices in the Chefe Donsa areas of the Gimbichu district.Having the genetic variability studied, trials were set to identify appropriate agronomic management practices that improve the grain quality of DW in highpotential wheat-growing areas of Ethiopia. Specifically, we design experiments to study:1) The impact of soil fertility, fertilizer types (organic, inorganic, and blend of the two),and their rates on DW varieties' grain quality traits.2) The impacts of sowing date and seeding rate on DW varieties' grain quality traits.This trial is planned to be conducted from 2023 -2025 for three cropping seasons to generate sufficient data on the effectiveness of organic fertilization of crops, a sustainable and economical way of maintaining soil fertility. The experiment is being conducted at the farmers' training center (FTC) of the Harbu Seftu Kebele of the Gimbichu district which is planned for three years to test the effect of different fertilizers rates (organic, Organic/inorganic blend and inorganic) on durum wheat productivity and product quality. The trial was arranged in a split plot design where varieties were assigned to the main plot and fertilizers to the sub-plot. Two durum wheat varieties: Melfa (farmer variety or landrace) and Mangudo (improved) varieties were used as test varieties.Fertilizer treatments include organic and inorganic fertilizers such as Compost (Com), Vermicompost (VC), farmyard manure (FYM), NPS, and Zero control. The experiment has 16 treatment arrangements with a plot size of 12m 2 (4m length and 3m width with 20 rows) and 48 plots in total in three replications. Seeds were sown at a seed rate of 125kg/ha while the inorganic fertilizers were applied at 100kg/ha NPS and 200 kg/ha Urea. The various rates of the organic fertilizers applied are presented in Table 1. Other agronomic practices like weeding and pesticide application are done as per recommendations and needed.Table 2. Fertilizer types and their applied rateEven though the production of durum wheat is increasing in the Gimbichu district, there is no chemical fertilizer rate recommended for this species of wheat, rather rates recommended for bread wheat are applied by farmers. As a result, we aimed to test different rates of chemical fertilizers to identify and recommend fertilizer rates that improve the productivity of durum wheat in the area. We also consider the impact of these fertilizer rates on the quality traits of the crop as durum wheat is an industrial crop, and its quality matters equal to its productivity.This experiment was designed to evaluate different chemical fertilizer rates on yield and yield-related parameters of durum wheat farmers' varieties. The treatments were arranged in factorial RCBD design in three replications. The treatments include four rates of P2O5, applied as NPS, six rates of N (as Urea), and zero control, making the total treatment to be 25 (Table 2). Variety Melfa, a local variety with a superb performance in the area is a test variety. A plot size of 3m2 (2.5 m × 1.2 m) with six rows was used. The intra-and -inter-row spacing are 0.2 m and 0.5 m, respectively. A 1 m gangway separated replications. This trial was also laid out at Harbu Seftu Kebele FTC. As stated above, agronomic packages are not available for durum wheat which makes its production dependent on packages developed for bread wheat. Sowing date and sowing rate are among important production packages that affect the quantity as well as the quality of its yield. To respond to this gap and improve the production and productivity of this crop, a sowing rate and sowing date trials were designed and are under test.This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of different seed rates and sowing dates on yield and yield components of durum wheat FVs. Two varieties, three sowing dates, and four sowing rates were arranged in a split-split plot design where the sowing dates were assigned to the main plot, varieties to the subplot, and sowing rates to the sub-subplots. The treatments were replicated twice making the total observation to be 48 (Table 3). The plot size was 3 m 2 with six rows of 2.5 m length. Crop management practices such as fertilization, weeding, and disease management are applied as farmers' local practices. Table 3. Treatments and their arrangements for seed rate and sowing date trialSome agronomic data were already collected with grain yield, biomass yield and thousand grain weight to be collected soon. The collected data are under data management for analysis.Farmer's practice (75 kg/ha 100 kg/ha 125 kg/ha 150 kg/ha) Black seeded variety (Geregera) Plots treated with organic fertilizersThe performance of each organically treated plot looks good. The plots took longer to mature compared with those inorganically treated plots.High GY with good grain quality is expected A student attached to this project collected data from the fertilizer rates trial plot. Plant height (PH), Spike length (SL), number of tillers (NET), days to flowering (DF), and days to maturity (DM) were already collected. One MSc student is attached to the SI-MFS initiative as part of the capacity-building effort.Photo plate 1: Field performance of durum wheat varieties treated with different fertilizer types at Gimbichu district, East Shoa zone 6. Expected outputs and outcomes 6.1. Output: By the end of the 3 rd year (2025), a precise agronomy management practice for durum wheat will be developed. An appropriate rate of fertilizer type (organic vs inorganic) will be identified which will improve the production and productivity of the crop. The identified rate also improves the quality of the produce to increase its marketability. As a result of the identification of appropriate organic fertilizer rates, organic farming will be strengthened in the area. Together with other research works conducted by the alliance, these trials will help to develop a complete DW production agronomic package, which will be upscaled to other durum wheatproducing areas of Ethiopia through the formal extension system.The developed agronomic management packages for quality DW production can enhance its production and increase the local supply of DW by at least 25%. This dramatically reduces the dependence of pasta-producing companies on imported wheat and subsequently reduces the foreign currency expenditure of the country on wheat import by 75% five years after the extension of the packages. Moreover, it triggers an organized production of DW which will increase the number of women and youth beneficiaries as grain producers as well as aggregators of the DW products. The local pasta-producing factors will have access to quality DW grain produced in Ethiopia and the import substitution strategy of the country will be realized. The lessons gained from this project on agronomic precision for quality DW production can be replicated in similar areas of Ethiopia and consequently, the production and marketing of DW grains will cover about 75% of the local demand five years after completion of this initiative.cgiar.org/initiative/mixed-farming-systems","tokenCount":"1725"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b966c585d1cebaa4063c52f8d6973a0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/97fe6325-eb16-41c1-a445-4b940558a61b/retrieve","id":"-247859530"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b513422e-712d-4e43-9e74-8b1d0ac5ce0b","pagecount":"33","content":"El presente documento recopila los Boletines Técnicos Agroclimáticos generados en ejercicios participativos en las reuniones de la Mesa Técnica Agroclimática (MTA) de Chiapas, llevadas a cabo en 2020. Durante este periodo se establecieron esta nueva MTA en el territorio mexicano, la primera del país. Las MTA son realizadas es realizada gracias al esfuerzo conjunto de un gran número de instituciones locales, nacionales e internacionales, enfocados en garantizar la seguridad alimentaria y la agricultura sostenible. Permiten generar espacios de discusión entre actores para la gestión de información agroclimática local, con el fin de identificar las mejores prácticas de adaptación a los fenómenos de variabilidad climática. Para más información consulte el manual de MTA disponible en https://hdl.handle.net/10568/99717.La duración de la temporada de lluvias en el estado, habitualmente es de 130 a 160 días, lo cual representa entre 5 y 6 meses, iniciando durante el mes de mayo.Normalmente en el mes de julio hay una reducción de la precipitación asociada a la canícula. Se espera que en 2020, si se llegara a presentar la canícula, ésta no sea muy prolongada.La temporada de ciclones tropicales podría modificar significativamente el patrón de lluvias.En el norte, oriente y sur del estado, se esperan temperaturas máximas promedio mensuales más cálidas durante el trimestre (33 a 38°C).El pronóstico de lluvia para el período MJJ (Figura 1-diferencia de la precipitación con respecto a las condiciones normales), indica que se tendrían lluvias por arriba del promedio acumulado en la mayor parte de la Península de Yucatán, mientras que para la mayor parte de Chiapas se esperan lluvias por debajo del promedio para todo el trimestre. En la Figura 2 se muestra el comportamiento esperado de lluvias por mes. Durante mayo en promedio se registra una precipitación acumulada de 162.6 mm. Para mayo de 2020, se espera un acumulado de precipitación de 142.4 mm.En occidente y sur de Chiapas, se esperan lluvias por arriba del promedio.Norte y oriente de Chiapas, se esperan lluvias por debajo del promedio.Durante junio en promedio se registra una precipitación acumulada de 315.7 mm. Para junio de 2020, se espera un acumulado de precipitación de 295.8 mm.Al occidente, se esperan lluvias por arriba del promedio.Se esperan lluvias por debajo del promedio (entre 20 y 50 mm) en la mayor parte del estado.Durante julio en promedio se registra una precipitación acumulada de 271.6 mm. Para julio de 2020, se espera un acumulado de precipitación de 237.7 mm: Al centro-sur, se esperan lluvias por arriba del promedio.Al oriente, centro y occidente, se esperan lluvias por debajo del promedio. Las siguientes recomendaciones técnicas son presentadas bajo el conocimiento y experiencia de los representantes de las diferentes instituciones, productores y organizaciones integrantes de la MTA. Nuestro objetivo es orientar y facilitar la toma de decisiones en el campo. Fechas de siembra: Hay condiciones favorables para el desarrollo de estos cultivos hacia el centro y occidente del estado. Por tanto, se recomienda sembrar oportunamente a fin de aprovechar mejor el inicio de la época de lluvias. Para determinar la fecha oportuna de siembra se recomienda ver registros de estaciones meteorológicas. Algunos ejemplos se muestran en la Figura 3; para mayor información póngase en contacto con INIFAP al correo lopez.aurelio@inifap.gob.mx. Manejo de plagas y enfermedades: manejar los tiempos de las etapas fenológicas de los cultivos ayuda al control de la mayoría de plagas y enfermedades, especialmente en regiones donde se pronostican abundantes lluvias por encima de lo normal. Sin embargo, para algunos productores les ayuda a controlar naturalmente el gusano cogollero. Canícula: De presentarse la canícula, se espera que ésta no sea muy prolongada y se vea interrumpida por presencia de algunas lluvias. Altas temperaturas: Por las altas temperaturas que pueden presentarse es importante considerar una alta evapotranspiración en los cultivos e incidencia de plagas y enfermedades. Asociación de cultivos: Asociar maíz con frijol o calabaza, podría ayudar a mitigar los efectos de los bajos rendimiento de maíz que podrían darse, especialmente en zonas con pronóstico de lluvias menores al promedio. Diversificación de cultivos: Cultivos como el sorgo, cacahuate, frijol, ajonjolí, girasol o jamaica, pueden sustituir al maíz en zonas de baja precipitación. Para sorgo tener precaución pues este cultivo es susceptible al pulgón amarillo. Con el manejo adecuado de plagas pueden evitarse pérdidas. Selección y tratamiento de semilla: Es importante una buena selección de semilla y el uso de materiales recomendados, así como también un adecuado tratamiento a la semilla para asegurar una buena germinación.Para maíz considerar materiales híbridos de corta duración especialmente en zonas con déficit de lluvias (oriente de Chiapas). Uno de ellos es el V560Tuxpeño (precoz y de buen rendimiento). Con este material se han logrado hasta 2 Ton/ha de rendimiento sembrando tardíamente y con lluvias erráticas.Algunos materiales híbridos disponibles en el estado, y que son tolerantes a mancha de asfalto y pudrición se listan a continuación: En algunas zonas también se recomienda el uso de materiales nativos Para cacahuate considere el uso de materiales criollos como Virginia, runner. Nutrición, fertilización: Es importante una fertilización balanceada con Nitrogeno, Fósforo y Potasio. Utilización de abonos orgánicos sería recomendable. Éste puede ser preparado con composta, vermi composta y estiércol de res. Abonos de este tipo pueden ayudar a disminuir la incidencia de pudrición de mazorca. Preparar el suelo: Es importante tener los suelos preparados para la siembra, considerando que se espera el inicio de lluvias durante el mes de mayo. Conservación de suelos y agua: Se recomienda emplear prácticas agrícolas tales como labranza vertical, uso de cobertura, curvas de nivel, terrazas de muro vivo, barreras de piedra acomodada, barreras vivas, abonos verdes, adición de materia orgánica, entre otras, para mantener la humedad en el suelo y obtener más producción, especialmente en agricultura de subsistencia. Una buena precipitación sin un suelo que pueda retenerla se traduce en escorrentía y falta de humedad efectiva.Tras las recurrentes sequías en Cañadas, Meseta Comiteca, Comitán y otras zonas (incluyendo aquellas que muestran un pronóstico normal) se recomienda la implementación de prácticas de que mantengan la humedad del suelo. Captura de agua: Aunque hay buenos acumulados de lluvia pronosticada para algunas zonas, es importante hacer prácticas de captura de agua. Es momento oportuno para preparar reservorios de agua que permitan su almacenamiento desde las primeras lluvias. Con esto se puede hacer frente a cualquier variación de lluvia, especialmente en las primeras etapas de los cultivos. Muchas de ellas son de bajo costo y son fáciles de implementar. Riego: Algunos sistemas de riego sobre sistema temporal tecnificado no se están aprovechando apropiadamente (por falta de capacitación en su implementación, deficiencias en los sistemas o que no usan volumen requerido) y la falta de lluvias hace que haya escasez en los afluentes. Se recomienda asesorarse sobre la implementación de estos sistemas y hacer un mantenimiento constante. Curvas a nivel: Se recomienda el desarrollo de prácticas agronómicas que vayan en contra del sentido de la pendiente, por ejemplo, sembrar en contorno. Esto ayuda a la conservación de la humedad y sobre todo a la conservación del suelo, especialmente en parcelas con pendiente. Cobertura: El manejo de cobertura es fundamental. El manejo del rastrojo y cultivos de cobertura no sólo es para conservar la humedad y evitar la evaporación, sino también para mantener un suelo sano, con nutrientes y otros elementos.Figura 4. Ejemplo de maíz con una mezcla de cultivos de cobertura con evo-nabo-girasol-triticale (Foto: F. Lopez CIMMYT)A continuación se describen algunas afectaciones ocasionadas en el estado a causa de la pandemia: Menor acceso a insumos. Presión en los hogares rurales: Las medidas de reducción de la circulación y cierre temporal de actividades consideradas no esenciales limitan las fuentes de empleo y de obtención de satisfactores alternativas que tenían algunos hogares. Es probable que el aumento del desempleo y el subempleo reduzcan drásticamente el poder adquisitivo de las personas y reduzcan la demanda de algún tipo de alimento.  Disponibilidad de alimentos: Las restricciones de movimiento necesarias para contener la propagación del virus interrumpirán el transporte y el procesamiento de alimentos y otros bienes críticos, aumentando los tiempos de entrega y reduciendo la disponibilidad de los alimentos, incluso los más básicos. También hay escasez de algunos otros alimentos en los mercados locales donde las familias rurales los compraron. Restricciones comerciales: afectan a los agricultores tanto por el cierre de mercados para algunos de sus productos, como a través de mecanismos de precios, las prohibiciones de importación / exportación hacen bajar los precios en los países productores. Es probable que las restricciones de movimiento (y la enfermedad) limiten la disponibilidad de mano de obra agrícola, lo que contribuirá al aumento de los precios de los alimentos. Inestabilidad social: Se crean condiciones propicias para los disturbios sociales y políticos, especialmente en los países más vulnerables en crisis alimentaria.En ese panorama se describen a continuación algunas recomendaciones: Incentivar la producción: Hoy más que nunca es importante la agricultura de producción de granos básicos, para evitar desabastecimiento en la región como efecto del COVID19. Esto se ve favorecido por las condiciones climáticas pronosticadas en varias zonas del estado. Garantizar insumos: Incentivar programas sociales para otorgar semillas y otros insumos agrícolas prioritarios para productores de menor escala. Si los productores no disponen de suficiente semilla, se recomienda acudir a los bancos de semilla. Se deben incentivar la generación de programas sociales que apoyen a los agricultores más vulnerables, especialmente aquellos referentes a los arrendamientos de tierras. Canales de difusión: Es necesario buscar los mecanismos para que los productores, extensionistas y tomadores de decisión política a nivel de ministerio o secretaría, puedan transferir la información actualizada de manera oportuna. Se insta a los países a aprovechar los canales de comunicación y divulgación existentes como chats de WhatsApp, redes sociales, radios locales, llamadas telefónicas, puntos focales de mesas técnicas agroclimáticas y servicios de extensión.La UNICACH promueve planes educativos relacionados con el sector agro incluyendo la maestría en Gestión De Riesgos y Cambio Climático y la licenciatura en Ciencias de la tierra. Para mayor información escriba a silviaramosh@unicach.mx. La UNACH tiene planes educativos como la maestría en Ciencias en Producción Agropecuaria Tropical. Para mayor información remítase a su página web http://www.mcpat.maestrias.unach.mx/. Agradecemos el apoyo de las instituciones que hacen parte de la MTA Chiapas. Si aún no formas parte, te invitamos a que asistas a las próximas reuniones. La MTA de Chiapas cuenta con grupos de WhatsApp y lista de correos. Si quieres ser incluido, contáctanos: La Mesa Técnica Agroclimática (MTA) de Chiapas, es un espacio de diálogo y análisis entre actores locales, nacionales y regionales, que busca comprender el posible comportamiento del clima a partir de información científica y conocimiento empírico, y generar recomendaciones para disminuir los riesgos asociados a la variabilidad climática en el sector agropecuario.En la última reunión celebrada el 5 de agosto (modalidad virtual), se presentó la perspectiva climática para el trimestre Agosto-Septiembre-Octubre (ASO) en el estado de Chiapas. Con base en esta información, se discutieron impactos y recomendaciones para el sector agrícola, en el contexto de COVID-19. La información generada, se ha recopilado en el presente Boletín Agroclimático.La perspectiva climática para el trimestre Agosto-Septiembre-Octubre (ASO) de 2020 fue presentada en el LXII Foro del Clima de América Central realizado los días 14-16 de Julio. Para México la perspectiva es desarrollada por el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional de la CONAGUA.Actualmente el fenómeno ENOS se encuentra en una fase neutral, sin embargo, hay probabilidad de que cambie a una fase de enfriamiento (La Niña) al final del trimestre ASO.Durante el trimestre ASO 2020, se esperan acumulados de precipitación por arriba del promedio al occidente y oriente del estado. Déficit de precipitación se esperaría en zonas del centro y norte de Chiapas.Es importante tomar en cuenta que el desarrollo, trayectoria cercana o ingreso de algún ciclón tropical en la región sur del país, así como, la frecuencia del paso de frentes fríos por el sur del territorio nacional, podría modificar significativamente el patrón de lluvias pronosticado.En cuanto al pronóstico de temperatura máxima promedio mensual, para el trimestre en cuestión se esperan condiciones más cálidas que el promedio durante septiembre y más fresca de lo habitual durante agosto y octubre.El pronóstico de lluvia para el período ASO (Figura 1), indica que se tendrían lluvias por arriba del promedio acumulado en la mayor parte de Chiapas, a excepción de la región norte, durante este trimestre. En la Figura 2 se muestra el comportamiento esperado de lluvias por mes. En la Figura 3 se pueden observar los acumulados de precipitación normal (histórica) y los pronosticados para abrilnoviembre de 2020. Para mayor información póngase en contacto con INIFAP al correo lopez.aurelio@inifap.gob.mx.  Manejo de arvenses o malezas: las lluvias pronosticadas favorecen la aparición y rápido desarrollo de malezas o arvenses. Particularmente, las lluvias de finales de septiembre y octubre permitirán desarrollar malezas para momentos de cosecha, dificultando esta actividad tanto manual como mecánica, afectando la calidad del grano al momento de comercializar. Es importante realizar aplicaciones oportunas con base en revisiones (monitoreo). Asociación de cultivos: Es recomendable la siembra de cultivos como Canavalia, dolichos, mucuna, asociados con maíz, que permiten mejorar la fertilidad de suelos, fijando nutrientes como nitrógeno, incrementa la materia orgánica en suelo, regula plagas y malezas en la parcela y cultivo. Fertilización: para siembras tardías (5 al 25 de julio), que todavía realizarán fertilización, se recomienda hacerla de forma enterrada (al menos 5 cm debajo de la profundidad de siembra), principalmente si utilizan urea o sulfato de amonio. Aplicaciones de fertilizantes foliares con contenidos de Boro y Zinc, y foliares orgánicos (violes, supermagro o lixiviados).A continuación se muestran algunas deficiencias de ciertos elementos para guiar su identificación:(Fotos tomadas en Localidad Espinal de Morelos, Ocozocoautla de espinosa, Chiapas, 2014 -@BJiménezCIMMYT) Deficiencia de fosforo en maíz hibrido Deficiencia de fosforo en maíz hibrido, en suelos con alto contenido de carbonatos y Ph alcalino.Deficiencia de Hierro (Fe) en Chícharo gandul, en suelos con alto contenido de carbonatos y Ph alcalino. Enfermedades: las siembras tardías del 25 junio -25 julio, las condiciones de lluvias a finales de agosto y septiembre y la presencia de temperaturas altas en septiembre pueden propiciar la aparición de enfermedades como Complejo de Mancha de Asfalto (Chamusco), es importante revisar las parcelas y de ser necesario aplicar fungicidas. Aplicación de Consist max (Tebuconazole+Trifloxistrobin), Priori Extra (Azoxystrobin+Ciproconazol), Viathan (epoxiconazol+pyraclostrobin), Benlate (Benomilo) (más barato, menos efectivo), y Cobre pentahidratado, planear aplicaciones 10 días antes de floración de maíz. Pudriciones de mazorca: Tanto para las fechas tempranas como tardías las lluvias de finales de septiembre y durante octubre permitirán la aparición de enfermedades como Diploidía y Fusarium que provocan la pudrición de mazorca. Considerar aplicaciones de fungicidas (300 gr de Cuprimicin 500 y 0.5 kg de Benomilo, por ha) en periodos de inicio de floración del maíz. No quema: Las quemas agrícolas destruyen la materia orgánica del suelo y reducen su fertilidad. Fomentar la implementación de sistemas integrados de prácticas sustentables que aprovechen el rastrojo, en lugar de quemarlo. Fecha de siembra: Se recomienda siembras del 15 de agosto hasta la fecha del 15 de septiembre, para siembras de un solo cultivo o dentro del maíz (asociado). Variedades: Se recomienda la siembra de variedades tolerantes al virus del mosaico dorado (amarillo): verdín (negro), sangre maya (rojo), Rb200 (negro). Para regiones con menor precipitación, revisar presencia de mosca blanca. Suelos: Para regiones en que se pronostican lluvias arriba de lo normal en suelos arcillosos y planos tener cuidado con mal drenaje que puede afectar la germinación, se recomienda siembras en laderas, sobre el bordo del surco o suelos más arenosos. Plagas: En regiones con mayor cantidad de lluvia puede haber afectación de gusano babosa, se recomienda el uso de trampas con base de cerveza o aplicación foliar de sulfato ferroso. Fechas de siembra: Durante las tres primeras semanas de Agosto se pueden realizar las siembras en las regiones de la depresión central y Valles Zoques. Se pronostican condiciones favorables de lluvias en el trimestre agosto, septiembre y octubre. Fertilización: Es importante hacer una fertilización balanceada a la siembra, aplicar DAP 18-46-00 (negrito), cloruro de potasio y sulfato de amonio, recomendable hacerla enterrada. Hacer práctica de ensilado de sorgo forrajero. Fechas de siembra: Siembras del 20 agosto al 10 de septiembre -si hay condiciones para aplicar riego para finales del ciclo. Limpieza: En periodos de lluvia puede haber mayor presencia de malezas. Se recomienda hacer escardas manuales o con yuntas, o en su caso el uso de herbicidas como Fusiflex (Fomesafem+Fluazifop) para hojas anchas y angostas y/o Fusilade (Fluazifop) para hojas angostas. El herbicida Flex es para control de hojas anchas y se puede utilizar en maíz. Plagas y enfermedades: Para siembras adelantadas de Cintalapa y Jiquipilas, la presencia de lluvias en octubre puede favorecer la aparición de enfermedades en la vaina y follaje de cacahuate que dificulta la cosecha y baja de rendimiento. Planear aplicaciones de fungicidas a inicios de floración. 0.5 litro de Mastercop (Cobre Pentahidratado) o 0.5 litros por ha, de Cupravit (Oxicloruro de cobre). Conservación de suelos y agua: Se recomienda emplear prácticas agrícolas tales como labranza vertical, uso de cobertura, curvas de nivel, terrazas de muro vivo, barreras de piedra acomodada, barreras vivas, abonos verdes, adición de materia orgánica, entre otras, para mantener la humedad en el suelo y obtener más producción, especialmente en agricultura de subsistencia. Una buena precipitación sin un suelo que pueda retenerla se traduce en escorrentía y falta de humedad efectiva.En zonas con pronóstico de precipitación debajo de lo normal como Palenque, Selva, la Costa y el Soconusco, se recomienda la implementación de prácticas que mantengan la humedad del suelo. Captura de agua: Aunque hay buenos acumulados de lluvia pronosticada en gran parte del estado, es importante hacer prácticas de captura de agua. Con esto se puede hacer frente a cualquier variación de lluvia, especialmente en las primeras etapas de los cultivos. Muchas de ellas son de bajo costo y son fáciles de implementar. Cobertura: El manejo de cobertura es fundamental.El manejo del rastrojo y cultivos de cobertura no sólo es para conservar la humedad y evitar la evaporación, sino también para mantener un suelo sano, con nutrientes y otros elementos fundamentales. Prácticas de subsoleo: Para romper la compactación y aumentar la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua.BOLETÍN AGROCLIMÁTICO NO. 2 -MTA -CHIAPAS, MÉXICO Pag. 6Afectaciones  Menor acceso a insumos.  Presión en los hogares rurales por las medidas de reducción de la circulación y limitaciones de acceder a las fuentes alternativas de empleo.  Disponibilidad de alimentos.  Restricciones comerciales.  Inestabilidad social. Incentivar la producción: especialmente la producción de granos básicos, para evitar desabastecimiento en la región como efecto del COVID19. Garantizar insumos: Incentivar programas sociales para otorgar semillas y otros insumos agrícolas prioritarios para productores de menor escala. Canales de difusión: Es necesario buscar los mecanismos para que los productores, extensionistas y tomadores de decisión política a nivel de Secretaría, puedan transferir la información actualizada de manera oportuna. Uso de grupos de WhatsApp, redes sociales, radios locales, llamadas telefónicas, puntos focales de mesas técnicas agroclimáticas y servicios de extensión.Lavado de manos durante al menos 20 segundos con agua y jabón, en caso de no contar con agua y jabón se pueden usar soluciones con base de alcohol al 60%.Limpiar (con agua y jabón) y desinfectar (con una solución clorada) las superficies y objetos de uso común.Mantener una sana distancia entre personas (de 1.5 a 2 metros), en caso de no poder mantener esta distancia usar cubreboca, por ejemplo en el transporte público.Etiqueta respiratoria (cubrir nariz y boca con el ángulo interno del codo o con un pañuelo desechable) al toser o estornudar.En caso de presentar síntomas compatibles y no formar parte de un grupo vulnerable ni tener indicios de dificultad respiratoria, recuperarse en casa.Agradecemos el apoyo de las instituciones que hacen parte de la MTA Chiapas. Si aún no formas parte, te invitamos a que asistas a las próximas reuniones. La MTA de Chiapas cuenta con grupos de WhatsApp y lista de correos. Si quieres ser incluido, contáctanos: Se recomienda consultar la actualización mensual del pronóstico, así como las alertas de tiempo del Servicio Meteorológico Nacional en www.smn.conagua.gob.mxEl mapa muestra las regiones económicas del estado de Chiapas y la cantidad de precipitación esperada en el trimestre Agosto-Septiembre-Octubre. Entre más intenso sea el color azúl mayor precipitación se tendría.Los valores mostrados para cada región indican los milímetros de lluvia que se esperan. El color azul indica más lluvia que lo habitual, verde normal y rojo por debajo de lo habitual.En occidente y sur del estado, se esperan lluvias por arriba de lo habitual.Al norte y oriente del estado, se esperan lluvias por debajo de lo habitual.Al occidente del estado, se esperan lluvias por arriba de lo habitual.En el resto del estado se esperan lluvias por debajo de lo habitual.En todo el estado, se esperan lluvias por arriba de lo habitual. Los mayores acumulados (mayores a 300 mm) se presentarían al Norte, Palenque, Selva y Soconusco. Manejo de malezas Las lluvias de finales de septiembre y octubre permitirán desarrollar malezas para momentos de cosecha. Es importante realizar aplicaciones oportunas con base en revisiones.Canavalia, dolichos, mucuna, asociados con maíz permiten mejorar la fertilidad de suelos, fijar nutrientes, incrementar la materia orgánica, regular plagas y malezas en el cultivo.Las lluvias de finales de septiembre y durante octubre permitirán la aparición de enfermedades que provocan la pudrición de mazorca. Considerar aplicaciones de fungicidas en periodos de inicio de floración del maíz. Plagas En regiones con mayor cantidad de lluvia puede haber afectación de gusano babosa, se recomienda el uso de trampas con base de cerveza o aplicación foliar de sulfato ferroso.Fecha de siembra Durante las tres primeras semanas de Agosto se pueden realizar las siembras en las regiones de la depresión central y Valles Zoques.Fertilización Es importante hacer una fertilización balanceada a la siembra, aplicar DAP 18-46-00 (negrito), cloruro de potasio y sulfato de amonio, recomendable hacerla enterrada.Siembras del 20 agosto al 10 de septiembre -si hay condiciones para aplicar riego para finales del ciclo.en octubre pueden favorecer la aparición de enfermedades en la vaina y follaje. Planear aplicaciones de fungicidas.Siempre es recomendable emplear prácticas agrícolas tales como:Labranza vertical Agradecemos el apoyo de las instituciones que hacen parte de la MTA Chiapas. Si aún no formas parte, te invitamos a que asistas a las próximas reuniones. La MTA de Chiapas cuenta con grupos de WhatsApp y lista de correos. Si quieres ser incluido, contáctanos:La Mesa Técnica Agroclimática es posible gracias al esfuerzo de diversas instituciones del estado y la coordinación de la Secretaría de Agricultura de Chiapas (SAGyP) y la Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (SADER)Lavado de manos durante al menos 20 segundos con agua y jabón, en caso de no contar con agua y jabón se pueden usar soluciones con base de alcohol.Limpiar (con agua y jabón) y desinfectar (con una solución clorada) las superficies y objetos de uso común.Mantener una sana distancia entre personas (de 1.5 a 2 metros), en caso de no poder mantener esta distancia usar cubreboca, por ejemplo en el transporte público.Etiqueta respiratoria (cubrir nariz y boca con el ángulo interno del codo o con un pañuelo desechable) al toser o estornudar.En caso de presentar síntomas compatibles y no formar parte de un grupo vulnerable ni tener indicios de dificultad respiratoria, recuperarse en casa. Fecha: 23 de enero del 2020.I. Programa de la reunión.II. Listas de asistencias.III. Objetivo de la reunión.IV. Desarrollo de la reunión de la Mesa Técnica Agroclimática. Palabras de bienvenida Representante de la SAGYP. Introducción a los Servicios Climáticos, Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas, componentes, metodología, antecedentes y experiencias en Latinoamérica (CCAFS)  Formalización de la MTA de Chiapas; definición de objetivos, misión y visión de la MTA de Chiapas.  Mapeo de información de clima (estaciones y otros productos) y cultivo; definición de alcance geográfico.  Plan de trabajo de la MTA y próximos pasos; conformación de comités técnicos, definición de roles institucionales, definición de frecuencia de las reuniones y grupos de difusión. V. Comentarios Finales Anexos.Hora Actividad 08:15 am -08:40am Registro de los participantes 08:40 am -8:50 am  Palabras de bienvenida (Titular de la SAGYP) 08:50 am -10:00 am  Introducción a los Servicios Climáticos, Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas, componentes, metodología, antecedentes y experiencias en Latinoamérica (CCAFS) 10:00 am-10:30 am Receso -Café 10:30 am -12:00 pm  Formalización de la MTA de Chiapas; definición de objetivos, misión y visión de la MTA de Chiapas (Facilita CIMMYT) 12:00 pm -1:30 pm  Mapeo de información de clima (estaciones y otros productos) y cultivo; definición de alcance geográfico (Facilita CCAFS) 1:30 pm -2:00 pm  Plan de trabajo de la MTA y próximos pasos; conformación de comités técnicos, definición de roles institucionales, definición de frecuencia de las reuniones y grupos de difusión (Facilita CIMMYT-SADER-CCAFS) 2:00 -Comida III. Objetivo de la reunión.Inaugurar la Mesa Técnica Agroclimática (MTA) de Chiapas, como un espacio de diálogo entre actores locales, nacionales y regionales que busca comprender el posible comportamiento del clima y generar recomendaciones para disminuir los riesgos asociados a la variabilidad climática esperada. Al finalizar esta primera reunión, se construirá la visión y misión de la MTA a implementar, así como el compromiso y aporte de cada institución. Este será el punto de partida para generar el mapeo de información de clima y cultivo, y posteriormente el plan de trabajo.IV. Desarrollo de la Reunión. Palabras de bienvenida Representante de la SAGYP.Para dar inicio con la sesión de la reunión el Ing. Humberto Limón, subsecretario de reconversión productiva de la SAGYP, dio la bienvenida a sus instalaciones a todos los participantes de la reunión, resaltando la relevancia de la metodología de Mesa Técnica Agroclimática, que se implementará en Chiapas, siendo la primera a nivel nacional.Nuevamente se retoma la presentación del enfoque de la Mesa Técnica Agroclimática, cómo inicia, cómo se estructura y cómo se opera. Para esta parte el Ing. Carlos Navarro de CIAT-CCAFS, dio una explicación muy detallada a los asistentes, incluida la presencia de nuevas instituciones que no estuvieron presentes en la primera reunión.El Ing. Carlos explico que los productores constantemente están tomando decisiones en un entorno de riesgo e incertidumbre, lo que resalta la importancia de implementar el enfoque de MTA para producir, traducir, transferir información climática oportuna para el manejo del riesgo climático en la agricultura de la región. La MTA pretende aterrizar información climática que ya existe en las instituciones federales y estatales, transformadas en recomendaciones agronómicas a todos los que intervienen en la toma de decisiones en el campo (productores, extensionistas), buscando con esto minimizar los riesgos de pérdida y por ende incrementando la productividad y la rentabilidad de la actividad agrícola.Esta metodología se ha probado exitosamente en otros países como Colombia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Chile, Paraguay, Panamá y El Salvador.Para el caso de México, Chiapas es el primer ejercicio que se realiza para el 2020 y esta servirá de referencia para otros estados, por lo que es de vital importancia la participación de las diferentes instituciones trabajando de manera coordinada para tener los pronósticos climatológicos precisos, transformarlas en recomendaciones agronómicas para los productores y posteriormente difundir a mayor número de productores, extensionistas y actores claves en la región. Formalización de la MTA de Chiapas; definición de objetivos, misión y visión de la MTA de Chiapas.Se realizaron dinámicas específicas para definir los objetivos, misión y visión de la MTA de Chiapas. En el cuadro a continuación se deja ver las principales respuestas de los equipos:Equipos Propuesta Propuesta Unificada de Misión 1 Tener una buena organización de la mesa para generar información confiable que le sirva al productor Consolidar un espacio de encuentro de actores para el análisis de información agroclimática y la generación de recomendaciones que apoyen la toma de decisiones de los sectores productivos de la región.2 Generar información Agroclimática al alcance de los productores para la toma de decisiones en su actividad agrícola 3 consolidación de la MTA en sus actividades en beneficios de los productores y del medio ambiente 4 Generar un espacio de análisis de información para emitir sugerencia y generar estrategias para la toma de decisiones del sector productivo A través de los equipos que se formaron para trabajar las dinámicas anteriores, se trabajo un mapeo de las áreas y cultivos de interés en trabajar con la MTA. Se deja en el siguiente cuadro los mapas trabajados. Plan de trabajo de la MTA y próximos pasos; conformación de comités técnicos, definición de roles institucionales, definición de frecuencia de las reuniones y grupos de difusión.Se acordó que en la siguiente reunión se realizará el día 20 de marzo. Para definir algunos roles, los participantes expusieron de manera personal e institucional los aportes que pueden dar a la MTA Chiapas, considerando que se trabajará en una voluntad de acuerdos.Ejercicio que aporta cada Actor. Asesoría técnica en distritos de riego Temporal territorial y unidades de riego. Manejo y seguimiento de la operación, conservación y rehabilitación de DR, DTT y UR Planificación de los cultivos de Riego (plan de Riego) Control de Riego con protección de control de población y áreas productivas. SEMAHN (SECRETARIA DE MEDIOA AMBIENTE DE HISTORIA NATURAL DE CHIAPAS Política pública en medio ambiente Información técnica sobre diversidad biológica y ecosistemas SIG\" Política pública en medio ambiente Financiera Nacional de Desarrollo Agropecuario Rural, Forestal y Pesquero (FND) Ing. Alexis Velázquez Pérez, ejecutivo de financiamiento, paquetes tecnológicos de cultivos acreditados, base de acreditados, costos de cultivos.","tokenCount":"4861"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"71eb63fd0147470476d6011a6e600707","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/140c385d-4e06-44ca-ae09-905be96d32fb/content","id":"-671466714"},"keywords":["axial-flow pump","small-scale farmers","manufacturing analysis","computer-aided engineering","numerical simulation","full-scale field test"],"sieverID":"499a0aac-8388-411f-99b2-4dc418bf172a","pagecount":"13","content":"Much of South Asia experiences a monomodal rainfall pattern with a distinct dry season following the annual monsoon. Enabling irrigation during the dry season has therefore been crucial in assuring improved productivity and double-cropping. This is particularly the case in southern Bangladesh, where recent government initiatives have called for an expansion of surface water irrigation to reduce pressure on groundwater tables in intensively cultivated areas in the north of the country, where dry season boro rice is grown. This paper describes a method based on first principles of fluid mechanics to characterize the performance of surface water irrigation pumps used by small-scale farmers in South Asia and Bangladesh. This method is unique, as it incorporates an optimized protocol suitable for resource-limited conditions found in many developing countries and provides a comprehensive yet simple-to-use pump selection method for surface water irrigation pump customers. Using pump impellers as a case study, the method also characterizes the effect of pump geometric variations resulting from the variable production and assembly practices found in different manufacturing workshops. This method was validated with a case study in Bangladesh supported by both full-scale field testing and numerical simulation results.Une grande partie de l'Asie du Sud connaît un régime pluviométrique monomodal avec une saison sèche distincte après la mousson annuelle. Permettre l'irrigation pendant la saison sèche a donc été crucial pour assurer une meilleure productivité et une double culture. C'est particulièrement le cas dans le sud du Bangladesh, où des initiatives gouvernementales récentes ont demandé une expansion de l'irrigation avec des eaux de surface pour réduire la pression sur les nappes phréatiques dans les zones intensément cultivées du nord du pays où pousse le riz boro de saison sèche. Cet article décrit une méthode basée sur les premiers principes de la mécanique des fluides pour caractériser les performances des pompes d'irrigation avec des eaux de surface utilisées par les petits agriculteurs en Asie du Sud et au Bangladesh. Cette méthode est unique car elle incorpore un protocole optimisé adapté aux conditions de ressources limitées dans de nombreux pays en développement et fournit une méthode de sélection de pompe complète mais simple à utiliser pour les clients de pompes d'irrigation d'eau de surface. En utilisant des turbines de pompage comme étude de cas, la méthode caractérise également l'effet des variations géométriques de la pompe résultant des pratiques variables de production et d'assemblage trouvées dans différents ateliers de fabrication. Cette méthode a été validée à l'aide d'une étude de cas au Bangladesh appuyée à la fois par des essais sur le terrain à grande échelle et des résultats de simulation numérique. © 2018 The Authors. The country of Bangladesh has a total area that is just 5% of India, but with a population that exceeds 165 million people (Schwartzberg 2016). Bangladesh, however, produces over one-third the amount of rice that is produced in India, and in most years manages rice self-sufficiency (Bangladesh Agricultural Research Corporation 2013; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 2014; Mainuddin and Kirby 2015). This productivity was enabled largely through the expansion of groundwater irrigation for dry season boro rice production in the country's northern plains (Qureshi et al. 2015). Concerns regarding the environmental sustainability of groundwater abstraction in these intensively irrigated areas-particularly in consideration of the high energey costs required to vertically lift water from aquifers and regional groundwater overdraft (McBean et al. 2011;Shamsudduha et al. 2011;Qureshi et al. 2014Qureshi et al. , 2015;;Kirby et al. 2015;Shahid et al. 2015)-have caused policy makers to propose increased use of available fresh surface water resources for irrigation in southern Bangladesh (Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and FAO 2013).The challenge, however, is to make effective use of available surface water resources for double-cropping while using affordable and energy-efficient pump sets, typically powered by diesel (Krupnik et al. 2015;Pradeleix et al. 2015). One option to address these goals is to replace high-fuel-demanding centrifugal pumps with more energyefficient axial-and mixed-flow pumps where surface water lift requirements are less than 3 m in height (International Rice Research Institute 1983;Karassik et al. 2007; Ministry of Power 2013), as is the case in much of southern Bangladesh (Krupnik et al. 2017). In a recent comparison with centrifugal pumps, Krupnik et al. (2015) found that axial-and mixed-flow pumps can increase energy efficiency by 51 and 21% at 1 m and 2 m heads respectively, corresponding to an economic saving of US$38-70 ha -1 season -1 resulting from significantly lower fuel and irrigation time requirements for dry season boro rice production.Use of axial-and mixed-flow pumps has increased in Bangladesh and South Asia, with manufacturers showing increased interest in this pump technology (CSISA-MI 2016). Machinery design and manufacturing abilities in Bangladesh and in many developing countries are often limited, with non-standard production line processes and little to zero post-production product testing or quality assurance (Krupnik et al. 2013). Therefore, this paper focuses on the design and manufacture of axial-and mixed-flow pumps. This paper proceeds from previous work on the parametric design phase of irrigation pump design and optimization (Yu and Colton 2017), and presents a simple method for testing irrigation pumps that allows farmers and service providers to more easily select and operate irrigation pumps in the most economical conditions. Although it focuses on Bangladesh, the engineering principles and processes detailed in this paper are broadly applicable to other developing country circumstances, such as sub-Saharan Africa and other South Asia countries, where irrigation pump manufacturers may have limited resources for quality control and product testing (Molle et al. 2003;Knox et al. 2013;Kamwamba-Mtethiwa et al. 2016).Rotodynamic pumps, machines with a wheel or rotor whose rotating blades or vanes impart tangential acceleration to a liquid flow, are categorized into three types based on flow direction (Addison 1955). Examples include axial-flow pumps (AFPs) that generate axial flow, radial-flow pumps or centrifugal pumps (CPs) that generate radial flow, and mixed-flow pumps (MFPs) that generate both types of flow (Wilcox 2000). Their application range is described by their specific speed in dimensional form as N sd , as shown in Equation ( 1):where Ω is the pump shaft speed (rpm), Q the volumetric flow rate (m 3 h -1 ) and H the pressure head (m). Physically, the specific speed is the operating speed at which a pump achieves unit head at a unit volume of flow rate. Low values ( N sd m 3 h À1 ;m ð Þ < 4650) correspond to efficient CP operation. Moderate values correspond to MFPs, whereas high values ( N sd m 3 h À1 ;m ð Þ > 10 500) correspond to AFPs (Wilcox 2000). Based on these values, AFPs and MFPs are more effective for surface water irrigation at low H heads, and therefore would be more suitable than CPs for surface water pumping from canals and rivers in South and South East Asia (Santos Valle et al. 2014).To achieve accurate flow measurements, it is necessary to account for friction losses in pipe flow systems because they reduce the discharge by a factor of four. Friction losses consist of: (i) major losses due to viscous effects in straight pipes; (ii) minor losses due to geometry of pipe components (Munson et al. 2009). Assuming a steady incompressible flow with a pipe of constant diameter, friction loss is defined by Equation (2) aswhere l is the length of the pipe, D is the diameter of the pipe, V is the velocity of the fluid, g is the gravitation constant, f ¼ ϕ Re; ϵ=D ð Þis the friction factor that is determined from the Moody chart using the Reynolds number, Re; ϵ=D is the relative roughness; and K L is the dimensionless minor loss coefficient obtained from references (Moody 1944;Wilcox 2000;Munson et al. 2009). As f, l and D remain constant in this paper, K major ¼ f l=D ð Þ and K minor = K L , Equation (3) is obtained:Using this friction loss model, the modified Bernoulli equation (Equation ( 4)), also known as the steady onedimensional energy equation, can be used to characterize the flow profiles across pump types:where the subscripts (1) and ( 2) represent two different locations, for example the surface of the irrigation ditch and the exit to the pump, z is the elevation head, p=ρg is the pressure head and Àw p =g is the pump head. The loss factor, K, can be calculated from measured pressure head, H ¼ p=ρg , at shut-off valve position (or shut-off head) and velocity, V, at maximum discharge, as Equation (5), which is derived from Equations (3) and (4):This friction loss model will be applied to assess performance of different pump systems with customized components.Dimensional analysis (DA) reveals functional relationships among relevant physical quantities such as discharge Q, pump shaft speed N or diameter D, and establishes dimensionless criteria of flow under dynamically similar conditions. DA is widely used to evaluate factors affecting flow (White 2016).By selecting E, D and ρ as the three independent parameters, where E = gH and is the energy applied to the pump shaft and ρ is fluid density, and including the Reynolds number, specific speed and specific head, the affinity law, which relates the volumetric flow rates, Q, to the rotational speed of the pumps, N, and their diameters, D, can be expressed as Equation ( 6) (Stepanoff, 1957):Similarly, Equation ( 7) relates head, H, to speed and diameter:To assist in the development and testing of surface water irrigation pumps, a standardized and practical testing method is developed for these regions to determine how practical changes in pump design and management impact the local irrigation in a cost-effective, energy-efficient manner. Through standard test procedures that accurately measure key variables such as pumping head, water discharge and fuel consumption, this method effectively and reliably assesses pump performance. It is expected that its use can improve the quality of pump design and manufacture in South Asia.The test method detailed in this paper innovates in three ways. First, the method simulates testing at different head levels using shut-off valve positions (open, closed or in-between) on a new instrument designed to reduce test procedure costs and increase the ease of pump evaluation. Second, the method includes numerical testing of multiple pump prototypes using computer simulation in order to increase manufacturing capability while also reducing costs. Finally, the method incorporates friction losses and affinity law theories from fluid mechanics to develop a pump selection method for local customers. This straightforward and easy-to-use pump selection method serves as an alternative to traditional pump curves to help farmers with pump purchase and operation.The design and testing process detailed in this paper is described in Figure 1.Experiments were performed to evaluate the performance and effectiveness of MFPs manufactured locally in Bangladesh, especially their impellers. A set of six full-scale (150 mm diameter) mild steel sheet pump impellers of the same nominal design and geometry as a commercial Thai MFP impeller were tested (Figure 2).In this study, pump testing included both field testing and numerical testing through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. Field test data were used to characterize the accuracy of the theoretical models introduced above, and numerical simulation data to characterize the effect of improving the manufacturing quality of impellers on pump performance. A pump selection method developed from these models is subsequently described.Field testing was performed at the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute in Gazipur, Bangladesh (23°59 0 13″ N, 90°24 0 51″ E) using the testing protocol and pump test bed reported by Lam et al. (2017). The test apparatus included both pump and control-measurement components (Figure 3). The pump component was composed of a 150-mm diameter pump impeller manufactured by Rahman Engineering (Dhaka, Bangladesh), a galvanized-iron (GI) pipe of 150 mm diameter and 6 m length, a drive shaft, a V-belt pulley power coupling, a 12.5 HP Changchai S195 diesel engine (Chagzhou, China), a weighing scale, and an external fuel tank (Santos Valle et al. 2014). The cross section of the GI pipe is shown in Figure 4. The impeller was attached to the shaft end and placed at the GI pipe inlet and submerged in pond water as described by Krupnik et al. (2015). A shaft bushing and a diffuser vane were located within the pipe to centre the shaft with a cage placed at the inlet to filter debris. The inlet of the pipe was slightly enlarged to accommodate the 180-mm diameter impeller, with an outlet bent at 45°. The engine drove the shaft at various testing RPMs through the V-belt coupling (Santos Valle et al. 2014).The control measurement section included a flexible hose, two segments of cast iron pipes, a Woltman flow meter built by Bermad Irrigation (model WPH-150) (Bermad Irrigation 2013), a pressure gauge and a butterfly control valve (Figure 3) as described by Lam et al. (2017). All components except the pressure gauge measured 150 mm nominal diameter.During the test, the butterfly valve controlled the flow rate and a pressure gauge measured the corresponding pressure (kg cm -2 ), which was later converted into water head (m). After each test run, the elapsed time was recorded using a stopwatch and total water discharge was measured using the flow meter.This contrasts with direct approaches that elevate a pump's outlet to study its performance at a new lift height, as described by Krupnik et al. (2015) and Santos Valle et al. (2014); here, different lift heights are simulated by varying the control valve's position. This approach saves cost and effort and is accomplished by relating the change in friction head to the change in lift height as described in Equation ( 8):where H est is the new theoretical lift height with a corresponding flow velocity V Ã 2 and ΔK is the change of minor loss coefficient of the control valve from its nominal position. As the change in friction head is not measured directly, but rather through the pressure gauge reading, Equation ( 8) can be alternatively shown to be Equation ( 9):where P * is the measured pressure reading from a new valve position corresponding to H est . This correlates the theoretical lift height with the pressure reading at different valve positions. The relationship between flow velocity and theoretical lift can then be expressed as Equation ( 10):Assuming constant w p , a linear relationship between theoretical lift height and the velocity squared with a slope of ÀK þ 1=2g ð Þcan be derived.Nine design parameters-vane width, cone height, impeller height, distance between tops of vanes, distance between edges of vanes, hole diameter, cone diameter, outer diameter and weight-were measured on each of the six Bangladesh manufactured impeller prototypes (Yu 2017).Measurements were subsequently used to create SolidWorks (SolidWorks 2016 Education Edition SP4.0, Waltham, Mass.) CAD models, which were contrasted with manufactured impellers (Figure 2). A CFD model was generated using SolidWorks Flow Simulation. The model was constructed in three sequential stages: geometric modelling, mesh generation and problem conditions. In the initial stage, the impeller was placed in a pipe segment, which was represented by a thin cylindrical shell with an inner diameter of 187 mm and a length of 270 mm (Figure 5). An optimum clearance of 4 mm is expected between the outer diameter of the impeller and the inner wall of the pipe, as suggested by Aban (1985). Details of the model can be found in Yu (2017).A grid independence study was performed to validate the accuracy and reliability of the model's results, details of which can be found in Yu (2017). A grid size was selected that provided an accurate result that was insensitive to variations in grid size.The effect of geometric variation is quantified through the operating shut-off head of each impeller. Because the friction losses of the components within the system other than the pump itself are not modelled, calculating the volumetric flow rate from simulations does not yield accurate data per Equation (2). Therefore, shut-off heads were compared, which are theoretically independent of friction losses.The friction loss model estimated the pump performance based upon the concepts of major and minor losses introduced above. This model was evaluated by estimating friction loss factors of each component within the system in Figures 3 and 4 from their material and geometry (Crane Co. Engineering Division 2012), and comparing the estimates with the results of the full-scale experiments.The affinity law model correlates pump performance at different rotational speeds. As shown in Equations ( 6) and ( 7), the discharge rate, Q, is expected to be directly proportional to the pump rotational speed, N, and the head, H, being proportional to N 2 . Therefore, this model was evaluated by fitting firstand second-order lines. Both lines were forced through the origin, as discharge and head were zero when the shaft was stationary.The lift height model introduced above simulates different lift heights by varying the control valve's position. It is evaluated by fitting experimental data to Equation (10). Based on the assumption of constant pump head, w p =g, a linear relationship is expected between theoretical lift height and the velocity squared.    The results for the CFD approach are validated by comparing the numerical results with experiments. The effects of manufacturing are described for the six prototypes using CFD simulation. The implementation of the friction loss model, the affinity law model, and the lift height model used in the case study will be presented below.To validate the CFD approach and to compare field experiments with CFD simulation results, impellers 3 and 4 were tested physically and simulated numerically. The results are shown in Table I. The results demonstrate consistency between the CFD simulation and the field experiments, as both shut-off head and flow rate exhibit small percentage differences within 8% of the desired operating range (1500 and 1744 RPM). A pump speed of 1000 RPM serves as a lower boundary of the test but is not a typical operating shaft speed for MFP according to specific speed analysis. Note that because the CFD simulation only tests the performance of the pump segment, it neglects the friction losses of the other components in the system. Therefore, the flow rate predictions are much greater than the experimentally measured flow rates. As a result, it is necessary to scale down the simulation's flow rates based on friction loss analysis to match the experimental results.The results of CFD simulations corresponding to geometric variations due to manufacturing for the six impeller prototypes at 1500 and 1744 RPM are shown in Table II. The sample standard deviations of the shut-off head generated by the six impellers at 1744 and 1500 RPM are 0.27 and 0.29 m, which correspond to 3.11 and 4.43% of the average head. These small values demonstrate that geometric variations due to manufacturing have little effect on performance.The concept of major and minor losses was introduced above to estimate pump performance of the components, and thus their friction losses. The loss coefficients for each component within the system are identified in Tables III and IV and are estimated from their material and geometry (Crane Co. Engineering Division 2012). The sum of the major loss coefficients is 3.94, and the sum of the minor loss coefficient is 13.2. This results in a total loss coefficient of 17.2. The calculated loss coefficient is obtained by operating prototypes 1, 3 and 4 at different RPMs, and then using  Equation ( 5). The sum of the major and minor loss coefficients has an average of 21.8 ±1.7 SD (Yu 2017).Lines are fitted through the origin of experimental and simulation results to correlate pump rotational speeds and discharge rates (Figure 6). Both results demonstrate good agreement with the affinity law, as shown by R 2 values above 0.9 in all four cases.The lift height model described above is plotted in Figure 7.After fitting the data using linear regression, the model is validated by high R 2 values of 0.95, 0.93 and 0.92 when operated at 1489, 1740 and 2065 RPM, respectively.The comparison of CFD simulations and experimental results demonstrates that the impellers have a steadier behaviour at higher shaft speeds (Table I). At 1500 and 1744 RPM, both impellers have differences between simulation and experiments of less than 8% for both shut-off head and flow rate. At 1000 RPM, this difference rapidly increases to approximately 22% in flow rate and over 41% in shut-off head. This validates the CFD model at 1500 and 1744 RPM, but not at 1000 RPM. A possible source of this mismatch is open-channel flow seen in field testing at 1000 RPM. At this speed, the pump barely lifts the water above the level of the exit, leaving the pipe partially filled with water. This results in an open-channel flow, which affects the results. In practice, however, this non-ideal behaviour at low shaft rotational speeds is of little consequence because AFPs and MFPs are most efficient at high rotational speeds (Santos Valle et al. 2014). At low shaft speeds, such as 1000 RPM, centrifugal pumps are likely to have greater efficiency. It can be concluded that the results from numerical simulation agree well with the results of the field testing in the desired range of operation. The effect of geometric variation due to manufacturing was therefore tested at high rotational speeds using the CFD model as described below.The small standard deviations of pump performance at the two higher shaft speeds demonstrates the limited effect of dimensional inaccuracies due to manufacturing on pump performance as evaluated by the shut-off head. Based on this result, our partner pump manufacturer in Bangladesh can be confident that their MFP impellers can generate heads of 5.6-7.5 m and 7.8-9.6 m at pump speeds of 1500 and 1744 RPM, respectively, for the current pump tested. This is a crucial result because domestic manufacturing of AFPs and MFPs in Bangladesh is now growing to commercial scales (CSISA-MI 2016). This consistency in shut-off head indicates a small manufacturing effect on the discharge rate, which could be further improved for better pump performance.Using these results, a method of pump selection can be developed based on fuel efficiency at specified operating conditions through the following four steps (Figure 8).Step 1 eliminates the effect of test rigs and thereby estimates the discharge rate without physically testing the devices. Based on the friction loss model, the performance of pumping systems with customized components (without test rigs) can be estimated using Equation ( 11) from results of a system tested at the same shaft speed and lift height:where Q * is estimated discharge of the new system, Q test is the discharge from experimental results of the tested system, K test is the loss coefficient of the tested system and K * is the estimated loss coefficient of the new system.Step 2 calculates the expected total dynamic head (TDH) using the estimated discharge rate. By definition, expected TDH is calculated from two end points of a continuous streamline, which are the surface level of the water source (with approximately zero velocity, gauge pressure and elevation) and the pipe outlet (Karassik et al. 2007). This simplifies to Equation ( 12):  where V ¼ Q= πd 2 =4 À Á is the average velocity. Note that due to the friction loss being directly proportional to V 2 , TDH decreases as flow rate increases.Step 3 calculates the fuel efficiency as described by Equation ( 13):where f cr is the fuel consumption rate measured from physical pump tests and E f the fuel energy content (35.9 × 10 6 J l -1 for diesel) (Edwards et al. 2011). Step 4 generates curves that correlate expected TDH and fuel efficiency with flow rate for a pump running at a fixed rotational speed. This performance evaluation method is not limited to MFPs but is also applicable to axial flow and centrifugal pumps. In Figure 9, a sample curve is generated for prototype 1 at 1740 RPM. In the figure, the best operation point (BOP) is found at the point of highest fuel efficiency, approximately 30 l s -1 . Similar curves can be generated for other pumps and operating conditions, which again can simply the process of design and pump manufacturing where fuel efficiency is an important goal, as is the case with many axial-and mixed-flow pump tests (Krupnik et al. 2015;Santos Valle et al. 2014;Stickney and Salazar 1989;Chinsuwan and Cochran 1986;Aban 1985).This approach is likely to be more straightforward, effective, expedient and simpler for pump selection than traditional pump curves, although it does require careful data measurements and knowledge of modelling concepts and fluid dynamics (Lam et al. 2017), which may require capacity-building efforts in some country contexts. To demonstrate these concepts, we derived a sample figure using the data set shown in Figure 10. In this case, pump performance at various rotational speeds is plotted in combination.These concepts are best understood with a practical example. Typically, farmers interested in purchasing pumps are likely to consider whether a specific pump meets their expectations for lift height, flow rate, cost and fuel efficiency. Using Figure 10 or similarly derived graphs, farmers, irrigation pump service providers and agricultural machinery manufacturers and dealers can select a desired pump speed from the theoretical lift height curve. Expected efficiency can also be located on the efficiency curve at the same flow rate. An example is shown by dotted arrows for a pump owner desiring a lift height of 3 m and a flow rate of 30 l s -1 . In this situation, this chart can be used to obtain a better operating shaft speed at approximately 1750 to 2000 RPM for a higher fuel efficiency of 12% as opposed to 10%, as denoted by the data point to the left of the 'X' on the figure.In practice, farmers may not be able to obtain the performance data at shaft speeds described in this figure. In this case, the solution may be approximated using the affinity law model discussed above to scale pump performance from that of the closest tested shaft speed. For example, if one desires a lift height of 2 m and a same flow rate of 30 l s -1 , then one can select that flow rate at approximately 1/3 between 1498 and 1740 RPM, indicated by the '0' in Figure 10. As the pump speed is directly proportional to the flow rate, this indicates the most fuel efficient operation at 1579 RPM, as shown in Equation ( 14This process facilitates determining the fuel efficiency of different pumps, and thus can be useful in terms of selecting 'best-bet' pump types considering economic and energy efficiency goals. Pump selection using similarly derived efficiency curves has three major advantages compared to a traditional pump curve (Henshaw 2017). First, the new  pump curve is more organized and simpler to plot. The multiple efficiency curves on a traditional pump curve are also avoided, providing increased ease of interpretation, especially for less technically oriented audiences. Second, these discrete efficiency curves are replaced by a linear curve in the new approach, which allows users to compare efficiency at multiple operating conditions more easily. Finally, the new pump curve plots the performance of various pump speeds consecutively. As opposed to the traditional approach that involves the manipulation of multiple pump curves, this refined approach facilitates the more intuitive determination of the best operating speed from one chart with less effort. Note, however, that this new pump curve is generated for the same pump type at different operating conditions; to compare pumps of different types or diameters, multiple pump curves would be required.When implementing this simplified pump testing method, the user should be aware of several limitations. First, this method is only valid within the desired operating range of axial-and mixed-flow pumps. It should not be applied at low operating speeds (<1000 RPM). Second, this method does not incorporate ageing or life-cycle analysis of pumping equipment. Third, this method lacks performance assessments by end users. In the future, this simplified pump testing method is expected to be further tested with manufactured samples used by local farmers to evaluate its effectiveness. In addition, this method could also be modified to facilitate centrifugal pump testing.This paper proposes a pump testing approach for AFPs and MFPs used for crop irrigation in resource-limited developing countries. Through a case study in Bangladesh, this study investigates the local manufacturing capability. By testing a set of six impeller prototypes manufactured in Bangladesh, it observes that the standard deviation of performance within the set is below 5% of average values, and thus it concludes that manufacturing differences among prototypes have little effect on their performance and ensures the manufacturability of the product.The affinity law, a friction loss model, and a lift height model are incorporated into the analysis and validated with full-scale field testing. Based upon these models, an innovative pump selection method is introduced to interpret and compare pump performance. Compared to traditional pump curves, this approach is more straightforward, effective and simpler to use for local customers, service providers and sales personnel, allowing them to easily find the most economic and energy-efficient solution. Finally, the outcomes of the pump selection method and the manufacturing capability are both validated with CFD modelling. Currently, pumps tested with the proposed method are fabricated and sold in Bangladesh, increasing energy efficiency up to 50% from that of CPs at low operating heads.","tokenCount":"4870"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aa8fb39174a275254d94172de5c9f104","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2254b190-34df-476b-81c2-da59a9acb3fc/retrieve","id":"-1142326387"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ff282bc-7b87-4642-9bbb-34c9e80bb730","pagecount":"2","content":"In the media dominated world of today, the different types of mass media play a key role in informing the public, influencing public opinion and in setting public agendas. By recognising this reality, those working for education for sustainable development (ESD) can find ways to strategically engage the media as a powerful tool and multiplier. 2 Both traditional and emerging new media are playing pivotal roles in the evolution of society. An engaged and active media has already begun to shape public policy and is acting as an agent of political and institutional change. By spreading information and increasing access to information, the media educates, empowers and enables people to participate in debates and decisions that affect their lives -an essential requirement for sustainable development. Communication tools not only inform public about impending weather and climate related events, but also serve as a channel between various departments working on the problem and the common man, who needs to be upgraded regarding the threats and responses (Mishra, 2010).The media is the link between the common man and technical information about the risk and the hazards. Improving the linkages between the media and disaster-mitigation researchers and practitioners could prepare the public to act promptly on warnings, helping to mitigate disasters. This could also accelerate the shift of the societal emphasis from post-disaster relief toward pre-disaster initiatives.Modern means of telecommunication and information like the Internet, Internet via mobile phones (VPN), SMS messages and warnings must form part of the strategy to improve these linkages. For instance, when thousands of people are overloading analog phone lines to reach other parties, text messages and other SMS and IMS formats make it easily through. In the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti, many citizens used these methods to contact family, reach relief centres and to just get the information out.The media have the definitive opportunity to play in leading the transition from post-disaster relief and toward preparedness and disaster mitigation. However, to effectively play this role, Journalists need to be trained regularly on disaster preparedness to enhance their understanding of the scope of the hazards and key disaster terms. There is need to develop a journalist disaster risks guide book besides holding workshops for them to make them more pro-active in reporting disaster issues. What some may find ironic about the linkages between media, disaster and agriculture is the fact that the United Nations General Assembly designated the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).Its basic objective was to reduce the loss of life, property destruction and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, droughts, locust infestations, and other disasters of natural origin. In fact, the theme for 1998 was \"Natural Disaster Prevention and the Media\", with the goal of enlisting the media as working partners in promoting natural disaster prevention measures. Many are the lessons that could have been learnt.The ability of media institutions to function, particularly broadcast and, now, online media, in the wake of a disaster can make the difference between life and death and the prospects for timely recovery. Important information is disseminated to citizens and ready access to the media ensures that stability is quickly restored.The role of radio stations in Grenada following Hurricane Ivan in 2004, the work of Belizean broadcasters in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 and the resilience of Radio Signal following the January 2010 earthquake in Haiti have all been recognized and applauded.A former senior producer at TVJ in Jamaica, noted after Hurricane Ernesto in 2006 that were it not for the intense disaster planning by the media, even journalists would have been caught off guard. As it were, when disaster struck, each reporter manned an assigned station and kept the populace abreast of all developments over several days. One of the island\"s telecommunications companies also managed to escape relatively unscathed, with nearly all of its broadcast towers standing. That, coupled with prudent management from the company, meant that news within the islandand to the outside world -experienced few significant disruptions.In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, chaos follows easily as telecommunications systems either suffer from congestion from frantic survivors or refugees or themselves become casualties of the events that would have occurred. In Haiti, more than 20 media workers were killed and many operating in Port au Prince lost family members, their homes and other material possessions that sustain their work as journalists. Media infrastructure was decimated and operations fatally terminated.But there is also an important role for mass media in the absence of disasters, especially as they relate to food production and agriculture and their role in post-event recovery. They play an important part in monitoring progress with moves to achieve food security and follow international developments as they affect global markets for indigenous agricultural products.The media plays an unrivalled role in communication for disaster prevention and management. Mass media have certain characteristics that make them advantageous for disaster communication. There is little or no direct control over the content and form of information transmitted. Today\"s journalists are more than a passive \"information channel\", they act as a gatekeepers, interpreters, and commentators. The strengths of the mass media lie partly in their independence from governments or other agencies and partly in their ability to attract large audiences which regard them as reasonably credible information sources.Media reporting can be crucial and can enable people to prepare for the disaster. Media, especially electronic media,  plays an important role in disseminating warnings and creating awareness, through general information about the of various categories of hazards, disasters and preparation tips, etc.;  can help create early warning systems by providing policy makers adequate information on risks which can be integrated into a management planning;  inform and educate on the various mitigation measures to help decrease the potential impact of disasters and minimize the loss of life and property;  Media should prepare guidelines for the media community for reporting so that people can remain alert and save or minimize disaster effectsDisaster management is a scientific and systematic approach. The media should become the centre stage of disaster and:  support relief and recovery, with particular emphasis on enabling local response capacities.  advocate for resource mobilisation from the non-affected local and international community for the affected areas;  provide key information to survivors to reduce panic, improve knowledge of relief centres, facilitate contact with relatives and friends, assist in finding missing persons, and to ensure two-way communication between assistance provider and the affected communities, among others.  act as watchdog and help guard against corruption in relief materials.","tokenCount":"1104"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"61f31b7349681889ba4242961916dbc2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a972c4e2-0e6a-4cdd-bdd7-589632e648e3/retrieve","id":"-498506574"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6743436e-f58e-4a7d-9d86-ca0ac25a3815","pagecount":"1","content":"h The Colombian Caribbean holds about 29% of the country' s cattle herd (ICA, 2024). h Regional cattle systems have low investment in land adaptation and are based on the monoculture of Bothriochloa pertusa (Colosuana grass). h These extensive practices affect productivity and quality, especially in periods of drought (Tapia-Coronado et al., 2019). h Supplementation with the legume Canavalia brasiliensis has potential to address this problem (Mojica-Rodríguez, 2017). h Trial: Dual-purpose system during the dry season in the municipality of San Diego, Cesar, Colombia. h Hypothesis: Improvements in productivity translate into greater economic benefit.Economically evaluate three sustainable production alternatives with supplementation of Canavalia brasiliensis and pasture improvement compared to a traditional Colosuana system.Diversifying cattle diets with legumes is an effective means of improving the incomes and reducing uncertainty of smallholder farmers.h Agronomic, animal response, and economic data collected by AGROSAVIA. h Cases: Traditional system and three scenarios with pasture improvement and supplementation with Canavalia brasiliensis at three inclusion levels (IL). h Discounted cash flow from 2022 to 2029, with the estimation of probabilistic profitability indicators for each scenario: Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR).Intensification: Animal stocking rate increases from 0.7 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) per ha to 1 TLU/ha and milk productivity from 2.7 to 4.9-5.3 l/cow/d.h All technologies are profitable (NPV>0 and IRR>6.9%).h Scenario with 1.5% supplementation is the most profitable. Note: The percentages of IL correspond to dry matter of the animal liveweight gain and the discount rate is 6.9% ","tokenCount":"246"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1989846049.json b/data/part_1/1989846049.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..26b45a8980287dc9d8e486c16691093ca998f776
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b2876c94605447ce45a4a85e3008be5c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48c1f00f-4a60-494a-98d0-fb0548b96e66/retrieve","id":"-2104969630"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1f5c018e-488a-43a4-bc1b-781ab735625f","pagecount":"16","content":"The production of these beans potentially boosts micronutrient consumptionproducing households adopted bio-fortified varietiesGlobetrotter Germplasm in Action: The genetic groups identified herein could be used to select unique accessions that should ideally conform with ex situ germplasm collections and identify areas where on-farm conservation programs should be targeted.The distribution of benefits from public international germplasm banks: the case of beans in Latin AmericaMost countries in Latin America were heavily dependent on imported genetic resources for their commercial cultivars.Over 70% of the value of increased bean production due to the use of improved varieties in LAC was attributed to imported germplasmFor ImpactInvesting wisely to end hunger and strengthen agriculture, with no region left behind: Latin America Latin America and the Caribbean economies began to slow down and stagnate during the 2008 economic crisis. This situation has been aggravated by the current health crisis, which is expected to set back regional development by almost ten years.Agriculture is one of the most relevant sectors for its potential to continue contributing to food security, poverty reduction, and resilience to counteract external shocks such as climate uncertainty or the current health crisis.Silvopastoral systems (SPS)production systems integrating trees, forages, and livestock within the same land area-are recognized as critical for reducing tropical deforestation and improving livelihoods, ecosystem services, and carbon sinks.Globally, there has been an explosion of data generation in agriculture. With such a deluge of data available, it has become essential to create solutions that organize, analyze, and visualize it to gain actionable insights, which can guide farmers, scientists, or policy makers to take better decisions that lead to transformative actions for agricultureBolivia has disseminated several improved technologies in the rice sector, but the average rice productivity in the country is far below the average trend in Latin America in recent years.There is a need to better target resource-poor farmers, improve information-diffusion channels on agricultural practices, and better use existing farmers' organizations to enhance rice technology adoption. ","tokenCount":"321"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1994472932.json b/data/part_1/1994472932.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..98db42a1e5067bc9e7956fbd0d116e3d779e2e61
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"66ce05e3d9071e7a5bc922282afa812a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/67f3cf73-928b-4c33-a10a-21a0f57ff63c/retrieve","id":"872813435"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d38aff7a-dd9b-45f3-ad4f-d46c4a57374a","pagecount":"23","content":"This work was carried out under the CGIAR Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa, which is grateful for the support of CGIAR Trust Fund contributors (www.cgiar.org/funders).The Ukama Ustawi Initiative WP5 (Empower & Engage) facilitated a GenderUp workshop in collaboration with Wageningen University in Harare, Zimbabwe at the Monomotapa Hotel on 8 th August 2023. The workshop was a follow-up to the WP1 innovation scaling readiness workshop on Mechanized Conservation Agriculture that took place in June 2023. The workshop brought together the Ukama Ustawi WP1 team (on mechanized CA) and stakeholders engaged in Conservation Agriculture (CA) from the Ministry of Agriculture, FAO, USAID, Community Technology Development Trust, researchers, and Canadian Food Grains Bank/ Tearfund in Zimbabwe to scale the use of mechanized CA from a gender lens. Presentations covered mechanized CA under WP1 by Dr Blessing Mhlanga from CIMMYT and from WP5 on gender and social inclusion by Dr Everisto Mapedza (IWMI). Dr Ojong Enokenwa Baa from WP5 (IWMI) facilitated the GenderUp session. The GenderUp training had the following objectives:1. To facilitate a GenderUp process to design responsible gender scaling strategies for mechanized CA innovation packages in Zimbabwe 2. To provide scaling partners and stakeholders with a conversational method for designing responsible scaling strategies in a particular context where they operate using the GenderUp strategy. 3. Support project/entrepreneur teams who want to scale the use of mechanized conservation agriculture (innovation) in a socially inclusive way and who want to prevent undesirable outcomes. 4. To facilitate a GenderUp process to design responsible gender scaling strategies for mechanized CA innovation packages in Zimbabwe, to support stakeholder scale innovation in a gender and socially inclusive way for diverse groups of people in agriculture and food systems.With about 17 participants, through an interactive process, the sessions supported users in identifying gender and other relevant diversity among innovation users and improving the scaling strategy by optimizing the inclusion of relevant social groups and anticipating unintended negative consequences for different social groups. Table 1 consists of pre-survey key highlights (responded to by 14 participants) stating their expectations from the workshop.Table 1: Pre-survey key highlights Questions Responses Which socially marginalized groups do you believe are restricted from accessing and/or utilizing your innovations in some way?Women, low-income groups, single heads of households, youth/elderly, groups with disability, migratory groups, remote/hard-to-reach groups, and religious minority groups.Please list any complementary innovations you believe are necessary for your innovation to have an impact at scale (i.e., mobile phone access, agricultural extension support, specific policies, etc.). The majority noted at the national level, while only one indicated at the regional level and none at the local level.How familiar are you with the idea of \"complementary innovations\" (innovations that enable the core innovation to have an impact at scale)? Some participants indicated they were aware of complimentary innovations but did not know how to scale them in a gender-responsible way.More than half are familiar with scaling innovations and place some priority on scaling up innovations Is your project team currently collecting genderdisaggregated data? Indicated by more than 80% of those who responded.Noted as relevant by at least 60% of the respondents.Group discussions were based on 4 main stages as outlined in the GenderUp process and the participants split into three working groups. The discussions centered around the four stages which are: i) defining the innovation scaling innovation, ii) discussing relevant dimensions of diversity, talking through iii) implications for intersectionality, and iv) mitigating consequences and embracing opportunities.The following factors were considered for effective scaling:1. Anticipating Long-Term Negative Consequences: Considering the potential negative outcomes, both immediate and long-term, resulting from its adoption.2. Identifying Relevant Diversity: By understanding which aspects of the farmer's life are vital to their farming activity, we can design better solutions to benefit them.3. Considering Socially Differentiated Effects: By considering the social diversity of communities and individuals, we can develop and distribute equitable innovations.Trade-offs Associated with Scaling: Scaling any innovation involves trade-offs, which should be identified and anticipated in advance to reduce the risks to farmers and farming communities.Innovation -novel practices, products, services, models, and institutional arrangements that have a social and/or economic use in society.Scaling -reaching a larger number of beneficiaries; expanding and/or deepening impact and thereby contributing to development.Stage 1 focused on considering gender and social diversity in scaling, because women and other marginalized farmers are unlikely to reap the benefits of agriculture innovation compared to men farmers due to their different social experiences (see Figure 1). Agricultural innovations were highlighted as a positive way to transform gender relations when gender is considered in the scaling process. Which, if ignored, gender and social diversity can exacerbate inequity. Stage 1 required teams/groups 1 to discuss one to three technologies/innovations each that they could identify as important for scaling. For Group 1, their innovation technology focused on Peanut Butter making machine and Chopper Grinder/Hay Baler, Group 2 focused on Ripper and Basin Digger, and Group 3 focused on two-wheel tractor and Multi-crop thresher (Table 2 and Table 3) • Manual labor and animal traction (agricultural + processing).Nationally (also regionally and in communities)Set up service providers in communities across the country so that nationally many farmers can access mechanization services. • District councils and authorities.• Government, and private sector (mealie brand, kurima)• Donors• Income through value addition.• Well-being and standard of living.• Employment creation.• Nutrition food security, and dietary diversity. • Agricultural practices.• Production and productivity.• Save on labor.• Improvement of livelihoods • Environmental conservation• Their problems such as Labour shortage + reduced drudgery will be solved.• All (women, men, and youth) Dimensions of diversity refer to gender, wealth status, literacy level, indigeneity, land ownership, marital status, family size, religion, and other aspects of social status or norms that have implications on who does not benefit from the scaling of innovation.The session highlighted that each dimension of diversity corresponds with certain groups, for example:• Wealth: being rich or poor • Age: being young or old • Gender: being a woman or a man • Equipment: owning or renting For stage 2, participants explored ways to make use of their relevant innovation and think of the individual consequences of using such technology(ies) as well as the community benefits or consequences that come with the use of the mechanized CA technology.During the session, stage 2 was used to explore relevant diversity and to also look at how different social dimensions can affect access to benefits from the use of technology., Groups were required to indicate why the social dimension is important and how gender impacts each identified diversity dimension through questions that covered a range of thematic areas broken down into individual and community considerations. Table 4 indicates responses from three different innovation groups. Based on the mentioned resources and diversity dimensions, groups were required to discuss the individual and community benefits and consequences of using the innovation (Table 5).Those who have access and skills like mechanisms will become richer and those with cattle not so rich.Group 2• Gender Gender Yes, women and youths will be affected Lead to increased social risk for specific segment of people? Group 2• Gender Gender Yes, women and youths will lose livelihood.Yes, if you are single and you want to be a service provider working with men Lead to increased economic risks for specific segments of people? Group 2• Gender Gender Yes, women and youths because of loss of livelihoods will not be economically empowered Group 3• Wealth statusThe poor if they have to take out money to hire out some services Lead to decreased food security for specific segments of people? Group 2• Gender Gender Yes, women and youths because of loss of livelihoods they are unable to buy food Group 3• Occupation Occupation Those providing casual labours Pic: Showing participants in group discussionsStage 3 was aimed at helping participants understand the concept of relevant diversity dimensions and also identify focus groups or segments of people within these dimensions and how they intersect with gender. Each innovation group had to consider three main dimensions when responding to questions.This workshop highlighted the importance of intersectionality and the way it impacts users' access to innovations (Table 6). Women were classified as a non-homogeneous group that experiences things differently based on other dimensions of their identities such as class, age, race, religion, and region. • The poor will not be able to buy or hire services.• Targeted beneficiary for a certain innovation diversify into other things.• • Risk of losing more money from the investment.• To be forgotten In this stage, the groups had to revisit their scaling strategy and look at the most important practicing strategies to mitigate unintended consequences (see Figure 2) Their mitigation strategies had to identify complementary innovation to create more enabling conditions for the use of the innovation. Table 7 indicates responses from the three groups on what needs to be changed, new partnerships to be created, and the communication strategies needed to avoid unintended consequences. Participants at the end of the session responded to the post-survey that was presented to them to assess their expectations at the beginning of the workshop. The following responses were recorded as summarized below.1. Continuing to collect gender-disaggregated data was seen as important by all except for one respondent. 2. Familiar with scaling innovations was indicated as now being very familiar by most of the participants. 3. Gender and socially marginalized groups were noted as quite relevant groups by over 80% of the respondents. 4. Complementary innovations mentioned as necessary to have an impact: innovations in banking, extension services, gender policy, policy on inclusivity, agricultural extension support, and communication. 5. Scaling innovation for impact at the local, national, or regional level: Many participants moved from regional to scaling and the national and local levels. 6. Knowledge gained from the training: wider understanding of the role of gender in programming, skills on gender inclusion, including all social groups in programs, now know that there are a lot of things that attention is not paid to which have a bearing on the intended outcome (need holistic approach), to look at gender taking into account all categories, the need to look at the beneficiaries' perspective more, skills on how to be more gender-sensitive, learned that innovation can have both positive and negative outcomes, ability to now revisit stakeholders and have awareness meeting with them. 7. What they liked about the GenderUp training method: it is inclusive and allows for wider consideration in programming, active participation by all, identifying innovations and how to overcome risks/advantages associated with the innovation, learning about the concept of intersectionality, group involvement, the step-by-step analysis of each stage for the tool, made use of participants knowledge, identifying categories and associated people to benefit from innovations, 8. What they did not like: The definition of gender is broad, it enables one to realign objectives to meet the needs of all people in the communities, it is a simple tool but very inclusive, and it has put a lot of pressure on the resources available now that we understand the GenderUp process, the workshop was a bit long for a day (maybe 2-3 days)","tokenCount":"1843"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/1996441771.json b/data/part_1/1996441771.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..fc1de6bbecafde759446a6a70ffbac4cda3cd607
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"02564e4ceac60c842200b001a2258c66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8396f498-06d0-4594-8e6b-da26bd2900a3/retrieve","id":"587876685"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5bd5502c-5723-4b67-941e-0f67ecfa7a64","pagecount":"10","content":"A coherent set of planned activities for achieving speci c goals in a de ned period in a speci c space. An intervention is a general name of a project. Although most interventions are projects, there are other types of interventions such as programs, a speci c combination of projects for achieving higher-level objectives, and initiatives that refer to a set of planned activities usually without clear speci cation of goals and period. Scaling Readiness can be used for multiple types of interventions, e.g. projects, programs, policy interventions.In Scaling Readiness two different Innovation Readiness metrics are used for addressing two different management questions. The rst one is the Average Innovation Readiness Level. It refers to the average Readiness of all the novel components of the innovation. The Average Innovation Readiness Level aims to give an overall idea about the functioning of the innovation without considering the interdependencies among the components. The second Innovation Readiness metric is the Innovation Readiness Score. The Innovation Readiness Score is the minimum of the Innovation Readiness Levels of all the novel components. It aims to present the overall functioning of the innovation taking into account the dependencies of the components for the proper functioning of the innovation. Depending on the preference of the innovation managers, either or both of the metrics can be used.It is a metric indicating how mature or effective an innovation is to achieve its use objectives. It can be considered as a systematic answer to the question \"how good an innovation functions.\" It can be between 0, which indicates that the innovation is just an idea in the mind of its potential designers and developers, and 9, suggesting that the innovation is a proven innovation with clear evidence of its value measured in terms of livelihood impact, pro t, etc. Research and development projects increase the Innovation Readiness Levels by improving the design of the innovations, developing and validating the improved designs in uncontrolled and controlled conditions.Knowledge, technology, a concept, practice, etc. that constitutes a part of innovations. Innovations have many components. Some of them are novel and play critical roles in the functioning and use of the innovation in the contexts the intervention operates for achieving speci c intervention goals. They can be standalone innovations for other contexts and goals but for the speci c goals and contexts an intervention operates they work as a part of a larger innovation. In Scaling Readiness, these novel components of innovations are identi ed, characterized, and diagnosed. Measures in Scaling Readiness are calculated using evidence. Speci c claims of Readiness and Use measures are assessed through a hierarchy of sources of veri cation. High-quality science articles and other peer-reviewed documents are the rst sources. In their absence, technical documents or other publicly scrutinized documents are used to back up speci c evidence claims. In the lack of any documents, multiple experts' opinions proven to have su cient competencies are triangulated to identify the measures.A component or subset of components of an innovation that perform worse and are used by fewer users than the other components of the innovation. In Scaling Readiness, the bottleneck components of an innovation are used to prioritize the activities of a research for development intervention to achieve maximum impact at scale with minimum cost and resource use. Bottleneck components are not universal and depend on a speci c time, space and for speci c goals.Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems  Readiness of the novel components vary between 3 and 9. These imply that the Innovation Readiness Score, which is based on the lowest-scoring component used for identifying the bottleneck component is 3. Meanwhile the Average Innovation Readiness Score, which is used for comparing the innovation with its previous status as well as with other innovations, is 6.3.In other words, the major bottleneck(s) for Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems in Ethiopia for Improving the effectiveness and e ciency of agricultural knowledge management systems, Increasing the use of evidence-based management decisions in the agriculture and food sectors, Improving productivity and pro tability of crop production is :data sharing bene ts for farmers.Please note that the bottlenecks are identi ed using available evidence sources such as journal articles, book chapters, rigorous technical reports and in their absence other complementary research and research communication items. In some cases, an advanced novel component can be assessed as a bottleneck if there is no available evidence about its Readiness. This can be the case especially in innovation components that are designed, or developed recently. If this is the case, the use cases are recommended to invest resources in publishing and disseminating the evidence. Once the dissemination is done, the Readiness scores will be updated.Option 1: Substitute -nd alternative solutions that can serve the same purpose as data sharing bene ts for farmers data sharing bene ts for farmers monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them. If there are any available su ciently performing alternatives that can monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them, it is recommended to replace data sharing bene ts for farmers with the most suitable alternative Option 2: Outsource -establish a partnership with organizations that can develop and validate data sharing bene ts for farmers more effectively, e ciently and locally Option 3: Insource -further design, develop data sharing bene ts for farmers using the human resources of the use case team.data sharing bene ts for farmers is at the level of application (unproven). For it to move to the next level, it is necessary to synthesize, document and disclose the available conceptual evidence on data sharing bene ts for farmers. If there are local or national organizations or teams with su cient experience and capabilities to synthesize, document and disclose the available conceptual evidence on data sharing bene ts for farmers it is recommended to outsource the work on data sharing bene ts for farmers. If there are no such local and national organizations and teams, but there are international organizations that can do the work effectively and e ciently, they can be the second outsourcing option.Please note that working with existing partners is not necessarily an advantage. Although, working with local organizations that EiA Ethiopia Wheat team has long term collaborations can improve the ownership of fully developed Climate-Sensitive Multi-Scale Agronomy Decision Support Approach for Wheat Production Systems in the future, it might hinder the (further) development of data sharing bene ts for farmers signi cantly. Therefore, it is recommended to have an honest conversation with existing long term partners about the development needs and validate if their experience and capabilities match these needs. If they do not match, it is recommended to offer the long term partners to co-manage the collaboration with other development partners that will be leading the outsourced work.if the substitution and outsourcing options have a low likelihood to monitor the overall bene ts generated by using the data coming from the farmers and transfer a share commercial bene t back to them, it is recommended to (further) develop it using the internal human resources of EiA Ethiopia Wheat.data sharing bene ts for farmersMain mandate and contribution of research for development organizations like CGIAR is to develop scalable solutions, or innovations, that can achieve high impact at scale. However, not all scalable solutions are suitable for the CGIAR system. Innovations can be produced by repetitive trial and error or can be discovered and developed by coincidence. The key niche and contribution of CGIAR are sciencebased innovations.What makes science-based innovations different from the others is the systematic documentation of how they work and the availability of the information for public scrutiny. Therefore, it is important for EiA Ethiopia Wheat use case to prove the Readiness of their innovations by systematically documenting the performance of the innovation and disclosing the information to the public. This will not only increase the scienti c credibility and reputation of the use case but also increase its attractivity for investments. ","tokenCount":"1361"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ec60845cae7f0e71654bbc7ae860fdd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ccd4ce77-3132-40f6-819b-79910f244057/retrieve","id":"-86055536"},"keywords":["Food and agriculture policies","informal sector","livelihoods","certification","training"],"sieverID":"ed9321a5-7025-4691-9115-e44080255e8a","pagecount":"4","content":"Government players need to better understand food systems: food sold in the informal sector is not necessarily risky and food in the formal sector is not necessarily safe.The tendency to ratchet up regulations and solve problems by increasing bureaucracy places a burden on industry and is often ineffective. A lighttouch approach can be more effective than heavy-handed inspectand-punish interventions.Working with actors from the informal sector towards inclusive formalisation will deliver multiple wins for everyone involved. But to ensure sustainability of new approaches, a government must buy-in and make a long-term commitment to invest the necessary resources and manpower.Policymakers need to withstand pressure from vested interests, such as strong corporate power, which can work against more progressive, effective and inclusive policies.When five per cent of milk fails to meet standards, you have a problem with milk. When 50 per cent does not meet standards, you have a problem with standards. In developing countries, perishable food is mostly sold in informal markets and often does not meet national food safety standards. Government regulation in informal markets has not improved food safety in the past and formalisation does not guarantee safe food. New approaches, based on gradual improvements and an inclusive path to formalisation, show greater promise. A scheme to train and legitimise dairy traders in Kenya has revealed benefits for public health, farmers, vendors and consumers. But governments must withstand pressure from vested interests and show genuine commitment to supporting progressive, effective and inclusive policies if these are to be successful.In Kenya, milk offers significant nutritional value to poor consumers at prices they can afford, and the country's per capita consumption of milk is among the highest in Africa. 1 Despite campaigns to promote the consumption of packaged, pasteurised milk from the formal sector, raw milk remains most popular; it is cheaper, has a higher fat content, is widely accessible and comes in variable quantities to suit every consumer's purchasing power. 2 Such high demand makes dairy an attractive business.As in most developing economies, Kenya's informal markets are significant in size and essential for food security. The informal dairy sector makes a huge contribution to Kenya's national economy and generates 70 per cent of the 40,000 jobs in dairy marketing and processing. 3 In spite of the government's efforts to develop formal dairy processing and packaging, small-scale informal dairy markets continue to dominate. 4,5 Less than 14 per cent of Kenya's milk reaches the formal (meaning, pasteurised milk) sector: the rest is sold by unorganised, small-scale businesses in informal markets or consumed directly at home. 4,5 For example our research finds that, in one of Nairobi's seven districts, around 100,000 households (and 1,000 dairy farms) are linked to 350 informal sector vendors, who estimate that they supply 20 per cent of the market for raw milk. Door-to-door vendors sell the remaining 80 per cent. This is neither unusual nor surprising: due to high operating costs, formal actors offer a lower price to farmers and a higher price to consumers and find it difficult to capture large shares of the market. 6 The picture is similar elsewhere: informal dairy markets dominate in Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and many other developing countries such as India, the world's largest dairy producer. 7There is a misperception that milk sold in the informal sector is more of a health hazard than pasteurised milk in the formal sector. But food in the informal sector is not necessarily unsafe, just as food in the formal sector is not necessarily safe. 8 In Kenya, packaged milk in supermarkets was found to be no better at meeting food safety standards than raw milk sold from kiosks or door-to-door. 9It is also important to consider the difference between hazard and risk when thinking about food safety. The milk in Kenya's informal and formal sectors often does not meet microbial standards, posing a hazard. But because it is boiled or consumed quickly, the risk of disease for consumers is low. 10 Previous attempts to improve food safety through regulation and inspection have been unsuccessful. 11 Although most milk in Kenya does not meet food safety standards, destroying informal milk and banning or criminalising vendors on the basis on poor food safety could have negative implications for health and nutrition, particularly in children.With the sheer number of informal small operators in the Kenyan dairy market, it is almost impossible to monitor and regulate the industry using existing approaches and mechanisms. Large operators and interest groups who have a vested interest in formalising markets will also try to influence regulation in their own favour. Policymakers need to withstand pressure from these vested interests, which can work against more progressive, effective and inclusive policies.After a minor revision of Kenya's dairy policy in 2004, the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB), which regulates the sector, was able to offer small-scale milk vendors a facilitated route to licensing through their training and certification (T&C) scheme. KDB worked with SITE, a local nongovernmental organisation, to launch the scheme at a number of pilot sites in 2006 with support from an international donor (DFID).The T&C approach aims for progressive registration and formalisation of informal businesses, while upgrading traders' milk handling practices to address safety concerns. Under the scheme, accredited business development service providers (BDS) offer training on hygienic milk handling, quality control and entrepreneurship. With low fees that the traders can pay themselves, the T&C scheme was designed to be affordable and sustainable, and not reliant on donor funding. The training is short to avoid loss of earnings, and tailored to vendors' realities, providing guidance on milk safety practices that they have the power to change.There are clear financial incentives for both training providers and traders to engage. Trainees gain a certificate that facilitates access to a KDB licence, which is needed to legally sell raw milk. The training stresses how improvements in handling and hygiene will increase business while also reducing milk loss and transaction costs. It also emphasises the link between safer and higher quality milk and higher returns. Trainers are paid for the guidance they provide and are accredited by KDB, offering them a competitive advantage relative to other service providers in the country.A forthcoming ILRI and IIED study found satisfaction among traders who engaged in the T&C scheme and demand for a similar scheme among untrained traders. Respondents said that the benefits of participating in the scheme included reduced loss, improved incomes, better business, lower transaction costs and higher quality milk.Through conversations with the traders, the research found that the training had improved their milk handling and preservation skills, and they were better able to judge the quality of milk from suppliers, leading to less wastage and spoilage. Traders reported improved incomes from commercialising value-added products, such as quality yoghurt and fermented milk, and lower transaction costs as a result of being conformant with the law. Their businesses had improved, as they had more satisfied and loyal customers, ensuring a more regular income. The study also found that quality demands are being pushed down the supply chain, with consumers and milk sellers in a position to choose and demand higher-quality milk from producers.The scheme's challenges and shortcomingsAlthough the scheme has had some positive impacts, it has also faced a number of challenges. Despite a clear demand for training, preliminary results from ILRI and IIED's forthcoming research suggest that the reach and uptake of the T&C scheme has been less than optimal. There are many reasons for this: a lack of resources and manpower within the KDB, pressure from the formal sector to not support the informal sector, the failure to change policy at national level, awareness levels, sub-optimal promotion of the scheme, and limited availability and accessibility of training.The traders' view. Although acquiring useful business skills is an attractive incentive, having a KDB licence also brings regular KDB inspections, which can act as a disincentive. It is also possible to get a licence without any training, so access to a licence is not always a good incentive to attend the training. Although service providers keep the costs of training low, they may still be unaffordable to many traders. This is a major challenge in terms of the scheme's future sustainability.The service providers' view. The main incentive for BDS to engage in the scheme and provide the training -payment for their training services -is challenged when other bodies offer similar services free of charge. Policymakers should encourage donors to engage with KDB to support the existing T&C scheme rather than duplicating efforts or implementing schemes that may not be sustainable in the long term.Regulator engagement. Both traders and trainers report that the KDB's participation and engagement in the scheme has been lower than originally designed. The KDB has lacked buy-in or commitment to the scheme at both national and local levels, although engagement has varied in different offices. The KDB is taking too long (up to four years) to issue licences to traders and give accreditation to BDS providers. This slows down the ability of BDS to provide training and weakens one of the possible incentives for both traders and BDS to engage in the scheme. The low number of traders being trained and therefore new licences meant the KDB did not see the economic returns they had anticipated, which perpetuated their lack of commitment and buy-in. Traders, having paid for and undertaken training, did not get the licence they were expecting and so there is no incentive to train. The scheme can only be a success with buy-in and commitment from government at all levels.Pressure from vested interests. The authorities are under increasing pressure from large processors in the formal dairy sector, who want to reduce competition and gain greater market access/coverage. As a result, policymakers are reluctant to support more inclusive, legitimising approaches to working with the informal sector. This could represent one of the greatest threats to the scheme's sustainability and long-term success.Bureaucracy. A KDB licence is only one of many requirements traders need to fulfil before they can freely commercialise milk. Traders are confused by which licenses they need and when they need to renew them and often fail to see any positive return from having so many licenses. The amount of red tape involved presents a significant burden for small-scale businesses to formalise and the need for multiple authorisations dilutes the importance of the KDB licence.Food safety is of significant concern to governments and consumers alike. But people, including policymakers, are not necessarily good judges of food safety, and may think the informal sector is riskier than it is. Informal markets are essential for food security and will be a feature of economies in many developing countries for a long time yet. Most poor people buy from them and most poor farmers sell through them.A heavy handed approach to formalisation will not work. Light-touch approaches that require minimal policy changes -such as voluntary training and certification schemes -can improve food safety and help the informal sector move along a pathway towards formalisation. Such approaches are more affordable and acceptable than trying to make radical, structural changes to the food sector.Training and certifying informal market traders in Kenya has had sustained benefits: helping the government to protect public health, supporting the livelihoods of producers and traders and increasing the availability of milk to nutritionally insecure households. But for the scheme to be sustainable, there needs to be long-term, genuine government commitment, stronger incentives for traders and BDS to participate and greater efforts to promote the scheme among traders and consumers. Policymakers should look holistically at the need for business licences and authorisations, simplifying the number and types of licenses vendors require to operate legally. Greater co-ordination between the relevant government authorities demanding the licences would also be beneficial.The Research played a key role in establishing the T&C scheme and evidence should be generated continuously on the risks and benefits of the informal sector and options for regulating it.The informal sector lacks a strong voice in policy discussions over the future of the milk sector.Strengthening milk traders associations could help bring their perspectives to the policy arena and help counter vested interests. NGOs also have an important role to play in advocating for disempowered stakeholders in the milk value chain, such as traders.Emma Blackmore, Silvia Alonso and Delia GraceEmma Blackmore is research associate at IIED. Delia Grace is programme leader, and Silvia Alonso, scientist, both of food safety and zoonoses at the International Livestock Research Institute. ","tokenCount":"2069"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"066911567540fa594c8f0e285fa5513c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1c32250e-0ddb-47ca-9b93-0440032ab52b/retrieve","id":"350856405"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9a0aa144-5ba0-4c79-9517-a360d0e5e1af","pagecount":"78","content":"for lower complaints made to suppliers when compared with the market vendors. Retailer-Client characteristics across market types showed more clients serviced by market vendors than neighbourhood vendors. However, clients received more services in terms of sorting, cleaning, discounts, and packaging in the neighbourhood. Again, while most of the neighborhood vendors transacted in their homes, market vendors used mainly roadside displays; with display items and cane baskets as the most important assets across the two market types. Labour use was low in both markets and neighborhood market vendors did not make use of hired labour. Neighbourhood vendors purchased inventory at a higher unit price than market vendors; an indication of poor economies of scale. Expectedly, revenue streams and cost of goods sold including business costs, inventory were higher in markets. Negative returns were witnessed across all market types, indicting non-profitable fruit and vegetable retailing enterprises.Using retailer sample from two market (180 retailers) and two neighborhood (87 retailers) locations, this Market Level Assessment (MLA) reveals overlaps and parallels in retailer characteristics, business modules as well as returns on investment. The MLA was carried out across four fruit and vegetable groups peculiar to the Nigerian environment namely Dark Green Leafy Vegetables (DGLV), Vitamin A Rich Fruits (VARF), Other Fruits (OF) and Other vegetables (OV).In the market locations (Ojoo and Moniya), fruits and vegetables vendors were mainly female, sole owners of the enterprises, with low labour requirement. The vendors sold mainly Dark Green Leafy Vegetables (DGLV) and Other Fruits (OF). Historical purchase and sales outlay were shown to have dwindled when compared to 5 years recall. A large proportion of the vendors sold products from individual farms; however, the main external suppliers seem to be from farmers and rural brokers, with varying transactional characteristics in the market vendor and supplier relationship. Record keeping and contractual agreements with suppliers were very low in the retailer-supplier characteristics, while about one-third of the retailers received sorted commodities from their suppliers. The main service provided by retailers to suppliers was mainly in terms of provision of transportation to their stalls. Retailers sold to an average of 1, 741 clients, however only 56 were regulars and mainly direct consumers and other traditional retailers. The main complaints from clients to retailers were related to colour and firmness of the products bought. Market retailers of fruits and vegetables in Nigeria have low valued assets and low technology, with many selling on the roadsides; and physical assets valued at N17, 914.55. Business costs reveals weekly variable costs of N1, 088.89, inventory cost of N5911.77 and revenue of N4964.85 for average sale of 858.77kg; returning a loss of N94.61/kg at .Neighbourhood retailers (Abaeja and Bagadaje) were mainly female vegetable (DGLV and OV) vendors, with average age of 46 years, and involved in other income generating activities. Similar to market vendors, the main supply was from farmers and wholesalers for an average of 45 suppliers within a year, with only 14 regulars. There was a very small proportion of neighbourhood vendors that kept supply record, or had a contractual agreement with suppliers; an indication of an informal market setting. The main clients were also direct consumers, and 44 regarded as regulars. While there was no vendor that kept record of sales, about a fifth of the sample had some form of contractual agreements with their clients, especially in proving services related to price and volume discounts. Business characteristics reveal that neighbourhood vendors were more likely to use a stall or a space within their dwelling residence for selling their commodities. With inventory cost of N4135.54, variable input cost of N516.49 and revenue of N2172.47 for average weekly sales of 89.6kg, a negative return of N132.25 per kg at the neighbourhood market.While there were some transactional and functional differences across retailers in main market and neighborhoods, the MLA revealed some similarities as well. Market vendors were able to provide more services to suppliers than neighbourhood vendors, while they also received more from suppliers. More Neighbourhood vendors also received sorted commodities, which may accountThe intake of fruit and vegetable has been reportedly low in developing countries like Nigeria. This is even more so for the low-income population all over the country for whom fruits, and vegetables may seem luxury goods. The Fruit and Vegetable (FVN) project in Nigeria is premised on increasing fruit and vegetable intake among this economic group through supply and demand side interventions. As part of the baseline data collection for the FVN project, a market level assessment (MLA) was conducted in order to provide contextual information on fruit and vegetable availability and accessibility in neighborhoods of interest. The MLA provides foundational information for a supply side intervention focused on increasing product assortment and improving quality of fruits and vegetables from the perspective of retailers. More specifically, the MLA explores spatial differences across fruit and vegetable retailers and retail markets in (Oyo State) in Nigeria; while also examining how product and market type disaggregation reveal important characteristics of the fruit and vegetable markets. This information would facilitate understanding of how retailing dimensions can help to reveal possible pathways to change fruit and vegetable intake in Nigeria.The FVN study was conducted in Abaeja and Bagadaje, two neighborhoods in Akinyele Local Government Area (LGA) in Ibadan, Oyo state. Ibadan is the capital city of Oyo state and is the third most populous city in Nigeria and largest in geographic area. Abaeja is the more central and urbanized neighborhood, while Bagadaje is more peripheral and can be described as peri urban. The neighbourhood aspects of the study took place in these two locales. There are two major markets where residents of these neighbourhoods shop, namely Ojoo and Moniya, and these were also surveyed in the study (See map in Figure 1). Ojoo market is frequented by residents of Abeaje while Moniya market serves the Bagadeje community. The MLA was conducted in four different phases• A Scoping phase conducted in June 2019 to provide information on the scale and scope of the market (see details in appendix 1)• A Retailers Census conducted in July 2019 to capture all vendors selling fruits and vegetables in focal neighborhoods and relevant markets at the time of the survey (appendix 2)• The main MLA Survey conducted in Aug/Sept 2019: and• MLA Measures/Weight conversion survey to convert all local measures to standard measures conducted in Sept/Oct 2019 (appendix 3).The discussion that follows is focused on the main MLA survey (see appendix 4 for the survey questions).As earlier noted, the survey was carried out in 2 major fruits and vegetable markets in Oyo State, Nigeria. These are Ojoo(40%) and Moniya (60%) markets. The sample size was 180 retailers, drawn in a 2:3 proportion between Ojoo and Moniya (See figure 2). A parallel survey was carried out among neighborhood vendors as well with 66 percent of vendors in Abaeja and 33.7 percent in Bagadaje. The results of the MLA are discussed with respect to product categorization as well as market type. The main commodities sold were categorized into 4 viz: Dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV-51.67%), Vitamin A Rich Fruits (VARF-36.67%), Other Fruits(OF-43.33%) and Other Vegetables (OV-33.33). The composition of each of these categorizations is presented in Figure 3. The socio-demographic and enterprise characteristics of the retailers are presented in this section. The results presented in Table 1 reveals that the average age of retailers was 48.2±13 years with female dominance (97%). Sole ownership was the norm, with 98% of the retailers reported as owners; and again, with low male representation in ownership (3.4%). Being mainly sole ownership, results show that 98% were self-funded, with female dominance. The average number of years of experience was ~11 years, with about 23% of the retailers producing their commodities as crops in the past year. Some retailers sold their commodities in other locations(41%) apart from the surveyed markets; and about half (49%) of the retailers had other businesses.Differences were observed across the vendors of the different categories of fruits and vegetables for some of these characteristics. DGLV retailers were the oldest in the group (50 years); while the youngest was among the OV retailers (45.7 years). Male and female distribution was similar across the groups. Among those who produced their own commodities, vegetable farmers topped the list at 29%(37%-DGLV; and 18%-OV), while 17% of the fruit retailers cropped own commodities (14%-VARF and 15%-OF). Retailers of DGLV again seem to be more diversified with about 57% of them involved in other forms of businesses, while 48% of VARF and 46% each of OF and OV retailers were involved in other businesses.  In this section, we present the functioning of the retailers of fruits and vegetables in the study areas. These include general transactional characteristics of the retailers, as well as historical records of purchase and sales of commodities. The results are presented in Table 2.Our results also revealed that almost 93% of the retailers who cropped the produce actually sell them. Of the vendors who sell their own products, 87.5% and 97.4% were fruit and vegetable vendors respectively; with 100% of the DGLV and VARF selling their own farm produce, while 83% and 92% of OF and OV vendors sell their own farm produce.Weekly volume of commodity purchased in high and low seasons also reveals interesting estimates over time(  Fruits and Vegetable retailers in this study purchased their commodities from a variety of suppliers. The characteristics of this relationship are presented in Table 3; showing types of suppliers, number of suppliers, quantity purchased and price, transaction characteristics, service provided by suppliers as well as complaints from the retailers to the suppliers.The current volume purchased (at the time of this survey) on the average was 280.85kg at N74.98/kg. Fruit vendors purchased a higher volume at 365.55kg, compared to vegetable sellers at 238.44kg. Specifically, VARF and OF vendors purchased 409.75kg and 385.21kg, respectively; higher than DGLV (236.71kg) and OV (273.05kg),respectively.The results show that 92.7% of retailers who were involved in farm production sold their own produce (n=41). However, apart from those who sold from their own products, the main supply source of the retailers was directly from farmers (73%), followed by wholesalers (20.6%). Others include rural brokers (11%),importers (1%) and agribusiness (<1%).In addition to sourcing from other suppliers, DGLV and VARF vendors sold all the fruits and vegetable commodities produced on their own farms. Commodities supplied directly from farmers as well as rural brokers were higher with fruit vendors (81% and 13.5%) than vegetable vendors (72% and 7.6%), respectively. Wholesalers supplied more of vegetable vendors (24%), while fruit vendors were a little more likely to get supplies from agribusinesses and importers (1.04%), than vegetable vendors (0.8%).On the average, the retailers had 47 suppliers in the year, with 13 being regular suppliers. In general, fruit vendors had 60 suppliers with 16 of them regarded as regular. VARF and OF vendors averaged the same Transactional Characteristics in Retailer-Supplier Relationship Transactional characteristics explored in this survey includes purchase of sorted commodities, contract agreements and record keeping. These characteristics place premium on the products purchased and sold by the vendors on the one hand and helps to keep track of retail activities on the other. Only 31% of the retailers purchased sorted products from their suppliers; with the lower representation among vegetable retailers (29%). Within the \"All fruit\" retailer sample, about 34% bought sorted products.Whereas record keeping is important in agricultural supply chains (Kahan, 2013), the results show inadequacy among all retailers with respect to record keeping in their business activities. On average, ~2% of all retailers kept records of business transactions with their suppliers. In the disaggregation, at least 2% of fruit retailers kept records while less than 1% of vegetable sellers did the same. This reveals a high level of informality in transactions among agricultural retailers, and is also indicative of low levels of literacy in the sector.Contract agreements have been reported as key to maintaining inventory supplies in agricultural marketing (Naik and Suresh, 2018). In this MLA survey, we found that just about 14.5% of all retailers had an agreement with their suppliers. Vegetable farmers were found to be in higher representation in this category (~19%), while 12% of fruit retailers responded to having an agreement (see Figure 4). This again shows a high level of informality within the marketing node of the fruit and vegetable value chain in Nigeria. The consequences may be irregularity in supply, inconsistent standards as well as reduced capacity to cope with supply shocks in the market. Over half (53%) of the retailers did not provide any service to their suppliers (Table 3). However, 27% provided their own transport, 11% gave money advance and 3% had other transportation arrangements with the suppliers. Approximately 2% of the retailers provided inputs and harvest, respectively as services to their suppliers.At least 62% of fruit retailers and 46% of vegetable retailers did not provide any service to the suppliers. Overall, vegetable retailers provide more services to suppliers than fruit retailers. The service with the highest proportion of retailers involved was provision of own transport, which was distributed as 28%, 20%, 1% and 26% across DGLV, VARF, OF and OV retailers. Also, ~14% of DGLV and OV retailers provided advance payments to suppliers, while about 11% and 9% of OF and OV retailers did same.In general, 65% of the suppliers did not provide any form of service to the retailers in their business dealings.Of those who provided a service, the most reported was packaging of produce, received by ~19% of the retailers, this is followed by 17% who got delivery of produce to their stalls, and 11% who received produce on credit. Only about 3% of the suppliers sorted the produce for the retailers and less than 1% cleaned the produce supplied. Specifically, more vegetable retailers received delivery at their stalls (18%), credit sales (12%) and packaging (22%). Sorting seems to be the most important service from the point of view of the fruit retailers (~4%).in the survey, up to 38% of the retailers complained about produce quality to their suppliers. The complaints ranged from dirty products, unacceptable colour, variety and firmness, as well as lack of a proper volume measure, rottenness and bruising of the products (see Figure 4). Rottenness was the modal complaint made by the retailers (12.8%), and this was reported by 15.6% and 11.4% of fruit and vegetable retailers respectively. This was followed by lack of firmness (8.3%) reported by 9.4% and 7.6% of fruit and vegetable retailers respectively. The relationship between retailers and buyers of fruits and vegetables is presented in this section (Table 4, Figure 5).The result in The results, as shown in Table 4 reveals five (5) main buyers of fruits and vegetables viz, Direct consumers (75.6%), traditional retailers (28.3%), street/sidewalk caterers/restaurants (18.9%), ambulant street vendors /hawkers (14.4%) and neighbourhood supermarkets (<1%). Fruit retailers as a group sold more to direct consumers than vegetable retailers (72%). However, vegetable retailers sold more to traditional retailers and street caterers (34% and 23.5%) than fruit sellers (28% and 18.9%) .In relation to the buyers, an average of 1, 741 buyers interacted with the retailers in the past year with fruit and vegetable sellers reporting sales to 2417 and 1329 clients respectively. However, only 3% of the average number of customers (~56) were regular buyers, distributed as 56, 74, 78, 53 across DGLV, VARF, OF and OV retailers, respectively.Transactional characteristics with buyers reveal that only 35% of the retailers sell sorted products, and fruit retailers top the group at 41%; while only 33% of vegetable retailers reported sorting their produce before sales. This translates down the product category where that 42% and 41% of VARF and OF retailers sorted their products and 32% and 35% of DGLV and OV retailers sorted their products.Again, there was low level of record keeping among the retailers with respect to transaction with their buyers as results revealed that only 3.3% of the retailers had record of sales with the highest across vegetable retailers (4.3% for DGLV and OV retailers, respectively). Only about 2% of VARF and OF retailers kept records of sales.Considering the low proportion of regular buyers, it is not unexpected that only about 13% have a contract with their clients. The proportion of fruit and vegetable retailers that had agreements with their clients was 14% (14% and 12% with VARF and OF retailers)and 15% (20% and 8% for DGLV and OV retailers), respectively. In general, over half (59%) of the retailers did not provide any service other than selling to the buyers (see Figure 5). However, services provided by others include price discount (36%); volume discount (37%), sales on credit (10%), packaging (20%) and some form of special sorting (5%).While price discounts and credit sales were more common among vegetable retailers (39.4% and 12%, respectively), volume discount and special sorting was more usual among fruit retailers (39.6% and 5%, respectively). Approximately 18% of both fruits and vegetable retailers were involved in packaging.The proportion of retailers who received complaints about the fruits and vegetables sold to the buyers was only 15% (table 4). This may not be surprising given the low percentage of regular buyers of the total average of 1741 buyers in a year. The main complaints received from the buyers were related to colour (9%), firmness (7%), rottenness (6%) and size (4%). Others were connected to bruising (3%), variety and dirtiness (1%, respectively). The most common quality complaints among fruit retailers were related to size(4%), firmness (7%) and rottenness (7%). Vegetable retailers on the other hand received complaints more in the aspects of dirtiness(1.5%), unacceptable variety (1.5%), Colour (11.4%) and bruising (4.6%) when compared to the fruit retailers.In this section, we explore the physical and enterprise assets used by the retailers (Table 5). This include location and type of market space as well as display items, vehicles, lamps etc. The average value of these assets is also presented.Majority of the retailers (~66%) were located on the roadside for their marketing activities, while 25% used a permanent table not on the roadside. Only 7% of the retailers had stalls/shops within the market. Less than 2% of the retailers sold from their home premises while about 1% were hawkers and wheelbarrow pushers, respectively. Fruit sellers sold more in stall (8%) and on permanent tables (29%), whereas vegetable retailers were more likely to be found selling on roadsides (72%) and at home (2%).The most important assets owned by the retailers were display items as reported by ~93% of the respondents. This includes plates and bowls used to both as a means of display and measure. Display in cane baskets was reported by 76% of the retailers; and up to 46% had commercial umbrella to protect them and their wares from sun and rain. Also, about 79% had a bench/stool either for seating or for display. Ownership of a lamp was reported by only 32% of the retailers and a fuel generator was reported by less than 1% of the retailers. With regards to product storage, 62.5% had a store for their products, while no one had a refrigerator. In terms of mobility, only 2% had a motorcycle, and none reported having any other form of transportation, while 73% of the retailers had a phone.Specifically, more fruit retailers had cane baskets (90%), commercial umbrella (54%), wheelbarrows (6%)lamps, (38%), stores (63%) and benches (83%). On the other hand , more vegetable retailers reported display items (94%) and phones (82%). Generator was reported by only one fruit retailer, while more value adding assets such as refrigerators (for time value) and vehicles(place values) were not reported. This implies a low-level resource base for fruits and vegetable retailers in the study areas, with implications for the quality of commodities as well as profitability.The average total value of assets owned by the retailers in this survey was estimated at N17, 914.55. Using a straight-line depreciation method at 10%, a depreciation estimates of N1, 791/ annum is to be valued in the business outlay of the retailers. However, this may not be useful, since most of the assets are already classified as variable inputs in the retailers' outlay.  In this section, we report the indices that make up the business cycle of the retailers. This includes a description of labour use, variable inputs, business costs, volume sold, and revenue generated and profit. The results are presented in Table 6, Figure 6 and Figure 7.Findings reveal that labour use in fruits and vegetable markers in Nigeria is low. On average, retailers had one (1) daily worker employed in their enterprises, with about 2 family members working in the enterprises. These figures were confirmed across all product categories. However, DGLV retailers had approximately 3 family members working in the enterprise. This may suggest that some other family members were traders in their own rights as may be seen by about 36% of the retailers reporting other family members as traders.Costs of Goods sold, i. e business costs (Figure 6) were estimated as the addition of costs of variable inputs and inventory purchased. This helped to estimate how much the retailers spent in a week on their retailing enterprise.The other variable inputs estimated in this survey include electricity, fuel for generators, taxes, water, association fees, telephone, pest-control, and other miscellaneous expenses. The average weekly business costs on variable inputs including labour expenses was an average of N921.41. This is quite low and highlights once again the marginal livelihoods of most fruit and vegetable retailers. Fruit retailers had higher weekly business costs at N1, 088.89 (N1,118.26-VARF and N1,053.83-OF); while vegetable retailers have business, costs estimated at N762.79 (N808.93-DGLV and N761.69-OV). These findings show that business costs in vegetable retailing may be significantly lower than that of fruit retailing, with implications for market entry and profit maximization among low resource agricultural retailers.Inventory is a key input in calculating business cost. Total inventory purchased was estimated as 280kg at N74/kg, giving an inventory cost of N5911. 77. Inventory supply was higher for vegetable retailers (N 8.082.27) than fruit retailers (N 5, 725.1), mainly as a result of the unit price of vegetables being higher (N 85.75) than that of fruits (N 66.72).Overall weekly business cost was therefore estimated as N5, 878.82, disaggregated as N4,277.  7). Retailers were requested to estimate their weekly profit per KG of fruits/vegetables sold. The results (Table 6) revealed a reported profit of N1,200 per kg with fruits and vegetable retailers reporting N1,104.16 and N1,130.79, respectively. It is however interesting to note that the reported profit per KG was significantly higher than the estimated profit. Following from the estimated weekly business costs ad revenue, we estimate the weekly profit to fruit and vegetable retailing in the study. Our findings show a loss estimated of -N94/kg. It was unexpected that fruit retailers would have much higher losses (N116.93) than vegetable retailers (N82.89); when the higher business cost outlay is put into consideration. The least loss was witnessed among DGLV retailers (N52.8). A similar analysis was also conducted for fruit and vegetable retailers in the two focal neighborhoods. These tended to be smaller scattered standalone stalls along traffic routes or retailers selling out of their homes. The discussion in this section will closely follow the main market discussion for easy comparison.Among neighborhood vendors, vegetable retailers formed the bulk of the sampled respondents (94.2%), with DGLV and OV products making up 72% and ~70%, respectively(Figure 8). Fruit retailers made up 45% of the neighborhood retailers, disaggregated between VARF and OF as 22% and 41.9%, respectively. We found that the same pattern was followed across the two neighbourhoods with vegetable retailers being the majority. This may be an indication that vegetable consumption is higher than fruit consumption in the study area; A description of retailer socio-demographic characteristics across product categories is presented in Table 7.The average age of neighbourhood retailers was 45 years, with the oldest being in the OV categories at 46 years old. There was once again female dominance in the neighbourhood markets with ~99% female participation, and ownership. All neighbourhood retail enterprises are self-funded by retailers with at least 8 years of experience across product categories.Only about 14% of the retailers cropped their produce in the past year; while about 16% sold in other locations apart from the neighbourhood surveyed. A high proportion (73%) of the neighbourhood retailers reported having other sources of income; an indication that neighbourhood fruit and vegetable retailing may not provide enough revenue to serve as a sole source of income. About two-third of the retailers who cropped their produce sold from own production, with all VARF retailers selling from their farm produce and 57% of OF retailers doing the same. Overall, 57% of fruit and 67% of vegetable retailers who cropped their produce sold them. In comparing historical sales figures, the weekly volume purchased reduced significantly between the present period and the previous 5 years recall. Volume purchased 5 years ago was at least greater than present purchase by 80Kg during the high season. This pattern was similar across all product categories(see Figure 9), with the highest differences in inventory purchase when compared with 5 years ago among the DGLV retailers (220kg) and least among the VARF retailers(10kg). Minimum and maximum weekly sales presented in Figure 10, shows that fruit retailers had higher sales than vegetable retailers. Specifically, fruit retailers had the highest maximum weekly sales at 245kg(VARF-266KG and OF-222KG), while vegetable retailers averaged 209kg maximum sales per week (DGLV-231kg; OV-160kg). Minimum weekly sale was on the average estimated at 76kg for the pooled sample, with the vegetable retailers averaging 85kg and fruit retailers reporting 92kg. Differences in sales reported as maximum and minimum are dependent on business cycles, seasonality, and other demand/supply shifters. In this section, we explore major suppliers, services to and from suppliers, as well as inventory complaints.Current inventory purchased by neighbourhood retailers was estimated at 323.41kg at N75.96/kg, almost double the reported inventory purchased in high season (Table 9). This value reflects a high supply of fruits and vegetables in the markets. While vegetable retailers had estimated inventory purchase of 333.51kg at N76.71/KG; fruit retailers purchased 179.8kg at N55.93. Again, we see that the unit price of fruits is lower than that of vegetables in the market. This may be connected to the availability of high-volume vegetables (onion, red-bell peppers and garden eggs) during the period of this survey.Apart from supplies from own production, (Table 9), the main origin of supplies (see figure 11) for neighbourhood retailers was directly from farmers (86%), similar to that obtained with retailers in the main markets. Wholesalers serviced 45%, while rural brokers supplied 10% of the fruits and vegetables retailed in neighborhoods. All the neighbourhood fruit retailers received supplies directly from farmers, while more vegetable retailers (47%) received from wholesalers. This may reflect the fact that retailers (both in the main markets and neighbourhood markets) are able to obtain their better supplies in terms of quantity and prices from farmers and likely rural brokers. On average, the neighbourhood retailers had 45 suppliers; with DGLV retailers reporting the highest at 52; and the least being from OV retailers. However, regular suppliers were at best a third of the total number of suppliers ( 14), spread across DGLV, VARF, OF and OV as 16, 19, 14 and 13, respectively. In terms of best practices in business relationships, we examined retailers with respect to purchase of quality (sorted) inventory, contractual agreements and record keeping. The results (Table 9) showed a below average (~38%) response regarding purchase of sorted products. This seemed to be more relevant to fruit retailers (44%) than for vegetable retailers.Very few retailers had contractual agreements with their suppliers (3.5%), distributed as 2.5% and 2.6% for fruit and vegetable retailers, respectively. Also, only 3.5% of the neighbourhood retailers kept records of purchase with suppliers. Similar to the results obtained from retailers in the main market, this is further an indication of an informal commodity market, with retailers exhibiting low literacy levels.Neighbourhood retailers seemed to have too low volume of transactions to provide services to suppliers; with up to 65% not providing any services (Table 9). The main service provided were related to transportation (22%). Also, suppliers mainly did not provide services to the retailers (86%). The main services provided were in form of packaging (10%). The independent nature of the small volume neighborhood retailer made it impossible to take advantage of economies of scale, thus they were unable to either receive special services from their suppliers to provide such services to the suppliers in return.We see that quality complaints remained relatively low even for neighborhood vendors as reported by only 36% of the retailers. With less than 40 % retailers purchasing sorted products, it is not unsurprising that a similar proportion reported complaints While, this may suggest purchase of good quality products, it becomes imperative to review standardization and feedback mechanisms in fruits and vegetables markets in Nigeria.The main quality complaints were related to rotten products (11.6%); with up to 18% of fruit retailers and 12% of vegetable retailers reporting this. The next was related to firmness (4.7%), with equal proportion of reporting among fruits and vegetable sellers (5%). In this section, we examine the relationship between the fruits and vegetable retailers and their buyers(customers), including estimated volume of sales, main clients, services and quality complaints (Table 10).Average weekly sales of fruits and vegetables at the time of this survey was estimated at 89.6kg at N78.8. Fruit retailers had higher sales at 90kg; while vegetable retailers sold an average of 86.6kg.Fruits and vegetables in the neighborhoods are mainly sold directly to consumers(96%) with minimal sales to Ambulant vendors/hawkers (8%) and other traditional retailers (6%)-See Figure 13. The average number of clients served in the past year was estimated at 1256, with only about 44 of them regarded as regular clients. An indication of value addition and a more personal relationships with clients is seen among the neighbourhood retailers; with respect to sorting of products (Table 10). More than 50% of the retailers sorted their commodities before selling to clients. This was again more prevalent among fruit retailers (59%) than vegetable retailers (48%), similar to what was found among the retailers in the main markets.While none of the retailers in the neighbourhood markets kept records of sales, at least 13% had an agreement with the clients. These agreements have been reported as important in planning inventories and sales in order to maximize profits(Saraiya et al., 2013) in a supply chain system. Again, a large percentage of the retailers (~70%) did not provide any service beyond selling to their clients (Figure 14). However, among those who did, the most popular service provided was volume discount (41%) and price discounts (36%). The least service offered by the retailers was in the aspect of special sorting; another indication of low value addition in the agricultural commodity markets. Similar to findings in the markets, quality complaints in the neighborhood retailing systems received from clients was low (14%) (Table 10). The most important complaint seems to be related to firmness of the commodity (Figure 15); an indication of freshness. This again was especially relevant to the fruit retailers with 12.8% response to this issue. The most important complaints made to vegetable retailers was with respect to the colour of the vegetables (8.6%). Physical and productive assets in fruits and vegetable retailing in Neighbourhood markets are examined in this section. Specifically, results are presented on location of enterprise, types of assets and market values of these assets. The types of sales location for neighbourhood retailers were more limited than was obtained in the main markets (Figure 16). Location characteristics of fruits and vegetable retailers show that most neighbourhood retailers had some form of stall for their enterprise(40%), followed by those who used their home premises for their businesses (26%), while the use of permanent tables was found among 24% of the retailers. Fruit retailers were more likely to have stalls(~59%) than vegetable retailers (~40%); while selling in home premises was a higher likelihood for vegetable retailers (27%) than fruit retailers (20.5%).The most common assets owned (Table 11) by the retailers were display items (90.5%), benches/stools(80%), phones (75%) and can baskets (70%). Lamps and stores were owned by 54% and 52%, respectively. High valued assets such as refrigerator and means of transportation (Motorcycle) were reported by only 2.3% and 1.2% of the retailers. This again speaks to the preponderance of low-level resource, and low technology agricultural commodity marketing in Nigeria, with consequences for economies of scale, standardization, and opportunity for expansion.On average, these assets were valued at N11, 370 across fruit and vegetable retailers. Specifically, fruit retailers had higher assets value at  In this section, profitability of the retailers across product categories in neighbourhood fruit and vegetable retailing is examined, with emphasis on business costs, revenues, and estimated profitability of the system.The results show that neighborhood retailers did not use hired labour in their activities(Table 12), but as in main markets, relied more on family for retail support, as at least 2 family members worked in the retail business daily. This suggests that neighbourhood retailing is more of a home based, sole ownership business (recall that it is 100% owned by respondents-Table 7). About 26% of these retailers had family members who also traded in fruits and vegetables; with the least being among VARF retailers (7%) and the highest among DGLV (19%). This may imply that vegetable retailing is easier than fruit retailing in terms of capital outlay (recall assets value) and may thus eases entry into the retailing space.The total business costs-Costs of goods sold was again an addition of the cost of inventory and other variable inputs. The outlay is presented in Figure 17.Variable inputs costs reported and estimated include electricity, fuel for generators, taxes, water, association fees, telephone, pest-control, and other miscellaneous expenses. Labour cost could not be included in the neighbourhood retailers' costs structure, since there was no paid labour use within the system. The estimated weekly business cost was therefore given at N516.49; distributed across DGLV, VARF, OF, OV retailers as N549.26, N527.06, N605.63 and N565.06.Inventory costs was estimated as the cost of good purchased for sale within the week. This accounted for N 4135.54 for all retailers. There was a higher cost of inventory among fruit retailers at N4536.41 (VARF; N5724.74 and OF; N3997.78) than with vegetable retailers at N4131.41 (DGLV; N3845 and OV; N3997.78).The total cost of goods sold was therefore estimated as N4514.41; across DGLV, VARF, OF and OV as N4292.47, N6252.37, N4468.5 and N4997.37. Again, fruit retailing had the higher business cost outlay cumulatively (N5024.13) vegetable retailing (N4514.41). The revenue was estimated as the quantity of commodities sold multiplied by its unit price. The overall average weekly revenue was estimated at N 2136.62, with the highest revenue coming from fruit retail at N2172.47 (VARF and OF being N2840.61 and N1949.03, respectively). Vegetable retailers on the other hand had weekly revenue of N2128.51(DGLV; N1887.48 and OV; N2036.01).As with market fruit and vegetable vendors, it is clear that neighborhood vendors are unable to operate profitably. Losses incurred per Kg of volume sold was estimated at N132.25 for the overall sample, with fruit and vegetable retailers incurring N78.54 and N134.68, respectively (table 12).It is again interesting to note that there was a general perception of profit making among the retailers across all product types in the neighbourhood system just as in the main markets. Self-reported profit was N 591.83 per week; with fruit retailers reporting higher profit of N620.86 versus N573.29, reported by vegetable retailers. This information, when combined with the levels of record keeping reported by vendors reveals a major gap in capacity among vendors that may inhibit their ability to conduct business on a larger scale. Are there differences in the various dimensions of fruit and vegetable retailing across the market types? This section explores the characteristics of fruit and vegetable retail across the main types of markets in the study (see Figure 2).We discuss functional status of retailers in Table 13, including historical outlays of inventory purchase and sales.While 94% of the retailers in Ojoo market sell their own produce, 85.7% of those in Moniya do the same. In the neighbourhood market, up to 83% sell their own produce while only 50% of them do so in Abaeja, neighbourhood market. It is intuitive to expect that the main market would have higher purchase and sales volumes than the neighborhood vendors. However, our results show that purchase of inventory was higher among the neighborhood vendors than the main markets; but sales were higher in the main markets (figure 18). This may not be entirely strange as neighbourhood retailers are the main purchasers in the main markets, where they purchase inventory (goods to be sold). However, purchases made by retailers of the main markets are most likely for consumption, rather than for a re-sale.Results again show higher inventory purchase in the past 5 years when compared to the current period. Main market estimation showed inventory purchase in high season of 182kg for the 5-year recall and 156.34kg in the current period. Low season purchase was estimated at 84.16kg and 81.48kg for the 5-year recall and current period, respectively. In Table 14 Among the retailers who cropped fruits and vegetables, our survey showed that about 93% and 67% of those in the main markets and neighbourhood markets, respectively sold their own products (Figure 19). However, the main origin of supplies was directly from farmers, rural brokers, and wholesalers. Other were from Agribusinesses and importers. The main supply origin in both market type was directly from farmers, as reported by 73% and 86% of main market and neighbourhood market retailers, respectively, followed by wholesalers and rural brokers. While importers formed a very small proportion of supply for main markets, neighbourhood retailers do not purchase from this source.Figure 19: Major Suppliers across Market TypesOn the average, retailers in the main market had more suppliers (~47) than those in neighbourhood markets (45). Regular suppliers were 13 and 14 in main markets and neighbourhood markets, respectively.We found that a higher percentage of neighbourhood retailers (37.7%) bought sorted products when compared to 31% from the main markets (Table 14). This transactional characteristic was found more in Moniya (33%) and Abaeja (39%) in the two respective market types.As reported across product types, retailers who kept records or had a contractual agreement with suppliers were not common. Our results found that just about 2% of main market and <4% of the retailers in the neighbourhood market kept records of purchase. With respect to purchase agreement with suppliers, at least 16% of retailers in the main market had such agreement; while only about 4% of neighbourhood retailers had it. This implies that the larger market had a higher level of organization than the neighbourhood market; thus, agreements are germane in the market system.We found that retailers in the main markets were able to provide a wider array of services to their suppliers including advancement(11.11%), inputs(1.67%), harvest (1.67%), own transport (27.22%) and other forms of transportation arrangements (3.3%). On the other hand, neighborhood retailers were only able to provide own transport (22%) and other forms of transportation arrangements (10.5%).Our analysis shows that 65% and 86% of retailers in the main markets and neighbourhoods, respectively did into receive any service from suppliers (Figure 20). The main service received from suppliers in the main markets were Packaging (19%) and delivery of commodities in stalls (16.7%). Others include credit sales (11%) and sorting (3%). Neighbourhood retailers followed similar patterns with packaging and delivery in stall reported by 17% and 3% respectively. Sorting and credit sales were received by a mere 1% of the neighbourhood retailers. It is however surprising that although Abaeja has a higher volume of inventory  In this survey, less than 40% of the retailers made a quality complaint to their suppliers (38% in main market and 36% in neighbourhood markets). Among those who had a complaint, the results show that the main issue was related to rotten produce, as reported by 13% of main market retailers and 12% of neighbourhood market retailers. Other quality complaints in the main markets were in regard to firmness(8%), colour (8%) and use of unstandardized boxes (7%). While neighbourhood retailers did not report any complaint with respect to dirtiness and variety, it was reported by at least 1% and 2%, respectively among retailers in the main markets.Retailer and client relationships across market types are presented in this section (Table 15).Weekly sales volume across market type was estimated at 358kg valued at N73.46/kg in the main markets while it was 89.61kg at N78.79/kg in neighbourhood markets. The lead markets with respect to sales in the main markets and neighbourhood markets, respectively were maintained at Moniya (441.5kg at N46.30/kg) and Abaeja (93.38kg at N 86.50/kg). Retail sales in Ojoo market was estimated at 309.77kg valued at N80.68/kg; while Bagadaje retailers sold N82.86kg at 65/kgAgain, we find that the retailers in the main markets had a wider range of clients than the neighborhood retailers. The results show that a larger proportion of sales was to direct consumers in both markets. However, neighbourhood retailers (~97%) sold more to consumers than market retailers (76%). The other major clients of retailers in the main markets in order of importance were traditional retailers (28.35%),street/sidewalk restaurants (19%) and Ambulant vendors (14%). In the neighbourhood markets, the other major clients were Ambulant vendors (8%) and traditional retailers (7%). On the average, main market retailers served 1741 clients (Moniya; 1326 and Ojoo-1990); while neighbourhood retailers sold to 1256 customers (Abaeja; 1261 and Bagadaje; 1246).Retailers in Neighbourhood markets probably have a more personal relationship with their customers, since they are the final stage in the value chain before final consumers. This reflects in the type of market structure in such markets (Figure 20). In view of this, we find that while 51% of neighbourhood retailers sold sorted products, only 35% of retailers in the main markets did so. In reality, sorted products attract more patronage and monetary premium, which are important for the going concern of neighbourhood markets.While only 3% of retailers in the main market kept records of sale, there was no report of a sales record among neighbourhood retailers. Furthermore, up to 14% of retailers in the neighbourhood markets had an agreement with their clients, while 13% of retailers in the main market reported doing the same. The main service provided (Table 15) to clients in the main markets were volume discount (37%), price discount (36%), and packaging (20%). Credit sales and special forms of sorting were reported as services by 10% and 5% of the main market retailers. Similar services were provided by neighborhood retailers in the same order of importance so that volume discount, price discount, packaging, credit sales and special sorting were reported by 41%, 36%, 16%, 11.6% and 3%, respectively. The high proportion of retailers who gave volume and price discounts reflects the importance of bargaining in agricultural commodity markets.Although only 14% of the retailers in the main markets and neighbourhood markets reported a quality complaint, there were differences in occurrence of these complaints across specific quality issues and market types (See Figure 21). We found that the most limiting quality issues was related to color (9%), firmness (7%) and rottenness (6%) in the main market. However, the order of complaints was firmness (12%), colour (8%) and size (5%) in the neighbourhood markets, respectively. Others include Dirty products and variety issues did not seem to be a major complaint across the market types.Ojoo (main market) and Bagadaje (neighbourhood market) seemed to report higher occurrences of these complaints. Neighborhood vendors operate more independently, and due to relationships with consumers are more motivated to provide what their clients want.  Market typology showed differences in location of retailers in this study (Table 16). Our results show that retailers in the main market were more likely to sell on Road display (65%), followed by the use of Permanent tables within the market (36%), market stalls/shop (7%). Transaction in homes, as hawkers and with wheelbarrows were less likely at 1%.In the neighbourhood , stalls along main neighborhood roads were the most prominent (41%), followed by sales in home premises (25%) and permanent tables (24%). The use of road display was found among only 9% of the neighbourhood retailers. The most important asset (Table 17)owned by the retailers in both markets are display items as reported by >90% of the retailers. In the main markets, other important assets include benches (79%), phone (8%), cane basket (76%), store (54%) and commercial umbrella (46%).In the neighbourhood market, on the other hand, the most relevant assets aside display items were benches (80%), phones(76%), cane basket (57%), lamp (55%) and store (52%). These assets reflect the needs of retailers usually within short distances from the home (low proportion with commercial umbrella); and the likelihood of selling late into the evening (lamps).The types and values of assets are indication of a low-capital base and hence low technology retail enterprise across the market types. Our analysis reveals that while the main markets reported only one (1) paid labour, there were no paid labour in the neighbourhood markets. This indicates the small scale at which neighbourhood vendors operate. However, family labour use shows that at least 2 persons from the family works in the retailing enterprise.Weekly labour expense in the main market was estimated at N1232.51; with Ojoo retailers paying less (N1063.46) than Moniya retailers (N1683.33).Weekly business cost outlay was estimated as the sum of all variable costs in the retail enterprise. This includes the cost of electricity, fuel, association fees, transportation, labour, rent, water bills and others. In the main market, weekly business cost was estimated at N921.41; across Moniya and Ojoo markets at N939.99 and N909.55, respectively. Expectedly, retailers in the neigbourhood markets had lower business expenses at N516.49; with Abaeja and Bagadaje's expenses as N522.26 and N505.69, respectively.Cost on inventory, which is the cost of goods purchased for sale for the week was estimated at N5911.77 in the main markets. Moniya market had the higher purchase cost estimate (N6030.98), while retailers in Ojoo purchased an average of N5835.68 in the recall week. In the neighborhood markets, inventory purchase was estimated at N4135.54 for the overall average. However, retailers in Bagadaje had higher inventory value (N4312.14) than those in Abaeja (N4045.64)Cost of goods sold which was an addition of weekly business costs and weekly inventory purchase showed that Moniya market had the higher cost outlay (N5997.36) among the main markets, with Ojoo retailers averaging cost of goods sold of N5803. 15. In the neighbourhood markets, Bagadaje had the highest cost outlay (N4745.59); while Abaeja recorded weekly cost of N4393.06.Revenue streams in fruits and vegetable retailing across market types showed that main markets had almost double the revenues of neighbourhood markets. Weekly revenue estimated for main market was N4964.85, with Moniya and Ojoo markets receiving N5064.96; and N4900.94. The neighbourhood markets recorded revenue of N2136.62; across Abaeja (N2017.24) and Bagadaje (N2350.69).In view of the foregoing, we find that there was no profitable fruit and vegetable enterprises in any of the markets surveyed. It is therefore is interesting that the retailers all report some form of profit from their own recall. This could be attributed to the poor literacy levels and record keeping culture of retailers.  NOTE: * these vegetables do not have standard measures. Therefore, acceptable measure of BAGCO SACK (for water leaf) and a CONGO (for wet bitter leaf) were used to ascertain the weights and corresponding prices of the largest measures sold in the markets.#: owo is made up of a number of pieces of the fruit/vegetable sold as a measure. For oranges, the \"owo\" depends on the sizes. An average of the sizes was taken for the markets.In the case of onion, a standard \"owo\" is made up of 42 pieces. However, the weight of each piece will determine the price. Hence, small owo, medium owo, large owo.Informed consent and confidentiality of interviews Good morning/afternoon, Mr/Mrs _______. My name is ______ and I am here to administer a survey on behalf of______. Your business is one of the few selected. The purpose of this survey is to gather information about fruit and vegetable consumption. The interview will take about ____. All the information we obtain will remain strictly confidential and your answers and name will never be revealed. Also you are not obliged to answer question you do not want to, and you may stop the interview at any time.The objective of this study is to assess the dynamics related to fruit and vegetable markets and its consumption. This is not to evaluate or criticize you, so please do not feel pressured to give a specific response and do not feel shy if you do not know the answer to a question. ","tokenCount":"8113"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e313a83ea5114a659ed091cb629ffa28","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e4b3e800-083a-42f7-99bf-7a85ae07ca43/retrieve","id":"832281832"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eab800fe-6928-4626-b657-f5b33e3332eb","pagecount":"5","content":"La leguminosa forrajera tropical Stylosanthss Bcabra Vog. -, variabilidad, producción y posibilidades de mejoramiento qsnético • Dr. Brlgitte L. Maass En las colecciones de germoplasma de leguminosas forrajeras tropicales de mayor importancia mundial, Stylosanthes scabra Vog. ocupa el segundo lugar dentro de su género. Partiendo de experiencias hechas en Australia, se presume Que el mayor potencial de esta especie se manifestará en las regiones pastorales semi áridas y semi húmedas con sistemas de producción extensiva y con prevalencia de suelos ácidos y de baja fertilidad. Durante la caracterización y evaluación preliminar de' 539 accesiones de S . scabra realizadas de 1984 a 1986 en la Estación Experimental de Santander de Qullichao, Colombia, perteneciente al Centro Internacional de AgrIcultura Tropical (CIAT), se persiguieron l.os siguientes objetivos:Estimación de la variabilidad en una serie de caracteres fenológicos, _ morfológicos y agronómicos de la colección del germoplasma deStylosanthes scabra Que posee el CIAT, y cuantificación do la proporción genética de la variabilidad.Identificación de tipos de planta dentro de la colección, y clasificación consigUiente de las accesiones evaluadas.3, Determinación del nivel de rendimiento y del valor forrajero de la colección y, en especial, de una ser'ie de .ccesiones seleccionadas.Cálculo de correlaciones existentes entre los caracteres agronómicamente importantes...Los resu 1 tados más 1mportanto3 fUl;ron los si Qui entos:1.Variabilidad do la colección y su proporción genética: a) Lo moyorfo de los caroctores fcnológicoG, morfológ1cos y agronóm1cos do S. scabra t iena una var1abilldad fenot lp1ca grande. As 1 resulta un buen potencial para hacer solacclones exitosas dentro de la collcc1ón de germoplasmo de S. scabra dol CIAT. Para una serie de accesiones muestreadas 01 azar, so calculó además la variab11idad genética (CV.). Estos coeficientes de variación genética no se distinguieron asenclalmento do los coeficientes fenotlplcos (CV) colculados pa~a los mismos caracteres en toda la colección. resultó ex1toso en los caracteres sigu 'lentes de lfts fracciones de hojas \"y/ó de tallos: 11, cenizas, componentes de la pared ,celular, y taninos condensados.Correlaclol~s entre Importantes caractaros agronómicos:11)LII susceptibilidad do las accesiones a la antracnosls tuvo una Influencia fuerto en el rendimiento do HS. La gran variabilidad genética on la susceptibilidad a esta enfermedad permite contar con una' respuesta a la solecclón. La relación estrecha entre 10 faso juvenil y 18 máxima susceptibilidad a la antracilOsls deja ámbito para la selecc!ón on uno fase temprana del crecimiento.El Inicio de la floración estuvo alta y posltfvamante correhclonodo con al rendimiento de HS an al primer corte a la edad de sleta meses\" y con al de los cortes subs Iguientes, ejecutados cada 00 dias. Hubo una estrecha re, laclón entre 01 rendimlanto de HS del primer corte y el rendimiento de val' ios rebrotes. Se puedo predecir ' satisfactoriamente el rendlmionto do MS midiendo el diámetro y la altura de las plantas.Entro el rendimiento do MS y In digestibilidad de las hojas y de los ta110s hubo una correlación signlf 'lcatlvamente negatlvu on todos los cortes. Los factoros más importantes que afectaron la digestibilidad in Yl1L2 do las hojas fueron la lignlna y los taninos, on sentido n,egativo, y la proteina cruda, en sentido positivo.o) Una so lección dentro de la colección de StylosantIJes scabra Vog. del CIAl parece ser promlsorlo porque, entre otras rt\\zones, hay una gran var1abflldad en la especie. Un rendimiento de HS más alto y menor susceptlbflidad o la ' antracnosis distinguen el ~CQstero de otras accesiones. Se puede contar con un avance adicional en la selección por la variabilidad genética de esos dos caracteres. Sin embargo, no existe aún una metodologia de selocclón temprana para la susceptlbflidod de S. scabra a la antracnosls.Un futuro programa de mejoramiento genético deberia concen t rarsu en la comblnoclón de los caractel'es de rendimiento y de r .. slstencia a la 8ntracnosls del .t1llQ Cost'lLQ con al valor fOi'rajero más , alto de otras aeces Iones. Las acces Iones de 1 t.1 no a f1, scabra Y 1 as acces Iones ca 10mb I aoas de 1 t' po Cont.1 nenta 1 parecon espec I a lmente aptan para oso combinación.el Para amplificar la variabilidad exlste.,te, las futuras expediciones do recolección deberlan explorur más el ároa, hasta ' ahora Insuficientemente representada, del noreste de Brasfl y 10 reglón de mayor diversidad genética del sureste de ese pais.","tokenCount":"706"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7f9a0aa25ea2355db578ee233419886","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fc8774eb-9e7a-40b9-8931-78978c63edc9/retrieve","id":"-217146513"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85d80522-0f94-45a8-a57e-5f24f1b327ef","pagecount":"2","content":"The size of livestock's contribution to agricultural value added as well as to the gross domestic product (GDP), is a commonly quoted measure of livestock's role in the national economy. In all countries, GDP is estimated at least quarterly and annually by national statistical authorities.There are three ways of calculating GDP, which include the production approach, the expenditure approach and the income approach. All should all lead to the same result.The production approach quantifies the difference between the value of outputs for all sectors less the value of goods and services used in producing those outputs during one year, i.e. it quantifies the so-called \"value added\" for all sectors in the economy. The income approach measures the incomes of all individuals living in the economy over the reference year; the expenditure approach quantifies all expenditures by all individuals living in the country in the accounting period.Most country governments estimate GDP using the production approach. This method allows for measuring the overall performance of the economy as well as that of each productive sector (e.g. livestock) and of specific enterprises within each sector (e.g. beef and poultry). It also allows for tracking changes in the structure of the economy and within sectors. Values added at constant prices are useful to estimate growth rates / performances of the economy as a whole or of sector / subsectors over time; values added at current changes in the economy and within sectors.Value added is defined as the value of the output of a sector minus the value of all intermediate inputs. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fixed assets and depletion / degradation of natural resources.Outputs from the livestock sector include the increase in the number of animals and the production of livestock products.The increase in number of animals is represented by both fixed capital formationi.e. animals that are inputs into the production process, such as breeding animals and adult males for breeding or animal traction -and by so-called 'work-in progress' animals, namely those reared for slaughter and young animals reared to become fixed assets.Livestock products include meat, milk, eggs, hides and skins and other by-products, such as manure, hides and skins, fat, offal, honey, transport services, etc.Intermediate inputs comprise animal feed / fodder and water; animal health services, vaccines, medicines and dips; fuel and electricity; repairs and maintenance, such as of fences and equipment, etc.Outputs are valued at so-called basic prices, i.e. farm-gate prices that reflect the value of goods for the producers. Intermediate inputs are valued at purchaser's prices, i.e. the prices that are effectively paid by the producers. In general, to estimate livestock value added, data are first needed on the livestock population (by species, age and use, i.e. herd composition) as well as on trends, which are influenced by fertility and mortality, associated to different causes. In most countries, data from the agricultural census are used as a benchmark to calculate the livestock population, with fertility and mortality coefficients (to project population growth) and herd composition derived either from surveys or from inter-censuses comparisons.To estimate production, data is required on the number of animals slaughtered with specific livestock technical conversion factors needed at least quarterly. For meat, a carcass weight is assigned for each animal slaughtered with additional technical conversion factors then used to estimate the production of meat, offal and fat and, in some cases, also hides and skins. For milk, the yield per cow is required, while for poultry the number of eggs produced over the accounting period is estimated. To each animal, some level of manure production for the reference period should be also assigned.Ad hoc data collection and direct measurement are the most appropriate tools to estimate technical conversion factors, but in many circumstances, these coefficients are derived from the literature, from expert opinions or from neighboring countries. Production of nonfood livestock products, such as that of manure, is often not estimated at all because of lack of data.To calculate intermediate consumption, information is needed on the quantity and price of inputs used in the production process. Specialized surveys or direct measurement are used to estimate quantity and cost of inputs to raise different livestock species.Major challenges in appropriately estimating livestock value added is the lack of census or survey data which can be used to estimate livestock population (including herd composition), production and productivity (technical coefficients). Frequently, the routine data collected monthly or quarterly by extension officers are of poor quality and cannot be used to produce official statistics. Furthermore, farm-gate prices are not readily available and market prices for outputs are often used to estimate production, with some subjective deduction for trade margins.In general, specialized surveys are rarely undertaken with regularity for the specific purpose of collecting good quality livestock data, sufficient to generate nationally representative statistics and to properly calculate livestock value added.Governments need to ensure consistent estimations techniques across sectors, adhering to the internally recognized procedure described in the 2008 UN System of National Accounts. Within this framework, more accurate estimates of livestock value added would be facilitated by: (i) targeted changes in surveys which are regularly undertaken by country governments; (ii) selected improvement in the collection of routine livestock data -a major source of information to track quarterly changes in population, production and productivity; (iii) the integration between different sources of data and, if need be, (iv) the use of specialized livestock surveys.For further information please visit: www.africalivestockdata.orgOr contact: Nancy Morgan, World Bank nmorgan@cgiar.org Ugo Pica-Ciamarra, FAO ugo.picaciamarra@fao.org","tokenCount":"910"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c2482b03c5c9c3fae693855cc86f5c43","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1036d140-e5ee-41f9-a590-c354cbe16478/retrieve","id":"-1276403354"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0fe5b3d-9d88-4755-8b94-853bea61b220","pagecount":"12","content":"This brief explores Tanzanian farmers' requirements for sorghum seed products as input for discussions by CGIAR and NARES on seed product market segmentation and the design of target product profiles (TPPs). We applied a novel approach to identify the requirements-video-based product concept testing (VPCT). Through multiple engagements with breeders, farmers, and industry, we identified seven sorghum seed-product concepts, five targeting the end use-home use, feed and food, industrial malting, food and fodder, forage; one concept on cropping system-intercropping; and one targeting material type-hybrid. We sampled 1,100 farmers from the Dodoma and Shinyanga Regions, where each farmer evaluated and ranked three concepts. Farmers were most likely to have selected the hybrid concept as their most preferred concept, followed by the home use concept. Based on these results, we present a proposal for revisions of the current set of market segments and TPPs for sorghum in Tanzania-one the largest sorghum producers in Eastern Africa.Across Eastern and Southern Africa, the demand for sorghum is growing. Orr et al. (2020) projected that the demand for sorghum in Eastern and Southern Africa would reach 29.9 million t by 2050 under a \"business as usual\" scenario, up from 11.8 million in 2015 (an increase of 153 percent). Sorghum production is concentrated in the region's semiarid agroecologies where farmers regard them as insurance crops and are unwilling to rely solely on maize for household food security. Consumers perceive sorghum production as complementary to maize production. Sorghum can also be mixed with wheat flour to produce composite wheat flour (Poole et al. 2024). The market is growing for sorghum grain for animal feed and industrial brewing, even in countries where sorghum is traditionally grown for food (Srinivasa Rao et al. 2014). Population growth, consumer preferences, and growth in brewing and livestock-feed industries are driving demand up for sorghum across Africa. Against this background, future investments in sorghum breeding and seed systems development by CGIAR and the national agricultural research and extension Systems (NARES) have relatively high potential to deliver impact on economic and food security.Tanzania is one the largest sorghum producers in Eastern and Southern Africa, and the seventh largest producer globally. In area under cultivation, sorghum is the third most grown cereal in Tanzania, after maize and rice. It is mainly grown in semiarid regions under rainfed production systems. Most farmers intercrop sorghum with other crops, including legumes, maize, and cassava (Slakie et al. 2019). In the past decade, sorghum production has grown substantially. The quantity of sorghum produced increased by about 20 percent (Figure 1), from 838,717 t in 2012 to 1 million t in 2022 (FAOSTAT 2023). In addition, the area harvested increased by a similar percentage, from 839,423 ha in 2012 to 1 million ha in 2022. A growing export market has played a role in the expansion of sorghum production. The value of exported sorghum increased from USD 2.4 million in 2012 to almost USD 11.4 in 2022, which is more than a 300 percent increase in the past five years (FAOSAT 2023).Traditionally, sorghum has been a staple crop in Tanzania, forming an important component of rural diets. Most farmers produce sorghum primarily for their own consumption, where it is eaten as porridge or ugali (thick porridge), a traditional dish derived from mixing sorghum flour or a mixture of sorghum and maize or cassava flours with water. Portions of the sorghum harvest may also be used as feed for livestock. In past years, increased domestic demand has arisen for white sorghum from breweries such as Tanzania Breweries Company Limited and Serengeti Breweries Limited (Akpo et al. 2022a). The share of domestic use was estimated by Ndossi et al. (2021) as follows: brewing industry (43 percent), food (40 percent), and animal feed (7 percent). Traders (small and large scale) and processors are the main buyers in the sorghum grain market (Akpo et al. 2022a). White and red sorghum are available for home consumption and animal feed. 1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5 2 0 0 6 2 0 0 7 2 0 0 8 2 0 0 9 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 2 0 1 3 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5 2 0 1 6 2 0 1 7 2 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 2 0 Production (t)Area harvested (ha)Research and development efforts focused on sorghum in Tanzania began in the early 1980s. Since that time, international research institutes such as the International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), along with national agricultural research systems, notably the Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), and various universities have worked together to develop improved sorghum varieties. According to the Tanzania Official Seed Certification institute (TOSCI), 2024, 18 improved varieties were released in Tanzania by 2023. Most of the improved cultivars are designed based on conventional breeding approaches, with a primary focus on agronomic traits, particularly yield and disease resistance. However, the efforts and investments targeted at enhancing uptake of improved varieties have only been partially successful, with significantly low adoption rates (Kimbi et al. 2020). One of the reasons for the low rate is development of products that do not respond to the requirements of farmers and end users (processors and consumers).Moving forward, the One CGIAR Initiative on Market Intelligence has an opportunity to inform crop-breeding efforts of CGIAR and NARES by shedding light on the requirements for farmers, processors, and consumers and the ideal seed products to respond to these requirements. The two basic elements to guide discussions are seed product market segments (SPMSs) and target product profiles (TPPs). The SPMS refers to a group of farmers with common variety requirements. In the context of CGIAR and NARES crop breeding, these segments are defined based on grower requirements (where and how the crops are grown) and end-user requirements (what the crop is used for). For each SPMS, there is a unique TPP that provides the blueprint for design of the ideal product for that SPMS and indicates the traits and characteristics required for a new variety to meet or exceed the requirements of growers, processors, and consumers.Table 1 presents the SPMSs for sorghum in the Eastern African Federation (EAF). These segments evolved out of discussions with the Tanzania Sorghum Product Design Team, a group of representatives from public and private sectors that informs SPMS and TPP design, that include farmer representatives, processors, seed companies, as well as scientists such as breeders, pathologists, seed systems specialists, and socio-economists. The main criteria that distinguish the sorghum segments are material type (hybrid versus open-pollinated variety, or OPV) and color (white/ cream versus red/brown). The market segment for forage sorghum that is produced for fodder only is listed as \"not current country priority\" and therefore is not included as a market segment.All the sorghum SPMSs include a variety of uses: food, feed, fodder, and malting. The corresponding TPPs for these segments contain 29 essential traits (i.e., targets that must be met for the advancement of new varieties), of which 3 to 4 are improvement traits. Delivering new products that meet the thresholds and targets of the 29 traits will be a significant undertaking. Production and agronomic and disease traits such as genetic purity, plant height, disease and pest tolerance, drought tolerance, and early maturity are required for all the seed products. However, there are some nutrition-enhancement and processing traits (such as proteins, starch, iron, and zinc contents; taste; grain color; tannin levels; and digestibility) that are linked to specific use (Table 2). By understanding farmer use requirements, a prioritization of end-use improvement traits can help to simplify the breeding process. identify alternatives to the current sorghum SPMS for TPP prioritization in Tanzania. Additionally, a concept of cropping system and the material type was included.The process of concept development involved qualitative research, including eight focus-group discussions with smallholders and interviews with various stakeholders, such as seed producers, traders, processors, and TARI, a national plant-breeding institute. Participation in a sorghum PDT meeting in Tanzania and continuous consultations with sorghum breeders at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) were also integral to the concept development. The discussions focused on the goals farmers had for their sorghum production, their preferred growing methods, uses of sorghum at home, experiences in selling sorghum, and preferences for maturity and color. Discussions with technical experts focused on the technological possibilities of breeding; the new types of products end users (processors and farmers) were interested in; and the suitability and potential of other types of sorghum not yet grown in Tanzania, such as hybrid sorghum and intercropping sorghum. Figure 2 shows the process of ideation of the sorghum concepts.Seven product concepts emerged from the ideation process (Table 3): Home use (food for the family), feed and food, industrial malting (grain for beer), forage, food and fodder, intercropping (sorghum and peas), and commercial (highyielding hybrid) products. See Annex 1 for a full overview of the concept's description. The main growers' goals of early maturity, high yield (compared to local varieties), and drought and disease tolerance were held constant in all the developed concepts. Farmers also indicated the color they would require in the products. The description of the concepts included the product goal(s) and any potential shortcomings that the use of the product may imply (e.g., reduced yield).The product-presentation videos were recorded in a professional studio in the local language (Swahili). A male actor posed as an agrodealer representative, dressed in a white lab coat standing behind a counter and in front of several bags of different seeds, herbicides, and pesticides. Stay green until maturityIn vitro organic matter digestability (IVOM)A quick review of the sorghum market segments leads to several questions for discussion with the Tanzania product design team (PDT), related to farmers' requirements for sorghum seed products:• End use: Do farmers require products that meet a host of possible end uses (e.g., food, feed, fodder, and malting) or are their requirements more focused on one or two end uses. The latter would allow for more feasible TPPs with few essential traits.• Color: In what color do farmers require the sorghum for different uses? Prioritization of different uses should include color considerations.• Production systems: TPPs are designed considering a monoculture production system. Do farmers grow sorghum under monoculture or intercropping production systems? If the latter, then this would imply the need to add a market segment that recognizes the intercropping production systems.This study used video-based product concept testing (VPCT). Product concept testing is early-stage market research that involves description of hypothetical products, and their potential uses and benefits to the customers. Product concepts (ideas) are usually developed, packaged, and presented to the consumers for evaluation. The underlying principle is that customers seek value from a product rather than the physical product itself (Luso 1975). For example, farmers will experiment with or invest in a new seed product only if they expect the product will help accomplish a particular task or goal (Campos 2021). In some cases, this goal may be higher yield under monocropping conditions; in other cases, the goal may be better-tasting food for the family and local market. Understanding the goals farmers seek from seed products will allow for nuanced segmentation and, in return, more impactful TPPs.In this brief, concept testing focuses on understanding the goals farmers have from producing sorghum and linking these goals to potential future seed products. Sorghum product concepts were designed mainly around specific farmer requirements related to end-user requirements to  A total of nine videos were recorded, a video for each of the seven concepts plus an introductory and a closing video. In the product-presentation videos, lasting one to two minutes, the product was introduced and then the benefits and drawbacks of the concept were highlighted. The introductory video presented the scene (context) and explained what would follow, including the decision that the farmer would need to make. The closing video included guidance on the ranking activity and appreciation for listening.To evaluate the concepts, a household survey, which included 1,100 sorghum farmers, was carried out in Kongwa and Kondoa Districts of the Dodoma Region and Kishapu and Shinyanga Districts of the Shinyanga Region. Inspired by the tricot approach that uses incomplete randomized blocks, each respondent watched three different product concepts videos (out of the seven). The videos were randomized in subsets of three, where each concept was shown an equal number of times. In total, each farmer watched five videos: the introductory video, three videos describing different product concepts, and a closing video.After the respondents watched each concept video, they answered questions on each concept's similarity to the varieties they currently grow, their interest in trying the new concepts, their willingness to replace their current varieties with the new ones, and the color they would prefer for the products. Finally, respondents were asked to select their most and least preferred product for purchase if available at local agrodealer shops. The data analysis on the ranking of the concept was done by ClimMob software (de Sousa et al. 2022;Turner et al. 2020).The seven product concepts were assessed by ranking them across the whole sample (Figure 3). Table 4 shows the direct rankings among all the concepts, indicating the percentage of farmers who ranked a given concept (indicated in the row) before the other respective concepts (indicated in the columns). Additionally, we used regions, districts, and gender as covariates to split the sample in case of significant instability in the Plackett-Luce model, driven by difference in rankings (Figure 4). Figure 5 indicates the color preference for each concept. We discuss the seven concepts in categories following the farmer ranking: the first tier, the middle, and the last tier, given their probability of being ranked as the most preferred, respectively.The best performing concepts (first tier) were the highyielding hybrid and food for the family (Figure 3). They had the highest probability of being ranked as the most preferred by the farmers. In the direct ranking between the concepts (Table 4), the two concepts had a higher percentage of farmers preferring them over the other five concepts. However, in a direct comparison with each other, high-yielding hybrid had a slightly higher win probability compared with the foodfor-the-family concept. The Plackett-Luce model (Figure 4), however, indicated that there was some divergence between regions, districts, and gender. Women in Dodoma (in both Kongwa and Kondoa Districts) and men in Kongwa District preferred the concept of food for the family over the high-yielding hybrid, while in the Shinyanga Region (Kishapu and Shinyanga Districts) both men and women preferred the concept of high-yielding hybrid to that of food for the family.   The middle tier includes the intercropping (sorghum and pea), food and fodder, and food and feed (Figure 3). The intercropping concept was the most preferred of the three concepts, while there was no clear leader between food and feed and food and fodder (Table 3). However, men in the Kondoa District, Shinyanga Region, preferred the food and feed concept slightly more than the intercropping concept (Figure 4). The last tier includes concepts that were least preferred, namely grain for beer and sorghum for forage (Figure 3). These concepts were not prioritized by the farmers, especially sorghum for forage, which scored lower than the rest of the concepts. However, men in the Kondoa District, Shinyanga Region, preferred the forage concept slightly more than the grain for beer (Figure 4). Across all the concepts, white sorghum grain was preferred by 70 percent of the sample (Figure 5). Among the seven sorghum-seed product concepts developed, farmers were most likely to have selected hybrid and home use concepts as their preferred concepts. The intercropping concept ranked third, followed by feed and food, food and fodder, industrial malting, and forage. The preference for the hybrid concept indicates a rising interest in sorghum as a cash crop for the brewing industry and for export. Over the past five years, regional exports of sorghum from Tanzania have surged by 300 percent (FAOSTAT 2023).For the concept on food for the family, farmers were willing to sacrifice 20 percent of yield for a product that has good home consumption qualities, which highlights that sorghum forms an important part of rural diets and that its value is in home use. The preference for the intercropping product concept reflects farmers' interest in sorghum seed products that complement legume production. Sorghum for forage was the least preferred concept, indicating that the value of sorghum is largely for grain production. Across all the concepts, white sorghum grain was preferred by 70 percent of the sample. White color is a must-have requirement for national and regional markets and is also considered to provide better-tasting sorghum-based foods.The results support discussions on refinements to sorghum segmentation. First, the study identified hybrid and home use (food for the family) as priority market segments. There is an existing breeding pipeline for hybrids in Tanzania that supplies 2 percent of the market. The strong preference for hybrids indicates the need for increased investments in breeding and seed systems of hybrid seed products. A new current market segment was identified-the home use segment. Conversations with farmers, processors, and food scientists are required to better understand what traits determine \"good taste\" and \"good cooking qualities\" and how best to measure these traits. Second, three near-term future market segments were identified: intercropping (sorghum and peas), food and feed, and food and fodder. Currently, breeding efforts do not support the intercropping segment, but it is a recognized need among farmers. Third, a potentially long-term future market segment was recognized: forage sorghum. Currently, these seed products are unavailable in Tanzania and are not in demand among farmers. Nevertheless, this does not mean that they should be overlooked, especially with increased climate variability in mind: forage sorghum is outstandingly drought resistant and grows where maize is not able to grow because of high temperatures or dry conditions. In future it could be a good substitute for maize in silage making for livestock. Finally, white sorghum varieties should be prioritized.FAOSTAT This product is called \"Feed and Food.\"This sorghum seed was designed to provide your family with grain that is useful for feed and food.The seed provides grain with improved protein, which makes it suitable as feed for your own chickens and pigs. You could also sell the grain to other farmers or traders who process animal feed.The seed is also used for food, but less attention has been given to cooking qualities such as taste. The seed may not be as good for food as a product that is designed for food only. The seed is not designed for fodder or malting.This product is called \"Food for family.\"The sorghum seed is focused on serving your cooking needs; the cooking qualities has been given priority.• Nutrition: higher level of iron and zinc • The grain gives a good amount of flour when milled.• The product gives a sweet taste to your uji or ugali.• It cooks easily.• It is easy to thresh. The seed has 20% less yield compared to the other improved seed. This means that if the other improved seed give you 10 bags, this seed will give you 8 bags assuming you planted on a similar farm. However, it still has higher yield than the local varieties. The seed is not designed for animal feed, fodder, or malting.This product is called \"Grain for beer.\"This sorghum seed is mainly focused on serving the needs of the processors in your area. It has large grains and is highly demanded in your area by traders and processors for industrial beer making. This is a sorghum seed for income purposes only. It is not designed for food, feed, or fodder. This product is called \"Forage for animals.\"It is a hybrid sorghum seed designed for making livestock feed. It is harvested before the grain matures, at 100-120 days. It has soft leaves and stems that are easy for the animals to eat and get nutrients. You can use it to make silage for your livestock or sell the silage for income. This seed is not recommended if you grow sorghum for grains.Dual purpose: Food/fodder This product is called \"Food and fodder.\"The sorghum seed is designed with qualities that make it suitable for food and fodder.It has big and soft leaves and stems that are easily eaten by livestock for fodder. However, this quality reduces the grain yield of the plant.The seed is also used for food, but less attention has been given to cooking qualities such as taste.The seed may not be as good as for a product that is designed for food only. The seed is not designed for malting and grains for animal feed.This product is called \"Sorghum and peas.\"This sorghum seed is designed to perform well when you combine it in the field with peas such pigeon pea, cowpea, and chickpea. By growing this sorghum seed and peas on the same plot, you improve your soil and yields, and you increase varieties of food available for your household. Please note that planting two crops in that same plot makes it difficult to plant, manage, and harvest, which increases labor cost. It also makes it difficult to use machines for planting, spraying, harvesting, etc., in the case of large farms.This product is called \"High-yielding hybrid.\"This sorghum seed is designed to be high yielding. It yields about 30% more compared to other improved seeds. This means that if the other improved seed gives you 10 bags, this seed will give you 13 bags, assuming you planted on a similar farm. The product is mainly for selling to traders who buy grain for food processing. You can also use it for food, but less attention has been given to cooking qualities such as taste. Please note, you will need to buy seeds every season to maintain the yield benefit. Planting seed from your harvest will reduce the yield. This product is not designed for feeding and malting.","tokenCount":"3680"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4211ebc55034f476bfa9519430fbdee8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d899fe2-3afe-4bb1-8e4f-f6beda8314eb/retrieve","id":"-2109080716"},"keywords":["maize","Striga hermonthica","imazapyr seed coating","Striga damage"],"sieverID":"c8b06c15-3169-4499-9845-7b6a60300319","pagecount":"9","content":"Use of small doses of imazapyr and pyrithiobac for seed coatings of imazapyr-resistant maize hybrids (IR-Maize) offers an effective means to control Striga hermonthica. Field trials were conducted in Bauchi and Kano States of Nigeria in 2014 and 2015 under heavy Striga infestation to evaluate the potential effectiveness of herbicide coated hybrids maize on Striga control in farmers' field. Results showed that herbicide coated seeds reduced number of emerged Striga per m 2 and Striga damage symptoms in farmers' fields in all the locations. In Kano the number of emerged Striga was 4.9 to 7.9 times less in herbicide treated hybrids in comparison with those of the same hybrids planted without herbicide treatment. The Striga-resistant open pollinated variety (OPV) (TZL COMP1 SYN) had 6.7 to 8.0 times more Striga than the treated hybrids. In Bauchi, the number of emerged Striga on the untreated IR-maize hybrids were over four-times higher on the treated IR-maize hybrids than on the untreated hybrids. The Striga-resistant OPV check had four-times more Striga than the treated IR-maize hybrids and twice more than the untreated IR-maize hybrids across the two years. However, the effects of herbicide seed coating on grain yields were not consistent because of strong seasonal effects. The result revealed that coating of imazapyr-resistant hybrid maize seeds with imazapyr was effective in reducing Striga infestation in farmers' fields. Although herbicide seed coating did not give consistent yield advantages of the hybrids over the untreated checks, a combination of herbicide seed treatment and genetic resistance to Striga would serve as an effective integrated approach that could significantly reduce the parasite seed bank from the soil and prevent production of new seeds. The IR-hybrids and the OPV checks contained Striga resistance/tolerant genes that protected them against drastic yield loss in the Striga infested fields in both Bauchi and Kano.Striga hermonthica constitutes one of the most severe constraints to cereal production in the semi-arid and sub-humid areas of sub-Saharan Africa [1]. An estimated 21 million ha of land is infested with S. hermonthica in Africa [2]. In Nigeria, over 40% of the 93 million ha arable land in the Savannas is already moderately or severely infested [3]. Surveys in the Northern Guinea Savannah of Nigeria (NGS) showed that S. hermonthica has remained a serious problem, attacking millet, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), maize (Zea mays L.) and upland rice [4][5][6]. In northeast Nigeria, over 85% of the fields planted to maize and sorghum were infested with Striga [7]. Field studies conducted in northern Nigeria showed that Striga incidence range from 0% to 100% in farmers' maize fields [8].The increasing incidence of Striga has been attributed to poor soil fertility and structure, intensification of land-use through continuous cultivation and an expansion of cereal production [9]. It was reported that Striga population in northern Nigeria was negatively related to total nitrogen, exchangeable potassium and clay content [8]. They also reported that up to 75% of the variations in maize grain yields in farmers' fields could be explained by Striga population and soil organic carbon. The extent to which Striga reduces the growth of its host is highly variable and depends on factors such as host plant genotype, parasite infestation level, and environment [10]. Striga infestation of cereal crops has impacted negatively on the livelihoods of small-holder farmers in northern Nigeria because of its impacts on crop yield and systems productivity. Grain yield losses due to S. hermonthica infestation range from 10% to 100% for these crops, forcing farmers to abandon their cereal fields [3,11].Crop rotation [12,13], intercropping [14], organic [15] and inorganic [16] fertilizers have all been recommended for Striga management in farmers' fields. However, these approaches require several seasons of repeated use before they begin to produce yield benefits [17]. Much of the Striga-infested area of Africa has very high levels of Striga seeds in the soil due to years of neglect (Ekeleme et al. 2014). Thus, there is an urgent need for cost-effective approaches that allow achievement of adequate crop yields while at the same time depleting the Striga seed bank in the soil for subsequent planting of cereal crops such as maize [18].Studies have showed that the use of small doses of imazapyr and pyrithiobac for seed coatings offers an effective means to controlling Striga [19][20][21]. These herbicides inhibit the biosynthesis of branch-chained amino acids [22]. The use of herbicide seed coating reduces yield loss due to Striga, and depletes the Striga seed bank in the soil, so subsequent Striga numbers are less the following year [23]. The application of imazapyr and pyrithiobac as drenches or coatings to maize seeds possessing target-site resistance has been reported to effectively control Striga early in the season [20,22,24].In order to use phytotoxic herbicides to control Striga and prevent crop injury, a gene for resistance to these herbicides was incorporated into tropically adapted maize germplasm [25] that already have natural resistance to S. hermonthica at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. Combining herbicide resistance with natural resistance to agronomic performance of IR-maize (imazapyr-resistant maize hybrids) minimized the risk of Striga damage and severe yield loss when the herbicide is washed away due to excess rain [22,25]. Imazapyr-coated seeds of Striga-resistant hybrids planted under S. hermonthica infestation sustained less than 20% yield loss, showed less Striga damage symptoms and supported very few emerged parasites than without seed coating [22,25]. These IR-maize hybrids can be planted in Striga-infested areas without imazapyr seed coating at certain intervals to delay the development of high levels of resistance to imazapyr and prolong the effectiveness of the herbicides [25]. However, IR-maize hybrids having natural resistance to Striga have been tested on-stations under artificial infestation with Striga. Large-scale testing of treated seeds of these hybrids on farmers' fields has not been reported for West Africa. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to evaluate Striga-resistant IR-maize hybrid treated with imazapyr under natural infestation with S. hermonthica in farmers' fields in two states in Nigeria.The study was conducted in two States Bauchi (10 • 18 N, 09 • 50 E) and Kano (12 • 00 N, 08 • 31 E) States in northern Nigeria, where Striga is endemic and infestation is high. Farmer-managed trials were conducted in 30 villages (Table 1) each in Bauchi and Kano States in Nigeria in 2014 and 2015. Participatory research and extension approaches were used as a basis for farmer involvement [26]. Each year, 30 farms on basis of their severe infestation based on observations were chosen in each State in the preceding season. The area is characterized by a mono-modal rainfall distribution with an average precipitation of 900-1300 mm and growing period of 150 to 180 days (May-October). Figure 1 shows the average monthly rainfall distribution in the two study areas during the experimental years.The predominant soil types are Alfisols of moderate to low fertility. Important crops are maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), millet (Pennisetum typhoides), soybean (Glycine max), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) with both sole and intercropping of legume and cereal being practiced. Kano 30Jibga, Bebeji, Durmanawa, Kofa, Wak, Cutar biki, Anadariya, Gargai, Gidan wake, Tashar Idi, Gidan Dagazau, Rurum, tadinsha, Gidan Gizo, Yado, Gimbawa, Kyangarang, Tashar Goro, Kuguru, Yaryasa, Sumana.Lando, Gidan Sarkin yamma, Dorza, Kwaffa, Felufelu, Tukari, Yashi, Garin Galadima, Dass, Zaranda, Burgel, Gital, Banko,Takwashide Kafin madaki, Kwanar Labi, Kafin Liman, Zamo Two promising IR-maize (IR hybrid 1 and IR hybrid 4) top cross identified in on-station trials in 2013 and two non-IR OPVs (open pollinated variety) (TZL COMP1 SYN and DT STR SYN W) with known polygenic remittance to Striga were included in these trials. Imazapyr solution was prepared by dissolving solid imazapyr acid in distilled water and by gradually adding potassium hydroxide to raise the pH of the solution to 6 and 8. Polyvinylpyrollidone (1.8%) was also added as a binding agent to 21 mM of the prepared K-salt of imazapyr. Seeds of each maize hybrid were thoroughly mixed with the imazapyr solution. The seeds were allowed to soak for 24 hours to give a coating of 0.4 mg a.e imazapyr per seed (22). The treated seeds were dried and distributed to extension agents for planting within a week. Two promising IR-maize (IR hybrid 1 and IR hybrid 4) top cross identified in on-station trials in 2013 and two non-IR OPVs (open pollinated variety) (TZL COMP1 SYN and DT STR SYN W) with known polygenic remittance to Striga were included in these trials. Imazapyr solution was prepared by dissolving solid imazapyr acid in distilled water and by gradually adding potassium hydroxide to raise the pH of the solution to 6 and 8. Polyvinylpyrollidone (1.8%) was also added as a binding agent to 21 mM of the prepared K-salt of imazapyr. Seeds of each maize hybrid were thoroughly mixed with the imazapyr solution. The seeds were allowed to soak for 24 hours to give a coating of 0.4 mg a.e imazapyr per seed (22). The treated seeds were dried and distributed to extension agents for planting within a week.Each of the 30 selected farmers' fields represented a replicate in each State in each year. In 2014, each on-farm trial was composed of two IR-maize hybrids (1 set treated and 1 set un-treated) along with an untreated-OPV. In 2015, each on-farm trial consisted of the same set of IR hybrids (1 set treated and 1 set untreated) along with two untreated OPVs. In each field, each hybrid or OPV was planted in a 10 × 10 m plot in the previously marked Striga infested fields. Four maize seeds were planted in rows 75 cm spaced apart at a spacing of 50 cm. At two weeks after sowing (WAS) maize seedling were thinned to two plants per hill. Other weeds were carefully removed using a hoe at two, six and eight WAS. Two weeks after sowing, fertilizer was applied at the rate of 50 Kg N ha −1 , 50 Kg P 2 O 5 ha −1 and 50 Kg K 2 O ha −1 using NPK (15:15:15). At five WAS, 50 Kg N ha −1 was again applied using urea. Data collected included the number of emerged Striga, Striga damage severity rating on a 1-9 scale at full silking (10 weeks after planting maize). The whole plots were harvested when the crop was fully mature and completely dry and cobs weighed. Grain yield was computed using 80% shelling of the maize cobs. As the fields were not artificially and uniformly infested and the trials were established on new plots every year, data recorded from all communities in each State were subjected to separate analysis of variance for each year in SAS using the model shown below:where Y ij is the observed yield at each location: µ is the overall mean for grain yield; L i is the effect of the ith location; H j is the effect of the jth hybrid; and e ij is the residual effect. Treatment means were compared using the LSD at 5% level of probability [27].Herbicide seed coating reduced number of emerged Striga per plot in farmers' fields in all the locations. In Kano in 2014, the number of emerged Striga was 4.9 to 7.9 times less in herbicide treated hybrids in comparison with those of the same hybrids planted without herbicide treatment. The Striga-resistant OPV (TZL COMP1 SYN) had 6.7 to 8.0 times more Striga than the treated hybrids (Figure 2). When treated with herbicides in 2015, number of emerged Striga was 0.67 and 1.13 per m 2 for hybrid 1 and hybrid 4, respectively (Figure 3). When untreated, the hybrids and the OPVs had number of Striga that were significantly higher than those of the treated hybrids. Number of emerged Striga was 5.19 per m 2 for hybrid 1 and 5.35 for hybrid 4. Numbers on the OPVs were 3.11 Striga per m 2 for DT STR SYN W and 2.03 Striga per m 2 for TZL COMP1 SYN. The numbers of Striga on the untreated hybrids were also higher than those on the two Striga-resistant OPVs (DT STR SYN W and TZL COMP1 SYN) (Figure 3).In Bauchi in 2014, the number of emerged Striga on the untreated IR-maize hybrids were twice those on the treated IR-maize hybrids though the figures were not statistically different. The Striga-resistant OPV check had 4 times more Striga than the treated IR-maize hybrids and twice more than the untreated IR-maize hybrids (Figure 2). Similarly, in 2015, herbicide treated IR-maize hybrids had number of emerged Striga that was significantly lower than that on the untreated hybrids and the OPV checks (Figure 3). When untreated, the number of emerged Striga plants was 7.3 times higher on hybrid 1 and 4.6 times higher on hybrid 4 than on the corresponding treated IR-maize hybrids. The OPV DT STR SYN W had 4.7 times more Striga than herbicide-treated hybrid 1 and 2.6 times more Striga than hybrid 4, while OPV TLZ COMP1 SYN had 3 times more Striga than the treated hybrid 1 and 1.6 times more Striga than the treated hybrid 4. When untreated the hybrids had number of Striga that were significantly higher than that of DT STR SYN W and TZL COMP 1 SYN. Striga damage was scored in both locations only in 2015. Striga damage rating on farmers' fields ranged from 4 to 5 in Kano and 3 to 5 in Bauchi (Figure 4). Herbicide seed treatment significantly reduced Striga damage scores in both locations. Untreated hybrids recorded damage scores that were similar to those of the untreated OPV checks in Kano. In Bauchi, the hybrid IR hybrid 4 had damage score that was significantly higher than the two Striga-resistant open-pollinated varieties (DT STR SYN and TZL Comp 1).for hybrid 1 and hybrid 4, respectively (Figure 3). When untreated, the hybrids and the OPVs had number of Striga that were significantly higher than those of the treated hybrids. Number of emerged Striga was 5.19 per m 2 for hybrid 1 and 5.35 for hybrid 4. Numbers on the OPVs were 3.11 Striga per m 2 for DT STR SYN W and 2.03 Striga per m 2 for TZL COMP1 SYN. The numbers of Striga on the untreated hybrids were also higher than those on the two Striga-resistant OPVs (DT STR SYN W and TZL COMP1 SYN) (Figure 3). In Bauchi in 2014, the number of emerged Striga on the untreated IR-maize hybrids were twice those on the treated IR-maize hybrids though the figures were not statistically different. The Strigaresistant OPV check had 4 times more Striga than the treated IR-maize hybrids and twice more than the untreated IR-maize hybrids (Figure 2). Similarly, in 2015, herbicide treated IR-maize hybrids had number of emerged Striga that was significantly lower than that on the untreated hybrids and the OPV checks (Figure 3). When untreated, the number of emerged Striga plants was 7.3 times higher on hybrid 1 and 4.6 times higher on hybrid 4 than on the corresponding treated IR-maize hybrids. The OPV DT STR SYN W had 4.7 times more Striga than herbicide-treated hybrid 1 and 2.6 times more Striga than hybrid 4, while OPV TLZ COMP1 SYN had 3 times more Striga than the treated hybrid 1 and 1.6 times more Striga than the treated hybrid 4. When untreated the hybrids had number of Striga that were significantly higher than that of DT STR SYN W and TZL COMP 1 SYN. Striga damage was scored in both locations only in 2015. Striga damage rating on farmers' fields ranged from 4 to 5 in Kano and 3 to 5 in Bauchi (Figure 4). Herbicide seed treatment significantly reduced Striga damage scores in both locations. Untreated hybrids recorded damage scores that were similar to those of the untreated OPV checks in Kano. In Bauchi, the hybrid IR hybrid 4 had damage score that was significantly higher than the two Striga-resistant open-pollinated varieties (DT STR SYN and TZL Comp 1).  In 2014, IR-Hybrid 1 treated with imazapyr produced grain yield that was not significantly different from the grain yield of the untreated hybrid in Kano (Figure 5). Herbicide treatment of IR-hybrid 4 however, produced grain yield that was significantly higher than that of the untreated hybrid. Grain yield of the OPV TZL COMP 1 SYN was significantly lower than those of the hybrids irrespective of herbicide treatment except for untreated hybrid 4. Grain yield of TZL COMP 1 SYN did not significantly differ from that of untreated hybrid 4. Despite the significant differences in number of Striga among the treated and untreated hybrids, differences in grain yield among these hybrids were not significant irrespective of hybrid treatment in Kano in 2015 (Figure 6) probably due to poor rainfall (Figure 1) Additionally, both the treated and untreated IR-maize hybrids produced grain yields that were significantly lower than the OPVs (Figure 6). In 2014, IR-Hybrid 1 treated with imazapyr produced grain yield that was not significantly different from the grain yield of the untreated hybrid in Kano (Figure 5). Herbicide treatment of IRhybrid 4 however, produced grain yield that was significantly higher than that of the untreated hybrid. Grain yield of the OPV TZL COMP 1 SYN was significantly lower than those of the hybrids irrespective of herbicide treatment except for untreated hybrid 4. Grain yield of TZL COMP 1 SYN did not significantly differ from that of untreated hybrid 4. Despite the significant differences in number of Striga among the treated and untreated hybrids, differences in grain yield among these hybrids were not significant irrespective of hybrid treatment in Kano in 2015 (Figure 6) probably due to poor rainfall (Figure 1) Additionally, both the treated and untreated IR-maize hybrids produced grain yields that were significantly lower than the OPVs (Figure 6).  In 2014, differences in grain yield among the maize hybrids were not significant in Bauchi irrespective of herbicide treatment (Figure 5). Except for herbicide-treated hybrid 4 that produced grain yield that was not statistically different from the untreated OPV check TZL COMP1 SYN, all the hybrids produced grain yields that were higher than that of TZL Comp1 SYN. In 2015, the treated IR-maize hybrids produced grain yields that were significantly higher than those of the untreated IRmaize hybrids in Bauchi. Grain yields of the treated hybrids did not however, significantly differ from those of the untreated two OPV checks (Figure 6).Although, crop rotation and intercropping involving legumes [13,28,29], application of organic In 2014, differences in grain yield among the maize hybrids were not significant in Bauchi irrespective of herbicide treatment (Figure 5). Except for herbicide-treated hybrid 4 that produced grain yield that was not statistically different from the untreated OPV check TZL COMP1 SYN, all the hybrids produced grain yields that were higher than that of TZL Comp1 SYN. In 2015, the treated IR-maize hybrids produced grain yields that were significantly higher than those of the untreated IR-maize hybrids in Bauchi. Grain yields of the treated hybrids did not however, significantly differ from those of the untreated two OPV checks (Figure 6).Although, crop rotation and intercropping involving legumes [13,28,29], application of organic and inorganic fertilizers [30], and the use of Striga-resistant cultivars [31,32] can partially reduce the Striga problem, no short-term control measure has been developed that subsistence farmers could use within their financial resources or that fits well into their traditional cropping systems. The use of imazapyr-resistant maize offers an opportunity to (i) control Striga itself so that adequate crop yields can be achieved each cropping season, (ii) deplete the Striga seed bank in the soil, (iii) is cost-effective; and (iv) is compatible with existing small-holder cropping systems [33]. Imazapyr seed coating provide an effective measure for controlling Striga [34] as a short-term measure until crop varieties with adequate levels of genetic resistance become available [18]. Results from our field trials confirmed the efficacy of imazapyr to reduce Striga infestation in maize. Untreated maize hybrids had over 4.4 Striga plants per m 2 across the two years in Bauchi and 4.7 in Kano. Number of emerged Striga per plot was over 2 to 7 times greater on untreated hybrids in Bauchi in 2014 and 2015. These results are in agreement with earlier results [22,25] who reported that herbicide treatments of seeds of the IR-maize hybrids considerably reduced Striga infestation in experimental plots in on-station trials in northern Nigeria. Similar reports of reduction in Striga infestation with herbicide seed coating have been obtained in East and Southern Africa [34,35].In general, all IR-maize hybrids produced comparable yields regardless of herbicide treatment in Kano in 2014, possibly because the hybrids also possess field resistance to Striga. Unlike the results in 2014, maize hybrids produced lower grain yields than the OPV checks in Kano in 2015 mainly due to the drought stress that occurred in the area. Rainfall in the zones was low (Figure 4) and its distribution was poor which adversely affected the performance of the hybrids. The heterogeneous nature of the two OPVs used as checks in 2015 may better impact resistance under variable growing conditions with resistance to Striga [36]. In Bauchi, response of maize grain yield to herbicide treatment was not consistent. In 2014, IR-maize hybrids produced similar grain yields regardless of the use of herbicide seed treatment, confirming resistance of these hybrids to Striga infestation. In 2015, hybrid treated with herbicides produced grain yields that were higher than those of the untreated hybrids. This result shows that when rainfall distribution during the cropping season is good, herbicide seed treatment will give yield advantage over untreated hybrid. This was the case of seed treatment in Bauchi in 2015. Rainfall (Figure 1) during the cropping period of July-September was good and well distributed to support maize growth. Although there was no consistent yield advantage across locations and years associated with the herbicide seed treatment, the number of emerged Striga was significantly lower in plots planted to herbicide-coated hybrid suggesting that planting herbicide-coated seed will contribute to reduce Striga infestation and seed bank of Striga. The lower dose requirement of the herbicide seed treatment makes it ecologically sensible to use in reducing Striga infestation on farmers' fields. De Groote [37] reported a very good marginal rate of return for the IR technology when the cost of herbicide was 4 US dollars per ha −1 .The results of this study showed that coating IR maize hybrid seeds with imazapyr was effective for Striga control. There was however no consistent yield advantage of herbicide seed coating over the untreated hybrids because the hybrids were tolerant to Striga. Combination of herbicide seed treatment and genetic resistance to Striga would serve as an effective integrated approach that would reduce the parasite seed bank from the soil and prevent production of new seeds. The IR-maize hybrids and the OPV checks containing Striga resistance genes did not suffer from drastic yield losses in Striga infested fields in both Bauchi and Kano. ","tokenCount":"3795"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2ee934b0e7b3a0192a46945374580e60","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6bf60741-1290-4b90-909b-33446b89fa62/content","id":"1574191474"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"39795f4c-1777-4051-92f4-4cd8caf27c2e","pagecount":"12","content":"One of the great challenges in agricultural development and sustainable intensification is the assurance of social equity in food security oriented interventions. Development practitioners, researchers, and policy makers alike could benefit from prior insight into what interventions or environmental shocks might differentially affect farmers' food security status, in order to move towards more informed and equitable development. We examined the food security status and livelihood activities of 269 smallholder farm households (HHs) in Bihar, India. Proceeding with a four-step analysis, we first applied a multivariate statistical methodology to differentiate five primary farming system types. We next applied an indicator of food security in the form of HH potential food availability (PFA), and examined the contribution of crop, livestock, and on-and off-farm income generation to PFA within each farm HH type. Lastly, we applied scenario analysis to examine the potential impact of the adoption of 'climate smart' agricultural (CSA) practices in the form of conservation agriculture (CA) and improved livestock husbandry, and environmental shocks on HH PFA. Our results indicate that compared to livestock interventions, CA may hold considerable potential to boost HH PFA, though primarily for wealthier and medium-scale cereal farmers. These farm HH types were however considerably more vulnerable to food insecurity risks resulting from simulated drought, while part-time farmers and resource-poor agricultural laborers generating income from off-farm pursuits were comparatively less vulnerable, due in part to their more diversified income sources and potential to migrate in search of work. Our results underscore the importance of prior planning for development initiatives aimed at increasing smallholder food security while maintaining social equity, while providing a robust methodology to vet the implications of agricultural interventions on an ex ante basis.The global diversity of smallholder farming systems and associated livelihood strategies reflects the intrinsic interaction of social-ecological processes and factors at different organizational levels. Proper characterization of this diversity is therefore an important step towards delineating the appropriate social-ecological niche for different technological and policy options (Descheemaeker et al., 2016;Ojiem et al., 2006). When combined with geographic analysis, recommendation domains for agronomic technologies, management practices, and farming systems can be developed, with the ultimate goal of increasing the efficiency of development efforts by accelerating smallholder farmers' adaptation and adoption of productivity increasing technology products (Sumberg and Reese, 2004).In intensive cereal based farming systems, the successful development of resource use efficient management practices requires coherence with farmers' resource endowments, ability and interest to invest in diversified crop and livestock species, crop and livestock management techniques and livelihood options, as well as with the full range of activities carried out by farming households. Grouping farming systems in terms of their resources and livelihood activities, as well as agricultural management practices, is now common. Farming system typologies have been used for nearly two decades to capture the diversity of farming systems (Landais, 1998), and are increasingly used to provide guidelines for the development of agricultural innovations and to better understand their implications for climate change (Berre et al., 2016;Chopin et al., 2015;Douxchamps et al., 2015;Kuivanen et al., 2016;Pacini et al., 2014;Tittonell, 2014).Foresight of the possible impact of climatic shocks and technological alternatives is also an indispensable step towards the delimitation of appropriate recommendation domains for 'climate smart' agriculture (CSA). CSA aims to simultaneously increase agricultural productivity, food security, and farmers' adaptive capacity to climate extremes, while also lowering greenhouse gas emissions (Campbell et al., 2014). Ex-ante foresight can also aid in the design of technological alternatives (and accompanying delivery pathways and policies) for CSA, and development interventions intended to improve the smallholder livelihoods (cf. Rosenstock et al., 2014). The complexity and diversity of farm household livelihood strategies however necessitates careful focus on key indicators that reflect changes in vulnerability or resilience, with particular emphasis on food security (Frelat et al., 2016).In South Asia's intensively cropped Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), an estimated 640 million people live in extreme poverty and rely on cereals for primary subsistence (Saharawat et al., 2010). The IGP encompasses the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra river basins where rice, wheat and maize are the most commonly rotated cereals. Rice-wheat rotations in particular predominate on > 13 million ha (Chauhan et al., 2012;Jat et al., 2016). The IGP nonetheless has a high degree of spatial variability in terms of poverty, with a clear low-to-high gradient of food insecurity moving from west-to-east (Erenstein and Thorpe, 2011). Farmers tend to have larger herds and farm sizes, more access to irrigation, and higher cropping intensity in the west, all of which influences household food security (Erenstein et al., 2010;Erenstein and Thorpe, 2011). Yield gaps however remain common in the IGP, ranging from 14 to 47%, 18-70%, and 36-77% for wheat, rice, and maize, respectively. These gaps widen in the eastern IGP, broadly correlating with the region's increased poverty, farmers' low investment capability and aversion to risk, and increasing in energy and input costs, in addition to climactic variability (Aravindakshan et al., 2015;Jat et al., 2016). Pulses, oilseeds, and mixed crop-livestock systems are also common, as is farmer engagement in seasonal and semi-permanent migration and off-farm labor (Erenstein and Thorpe, 2011).Farmers in the IGP are also vulnerable to climate change (Jat et al., 2016;Sapkota et al., 2015). Increasing temperatures reduce the winter season wheat crop's duration which, when combined with terminal heat stress and drought, can substantially lower productivity (Arshad et al., 2016;Krupnik et al., 2015a,b). Eastern India's Bihar State has been identified as one of most vulnerable regions to climate change due to heat, drought and flood risks, in addition to increasingly erratic monsoon precipitation (Sehgal et al., 2013;Chhabra and Haris, 2015). As India's third most populous state, over 90% of Bihar's inhabitants live in rural areas. 81% depend on agriculture, although food insecurity remains common (Krishna and Kumar, 2014). Development planners nonetheless hope to convert Bihar to India's 'future food bowl' by dramatically boosting cereals and livestock production (Singh et al., 2009;Laik et al., 2014). This is a formidable challenge given the state's generally unfavorable biophysical and climactic environment, high degree of farm fragmentation, inadequate infrastructure, and weak institutions and markets (Laik et al., 2014).Over the last decade, alternative cropping systems employing the principles of CSA have been have been developed in the form of conservation agriculture through on-station and on-farm validation trials across Bihar (Jat et al., 2014;Laik et al., 2014;Sapkota et al., 2015). These innovations include alternatives to intensive tillage for rice establishment that mitigate global warming potential, alongside rotational options for direct seeded maize and wheat establishment with the retention of crop resides as a surface mulch to conserve soil moisture (Singh et al., 2012;Jat et al., 2014;Laik et al., 2014). When carefully implemented, these practices can reduce production costs, energy demand, and greenhouse gas emissions, while also maintaining or augmenting yield (Gathala et al., 2013;Jat et al., 2014Jat et al., , 2016;;Gathala et al., 2016). These outcomes qualify these practices under the rubric of CSA (Sapkota et al., 2015). Not all technologies are however likely to generate equal income or food security benefits for all smallholder households. For example, milk production comprises an important source of nutrition and income generation for some farmers' livelihood systems in eastern India (Erenstein et al., 2010;Erenstein and Thorpe, 2011) and therefore, increases in cereal crop productivity may have less impact on their food security or income. The poor fit of many widelypromoted agronomic technologies has been corroborated by their low and differentiated adoption (Erenstein and Laxmi, 2008;Singh et al., 2012), further challenging the goal of increasing Bihar's cereal productivity.In this paper, we demonstrate how the use of farming systems typologies and an innovative food security model can be used to explore and assess the impact of CSA practices, improved animal husbandry, and climactic shocks on the food security of farm households on an exante basis. Using survey data from 269 farmers in six villages and three districts of Bihar, we apply a multivariate statistical methodology for typology construction combined with the calculation a simple yet robust food security indicator. We follow with an analysis of different agronomic intervention and climactic risk scenario analyses, with interpretation of the results differentiated by predominant farming system type. We conclude by discussing the ways in which this methodology can be used to generate insight into the advantages and constraints of alternative agricultural interventions and scenarios, in order to better target interventions for more equitable development among smallholder farmers while reducing their vulnerability to climate change related risks.Administered in 2010-2011, the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) farm household (HH) survey catalogued farming systems and livelihood pursuits in the IGP (Pede et al., 2013). The survey included intensive sampling in Bihar, selected because of its dependency on agriculture for food security, and because of its ranking as India's poorest state (RBI, 2013). Bihar also hosts a number of long-term agronomic experimental platforms that compare conventional crop management with CSA practices, thereby providing data for simulation analyses (see Section 2.4). Surveys were administered in Bihar's Begusarai, Nawada and Samastipur districts. Within each, three administrative blocks were chosen, after which two villages per block with 18 HHs each were selected (Fig. 1). Each layer of this selection process was randomized, resulting in a dataset of 269 HHs. The survey instrument was organized into five sections, including (i) general farm and HH characteristics, including land use and capital, (ii) farm input and labor use, (iii) experience with and adoption of field crop and horticultural production technologies and practices, (iv) livestock production, with emphasis on dairy, and crop residue management (including use as animal feed), and (v) off-farm HH income sources and financial expenditures.We explored the diversity of Bihar's farming systems using typological analysis (Berre et al., 2016;Cortez-Arriola et al., 2015;Pacini et al., 2014;Tittonell, 2014). Typologies can be developed using structural (farm assets and resources) or functional (livelihood pursuits) variables, or both (Tittonell, 2014). We selected and computed variables representing structural and functional features of farming systems, the latter related mainly to farmers' primary crop and livestock systems. Thirty-two variables were computed in total (Table 1). The remaining variables were related to farm mechanization, for which we employed a custom scoring system by aggregating information about the use and ownership of irrigation pumps, tractors, threshers, fodder choppers, and pesticide sprayers. We firstly considered the category of use for each of these machines, and accounted for the relative importance of each item by assigning scores of 2, 1, and 0 if they were owned, rented, or owned but not used, respectively. This is important for overcoming any bias that may result from items owned but not used, and by indicating if the machine is owned (which permits flexible use) or rented (which is less flexible in use and employed only for specific tasks). Each item's relative importance for farm intensification was then tabulated (i.e. a tractor use is comparatively more consistently important than sprayer use as land preparation is prerequisite to cropping). After assessing each HH's frequency of ownership or rental, machinery types were ranked in descending order of frequency, assigning a low score to popular items that aid in but are arguably not essential to crop production (e.g. pumps), and high scores to low-frequency items that are prerequisite to establishing a crop (e.g. tractors). Weights were then applied to the following types of farm equipment: 2 for pumps and threshers, 3 for fodder choppers, 4 for sprayers, and 5 for tractors. These weights were then modified by subtracting the value of one if the items were rented instead of owned (e.g. tractor rental is equivalent to 5 − 1 = 4, and is thus valued higher than pump ownership with a score of 2).Three steps were taken to build our HH typology. The first step reduced the dimensionality of the data and identified primary patterns and variability by applying principal component analysis (PCA) using R (R 3.1.1. Core Team, 2014) with the package ade4 (Dray and Dufour, 2007). Selection of the relevant principal components (PCs) was performed by scree test (Cattell, 1966). In the second step, we employed hierarchical clustering analysis on the new orthogonal data projection made by the selected PCs. Cluster numbers were determined in the last step, after which we constructed a dendrogram of an ascendant hierarchical classification performed using Ward's criterion (Ward, 1963). We enforced a decision rule set regarding where to cut dendrogram branches by searching for the maximum average silhouette width (measures derived from the comparison of intra-class similarity, with high and low inter-class similarity separated) of different k-means clustering solutions with varying cluster numbers (Rousseeuw, 1987). There are literally hundreds of definitions of food security (FAO, 2003). The term usually implies that people (at whatever scales considered, from households to nations to regions) have equal and sustained physical and economic access to a sufficient amount of safe and nutritious food to meet daily caloric requirements and to maintain an active and healthy lifestyle (cf. FAO, 1996). While comprehensive, the complexity of this definition makes quantification difficult. Food availability is conversely the basis for food access and food security (Mainuddin and Kirby, 2015), especially at the household level. Given our available data, we therefore adapted a simple measure of potential HH food availability ratio as an indicator of food security, based on Frelat et al. (2016) (Fig. 2).This indicator quantifies potential food availability (PFA) as an index, calculated on a kilocalorie basis, per individual farm HH based on reported production and consumption of crop and livestock products, as well as consumption of food purchased from money earned through off-farm employment and/or sales of produced crop and livestock products. Although it does not measure actual consumption, this simple indicator is strongly correlated with other indicators of food security and nutrition. Examples include the household level diet diversity score and the hunger and food insecurity access scale, although PFA is relatively more straightforward to measure (Hammond et al., 2016). For this reason, it has been widely used to assess the drivers of food security in Sub-Saharan Africa (Frelat et al., 2016;Ritzema et al., 2017), although it has not yet been applied anywhere in South Asia.The PFA of an observed HH is a function of their direct and indirect food consumption, which we represent in energy equivalents (kcal). Direct consumption of food and livestock products refers to a given HHs' use of products produced on their farm converted into energy equivalents, as determined by Eq. ( 1):where Y fc is the yield of each food crop fc (kg farm HH − 1 ), E fc is the energy density of each crop and crop constituent (kcal kg − 1 ), and θ fc is the fraction of each crop consumed by the HH. Y l , E l and θ l refer to the livestock equivalents of the same variables, respectively. The primary livestock product was milk (l cow − 1 day − 1 ). Energetic coefficients for crop and livestock products were determined from USDA (2015) coefficients.HHs may also increase food availability through indirect consumption using cash reserves derived from cash income (C INR , Indian Rupees (INR)) earned through sales of farm products as well as off-farm income sources, after subtracting expendable income reinvested in farm inputs, as described in Eq. ( 2):where β ie denotes farm input expenses (Indian Rupees (INR) unit − 1 ), for example machinery rental, seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, transportation, or labor. The addition of the s subscript to fc and l indicate food crops and livestock products sold to generate cash income. β fcs and β Lls each represent the median market price (INR kg − 1 ) at which food crops and livestock products were sold, as reported by survey respondents. Cash crops were defined as crops of which > 90% of the annual produce is sold (i.e. θ fc < 0.1). Crops like cotton were therefore treated as cash crops, while some food crops, for example maize, may be included as a cash crop if the farm HH sells at least 90% of annual production. β of stands for income generated through off-farm employment, investments, or remittances, derived from farmers' reported percentage of total HH income.In order to standardize the values resulting from indirect consumption calculations, indirect food availability data were converted to the energetic equivalent (E rice ,kcal kg − 1 ) of the amount of the primary standard staple food in the study area, in this case milled rice (Oryza sativa), which could be purchased with earned income (C INR ) at the median reported market price in each district (P rice ). This is a simple way of transforming cash into energy and is an estimation of the maximum level of energy that a household can obtain from reported cash generation through sales and off farm income (Frelat et al., 2016;Hammond et al., 2016):In our calculations, we accounted only for food crops, livestock products, or cash crops consumed or sold. Products lost due to spoilage or wastage were not included. The total amount of food potentially available for the farm HH (kcal HH − 1 ) was then calculated:In order to compare the potential food available (in kcal) at the HH level, we first disaggregated HH members by gender and age classes as advised by the FAO (2001), in order to estimate adult male equivalents (also referred to as capita below), based on energy requirements for members of three age classes. To obtain capita equivalents, we attributed a weight of 0.4 to the number of children between zero and six, 0.7 for children between six and 15 years old, one for males older than 15, and 0.9 for women older than 15. Total daily farm HH energy requirements (E hh ) were then computed:where n i is the number of individuals in each age class i, and α i is the energy requirement (kcal person − 1 day − 1 ) in each age class, based on the standard per capita equivalent of 2500 kcal day − 1 . The above information were then integrated to provide potential food availability for one year:We considered three scenarios to simulate the effect of technology adoption or crop failure, in order to quantify their hypothetical impact on the PFA ratio of households (Table 2). These scenarios model a simplified version of possible changes in agricultural production, and are intended as a heuristic ex ante tool to judge the potential impact of development interventions or risks on HH food availability.The first scenario considers the adoption of 'climate smart' agricultural practices frequently promoted to intensify rice-wheat rotations while limiting negative environmental externalities by using conservation agriculture principles (Aravindakshan et al., 2015). Using long-term experimental data from Bihar's rice-wheat systems, we simulated the effect of farmers achieving rice and wheat yields and associated gross margins of the most agronomically and economically efficient treatment reported by Jat et al. (2014). The experimental cropping pattern included wheat established using zero-tillage rotated with directly sown dry seeded rice, also under zero tillage, with 50% and 25% of rice and wheat residues, respectively, retained as mulch. Starting from initial establishment in 2006-2007, with baseline ricewheat yields of 6.43 t ha − 1 , the linear slope of the annual rice-wheat system yield increase for this treatment was 0.9 t ha − 1 (R 2 = 0.88), These practices also generated an annual increase of INR 18,032 (USD 267) ha − 1 (R 2 = 0.92) from the baseline year, which were simulated as additional cash income from rice and wheat sold, while reducing diesel costs and hence greenhouse gas emissions from repetitive tillage, as reported by Jat et al. (2014). Yields and profits from the last year of the experiment were applied as detailed in Table 2. These practices also required increased seed and herbicide costs, which were accounted for in our calculations. All other farm HH parameters were left unchanged.Fig. 2. A simple model of the potential food availability ratio expressed in energy equivalents, showing direct and indirect forms of food availability generation and consideration of household required caloric availability (adapted from Frelat et al., 2016), using a minimum daily threshold of 2500 kcal person − 1 (in adult male equivalents) for all days of the year. If the ratio is > 1, the household is considered \"food secure\". If < 1, the household is \"food insecure\".Summary of three scenarios applied to the farm household food security model to simulate the potential effect of select agronomic and livestock production technology adoption, and of climactic shocks in the form of drought.Median observed effect Food production benefit Production costs 1 Intensive rice-wheat rotations utilizing conservation agriculture a• Rice yield = 6.3 t ha − 1 • Wheat yield = 5.8 t ha − 1 • Rice-wheat system yield = 12.1 t ha − 1• Rice = 27,500 INR (USD 410) ha − 1 • Wheat = 24,750 INR (USD 369) ha − 1 • Rice-wheat system = 52,250 INR (USD 779) ha b Note that in our dataset, relatively little or no additional (i.e. purchased) inputs were found for households that have higher milk production than those with lower milk production, irrespective of livestock number. Rather, increased milk production appears to be the result of relatively simple changes in livestock husbandry and improved management practices, with emphasis on increasing the volume of feed directed to lactating animals in the form of crop residues.The second scenario explores the potential impact of productivity enhancing livestock management practices on the PFA ratio. Such practices can include improving the quality of feed, disease prevention and management, as well as use of improved breeds, among others. Because no experimental data were available to simulate productivity enhancing management practices for livestock on Bihar, we followed methods employed by Ritzema et al. (2017) to assess the impact of livestock production intensification on HH food security. The impact of an assumed 50% increase in the production of milk, which could be obtained through a combination of the management practices mentioned above, was examined with all other farm parameters left unchanged.In the final scenario, we assessed the vulnerability of Bihar's farming systems and food security to climatic shock in the form of drought. Our purpose was to examine the effect of an extreme environmental shock on the behavior of the model and resulting data, and to examine what the differential effect of an extreme and severe drought event might be on each household type's food availability status. Drought and delayed onset of monsoonal rains have been observed in five of the last six years in Bihar, affecting 38 of the state's districts with variable yet significant crop losses (Kishore et al., 2014). We therefore examined the effect of drought by simulating an extreme 90% decrease in the production of key cereals grown by farm HHs, including rice, wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea mays), millet (Pennisetum glaucum), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and oats (Avena sativa). All other parameters were held constant.Of the 32 variables measured in surveys, scree plots of the Eigen values resulting from the PCA indicated that the diversity in farm household characteristics was associated with three principal components (PC), together explaining 30% of the variability (Fig. 3A). These variables were related to the diversity and intensity of cropping activities, market integration, the relative importance of farming in income generation, as well as herd size and stocking rate (Fig. 3B). The first two PCs spread out farm households in terms of the number of crops grown, the percentage of land dedicated to wheat in the dry season, the percentage of land dedicated to rice, and the proportion and importance of crop products sold for income generation. Combined, these two principle components explain 22% of variance. The third PC is related to the level of livestock resources and stocking rate (Fig. 3E). Taken with the first two PCs, the addition of the third PC explained 30% of variance. Hierarchical clustering analysis indicated five main types of farm HHs across the three districts examined. Projecting these clusters on the first two principle components, only four groups are observable (Fig. 3C), while the addition of the third principle component and subsequent re-projection clearly differentiated five clusters (Fig. 3D and  F).Summing HH farm types across districts, the first cluster discernable is a group of 46 farmers who can be described as taking part in agriculture only on a part-time basis (17% of the sample). This group has mid-level resource endowments in terms of land and livestock (medians of 1.1 ha and 1 head, respectively) as well as in terms of mechanization (median score 5.2). These farmers can however be differentiated because their primary income source is derived from off-farm activities. These part-time farmers diversify their production of staple maize, rice and wheat with vegetables and oilseeds. One-third of their crop products are sold to the market.The second cluster of 63 HHs can be described as wealthy farmers, representing 23% of the sample. This group is characterized by large land and livestock holdings (medians of 2 ha and 2 heads, respectively), with the highest mechanization levels in our dataset (median 6.0). These households farm year-round and are highly market-oriented, with median proportions of income from crop and livestock activities recorded at 60 and 30%, respectively. These wealthy farmers produce a high diversity of crops including rice, wheat, maize, oilseeds and vegetables, of which half are on average directed to the market.A group of 50 HHs representing 19% of the sample make up the third cluster, which can be considered as small-scale crop and livestock farmers. This group manages a comparatively small amount cropland (median of 0.6 ha), which is sometimes rented-in. They have a relatively high HH size to managed land ratio (median of 12 adult equivalents ha − 1 ), with low mechanization scores (median 3.6). These farmers conversely have high stocking rates (median of 2 heads on 0.4 ha), intensive use of crop residues as animal feed (75% as fodder), and the highest proportion of income generated from livestock product sales (median 27.5%). Their field crop systems are based on maize, rice, and wheat as staples, although sales of these crops also significantly contributes to income generation (median 40% of income originating from food crop production). Medium-scale cereal crop farmers comprise the fourth cluster of 72 farm HHs (27% of the sample), with land and livestock holdings medians of 1.2 ha and 1 head, respectively, and mid-level mechanization scores (median 4.4). Their income is however primarily dependent on food and cash crops sold (median of 70%). These medium-scale cereal crop farmers also dedicated the largest proportion of their land to ricewheat rotations. Although they integrate livestock. Milk produced is primarily for home consumption and does not represent a source of income for this group.Lastly, the fifth and smallest group of 38 HHs can be described as resource-poor agricultural laborers (14% of the sample). As most of their income is generated off-farm, farm size was comparatively small (median of 0.3 ha), with the greatest HH size to managed land ratio (median of 28.2 adult equivalents ha − 1 ). This group has the lowest level of mechanization (median score 1.9). Their cropping systems are dedicated exclusively to rice-wheat rotations to produce staples for home consumption only. The overarching majority of this group's income is derived from off-employment, mainly as laborers on other farms. Livestock products were an insignificant source of energy for this group. Most crop residues were either sold or used for fuel.All five clusters are observable in Begusari, Samastipur, although only four were found in Nawada (Fig. 4A-C). The former districts have similar farm HH type distribution with > 80% the observed HH belonging to either the part time farmer, wealthy farmer, or small-scale crop and livestock farmer groups. Nawada district conversely shows a different farm household type composition, with most HHs falling under the medium-scale cereal farming system group (cluster four). Summing farmers across districts, all five clusters were represented (Fig. 4D).Across all farm HHs and clusters, a large gradient in PFA was observed, with 10% of HHs unable to satisfy their basic caloric needs (Fig. 5). The contribution of food crop consumption to the PFA ratio decreases as HH food needs are satisfied, with progressively more HHs meeting food energy demand through cash crops, food crops sold, livestock, and off-farm income. Cash crops however contribute to the PFA ratio only for farm HHs with higher food availability ratios, suggesting that a minimum level of wealth and an ability to invest is  prerequisite for cash crops to contribute to food security. Livestock is important for the maintenance of food security for poorer households (representing up to 20% of the PFA), but does not appear to be a crucial ingredient of Bihar's farming systems to increase PFA more generally. On the contrary, the significance of livestock to the PFA shows diminishing returns as PFA increases. Lastly, off-farm income plays a large role, with 40% of HH food resources purchased using off-farm income.Examining food security in different farming system types, as expressed by the PFA ratios, considerable diversity in household livelihood strategies can be discerned (Fig. 6). Part-time farmers (cluster one) show considerable contribution of off-farm food sources (both purchased and directly consumed). Smaller farms appear to primarily consume their produce, while larger ones were more market integrated. All but one HH in this cluster were able to meet HH food energy requirements on an annual basis. In the second cluster, comprised of wealthy farmers, off-farm activities show little contribution to the PFA ratio. Their most important livelihood and hence potential sources of income are sales of both food and cash crops, with little livestock integration. These farmers are the most potentially food secure compared to others, with the steepest rate of increase in observed distributions, and 63% of HHs able to supply in excess of five-times the food energy required annually. This is indicative of an ability to hedge against food insecurity-related risks. Small-scale crop and livestock farmers make up the third cluster, with low rates of PFA ratio increase, and only 28% of HHs able to supply > 5 times the PFA ratio. While off-farm income makes a significant contribution to PFA for most HHs in this group, mixed crop-livestock systems contribute to the base of the PFA ratio. Off-farm income also becomes progressively more important for nine more food secure HHs on the right of the distribution, although maximum PFA ratio of this group ( 19) is lower than all others.In the fourth cluster, medium-scale crops farmers, less homogeneity of livelihood activities were observed. While all livelihood activities contributing to the PFAs of different HHs, livestock is comparatively less uncommon. Eleven HHs in this cluster are food insecure. Finally, the fifth cluster of resource-poor agricultural laborers consists of HHs nearly entirely dependent on-off farm work to fulfill their food energy requirements, with some contribution of foods produced on their own farm. Despite being poor in on-farm resources, the majority of these farmers are nonetheless able to meet the minimum caloric threshold, with only eight HHs having PFA ratios < 1, although only 28% appear to be able to maintain PFA ratios > 5.Scenario 1 considered farmers' use of zero tillage in intensive ricewheat rotations with crop residue retention as mulch, as part of conservation agricultural practices. The scenario considered the replacement of farmers' rice and wheat land area with these practices, using the associated yield and profitability levels reported by Jat et al. (2014) to evaluate how PFA responded by farm HH type. Simulated adoption of these practices had a positive impact on PFA (Fig. 7A), most notably for medium-scale cereal crop farmers whose PFA ratios increased by a median 81% (Fig. 7B). This group tended to have large land holdings (median 1.2 ha) and a large reliance on field crop production (Fig. 6). Medium-scale cereal crop farmers appear to have benefited disproportionally due to their relatively low baseline median production values for rice (0.7 t ha − 1 ) and wheat (0.6 t ha − 1 ). The inter-quartile range of PFA ratio increase was however widely distributed, ranging from approximately 86% at the upper quartile, to a lower quartile of 28%. Other cluster groupings however saw relatively limited change in their PFA ratios, though part time farmers benefited the least in this scenario, with 19% median PFA ratio increases.The second scenario, enhanced livestock production in the form of a 50% increase in daily milk yield, conversely had very little impact on the PFA of farm HHs in Bihar. Median net PFA ratio increase never exceeded 0.35 for any cluster (Fig. 7C). The percent change in median PFA ratios also never exceeded 10% (Fig. 7D). Small-scale crop and livestock farmers, who maintained a median of 2 heads of livestock farm − 1 stood to benefit the most from livestock productivity enhancing interventions, but with interquartile ranges of 4-17% PFA ratio increases. Wealthy farmers, who also maintain relatively high quantity of livestock on their farms (median 2 heads), had the second-highest median PFA ratio change at just 4%. Resourcepoor agricultural laborers, conversely, did not benefit in any way (median PFA ratio change 0%), while part-time and medium-scale cereal crop farmers also benefited only marginally (1 and 2% median PFA ratio change, respectively).The last scenario examined the effect of catastrophic drought, simulated by imposing a 90% decrease on cereals yields across clusters. The lowest median PFA ratio decrease was observed among part-time farmers, with a loss less than one (Fig. 7E). Wealthy farmers, who derived a the largest proportion of potentially consumable foods through indirect pathways, including sales of both food and cash crops, though with little reliance on livestock or off-farm income, fared worst under catastrophic drought simulations. Net median PFA decreased by two for this cluster, followed by medium-scale cereal crop farmers (− 1.3). Considering each farm HH type's percentile reduction in PFA, the catastrophic drought scenario strongly affected medium-scale cereal crop farmers (median decrease 43%). This cluster was followed by wealthy farmers reliant on food and cash crop sales, in addition to HH produced and consumed food energy (38% median PFA decrease), and by small-scale crop and livestock farmers (24% decrease), although each group showed large inter-quartile ranges (Fig. 7F). Resource-poor agricultural laborers, who depend primarily on off-farm income (often resulting from migratory labor to other States where drought may be less of a concern) to procure food, were conversely less affected.Using a simple indicator based on Frelat et al. (2016), we analyzed the ways in which the food security status of different farm household typologies in eastern India may be affected by changes in cropping systems and livestock management, and by environmental shocks such as drought. Typological assessment is most commonly carried out to account for farm household and livelihood heterogeneity, and to guide research and development planning processes. Different methods may be employed to collect data for typologies, the most common including household surveys and participatory approaches (Kuivanen et al., 2016;Tittonell, 2014). Farm types may be differentiated based on land holding size and market orientation (cf. Douxchamps et al., 2015;Tittonell, 2014), and/or decision-making processes (cf. Chopin et al., 2015; Bathfield et al., 2016), representing combinations of structural and functional variables.Our results indicate that farm households in Bihar engage in widely divergent livelihood strategies that in turn affect their potential food security responses to changes in agronomic management practices, animal husbandry, and climactic shocks. Combining food security scenario analysis with farm typological assessment therefore appears to be a potentially useful tool for agricultural planners wishing to assess the impact of different development interventions on an ex ante basis, in order to select best-bets from different development alternatives. Although typologies and indicators represent a simplification of farm household livelihood strategies, their combined use nonetheless appears to be a useful heuristic tool to explore and assess tendencies in food security under a range of simulated circumstances. The food security ratio utilized in this paper is similar to those employed by Frelat et al. (2016), andHammond et al. (2016) in Central America and Sub-Saharan Africa. Our study is however the first attempt to combine this indicator with typological and subsequent scenario analysis.We first examined the potential food security implications of 'climate smart' agricultural practices based on the principles of conservation agriculture (CA). When well managed, CA can reduce costs and energy consumption, while at times enhancing yield when compared to farmers' conventional practices in South Asia, particularly when analyzed at the field scale (Aravindakshan et al., 2015;Gathala et al., 2015;Krupnik et al., 2014;Saharawat et al., 2010). Using research station data from Jat et al. (2014), we simulated the effect of median rice and wheat yields that reached 6.3 and 5.8 t ha − 1 , respectively, on household food security ratios differentiated by typology. These yields are 3.78 and 4.14 t ha − 1 greater than the average reported rice and wheat yields for Bihar's farmers (calculated from GoB, 2016). Yet despite the increased cereal production and cost savings in our scenarios, only relatively wealthier farmers and medium-scale cereal crop farmers (constituting 50% of all farmers surveyed) stood to benefit considerably. This finding supports previous research indicating potential trade-offs and unevenness in development interventions that focus on field-scale agronomic activities without consideration of the broader socioeconomic factors that also contribute to farmers' livelihood systems (Klapwijk et al., 2014;Rosenstock et al., 2014).Using farm survey data from Bihar, Keil et al. (2015), recently documented production advantages and adoption determinants of zero tillage (one of the elements of the CA scenario). Their results, which indicated that the adoption of zero tillage was greater among wealthy farmers with larger field sizes and a larger share of their income coming from agricultural activities, are coherent with our own. For small-scale crop and livestock farmers, CA practices may in comparison be less attractive. However even in the second scenario in which milk productivity was doubled, their PFA ratio increased only marginally. These results point to the importance of exploring development interventions that focus on improving integrated farm enterprises, rather than treating crops or livestock as separate endeavors. Aryal et al. (2014), for example, showed that the probability of incorporating maize into Bihar's cropping systems increased with livestock ownership. Mixed maize-livestock systems may therefore represent an opportunity for small-scale crop-livestock farmers, though this hypothesis requires validation.For less endowed part-time farmers and resource-poor agricultural laborers, which comprise roughly 30% of the farmers surveyed, neither CA practices nor a boost in milk production appears to be likely to have major effects on household food security. These groups, both of which derive the majority of their income from off-farm activities, were conversely less vulnerable to simulated environmental shock in the form of drought. Households in Bihar have for some time also practiced rural out-migration as farmers seek more remunerative employment opportunities both within India and globally (de Haan 2002; Datta et al., 2014). These practices appear to reduce the vulnerability of resource poor farmers to some extent by diversifying their income generating practices. In Bihar, the importance of off-farm activities for income generation has long been highlighted, as have diversified off-farm pursuits such as honey foraging (cf. Ashokvardhan, 2009). Similar patterns of out-migration and increased cash flows to rural households in the form of both domestic and international remittances have been observed in rural Pakistan (Kousar et al., 2016), Bangladesh (Zhang et al., 2014), and Nepal (Karki et al., 2015), indicative of the regional scale of this phenomenon.The analytical framework here can be used to generate relatively rapid insight to assist in the targeting of interventions to different farm types and geographical regions where they are likely to be more socioecologically appropriate. For example, wealthier and mixed crop-livestock farmers were the largest potential beneficiaries of rice-wheat system yield increases through CA. In Nawada district, these two typologies form > 75% of survey sample, although they are < 40% in other districts. In Begusarai and Samastipur, part-time farmers and resource-poor agricultural laborers form 30-45% of our sample. Livestock is also comparatively important in these districts. Hence by combining farm typological and geographical assessment, this analysis represents a step forward compared to similar analyses that lack spatial components (e.g. Ritzema et al., 2017;Paul et al., 2016). The increasing availability of high-resolution remote sensing and georeferenced environmental data has also enabled new methods to assess the biophysical appropriateness of development interventions intended to increase farm production intensity (cf. Krupnik et al., 2017;Schulthess et al., 2015). Combining such analyses with consideration of socio-ecological variables as demonstrated in our study represents an important avenue for future research.Our analysis relied on self-reported information with respect to food availability and income generation. Ground-truthing our study results with rapid and farmer participatory appraisals from each typological group and village would be useful to verify which development interventions may holdor may not holdthe most promise in Bihar. Such information is particularly relevant for donors, development policy planners, NGOs and extension organizations that must choose between suites of technologies and development investment options. Likewise, our analysis used standard international coefficients for the energy contents of observed crop and livestock species, and for daily household energy requirements. These coeffieients are sufficiently robust for the PFA indicator described in this study, while having the added value of permitting cross-country comparisons. However, for detailed studies assessing the the potential effects of alternative farming or non-farming activities on within-household food security outcomes, use of locally derived coefficients (e.g. Longvah et al., 2017), and age-, gender-and physical activity profile-specific data may be more appropriate (cf. ICMR, 2010). The integration of the PFA ratio with other indicators, for example measurements of environmental externalities or ecological services provision, could also facilitate an improved understanding the primary trade-offs and synergies that may result from development interventions (Hammond et al., 2016;Paul et al., 2016;Delmotte et al., 2016). Further research should therefore consider inclusion of such multi-criteria analysis, which could be implemented alongside more advanced scenario analyses considering layered development interventions and/or by incorporating crop and livestock simulation modeling.We demonstrated the use of quantitative systems analysis tools to characterize the diversity of farming systems and assess the impact of different agricultural development and environmental shock scenarios on a simple indicator of household food security. Our results showed that the impact of crop losses or the intensification of crop and livestock product production can have considerable negative or positive impact on potential food availability, respectively, although the sign of these effects will vary depending on farm households' pre-existing livelihood strategies and level of farm diversification. The effect of livestock management intensification represented by increased milk production appears to have relatively little positive effect on most farmers' potential food availability. Considering the differential impact of these scenarios among the five farm typologies observed in our dataset, we conclude that the most potentially vulnerable households are those that depend primarily on cereal crop and livestock production for their food security. Farmers who have diversified their income generation base with alternative sources of income are comparatively less vulnerable to environmental shocks in the form of drought. This research demonstrates how farm survey data can be integrated with scenario analysis to vet the potential food security responses of different development interventions or shocks by farm type. Similar scenario analysis could consider economic stresses in addition to climactic shocks or climate change scenarios, or include crop-livestock and farming system modeling, in order to better appraise and target agricultural development policy in eastern India and in other locations where smallholder agricultural systems predominate.","tokenCount":"7206"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4d1ae711cafc473c0bd1f3b4e16e734d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/222187f1-dc2b-4bf3-bc04-81344ec25dc4/content","id":"-42159093"},"keywords":["genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI)","moisture regimes","multi-trait index","drought","waterlogging","climate-resilient maize","selection gains"],"sieverID":"68f5a671-ff29-4726-a6c4-64856ac09eb9","pagecount":"16","content":"Unpredictable weather vagaries in the Asian tropics often increase the risk of a series of abiotic stresses in maize-growing areas, hindering the efforts to reach the projected demands. Breeding climate-resilient maize hybrids with a crosstolerance to drought and waterlogging is necessary yet challenging because of the presence of genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI) and the lack of an efficient multi-trait-based selection technique. The present study aimed at estimating the variance components, genetic parameters, inter-trait relations, and expected selection gains (SGs) across the soil moisture regimes through genotype selection obtained based on the novel multi-trait genotype-ideotype distance index (MGIDI) for a set of 75 tropical pre-released maize hybrids. Twelve traits including grain yield and other secondary characteristics for experimental maize hybrids were studied at two locations. Positive and negative SGs were estimated across moisture regimes, including drought, waterlogging, and optimal moisture conditions. Hybrid, moisture condition, and hybrid-by-moisture condition interaction effects were significant (p ≤ 0.001) for most of the traits studied. Eleven genotypes were selected in each moisture condition through MGIDI by assuming 15% selection intensity where two hybrids, viz., ZH161289 and ZH161303, were found to be common across all the moisture regimes, indicating their moisture stress resilience, a unique potential for broader adaptation in rainfed stress-vulnerable ecologies. The selected hybrids showed desired genetic gains such as positive gains for grain yield (almost 11% in optimal and drought; 22% in waterlogging) and negative gains in flowering traits. The view on strengths and weaknesses as depicted by the MGIDI assists the breeders to develop maize hybrids with desired traits, such as grain yield and other yield contributors under specific stress conditions. The MGIDI would be a robust and easy-to-handle multi-trait selection process under various test environments with minimal multicollinearity issues. It was found to be a powerful tool in developing better selection strategies and optimizing the breeding scheme, thus contributing to the development of climate-resilient maize hybrids.Maize yields in the Asian tropical rainfed environments are now becoming increasingly vulnerable to various climate-induced stresses, especially drought and waterlogging, which often come in combination to severely impact maize crops (Prasanna et al., 2021). The potential climate changes and abnormalities associated with a number of abiotic stresses severely affect the growth and development of crops (Brown and Funk, 2008;Lobell et al., 2008). Among many unpredictable changes, moisture stresses including low soil moisture stress (drought) and excess soil moisture stress (waterlogging/flooding) are the major constraints worldwide that result in almost 90% yield loss. A large portion of maize in the Asian tropics is cultivated in low-land tropics (<1,000 masl), representing a major mega-environment, followed by sub-tropical and tropical highlands (Zaidi et al., 2020). Approximately 80% of maize is being grown as a rainfed crop, prone to the vagaries of monsoon rains associated with a series of abiotic and biotic constraints. The erratic/ uneven distribution of monsoon pattern leads to untimely rains, often causing intermittent dry spells/drought or excess soil moisture/waterlogging at different crop growth stages within the crop growing period (Zaidi et al., 2016a), and is a major factor responsible for the relatively low productivity in maize. The regular occurrence of temporary excessive soil moisture or waterlogging stress resulted in an almost 18% reduction in total maize in Southeast Asia (Zaidi et al., 2010). A few recent reports anticipated that the Asian tropics will experience a sharper increase in surface temperatures due to adverse weather conditions, resulting in shifting seasons and frequent drought and waterlogging at critical crop stages that could severely impact the maize production in the tropical regions (ADB, 2009;Lobell et al., 2011;Cairns et al., 2012;Zaidi et al., 2020).In contrast, recent studies reported that the average global demand for maize has increased by 45% in 2020 when compared to 1997, with East Asia (85%) showing the highest increase in demand, followed by Sub-Saharan Africa (79%), Southeast Asia (70%), and South Asia (36%) (FAOSTAT, 2022;Ulfat et al., 2022). The development of improved germplasm with combined tolerance against extreme climate vagaries such as excess moisture and drought will be necessary in many areas of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Zaidi et al., 2010). The international wheat and maize improvement center (CIMMYT)-Asia maize program largely focused on the development of breeding strategies to reach attainable yields across a range of environments by incorporating reasonable levels of cross-tolerance against a combination of major abiotic stresses without compromising grain yields under favorable/ optimal growing conditions. It implies the maximum yield potential under optimal conditions along with a guarantee of average yields under stress-prone areas by improving the stress-resilient breeding pipelines through precision phenotyping, index-based selection for secondary traits, and stage-wise gateway screening (Zaidi et al., 2020). Under the various environmental conditions in India, developing climate-resilient and location-specific high-yielding hybrids became a primary goal of maize technologists. To achieve this, researchers must perform multi-environment trials (METs) prior to national trials. MET evaluates a set of genotypes under different test environments, which may be spatially varied (geographic locations), time-separated (seasons/years), different managed stresses (drought, waterlogging, low nitrogen, etc.), or a combination of any of these. METs can efficiently identify genotypes with a constant trait performance among different test environments (Yan and Kang, 2003). Comprehensive assessment of promising genotypes with higher yield potential and desirable agronomic characteristics is the key to breed hybrids with wide adaptability and stability. The undeniable existence of genotype-byenvironment interaction (GEI) causes confusion in screening out promising genotypes, and it misleads the ranking pattern of test genotypes across environments. Thus, a deep understating of the degree and pattern of GEI across environments is crucial for successful crop improvement programs (Vaezi et al., 2019). Various analysis models and techniques such as analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis, additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI), and genotype and genotype plus environment (GGE) biplots were developed to unravel the unpredictable effects of genotype, environment, and their interaction (Kendal, 2016).Although grain yield is the most important characteristic of genotypes, other secondary traits are also common, such as days to flowering, plant height, ear height, ear length, and number of kernel rows (Gauch, 2013). The yield gains could be the result of the direct selection of grain yield that is accompanied by the desirable expression of other secondary traits. Previous reports on yieldtrait relations provided a breakthrough for plant breeders in terms of defining a set of target traits to bring together new, highperformance hybrids (Nardino et al., 2016;Olivoto et al., 2017). It could be more efficient if the selection of genotypes is based on grain yield combined with other agronomic traits. However, an effective incorporation of multiple trait data without multicollinearity in the selection method has been a challenge for breeders. A widely used multi-trait selection index, the Smith-Hazel (SH) index (Smith, 1936;Hazel, 1943), is not being recommended for METs, where the presence of biased index coefficients and multicollinearity issues erodes the real genetic gains (Rocha et al., 2018;Olivoto et al., 2019a;Olivoto et al., 2019b;Jarquin et al., 2020;Woyann et al., 2020;Zuffo et al., 2020). Similarly, the recently proposed genotype × yield × trait (GYT) biplots (Yan and Freǵeau-Reid, 2018) offer an effective and comprehensive analysis method for the evaluation of genotypes based on the combined grain yield and various evaluated agronomic traits. However, the method determines the influencing factors from yield-trait combinations by a classical linear multivariate model under diversified environments, but it does not involve any subjective weights and cutting points that provide a better picture of the strengths and weaknesses of test genotypes (Yan and Freǵeau-Reid, 2018;Kendal, 2019;Nikolay et al., 2020;Singamsetti et al., 2022).In that perspective, a novel multi-trait genotype-ideotype distance index (MGIDI) was proposed to select genotypes with desirable mean performances of multiple traits that overcome the fragility of classical linear indices (Olivoto and Nardino, 2021). A few previous attempts at multiple traits in the selection of maize hybrids with multi-environment data have been reported (Langner et al., 2019;Olivoto et al., 2021;Oliveira et al., 2020;Singamsetti et al., 2021;Peixoto et al., 2021;Shojaei et al., 2022;Yue et al., 2022c). The purpose of this research was mainly to select the promising maize hybrids based on multiple traits suitable for different moisture regimes including drought, waterlogging, and optimal conditions and across all moisture conditions. The study was carried out to reveal genetic parameters such as variance components, accuracy and heritability, inter-trait associations, and the patterns of GEI effects under individual and across moisture conditions.The experimental material consists of 75 medium-duration maize hybrids including five commercial checks (Supplementary Table 1) leveraged from the Asian Regional Office, CIMMYT, Hyderabad, India. The 70 hybrids were developed from the biparental crosses obtained from a pool of 600 elite maize lines of the CIMMYT gene bank crossed with two abiotic stress-susceptible (mostly drought and waterlogging) testers, viz., CML451 and CL02450. These were globally released leading testers with high combining ability belonging to different heterotic groups, A and B, that resulted in test cross progeny with substantial stress tolerance. The materials were evaluated under different soil moisture stresses including drought, waterlogging, and optimal conditions by a stagewise gateway process under the \"Climate Resilient Maize for Asia\" (CRMA) project supported by BMZ/GIZ, Germany. The studied hybrids were at the Stage III screening process that aimed to identify stress/location-specific hybrids and also those across different locations/stresses.The trials across the different soil moisture conditions (described later in this article) were conducted at two locations, viz., Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, India (Location 1) and CIMMYT, Hyderabad, ICRISAT Campus, India (Location 2), during winter 2017 and its subsequent summer-rainy season 2018. Location 1 is situated in the middle of the Indo-Gangetic plains of northern India, which experiences alternating floods and high temperatures in a year, while Location 2 is represented by the arid region of the Deccan Plateau with evident frequent occurrence of water scarcity followed by scattered rainfalls. The soil type of the experiment site at Location 1 was sandy loam, whereas it was shallow black soils at Location 2. The detailed information of seven test environments (E1 to E7) including three moisture conditions with season and location combinations is shown in Table 1. The meteorological data based on standard weeks including temperature and rainfall during the crop growing period at both locations are shown in Supplementary Figure 1.Test hybrids at each environment were sown in alpha lattice (0, 1) design (Patterson and Williams, 1976) with two replications. Manual sowing was done in two rows of 4 m length with a standard spacing of 75 cm between the rows and 20 cm within a row. A final plant population of 66,666 plants ha −1 was maintained by thinning in over-sown plots. All the recommended agronomic and cultural operations including irrigation were taken care of for optimal soil moisture (well-watered) trials. Drought and waterlogging phenotyping protocols by CIMMYT were strictly followed in both locations during managed stress trials (Zaman-Allah et al., 2016;Zaidi et al., 2016b). Field selection and protection measures were taken with utmost care to avoid other potential interruptions of plant growth and development during the moisture-stress period.Planting dates were adjusted to the dry period, i.e., winter or delayed Rabi season, and irrigation schedule was modified to impose drought stress at the reproductive stage of the crop. Cumulative growing degree days (GDD) were calculated from the day of life irrigation to ensure accurate stress intensity at the target stage of the crop at all the test environments. Withdrawal of irrigation at 550 cumulative GDD and release of stress by providing \"rescue irrigation\" at 1,000 cumulative GDD were  where T max = maximum temperature, T min = minimum temperature, and T base = base temperature (10°C).Progress in imposing stress was tracked by measuring moisture depletion at different soil depths up to 100 cm at 10-cm intervals with the \"Delta-T PR2 soil moisture profile probe\". The probe was pre-installed in the fields where drought trials were conducted and weekly data were recorded from the first week after withdrawal of irrigation (a few days before anthesis), until the stress is relieved. Rescue irrigation was confirmed by the soil moisture content reaching the \"permanent wilting point\" (PWP), i.e., 16.8% v/v at the soil depth of 30-40 cm. Cumulative vapor-pressure deficit or ∑VPD values were also recorded as complementary to GDDs to endorse pausing and to resume the irrigation at 120 VPD and at 220 kPa VPD values, respectively.Fields with proper irrigation and drainage facilities were selected for waterlogging phenotyping. These are well-leveled with no inclination, thus ensuring a depth of 10 ± 0.5 cm stagnation of water continuously for 7 days to impose waterlogging stress at the target crop stage, i.e., V 5 -V 6 leaf stage or \"knee-high\" stage. Considering evaporation and seepage losses, additional needbased irrigation was provided to maintain the depth of water during the stress period. The crop was relieved from the stress by draining out the excess water in the experimental plots from the seventh day and a normal irrigation schedule was recommenced (Zaidi et al., 2016b).During the flowering, maturity, and post-harvest stages of the crop, a total of 12 agronomic traits were recorded as per guidelines of standard abiotic stress phenotyping protocols by CIMMYT (Zaman-Allah et al., 2016;Zaidi et al., 2016b). The mean values at the plot level for the traits, viz., days to 50% anthesis (D50A), days to 50% silking (D50S), and anthesis-silking interval (ASI), were determined, whereas plant height (PH, in cm), ear height (EH, in cm), chlorophyll content (SPAD readings), ear length (EL, in cm), ear girth (EG, in cm), kernel number per row (KNR), kernel rows per ear (KRE), and test weight (TW, in g) were recorded as the mean of five randomly selected plants in each plot. SPAD readings were taken before and after imposing stress by the SPAD-502 plant chlorophyll meter. Moisture and shelling percent were measured by converting fresh weight of ears without husk per each plot to grain yield per hectare (GY, in t/ha) at 12.5% moisture (ASTM 2001).Grain Yield (t=ha)Fresh ear weight (kg=plot) Â 10 Â (100where MC is moisture content, SH is shelling percentage, and adjusted MC is the required standardized moisture percentage (12.5%)The combined data from all the test environments were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965) for ANOVA residuals and confirmed normal distribution. Homogeneity of the data of an individual environment as well as of similar moisture conditions was confirmed through Bartlett's test (Bartlett, 1937).For each soil moisture condition, the traits were initially fitted into a linear mixed-effect model by considering genotype, genotypeby-environment, and incomplete blocks within complete replicates as random effect and locations and complete replicates as fixed effect (Olivoto et al., 2019a). The following standard linear mixed model (Yang, 2007) was computed with the function gamem_met() from the metan package (Olivoto and Lućio, 2020).where y is a vector of response variable (such as grain yield), b is a vector of fixed effects, u is a vector of random effects; X is a design matrix of 0s and 1s relating y to b, Z is a design matrix of 0s and 1s relating y to u, and e is a vector of random errors.The estimates of variance components were obtained by REstricted Maximum Likelihood (REML) using the expectationmaximum algorithm (Dempster et al., 1977). A likelihood ratio test (LRT) with a two-tailed chi-square test with one degree of freedom was performed to test the significance of the random effects. Broadsense heritability based on genotypic mean performance (h 2 mg ) was estimated as follows:Where ŝ 2 g , ŝ 2 i , and ŝ 2 e are the variances related to genotypes, genotype-environment interaction, and error terms, respectively; e and b are the number of environments and blocks per environments, respectively.To better understand the inheritable relationships among traits and to see if these relationships are changed across moisture regimes, a genetic correlation was performed in each moisture condition. The correlation matrix was represented as network plots.The estimation of MGIDI values for test hybrids in each moisture condition was based on two-way Best Linear Unbiased Predictions (BLUPs) for each genotype (row) and trait (column) and was carried out in four steps, i.e., rescaling of the studied traits, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to reduce the dimensionality, planning for ideotype with maximum rescaled value, and calculation of Euclidean distance between the genotypes and ideotype planned as the MGIDI index (Olivoto and Nardio, 2021). Rescaling the traits was performed so that all have a similar range, i.e., 0-100. The rescaled value (rX ij ) of the jth trait (column) of the ith genotype (row) was calculated using the following formula:where h 0j and j 0j are the original maximum and minimum values for the trait j, respectively; q ij is the original value for the jth trait of the ith genotype/hybrid; and h nj and j nj are the new maximum and minimum values for the trait j after rescaling, respectively. The values for h nj and j nj are chosen according to the desirability as follows. For the traits PH, EH, SPAD, EL, EB, TW, KRE, KNR, and GY in which positive gains are desired, we used h nj = 100 and j nj = 0. For D50A, A50S, and ASI in which negative gains are desired, we considered h nj = 0 and j nj = 100. The correlation matrix of the original set of trait values (X ij ) was maintained by the rescaled trait values (rX ij ) in a two-way table in which each column with a range of 0-100 made a selection, i.e., increase or decrease.In the second step, the factorial scores of each test hybrid/ genotype was estimated by performing EFA with rescaled values (rX ij ) to group correlated traits into \"factors\". By assuming p and f are the number of traits included and common factors retained through EFA, respectively, the scores were calculated as follows:X=m+Lf+ϵ where X is a p × 1 vector of rescaled observations; µ is a p × 1 vector of standardized means; L is a p × f matrix of factorial loadings; f is a p × 1 vector of common factors; and e is a p × 1 vector of residuals. Furthermore, the initial loadings were obtained by the traits having more than one eigenvalue that are acquired from the correlation matrix of rXij. Then, final loadings were estimated by using varimax rotation criterion (Kaiser, 1958;Olivoto et al., 2019a) as given by:where F is a g × f matrix with the factorial scores; Z is a g × p matrix with the standardized means (rescaled); A is a p × f matrix of canonical loadings; and R is a p × p correlation matrix between the traits. g, f, and p denote the number of test hybrids/genotypes (rows), factors retained (FA), and traits analyzed, respectively.The ideotype (ID) was designed by assuming that it has the highest rescaled value, i.e., 100 for all the traits analyzed. Thus, the ID can be defined by 1 × p vector ID such that ID = [100, 100, …., 100]. The final scores for ID were also obtained according to the above formula. Finally, the MGIDI values were computed with the function mgidi() from the metan package. If g and f are the number of genotypes/rows and factors retained, respectively, the MGIDI for the ith genotype (MGIDI i ) is calculated as follows:where g ij is the score of the ith genotype (row) in the jth factor (i = 1, 2, …, g; j = 1, 2, …, f) and g j is the jth score of the ideotype. The genotypes with the lowest MGIDI values, i.e., genotypes closer to the ID, exhibited the desired values for all the traits studied. The strengths and weaknesses of a genotype were represented by the proportion of the MGIDI index of the ith row/genotype explained by the jth factor (ij) estimated as follows:where D ij is the distance between the ith genotype (row) and the ID for the jth factor. Low contributions of a factor specify that the traits within that factor are similar to the ideotype designed.The hybrids were selected under different soil moisture regimes through MGIDI values by assuming a selection intensity of ~15% and the selection differential in the percentage of population mean (DS% ) was then computed for each trait as follows:where X s and X 0 are the mean performance value of the selected hybrids and population (original population) mean, respectively.All the statistical analyses were carried out on the RStudio, R version 4.1.2 (R Core Team, 2021) software with \"metan\" version v1.15.0 (Olivoto and Lúcio, 2020) and \"ggplot2\" version 3.3.4 (Wickham, 2016) packages. Functions such as gamem_met() for genotype analysis in multi-environments using mixed-effect or random-effect models, gmd() for extracting variance components, and mgidi() for the computation of MGIDI values were supplied. The network plots of the pairwise correlation data frame were constructed by using \"corrr\" package version 0.4.4 (Kuhn et al., 2022).Mean performances of 75 genotypes for 12 agronomic traits over seven test environments including three moisture regimes are presented in Figure 1. Hybrids 22 (ZH161289; 10.48 t/ha) followed by 30 (ZH161047, 10.35 t/ha), 6 (ZH161361; 9.87 t/ha), 14 (ZH161303; 9.85 t/ha), and 19 (ZH161458; 9.77 t/ha) were identified as top yielders under optimal soil moisture; hybrids 36 (ZH161053; 6.07 t/ha) followed by 22 (ZH161289; 5.96 t/ha), 9 (ZH161384; 5.89 t/ha), 44 (ZH161063; 5.89 t/ha), and 41 (ZH161051; 5.81 t/ha) were the top yielders under drought; and hybrids 30 (ZH161047; 6.21 t/ha) followed by 49 (ZH161398; 6.06 t/ ha), 22 (ZH161289; 5.94 t/ha), 14 (ZH161303; 5.90 t/ha), and 44 (ZH161063; 5.57 t/ha) were the top yielders under waterlogging (Supplementary Tables 2A-C). The hybrids ZH161053, ZH161289, ZH161063, ZH161398, and ZH161047 were found to be common under all three moisture conditions in terms of grain yield.The genotype had a highly significant effect (p ≤ 0.001, p ≤ 0.01, and p ≤ 0.05) for most of the studied traits except for ASI, SPAD, and KNR under optimal moisture conditions, D50S and EG under drought, and D50 and ASI under waterlogging according to LRT (Table 2). The test showed that the GEI revealed a highly significant effect (p ≤ 0.001 and p ≤ 0.01) on all the studied traits except PH across three moisture conditions, D50S under drought, and EH under waterlogging. Similarly, the environment effect was highly significant (p ≤ 0.001 and p ≤ 0.01) for all the evaluated traits except for KRE under optimal and drought environment and D50S, ASI, and EL under waterlogging stress conditions. The proportions of total variation explained by genotype, environment, and their interactions (GEI) under individual moisture regimes are shown in Figure 2 (Supplementary Table 3). The accuracy of hybrid selection for the studied traits ranged from 0.40 (PH) to 0.96 (D50A and D50S) under optimal conditions, 0.31 (SPAD) to 0.88 (PH) under drought, and 0.65 (ASI) to 0.93 (SPAD) under waterlogging conditions. The coefficients of determination for GEI effects (R 2 ge ) were high for GY, KNR, KRE, TW, EG, and EL under all the moisture conditions, indicating that GEI holds an important part of the phenotypic variance component. Most of the traits showed high heritability on genetic mean basis (h 2 mg > 0.60) under optimal (except ASI and SPAD) and waterlogging conditions (except D50S and ASI), whereas only a few traits such as PH, EH, KRE, and GY showed high heritability.According to final loadings obtained from PCA followed by EFA, three factors (FAs with more than 1 eigenvalue) contributing 68.7% of total variability were retained under optimal conditions whereas four factors with 69.6% and four factors with 76.4% towards total variability were retained under drought and waterlogging conditions, respectively (Table 3). Under optimal conditions, PH, EH, SPAD, EL, KNR, and GY belonged to FA1; D50A, D50S, ASI, and TW were included in FA2; and EG and KRE were included in FA3. Among four factors retained in drought, FA1 included TW, EL, KNR, and GY; FA2 included D50A, D50S, and ASI; FA3 included EG and KRE; and FA4 included PH, EH, and SPAD. Similarly, under waterlogging, FA1 included SPAD, TW, EL, KNR, and GY; FA2 included D50A, PH, and EH; FA3 included EG and KRE; and F4 included D50S and ASI.The pairwise correlation coefficients (r-values) for studied traits were estimated under each moisture regime. The network plotsMean performances of studied traits of 75 maize genotypes under different soil moisture conditions including drought (DT), optimal (OPT), and waterlogging (WL). DA, days to 50% anthesis (#); DS, days to 50% silking (#); ASI, anthesis-silking interval (#); PH, plant height (cm); EH, ear height (cm); SPAD, chlorophyll content (SPAD readings); TW, test weight (g); EL, ear length (cm); EG, ear girth (cm); KR, number of kernel rows per ear (#); NKPR, number of kernels per row (#); GY, grain yield (t/ha); SMC, soil moisture condition; DT, drought; WL, waterlogging; OPT, optimal; ENV, environments.  ***significant at 0.1% (p< 0.001); **significant at 1% (p< 0.01); *significant at 5% (p< 0.05); ns, nonsignificant. LRT g and LRT ge , Likelihood ratio tests for genotype and genotype-by-environment interaction (GEI), respectively; s 2 p , phenotypic variance; R 2 ge , the coefficient of determination for GEI effects; h 2 mg mg, heritability of the genotypic mean; As, the accuracy of genotype selection; E/ F, the F value for environment effects; CV g and CV r , the genotypic and variation coefficients of variation, respectively. D50A, days to 50% anthesis; D50S, days to 50% silking; ASI, anthesissilking interval; PH, plant height; EH, ear height; SPAD, chlorophyll content; EL, ear length; EG, ear girth; KRE, number of kernel rows per ear; KNR, number of kernels per a row; TW, test weight and GY, grain yield.The proportion of phenotypic variance for 12 agronomic traits of 75 maize hybrids evaluated under (A) optimal, (B) drought, and (C) waterlogging during winter 2017 and summer-rainy 2018. D50A, days to 50% anthesis; D50S, days to 50% silking; ASI, anthesis-silking interval; PH, plant height; EH, ear height; SPAD, chlorophyll content; EL, ear length; EG, ear girth; KRE, number of kernel rows per ear; KNR, number of kernels per a row; TW, test weight and GY, grain yield. (Figure 3) of the correlation data frames of each moisture regime representing more highly associated traits appear to cluster together and connected by stronger paths where blue colored paths indicated positive correlations while red indicated negative correlations. The proximity of traits in the plots was determined by using multidimensional clustering. Inter-trait relationships are mostly positive and stronger under optimal moisture but did not follow the same trend under stress conditions. Grain yield showed a positively strong association with most of the traits under optimal moisture but not under stress. For example, GY had a strong positive correlation with PH (r = 0.63) under optimal conditions and had a weak correlation under drought (r = 0.27) and waterlogging (r = 0.17) conditions (Supplementary Table 4).Flowering traits such as D50A, D50S, and ASI showed negative correlation with GY across the moisture conditions.The 11 hybrids were selected in each soil moisture condition according to the MGIDI by assuming the selection index 15% (Table 4). Genotypes 14 (ZH161303, MGIDI = 2.91), 26 (ZH161042, 2.97), 30 (ZH161047, 3.04), 22 (ZH161289, 3.25), 60 (ZH161129, 3.34), 58 (ZH161064, 3.45), 44 (ZH161063, 3.57), 49 (ZH161398, 3.64), 64 (ZH161078, 3.67), 59 (ZH161068, 3.76), and 36 (ZH161053, 3.79) were screened under optimal environment (Figure 4A), while genotypes 22 (ZH161289, 2.49), 44 (ZH161063, 2.98), 19 (ZH161458, 3.06), 41 (ZH161051, 3.13), 74 (P3502, 3.33), 50 (ZH161410, 3.63), 14 (ZH161303, 3.68), 37 (ZH161083, 3.72), 9 (ZH161384, 3.82), 53 (ZH161484, 3.87), and 46 (ZH161071, 4.01) were screened under drought (Figure 4B), and genotypes 49 (ZH161398), 14 (ZH161303), 30 (ZH161047), 13 (ZH161358), 19 (ZH161458), 22 (ZH161289), 8 (ZH161330), 60 (ZH161129), 75 (Hytech 5106), 58 (ZH161064), and 64 (ZH161078) were screened under waterlogging stress (Figure 4C). The selected hybrids under each individual moisture condition and the two hybrids, viz., 22 (ZH161289) and 14 (ZH161303), that shared in common the three moisture regimes are given in a Venn diagram (Figure 5, Supplementary Table 5).The selected genotypes under each moisture regime resulted in desired selection gains (SGs) for the mean performance of all the studied traits, i.e., positive SGs for GY, PH, EH, EG, EL, KNR, KRE, and SPAD, and negative gains for the flowering traits such as D50A, D50S, and ASI (Table 5). The mean performance of selected genotypes for GY increased more than 11% SG under optimal and drought conditions, whereas it was 22.6% under waterlogging. The contribution of each factor retained towards the distance from MGIDI to the ideotype (ID) under the three moisture regimes is shown in Supplementary Table 6.The radar plot (Figures 6A-C) depicts the strengths and weaknesses of the selected hybrids over three moisture conditions. For each selected hybrid, the contribution of each factor towards the MGIDI is ranked from the most contributing factor (close to plot center) to the least contributing factor (away from the plot center). Smaller proportions explained by a factor that is placed closer to the external edge indicate that the trait within that factor is more similar to the ideotype. A view on strengths and weaknesses under optimal moisture revealed that the performance of the selected genotypes, viz., 22 (ZH161289) and 14 (ZH161303), showed strengths related to factor FA1 that holds PH, EH, SPAD, EL, KNR, and GY with positive SGs, whereas genotypes 59 (ZH161068), 26 (ZH161042), 44 (ZH161063), 58 (ZH161064), and 60 (ZH161129) showed strengths related to FA2 with flowering characteristics (D50A, D50S, and ASI) showing negative gains (Figure 6A). Concerning FA3, genotypes 30 (ZH161047) and 49 (ZH161398) performed well. Under managed drought (Figure 6B), most of the selected hybrids contributed more towards MGIDI through FA1 except 19 (ZH161458) and 41 (ZH161051). Hybrids 50 (ZH161410), 44 (ZH161063), 37 (ZH161083), and 46 (ZH161071) showed strength related to FA2 with desirable negative gain in flowering traits such as D50A, D50S, and ASI. Genotypes 9 (ZH161384) and 46 (ZH161071) had strength for FA3 whereas 53 (ZH161484) followed by 74 (P3502), 44 (ZH161063), 50 (ZH161410), and 9 (ZH161384) showed strengths pertaining to FA4. Similarly under waterlogging conditions (Figure 6C), most of the selected genotypes showed strengths related to all the factors except FA3. According to FA1, genotype 30 (ZH161047) performed very well while genotype 14 (ZH161303) performed poorly with a maximum contribution towards the MGIDI. All the 11 selected hybrids showed strengths related to FA2 and FA3 and weaknesses related to FA3.The study focused on the performance evaluation of 75 prereleased medium-duration maize hybrids for 12 agronomic characteristics in two consecutive years (2017-2018) under three soil moisture regimes including optimal, drought, and waterlogging at two locations. In general, the grain yield potential and the performance of other yield-contributing characteristics of the available germplasm are a very crucial step in identifying genotypes with ideal trait combinations suitable across target environments, which can be used in future breeding programs (Bocianowski et al., 2019). The maize crop in the farmer's field is exposed to a combination of stresses in a single life cycle. Banziger et al. (2000) screened a set of tropical maize hybrids independently under drought and low N environments and identified several physiological traits associated with tolerance under a single stress and conferred tolerance for the other stress. Our results showed that the environment and GEI effects for most of the traits recorded were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.001 or p ≤ 0.01). This shows that hybrid mean performances varied across the soil moisture conditions, which can be attributed more towards the diversification of genotypes and provides ample amount of variation for easy selection (Oliveira et al., 2014). The results from the present investigation suggested that selection of maize hybrids based on multi-factorial analysis is effective and that most of the potential and wide adoptive maize hybrids were influenced by soil moisture status and genetic factors, as well as their interactions (GEI). Understanding the complexity of GEI through suitable statistical techniques is the best way to screen out the wide adoptable stress-resilient maize hybrids in the target environment.Statistically significant variation of G, E, and GEI among evaluated hybrids across the moisture regimes would make it possible to identify genotypes for both stress and non-stress environments. Previous works also reported the existence of significant variations among maize hybrids tested across managed stresses for grain yield (Wegary et al., 2014;Abakemal et al., 2016;Njeri et al., 2017;Adeseye et al., 2018;Mebratu et al., 2019;Singamsetti et al., 2021).Since the physiological and molecular responses of crop plants exposed to a combination of stresses are fairly known, understanding the effects of different individual stresses on crop plants as well as their combinations is vital (Voesenek and Pierik, 2008). Early flowering (D50A and D50S), high ASI values, and lower mean performances for PH, EH, TW, EL, EG, NKE, and NKR under moisture stress conditions compared to optimal environments resulted in poor grain yields (Supplementary Tables 2A-C). The impact of moisture level on traits' expression can be observed by their mean performances under different environments (Figure 1). A few outliers in the box plots of recorded traits were probably due to inconsistent expressions that indicated the severity of stress and interaction of genotype with soil moisture level (Figure 1). Delayed flowering and maturity due to cool temperature at early stages followed by prolonged day length and drought periods at later stages resulted in the drastic decline (up to 30%-90%) in the crop yield in late Rabi/winter maize crop (Sah et al., 2020). Our study also witnessed early senescence probably due to the reduction in lamellar content of light harvest chlorophyll proteins under water-limited situations (Anjum et al., 2011;Verma et al., 2004). The observed significant reduction in mean GY under waterlogging conditions with a poor performance of other secondary traits is probably due to the reduced leaf growth, and a worse effect on the cell turgor could be attributed to the decline in the carotenoid content (El-Shihaby et al., 2002;Tripathi et al., 2003).Understanding the magnitude and direction of correlations among studied traits and how they change across the moisture regimes along with variability parameters would assist the breeders in improving a characteristic that brings simultaneous improvement in other characteristics. The results explained the importance of flowering traits, especially ASI, in the development of drought-tolerant maize cultivars. The larger ASI values lead to the failure of a proper seed set due to poor availability of viable pollen for late emerged female flowers owing to the delay in silk extrusion, premature lodging, and reduced rates of net photosynthesis arising from oxidative damage to chloroplasts (Nelimor et al., 2020). The relationship between GY and ASI in our findings was in agreement with previous reports on maize under water deficit (Edmeades and Daynard, 1979) and under waterlogging conditions (Zaidi and Singh, 2001;Zaidi et al., 2004;Zaidi et al., 2007). The stronger associations between grain yield and phenological traits under drought conditions than under optimal moisture were reported by Sah et al. (2020). In contrast, our results suggested that the direct selection of most of the traits would be moreGenotype ranking in ascending order for the MGIDI index tested under (A) optimal, (B) drought, and (C) waterlogging. The selected hybrids are shown in red color and the red colored circle represents the cut-point according to the selection pressure (~15%).Common maize hybrid shared across the soil moisture regimes including optimal, drought, and waterlogging shown in the Venn chart. effective under optimal conditions due to the resulting strong correlation, while there is only moderate correlation under moisture stress conditions (Figure 3). Several previous correlation studies on maize genotypes under a single environment have been reported, but there is limited literature available with regard to changing a trait's expression and the association of a trait with other traits across various environments. A few researchers reported genetic correlations among maize lines evaluated across two moisture regimes, namely, moisturedeficit and well-water conditions, across two seasons/years (Oyekunle and Badu-Apraku, 2018;Nelimor et al., 2019;Al-Naggar et al., 2020;Nelimor et al., 2020;Singamsetti et al., 2021). Plant breeding programs aiming at initial selection under a single environment with no stress or only a single stress condition may lead to the loss of desirable alleles or genetic variability for additional stresses other than target stress (Cairns et al., 2013). Thus, the use of the MGIDI becomes especially important for screening hybrids based on multiple traits such as many secondary traits along with grain yield under various stress environments. Apart from many classical linear multitrait phenotypic selection techniques available (Smith, 1936;Hazel, 1943;Bhering et al., 2012;Jahufer and Casler, 2015;Bizari et al., 2017;Ceroń-Rojas and Crossa, 2018;Burdon and Li, 2019), MGIDI is a unique selection technique that is free from weighing (economic) coefficients (Bizari et al., 2017) and multicollinearity issues (Smith, 1936), and it uses the distance between genotypes and a defined ideotype based on the breeder's requirement (Olivoto and Nardino, 2021). The method emerged as a powerful tool to identify the genotypes with better mean performance and desired SGs and also to estimate the strengths and weaknesses of hybrids (selected/ unselected). The multi-trait selection index (MTSI) and MGIDI evaluation systems are novel and unique techniques that have many practical applications in plant breeding practices (Nelimor et al., 2020;Benakanahalli et al., 2021;Koundinya et al., 2021;Pour-Aboughadareh et al., 2021;Hadou el hadj et al., 2022;Yue et al., 2022a;Yue et al.,2022b;Nardino et al., 2022;Dhand and Garg, 2023;Memon et al., 2023). The multi-trait frameworks and MGIDI and MTSI indices follow a similar rescaling process to retain the unchanged correlation structure of original data and to identify the superior genotypes with respect to multiple traits simultaneously (Olivoto et al., 2019b). The rescaling technique requires a selection direction, and it places all the agronomic traits in a range of 0-100 and the ideotype defined by traits' rescaled value is assumed to be 100. The dimensional reduction was carried out by performing exponential factorial analysis in which 12 traits represented a few (three in optimal and four each in drought and waterlogging) final latent variables (FAs, factors) with maximum trait loadings.According to the MGIDI index, the selected genotypes in optimal moisture were ZH161303, ZH161042, ZH161047, ZH161289, ZH161129, ZH161064, ZH161063, ZH161398, ZH161078, ZH161068, and ZH161053; the selected genotypes under drought conditions were ZH161289, ZH161063,The strengths and weaknesses view of the selected hybrids is shown as the proportion of each factor on the computed MGIDI values over three soil moisture regimes, namely, (A) optimal, (B) drought, and (C) waterlogging. The smallest the proportion explained by a factor (closer to the external edge), the closer the traits within that factor are to the ideotype. The dashed line shows the theoretical value if all the factors had contributed equally. ZH161458, ZH161051, P3502, ZH161410, ZH161303, ZH161083, ZH161384, ZH161484, and ZH161071; and the selected genotypes under waterlogging stress were ZH161398, ZH161303, ZH161047, ZH161358, ZH161458, ZH161289, ZH161330, ZH161129, Hytech 5106, ZH161064, and ZH161078. Apart from the genotypes selected above, genotypes 6 (ZH161361), 42 (ZH161054), and 55 (ZH15449) were placed at the cutting points under optimal, drought, and waterlogging conditions, respectively (Figure 4). These hybrids had interesting features that could be exploited in future breeding programs. The MGIDI index is a unique and easy-to-interpret selection procedure that has many practical applications to obtain long-term genetic gain in primary traits (such as grain yield) without jeopardizing gains of secondary traits (such as plant height). The proportion explained by each factor towards the MGIDI index, i.e., \"strengths and weaknesses view\" (Figures 6A-C), is an important graphical tool to identify the strengths and weaknesses of test hybrids in terms of \"trait (group of traits) need to be improved\" and is an added advantage over existing indices. For example, under optimal moisture, the lower contribution of FA1 in genotype 14 (ZH161303) revealed that the genotype was highly productive in terms of PH, EH, SPAD, EL, KNR, and GY, but the same genotype had a poor performance in terms of flowering traits, which can be inferred due to the higher contribution of FA2 towards MGIDI (Figure 6A). Similarly, FA3 was placed almost near the dashed lines of the radar plot, which represented the theoretical value if all the factors had contributed equally. The high contribution of FA1 (Figure 6B) and FA3 (Figure 6C) towards genotype-ideotype index distance indicated that there is a possibility of improvement in TW, EL, KNR, and GY in selected genotypes (except 19 and 41) under drought and in EG and KRE under waterlogging conditions. A similar study was reported by Gabriel et al. (2019) and Olivoto and Nardino (2021), who evaluated a set of 13 strawberry cultivars, wherein the strengths were described by employing MGIDI. Benakanahalli et al. (2021) proposed a framework for identifying promising guar genotypes with productive traits such as gum and seed yield across three seasons by using MGIDI.Our experimental findings recommended that MGIDI can be used for the effective selection of superior hybrids/genotypes by considering multiple traits and helping plant breeders make better strategic decisions. The results showed that the hybrids ZH161053, ZH161289, ZH161063, ZH161398, and ZH161047 were found to be common across all the three moisture regimes solely on the basis of grain yield, while two genotypes, ZH161289 and ZH161303, were found to be common in terms of all the studied traits. Also, the study helps improve a certain trait or a group of traits (either yield contributors or stress-responsive ones) in particular moisture stress environments.","tokenCount":"6836"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b4a008b54f37317983f5f41a96c8941d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/1ceef330-e4d5-4755-8acc-2cb98fcb855e/content","id":"2108743737"},"keywords":["climate-smart agriculture","earthworms","soil enzymes","subsurface drip irrigation","maizebased system","rice-wheat system","soil quality"],"sieverID":"a2049bda-d7ce-4537-8dcd-664d35ec377a","pagecount":"24","content":"Earthworms (EWs) could be a viable indicator of soil biology and agri-food system management. The influence of climate-smart agriculture (CSA)-based sustainable intensification practices (zero tillage, crop rotations, crop residue retention, and precision water and nutrients application) on earthworms' (EWs) populations and soil physico-biochemical properties of rice-wheat cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia was investigated. This study investigates the effect of 10-years adoption of various CSA practices on the abundance of earthworms and physical and biochemical properties of the soil and EWs' casts (EWC). Five scenarios (Sc) were included: conventionally managed rice-wheat system (farmers' practices, Sc1), CSA-based rice-wheat-mungbean system with flood irrigation (FI) (Sc2) and subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) (Sc3), CSA-based maizewheat-mungbean system with FI (Sc4), and SDI (Sc5). Results revealed that EWs were absent under Sc1, while the 10-year adoption of CSA-based scenarios (mean of Sc2-5) increased EWs' density and biomass to be 257.7 no. m −2 and 36.05 g m −2 , respectively. CSA-based maize scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) attained higher EWs' density and biomass over rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4). Also, SDI-based scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) recorded higher EWs' density and biomass over FI (Sc2 and Sc4). Maize-based CSA with SDI recorded the highest EWs' density and EWs' biomass. The higher total organic carbon in EWC (1.91%) than in the bulk soil of CSA-based scenarios (0.98%) and farmers' practices (0.65%) suggests the shift of crop residue to a stable SOC (in EWC). EWC contained significant amounts of C and available NPK under CSA practices, which were nil under Sc1. All CSA-based scenarios attained higher enzymes activities over Sc1. CSA-based scenarios, in particular, maize-based scenarios using SDI, improved EWs' proliferation, SOC, and nutrients storage (in soil and EWC) and showed a better choice for the IGP farmers with respect to C sequestration, soil quality, and nutrient availability.The rice-wheat (RW) cropping system dominates in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of South Asia covering an area of 13.5 Mha [1]. Besides being high water, energy, labor, and fertilizers demanding cropping system, burning crop residues, and intensive tillage Agronomy 2022, 12, 658 2 of 24 practices contributed to soil degradation [2][3][4][5]. Consequently, the sustainability of the RW cropping system in the IGP of South Asia is under threat [6], promoting the need for better agri-food systems management practices [7]. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices could enhance soil properties through the adoption of zero tillage (ZT), crop residue retention (CRR), and crop diversification [8][9][10] with best-fit crop management technologies [5,[11][12][13]. Despite the positive impacts of CSA practices on cropping system productivity, profitability, and resource use efficiency in the IGP of India, little information is available about the combined effects of CSA practices on the abundance of earthworms (EWs) and soil physico-biochemical properties.Conventional farming practices not only influence soil physico-biochemical properties but also intensively reduce the population, diversity, and activity of soil fauna [4,14]. The protection of soil fauna has a key role in soil management that determines soil quality [15]. Among organisms, soil properties are more amplified by EWs' abundance and activity than other soil fauna [16]. EWs' abundance was found to influence soil biophysical properties [17], crop productivity [18], and agroecosystem health [19]. EWs' feeding, burrowing, and casting activities impact OM distribution and dynamics [20], soil structure formation, aggregate stability, and soil porosity [21,22], nutrient availability and cycling [18,20,23], water infiltration [24], and microbial activity [25], thereby crop growth and productivity [18,23]. Consequently, due to the numerous ecosystem services that EWs provide, it was identified as ecosystem engineers [26,27] that could act as a bioindicator of land use and management [20,28].In general, EWs' density, diversity, and biomass in arable lands are lesser compared to gardens [14,29], organic farming [30], and integrated farming [28]. Several meta-analyses [22,30] and reviews [23,31] concluded that tillage reduces EWs' abundance. Moreover, EWs' abundance and diversity are influenced by crop residues amount and type [15,19,29] and cropping rotation [20]. Indeed, numerous studies have shown that CRR, ZT, and crop diversity positively affect EWs' population [24,27,32]. However, the layering of such practices on EWs' abundance in intensively irrigated rice-wheat cropping systems is limited.Soil biological properties, carbon mineralization, and nutrient release are strongly related. Earthworms primarily decompose low-quality OM to a nutrient-rich product by establishing a mutualistic relationship with soil microflora [32]. Accordingly, changes in EWs' density and activity could be manifested by increased nutrient levels and enzyme activities [14]. Enzymes, proteins produced by plant roots, soil microbiota, and fauna to hydrolyze SOM, are responsive to the soil management practices, e.g., tillage, cropping diversity, residue, and nutrient management [4,[33][34][35]. Due to their relationship with soil biology, soil enzymes have been described as \"biological fingerprints\", considered key soil quality indicators [36] that catalyze various reactions for OM decomposition, and OM-and nutrient cycling [37,38]. For example, phosphatases play roles in the organic Phosphorus (P) bioavailability [39], while dehydrogenase (DHA) plays a role in the oxidation of SOM by shifting organic H to inorganic acceptors [40]. In brief, DHA activity reflects a good picture of the overall soil microbial activities, thus it is a viable soil health indicator [41]. Hence, the effect of CSA and EWs' activity might be reflected by nutrient levels and enzyme activities in both bulk soil and EWs' casts (EWC).The nature of retained crop residues and EWs' abundance has produced contradictory results. While OM supply usually increases EWs' populations [42], Bamminger et al., [43] found no effect. Additionally, not always the adoption of sustainably managed systems promotes EWs' abundance [22,44]. More importantly, the effect of EWs on SOC is found ambiguous [45], as EWs influence SOC in two different directions [46]. EWs could accelerate crop residues decomposition by promoting microbial activity [33,47]. However, EWs' activity could increase SOC levels by boosting the formation of stable aggregates that protect the SOC against microbial attack [48,49] and by stabilizing the newly added OM in their casts, thus aiding soil C storage in the long term [25,46,48,50]. Therefore, the impact of retaining various crop residues under conservative managed systems on the EWs' abundance and their impact on SOC sequestration and soil quality in the IGP is important in light of global warming.In northern India, studies revealed the anthropogenic pressure on EWs' communities in arable lands [4,28,29]. Despite researchers confirming the ultimate beneficial effects of CSA in the IGP of India, little information is available about the effects of various CSA practices on the EWs' density and biomass. We hypothesize that CSA-based sustainable intensification practices (zero tillage, crop rotations, crop residue retention, and precision water and nutrients application) would augment EWs' populations that could enhance soil physico-biochemical properties than conventional practices, which could vary as per the cropping system management practices. In the present study, after a decade of adopting various CSA practices, we measured EWs' density and biomass in two soil layers (0-15 and 15-30 cm), as well the soil physical properties and the biochemical properties of both the bulk soil and EWs' casts. The CSA practices were compared with farmers' practices. CSA practices involved tillage (zero tillage Vs intensive tillage), crop rotations (maize-wheat vs rice-wheat), crop residue management (retention Vs removal), and water and nutrients application (precision application via subsurface irrigation vs flood irrigation). The effect of different management practices and their linear contrast on the above-mentioned parameters were analyzed. The results of these studies could help in designing a better cropping system with the best CSA practices that could show a better choice for the IGP farmers with respect to EWs' proliferation, C sequestration, nutrients storage, and availability, and soil physical and biological properties.The experiment was conducted at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal (29 • 42 20.7 N latitude, 76 • 57 19.79 E longitude, 243 m elevation), India. This area is typically known for the rice-wheat (RW) system. The climate of the region is semi-arid subtropical with an average rainfall of 670 mm annually, of which ~80% is distributed mainly from June to September (monsoon season). The climate is characterized by three distinctive seasons, i.e., wet-Kharif (July-October), dry-Rabi (November-March), and summer-Zaid (April-June). The soil of the experimental site is silty loam in texture (34.0% sand, 46.0% silt, and 20.0% clay), slightly alkaline (pH of 8.0), and poor in organic carbon content (0.45%).This study included five treatments (hereinafter named scenarios) consisting of two cropping systems (rice-wheat and maize-wheat) with combinations of tillage, residue management, crop establishment, mungbean integration, and water management practices (Table 1). The treatments were designated as scenarios by keeping in view present management practices, as well as future drivers of agricultural changes in the region. Before initiating the experiment, the experimental site was under a conventionally managed ricewheat system. The experiment began in 2009 and was laid out in a randomized complete block design and replicated thrice in 20 m × 50 m plot size. The five scenarios (Sc) were: conventional tillage (CT)-puddled transplanted rice (PTR) -CT wheat with flood irrigation (FI) (Sc1; farmers' practice); ZT direct-seeded rice (DSR) -ZT wheat -ZT mungbean with FI (Sc2); ZT DSR -ZT wheat -ZT mungbean with subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) (Sc3); ZT maize -ZT wheat -ZT mungbean with FI (Sc4) and ZT Maize -ZT Wheat -ZT mungbean with SDI (Sc5). Details of all CSA-based management scenarios comprised of crop rotation, tillage, crop establishment, and residue and water management are given in Table 1. In all the scenarios, similar management practices were followed across the years. A sampling of soil and EWs was carried out during the year 2019 (after 10 years of adopting CSA practices). All crop residues were removed in farmers' practice (Sc1) from the ground level. However, in rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3), all rice and mungbean residues and anchored wheat residues were retained on the soil surface. In maize-based CAS scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5), partial (~65%) maize residues and anchored wheat stubbles were retained at the soil surface. To assess the amount of crop residue recycled in each scenario, five rows with a length of 1.0 m were sampled from three locations in each plot after the harvest of each crop. The residues were cut from the soil surface, oven-dried, and expressed on a dry weight basis per hectare. The average residue load varied from 7.36-7.75 Mg ha −1 for rice, 9.52-9.88 Mg ha −1 for maize, 1.85-1.97 Mg ha −1 for wheat, and 2.95-3.30 Mg ha −1 for mungbean over the years. Annual average crop residues of 12.29, 12.39, 14.78, and 14.33 Mg ha −1 were retained on the soil surface for Scenario 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The C/N ratio of rice and maize was 58-65 and 43-50, respectively, and for wheat and mungbean, 50-56 and 20-30, respectively.In Sc1 (farmers' practice), conventional irrigation practices were applied; for CT-PTR, flood irrigation (FI) of ~5 cm depth for one month followed by irrigation applied at the hairline crack, while needs-based FI was applied for wheat (Table 1). In CSA-based scenarios, irrespective of the irrigation system (e.g., FI for Sc2 and Sc4 and SDI for Sc3 and Sc5), irrigation was based on a soil matric potential (SMP) of −20 to −30 kPa for rice and −40 to −50 kPa for maize throughout the season. The only exception is rice in Sc2, in which the soil was kept wet for the first 20 days to ensure good germination and establishment (Table 1). However, in the case of mungbean, needs-based irrigation was applied. Within each plot, a soil tensiometer \"gauge-type\" (IRROMETER, Riverside, California) was installed to monitor SMP. The ceramic cups were placed at 15 cm depth, ensuring good contact between the ceramic tip and the surrounding soil. The subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) system was installed; polyvinyl chloride pipes having an inside diameter of 90 and 63 mm for mains and sub mains, respectively. The laterals were placed at depth of 20 cm using tractor operated drip laying machine. Dripping lines (16 mm in diameter) were laid down along the rows at 20 cm depth with in-line emitters with a flow rate of 2.0 L h −1 and located 30 cm apart and the distance between dripping lines was 67.5 cm.In Sc1 (farmers' practice), both rice and wheat were cultivated as common farmers' practices in northwest India. The tillage operations in conventional till puddled transplanted rice (CT-PTR) comprised of two passes of harrow, one pass of rotavator, and two passes of puddle harrow followed by planking. Twenty-five-days-old rice seedlings were manually transplanted in a random geometry (20 cm × 15 cm) in puddled fields. In CT wheat, preparatory tillage included two passes each of harrowing, and two cultivators then wheat seeds were manually broadcasted and followed by planking. In CSA scenarios (Sc2-5), under ZT, all crops (rice, wheat, mungbean) except maize were planted with a row spacing of 22.5 cm using Happy Seeder; while maize was seeded at a row spacing of 67.5 cm. For CT (PTR) and DSR rice, a seed rate of 10 and 20 kg ha −1 were used, respectively. For maize, wheat, and mungbean, a seed rate of 100, 20, and 20 kg ha −1 was used, respectively. The best management practices were followed for weed, insect, pest, and disease management as per the recommendations of Punjabi Agricultural University.Soil bulk density was measured following the core method [51]. The soil penetration resistance was measured using a manual cone penetrometer (Eijkelkamp Agrisearch Equipment, Germany) at a 5 cm interval to a depth of 0-30 cm. The infiltration rate (IR) was determined using a double-ring infiltrometer as described by Gathala et al. [52]. The mean weight diameter (MWD) of water-stable soil aggregates was determined using the wet sieving method [53]. An air-dry soil sample of 100 g was passed through an 8 mm sieve and transferred in a set of sieves with diameters of 4, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, and 0.125 mm. After which, sieves (including the soil) were soaked for 10 min for capillary rewetting, followed by 10 min of shaking in a water drum with an oscillation frequency of 30 cycles min −1 and an amplitude of 3 cm, resulting in distinct aggregate class diameters, i.e., 0-0.125, 0.125-0.25, 0.25-0.5, 0.5-1, 1-2, 2-4 and 4-8 mm. The aggregates that remained in each class were collected and oven-dried at 65-70 • C until a constant weight was recorded. The aggregates MWD was calculated according to Kemper and Rosenau [54] using the following equation.where, n is the number of fractions (0.1-0.25, 0.25-0.5, 0.5-1.0, 1.0-2.0, 2.0-4 and 4-8 mm), xi is the mean diameter (mm) of the sieve size class (0.175, 0.375, 0.75, 1.5 and 2.0, 3, and 6 mm), and wi is the weight of soil (g) retained on each sieve.Sampling was performed for EWs in the morning (during their active period) [29] during mid-September 2019, using the digging and hand sorting method for two soil depths, i.e., 0-15 and 15-30 cm, from each replicate with three grid points. Soil blocks (0.25 cm × 25 cm × 15 cm) were removed from each plot. Similarly, soil blocks at a depth of 15-30 cm were sampled [55]. Soil blocks were bagged and directly moved to the laboratory and hand sorted. EWs were sorted into three categories based on their length, e.g., small (<20 mm), medium (20-40 mm), and large (>40 mm). The fresh biomass (g m −2 ) and density (No. m −2 ) were determined for each size category.Soil samples were collected (mid-September 2019) from each plot with three grid points from 0-15 cm depth using an auger with an internal diameter of 5 cm from each replicate. The activity of EWs is usually higher at night and therefore EWC was collected from the upper soil surface within a sampling area of 25 cm × 25 cm early in the morning using a brush and a small spoon [14]. Part of the fresh soil and EWC samples were kept (separately) in a refrigerator at 4 • C till the analysis of enzyme activities, i.e., dehydrogenase activity (DHA), alkaline phosphatase activity (ALP), and acid phosphatase activity (ACP). The other part of soil and EWC samples were air-dried, ground, sieved through a 2 mm sieve, and stored in a plastic jar for laboratory analysis of selected chemical properties.Soil and EWC were analyzed for electrical conductivity (EC), pH, total organic carbon (TOC), available N, P, and K, and enzymes (DHA, ALP, and ACP). EC and pH were determined in soil water extract (1 soil: 2 water) following the methods of Jakson [56]. The TOC content was determined using the wet oxidation method [57]. Available N was determined by the alkaline permanganate method [58]. Available P was determined by the ascorbic acid reductant method of Olsen et al. [59]. Available K was measured by flame photometer using neutral 1 N ammonium acetate extractant as described by Jackson [56]. Enzymes (DHA, ALP, and ACP) activities were estimated as described by Dick et al. [37].Data on earthworm population density, biomass weight, chemical properties of EWC, and soil had a greater coefficient of variation than 20%, and hence were transformed through a square-root ( √ x + 0.5) method [60]. The data were subjected to ANOVA (analysis of variance) using a one-way completely randomized design in the Glmmix procedure in SAS 9.1. The significant effect was determined at a significance level of 5% (p ≤ 0.05) and was compared according to Fisher's least significant difference (LSD). Principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation matrix were carried out using the R package GEA-R. The results were submitted to PCA to determine the common relationships between parameters.For All CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5), EWs' density and biomass of the three size categories (small, medium, and large) were higher in the surface soil layer (0-15 cm), compared to the subsurface soil layer (15-30 cm) (Table 2). However, for farmers' practices (Sc1), EWs' density and biomass were nil across the tested soil depths. For the two tested soil layers, all CSA-based scenarios had a significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher total EWs' density and biomass compared with Sc1 (farmers' practices) and the increase varied with different crop-based scenarios. Across the two soil layers, CSA-based maize scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in EWs' density and biomass (across all size categories) (Table 2). Similarly, CSA rice-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3) did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in EWs' density and biomass across all size categories. The only exception is the medium size (20-40 mm), only in 15-30 cm soil depth, in which an EW density of Sc3 was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than Sc2. In the top 15 cm soil depth, Sc5 recorded maximum EWs' density and biomass across all size categories, in which total EWs' density and biomass were 257.7 indv. m −2 and 36.05 g m −2 , respectively, instead of nil under Sc1. However, in sub-surface soil depth (15-30 cm), maximum EWs' density and biomass were recorded for Sc4 that was at par with Sc5.Total EWs' density and biomass were significantly (p ≤ 0.01) higher in maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) than rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3), in particular for the surface soil layer (Table 2). Maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) recorded higher total EWs' density and biomass by 76.3, 240.0% and 56.0 and 52.0%, respectively, over ricebased CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3), for the surface and subsurface soil layers, respectively, irrespective of system management (tillage, irrigation, and CRR). Similarly, precise water and N management through SDI (Sc3 and Sc5) recorded significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher EWs' density (p ≤ 0.05) and biomass (p ≤ 0.01) by 25.0 and 39.12%, respectively, relative to flood irrigation (FI)-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4) for the surface soil layer, irrespective of the cropping system. In the sub-surface soil depth, no differences were observed due to the irrigation system. Within the CSA rice-based scenarios, the SDI-irrigated rice (Sc3) recorded a significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher EWs' density and biomass by 5.86% and 48.48%, respectively over FI-irrigated rice (Sc2) for the 0-15 cm soil depth. Similarly, within maizebased scenarios, the SDI-irrigated maize (Sc5) recorded significantly (p ≤ 0.01) higher EWs' density and biomass by 37.5 and 36.5%, respectively, over FI-irrigated maize (Sc4) for the 0-15 cm depth.The CSA practices significantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected soil BD, which ranged from 1.4 Mg m −3 (Sc5) to 1.54 Mg m −3 (Sc1) (Figure 1). Soil BD of farmers' practices scenario was 7.8% higher than the CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5). Full CSA-based scenarios did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in BD (Figure 1). However, maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower BD compared to Sc1; while rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3), did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ from Sc1. Compared to Sc1, CSA-based maize and rice scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased BD by 9.7 and 5.2%, respectively, irrespective of crop management practices. Interestingly, the effect of the irrigation system on soil BD was minimal, in which both SDI-based scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) and FI-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4) showed similar BD.    1). Pars with a similar lowercase letter (s) are not significantly different at 0.05 level of probability using Tukey's HSD test. Letters apply only within each parameter.The infiltration rate (IR) of all CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5) was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than Sc1 (Figure 1). No significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in IR were observed among CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5). Irrespective of crop type and management, IR of CSA was 3.5 and 3.0 times over Sc1 for rice-based CSA scenarios and maize-based CSA scenarios, respectively. On a system basis, rice-based CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the IR rate by 15.4% compared to maize-based CSA scenarios, irrespective of the irrigation system. The IR of SDI-based scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than FI-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4) by 3.8%.The CSA-based scenario did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in the MWD and was significantly higher than farmer practice (Sc1). The CSA-based scenario (average of Sc2-5) increased MWD significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by 159%, irrespective of crop type and management practices (Figure 1). Summing the data over the cropping system, the results revealed that maize-based CSA scenarios showed statistically similar MWD to those recorded for rice-based CSA scenarios, irrespective of crop management (tillage, irrigation, and CRR). While SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) increased the MWD significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by 6.5% over SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4), irrespective of the cropping system.  1). Pars with a similar lowercase letter (s) are not significantly different at 0.05 level of probability using Tukey's HSD test. Letters apply only within each parameter.The infiltration rate (IR) of all CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5) was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than Sc1 (Figure 1). No significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in IR were observed among CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5). Irrespective of crop type and management, IR of CSA was 3.5 and 3.0 times over Sc1 for rice-based CSA scenarios and maize-based CSA scenarios, respectively. On a system basis, rice-based CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the IR rate by 15.4% compared to maize-based CSA scenarios, irrespective of the irrigation system. The IR of SDI-based scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher than FI-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4) by 3.8%.The CSA-based scenario did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in the MWD and was significantly higher than farmer practice (Sc1). The CSA-based scenario (average of Sc2-5) increased MWD significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by 159%, irrespective of crop type and management practices (Figure 1). Summing the data over the cropping system, the results revealed that maize-based CSA scenarios showed statistically similar MWD to those recorded for rice-based CSA scenarios, irrespective of crop management (tillage, irrigation, and CRR). While SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) increased the MWD significantly (p ≤ 0.05) by 6.5% over SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4), irrespective of the cropping system.CSA-based scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced SPR at all measured depths, except at 0-5 cm and 15-20 cm, in which no significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were observed among all scenarios (Figure 2). In general, in the top 15 cm, minimum SPR was recorded for Sc1 (0.64-0.91 MPa), while the highest values were recorded for Sc4 (0.87-1.83 MPa). Below 15 cm, an opposite trend was observed, in which CSA-based scenarios had significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower SPR relative to Sc1. The effect of CSA was minimal in the upper 5 cm surface, in which no significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences were observed among all scenarios (Figure 2). In the 5-10 and 10-15 cm soil depths, all CSA-based scenarios significantly increased SPR except Sc3 which was at par with Sc1 (Figure 2). The threshold point was at a soil depth of 15-20 cm, wherein CSA practices did not significantly affect SPR. In the 20-25 and 25-30 cm soil depths, all CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased SPR (Figure 2), with Sc3 (rice-based CSA with SDI) having the lowest SPR (0.97-1.2 MPa). The average SPR of maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) was 5.0 and 39.6%, over rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5), for the 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth, respectively. Moreover, ios (Figure 2). In the 5-10 and 10-15 cm soil depths, all CSA-based scenarios significantly increased SPR except Sc3 which was at par with Sc1 (Figure 2). The threshold point was at a soil depth of 15-20 cm, wherein CSA practices did not significantly affect SPR. In the 20-25 and 25-30 cm soil depths, all CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased SPR (Figure 2  Values with a similar lowercase letter (s) with in each soil depth are not significantly different at 0.05 level of probability using Tukey's HSD test. (for a detailed description of scenarios refer to Table 1).The effect of CSA-based scenarios on the soil salinity and pH was minimal, in which no significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in soil salinity and pH were observed owing to CSAbased management practices (Table 3). Irrespective of CSA-based scenarios, soil salinity Values with a similar lowercase letter (s) with in each soil depth are not significantly different at 0.05 level of probability using Tukey's HSD test. (for a detailed description of scenarios refer to Table 1).The effect of CSA-based scenarios on the soil salinity and pH was minimal, in which no significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in soil salinity and pH were observed owing to CSA-based management practices (Table 3). Irrespective of CSA-based scenarios, soil salinity ranged from 0.22 to 0.28 dS m −1 , while the soil was almost neutral, and the pH varied from 7.1 to 7.8. However, both EC and pH in EWC were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher in rice CSA-based scenarios over maize CSA-based and farmers' practices (Sc1) (Table 3). The rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3) showed similar EC in EWC to those observed for maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5), irrespective of crop management. However, the pH of EWC in rice-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3) was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) higher than maize-based scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) by 7.4%, irrespective of management systems. All CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5) showed higher TOC in both bulk soil and EWC than farmers' practice (Sc1) but did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ from each other (Table 3). Interestingly, under CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5), the average TOC in EWC was two times higher than the average TOC in bulk soil. In farmers' practices, OC was found only in the bulk soil (0.65%); however, under CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5), OC was found in the bulk soil (0.98%) and in EWC (1.91%). TOC in bulk soil under CSA-based scenarios was significantly (p ≤ 0.01) higher (50.0%) over Sc1. Maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased TOC in bulk soil by 4.7% and in EWC by 8.7% over ricebased CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3), irrespective of crop management practices. Similarly, SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased TOC in bulk soil by 9.0% over FI-based CAS scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4), irrespective of the cropping system.All CSA-based scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased available N in bulk soil and EWC over Sc1, irrespective of cropping systems, with Sc5 having the maximum effect (Table 3). The exception is FI-based CAS scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4), which were on par with Sc1 for available N in bulk soil. Maize-based CSA scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) and rice-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3) significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased available N in bulk soil by 14.8% and 15.8%, respectively, over Sc1, irrespective of crop management practices. The effect of the cropping system on available N in bulk soil was minimal, where both cropping systems had similar values. However, implementing SDI significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased available N in bulk soil by 9.3% compared to FI, irrespective of the cropping system.Available P and K in bulk soil were not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) affected by CSA scenarios, while in EWC, all CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased available P and K over Sc1 (Table 3). Full CSA scenarios (Sc2-5) did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in P and K in EWC, except for Sc3 that recorded a significantly higher available P relative to Sc4 and Sc5. Rice-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3) significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased available P in EWC by 14.0% over maize-based scenarios (Sc4 and S5). However, in bulk soil, maize-based scenarios (Sc4 and Sc5) showed statistically similar available P to those obtained from rice-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3).Interestingly, similar to C, in farmers' practices, available N, P, and K were found only in the bulk soil. However, under CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5), available N, P, and K were found in the bulk soil and in EWC. Furthermore, the available N, P, and K in EWC were always higher under all CSA scenarios than in bulk soil. Irrespective of the CSA scenario, available N, P, and K in EWC were higher than in bulk soil by 5.6, 60.0, and 160.0% for N, P, and K, respectively. Moreover, amounts of available N, P, and K were highly affected by CSA practices. On average, CSA scenarios increased available N, P, and K levels (in EWC) from 0.0 kg ha −1 in Sc1 to 167.0, 50.8, and 547.8 kg ha −1 , respectively.In the EWC, DHA, acid phosphates (ACP) and alkaline phosphates (ALP) were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher under all CSA-based scenarios with respect to Sc1 (Figure 3). CSA-based scenarios did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in DHA and ALP activities, only DHA under Sc4 was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lower than other CSA-based scenarios. As for ACP, the highest activity was recorded for Sc3 which was on par with Sc4 and Sc5 (Figure 3). In EWC, rice-based CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased DHA, ACP, and ALP activities by 9.4, 5.4, and 14.0%, respectively, over maize-based scenarios. Moreover, SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased DHA and ACP activities in EWC over FI-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4) by 46.6 and 11.5%, respectively, while ALP was not affected by the irrigation system. As for the bulk soil, CSA-based practices did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in ALP and ACP activity and were on par with Sc1 (Figure 3). The exception is ACP in Sc5, in which a significantly lower value (relative to the control) was observed. DHA activity was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased in all CSA-based practices, except for Sc5 which was on par with Sc1 (Figure 3).ACP, the highest activity was recorded for Sc3 which was on par with Sc4 and Sc5 (Figure 3). In EWC, rice-based CSA scenarios significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased DHA, ACP, and ALP activities by 9.4, 5.4, and 14.0%, respectively, over maize-based scenarios. Moreover, SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) significantly (p ≤ 0.01) increased DHA and ACP activities in EWC over FI-based CSA scenarios (Sc2 and Sc4) by 46.6 and 11.5%, respectively, while ALP was not affected by the irrigation system. As for the bulk soil, CSAbased practices did not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) differ in ALP and ACP activity and were on par with Sc1 (Figure 3). The exception is ACP in Sc5, in which a significantly lower value (relative to the control) was observed. DHA activity was significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased in all CSA-based practices, except for Sc5 which was on par with Sc1 (Figure 3).  ), acid and alkaline phosphatase (µg p-NP g −1 soil h −1 ) activity in soil and earthworm cast (EWC) as influenced by different CSA-based crop management scenarios (data transformed through square-root method). Pars with a similar lowercase letter (s) are not significantly different at 0.05 level of probability using Tukey's HSD test. Letters apply only within each parameter. (for a detailed description of scenarios refer to Table 1).In the PCA of 25 variables, three PCs were extracted with eigen values > 0.9 and explained 75.8% of the variance (Figure 4); first and second components explained 59.9% and 13.9%, respectively, of variation. Based on PCA, about 59.9% loadings were provided by the parameters in PC1 that can be used as key indicators for assessing soil quality. The results showed a strong and positive correlation between EW abundance (density and biomass for the 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depths) and parameters located on the upper righthand side (Figure 4), i.e., IR, MWD, TOC in bulk soil and EWC, available N, P, and K in the bulk soil and EWC, enzymes' activities (DHA, ALP, and ACP) only in EWC. However, EW density and biomass for the 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depths were negatively correlated with enzyme activity (DHA, ALP, and ACP) in the bulk soil and BD. In the top-soil layer, a significant positive correlation was observed between EWs' density and TOC in bulk soil (r = 0.84), TOC in EWC (r = 0.87), IR (r = 0.68), MWD (r = 0.94), P in bulk soil (r = 0.95), P in EWC (r = 0.74), K in soil (r = 0.96), and K in EWC (r = 0.86) (Table S1). Similarly, EWs' biomass significantly correlated with TOC in bulk soil (r = 0.66), TOC in EWC (r = 0.92), IR (r = 0.44), MWD (r = 0.81), P in bulk soil (r = 0.83), and P in EWC (r = 0.81). Similar trends were observed for the sub-surface soil layer (Table S1).with enzyme activity (DHA, ALP, and ACP) in the bulk soil and BD. In the top-soil layer, a significant positive correlation was observed between EWs' density and TOC in bulk soil (r = 0.84), TOC in EWC (r = 0.87), IR (r = 0.68), MWD (r = 0.94), P in bulk soil (r = 0.95), P in EWC (r = 0.74), K in soil (r = 0.96), and K in EWC (r = 0.86) (Table S1). Similarly, EWs' biomass significantly correlated with TOC in bulk soil (r = 0.66), TOC in EWC (r = 0.92), IR (r = 0.44), MWD (r = 0.81), P in bulk soil (r = 0.83), and P in EWC (r = 0.81). Similar trends were observed for the sub-surface soil layer (Table S1). The effect of different management practices and their linear contrast and interactions on EWs' density, EWs' biomass, physico-chemical, and enzymes' activities under CSA-based management practices are given in Table 4. The effect of scenarios, depth/soilcasts, and their interactions (Scenario x Depth/soil-casts) on EWs' density and biomass, TOC, pH, N, P, and K was significant (Table 4). The effect of scenarios and Scenario × Depth/soil-casts interactions was significant for all measured parameters except EC and The effect of different management practices and their linear contrast and interactions on EWs' density, EWs' biomass, physico-chemical, and enzymes' activities under CSAbased management practices are given in Table 4. The effect of scenarios, depth/soil-casts, and their interactions (Scenario x Depth/soil-casts) on EWs' density and biomass, TOC, pH, N, P, and K was significant (Table 4). The effect of scenarios and Scenario × Depth/soil-casts interactions was significant for all measured parameters except EC and DHA. However, the effect of depth/soil-casts interaction was significant for all parameters except N, P, and enzymes' activities.The effect of tillage (ZT vs CT), irrigation management (SDI vs FI), and cropping system (RW vs MW) was evident on EWs' density and biomass, most soil physical properties, and all biochemical properties of EWs' casts. However, except for (TOC, N, and K), the biochemical properties of bulk soil were not significantly affected by tillage, irrigation system, and cropping system (Table 4). Moreover, all soil physical properties (except SPR) and biochemical properties of EWC were significantly (p ≤ 0.01) affected by tillage (Table 4). However, in the bulk soil, only TOC, N, K, and DHA were significantly affected by tillage. The effect of the cropping system (RW vs. MW) was significant (p ≤ 0.05) on all soil physical properties (except MWD) and biochemical properties of EWC (p ≤ 0.01), while the biochemical properties of soil bulk were not affected by the cropping system (except, TOC, ALP, and DHA) (Table 4). Furthermore, the effect of the irrigation system (SDI vs FI) was significant (p ≤ 0.05) on all soil physical properties (except BD), and all biochemical properties of EWC. As for the soil-bulk biochemical properties, only TOC, pH, N, and K were affected by the irrigation system. CT-conventional tillage, ZT-zero tillage, PB-permanent bed, FI-flood irrigation, SDI-sub-surface drip irrigation, RW-rice-wheat, MW-maize-wheat, EC-electrical conductivity, TOC-total organic carbon, N-nitrogen, P-phosphorus, K-potassium, DHA-dehydrogenase, ACP-acid phosphatase, ALP-alkaline phosphatase, BD-bulk density, IR-infiltration rate, MWD-mean weight diameter, SPR-soil penetration resistance. NS = Not Significant. * Significant at p < 0.05, ** significant at p < 0.05, *** significant at p < 0.01.The absence of EWs in farmers' practice (Sc1) indicates the intensive soil biological degradation in the IGP of India. The limited EWs' abundance in the conventionally managed agroecosystems has been reported previously in India [4,28,29] and worldwide [15,20,47,61]. Intensive tillage lessens the EWs' abundance by killing and injuring them, exposing them to predators by bringing them closer to the soil surface, decreasing their food source through the acceleration of OM decomposition [22,26], and creating unfavorable soil physical conditions, e.g., temperature, moisture, and soil structure [62]. During tillage, about 68-70% of the EWs' biomass can be lost [44,63]. The very low abundance of EWs under farmers' practices in rice fields was confirmed by Singh et al. [29] in which they outlined that EWs were more abundant at the margins of the paddy fields in India, but no EWs were observed inside the fields. Our results were also confirmed by the findings of Giannitsopoulos et al. [64] who found that the highest EWs' density (181-228 m −2 ) was achieved under the least destructive tillage, while the most disruptive tillage yielded the lowest densities (75-98 m −2 ).The burning or removal of crop residue directly influenced EWs by reducing their food source. In contrast, the input of OM by crop residue retention or organic amendments promotes EWs' density and abundance [20,24,30]. In the present study, TOC strongly correlated with EWs' density and EWs' biomass for the two soil depths (Figure 4). Several studies reported a significant correlation between soil OC and EWs' abundance [26,42,61,65]. Giannitsopoulos et al. [64] estimated that for every 10% increase in crop residue retention on the soil surface, EWs' density could increase by 15 indv. m −2 .The effect of the cropping system on EW density and biomass was significant. The higher EWs' density and biomass of CSA maize-based scenarios (Sc4 and 5) over CSA rice-based scenarios (Sc2 and Sc3) could be attributed to the increased crop residues amount in which 14.5 Mg ha −1 of crop residues was retained annually on the soil surface compared to 12.34 Mg ha −1 for rice-based CSA scenarios. The higher input of crop residue in maizebased CSA systems has been translated to a 4.7% higher TOC in bulk soil by over rice-based CSA scenarios that could contribute to better EWs' proliferation under maize-based CSA scenarios. Similar results were reported by other researchers [15,19,20] in which they reported that EWs' abundance is affected by crop residues amount and TOC in the soil. Irrespective of food \"OM\" quantity, the quality of crop residues also plays an important role whereas the C/N ratio of maize residues (43)(44)(45)(46)(47)(48)(49)(50) is lower than rice residue (58)(59)(60)(61)(62)(63)(64)(65), implying that maize residue is a favorable food source of EWs relative to rice residues. Abail and Whalen [55] reported that EWs' biomass and density were higher under crop residues with a lower C/N ratio. In the present study, maize was irrigated at SMP of −40 to −50 kPa, while the rice was irrigated at −20 to −30 kPa, indicating better aeration under maize cultivation which could be another compelling reason for the enhanced EWs' density and biomass under maize-based CSA scenarios. Dhar and Chaudhuri [66] attributed the low EWs' density in paddy soils to inadequate drainage and anaerobic conditions. This explanation was validated by the higher EWs' density and biomass for SDI-based scenarios compared to the FI-based scenarios. Interestingly, SDI-based CSA scenarios (Sc3 and Sc5) could promote the EWs' population not only by providing better soil anaerobic conditions but also SDI-based CSA scenarios increased TOC in bulk soil by 9.0% over FI-based CAS scenarios, irrespective of the cropping system.The observed increase in TOC in bulk soil under CSA-based scenarios could be explained by the greater residue input and the less soil disturbance over ten years. Several studies reported higher SOC under conservation agriculture practices than conventional practices [11,[67][68][69]. The low SOC under Sc1 might be due to the combination of crop residue removal and intensive tillage that increases SOC losses by increasing its exposure to environmental fluctuations [35]. Furthermore, tillage (puddling/ploughing) breaks stable aggregates and exposes the protected OM to microbial decay [61,64,68]. Subsequently, lesser soil disturbance provides potential protection of SOC inside the macroaggregates [68,70,71].The amount of TOC in bulk soil is determined by the OM input and soil fauna activities, in particular by activities of EWs. EWs' feeding, burrowing, and casting activities impact OM distribution and dynamics [18,20,21,23,71,72]. Besides the higher TOC in the bulk soil of CAS-based scenarios (0.98%), relative to Sc1 (0.65), the presence of the EWC is another significant source for the TOC (1.98%), which was absent under Sc1. Angest et al. [46] demonstrated that EWs function similar to biochemical reactors that assist in converting plant compounds into microbial necromass in stabilized carbon pools \"in their casts\" without altering the TOC. In the present study, EWs' activity promoted the formation of stable aggregates that protected the SOC against microbial attack [48,49], in which the MWD was positively correlated with EWs' density (r = 0.94) (Figure 4 and Table S1). This suggestion is corroborated by the observed significantly higher MWD under CSA-based scenarios (Figure 1), and TOC in bulk soil, in which MWD was significantly correlated with TOC in bulk soil (r = 0.89) (Figure 4 and Table S1). EWs' activity might have also stabilized SOM through its incorporation and protection in their casts [48]. The higher average TOC in EWC (1.91%) relative to the bulk soil in CSA (0.98%) and the bulk soil of Sc1 (0.65) supports this scenario (Table 3). In short, EWs can promote C sequestration by increasing the decomposition of newly added C into stable C either inside stable aggregates or inside their casts, thus aiding soil C storage in the long term [25,46,48].CSA practices increase the mean weight diameter (MWD) of water-stable aggregates through increasing TOC, decreasing soil disturbance, increasing EWs' population, and reducing SOC loss [64, 68,70,71]. The MWD was positively correlated with TOC (r = 0.89) and EWs' density (r = 0.94) and EWs' biomass (r = 0.81). Under farmers' practices, intensive tillage breaks the stable aggregates and exposes protected OM to microbial decay and kills the EWs [9,24,68]. Similar to our results, the water-stable aggregates under ZT and residue retention were higher in the studies of Li et al. [73] and Song et al. [9] over conventional practices. EWs' activity not only promotes humus formation but also mixes such components to create stable aggregates [74]. Upon cast deposition, microbial products together with EWs' mucilages, bind soil particles and form very stable aggregates [75].The minimum soil disturbance (due to adoption of ZT), increased MWD, and higher SOC content led to a reduction in soil BD of CSA-based scenarios. Our results corroborated the previous findings of [35] under similar ecologies in which they reported that ZT and CRR reduced soil BD. In the present study, a significant negative correlation between soil BD and TOC (r = −0.54) was observed (Figure 4). The higher soil BD under Sc1 could be due to the compaction induced by tillage operations that were followed by puddling [4]. Puddling destructs soil aggregates and fills the macro-pores with finer soil particles [76]. The reduced BD could also be due to the increased large bio-bores due to EWs' browning (vertically and horizontally) and to the enhanced soil structure (increased MWD). Gathala et al. [52] found that the increase in MWD increases soil macro-porosity and reduces soil BD. A significant negative correlation was found between soil BD and EWs' density (r = −72), EWs' biomass (r = −0.66), and MWD (r = −0.65) (Figure 4 and Table S1). Similar to our results, Kumar et al. [77] found a strong negative correlation (r = −0.78) between BD and MWD.The observed increase in infiltration rate (IR) in the present study owing to CSA practices could be attributed to the direct and indirect influences of CRR, ZT, and EWs' activity. Under CSA practices, Ews' activity might enhance the MWD which could lead to an increase in the IR. This is evident from the observed positive correlation between IR and EWs' density (r = 0.68) and MWD (r = 0.88) (Figure 4 and Table S1). Under CSA-based scenarios, the highly stable aggregates and EWs' activities not only reduce the chances for the formation of surface crust but also increase the portion of macro-and bio-porosity [78], and pores connectivity [68,78]. Under ZT, the burrowing activity of the undisturbed EWs leads to an increase in the number of bio-pores, thus IR [23]. EWs vertically dig and create large bio-pores (higher than one mm in diameter) that could extend deeper than one meter in the soil profile [23].The peak SPR (3.03 MPa) observed for Sc1 was at 20 cm which could be due to the creation of a hardpan by tillage operations [79]. As for the CSA scenarios, despite the significantly higher SPR in the 5-15 cm soil depth, (Figure 2) the maximum SPR (1.83 MPa) was below the critical value of 2-3 MPa that could affect the growth of wheat roots [80]. However, the observed increased SPR in the CSA-based scenarios in the 5-10 and 10-15 cm depths differs from the results of Jat et al. [3] in which they found lower SPR in ZT than in CT. Our results corroborate the findings of Dekemati et al. [61] in which they reported higher SPR under ZT for the top 20 cm. Interestingly, despite high SPR (which might affect EWs' abundance), in the present study, the maximum EWs' density and biomass were observed under CSA-based scenarios where significantly higher SPR values were observed, implying that EWs' abundance is a function of various interacting factors (tillage, amount and type of crop residue, irrigation management, cropping system, and soil type) and not only one factor [42,61].Crop residue decay leads to nutrient release that could be available to plants [81]. Soil biological properties, OM amount, and nutrient availability are strongly correlated [10]. In the present study, under CSA-based scenarios (Sc2-5), available N, P, and K were higher in both the bulk soil and in EWC, compared to farmers' practices in which due to the absence of the EWs (thus, EWC), available N, P, and K were found only in the bulk soil. This increase might be due to the integration between CRR, EWs \"feeding and casting\", and microbial activity. This is evident from the strong and positive correlation between available N, P, and K in the bulk soil and EWs' density on one side and TOC in the soil on the other side (Figure 4 and Table S1). The adoption of ZT and continuous CRR for 10 years coupled with precision water management promoted EWs' proliferation, which enhanced and transformed soil microbial structure in a way that boosts SOM mineralization [4,18,20,48], thus releasing available N, P, and K in the soil while maintaining a higher amount inside the EWC. As for available N, P, and K in EWC, the EWs ingest litter on the soil surface [15,19]. This digested litter is converted to a nutrient-rich product by establishing a mutualistic relationship with soil microflora [32]. Once ingested, the unassimilated and undigested litter portions are returned to the soil as EWC. The fresh EWC depositions lead to a release of large quantities of nutrients (N, P, and K) that are easily assimilable by plants [82]. In this way, changes in EWs' density and activity could be manifested by increased nutrient levels (both in bulk soil and EWC) [14]. Bertrand et al. [23] reported that high EWs' abundance in the 0-15 cm could have more available N than low EWs' abundance. Our results were supported by a recent metanalysis that concluded that EWC is highly fertile and contains 40-48% more total P, N, and OC than bulk soil [83]. In the current study, significant amounts of available N, P, and K were accumulated in the EWC. On average, CSA scenarios (Sc2-5) increased available N, P, and K from 0.0 kg ha −1 in Sc1 to 167.0, 50.8, and 547.8 kg ha −1 , respectively.Soil enzymes are responsive to soil management practices, e.g., tillage, cropping diversity, crop residue, and nutrient management [4,34,35]. However, lower enzymes' activities in bulk soil were found under CSA-based scenarios than the EWC. In contrast, CSA-based management scenarios influenced EWs, thus microbial activities, as evidenced from extracellular enzymes' activities, i.e., ALP, ACP, and DHA in EWC [10]. EWs establish a mutualistic relationship with soil microflora [32], converting crop residues to EWC containing enzymes and microorganisms [4,48]. Earthworms affect enzyme activities by stimulating microbial communities [46,47] and enhancing enzyme activities [84]. For example, Hoang et al. [33] found higher enzymes' activities in the topsoil in bio-pores compared to rhizosphere and bulk soil. The higher ALP and ACP in EWC might explain the higher levels for P in bulk soil and EWC [39]. In the present study, we investigated the impact of different CSA practices that promote EWs' activity, and how EWs influence the soil physico-biochemical properties of the soil, irrespective of EWs' species (ecological groups). Future studies must include the classification of EWs to their ecological groups as affected by various CSA practices.Earthworms (EWs) were absent under farmers' practices, reflecting the high pressure on EWs' communities due to intensive tillage and crop residue burning/removal in the rice-wheat system. Long-term adoption of CSA-based practices markedly boosted EWs' abundance, positively affected soil structure, increased TOC, nutrient availability, and soil biological activity, in particular, the CSA maize-based cropping system. The high TOC in EWC suggests the potential transformation of the retained crop residue to stable SOC inside the EWC, thus increasing SOC sequestration. Similarly, EWC contained a significant amount of available N, P, and K under CSA practices. Maize-based CSA scenarios recorded higher EWs' density, EWs' biomass, TOC, and MWD over rice-based CSA scenarios. Interestingly, SDI-based CSA scenarios yielded higher EWs' density and biomass, TOC, and available NPK, relative to FI-based CSA scenarios. Therefore, long-term adoption of CSAbased maize-based scenarios using SDI improved EWs' proliferation, TOC, and nutrient storage (in the soil and EWC) and showed a better choice for the IGP farmers' w.r.t. soil physical and biological properties. Future studies must include the classification of EWs to their ecological groups as affected by various CSA practices.","tokenCount":"8601"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b59300c61ca93db7b5bd5b82aa95b42e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c6e9a17-44b1-4b27-8fda-ebec41f97cf2/retrieve","id":"-1941088004"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"875c3b04-3d84-4fe3-9086-a0f72ba172af","pagecount":"1","content":"Left: A dairy farmer supplying milk to the collector and waiting for quality test (alcohol test and lactodensimeter reading). Middle: Milk collector checking freshness of milk with alcohol test and adulteration (water) with lactometer reading. Right: milk collection center where raw milk is collected from dairy farmers and raw milk, cheese and pasteurized milk is sold to consumers.Milk is a very good source of energy, proteins and minerals for infants and young children who have only few alternative sources for these nutrients. Besides its beneficial effects on nutrition, milk might also be a source of zoonotic infections (Faye and Loiseau 2000). Several surveys have detected food borne pathogens in raw milk and milk products: Mycobacterium bovis, Brucella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and others (Alehegn, 2004;Oliver et al, 2005;Ameni et al., 2007). Consumption of raw milk is a high-risk behavior and will continue to cause morbidity and mortality until people stop consuming raw milk and raw milk products (Keene, 1999). In Ethiopia, raw milk and raw milk products often consumed under unsatisfactory hygiene conditions (Ashenafi and Beyene, 1994;Kassahun and Fikadu, 2009;Wubete, 2004). However, there is a paucity of citable scientific data on the magnitude of raw milk consumption behavior and the risk factors for the behavior in and around Debre-Zeit. Of the 170 participants, 31.8% (n=54) producers had a habit of consuming raw milk. The proportion of dairy farmers consuming raw milk was significantly higher in peri urban areas (94.8%) than in urban areas of Debre-Zeit (13.0%, X 2 =89.3, df=1, OR=124.1, p<0.001). Of the factors tested, only residing in peri-urban areas was significantly associated with consumption of raw milk (p<0.001). The majority of dairy farmers (85.6%) were unaware of milk borne diseases associated with consumption of raw milk.  To generate baseline information on raw milk consumption behavior, milk handling practices and risk factors associated with consumption of raw milk among dairy farming communities in urban and peri urban areas of Debre-zeit.  ","tokenCount":"322"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"23db82c3efe245cd83b693aa463809aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abd3d75f-5e9c-4665-8b34-708622da8bbf/retrieve","id":"407135245"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"da80b4f9-649f-4e89-bb21-b7cf9bf19427","pagecount":"6","content":"CIAT's long and productive history of collaboration with Canadian institutions in agricultural research for development dates back nearly to the Center's inception. Work supported by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has created substantial benefits for rural communities in Latin America, Africa, and other parts of the developing world.We are grateful to Canadian institutions for their steadfast commitment to CIAT's impact-oriented initiatives, and we look forward to strengthening our partnership with these institutions by aligning some of our initiatives more closely with Canadian priorities. Furthermore, we welcome continued efforts to identify opportunities for research and institutional cooperation with Canadian colleagues in developing countries. Together, we can make a significant difference in smallholder farmers' livelihoods by strengthening global food security and enabling agriculture to adapt to climate change.CIAT has a broad research mandate -encompassing agrobiodiversity, tropical soils, and policy analysisand is continually expanding and improving its spheres of collaboration.CIAT staff member: Robin Buruchara Period: Ongoing 1995-2014 Budget (US$ '000s): 17,048 -CIDA Main results:• Nearly 6 million households (58% headed by women) accessed seeds of multiple stress-tolerant bean varieties in nine countries.A further 3.3 million households accessed Integrated Crop Management (ICM) technologies in 11 countries. • An estimated 1.3 million hectares were planted to seeds of improved varieties in nine countries in Eastern, Central, and SouthernAfrica. • In countries with no formal release mechanisms, 99 varieties were released or adopted by farmers. Out of this total, 67 were developed and released for improved resilience, 13 for specific market traits, and 14 for their nutritional value. • Diversified bean-based food technologies and products were developed and tested in vulnerable communities. Another 12 food combinations and 200 food recipes were also prepared. • Value-chain studies established 8-year trend estimates for volumes of beans traded in five PABRA member countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe). • A PABRA strategy, linking farmers to markets, has been developed and is being tested. Three regional bean platforms have been established in Kenya, with others in Burundi, DR Congo, Madagascar, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. • Organizations in all PABRA member countries were assisted in establishing or strengthening partnerships -447 for seed exchange and 159 for ICM. • As a result of significant national and regional capacity-building initiatives, 8,768 people received training. Also, 43 students received support to enroll in MSc and PhD study programs.• National bean programs released 101 improved bean varieties suitable for major markets. Some varieties also combine resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses such as low soil fertility. As of 2008, an estimated 7 million farmers accessed new bean varieties, and about 440 partnerships -mostly national -were catalyzed. Across 13 PABRA member countries, nearly 3 million farmers accessed technologies for Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM) and Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM). On average, women accounted for 52% of the benefited farmers. • In Ethiopia, international trade in beans has increased. A survey of the Central Rift Valley region showed that, of the seven bean varieties being traded, 71% were improved varieties. • Project activities successfully expanded to more than 79 communities in seven member countries of both ECABREN and SABRN networks, sometimes supported by new local funding. • Farmers were empowered to access market opportunities. Rural women increased their skills in analyzing and understanding markets, conducting experiments, and taking on leadership positions in project activities. Benefits included improved gender relations and responsibility sharing, increased bean production, and adoption of coping strategies. • A Seed System Security Assessment (SSSA) policy document, published in 2008 and 2009, showed at least 20,000 downloads.The tool is geared to help scientists, practitioners, and policymakers design targeted agriculture-related responses in acute as well as chronic stress. • Over 65 new bean varieties were identified and disseminated in more than 10 PABRA member countries, providing yield increases of 33% (Kenya), 41% (Ethiopia), 43% (Tanzania), and 55% (Uganda). • Climbing beans, yielding three times more than bush varieties traditionally grown in Africa, continued to spread in Rwanda and accounted for at least one-third of all bean seed sown there. In Uganda, one variety was adopted by 88% of the farmers evaluating it, with 50% also adopting two other Rwandan varieties. • The responsibility for regional bean breeding was assumed by networks and NARS, with substantial cost savings and strengthening of local institutions. A new pan-African bean breeding strategy was developed. • Some new varieties were identified as taking 14% to 30% less time to cook than local varieties, thus reducing fuel costs.• A novel participatory version of a farmer field school was used to disseminate and adapt bean IPM from one community to another, involving various introduced and indigenous technologies. The approach was first used in Tanzania and has now been introduced in Burundi, DR Congo, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, and Sudan. • An adoption study in one district in Uganda, carried out seven seasons after introduction of new varieties, found that two of them accounted for 74% of the total bean-growing area in household plots. Adopters reported income gains from higher productivity and price, and improved food security. • The Enabling Rural Innovation (ERI) program formed strategic alliances to improve community organizational capacity. Women were actively involved in problem diagnosis, opportunity identification, action planning, and intervention at the community level. • Partners' capacity and technical skills were enhanced through formal and on-the-job support.CIAT staff member: Joe Tohme Period: 2009-2011 Budget (US$ '000s): 10,293 -CIDA Main results: • High-yielding biofortified lines, which meet at least 50% of the nutrient target densities, have been submitted to varietal release committees in Nigeria for cassava, in Zambia for maize, in Rwanda for beans, and in India for pearl millet. • AgroSalud partners released 21 maize cultivars with higher tryptophan and lysine levels, 8 rice cultivars and 5 bean cultivars rich in iron, and 8 sweet potato cultivars with higher beta-carotene content. • An additional 10 nutritionally enhanced cultivars are in the pipeline for release in 8 countries in 2011-2012. With cultivars released and disseminated, national and international partners in the region are well-positioned to build on CIDA's initial investment in biofortification. • New knowledge for was developed with teachers, students, technicians, and rural youth, aimed at improving awareness of natural resource management issues. • The decision-making capacity of municipal authorities was strengthened, and new ideas for priority projects were formulated.• For the first time ever, the effects of 34 years of aid were put in the national spotlight. • A national reflection workshop was held under the leadership of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development to focus R+D efforts on chronic stress areas and highly vulnerable farmers. • Draft national guidelines were developed for \"Better Practices in Seed Relief Interventions.\"• \"Communities in the target areas gained a stronger capacity to identify functionally interdependent opportunities for increasing returns to labor. • Strong linkages between resource management, production, marketing systems, local knowledge, and farmers' organization were established in target areas. • Communities improved their soil, water, and nutrient management. • Rural communities, especially women and marginalized farmers, gained better access to markets for grain legumes. • Increased rural incomes gave communities stronger incentives to invest in improving the natural resource base on which production depends.","tokenCount":"1197"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/2210976423.json b/data/part_1/2210976423.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..140deb62512d96844a5b4a9b61b1e82d9cbbf6d8
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bbf351327b488f9b8f4ef05f111634d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5f5146c7-4613-4d77-980a-976de5550862/retrieve","id":"1303297760"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"91aabf7c-c9f9-4cb1-bd54-c0ceddb9a678","pagecount":"108","content":"More information on SPARC can be found here: sparc-knowledge.orgThe objective of this analysis was to map climate finance flows for the livestock sector and related systems in East Africa in general and, more specifically, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, given the importance of the sector in their respective economic systems and its identification as a priority in the national climate adaptation and mitigation discourse.Background. Climate finance for the livestock sector and related systems amounted to USD 828 million across the countries analysed between 2015 and 2022, mostly directed to small-scale farmers, pastoralists, agropastoralists and livestock producers, with an emphasis on the most vulnerable populations.Most of the flows, estimated at USD 641 million, originated from the public sector, with international actors being the main source of funding. Private sector participation is increasing in the climate finance arena, with investments from international and national actors recorded across all countries. However, data gaps prevent a comprehensive mapping and an accurate estimation of flows originating from the private sector and other sources, such as national governments.These differ across the region, with debt instruments being predominant in Ethiopia and Kenya and grants more common in Uganda and Tanzania. This reflects the different environments but is a function of a stronger focus on adaptation and public goods delivery, often funded via grant instruments.Most funds are directed to climate adaptation (USD 421 million) with USD 154 million committed to dual benefit actions (i.e. more adaptation measures with mitigation benefits). A high portion of funds is via small grants.Our analysis points to emerging trends in investments operated via blended finance operations and mechanisms with many agriculture-focused multi-country funds, country-specific financing windows and matching grant schemes with seed funding from international donors.An enabling environment at a broader level has attracted funds, particularly for assessing funding gaps and establishing climate finance accounting, mapping and monitoring mechanisms.Similarly, research in the livestock sector has received substantial resources with a view to generating knowledge to inform decision-making and introduce innovations with potential for scaling up. At the regional level, USD 51 million has been allocated to research via international research institutes to implement practical interventions and USD 93 million to research projects for knowledge generation.Results show that resources for the livestock sector are insufficient to effectively implement the priority actions identified in strategic documents at the national and regional levels.There are few effective instruments for climate finance mapping and monitoring. This distorts the picture of the magnitude of livestock-targeting funds. Additionally, there seems to be a misalignment between the destination of flows and expressed needs. The objective of this study was to review current climate change finance promised, allocated and available for livestock by comparing finance for adaptation with finance for mitigation for Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, East Africa and the Horn of Africa. This included a desk review of proposed or existing projects addressing livelihoods, at least partly relying on livestock production systems or closely related systems (e.g. feed production). Chapter 1 provides an overview of the context, focusing on the livestock sector and the most pressing actions to undertake in national and regional strategies. In Chapter 2, the method is outlined, along with the scope and qualifying elements that guided the analysis.Chapter 3 presents the results of a quantitative and qualitative analysis conducted for all target countries, including a section focused on multicountry projects. Chapter 4 is a summary of the main findings and concluding remarks. In the last few decades, the continent has experienced unpredictable weather patterns coupled with increasing temperatures (Niang et al. 2014). An increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall, heatwaves and droughts, has been recorded throughout the continent.Droughts have particularly affected East Africa (Pereira 2017), drastically impacting pastoralism and agropastoral livelihoods. A protracted drought between 2008 and 2011 is estimated to have resulted in economic losses of USD 12.1 billion in Kenya alone (World Bank 2016).At the same time, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Niang et al. (2014) warn that extreme weather events, including heavy precipitation, heatwaves and droughts, are predicted to increase in frequency and intensity throughout the continent.East Africa is projected to be affected by a decrease in mean precipitation, increasing aridity and meteorological droughts. This, compounded with water stress and other climate-related hazards such as a more rapid spread of vector-borne diseases equally affecting humans and livestock, is expected to take a heavy toll on local livelihoods and the underlying natural capital if no remedial actions are taken (World Economic Forum 2021).The current and prospective impacts of climate change highlight the need for concerted actions at different scales has resulted in several collaborative mechanisms at the global and regional levels in the past few decades.Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), one of the three multilateral environmental agreements adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This aims to stabilize GHG concentrations in the atmosphere \"at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system\" while enabling development to proceed in a sustainable manner.In the period up to 2020, in two successive commitment periods (2008-2012 and 2013-2020), only a limited number of developed country parties committed to reducing their GHG emissions under the Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997. The Kyoto Protocol did not achieve its goals from the environmental integrity point of view, as the United States, the largest emitter at the time of its adoption, never ratified it and Canada withdrew in 2011. In the second period, other large emitters such as Japan, New Zealand and Russia failed to take on new commitments.In response, the Paris Agreement was adopted Following this definition, it is estimated that livestock accounts for approximately 40% of the GDP in Africa, with peaks of 80% in some countries (Panel 2020). A key contributor to current food security, the growth of the livestock sector in Africa is considered crucial to sustaining an increasing demand for animal protein for a growing population, higher incomes and changing consumption patterns, and increasing urbanization (Balehegn et al. 2021).Climate change has already had implications for the livestock sector, directly or indirectly, by affecting resource availability or quality.Among the various phenomena documented globally and on the continent are (i) changes in forage quality in the form of reduced nutrients and quantity (Chapman et al. 2012); (ii) livestock productivity due to a reduction in feed of good quality, feed intake, conversion efficiency and reduced biomass; (iii) resource availability for livestock rearing, such as water, due to a decrease in supply coupled with an increase in consumption prompted by higher temperatures (ibid.); (iv) impaired health, increased morbidity and higher frequency and rapidity of pathogens and disease outbreaks and transmission among livestock due to a change in precipitation patterns and higher temperatures (Thornton et al. 2009); (v) livestock reproduction rates where efficiency and frequency are affected by climatic conditions and livestock health (Nardone et al. 2010).The livestock sector contributes to 14.5% of global GHG emissions and 70% of the overall GHG emissions in Africa. Enteric methane (CH4), with a warming potential of 21 CO2-eq accounts for 19% of total CH4 anthropogenic emissions (Rojas-Downing et al. 2017). Among all regions, East Africa presents the highest emission intensity -four times as high as the global average due to livestock's low productivity and efficiency and infrastructural inefficiencies in the livestock industry (Balehegn et al. 2021).The livestock sector is responsible for indirect emissions from manure treatment and application and the ancillary services linked to livestock production and rearing, such as transport of animals and animal products, land conversion, processing and manufacturing of livestockderived products, among others (Rojas-Downing et al. 2017). Livestock is reported to be the indirect cause of 9.2% of global GHG emissions due to pasture and cropland expansion for feed production (Gerber et al. 2013).However, the contribution of livestock to GHG emissions varies considerably across livestock systems (Gerber et al. 2013) and species (Rojas-Downing et al. 2017). Enteric fermentation is the largest source of emissions from cattle and small ruminants, whereas feed production accounts for the largest emission share in pigs and poultry systems.The livestock sector has proven to be one of the main drivers of environmental degradation on the continent as a consequence of increasing stocking intensity and land-use changes for grazing and feed production (Mekuria et al. 2018). Some of the phenomena that have been documented include livestock-driven land degradation (e.g. in the form of soil compaction and erosion), biodiversity decline, water pollution and depletion (Bellarby et al. 2013).The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that 2.5 times more feed might be needed for livestock rearing in drylands between 2012-2030, based on the climate trends between 1998-2011(FAO 2022)). The amount of feed needed would be 3.5 times higher than the baseline under drought conditions (ibid.).Concurrently, Herrero et al. (2008) estimate livestock-related methane emissions in Africa will reach 11.1 million tonnes per year by 2030 (as opposed to 7.8 million tonnes per year in 2000)under a business-as-usual scenario. This is due to an increase in livestock populations to meet increasing demand for livestock or livestockderived products; something that points to the need for a paradigm shift.Sub-Saharan Africa presents a wide range of production and management systems. Some of the most common are pastoral systems, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, along with mixed crop-livestock systems where rainfall is more frequent. In these areas, commerciallyoriented systems are more common, particularly milk production. These systems present different degrees of intensiveness in relation to production practices and commercialization of livestock-derived products. In Ethiopia, where the milk industry is relatively undeveloped, mixed systems are more oriented to raising livestock other than cattle.1 This classification has been used for data analysis and coding climate finance flows. The classification is arbitrary and presents overlaps. The granularity was deemed sufficient to provide a level of detail appropriate for the objective, while preventing data gaps due to a misalignment in the classification systems reported in the screened documentation. The categorization presented here reflects the main strategies that have been implemented across the continent and in the target countries as emerged from an analysis of project proposals and the literature. Specific measures tend to be associated more frequently with certain livestock production and management systems (e.g. the use of manure biodigesters being more common in commercially-oriented systems). However, the underlying reasons for all the mapped climate finance flows have not been detailed as this was not the focus of the analysis. For example, the list does not cover improved husbandry practices. This category often functions as an umbrella term encompassing many other practices such as animal breeding strategies, changes in feeding practices and so on.Different livestock systems present different emission profiles and adaptive capacities. For example, enteric fermentation, due to the low digestibility of forage and improper manure management, is one of the main emission factors in grazing systems and mixed croplivestock systems. This results in differences in the effectiveness of any given climate adaptation and mitigation measure (World Bank 2020).The challenges point to the need for changes in livestock production and management systems that, while sustaining the livelihoods of millions of people, can increase resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change.Climate-smart livestock measures have been defined as those contributing to improved productivity while addressing climate adaptation, mitigation and environmental degradation (Gaitán et al. 2016). FAO (2006) defines climate-smart livestock as a three-pronged system contributing to food security, climate adaptation and climate mitigation.Building on these definitions, climate-smart livestock measures are here defined as those that could directly or indirectly contribute to climate mitigation and climate adaptation within the context of livestock and livestock-related systems.While a comprehensive classification is outside the scope of the present report, some of the main measures identified in the literature are reported in Table 1 1 . These measures refer to either landbased or landless systems.Table 2. Overview of main climate-smart livestock measures adopted in the region and the analysed countries.This refers to the planning, implementation and monitoring of animal grazing to achieve sustained animal, plant, land, environmental and economic results under a range of environmental conditions (Nagrasslands 2022). Potential activities include rotational, moderate or (temporal) no-grazing to match resource availability and allow ecosystems to recover.Such management practices can lead to increased pastureland productivity, grassland and, consequently, improved forage quality (Gebregergs et al. 2019). The restoration of degraded land can result in higher carbon sequestration and reduced enteric emissions thanks to improved forage quality following the restoration of feeding grounds (FAO 2007).This includes the adoption of specific production and management practices for animal feed or crops used as animal feed to reduce their carbon and water footprint by means of resource efficiencies. Examples include climate-smart agriculture practices and techniques. Such measures can reduce the amount of emissions as opposed to conventional farming practices, contribute to carbon sequestration and restore depleted resources (Batima et al. 2005).This is the planning, implementation and monitoring of practices leading to pasture, grassland, rangeland restoration and sustainable use. This can include reseeding (e.g., the re-introduction of improved quality plant varieties) and conservation. Such practices can result in improved land productivity, carbon sequestration and reduced enteric emissions due to improved quality feed (Gerber et al. 2013). This includes strategies such as transhumance to match resource availability and avoid exceeding the carrying capacity of specific systems (Rojas-Downing et al. 2017).These terms refer to management systems or approaches combining pastoralism (extensive livestock husbandry on pastures) and agriculture in a partially wooded environment (agrosilvopastoralism), agriculture and pastoralism (agropastoral systems) or pastoralism in wooded environments (silvopastoral systems). The combination of crop production and livestock raising in the same system can result in a reduction of GHG emissions, contribute to carbon sequestration and improved feed quality (ultimately resulting in reduced enteric methane emissions) (Feliciano et al. 2018). At the same time, such systems can reduce the sensitivity of livestock to climate hazards and contribute to their endurance thanks to the supply of forage of good quality and improved environmental conditions (Smith et al. 2012). Changes in the adoption of these types of systems can result in resource efficiencies and healthier ecosystems, further contributing to climate adaptation and mitigation (Herrero et al. 2012).This refers to the selection of individuals with desirable characteristics, mostly in terms of their ability to use resources more efficiently or tolerate certain environmental conditions. This is often obtained via breeding programmes contributing to the emergence of climate-tolerant breeds either in terms of resistance to or the ability to cope with specific climate phenomena (e.g. the emergence of parasites) or being more resource-efficient vis-à-vis climate-related stresses and impacts (e.g. improved low-quality feed conversion) (Henry et al. 2012).This describes the diversification of breeds or species in any given stock to increase their resilience to specific pressures or as a livelihood diversification strategy to face climate change or related hazards. Diversification contributes to stock resilience given different species and breed sensitivity to climate phenomena, differing feeding strategies and feed conversion rates (Batima et al. 2005).This refers to the management, handling, application and storage of manure using strategies or technologies to maximize its beneficial impacts (in any given production system) or reduce its negative environmental footprint. The re-use of manure for fertilization, its storage, timely and efficient application and anaerobic treatment reduce the need for external inputs and emissions from manure (Gerber et al. 2008).This indicates the planning, implementation and monitoring of strategies to improve feed nutritional qualities and other characteristics to maximize the feed conversion ratio, thus reducing emissions per head or unit of output. An improvement in forage characteristics can lead to improved livestock performance, healthier livestock and enhanced feed efficiency (Giger-Reverdin et al. 2000).This denotes the planning and implementation of feeding strategies that can improve livestock health, productivity or efficiency. This includes changes in diets and timing or feeding frequency (Baleghen et al. 2020) that can contribute to a reduction in mortality, morbidity or malnutrition rates during specific times of the year (e.g. dry season) (Thornton et al. 2010). Supplementation can be used to enhance livestock health status, productivity and efficiency (Berhe et al. 2020;Berhanu et al. 2019). A change in diets or feeding patterns can result in changes in manure composition and, consequently, related emissions (Dickie et al. 2014) and contribute to ecosystem restoration or sustainable use.This describes the planning and implementation of measures resulting in the more efficient use and management of resources for livestock raising and related systems. Specific measures can include the more efficient application of fertilizers and pesticides for feed production, energy, water or other external inputs and resource-saving strategies, such as water harvesting (Knapp et al. 2014). This includes the use of alternative inputs (e.g. organic fertilizers), the construction or rehabilitation of small-scale infrastructure, the adoption of more resource-efficient machinery, equipment, and technologies contributing to a reduction in resource use per unit and livestock systems resilience.This describes systems or strategies aiming at advising farmers, livestock keepers and other value chain actors on the likelihood of a threat and how to prevent, control or reduce its potential adverse impacts on their operations (FAO 2022). This can include systems monitoring feed and resource availability, disease spread and other climate change-induced or exacerbated phenomena to prevent, avoid or limit the scale of their impacts through preventive actions (Hansen et al. 2019).Several barriers limit the adoption of the practices in Funds pooling capital from investors and allocating this to direct investees (e.g. project implementers) or indirect investees (e.g. financial institutions for on-lending).Resources are raised at the fund level, but these can be complemented with additional resources raised at the investment level (including via matching grant mechanisms).Facilities, operating on earmarked public financial resources, whose \"first objective\" is to be matched by private capital for investments in specific interventions.In both cases, vehicles have a legal personality that can be independent of its investors and can be managed by public or private actors.Budget expenditure: movements of resources from or occurring within the national budget, including transfers to other government institutions and related agencies and their expenditures to fund recurrent or capital expenditure.Subsidies and incentives (e.g. payments for ecosystem services), conditional contributions towards the financial costs of any given intervention.Guarantees: contracts de-risking the repayment of debts by a debtor to its creditor which can be used to facilitate, leverage or unlock the allocation of funds. Climate action ranks high on the development agendas of the countries targeted in this analysis.Their sectoral priorities and financing needs, with a focus on the agricultural and livestock sector when possible, are summarized below.A comprehensive description of the policy landscape is outside the scope of the present analysis. Annex I provides an overview of the main strategies and policies that set out the actions for climate adaptation and mitigation with reference to agriculture and livestock.The      Mitigation ambitions were stepped up to achieve a target of 24% reduced emissions by 2030 relative to a business-as-usual scenario.As reported, the agriculture, forestry and other land-use sectors alone are the key to a three-fourths reduction of national emissions and is identified as a priority for adaptation. 10 These only include strategies and policies whose timeframe extends to at least or beyond 2022. The categorization here presents partial and unavoidable overlaps. This was done to better reflect the main sectors reported in the respective NDCs, NAPs and related strategies of the countries under analysis. The objective was to conduct \"a review of current climate change finance promised, allocated and available for livestock and compare finance for adaptation to that for mitigation.\"The following methods were used:A literature review to identify documents to inform the framework design for a climate finance mapping exercise and preparing a codebook for tagging and mapping financial flows. The scope of the analysis and the codebook underwent several adaptations as the analytical process progressed as a function of the availability of information and its quality.Definition of key elements, including the analytical framework, scope of the analysis and key terms and qualifying elements. This stage included identifying items not to be included in the analysis, the benchmark against which the climate finance gap should be measured, the financial flows to map, sources of climate finance to be considered, and livestock-related measures to consider.Data collection from established databases in the field of climate finance, complemented by a comprehensive review of project documentation and stakeholder interviews. The data collection process included quantitative and qualitative data, particularly in relation to private sector finance.Data processing included quantitative and qualitative analysis. The quantitative component refers to all quantifiable financial flows considered eligible and that could be coded.The qualitative analysis refers to all flows whose variables could not be mapped or described in enough detail to make them eligible but were reported under each country and regional section to provide a more comprehensive picture of the climate finance landscape. The quantitative data analysis included data coding, data cleaning to avoid double counting and data triangulation in case of discrepancies. The qualitative component required data triangulation.Data interpretation and synthesis resulted in a quantifiable component of climate finance flows for each country and the region and a broader description of the climate finance landscape in any specific location. This is reported in Chapter 3.11 These include the recent CPI (2020), Examining the Climate Finance Gap for Small-Scale Agriculture, London:CPI 12 All amounts are expressed in USD. Where the original amounts were expressed in another currency, they were converted using OANDA and the exchange rate for 1 January whenever the day or month was not specified for the year the flow was expected to be released. 13 Sources and intermediaries partly overlap and their classification is partly determined by the position in the chain or viewpoint selected for any given transaction. Equity funds, for instance, might receive transfers from international donors but not be the final disbursement channel (i.e. the entity just before the implementation of the intervention along the financing chain, such as in the case of on-lending to other financial institutions).The analytical framework builds on the frameworks used for similar analyses, including the Land Use Finance Tool and other Climate Policy Institute-led investigations, with adaptations to better reflect the targeted sector and the scope of work. 11To structure the framework, a value chain approach and model was adopted whereby climate finance flows are the object of an analysis extending to interactions between actors, the surrounding environment, related systems and potential value-addition activities from their point of origin to their final destination. Source: Author's creation.These were entered into a database with other variables, such as disbursement channel, name of the intervention, start and end dates of implementation, duration, final recipients, the status of implementation and the main focus. The scope of the analysis was defined to guide the data collection and processing. This required the definition of clear cutoff points for most variables of interest, such as reference period, nature of flows and type of financial instrument.In relation to the reference period, the review mapped and identified committed climate finance for Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, East Africa and the Horn of Africa between 2015 14 'Disbursement channel' indicates the actor deciding how to allocate resources received from other entities just before the final recipients or any given intervention is implemented (e.g. loans from commercial banks to small-scale farmers). There might be overlaps with the implementing entity, executing or disbursement agency and the final recipient or beneficiary.In the current database, the same entity might be classified in different ways as a function of the viewpoint adopted for any given flow, depending on the granularity and availability of data. 15 \"Intervention\" is here used to include programmes, projects, budget lines or other flows. When only some of the components or units of any given intervention were analysed, this was clearly stated in the documentation. 16 When the duration in months was not specified or the start and end months were not mentioned, it was assumed that each intervention started on 1 January of the start-year and finished on 31 December of the end-year. This results in the computation of twelve months for every year of implementation. 17 A definition of livestock-related systems was not pre-defined with a view to avoiding conceptual constraints that might have impaired the analysis. Nevertheless, this refers to activities and services closely linked to livestock production systems and the related value chains, contributing to their proper functioning. Such activities and services might include livestock-related research (e.g. for genetic improvements), feed and fodder production (e.g. via CSA technologies), livestock-derived products commercialization, and ecosystem and landscape management encompassing livestock production systems. 18 As per the OECD definition, this indicates funds that will be transferred to a recipient at an agreed time. The full amount is reported under the year the implementation of the intervention for which the transfer was made was due to start. However, these amounts can be disbursed over several years and not necessarily in full. 19 The start-year is the year when the implementation of the intervention analysed is expected to take place as reported in the official documentation on which the commitment is based. Pledges for which there was no evidence of commitment within the reference period have been excluded. Such pledges are excluded from the databases that have been used to track international public finance and that only take into account committed finance. The analysis tracked whether the extent to which such committed finance was disbursed within the reference period for interventions concluded before the reference period. This was not done for ongoing interventions given that there might be delays or variations in disbursements due to external factors (e.g. COVID-19 pandemic).to the present. 18 The year 2015 was chosen as a starting point, marking the first NDC cycle, which resulted in a more accurate quantification of funding needs for climate action in all the countries analysed, either in their respective NDCs or related documents. 19 The year 2019 is the most recent year for which more detailed information is provided by all the main databases consulted, which resulted in a relative data scarcity after that period due to data recording lags.Interventions with a fixed duration (e.g. donorfunded projects) and for which funds were committed before 2015 were not accounted for, even though their disbursements partially extended over the reference period. Regarding the type of instruments used, the approach CPI follows in their analyses was partly emulated with a view to avoiding double counting.Therefore, the analysis was limited to grants, debt, equity investments and budget expenditures. 25   Revenue support mechanisms and subsidies are excluded, given the risk of double counting and the complexity of identifying their potential impact on the livestock sector and related activities. 26   Similarly, guarantees and insurance systems have been excluded as their disbursement is only subject to certain hypothetical conditions.The identification of livestock production systems was not pre-determined for the data collection stage to avoid a constraining categorization. 27   In The scope required analysing a wide range of sources, which resulted in data 'unevenness' in different kinds of climate finance flows and sources.To overcome these methodological difficulties at the data processing stage, we opted for a combination of qualitative and quantitative data analysis. For any given flow, when all the variables presented above and included in the proposed analytical framework database could be populated, such flows were included in the quantitative analysis used for country-specific overviews. When the lack of key information or details prevented the inclusion of the identified flows in the main database, these were not included but still described in Chapter 3 to illustrate the potential magnitude and scope of finance for the livestock sector and related systems in the selected countries.The 28 Showing \"additionality\" in adaptation-focused interventions is not possible if not via an explicit statement or the integration of adaptation-related indicators or measurements in the project design. As emerged from the literature, without such information, it becomes difficult to draw a distinction between adaptation-focused and general development interventions that can somehow contribute to increased resilience or adaptive capacity or maintain the status quo among the final recipients. 29 As an example, we did not consider commercially-oriented breeding programmes that would be planned and implemented irrespective of their benefits to climate adaptation and mitigation, in terms of reduced vulnerability, enhanced or stable adaptive capacity or reduced emissions. A similar example is donor-funded livestock vaccination campaigns or the provision of feed supplements in areas not currently covered by governmental extension services and whose main objective is to provide a remedy to a situation. Such interventions would happen irrespective of climate change impacts, as the root causes being addressed are the lack of support to small-scale operators by veterinary services. 30 Similar climate finance mapping exercises treat \"enabling environment\" activities differently, with some labelling such activities as climate adaptation (see, for instance, CPI, 2020), mitigation or dual benefit based on the expected ultimate objectives and expected impact of the related activities and use of flows (e.g. in case of on-lending). For the present analysis, we preferred to keep this category separate, given the different characteristics of the flows (e.g. benefits showing later as opposed to actions directly contributing to climate adaptation and mitigation), their uncertain use (e.g. in case of on-lending, when there is no earmarking defining the share to be allocated to certain measures or sectors) and lack of details in certain instances. 31 Whereas the terms of reference required an overt statement that climate change is being addressed, in some cases, this was deemed unnecessary if the description of the intervention clearly delineated its contributions to climate adaptation or mitigation (e.g. indicators related to enhanced drought resilience in the livestock sector). This might make the distinction between direct and indirect climate finance less obvious. However, following the definition provided in World Bank (2020), indirect climate finance includes climate outcomes not mentioned or not identified. 32 As an example, analysed flows were not marked as climate finance even if the framing intervention (e.g. a project including all components) aimed at climate-resilient livelihood but no measures were undertaken for adaptation and mitigation within the related livestock systems. Box 2. Funds operating on capital of a different nature and having several intermediaries.whose nature differs and when data is reported only in aggregated formats (at least from a certain node in the financing chain). Investment funds, facilities, credit lines or similar, seeing the injection of public and private money, from international and national actors and several intermediaries, present particular risks of double counting in the absence of well-defined categorization procedures.An example is provided by the Yield Uganda Investment Fund (YUIF). The EU established this impact fund and works with capital from the public and private sectors, including the EU itself, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the National Social Security Fund of Uganda, Soros Economic Development Fund and the Finnish Church Aid Investment, among others. Some transfers to the YUIF are recorded in the OECD-DAC climate finance database. Nevertheless, the final use of such transfers transiting through YUIF is not earmarked or tracked and, consequently, cannot be sector-tagged. Disbursements from the YUIF can cover a wide range of activities.For this study, as the analysis is focused on the livestock sector and related systems only, flows into multi-sectoral funds were not considered if their final use was not specified and could not be tracked to the end of the chain. For those for which more details could be retrieved, consistent with the guiding principles, the node of the chain considered in the quantitative analysis was the one for which the highest amount that could be tagged as sector-relevant was available in the first place; in the second place, providing the highest level of granularity regarding the use of funds (e.g. project-level data) and in the third place, closest to the final recipients.Key interventions in the \"grey area\" and whose exclusion was based on any of the points above were reported in the database along with the reason for their exclusion from the quantitative analysis. Such a \"shadow\" database was meant to illustrate the potential magnitude of climate finance flows should some of the excluded interventions be qualifiable (the lack of details being a contributor to their exclusion having prevented an accurate assessment).Additional observations regarding the qualifying elements specific to any of the countries here analysed have been reported in the respective country sections.Financing needs for the livestock sector were identified through the NDC, NAP or similar costing documents issued and endorsed by the respective country governments or regional organizations.Different databases were used to collect data on climate finance. Whereas this increases the risks of double counting and the emergence of discrepancies and inconsistencies, it was important to have as extensive a coverage of data sources as possible for a comprehensive mapping. The data cleaning process helped resolve such issues.For international public finance (i.e. emanating from climate funds and international finance institutions, several sources were used.Reporting Systems and the Climate Funds Update databases, considered to be some of the most comprehensive centralized sources to date. Whereas donor funding is recorded in the national budget documents of the recipient countries, they do not necessarily report all commitments. Indeed, not all funding is funneled through the government system (e.g. particularly in multi-country projects).34 Particular care was taken not to include in the analysis interventions that never started despite being detailed in the documentation. Cross-checks were done through the analysis of budget expenditures at the national level or additional documentation proving commitments.Whenever the same flow was reported in several databases, documentation from the primary source of funding or the OECD-DAC Creditor Reporting Systems was prioritised due to the fact that only a portion of funds might be reported in national documents if its spending is phased by national authorities and the level of detail regarding the breakdown between mitigation and adaptation components and other variables is usually unsatisfactory. Similarly, in the case of credit lines for on-lending, the amount that could be tracked was often the one committed by the primary source, the top-up by the participating financial institution (i.e. the amount of money they needed to inject into a loan as part of the credit line being committed) not being available or disclosed only after the disbursement has taken place.Desk-based document reviews were complemented with interviews or email communications to try and fill in data gaps.For the quantitative component, a codebook 35 The extent to which a flow should be livestock-related at the lowest aggregated figure to be accounted for was not defined and no tolerability levels or thresholds were pre-set. This is consistent with the objective and scope of the analysis, including livestock-related systems and livelihoods. Nevertheless, following the principle of conservativeness, livestock and livestockrelated systems and measures had to be the primary focus of the component being considered for this to be included in the analysis. In rare cases, even in the presence of detailed breakdowns (e.g. individual items to be purchased or services to be procured), it was preferred to take into account the amount for the package they were part of (e.g. task, subactivity, activity, component) at the lowest level for which the scope was clearly defined and could be considered relevant. This was due to a lack of clarity regarding the objective of individual budget lines within any given package when not exclusively livestock-focused(e.g. stationary, consulting services). 36 As an example, as reported in the document CRIS number FED/2015/38781 financed under the 11th European Development Fund (EDF), under the Development initiative for Northern Uganda the EU allocated EUR 27 million to the Government of Uganda. This allocation is for implementing activities in various socio-economic domains, such as agriculture, rule of law, land tenure, governance strengthening and similar. Official records from the government show that this amount was further compartmentalized and structured into packages, thus providing more granularity regarding the amount allocated to the livestock sector or closely related systems. Consequently, the latter is the amount considered in the quantitative data analysis. 37 This choice was guided by the principle of conservativeness. Even in presence of multi-sectoral interventions, there might be elements related to the sectors here analysed (e.g. livestock-focused workshop or publication). The level of detail provided in the screened documentation does not allow to isolate the relevant amount. There are elements (e.g. communication strategy) that cannot be accunted for. Unless post-implementation documents were available, it is unknown if all committed resources, as indicated in the pre-implementation documentation, were actually used. 38 In this case, the originally committed amount has been factored into the analysis.Regional and multi-country interventions were mapped but excluded from the country-specific quantitative analysis unless the amount of resources allocated to the country being analysed for the eligible component could be defined.Each eligible intervention (or only its eligible component) was reported as an entry in the database and assigned a unique ID. Entries were broken down into subentries to facilitate the data analysis process whenever they presented any of the following conditions:Had different sources of funding (e.g. government and international climate funds) and, for each, the committed amount was clearly specified.Different financial instruments were used and the amount to be disbursed under each was clearly specified.The original information sources differentiated the amount of resources allocated to climate adaptation and mitigation.For each entry and subentry, the disbursement channel was identified in addition to the source of funding. Both the source of funding and disbursement channel were based on the node along the financing value chain adopted as a viewpoint for analysing any given flow.Regarding the type of climate-smart livestock measures, these were coded using the system in Section 1.2.3. Such measures only relate to the component taken into account in the analysis.For the coding, only the primary objectives of any given measure have been considered, not its secondary objectives or expected outcomes, even if these still address livestock-related issues. 39   Nevertheless, as any given flow can comprise As an example, under the same project, grants for implementing specific measures might be combined with credit lines for provincial financial institutions for on-lending.40 Rio Markers distinguish between \"significant objective\" or \"main objective\" in relation to the climate adaptation and mitigation aspect of each intervention. Similarly, GEF-funded proposals attribute a score to each dimension as a function of their relevance. Such weighting systems have not been taken into account in the analysis as they refer to the whole intervention and not the individual components, considering that only some components might have been included in this analysis. 41 The mapping exercise might show that for a project, 100% of its budget was considered livestock-related but its main focus was not the livestock sector or related systems. This might be due to the lack of a budget breakdown by subunits, which would have allowed a further level of detail in the mapping of flows and a more accurate delimitation of the budget allocated exclusively to those sectors considered relevant. Identifying the main focus of the whole framing intervention (e.g. the framing programme and not only the considered component) can therefore help understand when this might have been the case. 42 This was still reported in the database in a separate section for completeness of information but not computed in the final quantitative analysis. data was preferred whenever the level of detail was at least equal to that provided at a higher level (e.g. programme level). 42   The principle of conservativeness was followed, whereby any uncertainty regarding the classification of an intervention as qualifying would result in its exclusion from the analysis.Financial flows potentially relevant but for which quantitative or accurate data confirming their eligibility could not be retrieved were excluded from the analysis. 43 Based on the results of the literature review, these were still briefly described under each country, section and regionn to illustrate the potential magnitude of climate finance (Box 3).Box 3. Deciding what to map and at which node along the financing chain. As outlined in the methodology, the focus was on the recipient country and, by extension, actors within the country receiving finance from abroad or other domestic sources. Therefore, the point of view to be prioritised was that of the first country-based intermediary, not necessarily the central government disbursement channel. Within this level, a further decision was made to focus on those actors for which the level of detail for committed climate finance in the livestock sector and related systems was higher and not necessarily the one at the end of the chain. This means that a flow was mapped at the lowest stage when its livestock-related component could be clearly identified.Once a viewpoint was adopted, the source of funding was identified accordingly and so were other variables (e.g. public versus private finance). Finally, in the presence of duplicate entries or conflicting information, several other factors, such as the date of publication of any screened document were considered in selecting the source to be used for an accurate mapping process. This could result in a change in the viewpoint to be adopted.Finally, for the data analysis, the amount of committed finance was adjusted for inflation following the approach outlined in Annex II.Therefore, unless otherwise specified, figures in the quantitative analysis and country overviews are presented in real terms.44 These are presented in alphabetical order. 45 In reality, a clear distinction between the different sources of finance is sometimes difficult, given the various links between existing sources and the viewpoint the analysis adopted. It is, therefore, to be underlined that categories present overlaps and are not necessarily mutually exclusive, despite efforts to ensure consistency in their classification. Cross-references are included and when possible for a better overview of interactions between players and types of finance. 46 Whereas such interventions have been excluded from the quantitative analyses, a qualitative analysis yields a picture of the effort put into the emergence or advancement of elements serving as a springboard to further measures for climates-smart systems.The following sections detail the results of the quantitative and qualitative analyses for countries and the region under consideration. 44   Section 3.1 focuses on Ethiopia, followed by Kenya in Section 3.2, Tanzania in Section 3.3, and Uganda in 3.4. Each section provides an overview of public finance, blended finance mechanisms and private finance. 45 Each section has a review of market-based mechanisms, mainly carbon markets, for a more comprehensive picture of climate finance given the traction these have gained in the target countries.Each section concludes with a review of key interventions for the creation of an enabling environment, mostly aimed at building capacities, preparing strategies and policies in the climate sector at large and research activities in the livestock and related sectors. 46   Section 3.5 focuses on regional and multi-country flows covering at least one of the target countries. These analyses focus on public finance from international actors and regional organizations, blended finance mechanisms and the private sector, mostly from commercial, philanthropic and research organizations.The Government of Ethiopia identified the need to re-rout financial flows to contribute to climate mitigation and adaptation in a series of strategic documents, starting with the CRGE strategy.  Note: This excludes all flows not fully compliant with the selection criteria and does not include flows such as credit lines for which a livestock-related component or climate adaptation or mitigation objectives could not be identified, even if potentially eligible. Similarly, the amount committed via multi-country projects has been excluded if the amount allocated to Ethiopia exclusively could not be clearly identified.The  47 This reflects the frequency with which any given measure is identified as one of the ways the committed finance will be disbursed. It does not reflect the amount of resources they have been allocated. A cutoff point of 5% was arbitrarily set to facilitate the reading of the figure presented and does not include measures whose occurrence was below 5%.Government-promoted measures encompassed under the broader concept of CSA include cultivating crops for animal feeding following practices that can result in higher yields and, 50 This resulted in their exclusion from the quantitative analysis as it did not meet the definition of climate finance here adopted. 51 As reported in ODI (2014), despite federal states enjoying a high degree of autonomy and generating their own revenues, they still receive most of their funding from the central level and are therefore highly dependent on transfers for implementing their operations. This analysis does not take into account transfers from the federal level to other government bodies, nor budget commitments at the subadministrative level with locally-raised funding. The Ethiopian private sector is still relatively young compared to neighbouring countries, particularly in domains that have long been under government Ethiopian law does not currently allow international institutional investors such as international insurance and pension companies to operate in the country. The insurance industry, therefore, comprises only 18 national insurance companies. They recorded written premiums for around 81 million USD (4.23 billion ETB) in 2020.Among the products offered is livestock insurance, still in its infancy. Ethiopian law does not currently allow international commercial banks to operate in the country. As of 2020, as reported by the National Bank of Ethiopia, the sector comprised 17 commercial banks, 18 insurance companies, and 39 microfinance institutions. Agriculture accounted for 9.3% of the combined loan portfolio in 2020.The agricultural sector is perceived as a high-risk investment sector. For this reason, international donors have often supported commercial operators to provide credit to small-scale operators at conventional rates or act as guarantors. Among The latter provides informal insurance coverage to the neediest in the case of livestock loss.There is no database of existing philanthropic The sale of emission credits in offset markets such Whereas some of the research projects identified can contribute to climate adaptation and mitigation, productivity gains are often their main goal. Very few foresee real-life experiments, the involvement of final beneficiaries in the identification of potential pathways or measures to be adopted, and pilot phases to be further scaled up.Several projects have aimed at building an enabling environment via capacity building at the institutional level and strategy and policy advice for planning, monitoring and implementing climate-smart measures in the livestock sector.Part of a wider FAO-led programme with a global reach, notable interventions include the 53 Consistent with the scope of the present analysis, these have been excluded from the quantitative analysis. These interventions are mainly oriented to the advancement of knowledge with limited plans for scaling up, even in the presence of real-life experiments. For completeness of information and relevance to the livestock sector and related systems, these have been reported here. The list does not include small research grants exclusively oriented to the production of knowledge products and their dissemination without plans for these to inform interventions in the sector (e.g. to inform policy-making). 54 Unless otherwise specified, interventions reported in this section were excluded from the quantitative analysis because they are realted to building an enabling environment in the climate arena at large.  Note: This excludes all flows not fully compliant with the conditions previously detailed and, therefore, does not include flows such as credit lines for which a livestock-related component or climate adaptation or mitigation \"objectives\" could not be identified, even if potentially eligible. Similarly, thee amount committed via multi-country projects has been excluded if the amount allocated to Kenya exclusively could not be clearly identifieThe use of grants seems to be more common for those interventions mainly benefiting pastoralists and agropastoralists and centred on resilience building.In terms of disbursement channels, government agencies play a key role in channeled finance.What 55 This reflects the frequency with which any given measure is identified as one way the committed finance will be disbursed. It does not reflect the amount of resources they have been allocated, given the lack of detailed information. A cutoff point of 5% was arbitrarily set to facilitate the reading of the figure here presented, which does not include measures whose occurrence was below 5%.These are complemented by a number of  During the document screening, it emerged that CSA is often identified as key for climate adaptation and mitigation. Whereas this includes measures linked to livestock systems (e.g. manure management), this was often unspecified in the screened documentation. Therefore, the magnitude of climate finance for the livestock sector could be higher than depicted here.Several projects in the livestock sector and related systems have been identified but not included in the analysis, given the lack of a clear statement in relation to climate adaptation or mitigation.Whereas their implementation might be compatible with a climate-smart path, these mostly aim at market development for the livestock sector or animal-derived products and building resilience in the broader sense (e.g. resilience to market shocks). 56 As climate adaptation and climate mitigation are not significant objectives, but rather a by-product, these have been excluded from the quantitative analyses. 57 In the quantitative analysis, only relevant interventions funded under the action and for which information could be retrieved have been included to avoid duplication. 58 In the quantitative analysis, only relevant interventions funded under the fund and for which information could be retrieved 59 In the quantitative analysis, only relevant projects funded under the programme and for which information could be retrieved have been included. 60 Details about the breakdown by project and sector being unavailable, this amount was not factored into the quantitative analysis. Accordingly, not all public domestic finance could be labeled as \"qualifying\" climate finance for the present analysis.61 Government expenditure at the central level is reported in the Integrated Financial Management and Information System of the National Treasury of Kenya. Only recurrent expenditure was tracked here, consistent with the scope of the analysis, focussed on investments in climate-related interventions. For Kenya, only approved budget estimates included in the IFMIS system and sector plans at the central level were analysed. Such documents cover up to 2022-2023. As reported by the ADA Consortium (2019), a significant amount of climate finance does not pass through the National Treasury's IFMIS system. Additionally, IFMIS is currently limited at programme and subprogramme levels, with no information on the nature of each intervention or activity. This required screening additional documentation. Additionally, the system is not used by Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies (SAGAs), transfers to which were excluded from the analysis of the national budget, given that it was not possible to determine the relevant component and to avoid double counting. Information for relevant SAGAs (i.e. KALRO, the Kenya Dairy Board, the Kenya Forest Service) was retrieved from their websites and activity reports. 62 Details regarding the amount committed to these programmes and their climate relevance could not be identified, which led to their exclusion from the quantitative analysis. County level approved budget estimates or sectoral plans lacked elements facilitating the mapping exercise, thus increasing the risk of double counting (e.g. in case of flows already mapped at the central level or donor-funded projects). As reported by Devinit (2019), budgets at the county level are not broken down by source, are not disaggregated and present inconsistencies across documents. For this reason, they were not included in the analysis. The limited budget base minimizes the risks of underestimations. 63 The amount of resources for livestock-related value chains has not been pre-defined and details regarding relevant interventions implemented under the programme could not be retrieved. This led to its exclusion from the analysis.A further layer of difficulty in mapping domesticallymobilized climate finance from the government or government bodies is the lack of tagging systems in the national budget accounts and the relatively limited description of each given intervention.Findings In addition to funds with a global and regional scope covering Kenya (see section 3.  To reduce poverty and agriculture-driven deforestation, the programme invests in the sustainable development of the dairy value chain and envisages a milk processor for better integration of small-scale producers in the value chain.A recent study by CPI (2020)  The insurance industry has the potential to invest  Apart from more formal entities, there is a layer of informal lending institutions active in the livestock industry. These include Dairy Farmer Self-HelpGroups that provide a range of ancillary services including training and access to inputs. A recent study by Odhong et al. (2019) shows that among informal institutions, family, friends, neighbours and credit from local shops or suppliers is more common for small-scale dairy producers than other more formal mechanisms.Whereas their exact quantification is difficult due to a general lack of data, a recent study showed that agriculture and livestock loans generally account for more than 10% of SACCOs loan portfolio (Odhong et al. 2019). In absolute terms, the loan size and the value of the overall portfolio are higher for formal institutions as opposed to SACCOs.Finally, financial institutions often receive loans mobilized by foreign investors to climate-proof their portfolios. For example, KBC Kenya has received a 22 million USD loan from BIO to further develop its climate finance portfolio. Similarly, these are often targeted by technical assistance projects to help them further unlock climate finance.There is no shared database of philanthropic associations operating in the country, which makes mapping their investments difficult. Additionally, there is a general lack of detail regarding their activities. A recent analysis by the CPI (2020)shows that many projects they implement are partly funded by international donors. There is a portion of climate finance that goes undetected, which is the amount mobilized by these organizations from their own budgets.The following paragraphs provide an account 68 This project is only mentioned for illustrative purposes and is not included in the quantitative analysis as it failed to meet the criteria. 69 This project is only mentioned for illustrative purposes and is not included in the quantitative analysis as it failed to meet the criteria. In the past, Kenyan institutions were supported   This partly explains the use of grants as the preferred instrument for the disbursement of finance.Whereas dual benefit interventions seem to account for a large share of all the mapped flows, mitigation objectives mostly emerge as secondary and as by-products of measures mainly envisaged to build resilience at the system level, such as rangeland restoration and sustainable management. Accordingly, climate mitigation alone does not seem to be identified as one of the main dimensions being targeted for any of the flows mapped here.Among the flows mapped, no intervention focuses exclusively on the livestock sector. Most aim at strengthening resilience at the ecosystem level, focusing on rangelands or livestock-forest frontier landscapes. Ecosystem restoration and resilience emerge as the main focus areas, with interventions72 This reflects the frequency with which any given measure is identified as one way the committed finance will be disbursed. It does not reflect the amount of resources they have been allocated. A cutoff point of 5% was arbitrarily set to facilitate the reading of the figure here presented, which does not include measures whose occurrence was below 5%.at the landscape level taking a holistic approach to addressing multi-faceted challenges.Consequently, the sustainable management of pastureland, grassland and rangeland is the most frequently reported measure among all the mapped flows. This aligns with the top priorities for adaptation in the livestock sector outlined in Tanzania's NDC and the most recent National Climate Change Response Strategy (Figure 7). 72   Zoning and grazing management are often promoted in combination with building capacities in land use planning.Such measures are tightly intertwined with the cultivation of animal feed and its management following sustainable practices, some of which are part of wider CSA packages. 73 Whereas the proposed approach is expected to produce climate benefits and changes in the affected livestock systems, this was not evident from the documentation that could be retrieved. Accordingly, this project was excluded from the quantitative analysis. 74 Climate aspects not being part of the project design, this project was excluded from the quantitative analysis. 75 A breakdown by sector and intervention not being available, small grant projects were not accounted for in the quantitative analysis. 76 Climate aspects not being part of the project design, this project was excluded from the quantitative analysis. 77 The amount of resources allocated to livestock-related activities under these programmes was not pre-defined and details regarding relevant interventions could not be retrieved, hence, their exclusion from the analysis.  At the core of the programme are partnerships between agribusinesses and smallholder farmers.The SAGCOT Centre and the Catalytic Trust Fund are the two entities created by the government and delegated to implement the programme.78 This project was not included in the quantitative analysis because it was not in one of the sectors of relevance and did not meet the qualification criteria.Climate adaptation and mitigation measures are considered key to the success of the programme.The government prepared a SAGCOT Greenprint to identify more environmentally sustainable investment opportunities to be supported within the programme framework. Launched by AGRA and operating with capital from international public and private donors, such as the BMGF and the Rockefeller Foundation, the AECF fund mobilizes resources aimed at the private sector.AECF opened a special window to spur growth in the agricultural and agribusiness sectors. Under the Tanzania Agribusiness Window, approximately 22.9 million USD was committed over the first three rounds for grant allocations and interest-free loans.This has been matched by over 57.3 million USD by beneficiary private sector companies.Whereas livestock keepers are targeted, funding in this area has been limited so far.The Financial Sector Deepening Trust (FSDT) works towards improved financial inclusion.It operates on capital from the private sector, including the BMGF and the Rockefeller The agricultural sector is one of the focus areas for which wider financial inclusion is pursued via the establishment of community-based saving groups.FSDT has facilitated partnerships between the Private Agricultural Sector Support Trust (PASS)and Tanzania Agriculture Development Bank to mobilize finance targeting smallholders for whom PASS would act as a guarantor. FSDT was responsible for ensuring the bankability of the proposals to be funded.FSDT has been facilitating financial aggregation for value chain development and unlocking funding for groups of small-scale operators who would not otherwise be able to access funding. This process included creating the Agricultural Marketing Cooperative Societies. The small-scale of most agricultural production in the country makes investment in the sector unattractive to international investors. The nature of such flows and their alignment with climate objectives is currently unknown, which partly obscures their potential.A recent study in East Africa shows that impact-investor activity in the country is more limited compared to Kenya or Uganda (OCA 2015b). Around 129 impact capital vehicles were identified in 2015, with the majority committing resources at the regional level. Out of the 2.5 billion USD committed by these investors at the regional level, only a small portion was expected to reach Tanzania based on previous trends (Ibid.).One indicator was the fact that only 35 million USD was exclusively committed to the country in the same year.When it comes to disbursed funds, the same analysis pointed to the fact that agriculture was one of the sectors receiving particular attention and reporting the highest number of deals concluded. Nevertheless, the disbursements were usually smaller compared to other sectors requiring higher investments. This resulted in the agricultural sector not necessarily receiving the highest amount of resources. Some of the currently active impact investors in the sector include SEAF. SEAF is a global impact private equity manager that has invested in AKM Glitters, which produces and distributes poultry feed and disease-resistant, high-yielding chicken breeds to small-scale operators.Capital, investing across the agricultural value chain, including seed provision and procurement, primary production, processing, storage and trading in eight countries in southern and EastAfrica. Its objectives are to achieve positive long-term social, environmental and climate impacts while making attractive returns for investors. SilverStreet Capital has invested in Silverlands Tanzania, an integrated farming, processing and poultry business for the sustainable scale up of its operations.The Tanzania Insurance Regulatory Authority reported 30 insurance operators in the country in 2021. In 2018, net written premiums amounted to 141 million USD (or 318 billion TZS).Investments totaled around 190 million USD (428.6 billion TZS) if mortgage loans and real estate investments are excluded.lLvestock-oriented products such as insurance schemes are still in their infancy. Several private operators, such as UAO, Howden Puri or Reliance Insurance offer livestock insurance schemes.These do not seem to offer subsidized schemes to the poorest or protect against some of the most common causes of livestock loss, such as drought.In 2021, the Central Bank of Tanzania reported 34 commercial banks in the country (including Along with formal financial institutions, the financial sector landscape is characterized by a large number of informal financial entities.These include Village Community Banks (VICOBAs) and SACCOs. These have been supported by development partners and development funds to expand access to financial services in rural areas. For example, the AGRA fund entered into a partnership with several SACCOs to experiment with new lending models whereby credit is disbursed in installments.As in other counties, there is a lack of centralized systems to facilitate tracking funds mobilized by such entities. Data is incomplete and gathered through various sources and does not disclose all the information necessary for a comprehensive, accurate and detailed mapping. Several international and national organizations are active in the sector.Among the international actors, the BMGF There is a general lack of information on private sector investments from commercial operators and corporates in the agriculture and the livestock sectors. Information tends to be particularly scarce or absent for both international and domestic originating resources.Unit Fostering, experimenting with crossbreeding improved dairy cow breeds in the Tanga region for productivity gains. Mruazi Heifer Breeding Unit Fostering aims to scale up and expand its operations to become a regional centre contributing to improved fodder production and innovations in livestock production systems.Tanzania has several carbon market projects The African Biogas Carbon Programme (ABC)Tanzania CAMARTEC VPA004 project was launched in 2017, and the Tanzania SimGas VPA005 Project in 2016. These are part of a wider ABC programme, aiming to disseminate biodigesters at affordable prices subsidized by revenues generated from the sale of carbon credits. 79 The use of manure, mostly dairy cow dung, for energy generation and as a fertilizer aims to reduce the need for non-renewable 79 These projects are mentioned for illustrative purposes, but they have not been included in the quantitative analysis as they do not include measures for climate mitigation or adaptation in livestock systems. 80 In this case, livestock is leveraged as one of several means to achieve mitigation objectives in the forestry sector. Livestock systems are mostly impacted via land use planning strategies, but no measures were undertaken to make existing livestock systems climate-smart. Accordingly, this project was not factored into the quantitative analysis. 81 Consistent with the scope of the present analysis, the interventions mentioned below have been excluded from the analysis.These interventions are mainly oriented towards the advancement of knowledge with limited plans for scaling up, even in presence of real-life experiments, or climate considerations were not part of their project design. 82 In the presence of financial institutions, the level incorporated into the analysis was that with a breakdown that allowed sectortagging. A further challenge was posed by the use of mixed instruments by the same entity (e.g. loans to final recipients and credit lines to other financial institutions), which might result in the same entity being reported in the database as a source of funding and disbursement channel on a case-by-case basis.The analysis shows that climate finance flows in Uganda do not necessarily go through centralized systems, such as the government.Several intermediaries are often involved, making the distinction between source of funding, intermediary, disbursement channel and recipient particularly blurry. This results in an often unclear distinction between public and private, domestic and international climate finance. iI is difficult to track the use of a transaction from its primary source to the final recipients, particularly in the presence of impact investment facilities or funds. 82   The mapping exercise identified qualifying  Note: This excludes all flows not fully compliant with the conditions previously detailed and, therefore, does not include flows such as credit lines for which a livestock-related component or climate adaptation or mitigation objectives could not be identified, even if potentially eligible. Similarly, the amount committed via multi-country projects has been excluded if the amount exclusively allocated to Uganda could not be clearly identified.that began in 2013 and finished in 2017.This means the magnitude of climate finance or livestock-focused interventions in any given year between 2015 and the present might be higher than what is reported here.Only funds related to the sector in question were counted with as much precision as data allowed. Most mapped interventions are not exclusively focused on livestock or related systems. The finest level of detail about the final use of funds was not necessarily livestock-focused, which might yield a partly distorted picture.Nevertheless, if livestock-related livelihoods are included in the analysis, the assessment of the flows presented here matches the scope of the analysis more accurately.Several of the flows mapped aim at building resilience at the ecosystem or system-wide level, with livestock being a key component, particularly among those groups to whom this accounts for a large share of their livelihoods, such as pastoralists and agropastoralists.CSA is often the centre of attention as a strategically multi-dimensional instrument to cope with resource scarcity, reverse and address environmental degradation and work towards food security and long-term resilience to environmental pressures, such as droughts.In the livestock sector, several flows aim at strengthening value chains in the poultry of dairy industry while addressing climate concerns.Additionally, two of the most relevant interventions  83 This reflects the frequency with which any given measure is identified as one of the ways the committed finance will be disbursed. It does not reflect the amount of resources they have been allocated. The government has difficulty tracking climate finance because there are no tags or markers for budget expenditures. 87 This is provided via a designated facility with funding from the EU and IFAD amounting to approximately 3 million USD. 88 Matching grants targeting the dairy and poultry value chains have been included in the quantitative analysis, whereas credit lines to on-lending financial institutions were not, as it was not possible to identify the livestock-focussed component. Whenever possible, information was gathered from the receiving financial institutions. Similarly, funding from donors flowing into aBi operations has not been reported to avoid double counting and it was preferred to report the amounts committed by aBi, as this allowed identification of livestock-relevant flows. There is no systematic reporting on impact investors. Information about their activities is sometimes found on their websites or annual reports but with few details regarding the nature of the supported interventions. There is a general lack of granularity, with livestock often encompassed under agriculture.In 2020, the ABC Fund provided a 2 million USD revolving credit facility to a special-purpose vehicle established by FACTS Advance, providing short-term loans to farmer cooperatives and SMEs primarily operating in the agricultural sector.As reported by the Insurance Regulatory Authority A focus on the commercial banking sector shows that these entities operate on credit lines or grants from the Government of Uganda (e.g. via the ACF), international donors or other funds (e.g. aBi). This has allowed commercial banks to offer a wider range of products and services for the agricultural sector, including business advisory services to small-scale operators.The following commercial banks are oriented to lending to SME agribusinesses, with an eye to the sustainability of their operations and the operations they finance:dfcu Bank offers capacity building to their recipients through a dedicated agribusiness SACCOs offer inputs on credit or leasing schemes.For example, Kir Uhura Epicenter SACCO leases agriculture-related assets, primarily dairy cows.There are no databases for philanthropic A further difficulty in mapping financing flows for this category is that they often are called to implement specific activities within the framework of wider projects and programmes, which increases the risk of double counting.As underlined in a study by the World Bank ( 2017  Considering the nature of such interventions, the funds mapped here are mostly public or private from regional and international organizations. The commitment of funds from national authorities is more common in the presence of localized measures or as a contribution to regional organizations, but this has been more difficult to map. Whenever a breakdown by country was provided, this was reported under the respective country sections.As reported by the UNFCCC (2021), major emission factors and sectors in the East Africa region are deforestation, land-use change and agriculture, with livestock and livestock systems having a prominent role. A range of measures to mitigate impact has been identified in strategic interventions at the national and regional levels. These measures include CSA, mixed-farming systems, manure management and improved feed or feeding practices.At the same time, the region is particularly vulnerable to climate change phenomena, including drought and floods, having a particular impact on livestock systems. This has given rise to a series of transnational strategies for improved cooperation in resilience building via regional institutions and setting up transboundary systems (e.g. early warning systems) for harmonized and more effective responses at the regional level.Projects relevant to the livestock sector for an overall value of 94 million USD have been mapped for 2015-2022.   Interventions promoted by international donors range from assistance in the form of capacity building and policy advice to regional organizations, particularly IGAD, for integrated resilience building for livestock productivity enhancement via transboundary measures.In addition to and as a complement to the projects mapped in the previous section, international donors have worked as catalyzers to mobilize private finance. Between 2016 and 2018, the 93 Whereas the programme was launched in 2013 (before the reference period) its approach differs from other interventions in this section. The programme now operates as an independent service provider by providing business advisory services and technical assistance to selected operators on a rolling basis, with some interventions having started during the reference period. Therefore, the programme was not included in the quantitative analysis as it operates as a \"framework programme\" or helpdesk. 94 Not being exclusively related to the livestock sector and not including climate considerations in its design, this project was not included in the quantitative analysis. 95 Apart from a lack of detail, this intervention was excluded from the quantitative analysis, being more oriented to formulation scenarios not necessarily translated into tangible actions. Additionally, the relevance of climate adaptation and mitigation within the framework of the programme was not clear in the documentation. Regional organizations mobilizing finance for interventions in the sector include the EAC, IGAD and the African Union via their central units or departments.The EAC has been spearheading interventions in the livestock sector with a regional focus. In some instances, when regional projects presented country-specific measures and country-based allocations, national governments often acted as co-financiers, in which case allocations have been reported in the country-specific sections listed above.There are several blended finance initiatives with a multi-country focus supporting interventions in the agricultural sector. Whereas some support interventions in the livestock sector or associated systems, the related portfolio seems limited (when non-aggregate data was available), and there seems to be no particular line targeting the livestock sector. In addition to loans and equity, some funds consider the provision of technical assistance for project preparation and implementation.Some regional, multi-county and global funds currently covering any of the target countries are reported in  96 This only includes IFIs whose transfers to the funds have been excluded from the analysis to avoid double counting and because the disbursement of the related funds is not exclusively related to livestock systems. Such transfers can be in the form of equity, loans or grants (e.g. technical assistance to the fund manager or final recipients). Technical assistance projects to lending intuitions or final beneficiaries have been excluded from the analysis if aimed at enhancing access to climate finance for the later implementation of projects not necessarily in the livestock sector or related domains. 97 Details regarding the investments made and the origin of funding are often missing. Country-specific investments have been factored into the respective countries' analysis when specified. This was the case when all the necessary details to assess whether any given flow qualified for inclusion were available. 98 This is often covered in their own environmental, social, and corporate governance policies or investment requirements, or the ones from investors they make reference to (e.g. IFC's). Even if not specified in the documentation issued by the funds, facilities, or entities listed here, the documentation from some partners supporting the related funds clearly stated the conditionality of the disbursements, which is why they have been listed here. 99 This has been factored into Uganda's analysis. There are several impact investors and other international companies operating in East Africa East Africa to promote regional trade, economic integration and competitiveness in East Africa.The strategy aims to foster climate-resilient trade within core TMEA sectors in the EAC region.An analysis of the not-for-profit sector shows the presence of organizations operating at the regional level in the wider climate changesector. An example is the East Africa Alliance on Carbon Markets and Climate Finance, a coalition of six member countries, including Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Donors funded this organization to strengthen the capacities of the member countries to foster a regional approach towards the future international carbon mechanism of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement and climate finance and to offer a platform where countries can share experiences.The analysis of multi-country or regional flows led to the identification of several research-initiatives, 101 Presenting plans for implementing tangible climate-smart measures in the targeted livestock systems and their scaling up, this project was included in the multi-country regional analysis. 102Presenting plans for implementing tangible climate-smart measures in the targeted livestock systems and their scaling up, this project was included in the multi-country regional analysis.  The methodological approach adopted for the present analysis reflects the need for a bounded scope, guided by the principle of conservativeness, whereby only the portion of any given flow relevant to livestock and related systems was included in the quantitative analysis.Additionally, consistent with the terms of reference for the assignment, indirect climate finance was excluded from the quantitative analysis.However, an analysis of the funds that were excluded (having been labeled either as indirect climate finance or as not climate-relevant) pointed to the potential of existing finance for improved adaptation and mitigation in the livestock sector and related systems.To that end and for illustrative purposes only 105 Methodological challenges and the approach here adopted have partly obscured the actual level of finance committed to the livestock sector and related systems. Additionally, a focus on committed climate finance, however methodologically more approachable and appropriate for such an analysis, does not reveal the amount of resources ultimately used to implement the envisaged interventions and reach their intended objectives. Some of the mapped interventions include funds whose disbursement is unlocked only if matched by funds disbursed by other actors following pre-defined shares. This requires a certain appetite for risk, particularly from the private sector. Given existing data gaps, net climate finance was not tracked. Following Oxfam's definition of net climate finance, only the grant or grant-equivalent components of each flow should be accounted for to have a more realistic picture of the amount of finance that can be used for climate action and not imposing a \"repayment\" burden on the recipient. See Oxfam GB (2020), Climate Finance Shadow Report 2020, Oxfam GB: London.A general lack of data makes it difficult to estimate accurately the existing funding gap at the sector and subsector levels and the extent of the misalignment between ultimate use and identified needs and the actions prioritised by receiving countries. There seems to be no systematic approach to climate finance tracking and monitoring in any of the countries. Budget tagging is absent from all national accounting systems despite the support it has received for its operationalization.The trends that emerged from the analysis align with those found by similar studies, pointing at a widening funding gap exacerbated by a persistent misalignment between where funding is flowing and perceived priorities. This analysis comes at a critical juncture characterized by high dynamism in the climate change arena and the global economic environment. Further analyses that reflect the most recent developments, likely to manifest their short and medium-term effects with a certain lag, are therefore required for a more accurate assessment that will still have to tolerate existing data gaps.Several challenges were encountered in data collection due to the lack of systematic and standardized approaches and databases for identifying climate finance flows to the data processing stage. More specifically, the main challenges were:Sectoral aggregation, whereby livestock systems and related activities are often considered a subsector or labeled under the umbrella term of \"agriculture,\" \"rural development\" or \"environment and natural resources.\" The data analysis showed that not all agriculturelabeled interventions encompassed or indirectly affected livestock systems. A similar issue relates to facilities mobilizing funds and bank portfolios lacking a certain level of granularity and only providing information at the macro-sectoral level. For interventions including livestock-targeting measures, whenever only aggregate figures were available, the lowest aggregate figure was computed into the analysis. However, this does not yield a realistic picture of the weight given to the sector within such an aggregation and conveys a partly-distorted picture of its magnitude.Lack of detail on the nature of the flows and the measures they were financing. Similarly, details were often missing regarding the climate dimension being targeted or any link to climate adaptation, mitigation or the creation of an enabling environment. This often resulted in the exclusion of several interventions. In some cases, information was incomplete or kept confidential, particularly from the private sector or even for specific government agencies, as was often the case for Ethiopia.Vague statements regarding the contribution of any given intervention to climate mitigation or adaptation. Whereas several interventions were labeled as sustainable, the specific aspects of such descriptions were often lacking, and it was not clear what \"sustainable\" meant. This required a deeper and more extensive analysis.Inconsistencies across sources in relation to dates, committed amounts and the name of any given intervention. This may have been due to the use of different currencies, exchange rates, and classification systems. Sometimes, discrepancies were relevant. This required validating information with stakeholders and making decisions regarding the source to be ultimately used (i.e. the most authoritative source).Differences in calendars, such as the financial calendar year, reporting year and fiscal year (not necessarily starting in January and often extending across two calendar years). For simplicity, the start year was the one used to compute the climate finance committed in any given year. This resulted in slight discrepancies between information reported in the database and the documentation consulted.Budget changes for the components under consideration and framing interventions are often not disclosed or are reported inconsistently. Reallocation across components and flows, particularly in the aftermath of COVID-19, and other budget changes (e.g. top-ups, diversion of funds) was often not possible to track. For multi-sectoral interventions, for which only a certain portion was incorporated into the analysis, this might have an impact on the climate finance tracked. A more extensive analysis of available documentation was undertaken, but this does not eliminate the risk of slight under-or over-estimates.Given the multi-year nature of the analysis, flows were adjusted for inflation and exchange rates by adopting the DAC deflators used by OECD DAC for mapping development finance.As reported in the OECD-DAC information note regarding its deflators, \"The DAC deflators adjust for both price and exchange rate changes, so that all flows, from all donors, in all years, are expressed in terms of a readily understood fixed unit of measurement, i.e. the purchasing power of a US dollar in a recent year, referred to as the base year.\" Additionally, \"DAC publications include a deflator for \"total DAC\" flows. This is the average of the deflators of individual DAC donors, weighted by each donor's total ODA. This should only be used to give a rough idea of total aid flows when the currency of some flows is not known (e.g. when part of the flows come from multilateral agencies who may disburse in various currencies)\".For the quantitative analysis of climate finance flows, 2020 was adopted as the baseline year, with deflators at the DAC level being readily available for 2015-2019 and 2021. The deflator for 2022, not available at the time of this report, was assumed to be the same as in 2021.Additionally, the deflator rates used for the analysis are those identified as \"total DAC\" by OECD-DAC following the definition provided above. 107   This approach presents various shortcomings, given that not all the mapped flows originate from DAC international donors. Nevertheless, considering the time given the resources and data limitations, it was considered appropriate to include the fact that the currency on which some of the flows operate is unknown as is the ultimate origin of flows, particularly in the presence of extended and globalized financing chains. This approach is aimed at mapping and quantifying flows in a fixed unit of measurement for a more accurate quantitative analysis.107 For the analysis, whenever amounts were expressed in a currency other than USD, these were simply converted using the exchange rate provided by OANDA for the year the analysed flow was (expected to be) disbursed or entered its implementation stage (with 1 January unless the day and months were specified). In such cases, deflators were not used as the outcome would not differ substantially given that, in the qualitative analysis, figures were presented in isolation as part of the narrative description.","tokenCount":"13507"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"53a8b21b7b77634a48236c5b947b8407","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bf2ac48a-e9c4-4c5b-8a47-22cff80fba8e/retrieve","id":"1572566032"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c4dcc1bd-d251-4dc2-8a30-3c975995f986","pagecount":"20","content":"T a m a ñ o E f e c t i v o d e l a P o b l a c i ó n O r l a n d o P . d e M o r a i s I n v e s t i g a d o r d e l C e n t r o N a c i o n a l d e P e s q u i s a d e A r r o z e F e i j á o ( C N P A F ) d e l a E m p r e s a B r a s i l e i r a d e P e s q u i s a A g r o p e c u á r i a ( E M B R A P A ) , C a i x a P o s t a l 1 7 9 , 7 4 0 0 1 -9 7 0 G o i á n i a , G o i á s , B r a s i l O r l a n d o P . d e M o r a i s I n t r o d u c c i ó n M u e s t r e o y F r e c u e n c i a G é n i c a N i v e l d e E n d o g a m i a c o m o F u n c i ó n d e l T a m a ñ o d e l a P o b l a c i ó n E s t i m a c i ó n d e l T a m a ñ o E f e c t i v o T a m a ñ o s E f e c t i v o s A d e c u a d o s P a t r o n e s d e T a m a ñ o s E f e c t i v o s p a r a C o m p a r a r M é t o d o s d e M e j o r a m i e n t o S e l e c c i ó n d e l N ú m e r o d e P l a n t a s p o r F a m i l i a y T a m a ñ o E f e c t i v o R e f e r e n c i a s S e l e c c i ó n R e c u r r e n t e e n A r r o z I n t r o d u c c i ó n L a s e l e c c i ó n r e c u r r e n t e e s u n p r o c e s o d i n á m i c o y c o n t i n u o d e i n c r e m e n t o e n l a s f r e c u e n c i a s d e l o s g e n e s f a v o r a b l e s d e u n a p o b l a c i ó n b a j o m e j o r a m i e n t o . E l l í m i t e t e ó r i c o e s t á r e p r e s e n t a d o p o r l a f i j a c i ó n d e l o s a l e l o s f a v o r a b l e s , l o c u a l d i f í c i l m e n t e s e o b t i e n e e n l a p r á c t i c a ( P a t e r n i a n i y M i r a n d a F i l h o , 1 9 8 7 ) . E n e s t e m é t o d o d e s e l e c c i ó n s e u t i l i z a u n a m u e s t r a i d e n t i f i c a d a c o m o d e m a y o r v a l o r g e n é t i c o q u e l a m e d i a d e l a r e s p e c t i v a p o b l a c i ó n , e n r e l a c i ó n c o n l o s o b j e t i v o s b u s c a d o s , p a r a r e p r o d u c i r y f o r m a r l a p o b l a c i ó n m e j o r a d a , b a s e p a r a e l n u e v o c i c l o . L a e s c o g e n c i a d e l o s r e p r o d u c t o r e s d e l a n u e v a p o b l a c i ó n ( m e j o r a d a ) e s l a f a s e m á s c r í t i c a d e t o d o e l p r o c e s o . E n e s t a e t a p a , e l f i t o m e j o r a d o r n o s o l a m e n t e d e b e s e l e c c i o n a r l o s m e j o r e s i n d i v i d u o s , t e n i e n d o e n c u e n t a l o s o b j e t i v o s d e l p r o g r a m a , s i n o q u e t a m b i é n d e b e e v i t a r l a p é r d i d a d e g e n e s q u e c o n t r i b u y e n p o s i t i v a m e n t e p a r a u n m e j o r c o m p o r t a m i e n t o g e n e r a l d e l a p o b l a c i ó n . P a r a l a s e l e c c i ó n d e u n a d e t e r m i n a d a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a , m o n o g é n i c a u o l i g o g é n i c a , s e d e b e u t i l i z a r u n a m u e s t r a d e p o b l a c i ó n c u y o t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o n o s ó l o s e a l o s u f i c i e n t e m e n t e g r a n d e p a r a g a r a n t i z a r e l p r o g r e s o e n l a d i r e c c i ó n q u e s e d e s e a , s i n o t a m b i é n p a r a a s e g u r a r l a p r e s e n c i a d e a l e l o s f a v o r a b l e s p a r a t o d a s l a s d e m á s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s d e i n t e r é s . T a l e s a l e l o s d e b e n e s t a r e n s u s f r e c u e n c i a s o r i g i n a l e s o p r ó x i m o s a e l l a s . E l p r o c e s o d e m u e s t r e o s i e m p r e o c a s i o n a u n a c i e r t a o s c i l a c i ó n d e l a f r e c u e n c i a g é n i c a , y e l f i t o m e j o r a d o r p u e d e h a s t a p e r d e r a l e l o s f a v o r a b l e s o t a m b i é n f i j a r l o s , e n s u a n s i e d a d p o r a u m e n t a r s u s f r e c u e n c i a s . S e d i c e q u e u n a l e l o e s t á f i j a d o c u a n d o s u s o t r a s f o r m a s a l e l o m ó r f i c a s h a n s i d o e l i m i n a d a s d e l a p o b l a c i ó n y , p o r l o t a n t o , c u a n d o s u f r e c u e n c i a e s i g u a l a l a u n i d a d ( p = 1 . 0 ) . L a p r o b a b i l i d a d d e f i j a c i ó n d e u n a l e l o f a v o r a b l e s i n d o m i n a n c i a , r e p r e s e n t a d a p o r U ( p ) , s e p u e d e e s t i m a r d e s d e q u e s e c o n o z c a s u c o e f i c i e n t e s e l e c t i v o ( s ) y s u f r e c u e n c i a ( p o ) e n l a p o b l a c i ó n , m e d i a n t e l a f ó r m u l a o r i g i n a l d e C r o w y K i m u r a ( 1 9 7 0 ) : U ( p ) = ( 1 -e N e s P o ) / ( l -e N \" s ) E n e s t a f ó r m u l a , e e s l a b a s e d e l o s l o g a r i t m o s n e p e r i a n o s ( c = 2 . 7 1 8 3 ) y N e e s e l t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n . E l C u a d r o 1 p r e s e n t a l a p r o b a b i l i d a d d e f i j a c i ó n p a r a u n a l e l o f a v o r a b l e , c o n e s a s c a r a c t e r í s t i c a s y c o n s = 0 . 3 , e n c u a t r o p o b l a c i o n e s d e d i f e r e n t e s t a m a ñ o s e f e c t i v o s ( 1 0 , 3 0 , 5 0 y 7 0 ) y c o n t r e s f r e c u e n c i a s g é n i c a s i n i c i a l e s ( 0 . 5 0 , 0 . 1 0 y 0 . 0 1 ) . S e o b s e r v a q u e l a p r o b a b i l i d a d d e f i j a c i ó n d e l a l e l o e s a l t a m e n t e d e p e n d i e n t e d e l t a m a ñ o d e l a p o b l a c i ó n s e l e c c i o n a d a y d e s u f r e c u e n c i a i n i c i a l . P o r e j e m p l o , p a r a p o = 0 . 5 0 ( o s e a , 5 0 % ) y t a m a ñ o e f e c t i v o i g u a l a 5 0 , q u e e s l o q u e n o r m a l m e n t e s e u t i l i z a e n p r o g r a m a s d e m e j o r a m i e n t o , l a p r o b a b i l i d a d d e p é r d i d a d e l a l e l o e s i n f e r i o r a u n 0 . 1 % . E n c a m b i o , s i p o = 0 . 0 1 ( o s e a , 1 % ) , l a u t i l i z a c i ó n d e N e = 5 0 a s e g u r a s o l a m e n t e u n 1 3 . 9 3 % d e o p o r t u n i d a d d e f i j a c i ó n d e l a l e l o , l o c u a l s i g n i f i c a u n a p r o b a b i l i d a d d e p é r d i d a m u c h o m a y o r ( 8 6 . 1 % ) . C u a d r o 1 . P r o b a b i l i d a d d e f i j a c i ó n d e u n a l e l o f a v o r a b l e c o n c o e f i c i e n t e s e l e c t i v o s = 0 . 3 , e n f u n c i ó n d e t r e s f r e c u e n c i a s i n i c i a l e s ( p j y c u a t r o t a m a ñ o s e f e c t i v o s d e p o b l a c i ó n ( N J . T a m a ñ o P r o b a b i l i d a d ( % ) s e g ú n e f e c t i v o f r e c u e n c i a i n i c i a l : ( N e ) p = 0 . 5 0 p -0 . 1 0 p -0 .P o r e s o , F a l c o n e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) a f i r m a q u e l a v a r i a n z a d e A p r e p r e s e n t a l a m a g n i t u d d e l c a m b i o e n l a f r e c u e n c i a g é n i c a r e s u l t a n t e d e l p r o c e s o d i s p e r s i v o y e x p r e s a l a v a r i a n z a d e l a f r e c u e n c i a g é n i c a q u e s e r í a e n c o n t r a d a e n t r e l a s v a r i a s m u e s t r a s . S u e f e c t o e s u n a d i s p e r s i ó n d e l a s f r e c u e n c i a s g é n i c a s e n t r e l a s m u e s t r a s .L a E c u a c i ó n 1 m u e s t r a q u e l a d i s p e r s i ó n e s p e r a d a e n t r e l a s f r e c u e n c i a s g é n i c a s d e l a s v a r i a s m u e s t r a s d e p e n d e d e l a f r e c u e n c i a g é n i c a i n i c i a l d e l a p o b l a c i ó n ( p o y q j y d e l t a m a ñ o d e l a m u e s t r a ( N ) . P a r a u n d e t e r m i n a d o t a m a ñ o d e m u e s t r a , l a d i s p e r s i ó n e s m a y o r p a r a g e n e s c o n f r e c u e n c i a s i n t e r m e d i a s ( v a l o r m á x i m o d e p o q o ) .L a F i g u r a 1 p r e s e n t a l a d i s p e r s i ó n e s p e r a d a d e l a s f r e c u e n c i a s g é n i c a s p a r a t r e s t a m a ñ o s d e m u e s t r a P o r a n a l o g í a c o n l a E c u a c i ó n 4 , p a r a l a g e n e r a c i ó n 3 s e t i e n e :R e c u r r i e n d o a l a E c u a c i ó n 4 , e s t a g e n e r a c i ó n s e p u e d e e x p r e s a r a s í :P a r a u n a g e n e r a c i ó n t c u a l q u i e r a , s e p o d r í a l l e g a r a l a s i g u i e n t e e x p r e s i ó n : S = a , ( q \" -1 ) / ( q -1 ) s e t i e n e :C o n l a E c u a c i ó n 7 s e p u e d e e s t i m a r d i r e c t a m e n t e e l c o e f i c i e n t e d e e n d o g a m i a e n c u a l q u i e r g e n e r a c i ó n , c u a n d o s e m a n t i e n e N c o n s t a n t e . P a r a N = 5 0 , s e t i e n e e n l a d é c i m a g e n e r a c i ó n :) 1 0 = 0 . 0 9 5 6 P a r a u n a l e l o c o n f r e c u e n c i a p d e u n 1 0 % e n l a p o b l a c i ó n o r i g i n a l , s e t i e n e : p o q o F 1 0 = ( 0 . 1 0 ) x ( 0 . 9 0 ) x ( 0 . 9 0 5 6 ) a l = 8 . 6 0 4 x 1 0 \" 3 D P ( P l 0 ) = 0 . ( N e 2 > N e l )( N e l ) I i i i i i i i i i i i i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1   ' i H C M H 1 0 . 6 6 7 ( 6 6 . 7 ) 1 . 0 0 0 ( 5 0 . 0 ) 1 . 0 0 0 ( 2 5 . ) 2 0 . 8 0 0 ( 8 0 . 0 ) 1 . 3 3 3 ( 6 6 . 7 ) 1 . 6 0 0 ( 4 0 . ) 3 0 . 8 5 7 ( 8 5 . 7 ) 1 . 5 0 0 ( 7 5 . 0 ) 2 . 0 0 0 ( 5 0 . ) 4 0 . 8 8 9 ( 8 8 . 9 ) 1 . 6 0 0 ( 8 0 . 0 ) 2 . 2 8 6 ( 5 7 . ) 5 0 . 9 0 9 ( 9 0 . 9 ) 1 . 6 6 6 ( 8 3 . 3 ) 2 . 5 0 0 ( 6 2 . ) 6 0 . 9 2 3 ( 9 2 . 3 ) 1 . 7 1 4 ( 8 5 . 7 ) 2 . 6 6 7 ( 6 6 . ) 7 0 . 9 3 3 ( 9 3 . 3 ) 1 . 7 5 0 ( 8 7 . 5 ) 2 . 8 0 0 ( 7 0 . ) 8 0 . 9 4 1 ( 9 4 . 4 ) 1 . 7 7 8 ( 8 8 . 9 ) 2 . 9 0 9 ( 7 2 . ) 9 0 . 9 4 7 ( 9 4 . 7 ) 1 . 8 0 0 ( 9 0 . 0 ) 3 . 0 0 0 ( 7 5 . ) 1 0 0 . 9 5 2 ( 9 5 . 2 ) 1 . 8 1 8 ( 9 0 . 9 ) 3 . 0 7 6 ( 7 6 . ) 1 5 0 . 9 6 8 ( 9 6 . 8 ) 1 . 8 7 5 ( 9 3 . 8 ) 3 . 3 3 3 ( 8 3 . ) 2 0 0 . 9 7 6 ( 9 7 . 6 ) 1 . 9 0 5 ( 9 5 . 2 ) 3 . 4 7 8 ( 8 6 . ) 1 0 0 0 . 9 9 5 ( 9 7 . 5 ) 1 . 9 8 0 ( 9 9 . 0 ) 3 . 8 8 3 ( 9 7 . ) 1 0 0 0 0 . 9 9 9 ( 9 9 . 9 ) 1 . 9 9 8 ( 9 9 . 9 ) 3 . 9 8 8 ( 9 9 . ) F a m i l i a P l a n t a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s ( s ¡ ) P l a n t a s s e l e c c i o n a d a s ( s ¡ ) s > 1 5 0 . 9 0 9 5 0 . 9 0 9 2 1 0 . 6 6 7 1 0 . 6 6 7 3 4 0 . 8 8 9 4 0 . 8 8 9 4 3 0 . 8 5 7 3 0 . 8 5 7 5 2 0 . 8 0 0 2 0 . 8 0 0 6 1 0 . 6 6 7 1 0 . 6 6 7 7 7 0 . 9 3 3 7 0 . 9 3 3 8 6 0 . 9 2 3 6 0 . 9 2 3 9 8 0 . 9 4 1 1 8 0 . 9 7 3 1 0 3 0 . 8 5 7 3 0 . 8 5 7 . 1 9 8 7 . H e r a n c a q u a n t i t a t i v a . E n : P a t e r n i a n i , E . y V i e g a s , G . ","tokenCount":"5022"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8b9e6cd5d252776d67af082b0ae1962d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a2109c2-882f-43e5-960b-0f7f4ed46a34/retrieve","id":"-801235361"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5e227d9b-8cde-4d86-94bf-52feb088438e","pagecount":"36","content":"Información sobre otras unidades audiotutoriales puede solicitarse a la misma dirección. CONTENIDO Pág. lNTRODUCCION 1 A. DESCRIPCION DE LAS ENFERMEDADES CAUSADAS POR BACTERIAS 2 l. Xanthomonas manlhotls (aiiublo bacterial) 2 2. Erwlnia carotovora var. carotovora (pudrición bacterlal del tallo) 3 3. Xanthomon. as cassavae (mancha angular de la hoja) 4 4. Agrobacterlum tumefaciens (agalla bacteria! del tallo) 5 • Evaluación 6 B. DESCRIPCION DE LAS ENFERMEDADES CAUSADAS POR VIRUS Y MI-COPLASMAS l. El mosaico africano 8 2. El mosaico común americano de la yuca 3. El mosaico de las nervaduras 4. El cuero de sapo 10 5. El superbrotamiento • Evaluación C. DESCRIPCION DE LAS ENFERMEDADES CAUSADAS POR HONGOSl. Enfermedades follares: a. Cercospora hennlngsll (mancha parda) b. Cercospora vlcosae (afiublo pardo fungoso) / Pág. c. Cercospora carll>aea (mancha blanca) d. Phoma (Phyllosticta) spp. (mancha de anlllos circulares) e . Oidium manihotls (ceniza de la yuca) f. Sphaceloma manihotlcola (superalargamlento) g. Colletotrichum o Gloeosporium manlhotls (antracnosis) h. Uromyces spp. (roya de la yuca) i. Periconla shyamala (Perlconia) * EvaluacIón 2. Enfermedades del tallo: a. Necrosamlento del tallo Inducido por Glomerella sp. b. Necrosamlento del tallo inducido por Botryodlplodla sp. c . Pudriciones ocasionadas por basldlomlcetes o ascomicetes. 3. Pudriciones radicales: a. Deterioros anteriores a la cosecha -Pudrición suave (Phytophthora drechslerl. Pythlum spp.) -Pudrición seca ~oselllnla necatrlx, Fomes llgnosus, Armlllarlella mellea) b. Deterioros posteriores a la cosecha -Deterioración fisiológica -Deterioración microbiana * Evaluación Lecturas recomendadasEl cultivo de la yuca (Manlhot esculenta Crantz) se ha Incrementado considerablemente debido a la escasez de otras fuentes energéticas nutricionales y a s u alta producción potencial de carboh!dratos por unidad de superfi cie. Sin embargo, el promedio de la producc ión mundial de yuca es de sólo 10 ton. /ha. Son muchos los factores que Inciden en la producción de yuca como en cualquier otro cultivo, pero entre ellos las enfermedades es uno de los que más la limi tan.La yuca puede ser atacada por más de 30 agentes bacterianos, fungosos , virales o similares y mlcoplasmas. Las enfermedades de la yuca pueden ocasionar pérdidas en el establecimiento del cultivo , disminuir el vigor normal de las plantas , r educ il' su capacidad fotosintétlca o ca us a r pudriciones radicales anteriores o posteriores a la cosecha. Algunos patógenos atacan sólo e l tallo, que es el material de propagación normalmente usado. Otros atacan el tejido foliar y las partes tiernas del tallo causando manchas. quemazones o ai\\ublos, defoliaciones, marchitez, muerte descendente e hipertrofias (alargamiento exagerado o proliferación de yemas y entreoodos). Otros s ólo atacan el tejido radic al y la parte basallei\\osa del tallo, causando pudric iones r adicales anteriores a la cosecha. Estos sfntomas pueden ocurrir durante cualquier estado de cr ecimiento de la planta , generalmente en épocas de lluvias fu ertes y persistentes. Después de la cosecha las rafees también pueden presentar pudriciones debidas a efectos fisiológicos, patogénicos o microbianos.Las enfermedades causadas por bacterias se caracterizan por manchas angulares acuosas, quemazón follar, exudación gomosa en tallos jóvenes y p..~ dri clón Interna del tallo. A continuación se describen las c uatro eruermedades bacterianas más Importantes Identificadas hasta el momento .l. Xanthomonas manlhotls (ailublo bacterlal ). Se considera com o una \\ de las eruermedades más llmitantes de la producción de yuca en las áreas afectadas, ocasionando a veces pérdidas totales durante la estación lluviosa. Los rendimientos se reducen en mayor grado cuando las IJÚecclones aparecen entre el primero y e l sexto mes de edad de la planta.Sus sfntomas caracterfsticos son manchas y añublos foliares, marchitez. muerte descendente. exudación gomosa y necrosamiento del sistema vascular. Estos se presentan 11-13 dfas después de la infección. El patógeno se propaga de una área a otra por medio de cangres infectados o de insectos contaminados . También puede diseminarse por el movimiento del s ue lo durante las oper ac iones culturales y por el empleo de herramientas iruestadas. Se ha demostrado que las salpicaduras de agua lluvia también contribuyen a su diseminación.Presenta como sintomatologfa caracterfstica la pudrición acuosa y olorosa del tallo, acompañada de marchitez del cogollo y decoloración de la porción leñosa de la planta. La especie bacteriana es diseminada por la mosca de la fruta (Anastrepha spp.), la cual ataca las plantas durante las estaciones lluviosas y secas, pero la enfermedad sólo es severa durante las épocas lluviosas. Parece que en la estación seca algunos srntomas externos como pudrición total del tallo , desaparecen pero el patógeno continúa la invasión de los tejidos de la médula de las plantas infectadas. La hembra comienza por ovipositar en la planta; al eclosionar, la larva se infesta con el patógeno que ha sobrevivido epüfiicamente en la planta. Luego la larva perfora el tallo y lo barrena, diseminando as( la enfermedad. El patógeno puede también penetrar por los agujeros hechos por la larva, debido a que la lluvia l ava la superficie del tallo en donde la bacteria puede viVir epüfttcamente. Los agujeros dejados por la larva se distinguen fácil.mente por el latex seco exudado después de la perforación.3. Xanthom onas cassavae (mancha angular de la hoja). Se caracterlza por la presencia de puntos pequeflos , protuberantes, acuosos y de color marrón-r oj izo. Cuando los puntos crecen los rodea un halo irregular de color am arillo pálido que en ocasiones se extiende a toda la lámina foliar. Las venas foliares que salen de los márgenes de estas manchas se vuel ven también de color marrón oscuro. Las hojas se caen antes de que el patógeno Invada los pecfolos previniendo asr la infección del tallo. Bajo c ondic iones hómedas, hay exudación de un lrquido pegajoso sobre el envés . Esta exudac ión unida a las salpicaduras de agua lluvia es la caus ante de la diseminación de la enfermedad.Las lesiones son s imilares a las Inducidas por el afiublo bacterial de la yuca, s in embargo, se difer encian en que las manchas angulares son de menor tamaño.4. Agrobacterium tumefaciens (agalla bacteria! del tallo). Se caracteriza por la presencia de nudosidades o agallas localizadas en la base de adherencia de las hojas viejas que ya se han desprendido. Generalmente aparece en las plantas mayores de siete meses. A veces las nudosidades se presentan en gran número y a lo largo de la porción más madura del tallo.•.En la columna de la Izquierda está e l nombre com6n de las erúermeda.des bacterianas que a tacan la yuca y en la columna de la derecha sus r espectivos agentes causales. Usted deberá relacionar dichas columnas correctamente.l Hasta el momento se han r egistrado varias enfermedades de tipo vfrico o similares pero aunque algunas, como e l mosaico africano de la yuca, pueden causar ~rdidas considerables, l a investigación al respecto ha sido esporádica. Los sfntomas de estas enfermedades se describen frecuentemente en términos generales pero muy r ara vez en detalle. Las p~rdida s no han sido satisfactoriamente determinadas y a menudo se cuenta con muy poca información disponible sobre temas tan importantes como s istemas de transmisión y rango de hospederos. Igualmente , no se han estlldiado a fondo las caracterfstic as biológicas, fisiológicas, ffsicas y qufmicas de los agentes infecciosos, c aracterizándolos parcialmente en el mejor de los casos. Dentro de este grupo hay cinco enfermedades que atacan la yuca.l. E l m osaico africano. Su sintomatologfa es similar a la de los otros mosaicos.En plantas jóvenes se observan áreas cloróticas separadas por tejido verde normal, deformac ión foliar y r educción en el tamaño de las hojas. Algunas espec ies del género Bemisia (mosca blanca) se han mencionado como vectores de la enfermedad. Toda estaca procedente de plantas enfermas, genera también plantas enfermas .2. El mosaico collltn. Se ha presentado en varias regtones de Brasil y Colombia. El srntoma principal es la clorosis de la lámina follar. En general, estas áreas clor6ttcas no están bien demarcadas , como es el caso del mosaico africano de la yuca, pero por lo demás los srntomas generales son muy similares.Igualmente, estos sCntomas pueden confundirse con ataques severos de tripa en cultivares susceptibles.Hasta el momento no se le conoce ntngdn vector natural pero ha sido transmitido me-c&nlcamente y por Injertos.3. El mosaico de las nervaduras.Sobre esta enfermedad existe muy poca Información. Se caracteriza por el amarlllamlento de las venas y encartuchamiento foliar. Aparentemente se transmite mecánicamente o por injertos. Toda estaca pro• ven lente de material 1 nfectado produce plantas enfermas.El cuero de sapo. Se caracteriza por el crecimiento radical anormal sin engrosamiento de las rarees que a veces muestran deformaciones.....Los tallos de las plantiUI afectadas son más gruesos que los de las sanas. La epidermis de las rafees presentan suberlzaclón excesiva por la gran acumulación de corcho. A pesar de que se han realizado muchos estudios el agente causal al1n se desconoce; no obs tante, s egún las últimas lnvestlgaclones parece tratarse de un agente viral. La enfermedad se puede transmitir mecánicamente, por inje rto o por estaca. El fndlce de cosecha de las plantas enfermas es sumamente bajo debido a que producen pocas rafees gruesas, y a que el desarrollo de la parte aérea es más vigoroso que el de las plantas sanas.enfermedad, cuyo agente causal es un mlcoplasma (organismo procar\\ót\\co), se ha encontrado en Brasil, Venezuela, México y en la región amazónica del Pero.Posiblemente debido a las diferentes razas o blottpos del agente causal, el superbrotamlento puede manifestarse en la planta de yuca en tres forrm s d lstlntas cada una con su slntomatologfa caracterfstlca.La primera, enanismo de la planta acompafiado de una exagerada proliferación de yemas. Los retofios presentan entrenudos cortos y hojas pequeñas , stn mostrar distorsión n1 clorosis. La segunda forma es la proliferación de retofios raquntcos que crecen sin mostrar otros sfntomas vtslbles de la afección, pero que nunca alcanzan el ta.maf[o normal. Y finalmente, las plantas afectadas por superbrotamie nto pueden presentar enanismo exagerado asr como clorosis y raquitis mo.Aunque su lncldencla no es de considerac ión, el porcentaje de infección es mayor que el de las enfermedades causadas por los vtrus americanos, causando reducciones altas de rendimiento, las cuales pueden exceder algunas veces del 80%. Se debe tener mucho cuidado al diagnosticar esta enfermedad ya que se ha demostrado que la infestación severa de tripa puede ocasionar sfntomas similares.De las enfermedades causadas por virus en el cultivo de la yuca, incluyendo el cuero de sapo, cuAl es la mAs Importante? Indique igualmente cuiles se presentan en América.El virus del mosaico de las nervaduras es transmitido por las moscas blancas (Be misia spp. ) ?Cierto FalsoCómo podrfa usted diferenciar el ataque del virus del mosaico com11n del ataque del virus del mosaico africano?Mencione los s{ntomas de la enfermedad del cuero de sapo que lo podrfan llevar a diagnosticar dicha enfermedad en una plantación ?5.Se considera que el ataque de superbrotamiento puede en algunos casos reducir los rendimientos en un: En la yuca se han encontrado muchas enfermedades fungosas en hojas , tallos y rafees cuya distribución e importancia económica varían considerablemente. l .En términos generales, las enfermedades foliares causadas por hongos se caracterizan por la aparición de manchas sobre la lámina foliar que pueden ser de diferentes formas (angular, redondeada, con anillos concéntricos o de bordes indefinidos) y colores (amarillo, marrón o blanco) .En las manchas sobre l as nervaduras y los pecfol os se observan chancros con borde marrón y centro blanco lo mismo que d istor sión foliar. También se pueden presentar pt1stulas marr ones o negras en la haz y en el envés de las hojas. A continuación se describen l as pr incipales enfermedades foliares fungosas de la yuca. a, Cercospora hennings ii.(mancha parda).Parece ser la más importante de las enfermedades foliares tanto por su severidad como por su distribución geográfica.Ocurre casi siempre en plantaciones localizadas en áreas donde las temperaturas son altas. At1n cuando depende de la susceptibilidad del cultivar, la incidencia y severidad de la enfermedad son mayores cuando el cultivo tiene más de cinco meses de edad.Los s íntomas se caracterizan por manchas angulares de color marrón uniforme de bordes definidos y oscuros localizados en la haz o en el envés de las hojas. En el envés, las lesiones tienen un fondo gris-oliváceo debido a la presencia de los conidiófiros y de los conidios del hongo. Algunas veces, segdn la susceptibilidad del cultivar, aparece alrededor de las lesiones, un balo amarillo indefinido. A medida que la enfermedad progresa, las hojas infectadas se amarillean, se seca!). y finalmente se caen, probablemente debido a sustancias tóxicas secretadas por el patógeno. Los cultivares susceptibles pueden sufrir una defoliación severa y a veces total durante la estación lluviosa y cálida.b. Cerco&}ora vicosae (afiublo pardo fungoso). Aparece durante la estaci lluviosa, en áreas cálidas en donde la mancha parda también prevalece. pero en el env~s. se ob• serva además un centro de fondo grisáceo, debí• do a la presencia de conidios y conidi6firos del hongo. La apariencia general de las manchas es similar a la de las inducidas por Phoma (Phyllosticta) spp.; sin embargo, se diferencian en que las lesiones producidas por Phoma tienen anillos conc~ntricos en la haz foliar.Como su •ocurrencia en una misma planta o en una determinada plantación es muy limitada y parece estar confinada a las hojas bajeras de la planta, se le considera de poca importancia.::. Cercospora caribaea (mancha blanca). Se encuentra com11nmente en reglones hdmedas y fr(as, causando defoliaciones en los cultivares susceptibles. La mancha blanca es muy similar a la mancha parda. pero ésta dltlma ocurre comdnmente en zonas ctlldas no muy hdmedas. Estas diferencias en la die• trl~cl6n geográfica son comunes en Afrlca y e n América y son probablemente el resultado de la diferente respuesta de cada uno de los agentes causales a la temperatura y a la humedad.Las lesiones causadas por Cercospora caribe.-~ son más pequeftas y diferentes a las Inducidas por C. hennlngsll. varean de circulares a angulares, por lo general tienen de 1-2 mm de diámetro, son blan-Cercospora ht:nnlngsll cas y a veces marr6na.martllentas. Las lesiones están hundidas en ambos lados , hasta la mitad del espesor de la superficie follar sana. Au~ue se pueden distinguir los puntos blancos, las lesiones tienen con frecuencia un borde de color difuso en el envés de la hoja. El borde aparece a veces como una lfnea Irregular parda violeta, rodeada por un balo marrón o a.marUlento. El centro de las manchas tiene un aspecto aterciopelado grisáceo durante la fructlficaci6n del patógeno, que ocurre de manera predominante en el envés de la hoja. El hongo sobrevive rurante la estación seca en los tejidos Infectados y renueva su actividad al comienzo de la estación lluviosa cuando el hospedero comienza su perfodo de crecimiento. d. Pboma (Phyllosticta) spp.(mancha de anillos circulares). Esta enfermedad aparece durante la estación lluviosa, cuando la temperatura es menor de 20 e; causa defoliaciones severas en cultivares susceptibles y ocasionalmente, muerte descendente o total de la planta. El hongo invade primero la hoja, luego el pec(olo y la parte verde del tallo; la invasión del tallo se inicia a partir de chancros que se forman hacia la base del pe• cfolo de la hoja afectada.La enfermedad se caracte-1 riza por la presencia de manchas foliares grandes de color marrón, generalmente con márgenes indefinidos. Estas lesiones se encuentran coml1nmente en las tmttas o en los bordes de los lóbulos foliares o a lo largo de la vena principal o de las secundarias.Inicialmente las lesiones presentan anillos concéntricos en la haz de la hoja, los cuales están formados por picnidios de color marrón. Estos anillos no están presentes en las lesiones viejas porque la lluvia arrastra los picnidios maduros. En estos casos, las manchas son de color marrón uniforme, muy parecidas a las causadas por C. vicosae. En el envés, se producen muy pocos pienidios y por lo tanto, las les iones presentan un color marrón uniforme.Observaciones de campo sugieren que las hojas bajeras maduras pueden ser más resistentes que las hojas superiores jóvenes; sin embargo, se ha observado defoliación total acompaflada de muerte descendente parcial o total de cultivares susceptibles.e. Oldlum manlhotls (ceniza de la yuca) . Se registró primero en Afrlca y luego en Amér ica tropical y Asia. l. Dé el nombre comt1n y científico de cinco ( 5) enfermedades follares causadas por hongos en la planta de yuca.l.3.5.Cómo podrfa diferenciar rápidamente el ataque de Q. henningsli (mancha parda) del ataque de f. vicosae (a.ñublo pardo fungoso)?De las siguientes enfermedades foliares cuáles atacan también el tallo? Señale con una X.Pboma spp.Sphaceloma manlhoticola Uromyces spp.Colletotrichum manihotis 2. Enfermedades del tallo.El tallo empleado normalmente como material de propagación de la yuca, es atacado por difer e ntes patógenos. El tejido afectado pr esenta coloraciones diferentes al tej ido sano, especialmente hacia la zona vascular o medular. La falta casi absolu ta de Informac ión sobre enfermedades en los tallos de yuca, hace Imperativa la necesidad de llevar a cabo investigaciones relacionadas con aspectos etiológicos de los organismos causales al Igual que estudios epidemiológicos. A continuación se describen las tres enfermedades de éste tipo más comdnmente encontradas. 3. Pudriciones radicales.Las pudriciones radicales en yuca son importantes e n áreas con suelos mal drenados o en donde ocurren per(odos prolongados de lluvia. Aunque se han registrado varias enfermedades radicales, existe muy poca Información al respecto. Las pudriciones radicales pueden suceder antes o después de la cosecha.a. Deterioros anteriores a la cosecha. Generalmente la Infección en las plantas jóvenes causa la muerte de las mismas en e l momento de la germinación o después de ella. La Infección en plantas ya maduras puede ocasionar marchitez parcial o total y como consecuencia, pudrición radical que puede ser suave o seca. Las rarees Infectadas pueden ser invadidas por una amplia gama de microorganismos, generalmente saprofftlcos o parásitos débiles, capaces de degradar los tejidos radicales y que enmascaran la Identidad del agente causal primario haciendo aparecer las pudriciones radicales con el mismo srndrome.-Las pudriciones suaves más importantes son las causadas por~ tophtora sp. y Pythium . sp., las cuales se presentan durante las épocas lluviosas especialmente en suelos pesados, mal drenados y con alto contenido de materia orgánica. Phvtophtora drechsleri, la especie más comlln e importante, causa pérdidas que llegan hasta un 80%. El patógeno ataca las plantas jóvenes o maduras especialmente cuando están cerca a zanjas de drenaje , causando marchitez repentina de la planta y severa pudrición suave de las rarees. Inicialmente las rafees jóvenes infectadas presentan manchas acuosas que se extienden y luego adquieren una coloración marrón. Las rarees Infectadas exudan un l(quldo de olor repugnante .-Pudriciones secas. Algunas especies fungosas tales como Rosellinia necatrix, Armlllarlella mellea y & mes llgnosus causan pudriciones secas en las ra rces durante perfodos llu viosos. pero sólo en plantaciones de yuca que se han sembrado Inmediatamente des~és de cultivos forestales o de haber eliminado especies lei'loso-perennes. Entre estas, Rosellinla necatrix es el patógeno más Importante; Induce la enfermedad conocida como la \"pudrición negra\", debido al color negro car acter(stlco de los tejidos infectados y a los chancros r adicales que se forman. Generalmente, estas enfermedades sólo se observan poco antes de la cosecha o a la cosecha. Inicialmente las plantaciones afectadas presentan amarillamiento en forma de zonas o parches, luego ma r chitez y por último defoliación y muerte descendente.b. peterioros posteriores a la cosecha. Las pudriciones radicales también pueden suceder después de la cosecha debido a fenómenos fisiológicos o microbianos.-El deterioro fisiológico apar ece poco tiempo después que las r arees han sido cosechadas dependiendo de la susceptibilidad del cu lti var y se caracteriza por un necr osamiento cir cular seco y sin limitación.-El deterioro m icrobiano es causado po r or ganis m os saprorrttcos o patogénlcos que utilizan los carbohtdra-.tos y demás nutrimentos de las rafees de la yuca. Estos organismos están presentes en el suelo e Infectan las rafees especialmente a través de las heridas causadas dura nte la cosecha. El ataque se caracteriza por una pudric ión acuosa que muestra maceración de los tejidos de la rafz y ferm entación. Aparece un poco más tarde que e l deter ior o fisiológico, dependie ndo de l tiempo e intensidad de la infección de las rarees .De las enfermedades causadas por los hongos en el tallo, cuál es la más importante? Indique su slntomatologfa caracterfstica y cuándo es más perjudicial su ataque.Cómo ldentlflcarfa usted un ataque ocasionado por basldlomlcetes o ascomicetes en un cangre ?Las pudriciones radicales en el cultivo de la yuca pueden presentarse antes o después de la cosecha. Mencione qué tipo de pudriciones se pueden presentar antes de la cosecha indicando un agente causal y c6mo se pueden diferenciar rápidamente en el campo.","tokenCount":"3428"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5b88602f8e3db4dd3137d312468875ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cbae909a-bd29-4bb8-a660-49c39574070a/retrieve","id":"1768032075"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"569a0a84-b3b0-4c95-b540-ad182f5dcf6f","pagecount":"19","content":"The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.One Health has received increasing attention in recent years as an integrated approach bringing together human, animal and ecosystem-environmental health.The project One Health for Humans, Environment, Animals and Livelihoods (HEAL) applies a One Health approach aimed at enhancing the well-being and resilience of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya. 1   A key component of the ecosystem-environmental pillar of the HEAL project, including in Ethiopia, is rangelands and rangelands health, and the project has been supporting participatory rangeland management as a key intervention area. However, there is a need also to build a more rangeland-focused service delivery component that aligns with the services provided by humans and animals through the One Health Unit, an innovative model of integrated service delivery. These units will facilitate a combination of services from different disciplines and facilitate interactions and coordination between government departments, private service providers and communities. It is proposed that the rangeland component be delivered at the local level by community rangeland health workers (CRHWs). A study was carried out in Ethiopia to explore the feasibility of establishing a system of CRHWs. The enabling environment in Ethiopia is supportive because the community-based animal health workers concept (CAHW) is well understood. The findings from this research will encourage people adapt the system across the entire project area. Study methods included a literature review and key informant interviews.Rangelands in Ethiopia are the cornerstone of pastoral and agro-pastoral production.However, under various pressures, many are degrading and there is a pressing need for improved integrated local and scientific management, rehabilitation and restoration. Rangelands in East Africa, including Ethiopia, face many problems, including climatic fluctuations and drought, degrading and shrinking rangeland territory, weakening traditional resource management systems and conflicts (Sircely and Eba 2021). Ethiopia also a critical shortage of experienced and well-qualified rangeland management experts to address these problems, which affect nearly 60% of the country's total land area (EIAR, 2017;IGAD, 2020).The local knowledge and institutions that have sustained natural resource management for centuries are an integral part of the production system and require areaand culture-specific skills and practices (Nguyen and Ross 2017).To meet the challenges faced in human health, the government of Ethiopia established a 20-year Health Sector Development Programme (HSDP) in 1997. After implementing the first five-year plan, the overall performance of the health sector improved. However, the ability to deliver essential services in rural settings was less successful. Shortages and imbalances of human resources for health, distance from health facilities, and socioeconomic factors aggravated by poor health-seeking behaviours were among the major obstacles to achieving wider access to health services (EFMOH 2008).The government then introduced the Health Extension Programme (HEP), a primary care delivery strategy, to address the challenges and achieve the World Health Organization Millennium Development Goals within a context of limited resources.The Health Extension Programme was launched at scale in 2003 with 17 packages under four areas (family health service, disease prevention and control, hygiene and environmental sanitation and human education and communication) in rural regions where subsistence depends mainly on agriculture. The programme was later adapted for pastoralists and people in urban areas in 2010 (Assefa et al. 2019). The Health Extension Programme was used to limit the high turnover of health staff and to address the gender, social and cultural factors that affect the expectations and behaviours of health service providers and users (Dussault and Franceschini 2006;Wyss 2004;Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot 2013).Although the Health Extension Programme service package includes limited basic curative services like first aid and diagnosis and treatment of malaria, diarrhoea and pneumonia (Bilal et al. 2011), it mainly focuses on promotional and preventive interventions designed to tackle cultural issues, develop personal and social skills, and increase health awareness that enables individuals to take action to promote their own health (Chan 2008;Bhutta et al. 2008). The promotion and prevention premise aims to reduce the need for curative and rehabilitative care and to assure greater efficiency of services in the form of time saved in consultations and reduced healthcare spending, which removes socioeconomic factors as a barrier to receiving needed care and leading to more equitable health outcomes and higher user satisfaction (Chan 2008;Sachs 2012;Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot 2013).Ethiopia's health service delivery is a three-tier system with primary, secondary and tertiary levels of care. The Health Extension Programme is implemented at the primary level and managed under the umbrella of the primary health care unit (Wamai 2004;EFMOH 2005;Assefa et al. 2019). Five health posts and one health centre collaborate in the primary health care unit that serves 25,000 people. The health centre serves as a referral centre. The health post is supervised by a district health office and the kebele administration and receives technical support from the nearby health centre. The service delivery modalities include household, community and health facility care. Thus, the most basic health post infrastructure, designed to rapidly and cost-effectively scale up the Health Extension Programme, was built in each village. The requirement for sustainability necessitated the design of an institutionalized and integrated health programme with developed human capacity, infrastructure, decentralized management and political commitment (Lehmann et al. 2008;Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot 2013).One of the distinctive strategies of the Health Extension Programme is the use of women health workers recruited from communities. The exception is pastoralist areas where men health extension workers were initially selected. Two women health extension workers are stationed at each health post. The health extension workers are formally employed and salaried by the respective districts to prevent attrition and ensure sustainability (Lehmann et al. 2008;Haile-Michael et al. 2010;Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot, 2013). A selection committee comprised of community members and representatives from district health, capacity building and education offices is responsible for recruitment. Recruitment criteria require that candidates had completed at least tenth grade, were 18 years or older, were residents of the kebele and committed to returning to their kebele after completion of the training.For this purpose, technical and vocational education training schools were established across the country by the Regional Education Bureaus, which facilitated the accreditation and certification as part of the training. The Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health and the Regional Health Bureaus are responsible for following up and regulating training quality, policy formulation and regulation, resource acquisition, and pre-service factors that affect the expectations and behaviour of the health service providers and users (Dussault and Franceschini 2006;Wyss 2004;Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot, 2013). Curriculum and teaching materials were developed for the 17 Health Extension Programme service packages and other supportive and basic courses by a team of national and international experts. Health extension worker candidates received one year of intensive theoretical and practical training, which is the same length advocated by the One Million community health workers campaign whose mission is to accelerate the attainment of universal health coverage in rural Sub-Saharan Africa by supporting governments, international partners, UN agencies, and national stakeholders dedicated to community health workers and health extension workers scale up in the context of health systems strengthening (Singh 2011;McCord et al. 2013) Health extension workers are supported by community groups or networks, such as model families (a household that implemented the 17 packages of HEP is recognised as a model family), voluntary health promoters, community case management workers, Women's Development Groups/armies, women and youth associations, traditional associations, and school health programmes.Community health volunteers are key to overcoming the increasing demand for healthcare services and the shortage of formal healthcare providers (Chung et al., 2017;Yitbarek et al. 2019). In 2011, a new approach, the Women's Development Army (WDA), also called the 'health development army,' uses networks of women linked with HEP to increase the efficiency of HEWs in reaching every household with actionable health messages (Banterer 2011;FMOH 2015;Betjemanian et al. 2017). The WDA is a systematic, organized, inclusive and collaborative movement of neighbouring households and a structural arrangement that involves women's development teams (Wet's) of one-to-five connections. Women in the community, in partnership with HEWs, share and learn about health practices and empower one another (Date et al., 2018).Health extension workers, in collaboration with kebele administration and personnel from other developmental sectors (agriculture and education), facilitate the formation of the WDTs and one-to-five networks.The Health Development Army organized women in groups of five (1-to-5 networks) representing the six nearest households (five members and one leader) and in larger groups, usually 30 to 36 households known as women's development teams. A woman who knows the 17 packages of the HEP and practises them all is chosen as the leader to serve five households and a similar procedure is followed to select the leader of women's development teams. Supported by the local government administration and the system of command posts and steering committees, the HEW trains the women development teams to support women following the 17 packages. They mainly support pregnant women and encourage them to give birth in health facilities where skilled birth attendants are available (MOH 2016). The WDA also provides community support networks for women, helping them with health matters and agricultural activities and providing social and sometimes economic assistance. The WDA also contributes to referral links within the primary health care units. Starting with the agrarian regions, the WDA is now embedded within development structures (command posts, steering committees) throughout Ethiopia, with some regional variation. The development army movement was originally used to increase agricultural productivity in Ethiopia, which was adapted by the EFMOH for health using women (EFMOH, 2016). Generally, the volunteers are not paid and not considered health post staff. They are offered some incentives like training, caps and T-shirts.The networks are supported by HEWs, who are responsible for preparing plans and ensuring their completion, collecting health information, and conducting weekly meetings to review progress and submitting monthly reports. According to one key informant, even though they are volunteers, some community groupings, networks or armies are in 'one way or another' considered government-established entities where the local authorities can influence their contributions.The exception is traditional birth attendants (Tubas). The Ethiopian Ministry of Health's policy excludes traditional birth attendants from conducting deliveries at home and encourages all women to give birth at health facilities with skilled health providers.Nonetheless, women still give birth at home, assisted by traditional birth attendants (Lelisa, 2017). Studies by Tedla et al. (2012), Lelisa (2017) and Mekdes et al. (2020) revealed that pastoral women have a traditional birth attendant assist with home delivery, and they do not seek a health facility delivery unless there are complications.The main reasons mentioned for not going to health facilities are traditional norms, a mobile lifestyle favouring home delivery, negative perceptions of health providers and examination procedures, and low awareness about the benefits of health facility delivery. Women trust traditional birth attendants and their care and prefer the home for comfort and privacy. These studies concluded that traditional birth attendants should be seen as a link between healthcare facilities and pregnant women and improve respectful care at the healthcare facilities. In general, communities informally reward Tubas for their services. This shows the willingness of the community to pay for services they believe are important.One of the major organizational transformations in EFMOH was the Pastoralist Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Directorate to focus attention on the health of the pastoral population (EFMOH, 2010;Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot 2013). The 17 HEP packages were adapted to pastoralists' needs. The EFMOH designed modified primary health care units for pastoralist communities to focus on outreach health services. Due to a shortage of women candidates, cultural issues, and high school graduates, men with sixth-grade education were recruited and received six months of training to serve as HEWs (Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot 2013). The key informant interviewees explained that although the HEP is excellent in the highlands, it was not so in pastoral areas, and there is wide variability among the regions in terms of implementation. For example, in the beginning, HEWS was dominated by men in the Somali Region. As women do not like to be assisted by male workers during labour and delivery, more women HEWs are recruited to encourage women to use the services.The Health Extension Programme is recognized as an excellent approach to promoting human health care at the community level, especially in rural and remote areas. This contributes to achieving health development goals and is an exemplary model for demonstrating how large-scale health worker programmes can be effectively integrated into national health systems (Bowser et al., 2023). Despite its success, the programme is facing challenges related to the productivity and efficiency of HEWs, their working and living conditions, the capacity of the health posts and social determinants of health. The latter includes non-medical factors that influence health outcomes, such as the conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age, as well as the wider set of forces and systems shaping the conditions of daily life. These require a systemic approach that involves the broader health system, the community and sectors responsible for social determinants of health (Yisell et al. 2019).Establishing and maintaining nationwide animal disease surveillance systems is a major challenge in many developing countries. Constraints include the need to access remote and often large areas characterized by poor infrastructure and communications and the need to conduct adequate surveillance with limited financial resources. The logistical and resource problems affecting surveillance systems are compounded by the limited incentives for veterinary workers to cover rural areas (Allport et al. 2005). One helpful approach for improving both primary delivery of veterinary services and disease surveillance in rural areas is the use of community-based animal health workers (Catley et al. 2004).According to Leyland and Catley (2002), the concept of community-based animal health workers (CAHWs) arose from experiences in the human health sector. The terminology \"barefoot vets\" (Halpin, 1981) seems to be derived from China's successful and ongoing use of \"barefoot doctors\" to bring basic services \"to the masses,\" as described by Chesley et al. (1995). In the early 1970s, the World Bank advocated that livestock producer associations include \"grassroots para-veterinarians\" (de Haan and Nissen, 1985). This advice was influential and raised awareness.To fill the void created by the failed privatization of veterinary services in the 1980s and 1990s and to deal with some of the challenges in animal health systems, new animal health delivery systems were developed from the 1990s onward in many countries in the Global South (Leyland et al. 2014;Hoots, 2023). These programmes deliver localized animal health services by building on the knowledge, needs and participation of livestock-owning communities(VSF 2018).For example, reporting on the origin of CAHWs in Ethiopia, Fedlu et al. (2019) reported that CAHWs were first trained in the 1970s when new ideas on rural development led some development organizations to work more closely with communities to address local problems practically and sustainably. With many remote livestock-rearing areas underserved by veterinary services, a phase of scaling up community-based animal health worker initiatives began in the early 1990s. The aim was not to replace animal health services in rural areas but to complement them (Hoots, 2023). Over time, CAHWs attracted the attention of government veterinary services, and by the mid-1990s, there was a call for CAHWs to be formally recognized and regulated or removed (Leyland et al. 2014). Furthermore, as explained by the same authors, the United States Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance commissioned CAHW projects in 1998, which highlighted their substantial achievements in terms of rinderpest control and basic clinical veterinary service provision, especially in remote and conflict-affected dryland areas of East Africa, including Ethiopia (Leyland et al. 2014). Most importantly, the effectiveness of CAHW initiatives in the Afar Region influenced the development of projects across the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country (FARM Africa 2005). Subsequently, CAHWs were successively trained through collaborations with government and NGOs in these regions (MOARD 2006).According to the study undertaken by VSF (2018) in 19 countries 2 CAHWs are mainly livestock keepers trained by government officials, NGOs or farmer organizations in basic animal health techniques (e.g. vaccination and deworming) and who deliver a limited range of veterinary services to their communities in return for some form of payment in cash or kind. In most parts of the world, they play a central role in providing animal health services at the local level due to the absence of veterinarians and veterinary para-professionals. Moreover, CAHWs are important for public health and food security since they play a crucial role in disease surveillance by detecting highly contagious diseases in livestock or zoonotic diseases affecting humans. To do this, CAHWs report vaccination activities and animal sanitary conditions by phone or on foot to the responsible veterinary public health authority in their area. CAHWs can be trained to do this.Community-based animal health workers are also key actors in governmental vaccination campaigns (VSF 2018). They act as the interface between livestock keepers and official disease surveillance systems (Mariner 2002). In Ethiopia, CAHWs play a considerable role in the fight against the Peste des Petit Ruminants (PPR) in Afar and Somali regions and against anthrax in South Omo (VSF 2018).Unlike other types of veterinary workers, CAHWs travel long distances on foot or by rudimentary transport. Ideally, veterinarians or veterinary assistants should supervise CAHWs, as such supervision is central to licensing and quality control (Catley et al. 2004). Key aspects of well-designed community-based animal health worker systems recognize the value of indigenous knowledge about animal health and husbandry (Minja and Allport 2001) and provide training that builds on that knowledge (Iles 2002).The success factors for community-based animal health workers include: i) provision of startup capital, kits and pharmaceuticals; ii) detailed technical training on all aspects of animal health service provision; and iii) high demand in the pastoralist community for animal health services. A study in Tanzania on using CAHWs to strengthen disease surveillance systems examined three incentive models that did not involve direct payments (training CAHWs to collect samples, memoranda of understanding between village governments and CAHWs stipulating monthly reporting and paying a fuel allowance to government livestock field officers for supervising CAHWs reporting activities). They found that all three models produced substantially improved disease reporting at the district level. These findings show that direct payments to private sector community-based animal health workers may not be necessary to strengthen a reporting system (Allport et al. 2005).The constraints and challenges of CAHWs have been reviewed by several organizations and researchers (USAID 2015;VSF 2018;Fedlu et al. 2019).Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, DRC, Ethiopia, Haiti, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Mali, Mongolia, Rwanda, Senegal, Sudan, South Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda and VietnamThus, CAHWs became central to the country's delivery of veterinary services.Community-based animal health workers are essential to an effective animal healthcare delivery system and are much appreciated by livestock owners (Bekele 2011).Community-based animal health workers have been responsible for curative Many lessons can be drawn from the Health Extension Programme and community-based animal health workers in developing a community-based rangeland health workers (CRHWs) system. They have passed through many ups and downs to reach their current status; there is a need to start with what is in hand (the HEAL project) and to be persistent in advancing the concept until it stands on its own. These lessons come from two major areas:establishing the system and workers or cadres.As seen from the two systems (human and animal), establishing community rangeland health workers requires good preparation and engaging the communities and relevant actors from the beginning for buy-in. The communities also need to understand the benefits they can get from the CRHWs. The CRHWs should also provide technologies that the communities can afford to purchase by themselves, which will help them manage their rangelands. The establishment of the system also requires i) the use of multidisciplinary approaches in rangeland productivity improvement; ii) community access to services in times of need, iii) facilitation of information and awareness in the community; and v) transfer of knowledge to the community (e.g. good rangeland management practices).Though there are differences between the approaches of the two systems, the choice of workers is based on interest and involves the communities and the responsible In NGO projects, a wide variety of cost recovery systems have been attempted, but these projects often collapse when external support is withdrawn.There is no standardized training (content, duration, objectives or pedagogical requirements, persons qualified to train, or evaluation) for CAHWs, resulting in significant variations in training content and duration within and between countries. As a result, there are substantial differences in terms of CAHW capacities between countries and, in some cases, even within a single country.Lack of common nomenclature: CAHWs have no common nomenclature at the global level.Supervision: There are significant differences in terms of CAHW supervision between countries and within a country. To this effect, the HEAL programme is designed to coordinate efforts and to establish commitments around the One Health approach by integrating One Health Units into local, national and regional health policies. 3   The HEAL project focuses on selected pastoral areas of Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, which share some common characteristics in terms of climate, culture, population dynamics and challenges. With the many advantages documented by implementing human health extension programmes and community-based animal health workers, the two systems are working together to achieve the common goals of One Health at the grassroots level. However, the system lacks CRHWs who can contribute to managing the ecosystem. Establishing a system of CRHWs is indispensable for a country like Ethiopia, which has more than 50% of its rangelands degraded in one form or another (EIAR 2017). Adding a system of CRHWs will contribute to improved management, restoration and use of rangelands, and enhance livelihoods. It will also contribute to the One Health programme, already implemented in Ethiopia. HEAL aims to inform policy on the operationalization of the One Health Unit as an effective service delivery model in pastoralist communities. Testing the CRHWs could have significant value for policy development on One Health in these areas.Rangeland management requires close monitoring of the rangeland status. It informs end users and responsible bodies in a timely manner so they can take the necessary measures. Despite government and non-government organizations implementing many projects in East Africa in the last six or seven decades, achievements to date have not justified the investment (Gebremeskel et al. 2019). As rangeland areas are vast, harsh, and at times difficult for extension workers to access, addressing problems should primarily be the responsibility of communities. However, communities are not given the necessary technical support and guidance for many reasons. For example, staff turnover in the government extension system is partly due to a lack of willingness to live and work under harsh conditions. A key step will be identifying willing CRHWs Pastoralism is the dominant livelihood system in most rangelands and has three pillars: natural resources (environment), livestock and family (people), which are integrated through traditional institutions and governance systems to sustain the pastoral production system. These pillars maintain a delicate balance between the size and composition of herds and people who depend on the environment.However, pastoral communities are facing many challenges.East African pastoralists face many challenges: recurrent droughts and floods, climate variability, the allocation of vast areas of rangelands for non-pastoral use, and the weakening of traditional knowledge and institutions. These factors have substantially affected their systems. The increasing complexity of these problems requires interdisciplinary, intersectoral expertise and cooperation from all the actors involved, including communities, the extension system, academia, and the private sector. One Health refers to the collaboration of multiple disciplines and sectors working locally, nationally and globally to attain optimal health for people, animals, and the environment. One Health offers opportunities to acknowledge shared interests, set common goals and encourage teamwork to benefit the overall health of pastoral communities and the nation. The HEAL project is building on this foundation by supporting a bottom-up approach that is participatory, contextspecific, coordinated and integrated to reshape service delivery in the form of One Health Units. Compared to single sector approaches, One Health adds value.To operationalize One Health, the HEAL programme works at three levels: with communities, with public and private service providers, and at the policy and wider socioeconomic level.As a starting point CRHWs can raise awareness and share information, for example, on invasive species, emerging poisonous plants and the status of the rangeland. They can also exchange ideas or knowledge from an organization to the communities and vice versa. They can mobilize communities for a given task, for example, rangeland restoration activities and share, monitor and raise awareness about technical aspects of rangeland health.Community-based rangeland health workers can identify, evaluate, and monitor the status of the rangelands, for instance, by monitoring the spread of poisonous plants or invasive species, training communities and following up on others using simple techniques. For example, some were developed for pastoral communities and other rangeland managers in Eastern Africa (see a technique developed by Riginos and Herrick, 2010).Community-based rangeland health workers can be involved in identifying degraded areas, the root causes of degradation, suggest interventions with the community and inform responsible organizations in a timely manner and provide technical support where possible for a particular rangeland health or ecology problem. They will further encourage and motivate the community, guide rehabilitation efforts, monitor post-rehabilitation conditions and inform the responsible bodies. Owing to their local ecological knowledge, they can help researchers with activities, which can also help them generate income.One critical issue is the selection criteria used to identify CRHWs. These may vary by region. However, criteria were suggested by the participants in the study and the In response to a question regarding their views on the idea of a CRHW system, participants in the key informant interviews said, \"The idea is important, and we need to establish the system in the Ethiopian rangelands.\" Some key informants said, \"We are late and need to move faster. As there are community-based animal health workers and health extension workers for livestock and people, supporting them will be appreciated.\"As indicated by some respondents, there are different reasons for implementingCRHWs. The number of natural resource and rangeland experts assigned by the government to each kebele are few and cannot deliver adequate services.There is also high staff turnover of trained people assigned to provide technical support on natural resources management. Staff are frequently transferred from one kebele to another or promoted to another office. There is no well-planned evaluation or rangelands in Ethiopia. Most of these tasks are undertaken by graduate students and scholars on a sporadic basis, which does not contribute much to rangeland improvement as most of the information is shelved or not presented in a way that people in communities can make good use of. If CRHWs can be seen as part of the community, they can provide rangeland services.The type of services to be delivered by CRHWs will be simple so they can be handled at their level. The suggested tasks below are grouped into three categories, which can evolve overtime.According to the study participants, more focus should be given to pastoral and agro-pastoral areas and the existing institutions and practices. The approach will be community-based as they are to work closely with the community, they refer directly to the concerned authorities within their kebele and the communities and government organizations, NGOs and communities should undertake their training quality assurance. To start with, the training should be comprehensive and all-rounded. There To make the CRHWs system permanent, it has to be institutionalized. For example, the requirement for the sustainability of the Health Extension Programme and health extension workers necessitated the design of an institutionalized and integrated health programme with human capacity development, infrastructures, decentralized management and political commitment (e.g., Teklehaimanot and Teklehaimanot, 2013).Similarly, the sustainability of community-based animal health workers is often related to the level of income generated from their livestock health work, links with local pharmaceutical suppliers, the level of training and supervision by veterinary statutory bodies, and institutional arrangements for legalization and promotion of the services delivered (OIE 2013).Community-based rangeland health workers should be selected in a participatory way from within communities according to these or similar criteria to ensure that community members recognize them as legitimate actors. This clear link with their communities contributes to the sustainability of the CRHW programme.Additional roles and services CRHWs could provide were also suggested by the participants and included:Active engagement in identifying rangeland health problems and monitoring the status of rangeland resources together with rangeland and livestock experts.In collaboration with the One Health Unit, support HEAL project officers in planning, site selection, implementing, monitoring and reporting on the status of degraded rangelands and work within the community and beyond HEAL.In collaboration with the One Health Unit, lead activities for community mobilization, meetings, awareness raising and community rangeland health campaigns. They can also promote integration and ensure rangeland health is addressed in another discussion about human, animal and health interactions.Report to the responsible body and the community on activities in progress and the status of the rangelands, including seasonal variations as part of an early warning system for droughts and floods.Prepare brief notes on rangeland development interventions undertaken at the community level, which their supervisor and the community can view.Provide technical support to customary, kebele and woreda government agencies and other rangeland management institutions in rehabilitation, management and use of the rangelands to ensure good stewardship.Offer training and advice to community members on rangeland issues like evaluation and monitoring techniques, as well as early detection and prevention of invasive plants.Be available to help with community mobilization for government and NGO-led rangeland health activities.Help with site selection and implementation of district rangeland development efforts, such as on-farm pilot trials and testing new technologies for range development before they are implemented.Work with the One Health Unit to provide materials for awareness-raising campaigns on invasive species.Participate in community consultations to prevent rangeland health degradation, for example, avoiding overgrazing and resting rangeland areas.Collect rangeland health information to understand changes and trends.In general, collaborate with the One Health Unit members to ensure integrated delivery of services.Resources are needed to implement the CRHW system, particularly at the beginning and until it can stand independently. Initially, funds can come from different projects run by government and non-government organizations and by i) advising, guiding and getting involved in bush control; ii) collecting forest products; iii) seedling production for range improvement and management activities; iv) participating in rangeland monitoring and reporting; v) training other community members; vi) collecting seeds of native plants for rehabilitation and improvement purposes; vii) getting involved in apiculture;and viii) playing a role in identifying rangeland plants of medicinal and other economic value. The community must be engaged from the beginning of the planning stage.A budget for training, training materials preparation, curriculum and incentives is needed at the beginning of the project. Funding can be made through the kebele or influential community leaders, which will be tested under field conditions. An initial investment needs to be made by HEAL and other projects that support the concept.The resources and materials required include training materials, GPS devices, protective clothing such as overalls with badges, boots, hats, camping equipment, tools (spade, bush pick or axe, chain saw, hand-propelled mobile saws, measuring tapes), motorbikes, apicultural equipment, an office at the kebele level and an implementation budget. As for payment, they can be paid a per diem for the number of days they work, based on experience.A better way for the HEAL project is to pilot ideas in a small area, generate more evidence, and then organize workshops in different regions and learning events for a wider scaling up and implementation by the government, as there is not much time to go through a long process. Involving the key partners at the district and kebele levels will help secure some resources in addition to what HEAL and other projects can contribute.Initially, the CRHW system can be financially supported by an NGO or one or more development projects. The implementation team can investigate ways the the system can be made financially sustainable and how CRHWs can earn an income. For example, CRHWs could grow and sell tree and grass seedlings in a community nursery.As the concept is new and based on lessons learned from similar past and present systems, the following preparations can be made while the HEAL project is still operating. These arrangements would include agreements with communities, the HEAL project, and concerned government bodies at the local level with a clear mandate, roles and responsibilities for CRHWs based on the suggested roles described above. As the primary objective of managing rangeland health is for livestock, there is also the need for close collaboration with community watering point managers and CAHWs.The participants suggested three options for making the CRHW system sustainable. First, there is no need to establish a separate structure. Instead, they can be under the kebele natural resource management administration office, customary institutions, or the livestock production and marketing office (embedded in the existing system). The local kebeles decide on the action plans for the Pastoral productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) activities. Community-based rangeland health worker action plans can be linked to the PSNP of that kebele.Implementing the PSNP project will be effective due to community mobilization and the participation of community-based rangeland health workers. However, it is worth investigating the approach beforehand, as one participant was hesitant about its practicality. The participant said it is not always possible to link with the PSNP as it has a fixed number of paid workers. 4   The second option is formal institutionalization by having a focal person from the agricultural or pastoral development office at the region, zone and district levels for follow-up, supervision and other issues. These government officers should help with training and regular follow-up. The third option is for CRHWs to operate within a local rangeland management institution, which must be adapted to each context, considering specific sociocultural, political, economic and environmental factors.Generally, it is better for CRHW to start the way the CAHWs did. For instance, in the HEAL implementation areas, they can engage with HEAL project partners at the district and kebele levels while informing the signatory bodies at the region level, particularly with natural resource management, agriculture or rangeland and livestock departments. There is a need to develop clear short-, mid-and long-term plans for institutionalizing the CRHW system. In the short term, they will need more support. In the mid and long term, the CRHWs need to stand independently and generate income from the services they render to the community. As Ethiopia is diverse and unique in its sociopolitical setting, there cannot be a one-size-fitsall model, and flexibility is needed to adjust to local settings. The final decision regarding where CRHWs will be hosted depends on the context in the different regions and the readiness of local organizations to accommodate. This can be tested during the pilot phase.As in the Human Health Extension Programme, two people (one man and one woman) will be enough per kebele, although the participants suggested different numbers. It is necessary to have a supportive context and an enabling environment at all levels, particularly at the local level, where there are rangeland management institutions and plans for disseminating messages.The active engagement of the community is a key factor contributing to sustainability. As the concept is new, piloting in the HEAL implementation areas is required to generate evidence and inform progress. Periodic supervision that can encompass reconnaissance surveys, periodic monitoring, reporting and technical support is needed to understand the reality on the ground by the responsible district offices and, if necessary, by the signatory bodies at the regional level during the pilot period.Other preparations include mobilizing resources, establishing an accountability system, and monitoring and coordination mechanisms. There is also a need for a rangeland health manual to integrate local traditional and modern knowledge and collect tools that can be used at the field level. The community can get tools using their own funds. Others tasks to be undertaken over time are capacity building and awareness raising for the communities and the CRHW workers, defining responsible sectors for establishing the system, developing action plans, establishing clear communication and collaboration among stakeholders, strong leadership and organizational support.It will also be helpful to create awareness and provide training and extension service to community members so they are well aware of the services provided by the CRHWs and the need to make some provision for the service they render. It will also be essential to involve frontline health workers, influential community leaders, multistakeholder innovation platform members, and rangeland committees in each kebele because these people are the core of community issues. In the broader context, preparations can include assessing the current status and practices of natural resource management in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas (baseline), the current mandate, roles and responsibilities of customary institutions and modern government-established institutions and local level institutions established with support by development partners actively engaged in natural resource management.To make the system sustainable, it is essential to examine the possibility of creating or strengthening public-private partnerships so the CRHWs can act as general service providers for agricultural inputs like livestock feed, improved forage seeds, and basic rangeland improvement tools. Sustainability could also be ensured by encouraging the CRHWs to continue with their own business while providing entrepreneurial skills and professional development. If CRHWs have to sustain their practice, they need to remain more knowledgeable than ordinary rangeland or livestock keepers on rangeland health and livestock feed issues.Based on what we have learned from health extension workers and community-based animal health workers, the main sustaining factors are i) individual and community commitment, ii) sources of income, iii) legal status, iv) supervision, v) equipment, and vi) political commitment. Some tasks can be undertaken while piloting the concept, for example, legalization and training.The HEAL project is operationalizing the One Health approach in selected pastoral areas of Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia. Therefore, it should be relatively easy for the project to start piloting the CRHW concept discussing with local bodies at the kebele rangeland unit and woreda levels. It is also worth looking into the possibility of linking with existing initiatives like the PSNP as the CRHWs can help rationalize the programme and other resources at the community level by targeting these resources where restoration is feasible and offers tangible benefits to pastoralists.To date, the rangelands component of the HEAL project has focused on participatory rangeland management and, while this has laid a solid foundation for improved rangeland management in the community, it did not fully integrate into the service delivery model proposed by the One Health Unit. Piloting a CRHW system could take the rangelands component a step closer to embedding rangelands health at the local level and pave the way for developing private sector rangeland service provision in the Ethiopian rangelands.The responsible organization for monitoring and quality assurance for the CRHWs should be at the woreda level agricultural office or pastoral development office, with the former suggested by many respondents. The HEAL project and NGOs should strongly support the government in monitoring and quality assurance.A pilot may not require specific legislation and policy. Initially, it would be good for future programme buy-in if the concerned regional bureaus, zones and woreda offices were asked to participate. At a later stage, where there is a need to scale up or get a higher level of regional government support and approval, there will be a need to discuss policy issues with concerned officials. It will be important to develop pastoral land management policy and implement livestock development regulations that consider the direct and indirect contributions of rangeland management and livestock in pastoral.CRHWs will be invaluable to pastoral extension systems because they can easily access local communities to deliver services. It is envisioned that the concept will be adopted and adapted in other countries with similar socioeconomic and socioecological conditions. Some communities are not fully pastoral, but the concept will fit with the pastoral extension systems presently being undertaken. It is also worth considering natural resource development and management policy and regulations that fit with the developments of pastoral areas and promoting participation in local communities.There will be opportunities and challenges in developing and implementing the concept. The opportunities include: i) rehabilitating degraded rangelands and creating a favourable situation for livestock production, including better control of invasive and noxious plants; ii) improving livestock feed and iii) rangeland There will also be challenges. These include: i) ownership of the initiative by customary and modern institutions; ii) sources of funding and other inputs to start and sustain the initiative; iii) ensuring regular monitoring, accountability and coordination; iv) convincing government officials and local leaders, since everything is new. There will be a need for discussions and engagement with the community. It will take time to create awareness among stakeholders, and there will be geographic barriers. Rural and remote areas may be difficult to access, making recruiting a challenge. However, CRHWs should come from the community, so the community should offer employment opportunities. Additional challenges include i) overstocking animals; ii) increased rangeland privatization; iii) disturbed grazing land and improper cropland and settlement expansion; iv) lack of equity and acceptance of local government institutions over local community institutions;and vi) the lack of a clear rangeland policy.The study showed there are no community-based rangeland health workers in Ethiopia. All the actors interviewed said it would be beneficial to implement a CRHW system in their rangelands.The HEAL project can provide the foundation for this as it is already operationalising One Health and assessing the value of an integrated service delivery model among pastoralist communities. There is also a need to promote a collaborative approach to pilot and scale the system to ensure buy-in to the concept and its development.The overall task requires a pilot in small areas, for instance in the implementation areas of the HEAL project. There should be a comprehensive documentation during the pilot period, followed by implementation at scale. While piloting the system in the ongoing phase of the HEAL or other project, it may be possible to ask for an extension or prepare another project that focuses on a CRHW system.Equally important are different projects that focused on the CRHW and joint forces with HEAL for a better OHU.It is also important to focus on key preparation issues to start with. Other preparations, planning and engagement with relevant bodies can be undertaken simultaneously. The positive attitude of all the key informants in the study and their willingness to contribute to the startup added to the experiences and lessons drawn from the Health Extension Programme and the CAHW programme are promising building blocks that will help speed up the start of a CRHW system in Ethiopia.The short-term plan should start with what is in hand and develop the midand long-term plans so that they stand on their own before expanding from Ethiopia to other countries.Following the pilot phase and generating evidence, there is a need to develop national minimum standards and guidelines for designing the system. The points required for the minimum standards are outlined in Box 2. They are indicated here to show what is required in the future. However, these are tasks to be undertaken by the responsible government office with support from national and international development partners.Step 1: Understanding the context (baseline survey)1.1 Significance of rangelands ","tokenCount":"7191"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"41484ea270fc6e9165a7a49f25a145cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5c85669-cd1b-4668-b03a-497b648f25a7/retrieve","id":"1885524650"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5716ab12-09bb-4e51-afe0-7ef2d46798d9","pagecount":"94","content":"Rapport annuel du CTA sur cédérom * * Due to the change in format, the Products and Services Tables have now been re-located to the CD ROM. | * Du fait des modifications apportées à la présentation, les tableaux des produits et services se trouvent à présent sur le cédérom.iv Foreword Foreword | Avant-propos v L'année 2007 semble avoir à peine commencé et voilà que nous présentons déjà un rapport de nos activités et de nos progrès. Cette année, le CTA a suivi de près le débat de plus en plus intense sur le changement climatique, la concurrence croissante entre la culture des denrées alimentaires et celle des biocarburants et l'utilisation d'outils Web 2.0 pour le développement. Au niveau interne, nous avons concentré nos efforts sur l'amélioration de notre efficacité au sein même du Centre et sur l'augmentation, plus que nécessaire, de notre budget. Au milieu de toutes ces activités, nous avons également été encouragés par le retour de l'agriculture sur la scène internationale. Nous avons pris ce mélange de thèmes globaux et de sujets propres au Centre et l'avons incorporé dans notre plan de travail. Dans un souci de synthèse, le rapport annuel de cette année est présenté thème par thème et non par département comme les années précédentes. Le changement climatique a pris le devant de la scène lorsque le prix Nobel de la Paix a été décerné conjointement au Groupe intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat (GIEC) et à Al Gore. Les Journées européennes du développement, qui se sont déroulées à Lisbonne, au Portugal, du 7 au 9 novembre, et auxquelles le CTA a eu le plaisir de prendre part, se sont aussi concentrées sur le changement climatique (voir En vedette). Nous avons également participé, du 5 au 6 juillet, à l'organisation de la Conférence internationale sur les biocarburants, à Bruxelles, en Belgique, où le président brésilien Lula da Silva a laissé entendre que de nombreux autres pays pourraient parvenir, à l'instar du Brésil, à l'autosuffisance énergétique, tout en assurant des revenus et en évitant l'exode rural. Le changement climatique axé sur le développement agricole et rural, ainsi que les questions liées aux biocarburants et à la bioénergie, continueront d'être des thèmes importants pour le CTA.It seems like 2007 only just started and already we are reporting on our activities and progress. This year, CTA closely monitored the escalating debate on climate change, the 'growing' competition between food and bio-fuels and the use of Web 2.0 tools for development. Internally, we focused our efforts on improving efficiency at the Centre, and on securing a muchneeded budget increase. In the midst of all this, we have also been heartened by the return of agriculture to the international stage. We took on this mix of global and Centre-specific topics and incorporated them into our work plan. To help bring them all together, this year's Annual Report is presented thematically rather than departmentally as was the case in previous years.Climate change took centre stage when the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was granted to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) together with Mr Al Gore. The European Union (EU) Development Days in Lisbon, Portugal, on 7-9 November also focused on climate change, and CTA was delighted to participate (see highlight). We were also involved in the organisation of the International Conference on Bio-fuels in Brussels, Belgium, on 5-6 July, at which the Brazilian President Lula da Silva suggested that his country's success in attaining energy self-sufficiency, while providing income and averting rural exodus, may be repeated in many other countries. Climate vi l'amélioration de notre rayonnement, notre visibilité et notre budget. Nous l'avons passée en grande partie à améliorer notre efficacité. Nous avons introduit un nouveau système de gestion du temps pour analyser et nous sensibiliser nousmêmes à la manière dont nous utilisons notre temps et aux activités auxquelles nous le consacrons. Nous avons également lancé un programme de stages, lequel présente des avantages pour les deux parties : il donne la possibilité aux jeunes diplômés universitaires d'acquérir une première expérience professionnelle des défis du développement, tout en améliorant notre capacité de travail et en nous faisant bénéficier de leur enthousiasme et de leur motivation.Nous avons commencé à nous préparer pour l'examen de notre système d'évaluation annuelle du personnel et la restructuration du CTA, qui seront effectués en 2008. Après l'adoption des nouveaux statuts du CTA, nos autorités ont mis en branle les procédures d'établissement d'un nouveau conseil d'administration et nous avons abordé la question des contrats du personnel à la fin de 2007. Le bilan à mi-mandat de mon propre rôle au sein du CTA a montré de nombreux progrès positifs, allant dans le sens de la réalisation des objectifs définis, et a mis en relief les activités prioritaires restantes.Nous nous réjouissons de noter que les institutions ACP-UE qui régissent le CTA ont accepté de nous doter de budgets supplémentaires pour 2007 (1 million d'euros) et pour 2008 (2 millions d'euros) (voir page 63). Cette décision est un indicateur de la crédibilité croissante du CTA et de la confiance de nos parties prenantes dans nos travaux. Ces fonds supplémentaires nous permettront de contribuer davantage à la stimulation de la production agricole, comme le prévoit l'initiative de la Commission européenne « Faire progresser l'agriculture africaine » (ou « Initiative AAA », Advancing African Agriculture), laquelle a été lancée en 2007.Les technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) sont essentielles pour le développement (agricole et rural) et le CTA a un rôle important à jouer au moment d'identifier les outils les plus pertinents pour améliorer les moyens de subsistance de nos groupes cibles dans les zones rurales ACP. Le moment le plus change with a focus on agricultural and rural development, as well as the issues related to bio-fuels and bio-energy, will remain prominent themes for CTA.This was the first year of operation under our Strategic Plan 2007-2010, and hence a busy year geared towards improving our outreach, visibility and budget. This first year was very much dedicated to improving our efficiency. We introduced a time management system to analyse and sensitise ourselves as to how and on which activities we spend our time. We also started an internship programme. This offers mutual benefits: exposing young graduates to their first professional experience of developmental challenges while improving our work capacity and benefiting from their enthusiasm and motivation.We began preparing for the review of our annual staff evaluation system and CTA's restructuring, which will be carried out in 2008. Following CTA's new statutes, our authorities began the procedures for establishing an administrative board, and we addressed the issue of staff contracts at the end of 2007. The midterm review of my own assignment at CTA noted many positive steps in achieving the defined goals and highlighted remaining priority activities.We are happy to note that CTA's ACP-EU governing institutions agreed to provide additional budgets for 2007 (€1 million) and 2008 (€2 million) (see page 63). This is an indicator of CTA's increasing credibility and our stakeholders' trust in our work. These additional funds will enable us to assist in further boosting agricultural production, as intended by the European Commission's initiative Advancing African Agriculture (AAA) which was launched in 2007. marquant de 2007 pour le CTA dans ce domaine a été, sans aucun doute, la conférence Web2forDev que nous avons organisée à Rome, en Italie, du 25 au 27 septembre, en collaboration avec certains de nos principaux partenaires. Elle a été le premier événement de ce type à permettre l'échange d'enseignements sur la manière dont les outils Web 2.0 peuvent améliorer la communication pour le développement, par exemple au travers de wikis, de blogs, de sites de social bookmarking (ou marque-page social Foreword | Avant-propos vii Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are key for (agricultural and rural) development and CTA has an important role to play in identifying the most relevant tools for improving the livelihoods of our target groups in ACP rural areas. CTA's 2007 highlight in this area was undoubtedly the Web2forDev conference, which we organised in Rome, Italy, on 25-27 September in collaboration with some of our main partners. This was the first such event to share lessons on how Web 2.0 tools can improve communication for development, for example through wikis, blogging, social bookmarking, tagging, and Voice over IP (VoiP). Some 350 participants -dedicated professionals in agriculture and ICTs from all over the globe -attended, most of them at their own cost. We will be building on this and further promoting Web 2.0 in 2008. participants from the EU and developing countries, international organisations, civil society, the private sector and the media attended the event.CTA's aims during the 3 days were to learn more about this priority issue; to increase awareness of CTA and its work through a stand in the Development Village; to take the opportunity to build on partnerships with the EC and other organisations present; and to facilitate ACP expert input and perspectives to the discussions.Through its Seminar Support Programme (SSP), CTA funded the attendance of 34 participants and, for the first time, the Centre paid to offset the carbon emissions resulting from their travel (77 tonnes of CO 2 ). These funds will go to environmentally friendly projects through Actioncarbone.Together with some prominent partners CTA organised  Autre temps fort en 2007 : le Prix du sommet mondial 2007 dans la catégorie e-culture décerné au projet « L'utilisation de la cartographie participative en 3 dimensions pour la gestion des ressources naturelles et la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel intangible » (Participatory 3D modelling for resource use, development planning and safeguarding intangible cultural heritage in Fiji) . Ce projet, qui est soutenu par le CTA et mis en oeuvre en collaboration avec plusieurs partenaires, a été considéré comme l'un des meilleurs exemples pratiques de contenu électronique dans le monde.x I have maintained my own blog (http://neun.cta.int/), assisted by some of my colleagues. Writing a blog is actually trickier than I had originally imagined. It is not easy in terms of time and finding the right balance between the personal and institutional. I have been told it should provide an alternative to sometimes quite heavy e-mail traffic. Experience shows that for various reasons e-mail communication remains more popular than blog postings.Another change and very notable accomplishment is CTA's new Annual Report, which you are reading. Following internal consultation, a user survey and analysis of similar reports from peer organisations, we decided on a more thematic approach to report our activities. Like other visitors to the Centre, you may be surprised at the number and diversity of projects run by our relatively small staff.A final observation: in 2007 the World Bank presented the World Development Report 2008, on Agriculture for Development. It is 25 years since the Bank has given such prominence to this theme in its report. Let us see this as a positive sign for the future work of CTA.We thank you for your interest in our work, and look forward with your help to achieving even more in the future.J'ai décidé de tenir mon propre blog (http://neun.cta.int/), avec l'assistance de certains de   ) to host an international workshop to draw up a plan of action for promoting the production and consumption of fruits and vegetables in francophone countries. This was in response to a 2002 report from the World Health Organization (WHO) that identified low fruit and vegetable consumption as a major health risk factor. This finding was corroborated in a series of Food and Nutrition Seminars in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific hosted by CTA.Underutilised crops are not, by definition, realising their full potential either for food and nutrition security or as money earners. In April 2007, CTA supported the First International Symposium on Breadfruit Research and Development, which was held in Nadi, Fiji. Participants from Africa, Australia, the Caribbean, the Seychelles, Sri Lanka and the Pacific islands were able to share information and experiences, and to identify strategies for promoting this tropical food crop.The horticulture sector is another area which could benefit ACP countries. The high-value crops produced, such as ornamentals, spices, fruits and vegetables, provide not only much-needed income and employment, but also important nutrients that are often lacking from the diets of poor rural people.Theme 1:Agricultural production systems, productivity and processing/value adding Innovation in the oil palm industry in Benin. | Innovation dans l'industrie de l'huile de palme au Bénin.For various reasons, however, horticulture has yet to become a major income earner in most developing countries. CTA is supporting the Global Horticulture Initiative (GHI) in its endeavours to change this situation. In June 2007, for example, CTA organised an expert consultation at its offices in The Netherlands (see highlight). Pooling of expert knowledge led to a series of recommendations that should see horticulture boosted in developing countries.Two areas that have been shown to be important for strengthening and diversifying agriculture are microfinance and food processing. Both of these go beyond the more traditional support for farmers in their fields -yet they have major roles to play in the future of farming in ACP countries. During 2007 CTA supported a study visit to Senegal on microfinance in May, and another to Cameroon on food processing in December (see highlight).Growing crops for bio-fuels is increasingly seen as an opportunity for farmers in ACP countries, and CTA is facilitating the dialogue within and across ACP countries to ensure that poor rural producers benefit from any opportunities that may be available.Another approach to boosting agriculture in ACP countries is through support for agricultural research within the region. Researchers in developing countries face many limitations that their counterparts in developed countries do not. CTA has been getting to the heart of some of these problems in 2007, with a series of capacity-building, networking, awareness raising and other practical activities (see highlight).Agricultural and rural development cannot happen in a vacuum. They require an effective policy framework, both national and international. In support of this, CTA links ACP agricultural and rural development stakeholders with national and international policy and decision makers, so that they can learn about the needs, aspirations and concerns of the stakeholders who should inform policy. In 2007 CTA joined forces with a group of partners to present bimonthly briefings to the EU decision-making community in Brussels (see highlight).Many other CTA activities, some described under other themes in this report, also contribute to this first theme, reflecting the importance of agriculture for rural development in ACP countries. Le secteur de l'horticulture est un autre domaine qui pourrait profiter aux pays ACP. Les cultures à forte valeur ajoutée produites, comme les plantes d'ornement, les épices, les fruits et les légumes, fournissent non seulement des revenus et des emplois -indispensables à l'économie -mais aussi des nutriments importants souvent absents des régimes alimentaires des populations rurales pauvres. Pour des raisons diverses, toutefois, l'horticulture doit encore devenir une source importante de revenus dans la plupart des pays en développement. Le CTA soutient les efforts de l'Initiative horticole mondiale (GHI) en vue de faire évoluer cette situation. En juin 2007, par exemple, le CTA a organisé une consultation d'experts dans ses bureaux néerlandais (voir En vedette). La mise en commun de connaissances d'experts a donné lieu à une série de recommandations qui devraient aboutir à la promotion de l'horticulture dans ces pays.Deux domaines se sont dégagés comme étant importants pour le renforcement et la diversification de l'agriculture : le microfinancement et la transformation alimentaire. Ils vont tous deux au-delà du soutien traditionnel apporté aux agriculteurs dans leurs champs -mais ils ont un rôle de premier ordre à jouer dans l'avenir de l'agriculture des pays ACP. En mai 2007, le CTA a soutenu une visite d'étude au Sénégal sur le microfinancement puis une autre en décembre, cette fois au Cameroun, portant sur la transformation alimentaire (voir En vedette).La culture de produits destinés à devenir des biocarburants est de plus en plus considérée comme une possibilité Thème 1 intéressante pour les agriculteurs des pays ACP et le CTA facilite le dialogue au sein des pays ACP et entre eux, afin de veiller à ce que les producteurs ruraux pauvres puissent profiter de toutes les occasions disponibles.Une autre approche pour stimuler l'agriculture dans les pays ACP consiste à soutenir la recherche agricole à l'intérieur de la région. Les chercheurs des pays en développement sont entravés par de nombreuses contraintes auxquelles leurs homologues des pays développés ne sont pas soumis. Le CTA s'est efforcé d'aller au fond de certains de ces problèmes en 2007, à l'aide d'une série d'activités de renforcement des capacités, de travail en réseau, de sensibilisation et d'autres actions pratiques (voir En vedette).Le développement agricole et rural ne peut pas avoir lieu hors de tout contexte. Il requiert un cadre de politiques efficaces, tant au niveau national qu'au niveau international. Le CTA apporte son soutien à la réalisation de cet objectif en cherchant à relier les parties prenantes de la région ACP dans les secteurs de l'agriculture et du développement rural et les entités qui prennent les décisions et formulent les politiques à l'échelle nationale et internationale, pour leur permettre d'en apprendre davantage sur les besoins, les aspirations et les préoccupations des acteurs qui devraient influer sur les politiques générales. En 2007, le CTA et un groupe de partenaires ont uni leurs efforts pour présenter des briefings bimestriels à la communauté des décideurs de l'UE à Bruxelles (voir En vedette).Le CTA mène de nombreuses autres activités, dont certaines sont décrites dans le cadre d'autres thèmes de ce rapport, qui contribuent également à ce premier thème, ce qui reflète l'importance de l'agriculture pour le développement rural dans les pays ACP.Horticulture has great potential benefits for smallholder farmers in ACP countries -most importantly, it can give high financial returns from relatively small areas of land, provide much-needed employment, and contribute to better nutrition for farmers, their families and communities. But for various reasons it has yet to take off on a significant scale. A group of experts gathered at CTA's offices in Wageningen, The Netherlands, in June to identify the main constraints and to put forward ideas to overcome them. The 35 participants, from public, private, non-governmental, civic and international organisations, brought a broad range of perspectives to the table. Their deliberations were fed back to the GHI -an international initiative that aims to develop horticultural systems in the world's poorest countriesto help formulate priorities for future activities.One of the main problems identified by the experts was a general lack of informationL'expansion de l'horticulture dans les pays ACP L'horticulture présente des avantages potentiels significatifs pour les petits agriculteurs des pays ACP et, chose plus importante encore, elle peut générer des bénéfices financiers considérables à partir de surfaces de terre relativement petites, fournir des emplois et contribuer à améliorer la nutrition des agriculteurs et de leurs familles et communautés respectives. Or, pour différentes raisons, elle n'a pas encore pris son essor à une échelle significative. Un groupe d'experts s'est réuni en juin dans les bureaux du CTA à Wageningen, aux Pays-Bas, pour identifier les principales contraintes et proposer des idées afin de les surmonter. Les 35 participants, issus d'organisations publiques, privées, non gouvernementales, civiques et internationales, ont apporté une large gamme de points de vue concernant ce problème. Leurs délibérations ont été relayées par l'Initiative horticole mondiale (GHI) -une initiative internationale qui vise à développer les systèmes horticoles dans les pays les plus pauvres du monde -afin de contribuer à formuler les priorités pour les activités futures.Production and marketing information are essential to farmers if horticulture is to become more successful in developing countries. | Les informations sur la production et la commercialisation sont essentielles pour les agriculteurs si l'on veut que l'horticulture donne de meilleurs résultats dans les pays en développement.Theme 1: Agricultural production systems, productivity and processing/value adding | Thème 1 : Systèmes de production agricole, productivité et transformation/valeur ajoutée 5 available to farmers, who need not only technical information on how to grow the crops, but also information to help them understand the markets for their products, whether local, regional or global. They have to know which products consumers want, in what quantities, and the quality that is demanded. They also require information on standards and certification schemes and in addition, they need to learn about post-harvest processing.A key recommendation from the meeting was to provide better information and education for farmers. However, other aspects should be addressed at the same time. For example, unless an appropriate policy environment is in place to foster the growth of the horticultural sector, much of the expended effort will have little or no impact. Trade liberalisation, price reforms and the withdrawal of the state from marketing, for example, are ways by which governments can foster horticulture development in their countries. Governments must also lead the way in providing good infrastructure, which is also vital to the successful development of the sector.Parmi les principaux problèmes identifiés par les experts figurait un manque général d'informations disponibles aux agriculteurs, lesquels ont besoin non seulement d'informations techniques sur la manière de cultiver, mais aussi d'informations qui les aident à comprendre les marchés pour leurs produits, aux niveaux local, régional et mondial. Ils ont besoin de savoir quels produits demandent les consommateurs, en quelles quantités, ainsi que la qualité exigée.  the main articles from the three preceding English-language issues and will be published every 6 months.Rural 21 complements Spore and aims to inform decision makers, managers and development specialists about the interaction between factors -such as natural resources, climate, trade, information and communication technologies, infrastructure, health and education -which exert an influence on rural areas. Rural 21 will serve as a forum for international debate and the exchange of experiences between those working in academic, political, economic and professional fields. The magazine will have three new sections: 'News' to report on current affairs in the development sector; 'International Platform' to stimulate dialogue among readers on major development themes; and 'Scientific World' to announce the latest developments in science and technology in agronomic research. Rural 21 will also advocate issues of relevance to rural populations. The themes for the first three issues will be: The urban-rural bias, Biodiversity, and New challenges for food security.CTA actively contributes to the choice of themes and participates in planning and editorial committees alongside its co-publishing partners. CTA also identifies potential ACP authors for articles, thereby giving priority to ACP experts to make their voices heard from the field. Finally, CTA ensures the distribution of the magazine mainly in ACP countries.compilation des principaux articles figurant dans les trois numéros précédents de la version anglaise. Elle paraîtra tous les six mois et comprendra 68 pages.Complémentaire à Spore, le magazine Rural 21 a pour objectif d'informer les décideurs, les gestionnaires et les spécialistes du développement sur l'interaction de facteurs qui exercent une influence sur les zones rurales tels que les ressources naturelles, le climat, le commerce, les technologies de l'information et de la communication, les infrastructures, la santé et l'éducation. Rural 21 se veut être un forum pour le débat international et l'échange d'expériences entre les milieux universitaires, politiques, économiques et professionnels. Il comprendra trois nouvelles rubriques : « Quoi de neuf », qui reprend l'actualité sur la scène du développement, « Plate-forme internationale », qui vise à encourager le dialogue entre lecteurs autour de grands thèmes du développement, et « Monde scientifique » qui fera part des dernières évolutions en matière de sciences et technologies dans la recherche agronomique. Rural 21 se fera également l'avocat des populations rurales. Les thèmes des trois premiers numéros seront : les disparités entre le milieu rural et le milieu urbain, la biodiversité et les nouveaux défis de la sécurité alimentaire.Le CTA participe aux comités de planification et aux comités éditoriaux aux côtés des autres partenaires de coédition et contribue activement aux choix des thèmes. Il identifie aussi des auteurs potentiels, donnant priorité aux experts ACP afin de faire entendre les voix du terrain. Enfin, il assure la distribution du magazine, principalement dans les pays ACP.  issues: the impact of globalisation on rural livelihoods, the policy context and regional integration, and aid effectiveness and harmonisation amongst donors. In October, Advancing African Agriculture (AAA) examined EC communication on this topic, putting emphasis on the way forward. The third briefing of the year, in December, was on Aid for trade (AfT) and looked at AfT multilateral and EU initiatives and the challenges to making AfT an effective tool for helping ACP countries to be better integrated in the multilateral trading system.These debates are also shared with a wider audience. All recorded sessions and an extensive number of resource documents are made available on the Brussels Briefings Blog (http://brusselsbriefings.net/), where there are also photos and video interviews with the speakers and participants. Visitors can also comment on the various issues raised through the Blog.Theme 2:Environmental protection and natural resource managementOne of CTA's three main development objectives articulated in the Cotonou Agreement in 2000 was 'contributing to preservation of the natural resource base'. This remains an important objective, as reflected in this second theme.In developing the Strategic Plan 2007-2010, internal working groups identified priorities within this broad theme -areas that need urgent support and have the potential to deliver great benefits for poor people in ACP countries. The high-priority areas identified for attention this year were biodiversity, climate change and natural disasters, participatory geographic information systems (PGIS), drought and desertification, and bio-fuels.Loss of biodiversity has obvious negative implications for poor people in ACP countries, who rely on diverse species and ecosystems for such vital needs as food, medicines, fuel, building materials and recreation. Tourism opportunities are also threatened by biodiversity loss. CTA supported a 'Strategic planning workshop on environmental policy, biological diversity and sustainable land management' in Bujumbura in April 2007. The Centre also contributed to the 2 nd Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA) conference in Kenya in September, where participants deliberated on ways to expand sustainable use of Africa's plant heritage. The PROTA programme aims to increase the availability of information on Africa's plant resources by gathering and standardising existing knowledge on approximately 7,000 useful plant species.   Drought and desertification are not new problems, but with global warming, and pressure on land due to population growth, they are affecting ever-increasing numbers of people. Yet some people have developed successful ways to manage their land and agriculture despite these limitations. The EU-funded (and CTAsupported) Agricultural Innovation in Dryland Africa (AIDA) project takes this as its starting point, with a view to building on and expanding these success stories. The project was launched with an international conference in January 2007 (see highlight).Bio-fuels provide renewable energy, along with the potential to help fight global warming, reduce a country's dependence on fossil fuel imports, and contribute to employment and economic growth. But there is evidence of unintended side effects such as competition between bio-fuels and food production, which has resulted in a substantial increase in the price of some commodities such as wheat. CTA is aware of the ongoing debate and aims to provide a balanced picture of both the opportunities and risks offered by bio-fuels.  A CTA-supported PGIS project in Fiji was recognised as a winner in November, when it received a WSA at a gala celebration in Venice, Italy. Judged by an international group of experts, these WSAs honour excellence in multimedia and e-content. But beyond that, they support e-creativity as a 'natural resource', which can be used to improve lives by bridging the 'digital divide' and 'content gap'.The successful project, 'Participatory 3D modelling for resource use, development planning and safeguarding intangible cultural heritage in Fiji', uses PGIS to support community-based biodiversity conservation to ensure food security and sustainable livelihoods. It was recognised within the e-Culture category, which aims to preserve cultural heritage in line with the challenges of the future, and to demonstrate valuable cultural assets clearly and informatively using state-of-the-art technology.How does PGIS work in practice? As part of the project, representatives from all island communities and workshop facilitators convened in Levuka Town on the island of Ovalau. They pooled their knowledge to develop a scaled 3D model of their island and surrounding waters. This was then used in the development (and later adoption and implementation) of community-based plans aimed at sustainably managing the natural resources and cultural heritage of the island and islanders. But more importantly, it provided a way of adding value and authority to the spatial knowledge of the people of Ovalau.The project is jointly implemented by the Fiji Locally-Managed Marine Area (FLMMA) Network, the WWF South Pacific Programme, the Native Lands Trust Board, the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, the National Trust of Fiji, the Lomaiviti Provincial Council and CTA. Un Prix du sommet mondial pour les SIGPPeople living in dryland Africa are resilient and resourceful -but how exactly do they overcome their climate-related difficulties to manage their land for agricultural production? What are the drivers of their success? These were the central questions behind the EU-funded AIDA project, launched with an international conference in January in Accra, Ghana, of which CTA is one of the eight project partners.More than 40 participants attended the conference, from farmer organisations, NGOs, national and international research and development organisations, donors and capacity-building organisations. Eleven 'success stories' were presented, illustrating innovation in practice.  Cependant, la couverture médiatique des questions agricoles est en général réduite dans les pays ACP, en partie parce que les médias -et en particulier les journaux et la télévision -n'ont qu'un accès limité aux sources d'informations agricoles en général, ne donnent pas la priorité aux questions agricoles, exigent même dans certains cas d'être payés pour couvrir l'agriculture en dehors des situations d'« urgence » et ne disposent pas des connaissances techniques spécialisées nécessaires pour traiter et diffuser les informations agricoles. C'est pourquoi le CTA cherche à sensibiliser les médias et les journalistes à l'importance de l'agriculture pour le développement. C'est dans ce contexte qu'en 2007 le CTA a lancé un système informel de formation destiné aux journalistes, basé sur « l'apprentissage par l'expérience ». Il consistait en des visites d'étude axées sur une variété de sujets techniques comme le microfinancement ou la préservation des fruits et légumes. Les journalistes participants étaient invités à relater les événements de chaque journée dans un style journalistique vivant.Le CTA a également invité les médias à participer à la conférence Web2forDev (voir page 51). Cette invitation a suscité une réponse gigantesque mais, au final, ce sont cinq journalistes qui ont été sélectionnés, originaires du Bénin, du Burkina Faso, de la Zambie, du Sénégal et du Togo (les deux derniers grâce au soutien de l'Institut Panos Afrique de l'Ouest). L'équipe multimédia a assuré et diffusé la couverture des différentes sessions tout au long des 4 jours de la conférence, donnant ainsi à ceux qui n'avaient pas pu y participer l'occasion de suivre les débats « en direct ».However, media coverage of agricultural issues is generally low in ACP countries, partly because the media -and especially newspapers and television -have only limited access to agricultural information sources generally; do not give agricultural topics priority; in some cases, even request payment to cover agriculture outside of 'emergency' situations; and lack the expertise needed to process and disseminate agricultural information. Therefore, CTA is working to create awareness among media and journalists regarding the importance of agriculture for development. In this regard, in 2007, the Centre instigated an informal training system for journalists, based on 'learning by experience'. This involved study visits on a range of technical subjects, such as microfinance and the preservation of fruits and vegetables. The participating journalists were invited to recount the events of each day in a lively, journalistic style.CTA also invited media participation in the Web2forDev conference (see page 51). There was a huge response to the invitation, but eventually five journalists were selected, from Benin, Burkina Faso, Zambia, Senegal and Togo (the two latter thanks to support from the Panos Institute West Africa). The multimedia team shared coverage of the different sessions throughout the 4 days of the conference, providing those who had not been able to attend with the opportunity to follow the debates 'live'.Theme 3:The significant role agriculture plays in food security, job creation, export revenue and rural development has always been a sensitive point in trade negotiations, and a critical one in the development strategies and policies of ACP countries. The effects of the liberalisation of trade on agricultural produce, in relation to the issues surrounding regional integration as a driving force for economic development, are a major concern for ACP policy makers. In this context, the issues surrounding agricultural trade in general and access to markets in particular are of special interest to CTA.With regard to these issues, 2007 proved to be an especially difficult year in view of the final round of negotiations of the Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) between the EU and the six ACP regions.How does one decide which sensitive product should be excluded from trade liberalisation? What are the other protection methods available, such as tariff quotas, safeguard mechanisms, and so on? CTA has participated, followed and documented the continuing debate on this topic throughout the ACP region. The Centre has also convened many meetings on the subject. CTA has also given priority to the development dimension of an EPA during talks between ACP countries, as well as with the EC and EU Member States. To shed further light on these questions and to help develop a regional strategy for West Africa, CTA, in conjunction with Hub Rural, the French Development Agency The agricultural negotiations and their social and economic impacts were also debated during a regional workshop in the Caribbean, organised by the Caribbean Farmers Network (CaFAN) with support from CTA.The issue of AfT in the agricultural sector, in relation to the EPA negotiations, was the subject of a Brussels Development Briefing (see page 13).CTA was also involved with national and regional agricultural trade initiatives on a number of occasions during 2007. In particular, CTA continued to assist the regional observatories on agricultural commodity chains, set up by the Conference of Ministers of Agriculture/West and Central Africa (CMA/WCA) (see highlight). In this context, the Regional Observatory for Livestock/Meat, which was set up in Bamako in August 2007, joined the Regional Fruit and Vegetable Observatory based in Conakry, the Regional Onion Observatory based in Niamey and the Regional Observatory for Roots and Tubers based in Bangui. The Observatories provide platforms for open dialogue between the various players in the agricultural sector, and play a fundamental role in disseminating information and developing proposals on regional trade policies and markets (standards, legislation, etc.) which in the past were rarely shared.Enhancing these experiences in marketing farm produce at local, national and regional levels is a key project on which CTA has, since 2003, been working in sub-Saharan Africa in association with Inter-réseaux développement rural.As a follow-up to 3 years of national-level consultations in Benin, Cameroon,Guinea and Mali, CTA held a regional workshop on sharing experiences in January 2007 in Bamako, Mali (see highlight). This provided a platform for sharing many types of local marketing initiatives and for considering the best exchange and dissemination media (articles, audio, video, web).The ability of small-scale producers to access markets is a persistent issue of CTA's work. CTA is committed to helping the various public and private players in the main production industries to make decisions, as demonstrated by the support it provides to the various market information systems in Benin (Union départementale des organisations professionnelles d'éleveurs de ruminants, UDOPER), Côte d'Ivoire (Association nationale des organisations professionnelles agricoles de Côte d'Ivoire, ANOPACI), Kenya (Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange, KACE) and Niger (Réseau des chambres d'agriculture, RECA), as well as the assistance it provides to the West African Market Information Network (WAMIS-NET/RESIMAO).At the same time, CTA has a part to play in the deliberations on sanitary and phytosanitary standards, which constitute a major non-tariff barrier to accessing Europe's markets. This is now of paramount concern as EC legislation and rules are being increasingly overlaid by private standards and norms (e.g. EurepGap). In 2007, various guides supplementing the 2006 manuals were published jointly with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on standards and the certification of agrifood produce for export. In addition, product standards and traceability in the fisheries sector have been the subject of numerous D-Group e-forum discussions set up by CTA and Euforic (http://www.dgroups.org/groups/acp-fisheries/).Agricultural trade remains one of CTA's priorities, at a time when the international community once again acknowledges the urgency of finding solutions to the erosion of long-standing trade preferences granted to ACP Member States, to the proliferation of non-tariff barriers, to the instability in commodity prices and to the dramatic effects on small-scale producers of the concentration processes occurring in the agrifood sector.The newly established Regional Observatory for Livestock/Meat will help traders and other actors in the commodity chain. | L'Observatoire régional pour le bétail/la viande, récemment établi, aidera les négociants et les autres acteurs de la filière.Thème 3 :Le rôle important de l'agriculture en matière de sécurité alimentaire, de création d'emplois, de recettes d'exportations et de développement rural a toujours été un élément sensible dans les négociations sur la libéralisation des échanges et un aspect crucial des stratégies et politiques de développement des pays ACP. Les effets de la libéralisation des échanges de produits agricoles, par rapport à la problématique de l'intégration régionale comme moteur du développement économique, occupent une place majeure à l'ordre du jour des décideurs politiques ACP. Dans ce contexte, la problématique du commerce agricole en général et de l'accès au marché en particulier revêt un intérêt particulier pour le CTA.Sur toutes ces questions, l'année 2007 s'est avérée particulièrement difficile au vu de la dernière phase des négociations des Accords de partenariat économique (APE) entre l'UE et les six régions ACP.Comment déterminer les produits sensibles à exclure de la libéralisation des échanges ? Quels sont les autres outils de protection, comme les contingents tarifaires, les mécanismes de sauvegarde, et ainsi de suite ? Le CTA a participé, suivi et documenté les débats qui se poursuivent sur ce thème dans toute la région ACP. Le Centre a par ailleurs convoqué de nombreuses réunions sur ce sujet. En conclusion, le commerce des produits agricoles continue de figurer parmi les priorités du CTA, au moment même où la communauté internationale reconnaît à nouveau l'importance de trouver des solutions urgentes à l'érosion des préférences commerciales de longue date accordées aux pays ACP, à la prolifération des barrières non tarifaires, à l'instabilité des prix des denrées et aux effets spectaculaires sur les petits producteurs des processus de concentration observés dans le secteur agroalimentaire. Agricultural commodity chains in West and Central Africa face many constraints, which ultimately limit access of products to regional and global markets. If, through concerted action, these constraints can be identified and tackled, the many actors along the chains stand to benefit. This is the rationale behind the establishment of regional observatories on commodity chains in West and Central Africa, initiated by the CMA/WCA. CTA has provided support to the development of observatories on onion, roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables and livestock/meat. In practice the observatories are multi-stakeholder forums where information, knowledge, experience and views can be pooled and shared and proposals developed on issues requiring regional responses.Still in relatively early stages, the process and tools to facilitate stakeholder interaction are currently being developed, but the first steps are encouraging.The observatories look at problems due to trade policy and institutional environment, as well as limitations of research, production, processing, transport and marketing affecting regional trade. As well as more 'traditional' stakeholders (such as researchers and decision makers), invited members include less obvious but highly relevant groups such as Customs and road police. Media professionals have also been identified as a crucial group, with the potential to contribute significantly to improved awareness of the problems, to influence decisions, and ultimately to improve public policies. More than 60 participants, representing Farmers Associations and NGOs from 12 different African countries attended CTA's regional workshop on 'Enhancing the experiences of Farmers' Associations' in Bamako, Mali. The workshop was held 16-18 January in association with Inter-réseaux développement rural (France), Agriculteurs français et développement international (Afdi, France), Agriterra (The Netherlands), Fondation pour l'agriculture et la ruralité dans le monde (FARM, France) and Afrique Verte (Mali). It provided an ideal platform for sharing experiences in marketing and discussing the information and communication tools needed to maximise the effectiveness of these initiatives in their respective countries. The experiences shared covered a wide range of subjects including the management and organisation of local markets, controlling local marketing, market information systems and inventory credit systems.For more information visit http:// www.inter-reseaux.org/article. php3?id_article=1078.Valoriser les initiatives des associations paysannes africaines en matière de commerce agricole Theme 4:Cross-cutting issues 35 Cross-cutting issues -issues that are relevant across all of CTA's main themes -are paid special attention at CTA. These are issues that have sometimes been overlooked in the past, as seemingly incidental, but over time it has become clear that efforts in the main themes may fail if these are ignored. The main cross-cutting issues CTA deals with are: youth; gender; Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS); science, technology and innovation (ST&I); and information and communication technologies and management (ICT/ICM). This latter is dealt with as a separate theme (pages 45-56) because of its major importance and focus within CTA's work.Why single out young people for special attention? In any society, they are a route to the future. Compared with older generations, they are usually eager to embrace new ideas and new ways of doing things. They are therefore a key group in bringing about change.Providing young people in rural areas with access to ICTs, and the skills to use them is a step towards improved rural livelihoods. Many initiatives are currently in progress aimed at providing better connectivity to rural areas, but few if any, look specifically at the needs of young people.In 2004, CTA commissioned a study on rural youth in ACP countries and organised its ICT observatory on 'Giving youth a voice', which looked at if and how ICTs can help in shaping rural livelihoods. This meeting led to the formulation of a policy statement on youth empowerment, which was presented to ACP ambassadors in Brussels.CTA aims to build the capacity of rural youth by actively including them in workshops, seminars, training courses, study visits and in the ST&I programme. For this reason, the Centre supported the 3 rd meeting of the African Youth Forum on Science and Technology (S&T) in Uganda. Realising the willingness of youth overall to contribute to development, CTA launched an internship programme at its headquarters and its Brussels Office (see page 69).en milieu rural peuvent être améliorés.In many ACP countries, economic, social, cultural and other factors cause gender inequalities in terms of education, access to money, decision-making power, political representation and use of ICTs. Given the important role of women in agriculture and rural development in ACP countries, these inequalities must be addressed if rural development efforts are to be successful.CTA is working on mainstreaming gender into all of its projects. It looks at gender in the broad sense, considering the implications for both women and men of any planned action. The aim is to have equal access for both women and men to all CTA products and services.Beyond its own activities, CTA also supports broader efforts to ensure gender equality for rural development. In April 2007, the 4 th World Congress of Rural Women held in South Africa was an excellent opportunity for CTA to promote the importance of empowering rural women to break the cycle of poverty (see highlight). CTA also participated in the launch of the third phase of Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development in the Information Society (GenARDIS), the grant scheme which facilitates women to undertake ICT projects. At the FARA General Assembly in South Africa the ST&I programme also launched the 'Women in Science' Competition, aimed at encouraging women scientists in the area of agriculture and rural development.Other examples of CTA's gender work, which go to the heart of the politics behind inequality, are described in the highlight on page 42.HIV/AIDS is a global catastrophe affecting every sector of society, but agriculture in developing countries has been particularly hard hit. It is estimated that as many as 7 million agricultural workers have died of AIDS worldwide and 16 million more deaths are expected by 2020. 1 Many more are debilitated and prevented from working by HIV-related illnesses. The pandemic is not only depleting the ACP region of its food producers, but is also causing substantial loss of valuable information and knowledge, as generations of farmers are lost.Le CTA cherche à intégrer le genre dans tous ses projets.In 2007, CTA undertook a number of HIV/AIDS-related activities to address the issues of agricultural knowledge loss and interrupted knowledge transfer, and facilitate the dissemination of information on successful coping strategies and mitigation measures. These included: a Southern African regional policy dialogue examining the policy response of the agricultural sector to HIV/AIDS using the Household Vulnerability Index (HVI) organised in collaboration with the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resource Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN; see highlight); sponsoring a regional conference on mitigating the impact of HIV/AIDS in West Africa (see highlight); and various publications, developed with relevant partners.Science and technology, and the innovations they lead to, have enormous roles to play in social and economic development in ACP countries, and especially in the development of the agricultural and rural sector. CTA contributes by promoting policy dialogue on ST&I within the ACP region, and between the ACP and the EU by enhancing their capacity to participate in and lead the process. It also disseminates information on ST&I through its dedicated web portal Knowledge for Development, http://knowledge.cta.int/; contributes to ACP capacity-building in ST&I; and interprets scientific publications and other communications so that they can reach wider audiences, for example, rural populations.In 2007, CTA held regional workshops on 'Innovation and Foresight' and bi-lateral ACP-EU expert dialogues on fisheries, livestock and bio-fuels.    Soutien au Congrès mondial des femmes rurales L'investissement dans les femmes rurales est l'une des clés de la réduction de la pauvreté. Or, dans de nombreux pays en développement, les femmes continuent à se heurter à de grandes difficultés pour obtenir l'accès aux ressources comme la terre, l'eau et les prêts et pénétrer dans un marché de plus en plus mondialisé. Tel a été le message principal qui est ressorti du 4 ème Congrès mondial des femmes rurales, qui s'est déroulé à Durban, en Afrique du Sud, du 19 au 25 avril 2007.Cette réunion a également souligné le faible accès des femmes aux informations sur les marchés, à la transformation et à la valeur ajoutée pour leurs produits agricoles, informations qui les aideraient à obtenir de meilleurs prix. La nécessité urgente se fait sentir d'établir un réseau robuste de femmes rurales pour leur permettre de mener des travaux de plaidoyer, afin d'influencer un changement de politiques qui donnerait la priorité aux femmes au niveau de l'éducation, du partage des informations, de l'accès au crédit et aux marchés.Investing in rural women is one of the keys to alleviating poverty. Yet in many developing countries, women continue to have major difficulties in gaining access to resources such as land, water and loans, and in penetrating the increasingly globalised marketplace. That was the main message to emerge from the 4 th World Congress of Rural Women, held in Durban, South Africa, from 19 to 25 April 2007.The meeting also noted women's poor access to information on markets, processing and value addition for their produce, which would enable them to command better prices. There is an urgent need for a strong network of rural women to carry out advocacy to influence a shift in policies that prioritise women in education, information sharing, access to credit and markets.Land Use Management (PELUM) Association, a network of 160 civil society organisations in East, Central and Southern Africa, which is working towards sustainable agriculture, food security, and community development. PELUM's message to the congress was that the future of organic farming and sustainable agriculture lies with smallholder farmers, especially women who have for centuries developed the art of seed multiplication and saving for future seasons. Farmers brought in traditional seeds (maize, cassava, millet and sorghum) for display on the PELUM/CTA stand.One woman, Grace Malikebu from Malawi, summed up her experience at the meeting: \"I am a simple farmer. Without PELUM's and CTA's support, it would never even have occurred to me to participate in such a stimulating meeting. During the meeting I have heard and learned a great deal. I will return to my country full of ideas that will help me to improve my conditions.\" The politics of gender CTA aims for gender equality across its work, and also supports efforts to promote gender equality more broadly as a vital element of rural development. Recognising that more often than not, women are the victims of discrimination, CTA actively contributes to projects that empower women.In the Pacific, despite the fact that women are both potentially significant users of energy and also suppliers (of bio-energy), current energy policies and development projects have a weak gender dimension, and women are poorly represented in policy and planning processes. A situation that must change, according to the Pacific Gender and Energy Network (PEG), which CTA supported in 2007. PEG aims to raise awareness of gender-energy-poverty links in the Pacific region; to incorporate the gender dimension into national and regional energy policy processes; and to enhance the capacity of gender and community groups to influence policy on energy. Access to finance is another area where rural women are often at a disadvantage. Yet there are good examples of instances where providing finance for women's initiatives has led to great development benefits. In an effort to expand such microfinancing for African women, CTA supported a study visit in May to Senegal for women who work in financial institutions (see also La nécessité de mettre en cause les aspects politiques de l'inégalité entre les sexes, par les moyens ci-dessus, entre autres, constitue une conviction centrale du CTA dans ses efforts en vue de surmonter l'obstacle au développement qu'est l'inégalité entre les sexes.page 7). Participants visited various women's initiatives and learned that women are very reliable in repayment commitments. Understanding the promise of extending microfinance to women, as well as how to do it on a practical level, should lead to financial institutions increasing their services for women.The need to challenge the politics of gender inequality in these and other ways is a core belief of CTA in its efforts to overcome the development hurdle that gender inequality poses.Tackling HIV/AIDS through information sharing and dialogueAfrica is struggling under the burden of HIV/AIDS perhaps more than any other continent, and in 2007 CTA targeted much of its HIV/AIDS-related work there. The HVI, developed and tested by CTA's long-term partner FANRPAN, aims to identify households that are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of HIV/AIDS, so that interventions and assistance may be best targeted. At a meeting in Zambia in September, CTA contributed to a policy dialogue on the HVI and agriculture amongst 170 representatives of various stakeholder groups from 12 Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) countries. The meeting endorsed the HVI and recommended its expansion and use across Southern Africa. The meeting also benefited from the research findings of a project supported by the EU and the UK's Department for International Development (DFID), published through FANRPAN in a book titled Silent hunger. Policy options for effective responses on the impact of HIV/AIDS on agriculture and food security in the SADC region.A month later, more than 100 participants gathered in Benin at a conference titled 'From research to action: mitigating the impacts of HIV/ AIDS on agriculture and food security in West Africa' to share information, strengthen partnerships and look for ways to address the food and nutrition needs of people and communities affected by HIV/AIDS.Participants concluded that decentralised, participatory approaches are most likely to be successful. They also agreed on the need for a monitoring and evaluation system for HIV/AIDS agriculture projects in the region; the need to document information and practices relating to crops, livestock, farming practices and coping strategies; and the need to integrate HIV/AIDS into agricultural planning.HIV/AIDS and its effects on rural communities in ACP countries are an extremely complex issue. CTA's efforts to promote sharing of information and dialogue will, it is hoped, help reveal some promising ways forward that could lead to more secure lives for those affected. Theme 5:Information and communication management 45The growth in telecommunications is taking the world by storm. By mid-2007, worldwide there were as many as 3 billion mobile phone subscribers and by the end of 2006, there were 1.2 billion internet users -but only 30% of these users are located in the lowincome countries that CTA is mandated to serve. 2While there are those who claim to see a decrease in the digital divide, there are also those who speak of digital exclusion, and of the uneven uptake of new technologies among countries. The statistics speak for themselves. Over 50% of internet users are based in high-income countries, with just 10% based in low-income countries; the ratio of fixed line users in high-to low-income countries is roughly 1:8 and the most telling figure of all, is the number of broadband users, from 60% in high-income countries to 1.1% in low-income countries.The situation within ACP is improving, but slowly. In the run up to the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), one theme frequently dominated the discussions, namely the digital divide: the yawning gap between those who have access to modern ICTs (mainly in the developed North) and those who have little or no access (mainly in the developing South). This is quite a challenge for CTA, given that its mandate as defined in the Strategic Plan 2007-2010, is to respond to the information needs of its ACP partners and to strengthen their capacities in information and communication management (ICM). How can CTA effectively mainstream ICTs into its programmes and at the same time bridge the digital divide? A large part of the answer is found in the approaches to ICM and the strategic choices made in the adoption of ICTs -frequently in combination with more traditional approaches such as print media and face-to-face meetings.CTA defines ICM as a 'multidisciplinary concept or practice spanning three main disciplines -information technology, communication, and information management -aimed at improving the use of information in the organisation and the society at large'. ICTs, on the other hand, refer to 'technologies thatLes technologies alternatives permettent de relier les communautés rurales.facilitate communication and the processing and transmission of information by electronic means' e.g. mobile phones, internet and radios. While the bulk of CTA's work falls under the general heading of ICM, the stakeholders are many and varied in their needs and capacities, so the choices of ICT tools and approaches can differ widely.The cornerstone of CTA's work lies in its publications programme. To help its partners and beneficiaries better understand these tools and approaches, CTA publications such as ICT Update and Spore, focus attention on ICT and ICM, and they both gave special emphasis to Web 2.0 applications in 2007. CTA's events also aim to promote awareness of emerging ICT and ICM issues among its partners and beneficiaries. The Web2forDev Conference in Rome (see highlight) provided a real testing ground for CTA and its partners, by exposing development practitioners from ACP and the world over to a variety of lowcost, adaptable and interactive ICT tools and applications that are accessible to the majority of people.In its other programmes, CTA continues to use and evaluate appropriate ICT applications. The use of these tools enables staff at the Centre to significantly reduce the number of face-to-face meetings, save on communication costs and gather information by way of on-line surveys and e-fora. Practical examples of CTA's work in 2007 included the makeover for the flagship publication Spore and the development of an interactive web portal in keeping with the magazine's new look. Using optical character recognition (OCR) software, the Publication Distribution Service (PDS) updated its subscriber data and entered the digitised data into a new information system developed by CTA. Yet other examples of how CTA increasingly uses ICTs are such electronic analytical tools as 'survey monkey' and e-fora to give target groups a voice for the betterment of project planning and monitoring.To improve the production of relevant content, CTA supported its partners in developing or consolidating their website presence. Good illustrations are the official website of the Conference of Ministers of Agriculture/West A scene from a CTA workshop on using digital satellite receivers in Senegal. | Une scène d'un atelier du CTA sur l'utilisation de récepteurs satellite numériques au Sénégal.and Central Africa (CMA/WCA; www.cmaoc.org) that presents the agricultural trade and policies of WCA countries and the Farmer Field Schools (FFS) web site (http://farmerfieldschool.info) that highlights local development practices.To reach isolated rural areas, creative solutions and alternative technologies often need to be used. To this end, CTA has strengthened its collaboration with First Voice International (FVI) on the use of very small aperture two-way satellite terminals (VSAT) to share information in rural ACP areas. It is also looking more and more to using short messaging service (SMS) (www.resimao. org) and radio in several of its partner programmes, such as the Hello Engineer programme which links farmers in the field with professional agricultural experts via a simple telephone call. In addition, CTA continues to distribute its audio and video products, including the production and dissemination of its Rural Radio Resource packs -thematic, multimedia information kits that rural broadcasters can use as a base for programmes for their own communities -to fill the information gap in rural areas.While the Centre continues to promote the use of new ICTs, it will still use 'traditional' media (such as print publications). CTA has started to publish in local languages in some rural areas where French and/or English are not necessarily understood. Rural radio and mobile phones allow information sharing amongst illiterate people and those who are not yet or not constantly connected to internet-based information services.CTA will persist with its efforts to facilitate ACP stakeholders' access to information. To this end, CTA has adopted, SIST, an online information system developed by the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD) to facilitate access to, produce and communicate scientific and technical information. During the first phase of this collaboration, CTA made its online resources accessible through SIST's federated search engine. Similarly, the two institutions have launched a collaborative project which aims to support CTA's QAS. An initial web platform has been developed in collaboration with QAS partners in Southern Africa. (http://sistv3-demo.cirad. fr/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=29). This platform will be finalised in 2008 and will be able to provide all CTA ACP partners with access to relevant resources.To enable CTA to further boost the implementation of ICTs, CTA plays an advocacy role at the policy decision-maker level, thus raising awareness of the importance of improving ICT infrastructure. La situation dans les pays ACP s'améliore, certes, mais lentement. Dans la foulée du Sommet mondial sur la société de l'information (SMSI), un thème a souvent dominé les discussions : la fracture numérique ou le fossé béant entre ceux qui ont accès aux technologies modernes de l'information et de la communication (TIC) -principalement dans les pays développés du Nord -et ceux qui n'y ont pas ou guère accès -principalement dans les pays du Sud en développement.C'est là un véritable défi pour le CTA, étant donné que son mandat, tel que défini dans son Plan stratégique 2007-2010, est de répondre aux besoins en information de ses partenaires ACP et de renforcer leurs capacités en gestion de l'information et de la communication (GIC). Comment le CTA peut-il intégrer efficacement les TIC dans ses programmes et réduire en même temps la fracture numérique ? Une bonne partie de la réponse réside dans ses approches de la GIC et ses choix stratégiques dans l'adoption des TIC, souvent combinés à des moyens plus traditionnels comme les supports imprimés et les rencontres présentielles.Le CTA définit la GIC comme « un concept ou une pratique multidisciplinaire comprenant trois disciplines principales -les technologies, la communication et la gestion de l'information -qui a pour objectif d'améliorer l'utilisation de l'information au sein de l'organisation ou de la société en général ». Les TIC désignent, quant à elles, les « technologies qui facilitent la communication et le processus de transmission de l'information par des moyens électroniques », comme les téléphones portables, Internet et la radio. Alors que la majorité des activités du CTA tombe sous la dénomination « GIC », les parties prenantes sont nombreuses et très différentes en termes de besoins et de capacités, si bien que le choix des outils et des approches TIC peut varier considérablement.   Collaborative space at the Web2forDev Conference. | Espace collaboratif lors de la conférence Web2forDev.Presque 300 personnes venues de tous les continents ont assisté à cette conférence pour présenter un riche échantillon d'outils et de mashups Web 2.0 mis en oeuvre dans le contexte du développement. Parmi eux figuraient des technologies mobiles au service des agriculteurs, des réseaux sociaux pour l'activisme et le plaidoyer, l'utilisation de blogs et de wikis dans des contextes agricoles et ruraux, des mashups et du tagging pour le développement, ainsi que des applications Web 2.0 pour les agriculteurs analphabètes d'Inde. Plus de 50 exposés ont illustré la manière dont les outils Web 2.0 sont d'ores et déjà utilisés par des organisations de toutes tailles, aussi bien dans certaines des plus grandes villes du monde que dans certains des villages ruraux les plus isolés.Un certain nombre d'espaces collaboratifs en ligne ont été mis en place avant l'événement afin de mobiliser les personnes ayant des intérêts communs. La conférence ellemême s'est accompagnée de deux groupes de discussion électronique, d'un site Web, d'un blog, d'un wiki et d'autres espaces permettant l'interaction en ligne. Cette conférence a été précédée d'un « avant-goût » du Web 2.0 lors duquel les participants sans grande expérience ont pu observer des outils Web 2.0 à l'oeuvre.Le fait de pouvoir se connecter et échanger des informations via Internet ouvre de nombreuses possibilités nouvelles, en particulier pour les petites ONG. Celles-ci peuvent désormais établir des liens entre elles sur des sites de réseaux sociaux comme Facebook. Elles peuvent trouver des documents utiles et pertinents plus facilement sur des sites de social bookmarking (ou marque-page social) et collaborer afin de développer leurs propres supports d'information en utilisant des wikis et d'autres applications de partage de fichiers. Les manuels de formation peuvent être actualisés continuellement et de manière économique sans obligation de procéder à des réimpressions onéreuses. On peut accéder à des photographies, des vidéos et des fichiers audio et les partager (bien que ceci puisse être difficile sans connexion haut débit).L'accès reste la principale contrainte, non seulement pour les technologies Web 2.0 mais aussi pour Internet en général. De nombreuses organisations ne se laissent pas pour autant décourager par cet immense défi et travaillent d'arrache-pied pour permettre aux communautés rurales d'accéder à Internet et aux applications Web 2.0. rural, agricultural settings; mash-ups and tagging for development; and Web 2.0 applications for illiterate farmers in India. More than 50 presentations demonstrated how Web 2.0 tools are already being used by organisations large and small in some of the world's biggest cities and some of the most remote rural villages.A number of online collaborative spaces were put in place ahead of the event to mobilise people sharing common interests. The event itself was accompanied by two electronic discussion groups, a website, a blog, a wiki and other spaces for online interaction. The conference was preceded by a 'Web 2.0 Taster' where less-experienced participants were offered hands-on exposure to Web 2.0 tools.The ability to connect and exchange information via the internet offers many new opportunities, especially for small NGOs. They can now link up with each other on social networking sites such as Facebook. They can find useful, relevant documents more easily on social bookmarking sites, and can work together to develop their own information materials using wikis and other file-sharing applications. Training manuals can be updated continually and cost effectively without having to make costly reprints. Photographs, videos and audio files can be accessed and shared (although this might be difficult without access to a broadband connection).Access remains the main limitation, not only to Web 2.0 technologies, but to the internet in general. Yet many organisations remain undeterred by this immense challenge and are working hard to bring the internet, and Web 2.0 applications, to rural communities. As more and more agricultural information is available in digital formats, there is a need to ensure coherence between systems, so that users are able to access it easily. CTA is actively involved in an initiative, established in 2005, aimed at developing such coherence in international information systems for agricultural science and technology (IISAST). Driven by FAO, this initiative involves all the major actors in agricultural research and development at regional and international levels.Within the partnership, task forces have been set up to address advocacy, capacity-building and content management.  As a pilot project, to pave the way for implementation of the module, CTA looked at ways to improve the effectiveness of electronic networking. These included evaluating institutions' readiness to network; identifying which activities lend themselves to the electronic communication environment; evaluating existing systems; and deciding whether a new network was needed. Following this, an initial group of participants was drawn from regional agricultural policy networks from Eastern and Southern Africa and the Caribbean. An on-line training course was designed for this group using the IMARK module as reference material. Participants were guided through on-line chats, self-study and individual practical assignments. A mid-term evaluation of the course was very positive: participants found the IMARK module a useful theoretical base.The course was also useful in helping CTA to define the conditions that can ensure active participation. For example, an institutional commitment is important, so that participants give the course high priority in their work schedule, and can work towards clear final products as agreed with the nominating institution.For more information on IMARK's partnerships and the Steering Group, visit http://www.imarkgroup.org/aboutimarkintro_en.asp#partners.  One thread that runs throughout this report is that of the value of partnerships as the linchpin of CTA's work. It is through local, national and regional partner organisations that we can reach our target group (and vice versa), and fulfil our mission. Strategic partners are viewed as change agents -they can contribute to significant and lasting changes in the policy, research and practice of ACP agriculture. CTA works continually to strengthen the performance of its partners and the links with them, looking as well to generate new alliances with relevant groups. CTA's partner network is growing steadily as a result of its success, which leads to even more demand from its partners.A key lesson learned over years of close collaboration with ACP organisations, especially at local and national levels, is that their performance is often compromised by weak management capacities, mainly in relation to the key aspects of project cycle management (PCM): situation analysis (including needs assessment), planning, monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment. CTA therefore works specifically to strengthen partners' capabilities at these various stages, providing technical and financial support through studies, training, expert consultations and publications. As a learning organisation, CTA itself draws heavily on the experiences and lessons learned from these activities.Sound project management practices allow organisations to adhere to the principles of public sector governance, namely accountability, transparency/ openness, integrity, efficiency and effectiveness. This vastly increases their credibility, as well as their performance. With a better management system in place, the organisations will be better able to adopt new technologies themselves, including new ICTs.In 2007 CTA had three main projects under this theme, covering needs assessment, strategic planning (see highlight) and evaluation (see highlight). Needs assessment studies followed from earlier work across the ACP region that began in 2003 (see also CTA's 2005 and2006 Annual Reports). By the end of 2006, 28 countries in the region had undergone needs assessments, and in 2007 attention was turned to 19 countries in Southern and West Africa. As with the earlier studies, these aimed to: provide an overview of the main agricultural services and actors in a country in terms of their strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for collaboration with CTA; identify agricultural information and ICM capacity-building needs of the key strategic partners; identify potential strategic partners for CTA activities and services; and gather baseline data on the status of ICM and ICTs in the country, to facilitate subsequent monitoring and updating activities. CTA is helping its partners build their capacity. | Le CTA aide ses partenaires à renforcer leurs capacités.  Turning to the future, the participants developed a list of planned activities. They agreed to: • Conduct lobbying and communications activities directed to ACP governments and diplomats aimed at increasing awareness of the importance of agriculture for development • Promote synergies and exchanges at national, regional and international levels • Build a collaborative web-based platform to complement partner initiatives aimed at adding value to their products and to promote exchanges among partners The Smart ToolkitIn 2005, CTA, leading an international group of partners, produced the first version of the Smart Toolkit for Evaluating Information Products and Services. This was considered a groundbreaking resource, as it allowed information managers and practitioners working for small-scale or resource-poor information service providers to access specialised evaluation expertise. By 2007, however, it was ready for revision. An online survey provided valuable feedback as a starting point, and this was followed by an editorial consultation in Bonn, Germany in October.Thirty participants representing about 20 ACP-and EU-based development organisations attended the consultation. All had extensive experience in monitoring and evaluation, and were actively involved in information and communication management. Most of the participants had previously been directly involved with the Smart Toolkit. A cartoonist at the meeting facilitated understanding of complex and potentially confusing ideas by depicting them as cartoon illustrations. Some of the cartoons will be included in the revised version of the Toolkit.The Toolkit contains a wealth of useful information, but participants thought that navigation could be improved. Un groupe de pilotage composé de participants à l'atelier poursuivra la collaboration afin d'améliorer et de finaliser le contenu de la Smart Toolkit révisée. De plus, le site Internet créé spécialement pour la réunion de Bonn -http://www.cta.int/smart_toolkit/ -servira de lien vers le grand public, y compris de nouveaux partenaires potentiels.with CTA's drive to intensify the use of both conventional and new ICTs in its operations, Web 2.0 tools will be introduced into the new version Toolkit, including closed wikis and D-Groups as appropriate. In view of the usefulness of the Toolkit, the group agreed to increase their efforts to expand its use in ACP countries.A Steering Group comprised of workshop participants will continue the collaboration to further improve and finalise the content of the revised Toolkit. In addition, the website set up specifically for the Bonn meeting -http://www.cta.int/smart_toolkit/ -serves as a link to the wider public, including potential new partners.« Attention au dragon de l'information ! » « Dragon ? Quel dragon ? »Administrative Services, Budget and Human Resources (ASBHR)At the end of 2006, CTA's Supervisory Authority began setting up an Executive Board to replace the Advisory Committee, however, as the Board had not been formed by the end of the year, it was not possible to convene a meeting during 2007. The Supervisory Authority therefore authorised the Director to act on behalf of the Executive Board and to renew or terminate the contracts of all agents with mandates due to end on 31 December 2007.The EuropAid Cooperation office (AidCo) ordered an operational audit, which was carried out by the firm of Moore Stephens. CTA is in the process of implementing a jointly agreed action plan in response to the audit recommendations.In 2007, CTA also undertook modernisation of its IT hardware and software in order to strengthen the security of its IT systems and architecture, to improve stability and to enhance performance.CTA is funded by the European Development Fund (EDF) to which all EU Member States contribute (see Table 1).   CTA's regional branch offices CTA maintains two regional branch offices (RBOs) in the Caribbean and Pacific to assist the Centre in implementing its mandate in these regions. It is obvious from the present report that CTA's best public relations are its activities. Beyond these, CTA never tires of explaining its mandate and activities to the world: information, communication and capacity-building are key for development and a precondition for improving agricultural production and rural livelihoods. Agriculture deserves more attention and extra funding for CTA's target beneficiaries. To give higher prominence to agriculture, CTA has strengthened its collaboration with media and journalists and has opened up its activities to additional ACP embassies, National Authorising Officers (NAOs) and EC delegations. The Centre also strives to use traditional and electronic means, including Web 2.0 tools, to ensure that information reaches the right audiences. ","tokenCount":"12143"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26078e0f547999918d6ec309b83a7fc9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5abe1f60-a9e7-4615-95cd-d5549eef471c/content","id":"-2993680"},"keywords":["doubled haploids","R1-nj marker","embryo rescue","false positives","false detection rate","false negative rate"],"sieverID":"a37e43a6-317d-4080-a87a-7493b610db5c","pagecount":"14","content":"Doubled haploid (DH) technology has become integral to maize breeding programs to expedite inbred line development and increase the efficiency of breeding operations. Unlike many other plant species that use in vitro methods, DH production in maize uses a relatively simple and efficient in vivo haploid induction method. However, it takes two complete crop cycles for DH line generation, one for haploid induction and the other one for chromosome doubling and seed production. Rescuing in vivo induced haploid embryos has the potential to reduce the time for DH line development and improve the efficiency of DH line production. However, the identification of a few haploid embryos (~10%) resulting from an induction cross from the rest of the diploid embryos is a challenge. In this study, we demonstrated that an anthocyanin marker, namely R1-nj, which is integrated into most haploid inducers, can aid in distinguishing haploid and diploid embryos. Further, we tested conditions that enhance R1-nj anthocyanin marker expression in embryos and found that light and sucrose enhance anthocyanin expression, while phosphorous deprivation in the media had no affect. Validating the use of the R1-nj marker for haploid and diploid embryo identification using a gold standard classification based on visual differences among haploids and diploids for characteristics such as seedling vigor, erectness of leaves, tassel fertility, etc., indicated that the R1-nj marker could lead to significantly high false positives, necessitating the use of additional markers for increased accuracy and reliability of haploid embryo identification.The availability of an efficient and relatively simple in vivo protocol to develop completely homozygous inbred lines using doubled haploid (DH) technology greatly accelerated maize breeding in the last few decades. Simultaneous fixation of all segregating alleles into a homozygous condition in DH lines can be achieved in just two crop cycles, whereas seven crop cycles are required to obtain homozygosity at >99% of the loci from a segregating population in the conventional recurrent selfing method of inbred line development. Hundreds of thousands of genetically fixed inbred maize lines are now being routinely developed using DH technology by several multinational corporations every year, which is not feasible with conventional inbred line development methods. Genetically homozygous DH lines enable extraordinary selection efficiency from the very beginning of a breeding cycle in comparison to selecting plants/families that have different levels of homozygosity [1]. DH lines greatly enhance breeding efficiency by reducing time in inbred line development and simplifying breeding operations such as nursery management, inventory management, and seed shipments, thereby enabling cost savings [2,3].Current DH production protocols in maize [4][5][6] involve crossing the source (donor) germplasm from which inbred lines are desired as a female parent with a maternal haploid inducer as a pollen parent. Inducers are generally equipped with dominantly expressed morphological or biochemical markers such as R1-nj, red root, or high oil that express phenotype at the seed or seedling stage and facilitate early identification of haploids from diploids. Doubling the haploid genome using mitosis-inhibiting chemicals enables the recovery of male and female fertility, thereby resulting in seed production for DH lines upon self-fertilization. Using modern haploid inducers, haploids can be obtained at a frequency of 8-15% [3,7]. Haploid identification using a single maker such as R1-nj is not so reliable because of the inhibition of marker expression and high rates of misclassification [8]; hence, inducers with multiple markers such as R1-nj and red root or R1-nj and high oil were developed to enhance the reliability of haploid identification [9,10]. Overall chromosomal doubling efficiencies using anti-mitotic chemicals were reported to be generally in the range of 5-35% [11][12][13]. Even though the current in vivo haploid induction-based DH production protocols are reliable for large-scale production of DH lines, there are further opportunities for increasing the efficiency of DH line production protocols that can result in reduced cost and faster delivery of DH lines.Immature embryo rescue methods offer two distinct advantages over the currently used DH line development protocols. First, as embryos can be extracted from the ears pollinated with inducer pollen very early, such as 10-25 days after pollination, it can reduce the time for DH line production by up to six weeks [14]. Second, it can possibly increase the chromosomal doubling efficiency. Commonly used chromosomal doubling protocols involve treating 3-15-day old seedlings with anti-mitotic chemicals [11][12][13]15]. However, shoot apical meristem is deeply embedded in the shoot tissues and, hence, is difficult to access, limiting the efficiency of chromosomal doubling treatments.Embryo rescue procedures for DH line production in maize typically involve isolating the embryos from the ears of the source populations that are crossed with a maternal haploid inducer, differentiating the haploid embryos from diploid embryos, subjecting the haploid embryos to chromosomal doubling treatments, generating and recovering the seedlings from the embryos, and seed production from doubled haploid plants. Embryo rescue offers easy access to all the meristematic cells in the developing embryo, which eventually give rise to all the plant parts, including reproductive tissues, making it possible to achieve maximum chromosomal doubling efficiency. Publications on maize embryo rescue protocols for DH line production are scarce other than proprietary protocols mentioned in patents [16,17]. A major step in DH line development is to effectively identify haploid embryos that occur infrequently compared with diploid embryos. Inducers with transgenic markers such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) [18], double fluorescent proteins (eGFP and dsRED) [19], RUBY reporter [20] and over-expression of ZmC1 and ZmR2 [21] were proposed to assist in haploid embryo identification. The objectives of this study were to: (1) assess if immature haploid and diploid embryos can be effectively separated based on the expression of R1-nj anthocyanin marker; (2) identify the conditions that enhance R1-nj anthocyanin marker expression; and (3) validate the haploid embryo identification based on a gold standard classification and molecular markers.When embryos were incubated on MS-RD medium in the dark, the expression of the R1-nj marker was completely lacking after 24 h, while it was faintly expressed in very few embryos after 48 h (Figure 1). The majority of the embryos did not express the anthocyanin marker even after 96 h of incubation on MS-RD medium in the dark. In contrast, embryos exposed to continuous light showed anthocyanin expression in 24 h and the intensity of anthocyanin coloration increased over time (Figure 1). It was interesting to note that some radicles also showed anthocyanin expression under continuous light, even though the expression was weak. This experiment established that the R1-nj anthocyanin marker Plants 2023, 12, 2314 3 of 14 could be expressed under certain conditions and could be used to distinguish the haploid and diploid embryos. However, it would be ideal to have a more intense expression of anthocyanins as early as possible so that chromosomal doubling involving expensive and toxic anti-mitotic chemicals can be targeted on fewer selected haploids. Hence, we evaluated conditions that can enhance anthocyanin expression.Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14 exposed to continuous light showed anthocyanin expression in 24 h and the intensity of anthocyanin coloration increased over time (Figure 1). It was interesting to note that some radicles also showed anthocyanin expression under continuous light, even though the expression was weak. This experiment established that the R1-nj anthocyanin marker could be expressed under certain conditions and could be used to distinguish the haploid and diploid embryos. However, it would be ideal to have a more intense expression of anthocyanins as early as possible so that chromosomal doubling involving expensive and toxic anti-mitotic chemicals can be targeted on fewer selected haploids. Hence, we evaluated conditions that can enhance anthocyanin expression. As light seems to be critical for anthocyanin expression, we tested if higher light intensities can enhance anthocyanin accumulation. Increasing light intensities showed a positive effect on anthocyanin accumulation in the embryos. Among different light intensities used (0, 4000, 8000, and 16,000 lux) tested, embryos exposed to 8000 lux and 16,000 lux showed the strongest anthocyanin expression compared with the embryos exposed to 4000 lux and embryos not exposed to light. (Figure 2). The 8000 lux light intensity was sufficient to induce good expression of anthocyanins. As light seems to be critical for anthocyanin expression, we tested if higher light intensities can enhance anthocyanin accumulation. Increasing light intensities showed a positive effect on anthocyanin accumulation in the embryos. Among different light intensities used (0, 4000, 8000, and 16,000 lux) tested, embryos exposed to 8000 lux and 16,000 lux showed the strongest anthocyanin expression compared with the embryos exposed to 4000 lux and embryos not exposed to light. (Figure 2). The 8000 lux light intensity was sufficient to induce good expression of anthocyanins. In the next experiment, we tested the effect of different concentrations of sucrose (0, 50, 100, 200 mM) on anthocyanin accumulation in embryos. Sucrose showed a positive effect on anthocyanin accumulation in embryos, especially at higher concentrations (Figure 3). However, the addition of sucrose without light did not affect anthocyanin accumulation (Figures 1 and 4). In the next experiment, we tested the effect of different concentrations of sucrose (0, 50, 100, 200 mM) on anthocyanin accumulation in embryos. Sucrose showed a positive effect on anthocyanin accumulation in embryos, especially at higher concentrations (Figure 3). However, the addition of sucrose without light did not affect anthocyanin accumulation (Figures 1 and 4).Further, we evaluated the effect of phosphorous deprivation in the medium and whether it further enhance anthocyanin accumulation. Embryos grown on normal MS-RD medium or phosphorous-deprived MS-RD medium did not show any anthocyanin expression when grown in the dark (Figure 4). Even when exposed to light for up to 48 h, embryos on phosphorous-deprived media did not show a significant accumulation of anthocyanins compared to normal MS-RD media under similar conditions. However, the addition of 250 mM sucrose to the phosphorous-deprived media resulted in a good accumulation of anthocyanins within 24 h.In addition, we also evaluated whether incubating embryos in sucrose solution was sufficient for anthocyanin accumulation. The results indicated that, similar to solid MS-RD and liquid MS-RD media, embryos could accumulate anthocyanins sufficiently in sucrose solution within 24 h when exposed to continuous light at 8000 lux (Figure 5). Together, a combination of 8000 lux light and 200 to 250 mM sucrose on blotting paper was sufficient for enhancing anthocyanin accumulation. In the next experiment, we tested the effect of different concentrations of sucrose (0, 50, 100, 200 mM) on anthocyanin accumulation in embryos. Sucrose showed a positive effect on anthocyanin accumulation in embryos, especially at higher concentrations (Figure 3). However, the addition of sucrose without light did not affect anthocyanin accumulation (Figures 1 and 4).    Further, we evaluated the effect of phosphorous deprivation in the medium and whether it further enhance anthocyanin accumulation. Embryos grown on normal MS-RD  In addition, we also evaluated whether incubating embryos in sucrose solution was sufficient for anthocyanin accumulation. The results indicated that, similar to solid MS-RD and liquid MS-RD media, embryos could accumulate anthocyanins sufficiently in sucrose solution within 24 h when exposed to continuous light at 8000 lux (Figure 5). Together, a combination of 8000 lux light and 200 to 250 mM sucrose on blotting paper was sufficient for enhancing anthocyanin accumulation. Plants obtained from putative haploid/diploid embryos were subjected to a gold standard test that is based on visual differences among haploids and diploids in plant characteristics such as seedling vigor, erectness of leaves, tassel fertility, etc. False discovery rate (FDR) varied from 8.3% to 43.4% with an average of 23.5% (Table 1). Three of the Plants obtained from putative haploid/diploid embryos were subjected to a gold standard test that is based on visual differences among haploids and diploids in plant characteristics such as seedling vigor, erectness of leaves, tassel fertility, etc. False discovery rate (FDR) varied from 8.3% to 43.4% with an average of 23.5% (Table 1). Three of the six populations showed a high FDR > 25%, indicating the presence of a significant proportion of false positives among haploids (true diploids falsely identified as haploids). False negative rate (FNR) varied from 0 to 8.3% with an average FNR of 1.2%. Four out of six populations resulted in an FNR of 2% or less, indicating that almost all diploid embryos identified based on the R1-nj marker were true diploids. In addition to the gold standard classification, we also used molecular markers for ascertaining true ploidy status in a subsection of putative haploids and diploids. Molecular markers indicated an average of 16.8% FDR and 2% FNR. Differences in FDR and FNR between gold standard tests and molecular tests can be attributed to the relatively small sample sizes used for molecular analysis. Two populations showed very high FDR (>40%) in the gold standard and molecular marker-based ploidy evaluation. To study the accuracy of R1-nj-based haploid/diploid embryo identification in large numbers of embryos and diverse germplasm, we determined FDR in another 24 diverse tropical populations based on the gold standard test using plant traits (Table 2). The FDR values ranged from 4.9 to 82.1% with an average FDR of 19.4%. Five out of twenty-four populations showed high (>25%) FDR and only three populations showed less than 10% FDR, indicating significant false positives in the majority of the populations. Reducing the breeding cycle time is important for enhancing genetic gains and for the accelerated development of elite varieties with adaptation to climate change, and resistance to diseases and pests [22]. DH technology in maize can reduce breeding cycle time significantly compared with conventional pedigree and single-seed descent methods [22]. Currently, the process of deriving DH lines from a population using an in vivo haploid induction method takes two full crop cycles, including one cycle for haploid induction and one cycle for the production of seeds from haploid plants that were subjected to chromosomal doubling treatments, along with a significant time spent on identifying haploids. Typically, it takes five to six months per cycle from seed to seed in tropical maize germplasms; hence, it takes up to a year to derive DH lines. Even though it is quite fast to derive inbred lines via DH in two generations compared with six to eight generations in the recurrent selfing method, there is an opportunity to further reduce the time taken to develop DH lines by employing embryo rescue procedures. However, protocols that can be widely adapted for identifying haploid embryos and further doubling the chromosomes in the identified haploids are not yet published. Previously, patents published on the maize haploid embryo rescue process reported the use of transgenic marker systems for early (8-14 days after pollination) identification of haploid embryos [16,17]. These protocols may not be applicable in many countries in the Global South because of restrictions on the use of transgenics. Anthocyanin marker R1-nj is integrated into almost all the maternal haploid inducers [10], which can aid in haploid identification at the dry seed stage. Reports indicated that R1-nj expression on seeds starts 23 days after pollination at the silk attachment area [23] and is not expressed in embryos very early (8-12 days) [16,17]. However, it remains unexplored whether anthocyanin markers can be expressed at a slightly later stage and if they can be useful in haploid identification at the embryo stage.In haploid induction crosses, the majority of the resulting embryos are diploid (~85-90%) when using the recent haploid inducers with a ~10-15% haploid induction rate. Hence, it would be best to eliminate the majority of diploid embryos that are of no use in DH line production before applying chromosomal doubling treatments. This will enable cost savings by reducing the quantity of chemicals used in chromosomal doubling, besides labor. Our experiments using tropicalized haploid inducers equipped with R1-nj markers indicated that the embryos extracted 18-30 days after pollination are ideal for embryo rescue in the tropical maize germplasm. However, when embryos were cultivated on MS-RD medium in the dark at 28 • C, anthocyanin accumulation was not generally observed. To achieve quick haploid embryo identification, we explored conditions that favor anthocyanin production in maize embryos resulting from haploid induction crosses.Light is well-known to enhance anthocyanin production in plants [24][25][26][27][28]. Continuous white light can induce anthocyanin production in maize seedlings [29,30]. Light-induced expression of transcription factors that upregulate anthocyanin synthesis has been proposed to be responsible for the accumulation of anthocyanins by light in maize [17,29,31]. In our experiments, exposure to 8000-16,000 lux fluorescent white light greatly enhanced the expression of anthocyanins, confirming previous observations.In addition to light, sugars stimulate anthocyanin accumulation in plant tissues. Among different sugars tested, sucrose specifically increases the anthocyanin content in Arabidopsis and upregulates the expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway genes [32]. In maize, several sugars enhanced anthocyanin accumulation and upregulated anthocyanin regulatory genes [33]. Our experiments on maize embryos resulting from induction crosses also revealed that the addition of sucrose led to increased anthocyanin accumulation. Phosphorous deficiency greatly enhanced anthocyanin accumulation in in vitro cultures of coleoptiles of a white maize variety, while the same conditions did not enhance in a purple maize variety [34,35]. In our experiments, phosphorous deprivation under both dark and continuous light conditions (8000 lux) did not stimulate anthocyanin expression. However, embryos cultivated on a phosphorous-deprived media in the presence of light and sucrose showed anthocyanin accumulation, indicating that sucrose and light had a more positive effect than phosphorous deprivation on anthocyanin accumulation.Together, exposure to continuous white light and the presence of sucrose was found to be sufficient to induce anthocyanins at levels that allow separation of haploid and diploid embryos. Our study also showed that haploid embryos can be separated from diploids with similar accuracy as that achieved with haploid seed sorting. In addition, our experiments also indicated that it is sufficient to incubate embryos in just sucrose solution on a blotting paper under continuous light for sufficient anthocyanin expression. This further simplifies the protocol for haploid/diploid embryo identification while reducing the incidence of bacterial or fungal contamination, which is more prevalent with the solid growing media as per our observations. Two parameters are valuable in validating the accuracy of the haploid/diploid classification method, namely FDR and FNR [10]. FDR represents the proportion of false positives (true diploids) among putative haploids identified and FNR represents the proportion of true haploids among the putative diploids. Validation of the R1-nj-marker-based haploid embryo identification using a gold standard classification based on plant traits and molecular marker assays revealed high average FDR rates, while FNR was very low. The average FDR obtained when classifying haploids/diploid embryos using the R1-nj marker in this study was in a similar range to that reported for R1-nj-based haploid/diploid seeds in previous studies and varied significantly among the populations as indicated in earlier studies [9,36]. FDR is the most important criterion in haploid/diploid classification, as the presence of false positives results in investing additional resources in chromosomal doubling treatments and managing them in the greenhouse and in the field until they are properly identified. The presence of haploids among discarded diploids is a significantly lesser problem and can be easily addressed by increasing the number of embryos sorted for haploids, especially considering that the average FNR is 2%.Even though the conditions reported can enhance anthocyanin expression, tropical maize germplasm and temperate flint germplasm contain dominant anthocyanin inhibitor genes (especially C1-I) at a high frequency [3,37]. Chaikam et al. (2016)  [8] reported that ~40% of tropical maize populations showed segregation of R1-nj markers and ~4% populations showed complete inhibition of R1-nj markers. In populations with complete inhibition, it was impossible to use the R1-nj marker for haploid identification at the seed stage or embryo stage. In populations with a partial expression of the R1-nj marker, it was also impossible to separate true haploids from diploids due to the inhibition of R1-nj in some of the diploids. This results in a very high false-positive rate, as noticed in a few populations in this study. To mitigate the effects of complete or partial inhibition of R1-nj marker expression, we suggest two approaches. First, molecular markers reported earlier [8] can be used to identify populations with dominant anthocyanin color inhibitor genes before embryo rescue, thus saving valuable resources incurred in the process. Second, use of additional markers in combination with R1-nj will enable more effective identification of haploid embryos. The red root marker [9,38], high oil marker [10], and seedling traits were generally proposed to complement the R1-nj marker in identifying haploids at the seed/seedling stage. At the embryo stage, the high oil trait may not be useful unless it confers a visible difference in the embryo (e.g., embryo size); this needs to be further studied. The use of seedling traits also might not be very useful in embryo rescue cultures, as the seedlings derived from embryo cultures need to be grown for a longer duration in the greenhouse to detect these differences, which could be resource-intensive. Integration of the red root marker along with R1-nj could offer a more practical solution for identifying haploids from diploids in populations with complete anthocyanin color inhibition and reducing false positives in populations with partial inhibition, as red root marker can be expressed as soon as radicles emerge [9]. Together, the R1-nj marker could be used in some populations for the identification of haploid embryos, while in populations with anthocyanin inhibitor genes, it is not effective and the use of alternative markers needs to be explored.Source populations used in the experiments described below were from the International maize and wheat improvement center's (CIMMYT's) tropical/sub-tropical breeding programs in Mexico and the mid-altitude breeding programs in Kenya and Zimbabwe. A haploid inducer hybrid, 2GTAIL006 × 2GTAIL009 [7], was used in all the haploid induction crosses, where both inducer parental lines were equipped with the R1-nj marker. Haploid induction nurseries were planted, managed, and crosses were carried out as described in a previous study [39].We initially attempted to extract embryos 13-15 days after pollination. However, the embryos were very small, fragile, and easily damaged, making them difficult to handle. In comparison, 18-30-day old embryos were found to be amenable for extraction; hence, embryos were extracted 18-30 days after pollination in all the experiments described in this manuscript. Embryos were extracted and plated as described earlier [40]. Harvested ears from the induction nursery were de-husked and surface-sterilized with 10% commercial bleach for 30 min. The ears were then rinsed three times with sterile distilled water. The crowns of the kernels were scraped off with a knife to expose the endosperm. Embryos were scooped out of the kennels using a sterile surgical blade. MS-RD medium (4.33 g/L Murashige and Skoog salts supplemented with 100 mg/L myo-inositol, 0.4 mg/L nicotinic acid, 0.2 mg/L thiamine-HCl, 20% sucrose, adjusted to pH 5.7-5.8 with 1 m KOH, solidified with 0.8% agar) [40] was used as a base embryo rescue culture medium.To determine if anthocyanin markers can aid in haploid/diploid embryo identification, embryos resulting from the induction crosses of two populations were plated on solid MS-RD medium and kept in the dark by wrapping them with aluminum foil or continuously exposed to light for 24, 48, 72, and 96 h in a growth chamber maintained at 28 • C. After the specified time period, the plates kept in the dark were unwrapped and visually inspected for anthocyanin marker expression in comparison to the embryos that were continuously exposed to the light.To test the effect of light intensity on anthocyanin accumulation, embryos were plated on a solid MS-RD medium and were exposed to fluorescent light at different intensities (0, 4000, 8000, and 16,000 lux) for twenty-four hours on an incubator at 28 • C. To measure anthocyanin content, embryos exposed to different light intensities were individually weighed and placed in a microtube along with a metal bead; 200 µL of 95% ethanol and 100 µL of 0.1 M HCL were added. The embryos were crushed in a GenoGrinder at 1750 rpm for 30 s and centrifuged at 4000× g for 10 min. Anthocyanin was measured in the supernatant from the absorbance at 520 nm in a plate reader.To test the effect of sucrose on anthocyanin accumulation, embryos were placed in MS-RD solid media with different concentrations of sucrose for 24 h in the dark. MS-RD medium contains 2% sucrose. For this experiment, 2% sucrose was omitted, and a specified concentration of sucrose (0, 50, 100, and 200 mM) was added. Anthocyanins were extracted and quantified as described above.To test the effect of phosphorous deprivation on anthocyanin accumulation, MS-RD medium was prepared without the addition of a phosphorous source, namely, monopotassium phosphate (KH 2 PO 4 ). Embryos were plated on this media with or without 200 mM sucrose and incubated for 24 and 48 h.To test if a solid medium was required for anthocyanin accumulation, we grew the haploid embryos on MS-RD solid, MS-RD liquid medium, and a blotting paper saturated with 200 mM sucrose solution. All were exposed to 8000 lux light for 24 h.Six different subtropical populations were crossed with haploid inducer hybrid 2GTAIL006 × 2GTAIL009 at Kiboko, Kenya, in the 2018 winter season. Embryos were extracted as described above and were placed on blotting papers saturated with 200 mM sucrose solution in Petri plates under inflorescent light at 8000 lux for 24 h in a growth chamber maintained at 28 • C. Haploids and diploid embryos were separated based on anthocyanin expression, with embryos showing purple or red color classified as diploids, while white or yellow embryos without purple/red coloration were classified as haploids. Both haploid and diploid embryos were planted in plastic seedling trays with peat moss in a polyhouse. The trays were watered with a solution containing macro and micronutrients. Leaf tissues were collected randomly from 16 haploids and 16 diploids from each population on the 12th day after planting the embryos in trays when the second leaf emerged. Plants were kept in the greenhouse for 25 days, after which both haploids and diploids were transplanted in the field. At the flowering stage, surviving plants were assessed for ploidy status by using a gold standard classification based on plant traits (less vigor, erect leaves, poor fertility of haploids, etc.) as described earlier [7,9,10,36] (Supplemental Figure S1). FDR and FNR were calculated as described in previous studies [8][9][10]36]. FDR is the proportion of diploid embryos misclassified as haploid embryos. FNR is the proportion of true haploid embryos misclassified as diploid embryos.For molecular analysis, leaf tissues were sent to a genotyping service provider LGC Ltd., UK (lgcgroup.com) for DNA extraction and genotyping. A set of 97 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers from the CIMMYT quality control (QC) set were used for genotyping [41]. Samples were genotyped using LGC KASPar assays. Genotyping results indicated less than 1% missing data across all samples. Genotypic data were used to ascertain the ploidy status of each plant. If all the SNPs were homozygous, they were confirmed as haploids. If any SNP was present in a heterozygous condition, the samples were considered diploid. In the majority of diploids, a minimum of 20% heterozygosity was observed. FDR and FNR were calculated as described above.To determine the accuracy of haploid/diploid embryo identification based on R1-nj marker expression in more diverse germplasm, 24 populations from CIMMYT-Kenya and CIMMYT-Zimbabwe breeding programs were induced for haploids between 2020 and 2022, and embryos were extracted 18-25 days after pollination. Embryos were incubated in sucrose solution for 24 h at specified light and temperature conditions in a growth chamber. Putative haploid embryos without anthocyanin coloration were separated, recovered in the greenhouse, and grown in the field. For accurate determination of ploidy, diploid plants were also grown from 25 embryos with purple color as controls for comparison (Supplemental Figure S1). Ploidy of the true haploids and false positives was established based on a gold standard classification based on seedling traits, and FNR was calculated.","tokenCount":"4595"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"45fa5a7b4e52c44ae3a75b4e6f619f85","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5bf03f93-9c4f-467c-9b46-ead52c09fa34/retrieve","id":"-250546447"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5ae9722-f354-45e6-a5a3-0dfd500f71a9","pagecount":"9","content":"the pest species Spodoptera frugiperda, which is native to north and South America, has invaded Africa in 2016. The species consists of two strains, the corn-strain and rice-strain, which differ in their sexual communication. When we investigated populations from Benin and nigeria, consisting of corn-strain and rice-corn-hybrid descendants, we found no strain-specific sexual communication differences. Both genotypes exhibited the same pheromone composition, consisting of around 97% (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-14:Ac), 2% (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate (Z7-12:Ac), and 1% (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate (Z9-12:Ac), they had similar electrophysiological responses, and all mated around three hours into scotophase. However, we found geographic variation between African and American populations. The sex pheromone of African corn-strain and hybrid descendant females was similar to American ricestrain females and showed higher percentages of the male-attracting minor component Z7-12:Ac. In addition, African males exhibited the highest antennal sensitivity towards Z7-12:Ac, while American males showed highest sensitivity towards the major pheromone component Z9-14:Ac. Increasing the production of and response to the critical minor component Z7-12:Ac may reduce communication interference with other African Spodoptera species that share the same major pheromone component. The implications of our results on pheromone-based pest management strategies are discussed.Since 2016 the African continent has a new pest species: the fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 1 . This noctuid moth species is endemic to North and South America and is known as serious pest of maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and various grasses 2,3 . Although FAW is a generalist feeding on over 350 different host plants in the Americas 4 , its major host in Africa is maize 5 , also endemic to the Americas. The rapid spread of FAW to almost all sub-Saharan countries within less than two years 5 , and the magnitude of agricultural losses (estimated over US$ 13.3 billion 6 ), highlight the need for efficient pest management strategies in Africa. As FAW encounters new ecological conditions, ecosystem dynamics, and species interactions in Africa, this invasive species may behave differently in its new environment, and pest control methods that work in the Americas might not be effective in Africa. Therefore, it is crucial to first understand the biology of FAW in its new habitat in order to develop control methods that are effective and affordable for regional farmers.One commonly used and environmentally friendly method to monitor or control pest insects is the use of sex pheromones, which are crucial for the mate finding process in moths 7 . In most noctuid species like FAW, the females emit a species-specific sex pheromone in the scotophase to attract males over large distances, which is the start of the mating phase 8 . In its native environment in North and South America, several sex pheromone based pest management strategies have been used to regulate FAW populations, i.e. monitoring with pheromone traps to determine timing of pesticide application 9,10 , mass trapping to reduce population densities 11 , and matingdisruption with high pheromone concentrations to disturb the mate finding process 12 . In Africa, monitoring with pheromone traps (baited with American lures) is currently used to assess infestation levels 13,14 and preliminary field trials are performed to evaluate the efficiency of mating disruption 5 . The key component in these control methods is the sex pheromone of FAW females. Thus, it is essential to determine the pheromone composition of FAW females from Africa, which might be different compared to American populations.The male attracting pheromone that FAW females from the Americas release consists of at least two components: the major component (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate (Z9-14:Ac) and the minor component (Z)-7-dodecenyl acetate (Z7-12:Ac) 15 . Two other minor compounds commonly found in the pheromone gland are (Z)-9-dodecenyl acetate (Z9-12:Ac) and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16:Ac) 16,17 , but field tests in Florida did not show that they are important for male attraction 15,17 . The minor component (E)-7-dodecenyl acetate (E7-12:Ac) shows geographic variation and has so far only been found in females from Brazil 18 . With regard to pest management, it is important to consider that FAW consist of two strains (the corn-strain and the rice-strain) that exhibit differences in their pheromone composition 16,17 and timing of reproduction in the night 19,20 . American corn-strain females, which mate early in the scotophase 19 , are known to produce smaller relative amounts of the critical male attracting minor component Z7-12:Ac compared to rice-strain females 16,17 , which are sexually active at the end of the scotophase 19 . A recent genetic study that determined the strain identity of African FAW populations has shown that the rice-strain population is rare or absent on the continent and mainly corn-strain individuals and descendants of interstrain hybrids are present 21 . However, it is so far unclear whether geographic variation exists between corn-strain populations from Africa and America, and whether there are corn-rice-strain hybrids in Africa which differ in their sexual behavior compared to pure strain individuals.One factor that could influence the sexual communication system of FAW in Africa is the presence of communication interference with other species. Within Africa, 8 other species of the genus Spodoptera have been reported, i.e. S. apertura, S. cilium, S. exempta, S. exigua, S. littoralis, S. mauritia, S. malagasy, and S. triturata 22 . Interestingly, S. cilium, S. exempta, and S. triturata share the same major component Z9-14:Ac with FAW, in S. exigua and S. littoralis Z9-14:Ac has been reported as minor component, and the sex pheromone of S. apertura, S. mauritia, and S. malagasy is still unknown (http://www.pherobase.com). Thus, there is an overlap in the sex pheromone composition of FAW with at least five other Spodoptera species present in Africa. Besides other Spodoptera species, traps in Togo baited with FAW lures had high numbers of non-target catches of Leucania loreyi 13 , which also uses Z9-14:Ac as the major pheromone component and Z7-12:Ac as the minor component 23 . As FAW is now a broad generalist that occurs throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a high probability that it encounters other species during its adulthood that share the same pheromone compounds, and communication interference may have caused a change in the sexual behavior of FAW in Africa compared to American populations. To test whether geographic and/or strain-specific variation exists in African FAW populations, we investigated the sexual communication system of FAW populations from West Africa (Benin and Nigeria) by using a combination of genetic, electrophysiological, chemical, and behavioral observation methods. The implications of our results on the adaptation of the invasive species to its new habitat and the development of regional pest management strategies are discussed.Pure corn-strain and RC hybrid descendants present in West Africa. Genetic strain-identification used both the maternally-inherited mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene and the nuclear-encoded triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) gene. Offspring of interstrain hybrids are indicated when the strain-specific markers are discordant. For example, among the FAW population from Benin, 36% exhibited the C COI -C TPI genotype (n = 32) and thus descent from a corn-strain female and a corn-strain male, while 64% had the R COI -C TPI genotype (n = 56), suggesting descent from a rice-strain female and a corn-strain male. In Nigeria, 63% of the population consisted of the C COI -C TPI genotype (n = 60) and 37% of the R COI -C TPI genotype (n = 36). The TPI marker was homozygous C TPI for all individuals from Benin and Nigeria that were sequenced. Thus, in both West African countries we only found pure corn-strain individuals (C COI -C TPI ) and descendants of rice-corn interstrain hybrids (R COI -C TPI ), but no pure rice-strain specimens (R COI -R TPI ).Increased antennal sensitivity to the minor component Z7-12:Ac in African populations. In the electroantennogram (EAG) experiments we observed geographic and dose-response variation in the male response to five different compounds that were tested. At the lowest amounts of 0.001 µg and 0.1 µg pheromone, corn-and rice-strain males from Florida responded only to the major pheromone component Z9-14:Ac, while males from Benin only responded to the minor component Z7-12:Ac (Table 1). Males from Nigeria showed no significant EAG responses when exposed to 0.001 µg pheromone, but at 0.1 µg pheromone, only Z7-12:Ac evoked EAG responses that were significantly larger than the control (Table 1). At the highest amounts tested (10 µg), both American and African populations responded to four of five tested compounds, i.e. Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, E7-12:Ac, and Z9-12:Ac evoked responses, but not Z11-16:Ac (Table 1, Fig. 1). The EAG responses to 10 µg pheromone revealed that for each of the five tested compounds, males of both genotypes from Benin or Nigeria exhibited similar EAG amplitudes, while the Florida corn-strain always showed higher EAG amplitudes than the Florida rice-strain (Fig. 1). For the major component Z9-14:Ac, African populations had similar EAG responses as the Florida corn-strain, while for all minor compounds the African populations were more similar to the Florida rice-strain (Fig. 1).No strain-specific pheromone variation in different African genotypes. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis showed that corn-strain and RC hybrid descendant females from Benin and Nigeria produced four out of five analyzed pheromone compounds that have been previously found in American populations, i.e. Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, Z9-12:Ac, and Z11-16:Ac are present, but not E7-12:Ac (Supplementary Fig. S1).Of the four pheromone compounds that have been identified in the glands of African females (Supplementary Fig. S1), EAG experiments revealed that males were not responsive to Z11-16:Ac (Table 1), which is why we focused in the individual gland analysis on the three components that are present in the gland and evoked EAG responses: the major component Z9-14:Ac, and the two minor compounds Z7-12:Ac and Z9-12:Ac. Analyses of hexane extracts of the pheromone glands of African females revealed that corn-strain and RC hybrid descendants from Benin and Nigeria had the same pheromone profile (Fig. 2a). On average, African females exhibited 96.4-96.8% Z9-14:Ac, 2.0-2.3% Z7-12:Ac, and 1.2-1.3% Z9-12:Ac (Fig. 2a). In comparison with the American populations, the African females had similar percentages of Z9-14:Ac and Z7-12:Ac as the Florida rice-strain, while the relative amount of Z9-12:Ac was not significantly different between African and American populations (Fig. 2a). The total amount of pheromone in single FAW glands ranged between 8.5 up to 46.6 ng (Supplementary Table S1). Table 1. Statistical analysis of FAW male EAG responses to three doses (0.001 µg, 0.1 µg and 10 µg) of five pheromone compounds (Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, E7-12:Ac, Z9-12:Ac, Z11-16:Ac). a Shown are P-values (ANOVA followed by a Tukey's HSD post hoc test), where the EAG pheromone response was compared to the control (hexane) response. Bold fields highlight the components that were significantly different to the control stimuli (P < 0.05). Different letters above the bars indicate significant population differences for a given compound (ANOVA followed by Tukey's HSD post hoc test; P < 0.05; n.s. = not significant).To prove that the relative pheromone amount in the gland is similar to the pheromone released to the gland surface, we compared hexane gland extracts with gland surface extracts using fused silica optical fibers coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) 24 and discovered that the percentages of Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12Ac, and Z9-12:Ac were not significantly different between both methods (Fig. 2b). However, when using the PDMS technique, the relative amount of Z7-12:Ac (~2%) and Z9-12:Ac (~0.9%) was on average smaller compared to the hexane gland extraction method without previous PDMS treatment (Z7-12:Ac up to 2.3%, Z9-12:Ac up to 1.3%, Fig. 2b). With the PDMS gland surface rubs, we were able to detect around 23% of the total pheromone collected with the hexane gland extraction method (~10.6 ng with PDMS rubs vs. ~46.6 ng with gland extracts after PDMS rubs, Supplementary Table S1).showed that all four African populations mated early, on average around three hours in the scotophase (Fig. 3). In the American populations, the Florida corn-strain mated around five hours into scotophase, and the Florida rice-strain on average eight hours into scotophase (Fig. 3).When we investigated the sexual communication system of FAW populations from West Africa, consisting of corn-strain individuals (C COI -C TPI ) and descendants of interstrain hybrids (R COI -C TPI ), we found no phenotypic differences between the two genotypes, i.e. they exhibited the same EAG responses, pheromone profiles, and onset time of mating. Of these three measured phenotypes, the best defined strain-specific difference and proposed prezygotic mating barrier of FAW populations from America is their onset time of mating, with the corn-strain mating approximately 3 hours earlier than the rice-strain 19,25 . Behavioral observations of F1 hybrid individuals from America showed that crosses between a rice-strain female and a corn-strain male (R COI -C TPI ) exhibit similar mating times as the pure rice-strain, i.e. they mate at the end of the scotophase 19 . In our study, the African populations with the R COI -C TPI genotype were sexually active at the beginning of the scotophase, even two hours earlier than the corn-strain individuals from Florida (Fig. 3). Along with the fact that the TPI marker was not heterozygous, this suggests that individuals with R COI -C TPI genotype from Africa are not F1 hybrids but must be F2 or later generations after the initial hybridization. The early mating time of the African populations indicates that the genetic basis of allochronic differentiation, suggested to be the circadian clock gene vrille on chromosome 25 and possibly other clock genes identified by a previous study 20 , was inherited from the corn-strain in both genotypes (C COI -C TPI and R COI -C TPI ). Interestingly, genetic analyses of the pheromone production of FAW females identified the same chromosome 25, on which vrille is located, to be involved the production of the critical minor pheromone component Z7-12:Ac 26 . For both African genotypes (C COI -C TPI and R COI -C TPI ) we found similar relative percentages of Z7-12:Ac as reported for American rice-strain females 16,27 , which suggests that the gene(s) on FAW chromosome 25 responsible for Z7-12:Ac production were inherited from the rice-strain in the African populations. Now the question arises of whether the African corn-strain is really a pure corn-strain as found in America, or if repeated matings between corn-strain individuals with rice-corn-strain hybrid descendants substantially changed the African corn-strain genome. Currently, only two genes are routinely used to genetically analyze FAW populations: the TPI gene on the sex chromosome 28 and the COI gene on the mitochondrial genome 29 . Without more reliable strain-specific autosomal markers or whole genome sequence comparisons, it is difficult to estimate how much of the genome from the corn-strain and R COI -C TPI hybrid descendants is inherited from the corn-or the rice-strain, and how a mixed genetic basis might influence certain behaviors in the field. The genome sequences of both strains were published in 2017, and comparative analyses between the strains identified significant variation in a number of detoxification and digestions genes, which might be linked to differential host plant use 30 . These findings could serve as starting point to establish new screening markers for FAW genotyping or be the basis for genome comparisons in order to determine the genetic architecture of FAW populations in Africa.A comparison between the sexual communication system of populations from America and Africa revealed two (possibly linked) differences. First, we found an increased relative amount of the critical male attracting minor component Z7-12:Ac in African corn-strain and RC hybrid descendant females, similar to American rice-strain females (Fig. 2). Second, males from African populations revealed the highest pheromone sensitivity towards Z7-12:Ac in the EAG experiments, while American males exhibited the highest sensitivity towards the major component Z9-14:Ac (Table 1). Increasing the production of and response to the critical minor component Z7-12:Ac may reduce communication interference with other African Spodoptera species that share the same major pheromone component, but whether this has resulted from sexual selection in FAW in the new environment requires future work. The elevated levels of Z7-12:Ac in African FAW females could be the result of rice-strain specific pheromone production genes, which may have been inherited to the present C COI -C TPI and R COI -C TPI genotypes by multiple inter-strain specific crosses within the initial invasive population. Another explanation could be that FAW females exhibit phenotypic plasticity in their sexual communication, a phenomenon reported for the noctuid moth Heliothis subflexa 31 . Laboratory H. subflexa females, which were exposed for the first days of their adult lives to the sex pheromone of the closely related H. virescens, changed their pheromone composition by producing significantly more Z11-16:Ac, a compound inhibiting attraction of H. virescens males 31 . Early-adult experience of heterospecific pheromone blends could also affect the pheromone composition of FAW females, for example by influencing transcription, translation, or activity levels of so far uncharacterized enzymes involved in Z7-12:Ac production. With regard to the increased antennal sensitivity of African males towards Z7-12:Ac, which was not present in American males (Table 1), adaptive phenotypic plasticity may also play a role. Heterospecific pheromone blends could alter, for example, the expression levels of Z7-12:Ac receptors on the male antennae, or change the abundance of transporting proteins like odorant-binding proteins or chemosensory proteins, which are known to deliver semiochemicals to receptor neurons and thereby contributing to the sensitivity and selectivity of the insect's olfactory system 32,33 . Understanding the reasons for the sexual communication differences between the native and invasive FAW populations will give us a deeper insight into the adaptation and evolution of invasive species in new environments. Also, the increased male antennal sensitivity Figure 3. Mating times of FAW populations from Florida, Benin, and Nigeria. Boxplots show the onset time of first mating of two populations from Florida (corn-strain: n = 194, rice-strain: n = 189) and four populations from Africa (Benin corn-strain n = 9, Benin RC hybrid descendant: n = 82, Nigeria corn-strain: n = 64, Nigeria RC hybrid descendant: n = 38). Data from laboratory populations from Florida have been previously published 20 and were included for comparison. Different letters above the bars indicate significant differences (ANOVA followed by Tukey's HSD post hoc test; P < 0.05).to Z7-12:Ac in African populations harbors the possibility to enhance the efficiency of mating disruption with specific pheromone dispensers in Africa. This should be explored in field studies in the near future.When we observed the mating times of FAW pairs, all African populations mated on average three hours in the scotophase (Fig. 3), which is two hours earlier than previously reported for the corn-strain from America 19 . This time shift could be an additional mechanism to avoid cross attraction with other species. Spodoptera exempta, which shares the same major component with FAW 34 , has been reported to mate between 6-9.5 hours into scotophase 35 . This mating phase overlaps with the mating time of corn-and rice-strain FAW populations from Florida 19 , so that advancing the reproductive phase by two hours could be advantageous for FAW populations in Africa. However, the time shift between the Florida corn-strain and the African populations could also have developed by genetic drift during laboratory rearing, as the previous study used insects that were reared for ~6 years in the laboratory 20 , while we used populations kept in the laboratory for 4 months or less. This will be tested in the future by observing fresh field populations from Florida. While 4 months of laboratory rearing might not have contributed to genetic changes that could have an influence on the results, it is worthwhile mentioning that laboratory conditions are lacking parameters of field conditions, like plant odors, plant diet, predators, and parasitoids, which could influence the tested phenotypes. It is also important to mention that we observed the mating behavior under a 14:10 L:D cycle, in order to compare it with the previous studies using American populations 19,20 , whereby the natural L:D cycle is 12:12 in Benin and Nigeria. Shortening the night cycle of the African populations by two hours could have also contributed to the observed two hours mating time shift. Additional observation experiments of field populations from America and other regions in Africa, with different natural L:D cycles, will prove whether the mating time of FAW can be influenced by laboratory rearing and/or the L:D cycle.With regard to the development of a pheromone based pest management system for FAW in Benin and Nigeria (with C COI -C TPI and R COI -C TPI genotypes), genotype-specific differences may not need to be considered when targeting the invasive species with pheromones. Our findings that the FAW populations from Benin and Nigeria consist of corn-strain individuals and descendants of interstrain hybrids, but not of pure rice-strain individuals, are in accordance with previous genetic analyses 21 . As we sampled only a small proportion of both field populations (Benin n = 88 individuals and Nigeria n = 96 individuals), we cannot exclude that rice-strain specimens might be present in these regions and genotype specific sexual communication differences may exist in Benin, Nigeria or other African countries. In general, American lures have been successfully used to catch FAW males in Africa, although high numbers of non-target moths, some of which have similar appearance as FAW and might not be distinguished by local farmers 13 , highlight the need for more specific pheromone formulations. Analysis of the composition of American lures showed that lures like \"L105A\" from Scentry Biologicals, Inc. (Billings, Montana), the \"FAW\" lure from Trécé, Inc. (Adair, Oklahoma), and the \"Scenturion Fall Armyworm Lure\" from Suterra LLC (Bend, Oregon) contain Z11-16:Ac 36 , a compound not detected by the male antennae in EAG experiments with populations from America 18,37 and Africa (Table 1). Thus, this compound is most likely not needed for male attraction, but its addition to FAW lures might attract other species. Dose response experiments with the important minor component Z7-12:Ac, which is produced by females in concentrations of less than 5% (Fig. 2), showed a decrease in male attraction when high percentages of 5-10% Z7-12:Ac were added to the lures 11,17 . The fact that some American lures contain extremely high percentages of Z7-12:Ac, i.e. the \"FAW\" lure from Trécé releases almost 30% Z7-12:Ac, the \"L105A\" and \"L976\" lures from Scentry Biologicals around 10% Z7-12:Ac, and the \"Scenturion Fall Armyworm Lure\" circa 8% Z7-12:Ac 13 , could explain the attraction of non-target moths like Leucania loreyi to traps baited with FAW lures 13 . The results of our study showed that Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, and Z9-12:Ac are the most promising candidates that should be used to formulate FAW lures, as only these three compound are present within the female gland and evoked EAG responses larger than the control stimuli (Figs. 1  and 2). Based on the relative pheromone percentages that we found in the female gland (Fig. 2), lures consisting of 2% Z7-12:Ac + 98% Z9-14:Ac should be compared with lures containing 1% Z9-12:Ac + 2% Z7-12:Ac + 97% Z9-14:Ac, in order to determine whether Z9-12:Ac is a male attracting component, which is not the case in America 17 . Additionally, the total pheromone amounts should be taken into account, ranging in our experiments between 8.5-46.6 ng of pheromone per female gland (Supplementary Table S1). Dose response experiments in Brazil showed that when testing 10 mg, 1 mg, 0.1 mg, and two females as the pheromone source, more males were caught in traps baited with 1 mg pheromone 18 . Whether these concentrations will work as effectively in Africa as in America depends also in the release rate of the lure itself and still needs to be investigated. In summary, we are just beginning to understand the biology of FAW in its new environment and the more insight we will get into its adaptation mechanisms, the better we can manage the spread of this agricultural pest species.The FAW populations from Nigeria originated from ~270 larvae collected from corn fields in Ijaiye Farm Settlements, in Akinyele local government area of Oyo State (7°39′07.6″N; 3°49′51.2″E) in 2018. The field larvae from Nigeria were shipped to Germany in October 2018. Populations from Benin originated from mass rearing colonies at IITA Cotonou. This population was established from larvae collected in corn fields in 2016 and mated every second month to field individuals collected from corn plants. In December 2018, egg masses from Benin were shipped to Germany where ~600 larvae emerged. The Florida rice-strain was collected in a grass field in Moore Haven (+26° 53′ 3.04′′, −81° 7′ 21.17′′) in May 2010 (~300 larval specimens), and the corn-strain originated from corn plots at a University of Florida research station in Citra, northern Marion county, in September 2018 (~200 larval specimens).All specimens (from Florida, Nigeria and Benin) were shipped to Germany, where they were reared on artificial pinto bean diet in climate chambers at 26 °C and 70% RH, with reversed light:dark (L:D) cycle and 14:10 L:D photoperiod. Adults were fed with 10% honey water and mated randomly in single pairs. All adult pairs from the field that produced fertile offspring were genetically analyzed to identify their strain (see below) and genotype-specific colonies were established and continuously reared. All experiments were conducted in Germany. Experiments with African populations and the Florida corn-strain were conducted within the first 4 months of laboratory rearing, while the Florida rice-strain was reared for eight years in the laboratory in Germany before experiments were conducted. Unfortunately, we were not able to maintain a stable corn-strain population from Benin (C COI -C TPI ) in the laboratory, which is why experiments conducted with this population usually have lower sample sizes than the other populations.Strain identification was assessed by screening adults for one mitochondrial marker (COI) and one nuclear marker (TPI), which are known to be diagnostic for both strains in North and South America 28,29 . DNA extractions were performed in a 96-well plate using Chelex 100 Resin (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA). One adult leg was put in one well together with two metal beads and 300 µl 10% Chelex (diluted in ddH 2 O). The tissue was homogenized in a tissue lyser for 4 min at 30 Hz. The samples were heated for 30 min at 95 °C and 300 rpm spinning, after which they were frozen at −20 °C overnight. Then each plate was thawed, mixed, and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant was filtered through a fritted deep well filter plate (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) and used for strain analyses. Identification of the mitochondrial marker was performed as described by Unbehend, et al. 17 , i.e. after amplification of the COI gene, two strain-specific digests with MspI and SacI were conducted to analyze the strain-affiliation via gel electrophoresis. The TPI marker was analyzed according to methods used by Nagoshi 28 , i.e. a part of the TPI gene was Sanger-sequenced at the MPI-CE and ten single nucleotide polymorphisms were used for strain identification. The sequences were analyzed with Sequencher 5.2.4 (Gene Codes Corporation, Ann Arbor, MI, USA).To identify the male antennal response to Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, E7-12:Ac, Z9-12:Ac, and Z11-16:Ac, EAG recordings of 0-5 days old virgin males were performed with populations from Benin, Nigeria, and Florida. Samples from Florida were included in the analysis as we found no study in the literature that analyzed the EAG response of American populations to all five compounds. Male heads were severed, gently crushed to eliminate movement of the antennae, and placed on a fork-shaped electrode holder (Syntech, Buchenbach, Germany) using an electrolyte gel (Spectra 360 Electrode Gel, Parker Laboratories, Fairfield, NJ, USA). Three amounts (0.001 µg, 0.1 µg, and 10 µg) of each pheromone compound were presented from the lowest to the highest concentration. The lowest pheromone amount (0.001 µg) and 100 times higher amount of 0.1 µg pheromone were chosen as they reflect the range of the female pheromone production. The highest amount of 10 µg pheromone was used as maximum stimulus to identify responses that might not be detected at lower amounts. Ten µl of each pheromone component in each amount were pipetted onto a small piece of filter paper (1 cm 2 ) and placed into a glass Pasteur pipette. Control pipettes contained filter paper with 10 µl hexane alone. A stimulus controller (CS-55, Syntech) produced a flow of 1 l/min charcoal-filtered air over the antennae. Antennae were stimulated with 0.5 s odor puffs, using a randomized sequence for each recording. Before and after testing three different odors, the control stimulus was presented. The inter-stimulus interval was 30 s. Signals were recorded with Syntech software (Autospike Version 3.9) and statistically analyzed with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a Tukey's HSD post hoc test in R version 3.2.0 38 . To meet assumptions of normality and variance homogeneity, the spike amplitude (in mV) was log(x + 1) transformed.The sex pheromone of 2-4 days old virgin females from Benin and Nigeria was analyzed in three experiments. Pheromone data of FAW females from Florida have been previously described by Unbehend, et al. 17 and were included in this manuscript for comparison. In the first experiment, GC-MS analysis was performed to evaluate whether the five pheromone compounds that have been found in FAW females from America (Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, E7-12:Ac, Z9-12:Ac, Z11-16:Ac) are also present in populations from Africa. Glands were extracted 2-4 h into scotophase. The gland was excised from the female abdomen and singly placed into a glass vial containing 50 µl hexane (Carl Roth, Karlsruhe, Germany) plus 125 ng pentadecane (Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Munich, Germany) as internal standard. After 30 min, the gland was removed and extracts of 10 females per region and strain were pooled and reduced from 500 µl to 30-50 µl under a gentle stream of nitrogen. Three µl of the reduced extract were analyzed with GC-MS (5977 A MSD and 7890B GC Systems, Agilent technologies Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA). The GC was equipped with an INNOWAX column (30 m, 0.25 mm id, 25 μm film thickness, Agilent Technologies) and helium was the carrier gas (1 ml/min). The inlet temperature was 240 °C. The GC was programmed from 60 °C with a 2 min hold to 180 °C at 30 °C/min, then to 230 °C at 5 °C/min, and finally to 260 °C at 20 °C/min with a final 5 min hold. The MS transfer line was held at 260 °C, the MS ion source at 230 °C, and mass spectra were taken in EI mode (at 70 eV) in the range from 29-350 m/z. An internal standard containing 100 ng Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, E7-12:Ac, Z9-12:Ac, and Z11-16:Ac (Pherobank, Wageningen, The Netherlands) was used as reference to confirm the presence of compounds by comparing retention times and mass spectra. To verify the presence of the isomers Z7-12:Ac and E7-12:Ac, selected ion monitoring (SIM) was conducted for the masses 67 and 81 with a dwell time of 50 ms.In the second experiment, we extracted glands of single females from Benin and Nigeria and determined the relative and total amount of pheromone by GC analysis. Glands were extracted as described above and GC analysis was conducted on a HP7890 GC with a splitless inlet attached to a high resolution polar capillary column (DB-WAXetr (extended temperature range)) and a flame-ionization detector (FID). Chemical analysis and GC programming was performed as described by Unbehend, et al. 17 . Gland extracts were concentrated from the volume of 50 µl to 4 µl, after which the whole extracts were injected into the GC. To confirm retention times, an internal standard containing 100 ng Z9-14:Ac, Z7-12:Ac, E7-12:Ac, Z9-12:Ac, and Z11-16:Ac, and pentadecane was injected into the GC. All pheromone data were log transformed to stabilize the variance and analyzed using a generalized linear model (GLM) in R 38 .In the third experiment, we assessed whether the pheromone composition in the gland was similar to the pheromone release from the gland and sampled pheromones from the gland surface of calling females with fused silica optical fibers coated with PDMS.The PDMS sampling was conducted with one population, the corn-strain from Nigeria, according to methods described by Lievers and Groot 24 . PDMS fibers (100 μm polydimethylsiloxane; Polymicro Technologies Inc., Phoenix, AZ, USA) were cut in 15 mm long pieces and rubbed for 2.5 min over the pheromone gland of females that called for at least for 15 min, after which the fibers were extracted for 30 min in 50 µl hexane and 125 ng pentadecane. After PDMS sampling, the pheromone glands of the already sampled females were excised from the female abdomen and extracted as described above. All extracts were analyzed via GC as described above.Mating observations. To determine the onset time of mating, single pair matings of African populations were observed as described by Schöfl, et al. 19 . One to four day-old virgin adults were set up in single pairs in clear plastic cups (16 oz.) and fed with 10% honey solution. Matings were set up during the photophase and placed in a walk-in climate chamber (26 °C, 70% RH, L:D 14:10) at least two hours before scotophase. Couples were observed throughout the 10 hours of scotophase, with a 30 min interval. All pairs were observed for one or two consecutive nights starting at the first night after the mating. The onset time of the first mating, regardless of whether it occurred in the first or second night, was used for comparing the timing of mating behavior. Mating behavior of laboratory populations from Florida were previously described by Haenniger, et al. 20 and included for comparison. Data were log transformed and analyzed with an ANOVA followed by a Tukey's HSD post hoc test in R 38 .","tokenCount":"5573"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cb1fc40284f471718643b9ada8bed13a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f37998c3-c220-481d-8d7f-ec69990938fb/retrieve","id":"-1264569593"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"29b60983-6d84-42d5-a87f-ee1794bbd61b","pagecount":"22","content":"The authors would like to thank all stakeholders who were present and contributed to the success of the meeting.Farm Radio International was hired as a consultant for the implementation of an interactive radio program across five (5) regions (Central, Bono East, Northern, Upper East and Upper West) to provide reliable, accurate and timely information on good agricultural practices, timely weather information sharing and gender inclusive activities. This report therefore provides information about the implementation of the project, which had a life span of six months.Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA), led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ghana, is working with partners to deliver climate information services and climate-smart agriculture technologies to farmers. The project is also building a one-health platform to fight the outbreak of pests and diseases that attack crops. AICCRA Ghana builds local capacity through the promotion of innovations in agriculture, in addition to ensuring that women are benefiting from climate smart technologies and climate information services in a gender-transformative manner. The work of AICCRA Ghana and its network of partners are now using validated climate-smart advisories and innovations to make informed farming decisions. AICCRA Ghana bolsters the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers across Ghana and supports greater food security in the country through a partnership-led approach to improve farmers' access to climate information services and the technology and innovation that underpin climate-smart agriculture.The main goal of the engagement between AICCRA and Farm Radio International is to develop an interactive radio program that will enhance the adoption of AICCRA's innovative technologies and climate information services to increase production, increase farmer profitability, enhance environmental protection and improve sustainability.Women farmers in developing countries, including Ghana, face challenges in accessing extension advisory services, with most of those services geared towards the needs of male farmers. Alongside other challenges faced by women farmers, this contributes to the gender gap in agricultural productivity in developing countries, whereby women-managed farms are 20-30% less productive than farms managed by men, (FAO, 2011).• To select and engage eight suitable radio stations with good coverage for smallholder farmers within the ten districts across five project regions.• To design, produce and broadcast 28 weeks of programs • To design and roll out an interactive radio program to disseminate key AICCRA technologies that the project seeks to promote.• To set up a climate information service using the radio program to assist smallholder farmers in obtaining weather information and climate advisory services for their farming activitiesThe study was undertaken to ensure that all the project team members understood the needs, priorities and preferences of the target audience and that the radio programs responded to farmers' information needs.The study employed focus group discussions and key informant interviews to collect data from the study participants.The study communities and participants were selected by the AICCRA team. These were communities and participants who had been on the AICCRA project for about two years. The participants were therefore selected based on their knowledge and awareness of the project. Farm Radio International used its monitoring and evaluation volunteers in the project regions to collect data from the participants. The study was conducted in five regions (Upper West, Upper East, Northern, Bono East and Central) and covered sixteen communities in ten districts. The participants were mainly farmers.A total of 464 participants (farmers), comprising 173 males and 291 females, took part in the study. These covered both old and young farmers across the five regions and ten districts.Crops cultivated in four out of the five regions were similar. Apart from the Central region, where crops cultivated by the participants differed, participants from the other four regions (Northern, Upper East, Upper West and Bono East) cultivated similar crops except yam, which is cultivated in Bono East only. In the four regions, the major crops cultivated included groundnut, maize, millet/sorghum, beans, rice and yam, while in the Central region, participants cultivated cassava, sweet potato and maize.Farmers enumerated the following as challenges confronting them in the cultivation of their crops.• Changes in rainfall patterns The concept is very famous among participants in the Upper West, Upper East, Northern and Bono East Regions. It was, however, observed that it is not popular in communities visited in the Central Region. The participants in this region do not know about the existence of such a concept which is seen by the farmers as a financial life wire for them and other poor rural community members. In each of the study communities in the four regions, there were an average of four VSLA groups, with membership ranging from 25 to 35. These were mostly dominated by women and only had men as secretaries to keep records.The interaction with the participants showed that the majority of them are aware of the existence of the demonstration fields and have either visited the field or participated in the demonstration activities. Those who have either visited or participated in the demonstration field activities have increased their knowledge about the importance of planting in rows, using certified or improved seeds, intercropping and how to produce biopesticides using Neem leaves. It was observed during the interaction with the farmers that, even though they had acquired knowledge through their participation in the demonstration field activities, the majority of them could not practice what they learnt on their farms due to financial constraints. The few who practiced shared their experiences, which pointed to a positive influence.• The participants acknowledged the existence of climate change and its effects on farming activities and the survival of living beings.• There have been changes in rainfall patterns, which have affected agricultural activities • There is excessive heat or high temperatures in the communities, affecting the number of hours they can work on their farms• There are no more ruminants near the communities; they have to travel far to get bush meat • There has been an increase in pests and diseases.• Decrease in soil fertility. Farmlands are no longer fertile enough to provide a good yield. Fertilizer application has become a requirement for farming if a farmer wants to get good yields.• Most water bodies are drying up and this is causing a lot of problems for farmers. Women have to travel far water and sometimes it affects the time they go to the farm.• Felling of trees for either charcoal or fuel wood, leading to deforestation The participants, in no order of importance mentioned the following as the main source of agricultural informationOf the 464 study participants, 150 said they own radio sets and 30 women out of the 150 own radio sets as well. However, over 300 of them have access to radio, either through people who have radio sets in their households or via community information centres. In each of the project communities visited, the participants shared with the study team their preferred radio stations, times and dates for receiving agricultural information. Thirteen (13) radio stations were identified and selected by the participants during the formative research. Eight (8) radio stations were selected and engaged based on the outcome of the formative research that was conducted across the project regions and physical inspection of equipment and capacity to deliver. The selected radio stations, along with their responding regions and districts are listed below. A 3-day design workshop organized in Kintampo from May 31 to June 02, 2023, brought together key stakeholders, including farmers, AICCRA-trained extension officers, representatives from the Ghana Meteorological Agency and participants from all 8 selected radio stations. The process guided participants through Farm Radio's step-by-step approach of brainstorming in groups to identify relevant topics and compelling content for weekly programs.Throughout the three days, the group sessions gathered ideas around climate information services and climate-smart agriculture technologies for farmers. The content also incorporated messages on AICCRA's onehealth platform, which is aimed at fighting the outbreak of pests and diseases that attack crops.• Certified seeds of cowpea A total of 31 participants assigned to produce and broadcast the radio program participated in the 2-day training virtually, since the partner stations were existing radio stations that are familiar with Farm Radio's programming approach. The main features of an FRI In-Station training and coaching process are to:• Develop practical skills for planning, implementing and evaluating radio program episodes through IST. The Virtual in Station equipped the new and old production teams to put into practice how to draft run sheets from a design document for review. The drafting of run sheets is an activity that enables members of the production team to put into practice what they learnt at the IST.• Evaluate and learn through a post-program workshop Action/reflection oriented. Right from the submission of the draft run sheets, the work of the production teams can be evaluated. On returning the reviewed run sheets to the stations, the trainers take the production teams through the run sheets to ensure that the suggestions are understood.• The primary learning process is the creation, broadcast and evaluation of several real episodes and reflection on how it went (through two lenses -alignment with communication objectives and good radio)Flexible:• While the structure remains the same, the program adapts to real work (different FRI types, different communication objectives, different skills)• The suggested workflow of production teams drafting run sheets for review and correcting them for broadcast ensures independent work and a variety of productions.• Opportunity to immediately apply what they learn in their work.• During the training, group assignments were given per station and presentations were made such that all stations learned from each other's work (the presentations were on radio formats, intros, outros or extros, digging deep, and interviews)• After the virtual In-station training and subsequent production of draft run sheets, it provides the opportunity for production teams to apply what has been learnt. It also provides an opportunity to assess the level of understanding of concepts and how to use them immediately after the in-station training.• Between the training and production, there were a few mock activities. Production teams from each station worked on a sample synopsis for presentation and aired episode zero as mock activities to usher them into the first episode. It leads to measurable results -improved quality of farmer radio programs.Following the virtual In-Station Training, all the stations started broadcasting. Each week, a Production Team prepares draft run sheets along the lines they were trained on at the virtual In-Station training. The drafts are sent for review. The reviewed run sheets are sent back to the stations to correct and broadcast their programs.Tenets of the Green Leaf Magazine model thoroughly explained and shared with broadcasters 1. VOICES Standards explained and shared with the broadcasters.The production team was trained on how to prepare their run sheets using the Design Document.There was a thorough discussion and demonstration of how to use various radio formats to capture the voices of farmers and treat topics.The broadcasters were trained on gender and how it could be incorporated into their programmes.The production team had extensive training on ULIZA log and polls and how relevant they are to interactive radio programming.How to conduct field monitoring in a Focused group discussion 7. Sourcing and use of radio resources in producing programs• Design Document • Run Sheet TemplateBefore radio stations broadcasted an episode, run sheets were presented to the FRI team for evaluation to ensure they met the broadcasting standards of FRI. The highest number of episodes aired was 20, while the least were 16 episodes. As part of the contract signed with the radio stations, they were expected to complete 16 weeks of radio programs. However, as part of the sustainability strategy of FRI, some stations aired additional weeks of programs. A total of two hundred and eighty-eight (288) live and repeat episodes have cumulatively been aired by the eight (8) radio stations. Radio programs were reviewed based on the content and the green leaf model using Farm Radio International's VOICES standard. Programs aired followed the Green Leaf magazine model, featuring various components such as Green Leaf news, weather updates, digging deep, Let's Get Farming and more. Discussions followed the content design and relevant information was shared with listeners.Phone-ins were opened for listeners to share their opinions. An average of 7 callers were recorded per episode, with 57% and 43% of women and men contributing, respectively. Most callers had questions concerning soil nutrients, pest and disease control, land preparation, seed variety, the proper use of agrochemicals, the right planting time and distances, fertilizer application and more. These were to further probe and have a better understanding, while the rest were called to commend the program and share opinions and experiences on some of the practices.Throughout the project, four (4) monthly review meetings were held with the eight partner radio stations, staff of IITA and Agriculture Extension Agents. The meetings provided an opportunity for a review of the radio programs to identify what was working better and the challenges encountered for redress. Each radio station provided updates on the progress of implementation and success. Throughout the four meetings, the station reported good feedback from the farmers concerning the importance of the radio program to them. Calls received from farmers indicated they were very happy about the project and also satisfied with the content or information shared by the radio stations. The participation of IITA in the meetings was very important, as they were at hand to quickly clarify issues or concerns raised by the radio stations regarding the project. Some issues that were raised during the meeting were difficulty getting the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMET provide timely weather information and some resource persons not always available for live programs. To address these issues, a one-day online training session on how to interpret the weather was organized for all eight radio stations. The stations were also encouraged to record resource persons who may find it difficult to participate in live studio programs.The estimated number of potential listeners of the radio program is 495,840. This number is derived from the total adult population of the project districts. Based on previous radio listenership rates recorded in the project areas, it was estimated that forty percent (40%) of the potential listeners (Two hundred and forty-five thousand, six hundred and three (245,603)  Recommendations /Suggestions• Community information centres (CICs) have played an important role in disseminating information to the target audience, especially communities in the Bono East and Central regions where these centres are already established. It will therefore be important to support project communities in Upper West, Northern and Upper East regions to establish information centres to complement the work of the radio stations.• Budget allocation should be made for monitoring visits to the field by FRI and radio stations to obtain feedback on the progress of implementation.• The Uliza system/platform of FRI should be added to the next phase of the project because it makes the radio program more interactive and participatory.• Radio programs should commence early to follow the farming seasons of the geographical areas of the project.Despite the challenges encountered during the implementation of the project, all planned activities were successfully completed. Feedback from the radio station showed that it has been completed. Beneficiaries were quite satisfied and excited about the project.\"Let me commend you and the resource person on your outstanding efforts to educate farmers and enhance farming\".\"Let me commend you on an excellent program. Also, how can insect pests be controlled on cashew plantations\"?\"Your radio station has taken a fantastic step, and I want to thank you for it because the program is highly educational\".\"What other options do farmers have besides burning the bush before planting\"?\"Inorganic products can be used in combination with organic manure to achieve long-term results\".\"Is it advisable to grow maize for eight months\"?\"I'd like to express my gratitude to the sponsors for their support of this wonderful project and program\".\"What is an ideal time to apply urea\"?\"Please, I will request that rice farming topics be discussed on the show\".\"Can drought-tolerant maize be grown during this planting season\"?\"We need to grow more yams in order to have adequate yam seeds\".\"Can the expert provide us a detailed explanation on how to use the inorganic manure (cow dung) on our crops\"?\"I want to congratulate you on a job well done as the host.Please share with me the weather updates\"?\"My cabbage has begun developing yellowing leaves. Also, I don't seem to obtain long-lasting results when I spray the cabbages. What must I do?\"I want to express my gratitude for this wonderful program.We are now experiencing food shortage; therefore, this program will be very beneficial to us\".\"I've seen my pepper plant wilting and the leaves not sprouting. What steps can be taken to stop this attack\"?\"We need a thorough education in yam cultivation\". \"When is the best time to plant yam? Can mature yam seeds be replanted\"?\" Every piece of information shared by the resource person is accurate. I've seen it on yam, and you can sometimes spot the infestation when peeling it\".\"Crop deterioration has been severe in recent years. What could be the cause, and can it be linked to the frequent usage of chemicals\"?Although I cultivate some of the potatoes, mine don't grow properly\".\"Please, in addition to yam, I've seen a similar problem affecting cabbages. How can the disease be controlled\"?On the pepper plant, we can use organic pest control techniques as well\".\"How can I prevent withering and yellowing of the tomato plant's leaves as a tomato farmer\"?I need a lot of education and information from the resource person, and I'll need his telephone number after the show\".\"We were supposed to have abundant yams in the month of August, but the crop has yet to grow. What can be done to reverse this\"?\"Most farmers are unwilling to grow potatoes because of the infestation. In addition, we require a market for our produce\".\"The resource person only mentioned staking distance and nothing about height. However, I will be grateful if he addresses that for me. Thank you very much\".I am a cowpea farmer, and I've found that the information shared by the resource person is accurate because when I incorporated them into my farming practices, my crops have started thriving.\"What steps can I take to avoid yam nematode infestations\"?Last year, we received expired seeds from the extension officers, and I recommend thorough inspection before distributing seeds to farmers.\"Is there another way to substitute the normal wood with bamboo sticks throughout the yam producing process so that we can protect our forests\"?\"Where are the new potato varieties available to buy or obtain\"?. The resource person should communicate in the native language because the English is too much for us to grasp\".\"When is the ideal time or period for growing sweet potatoes\"?\"I want to express my gratitude to you and the resource person, especially for the part about us and our wives. It was truly beneficial, including the budgeting advice.\"\"Which rice variety should I produce, and where can I acquire rice seeds\"?: \"If you plan to farm yam, using sticks to support the yam is advisable as it helps prevent pests and diseases. Nowadays, it seems our women are not taking farming yam seriously.\"\"When should herbicides be sprayed before rice cultivation\"?\"We require yam farming machines to assist us in farming more yams. It has become challenging to find labor, and even our own children cannot handle the work.\"\"Which chemicals are effective against the Potato weevil\"?\"Farming yam has become increasingly difficult in recent times.\"\"How can I control pests on my pepper plant\"?: \"I want to express my gratitude for this topic. I practice irrigation farming, particularly with potatoes, and I haven't encountered the insects mentioned.\"Other than for food, can potatoes not be processed into anything else\"?\"The Agric expert omitted information about the insecticide and dosage used to combat weevils from his presentation\".I have a maize farm that has been infested by fall armyworms. Are there any directions on how to control them\"? \"Vegetable prices were not given during the YWYM segment, but we hope to have them in the upcoming program. Thank you\"., the resource person stated in his talk that we should collect all waste after weeding the farm. How can we collect all waste on the farm\"?\"During the YWYM segment, the tomato unit price was not provided\".\"I planted sweet potatoes in my garden again this year after cultivating them last year, but they failed to thrive as I was expecting. What should I do\"? \"I will advise vegetable producers to increase their production so that there is enough food in the region.Because most vegetables are purchased from Accra, this could help in reducing transportation costs\".How can we prevent livestock in our neighborhood from causing damage to our crops?\"The chemicals we use on our farms may be contributing factors to the shortage of cocoyam we are experiencing\".May have the contact information of the resource person, please?\"\"I want to encourage us into growing onions full-time.because the onions we grow are of higher grade than those that are imported\".Can any herbicide be used for cowpeas\"?Since colonial times, throughout Nkrumah's reign, the Central region has been producing yam, which grows very well. However, since the introduction of fertilizer, our yams have failed to meet expectations\".\"Where can I buy cowpea seeds\"?We visited the Ministry of Agriculture, but unfortunately, we were unable to obtain the cowpea seeds.\"Can any herbicide be used in Soybean production?Beans are best planted in August as it needs more water for good growth. However, most farmers wait till the 9 th month before they begin planting and this makes it difficult to germinate well. Early planting is necessary as it helps to reduce the amount of water needed for spraying.\"Can an improved seed be replanted\"?-I am confused as the resource person said when you plant maize on a soil where there has been some form of weed burning, it prevents growth of the maize. I once cleared a land and burnt weeds on a small portion of the land and planted the original maize variety. The burnt portion gave me good yields unlike the other portion of the land.What can I do to treat my wilting Okra leaves?In fact what you are doing will help us a lot, what the man said is very true and it will help us do well, and like he said any time we clear the land let us not take everything out.Let's leave some on the land so it will protect the land, more times if you do not want to use fertilizer you go this way and it helps a lot. We want to with our extension officers What can I do to prevent or control infestation in my garden eggs during harvest?A contact was given out on the program 2 weeks ago but it's unreachable. My okro farm got infested some time ago; I am facing the same challenge again together with a friend who is also into okro farming and a host of other farmers. We were informed extension officers will be visiting us but till date there has been no sign of them.When is the best time to plant superbro maize?You are doing a great job for Kintampo and I am grateful. I make time to listen all the time. As I keep saying, there are a lot of Werla farmers and we are all missing out on education on modern farming techniques. Farmers on the north are always acknowledged as sidelining those of us at the south. Farmers in the south should be included in the educational activities to aid our farms.\"Mallam Yaya\" cowpea variety suitable for planting this month?How can I prevent my pepper fruits from falling off as soon as they start to form?As a yam farmer, I've noticed that land is becoming scarce. Can I grow yam on the same land for two consecutive years?I noticed some insects on my okra plants and I've attempted various methods to control them, but they persist. What can I do to manage them effectively?Can neem tree leaves effectively combat nematode infestations?Is it possible to cultivate garden eggs along the riverside?I want to cultivate pepper and need some guidelines.I have cultivated cowpeas, currently in the flowering stage, and I'm looking for any chemical to enhance the flowering\". \"We're planning to harvest our groundnuts; is it possible to cultivate maize on that same farm?\": \"Is it possible to cultivate both cowpea and beans simultaneously? Additionally, please continue to promote the use of organic manure, as it's proving to be beneficial for farmers.\": \"Is it possible to farm potatoes and millet at this time of the season?\" \"The planting distance for maize was not mentioned by the extension officer, also, how long does it take to complete a germination test\"?When do potatoes begin to mature after being planted?\"Could the expert please explain how to utilize neem extract to combat weevils\"?\"Can potato vines be procured from the district Agric office\"?\"How is the Cylas weevil controlled\"?\"Could you please remind us of the benefits of \"Ananse Dokono\" and neem extract that we were briefed about last week to fight weevil on our farms? I seem to have forgotten\".\"Could you please offer us with okra market prices, specifically from the Cape Coast market\"?\"Is it a good idea to apply insecticides to already ploughed land before planting potatoes\"?\"Why aren't we getting updates on vegetables other than tomatoes\"?\"Can cocoyam and cowpea be grown on the same farm\"?\"Is climate change just affecting farmers, or are fish farmers also affected\"?\"What is causing the cocoyam scarcity\"? aiccra.cgiar.org info@cgiar.org CGIARAfrica","tokenCount":"4225"}
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+{"metadata":null,"keywords":null,"sieverID":"383f16dc-4089-41d1-8b29-85fee24cd772","pagecount":"0","content":"\n\nNele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\nConservation agriculture, \nimproving soil quality for sustainable \nproduction systems?\nThis is didactic material developed by CIMMYT’s Mexico-based \nConservation Agriculture Program. For comments on how to improve, \nplease contact Bram Govaerts (b.govaerts@cgiar.org).\n\n1Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\n1. Introduction\n1.1. Food production and land degradation\nHuman efforts to produce ever-greater amounts of food \nleave their mark on the environment. Persistent use of \nconventional farming practices based on extensive tillage, \nespecially when combined with removal or in situ burning \nof crop residue, has magnified soil erosion losses and the \nsoil resource base has been steadily degraded. It has been \nestimated that human activity is responsible for the loss \nof 26 billion tons of topsoil per year, which is 2.6 times \nthe natural rate of soil degradation. Erosion has been \nestimated to cause USD $44 billion a year in damage to \nfarmland, waterways, infrastructure, and health. Crop \nyields in the US would drop 8% per year if farmers failed \nto replace lost nutrients and water (Pimentel et al., 1995). \nAnother direct consequence of farmers’ persistent use \nof traditional production practices is rapidly increasing \nproduction costs; the costs of inputs such as improved \nvarieties and fertilizers continue to increase and farmers \nmake inefficient use of them. \n1.2. Conservation agriculture\nNowadays, people have come to understand that \nagriculture should not only be high yielding, but also \nsustainable. Conservation agriculture (CA) has been \nproposed as a widely adapted set of management \nprinciples that can assure more sustainable agricultural \nproduction. Conservation agriculture is a broader concept \nthan conservation tillage, a system where at least 30% of \nthe soil surface is covered with crop residues after seeding \nof the next crop. In CA, the emphasis lies not only on the \ntillage component but on the combination of the following \nthree principles:\n1.\t Reduction\tin\ttillage:\tThe\tobjective\tis\tto\tachieve\tzero\t\ntillage\t(i.e.,\tno\ttillage\tat\tall)\tbut\tthe\tsystem\tmay\tinvolve\t\ncontrolled\ttillage\tseeding\tsystems\tthat\tnormally\tdo\tnot\t\ndisturb more than 20–25% of the soil surface.\n2.\t Retention\tof\tadequate\tlevels\tof\tcrop\tresidues\tand\t\nsoil\tsurface\tcover:\tThe\tobjective\tis\tthe\tretention\tof\t\nsufficient\tresidue\ton\tthe\tsoil\tto:\t\n• protect the soil from water and wind erosion; \n•\t reduce\twater\trun-off\tand\tevaporation;\n•\t improve\twater\tproductivity;\tand\t\n• enhance soil physical, chemical, and biological \nproperties\tassociated\twith\tlong-term\tsustainable\t\nproductivity\n3.\t Use\tof\tcrop\trotations:\tThe\tobjective\tis\tto\temploy\t\ndiversified\tcrop\trotations\tto:\n•\t help\tmoderate/mitigate\tpossible\tweed,\tdisease\tand\t\npest problems;\n•\t utilize\tthe\tbeneficial\teffects\tof\tsome\tcrops\ton\tsoil\t\nconditions\tand\ton\tthe\tproductivity\tof\tthe\tnext\tcrop;\t\nand\n•\t provide\tfarmers\twith\teconomically\tviable\toptions\t\nthat minimize risk.\nThese\tCA\tprinciples\tare\tapplicable\tto\ta\twide\trange\tof\t\ncrop production systems from low-yielding, dry, rainfed \nconditions to high-yielding, irrigated conditions. However, \nthe application of the principles of CA will be very \ndifferent from one situation to another. Specific and \ncompatible management components such as pest and \nweed control tactics, nutrient management strategies, \nrotation crops, etc. will need to be identified through \nadaptive research with active farmer involvement. \nFor example, under gravity-fed irrigated conditions, a \npermanent raised bed system with furrow irrigation \n(Figure 1) may be more suitable and sustainable than \na reduced or zero tillage system on the flat to replace \nthe widely used, conventionally tilled system of flood \nirrigation on flat land.\n1.3. Soil quality\nWhen evaluating an agricultural management system for \nsustainability, the central question is: which production \nsystem will not exhaust the natural resources, will \noptimize soil conditions and will reduce food production \nConservation agriculture, improving soil quality \nfor sustainable production systems?\nNele Verhulsta, Isabelle M. Françoisb, Bram Govaertsa\na International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Apdo. Postal 6-641, 06600 Mexico, D.F., Mexico\nb Independent consultant\n2 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\nvulnerability, while at the same time maintaining or \nenhancing productivity? Soil quality is the practical \ntranslation of this concept of sustainability. Soil quality \ncan be defined as follows:\n•\t The\tcapacity\tof\ta\tspecific\tsoil\ttype\tto\tfunction,\twithin\t\nnaturally managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain \nplant\tand\tanimal\tproductivity,\tmaintain\tor\tenhance\t\nwater and air quality, and support human health and \nhabitation\t\n•\t The\tdegree\tof\tfitness\tof\ta\tsoil\tfor\ta\tspecific\tuse\n•\t The\tability\tof\tthe\tsoil\tto\tmaintain\thigh\tproductivity,\t\nwithout\tsignificant\tsoil\tor\tenvironmental\tdegradation.\t\nEvaluation of soil quality is based on the physical, \nchemical, and biological characteristics of the soil. \nManagement factors such as tillage and residue \nmanagement can modify the soil quality. Changes in \nsoil quality are, however, not only associated with \nmanagement, but also with the environmental context, \nsuch as temperature and precipitation. A comparative soil \nquality evaluation is one in which the performance of the \nsystem is determined in relation to alternatives. The biotic \nand abiotic soil system attributes of all the alternative \nsystems are compared over time. This kind of comparison \nis useful for determining the impact of management \nsystems that have been in place for some period of time. \n2. Influence of conservation \nagriculture on physical soil quality\n2.1. Soil structure and aggregation\nSoil structure is a key factor in soil functioning and is an \nimportant factor in the evaluation of the sustainability of \ncrop production systems. It has been defined as the size, \nshape and arrangement of solids and voids, continuity \nof pores and voids, their capacity to retain and transmit \nfluids and organic and inorganic substances, and the \nability to support vigorous root growth and development \n(Figure 2). Soil structure is often expressed as the degree \nof stability of aggregates.\nSoil structural stability is the ability of aggregates to \nremain intact when exposed to different stresses. \nShaking of aggregates on a wire mesh both in air (dry \nsieving) and in water (wet sieving) is commonly used to \nmeasure aggregate stability. With dry sieving, the only \nstress applied is the one from the sieving, while with \nthe wet sieving the samples are additionally exposed to \nthe power of the water (slaking). Therefore, the mean \nweight diameter (MWD) of aggregates after dry sieving is \ngenerally larger than the MWD after wet sieving. In the \nfollowing, we will discuss the three elements of CA and \ntheir influence on physical soil quality. \nFig. 1. Permanent raised beds with furrow irrigation. The beds are not tilled but only reshaped as needed between \ncrop cycles. One to four rows are planted on top of the bed, depending on the bed width and crop, with irrigation \napplied in the furrow. Residues are chopped and left on the surface. \n3Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\n2.1.1. Influence of tillage\nZero tillage with residue retention improves dry aggregate \ndistribution compared to conventional tillage. The effect \nof zero tillage on water stability is even more pronounced, \nwith a higher MWD for wet sieving reported for a wide \nvariety of soils and agro-ecological conditions (for \nexample Figure 3). \nIn cases when conventional tillage results in good \nstructural distribution, the structural components are \nstill weaker at resisting water slaking than in zero tillage \nsituations with crop residue retention. Thus, soils under \nzero tillage with residue retention become more stable \nand less susceptible to structural deterioration, while \nFig. 2. Soil aggregates; on the left, clear structure and aggregates with soil fauna present; on the right, dense \nstructure and fewer aggregates than on the left.\nFig. 3. Effect of tillage and irrigation management on mean weight diameter of soil aggregates obtained by dry \nand wet sieving for the 2008/09 crop cycle in CIMMYT’s long-term sustainability experiment, Yaqui Valley, Mexico \n(adapted from Verhulst et al., 2011). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean. PB = permanent raised \nbeds; CTB = conventionally tilled beds; Full = full irrigation; Red = reduced irrigation.\nconventionally tilled soils are prone to erosion (Figure 4). \nThis is a result of the direct and indirect effects of tillage \non aggregation:\n•\t Physical\tdisturbance\tof\tsoil\tstructure\tthrough\ttillage\t\nresults in a direct breakdown of soil aggregates and an \nincreased turnover of aggregates.\n•\t Tillage\talso\tresults\tin\tbreakdown\tof\tfragments\tof\troots\t\nand\tmycorrhizal\thyphae,\twhich\tare\tmajor\tbinding\t\nagents for macroaggregates. \n•\t The\tresidues\tlying\ton\tthe\tsoil\tsurface\tin\tCA\tprotect\tthe\t\nsoil from raindrop impact.\n•\t During\ttillage,\ta\tredistribution\tof\tthe\tsoil\torganic\t\nmatter\ttakes\tplace.\tSmall\tchanges\tin\tsoil\torganic\t\ncarbon\tcan\tinfluence\tthe\tstability\tof\tmacroaggregates.\t\n 2.5\n 2.0\n \n 1.5\n 1.0\n 0.5\n 0\n PB-Full PB-Red CTB-Full CTB-Red\n Treatment\nM\nea\nn \nwe\nigh\nt d\niam\net\ner\n (m\nm\n)\nDry sieving\nWet sieving\n4 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\n•\t Soil\torganic\tmatter\tcan\tincrease\tboth\tsoil\tresistance\t\nand\tresilience\tto\tdeformation,\tand\timprove\tsoil\t\nmacroporosity.\n•\t Tillage\treduces\tmacrofauna\tpopulations\t(e.g.,\t\nearthworms), compared to CA systems, which \ndecreases\tthe\tpotentially\tpositive\teffects\tof\t\nmacrofauna\ton\tsoil\taggregation.\t\n2.1.2. Influence of residue management\nAs organic matter is a key factor in soil aggregation, \nthe management of previous crop residues is key to \nsoil structural development and stability. It has been \nknown for many years that the addition of organic \nsubstrates to soil improves its structure. The return \nof crop residue to the soil surface not only increases \nthe aggregate formation, but it also decreases the \nbreakdown of aggregates by reducing erosion and \nprotecting aggregates against raindrop impact. The \nMWD of aggregates as measured by dry and wet sieving \ndecreased with decreasing amounts of residues retained \nin a rainfed permanent bed planting system. It was also \nfound that burning stubble lowered the water stability \nof aggregates in the fractions >2 mm and <50 µm. \nHowever, it must be noted that partial residue removal \nkept aggregation within acceptable limits. This indicates \nthat it is not always necessary to retain all crop residues \nin the field to achieve the benefits of permanent raised \nbeds or zero tillage systems. \n2.1.3. Influence of crop rotation \nAltering crop rotation can influence soil organic carbon \nby changing the quantity and quality of organic matter \ninput and thus has the potential to alter soil aggregation \nindirectly. Crops can affect soil aggregation by their \nroot systems because plant roots are important binding \nagents at the scale of macroaggregates. A soil under \nwheat was found to have more large macroaggregates \nthan a soil under maize (Lichter et al., 2008). Wheat has a \nmore horizontal growing root system than maize and the \nplant population of wheat is higher resulting in a denser \nsuperficial root network. This denser network could \npositively influence aggregate formation and stabilization. \nAlso, soil microbial biomass and bacterial diversity \ncan influence aggregate formation, and these can be \ninfluenced by crop rotation too. However, few studies \nhave reported on the influence of crop rotation on soil \naggregation. \n2.2. Soil porosity\nPores are of different sizes, shapes, and continuity and \nthese characteristics influence the infiltration, storage \nand drainage of water, the movement and distribution \nof gases, and the ease of penetration of soil by growing \nroots. The pores are created by abiotic (e.g., tillage and \ntraffic, freezing and thawing, drying and wetting) and \nby biotic factors (e.g., root growth, burrowing fauna). \nThe changes in pore characteristics primarily reflect \nchanges in the form, magnitude and frequency of stresses \nimposed on the soil, the placement of crop residues, and \nthe population of micro-organisms and fauna in the soil.\n2.2.1. Bulk density and total porosity\nTotal porosity is normally calculated from measurements \nof bulk density so the terms bulk density and total \nporosity can be used interchangeably. The effect of \ntillage and residue management on soil density is mainly \nconfined to the topsoil (plough layer). In deeper soil \nlayers, soil bulk density is generally similar in zero and \nconventional tillage. \nA reduction in tillage would be expected to result \nin a progressive change in total porosity with time, \napproaching a new ‘steady state’. However, initial changes \nmay be too small to be distinguished from natural \nvariation. In short-term experiments, there is no clear \neffect of the management system on bulk density – \nmost studies found no significant differences in soil bulk \ndensity between zero tillage and conventional tillage. The \nresults of the effect of different tillage practices on bulk \ndensity in experiments that have run for approximately \n10 years are variable. In one experiment in New Zealand, \nan increase in bulk density under zero tillage compared \nFig. 4. Differences in aggregation between \nconservation agriculture (left) and conventional \nmanagement (right). After 5 years of zero tillage on \npermanent raised beds, the soil had significantly more \nstable aggregates compared to conventional tillage. \n(Photo taken by Castellanos-Navarrete, A., 2006).\n5Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\nwith conventional tillage was measured after 10 years in \nan imperfectly drained loess soil. However, a significantly \nmore compacted soil under zero tillage compared to \nconventional tillage did not have an adverse effect on \ncrop yield. Other studies found a lower bulk density in \nzero tillage than in conventional tillage at a depth of 3–7 \ncm. The difference was not evident in the lower soil layers \n(Horne et al., 1992). \nDifferences in bulk density between tillage systems in \nthe longer term (>15 years) have been somewhat more \nconsistent. It has mostly been observed that soil bulk \ndensity is higher in the surface layer of zero tillage than \nconventional tillage, but lower below 30 cm, reflecting \nthe rupture action of tillage near the surface and the \ncompacting and shearing action of tillage implements \nbelow tillage depths. The top 3 cm of the soil can have a \nlower bulk density under zero tillage, which is attributed \nto the development of an organic-rich mulch and possibly \nenhanced faunal activity. \nA 15-year field experiment in China showed the evolution \nof the soil density under different tillage systems (Li et al., \n2007):\n•\t In\tthe\tfirst\t6\tyears,\tsoil\tbulk\tdensity\tto\t20\tcm\tdepth\t\nwas\tsignificantly\tless\tin\tthe\tconventional\ttreatment,\t\ndemonstrating\tthe\tincrease\tin\tbulk\tdensity\twhich\t\noccurred\tin\tthe\tzero\ttillage\ttreatments,\tprobably\t\ncaused\tby\twheel\ttraffic\tand\tlack\tof\tregular\tsoil\t\nloosening\n•\t However,\tin\tthe\tfollowing\t5\tyears,\tmean\tsoil\tbulk\t\ndensity of the two treatments were similar\n•\t In\tthe\tlast\t2\tyears,\tbulk\tdensity\tbecame\tslightly\tless\t\nin\tthe\tzero\ttillage\twith\tresidue\tretention\ttreatment\t\nthan\tin\tconventional\ttillage,\tsuggesting\tthat\tthe\ttraffic\t\neffect\ton\tbulk\tdensity\thad\tbeen\tnegated\tand\ta\tnew\t\nequilibrium had been reached with the improvements \nin\tsoil\tcondition,\tincluding\timproved\torganic\tcarbon,\t\nincreased\tbiotic\tactivity,\tand\timproved\tstructure.\nIn summary, the introduction of zero tillage can result in \nthe loss of total pore space as indicated by an increase \nin bulk density. However, the loss of porosity is generally \nlimited to the plough layer. There is some evidence \nthat the porosity in the top 5 cm of the profile may be \ngreater under zero tillage. The extent of increase may \nbe a function of the build-up of organic matter at this \ndepth and enhanced macrofaunal activity. The adoption \nof controlled traffic when converting to zero tillage is \nimportant in limiting the possible loss of pore space. \nReports on the effect of crop rotation and residue \nmanagement on soil porosity are sparse. It seems that \nin long-term experiments, cropping systems that return \nmore crop residue decrease bulk density and increase the \ntotal and effective porosity than systems that leave fewer \nresidues. The more mulch left on the surface, the lower \nthe bulk density, and this effect is very clear in the 0–3 \ncm and to a lesser extent in the 3–10 cm layers (Blanco-\nCanqui and Lal, 2007). The retention of crop residue \nin the field is important to prevent compaction when \nconventionally tilled fields are converted to zero tillage. \n2.2.2. Pore size distribution and pore continuity\nThe changes in total porosity introduced by management \nare related to the alterations in pore size distribution. \nTotal porosity of soils is distributed among different pore \nsize classes and different size classes fulfill different roles \nin aeration, infiltration, drainage and storage of water, \nand offer different mechanical resistance to root growth. \nThe three classes of pores are shown in Table 1, with \ntheir size and function.\nIn general, micro- and meso-porosity is reported to be \nhigher in zero tillage compared to conventional tillage, \nbut in some cases no effect of tillage is observed. The \neffect of residue management and crop rotation on pore \nsize distribution is not often investigated; however, one \nstudy reported a higher volume of mesopores in the \n0–3 cm layer in zero tillage with residue retention than \nin zero tillage without residue retention (Blanco-Canqui \nand Lal, 2007). \nMacropores are important for water flux and infiltration \nin both saturated and unsaturated conditions. In addition, \na soil matrix with macropores offers greater potential for \nundisturbed root growth because the roots can bypass \nthe zones of high mechanical impedance. \nWhen soils are converted to zero tillage, macroporosity \nwould be expected to be limited in the zone that \nwas formerly tilled due to processes such as traffic-\nTable 1. Pore classes with diameter and primary function\n Name Diameter Primary function\n Macropore >30 µm\t Water\tflow\tduring\tinfiltration\tand\t\ndrainage,\tsoil\taeration,\tplace\tof\tinitiation\t\nof root growth\n Mesopore 0.2–30 µm Storage of water for plant growth\n Micropores <0.2 µm\t Microbiological\tactivity\n6 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\ninduced compaction. However, this compaction may be \ncompensated for by progressive creation of macropores \nfrom roots and faunal activity with time. The commonly \nobserved decrease in total porosity in zero tillage relative \nto conventional tillage is associated with significant \nchanges in pore size distribution in the macropore class. \nWater infiltration, retention, and flow not only depend \non the quantity and size of pores but also on the \ninterconnectivity and shape of pores. Changes in the \nmorphology of pores reflect changes in the processes \nthat create these pores. Irregular and elongated shaped \npores, >1,000 µm in diameter and length, are greater \nin number in conventional compared to zero tillage at a \ndepth of 0–20 cm. This can be attributed to annual mixing \nand homogenization by the plough. A greater proportion \nof macropores oriented in the horizontal direction in \nthe 5–15 cm depth was observed under zero tillage than \nunder conventional tillage (VandenBygaart et al., 1999). \nBiopores created by roots and fauna such as earthworms \ncan be maintained in the plough player in the absence of \nannual tillage. These rounded pores >500 µm are more \nfrequent in the zero tillage systems after a few years, even \nwhen the total number of macropores >1,000 µm was \nmuch greater under conventional tillage (VandenBygaart \net al., 1999). This can be attributed to the maintenance \nof root and earthworm channels under zero tillage \nthrough the years, while these are destroyed annually \nunder conventional tillage. The earthworm channels with \nexcrement infillings were abundant in the zero tillage \nplots at all depths, but absent in conventionally tilled \nplots. \n2.3. Hydraulic conductivity and water-holding \ncapacity\nHydraulic conductivity would be expected to be \nhigher in zero tillage with residue retention compared \nto conventional tillage due to the larger macropore \nconductivity, which is the result of an increased number \nof biopores. However, the results of different studies \nare not consistent. Although in many studies a higher \nhydraulic conductivity was observed under zero tillage \ncompared to conventional tillage, it has also been \nreported that there was no significant effect of tillage \nand residue management. The different results may \nbe partly due to the difficulty of measuring hydraulic \nconductivity when residue cover is present in zero tillage. \nThe presence of residue complicates the installation of \nmeasurement instruments or the removal of undisturbed \nsamples and cores. This may cause high variation in \nconductivity values at small scales due to macropores, \nand other structural attributes that are left intact by the \nabsence of tillage. Also, differences in soil sampling depth, \namount of straw mulch, and site-specific characteristics \n(e.g., soil texture, slope, tillage) between studies may \nexplain inconsistencies in the observed effects of tillage \non hydraulic conductivity and water-holding capacity.\nSoil management practices that increase the organic \nmatter content in the soil could have a positive impact on \nsoil water-holding capacity. Water-holding capacity has \nbeen observed to increase with increases in soil organic \nmatter, meaning CA has the potential to increase water-\nholding capacity. \n2.4. Soil water balance\n2.4.1. Infiltration and runoff\nDespite inconsistent results on the effect of tillage and \nresidue management on soil hydraulic conductivity, \ninfiltration is generally higher in zero tillage with residue \nretention compared to conventional tillage and zero tillage \nwith residue removal. This is probably due to the direct \nand indirect effects of residue cover on water infiltration:\n•\t Soil\tmacroaggregate\tbreakdown\thas\tbeen\tidentified\t\nas\tthe\tmajor\tfactor\tleading\tto\tsurface\tpore\tclogging\t\nby\tprimary\tparticles\tand\tmicroaggregates\tand\tthus\t\nformation\tof\tsurface\tseals\tor\tcrusts.\tThe\tpresence\t\nof crop residues over the soil prevents aggregate \nbreakdown by direct raindrop impact as well as by \nrapid\twetting\tand\tdrying\tof\tsoils\n•\t Aggregates\tare\talso\tmore\tstable\tunder\tzero\ttillage\twith\t\nresidue\tretention\tcompared\tto\tconventional\ttillage\t\nand\tzero\ttillage\twith\tresidue\tremoval.\tThis\tmeans\tthat\t\nwind\terosion\tand\trapid\twetting\t(i.e.,\tslaking)\tcause\t\nless\taggregate\tbreakdown,\tpreventing\tsurface\tcrust\t\nformation\n•\t The\tresidues\tleft\ton\tthe\tsurface\tact\tas\ta\tsuccession\tof\t\nbarriers,\treducing\tthe\trunoff\tvelocity\tand\tgiving\tthe\t\nwater\tmore\ttime\tto\tinfiltrate.\tThe\tresidue\tintercepts\t\nrainfall and releases it more slowly.\nMcGarry et al. (2000) found that time-to-pond, final \ninfiltration rate, and total infiltration were significantly \nlarger with zero tillage with residue retention than with \nconventional tillage (Figure 5). This was ascribed to the \nabundance of apparently continuous soil pores from the \nsoil surface to depth under zero tillage, as opposed to a \nhigh-density surface crust in conventional tillage. \n7Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\n2.4.2 Evaporation\nSoil evaporation is determined by two factors: how wet \nthe soil is and how much energy the soil surface receives \nto sustain the evaporation process. Tillage moves moist \nsoil to the surface, increasing losses to drying. Hence, \ntillage disturbance of the soil surface increases soil water \nevaporation compared to untilled areas. The amount \nof energy the soil surface receives is influenced by \ncanopy and residue cover. Residue and mulches reduce \nsoil water evaporation by reducing soil temperature, \nimpeding vapor diffusion, absorbing water vapor onto \nmulch tissue, and reducing the wind speed gradient \nat the soil-atmosphere interface. The rate of drying of \nthe soil is determined by the thickness of the residue \ntogether with the atmospheric evaporative potential. \nResidue characteristics that affect the energy balance \ncomponents (e.g., albedo and residue area index) \nand have a large impact on evaporation fluxes vary \nthroughout the year and spatially across a field because \nof the non-uniform distribution of residue. \n2.4.3. Soil water content and plant available water\nConservation agriculture can increase infiltration \nand reduce runoff and evaporation compared to \nconventional tillage and zero tillage with residue \nremoval. Consequently, soil moisture is conserved \nand more water is available for crops. Mulching helps \nconserve soil water in a season with long periods without \nrain. Soil water content increases with increases in \nsurface cover. More soil water enables crops to grow \nduring short-term dry spells. Therefore, zero tillage with \nresidue retention decreases the frequency and intensity \nof short midseason droughts. Thus, tillage and residue \nmanagement may significantly affect crop yields in areas \nor seasons with poor rainfall distribution.\n2.5. Soil erosion\n2.5.1. Water erosion\nErosion rates from conventionally tilled agricultural fields \naverage 1–2 orders of magnitude greater than erosion \nunder native vegetation, and long-term geological \nerosion exceeds soil production. Soil erosion is a function \nof erosivity and erodibility. Erosivity is related to the \nphysical characteristics of rainfall at the soil surface and \nrunoff velocity. Erosivity is therefore affected by the \ncrop residues (e.g., in zero tillage with residue retention) \nthat break the raindrop impact and slow down runoff, \nreducing erosion. Erodibility of the soil is related to the \nphysical characteristics of the soil. Aggregate breakdown \nis a good measure of soil erodibility, as breakdown to \nfiner, more transportable particles and microaggregates \nincreases erosion risk. CA practices have a higher \naggregate stability compared to conventional practices or \nzero tillage fields without residue retention. This results \nin lower soil erosion potential for CA. The positive effect \nof CA on reduced erodibility is further enhanced by the \nreduced amount of runoff. \nIn summary, CA results in erosion rates much \ncloser to soil production rates than conventional \ntillage and therefore could provide a foundation for \nsustainable agriculture.\nFig. 5. Effect of tillage, crop rotation \nand crop residue management on \ntime-to-pond during the crop cycle for \nmaize for 2004 in CIMMYT’s long-term \nsustainability trial, El Batán, Mexico. \nW = wheat; M = maize; K = the residue \nis kept in the field; R = residue is \nremoved; CT = conventional tillage; ZT \n= zero tillage. Treatment means with \na different letter within the same data \nseries differ significantly according to \nt-test (LSD) at P < 0.05 (adapted from \nGovaerts et al., 2009).\n 8\n 7\n \n 6\n 5\n 4\n 3\n 2\n 1\n 0\n MM,ZT,K MM, ZT, R WM, CT, K WM, CT, R WM, ZT, K WM, ZT, R MM,CT, K MM, CT, R\n Treatment\nTim\ne-\nto\n-p\non\nd \n(s)\n8 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\n2.5.2. Wind erosion\nSusceptibility of soils to wind erosion largely depends on \nthe aggregate size distribution and is determined by dry \nsieving. The percentage of aggregates with sizes smaller \nthan 0.84 mm is considered the soil fraction susceptible \nto be transported by wind. This erodible fraction is twice \nas large in weight in conventional tillage than in zero \ntillage, indicating that conventional tillage is much more \nprone to wind erosion (Singh and Malhi, 2006). Also, it \nhas been shown that the erodible fraction in conventional \ntillage increases with time, while the fraction remained \nunchanged in zero tillage. Vegetation and crop residue \ncover also play an important role in decreasing wind \nerosion by reducing the exposure of soil to wind at the \nsurface and intercepting saltating material. Standing \nstubble is more effective in controlling wind erosion than \nflattened stubble.\n2.6. Soil temperature\nThe balance between incoming and outgoing radiation \ndetermines the energy available for heating the soil. \nRetained residue affects soil temperature close to the \nsurface because it affects this energy balance. Solar \nenergy at the soil surface is partitioned into soil heat \nflux, sensible heat reflection, and latent heat for water \nevaporation. Surface residue reflects solar radiation and \ninsulates the soil surface. Because soil particles have a \nlower heat capacity and greater heat conductivity than \nwater, dry soils potentially warm and cool faster than wet \nsoils. Moreover, in wet soils more energy is used for water \nevaporation than warming the soil. Tillage operations \nincrease the rates of soil drying and heating because \ntillage disturbs the soil surface and increases the air \npockets in which evaporation occurs. Soil temperatures in \nsurface layers can be significantly lower (often between \n2°C and 8°C) during daytime (in summer) in zero tilled \nsoils with residue retention compared to conventional \ntillage. During night time, the insulation effect of the \nresidue leads to higher temperatures so there is a lower \ndifference in soil temperatures in 24 hours with zero \ntillage. In tropical hot soils, mulch cover reduces soil peak \ntemperatures that are too high for optimum growth and \ndevelopment to an appropriate level, favoring biological \nactivity, initial crop growth, and root development during \nthe growing season. \nIn temperate areas, however, lower temperatures create \nunfavorable cool soils, slowing down early crop growth \nand leading to lower crop yield, especially if late frost \noccurs. In these temperate areas, it is suggested to use a \nresidue-free strip without soil disturbance over the row \ncenter. This strip can provide more heat input to the soil \nsurface at the row center, and has no adverse effects on \nthe soil water content. \n3. Influence of conservation \nagriculture on chemical soil quality\n3.1. Soil organic carbon\nSoil organic carbon (SOC) has been proposed as a primary \nindicator of soil quality, especially the SOC concentration \nof surface soil. The surface soil is the vital horizon that \nreceives much of the seed, fertilizers and pesticides \napplied to cropland. It is also the layer that is affected \nby the intense impact of rainfall and partitions the flux \nof gases into and out of the soil. Surface organic matter \nis essential for erosion control, water infiltration, and \nconservation of nutrients. \n3.1.1. Total soil organic carbon content\nWhen comparing SOC in different management practices, \nseveral factors have to be taken into account:\n1.\t Bulk\tdensity\tcan\tincrease\tafter\tconversion\tfrom\t\nconventional\ttillage\tto\tzero\ttillage.\tIf\tsamples\tare\ttaken\t\nat the same depth within the surface soil layer, more \nmass\tof\tsoil\twill\tbe\ttaken\tfrom\tthe\tzero\ttillage\tsoil\tthan\t\nfrom\tthe\tconventionally\ttilled\tsoil.\tThis\tcould\tincrease\t\nthe\tapparent\tmass\tof\tSOC\tin\tzero\ttillage.\n2.\t Tillage\tpractices\tcan\talso\tinfluence\tthe\tdistribution\tof\t\nSOC\tin\tthe\tprofile\twith\thigher\tSOC\tcontent\tin\tsurface\t\nlayers\twith\tzero\ttillage\tthan\twith\tconventional\ttillage,\t\nbut\ta\thigher\tSOC\tcontent\tin\tthe\tdeeper\tlayers\tof\ttilled\t\nplots\twhere\tresidue\tis\tincorporated\tthrough\ttillage.\nBecause of these reasons, SOC contents under zero tillage \ncompared to conventional tillage can be overstated if the \nentire plough depth is not considered.\n3.1.1.1. Influence of tillage practice on soil organic \ncarbon\nThe influence of the different components comprising CA \n(reduced tillage, crop residue retention and crop rotation) \non SOC is not clear. However, some factors that play a role \ncan be distinguished:\n•\t Differences\tin\troot\tdevelopment\tand\trhizodeposits:\t\nCrop root-derived C may be very important.\n•\t Soil\tbulk\tdensity\tand\tporosity:\tThe\tuse\tof\tzero\ttillage\t\npractices\tonly\tenhances\tphysical\tprotection\tof\tSOC\t\n9Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\nwhere\tsoil\tbulk\tdensity\tis\trelatively\thigh\tand\twhen\t\nthe\tuse\tof\tzero\ttillage\tmanagement\treduces\tthe\t\nvolume of small macropores.\n•\t Climate:\tManagement\timpacts\tare\tsensitive\tto\t\nclimate in the following order from largest to smallest \nchanges in SOC: tropical moist > tropical dry > \ntemperate moist > temperate dry.\n•\t The\tstabilization\tof\tC\tin\tmicroaggregates-within-\nmacroaggregates: Occluded intra-aggregate \nparticulate\torganic\tmatter\tC\tin\tsoil\tmicroaggregates\t\ncontributes\tto\tlong-term\tsoil\tC\tsequestration\tin\t\nagricultural soils. These microaggregates-within-\nmacroaggregates\tconstitute\trelatively\tstable\tand\t\nsecluded habitats for microorganisms.\n3.1.1.2. Influence of residue retention on soil organic \ncarbon\nCrop residues are precursors of the SOC pool, and \nreturning more crop residues to the soil is associated \nwith an increase in SOC concentration. The rate of \ndecomposition of crop residues depends not only on \nthe amount retained, but also on soil characteristics \nand the composition of the residues. The composition \nof residues left on the field – the soluble fraction, \nlignin, hemic (cellulose) and polyphenol content – will \ndetermine its decomposition.\n3.1.1.3. Influence of crop rotation on soil organic \ncarbon \nAltering crop rotation can influence SOC by changing \nthe quantity and the quality of organic matter input. \nIncreased moisture conservation related to CA practices \ncan result in the possibility of growing an extra cover \ncrop right after harvest of the main crop. Cover \ncrops lead to higher SOC contents by increasing the \ninput of plant residues and providing a vegetal cover \nduring critical periods. However, the increase in SOC \nconcentration can be negated when the crop cover is \nincorporated in the soil. \nConservation agriculture can increase the possibility \nfor crop intensification due to a faster turnaround time \nbetween harvest and planting (because the field needs \nhardly any preparation). Moreover, other cropping \noptions may become available since the actual growing \nperiod can be increased by the decreased turnaround \ntime and the enhanced soil water balance. In some \nsituations, it may be possible to include an extra crop in \nthe system after the main crop, or by intercropping or \nrelay cropping with the main crop. \nIn general, it has been observed that enhancing the \nrotation complexity (i.e., changing from monoculture \nto continuous rotation cropping, changing crop-fallow \nto continuous monoculture or rotation cropping, or \nincreasing the number of crops in a rotation system) \nresults in an increase in SOC. However, this increase in \nSOC was on average lower than the increase observed \nwhen changing from conventional to zero tillage. \nEnhancing crop rotation was still more effective in \nretaining C and N in soil than a monoculture system was. \nThe effect of crop rotation on SOC contents can be due \nto increased biomass input, because of the greater total \nproduction, or due to the changed quality of the residue \ninput. The mechanism of capturing C in stable and long-\nterm forms might be different for different crop species. \nFor instance, legume-based rotations contain greater \namounts of aromatic C content (a highly biologically \nresistant form of carbon) below the plough layer than \ncontinuous maize (Gregorich et al., 2001).\n3.1.1.4. Conservation agriculture: The combined effect \nof minimum tillage, residue retention and crop rotation \non soil organic carbon\nConservation agriculture is not a single component \ntechnology but a system that includes the cumulative \neffect of all its three basic components. The crop \nintensification component will result in an added effect \non SOC in zero tillage systems. To obtain an accumulation \nof soil organic matter (SOM) there must be not only a C \ninput from crop residues but a net external input of N \ne.g., including an N-fixing manure crop. If leguminous \ngreen manure (vetch) is included in the cropping system, \nthe contribution of N2 fixation of the vetch is the principal \nfactor responsible for the observed C accumulation in the \nsoil under zero tillage. Most accumulated C was derived \nfrom crop roots. Conventional tillage can reduce the \neffect of an N-fixing green-manure either because the \nN-input can be reduced by soil mineral N release or the \nN can be lost by leaching or in gaseous form due to SOM \nmineralization stimulated by tillage. \n3.1.2. Soil organic carbon fractionation\nThe following soil C fractions can be distinguished:\n•\t the\teasily\tdecomposable\tfraction,\trepresenting\tan\t\nearly\tstage\tin\tthe\thumification\tprocess\n•\t material\tstabilized\tby\tphysical-chemical\tmechanisms\t\n(intermediary)\n•\t the\tbiochemically\trecalcitrant\tfraction\t(stable)\n10 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\nThe different carbon fractions of the soil have different \navailability and turnover times in the soil. The SOC of the \nlabile pool, which consists mainly of particulate organic \nmatter (POM) and some dissolved organic carbon, is \nreadily available and consequently rapidly decomposed, \nwhile the resistant SOC fraction is old, in close contact \nwith mineral surfaces, and provides limited access to \nmicro-organisms. The labile fraction plays a crucial role \nin the formation of aggregates and responds rapidly to \nchanges in soil management because of its rapid turnover \ntime. Therefore, it can be a good indicator of early \nchanges in SOC. The labile fraction increases when tillage \nintensity reduces. This higher labile fraction accounts for \nmost of the observed higher SOC concentration (0–10 cm) \nfor zero tillage compared to conventional tillage (Six et al., \n2001). \nCrop rotation can influence the different C fractions. More \ndiverse crop rotations lead to a greater proportion of fine \nPOM than monoculture. The effect of the tillage system \non light fraction C is smaller than the effect of cropping \nintensity.\n3.2 Nutrient availability\nTillage, residue management, and crop rotation have \na significant impact on nutrient distribution and \ntransformation in soils, usually related to the effects of \nCA on SOC contents (see 3.1 Soil organic carbon). Similar \nto the findings on SOC, distribution of nutrients in a \nsoil under zero tillage is different to that in tilled soil. \nIncreased stratification of nutrients is generally observed, \nwith enhanced conservation and availability of nutrients \nnear the soil surface under zero tillage as compared to \nconventional tillage. The altered nutrient availability \nunder zero tillage may be due to surface placement of \ncrop residues in comparison with incorporation of crop \nresidues with tillage. Slower decomposition of surface \nplaced residues may prevent rapid leaching of nutrients \nthrough the soil profile. Under zero tillage, the number \nof continuous pores can be high, leading to more rapid \npassage of soluble nutrients deeper into the soil profile. \nThe density of crop roots is usually greater near the soil \nsurface under zero tillage compared to conventional \ntillage. This leads to a greater proportion of nutrients \ntaken up from near the soil surface. However, the nutrient \nconcentrations in plant tissues are usually not affected by \ntillage or crop combinations. \n3.2.1 Nitrogen availability\nThe presence of mineral soil N available for plant uptake is \ndependent on the rate of C mineralization. The impact of \nreduced tillage with residue retention on N mineralization \nis not clear. Zero tillage with residue retention can be \nassociated with a lower N availability because of greater \nimmobilization by the residues left on the soil surface. \nThe net immobilization phase when zero tillage is adopted \ncould be transitory, as the higher immobilization of N \nreduces the opportunity for leaching and denitrification \nlosses of mineral N.\n3.2.1.1. Total nitrogen content\nEffects of CA on total N content generally mirror those \nobserved for total SOC as the N cycle is inextricably linked \nto the C cycle. Zero tillage and permanent raised beds \nhave a significantly higher total N than conventional \ntillage (Govaerts et al., 2007a). Significant increases in \ntotal N have been measured with increasing additions of \ncrop residue.\n3.2.1.2. The influence of tillage practice on nitrogen \nmineralization\nTillage increases aggregate disruption, making organic \nmatter more accessible to soil micro-organisms and \nincreasing the release of mineral N from active and \nphysically protected N pools. When tillage is reduced \nthere are more stable macroaggregates. C and N in the \nmicroaggregates-within-macroaggregates are more \nprotected. In general, the N mineralization rate increases \nwhen tillage decreases. The N mineralization rate also \nincreases with an increasing rate of inorganic N fertilizer \napplication. Residue management also determines the \nrate of N mineralization. In conventional tillage, the \nresidue is incorporated into the soil, while it is left on the \nsoil surface in zero tillage. Incorporated crop residues \ndecompose 1.5 times faster than surface placed residues. \nHowever, the type of residues and the interactions \nwith N management practices also determine C and N \nmineralization.\n3.2.1.3. The influence of crop residues on nitrogen \nmineralization\nThe composition of residues left on the field will affect \ntheir\tdecomposition.\tThe\tC/N\tratio\tis\tone\tof\tthe\tmost\t\noften used criteria for residue quality, together with \ninitial residue N, lignin, polyphenols, and soluble C \nconcentrations. During the decomposition of organic \nmatter, inorganic N can be immobilized, especially when \norganic\tmatter\twith\ta\tlarge\tC/N\tratio\tis\tadded\tto\tthe\tsoil.\t\n11Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\nCrop residues have a very low N (ca. 1%) and P content \n(ca. 0.1%). Given the lignin and polyphenol contents of \ncrop residues, these residues play a more important role \ncontributing to SOM build-up than as inorganic nutrient \nsources for plant growth. \n3.2.2. Phosphorus\nNumerous studies have reported higher extractable \nP levels in zero tillage than in tilled soil. This is largely \ndue to reduced mixing of the fertilizer P with the soil, \nleading to lower P-fixation. This is a benefit when P is \na limiting nutrient, but may be a threat when P is an \nenvironmental problem because of the possibility of \nsoluble P losses in runoff water. Accumulation of P at the \nsurface of continuous zero tillage is commonly observed. \nIf the surface soil dries out frequently during the growing \nseason, a deeper placement of P in zero tillage can be an \noption. However, if mulch is present on the soil surface \nof zero tillage the surface soil is likely to be moister than \nconventionally tilled soils and there will probably be no \nneed for deeper P placement. \n3.2.3. Potassium, calcium and magnesium content\nZero tillage conserves and increases availability of \nnutrients, such as K, near the soil surface where crop \nroots proliferate. Higher extractable K levels at the soil \nsurface are observed when tillage intensity decreases. \nIncreasing residue retention can also lead to an increased \nK concentration in the topsoil, although this effect is crop-\ndependent. \nMost research has shown that tillage does not affect \nextractable Ca and Mg levels, especially where the cation \nexchange capacity (CEC) is primarily associated with \nclay particles. Also, the vertical Ca and Mg stratification \nseems unaffected by tillage and crop, but results are not \nconclusive.\n3.2.4. Cation exchange capacity\nThe high organic matter contents at the soil surface, \ncommonly observed under CA (see 3.1.1 Total soil organic \ncarbon content) can increase the CEC of the topsoil. \nHowever, tillage practices and crop do not seem to have \nan effect on CEC. The retention of crop residues, however, \ncan significantly increase the CEC in the 0–5 cm layer \ncompared to soil from which the residue is removed.\n3.2.5. Micronutrient cations and aluminum\nIncreasing supply of food crops with essential \nmicronutrients might result in significant increases in their \nconcentrations in edible plant products, contributing to \nconsumer health. Micronutrient cations (Zn, Fe, Cu, and \nMn) tend to be present in higher levels under zero tillage \nwith residue retentions compared to conventional tillage. \nHowever, reports are not conclusive about this. Aluminum \ntoxicity seems to be lower under zero tillage with residue \nretention, probably because of the formation of Al-organic \ncomplexes when water in the topsoil is available. \n3.3. Acidity\nMost studies have found that the pH of the topsoil was \nlower (more acidic) for zero tillage than for conventional \ntillage. There are some hypotheses for this acidification:\n•\t The\tgreater\tSOM\taccumulation\tin\tthe\ttopsoil\twith\tzero\t\ntillage\tled\tto\tacidity\tfrom\tdecomposition\n•\t The\tlower\ttopsoil\tpH\tcould\tbe\tdue\tto\tthe\tacidifying\t\neffect\tof\tnitrogen\tand\tphosphorus\tfertilizers\tapplied\t\nmore\tsuperficially\tunder\tzero\ttillage\tthan\tunder\t\nconventional\ttillage.\nHowever, there have been some contrasting results, \nwhere significantly higher pH was found in the topsoil \nof the permanent raised beds with full residue retention \ncompared to conventional beds with residue retention. \n3.4. Salinity/sodicity\nAs for the question of whether tillage practices \ninfluence the salinity of the soil, contrasting results have \nbeen found. In the highlands of Mexico, it was found \nthat permanent raised bed planting is a technology \nthat reduces soil sodicity under rainfed conditions. \nFurthermore, the Na concentration increased with \ndecreasing amounts of residue retained on the permanent \nraised beds (Govaerts et al., 2007a). This can be important \nfor saline areas. In contrast, it has been suggested in other \nresearch that tillage tends to reduce the potential for salt \naccumulation in the root zone. \n4. Influence of conservation \nagriculture on biological soil quality\nChanges in tillage, residue, and rotation practices induce \nmajor\tshifts\tin\tthe\tnumber\tand\tcomposition\tof\tsoil\tfauna\t\nand flora, including both pests and beneficial organisms. \nSoil organisms respond to tillage-induced changes in the \nsoil\tchemical/physical\tenvironment\tand\tthey,\tin\tturn,\t\n12 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\nhave\tan\timpact\ton\tsoil\tchemical/physical\tconditions,\t\ni.e., soil structure, nutrient cycling, and organic matter \ndecomposition. Interactions among different organisms \ncan have either beneficial or harmful effects on crops. \nBacteria, fungi, and green algae are included in the \nmicroflora. The remaining groups of interest are referred \nto as soil fauna. The soil fauna are divided into three \ngroups, based on their size and their adaptation to living \nin either the water-filled pore space or the air-filled pore \nspace of soil and litter (Table 2).\n4.1. Soil microfauna and -flora\nMaintaining soil microbial biomass (SMB) and microflora \nactivity and diversity is fundamental for sustainable \nagricultural management. Soil management influences \nsoil micro-organisms and soil microbial processes through \nchanges in the quantity and quality of plant residues \nentering the soil, their seasonal and spatial distribution, \nthe ratio between above- and below-ground inputs, and \nchanges in nutrient inputs.\n4.1.1. Microbial biomass\nThe SMB reflects the soil’s ability to store and cycle \nnutrients (C, N, P, and S) and organic matter, and has a \nhigh turnover rate relative to the total soil organic matter. \nIt has some interesting characteristics:\n•\t SMB\tresponds\tto\tchanges\tin\tsoil\tmanagement\toften\t\nbefore\teffects\tare\tmeasured\tin\tterms\tof\torganic\tC\tand\t\nN \n•\t The\tSMB\tplays\tan\timportant\trole\tin\tphysical\t\nstabilization\tof\taggregates\t\n•\t General\tsoil\tborne\tdisease\tsuppression\tis\talso\trelated\t\nto total SMB, which competes with pathogens for \nresources\tor\tcauses\tinhibition\tthrough\tmore\tdirect\t\nforms of antagonism\nThe rate of organic C input from plant biomass is generally \nconsidered the dominant factor controlling the amount \nof SMB in the soil. A continuous, uniform supply of C \nfrom crop residues serves as an energy source for micro-\norganisms. Residue retention can lead to significantly \nhigher amounts of SMB-C and N in the topsoil layer \ncompared to residue removal. \nResidue management has more influence on SMB \nthan tillage system. The significant changes are mostly \nconfined to the topsoil layer. The influence of tillage \npractice on SMB-C and N is also mainly confined to the \nsurface layers, at lower depths (5–10 cm and 10–15 cm) \n(Govaerts et al., 2007b), SMB-C and N are generally not \nsignificantly different. \nThe favorable effects of zero tillage and residue retention \non soil microbial populations are mainly due to increased \nsoil aeration, cooler and wetter conditions, lower \ntemperature and moisture fluctuations, and higher carbon \ncontent in surface soil. \nThe effects of several rotations are clear when the length \nof the fallow period is considered. Reducing the fallow \nincreases SMB-C and N. Each tillage operation increases \norganic matter decomposition with a subsequent \ndecrease in SOM.\n4.1.2. Functional diversity\nFunctional diversity and redundancy, which refers to a \nreserve pool of quiescent organisms or a community with \nvast interspecific overlaps and trait plasticity, are signs of \nincreased soil health, and allow an ecosystem to maintain \na stable soil function. It is not possible to determine the \nfunctional diversity of soil microbial communities based \non community structure, largely because micro-organisms \nare often present in soil in resting or dormant stages. \nThese dormant micro-organisms are overlooked in most \nmeasurements. Direct measurement of the functional \ndiversity of soil microbial communities is likely to provide \nadditional information on the functioning of soils.\nThe functional diversity is larger under zero tillage with \nresidue retention than under conventional tillage. As \nlong as residues are maintained, differences in the \ncommunity-level physiological profile of the SMB are \nminimal between zero tillage and conventional tillage. \nWhen residues are removed, the functional diversity \ndecreases in zero tillage (Govaerts et al., 2007b). Plant \nroots play an important role in shaping soil microbial \ncommunities by releasing a wide range of compounds \nthat may differ between plants. This variation is known to \nselect divergent bacterial communities. This indicates the \nimportance of crop rotation for soil health.\nTable 2. Soil fauna grouped according to size and habitat\nName Body width Habitat Examples\nMicrofauna\t <0.2\tmm\t Water-filled\tpore\tspace\t Protozoa\t+\tnematodes\nMesofauna\t 0.2–2\tmm\t Air-filled\tpore\tspace\tof\tsoil\tand\tlitter\t Microarthropods,\tspringtails,\tsmall\tOligochaeta\nMacrofauna >2 mm Between soil aggregates Termites, earthworms, large arthropods\n13Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\n4.1.3. Enzyme activity\nSoil enzymes play an essential role in catalyzing the \nreactions necessary for organic matter decomposition \nand nutrient cycling. They are involved in energy \ntransfer, environmental quality, and crop productivity. \nManagement practices such as tillage, crop rotation, and \nresidue management may have diverse effects on various \nsoil enzymes. Enzyme activity generally decreases with \nsoil depth. Therefore, differentiation among management \npractices is greater in the surface soil. Crop rotation and \nresidue management can also affect soil enzyme activity. \nReducing fallow seems to enhance enzyme activity of C \nand P cycling.\n4.1.4. Microbial community structure\nActinomycetes and other bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and \nalgae are the most abundant and most metabolically \nactive populations in the soil. \n4.1.4.1. Fungi and bacteria\nFungi are food for nematodes, mites and other, larger, \nsoil organisms; but may also attack other soil organisms. \nFilamentous fungi are responsible for the decomposition \nof organic matter and participate in nutrient cycling. Of \nspecial relevance in agricultural management systems are \nthe arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which are ubiquitous \nsymbionts\tof\tthe\tmajority\tof\thigher\tplants,\tincluding\tmost\t\ncrops. The external mycelium of arbuscal mycorrhizal \nfungi acts as an extension of host plant roots and absorbs \nnutrients from the soil, especially those with low mobility \nsuch as P, Cu, and Zn. Arbuscular mycorrhizae interact \nwith pathogens and other rhizosphere inhabitants \naffecting plant health and nutrition.\nIt is often said that, at the micro-foodweb scale, zero \ntillage systems tend to be fungal-dominated whereas \nconventional tillage systems tend to be bacterial-\ndominated. However, this could depend on whether \nmeasurements are made near the soil surface or deeper \nin the soil profile, since the crop residues at the soil \nsurface under zero tillage tend to be fungal-dominated. \nDisruption of the network of mycorrhizal hyphae, an \nimportant inoculum source when roots senesce, is \na possible mechanism by which conventional tillage \nreduces root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhiza. \nTillage also transports hyphae and colonized root \nfragments to the upper soil layer, decreasing the \npossibility of them being beneficial to the next crop. \nWhen crop residues are retained, they serve as a \ncontinuous energy source for micro-organisms. Retaining \ncrop residues on the surface increases microbial \nabundance because microbes encounter improved \nconditions for reproduction in the mulch cover. Reducing \ntillage also has an effect on certain bacteria, such as \nAgrobacterium spp. and Pseudomonas spp. Hence, it is \nnot zero tillage per se that is responsible for the increased \nmicroflora, but rather the combination of zero tillage and \nresidue retention.\n4.1.4.2. Nematodes\nIt has been stated that under zero tillage, the crop \nresidues are fungal dominated. A predominance of fungal \nfeeding nematodes is found in the 0–5 cm layer in zero \ntillage. Reduced tillage leads to a significantly greater \npopulation of nematodes than conventional tillage. \nResidue retention contributed to high population density \nof free-living (beneficial) nematodes while conventional \ncultivation, irrespective of residue management, \ncontributed to suppressing plant-parasitic nematodes. The \npopulation of bacteria-feeders was significantly higher \nin conventional tillage than in zero tillage under residue \nretention (Yeates and Hughes, 1990). Crop rotation also \nseems to have an effect on the population of the total \nfree-living nematode density. \n4.1.5. Soil borne diseases\nA reduction in tillage influences different pest species in \ndifferent ways, depending on their survival strategies and \nlife cycles. Species that spend one or more stages of their \nlife in the soil are most directly affected by tillage. When \nreduced tillage is combined with residue retention on \nthe soil surface, this provides residue-borne pathogens \nand beneficial species with substrates for growth, and \npathogens are at the soil surface, where spore release \nmay occur. Many plant pathogens use the residue of their \nhost crop as a food base and as a ‘springboard’ to infect \nthe next crop. This includes a diversity of necrotrophic \nleaf-, stem-, and inflorescence-attacking fungal pathogens \nthat survive as reproductive and spore-dissemination \nstructures formed within the dead tissue of their hosts. \nThese structures are thereby ideally positioned on the soil \nsurface and beneath the canopy of the next crop in zero \ntillage cropping systems.\nThe most common root rot pathogens found on cereals \nunder zero tillage systems are:\n•\t Take-all,\tcaused\tby\tGaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) \nArx & Olivier var. triciti I Walker\n14 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\n•\t Rhizoctonia\troot\trot\tand\tbare\tpatch\tcaused\tby\t\nRhizoctonia solani Kühn AG 8\n•\t Pythium\tdamping-off\tand\troot\trot\tcaused\tby\tPythium \naphanidermatum (Edison) Fitzp and other species of \nthe same genus\n•\t Fusarium\tcrown,\tfoot\tand\troot\trot\tcaused\t\nby Fusarium culmorum (W.G. Sm.) Sacc., F. \npseudograminearum O’Donnel & T. Aoki and other \nspecies belonging to the genus Fusarium\n•\t Common\troot\trot\tcaused\tby\tBipolaris sorokiniana \n(Sacc.) Shoem.\nMany studies have examined the impact of root rot \ndiseases on wheat and barley grown with tillage, but few \nhave focused on the effects of CA, and those that have \ndone so have yielded conflicting conclusions. Residues \non the soil surface result in a cooler and wetter surface \nsoil. These conditions could be beneficial for the root \ninfections by take-all, Pythium root rot and Rhizoctonia \nroot rot. However, an increase in the prevalence of root \nrot is not always observed under zero tillage. \nInfected plant residues left undisturbed in the soil can \npresent a higher risk for infection of the next crop than if \nthis tissue is fragmented into smaller pieces with tillage. \nOn the other hand, tilling the soil will also distribute the \ninfested crop residue more uniformly so that more roots \nof the next crop will be exposed to infection. \nAs Fusarium foot and root rots survive in the straw, it \ncould be possible that the disease would be more severe \nin direct-seeded than conventionally-seeded fields. \nAn increase in the incidence of Fusarium root rot has \nbeen observed in some cases, but no direct relationship \nbetween increased root rot and yield was found.\nCrop rotation may reduce pathogen carry-over on crop \nresidues in the soil. In crop monoculture, the population \nof soil microbiota can build up for many years, leading to \nyield decline. A 2-year rotation cycle, including a 1-year \nbreak, can offer significant relief from pest pressures \nbecause of rotation-induced changes in the composition \nof the soil biota. Crop rotations, however, have to be \neconomically viable to be adopted by farmers. For \nsome diseases, like Pythium and Rhizoctonia, that have \na wide host range, the use of crop rotation to manage \nroot rots must include a plant-free break to be effective. \nThis can mean expense, but no income, from that field, \ndepending on the duration of the break. Pests can also \nadapt to crop rotation. \nReduced tillage combined with residue retention \nindirectly defines the species composition of the soil \nmicrobial community by improving the retention of \nsoil moisture and modifying the soil temperature. The \nchanges in the organic matter content with zero tillage \nand residue retention can also favor growth of many \nother micro-organisms in the surface layer of the soil \n(0–10 cm). Therefore, zero tillage combined with crop \nresidue retention may create an environment that is \nmore antagonistic to pathogens due to competition and \nantibiosis effects. \nSeveral fungal and bacterial species play a role in the \nbiological control of root pathogens and, in general, the \nmaintenance of soil health:\n•\t Fluorescent\tPseudomonas strains can suppress \nsoil-borne plant pathogens used by a variety of \nmechanisms\n•\t Many\tsoil-borne\tActinomycetes species produce \nbioactive\tmetabolites\tthat\tcan\tbe\tused\tin\tantibiotics\n•\t Some\tFusarium\tspp.\tare\tactive\tbiological\tcontrol\t\nagents\nIn a study by Govaerts et al. (2006) zero tillage with \nrotation and residue retention enhanced water \navailability, soil structure, and nutrient availability more \nthan conventional tillage and, as a result, gave higher \nyields. Zero tillage and crop residue increased the diversity \nof microbial life. Root diseases may have affected crop \nperformance but the impact was less than other critical \nplant growth factors such as water availability or micro- \nand macronutrient status. In the long-term, zero tillage \nwith crop residue retention creates conditions favorable \nfor the development of antagonists and predators, \nand fosters new ecological stability (Govaerts et al., \n2006). Thus, the potential exists for generally a higher \nsuppression of pathogens in direct-seeded soils with crop \nresidue retention. \nApart from strategic crop rotations and the increased \nbiological control in CA systems, the use of soil fumigation \nhas been proposed as a control measure for situations \nwhere soil-borne diseases may be a problem. Fumigation \nis economical only for certain high-value horticultural \ncrops, such as strawberries. \nPlant breeding has been highly effective against \nspecialized pathogens, such as rust and mildew fungi, \nbecause of the availability of genes within the crop \nspecies and related species for resistance to pathogens. \nFuture strategic research will need to concentrate on \ngenotype by cropping system interactions.\n15Conservation agriculture, improving soil quality for sustainable production systems?\nNematode densities range from 2 x 105 individuals \nm-2 in arid soil to more than 3 x 107 individuals m-2 in \nhumid ecosystems. Yield losses due to nematodes can \nbe expected under conventional cropping systems in \nsub-optimal irrigation and semi-arid conditions. A few \nplant parasitic nematodes are economically important, \nfor instance Pratylenchus thornei, which can result in \nyield losses up to 40%. The presence of plant parasitic \nnematodes does not necessarily mean that crop yield will \nbe adversely affected. It is possible that the population \nis below the damage threshold. Not all nematodes react \nequally to tillage and mulching. Under conditions of \nminimal soil disturbance, it is possible that populations \nof natural enemies of parasitic nematodes would be \nenhanced. The crop residues can also enhance the \npopulation of bacteria, providing food for the non-plant \nparasitic species. Hence, their number will increase under \nzero tillage with residue retention.\n4.2. Soil meso- and macrofauna\nFrom a functional point of view, soil macrofauna can be \ndivided into two groups:\n1.\t Litter\ttransformers\t(large\tarthropods\tand\tsoil\t\nmesofauna):\tMinor\teffect\ton\tsoil\tstructure.\tThey\t\nfragment\tlitter\tand\tdeposit\tmainly\torganic\tfecal\t\npellets.\n2. Ecosystem engineers (mainly termites and \nearthworms):\tThey\tingest\ta\tmixture\tof\torganic\tmatter\t\nand mineral soil and are responsible for a gradual \nintroduction\tof\tdead\torganic\tmaterials\tinto\tthe\tsoil.\t\nThey\tstrongly\tinfluence\tsoil\tstructure\tand\taggregation.\t\n4.2.1. Soil mesofauna\nSoil microarthropods consist mainly of springtails and \nmites\tand\tform\tthe\tmajor\tpart\tof\tthe\tsoil\tmesofauna.\t\nSpringtails are usually inhibited by tillage disturbances, \nalthough some studies have shown the opposite or no \neffect. Mites exhibit a wider range and more extreme \nresponses to tillage than microbial groups, with moderate \nto extreme increases or decreases having been found. \nThe different taxonomic groups of mites appear to \nrespond differently to tillage disturbance, which explains \nsome of the varied responses. The effect of tillage on \nmicroarthropod populations is caused in part by the \nphysical disturbance of the soil by tillage. Some individuals \nmay be killed by abrasion during tillage operations or \nby being trapped in soil clods after tillage inversion. The \nother main faunal group within the mesofauna is the \nenchytraeids. They are small, colorless worms that burrow \nextensively in the soil and can increase aeration, water \ninfiltration, and root growth and may be either inhibited \nor stimulated by tillage.\n4.2.2. Soil macrofauna\nLarge organisms appear to be especially sensitive to agro-\necosystem management. Species with high mobility and \nhigher population growth potential will be less affected. \nTillage, through direct physical disruption as well as \nhabitat destruction, strongly reduces the populations \nof both litter transformers and ecosystem engineers. \nResidue incorporation could limit recolonization processes \nby soil biota due to redistribution of the food source \nas well as greater water and temperature fluctuations, \nwhich reduces their active period in the soil. Although \ncrop rotations could theoretically be beneficial for \nsoil macrofauna populations through greater biomass \nreturns to the soil, concrete evidence on this is as yet \ninconclusive.\n4.2.2.1. Earthworms\nThe positive effects of earthworms are not only mediated \nby the abundance but also by the functional diversity of \ntheir communities. There are three kinds of earthworms:\n•\t Epigeic:\tLive\tabove\tthe\tsoil\tand\tfeed\tin\tthe\tlitter\tlayers\n•\t Anecic:\tFeed\ton\ta\tmixture\tof\tlitter\tand\tmineral\tsoil\tand\t\ncreate\tvertical\tburrows\twith\topenings\tat\tthe\tsurface\n•\t Endogeic:\tInhabit\tmineral\tsoil\thorizons\tand\tfeed\ton\t\nsoil\tmore\tor\tless\tenriched\twith\torganic\tmatter\nEarthworm species differ in their ecological behavior and \nthus have different effects on the soils. The presence of all \ngroups appears to be essential to maintain soil structure. \nIn fact, unbalanced combinations of earthworms due to \ndisturbances were found to reduce infiltration and cause \nsevere erosion. \nIn general, earthworm abundance, diversity and \nactivity were found to increase under CA compared \nto conventional tillage. Although tillage is the main \nfactor perturbing earthworm populations, mulched \ncrop residues are also important since earthworms \ndo not have the ability to maintain a constant water \ncontent (their water content is greatly influenced by the \nwater potential of the surrounding media). Earthworm \ncastings promote the creation of stable organo-mineral \ncomplexes with reduced decomposition rates which favor \nsoil macroaggregate stability if allowed to dry or age. \nHowever, when fresh casts are exposed to rainfall, they \ncan be easily dispersed and contribute to soil erosion \n16 Nele Verhulst, Isabelle François, Bram Govaerts\nand nutrient losses. Earthworms’ activity is also reported \nto be related to increased infiltration in zero tillage soils \nthrough enhanced soil surface roughness and increased \nsoil macroporosity, especially when populations are \nsignificant.\n4.2.2.2. Termites and ants\nIt has been proposed that termites and ants are as \nimportant as earthworms in soil transformation. They \nare predominant in arid and semi-arid regions where \nearthworms are normally absent or scarce. In general, \ntermites and ants increase infiltration by improving soil \naggregation and porosity. Soil-feeding termites also form \nmicroaggregates either by passing soil material through \ntheir intestinal system and depositing it as fecal pellets or \nby mixing the soil with saliva using their mandibles. Ants \nchange soil quality by increasing organic matter, sand, and \nsilt and reducing clay, Ca, Mg, K, and Na concentrations, \nparticularly\tin\tareas\tnear\tand\tadjacent\tto\tant\thills\tand\t\nforaging paths. \nManagement options that favor ant and termite \npopulations, such as residue mulch and reduced zero \ntillage, have been identified as key factors in improving \nthe topsoil in agro-ecosystems, even in the degraded \nconditions of the Sahel. However, given the patchy and \nphysically restricted distribution, it is not clear if ant and \ntermite activity have any relevant effects at the field \nlevel. Moreover, their positive effect on soil structure can \nbe counteracted by a negative effect on crop yield and \nresidue retention through herbivorous activity.\n4.2.2.3. Arthropods\nNot all arthropods are litter transformers. However, \nmost arthropods take part, at least partially, in organic \nmatter incorporation through burrowing and food \nrelocation thereby improving soil structure. Theoretically, \narthropods are favored by CA conditions given litter \npresence on the soil surface constitutes a food source \nfor many arthropods. Diversity of all arthropod species is \nusually higher in CA compared to conventional systems. \nInterestingly, an increased presence of predators \ncompared to phytophagous species under zero tillage \nsystems is found. This has strong implications for pest \nmanagement. \nThis article is based on:\nVerhulst, N., Govaerts, B., Verachtert, E., Castellanos-Navarrete, A., \nMezzalama,\tM.,\tWall,\tP.,\tDeckers,\tJ.,\tSayre,\tK.D.,\t2010.\tConservation\t\nagriculture,\timproving\tsoil\tquality\tfor\tsustainable\tproduction\tsystems?,\t\nin: Lal, R., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Advances in Soil Science: Food Security \nand Soil Quality. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp. 137–208.\nReferences\nBlanco-Canqui, H., Lal, R., 2007. Impacts of long-term wheat straw \nmanagement\ton\tsoil\thydraulic\tproperties\tunder\tno-tillage.\tSoil\tSci.\t\nSoc. Am. J. 71, 1166–1173.\nGovaerts, B., Mezzalama, M., Sayre, K.D., Crossa, J., Nicol, J.M., Deckers, J., \n2006.\tLong-term\tconsequences\tof\ttillage,\tresidue\tmanagement,\tand\t\ncrop\trotation\ton\tmaize/wheat\troot\trot\tand\tnematode\tpopulations\tin\t\nsubtropical highlands. Appl. Soil Ecol. 32, 305–315.\nGovaerts, B., Fuentes, M., Mezzalama, M., Nicol, J.M., Deckers, J., \nEtchevers,\tJ.D.,\tFigueroa\tSandoval,\tB.,\tSayre,\tK.D.,\t2007a.\tInfiltration,\t\nsoil\tmoisture,\troot\trot\tand\tnematode\tpopulations\tafter\t12\tyears\tof\t\ndifferent\ttillage,\tresidue\tand\tcrop\trotation\tmanagements.\tSoil\tTill.\tRes. \n94, 209–219.\nGovaerts, B., Mezzalama, M., Unno, Y., Sayre, K.D., Luna-Guido, M., \nVanherck,\tK.,\tDendooven,\tL.,\tDeckers,\tJ.,\t2007b.\tInfluence\tof\ttillage,\t\nresidue\tmanagement,\tand\tcrop\trotation\ton\tsoil\tmicrobial\tbiomass\tand\t\ncatabolic diversity. Appl. Soil Ecol. 37, 18–30.\nGovaerts, B., Sayre, K.D., Goudeseune, B., De Corte, P., Lichter, K., \nDendooven,\tL.,\tDeckers,\tJ.,\t2009.\tConservation\tagriculture\tas\ta\t\nsustainable\toption\tfor\tthe\tcentral\tMexican\thighlands.\tSoil\tand\tTillage\t\nResearch. 103, 222–230.\nGregorich, E.G., Drury, C.F., Baldock, J.A., 2001. Changes in soil carbon \nunder\tlong-term\tmaize\tin\tmonoculture\tand\tlegume-based\trotation.\t\nCan. J. Soil Sci. 81, 21–31.\nHorne, D.J., Ross, C.W., Hughes, K.A., 1992. 10 years of a maize oats \nrotation\tunder\t3\ttillage\tsystems\ton\ta\tsilt\tloam\tin\tNew-Zealand\t.1.\tA\t\ncomparison\tof\tsome\tsoil\tproperties.\tSoil\tTill.\tRes.\t22,\t131–143.\nLi,\tH.W.,\tGao,\tH.W.,\tWu,\tH.D.,\tLi,\tW.Y.,\tWang,\tX.Y.,\tHe,\tJ.,\t2007.\tEffects\tof\t\n15\tyears\tof\tconservation\ttillage\ton\tsoil\tstructure\tand\tproductivity\tof\t\nwheat\tcultivation\tin\tnorthern\tChina.\tAust.\tJ.\tSoil\tRes. 45, 344–350.\nLichter, K., Govaerts, B., Six, J., Sayre, K.D., Deckers, J., Dendooven, L., 2008. \nAggregation\tand\tC\tand\tN\tcontents\tof\tsoil\torganic\tmatter\tfractions\tin\t\na\tpermanent\traised-bed\tplanting\tsystem\tin\tthe\thighlands\tof\tCentral\t\nMexico. Plant Soil. 305, 237–252.\nMcGarry,\tD.,\tBridge,\tB.J.,\tRadford,\tB.J.,\t2000.\tContrasting\tsoil\tphysical\t\nproperties\tafter\tzero\tand\ttraditional\ttillage\tof\tan\talluvial\tsoil\tin\tthe\t\nsemi-arid subtropics. Soil Till. Res. 53, 105–115.\nPimentel, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P., Sinclair, K., Kurz, D., McNair, \nM.,\tCrist,\tS.,\tShpretz,\tL.,\tFitton,\tL.,\tSaffouri,\tR.,\tBlair,\tR.,\t1995.\t\nEnvironmental\tand\teconomic\tcosts\tof\tsoil\terosion\tand\tconservation\t\nbenefits.\tScience\t267,\t1117–1123.\nSingh,\tB.,\tMalhi,\tS.S.,\t2006.\tResponse\tof\tsoil\tphysical\tproperties\tto\t\ntillage\tand\tresidue\tmanagement\ton\ttwo\tsoils\tin\ta\tcool\ttemperate\t\nenvironment. Soil Till. Res. 85, 143–153.\nSix,\tJ.,\tGuggenberger,\tG.,\tPaustian,\tK.,\tHaumaier,\tL.,\tElliott,\tE.T.,\tZech,\t\nW.,\t2001.\tSources\tand\tcomposition\tof\tsoil\torganic\tmatter\tfractions\t\nbetween and within soil aggregates. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 52, 607–618.\nVandenBygaart, A.J., Protz, R., Tomlin, A.D., 1999. Changes in pore \nstructure\tin\ta\tno-till\tchronosequence\tof\tsilt\tloam\tsoils,\tsouthern\t\nOntario. Can. J. Soil Sci. 79, 149–160.\nVerhulst, N., Carrillo-García, A., Moeller, C., Trethowan, R., Sayre, K.D., \nGovaerts,\tB.,\t2011.\tConservation\tagriculture\tfor\twheat-based\tcropping\t\nsystems\tunder\tgravity\tirrigation:\tincreasing\tresilience\tthrough\t\nimproved soil quality. Plant Soil 340, 467–480.\nYeates,\tG.W.,\tHughes,\tK.,\t1990.\tEffect\tof\tthree\ttillage\tregimes\ton\tplant-\tand\t\nsoil\tnematodes\tin\tan\toats/maize\trotation.\tPedobiologia\t34,\t379–387.\n\n\n","tokenCount":"10834"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e1e142ee6a60da85a1873242d59998cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36a6fe68-446a-4e6d-8f6d-971428291cc8/retrieve","id":"-1730477831"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9c567717-c8ed-40d0-8dfb-9fc314db85eb","pagecount":"9","content":"The agricultural development project, Peru Cacao Alliance (PCA), has contributed to climate change mitigation. Estimated carbon sequestration from perennial crop expansion, which was -211,467 tCO 2 e metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year, more than offset increased greenhouse gas emission (GHG) from fertilizer and pesticide management (10,286 tCO 2 e). The net difference, -201,180 tCO 2 e, is equivalent to the carbon content of 465,774 barrels of oil.  The agroforestry system promoted by PCA included cacao and shade trees. Since PCA could not provide definitive data detailing the presence of existing shade trees compared to the planting of new shade trees, this analysis did not include carbon dynamics of shade trees. If new trees were planted for shade, there would be greater carbon uptake by the system than presented in this analysis. PCA reduced emissions intensity for cacao (CO 2 e emitted per kg production) through improved carbon sequestration and increased yields. PCA improved cacao postharvest handling (proper pod selection, storage, drying and fermentation methods) by building knowledge and capacity in producer organizations.PCA is a public-private partnership that works with cacao farmers in the Ucayali, San Martín, and Huánuco regions of the Amazon basin (Figure 1). Established in 2012, PCA was a 4-year project implemented by Carana Corporation and funded through United States Agency for International Development's (USAID) alternative development initiative. A recently signed follow-on project, with the same name, will be implemented by Palladium, which has acquired Carana. PCA integrated almost 20,000 small-scale farmers into an inclusive, sustainable value chain that will facilitate legal sources of income and discourage a return to illegal coca production.PCA promoted connections among farmers, buyers, technology providers, investors, and Peruvian government partners to increase Peru's market share of worldwide cacao production. The value chain approach featured: (1) establishing direct long-term commercial relationships between farmers and cacao buyers; (2) strengthening producer organizations; (3) facilitating the growth of areas under cacao cultivation; (4) enhancing cacao quality; and (5) improving postharvest handling.PCA also focused on environmental protection and biodiversity and promoted the expansion of perennials systems on previously deforested land. PCA hoped that increased incomes from the cocoa value chain would encourage farmers to leave behind the insecurity of coca production.In the 2009 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) discussions, countries agreed to the Copenhagen Accord, which included recognition that \"a low-emission development strategy is indispensable to sustainable development\" (UNFCCC 2009). Low emission development (LED) has continued to occupy a prominent place in UNFCCC agreements. In the 2015 Paris Agreement, countries established pledges to reduce emission of GHGs that drive climate change, and many countries identified the agricultural sector as a source of intended reductions (Richards et al. 2015).In general, LED uses information and analysis to develop strategic approaches to promote economic growth while reducing long-term GHG emission trajectories. For the agricultural sector to participate meaningfully in LED, decision makers must understand the opportunities for achieving mitigation co-benefits relevant at the scale of nations, the barriers to achieving widespread adoption of these approaches, and the methods for estimating emission reductions from interventions. When designed to yield mitigation co-benefits, agricultural development can help countries reach their development goals while contributing to the mitigation targets to which they are committed as part of the Paris Agreement, and ultimately to the global targets set forth in the Agreement.In 2015, the USAID Office of Global Climate Change engaged the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) to examine LED options in USAID's agriculture and food security portfolio. CCAFS conducted this analysis in collaboration with the University of Vermont's Gund Institute for Ecological Economics and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).As part of the broader effort to frame a strategic approach to LED in the agricultural sector, several case studies, including this one, quantify the potential climate change mitigation benefits from agricultural projects and describe the effects of low emission practices on yields and emissions. Systematic incorporation of such emission analyses into agricultural economic development initiatives could lead to meaningful reductions in GHG emissions compared to business-as-usual emissions, while continuing to meet economic development and food security objectives.The team analyzed and estimated the project's impacts on GHG emissions and carbon sequestration using the FAO Ex-Ante Carbon Balance Tool (EX-ACT). EX-ACT is an appraisal system developed by FAO to estimate the impact of agriculture and forestry development projects, programs, and policies on net GHG emissions and carbon sequestration. In all cases, conventional agricultural practices (those employed before project implementation) provided reference points for a GHG emission baseline. The team described results as increases or reductions in net GHG emissions attributable to changes in agricultural practices as a result of the project. Methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide emissions are expressed in metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO 2 e). (For reference, each tCO 2 e is equivalent to the emissions from 2.3 barrels of oil.) If the agricultural practices supported by the project lead to a decrease in net emissions through an increase in GHG removals (e.g., carbon sequestration, emission reductions) and/or a decrease in GHG emissions, the overall project impact is represented as a negative (-) value. Numbers presented in this analysis have not been rounded but this does not mean all digits are significant. Non-significant digits have been retained for transparency in the data set.This rapid assessment technique is intended for contexts where aggregate data are available on agricultural land use and management practices, but where field measurements of GHG and carbon stock changes are not available. It provides an indication of the magnitude of GHG impacts and compares the strength of GHG impacts among various field activities or cropping systems. The proposed approach does not deliver plot, or seasonspecific estimates of GHG emissions. This method may guide future estimates of GHG impacts where data are scarce, as is characteristic of environments where organizations engage in agricultural investment planning. Actors interested in ex-post verification of changes in GHG emissions resulting from interventions should collect field measurements needed to apply process-based models.A quarter of the Peruvian population lives below the poverty line and nearly one in five children under five years old suffers from stunting (World Bank 2016b). Agriculture is an important component of Peru's economy. It consistently contributes about 7% to the gross domestic product (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)  (World Bank et al. 2015), employs 26% of the labor force, and occupies 19% of the land (World Bank 2016a).Peru's agriculture is primarily small-scale farming: 70% of farms are less than 5 hectares (ha) (Lowder 2014). Small and medium producers cultivate a mixture of grains, vegetables and fruits for domestic consumption, and coffee for export (World Bank et al. 2015). Peru is the third largest producer of organic cacao in the world and is increasing its market share (Arevalo-Gardini et al. 2015).Amazon forest covers 60% of Peru (World Bank et al. 2015), which contributes to the country's ecosystem richness and biodiversity (Miranda et al. 2016). Although it is a large carbon stock, it is vulnerable to deforestation and degradation (Hansen et al. 2013). Conversion of primary forests is driven by complex, evolving dynamics, including the establishment of small-scale agriculture, land consolidation for industrial agriculture, and the expansion of artisanal mining (Miranda et al. 2016).Climate change could greatly impact the Amazonian forest in Peru due to fluctuations in rainfall patterns (Levine et al. 2016) and the increased intensity of weather events (World Bank et al. 2015). In 2015, Peru identified agriculture as a contributor to GHG emission and included agricultural mitigation targets at the 2015 UNFCCC (Richards et al. 2015). Agricultural practices that impact GHG emissions and carbon sequestration PCA promoted two improved agricultural practices relevant to GHG emissions and carbon storage: perennial crop expansion and fertilizer/pesticide usage. A description of each practice follows, including a description of the intervention and its effects, the project plan for the practice, and estimated impacts on emissions.Background. Perennial cropping systems have a number of benefits. Compared to annuals, they have deeper and larger root networks that serve to retain water and soil. These conservation measures for erosion and runoff keep soil, nutrients and water on the farm, a local benefit, as well as keeping them out of bodies of water (Glover et al. 2012). Perennial systems increase organic matter input to the soils, helping them to retain more water and nutrients (Jose, 2009). From a global perspective, perennial crops increase terrestrial carbon storage by removing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it in plant biomass, thus mitigating carbon increases in the atmosphere from other sources. Perennial crops can also support tree, bird, insect, and mammal diversity compared to annuals (ibid.). Addition of perennial crops to a farm can improve household resilience by increasing the diversity of products for sale and home consumption.Project plan. PCA encouraged cacao farmers to expand cultivated areas and introduced new farmers to the crop. According to PCA, land used for expansion of the cocoa production system came from grasslands or annual croplands. PCA expected a planting density of 1,111 cocoa trees/ha.The cacao production system promoted by PCA included shade trees, e.g. Bolaina (Guazuma crinita) and Capirona (Calycophyllum spruceanum). With the expansion of the cacao production system, new shade trees were planted as part of the agroforestry system or existing trees were used when available. Carbon storage by shade trees was not included in this analysis because the implementing partners did not have definitive data on the extent of new plantings (an additional carbon storage factor) versus the use of existing trees. If monitoring data on shade tree planting were available, this component of PCA would provide sizable additional climate change mitigation.Impact on carbon sequestration. Perennial crops provide mitigation benefits through carbon sequestration in soils and tree biomass. New cacao trees sequester carbon as biomass as they grow. In mature cacao trees, above-ground biomass ranges from 20-40 kg per tree (Zuidema et al. 2005, Somarriba et al. 2013, Mohammed et al. 2015). This analysis used an intermediate value of 27.4 kg of biomass per tree for those older than 15 years (Mohammed et al. 2015), and a shoot-to-root ratio of 87/13 (Norgrove and Hauser 2013). Given the planting density goal of PCA, enhanced carbon stocks from cacao biomass resulted in estimated sequestration of -17.495 t C/ha, a rate comparable to estimates for Central American smallholder cacao systems with lower tree densities (Somarriba et al. 2013). Increased tree biomass resulted in increased carbon sequestration (-3.89 tCO 2 e/ha/yr, as shown in Figure 2). Note that biomass increase is not linear, but the annual averages are useful for comparison with other agricultural practices.PCA also sequestered carbon in soils. As lands were converted from pasture (9,800 ha), degraded pasture (4,200 ha), and various annual crops (14,000 ha), soil carbon was sequestered at rates of -0.7 tCO 2 e/ha/yr, -1.14 tCO 2 e/ha/yr, and -6.42 tCO 2 e/ha/yr, respectively.PCA's practice of perennial crop expansion over the entire area of implementation resulted in GHG mitigation benefits of -211,467 tCO 2 e/yr, as shown in Figure 3.Background. Soil nutrient stocks are affected by the removal of nutrients such as crops and stover, and the input of nutrients from crop residues, fertilizer, manure and other sources. Farmers employ new techniques in fertilizer management to balance inputs and losses of nutrients in order to boost crop yields. In Peru, cacao yields increased 40% over the last 10 years, but yield gaps still exist. Traditionally, efficient fertilizer management focused on the timing, type, placement, and quantity of nutrients to minimize loss and optimize crop uptake of nutrients to increase yields. Today, the focus is broader; it includes practices such as intercropping and rotations, as well as a focus of this project, perennials, to build agroecosystems that minimize N losses, maximize plant use of available nutrients, build soil organic matter to retain nutrients, and minimize external nutrient inputs.GHG emissions result from the production of fertilizers and pesticides (Lal 2004;IFA 2009) and conversion of nitrogen fertilizers to nitrous oxide (N 2 O) in fields (Butterbach-Bahl 2013). Fertilizer management can reduce emissions of (N 2 O) emissions, a GHG 298 times more potent than CO 2 (Myhre et al. 2013), from fertilized soils as well as the emissions associated with the energy intensive production of fertilizers. One challenge of these perennial systems is an increased need to control pests associated with the shade trees, largely met by increased pesticide use. The emissions associated with the production, transportation and storage of pesticides are included in this analysis.Project plan. To improve yields and product quality while minimizing costs, PCA conducted training and monitoring of safe pesticide use, fertilization, and composting. PCA also improved smallholders' access to fertilizers by making working capital available through microfinance institutions. Based on these interventions, most participating farmers were expected to use an intermediate quantity of synthetic fertilizer-roughly 30 kg N/ha from urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP)-and low amounts of fungicides (2 kg/ha copper sulfate).PCA activities increased GHG emissions from fertilizers by 0.32 tCO 2 e/ha annually (Figure 2) and 8,977 tCO 2 e over the full area of implementation (Figure 3). Pesticide use increased GHG emissions by an estimated 0.05 tCO 2 e/ha annually (Figure 2) and 1,309 tCO 2 e over the full area of implementation (Figure 3).Fertilizer and pesticide management Summary of projected GHG emission and carbon sequestration co-benefits PCA's interventions are estimated to result in a substantial increase in carbon sequestration from perennial crop expansion. This will more than offset increased GHG emissions from fertilizer and pesticides.There are clear benefits to PCA's increasing biomass (-3.89 tCO 2 e/ha/yr) and improving soils (-2.75 tCO 2 e/ha/yr) following the introduction of perennial crops.There are increased emissions due to pesticide usage (0.05 tCO 2 e/ha/yr) and fertilizers (0.32 tCO 2 e/ha/yr) (Figure 2). Perennial crop expansion caused net GHG emissions of -211,467 tCO 2 e (Figure 3). Increased annual GHG emissions from greater fertilizer and pesticide consumption are comparably minor (10,286 tCO 2 e, Figure 3).Future program designers should consider the following issues raised by this analysis of GHG emissions and carbon sequestration in agriculture and food security projects when focused on smallholder farmers:Agroforestry expansion. What incentives or changes to enabling conditions are needed to help farmers expand agroforestry systems? Can smallholder farmers individually finance the establishment of a cacao production system? Forestry management. Are there appropriate shade trees that provide clear benefits to cocoa systems and avoid potential negative impacts from pest management? Which species and management practices allow for higher shade tree biomass within cocoa farms?Fertilizer management. Can interventions that promote nutrient-use efficiency be expanded? Can the project expand the composting/recycling of postharvest waste within the agroecosystem?LED aims to decrease emission intensity (GHG emissions per unit of output), a useful indicator in the agricultural sector. Notes: 1. Total GHG emissions per hectare signifies the emissions per hectare of product harvested. 2. Annual yield signifies the tonnes of product produced per hectare harvested each year. 3. Postharvest loss is the measurable product loss during processing steps from harvest to consumption per year. 4. Remaining annual yield is calculated by subtracting postharvest loss from annual yield. 5. Emission intensity is calculated by dividing the total GHG emissions per hectare by the remaining annual yield. (-) Denotes that the percent difference could not be calculated.A comprehensive description of the methodology used for the analysis presented in this report can be found in Grewer et al. (2016); a summary of the methodology follows. The selection of projects to be analyzed consisted of two phases. First, the research team reviewed interventions in the FTF initiative and additional USAID activities with high potential for agricultural GHG mitigation to determine which activities were to be analyzed for changes in GHG emissions and carbon sequestration. CCAFS characterized agricultural interventions across a broad range of geographies and approaches. These included some that were focused on specific practices and others designed to increase production by supporting value chains. For some activities, such as technical training, the relationship between the intervention and agricultural GHG impacts relied on multiple intermediate steps. It was beyond the scope of the study to quantify emission reductions for these cases, and the research team therefore excluded them. Next, researchers from CCAFS and USAID selected 30 activities with high potential for agricultural GHG mitigation based on expert judgment of anticipated emissions and strength of the intervention. The analysis focused on practices that have been documented to mitigate climate change (Smith et al. 2007) and a range of value chain interventions that influence productivity.Researchers from FAO, USAID, and CCAFS analyzed a substantial range of project documentation for the GHG analysis. They conducted face-to-face or telephone interviews with implementing partners and followed up in writing with national project management. Implementing partners provided information, data, and estimates regarding the adoption of improved agricultural practices, annual yields, and postharvest losses. The underlying data for this GHG analysis are based on project monitoring data.The team estimated GHG emissions and carbon sequestration associated with agricultural and forestry practices by utilizing EX-ACT, an appraisal system developed by the FAO (Bernoux et al. 2010;Bockel et al. 2013;Grewer et al. 2013), and other methodologies. EX-ACT was selected based on its ability to account for a number of GHGs, practices, and environments. Derivation of intensity and practice-based estimates of GHG emissions reflected in this case study required a substantial time investment that was beyond the usual effort and scope of GHG assessments of agricultural investment projects. Additional details on the methodology for deriving intensity and practice-based estimates can be found in Grewer et al. (2016).","tokenCount":"2909"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"149afd795d4b0c15b0ac0e669d478461","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abe05a41-a17e-4bd3-aace-c45c8e56a1d5/retrieve","id":"1635716415"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a4e4e23-a2b4-43e9-8073-b768031fdf87","pagecount":"26","content":"Cassava consists of 60 to 70% water. Processing it into a dry form reduces the moisture content and converts it into a more durable and stable product with less volume, which makes it more transportable.Processing is also necessary to eliminate or reduce the level of cyanide in cassava and to improve the palatability of the food products. Processed cassava products are also used as raw materials for a number of small-or medium-scale industries in Africa.The tubers and leaves of cassava contain cyanide which can be poisonous, depending on the levels in a particularvariety. Thus, to ensure they are safe for human consumption, the cyanide must be removed or considerably reduced. According to the processing procedure used, the percentage of cyanide reduction varies from 69.85 to 100%.The tubers are detoxified by hydrolysis of linamarin and lotaustralin into HCN (hydrogen cyanide) which is volatile and evaporates rapidly at temperatures above 28°C. Some measure of detoxification can also be achieved by mechanical disintegration (pounding, grating or chipping the tubers).The objectives of cassava processing are to: reduce postharvest losses of fresh tubers eliminate or reduce the cyanide content improve the taste of cassava products provide raw materials for small-scale, cassava-based rural industries 3. They are then cut into chunks (in some countries, including Rwanda and Xire, the peeled and washed tubers are-dried as whole tubers).The cassava chunks are dried on the ground (or, rarely, on elevated platforms); drying takes from 2 to 5 days, depending on the weather..he dried cassava is n&mallystored in the form of chips in jute sacks and then sold, or it is milled for family use when necessary. ' Preparation of fermented cassava flour. In Nigeria, fermented cassava flow is known as 'lafun'. It is particularly popular in the south-western states of Lagos, gun, Ondo and Oyo; -There are slight variations in the preparation of lafun, depending on locality, but basically the process is as !allows:1 The cassava tubers are washed (in areas with water supply problems, this step is often omitted).2. The tubers are steeped in water, usually in drums, pots or natural ponds in areas close to cassava farms. It is during this stage that the fermentation occurs. The minimum time for fermentation is 3 days; the process is slower in the rainy season than in the dry season.3. The fermented cassava tubers are peeled. After fermentation, the peel comes off easily, as a result of partial disintegration of the cassava tubers.4. The tubers are then dehydrated by putting them into bags and 9m1 placing stones on top of the bags.Steeping cassava tubers for the 5. The dehydrated, pulverized mash is sun-dried in thin layers an mats, concrete surfaces or, very often, on rocks. Drying the mash on rocks has the advantage of allowing drying to continue overnight because the rocks absorb heat during the day and give it out at night. Drying takes from 1 to 3 days, depending on the weather.6. The dried cassava is milled and stored for household consumption and sale.To produce better-quality flour, the tubers are peeled before steeping in water, and disintegration is carried out using a cassava grater set for larger clearance.Deficiencies of traditional flour preparation methods. The deficiencies of preparing unfermented and fermented cassava Figure 9.2 using the traditional methods outlined above are as follows:Drying manually pulverized cassava on natural rocks a Although drying the chunks or the whole tubers usually results in their outer surfaces being sufficiently dry, the moisture level inside the chunks or tubers is still considerably higher than its safe value.The process is quite unhygienic; spreading the product on the ground makes it vulnerable to contamination by, for example, foreign bodies or dust. Drying causes a major bottleneck in flour production, particularly during the rainy season when the product can become moldy and lose quality.The most typical and popular product which is prepared from fermented cassavadough in West Africa isgari. Gari is afree-flowing product, consisting of cassava particles which have been gelatinized and dried. The size of these particles varies from one locality to another according to consumer preferences; a finer gari is produced by sieving the product after roasting. Gari is creamy-white or yellow, depending on the type of cassava used or whether palm oil has been added.For good storabillty, the moisture content of gari should be below 12Oh, preferably 8 to 10°/o. Good-quality gari swells to about three times its initial volume when placed in water. The popularity of gari is probably based on the fact that the granules are precooked and a very short time is needed to prepare them as main dishes or snacks. An additional advantage is that well-prepared gari stores well for at least 12 months.Traditional gari preparation. The traditional process for preparing ga? is as follows:1. The tubers are peeled manually. Usually, this is a family or group activity, with women helping each other or being hired by processors (see Eigure 9.3) 2. The peeled tubers are washed (this step is sometime omitted -I in areas with water shortages).3. The peeled tubers are grated. This is usually done with hand graters (perforated tin sheets, nailed to a bench or set in a frame), but mechanical graters ate available and are being used in some areas (see Figure 9.4.)4. The grated cassava mash is fermented and dehydrated. This is done by putting it in sacks. Logs or stones are placed on top of the sacks or, alternatively, the sacks are pressed between two boards attached by ropes; as the ropes are tightened, the water is squeezed out from the cassava mash. Fermentation usualll takes from 3 to 5 days, but in localities where a bland gari taste is preferred (for example, Bendel State in Nigeria) the mash is fermented for only1 day (see Figure 9.5).Fermentation is very important because it gives gari its preferred sour flavor, and detoxifies the cyanide. The safe level of cyanide in gari as specified by the Nigerian Food and Drug Administration is 1 Oppm (1 mg HCN per 100g of gari); the cyanide level for low-cyanide cassava is 50ppm (5mg HCN per 100g of fresh tubers). In certain parts of Nigeria, an oil drum, cut longitudinally and set into a specially prepared fireplace, is used. Palm oil is added to the frylng surface to prevent burning or to give the gari a yellow color. .During the frying prouess, a calabash or a little broom is used to toss the particles.  8. The cooled gari is sieved with locally made sieves to ensure uniformity of grain size. Large particles are normally milled and added to the sieved gari. This is then packed in polyethylene bags, jute sacks, propylene sacks or paper bags, and marketed.Deficiencies in traditional gari production. The deficiencies in the traditional gari production process are as follows:Manual peeling results in low productivity. Attempts to mechanize peeling have not been successful because of the irregular shape and size of cassava tubers. However, for small-and medium-scale processing, manual peeling has the advantage of providing part-time work for women and children in rural areas.Grating normally results in low output (not more than 20kg of cassava can be grated per day), and may cause injuries to fingers.Gari fryers often have a fuel efficiency of less than lo%, and frying exposes those cooking the gari to heat, smoke and cyanide fumes.There is often little or no quality control of the finished product, which may result in the product having a higher moisture content than recommended, making it unsuitable for long-term storage. Sometimes, to save on fuel, gari is deliberately removed from the fryers before its moisture content has been sufficiently reduced, and then sun-dried. This practice gives satisfactory results during the dry season, but in the rainy season gari reabsorbs the moisture and becomes unsuitable for storing for more than 1 week.In all cassava-growing areas in Africa, starch is produced in small quantities. The process involved in starch production is summarized here:1. The cassava tubers are peeled and washed.2. The tubers are grated or pulverized.3. The cassava mash is mixed with large quantities of water and sieved to extract the starch.The starch granules are allowed to settle overnight.The water is decanted, and the starch cake which settles at the bottom of the container is broken into pieces for drying; often it is sold as wet chunks.6. The wet starch is sun-dried for 1-2 days.Deficiences in traditional starch production. The problems associated with traditional methods used for starch production are as follows:Manual grating,especially when poor-quality graters'are used, has low productivity and does not allow starch to be released from the cells efficiently.Sun-drying is difficult during the rainy season and often results in contamination of the finished product.The quality of starch depends on the quality of the water.There is no quality control of the finished product.Compared to the traditional methods, the improved method for processing cassava increases productivity and improves the qualtty and storability of cassava products. It also enhances the potential for cassava growers in Africa to develop non-traditional cassava products (such as cassava starch, an important raw material in the food, textile, paper and other industries; cassava flour, for use in various bakery preparations, alone or as composite flour; and cassava chips and pellets, which are incorporated in animal feed rations by EEC countries because of the low price and high energy content of cassava compared with cereals).The objectives of improved cassava processing are:to reduce the drudgery and labor intensiveness of traditional cassava processing methods, and thus increase productivity to produce an end product of better and more uniform quality to ensure the reduction or total elimination of undesirable toxic constituents in cassava so that it is suitable for human consumption to promote the establkhment of economically viable smalland medium-scale cassava-based industries and create new opportunities for employment in rural areas to reduce the amount of fuel used for drying cassava by introducing fuel-efficient devices and techniques to promote the export potential of cassava products such as starch and cassava chips and pellets Improved cassava processing for three cassava productsgari, cassava chips and flour, and cassava starchis presented in detail below. These specific cassava products have been selected because:they are relatively easy to manufacture within the existing infrastructures of the rural areas in Africa they could play an important role in the food security of rural communities tQe machinery required to process them is or can be manufactured by the informal engineering sectors of many African states they provide the raw material for a number of important industriesA flow chart depicting the improved gari processing method is presented in Figure 9.9; the moisture content of the cassava product at each stage of the process is indicated. Illustrations of various stages of the process are provided in Figures 9.1 0 to 9.1 3 (see overleal).R o w material requirements. The ratio of the fresh unpeeled cassava input to gari output is approximately 5 : 1 (that is, 2 tons of fresh cassava are required to produce approximately 400kg of gari). However, these figures are not absolute because many factors affect the ratio of output to input, such as type of cassava used, thickness of peel, age of cassava and moisture content. It is important to weigh the cassava before and after peeling.Peeling and washing. Attempts to mechanize the peeling of cassava have not been successful because of the irregular shape  Grating. The washed tubers are conveyed with wheelbarrows or other means to the cassava grater. These graters vary In size and shape but basically they all have a rotating drum covered with a perforated metallic sheet. By aftaching a discharge chute to the grater, the grated cassava particles can be delivered straight into bags (made of polypropylene or other materials) for fermentation.Fernentotion. Fermentation racks are built from wood and have drainage lanes directly beneath them to allow the juice from cassava to flow out. Fermentation takes 1-5 days, depending on the preferred gari flavor in a given locality.Dehydration. Some water drains through the holes in polypropylene bags during the fermentation stage. However, most of the moisture is removed by using power screw presses; two people operate the extension arms of the screw shaft. The moisture of the dehydrated cassava mash is 47 to 50%.Sieving. Dehydration produces cassava cake which has to be sieved before frying. Sieving machines or sieves made of plant material are used. The cassava cake is pressed or rubbed against the surface of the sieve. Frylng. The cassava particles are fried on metal t~ays measuring 1.2 x 2.4m and fixed into a fireplace built of bricks or mud blocks.The fireptace has a chimney to allow smoke to escape and to improve heat eff iciency. The particles are fried until crisp and dry.The recommended moisture content of the finished gari is about 10%; this can be tested with a moisture meter.Cooling. The gari is cooled by spreading it out on polyethylene sheets on the floor. It can be cooled overnight and packed in the morning.Final sieving and packing. The cooled gari is sieved agdn to ensure uniformity of the final product. It is then packed.Using low-cyanide varieties. The process to be followed in the preparation of dried cassava chips and flour from low-cyanide ~ssavavarieties is shown in Figure 9.14.1. The ratio of the cassava chips output to fresh cassava input is approximately 1 : 4. Depending on the type of cassava used, 1 ton of cassava tubers gives 250kg of cassava chips.2. It is recommended that peeling is done with stainless steel knives,3. Peeled cassava should be washed in cemented tanks or plastic drums, to avoid adverse effects of corrosion.4. Washed cassava may be sliced using manual or mechanical slicing machines.5. During the dry season it is convenient to sun-dry chips on elevated platforms built in an open area, about 900m2. However, during the rainy season such an arrangement is not satisfactory, and some sort of enclosed drying chamber using solar energy or fuel is recommended. Drying is done until the chips have a moisture content of 8 to lo%, after which the chips are cooled and packed.6. Cassaua may be stored as chips and milled into flour when needed; chips store better than flour. There are many types of grinding machines in use in urban and rural areas in Africa.Using high-cyanide varieties. This process for preparing cassava chips and flour from high-cyanide cassava was developed by the Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research in Sri Lanka (see Figure 9.1 5). It removes 95% of the cyanoglucosides in cassava.The first drying stage disrupts the cell membranes of the cassava tissue, causing increased permeability. Soaking in water result6 in a loss of a large fraction of soluble material, including free HCN, glucosides and cyanohydrins. By the end of the second drying stage, 90% of the HCN has been removed. Drying at 1 OO°Ccauses quick decomposition of cyanohydrins an6 thus almost total removal of cyanide.Flour prepared in this way can be used for various purposes (for example, in the paper industry, and in the textile industry for cstton warp sizing and textile finishing). The peels may be dried, soaked, redried, ground and used as poultry or cattle feed.Traditionally, grinding chips into flour is done manually by pounding them in a wooden mortar. However, grinders are now common in rural and urban Africa, particularly the serrated plate type.1. Freshly uprooted cassava is preferred because it gives a better-quality product. However, tubers which are from 1 to 3 days old may be used if there is no obvious spoilage.Chipping is done manually or with mechanically operated chippers; the thickness of slices is 4mm.3. In the first drying stage, the sliced chips are dried in the sun for about 3 days to a moisture content 07 14%. Drying is done on trays made of wood or other plant material. During the rainy season, protected solar driers are recommended.4. The chips are soaked in water for 8 hours in tanks; a drain leads from the tank. The ratio of water to chips is 1 gallon of water to 1 pound of chips.5. The second sun-drying stage takes 1 or 2 days.6. Dried chips are placed in an oven at 100°C for 2 hours and dried to a rnoisutre content of 6 to 8%. Ovens with a capacity todry 200kg of chips per batch and handle about four batches a day may be used. Cassava starch is an important industrial raw material which is used in the manufacture of a number of products, including food, adhesives, thickening agents and pharmaceuticals. The process for improved starch production, shown in Figure 9.16, is very similar to the traditional process. It is based on a maximum production of 200kg/day, which is the capacity for an average rural starch factory.1. When selecting tubers for starch production, age and tuber quality are the critical factors. Tubers contain 20% starch by weight, but as a result of losses during processing this is reduced to 10%. Thus, 1 ton of cassava produces 100kg of cassava starch.2. Manual peeling is still the cheapest way of peeling cassava; 18% loss of weight is assumed.3. The peeled tubers are washed in cemented tanks. As water quality is not critical at this stage, stream water can be used.4. Grating is important because it affects the quantity of the starch released from cassava. The percentage of starch set free is called 'rasping effect'. Its value after one rasping varies between 70 and 90%. Secondary grating using a hammer mill with a fine screen is recommended.5. The starch is washed out using clean water. If the water contains ferrous compounds, a simple filtering system may be used. If piped treated water is available, filtering is not necessary.F0r.a 200kgtday starch production, the cheapest way to wash out the starch is to use a woven basket with a piece of clean calico cloth tied around the outside. This forms adouble sieve. The grated pulp is put into the basket and handwashed with water until no more milky starch comes out. The remaining , pulp is discarded; The milky starch solution is collected into plastic drums (30-gallon drums are a convenient size for starch removal) and left to settle overnight.The discarded pulp can be fried into gari or dried and incorporated in animd. feed. Gari from discarded pulp is of inferior quality.After it has settled overnight, the clear water is drained off and the topsurface of the starch cake is scraped clean; the bottom part of the cake may also need scraping. The starch is then dug out in lumps, which are again mixed with water and allowed to settle overnight. This process may be repeated the following day to get goodquality starch free of any dirt.8. After the final settling, a clean starch cake results which is broken into small bits by hand in preparation for drying. The crumbling can bedone with sieves, similar to those used in the production of gari.Drying is done in ovens if the quantity of starch produced is above lOOOkg per day. For small quantities, sun-drying is used. Starch is deposited on trays which are placed on racks, about 1 m above the ground at an angle of about 30\". These simple measures increase the drying speed by a factor of 3. If the starch is not dry by the evening, the trays are stacked inside and returned to the racks in the morning. Solar dryers may be useful in speeding up the drying process.An important advantage of sun-drying is the bleaching action of the ultraviolet rays of the sunlight. The starch is dried to not more than 12% moisture content. During the rainy season, when it is difficult to sundry starch, it is recommended that drum dryers are used to facilitate the drying process.This section outlines the measures to be taken in establishing a rural cottage industry producing gari, cassava flour and cassava starch.When deciding on the location of the industry, two important factors must be taken into account: fresh cassava tubers have a high moisture content and are therefore bulky and difficult to transport; and cassava is a highly perishable commodity. For these reasons, the industry should be located within the cassavaproducing area or not more than 20krn away from it; and links should be established with farms or plantations capable of supplying not less than 50% of the industry's annual raw material requirements.A separate economic viability analysis should be undertaken for each locality before a cassava-processing industry is established. The profitability of such an industry depends on many factors quite independent of its technical viability, such as government policies, supply and price of cassava, and the comparative price of the imported commodity which may be substituted.Where a market for non-traditional cassava products has not been developed and is therefore unpredictable, it is more practical for the cottage industry to produce a few cassava products instead of concentrating on only one. This allows the flexibility to switch quickly to the product for which a market demand exists, and will also make maximum use of those implements and machines that can be used for processing differenttypes of cassava products (for example, gratersare used for both gari and starch production). The recommended output from the industry is: 400kglday of gari; 250kglday of cassava chips and flour; and 200kg/day of starch. The dry milling area should have a concrete floor which is about 18cm thick; the floor of the wet milling area should also be concreted but about 8crn lower than the dry area. Alternatively, a cement wall about 15cm high can be built to separate the two areas.The sink for washing tubers is 60cm deep and fitted with a tap and drainage pipe; it stands on a 60cm-high plinth. Some space is provided within the structure for stacking the starchlchips drying trays during the night. Wooden battens laid between each layer of trays allows air to circulate. The drying racks outside are made of bamboo poles. The center pole is about 10cm higher than the others to provide the necessary tilt.The type and quantity of implements and machinery required for a rural cassava processing industry are given in Table 9.1 (see overleaf).Machinery for processing gari. The gari-processing machinery itemized in Table 9.1 is described here, apart from the petrol and diesel engines.The cassava grater (stationery or mobile) has become a perma-be mtor nent feature of cassava processing in rural communities. These graters can grate at least 4 tons of fresh tubers per day, and thus only one is needed to handle all the garilstarch processing opera-Rgure 9.18 tions of a rural industry.A tjfpical cassava grater For fresh cassava up to 2OOkg1 For finished product up to 1 Okg A typical cassavagrater incorporates acylindrical, rotating, wooden drum which is covered with a nail-punched metal sheet (galvanized or tin), as shown in Figure 9.18. The rotary drum is set into a casing, with the critical dimension being the clearance between the lower part of the drum and the casing; this clearance determines the size of the grated particle.The output of the grater varies from 500kg to 1000kg per hour, depending on the diameter and speed of the rotary drum and the number of perforations per unit area of the drum surface; these parameters have not been standardized.When selecting, installing and using the grater, it is important to ensure that: the grating surface is constructed from non-corrosive material the perforated grating surface is easily replaceable when it becomes worn the grater is built on a platform so that the cassava mash can be easily and hygenically discharged directly into a fermentation sack or container there is little or no contact between the expressed cassava juice and the wooden drum of the rotor (otherwise, the drum will deteriorate fast and bits of wood will get into the cassava) the grater is thoroughly washed after each day of operation to ensure long-term use and hygenic processingThe most durable and convenient dehydration press for smallscale production is the power screw de-watering press (see Figure 9.1 1). The dehydration press incorporating a hydraulic jack (see Figure 9.1 9) is faster and less labor intensive; however, the seals ags of mashed cassava wear out rapidly, and replacing them may be difficult. The cassava juice expressed du?ing this operation can be collected for starch.Sieving machine Cassava particles are always sifted before and after the garifying (frying) operation. This can be done easily with a sieving machine powered by a 1.5kw electric motor or diesel engine (see Figure 9.1 2). The sieving trays have holes of different diameters, so that the machine can be used for sieving both uncooked and fried gari particles. However, sieving raw cassava particles is better done by feeding the cassava cake back into the grater after dehydration (see Figure 9.1 8 ) .In the absence of asieving machine, a manual bamboo sieve (300-400 microns in sieve size) can be used.Many types of gari fryers, both mechanized and manually oper-ated, have been developed in West Africa. The most cost-effective type in industries producing less than 500kg of gari per day seems to be the RAIDS gari fryer (see Figure 9.20). It consists of a rectangular tray set into a brick fireplace with a chimney. The tray is made of 3mm-thick mild steel sheets and has a side opening for discharging the finished product. To produce 400kg per day, two gari fryers are required.Machinery for processing cassava chips and flour. The three outlet items required for processing cassava chips and flour are a slicing machine, drying equipment (for natural or artificial drying) and a milling machine.A mechanized or manually operated slicing machine (see Figure Drying is carried out to reduce moisture content and is essentially a process of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer. Heat is required to evaporate the moisture from the inside and the surface of a product by an external drying medium, usually air. In a number of agricultural crops, including cassava, the drying of single particles under constant external conditions exhibits a constant-rate moisture loss during the initial drying period, followed by a fallingrate moisture loss. This implies that the drying rate decreases continuously during the course of drying.Drying methods can be classified as natural or artificial.(a) In natural drying, the material is subjected to the combined action of sun rays and atmospheric air. Natural drying can be divided into three categories: sun drying, solar drying and natural ventilation.Sun drying. This is the most common method of drying in Africa. The material is spread on the ground, roof top, compacted soil, concrete floor or, more rarely, on an elevated platform. The material is occasionally turned.There are numerous disadvantages to this method, such as reabsorption of moisture from the ground, uneven drying, insect and animal invasion, and exposure to dirt and dust.Solar drying. Sun drying can be speeded up through the introduction of solar dryers to enhance the effect of solar radiation. Solar dryers can be simple box structures covered with polyethylene sheets, plastic sheets or complex structures which incorporate blowers and transparent plastic sheets.  Drying trays, measuring 0.7 x 1 m, can be made of plant material, but investing in more durable plastic mesh/ netting or wooden trays is more cost-effective in the long run. The chips are laid on the trays (about 10kg per square meter); the trays are placed on specially built racks inclined at a 25 to 3 0 ' . angle. The number of trays needed depends on the rate of production of the chips.During the rainy season, when it becomes impossible to dry cassava chips outside, artificial forced circulation dryers can be used. A suitable design is shown in Figure 9.22 (on page 107). The drying chamber is made of plywood, and the product to be dried is arranged on the shelves. The air is blown by a centrifugal blower into a heat exchanger which consists of a series of pipes set in a fireplace with a chimney; the blower is driven by an electric motor or a small petrol engine with a power of 0.7 to 1 .Okw. The air is heated by the pipes and passes into the drying chamber; here it picks up moisture from the product and escapes through the opening at the top of the drying chamber. About 500kg of cassava chips with a moisture content of 12% can be dried in 40 to 48 hours. The blower is driven by an electric motor or a small petrol engine with a power of 0.7 to 1 .Okw.Solar dryers, such as the cabinet dryer shown in Figure 9.23, can be constructed from locally available materials. They enhance the insulation effect and contribute towards the generation of higher air temperatures and lower relative humidities, both of which are conducive to improved drying rates and lower final moisture content of the dried crop. The higher temperatures also deter insect and microbial infestation.The most common type of mill used in Africa for grinding chips into flour is a plate mill. This has stationary and rotating serrated plates. The clearance between these plates regulates the degree of fineness of the milled product. The output of the milled material depends on the size of the plate and the power of the motor or engine.Another type of milling machine, the hammer mill, has a series of reversible, flexible hammers fixed radially inside the casing (see Figure 9.24). The material is fed through the hopper, and moved over the wire mesh screen by the hammers; the size of the milled particle is regulated by the screen.Although the hammer mill uses less energy to produce the same output as that produced by the plate mill, it is not as suitable for small-scale rural cassava-processing industries as the plate mill because:the availability of spare parts for the hammer mill in most cassava-growing areas in Africa is limited (for example, it is necessary, to replace the screen regularly, and obtaining a new screen often poses problems) it can be used only for dry material, whereas the plate mill can be used for grinding both wet and dry materialMachinery for processing starch. The Brook dryer is a simple device which consists of three 200-liter drums and a screen. The drums are laid end to end and are joined together, as illustrated in Figure 9.25. Above the drums is the screen. A fire is built in the first drum, and the warm air from the fire passes through the starch.After being dried in the Brook dryer, the starch is ground in a plate mill and is then sieved. It is necessary to sieve the starch because the standard particle size for starch used for most applications is very small. However, if the demand for cassava starch increases, it may be necessary for the rural industry to invest in pulverizing equipment. Ensure that the product to be packaged is dried to a safe moisture content. The amount of moisture in an agricultural crop or product is the most important factor determining its storability. When determining the moisture content, it is important to ensure that:(a) the sample is representative of the batch which is being examined and the samplings are sufficiently large (b) the sample is kept in a sealed container before determining the moisture contentThe amount of moisture in a sample of produce which does not decompose when the produce is heated can be determined by weighing some of the ground produce and then drying it in a forced draft air oven at a given temperature for a predetermined length of time. The drop in the weight of the produce is measured according to its initial weight (wet basis).Allow the product to cool sufficiently before packing it. Latent heat which is not released will later condense inside the sealed container, resulting in mold growth and insectdevelopment.The material which has been prepared according to the procedure described above can be stored in polyethylenelined sacks or brown paper bags in quantities of about 25kg or more for at least 12 months. If the material is to be packed into smaller packages (in quantities of 2,5 or 1 Okg), thick polyethylene bags with a gauge of at least 0.1 5mm should be used.The larger bags are tied with a piece of string, while the smaller bags are sealed.It is important to note that if the moisture content of the flour or gari is not sufficiently low and the product is not intended for long-term storage, polyethylene or hessian sacks provide better conditions for short-term storage.Cassava chips store better than cassava flour. If flour is required, the cassava should be stored as chips and then milled into flour just prior to sale or immediate use. Cassava flour, like gari, can be stored in polyethylene or paper bags, as described above.A fumigant, in the form of a tablet, should be put inside the bags. Phostoxin is safe as long as the user follows directions for its use provided by qualified agricultural extension personnel.Measures to control rodents by mechanical or chemical means must be applied.","tokenCount":"5467"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9af4c9d79b447a20bd41073450ff3677","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3900a31-ddbd-4d30-bdb4-7caf4661b770/retrieve","id":"-70011883"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9316137e-11d8-4307-b7c1-f758e338cc41","pagecount":"38","content":"Skills for reshaping the negotiation process (Glaser and Ruso)   Maintain your composure   The listener asks open-ended and closed questions The emerging innovation systems paradigms require new partnerships and network in the design and implementation of agricultural research for development. For an organization to realize the full potential of the collaborative advantage of partnerships, it must be skilled not only in identifying the right partners, but also should be able to manage these partnerships very effectively. This requires a new set of skills and tools. Among others, the key sets of skill required are: interpersonal skills, facilitation skills, conflict management skills, feedback skills and negotiation skills. These skills are presented and discussed in this chapter.Innovation system requires the involvement of different actors in the process. The engagement with different actors will increase the possibility of entering into some sort conflict with one another. If this conflict is left unresolved the innovation process will be disrupted and will be hard for innovation to happen. Therefore, competency in conflict management is a key skill required by actors in the innovation system.Conflict management offers approaches that help in preventing or resolving conflicts. Conflict management could only be understood and managed in the context of culture. Different communities have different ways of perceiving, acknowledging and resolving a conflict.We all have gone through some sort of conflict in our life time. This shows that conflict is pervasive and normal part of our life. Moreover, if well managed and handled skilfully it can be harnessed to lead into positive and higher level of trust, understanding and productive engagement. When dealing with conflict management it would be good to take this into consideration.The widely used approach to conflict management is a model developed by Christopher Moore and associates in the 1980s. The approach helps in analysing causes and finding solutions by positioning the problem in the centre. The approach categorizes conflict into five categories based on the underlying causes (see Figure 1). These are:These are caused by lack of clear information on the issue, misinformation, interpretation of available data differently, different interpretations of available data, or by using assessment procedures in understating the meaning of data.One step in managing this kind of conflict is reaching an agreement on the data that will be relevant for the issue at hand, deciding and agreeing on method of data collection analysis. Furthermore, getting expert opinion will also help in filling the gap, clarifying the methodological issue that would lead to disagreement and resolving the power issue related to who has the correct skill and knowledge.Interest conflicts are caused by: Data conflicts are caused by: Structural conflicts are caused by: Value conflicts are caused by: Relationship conflicts are caused by: This kind of conflict can arise as a result of perceived or actual competition between substantive (e.g. the land), procedural (e.g. fairness, openness, transparency,) or psychological (e.g. respect, recognition, dignity, professionalism) interests.Possible solutions are reached by focusing on interests instead of on the positions, looking for objective criteria, developing integrative solutions addressing the needs of all parties, searching for ways of expanding options or resources, and by developing trade-offs satisfying interests of different strength.This kind of conflict can be inflicted by spatial occurrences that are related to uneven distribution of proceeds from geographic, physical or environmental factors as well as time constraints that hinder co-operation. It can also manifest as a result of 'general set up and role distribution of a situation, from unequal power and authority in the decision-making process, form negative patterns of behaviour and interaction, or from the unequal control, ownership or distribution of resources'. Moreover, what causes the real conflict is the absence of appropriate rules, regulation and procedures that could have helped the handling of the issues.Therefore, the solutions will also be based on creation of rules, regulations and procedures. As it is always difficult to reach to amicable solution which satisfies both parties the involvement of an external mediation or arbitrage is highly recommended. This can help in reaching comprise and 'clearing definition and acceptance of roles and levels of authority'. Some of the specifics include; 'the reallocation of rights and entitlements, the relocation of the negotiation platform at a convenient distance from the field, the establishment of a fair, transparent and acceptable decision-making process'. This involves confidence building, trust that leads to avoidance of animosities which will mainly be 'interest-based persuasive trade-off bargaining negotiation in an appropriate timeframe'.These are conflicts caused due to cultural differences that exist between the disagreeing groups.Values are basis of people's choices and priorities. People give value to things and phenomena influenced by their upbringing, teaching, religious beliefs and experiences. Therefore, it is difficult to define criteria and evaluate or judge value. Direct attempt to change, disdain and criticize an individual's or a community's values can result in strong opposition.Challenging values directly, in attempt to change it, will not result the intended goal. Therefore, 'issues should be redefined in other terms than cultural values'. It is good to allow people to hold their values without being criticized and humiliated. Therefore, this shouldn't be a source of contentions. On the other hand, they could work to create a common cause and goal that will help them resolve the disagreement.Though these kinds of conflicts are frequently seen, they are also baseless and trivial. They are caused most of the times due to personal dislikes, misconceptions and stereo types, repetitive negative encounters.Therefore, it is good to create forums that help to come together and understand each other to avoid stereotyping and misconceptions. Sharing information and transparency will also help misinformation and rumours. Furthermore, people should also be trained on working in diversity, interpersonal skills and emotional intelligence so that they 'build positive perception skills in order to develop a positive problem-solving attitude'. Moreover, appropriate measure should be taken on people who are unable to control their emotions and disrupt the normal functioning of work.It is not always possible to see most conflicts being categorized in one of the above categories. There could be an overlap and sometimes a certain conflict can be caused by more than one cause.People use different strategies to resolve conflicts. These strategies could be grouped as in Figure 2.The basis for the grouping is the combination of the level of importance given to the relationships and achievement of goals. The desired state is consensus which values relationships as well as achieves the goal but hard to achieve every time. Moreover, compromise is also the way of life. The option for constructing the most practicable strategy for managing conflict is summarized in Box 1.Box 1: Options for constructing a most practicable strategy for managing conflict  There are different ways of handling a conflict, depending on the type of conflict and on the atmosphere in the group. But, in general, the conflict-resolution strategies listed below provide a constructive way of finding solutions. The first and most important step is that every group member should be involved in solving the group's conflicts.The following strategies are listed in the order of preference, one being less preferred, although the goal is actually very difficult to reach! Avoiding conflict 1.Groups that avoid conflicts remain on the surface of their relationships: they don't allow opposition or submit themselves to any arising opposition. Their conflicts are denied, kept hidden, or suppressed.Elimination of the conflicting party/parties 2.Members that oppose or disrupt the group's aims and objectives are driven out of the group. This can happen through punishment, bad talk, or just ignoring their wishes. The thoughts of the opposition are: 'We give up,' 'We are insulted,' or 'We are going to make a group of our own.' Suppression of the minority 3.The group suppresses those with other opinions by any means they have. The minority is expected to listen and obey what the majority wants and thinks is best for the group (e.g. for them). For some time this strategy will work, because the minority is afraid, but sooner or later tensions and hostility will become so strong that the group will break apart. Voting is actually a smoother form of suppression, because there will always be a winning majority and a losing minority. Agreement 4.The majority rules and decides, but the minority does not feel oppressed by that and agrees to what is proposed. Alliance 5.Different parties do not give up their different opinions, but they agree on a common point to reach a step both think is good for them. The conflict is still there, it is just asleep, until the step or the short-term goal is reached. If that is done and the conflict is still there, it will arise again. Compromise 6.When the parties involved in a conflict have about the same amount of power and cannot oppress each other, they will look for a compromise. Each group gives in as much as it thinks it can in order to reach a better solution in the end. Conflicts are very often solved in this way. The parties think 'better to give in a little bit to reach some sort of solution than none at all.' But they are not fully happy about the final solution, as it is often less than they expected.This form of solving a conflict is the best, but also the rarest. The different opinions are discussed, weighed against each other, and measured against the common aim. The whole group is involved in the conflict-solving process and each member takes care that his/her wishes are recognized as much as possible. This solution can differ from the views of the conflicting parties, but the newfound common solution could be even better than the ones that existed before: something new was created by involving everyone.The different strategies of the different parties, i.e. the approaches used differ depending upon the extent to which:The party values the maintenance of good relations with other parties; and •The importance the partner places on achieving its own goal. Each of the five possible • strategies (accommodation, consensus, compromises/tradeoffs, withdrawal or force) has its advantages and disadvantages. Ideally one should look for consensual negotiations.It is important to build and maintain an open dialogue in any situation, when dealing with conflicts.Irrespective of where you work, negotiation is an ever-present feature in any organization. Given the role of negotiation in the workplace, it is important for all actors within an innovation system to improve their negotiations skills. In forming and managing effective partnership, negotiation is a key element.Given its importance, many organizations make negotiation as a core competency. Information asymmetry-refers to a situation in which one partner has more information than the other.Divided interest-many agents face the challenge of serving divided internal interest.Conflict of interest-Every agent is bound to have a personal agenda and that agenda my conflict with the principal's agenda.There are two primary kinds of negotiations: Distributive and integrative.Distributive negotiations: Here the parties compete over the distribution of a fixed sum of value. The negotiation centres around the question of who will claim the most value. This type of negotiation is also referred to as zero-sum or constant sum negotiation. The term win-lose is more appropriate here.Examples: Buying a motor vehicle, wage negotiations.Integrative negotiations: In an integrative negotiation, the parties co-operate to achieve maximum benefits by integrating their interests with an agreement, while also competing to divide the value. The negotiator has to be skilled at both creating value and claiming it.The growing use of joint ventures and outsourcing has likewise motivated organizations to think more about relationship and less about winning what often appears to be a zero-sum game.In an integrative negotiation, there are two tasks. Create as much value as possible for yourself and for the other party and 1.Claim value for yourself. 2.These types of negotiations are also called win-win negotiations. Here, each makes trade-offs to get the things that they value most, while giving up other, less critical forms of value. Finding opportunities for mutual benefit naturally requires information sharing. If the partners have common interest then negotiation becomes much easier and the parties may not compete at all. An integrative negotiation encourages participants to do the following:Provide significant information about their circumstances • Explain why they want to make a deal. • Reveal and explain in general terms their preferences among issues or options. • Consider and reveal any additional capabilities or resources they have that might meet the • other side's interests and could be added to the deal.Use what they learn to find creative options that will meet the interest of both parties to the • greatest extent possible. Note: Only few negotiations are purely distributive or purely integrative. Most are integrative to some degree, containing opportunities for competition and collaboration.Many of the R&D negotiations involve more than two parties. Multiparty negotiations can significantly differ form two-party negotiations in one important aspect: Coalitions can form among parties.In a multiparty negotiation there are at least two types of coalitions: a natural coalition of allies who share a broad range of common interests and a single issue coalition in which parties that differ on other issues unite to support/co-operate in one issue. The challenge of multiparty negotiation is managing coalitions. Here it is important to understand the goals, interests and relationships of many parties and work from there. A natural coalition of allies is hard to break and on the other hand single-issue coalition is more vulnerable.No matter which type of negotiations you are faced with, it's bound to become more complex if it is multiphased or involve multiparties. If the negotiation is multiphased, use the early phases to build trust and to familiarize with the other partners. If many parties are involved, consider the benefits of forming a coalition to improve your bargaining power, or breaking up coalition that is opposed to your proposal.In order to accomplish a successful negotiation one must have some clear ideas about the following. The reservation price or position (also referred to as your walk-away) is the least favourable point at which you will accept an agreement.This is the area or range in which a deal that satisfies both parties might take place. It is the set of agreements that potentially satisfy both parties.Price of A Price of BThere are nine steps in preparing for a negotiation.Know what a good outcome would be-from your point of view and that of the other side. 1.Look for opportunities to create value in the deal. 2.Know your BATNA and reservation price. Make an effort to estimate those bench marks for the 3. other side.If your BATNA is not strong, find ways to improve it. 4.Find out if the person or team you will be dealing with has the authority to make a deal. 5.Know those with whom you are bargaining/negotiating. Learn as much as you can about the 6.people and the culture on the other side and how they have framed the issue at hand. If a future relations with the other side matters to you, gather objective standards and criteria 7.that will show your offer to be fair and reasonable. Don't expect any negotiations to follow a linear path to a conclusion. Anticipate hitches in the 8. negotiation process.Alter the agenda and intended negotiation process in your favour. 9.In any negotiation, preparation means understanding your own position and interest, those of the other party, the issue at stake and alternative solutions. It means learning as much as possible your BATNA and reservation price and those of other party's; the zone within which an agreement can be forged, and opportunities to create new forms of value.Step 1: Define a good outcome for you and the other side Never enter into a negotiation without first asking yourself, 'What would be a good outcome for me? What are my needs? And how do I prioritize them?' Then ask the same questions from the perspective of the other party. If you cannot identify the other side's interests, use every communication opportunity to probe for them.Step 2: Identify potential value creation opportunitiesOnce you understand what a good outcome would look like from your own and other party's vantage point, you can identify areas of common ground, opportunities for compromise and ways of making favourable negotiation. Any time you create a new value, we also need to answer the question of who will claim that value.Step 3: Identify your and other side's BATNA and reservation price To prepare for a successful negotiation, you need to define your strongest possible BATNA.Step 4: Store up your BATNA Think about anything that you can do to improve your best alternative to a negotiated deal that will put you in a stronger bargaining position. Storing up you BATNA is an important part of preparing for a negotiation, but it is not limited to the pre-negotiation phase. In any good negotiation you always work to improve your BATNA before and during deliberations with the other party.Step 5: Anticipate authority issues It is important to make sure that your negotiation counterpart must have full authority to forge an agreement. When you negotiate with the person who has the power to close the deal, you have real advantage:All of your reasoning is heard directly by the decision-makers. •The benefits of the good relationship you have built during the bargaining will likely to be • reflected in the agreement and its implementation.You reduce the likelihood of disputes or misrepresentation of any parts of the negotiated • settlement or particular provision.If you want the other party to personally desire a deal with you, you will stand a better chance • of making that happen by ensuring that the real decision-maker is not somewhere in the background of the negotiation. During the negotiation you need to do whatever you can to identify the real decision-maker. If your final decision-maker is participating in discussions, point out that fact and press the other side to reciprocate.Try to find out how the other die will make their decision. Is the decision up to one individual? A team? A committee? Find out the existing decision-making process.In many instances we may not be able to negotiate with individuals who retain the final authority. This may also have some advantage. You can explore all opportunities but also can refrain from committing to any agreement. Under these circumstances:Confirm the ground rules that all parties will be committing their stakeholders/institutes to any • agreement during the negotiation. Suggest using the discussion to explore your respective interests to come up with creative • options.Leave some room in case if the final decision-maker pushes harder in a second round of • negotiation.It is important to determine the authority level of the person with whom you will be negotiating. That will help you to plan your negotiating strategy. Try to ascertain the answers to the following questions: Commitment to pre-determined agreement • Final decision subject to formal review and approval. • It is also important to know exactly how much authority you have in the negotiation. If you don't get the authority you seek in a particular negotiation you should not worry about this. Less authority has its advantages also. Checking with your supervisor can be strategically helpful. It may also free you to exercise more of your own creativity in inventing options for a mutually beneficial agreement.Step 6: Learn all you can about the other side Interpersonal relationship is key in any successful negotiation. As much as possible fine answers to: Who are the people who will be involved? • Are they aggressive or are they conflict-avoiding accommodators? • Is the culture of the organization bureaucratic or entrepreneurial? • Are they authorized to make a deal or reach an agreement or they will have to get back to seek • approval?What are they hoping to achieve and how critical is this negotiation for them? • You need to seek answers to these questions not only while preparing for a negotiation but also during the negotiation process.In order to place yourself in the best bargaining position possible you will still need to anticipate that the other person's interests, goals, concerns, and hopes-as well as how he or she perceives the significance of the upcoming negotiations. The more you know about the other individuals, the better is your ability to come up with an agreement that serves the interest of all parties.Step 7: Build flexibility into the process Negotiations do not always follow a predictable or linear path. Unanticipated development can occur. So you must be prepared to be flexible in handling these unforeseen circumstances. To build flexibility into your negotiation process:Start with the assumption that the process will not unfold in a predictable, linear fashion. • Be prepared to change to handle unanticipated developments. • Treat every change as an opportunity for learning. It is important to be patient when • unanticipated delays occur. But never allow these developments to interfere with your ultimate goal.Step 8: Gather fairness standards and criteriaIn any negotiations all parties want to believe that the agreement they reach will be fair and reasonable.If the partners want to have a continuing relationship, a sense of fairness and reasonableness in the negotiations is much more important.Be prepared to show why those criteria are relevant. Convince the others that certain criteria • and standards are fair and reasonable and be incorporated in the negotiations.Step 9: Alter the process in your favour There may be instances where your ideas were being ignored during meetings or formal negotiations.If that happens, it is important to take steps to change the negotiation process. Don't address the substantive issues in the negotiations. Kolb and William make the following specific recommendations about the process moves.Work behind the scene to educate others on your ideas. Try to do this outside formal meetings. • Concentrate on people who are respected and convince them that your ideas have merit. If possible form a coalition of support outside the negotiations.As you prepare for a negotiation, recognize that the process requires time and careful thought.Glaser and Russo (1998) identified a number of skills that could reshape the negotiation process.Maintain your composure. This will encourage the other party to focus on goal of the negotiation: 1. a mutually beneficial accord. Some ideas to consider: Think for a moment about something good in your life. Anything that helps you distance • yourself from the discussion.Lighten up the situation with humour if you think the other person will appreciate a good • chuckle or laugh.Mentally take inventory of your interests and needs in the negotiation. When the discussion starts focusing on irrelevant topics or emotional issues that cannot be resolved, refocus it on objective information and the underlying needs of both parties. Some ideas:Ask problem-solving questions that prompt you and other persons to collaborate to address an • issue.List the underlying needs of each goal/objective and brain storm ways of meeting those • needs-there may be other ways of meeting that need. Most unprincipled negotiators don't communicate openly during the discussion. In such cases, how you release and ask for information itself for making the other person feel comfortable exchanging information.Consider the following ideas for handling information thoughtfully.Give the other person reason to trust you by revealing some information. But don't reveal it all • at once in the earliest stages of the negotiation (bargaining).Give the person enough time to digest the new information you are introducing. • Provide one or more strong reasons for proposals you are making, rather than listing as many • reasons as possible, including weak ones.Watch your counterpart for signals that he or she feels positive about the direction the • negotiation is taking. Gather objective information to verify the validity of the other person's statements. •There are a number of mental errors that many people commit during a negotiation process. It is good to know them and take corrective actions. Most of them are amenable to self correction.Continuing a previously selected course of action beyond what rational analysis would recommend-over commitment.Their egos cannot abide 'losing' • Don't want to be seen coming home empty handed particularly when that outcome is highly • visible.Auctions and other bidding contests that pit individuals against each other encourage irrational • behaviour.A principal/agent problem is at work. • People deal with other peoples' money. Many agents who fall victims to this error take credit • for the 'win' and charge the costs to their principals.Get a firm handle on your alternatives to the deal before you negotiate. • Before bargaining/negotiation takes place, objectively set a price beyond which good sense • dictates walking away.Set clear breakpoints at which you and your team will stop and assess where you are in the • negotiation and where you are headed.With respect to the principal/agent problem, the best solution is to align the negotiator's • rewards with the economic interest of the share holder.Partisan perception is a psychological phenomenon that causes people to perceive the world with a bias in their own favour or towards their own point of view. (e.g. Soccer match, cricket match -the behaviour of the referee, Presidential Debate-Both Democrats and Republicans claim that they won).Effective negotiators know how to stand outside a situation and see it objectively, thus avoiding partisan perception.Use the following guideline to handle partisan perception.Recognize partisan perception as a phenomenon to which we all fall prey. • Put yourself in the other side's position. How would the issue look to you then? • Pose the issue to colleagues (without revealing which side you are on) and solicit their • opinions.To convey your position to the people in the other party • Try to pose the problem as it appears to you, and ask how they view it. • Use an analogy or a hypothetical situation to frame the problem as you see it. Overconfidence encourages us to overestimate our own strengths and underestimates the strengths of our partners. This may lead to unsuccessful negotiations.Anger and irrational behaviour are often triggered by an offence to one party's sense of fairness.People will sometimes forgo tangible personal gains rather than be party to an agreement that treats them unfairly. Keep the focus on issues and processes. • Remember people are most often angered and frustrated at a personal level by perceived deception, unfairness, humiliation, or loss of pride or lack of respect. Avoid these landmines by focusing the negotiation on the issues and problems instead of an individual and their personalities.In broad terms, facilitation is the process of making something easier or less difficult. In development activity, 'facilitation' is used in the context of group meetings or workshops in which basically a neutral person with no decision-making authority helps the group to be more efficient and effective when planning, implementing and monitoring and evaluating meetings and workshops.Meetings are held for a variety of purposes. Some are held simply to pass information from the leader to the group, and are straight forward. Special leadership is needed for planning or problem-solving meetings or whenever group participation and involvement is required. For these meetings, leaders must be able to use facilitation skills competently. In addition to encouraging participation, facilitation skills insure that communication will be clear and more accurate.When a meeting leader uses facilitation skills well, people contribute, meetings are productive, and the leader's work appears effortless. It looks natural. Because it looks so natural, people often assume that meeting leaders are born and not made. Although there is some truth to this, it is also accurate to say that certain skills can be learned that will significantly improve your ability to lead meetings There are four very important facilitation skills that a meeting leader must use effectively: asking questions, mirroring, paraphrasing, and summarizing. These skills are simple in concept, but they are not necessarily simple to carry out. With continued practice, meeting leaders can become very adept in using these skills. Asking questions is a critical facilitation skill. You can ask questions in two ways: as closed questions or as open-ended questions.Participants can answer a closed question with yes, no, or another one word response. You should only use this type of question when you want precise, short answers. Otherwise, such questions tend to inhibit discussion. Here's an example of an exchange based on closed questions.Meeting leader: Do you think that recommendation will work?No.Open-ended questions require the respondent to elaborate. Mirroring is a process of capturing and repeating the exact words told by the speaker. It is also considered as a formal version of paraphrasing. It helps to make people feel that they are heard. It can also help the facilitator to be perceived as neutral to the ideas or views being mentioned by participants.It sometimes helps to speed up the process of discussion when discussions are slowed down and people are silent.In practice if a speaker says a single sentence the facilitator repeats it without altering the words.The issue should be resolved today.Facilitator: You said 'The issue should be resolved today'. The purpose of summarizing is to:pull important ideas, facts, or data together • establish a basis for further discussion, or to make a transition • review progress, and • check for clarity or agreement. • By using the summarizing technique in a meeting, you can encourage people to be more reflective about their positions as they listen for accuracy and emphasis.Summarizing requires you to listen carefully in order to organize and present information systematically.Summaries ensure that everyone in the meeting is clear about what transpired in the just completed portion of the discussion.For example, as a meeting leader, you may summarize to ensure that participants remember what has been said or to emphasize key points made during a group discussion. Or, perhaps most importantly, you may use summarizing as a way to reach a decision or bring closure to a topic and move the meeting on to the next agenda item. In these instances summarizing is very useful.Here are some starter phrases you can use to begin a summary.There seem to be some key ideas expressed here... • If I understand you, you feel this way about the situation... • I think we agree on this decision -what we are saying is that we intend to... • A real value of summarizing is that it gives you the opportunity to check for agreement. If people do not agree, it is better for you to know during the meeting than to find out later when a task is not completed or a deadline is missed. One of the most common meeting complaints occurs when participants think an agreement has been reached, yet things do not occur as planned afterwards. In many instances, this problem occurs because there was not really agreement during the meeting.As an example of summarizing, assume that someone named Joan has talked for three or four minutes, and you summarize as follows:Let me see if I have it straight, Joan. First, you say the work is boring, not carefully scheduled, and finally, you are concerned about the number of hours people are expected to work, correct?In another example, the meeting discussion has gone on for several minutes and you summarize as follows:In talking about this issue, we have come up with three main points... Ask the observers from all the groups to come together. Then give them the handout, which 2. explains their role. Ask them if the instructions are clear and give explanation if required. When the explanation to the observers is over ask them to join their group. 3.(Make sure that each group has one Dr PW Mutinga, one Dr Banta and one Observer). Place 4.the groups far away from each other.Give the handouts meant for Dr PW Mutinga and Dr Banta and allow them to read and 5.understand their role. (Make sure that the handouts distributed are given to the correct person playing the role). (7 minutes).When they are through with their reading, ask them to start designing their tactics to negotiate 6.with Mrs RH Thelo. (7 minutes).Note: make sure that all groups start the discussion process at the same time. Explain which group came up with the best negotiation tactic and why. Indicate the problems 8.of the groups which failed to get the correct answer.Phase 3. Closure Discuss the importance of focusing on interest rather than positions. 9.Move on to explaining the principles of negotiation. 10.A role for Dr Banta-Ugli orange case You are Dr Banta, a biological research scientist employed by a pharmaceutical firm. You have recently developed a synthetic chemical useful for curing and preventing Rudosen. Rudosen is a disease contracted by pregnant women. If not caught in the first 4 weeks of pregnancy, the disease causes serious brain, eye, and ear damage to the unborn child. Recently, there has been an outbreak of Rudosen in your State and several thousand women have contracted the disease. You have found, with volunteer victims, that your recently developed synthetic serum cures Rudosen in its early stages. Unfortunately, the serum is made from the juice of the Ugli orange, which is a very rare fruit. Only a small quantity (approximately 4000) of these oranges was produced last season. No additional Ugli oranges will be available until next season, which will be too late to cure the present Rudosen victims.You have demonstrated that your synthetic serum is in no way harmful to pregnant women. Consequently, there are no side effects. The Food and Drug Administration has approved the production and distribution of the serum as a cure for Rudosen.Unfortunately, the present outbreak was unexpected and your firm had not planned on having the compound serum available for 6 months. Your firm holds the patent on the synthetic serum and it is expected to be a highly profitable product when it is generally available to the public.You have been recently informed on good evidence that RH Thelo, a South African fruit exporter, is in possession of 3000 Ugli oranges in good condition. If you would obtain the juice of the 3000, you would be able to both cure the present victims and provide sufficient inoculation for the remaining pregnant women in the State. No other State currently has a Rudosen threat.You have recently been informed that Dr PW Mutinga is also urgently seeking Ugli oranges and is also aware of Thelo's possession of the 3000 available. Dr Mutinga is employed by a competing pharmaceutical firm. S/He has been working on biological warfare research for the past several years.There is a great deal of industrial espionage in the pharmaceutical industry. Over the past several years, Dr Mutinga 's firm and your firm have sued each other for infringement of patent rights and espionage law violations several times.You have been authorized by your firm to approach Thelo to purchase the 3000 Ugli oranges. You have been told s/he will sell them to the highest bidder. Your firm has authorized you to bid as high as USD 250,000 to obtain the juice of the 3000 available oranges. Before approaching Thelo, you have decided to talk with Dr Mutinga so that you will not be prevented from purchasing the oranges.A role for Dr Mutinga-Ugli orange case You are Dr PW Mutinga, a biologist for a pharmaceutical firm. The firm is under contract with the government to do research on methods to combat enemy uses of biological warfare.Recently, several World War II experimental nerve gas bombs were moved from the USA to a small island just off the US coast in the Pacific. In the process of transporting them, two of the bombs developed a leak. The leak is presently controlled, but government scientists believe that the gas will permeate the bomb chambers within 2 weeks. They know of no method of preventing the gas from getting into the atmosphere and spreading to the other islands, and very likely to the West coast as well.You have developed a synthetic vapour that will neutralize the nerve gas if it is injected into the bomb chamber before the gas leaks out. The vapour is made with a chemical taken from the rind of the Ugli orange, a very rare fruit. Unfortunately, only 4000 of these oranges were produced this season.You have been recently informed, on good evidence that RH Thelo, a South African fruit exporter, is in possession of 3000 Ugli oranges. The chemical from the rinds of this number of oranges would be","tokenCount":"6032"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ad5b6646bb22bddd3886f18e3e66d8e0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bb391257-30b3-48d5-bbc9-a9500d904f8e/retrieve","id":"589185192"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3453a4f3-0a29-4ee6-88ff-e38ab7ed3040","pagecount":"1","content":"Nepal's agriculture sector is facing various challenges. As a result, arable lands in mid-hills are left fallow, affecting food security. • CGIAR's Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming System (SI-MFS) initiative perceives that SI-MFS has the potential to produce diverse food on the same piece of land, benefitting current and future generations. • It intends to suggest sustainable-gender-transformative pathways to address some challenges deploying locally viable socio-technical innovations piloted in participatory ways. • Within this context, IWMI and CIMMYT are conducting action research in Khotang and Surkhet districts. • The study aims to assess factors that support and/or constraints the SI-MFS in Nepal to bring transformative changes in the lives of women, elderly, and marginalized farmers. • This study takes a reflective approach and critically assess SI-MFS activities planned and implemented in Nepal.","tokenCount":"132"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cd354e3eb6d674c6710f14b4a4616e35","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f7efc07-a91b-4778-8076-9a0a2a154511/retrieve","id":"1481446285"},"keywords":["agroecological zone","micronutrients","local biodiversity","wild food","healthy diets","Benin"],"sieverID":"bcf071f4-c5fa-48b3-92ed-cc13db51148c","pagecount":"25","content":"In rural Benin, malnutrition, especially micronutrient deficiencies, contrasts with a rich agrobiodiversity that abounds in cultivated or wild foods that are potential sources of micronutrients. This paradox leads us to examine the role of local agrobiodiversity in the diet of children living in two agroecological zones of southern Benin. This study involved 1,263 children aged 6-23 months from 17 randomly selected villages in Southern Benin. A multiple-pass 24-h recall method on two non-consecutive days with the estimation of the consumed portions was used to collect dietary intake data. Semistructured questionnaires were used to collect socioeconomic and demographic data to explore factors driving agrobiodiversity food consumption, especially wild foods. Nonparametric analyses based on gamma distribution were performed to establish the effect of wild food consumption on vitamin A, calcium, iron, and zinc intakes. Conditional inference tree-classification models were performed to identify factors driving wild food consumption. Among a total of 48 local foods that were reported as consumed by children, 11 were from wild species. The contributions of total local agrobiodiversity to nutrient intake of complementary foods was between 49% (calcium) and 98% (vitamin A). Cultivated species contributed to local agrobiodiversity foods for 57% (calcium) and 96 % (zinc). The semi-domesticated species have a contribution of between 2% (zinc) and 35% (calcium) to nutrient intake. Wild species contribution to nutrient intake was between 1% (zinc) and 9% for vitamin C. Wild foods consumption correlated significantly and positively with calcium and vitamin A intakes among children. Sociolinguistic factors such as ethnicity and religion of the household head were determinants of wild food consumption. These findings suggest that sensitization on the nutritional importance of the wild foods including socio-linguistic factors may be necessary to promote wild foods' consumption. This could be a good strategy to promote healthy diets in local communities.The world is facing a triple burden of malnutrition characterized by the coexistence of undernutrition (wasting), hidden hunger (essential micronutrient deficiencies), and overweight. This threatens the survival, growth, and development of children and nations. The latest global estimates indicate that 6.7% of children under 5 are wasted, 22% are stunted while 5.7% are overweight [1]. These patterns are critical in the African region where 30.7% of children under 5 are stunted, while the number of overweight children is increasing (5.3%) [1]. The latest Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) and Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in Benin demonstrate that barely one in every four children (25.3%) meet the minimal dietary diversity indicating the monotony of the diet [2] and prevalence of stunting among children under five is still very high (32%) [3].Child malnutrition in its all forms has multiple and intertwined immediate and underlying causes among which inadequate maternal nutrition, consumption of micronutrient poor diets in infancy and early childhood, and changing food systems that lead to increased consumption of cheap sugary, and unhealthy foods that are high in salt, sugar, and fat, but poor in essential nutrients [4]. The latter are food-related and imply low food availability and accessibility or a poor supply of micronutrient-rich foods. Yet, Benin, a coastal country in West Africa with favorable rainfall patterns, disposes of a rich agrobiodiversity that is the foundation of all food systems and key to providing children with nutritious, safe, affordable, and sustainable diets [5].Local agrobiodiversity (LABDF) refers to food sources that are grown locally and/or harvested from the wild within a given study area. In several regions of sub-Saharan Africa, local agrobiodiversity plays an important role in supplementing staple foods [6]. Both domesticated (cultivated) species and wild edible plants contribute to human nutrition in several ways, including providing a rich source of nutrients and contributing to dietary diversity and quality [7]. Local animal sourced foods, including wild species (vertebrates and invertebrates), provide highly bioavailable nutrients such as iron, zinc, and vitamin B12; as well as proteins and fats. Local foods also offer a wide diversity of leafy vegetables, fruits, nuts, and others, which are sources of vitamin A, iron, folic acid, niacin, and calcium [7]. Promotion of local foods is, therefore, of interest aiming at reducing the gaps between nutrient requirements and nutrient intakes [8]. Other authors emphasized that forest foods, including tree, herb, fungus, and animal products, contribute in several ways to improved food security by providing immediate access to affordable and often highly nourishing foods [9]. Despite these nutritional benefits, studies show that the substitution of local foods, especially wild foods, by modern foods like processed foods, cookies, and sweets is part of the nutritional transition that many African countries are undergoing, and this contributes highly to several public health problems [8]. Bharucha and Pretty [8] estimate that the reliance on purchased foods or cultivated foods will continue to grow in Africa and that wild foods will be increasingly marginalized, while the use of wild edible species is a key adaptation strategy for several households, in response to shocks such as food crop failure, drought or flooding, loss of income or any other difficult situation.Globally, several studies have provided evidence on specific contributions of wild edible species to food and nutritional security in several agroecosystems [6,10]. However, local agrobiodiversity use remains underexplored especially among rural populations and detailed data on the actual dietary contribution of local agrobiodiversity products to rural population feeding are still lacking despite their great potential to improve dietary quality [11].In African countries like Benin, meals served to children from 6 to 23 months are mostly staple foods based with low sources of essential micronutrients [2] leading to micronutrient deficiencies. Therefore, providing information on how to enrich family diets by using ingredients from local food sources rich in micronutrients can contribute to improving complementary diet quality [12].On the other hand, equally in Benin, Achigan-Dako and colleagues documented 245 different vegetable species of which 176 were wild and only 47 were cultivated. The remaining 22 of these resources were reported both as cultivated and wild, depending on the village [13]. Another study by Dansi et al. [9], using participatory rural appraisal surveys in three regions or agro-ecological zones of Benin, documented 187 edible plant species of which 47 were cultivated and 140 were gathered from the wild [9].The present study aimed to assess the contributions of local agrobiodiversity to the dietary intake of children aged 6 to 23 months in two agroecological zones of southern rural Benin. The purpose of this study was to describe the importance and potential of local agrobiodiversity to improve the diet of children in rural settings.The study was conducted in the department of Mono, located in southwestern Benin. This part of Benin is known for its high rate of stunting (29%) among children under five [3], which is in contrast with the richness of the local food diversity [13]. Within Mono department, two communities -Bopa and Houéyogbé-belonging respectively to agroecological zones 8 and 6, characterized by bar ground and fisheries respectively, were selected due to their high prevalence of food insecurity: 40.5% and 34.1 % in Bopa and Houéyogbé, respectively [14].A multistage sampling method was used to select the study participants. Bopa and Houéyogbé's communes within Mono Department were selected purposively due to their highest rates of food insecurity compared to other communes in the Mono department. Using the Schwartz formula [15], the theoretical sample size calculated was 1182 children aged 6 to 23 months, which was extended to 1300 by 10% increase to consider potential drop out cases. The number of children to be selected in each commune was obtained by dividing the sample proportionally to the population of children aged 6 to 23 months in the two communes. The proportions obtained were 47% for Bopa and 53% for Houéyogbé [14]. This yielded 611 and 689 children aged 6 to 23 months in Bopa and Houéyogbé, respectively. For statistical analysis efficiency, we set a minimum of 35 children to be sampled from each age group: 6 to 11, and 12 to 23 months, in each village. With a small margin, this meant 80 children aged 6 to 23 months to be sampled per village. Hence, 17 villages (8 in Bopa and 9 in Houéyogbé) were randomly selected. Finally, after accounting for drop outs and field realities, 1263 children were randomly interviewed in the two communities proportionally to the number of children counted in each of the 17 selected villages. This was well over the 1182 children from the theoretical sample size calculation.Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from the National Ethics Committee for Scientific Research (N°45/MS/DC/SGM/DFR/CNERS/SA). Study objectives as well as the confidentiality of data to be collected were clearly explained to the participants and they were allowed to ask questions for clarification. Written informed consent was obtained from the primary caregivers (usually mothers) willing to participate, under the agreement of the child's father.For the data collection, 34 experienced interviewers having at least a Bachelor's degree in the fields of agronomy, nutrition, or sociology, and proficient in the languages spoken in the study area, were selected and trained. The data used in this paper were collected from October to December 2013, corresponding to the plenty season or period considered with good staple food availability (cereals, roots and tubers harvesting period) in the study area.Semi-structured interviews were carried out with the heads of households and mothers of surveyed children or caregivers. Demographic information such as sex, main occupation, educational level, ethnic group, religion, salary status, the marital status of heads and mothers of surveyed children were collected. The socioeconomic data included economic vulnerability of household and household size.Dietary data were collected using a quantitative 24-hour dietary intake recall repeated twice on non-consecutive days following the methodology described by Gibson and Ferguson [16]. Mothers or primary caregivers, responsible for food preparation and feeding the child the day before, were asked to describe all the foods and beverages consumed including those eaten away from home by the children during the day previous to the interview. The quantities cooked and eaten were estimated using household measures such as spoons, bowls, water, sponge, and market prices. Weights of ingredients consumed were estimated in raw forms and expressed as proportions of the total weights of food prepared to estimate the exact quantities of the food or ingredients consumed by the child. For foods consumed or prepared outside the home, standard recipes were calculated.To convert the quantities of foods or ingredients consumed into energy and nutrients intakes, Lucille software was used [17]. For this purpose, a food composition table of the area was compiled based primarily on the Malian FCT [18]. Other food composition tables were used when foods or nutrients were missing. These included the West African FCTs [19,20], the USDA table [21], the Tanzanian FCT [22], the Uganda FCT [23], the Fichier canadien pour les éléments nutritifs [24], and the table of selected foods from West Africa [25]. The compiled FCT was uploaded in Lucille software. The West African table of nutrient retention factors was used to correct values for nutrient retention. The nutrient intakes from the two recalls were converted to usual intakes using the Multiple Source Method (MSN) program [26].Local agrobiodiversity foods (LABDFs) were identified from all complementary foods (CFs) consumed by children. LABDFs were further divided into three sub-categories: cultivated/domesticated species (LABDF_Cult), semi-cultivated species or undergoing domestication (LABDF_Semi) and, wild plant and animal species (LABDF_Wild) irrespective of their origin, which are not cultivated or raised, but collected in the natural state. The categorizations were based on an ethnobiological survey that listed and classified all edible species available in the study area (Termote et al. unpublished project report) [27]. Foods from the 24-hour recall data were also categorized into 10 different food groups: cereals; roots and tubers; pulses and nuts; meat; fish and seafood; leafy vegetables; fruits; other vegetables; eggs; other foods. The 7 food groups that are recommended by WHO for infants and young children were not considered here because the purpose was to capture the consumption of detailed food groups.The contribution of local agrobiodiversity (LABDFs) to the children's diet was determined by the ratio of dietary intakes expressed as a percentage. For example, the contribution of LABDF_Wild to the intake of local agrobiodiversity foods (LABDFs):LABDF_Wild contribution to LABDFs (%)Energy or nutrient intake of LABDF_Wild Energy or nutrient intake of LABDFs * 100Associations between the consumption of wild species and micronutrient intake were tested using General Linear Models (GLMs). To select the factors that should be controlled for in the GLM models, we first tested bivariate associations between micronutrient intakes and each factor (agroecological zone, sex, age, breastfeeding status and energy intake from complementary foods), and then a step-by-step selection procedure was used to retain only the significant associations. Only the models based on the gamma distribution were well-adjusted (Chi-2 test on the residual deviance) and were retained. A Chi-squared test was used to characterize wild foods consumers compared to non-consumers of wild foods. To identify factors that most influenced wild food consumption, conditional inference tree-based classification models were performed. R statistical free software was used for all statistical analyses with the significance level fixed at 5% [28].Basic characteristics of the sample Men (94%) headed the large majority of households, and almost all (98%) HHs were economically vulnerable. On average, the household heads were 35.7±9.0 years old (Table1). Sahoué (84%) was by far the dominant ethnic among the surveyed population, followed by Kotafon (8%) and Adja (3%). Agricultural crop production was the main income source of the households, and only 8% of them had off-farm employment. Almost half of the household heads had not attended school. The mothers were 28.3±6.6 years on average. Two third of the mothers did not receive any school education and only 2% of them had paid employment. The main income source of the mothers was small business (44%), crop production (31%), and animal husbandry (18%). More than 50% of the surveyed children were boys and 63% were aged between 12 to 23 months.The 24h dietary data revealed that 48 foods were consumed by children ( The average portion size of the consumers was 75 g for maize, 57 g for Dioscorea spp.(yam) and 88g for Cocos nucifera (coconut). Among fish and seafood, the average portion of Silurus glanis (black silurus) was 12 g per child per day. The average portion sizes of Ipomea aquatica Forssk (water spinach) and Ananas comosus (Pineapple) were respectively 43.5g and 121 g. The Gallus gallus domesticus Linnaeus (Egg) portion size consumed was 31 g on average.This food pattern clearly shows the monotonous diet of the children that is based on cereal (maize) with low consumption of leafy vegetables and fruits. This was becoming as norm in some West-African countries including Nigeria where complementary foods are based mainly on cereals, and are low in micronutrient-dense foods like meet, egg, seafoods, leafy vegetables and fruits [29].Local agrobiodiversity foods (LABDFs) appear to be the most important source of micronutrients intake by the surveyed children (Figure 1). LABDFs contributed 97.9% of vitamin A, 92.3% of vitamin C, 85.3% of folate, 82.2% of iron, 62.3% of energy, and 55% of proteins intake. Local foods contributed less than 50% to the calcium intake.More than 90% of energy, proteins, zinc, iron, and vitamin A intakes from LABDFs came from cultivated or domesticated species. Local food sources contributing to calcium intake were more varied since 57% came from LABDF_Cult, 35% came from semi-cultivated LABDF_Semi, and 8% from LABDF_Wild. A similar pattern was observed for vitamin C intakes. Overall LABDF_Wild had very low contributions to energy and nutrient intakes from LABDFs despite their high nutritional potentiality (Figure 2). Local agrobiodiversity foods' contributions to essential nutrient intakes and energy ranged from 49% (calcium) to 98% (vitamin A) (Figure 1). This implies that these foods contributed to a significant share of energy, proteins, vitamin A, vitamin C, folate, calcium, iron, and zinc intakes from complementary foods. The relatively low contribution of LABDFs to calcium intake from CFs could be partly because calcium came majorly from non-local foods especially from fried small fish. When looking at the different categories of LABDFs, cultivated or domesticated foods had very large contributions to the nutritional intakes of LABDFs, with 57% for calcium and 96% for zinc. The semi-domesticated food resources had low contributions to nutritional intakes, except for calcium (35%). Wild foods contributed marginally to LABDFs with a maximum of 9% for vitamin C. The period of relative food abundance in which data collection took place could explain the over-representation of consumption of cultivated or domesticated food resources compared to wild foods during that specific period. The results could also be explained by a lack of knowledge about the nutritional potential of wild food species in the diet of rural populations since these resources were not consumed much (11 out of a total of 48 foods identified in he 24h recall were wild foods). Yet, the ethnobiological survey carried out in the same area, indicated that of the 298 edible species listed in total, 174 were wild species. We note however that, the 24h-recall only provides a snapshot of the diet during a period of relative abundance of staple foods, while the ethnobiological surveys captured resources available throughout the year. Nonetheless, the very low use of wild species, could further be explained in various ways. Wild foods especially fruits gathering is generally interpreted as being indicative of famine and their consumption evokes indignity and social stigma [30]. Additionally, Pawera and colleagues highlighted that the barriers to consuming wild Dietary habits and cultural perceptions could also explain these results, since rural populations, due to taboos, perceive wild foods as culturally not acceptable [31]. This is in line with findings from rural Ethiopia, where non-domesticated fruits and vegetables were rarely consumed by children because of cultural attitudes [30]. Hence, the low consumption of wild foods by infants and young children explained their low contribution to nutritional intakes, as shown by others [32]. A study conducted in rural South Africa concluded that not all known wild food species were consumed and the little that was consumed was in small quantities [11]. Nevertheless, people's high dependence on cereal-based foods remains a major part of the explanation [30].Several studies have addressed the contribution of wild foods to diets, but few have focused on quantitative methods. In a study conducted by Boedecker and colleagues on the \"Contribution of non-wood forest (underutilized) plants to the nutritional intakes of women living around the Lama Forest\" in Benin, results showed low contributions of wild edible plants to the nutritional intakes of their diets ranging from 0.1 % (zinc) to 5% (iron) [33]. Another study carried out among women from the Mekong Delta in Vietnam showed important contributions of wild vegetables to micronutrient intakes ranging from about 5% for energy to 100% for vitamin A [34]. Likewise, in rural Tanzania, it has been shown that wild foods from farms and forests made a significant contribution to children's diets, ranging from 2.5% for energy to 30.5% for vitamin A intake [35]. Wild foods also contributed to intakes of vitamin C (21.7%), iron (20%), calcium (16%), folate (13.3%), and zinc (5.4%), which is much higher than the wild food contributions found in this study. The study in Tanzania was carried out during the rainy season when there is high availability and accessibility of wild foods, especially fruits and leafy vegetables, while our study took place in the post-harvest period with high availability of cereals, roots, and tubers.The results of the gamma regressions adjusted for micronutrient intakes, age, sex, breastfeeding status of children, agroecological zone, and energy intake of children are presented in Table 3. We found a significant and positive relationship between daily vitamin A and calcium intakes and LABDF_Wild consumption. For children who had consumed LABDF_Wild, there was on average an increase of 97% (68% -126%; P = 0.000) and 49% (28%-70%; P = 0.000) of vitamin A and calcium intakes respectively. The effect of LABDF_Wild consumption on vitamin A and calcium intakes decreased with energy intake and was higher in AEZ 8 than in AEZ 6.Despite the low observed contributions of wild foods to the nutrient intakes from local foods in this study, their consumption positively influences micronutrient intakes of complementary foods. Indeed, we found that, after adjustment for energy, age, and sex of children, their breastfeeding status, and their AEZs of origin, children who consumed wild foods had higher intakes of vitamin A, calcium, and iron than children who did not consume wild foods. The study from DR Congo, based on the biodiverse environment contribution to women's diet revealed that the wild food consumers had significantly higher intakes of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, and calcium (all nutrients adjusted for energy intake) compared to non-WEP consumers [36]. Boedecker and colleagues' study, targeted women living in the Lama forest in Benin, findings suggested that only a significant difference for copper (adjustment for energy intake) and vitamin C intakes (without adjustment for energy intake) were higher among WEP consumers than in non-WEP consumers [33].Drivers of LABDF_Wild consumption by children included ethnicity of the household head, child sex, and religion of the household head (Figure 3). Households with heads from the Fon, Kotafon, and Mina ethnic groups had a relatively higher proportion of children consuming wild foods compared to those with heads from Adja, Sahoué, and other ethnicities such as Aïzo, Pedah (P=0.002). Among the latter, male children consumed more wild edible species than female children. Of these male children, those from households where the head did not practice any religion consumed more wild foods than those from households where the head was animist or Christian (P=0.001).This study shows several factors that correlated with wild species consumption. These included the ethnicity and religion of the household's heads, as well as the sex of children. A study conducted in the north of Benin revealed that ethnicity influenced Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) consumption. The Baatonou ethnic group exploited more NTFPs than Fulani; so did the older household heads compared to younger ones [37]. However, we could not compare these findings to the participants of this study due to the different ethnical backgrouds that characterize the study areas.Other authors have found that agricultural factors such as household crop diversity and hours spent on the farm were associated with wild food use [35]. In Cameroun, the polygamy status, age of respondents, and the length of stay in forest areas were positively associated with wild food consumption [38]. On the other hand, the most frequent reasons for the underuse of traditional food species include, local perceptions of wild foods as being foods for the poor and loss of traditional knowledge [8,33]. Food preferences (both personal and household), taste, smell of some of the vegetables, and their unavailability/ seasonality are other reasons that have been described for the underutilization of wild foods [39]. The major limitation of this study is the non-availability of a food composition table for Benin. The use of Mali's food composition table as the basis of our compiled food composition table constitutes a limitation because the food composition data have significant differences related to the agro-ecological zone, seasonality and, genetic diversity [40]. The development of composition tables is essential for the correct interpretation of the nutritional contribution of the food consumed. Thus, we recommend that a food composition table be developed in Benin for at least the common foods. The strength of this study is that we performed two recalls on nonconsecutive days, which is appropriate to correct for intra-individual variance and calculate the usual nutrient intakes among children. However, to better capture all aspects of children's food consumption, the 24-hour recalls would cover not only the season of food abundance but also the lean season.Although local agrobiodiversity considerably contributes to energy and nutrients intakes in the diet of small children in southern Benin, wild foods only marginally contribute. However, wild food consumption has a positive effect on the micronutrient intakes of children. Therefore, local communities, NGOs, and policymakers must putValues here are the percentages of LABDF_Wild consumption or not, LABDF_Wild consumption_No (No), LABDF_Wild consumption_Yes (Yes); HH= head of household more effort to promote them to improve the diets of small children. One way to promote wild foods would be to organize awareness sessions for local populations with key messages on the nutritional importance of wild foods. For more impact, these key messages should also take into account the socio-cultural factors, particularly the ethnicity and religion of the household's head, and the gender of children living in the household. Investing in the domestication of wild food species might be a better pathway for conservation and sustainability of micronutrient deficiency control strategies, focusing on the use of local foods, especially wild ones. ","tokenCount":"4089"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fcc4341c5d039b2cdee462c38f87b0a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/16292c36-5a4a-47ad-9821-137264cda4ec/retrieve","id":"358197635"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"351dec87-9146-446c-8c93-4ba5f54ca569","pagecount":"20","content":"There once was a special local cow ca ed Zuri, who was kind, healthy and brave Her milk was the creamiest in a the land! People would travel from miles around to her vi age to get a chance to drink some of her milk... ...For though it was creamy, there wasn't very muchThe people would compete, bringing gifts of the finest gra es, the sw test hay and the purest water… …in the hope that they would get to taste some of Zuri's sm th milk That's it! I' find a handsome husband who wi give me lots of strong, healthy babies that wi make more milk and k p the vi age children from ge ing sick …But despite having a the f d she could eat and a the water she could drink… Zuri became very rich... I f l like I have to give milk to people after they've come so far with gifts… But there's not even enough milk to give to a the hungry children in the vi age …and it would be so nutritious!Word spread quickly and s n a the local bu s wanted to ma y Zuri. Each bu told her why they would be the best hey beautiful! I'm yours... Some of them told her how much they loved her… …Others boasted of their strength, health and fertility… …Others sti spoke of how much milk their mothers made to make them so big Zuri didn't know which bu to ch se! She wanted her children to make lots of creamy milk for the vi age children, so had to ch se wisely… So Zuri went to s a wise farmer ca ed Busara, who lived on a big shamba not so far away, to ask him for advice Hi Busara! Hi Zuri! After some fresh warm milk… I want a husband who can help me have babies that wi make lots of milk. How can I make sure I ch se the best bu for that?   ","tokenCount":"336"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1279c46afd9b287b44aa45e8fcfd115a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc14ef2f-85d4-4322-beae-54f2b351e7dc/retrieve","id":"895225011"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ade76a6a-6a52-4655-bdb5-f84a876cc51f","pagecount":"57","content":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING is creating opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition and income security, particularly for women and children and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The three regional projects are led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (in West Africa and East and Southern Africa) and the International Livestock Research Institute (in the Ethiopian highlands). The International Food Policy Research Institute leads the program's monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment. http://africa-rising.net/ This document was made possible with support from the American people delivered through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) as part of the US government's Feed the Future initiative. The contents are the responsibility of the producing organization and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of USAID or the US government. We also thank farmers and local partners at all sites for their contributions to the program and the CGIAR Trust Fund.The current report is the final six months report for Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands. Africa RISING has been operating in Ethiopia since 2012. We closed the project on 31March 2023. This report highlights some research results, exploratory survey study findings, reflection of local partners about the project at central and sites level and scientific research for development products.The feed and forage subproject continued carrying out oat harvesting frequency, tree Lucerne management and maize-lablab intercropping trials, facilitating scaling of validated feed and forage innovations and monitoring feed and forage technology parks already established in Africa RISING sites. The two cut regimes resulted in 5, 5.2 and 5.7 dry matter t/ha of biomass for food oats 1, food oats 2 and forage oat varieties, respectively. On the other hand, the one cut regime yielded 5.5, 6.3 and 7.9 dry matter t/ha biomass for food oats 1, food oats 2 and forage oat varieties, respectively.Major ICARDA's research and scaling activities in 2022/23 cropping season were wheat and maize participatory variety selection, community-based seed production and scaling of crop innovations. The scientists and local partners managed to evaluate seven newly released wheat varieties and a standard check in Africa RISING sites. Male and female farmers in the different locations selected many of the bread wheat varieties based on their preferred traits. The productivity of the bread wheat varieties across locations ranged from 6.5 t/ha in Moretina Jiru to 2.8 t/ha in Sinana sites.ABC-Bioversity did action research and some nutrition related studies in 2021/22 and 2022/23 cropping seasons to enhance the diversity, availing adapted varieties through crowdsourcing approach, develop community based seed system, assessing the nutrient content of different varieties and assessing the seasonal food availability. The nutrition study indicated how the Africa RISING introduced avocado varieties helped farmers in Lemo district to diversify their source of income and changed the household level food consumption habit. The study has also found out market system as a major gap for avocado producing farmers.ICRISAT conducted validation and demonstration of soil fertility and nutrient management activities on wheat in Africa RISING project sites. The research team used 72 and 532 farmers' fields, for validation and demonstration of site specific fertilizer rates, respectively. Adopting site specific fertilizer application and Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) practices could reduce the cost of inputs and increase the profitability of farmers. The Decision Support Tool (DST) fertilizer rate application increased mean wheat yield by 35-52% at the foot slope compared to the yield at the hillslope position.The mechanization team of CIMMYT planted wheat under conservation agriculture and conventional approaches in 2022/23 cropping season by using Khedut planter attached to Two-Wheel Tractor (2-WT). The research team engaged eight farmers and established the experiment. The yield range from eight farmers was 2.7 to 4.2 t/ha.In this reporting period, the landscape management work continued from the previous years'research and scaling efforts. Some results from the study related to the impacts of sustainable land management (SLM) interventions on ecosystem services showed an increased trend from before to after scenario in all the watersheds due to SLM interventions.The Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands managed to conduct different capacity development programs including training, field visits, field days, workshops and meetings. In this regard, the program engaged with over 3,837 beneficiaries during the current reporting period.The Africa research in sustainable intensification for the next generation (Africa RISING)program comprises three research for development projects supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) as part of the US government's Feed the Future initiative. In its second phase, the Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands is seeking to elaborate the generic research questions presented in the program umbrella document for issues identified largely during phase I (2011-16). The research questions addressed by our five (see below) specific activities will contribute insights from specific sustainable intensification related activities and geographic areas within the country.Umbrella research questions: What are the environmental, economic, human and social impacts of productivity enhancing interventions?Umbrella research question: How are these interventions aiming at increasing productivity and improving environmental conditions to benefit diverse farmer typologies in the target areas?Umbrella research question: How do changes in managing specific activities or a combination of activities within a farm (e.g. a field or a livestock unit) affect overall livelihood conditions for different farmer typologies?Umbrella research question: How do enabling conditions affect the nature (variety, agro-inputs, complexity and diversity) of promising interventions moving towards sustainable intensification (SI)?Umbrella research question: How does social capital affect community productivity, cooperation and wellbeing along with the scaling up of SI innovations?Africa RISING in Ethiopia is led by scientists from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in partnership with scientists from other CGIAR centres, the Ethiopian national agricultural research system and local communities.In its second phase , the project has been targeting 0.7 million households with sustainable intensification (SI) technologies. So far, the project has managed to reach and benefit more than 441,473 households (HHs) with its validated technologies and 42,691 beneficiaries through capacity building initiatives. The project focused to operate in four regions but due to scaling initiatives it has been radiating to more regions in the Ethiopian highlands. Before the project phasing out, there was a lot of effort to generate wider evidence for the benefits of the novel Research for Development (R4D) techniques adopted in the project, synthesize the lessons learned and deliver the tools required to support wider employment of these approaches.In the current reporting period research and scaling activities, extension learning manual development, knowledge sharing and development and messages (lessons and challenges) are included for all CGIAR centres that work in the Africa RISING project. In addition, reflections collected during the Africa RISING project close outs at central and site levels are included.The The R4D research protocols and related methodologies during the reporting period have been discussed earlier in the previous report. The current report focuses on the progresses so far in terms of data collection and analyses. Forage samples and field agronomic data have been collected for some of the experiments and feed quality analyses and organizing and collating the agronomic data including yield and other parameters is in progress. Some of the experiments which have a perennial nature require continuous data collection to bring together the results of various seasons is still in progress.This experiment has been conducted in three of the project sites (Sinana, Lemo and Basona districts). The three oat varieties (food oats 1, food oats 2 and forage oats) have been planted in three replicates of 6 m 2 of plot each with two different cutting regimes: 1 cut (cutting the whole plot at grain maturity stage) and 2 cut (cutting the whole plot first at a vegetative stage and then the regrowth at grain maturity stage). Agronomic parameter including plant height, biomass yield and others have been measured and quantified. In one of the sites complete data could not be collected due to feeding of the plots by animals after the first cut of one of the treatments. Field data and samples have been fully collected from Sinana district. Basona district samples have been received and data are in the process of being verified. The forage samples from both sites are in the process to be analysed for nutritive values. Preliminary results of the yield data from Sinana district indicate that there is a possibility of harvesting green and quality forages from food and forage oats varieties. This can be done a) at times of major feed shortage and when all grazing fields are planted to food crops and b) when crop residue reserves are depleted around August and September without major relative difference on both forage and grain yields between the cutting regimes (Figure 1).Figure 1. Forage and grain dry matter yields (DM t/ha) of three oats varieties under two cutting frequencies.For instance, the two cut regime induced first after 65 days of planting and second at grain maturity of the crop for all the three oat varieties resulted in 5, 5.18 and 5.73 dry matter t/ha total biomass for food oats 1, food oats 2 and forage oats, respectively. The one cut regime which was done once at grain maturity yielded 5.46, 6.27 and 7.91 dry matter t/ha total biomass for food oats 1, food oats 2 and forage oats, respectively. As this is the result of just one site and one cropping season, there is a need to pull the results of past data and repeat the experiment at least for one season at all sites to have a solid and representative conclusion.Tree Lucerne management trial: Tree Lucerne seedlings closely managed under farm conditions reached more than 2 metres of height after nine months of growth (Table 1). This observation is consistent with previous results and shows that if the tree is managed well, it is a fast growing tree in its niche area. At the first cutting, the results indicate that 0.6 to 2.7 t/ha dry matter could be obtained. The variability in biomass yield among farms appears to be due to management and fertility differences, which are expected under farm conditions.After the tree plants were subjected to different cutting heights and cutting intervals, the performances of the trees were monitored in terms of rate of fodder and total biomass accumulation (Table 2). The results indicate that a cutting height of 1.5 metre, yields 52% and 45% more fodder and total biomass accumulation than that of 1 metre. In terms of cutting interval, the fodder and total biomass accumulation appears to be higher for the 4 month interval than 3 and 6 months interval. The above results are based on the first year data and conclusive evidence on the effect of these treatments will be available as the second year data is incorporated and year effects are taken into account.  The ILRI team in Africa RISING project has already produced an extension learning module entitled \"Livestock feed and forage innovations for improved productivity in the highlands of Ethiopia\". This module intends to provide handson skills and knowledge to woreda livestock production specialists and extension development workers on the essentials of feed resourcing strategies in the highland mixed crop livestock systems. The module drives practical lessons from years of research for development works. Rather than dealing with a list of forage technologies that could work in the highlands, this module focuses only on selected feed and forage innovations that have been validated by the Africa RISING project and proved to be effective and favourably accepted by farmers to improve the feed resource base of smallholder farmers and contribute to environmental sustainability. The module provides key explanations as to why integrating improved forages is necessary now more than ever in the highland ecosystems. It discusses about promising forage options with a high probability of impact including oat-vetch mixture, fodder beet, Desho grass and tree Lucerne. Moreover, the module deals with practical post harvest feed handling and utilization practices to minimize wastage of feed resources and optimize on farm feed utilization for improved livestock productivity.In collaboration with the SAPLING (young tree) initiative, a series of forage seed production and management training programs were conducted at ILRI seed unit/gene bank for experts from research centres and university staff across the country including those from the pastoralist community who are directly involved in forage seed production. Some of the trainees were from Africa RISING sites. The trainees from Africa RISING site went back to their respective areas and started producing some of the forage seeds and provided us feedback on their achievements.• Technology parks serve a as a living legacy when projects end their phase and can serve as a bridge for any upcoming projects to engage with partners and take up the development from there.• Integrating forages into food crops (intercropping) will advance the uptake of the technologies and minimize competition for land and labour while improving the quantity and quality of feed.• Upcoming projects need to build on the foundation already laid to address issues which are pending and emerging issues with long time partners and community rather than starting as new.Wheat and maize participatory variety selection, community based seed production and scaling of crop innovations were the major research and scaling activities in 2022/23 cropping season.Seven newly released wheat varieties (Emegwua, Abay, Shaqi, Boru, Dursa, Galan and Hachalu) by federal and regional research centres together with standard check (cv. Deka) were evaluated by nine farmers and one farmers training centre (FTC) in Sinana, Lemo, Doyogena, Moretina Jiru and Basona Worena districts. The result from this PVS study indicated that many of the bread wheat varieties were selected by both male and female farmers in the different locations for their preferred traits (Photo 1, Table 3). The most preferred varieties both by male and female farmers were crop varieties: Abay, Boru, Galan and Hachalu in many locations. The productivity of the bread wheat varieties across locations ranged from 6.5 t/ha in Moretina Jiru to 2.8 t/ha in Sinana sites. Moreover, the average productivity of the varieties was over 4 t/ha in all locations. The maximum productivity of the varieties reached over 6 t/ha in Moretina Jiru and Doyo Gena sites.Photo 1. Evaluation of bread wheat varieties by male and female farmers, Lemo (right) and Doyo Gena (left). In addition to the wheat varieties, another seven highland maize varieties (AMBO AMH854, KOLBA AMH853, HULLUKA AMH85Q, Jiban AMH851, WENCHI AMH850, ARGANNE AMH800and HORA Synthetic OPV) were planted at Esat Amba kebele FTC in North Shewa zone of Amhara region. The performance of the crop was not good because of late rain. However, in two places, supplementary irrigation was provided and farmers were able to evaluate the varieties. Farmers ranked cv KOLBA AMH853 at Esat Amba and cv WENCHI AMH850 at Dawo.These two varieties will be further evaluated at FTC under SI MFS initiative.The project provided early generation seeds under revolving seed scheme to farmers in North Shewa and Bale intervention zones. In North Shewa zone, farmers used Noble 25% WP fungicide seed treatment at planting and 1-2 sprays at vegetative stages of the crop to control faba bean gall disease (Photo 2). In most intervention sites, seed production followed the cluster approach for better management and experience sharing among farmers. The achievements in this seed multiplication scheme are the following:• Farmers preferred varieties seeds were multiplied through community seed producers and cooperatives in North Shewa and Bale zones.• In North Shewa, 149 t of certified and basic seeds of three bread wheat and one faba bean varieties was produced by 107 host farmers.• In two districts of Bale zone, 723 t (23% faba bean seeds) of certified and basic seeds of durum wheat, bread wheat, food and malt barley as well as faba bean was produced by 257 host farmers.• Scaling of crop innovations were done together with partners mainly with Bureau of Agriculture (BoA) in different districts. Achievements from 2022/23 cropping season is the following:• In North Shewa zone, partners scaled 14 varieties of bread wheat, durum wheat, malt barley, faba bean and potato in four districts and 167 kebeles. A total of 1,192 t seeds was produced by 15,735 host farmers.• In Hadiya zone, 2 varieties of bread wheat and faba bean were scaled in 20 kebeles and 2 unions in 5 districts. A total of 90 t of seeds was produced by 892 farmers and unions.• In Bale zone, 15 varieties of cereals and food legumes were scaled in 179 kebeles distributed in 6 districts by partners. Over 3,434 t of seed was produced by 21,761 farmers.Photo 2. Faba bean plot planted with treated seeds with Noble 25%WP fungicide (left) and untreated field (right) against faba bean gall disease, North Shewa.The ICARDA team in Africa RISING project has already produced an extension learning module entitled \"Approaches on validating and scaling of food crops innovations in Ethiopia\". This The Africa RISING team from ICARDA has also participated to close out meeting (24-25 January 2023) and contributed to different studies such as return to investment and seed system; presented project achievements in crop scaling in Africa RISING meeting in Ghana (07-09February 2023) and involved in site level final project discussions with partners in Ethiopia.• The project diversified crops and crop varieties for sustainable crop production and minimize risks of plant diseases in the intervention zones.• Revolving seeds approach managed by Bureau of Agriculture (BoA) helped to increase the number of technology beneficiaries in Hadiya and North Shewa zones.• Unions are actively involved in multiplying, processing and marketing of farmer preferred cereal and food legumes varieties in the intervention zones.• SI MFS initiative will use the outputs of Africa RISING in driving scaling in 2023 and 2024 cropping seasons.ABC-Bioversity did action research and some studies in 2021/22 and 2022/23 cropping seasons to enhance the diversity, availing adapted varieties through crowdsourcing approach, develop community based seed system, assessing the nutrient content of different varieties and assessing the seasonal food availability. The crop varieties data collected through crowdsourcing approach during the two cropping seasons are already collected but still data analysis is taking place. The methods of data collection and results from incorporating avocado production in agrifood systems studies of the Lemo Africa RISING site is reported as follow:A qualitative study with a total of 10 Farmer Group Discussions with beneficiaries and 7 Key Informant Interview (KII) were conducted by an expert who is experienced in conducting nutritional and agricultural studies. Probing questions such as 'What?' 'Why?' and 'How?' were mostly used. Information was gathered until a saturation level was achieved. All the discussions were recorded and the study team read the transcription and listened to the recorded discussion several times. Analysis was conducted thematically. Transcripts were reviewed to develop codes related to the topics of the research questions. Based on conceptual similarity, codes were divided into categories and subcategories. The findings were organized into three themes (Tables 4, 5 and 6).  The ABC-Bioversity team in Africa RISING project has already produced an extension learning module entitled \"Crowdsourcing seed based innovations to improve diversity, nutrition and crop productivity\". Crowdsourcing is a technique of engaging a group of people to work towards a shared goal or address a pressing problem, particularly to ensure the sustainable expansion of agricultural operations. By employing crowdsourcing, it is possible to choose the best ideas offered by many respondents rather than relying solely on the qualifications and experience of one person. This method is followed for; variety selection, to enhances seed systems; through on farm testing, engaging and empowering farmers, assisting diversification of seed systems, supporting the scaling of on farm agricultural research, allowing women to make their own variety selections, providing business opportunities for farmers including women and young people and assisting researchers in learning farmers' variety preferences.The key steps for implementing crowdsourcing are component identification, identifying of farmers who are receiving different compositions of varieties, seed preparation, site selection, cultivation, planting, measurements and observations and proper harvesting. In this module, theoretical and practical implementation of crowdsourcing is presented. In addition to crowdsourcing, the implementation of community seed bank and diversity fairs also discussed in this module.A total of 20 local partners took part in the study, which was done in October 2022. There were 10 FGDs with 7-8 participants each, as well as 7 KIIs with 2 DAs, 3 Africa RISING site coordinators and 2 human early warning service in each woreda.Africa RISING introduced avocado varieties helped farmers in Lemo district to diversify their source of income and changed the household level food consumption habit. However, there is a gap in the market system establishment for avocado sales. Therefore, creating market opportunities is vital to rip the benefits.In the 2022/23 cropping season, validation and demonstration of soil fertility and nutrient management technologies were implemented for wheat in Africa RISING project sites from mid to highland mixed farming systems. Validation and demonstration of site specific fertilizer rates were conducted on 72 and 532 farmers' fields, respectively (Table 7). The validation and demonstration were done based on landscape positions, soil properties, agro-ecology and wheat yield potential. Adopting site specific fertilizer application and ISFM practices could reduce the cost of inputs and increase the profitability of farmers. The DST fertilizer rate application increased mean wheat yield by 35-52% at the foot slope compared to the yield at the hillslope position (Figure 3). Grain Yield Total biomass to 300% higher in foot slopes than in hillslope landscape positions) is reported. In addition, field cropping history or management practices can also cause farmland variability and hence crop response to fertilizer applications. Due to such variability, the possibility of over or under application of nutrients is very high with its economic and environmental consequences with the existing blanket fertilizer recommendations. This leads to inefficient use of added nutrients, as the current fertilizer recommendation rates do not well address the spatial variability in nutrient supply and response variability among the fields.Making an informed decision or recommendation on the nutrient application in terms of the \"right\" type, amount, time and placement of fertilizer, also known as the site specific nutrient management (SSNM) approach, is vital for better use efficiencies of the applied fertilizers. The SSNM approach is a dynamic, plant based, field and season specific nutrient management approach. It aims to synchronize nutrient supply and demand according to the differences in crop requirements, nutrient supply capacity of soils and nutrient recovery from fertilizer and other sources. The SSNM approach was first developed by researchers of the International RiceResearch Institute and their national partners in Asia in the 1990s to address spatial variability in soil fertility and response to fertilizer application in smallholder rice farming systems. The amount (rate) of fertilizer application seems mostly a more emphasized component probably due to its direct relation to cost. On the other hand, the right nutrient source, time and place of application are frequently overlooked and may hold more opportunities for improving performance. SSNM provides an approach to \"feeding\" crops with nutrients as and when required. Hence, it ensures that the required nutrient types are applied at the proper rate, time and place based on the soil nutrient supply potential, crops' nutrient needs, soil related properties and the status of the cropping season. With good crop management, SSNM increased yield by about 45 to 200% over farmers' fertilizer practice.Decision support tools (DSTs), software developed based on multiple parameters known to affect the response of crops to fertilizer/nutrient application, are vital for nutrient management planning. It can give support to SSNM by estimating the amount of fertilizer or nutrient to be applied for different crops in the specific production area and season. In general, the application of fertilizers following proven scientific principles is essential to ensure an increase in the productivity of crops without adding a negative impact on the environment. Hence, there is an urgent need to create awareness and capacitate the extension officers and development agents for the necessary advice and capacities to be delivered to farmers to adopt the SSNM approach using DSTs.• ICRISAT trained 18 researchers in advanced data management and analysis and research article writing using R Statistical Software from 21-30 December 2022 (Photo 3).• ICRISAT has presented a poster on \"Validation and demonstration of landscape based site specific nutrient management and ISFM practices for wheat production in EthiopianHighlands\" at a workshop organized by Africa RISING in Accra, Ghana from 07-09 February 2023.• A draft research article \"Optimizing teff and wheat yield with fertilization and liming under different landscape positions in tropical agricultural soils\" has been shared with the coauthors for comments.• A policy brief on \"Site specific fertilizer recommendations and nutrient management\" has been submitted to the project in November 2022.• About 171 farmers and other stakeholders participated in field days (Photo 3).• The partnership with research and development institutions has played a key role in implementing our research plans and delivering project outputs. The progress made so far has been possible through the joint efforts of our project partners.• The partnership created with these institutions will enable the implementation of similar projects and the scaling of promising technologies and practices achieved during the Africa RISING project period.• The conflicts and security risks in the country have been fundamental problems to execute activities and undertake field supervision.• Technical and some financial support may be necessary to ensure the wider adoption of technologies and practices among farmers and their sustainability.Photo 3. Training on advanced data management and analysis (left) and field days organized by ICRISAT in collaboration with partners (right).Wheat was planted under conservation agriculture and conventional approaches in 2022/23 cropping season by using Khedut planter attached to 2WT in Amanuel kebele (Machakel district, East Gojam zone) and Goshebado kebele (Basona district, North Shewa zone). Eight farmers were selected and used establish the research. The yield from eight farmers plots is presented in Tables 8 and 9.  Other specific objectives might include i) developing capacity and knowledge for starters and practitioners; ii) giving perspective to rural youth looking for business opportunities and jobs;iii) promoting agricultural mechanization at the last mile in rural areas; iv) supporting mechanization service providers; and v) linking service providers to importers/dealers, manufacturers and local microfinance institutions.Field days were organized in Amanuel and Goshebado kebeles of the Amhara region in all the sites. In Amanuel, a total of 133 participants attained the field day (Photo 4). Among the field day participants 120 were male and 13 were female. The participants were from GIZ (2), zonal and woreda administration offices ( 12), zonal and woreda agricultural offices (17), EIAR (4) and farmers including host farmers (98) farmers and service providers (15). In Goshebado, a total of 114 participants attended the field day (Photo 5). Among the field day participants 82 were male and 32 were female. The participants were from zonal and woreda administration offices(3), zonal and woreda agricultural offices ( 16), farmers including host farmers (94) and service provider (1). The overall objective of the field days was to:• Bring local farmers, stakeholders, non-governmental organizations, zone-woreda administration offices, agricultural offices and service providers to visit and discus on the ongoing trial farm demonstration activities from the small-scale mechanization technologies.• Create awareness about CA and 2WT planting technology and other interrelated agricultural implements of small-scale agricultural machines.• Provide space for farmers experience sharing to potentially scale up these technologies throughout the community.• Establish linkage between service providers and potential manufactures as well as microfinance institutes to associate and work together forward on these technologies.Photo 4. A field day in Amanuel kebele, Machakel district, East Gojam zone in Amhara region.Photo 5. A field day in Goshebado kebele, Basona district, North Shewa zone in Amhara region.• Africa RISING has extensively contributed and lied the fundamental of the development of small-scale mechanization in the Ethiopian highlands. However, a future work on capitalizing this basic work for reaching a critical mass is needed for scaling.• The role of the zonal, regional and federal authorities is critical as well as the CGIAR and other local and international stakeholders acting in the development of agricultural mechanization in Ethiopia for diffusing and promoting 2WT based technologies and other mechanization options for small, medium and large farmers.• The ONE CGIAR Initiative on Sustainable Intensification for Mixed Farming Systems (SI MFS)in Ethiopia and other five countries shall include mechanization to intensify mixed farming systems, increase productivity, improve nutrition, create jobs for rural youth and overall, a better livelihood.• With the generated evidence on small-scale mechanization in Ethiopia through Africa RISING, SI MFS can build upon and replicate in other countries where it intervenes.In this reporting period, the landscape management work continued from the previous years' show an increased trend from before to after scenario in all the watersheds due to SLM interventions (Figure 4). Among the four watersheds, the highest change between after and before the SLM interventions was observed in Debre Mewi watershed. In all cases, the optimal scenario shows that there is still a possibility to improve the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI values significantly. In addition to the NDVI values, it was also possible to obtain crop yield data for Debre Mewi watershed. Crop production provides a good way of measuring direct economic gain of landscape rehabilitation projects. It is therefore a key indicator of landscape restoration efforts. In this regard, comparison was made between baseline productivity data with yield for 2010 for four crops (Figure 4). The result shows that the yield of four major crops (maize, wheat, teff and finger millet) has increased following integrated land and water management interventions. The increase in yield varies from crop to crop, the highest being for maize (120%) while the lowest is for wheat (9%).A recent study by Tanto and Laekemariam (2019) has found a similar pattern when assessing the impact of an integrated Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) practice for 5 years in southernEthiopia. The study found an increase of soil and crop productivity in cultivated lands following SWC interventions. Similarly, a review by Wolka et al. (2018) showed that SWC practices in sub-Saharan Africa were able to result in improved crop yield in 80% of the reviewed studies due to controlled soil and moisture loss.  10). • Less number of actors involved in the sector and absence of a structured value chain.• Less number of actors involved in the sector.• Absence of structured value chain.• Inaccessible and unaffordable financial institution.• Shortage of seedlings and the price of avocado are mainly set by traders.• Negative environmental consequences of avocado are limited, with the shade effect considered the primary one.• The key question remains: If the avocado is so attractive to farmers, why has not it been scaled more?• What are the key opportunities and challenges to wider scaling of avocado?Key production opportunities:• Can be produced with minimum inputs-not need fertilizer.• Not susceptible to disease, like enset, potato and wheat.• Had high market demand and generated better income and nutrition to household.• Conducive agro-ecology.• Had a better awareness on its importance in improving nutrition security and generating better income.• More than 12,000 seedlings were bought and disseminated by farmers own money in one production year.• Had better business cases in grafting, producing and marketing.Key scaling strategies to improve dissemination of the improved avocado varieties:• Find alternatives to overcome financial constraints in production and seedling preparation.• Work with local microfinance institutions to provide affordable and appropriate credit.• Create functional value chain: Map relevant actors and organize a learning platform.• Develop local seedling production mechanism.✓ Farmer's based grafting/seedling preparation needs to be prioritized.✓ Avocado grafting could create jobs for youngsters in the area.✓ Establish viable nursery site.• Develop farmers input-output cooperatives. Avocado production is increasing over time in the study area. Farmers improve both their income streams and household nutrition by having a couple of avocado trees in their backyard.While projects support farmers with planting materials, farmers themselves are also a core source of seedlings for themselves.Close out reflections at project/central level• Africa RISING played as a disrupter role, in the positive sense of the word, in identifying scalable technologies and promoting them. For example, in relation to soil fertility, the project on the Ethiopian soil information system (Ethiosis) for soil fertility mapping and fertilizer recommendation in Ethiopia did not move forward, i.e. was not found ready for scaling up. Thus, the work of Africa RISING on agronomic research with focus on soil fertility was a commendable job.• The work of Africa RISING has been exemplary in unpacking shelved technologies, validating the technologies through active participation of farmers, identifying scalable technologies and promoting them. In the piloting woreda crops, livestock and natural resources management technologies were the dominant focus areas. This demonstrated that smart coordination of partners is instrumental to push forward the promotion of scalable technologies identified through active participation of farmers, researchers, extensionists and researchers.• As partner for Africa RISING project, we have learned that working together and respecting each other is essential in effecting a shared responsibility, facilitating demonstration programs and providing trainings.• Multistakeholder platforms were useful for addressing challenges that may arise because of the monocropping being advocated. This requires diversifying the crop species to grow. The intervention from ICARDA was focused on testing different varieties of different crop species through participatory variety selection (PVS). On this line 40 varieties were selected from which 21 were found to be better yielders and scalable. • Having platforms (strategic and operational) has been very helpful in problem identification, in reaching at agreements on the procedures to follow and implementing the planned activities. During the discussions on drafted protocols, participated farmers rejected some of the protocols and requested for including protocols of their interest.During implementing the agreed activities, farmers became researchers in evaluating technologies and helped the scaling up of better performed technologies. What is new was knowing farmer research group approach. Moreover, the presence of site coordinators has been instrumental in Africa RISING successes. All the work carried out so far by Africa RISING was successful because of the leadership roles of the program.• Although the program is closing considering the themes, it was only 10% of the scaling work accomplished and 90% yet remains to be addressed.• There are multiple products from Africa RISING that need to be promoted further. Hence, the relationship with the supporting partners must continue.• There is no dropping of Africa RISING program and the upcoming SI project emulate relay racing where there are overlapping of racers while handing to each other the sticks.• Capture the contribution of Africa RISING phases 1 and 2 and produce a document that well describes the achievements following the below format content: Foreword, introduction, achievements, SIAF case studies in genetic, ecological and socio-economic intensifications, lessons learned, the sustainable intensification and the list of reference materials.• Sustainable intensification needs the following: consider climate related risks, on mitigation of greenhouse gas emission, the private sector and market and to digital agriculture by using available tools.Debre Birhan site:• These days we have good number of improved crops seed, potato and some forage seeds at our hand. We can use them for some years. Thanks to Africa RISING project.• The name Africa RISING is like its name. The next generation!• We have worked with many projects, but Africa RISING is different as it is focusing more on capacity building and action research. We have learned how to work in teams.• Partnership was strong. Bean was almost lost. But the partnership work helped us to recover faba bean in North Shewa.• We have worked a lot on feed trough. The number of farmers engaged in feed trough technology is increasing.• Africa RISING project has brought a countable impact on the ground. It helped us to reduce our burden.• The Africa RISING publications and studies should be distributed to us so that we will avoid duplication of efforts and resources.• Fast track technologies should be identified and promoted if other projects emerge.• Extension on fodder beet did not go far from us in the research. But Africa RISING helped us to promote and reach more farmers.• Forage production alone cannot take us nowhere. We have many factories and we need to use byproducts to feed livestock-silage making, byproducts (yeast from the breweries, atela)-conservation and use should be done.• The legacies of Africa RISING technologies will continue. The multistakeholder platform was strong in the past. This platform should continue. We need to contribute more to this zone.We need to engage in those light mechanizations and other efforts. • We need to see sufficient forage seed in the market. Farmers do not know where they can get forage seed.• Africa RISING was so active to bring partners from different districts and enable experts and farmers to exchange experiences. Apple was not that much successful. There is a need to work on the capacity of the experts and farmers. We need to identify potential niches and farmers for apple production. The Africa RISING legacy will continue but some support on varieties and approaches should be thought of. The intervention on avocado should be started in some selected areas. Work on drylands should be worked and appropriate varieties should be started.• There was good representation from the partner offices and farmers.• The event was well organized and effectively facilitated.• Farmers witnesses of the impact of project's technologies on their attitudes of farming system and income (business) is very encouraging.• Partners are committing to take the efforts forward through their existing platforms and networks with zonal and woreda extension offices taking the leadership.• Both farmers and partners expressed their feelings by saying 'the project is closing when our eyes started to open and we started to better understand the technologies. However, we are very grateful to the contributions so far and looking forward to more chances in the future'.Hossana site:• Africa RISING is closing. There is a need to make sure that innovations are properly handed over to respective institutions locally. For example, the university could take the technical and financial related responsibilities, the zonal government and agricultural offices need to take the extension responsibilities and farmers need to take the adoption responsibility.• Africa RISING experience on scaling of improved forages work is also a good one. Focusing on few forages for scaling is a good practice. One missing element from the livestock innovations is animal breeding. Animal breeding is often a neglected field. We need sexed semen for our breeding interventions.• We have seen excellent innovations on teff threshing machine, potato, enset, avocado, wheat and faba bean. Africa RISING left a legacy in the avocado promotion work, which is now picked as one of the main fruit crops for promotion by the zonal government.• The work on enset was also an excellent one, although it remained limited in scope. As enset is the main subsistence crop in the area, future focus should consider significant contribution to enset disease management.• We need to tackle the challenge of waiting for projects to help us with our problems. We have the human capital needed to drive our own development. We need to prioritize and invest in research and innovation.• One of the biggest lessons from Africa RISNG is the integrated work they have done. This is a small project which achieved significant result because of its integrated approach. We need to appreciate this and take it as exemplary.• We need to strengthen our implementation capacity. We need to investigate ourselves and then focus on how best we can maximize our internal resources for betterment of our people.preferences of local communities for ecosystem services: The case of Basona and Hosanna, Ethiopia Product related to her thesis: ELMO_report.docx (live.com)The main communication channels supported are:• Wiki internal workspace: http://africa-rising-wiki.net/Home• Project updates on the program website: africa-rising.net/category/countries/ethiopia/• A Yammer network with internal updates ","tokenCount":"6602"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d6c759aa8600c6a99bff76f7a125729","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89545e9f-f3c5-489b-9cf0-4599dd88a0dd/retrieve","id":"-1618610408"},"keywords":["farmyard manure","zinc solubilizing microbes","microbial diversity","abundance","soil DNA sequencing","agricultural inputs","long-term agronomic management"],"sieverID":"61675486-ff61-4041-820c-213a9385e317","pagecount":"21","content":"Zinc is an important nutrient for plant growth and development. Its availability is influenced by zinc solubilizing microbes (ZSMs). The effects of commonly promoted agronomic practices on the abundance of ZSMs are so far not well understood. In this study, conducted in 2019, we assessed the effects of farmyard manure (FYM) application, either sole or in combination with residue and/or inorganic fertilizer inputs, on ZSM community structure using 11 treatments in a long-term (17 years) integrated soil fertility management experiment located in Western Kenya. Bacterial and fungal community composition were evaluated by amplicon sequencing on an Illumina MiSeq platform. The results showed that putative ZSMs (i.e., the ZSMs generally considered to possess the zinc solubilizing capabilities) were clustered in two major clades based on either the application or no application of FYM. Sole application of FYM significantly (p < 0.05) increased the abundance of several ZSMs under a maize-Tephrosia rotation. In addition, systems with the combined application of FYM with other inputs generally showed significantly increasing trends for some ZSMs under a maize-Tephrosia rotation. Moreover, the combined application of FYM and P rather than only P significantly increased the abundance of some ZSMs under maize monocropping systems. Furthermore, as well as affecting ZSM abundance, soil chemical variables involving soil organic carbon (SOC), total N and Olsen P significantly increased with FYM application. This study indicated that management practices such as the application of FYM that increase SOC, and other soil chemical parameters, also/concomitantly increase ZSM abundance. These results imply enhanced capacities for microbial-linked zinc availability with FYM application.Zinc (Zn) is one of the most important micronutrients in plants. It catalyzes several metabolic enzyme reactions [1] and promotes photosynthesis, plant resistance to environmental stresses, the formation of pollen and proteins, the metabolism of nitrogen and carbohydrates and the production of antioxidants [2]. Among the micronutrients, soil Zn deficiency, reaching about one-third of arable soils, is the most frequent challenge globally [3], affecting crop and animal health and productivity [4]. Zn deficiency has been linked to hidden hunger [5], manifested through malnutrition-associated disorders.Zinc exists in soil as both water-soluble and insoluble complexes, with the major portion being non-bioavailable for plant uptake [6]. The bioavailability of zinc depends on soil physicochemical conditions such as the concentration of zinc in solution, its interactions with other nutrients and ion speciation, plant root exudates and microbial activities [7][8][9]. Increasing soil P availability, as influenced by long-term fertilization, may compromise Zn uptake by plants due to the antagonistic nature of the two nutrients, with potential adverse effects on crop yield and nutritional quality [10]. On the other hand, the application of nitrogen fertilizer can increase plant uptake of P and Zn from soil [11]. Zinc deficiency results in poor plant growth, yields and nutritional quality arising from depressed zinc-associated metabolic processes [6]. Remedying soil zinc deficiency and promoting crop productivity calls for agronomic interventions with the potential for enhancing zinc bioavailability, both at lower costs and in an ecofriendly manner. The conventional application of synthetic Zn-based fertilizers is not only less efficient and non-ecofriendly but also associated with high fertilizer costs [12].In the recent past, a lot of attention has been directed towards the potential of zinc solubilization by soil microbial communities [12][13][14][15] to remedy soil zinc deficiency. The soil microbes that are capable of solubilizing zinc from insoluble sources are generally referred to as zinc solubilizing microbes (ZSMs) [12,14]. In addition to zinc solubilization, ZSMs can enhance the capabilities of plants to uptake Zn from the soil, thus improving the enrichment of Zn in the edible plant parts [12][13][14][15]. The ZSMs, existing either in bacteria or fungal nature, may increase the bioavailability of Zn to plants from insoluble sources [16,17] by employing different biological processes involving chelation, chemical transformation and the production of organic acids [1,18,19]. This makes ZSMs potential alternatives for enhancing Zn bioavailability and supplementation for plants in a sustainable, ecofriendly and cost-effective manner [12,14]. Fungal strains belonging to the genera Penicillium, Glomus, Aspergillus, Trichoderma and Beauveria have been identified as prominent fungal ZSMs [12,20,21], whereas the most promising bacterial strains have been identified in the genera Azospirillum, Burkholderia, Serratia, Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Rhizobium, Thiobacillus, Gluconacetobacter and Pseudomonas among others [1,14,22].As well as ZSMs, the addition of micronutrient-based fertilizers, breeding of zinc-efficient germplasm, seed biofortification, introduction of beneficial soil microorganisms and correction of soil alkalinity alongside the adoption of crop rotation practices can also alleviate soil zinc deficiency [23][24][25]. Addressing soil-based Zn deficiencies can reduce food insecurity and hidden hunger that affects at least 30% of the global human population [26,27].Regenerative agriculture practices involving crop rotation, the application of organic manure and the reduced use of inorganic fertilizers have been widely promoted to improve soil health and fertility and sustain agricultural productivity [28][29][30]. The application of manure, either alone or in combination with inorganic fertilizers, is an agronomic practice with great potential to improve Zn availability in the soil. Manure use is a traditional soil fertility management practice employed by many smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, especially those with a mixed crop-livestock system in place [31,32]. If manure is properly managed, manure application can improve soil fertility, crop yields and soil biological properties through the provision of multiple nutrients [33][34][35].However, despite the benefits of such agricultural management practices on improving soil fertility and crop yields, little is known on their effects on zinc solubilizing microbial species, especially in tropical soils. In this study, we assessed how regenerative agriculture practices such as manure and crop residue applications, with or without fertilizer applications, affect the abundance of zinc solubilizing microbial species in a tropical agricultural soil.This research was carried out in October 2019 (during the short rains period) in a long-term agronomic trial named INM3 in Madeya, Siaya County, Kenya. The trial was established in 2003 by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and lies between 0.14 • N and 34.40 • E, under a subhumid climate with a biannual rainfall of 1200-1600 mm and an average temperature of 23.2 ± 1.5 • C [36]. Soils in the trial site are Ferralsols, characterized by low pH (5.1 ± 0.3), with a sand-silt-clay ratio of 15:21:64 and extractable inorganic phosphorus (Olsen) content of 2.99 ± 2.09 mg kg −1 [36][37][38]. Crop production in the region is mainly for subsistence, rain-fed and mostly practiced under conventional tillage in smallholder farms (mostly less than 1 ha), with maize being the dominant staple food crop grown mostly as an intercrop with common beans. Plant residue retention is less common as a large proportion is grazed on after harvest, and only a few farmers incorporate manure in the soil, but in considerably low quantities and at inconsistent intervals.The experiment was initiated in 2003 under a split plot design with 48 treatments replicated four times, out of which 11 were selected for this study. The main plots were two farmyard manure rates (0 and 4 t ha −1 FYM application), subplots were three cropping systems (maize and Tephrosia (i.e., Tephrosia vogelii) rotation, maize and soybean intercropping and continuous maize), sub-subplots were two residue application rates (with or without 2 t ha −1 residue application). There were four rates of N fertilization (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg N ha −1 ) as urea, two rates of P (0 and 45 kg P ha −1 ) as triple superphosphate (TSP) and blanket application of K (at 60 kg ha −1 ) as muriate of potash during planting. The whole experiment has 192 plots each measuring 4.5 m by 6 m.Within the trial, maize and Tephrosia were planted at a spacing of 25 cm by 75 cm and in a rotation system, with 2 seeds placed per hill and later thinned to one. Soybean was intercropped with maize, at a spacing of 5 cm by 75 cm. Urea was applied in two splits, whereby one-third was applied during planting and two-thirds applied during topdressing. Farmyard manure was incorporated in the field during planting. The chemical properties of the farmyard manure used in the study were as follows; pH 6.48, electrical conductivity (4.04 mS/cm), dry matter (94.8%), carbon (13.6%), N (1.18%), P (0.29%), K (0.488%), Ca (0.803%), Mg (0.323%), S (0.11%), Mn (2319 ppm), Fe (48,050 ppm), Zn (128.5 ppm), Cu (42.975 ppm), B (50.45 ppm), Na (458.25 ppm) and C:N (11.5). Hand ploughing and weeding using hoes were restricted to 15 cm depth.Eleven (11) treatments representing different management practices under conventional tillage were selected for the study (Table 1). The 11 treatments were selected to confer the effects of certain input combinations embedded in different management practices (under either continuous maize cropping or maize-Tephrosia rotation) on putative zinc solubilizing microbes.Soil samples were collected 8 weeks after planting at 0-15 cm depth in October 2019 during the short rains period. Maize was the main crop during sampling. Samples were taken from five spots per plot within each treatment following a \"W\" shaped pattern, using an auger. The samples were transferred in a bucket, thoroughly mixed, representative samples packed in labeled zip-lock bags, kept in a cool box with frozen ice packs and transported to the laboratory for processing and further analyses. The samples for biological assessments (except microbial biomass C) were sieved (2 mm) and stored frozen (−20 • C) until extraction. The samples for various chemical analyses were air-dried before grinding and sieving. Samples for microbial biomass C assessment were immediately sieved (2 mm) and analysed right after sampling from the field. All the treatments were under conventional tillage. MT = maize and Tephrosia rotation; MM = continuous maize; + = with; -= without; Res = residue, applied at 2 Mg ha −1 ; FYM = farmyard manure applied at 4 t ha −1 . All treatments were applied with 60 kg K ha −1 ; * denotes N applied at 90 kg ha −1 .Soil organic carbon and total N were determined by the Carbon Nitrogen (CN) Elemental Analyzer. Soil pH was determined in water (soil-water; 1:2), while, except for Olsen P, the exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, K, Zn, S, Fe, B, Mn, Na and Al) were extracted following the Mehlich (1984) procedure, and concentrations were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES).Microbial biomass C was determined using the MicroBiometer Soil Test kit (https://microbiometer.com (accessed latest on 12 January 2021)). Briefly, fresh soil samples were sifted. Using a calibrated syringe, 1 mL of the samples were taken, compacted to 0.5 mL and the excess soil removed from the tip of the syringe. One sachet of the provided powder from the kit was transferred into a clean tube, water added and briefly mixed using a whisker. Soil samples were added, briefly mixed with the contents, whisked for 30 s to fully mix with the fluid and allowed to settle for 20 min. After every five minutes, the contents were briefly tapped to allow the floating debris to settle down the tube. After 20 min settling time, the samples were extracted using a pipette and 3 drops carefully applied to the reading card without wetting the surrounding of the card. The readings for microbial biomass carbon were thereafter taken by imaging the card using the MicroBiometer App (Version 3.6.0) from Google Play Store.Total DNA was extracted from 0.2 g of the fresh soil samples using phenol-chloroformisoamyl (PCI) alcohol as described in [39]. Briefly, 0.2 g of soil was suspended in 200 µL of solution A (containing 100 ul Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 100 mM EDTA (pH 8.0), vigorously vortexed, 5 µL of Lysozyme (20 mg/mL solution) added and the mixture incubated in a water bath (370 • C) for 30 min. A total of 400 µL of lysis buffer (containing 400 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 60 mM EDTA (pH 8.0), 150 mM NaCl and 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate) was added and incubated at room temperature for 10 min. Thereafter, 10 µL of Guanidinium thiocyanate (GITC; for protein denaturation) was added and the mix incubated (65 • C) in a water bath for 2 h. An equal volume of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl was added, mixed briefly at 13,200 rpm for 15 min at 4 • C and the supernatant containing the crude DNA transferred to a new tube. To the supernatant was added 150 µL of sodium acetate and 600 µL isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol), mixed briefly by inversion and left at room temperature for 10 min. This was followed by centrifugation at 13,200 rpm for 10 min to pellet the DNA. The supernatant was discarded and the resultant DNA pellets washed in 300 µL of 70% ethanol two times. The DNA pellets were air-dried and thereafter dissolved in 30 µL of PRC water. DNA quantity and quality was checked on 1% agarose gel electrophoresis against a 1 Kb marker. The DNA pellets were lyophilized and shipped to MRDNA labs (www.mrdnalab.com (accessed on 12 January 2021), Shallowater, TX, USA) for amplicon generation and sequencing.The PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA gene V4 variable region was carried out from extracted DNA generated from rRNA, using barcoded bacteria/archaeal primers 515/806 with barcode on the forward end (i.e., 515F (5 -GTGCCAGCMGCCGCGGTAA-3 ) and 806R (5 -GGACTACHVGGGTWTCTAAT-3 )) as previously described by [40]. Briefly, PCR amplicons were generated using HotStarTaq Plus Master Mix Kit (Qiagen, USA) under the following conditions: 94 • C for 3 min, followed by 28 cycles of 94 • C for 30 s, 53 • C for 40 s and 72 • C for 1 min, and a final elongation at 72 • C for 5 min. Illumina DNA library preparation and sequencing was performed following the manufacturer's guidelines. The raw reads were preprocessed using a proprietary pipeline by the sequencing facility. Briefly, the sequences were joined, followed by the removal of barcodes, sequences with ambiguous base calls and those with fewer than 150 base pairs. This was followed by denoising, the generation of operational taxonomic units (OTUs), the removal of chimeras and the clustering of OTUS at 3% divergence (97% similarity). Finally, the OTUs were taxonomically classified using BLASTn against a curated database derived from RDPII and NCBI (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, http://rdp.cme.msu.edu).Since the study majorly aimed at understanding the general overview of the agronomic management effects on potential zinc solubilizing microbes, we conducted an in-depth literature review to identify and list the potential soil microbial genera known to solubilize zinc (ZSM). The search was conducted in Google Scholar and Web of Science search engines, with the timeline restricted to returning outcomes only up to the year 2022. The resultant files were reviewed and the potential zinc solubilizing microbes reported in the articles listed. Using this list of potential zinc solubilizers, we then identified and selected those microbes from the already available Illumina data. Thus, the potential ZSM genera reported herein are those most commonly documented by several previous papers. We further acknowledge that for some of the potential ZSM genera reported herein, although they have the potential for solubilizing zinc, they may also perform other functions in the soil.Microbial diversity analysis was conducted using the Vegan package in R Project. Alpha diversity (microbial diversity within samples) was estimated using Shannon and Chao 1 diversity indices to test the significant differences between the different agronomic management systems. Beta diversity (β diversity, diversity between samples) was used to test the significant differences between samples. This was determined by computing the principal component analysis (PCA) of the ZSM versus the treatments using PAST software (v.4.05) [41]. The data were Logarithm 10 transformed before performing PCA to meet the assumptions of parametric tests [42]. The determination of Bray-Curtis similarities and principal component analysis (PCA) were also carried out using PAST software (v.4.05).Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), analysis of variance (ANOVA), canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and non-metric dimensional scaling (NMDS) were performed using R project. ANOVA was performed on square root transformed data. Mean separation was performed using Tukey's HSD at p ≤ 0.05. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was used to assess the relationship between the soil microbial community richness and soil chemical parameters. The CCA analysis was performed using the Anacor library and cca function in Vegan library in R, overall significance was tested using the anova function, and the step function was used to determine significant variables with a permutation test at 999 maximum permutations.Agronomic management practices significantly affected the soil chemical and physical parameters. Soil pH, SOC, total N, Mg, Zn, Fe and CEC were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher under the sole application of FYM (Inm4) compared to the no input application (Inm1) or the application of inorganic fertilizer only (Inm2; Table 2). The application of inorganic fertilizer only (Inm2) significantly increased (p ≤ 0.05) soil P (Olsen) and S but significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.05) soil pH relative to the no input application (Inm1). The highest pH was in the treatment with the combined application of FYM and crop residues followed by all other FYM treatments, while the no input and inorganic fertilizer treatments had the lowest pH.  The simultaneous application of FYM, NP fertilizers and residue (Inm6) significantly increased (p ≤ 0.05) soil pH, SOC, total N, Mg, Zn, Fe and CEC relative to the combined application of NP fertilizers and residue only (Inm5). The combined application of P and FYM (Inm10) significantly increased (p ≤ 0.05) soil pH, total N, Mg, B and CEC relative to the sole application of P (Inm9) under the continuous maize system. Integrating both P and 90 kgN ha −1 (Inm11) fertilizers in a continuous maize system (Table 2) significantly reduced soil pH compared to the sole application of P (Inm9). This is perhaps due to the increases in the soil acidity effect associated with urea nitrogen application.The management systems without FYM application had zinc concentrations that ranged between 1.0 and 1.84 mg kg −1 . However, all the systems where FYM was added solely or in combination with other nutrients had zinc concentrations that ranged between 2.61 and 3.57 mg kg −1 . The highest zinc concentrations (3.29-3.57 mg kg −1 ) were obtained in systems where FYM was added in combination with full NPK fertilization.Olsen P negatively correlated with total N, SOC and K but positively correlated with available S, Fe and EC. Available Zn, Cu, B and CEC positively correlated with total N, SOC, pH, available K, Ca and Mg (Table 3). CEC positively significantly correlated with the soil characteristics. Total N positively correlated with SOC, pH, available K, Ca, Mg, Cu, B, Zn and CEC, and a similar correlation (as that of total N) was true for the variables relating to SOC, pH, available K, Ca and Mg. These correlations indicate that the management systems such as the application of FYM that increase SOC, also (concomitantly) increase several soil chemical parameters involving the soil pH, total N, available K, Ca, Mg, Cu, B, Zn and CEC. Overall, 2,113,815 and 2,219,424 high-quality reads for bacteria and fungi, respectively, were obtained. The 2,113,815 high-quality bacterial sequences were clustered into 691 OTUs at 97% genetic distance, which were further assigned to 36 phyla, 87 classes, 161 orders and 298 families. Similarly, the 2,219,424 high-quality fungal sequences were clustered into 721 OTUs at 97% genetic distance, and were further assigned to 27 phyla, 79 classes, 191 orders and 379 families.The ten most dominant bacterial phylotypes at phylum level were Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Acidobacteria, Gemmatimonadetes, Chloroflexi, Planctomycetes, Verrucomicrobia, Bacteroidetes and Nitrospirae, whereas the most abundant fungal phylotypes (in order from highest to lowest genera) were Mortierella, Fusarium, Penicillium, Gymnochlora, Sclerostagonospora, Rhizophlyctis, Alternaria, Myceliophthora, Cochliobolus, Humicola and Pseudofavolus. Out of 691 bacterial and 721 fungal phylotypes (at genus level), 31 potential zinc solubilizing microbial genera were identified from the Illumina data based on the outcomes ZSM genera obtained from the literature reviews. Fifteen (15) out of the 31 potential ZSM genera identified in the INM3 site (Figure 1) had relative abundance greater than 0.5%. The 15 potential ZSM genera comprised of Penicillium spp., Burkholderia spp., Bacillus spp., Sphingomonas spp., Rhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Trichoderma spp., Glomus spp., Aspergillus spp., Thiobacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Azospirillum spp., Lysinibacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Mesorhizobium spp. in INM3.identified from the Illumina data based on the outcomes ZSM genera obtained from the literature reviews. Fifteen ( 15) out of the 31 potential ZSM genera identified in the INM3 site (Figure 1) had relative abundance greater than 0.5%. The 15 potential ZSM genera comprised of Penicillium spp., Burkholderia spp., Bacillus spp., Sphingomonas spp., Rhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Trichoderma spp., Glomus spp., Aspergillus spp., Thiobacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Azospirillum spp., Lysinibacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Mesorhizobium spp. in INM3. Bray-Curtis similarity cluster analysis revealed distinct grouping of treatments based on the management practices implemented. The results in the dendrogram (Figure 2) showed that the ZSM species were clustered in two major clades based on either the application or no application of farmyard manure (i.e., management practices having FYM addition were grouped in one major clade and those without FYM in a different clade (Figure 2: HCA results)). The subsequent clades emanating from each of the two major clades showed that the species in the different management practices were not quite homogeneous, although either the application of, or lack of, FYM similarly affected them.The clustering of the management practices with FYM addition had an almost 91.4% similarity index (Bray-Curtis), while those lacking FYM addition had 90.0% (Figure 2). Management practices with the combined application of P, N and residue were similarly grouped (92.5% similarity index), and the same case was observed under the treatments with no input application, and the sole application of either residue or P (all under a 92.3% similarity index). Bray-Curtis similarity cluster analysis revealed distinct grouping of treatments based on the management practices implemented. The results in the dendrogram (Figure 2) showed that the ZSM species were clustered in two major clades based on either the application or no application of farmyard manure (i.e., management practices having FYM addition were grouped in one major clade and those without FYM in a different clade (Figure 2: HCA results)). The subsequent clades emanating from each of the two major clades showed that the species in the different management practices were not quite homogeneous, although either the application of, or lack of, FYM similarly affected them.The clustering of the management practices with FYM addition had an almost 91.4% similarity index (Bray-Curtis), while those lacking FYM addition had 90.0% (Figure 2). Management practices with the combined application of P, N and residue were similarly grouped (92.5% similarity index), and the same case was observed under the treatments with no input application, and the sole application of either residue or P (all under a 92.3% similarity index).A shift in the distribution of ZSM was observed in the integrated soil fertility management under the practice with the application of FYM relative to practices lacking FYM addition (Figures 3a,b and 4a,b). However, cropping systems had negligible influence on ZSM species distribution (Figures 3a,b and 4a,b). A shift in the distribution of ZSM was observed in the integrated soil fertility management under the practice with the application of FYM relative to practices lacking FYM addition (Figures 3a,b and 4a,b). However, cropping systems had negligible influence on ZSM species distribution (Figures 3a,b and 4a,b).  A shift in the distribution of ZSM was observed in the integrated soil fertility management under the practice with the application of FYM relative to practices lacking FYM addition (Figures 3a,b and 4a,b). However, cropping systems had negligible influence on ZSM species distribution (Figures 3a,b and 4a,b).   The management practices with FYM manure addition had two times more ZSM species (with relative abundance > 0.5%) compared to those lacking FYM (Figure 5; PCA Results). Penicillium spp., Glomus spp., Rhizobium spp., Sphingomonas spp., Aspergillus spp. and Trichoderma spp. were grouped in the management systems lacking FYM, while the remaining ZSM species (i.e., Bacillus spp., Azospirillum spp., Burkholderia spp., Pseudomonas spp., Thiobacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp. and Lysinibacillus spp.) were grouped in management practices that received either sole FYM or the combined application of FYM with other inputs (Figure 5). The management practices with FYM manure addition had two times more ZSM species (with relative abundance > 0.5%) compared to those lacking FYM (Figure 5; PCA Results). Penicillium spp., Glomus spp., Rhizobium spp., Sphingomonas spp., Aspergillus spp. and Trichoderma spp. were grouped in the management systems lacking FYM, while the remaining ZSM species (i.e., Bacillus spp., Azospirillum spp., Burkholderia spp., Pseudomonas spp., Thiobacillus spp., Arthrobacter spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Bradyrhizobium spp. and Lysinibacillus spp.) were grouped in management practices that received either sole FYM or the combined application of FYM with other inputs (Figure 5).Eleven (11) ZSM species comprising of Azospirillum spp., Bacillus spp., Lysinibacillus spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Pseudomonas spp., Rhizobium spp., Stenotrophomonas spp., Thiobacillus spp. and Trichoderma spp. were significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the effects of FYM application (Figure 6).The application of inorganic N fertilizer (Figure 7) alone or in combination with FYM and crop residues influenced the proportions of specific ZSM. The proportions of Glomus spp., Penicillium spp. and Thiobacillus spp. were depressed under systems with nitrogen applied at 90 kgN/ha compared to no application (0 kgN ha −1 ). The proportions of ZSM were not significantly influenced by P (data not shown). Moreover, the application of phosphorus, nitrogen and residue did not significantly affect the overall abundance and diversity of ZSM species (Table 4), although species richness and diversity were slightly higher in systems with, relative to without, P applied. Still, the application of FYM (at 4 t ha −1 ) significantly increased ZSM abundance and diversity, and soil biochemical parameters involving SOC, total N, Zn and Fe.  The application of inorganic N fertilizer (Figure 7) alone or in combination with FYM and crop residues influenced the proportions of specific ZSM. The proportions of Glomus spp., Penicillium spp. and Thiobacillus spp. were depressed under systems with nitrogen applied at 90 kgN/ha compared to no application (0 kgN ha −1 ). The proportions of ZSM were not significantly influenced by P (data not shown). Moreover, the application of phosphorus, nitrogen and residue did not significantly affect the overall abundance and   Values are means ± standard deviations of 3 replicate samples. Values followed by similar letters in each column, per input, are not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different.The ZSM microbial species richness and diversity were significantly positively correlated with SOC, pH, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe and CEC (Table 5).  Values are means ± standard deviations of 3 replicate samples. Values followed by similar letters in each column, per input, are not significantly (p ≤ 0.05) different.The ZSM microbial species richness and diversity were significantly positively correlated with SOC, pH, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe and CEC (Table 5). Among the individual ZSM species, soil total N, SOC, pH, Ca, Mg and CEC were positively correlated with Bradyrhizobium spp., Arthrobacter spp., Thiobacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Azospirillum spp., Lysinibacillus spp. and Mesorhizobium spp. (Table 6).Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) results showed that soil chemical parameters involving SOC, Olsen P, total N, Fe and Zn significantly affected the distribution of ZSM species (Table 7).The distribution of seventeen (17) ZSM species (at genus level) involving, Agrobacterium spp., Arthrobacter spp., Aspergillus spp., Azospirillum spp. Bacillus spp., Bradyrhizobium spp., Glomus spp., Lysinibacillus spp., Mesorhizobium spp., Pantoea spp., Penicillium spp., Pseudomonas spp., Rhizobium spp., Sphingomonas spp., Thiobacillus spp., Trichoderma spp. and Xanthomonas spp. were significantly affected by the soil chemical characteristics (Figure 8; Table 7). Lysinibacillus spp. was strongly correlated with soil available Zn, and Sphingomonas spp. and Serratia spp. with Olsen P, while Thiobacillus spp. was strongly correlated with S and SOC (Figure 8). spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp.spp. Only ZSM significantly correlating with at least one chemical variable presented. SOC = soil organic carbon, EC = electrical conductivity; CEC = cation exchange capacity; § § = mg kg −1 ; ¥ = uS/cm; # represents meq/100 g; * represents significant correlation at the 0.05 level; ** represents significant correlation at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) results showed that soil chemical parameters involving SOC, Olsen P, total N, Fe and Zn significantly affected the distribution of ZSM species (Table 7).The distribution of seventeen ( 17  7). Lysinibacillus spp. was strongly correlated with soil available Zn, and Sphingomonas spp. and Serratia spp. with Olsen P, while Thiobacillus spp. was strongly correlated with S and SOC (Figure 8).   The ability of soil microbes to solubilize zinc is of interest since it can enhance the availability of zinc for plant growth and ultimately stimulate its deposition in edible plant tissues [43,44]. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and zinc are among the major limiting nutrients for sustainable crop productivity [45], whose availability may be influenced by both environmental conditions and/or agronomic management practices. Some of these essential plant nutrients may be susceptible to leaching, slow solubility, poor mobility and fixation in insoluble compounds [46,47], diminishing their availability for crop uptake; hence, leading to deficiencies that not only affect crop production but also nutritional quality.In this study, we hypothesized that the soil chemical and biological properties are critical in determining soil microbial species abundance, distribution and diversity, and thus, would influence the zinc solubilizing microbial species abundance and distribution. The results from correlations and CCA showed that the soil chemical and biological parameters were relevant to the distribution and abundance of the zinc solubilizing microbes. These results corroborate recent findings on the effects of different soil nutrients on related soil microbial properties at the same site [37,48,49] and elsewhere in Australia [50] and China [51]. The significant effects of SOC, macronutrients (Olsen P and total N) and micronutrients (Fe and Zn) on zinc solubilizing microbial species abundance and distribution indicate the important role of nutrition in driving the microbial community distribution and abundance. Previous reports [42,48,52,53] linked certain soil microbial parameters to nutrient enrichment and soil organic carbon accumulation, providing food and energy for microbial growth and development. At various scales, the soil microbial community often displays heterogeneous distribution, and this is majorly due to the influences of prevailing soil conditions involving soil fertility (nutrient supply) status, and physicochemical and biological properties. In addition to microbial distribution, the dynamics of microbial abundance are also influenced by the soil fertility status and physicochemical conditions [37]. Thus, in most instances, the microbial abundance can increase with increasing nutrient availability (i.e., soil fertility) and decrease with declining nutrient availability [42], although the reverse may be true in some instances involving specific microbial groups. This explains the significant positive correlations observed between numerous soil chemical parameters and zinc solubilizing microbial species.We also observed a slight negative effect of soil N (i.e., when N was applied at 90 kgN ha −1 ) on the proportions of certain ZSM populations (Glomus, Penicillium and Thiobacillus), and this indicates either limited access to soil available N or low N demand by some of these ZSMs. Nitrogen occurs in soils in mostly complex organic forms and this limits its access by microbes that lack saprotrophic nutrition capabilities such as in Glomus [54]. In addition, the few observed ZSM species that negatively correlated with some soil characteristics suggest the likelihood of resource (nutrient) competition existing between them and the other species that had positive correlations. Thiobacillus are not only zinc solubilizers but also sulfur oxidizers [55], thus explaining their positive correlation with soil S. SOC provides food that releases vital energy required by microbes for growth and development. The influences of different soil chemical (and biological) parameters on soil microbial structure have previously been observed, with some increasing, decreasing or having no change in response [37,42].There were no major shifts in microbial species proportions under the two cropping systems (i.e., maize and Tephrosia rotation and continuous maize systems), and this demonstrates the high similarity of such systems in terms of ZSM colonization. This also points to the possibility of small-scale soil microbial heterogeneity within the two cropping systems, perhaps contributed to by the sampling location (plot level identity). In a previous study, ref. [42] reported that the abundance of the microbial groups tested depended on the sampling location, with small-scale biotic and abiotic heterogeneity contributing a great deal in influencing microbial species coexistence. Similarly, in a study conducted in long-term no-till systems in Tennessee, crop rotation sequence did not influence bacterial richness, diversity and community structure [56]. This also corroborates previous observations in a study conducted on a Brazilian Oxisol where rotation with different crops did not influence related microbial parameters [57]. However, the findings contradict previous observations by [37] where related microbial functional groups associated with phosphorus solubilization were significantly affected by cropping systems perhaps due to the systems that were under comparison. Study [37] compared maize soybean intercropping versus rotation under conservation tillage as opposed to the current study that compared maize-Tephrosia rotation versus sole maize under a continuously tilled integrated soil fertility management system.Regenerative agriculture practices involving the incorporation of organic matter (farmyard manure application and residue retention) among others [58], can strongly influence the soil physicochemical parameters and biological properties and enhance soil fertility by stimulating microbial abundance and nutrient cycling and regulating SOC availability [37]. The application of organic matter (i.e., FYM) has been shown to improve soil physiochemical conditions [59] alongside stimulating a positive microbial link between nutrient availability [60], the regulation of SOC and moisture. In our study, the application of farmyard manure not only influenced the distribution but also increased the abundance and diversity of several zinc solubilizing microbial species in the INM3 site.The HCA revealed a systematic grouping, where the ZSMs were clustered in two major clades, depicting the effect of either the application of (or no addition of) organic matter (FYM) on the ZSM. FYM is important in improving nutrient availability and soil pH, moderating temperature, moisture retention, and enhancing SOC availability [31,32,34], and this creates favorable and enabling conditions that stimulate microbial proliferation and activities [33,35]. Some of the ZSM species are copiotrophic, preferring nutrient-and carbon-rich environments [61,62], and the addition of FYM could enhance soil nutrients' and carbon availability, thereby stimulating the copiotrophic ZSM species. However, the clustering of the treatments without FYM application (but with other inputs) in a different major clade depicts that not all ZSM species are copiotrophic, but rather, some would likely prefer certain environmental conditions not influenced by the availability of FYM. Moreover, the differences in the similarity indices of different management systems in different subclades (subclusters, Figure 4) under each major clade perhaps depict that the ZSM species in the different management system pairs were not quite homogeneous, and this echoes the previous suggestion by [63].The clustering of the ZSM species within a particular management system (i.e., with either the application or no application of farmyard manure) observed in this study demonstrates the strong similarity of microbial groups within each of those management systems. The slight shift in clustering of the microbial species in one management system distinct from the other management system as observed indicates heterogeneity between the two particular systems. This heterogeneity can be attributed to the effects of the specific management systems on soil physiochemical and biological conditions that would, consequently and concomitantly, either directly or indirectly influence the different microbial parameters. This involves influences on soil pH, SOC, moisture, temperature, nutrient availability/fertility and numerous biological characteristics involving the effects on certain microbial structures that can also alter microbial community composition in a given system. These assertions strongly relate to the observed ZSM microbial species' responses to the application of FYM. In this study, as well as the ZSM microbial species being distinctly grouped with either the application or no application of FYM, the systems with FYM added had more ZSM species abundance with the majority being significantly elevated following the addition of FYM. Yet, ZSM species' richness and diversity (Shannon), SOC and soil pH and nutrient supply (macro-and micronutrients) were elevated under systems with FYM application compared to those lacking FYM, implying the beneficial influences of FYM on soil biochemical conditions. The findings from this study further showed that the management systems without FYM application had zinc concentrations ranges between 1.0 and 1.84 mg kg −1 , and these ranges were below the critical soil zinc deficiency threshold (0.6-2 mg kg −1 ; [5]). However, all the systems where FYM was added solely or in combination with other nutrients had zinc concentration ranges (2.61-3.57 mg kg −1 ) above the critical deficiency threshold of 0.6-2.0 mg kg −1 , indicating the likelihood of FYM increasing zinc availability, perhaps through the enhancement of zinc solubilizer abundance.Among other observations, the increase in ZSM species richness (abundance) and diversity following the addition of FYM relative to no application could also be attributed to the effect of FYM in increasing SOC and nutrient availability, and the creation of a microclimate that would favor microbial proliferation, as observed in the known copiotrophic ZSM genera involving Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus spp. and Rhizobium spp. [43] that thrive in nutrient rich environments. Consistent with the results of this study, previous papers [64,65] have reported increased microbial species abundance and diversity following farmyard manure application.The significant positive correlation between ZSM species richness/diversity with soil pH, zinc and other nutrients denotes microbial nutrient (especially Zn) demand, and this may culminate in a variation in the intensity of solubilization activities. Moreover, the significant correlation between available soil zinc content with ZSM abundance also points to increased microbial solubilization and/or the mineralization of different pools of zinc. In the study site, available soil zinc concentrations ranged between 1.00 mg/kg and 3.57 mg/kg, which is within the critical soil zinc deficiency threshold (0.6-2.0 mg/kg, [5]), implying that zinc deficiency is an issue of concern in this site. However, it is interesting to point out that the highest values of zinc (above the critical threshold of 2.0 mg/kg) were only recorded in the systems with either the sole application of FYM or the combined application of FYM with other inputs (full fertilization), with the ZSM species abundance significantly correlating with zinc availability. This denotes the potential of FYM application in not only increasing zinc solubilizing microbial abundance, but also the available zinc concentrations beyond the deficiency threshold limits by stimulating ZSM solubilization activities. The positive capacity of manure to provide multiple nutrients and stimulate biological parameters was recently acknowledged [33][34][35]. The increase in soil zinc concentrations (above critical thresholds) and also ZSM abundance and diversity following the application of FYM, either alone or in combination with other nutrients, is an indication that FYM, upon mineralization, can significantly influence micronutrient availability, and that combining FYM with other inorganic nutrients at appropriate rates can further provide more environmental benefits by increasing zinc availability but also stimulating zinc solubilizing microbial species abundance, diversity and activities.Some of the ZSM species also perform different functions other than zinc solubilization in the soil, and could be affected by other parameters directly linked to FYM application. Recent studies have shown that some of the ZSM species (i.e., Penicillium spp., Glomus spp., Rhizobium spp., Sphingomonas spp., Aspergillus spp. and Trichoderma spp.) that were distinctively grouped in the management practices lacking FYM are also functional phosphorus solubilizing microbes that are negatively affected by increasing P availability [37,66,67]. The addition of FYM could stimulate soil P availability upon decomposition and mineralization, thereby suppressing some of the phosphorus-solubilization-linked strains of ZSM species. In the study, the application of FYM significantly increased pH relative to no application, and this contributed to 31.4% increase in soil P (Table 2), which could influence the P-solubilization-associated ZSM species.Credible information on the relationship between zinc solubilizers' abundance and diversity with plant nutrition (zinc uptake) is largely missing and requires further research. In addition, it is still unclear what the crop yields' trends/patterns would be, relevant to the quantities of Zn available from microbial solubilization compared to the application of Zn-based fertilizers, and whether the quantities of Zn solubilized would be dependable for sustainable crop yields. Still, the quantities of Zn that can be potentially solubilized by these microbes from the different pools lies widely unknown. Moreover, a dearth of knowledge still exists on whether the nutrient (Zn) quantities solubilized by the microbes can be in measures that could sustainably offset the soil deficiency thresholds, and the right combination of systems to optimize the realization of microbial-driven nutrient (Zn) solubilization. Furthermore, in addition to Zn-based fertilizers being costly, there is scanty knowledge on the potential economic benefits that can accrue from microbial-derived nutrient (Zn) mineralization versus the use of inorganic zinc-based fertilizers in enhancing crop production.This study revealed that the application of FYM increases ZSM abundance and diversity. This is important in the quest for sustainable agricultural production by enhancing the provision and availability of multiple soil nutrients for balanced plant (and human) nutrition. As well as macronutrients, the application of FYM improved soil zinc availability, attributable to increased microbial (especially the ZSM) abundance and activities. The study also demonstrated that the application of inorganic N fertilizer, either alone or in combination with FYM and crop residues, influenced the proportions of specific ZSM. Furthermore, the improvement in key soil chemical parameters with the application of FYM stimulated ZSM species richness and abundance. These positive ZSM responses with manure application indicate the potential for biologically mediated soil Zn enrichment as an alternative to Zn-based fertilizer application, to enhance sustainable, ecofriendly and cost-effective Zn bioavailability and supplementation for plants.","tokenCount":"6851"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d8c2ac7da3c062b62368afd3f5e73cf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/620618fe-224c-42e1-b0fb-f70ac371ee5c/content","id":"471301044"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1077e1c0-b58d-4311-a1df-76eaa6d6481b","pagecount":"37","content":" how ABCD changed the lives of women in Ethiopia https://youtu.be/leN7_TICGXMSelf Help Africa • Evaluation from Uganda shows: Women's bargaining spaces and ability to take decisions increased (95% improved access to finance, 80% involved in decisions on child education and 66% crop selection)  Improved savings and household incomes due to careful budgeting and joint prioritization by husband and wife  Men's reduced alcohol use• SHA using at the cooperative level and has increased women's participation(1) Explores relationships of care(2) Estimates and maps women's and men's (un)paid work activities(3) Identifies patterns and norms relating to care work Men drink less due to staying at home more to assist with household chores;Women's unpaid care burden reduced;Women feel more valued and appreciated.• Aims to create an enabling environment for normative changes • Takes 6-12 months to complete • Five main phases: • Accelerated the speed by which the project met its higher level objective • Contributed to improved household economic status and health • Led to an increase in men's sharing of household chores, reduced gender based violence and extramarital affairs, joint decision making on health and use of money, increased women's participation and savings, enhanced women's confidence and reduced child marriage• Enables household members to find innovative, genderequitable solutions and develop negotiation skills.• Phase 1: vison, mapping, analysis and action planning (3-6 months); • Phase 2: institutional reform (1 year) • Phase 3: advocacy (ongoing)• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAWtKo36Sfg&t=76s• Global evidence:  Reduced women's workload and livelihoods improvement;  Increased incomes, savings and assets for women;  Reduced alcohol abuse, gambling and domestic violence  Men involved in fetching water and firewood, cooking… ","tokenCount":"269"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d74702d5f0d1e29320526e6062a42f09","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7af06c2-fa31-4acb-b6e5-3a022e942947/retrieve","id":"1598395640"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b83dbf2a-fdd8-49dc-91d6-04b9f96572ff","pagecount":"17","content":"GOATS IN the tropics are kept under varying ecological conditions and greatly differing husbandry systems. Although managed in many rational ways, performance is highly influenced by a large number of environmental factors. Production objectives vary according to ecological conditions and the production system. Improved goat productivity is possible through better management and controlled breeding. Logical decisions on improvement strategies require accurate performance data and adequate information on the impact of systematic factors. Various methods of breed documentation or breed evaluation can be applied. While breed documentation is sufficient for better management and selective improvement, meaningful performance comparisons require simultaneous breed evaluation. Productivity characteristics are most important but parameters describing specific performance abilities also need consideration.Goats are widely distributed throughout the world, but are particularly associated with less favourable environments. Adaptive features such as feeding behaviour, efficient feed utilisation and, in part, disease tolerance enable goats to thrive on natural resources left untouched by other domestic ruminants. In marginal environments it is the only domestic species able to survive. Its biological features include an efficient reproductive system and a small body. These characteristics allow an easy adjustment of flock size to match the available resources, facilitate the integration of goats into small-scale production systems (low capital, low risk) and enable flexible production. Goats can serve two different functions in a development economy:This paper describes the role of goats in farming systems in tropical and subtropical regions, outlines methods used to evaluate their performance and provides information on how to conduct performance tests in the field.Goats form an integral, but rarely dominant, component of most farming systems in the tropics and subtropics (Winrock International, 1983). Although their importance is more pronounced at either end of the ecological gradient (arid to semi-arid and in the humid zones) than in more favourable environments, goats still play a part in almost every farming system (Table 1). Ecological conditions, feed resources and interactions with the cropping subsystem determine the goat management system. With only few exceptions, goats are allowed to range free in the arid zones, while in the subhumid and humid zones they are kept under more controlled conditions. During the day, these may vary from free range to tethering or stall feeding; at night, goats are kept in open camps or confined (Sumberg and Mack, 1985;Wilson et al, 1983). Flock sizes decline as ecological conditions improve and the importance of integrated crop-cattle production increases.Large-scale goat production is widespread in areas with a Mediterranean-type climate. Under tropical conditions it is limited to perennial crop systems such as the rubber plantations in Southeast Asia and cocoa plantations in West Africa (Peters et al, 1981;Peters and Horst, 1981). Even in pastoral areas, flocks of more than 100 goats are rare, but flocks of 20 to 30 are very common. In crop-livestock systems, flock size is negatively correlated to the importance of cropping, with each flock seldom having more than 20 goats (King et al, 1984;Wilson, 1983).In the transhumant systems, goats are kept mainly for milk. Meat is a product of almost every system, while fibre production is confined to systems in the arid and highland zones (Table 2).Flock structures appear to be very similar in all ecological zones and production systems, regardless of the primary objective of keeping goats. Wilson (1983) reported that, in general, flocks have about 75% total females or about 50% breeding females. Source: Based on Peters and Horst (1981).Goats are able to produce under greatly varying and frequently unfavourable environmental conditions. The most important adaptive features enabling them to adjust to the environment in which they are reared are feeding behaviour, body size and fleece structure (Table 3). Goats are not only able to select a high quality diet and to compensate for their limited rumination capacity; they also consume more plant species than other domestic livestock (Demment and van Soest, 1983). Their unique feeding behaviour allows them to overcome the effects of limited feed availability in dry areas and select palatable parts of plants with a high crude fibre content (e.g. fast-growing grasses in the humid zone).Another important adaptation of goats to ecological conditions is their variable body size. Goats inhabiting hot, humid environments have small bodies (dwarfs), while those living in dry environments or in areas with a wide diurnal temperature range usually have larger bodies (Horst, 1984). The combined effect of appropriate body size and feeding behaviour enables goats to withstand environmental stress and may be one reason for the relatively high disease tolerance attributed to goats under unfavourable environmental conditions.Fleece structure shows a remarkable association with environmental conditions. In the semi-arid to humid zones, short coats of coarse fibre enable goats to withstand high rates of radiation or humidity. Goats inhabiting the arid zones have long-haired, coarse-fibre fleeces to protect against heat during the day and cold at night. In the mountainous areas of central Asia, goats have a top coat of long coarse fibres and a seasonal undercoat of short, fine fibres to protect against extreme cold. Angora or mohair goats have long, white and wavy fleeces and live in mid-altitude (Turkey) and dry, high-altitude areas (Lesotho).In summary, ecological conditions, available feed resources and management systems may affect the productive adaptability of goat populations in specific environments. These factors must be regarded as covariates and must be established when testing goat performance.The performance abilities of goat breeds must be thoroughly understood before attempts are made to increase the productivity of these animals. The major objectives of evaluating breed performance are to: determine performance levels and specific adaptive abilities,  determine the environmental and genetic factors that cause variability in breed performance  compare the performances of different pure or crossbred breeds in the same environment.Goat performance can be evaluated by focusing on a single breed, or by comparing several pure or crossbred breeds under identical environmental conditions (Table 4). The first method allows the documentation of absolute performance by a given breed with particular physiological and genetic characteristics in a given environment. This information is useful to design management and breeding strategies for within-breed improvement through better husbandry and selective breeding. The second method enables a simultaneous evaluation of performance of different goat populations in a given environment, through the comparision of the relative merits of all the genotypes involved. Breed-type evaluation is particularly important to the success of crossbreeding programmes. Applicability: Necessary to identify more suitable breeds and useful genetic resources.The choice of method depends on such factors as the production system and its objectives. In traditional subsistence systems, improved management is needed rather than introduction of new genes; thus the appropriate method is breed documentation. For more intensive systems, however, comparative breed performance studies are needed to identify the best genotype available.Components of a performance test Horst's (1983) concept of 'productive adaptability' implies that phenotypical performance is the result of an animal's true genetic performance ability plus its specific ability to cope with such environmental stresses as disease and heat (Figure 1). The interactions of these factors shape the productive performance of a given breed, and it is important that both be considered before decisions are made on improvement strategies. The characteristics which must be taken into account when evaluating goat performance can be divided into three groups: productivity, specific performance ability and specific adaptation ability.Productivity is an important indicator of the overall, economically relevant performance ability, but also gives a first impression of specific performance abilities and their variability (Table 5). = FMP + (milk yield) 9Flock performance efficiency (FPE) FPE = FPP/doe weight 0.75 1 Expressed in meat equivalents; 1 kg of meat = 9 kg of milk.To understand the performance pattern for particular breed characteristics, and to provide the basis for genetic evaluation of each characteristic, detailed information about the specific performance ability of a breed is needed (Table 6). This group of characteristics includes fertility, lactation and growth, but also fibre yield and composition, skin structure and other related parameters. The usefulness of the criteria by which the specific adaptation ability of a genotype is judged is controversial (Horst, 1984). However, the between-breed differences of disease susceptibility and heat tolerance observed in sheep and cattle in tropical environments justify the inclusion of specific adaptation ability in performance evaluations, despite the uncertainty surrounding its mode of inheritance (Table 7).Other elements of a performance test, the genetic performance ability of a given breed and its specific adaptations, need to be studied in the controlled environment of an experiment station (Figure 2). Livestock on-station tests (LOSTs) facilitate accurate data collection and allow animals to be tested under different levels of production intensity. The significance of the results will depend on the degree of standardisation of the station conditions and on how closely they imitate the actual production environment.Livestock on-station tests are normally carried out with only a limited number of animals. They are complementary to the LOFTs in any performance evaluation, as both tests are needed to provide comprehensive data. LOFTS are undoubtedly the more important element, but their implementation is frequently hampered by a number of problems.In extensive goat production systems the main problems are mobility, an asynchronous production cycle and multiple outputs (Table 8), which can only be overcome by close monitoring of the flock. Access to flocks by the researcher depends largely on the cooperation of the owner, which can sometimes only be secured through direct incentives. If the test covers more than one production cycle, proper identification of individual animals and accurate breeding histories of tested animals are necessary. Normally, such information is obtained from the owners, but difficulties may arise when flocks have mixed ownership.In smallholder goat production systems, the average flock is larger than two does and thus is not a problem in performance testing. Single-buck flocks may pose a problem if buck performance were to be evaluated because the effects of individual flocks will have to be isolated from buck effects.Lastly, the performance characteristics of goats are affected by a number of covariates, including seasonal influences, feed availability, climatic variations, disease stress and population size. To be able to estimate these covariates, and make the necessary adjustments, a data base built up over at least 2 years is required.At any stage during breed evaluation studies the animals are exposed to a multitude of factors which affect their performance. The variability of these influences is especially high in field tests. ILCA's data from various ecological zones show that the coefficient of variation for the reproduction parameter of goats is about 35% and for growth 30% (Sumberg and Mack, 1985;Wilson and Durkin, 1983).Large test samples are required if the significant between-breed differences in performance are to be correctly identified. For example, if we expect the difference between the true performance and the sample mean not to exceed 5%, and if the test of significance is carried out on a single breed (one-tailed test), a minimum sample size of approximately 800 animals is needed (Table 9). Source: Cochran and Cox (1957).In addition, the sample must be adequately distributed over the different covariates in a given test area and must have a mating structure which makes it possible to estimate population parameters. For example, it must provide information on the number and distribution of bucks in flocks to avoid confounding buck-flock effects; the number of matings per buck to estimate heritability and genetic correlations using the half-sib covariance analysis; and it must include bucks that have been used for more than 1 year to avoid confounding buck-year effects.The implementation of field performance tests requires considerable planning. First, a schedule for flock visits is necessary to cover the production cycle (birth, weights at different ages, weaning, mating). The data collected on individual goats are then entered onto prepared field data sheets and transferred to coding sheets. Further handling of the data involves a number of steps (Trail and Durkin, 1982): enter data into a computer file;  validate data and, if necessary, correct;  calculate parameters (e.g. correction of weight to a given age);  identify logical subclasses for environmental and other systematic effects;  analyse data.Both breed documentation and comparative breed evaluation are performed using this process. For a breed evaluation, however, it is also necessary to have an experimental plan which fits the respective conditions of the management system and flock size. Two such plans were designed by SABRAO (1981;Turner, 1982) -the within-flock comparison and the grouped-flock comparison.For a within-flock comparison of indigenous breeds, at least four flocks of 100 breeding does each are required, two flocks of a particular breed designated as Ll and two of an L2 breed. The flocks are interchanged with an equal number of flocks comprising half L1 and L2 each. Figure 3 demonstrates within-flock comparison of six flocks from two local populations. The distribution of independent variables, such as environment and age of doe, should be similar for each flock. A certain degree of controlled mating per subherd facilitates the data recording process, and bucks should not serve in one herd only. Individual pedigrees are obtained only if individual coatings are recorded. Goats in each subherd are identified by coloured ear tags or ear notches; newborn kids are marked accordingly. Three consecutive progenies must be observed before a complete set of data is obtained on one generation. This can take up to 4 years if kidding intervals are as long as 12 months; if goats give birth every 8 months, the observation period is much shorter.Within-flock comparisons require large samples, and are therefore best carried out in pastoral and other range systems. The major drawback, however, is that animals must be moved in order to obtain composite flocks, and this seems feasible only under sedentary range or ranching management. Thus this method is less suitable for assessing goat performance than a grouped-flock comparison.This plan is carried out with a large number of paired flocks which may vary in size but are representative of a given breed in a given environment (Figure 4). An environment can include a whole agro-ecological zone, the production systems within an agro-ecological zone or villages within a production system. Controlled mating with bucks serving several flocks is a prerequisite, as well as a dynamic flock structure. There are other conditions that must be satisfied in group-flock comparisons: because of the large number of flocks studied in different environments, individual flocks must be properly identified, management practices must be controlled at least partially, and all covariates must be closely monitored. In smallholder systems where flocks may have five or fewer breeding does, about 120 flocks are required to obtain an adequate sample and ensure proper correction of covariates.Grouped-flock comparisons are particularly suitable to compare the effects of crossbreeding which is usually done by mating exotic bucks with local does or through artificial insemination.Simultaneous mating of half the doe herd with local bucks then provides a sound basis for a performance comparison between the two genetic groups.Evaluation of goat performance in the tropics must be approached systematically, but is expensive and requires considerable professional dedication. Unfortunately, at least one of these prerequisites is often lacking, and as a result few accurate data on goat performance are as yet available to introduce suitable improvement strategies.","tokenCount":"2521"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eafb5ec402320d4dc6ddf993b29a0c98","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042804.pdf","id":"1615987590"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a5c2732e-eb0a-4fda-8224-888560fd94e1","pagecount":"29","content":"Agriculture development has been the main strategy for the socioeconomic development in the country since time immemorial, even though its contribution to GDP has been declining recently. Successive governments of Sri Lanka since independence have invested heavily in the irrigated agriculture sector to address the food security concerns of the country. The continuous investment in irrigation was required to address problems such as spatial and temporal variations in monsoonal rainfall in the country, which has a serious negative impact on food production and livelihoods of people. The need for pursuing irrigation development and management has become more important in the country in the face of rapid population growth and increasing food prices in the world market.In this context, managing irrigation schemes for productivity increase is becoming increasingly important and different irrigation management models have also emerged through attempts made in this direction by countries including Sri Lanka, where irrigation plays a leading role in food production and nation development. Farmers' active involvement in irrigation management, especially operation and maintenance (O&M) and decision-making as well, has been identified as a key requirement to attain productivity goals and the sustainability of irrigation systems.This paper aims at reviewing participatory irrigation management approaches adopted in medium and major irrigation systems in Sri Lanka with a view to identifying their past and present trends and future directions. The review will contribute to an improved understanding by policymakers, managers of irrigation schemes and farmers of the role of participatory irrigation management, its past and present including institutional structures, responsibilities and performance and the directions it should take to meet future challenges as a dynamic institutional mechanism. As all the medium and major irrigation schemes in the country are 36 K. Jinapala, Lal Premadasa, P. G. Somaratne and M. Samad jointly managed by farmers and government agencies, the inferences drawn from the review would be important for the agencies and farmers alike to introduce necessary changes in their programs to address future needs and requirements.The analysis of this paper is mainly based on information obtained from IWMI/HARTI conducted research. The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Hector Kobbakaduwe Agrarian Research and Training Institute (HARTI) carried out a 3-year monitoring and evaluation study during 1992 to 1994 covering a significant number of irrigation schemes that are managed with PIM approaches. The irrigation schemes managed by the Irrigation Department (ID) (medium and large irrigation schemes) and the Mahaweli Authority managed schemes were selected for the study. The PIM approach in large irrigation schemes is known as the Integrated Management of Major Irrigation Settlement Schemes (INMAS) program and the medium schemes are managed by a program called Management of Irrigation Systems (MANIS). This study adopted several methods for data collection from several irrigation schemes in these three programs, while six irrigation schemes from the three programs were selected for documenting the process of irrigation management during the entire study period. Process documentation in each scheme was carried out by a full time stationed research assistant in the specific irrigation scheme. Research officers of IWMI and HARTI carried outThe objective of this paper is to analyze the adoption of the Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) approach in the country, and suggest some strategic directions for this institutional mechanism for the further improvement of its effectiveness to face the ongoing and future challenges in irrigation management.In achieving the main objective of the paper, three aspects of PIM will be addressed. As a first step of the analyses, the evolution of PIM is briefly reviewed. The current progress of the PIM approaches in managing irrigation schemes is summarized in step two.Step three involves the analysis of likelihood challenges for the PIM approach to be further progressed and sustained in the long run.In this context the paper is organized into five sections: In the second section (followed by the introductory section) titled 'The Methodolgy' describes the evolution of PIM in Sri Lanka. The third section titled 'Performance of PIM in Sample Irrigation Schemes Studied' provides key information on the progress/outcomes of the PIM approach in managing irrigation schemes. The challenges being faced and also to be faced in the future are discussed in section 4 titled 'Assessment of Irrigation Management under PIM'. The final section, section 5 titled 'Conclusions and Recommendations' suggests some strategic directions to make PIM approaches sustainable and more progressive.recurrent surveys in 18 schemes covering 30 farmer organizations (FOs). Finally, a large-scale questionnaire survey was carried out in 49 irrigation schemes from the three programs covering 172 FOs.The key components of PIM were assessed based on certain criteria and indicators. These indicators were used to assess the progress, outcomes and impacts of irrigation schemes that are managed through PIM. Since there are no common or universally accepted criteria and indicators to measure the performance of PIM, these indicators would provide objectively verifiable values for the readers interested to know the progress of the PIM approach used for managing irrigation schemes. Three different indicator values were developed to measure the conceptual base, performance and outcome of different components of PIM. Different aspects are used to develop conceptual base, performance and outcome indicators under six different criteria as summarized in Table 1. The detail scoring system used for measuring the values of each indicator is shown in Annex 1. The main purpose of the criteria and indicators developed was to apply them in assessing the degree of achievement in the objectives of PIM. The government expected the achievement of two primary objectives from PIM policy when it was formally passed in 1988 in a cabinet paper. These primary objectives were to improve the productivity of irrigation systems and the reduction of government costs of the routine O&M of irrigation system management. The government expected to achieve these two objectives by enhancing farmer involvement/ contribution in irrigation system management and also implementing strategies for both farmers and irrigation managers to work together in the planning and implementation of irrigation management functions in the systems. The indicators under each criterion have a logical sequence to measure the effectiveness of different components of the PIM model in achieving enhanced performance of irrigation system management. The usefulness of the six criteria applied for the assessment is depicted in Figure 1. Participatory irrigation management (PIM) that was formally accepted as a policy in 1988 has a long history. The small irrigation systems (small tanks and anicut systems) were originally constructed by communities as a reliable source of water for their agricultural land as they are completely dependant on rainfall. Therefore, small irrigation systems can be regarded as farmermanaged systems historically. Even the major irrigation systems constructed by ancient kings had some farmer involved management systems. This is because water distribution in canals cannot be done without the participation of farmers.The Government of Sri Lanka after independence attempted to intervene in irrigated agriculture system to enhance its productivity. The series of government interventions later became the participatory irrigation management policy accepted by the government by a cabinet paper in 1988. All the major historical events had a basis for their government-sponsored implementation, whether such a basis was due to political or economical reasons. The major events leading to changing irrigation management are summarized below.The Paddy Land Act, No. 1 of 1958 established cultivation committees replacing the traditional 'Velvidane System'. This committee consisted of elected farmer representatives and was responsible for the resolution of land disputes, coordination of rice cultivation activities and distribution of water. Irrigation committees were established in irrigation schemes. The 'Velvidane' (normally a land owner) was elected in each village tank system by cultivators. The village headman arranged a meeting with cultivators to elect the Velvidane. He was mainly responsible for water distribution, maintenance and conflict resolution. The role of the Velvidane existed from ancient times and was abolished in 1958. However, after 1958 up to recent times farmers unofficially accepted this position for water management in small irrigation systems.The Agricultural Productivity Act of 1972 abolished cultivation committees and established agricultural productivity committees.The Agrarian Services Act of 1979 established agrarian services committees with the Cultivation Officer to be responsible in cultivation matters at the village level. These committees comprised farmer representatives and government officials. Velvidanes at the local level assisted Cultivation Officers to perform water management tasks in small irrigation systems.The Gal Oya Left Bank Rehabilitation Project was implemented during 1979-1982 to rehabilitate the physical system, but it recognized the need for farmer participation. The Cornell University and Agrarian Research and Training Institute (ARTI) developed a model for a federation of farmers' organizations at district hydrological areas. Institutional Organizers (IOs) were employed to help farmers to form FC groups, DC organizations and project management committees.Mr. N. G. R. De Silva, the Deputy Director of Irrigation in charge of the region of Kandy rehabilitated the irrigation system in Minipe, and also set up water management committees to increase farmer participation in decision-making. Farmer representatives were selected for these committees. Also a non-governmental organization, National Heritage Program (NHP) and influential local persons were used to educate farmers about the importance of farmer participation.Mr. A. M. S. S. Gunadasa, Technical Assistant of the Kimbulawana Oya Scheme, employed farmers to engage in rehabilitation activities. He also prepared a rotation system to save water and implemented it with farmer participation. A Water Issue Board was set up to prepare water allocation schedules and farmer representatives were active members in this committee.During 1983 to 1986, several rehabilitation projects were implemented in the country, which encouraged farmer participation in rehabilitation work and then in post rehabilitation O&M work. Two significant rehabilitation projects included the Major Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (1983) and the Irrigation System Management Project (1986). The Mahaweli Agriculture and Rural Development Project (MARD) was also commenced in System B of the Mahaweli Project and catalysts designated as Irrigation Community Organizers (ICOs) were employed to develop farmer organizations.In April 1984 the Irrigation Management Division (IMD) was established for the implementation of the Integrated Management of Major Agricultural System (INMAS) in 25 major irrigation systems. A batch of Project Managers was trained and stationed in each system to form farmer organizations and project management committees. In 1987, management of Irrigation System (MAINS) similar to INMAS in terms of objectives was implemented by the ID to establish farmer organizations and project management committees in about 175 medium systems. Technical Assistants were appointed as Project Managers.The Government of Sri Lanka formally approved and accepted the policy for participatory irrigation management by a Cabinet Paper in 1988. The turnover of O&M responsibilities and transfer of ownership of irrigation canals and structures to farmer organization were accepted as major objectives.In 1990, the Irrigation Management Policy Support Activity (IMPSA) was initiated by the Ministry of Land and Land Development in association with the Ministry of Agriculture and International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI as IWMI was known as at that time) to prepare strategies and guidelines for the implementation of the PIM policy approved by the government. In 1991 the Agrarian Services Act was amended to grant legal recognition to farmer organizations. In 1992 under the National Irrigation Rehabilitation Project, the management of irrigation systems was handed over to farmer organizations after physical rehabilitation. Farmers were also involved in planning and implementing O&M activities in addition to their labor contributions. The Irrigation Ordinance was amended in 1994 to grant more power and responsibilities to registered farmer organizations including the management of distributory canal areas in major schemes and collection of O&M fees.PIM has brought significant changes to irrigation management and some changes have been institutionalized with the effect that the need for farmers to participate in irrigation management has become a 'must' in irrigation management. Most of the essential functions in irrigation management are managed differently in the participatory system. The changes occurred as a result of PIM are in Table 2. Present Status and Future -Review of Participatory Irrigation Management in Sri LankaThree different management systems have been introduced to manage irrigation schemes under the participatory approach, these include:• The integrated management of major agricultural systems (INMAS), which was introduced in 1984 to manage major irrigation systems (irrigation schemes that have a command area greater than 400 ha) under the Irrigation Department. The Irrigation Management Division (IMD) created by the Ministry of Irrigation is responsible for the INMAS system in implementing about 35 irrigation schemes in the country.• MANIS (Management of Irrigation System) introduced in 1986 by the Irrigation Department to manage the medium (schemes that have less than 400 ha of command) irrigation schemes of the country.• The Mahaweli Participatory Management Program was established in different years in different schemes (for example, 1980(for example, in system 'H', 1985(for example, in Udawalawa, 1987 in system 'B'). There are four large irrigation schemes under the Mahaweli System (121,000 ha in total under four systems).The objectives of PIM tested in all these three systems are more or less similar. The short-term and long-term objectives of the PIM are summarized in Table 3. The performance of the major components of PIM is used as the basis for assessment. These components include farmer organizations, joint management committee systems and turnover of irrigation management to farmer organizations. It was assumed that greater performance of these components would be needed to contribute to the overall performance of the irrigation schemes and achieving the objective of the PIM system.In almost all the sample irrigation schemes studied by IWMI and HARTI it was found that the farmers have been mobilized into Farmer Organizations. The structure prescribed by PIM (FC groups, DC groups, System-level FOs) has not been followed exactly in some of the irrigation schemes of MANIS. This was mainly due to the lack of inputs needed for MANIS schemes to help farmers organize in to FOs. The INMAS and Mahaweli irrigation schemes have separate organization units to deal with farmer organization whereas MANIS schemes are managed by technical assistants of the ID without other additional assistance. Even in the Mahaweli scheme, system-level farmer organizations have not been established, perhaps because such higher level organization don't require farmer organization given that the system level needs of farmers are handled by the system level joint committees. This may be the reason for INMAS irrigation schemes also neglected to organize farmers into system level organizations (system-level farmer organization (SLFO) were formed in 58 % of the schemes in INMAS and 20 % of the MANIS schemes). The participation of individual farmers as members and their active involvement of the farmer organization are essential factors for FOs to survive and function as effective organizations. Table 4 indicates the total number of farmers of the command area under each irrigation scheme of the three systems assessed in the study, the percentage of members, and the active members in the organizations. These data show the essential elements of these organizations if they are to be sustained as community-based organizations.Finding leaders committed and also acceptable to most of the farmer members is a difficult task according to the qualitative information collected in the study. Therefore, the farmer members tend to be satisfied with the available leaders who are prepared to work on a voluntary basis. Although most of the farmers have certain personal opinions in the survey they have expressed that they are satisfied with the voluntary leaders of FOs. For example, 82 % farmers interviewed in INMAS schemes, 75 % in MANIS, and 80 % in the Mahaweli scheme stated that they are satisfied with their leaders. Most of the FOs except a few organizations in the Mahaweli scheme had small FO funds. It was discovered that in all the schemes, there was always a considerable percentage of FOs that had no funds in their bank accounts. For example 80 % of the FOs in the INMAS, 90 % in MANIS and 95 % in the Mahaweli scheme were reported as organizations having some funds in their bank accounts. The average funds available in the FOs of irrigation schemes in the three programs ranged from Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 40,000.Nearly 80 % or more of the FOs collected membership fees. But only less than 50 % of the FOs earned money from the construction contracts that were undertaken. Majority of general farmers expressed in the survey that they are satisfied with the method applied for managing funds. This high-level of satisfaction is due to two reasons: the money that each individual farmer contributes for the FO fund is small, and they appreciate the volunteer work done by their fellow farmers. More than 80 % of the individual farmers mentioned that their organizations keep books and follow other rules of financial management.In the INMAS and Mahaweli systems more than 75 % of the farmer organizations held monthly meetings with their committee members, while 47 % did so in the MANIS system. Most of the farmer leaders reported that they have a lower number of general farmer meetings. The general farmer meetings are held when there is a conflict between farmers. Only about 10 % to 32 % of farmer leaders mentioned that they hold general meetings. In the MANIS system, only about 15 % or less hold their general meetings.Farmer organizations play a critical role in water distribution at the DC level of all the irrigation schemes. The results of the study indicate that farmer involvement is much more relevant and essential in irrigation schemes where water is a scarce resource. The water distribution problems are due to five different reasons according to the study. These reasons and their magnitude in sample schemes studied are shown in Table 5.Farmer organizations as an institution established by irrigation managers with the willingness of the farmers have become an essential element for water distribution. Nearly 74 % of irrigation officers who were interviewed in sample irrigation schemes categorically mentioned that farmer organizations are essential to manage water in irrigation schemes. However, there are some problems with the water distribution performance of the farmer organizations. This is due to the varying levels of performance of the FOs. The level of satisfaction of individual farmers with the performance of FOs in water distribution was measured by asking whether farmers are satisfied on the FO performance, and Table 6 includes the percentage of farmers who replied \"yes\" to several indicators of water delivery.  The FO performance of irrigation infrastructure maintenance in general is poor according to the information generated by the study. Maintenance is difficult to organize with the voluntary participation of the farmers. If the canal becomes really constrained to take water to the agriculture fields, farmers are tempted to attend to the maintenance. Where such a critical stage has not been reached, it needs repeated attempts to mobilize farmers at least to clean the distributory canals (DCs). In INMAS schemes, only 33 % of the irrigation officials and, in MANIS, 20 % of the officials were satisfied with the FO performance in the maintenance of the canals that the FOs were supposed to oversee. Mahaweli officers indicated that they were satisfied with farmer participation in DC maintenance, but this may have been mainly due to Mahaweli Authority involvement in such maintenance. The officers' views on the impact of participatory management on tertiary canal maintenance are shown in Table 7. Lack of farmer participation is a common phenomenon observed in DC maintenance. It is difficult to get 100 % farmer involvement in any event organized by the farmer organizations for DC maintenance activities. This is evident in the data collected from farmer leaders on the involvement of farmers in DC maintenance as shown in Table 8. It was observed that jungle cleaning and de-silting of distributory canals are performed by FOs with the participation of the individual farmers, but minor repairs of the DCs are done by the FOs with the annual operation and maintenance funds provided by the government to each FO. There are some performance differences in de-silting and jungle cleaning, but it is at a satisfactory level according to the survey.It was observed that FO performance in business activities to earn funds for FOs is at a poor level. Most of the FOs are involved in agriculture input sales to their members and also undertake operation and maintenance contracts from the government. Table 9 includes the results of the survey on the performance of FOs in undertaking non-O&M fund earning activities. Table 10 includes the information on percentages of FOs undertaking different contracts from the irrigation management agencies on DC maintenance and rehabilitation.Providing credit to farmers has been observed as an insignificant assistance provided by the FOs to the individual farmer members. Some FOs provide direct credit to their members and others act as guarantors for the farmers to obtain credit from banks and other organizations. The data in Table 11 indicate its insignificant nature in the sample farmer organizations.   In all the irrigation schemes under the three programs, joint management committees or at least some arrangements for joint meetings have been established to provide a forum for different stakeholders and also to farmer leaders to meet together to discuss significant activities of cultivation programs in the particular irrigation scheme. These committees, especially project management committees, play a critically important role in the planning of cultivation seasons (seasonal planning) and also in the monitoring and evaluation of the cultivation program and also some other functions of irrigation management. Each irrigation scheme of the INMAS system has a 'Project Management Committee' comprising key stakeholder agencies and representatives of farmer organizations. This committee is organized by the project manager in IMD. The same structure can be observed in MANIS schemes although IMD is not involved in the management functions of the MANIS system, and technical assistants of the Irrigation Department act as the project managers in this system. Mahaweli has a three-tier Joint Management Committee (JMC) system. The JMCs have been established based on the Mahaweli management structure. The lowest level of the Mahaweli management structure is the unit and, therefore, unit management committees have been organized at the unit level.The second tier is block management committees established at administrative blocks of the Mahaweli management structure. A project management committee is the highest JMC that is based at the Resident Project Manger Level (Scheme Level).The consultative seasonal planning procedure established by the joint management committees has led to two benefits to the farmers and also agency officers. The farmers benefited by voicing their concerns about the seasonal plans. The agencies benefited by learning from farmer experience for improved seasonal planning. The monthly meetings of JMCs have helped to give effect to the basic principals of participatory management such as frequent dialogue between stakeholders, learning from each other and seeking solutions jointly and effectively.The JMC is not a management unit responsible for the performance of the system. JMCs can design plans and discuss various problems existing in irrigation systems, but the success in implementing these plans is heavily dependent on the performance of functional agencies and their officials. For example, the PMCs in INMAS can design various plans, but unless the Department of Agriculture, the Irrigation Department, the Land Commissioners Department and the Irrigation Management Division play their relevant roles, these plans cannot be realized. On the other hand, farmer organizations also play a key role in implementing the decisions of JMCs. Some FOs become ineffective due to their inability to implement decisions in the field through the farmers. It can, therefore, be stated that the success of the JMCs in implementing plans is heavily dependent also on the strength of the FOs.Under the participatory management policy of the government, it is intended to turnover some of the system management responsibilities at and below the DC level to farmers. Before this became government policy, some attempts had been made to implement this policy informally in certain schemes such as Kimbulwanaoya and Minipe, through the efforts of a few enthusiastic irrigation officials. Turnover was later initiated in other schemes under the three programs that we studied, namely INMAS, MANIS and Mahaweli. The cabinet paper adopting this policy specially stated that those farmers who accept responsibility for the turnover under O&M for DCs will be exempted from paying of irrigation fees. The amended Irrigation Ordinance authorizes FOs to takeover the O&M of their areas and in return they are exempted from paying irrigation fees.Turnover has occurred in the three study programs at various levels and in different forms. In the sample irrigation schemes that were studied, several categories of turnover have taken place under operation and maintenance. Operation of FC and DC gates and other main system level canals have taken place under operations and DC jungle clearing, de-silting, minor repairs, greasing and painting of structures and main canal level cleaning and de-silting have taken place under the maintenance category.Slow progress is reported on turnover in the three programs we studied. Table 12 includes the information on sample FOs reported as turned-over and responsibilities turned over in the FOs. At present the operation of FC gated and jungle clearing and the de-silting of DCs are the major activities taken over by FOs. Whether paid or not, farmers now clearly know that certain operating and maintenance responsibilities will be handed over to them. What is now necessary to decide on is how turnover can be continued so that both agencies and farmers will know what the goal of the program is.The study found that water distribution has improved due to turnover and that DC and FC maintenance has not suffered from turnover. The study also found that farmers can affect turnover as long as the profitability of irrigated agriculture dose not fall. Full turnover would mean that FOs are given the full responsibility for O&M below the DC head or an equivalent point in systems without DCs. Full responsibility would include paying all of the cost, and there would be no subsidies beyond those provided in the O&M of the main system. The arguments in favor of full turnover include:• Making farmers completely responsible for the maintenance of distributory canals and below, clarifies and simplifies responsibilities. At the moment, some FOs perform only the maintenance work they are paid for and others do not undertake repairs even if they are well within the farmers capability, and instead try to get the government to make the repairs. Once responsibilities are clarified, this would not happen.• Complete turnover will make it possible for the agencies to focus their attention on the maintenance of the main system and may improve the sustainability of the systems as a whole.• Complete turnover means that financing the maintenance of distributaries and below will not be subject to problems of public finance.The current situation is unsatisfactory because some farmers continue to expect government assistance that is only intended to be partially provided. It has been found that full turnover in operation responsibilities for DCs and below to FOs would be possible, and even now it is taking place successfully in many irrigation schemes. The problem is maintenance. This evaluation suggests alternatives mentioned below to convey full turnover of responsibilities to FOs.• Alternative 1 (low technical financial burden on farmers) o FOs would take complete responsibility for jungle cleaning and de-silting (except when the silt is exceptionally heavy) for both FC and DC. As pointed out, FOs are already doing this and farmers have come to accept it.• Alternative 2 (low technical moderate financial burden on farmers)o FOs would take complete responsibility for jungle clearing and de-silting (except when the silt is exceptionally heavy) for both FOs and DCs o FOs would take responsibility for painting, greasing, etc.o FOs would take responsibility for small earth work repairs.o All other work, including heavy de-silting and major earth work would be the responsibility of the ID.• Alternative 3 (moderate technical financial burden of farmers)o FOs would take complete responsibility for jungle clearing and de-silting (except when the silt is exceptionally heavy) for both FCs and DCs o FOs would take responsibility for painting, greasing etc o FOs would take responsibility for small earth repairs o FOs would take responsibility for simple structural repairs o All other work, including heavy de-silting, major earth work, and large or complicated structure repairs, would be the responsibility of the irrigation agency.Participatory management policy has clearly succeeded in getting farmers much more involved in system management than they were in the past, apart from some of the MANIS systems that were studied that had been neglected by the irrigation agencies. However, turnover has not progressed as expected in two different ways:• On the one hand, fewer than expected agreements have been reached in all the programs. Only the INMAS program has made much progress in achieving some form of turnover, although the MEA is now seriously trying to make turnover work. There has been very little progress in the MANIS schemes, although the NIRP mandated turnover in its post rehabilitation phase.• On the other hand, full turnover has not occurred in any of the three systems and progress has stopped at a joint management stage. In particular, there is reluctance on the part of both agencies and farmers to have the full responsibilities for maintenance turned over to the FOs. Payments continue to be made by agencies for O&M activities to FOs that have taken over responsibilities, either informally or formally.As explained in the methodology, the performance of six aspects of PIM was measured using the scoring system that was developed. The details of the scoring system used for the assessment are shown in Annex 1. The intensive data collected using recurrent surveys and process documentation methods was used to calculate the scores obtained by sample FOs in different irrigation schemes under the three programs. The potential scores for each indicator area and the average scores, and also the range actually obtained by different programs studied, are summarized in Table 13. The scores obtained by each sample FO studied using recurrent survey and process documentations in the three programs are shown in Annex 2. The major conclusion is that, despite its partial failure to achieve some of the main goals, participatory management has clear benefits and should be continued and supported. Also, basic participatory management of formal multifunctional farmer organizations and joint management committees should be continued. At the end of the IMII/HARTI study a national workshop was held to discuss the study results and recommendations were made for strengthening PIM policy. It is found that most of these main recommendations are still realistically valid to improve the PIM in the present context.The IMII/HARTI team recommended that steps be taken to make government agencies dealing with agriculture more responsive and more supportive of farmer organizations and joint management committees. These steps include:• Each agency should redefine the job descriptions of its officers to reflect the tasks and attitudes needed to provide explicit support for farmer organizations and joint management committees. This redefinition should make certain activities mandatory, including attendance at JMC meetings and providing technical assistance and advice to FOs and JMCs. In particular, the job descriptions of Technical Assistants/ Project Managers (TAs/PMs) in MANIS schemes should be redefined to ensure that the TAs/ PMs have the time and motivation to play their roles as 'Project Managers' effectively.(Workshop) An Inter-agency committee may be set up to redefine job descriptions.• Intensive training should be provided to government officers in all relevant agencies about their roles and functions with respect to farmer organizations and joint management committees, and about the rights and responsibilities of the FOs and JMCs.• In order to ensure that officers act in supportive ways, their performance in supporting farmer organizations and joint management committees may be made an explicit part of their performance evaluations.• The government may make it a policy to support farmer organization and JMC decisions. This may mean delegating greater authority to local agencies so that they can respond effectively to JMC decisions. It also means that government officers should support farmer organization decisions against complaints from individual members.• (Workshop) The Secretaries of Irrigation and Agriculture may issue a joint declaration of the participatory management policy. The policy should be widely publicized through various media.• A major effort may be made to publicize among the farmers the rights and responsibilities of farmer organizations and joint management committees as defined in by-laws to the amended Agrarian Services Act and in the amended Irrigation Ordinance.• (Workshop) Farmers should be consulted about any future amendments to the relevant legal acts.• (Workshop) Regular monitoring and evaluation of the progress of the policy should be undertaken. An annual workshop may be held as a routine task to review the performance of the irrigation management policy activities.• (Workshop) Farmer organizations should be made responsible for the safety of structures and protecting reservations from encroachments and damage.• Jungle clearing and regular de-silting of DCs and FCs or their equivalents should be made the unambiguous sole responsibility of farmer organizations; no funds should be provided to farmers for this activity.• The government should come to a decision about how much it is willing to subsidize other aspects of distributory canal and FC maintenance, including painting and greasing of metal controls, major and minor earthworks such as the repairs of scours and washouts, and repair of concrete and masonry structures.• (Workshop) Once the basic decision about the obligations of farmer organizations and government are worked out at the national level, specific subsidies and subsidy levels should be worked out at the scheme level based on an assessment of needs. These subsidies can include salaries, equipment, operation funds and others.• The mechanism for providing subsidies should be defined. There are several alternatives ranging from giving the irrigation agency full responsibility and the necessary funds to making the FOs responsible but giving them a simple annual cash grant may not be advisable• The government should define a period of time by the end of which the transfer of responsibilities must be accomplished. No more than 5 years should be reqired, following the completion of needed repairs, to complete the transfer to FOs. During this period, a time of 'joint management' should be defined during which the agency officers supervise and assist the farmer organizations in undertaking responsibilities.As a part of the study, the IWMI/HARTI team documented the monitoring and evaluation systems being used by the implementing agencies, interviewed managers about their information needs, developed indicators of key characteristics of farmer organization and joint management committee performance, and tested these in the field in an experiment in improved monitoring. At present, the IMD uses the Monitoring, Evaluation and Feedback (ME&F) System. A major problem is that many FO office-bearers do not prepare the required monthly reports. The ME&F system has now been introduced in INMAS schemes. In the ID managed MANIS schemes various formal and informal initiatives are underway, the most important of which may be the establishment of Irrigation Management Cells (IMACs) in each range office; one of whose functions is monitoring institutional development activities. MEAs Institutional Development Unit (IDU) collects data and reports on various aspects of participatory management.To help provide quantifiable measures for the purpose of monitoring and evaluating participatory management, the IIMI/ARTI team developed and tested a set of indicators for:• FO (Farmer Organization) Strength• FO Maintenance Performance• JMC (Joint-management Committee) Performance These are given in Annex 1. Properly used, the indicators provide a reasonably accurate way to measure FO and JMC progress. To provide an objective way to evaluate the strength and performance of FOs before considering them for turnover, the study team suggested a first approximation of minimum acceptable percentage scores for turnover. These numbers can be refined over time as more experience is gained in rating FOs and JMCs.The study team believed that the government should have an effective way of keeping track of the progress of FOs, JMCs and turnover. Based on these experiences and findings, they recommended:1. The IMD could consider the idea that FOs will be interested in collecting data for themselves and for the IMD.2. That the ID considers developing a recurrent survey-type monitoring program for MANIS schemes based in the IMACs.Annex 2  ","tokenCount":"5990"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"494062cff04d4539852d82069764028c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/48679466-ade3-4b38-9523-50d1ba20df21/retrieve","id":"-92957612"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cc725b72-4fdd-4ef2-a90d-2bde5a166c39","pagecount":"34","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim research on the scaling of climate services and climatesmart agriculture in Africa, to stimulate feedback from the scientific community.The document has been produced within the frame of \"Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project (AICCRA\". The Project aims to strengthen the capacity of targeted CCAFS (CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security) partners and stakeholders, and to enhance access to climate information services and validated climate-smart agriculture technologies in the eligible countries in Africa. In Ghana, AICCRA is implemented by various CGIAR institutions and NGOs led by the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Benin. In strengthening the capacity of key stakeholders strived to take to scale the promising climate smart crops practices. The stakeholders include farmers, extension services, development agencies (e.g. NGO), private sector, researchers, and governmental agencies.Agriculture plays a crucial role in contributing to socio-economic development of Ghana accounting for over 45.38% of the total workforce even though its share is decreasing by 1% since 2009 at the benefit of service sector. Besides, the agricultural sector contributes to food security and to 20% gross domestic production (GDP) (Nyamekye et al. 2021). The main crops include yams, grains (cowpea, groundnut, soybean, maize, sorghum, millet, and rice), cocoa, oil palms, kola nuts, banana and pineapple and timber thus significantly contributing to economic growth through exports of some these crops (Siaw et al. 2018). Unfortunately, this agriculture is predominantly rainfed therefore affected by changing climatic conditions that pose significant threat to its growth and to that the whole economy of the country (Antwi-Agyei et al. 2012;Siaw et al. 2018;Chemura et al. 2020). Furthermore, projected climatic conditions indicate a decrease in optimal suitability for most crops in a country (Ray et al. 2015;Chemura et al. 2020). This trend is due to the rainfed nature of agriculture which depends on the climatic conditions of an area. To address this issue, climate smart agriculture has been promoted as an adaptation strategy to climate change in Africa (Barasa et al. 2021). In West Africa, regional stakeholders have partnered to develop CSA options using Participatory Action Research (PAR) approach within the frame of the Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) program of CGIAR (Zougmore et al., 2016;Bayala et al., 2016Bayala et al., , 2017Bayala et al., , 2021;;Partey et al., 2018).Even if the concept of CSA integrates the use of climate information in addition other improved agronomic practices, little attention has been paid in understanding the linkages between the use of weather and climate information services and the adoption of other practices (Simelton et al. 2019;Djido et al. 2021). This is despite the efforts deployed in West Africa to use climate information as an entry point for promoting CSA through PICSA trainings and with the support of Esoko for message dissemination in Ghana (Etwire et al. 2017;Dayamba et al. 2018;Clarkson et al. 2019;Bayala et al. 2021). The assumption was that bundling of CIS and CSA will capacitate farmers to make right decisions that fit their context to reduce yield loss and improve livelihood. The lack of connectivity is even greater between CIS, CSA, and one-health concept highlighted by the AICCRA Ghana project.Indeed, climate change affects agricultural communities worldwide in several ways including the occurrence, prevalence, and severity of crop pests and diseases. Projected climate disturbances are expected to further affect the interactions between crops and pathogens. This calls for new ways of managing pests and diseases that will combine their treatments with other farming practices (Zayan, 2019). Indeed, climate change contributes to a larger spread of crop pests and diseases as their population size, survival rate, and geographic dispersion can all be impacted by this phenomenon (Skendžić et al., 2021). Temperatures and precipitations levels encourage the growth and dissemination of most pest species by creating a warm, humid environment and supplying the moisture they require for growth (Bebber et al., 2013). Similar trends have also been reported for diseases like fungus (Radhakrishnan et al. 2019).To address the above-mentioned issues, the bundling approach of climate information and onehealth advisory services, we have started with training sessions on PICSA (Participatory and Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture) and ENACTS (Enhancing National Climate Services) for the obvious links between these two tools. While PICSA approach consists of new participatory and information tools based on historical and current climate data to improve the management of climate risks by farmers and their resilience to the negative impact of climate variabilities and changes, ENACTS initiative aims to improve data availability by filling spatial and temporal gaps in climate observation through combination of national data with satellite proxies, offering a mean of addressing historical climate information needed for PICSA approach.This was associated with a field aiming at showing the relationship between pest and disease incidence on crop (tomato) and climatic variability including rainfall and temperature patterns. This was meant to help forecasting or modelling the impact of climate change on key pests and diseases of tomato in Ghana and ultimately elaborating PICSA module related to CSPM. Tomato (Lycopersicom esculanta) is an important crop in most west African countries selected as priority value chain for AICCRA Ghana project. This is because of its use in most traditional and exotic dishes. It is also one of the crops of economic importance since many households depend on it for their livelihoods.Since 2015, ICRAF is engaged to build the capacity on PICSA approach and awareness rising for climate information use, and the development of tools and methods to support stakeholders track progress in CSA and improve the effectiveness of programming and scaling up and out CSA practices for improved farmers' resilience in Africa. PICSA approach was developed to help farmers to make plans and decisions for their individual contexts by utilizing climate and weather information together with participatory decision-making tools (Figure 1). The approach is based on the analysis of livelihood activities by smallholder farmers in the light of climate information of their locality including historical weather data as well as seasonal and short-term forecasts. Based on all these elements farmers can make risk assessments and take decisions to improve their production and meet their objectives.It relies on participatory tools such as graphs generated from historical climate data (for at least 30 years) specific to a given site that are not part of the usual products provided by National Meteorological Services. The analysis of the graphs enables farmers (along with field staff) to explore the characteristics of the climate in their location and to identify implications for agricultural planning and decision making e.g. which crops and varieties are most likely to succeed given the amounts of rainfall received in seasons, exactly how is the climate changing and what enterprises and agricultural practices are likely to be most successful. Other participatory tools include resource allocation maps, seasonal calendars, participatory budget analysis.According to its workplan for AICCRA Ghana, ICRAF/SAHEL has organized one training session for key actors involving in AICCRA project in Ghana. About 19 participants including two women have attended the training of trainers for implementing the Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA) approach, in Kumasi, Ghana from June 14 to 18, 2021.Participants came from various institutions and NGOs including Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet), the Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (CABI), the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) of Ghana, ESOKO, an agricultural profiling and messaging service, the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Benin, West African Science Service Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL) Togo, the University of Development Studies of Tamale (UDS), and Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate (PPRSD) from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA). PICSA was developed by the University of Reading and its partners in the framework of a CCAFS project, and then taken to scale and adapting widely in West Africa by CIFOR-ICRAF/SAHEL since 2015.The training aimed to strengthen the capacity of key actors engaged in the implementation of AICCRA project in Ghana, as trainers of trainers, by providing them with new participatory and information tools based on historical and current climate data to improve the management of climate risks by farmers and their resilience to the negative impact of climate variabilities and changes. PICSA goes beyond climate prediction; farmers begin long before the start of the season to explore various options based on historical climate information relevant for their locality. This involves using participatory planning tools to help them understanding the climate information, analyzing their livelihood options (cropping, livestock keeping, tree crop planting) and making adequate decisions to improve their production specific to their localities and options for agriculture, animal / fishery production and other locally relevant livelihood options. On the fourth day, participants went to Dognyna near Kumasi and met about 50 farmers to practice some of the tools learnt on PICSA approach.At the end of the training, on the last day, AICCRA Ghana team has discussed and established plans to conduct various activities for PICSA training to capacitate extension staffs so that they can roll out the approach to the project beneficiary farmers. They also decided to create a network for promoting and scaling PICSA in Ghana through extensive sensitization (authorities as well as farmers) and rising awareness for the importance and efficient use of climate information in Ghana The implementation of PICSA approach is also being constrained by lack of historical climate records in some localities due to the poor special coverage of automatic weather stations. The \"Enhancing National Climate Services (ENACTS)\" initiative of IRI aiming to improve data availability by filling spatial and temporal gaps in climate observation through combination of national data with satellite proxies, offers a mean of potentially addressing this. Thus, two representatives of GMet were invited to participate to ENACTS Merging workshop for improving their capacity to produce relatively good quality climate data through the merging of ground based and satellite data, in Dakar from June 28 to July 2, 2021. This should allow them to get climate information data for the graphs needed for PICSA implementation as well as improving their daily work for climate analysis and monitoring.Ghana Ag-Hub may be enriched with all historical climate graphs made for various trainings, update and make them available to farmers. As the historical climate information, agricultural information data (including, crop yield / tree biomass and fruit production, pest and disease incidence on crop, livestock or human, fodder availability, food price, etc.) may be drawn for past period (at least 30 years) to improve farmers understanding and their decision making.Like the seasonal weather forecast made by Ghana Met, one health scientists may elaborate seasonal forecast for pest and disease incidence, make it site specific and in a language easy to understand for farmers. It can be one of the tools for early warning system being in preparation. At the end of the season, while evaluating PICSA implementation, the accuracy and usefulness of other forecast (pest and disease incidence, agricultural data) could be also assessed to improve the ability of the actors to predict one-health issues and anticipate for the solutions addressing them. The following studies including key informant and field surveys to examine the impact of climate mainly rainfall and temperature on pest and disease outbreak on tomato crops.The field work started with an interview of farmers, agricultural officers at Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) and researchers on past incidence dynamics of key pests of tomato.Despite the importance of tomato production in the financial and nutritional healthy living of most farm families in Ghana, the effects of climate variations on tomato production via the outbreak of tomato pest is generally understudied. Thus, this study aims to examine the farmers knowledge on tomato pest and disease and explain the effects of climate variation on tomato crops via the outbreak of tomato pests. This study concentrated on three tomato producing regions in Ghana. These regions include the Ashanti Region (AR), Bono (Region), and Upper East Region (UER). Our research employed the cross-sectional study method, which aimed at giving a scene of the outcome and the attributes at a particular period. The cross-sectional approach is desirable for this study since it utilizes the sample views of the population to make informed decision about the target population.The study used a primary source of data. Some farmers were interviewed using structured interview guides which had both closed and open-ended questions. Farmers were required to render informed consent before proceeding to the questionnaire. They were informed about the objective of the study, their right to withdraw, and the confidentiality of their responses. For ethical reasons, the farmers were told that the survey was about climate and its effects on tomato production, and this induced some to participate. Farmers in each region were given the same information to ensure consistency in the approach.With the aid of the R statistical software, the data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Frequency distribution and percentages was used to describe the qualitative variables identified in Tables 1 and 2, while the structural equation modeling (SEM) with path analysis was used to make inferences regarding the variables identified in Table 2.A total sample of 360 responses were received after the survey. After processing and cleaning the data, we had a sample of 359, which constitutes 179 from the Ashanti Region, 55 from the Bono Region, and 125 from the Upper East R Region. Table 1 briefly describes the background distribution of the tomato farmers across the three regions including Ashanti, Bono and Upper East.  1) are within the age-group of 31 -40 (32%) for AR, followed by the agegroup 41 -50 (30%), and above age 51 (25%). There are 36% of the farmers within the age-group of 20 -30 being the highest, followed by age-group 31 -40 (33%), and then age-group 41 -50 (30%). In the case of UER, age group 41 -50 records the highest number of farmers (38%), followed by age-group 31 -40 (27%), and then age-group 20 -30 (19%). Consequently, none of the regions recorded respondents within the age-group of 10 -19, which implies that there is no adolescent who works as a farmer across the three regions. The distribution of tomato farmers across the three regions based on marital status shows that most of the farmers are married (i.e., AR = 88%, BR = 65%, and UER = 84%). Similarly, most of the farmers in AR and BR record a higher proportion of primary (i.e., 44% for AR and 34% for BR) and secondary (i.e., 68% for AR and 25% for BR) levels of education, while the majority of the farmers in UER had formal education (30%), followed by secondary (i.e., 34%) and primary (i.e., 18%) levels of education. Additionally, both AR and BR record a high proportion of farmers with 10 -20 years (56% for AR and 72% for BR) of experience in tomato cultivation, followed by 21 -30 years (28% for AR and 20% for BR) in tomato cultivation, while the UER recorded an equal proportion of farmers with 10 -20 years (i.e., 29%) and 31 -40 years (29%) of experience in tomato cultivation. In addition, most of them revealed that their average seasonal income from tomato production exceeds GH¢10,000.00.The data set was used for examining first the impact of climate variations on tomato crop pests and then on tomato disease and yield.Description of the variables relevant to achieve this study's objectives is shown on table 2 while the perception of impacts of climate variables on tomato yield via the outbreak of tomato pest is show on table 3.   Figure 3a shows the stacked bar chart of different varieties of tomatoes (TOMVAR) cultivated by the farmers across the three regions. The AR records a high number of local varieties followed by the raster tomato.Similarly, in the BR, the local variety type is predominant among the farmers, followed by the raster tomato. However, in the UER, the pectomech tomato is cultivated more by the farmers, followed by the roma tomato. Figure 3b displays the stacked bar chart showing the types of pests observed by the farmers across the three regions. The Whitefly is much higher in the AR, followed by the Pinworm and the Fruit borer. Similarly, in the UER, the Whitefly is predominant, followed by the Fruit borer and the Aphids. However, in the BR, the Fruit borer is highly concentrated, followed by the  Figure 5 also examines the link between the perception of farmers regarding the correlation between temperature and tomato yield (CBTTY_T), and the type of correlation between temperature and tomato yield (TCBTTY_T). There is an equal number of farmers in the AR who perceive there exists both negative and neutral correlation. In the BR, however, the number of farmers who perceive there is positive correlation exceeds those who have different opinion. The negative correlation in the UER is also observed to be higher than the positive correlation. Table 4 shows the cross tabulation between OPRVR_R and ERTY_R among the three regions considering rainfall variability. A high number of farmers in the AR (59 out of 87), BR (25 out of 37), and UER (60 out of 103) are of the view that a severe outbreak of tomato pest due to rainfall variability has a high impact on tomato yield. However, 28 out of 87 farmers in the AR, 12 out of 37 farmers in the BR, and 43 out of 103 farmers in the UER believes that a severe outbreak of tomato pest due to rainfall variability has an average impact on tomato yield.Likewise, the relationship between OPRVT_T and ETTY_T among the three regions based on temperature variability is shown in Table 5. A high number of farmers in both the BR (i.e., 28 out of 36) and UER (i.e., 56 out of 83) perceive that a severe outbreak of tomato pest due to temperature variability highly affects the cultivation of tomatoes, while 58 out of 92 farmers in the AR believe that a moderate outbreak of tomato pests due to temperature variability has a high effect on tomato yield. Four structural equation modeling (SEM) evaluation indices (GFI, CFI, RMSEA, and TLI) were used to assess the overall performance of the identified models. SEM is a multivariate statistical technique that involves path analysis and allows the analyst to specifically test indirect effects between two variables, where the impacts of the two variables can be mediated by another intermediary variable (Arhonditsis et al. 2019). A practical application of path analysis is mediation, which is based on the assumption that a variable can affect the response variable directly and indirectly via another variable. For instance, in  for the ith subject (1 ≤ i ≤ n), where σXZ is the parameter coefficient showing the pathway from the mediator variable Xi, to the explanatory variable Zi without the influence of the response variable, Yi for the ith individual; θXY is the direct effect showing the pathway from the explanatory variable Xi to the response variable Yi while controlling for the mediator Zi; σ0 and θ0 are the intercept coefficients; (σXZ × θZY ) is the indirect effect, which describes the pathway from the explanatory variable, Xi to the response variable, Yi via the mediator variable Zi; θXY + σXZθZY is the total effects; and (ϵZi, ϵY i) are the error terms assumed to be uncorrelated.It should be noted that SEM entails a structural model and a measurement model. The structural model tests all the theoretical dependencies based on path analysis, while the measurement model measures the latent variables (Yi et al. 2016;Hyle 2011;Kline 2010).The results showed that the GFI, CFI, and TLI had a value of 1, while the RMSEA had a value of 0, across all regions. It was also found that the mediator variables were not fully mediating between the climate variables and their impact on tomato yield across the three regions. However, the study identified a direct modeling path between the climate variables and the outbreak of tomato pests due to climate variability, as well as a significant modeling path between the outbreak of tomato pests due to climate variability and its impact on tomato yield.The key informant survey data were also used to (1) describe the perceptions of farmers towards climate variability, outbreak of tomato disease, and their effects on tomato yield across the three regions in Ghana; and (2) ascertain a comprehensive understanding of the associations among the perceptions of climate variables, outbreak of tomato disease, and tomato yield using loglinear models.Regarding the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease in relation to rainfall on tomato yield based on gender, the results obtained showed that the majority of the male farmers in UER perceive that there is severe impact, followed by the male farmers in AR and then BR (Figure 7). In contrast, a high number of male farmers in AR perceive that there is a moderate impact, followed by the male farmers in BR and then UER. Alternatively, considering the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease concerning temperature on tomato yield based on gender, it is observed in Figure 7 that the majority of the male farmers in both AR and UER perceive there is a severe impact, while a large number of male farmers in AR perceives that there is a moderate impact, followed by the male farmers in UER and then BR (Figure 8). Regarding the distribution of outbreaks of tomato disease due to rainfall variability considering the number of years into tomato cultivation, it is shown in Figure 9 that the anthracnose disease is perceived to be higher in the AR by farmers with less than 10 years and from 41 years in tomato cultivation but perceived to be very small by farmers with 10 -20 years in tomato cultivation.In the BR, however, the leaf blight disease is perceived by the farmers to be very dominant, followed by the tomato wilt disease, while the damping-off disease is perceived to be dominant in the UER by farmers with less than 10 years in tomato cultivation, followed by the tomato wilt disease for all years in tomato cultivation. Moreover, in Figure 10, the tomato wilt disease is perceived to be very high followed by the fruit rot disease in the BR by farmers for all years in tomato cultivation. Similarly, in the UER the Tomato wilt disease is perceived to be very dominant by farmers for all years in tomato cultivation. However, the yellow leaf curl disease is perceived to be very high in the AR by farmers with 21 -30 years and 31 -40 years in tomato cultivation, while an approximately equal number of anthracnose, fruit rot, tomato wilt disease, and yellow leaf curl disease is perceived by farmers with less than 10 years in tomato cultivation. Tables 6, 7, and 8 show the cross-tabulation of the impact of rainfall on tomato yield (A1), the relation between rainfall and tomato disease outbreak (A2), and the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease concerning rainfall on tomato yield (A3) for AR, BR, and UER, respectively. It is observed that the average impact of rainfall on tomato yield is greater than the high impact, given that the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be moderate by farmers in the AR who believe there is a relation between rainfall and tomato disease outbreaks. However, the high impact of rainfall on tomato yield exceeds the average impact given that the effect of the outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be severe by farmers in the AR who believe there is a link between rainfall and tomato disease outbreak. Similarly, the average impact of rainfall on tomato yield is more than the high impact when the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to moderate by farmers in the BR who believe there is a relation between rainfall and tomato disease outbreaks. Nonetheless, the high effect of rainfall on tomato yield exceeds the average impact when the effect of outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be severe by farmers in the BR who believe there is an association between rainfall and tomato disease outbreak. In addition, the high effect of rainfall on tomato yield is more than the average impact when the effect of the outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be severe by farmers in the UER who believe there is an association between rainfall and tomato disease outbreaks. Now, considering the significance of the association of the saturated log-linear model for A1, A2, and A3, it is shown in Table 6 that all the p-values across the three regions are insignificant compared to the threshold value at a 5% level of significance. However, there is a significant association between A1 and A2, which implies that the perception of farmers considering the degree of effect of rainfall on tomato yield and the relation between rainfall and tomato disease outbreak is highly related across the three regions (Table 9). Meanwhile, the log-linear model is not able to capture and explain the intricate associations for A1, A2, and A3 simultaneously. Tables 10, 11, and 12 provide the cross-tabulation of the impact of temperature on tomato yield (B1), the relation between temperature and tomato disease outbreak (B2), and the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease concerning temperature on tomato yield (B3) for AR, BR and UER, respectively. The results show that the average impact of temperature on tomato yield is less than the high impact given that the impact of the outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be moderate by farmers in the AR who believe there is a relation between temperature and tomato disease outbreak. Similarly, the high impact of temperature on tomato yield exceeds the average impact given that the effect of an outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be severe by farmers in the AR who believe there is a link between temperature and tomato disease outbreak. Additionally, the average impact of temperature on tomato yield is more than the high impact when the effect of outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be moderate by farmers in the BR who believe there exist a relation between temperature and tomato disease outbreak.  However, the high impact of temperature on tomato yield exceeds the average effect when the impact of outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be severe by farmers in the BR who believe there is an association between temperature and tomato disease outbreak. Moreover, the high impact of temperature on tomato yield is more than the average impact when the effect of the outbreak of tomato disease is perceived to be severe by farmers in the UER who believe there is an association between temperature and tomato disease outbreak.Table 13. Significance of the association of the saturated log-linear model for B1, B2, and B3 across the three regions considering temperature variability.  13 shows the significance of the association of the saturated log-linear model for B1, B2, and B3. It is observed that all the p-values across the three regions are insignificant compared to the threshold value at a 5% level of significance. However, there is a significant association between B1 and B2, which indicates that the perception of farmers considering the degree of impact of temperature on tomato yield and the relation between temperature and tomato disease outbreak is highly related across the three regions. Meanwhile, the log-linear model is not able to capture and explain the intricate associations for B1, B2, and B3 simultaneously.This section investigates the associations among the perception of farmers on climate variability, outbreak of tomato diseases, and tomato yield impact. The study finds no significant link between climate variability, outbreak of tomato diseases, and tomato yield impact. The lack of association among these three variables suggests that the three variables are independent and cannot be regarded as irrelevant to each other. However, the study also finds a direct link between the perception of farmers considering the degree of impact of climate variability on tomato yield and the relation between climate variables and tomato disease outbreaks across the three regions.The major pests of tomato plant growing in Ghana are cotton boll worm Helicoverpa armigera, white flies Bemisia tabaci and the American tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta. The T. absoluta is one of the new invasive pests that is affecting tomato production. Tomato is the only known host of this pest and farmers' report suggest it is causing heavy economic losses in some tomato growing areas. Key to managing this pest effectively is understanding population dynamics as influenced by climatic variables. This can offer an opportunity to develop a prediction model that will enhance the management strategies, especially as and when it is necessary to apply insecticide.The study is being carried out in two prime tomato growing areas in Ghana for Understanding how climate dynamics affect the incidence of T. absoluta on tomato and developing a prediction model for a key tomato pest, T. absoluta.The first site is Agogo, which is in the forest agro ecological zone. The other is Bonya (Tuobodom), which is in the transitional ecological zone. Four and two tomato farms were selected at Agogo and Bonya (Tuobodom) respectively for the minor season sampling. Two farms (instead of 4) were selected from Bonya (Tuobodom) because the majority of the farms there were at fruiting stage at the time the sampling commenced.The farms are visited at weekly intervals after transplanting. Forty tomato plants are sampled for mines on leaves and fruits by Tuta absoluta and Liriomyza sp. Although the target pest is Tuta absoluta, incidence of Liriomyza is also assessed because of the close resemblance of mines by both insects. The incidence of the pest are recorded as the tomato plants showing signs of infestation and severity as the extent of damage to leaves using a scale of 1 -5. The data sheet is shown in Fig. 1 and the spreadsheet for collation of data in Fig. 2. Other parameters recorded are pesticide application, farm management practice and growth stage of the plant at each sampling day. At the first visit of each farm, data on geolocation, name of farmer, variety planted, and land history were taken.The climatic data, comprising rainfall, temperature and relative humidity were requested from the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) once all the pest data for the growing season have been collected.  The survey used qualitative and quantitative Methods using the PICSA approach combined that of fixed plot.The obtained results would help determine the relationship between climatic elements such as rainfall and temperature on plant diseases. Again, it will aid in the development of disease forecasting tools/models to assist farmers and other stakeholders in the sustainable management of plant diseases. For this initial study, a total of six tomato farms were selected from Agogo and Tuobodom and diseases namely Septoria leaf spot, leaf blight and wilt assessed weekly. From each farm, forty healthy tomato plants were initially selected, tagged, and continuously monitored for the incidence and severity over the period of the studies. The results showed significant progression in disease severity and incidence of Septoria leaf spot, leaf blight and wilt disease across all the selected farms.Results from the survey showed that tomato leaf blight, Sectorial leaf spot and wilt diseases were the most prevalent diseases in the areas. These diseases affect the leaves and stems of tomato plants thereby significantly affecting yield. Generally, it was observed that each of the diseases encountered progressed with time. (Figure 14-15). This was evident in the fact that as the weeks progressed, incidence and severity score increased respectively. Disease incidence measured 77% for leaf blight in the first week and had reached 100% in the third week at Tuobodom while an incidence of 12% was recorded for the first week at Agogo and had also reached 100% in the fifth week for the same disease (Figures 14a, 14b A team composed of various institution agents based in Ghana is well capacitated on PICSA approach implementation for AICCRA Ghana project area. Ghana Meteorological Agency had conducted a PICSA training session that they reported for 2023 activities. Their agents are also able to produce climate data for at least 30 years for any sites in Ghana that can be used for elaborating graphs for historical climate information discussion with farmers for PICSA approach implementation.Most of the farmers have knowledge on the impact of climate variability on tomato crop pest, diseases, and yield. Their view is that the type of climate variable affecting tomato pests is high for rainfall, followed by rainfall and temperature.Four SEM evaluation indices were used to assess the overall performance of the identified models. The results showed that the GFI, CFI, and TLI had a value of 1, while the RMSEA had a value of 0, across all regions. It was also found that the mediator variables were not fully mediating between the climate variables and their impact on tomato yield across the three regions. However, the study identified a direct modeling path between the climate variables and the outbreak of tomato pests due to climate variability, as well as a significant modeling path between the outbreak of tomato pests due to climate variability and its impact on tomato yield. From the investigation of the associations among the perception of farmers on climate variability, outbreak of tomato diseases, and tomato yield impact, the models explored did find significant link between climate variability, outbreak of tomato diseases, and tomato yield impact. The lack of association among these three variables suggests that the three variables are independent and cannot be regarded as irrelevant to each other. However, the analysis revealed a direct link between the perception of farmers considering the degree of impact of climate variability on tomato yield and the relation between climate variables and tomato disease outbreaks across the three regions.For pest and disease field survey studies, more field data and climate information are required for using any modelling equations.The present document is elaborated to describe the procedure adopted for examining tomato pest and disease outbreak related to climate variation through key informant surveys, especially rainfall and temperature. The results are intended to complete discussion on historical climate data analysis and seasonal forecast for PICSA implementation on which team of AICCRA Ghana project was well capacitated.Ghana Ag-Hub can be enriched with all historical climate graphs that would be made for various trainings, update and make them available to farmers. As the historical climate information, agricultural information data including pest and disease incidence on tomato crop, can be drawn the present studies to improve farmers understanding and their decision making.However, as the modeling analyses were not relevant, more studies are needed so that like the seasonal weather forecast made by Ghana Met, one health scientists may elaborate seasonal forecast for pest and disease incidence, make it site specific and in a language easy to understand for farmers. It may be one of the tools for early warning system being in preparation and enhance PICSA implementation.","tokenCount":"5812"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0d48989b1fd39917e920eeed46d8643f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19ed0497-2994-45e6-9918-cc472fb04030/retrieve","id":"-241338481"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0c5cd5b6-5e1f-4aab-ab70-67b7477e9f65","pagecount":"4","content":"Despite the relevance of dairy production in the fight against food insecurity and unemployment in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), negative effects of climate change and general changes in the production environment pose huge challenges to its profitability. Thus, there is a need to improve resilience capacity of dairy animals to adapt to this changing environment. In the current study, we tested two indicators of resilience, logtransformed variance (LnVar) and Skewness (Skew) of deviation, based on fluctuations in animals' milk yield. Further, we assessed the effects of genotype, agroecological zone, and genotype by agroecological zone (G×E) interaction for these phenotypes. Cows with less than 50% of exotic genetics had higher degree of resilience (P<0.05). Cows performing in semi-arid zones had higher resilience capacity compared to those in semi-humid environment (P<0.05). G×E did not significantly influence both indicators. The results provide valuable information that would inform dairy cattle improvement initiatives in SSA.An animal's degree of resilience to a disturbance is its capacity to be minimally affected by the perturbation or rapidly return to the state pertained before exposure to the disturbance. The performance of the resilient animal need not be the same as without a disturbance, but rather, the negative change in its performance should be relatively lower compared to non-resilient individuals performing in the same conditions. Dairy production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is still low compared to the demand. As a result, pressure for genetic improvement for milk production is still accumulating. However, in the wake of climate change, general environmental changes and their impact, the focus of dairy production must shift from increased production to efficiency and sustainability of milk production. Sustainable dairy production practices that ensure food security to the growing population and overcome the negative impacts of climate change on dairy cattle need to be adopted. SSA is confronted with environmental disturbances, most of which are causes of nature that cannot be modified in the favor of the cattle through good husbandry practices. Therefore, one robust way into this is through breeding for resilience in dairy cattle to enhance their ability to withstand environmental stressors and maintain optimal production levels. Deviations from the normal performance has been utilized to derive indicators that can quantify the general resilience of the animals (Berghof, et al., 2019;Elgersma et al., 2018;Poppe et al., 2020). However, these methods have so far not been applied in SSA. The current study aimed to test two indicators of resilience based on deviation in milk yield and to assess the effect of genotype, agroecological zone and their interaction on these indicators.Data used in this study came from dairy cows from three different herds, each representing one of the following agroecological zones of Kenya: semi-arid arable (SAA), semi-arid pasture-based (SAP), and semi-humid (SH). All the herds are kept under extensive dairy production system with occasional supplementation feeding for the lactating cows. Rotational cross breeding is adopted for two herds performing in the semi-arid regions. The herd in semi-humid zone is made up of a stable intermating population of composite cattle originating from crossbred parents.Data. The original data set for this analysis contained 2,640 lactations with 62,321 bi-monthly milk yield records of 1,490 multibreed cows from three large-scale dairy farms in Kenya born between January 2000 to December 2017. Data for the first parity were extracted and assessed for quality before the analysis. Cows that had at least two breed types in their genetic make-up based on the information provided by the farmers were used. All cows were required to have 5 or more milk records per lactation and all records were used up to 400 days after calving. To correct for season and year of calving, contemporary grouping of year-season (YS) was done with 17 possible years of calving (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019) and 4 possible seasons. YS groups with less than 5 lactations were excluded from the analysis. After editing the data, 14,278 milk yield records from 745 cows were used for the analysis. These animals were grouped into two genotypic classes based on the proportion of exotic genetics in their breed composition, genotypic class 1 (GC1) (≤50% exotic, n=325) and GC2 (>50% exotic, n=420).Defining resilience indicators based on fluctuations in milk. The deviations in daily milk yield from the mean production was used to define two resilience indicators: log-transformed variance of deviation (LnVar) and skewness of deviations (Skew). LnVar indicates the impact of the disturbance to the performance of an individual animal. Because resilient animals are less affected by the disturbances in their environments, they have a smaller range of deviation from their average performance. Therefore, they have low variance of deviation. Skew indicates the direction of the deviation and captures the level of severity of the disturbance experienced by an individual animal. Resilient animals have skewness around zero because they have almost equal numbers of negative and positive deviations. The less resilient animals are more influenced by disturbances and thus have more negative than positive deviations which leads to a negative skewness. The LnVar of j th individual was calculated as:where x ij is deviation i of the j th individual, \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 j is the mean of deviations of the j th individual, and n j is the number of deviation observations of the j th individual. The skewness of deviation j th individual was calculated as:where n j is the number of deviation observations of the j th individual, \uD835\uDC65 ij is deviation i of the j th individual, ‾ \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 j is the mean of deviations of the j th individual, and s j is the variance of deviations of the j th individual. Data analyses. The effects of agroecological zone (environment) and genotype as well as the existence of their interaction in the two resilience indicators was analyzed. A multiple linear regression model with explanatory variables of genotypic class, agroecological zone, genotype by agroecological zone interaction, year-season of calving, day in milk (DIM) class of first day in lactation, DIM class of last day in lactation, age of calving, and squared term of age of calving was used. Analysis of variance was performed prior to fitting linear models to determine the significant factors of variation. The following model was fitted: where RI ijklmn is the resilience indicator (LnVar and Skew) measurement for n th animal, U corresponds to the population mean, G i is the i th genotypic class (i = 1-2), E j is the j th agroecological zone (j=1-3), G i × E j is the interaction between i th genotypic class and j th agroecological zone, YSC k is the k th year-season of calving (k=1-53), dim.f l and dim.l l are the first and the last DIM classes, respectively of the l th DIM (l=1-10), Age m and \uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC34 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC5A 2 represent m th age and its squared term, respectively (m=22-60) e ijklmn is the residual error.Least-square means (LSM) of the genotype classes within the different traits were calculated and contrasted across the 3 different agroecological zones.The raw average estimate (± standard deviation) for LnVar for the whole dataset was 1.4998±0.8420. The minimum and maximum LnVar values were -1.3587 and 3.8916, respectively. The Skew had a raw mean of -0.05316±0.7186 with a minimum of -2.4986 and a maximum of 3.6525. The significant sources of variation for LnVar were environment, genotypic class, age of the animal, and year season of calving. At population level, GC1 cows had significantly lower LnVar than GC2 cows (P>0.05). This shows that GC1 cows had a higher degree of general resilience than GC2 cows. Agroecological zone influenced LnVar, hence level of general resilience significantly (P>0.001). Animals performing SAA zone had lowest LnVar, followed by those in SAP and SH (P<0.01) (Table 1). Within agro-ecological zones, GC1 had significantly lower LnVar than GC2 cows in SAA (P<0.001) and SH (P<0.05) environments. However, in SAP, there was no significant difference in LnVar for the two genotypes groups (Table 2). The significant sources of variation for Skew were same as those of LnVar except age of the animal and its squared term. However, the skewness 1 The difference between GC1 and GC2 and among the agroecological zones that are significant at P<0.05 have been shown using different small letters. Similar letter denotes that the difference is not significant. GC1 and GC2 represent genotypic class 1 and genotypic class 2, respectively. of deviation did not detect differences in resilience between the two genotypic classes. The only significant difference in skew was between the animals performing in SAA and those in SH where the animals in former environment had a positive and a closer to zero Skew signifying more degree of resilience than their counterparts (P<0.01). Genotype by environment (G×E) interaction was not significant for both resilience indicators.This study used deviations in milk yield to test two indicators of resilience for cows performing in the tropical environment of sub-Saharan Africa. The LnVar was stronger in showing resilience of the animals than the skew based on its ability to discriminate degree of resilience of cows more efficiently. Similar findings were reported in past studies (Berghof et al., 2019;Poppe et al., 2020). Animals with lower exotic genetic proportion had higher degree of resilience possibly due to the fact that they have a high proportion of Zebu genes in their genetic make-up which could have conferred the adaptation to the local production environments. The environment also affected the degree of resilience of the animals. In particular, animals performing in semi-arid zones, which are known to have many disturbances related to high temperatures and long periods of dry seasons, had better resilience capacity than those in semi-humid zone. Constant exposure of the animals to the disturbances in semi-arid zones could have activated their innate regulatory pathways and bettered their chances to survive environmental adversities in the long run (Colditz and Hine 2016). G×E interaction was not significant for both resilience indicators. This implies that a resilient genotype is capable of performing in a wide range of environments without its resilience capacity being altered. This study has shown the possibility of utilizing the deviations in milk yield to quantify general resilience of dairy cows performing in the tropical environment of SSA, where climate change is already affecting dairy production.","tokenCount":"1691"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"68471ef6d995320ddc8855d5ca000b85","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/097ce7f4-55cb-4f43-994b-70f5903581e1/retrieve","id":"76653728"},"keywords":["General combining ability","half-diallel","Ipomoea batatas","Uganda RÉSUMÉ"],"sieverID":"c5d2cec9-358e-45a7-b39d-057a208244f3","pagecount":"10","content":"There has been much emphasis on breeding for increased sweetpotato storage root yield, but less on dry matter yield, and its inheritance. High dry matter content (DMC) is associated with consumer preferences, and is important for the processing industry. This study was conducted to determine the type of gene action controlling DMC and to assess genotype by environment (G x E) interaction effect on DMC in sweetpotato. Five parental clones varying in DMC were hand-crossed in a half-diallel design to generate ten families. Ten genotypes of each family were planted in a trial at Namulonge (swamp and upland environments) and Serere in Uganda in 2009 and 2010. Highly significant (P<0.001) differences were found both between genotypes and between families for DMC. High significant general combining ability (GCA) (P<0.001) and specific combining ability (SCA) (P<0.01) were obtained, meaning that the differences among families for high DMC were due to both GCA and SCA. The relative importance of GCA and SCA was 0.59, indicating that additive gene action was slightly more predominant than non-additive gene action in predicting progeny performance for high DMC. Broad sense heritability (H) estimates for DMC were 0.70 and 0.73, respectively on genotype and family means across environments basis, suggesting that DMC was moderately influenced by the environment. Rapid selection for best genotypes would be possible, since progenies can be predicted from the phenotype of the parents. Parent SPK (GCA = 1.02) was the best combiner. The effect of location was less significant compared to seasons, suggesting the need to evaluate genotypes for several seasons, but in few locations to save resources.Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas L. (Lam)) ranks seventh in the world, on dry matter basis, among the food crops (FAO, 2008). In sub-Saharan Africa, it is the third most important crop with nearly 90% of the total output coming from eastern and southern Africa (Ewell and Mutuura, 1994). Uganda (2,554,000 t), Tanzania (1,379,000 t), and Rwanda (826,000 t) are among the largest sweetpotato producing countries in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2008).Most sweetpotato varieties currently cultivated in SSA have a dry matter (DM) content that is too low (25-30%) to be used as raw material in the processing industry, which prefers DM >35% (Lu and Sheng, 1990). Moreover, high DM is one of the important attributes that affects consumer preferences in most of SSA (Tumwegamire et al., 2004). For long-term population improvement, a diallel crossing pattern combined with recurrent mass selection is recommended as an effective way to combine favourable genes and alleles in parental genotypes (Huaman and Zhang, 1997).Heritability is a measure of the correspondence between phenotypic values and breeding values. High estimate does not explain how good materials are, only that superior parents tend to give the best progeny (Rex, 2002). Heritability estimates help to predict the performance of the offspring based on the performance of their parents, using a particular combination of breeding materials and techniques of evaluation. Jones (1986) and Courtney (2007), respectively, found that DM narrow sense heritability estimates in sweetpotato, were 0.65 and 0.92. On the other hand, Wanda et al. (1987) estimated broad-sense heritability of DM content to be 0.97.Most of the DM in sweetpotato (85 to 90%) is carbohydrates (Wanda et al., 1987), thus factors that affect the total carbohydrate fraction are essentially the same as those that influence DMC. The carbohydrate fraction consists of starch, sugars, pectin, cellulose and probably hemicellulose. Sweetpotato starch, which contains 79 to 83% amylopectin, is the major carbohydrate, accounting for 65 to 80% of the total dry matter (Muhanna and Rees, 2004). The concentration of fructose, glucose and total sugar within sweetpotato roots is negatively correlated with root DMC.The objective of this study was to determine the inheritance of root DM content in sweetpotato, in order to facilitate improvement of the crop for energy value, processing quality and desirability by farmers.The experiment was conducted in a screenhouse and experimental fields of the National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI) at Namulonge and the National Semi-Arid Agricultural Research Institute (NaSAARI) at Serere, in Uganda. Namulonge is located at 1,150 meters above sea level (masl) and at 0 o 32'N, 32 o 35'E. It experiences an average high temperature of 28.4 o C, and mean annual bimodal rainfall of 1,270 mm (Smit et al., 1997). At Namulonge, two environments were selected for the study, namely the swamp and upland.Serere is located in north-eastern Uganda, 33 o 27' E, 1 o 32'N, and 1,140 masl. The area receives annual bi-modal rainfall ranging from 800 to 1,150 mm. Mean maximum and minimum temperatures are 33 o C and 17 o C, respectively (Kabi et al., 2001).Parental material. Five parental sweetpotato clones varying in DMC and other attributes were crossed in a half-diallel design.These five clones had previously been evaluated for DMC at NaCRRI, with three having high DMC, namely New Kawogo (NKA), SPK004 (SPK) and Kyabafuruki (KYA) (Mwanga et al., 2009); and two having low DMC (Jewel (JEW) and Huarmeyano (HUA)) (Mwanga and Bohac, 2004). Among the five parents, only JEW was orangefleshed. Though self-fertilisation occurs only rarely in sweetpotato (Poole, 1955), we emasculated the female parents to eliminate such a possibility. In each of two replications, five clonal plants from each of ten genotypes representing each of the ten full-sib families were evaluated, totaling 100 genotypes.True seeds from each selected family were germinated in a screenhouse. True seeds were scarified by soaking in concentrated (98%) sulfuric acid for 30 minutes, to break dormancy imposed by the seed coat. Scarified seeds were sown 1 cm deep in sterile soil, in seed-boxes of 150 cm by 90 cm and spaced 15 cm x 3 cm. Field experiment. Ten well-established plants, representing each family, were chosen randomly, and five 30-cm cuttings of each genotype, planted in two replications in the field. Experiments were planted at Namulonge, in both upland and swamp environments, and at Serere during October -Novemeber 2009 (the second rainy season) and March of 2010. A split-plot arrangement, with two replications was used, with families arranged as main plots, in a randomised complete block design. Genotypes within each family were randomised as sub-plots. Each entry in a replication was represented by a single row containing 5 plants. Parental material was also included in the setups.Plant spacing within rows was 30 cm, and 80 cm between rows. Planting and management practices were similar in all locations, and weeding was carried out using hand-hoes whenever necessary, until harvest. Roots were harvested five months after planting. One plant at both ends of each row was left as a guard plant, giving a harvest area of 0.72 m 2 per sub-plot.Data collected. Data were collected on root characteristics, namely marketable and nonmarketable root number and weight. Roots classified as marketable were those over 3 cm in diameter and without cracks, insect damage or rotten parts (Ekanayake et al., 1990).Root characteristics and vine weight were evaluated at harvest. Sweetpotato storage root DMC was determined using the method of Benesi et al. (2004). Three undamaged roots from each genotype were randomly selected just after harvesting. The medial sections of selected roots for each genotype were sliced thinly, and then manually mixed together. A duplicated fresh sample of 200 g each (w1) was placed in an opentop paper bag and oven-dried at 65 o C for 72 hours to constant weight. The oven-dried samples were weighed immediately (w2) and DM (%) was calculated gravimetrically. Data analysis. Data were subjected to general analysis of variance (ANOVA) using GenStat,12.2 Edition software. Since there was at least one missing genotype recorded in the data from each location, unbalanced ANOVA was used. Only when significant differences among families were established, was the second step of diallel analysis performed (Singh and Chaudhary, 1979). Fisher's Protected Least Significance Difference test (LSD) at P< 0.05, was used to separate means. The progeny means of DMC were subjected to diallel analyses using GenStat. General combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) variance components were computed according to the fixed-effects Model I, Method 4 (only one set of F1's; with parents and reciprocals excluded) as described by Griffing (1956). Correlations between traits were performed using EXCEL programme.There was a very large, highly significant interaction of season (S) x location (L) (P<0.001) which overshadowed the individual main effects of S and of L (Table 1). Highly significant differences for DMC were found between genotypes (P<0.001) and families (P<0.001). Genotypes interacted significantly with all environmental factors (S, L, S x L), but G x L had smaller interactions than G x S and G x S x L. There was a significant interaction between families and environments (F x E (P<0.01) and F x S x L (P<0.05)), but no significant interactions were found for F x L and F x S.Both GCA x E and SCA x E were significant. The two crosses with SPK, NKA x SPK (32.5%) and SPK x HUA (32.6%), had the highest means of all the crosses. The lowest performing family was JEW x HUA with a DMC of 28.0%. The progeny denoted [9] from a cross NKA x HUA, was the overall best with a DMC of 35.2% (Table 2). Across seasons, family NKA x SPK was the best performer for DMC (32.7%) (Table 4). Although, the cross Jew x Hua was the lowest in performance in the Serere location, the best performing genotype for DMC (42%) came from the same family (data not shown).Heritability for DMC. Based on variance components, broad-sense heritability and broad- )) was 0.59.Relationship between DMC and some other variables. Significant differences were found between genotypes for marketable root weight (MRW), but not families for this trait (Table 3). Highly significant interactions were found for G x L, G x S and G x L x S (P<0.001). The means for marketable root weight are shown in Table 4. Significant differences between genotypes (P<0.001) and families (P<0.05) were found for non-marketable root weight. The interactions were significant for G x L (P<0.01), G x S (P<0.01) and G x L x S (P<0.05) for this parameter. Families interacted significantly with seasons (F x S, P<0.001), locations (F x L, P<0.05), but not with the combination S x L.General Combining Ability and SCA. GCA and SCA values and their level of significance are presented in Table 5. The high DMC parent SPK showed significant (P<0.01) positive GCA effects (1.02); while the low DMC parent had significant (P<0.001) negative GCA effects (-1.66). A combination of low x high DMC parents (JEW x KYA) resulted in a highly significant (P<0.001) positive SCA effect (2.01). A cross between two high DMC parents SPK x KYA, produced progenies with negative SCA effects (-1.13).General and specific combining ability for root DMC. The significant differences for DMC found among families (Table 1) were due to both GCA and SCA. The magnitudes of the GCA (0.85) and SCA (1.17) variance components suggest that both additive and non-additive gene action are important in controlling DMC. The relative importance of GCA and SCA reported here (0.59, based on Baker's ratio) suggests that GCA was slightly more important than SCA in progeny family performance for high DMC. This indicates that additive gene action was slightly more influential than non-additive gene action. This study conforms to the observations of Sakai (1964), who reported larger additive than nonadditive genetic variance for DMC in sweetpotato. Cach et al. (2006) also reported quite similar results in cassava, where GCA was large and significant for DMC, compared with SCA. These results suggest that, in crossing high by high DMC parents, progeny should have high  2). These values are within the ranges of DMC for the current sweetpotato genotypes in Eastern Africa, as reported by Brabet et al. (1998). The results show that the two low DMC parents, JEW and HUA, contributed negatively to the lowest DMC genotype mean (23.5%), among all crosses. Highly significant differences for DMC were found between both genotypes within families and between families. These results concur with those of Kanju (2000) who studied sweetpotato in South Africa. The variance component for genotypes within families was higher (2.76) than that for families (1.84), indicating that selection of specific genotypes within families for high DMC is very important.Two families involving the high DMC parent SPK had the highest means of all the crosses (NKA x SPK with 32.7%, SPK x HUA with 32.6%). Genotype 9 from a high by low DMC cross, NKA x HUA (Table 2), was the best genotype averaged across the six environments, with a mean of 35.2%; followed by genotype 4 from family NKA x SPK (35.1%). Based on the average performance of genotypes within families, the lowest performing genotype overall was from the family NKA x JEW, with a DMC mean of 23.5% (Table 2).Genotype 1 from JEW x HUA, a cross from a low by low parental DMC, ranked seventh in performance (34.5%), indicating that it is possible to get good genotypes from crosses involving two parents with low DMC. Furthermore, cross JEW x KYA was the best performer for MRW, with a combined mean of 0.4 kg sub-plot -1 .Orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes are important in addressing vitamin A deficiency in developing countries, and are being promoted especially in Eastern Africa (Tumwegamire et al., 2004). Jewel, therefore, could be a good parent for obtaining progeny with orange flesh as well as moderate to high DMC.The coefficient of variation for MRW was generally high, especially for the swamp 2009 B season (62.5%) and the upland 2010 season (54.4%) (Table 3), indicating large plot-to-plot variability (Table 3). This agrees with the statement of Andrade et al. (2009) that sweetpotato experimental trials have a very large plot error for yield traits. The same authors have reported cv values of 35-45% in plots with 15 plants, and cv values of 25% in plots with more than 60 plants. This shows that the cv plot error can be improved through using relatively large samples of plants.This indicates that plot to plot variability was very high for this trait. In some cases, there were no roots at all, or only nonmarketable roots were present Performance of genotypes. Differences were not large among family means for DMC averaged over locations and seasons (Table 4). Namulonge swamp gave the lowest mean for DMC (26.8%); while the highest locational mean was Namulonge upland (34.5%). Seasons, 2009B and 2010A resulted in nearly equal DMC means of 30.7 and 31.6%, respectively, although there were strong interactions of seasons with locations (environments). Parent SPK was involved in two of the three best families for DMC, which agreed with the GCA value for this parent (Table 4).General and specific combining ability effects for DMC. Based on GCA values (Table 5), the high DMC parent SPK had the highest positive and significant GCA effects (GCA = 1.02, P<0.01). However, its specific cross with another high DMC parent, KYA, produced progenies with significant negative SCA effects (SCA = -1.13, P<0.05). This implies that the non-additive gene action arising from the combination of parents, SPK and KYA, resulted in the cross performing below the expectation based on GCA effects. The reason for this is not clear, though since sweetpotato is highly heterozygous and hexaploid, favourable gene combinations can be broken down in progeny from a cross of parents selected for a desirable trait. The orange-fleshed root parent, JEW, had negative and high GCA effects (GCA = -1.66, P<0.001) (Table 5). Though this parent had negative GCA effects, it produced progeny with a positive and highly significant SCA when crossed with parent KYA (SCA = 2.01, P<0.001). Similar results have been reported by Chiona (2009) on β-carotene content in sweetpotato in Zambia. These results imply that parents should not be discarded based on their negative GCA effects, since they can express their performance in specific crosses and in specific genotypes.Estimates of heritability. Since genotypes were random representatives of families, calculation of heritability estimates is appropriate, and the broad-sense heritability estimate for DMC was 0.70 for genotype means across environments. With regard to families, parents were considered fixed, implying that it is appropriate to report the broad-sense coefficient of genetic determination (BS-CGD), which was 0.73 for family means across environments. These estimates are relatively high compared to the range 0 to 1, suggesting that the trait was only moderately influenced by the environment. This implies that rapid selection would be possible since good progeny can be predicted from the phenotype of the parents. Jones (1980) and Chiona (2009) reported nearly equal estimates for narrow sense heritability (h 2 ) for root DMC. The heritability estimates reported here suggest that rapid selection would be possible, since clonal reproduction allows for the preservation and utilisation of superior genotypes, regardless of the relative contributions of additive or non-additive types of gene action.","tokenCount":"2785"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ea4cbf3e4262ef4d0956c5cf216b7669","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5b1210e0-f816-48c9-9cd6-45eba09e549e/content","id":"639724484"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0a840e95-37a3-46a1-93e1-09f85ffe2084","pagecount":"93","content":"Este guia foi produzido pelo \"International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)\" e pelo \"International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)\" como parte da estratégia do \"Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management\" (SP-IPM)\" para melhorar a qualidade e aplicabilidade da investigação em controlo de pragas. O IITA, o CIMMYT e o SP-IPM são apoiados pelo \"Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research\" (CGIAR; www.cgiar. org). A primeira impressão deste guia teve o apoio financeiro da ACP-EU \"Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation\" (CTA) enquanto esta impressão foi totalmente financiada pela Syngenta.O SP-IPM é um programa de cooperação global cuja tarefa é aliar os esforços do IPM dos centros internacionais de investigação em agricultura e dos seus parceiros e dirigir estes esforços de forma mais clara para as necessidades dos agricultores menos favorecidos de países em desenvolvimento. O programa aborda as áreas onde a investigação pode providenciar soluções para problemas urgentes relacionados com o desenvolvimento da agricultura sustentável, mas onde o seu impacto tem sido limitado -normalmente devido à fragmentação dos esforços entre diferentes organizações ou em diferentes regiões do mundo, ou devido a ligações inadequadas entre investigadores e agricultores. O SP-IPM espera obter um progresso rápido minimizando tais constrangimentos, quebrando barreiras à transferência de informação, preenchendo, quando necessário, lacunas na investigação e desenvolvendo modelos efectivos de cooperação entre investigadores -agentes de extensãoagricultores para promover a adopção das tecnologias de IPM. SP-IPM c /o IITA, PMB 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria OU SP-IPM c /o IITA, Carolyn House, 26 Dingwall Road, Croydon CR9 3EE, UK www.spipm.cgiar.org O IITA é uma organização sediada em África, fundada em 1967 para o desenvolvimento da investigação internacional e gerida por um grupo de administradores. O objectivo do IITA é ser um dos parceiros de investigação de África responsável por procurar soluções para a fome e pobreza. O IITA tem mais de 100 cientistas internacionais, em várias estações, por toda a África. Esta rede de cientistas dedica-se ao desenvolvimento de tecnologias que reduzam os riscos para os produtores e para os consumidores e aumentem a produção local e a saúde em geral. IITA, PMB 5320, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria www.iita.org A missão do CIMMYT é actuar como catalisador e líder de uma rede global de inovação de milho e trigo que ajuda os pobres dos países em desenvolvimento. Apoiado numa ciência forte e em cooperações efectivas, o CIMMYT cria, partilha e usa o conhecimento e a tecnologia para aumentar a segurança alimentar, melhorar a produtividade e a rentabilidade dos sistemas agrícolas e preservar os recursos naturais.CIMMYT, AP 6-641, 06600 Mexico DF, Mexico www.cimmyt.org A SYngenTA é uma empresa líder mundial no negócio agrícola que apoia o desenvolvimento de uma agricultura sustentável através de investigação e tecnologia inovadora. A empresa é líder na protecção de culturas e está na terceira posição no mercado das sementes comerciais com alto valor. A Syngenta emprega mais de 21.000 pessoas em mais de 90 países. \"Seed Care\" é uma actividade da Syngenta que investiga, desenvolve, produz e comercializa soluções inovadoras para o tratamento de sementes.Este guia é uma referência simples, fácil de seguir para avaliar problemas relacionados com nemátodes fitoparasitas. Apresenta instruções claras, com muitas ilustrações, sobre procedimentos de colheita e processamento das amostras para determinar a presença de nemátodes, assim como informação sobre como obter mais apoio para a sua identificação e diagnose. O manual destina-se a técnicos, técnicos de campo, agentes de extensão e outros com interesse na produção e protecção de culturas, principalmente nas partes do mundo onde o acesso à ajuda de especialistas e equipamento avançado é limitado. Foi produzido para responder aos colegas que frequentemente solicitavam um guia para auxiliar a diagnosticar os problemas relacionados com os nemátodes. Espera-se que este guia simplifique alguns aspectos da nematologia e contribua para esclarecer os mistérios que rodeiam este problema na produção de culturas.Diz-se, muitas vezes, que os nemátodes só são vistos como um problema para a produção das culturas quando um nematologista está presente e que sem os nematologistas não haveria problemas de nemátodes. Paradoxalmente, os sintomas não específicos de estragos provocados pelos nemátodes são, muitas vezes, atribuídos a outras causas, que parecem ser mais prováveis ou mais óbvias. A realidade é que, muitas vezes, há uma combinação de vários factores que reduzem a produção e é necessário quantificar todos os factores principais, incluindo os nemátodes. Ter em atenção a ameaça dos nemátodes, relativamente a outras pragas e doenças, é um desafio, mas que será enormemente atenuado com uma adequada quantificação do problema causado pelos nemátodes, através da utilização de melhores procedimentos no campo e no laboratório.Os nemátodes parasitas de plantas estão sempre presentes e estão associados ao crescimento da planta e à produção da cultura. Eles constituem factores significativos na agricultura sustentável e podem ser difíceis de controlar. Determinar a importância de cada uma das espécies de nemátode, das comunidades de nemátodes e da associação dos nemátodes com outros problemas não é normalmente uma tarefa fácil, mas é ainda mais difícil em climas tropicais do que em climas temperados. Espécies que não eram anteriormente conhecidas por causarem prejuízos nas culturas estão continuamente a ser descobertas, principalmente porque a agricultura muda consoante as necessidades, e novas culturas são introduzidas. A introdução ou melhoramento de técnicas nematológicas e de diagnóstico podem levar à identificação dos nemátodes como a causa de problemas antigos, mas que não haviam sido devidamente diagnosticados devido à falta de especialistas locais.Muito há ainda para aprender sobre nemátodes e sobre os prejuízos que eles causam nas culturas. Por exemplo, para muitas culturas diferentes e para vários tipos de nemátodes, existe falta de informação sobre a relação entre o número de nemátodes e a produção. Em muitos países menos desenvolvidos muita informação básica simplesmente não existe. Por isso, é importante que mesmo os pequenos desenvolvimentos e avanços dos conhecimentos sejam registados para uso futuro, em publicações das redes e sociedades relevantes ou em revistas regionais ou internacionais.Esperamos que este guia contribua para melhorar o controlo das pragas e doenças, particularmente onde existem poucos nematologistas, como é o caso dos países menos desenvolvidos. O primeiro passo para controlar os nemátodes é determinar a sua presença através da colheita de amostras e observação de sintomas, e identificar correctamente as espécies com a ajuda de especialistas. O objectivo deste guia é dar apoio neste primeiro passo.Danny Coyne -Nematologista, IITA, Uganda.Julie Nicol -Nematologista Int., CIMMYT, Turquia.Biodun Claudius-Cole -Nematologista, Departamento de Protecção de Culturas e Biologia Ambiental, Universidade de Ibadan, Nigéria.Os nemátodes são um grupo de animais vermiformes muito diverso. Encontram-se praticamente em todos os ambientes, não só como parasitas mas também como organismos livres. Geralmente são minúsculos, mas algumas espécies podem atingir vários metros de comprimento. Este guia foca especificamente os nemátodes parasitas de plantas, que são muito pequenos ou microscópicos, podem causar estragos significativos nas culturas e têm uma distribuição extremamente alargada (Apêndice 1).Em virtude de ser difícil ou impossível ver os nemátodes no campo e de os sintomas serem, muitas vezes, não específicos, os estragos causados pelos nemátodes são, muitas vezes, atribuídos a outras causas mais visíveis. Tanto os agricultores como os investigadores subestimaram, muitas vezes, os seus efeitos. Como avaliação geral, os nemátodes parasitas de plantas são responsáveis pela redução de cerca de 11% da produção agrícola global (Agrios, 2005), o que corresponde a uma redução de milhões de toneladas por ano.O estrago causado por nemátodes depende de vários factores, tais como densidade populacional, virulência da espécie ou isolado, e da resistência (capacidade da planta para reduzir a população do nemátode) ou tolerância (capacidade da planta para produzir apesar do ataque do nemátode) da planta hospedeira. Outros factores também podem contribuir para este processo: clima, disponibilidade de água, condições do solo, fertilidade do solo e presença de outras pragas e doenças. No entanto, apesar de termos algum conhecimento sobre a relação nemátode-cultura e dos factores que podem influenciar esta relação, ainda há muito para aprender. Por exemplo, o limiar do estrago provocado pelos nemátodes em várias culturas, em várias partes do mundo, é, muitas vezes, desconhecido e a ameaça que os nemátodes representam, muitas vezes requer uma investigação científica.Logo que os nemátodes sejam identificados como contribuindo, de um modo significativo, para o estrago das culturas, medidas de controlo podem então ser tomadas. Estas dependem do nemátode responsável pelos estragos, da cultura e sistema de cultura e de circunstâncias locais. Se a espécie for identificada, algumas intervenções específicas podem ser consideradas, como, por exemplo, a utilização de culturas ou variedades resistentes. Por outro lado, podem ser adequadas opções mais gerais ou combinações de opções, tais como rotação, aplicação de químicos, controlo biológico e práticas sanitárias.O objectivo deste guia é apoiar o leitor a:• Conhecer a biologia geral do nemátode • Reconhecer os diferentes grupos e hábitos alimentares dos nemátodes • Identificar os sintomas dos estragos • Colher amostras de nemátodes • Processar as amostras • Enviar os nemátodes e as amostras para uma identificação mais precisa.A Figura 1 mostra as fases de avaliação e controlo dos nemátodes. Este guia fornece informação para a realização das fases 1-3. A fase 4 pode também ser tentada, mas a assistência de um especialista nematologista provavelmente será necessária, e será certamente requerida para as fases finais. A secção de Referências e Informação Adicional (página 65) incluem algumas publicações úteis para a realização de tarefas para além das descritas neste guia.Figura 1. Fases para a avaliação e controlo dos nemátodes.Assim que for observada redução do crescimento/ diminuição da produção em culturas A maioria dos nemátodes parasitas de plantas são vermes semelhantes a fios com um comprimento entre 0,25 mm e >1,0 mm, embora alguns possam atingir 4,0 mm. Apesar do corpo da maioria afilar na direcção da cabeça e da cauda, há uma grande variabilidade na forma e tamanho (Fig. 2). As fêmeas de algumas espécies, durante o desenvolvimento, perdem a aparência vermiforme e ficam com o corpo largo e em forma de pêra, limão ou de rim ou esférico.Como todos os animais, os nemátodes têm sistema circulatório, respiratório e digestivo (Fig. 3). Os nemátodes parasitas de plantas diferem dos nemátodes que se alimentam de bactérias e fungos por terem uma estrutura de alimentação especializada, o estilete (Fig. 3). Este é usado para injectar enzimas nas células e tecidos vegetais e, a seguir, extrair os conteúdos, de um modo semelhante ao dos afídeos a alimentar-se nas plantas.O ciclo de vida do nemátode é tipicamente dividido em seis estádios: o ovo, quatro estádios juvenis e o adulto (Fig. 4). A duração de qualquer um destes estádios e do ciclo de vida completo difere consoante a espécie e também depende de factores tais como temperatura, humidade e planta hospedeira. Em condições favoráveis, nos trópicos muitas espécies têm ciclos de vida relativamente curtos, com possibilidade de várias gerações por cada estação do ano. Isto pode levar a um aumento rápido da população a partir de um só nemátode (se houver autofertilização) ou a partir de dois nemátodes.Os nemátodes podem sobreviver a condições desfavoráveis, tais como uma estação seca ou um inverno frio. Diferentes espécies sobrevivem melhor em diferentes estádios do seu ciclo de vida, por exemplo, as espécies de Heterodera sobrevivem melhor nos ovos dentro dos quistos, as espécies de Ditylenchus no quarto estádio juvenil e as espécies de Anguina no segundo estádio juvenil.Os nemátodes parasitas de plantas podem ser divididos em parasitas das partes aéreas -que se alimentam nas partes da planta acima do solo -e parasitas das raízes e tubérculos -que se alimentam nas partes abaixo do solo.Também podem ser agrupados pelo seu parasitismo e mobilidade em três grupos principais:• Endoparasitas migratórios -nemátodes móveis que se alimentam no interior dos tecidos radiculares.  Endoparasitas migratórios (Fig. 5)Todos os estádios dos nemátodes endoparasitas migratórios são móveis excepto o ovo. Os nemátodes deslocam-se na planta de célula para célula ou podem deixar o tecido vegetal para procurar novos locais de alimentação. Durante a alimentação, geralmente depositam os ovos no interior do tecido cortical da planta e também no solo que rodeia o tecido radicular. As células danificadas libertam toxinas que matam as células vizinhas, dando origem a pequenas manchas ou lesões de tecido necrótico. Apodrecimento das raízes, fungos e bactérias estão, muitas vezes, associados a infestações de nemátodes endoparasitas migratórios que entram nos tecidos vegetais através das áreas danificadas por nemátodes. Nemátode-de-quisto do cereal (Heterodera filipjevi).Endoparasitas sedentários (Fig. 6)Nos nemátodes endoparasitas sedentários, são os jovens do segundo estádio -o estádio vermiforme 'infectivo' que invadem os tecidos vegetais. Eles movem-se no solo para localizar raízes de plantas hospedeiras e, a seguir, no tecido vegetal até encontrar um local de alimentação. No local de alimentação, a fêmea desenvolve-se, ficando fixa durante toda a sua vida. À medida que se desenvolve, o corpo vai alargando até ficar com uma forma esférica, de limão, de rim ou ovóide. O nemátode alimenta-se num pequeno número de células, que são reguladas pelo nemátode com substâncias de crescimento. Alguns grupos (e.g. nemátodes-de-quisto e nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares) provocam a formação de células de alimentação 'gigantes' na planta hospedeira.Os machos permanecem vermiformes, alimentando-se na superfície da raiz durante alguns dias, podendo ou não fecundar as fêmeas antes de se deslocarem para o solo, onde morrem.As fêmeas dos nemátodes endoparasitas sedentários produzem um grande número de ovos, que ficam nos seus corpos (e.g. nemátodes-de-quisto -Heterodera spp.) ou são acumulados em massas de ovos (e.g. nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares -Meloidogyne spp.) agarradas aos seus corpos. Alguns nemátodes são sedentários, mas são apenas semi-endoparasitas, como os nemátodes-reniformes (Rotylenchulus spp.) e o nemátode-dos-citrinos (Tylenchulus semipenetrans), que ficam apenas parcialmente embebidos no tecido radicular.Ectoparasitas (Fig. 7)Os nemátodes ectoparasitas usualmente alimentam-se nos pêlos radiculares ou no tecido cortical da superfície externa da planta. Muitas vezes encontram-se em grandes densidades, mas nem sempre causam problemas. No entanto, podem causar sérios estragos se a planta estiver sujeita a outros stresses bióticos ou abióticos (e.g. ataque de fungos ou falta de água). Exemplos de nemátodes ectoparasitas são os nemátodes-anelados (Criconemoides spp.), os nemátodes-espiralados (Helicotylenchus spp.) e o nemátode-da-ponta-branca-do-arroz (Aphelenchoides besseyi).É bem conhecido que alguns ectoparasitas transmitem vírus às plantas, por exemplo, algumas espécies de nemátodes-adaga (Xiphinema spp.), de nemátodes-agulha (Longidorus spp.) e de nemátodes-das-raízes curtas e rombas (Trichodorus e Paratrichodorus spp.).Biologia geral dos nemátodes parasitas de plantas Discocriconemella com a região da cabeça saliente [GG]. Um dos maiores desafios para identificar os nemátodes como o agente causador dos estragos na cultura é o facto de muitos deles não produzirem sintomas diagnosticáveis que sejam específicos e fáceis de identificar. O estrago causado pelos nemátodes é, muitas vezes, não específico e facilmente confundido com sintomas provocados por outros stresses abióticos ou bióticos. A clorose, por exemplo, pode ser devida a uma deficiência de nitrogénio ou pode ser causada por nemátodes; de igual modo, um fraco crescimento pode ser provocado por uma fertilização pobre do solo ou por stress hídrico ou pode ser devido a nemátodes.Por isso, é altamente recomendado que se avalie a presença de nemátodes quando as culturas sofrem decréscimo de produção e apresentam alguns dos sintomas acima descritos. Um conhecimento adicional da cultura, da história das culturas e das práticas de controlo, combinado com a informação deste guia, pode também indicar que nemátode(s) poderá(ão) estar envolvido(s).Sintomas dos estragos causados pelos nemátodes encontram-se acima e abaixo do solo.Os sintomas das partes aéreas podem dividir-se em duas categorias: os que são provocados por nemátodes das partes aéreas que atacam as folhas e os que são provocados por nemátodes das raízes que atacam as raízes das plantas.Sintomas causados por nemátodes das partes aéreas (Fig. 8) Sintomas causados por nemátodes das raízes (Fig. 9)Os nemátodes das raízes quase sempre causam vários graus de crescimento anormal das partes subterrâneas, mas estes sintomas, por si só, geralmente não são suficientes para diagnosticar um problema de nemátodes nas raízes. A maioria dos sintomas reflectem ou podem ser confundidos com outros problemas, como pouca água ou absorção anormal de minerais. Eles incluem:• Clorose (amarelecimento) ou outra coloração anormal da folhagem • Crescimento irregular e reduzido • Folhagem fina ou escassa • Sintomas de stress hídrico, tais como emurchecimento ou enrolamento da folha Folhagem fina e escassa em plantas de arroz de regadio provocada por Hirschmanniella spp.Definhamento/altura reduzida das bananeiras (plantas da esquerda) provocados por Pratylenchus coffeae.Radopholus similis.Bananeira caída devido a Radopholus similis. • Definhamento de plantas perenes ou lenhosas com pouca ou sem nova folhagem • Tamanho reduzido dos frutos e das sementes • Baixas produções.Outros sintomas que podem sugerir uma infecção por nemátodes das raízes:• Falta de reacção normal à adição de fertilizantes • Tendência a reagir mais rapidamente ao stress hídrico do que as plantas saudáveis e recuperação lenta do emurchecimento • Pouco ou nenhum desenvolvimento de folhas novas no início de uma nova época de crescimento • Graves problemas com ervas daninhas (grande densidade), devido ao facto das plantas infectadas com nemátodes serem menos capazes de competir com as daninhas • Incidência maior da doença devido à falta de resistência das plantas infectadas com nemátodes.Estes sintomas são devidos aos nemátodes das raízes e podem ser suficientemente específicos para permitir o diagnóstico de um problema com nemátodes das raízes. Para observar os sintomas é necessário desenraizar as plantas ou escavar as raízes.Os sintomas incluem:• Galhas nas raízes A formação de galhas nas raízes é devida, na maior parte das vezes, aos nemátodes-dasgalhas-radiculares (Meloidogyne spp.), embora haja outros nemátodes, como, por exemplo, Nacobbus aberrans, que também podem causar a formação de galhas (Fig. 10). O tipo de alimentação de alguns nemátodes, como Xiphinema spp., pode dar origem, na extremidade das raízes, à formação de intumescimentos ou pequenas galhas pouco definidas.As galhas podem variar consideravelmente, dependendo da espécie de Meloidogyne, da cultura e cultivar, e se ocorrem nas raízes ou nos tubérculos (Fig. 11). O aspecto típico inclui: Galhas nas raízes de uma árvore causadas por Meloidogyne spp.Galhas em forma de contas de rosário na alface, causadas por Meloidogyne spp.Deformação, galhas e parte terminal de raízes de milho causadas por Meloidogyne spp.Galhas nas raízes de batateira causadas por Nacobbus aberrans [JB]. É frequente ter a concepção errada de que as plantas da família Graminaceae (ervas daninhas e cereais) não são afectadas pelos nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares. De facto, estas espécies são facilmente afectadas mas as galhas nas raízes são, muitas vezes, pouco visíveis. Contudo, normalmente, podem ser facilmente detectadas galhas pequenas (Fig. 10).Galhas nos tubérculos de inhame (Dioscorea spp.).Corte transversal do tubérculo do inhame, com a superfície crenada, com as fêmeas do nemátode embebidas no tecido.Galhas numa batata.Galhas nas raízes de beterraba. Galhas na cenoura. Galhas nas raízes de mandioca.Figura 12. Galhas-radiculares, causadas por nemátodes, comparadas com sintomas semelhantes a galhas.Galhas na mandioca e na alface (duas fotografias à esquerda), causadas pelos nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares, comparadas com nódulos fixadores de nitrogénio (grupo à direita) nas raízes de soja, feijoeiro e amendoim.Galhas nas raízes versus nódulos nas raízes (Fig. 12)Outros intumescimentos nas raízes podem ser provocados por bactérias benéficas Rhizobium, fixadoras de nitrogénio. Chamam~se nódulos e são vulgarmente observados nas raízes de culturas leguminosas. Distinguem-se das galhas-radiculares pelo seu conteúdo e pelo modo como estão agarrados à raiz. Nódulos frescos têm, no seu interior, um líquido leitoso rosa a castanho, enquanto as galhas tendem a ser compostas por uma massa Raízes de couve com sintomas semelhantes a galhas causados pela hérnia ou potra da couve. gelatinosa clara, sólida, por vezes dura. Os nódulos estão pouco agarrados à raiz e podem ser facilmente removidos; as galhas dos nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares têm origem no interior da raiz e a sua remoção é mais difícil e irá danificar o córtex radicular.Algumas doenças das raízes, tais como o fungo hérnia ou potra (Plasmodiophora brassicae), podem dar origem a sistemas radiculares deformados eventualmente semelhantes ao estrago provocado pelas galhas-radiculares (Fig. 12).A actividade dos nemátodes pode também provocar o encurtamento das raízes, de modo a que a massa de raiz fique grandemente reduzida ou tenha um aspecto grosso (Fig. 13). As raízes e os tubérculos podem ter zonas de tecido morto (necroses), em resultado da actividade do nemátode (Figs 14 e 15). À medida que os nemátodes se alimentam e migram dentro das raízes, vão destruindo as células vegetais e também alteram as funções celulares, causando a morte do tecido.    Podridão no interior de um tubérculo de inhame causada por infecção de fungos que, provavelmente, entraram como resultado do estrago no córtex provocado por Scutellonema bradys.Necroses na sub-superfície de tiras de raízes de mandioca causadas por uma infecção com nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares (Meloidogyne spp.), comparadas com uma tira não infectada na esquerda.Podridão de um tubérculo de batata-doce infectado com nemátodes-das-galhasradiculares (Meloidogyne spp.) [JB].Podridão do inhame causada pelo nemátodedo-inhame (Scutellonema bradys).Doença \"mitimiti\" em taros/inhames causada por Hirschmanniella miticausa [JB].Lascas e fendas na superfície de tubérculos de inhame (esquerda) causadas por Scutellonema bradys.Fendas nos tubérculos de batata-doce causadas por Rotylenchulus spp.Nas raízes e nos tubérculos, muitas vezes ocorrem fendas na superfície após uma infecção por nemátodes (Fig. 18). Este sintoma pode ser atribuído à falta de água ou de nutrientes durante o crescimento. A ocorrência de fendas é muitas vezes detectada em tubérculos de batata-doce, provocada pelo nemátode-reniforme (Rotylenchulus reniformis). O nemátode-do-inhame pode causar o mesmo sintoma no inhame. Fêmeas brancas do nemátode-de-quisto dos cereais Heterodera avenae, cada uma delas do tamanho da cabeça de um alfinete, causando intumescimentos nas raízes de trigo (esquerda) antes de dar origem ao quisto castanho (direita) [HW].Quistos ou 'raízes em rosário' (Fig. 19)Os nemátodes-de-quisto (e.g. Heterodera e Globodera spp.) podem, muitas vezes, ser observados a olho nu nas raízes das suas plantas hospedeiras, se o solo for sacudido e se o observador for muito cuidadoso na sua observação. As fêmeas adultas jovens são visíveis como pequenas contas brancas, e, quando estão presentes em grande quantidade, parecem pérolas. À medida que se desenvolvem, as fêmeas vão dar origem aos quistos, que ficam duros e castanhos ou pretos e que podem conter centenas de ovos.Figura 20. Algumas ferramentas para a amostragem de nemátodes.Depois de se terem observado os sintomas que podem indicar a possibilidade de haver uma infestação de nemátodes, a fase seguinte é colher amostras das plantas afectadas e do solo à volta das raízes. Estas são então levadas para o laboratório para determinar os nemátodes que estão presentes e, possivelmente, a sua densidade.As características do campo têm implicações no método de amostragem e, por isso, nesta fase devem ser consideradas as seguintes: Algumas das ferramentas para colher amostras, indicadas na Fig. 20, incluem uma pá, uma colher de pedreiro, uma chave de parafusos, uma sonda para o solo, facas (para cortar as raízes), tesouras, sacos de plástico, etiquetas. A sonda para o solo deve ter uma lâmina com 20-30 cm de comprimento e 20-25 mm de diâmetro, e pode ser um cilindro completo ou meio cilindro. O meio cilindro ajuda a remover o solo da sonda. Marcadores para identificar os sacos, com as amostras, e um lápis e um caderno são também necessários para registar a informação.Colher amostras suficientes para assegurar que são representativas da situação no campo. Quanto maior for o número de subamostras em cada campo, maior será a precisão da avaliação. No entanto, é necessário haver um equilíbrio entre o tempo disponível e os recursos.O processo de amostragem e o número de amostras colhidas deve permitir avaliar a variação ou a agregação dos nemátodes. Numa área entre 0,5 e 1 hectare devem ser colhidas, pelo A distribuição dos nemátodes num campo raramente é uniforme e, por isso, as amostras devem ser colhidas em várias áreas do campo. Para comparação, colher amostras separadas nas áreas com fraco crescimento e nas áreas em que o crescimento é relativamente bom.Durante os levantamentos e experiências, manter o mesmo tipo e padrão de amostragem para permitir as comparações entre os campos, talhões, tratamentos, etc.Os padrões de amostragem podem ser ao acaso ou duma maneira sistemática (Fig. 21). A amostragem ao acaso não é adequada à natureza da distribuição em mancha dos nemátodes e é apenas representativa se a área da amostragem for pequena. A amostragem sistemática é um processo mais estruturado para colher as amostras, uma vez que tem em consideração a natureza do campo e a distribuição dos nemátodes.A época óptima para a amostragem é variável conforme as culturas e está relacionada com o crescimento da cultura e com o objectivo da amostragem (prognóstico ou diagnóstico).A amostragem para prognóstico (não focada neste guia) é, muitas vezes, feita no início da época, durante ou mesmo antes da plantação, ou no fim da cultura anterior, para determinar o número de nemátodes (densidade).A densidade populacional de muitas espécies de nemátodes aumenta para níveis elevados durante a época de cultura e diminui durante a estação seca; este facto é mais fácil de observar nas culturas anuais do que nas culturas perenes e de árvores. Por isso e para fins de diagnóstico, as amostras, idealmente, devem ser colhidas no meio da época de cultura e/ou no final. Nas culturas perenes, para identificar o problema, as amostras podem ser colhidas durante a época de crescimento da cultura, por exemplo, durante a estação das chuvas.Figura 22. Colher e colocar as amostras nos sacos.Verificar se as amostras são colhidas entre as filas.Logo que a sonda esteja cheia, removêla cuidadosamente do solo.A amostra deve representar a secção transversal do solo desde a superfície (0 cm) até cerca de 20-30 cm abaixo.Colocar a sonda numa caixa (preferencialmente de plástico) rígida e plana.Com um instrumento aguçado e forte, retirar todo o conteúdo da sonda para a caixa. Verificar se o solo foi todo retirado da sonda antes de colher outra amostra.Colocar as amostras em sacos fortes com atilho. Etiquetar com um cartão escrito com lápis (nunca com caneta, na medida em que irá ficar manchado).Ou, mais simples, escrever directamente no saco com um marcador de tinta permanente.Como regra geral, evitar colher amostras em solos muito húmidos ou muito secos. Contudo, quando as culturas se desenvolvem nestes ambientes como pântanos (e.g. arroz) ou condições áridas (e.g. sisal), estas devem ser amostradas para representar estas condições.Dividir os campos com dimensões superiores a 1 hectare em parcelas com 1 hectare (10.000 m 2 ) e amostrar as parcelas separadamente. Colher 10 a 50 subamostras e misturálas, para obter uma amostra composta que pese 1 -2 kg. Colher a subamostra de solo da zona das raízes usando colher de pedreiro, sonda, pá ou algo semelhante que seja adequado para a cultura que está a ser amostrada.Colocar a amostra, cuidadosamente, no saco de plástico, etiquetar e fechar o saco (Fig. 22).Na falta de uma sonda, as amostras podem ser colhidas com uma pá de pedreiro ou com outra ferramenta adequada.As raízes podem ser colhidas ao mesmo tempo e nos mesmos locais das amostras de solo e, de um modo geral, devem ser colocadas no saco de plástico da respectiva amostra de solo, o que vai permitir preservar as raízes.Geralmente, dependendo da cultura, 25-100 g de raízes por amostra são suficientes, mas para raízes finas, como as do arroz, o peso das raízes pode ser menor; para raízes grossas e pesadas, como as da bananeira ou de árvores, o peso das raízes pode ser maior. Quando existem raízes finas e grossas, em culturas como a da bananeira, sugere-se que estas raízes sejam colhidas separadamente.Evitar a amostragem de plantas mortas ou em estado avançado de senescência, uma vez que os nemátodes, muitas vezes, entretanto migraram para outras fontes de alimento. Nas culturas em que as plantas são pequenas, todo o sistema radicular pode ser usado como subamostra. Retirar a planta e as raízes do solo utilizando uma pá de pedreiro. Deste modo, uma grande parte do sistema radicular ficará intacto, tendo-se o cuidado de não partir as raízes e deixá-las no solo. Depois de se remover o solo, cortar as raízes, ao acaso, com uma faca ou tesoura.As folhas, caules, sementes ou outro material da parte aérea devem ser colhidos quando existem sintomas e se suspeita da presença de nemátodes. Mais uma vez, é importante seleccionar plantas afectadas, que devem ser comparadas com plantas não afectadas.Colocar as amostras em sacos de plástico fortes e etiquetar sistematicamente de modo legível. Colocar etiquetas de plástico, marcadas com um marcador à prova de água ou com um lápis, nos sacos com as amostras (Fig. 22) ou, alternativamente, escrever directamente no saco de plástico, com um marcador de tinta permanente, o número da amostra ou a referência. As etiquetas de papel prendem-se melhor ao saco com um arame ou guita. Se forem utilizadas etiquetas de papel, usar um lápis e nunca uma caneta (que desaparecerá ou deixará mancha em caso de humidade). Não esquecer que as etiquetas de papel se deterioram rapidamente com a humidade.Registar, quando possível:• A cultura e cultivar • A data de amostragem • O agricultor • A localidade (e, se possível, as coordenadas geográficas segundo o \"Global Positioning System\" ou GPS) • O número de referência (ou talhão/parcela) se for num ensaio experimental • A(s) cultura(s) anterior (es).Os nemátodes são muito sensíveis e deterioráveis e é muito importante ter cuidados especiais para os manter em boas condições. As amostras nÃO devem ser deixadas ao sol ou num veículo fechado que esteja ao sol. Também não devem ser deixadas muito tempo antes de serem processadas.Depois da colheita, as amostras devem ser colocadas numa caixa frigorífica (recipiente com isolamento térmico; Fig. 23), ou em caixas de cartão forte e colocadas à sombra, onde as condições sejam mais frescas. Se as amostras não forem processadas imediatamente, estas devem ser guardadas, cerca de 2 semanas, num frigorífico (aprox. 10ºC). No entanto, a sobrevivência dos nemátodes diminui com o tempo e os nemátodes de ambientes relativamente quentes podem sofrer danos pelo frio. A escolha do método de extracção depende das condições e dos materiais disponíveis, do tipo de amostra e também do tipo de nemátodes presentes. Alguns métodos de extracção são mais úteis para nemátodes específicos enquanto outros são mais gerais. Este guia fornece pormenores dos métodos mais simples, incluindo o método de extracção do tabuleiro, que é útil na maioria das condições básicas, fornece uma avaliação razoável dos nemátodes presentes no solo, raízes, sementes ou tecidos vegetais, e é fácil repetir.A Tabela 1 mostra os métodos de extracção que são indicados para cada tipo de nemátodes (sedentários ou migratórios) das amostras de solo ou raízes/folhas. Se o nemátode alvo for conhecido -como, por exemplo, nos ensaios de investigação experimental -poderá ser possível identificar precisamente que material deve ser amostrado e processado para os nemátodes (solo, raiz, tubérculo, folha, etc.). No entanto, se não houver a certeza, tanto as raízes como o solo devem ser usados para a extracção de nemátodes sedentários e migratórios.O solo seco deve ser devidamente misturado, antes da subamostragem, para a extracção de nemátodes. Desfazer os torrões e remover as pedras, raízes e detritos. Passar o solo (seco) através de um crivo com poros de aprox. 1-2 mm (Fig. 26, etapa 1) para um recipiente adequado e, a seguir, misturar cuidadosamente. Remover a subamostra usando um copo ou recipiente de volume conhecido (Fig. 26, etapa 2), normalmente 100 ml de solo. Para cada amostra de campo, devem ser processadas duas amostras de 100 ml de solo e calculada a média.O solo húmido, como o solo do arroz de regadio, necessita de ser removido da amostra de campo utilizando pequenas porções ou torrões de várias partes da amostra ou de cada raiz, e que serão medidas usando água para obter amostras do mesmo tamanho (Fig. 29, etapas 1 e 2). Encher o copo até um determinado (marcado) volume (e.g. 200 ml) e acertar o volume até à quantidade requerida usando torrões de solo, e.g. aumentando o volume de 200 para 300 ml, obtendo-se assim 100 ml de solo. A seguir, usar o método da crivagem para extrair os nemátodes.As raízes devem ser separadas do solo e o solo aderente deve ser cuidadosamente removido com água da torneira ou num recipiente com água. Tirar o excesso de água das raízes com papel absorvente e, a seguir, cortar e extrair de acordo com o método de extracção escolhido.Nas amostras, é importante usar etiquetas legíveis, correctas e consistentes (Fig. 24). Etiquetar os recipientes com um marcador à prova de água ou lápis, ou usar etiquetas que possam ser utilizadas em cada uma das etapas da extracção. Verificar se as amostras estão correctamente etiquetadas em todas as etapas.Figura 24. Materiais para a etiquetagem e exemplos.Identificação da amostra com etiqueta de papel e lápis.Identificação do saco da amostra com um marcador preto permanente.Identificação de um tabuleiro de extracção com uma etiqueta de plástico e também com um número no tabuleiro, com um marcador permanente ou com um lápis de carvão.Identificação de um copo colector com uma caneta preta permanente ou um lápis de carvão.Este método (ou variações) é também designado por técnica de Baermann modificada ou método do tabuleiro de Whitehead.Vantagens:• Não requer equipamento específico • É fácil de adaptar a circunstâncias básicas usando materiais disponíveis • Permite a extracção de uma grande variedade de nemátodes móveis • É uma técnica simples.Desvantagens:• A extracção de nemátodes compridos e com movimentos lentos é difícil • As suspensões, algumas vezes, são pouco límpidas (especialmente se o conteúdo de argila no solo é muito elevado) dificultando a observação e a contagem • A proporção de nemátodes extraída pode variar com a temperatura, causando uma potencial variação nos resultados entre amostras extraídas em épocas diferentes • A recolha máxima demora 3-4 dias.• Um cesto (ou crivo doméstico) feito com uma malha grosseira (Fig. 25 A maioria dos itens podem ser adquiridos já prontos ou facilmente construídos a partir de materiais disponíveis (Fig. 25). Funis podem ser montados num suporte com um tubo de borracha ligado à extremidade mais estreita e fechado com um clipe (Fig. 25, em cima) ou pode ser usada rede para insectos ligada a um tubo de plástico, com ~10 cm e ~15 cm de diâmetro, para construir um crivo (Fig. 25, meio). É muito importante que a malha e a base do crivo estejam ligeiramente mais altas (~2 mm) do que o fundo do prato, usando, por exemplo, três ou quatro 'pés' pequenos colados na base do crivo (Fig. 25, em baixo). Se isto não for feito, os nemátodes não podem migrar facilmente para a água.É muito importante ter uma etiquetagem boa e consistente de todos os recipientes usados em cada amostra, uma vez que é muito fácil cometer erros. As extracções de raízes e de solo devem ser etiquetadas separadamente.Figura 25. Processos diferentes para extrair nemátodes de uma amostra.Exemplo do método de extracção do funil com um tubo de borracha fechado com um clipe e etiquetado na base. Os nemátodes ficarão concentrados mesmo acima do clipe.Exemplo de diferentes tipos de crivos e tabuleiros. O crivo laranja, na esquerda, é feito a partir da secção transversal de um tubo de PVC com rede de mosquitos no fundo. É muito importante que o crivo não assente no fundo do tabuleiro mas ligeiramente acima.Crivo com 'pés' de plástico, feito a partir de um tubo de PVC e rede, que permite que os nemátodes possam migrar facilmente para a água.Para amostras de solo: Remover as raízes da amostra e colocar em pratos separados. etiquetar.Usando um crivo grosseiro, remover as pedras e detritos do solo e desfazer os torrões do solo (Fig. 26, etapa 1).Num recipiente de plástico (bacia, balde), misturar cuidadosamente a amostra de solo.Retirar a medida de solo (e.g. 100 ml) (Fig. 26, etapa 2).Colocar o papel absorvente (filtro de leite, guardanapo etc.) no crivo/cesto de plástico (colocado no prato de plástico), assegurando-se de que a base do crivo está toda coberta com o papel (Fig. 26, etapa 3). etiquetar.Colocar a medida de solo no papel que está a revestir o crivo. Para obter suspensões límpidas, é importante que o solo fique no papel (Fig. 26, etapa 4).Adicionar água aos pratos de extracção (Fig. 26, etapa 5). Deitar a água cuidadosamente no prato e não no papel ou no solo (entre o bordo do crivo e o lado do tabuleiro). Adicionar um determinado volume a cada prato para humedecer o solo ou o tecido vegetal, apenas o suficiente para não secar. Para as amostras de solo é necessário mais água do que para as amostras de raízes.Deixar sem perturbação (de preferência no escuro) durante um determinado período (48 horas se possível) (Fig. 26, etapa 6), adicionando mais água se for necessário. Os nemátodes do solo ou dos tecidos vegetais deslocar-se-ão através do papel para a água, ficando no fundo do tabuleiro/prato.Após o período de extracção, drenar o excesso de água do crivo e do solo para o prato (Fig. 26, etapa 7).Remover o crivo e eliminar o papel/solo. Verter a água do prato para um copo (ou taça), etiquetado, usando uma garrafa de esguicho para lavar o prato (Fig. 26, etapas 8 e 9). Deixar as amostras assentar (Fig. 26, etapa 10).Para a contagem dos nemátodes, reduzir o volume da água, vertendo cuidadosamente ou aspirando o excesso (cuidado para não perder nemátodes e sedimento), ou passando a suspensão através de um crivo com poros de pequenas dimensões (e.g. 20 -30 µm) (Fig. 26, etapa 11). Para proceder à contagem, ou para fixar, para enviar para outro local ou contar mais tarde, transferir os nemátodes do crivo para um copo (ou tubo), usando um esguicho de água (Fig. 26, etapas 12 e 13).2. Medir o volume, e.g. 100 ml, de uma subamostra de tamanho standard.3. Revestir o crivo com papel absorvente e colocá-lo num prato de plástico. 1. Crivar a amostra para remover os detritos e os torrões. 11. Reduzir a suspensão decantando ou usando um crivo com poros pequenos (i.e. 28 µm) e recolher num copo pronto para a avaliação dos nemátodes.12. Se a amostra não for observada imediatamente, pode ser guardada num tubo.13. Se a amostra for enviada para outro local, os nemátodes, depois de assentarem, podem ser removidos, com uma pipeta, do fundo de um tubo grande para um tubo pequeno para guardar/enviar. Para amostras de raízes: As raízes podem ser divididas em diferentes categorias, raízes grandes e fortes e raízes finas de alimentação. É útil extrair, separadamente, os nemátodes de cada uma das categorias, uma vez que o tipo de nemátodes que as invadem e as densidades populacionais do mesmo nemátode podem variar com a textura dos tecidos radiculares. A eficiência da extracção pode também variar, sendo a saída dos nemátodes de uma raiz grossa mais lenta.Retirar, cuidadosamente, o solo das raízes/tubérculos ou lavar à torneira e, a seguir, secar, delicadamente, com papel. Descascar, cuidadosamente, os tubérculos com uma faca ou descascador de cozinha.Cortar bem as raízes (ou descascar os tubérculos) com uma faca ou tesoura e colocar num prato etiquetado (Fig. 27, etapa 1). Misturar bem todas as raízes cortadas.Retirar e pesar uma subamostra (e.g. 5 g) de raízes cortadas, usando uma balança (Fig. 27, etapa 2).Colocar a subamostra pesada no papel absorvente no crivo/cesto etiquetado (Fig. 27, etapa 3).Seguir o resto do procedimento para a extracção do solo indicado acima (Fig. 26, etapas 5-13) Ou:Usar o método da maceração para tecidos vegetais mais duros (Fig. 28, páginas 40-41) e, a seguir, o procedimento de extracção do tabuleiro (Fig. 26, etapas 5-13) Se os nemátodes forem enviados para outros locais para identificar ou contar, fixar usando o protocolo indicado nas páginas 57-60. Figura 27. Método de extracção do tabuleiro para amostras de raízes.1. Cortar as raízes e/ou as cascas dos tubérculos e colocar em pratos etiquetados.2. Pesar as subamostras das raízes.3. Colocar a subamostra de raiz no crivo para a extracção.Seguir as etapas 5-13 na Figura 26.Este método é também conhecido por maceração das raízes seguido de incubação num tabuleiro de extracção.• Não requer equipamento especializado.• O tempo da maceração é crítico -deve ser suficiente para permitir que os nemátodes se movam facilmente dos tecidos vegetais, mas o dano deve ser minimizado.• Copos • Tesoura/Faca • Garrafa de água • Caneta à prova de água • Balanças • Triturador domésticoCortar as raízes ou as cascar dos tubérculos em pequenas porções (Fig. 28, etapas 1 e 2). Misturar.Pesar a subamostra (Fig. 28, etapa 3). Colocar num triturador eléctrico com água suficiente para cobrir as lâminas.Macerar as raízes finas e as cascas dos tubérculos durante dois ciclos de 5 segundos, e as raízes mais duras durante dois ciclos de 10 segundos, esperando que a suspensão assente brevemente entre as duas macerações (Fig. 28, etapa 4).Verter a suspensão das raízes maceradas e água para um copo, lavando bem o triturador com um esguicho de água, se for possível (Fig. 28, etapa 5).Verter cuidadosamente a suspensão de raízes e água para o papel absorvente (Fig. 28 As raízes podem ser coradas antes da maceração para melhorar a visibilidade do nemátode após a extracção. (ver página 60).Figura 28. Método da maceração das raízes.1. Depois da lavagem dos tubérculos, descascá-los com uma faca ou um descascador.2. Cortar, grosseiramente, as cascas com uma tesoura ou uma faca.3. Pesar as subamostras. 4. Macerar as raízes/cascas usando um triturador.5. Verter a suspensão triturada para um copo etiquetado e lavar o triturador para o copo.6. Verter, suavemente, a amostra sobre o papel absorvente, no crivo, como para o método de extracção do tabuleiro.Seguir as etapas 5-13 na Figura 26.Vantagens:• Boa extracção de todos os tipos de nemátodes • Bom para a extracção de nemátodes do solo, grandes e com movimento lento • Adequado para a extracção de nemátodes a partir de solo húmido • Útil para a extracção de quistos do solo.Desvantagens:• Os nemátodes podem assentar com as partículas do solo, a não ser que o solo tenha sido disperso • Os nemátodes podem ser facilmente danificados.• Requer equipamento ligeiramente mais especializado.Para nemátodes do solo móveis:• Copos e baldes • Caneta à prova de água • Crivos de latão com 20 cm de diâmetro (Endecotts¨ ou Retsch¨): 2 mm, 90 µm (ou 53 µm) e 38 µm • Equipamento para a extracção do tabuleiro Para recolha de quistos sedentários (e.g. Heterodera): Como para os nemátodes do solo móveis, mais • Crivos de latão com 20 cm de diâmetro (Endecotts¨ ou Retsch¨): 2 mm, 250 µm, 150 µm • Funis • Papel de filtro (ou papel de toalha/absorvente) Se não for conhecida a presença de nemátodes sedentários, então todo o equipamento deve ser usado.Para nemátodes do solo móveis:Encher um balde, de cerca de 6 litros, com água. No interior do balde, marcar a linha de água com uma caneta à prova de água para que o volume entre as amostras seja consistente (Fig. 29, etapa 3).Colocar no balde a subamostra de solo seco crivado e misturado, ou de solo húmido medido com água colocada num copo (Fig. 29, etapas 1 e 2), (Fig. 29,etapa 4).Misturar a água com cuidado utilizando a mão (Fig. 29,etapa 5). Deixar assentar as partículas grandes durante 30 segundos (Fig. 29, etapa 6).Verter muito devagar 3/4 da água através de dois crivos encaixados um no outro: usar um crivo de 2 mm para recolher os resíduos para eliminar, ou apenas crivos de 90 µm e 38 µm para recolher os nemátodes se não houver resíduos (Fig. 29,etapa 7). Isto requere duas pessoas. Ter muito cuidado, quando verter a água do balde para os crivos, para que a água não saia pelos lados dos crivos (entre os crivos empilhados); os nemátodes poderão estar na água que sair e serem perdidos. Verter muito devagar e, se necessário, dar pancadinhas no fundo do crivo, por baixo, para auxiliar o fluxo de água a passar através dos dois crivos.Encher de novo o balde até à linha marcada (Fig. 29, etapa 8) e repetir o processo uma ou duas vezes (Fig. 29,.Lavar os resíduos retidos nos crivos de 90 e 38 µm para um copo etiquetado, lavando suavemente por trás e verificando se os crivos estão devidamente limpos (Fig. 29,.Deixar os copos durante 2-3 horas para os nemátodes assentarem no fundo. Se for necessário, verter com cuidado e descartar o excesso de água. 11. Lavar com cuidado os resíduos dos crivos de 90 µm e 38 µm para um copo etiquetado.6. Deixar o solo assentar durante 30 segundos.As crivagens podem então ser processadas pelo método de extracção do tabuleiro (Fig. 26, etapas 3-13, página 37).Para recolha de quistos sedentários:Secar a amostra de solo ao ar antes de ser usado para a extracção (Fig. 30, etapa 1).Encher um balde, com cerca de 6 litros de água, e, no interior do balde, marcar a linha de água com uma caneta à prova de água (Fig. 30, etapa 2).Colocar a medida da subamostra de solo no balde (Fig. 30, etapa 3).Misturar a água com cuidado utilizando a mão (Fig. 29, etapa 5) e, a seguir, deixar assentar as partículas do solo durante 60 segundos. Os quistos devem flutuar (Fig. 30, etapas 4 e 5).Verter muito devagar 1/2 da água através dos crivos encaixados uns nos outros: 2 mm para recolher os resíduos a eliminar, e 250 µm e 150 µm para obter os quistos (Fig. 30, etapa 6).Lavar os resíduos dos crivos de 250 µm e 150 µm para um copo etiquetado (Fig. 30, etapas 7 e 8).Encher de novo o balde até à linha marcada e repetir o processo (etapas 4 -8) pelo menos uma vez, colhendo todos os resíduos de cada amostra para o mesmo copo. Repetir este processo tantas vezes quanto as necessárias até não haver mais quistos no balde.Preparar e etiquetar um papel (papel de filtro, filtro de leite, papel de toalha etc.) para forrar um funil (i.e. em forma de cone) colocado numa prateleira ou num copo (Fig. 30, etapa 10).Verter os resíduos (crivagens) para um copo através do filtro no funil (Fig. 30, etapas 11 e 12). Deixar a água passar através do filtro.Remover, cuidadosamente, o papel de filtro do funil e colocar num tabuleiro humedecido até à observação directa ao microscópio (Fig. 30, etapa 13). A observação pode ser feita abrindo delicadamente o papel de filtro e espalhando o conteúdo, seguido de observação ao microscópio estereoscópico.Ou:Deixar secar os papéis de filtro no funil, para remover e guardar e mais tarde observar, recolher ou contar (Fig. 30, etapa 14).Linha de água 1. Secar o solo ao ar num prato.2. Encher um balde com água até à linha marcada.3. Deitar a medida da subamostra de solo seco na água.  12. Deixar o líquido passar através do papel de filtro.13. Colocar o papel de filtro com os resíduos e quistos num prato com água no fundo para manter a humidade para a avaliação imediata dos quistos.14. Deixar os extractos a secar no funil para mais tarde avaliar os quistos.Os quistos de amostras secas ao ar flutuarão à superfície do balde, mas se as condições não permitirem a secagem das amostras ao ar, os quistos podem ser extraídos directamente das amostras de solo. Muitos dos quistos ainda flutuarão, mas os quistos novos e mais pesados podem não flutuar e antes da decantação da água/suspensão através dos crivos pode ser necessário agitar a água e reduzir o tempo para as partículas do solo assentarem.Os quistos podem ainda ser recolhidos directamente do crivado, das amostras secas, ao microscópio estereoscópico, usando um pincel fino. A determinação da densidade dos quistos é útil, mas também é necessário avaliar o número de ovos, esmagando primeiro os quistos para os libertar (ver Referências e Informação Adicional).Este método também é designado por incubação das raízes em sacos de plástico ou frascos.Vantagem:• Não requer equipamento especializado.Desvantagens:• A eficiência da extracção pode ser relativamente baixa • Os nemátodes, muitas vezes, ficam em más condições devido à falta de oxigénio.Sacos de plástico, frascos, frasco de Erlenmeyer ou algo semelhante.Cortar os tecidos em pedaços pequenos e misturar (Fig. 31, etapa 1).Pesar a subamostra/amostra.Colocar num saco de plástico ou num recipiente (não metálico), com uma pequena quantidade de água (10 -20 ml), fechar e etiquetar (Fig. 31, etapa 2).Os nemátodes eclodem dos ovos ou migram dos tecidos vegetais para a água durante um período de 2 a 7 dias.Remover a água regularmente (e.g. diariamente) do recipiente, o que ajudará os nemátodes a sobreviver, e transferir para um copo etiquetado, usando o mesmo copo para cada uma das amostras (Fig. 31, etapa 3).Substituir a água após cada decantação, fechar e deixar, repetindo o processo durante [2][3][4][5][6][7]etapa 4).Reduzir ou concentrar a suspensão de cada amostra e observar directamente ou guardar até ser utilizado seguindo as etapas 11-13 da Fig. 26. Figura 31. Método de extracção de incubação.A observação do tecido vegetal infectado pode ser efectuada directamente ao microscópio estereoscópico, por exemplo, para avaliar que nemátodes estão presentes antes de enviar o material para ser identificado por especialistas. As fêmeas adultas sedentárias que estão no interior dos tecidos (ver Figs 10 e 11) podem também ser extraídas do tecido e usadas para a identificação. Quando as amostras são enviadas para identificação da espécie, as próprias raízes com galhas, fixadas em lactoglicerol, devem ser enviadas ao taxonomista.A observação directa é útil para observar e avaliar o tecido foliar e as sementes infectadas com nemátodes (ver Fig. 8) e para obter espécimes de nemátodes específicos para preparar colecções de preparações definitivas, etc.Para a observação directa do material vegetal:Lavar o tecido vegetal com um jacto de água fraco, ou colocar numa bacia com água durante alguns minutos, para remover o solo e os detritos, tendo o cuidado de não remover os nemátodes ectoparasitas que se alimentam ou estão agarrados à superfície das raízes.Cortar o tecido vegetal em pedaços de ~2 cm com uma tesoura afiada ou com uma faca.Colocar o tecido vegetal numa caixa de Petri aberta com água (Fig. 32).Para a observação imediata, dilacerar o tecido com a ajuda de agulhas e pinças para libertar os nemátodes do tecido vegetal. Isto aplica-se aos nemátodes endoparasitas sedentários (Fig. 32).Se o tecido vegetal tiver nemátodes migratórios, seria útil deixar o material na caixa de Petri durante a noite ou mesmo mais tempo. Os nemátodes irão migrar do tecido para a água.Os nemátodes podem então ser colhidos ao microscópio estereoscópico para serem identificados ou fixados (e corados) e/ou enviados para identificar.Figura 32. Observação directa do material vegetal em água.Casca das sementes partidas para permitir o movimento livre dos nemátodes.Várias técnicas auxiliam a manipulação e identificação dos nemátodes. Estas são descritas nesta secção.Devido ao seu tamanho microscópico, os nemátodes podem ser difíceis de manipular, principalmente para os principiantes. Quase sempre é necessário manipulá-los num meio fluido, normalmente água. Usar um microscópio estereoscópico (lupa) em vez de um microscópio composto também ajuda. Quando se pretende obter culturas puras ou fazer preparações definitivas para a sua identificação, é necessário seleccionar os nemátodes e, para isso, precisam de ser 'pescados'. A manipulação de nemátodes a partir de culturas puras pode ser feita com pipetas de vidro (ver Fig. 35). A manipulação e transferência de nemátodes individualmente podem ser feitas estreitando a abertura das pipetas de vidro, usando o calor do bico de Bunsen.Para identificar os nemátodes, muitas vezes é necessário 'pescar' os nemátodes um a um da suspensão e colocá-los numa lâmina de vidro (Fig. 33). Isto pode ser difícil, mas torna-se mais fácil com a prática. Os nemátodes são translúcidos (ver através de) e podem ser difíceis de ver; iluminação diascópica e um microscópio estereoscópico ajudam (Fig. 34). Para tirar nemátodes dos tecidos vegetais ou da superfície da raiz, a iluminação episcópica pode também ser útil.Figura 33. Pesca de nemátodes com uma haste de bambu ao microscópio estereoscópico.Vários instrumentos podem ser usados para pescar, tais como um alfinete fino de entomologia, uma haste de bambu, uma pestana ou pêlo colados na extremidade de uma agulha de dissecção, um palito aguçado, ou uma pena de ave aguçada (Fig. 35).Verter ou usar uma pipeta para transferir parte da suspensão de nemátodes (ou tecido vegetal infectado) para uma caixa de Petri, placa de contagem ou bloco de vidro. O volume da suspensão não deve ser muito grande.Colocar na lupa, usando uma ampliação mais pequena.Rodar, delicadamente, a suspensão para deslocar os nemátodes para o centro da placa.Localizar um nemátode e, com a ajuda de um instrumento para pescar, trazer o nemátode à superfície da água.Focar a lupa para visualizar o nemátode enquanto estiver a pescá-lo.Colocar o instrumento sob o nemátode e, com um movimento rápido, de baixo para cima, retirar o nemátode da suspensão. O nemátode deve ficar 'pendurado' na extremidade do instrumento.Colocar, com muito cuidado, a extremidade do instrumento numa lâmina de vidro, num bloco de vidro com uma gota de água ou noutro recipiente com água.Para observar o(s) nemátode(s) numa lâmina, ao microscópio composto, é melhor primeiro 'relaxá-los', aquecendo brevemente numa placa de aquecimento (não demasiado quente).Colocar contas de vidro ou pequenas porções de lamelas de vidro nas extremidades da gotícula de água e colocar uma lamela de vidro sobre a gotícula.Observar ao microscópio composto.Figura 34. Microscópios usados para pescar.Microscópio estereoscópico de dissecção com iluminação diascópica.Microscópio composto com iluminação diascópica. Se os nemátodes, após a amostragem e extracção, puderem ser imediatamente identificados até ao género e contados, isto daria uma indicação rápida dos grupos de nemátodes parasitas presentes e se estão em níveis potencialmente prejudiciais ou se poderão estar associados ao estrago de uma cultura. No entanto, se o especialista não estiver disponível ou se as espécies presentes precisam de ser determinadas, as amostras de nemátodes deverão ser enviadas para serem identificadas por um taxonomista especialista.Antes do envio, os espécimes, normalmente, precisam de ser mortos (ver secção seguinte) e fixados, especialmente se forem enviados para fora do país. Os nemátodes podem ser enviados vivos se for acordado com o laboratório estrangeiro ou se forem enviados para um laboratório do mesmo país. O solo e/ou tecido vegetal também podem ser enviados; contudo, é essencial respeitar as regras de quarentena desse país.Os nemátodes podem ser transferidos para pequenos tubos (Fig. 36) e empacotados, cuidadosamente, em recipientes com isolamento para o transporte para o laboratório onde irão ser identificados. Os tubos devem estar devidamente etiquetados com um código/ número. Os códigos devem ser registados em duas folhas (uma para acompanhar os espécimes e outra para ficar) com todos os pormenores da amostra e guardados até serem recebidos os resultados da identificação.Figura 36. Armazenamento de amostras de nemátodes para transporte.Tubos para guardar ou enviar amostras.Microtubos pequenos úteis para enviar as amostras para identificação.Fixação de nemátodes, pipetando umas gotas de formalina para um bloco de vidro.Transferência de nemátodes para um microtubo, para guardar ou enviar.Um método simples e eficiente para matar os nemátodes é adicionar um volume igual de água a ferver à suspensão dos nemátodes. Se for para enviar toda a suspensão, poderá ser necessário reduzir o volume de modo a ficar menos de metade do tubo cheio. É mais fácil matar e fixar os nemátodes em tubos mais largos e depois transferir um volume reduzido para tubos mais pequenos (Fig. 36), ou remover os nemátodes do fundo (Fig. 26, etapa 13) com uma pipeta para os transferir para os tubos de transporte.Os nemátodes podem também ser mortos mergulhando o tubo com um pequeno volume da suspensão de nemátodes em água quase a ferver durante 1 -2 minutos, mas para um grande número de amostras pode demorar algum tempo. Também pode ser incómodo e é necessário ter o cuidado de se assegurar que os tubos com as amostras fiquem direitos e não vertam para a água a ferver, perdendo as amostras.O método mais simples para fixar ou preservar os espécimes é adicionar, com uma pipeta, algumas gotas de formaldeído (formalina) aos espécimes recentemente mortos pelo calor. Duas ou três gotas são suficientes para um tubo com 7 ml de suspensão (Fig. 37); para tubos maiores serão precisas mais gotas. Este método é rápido e fácil e permitirá que as amostras, antes de serem identificadas, não se deteriorem durante o transporte e armazenamento. Contudo, não permite obter espécimes de boa qualidade para uma preservação a longo prazo e pode também causar dificuldades na identificação, especialmente se não forem imediatamente observados.Ter muito cuidado com o formaldeído, uma vez que é perigoso para a saúde. Coloração do tecido vegetal com fucsina ácida numa solução de lactoglicerol numa placa de aquecimento.Adição de formalina, com uma pipeta, para a suspensão de nemátodes num tubo de 7 ml, para fixar a amostra.Aquecer o fixador num tubo de ensaio ou num copo, até próximo da ebulição, colocando-o em banho-maria.Adicionar um volume igual de fixador quente ao da suspensão de nemátodes (i.e. 2 ml de fixador quente em 2 ml de suspensão = 4 ml).Ou:Colocar os nemátodes num bloco de vidro com uma gota de água e adicionar 2-3 ml de fixador quente com a pipeta. As fêmeas de nemátodes sedentários são necessárias para a identificação da espécie. Por isso, o tecido vegetal que contém os nemátodes, como as raízes com galhas, precisa de ser preservado e enviado para observação. Uma pequena subamostra de tecido vegetal infectado numa garrafa com lactofenol ou lactoglicerol pode ser suficiente. Corar antes da preservação pode ajudar na identificação.O lactofenol pode ser adquirido ou preparado misturando volumes iguais de glicerol, ácido láctico e água destilada (lactoglicerol) e dissolvendo uma pequena quantidade (1%) de fenol na solução (lactofenol). O fenol é muito tóxico. Por isso, é melhor usar apenas o lactoglicerol, embora este não preserve as amostras durante muito tempo.A observação de nemátodes embebidos no tecido vegetal pode ser facilitada usando corantes apropriados que coram os nemátodes enquanto o tecido vegetal permanece relativamente claro (e.g. ver Fig. 5). Raízes grossas ou volumosas podem ser cortadas em pedaços pequenos antes da coloração, para assegurar a transmissão da luz após o clareamento.Corar em lactoglicerol + 0,1% de azul de algodão ou 0,05-0,1% de fucsina ácida e descorar num copo contendo uma solução com volumes iguais de glicerol e água destilada + umas gotas de ácido láctico. A descoloração é mais efectiva se for feita passados alguns dias.Lavar, delicadamente, o material vegetal para retirar o solo e outros detritos e secar, delicadamente, com papel absorvente.Cortar as raízes mais grossas ou mais largas ou os tubérculos em pedaços pequenos.Colocar num quadrado de tecido musselina, atar os cantos com uma linha de algodão e etiquetar de um modo legível com etiquetas agarradas a cada um dos 'sacos' de musselina.Aquecer a solução corante até quase ferver, usando um copo de vidro numa placa de aquecimento.Colocar os sacos de musselina no corante a ferver e deixar aproximadamente 3 minutos, dependendo da espessura da raiz. Usar um copo alto com a solução corante aprox. até metade do seu volume, uma vez que irá fazer espuma quando o tecido vegetal for adicionado (Fig. 37).Remover os sacos de musselina e lavar em água corrente.Colocar os sacos de musselina na solução de clareamento e deixar durante a noite ou mais tempo.Observar ao microscópio. Colocar as raízes lado a lado numa lâmina de vidro e com outra lâmina de vidro, colocada por cima, esmagá-las suavemente, o que permitirá uma melhor visualização dos nemátodes corados. Os nemátodes ficarão corados de vermelho com a fucsina ácida ou de azul com o azul de algodão.A Floxina B cora a massa gelatinosa que rodeia os ovos de Meloidogyne, aumentando a visibilidade das massas de ovos e permitindo uma contagem rápida das fêmeas adultas/ massas de ovos presentes. Após a coloração, os ovos também ficam viáveis. A solução é feita adicionando 15 mg (uma pequeníssima quantidade) de Floxina B a 1 litro de água.Colocar as raízes lavadas num tabuleiro ou num prato (de preferência branco) contendo a solução de Floxina B e deixar durante 15-20 min. Contar as massas de ovos coradas (vermelho).Após a extracção dos nemátodes do solo ou do tecido vegetal, primeiro devem ser identificados e depois quantificados. Isto vai permitir avaliar a sua associação com, ou o seu potencial para causar estragos.Este guia não providencia um guia para a identificação de nemátodes parasitas de plantas; para isso, ver a secção de Informação Adicional na página 65. (Uma descrição muito básica dos nemátodes parasitas de plantas mais comuns é dada no Apêndice 2.). A avaliação da densidade dos nemátodes deve ser apenas considerada se os nemátodes tiverem sido realmente identificados. Se não existir capacidade e experiência para o fazer, as amostras devem ser enviadas para especialistas (ver página 57).Os nemátodes extraídos podem ser observados e contados usando um microscópio de dissecção ou um microscópio composto (Fig. 34); o ideal é ter acesso aos dois. Uma iluminação de boa qualidade (iluminação diascópica) é essencial. Uma ampliação de cerca de 40× geralmente é adequada (i.e. uma objectiva de 4× combinada com uma ocular de 10×), mas também pode ser usado o microscópio composto (i.e. usando a objectiva de 10×), que é útil para os nemátodes que estão em más condições ou que são difíceis de identificar. Os microscópios de dissecção permitem uma maior maneabilidade e focagem, especialmente para amostras pouco limpas. Os nemátodes que não podem ser identificados na placa de contagem, com a ampliação de contagem ou com uma ampliação maior usando um microscópio composto, devem ser pescados (Fig. 33) e montados numa lâmina de vidro para identificação, usando um microscópio composto com uma ampliação maior.Existe uma grande variedade de placas de contagem que, basicamente, consistem numa placa de plástico transparente com uma grelha gravada no fundo (Fig. 38).Estas placas podem ser facilmente feitas riscando linhas na parte debaixo de uma caixa de Petri pequena. Uma placa rectangular de plástico com cerca de 5 ml de capacidade é muito útil para várias tarefas; também possibilita mover os nemátodes ou resíduos na placa e pescar os nemátodes para identificação a uma ampliação maior (Fig. 33). Arestas inclinadas reduzem a distorção óptica causada pela tensão da água, enquanto uma grelha com relevo impede que os nemátodes se movam entre as linhas da grelha.As amostras que tiverem sido reduzidas para 5 ml podem ser contadas de uma só vez, mas se a densidade dos nemátodes for elevada ou a amostra estiver suja, uma proporção (alíquota) pode ser contada, diluindo com água. No entanto, deve-se ter cuidado para ter a certeza de que uma proporção representativa da amostra total é contada, o que se consegue mexendo suavemente a amostra antes de tirar a alíquota.Extrair os nemátodes de um peso conhecido de tecido vegetal ou volume de solo, usando um dos métodos previamente descritos.Concentrar a suspensão para um volume conhecido, medindo numa proveta ou tubo graduado (e.g. 10 ml).Agitar a suspensão imediatamente antes de retirar as alíquotas.Usar uma pipeta grande para retirar as alíquotas, para evitar a sua obstrução devido aos detritos. Se as pontas das pipetas forem demasiado estreitas, podem ser cortadas.Pipetar, cuidadosamente, as alíquotas para a placa de contagem, evitando os salpicos.Se apenas existirem alguns nemátodes, contá-los no volume total da suspensão.Se a densidade dos nemátodes for elevada, contar os nemátodes de uma alíquota (e.g. 1 ou 2 ml). A diluição da suspensão pode ser necessária para auxiliar a contagem, por exemplo duplicar o volume.Contar todos os nemátodes na placa de contagem de modo sistemático, seguindo as linhas da grelha da placa. Os nemátodes, por vezes, podem flutuar na superfície, mas este problema pode ser ultrapassado adicionando uma pequena gota de sabão líquido.Usar um contador de registo manual (idealmente um contador de múltiplos botões; Fig. 38) para contar os nemátodes diferentes, ou registar usando o sistema de tracinhos se não houver contador.Depois da contagem, recolocar a alíquota na suspensão.Repetir usando 2-3 alíquotas por amostra e, a seguir, calcular a média das alíquotas antes de calcular o número total de nemátodes por amostra.A média do número de nemátodes calculados a partir das alíquotas deve ser multiplicado pelo volume total da suspensão para calcular o número total no tecido vegetal ou no solo de onde foram extraídos (e.g. 100 ml de solo ou 5 g de raízes).Contador de registo múltiplo e individual.Pipetas.Placas de contagem.O estrago dos nemátodes pode ser avaliado na altura da amostragem. O estrago nas raízes é avaliado visualmente (em percentagem) usando um determinado procedimento (Apêndice 3). Avaliações de estrago úteis podem ser feitas para os nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares em particular, mas também para o estrago causado por outros nemátodes. O registo do estrago, usualmente, tem uma relação forte com as perdas de produção da cultura.Registar o estrago causado pelos nemátodes dá uma indicação rápida do estrago nessa altura.Quando o equipamento de nematologia básico e a experiência faltam, pode ser o único meio de avaliação. O registo do estrago pode também ser usado para ajudar a identificar a resistência ou tolerância nos ensaios de selecção das variedades.O número de plantas avaliadas pode ser uma ou duas, até 25 ou mais, dependendo da cultura e área a avaliar, e também se o agricultor quer ter uma estimativa de avaliação de baixo ou alto risco. Se possível, apenas uma ou poucas pessoas devem efectuar a avaliação, para haver consistência. Pela mesma razão, é aconselhável o uso de folhas de registo, com regularidade, para servir de comparação.Quando se avalia o estrago causado pelos nemátodes, pode ser necessário algum bom senso; por exemplo, plantas que estão severamente infectadas com nemátodes-das-galhasradiculares, podem ter poucas raízes para se proceder à avaliação. O estrago pode parecer mínimo, quando na realidade o estrago é muito elevado. É também preciso lembrar que a resposta das diferentes culturas e variedades aos nemátodes pode variar com a espécie de nemátode, particularmente dos nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares. Espécies de nemátodes diferentes também causam sintomas diferentes, por exemplo, uma infecção com Meloidogyne hapla resulta, muitas vezes, em galhas como as contas de um rosário (como se vê na alface no Apêndice 3), enquanto Meloidogyne incognita pode causar galhas mais maciças e raízes fundidas entre si (Apêndice 3).No Apêndice 3 estão exemplos de folhas de registo e uma base para produzir folhas de registos de estragos de nemátodes para várias culturas e circunstâncias. Na maior parte das vezes, as folhas de registo do estrago baseiam-se numa escala de 1 a 5, o que equilibra a rapidez da avaliação com o rigor. Se houver mais tempo disponível, a avaliação numa escala de 1-10 garantirá uma estimativa do estrago mais rigorosa. Este guia não é um guia de taxonomia de nemátodes parasitas de plantas; para isso, ver a secção de Referências e Informação Adicional. No entanto, a seguir, faz-se uma descrição muito básica dos nemátodes parasitas de plantas mais comuns. A Figura 39 mostra as diferenças entre os nemátodes parasitas de plantas (regiões da cabeça) e os que não são parasitas de plantas, para auxiliar na sua diferenciação.Meloidogyne -nemátodes-das-galhas-radiculares A fêmea adulta é em forma de pêra ou esferóide com um pescoço alongado, enquanto os machos são vermiformes. Os jovens e fêmeas são endoparasíticos, causando a formação de galhas. O estilete é fino, com bolbos basais. Os ovos são depositados numa matriz gelatinosa.Pratylenchus -nemátodes-das-lesões-radiculares Nemátode vermiforme. Fêmeas com um ovário. Relativamente largo, cabeça achatada e cauda arredondada. A região dos lábios é plana e o estilete é forte, 14-19 µm de comprimento, com bolbos basais maciços. Causa lesões nas raízes das plantas. Todos os estádios são infectivos e são endoparasitas migratórios.Heterodera -nemátodes-de-quisto Fêmea adulta em forma de limão, originando um quisto na maturidade. A fêmea é semi-endoparasítica apenas com a porção anterior no interior do material vegetal. Os ovos são retidos no quisto mas pode, adicionalmente, haver uma massa de ovos. O estilete do jovem é forte, com bolbos basais proeminentes.A região da cabeça é alta, cónica arredondada. O nemátode, usualmente, está enrolado em espiral frouxa ou em forma de C. Fêmea com dois ovários e cauda curvada dorsalmente. São semi-endoparasitas ou ectoparasitas e, normalmente, encontram-se no solo. Scutellonema -nemátodes-espiralados-falsos Basicamente a mesma descrição de Helicotylenchus, mas: O estilete é mais curto e os bolbos basais são mais evidentes. A forma relaxada é direita ou ligeiramente em C. A maioria são ectoparasíticos.Xiphinema e Longidorus -nemátodes-adaga e nemátodes-agulha Nemátodes muito compridos O estilete é uma estrutura comprida em forma de agulha sem bolbos basais evidentes. A forma relaxada é usualmente direita. São ectoparasíticos. Apêndice 3.Avaliação das galhas-radiculares (Meloidogyne spp.) na mandiocaUsar uma combinação da avaliação das raízes e tubérculos quando forem avaliadas plantas na altura da colheita ou apenas as raízes removidas das plantas em boas condições.1. Sem galhas, raízes finas intactas.2. Pelo menos uma galha.3. Muitas galhas, cerca de 50% das raízes afectadas. 4. Muitas galhas, a maior parte das raízes afectadas.5. Maior parte das raízes com galhas grandes, com necroses, e raízes finas grandemente afectadas ou ausentes.Os nemátodes parasitas de plantas estão sempre presentes nos campos dos agricultores, mas o estrago que causam é muitas vezes atribuído a outras pragas e doenças ou outros problemas das culturas. Nos países em desenvolvimento em particular, onde os recursos e as facilidades são reduzidos, é difícil identificar e quantificar, com precisão, os problemas com nemátodes.Este guia pretende ajudar a ultrapassar esta limitação, providenciando uma referência fácil de seguir para a avaliação dos problemas com os nemátodes parasitas de plantas. Fornece instruções claras, com muitas ilustrações, dos procedimentos para a colheita e processamento das amostras para a avaliação dos nemátodes, assim como informação que serve de suporte à identificação e diagnose. O manual é dirigido a técnicos, técnicos de campo, agentes de extensão e outros com interesse na produção e protecção de culturas, particularmente nas partes do mundo onde o acesso a especialistas e tecnologias avançadas é limitado. A nossa expectativa é que este guia simplificará alguns aspectos da nematologia e ajudará a diminuir o mistério à volta deste problema de produção das culturas. ","tokenCount":"11448"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"526cb9cc8c821c3fbe0e737f7dbe19f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2328b803-862f-4f25-b036-50421eaa461e/retrieve","id":"-1168969334"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1e881dd-a284-4e73-ada5-8cd6bbb35fce","pagecount":"1","content":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has been traditionally grown as a subsistence crop in Laos, but in recent years cassava cultivation in this country has expanded, and it is becoming a \"cash crop\" for farmers (Malik et al. 2020). This also means that cassava vegetative seed (stakes) is rapidly multiplied and distributed. One of the most important diseases affecting cassava in the world is cassava mosaic disease (CMD), caused by several species of begomoviruses and disseminated by infected stakes or vectored by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Legg et al. 2015). Sri Lankan cassava mosaic virus (SLCMV), a bipartite begomovirus, is the virus species causing CMD in Southeast Asia (SEA) and is widespread in Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, and south China (Siriwan et al. 2020). During field surveys on July 12 to 14, 2020, the team in south Laos surveyed eight fields along the border with Cambodia, in the southern provinces of Attapeu and Champassack, and identified CMD symptoms in only one of the fields, located at Kong District of the Champassack province (GPS coordinates 13.94325, 105.99102). From these eight fields, samples were collected from every third plant in an X pattern. Photographs from each sampled plant were taken and uploaded into CIAT's PestDisPlace platform (Cuellar et al. 2018) (https://pestdisplace.org), for CMD symptom confirmation. Leaf samples were sent to the laboratory for PCR using primers SLCMV-F (59-ATGTCGAAGCGACCAGCAGATATAAT-39) and SLCMV-R (59-TTAATTGCTGACCGAATCGTAGAAG-39) targeting the AV1 gene (Dutt et al. 2005), following the protocol described in Siriwan et al. (2020), and primers SLCMV-B-F1 (59-ACCGGATGGCCGCGCCCCCCTCT-39) and SLCMV-B-606R (59-CACCTACCCTGTTATCGCTAAG-39) targeting part of the BV1 gene. Out of 60 samples collected for the field in Kong District, 11 (18.3%) were PCR positive to SLCMV (to DNA-A and DNA-B), but only four plants (6.7%) showed symptoms of CMD. None of the samples in the other seven fields had CMD symptoms, nor was SLCMV detected in any of these plants. Furthermore, the presence of CMD symptoms in the older leaves of the plants suggests that the virus was introduced with contaminated stakes. The complete bipartite genome of one isolate (Champ1), was amplified by rolling circle amplification and sequenced with the nanopore MinION technology as described by Leiva et al. (2020). The sequences were submitted to GenBank under accession numbers MT946533 (DNA-A) and MT946534 (DNA-B). A phylogenetic tree for SLCMV and a link to the open SLCMV Nextstrain map (Hadfield et al. 2018) are included in the supplementary materials. The sequences of the DNA-A and DNA-B components of the Champ1 isolate were nearly identical to those of an isolate of SLCMV from Ratanakiri, Cambodia (99.72% for DNA-A and 99.82% for DNA-B; Wang et al. 2016). Phylogenetic analysis grouped isolate Champ1 with those that form the cluster of SEA isolates that contain the shorter version of the rep gene (Siriwan et al. 2020). This short version of rep presents a deletion of seven amino acids at the C-terminus, which is involved in host responses to SLCMV (Wang et al. 2020). The confirmation of CMD and SLCMV in the border between Laos and Cambodia should be followed by disease containment and management strategies, particularly given that the majority of cassava varieties grown in Laos are from neighbor countries, most of which have already reported the presence of CMD.","tokenCount":"534"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6bcc7b7d1487d26dd763877ed5a20730","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a0a9e7e-cd9d-4f1c-9105-30b06ac3423f/retrieve","id":"1351395252"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"156d9941-e7f9-41a9-8ed5-585d66174478","pagecount":"4","content":"PhD students are currently active in the programme, some nearing the end of their first year, others just beginning their studies, on topics as wide ranging as within household economics to genetic diversity of parasites -we'll ensureThe Quarterly Newsletter of the \"Zoonoses in Livestock in Kenya\" Programme  Our results suggest that mainly chikungunya virus appears to be actively circulating in western Kenya even in the absence of a de-clared outbreak. We recommend establishment of prevention measures and routine laboratory testing of febrile cases for chikungunya in western Kenya.By Isaac Ngere-Resident, Kenya FELTP.Infections leading to fever are the largest causes of child morbidity and mortality in Africa. Dengue and Chikungunya infections are among viral diseases that cause fever even in traditionally malaria endemic areas. We set out to determine the prevalence and risk factors of Dengue and Chikungunya infections and estimate coinfection with malaria among children aged between 1 and 12 years presenting with fever at Busia County Referral Hospital in Western Kenya.We sampled a cross section of children presenting with fever. We interviewed the parents/guardians of these children and collected blood samples and tested by microscopy for malaria and by conventional PCR for dengue and chikungunya. We found that chikungunya was prevalent amongcariae in all of the zones points to presence of possible transmission foci for Schistosomiasis, Fascioliasis and other foodborne trematodiases. People and animals using water and pasture from these sites in western Kenya are at a risk of contracting these parasitic infections Control of food borne trematode infection should be targeted in all the AEZ's with emphasis placed on the areas that border the lake and those with streams flowing from springs.We found that lymnaeid snails were widely distributed in all the agro-ecological zones (AEZs) we studied, and were the majority snail at low altitudes. Biomphalariae, Bulinus, Oncomelaniae and Melanoides were present in some but not all of the zones. The study found that snails were more abundant in streams originating from springs and swamps near the shores of Lake Victoria. Biomphalariae and Lymnaeid species were found to be infected with trematode cercariae. The B. sudanica species found in the swamps near the lakeshore were infected with both Fasciola gigantica and Schistosoma mansoni pointing to a coexistence of Schistosoma and Fasciola infection at the site. The relative abundance of vector snails was found to be influenced by water pH, water temperature, ambient temperature and vegetation cover.Presence of vector snails and cer- In this study, we sought to identify snail species infected with Trematode cercariae and environmental factors that correlate to their presence. This was undertaken to better understand the underlying biology of these species to better understand the risk of transmission of livestock-and human-infectious trematodes.Freshwater As zoonotic diseases can be transported across landscapes by hosts, understanding the complexities of host-mediated pathogen movement is a priority for zoonotic disease research. For my research, I have been using surveys and GPS trackers to gather data on the movement patterns of people and their livestock. We will be looking at the differences in movement patterns between the wet and dry seasons:the first part of the study took place in July and we anticipate completion in November, 2016.At each selected household, we interview the adults present and ask them questions about places they regularly go to, how they get there and how long they stay. We also ask questions about places they go to less regularly and their activities involving livestock kept by the household.At the end of the interview, we ask the adult who spends the most time looking after the livestock (if they have any) to wear a GPS tracker on a lanyard around their neck for one week which stores their location once a minute. At the same time, if they keep cattle, goats or sheep then one of these animals (usually a cow) is fitted with an identical device attached to a collar. If the household does not keep any livestock, one person is still asked to wear a tracker, so that we can detect differences in movement patterns between people who do keep livestock and those who don't. Once the week is up, we return to the household to collect the devices and download the data. The field lab is located within the county commissioner's compound in Busia town. The lab staffing features a full time laboratory manager and laboratory technicians, all trained and well experienced in human and animal sample preparation, parasitological, microbiological, serological and molecular analysis. Additionally there is an administrative assistant, responsible also for stores management as well as a cleaner.The laboratory also hosts several short term visitorssuch as visiting post-docs , international summer students and students on placement from a diversity of Kenyan institutions (Moi University, University of Nairobi, KEMRI)-The FELTP program was established to strengthen the epidemiology and laboratory management capacity of Kenya to meet the challenges of emerging infectious diseases and other public health problems. The ZooLinK project offers a platform for select FELTP students to conduct their Masters research within the project. There are currently 5 FELTP students working on various projects; including: Camplylobacter in children under 5 years old in Busia, validation of ELISA kits for Brucellosis in Camelids and economic losses due to Echinocicosis in western Kenya.","tokenCount":"869"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f4a0090aab3dc857dd718215590a29b2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/8239653c-7169-4dfe-ba3b-a11b60c8f2ac/content","id":"1800442162"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"273dfacc-e75c-4c82-909a-49862d117a4c","pagecount":"6","content":"Banana production is an important livelihood for farming households in the East-African highlands as food and as a source of income. Banana is a crop with a long history in this region. Although not originating from Africa, it is believed bananas have been cultivated in this region since 2000 BC. It is not surprising that the technical aspects of banana production are intertwined with rituals, habits, and social norms. In this guide, we highlight and discuss social norms surrounding banana production, zooming in specifically on gender norms. Understanding these norms coupled with the ability to address them is essential for the development and design of high-quality banana-focused research for development (R4D) projects which benefit men as well as women.The East-African highlands, covering parts of Uganda, Tanzania, and DR Congo, and the whole of Rwanda and Burundi, are diverse in terms of ethnicities, agriculture, and political systems, yet there are also many important similarities. This resource, based on data from six GENNOVATE case studies conducted in four countries in the East-African highlands, provides a set of issues to consider in relation to the integration of gender in banana research for development.Woman casual farmer recieves her pay in bananas and carries them home on her head, Isingiro, Western Uganda. Photo: Bioversity Int./Anne Rietveld.Woman brewer ripening banana to be processed into gin in Kiboga, Central Uganda. Photo: Bioversity Int./Anne Rietveld.Gender norms are unwritten social \"rules\" which influence women's and men's roles and behavior. These norms can promote or limit the ability of women and men to maximize opportunities related to agricultural production, commercialization, and innovation. Gender norms are typically intertwined with tradition and concepts of culture. Gender norms are not static; they are dynamic and change, sometimes rapidly, over time. Sometimes actual practices seem to diverge from the dominant gender norm. This can be triggered by a variety of factors, including new technologies and ideas, which can provide new opportunities, or create more stringent constraints. When divergence from a dominant norm takes hold it can lead to normative change. In agriculture, gender norms influence the way farming is done; similarly, agricultural innovation also influences gender norms.Similar trends across the East Africa Highlands 1. Banana as a semi-permanent crop indicates a claim on land and land is for men.In the East African highlands, banana is usually cultivated as a permanent crop. Stands as old as 40 to 60 years are common. As is often the case for trees, planting banana on a field is conceived as laying claim to the land. In most of the East-African highlands, land is still firmly in the hands of men, and thus it is primarily men who control (manage and derive benefits from) banana plantations. Women's options to choose banana as a livelihood are consequently limited. This is similar for other social groups such as young men and women who have not (yet) acquired land and are farming on land of relatives, or renting land.When women do cultivate banana independently, they are almost always women whose husbands have offfarm employment or a business and are (mostly) absent. In some cases, a man has passed away and has left his widow land with a banana plantation already established. However, women's rights to inherit land planted with banana differ across the region. In some regions, such land may be directly inherited by the children or other relatives of the late husband. Or, widows continue living on the land of their late husband and manage the banana plantation, but harvestable banana bunches are partly taken by relatives.Although it is relatively rare for women to own banana plantations in the East-African highlands, they often work in the plantations. Women are expected to allocate part of their time to work on their husbands' fields and crops. The amount of time they need to allocate to the banana crop is much dependent on the mode of production and the type of banana, which is again quite varied across the region and within different areas. Plantations with cooking-banana cultivars are usually more intensively managed than plantations with mostly beer-banana cultivars. For instance, in Western Uganda there is a lot of commercial, intensively managed cooking-banana production, and women are expected to weed the plantation by hand, which takes a lot of time and causes 3Across the region, banana is an important cash crop. The raw fruit is either marketed or, in the case of beer-banana cultivars, it is processed into beer and gin. In households where an adult man is present, income derived from both raw and processed banana is controlled by men. Gender norms generally prescribe \"money\" and \"income-generation\" to be men's business. It is argued that women have no need for money as it is the husband's responsibility, as head of the household, to decide and provide. Women with money are frequently considered as threats to their marriage as it is assumed that once a woman has money she will no longer accept and respect the authority of her husband.Irrespective of these norms, women are engaging more and more in income-generating activities across the East-African Highlands. These activities are seldom linked to banana production or commercialization though, especially when it comes to married women. An exception is when women clandestinely harvest banana and sell it without their husbands' permission. Both in Uganda and Burundi men and women mention doing this. Men refer to this practice as \"stealing\" and women describe it as \"having no choice.\" home consumption requirements. Banana income is often the main source of school fees for children and therefore considered vital to ensuring an education. There is considerable debate and variation across and within the different areas as to the extent to which men should take primary responsibility to provide for their families. In some households, men discuss equally with their wives how to spend banana income, and they provide for school fees, health services, and other basic needs. In other households, men are increasingly leaving financial responsibilities to their wives and spending their banana income on leisure and second or third families. back pain. Across the region, women are usually responsible for weeding but sometimes also contribute to the management of diseases, for instance de-budding the banana male flower. Men usually harvest banana and -in more intensively managed plantations -perform heavy but less frequent work such as de-suckering and uprooting of mats.Intercropping of banana with other crops is very common. The most common intercrop is beans but other legumes, coffee, maize, sweet and Irish potatoes, cassava, taro, and vegetables and fruits such as chili-pepper, papaya, pumpkin, and amaranth are also grown. Whereas the management and profits from permanent cash crops such as banana and coffee are mostly controlled by men, women often manage and benefit from annual intercrops. They cultivate these crops because they are expected to provide nutritious food to their families. They also sell surplus production for income generation. Intercropping with banana can often be a necessity because in areas where banana plantations dominate, women typically have no access to other land. Banana intercropping can thus be an indicator of land scarcity. However, intercropping can create a conflict of interest between spouses because 1) banana productivity typically decreases due to competition for water, light, and nutrients with the intercrop; 2) annual crop cultivation activities such as digging can damage the surface root system of banana, further reducing productivity; 3) banana management, for instance control of Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW) disease, might lead to trampling of intercrops such as beans. Especially in places where banana production is of high commercial value and where land is scarce, intercropping can lead to intra-household conflicts and gender-based violence. In some households, men use banana income to provide for their families. In others, men leave it to women to support the family.These practices sometimes lead to domestic violence as men may feel justified in punishing their wives for such actions.Although the income from banana is mainly controlled by men, women usually do have access to banana forMen and women across the region have one common denominator when it comes to banana cultivar preferences: they appreciate diversity. Sometimes this preference for high diversity is driven by cultural traditions. In Central Uganda, for example, specific cultivars play a role in diverse rituals and ideas about healthy banana plantations. In other areas, considerations around riskspreading seem to be more important as a rationale for high cultivar diversity. There are also regional differences in the preference for types of banana; with cooking banana being most popular in Uganda and Rwanda and beer-banana more common in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi. However, women everywhere express a preference for cooking banana cultivars, as even in beercultivar dominated systems, these are the cultivars they will harvest for home consumption. Some cookingbanana cultivars are more appreciated than others though: while women tend to appreciate cultivars which are tasty or easy to cook, men tend to prefer cultivars with big bunches and extended shelf life for better marketability.The GENNOVATE research highlighted some area-specific trends relating to intensification and diversification in banana production.• In Kayonza district in Rwanda, women express a move away from banana as their first choice of crop in favor of maize because of the high and increasing disease pressure on banana caused mainly by BXW. Men on the contrary still consider banana production an essential element of their livelihood, providing stability and security.• In both Uganda and Rwanda, beertype banana cultivars are rapidly being replaced by cooking-type banana cultivars due to, on the one hand, agricultural policies promoting cooking types over beer types and, on the other hand, increasing marketability of cooking banana.• In Isingiro district in Western Uganda, banana production is becoming increasingly intensive with high-labor investment (e.g., hand weeding by women) and increased use of organic manure. In Kiboga district in Central Uganda, the use of herbicides in banana plantations is becoming more common. These contrasting developments have important implications for women's labor requirements. In Isingiro, there is an increased demand for women's labor for weeding both within the household and on local labor markets. In Kiboga, this demand for women's labor for weeding is reducing. Herbicides are, meanwhile, applied mostly by men on plots they control and manage.• In Mushinga in South-Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo, there are strong indications that agriculture is feminizing as men goWoman with son in front of banana plantation in Kayonza, Rwanda. Photo: Bioversity Int./Anne Rietveld.into mining or \"business\" instead of farming. Men remain interested in forestry and beer-banana production as a profitable investment with low labor requirements but leave annual crop production mostly to women.Banana production trends are influenced by external drivers of change, including urbanization and changes in urban demand for food; road infrastructure and market accessibility; government agricultural policy; investments in extension services; and conflict and insecurity. They are also a function of local opportunities and interests related to, for instance, land availability, labor markets, soil fertility, access to agricultural inputs, and cultural crop preferences.It is important that R4D projects are gender responsive -that is, the R4D benefits both men and women and harms neither. The information above can serve as background for designing gender-responsive banana-focused R4D projects in the East-Africa highlands, but additional, site-specific research might be needed to understand fully how gender and banana production interact.In any case, it is important to distinguish between women in femaleheaded households and women in male-headed households and between polygamous and monogamous marriages. Intra-household decisionmaking and women's access to and control over resources is likely to vary between different household arrangements.Land -Who is allowed to plant semipermanent crops such as banana on land? Is it possible to plant banana on rented land, and, if so, can the farmer planting banana retain the land under a long-term lease? Under which circumstances can a wife plant and manage banana for her own benefit on her husband's land, or on land which has been allocated to her? What rights to land and semi-permanent crops (such as banana) do widows or separated women have?Intercropping -Is banana intercropped with other crops? Is there a gender division with regards to who owns and/or manages the different crops, including banana, on the field? What are men's and women's reasons for intercropping, and how is this related to individual and household responsibilities and objectives? What is total and per crop productivity per unit of land, and how does this translate into yield for men and yield for women? Can a banana R4D intervention potentially create an intra-household tension related to intercropping? (See sub-section \"Intercropping of banana potentially creates conflicting interests for spouses\" earlier in the tool.)  specific preferences for banana cultivars, specific banana traits, or combinations of traits can be identified for men and women?Suggestions for further reading","tokenCount":"2114"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f35626452ebf60dab3d918efc6337b08","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/09a8272a-44fd-4c0d-b9b0-6699894cd901/retrieve","id":"1212060837"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ac106377-018a-4bf4-bdde-860971e95d10","pagecount":"36","content":"established in 1975, provides evidence-based policy solutions to sustainably end hunger and malnutrition and reduce poverty. The Institute conducts research, communicates results, optimizes partnerships, and builds capacity to ensure sustainable food production, promote healthy food systems, improve markets and trade, transform agriculture, build resilience, and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is considered in all of the Institute's work. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world, including development implementers, public institutions, the private sector, and farmers' organizations, to ensure that local, national, regional, and global food policies are based on evidence. IFPRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium.Malnutrition rates in Africa south of the Sahara (SSA) are still high compared to other regions. Stunting, wasting, and underweight currently affect 39.6, 9.4, and 21.4 percent of the children under five in SSA due to lack of nutritious foods and high incidence of disease (UNICEF, WHO, and World Bank 2012). Along these lines, insufficient progress on the Millennium Development Goal on hunger reduction is being shown in several SSA countries. In SSA, more than 60 percent of the population lives in rural areas, and rainfed agriculture is the main or only source of livelihood for most rural households (Faurès and Santini 2008). Due to lack of access to water, agricultural production is normally interrupted during the dry season, when many farmers must rely on food stocks accumulated during the rainy season and/or on food purchases. Furthermore, rainfed cereal crops (for example, maize, sorghum, or millet) are the main source of food and income of many smallholders in SSA, but these have limited nutritional content and low market value and, as a result, have low poverty and malnutrition reduction potential (Burney, Naylor, and Poste 2013).Irrigated agriculture can be an important entry point for malnutrition reduction because water is frequently a limiting factor for crop and livestock production. Irrigation can also reduce vulnerability to droughts and climate change, which are both important drivers of hunger and undernutrition. In SSA, irrigation rates are among the lowest in the world, and therefore the potential for expanding irrigated agriculture in the region is still large. In the developing world, Asia has the greatest share of irrigated land-37 percent of the total cultivated area is equipped for irrigation-and Latin America is second, with 14 percent of cultivated area irrigated (FAOSTAT 2009, quoted in You et al. 2010). In SSA, only a small share of cultivated area-approximately 6 percent-is irrigated, and this is mostly concentrated in three countries: Madagascar, South Africa, and Sudan (You et al. 2010;Frenken 2005;Svendsen, Ewing, and Msangi 2009).Africa's large-scale irrigation potential was estimated at 15 million hectares, and potential for a complementary small-scale component was estimated at 7 million hectares (You et al. 2011). Xie et al. (2014), focusing on various smallholder technologies, estimated a total potential for motor pumps, treadle pumps, small reservoirs, and communal river diversions of 30, 24, 22, and 20 million hectares, respectively, reaching between 113 and 369 million rural beneficiaries across the region. Even though the potential of smallholder irrigation in the region is large, there are significant obstacles, including lack of public support and investment, to achieving the full potential (Giordano et al. 2012).The potential of irrigation to improve nutrition and other outcomes also depends on a series of other factors such as the water source (groundwater, surface water, ponds), relative water availability (single season, supplementary, or full), type of technology (drip or sprinkler systems, deep or shallow tube wells, treadle pumps), size of the system (large-scale versus small-scale), access to agricultural inputs (land, credit, seeds, fertilizer, and so on), socioeconomic features of the household, and institutional rules governing water access and maintenance of water systems (Lipton, Litchfield, and Faurès 2003).Irrigation can provide greater availability and stability of food supplies during the dry season and can enable crop diversification, including greater availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich vegetables and fruits. Other benefits include income generation, improved water supply, and women's empowerment. Irrigation in most contexts has multiple uses, as described in Meinzen-Dick (1997, 1998), such as providing water for bathing, washing, handicraft making, livestock watering, and fish culture, to name a few. In view of the large potential for irrigation expansion in SSA and the potential of irrigation to enhance food security and nutrition outcomes, irrigation could become an important component of nutrition-sensitive programs to help reduce undernutrition incidence in the region.The success of single-sector approaches such as dietary or micronutrient supplementation and the promotion of caregiving practices to improve children's nutrition and health has been mixed (Humphrey 2009;Dewey and Adu-Afarwuah 2008). At the same time, nutrition-sensitive programs that address some of the underlying causes of undernutrition, such as agricultural interventions and safety net programs, are becoming increasingly popular (Ruel and Alderman 2013). Irrigation interventions would fall within this second group, although to date irrigation programs have rarely been implemented as nutrition-sensitive interventions, as policymakers and donors continue to consider them only as agricultural technology strategies.Water access can be provided through small-scale irrigation but also through domestic water supply. Research has shown that advances in equitable access and use of safe water and basic sanitation services and improved hygiene practices, generally grouped together as \"WASH,\" are needed to reduce child mortality, improve health and education outcomes, and contribute to reduced poverty and sustainable development (UNICEF 1990;UN 2006). The direct linkage of WASH with nutrition has also long been recognized. Poor WASH is considered the main cause of diarrhea and other conditions such as environmental enteropathy, which has recently received renewed attention. Diarrhea results in about 2 million deaths of under-fives annually, causes and exacerbates malnutrition, and contributes to stunting (UN 2006). The role of WASH in addressing nutrition and gender outcomes has been well documented and will therefore not be addressed in depth here (see, for example, Esrey et al. 1991;Fewtrell and Colford 2005).We argue that interventions aimed at increasing water availability for livelihood and domestic activities have great potential to improve various determinants of undernutrition, such as the quantity and diversity of foods consumed within the household, income generation, and women's empowerment. In order to test this hypothesis, we conduct a literature review on the available evidence of the impacts of irrigation on nutrition, health, and gender outcomes. Gender variables are given special consideration because women's roles in agriculture and within the household are considered a critical determinant of nutrition and health outcomes (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2012;Fafchamps, Kebede, and Quisumbing 2009). Several review papers have analyzed the available evidence regarding the effect of agricultural interventions on nutrition outcomes, particularly of children and women (Berti, Krasevec, and FitzGerald 2003;World Bank 2007;Masset et al. 2012;Girard et al. 2012;Webb 2013); however, with the exception of home gardens, irrigation interventions were rarely considered in these reviews. This paper aims to address this gap by reviewing the existing literature on the topic. It builds on and expands upon an earlier background paper prepared by Domenech and Ringler (2013).The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the main impact pathways between irrigation and improved nutrition and health are identified. The methodology is described in Section 3. In Section 4, the main results and research gaps encountered for the identified pathways are summarized. Some suggestions on how to design more nutrition-sensitive irrigation interventions are provided in Section 5. The paper ends with some concluding remarks.The financial, human, physical, social, and natural capital and the assets available to the household determine the type of livelihoods households rely on. If water is available and farmers have access to it, irrigated agriculture can become an important livelihood strategy for rural households. Irrigation water may add great value to cultivated lands, especially in areas where rainfall is scarce or erratic. At the same time, some risks or undesired outcomes can also result from irrigation interventions if programs disregard the environmental, social, economic, and political context they are embedded in. The use of water for irrigation can increase agricultural productivity significantly, especially during the dry season. The Agricultural Water Management Solutions project estimated large yield improvements from smallholder irrigation in SSA. Irrigated maize yields could increase by 141-195 percent and paddy yields by 270-283 percent, compared to rainfed yields based on an ex ante smallholder irrigation technology assessment (Xie et al. 2014). Irrigation would also increase labor demand, particularly in the lean or dry season. However, use of agrochemicals would also increase.The number and type of crops that farmers grow also changes with irrigated agriculture. The type of technology used, the size of landholding, and the irrigation system (large-scale versus small-scale) will influence crop selection and diversity (monoculture versus vegetables and fruits). Smallholder irrigation systems are frequently used to grow micronutrient-rich vegetables, fruits, and other cash crops during the dry season. As a result, small-scale irrigation can provide greater availability and stability of food supplies and crop diversification (Molden 2007).Besides greater availability of foods, other factors are also important determinants of food security and related nutrition outcomes (Berti, Krasevec, and FitzGerald 2003). Food security is usually defined according to four pillars, or dimensions, that need to be maintained over time: food availability, access, utilization, and stability (FAO 2009). Food availability refers to the existence of adequate food supply from domestic agriculture or food imports. Food access involves a household's ability to obtain food in the market or from other sources, which is usually determined by a household's income and the existence of markets. Food utilization refers to the ability to consume nutritious foods and benefit from them (Burney et al. 2010). And finally, food stability refers to the ability to obtain food over time.Irrigated agriculture is frequently used to grow nutritious vegetables and fruits throughout the year, with important nutritional and health benefits for the households consuming them. Irrigation water can also be used to grow irrigated fodder or to support livestock-rearing activities leading to increased availability of animal-source foods within the household. Consumption of dark green leafy vegetables and animal-source foods can help reduce anemia incidence due to their high iron content. Iron deficiency is a risk factor for maternal mortality and is responsible for 115,000 deaths annually and 0.4 percent of global total disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (Black et al. 2008). Orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, pumpkins, and other vitamin A-rich foods can reduce night blindness and susceptibility to illness. Deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc cause 0.6 million and 0.4 million annual deaths, respectively, and a combined 9 percent of global childhood DALYs (Black et al. 2008). Additionally, if children are exposed prenatally and during the first two years of life to more nutritious diets, the number of children affected by stunting will likely decrease (UNICEF 2013).Vegetables, fruits, and animal-source foods are usually marketable and highly profitable products and, consequently, they can also be an important source of income for the household. However, the lack of access to reliable markets in some remote communities may hinder income generation from irrigation activities (Chazovachii 2012). Having access to information about the demand and supply of agricultural products, how to preserve them, and the right time to sell these perishable products without loss of quality is also critical for smallholders using irrigation. Ethiopian households with access to market information earned US$1,297 more than households that had deficient market information (Aseyehegn, Yirga, and Rajan 2012). Large, successful irrigation programs can also affect food prices. Nonirrigators, in both rural and urban areas, may benefit from reduced prices due to greater availability of staples and other food products (Lipton, Litchfield, and Faurès 2003).Women's roles in agriculture and within the household also have an important influence on household food security and nutrition, as women tend to prioritize household nutrition and health over other expenditures. If women are farming their own plots and have access to irrigation technologies, then the productivity of female-managed plots may increase, and income from the increase in productivity may also grow, which is likely to lead to women's empowerment and nutritional gains within the household (Njuki et al. 2014;Burney et al. 2010).In addition to crop irrigation, irrigation water might be employed for other purposes such as drinking and other domestic uses, handicraft making, sanitation, and livestock rearing, with associated benefits for health and nutrition (Meinzen-Dick 1997, 1998). Women may particularly benefit from improved access to water because women are usually responsible for water-collection chores. The time saved may allow women to participate more actively in income-generating, caregiving, and social activities (Upadhyay, Samad, and Giordano 2005;Njuki et al. 2014). Better water access, sanitation, and hygiene will also lead to a healthier environment and a reduced incidence of disease, with resulting improved children's growth and development (Humphrey 2009;Chambers and Von Medeazza 2013).Overall, five main impact pathways linking irrigation to nutrition and health outcomes are identified in this paper: irrigation as a source of more and more diverse foods (through increased agricultural productivity and crop diversification); irrigation as a source of income (from market sales and employment generation); irrigation as a source of water supply, sanitation, and hygiene (through multiple water use); irrigation as new vector-breeding habitat and a source of water pollution (from agrochemicals); and irrigation as an entry point for women's empowerment (through increased asset ownership and control over resources) (Figure 2.1).Source: Author. We searched for peer-reviewed papers and gray literature using the following keywords alone or in combinations: irrigation, nutrition, health, food security, anthropometrics, dietary diversity, women's empowerment, gender, water supply, sanitation, livestock, and irrigated fodder. We used Google Scholar to conduct the search. Some studies were also found by cross-checking the reference lists of selected studies and by discussing the review project with other colleagues.The final list of studies included in the review can be found in Table 3.1. We kept only studies that used primary data collection and included some measurement of food security, nutrition, health, and gender outcomes of irrigation interventions. Another inclusion criterion was a description of methods in sufficient detail. Original papers that measured the impact of home gardens on these outcomes were also included in the review, as home gardens typically need to be watered periodically, especially in arid and semiarid areas. Home gardens are also of particular interest for this review because they have great potential to increase household food security. Fruits and vegetables grown in these plots are usually kept for home consumption or sold in local markets (Girard et al. 2012;Iannotti, Cunningham, and Ruel 2009). Furthermore, women are frequently in control of home garden products, and therefore home gardens can be an important entry point for women's empowerment (Bushamuka et al. 2005).In total, 27 papers were systematically reviewed. Almost all the studies reviewed had their study focus in SSA, except for 5 that studied Asian cases. Dams and canal irrigation were the main type of irrigation used in 12 studies, while small-scale private irrigation was used in 8 studies. Micro-irrigation technologies were the main focus of 5 studies, home gardens of 4, and irrigation with wastewater of 1. Information on the main features of the irrigation system was missing in the rest of the studies (Table 3.1).The most common evaluation method used in the papers reviewed involved a comparison of outcomes between irrigation adopters and nonadopters. Sample selection bias was an important limitation of the evaluation design in many of the papers reviewed, but some of the papers minimized this problem by using propensity score matching methods. Self-selection bias is a common limitation of this kind of evaluation study because randomizing the households adopting irrigation technologies is often difficult. Households with higher education and income levels are more likely to adopt irrigation technologies and, accordingly, the outcome variables measured (for example, nutrition outcomes) may differ due to these unobservable characteristics and not due to the use of irrigation. Panel data (before/after) analysis was conducted in six studies in order to monitor any changes induced by the intervention over time. Only three studies (four papers) followed the most typical experimental design, including both the before/after analysis and the adopter/nonadopter comparison. Some studies also collected qualitative data to allow for more descriptive analyses of irrigation outcomes.  Irrigation can lead to crucial changes in the livelihood and food security of smallholders. The four food security dimensions-food availability, access, utilization, and stability-are likely to change as a result of increased water availability for crop production and other uses. Irrigation can have a direct impact on food availability because of increased productivity and changes in cropping patterns. Moreover, irrigation will likely increase the stability of the food supply because irrigation's main role is to enhance water control, thus reducing or eliminating potentially adverse impacts on production from too little rain. However, do more food available and possibly more income translate into increased food access and utilization? Greater availability of food can certainly favor greater food intake, but this might not always be true in an intrahousehold setting. Irrigated crops are often cash crops, and cash crops are often men's domain. If decisions regarding the crop are in male hands, including the sale and income from the sale, then intrahousehold food and nutrition outcomes might not improve (Quisumbing et al. 1995). Thus, gender dynamics and women's roles in irrigated agriculture are important determinants of food access and utilization.At the same time, the consumption of more nutritious foods might not be sufficient to achieve normal growth and cognitive development in children. Nutritious diets are certainly a requirement for children's healthy growth, but other conditions such as a healthy environment are also needed. Irrigation can have a dual effect on the environment, improving sanitary and water supply conditions but also competing with or polluting domestic water resources and increasing the incidence of some water-borne diseases, such as malaria. In the next section we attempt to explore all these linkages for the case of irrigation, drawing on the existing literature on the topic.Irrigation can improve crop productivity in three main ways: reduced crop loss due to access to more reliable water supply, multiple cropping as a result of being able to plant during the dry/lean season, and a greater area of cultivated land due to the use of areas where rainfed production was formerly unfeasible (Lipton, Litchfield, and Faurès 2003). Meeting crop water demands on time itself increases crop yields under irrigated compared to rainfed conditions. However, depending on the location, much of the yield increase is due to increased application of complementary inputs under water-secure conditions. Moreover, irrigated varieties are generally higher yielding than rainfed varieties, as water control allows for better application of complementary agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides; much research and development effort has therefore been expended on varieties grown in irrigated environments.Agricultural productivity gains will also depend on the type of irrigation systems and inputs used. Micro-irrigation technologies, for example, can lead to yield gains of up to 100 percent over conventional irrigation systems (Burney et al. 2010).Out of the 27 studies used in the review, 13 gathered some data on agricultural productivity (Table 4.1). However, only a few studies included rainfed and irrigated agriculture productivity comparisons. In Ethiopia, Aseyehegn, Yirga, and Rajan (2012) documented that farmers using irrigation systems produced crops twice, and sometimes even three times, per year as opposed to a single cropping season with rainfed agriculture. FAO (2000) analyzed differences in agricultural productivity between rainfed and irrigated systems in ten smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe. Higher yields than those obtained with rainfed agriculture were reported in five of the irrigation schemes evaluated. For instance, maize yields in one of the schemes studied were between 6 and 9 tons per hectare, compared to 1 to 2 tons per hectare under rainfed conditions. The rest of the schemes showed yields that were lower or comparable to those of rainfed agriculture. These low yields were attributed to lack of inputs and little commitment of farmers to the irrigation scheme (FAO 2000). Nkhata (2014) also compared yield differences between irrigation adopters growing rice and maize and nonadopters in Malawi. Rice yields were higher among irrigation adopters, even though nonadopters had larger landholdings. Nonadopters explained in informal interviews that floods and droughts affected their rice yields. An increase in agricultural productivity as a result of irrigation adoption can lead to increased food availability either for own consumption or for marketing and income generation. Mangisoni (2008) compared the annual income per hectare of treadle pump users and nonusers in Malawi. The net farm income per hectare was US$770 for treadle pump users compared to US$131 for nonusers. The paper also explored the impact of irrigation on food availability.As a result of increased agricultural productivity, demand for labor within the household and in neighboring communities may also increase, which is particularly significant during the dry season because job opportunities are less abundant. Thus, irrigation systems can increase the purchasing power of seasonal workers and members of low-income households, who may decide to use the additional income to purchase nutritious foods. Namara et al. (2011) studied the impact of shallow groundwater irrigation on labor demand. In the 35 communities included in the study from the White Volta Basin in Ghana, shallow groundwater irrigation created a demand for labor estimated at 214 full-time equivalent workers per year during a season of three to four months when employment alternatives were almost nonexistent in the region. The total contribution of shallow groundwater irrigation to the economy of the 35 communities surveyed was estimated at US$1.1 million. In Zimbabwe, the workers in the ten irrigation schemes evaluated were mostly paid in kind, which was shown to have positive benefits in terms of food security and nutrition (FAO 2000).The types of crops grown are also likely to change with the introduction of irrigated agriculture because new crops can be planted in a second season and greater water availability enables farmers to grow crops that would be unsuitable for cultivation under rainfed conditions. However, irrigation adoption can sometimes also lead to monocropping, as reported by Hossain, Naher, and Shahabuddin (2005), who correlated the expansion of shallow wells for small-scale irrigation in Bangladesh with an increase in monocropping of rice and a reduction in the production of pulses and oilseeds, which were both important micronutrient and protein sources.Cash crops are frequently grown on irrigated lands. Namara, Upadhyay, and Nagar (2005) reported cropping pattern changes in India after the installation of micro-irrigation technologies, with micro-irrigation adopters producing more diverse crops, including high-value and water-intensive crops, than farmers using traditional irrigation methods. Cash crops are typically sold in the market and can result in additional income to former subsistence farmers. Growing cash crops is also important in order to make irrigation worthwhile, as the operation and maintenance costs of irrigation systems are typically high (FAO 2000). Nkhata (2014) compared the income of households using irrigation to grow one crop only (rice) and households growing two crops (rice and maize) in the Bwanje Valley Irrigation Scheme in Malawi. Agricultural income was 34 percent higher for households growing two crops, as maize was usually used for self-consumption and surplus rice was sold in the market. However, no differences were observed in the daily per capita caloric intake of the two groups.Irrigation can be very important to boost vegetable production in countries with low vegetable production and consumption. For example, in Burkina Faso the spread in the use of buckets, watering cans, and small motor pumps contributed to an increase in vegetable production from 60,000 tons in 1996 to 160,000 tons in 2005 (Fraiture and Giordano 2014). In most of the papers reviewed, irrigation is either exclusively or to some extent used to grow vegetables and fruits (Table 3.1).Given the continued limited supply options in much of Africa, farmers can easily sell vegetables and fruits locally to gain additional income, with additional positive nutritional impacts on the rest of the community (Burney, Naylor, and Poste 2013). A study of the impact of treadle pumps in East Africa revealed that irrigators sold a greater proportion of irrigated crops as compared with rainfed crops. In Kenya and Tanzania, 73 percent and 83 percent, respectively, of the irrigated crops produced by men were commercialized. A significant share of the crops grown (tomato, kale, cabbage, amaranth) was sold in the local village market or to neighbors, thus increasing food availability in the community (Nkonya et al. 2011).From a nutritional point of view, vegetables and fruits are very valuable products because of their high iron, vitamin A, zinc, and other micronutrient content. Homestead food production programs implemented by Helen Keller International and others successfully improved the amount of vegetables produced by intervention households (Olney et al. 2009;Iannotti, Cunningham, and Ruel 2009). Because an important share of the food produced in homestead gardens is consumed within the household, homestead gardens can contribute significantly to improved and diversified diets. Pellegrini and Tasciotti (2014) assessed the impact of crop diversification on households' dietary diversity in eight developing countries. In all the countries studied there was a positive relationship between the number of crops produced by rural households and the food groups consumed. Hence, crop diversification is an important determinant of improved diet quality. Variables such as level of education, age of the head of the household, share of female members in the family, per capita expenditure, land size, and household size increased the probability of having a more diverse diet. Irrigation variables were not included in this study.Irrigation can improve the amount of food available to the household through two main channels. The amount and diversity of home grown food can improve as a result of having access to irrigation water, and households may be able to purchase more food as a result of having more income from the sale of irrigated products. Most of the studies included in the review (21 out of 27) include some measure of food security and/or dietary intake indicators (Table 4.1). The high number of studies falling into this category is not surprising because this was one of the main inclusion criteria for the review. However, only 11 of the studies selected focused primarily on food security and nutrition outcomes (Table 3.1). The other studies aimed at analyzing the impact of irrigation on well-being or other socioeconomic aspects, and food security was only one of several outcomes studied. These more general studies present, for the most part, only broad measures of food (in)security, such as the number of days or months households are unable to meet household food needs (Adeoti et al. 2007;Bagson and Wuleka Kuuder 2013;FAO 2000;Namara, Upadhyay, and Nagar 2005;Njuki et al. 2014;Peter 2011).The studies with a stronger food security or nutrition focus generally provide more comprehensive indicators of food consumption and dietary adequacy, including information on food expenditures, daily caloric intake, or dietary diversity measures (Benefice and Simondon 1993;Dillon 2008;Ersado 2005;Kirogo, Kogi-Makau, and Muroki 2007;Namara et al. 2011;Olney et al. 2009;Steiner-Asiedu et al. 2012;Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb 1989).The studies reviewed generally show that irrigation adoption leads to increased and improved diets. However, most of the studies do not specify whether the improvement of the diets arises from more home grown food available or from an increase of marketable surplus leading to more food being purchased by the household. In the Sudano-Sahel region, Burney et al. (2010) analyzed the food security situation of beneficiaries of solar-powered drip irrigation systems installed in communal gardens. The consumption of vegetables during the dry season increased among program beneficiaries, and irrigators were 17 percent less likely to feel chronically food insecure one year after the implementation of the project. Mangisoni (2008) analyzed the impact of treadle pump adoption on the food security situation of adopters and nonadopters in Malawi. In this study, food security was defined as having enough food to last until the next harvest (May) of every year. More than 70 percent of the households stated that they were food insecure before the installation of the treadle pumps; after adoption of the new technology only 9 percent of the households reported experiencing food insecurity. Food security was also analyzed in the same study by comparing the maize deficit-defined as less than 270 kilograms of maize equivalent per year per capita-of treadle pump users and nonusers. Maize deficit was detected in only 9 percent of the users, compared to 60 percent of the nonusers. Also in Malawi, Nkhata (2014), after controlling for selection bias, estimated the daily per capita caloric intake of rice and maize for irrigators and nonirrigators. The daily per capita caloric intake was on average 103 calories, or 10 percent, higher among irrigators.Several studies use household food expenditures and the percentage of household expenditure devoted to food as indicators of food security. Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb (1989) assessed the links among production, income, consumption, and nutrition in rice irrigation projects in the Gambia. The cultivation of rice increased the real income of farmers by 13 percent. The study also concluded that an additional 10 percent in annual income led to a 9.4 percent increase in food expenditures and a 4.8 percent increase in calorie consumption. Sinyolo, Mudhara, and Wale (2014) also report significant differences in food and nonfood consumption expenditures between irrigators and nonirrigators. Irrigators spent about 25 percent more on food than nonirrigators.More complex measures of food security and nutrition, such as daily caloric intake, dietary diversity indicators, and weighed food records, are used in only eight of the studies reviewed (Benefice and Simondon 1993;Dillon 2008;Kirogo, Kogi-Makau, and Muroki 2007;Namara, Upadhyay, and Nagar 2005;Njuki et al. 2014;Olney et al. 2009;Steiner-Asiedu et al. 2012;Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb 1989), all of which had assessment of nutrition outcomes as a primary objective. Household dietary diversity is a useful indicator of the economic ability of households to access a variety of foods, while individual dietary diversity scores, usually used for children and women, are good indicators of nutritional adequacy (FAO 2010). Household dietary diversity is analyzed in Namara et al. (2011) and Olney et al. (2009), while individual dietary diversity is analyzed in Olney et al. (2009) and Kirogo, Kogi-Makau, and Muroki (2007). The evaluation of the impact of the Hellen Keller International homestead food production program on household and child nutrition conducted by Olney et al. (2009) in Cambodia is the only study that includes both household and individual dietary diversity measures. The authors conclude that in comparison to the control group, the program increased household consumption of micronutrientrich foods such as dark green leafy vegetables and yellow or orange fruits, and maternal and child intake of some of these foods (for example, eggs and dark green leafy vegetables). Following the implementation of the homestead food production program, household dietary diversity scores had also increased more in the intervention group than in the control group. Similarly, Dillon (2008) compared the daily caloric intake of households with and without access to canal irrigation in Mali. Households with access to irrigation increased their daily caloric intake by 1,836 calories, while those without irrigation decreased their daily caloric intake by 925 calories between 1998 and 2006.Some of the studies selected for review also report mixed or inconclusive results in terms of the impact of irrigation on food security and nutrition. Namara et al. (2011) compared the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) of farmers practicing rainfed agriculture with that of farmers practicing groundwater irrigation in Ghana. Farmers were asked about the household consumption of a set of 12 food groups during the 24-hour period prior to the interview. Nonsignificant differences between rainfed farmers (6.3) and irrigated farmers (6.5) were found. Remarkably, the farmers using permanent shallowwell irrigation had the lowest HDDS. Benefice and Simondon (1993) also present mixed results with regard to the positive contribution of irrigation to food security and nutrition outcomes. They compared quantities of food consumed in the Senegal River Valley before and after the introduction of a modern irrigation system in 1989 by using weighed food records. Between 1957 and 1991 consumption of rice and vegetables, the main irrigated crops, increased, as did intake of vitamin A, C, and B 3. However, consumption of fish, meat, and fresh milk decreased, along with intake of calcium, vitamin B2, and iron.The installation of irrigation systems sometimes leads to monocropping, and in this case, irrigation may have negative impacts on nutrition. According to Hossain, Naher, and Shahabuddin (2005), who used secondary data in their analysis, an increase in rice production resulting from investments in small-scale irrigation in Bangladesh led to increased rice intake and reduced dietary diversity among the poorest households.Irrigation systems can also improve the intake of animal-source foods as a result of higher revenues and improved livestock productivity. Livestock and other small animals can use water from irrigation systems for drinking and bathing (Meinzen-Dick 1997). Irrigation can also increase the amount of feed available for livestock in the dry season and, as a result, expenditures on forage may decrease. For example, irrigation water can be used to produce irrigated fodder. In Africa, 14 percent of the irrigated land is used to grow irrigated fodder, mostly in Egypt, Sudan, and other parts of the northern and southern regions (Frenken 2005). Irrigated fodder production can help increase livestock and dairy productivity and, consequently, lead to increased consumption of animal-source foods. Animal-source foods have important nutritional benefits, as they are important sources of vitamin A, iron, vitamin B2, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12, all important for young children (Murphy and Allen 2003). Livestock are also an important asset against income shocks, such as crop failures resulting from natural disasters.Fodder irrigation was not practiced in any of the irrigation projects reviewed, but 14 of the papers selected included some sort of information on the relationship between irrigation and livestock productivity. In Tigray (Ethiopia) income gains from livestock were 14 percent higher among irrigation users compared to nonusers, suggesting that irrigation had a positive impact on livestock productivity (Aseyehegn, Yirga, and Rajan 2012). Dillon (2008) also found positive impacts of irrigation on livestock accumulation in northern Mali. Using propensity score matching methods, irrigation was found to increase livestock holdings by 5.8 to 6.4 total livestock units. The study also showed that protein consumption increased significantly among irrigators between 1997/1998 and 2006, which presumably could be attributed to higher incomes and larger livestock holdings. The difference-in-differences test estimates 77.6 grams of additional household daily protein intake for households with irrigation. Remarkably, protein intake decreased among nonirrigators.Other studies, such as Olney et al. (2009), Namara et al. (2011), and Sinyolo, Mudhara, and Wale (2014), did not find any significant impact of irrigation on livestock production. Only Olney et al. assessed the impact of a homestead production program on the intake of animal-source foods, but no significant improvements between control and intervention households were found. Only egg consumption by children and mothers increased when compared to control households.Irrigation systems (canals, ponds, dams) can also provide habitats for fish, crustaceans, and mollusks (Meinzen-Dick 1997), which can be important sources of micronutrients for some communities. Despite the high nutritional value of fish, little attention was devoted to fish production and consumption in the studies reviewed.A more varied diet is usually associated with positive effects on birth weight, child anthropometric status, and hemoglobin concentrations (Hoddinott and Yohannes 2002). While several studies present evidence that irrigation leads to increased and improved diets, evidence about the linkage between irrigation and the nutritional status of individuals remains limited, as few studies collected data on these indicators. Of the 27 studies reviewed, only 7 collected anthropometric data to assess the nutritional status of children; 2 also collected data for the mothers (Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb 1989;Olney et al 2009). Information on health outcomes is also limited. Seven studies present data on morbidity-related indicators such as health expenditures or incidence of disease, and only 3 studies present clinical data, essentially anemia prevalence. Olney et al. (2009) showed that having an improved home garden led to increased production and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods in Cambodia. However, the study found no evidence of program impact on child and maternal anthropometrics or anemia prevalence, and therefore the authors concluded that \"the relationship broke down in the link between child and maternal diversity scores and health and nutrition outcomes.\" Nevertheless, other positive effects on health were documented. A lower prevalence of fever among children from intervention households in the two weeks prior to the survey was reported during the endline survey. Kirogo, Kogi-Makau, and Muroki (2007) compared the nutritional and anthropometric status of children under five from households with and without irrigation in Kenya. The prevalence of stunting and underweight was higher among children from households without irrigation, although differences were not significant. Significantly higher HAZ (height-for-age Z-score) was estimated among higher-income households with irrigation, and significantly higher WAZ (weight-for-age Z-score) was estimated among commercial households with irrigation in comparison to equivalent groups without irrigation. These results suggest that enhanced food production as a result of irrigation leads to higher food availability and improved nutritional status, but results are not conclusive.Steiner-Asiedu et al. ( 2012) also analyzed the impact of irrigation on child nutritional status one and two years after irrigation was introduced in the Sissala West District of Ghana. Irrigation did not appear to have a positive effect on the nutritional status of children. According to the dietary intake records, most children (95.9 percent), from both control and interventions groups, did not meet their minimum energy requirements. Severe wasting was affecting 11, 21, and 12 percent of children in the control, one-year intervention, and two-year intervention communities, respectively, while severe underweight affected 9, 19, and 9 percent of the children in the control, one-year intervention, and twoyear intervention communities, respectively. Overall, lower incidence of wasting and underweight was found in the control communities. The authors attribute these results partially to the fact that after the construction of the dam, the involvement of women in farm activities and the time spent outside the house increased, to the detriment of childcare. However, the authors also note that the control communities had mothers with more education than the intervention communities, which could also explain the higher nutritional status of children in control communities.A seasonal comparison of the nutritional status of children and their mothers in areas with and without irrigation was conducted in the Gambia. Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb (1989) collected anthropometric data of children under ten and their mothers during the dry and wet seasons in 1985/1986. Cause-and-effect relationships between the project and the nutritional status of children were again difficult to establish. Higher levels of stunting and wasting were found in the group of children without access to irrigation. However, underweight prevalence was higher among the group of children with access to irrigation. Seasonally, prevalence of undernutrition was higher in the wet season, when food supplies are lower; this effect was more significant for wasting, as weight-for-height values reflect the short-term (acute) nutritional situation. In line with these results, weight fluctuations between the wet and dry season were smaller among women who benefited from irrigation, suggesting that seasonal imbalances between energy intake and energy expenditure were also smaller among these women. Besides lack of food, in a multivariate analysis unclean water and infectious diseases were identified as important determinants of undernutrition. High prevalence of diarrhea was associated with lower heightfor-age and weight-for-age; however, the relationship was not significant for weight-for-height. The authors concluded that the prevalence of diarrhea was probably an indicator of unhygienic conditions in the home, with important effects on the long-term (chronic) nutritional situation. Benefice and Simondon (1993) measured HAZ, WAZ, and WHZ (weight-for-height Z-score) outcomes three times at six-month intervals among 315 children after the introduction of flood irrigation in the Middle Valley of Senegal. No variation in the prevalence of undernutrition measured as HAZ, WAZ, and WHZ was observed from one visit to another. The authors also compared anthropometric data collected in 1983 with data collected in 1991 after the intervention. No significant differences in the prevalence of wasting were encountered among children under five. However, thinness among children of five to ten years and among adults had been reduced. The authors attributed the lack of improvement in anthropometric indicators among small children to the lower progress made in Senegal in water supply and sanitation as compared to food production improvements. They argued that older children are better protected against infections associated with lack of adequate water and sanitation and, therefore, improvements in food consumption are more likely to translate into a better nutrition status in that group (for example, lower prevalence of wasting).A negative effect of small-scale irrigation on health was reported in northern Ethiopia (Ersado 2005). The number of days male and female adults spent sick in intervention villages was significantly higher than in control villages, mostly due to a higher incidence of malaria. More labor time was also lost in intervention villages due to sickness. Women spent three times as much time at home taking care of sick family members in villages near a microdam than in control areas.In contrast, irrigation may favor higher investments in healthcare, education, water, and sanitation as a result of higher incomes. However, current evidence of this linkage is scarce or inconclusive. For example, Burney et al. (2010) found nonsignificant changes in healthcare expenditures for irrigators compared to nonirrigators. Additionally, Aseyenhegn, Yirga, and Rajan (2012), by comparing several features of irrigation users and nonusers, concluded that healthy households are more likely to adopt irrigation technologies in Tigray, Ethiopia. By extension, we could assume that Ethiopian households with irrigation were presumably healthier than households without irrigation.Irrigation water may be used for different domestic purposes such as drinking, washing, bathing, and hygiene or for other productive purposes such as livestock rearing, aquatic production, or small businesses (Meinzen-Dick 1997). Sometimes the multiple uses of irrigation water emerge in an unplanned way, but other times multiple-use considerations are incorporated into the design of irrigation systems in order to fulfill users' needs and avoid damage to the system or conflicting situations (Renault, Wahaj, and Smits 2013;van Koppen et al. 2009).Due to the multiple uses of irrigation water, irrigation programs can sometimes lead to improved WASH (water, sanitation, and hygiene) in communities suffering from lack of access to adequate water supply and sanitation. An example of this is found in the Bwanje Valley Irrigation Scheme in Malawi. As part of the irrigation program, 13 boreholes for domestic use were constructed in the intervention communities (Nkhata 2014). Another example of a multiple-use irrigation system can be found in Pakistan, in van der Hoek, Feenstra, and Konradsen (2002).The nutritional status of children depends not only on food consumption and dietary adequacy but on other factors such as water supply and sanitation and incidence of disease (Benefice and Simondon 1993;Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb 1989). The results of a meta-analysis conducted in a recent Cochrane Review point at a slight but statistically significant effect of WASH interventions on HAZ in children under five years of age (Dangour et al. 2013). Despite these indications, very few rigorous trials have evaluated the effect of WASH on nutrition outcomes (see Dangour et al. 2013).Diarrhea, nematode infections, and environmental enteropathy are the main pathways from poor WASH to child undernutrition (Dangour et al. 2013). Diarrhea and nematode infections have typically been considered important causes of severe undernutrition, but environmental enteropathy has only recently started to receive more attention as an important underestimated determinant of undernutrition (Lin et al. 2013;Spears, Ghosh, and Cumming 2013;Humphrey 2009). Chambers and Von Medeazza (2013) argue that the role of environmental enteropathy as a driver of undernutrition may be greater than diarrhea. Environmental enteropathy is a subclinical disorder of the small intestine caused by lack of access to adequate sanitation and poor hygiene conditions. Environmental enteropathy damages the wall of the small intestine and the intestinal villi and, as a result, the area and the capacity to absorb nutrients is reduced. In addition, energy and nutrients are diverted from growth to the immune system in order to fight the infection (Korpe and Petri 2012). The reduced visibility of environmental enteropathy and the fact that this disorder is far more difficult to test for than diarrhea have contributed to the underappreciation of this illness in nutrition-related research.Despite its relevance for nutrition and health, only eight studies included in the review documented to some extent the WASH situation of the households using irrigated agriculture, and among those that did so, most collected little information on the topic. Only one of the studies systematically assessed the effect of irrigation on the WASH and health condition of the intervention households (Van der Hoek, Feenstra, and Konradsen 2002). The authors concluded that greater water availability for domestic purposes as a result of irrigation adoption was associated with a lower prevalence of diarrhea and stunting among Pakistani children. Von Braun, Puetz, and Webb (1989) also showed in a mulitvariate analysis that lower water quality was associated with higher levels of stunting among children in the Gambia.Although irrigation interventions can have many positive effects on health, some potential negative effects also need to be examined. Irrigation schemes may alter vector-breeding habitats and, as a result, the risk of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and schistosomiasis may change too. Among the studies selected for review, only Ersado (2005) measured the effect of irrigation on the prevalence of water-borne diseases. Ersado analyzed the impact of microdam construction on malaria and schistosomiasis incidence in Tigray (Ethiopia). Malaria incidence was significantly higher in intervention villages-32 percent among households in microdam villages, compared to 19 percent in control villages. Remarkably, and in spite of the higher incidence of water-borne diseases and associated higher health expenditures and time lost being sick in intervention areas, the authors concluded that the marginal benefit of the investment in irrigation offset the costs.Several other studies analyze the effect of irrigation systems on vector-borne diseases (see literature reviews from Ijumba and Lindsay 2001;Keiser et al. 2005), and the results depict a complex picture. The effect of irrigation on the incidence of vector-borne diseases depends on multiple factors, such as the epidemiologic setting, the ecology of the area, and the socioeconomic status of the population (Keiser et al. 2005;Wielgosz et al. 2012). Keiser et al. (2005) analyzed the results of 11 studies conducted in irrigation areas of stable malaria transmission in Africa. None of the studies found evidence of increased prevalence of malaria in irrigated villages as compared with nonirrigated villages. A lower incidence of malaria was even reported in some of the studies; this lower incidence was attributed to improved socioeconomic status, effective vector-control programs, and changes in health-related behavior. Another explanation for the lower incidence of malaria in certain contexts was found in the use of insecticide-treated nets and the differing presence of cattle in irrigated villages. Unprotected cattle seemed to attract mosquitos diverted by insecticide-treated nets. However, a greater risk of malaria incidence was found in irrigation villages with unstable malaria prevalence, where people have little or no immunity to malaria parasites (Keiser et al. 2005). Similarly, Ijumba, and Lindsay (2001) concluded that irrigation systems do not seem to increase malaria risk in Africa, with the exception of areas of unstable transmission.Negative outcomes of irrigation on health may also result from the increased use of complementary inputs, such as pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemical products, due to the higher input intensity of irrigated agriculture. Pesticides may cause acute poisoning through intentional or accidental exposure and through long-term exposure-for instance, through the ingestion of pesticide residues on food or in drinking water. Human poisoning by pesticides is becoming a growing concern in developing countries, where the use of pesticides is mostly unregulated and where handling practices are often inadequate or unsafe. The most reported health problems associated with pesticide exposure include neurological abnormalities; respiratory diseases; and reproductive, endocrinological, and dermal problems (Kesavachandran et al. 2009). Successful capacity building in safe pesticide management remains an important area for action research in Africa south of the Sahara. The World Health Organization (WHO 1990, quoted in Eddleston et al. 2002) estimated that every year, three million people are poisoned by pesticides, causing 220,000 deaths worldwide, including many suicides.The number of studies analyzing the effect of irrigation adoption on pesticide use and associated health impacts remains limited. Only one of the studies included in the review examined these linkages. Clarke et al. (1997) researched the prevalence of symptoms associated with organophosphorus pesticides and carbamates among irrigation workers in Ghana. The study revealed that the three symptoms of headache, blurred vision, and nausea/vomiting were significantly higher (at 5 percent significance level) among irrigators as compared with a control group of teachers, which suggests that farm laborers and owners of irrigated lands are more likely to be exposed to harmful chemicals. The level of cholinesterase was significantly lower in the subjects exposed to pesticides than in controls, indicating a lower activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Organophosphorus pesticides and carbamates inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase at nerve endings (Clarke et al. 1997).The use of groundwater naturally contaminated with arsenic for irrigation purposes poses another potential risk for human health. Bangladesh is the country most affected by arsenic contamination, though high levels of arsenic in groundwater have also been reported in other countries, such as China, India, Nepal, Thailand, Argentina, and Chile. Several studies have shown that the use of arsenic-contaminated water for irrigation can lead to arsenic accumulation in the soil and successive contamination of crops, which can pose a threat to human health and long-term loss of yields. Rice crops are prone to arsenic contamination because their cultivation demands high volumes of water and flooded conditions. A review study by Heikens (2006) concluded that none of the existing toxicity data represent field conditions sufficiently well. It also noted that a better understanding of the relationship between arsenic in the soil and its uptake and toxicity is needed.Wastewater from urban and peri-urban areas is increasingly used for irrigation purposes in waterscarce regions. Although wastewater provides important nutrients for soils and plant growth, it can also contain heavy metals and pathogens that can be harmful to soils and crops irrigated with wastewater. Furthermore, wastewater is often used without taking appropriate precautions to diminish health and environmental risks (Jawahar and Ringler 2009). It has been estimated that around 20 million hectares are irrigated with wastewater, mainly in Asia, Europe, South America, and the United States, and about 10 percent of the world's population could be consuming foods produced with wastewater (van der Hoek 2004, quoted in Srinivasan and Reddy 2009;Hamilton et al. 2007, quoted in Srinivasan andReddy 2009;WHO 2006, quoted in Srinivasan andReddy 2009). Srinivasan and Reddy (2009) compared the morbidity rates of six villages that used wastewater for irrigation with one control village irrigated with normal-quality water in the peri-urban areas of Hyderabad, India. Higher rates of morbidity, especially among females, were observed in the villages using wastewater as an irrigation source. The costs of illness, including direct and indirect costs, were also analyzed, but no statistically significant differences were found between control and wastewater-irrigating villages.Women play a significant role in the agricultural sector (Quisumbing et al. 2014). However, women often have limited access to land, water, labor, capital, technology, information, and other assets (Molden 2007;Goh 2012). The gender of the person who has control over and access to assets has important implications for health and nutrition outcomes because men and women usually have different preferences about how to allocate resources. For instance, women tend to invest more in household nutrition, education, and health (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2012). In addition, women are usually responsible for food preparation and childcare. Thus, empowering women can make an important contribution to improved food security and child nutrition (Quisumbing et al. 1995;Smith et al. 2003;Malapit et al. 2013;Sraboni et al. 2014).According to van Koppen (2002), the impact of irrigation interventions on women's empowerment largely depends on whether women are farm decisionmakers or simply family laborers. In other words, if women mobilize inputs themselves and are included in irrigation institutions, they are more likely to benefit from irrigation interventions. With this in mind, van Koppen developed a gender performance indicator for irrigation to analyze the presence or absence of gender-based differences in collectively managed schemes. Three main aspects are part of the indicator: who the farm decisionmakers are (males, females, mixed), participation in forums (such as water associations), and share in leadership positions.Another indicator that could potentially be used to measure the effect of irrigation interventions on gender is the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), developed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), IFPRI, and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI). This indicator comprises two subindexes-five domains of empowerment (5DE) and a gender parity index (GPI), the latter of which reflects the percentage of women who are as empowered as the men in their households. The 5DE tailored to the case of irrigation could be (USAID, IFPRI, and OPHI 2012):• Production: Decisions about irrigated production • Resources: Access to and decisionmaking power about productive resources and assets, such as land, agricultural inputs, or credit• Income: Control of irrigated outputs and expenditures • Leadership: Involvement in water users' associations and other social or economic groups • Time: Allocation of time to irrigated agriculture and domestic tasks Although the WEAI has not yet been used to evaluate the impact of irrigation on women's empowerment, the Innovation Lab on Small-Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) project will use this tool to evaluate key gender differences in irrigated agriculture (http://borlaug.tamu.edu/projects-by-region/sub-saharanafrica/feed-the-future-innovation-lab-for-small-scale-irrigation/).Of the 27 studies selected for review, 12 discuss to some extent the gender implications of irrigation and the main roles of women in irrigated agriculture; however, only 4 papers have gender analysis as the main goal. Van den Bold et al. (2013) study the impact of a homestead food production program on the ownership, use, and control of men's and women's assets in Burkina Faso. The program primarily targets women, with the aim of reducing child undernutrition. After the program, men continued to own most of the land, but the number of agricultural assets and small animals owned by women had increased significantly in intervention villages compared to control villages. Women were also the main decisionmakers regarding the crops grown in the home garden and the chickens reared. The revenue generated from the sales of these products was also controlled by women and, therefore, greater availability and intake of food within the household and improved child nutrition were expected.In Ethiopia, male-headed households were 38 percent more likely to participate in irrigation activities than female-headed households, because the latter had lower income and faced a shortage of labor and market information. Consequently, women frequently ended up renting or sharing out their land (Aseyehegn, Yirga, and Rajan 2012). Similarly, in Ghana, female-headed households were also found to adopt water-lifting technologies less frequently than male-headed households. However, these differences were not so acute for canal irrigation, most likely due to the fact that local regulations require that farmer groups allocate irrigated land to women in public schemes (Namara et al. 2014).Securing women's land rights can favor adoption of irrigation technologies by women, as shown in van Koppen, Hope, and Colenbrander (2012). Land ownership was an important determinant of irrigation adoption among female-headed households in Zambia and Ghana (van Koppen, Hope, and Colenbrander 2012). Lower access to cash and information about irrigation technologies was another important constraint for women's participation in irrigation in Kenya and Tanzania. In a qualitative study about women's access to and ownership of KickStart pumps in Kenya and Tanzania, women were found to purchase less than 10 percent of the pumps (6 percent in Tanzania and 18 percent in Kenya) because of unequal access to information about the pumps and financial constraints (Njuki et al. 2014).The same study showed that in some areas the use of manual pumps, in particular pedaling the pump, is considered culturally inappropriate for women. Some women also reported that manual pumps were hard to operate. Finally, the study analyzed women's decisionmaking power over crop choices and control over income from irrigated crops. Decisions related to high-income crops were usually made by men, while women had more autonomy on crops for home consumption, such as leafy vegetables. Men preferred planting cash crops (for example, tomatoes) because these can be sold in bulk for cash, while women preferred planting leafy vegetables such as kale, spinach, and amaranth because these crops can be used for home consumption and can also be sold regularly in small quantities near the homestead. Women usually had control over income from the sale of these crops.In most of the papers reviewed, irrigation seemed to contribute to improved food security, but the positive impact of irrigation interventions on nutrition outcomes was seldom established, most likely because insufficient attention was given to nutrition goals during the design of the irrigation interventions. Poverty reduction and productivity gains are usually the most important drivers of irrigation programs, but with the exception of homestead production programs, most of the irrigation programs evaluated in the papers reviewed did not have nutrition improvement as an explicit goal. Incorporating nutritional, health, and gender considerations into the design of new irrigation programs and policies would be an important step toward realizing the full potential of irrigation interventions.Beneficiaries of irrigation programs often receive training on how to operate and maintain irrigation systems, but nutrition aspects are rarely considered. Adding food and nutrition education components to these training programs, such as recommendations on which crops to plant to improve child nutrition and how to better preserve and cook irrigated crops, would help reinforce the pathway from improved agricultural productivity to better nutrition and health.More guidance and support to minimize the increased risk of infection with water-borne diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis would also pay off in terms of health gains. Awareness campaigns to promote safe practices near irrigation areas, such as the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, would help minimize the risk of malaria infection. In addition, healthcare centers in communities near irrigation schemes, in particular in areas with unstable malaria transmission, should be adequately equipped to deal with the potential increase in water-borne diseases (Ijumba and Lindsay 2001).Specific policies that promote multiple uses of irrigation water can also be instrumental in improving nutrition and health outcomes. Recent evidence points to a lack of water supply and sanitation and associated environmental enteropathy as underestimated factors influencing the nutritional and health status of children. Therefore, adding a water supply component to the design of irrigation interventions can be beneficial for child nutrition and health. Irrigation water is also sometimes used as drinking water for livestock and for aquatic production or for irrigated fodder production. Linking irrigation projects to livestock and/or fish production can also have important nutritional benefits, as consumption of animalsource foods has been shown to significantly improve child nutritional status (Hoddinott, Headey, and Dereje 2014;Rawlins et al. 2014). In brief, the positive effects of irrigation interventions on nutrition and health outcomes could be multiplied with better integration of different sectors of activity such as agriculture, water supply and sanitation, health, and education.Finally, it is also critical to integrate gender considerations into policy design in order to favor women's involvement in irrigated agriculture. Instead of designing \"gender blind\" irrigation programs (like many of the programs reviewed in this paper), program designers should incorporate specific provisions to target and empower women. Men generally have better access to irrigation technologies and own most irrigation assets (Njuki et al. 2014). As a result, the income generated from irrigated agriculture is usually controlled by men and spent according to their preferences. Women tend to invest more in household nutrition and health and, therefore, improving women's access to and ownership of irrigation technologies and control over irrigated produce can have a positive effect on nutrition and health outcomes. Securing women's land rights and improving women's access to credit and information are also critical steps in promoting women's access to irrigation pumps and other irrigation technologies. Lastly, it is also important to design irrigation components such as manual pumps according to women's needs and local cultural norms.Irrigation interventions can improve nutritional outcomes through multiple pathways, including increased productivity and availability of food supplies and improved diets (in quantity and quality). However, the pathways linking nutritional and health gains with irrigation remain understudied. Most of the studies included in the review showed a positive effect of irrigation interventions on food security. However, results regarding the relationship between irrigation, nutrition, health, and gender outcomes were inconclusive, which is partially attributed to the fact that few studies include comprehensive measures of these outcomes. For example, few studies present data on dietary diversity, anthropometrics, morbidity, and clinical indicators. Ruel and Alderman (2013) also drew attention to the lack of clear evidence regarding the linkage between agricultural interventions and nutrition and health aspects, mainly due to the lack of rigorous empirical studies.Many of the studies included in the review contained some methodological flaws worthy of note. In some cases, small samples did not allow for firm conclusions to be drawn. Self-selection bias and lack of comparable controls were also limitations in several studies. However, it seems difficult to avoid the self-selection problem in irrigation evaluations because randomization of the beneficiary households is often not feasible in irrigation interventions. Some studies tried to solve the problem with the use propensity score matching methods. Finally, most studies did not collect panel data and therefore were unable to control for unobservable effects. All in all, we conclude that more rigorous evaluations of the impact of irrigation interventions on nutrition outcomes are needed. Developing such evidence will be important for the successful implementation of new irrigation projects, especially in Africa south of the Sahara, where the potential to expand irrigation is large and where recent projections indicate that childhood undernutrition levels will continue to grow over the next two decades.Six main aspects should be considered when designing more nutrition-sensitive irrigation interventions: (1) food security and nutrition gains should be stated goals of irrigation programs; (2) training programs and awareness campaigns should accompany irrigation interventions to promote nutrient-dense food production and consumption as well as minimization of health risks; (3) multiple uses of irrigation water should be recognized in order to improve access to water supply and sanitation and livestock and aquatic production; (4) women's empowerment and women's participation in irrigation programs should be promoted; (5) homestead food production should be encouraged; and (6) policy synergies between different sectors (agriculture, nutrition, health, water supply and sanitation, education) should be sought.","tokenCount":"10353"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"39b0963b91e2fea46d0812aa4634bae2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/411973c6-77b5-41f2-99c1-00234f8495a8/retrieve","id":"-1869392703"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"40d6d1d5-a1dd-4e0f-a3f4-a679bf8e1c67","pagecount":"2","content":"In 2019, CCAFS-CIAT led the EC-LEDS project, which aimed to support the Colombian government for enhancing the information on agricultural GHG emissions to better inform their policy formulation processes. The project developed two research outputs based on the demand of Colombian government: i) reduction of uncertainties in N2O emissions calculation associated with applied nitrogen fertilizers, and ii) assessing the mitigation potential of cacao agroforestry systems, carbon sequestration potential, and best practices. The process of updating the NDC defined by the Colombian government included the assessment of mitigation actions of sectoral climate policies and their feasibility for implementation by relevant stakeholders. In the case of the agricultural sector, the MADR used the mitigation measures defined in its Climate Change Plan for the Agricultural Sector (PIGCCS-Ag) and assessed the feasibility to include them as part of the NDC target. EC-LEDS research outputs not only contributed to effectively informs PIGCCS-Ag towards low emission agriculture but also provided essential information to update NDC calculations. EC-LEDS research outputs also contributed to the National GHG inventory and the forthcoming Third Biennale Update Report.• Improved capacity of UNFCCC focal points and NAMA or LED policy implementers to measure and monitor mitigation• 31 -Reduced net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forests and other forms of land-use (Mitigation and adaptation achieved)","tokenCount":"212"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0a968ed10d165c8c16ad6935f480123f","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/24%20(04)%202017/(3).pdf","id":"-766571045"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ffe05edb-0cbb-4ffb-9ecd-52599a320777","pagecount":"6","content":"This study was conducted to map the distribution of pork retail outlets as well as assess their role in food borne disease transmission. Using a structured questionnaire, practices associated with hygiene related to infrastructure, workers, and equipment were assessed. Sources of pork were assessed to determine whether pork had undergone inspection, as were socio economic determinants of hygiene outcomes and risk factors for foodborne disease. There were 158 pork outlets in the five divisions of Kampala. Overall, 68% of the pork was from places where slaughtering was not authorized (ungazetted) and meat inspection not carried out. Worker hygiene score was highest (average 71%), followed by infrastructure (68.2%) and equipment (47.3%). There was a significant relation between good hygiene and the presence of a public health certificate. However only 42% of the outlets had a public health certificate. Holding a public health certificate is an important predictor of good practices.Pork has in recent years become an important meat in Uganda, second only to beef in the amount consumed. With a population of over three million, the country's pig industry has experienced tremendous growth in recent decades (The Republic of Uganda Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fishieries, 2011). Although consumption per capita is still only 3.4kg/person/year, pork is a popular source of protein for both rural and urban population (FAOSTAT, 2015). Kampala, the capital of Uganda is the main marketing hub for pork from the leading pig producing communities in the country (Ouma et al., 2014). A considerable proportion of pigs slaughtered in the district are kept in the peri-urban areas (The Republic of Uganda Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fishieries, 2011).Most of the pork produced in the country is distributed and sold through informal market channels where food safety practices such as inspection of the pork and the hygiene of sale premises are perceived to be uncommon (Ouma et al., 2014). There is only one gazetted slaughter place for pigs in Kampala called \"Wambizzi Cooperative Society Ltd.\"; but most pigs that reach Kampala are slaughtered in backyards or vacant land near pork outlets (Wandera, 2015). Studies done in other developing countries indicate that slaughter of pigs in ungazetted places makes meat inspection difficult to implement, thereby increasing risks of pork-borne infections such as T. solium cysticercosis, Echnoccocosis and Trichnellosis ( Joshi et al., 2003;Maridadi et al., 2011;Krecek et al., 2012).Pork becomes unsafe for human consumption when the pig slaughtered was infected with zoonotic pathogens or if the meat is contaminated with pathogens during the handling process (Haileselassie et al., 2012). Handlers of pork are at risk from pork-borne disease as are consumers (Aiello and Larson, 2002;Eshitera et al., 2012;Mwanjali et al., 2013). In developing countries, conditions such as salmonellosis, Escherichia coli gastroenteritis, taeniosis, amoebiosis, shigellosis, cholera, toxoplasmosis, rotavirus infection and typhoid are associated with contaminated food and can cause severe effects (Bogere and Baluka, 2014;Ifeadike et al., 2014). Contamination has been associated with ungazetted slaughter areas but licensed slaughter houses may also be problematic (Jumaa, 2005). Food handlers can be a source of contamination (Nyarango et al., 2008).The objective of this work was to map the location of pork outlets in Kampala and to assess hygienic practices, their socio-economic determinants and risk factors for pork borne disease.Kampala district is the capital city of Uganda. According to the Uganda Bureau of Statistics the population of people in Kampala was estimated to be 1,659,600 in 2011. The district is located in the central region of the country, making it a market hub for pigs reared in the rural communities of the different parts of the country. Although on a small scale, pig rearing is done in backyards in some peri-urban areas with an estimated population of 38,306 (The Republic of Uganda Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fishieries, 2011). Kampala has five divisions: Kawempe, Rubaga, Makindye, Nakawa and Kampala central administrative division. All divisions were part of the study.A survey was carried out in Kampala district from May to June 2012, to map the pork retail outlets and assess hygiene practices along the market chain from the pig slaughter places to the pork retail outlets. Pork retail outlets in this study constituted two categories: pork eateries where only cooked pork was sold and butcheries/eateries where both raw and cooked pork was sold.After identifying the first pork outlet and obtaining data, directions to the location of the next outlets were obtained from the respondent. Global Positioning System (GPS) points of the pork outlets were taken during the survey and used to generate a map using Esri's ArcGis software (version 10.1). An observation checklist was used to assess the practices of the gazetted Wambizzi abattoir in Rugaba division and an ungazetted slaughter place in Church zone, Kamwokya in Nakawa division. The latter was selected for convenience and because typical of the ungazetted slaughter places. A structured questionnaire was used to assess hygiene practices of the pork retail outlets. Prior to conducting the study, the tools were pretested in two pork outlets in Namasuba-Kikajjo zone, Wakiso district. The questionnaire was administered to the respondents by two veterinary officers fluent in Luganda, the commonly used local language, and English. Direct observations were also carried out by interviewers using a structured checklist.Hygienic practices were divided into three categories: infrastructure (n=9 variables); equipment presence and condition (n=8 variables); and, worker hygiene (n=5 variables). Hygienic responses were summed into an overall hygiene score, which was also standardized to a percentage score. Robust linear regression, accounting for clustering of data within divisions was used to assess the relation between the hygiene score and predictors (gender of owner, years in operation, type of establishment, and presence of a medical certificate). Data were analyzed with Stata 11.The study was approved by the Research and Ethics Committee of the College of Veterinary Medicine and Biosciences of Makerere University (Reference No: VAB/REC/13/104).Prior to questionnaire administration, verbal consent was obtained from the respondent after clear explanation of the purpose of the study.In all, 179 retail outlets were identified in Kampala district during the study. Twenty-one of these were not mapped because they were closed (n=18) or owners did not consent to the study (n=3). Of the 158 outlets mapped, Makindye division had the highest number of outlets (42) and Kampala Central had the least (6). The locations were displayed in the map illustrated in Figure 1.Of the 158 outlets identified, only 17 (10.7%) were pork eateries and the rest were butcheries/ eateries. All the pork eateries were managed by men while 12 of the 141 butcheries/eateries (8.5%) were managed by females (Table 1). All outlets except Practices that affect slaughter hygiene were assessed in an un-gazetted slaughter place (Church zone Lufula, Kamwokya) and a gazetted slaughter place (Wambizi abattoir). Table 2 depicts the two scenarios.The average overall hygiene score was 61.3% with a range of 13.6-100%. Worker hygiene score was highest (average 71%), followed by infrastructure (68.2%) and equipment (47.3%). There were differences between divisions with butchers in Kampala Central, Nakawa and Kawempe scoring 78%, 78% and 72% respectively, Makindye scoring 57% and Rubaga just 38%. The level of compliance with different aspects of good hygienic practices is given in Table 3.After controlling for the putative socioeconomic determinants of hygienic practices, the only significant was the presence of a medical certificate, which had a large, significant and positive effect on the hygiene score (Table 4).Although the study was intended to exhaustively map all outlets, it is probable that some were missed since the exercise was conducted along roads and in trading centers, which were identified using the district administrative map. This study confirms increasing demand of pork with a considerable number of outlets established in all Kampala districts. The demand could be driven by the improving incomes, growing social clusters and less interference of religious sentiments that made pork less popular in the past (Ouma et al., 2014;FAOSTAT, 2015). Demand is also thought to be influenced by alcohol consumption and a strong association between alcohol sale and pork was found in this study. Ownership of pork outlets was dominated by men. This was also noted in a value chain assessment in Masaka, Mukono and Kamuli district whereby except at the production level, women's involvement in the pig value chain was minimal (Ouma et al., 2014). There was a tendency for women operated outlets to have better hygiene but this result was not significant possibly due to the small number of women. The gazetted abattoir tended to have better practices and hygiene than the ungazetted slaughter place. This may be because the abattoir had better infrastructure, more trained staff and a higher level of inspection. In addition, the abattoir had benefited from support from a series of development projects. The study demonstrated that most pork consumed in Kampala was un-inspected and could pose a risk of meat borne infections to consumers. Similar studies in Dar es Salaam city in Tanzania, and East Cape Province South Africa also disclosed that poor hygiene of most slaughter places and lack of inspection posed a serious public health challenge (Ngowi et al., 2004;Krecek et al., 2012). The role of meat inspection in eliminating infections such as T. solium cysticercosis and echinococcosis has been described in various studies (Sakai et al., 2001;Joshi et al., 2003;Boa et al., 2006). Just like in other developing countries where such a challenge occurs, lack of meat inspection has been due to failure to implement the Public Health (PH) legislations that enhance meat safety ( Joshi et al., 2003).Unlike in a study in Kenya where only 40% practiced hand hygiene (Nyarango et al., 2008), almost all outlets used clean water and soap. Keeping nails short which was a common practice could have helped reduce load of micro-organisms that inhabit the hands and makes hand washing more effective as reported elsewhere (Jumaa, 2005). A considerable number of pork handlers worked without protective clothing. This was in agreement with reports in Ethiopia and India ( Haileselassie et al., 2012;Ghimire et al., 2013). Poor disposal of waste was a key challenge in the study and it is in agreement with observations elsewhere ( Lawan et al., 2013;Ifeadike et al., 2014;). It could be promoting transmission of pathogens from wastes to pork by flies especially in outlets where pork was exposed as also observed in another study (Aiello and Larson, 2002). Many pork sellers admitted not to have been medically examined. It was likely that carriers of parasites transmitted through faeco-oral route could be among those handling pork at retail outlets ( Sciutto et al., 1995;Flisser et al., 2006).Most of the pork outlets were operated without a PH certificate. According to the PH act, in order to acquire a medical certificate, the premises where the outlet operates has to be assessed by health inspectors and a laboratory report given indicating that the pork sellers (handlers) have undergone a medical checkup and are free of parasitic conditions that can contaminate food (including tapeworms) (The Public Health Act, 1964). Presence of a PH certificate was significantly associated with better hygiene practices; however, it is difficult to establish a causal link as the relation may have been due to a confounding factor (e.g. location). Similar observations were made in Ethiopia, Nigeria and Nepal where poor implementation of PH health regulations on meat hygiene encouraged poor hygiene in outlets (Joshi et al., 2003;Haileselassie et al., 2012;Edia-asuke et al., 2014) . The PH act in Uganda sets guidelines for establishment and operation of slaughter places and retail outlets. Likewise, the meat handlers are meant to undergo medical examination to be allowed to handle meat (The Public Health Act, 1964).Consumption of pork in Kampala is high in the district. The district lacks gazetted abattoirs for pigs meaning there is a lack of meat inspection and monitoring of hygiene practices is difficult. Hygiene practices in retail butcheries/eateries are still wanting, but the fact that a minority of outlets of excellent hygienic practices exist suggests improvements are feasible. Implementation of the PH regulations was useful in promoting practices that led to good hygiene.There is need for Kampala City Council Authority (KCCA) to set up low cost slaughter facilities in each of the five divisions. Traders in each division could be organized in groups and given training on good meat hygiene practices. The Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) and KCCA should ensure the PH regulations on meat hygiene are implemented. Studies need to be conducted to assess pathogen contamination in pork sold in the retail outlets. ","tokenCount":"2071"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dda299f9a9acfdf8637e3b0b301d97cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/73b06bee-8219-4b4d-a4b2-59810daede6e/retrieve","id":"-281229077"},"keywords":["pulses","legumes","improvement","plant breeding","QTLs"],"sieverID":"bc14a39f-e0d3-4df5-a6f2-9e7e581a5429","pagecount":"4","content":"Legumes, members of the Fabaceae/Leguminosae family, are the third largest family of higher plants with almost 20,000 species belonging to 650 genera, and are ubiquitous all over the world. Among all legumes, pulse crops or food legumes fall into the four clades of the subfamily Papilionoideae which include aeschynomenoids/dalbergiods, genistoids, hologalegina, and phaseoloids/millettoids. They are distinctive due to their positive impact on agricultural and environmental sustainability and have a prominent role in promoting human and animal health, soil amelioration, cropping system diversification, and sustenance of rural livelihoods (Pratap et al., 2021a). These also provide protein isolates that are increasingly being used in the food industry as functional ingredients suitable for vegan diets (Robinson et al., 2019). The inclusion of pulses in rotation with cereals helps to improve system yields, enhance net carbon sequestration, and lower the carbon footprint. Nonetheless, in addition to being an excellent source of protein, starch, and micronutrients, pulses also contain anti-nutritional compounds that can interfere with the absorption of minerals (Moore et al., 2018) and also the digestion of protein (Clemente et al., 2015).Realizing their importance, significant research has been dedicated to their genetic amelioration, thereby turning them into mainstream crops from so-called \"orphan legumes\". Classical plant breeding methods led to the development of more than 3,800 improved varieties of different pulse crops globally, with improved attributes of grain yield, crop duration, stress resistance, nutrition quality, etc. However, despite this effort, the increase in average pulse yields (from 637 to 1,009 kg/ha) has been modest compared to dramatic increases in cereal productivity (from 1,353 to 4,074 kg/ha) between 1961 and 2017 (Kumar et al., 2020). Among legumes, Koester et al. (2014) studied 80 years of historical data of soybean breeding at the Crop Research and Education Center in Urbana, USA and reported a genetic gain of 26.5 kg ha −1 year −1 , attributing the gain in grain yield to increases in light interception, energy conversion, and partitioning efficiencies. Productivity gains in pulses have been recorded when especially considered along with the markedly reduced duration of the improved varieties, leading to increased cropping intensity, while genetic gains have been recorded for traits imparting resistance to major biotic and abiotic stresses, herbicide tolerance, larger seeds, and improved nutritional quality. This resulted in the growth, in terms of production and productivity, in major pulse-producing countries. For example, India witnessed the highest growth in production in mung bean (178%), followed by chickpea (125%), urdbean (90%), pigeonpea (51%), and lentil (34%) in the last 15 years (Gaur, 2021). Notably, breeding in most pulses has remained confined to the exploitation of genetic variation within the primary gene pool, which has resulted in a narrow genetic base in most of them.the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.Therefore, there is a need to focus on exploiting the genetic and genomic resources made available through draft genome sequences, high-throughput genotyping and phenotyping tools, data management services, and bioinformatics resources. The need to make use of available information in different pulses provided the impetus for this Research Topic.Globally, chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the second largest pulse crop, cultivated by smallholder farmers in more than 50 countries. In recent years, remarkable progress was made in developing novel genomic tools in chickpea including the draft genome sequence (Varshney et al., 2018), millions of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers (Thudi et al., 2016;Varshney et al., 2019), and cost-effective genotyping platforms including low-to high-density SNP arrays (Roorkiwal et al., 2020). Likewise, quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and markers associated with abiotic and biotic stresses were also identified which facilitated development of superior cultivars through marker-assisted breeding. Thudi et al. reported novel genetic loci associated with root morphological traits, as well as phosphorus-acquisition and use efficiency in chickpea through genome-wide association mapping. They reported an SNP locus (Ca1_12310101) on Ca1 associated with physiological P-use efficiency, shoot dry weight, and shoot P content. They also identified genes related to shoot P concentration, physiological Puse efficiency, specific root length, and manganese concentration in mature leaves. Jha et al. identified major QTLs and potential candidate genes for heat stress tolerance and reported a genomic region on CaLG07 harboring QTLs explaining > 30% of the phenotypic variation for days to pod initiation, 100-seed weight, and for nitrogen balance index explaining > 10% PVE.The MutMap approach targets discovery of mutant genes for assessing gene function and is based on BSA analysis of mutant progenies obtained in the/an F 2 population (Etherington et al., 2014). It relies on the cross between the mutant and its wild-type, and thereby directly targets the causal SNPs generated during mutagenesis which are responsible for phenotypic behavior (Tribhuvan et al., 2018). Manchikatla et al. reported development of markers associated with early flowering and enhanced seed size in chickpea through the MutMap approach. They identified a single unique genomic region on Ca6 (between 9.76 and 12.96 Mb) harboring 31, 22, 17, and 32 SNPs with a peak of SNP index = 1 for low bulk for flowering time, high bulk for flowering time, high bulk for 100-seed weight (HSW), and low bulk for HSW, respectively. They developed two markers, viz., Ca6EF10509893 for early flowering and Ca6HSDW10099486 for HSW, and validated them using the candidate SNPs.Madurapperumage et al. discussed chickpea as a source of essential fatty acids and focused on plant lipids, their functions, and benefits for human health. They reviewed the chemical analysis of essential fatty acids and possible breeding targets to enrich them which could be possible by phenotyping diverse chickpea germplasm; candidate genes responsible for quantitative trait loci mapping using genome-wide association mapping were identified.Crop wild relatives, landraces, and exotic germplasm are highly useful for introgression of novel variation to widen the genetic base of the elite gene pool leading to incremental gains over the breeding cycles (Pratap et al., 2021a). They also harbor positive QTLs for improving agronomic traits. Toker et al. reported a new Cicer species proposed as Cicer turcicum and explained its potential to improve various traits in chickpea including heat tolerance and bruchid resistance.The breeding cycle usually takes 7-10 years for development of a new cultivar depending upon various factors (Kumar et al., 2020). Speed breeding can improve genetic gains in crop improvement programs by increasing the number of plant generations in a year, subsequently reducing the length of the breeding cycle (Chiurugwi et al., 2019). Fang et al. demonstrated a cost-saving speed-breeding methodology in soybean integrating an off-site nursery, a fresh-seeding method, and markerassisted selection. Using the above combination they could obtain at least four generations in a year against one achieved through conventional methods. Croser et al. demonstrated the effectiveness of collaborative breeding efforts toward deployment of innovative breeding technologies for developing and rapidly introgressing imidazolinone group 2 herbicide tolerance into an Australian desi chickpea cultivar. They elaborated that their inter-institutional collaborative efforts could save a period of 3 years.Root systems have an important role in water and nutrient acquisition, and plant root system architecture (RSA) directly controls the plant health and survival (Sozzani and Iyer-Pascuzzi, 2014). In situ methods are available to facilitate non-destructive spatial and temporal investigations into root systems grown in soil. Mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] is a short duration and widely adaptable pulse crop known for its easily digestible high-quality protein (Pratap et al., 2021b), and high initial growth vigor which warrants study for the underlying mechanisms of faster water and nutrient uptake. Singh and Bell reported genotypic variability for RSA in mung bean and their physiological relationships with shoot growth dynamics. Early maturing varieties exhibited rapid root elongation rates and leaf area development. This resulted in more vigorous root and shoot growth during initial crop stages with the early varieties recording deeper, longer, and lighter roots. Rohilla et al. reported 10 marker-trait associations in mung bean significant for yellow mosaic disease, caused by mung bean yellow mosaic India virus, and four seed yield-related traits, viz., days to flowering, days to maturity, plant height, and number of pods per plant. They grouped different genotypes into three major clusters and three genetically distinct sub-populations with one admixture sub-population.Sadras et al. quantified the genetic gain in lentil yield in the last three decades in Australia and observed the variation in the expression of genetic gain with the environment. They reported that yield did not increase in farmers' fields above the level of 1.2 t ha −1 over three decades; this could be attributed to non-mutually exclusive reasons including lack of genetic gain in yield, lack of progress in agronomic practices, lesser adoption of superior technologies, and expansion of lentil to low-yielding environments. Tripathi et al. reported development of a core set of lentil germplasm comprising 170 accessions (137 Indian and 33 exotic) from the Indian gene bank which could be efficiently deployed in lentil improvement programs.Minor pulses hold tremendous nutritional significance although these are produced and consumed locally and there is generally no exchange of materials between countries unless they are already cultivating and consuming these minor pulses (Ahlawat et al., 2016). Among the minor pulses, faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is the fourth most important cool season legume consumed locally in Asia, America, and Mediterranean countries. The genome information is scarce in this crop mainly due to the intrinsic difficulties of assembling/annotating its big genome size of 13 Gb (Maalouf et al., 2021). Adhikari et al. reviewed the development and role of conventional and molecular breeding tools for accelerating genetic gain in faba bean and suggested that the availability and use of DNA markers such as vicine-convicine (vc − ) and herbicide tolerance in breeding programs have encouraged breeders and given confidence in marker-assisted selection. Closely linked QTLs for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance are available and could be used to enhance the efficiency of the selection process. Omomowo and Babalola reviewed the constraints and prospects of improving cowpea productivity to ensure food and nutritional security and environmental sustainability, taking a special interest in Africa. They elaborated on recommended methods to achieve extreme growth in productivity. Chu et al. elucidated the role of VaSDC1 in modulation of flavonoid metabolic pathways in seed coat color in adzuki bean (Vigna angularis L.) and genetically mapped it in the interval between simple-sequence repeat (SSR) markers Sca326-12, Sca326-4, and BAgs007 on chromosome 3 using an F 4 population.Of late, there has been a surge in the demand for plantbased proteins globally, even in those countries who have not normally been large consumers of pulses. This warrants a focus on strategies leading to a significant production improvement of pulses and their nutritional quality enhancement. Overall, the 14 articles published in this special issue reported new innovations/contributions toward genetic improvement of pulse crops and the knowledge gained could be further deployed toward development of new superior lines leading to improved genetic gains. The articles also highlight development of new markers, useful marker trait associations, new useful species, etc. Nonetheless, it is also evident that strategically important minor legumes still lag behind other pulses and require a research impetus toward development of new genomic information and deployment of molecular tools for their improvement. Extensive studies are required to quantify precise genetic gains in pulses with respect to yield and nutrition traits which will help in developing strategies for targeted breeding.","tokenCount":"1890"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9c1f091b396e2018bc64e52579143389","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57a6ba94-0c60-4a2f-a16c-c4e8eb094c44/retrieve","id":"-417050818"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aed567bf-0916-4fb6-842d-9e95e22b4000","pagecount":"5","content":"Sixty per cent of world trade in dairy products consists of butter and cheese, while the rest involves fresh, powdered and condensed milk. However, fresh milk represents less than 5% of the total value of imports and exports. Trade in dairy produce involves approx. 10% of the world output of milk, or probably barely more than 6% if trade between EEC countries is subtracted. It is dominated by the European countries, especially those of the EEC, and by the lands of the Southwest Pacific (particularly New Zealand). Trade in butter and cheese mainly occurs between developed nations, the main buyers being the UK and the USA, and more recently a number of Asian countries such as Japan and the oil states. Milk exports, on the other hand, are primarily directed towards the developing countries of Asia, America and Africa. Leaving aside the small amount of exchanges in fresh milk, milk trade consists of two-thirds powdered and one-third condensed. In 1976 African countries absorbed 16% of that trade; their purchases primarily consist of condensed milk, which in 1976 represented over 55% of African milk imports and 43% of overall world trade in this commodity.The growing influence of the EEC THE EEC policy over dairy products is intended to isolate the domestic market in member countries from the world market through a system of import levies and restitutions for exports, while providing support for prices paid to producers in order to protect their incomes. The policy has led to a faster growth rate for the milk production of member countries than for their consumption of dairy products, which is held back by the changing habits of consumers and probably also by the relatively high level of domestic prices. Various external factors have also contributed to the development of milk output, notably the EEC policy of support for veal and beef production, which is often associated with that of milk.Milk surpluses are turned into butter and skimmed milk powder which are then resold to the EEC intervention centres at rates which make adequate allowance for producer prices. Similarly, purchases of skimmed milk (fresh or powdered) for livestock feeds are subsidized. In 1978, EEC stocks of butter averaged 320,000 t.; stocks of skimmed milk stood at 830,000 t., a lower level than in preceding years, owing to exports at low prices, more intensive utilization of powdered milk by member countries in the manufacture of livestock feeds, and to an increase in food aid to developing countries.By forcing producers and intervention centres to seek ever more substantial outlets outside the Common Market, the production policy of the EEC has helped member countries to strengthen their position on the world market. Leaving aside Great Britain, whose membership of the EEC is recent and whose trade in dairy products for the time being remains subject to special arrangements owing to her close links with New Zealand, net EEC exports (at current prices) have moved forward from 1,350 million dollars in 1969 (35% of the world market) to 3,400 millions in 1976 (48% of the world market) 1 . Over the same period the share of New Zealand has fallen from 20 to 12%.1. During 1976 the EEC paid out more than 1,500 million dollars in restitutions. Total dairy expenditure by the Guarantee Section of the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) amounted to nearly 4,000 million dollars.The release of these surpluses onto a market of limited size contributes to the depressed level of export prices, in particular those of butter and skimmed milk powder. The unit value of butter exports is usually much below prices paid on the domestic market of most producing countries, in particular the EEC. This situation seriously affects efficient, non-subsidized producer countries such as New Zealand.Between 1970 and 1977, producer milk and dairy product prices, when converted into American dollars at official rates of exchange, more than doubled in the member countries of the European Community, the average annual increase being 10%. Over the same period they increased by 8% per year in the United States, by 6% in Australia, and by 8.5% in New Zealand (15% in 1978).Although The high level of milk prices within the European Community means that producers in member countries enjoy a relatively favourable milk/animal feeds price ratio, all the more so since a part of the latter, especially oilcakes, is imported. Moreover, the steep rise in EEC milk prices protected European producers, especially in countries with a strong currency, from the worst effects of the increase in world prices of livestock feeds during the 1973-74 crisis. In 1977-78 milk/animal feeds price ratios in several EEC countries were generally similar to those obtaining at the outset of the present decade, whereas in other milk producing countries they have tended to deteriorate.The instability and depressed level of export prices, and the long-term trend towards a continuous build-up in Community stocks, amounting in 1978 to the equivalent of 8 million litres of milk, i.e. 2.5% of world production and 10% of EEC output, reflect the structural imbalance of the world market for dairy produce. In order to reduce milk production the EEC has introduced a bonus system for non-delivery and aid for the conversion of dairy livestock, as well as a coresponsibility tax on dairy farmers whose output exceeds a certain level. But owing to a lack of political will these measures remain inadequate in relation to the scale of the problem.Outside the EEC, the majority of producer countries wishing to support producer prices for milk have met the problem of surpluses by imposing production quotas.Milk/feedstuff a price ratio trend.However, this solution was rejected by the exporters of New Zealand and the EEC, who in the course of the XXth. World Milk Congress held at Paris in June 1978 proposed the drawing up of an international agreement to control the supplies of dairy products and fix minimum export prices. Whatever the circumstances, the viability of such an agreement would depend throughout on the degree to which prices adopted within the Community conform more closely to main market trends. Where appropriate the adjustments necessary could take the form of direct income payments to small-scale producers. In other words, the entire policy so far pursued by the EEC should be reversed.","tokenCount":"1040"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"df2d73c787421991040e1999c1761113","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2009f860-bb19-452e-aaeb-7aa8a5e0c331/content","id":"-1485882639"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bbb3e49b-67c4-4b18-bc17-761eb6c3d75f","pagecount":"64","content":"Desde 1966, trabaja en todo el mundo en desarrollo con el fin de mejorar los medios de vida de las personas y promover sistemas de maíz y de trigo más productivos y sosteniblesMás del 70% del trigo que se siembra en países en desarrollo y más del 50% de las variedades mejoradas de maíz se derivan de materiales de mejoramiento del CIMMYT Más de 10,000 científicos y expertos agrícolas capacitados en el CIMMYT Presente enSon actividades y relaciones que determinan cómo el alimento se produce, procesa, distribuye y consume, en conjunto con los sistemas humanos y biológicos que moldean estas actividades en cada etapa.¿Qué es el CIMMYT?Elaboración propia con datos de FAO y DIAN. Adopción de semilla mejorada por el 100% del área bajo sistema tecnificado y al menos 10% de área con sistema tradicional para 20301A. Documentar necesidades del mercado de semillas 1B. Implementar esquemas de financiamiento e incentivos que brinden apoyo y dinamismo a la adopción de semilla mejorada 1C. Desarrollar recursos para la investigación en mejoramiento de maízAlcanzar un consumo humano nacional del 50% de maíz blanco biofortificado con alto contenido de zinc para 2030 2A. Aumentar el volumen de producción de semilla de maíz biofortificado y su consumo 2B. Identificar y abordar las necesidades de acopio y almacenamiento de productores de maíz biofortificado 2C. Desarrollar una estrategia de difusión nacional para aumentar la demanda de maíz biofortificado en el paísConversión a agricultura sostenible adaptada a la variabilidad y cambio climático en al menos 100 mil hectáreas de sistemas de producción de maíz en 2030 3A. Desarrollar un sistema de información agroclimática, para una mejor toma de decisiones y uso de tecnologías 3B. Escalar el uso de tecnologías, prácticas y herramientas ASAC, incluyendo agricultura de conservación 3C. Implementar esquemas de financiamiento e incentivos para incrementar la inversión en tecnologías y sistemas para la agricultura sostenible adaptada al climaCobertura de redes de innovación como el estándar de extensionismo y asistencia técnica en al menos 30% en el entorno rural 4A. Desarrollar una estrategia de redes de acompañamiento técnico con base en el diagnóstico y categorización productiva regional 4B. Establecer los mecanismos necesarios para la implementación de un sistema de redes de acompañamiento técnico a la innovación 4C. Incorporar mecanismos de financiamiento institucional público y privadoAumentar la vinculación para un comercio de productores competitivos del mercado local, regional y nacional 5A. Crear un Observatorio de Maíz para facilitar el acceso a información de mercado 5B. Vincular agricultores en asociaciones para la comercialización a nivel local, regional y nacional 5C. Mejorar la infraestructura existente y sistemas de producción, para asegurar la competitividad en el mercado• Definicion: Practicas agricoloas que evitan la Perdida de recursos naturales y que sostienen la productividad por tiempo indefinido • Original intensification definition:increase yield with same use of resources, reduce use of resources for same yield, or both• Simple definition SI:process or system where yields are increased without adverse environmental impacts or cultivation of more land• Expanded SI definition:multifaceted approach that oversees the entire food system by considering nutrition, food sovereignty, and adaptation to localities defined by socioeconomic as well as environmental conditions. SI encompasses four aspects: -(i) attain higher yields, while (ii) achieving a major reduction in environmental impacts, -(iii) achieve a drastic reduction in resource intensive foods (change diet gap), and -(iv) acknowledge a diversity of region-specific approaches Seppelt al. 2020• De la milpa tradicional hasta la agricultura mas intensiva • 12 Hubs de innovación• 43 Plataformas de Investigación• > 1,000 Módulos demostrativos• >3,000 Áreas de extensión• > 1 millón ha adoptan una innovaciónPlataformas: Investigación científica bajo las condiciones de los productores• Investigación bajo las condiciones locales y en conjunto con investigadores locales • Se busca encontrar practicas mejoradas aplicables por los productores • Comparamos un tratamiento testigo (practica convencional de la zona) con posibles practicas mejoradasInvestigación en las plataformas  -Cambiar de labranza convencional a AC ahorra 20% de agua y ahorra los costos de labranza -Cambiar de riego rodado a goteo ahorra 20% de agua, pero require alta inversion Alvaro Flores, Universidad de Guanajuato Erosión de suelo: hídrica    Postharvest losses during maize storage• %insect-damaged grain after 6 months in polypropylene bags, :• 39.4% in lowlands (<500 m asl)• 4.1% in highlands (>2,000 m asl)in hermetic metal silos,• 2.9% in lowlands (<500 m asl)• 3.8% in highlands (>2,000 m asl)• Hermetic technologies were effective in reducing losses under farmers' conditions across agroecological areas, regardless of storage time. Sylvanus Odjo, CIMMYT• Aspects beyond storage (shelling, drying) • Technology exists, how do we make it available and affordable for farmers?Sylvanus Odjo, CIMMYT• Es posible cultivar maíz de forma sustentable • No hay recetas o un paquete tecnológico universal • Para aumentar la producción de maíz con practicas sustentables y rentables es primordial la investigación bajo los condiciones de los productores y en conjunto con ellos es necesario -Agricultura de conservación, fertilidad integral, manejo agroecológico de plagas, manejo integrado de malezas, variedades mejoradas, mecanización, riego tecnificado, manejo de enfermedades,…","tokenCount":"822"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bc87890ba6bfdc0d05985dffb2f98617","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.mel.cgiar.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:20.500.11766.1/FK2/QCC07A/WQCUOX","id":"-1825039687"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bca01dd4-660d-44b0-a67a-790cdf3d9454","pagecount":"2","content":"Advanced screening 1. Aegilops Total of 7 lines selected (IG 46593, 46814, 47007, 47172, 47891, 47893 and 48404), from a total of 53 promising accessions selected from initial screening of 176 accessions in 2001 season and planted in 2002 under 2 cages, 6 reps, hill plots. and the artificial infested was done with 200 adults at mid March plus 100 nymph in the first week of May02 for each cage with IG 46895 as systematically repeated susceptible check every 15 lines. The selected accessions score 1 or 2 of visual infestation score on Vegetative stage (shoot and leaf) of wheat caused by Sunn Pest The scale of Visual Infestation Score is (VIS) 1=No damage, 2=1-5% damage, 3=6-25% damage, 4=26-50% damage, 5=51-75% damage, 6=100% damage, and Visual Damage Score (VDS), 1=No stunting, 2=Very little stunting, 3= Little stunting, 4=Moderate level stunting, 5=High stunting,Total of 4 lines (IG-116199, 118185, 45216 and 45488)  The selected lines/accessions of Wild Triticum, Primitive wheat, Durum wheat and Bread wheat planted for advanced evaluation under cages in the field in 2002 season three replications using split plot design the Main plot was tow treatments the first was uninfested with full protections in one cage, the second was artificially infested with 120 adults at mid March plus 60 nymphs in the first week of May02 in another cage. And the Sub-plot was crop with four levels DW, BW, WT and PW.Total of 4 lines selected (AWYRGP00-5, 16, 19, 27) lines selected at vegetative stage from 30 lines of bread wheat (pathology), Non-replicated, hillplot, with Cham 6 systematically repeated susceptible checks every 10 lines.And 3 lines (Synthatic-A 02-49, 52, 55) selected at vegetative stage from 63 lines bread wheat (Synthatic wheat) RCB, 2 replications, hill plot, with Cham 6 systematically repeated susceptible checks every 10 lines.These materials was planted under one cage in the field for artificial infestation done with 200 adults at mid March plus 100 nymph in the first week of May02","tokenCount":"325"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d4a06fcae1f5156482444ff5eac5d32f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1c4e35c0-756f-463f-af03-491663c59eac/retrieve","id":"1479067559"},"keywords":["herbicide","no-till or unpuddled","mechanized transplanted rice","weed biomass and density","weed control efficiency"],"sieverID":"f5567731-c78b-4521-b756-f5490488f4f6","pagecount":"24","content":"No-till mechanized-transplanted rice was evaluated for different combinations of pre-and post-emergence herbicides to determine feasible, economically viable weed management options to control complex weed flora in rice fields. All pre-emergence herbicides significantly reduced the population of grassy weeds; of these, pendimethalin resulted in the greatest reductions (83%) at 15 days after transplanting (DAT). Among five post-emergence herbicide treatments, the combination of bispyribac-sodium (10%SP) + pyrazosulfuron (10%WP) was found to be the most effective in controlling all weed flora at both 35 and 55 DAT. The sequential application of pendimethalin (pre-emergence) followed bispyribacsodium + pyrazosulfuron (post-emergence) resulted in significantly higher rice grain yield (4.4 t-ha −1 ) and relative gross-margin (417 USD-ha −1 ) than all other treatments. A strong negative correlation was observed between rice grain yield and weed biomass, and a strong positive correlation between rice grain yield and weed control efficiency. Our findings demonstrate the potential to combine pre-and postemergence herbicides in no-till mechanized-transplanted rice; these findings have applications globally in regions where rice is established by no-till or mechanized transplanting.Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple food and key source of calories for billions of people across Asia and there is a clear need to sustainably increase rice production within the region to increase global food security. Under traditional rice establishment practices, the soil is intensively tilled and puddled before the crop is manually transplanted. This puddled, transplanted rice (PTR) method of crop establishment is energy, water and labor intensive and contributes to the destruction of soil physical (soil percolation, soil structure, aggregation, compactness, etc.) and biological (microbes, fungi, carbon dynamics etc.) properties (Choudhary et al., 2018;M. Gathala et al., 2014;Gathala et al., 2020a, b). Tillage and puddling operations destroy soil aggregates, break capillary pores, and compact the soil, leading to the increased bulk density of surface layers (Gathala et al., 2017(Gathala et al., , 2011;;Gupta et al., 2003) which in turn results in reduced plant root growth and thus poor nutrient and water absorption by the rice crop.Alternative crop establishment methods which promote healthier soils are emerging, including dry direct seeded rice (DSR) and unpuddled transplanted rice (UPTR). In UPTR, seedlings are mechanically transplanted into untilled, saturated soil: this is a conservation agriculture (CA)based technology where rice yields are not compromised and where less energy is used in rice production than in PTR (Bell et al., 2019;Chaki et al., 2021;Gathala et al., 2020b;Haque & Bell, 2019;Islam et al., 2019;Mitra et al., 2018). UPTR is well suited to agricultural environments where the onset of wet-season rains is abrupt and heavy, as occurs across many regions in Asia. In these regions, DSR may result in poor or even complete crop establishment failure (Haque & Bell, 2019;Islam et al., 2019). As an alternative to DSR or PTR, UPTR is a viable option where the soil is minimally disturbed, tillage costs and water requirements are reduced, and there is greater energy efficiency and profit without yield penalty (Gathala et al., 2020a;Islam et al., 2019;Mitra et al., 2018). In key regions where UPTR is an attractive establishment method, jute is a widespread crop prior to the rice crop. The jute leaf-fall contributes to softening of the soil prior to rice establishment, further reducing tillage requirements and increasing the viability of UPTR.Under minimum-till UPTR weeds are not suppressed by pre-sowing tillage operations or by standing water as they are under traditional PTR management, and thus new methods of effective weed control are required to ensure rice yields are not compromised. While research has been conducted to understand the rice-based cropping agro-ecologies in which UPTR is a viable crop establishment option (Chaki et al., 2021;Rajiv et al., 2018;Sahu et al., 2019), there has been little investigation into weed management under UPTR, particularly in environments where the onset of the monsoon is sharp and intense.Considerable weed pressure has been observed under UPTR early in the crop growing season, leading to significantly reduced rice yields when weeds are not effectively managed (Rahman, 2016). Traditional methods of in-crop weed control in rice (besides suppression with standing water) are manual removal and hoeing, but due both to the high cost of labor and to labor shortages which are acute at times critical for weeding, these methods cannot be relied upon (Chauhan, 2012;Kumar & Ladha, 2011).Herbicides are an effective alternative weed management strategy as they require less labor and have the potential to provide useful weed control while reducing labor and production costs. Non-selective herbicides (e.g., glyphosate) have been used prior to crop establishment to control annual and biannual weeds, however they are less effective at complete weed removal than tillage operations (Carretta et al., 2021). The high initial efficacy of glyphosate, as well as the introduction of genetically modified crops, can both contribute to a decline in the use of other herbicide options and less investment by industry to discover new active ingredients (Green & Owen, 2011). Control of complex weed flora through a single pre-or post-emergence herbicide application is a very challenging task, and it is likely that the use of the same herbicides over a prolonged period may contribute to herbicide resistance in weeds (Kim, 1996). Applying several herbicides which have different active ingredients is to be encouraged for broad-spectrum weed control. The sequential application of pre-followed by post-emergence herbicides in rice has proved to be effective in controlling weed flora well without yield penalty (Ramesha et al., 2017;V. Singh et al., 2016;Zahan et al., 2018). At the same time, applying different herbicides in combination may reduce herbicide resistance (Mahajan & Chauhan, 2015). Chemical weed control has been shown to initially affect soil microbial populations, but this is followed by increased microbial population density and enzymatic activity as the crop progresses, particularly under UPTR (Pattanayak et al., 2022). Moreover, it has been observed that many reduced-tillage crop management practices promote small-seeded weeds (Chauhan, 2012), and we believe that this may also be true for UPTR.Across the Eastern Gangetic Plain region of South Asia, farmers generally use only preemergence herbicides followed by limited in-crop hand weeding. Labour shortages are increasing in this region, and there is a need to identify the correct combination of herbicides which is most effective, and which can be recommended to smallholder farmers who are seeking to adopt CAbased crop establishment practices including UPTR.In this present study, we hypothesise that it will be possible to examine the performance of sequential herbicide combinations under UPTR in the Eastern Gangetic Plains and to identify the most effective combination of pre-and post-emergence herbicides to suppress a range of weeds. This information will enable smallholder farmers to improve their rice crop productivity and increase their profitability. Our results will enable the recommendation of a regionally appropriate pre-and post-emergence herbicide combination for effective weed control under UPTR, which may also have benefits for other rice production methods in the region (e.g., PTR in rainfed ecologies, where weed pressure is very high and farmers are unable to manually control weeds). While the efficacy of these herbicide combinations has been well documented under DSR and in other agroecologies, little information is available on the optimum herbicide management strategy for weed control under UPTR and in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. The findings reported here have applications in other tropical rice-based agro-ecologies where UPTR is an appropriate rice establishment practice.The experiment was conducted during 2015 and 2016 in wet (rice growing) seasons at the research farm of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya (North Bengal Agricultural University), Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India, 26°24ʹ02.2\" N, 89°23ʹ21.7\" E, elevation 43 m above mean sea level. The soil of the experimental site was sandy loam and acidic (pH 5.54), well drained and with an organic carbon content of 0.89% (Sinha et al., 2019). The site is subtropical and humid with high annual precipitation of between 2800 and 3000 mm, of which 70-90% occurs during June to October. Minimum temperatures below 10°C occur in December and January, while maximum temperatures of around 35°C occur in April and May. Relative humidity is very high (70 to 100%) from May to December. The meteorological data pertaining to the period of experimentation are depicted in Figure 1. Prior to commencing the experiment, a uniform application of glyphosate was applied 10 days before rice seedlings were transplanted. There were no weeds present at transplanting in any plots.The experiment was laid out in a two-factor randomized block design. Four pre-emergence weed management options were treated as factor 1 comprising a control (no pre-emergence herbicide applied) treatment and treatments with the application of one of three pre-emergence herbicides: pendimethalin 30 % EC (1000 g a.i. ha −1 ), oxadiargyl 80% WP (90 g a.i. ha −1 ) and pretilachlor 50% EC + safener (500 g a.i. ha −1 ). Five post-emergence weed management options were taken as factor 2: comprising the control (no post-emergence herbicide applied) treatment and the application of one of four post-emergence herbicides: bispyribac-sodium 10% SP (25 g a.i. ha −1 ), bispyribac-sodium+pyrazosulfuron 10% WP (20 g a.i. ha −1 ), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl 6.9% EC (56 g a.i. ha-1) +ethoxysulfuron 15% WDG (18 g a.i. ha −1 ) and fenoxaprop-p-ethyl followed by (fb) halosulfuron 75% WG (67 g a.i. ha −1 ). All of these herbicides are legal and available within the Eastern Gangetic Plain. Each experimental treatment was replicated thrice. Details of the treatment applications are shown in Table 1. Each experimental plot was 5 m long and 3.60 m wide (18 m 2 ).Herbicides may persist in the application area for some time, the duration over which they persist depends on the chemical nature, molecular stability and environmental factors. The persistency of the pre-emergence herbicides used in this experiment (pendimethalin, pretilachlor and oxadiargyl) is very short under Indian conditions (Kumar & Ladha, 2011), as these herbicides undergo biotic degradation (by microbes or by plant enzymes) and abiotic degradation (sunlight or chemical degradation). The post-emergence herbicides used in this experiment are less toxic to humans and other animals and were applied at relatively low doses. These herbicides also do not persist long in the environment, particularly under South Asian climates (Choudhury et al., 2016). Well-targeted applications of effective herbicides (against which weeds have not developed resistance) are one of the best ways to minimise chemical applications while recognising that regional labor shortages mean some chemical use is inevitable in crop production.The rice variety Naveen was used in the experiment, which has medium-long grains, a croppingseason duration of 115-120 days and a yield potential of 5.0 t ha −1 . Rice seedlings were raised in a nursery on mats for 18 days prior to machine transplanting. At transplanting, the rice root mat was separated from its supporting polythene sheet and cut to size (610 mm by 225 mm) to fit the mechanical rice transplanter. Rice was transplanted on 2 July 2015 and 3 July 2016.Seedlings were transplanted into untilled soil using an 8-row transplanter with 225 mm line-toline spacing and 140 mm hill-to hill-distance. Two passes of the rice transplanter were required to fully plant out each experimental plot. The long-term historical annual precipitation has received more than 3200 mm, which is received mainly 90% during pre-and monsoon season (May to October), therefore farmers grow their monsoon season rice as a rainfed crop in the region. The crop received a good quantity of rainfall with the onset of south-west monsoon during June (622 mm in 2015 and 886 mm in 2016; Figure 1), this rainfall before and during the rice-seedling transplanting period was effective for crop establishment as the soil was very soft and the residue of previous (wheat) crop had partially decomposed. Nutrients were applied at 80 kg ha −1 nitrogen (as urea), 40 kg ha −1 phosphorus (as P 2 O 5 ), 40 kg ha −1 potassium (as K 2 O) and 25 kg ha −1 zinc (as ZnSO 4 ). The nitrogen fertiliser was applied in three splits (i.e. 50% at transplanting, 25% at 21 days after transplanting and 25% at 42 days after transplanting), while the complete applications of the remaining fertilizers were applied immediately prior to rice transplanting.Herbicides were applied with the use of a knapsack sprayer fitted with a flat-fan multi-nozzle boom (1-m width, configured with three flat-fan nozzles at 50-cm spacing, which covers a 1.5 m swath of spraying in one pass), using water as a carrier, and at rates of 500 L ha −1 for preemergence sprays and at 375 L ha −1 for post-emergence sprays. All herbicides were completely mixed with water prior to placement in the knapsack spray tank. Sprayer operators were provided with personal-protective equipment during spraying operations. No phytotoxicity was observed in this study.Pre-emergence herbicides were sprayed onto treatment plots within two days of transplanting to impede weed-seed germination and post-emergence herbicides were applied at 15-25 days after transplanting (DAT), at the 3-5 leaf stage of weed plants. In each individual (sub-plot) treatment plot, four quadrats (0.5 m × 0.5 m; 0.25 m 2 ) were established at 2 DAT. Weeds were measured three times during the crop season: at 15 DAT (i.e. just before post-emergence herbicide application), at 35 DAT (20 days after post-emergence herbicide application) and at 55 DAT. At each count, weed species were sorted into grass, broadleaf and sedge species. At 35 DAT weed biomass samples were taken from two randomly chosen quadrats in each plot, and at 55 DAT weed biomass was sampled from the remaining two quadrats. For biomass sampling, weeds were cut at ground level, washed with tap water, sun-dried, oven-dried at 70°C for 48 hours and then weighed.Rice grain yield was measured at rice harvest over an area 3.6 m by 4 m, discarding 0.5 m area from all sides (14.40 m 2 net area) and reported at 14% moisture. Rice grain yield is reported as the average yield over the two experimental seasons. The relative rice grain yield was the yield difference in each treatment plot compared to the complete control (i.e. no pre-or postemergence herbicide applied) plot.Weed control efficiency (WCE) was calculated based on weed biomass reduction using the equation:weed biomass in non treated plots À weed biomass in treated plots weed biomass in non treated plots � 100All management practices except herbicide application followed the same protocols in all treatments and so we did not calculate the total cost of crop production but assumed all other costs as fixed. Instead, we examined only the expense incurred in buying and applying herbicides, as well as any revenue earned or lost due to changes in rice grain yields resulting from herbicide use; the latter minus the former was the relative gross margin. Individual year data were used when calculating the relative herbicide cost and relative gross margin, which were calculated as the difference between the experimental and the control treatments.Mean separations for different treatments under different parameters were performed using Tukey's HSD (honest significant difference) test (P ≤ 0.05). Statistical analyses were conducted using JMP 16.0 software. The weed number and biomass data were transformed tolog 10 to satisfy the assumptions of analysis of variance to achieve a best fit normality distribution. As the experimental aim was to determine the most appropriate herbicide combination under no till UPTR, a full factorial ANOVA was run. The factors used in the ANOVA were year (Y), pre-emergence (PH), Y × PH, post-emergence (PO), Y × PO, PH × PO, Y × PH × PO and replication (i.e. year). However, for analysis of weed data on 15 DAT, only one factor (PH) was considered as post-emergence herbicides were applied after 15 DAT. We observed relationships between grain yield and weed biomass and between grain yield and WCE and fitted linear equations to them to describe their trends.The weed flora observed were the grasses Cynodon dactylon L., Echinochloa colona L., Digitaria ciliaris L., Dactyloctenium aegyptium L., Eleusine indica L. and Leptochlova chinensis L.; the sedges Cyperus rotundus L., Cyperus iria L., Cyperus difformis L., and Fimbristylis miliacea L.; and the broad-leaf weeds Ludwigia octovalvis, Ageratum conyzoides L., Eclipta alba L. and Enhydra fluctuans. During the initial period (1-20 DAT), grassy weeds were predominant, with some sedges present, while broad-leaf weeds, especially L. parviflora, emerged at 20-25 DAT and were present in control plots throughout the remainder of both rice growing seasons (individual weed species data not collected).The density of grassy weeds was significantly affected at 35 and 55 DAT by both pre-and postemergence herbicide applications (Table 2). At 15 DAT when post-emergence herbicides were not applied, the weed density also varied significantly under different pre-emergence treatment. The grass weed population was lowest with the pre-emergence herbicide pendimethalin; in this treatment, grass weeds were 83, 80 and 68% lower at 15, 35 and 55 DAT, respectively, than in the control treatment. Other pre-emergence herbicides (oxadiargyl and pretilachlor) were also effective in reducing grassy weed populations compared to the no-pre-emergence herbicide treatment, but these had 39% to 47% higher grassy weed populations than the pendimethalin treatment at 55 DAT.   All post-emergence herbicide applications significantly reduced the number of grassy weeds compared to the no-post-emergence herbicide treatment (Table 2) at both 35 and 55 DAT. Among the post-emergence herbicides, bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron was 39% more effective in reducing grassy weeds at 35 DAT than all other post-emergence options; it was also more effective than bispyribac alone at 55 DAT when fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron was equally effective.The interaction effects of pre-and post-emergence treatments were only significant at 55 DAT in grassy weeds. In general, the pre-emergence herbicide pendimethalin in combination with any post-emergence herbicide option was effective at reducing grassy weed populations (Figure 2). The most effective combination was pendimethalin in combination with fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron and bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron and the least effective combination was Oxadiargyl fb bispyribac and pretilachlor fb fenoxaprop + halosulfuron.The prevalence of sedges was influenced by pre-and post-emergence herbicide applications at 35 and 55 DAT (Table 2). At 15 DAT both pendimethalin and pretilachlor were equally more effective in reducing sedges than oxadiargyl or the control treatment without pre-emergence herbicide; the former treatments reduced sedges by 22% over the latter. At 35 DAT, all pre-emergence herbicide treatments performed equally in controlling sedge density over the no-pre-emergence-herbicide control. The performance of the pre-emergence herbicides in controlling the density of sedges at 55 DAT was highest in pendimethalin, followed by oxadiargyl, then pretilachlor and finally the treatment with no pre-emergence herbicide. The most effective post-emergence herbicide treatment to reduce the density of sedges was fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron at both 35 and 55 DAT over the remainder of the post-emergence herbicide treatments. At 55 DAT, the bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron was also highly effective in reducing the sedge population relative to bispyribac alone and fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron. The sedge density at both 35 and 55 DAT was significantly lower in all post-emergence herbicide treatments compared to that observed in the treatment with no post-emergence herbicide.Interactions between pre-and post-emergence herbicide treatments significantly affected the prevalence of sedges at both 35 DAT and 55 DAT (Figure 3). Effective sedge reduction was observed when any pre-emergence herbicide was followed by the post-emergence herbicide fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron at both crop stages (Figure 3). In general, the combination of pretilachlor as a pre-emergence herbicide with any of the post-emergence herbicide treatments resulted in poor control of sedges. Pre-emergence herbicide applications reduced the population of broadleaf weeds at 15 DAT, 35 DAT and 55 DAT (Table 2). For all crop growth stages, the three pre-emergence herbicide treatments reduced the broadleaf weed populations as compared to control (i.e. no pre-emergence herbicide) treatment by 26%, 35% and 29% at 15, 35 and 35 DAT, respectively. At 55 DAT, the application of pendimethalin resulted in lower broadleaf weed density than the application of pretilachlor. The maximum reduction in broadleaf weeds by post-emergence herbicides alone occurred with the bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron treatment compared to the rest of the post-emergence herbicide treatment sat both 35 and 55 DAT. The fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron treatment was the least effective in reducing the density of broadleaf weeds compared to all other post-emergence herbicide treatments, but it was more effective than the no-post-emergence herbicide treatment.At both 35 and 55 DAT interactions between pre-and post-emergence herbicides were found significant with regard to the density of broadleaf weeds. Figure 4 shows that the most effective control of broadleaf weeds was achieved by applying any of the three pre-emergence herbicides followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron or bispyribac alone. Post-emergence herbicide application alone was not particularly effective in reducing broadleaf weeds as compared to combination with a pre-emergence herbicide. The weed biomass at 35 and 55 DAT followed the same trends as weed density: maximum weed biomass was recorded under the no-pre-emergence herbicide treatment (64.4 g m −2 averaged across the two sampling dates) and minimum under the pendimethalin treatment (38.3 g m −2 ): i.e. the latter treatment produced 40% lower weed biomass (Table 2). Pendimethalin also resulted in 12% lower weed biomass than either other pre-emergence herbicide, oxadiargyl or pretilachlor.In contrast, net rice crop biomass (Table 3) was highest in the pendimethalin treatment (8.94 t ha −1 ) and lowest in the no-pre-emergence herbicide treatment (7.46 t ha −1 ).The no-post-emergence herbicide treatment produced higher weed biomass than any of the post-emergence herbicide treatments at both 35 and 55 DAT (Table 2). Weed biomass under bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron treatment was significantly lower than under all other postemergence herbicide treatments at both crop stages (35 and 55 DAT). The fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron treatment was less effective in reducing weed biomass than either bispyribac alone or fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron, at both 35 and 55 DAT. In sequential application, pendimethalin(preemergence) followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron (post-emergence) had significantly produced the lowest weed biomass (33.6 g m −2 ) than rest of the herbicide combinations (Figure 5). The rice crop biomass at harvest was 12% higher in the bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron treatment (Table 3); this treatment achieved the highest rice yield (4395 kg ha −1 ) among all post-emergence herbicide treatments (Table 4). The lowest rice crop biomass was observed in the no-post-emergence herbicide treatment. The harvest index (HI) varied significantly among all pre-and postemergence herbicide treatments. Among the pre-emergence herbicide treatments, HI was highest in the pendimethalin treatment and lowest in the no-pre-emergence herbicide treatment (Table 3).The application of bispyribac alone as a post-emergence achieved the highest HI. The interaction effect of pre-emergence and post-emergence on crop biomass was highest in the combination of pendimethalin with bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron (10.55 t ha −1 ) followed by pretilachlor with bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron (9.2 t ha −1 ).Significant interactions at both later sampling dates (35 and 55 DAT) between pre-and postemergence herbicides on weed control efficiency (WCE; Table 3) were recorded. In general, a sole application of either pre-or post-emergence herbicide did not control weeds effectively as the sequential application of both pre-and post-emergence herbicides. Maximum WCE (e.g. 78.85 % and 74.62% at 35 and 55 DAT, respectively) was achieved with the sequential application of any of the three pre-emergence herbicides followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron as a post-emergence herbicide, for both sampling dates. The highest WCE in pre-emergence herbicides alone was recorded with pendimethalin application (average across the two sampling dates of 66%), while the lowest WCE was in the treatment with no pre-emergence herbicide applied (42% averaged across the two sampling dates). Among the post-emergence herbicides, bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron achieved the maximum WCE of 72.6% and 68.7% at 35 and 55 DAT, respectively, while the remaining post-emergence herbicides had lower WCE than bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron but were more effective than the treatment without any post-emergence herbicide.Rice grain yields differed significantly between the pre-and post-emergence herbicide treatments along with their interactions. Among the pre-emergence herbicide treatments, those with pendimethalin recorded a significantly higher grain yield (3.64 t ha −1 averaged across two seasons): this was 18% and 23% higher than the rice grain yields achieved under oxadiargyl or pretilachlor, respectively (Table 4). The treatment with no pre-emergence herbicide produced the lowest rice grain yield over the two seasons (2.68 t ha −1 ). Rice grain yields differed under all postemergence herbicide treatments over the two seasons: yields were highest under bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron (3.64 t ha −1 ), then under bispyribac, fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron, fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron, with rice under the no post-emergence herbicide treatment achieving the lowest yield (2.13 t ha −1 ).In terms of interactions between pre-and post-emergence herbicides, the treatment with pendimethalin followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron achieved the highest rice grain yield (4.40 t ha −1 ); this was significantly higher than all other treatment combinations except pendimethalin with bispyribac. In general, pendimethalin as a pre-emergence herbicide followed by any of the post-emergence herbicides achieved a higher rice grain yield than treatments with any other preemergence herbicides: this treatment combination achieved 18%, 24% and 36% higher rice yields than the treatments with oxadiargyl, pretilachlor or no-pre-emergence herbicide, respectively. Rice yield increased 174% under the sequential application of pendimethalin followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron compared to yields from the absolute control treatment (no pre-or postemergence herbicide). This also produced 10% higher rice grain yield than the next highest yielding treatment, pendimethalin followed bispyribac alone (Table 4).At both 35 and 55 DAT and across all herbicide treatment combinations, strong relationships (~R 2 = 0.63) were observed between rice grain yield and both weed biomass and weed control efficiency (Figure 6). Most weed biomass observations were between 20 and 60 g m −2 at 35 DAT and between 30 and 100 g m −2 at 55 DAT. Rice yield was expressed as a function of weed biomass at 55 DAT using the equation: y = −20.344x+4278.8, where y is rice yield and x is weed biomass at 55 DAT. To interpret this equation, when weed biomass production was 20 g m −2 , rice grain yield decreased by 0.7 t ha −1 , which was a loss of 14% in rice yield compared to when weeds were well controlled (i.e. when weed biomass was found to be nil). Further, when weed biomass increased to 40 or 80 g m −2 , rice yields decreased by 1.3 and 2.2 t ha −1 , and was 27% and 47% lower, respectively, than when weeds were ideally controlled. Similarly, a linear equation describing the relationship between rice grain yield and weed control efficiency (WCE) showed that when WCE was lower than 62% the rice grain yield was significantly reduced. To achieve high rice grain yields, weeds should be well controlled until at least maximum tillering and panicle initiation, i.e. between transplanting and 40-55 DAT.Both relative rice grain yield and relative gross margins (i.e. relative to the absolute control where no herbicides were applied) were significantly influenced by pre-and post-emergence herbicide application treatments and their interactions. The relative rice grain yields followed the same trends as the rice grain yields described in Section 3.3. A mean maximum rice grain yield (mean of 2.79 t ha −1 over two seasons) was achieved relative to the absolute control in the treatment with pendimethalin followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron (Table 4). Pendimethalin alone as a weed control treatment produced an additional 0.95 t ha −1 rice grain over the absolute control; this was 62.5% higher than that achieved under either the oxadiargyl or pretilachlor sole pre-emergence treatments. The application of bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron as a post-emergence treatment increased relative rice grain yields by 2.03 t ha −1 over the absolute control; this was 9.2%, 45.4%, 27.8% and 285% higher than rice yields achieved in the bispyribac, fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron, fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron and no-post-emergence herbicide treatments, respectively.After the two-year experiment, the additional cost incurred due to the application of only preemergence herbicides varied between 5.27 and 17.57 USD ha −1 ; this was lowest in the pretilachlor treatment and the highest in the pendimethalin treatment. Similarly, for the post-emergence herbicides, the additional cost incurred varied between 10.41 and 75.14 USD ha −1 and was lowest under fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron and highest under fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron. In the sequential herbicide treatments, the additional cost varied between 15.68 and 92.70 USD ha −1 and was lowest under the pretilachlor followed by fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron treatment and highest under the pendimethalin followed by fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron treatment (Table 4).The relative mean gross margins across two crop seasons varied from 88.86 to 148.75 USD ha −1 in the pre-emergence only herbicide treatments, with the pendimethalin treatment having the highest gross margin and oxadiargyl having the lowest. In the post-emergence only herbicide treatments relative gross margins varied between 145 and 230 USD ha −1 , with maximum gross margins under bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron treatment.Relative gross margins increased considerably when pre-and post-emergence herbicides were used in combination. When pendimethalin was combined with bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron, the relative gross margin increased to 417 USD ha −1 , which was significantly higher than the gross margin achieved under any other sequential herbicide combination examined except pendimethalin with bispyribac.In a similar sub-Himalayan plain environment, Maity and Mukherjee (2009) also observed a greater presence of C. dactylon, C. rotundus and Ludwigia spp. under no-till UPTR. The increase in weed species observed here under UPTR relative to PTR has also been observed under untilled mechanized rice establishment (commonly direct seeded rice) in many other studies in South Asia, where new weed species such as C. dactylon, L. chinensis, D. cillaris, C. rotondus, and Ludwigia spp. have been observed (Kumar & Ladha, 2011;Gathala et al., 2013;Chhokar et al., 2014;Hossain et al., 2020). This shift in weed dynamics may be a result of a more plant-favourable environment arising out of improved soil health in the absence of tilling, puddling and soil compaction, which contributes to increasing weed seed density and prevalence (Kumar & Ladha, 2011;Chhokar et al., 2014;Hossain et al., 2020).This study demonstrated the potential of pendimethalin in particular as a pre-emergence herbicide under no-till UPTR to effectively control grass and some broadleaf weeds. All three pre-emergence herbicides, pendimethalin, oxadiargyl and pretilachlor, were more effective at reducing the density of grass weeds than of sedges or broadleaf weeds in the first 15 DAT. Combining these herbicides with post-emergence herbicides has not been trialled before in this region, and this approach is an innovative one to test new management options for farmers. Pendimethalin reduced grassy weeds population by 83%, 80% and 68% during 15, 35 and 55 DAT as compared to no herbicides treatment. Pre-emergence herbicides restrict the germination of weed seeds lying within 2-3 cm of the soil surface as they inhibit cell division during germination (Rao et al., 2007;Hossain et al., 2020). Pendimethalin had a greater effect on grasses and higher overall efficacy and longer residual effects in fields, which were wet but without standing water than either oxadiargyl or  pretilachlor, both of which require highly saturated soils or even standing water for optimum weed control (Chhokar et al., 2007;Mahajan & Chauhan, 2015;V. Singh et al., 2016). Reductions in the density of grasses like Echinochloa have also been previously observed with the application of a group of pre-emergence herbicides including pendimethalin (Khaliq & Matloob, 2012;Hossain et al., 2021;Chatterjee et al., 2021). The effectiveness of pendimethalin as a pre-emergence herbicide in reducing the density of grass weeds has further been observed more widely across South Asia (Rao et al., 2007;M. Singh et al., 2015). Most pre-emergence herbicides lack efficacy against sedge weeds, in particularly those which multiply through rhizomes and stolon rather than by cell division; thus, the pre-emergence herbicides tested here were less effective against sedges (Rao et al., 2007;M. Singh et al., 2015;Hossain et al., 2020;Chatterjee et al., 2021).No pre-emergence herbicide alone was effective at preventing the establishment of weeds at later sampling dates due to the relatively short-lived persistence of pre-emergence herbicides under hot and moist conditions (Saha et al., 2021). Post-emergence herbicides were also able to reduce weed density: in particular, the bispyribac alone or bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron treatments not only controlled both grassy and broadleaf weeds well but also effectively controlled sedges, particularly Cyperus iria which is a major sedge weed in the region (Jat et al., 2021;Saha et al., 2021). In our experiment, bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron and bispyribac alone reduced the grass weed density by 66-67%; while the broadleaf weed density was reduced by 79 and 66% during 35 and 55 DAT, respectively. This ability of bispyribac-based treatments to suppress many different weed types is attributed to the wide spectrum range of weed flora targeted: bispyribac alone controls grass weeds well, and also to some extent sedges and broadleaf weeds; when combined with a sulfonylurea compound such as pyrazosulfuron it also effectively control sedges and broadleaf weeds in their early growth stages (Gill et al., 2013;Saha et al., 2021;V. Singh et al., 2016). The post-emergence herbicide fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron failed to control sedges; however, this herbicide was reasonably effective at controlling broadleaf weeds. compound, halosulfuron, was very effective at controlling all sedge weeds, including rhizomepropagated plants: consequently, the treatment fenoxaprop fb halosulfuron resulted in a significant reduction in sedge density which has been previously observed in South Asia (Saha et al., 2021).Our results demonstrate that either pre-emergence or post-emergence herbicides alone was not able to control weed flora effectively: weed control efficiency was less than 60% in these treatments relative to combinations of pre-and post-emergence herbicides (Table 3). The effectiveness of sequential application of herbicides in managing weed flora under mechanized rice establishment in both no-till and tilled experiments was reported by various studies (Jat et al., 2021;Kaur & Singh, 2015;Kumar & Ladha, 2011;Mahajan & Chauhan, 2015;Rao et al., 2007;Saha et al., 2021;M. Singh et al., 2015;V. Singh et al., 2016).The combined application of appropriate pre-and post-emergence herbicides, applied at correct weed growth stages, is key to effectively control weeds under no-till mechanized UPTR. We observed maximum weed biomass reduction across all weed flora at both 35 and 55 DAT with the sequential application of pendimethalin as a pre-emergence herbicide followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron as a post-emergence herbicide. Lower weed density at all sampling times was the primary reason for this reduced weed biomass. Mahajan et al. (2009) observed that the sequential application of pendimethalin followed by bispyribac effectively controlled weeds in mechanized dry direct-seeded rice, while other studies observed the lowest weed biomass in treatments with the sequential application of pendimethalin followed by bispyribac + azimsulfuron, i.e. bispyribac combined with another sulfonylurea compound (Mahajan & Chauhan, 2013;R.G. Singh et al., 2010;Saha et al., 2021). The combination of pendimethalin followed by fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron also provided good control of mixed weed flora as the addition of pendimethalin broadened both the duration of weed control and the spectrum of weeds targeted, while the sulfonylurea compound effectively controlled both sedges and broadleaf weeds. The suppression of late weed flushes increased the effectiveness of sulfonylurea compounds such as pyrazosulfuron to reduce weed density and increase weed control efficiency in transplanted rice, as has been previously reported by Pal et al. (2012) and Saha et al. (2021).All sequential herbicide combination treatments resulted in better rice yield performance than was achieved under the application of a pre-emergence or post-emergence herbicide alone. This is a result of weed control over both a longer period of time and a diverse weed flora leading to higher weed control efficiency (WCE) and lower weed biomass in each of the sequential treatment combinations than in the single-herbicide treatments. Sequential application of herbicides has helped to reduce crop-weed competition at critical rice crop growth periods (i.e. initial 6 weeks during active plant tillering) by keeping weeds below a critical level; this process enables the rice crop to utilize all resources and promotes effective rice growth (Ahmed et al., 2021;Mahajan et al., 2014;Mukherjee et al., 2008). The most critical growth stage of rice-weed crop competition is two to six weeks after transplanting: this is the active tillering period for the rice crop, which determines the rice yield. The highest rice grain yield, achieved under the pendimethalin followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron treatment, was achieved due to 78% higher WCE in this treatment than in the absolute control treatment, which reduced weed density and biomass by 64% and 45% during 35 and 55 DAS, respectively, and facilitated higher relative rice grain yield gain (2.8 t ha −1 ). Effective weed control was achieved at initial plant growth stages under pendimethalin, while weed control around tillering resulted from the bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron, which reduced weedcrop competition and promoted rice biomass and grain productivity. Higher rice grain yields with increased WCE have been reported elsewhere with sequential applications of pendimethalin followed by bispyribac alone or mixed with pyrazosulfuron (Kaur & Singh, 2015;Khaliq et al., 2012;Saha et al., 2021;V. Singh et al., 2016;Walia et al., 2012). While conducting research on alternate crop establishment techniques of rice, Patra et al. (2018) showed higher yields under PTR during initial years, while UPTR recorded maximum grain yields (4616 kg ha −1 ) in later years, being at par with PTR (4606 kg ha −1 ). However, the yield was significantly reduced under DSR (2750 kg ha −1 ) due to poor crop establishment following high rainfall early in the cropping season. In our experiment, we also observed similar yields under UPTR with appropriate pre-and post-emergence herbicides in combination and under PTR.The sequential herbicide application combinations showed strong correlations (~R 2 = 0.63) between rice grain yield and both weed biomass and WCE (Figure 6). Equations relating rice grain yield and WCE indicate that when WCE was less than 62% the rice grain yield was significantly reduced thus to achieve high rice grain yields it is critical that rice fields should be weed-free up to maximum tillering and panicle initiation, i.e. between transplanting and 40-55DAT, as these are the growth stages of rice critical to determining the ultimate yield. Strong positive relationships between rice grain yield and WCE and strong inverse relationships between rice grain yield and weed biomass have also been reported in many studies previously (Walia et al., 2012;Kaur & Singh, 2015;Mahajan & Chauhan, 2015;Hossain et al., 2020;Saha et al., 2021).Relative rice gross margins were a function of rice grain yield and herbicide costs. While the sequential application of pendimethalin followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron increased herbicide costs, this treatment also achieved maximum relative gross margins, 18% and 29% higher over next best treatment combinations viz., pendimethalin followed by bispyribac alone and pendimethalin followed by fenoxaprop + ethoxysulfuron due to better weed control efficiency, which facilitated rice plant growth and ultimately resulted in higher grain yield. The application of pre-or post-emergence herbicides alone was cheaper but ultimately resulted in lower relative gross margins than the sequential treatments, indicating that low weed control efficiencies depressed net rice grain yields. Higher gross margins in rice cultivation were mostly associated with higher weed control efficiencies as observed in various studies (Kumar & Ladha, 2011;Mahajan & Chauhan, 2015;Saha et al., 2021;V. Singh et al., 2016).While UPTR has been previously shown to be a sustainable, energy-efficient crop establishment practice under which similar yields to those under PTR can be achieved, there remain challenges of increased weed pressure, diversity, and prevalence. In research, we have demonstrated that effective weed control across a range of weed flora is achievable under no-till UPTR using innovative combinations of pre-and post-emergence herbicides. Weeds were most effectively managed with the sequential combination of pendimethalin (pre-emergence) followed by bispyribac + pyrazosulfuron (post-emergence). There was an increase in production costs associated with herbicide use; however, using herbicides also increased rice grain yields and gross margins, which were highest in the treatments where weeds were well controlled relative to control treatments. Our findings are relevant and applicable in other rice-producing agro-ecologies where no-till UPTR is a promising alternative to traditional PTR. Future research could include integrating herbicide use with mechanized weed management strategies, weed control efficiency on the individual weed flora and herbicide efficiency at different moisture regimes; this may reduce dependency on herbicides alone.","tokenCount":"6612"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d955fd00f195c09164f77fc75c2859d5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/32fe9422-91ec-48c4-9e13-0b967e488d2c/retrieve","id":"-1041097769"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7e7bd6a0-2623-4a64-8e08-dd779b48d053","pagecount":"120","content":"After graduation, the author was employed by the Ministry of Agriculture in September 1990 and he had served for three years as agricultural development agent in Eastern Hararghe zone, Gursum woreda. In 1993, he was transferred to the Amhara Region and he had served for seven years in different positions as Agricultural DA, Agricultural Supervisor and Woreda Expert at Libokemkem, Ebinat and Fogera woredas of South Gondar Zone. Moreover, he had served as program coordinator of RWSEP, a bilateral NGO at Fogera woreda for three years. Then after, he joined the then Debub University, Awassa College of Agriculture in 2001 as advance standing program and attended his undergraduate study and received B.Sc. degree in Animal Production and Rangeland Management in July 2003. After completion of his undergraduate study, again he was employed by the Ministry of Agriculture in October 2003 and had served as Senior Instructor in the Department of Animal Science at Agarfa and Mertulemariam Agricultural, Technical, Vocational, Education and Training (ATVET) Colleges. After serving for three years in teaching, he joined the School of Graduate Study of Mekelle University in 2006 Summer Program to pursue graduate study in Livestock Production and Pastoral Development. Declaration This is to certify that this thesis entitled \"Feed Resources Availability, Cattle Fattening Practices and Marketing System in Bure Woreda, Amhara Region, Ethiopia\" submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of M.Sc., in Livestock Production and Pastoral Development to the School of Graduate Studies, Mekelle University, through the Department of Animal, Range and Wildlife Sciences done by Mr. Shitahun Mulu Belay, Id.No. FDA/PS0014/98 is an authentic work carried out by him under my guidance. The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma to the best of my knowledge and belief. Name of the student Shitahun Mulu Belay Signature & date______________ Name of major advisor ________________________Signature & date______________ Name of co-advisor________________________ Signature & date______________ First and foremost, I would like to thank the Almighty God for blessing invaluable gifts of health, strength, believes, love, hope, patience and protection to me and my families throughout my study. Had not been the will of God, nothing would have been possible for me. I am very much indebted to acknowledge my research advisors Dr. Kefelegne Kebede and Dr. Azage Tegegne for their encouragement, genuine guidance, constructive comments and excellent cooperation, which enabled me to complete this study on time. I pleasantly express my thanks to Dr.Yayneshet Tesfay, for his valuable comments for shaping of my thesis write-up. My thanks also goes to the staff members of Mekelle University, particularly to the School of Graduate Studies, the Department of Animal, Range and Wildlife Sciences, computer laboratory, and library for cooperating every required support starting from the course work up to the end. I would like to extend my thanks to ILRI-IPMS project and BoARD, ANRS for financing my study through IPMS-Bure Pilot Project, without which this work would have been impossible. In this regard, I have a full feeling of gratitude to IPMS-Bure Pilot Project staff Dr. Yigzaw Dessalegne and Ato Yohannis Mehari who cooperates in-depth in technical advice, timely adjusting my financial requests and arranging the vehicle and computer for my study work. From ILRI-IPMS, my special thanks go to W/Z Birkie Enyew and Muluhiwot Getachew for their immediate facilitation to my financial requests and transferring the working budgets on the right time. My deepest thanks also goes to all the concerned staff of BoARD, ANRS especially to AtoI dedicate this thesis manuscript to my late father Mulu Belay, my mother Tayech Bekahegne, and my brother Yibeltal Mulu for nursing me with affection and love and for their dedicated partnership in the success of my life. I deeply wish that God would give them peaceful rest forever.I also thank all the staff members of Bure Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office for giving the required data for my study starting from the woreda experts up to agricultural DA's in each of the study kebeles and also a supervisor working in the study kebele, Ato Habtamu Taddese who helped me a lot during data collection in his working kebeles.My special thanks go to Dr. Taddese Amssalu, Manager of Environmental Protection and Land Administration Authority in ANRS, for his unreserved encouragement and skillful guidance for developing my confidence starting from my diploma program at Ambo College of Agriculture till now. Once again, I would like to take this opportunity to say he is my resource person as he directs me like his grower kid. I pleasantly express my thanks to Dr. Eshete Dejen, on behalf of ARARI who accept my proposal being the priority researchable title in the study area so as to create a link with the sponsorship organization. The contribution of my staff members is not forgettable for their understanding of my business and sharing my burden, since I was working my thesis at confined condition.I would like also to thank those farmers participated in this study for their hospitality and genuine approach throughout the study period without whom, complete data collection would have been impossible.Finally, I would like to thank my wife w/o Belaynesh Wondie for nursing the newly born child Kaleab Shitahun in the absence of myself, and also for her valuable encouragement and patience through out my study.PageTable 1: Family sex and age category per household in Bure woreda ------------------------------27Table 2: Mean annual income from different sources per household in Bure woreda ------------27Table 3: Private land holding and use patterns per household in Bure woreda --------------------35Table 4: Major crops produced and their area coverage per household in Bure woreda both private and rented land (ha)--------------------------------------------35Table 5: Average livestock holding and composition per household in Bure woreda ------------38Table 6: Correlation between different parameters considered in the current study---------------38Table 7: Respondents rank among feed resources during the dry season in Bure woreda (%) --39Table 8: Respondents rank among feed resources during the wet season in Bure woreda (%) --39Table 9: Crop-residue produced per household in Bure woreda (TDM) ----------------------------41Table 10: Communal grazing and shrub land coverage in Bure woreda (ha) ----------------------42Table 11: Annual feed supply from different sources per household in Bure woreda ------------44Table 12: Respondents response for feed availability at different seasons in Bure woreda ------45Table 13: Balancing of livestock annual maintenance requirement with annual feed supply per household in Bure woreda -------------------------------------------------------51Table 14: Mean live-weight, price and gross profit per fattening cattle in Bure woreda ---------59Table 15: Possible reasons for absence of cattle fattening from May to mid August in Bure woreda ----------------------------------------------------------60Availability of major feed resources, cattle fattening practices and marketing system were studied to generate baseline information which can be used for future interventions to develop market oriented cattle fattening program within the integrated mixed crop-livestock system. The study was conducted using cross-sectional survey by interviewing a total of 153 cattle fattener households proportionally selected from four kebeles in Weina-Dega and two kebeles in Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies of Bure Woreda in Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia. Moreover, focus group discussions, field observations, market monitoring and heart girth measurement have been done to enrich the data. Data analyses were carried out using SAS, JMP5 statistical software. The study showed that the major feed resources available to livestock include cropresidue, stubble grazing, natural pasture and hay which varied with seasons. Mean annual total utilizable feed supply per household was 12.70 TDM. Of which,10.77 TDM (about 84.81%) was derived from cropping system which comprised 9.63 TDM crop-residues and 1.14 TDM stubble grazing. Total utilizable DM production from cropping system per household significantly varied (P<0.05) between the two agro-ecologies that accounted for 8.05±0.59 TDM and 16.36±0.84 TDM in Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies, respectively. Among crop-residues, maize stover accounted for 64.58% and was followed by wheat, teff, and millet with 16. 82%, 6.92%, and 4.30% of the total TDM produced from cropping system including the respective stubble grazing. The study showed that average livestock population per household overall in the study area was 5.31TLU and the annual maintenance DM requirement was estimated to be 12.12TDM. Hence, the existing feed supply can satisfy about 104.79 % of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock per household. However, the annual feed supply greatly varied between the two agroecologies that accounted for about 90.84% and 119.26 % of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock in Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla averages, respectively. As a result, feed scarcity was observed in Weina-Dega agro-ecology especially in Arbisi and Woynma-ambaye kebeles, and followed by Wndgi kebele. This study also showed that older plowed oxen about 10 years old have been fattened under farmer's management with mean live-weight change of about 66.24kg per fattened cattle overall in the study area. However, mean live-weight changes were 53.91kg and 91.64kg for Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies, respectively. Household survey indicated that, average price of cattle before and after fattening was about 965 and 1505 birr, respectively, which resulted gross profit of about 540 birr per fattening cattle that came from price margin and feed margin over 110 days of feeding length. Both mean live-weight change and gross profit per fattened cattle in Sub-Kolla kebeles were significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Weina-Dega kebeles. Major constraints that hindered the performance of cattle fattening activity were feed shortage, lack of capital, shortage of labour, and animal health problem in order of importance. However, availability of crop-residues, high irrigation potential, better meat type cattle, and high market demand were also identified as good opportunities which could be used to enhance the performance of cattle fattening activity. It can be concluded that cattle fattening could be one potential strategy to improve the income of the farming community that utilizes seasonally available feed resources by improving utilization efficiency through training and extension advice with the help of agricultural development organizations. Moreover, detail research work on DM production, nutrient composition and digestibility of the major available feed resources are recommended for further work. Chapter 1: IntroductionAgriculture, being the backbone of Ethiopia's economy, accounts for 46% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and livestock sub sector contributes 30% -35% and more than 85% of farm cash income. The sub sector also accounts 19% to the export earning (Azage and Alemu, 1998;Befekadu and Birhanu, 2000).Highlands of Ethiopia are characterized by crop-livestock mixed farming systems. They inhabit nearly 90% of the human population and 70% of the livestock population of the country (Mohamed-Saleem and Abate, 1995). The mixed farming systems developed as a consequence of the beneficial effects resulting from interrelationships and complementarities between crop and livestock production. Livestock production ensures the availability of food and income to the farming community throughout the year. Besides, livestock are source of agricultural inputs such as draft power and organic fertilizer as a direct contribution for crop production, while the contribution of crop sector is through provision of feed in the form of crop residues and stubble grazing. Hence, the role of livestock is significant in this farming system (Getachew, 2002).There are, however, key constraints to the productivity of livestock in Ethiopian highlands. These include poor nutrition, poor genetic resources in terms of productivity, prevalence of animal diseases, unfavorable socio-economic factors, and lack of livestock policy (Agajie et al., 2002).The area of land allocated to grazing in the highlands progressively declined through time due to the expansion of cultivation (Alemayehu, 2002;Zerihun, 2002). As a result of this, scarcity of feed resources is the major bottleneck to livestock production in the highlands of Ethiopia, where natural pasture and crop residues are the major sources of feed supply to livestock (Seyoum and Zinash, 1995;Zinash et al., 1995;Zerihun, 2002). However, these feed resources are inadequate quantitatively and qualitatively to support reasonable livestock production (Mohamed-Saleem and Abate, 1995). Hence, to satisfy the growing demand for livestock products in the mixed croplivestock system of the Ethiopian highlands, it is more and more important to ensure the efficient use of the available feed resources, including crop-residues.Despite the low productivity of traditional animal production system in the mixed crop-livestock system of Ethiopian highlands, there are substantial potentials for development. There is a considerable potential for increasing crop yield, and the quantity as well as the quality of forage through adoption of different strategies that integrate livestock and cropping systems. This can be achieved by the production of more feeds under sustainable cropping system and preparation of better mix of nutrients for livestock from these sources, and by improving utilization efficiency of the available feed resources (Alemayehu, 2002). Thus it is possible to improve the benefit gained from livestock in general and from cattle in particular by fattening of plowed oxen, culled cows, and steers results from the system which are beyond the requirement for plowing.In Ethiopia there are three types of cattle fattening systems namely; traditional, by-product based and the Hararghe type of fattening which varies mainly depending on the available feed resources, source of fattening cattle and marketing conditions. Though, Ethiopia is known for its huge cattle population, most of the beef is produced under an extensive low input system and in conjunction with crop and small ruminant production, as a result of which, beef production and productivity are very low as compared to the world average. Per capita consumption of meat is about 13.9 kilos a year of which beef and veal contribute 64 percent; and sheep, goats, chicken and camels provide the remainder (MoA, 1997). This shows that beef cattle fattening activity could be one potential source for employment opportunity to alleviate poverty in the country if considerable attention is given for the sub sector. Farmers can derive substantial income from cattle fattening as well as maximize use of farm resources provided that adequate capital to purchase stocks, ample knowledge in selecting stocks for fattening, and efficient feeding management using local and available feed resources.Farmers in the study area consider their livestock to be reliable source of input for crop production. Animals were purchased and sold according to the need of farm labor, cash need of the family and investment opportunities. Similar to the other farmers of the Ethiopian highlands, the major functions of oxen in the study area were to provide traction power and to build capital savings. Cows were kept primarily to produce replacement heifers and young bulls which were mainly used as input function for crop production. Sheep and goats were mainly reared to cover payments associated with cash needs of the family for clothing, input costs, land tax and for fulfilling other social obligations. Moreover, sheep and goats have been kept for periodical slaughter for home consumption especially during festivals. From equines, donkeys and mules have been used as pack animals to transport agricultural inputs, harvested grain from the farmland to the house and to the market, and crop-residues from the farmland to the backyard.Moreover, donkeys which were found in the Sub-Kolla kebeles of the study area have been used to plow cropland. This is because of the prevalence of tsetse fly which causes Trypanosomiasis and in turn highly affects plowing oxen in the area.After plowing, when the plowed oxen become older and suspected as if the oxen could not able to plow for the next season, farmers decide to fatten their oxen and supplied for the market to replace young plowing oxen for cultivation. Moreover, some rural farmers and semi-urban dwellers have experienced fattening by purchasing emaciated older plowed oxen from the surrounding market and sold after some months of feeding period to get profit. For example, in 2006 alone, 2367 cattle were fattened in the woreda (BWARDO, unpublished), and in 2004 alone, 39193 cattle in West Gojjam Zone and 129596 cattle were fattened overall in the region (BoFEDANRS, 2005).Bure woreda is known in cereal crop production and the resulting crop-residues could be used as potential feed source for fattening cattle. Though detail marketing system has not yet been compiled out, the woreda seems suitable for cattle fattening due to suitable market access and presence of three all-weather roads connecting with Bahir-Dar, Debremarkos and Nekemt.Moreover, the woreda is bordered towards the South with Horrogudru Woreda in Oromyia Region, which is the origin of Horro cattle having relatively good beef cattle characteristics to be used as a potential source of fattening cattle.Though, the woreda was estimated to have huge supply of crop-residues, there may be mishandling and lack of awareness about crop-residue improvement. As a result, utilization efficiency of the residues may be low. Besides, there may be lack of proper selection of fattening cattle, lack of market information and also poor managements in relation to feeding system, healthcare, housing, watering, etc.; which may lower the performance of cattle fattening. Hence, the producer may not get reasonable benefit from their fattening activity unless appropriate improvement strategies have to be introduced.Despite good fattening potentials associated with ample crop-residue production, market access and suitable cattle breeds have been expected in the woreda, because little attention given to livestock development in general and cattle fattening in particular and much has not been studied about utilization of the available feed resources, fattening practices and marketing system of cattle in the area. In Amhara Region in general and Bure Woreda in particular, there is a newly emerging cattle fattening activity under small scale level by farmers and semi-urban dwellers, which needs deep-investigation about the management and its performance. Thus, on the basis of this background, the current study was initiated to address some research questions about improvement strategies of the feed resource base and cattle fattening practices in Bure Woreda.General objective of the current study was to generate baseline information which can be used for future interventions to develop market oriented cattle fattening program within the integrated mixed crop-livestock system.To assess the major available feed resources and forward potential strategies for efficient utilization;To assess cattle fattening practices on-farm level;To assess marketing system of the current cattle fattening activity;To assess the major constraints and opportunities for cattle fattening activity.Since, the results and recommendations made available at woreda level, extension staffs can use for their day to day activity to increase farm productivity and hence, the target people in the woreda those engaged in cattle fattening activity will be the primarily beneficiaries. Moreover, BoARD, ARARI and also other concerned NGO's like IPMS-ILRI will use as a baseline information to define the prospects for future interventions in developing market oriented cattle fattening program within the integrated crop-livestock system having similar resources and agroecology within the region. By which, it will contribute to poverty alleviation program in a sustainable crop-livestock production system in the region.There is no a significant feed shortage in Bure Woreda.Cattle fattening practices do not have significant difference between Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies.Marketing system does not have significant difference between Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies.Chapter 2: Literature ReviewAccording to Sere and Steinfeld (1996), the world livestock system is classified in to three broad categories of production systems on the bases of degrees of interaction with crops, in relation to land, agro-ecological zone, intensity of production, animal species and type of products. These are: grazing, mixed farming and industrial systems.Grazing systems based almost entirely on livestock production, with little or no integration with crops. They are mainly based on native grassland. In terms of total production, grazing systems are of lesser importance due to that they supply only 9% of global meat production (ibid).In mixed farming systems, crops and livestock production are integrated on the same farm.Hence, resource use in mixed farming is often highly self-reliant as nutrients and energy flow from crops to livestock and back. Mixed farming is probably the most benign agricultural production system, since there are many opportunities for nutrient recycling in to the soil as it is known by complementarities between livestock and crop production. It provides the largest share accounted for about 54% of the total global meat production. The importance of mixed systems as suppliers of livestock products is expected to continue to grow in the future, along with landless mono-gastric systems. Cattle are the dominant livestock species and kept primarily for draught power, milk, manure, meat and hides in intensively cultivated mixed farming systems, whereas, donkeys, sheep and poultry are also important species kept for different purposes. In this farming system, more than 10% of DM feed for livestock is derived from crop production and also grazing pressure is very high as a result of this, animals experience year-round feed shortage (ibid).Industrial systems cover industrial types of production and small-scale urban or semi-urban production in developing countries. Both mono-gastric (pig and poultry) and ruminant production systems exist. They provide 37% of the total global meat production. These systems are open both in physical and economic terms (ibid).The heterogeneity of Ethiopia's topography, climate and cultural conditions make it difficult to generalize about livestock production systems in the country. However, the major livestock production systems in the country are highland livestock, lowland livestock, and commercial livestock production systems (Alemayehu, 1987).Population growth, urbanization and income growth in developing countries are fuelling a substantial global increase in the demand for food of animal origin, while also aggravating the competition between crops and livestock (increasing cropping areas and reducing rangelands) which cause environmental stress. In this regard, an integrated crop-livestock farming system sents a key solution for enhancing livestock production and safeguarding the environment through prudent and efficient resource use (IFAD, 2005).The integration of crop and livestock systems can provide some very important sustainable advantages for the farmer through nutrient recycling and adding economic value to the system by grazing on crop residue which would otherwise be under utilized. In addition, livestock also provide an incentive to plant nitrogen-fixing crops or forages which serve to improve soil fertility and reduce soil erosion (Sere and Steinfeld, 1996).Sustainable agricultural systems involve animals for their unique ability to use non-competitive, non-renewable resources, and for their integration with other farm practices. They complement plant production systems, and provide biological and economic diversity. In addition, livestock ownership provides a safe investment that can be stored and which produces increased returns through reproduction and gain in body weight. Because, they have diverse functions for the livelihood of farmers in mixed crop-livestock systems in the highlands of East Africa, through improving food security, alleviating poverty and also being they are central to nutrient cycling, livestock are important to the efficiency, stability, and sustainability of farming systems in the East African highlands (Ehuni et al., 1998).Sustainable mixed crop-livestock system often emphasizes the use of nitrogen-fixing forage legumes for their multipurpose value in the system. Growing fodder legumes and using of these fodders to supplement crop-residue is the most practical and cost-effective method of improving nutritional value of crop residues. This creates an opportunity for crop residues to play a useful role in reducing weight losses of animals particularly during dry periods (IFAD, 2005).Moreover, returning animal dung and urine to the soil can help in nutrient recycling, and animal grazing can be used to control weeds in agro forestry or pasture systems. Hence, more attention should be paid to develop farming systems that exploit the complementarities and synergism between plants and animals in resource-conserving systems (Daniel, 1988).For millions of smallholder farmers in the highlands of Ethiopia, animal draught power and nutrient recycling through manure compensate lack of access to modern inputs such as tractors and fertilizer, and help to maintain the viability and environmental sustainability of production.In the mixed crop-livestock system, farmers integrate crop and livestock sub-sectors, because the main and cheap sources of inputs for farming are those that emerge from crop and livestock integration (Getachew and Abate, 1993).Globally, mixed farming systems produce the largest share of the total milk (90%), meat (54%)and it is the main system of production for smallholder farmers in many developing countries (Sere and Steinfeld, 1996). In the tropics, the principal objective of farmers engaged in mixed farming is complementary benefit from an optimum mixture of crops and livestock farming and spreading income and risks over both crops and livestock production. Moreover, the system provide farmers with an opportunity to use labor more efficiently, to have a source of cash for purchasing farm inputs and to add value to crops or crop by-products (Peters and Aenis, 1995).In Ethiopia, the livestock sub sector contributes about 12% and 33% of the total and agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP), respectively, and provides livelihood for 65% of the population (Ayele et al., 2003).Crop and livestock sub systems interacts each other in many ways in the Ethiopian highlands.The livestock sub system has output, input, asset, security and investment functions in the farming systems. Animal traction and crop residues are the prominent binding elements of the crop and livestock sub-sectors. Draught power and manure serve as direct input to crop farming.Besides, livestock provide an alternative market for crop farming by use of crop residues and poor quality grains and change into high quality human diets like, meat and milk (Getachew and Abate, 1993).The high crop-related livestock production system in Ethiopia is found between 1,500 and 3,000 masl especially in the highlands of Tigray, Wollo, Gondar, Gojjam, Shewa and parts of Wellega (Alemayehu, 2003). Particularly highland mixed crop-livestock farming system of Ethiopia support 2/3 of the livestock population and hold about 95% of the cropped area. It is estimated that the highlands contain nearly 75 to 80% of the national cattle and sheep, and 30% of the national goat flock (Zinash et al., 2001). In the mixed crop-livestock system of Ethiopian highlands, farm size is an effective constraint for efficiency of production as well as improving the living condition of the rural family. Because, increasing population pressure needs additional cropland to produce food crops as a result it has contributed to the decline in availability of grazing lands which in turn affects livestock productivity (Alemayehu, 2002).Livestock in the highlands are kept for multiple purposes such as food production, risk mitigation, income generation and internal integration function (Agajie et al., 2002). According to McDowell and Hildebrand (1980), livestock convert crop residues and other plant biomass to utilizable products by human beings, and either mediate or accelerate nutrient transfer and turnover to the soil. In this respect, mixed farming is at least partially, a closed system so that the waste products of one enterprise are used by the other enterprise (Amir and Knipscheer, 1989).Hence, the productivity of mixed farming system can be increased via considerable attention of the interaction between crops and livestock (IFAD, 2005). In general, livestock in the highlands of Ethiopia as a whole contribute substantially to the socioeconomic development of the country yielding food for the people, energy, cash income, economic security and manure for the rural community and crop agriculture; hides and skins, and live animals for export and industrial use (Yitaye, 1999;Ayele et al., 2003).The availability of feed resources in the highlands of Ethiopia depends on the mode and intensity of crop production as well as population pressure. The major basal feed resources in these areas are natural pasture, crop residues and stubble grazing, and their contribution to the total feed resource base vary from area to area based on cropping intensity (Seyoum et al., 2001).The availability of feed resources in Ethiopia interacts with rainfall amount and distribution pattern, and season of the year (Mohamed-Saleem and Abate, 1995). Though, limited supplies are obtainable during the dry season on unusual patches of land and along riverbanks, the reliability of natural pasture as a feed source is restricted to the wet season (Zinash et al., 1995).Hence, animals will depend more on crop residues during the dry season. Besides natural pasture, the contribution of stubble and fallow land grazing is significant beginning from the end of cropping season just after harvesting. During this period, livestock can have free access to grazing of crop fields. Standing hay that is closed during the wet season is also open at the end of the cropping season (FAO, 2001).The availability of crop residues is closely related to the farming system, the type of crops produced and intensity of cultivation. In integrated crop/livestock systems, the potential of using crop residues for livestock feed is the greatest. As more and more land is put under crop production, livestock feed becomes scarce and crop residues particularly cereal straws remain the major feed source for the animals particularly during the dry period of the year (which spans from November to May period). Some estimates indicate that crop residues provide 40-50% of the annual livestock feed requirement (Daniel, 1988).In the highlands and mid altitude, various food crop residues: cereals (teff, barley, wheat, maize, sorghum and millet), pulse crop residues (faba beans, chickpeas, haricot beans, field peas, and lentils), oil crop residues and reject vegetables are providing a considerable quantity of dry season feed supply in most farming areas of the country. Currently, with the rapid increase of human population and expansion of arable land and with the steady decrease in grazing land, the use of crop residues is increasing. On average crop residues provide 10 to 15 percent of total feed intake. The same report suggested that in some localities under special crop/livestock production systems, the intake could increase up to 50 percent (MoA, 1997;Alemayehu, 1998). Solomon (2004) noted that crop-residues and stubble grazing accounted for 74.15% of the total annual feed supply which was the major source of feed starting from harvesting of food crops to the wet periods during the time at which feed from grazing areas is inadequate or almost unavailable in Sinana sub-district. Livestock, therefore, depend on the straw from cereal crops, especially during dry periods when there are limited feed supplies from grazing lands. Similarly, in most intensively cultivated areas, crop residues and aftermath grazing accounts for about 60 to 70% of the basal diet, particularly, wheat straw is the dominant feed in wheat-based farming system (Seyoum et al., 2001).Different research works point out different percentage on the contribution of crop residues as livestock feed. This may be due to the wide range of ecological variation between different localities in the country and also variation in time which in turn results with variation in crop species and cropping intensity. So location and time specific feed resource assessment is required in order to know the feed gap between feed supply and feed requirement within specified animal production level.fodder areas and employing fodder conservation techniques. Another possibility is to locate alternative feed sources and use them as supplements. These include banana, cassava, cocoa pod husk, copra cake, gliricidia and leucaena, oil palm products, rice by-products, sugarcane residues and by-products, sweet potato, urea, urea-molasses and multi-nutrient blocks, and various oil cakes and meals (MoA, 1984).In the central highlands of Ethiopia, livestock grazing on seasonal fallow land and permanent pasturelands during cropping season, and on croplands after harvest is common (Zinash et al., 1995). Production problems common to most Ethiopian livestock feeding systems are seasonality in animal feeds supplies and of poor quality in that the quality of most harvested and conserved feedstuffs is such that when fed alone it is often unable to provide even for the maintenance needs of livestock (Anderson, 1987).Animals fed on crop residues mainly in two ways. The residues are piled in stacks near homesteads and animals are let to eat from the stacks or given small quantities in the morning and evening, or for working oxen, before and after work. Alternatively, the residues are left in the threshing ground and consumed by animals together with the standing straws which are left for aftermath grazing (Daniel, 1988).In the central highlands of Ethiopia, farms and government-owned fattening feed lots use straws with molasses and urea. There is a strong tendency towards improving utilization of crop residues by supplementing with molasses and/or urea at beef farms; and at some farmer cooperatives pen fattening of cull cows and old oxen is practiced on straw-based diets (Daniel, 1988).Forage yield and nutritional qualities of pasture are influenced by numerous factors representing ecological conditions and management activities. Those factors include frequency of cutting, species composition, maturity stage of the plant, climatic conditions, soil fertility status and season of harvesting. As pasture gets mature, it is characterized by high content of fiber with a higher grade of lignification's and low protein content. The more the proportion of the legume to the grass composition, the higher the crude protein content of the mixed stand and bring better productivity on the animals (Yihalem, 2004).Species, agronomic practices, soil, temperature, and stage of growth influence the chemical composition, morphology and palatability of straws and stovers. This variation of straws and stovers leads to the difference in digestibility coefficients and intake values. There is considerable variation in the contents of crude protein (CP) and crude fiber (CF) among different crop species and within verities of a crop (Daniel, 1988).Straws and stovers consist of stem, leaf plus leaf sheath, and harvesting, handling and storing systems should all minimize the loss of the more nutritious leaf and leaf sheath portions. The proportion of leaf to stem ratio is the major factor causing nutritional differences among crop verities (McDowell, 1988).Roughage feeds are characterized by low CP, minerals and vitamins and high fiber contents (Van Soest, 1988). They are also low in metabolizable energy (ME) due to low organic matter digestibility. The utilization of roughage feeds is, therefore, impeded by their low nutrient density, slow rate of degradation and low digestibility (Qrskov and Ryle, 1990). Generally, crop residues can only provide maintenance level nutrition since the energy content of crop residues is less than 7 MJ/kg DM (Daniel, 1988).However, the quality varies significantly from crop to crop. Residues from leguminous crop have better quality than those from cereals. Legume straws contain less fiber, high digestible protein than cereal straws (Daniel, 1988;Brananng and Persson, 1990). There is a remarkable difference between the CP content of cereal and legume straws. Digestible protein content of wheat and barley straw is estimated to be 40% and that of pulse is estimated to be 45% of the total CP content (Daniel, 1988).Although, it is the most widely available feed in the highlands of Ethiopia, the value of straw from cereals is limited by its inherent low digestibility, low nitrogen and low rate of passage.Without supplementation or improvement strategies, cereal straw alone cannot maintain the feed requirements for maintenance (Zinash and Seyoum, 1989). Alemayehu (1987) estimated the annual dry matter yield (DMY) of natural pasture in the highlands of Ethiopia to be 4.5 t/ha, particularly on seasonally waterlogged bottomlands. In the same work, it was indicated that the annual DMY of the natural pasture on infertile and freely drained soil ranged from 1 to 2 t/ha. Likewise, Jutzi et al. (1987) reported 1.5t/ha of DM per annum for continuously grazed grasslands and 3t/ha for protected grasslands of areas over 2500 meters above sea level. According to Kidane (1993) and Yihalem ( 2004), stage of harvesting had an effect on the productivity of natural pasture. The DMY ranged from 3.05 to 7.97 t/ha with a mean value of 6.18 t/ha for well managed natural pasture (Yihalem, 2004). On the other hand, FAO (1987) estimated the DMY of natural pasture to be 2 t/ha while it is 1.8 t/ha per annum for fallow lands and 0.7 t/ha for forest lands.The yield of grain and crop residues are related, and this is explained by the fact that high grain yield is the result of high vegetative growth, which is associated with high production of crop residues (Daniel, 1988). According to this author, the residue to grain ratio for wheat variety ranges from 1.8 to 2.9 and for barley from 1.9 to 2.6 to estimate the crop residues on DM bases.The multiplier used to convert grain yield to fibrous residues varies from 1.0 to 2.0 for wheat, 1.2 to 1.5 for barley and 2.0 to 3.0 for maize depending on the region where it is produced.Therefore, varieties of crops with high yield potential produce the highest residue to grain ratio that has the lowest harvest index depending on geographic location In general, a multiplier of 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 for barley, wheat and maize, respectively proposed for Africa (Kossila, 1988). FAO (1987) suggested a multiplier of 1.5 for small cereal crops (wheat, barley and tef), 1.2 for pulses (field pea, faba bean, chickpea, haricot bean and lentil) and oil crops such as linseed, and 0.3 for vegetables.For crop stubbles, Bekele (1991) reported an average DMY of 2 t/ha per year with 15% and 30% utilization rate during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. On the other hand, FAO (1987) recommended an average utilizable DMY of 0.5 t/ha per annum from stubble grazing.A research that conducted by Dzowela (1987) in Malawi on under sowing forage legumes in maize crops showed that there is a possibility of improving the quantity and quality of feed resources available to small-scale livestock producers during the dry season. This simple technology is cheap and makes few demands on labor and land as it involves an integration of arable crop, forage legume and livestock production. It is a good chance of improving the utilization of low-quality waste products such as maize stover. Similarly, Lulseged et al. (1987) reported that when maize was under sown after second weeding (about six weeks after planting) the grain yield was not affected at all while producing nutritious animal feed (Appendix Picture 1).The non-conventional methods of obtaining fodder have been developed as a result of efforts to integrate crop and animal production with benefits to both. The methods that have been tried or seen to be practical by farmers in the high-potential areas are mainly with maize varieties of the 500 and 600 series. The methods of interest include topping, thinning and defoliation (Abate et al., 1987). Alemayehu (2005) reported that techniques such as urea treatment, chopping and mixing with high quality forages can improve the intake and dietary quality of crop residues significantly. Similarly, Firew et al. (2005) reported that urea-treatment improved crude protein content of wheat straw from 2.68% to 8.69% and apparent dry matter digestibility from 55% to 65% and also increased total feed intake significantly.The main aim of grazing management is to convert forage resources to animal products such as meat and milk, in the most efficient way possible. To achieve this, it is necessary to supply the animals with high quantities of high quality forage to ensure acceptable levels of animal performance. It is also important to ensure that the herbage is utilized effectively, with low levels of wastage. All this must be done within the context of sustainable farming systems, to ensure that the grazing resources are maintained and that the management practices to not have unacceptable deleterious impacts on the environment, in terms of soil, water, air and wildlife habitats (Wright et al., 2002).Ethiopia is one of the few African countries where virtually all the agro ecological zones are represented, from deserts to moist tropical forests. Its altitude ranges from 126m below sea level to 4600 meters above sea level. Similarly the variability in rainfall distribution and temperature is much wide. There are 18 major agro ecological and 49 sub agro ecological zones in the country.The varied agro ecological zones make the country suitable for large number of livestock species and breeds (MoA, 1998)   1).The different cattle breed/ types under the four broad categories are found distributed in the different agro ecological zones. In general, about 46%, 16%, 16%, 14% and 8% are found in the highland, sub-humid, semi-arid, arid, and humid parts of Ethiopia, respectively (MoA, 1998).According to FLDP (1989), in Ethiopia, there are three types of fattening systems. These are traditional, by-product based, and the Hararghe type of fattening.In traditional system, oxen are usually sold after the plowing season when they are in poor condition. Meat yields are low, beef is poor quality and the farmer returns are often inadequate to buy a replacement ox. In the lowlands, where pastoralists do not use cattle for draft, cattle are sometimes fattened on natural pasture in good seasons. In average or poor seasons, lowland cattle are rarely fattened and often have to be sold in poor condition at low prices (ibid).The by-product based fattening is a type in which agro industrial by-products such as molasses, cereal milling by-product, and oil seed meals are the main sources of feed which is more concentrated along the highway from Addis Ababa to Nazerate, where the market is suitable for both the fattened cattle and molasses resulted from the surrounding sugar factories (ibid).In the Hararghe fattening system, livestock depend more than in the central highlands upon thinning from annual crops during the growing season as the case of cut and carry feeding system; and crop stover and stubble grazing during the dry season. The Hararghe highlands are close to extensive rangeland areas and the working oxen in Hararghe Province come mainly from the rangelands. Typically smallholders purchase oxen from the rangelands (through traders), use them as draught animals for some years and then fatten them prior to sale. The oxen are fattened successfully on farm products alone. The regional success of this strategy is reflected in the price premium offered to fat stock from Hararghe Province on the Addis Ababa market, which is the most important domestic meat market in the country. The relative close proximity of the Province's smallholders to pastoralists in the rangeland areas enables Hararghe farmers to keep relatively more efficient herds (in terms of rates of conversion of animal feed into draught power and other livestock products) than is the case in the central highlands (ibid).production process. It is also helpful in identifying problem areas needing more in-depth assessment of cause-effect relationships and production aspects in which improvements can be made. Livestock performance can be increased through improved management and output specialization. However, the production problems identified and the improved technologies proposed must be relevant to the prevailing production system (ibid).In Ethiopia, the marketing process in general follows a three-step system with primary, intermediate and terminal markets through which marketable animal and animal products pass from producers to small traders and on to large traders and/or butchers. However, most producers sale their stock and livestock products at local markets directly to consumers or small traders at relatively low prices. Without exception markets are open places in villages and towns. Distance from the market, poor trekking routes and lack of holding grounds create unfavorable conditions for producers forcing them to sell their stock at low prices. Marketing of livestock is not determined on the basis of their weight and quality, but by direct tiresome bargaining between buyers and sellers. Due to these unfavorable marketing systems and the discouraging price on the producers' side they are not encouraged to improve the quality and the off-take of their animals (Alemayehu, 2003).However, the same author reported that the possibility also exists for the country to regain its place in the export trade, particularly in Gulf and Middle East countries where its stock, especially sheep and cattle, have preference and established demand if marketing infrastructure is to be improved. The plain topography combined with the availability of optimum climatic and fertile soil condition makes the woreda suitable for mixed crop-livestock production. Cultivated land, shrub land and grazing land accounts for about 36.3%, 27.6% and 17.1%, respectively, of the total area of the woreda (BoFEDANRS, 2005). As the farming system of the woreda is categorized to the mixed crop-livestock production system, the farmers used their land mainly for cropping purpose.From the major annual crops, maize, tef, wheat and millet were the top four major crop types widely produced in the woreda, and more specifically the majority of maize and wheat production were contributed from Sub-Kolla agro-ecology (BWARDO, unpublished).Out of the household heads included in the current study, about 15.03% were illiterate and the rest accounted for about 20.92%, 46.41%, 9.15%, 4.58% and 3.92% had educational background of basic education, primary education, junior secondary education, high school graduate and religious education, respectively.The who wrote the role of women managing animals that are confined during most of the year is substantial and they are critically involved in removing and managing manure, which is made in to cakes and used or sold as fuel. Within the age group of 15 -64 years old (42.48%) of the total population of the interviewed households, were in their productive age and they were responsible for heavier agricultural activities in the farming system.Out of the total human population (951) of the interviewed households, 53.84 and 46.16 % were male and female, respectively. But all the household heads participated in the current study were male. The overall mean for family size was 6.22 persons per household (Table 1). The major occupation of households in the study area were identified as pure agricultural activities, agriculture with petty trade and agriculture with vocational skill having the proportion of 58.82%, 23.53% and 17.65% of the respondents, respectively. Overall in the study area, pure agricultural activity that relied on mixed crop-livestock production was higher than other major occupation of households.Mean annual income per household who participated in cattle fattening activity was 20,430.37 ± 806.20 and ranged from 4012 birr to 52275 birr. The average annual income per household was derived from crop production (83%), livestock production (13.5 %) and off-farm activities (3.5%)of the household income (Table 2). This may be due to the availability of suitable climate and plain topography coupled with fertile soil which suites for crop production.To implement the current study, first of all, information was gathered from BWARDO about cattle fattening activity in each kebele of the woreda. Based on the information gathered, organizational structure of BWARDO works only in rural and semi-urban kebeles and there was no information about agricultural activity in general and cattle fattening in particular in the five urban kebeles of the woreda. Hence, the current study focused only within the rural and semiurban kebeles.Considering the number of kebeles under each traditional agro-ecological zone using secondary data obtained from BWARDO, Dega agro-ecology was excluded from this study due to its low percentage from the total area of the woreda. Hence, the other two TAEZ (Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla) agro-ecologies were clustered before the selection of sample kebeles.Under Sub-Kolla TAEZ, four rural kebeles were categorized from which two study kebeles (Fetam-sontome and Zyewshiwne) were selected randomly. Again within the Weina-Dega TAEZ, the sampling units were divided into rural peasant associations and semi-urban kebeles.Then after, two kebeles from each category (Arbisi and Woynma-ambaye from rural peasant associations; and Wangedam and Wndgi from semi-urban kebeles) were selected randomly.Thus, totally six sample study kebeles accounted for 27.27% of the total rural and semi-urban kebeles of the woreda were selected.The current lists of households having fattening cattle were obtained from Agricultural Development Agents (ADA) in each kebele and BWARDO. Finally, to compromise the study requirement i.e. representative-ness of the sample for the study population with limited time and budget, in each of the sample kebeles 25% of the households among the cattle fattening participants were selected using systematic random sampling method for interview and successive data collection. Hence, from the total six sampled kebeles, 50 and 103 cattle fattener households were selected from Sub-Kolla and Weina-Dega agro-ecologies, respectively.Cross-Sectional Survey: The survey was implemented using semi-structured interview.Similar questionnaire having open-ended, closed-ended and scale response questions was developed with main focus on feed resource availability, cattle fattening performance and marketing system for each interviewing cattle fattener households. Moreover, information on major land use patterns and other livestock structure were also collected to estimate feed availability and livestock feed requirement. The questionnaire was translated in to Amharic, pre-tested with 30 randomly selected fattening practitioners and re-framed in such away that interviewing households would respond without difficulty and biasness. Hence, the data were collected as per the annexed questionnaire format (Appendix Table 10).In each of the study kebeles, discussions have been made with agricultural development agents and 10 to 20 selected households considering their age and experience with cattle fattening activity to know the priority feed resources, land utilization pastern, utilization of communal resources and crop-residues, fattening practices, and major constraints for cattle fattening in the area.Field Observation: Field observation was made to enrich the data about feeding, watering, housing, and healthcare of the fattening cattle, utilization and management of communal grazing land and crop-residues, and feed resource situation. (ILRI-Debre Zeit station, unpublished).The quantity of feed dry matter (DM) obtainable from crop residues was estimated from crop yields (MOA, 1984) and converted to crop residues using appropriate conversion factors (FAO, 1987). It was assumed that about 10% of the crop residues would either be wasted during utilization or used for other purposes (Adugna and Said, 1994).The annual feed DM obtainable from stubble grazing and private grazing land was determined by multiplying the size of cultivated land and private grazing land by 0.5TDM/ha/year and 3TDM/ha/year, respectively per household involved in the current study (FAO, 1987).The quantity of feed DM obtainable from communal grazing and shrub lands per household involved in the current study was determined by dividing the area of each land use type for households who had livestock in each kebele and multiplying by 2TDM/ha/year and 0.7TDM/ha/year, respectively (FAO, 1987). But in the semi-urban study kebeles, since there was rotational grazing system which could increase the productivity of communal grazing land, the multiplier used was 3TDM/ha/year. It was assumed that 85% and 90% of the total households had different number of livestock in each of the semi-urban and rural study kebeles, respectively.The quantity of feed DM obtainable from irrigation practice was estimated by multiplying the average irrigated land per household involved in this study with 0.3TDM/ha/season (FAO, 1987).Livestock population per household was converted in to tropical livestock units (TLU) as recommended by Gryseels (1988), (Appendix Table 2). The DM requirement was calculated based on 2.5 % live-weight daily DM requirements of one TLU (an equivalent of 250kg) dual purpose tropical cattle for maintenance as recommended by Kearl (1982) and McCarthy (1986).Cattle fattening practice was assessed considering the general husbandry issues like major feed resources, watering, housing and healthcare; source of fattening cattle, selection criteria for purchasing of fattening cattle, method and length of feeding, season of fattening and live-weight change of the fattening cattle. Marketing system of fattening cattle was assessed by considering purchasing and selling place, market participants and purchasing and selling price of fattening cattle in the study area.The statistical models used for the study were:Where: Yij = Annual utilizable feed production from cropping system per household (TDM) Analysis of qualitative and quantitative data were carried out using SAS, JMP5 statistical software to compare the available feed resources, cattle fattening practices and marketing system of fattening cattle between Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies in the study area.Descriptive statistics were employed to describe the various variables in the mixed crop-livestock production system including land use, herd size, available feeds and feeding systems and cattle fattening practices. Correlation and regression analyses were done to test the relationship between variables such as land holding and livestock holding; land holding and private grazi ng land. Chi-square (X 2 ) test was employed to test the association of different categorical variables included in this study. ANOVA was carried out to test feeding method, feeding length, supplementary feeding and purchasing place with live-weight change of fattening cattle.Significant mean differences were declared using All Pairs, Tukey-Kramer HSD procedure.Chapter 4: Results and DiscussionsThe average private land holding in the study area was 1.55 ha per household, and ranged from 0.08 to 4.19ha. This is almost similar with 1.47ha that is documented by the planning and documentation unit of BWARDO. About 77.62% of the land holding was allocated for cultivated land and land allocated for homestead, plantation and private grazing land was 16.53%, 2.72% and 3.14%, respectively. Private land holding varied between the two agro-ecologies. Households in the Sub-Kolla kebeles had significantly larger (P< 0.05) private farm size than in Weina-Dega kebeles. Moreover, within the Weina-Dega agro-ecology, it was significantly larger (P< 0.05) in Wangedam kebele than in Woynma-ambaye kebele (Table 3).Average crop land allocated for different crops per household was 2.27ha including rented land.This crop land was larger than the average total private land holding (1.55ha) per household. This may be due to the fact that some rural households with better resources cultivate additional land by renting from other poor and women headed households who have no enough resources to cultivate their land. Mean area of total cropland per household was significantly larger (P<0.05)in Sub-Kolla than in Weina-Dega agro-ecology (Appendix Table 3).Average crop land per household in Wangedam kebele was comparable to the average size in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology (Table 4). This may be due to large area coverage with sparse population coupled with availability of suitable climate and plain topography which favors crop production, especially for maize and wheat crops. ------= NO value abc = means with different superscript within a row are significantly different (P< 0.05).About 1.73 ha (76.21%) of the cropland per household was allocated for the major cereal crops like, maize (0.64ha), teff (0.44ha), wheat (0.35ha) and millet (0.30ha). And only 1.04ha (23.79%)was allocated for faba-bean, barley, chick-pea, field-pea and others. Total cropland and the share of cereals per household in this study were almost similar with that reported by Fekadu (1999) similar study in Alemaya woreda in the Harrarghe highland. The share of cropland occupied by cereals in this study was also similar with CSA ( 2003) that reported for the Amhara Region.Mean area of land allocated for maize, wheat, and teff production per household were significantly larger (P<0.05) in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology than in Weina-Dega average. However, mean area of land allocated for maize in Wangedam kebele was comparable with that in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology. Mean area of land allocated for millet production per household was not significantly different (P>0.05) within the two agro-ecologies (Table 4). This may also be due to the staple food item (injera) is prepared from millet and hence every farmer would produce millet for family consumption.Average holdings of total livestock and cattle per household in this study were 5.31 TLU and 4.39 TLU, respectively (Table 5). However, the livestock holding per household in this study was higher than 4.6 TLU that reported by Fekadu (1999) for similar study in Alemaya woreda. This may be due to high demand of livestock as input functions and more sources of cash in the present study. Average holdings of total livestock and cattle per household in Sub-Kolla were significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Weina-Dega (Appendix Table 4). This may be due to more communal grazing land and cropland availability from which higher proportion of livestock feed is derived in Sub-Kolla kebeles than in Weina-Dega kebeles of the study area. Total livestock holding had correlation coefficients 0.77, 0.72 0.64, and 0.34 with total crop land, crop-residue production, private land holding and private grazing land holding, respectively (Table 6).Cattle were the dominant livestock species accounted for about 82.67% of the average total livestock holding in terms of TLU per household. Proportion of cattle holding in the current study is slightly higher from the finding of Solomon (2004) that reported in Sinana/Dinsho district of Bale highland. This may be due to high demand of cattle for cultivation and threshing purposes as mechanization was not well practiced relative to Arsi-Bale highlands. This observation is in agreement with Getachew et al. (1993) who reported that in the mixed farming system of the highlands and mid-altitudes of Ethiopia cattle are the most important livestock species for cultivation, threshing and manure.Available cattle breeds kept in the study area were undescriptive local cattle and Horro cattle breed with the later being especially found in the Sub-Kolla kebeles.Apart from the direct uses of livestock as input function for crop production, 119 (77.78%) of the interviewed households in the study area used manure primarily as a source of organic fertilizer for cropland. Whereas, 15.03% and 7.19% of the interviewed households used manure primarily as cleaning material for house and threshing area, and as fuel material, respectively. Often, livestock constitute the main capital reserve of the farming households, serving as a coping strategy that utilizes seasonally available low-cost feed resources and hence reduces risk and adds stability to the overall farming system. In the study area, the availability of feed resources varied in seasons with respect to quality, quantity and type of feed. The principal dry season feed resources available to livestock in the study area include crop-residue, stubble grazing, natural pasture and hay in their descending order of magnitude. Whereas, during the wet season, the principal feed resources were natural pasture, crop-residue, hay and stubble grazing in their descending order of intensity of use by producers.However, types of feed resources were not significantly different between Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agro-ecologies (Tables 7 and 8). This may be due to in both agro-ecologies; mixed croplivestock production system is more practiced by the farming community.  Overall in the study area, total utilizable DM production from cropping system was 10.77 TDM per household which comprised 9.63 TDM crop-residues and 1.14 TDM stubble grazing. The overall annual utilizable feed produced from crop-residues per household is comparable to the results reported for the highlands of Arsi (Abdinasir, 2000). Total utilizable DM production from cropping system per household significantly varied (P<0.05) between the two agro-ecologies that accounted for 8.05±0.59 TDM and 16.36±0.84 TDM in Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla agroecologies, respectively (Appendix Table 5). Moreover, within the same agro-ecology, it was significantly larger (P< 0.05) in Wangedam kebele than in the other kebeles (Tables 9). This may be associated with the allocation of crop land, type of crop and also with the variation in productivity of the major crops.With respect to crop-residues and stubble grazing production, maize took the leading role accounting for 64.58% and was followed by wheat 16.8%, teff 6.9%, and finger millet 4.3% of the total TDM produced from cropping system. The remaining 7.4% of the total TDM produced from cropping system was contributed by barley, faba-bean, chick-pea, and others (Table 9). However, in terms of utilization, maize stover, teff straw, and finger millet straw contributed to the major portion of the residues which have been used as livestock feed. But, wheat straw, which was the second major crop-residue next to maize stover that produced in large quantity especially in Sub-Kolla kebeles, was not used as animal feed except by those farmers who had no enough residues of other crops. The area coverage of grazing land managed and utilized under communal ownership was relatively larger in Sub-Kolla average than in Weina-Dega average. However, among the Weina-Dega kebeles, Wndgi and Wangedam kebeles had comparable area coverage of communal grazing land with that of Sub-Kolla average. But in Arbisi and Woynma-ambaye kebeles, community respondents revealed the use of grazing lands for cropping, settlement and other non-grazing activities contributed to the decline in availability of communal grazing lands (Table 10). In terms of annual DM production per household, the available feed resources could be arranged as crop-residue, stubble grazing, communal grazing land, shrub land, irrigation by-products and private grazing land sequentially. Mean annual total utilizable feed supply was 12.70 TDM per household, of which 9.63 TDM (about 75.83%) was derived from crop-residues and followed by stubble grazing, communal grazing, shrub land, irrigation by-product and private grazing land with 8.98%, 8.03%, 4.02%, 2.2%, 0.94% contribution, respectively (Table 11).and Wndgi kebeles. Though, higher mean private grazing land holding (0.08ha) was found in Arbisi kebele, it accounted for 7.86% of the average private land holding. This may be due to lower allocated communal grazing land than those of the other kebeles and so individual household leaving a piece of land for grazing purpose especially for plowing oxen. Annual DM production from private grazing land was about 0.12 TDM per household (Table 11). From the total households included in this study, 85 households (55.56%) totally had not private pastureland. Crop-residue (90%) = Utilizable crop-residue TDM = Tone Dry MatterIn general, correspondence analysis of chi-square (X 2 ) test indicated that feed availability significantly (P< 0.05) varied with seasons. As the summarized result of the interview presented in Table 12, livestock feed problem was sever during autumn and excess feed supply was during spring season. The presence of livestock feed problem during the dry season was explained with the picture taken in Wangedam kebele that cattle were forced to feed Justicia schimperiana (sensel) which is not eaten by the cattle at the time when alternative feed resources are available. They were also forced to pickup the fall down flower of Acasia on overgrazed communal grazing land as preference of best feed in the same kebele of the study area (Picture 2).The woreda had huge potential to supply dry season feed resource as crop-residues and during the early dry season as stubble grazing from crop land, and also natural pasture from the communal grazing land especially in the Sub-Kolla kebeles, and in Wangedam kebele under Weina-Dega agro-ecology. However, livestock production was constrained from getting year round feed supply both in quality and quantity across the study area and more specifically in Weina-Dega agro-ecology. This may be due to failure of feed management and inappropriate feeding system. Lack of grazing land management like, continuous grazing system and weed encroachment might be responsible for low productivity of communal grazing land especially in Sub-Kolla kebeles.The use of rotational grazing and differed grazing systems has been practiced to some extent in the Weina-Dega agro-ecology specifically in Wangedam and Wndgi kebeles. But utilization efficiency had been still low; this may be due to unpalatable and noxious weed encroachment coupled with over maturity of the pasture species of the communal grazing land letting for dry A B B C A season grazing (Picture 3). As the pasture species matures, the nutritional quality tends to decrease because delaying in harvesting can promote lignifications, increase in stem to leaf ratio as a result of leaves shattering and reduction with legume to grass proportion due to the early maturing nature of the legume component as reported by Yihalem (2004) in the north western highland of the country, the case of Andasa research center.In the Sub-Kolla kebeles, wheat straw was highly produced due to high market price of the grain and high productivity. But utilization of wheat straw for animal feed was very minimal in these areas. Except direct feeding at the threshing area as it can be seen at Picture 4, collection and storage of wheat straw at the backyard was not common.Instead, burning of the straw at the threshing area was common. This has triple disadvantages.Firstly, it causes shortage of dry season feed that could have been used as alternative feed resource if proper storage and treatment of the straw have been practiced. Secondly, burning of the straw damages its organic content that could have been added in to the organic matter of the soil either through animal dung or through decomposition of the straw, and hence the soil loses its physical and chemical properties as the valuable microorganisms within the soil could be destroyed. Thirdly, burning of straw produces considerable amount of carbon dioxide in to the atmosphere which is one of the dangerous greenhouse gases that contributes to aggravate global warming.Though, collection and storage of maize stover as animal feed was common in all the study kebeles, utilization efficiency was estimated to be below optimal. It was observed that almost all the rural households utilized maize stover as animal feed starting from December during the morning and evening time by direct feeding at the storage place as presented in Picture 5A. Picture 4: Pictures showing unutilized wheat straw in the study area A: Direct feeding of wheat straw at the threshing area which is not collected for storage B: Wheat straw at the threshing area which is waiting to be burn (Zyewshiwne kebele) Picture 5: Pictures showing utilization of maize stover in the study area A: Adlib feeding system of maize stover leading to inefficient utilization (Zyewshiwne kebele) B: Controlled feeding system of maize stover leading to efficient utilization (Zyewshiwne kebele)This feeding system may not be efficient as the stover was trampled and refused by the cattle while they compete to get easily palatable and leafy part of the stover when the animals are allowed to feed with free access. But it is possible to increase utilization efficiency of the stover by offering bit by bit when the cattle utilized efficiently without trampling, urinating and defecating on the stover in such storage condition presented at Picture 6B.Although expansion of cropland areas resulted in an increased crop-residues, feed from cropresidues are characterized by low quality. The organic matter digestibility of crop-residues ranges from 40-50% (Mukassa, 1981). Because roughages have low digestibility and low protein content during most of the year, (without feed supplement and/or proper treatment method) the roughage feed supplies can at most meet maintenance requirement resulting in slow growth, poor fertility and high calf mortality (Getachew and Hailu, 1992). Crop residues are very important feed resources in smallholder systems, but they are generally inadequate feed materials, thus their use at the proper treatment methods and with supplements needs consideration (Van Soest, 1988). In general in the study area, feed supplement and straw treatment were not yet well practiced. As a result, even if huge amount of crop-residue was produced, especially during the dry season animals may not get the required nutrient to the level they could produce as per their genetic potential.According to the respondents response, to solve dry season feed shortage farmers suggested five major copping mechanisms as collection and storing of crop-residues for dry season feed (92.16%), preparing of hay from farm boundaries (54.25%), utilizing of browse species (50.93%), utilizing of supplementary feeding either by purchasing or homegrown (44.39%) and selling of older and unproductive animals (28%) of the respondents in order of importance.In the study area, starting from October up to February, most of the time animals utilized stubble grazing and residues at the threshing area then after when these feed resources being utilized and finished, the animals have been offered from the collected and stored crop-residues twice per day (during morning and evening time). Both in Sub-Kolla and Weina-Dega agro-ecologies, the The current study showed that, the existing feed supply on a year round basis accounted for about 104.79 % of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock per household overall in the study area. However, the annual feed supply varied between the two agroecologies and accounted for about 90.84% and 119.26 % of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock in Weina-Dega and Sub-Kolla averages, respectively. This showed that feed scarcity was sever in Weina-Dega agro-ecology kebeles especially in Arbisi and Woynma-ambaye, and followed by Wndgi kebele (Table 13), where lower cropland holding was registered than in Sub-Kolla kebeles as the major feeds were derived from cropping system. Moreover, communal grazing land holding was very low especially for Arbisi and Woynma-ambaye kebeles due to high population pressure and low productivity of farm land as compared to the Sub-Kolla kebeles. Cattle fattening practices were assessed considering the general husbandry issues, source of fattening cattle, selection criteria for purchasing of fattening cattle, method and length of feeding, season of fattening and live-weight change of the fattening cattle.Feed resources for fattening cattle were cut and carry feeding of seasonally available green pasture and weeds grown within and at the boundary of the farm land; leaf strip, thinning and sterile maize plant; maize cob (including the internal hard structure, grain, and green covering leafy part); pasture grazing, crop-residues particularly maize stover and stubble grazing in the backyard.According to the response of households, among the major basal feeds given for the fattening cattle, fresh cut green forage took the higher proportion (59.48% of the respondents) and followed by maize stover, hay and pasture grazing with 20.92%, 10.46% and 9.15% of the respondents, respectively. However, major basal feeds in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology were fresh cut green forage (70%), maize stover (20%), pasture grazing (8%) and hay (2%) of the respondents.Where as, in Weina-Dega agro-ecology the major basal feeds were fresh cut green forage (54.37%), maize stover (21.36%), hay (14.56%) and pasture grazing (9.71%) of the respondents.From the feed supplements given to the fattening cattle in the study area, local brewery byproducts were the leading feed supplements which accounted for about 57.27% and were followed by chopped row pumpkin (15.04%), mixed ration prepared in the house (13.27%), oil seed cake (7.97%), and maize grain with its cob (5.31%) of the respondents. Utilization of local brewery by-products was significantly higher (P<0.05) in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology (80%) than in Weina-Dega agro-ecology (46.67%) of the households using feed supplements. About 28% of the households did not provide supplementary feed for their fattening cattle due to different reasons.The reasons revealed by the respondents include higher cost (62.79%) and unavailability in the area (37.21%).According to the respondents' response, the three types of water sources identified in Bure woreda were river (58%), spring (32%), and hand dug well (10%). About 79% of the respondents revealed that fattening cattle have got access to the water source within <2km distance and the rest (14% and 7%) of the respondents revealed that water is served at home and within 2-4km distance, respectively. Analysis of variance showed that, considering distance and type of water source, fattening cattle getting water from the well that was around the homestead had significantly higher (P<0.05) live-weight change than other sources of water which were relatively distant water sources.With respect to watering frequency, in the study area about 72% and 28% of the respondents offered drinking water for their fattening cattle twice and three times per day, respectively. But there was no as such significant (P> 0.05) effect of watering frequency on the live-weight change of fattening cattle. This may be due to the fact that most of the time cattle fattening activity were done during the time when the majority of their feed was derived from seasonally available green feed and thus the fattening cattle could fulfill their water requirement from the feed. Besides, may be due to the narrow gap of watering frequency.Generally in the study area water source for the cattle was not a big problem. But, in the Weina-Dega kebeles where irrigation activity was highly practiced, due to the diversion of river water in to the irrigation canal and the river was decreased its flow rate during the dry season, it became a multiplication area for Leech which is a blood sucking parasite for the cattle.The current study showed that, the three types of houses which had been used to keep the fattening cattle were separated room in the family house (56%), separated house constructed for the cattle (32%), and enclosed barn with simple shed (12%) of the respondents.Correspondence analysis of chi-square (X 2 ) test showed that separated room in the family house was more preferred in Weina-Dega than in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology. This may be associated with the lower livestock holding per household in Weina-Dega than in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology.However, the different types of housing condition had no significant effect (P>0.05) on the liveweight change of fattening cattle between the two agro-ecologies. This may be due to the availability of optimum climatic condition which is suitable for cattle fattening even with open area provided that construction of simple shade to protect from sunburn effect of the mid-day.As per the focus group discussions held in each of the study kebeles, though there was cattle health problem associated with feed scarcity especially in the Weina-Dega kebeles, due to the establishment of animal health center in the nearby, animal health problem showed a decreasing trend. The farmers' perception was supported with the report of BoPED (2000) that reported between 1995 and 2000 alone, 323 veterinary clinics were constructed in the region and the number of vaccinations and treatments increased by 33% from 5.4 million in 1993/94 to 7.2 million in 1997/98. In both agro-ecologies, there was veterinary clinic access within about 5km distance. According to the response of households overall in the study area, the four major diseases of fattening cattle include Trypanosomiasis (30.72%), Liver-fluke (22.88%), Lungworm (20.92%), and Anthrax (12.42%). Though, Trypanosomiasis is the first disease in both agro-ecologies, it accounted for 42% and 25.24% of the observed diseases in Sub-Kolla and Weina-Dega kebeles, respectively. From the major parasites of fattening cattle in the study area Leech (46.41%), Ticks (41.18%) and Lice (12.42%) were mentioned in order of importance.Based on the discussion held with BWARDO animal health section, most diagnosis cases were related with Trypanosomiasis, Liver-fluke, and Lung-worm cases. Every cattle fattener immediately after purchase or finished his plowing activity and decided to fatten, brings his cattle for injection and deworming with broad spectrum anthihelmentics. Since there was no laboratory examination in the area, broad spectrum antihelmentics and injection were given for internal parasite and Trypanosomiasis cases. One tablet of broad spectrum antihelmentics was given per month for every fattening cattle but injection of Dimnasal and Veridium for Trypanosomiasis case was given once per fattening period as curative and prophylaxis measure, respectively.Moreover, depending on historical diagnosis, for those cattle coming from wetland areas, since Liver-fluke was suspected Fasinix and Albendazol were given for immature and adult worms, respectively. These practices helped the producer to finish fattening cattle within 3 to 4 months of feeding period. Similarly, the good performance of animals dewormed with broad spectrum anthelmintics without considering the type of feed given was an indicative of the importance of internal parasites in limiting productivity of beef cattle as reported by Abebe et al. (2001).Overall in the study area, sources of fattening cattle were culled oxen due to old age or being unproductive (51%) and immediate purchase for fattening purpose (49%). Correspondence analysis of chi-square (X 2 ) test showed that culled oxen was used for fattening in Weina-Dega were 3 months (21.36%), 3.5 months (28.16%), 4 months (33.98%), and 4.5 months (16.5%) of the respondents. The above feeding lengths were significantly different (P<0.05) between Sub-Kolla and Weina-Dega agro-ecologies (Appendix Table 7).When computing these proportions, the average length of feeding was estimated to be 110 days.Feeding methods of the current fattening practice were also categorized in to partial and pure feedlot methods accounted for 73.2% and 26.8%, respectively. Out of 112 (73.2%) cattle fattened under partial feedlot method, about 9.82%, 31.25%, 43.75% and 15.18% were sold after 3, 3.5, 4 and 4.5 months of feeding length, respectively. Whereas, those of 41 (26.8%) cattle fattened under pure feedlot method were sold after 3, 3.5 and 4 months of feeding length with 63.41%, 29.27% and 7.32%, respectively (Appendix Table 8).Feeding length was dependent on feeding method in that the cattle being fatten with pure feedlot finished within 3 months of feeding length and so enhance the producer economic return.Correspondence analysis of chi-square (x 2 ) test indicated the association between feeding length and supplementary feeding in that fattening cattle fed with supplementary feed would finish within 3 to 3.5 months of feeding length. But, those fattening cattle entirely depend on the basal feed especially with maize stover and pasture grazing, required 4 to 4.5 months of feeding to attain the average slaughter weight. Whereas those fattening cattle fed with fresh cut green forage and/or hay were finished within 3 to 3.5 months of feeding length. This may be due to better nutritional composition and saving of energy for searching feed as fresh cut green forage and/or hay were supplied at the feeding trough. The end of finishing period was decided by considering live-weight change of fattening cattle with visual observation based on their feed intake (84.97%)and by anticipating the current and future price (15.03%) of respondents.According Starting from May (after Easter) up to mid August, cattle fattening was totally absent in the study area. Correspondence analysis of chi-square (x 2 ) test showed that, the possible reasons for the absence of cattle fattening during the specified period were ranked from the 1 st up to the 5 th as feed shortage, high demand of family labor for other farm activity, high demand of oxen for plowing of crop land, dampness of feeding area and night enclosure, and low market demand for fattened cattle (Table 14).According to the observation made on the cattle supplied to the market for slaughter during the specified period mentioned above, 4.58%, 27.45%, 49.02% and 18.95% were categorized in to grade1, grade2, grade3 and grade4, respectively. The higher proportion (54%) of fattened cattle in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology was categorized under grade2; while in Weina-Dega agro-ecology, the higher proportion (57.28%) of fattened cattle was categorized under grade3. Grade4 cattle were relatively emaciated cattle that were supplied from the Weina-Dega kebeles and sold with lower price for individual consumers who had special occasions like wedding and funeral ceremonies.In Weina-Dega agro-ecology of the study area, most of the time older plowed oxen about 10 years old were purchased from the local market named as \"Derequa\". This is because; plowed oxen coming from the surrounding dega kebeles of Sekela Woreda were relatively cheaper.Besides, due to sever feed shortage in the surrounding dega kebeles, cattle purchased from those area were already accustomed to feed problem, and so easily adapted for partial feedlot fattening in the area. cattle slaughtered in the slaughter house reduced by half. This may be due to shortage of fattened cattle supplied to the market and also low demand form the customer side.According to a discussion held with a butcher man working in Bure town, during the past two years there was a great market route for fattened cattle through Metema to Sudan. But currently, there is no legal market route for live animals in that area, so that the cattle traders contracted to According to the result of the household survey, overall in the study area the mean price of cattle before and after fattening was about 965 birr and 1505 birr, respectively, and resulting with gross profit of about 540 birr per fattening cattle which comes from price margin and feed margin.Average purchasing price of fattening cattle had no significant difference (P>0.05) between Sub-Kolla and Weina-Dega agro-ecologies. But it had significant (P<0.05) lower purchasing price in Fetam-sontome kebele than in both agro-ecology averages. This may be due to the relative abundance of Horro cattle that resulted from extensive cattle production in the surrounding lowland areas. Average selling price of fattened cattle in Sub-Kolla agro-ecology was significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Weina-Dega agro-ecology. Based on the household survey result, mean gross profit per fattened cattle in Sub-Kolla kebeles was about 673 birr and significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Weina-Dega kebeles which was about 476 birr (Table 15).at the same time producing of high biomass and high energy feeds like sugarcane tops and sweatpotato residue to be supplemented for fattening cattle (Appendix Picture 9).Considering the irrigation potential especially with Fetam River, which is a permanent big river passing through the plain area, if modern irrigation scheme along with sugar factory is to be constructed, the byproducts of the factory and sugarcane tops and leaf parts could be potential feed supplement for the fattening cattle to fulfill mainly of energy requirement and able to shorten the fattening period. Moreover, considering the suitability and experience of farmers on maize and wheat production, if grain processing plant is established in the woreda, the byproducts will be used as potential feed supplement and the residues could be utilized more efficiently as the feed supplement enhances utilization efficiency of the ruminant cattle for poor quality roughages feed source.Since there is a huge coverage of maize production in the district, there is a possibility of increasing the quantity and quality of stubble grazing of the maize farm through under-sowing production with suitable nitrogen fixing forage species like, vetch and lablab. Feeding of green fodder especially of nitrogenous feed source for cattle whose basal feed is crop-residue helps to create a better micro climate for rumen micro-flora which ultimately increases utilization efficiency of crop-residues by the cattle. There is also a great potential of the thinning, leaf strip and green covering cob of the maize to use as potential feed source for fattening cattle either as direct cut and carry feeding in green state or by making in to silage for dry season feed.Moreover, Pumpkin which can be produced under the maize farm and along the backyard fence can be used as a potential feed supplement for fattening cattle; if the experience of some farmers in the study area is to be scale up at wider coverage.In Sub-Kolla kebeles, and also Wangedam and Wndgi kebeles under Weina-Dega agro-ecology of the study area, the allocation of communal grazing land was substantial, and there was a good start to use rotational grazing system and to close some portion of communal grazing land for dry season grazing in the Weina-Dega kebeles. Hence, if the experience of the farmers is supported and strengthened by the woreda and kebele extension staffs in harvesting or utilizing at optimum biomass production and at acceptable forage quality, removing of unpalatable and noxious plants, and over sowing with leguminous feed species; it can be used as a potential feed source for fattening cattle to finish within short period of time.Bure woreda is bordered towards the South with Horrogudru Woreda in Oromyia Region, which is the origin of Horro cattle that have resulted from extensive livestock production. The breed has better feed conversion efficiency, better resistance to Trypanosomiasis and tick burden which showed better fattening performance in the current study. Hence, it could be used as a potential source of fattening cattle. This opportunity enables the study area to be comparable withHararghe highlands where the most preferable fattened cattle named as Hararghe Senga have been produced.The presence of Birsheleko basic military training center in the nearby with the capacity to purchase about 15 fattened cattle every week by considering live-weight based price of the cattle is the other potential factor that encourages the producer to sell their fattened cattle without being more fatty. Thus it will be advantageous to improve the consumers' health and to enhance the producers' economic return. The continuous demand of fattened cattle for the trainees consumption in the center even during the fasting period, also encourages the producers to fatten their cattle and able to supply without seasonal market interruption.Though there is huge irrigation potential and practice in the Weina-Dega kebeles, production of suitable multi-purpose nitrogen-fixing fodder trees have been neglected that could be produced along the farm boundary and the canal which is artificially prepared for water way. Multipurpose fodder trees could be fed to the fattening cattle by mixing with dry forages and at the same time serving as wind breaker and also producing considerable amount of firewood demand which could contribute to reduce utilization of animal dung for fuel purpose.The result of the current study showed that the average livestock population per household overall in the study area was 5.31TLU and the annual maintenance DM requirement was estimated to be 12.12TDM. Hence, the existing feed supply can satisfy about 104.79 % of the maintenance DM requirement of livestock per household overall in the study area. However, the annual feed supply greatly varied between the two agro-ecologies that accounted for about According to the result of the household survey, overall in the study area, the mean price of cattle before and after fattening was about 965 birr and 1505 birr, respectively. This resulted in gross profit of about 540 birr per fattening cattle which comes from price margin and feed margin over 110 days of feeding length. Mean gross profit per fattened cattle in Sub-Kolla kebeles was significantly higher (P<0.05) than in Weina-Dega kebeles.Major constraints that hindered the performance of cattle fattening activity in both agro-ecology were mentioned as feed shortage, lack of capital, shortage of labor, and animal health problem in order of importance. However, availability of crop-residues, high irrigation potential, better meat type cattle, and high market demand were also identified as good opportunities which could be used to enhance the performance of cattle fattening activity in the study area.Generally in the study area, feed supplement and straw treatment were not yet well practiced. As a result, even if huge amount of crop-residue was produced and large area of communal grazing land was available especially in Sub-Kolla kebeles, animals did not get the required nutrient to the level they could produce as per their genetic potential.According to the response of participants in focus group discussions held in each of the study kebele, some few years ago, traditional fattening of older plowed oxen was not able to replace young oxen for plowing. But now a day, the fattening practice of older plowed oxen is becoming one source of income generating activity in addition to its better efficiency for replacing young oxen for plowing which in turn contributes a lot for maximizing crop production and overall revenue of the farm family. Hence, it can be concluded that cattle fattening is a promising income generating activity especially for landless youngsters and even for farmers to utilize their slack time that can be done with minimum labor and time requirement using seasonally available feed resources. Moreover, the performance of cattle fattening can be enhanced if it is implemented properly by following proper selection for fattening cattle, proper feed management and feeding system with the addition of feed supplements, market information, and appropriate general husbandry practices associated with cattle fattening.With respect to feed resource assessment, the current study only focused on the availability of major feed resources in terms of type and quantity based on established conversion factor made so far elsewhere due to limited budget and time. Hence, detail study on DM production, chemical composition and digestibility of the major available feed resources are further required to plan sustainable livestock development strategy and market oriented cattle fattening program in particular within the existing farming system in the study area.To utilize the bulk amount of crop-residues that accounted for about 84.8% of the total annual feed supply more efficiently, alternative ways need to be found to improve utilization efficiency of the residue. Among which, urea treatment, feeding of the residue by mixing with green forage and feed supplement should be encouraged and advised to the farmers by any development organizations involved in livestock development.Moreover, to increase the productivity of communal grazing land which is found in large coverage especially in Sub-Kolla kebeles, and in Wangedam and Wndgi kebeles under Weina-Dega agro-ecology, efficient grazing land management systems should be considered. Among which, adjusting stocking rate by applying grazing fee, use of rotational grazing, removal of unpalatable and noxious weeds, over sowing of leguminous feed species, harvesting or utilizing at optimum biomass production and at acceptable forage quality should be implemented.  ","tokenCount":"14383"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"16715feae40a2b55b8bae5be8c702f4c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/196b8d0a-676a-49bf-b8e9-68e4b3531cb8/retrieve","id":"2007669651"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c794fd31-49b4-46aa-83bf-72b6fcea66b8","pagecount":"2","content":"Distribution of sweetpotato planting materials sourced from CIP-trained farmers in Manica province, Mozambique. Credit: (CIP/Isabel Corthier).Sweetpotato is an ideal crop for disaster recovery because it produces food quickly. The high-yielding, CIP-bred OFSP varieties distributed by the ICRC are also rich in vitamin A, which is vital for healthy child development. Two months after planting, families can begin eating the plant's nutritious leaves, and after three months, the high-calorie-and vitamin-packed sweetpotatoes are ready to harvest.CIP was well positioned to help farmers affected by Cyclone Idai because it has developed 22 climate-smart sweetpotato varieties for Mozambique and promoted them widely. CIP and partners had trained thousands of people in northern Mozambique in OFSP agronomy prior to Idai's destruction. However, because farmers plant sweetpotato vine cuttings rather than seeds, supplying them with planting material is challenging. CIP has thus trained decentralized vine multipliers (DVM) who multiply disease-free vines and sell quality planting material to local farmers and development organizations.Following Idai's destruction, CIP staff contacted DVM's in the disaster area who had been trained through projects funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Some DVMs had already sold their vines, but the ICRC managed to purchase 40 tons of planting material from DVMs who helped distribute it to 7,500 families in Manica province.  ","tokenCount":"219"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a857ad697fac53d7e5a39ffb97761154","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0479b10e-9ef8-4bfc-af32-3f914a82be88/retrieve","id":"-445957225"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"af5dd617-0e30-4640-9da8-db3847b56d31","pagecount":"32","content":"While there is increasing recognition -in continent-wide initiatives such the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the African Telecommunication Union (ATU) -of the potential of ICTs to accelerate broad-based growth and sustainable development, the vast majority of African countries lack the financial and human capital, together with the policies and institutions, to harness the potential benefits of the knowledge economy.The research critical to transforming this negative situation is at present limited, fragmented and typically undertaken as isolated and disconnected projects -providing little foundation for informed policy formulation, effective regulation and rigorous education and training.Most of the understanding of the information age comes from theory and experiences in the developed world. Africa produces little by way of independent primary research to inform ICT policy formulation and strategy. Unlike other parts of the world committed to participatory policy formulation processes, there are few independent agencies contributing to these processes in the broader public interest on the basis of rigorous applied research.Research is critical to establishing the needs of countries and of particular groups within them, and to developing approaches that are likely to be effective in resolving country-specific problems. Strengthening institutional capacity for research, analysis and debate in developing countries is an indispensable element in the construction of knowledge societies. It was in this context that Research ICT Africa! -an initiative of the Learning Information Networking and Knowledge (LINK) Centre at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa -was created.RIA! is an ICT policy and regulatory resource base for decision-makers in the public and private sectors and civil society, developing public-interest research findings through the networking of researchers at African universities. Built through the development of collaborative relationships among African institutions in Botswana,It is the network's intention to expand policy-making capacity, and to broaden the policy-making horizon, in African countries, by introducing innovative concepts and approaches, and by stimulating dialogue on the basis of rigorous research. To this end, the research network, with a current membership from 12 countries, seeks: o to stimulate and support the conducting, co-ordination and dissemination of ICT policy and regulatory research at African research centres; o to create a virtual repository of information and analysis; o to build the research capacity on the continent, in order to generate the body of indigenous knowledge required for effective and appropriate policy formulation; and o to provide a research base for establishment of the specialised ICT programmes at postgraduate level that are crucial to the development of knowledge societies.The country \"performance reviews\" summarised in this volume were conducted in 2003 by the initial members of the Research ICT Africa! network. The studies seek to assess the performance of the countries' telecommunications sectors -and reform strategies adopted -against their respective national objectives.These studies are the first contribution by network members to the realisation of the RIA! vision -our vision of a ubiquitous African information society and knowledge economy, actively shared in by all.Communication has been radically transformed across the continent over the last five years by the extraordinary take-up of mobile telephony and Internet services, made possible by new technological developments and market reform. While Africa continues to lag behind the rest of the world, the average continental teledensity has risen from a mere 0.01percent in 1995 -before the large-scale introduction of mobile -to 0.05percent in 2003 (ITU Access Index, 2003).Development of the ICT sector, however, continues to be highly uneven within countries and across the continent, as the case studies in this volume reveal. What these studies also demonstrate is the data vacuum that exists on the continent, with several countries unable to provide some of even the most basic ICT statistics, even in the international reporting annals such as the International Telecommunication Union World Development Report indicators.Where indicators do exist they are often not appropriate to a developing country context, or prioritise measurements that are perhaps more pertinent to mature economies. Raw figures demonstrating increases in the number of telecommunications lines can be misleading, for example, and should also not be directly e q u a t e d w i t h increased access. Although research in this area is still lacking, experience tells us that many high-end homes are likely to h a v e m u l t i p l e phones -at least one fixed-line, sometimes an additional Internet line, and at least one or two mobile p h o n e s whereas at the other end of the market, a single phone line may provide access to several households and individuals. In addition, as in the case of South Africa, the number of fixed-lines can be highly skewed towards business as opposed to residential use.The euphoria around the communication opportunities created by new services -and the willingness of Africans to pay for and utilise them -obscures the fact that a number of significant policy objectives are not being met, and the fact that certain unintended consequences of reform need to be cautioned against.The country studies in this volume seek to review the performance of the countries' telecommunications sectors at the national level against their stated policy objectives and strategies. The ultimate aim is to determine which reform strategies are contributing positively to the realisation of development objectives, and which ones appear to be failing. The primary objective of all countries studied is the improvement of access to telephony services, usually with commitment not only to network extension but also modernisation of the network in order to meet the needs of a modern economy. While one should be careful in drawing conclusions from the limited data available, the value of such early studies, as prototype studies, is in identifying initial developments, in beginning the establishment and validation of data sources and methodologies, and in focussing attention and analysis on developments that require a more detailed examination of specific country circumstances. While the data discloses some differences between countries that have not yet completed their basic telecom reform process and those that have in many instances the impact of recent reform initiatives has not yet played out in the data sets available.In addition, other factors such as Gross Domestic Product Per Capita, or what has been referred to as the income effect, or the timing of the introduction of a service, may be stronger determinants of ICT development than other factors such as policy and regulation, the effects of which may take years to be seen in the data.While the opening up of the market was seen, in all countries reviewed except Ethiopia, as the mechanism to fund and deliver the extension of services, the actual philosophies and approaches have been quite different in the various countries. In Uganda, for example, the shift to private funding of infrastructure development and service delivery is explicit, with the emphasis on creating a fair competitive environment. Yet several other countries only liberalised services such as value-added network services (VANS) or Internet services, or their mobile networks, but not the Public Switched Telecommunications Network (PSTN).In almost all the countries reviewed access to telephony has increased, but this has invariably happened through the introduction of relatively high-cost mobile access rather than through the typically more affordable fixed-line services. In Cameroon, in the few years that mobile has operated, the mobile operators have overtaken the fixed-line incumbent, which now has less than a quarter the number of subscribers that the two mobile operators each have individually.In fact, in Cameroon and all the other countries reviewed that adopted reform models that protected the PSTN with formal periods of exclusivity such as Kenya, South Africa and Zambia -with the aim of financing the extension of the network and increasing access to un-serviced areas -the number of fixed-line subscribers has declined. This is especially the case where the exclusivity period was accompanied by the expansion of a competitive mobile market beyond a duopoly -as in both Kenya and South Africa -where fixed-line subscriber numbers have fallen by 0.61percent and 10percent respectively over the period of the exclusivity. As was intended but not achieved in Kenya, the exclusivity period in South Africa was linked to the partial privatisation of the incumbent. In both South Africa and Kenya, there have been dramatic local-call tariff price increases, even beyond the levels required by rate re-balancing. These price hikes have been mirrored by fixed-line disconnections. In Kenya, the peak of 300,000-odd fixed-line subscribers is diminishing as mobile tops the 2-million-subscriber mark. A similar pattern is emerging in Cameroon, with a reduction in revenues for the incumbent of over 40 percent in three years. This stagnation within the fixed-line incumbent has impacted negatively on the prospects for privatisation in both Cameroon and Kenya. South Africa's reduction in fixed-lines, on the other hand, has been accompanied by continued profitability for the partially-privatised incumbent, which has been investing less in network roll-out since the end of the formal exclusivity period, and focussing increasingly on the lucrative business market.Irrespective of the reform model, in most African countries the price of access remains extraordinarily high, with communications costs as high as 36percent of per capita income in the countries reviewed -as compared with Northern hemisphere averages of 3-5 percent of per capita income. These costs impact particularly on Internet access, which is not yet cost-efficiently available on mobile networks. Countries with the lowest Internet penetration, and usually the highest Internet costs, are those where the incumbent is the exclusive provider of Internet, such as in Cameroon and Rwanda. In such countries, Internet cafes tend to proliferate, as people share the costs of meeting their communication needs through collective access points. In Cameroon, it is estimated that there are over 450 cyber cafes, mostly in the major centres.High prices, and their negative impact on access and penetration, tend to reflect the weak regulatory regimes in most of the countries reviewed, and more generally across the continent. Despite legislation -in some cases introduced nearly a decade ago -separating the regulator from the incumbent operator and relevant government ministry, there is often not the political will to see the regulatory agency effectively regulate the mostly-state-owned incumbent, which invariably commands far more Mobile subscribers per 100 inhabitants.Main lines per 100 inhabitants.authority and political respect than the regulator. Even where the regulator has formal powers to regulate the incumbent, its ability to do so is hampered either by a shortage of human or financial capital, or by systems of political patronage and influence. This lack of effective governance of the sector has had severe i m p l i c a t i o n s i n m a n y countries, harming their ability to attract investment for their privatisation or liberalisation endeavours. Both Kenya and Zambia were unable to proceed with their privatisation initiatives at least partially because of the weak regulatory environment in those countries. With the political changes that have taken place in Kenya over the last year, the regulator has taken a number of bold actions that indicate its desire to be viewed more credibly by stakeholders. However, the results of these changes will take time to reflect in research such as that summarised in this volume, which is looking at longer-term impacts.Those regulatory regimes that have proven effective have sometimes achieved their successes as a result of being neglected or ignored by central government, or through fortuitous timing. Uganda's regulator, for example, has emerged as a well-resourced, autonomous body, at least partially because mechanisms were not put in place to provide for its funding or accountability. The regulator set about resourcing itself through levies on the sector, which allowed it to attract and train personnel who could competently deliver on the regulator's legislated mandate. Even the critical sequencing of the introduction of competition in both the fixed and mobile services markets was the result of a fortunate error of timing in Uganda. There are, nevertheless, important lessons to be drawn from Uganda's experience for others seeking to reform their markets. The simultaneous introduction of competition in fixed and mobile in Uganda has seen the benefits of competition -even if only in the form of a duopoly -particularly with regard to pricing and the creation of a growth path for two companies in the converged fixed and mobile environment. Although it is difficult to quantify the benefits at this stage, Uganda is viewed as a forward-looking country, attractive to donors and investors as a regime on which to expend resources. A major critique of Uganda's policy, however -as identified in the country report -is the failure to set targets for many of the national objectives. Also, the policy has tended to be more focussed on infrastructure development than on determining the development impact of ICT initiatives. This is true of policies in many of the countries reviewed in this volume.The issue of international gateways is particularly important for those countries which are \"e-landlocked\" and not able to benefit from direct access to the high-bandwidth undersea cable that runs up the western seaboard of the continent from Southern Africa. Despite the Ugandan regulator acting proactively to exploit loopholes that allowed it to license several international gateways in the country, the costs of international service remain sufficiently high to have impacted negatively on consumers and inhibited international investment, not only in operators or service providers but also in the economy more broadly (and call centres in particular).As the undersea cable does not extend up the eastern seaboard of the continent, Kenya suffers from the same physical constraints of lack of cost-effective connectivity. This negative situation has been exacerbated by the international gateway exclusivity granted to Kenya's incumbent PSTN. The high cost of international calls has resulted in a dramatic shift in international traffic, with a diminishing amount of outgoing traffic and a dramatic increase in incoming calls, with associated losses of revenue for the country.As another landlocked country without direct access to the undersea cable, Zambia has not had the benefit of a Uganda-style enabling policy or proactive regulator, and, like Kenya, has a single international gateway provided by the incumbent. Despite being one of the earliest countries to set up a sector regulator and a competition commission, Zambia has been unable to establish a fair competitive environment. While the market has grown significantly from ZMK5 billion in 1993 to ZMK200 billion, there has been little penetration in the rural areas. The growth has largely been in the mobile segment of the market, which has prices beyond the means of most Zambians. The fixedline teledensity is just under 1 percent, with mobile subscriber numbers approaching double the 140,000 fixed-line total. While the introduction of competition to the incumbent-owned mobile network Telecel -first from Celtel and later Cell Z -has had the anticipated positive effect on prices, with activation costs dropping by 60 percent, anti-competitive pricing has resulted in Telecel undercutting prices to far below cost, with little intervention from the Zambian Communications Commission or Competition Board. The weak Zambian regulatory regime has been identified as one of the factors contributing to the government's inability to privatise the incumbent PSTN. This, together with high license fees, has impacted on the emergence and sustainability of ISPs and the penetration of the Internet. Like other jurisdictions protecting the rights and revenue streams of incumbents -such as Cameroon, Ethiopia, Rwanda and South Africa -Zambia also does not permit the deployment of cost-effective technologies such as Voice over IP (VoIP) outside the incumbent.Ethiopia, which has seen some institutional reform since a 1996 law separated operations from regulation -through the creation of the Ethiopian Telecommunications Company and Ethiopian Telecommunications Agency -provides one of the purest examples of state-provisioning, with a strict monopoly on fixed, cellular, Internet services and international gateways. Despite its potential with a population of over 70 million, this has resulted in low network development, long waiting lists representing up to 84.8percent of available capacity, fixed phone teledensity of only 0.6percent, an increasing number of pirate operators, one of the lowest Internet penetration levels in the world at 0.0001percent and arbitrary and artificial pricing. With call charges set by the incumbent, with minimum reference to the regulator, having been kept artificially low, the rate of Internet growth, off a very low base, has been dramatic. However, with telecommunications investment at less than 0.5percent per capita on average per annum, fixed-phone teledensity stands at only 0.6percent, Internet growth will ultimately be constrained.With a regulatory agency that lacks both political independence and human and financial resources, the likelihood of Ethiopia's monopoly PSTN being regulated to more effectively meet national needs seems remote. Unlike Uganda, where the loss-earning incumbent was viewed as a yoke around the government's neck that had to be got rid of, the incumbent in Ethiopia is one of the few revenue streams for the government, which remains unconvinced that privatisation will sufficiently compensate it for any loss of income. For the same reason, the Ethiopian government, like other governments that have pursued monopoly models, remains unconvinced of the benefits of liberalisation. Also, like elsewhere on the continent, no research has been done to demonstrate the potential of increased participation in the sector -not only in terms of consumer and user benefits but also in terms of the potential positive fiscal impact profitable enterprises can have.The remarkable success of mobile on the continent provides a case in point for the study of the fiscal impacts and multiplier effect of new communications enterprises. At the same time that fixed-line subscriptions were stagnating, those countries that introduced competitive mobile services saw a dramatic take-up of services, despite the invariably high charges. In all countries studied, mobile has outstripped fixed services. In several countries, however, the services are largely confined to the major centres, tourism routes (as in Kenya) or, in the case of Zambia, the rail-line between the Copperbelt and Lusaka. In South Africa however, with generally higher levels of urbanisation than the other African countries reviewed, over 80percent of the population is covered.The greatest challenge to the successful creation of a competitive environment and successful entry of new operators is the new entrants' ability to interconnect with other operators -particularly the incumbent -quickly and at a fair price. Every country reviewed has been beset by the inevitable problem of interconnection. In some countries such as Cameroon, failure to interconnect has resulted in customers carrying several SIM cards which are used interchangeably to reach colleagues and families on different lines to avoid exorbitant termination fees on different networks.Generally, the problems around interconnection are caused by incumbents not used to competing or being regulated. In South Africa, despite a relatively sophisticated interconnection and facilities-leasing framework, the principle (drawn from international best practice) that new entrants or competitors, required by law to acquire their facilities from the incumbent, enter into commercial agreements prior to regulatory intervention has resulted in protracted negotiations, competition disputes and lengthy legal reviews. Generally, incumbents have the financial resources to draw out negotiations so that new entrants are forced into agreement or forced out of business. Or incumbents can use their superior resources to tie up the regulator in the courts for years on end, challenging what they regard as unfavourable regulatory intervention, as has been the case in South Africa. In fact, in South Africa, it was a complaint brought by the VANS providers -including Internet Service Providers -to the Competition Commission that resulted in the Commission recommending to the Competition Tribunal that the incumbent be fined 10 percent of total annual earnings for competition breaches.The issue of interconnection highlights the need for appropriate regulatory models for developing countries, where regulators often have restricted human and financial resources. Access regulation has developed globally in response to the emergence of a competitive environment, but under the highly imperfect market conditions that exist in many developing nations -where one continues to have legacies of the \"natural monopoly\" -this form of regulation is overly resource-intensive and complex. This type of regulation requires ample resources and political power in order to implement the complex costing models and administrative procedures required to check the behaviour of the incumbent. Often the incumbent's position is inherently anti-competitive, either because of the verticallyintegrated market structure that invariably exists or because of formal protection of certain of its activities.What emerges starkly from the different country studies is the pattern of political, social and economic legacies that determine the ability of a country to respond to the challenges of globalisation and, in particular, the digital divide. Each study unveils the country's unique history, illustrating the fact that while facing the already-stark global challenges of new technologies and liberalisation trends, each country has, in addition, to confront the impact of its own history -apartheid in South Africa, genocide in Rwanda, years of civil war in Ethiopia, violent dissent in the north of Uganda, strong neo-colonial influences in Cameroon, and the collapse of the 'mono-crop' copper economy in Zambia.The only response can be the development of smarter, more appropriate policies to overcome these legacies. These smarter approaches cannot be achieved without data, analysis and research to inform decision-making, together with honest sharing of experiences between developing countries in order to identify what appear to be the effective strategies to achieve shared objectives, and what appear to be the failures. The defense of policies and strategies on the basis of national pride or political posturing in the face of evidence to the contrary -and in the face of people's everyday experiences of failure -will not serve a country or the continent well. For countries to shift from being mere donor recipients to being innovative problem-solvers, the continent's intellectual capital must not be shunned or made to find a home on foreign shores. The human capital must be embraced, critically engaged, and deployed to overcome unwanted legacies.The 1990s have seen tremendous changes in telecommunications markets in Africa. The rapid changes in technology, the poor performance of the incumbent providers, and pressure from international organisations have forced most African countries on a particular path: ending state monopolies through privatisation of state-owned telecommunications providers, opening up of portions of their telecommunications markets to competition, and introducing regulatory institutions.In Cameroon, an attempt to make this shift occurred in 1998, after years of resistance to such requirements in terms of the Structural Adjustment reform policies imposed on the country by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).The telecommunications sector was partially liberalised in 1998, with the decision to open up the mobile cellular market to competition. The fixed-line monopoly was to remain with the incumbent CAMTEL until 2004, during which time a privatisation stake was to be sold. The Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (ART) was also established in 1998.The partial opening up of the Cameroon market to competition has dramatically changed the landscape of mobile telecommunications.The incumbent CAMTEL was the first African operator to adopt the GSM mobile cellular system in the 1990s, but it had not been able to raise its mobile customer base beyond 5,000 users (out of a 70,000-subscriber mobile capacity). The incumbent sold off its mobile operations to South Africa's MTN in 1999. In the same year, a second mobile operating license was issued to France's Mobilis (now called Orange).In less than five years, the number of mobile subscribers has increased more than 2,000 percent, to reach close to 1 million users between the two operators by the end of 2003. Orange's 520,000 subscribers represent 52 percent of the mobile market, with MTN steadily gaining and standing at 475,000 in September 2003. With a remaining available capacity of 550,000 lines, MTN is expected to exceed 1 million subscribers by the end of 2004.In the meantime, the number of fixed-line subscribers has declined and stagnated at around 95,000 users -far below the 2003 target of 850,000 subscribers set by the incumbent CAMTEL in its 1999 performance contract. For a country of 16 million inhabitants, that makes a fixed-line teledensity of less than 0.7 percent. The waiting list for fixed-lines exceeds 1 million, and the delay in getting connected can be as long as two years.In the Internet sector, there are eight declared Internet Providers (IP) and 42 ISPS are offering services to close to 500 cybercafes in the country and 2,552 declared subscribers.The mobile operators, Orange and MTN, are relatively efficient, with lines-per-employee ratios of 1438 and 1498 respectively, not far off international standards. The incumbent's ratio is a disappointing 44 lines per employee. In an attempt to reverse its losses, CAMTEL implemented two price increases for fixed-line use, in 2002 and 2003. A public outcry followed CAMTEL's proposed 100 percent price increase in 2002, forcing the Minister of Posts and Telecommunications to step in and reduce the increase to 20 percent. In December 2003, the incumbent reduced its international call rates by 50 percent and again increased its local call rates, by another 20 percent. At the same time, the Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (ART) prevented the mobile operators from reducing their tariffs, casting doubts on the independence of the regulator and its willingness to allow a competitive market.Meanwhile, the government has failed to sell a privatisation stake in the incumbent, seen by many as an illustration of the lack of willingness by the government to let go of the company, which at one point in time was considered a \"hen of golden eggs,\" and which today is presented as a strategic political tool. The high telecommunications costs have laid fertile ground for a booming 'grey' market dominated by Voice over IP (VoIP) and VSAT satellite services.The surge in the mobile sector has, in a way, compensated for the disappointing performance of the incumbent. Mobile teledensity is 4 percent, compared with the fixed-line rate of 0.7 percent.Unexpectedly, mobile services growth, whether through phone calls or SMS, is expanding universal access to basic telephony services, which originally was the duty of the incumbent CAMTEL.The surge in the mobile market seems to have had a counter-effect on the policies of government decision-makers. There is a tendency to believe that mobile technology has become the solution for universal access. This is reflected in government infrastructure investment strategies. Investment in revamping the incumbent's infrastructure has been almost nil for the last three years. Meanwhile, the government is playing with the idea of encouraging the incumbent to jump back into the mobile market -despite the sad experience of the early 1990s when CAMTEL couldn't attract more than 5,000 mobile subscribers in more than six years of operation.Undoubtedly, there is a need in Cameroon to stabilise the regulatory environment, in order to provide an atmosphere conducive to investment. The country's regulatory environment faces tough challenges -most notably, a moribund 100-percent-state-owned fixed-line operator and a large, unofficial 'grey market' in Internet and VoIP.Even with the success of the two mobile companies, the incumbent's market behaviour has not significantly changed. This puts a lot of pressure on the regulator, which still is not powerful enough to oppose many of the incumbent's moves. The long-awaited inter-ministerial body aimed at resolving the regulator's competency problems is urgently needed. Telecommunications services and networks form an increasingly large part of the infrastructure, and the basis for economic and social development, of any nation. Digital technologies have now made it possible to distribute voice, data and video on the same communication channel, thus enabling us to transmit more information in each band of the frequency spectrum. The role of telecommunications is evolving along with this digitisation process and the convergence of computing, broadcasting and communications.  Ethiopia adopted telecommunications technology fairly soon after it was available to the developed world towards the end of 19th Century. However, the country's volatile political environment set its development on a different trajectory, with a range of negative social and political consequences. The political changes over the last three decades have greatly contributed to the Ethiopian state's intransigent stance on monopoly provisioning of utility services; a low level of productivity; serious under-investment; and a low level of telecommunications penetration. The negative impact of political instability cannot be over-emphasised, and is borne out in other studies that correlate political volatility and low telecommunications penetration (Boukari and Cosset, 1999).A century later, Ethiopia's growth continues to be retarded by this legacy, with a low level of ICT development compared to its neighbours and the early adopters. The size of the Ethiopian ICT sector remains very small by all measurable indices, with some of the world's lowest levels of computer penetration, teledensity, number of hosts and Internet users. Ethiopia is one of the six countries at the bottom of the ITU Digital Accessibility Index (World Bank, 2003). The other countries at the bottom of the ICT league table are Guinea Bissau, Chad, Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger.However, progress has been made over the last eight years, following Proclamation 49/1996, which separated the country's policy, regulatory and operational functions in telecommunications. The promulgation of this new telecom law in 1996, which established the Ethiopian Telecommunications Agency as the sector regulator, led to improvement in fixed-line services and the introduction of new services under strict monopoly. The fixed-line telephone penetration doubled from a low base of 0.26 per 100 people in 1996 to 0.6 in 2003. Similar progress was also made in the state-owned incumbent Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC)'s income, and tax for the government coffers.Telecom revenue doubled and telephone traffic tripled during the same period. The Internet and mobile services, also provided exclusively by the ETC, were introduced during this period and the government has shown some positive signs for liberalisation of the sector.The mobile telephony services segment of the market is one of the fastest-growing segments of communications in Ethiopia, despite marketing, technical and network management hiccups. The number of subscribers has been doubling year-on-year ever since mobile was introduced in 1999.Although its widespread use has been hampered by the late start of the service compared to other African countries, it remains one of the most promising communication services in addressing the digital divide in Ethiopia.In contrast, the Internet market was stifled by the underdeveloped infrastructure and unchallenged monopoly of the incumbent, ETC. The Internet service segment is one of the least developed in the world when compared to population size. Although Internet was introduced in 1996, there were only 7,709 Internet subscribers by 2002, giving a density of about one subscriber per 10,000 people. Ethiopia lagged 20 times behind the low-income countries' average and about 460 times behind the world average at the time (ITU, 2003).The telecom market structure is designed around a solid monopoly where the incumbent continues to be guarded against competition by the central government. Although the investment code that was issued in 1998 encourages strategic partnership with foreign or domestic investors, the weak regulatory framework and uncertainty as to how to achieve partnership has left the incumbent to continue as the unchallenged driver of telecommunications development, and of the policy process. The incumbent operator now tackles most of the problems that should be handled by the regulator; delving directly into issues ranging from quality-of-service (QoS), universal access, and ICT applications for development, to advocacy for the advancement of the information society.Meanwhile, the incumbent is failing to meet the growing demand for basic services. The number of potential customers on the waiting list, which indicates the magnitude of the demand for basic services, jumped from 139,095 in 2002 to 146,062 in 2003.The pent-up demand for mobile services is staggering. The waiting list for mobile services in a few cities like Addis Ababa and surrounding places where the service is available -Debre Zeit, Mojo and Nazreth -rose to 102,000 in 2003, slightly higher than the number of people waiting for fixed-line telephone connections in these towns. The current demand for mobile lines could be as high as five times the number on the fixed-line waiting list, if one takes the popular pre-paid service into account.Conservative estimates show that Ethiopia needs to make over 3 million mobile lines available to subscribers over the next few years. The incumbent ETC plans to raise the number of subscribers to half a million in 2004, and to achieve a mobile density of about 3percent by 2006.With an improved regulatory and policy framework, the telecommunications sector promises great potential for contributing to the Gross Domestic Product of Ethiopia. An aggressive telecommunications sector development would not only bring a spill-over effect into other sectors, but would also be critical for participation in the information society. So far, the contribution of the telecommunications sector to the GDP has been relatively small. In 2002, the telecommunication sector contributed only 1.6percent of the GDP. A dramatic increase in the current tele-density level from 0.7percent to the NEPAD target of 5percent tele-density in the next five years would dramatically improve the industrial base and lead to a burgeoning business sector that could contribute to the overall economic growth of the nation.Nonetheless, this requires investment, technology and skilled human resources, which in turn necessitate active private-sector participation in the delivery of communications services. The liberalisation of the sector would not only attract the necessary foreign technology, expertise and investment, but would also help to increase demand for advanced value-added network services (VANS) and improve the quality-of-service (QoS).The government should consider a gradual introduction of competition for the incumbent Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC), while building the capacity of the regulator to ensure improved services and clamp down on clandestine operators in the 'grey market' that continues to threaten the revenue of the incumbent by diverting its long-distance traffic. Although the incumbent continues to argue that protection of its position is important for rolling out services to underserved areas, it will be difficult to both curtail pirates and improve services without the gradual introduction of competition.A gradual introduction of competition through regulation \"can encourage investment by creating a fair competitive environment, which through the deployment of new cost-effective technologies can offer affordable services where large cumbersome incumbents have tended not to deliver 2 \". A research capacity to analyse the development of the sector would also contribute to timely policy intervention.Since the launch of its telecommunications sector reform in 1999, Kenya has made great strides in the expansion of telecommunications services to \"those who can afford,\" but not to \"those who cannot afford.\" This pattern of exclusion, based on capacity to pay, risks creating an ever-widening divide.The policy objectives have been, and continue to be, noble, but the government has failed to periodically review the policy strategy and mechanisms to align with, and take advantage of, the changing environment. Policy is, however, an ongoing process, and the next level of reform will hopefully address the inadequacies.The Kenyan government launched telecommunications sector reform in 1999, guided by the Kenya Communications Act of 1998, and set out some key issues to address. The national objectives of the policy were to ensure \"contribution to the development of the Kenyan economy as a whole by ensuring the availability of efficient, reliable and affordable communic a t i o n s s e r v i c e s throughout Kenya.\"The policy framework set out the strategy and m e c h a n i s m s t o a c h i e v e t h e s e objectives.It is necessary to review the progress the government has made towards achieving the policy objectives. T h r o u g h d e s k t o p research, one-on-one interviews, and an e x a m i n a t i o n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Telecommunication Union (ITU) data for 2 0 0 1 ( t h e l a t e s t a v a i l a b l e I T U statistics), it has been possible to generate an evaluation of the current state of play in the telecommunications sector in Kenya, to analyse the key factors, and to point out policy issues that require serious examination.Between 1999 and 2003, the government implemented policy reforms that resulted in a number of structural changes. The main structural changes involved re-definition and clarification of roles for: n policy-making; n market regulation; n dispute resolution; and n the operation of services among multiple players.In the operation of services, multiple operators are now competing in several market segments, based on a philosophy that allowing private-sector operation in a competitive framework will safeguard consumer interests. But significant departures from this philosophy can be found in fixed-line national and international voice services, Internet, and VSAT. The government had felt that the national interest was best secured through monopoly provision of these services by In giving the fixed-line operator, Telkom Kenya, a monopoly, the government argued that the operator needed five years to re-organise itself, to pay off large loans, and to build network infrastructure into rural areas. But that window of monopoly was a lost opportunity. None of the goals set for the monopoly -re-organisation, loan re-payment, or significant rural roll-out -were achieved. Services provided by the monopoly did not improve either in quantity or quality. There was no significant investment in fixedline infrastructure, leading to deteriorating quality of service.There was, however, significant investment in service areas where competition was allowed -such as cellular telephony and Internet. The success of market segments featuring heavy private sector investment might suggest that the government should focus its resources on other socially-beneficial areas, and leave telecommunications to private-sector forces -the classic case made by advocates of liberalisation. For those consumers who can afford the services, this would be good. But for those who can't afford, complete control by market forces could cut them off from information for development.Revenue generation in the sector increased in overall volume in the 1999-2003 period, but not in terms of average revenue per user. Indeed, the increased customer base resulted in reduced average revenues per user. Increased roll-out has connected less-affluent consumers. This has dissuaded operators from going into the deep rural areas, due to the reduced incomes realised from customers who are more expensive to connect. The cellular operators' overall profitability has been particularly high, resulting in increased incomes for rapid expansion in coverage, but the expansion has focussed on main cities and towns and along main transportation routes.The monopoly fixed-line operator, Telkom Kenya, is in a sorry state, saddled with dwindling revenues and increased costs due to technological, managerial and market challenges. It faces the real risk of financial collapse. An issue that needs to be urgently addressed is the continuing decay of the national investment in this fixed-line operator -an investment that is not likely to be recovered.The impact of the telecommunications reforms in Kenya can most easily be assessed and summarised in terms of three of the objectives that formed the cornerstones of the policy reform: Total cellular Fixed lines liberalisation demands. Five years of liberalisation in other service areas, such as Internet and cellular, has resulted in reduced tariffs. But in the monopoly fixed-line services, Telkom Kenya's tariffs only came down for international and national long-distance traffic, as part of a rate re-balancing programme. At the same time, Telkom Kenya raised its tariffs for local calls, under the same re-balancing programme.Infrastructure roll-out: In the pre-reform era, fixed lines were in short supply, with a long waiting list for connection. A key objective of the policy reform was to create an enabling environment for the private sector to invest in, and expand, the country's telecommunications infrastructure. But failure to find a private-sector strategic equity partner (SEP) to take a stake in state-owned Telkom Kenya has meant that the fruits of private-sector involvement have only been felt in the liberalised segments of the sector. In both the Internet Service Provider (ISP) and cellular telephony markets -where the policy allowed for a multi-operator environment -the resulting private-sector involvement and competition have vastly expanded some aspects of network capacity and coverage. By end of 2003, close to 60 percent of the population had cellular signal coverage and all major towns had Internet Points of Presence (POPs). Meanwhile, the fixed-line infrastructure run by Telkom Kenya stagnated, in spite of the firm's monopoly protection.Increasingly, the future challenges for infrastructure growth will fall outside the formal telecom sector.The key obstacles are a lack of electricity to charge cellular terminals or to power cellular base stations and, most importantly, the lack of household income among consumers to pay for services.Quality-of-service (QoS): A further area of concern is quality-of-service (QoS). For Telkom Kenya's fixed-line service, service quality did not improve during the 1999-2003 period of reform. The faults incidence did not change, and neither did the rate of fault clearance. The call completion rate is just as bad as it was five years ago, at the time of the launch of reform. In the market segments with competition, the level of choice has reduced the impact of service quality problems. The service disruptions encountered by one of the cellular providers have been blamed on rapid growth.Overall, the government faithfully implemented the 1999-2003 policy framework, and in particular the monopoly provisions for Telkom Kenya. While government's adherence to the policy gave investors confidence in the government's intentions, it did not take into account the fast-changing telecommunications scenario. Evident policy failure in certain areas was not corrected in time. A case in point is the fast growth in cellular. Cellular users overtook fixed-line in less than a year of the competitive environment, but policy did not change fast enough to include cellular in universal service obligations. Other areas that needed policy review were the increasing convergence of services, the growing importance of Internet, and the inability of the monopoly operator to deliver on roll-out commitments.Secondly, the profit motive increased interest in the profitable areas, at expense of poorer areas. Most of the emphasis for cellular is therefore in the urban areas, and along the main road network. The rural poor have not been addressed.Finally, the intention of the policy was to position telecommunications as a service to the economy. Despite attempts by the government to review the sector policy to widen its scope and integrate it with other socio-economic endeavours, this has not been achieved. An effort to draft a national ICT policy has not been realised and therefore no national framework to exploit telecommunications for socio-economic development is in place. This impasse has encouraged other sectors to produce sectoral ICT strategies, with a consequential loss of synergy. (Incidentally, the first such sectoral strategy came from government itself: an e-government strategy.)It is time to move fast and review the existing telecommunications policy, learn from its failures, and widen the mandate to position telecommunications and indeed ICTs as a service to socio-economic development for all citizens. http://www.researchictafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=391 <http://www.researchactafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file= article&amp;sid=391>The telecommunications sector is very young in most African countries and as in many cases in Africa, the industry was introduced to serve mainly the government machinery, without any vision of expansion of access to the citizenry.To evaluate the development of the telecommunications sector in Rwanda, it is necessary to look at both infrastructure and services. Attention must also be paid to issues of policy and regulation, competition, and, more importantly, the policy and practices for universal access, as many Rwandans living in remote areas can neither access nor afford to pay for telecommunications services at the high costs that prevail today. However, baseline studies of this kind are severely limited by the lack of data and the information vacuum that exists in the country, and the historical absence of reporting or transparency of government-run operations.Rwanda is the most densely populated country in Africa, with over 390 habitants per square kilometre, with the population increasing at a rate of 3.6 percent per annum. Being mostly a subsistence a g r i c u l t u r a l country with over 90 percent of the population in r u r a l a r e a s , almost all arable land is under c u l t i v a t i o n . The two major obstacles that Rwanda is facing for ICT to take off are the lack of human resourcesboth in technical matters and policy/regulation -and the general context of poverty, whereby the basic infrastructure, such as electricity and telecommunications facilities, is very limited.Since 1998, the Rwandan government has worked on a national framework for the development of an ICT sector, resulting in the ICT Policy for Rwanda, adopted by the Cabinet at the beginning of 2000. The policy states the vision and strategies for transforming Rwanda's predominantly agricultural economy into a knowledge-based economy, through the adoption and development of ICTs and their applications.The principal policy instrument for this transformation is Rwanda's National Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI) plan, which is supplemented by a blueprint of specific initiatives For ICT to be an enabler, a basic level of institutional capacity is required, and ICT cuts across all sectors, requiring a comprehensive and holistic approach. Rwanda has established the Rwanda Information Technology Authority (RITA), responsible for catalysing and facilitating national and sectoral ICT strategies.In addition, reform has resulted in the establishment of a multi-sector regulatory body, the Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency (RURA), in January 2003, with jurisdiction over several market sectors including energy, transport, communications and waste management. This new agency does not yet have the human capacity needed to serve all the sectors it oversees, including the growing ICT market.A key task for the agency will be to address the issue of universal access to all essential services, given that much of the population lives in rural areas where basic infrastructure such as water, electricity, telecommunication facilities and roads are still lacking.The Rwandan government owns the major telecommunications company, Rwandatel, which provides fixed-line telephone services and Internet. The Ministry of Infrastructure oversees the company and, until January 2003, was responsible for issuing new licenses for all telecommunications services.A new private-sector player, Artel, is providing fixed telephony over VSAT satellite, mainly in remote areas. Artel is not seen as a competitor to Rwandatel but rather as a complement to the incumbent, by providing access to remote areas where lack of infrastructure has been a big handicap for telecommunications facilities roll-out. State-owned Rwandatel is the major Internet provider, but there a r e f o u r o t h e r p l a y e r s : Mediapost, Artel, Terracom and KIST (a higher educational institution).There are an estimated 100 cyber cafes in the country, about 75 percent of them in the capital Kigali.A number of policies have been adopted by the government of Rwanda to ensure access to telecommunications facilities especially to underprivileged areas. The universal access Fund will be supported from:n 2.5percent of the telecom companies annual revenue n a certain percentage to be allocated from the government annual budgetThe target that the government is working on is that within the five coming years the average distance to access a public phone will decrease from 15 to 3 kms.In addition, the government has decided that all ICT equipment (including electrical equipment, Fixed Line Mobile 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 1 9 9 9 generators, solar panels) is now exempted from import taxes.The education sector is the major beneficiary of ICT access. Each primary school will get at least one computer connected to the Internet, 300 secondary schools have been selected and will get 10 computers connected to the Internet, and tertiary education will share the Internet connectivity through the Rwanda Education Network (Rwednet). The remote schools where electricity is lacking will be supported through solar panels.Rwanda has been wracked by under development and ultimately genocide. It is invariably ranked amongst those at the bottom of all development indices, including its ICT indicators. The government, however, has committed itself to ICT development as a catalyst to contribute to the social and economic recovery of the country. This, however, requires an integrated ICT policy and one that will be realised in practice through the building of the capacity of the regulator, the leveraging of private resources and the inducing of infrastructural investment and development.http://www.researchictafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=390 <http://www.researchactafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file= article&amp;sid=390>The last decade has seen dramatic shifts in the telecommunications sector, with the rise of the Internet fundamentally changing the way business and individuals communicate and wireless mobile services providing connectivity to millions of people previously excluded from having a phone. In South Africa the sector has grown dramatically from contributing less than 2percent to the Gross Domestic Product in the early 1990s to just less than 6percent by 2003.The 'managed liberalisation' policy for the sector saw the partial privatisation in 1996 of 30percent of the fixed line operator, Telkom, to a strategic equity partner, with the subsequent floating of another 28percent of the company on the stock exchange in 2003. The granting of a third mobile licence in 2001 brought further competition to the duopoly mobile market and this could be extended with a fourth entrant. There will be a competitor to the fixed-line incumbent, Telkom, following the delayed licensing process to find the remaining 51percent share of the Second Network Operator, currently owned 30percent by Transtel and Eskom and 19percent by empowerment group Nexus. The two aspirant bidders for the remaining 51percent of the licence, Communitel and Two Consortium were awarded 13percent each of the SNO, with 25percent being warehoused. A third international gateway is also available with the granting in 2002 of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l ' c a r r i e r o f carriers' and m u l t i m e d i a l i c e n c e s t o Sentech. Also s e v e r e l y delayed has b e e n t h e l i c e n s i n g o f under-serviced area operators. It is hoped that by the fourth quarter of the year the initial 10 of the nearly 3 0 d i s t r i c t s identified as h a v i n g t e l edensities of less than 5percent, will be licensed. This will give Small Medium and Micro Enterprises (SMMEs) and historicallydisadvantaged communities an opportunity to enter the telecommunications market.The value-added network services (VANS) market, which in South Africa includes Internet Service Providers, is liberalised, but its activities have been stunted by restrictions which require that VANS acquire facilities from Telkom. Following rulings by the regulator on several disputes lodged by the Internet Service Providers and South African VANS Association against Telkom being challenged by it in the courts, the Competition Commission recently recommended to the Competition Tribunal that Telkom pay a fine of 10percent of total turnover, over R3billion (US$19.3million), for anti-competitive practices.In line with global trends, and in compliance with World Trade Organisation commitments, the development of the telecommunications market has been overseen by a sector regulator -initially the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA) and following its merger in 2000 with the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA).Gains have clearly been made. However, developments within the sector have been characterised by a range of unintended policy outcomes and a series of costly licensing and regulatory disputes. As telecommunications has led the way with regard to the liberalisation of infrastructures in South Africa, it should not be surprising perhaps that the sector has been so wracked by controversy. While some of these disputes have been viewed as the inevitable birth pangs of institutional and market reform, the lack of capacity to implement policy effectively has often been identified as the root of the problem. This review seeks to assess the policy and regulatory framework in terms of the performance of the telecommunications sector and the degree to which policy outcomes have fulfilled national objectives. As the size of the South African economy and the relatively high per capita incomes in the country can outweigh other determinants of sector performance, and because South Africa's ICT indicators are generally much higher than in most other countries on the continent, the study also includes some comparisons with other lower middle-income countries with comparable economies, such as Poland, Mexico and Turkey.While criticisms abound over the lack of certainty and stability in the sector created by a constantly shifting policy framework, these changes reflect the anxiety of government to respond to the fundamental technological and economic shifts that underpin the burgeoning global network economy. The recently proposed convergence legislation represents the third major overhaul of telecommunications policy since the first participatory and consultative policy process was initiated in the midnineties. Throughout these changes, however, the core policy objectives have to some degree remained unfulfilled. The changes to legislation have largely been geared at devising methods to achieve these objectives. The policy continues to seek a balance between the provision of basic universal service to disadvantaged rural and urban communities with the delivery of highlevel services capable of meeting the needs of a modern economy. Other policy goals include the promotion of an innovative and responsive sector through the development of broad and diverse service offerings; a competitive manufacturing and supply sector; the promotion of competition; investment and stability in the sector, as well as encouraging a diverse shareholder base through the promotion of SMME's and historically disadvantaged groups and individuals; developing a strong consumer focus that takes into account the needs of local communities and disabled users; ensuring technical compliance and efficiency; and facilitating the development of human resources within the sector.From the perspective of promoting universality, the strategy to boost telephone penetration through the granting of a five-year exclusive licence on PSTN services to Telkom in exchange for the doubling of the network has not produced the desired outcome. In South Africa, fixed-line teledensity currently stands at 11percent and fixed-line household penetration at an estimated 31percent. At the time of its privatisation and granting of exclusivity in 1997, Telkom was given mandatory service obligations to install 2.69 million new lines. During the next five years Telkom installed 2.8 million new lines but only 665,819 of these lines remain connected to end users, resulting in overall fixed-line network penetration falling in the last three years of the exclusivity period up to 2002. Price increases way beyond what was anticipated by rate rebalancing, have contributed to this dire situation. Charges have increased by more than 27percent on average a year, and the cost of a local call is now almost five times what it was in 1996 (Telkom, 2002). The net effect of this is that more than 2 million lines -more than 75percent of the licence obligation for network expansion -are not connected to subscribers. Moreover, even these figures mask the actual penetration rate for residential subscriber service. Of the 4.9 million fixed lines in operation in South Africa in 2002, 467,518 were ISDN lines, 195,399 were pay-phones, and 707,881 were pre-paid fixed lines. ISDN lines are really substitute lines to provide additional capacity for advanced services for existing subscribers, and while recent increases in pay-phones and pre-paid fixed lines are commendable, they help disguise the fact that subscriber fixed lines declined by 10percent to 3.6 million in 2002 It is possible that there are now fewer residential subscriber fixed-line customers than there were in 1997. (Melody, 2002).As a result, while fixed-line growth is slowing internationally, South Africa is now one of a handful of countries worldwide with a declining fixed-line teledensity. The complementary strategy of securing affordable access through the establishment of a Universal Service Fund, to subsidise network rollout to under-serviced areas and access for needy people, has not relieved this dire situation. Shortly after the universal service Agency was established in 1997, it was decided that the fund would be used to roll-out telecentres in line with international trends towards the aggregation of needs and provisioning of services at collective access points. However, rather than overseeing this process, the agency took responsibility for implementing this highly-contested decision. Wracked by political and leadership crises and without the skills and experience to devise or implement such an ambitious programme, the model and implementation were severely flawed. By 2000, despite the high costs associated with the establishment of USA telecentres, less than half of the 65 telecentres established by the agency had working telephones and less than a quarter were regarded as sustainable by their managers (Benjamin 2001).However, the disappointing performance generally in the fixed-line sector has been compensated for by the unanticipated exponential growth in the mobile sector. According t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Telecommunication Union (ITU), from a base of just under one million subscribers in 1996, the number of mobile subscribers in South Africa overtook fixed line subscribers in 1999 and, according to the most recent figures from Cellular.co.za, currently stands at 14.4 million users, of which 80percent are estimated to be active.Mobile has proved to be a much more efficient technology for p r o v i d i n g a c c e s s t o telecommunications services than have fixed lines. As an indicator of this, Telkom's lines per employee figure currently stands at 130 while Vodacom a n d M T N h a v e s i m i l a r productivity figures in South Africa at approximately 1600 connections per employee, in line with international mobile indicators. Somewhat serendipitously, mobile services have gone a lot further in expanding universal service in South Africa, thereby fulfilling an objective that was originally intended to be accomplished through Telkom's exclusivity period. The number of mobile subscribers stands at almost triple that of the fixed network (14.5 million versus 4.9 million), with Vodacom's 7.5 million subscribers representing 60percent of the mobile market, MTN second at 5.22 million and the new entrant Cell C with 1 million subscribers as of February 2003.Most commentators now agree that the means by which voice telephony universality will be achieved in South Africa and throughout the rest of Africa is through mobile services. However, the potential of mobile to close the gap on basic voice communications should not happen at the expense of the continued expansion of a more affordable public switched network, without which the digital divide will increase between those with access to voice communications only and those who are able to participate in the economy and society due to their access to enhanced services. VANS may be the most important sector of the future economy. This segment of the market reflects the application of continuously improving technologies emanating from the telecommunication equipment, computing hardware and software, and consumer electronics industries. Integration of these technologies into the telecommunication network, and in terminal devices connected to the network such as personal computers and mobile phones, has provided the foundation for the continuous development of new electronic information/communication services, which are being applied throughout the entire economy (Melody, Currie and Kane 2003).While the VANS market in South Africa is large by continental standards, this segment of the market has not flourished as well as was anticipated under a partially liberalised regime. The effect of Telkom's unchecked dominance of the market has had a chilling effect on the liberalised market segment, due to its unconstrained control of bandwidth and pricing, despite the intention of the policy and law to include price regulation. The negative impact of this has not only been on users and consumers. High communications costs impact on the economy more generally and are a major consideration in the determination of investment destinations even for non-telecommunications activities.Telkom's market dominance has also been the source of the majority of complaints that have tied up Annual Report states that its data business revenues alone were R3.9 billion. While all these revenues would not equate with VANS services directly and although internally Telkom would classify many of these services as PSDN services, one can deduce that a significant amount of these revenues derive from data services which may be classified as VANS when offered by other players. This would make Telkom a major, if not the major, player in the VANS market.With ISPs classified as VANS providers in South Africa, they have been at the forefront of complaints. Nevertheless, Internet in South Africa has continued to grow over the past six years, but recently at much slower rates. According to World Wide Worx, 2.89 million South Africans had access to the Internet at the end of 2001, and this figure was expected to grow to about 3.1 million by the end of 2002. This growth rate of less than 10percent would mark the lowest growth rate achieved since the public was first given access to the Internet in South Africa in 1994. World Wide Worx estimates that 1 out of every 15 South Africans had access to the Internet as of the end of 2001, and that it will take until 2006 before this figure reaches 1 in 10. Like other value-added services, around 70percent of the ISP costs accrue directly to Telkom for facilities and usage, and likewise around 70percent of the usage costs for Internet services go towards line rental and call charges. The raising of the local call price by Telkom has impacted dramatically on the cost of Internet services and internationally, evidence, with few exceptions, suggests that as long as costs remain this high Internet penetration will be stunted. In the past five years of Telkom's monopoly there has been an international decrease of 65percent in Internet costs and a 45percent increase in Telkom costs.At the heart of the regulatory challenge facing South Africa is the market design arising from the reform process. The market is structured around a vertically integrated national company, from whom rival firms, (with whom the integrated company competes downstream), are required to acquire their noncompetitive facilities in order to operate, or with whom other networks have to interconnect in order for their customers to access the historically larger number of subscribers on the incumbent's network. This structure creates anti-competitive incentives for the incumbent to deny access to its network to rival firms, whether through delays or pricing strategies. Access regulation has been adopted by regulators across the world facing this type of market structure. This regulatory approach depends on relatively complex costing models that are particularly onerous to enforce, especially when the former public utility's accounts are not clearly separated and there is not a sense of what constitutes real costs. Even once costs are realistically allocated there are inherent information asymmetries that disadvantage the regulator, as the incumbent operator will always have better knowledge of its own costs than does the regulator. This resource intensive regulatory approach arising from such market structures places an enormous regulatory burden on the country and requires expensive and skilled regulatory machinery to operate effectively.Addressing this fundamental structural issue will require a major review of policy and, as in other markets, consideration of the structural separation of the different market segments to reduce anticompetitive incentives. However, the government has the powers within the existing legislation to remove some of the inhibiting effects on the development of this critical sector of the national economy which have been the source of the industry complaints that have encumbered ICASA, the Competition Commission and the courts. These would include removing the artificial distinction between voice and data in a digital environment, specifically VoIP, and permitting the alternative provisioning of facilities, resale and direct connect by certain categories of network operators. To prepare for a converged policy environment the capacity of the various networks in the country should be optimised by the lifting of restrictions on all networks in order to create an integrated information infrastructure required for a networked economy.Other than the shareholding in major licences such as the third cellular licence and SNO, there have not been many empowerment opportunities and where they have occurred they have seldom included women, who are specifically mentioned with regards to equity in the law. Although the major telecommunications companies do contribute to empowerment within the sector through procurement quotas or thresholds, these are difficult to quantify and do not impact on the ownership and control within the sector. The policy decision to grant licences to SMME's and communities in under-serviced areas (USALS) has considerable potential to contribute to the black empowerment objectives of sector and national policy, if an enabling regulatory and investment environment is created for them. With delays to the licensing of these small operators and the unsupportive regulatory and funding environment under which they will need to operate, the outcomes of this closing window of opportunity cannot yet be assessed.Likewise, although not quantified here, the lack of competition across the sector and the failure of the regulator to establish an effective consumer complaints regime have negatively impacted on consumers. While this should be alleviated with the second network operator on the PSTN side, its entry into the market should not be regarded as a substitute for an effective consumer complaints regime for the industry. Even within the mobile industry, where there are three competitors, subscribers are tied either into contracts which do not leave them with choices or they are effectively tied-in by the inconvenience and cost of changing numbers, stationary and the like. The intended introduction of number portability and carrier selection will go some way to ameliorating this problem and increasing the competitiveness of the sector. While it is true that considerable gains have been made in the customer service side of the industry in order to attract customers since the start of sector reform, dispute mechanisms are far from adequate and need to be addressed if the credibility of the sector is to be improved. These important issues will be the subject of future research.The reform of the telecommunications sector in Uganda started in the early 1990s, with a formal law being enacted in 1997 and the regulator put in place during mid-1998. Five years down the line since the enactment of the sector law, it is necessary to take stock of the achievements vis-a-vis the sector policy and the policy's objectives.It is necessary to point out areas of weakness and under-performance that need to be addressed at policy or regulatory level, so that the sector can support the achievement of clear national development objectives.The experience of Uganda and lessons learnt can also be beneficial to other African countries that are either at the same level, ahead, or behind Uganda in terms of telecommunications sector reform and development. By drawing upon experiences and lessons from a similar socio-economic environment, African countries will be increasingly able to formulate sector policy and laws that enable the use of telecommunications to support sustainable human development. The initial motivation for reform in Uganda was the fact that the then Uganda Posts and Telecommunications had established a record of consistently poor performance, characterised by failure to expand the network (which served less than 40,000 mostly urban customers) and a consistent need for subsidy to cover costs. Broader considerations, and other objectives for reform, only emerged during the reform process itself, and were captured in the drawing up of transaction documents and licenses, and in the drafting of the Uganda Communications Act of 1997 (the Act). Reform was therefore not approached in a holistic manner, and did not focus specifically on development, especially human development.As a consequence, Uganda enacted an extremely liberal telecommunications act, creating an environment that has had significant success in delivering the benefits of reform. This has been partly helped by historical accident, such as the failure to privatise Uganda Telecomm and to award the Second National Operator license. Uganda's telecommunications market operates under a duopoly regime, with two national operators, MTN (Mobile Telephone Networks Uganda Ltd.) and UTL (Uganda Telecomm Ltd.), licensed to compete without geographical limitations in the provision of telecommunication services. Only these two national operators are licensed to have international gateways, to provide fixed-line local loop access, and to provide switched traffic between networks. Due to historical accident and delays in privatising the incumbent UTL, six other data gateways, and a third mobile cellular provider, have also entered the market.The national operators are obliged to interconnect with the other operators, to give non-discriminatory services to value-added network service (VANS) providers, and to meet roll-out and quality-of-service (QoS) targets.The operators in the market are regulated by the Uganda Communications Commission (UCC). The Act grants a fairly high degree of independence for the UCC by requiring some civil society participation in identifying UCC commissioners; minimising legal channels for political interference; and setting out a funding model that does not require government support. The strong performance of the market, coupled with a culture of the regulator keeping a reasonable distance from the political arm, has also added to the climate of reasonably independent regulation. However, the Uganda Communications Tribunal, a specialised appeal mechanism that would provide faster response (compared to the courts) on issues where licensees are not satisfied with the regulator's decisions, has not yet been set up as required by law: Government wants to avoid the recurrent cost that they feel is not justified. They however should either comply or revise the provisions in the Act without compromising the need for fast redress in a dynamic sector.Some key observations on the performance of the Ugandan telecommunications sector are:n Cellular telephony, with most subscribers using the pre-paid model, has become the basic telephony platform. While the number of fixed lines (both wired and wireless) still remains below 65,000, the number of mobile subscribers has grown to over 711,000 (Uganda Communications Commission figures for 2003) . n Investment has been high in the sector, exceeding US $270 million in 2002 (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, 2003). Growth rates in the sector peaked at almost 40percent in 2000, before dropping to about 18percent in 2002, which is still well above the overall GDP growth that had a range of 5-6percent over the same years (the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, 2003). n National coverage has greatly improved, with all the country's districts except Pader now accessible by phone. n The Rural Communications Development Fund is delivering support in ICT training, content creation, establishment of Internet Points-of-Presence (POPs), and fostering basic access. n Tariffs have been driven down -through competitive pressure -by factors of as high as five, especially for international calls. Intra-network calling tariffs have also been dropping as the market matures and the mutual benefit of low tariffs is appreciated. n But utilisation of the Internet -in spite of the liberal regulatory environment -is still very limited.By the end of 2003, the total incoming Internet bandwidth to Uganda was 25Mbps. In more mature economies, that amount of bandwidth would be considered insufficient for even a single institution.The fact that there were generally no quantifiable targets set out in the policy objectives necessarily makes evaluation subjective. The numerical roll-out targets set out in the national operator licenses were generally so low that many of them were achieved within one month, instead of over an estimated timeline of five years (MTN Compliance Report, 2003). The roll-out targets also related to infrastructure rather than development impact -a result of the failure to apply a holistic approach to sector policy formulation. These two major policy short-comings -the smallness of the targets and the lack of developmental targets -need to be addressed as Uganda plans for the end of the national duopoly period.Qualified success has been achieved in the specific policy objectives discussed below, with many challenges still remaining:n Setting up the independent regulator: The UCC was very proactive initially, using all legally permissible means and loopholes to enable competition in the sector. Its decisions on licensing data gateways (when a loophole permitted it), the RCDF policy and strategy, the decision to shift to technology-neutral regulation, and the decision to award Celtel its own gateway are all good examples of the younger, bolder UCC.The more recent avoidance of the Internet telephony controversy, the indecision about the control of the .ug domain, the inaction about considering legal and regulatory arguments as to whether restriction of data gateways is really a duopoly provision, are all examples of the current, more cautious UCC.It is widely accepted that the UCC is an independent regulator that has performed well. But such recognition can create the success syndrome: loss of the pioneering spirit, arrogance, complacency and rigidity, negating the very factors that fostered success. The UCC must consciously avoid falling into this trap.One area of concern for the regulatory environment is the government's failure either to set up the Uganda Communications Tribunal or to modify the Act to make another provision.n Reducing government's role as operator and minimising state subsidies: Government has completely pulled out of the regulatory sphere, and has to date established a consistent pattern of not interfering with the regulator. The state's majority shareholding in UTL was sold to a private investor, and management control was also fully surrendered. Government does, however, continue to have full ownership of postal services. But a policy challenge arises: Most of the more developed countries in the world liberalised and privatised their telecommunications sectors after achieving high levels of access (based on a universal service approach). Based on performance over the last five years, Uganda, and other countries in similar situations, need to re-think the policy of leaving major investment in sector development largely to the private sector. Uganda has a population of 24.7 million. Even if the target is to achieve only 5 million high-grade (in quality and bandwidth) connections, how long will this take, considering that we have achieved barely 400,000 effective subscriber lines (with very limited bandwidth) in seven years?n Enhancing the coverage of communications services and products: Significant success has been achieved in addressing coverage. Utility, in terms of affordability, and in terms of individual telecommunication expenditure being an investment rather than a cost (i.e., shifting from the predominant usage of phones for social transactions to usage for transactions that have economic value) need to be addressed. Affordability should be addressed based on the basic access platform. This should be done through sophisticated regulation and promotion of competition rather than traditional brute force methods. The economic benefit of the widespread use of telephones is a social message that must be communicated more broadly.n Modernising and expanding postal and telecommunications services: Telecommunications services have certainly been expanded and modernised. But a major challenge, especially if cellular remains a key platform for basic access, is to implement regulatory requirements or obligations for the roll-out of high-bandwidth technology as quickly as possible.The inclusion of voice telephony in the duopoly provisions has unfortunately permitted the national operators to block the legal and widespread use of Internet telephony in the country. This has prevented the operators of data gateways from using this technology to deliver telephony, and has denied Ugandans this cheap means of communication. This has also been a de facto block on the implementation of call centres in Uganda: potential investors argue that the voice telephony costs via the national providers' gateways are prohibitively high. Unfortunately, the UCC has to date failed to address this issue seriously, despite the fact that the regulator has the legal means to do so.n Introducing, encouraging and enabling competition in the sector through regulation and licensing of competitive operators (to achieve rapid network expansion, standardisation, and competitively-priced, quality services): Within the duopoly provisions, and as a result of the delay of the start of the duopoly period, a fair amount of competition exists in Uganda, but this is limited mainly to the major urban centres. And the issues of standardisation, competitive pricing and service quality have not been addressed by the regulator: these factors have been guided by market forces that have not necessarily achieved desirable outcomes. A continuing policy and regulatory challenge will be to control the cost of basic telephony, within the context of human development, for marginalised sections of Ugandan society.n Internet Access: While this was not addressed directly in any way in the telecommunications policy and objectives, it is a critical sphere where action is required by the government and the regulator. The following issues need to be addressed:o Uganda is \"e-landlocked,\" without direct access to the international fibre backbone. Until this is addressed, Ugandans will generally be locked out of the international knowledge society. Access to the international fibre backbone is a national strategic priority that cannot be left solely to private sector investment. o Creation of relevant and accessible content. o Achieving maximum national benefit in the interpretation of duopoly provisions (e.g., ending the moratorium on the provision of internet telephony by ISPs on the basis that voice telephony is restricted by duopoly provisions) o Addressing the cost of local access. o Implementing a national data backbone as an integral component of road construction and maintenance. o Promoting regional peering. o Addressing control of the .ug domainThe duopoly period ends on July 25, 2005. Uganda therefore faces the current challenge of reassessing its telecommunications policy to not only prepare for full liberalisation, but also to address ICT policy and regulation in a manner that focuses more holistically on creating an enabling environment for private-sector-led human development (without interpreting this as an escape clause for government from the obligation of ensuring equitable access to relevant information resources for all the citizens). A national ICT policy should define the broad policy from which a new telecommunications sector policy emerges. The Uganda Communications Commission, on the presumption that government will liberalise fully, is putting the necessary instruments in place for the expected environment.The process is unfortunately late: it is no longer possible to have the necessary instruments that will permit new operators to enter the market at the immediate end of the duopoly period, as would have been desirable. There will be de facto extension of the duopoly period, denying Uganda the immediate benefits expected from full liberalisation.The new policies and regulations are also due to be brought on board at a time of major political change. The current trend points to a full opening-up of the political environment to multi-party democracy. This kind of environment increases the risk of major policy decisions being driven by short-term political agendas rather than by long-term development vision. Another risk of an uncertain political environment is a stagnation or drop in investment, compounded by the fact that Uganda has never had any peaceful presidential change. A wait-and-see attitude is likely to prevail at the time of full liberalisation if and when it happens (still with an \"if\" because government has to approve the policy first). http://www.researchictafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=392 <http://www.researchactafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file= article&amp;sid=392>The Communications Authority of Zambia (CAZ) was established by the 1994 Telecommunications Act, the same Act that divided the then-Posts and Telecommunications Corporation (PTC) into the Zambia Telecommunications Company (ZAMTEL) and the Zambia Postal Services Corporation (ZAMPOST).The creation of policy is the responsibility of the Ministry of Communications and Transport, but to date there has been no official, approved ICT sector policy.The objectives of the Act at the time of inception were to create a fair, transparent and predictable environment for all operators in the country. These objectives still hold today, but not all operators will agree that the objectives are being upheld.The regulator has encouraged local ownership o f m a r k e t players, in that there must be at l e a s t a 3 0 percent shareh o l d i n g b y Zambians in any of the operators. This has been r i g o r o u s l y followed by the regulator.All operators in Z a m b i a a r e expected to pay 5 percent of their annual revenues before tax to the regulator. This, however, does not apply to ZAMTEL.The lack of a telecommunications policy in the country has led to problems. The policy void has allowed the national government-owned incumbent operator, ZAMTEL, to sometimes oversee the implementation of national strategies to its advantage. ZAMTEL remains the sole provider of fixed-line services in the country. There has been talk of a second or third operator coming into the market, but it is generally believed that the anticipated market entry costs are too colossal to attract players in this field. Efforts to get private investors to go into joint ventures with the incumbent have also not been successful.The beginnings of liberalisation of the sector in the early 1990s saw the entry of competition into the mobile sector. Telecel entered the market, quickly followed by Zamcell, which subsequently changed its name to Celtel. The incumbent ZAMTEL's Cell Z service then became the third operator in the mobile sector. A fourth player, Vodacom of South Africa, was due to join the market in 2003, but the plans failed for several reasons, including spectrum capacity.The Internet Service Provider (ISP) sector is liberalised, to the extent that one can set up an ISP as long as one pays the license fee to operate such a service. The operators all piggy-back on the national carrier, ZAMTEL. The national regulator, the Communications Authority of Zambia (CAZ), regulates the provision of all telecommunication services, including products, and supervises spectrum management.Mobile has proved to be a more reliable service than fixed-line, though expensive in relation to the economic means of most Zambians. The expansion of mobile service by the three operators has allowed coverage to reach areas where the fixed-line provider has failed to offer service. The failure of the incumbent, ZAMTEL, to provide fixed-line services has contributed towards the high growth of mobile.The number of mobile subscribers currently stands at 262,000, while the fixed-line total is 86,000. The market share for the mobile players breaks down as follows: Celtel 48 percent, Telecel 31 percent, and Cell Z 21 percent.The strategic plan for ZAMTEL predicted a growth to 150,000 subscribers by the Year 2000, and while the current fixed-line capacity is estimated at 140,000 lines, the actual number of users is below 90,000. This fixed-line subscriber base is made up of 43,365 residential and 42, 593 business lines.Tariffs have continued to rise, even as service levels have deteriorated. There is excess capacity with low market demand in urban areas and high demand but no capacity in rural areas. The rollout of the fixed-line network largely follows the existing railway grid.The Internet in Zambia has grown since its inception in 1994 by ZAMNET, and there are now six active players in the market, out of the nine that are registered. However, the growth has been limited to the corridor along the rail line -where the fixed-line infrastructure is --with little or no penetration into the rural markets and under-served urban markets. ZAMNET is the pioneer of the Internet services, established by the University of Zambia. Currently, ZAMNET has about 38 percent of the market share, followed by the incumbent fixed-line operator ZAMTEL's service at 34 percent and CopperNET with 19 percent. Three of the six main ISPs have foreign shareholding. Voice over IP (VoIP) is not allowed by the regulator.According to available reports (ITU, COMESA) there are nearly 12,000 Internet subscriptions in Zambia, with the number of Internet users at between 40,000 and 50,000. A number of the subscriptions are corporate, or are used by collective access points like cyber cafes or Internet cafes.Penetration of the Internet into the hinterlands of the country will require appropriate technologies for infrastructure roll-out.The recent entry of Cell Z has opened up the mobile sector, with Cell Z dramatically undercutting the prices of the two other existing mobile operators, Telecel and Celtel.With its links to the incumbent, Cell Z has also had the means to target the under-served rural areas. The result has been a dramatic growth in subscribers, even in the short time that Cell Z has been operational. The impacts of the Cell Z pricing strategy still need to be assessed (Cell Z has been in the market for a very short time), but it is expected to have the following consequences: n rapid increase in subscribers, leading to network congestion n allegations of unfair competition from competitorsThe reaction of competitors to the pricing strategy is still to be assessed.The introduction of the regulator, CAZ, in 1994 was supposed to create a fair and competitive market. The question, however, is whether the regulator has delivered on its mandate. In the government's eyes, CAZ has delivered. In the opinion of the private sector, the regulator is only responding to its master's voice. Being part and parcel of the Communications Ministry, CAZ is seen to be carrying out Operator turnover '000 (US$) Zamtel,10,560 Celtel,15,206 Telecel,9,715 CellZ,6,758 government orders. One of the obvious concerns is that the regulator sits on the board of the incumbent ZAMTEL, creating an apparent conflict of interest, with the regulator being both a player and the referee in the telecommunications sector.In terms of mobile and Internet services, gaains have certainly been made. However, they have not been made without problems being encountered, including court cases between the regulator and the mobile operators. The entrance of the incumbent's Cell Z service into the mobile market -and its extremely aggressive pricing strategy -could have dramatic consequences for the mobile sector, and will greatly test the ability of the regulator to act in an independent manner.Finally, the development of the Internet sector is partially dependent upon the provision of low-cost bandwidth. Initiatives such as connecting to the SAT-3 cable, a national fibre-optic cable, and the upgrading of satellite bandwidth, may have the potential to provide this opportunity.There are a number of issues the country has to address for the growth of the telecommunications sector to materialise in the country. The independence of the regulator is one issue. The regulator has to be moved away from the interference of the line ministry, so that decisions can be made which are binding on all operators and not just the private operators.The national ICT policy has to be finalised, as most of the issues and bottlenecks that seem to impede growth have been addressed in the policy. The unbundling of ZAMTEL should also be considered, as this will lead to a level playing field for the mobile and ISP market players. http://www.researchictafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=376 <http://www.researchactafrica.net/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file= article&amp;sid=376>","tokenCount":"14350"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6d1cbe906ea448b07b155c10822a785d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0126d735-4f27-4462-8dfe-d64f212bdcf0/content","id":"-578195631"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b68d8c06-1bc2-4444-94ef-9d3d8310c8c8","pagecount":"42","content":"Disclaimer: Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of BISA, CIMMYT and ITC Limited.Madhya Pradesh state has a sub-tropical climate and is considered to be a highly vulnerable state to the impact of climate change. The frequent droughts, floods, and temperature rise affect the agrarian state badly. The state has made excellent progress in agriculture nevertheless the changing climate extremes cause periodic yield and livelihood losses creating agrarian distress in the farming community. Long-term measures are needed to develop climate-resilient agriculture production systems that can contribute to food security and poverty alleviation. The Madhya Pradesh State Action Plan on Climate Change published in 2012, provided several strategic action items for the agriculture sector, aimed at reducing the sector's vulnerability to climate risks and building its resilience. It focused on building farming systems resilience through promoting the soil and water conservation technologies, crop planning as per agro-climatic zone, dissemination of new and appropriate technologies developed by researchers and strengthening research, forest produce management, mechanization, and agriculture information management system. While these recommendations are important, there is a need to determine more specific subregional actionable items. Strategies to build resilience in agricultural systems will need to have a clear understanding of prioritized interventions that promote Climate-smart Agriculture (CSA), and address resources, policy, and institutional bottlenecks for their implementation. They also need to align with annual agriculture development plans and budgets including the government's flagship programs/missions.There are several potential adaptation options available to mitigate moderate to severe climatic risks in agriculture. Changes in agronomic practices (altering inputs, timing, and location of cropping activities and agroforestry management), adoption of new technologies (improvement in input use efficiency, conservation of water and energy, and pest/disease/weed management), and the use of relevant information (climate information based agro-advisories and weather index-based insurance) at the farm level can be key components in improving the adaptability of agriculture to climate change. These options can significantly improve crop yields, increase input-use efficiencies and net farm incomes, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Many of these interventions have been successful individually in raising production and income and building farming communities' resilience in several regions. However, these interventions have varying costs and economic impacts, and their implementation requires appropriate investment decisions in both on-farm capital and for wider agricultural outreach programs. The objective of this report is to provide a guiding framework for developing adaptation strategies to manage current and future climate risks to agriculture in Madhya Pradesh.In this report, we have used a six-step approach which included preparation of a long list of CSA technologies, prioritization, and characterization of technologies, checking their implementation feasibility, reprioritizing the technologies based on their performance and feasibility index, and the development of crop and region-specific portfolio of CSA technologies. This hybrid approach, combining participatory prioritization and scientific analysis of data and literature, is used to identify crop and district-specific portfolios of technological interventions and climate services to strengthen CSA. Participatory prioritization of technologies for various agro-climatic regions is based on a multi-criteria decision-making framework. This was done by Madhya Pradesh stakeholders including researchers of SAUs, the private sector, NGOs, farmers' groups, and policymakers based on their expert knowledge and judgment about their on-ground performance in terms of productivity, and climate risk reduction, and mitigation potential. These are further assessed for their implementation feasibility in the state. We determine the production risk status of key crops by analyzing the historical district-level data for intensity and frequency of yield loss. Based on the production risk category, we propose yield promoting, risk mitigation, risk coping, and risk transfer strategies that should be encouraged to strengthen resilience in agriculture systems in the state. We have also investigated how the proposed strategies could be linked 3 Targeting crop insurance and risk financing for climate risk management while encouraging agricultural growth: Although the MP government has been investing more than 1500 crores rupees every year in premium subsidy of crop insurance, the overall satisfaction with this scheme remains poor. It is high time to reconsider the viability and implementation of this scheme and its business value in terms of risk management. The state has about 13 M ha cropland in low to medium risk category where it is useful to develop novel insurance products that can are bundled with yield growth and adaptation/risk reduction strategies such as those encouraging use of high-yielding seeds, irrigation, and fertilizer management strategies. In very low-risk regions, which are almost 19 million hectares of cropland (70% of the total cropland) in the state, the state government should consider not to have a generic and comprehensive insurance scheme rather than opt for only local, specific insurance products for emerging risks from a hailstorm, frost, unseasonal rainfall, and floods. This will perhaps also save a substantial portion of the current investment of the state in insurance subsidies while increasing satisfaction 4 Accelerate water resources development program in irrigation-deficit regions: The state of MP has made impressive growth in developing irrigation potential during the last 15 years which has helped in accelerating overall agricultural growth. A scheme like the Gujarat government's Suryashakti Kisan Yojana (SKY), in which, farmers can use solar energy for irrigation purposes and can also sell the surplus power via the grid could further increase the irrigation potential. To increase the area under micro-irrigation an alternate subsidy delivery model of providing interest-free loans to the farmer for purchasing the drip system of his/her choice from anywhere should be considered. Bundling micro-irrigation systems with schemes such as solar irrigation pumps, farm ponds, etc. will also maximize water use and economic returns.Madhya Pradesh is the second-largest state with a geographical area of 3,08,252 sq. km which is 9.38% of the geographical area of the country. It's the fifth most populated state of India with a population of 72 million (2011 Census); 72% of people are in the rural category and largely dependent on agriculture and allied sector for livelihood. The state has 35.7% of the total rural population below the poverty line (Census 2011). The state has eleven distinct agro-climatic regions and five crop zones.Madhya Pradesh has a subtropical climate with three distinct seasons; scorching summer with temperature fluctuating from 22 °C to 38 °C and sometimes get very hot up to 48 °C whereas the winter means the minimum temperature is 10 °C and the sufficient monsoon. The state receives an average annual rainfall of 1160 mm from the South Asian monsoon. Madhya Pradesh is highly vulnerable to the effect of climate change due to frequent drought, floods, long dry spells, and high temperatures during summer. The state has 56% cultivable area i.e., 172.07 lakh ha of which 54% i.e., 92.84 lakh ha under irrigation. The state has nonperennial rivers and mostly depends on the groundwater and surface water stored during the monsoon for irrigation. To bring the maximum area under irrigation, the state must improve its current average surface irrigation water use efficiency from 38% onwards. The changes in the climate adversely affect the agriculture productivity, livestock productivity, and livelihood of the rural community. To mitigate the impact of such crises there is a need to develop long-term measures to strengthen climate-resilient agriculture production systems that can contribute to food security and poverty reduction. To fulfill the requirement of food in such a populated state with limited and fragmentation of land and changing climate, land expansion is not an option. An increase in farm production and improvement of its resilience to climatic risks is therefore very critical now.Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is getting increased attention among the farming community and other related stakeholders to address and improve resilience against changing climate. CSA aims to sustainably increase income and food production, build, and strengthen adaptation/resilience to climatic risks, and wherever, possible contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions. CSA has the potential to develop an agriculture strategy based on the local level problems and climatic conditions. Some examples of CSA practices are the adoption of improved agronomics practices like (change in the tillage practices, input diversification, change in the sowing and planting period, and cropping pattern), technologies to increase water and nutrient resource use efficiency, and use of climate information services (weather bases agroadvisory, and weather index-based insurance for crop and livestock) at ground level. It has been experienced that most of the CSA interventions lead to an increase in crop production and income.Indian Government and most of the State Governments have taken steps to address the issue of climate change through various programs and schemes such as the Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Rainfed Area Development Programme (RADP), National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture -On-Farm Water Management, National Mission on Micro-Irrigation, and Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY). All state governments have also developed State Adaptation Plans for Climate Change to address the challenges of climate change. All these programs have objectives of improving farm productivity, optimizing the use of soil, land, and water and enhancing their conservation, reclamation of waterlogged areas, and employment generation. These programs are expected to increase the country's capacity to adapt to climate change and help achieve its agriculture production targets sustainably and generate employment in rural areas. Madhya Pradesh has marked excellent progress by adopting the climate change policies which reflect in its state as well as district-level climate vulnerability assessment documents.While representing an impressive step forward in mainstreaming climate change within development planning at the state level, it is observed that most of the State Adaptation Plans for Climate Change (SAPCCs), developed almost a decade ago, need to be updated, revised, and put together with the actionable recommendations. Highlights of Madhya Pradesh state climate adaptation plan to climate change, developed in 2012, in terms of the agriculture sector are highlighted in the box on the next page. Strategies to build resilience in agricultural systems will need to have a clear understanding of prioritized CSA interventions, and addressing resources, policy, and institutional bottlenecks for their implementation. They also need to align with annual agriculture development plans and budgets including the government's flagship programs/missions such as National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), PM Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), and PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY). In this report, we determine the risk status of key Madhya Pradesh crops by analysis of the historical district-level data for intensity and frequency of crop yield loss. Based on the risk category, we propose yield promoting, risk mitigation, risk coping, and risk transfer strategies that should be encouraged to strengthen resilience in the state. We have also investigated how the proposed strategies could be linked with the current development schemes of the Government to minimize the need for new resources.The Madhya Pradesh SAPCC was developed in 2012; it was a multisectoral plan. The following is a summary of the key agriculture-related recommendations in the SAPCC.Promotion of soil moisture conservation through the development of watersheds and small catchments that would also increase biomass production and increase the fertility of the soil as well.Promotion of agronomic practices like SRI for rice, raised bed cultivation, plastic mulching use of cultivars using lower water, etc., needs to be encouraged.Alternative and advanced water use technologies need to be explored for efficient utilization of water like micro/drip irrigation in cotton, fruits, and vegetables.Construction of tanks and storage structures should be taken up for facilitating two rounds of irrigation during the Rabi season and enhancing water recovery and groundwater recharge.• Promotion and management of Agroforestry, Agro-climatic specific crops farming practices and management including that of water, soil, pests, crops, cropping cycle & practices for harnessing the full productivity potential of the different zones should be done on high priority.Promotion of the use of various other alternative sources of energy.• Encourage the traditional practices like the use of indigenous varieties of crops, intercropping of agri crops-vegetables, agri crops-fruits, agri crops spices, agri crops-flowers, multiple cropping, and crop rotation to avoid monocropping practices.Encourage the use of organic farming by promoting integrated farming whereby livestock rearing, horticulture, and fisheries are practiced.A detailed agro-climatic zone-specific plan for the development of organic farming, certification, and marketing aimed at servicing export markets will have to be drawn up and institutional support made available.Provide advance information on local climate that accommodates the changes in temperature, precipitation amounts, and the onset of monsoon is essential to prepare the action plans accordingly. • Establish an integrated data center whereby data related to all aspects of agriculture, such as weather and climate information, crop biodiversity, research, technology, markets, and policy for maximizing productivity.• Develop accessibility to markets and providing institutionalized support in the form of greater infrastructure for taking produce to the markets.Set up rural business hubs to increase employment and take away the pressure on natural resources and land of the rural areas.Capacity building for sustainable agriculture • Strengthen and build the capacity of planners, extension workers, farmers association etc. on sustainable agriculture practices and better understanding of regional and sectoral climate change concerns. There have been seven very severe and four severe drought years (out of 30 years analyzed) of varied intensity since 1990 in the state. Figure 1 shows the intensity and frequency of drought in the last 30 years (1990 to 2019) in Madhya Pradesh using a simplified drought index presented by Rathore, 2004. The north region, north-western region, and some spots of the central and eastern regions of the state show a high probability of very severe and severe droughts. At the state level, there is a 49% probability of witnessing drought. The probability of getting severe and very severe drought is also high (36%).Madhya Pradesh has witnessed significant changes in its climate in the last 50 years. Figure 2 shows key Changes in the key state of climate variables (Coefficient of variation of rainfall, mean rainy days, and maximum length of dry spell during kharif) analyzed in three time periods (1969 to 1983, 1984 to 1998, and 1999 to 2013). The rainfall variability (figure 2a) has significantly increased in recent times all over the state.The maximum area of the state is under 30 to 40% coefficient of variation of kharif rainfall from 1999 to 2013. The number of rainy days (figure 2b) decreases over time and the mean length of a dry spell (figure 2c) is increasing with time. The adaptation strategies are often context specific as these vary from place to place and with individuals' adaptive capacity and potential. There is a huge literature on agricultural vulnerability to weather risks in the region. Understanding farmers' knowledge and perception of weather-related risks, their impacts, and their specific adaptation measures are therefore valid starting points for science-driven management of risks. We conducted a survey (n=73) to understand stakeholders' perceptions (including farmers) on weather-related risks and their impact on major crops in Madhya Pradesh. Figure 3 presents farmers' experience with weather-related risks by crop/season. Top-ten weatherrelated risks experienced by the respondents are drought, flood, high temperature, low temperatures, untimely rainfall, delayed monsoon, deficit rainfall, dry spells, excess rainfall, and hailstorm. The climactic event like delayed onset monsoon, and excess rainfall which causes the waterlogging issues are highly experienced in Kharif crops.Climate risks in livestock: Madhya Pradesh ranks third in the country in livestock population. For livestock, high temperature is the prominent climatic risk reported by the respondents (34%) followed by drought (32.3%) and low temperature (figure 4). The rise in temperature increases the water requirement of livestock from 5 liters at 30 • C to 10 liters at 35 • C. Around 6.5 % of respondents felt floods, and hailstorms as a risk for their livestock.Drought risks often translate to fodder and water shortage resulting in increased demand for fodder banks or desperate selling of livestock. In addition, the rise in temperature leads to the distribution of disease and pathogens which cause the losses of livestock in the state. (1.8˚ C to 9˚ C) by 2090 in Madhya Pradesh. Regionally, northern, and northwestern parts have a higher increase in temperature than Central, East, and South Madhya Pradesh. District-wise changes show the highest increase in temperature are likely in Sheopur, Morena, Bhind, Gwalior, Shivpuri, and Neemuch. CMIP6 projections indicate an increase in annual rainfall of 13% (1 to 28.7 %) by 2050 and 18% (5 to 67%) by 2090 in Madhya Pradesh. Western and southern parts of Madhya Pradesh have a higher increase in precipitation. District-wise rainfall changes show a significant increase in Barwani, Alirajpur, Dhar, Jhabua, Khargone, Burhanpur, Khandwa, Indore, and Dewas districts. Whereas the eastern part of Madhya Pradesh is likely to have decreased in rainfall. The land use of Madhya Pradesh is shown in figure 7.The state has a 56% cultivable area (172.07 lakh ha). It has made progress in terms of irrigation and today its 54% area (93 lakh ha) is under irrigation. Rice, maize, minor pulses, jowar, bajra, tur cotton, and sugarcane are the major Kharif crop whereas wheat, gram is the major rabi crop cultivated in the state. The major oilseeds like groundnut, sesamum and soybean, and sunflowers are also grown in the state. More than 4% of the land is dedicated to permanent pasture and grazing purposes whereas 4.5% of the land is barren and unculturable land. Crop area and yield statistics from major crops in Madhya Pradesh are shown in table 1. A vulnerability assessment was carried out for Madhya Pradesh, and it has been found that the north, east, southeastern, and southwestern parts of the states are most vulnerable to climate change in the form of higher exposure to droughts which leads to depleting water availability and degradation of natural resources (CRIDA Vulnerability Atlas). The state has large rainfed areas, low investment capacities of the farmers, and increasing climatic risks like deficit rainfall, extreme temperatures, untimely rainfall, etc., which are the main reasons for low agricultural productivity in the state. A state-level analysis of crop production from 1998 to 2017 (Figure 8) shows yield variabilities for major commodities in Madhya Pradesh.The high yield variability is found in rice, followed by minor pulses and maize. These variabilities result from deficit rainfall and uneven Spatio-temporal distribution of rainfall in Kharif and untimely rainfall in rabi. These high variabilities bring a lot of uncertainty to the livelihoods of people and hence the prominence of the dairy sector is often seen as a risk mitigation measure chosen by farmers.  Madhya Pradesh has about 25% area under forest cover, home to 15 million tribal population. Nontimber Forest Produces (NTFP) like Mahua, Tendu leaves, Bamboo, Honey, and medicinal plants are the diversified source of income for the tribal community which built their resilience to the impact of various climate shocks and socio-economic stresses. The state is the highest producer of tendu leaves in India.The state forest is under high stress due to increasing temperature and declining rainfall. To minimize the stress and impact of climatic events on the forests, there is a need to focus on the reorientation of afforestation and conservation of native species of forest trees. The state has a livestock population of 40 million, which builds grazing pressure on land in the state. Table 2 shows the livestock population in Madhya Pradesh vis a vis India.The Madhya Pradesh has witnessed an increase in the annual average temperature of 0.6 °C and a decline in rainfall of about 1.88 mm/year in the last six decades (IMD, 2013). The number and the intensity of extreme rainfall events have also increased in the state in the same period. Altered future climates will have differential impacts on summer and winter crops in the state. For Madhya Pradesh, studies have projected that climate change will negatively impact most of crops unless adaptation strategies are used. Table 3 shows the projected change in crop yields in Madhya Pradesh. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) aims to increase sustainable agricultural production by adapting to and building resilience to climate change. It focuses on food security and national development goals and where possible, it also aims to reduce or remove GHG emissions (Steenwerth et al. 2014, Lipper et al. 2014). Several technologies have been proposed earlier that can build resilience in MP agriculture. For this report, technologies and practices are considered CSA when they enhance food security and productivity and at least one of the other objectives of CSA: adaptation to or mitigation of climate change. CSA offers several technologies and approaches suitable for diverse agro-climates of Madhya Pradesh and addresses important climatic stresses of the region including rainfall variability, droughts, floods, frost, increased temperature stress, and higher incidences of pests and diseases. It is considered that despite their critical role in managing climatic risks and yield growth, there is only weak uptake of many CSA practices and technologies. Among the key factors for their low uptake is the limited capacity to understand CSA's role, limited capital investment for scaling them up, and lack of understanding among development practitioners of integrating these into practical agricultural systems to maximize synergies and minimize trade-offs. This could get further complicated by changing climate. Understanding the yield variability, its intensity, and frequency of resulting yield losses, and the reasons behind those losses are very important to planning the coping strategies and overall adaptive actions.We calculated for every crop and district combination probability of yield loss and loss intensity (magnitude of loss). These were classified into high, medium, low risk, and very low-risk categories based on the risk matrix template shown in figure 11. Further details of this are provided in the Annexure. We then used a risk management layering approach to match the prioritized technological options to relevant crop and district-specific risk categories. We have classified various technologies based on expert judgment for their likely need and benefits in terms of yield growth, adaptation/risk mitigation, risk transfer, and GHG mitigation. Consideration of current yield level, climatic risks, and level of current development, especially irrigation, have been factored in while doing this exercise.We illustrate this risk matrix and adaptation strategies for soybean and cotton crops cultivated on almost 9 million hectares in the Madhya Pradesh state (Figure 12). A similar risk matrix for other crops is also provided.The risk matrix of soybean shows that it is grown across all districts in the state.   The below-mentioned figure 13 presents the summary of the crops risk matrix and adaptation strategies based on the risk exposure in Madhya Pradesh. It is to be noted that the largest cultivable area of Madhya Pradesh around 18.7 million hectares and 4.1 million hectares are in verylow and low-risk categories, respectively. These areas have the potential to improve the crop yield and minimize the crop yield gap for all the crops through the adoption of yield growth technologies like the cultivation of high yielding varieties, increased seed replacement rates, use of integrated plant nutrient management, and efficient use of irrigation water. Insurance for specific perils should be encouraged in such low and very low-risk areas. Almost 8 million hectares area, where soybean, pigeon pea, oilseeds, sugarcane, castor, and rabi sorghum are grown, is in the medium-risk category. Such areas need special attention and risk reduction strategies such as conservation agriculture, crop diversification, water management, stress-tolerant, and high-yielding cultivars, and ICT linked precision management are recommended for increasing input use efficiency and reduced GHG emissions. A small area of 8000 hectares is in the highrisk category in which rice and rabi sorghum crops are grown. Diversification to livestock and even non-agri options would perhaps be more suitable here to increase resilience. As expected, there is no crop area in the very high-risk category as crop cultivation in such areas would be biologically and economically unviable. In the previous sections, the intensity and frequency of risk (yield losses) in Madhya Pradesh are shown with crop-specific technology portfolios. Understanding current adoption levels are vital to planning the scaling strategies. A stakeholder perception analysis shows that the current adoption of interventions for crop-based production systems is between 10 to 54 percent only indicating a large scope for expanding their coverage (Figure 14). The current barriers to this are limited private and public capital and credit, stakeholder capacity limitation to understand the costs and benefits and subsidies, inadequate cooperative systems for machinery and technologies, and sub-optimal extension system. There is a need to address these constraints to strengthen the resilience of agriculture systems and livelihoods.  On an aggregated scale at the state level, Maize, pigeon pea, and soybean are the most vulnerable crops followed by rice, oilseeds, and minor pulses. Figure 15 shows the intensity and frequency of yield loss (%), and figure 16 shows the area under different risk layers by crop in Madhya Pradesh. The state needs to pay more attention to these crops to build overall resilience in the agriculture systems. Rabi crops-wheat, and mustard, in general, are the least vulnerable. Figure 16) Crop-wise area under different risk layers in Madhya Pradesh. Research, extension, and institutional and policy initiatives are needed to support growth in Madhya Pradesh agriculture. The state agriculture policy lists key steps needed for these and provides a roadmap for implementation. In this section, we do not intend to repeat this but rather highlight nine recommendations that can strengthen climate-smart agriculture in the state.Section 61. Raise the bar for setting up Climate-smart Agricultural Villages in the state.In the last decade, Madhya Pradesh has gained recognition and respect for its Krishi Cabinet, rapid growth in agricultural GDP, irrigation, and rural infrastructure. However, it must be noted that the state is highly vulnerable to the impact of frequent and increasing climatic extremes which can limit this growth, especially in the north, east, south-eastern, and southwestern parts of the states The state of Madhya Pradesh has diverse agroclimatic regions from east to west with large spatial and temporal variability in weather, especially in rainfall. Climate change is likely to increase extreme rainfall events further leading to more frequent droughts and floods. To manag e increasing climate variability, making available demand-driven and downscaled weather information in the language and dialect understood by the people of the state will be important. The recent availability of satellite weather, and remote sensing data are likely to be a game-changer in this area. Several studies have shown that appropriate dissemination and utilization of such knowledge helps in building resilience in agricultural systems (Tesfaye et al., 2019).Value-added agro-advisories tailored for individual farmer situations and linked with weather forecasts are needed for effectively managing climatic risks. The private sector has made rapid progress in this area in India and elsewhere. Microsoft, for example, in collaboration with ICRISAT, has developed an AI Sowing App., and farmers using these advisories get up to 30% higher yields. Similar innovations are reported by India Meteorology Department and several start-ups in India including CropIn, SatSure, SkyMet, WRMS, and many others. We note that the Ministry of Earth Sciences has recently launched a mobile application 'Mausam' to enable users to track weather updates. Such ICT approaches and data should also be used to set up early warning systems of water deficiency, water surplus, crop production deficits, likely crop surplus production, and market prices to enable Government, farmers, industry, and other stakeholders to take timely appropriate preventive and corrective actions. The government of MP should consider developing a long-term partnership with private sector weather services and agro-advisory providers for such services. It is to be noted that the MP state was the first one in India to launch the e-choupal initiative with ITC Limited which resulted in significant benefits to its farmers 3. Targeting crop insurance and risk financing for climate risk management while encouraging agricultural growth: Under the PMFBY scheme of highly subsidized crop insurance, Madhya Pradesh has a coverage of 7.9 million farmers in 11.3 million hectares of land. The state government is contributing approximately 1500 crores of premium every year. Even though a huge budget has been allocated to insurance the overall satisfaction with this scheme remains poor and there is no clear evidence that this investment over a period has led to increased agricultural growth and productivity and resilience. It is high time to reconsider the viability and implementation of this scheme and its business value in terms of risk management.A differential strategy based on the risk exposure of different regions and different crops is needed. Based on the district-level risk analysis presented in this report, there are no high or very high-risk category regions for crops anywhere in the state. It must, however, be noted that there could be high risks at the sub-district /village scale in some crops. The state has about 13 mha cropland in the low to medium risk category. In such areas, it is useful to develop novel insurance products that can are bundled with yield growth and adaptation/risk reduction strategies such as those encouraging use of high-yielding seeds, irrigation, and fertilizer management strategies. In very low-risk regions, which is almost 19 million hectares of cropland (70% of the total cropland) in the state, an option for consideration for the state government is not to have a generic and comprehensive insurance scheme rather than opt for only local, specific insurance products for emerging risks from a hailstorm, frost, unseasonal rainfall, and floods. This will perhaps also save a substantial portion of the current investment of the state in insurance subsidies.Livestock and fisheries are increasingly becoming a significant portion of the agriculture economy of the Madhya Pradesh state. This sector also faces risks due to climatic variability and extremes. Although livestock insurance schemes are available their awareness and coverage are limited. There is a need to develop improved products targeted to cover climate risks experienced by farmers and fishers in various agro-ecologies and to meet their specific needs.The state of MP has made impressive growth in developing irrigation potential during the last 15 years which has helped in accelerating overall agricultural growth. However, much more needs to be done to further increase the irrigation potential by increasing water exploitation as well as by increasing its use efficiency.The eastern MP region has substantial subsoil water resources which are under-utilized largely due to power shortage. To overcome this, it will be useful to consider a scheme like the Gujarat government's Suryashakti Kisan Yojana, in which, farmers can use solar energy for irrigation purposes and can also sell the surplus power via the grid. Farmers have to pay very little upfront for the installation of solar panels, government provides a large subsidy and an easy low-cost loan to the farmer to facilitate this.On the other hand, the Bundelkhand region of the state faces frequent episodes of water scarcity and frequent droughts. There is a need to develop water harvesting structures like ponds, wells, and tanks and the repairing of existing water bodies and structures in the region as well as in the state.Madhya Pradesh has only 0.4 M ha area under micro-irrigation indicating a very low penetration rate despite substantial subsidy by the state government. The state has also not benefitted much from the Centrally sponsored Scheme of Per Drop More Crop component of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY-PDMC). An IWMI study has shown that the low penetration of micro irrigation is due to a complex and cumbersome process for accessing the subsidy. It has suggested an alternate subsidy delivery model of providing interest-free loans to the farmer for purchasing the drip system of his/her choice from anywhere.Bundling micro-irrigation systems with schemes such as solar irrigation pumps, farm ponds, etc. will maximize water use and economic returns.Madhya Pradesh is one of the largest producers of wheat, gram, pigeon pea, and soybean in the country. Wheat yields are very sensitive to increases in temperature during grain filling stages. In recent years there have been several events when February-March temperatures, when grain filling of wheat occurs, have shown a significant increase. 'MP wheat' attracts a higher price in the market due to its chapati-making quality. An increase in temperature during grain filling may lead to a slight decrease in yield of this 'MP wheat' and a slight increase in its protein content. This could have some impact on its cooking quality and hence market demand and price. The direction of such impacts is not clear and hence needs to be assessed. It is important to evaluate this soon and develop appropriate cultivars to ensure that the advantage of the 'MP wheat' in the market is maintained or enhanced. Drought and heat tolerant seeds need to be developed and deployed for all important crops of Madhya Pradesh. It is to be noted that while the seed replacement rate of bajra-maize has reached an impressive 90% in the state, it remains below 35% for wheat and soybean crops. EncouragingSeed Villages (Beej Gram Yojana of the state) and greater involvement of farmer organizations could help in quickly increasing the seed replacement ratio in the state.Pradesh agriculture: Madhya Pradesh agriculture emits GHG emissions amounting to ~33 MT CO 2 EQ largely from the enteric fermentation from the livestock sector. Considering the expanding livestock sector, GHG mitigation from the sector must be paid adequate consideration. This may not, however, be easy since most of the livestock is managed by small landholders. This could perhaps be overcome if GHG reduction is monetized by the state governments or GHG reduction could be monitored, aggregated, reported, and verified for sale in carbon markets. The organized dairy sector also needs to be incentivized to increase the adoption of carbon smart technologies like biogas, green fodder supplements, feed management, etc. to reduce GHG emissions from livestock-based production systems. Developing business models for gobar, as in Chhattisgarh, could be an alternate efficient option to incentivize farmers and other producers to collect dung and for the state to process this for manure availability and to reduce GHG emissions.The detailed prioritization procedure has been discussed in the following sections.This step involved participatory analysis of current climatic risks in the state. It was a two-step procedure, where the inputs of key stakeholders were collected through the field and web-based survey whereas the secondary meteorological data were analyzed for the last 30 years. By considering the stakeholder responses and secondary meteorological data, the major climatic risks were identified along with the nature, intensity, and frequency of the risks. Annexure 1 • Provides good opportunities for augmenting the common pool of groundwater resources.• Impounds surface runoff coming from the catchments and stabilize the nala grade to facilitate percolation of stored water into the soil sub-strata with a view to raise ground water levelStop Dams and Check dams• Small water storage structures constructed across small streams or nallas to collect and impound the surface runoff from catchments of the streams during monsoon season.• Diversion channel is a simple excavated long structure to convey water from a higher elevation to the point of storage or use near the habitation.• Application of water directly to the root zone of crops and minimize water loss Sprinkler• The system can supply small and uniform application on demand and meet the emergent situations of climatic aberrations. The water application is controlled and only the required amount of needed water is applied by the system.Direct Seeded Rice • DSR is an alternative crop establishment method for rice where seeds are sown directly without raising them in a nursery. This brochure explains the benefits of this method.Alternate Wetting and Drying (Rice)• In AWD, irrigation water is applied a few days after the disappearance of the ponded water. Hence, the field gets alternately flooded and non-flooded. The number of days of nonflooded soil between irrigations can vary from 1 to more than 10 days depending on the number of factors such as soil type, weather, and crop growth stage.• Reduce water requirement, increase productivity, and build resilience Furrow Irrigated Bed Planting• This method offers more effective control over irrigation and drainage as well as rainwater management during the monsoon (also improves nutrient use efficiency) Vermi-compost • Organic manure (bio-fertilizer) produced as the vermicast by earth worm feeding on biological waste material; plant residues.• Organic compost free from weeds, pathogens and rich in nutrients.• Involves the application of organic, inorganic and bio-fertilizers in a balanced manner to fully meet the requirements of all the major, secondary and micronutrients for the given crop/ cropping system.Site Specific Nutrient Management using Leaf Colour Chart• Quantify the required amount of nitrogen use based on greenness of crops. Mostly used for split dose application in rice but also applicable for maize and wheat crops to detect nitrogen deficiency Site Specific Nutrient Management using Greenseeker• Optimum supply of soil nutrients over time and space matching to the requirements of crops with right product, rate, time, and place Crop Residue Incorporation • Incorporating crop residues like leaves, stems, and seed pods into the ground, instead of burning. It can be helpful to mitigate GHGs and help in nutrient management.• Crop rotation is the systematic planting of different crops in a particular order over several years in the same growing space. This process helps maintain nutrients in the soil, reduce soil erosion, and prevents plant diseases and pests.Kitchen Garden/Nutrition Garden• Nutrition garden or homestead garden is a small-scale production system supplying plant and animal consumption and utilitarian items either not obtainable, affordable, or readily available through real markets, field cultivation, and wage earning.Agro Forestry/Fodder Trees • Growing fruits orchards along with other crops. Helps to augment income.• Growing vegetables along with other crops. Helps to augment income.To shortlist several CSA technologies from a pool of CSA options we implied a participatory approach. A virtual stakeholder workshop was organized wherein a web-based survey was introduced to participants. The web-based survey was designed to gather information from various stakeholders from the crop, livestock, and fishery sectors. As a first step, the baseline information related to the existing farming situation (irrigated/rainfed and soil type, etc.) and resources were collected for the respective area/districts. The information like crop, cultivars and land details, crop input details, information on Information and Communication Technology (ICT), insurance and credit facility, productivity, economic benefits, and perceived climate variability/change impact was collected. In the remaining three sections information on characterizing different CSA technologies, services, and practices (collectively called technologies), and understanding their suitability and implementation feasibility was collected.Several technologies play a vital role in enhancing resilience for sustainable agriculture, livelihood, and food security. Therefore, information on the context and area-specific characterization of key technologies are important. The stakeholders were asked to identify the technologies which are dominant for building adaptation to climate change for each crop selected in the baseline information. The information on likely changes in yield, income, inputs used, risk mitigation, women involvement, etc. due to the adoption of technologies over the traditional practices were collected in this section.Technology use by farmers depends on several factors such as its capital costs, availability of rental market, subsidy available, the requirement of credit, training to understand the technology, and likely returns on investment. In this subsection, we gathered information on the implementation feasibility of the climate-smart technologies for selected crops and locations.In this sub-section, we collected information from the respondents on the biophysical and economical suitability of various technologies for various crops identified by the stakeholders.The evaluation of CSA technology was done based on the CSA pillars of productivity and income, resilience, and reduction in emission. Based on the ground level experiences, knowledge and reference the weights were assigned to the indicators of CSA, productivity, income, resilience, and emission. As per the importance and relevance, the equal weight was given to productivity (25%) and income (25%) indicators, high weight for building a resilient agriculture system (35%), and very low weight to that emission reduction (15%). After that CSA performance index (CSA-PI) was calculated by using a weighted sum of the four CSA indicators. The mean CSA-PI value was normalized between 1 and 5 using a min-max normalization approach (A. Khatri-Chhetri, et al., 2019) CSA-PI = α 1 * Productivity (%) + α 2 * Income (%) + α 3 * Resilience (%) -α 4 * Emission (%)Where, CSA-PI= CSA Performance Index, α 1 =0.25, α 2 =0.25, α 3 =035, and α4 =0.15 are weight for each indicator of CSAThe selected list of CSA interventions by stakeholders was evaluated for the overall implementation feasibility in the state based on their technical feasibility, availability of subsidy by state and central government, availability and requirement of the rental market, gender inclusivity, credit availability and skill, training requires for the use of technology. Based on the ground level experiences, knowledge and reference the weights were assigned to the indicators of subsidy, market, gender inclusiveness, credit, and training. As per the importance and relevance, the high weight was given to subsidy (0.3), medium weight was given to market (0.2), credit (0.2), training (0.2), and low weight to gender inclusiveness (0.1). Understanding the yield variability, its intensity, and frequency of resulting losses, and the reasons behind those losses are very important to planning the coping strategies and overall adaptive actions. We used the risk management layering approach (World Bank, 2016) to match the technological options obtained through participatory prioritization methodology to relevant categories of risk intensity and frequency. We used the following methodology to derive the intensity and frequency of crop losses:1. Obtain time series data for area, production, and yield. The intensity and frequencies of crop loss were derived from the district-level area, production, and yield datasets of the last 20 years of data (1998 to 2017).2. Filter the districts where the average crop acreage is below 500 hectares. This was done to avoid districts where the crops are non-significant in the overall production profile.3. Derive average/threshold yield for loss calculation for each commodity and crop by the district. The average/threshold yield is calculated from consecutive five years to yield data; at each time step, the highest and lowest yield is removed while taking the average. The average/threshold yield is non-declining with time meaning over time it would either increase or remain the same.4. Calculate deviation of yields from average/ threshold yields.5. Calculate loss and frequency of loss where yield departure is more than ten percent from the average/threshold.6. Translate the yield loss, loss per hectare in rupees, and total loss at the district level into a risk matrix of 4 × 4 showing different combinations of the intensity of loss and their frequencies (Figure 12).7. The class intervals for the intensity of loss (yield loss) of loss are 0 to 10, 10 to 30, 30 to 50, and more than 50. For frequency of loss, they are 0 to 10, 10 to 20, 20 to 30, and more than 30.We used the bivariate choropleth maps to show the intensity and frequencies of yield losses overlaid by crop acreage. Bivariate choropleth maps combine two datasets (intensity and frequency of loss) into a single map allowing us to show relatively how much intensity of loss and frequency of loss exist in each enumeration unit. Such bivariate characterization of losses with overlays of average yield and crop acreage can help in pinpointing the risk management strategies. ","tokenCount":"7133"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"304600eac5dfe9009ae9c6c57490bbb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/82cab164-f860-4cfb-a8c0-057f4a34c09d/content","id":"418742971"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"86fa429f-acc6-45a1-8367-8eebb903d782","pagecount":"7","content":"Pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) is one of the serious global issues in wheat production. Identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) and closely-linked markers is greatly helpful for wheat improvement. In the present study, a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from the cross of Zhongmai 578 (ZM578)/Jimai 22 (JM22) and parents were phenotyped in five environments and genotyped by the wheat 50 K single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. Two QTL of germination index (GI), QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A, were detected, explaining 4.33%-5.58% and 4.43%-8.02% of the phenotypic variances, respectively. The resistant effect of QGI.caas-3A was contributed by JM22, whereas that of QGI.caas.5A was from ZM578. The two QTL did not correspond to any previously identified genes or genetic loci for PHSrelated traits according to their locations in the Chinese Spring reference genome, indicating that they are likely to be new loci for PHS resistance. Four kompetitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) markers K_AX-109605367and K_AX-179559687 flanking QGI.caas-3A, and K_AX-111258240 and K_AX-109402944 flanking QGI.caas-5A, were developed and validated in a natural population of 100 wheat cultivars. The distribution frequency of resistance alleles at Qphs.caas-3A and Qphs.caas-5A loci were 82.7% and 57.1%, respectively, in the natural population. These findings provide new QTL and tightly linked KASP markers for improvement of PHS resistance in wheat.Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important staple food crops and is cultivated globally, right after rice (Oryza sativa) and maize (Zea mays) [1]. It serves as a source of carbohydrate, protein, vitamins and mineral elements, accounting for about 20% of the total protein and 21% of the calories worldwide [2]. Preharvest sprouting (PHS) is a precarious issue affecting numerous wheat production areas, frequently occurring globally in many principal wheat-producing areas including China [3][4][5]. It was induced by summer rainfall and high humidity [6][7][8], and early seed dormancy (SD) breakage under wet or humid conditions before harvest [9], leading to significant losses in the grain yield and quality of end-use products [10]. The annual economic loss caused by PHS on wheat production has been estimated to be 1.2 billion US dollars worldwide [5]. Developing wheat varieties with PHS resistance is the most effective way to reduce the loss caused by PHS [11], and identifying genetic loci of PHS resistance is very helpful for breeding resistant varieties through marker-assisted selection (MAS).With the advent of high-throughput genotyping platforms, such as next generation sequencing (NGS) and chip-based genotyping technologies, many QTL for PHS-related traits have been identified on almost all 21 wheat chromosomes [5,9,10,[12][13][14][15][16][17], among which the region on chromosomes 3A, 3B, 3D, and 4A are considered to be most important for SD and PHS [5,7,[18][19][20]. Moreover, several candidate genes have been isolated by homolog-based cloning, such as TaSdr on chromosome 2B [21,22], TaVp-1 on chromosome 3B [23][24][25], TaQSd1 on chromosomes 5A, 5B and 5D [26,27], TaDOG1L4 on chromosome 3A [28][29][30], and TaABI5 on chromosome 3D [31]. Several genes for PHS resistance also were isolated by map-based cloning, including mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 3 (TaMKK3) [32], TaPHS1 [33,34], PM19A1-A2 [11,35] and Tamyb10 [36,37].Zhongmai 578 (ZM578) and Jimai 22 (JM22) are two elite white winter wheat cultivars in the Yellow and Huai River Valleys Winter Wheat region, the largest zone of wheat production in China. ZM578 is characterized with good PHS resistance, whereas JM22 has relatively poor resistance. Therefore, a recombinant inbred lines (RIL) population generated from a cross between ZM578 and JM22 was used in this study, with the aims to: 1) identify genetic loci for PHS resistance, and 2) develop breeder-friendly efficient markers for MAS in breeding on improvement of PHS resistance in white winter wheat.A mapping population with 262 RILs derived from a cross of white grain winter wheat ZM578 and JM22 by the single seed descent method was used in this study. ZM578 that was selected from the cross of Zhongmai 255 and JM22, is a high-yielding variety with good tolerance to PHS (Fig. S1). The field trial for the RILs and parents was conducted in five environments including Xinxiang (34°53 0 N, 113°23 0 E) in 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 in Henan province (defined as E1 and E2), Shangqiu (34°44 0 N, 115°65 0 E) in 2020-2021 (E3) in Henan province, Luoyang (34°32 0 N, 112°16 0 E) in 2020-2021 (E4) in Henan province, and Gaoyi (37°33 0 N, 114°26 0 E) in 2020-2021 (E5) in Hebei province. A randomized complete block design with three replications was used in all environments. Thirty seeds were sown in each row, with each plot comprising a 1.0 m row spaced 25.0 cm apart. A panel of 100 wheat varieties from Yellow and Huai Valley Winter Wheat region was used to validate the effectiveness of KASP markers, with the phenotypic data available in Zhang et al. [22].Pre-harvest sprouting resistance was evaluated based on the germination index (GI) value. Five spikes in each plot, were collected from each environment at physiological maturity by cutting the peduncle about 10 cm below the base of the spike, when a loss of green color occurred in the spikes [38,39]. Harvested spikes were air-dried for 5 d in a greenhouse at (25 ± 5) °C, hand threshed and the seeds were kept in a freezer at À20 °C to maintain dormancy until phenotyping [22,40]. All seeds were taken out from the freezer and air-dried again for an additional 2 d on greenhouse desks. One hundred healthy grains of each line were surfacesterilized with 5% NaClO for 15 min and washed three times with sterile water. The sterilized seeds were placed in a 90 mm Petri dish containing filter paper and 8 mL of distilled water, and incubated at 23 °C for 7 d. Germinated grains were counted daily and removed. The weighted germination index was calculated according to the following formula [41]:where n i is the number of grains germinated in the ith day; N is the total number of grains.The 262 RILs and parents were genotyped using wheat 50 K Infinium iSelect SNP arrays containing 55,224 SNPs outsourced from CapitalBio Corporation (https://www.capitalbio.com). The SNP data were processed by removing monomorphic markers, SNPs with more than 20% missing data or minor allele frequency (MAF) of < 0.3. The remaining high-quality polymorphic SNPs (9354) were further analyzed to remove redundant markers using the BIN function in IciMapping v4.2 [42] (https://www.isbreeding. net/). The resulting genotypic data consisting of 1501 nonredundant markers (bin markers) were used to generate a linkage map with JoinMap v4.0 software using the regression mapping algorithm. The linkage maps were drawn by the MapChart v2.32 software [43] (https://www.wur.nl/en/show/Mapchart.htm).The best linear unbiased estimation (BLUE) values of lines in each environment and across environments were calculated for subsequent analysis using the PROC MIXED function in SAS 9.4 software (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC https://www.sas.com). Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were conducted using PROC MEANS and PROC CORR functions. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using PROC general linear model (GLM) function. Broad-sense heritability (H b 2) was estimated according to the following equation;e re where r 2 g , r 2 ge , and r 2 e are the variances of genotypes, genotype by environment interaction, and residual error, respectively, and r and e are the numbers of replications and environments, respectively [44]. Bar graph was used to perform multiple comparison for combining effect of stable QTL, and their distribution was indicated by GraphPad prism Version 8.0.1 (GrapPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA).QTL analysis was performed by the Inclusive composite interval mapping (ICIM) method with additive effect, using IciMapping v4.1 software [42]. The logarithm of odds (LOD) threshold for declaring significant QTL was 2.5 based on 1000 permutations with type 1 error (a = 0.05). The physical positions of mapped SNPs in the region of detected QTL were identified by blasting the SNP flanking sequences against reference genome sequences of the Chinese Spring (RefSeq 1.0, IWGSC, International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium, https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/blast_iwgsc/). The QTL was named following the International Rules of Genetic Nomenclature (https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/ggpages/wgc/98/Intro. htm). QTL detected in two or more environments were regarded as stable.Sequences of SNPs flanking stable QTL for the pre-harvest sprouting resistance were converted to KASP markers. The KASP primers were designed using PolyMarker (https://www.polymarker.info/) following Li et al. [17]. The 384-well optically clear plates were read on PHERAstarplus SNP (BMG Labtech GmbH, Ortenberg, Germany) to detect the fluorescence, and data analysis was carried out using KlusterCaller (LGC, Hoddesdon, UK). KASP markers were validated using a panel of 100 wheat varieties.The additive effect of stable QTL was determined by categorizing the RIL or cultivars in the natural population into four different genotypic groups (1 R , 2 R , 1 S and 2 S ) based on the flanking markers of QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A. The two QTL were temporarily designated as loci 1 and 2 respectively, where R and S represent resistance and susceptibility alleles, respectively. The GI values of the The RILs and parents were evaluated for PHS using GI values across five environments. The mean GI value of ZM578 had a significantly lower value (3.7%) than that of JM22 (44.73%) at P < 0.001 and continuous distribution of GI in the RIL population was observed, indicating a typical polygenic inheritance (Fig. S2; Table S1). ANOVA revealed that GI was significantly influenced by the effects of genotype, environment, and genotype  environment interactions (P < 0.01) (Table 1), and broad-sense heritabilities ranged from 0.91 to 0.98 among the five environments, with a high mean value of 0.91 (Table S1). Also, among-environments, correlations of GI were significant and positive, with the values ranging from 0.52 to 0.76 (P < 0.001) (Table S2).A high-density genetic linkage map of the ZM578/JM22 population was constructed with 1501 bin markers on all chromosomes except 6B, spanning 2384.95 cM with an average distance of 1.59 cM per bin marker. The maximum number of markers was recorded in A genome (562), followed by B (545) and D (394) genomes (Tables S3, S4). In addition, SNPs were unevenly distributed among chromosomes, such as 7A (133) and 2B (132) having the highest number, while chromosome 6A had the lowest number of SNPs (11). No SNP was mapped on Chromosome 6B, suggesting that this chromosome might have a large similarity between the two parents. Six QTL for PHS resistance were detected on chromosomes 1D, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A, and 5A, designated as QGI.caas-1D, QGI. caas-2B, QGI.caas-3A, QGI.caas-3B, QGI.caas-4A and QGI.caas-5A, respectively, explaining 29.84% of the total phenotypic variance, with LOD values ranging from 2.57 to 7.17. Among these, two were stably detected in at least two environments on chromosomes 3A (QGI.caas-3A) and 5A (QGI.caas-5A), respectively (Fig. 1; Table 2). QGI.caas-5A was detected in four environments and the BLUE value, explaining 4.43%-8.02% of the phenotypic variances, with the resistance allele contributed by ZM578. QGI.caas-3A was identified in two environments and the BLUE value, contributing for 4.33%-5.58% of the phenotypic variances, with the resistance allele derived from JM22.Four KASP markers, K-AX-109605367 and K-AX-179559687 for QGI.caas-3A and K-AX111258240 and K-AX-109402944 for QGI. caas-5A, were successfully developed, and their genetic effects were verified in a panel of the natural population with 100 cultivars (Fig. S3; Tables 3, S5, S6). Both of the genotypes with resistance alleles at both QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A have significantly lower GI values than those with both susceptible alleles in the natural population of 100 cultivars, with 82.7% of germplasm possessing the resistance allele of QGI.caas-3A and 57.1% having the resistance allele of QGI.caas-5A, respectively (Table 3).Using the flanking markers AX-111055367 and AX-179559687 of QGI.caas-3A, and AX-111258240 and AX-109402944 of QGI.caas-5A, 262 RILs were divided into four groups (1 R , 2 R , 1 S and 2 S ). The results indicated that the genotypic combination with both resistance alleles (1 R 2 R ) at QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A had a significantly lower GI value in all environments, as well as the BLUE value in comparison with the other three groups, whereas those with both susceptible alleles (1 S 2 S ) had a significantly higher GI value in all environments, as well as the BLUE value than the other three groups. (Fig. 2).Moreover, in the natural population of 100 cultivars, the genotypic combination with both resistance alleles (1 R 2 R ) at QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A showed a significantly lower GI value than the other three groups, whereas those with both susceptibility alleles (1 S 2 S ) had a significantly higher GI value than the other three groups (Table S7). Therefore, pyramiding the resistance alleles of QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A can effectively improve PHS resistance.PHS affects end-use quality and wheat production in many regions across the world; therefore, developing cultivars with good resistance is an effective way to minimize economic losses, and markers tightly linked to the identified resistance genes are helpful in accelerating the development of new cultivars. The current study detected two stable QTL, QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A, for PHS resistance. QGI.caas-3A was detected on chromosome 3A at 568.7-573.9 Mb based on the flanking markers AX-111055367 and AX-179559687. Liu et al. [45] and Liu and Bai [46] identified QPhs.pseru-3AS with flanking markers Xbarc12 and Xbarc321 located at 11.7-15.5 Mb. Shao et al. [5] detected two QTL at 11.7 Mb. Kulwal et al. [38] identified a major QTL for PHS linked with marker Xgwm155 at 703 Mb. Osa et al. [19], Nakamura et al. [33], and Mori et al. [47] reported a QTL QPhs.ocs-3A.1 for grain dormancy between markers Xbarc310 and Xbarc 321 spanning 7.1-11.7 Mb. Miao et al. [48] identified QPhs.caas-3AS.1 for PHS flanked by markers Xbarc294 and Xbarc57 at 7.9-10.3 Mb. Fofana et al. [49] reported a QTL for GI linked with marker Xcfa2 at 690.7 Mb. Himi et al. [36] found a QTL for PHS associated with a red grain color gene Tamyb10-A1 at 703.9 Mb, which is more than 100 Mb away from the QGI.caas-3A. Therefore, QGI.caas-3A appears to have a different position from these previously identified QTL on chromosome 3A (Table S8), indicating that it is probably a new genetic locus for PHS resistance. The reason for relatively low mapping resolution of QTL on chromosome 3A may lie in that the susceptible parent JM22 is one of the parents of ZM578. Therefore, the RILs of ZM578/JM22 used in this study have high genetic similarities, which make little polymorphisms in the genetic background, and the KASP markers developed in the study should be effective in testing the diversity panel. QGI.caas-5A was mapped at 17.1-17.2 Mb on chromosome 5A, flanked by SNP markers AX-111258240 and AX-109402944. Several previous studies have reported QTL associated with PHS and SD on the long arm of chromosome 5A [12,[50][51][52][53][54]. Borner et al. [12] identified a QTL for PHS linked with markers Xgwm186 and P7560-439, located at 471.7 Mb for the closest marker. Groos et al. [55] reported a QTL for PHS and grain color on the short arm of chromosome 5A flanked by markers Xbcd1871-Xgwm304, with the closest marker located at 105.5 Mb. Fakthongphan et al. [50] detected a QTL linked with marker Barc10 at 2.1 Mb using three RIL populations. Zhu et al. [51] reported a QTL linked with marker Xbarc 360 at 458.3 Mb using 260 wheat varieties and advanced lines. Martinez et al. [52] detected a QTL linked with marker IWB10250 at 540 Mb using a panel of white winter wheat cultivars and elite breeding lines. Zuo et al. [53] identified a QTL for PHS resistance linked with marker BS00036907_51 at 438.1 Mb, explaining up to 4.2% of the phenotypic variance. Lin et al. [54] reported two QTL linked with marker Bobwhite_4004_61 at 33.2 Mb and Excal-ibur_c54774_408 at 593.0 Mb, using 260 wheat varieties and advanced lines. Nakamura et al. [56] identified an ABA signaling gene TmERA3 on the centromere region of chromosome 5A at 343 Mb by in silico analysis. The position of QGI.caas-5A is located differently from all the reported QTL (Table S8), based on the wheat reference genome (IWGSC RefSeq 1.0), indicating that it is likely to be a new QTL for PHS resistance.It should be indicated that only two of the six QTL mapped in this study were found to be stable, and the phenotypic variance explained was not high, which may be attributed to the following two reasons: 1) PHS is a complex quantitative trait and controlled by numerous minor genes, and it is highly influenced by environments; 2) JM22 is one of the parents of ZM578, and theoretically near 75% of the genetic background of the RILs is originated from JM22, thus it is not possible to identify common PHS resistance genes in this RIL population. Therefore, it worth conducting further research using a population of ZM578 with some other cultivars rather than JM22, to find more PHS-related genes in ZM578. Moreover, we believe, from breeding point of view, many genes detected previously act as minor genes in the background of modern leading   wheat cultivars like JM22 and ZM578, which have combined with many favorable alleles of genes underling good agronomic parameters. It is much worthy doing QTL mapping or fine mapping in modern wheat cultivars, and the favorable alleles of QTL mapped can easily be used in wheat breeding program.The two stable QTL QGI.caas-3A and QGI.caas-5A identified in this study showed an additive effect on PHS resistance when combined, suggesting the genetic complex systems in regulating wheat PHS and the importance of pyramiding a specific combination of QTL. Zhongmai 578 contributed the resistance allele of QGI.caas-5A, and the resistance for PHS of QGI.caas-3A was contributed by Jimai 22. Therefore, tracing the pedigree for the favorable alleles will provide important information for future MAS and the developed KASP marker K-AX-111258240 (Table S6) tightly linked with QGI.caas-5A was successfully used to trace the origination. The result indicated that the favorable allele of QGI.caas-5A was inherited from Zhengzhou 761 through Yumai 49 to Zhongmai 255 (Fig. S4; Table S9), providing the marker for MAS on PHS when using Zhongmai 578 as a core parent in the future, as well as other cultivars in the pedigree such as Yumai 49 and Zhongmai 255 with excellent pan bread quality. It should be indicated that some favorable alleles in Zhongmai 578 inherited from Jimai 22 could not be detected in this RIL population because Jimai 22 is one of the parents of Zhongmai 578.","tokenCount":"3021"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bb951cb7d3406383903f7c79b1a6289f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/814ac1f7-524c-4160-b4cb-f63c4b34dbc2/retrieve","id":"1580108196"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c4e00daf-3764-456f-be3e-d808d6e9d74d","pagecount":"28","content":"The project \"Alliance to Create Opportunities for Rural Development through Agro-enterprise Relationships\" (ACORDAR) aimed to help increase the income, ensure permanent employment and strengthen the business capacities of 7000 poor rural households in 50 municipalities of Nicaragua, in alliance with municipal governments and the private sector.ACORDAR was financed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented by an important consortium headed by Catholic Relief Services (CRS), together with other partners such as Lutheran World Relief (LWR), TechnoServe (TNS), Global Village (GV), Latin American Financial Services (LAFISE), International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and other local partners in the area of influence of the project. 1. 1 manzana (mz) = 1.72 acres or 7,026 m 2This project was initially established in 2007 for a 3-year period; however, given its significant impact, it was extended for another 2 years until the end of 2012 to further disseminate its results and empower more farmer families and producer organizations.The present document systematizes the experience of building a value chain for beans that benefits 4,898 bean producers in Nicaragua, and compiles the lessons learned by the Beans Technical Committee, formed by representatives of the Northern Multi-Service Export and Import Cooperative Organization (CECOOPSEMEIN), Caritas-Estelí, the Nicaraguan Association for Social Development (ASDENIC) and the Association for Community Agricultural Diversification and Development (ADDAC), located in northern Nicaragua, specifically in the departments of Matagalpa, Estelí, Nueva Segovia, Jinotega and Madriz that have high bean production potential.The report addresses the building and strengthening of the beans value chain in northern Nicaragua using innovative strategies and aims to disseminate and share study results. Feedback will facilitate the application of this approach in other regions, strengthen the existing knowledge base and influence policy makers at both local and national levels.Many actors did not know the other actors involved in the chain, which reduced the possibility of feedback. Furthermore, production costs were high, yields and sale prices were low, the quality of raw materials used was poor, there was a lack of added value, little information was available and the access to alternative markets was limited.Although the actors of the different links of the bean production cycle acted autonomously, they had inadvertently created a production chain; however, only a few knew what happened to the products before or after they left their hands, and many actors did not know the other actors involved in the chain, which reduced the possibility of feedback. Furthermore, production costs were high, yields and sale prices were low, the quality of raw materials used was poor, there was a lack of added value, little information was available and the access to alternative markets was limited.Existing organizations had a weak organizational structure, with limited entrepreneurial skills, and were primarily 3 dedicated to production. Resource mobilization was lacking, which in turn limited access to technical assistance, technological innovation, diversification of services, promotion of agribusinesses, and identification of new, profitable and risk-free markets with added value.The lack of economic resources also translated into poor collection facilities, which reduced the volume of product on offer and limited the capacity to negotiate with different bean clients. Roads in rural areas were in poor conditions, affecting the transportation of produce to collection hubs, which lowered sale prices and caused loss of produce.The lack of environmental awareness was also a critical factor. Contamination had been maximized by the misuse of pesticides, inadequate soil use, the advance of the agricultural frontier, and the misuse of water resources-all factors that had a direct negative impact on value chain development.The lack of familiarity with the value chain approach affected the launching of initiatives that could have taken advantage of the support offered by local governments and promoted the participation of bean producers in consultation and participatory planning processes in their respective municipalities. Nor did these organizations have gender-sensitive policies in place. As a result, given their limited participation in production, entrepreneurial and decision-making processes, women did not have access to benefits such as credit.The building and strengthening of the beans value chain began in September 2007 under the umbrella of the ACORDAR Project. The first step was to conduct a field survey to gather information on crop yields, production costs, areas available for planting, income, available technology and end-uses of produce. The information gathered was used as basis to plan project activities.The initial baseline survey served to define the indicators that would be used to measure value chain progress.  The strategy was jointly presented together with bean producers to municipal authorities and other key actors, such as the national providers of financial and non-financial services.The strategic objectives of the Competitiveness Strategy focused on three links: Production, Postharvest Handling, and Marketing.This stage aimed to produce high-quality beans that met market requirements and satisfied consumer preferences. It was therefore necessary to improve crop yields, and several activities were promoted accordingly.To The aforementioned alliances were established to obtain accessible lines of credit, better prices and input validation.The joint investment of leverage funds for validation was also sought as well as flexibility in procurement processes of registered seed for certification and the implementation and promotion of new technologies among small producers. A predrying tunnel for beans was accordingly purchased and fertigation applied to crops. Planting density was also reduced from 200,000 to 120,000 plants per manzana 1 .An agreement was also signed with the Nicaraguan Union of Agricultural Producers (UPANIC, its Spanish acronym) to foster the commercial purchase/sale of beans and to promote the use of the inoculant NITRONAT as a technology to improve nitrogen use by beans.Twenty-one field technicians were contracted as part of the strategy to strengthen technical know-how of women and men bean producers as well as improve crop productivity and establish commercial relationships. These technicians, who would dedicate 50% of their time to activities related to the bean value chain, represented an administrative cost of US$284,734 (wages, social benefits, office expenditures) and an operational cost of US$141,800.The abovementioned changes made it possible to establish 126.71 hectares of certified seed to produce 2,698 quintals 2 of beans. A total investment of US$12,266 was necessary, of which USAID contributed US$5,813 and bean producers, US$6,453 from their own funds. These changes in the production process were accompanied by the technical monitoring of 17,014 hectares planted to beans, 2,158 hectares of which were established by women bean producers during the five years of the project. The project benefited 4,898 women and men bean producers of northern Nicaragua.The cooperatives facilitated producers' access to credit to produce bean seed.As a result, 1,739 hectares were planted to beans, benefiting 400 bean producers of the municipalities of Sébaco, La Trinidad, San Dionisio, Jinotega, San Nicolás, Terrabona, Condega, Totogalpa, San Ramón and La Dalia. In addition, 3,031 qq of quality seed were delivered, valued at US$180,192.2. 1 quintal (qq) = 100 lb or 46 kg.The ACORDAR Project invested US$13,000 to train 1,500 women and men bean producers in aspects related to harvesting and postharvest handling.USAID contributed US$127,856 for its purchase, project partners US$5,994 and bean producers US$46,342. Similarly, 4,386 qq certified seed were also delivered, increasing yields by 11.8% between 2007 and 2012, from 11.6 to 13.09 qq/mz.An agreement was signed with the Upanic Agroindustrial Exchange (BOLSAGRO, its Spanish acronym) and the Nicaraguan Agricultural Commodity Exchange (BAGSA, its Spanish acronym) to reduce tax payments, from 3 to 1.7%. This also represented a reduction in the sales costs of the end product.The alliances that had the greatest impact on bean production were those established with RAMAC, FENACOOP, and Esperanza Coop because the co-investment of funds and technical assistance made it possible to plant 319.72 hectares to beans, valued at US$89,262. This initiative benefited 294 women and men bean producers of the departments of Estelí, Jinotega and Matagalpa.Training events and sensitization workshops empowered both women and men bean producers to establish alliances with the city halls of Darío, La Trinidad, San Nicolás, Jinotega, Esquipulas, Quilalí, Pueblo Nuevo, Condega, Palacagüina, Totogalpa, Estelí, Waslala, Rancho Grande, La Dalia and San Ramón.Bean producers took advantage of these alliances to advocate the need to improve roads and production infrastructure and, as a result, municipal governments became increasingly interested in supporting the value chain. Proof of this successful lobbying was the allocation of funds by municipal governments to repair roads in major bean production areas.Training was offered to 1,500 women and men bean producers in integrated pest 8 management, certified seed production, postharvest handling, fertilization, grain standardization, nutritional uses of beans, household production, among others.The ACORDAR Project invested US$13,000 in these activities, but this figure does not include the cost of several workshops that were financed exclusively by producers. These efforts led to an increased production of seed and commercial grain, which in turn increased producers' income and generated a higher sales tax collection in each municipality.To strengthen the business skills of producer organizations, an agreement was signed with the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE, its Spanish acronym) to execute a pilot-scale project \"Knowledge Management for Value Chain Development 3 \", which consisted of gathering, processing and disseminating field data (area planted, yields, climate, prices, markets) that could serve as a crop management tool to facilitate decision making.A project was also carried out in coordination with the US Sustainable Food Laboratory 4 to measure greenhouse gas emissions on small bean farms in northern Nicaragua. The initiative analyzed the carbon dioxide released and captured in production and other on-farm activities and, based on analysis results, recommended practices that could reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted, such as the incorporation of stubble and the use of agro-forestry systems and organic fertilizers.Bean producers contributed US$7, 577 and USAID, US$6,439, to build a collection and marketing hub in El Tule-Condega. This hub aimed to provide pre-harvest services (calculations of yields per area, harvest schedules, delivery schedules of beans to the Northern Beans Agroindustrial Center); post-harvest services (such as drying and color preclassification); and bean quality classification. High-quality grain was sold in select markets that offered higher prices because of the added value, while the rest of the produce was sold in other markets such as store retailers.The Northern Beans Agroindustrial Center was also built in the community of Santa Isabel, Sébaco, to give added value to the product -a process that involves classifying, cleaning, polishing and packaging. The center cost US$923,696, of which US$921,682 were contributed by USAID and US$2,014 by producer organizations members of CECOOPSEMEIN 5 , the entity responsible for managing the center that offers its processing services to producers and traders nationwide.Both facilities were designed with a capacity to process 75,000 qq per year, generating 200 permanent jobs of which 160 have been occupied by women and 40 by men.With an investment of US$7,803, eight platform scales, five moisture testers and 200 idle pulleys were distributed among the collection centers of the cooperatives of the Producers Society for Rural Business Development (APODER, its Spanish acronym), Ríos de Agua Viva, Flor de Dalia and Flor de Pancasán. Not only did the volume of end product increase, but jobs were also generated.Thirty-six workshops on postharvest management of the crop were also offered at a total cost of US$4,320. These workshops, attended by 640 bean producers, aimed to improve product quality and thus increase competitiveness in regional and international markets.Emphasis was placed on sharing know-how on postharvest handling of the product, percentage of moisture for storage, pre-classification by color and variety, and percentage of broken and damaged grains  in accordance with Nicaragua´s technical standards for beans.On the other hand, the alliances established with city halls facilitated the implementation of technical recommendations for the building of production facilities in each municipality in the area of influence of the ACORDAR Project as well as the granting of the pertinent environmental licenses to build water catchment facilities or reservoirs such as basins, small lagoons, microdams and storage facilities. Improved communication with city halls made it possible to coordinate environmental activities and to diffuse, through pamphlets, regulations and decrees that aim to protect water sources, avoid the felling of trees, help control burnings and protect natural reserves.Finally, by becoming a member of the SICTA Network 6 , CECOOPSEMEIN was able to share know-how and learn from the experiences of other organizations about new maize and bean technologies. An outcome of becoming member was the IICA-SICTA Network/ CECOOPSEMEIN alliance to implement the use of a predrying microtunnel to improve crop management efficiency and facilitate adaptation to climate change. This project benefited 750 women and men bean producers, reducing postharvest losses up to 40% thanks to the use of plastic microtunnels.Export requirements and information on potential markets were shared with 116 bean producers, who also participated in three complementary business trips to El Salvador and one to Costa Rica, sponsored by CRS, to make marketing contacts for bean collection and marketing. Support was also provided in the organization of and participation in 15 national and municipal fairs, where 502 women and men bean producers had the opportunity to showcase and offer their beans to potential buyers and establish commercial relationships.There were also external factors that facilitated value chain development: the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR); the opening of the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR, its Spanish acronym); the commercial relationship with countries of the South such as Venezuela; the existence of the Central America CA-4 Border Control Agreement between Honduras, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala that facilitates exports and imports; and the presence of external donors interested in supporting the beans value chain, which helped bring together the actors participating in each link to achieve the equitable development of the chain and raise awareness about the need to redistribute the profits obtained from the product in a better way. Another positive factor was the creation of a space for consensus-building by the Nicaraguan Government-the National Beans Committee-of which the Beans Sectoral Commission forms part. This space allowed actors of the beans value chain to not only gain representativeness and governance, but also increased their capacity to influence public policies in support of improved marketing of beans.8. The Learning Alliance (AdA, its Spanish acronym) [http:/www.alianzasdeaprendizaje. org/la-partnership-today] is a consortium of organizations working for the inclusive and sustainable development of rural Central America, promoting the sharing of learning processes among diverse actors. Its 2008-2010 learning cycle gathered 17 organizations (both within and outside ACORDAR) that worked to strengthen their socio-organizational and entrepreneurial capabilities, starting with a self-appraisal of their enterprises, which allowed them to identify needs and/or weaknesses that would serve as basis to then prepare a participatory strategic plan.Other factors, however, affected the value chain adversely such as price fluctuation, which makes it difficult for organizations to make reliable business forecasts, thus increasing marketing risks and the possibility that not only producers but also buyers breach contracts.And as if that weren't enough, the Nicaraguan Government established policies to control bean exports as alleged measures to guarantee plant health and food security because of crop losses. These measures were in force for 1 year and triggered the fall of market prices and seriously affected commercial relationships. Clients were lost in every link of the chain.In addition, there was no solid policy in place that fostered bean production and marketing, which affected commercial relationships and profits along the value chain because the policies regulating sale prices fixed prices that were lower than production costs-primarily affecting producers.Fairer commercial relationships because of the signing of contracts and trade agreements were another outcome of the ACORDAR Project. These ensured better prices and increased stability for the bean sector.Thanks to these alliances, organized producers now pay up to 20% less for the inputs required to produce beans.Each actor participating in this endeavor (providers of inputs and financial services, producers and producer organizations, traders, processors, exporters, municipal governments and governmental entities) managed to interact with the other actors depending on their functions and interests within the links of the chain.Overall outcomes of the ACORDAR Project can be summarized as follows:• Fairer commercial relationships because of the signing of contracts and trade agreements, which ensured better prices and increased stability because of the coinvestments to produce and collect beans.  (MOTSSA). This project invested US$8,400 in the infrastructure of three farms to showcase Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs): storage facilities, mixing areas, packaging areas, showers and sinks, labels and crop management handbooks.Producers have also improved their production and postharvest management techniques. They now use at least three project-promoted technologies (certified seed, appropriate plant population, and use of inoculant to fix nitrogen). As a result, product quality has improved and yields have increased from 11.6 to 13.09 qq/mz, both factors important for market sustainability.Bean producers are now more familiar with quality standards for field-grown beans and are capable of estimating the percentage of loss at collection. This allows producers to add value to their produce by adopting measures beforehand such as classifying the grain before transportation to the collection and processing hubs, thus increasing the percentage of top quality beans and reducing sales expenses.Nonetheless, the improvement in product quality should also be attributed to the training producers have received in market-related issues as well as the lessons learned during exchange visits. These experiences have undoubtedly helped producers better understand national, regional and international market demands and adjust their production to these requirements accordingly.New production and postharvest management techniques have increased crop yields from 11.6 qq to 13.09 qq/mz.Despite Nicaragua's climate, producers have been able to take advantage of three production seasons depending on the area where they are located. As a result, beans are harvested 8 months a year, directly benefiting 4,898 producers of the different cooperatives participating in the ACORDAR Project because profits are redistributed proportionately among cooperative members.In addition, bean producers now exert greater influence on how the municipal budget is allocated, which is clearly evident in the investment of US$13,218,680 made by 15 municipalities in northern Nicaragua to improve and maintain access routes (filling of potholes, leveling, drainage with gutters and sewerage, installation of road signs).Finally, to facilitate the access of bean producers to technology and provide advisory services to producer cooperatives related to project formulation and preparation of business plans and competitiveness strategies for the agri-food chain, two sales points were opened: one at the Agri-Services Center of the Multi-Service Cooperative of Esquipulas (COOSEMES, its Spanish acronym), located in the municipality of San Dionisio, and the other at the Agri-Services Center of the Multi-Service Producers' Cooperative of Jinotega (COOSMPROJIN, its Spanish acronym), located in the community of Sasle, municipality of Jinotega. One sales point already existed at the Multi-Service Cooperative La Trinidad (COOSEMTRI, its Spanish acronym), located in the municipality of La Trinidad, Estelí.Producer organizations now make better use of their collection and processing hubs to consolidate and market their products with added value. Some organizations have achieved sustainability and permanence in the market by complying with Nicaragua's technical standards for export beans.The certification of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) has begun for the Northern Beans Agroindustrial Center, owned by CECOOPSEMEIN, in association with APEN. Three manuals have been prepared: the Occupational Safety and Hygiene Manual, the Contracting and Rules of Procedure Manual, and the Functions Manual for the Joint Commission. The areas for processing and storage were clearly delimited and signs were installed. The Joint Commission was subsequently formed, whose main function is to coordinate activities related to the certification of GMPs. This Commission worked to successfully obtain the sanitary license for the Northern Beans Agroindustrial Center.As part of the strategy to improve chain competitiveness, 19,960 kg of beans were packaged in polypropylene bags under buyer brands in presentations of 0.5, 1 and 2 kg, generating a new source of employment for new producers.Finally, under the IICA-SICTA Network/ CECOOPSEMEIN alliance, 20 transparent plastic tunnels were established on beanproducing farms to reduce harvest losses due to heavy rains up to 40%. Twenty drip irrigation systems were also set up to promote fertigation using water-soluble fertilizers to produce bean seed during the dry season, thus guaranteeing the supply of seed for planting in the rainy season. Technology (TECNOAGRO, its Spanish acronym), Omar Fletes, and the Police Station, but also at the regional level with Precocidos de El Salvador, Allfood and Nexus S.A. and at the international level with Global York and Grain Depot.Traders linked to the ACORDAR Project shared information on prices and markets (price fluctuation, windows of opportunity and market niches) with bean producers. This exercise enabled CECOOPSEMEIN to position itself as a provider of high-quality services and products on the national market.The sales figure reached during the project should be highlighted: 316,568 qq, which is equivalent to US$11,375,955, of which producers generated US$1,338,425.Now that producer organizations comprehend the value chain approach, they can better understand how the market operates and the importance of demandbased planning. Furthermore, cooperatives are now prepared to design a planting and harvesting schedule that allows them to predict how much they will produce. They are also aware of the importance of adding value to the grain and of keeping abreast of marketing channels.Women and men bean producers are now informed about the importance of standardizing product quality at processing (predrying, percentage of moisture, percentage of loss). Associativity was promoted with the establishment of planting schedules to ensure satisfaction of market demand and better prices. Purchase orders and sales agreements proved to be very useful tools to ensure compliance.The organizations of the marketing link already have manuals on policies, financial requirements and business plans, which makes it easier for them to access credits with banks and other financial entities. Producers are now able to access funds to cover the production costs of commercial grain and bean seed.The coordination among the different actors of the value chain has improved. Bean producers are now better informed about market prices and demand, and their organizations have positioned themselves in alternative fair-trade markets where products can be sold at better prices. The National Beans Committee was created as a result of the synergy in the chain. This committee is The technical standards for export beans have been updated to promote community seed production centers. The quality of Nicaraguan beans is also being promoted on the international market as well as the sale of packaged beans under national brands, as part of a strategy to promote the added value of the product in different markets.Sale agreements are currently prepared with advanced payment to guarantee fixed bean prices. The management of all cooperatives keeps informed about entry and exit prices of beans in local benchmark markets at time of collection, and regional and international prices are monitored by Internet, e-mail, cell phone calls, and even face-to-face meetings with bean-related commissions and committees.A primary field information system is also in place, with data on the prevailing price for beans per area and final destination of produce, supply on offer, bean varieties and quality, and estimated yield of quality beans during processing. This information system facilitates the preparation of collection schedules for each cooperative.• The alliances established between producers and other actors of the beans value chain evidenced the importance of promoting co-investment among buyers, traders and producers so risks are shared and collection and marketing processes streamlined.Because of the increased commercial associativity, organizations become sustainable and are more equitable in terms of income and risks. Sales should also be secured through purchase orders and sales agreements to endorse fulfillment by both parties.• Programs that finance production through marketing should be promoted to guarantee the permanence of the variety in market demand. These programs should help build the capacity for collection/processing and position the product in the market through business missions, fairs, design of brand name, diffusion and promotion. This will increase credibility before buyers and ensure greater permanence in the national and international markets.• Market segments that consume quality, value-added products should be identified because these segments are more profitable. Value-added products are more competitive in the international market because of their demand by consumers who do not have time to clean and select beans as well as regional exporters who do not have the infrastructure to give added value to beans. These processes also generate more permanent jobs in the area.• The participation of actors, such as intermediaries, maquila workers and exporters, in APEN's Beans Sectoral Commission should be promoted as well as their participation in the different bean-related committees promoted by the Nicaraguan Government (Technology, Added Value, Marketing) to present proposals that facilitate and encourage marketing activities.• Members should be sensitized about the importance of increasing the It is important that the technologies being promoted are sustainable and environmentally friendly.amount of produce they contribute to cooperatives. Each member is currently contributing 1 qq of beans per planting subcycle. Increasing contributions would, in turn, increase available working capital and also facilitate resource mobilization.• Training programs using the family SME approach should be promoted to facilitate the creation of small family businesses linked to producer organizations responsible for promoting the sale of locally harvested products, adding value to these products and developing marketing skills. This would also be another source of income at the local level and an opportunity for family members, especially women, to learn how to add value to farm products, how to negotiate, how to innovate and how to obtain income without intermediaries who cut producers' profits.• The technologies being promoted should not only be accessible (inexpensive and easy to use), but also sustainable. Such is the case of certified seed, inoculants and appropriate plant densities, among others, that allow bean producers to harvest a high-quality product and improve yields without harming the environment.• The alliance with municipal governments is decisive to promote the dialogue between municipal authorities and producers. Training events are also important so producers can learn about the legal framework that endorses their participation in spaces such as the allocation of the municipal budget. Producers are empowered to influence how funds are used to benefit their communities.• The increased participation of women in directive positions as well as production, value added and marketing activities should be promoted. It is important for women to participate in decision-making processes and promote the access of other women to the chain. Women in management positions serve as models and motivation for other women, and make it easier for other women members to access new resources, knowledge and technologies that will improve their quality of life and open opportunities for them to have their own source of income and thus contribute to the family income.• Activities that lead to the efficient use and management of water resources should be encouraged to prevent soil erosion, protect water sources and promote reforestation, in addition to ensuring food production in beanproducing households.","tokenCount":"4422"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b05c9a4f3ca54dfbcd5eb718caf1fce2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3bd3e74-d007-4a99-b29f-f3636a3b4f37/retrieve","id":"1977745541"},"keywords":["~ l.,...,.ül\\. n \":' ~","..¡","~---'","P _.; r ~ ~....., rl } ' r .' 1\\\"'-f ! {","' 1 '","f.","","~ 7 \\",". ::.~.. . 1' . :","-"],"sieverID":"3a857afc-1c83-4498-bfab-60d62bbb7a9e","pagecount":"56","content":"La \"Empresa Comunal de Servicios Agropecuarios\" esta conformada legalmente en el momento por 27 socios, dirigidos por una junta cuyo presidente es el señor Javier Fox . La fábrica de harina , cuyo nombre es \"TUMPIS PLAT\" concreta una de las actividades que desarrolla la empresa. El Gerente actual de la fábri ca es el Ing . Samuel Pacheco, cuyas instalaciones están localizadas en la zona de Pampas de Hospital a 20 km de Tumbes, capital .Los objetivos de esta segunda visita fueron: a)Complementar la capacitación inicial de los operarios y directivos de la empresa y funcionarios de Cáritas Tumbes .b) Evaluar de nuevo el estado de la fábrica y sugerir las acciones necesarias para alcanzar un funcionamiento adecuado.A continuación se tratan los aspectos más importantes de las siguientes áreas sobre las cuales se ha hecho la evaluación: producción, proceso productivo, mercadeo, gest ión de los socios y acompañamiento de CARITAS.El inconveniente más fuerte que tiene que enfrentar la fábrica es la competencia que ha impuesto PRONAA (Programa Nacional de Ayuda alimentaria). Sobre el precio del plátano seda. En los momentos actuales PRONAA compra entre 29 y 29.5 soles e l millar de plátanos (150 kg) pues to al borde de la carretera. El plátano lo compra sin hacer selección. Con esta competencia se han eliminado también los intermediarios.El precio por cada kil ogramo de plátano verde i ncluido e 1 transporte a la fábrica oscila alrededor de S/ . 0.21, teniendo en cuenta un valor mucho más a lto s i consideramos el precio teniendo en cuenta la época de la primera visita . Como se verá en la evaluación de rentabilidad, con este precio la materia prima represent a un poco más del 65% del costo total del kg. de harina de plátano .La Junta Directiva de la empresa ha comprado en algunas ocasiones a agricultores que no venden a PRONAA. Para fijar el precio de compra se tuvieron en cuenta los mi s mos criterios para l a venta de exportación, ofreciendo 2.7 so les por cada caja de 19 kg, S/.0.2 más que en épocas anteriores. Estos permitió negociar el kg . a 0 . 14 so les. Este precio de compra bajaría los cos tos de la harina al nivel de los 2 s oles por kilo. Según la información de l Gerente-Socio Samuel Pache co, PRONAA garantizó las compras para e l año 1996; esto permite inferir que la vi nculación de más agricult ores al Programa de PRONAA s erá la tendencia futura a pesar que es ta s ituación s e sasle de las manos de los socios y de la mi s ma CARITAS, es necesario tener mayor información para visualizar e l futuro en los próximos meses . El propio gerente de PRONAA -Tumbes, manifestó que se está preparando una visita de funcionar ios representantes del mercado común europeo que están interesados en el producto.Si la exportación se cristaliza necesariamente los precios de venta var iarán .En los renglones siguientes se hará mención a los aspectos más importantes de cada etapa del proceso, sin entrar en mayores detalles adicionales (ver primer informe}.Para comenzar, los mismos operarios deben realizar el desmanado del plátano en el terreno del vendedor y el doble conteo y conversión a peso del mismo plátano en la instalación de la empresa.Los dos procesos realizados en la estadía en Tumbes con 16 y 14 millares de plátano muestran que la zona destinada para el mondado (detrás de las lavadora y la picadora) no permite real izar el pelado con comodidad.Es necesario organizar un espacio para este fin en otro lugar de las instalaciones. Esto será indispensable si la fábrica dobla su capacidad con una segunda Cámara de Secamiento.Se requiere construir el extractor (p latina de 1/4\" con dos agujeros) para facilitar la extracción del disco y posterior limpieza de la máquina.Quemador indirecto de leña y petróleo. Las siguientes son las recomendaciones a tener en cuenta: a)aumentar el revestimiento de barro para disminuir las pérdidas de calor. Esto debe hacerse también, a la chimenea para prevenir el incendio de las vigas de madera del techo.El quemador no tiene suficiente superficie de contacto. El volumen de aire que succiona el ventilador no tiene el tiempo sufici ente para transportar todo el calor que genera el quemador . El análisis del diseño original permitirá estimar e 1 incremento en su longitud o diámetro y realizar las modificaciones necesarias.e) Cubrir con calaminas la parte descubierta del techo que protege el depósito de la leña.En el quemador, el fuego está en contacto directo con el metal. Por esto, las reparaciones son más frecuentes que otros quemadores con cámaras de material refractario.El cuidado en registrar los costos permitirá encontrar los costos por mantenimiento anual que pide el análisis de rentabi 1 idad. 2.2.3 . 2 Ventilador. Existen varias razones por las cua les se pudo quemar el motor, pero están todas en el campo de las posibilidades: a)un ajuste deficiente de los contados de los fusibles de plomo en las cuchilllas, pudo originar el hecho que el motor en 2 fases.b) disminución de 1 vo 1 taje de 1 grupo e lectrogeno de la planta por mal funcionamiento, pudo ocasionar un aumento en el amperaje de operación. Lo cierto, es que cada motor debe contar con un sistema salvamotor (protector térmico o relé más cotactor magnético y botonera) para cortar el fluido eléctrico en tiempo de sobrecargas .Las cuchi llas termomagnéticas protegen al operario de una descarga, pero el salvamotor protege al motor y da oportunidad y tiempo . Para investigar las causas del mal funcionamiento.2.2.3.3 Cámara de secado. El flujo en forma de serpentín no se da después que los trozos han comenzado a secarse. El aire fl uye por los espacios libres de la malla que han dejado los trozos semisecos y se dirige directamente hacia la chimenea de salida.Las próximas evaluaciones del secador deben contemplar la modificación o cambio de la malla de las bandejas.Si el fondo de las bandejas es de lámina o plástico, esto conformaría más herméticamente el camino del aire. El secado sólo se haría en este caso por la parte superior de las bandejas. La carga por bandeja no debe pasar de 5 u 6 kilos, para que de este modo el contacto con el aire sea más estrecho. La colocación de uno o dos niveles de bandejas a nivel del piso mejoraría el trabajo del secador porque los trozos estarían recibiendo de frente la acción del aire. El secador de bache sobre calaminas perforadas , tal como lo utilizan las plantas de Pucallpa y Tocachi, es o tro sistema artificial.Relativamente sencillo que podría evaluarse, lógicamente si los resultados son positivos en las plantas de Pucal lpa y Tocachi.2.2.~. 1 Mot or y amperímetro. El motor del molino de martillos es el adecuado para moler plátano y yuca seca si la capacidad se mantiene en 350 kilos por hora. Esta capacidad se logra si la compuerta de la tolva se aj usta en 3 cm de altura . A parte del salvamotor, a l molino se le debe adaptar un amperímetro para que el operario no sobrecargue el molino y evite perder tiempo, porque se debe limpiar la cámara de mol ienda cada vez que se desee empezar de nuevo, después de la sobre carga.La tolva de extracción . La tolva no ha sido modificada aún. Para el caso de productos blandos como la yuca y el plátano, la sol ución más económi ca. s er ía colocar la descarga en la parte inferior. Esto implica cambiar de lugar el molino o demoler parcialmente la plataforma de concret o que lo sopor t a. Para mo ler otros pr oductos como granos . el s istema de ciclón. aparte de mant ener una operación limpia. refrigera o enfrí a la harina inmed iatament e . Las parihuelas o estibas son elementos que favorecen el adecuado a lmacenamiento de productos agrícolas. Faci 1 i tan la 1 impie za de la bodega, la aireación, y reducen las posibilidades de ataque de los roedores que forman s us cuevas en la parte inferior de los arrumes. Además , los arrumes se localizan separados de las paredes, por lo menos 0.50ms.Cuando se detecta ataque de insectos ~ es recomendable aplicar fosfuro de aluminio, cuyo nombre comercial es Fostoxin o Gastoxin.Los arrumes deben cubrirse herméticamente ~ porque este producto e s trementadamente tóxico y sus fugas no se detectan porque no tiene olor; lo más adecuado es seguir al pie de la letra las instrucciones de los expertos que lo distribuyen .En el mercado existen empaques de polipropileno con tejido mucho más fino y denso que facilitan el manejo de harina . Con los actuales empaques, la contaminación por harina es alta y moles ta . cuando el producto encuentre una posición en el mercado, el empaque de papel de 2 ó 3 láminas será la mejor opci ón~ si el cos t o lo permite, lógicamente. La harina de plátano es un producto que aporta básicamente calor ías por medio de s us carbohidra tos. La fibra es aceptable, pero la ceni za es alta porque aún se está a jus tando el procesamiento y porque l a carretera ce r cana a las instalaciones genera demasiado polvo por trá f ico de ve hí cu los . La pavimentación próxi ma de esta vía reducirá e l problema, a ni veles manejables.No se ha r eal izado análi sis microbio lógicos a las har inas~ pero es conveniente hacer chequeos periódicos para verificar que los parámetros estén de acuerdo con las normas peruanas . Aquí se incluye a t ítulo informat ivo, las normas que rigen en el territorio co lombiano para harinas crudas de l consumo humano: (ver primer informe)Una de las pri ncipales tareas en esta s egunda visita fue la adaptaci ón de un senci llo model o de rentabilidad al negocio de la har ina de plátano (ver anexo) . Se contó con la colaboración de 1 contador Guillermo Tirado y Li ly Sánchez funcionarios de Cáritas Tumbes.De acuerdo con los primeros datos obtenidos de las pruebas reali zadas en planta , el siguient e es el costo de producción (en so les) discriminando para una t onel ada mé trica de har i na de plátano de 60 mesh (partículas con diámet ros menores a 0.250 mi límetros o 250 micras) Ve r el Anexo No .2A que contiene la totalidad del análisis, para el 25 de septiembre 1995.:COSTOS PEso:cosro .. . ...Platano verde   Como lo informa el cuadro anterior, el costo de un kilogramo de harina de plátano asciende a un poco más de 2.6 soles. Esto hace que el proyecto tenga actualmente dificultades, porque e 1 precio que se discute actualmente con los posibles compradores se ecuentran en el nivel de 2 soles por kilogramo.La diferencia entre el estimativo hecho en el primer trimestre del presente año y ahora (septiembre 1995) se debe al incremento del precio de la materia prima. En el pasado se podía conseguir el kilogramo de plátano verde a 0,12 soles. Ahora, PRONAA ofrece al agricultor un precio promedio de 0,21 soles por kg . Sin hacer selección del producto . La situación anterior impone la tarea urgente de comercializar el stock de 4 toneladas que posee la fábrica y abrir un mercado \"permanente\" para la harina que va a producirse en los futuros procesos que deben tener como objetivo básico, ajustar los costos de producción.Una decisión muy importante ha sido tomada . El Ingeniero José Londoña Morales ha sido contratado por la Hermana Carmen Luz Peralta, (Secretaria General de Cáritas-Tumbes) para acompañar a los directivos de la fábrica en la función de la dirección. Durante la estadía del Ing. Londoña , se puede llegar a concluir si la fábrica está en capacidad de producir harina a los costos que actualmente exige el mercado.Un sondeo de mercadeo y sus análi sis a la luz de las actuales poi í t icas del Gobierno podrá dar claridad acerca del futuro de estas pequeñas agroindustrias . Es indudable que la acción de PRONAA a fecta notablemente la rentabilidad de esta fábrica, en cuanto al proceso de plátano . El proceso de otras materias primas como yuca y camote, dependerá de l os costos y usos de estas harinas en el mercado nacional.A título informativo. en los momentos actuales se hacen esfuerzos por parte de la propia Cáritas Tumbes y directivos de la fábrica para vender a las Cáritas de Pi ura , Trujillo y Chimbote y algunas parroquias loca les . El presidente Javier Fox está part ic ipando en una especie de 1 ici taci ón en la muni ciapl idad de Zarumilla, pero hay proveedores que (Ecuador ) ofrecen harina a 1,50 so les por kg y además la costumbre de solici t a r \"bonificaciones\" por favores en este tipo de licitaciones no ha desaparecido.Tal como s e hacia referencia en los reng lones iniciales. la fábrica es t á cons iderada como una actividad de la empre sa comunal. Samuel Pac heco, ingeniero químico, es el actual gerente operativo y tiene el apoyo de las siguientes personas:Javier Fox en consecusión de la materia prima y mercadeo Pedro Rodríguez en el manejo del grupo electrógeno y compras Juan Rosales en picado y lavado Eugenio Parias en secamiento Candelaria Calderón en el horno Simeón García en la molienda cada operario tiene la responsabilidad específica anterior, pero tambien están comprometidos en el resto de actividades que conforman la operación total de la planta.El desenvolvimiento en el manejo de las compras de materia prima y proceso mejorará en el tiempo. El acompañamiento del Ing. José Londoña dará el apoyo firme para que estas dos áreas del proyecto funcionen.La comercialización del producto es uno de los puntos críticos del proyecto. Con el costo tan alto que ha conseguido hasta el momento, no se puede competir en el mercado de harinas para consumo humano. La propia empresa no está en capacidad de diseñar las estrategias adecuadas para dar le sal ida a su producto. Se requiere información sobre harinas de otros productos, precios, influencia de la frontera vecina, manera como se mercadean las harinas de la competencia, mercados cautivos etc, . Esta información analizada a la luz de las actuales pol íticas de Gobierno, dará seguramente la visión global que se necesita para seguir el camino más adecuado.Actualmente, la empresa funciona por el esfuerzo permanente de 6 ó 7 socios y la colaboración eventual de algunos socios más. Parece que la mayoría de socios no se sienten dueños de la empresa comunal y su papel se reduce a esperar a que la junta directiva empiece la venta de la harina.La producción del actual stock de 4 .5 toneladas de harina se llevó a cabo entre el mes de julio y agosto, periodo durante el cual, se dió uso a los primeros anticipos del capital de trabajo. La fábrica adeuda sa larios a sus operarios ( y socios) y no tiene diera para su pronta cancelación. La necesidad de conseguir el s ustento rápidamente, ha hecho que varios de las personas comprometidas en las actividades de la planta se alejen, buscando ingresos en otras labores.La problematica explicación anterior frente permite concluir que falta capacitación para conducir la fábrica y para tomar decisiones de acuerdo a las prioridades.Convertir simples agricultores en buenos comerciantes es una tarea que requiere esfuerzo y no es fácil.El acompañamiento del Ing. José Londoña debe apuntar también a dar forma a ese perfil de Gerente que se quiere en el agricultor. Es recomendable prestar apoyo y atención a l Ing. Londoña porque los resultados de su gestión retroalimentará a la experiencia de todos los funcionarios de Cáritas.El 29 de setiembre 1995, se real izó una reunión en las instalaciones de la fábrica, con la participación de: Madre Carmen Luz Peralta, Secretaria General de Cáritas Tumbes.Ing . Luis López, funcionario de Cáritas Tumbes Ing. José Londoña, asesor de la fábrica Ing. Lisímaco Alonso, Asesor CIAT Ing. Samuel Pacheco, gerente Tumpis Plat Sr. de los Santos, Fiscal Tumpis Plat, operario y socio de Tumpis Plat Ing . María Cristina Zulueta, Funcionaria de Cáritas Perú En la reunión se dió información acerca de la situación actual de la empresa, se aclararon muchos conceptos y por parte de los presentes se renovó la decisión de trabajar solidariamente para sacar el proyecto adelantar.Al final de la reunión se determinaron las siguientes tareas, dándose un plazo no menor de 6 meses según las propias palabras de la Hermana Carmen Luz Peralta.Propiciar la venta de plátano verde a la fábrica por parte de los socios a un precio no mayor de 0.14 soles por kilogramo.Procesar cierta cantidad de plátano en forma regular para afinar los costos de producción y tener la certeza del precio de venta en el mercado.Desplegar todos los esfuerzos necesarios , tanto por Cáritas como por los socios, para vender la cantidad de harina de plátano que reposa en la bodega para tener los recursos necesarios para operar sin contratiempos.Crear conciencia entre todos los socios haciendo claridad de la situación por la cual atravieza la fábrica y la importancia de su colaboración y apoyo para definir el futuro de la empresa comunal.Como consecuencia de la realización de las anteriores actividades, se espera que al final de este período de ajuste se pueda definir con claridad el \"negocio de la harina de plátano\".  ------------------------------- .,.   Los objetivos de la segunda visitan fueron.a). Evaluar el estado actual de la planta después de la primera producción de 4.2 ton. de harina de yuca.b). Actualizar el modelo para calcular los parámetros de rentabilidad.e ). capacitar de nuevo a los operarios y jefe de planta. La evaluación del proyecto se llevó a cabo analizando las siguientes areas: producción, procesamiento, mercadeo, gestión y acompañamiento de Cári tas.2.No existe problema en cuanto a la cantidad de materia prima en la zona. La Asociación recibió como regalo una chalupa de 2 ton. por parte de la Presidencia de la República (FONCODES). Con esta se recoge la materia prima y la leña . El precio por kg. es 0.15 nuevos soles.PRONAA compra Harina en Nauta entre el día 25 del mes en curso y el día S del mes siguiente, para el pago se demora casi otro mes. Por lo tanto se neces ita contar con el dinero suficiente para pagar al contado la yuca fresca para 2 meses. Este es el principal problema. Los agricultores no aceptan demora en pago. Si no se consigue el capital de trabajo, solo s e podr í an conseguir 15 ton . de yuca fresca por parte de \"algunos socios\" y algunos agricultores \"amigos\", para los 2 meses.Solo se hará mención de las operaciones que requieren ajustes.La ausencia del protector de la polea , de 25 pul gadas permi t e que el agua ca iga sobre las poleas, y se reduz ca patinaje que impide el movimiento ; és t a s e encuentra ya en Lima -Cáritas .Por o tro lado , s e requie re contar con s uficiente número de pr i sioneros y machue los o machos para r e c tificar agujeros que s e ma logren.La polea de 3\" que da movtmtento a la lavadora, se ha puesto demasiado lisa; sería conveniente contar con una polea de repuesto en hierro.La bomba eléctrica debe botarse de una rejilla en la toma de agua para evitar daño por cuerpos extraños. Un Banco de madera seria lo adecuado para instalarla junto al Río. Debe poseer también un salvamotor picado.El clima y la misma función de la maquina hace que ésta esté expuesta a la corrosión, que puede detenerse con aplicación periódica de anticorrosivo.Si esta práctica no se real iza, la vida út i 1 de las maqui nas será muy corta.3.3 Secado de BandejasLa cámara de combustión esta construida en lamina de un octavo de pulgada. El diámetro es 27 pulgadas y su longitud 85 pulgadas. Por fuera tiene una altura de 59 pulg, ancho 62 pulg, y una longitud de 102 pulgadas. En estos momentos hay una rotura de la soldadura, en la cámara de combustión que permite el paso del humo a las cámaras de secado. Esto debe repararse prontamente. El sellado con barro no es suficiente para impedir el paso del humo cuando la cámara esta caliente .La operación del quemador debe suspenderse por lo menos media hora antes del fin del secado. El aire del venti lador se encarga de refrigerarlo y llevarlo a una temperatura baja para evitar roturas en la estructura del mismo quemador, seria conveniente revisar el diseño del quemador; para pensar en alargar un poco y de esta forma capturar un poco mas de calor.Las chumaceras que operan bajo ca lor se lubrican con grasa especial para altas temperaturas. Una de las chumaceras tiene un sonido de golpeteo que indica daño en alguno de sus balines. Es conveniente contar con una chumacera de repuesto y cambiarla en el momento oportuno, porque la rotura de una de estas chumaceras ocasionaría, un frenazo brusco del vent ilador que podría fundir el dañar el motor.Durante dos días comple tos se someti ó a una de las cámaras a un cuidadoso sellamiento . Se cerraron tos espacios entre bandejas y bandas, entre bandejas y puertas. y los espacios abiertos en las puertas producidas por el secamiento de la madera utilizada. Se utili zó madera de la otra cámara y tablas ex i stentes en la fabrica: con estas modif icac iones y reparaciones se dejó apta la cámara para las pruebas que s e realizaron después con 99 bandejas. que coparon la capacidad de la cámara.Pruebas de secado se decidió correr 3 ensayos. En el primero se secaron 500 kg frescos en 9 horas (S kg por bandeja) incluidas una hora para el primer movimi en to y otra hora para la unión del material de las bandejas.En el segundo ensayo la carga se incremento a 712 kg. Con 7.20 kg se cubre totalmente la superficie de la bandeja. No es conveniente colocar cargas superiores, porque el aire no entraría en contacto con todos los trozos. El tiempo de secado fue 14 horas. A la sexta hora se hi zo un cambio de bandejas (las superiores pasaron a nivel inferior). Esto duro 45 minutos.A la novena hora se hi zo el segundo movimiento de bandejas . A la doceava hora se realizó el último y tercer movimiento de bandejas. (45 minutos de duración}.En la primera prueba artificial, el factor de conversión de trozo fresco inicial a seco fue : 3,37. En la segunda, el factor alcanzo un valor de 2.98 porque los trozos no se resecaron.En e l tercer ensayo, se picaron 250 kg que se dispusieron al sol durante e l día; desafortunadamente cayó una fuerte lluvia en la tarde, pero el secado se reinició dos horas des pués, hasta las 6.30 pm. El peso final fue: 150 kg . (se disminuyó el 40% de peso inicia l).Se puede decir que los dos primeros ensayos se ll evaron a cabo bajo condi ciones extremas: en ambos el secado se h izo en una sola cámara y el má~imo caudal del ventilador. En el primero , 5 kg por bandeja fue la carga mínima aceptabl e . En el segundo , 7,20 kg por bandeja fue la máxima carga aceptable .Con base a los dos ensayos ant eriores y la experiencia que se tiene con yuca , se puede i nferir que se podrían secar 1000 kg utilizando al tiempo las dos cámaras (500 kg por cada cámara) en un tiempo aproximado de 14 horas. Esto porque se ut ilizaría m as eficientemente el aire y los trozos estarían mas d i s persos en las bandejas ( habrí a mas contacto con el aire). Cada mov imient o de las 100 bandejas ocasionar ía la suspensión del s e cado durante 45 minutos. En e l manejo de las dos cámaras se gastarían 1.5 hor as por cada movimient o doble de las bandejas . Este tiempo ya estaría incluido en l as 14 horas es timadas.El area efectiva de la cámara de bandejas es 11.33 met ros cuadrados. Aquí podr ía construirse un secado r de capa fija (pisci na) con e l que podrí amos secar 13.60kg. de yuca fresca por cada proceso, suponiendo que colocamos en trozos 120 kg frescos por cada m2 de lamina perforada. Si nos atenemos a lo que recomienda CIAT en s us investigaciones en cuanto al c ual da (120 metros cúbicos por minuto por tone lada de yuca fresca). los 180 metros cúbicos por minuto (según fabri cante ) secaría la carga an terior probab lemente en 12 horas.En el anexo J .A se tratan algunas consideraciones sobre este secador. Es necesario cuantificar los cos t os de mat eriales y mano de obra. Prácticamente. son pocas las modificaciones, que se requ ieren hacer. Lo mas costoso serían las laminas de hierro galvanizado y su perforación . El Ing . Segundo Arevalo, estaría en capacidad para dirigir la obra. Pienso que sería una oportunidad interesante para evaluar simultáneamente las dos alternativas de secamiento . La Cámara de bandejas podría secar en la parte final, los trozos que fueron presecados en el día anterior. La cámara de capa fija se utilizaría para un secado completo por su capacidad, diamente para llegar a lo anterior sería indispensable contar con otro ventilador de igual capacidad.Si consideramos los supuestos con las dos alternativas, anteriores, necesariamente; la planta se verá abocada a operar por lo menos 16 horas diarias, lo que obligaría a reajustar personal y horario. Se podría trabajar con grupos de operaciones en tiempos o jornadas parciales (no jornales • completos) .Para el caso de las dos cámaras de bandejas, la producción diaria de harina sería 266 kg. Para la cámara de secado de capa fija , s erían 360 kg.( factor de conversión, 3.2 kg. de trozos frescos por kg de harinas de 60 metros y 85% de extracción en la tami zadora).Si s e quisiera hacer s ecado mixto (el pr i mer día al so l ), habr í a que tener doble cantidad de bandejas para secar al mismo t iempo, los trozos presecados al sol el día anterior y los nuevos trozos frescos que entran; as í el primer día podríamos s ecar 1500 kg al sol en 216 bandejas (7 kg por bandeja ) . Al final del día tendríamos 900 kg semi s ecos aproximadamente. Es t os 900 kg pueden secarse en l as dos cámaras a razón de 4. 5 kg por bandej a; e l principal probl e ma del s ecado mixto es la var iab il idad del el ima.3. 4 Pre110l ienda, Molienda Fina y Ta.izado.En términos genera les no presentan problemas . El molino de martillos tiene s u s alvamotor y con el motor de 54Hp alcanza una capacidad de 400 kg por hora; con un amperímetro de agua podr ía trabajar con el amperaje máx i mo; si no se cuenta con el amperímetro para 13, 5 amperios, se corre el riesgo de parar en muc has ocasiones para desocupar la cámara de molienda y arrancar de nuevo cuando se di s para el s al vamotor.Vale la pena recordar de nuevo que la tolva de ext r acción del molino no s e ha modif icado .Todos los mo tores deben contar con s u salvamotor. Para el caso de la tami zadora, no s e puede trabajar con s u capacidad máxima porque ex iste el riesgo de quemar e l motor . Con este equipo podr ía obteners e una capacidad de 500 kg/hora; por ahora, s olo se llega a 250 kg/ hora. Debido a que la harina es muy h igroscopica ( toma fáci lmente humedad del aire ) se recomienda tami zar en las horas de mas alta temper a tura (10 am-4 pm ). Con lluvi a no es recomendable tami zar . La har i na se humedec e y tapa la mal la de acero inox idabl e y por este moti vo el rendimient o y la efecti vidad del tami zado se reducen .CUando la planta llegue a su tope de 8 toneladas de harina por mes se necesitaran por lo menos 14 parihuelas adicionales (de 1m 2 ).Los trozos secos se almacenan en empaque plástico y luego, la harina producida por pedido, se despacha en empaques de polipropileno de tejido denso . Este procedimiento es el adecuado.Existe varios tipos de yuca . De los nueve colores predominantes, las mas usuales son: La camana, la señorita rumo, la ceballos y la yahuizada. Lo que procesa la fabrica generalmente es una me zcla de ellas.Es alto el contenido de humedad de estos clones . Al tomar un puñado de trozos y apretar es palpable la cantidad de jugo que se obtiene . Esto prácticamente indica que el valor de contenido de humedad inicial está a lrededor de 72% (en base humedad). Esta propiedad incide sobre el factor de convers i ón y afecta notablemente los costos por tonelada de harina.Si se consigue llegar a mercados i ndustriales, como pegantes etc, necesariamente se debe garantizar calidad biogenia, mezclas de variedades no podrían procesarse.La motobomba con que cuenta la fabrica s uministra la cantidad de agua necesaria para el proceso y limpieza posterior de las instalaciones. Por ahora no se le aplica hipoclori to de sodio al agua. Esta decisión se tomaría en base a los resultados de los análisis microbiologicos periódicos a que debe someterse el agua . Un litro de hipoclorito por metro cubi co. Seria una dosificación adecuada en el tanque de 1m3 que posee la planta se haría la dosificación para aplicar en el tambor de la lavadora en el ultimo minuto de lavado de cada tanda de 120 kg. Necesariamen te, el tanque debe estar e levado por lo menos 3 me tros. Se sabe que e 1 río presenta contaminación por plomo y cadmi o. Esto vale la pena chequearse en la harina y en el agua.La harina también requiere chequeos microbiologicos frecuentes, para co rregir situac iones que produzcan contaminación.En los momentos act uales. La higiene con que se realizan las operaci ones no es adecuada. A cont i nuaci ón se enumeran las deficiencias mas importan tes:La bodega no tiene una puerta que impida el paso del personal. Esto contamina enormement e el lugar donde se almacena el producto terminado.El personal no cuenta con su dotación adecuada: uniformes, botas, gorras y además su aseo no es conveniente.3.Los desagües de la lavadora y picadora deben dotarse de mallas para impedir que los residuos de yuca los tapones en y formen depósitos de agua que dificultan las actividades y contamina.Inmediatamente se termina el proceso todas las instalaciones deben lavarse muy bien e impedir el paso de personal extraño.La picadora no cuenta con su extractor, lo que dificulta extraer el disco cortador para la limpieza diaria .6 .El fosfuro de al umin io, con nombre comercial fostoxin o gastoxin, es el producto mas recomendado para eliminar las plazas en productos secos, como la yuca en trozos, maíz, harinas etc .La aplicación de este insecticida debe hacerla el personal con instrucción y conoci mi ento de la alta toxicidad de este producto.El arrume que quiere tratarse debe cubrirse con una carpa plástica y quedar perfectamente hermético. Después de colocar las pastillas debajo de las parihuelas, la unión del borde de la carpa y el suelo se garantiza, colocando bultos del mi smo producto o bolsas de arena en forma continua. Las pastas vienen revestidas de un producto oscuro que al descomponerse produce un fuerte olor a ajo . Esto dura 15 a 20 minutos. Cuando el olor desaparece es señal que e 1 fosturo ha iniciado su volat ización y hay peligro de muerte y se respira. el fosturo no tiene olor. Se aplican 2 o 3 pastillas por cada m3 de producto en el arrume. En harina, el arrume se forma con los bultos abiertos y parados (lógicamente). De nuevo, es necesario capacitar al personal en este tratamiento.De nuevo se recalca la necesidad de contar con 2 o 3 extinguidores de buena capacidad. E 1 r i e;sgo de un incendio en 1 a paja de 1 techo es probable.En e 1 esquema de la página siguiente, aparece e 1 diagrama de f 1 ujo de las operaciones que siguió la fabr i ca durante el per íodo durante el cual procesó un poco mas de 18 toneladas . 18.207 KG.PERDIDAS---------------------162 KG.• Conversión de trozos frescos a trozo seco • 3 . 2• Extracción de harina sruesa a fina • &O~ Las ra íces muy delgadas han sido eliminadas por el mismo agricultor.Se eliminaron 820 kg de tocones y raíces deterioradas (4.5%) .Se perdieron 1,270 kg. correspondientes a barro y cáscara (7.0%) .Se evaporaron 10,417 kg de agua.Se consiguió un factor de conversión de 4.40: se requieren 4.40 tn de yuca fresca para producir una tonelada de harina fina. 3 soles de bulto de 50 kg. 5/.1 sol por empaque de 50 kg. 6/.PRONAA compra a 2 soles por kg puesto en Nauta.Estimación Teórica de Costos y Utilidad.En la sección de utilización de yuca-CIAT, se ha utilizado frecuentemente un senc illo modelo en Lotus 1-2-3 ó cuat ro-pro, para evaluar la rentabilidad financiera del proyecto de harina de yuca. En esta sección se hi zo una primera adaptación del modelo al caso Intuto. En el a nexo 3.B se mues tra la expresión de e s ta primera adaptación, real izada por los funcionarios de CARITAS .Los parámetros que se manej an provienen de algunas consideraci ones hipot éticas que a continuación aclararemos para mayor entendimiento de los resultados y para ofrecer criterios con los cuales se puedan hacer cambios para los análisis de sensibilidad.A.La fábrica del ejemplo cuenta con dos secador es : el primero está cons tituido por una cámara de bandejas dotada con 99 bandejas metáli cas. El segundo secador es de capa fija o tandas con capacidad de 1470 kg frescos en 10 r2 de malla o superficie. Cada cámara recibe un caudal de 90 m por minuto (según el fabricante del vent ilador).Cada bandeja del secador de bandejas cont iene 5. 05 kg de trozos húmedos. Luego la cámara podría albergar 500 Kg . y el secado puede durar 14 horas aproximadamente. Este estimativo se hi zo en base a la prueba de campo con una cámara.De acue rdo con las pérdidas en adecuación, lavado, y picado, se necesitarían 2300 Kg de raí ces frescas. para llegar a tener 1,970 Kg de trozos frescos en los dos secadores.Só lo es posible efectuar ci nco procesos por semana, porque hay un día de descanso.Se cons ideran 52 semanas al año . luego la capacidad anual teóri ca sería: 5x52x2300 Kg = 598,000 Kg . de r aíces F.El factor de conversión Pfáctico de Kg de trozos frescos a Kg de harina refinada (60 MESH) . es 4 .4 logrado en el primer período de operación de la planta. Cinco(S ) es el factor de raí ces frescas a harina ref i nada. En este ejercicio se consideró un factor de conversión igual a 5 (toneladas de raíces frescas por una tonelada de harina) y un precio de 130 soles por tonelada de yuca fresca.La tasa financiera de retorno (TFR) alcanzó un valor de 5%, muy por debajo de 30%, valor de la TFR ACEPTABLE o costo de oportunidad de 1 capital. Estos proyectos son muy sensibles al factor de conversión y al precio de la materia prima. Si se reduce el factor de conversión a 4 y el precio de la materia prima a valores menores de 100 soles por tonelada de raíces frescas, se lograría una TFR aceptable.Otro factor que pesa sobre los costos es el consumo de combustible del grupo electrogeno. Este factor reprecs enta un 27 .44 % en el modelo. El grupo e le ctrógeno da la potencia necesaria para dar movimiento a todas las máquinas al mi s mo t i empo, pero cuando s olo funciona el s ecador el equipo opera s obradamente. Para baj a r es te aporte grande a los costos. se podría considerar la compra de ventiladores más potentes que utilicen una gran parte de la capacidad del grupo electrógeno.El monitoreo o seguimiento de las actividades de la fábrica por medio de este modelo, permitirá hacer los ajustes necesarios para llegar a una operacion rentable dentro de las posibilidades.PRONAA (PROORAMA NACIONAL DE ATENCION ALIMENTARIA) está comprando el Kilo a S/. 2.00 puesto en nauta. Hasta ahora es el único comprador.Las compras se realizan mensualmente entre el día 25 del mes en curso y el día 5 ~e~ mes siguiente. El pago por la harina lo desembolsa PRONAA a los 25 días posteriores al recibo del producto. Casi transcurren dos meses hasta el momento en que se hace efectivo el pago. La falta de un capital de trabajo no permitirá cumplir con las obligaciones con PRONAA en los próximos meses.Como solución se plantea que cada soc io aporte la materia prima diaria, pero ni ellos ni los amigos de la empresa, están dispuestos a dar crédito por su yuca fresca. Según palabras del Ing. Segundo Arévalo, sólo se podría conseguir yuca fresca para operar dos semanas con crédito. En conclusión, es urgente que la empresa disponga de un capital de trabajo suficiente para laborar 60 días por lo menos.Actualmente e 1 Econ. Roger Zamora funcionario de Cári tas Iqui tos está autori zado para coordinar el mercadeo con PRONAA en el mismo !quitos. En el futuro la empresa debe asumir esta actividad, pero a mediano plazo no se vislumbra la posibilidad para conseguir esta persona ni los recursos para prepararla.Los propios socios no t ienen l a capacidad para buscar nuevos mercados. Creo que Cáritas debe asumir este papel por l o menos en un principio. En el Proyecto de harina en Co lombia , se han hecho sondeos de mercadeo y prueba de usos de harinas con estudiantes de diferentes Universidades, dirigidos lógicamente por profesores comprometidos con el trabajo . Esta es una alternativa relativa a bajo costo. Pero definitivamente la tarea más compli cada es la búsqueda y preparación de las personas o persona que manejen la parte de la comercialización.La búsqueda del mercado alternati vo es una prioridad, a pesar de que PRONAA ofrezca por ahora un mercado seguro. Los mercados en las grandes ciudades son más exigentes en los términos de la composición química y microbiológica. En la composición química se presta mucha atención a los cont eni dos de f ibra, ceniza y humedad. También se debe prestar mucha atención al cont enido de ácido cianhídrico y verificar periódicamente que e l ni ve l permit i do de 50 ppm no sea sobrepasado. En este punto el Dr. GERARD O'BRIEN, Jefe de la Sección de utili zación de YUCA-CIAT tiene interés de co laborar estrechamente. En cuanto a loa parte microbiológica, se debe ser más estricto en todas las actividades con las medidas higiénicas. De esto ha sido suficientemente enterado en Ing. AREVALO y los operarios.Según varios socios de la empresa, de los 120 iniciales, sólo quedan 40; de estos 40, sólo 12 ó 13 personas están apoyando la empresa: algunos miembros de la Junta Directiva y los Operarios que son también socios.En charla sostenida con algunos socios los siguientes fueron las razones más importantes que han desanimado a las personas:A.La yuca fresca no se está comprando al contado. B.Han pasado más de dos años y no hay beneficios. C.Los no socios comentan que se está explotando a los trabajadores de la fábrica en beneficio de la Cáritas, D.La falta de solidaridad desanima a los socios activos. E.No se recibió suficiente información sobre la filosofía del Proyecto. Una gran parte de los socios iniciales creyeron que iban a recibir dinero desde el principio por cualquier actividad. Como esto no sucedió, renunciaron. F.Se gana mucho más en la chacra trabajando independientemente. G.cómo no hay riesgo de perder algo propio no existe preocupación.También existe desanimo en la Junta Directiva.Abundan los ataques y críticas . B.Se pierde mucho tiempo motivando C.No existe solidaridad. Los socios restantes no han conciencia que los socios que operan la planta están sacrificando parte de su tiempo, lo que les impide cumplir muchas veces con s us obligaciones familiares.    ., ... .,..,. 11,-:M .. ..,. ,,..,. .,..,.<:oeTO CAPITAL TRABAJO (la) 21p7 2f,2M   ,_ .. ,,. Solamente el 14 de Octubre quedó instalado el grupo electrógeno en la fábrica. Se recuerda que en la anterior visita no se pudo iniciar operaciones por falta de fluido eléctrico. De acuerdo con la anterior los objetivos de la presente visita fueron:1.1Evaluar el estado actual de la fábrica y verificar el cumplimiento de los cambios sugeridos.1.2 Recolección de información para el calculo de costos.1.3 capacitar de nuevo a las personas comprometidas con la planta .La evaluación se realizó sobre los aspectos de:Producción de materia prima. Proceso.Gestión. Acompañamiento de Cáritas.Se hará mención solo a aspectos nuevos o de importancia diferentes a los referidos en el primer informe.tendría un conocimiento mas exacto de sus costos y utilidades. De lo contrario, existirá siempre la idea de que la empresa está aprovechándose de ellos. El agricultor siempre tiene la tendencia a especular con e 1 precio de sus productos, por no tener una idea de lo que le cuestan. La concentración entre agricultores y procesadores en forma permanente tarde o temprano estabilizará el mercado.Se hará mención en cada etapa los aspectos que requieren corrección en forma conjunta para yuca y plátano.3.1 Reposo, Lavado, PicadoHace falta lo siguiente:Tanque de reposo para el plátano pelado.Extractor del disco de la picadora. Protector de 24\" de la polea de la lavadora. CUbierta de s eguridad del motor de la lavadora. Tolva de extracción de la picadora (según esquema que aparece en el reporte de Tumbes del primer informe). La combinación de la actual polea de 24\" con la de 3\" hace que el tambor de la lavadora gire a más de 55 r.p.m. Las r.p.m. adecuadas son 37 aprox. Con una polea de hierro de 2.5\" se reducirían las r.p.m. pero la solución ideal sería la ubicación de un contraeje para disminuir las r.p.m. en dos pasos.3.2 Seca.iento 3.2.1 Quemador indirecto de l eña y petróleo. Tal como se plantea en el informe de !quitos (I ntuto), se requiere estudiar las posibilidades que existen para mejorar la transferencia de calor . En muchas ocasiones, el fuego sale por la chimenea; porque el paso es directo y corto entre la cámara de combustión y la misma chi menea. no hay obstáculos que mejoren la transferencia de calor.Sería recomendable contar con la Memoria Descriptiva del diseño, pero sin tener en cuenta ésta se pueden sugerir las siguientes modificaciones:Alargar por lo menos un metro la cámara de combustión. Soldar láminas en el interior de la cámara de combustión, para hacer el papel de pantalla al fuego y aligerar la transferencia de calor al serpentín.A la chimenea (alargada por encima del techo) se la puede rodear de otra tubería externa que estaría dirigida a la toma de aire del ventilador. De esta manera se recuperaría parte de los gases de combustión.La fábrica es propietaria de un quemador de petróleo. Este quemador cuenta actualmente con una boquilla para un consumo de 2 gl/hr. CUando la temperatura descendió en la tarde , el quemador no estuvo en la capacidad de sostener por lo menos una temperatura de 60 QC a pesar que tuvo un trabajo interrumpido. Es por esto que debe cambiarse la boquilla por una de mayor capacidad que en este caso sería de 3 gl/hr. La decisión sobre el consumo de petróleo debe tomarse en base a los resultados de la evaluación de costos.Es poca la leña que se encuentra disponible en la zona; no se puede comparar esta situación con la situación de la selva baja. Para el caso de Koribeni se tendría que establecer un programa de reforestación .3.2.2 Ventilador y duetos. El motor de 6.6. HP que acciona al ventilador está consumiendo 20.5 Amp; 1.5 Amp. más que el valor indicado en la placa. Es necesario que cuente son su salva .otor .La inyección del aire a las Cámaras de secado debe hacerse por medio de una transición cónica, que debe abarcar todo el ancho de las cáaaras. Esta transición mejoraría la, d.istribución del aire y disminuiría las pérdidas de presión del ventilador .El fabricante asegura que el caudal de este ventilador es 3 m3/seg. Es absoluta.ente necesario verificar este caudal. La certeza de este dato será base para evaluar la eficiencia del quemador y la funcionalidad del secador de bandejas.3.2 . 3 Cámara de secado. Para que el aire siga un flujo parejo (serpentín) dentro de la cámara, las bandejas deben construirse con fondo sellado (tripley, calamina). El secamiento se lleva a cabo por el contacto que ocurre cuando el aire caliente pasa por encima de cada bandeja. De acuerdo a lo anterior la carga adecuada de trozos frescos por bandeja no debe ser mayor de 5 kg . Con esto se rectifica el valor de 10 kg . planteado en el informe anterior.En estos momentos, la cámara de secado en bandejas tal como está construida pres enta varios problemas :La entrada de aire no se hace con una transición cónica. La boca del actual dueto no está localizada en el centro sino a un lado de la cámara (muy cerca de la pared lateral).Varias secciones de madera se han torcido. Es to no está garantizando hermeticidad en los contactos. Esto también entorpece el deslizamiento de las bandejas dentro de los paneles. La construcción de un secador de es te tipo requiere de carpintería precisa.El s i s tema de s ecamiento debe evaluarse bajo operación continua, pero antes deben corregirs e las situaciones que s e han planteado anteriormente y verifi car el caudal del ventilador.Dada la s ituación anterior, se recomienda el empleo de un secador de batch o capa fija (pisc ina) . Este s e podría construir en e l es pacio que se tiene disponible para la otra cámara y evaluarlo paralelamente con el exi s tente. En la sección de evaluación de costos s e darán datos s obre su funcionamiento.Con el motor de 4.8 HP que da energía al molino, se pueden producir 350 kg. de harina integral por hora. La compuerta en la tolva de alimentación debe graduarse a una altura de Jcm como máximo. El salva motor se necesi ta adquirir urgentemente porque el operario puede quemar fácilmente el motor. Un amperímetro instalado al frente de la máquina servirá de guía.Se repite la recomendación de cambiar la tolva de descarga del molino. No es funcional como está construida porque es necesario parar la molienda e introducir la mano cada vez que se llena la recámara con 20 kilos.La criba actual del molino, con agujeros de 2 m.m. de diámetro impide que toda la fibra gruesa salga de la cámara de molienda. Una criba con agujeros de 3 m.m. de diámetro permitirá evacuar este material sin necesidad de abrir repetidamente el molino. Esta s ituación ocurre con raíces de yuca muy fibrosas.La tamizadora también requiere de salva motor y amperímetro . Con estos dos dispositivos se podrían alcanzar rendimientos mayores a 400 kg./hr sin temor a quemar el motor. El tami zado debe ejecutarse en las horas de menor humedad relativa; las harinas son higroscópicas y tienden a tapar las mallas de acero inoxidable .La adaptación de imanes en las tolvas de alimentación del molino y la tamizadora permitirán atrapar pedazos de limaduras de hierro, que se pueden introducir en el proceso en las etapas anteriores. Esto protegerá la malla de acero inoxidable de posibles roturas .Los trozos secos deben molerse cuando se tenga que cumplir un pedido determinado. Es más fácil secar nuevamente los trozos que manejar el secamiento de la harina .El empaque de bolsas de polipropileno de tejido denso es el adecuado. Almacenar los trozos en bolsas plásticas gruesas y comercializar la harina en los empaques de polipropileno sería lo ideal tal como se hace en Intuto. Los empaques deben reposar sobre parihuelas.En las siguientes s ecciones se hacen solo recomendaciones para tenerse en cuenta, pues aún la fábrica no ha iniciado actividades.Con el trabajo continuo de la fábrica se puede poner atención al contenido de humedad de las variedades de materia prima que se procesan. Esto va permitir seleccionar los mejores clones o var iedades. La humedad inicial incide fuertemente sobre e 1 factor de conversión. Al tos factores de conversión elevan los costos de producción.Si se consigue llegar a mercados industriales como pegantes, necesariamente se debe garantizar una calidad uniforme de la harina. Mezcla de variedades generalmente no es aceptada .La Fábrica cuenta con agua de buena calidad proveniente de las cimas de las montañas. A menos que los chequeos microbiológicos resulten positivos no se requiere aplicar hipoclorito de sodio. Chequear periódicamente la calidad microbiológica de la harina.Dotar a los operarios de un uniforme adecuado a la zona.Supervisar permanentemente el estado de salud y aseo de los operarios.Lavar inmediatamente las instalaciones y equipos después de cada proceso.El disco trazador de la picadora debe quitarse repetidamente para mantener las cuchillas en estado óptimo de limpieza .El fosfuro de aluminio, con nombre comercial fostoxin o gas toxin, es el producto más empleado para eliminar insectos en productos secos como granos, trozos y harinas. La aplicación de este producto debe hacerla el personal que haya recibido instrucción y tenga conocimiento de la alta peligrosidad de este veneno.El arrume que quiera fumigarse debe cubrirse con una carpa plástica en forma hermética. Después de colocar las pastillas del producto debajo de las parihuelas se deben unir los bordes de la carpa con el suelo colocando bolsas de arena (por ejemplo) en forma continua.La past il las vienen revestidas de un producto grisáceo que al descomponerse libera un fuerte olor a ajo que dura alrededor de 25 minutos . cuando el olor desaparece es señal que el veneno ha iniciado su gasificación y hay peligro de muerte si se respira. El fosfuro de aluminio no tiene olor.Se aplican 2 ó 3 pastillas por cada metro cúbicos de producto . Para harina es necesario conforma el arrume con los sacos abiertos. Generalmente se recomienda dejar el arrume durante tres días bajo el efecto del fosfuro . Se deben colocar letreros y avisos para la información de las personas que transitan cerca.Al f inal del tratamiento, el arrume se desencarpa teniendo cuidado de no respirar mientras s e hace esto. Un par de horas son suficientes para eliminar el producto .  02 operarios realizan la limpieza e instalación de equipos y organizan la bodega (4 horas-hombre). 02 operarios y el supervisor, realizan el primer movimiento de las bandejas (3 horas-hombre) . 02 operarios y el s upervisor, realizan el segundo movimiento de las bandejas (3 horas-hombre). 03 operarios y el supervisor adecuan y seleccionan las Raíces del proceso siguiente (12 horas-hombre) . 02 operarios y el supervisor, realizan el tercer movimiento de las bandejas (3 horas-hombre). 03 operarios organizan las tandas para el lavado del día siguiente (3 horas-hombre) . 03 operarios y el s uperv i sor recogen los trozos secos (4 horas-hombre ) . 01 operario acopia la materia prima y la lleva a la planta (9 horas-hombre) .En este esquema para yuca se requieren 51 horas-hombres equivalentes a 6. 37 jornales . La diferencia básica con el plátano es el mondado o pelado , pero es te s e paga a destajo a S/. 5 por mi llar . Se debe llegar a un arreglo con los operar i os porque las jornada no ser ía cont i nua.Cada tanda de yuca o pl á tano s e demorar í a dos d ías en procesarse s in contar la mol ienda y e l tami zado , que s e podr ían realizar e l Sábado o el Lunes de la s emana siguiente . Luego en una s emana só l o s e podr ían procesar 5 tandas .El secado mixto introduce un pre-secado al so l durante todo el primer día. cada tanda duraría tres días y por lo tanto so lo se podrían procesar 4 tandas semanales.7.1 Hipótesis Adicionales La estimación de los costos se ha realizado para trjs sistemas de secamiento que operarían con el ventilador actual que produce 180m /min. (según información del fabricante).Sistema de secado # 2 Sistema de secado # 3Secador de 165 bandejas con capacidad de 750 kg. de trozos frescos(4.5 kg. por bandeja). Tiempo de secado 14 horas.Secador de capa fija (piscina), con capacidad de 1500 kg. de trozos frescos (10m2 de área). Tiempo de secado 12 horas. Secado mixto con capacidad de 2500 kg. El primer día se hace un secado a 1 so 1 sobre 416 bandejas (O. 80x0 . 80 mts). En el segundo día se procesan definitivamente en el secador de bache los 1500 kg. presecados. Como tiempo de secado se han asumido 8 horas.7. 2. Materia PriJDa Requerida (N.P .) y Peso Final de Harina Refinada (H.R.) por procesaaiento, en su base a los factores de conversión conseguidos.:SeCado-r.•• M~P.Numero 2 2940Numero 3 4900Factor de conversión de yuca Factor de conversión de plátano Una producción continúa permitirá ajustar las actividades, disminuir los costos de producción donde sea permitido y lo mas importante lograr la motivación de los trabajadores y socios al sentir que se preparan para asumir un compromiso ante terceros a través de su producto. Con esto se tendría una certeza en los costos y se podría determinar el precio real de venta.Según funcionarios de Cáritas, existen varias posibilidades de venta que tendría que evaluar el plan comercialización.Se podría vender un porcentaje no significativo de la producción en el mercado de Quillabamba, en presentación de un kilogramo. Actualmente se encuentra la harina de plátano que produce la Central de Cooperativas Cocla a un precio de S/. 4 . 00 por kilogramo .Se cree que el mayor mercado se encuentra en las zonas extraregionales, como la sierra y costa (CUsco, Juliaca, Arequipa, Huancayo, Ayacucho, Lima, etc.).Los contactos con PRONAA estarían basados en un precio \"por negociar, ya que es una institución que está comprometida en apoyar a las Ecomusas, pero si nos atenemos a los S/. 2.00 por kilo de harina que paga en regiones como Tumbes e Iquitos solo la harina de yuca tendría capacidad de negociación.Se tiene conocimiento de la existencia de demanda de harina de plátano por parte del sector industrial, tales como las de resinas ópticas, embutidos, pegantes, etc.Por ser productos nuevos en el país, requieren de una inves ti gación de mercado, para determinar la aceptabilidad por parte del consumidor, precios que estarían dispuestos a pagar, potencial de compra y características adicionales que desean en el producto. Esta investigación requiere recursos económicos, personal y producción de harina para muestras.La planta industrial ha sido instalada en una zona donde representa para la comunidad una actividad novedosa que puede alterar sus actividades cotidianas. Esto indica que se requiere una etapa de adaptación a la que debe someterse el comunero:El socio comunero va a enfrentarse a:Horarios fijos de trabajo. Ruido durante varias horas Controles repetidos sobre s u hi giene personal y salud exigencias de responsabilidad. demandas de solidaridad ante la Empresa y su Comunidad.Pensar en una adaptación rápida es iluso. Por tal motivo se hace imprescindible y necesario un acompañamiento permanente por parte de Cári tas. El Asesor tendrá que contar con todo el conocimiento que ha adquirido Cár itas para acompasar la dinámica del agricultor y comunero con la actividad que requiere una agroindustria como esta. En estos momentos hay desmotivación por parte de la junta directiva y los socios. Cinco ó seis socios estuvieron presentes durante mi visita, participando activamente en algunos momentos. Sólo el gerente y presidente (Angel Florez y Ruben Vinari) colaboraron permanentemente con los ensayos. Según afirman ellos mismos, la demora mayor de dos años que ha sufrido el proyecto y los problemas presentes son la causa de tal desmotivación.","tokenCount":"9378"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b1a1a274774786be703e6be3e0b33ec3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f39343b0-d51a-45d0-8a2b-5fcf629e845d/retrieve","id":"22572625"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6e1cd354-fc85-4e8c-9ad4-1701af161ec9","pagecount":"20","content":"Seed multlpllcation program at IITA and elsewhere A. O. Abifarin Seed production. seed multiplication. seed bulking or seed increase refers to the maintenance of a given improved variety for distribution either for a yield trial or large scale seed distribution to farmers. ThIs will take the benefit of improved var1ety to the farmers. Therefore it is essential that an efficient and practical ,system is developed for the multiplication to enable the maintenance of seed purity and its dissemination.Various steps or methods are used for seed multiplication. But in general there are four basic steps agreed to by breeders and agricultural agencies in many countries. At the Institute these four steps will be used with minor modifications.Breeder seed is obtained after several seasons of breeding selection and yield trials. Cultural practices would have been determined too. Usually trials begin around F 5 -F7 generation depending on the lmiformity of the characters being selected for. Thus breeder seed is the purest in terms of varietal purity as it is produced by or under direct control of the breeder in charge. The breeder seed is the first stage of small scale seed increase. It is the continuous source of seed increase for foundation seed.After the breeder has named and/or released a variety the seed is deSignated as foundation seed. The foundation seed is grown or multiplied by foundation seed growers. Foundation seed growers could be an experiment station where . ./2 the breeder seed was increased. It could be (TOWn by Government :lgencies e.g. Ministry of Agriculture 1 st )hase multipllcation or it could be increased by seed grower associations. a Jroved by breeders and government ministries. In mcny West African countries foundation seed is grown by Ministries of Agriculture. UTA wi1l3lso work with the r.tJ1nistries but we ore identifying some private farmers who might be used in future for growing foundation seed.Whoever the foundation seed grower m'2Y be. production must be carefully supervised and approved by an :lgriculturai ex,Jeriment station. The foundation seed is the source of all other certified seed classes.This is the third multiplication ;lhase of seed. In some countries or with some seeds this phase is omitted. Registered seed is the progeny of foundation or registered seed. The )roc'ucUon and h3.ndling must meet certain standards set up by Government agencies and breeders. Seed qualities must be up to the stOcnd-3.rd (see standards below) required for production of certified seeds.This is the 3rd or t1th ;Jhase of seed muiti}lication for large scale distribution or sales to farmers. It is the progeny of foundation. registered or certified seed. Standards of seed certifying agents must be met.The Institute will follow and recommend the following steps:1. Approved variety of found\"tion, registered or certified seed must be grown.Only one variety will be grown on a given area or farm. 2. To avoid seed impurity the seed will be ;)lc:.nted on a field which has not been cropped for some s:)ecified ~eriod to other rice varieties. There should be no weed s in the fields.. • /33. Field inspections will be made by !ITA staff and approved government staff.Rogues and weeds will be noted.4. Inspections will be made to observe harvesting. cleaning, storage or !\".belling.1m -,urities. germination and quality factors wiH be checked.S. Recommendation wil! be made for officL,l t'2gS to be 0roperly affixed to each container.General features of good seeds Weeds :1t ,he seed-be\"rln~ st1c;:e 4. Pnnt:::.:li :>ther cro s in the field being ins,~ectedThe certific\",tiJn standards ,\"lre es t\"bUshed by the certifyln\" :geney.Field Ins )ectgrs: O,l1y th.:lse trained \"nd qu:.l1fied by the seed certifying agency wiii ,'erf:Jrm field inspection.The ins,Jector must be familiar with the charOicteristics :Jf the iTe,dety t 'be Ins \"ected, especialLy such dis tinctive itelll:' -',5 co!;)r o[,lant >Brts, 3wn, iJej,7'1~, ,';nd shane .:If gr'11n.He must a!.s0 be oble to recJgn1zc; diseases and insect •,ests or wee,'which m 'ly decrease the vi\"lue of the seed.He sh.:luld be \"lble to advise the gnwer ,on 'lny special cultured practices needed for seed production and special xecauUons needed in the lTarvost 0,ryIng, handling and stonge of seed.He must know the standards requIred by the seed certifying agency a-, be able to interJret all rules and regulCitions.He sbould be gr&nted full authority to make necessary decisions in rejecting fields not meeting inspection standards.Schedules. !'he field should be ins;)ected shortly before and after all plants have headed out or are at the stage when V''1riet:\"ll mixtures can best be identified.Each field should be Jnspected at least twice. All f1elds in a be\"!.! area should be 1nspected at ::me time U possible. A schedule IS generally develc;,~ .with the help of local extension workers or others. The growers may be informed in advance so they can accompany the inspector in their own fIelds.Equipment 1. Report form -Growers' name, variety, etc.2. Map and/or descripUvn of field location.3. Seed eertlfication st3ndards.4. Variety descripttons, references of diseases, weeds Qr other agronomic in forma tion .5. Writing materials. envelo',)es. etc.1. Cover as much area as possible.2 . Check all corners and potential pr'oblem areas.   Ins pect carefully )lants of different heights, and pull them 0ut if necessary.to determine if they are se,'arate pI :lnts or tillers.Taller plants are ei'lsily distinguished in the seed field of sh0rter statw-•,l varieties, but when sh-.lrt v•3rieties are mixed with taller :)iants they ilre not e'lsily bund, and great care sh:Juld be t:lken during the inspection. P0f example, jap0nica varieties mixed with a tall indica v\"lriety are very h:ud to see. The maturity of plants on the seed farm may 'lppear mol'e uniform at one growth \"t•c~~ .. /9 than at \"m:.>ther. When m;)st ;:;10.nts have reached the yelbw maturity stage, the few Ob,1tS found with green,1an1cles should be rogued.As you walk througb the field, squat or bend ;)€rbdically so that your f'''c>~ \"lre even with the height of the \"anicles. Plants of different heights ,>re easier t;) spot in this m,mner.Field inspection is more effective if light comes d;:lwn i'lt an angle.Inspect in the earlier PMt vf the mJrnlng VC in the later Jart of the afternu;:ln.4. L etermlne if the field meets the certification s tand'OlCI:!s . The fJll;:lwing \"lre the international st'lndards; however, eaeh country or ,;rovlnce may \"et up its own st:.nc\\3rds according to 1;)ca1 situ\",Uons. agents.If the field is h3rvested bebre ins:,ectbn, it shell be rejected.IV. Sem:l1ng br L'lhont:Jry Analysis Are resentative sampie will be submitted t:J 'en Jificial seed testing L'3bxat':Jcy Jf the seed certifying agency. The sample will be t,ken by an :Jffici ,1 or owner of the seed.Tagging certified seed. Seed sold as certified must be placed in a n2W sack or other container and bear the officiai certification tag of the certifying e}C\" Certification tags. Seed certification tags are issued after all tests and inspection have been passed. The tags will be applied under the supervision of tJ certifying agency.Distribution of seed. If the farmer is well-informed or educated, h\" know the advantages of using certified seed. A policy to encourage farmers to [;.2: certified seed is of great help.The production of rice seed is a privlledge. The success of the pro,}ra\"l depends on the care and integrity of the seed grower and processor.Certified Beed of all classes is produced under the supervision of thp .. ' certifying agency. If you have any questions, check with your extension agent or representative of the certifying agency.Varieties eligible for certification. Only those varieties which possess super' . . ./ :.. ';Eligibility of land. Seedbeds to be used must have not been grown to the same crop within a period of 6 months, and in all cases, regardless of data of previous crop, the field must be free from volunteer plants of the crop being grown for certification.Application for growing certified seed. Application to grow cert1f1ed seed shall be submitted to the local agricultural extension service for recommendations before being forwarded to the seed certifying agency for final decision. Application forms will be applied to the agricultural extension service by the seed certifying agency.Source of seed. Growers producing certified seed must plant registered seed.No application for the production of eertified seed will be accepted from growers by the seed certifying agency without registered seed allotments suffiCient to plant the intended area. The seed certifying agency shall make these allotments. Local modifications of these regulations may be made.Isolation of fields. Ail fields producing seed for certification must be separated from other fields by a distinct boundary such as a fence, a ditch, a levee, a roadway, or a barren strip.Field inspectign. Crops being grown for certification will be inspected before harvest by a competent inspector authorized by the seed certifying agency. It shall be the responsibility of the grower to notify the appropriate agency before harvest and to request inspection.The standards for field inspection are defined by the certifying agency.In addition, poor stands, poor growth, lack of uniformity, disease infections, excessive weeds, or any other conditions which are likely to make field inspection inaccurate or to bring certified seed into disfavor shall be adequate cause for rejecting a crop for certification.Harvesting and threshing. Harvesting and threshing must be carried out in Movement of unprocessed seed. Seed intended for certification shall not be mc-;from the farm unless the designated authorities have been notified. A permit must be issued for all movement of seed from the farm where it is produced if such seed is to remain eligible for certification.1 . Rogue or remove off-type plants. In addition to the standard method of rice culture, the off-type plants on seed farms should be pulled out (rogued) before heading. f.Mixtures during packing and storage.g. Contaminations due to used seed containers h. Spontaneous mutations in nature which cause off-types to be produced.-It Is desirable that each seed grower produce only one variety. If he grows more than two varieties, separate fields for each variety alld thorough c~eaning of the processing equipment between varieties are required.In the increase of breeder's seed and of foundation seed, it Is essential t\" \"'-plant the seedlings In one-seedling hills, in order to facil1tate the selection of true-t: type plants. In the case of a directly seeded crop, use wide spacings and a low ra':\" of seeding. Since contamination comes largely from dropped seed of the previous crop, it is advisable to use the same field continuously in the seed multlpl1catio:o a pure variety. One seed field should be separated from that of a different variety by an appropriate distance and preferably by a broad levee or road. Do not harvest the border plants for seed. Use only new containers for seed.When 1t becomes necessary to repurify an established variety, mass selpr\"\" in the \"form of selecting hundreds of true-to-type plants, followed by roguing offtype plants in the succeeding generation, and bulking the seed would be adequate in pUrifying a slightly mixed variety. The above process may be repeated for one or more generations.In a badly mixed variety, purification on a plant or panicle-to-row basis will be necessary. In sueh an operation, selected panicles from true-to-type .. /20","tokenCount":"1828"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5d4cb1d78fbd350b05d04c9f5b273297","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9980d3cb-61da-4ed2-9283-fb73b1e85b4c/retrieve","id":"1473331760"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"57034ae6-c258-4966-861e-c05969ae142f","pagecount":"2","content":"o Two improved, nutrient dense and drought tolerant common bean varieties have been introduced to farmers. Compared with the local varieties, SER83 produces at least 30% more yield under farmer management and NUA45 at least 50% more under improved nutrient management.o In collaboration with farmers, the project has validated the pathways for achieving improved soybean productivity under optimal NP fertilization and rhizobia inoculation across varying environments in Malawi. Through this intervention, the productivity of Makwacha (one of the already-released varieties evaluated) was consistently >1800 kg/ha when rainfall was not limiting. The variety is now being used for scaling soybean-based technologies (including rotational systems).o The project has increased farmer access to quality groundnut and soybean seeds through community seed production approaches. Farmers that partnered with Africa RISING produced about 55,000 kg of 'certified seeds' between 2016 and 2018 that was distributed to hundreds more farmers within the communities.o Muthwajuni, a short duration and pest resistant pigeon pea variety, has been introduced to farmers as an extra legume for integration within the intercropping technologies they currently apply.• Cropping systems management o Intercropping two legumes as part of the doubled-up legume cropping system has enabled farmers to almost double their yields and improve soil fertility. Groundnutpigeon pea intercropping proved be the most successful doubled-up system owing to the contrasting structures and maturity dates of the two crops. The doubled-up technology offers farmers the opportunity to get 48% more profit from their land compared with growing sole legume stands of either groundnut or pigeon pea. In early 2016, the doubled-up legume technology was officially released by Malawi's Agricultural Technology Clearing Committee for countrywide use by farmers.o Consistent grain legume rotations of soybean or groundnut with maize over 5 years resulted in increased yield stability.Rotating maize with legumes increased nitrogen use efficiency by 56% and protein contributions by 65%.o The project has worked with farmers to validate the improved maize/pigeon pea intercropping system that yields 30% more than the traditional practice. The innovative system uses only a modest application of mineral fertilizer and appropriate variety selection for improved compatibility.o Farmers' validation of modified double row planting of soybean and groundnut has increased productivity by at least 60%, resulting in improved rotational benefits to maize grown in sequence.  Feeding o The intervention of Africa RISING on the supplementary feeding of goats with either Faidherbia pods, Gliricidia leaves, or both, has led to healthier animals with a weight gain of 105 g/day compared with 65 g/day from ordinary grazing only. Over a 60-day period, the net profit rose to $11/ goat with improved feeding versus $6/goat with ordinary grazing.o Model goat housing structures were constructed in three communities with the active participation of farmers. Thereafter, at least 85 farmers have built variants of the housing structures using local building materials.","tokenCount":"463"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f22247c81706f46a18bacfbf4fcd1796","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31ca6ffb-fa30-4426-9094-92b08f0848c2/retrieve","id":"-274630675"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8026387b-91cd-41a4-85a6-1d37707af006","pagecount":"1","content":"La Selección Participativa de Variedades (SPV) cobra importancia en la generación de nuevas variedades, al involucrar a los actores de la cadena de valor. Consecuentemente con ello, una de las actividades del Proyecto IssAndes (2011)(2012)(2013)(2014) del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) se enmarca en la investigación y la difusión de metodologías participativas orientadas al cultivo de la papa, base de la alimentación y del sistema productivo de los andes donde persisten aún las condiciones de pobreza y desnutrición infantil. En tal sentido en Perú, IssAndes se integró al \"Consorcio de Innovación en SVP\", emprendida por la Red Latín Papa-CIP, y el Proyecto STC, para impulsar la liberación y difusión de nuevas variedades, adaptadas a los andes y con calidad nutricional. Este es el caso de INIA-320 Kawsay.Promover la generación descentralizada de nuevas variedadesde papa a través de metodologías participativas, que contribuyan a mejorar la seguridad alimentaria y la desnutrición en las poblaciones vulnerables de Perú.Entre el periodo 2008-2013 en Perú fueron evaluados 20 Clones de papa de la población B1C5, con resistencia al tizón tardío (Phytophthora Infestans) y con calidad nutricional, provenientes del Programa de Mejoramiento/CIP, cuya selección se inició en el año 1999 con 20,000 plántulas a nivel de los centros experimentales [3]. La metodología empleada fue la SPV-\"Mamá y Bebé\" [2], estableciéndose numerosos ensayos en campos de agricultores de las regiones de Apurímac, Huancavelica, Junín y La Libertad (2,800-4100 msnm), durante dos etapas: 1) De Comparación (2008-2010) con tres ciclos de selección y ii) De Comprobación (2011-2013) con dos ciclos de selección. Y en cada ciclo se establecieron los \"ensayos Mamá\" con diseño estadístico y los \"ensayos Bebé\", bajo el criterio del agricultor. La evaluación fue realizada por un consorcio integrado por la Universidad de Desarrollo Andino, el INIA, diversas ONG's y el CIP con un enfoque de género, participaron grupos de pequeños agricultores/as y otros actores de la cadena de valor, durante la floración, cosecha y poscosecha del cultivo.En la evaluación de los 20 clones a través de la SVP, durante cinco años consecutivos, se integraron a la investigación, numerosos agricultores (250), técnicos (50), consumidores (100) y comerciantes (30) de Apurímac, Junín, Huancavelica y La Libertad, entre hombres(65%) y mujeres (35%); logrando la selección del Clon CIP399062.118 y su liberación oficial como INIA-320 Kawsay,en diciembre 2013. Kawsay resultó seleccionada por su buena resistencia al tizón tardío, alta productividad (20-32 t/ha) y excelente calidad culinaria. Cabe destacar también su calidad nutricional (18.5 mg/Kg. PS de Fe), superior a las variedades comerciales, y su alta rentabilidad (150%) en los ensayos de comprobación, frente a la variedad Yungay (32%) [1]. Actualmente, las semillas se vienen difundiendo a través de núcleos semilleros con pequeños productores (20) y con instituciones locales (4), y tiene buenas posibilidades de adopción.La liberación de INIA-320 Kawsay constituye una experiencia innovadora del trabajo en consorcio, y de la aplicación de la SPV-Metodología Mamá y Bebé, que facilitó la participación de la cadena de valor con perspectivas de género, lo cual ha contribuido a acelerar su adopción por los agricultores; asimismo Kawsay es una alternativa para hacer frente a la inseguridad alimentaria del país, dada su resistencia a P. infestans, rendimientos estables e interesantes características productivas culinarias y sus novedosos aportes nutricionales.","tokenCount":"535"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/2652064204.json b/data/part_1/2652064204.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5a383b78baa91a7c41d6c464b265176b2b5461e2
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"adc326f651cac95207ddcc9c1b996ff8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ec62852e-aef2-4d79-b498-d7fbc7797112/retrieve","id":"1223671108"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c46e686a-748b-4c8d-9581-afd0aca1e6cd","pagecount":"1","content":"alianza mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria dedicada a reducir la pobreza, mejorar la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y mejorar los recursos naturales.A la fecha, 6 híbridos apomícticos liberados y disponibles en el mercado.sembradas en 75 países con híbridos CIAT.Aval GANSO: una herramienta de evaluación voluntaria para vincular las fincas que producen de manera sostenible con los mercados.Los pastos de raíces profundas con un manejo adecuado pueden almacenar más carbono orgánico en el suelo que compensa las emisiones relacionadas con el ganado. Biología AmbientalCreemos que la intensificación sostenible de los sistemas agro-silvopastoriles puede reducir la huella ambiental y mejorar los medios de vidaEste trabajo está autorizado para su uso bajo la licencia Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) 2022-10-25. Diseño: JL Urrea (Alianza/CIAT). La actividad biológica de la macrofauna y la materia orgánica reduce la compactación del suelo.Mejora el ciclaje de nutrientes y la fijación de N, evitando la lixiviación y contaminación de aguas subterráneas.","tokenCount":"160"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/2667585163.json b/data/part_1/2667585163.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9b2bbfe9eef74f63b2b4d1c08f1cd355a97f6013
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+++ b/data/part_1/2667585163.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8a22df8be53498ad580bebbcdde1555a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f91e8c3-0e97-4d91-a5dd-632c07790c4b/retrieve","id":"-1412757475"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a2295e5b-1f77-4fa8-bef5-38a2c6d8daab","pagecount":"105","content":"Submitted to the College of Veterinary Medicine, Mekelle University, in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics June, 2015 Mekelle, Ethiopia II BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Bahlibi was born in 1982 from his father Weldegebriall Sahlu and his mother Ametemichael Aregawi in Eastern zone, Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia in a district called Saesie Tsaeda Emba, a place named Edagahamus. He attended his primary school in Mealfiat and Welwalo starting 1995 and attended his high school in Edagahamus senior secondary school until 2003. After he completed his high school he joined Hawassa University in 2003 and attended Veterinary Medicine until 2008. After graduation he worked in Dalol Bureau of Agriculture, in Afar region as Animal health expert for seven month and also in Tigray Agricultural Research Institute, in position as associate animal health researcher up to date. He again joined Mekelle University College of Veterinary Medicine to study his M.Sc. in Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics from September 2013 to date. III DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my wife, Zebib Lema and our children Blen and Saron Bahlibi. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IV Above all, thanks to my almighty God for his help in giving me courage to cop up complicated situations I faced for pursuing my study and for his help and courage during my whole study time. I am very grateful to my advisor Dr. Berihu Gebrekidn for accepting me as his advisee, for his professional supports and due concerns from the very start of designing the research proposal up to thesis write up. I owe my deepest thanks to my co-advisor Dr. Berihun Afera for his invaluable and unreserved assistance during the whole work of this study. I am very much indebted to him for the amount of work he put into this task, which made the study to be completed successfully. I would like to thank International Livestock Research Institute; LIVES project for sponsoring the study without which the completion of this study would not have been possible in such a successful way. It is my pleasure to thank Dr. Niraj Kumar and Dr.Gebregiogis Ashebir for their help in commenting, correcting and designing research proposal as well as the thesis.My special thanks goes to Mr.Table 1: Infectious Causes of Abortion in Cattle……………………………………….5Table 2: Distribution of Bovine Brucellosis in Some African Countries……………..17 A cross sectional study to identify the prevalence of major reproductive problems of dairy cattle and the possible risk factors in selected sites of Central zone of Tigrai Region from September 2014 to April 2015 was conducted. In this study a total of 120 respondents were interviewed and the finding revealed that the most frequently encountered reproductive health problems are repeat breeding, anoestrus, retained fetal membranes, abortion, uterine prolapsed, and testicular swelling as responded by 26.7%, 20.0%, 5.8%, 5.8%, 28.3%, and 26.7% of the interviewee. Similarly a record of 265 dairy cows was examined to determine the reproductive problems of dairy cattle and associated risk factors and the finding indicated that 19.3% of the cattle have reproductive problems.The major reproductive problems found were 9.1% repeat breeding, 4.2% anoestrus, 3.8% abortion, 1.1% RFM, 0.8% pyometra and 0.4% uterine prolapse. In addition, a total of 414 blood samples for sera were collected from both sexes and greater than 6 months age to determine sero-prevalence and associated risk factors of bovine brucellosis in the study area. The Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) was used on sera as a screening test for brucellosis. The prevalence of bovine brucellosis found was 0.0%. Analysis of risk factors of major reproductive problems from the retrospective study showed that except in the case of sanitation and pregnancy status, the overall prevalence of reproductive problems were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by breed, location, lactation status, production system, age, parity, body condition score, herd type, herd size and housing system. Generally the current finding revealed that reproductive health problems commonly exist in the study area through their percentage and types vary from time to time; hence, regular reproductive health management and proper formulation of ration could be the possible solutions to alleviate the problems encountered in different production systems.Key words: Abortion; breed; brucellosis; repeat breeding; anoestrusCattle production is the main component of agricultural growth in many parts of sub-Saharan countries. The overall cost of keeping cattle is associated with the health care, nutrition and reproduction management, however, has not matched to their contribution to the livelihood and economy of the people in sub-Saharan countries. As in many other countries, livestock, particularly cattle play an important role in Ethiopia as being a source of milk, meat, hide, etc (Mekonnen et al., 1989). However, the productivity of indigenous cattle breeds is low due to many constraints including diseases and parasites, nutrition, poor management systems, poor reproductive performance and large socioeconomic factors by decreasing reproductive efficiency, shortening the expected length of productive life and by lowering milk production. Reproductive problems are the most common which occur in lactating dairy cows and can dramatically affect reproductive potential of the dairy herd. Poor reproductive performance is a major cause of involuntary culling and therefore reduces the opportunity for voluntary culling and has a negative influence on the subsequent productivity of a dairy herd (Tegegne, 1989;ILCA, 1988ILCA, , 1998;;Hossein-Zadeh, 2013).The reproductive problems result in heavy economic losses and have been public health concern in dairy farms. Reproductive problems are the main causes of poor productive performance in smallholder dairy farms (Roberts, 1986;Bekena et al., 1994Bekena et al., , 1997;;Arthur et al., 1996). Among the major reproductive problems that have a direct impact on reproductive performance of dairy cows, retained fetal membrane (RFM), bovine brucellosis, repeated breeding, abortion, anoestrus, dystocia, endometritis, prolapse(uterine and vaginal) and pyometra have been reported to be the most common economic problems (Hadush et al., 2013;Dinka, 2013;Haile et al.,2014). These reproductive problems could also be classified as before gestation (anoestrous and repeat breeding), during gestation (abortion, vagina prolapsed and dystocia) and after gestation (RFM and uterine prolapsed).The impaired function of the reproductive system results failure of a cow to produce a calf yearly and regularly (Arthur et al., 1989;Hoojjar et al., 1999;Shiferaw et al., 2005;Lobago et al., 2006).It has been reported that among infectious diseases, brucellosis is a common genital disease which induces abortion in animals and humans. Brucellosis is an infectious bacterial zoonotic disease affecting both humans and animals causing a serious economic loss in animal production and deterioration of public health (Arthur et al., 1996;Richey and Dix Harrell, 1997;Moti et al., 2012) by inducing abortion. It is a chronic infectious disease of cattle that causes birth of weak or dead calves, infertility and, as a consequence, reduced milk production (AHA, 2005). Studies conducted in Ethiopia (Shiferaw et al., 2005;Hadush et al., 2013;Dinka, 2013;Haile et al., 2014)revealed poor reproductive performance of dairy cows in many parts of the country.The livestock production system, especially the dairy production, is the most important issue in central zone of Tigrai region, where dairy cows and their products are the main sources of income and food. Central zone is a large, historical place in the country and majority of the people live concentrated. The zone is also a highly populated area in the region. The demand of dairy and dairy products is coming greater and greater. But production constraints, mainly reproductive health problems, make a bottle neck in its productivity. Therefore it is important to generate useful information on the major reproductive problems of dairy cattle in the study area. Moreover, no investigation has been done on the presence and risk factors of reproductive problems of dairy cattle in the present study area, which gave impetus to the initiation of this study. Thus, the objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of major reproductive problems of dairy cattle and to identify the possible risk factors for the occurrence of the problems in selected sites of Central Zone of Tigrai Region, Northern Ethiopia.Reproductive disorders are the most common problems affecting the production and productivity of dairy cows (Dinka, 2013). The presence of the reproductive problems result in considerable economic loss to the dairy industry due to lesser number of calves crop, slower uterine involution, prolonged inter-conception and calving interval, early depreciation of potentially used cows, decreased milk yield per lactation as well as overall lifetime production, and increased costs due to veterinary services and earlier culling of cows (Lobago et al., 2006;FAWC, 2009).Reproductive and production disorders of cross-bred dairy cattle significantly reduce their productivity because of reproductive disorders. These disorders are of great concern of dairy producers because of their effect on the future fertility of dairy cows (Khair et al., 2013). The major reproductive problems that have most important influence on reproductive performance of dairy cows are include abortion, dystocia, RFM, metritis, prolapse (uterine and vagina), mastitis, anoestrus, bovine brucellosis and repeated breeding. These reproductive problems could be categorized as prepartum and postpartum reproductive problems (Shiferaw et al., 2005;Lobago et al., 2006;Dinka, 2013;Benti and Zewdie, 2014).Repeat breeding (RB) is defined as a cow that did not conceive after three or more consecutive inseminations with a fertile bull or fertile semen, despite, it comes normally in heat and shows clear estrous signs with no clinical detectable reproductive disorders or without anatomical abnormalities and infections by exhibiting a variety of reproductive disturbances (Bage et al., 1997;Perez-Marin and Espana, 2007;Yusuf et al., 2010).Repeat breeder syndrome (RBS) is a major economic loss in the dairy industry due to greater insemination costs and increased calving interval. Repeat breeder animals exhibit normal cycle every 18 to 24 days without any clinical abnormalities, but fail to conceive even after at least three successive artificial inseminations (Kumar et al., 2014).The reproductive objective of dairy farms is to produce one calf in a year when dairy cows become pregnant in a single insemination having parturition after 270 days and inseminated again for second pregnancy within two months. But, this is not always possible and cows must be re-inseminated many times in several consecutive estrus cycles (Opsomer et al., 1996). Gupta and Deopurkar (2005) reported incidence rate of repeat breeding (5-30%) in cows. Repeat breeding is commonly associated with improper management of reproduction than hormonal inherited problems in the dairy cows (Bage et al., 1997;Perez-Marin and Espana, 2007).Nutritional insufficiency, poor management, natural servicing with sub-clinically infected bulls or heat stress could also be the potential causes of repeat breeding (Ahmed, 2009).Early embryonic deaths in cows may be associated with repeat breeding because of the embryonic mortality mostly occurs earlier in pregnancy. Maurer and Echternkamp (1985) reported that there is a higher prevalence of RBS in heifers (15.1%) than multiparous females (8.3%) in beef cattle. The effective treatment of repeat breeder cows could be uterine lavage plus PGF2α because of some advantages, such as no milk waste or side effects on the endometrium, and may have improved the conception rate (Ahmadi and Dehghan, 2007).Abortion is defined as the premature expulsion of fetus between 42 days (the estimated time of attachment and approximately 260 days of gestation (the age of the fetus in which fetus can survive outside of the uterus). Abortion is the most common problem of dairy cows which limit the cow's ability to produce a calf yearly and can largely affects the profit of the dairy farm (Peter, 2000). Sarder et al. (2010) also defines abortion as a condition in which fetus is delivered live or dead before reaching the stage of viability where the delivered fetus is visible by naked eyes. The diagnosis of abortions is a major challenge to the herd owner and veterinarian. There is sudden and dramatic increase of abortion in herds over a long period of time. For this reason, prompt and thorough action is required when abortions do occur. Breeding dates, parity, production information and health events (e.g., disease or vaccination) can all help to identify factors which may be associated with the abortions (Hossein-Zadeh, 2013). Other herd level information such as ration changes, new additions, personnel changes, etc., should also be recorded.Numerous bacterial, viral, protozoan and fungal pathogens have been associated with infertility and abortion in cattle. These pathogens can result in substantial economic losses, indicating the need for control measures to prevent infection or disease.Embryonic or fetal death may result in resorption, mummification, maceration, or abortion. Factors that impact the outcome of embryonic fetal death includes gestation, age, cause of death and source of progesterone for pregnancy maintenance. Aborted fetuses may be autolytic due to death within 24-48 h before abortion (Givens and Marley, 2008). The low reproductive efficiency in normal bovine populations is due to abortion.Spontaneous abortion of dairy cows is most common problem that contributes substantially to low herd viability and decreasing production potential by reducing the number of potential female herd replacements and lifetime milk production, and by increasing costs associated with breeding and premature culling (Thurmond et al., 2005).Fetal mortality in pregnant cows between 35 and 45 days of gestation ranges from 8 to 10% (Forar et al., 1996), with abortion often exceeding 14% in some herds (Thurmond et al., 1990;Hossein-Zadeh et al., 2008). The primary focus of abortion is prevention of infectious diseases because of the infectious agents probably cause less than half of the fetal deaths. The cost of abortion depends mainly on the time of gestation, milk production, days in milk, the time of insemination after parturition, the cost of nutrition, sperm costs, insemination time, and labor costs (Rafati et al., 2010). Early pregnancy abortions could result in increased days open. The loss of potential replacement heifers and early culling of productive cows is mainly due to late term abortions. Moreover, extended calving intervals may result in a loss of 2-5% of the herd's potential calf production.Infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi), toxic agents, heat stress, genetic abnormalities (Hovingh, 2009), twin pregnancies (Nielen et al., 1989) and mastitis (Santos et al., 2003) are some of the causes of abortion. Jamaluddin et al. (1996) reported infectious agents (37.1%), noninfectious agents (5.5%) and undetermined causes (57.3%) from 595 abortion submissions in California. The three most commonly diagnosed infectious agents were bacterial (24%), fungal (7%), and viral (6%) as reported by Khodakaram-Tafti and Ikede (2005) in Canada. Control of these infectious factors is achieved by appropriate vaccination programs.The complex vertebral malformation (CVM) gene (Agerholm et al., 2001) is one of the genetic abnormalities that cause abortion in Holsteins which results in malformations from middle to late gestation period. Non-infectious factors such as genetic and nongenetic disorders have been reported in some investigations. The most important non-genetic factors are heat stress, production stress, seasonal effect and seasonal changes (Labernia et al., 1996;Markusfeld-Nir, 1997;Hansen, 2002;López-Gatious et al., 2002;Sani and Amanloo, 2007). The most important genetic disorders include chromosomal and single gene disorders and these disorders resulted in high abortion rate in cows and increased calf sterility (Geoffrey et al., 1992). Cow parity, sire effect, age at conception and abortion history could be some of the non-infectious maternal and paternal factors that cause fetal death (Thurmond et al., 1990(Thurmond et al., , 2005;;Markusfeld-Nir, 1997;Hanson et al., 2003;Lee and Hwa Kim, 2007).Dystocia is defined as an abnormal and difficult birth in which the first or specially the second stage of parturition was markedly prolonged and subsequently found impossible for the dam to deliver without artificial aid (Benti and Zewdie, 2014). Dystocia is most commonly known as difficult calving and defined shortly as prolonged or difficult parturition is a problem where most of the dairy producers encountered (Mee, 2004(Mee, , 2008)). Improper cervical dilation, failure of uterine expulsive forces (uterine inertia) and neoplasms of vagina, vulva and uterus could be the maternal causes of dystocia in cows (Purohit et al., 2011). Assistance at calving (including lower degrees of difficulties) is much more prevalent, varying from 10% to over half of the calving than severe or considerable difficulty in calving vary from just below 2% to over 22% (Mee, 2008).The fetal oversize and fetal abnormalities are major causes of dystocia. Fetal oversize is common in heifers, cows of beef cattle breeds, prolonged gestations, increased calf birth weight, male calves and perinatal fetal death with resultant emphysema. Monsters, fetal diseases and fetal mal-dispositions are fetal abnormalities resulting in difficulty to deliver such fetuses because of their altered shape. Hydrocephalus, ascites, anasarca and hydrothorax are the most common diseases of fetus resulting in dystocia. The most common cause of dystocia in cattle seems to be fetal maldispositions, of which limb flexion and head deviation appear to be the most frequent (Purohit et al., 2012).The most common causes of dystocia in dairy cattle results from maternal and foetal factors. Foeto-pelvic incompatibility (FPI) is the most common reason for dystocia which results from a physical incompatibility between the pelvic size of the mother and the size of the calf at birth (Meijering, 1984;Mee, 2008). This is highly influenced by the weight and morphology of the dam and the calf, respectively. The pelvic area available at birth is affected by the size of pelvis and fatness of the dam which might partially obstruct the birth canal. The calf's physical factors such as a calf of a big size or mal-presentation contribute to a size of mismatch between the calf and the dam. These morphological factors also depends on different variables including age, breed and parity of the dam, twinning, the sex and weight of the calf, the sire and breed of the calf as well as the nutrition of the dam during gestation (Meijering, 1984;Hickson et al., 2006;Mee, 2008;Zaborski et al., 2009;Hossein-Zadeh, 2010). Lack of uterine contractions (weak labour), incomplete dilation of the cervix and vagina due to stenosis (narrowing and stiffening of the tissue) and uterine torsion are other causes of dystocia exhibiting repelling force to expel a calf during delivery. Hormonal imbalances such as reduction in plasmatic oestradiol concentration, high levels of oestradiol-17ß at parturition or high ratios of cortisol to progesterone are risk factors for the lack of uterine contractions. The hormonal imbalances in the uterus reduce the expression of oxytocin receptors in the uterus by changing the preparation of the soft tissues resulting in weak uterine contractions and weak dilatation of soft tissues (Sorge et al., 2008).Pyometra is defined as an accumulation of pus in the uterus resulting in infertility and postpartum anoestrus (Ael-G and Fahmy, 2011).In cows; the presence of persistent corpus luteum could be associated with pyometra. In cattle, infectious causes of pyometra includes Campylobacter spp, Staphylococcus spp and Streptococcus spp bacteria, as well as protozoa including Tritrichomonas spp and Brucella spp (Foldi et al., 2006).The common clinical signs are decreased milk yield, dullness or other signs of toxemia, including fever and purulent vaginal discharge. Laboratory tests showing a leucocytosis may help to establish a diagnosis (Sheldon et al., 2006). Administration of PGF2α or its analogs at normal luteolytic doses and Lavage of the uterus using large volumes of fluid are the appropriate treatments, but the condition frequently recurs, and permanent cure in these cases requires hysterectomy.Retention of placenta is the inability of fetal membrane to be expelled within 8 hrs after parturition and ranging of the retention from 8 to 48 hours post partum (Beagley et al., 2010). The normal physiological stages of birth during parturition include dilatation of parturient canal, delivery of the fetus and expulsion of the fetal membranes. In normal condition, fetal membranes are usually expelled within two to eight hours of parturition.Any retention of fetal membranes beyond 12 hours could be considered as pathological (Wetherill, 1965). The incidence of retained placenta varies from 4-18% of calving (Paisley et al., 1986;Eiler, 1997;Noakes et al., 2001). The uterus normally contracts approximately fourteen times an hour immediately following parturition but the frequency gradually diminishes to once every hour at 42 hours. Delayed involution of the uterus is usually associated with retention of membranes. Retained placenta had a significant negative effect on milk yield for several weeks after calving (Rajala and Gröhn, 1998;Lucey et al., 1986). The interval from calving to first service and conception were higher in the retained placenta and increases the risk of fatty liver syndrome and ketosis (Han and Kim, 2005).Retained placenta delays the postpartum resumption of cyclic ovarian function and prolongs the interval from calving to first ovulation (Opsomer et al., 2000). Early or induced parturition, dystocia, hormonal imbalances, and immune-suppression are risk factors in interrupting the normal process resulting in retention of the placenta. Systemic administration of antibiotics can be beneficial in treating metritis and collagenase injection enhances placenta release during fetal retention (Beagley et al., 2010).Uterine prolapse is a non-hereditary abnormal complication of the uterus usually expressed as expulsion of the uterus through the vulva to the outside of the body which is occurring immediately after parturition and occasionally up to several hours afterwards (Roberts, 1971;Cuneo et al., 1993). Gustafsson et al. (2004) also defines uterine prolapse as a protrusion of the uterus from the vulva with the mucosal surface exposed.Uterine prolapsed occurs in the third stage oof labour when fetus is expelled and fetal cotyledons separated from the maternal caruncles (Noakes et al., 2001). Uterine prolapse is a common complication of the third stage of labour in the cow during parturition (Joseph et al., 2001). Uterine prolapse is generally a complete inversion of the gravid cornua in ruminants (Arthur et al., 1996).Uterine prolapse is a one the most common obstetrical problem, affecting productive and reproductive performance of cattle by reducing postpartum return to estrus, conception rate and calving interval in dairy cattle (Kumar and Yasotha, 2015). Uterine prolapse is one of the most important complications associated with calving in dairy cows. Uterine prolapsed is usually associated with hypocalcaemia or milk fever, poor uterine tone, increased straining, weight of the retained fetal membrane, tympany and excessive estrogen content in the feed (Jackson, 2004;Hanie, 2006;Kumar and Yasotha,2015).Cows recovered from uterine prolapse can become pregnant with a post operative fertility rate of 40-60% (Tyagi and Singh, 2002) when treatment is successful. The successful treatment in uterine prolapsed cases depends on type of case, duration of case, degree of damage and contamination. Administration of injectable broad spectrum antibiotics(Ceftiofur sodium 2mg/kg) for three to five days after replacement of the prolapsed uterus can prevent secondary bacterial infection (Hosie, 1993;Plunkett, 2000;Borobia-Belsue, 2006) so that prolapsed animals could become properly recovered from the problem and can conceive again without problems.Anoestrus is defined as failure of cows to exhibit overt estrus but is more commonly a problem with estrus detection (Johnson, 2008). The anoestrus is usually associated with the presence of inactive ovaries even in the presence of follicular development where none of the growing follicles become mature enough to ovulate (Montiel and Ahuja, 2005). Anoestrus is categorized in to four clinical forms: silent heat; cystic ovarian disease; ovarian afunction and corpus luteum pseudo-graviditatis (Mwaanga and Janowski, 2000;Zdunczyk et al., 2002). Anestrus is a result of managerial, physiological, pathological and nutritional factors. These factors include age, breed, pre-and postpartum nutrition, body condition at calving, milk yield, suckling, calving season, presence or absence of the bull, delayed uterine involution, dystocia and general health status influence duration of postpartum anoestrus (Short et al., 1990;Yavas and Walton, 2000;Webb et al., 2004;Hess et al., 2005;Montiel and Ahuja, 2005;Peter et al., 2009). The incidence of post partum anoestrus (10-40%) varies from herd to herd as reported by many researchers (Martinez and Thibier, 1984;Mwanga and Janowski, 2000;Zdunczyk et al., 2002). Treatment of anoestrous depends on cause, diagnostic facility, availability and efficiency of drugs, response of the animal to the drug, dose of administration and health status of the animal.Reproductive efficiency is one of the most important factors impacting the profitability of the cow-calf operation and is largely dependent on maintaining a short breeding and calving season and increasing calf crop in the dairy farms (Ahmadzadeh et al., 2011).The high economic loss to the dairy industry occurs due to slower uterine involution during parturition, reduced reproductive rate, prolonged inter-conception and calving interval, negative effect on fertility, increased cost of medication, drop in milk production, reduced calf crop and early depreciation of potentially useful cows (Gebremariam,1996;Lobago et al., 2006). Studies on major reproductive problems of cattle in different parts of the country has shown the presence of the reproductive problems (Shiferaw et al., 2005;Haftu and Gashaw, 2009;Bitew and Shiv, 2011;Dinka, 2013). The study conducted by Haftu and Gashaw (2009) on major clinical reproductive health problems of 217 dairy cows in and around Bako of West Ethiopia showed that 30.4% of the total dairy cows affected with one or more clinical reproductive problems.A study of the major reproductive health disorders of dairy cows in ILCA and Almaz dairy farms in Ada'a district, Debre Zeit town in East Shoa showed that 37.1% of them had at least one of the reproductive disorders (Esheti and Moges, 2014). Other study conducted in Addis Ababa Milk shed on major reproductive disorders in cross breed dairy cows under small holding indicated that an overall observed prevalence of 67.8% of reproductive health problems (Haile et al., 2010).A study conducted by Dinka (2013) showed that 18.3% of dairy cattle have been affectedby either one or more reproductive disorders based on questionnaire interviews in and around Assella in Central Ethiopia. A retrospective study by Hadush et al. (2013) revealed that 44.3% of the cows were found with major prepartum and postpartum reproductive problem from 711 cows in three selected farms in Debre Zeit town. Another study conducted by questionnaire and observational survey in urban and per urban area of Hossana indicated that 43.07% of prevalence on major reproductive health problems of dairy cattle (Haile et al., 2014). A study in and around Bedelle showed a prevalence of 26.5% of reproductive problems in South west Ethiopia (Bitew and Shiv ,2011) and 8.7% and 18.3% abortion and retained fatal membrane respectively in selected sites of Arsi zone (Degefa et al., 2011). A prevalence of 40.3% was reported at Kombolcha town in Noth east Ethiopia by Dawit and Ahmed (2013). A study conducted by Gizaw et al. (2007) and Benti and Zewdie (2014)   (Gizaw et al., 2007). In order to reduce these problems formulation of strategic control measures, including health education about the disease transmission, treatment and control has to be introduced to reduce reproductive wastage and their risks factors (Dinka, 2013).Brucellosis is a bacterial disease of animals and humans caused by the genus Brucella.Brucella abortus is a contagious disease of cattle, but occasionally sheep, swine, dogs and horses may also be affected. In horses, Brucella abortus together with Actinomyces bovis is commonly present in poll evil and fistulous withers (Roberts, 1971;Radostits et al., 2000).In cattle and other Bovidae, Brucella is usually transmitted from animal to animal by contact following an abortion, pasture or animal barn contamination, ingestion, inhalation, conjunctival inoculation, skin contamination udder inoculation from infected milking cups and the use of pooled colostrums for feeding newborn calves. Sexual transmission and artificial insemination can transmit the disease and semen must only be collected from animals known to be free of brucella infection (FAO, OIE and WHO, 2006).Brucellosis in cattle is primarily caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus, which is one of six species of the genus Brucella. The risk associated with exposure of susceptible animals to the disease following parturition or abortion of infected cattle depends on three factors: the number of organisms excreted, the survival of these organisms under the existing environmental condition and the probability of susceptible animals being exposed to enough organisms to establish infection. B. abortus achieves its greatest concentration in the contents of the pregnant uterus, the fetus and the fetal membranes after birth (Radostits et al., 2000).In animals, B. abortus is usually transmitted from infected animals to healthy animals by contact with the placenta, fetus, fetal fluids and vaginal discharges. Infected animals after abortion or full-term parturition could be infectious for the other healthy animals. B. abortus may also be present in the milk, urine, semen, feces and hygroma fluids.Shedding in milk may be prolonged or lifelong, and can be intermittent. Many infected cattle can become chronic carriers. Infection with B. abortus can also be transmitted by ingestion or through mucous membranes or through broken skin. Mammary gland is usually colonized during the course of an infection and may be infected by direct contact because of subsequent shedding of the organisms in the milk (CFSPH, 2009).Humans are infected from drinking raw or un-pasteurized infected milk, from exposure to infected discharges or tissues (Roberts, 1971) cells, in the cell-mediated immune response to Brucella has not been elucidated. Further studies are also needed to determine the basic processes underlying the development of protective immunity to Brucella in the natural host species (WHO, 1986;WHO, 1997, Tolosa, 2004).2.1.9.6.Brucellosis has a worldwide distribution and poses a major threat to sub-Saharan countries including Ethiopia (FAO, 2009). It is one of the economically important disease in livestock and people in this region. Brucellosis has a considerable impact on animal and human health, as well as wide socio-economic impacts, especially in countries in which rural income relies largely on livestock breeding and dairy products.  , 2005). Brucellosis should be suspected in flocks and herds when abortions and stillbirths occur in the late term pregnancies without concurrent illness (Radostits et al., 2008;CFSPH and OIE, 2009). In male, localization in the testis, epididymis and accessory sex organs is common, and bacteria may be shed in the semen. This may result in acute orchitis and epididymitis and later in infertility.Arthritis is also observed occasionally in both sexes. Animals generally abort once, although reinvasion of the uterus occurs in subsequent pregnancies and Brucella organisms are shed with the membranes and fluids. In cattle, the consequences of B.abortus include abortions, stillbirths, retention of placenta and weak calves. Retention of placenta and metritis are common sequels to abortion (Walker, 1999). Females usually abort only once, presumably due to acquired immunity. In general, abortion with retention of the placenta and the resultant metritis may cause prolonged calving interval and permanent infertility.The important signs of brucellosis especially to bulls are Epididymitis, seminal vesiculitis (Weidmann, 1991), orchitis and testicular abscesses. Infertility occurs in males and females due to orchitis /epididymitis or metritis respectively. Hygromas on the leg joints of brucella infected animal is a typical sign of the disease which is resulted due to chronic infection with Br. abortus (Walker, 1999). Arthritis can develop after long-term infections. Systemic signs do not usually occur in uncomplicated infections, and deaths are common in the fetus or newborn (CFSPH, 2009).Following exposure, Brucella penetrates intact mucosal surfaces, and survives and multiplies in cells of the reticuloendothelial system, such as the bone marrow, lymph nodes, liver, spleen, and also kidney (Isselbacher et al., 1980;Walker, 1999).Multiplication of the organisms here may last for several months, resolve itself, or be recurrent for at least two years in 5-10% of animals. Recurrence occurs particularly at the time of parturition. During the bacteraemia, organisms are carried intracellularly in neutrophils and macrophages or free in the plasma and localize in various organs, especially the gravid uterus, udder, and suprammamary lymph nodes. Localization may also occur in other lymph nodes and the spleen, testes, and male accessory sex glands.Occasionally bacterial localization occurs in synovial structures causing a purulent tendovaginitis, arthritis, or bursitis (Bishop et al., 1994). The preferential localization to the reproductive tract of the pregnant animals is due to the presence of unknown factors in the gravid uterus. These are collectively referred to as allantoic fluid factors that would stimulate the growth of Brucella. Erythritol, a four-carbon alcohol, is considered to be one of these factors (Walker, 1999) which are elevated in the placenta and fetal fluid from about the fifth month of gestation (Bishop et al., 1994). The preferential replication of Br. abortus in the extraplacentomal site within trophoblasts of the chorioallantoic membrane results in rupture of the cells and ulceration of the fetal membrane. The damage to placental tissue together with fetal infection and fetal stress will induce maternal hormonal changes. As a result, abortion occurs principally in the last three months of pregnancy, the incubation period being inversely proportional to the stage of development of the fetus at the time of infection (Radostits et al., 2000;Tolosa, 2004).The isolation and identification of Brucella offers a definitive diagnosis of brucellosis. It is useful for epidemiological purposes and to monitor the progress of a vaccination programmes in animals (FAO, OIE and WHO, 2006). The method of diagnosis includes the following:2.1.9.9.1. Direct diagnosisThe disease can be confirmed by demonstration of the bacteria in smears. The smears made from vaginal discharges, placenta, colostrum, foetal stomach fluid or of the aborting cow's lochia, and the abomasum of the aborted fetus using the modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain (MZN) (Kusiluka et al., 1996;AHA, 2005;FAO, OIE and WHO, 2006).Impression smears may be taken from freshly cut and blotted tissue surfaces, e.g. cotyledons, by firmly pressing the slide surface against the tissue. Allow to air dry and heat fix. Smears may be made of foetal stomach fluid, cotyledons or lochia and stained with the modified Ziehl-Nielsen stain or Stamp stain. In MZN-stained smears the bacteria appear as red intracellular coccobacilli whereas most other bacteria stain blue.All Brucella strains are relatively slow growing, and because the specimens from which isolations best attempted are frequently heavily contaminated, the use of a selective medium, e.g. Farrell's medium is advocated. This very sensitive test is used to screen serum samples. It does not differentiate between field and S19 vaccine strain reactions, but is quick, inexpensive and easy to perform.False negative reactions are rare but may sometimes be due to excessive heating in storage or in transit. RBPT has a sensitivity of 98.3% and specificity of 68.8% (Morgan et al., 1969;Dohoo et al., 1996). Positive reactions should be investigated using suitable confirmatory and/or complementary strategies (including the performance of other tests and an epidemiological investigation) (IBM, 2013).The CFT is the most widely used test for the serological confirmation of brucellosis in animals. The CFT is both sensitive and specific, in the hands of experienced users, and is used as a definitive (confirmatory) blood serum test. In most cases, the CFT is used on RBPT positive sera, but like the RBPT, it is also affected to a large extent by the misuse of strain 19vaccine, particularly when recent or repetitive vaccinations have been used in sexually mature heifers and cows. It is almost impossible to prescribe strict cut-off readings that indicate infection particularly when S19 vaccination reactions play a role due to its misuse. The CFT is a relatively complex test. The reagents include B. abortus CFT antigen, complement, amboceptor (haemolysin), ovine erythrocytes and test serum with Veronal buffer as the diluents (WHO, 2006; IBM, 2013).The treatment of brucellosis in the cow has generally been unsuccessful because of the intracellular sequestration of the organisms in lymph nodes, the mammary gland, and reproductive organs and the bacteria are facultative intracellular which survive and multiply within the cells (Radostits et al., 2000;Tolosa, 2004) Extensive system in Ethiopia covers 95% of the cattle farming. In the last 4 decades, several serological surveys have showed that bovine brucellosis is an endemic and widespread disease in the country. These studies showed that high incidence of brucellosis in pastoral and mixed livestock production systems where people live very closely with livestock and thus, are at higher risk of acquiring the disease (Berhe et al., 2007). The evidences of Brucella infections in Ethiopian cattle have been serologically evaluated in different parts of the country by different authors (Berhe et al., 2007;Tolosa et al., 2008;Asmare et al., 2010;Haileselassie et al., 2010Haileselassie et al., ,2011;;Adugna et al., 2013).According to some reports, Brucella seroprevalence is higher in intensive farming system than within extensive cattle rearing systems. In Borena Zone of Oromia Region, the highest seroprevalence (50%) was documented using ELISA in Didituyura Ranch (Alem and Solomon, 2002). Tolosa et al. (2008) reported overall individual animal prevalence and herd prevalence of 0.77 and 2.9%, respectively in Jimma Zone. Reports from North West, Tigray region (Haileselassie et al., 2010) and Southern Sidama Zone (Asmare et al., 2010), recorded an overall prevalence of 1.2 and 1.66% following screening 848 and 1627 cattle from extensive system, respectively. Another study conducted on cattle brucellosis in traditional husbandry practice from 1623 cattle sera in southern and eastern Ethiopia showed that 3.5% of the animals and 26.1% of the herds were tested positive (Megersa et al., 2011). The zone with its capital in the ancient city of Aksum encompasses ten districts. The zone has the largest human population in the region. The farming system of the study area is largely characterized by mixed crop-livestock production system, which is in turn grossly divided into the lowland and highland parts.Source: LIVES, 2013. For the purpose of the study cross sectional study using different approaches namely questionnaire survey to assess the perception of farmers on major reproductive problems of dairy cattle, retrospective data to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of major reproductive disorders of dairy cattle and serum sample collection from dairy cattle to assess the prevalence of brucellosis and its risk factors were deployed. During the assessments data on reproductive history of the study cows were collected from the farm records or owners. In the retrospective study, information on reproductive disorders as well as management system and particulars related to individual cow such as parity, breed, age, body condition, herd size, herd type, mating system used, lactation status, pregnancy status, sanitation and history of reproductive problem in 265 cattle were documented. The risk factors such parity, breed, age, body condition, herd size, herd type, mating system used, lactation status, pregnancy status ,sanitation and history of reproductive problem was evaluated as to associate with one of the reproductive health problems of dairy cows namely brucellosis.The study population consisted of cattle that were managed under the extensive, semi intensive and intensive production systems in each district. The cattle under study comprise of the local and cross breeds with no history of vaccination against brucellosis.In both sexes all animals greater than six month age were included in the cross sectional study.For sample size determination the 95% of level of confidence and absolute precision of the 5% was used. Since the previous prevalence report of 4.9% prevalence of bovine brucella infection in Western Tigray region was reported by Haileselassie et al. (2010), the current sample size calculation used the reported prevalence for the sample size determination. Hence using the Formula stated by Thrustfield ( 2007) the calculated sample for the current study becomes 72 heads of cattle; however a total of 414 serum samples from both sexes having different ages were sampled to increase the precision of the result. It was computed with the expected precision at 5 and at 95% confidence interval. The sample size was 72 (Thursfield, 2007); however a total of 414 serum samples of both sexes and different ages were sampled to increase the precision of the result.N= 1.96 2 (P) (1-P)Where N= Total calculated sample size P= expected prevalence d= absolute precisionMultistage sampling method was used in the study. Districts, peasant associations, flocks and animal were the primary, secondary, third and fourth units respectively. At each stage, sampling units were selected randomly (Dohoo et al., 2003). From each district, two peasant associations (PA's) were taken using purposive sampling. A total of 200 herds with an average herd size of 5 (ranging from 1 to18), were randomly sampled.Simple random sampling was used to sample individual cattle from selected herds of the PA's. A total of 414 animals were sampled, 149 from Ahferom, 128 from Adwa and 137 from Laelay Maichew districts. Male animals above six months of age and females of age 2year and above kept for breeding purpose was selected from the sampled herds.A total of 414 cattle under different management system were included in this study during the period September 2014 to April 2015. Classification of management systems was done based on the criteria adopted by Richard (1993). Accordingly, semi-intensive system included all animals that were kept in door and fed and watered in their house/shade by cut and carry system while intensive system covers all animals which were kept in closed housing system and feed concentrated as well as mixed feed.Extensive management system included all animals that were kept out-door during the day time and allowed to graze on a communal or private owned pasture land. Of the 414 cattle, 218 were local /zebu breeds whereas the remaining 196 were cross breeds.Body condition of the study animals was scored based on the criteria set by Richard (1993), which ranged from 0 to 5. Body condition score 0 stands for cows with the poorest body condition while score 5 for cows with the best condition. Heifer that has age of 2year and above was included in the study.A total of 120 owners and/or attendants of cattle were randomly selected and interviewed using structured questionnaire. The questionnaire survey on the households/cattle owners or attendants was conducted to determine the prevalence of reproductive problems and their linkage to brucellosis sero-positivity. The questionnaire was designed to collect information on factors that are believed to be a risk factor for Brucella infection and for the other reproductive problems. In addition the clinical indicators such as history of abortion, testicular swelling and other reproductive problems were interviewed and recorded. Based on their cattle production availability, two sites (PA's) was purposively selected from each of three districts of LIVES project sites for questionnaire administration. The questionnaire was administered using face to face interview of respondents.At MRAHDIL, Mekelle, Ethiopia, the RBPT was employed as a screening test on the serum samples for the presence of brucella agglutinins and the degree of positivity was recorded using agglutinations observed during the test of sera using RBPT. During the test animals were considered as positive if there is agglutination reaction of the serum sample with the antigen but if there is no agglutination reaction the animals were considered as test negative.The protocol of RBPT was used as screening test to test the presence of Brucella antibody in the sampled sera at MRAHDIL. The antigen was obtained from Institut Pourquier, rue de la Galera 34097 Montpellier, France. The test was performed according to manufacturer's protocol. Before performing test, antigen and sera was brought to room temperature (+4c 0 ) for half an hour, since active materials straight from the refrigerator react poorly. One drop (0.03 ml) of serum was taken on a glass slide by micropipette. The antigen bottle was shaken well to ensure homogenous suspension and then one drop (0.03 ml) of Rose Bengal antigen will be added. The antigen and serum was mixed thoroughly with using an applicator stick and then the slide was rocked by hand for four minutes.The tests were read immediately after four minutes by examining for agglutination in a good light. Magnifying glass was used to read micro agglutination when suspected.Those samples with no agglutination was recorded as negative while those with +, ++ and +++ was recorded as positive (Appendix IV).The collected data were recorded in Microsoft excel spread sheet and coded properly.The coded data were transferred on to SPSS version 20. For the data analysis descriptive statistics were deployed and to test the association between the risk factors with the occurrence of the disease Chi-square statistics was used. To test the association between the disease and the possible risk factors, the point brucellosis prevalence rate was calculated by dividing the number of RBPT positive animals by the total number of animals tested. Similarly, prevalence of the other reproductive problems was calculated by dividing cows with history of positivity to reproductive problem cases to the total cows inspected. The questionnaire survey on farmer's perception was calculated by descriptive analysis (Thrustfield, 2007).The present result indicated that respondents having of different age groups with the maximum age of 70 and minimum age of 28 with average mean age of 50.0+ 0.9 years were included. Out of the respondents 86.7% of them were males and 13.3% females.Out of the total households interviewed, 98.3% are cattle owners, 56.7% sheep owners, 36.7% goat owners and 77.5% poultry owners. With regard to educational status, among the respondents 44.2% had not received education, while 42.5% were attended from grade 1 to grade 7. More specifically, 10.8% and 2.5% of the respondents had attended from grade 8-12 and greater than grade12 respectively. The respondents reported 54.2% communal type and 45.7% small scale commercial type of farming system were used in the selected sites of the study areas (Table 4). According to the survey result 63.3%, 5% and 31.7% were in rural, urban and peri-urban household classification. Majority of the sample respondents practice intensive production system (56.7%). Others, 29.2% and 14.2% of the respondents practice semi intensive and extensive production system, respectively. Most of the respondents (46.7%) reported herd trend increment (Table5). Most of the respondents (53.3%) breed their animals using artificial insemination (AI) while 17.5%,13.3%,11.7% and 4.2% were used uncontrolled mating, hand mating, group mating and both hand mating and AI , respectively. Majority of the interviewed respondents (79.2%) were mentioned their access to government veterinary clinics where as 9.2%, 10.8% and 0.8% had access to private veterinary shop, extension service and no service, respectively(Table 6). of the farmers (96.7%) had no knowledge of isolating aborted animal from others. Some of the respondents indicated the consumption of raw milk (13.3%) and raw meat (18.3%).The farmers have habit of assisting cows during parturition (41.7%) but assisting with bare hand (84.2%) is practiced in the community. The questionnaire survey showed that most of the respondents had only little knowledge about the transmission of brucellosis when assisting parturition and the farmer's perception on the cause of the disease is about 29.2%. Most of the respondents (55.8%) have awareness on the transmission of brucellosis by drinking raw milk to humans (Table 7). In the retrospective study, a total of 265 dairy cows were examined for the presence of reproductive health problems based on cow's history obtained from the owner and record books during the last two years. The dairy cows under this study were local and crossbred kept under different management system. Accordingly, 70, 23 and 173 dairy cows were kept under extensive, semi intensive and intensive production system respectively. The number of animals sampled across the three locations based on parity level is described as in Table 8. A retrospective study, from a total of 265 cattle were assessed and recorded from all the three production systems during the last two years from March 2013 to March 2015.Results revealed 51(19.3%) were found to be affected with the major reproductive problems. The results of the study shown in Table 9 indicated that repeat breeding (9.1%) anoestrus (4.2%) and abortion (3.8%) were found to be the major reproductive problems.The other reproductive problems found with lower frequency were RFM (1.1%), pyometra (0.8%) and uterine prolapse (0.4%) in selected sites of Central zone of Tigrai region. In these study risk factors such as breed, location, lactation status, pregnancy status, system of production, age, parity, body condition score, mating system, herd size, herd type, housing system and sanitation were assessed and their association with reproductive problems were presented on the tables below.Reproductive problems showed a statistically significant association (p<0.05) with respect to breed. Higher prevalence of reproductive health related problems were found in local cattle than the cross breed. The present study revealed that there is highly significant association (p<0.05) of reproductive problems with location and lactation status where highest prevalence of reproductive problems with location was found in Adwa followed by Laelay Maichew, while the lowest in Ahferom. Significantly higher prevalence of reproductive problems was observed in non lactating cows than lactating cows.Pregnancy status had no statistically significant association (p>0.05) on reproductive problems. Higher prevalence was recorded in non pregnant cows than pregnant dairy cows (Table 10). There was no statistically significant association (p>0.05) of production system with the prevalence of reproductive problems. Highest prevalence was found in extensive production system (22.9%), followed by intensive production system (18.6%) and lowest in semi intensive system (13.0%) of production.The influence of age on the prevalence of major reproductive problems was assessed and the result showed that there was significant association (p<0.05) with respect to age. The prevalence was significantly highest in cows with greater than 6 year's age group (29.7%) followed by 3 to 6 years age group (23.2) while the lowest in less than three years age (6.7%) as indicated (Table 11) . Parity number had highly significant effect (p<0.01) on the prevalence of major reproductive problems and the effect progressively increased its prevalence from heifer (6.9%) to the sixth parity (55.6%). The significantly higher prevalence of major reproductive problems was found in the sixth parity. The prevalence rate of major reproductive problems increased from heifers to older cows with respect to parity number (Table 12). Reproductive problems were assessed with respect to body condition score of dairy cattle and there was highly significant association (p<0.05) between the prevalence rate of reproductive problems and body condition of the cows. The prevalence was higher in body conditioned score 1or lean (25.0%) followed by body condition score 5 or fat body conditioned animals (Table 13).Mating system has a significant (p<0.05) effect on the prevalence rate of major reproductive problems, where the prevalence rate of the reproductive problem is significantly higher in natural mating (24.2%) when compared with that of artificial insemination (Table 13). Reproductive problems were assessed in relation to herd type of the study animals and their association was found to be statistically significant (p<0.05). The mixed herd type (23.1%) revealed significantly higher prevalence of reproductive problems than single herd type (18.0%). Similarly, herd size had a significant influence (p<0.05) on the overall prevalence of reproductive problems where herd size with 6 to 10 animals were having significantly higher reproductive problems than others. Housing system showed highly significant effect (p<0.05) on the occurrence of reproductive problems. A significantly higher prevalence of reproductive problems was also observed in semi open housing system (25.0%). On the other hand, sanitation of the farms did not show a significant difference (p>0.05) on the occurrence of reproductive problems of the animals (Table14). the sero-positivity between the breeds of animals. Thus, the prevalence of local breeds and cross breed animals was compared in Table 15. The sero prevalence of local as well as crossbred cattle was found to be 0.0% in all of the three districts/locations. The prevalence of brucellosis of both the age category and sex of the study animals was 0.0%.Generally, the prevalence and frequency distribution of risk factors were summarized in the following tables (Table15, Table16 and Table17).   The educational status attained by majority of the respondents was low which falls between illiterate and grade7. In agreement to this study, Asaminew and Eyassu (2009) reported low educational level of households in Bahir Dar Zuria and Mecha Woredas, North western Ethiopia. This low level of educational status may lead to reduced production of dairy farms because of low use of dairy innovations such as cultivation of improved forages, breeding techniques and use of modern dairy farming in the study area.The present findings using the questionnaire survey in this study revealed the occurrence of the major reproductive problems were mainly repeat breeding, anoestrus, abortion and RFM. The lack of knowledge on breeding and disease transmission, faulty insemination or heat detection, shortage of feed, problems in semen handling and insemination techniques, lack of awareness on isolation of aborted animal from healthy animals and inability of the cattle owners to use protective gloves when assisting parturition could possibly be associated with the high prevalence rate of reproductive problems.Majority of the sample respondents practice intensive production system (56.7%).Others, 29.2% and 14.2% of the respondents practice semi intensive and extensive production system, respectively. Most of the respondents revealed that their cattle were managed under intensive and semi intensive management system. This could reduce the transmission of diseases and improves animal management. Most of the respondents (53.3%) breed their animals using AI. It was found that the use of artificial insemination is high and this may possibly prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases especially brucellosis among the flocks in the area.The retrospective study revealed that a total of 265 animals were examined during the study period of which 51 animals showed to be affected by the reproductive problems with an overall prevalence rate of 19.3%. The prevalence of major reproductive problems reported in the current study was lower than the values reported by Gizaw et al. (2007) 37.76% in Nazareth town of central Ethiopia, Esheti and Moges (2014)  The results of current study showed that prevalence of pyometra was 0.8%. These results are lower than the finding of Simenew et al. (2011) who reported the prevalence rate of 1.6% at Sululta Slaughterhouse in Ethiopia. The differences could be attributed to microbial infections, management and animal age.Analysis of the prevalence of major reproductive problems revealed that breed had statistically significant association and a higher (21.2%) prevalence rate of major reproductive problem was obtained in local breed cows than the cross breeds (18.1%) in contrary to the previous reports (Bitew and Shiv,2011;Dawit and Ahmed,2013). The higher reproductive problems in local breed cows is possibly due to the cross breeds included in the study are having at most 50% Holstein Friesian blood type and this could help them to adapt the tropical weather conditions and have better management than the local breeds.The variation of the reproductive health problems of dairy cattle in different districts showed that showed that high significant association (p<0.05) among the different districts were observed with highest (31.3%) prevalence rate of major reproductive problem in Adwa district followed by Laelay Maichew district (24.7%) and lowest in Ahferom district (6.6%) in contrary with the finding of Benti and Zewdie (2014). This variation could be due to difference in agro ecology, animal husbandry management and extension services.Lactation status revealed a highly significant association (p<0.05) on the occurrence rate of major reproductive problems. This revealed that non lactating cows could be more susceptible to the reproductive problems than lactating cows. This might be due to better management of lactating animals and they may attribute to develop good body defense than dry cows. Even though a slightly higher prevalence rate was observed in non pregnant cows as compared to the pregnant dairy cows, there was no statistically significant association between pregnancy status and reproductive health problems.The study indicated an increased reproductive problem in animals managed extensively than those managed under intensive and semi intensive management practice, but there is no significant association between the production system and reproductive problems. The current finding is in line with the report of Haftu and Gashaw (2009). This could be due to lack of records, faulty heat detection, poor nutrition and management in the extensive production system.A statistically significant effect was found between reproductive problems and age. A higher prevalence rate of reproductive problems was observed in these cattle its age greater than 6 years age (29.7%) followed by 3 to 6 years of age when compared to the less than3 years of age cows in contrary to the report of Esheti and Moges (2014). This result is in accordance with the incidence of reproductive problems reported with respect to age by Benti and Zewdie (2014).Parity number showed highly significant association with the occurrence of reproductive health problems in the sixth parity (55.6%) than heifers. This work is similar to the previous findings by Dinka (2013), Hadush et al. (2013), andHaile et al. (2014). The effect of parity number on the occurrence of reproductive problems is probably due to repeated exposure of the genital tract to environmental factors which result in increased uterine infections. Longer recovery time from pregnancy, lactation stress and the low feed intake capacity of the older cows could also be other reasons for this variation.A highly significant association was indicated between body condition score and reproductive problems in poor body condition cattle (25.0%) being more susceptible, followed by fattened and medium body condition. This finding is in agreement with reports of Haftu and Gashaw (2009) and Benti and Zewdie (2014). On the other hand the current finding contradicts with the report of Gashaw et al. (2011).This difference may be due to animals with poor body condition have poor body defense mechanism, high infection rate during parturition because of weak expulsive force to deliver the fetus and fetal membranes leading to secondary bacterial complications. Cows with fattened body conditions were more susceptible to infections and metabolic problems which expose them to have difficult calving, retention of placenta and uterine infections. In conclusion, very poor body condition might be an indication of improper animal management, diseases and nutritional imbalances (Benti and Zewdie, 2014).Mating system significantly (p<0.05) influences the occurrence of overall reproductive health problems. Animals that use natural mating system were more susceptible to reproductive health problems at 24.2% than using AI (17.2%). This could be due to easy access of reproductive diseases to the genital tract is common in natural mating than AI and management problems as a whole.A statistically significant effect was observed between herd type and reproductive problems with mixed herd type to be more prevalent in reproductive problems than single type. This is probably being due to high transmission of diseases and lower management practices as a whole in mixed herd type. A significant association of herd size was obtained in herd size of 6 to 10 heads of cattle with 29.6% prevalence when compared with herd size of 1 to 5 and greater than 10 heads of cattle. This finding is inconsistent with the report of Haile et al. (2010).The management aspects evaluated by housing system was found to have highly significant influence on the overall reproductive problems in the study area. This result is similar to the previous finding of Haile et al. (2010). Even though a slightly higher prevalence rate was found in good sanitation, there was no significant association between sanitation and reproductive health problems. This fairly agrees with the finding of Hadush et al. (2013). On the other side, the present result is on the contrary with the report of Haile et al. (2010). The difference in the management aspects could be due toThe current study revealed the high prevalence rate of reproductive health problems in ","tokenCount":"9673"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"369a67a1e6ef7d872cfbcf3f9f91388a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bfa65258-6aa7-49b6-83d6-e9e86c8b226c/retrieve","id":"-71269904"},"keywords":["March 24","11:00-12:15 EDT Get involved NEXUS Gains: Realizing Multiple Benefits Across Water","Energy","Food and Ecosystems"],"sieverID":"16228368-9f6f-44c4-8811-ec5bd3344438","pagecount":"5","content":"As the CGIAR Initiative on NEXUS Gains completes its first successful year the team has been reflecting on progress and next steps. In all basins we have created strong relationships with decision makers and stakeholders across the water, energy, food and environment nexus. We have worked with these groups to develop tools, such as the Nexus Capacity Scorecard below, which can support them to apply a systems approach, minimizing trade-offs and maximizing synergies in natural resources management.We have also helped countries, institutions and individuals to increase capacity for implementing a systems approach, especially for those underrepresented in decisionmaking, such as women and youth. And following this month's International Women's Day, we are pleased to add a new section to this newsletter, showcasing how our team is working to help achieve gender equality, a facet that is embedded in all our work and is crucial for the success of the systems approach.Researchers from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in Pakistan have developed a 'Nexus Capacity Scorecard' -an innovative survey tool to capture institutional capacity for implementing systems solutions across three domains: knowledge, awareness and skills; enabling an institutional environment; and institutional learning, collaboration and knowledge sharing. The tool will be used as part of a capacity assessment to establish a baseline understanding of government and institutional capacity and needs. The data collected will help track capacity scores throughout the three planned phases of the Initiative. A similar tool has been developed specifically for academic institutions. In addition, the team is conducting focus group discussions with female government professionals working in water, energy, food and environmental agencies to learn more about the experiences of women in these sectors.A workshop on groundwater governance in Nepal, organized by the Groundwater Resources Development Board in collaboration with NEXUS Gains and IWMI, took place on January 13, 2023. The objectives of the workshop were to engage with relevant stakeholders on the governance of groundwater in the federal context of the country, and discuss resulting challenges and opportunities for policy, jurisdiction and implementation. The workshop brought together government officials, development partners, and research and civil society organizations to discuss the future direction of the formal groundwater governance structure in the country based on preliminary research findings.A workshop for early career researchers was held from November 7 to 11, 2022, in South Africa. Organized by NEXUS Gains in partnership with the University of KwaZulu-Natal's Centre for Transformative Agricultural and Food Systems, the event brought together researchers from various disciplines and institutions around the world to discuss their work on sustainable and healthy food systems. The workshop aimed to promote knowledge and skills sharing to support participants' research and professional growth. Mentoring sessions covered self-awareness, publishing and career paths, and enabled discussion of the challenges faced by women in science. After fruitful discussions at the workshop, participants decided to develop a common understanding of the capacities and duties of food systems researchers and the resilience of food systems with the aim of publishing an opinion piece in a peer-reviewed journal.Though rarely acknowledged, agricultural intensification can undermine fisheries. The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides pollutes water and can kill fish and other flora and fauna if applied inappropriately. In rice-fish systems, which integrate rice production with aquaculture, it is necessary to manage for both the rice and the fish. If done properly, such systems can increase water productivity, bring economic and nutritional benefits for communities and, because less agrochemicals are used, increase biodiversity and other environmental benefits. While not a new idea -ricefish systems have been around for over 2,000 years -this is a neat example of managing in an integrated way to achieve multiple benefits.Why is gender important in NEXUS Gains?Labisha Uprety from the International Water Management Institute in Nepal explains why taking a nuanced approach to gender is important to empower smallholder farmers.Examining the links between energy and gender in rural India reveals opportunities for a green energy transition that can benefit women.Gender dynamics of irrigation: making way for women leaders in Western Terai, Nepal Institutional barriers must be overcome to increase women's leadership and participation within irrigation institutions and programs.Gender equity and social inclusion in the water-energy-food-ecosystems (WEFE) nexus A new learning module will help integrate gender equality and social inclusion into socially just and responsible nexus governance approaches. ","tokenCount":"714"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"01031439bac78ba068cf11626b4d9738","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a6f3779-177f-46a2-9544-9e6629ba2ac1/retrieve","id":"1055923210"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b00b4a4b-683c-4759-b169-d421935a75de","pagecount":"30","content":"Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy. It accounts for more than 46% of the national GDP. Subsistence rain-fed systems dominate Ethiopia's agricultural landscape due to erratic rainfall and poor access to supplementary irrigation. As a result, crop production, the major contributor to the agricultural economy, is underperforming. Single cropping is the norm but double-cropping is practiced along rivers in some parts of the country. The potential of irrigable land in Ethiopia is between 3.7 and 4.3 Mha, but only 7 to 10% of the potential is currently irrigated (MoARD, 2009). This present situation contrasts with the country's longstanding tradition of small-scale irrigation (SSI). Small-scale irrigation is usually developed privately by farmers in response to family and local market requirements.Farmers dig, dam or divert to deliver water to systems, farm plots and plants. It is widely argued that lack of location specific suitable irrigation technologies, management systems and evidence-based decisions are key constraints to revitalizing this important sector of the Ethiopian agricultural economy.In most parts of Ethiopia rainfall distribution is extremely uneven both spatially and temporally. Drought frequently results in crop failure, while high rainfall intensities result in low infiltration and high runoff, causing soil erosion and land degradation. This in turn contributes to low agricultural productivity and high levels of food insecurity. Over the past two decades, the Government of Ethiopia has attempted to address these issues through the large-scale implementation of a range of soil and water conservation measures including: stone terraces, soil bunds and area enclosures. Despite these efforts, adoption of the interventions remains low. Studies on the Ethiopian Highlands show that the adoption of rainwater management technologies is influenced by a variety of factors, including biophysical characteristics, such as topography, slope, soil fertility, rainfall amount and distribution (Gebregziabher et al., 2013a).Experiences show that rainwater harvesting technologies, using soil as a \"water tank\", are more effective when soil water holding capacity is large enough. In addition to the nature of the soil itself, soil crusting and compaction are common soil management-related problems and most often attributed to tillage practices that lead to the development of plough pans and thus limiting soil water storage capacity (Hatibu and Mahoo, 1999). Previous research results (Hudson, 1987) have shown that deep tillage is an important factor in controlling soil moisture characteristics, because it reduce surface sealing of the soil and permits roots proliferation to exploit water and soil nutrients at deeper soil horizons. Likewise, Hatibu and Mahoo (1999) reported significant and positive correlation between crop yields and depth of tillage in Hombolo, Central Dodoma in Tanzania.However, even when technologies are appropriate to a particular biophysical setting, they may not be implemented due to a variety of social factors farmers consider when adopting land and water management technologies. In general, farmers are more likely to adopt a combination of agricultural water management (AWM) technologies as a coping mechanism against climate variability and agricultural production constraints when technologies are context specific. In Tigray, for example, farmers apply both rainwater harvesting technologies and groundwater irrigation by accessing shallow groundwater sources found in most valley floors of treated catchments (Woldearegay and Steenbergen, unpublished).Similar to the crop production, livestock is an important avenue to improve livelihoods for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Although the proportional contribution of livestock and crops fluctuates from year to year, livestock contributes more than 22% of the agricultural GDP and shares a significant proportion of total export revenue [Netherlands-Africa Business Council (NABC, 2010)] in Ethiopia. Smallholder farmers in the midland and highland areas practice mixed farming systems where livestock and crop production are highly integrated, while in the lowland areas, pastoral systems dominate (AgWater Solutions, 2010;Weight et al., 2013).With increasing trends in demand for livestock products, both globally and locally, more opportunities are foreseen and the role of livestock in the livelihood of the majority of smallholder farmers will likely increase. However, these opportunities are highly constrained by shortage of sufficient and quality feed resources (Blummel et al., 2009;Blummel, 2000).Generally feed is an interface between crop and livestock production (Haileslassie et al., 2012;Blummel et al., 2009). Emerging evidence suggests that linking 'system-components' (e.g. crop vis a vis livestock) enables better resource use efficiencies including water use efficiency and food security. When resources flow between livestock and crop compartments, water productivity and financial return are improved (Erkossa et al., 2014).Recognizing the relationships and multi-dimensionality of the system, the United States Towards meeting the above objectives, the project adopts a continual engagement approach with stakeholders. As an initial step in the project, a stakeholder consultation is to be held in each country, with the first to be in Ethiopia, followed by Ghana and Tanzania.This paper is intended as the basis for discussion at the stakeholder consultation, and provides an input to consultations. The first section in the discussion paper summarizes lessons from previous and ongoing IWMI-and ILRI-led projects. That is followed by brief outlines of potential interventions for agricultural water management and integrated irrigated fodder. The final section of the paper lists the potential interventions for further discussion amongst stakeholders. With this discussion paper as a starting point, the objectives of the stakeholder consultation include:1. To share experiences and lessons on promising small-scale agricultural water management and fodder integration opportunities in Ethiopia 2. To review, discuss and propose potential water delivery and management technologies for small scale irrigation in Ethiopia that may be field-tested and piloted under the ILSSI project 3. To review, discuss and propose potential irrigated fodder technologies for smallholders in Ethiopia that may be field-tested and piloted under the ILSSI projectThe AgWater Solutions project (funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and led by IWMI) aimed to identify investment options and opportunities in agricultural water management with the greatest potential to improve incomes and food security for poor farmers, and to develop tools and recommendations for stakeholders in the sector including policymakers, investors, NGOs and smallholder farmers. The three-year project, which concluded in 2012, was implemented in five countries in Africa, including Ethiopia, and two states in India. Within each country, the project followed a common methodology to identify promising agricultural water management options and their potential for up-scaling nationally and regionally (Box 1). Key findings from the AgWater Solutions and other smallscale irrigation projects are presented here to support the stakeholder discussion.Based on the preliminary situation analysis and stakeholder consultation of Agricultural Water Management (AWM) practices in Ethiopia (AgWater Solutions, 2010), a set of AWM options were identified to be technically feasible, affordable and practical for smallholder farmers. The technologies identified included community-based watershed management, water-lifting technologies, groundwater use for agriculture and manual well drilling, costbenefit analysis of investment in groundwater irrigation, on-farm water storage, small reservoirs and rainwater harvesting technologies. We summarize below the key findings from the field and watershed level analyses and national scale mapping of the potential for smallholder AWM in general and these aforementioned technologies in particular.Situation analysis and selection of AWM options: An initial analysis was undertaken of the conditions in each country and the AWM practices already in place. These were reviewed with stakeholders and some of the most promising practices were selected.Field-scale and community-level case studies: A participatory opportunity and constraint analysis and methodology was applied to understand the complex interaction among social, economic and physical factors that influence the uptake and success of AWM options, and to identify technologies appropriate to different contexts in each of the project countries.Watershed-level case studies: A multi-disciplinary approach was used to understand how watershed management contributes to livelihood improvement of smallholder farmers and factors that contribute to the success of watershed management.National AWM mapping: Maps were developed to assess 1) where AWM will have the greatest impact within a country and where specific interventions will be most viable; 2) the potential for investment in water to support rural populations was mapped based on demand and availability of water; and 3) the suitability and demand for specific AWM interventions and the estimated potential number of beneficiaries, application area and investment costs.Regional AWM analysis: The regional potential for the 'best-bet' AWM technologies in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa was assessed in terms of: potential application area, number of people reached, net revenue derived and water consumption. Scenarios were also developed to factor in climate change and potential changes in irrigation costs.A dialogue process was used to ensure that project results reflected stakeholder perceptions and addressed their concerns. National consultations, dialogues, surveys and interviews were fed into all stages of the project.Note: see Evans (Ed.), 2012 for further details regarding the application of the project methodology in Ethiopia and summary of results.A study (AgWater Solutions Project, 2012a) was carried out in six community-managed watersheds (two watersheds each from Tigray, Amhara and Oromia regions). Although the success rates differ from region to region, a range of rainwater harvesting works, such as soil and water conservation activities were implemented and complement watershed management measures. The study reviewed past and present watershed management approaches and assessed factors that influence the performance of watershed management programs with a focus on assessing the upstream and downstream linkages of watershed management and its implication for agricultural water management.The results suggested that a 'one size fits all' approach does not work, but rather contextspecific watershed development solutions should be identified. Capacity building in managing watershed externalities within and outside the watershed requires cooperation among various stakeholders to build and strengthen institutions and regulations, and to develop systems of sharing responsibilities and benefits. Policy solutions to address land tenure and community rights on watersheds were also proposed.A household level survey approach was used to identify factors that influence adoption of water lifting technologies by smallholder farmers in four regions (Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray). The study (Gebregziabher, 2011) hypothesized that smallholder farmers can play a significant role in irrigation development at low cost and much higher efficiency provided they have access to appropriate water lifting technologies.The study found that adoption rates of smallholder irrigation technologies (such as motor pumps) are low where there is a combination of technical and socio-economic factors combined with weak public support systems. Since irrigation technologies do not stand alone, the type of water source often influences the type of water lifting technology smallholder farmers may adopt. However, information about the potential of surface and groundwater sources is scant. In the absence of such information, smallholder irrigation technologies usually spread spontaneously and in an unregulated manner, posing issues of resource depletion and sustainability and increasing the risk of conflicts between users.The study also found low level of productivity and efficiency in smallholder irrigated systems, due to highly fragmented and inefficient input and output markets. Poor supply chains; low quality of pumps; limited choice; and high taxes combined with lack of information and knowledge on irrigation, improved seeds, and lack of infrastructure have resulted in inefficient input markets. Output markets are generally dominated by middlemen, who exercise excessive power in setting market prices. This, combined with weak maintenance and extension services, place smallholder farmers at a significant disadvantage.Issues of equity are also a key issue for women and poorer farmers. The study found that the majority of motor pump users were male and better-off farmers. Moreover, high upfront investment costs coupled with absence of financing tools, limited access to credit and marketing information are likely to widen the gap between men and women and poor and better-off farmers.A study by the AgWater Solutions Project (AgWater Solutions Project, 2012b) examined the potential of groundwater availability, groundwater technologies, and status of the groundwater use for agricultural production, institutions and direction of future groundwater utilization for agriculture. The study was based on a comprehensive review of literature and groundwater data available from regional state water bureaus. It described the geological succession and aquifer types of the country, groundwater potential and its utilization, policies and institutions of groundwater development, human resources and knowledge gap in relation to groundwater development and groundwater drilling technologies.In Ethiopia, the development of groundwater for small-scale irrigation has gained prominence more recently. The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP), for example, emphasizes the use of shallow wells for agricultural production, but the uptake of groundwater irrigation remains low. A number of factors, such as high cost of well construction, limited capacity in well drilling and underdeveloped markets for high value irrigated crops appear to constrain adoption of groundwater irrigation. Moreover, the institutional framework that governs groundwater development and its use is not clear. For example, the government is the main driver for the development of small-scale irrigation with heavy top-down pressure. Although a role exists for government involvement, especially at initial stages of groundwater development, this has to be turned into opportunity to create strong private sector engagement. For example, a 'smart subsidy' approach where private businesses act as agents for smallholder farmers to clear the subsidy and support in generating a critical mass of turnover is a potentially valuable role for the private sector.Another key factor currently constraining the uptake of groundwater irrigation is the lack of sufficiently detailed and accurate data and maps regarding soil, hydrogeology and water resources. iDE Ethiopia has reported about 80% success rate in manual well drilling, but it is viable only in specific hydrogeological settings (Weight et al., 2013). Interventions in mapping, data collection, drilling and test of wells are needed to effectively target high potential areas. Database containing such information could also be used to assess the potential and monitor impacts of a variety of investments in water access, utilization and agricultural water management.Complementing the above study, the project team also examined the viability of groundwater irrigation investments in the Raya-Kobo Valley (Gebregziabher et al., 2013b).With few exceptions, the empirical results show that investment in groundwater irrigation is viable. Although institutionalization of cost sharing has challenges and carries associated transaction costs, the study recommended a cost-sharing plan to improve the sustainability of investment in groundwater irrigation.Institutionalizing cost sharing effectively requires: (1) improving on-farm production efficiency, which presents opportunities for increasing income and hence farmers' capacity to share part of the initial investment costs; (2) strengthening the capacity of Water User Associations (WUAs) to manage and maintain the systems and foster active participation of farmers in promoting irrigation and the cost-sharing scheme; and (3) expanding rural electrification, which would benefit the rural community as a whole. Addressing these issues through integrated and full participation of users would capitalize on the willingness of farmers to adopt new approaches that may lead to increased yields and sustained incomes.The Agwater Solutions Project also mapped the potential for AWM to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and found that just over 38 million people (56% of the rural population) could benefit from AWM (Evans (eds.), 2012; FAO, 2012). That study showed a range of AWM options that already exist in different parts of the country that can support the realization of this estimated potential, including river and stream diversions, rainwater harvesting, and soil and water conservation. The Government of Ethiopia has made a commitment to increase irrigation, and there are many opportunities for further investment to overcome the key constraints, including those identified above.Examples from the study are listed below: Water-lifting technologies could benefit between 1 and 2 million farm households. Groundwater and manual well drilling could be greatly expanded with investments in hydrogeological maps and groundwater data; and financing for private sector drilling and building a pool of skilled labor for the drilling industry. Land rehabilitation, water availability for supplementary or full-scale irrigation, and new agronomic practices are already improving land and crop productivity and increasing cultivated area in the country's watersheds. Additional investment in community-based watershed management could significantly help the government achieve its aim of making agriculture the driving force of economic development in Ethiopia.Apart from the AgWater solutions project, IWMI has implemented a wide-range of projects supported by various development partners that are producing information and innovations directly relevant for improving irrigation policies and practices (and more broadly Agricultural Water Management (AWM)) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in general and Ethiopia in particular. Some of the projects that have contributed to this lesson learning include:(French acronym: APPIA; Supported by the Government of France)This project produced and field-tested in Ethiopia and Kenya a participatory diagnostic tool that farmers and technicians can use to identify gaps in irrigation scheme performance and develop implementable solutions.(Supported by the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food-CPWF)MUS Project documented the outcomes, benefits and costs, and implementation strategies of MUS as opposed to single-purpose water supply schemes, using a \"learning process\" as a means for participants to learn together. That approach has also been recommended and promoted by donors.(Supported by the Government of Austria)This project documented irrigation development and future potential, and analyzed the performance of irrigation, with a special focus on the impacts of irrigation investments on poverty reduction, food security and income in Ethiopia. It has provided tools, methods and guidelines for assessing, testing and refining irrigation impacts, which can be used by implementing agencies in Ethiopia, as well as other countries.(Supported by the Government of Germany)An assessment was made of a variety of options for water storage for AWM as a way of adapting to the impacts of climate change. The research results can be used to understand and develop irrigation commodity value chains, specially looking at inputs and production.(Supported by the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa and the Rockefeller Foundation)This groundwater research sought to identify the potential and opportunities for exploiting groundwater for AWM in sub-Saharan Africa. This would provide lessons for harnessing the untapped groundwater resources in Ethiopia.(Supported by USAID)The project brought together researchers, policy makers and implementers of AWM in Ethiopia to share lessons learned. It also carried out an inventory of AWM practices in Ethiopia and assessed the poverty impacts of these technologies and practices.2.2.7. Nile Basin Development Challenge: Improving rural livelihoods and their resilience through a landscape approach to rainwater management in the Ethiopian Highland (Funded by the CPWF)The focus of this research was on improved rain-water management practices toward improving the livelihood and income of farmers, improving productivity and ecosystem functions of the land and water resources and reversing environmental degradation.All projects mentioned above have provided lessons that will strengthen the implementation of the USAID-ILSSI project. Examples of key lessons learned include: Provision of even relatively small amounts of water at key times can make an important contribution to peoples' well-being and livelihoods. Irrigation and access to agricultural water management technologies can significantly reduce poverty. Direct and indirect benefits of irrigation (i.e. increased crop productivity, employment, wages, increased food supplies/food security/food affordability etc.) vary greatly across settings. Impacts of irrigation investments, whether in new development or in the improvement of existing systems are situation specific. For example, depending on the circumstances investments in irrigation can be strongly pro-poor, neutral or even anti-poor. Equity and security in access and rights to resources matter for larger poverty impacts. The poor performance of many small-scale irrigation schemes is related to flawed project design and lack of adequate community consultation during project planning and implementation. Implementation of individual water management technologies is successful if implemented in an integrated manner. Past investments in irrigation and water harvesting have rarely integrated livestock management and crop production options and have often failed to maximize benefits and sustainability. Poor people need and use water for a wide range of essential activities. Deliberately making provision for these multiple uses of water when designing and managing water supply and irrigation schemes can greatly reduce poverty, increase gender equity and improve health at low cost. Communities can improve their livelihoods and natural resources significantly despite having degraded biophysical and socio-economic conditions around them. However, to achieve this, drivers are needed in the form of strong individuals, new community organizations, innovative technologies and practices and/or external agents. Rainfall variability is a major impediment to the livelihoods of many poor people that will most likely get worse as a result of climate change. Under such circumstances water storage, in a variety of forms, is a key intervention, but in any given location it must be fit for purpose.AfricaRising aims to create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The project aims to identify and validate solutions to problems experienced by smallholder crop-livestock farmers in the Ethiopian highlands.Since some of the implementation sites of Africa RISING may overlap with the USAID-ILSSI project, it will create strong synergy and learning alliances.LIVES aims to contribute to enhanced income and gender equitable wealth creation for smallholders and other value chain actors through increased and sustained market off-take of high-value livestock and irrigated crop commodities. Since the objectives of LIVES are very much in line with the objectives of USAID-ILSSI project, there is opportunity for strong synergy and cross-project learning.(Funded by CIDA)The predecessor of LIVES project, some of the key lessons that can be learned from IPMS include: the importance of involving a wide range of stakeholders from the start of the development and implementation of a projects; the joint identification of the core problems; utilizing innovation systems that integrate expert and research expertise with local and indigenous knowledge; the importance of prevailing regulatory and policy environments; and development of solutions from the available technical, socio-economic, institutional and policy options. Lessons learned from IPMS will be valuable for the success of the USAID-ILSSI project, particularly enhancing the income and wealth creation of smallholder farm households.Feed the Future (FtF) Innovation Lab on Small Scale Irrigation (USAID-ILSSI) in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Ghana is planned in such a way to identify, test, demonstrate technologies and put evidence forward for dialogue among the stakeholder community and policy makers.The project will focus on representative sites which will be defined later using targetingframework. As a guide for the stakeholder discussion we proposed the following interventions.a. Pilot Water lifting irrigation technologies. The purpose of this intervention would be to review and identify suitable water sources/storage, delivery, application of irrigation water and management systems where smallholder water lifting irrigation technologies suit better without jeopardizing the environment. Although conflict over groundwater use is not presently high, this is likely to rise when pressure on groundwater increases.Trends show that smallholder irrigation technologies usually spread spontaneously and unregulated. Hence, small but dispersed water extraction points may pose sustainability risks of resource depletion leading to conflict between users. As part of a smallholder water lifting irrigation technologies pilot, therefore, we will: i) study optimum depth of well as appropriate to a specific water lifting device, ii) contribute understanding of groundwater recharging zones and strategies to protect them, iii) determine well spacing; and iv) understand types of water lifting technology that suit a specific source of water. These would be follow up-activities to the AgWater Solutions project. Despite the important role of the livestock business in the smallholder livelihood, most parts of Ethiopia suffer from: shortage, spatial and temporal variability of feed quantities and quality. This contributes not only to its current low performances but also failure to target Ethiopian holiday markets (Haileslassie et al., 2011). Implementing small-scale irrigation management and technologies combined with integrating fodder into small-scale irrigation could guarantee two to three crops per year and a year-round supply of green fodder leading to more productive crop-livestock systems. The general understanding is that integrating fodder into small scale irrigation will: i) help to synchronize availability of high quality fodder with potential livestock market; ii) be a model for feed resources based smallscale business which can link the land owner and landless farmers, iii) create a base for wider adoption of livestock business (e.g. fattening and dairy); and iv) where suitable irrigation technologies and high quality management is used to integrate farming technologies and animal feed with food crop production on irrigated farms, it should be possible to exploit complementarities and thus improve the efficiency and overall productivity of irrigation water resources. In fact, participants of an online survey were asked how likely was an introduction of fodder into small scale irrigation to improve the livelihood of small holder farmers: 53% replied very likely and 23% replied extremely likely.The on-line survey also examined success factors. To get stakeholders' opinions on success factors for integration of fodder into small-scale irrigation, >75% of the respondents stated that they believe that land size and quality are important factors. Other factors such as market, access to productive animals, volume and quality of water supply, type of water delivery and dominant production system were mentioned as important. In order to tackle the most important constraints limiting integration, we propose a possible framework to integrate fodder into small scale irrigation (Figure 1). On the left, the framework illustrates success factors to integrate fodder production into small-scale irrigation, and on the right side, it shows possible technologies pertinent to spatial-temporal dimensions as a basis for further discussion.Land size is one of the major limiting or enhancing factors. As landholding declines, per capita food production and farm income also decline, an indicator that extremely small-sized farms have less capacity to invest in external inputs such as irrigation. On the other hand, land fragmentation makes land water linkages more difficult compared to a consolidated plot. For example, a farm household with three plots located at different places may need three water sources, which has strong implications on the magnitude of investment. Above all, the key priority of a smallholder farmer is short-term and food selfsufficiency; thus they opt more for irrigated crop than fodder.It is not only the size of the land that matters, but also its location in relation to available water sources for irrigation. Despite huge water resources, most smallholder farmers suffer from inaccessibility of their plots to sufficient quantities of water. This in most cases leads to crop failure or under productivity in general. In light of high rainfall in Ethiopia and several big rivers, the problem is economical rather than physical water scarcity. Economic water scarcity is a type of water scarcity caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water in areas where the population does not have the necessary monetary means to utilise an adequate source of water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers or lakes for domestic and agricultural uses. Large parts of Africa suffer from economic water scarcity; developing water infrastructure could therefore help to reduce poverty. Generally important, a proportion of water in highland areas of Ethiopia is lost as runoff. Capturing this and channeling it to where and when it is most needed is a function of cost and also policy decisions.In light of the high investment required for water delivery, adoption of small scale irrigation farmers requires access to reliable markets. Beyond its limitation on adoption of small-scale irrigation, access to markets also influences farmers' decisions on crop selection, and also, therefore the model of integration of fodder into their irrigated farms. For example, high demand for onion during the Easter holiday period in Ethiopia usually pushes farmer to grow onions. As onions can grow in partial shade, this is an opportunity for spatial integration of fodder crops through intercropping.The dominant production system also influences the type of fodder integration model a farm can adopt. For example, a year-round feed supply is an issue for intensive dairy farm systems. When there is such demand, farmers will benefit both from the sale of green fodder and also from animal products by adding value. Similarly, this is also a feasible option in pastoral areas as land has no other opportunity costs and farmers have slim alternative opportunities for livelihoods.Equally important are the productivity levels of livestock, the purpose of animal husbandry, the breed and the herd structure. Recent study by Ayele (2012) suggested that the major purpose of livestock holding in the Ethiopian Nile basin (Ethiopian highland) is mainly animal power. Normal, effective working days for draught animals is about 120 days, which normally overlaps with the rainy season. As such, investment in irrigated fodder has not been a priority. In contrast, for productive dairy-based systems and fattening of small or large ruminants, farmers may adopt technologies of irrigated fodder much easier. This implies also that changing the mind-set of smallholder farmers into business-oriented livestock management will be a 'game changer' for integration of fodder into irrigation practices. This needs evidence, demonstration and dialogue, and also market linkages.In summary, determinants for integration of fodder into irrigation practice are interdependent and interactive. For a successful adoption of irrigated fodder, farmers need sufficient land, water and productive animals, and proper input and output market linkages. Water delivery techniques: (to the system, plot and plant)Dedicating plots of land to irrigated fodder is an example of spatial integration. This practice is feasible mainly in areas where there is sufficient land and water. A simple online survey suggests that this technology is not common in Ethiopia. Generally, even where farms are small, farmers may allocate a small portion of their plot to irrigated fodder where market linkages are good. The decisive factor in the farmer's eye is the opportunity cost of land and risks related to market failure. Therefore, by targeting action sites with good access to market and availability of productive animals, the option of dedicated fodder plots should be explored. It may work very well in areas where pastoralism dominates, large areas are available, water is not a limiting factor (e.g. where there is large river diversion) and opportunity costs of land and water is lower. One major advantage of this option is that fodder variety selection is not limited by the type of major crops farmers are planting. Very high yielding and space demanding species such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] can be targeted.Under this option, multiple-cut perennial fodder varieties can be considered.Where land is scarcer intercropping is one way of spatially integrating fodder into smallscale irrigation. Despite the possible trade-offs on biomass yield, intercropping is a good candidate for areas where land is short. From the online survey about 15% of the respondents mentioned their experiences in Ethiopia. Depending on the local conditions, intercropping can be in the form of strip, row, mixed and relay intercropping. The decision on the kind of intercropping of fodder (strip, row, mixed and relay) with the main crop depends on the type of crops farmers are targeting for food. As it depends on context, the most suitable fodder can be selected through on-farm exploratory and diagnostic trials.Generally for selection of fodder and crop species for intercropping the following criteria must be met:1. As much as possible, the technology should not compete with or displace food/cash crop unless the monetary value is on par with the opportunity cost of the land.2. The intercrop must be shade tolerant and extract its nutrients and water from a different layer of soil than the major crop (different root zone).3. The fodder crop must be high yielding and sufficiently nutritious to be used as supplementary feed to basal feeds based on crop residue and native hay.4. It must be responsive to intensive management such as fertilizing/manure application and irrigation, and must be tolerant to frequent clipping.Combinations of cereals such as maize (Zea mays L.) and fodder legumes like cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) can be a useful form of intercropping. Intercropping onion (Allium cepa) and maize on irrigated rain-fed fields is also common in dry-land parts of India. and cowpea(Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.). As previously shown, the effect of seeding density and other agronomic parameters on yield are site specific and dependent particularly on the soil and climate. Thus, on farm trials are important to identify contextspecific optimal practices.Construction of bunds around field boundaries is common for smallholder plots. Usually bunds are used to separate neighbouring fields. A bund is usually infested by weeds and can be a major source of weed seed. Therefore, planting fodder on bunds is useful both for weed control and for provision of livestock feed. This practice can be also applied to riparian buffers which are strips of permanent vegetation located along or near active watercourses or in ditches where water runoff concentrates. Significant proportions of small-scale irrigators in Ethiopia grow perennial crops (personal communication, LIVES project). These include banana, citrus and papaya. These are usually structurally tall crops and there is space in the under-storey which could be potentially used for other crops. Multi-storey cropping is a common technique under such circumstances.Legume fodder plants that occupy the lower spatial horizons can fit here (e.g. varieties of groundnuts, cowpea). This technique not only helps for improved uses of land and water, but also to exploit solar energy by carefully planning the vertical arrangement of the different plants. Nitrogen fixation by fodder plants is another major benefit that can be reaped from multi-storey cropping. Despite these potentials benefits under-storey planting technologies did not emerge among the currently observed practices in Ethiopia.Relay cropping is a common agronomic practice to integrate different crops and maximise use of scarce land. With very careful selection of crops, integration of fodder into irrigated farming can take the form of relay cropping. In relay cropping, at planting time two or more crops of different harvest durations are cultivated in the same field. Once the main shorter duration crop is harvested fodder crops have more space to grow. A good example is relaying of sorghum and onion in India (Bijapur district, Karnataka, personal field observation). This innovative model of relay cropping has not only achieved the scientific objective of better crop management, but also gives higher returns to farmers through advantages in space and time allocation. It also reduces loss of soil moisture from bare soil and thus converts evaporative losses to beneficial outputs, which ultimately improve the water productivity of the system. Relay cropping also reduces risk of uncertainty, enhances utilization of natural capital (land, water) and optimizes use of external resources (fertilizer, pesticide). This practice reduces the cost of cultivation per unit overall yield and increases net returns (including irrigation returns) from a given piece of land.With increasing land and water shortages across developing countries, there are strong arguments that the agricultural system must intensify and focus more on food-feed crops so that the interaction of system elements such as crops and livestock will be complementary and resource-use efficiency enhanced. Integrating food-feed crops such as irrigated maize can be an important avenue for improved efficiencies in use of increasingly scarce land and water. Particularly, the use of maize for green corn allows early harvesting of the green maize stover which can be used as animal feed. Silage techniques can be explored for improved feed quality and storage. Green maize also has a shorter growing period compared with harvesting at physiological maturity allowing for planting of fast-growing relay crops (e.g. vetch) using residual moisture. A combination of maize and lablab (Lablab purpureus) is also possible.One of the major hurdles for adoption of planted fodder in Ethiopia is lack of access to planting material. In addition to the above proposed intervention, the ILSSI project could pilot community nurseries as a major source of seedling and also form a focus for capacity building and community dialogue.This paper is intended to provide the basis for consultation with stakeholders comprised of Government of Ethiopia officials, scientists, researchers, practitioners and implementers.Based on previous and on-going projects, as well as the results of previous research and lessons learned, this paper proposes a number of promising interventions in AWM, irrigation and integrated fodder production, which are listed below:  ","tokenCount":"5929"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8be049e4be86228e6f5cf2aa2cb9b3a9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H029658.pdf","id":"-1377467846"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6ec824e4-be80-4035-89d6-d678bc81412f","pagecount":"27","content":"Transfer of Management of Public Tube-wells to Co-operatives and Panchayats Ground Water markets Treadle Pumps Conclusions References Ground Water Issues in Eastern and Western Alluvium of Ganga Basin' Niranjan Pant The eastern and western regions Utter Pradesh are marked by two contrasting features. In terms of ground water resources, the eastern region is richer than the western region. While ground water development diminishes as we move from west to east. The agricultural backwardness of the eastern region arises on account of a variety of factors covered in the paper. While it is desirable that the eastern region emulates its western counterpart in al/ positive agricultural practices, care needs to be taken to avoid unplanned over exploitation of ground water, which has become a menace in several areas of the western region of Utter Pradesh.I In this paper U.P. includes Utlaranchal, which is a separate state now. This has been done because most of the data used in the paper for U.P. includes Utlaranchal.2 Bhabar denotes a gravel talus with somewhat steep slope fringing the outer margins of the hills everywhere.Introduction 1. Ground Water Resources of U.P 3The Ganga basin forms the major portion of the north Indian plains and occupies an area of over O. 557 million square km. It has flat surface, fertile alluvial soil and favourable climate. Apart from millions of ground water extraction works, there is an extensive system of irrigation canals fed by perennial rivers in the basin. The lower portion of the basin in particular, receives sufficient rainfall for wet crops. The plain forming part of the basin supports one of most dense population in the world. The total population of just three states of U.P, Bihar and West Bengal which lie in the basin, stood over 293 million in 1991. The basin contains one of the best reservoirs of ground water in the world. The area has been formed out of thick alluvial deposits, which at places extend up to a depth of 3000 meters below the ground level. A considerable portion of this alluvial thickness consists of porous and granular materials, such as sand, grave and boulders, which are good water suppliers. The enormity of ground water availability from the Ganga Basin and its utilizations can be fully appreciated by an examination of Table 1. However, before it is done, it should be understood that while the title of the paper refers to the eastern and western alluvium of Ganga Basin, the examination is confined to the eastern and western plains of Uttar Pradesh. While the basin deals with hydraulic boundaries, the regions like eastern and western parts of u.p subsume districts, which have administrative boundaries. Keeping this in mind table 1 consists of two parts. The first part of the table provides basin wise data, while the second part provides Uttar Pradesh data, including that of the two regions of the state. The data in the table clearly shows that the Ganga basin is the largest basin in India. It contains 17. 17mhmlyr replenishable ground water resource, which is about 38% of such resource in India. The rest of the 17 other basins together contain 62% of replenishable ground water resource. The other important point, which emerges from table is that only about 31 % of ground. water resources in the Ganga basin have been developed. This gives an idea of the enormity of the ground water resources and the vast potential available for its development in the basin.However, what is important from the point of view of this paper is that whole of Uttar Pradesh constitutes a part of Ganga basin and the state contains about 47% of the basin's replenishable ground water resources. Further, the Eastern and Western regions of U.P, which are intended to be examined in this paper, contain about 72% of (%) the state's replenishable ground water resources and about 34% of that the Ganga basin. This means that although our examination does not deal with the whole of the eastern and western alluvium of Ganga basin, it does cover a considerable portion of two parts (upper Iwestern and eastern I lower) of the basin. Although the level of ground water development in Uttar Pradesh and more particularly in its western part is higher compared to the basin as a whole, there is tremendous scope for its development in its eastern part. The data also affirms that the level of ground water development is most impressive in Uttar Pradesh and more particularly in its western part.Ground Water Resources of U.PThe state of u.p has a total geographical area of 29.4 million ha comprising of seven hydrological regimes. Bhabar, Tarai, Himalaya, Central and East Gangetic alluvial plains, Bundelkhand and Vindhyan regions. The alluvial plain areas cover about 21. 24 million ha. having fertile soils and voluminous ground water resource. The net sown area of the state is 17.48 million ha with cropping intensity'of 148.7 %. An area of about 367 thousand ha is estimated as wetlands. The critical and semi critical waterlogged areas stood at 5.39 and 4.06 millions ha respectively in October 1996 in 49 districts of the state.The available water resources of the state are enormous with irrigation prospects. The available surface water for irrigation is estimated at about 9. 86 mhm with an ultimate irrigation potential of 15.95 mhm. The annual replenishable ground water is presently estimated to be 7.16 mhm with an ultimate irrigation potential of 15.03 mhm. In addition to this utilizable static ground water, there is further scope to utilize an additional ground water of about 7.45 mhm between water levels of 5-10 meters with an additional ultimate ground water potential of 15. 69 mhm. This means in U. P the available water for irrigation is about 24. 27 mhm (consisting of 14.61 mhm ground water and 9.86 mhm surface water). As regards ultimate irrigation potential, it is estimated to be 46.67mhm with 30. 72 mhm in respect of ground water and 15. 95mhm in respect of surface water (Rai et al 2000). This clearly means that there is tremendous scope for the utilization of ground water resources in the state.The state of Uttar Pradesh 1 like most of the large states of India presents a picture of disparities in term of agro climatic features and resource endowments. It is divided into 3 broad regions containing 83 districts. The hilly region of the north comprises of 12 districts. High mountains formed of sedimentary rocks broken by valleys and deep gorges characterize the terrain. The hill areas are sparsely populated and communication is difficult. Further, many are in accessible. The Gangetic plain consist of 64 districts. The plain stretches across the entire length of the state from west to east, flanked by Terai and Bhabar 2 areas in the north and Vindhyas plateau in the south.The entire alluvial plain is divided into three-sub regions-western (27districts), central (lOdistricts) and eastern (27districts). The Gangetic plain is watered by rivers Yamuna, Ganga, and its major tributaries Ramganga, Gomti, Ghagra, and Gandale. The whole plain is alluvial and very fertile. The southern region is demarked by Vindhya hills and the plateau. It is called Bundelkhand and comprises of 7 districts. The tract is marked by scanty and erratic rainfall and scarce water resources.It has been mentioned by us that the eastern and western parts of the Gangetic plain are most important in terms of ground water resource endowments not only in u.p but also in the whole of the Ganga basin. However, in terms of ground water development, there is lot of variations in the two regions (see table 1)Although eastern and western region form part of the same Gangetic plain, the two regions present a picture of contrast. The eastern tract is flood prone with periodic occurrences of droughts and is least developed. The western tract although receives much less rainfall is assisted by old canal networks and high development of ground water resource. According to some, this kind of disparity is on account of historical antecedents. During the British period, nearly all the agricultural developments in the state took place in the western U. P. A major development was the construction of a network of canal system which reduced the element of risk in agriculture and gave farmers incentives to experiment with the new techniques and crops with new farm related industries. Farmers of the eastern U.P on the other hand with their high density of population resulting in high pressure on land and complete dependence on natural forces for agriculture, were not in a position to take risk and experiment~in~ ways that if they failed, could threaten their very existence ( Singh 1976) In an effort to find out the extent of disparity between the two regions, we have put all the indicators of development in table 2, containing data in respect of two regions and the state as a whole. All the indicators have been clubbed under, four headings dealing with general features, infrastructure facilities, credit facilities and agriculture related development.The first striking point, which emerges from the data, is that two regions together constitute the most important segment of the state. The two regions together contain 73% of the population, 57% of the state's geographical area and 72% (table1) of state's replenishable ground water resource. Although the two regions contain the same number of 27 districts each, the eastern region is larger in terms of population as well as in area than its western part. Eastern region has greater density of population, greater percentage of scheduled castes and higher monsoon rainfall. Western part on the other hand has higher rate of literacy and urbanization, greater per capita consumption of electricity, higher proportion of electrified villages, higher proportion of telegraph offices, telephones and higher length of metalled roads. It is obvious from this examination that eastern region lags behind the western region in respect of all the indicators of development but is ahead in respect of indicators, which lead to backwardness. In respect of credit facilities, it is found that western region is more favorably disposed in comparison to the eastern tract. Western region forges ahead in all respects, such as credit deposit ratio, number of banks cooperative agricultural marketing centers and cooperative societies etc.The forth and the largest section of the table deals with agriculture related indicators.Here also the same trend continues which was found to be in respect of first three sections. Eastern u.p lags behind western u.p in respect of all such indicators which are positively related to modem / advance agriculture. On the other hand, the region is ahead of the western region in respect of indicators which hinder modem / advance agriculture. An important point, which emerges on the basis of the table, is that the eastern region not only lags behind western region but is also behind the state as a whole. In all, 43 indicators have been used in the table and only in respect of one indicator, i.e. number of post offices (2.3) eastern U.P scores higher than western U.P.Here also, it is possible that the post offices are established keeping in mind population nonns. In all other respects, the eastern region lags behind the western region. In comparison to the state as a whole in respect of first 18 indicators, only in case of length of metalled roads, eastern region's position is better than u.p as a whole. However, in agriculture related indicators, eastern region's position is better than the state as a whole and in respect of 9 indicators out of 25 indicators. On the basis of table 2, the picture that emerges presents the eastern region in very poor light. It is a region, which abounds with small and poor farmers with a preponderance of marginal holdings and soCially and economically backward area. A large part of the area is affected by floods. In the absence of adequate credit facilities, the resource base of farmers remains poor and small area is covered with commercial crops. This is further aggravated by lower cropping intensity and low fields of crops, which ultimately leads to reduction of gross value of agriculture produce.As early as in late 1970's, Dhawan had highlighted the wide differences in the agricultural development of eastern and western U.P on account of extent of ground water irrigation in two regions. On further examination, he found that tube well irrigation in the alluvial Gangetic plains diminishes in force as one moves from west to east (including Bihar and Bengal). This downward trend according to him coincides with a like pattern in the matter of agricultural growth. The downward trend as we move from west to east in the Gangetic plain is on account of several factors such as progress in land consolidation, spread of rural electrification, institutional support and finance (Dhawan 1982). Under exploitation of available ground water in Eastern u.p is regarded as the main cause of this region's agricultural backwardness. Even today it utilizes only 36% of its available ground water resource. It is pointed out that excepting parts of the erstwhile Mirzapur district, the rest of the region, have large groundwater resources. It is felt that if the same are exploited intensively in a planned manner, they can help improve crop intensity, promote crop diversification and increase productivity of crops. Therefore, exploitation of ground water is given highest priority (RBI 1984).A general impression that still prevails among the policy makers and researchers is that the development of ground water is quite slow in Eastern U.P. Another' interesting feature is noticeable in 1997-98. During this period, the productivity of rice in the eastern region has doubled in comparison to rice productivity in 1983-84. In respect of wheat, productivity is doubled in 1983-84 and trebled in 1997-98. This means that productivity gains are maximum in respect of both the crops in eastern region in 1997-98In fact the field level data collected by us during our reconnaissance visits in Jaunpur and Moradabad districts during October-November 2001 indicates a much higher productivity. However, it should be noted that the village in Jaunpur and the village in Moradabad represent agriculturally most advanced villages. In case of Jaunpur (Eastern U.P), the village was Chakra in Dhobi block. It was a high caste (Thakur) dominated Village. Irrigation in the village was done mainly by private shallow tube wells, which were 40 in number and all were electrical. Most of them were of 5 hp.The availability of power in the village was reported to be 12-18 hours per day, which is quite exceptional in the eastern region. Water charges on sale of water were around Rs. 10 per hour. The ground water level in the village was around 10 ft (post monsoon).The village from Moradabad was Singhpur Saini, forming part of the Sambhal block, which remains to be a dark block of the district. It was a Jat dominated village. The enormity of ground water utilization can be gauged by the fact that there are 500 electric and 200 diesel pump sets in the village. Although electricity was available for 10-15 hours per day, farmers kept pump sets as ari insurance against electricity failure. The water level in the village was reported to be 40-45 feet (post monsoon). Sale of ground water by tube well was Rs. 40-45 per hour, while it was Rs. 20 per hour for electric tube well. The productivity of important crops in the two villages was reported to be as follows.Productivity Frequent occurrence of floods is a common feature of the eastern region. According to 1997 -98 estimates, while 11.6% kharif area in the eastern region is affected by floods, only 3.4% of the kharif area is affected by floods in the western region (table 2,item 4.14). The east west differences are most conspicuous if we examine the data for the districts of Jaunpur and Moradabad. While Jaunpur contains 56183 ha of area, which is flood prone, there is no such area in Moradabad (GOUP 1999). Ghagra, Rapti and Gandak are notoriously flood-creating rivers. Even smaller rivers 'like Rohni, Burhi, Rapti, Ami, Kuwano, Gurra, Tons, Kunhra, Ghongi, Burhi Gandak deluge in flooding the region. It is estimated that Rapti alone inundates 350,000 ha of area every year in Bahraich, Gonda, Basti, Siddhartha Nagar and Deoria districts (Shah. 2001) The problem in the eastern region has been further enhanced due to unplanned and haphazard use of water resources in the state. As a result, large areas suffer from miseries of rising water table. It would not be out of context to mention a field visit the author had carried out fifteen years ago with Tushar Shah and Robert Chambers through the commands of Sharda Sahayak and Gandak. We had moved by road from Lucknow to Deoria via Barabanki, Gonda and Gorakhpur. After the visit Robert Chambers had circulated a note, and his comments in respect of water logging remain relevant even today after a lapse of 15 years. He had written, \"All canals we saw on Sharda Sahayak and also on Gandak were running full, although it had recently rained and it is doubtfull whether anyone was taking water. One wonders whether there is any attempt at all to throttle back on water deliveries. It seems crazy to send more water into these areas when they are already in such trouble. There are difficulties over travel time, but I would have thought long term weather fore castes could enable managers, without anyone losing, to reduce flows at times like that of our visit\" (Chambers 1987) The magnitude of water logging can be gauged if the following figures recently worked out by the State Ground Water Investigation Department are taken into consideration. These figures are based on the data collected from 3173 hydro graph monitoring stations, which have been set up by the GOUP. The waterlogged area has been divided in two groups. The one is \"critical area\" which refers to the areas where ground water level is between 0 to 2 meters. The other is \"semi critical\" area, which relates to the areas where ground water level is between 2 to 3 meters.  \"\"1971). In the wake of developmental planning, tube well indivisibility witnessed substantial reduction, which induced many fanners to invest in their own tube wells. This inducement was reinforced by the advent HYV seeds and .progress in land consolidation, rural electrification, institutional credit etc. However, public policy for a long time continued to encourage state owned tube wells for the rural poor. During the 1980s new design public tube wells were devised with intended beneficiary participation in the operation, water distribution and maintenance of tube well system. However, the perfonnance of such tube wells was found to be far below the expectations. The poor perfonnance of such tube wells had been on both technical and organizational grounds (Pant 1993).In respect of private tube well, the growth was stupendous and the stock of private tube-well rose in u.p from about 3 thousand in 1951 to 600 thousand in 1977 (Dhawan 1982). By mid 1970s, tube-well irrigation had overtaken canal irrigation, which was the dominant mode of irrigation earlier to that. The rapid growth of private tube-wells had its repercussions on the power point. Historically, as the ground water development was building up in the state, the demand on the power was not significant since there was surplus power available in most areas until the 1970s. However, after that and in early 1980s, the large-scale ground water development in the private sector had led to a situation where the rural demand for electricity always exceeded power availability. It was around this time, power generation and transmission capacity became the constraint to the rate at which electrical connection to tube-well points could be made. In As. 50 lakhs respectively for the development of the areas they represent. In U.P most of the money coming from these sources is being spent on the construction of roads under the overall supervision of \" the district administration.ground water irrigation, i.e. dug-wells and Persian wheels seemed to be quite popular in both the regions until mid 1980s. In fact, in case of dug-wells the decline had started by mid 1980s. In respect of Persian wheel, the popularity had continued even during 1980s. Between the two regions, dug-well seemed to be more popular in the eastern region compared to the western region. Persian wheel seemed to be equally popular in the two regions although marginally more popular in the western region. (100.00) 1'100.00\\ {100.00} '100.00\\ 100.00)1(100.00 1(100.00) (100.00) !(100.00) '100.00) (100.00) 1(100.00) , Source: Updated Minor Irrigation Censuses GOUPIn respect of diesel pump-sets, it is found that there is a progressive increase in their numbers in the two regions. But the growth of diesel pump tube-wells is more pronounced after the mid 1980s in case of the eastern region. In fact, after 1993, the growth of diesel pumping sets is higher in the Eastern u.p in comparison to the Western region. The reverse is noticed, however, in case of electric tube-wells. Here, up to 1984-85, the growth is greater in Eastern U.P while after that period; growth is higher in Western U.P. However, what is noteworthy, there is a decline in the growth of electric tube-wells between mid 1980s and mid 1990s in both the regions and the decline is more severe in case of eastern region. However, there is a growth again after the mid 1990s and the growth is higher for the eastern region.The total number of pump-sets (both E&D) is always higher in the western region compared to the eastern region. However, the proportion of increase goes on declining over the years. While in 1980, the proportion of the total pumps (in the two regions) was 63% for the western region, the same declined by 52% in 1998-99.The proportion of diesel pumps in relation to electric pumps was always higher in the western region and the proportion went on increasing from 59.3 % in 1980 to 64. 5% in 1985 and then 78. 6% in 1994 after which it registers a marginal decline of O. 7%. In case of eastern region, the picture is quite different. Here, the proportion of electric pumps was more than diesel in 1980 and 1985 where their proportion was 58.7% and 52.5% respectively. Here a dramatic decline in the number of electric tube-wells occurs between mid 1980s and mid 1990s when the proportion of electric pumps .. decline to 13.4%. During the same period, diesel pumps record an overwhelming increase from 41.3% to 86.6%. After the mid 1990s and till 1998-99, like the western region, the eastern region also records a marginal decline of 0.5%.The inevitable conclusion the data provides is that the power position in Eastern U.P deteriorated very fast between mid 1980s and mid 1990 when many villagers in Eastern U.P discarded their electric tube-wells. The author had witnessed this phenomenon when he conducted two surveys in the Eastern U.P in 1989 and 1990. In fact, during the first survey, the author had found the actual availability of electricity for the World Banks tube-wells to be 8. 6 hours per day for Basti and 9.5 hours per day for Deoria. This is despite the fact that these tube-wells were connected with a dedicated power supply which was to provide them an average guaranteed electricity of 18 hours per day (Pant 1989).Another significant point emerging from the data is that power situation has improved in both the regions between 1994 and 1999 as during this period, the decline of electric tube-well is checked and in fact marginal increase in the growth of electric tube-wells is noticed in both the regions. The validity of this conClusion needs to be checked at the field level. The field level data collected by us from 10 villages (6 from Jaunpur and 4 from Moradabad) during the reconnaissance in October -November 2001 shows that in Moradabad (west) about 65% pump-sets were electrical and the remaining 35% were diesel. One common feature here was that a large proportion of farmers kept diesel pump-sets as an insurance against the failure of electricity. On the contrary, in Jaunpur (east), if we leave Chakra village, over-95% of pump-sets were electrical.Table 5 presents the main features of Shallow tube-wells in two regions. The data has been derived from the updated census of 1993-94 carried out by the Minor Irrigation Department of Uttar Pradesh. The first two items dealing with the socio-economic base of the owners are most important from the view -point of access of ground water to the rural poor. In respect of the holding size of owners, it is found that 56% owners in the east and about 36% owners in the west are marginal farmers. If we add small holders also (up to 2 ha), it is found that 85% of such farmers in the east and 69% in west own these Shallow tube-wells. It is understandable that a higher proportion of marginal and small farmers would own such shallow tube-wells as holding size in the east are quite small. However, these findings are different from what we had found during our survey of villages in Bahraich, Faizabad and Basti. In three districts together, we had found 25% of marginal farmers owned shallow tube-wells and together with small farmers, about 57% farmers owned such own such shallow-wells. As per our survey, there were 43% farmers above 2 ha who owned such shallow wells, against 15% as per Minor Irrigation Department survey (Pant 1992). In terms of caste, it is found that almost similar trends prevail in the two regions. While in the east, about 11 % of SC& ST own shallow-wells, in the west, their proportion goes to 12%. This revelation is particularly significant, if it is kept in mind that the percentage of SCs and STs is higher in the east compared to the west.Major differences are noticed in the eastern and western region when the source of finance for the Shallow tube-well is examined. In the eastern region, the most important source of finance is subsidy and bank loan, which is availed by about 48% owners. In the western region, the most important source of funding is farmer's savings as about 62% of farmers use their savings to buy the pumping-set. The second most important source of funding in the eastern region is farmer's savings and about 34% of farmers resort to it, while in the west, the second most important source of funding is loans and savings and about 16% of farmers resort to it. The third most important source of funding in the eastern region is loan and saving and about 14% owners resort to this source. As against this, the third most important source of funding in the western region is subsidy and bank loan and about 15% owners resort to this source. The comparative picture that emerges from this data is that, while the majority of farmers in the western region have a sound resource base, their majority counterpart in the eastern region resort to debts and subsidies to own the pump.In terms of pumpage of water, it is found that 6 to 8 hp pumps are most favored in both the regions. In Eastern D.P, their percentage is 69, while in the western part they constitute 61 % of total pumps. It is this range of pumps, which can be used for both diesel and electricity and can be utilized for allied agricultural operations. In terms of ownership of shallow tube-wells, it is found that more than 99% of such wells, are owned by individual farmers and only less than 1% are owned by government, panchayats, co-operative societies etc.Power Scenario in U.PThe installed power capacity in U.P as on March 31, 2001 stood at 5635.3 mw, which were 9. 7% of India's installed capacity. About 73% of it was thermal and 27% of it was hydel. The gross generation of electricity in the state stood at 24765 MKWH and it constituted 8.2% of India's gross generated power. The power available to the State from the Central sector was 40.6 % against the national average of 33.5%. Despite the heavy Central sector borrowing, the critical shortage of power supply in the State can be gauged by the fact that a large majority of pumps in rural U.P, more particularly in the Eastern U.P have converted to diesel as a source of energy. In table 6, an attempt has been made to highlight the m,ain characteristics of power sector in U.P vis-a.-vis country as a whole. In U. P. the share of agriculture in total sales in percentage terms has ranged between 35-37%, which is higher than 31-32% for the India as a whole. Although the share of revenue from agriculture in UP ranges between 10 to 13 %, it is better than 4 to 5% share, which is found at the all India level. The per capita consumption of electricity in U.P has ranged between 186-207 kWh compared to the range of 299-348 kWh consumed per capita at the all India level. The unit cost of power supply in the U.P ranges between 222-253 paise / kWh as against 215-240 paise/ kWh at the all India level. The number of employees per thousand consumers as well as average tariff for sale of electricity in U.P is lower than what prevails at all India level.  , domestic, commercial (since 1998) and outside the state, the charges of U.P.S.E.B are lower than the all India charges. However, in respect of agriculture I irrigation, industry (since 1999) and railway traction U.P.S.E.B tariff is lower than the all India average tariff. The second; the tariff rates are lower than the unit cost of power supply in respect of domestic agriculture and outside. Here, the biggest gap arises in respect of outside consumers, where tariffs are 13 times lower than the unit cost of power supply. There is every possibility that this power is provided to Nepal. Third, the subsidy in respect of agriculture is 88.2% at the all India level and 80.3% in respect of Uttar Pradesh.By and large, the power scenario that exists in U.P is far worse in the eastern region in comparison to the western region. As we had seen in table 4, there was a large dieselisation of ground water irrigation between mid 1980s and mid 1990s on account of near disappearance of electricity from rural Eastern u.P. Tushar Shah who has examined the whole question of power scenario in u.P including power sector refonns has offered some solutions to the problem. One of the solutions, which appear pragmatic at face value, is the transferring power distribution to the panchayats. This proposition does need a threadbare discussion if democratic de-centralizations have to succeed. What makes Shah's proposition attractive is the prospect of sharing of meeting collection cost between U.P.S.E.B and the panchayats (Shah, 2001). But is it possible?Access of Ground Water to the Poor During the early 1980s, it was found that the main beneficiaries of ground water irrigation in the Gangetic plains were larger farmers (Pant1984a). This was on account of either their resource base or accessibility to credit and thus their ability to use new seed, water, and fertilizer technologies. Benefits to the poor had been co-incidental rather than a matter of deliberate policy and were much less than what they must have been. Around that time, the desirability of well-directed efforts to give benefits of ground water to rural poor of Bangladesh, India and Nepal were discussed in a four week seminar at IDS. The solutions were suggested on two fronts: first, improvement in traditional lift irrigation devices relying predominantly on human and animal energy source, second, developing and improving new small scale technology especially designed for small fanners such as hand or bicycle powered pumps relying on human or solar energy (IDS 1980) 2000 Isource:Rep'.rCommunityl Group-Tube-wells.Around that time author's findings were that the group tube-wells installed with the initiative of PADI (predecessor of CAPART) and owned and operated by groups of small and marginal fanners were doing a fine job in the backward regions of eastern U.P (Deoria) and North Bihar (Vaishali) was widely acclaimed. It provided an organizational solution to the problem of indivisibility of tube-well, particularly in Eastern u.p (Pant, 1984b). At that time, community / group-tube-wells were regarded as a viable alternative for the marginal fanners of Eastern U.P whose plots were not only small but were scattered all around. However, by 1988, the group had started dis integrating on account of World Bank tube-well programme and the free boring scheme 4• During 1996-98, another variant of group/ community tube-well was tried under a government project. The project was undertaken under one million well scheme of government of India and was implemented by U.P Project and Tube-well Corporation.It was taken up on the initiative of the then Managing Director of the Corporation. Under the scheme, about 100 tube-wells, each with a command of 20 ha was installed in the districts of Lucknow and Kanpur. The management of tube-wells was handed over to committees of beneficiary farmers to be headed by a local representative. The scheme failed on account of delay in getting electric connection, frequent electric failures after connection was obtained and factionalism over who would head the committee.The origin of free boring scheme were laid in the RBI report of 1984 which recommended a heavy dose of subsidy for the development of ground water in the Eastern India. Following this report, the government of U.P launched a poverty targeted free boring scheme. Under the programme, free boring facility to the extent of Rs.3000 was provided to the small and marginal farmers. Additionally, they were also provided subsidies of 33.3% and 50% to small and marginal/SC&ST farmers respectively for the purchase of electric or diesel pumps. u.p Government used its own financial resources to enhance the rate of subsidy provided by the GOI from 25% to 33.3% and from 33.3% to 50 % (Pant 1991).The liberal dose of subsidy together with achievement targets to be obtained, there was mushrooming of shallow tube-wells in both the regions. In table 8, year wise attainment of free borings in Moradabad district has been provided. If we look at the level, it is found that the largest numbers of borings were done during late1980 and mid 1990s. It was the period when greatest number of diesel/electric pumps were installed at the state and at the regional levels also. The dramatic drop of borings in 1997 -98 was because of detection of large scale bungling in the purchase of boring pipes during the previous year. This led to the suspension of the then Chief Engineer of Minor Irrigation Department and appointment of a probe committee because of 4 During a field visit to Deoria in October 2001, the author visited village Barsat where one of the earliest group tube-wells was installed in 1981. It was found that of the four tube-wells then installed around the village, two were still operative. Another interesting discovery was that one of the persons who was then working as a daily wage fourth grade staff with the PADI project had started a NGO of his own in the village after his services were terminated from the project. During 1999-2000. with the funding from CAPART he had installed 15 group tube-wells in adjoining areas. All the pumps were of diesel. and mostly the pumps were of 10 horse power which practically no progress was made that year. Since next year, the backlog of previous year was also added; good progress was made in 19.98-99. The reason for fewer borings in recent years is that the actual achievements are far below the targets set for the same. This isaespite the fact that targets have been reduced by one fourth in recent years. In Jaunpur district, the targets for 2001-2002 were 1569, while the achievement up to October 200 1 ,under general component was 8.5% and under special component, it was 5.5%, giving an overall achievement of 7.5% Tushar Shah regards the free boring scheme of u.p a roaring success and considers the mechanism adopted as a role model for rest of eastern India. He also thinks that the scheme is one of the three options (the other two being water markets and treadle pumps) for access of ground water to the rural poor (Shah 2001). However, our own surveys carried out in Eastern u.p during 1989 and 1990 (Pant 1989 and1992) bring out a contrary picture in this regard which is substantiated by the 1993-94 Minor Irrigation Census presented in table 5.One of the mechanisms used by the state governments for better access of tube-well irrigation to the rural poor is to transfer tube-wells to co-operatives I panchayats. In a policy decision in 1992, about 50 state tube-wells were transferred to beneficiary farmers to run it as a co-operative venture. An internal evaluation done by the department found that only about 10% of the transferred tube-wells had run satisfactorily and only one studied by the author (Pant 1995) sustained the satisfactory working for a longer period of time..In another policy decision in 1999, the state government transferred the management of all the state tube-wells to panchayats. We have been able to obtain the data for a division and a sub-division in Gorakhpur in respect of working of these tube-wells before and after the transfer to the panchayats. The deterioration is most obviously visible after the transfer (see table 9). As regard the access of poor farmers to the tube well water, we did not find any difference. However, it was found that greater proportion of local influential shared the water theft.The author had examined the question of access of ground water to the poor right from 1981 and had found in all his studies that ground water markets were the main source of irrigation of marginal and poor farmers. In one of his recent studies, the author had found that the smallest farmers with land holdings up to 0.4 ha were the biggest beneficiaries of ground water markets and that they gained the least from the public tube-wells. The data reveal that among this category of farmers 60% irrigated their wheat crop by purchased water as against 7% who used public tube-well for their wheat irrigation (pant 1992)During the October I November 2001 field visit, the author found that water markets still remained the main source of irrigation of marginal farmers' land. In respect of water rates, it was found that in Jaunpur, Gorakhpur and Deoria, sale of water from electric pumps was non prevalent and diesel drawn water was sold at Rs.40-50 per hour. The same rate was prevalent for diesel pump sets in Moradabad. In addition, in Moradabad, water from electric tube~wells sold at Rs.20 per hour or Rs.60 per acre.  (Bhanot 1999). A report, which has reviewed evidence from a variety of sources, including their own study concludes that the pump raises annual incomes of adopter households by conservative estimate to Rs. 5000 per year.The researchers of the study are highly impressed by the perfonnance of the pumps.According to them, the total sales of the pumps in India and-Nepal are around--;c lakhs and they wonder as to why the sales are not picking up enough to tap the potential of 1 lakh pumps per year (Shah et al 2000). Our own field level impressions (October2001) based on the interviews of 7 pump owners substantiate that most of the owners are very small farmers. The average land holding size of the owners was O. 35 acres and the largest owner were having one acre of land.Out of seven pumps only one was found to be in the working condition. The person from Gorakhpur recently bought this particular one for Rs. 1500. The other six were provided largely free to the farmers by a NGO who had received a grant for this purpose from OXFAM etc. During the field examinations.and. discussions. the main points that emerged regarding the pump were: 1 It was used for the cultivation of vegetables only. 2. Most of the owners found the job of taking water from the pump tiring and monotonous and they preferred buying water even @ Rs. 50 per hour. They argued that it was more advantageous to work as a laborer and earn more money than the advantage derived from drawing the water from the pump. Some of them said that they preferred Dhekuli (the traditional method), while their children preferred drawing water from this pump. 3. The pump is capable of irrigation very small patch of land, which was invariably homestead land. 4. It was reported that after two years it was difficult to maintain the treadle pump as lots of wear and tear occur and replacements of parts was not feasible. 5. The presence of the pump even in high water table areas of Terai of eastern u.P. is not that widespread as reported by the IDE. 6. The month of October is not a proper time to see the working of treadle pumps. The better time to see it's working is after November.Although the pump has been appreciated by one and all, the questions regarding its wide range acceptance and sustainability in high water table poverty ridden areas with preponderance of marginal holdings remain unanswered.In addition to the issues discussed in the preceding, there are other issues like consolidation of holdings, regulation of ground water and conjunctive use of ground and surface water. These issues are equally relevant to the topic of the paper. However, on account of non-availability of the data on these aspects •at this stage, we have not been able to take up these issues in this paper.The Gangetic alluvium in the state of Uttar Pradesh presents a picture in contrast between the eastern and western parts. The eastern part characterizes: over population, existence of very small and fragmented holdings, poor infrastructure, poor credit facilities, meager electrification, flood proneness, impeded drainage and water logging. Consequently, low consumption of fertilizers and HYV seeds etc leading to low cropping intensity and low crop yields. In contrast, the western part is favorably oriented in terms of all the shortcomings. The strategy invariably suggested for the improvement in agricultural front in the eastern part lays emphasis on greater development of abundantly available ground water in this part of the alluvium. Although, eastern part still lags behind the western part, it has made tremendous stride particularly after the mid 1980s and in recent years has tried to catch up with the western part. An important feature of development in the two regions is that-every trend, which occurs in the west, is followed in the east after some time lag.It is desirable that such steps need to be taken in the east, which have proved beneficial for the agricultural development of west, for example land reforms. At the same time, lessons need to be taken in respect of negative aspects of ground water development. One such issue is over exploitation of ground water. The enormity of excessive use of ground water in the western region can be understood by the fact that of the total 22 over exploited I critical blocks in the two regions, 21 are in the western region, Again about 76% of semi critical blocks fall in the western region as against 24% in the western region.One of the strategies generally suggested to eliminate unplanned use of ground water is through integrated planning and management of ground and surface water resources. In actual practice, it could never be done in the absence of a coordinating agency, which planned and implemented water resources projects, basin or sub basin . wise. In order to counter this lacuna in 1999, the government of U.P constituted a State Water Resources Agency (SW ARA) under the chairmanship of the chief secretary. Recently (June 2001), as part of the World Bank funded the state water re structuring project, efforts are being made to give practical shape to this organization.It is envisaged to establish a Water Resources Data and Analysis Center under the agency to provide logistic support to it. The success of integrated water resources development in general and balanced ground water development of the state in particular will depend mainly on the effectiveness of these institutional measures.","tokenCount":"7368"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ae83bf6cfff7de172249c38201377de7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/60be9d8e-858f-42b1-b01f-6de0cbf86415/retrieve","id":"1403424383"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d8faa62a-8d11-4af6-8104-6023a7ce25f4","pagecount":"4","content":"these notes are made available as a contribution to information sharing. They do not constitute a formal record] 1. Welcome and opening, by Fred Unger, ILRI 2. Update on engagement of partners in Vietnam in national food systems dialogues, by Ass. Prof Dao The Anh, vice president VAAS Presentation attached Q&A: -Sinh, ILRI: Will different sectors and countries join the regional Food System Innovation Hub, an initiative from Vietnam? -Vietnam is one of the most advanced countries in the region. Other countries are interested in this, and we can enlarge this initiative. -Lan, Dutch Embassy: MARD has worked out tentative plan for post Summit for five tracks. Who is the focal person to be approached to work on this? -ICD, Dr Nguyen Do Anh Tuan is focal person, and Ms Binh, his assistant, and CC Dr The Anh and Dr Tuyet Mai, deputy director, NIN in email. -Hardwick, WB: What the plan is after the Summit? -Revising agenda, we have a lot of meetings, report to ICD to organize some meetings with different donors to see how to corporate design and follow up activities. -Lua, Rekolto: Why just engaging research community, not other stakeholders? -We invited different stakeholders (farmers, research academia, private sector), with a focus on research-orientation to support policy makers. -Binh, WB: Why is action plan quite narrow compared to comprehensive priorities? -UNFSS has the global agenda and format of five tracks and sixty actions. Core team can come up with specific interventions. -Fred, ILRI: FSGW members contributed a lot to track 1 and 5. Need to see how FSWG members can contribute to post-Summit. 3. WB update on traceability study, by Dao Viet Long, Ernst & Young Presentation attached -Song Ha, FAO: Is it correct that traceability is mandatory for fruits and vegies? Is it confirmed legally? -The Anh: Traceability is not mandatory yet. For traceability, we have to trace all stages of the value chain. -Vy, Ernst & Young: Definition of traceability (Circular 74-2011 requires that traceability is required for all stages and subjects of the value chain). 4. Updates from other members -ADB (Vichelle Roaring) on Cross-Border Traceability Pilot Demonstration Presentation attached -FAO (Song Ha) on engagement in FS Summit + At the Summit, PM Nguyen Xuan Phuc stress the importance of food safety in the upcoming strategy for Vietnam and currently FAO is looking to identify the track facilitation measures being applied in South and Southeast Asia.+ Regarding plant health, a scoping study was conducted, and some findings will be presented in coming meeting. National action plan on Plant Health is being developed. FAO is working with PPD of MARD to finalize and send it to the Govt. + At project level, FAO is now working with Govt of Korea on a project on horticulture for future generations (greenhouse farming), very much relevant with the trackability study by WB.-ILRI (Fred Unger):+ Under the ongoing SafePORK project, ILRI did an on-farm trial on replacing antibiotics on pig fattening. Key message: no gain jumps of weight when using antibiotics compared to using probiotics. Risks communications activities for different actors in the pig value chain, with risk comms curricular to be finalized end of this year HUST quality management and food safety conference which was announced will be postponed due to Covid-19.-IFC (Uy):Food safety project with poultry industry, private company from food and vegies sector to improve food safety practices for their factories. Developing a new project on food loss and nutrition (2022)(2023)(2024)(2025)(2026)(2027) -CGIAR A4NH (Tuyen):We need to discuss on the focal point of FSWG to follow up post-Summit. Dr The Anh, Dr Mai and Tuyen can consult MARD on how FSWG can contribute.-WHO (Phuc) WHO supported Tay Nguyen Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology with training provincial and district health staff and staff at food-borne diseases investigation division, and risk communications as recently they have many infected cases of biological contamination. Also conducted surveillance to identify kinds of food consumed by ethnic people that got the contamination. risk comms. 20 cases -ILRI (Fred) + Suggest an e-bulletin on a quarterly basis capturing key updated from members of FSWG. + Maintain the FSWG database similar to what FAO did during their chairmanship → ILRI to explore ways to create a sub-web on ILRI website to host this. An Excel file to be send to members to collect information on publications.-Respond individually or under FSWG umbrella to follow up UNFSS post-Summit. Need to follow on email. -Tuyen: one focal point for one network.-Would it be useful to express interest through formal letter → follow on email Recording link: https://ilri-org.zoom.us/rec/share/ianEzbOK-dAXZPyqP7tSmjdDok_y3tbOR-fwbwWCIhG1pUduqckPlqoLZUPJS8ad.EDF2iLACB304XKMx Passcode: 43p*eGrE","tokenCount":"762"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be1349bd0257d73c5313b2450fbf412e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7903b572-791a-4656-bb54-215cfcb31837/retrieve","id":"1965689044"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a6d8731-fddb-40d1-8b1d-7b9d407f40c1","pagecount":"1","content":"Growing media greatly influences quality of seedlings and this in turn affects the crop stand and eventually limits agronomic performance after transplanting. Hence in East Shoa zone, Ethiopia, farmers who produce hybrid tomatoes enter into contractual agreements with flower producing companies which produce high quality seedlings using imported peat moss as a growing media. However, imported media is expensive and smallholder producers cannot afford to buy and use it. In addition, farmers have no access to buy the media and grow their own seedling because commercial importers are not available in Ethiopia. This study evaluates the potential of locally available materials to substitute imported peat moss as a growing media for seedlings of hybrid tomatoes.• Overall, there is a strong similarity between seedlings grown on imported peat moss and the alternative 'LIVES tomato seedling media' in terms of selected agronomic parameters as illustrated on the Figures above.• Germination days from the alternative hybrid tomato seedlings growing media was delayed by 3 days compared to the imported peat moss.• Seedlings from alternate hybrid tomato seedlings growing media was delayed by 7 days to attain transplanting stage compared to the imported peat moss.• The cost of preparing alternate hybrid tomato seedlings growing media is cheaper than the imported peat moss. Preparation of 60 kg 'LIVES-Tomato seedlings growing media' cost 82 ETB, while the same amount of imported peat moss costs about 320 ETB.• The results suggest that any smallholders who is producing hybrid tomato can prepare and use alternative hybrid tomato seedling growing media (LIVES-Tomato seedlings growing media).• The objectivesof this study was to evaluate the potential of locally available materials to replace the imported peat moss as growing media for seedlings of hybrid tomatoes.• The study was conducted in Dugda district of East Shoa zone, Oromia regional state in a green house constructed on farm.• LIVES prepared tomato seedling growing media (LIVES tomato seedling media) which comprises of locally available peat soil from Lake Koka, commercial compost from Debreziet-Genesis farm, sugar cane bagasse from Wonji sugar factory and red ash from Meki town. These materials were mixed as follows 25% local peat soil, 50% compost, 12.5% sugar cane bagasse and 12.5% red ash.• Data on selected agronomic parameters were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics. ","tokenCount":"374"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cf9d84df455fa409ad998aa3dafa436c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc3b31f6-84da-4a07-84b4-69fba7b089f9/retrieve","id":"781921343"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5e1ca4e-d7a2-4c59-bd45-3e16657d0556","pagecount":"17","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-In Kenya, livestock is an important foreign exchange earner and contributes to food security and nutrition through provision of nutrition-dense animal-source foods (milk, meat and eggs). While also contributing indirectly to livelihoods through the production of organic fertilizer (manure) and provision of animal traction services, they are also critical for social, cultural and religious processes. However, livestock diseases still rank as a major productivity constraint across the country. This is largely due to the generally low investments in the agricultural sector with even less investment made to the livestock subsector. In Kenya, animal diseases are particularly severe in extensive livestock systems. Animal health services in these areas have been severely hampered by several factors including the vast, yet sparsely populated area to be covered, the transhumant/nomadic nature of pastoralism, poor infrastructure leading to high delivery costs, insufficient technical personnel willing to work in the generally hostile and often insecure environment, and limited support structures including credit and markets.Following the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) of the mid-80s animal health services deteriorated even further in the extensive system. Under the SAPs the government divested from some sectors including veterinary services with the hope that the private sector would step in to fill the gaps. Indeed this was the case in the intensive livestock systems where the private sector replaced the public sector in providing services such as tick control, artificial insemination and clinical services. However, in extensive livestock systems the private sector did not step into the gap left by the public sector in the provision of animal health services. As a result, animal health services continue to rely almost exclusively on the public and informal private sectors. Additionally, continued promotion of inappropriate service delivery services designed for intensive livestock production systems has resulted in overemphasis on curative service (sale of drugs and treatment of clinical cases) at the expense of preventive services (vaccinations, herd health). The interactive workshop was designed to agree on a way forward for private sector involvement in animal health service delivery. A draft circular on 'private sector involvement in animal health service delivery' was also discussed in-depth.The main objective of the meeting was, to discuss and agree on a structured method of private sector participation in the vaccination of animals and other animal health services. Specifically, the meeting aimed to;i. Identify the barriers that hinder successful participation of the private sector in the provision of animal health services.ii. Identify modality that facilitates and encourage meaningful participation of the public sector in animal health service delivery.iii. Draft a circular that gives guidelines on private sector involvement in the provision of animal health services including vaccination.Welcoming remarks by Romano Kiome, Chief of Party-AVCD AVCD, LC is aimed at improving livestock productivity in Northern Kenya. The project aims at promoting available innovation and technologies to improve animal health service delivery in ASALs. Based on the existing empirical research, innovation and technology uptake will be accelerated by involving the private sector in animal health service delivery. Private sector involvement in animal health service delivery has been limited by existing perceptions and lack of knowledge among livestock producers that delivery of vaccines is solely by the government. There is a need for policy interventions that clarify on roles and responsibilities of different actors in animal health service delivery. This approach can assure the transformation of animal health service delivery in the country.Welcoming remarks by Jimmy Smith, Director General-ILRI Privatization of veterinary services is very critical in enhancing livestock productivity. Following, the Structural Adjustment Program, for which he was key player during his time at the World Bank, the privatization of services led to an increase of the incidences of diseases as these adjustments didn't address local-specific issues on livestock disease control. To address livestock disease, policies need not be unified but rather they should localize to address local-specific issues in animal health service delivery. Policies must be developed based on existing empirical evidence on animal health service delivery. Free veterinary services by aid organization do not provide a business environment for the engagement of the private sector. For meaningful private sector involvement in animal health service delivery, a business case must be established, and the government need to create the enabling environment for private sector investment.Remarks, Mary Nzomo Chairperson CECM Caucus on Agriculture andLivestock diseases and pests are among the top constraints limiting productivity and development of livestock industry globally. These disease and pests have a significant impact on human health and well-being especially on food security, safety, livelihoods and trade. The challenges of animal diseases and pest control service delivery mainly include; poor infrastructure, insufficient technical personnel, lack of enabling policies and inadequate budgetary allocation of resources to animal health.Vaccines are the most effective interventions for reducing animal diseases instances and subsequently, livestock deaths. Therefore, disease control services have been and still are an important input into livestock sector development that needs to be given pragmatic thinking and approach in case of any changes involving the private sector.During the structural adjustment policies, the government was compelled to drastically privatize most of its public function as a mitigating strategy for improving the provision of veterinary services. However, there is a lack of credible evidence that the private sector alone is well equipped to deliver these services than the public sector. Therefore, there is a need for a well-organized partnership between these two sectors.To improve animal health service delivery, the responsible department needs to review the roles of the public and private sector to inform and guide investments within the framework of the National Agricultural Investment Plans.The public-private partnership should be promoted to enable livestock keepers to become self-reliant due to enhance access and use of animal health services.To improve animal health service delivery in Kenya the following need to be considered;• Extension services should be considered as public-private sector initiative to strengthen extension services at the community level.• Strengthen communication linkages and improve policy dialogues, planning and resource mobilization among all stakeholders• Promote information sharing through networking and improve the existing knowledge base• Strengthen linkages between technology and practice Remarks, Obadiah Njagi-Director of veterinary services-DVSThe public-private partnership in veterinary services is not a new concept. The concept came along during the structural adjustment program with several services such as tick control, artificial dissemination and some vaccination (poultry) were left for the private sector to provide. Therefore, there is a need to dispel the notion that the private sector has been kept away. The private sector has not been able to penetrate in ASALs due to other underlying factors such as poor infrastructure that result in a high cost of service delivery, the vastness of the areas that are sparsely populated among other factors. Obadiah maintained that the national government is ready to support the private sector, but several concerns need to be clarified. These include;• How the government can engage the private sector sustainably?• Who are the real actors/players in veterinary services provision? Do the existing guidelines exhaustively define the role and responsibility of the different actors? Is there a need to enhance the existing veterinary guidelines?• How do we address the challenge of vaccine production?Challenges in delivery of animal health servicesPresented by Henry Kiara-ILRI Livestock diseases still rank as a major productivity constraint in Kenya estimated to be responsible for at least 20% of the loses. This is largely due to a number of factors including low investments in the livestock subsector, the nature of livestock production (extensive livestock systems), insecure environment, and high poverty levels. Consequently, there is widespread self-diagnosis and medication, an abundance of counterfeit and substandard drugs and frequent outbreaks of preventable livestock diseases. Even if the public sector were to increase funding, it would still not be able to provide all the needed services. We believe a bigger private sector role to complement the public sector efforts in animal health delivery is the best way to significantly improve access to animal health services in the ASALs.But given the unique nature of livestock keeping in the ASALs, innovative incentive mechanisms need to be created for the private sector to invest in this sector.Link to presentation-https://www.slideshare.net/ILRI/animal-healthservices-hkPresented by Christine Peacock-Sidai Africa LtdThe World Animal Health Organization (OIE), is convinced of the potential of PPPs to improve the quality of veterinary services worldwide while building robust and sustainable animal health systems contributing to the health and well-being of human populations. As a member of the OIE expert panel on PPPs, Christine Peacock made a presentation on the OIE PPP guidelines on different types of PPPs in animal health delivery which include, transactional, collaborative and transformational. Kenya has several legal obligations to the OIE with DVS being the OIE delegate for Kenya. One major challenge is the decentralization for veterinary services following devolution, in terms of compliance with the legal obligations on disease reporting. This is how the OIE PPP guidelines can contribute to this shift in supporting the legal framework needed. Discussions should be on the roles and responsibilities of the public and private sector. For example, the public sector can provide the infrastructure, regulatory framework, clear communication, monitoring and regulation of donors and NGOs so that their actions do not interfere with private sector investments, and mobilize staff. The private sector can provide financial resources, inputs (vaccines) reporting and data collection. The two, i.e. private and public sector can build a world-class disease control system in Kenya.Link to presentation -https://www.slideshare.net/ILRI/peacock-ahsPresented by Jacktone AcholaFollowing the implementation of the Constitution of Kenya 2010, the delivery of animal health services including disease control services became a function of the county governments as stipulated under the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution. With this perceived autonomy by the county governments, the coordination of animal health services previously done by the DVS was disrupted leading variance in delivery of the services. Achola, highlighted many challenges in animal health delivery that included that the county governments have failed to recognize the established Veterinary Service Delivery Structure such as disease reporting systems. Most of the acts governing animal health service delivery system in the country were deliberately being ignored or treated with contempt by most of the county governments. Professionalism is at stake as most of the county governments treat most professionals including the veterinary professionals with a lot of contempt. Poor coordination in the delivery of services affects disease control, through the lack of efficient and effective utilization of the available resources at the county level i.e. vehicles use, inadequate staff, poor coordination among private sector, NGOs, national and International Organizations to support animal health service provision in the counties is a contributing factor to low community contribution towards disease control services. Uncontrolled livestock movements especially in ASAL areas with the resultant spread of livestock diseases such as Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), coupled with poor infrastructure especially the vaccination crushes, poor road network etc. resulting in low vaccination coverage. Finally, the failure by the main vaccine producer (KEVEVAPI) to provide the vaccines when required is a gap by regulatory authorities to ensure the availability of high-quality vaccines. This includes quality assurance and the importation of vaccines if the capacity of local production is exceeded.Presented by Vincent OmbakaThe presentation focused on private sector incentives in animal health delivery by review of animal health laws and private sector involvement. This was achieved through a desk research of existing Animal Health Services (AHS) relevant policy and laws, with relevance to the ASAL and a stakeholder workshop to review the findings and recommendations. Was the law standing in the way of the delivery of animal health services in the ASALs areas? Some points of interest in terms of policy objective, with the view that the law is to enforce policy, clearly identified that private sector participation is not prohibited, but it is also not incentivized. Ombaka shared how the law is more than just an instrument to instruct, it is a historical document. The number of laws in this country tells a story. For instance, in 1952 there was an offence enclosure about injuring animals, which was directly associated with the end of the Mau Mau era. Illustrating how the law was used to enforce a political policy. Veterinary profession in Kenya started in the 1890s after the establishment of the Department of Veterinary Services to cater to white settlers during the colonial era. Before Kenya's independence from the British Government, Veterinary Services were mainly provided by the private sector. To regulate the profession, the Kenya Veterinary Board was established on 13 October 1953. After Kenya gained independence in 1963, veterinary services became a public good where the services were now provided by the Government for free. This continued until the advent of the structural adjustment programs in the late 1980s. The upshot being the privatization of clinical services, tick control, artificial insemination and freeze on the employment of animal health service providers by the government. Privatization was misconstrued to mean that anyone could now provide veterinary services. That period saw the emergence of unqualified personnel who provided sub-standard services to farmers and pastoralists.The result being loss of animals of high value, exposing the public to drugs and chemical residues thus contributing to antimicrobial resistance. This also affected access to livestock and livestock products to international markets. Attempts were then made by the Directorate of Veterinary Services to contain the situation where a circular was issued prescribing that for one to offer veterinary services, especially in agro vets, the minimum qualification should be a two-year training in Animal Health from AHITI.In 2008 through session paper no 2 (National Livestock Policy), the government resolved to separate management of veterinary medicines from that of human medicines. The provision of Animal Health services was transformed in 2011 through the enactment of the Veterinary Surgeons Veterinary Paraprofessional Act which clearly stated that these services can only be provided by competent and registered personnel. The presentation clearly illustrated the requirements for registration. It emerged that most of the animal health delivery challenges experienced in the arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) have been made worse by the very same people who ought to be providing solutions for livestock keepers. Poor policies on the provision of animal health services such as the provision of free drugs and vaccines by the government and development partners have encouraged a non-sustainable dependence by livestock keepers. By commercializing these services, community ownership and participation can ensure a wider reach and encourage private sector actors to invest in the delivery of the much-needed services. Additionally, public animal health officers were reported to be misinterpreting the law and regulations on the delivery of vaccines by the private sector either due to ignorance or for personal interests. Rampant supply of counterfeit and substandard drugs encouraged by the existence of uncontrolled borders and the low capacity of the recently created Veterinary Medicines Directorate leading to infrequent inspections has further discouraged private sector investment.The stakeholders committed to implementing eight resolutions that were arrived at, offering solutions that will guide future practice and encourage private sector investment in animal health service delivery.Link to presentation https://www.slideshare.net/ILRI/joseph-ahsThe meeting agreed that a circular by the directorate of veterinary services to all the relevant stakeholders can clarify the fact that no law prohibits private sector form delivering vaccines. The circular can also provide guidelines on how the vaccines should be delivers to ensure they follow the laid down regulations. A draft of such a circular was discussed in-depth with the below comments provided; Transportation of vaccines from source to destination counties shall comply with the manufacturer's conditions which may include packaging and temperature specifications.Add on vaccine disposal 5. Storage of vaccines in the county of use shall maintain vaccine viability and shall be the responsibility of the private veterinary surgeon in charge of the vaccination programme at any given time.Add a section on vaccine disposal 6.Transportation of vaccines from county stores to the field and subsequent vaccine maintenance at the right temperature during vaccination shall be by manufacturer-stipulated temperature and packaging conditions.Add a section on vaccine disposal 7. Publicity of any vaccination campaign shall be effective and shall be conducted by the private veterinary surgeon in charge of the vaccination programme. Such publicity shall apply the most appropriate methods and shall reach all targeted livestock keepers.As is, this does not look viable to the private sector Add in collaboration with the government 8.Vaccination quality assurance (pre and post-vaccination sero-monitoring) shall be carried out by the nearest Regional Veterinary Investigation Laboratory (RVIL). The cost of this activity shall be the responsibility of the Director of Veterinary Services.Sero-monitoring is very expensive, and quality assurance is the responsibility of the government.Capacity building on sero-monitoring to be supported by the DVS Add a clause CDVS may set funds to support seromonitoring 9.The cost of vaccination chargeable to livestock keepers shall be determined by the private veterinary surgeon in charge of the vaccination programme.Maintained as it is 10. The vaccinator shall keep a record of all vaccinated animals including the name of the owner, his village, phone number, species and number of animals. A record of the vaccine used shall include the vaccine manufacturer and vaccine batch number. The vaccinator shall leave a vaccination card detailing this information with the livestock keeper.Maintained as it is","tokenCount":"2903"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ff792cfd2e282faa15d5a57a6c37e83","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b3f48c7-6cf8-46c7-9b4c-325d40ac474e/retrieve","id":"510867015"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9fcd4869-215b-480d-8910-d542311651a3","pagecount":"2","content":"Lotta Hedstrom, member of the Swedish parliament, echoed Professor Turok's comments, noting, \"The real issue is food. If small farmers do not have enough food, then nothing else will work. We cannot ignore agriculture.\"The parliamentarians particularly valued the field trips organized by the World Agroforestry Centre and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). They enjoyed speaking directly with farmers and discussing the benefits and disadvantages of new crop varieties and farming systems. Many noted the remarkable strength of the women farmers they met.Catherine Wanguni Mwangi, a farmer from Thika, strongly impressed the Colombian delegate Santiago Castro with her enthusiasm for new varieties and approaches. \"Even though she works long hours on her small farm and, as head of her household, is the person mainly responsible for supporting her extended family, she still finds a way to support several orphans whose parents have died from AIDS-related infections,\" he remarked.Anne Lelia, a Maasai woman who participates in an ILRI program with pastoralists, had a similarly powerful impact on Drifa Hjartardottir, a member of Iceland's parliament. The two shared their experiences of farm life, enabling Hjartardottir to compare her own cattle production on a farm in Iceland with the livelihoods of pastoralists at Kitengela just outside the Nairobi National Park.Extensive debate followed a presentation on the impact of climate change in Africa by Lou Verchot of the World Agroforestry Centre. He maintained that climate change is an important development issue for Africa, with a potentially major impact on smallholder production. He further argued that investment in science is critical for managing the challenges ahead. Kenyan parliamentarians sought advice on key policy changes that respond to the information presented, and they expressed interest in continuing dialogue with the CGIAR-supported centers to inform local policy development.Debate following briefings on agriculture, regional trade, agricultural subsidies, biotechnology, avian flu, donor harmonization and Center harmonization continued throughout the week. One outcome was a request from Network members for readily accessible and information, which would better enable them to influence national and international policy in favor of agriculture, science and technology.The PNoWB was founded in 2000 by a group of parliamentarians who are leading advocates for development and who have a particular interest in transparency and accountability in the Bank's development programs. There are currently over 1,000 members from 110 countries. The delegation visiting Kenya included PNoWB members from Canada, Colombia, Finland, Iceland, India, Liberia, Poland, South Africa, Sweden, Tanzania and Uganda. They were accompanied by Tony Worthington, who was previously a member of parliament in the United Kingdom.A DVD with a short film of the visit and coverage of the major debates will be available in October.","tokenCount":"438"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"04cbc85664cec5f8a88c5f2cd6c5cc40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4600e2a9-03ff-426d-b82c-77bba8ff4b0b/retrieve","id":"-824148833"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b1f2a874-5582-4c02-aba3-7126f0c006d1","pagecount":"2","content":"More than two billion people worldwide are not getting all the nutrients they need. Micronutrient deficiency can lead to illness, physical stunting and impaired cognitive development. Animal-source foods-milk, meat and eggs-dense in essential micronutrients are among nature's 'first foods'. Providing poor people with greater access to these foods is a powerful way to improve human nutrition and wellbeing, both through the foods animals provide as well as through the income generated from animals, which poor households use to purchase nutritious foods.In 2015, the international community adopted the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), one of which is to have 'zero hunger' by 2030. Livestock are critical to meeting this goal (SDG 2) to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. But with more than eight billion people to feed by 2030, and the need to do so with diminishing natural resources and a changing climate, sustainably increasing livestock productivity will require highly innovative and inclusive approaches.As we celebrate this year's World Food Day, let us remember the many ways that livestock can help the world meet SDG 2. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is working with partners to bring about change in livestock-related practices, policies and investments in developing countries by generating scientific knowledge, exerting influence and developing capacity for more equitable, broad-based and sustainable livestock development.A # ZeroHunger world by 2030 is possible Globally, about 1 billion people benefit from livestock in different ways. Almost half of these depend on livestock for their livelihoods.Animal-source foods (meat, milk and eggs) provide 40% of the world's protein supply.Over the last 30 years, consumption of meat, milk and eggs in low-and middle-income countries has more than tripled.Including animal-source foods in the diets of most infants in poor households in their first 1000 days of life (up to two years of age) is critical for meeting their basic nutritional needs.Eggs, meat and dairy products are 3 of the 7 food groups deemed by the World Health Organization to be essential in assessing the dietary diversity of infants.This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence.October 2018 ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund ILRI envisions a world where all people have access to enough food and nutrition to reach their maximum potential. It works to make this a reality through research for efficient, safe and sustainable use of livestock, thereby ensuring better lives through livestock.What ILRI and its livestock partners are doing to help achieve zero hunger ILRI and its partners are working together to build a world where the communities of developing and emerging economies are empowered with the most reliable livestockrelated knowledge, where sustainable livestock productivity is fully and equitably supported, where women and men both are livestock decision-makers, and where no one goes hungry and thereby fails to achieve their full potential.ILRI works with partners to undertake research that leads to development outcomes that:• Combat food insecurity and malnutrition through research to raise livestock productivity levels. • Enhance food safety through the implementation of early-warning and risk-reduction systems. ","tokenCount":"520"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9b04ec4cc702cce7fe9f7975327dd989","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/497b8ec8-07f4-4863-b083-9eb1788fec6a/retrieve","id":"1629372247"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8967ac4c-73b4-4c33-afeb-777ab74e5fcb","pagecount":"76","content":"Catholic Relief Services (CRS) es la agencia oficial de la comunidad católica en los Estados Unidos para ayuda humanitaria internacional. El trabajo de CRS de ayuda y desarrollo se logra mediante programas de respuesta a emergencias, al VIH, salud, agricultura, educación, microfinanzas y construcción de la paz. CRS salva, protege y transforma vidas en más de 100 países, sin tener en cuenta la raza, religión o nacionalidad. El Programa Mesoamericano de Agua y Suelo para la Agricultura (ASA) es un proyecto de CRS financiado por la Fundación Howard G Buffett. ASA y una red amplia de socios institucionales del sector público, sector privado y organizaciones de sociedad civil están escalando procesos que validan y catalizan adopción amplia de herramientas, metodologías y prácticas que restauran la salud del suelo y aumentan la productividad, rentabilidad y resiliencia de la agricultura de secano en El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua y Oaxaca, México. Para más información, por favor visite https://www.crs.org/ About CCAFS working papers Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.La Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima (ASAC) es un enfoque propuesto para gestionar del riesgo climático, pero su implementación requiere la comprensión y el uso sistemático de información y data climática aplicada al contexto local, para seleccionar e implementar prácticas agrícolas más resilientes. La ASAC es intensiva en conocimiento por lo que requiere facilitar el acceso a información climática traducida en recomendaciones accionables y oportunas, y desarrollar nuevos conocimientos y habilidades en los agricultores, y nuevas capacidades y enfoques en los sistemas de extensión agrícola. Este documento describe de manera explícita las capacidades que los agricultores y extensionistas requieren para gestionar el riesgo climático, utilizando el enfoque de modelo de competencias, con énfasis en la información climática necesaria para la toma de decisiones de corto, mediano y largo plazo en los sistemas de producción agrícola. Este modelo de competencias define el marco para el desarrollo de contenidos de formación, las herramientas de evaluación, y el diseño de modelos de extensión efectivos, a la medida y adaptados al contexto.Agricultura sostenible adaptada al clima (ASAC); gestión de riesgo climático; competencias; modelo de competencias; evidencias conductuales; estándares; cambio climático; servicios climáticos; tendencias climáticas; variabilidad climática; pronósticos estacionales de clima; predicciones del tiempo; alertas meteorológicas; modelos de extensión, herramientas de evaluación, Centro América. es liderado por la Alianza Bioversity International y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT).. Magister en Ciencias Agrarias. Contacto: j.d.martinez@cgiar.org  El aumento de la temperatura del planeta provocado por las emisiones a la atmósfera de gases de efecto invernadero, derivadas de la actividad humana, está provocando variaciones en el clima a corto, mediano y largo plazo, afectando significativamente los sistemas productivos y los medios de vida de la población que dependen de los recursos naturales (Smith et al, 2019). Este cambio y variabilidad climática suponen grandes desafíos para agricultura y los medios de vida basados en actividades agropecuarias, especialmente en países en vía de desarrollo donde la pobreza, la inequidad y la degradación de los recursos naturales agravan las amenazas climáticas (Mow et al, 2019). La exposición a riesgos relacionados con el clima, sumada a las condiciones de vulnerabilidad y capacidad insuficiente para reducir o responder a sus consecuencias, causan graves desastres y pérdidas (PNUD, 2010).Los agricultores de América Latina son muy vulnerables a la variabilidad climática, y las pérdidas de cultivos se observan en toda la región de forma prácticamente anual.Según la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) y el Programa Mundial de Alimentos (PMA), América Central enfrentó sequía en cinco de los últimos seis años (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019), generando considerables pérdidas en la producción de granos básicos y frijol en Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras y Nicaragua (FAO, 2016; FAO, OPS, WFP y UNICEF, 2018.). En abril del 2019, la FAO y el PMA advirtieron que las sequías habían destrozado más de la mitad de la cosecha de granos básicos de los productores de pequeña escala en el Corredor Seco de Centroamérica en 2018, dejándolos sin reservas de alimentos y afectando su seguridad alimentaria (FAO, 2019a). Por su parte, los gobiernos de la región indicaron que 2.2 millones de personas sufrieron pérdidas en sus cosechas, y una evaluación de la FAO y el PMA estimó que 1.4 millones de estas personas afectadas necesitaban ayuda alimentaria urgente (FAO, 2019b). Esto muestra que la variabilidad climática hace que los agricultores tengan cada vez mayores retos a la hora de planificar o manejar sus cultivos.El manejo del riesgo climático es esencial para garantizar los medios de vida y seguridad alimentaria de los agricultores en el campo, el incremento de la productividad y la capacidad de adaptación de los sistemas agrícolas al cambio y la variabilidad climática. A menudo relegada, la gestión del riesgo climático en las actividades productivas agropecuarias es hoy en día un aspecto inevitable para la planificación y la toma de decisiones (PNUD, 2010), tanto a nivel parcela como a nivel territorial. El acceso, análisis y uso eficiente de la información climática es un prerrequisito para la gestión del riesgo climático. En los últimos años, la investigación para el desarrollo ha hecho importantes avances en este ámbito, desarrollando enfoques prácticos y herramientas para la planificación (FAO, 2013) con base en información climática (WMO, 2013), y para la selección y priorización de prácticas de Agricultura Sostenible Adaptadas al Clima, o ASAC por su acrónimo en español (CCAFS, 2014;Mwongera et al, 2015).Este documento discute la ASAC y los retos para aumentar su adopción a nivel local, proponiendo una definición que busca operativizar el enfoque de manera que pueda ser ampliamente implementado para la gestión del riesgo climático, especialmente entre los agricultores de escala pequeña que dependen de agricultura de secano en las regiones del mundo más vulnerables al cambio climático.Para esto, se incluye una estrategia para el desarrollo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático que incluye: (1) la aplicación de un modelo de competencias, que identifica y describe las habilidades, los conocimientos, actitudes y comportamientos que necesitan los agricultores para la gestión efectiva del riesgo climático, con base en el análisis de las decisiones de largo, mediano y corto plazo que debe tomar y la información que necesita para tomar buenas decisiones; y (2) un marco para el desarrollo de estas competencias basada en tres componentes fundamentales: (i) el modelo de extensión que detalla el proceso de desarrollo de las competencias, así como los diferentes roles y sus respectivas competencias, (ii) los contenidos y materiales para el desarrollo de las competencias, y (iii) un conjunto de herramientas para la evaluación de línea base, el monitoreo y evaluación de avances en el desarrollo de las competencias, y la gestión adaptativa de esta estrategia.El concepto de Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima -ASAC (Climate-Smart Agriculture, CSA, por sus siglas en inglés) surge como respuesta a la problemática de promover sistemas agrícolas que garanticen la seguridad alimentaria de manera sostenible, dentro de un contexto mundial de cambio climático. CCAFS y la FAO (2014) definen la ASAC como la agricultura que: 1) incrementa de manera sostenible la productividad y los ingresos, 2) refuerza la resiliencia (adaptación) al cambio y a la variabilidad climática, y 3) reduce o elimina las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (o aumenta las capturas de carbono) dónde es posible; contribuyendo al logro de los objetivos de desarrollo y de la seguridad alimentaria (ver Figura 1 con los tres pilares de la ASAC).Para que una tecnología o práctica se considere ASAC debe contribuir al menos a dos de los tres pilares de la ASAC. En el trabajo con productores de pequeña escala, la prioridad debe estar en el aumento sostenible de la productividad y/o los ingresos y en la adaptación al cambio y la variabilidad climática. La mitigación, mediante la reducción de emisiones o el secuestro de carbono, es un beneficio adicional que se debe procurar solamente donde no tiene consecuencias negativas para el logro de los dos primeros objetivos.La mayoría de las tecnologías o prácticas de agricultura sostenible contribuyen en cierta medida a la adaptación al cambio climático y/o a su mitigación, pero no siempre está claro cuándo una intervención pasa de ser agricultura sostenible a ser ASAC. La respuesta está en el conocimiento, la comprensión y el uso sistemático de información climática para seleccionar tecnologías o prácticas que permitan gestionar (resolver o mitigar) intencionalmente los riesgos climáticos con base en un entendimiento del contexto local.La ASAC representa un nuevo paradigma en el mundo de desarrollo agrícola que transciende de un enfoque en insumos y capital (semillas, fertilizantes, pesticidas) a un enfoque en el conocimiento (información, evidencia y procesos) (FAO 2017 5 ). La agricultura del conocimiento o agricultura inteligente, como se ha denominado, reconoce que las soluciones a los retos de incrementar la productividad para la seguridad alimentaria de una población creciente a nivel global, en el contexto del cambio y la variabilidad climática, y la degradación de los recursos naturales, son complejas e intensivas en conocimiento y capacidades locales para la acción.La agricultura de conocimiento es una agricultura de precisión que se basa en el uso de información y evidencia científica contextualizadas para la toma de decisiones, a la vez que reconoce la necesidad de integrar el conocimiento de los agricultores, quienes cuentan con un conocimiento más localizado y experiencia específica. De esta manera, busca que los agricultores tomen decisiones para la gestión de sus procesos de innovación y adaptación con base en un dialogo de saberes entre el conocimiento científico y el conocimiento local (Chandra, et al, 2018;Totin, et al, 2018).Para operacionalizar la ASAC se propone este enfoque más amplio y definido como un cambio de comportamiento en la manera en que los agricultores desarrollan sus actividades a nivel de sus parcelas para la gestión del riesgo climático, con base en la identificación y análisis de los riesgos específicos a nivel local, lo cual pasa por un uso sistemático e intencional de información climática científica e indicadores locales de clima. Sin embargo, se reconoce que la ASAC va más allá de la restauración de tierras a nivel de parcela, que es el punto de referencia para desarrollar el modelo de competencia de gestión del riesgo climático propuesto en este documento; y que la ASAC es un enfoque para transformar y reorientar el desarrollo agrícola en el marco de las nuevas realidades del cambio climático (Lipper et al. 2014) que se aplica a una variedad de prácticas, sistemas e instituciones a diferentes escalas (parcela, paisaje, país, región).Si bien la ASAC está sustentada en años de experiencia de investigación y desarrollo para entender el efecto del cambio climático en la agricultura e identificar posibles soluciones para la gestión de este riesgo creciente, la adopción de la ASAC en el campo de los agricultores presenta importantes retos. La gran mayoría de los agricultores del mundo son de pequeña escala, produciendo en sistemas de secano que dependen de la lluvia para su producción. Este grupo produce más de 80% de los alimentos consumidos en países en desarrollo (Donatti et al., 2018). Sólo en Centroamérica hay más de dos millones de productores de pequeña escala que dependen de la agricultura de secano, los cuales ocupan 71% de las tierras agrícolas y producen dos terceras partes de los alimentos básicos producidos en la región (Siebert and Döll 2010).De acuerdo con datos de la CEPAL 6 el 60% de esta población es pobre y una de cada cuatro personas vive en pobreza extrema, siendo una población vulnerable. Los altos niveles de desforestación y la severa degradación de los suelos y recursos hídricos limitan la productividad de estos sistemas que producen los rendimientos más bajos del mundo después de África subsahariana (Hengsdijk and Langeveld, 2009). El cambio climático viene a exacerbar estas vulnerabilidades haciendo que esta población sea una de las más vulnerables al cambio climático en el mundo (Schmidt et al. 2012;Donatti et al. 2019). A pesar del gran reto, la ASAC tiene un alto potencial de generar beneficios sociales, económicos y ambientales a gran escala, mejorando la productividad, rentabilidad y resiliencia de los sistemas de producción, no sólo en Centroamérica, pero en otras regiones en el mundo que presentan las mismas vulnerabilidades.Los productores deben tomar decisiones de largo, mediano y corto plazo con base en diferentes tipos de información climática para gestionar el riesgo climático que enfrentan. Esto requiere en primer lugar el acceso a información climática analizada y traducida en conocimiento accionable, lo cual requiere una oferta de servicios agroclimáticos de calidad. Para esto es necesario contar con extensionistas que tengan acceso a información climática precisa y localizada, y que cuenten con las competencias para traducir esta información en recomendaciones que los agricultores entiendan y pueden poner en práctica. En segundo lugar, los productores deben contar con las capacidades para comprender esta información, y para relacionarla con los eventos que afectan sus actividades agropecuarias y su impacto (CGIAR, 2018;Loboguerrero et al, 2018Loboguerrero et al, , 2019)). Sin embargo, según un estudio reciente realizado por CRS (Gottret et. al, 2020) con una muestra representativa de productores con los que trabaja en Centroamérica, 50% de los productores no han asistido a ninguna escuela, y el 35% de estos es totalmente analfabeto, lo cual genera grandes retos para promover la ASAC según su definición.Esto último ha llevado a la inversión en actividades de formación y acompañamiento sin las cuales no sería posible facilitar la adopción de las prácticas ASAC que, como se mencionó anteriormente, son intensivas en conocimiento y habilidades. Sin embargo, esta fuerte inversión en actividades de formación y acompañamiento a diferentes niveles ha generado preguntas por parte de aquellos que realizan estas inversiones sobre su efectividad en el desarrollo de las capacidades necesarias, así como su traducción en acciones y resultados concretos para la gestión del riesgo climático y la adaptación exitosa de los medios de vida de los productores al cambio climático.Llevar la ASAC a escala requiere contar con buena información climática, accesible y entendible para los usuarios finales, los cuales necesitan estar en la capacidad de accederla, interpretarla, analizarla y finalmente combinarla con los otros criterios que contemplan a diario para tomar decisiones. y determinar la probabilidad de exceso o déficit de ciertos umbrales de lluvia y temperatura relevantes para la agricultura.En el mediano plazo, relacionado con la planificación del ciclo de cultivo, las decisiones están ligadas a la selección de los cultivos anuales o de ciclo corto, y variedades de estos cultivos, las fechas óptimas de siembra, la selección de prácticas de manejo, y la programación de las diferentes actividades durante el ciclo de cultivo.Este tipo de decisiones requiere el análisis de los pronósticos estacionales o subestacionales del clima para entender la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos anormales o extremos durante el periodo del cultivo. Estos eventos extremos pueden incluir, entre otros, lo siguiente: (i) que la cantidad de lluvia durante el ciclo de cultivo sea inferior o superior del promedio; (ii) que las lluvias inicien antes o después de lo normal; (iii) que la duración y/o intensidad de la canícula (sequía estacional que causa graves afectaciones en el corredor seco centroamericano) o la época lluviosa sea mayor o menor de lo normal; y/o (iv) las condiciones de El Niño-Oscilación del Sur (ENSO por sus siglas en inglés) en un año.Si bien es cierto que los agricultores planean sus actividades basados en hábitos ancestrales o en las condiciones climáticas del año anterior o de un año \"normal\" (promedio climatológico), la alta variabilidad interanual en la frecuencia e intensidad de eventos climáticos anormales o extremos en el contexto del cambio climático, como por ejemplo en la precipitación (Figura 2) y la temperatura (Figura 3), hacen que estas decisiones sean cada vez más difíciles de tomar y lleven a menudo a pérdidas. Por esto, que es importante que los agricultores combinen este conocimiento ancestral y localizado con los pronósticos del clima para gestionar el riesgo climático de manera que pueda minimizar potenciales pérdidas de cosecha. Figura 2. Variabilidad en la precipitación mensual entre diferentes años  Fuente: Estación Chinique (INSIVUMEH), El Quiché, Guatemala Figura 3. Variabilidad en la temperatura promedio mensual entre diferentes años  Fuente: Estación Chinique (INSIVUMEH), El Quiché, Guatemala En el corto plazo, las decisiones están relacionadas con el periodo de tiempo asociado al ciclo de cultivo. Una vez que éste se planificó y los cultivos anuales o de ciclo corto han sido sembrados, los agricultores todavía pueden ajustar la programación de sus actividades, o hacer ajustes a las prácticas de manejo, para responder a las predicciones del tiempo, alertas meteorológicas y otros indicadores locales del tiempo. Por ejemplo, los agricultores pueden aplicar riego suplementario de los reservorios de agua, o ajustar el momento de aplicación de los fertilizantes, o implementar prácticas para retener el agua de lluvia en el suelo por mayor tiempo.Para esto es necesario un buen monitoreo de las condiciones del tiempo atmosférico, las predicciones diarias o semanales del tiempo, y las alertas meteorológicas. Con base en esta información, los agricultores pueden tomar medidas preventivas, ajustando o cambiando las prácticas de manejo de cultivo, para responder a eventos climáticos durante el ciclo del cultivo, permitiendo a los agricultores evitar daños o incluso pérdidas completas del cultivo.Con el fin de contribuir a la operativización de la ASAC y llevarla a escala, CRS y el programa CCAFS colaboraron para lograr un mejor entendimiento de las capacidades que deben tener los extensionistas, promotores o agentes de campo, y los agricultores para promover e implementar prácticas ASAC como mecanismo para la gestión del riesgo climático. Este trabajo partió de la siguiente pregunta: ¿Qué nuevas habilidades y cambios de comportamiento son necesarios para implementar prácticas de agricultura sostenible adaptadas al clima que permitan una gestión efectiva del riesgo climático? Responder a esta pregunta requiere una descripción clara de estas habilidades y cambios de comportamiento, la cual a su vez ayuda a definir claramente los objetivos de los esfuerzos de formación y acompañamiento en términos de los cambios de comportamiento esperados a diferentes niveles: extensionista, promotor o agente de campo y agricultor. Para esto se propuso utilizar el enfoque de competencias mediante el diseño de un Modelo de Competencias para la Gestión de Riesgo Climático.Un \"modelo de competencias\" no es más que la descripción del conjunto de competencias interrelacionadas que debe demostrar una persona para realizar su trabajo u oficio exitosamente. Una \"competencia\" es el conjunto de actitudes, conocimientos y habilidades que les permiten a las personas desarrollar una actividad de manera efectiva y fundamentada en valores. La forma en que una persona demuestra que posee una competencia requiere no solo que esta posea el conocimiento (saber) pero que demuestre: (i) el interés y la actitud para realizar la práctica (querer-hacer), (ii) las habilidades necesarias para implementar la práctica (poder-hacer), (iii) el compromiso para implementar la práctica con calidad (hacerlobien), y (iv) la necesidad de implementar la práctica (un cambio de comportamiento, basado en valores). Por esta razón, cada competencia se describe en la forma de una lista de acciones que debe implementar la persona para demostrar la competencia (poder-hacer), las cuales se llaman \"evidencias conductuales\" y pueden utilizarse como el marco para la evaluación de competencias. Cada evidencia conductual puede describirse en la forma de \"estándares\", los cuales definen la manera correcta de implementar la acción para asegurar que la práctica se implementa con calidad (hacerlo-bien). Estos estándares son los que definen los contenidos de formación para desarrollar, o fortalecer la competencia (Stokes and Oiry, 2012;Lišková and Momšik, 2013;Vraniak, et. al, 2017).Usando el enfoque del modelo de competencias, CRS y el CCAFS diseñaron el modelo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático con los siguientes objetivos: 1) describir clara y explícitamente los objetivos y metas de los procesos de formación para la gestión del riesgo climático; 2) guiar el desarrollo y organización de los contenidos y métodos de formación; 3) enmarcar el diseño de herramientas para evaluar las competencias de los participantes en los procesos de formación con el fin de identificar sus fortalezas y brechas al inicio del proceso de formación (línea base); 4) diseñar el modelo de extensión de acuerdo con los contenidos de formación y la evaluación de línea base; y 5) enmarcar el diseño de herramientas para evaluar avances en el desarrollo de las competencias, y su impacto en cambios de comportamiento y resultados.De esta manera, se propone el modelo de competencias como el marco analítico para el diseño, la implementación, el escalamiento y la evaluación de acciones concretas encaminadas al desarrollo de las competencias necesarias para la gestión del riesgo climático a través de las prácticas ASAC, a diferentes niveles y para los diferentes roles en el modelo de extensión agrícola.El diseño de este modelo de competencias partió del Modelo de Competencias para la Restauración de Tierras (diseñado por el Programa de Agricultura y Medios de Vida de CRS como parte de un modelo de competencias integral que incluye competencias de manejo de los recursos naturales e innovación, financieras, de mercado, de manejo de negocios y de organización; CRS, 2020) y el Enfoque de Servicios Integrados Participativos de Clima para la Agricultura (PICSA por sus siglas en inglés; Dorward et al., 2017), el cual se explica más adelante en el documento.El Modelo de Competencias para la Restauración de la Tierra fue desarrollado a partir del 2017 cuando la agencia adoptó el enfoque de modelos de competencia para diseñar, implementar y evaluar sus esfuerzos de desarrollo de capacidades en agricultura y medios de vida para los diferentes roles en el modelo de extensión: extensionistas, promotores o agentes de campo y agricultores. Como parte de esta iniciativa global, el Programa ASA fue el primero en adoptar este enfoque y llevarlo a la práctica en Centroamérica, diseñando una primera propuesta del modelo de competencias para el manejo de agua y suelo, y usando este para guiar sus objetivos de formación, el ajuste de sus currículos, y la evaluación del impacto de sus procesos de capacitación. Este modelo de competencias fue refinado mediante una serie de pilotajes en El Salvador, Etiopía, Honduras, Guatemala, Malawi, Nicaragua y Zambia durante 2018-2020.Este Modelo de Competencia para la Restauración de Tierras de CRS se centra en mejorar el manejo de los recursos de suelo y agua para aumentar la productividad agrícola y la resiliencia al cambio climático. La vulnerabilidad de los agricultores de pequeña escala a la sequía, las lluvias irregulares y el aumento de la temperatura provocado por el cambio climático, se ve enormemente agravada por la degradación de las tierras causada por la pérdida de la cubierta vegetal y la alta tasa de degradación del suelo provocada por el hombre. Existen estrategias técnicas bien establecidas para reducir los riesgos de la producción de secano, aumentar la productividad y ayudar a los pequeños agricultores a adaptarse a los cambios en los patrones de lluvia. Estas incluyen el restablecimiento y la protección de la salud del suelo, el mejoramiento de las prácticas de fertilización, la diversificación (tanto biológica como económica) y la integración de los árboles; así como la protección de las laderas, los nacimientos de agua, los manantiales y los canales de agua. El modelo de competencia propuesto para la gestión de riesgos climáticos integra estas prácticas para mejorar la resiliencia a los eventos climáticos adversos mediante el uso de información climática para la toma de decisiones relacionadas al manejo de los sistemas de producción. El modelo para agricultor incluye siete competencias, cada cual, con una descripción del comportamiento esperado, el cual se divide en principios claves escritos en la forma de evidencias conductuales gruesas (ver Tabla 2).La colaboración entre CRS y CCAFS para integrar la gestión del riesgo climático en el modelo desarrollado por CRS incluyó una serie de actividades de co-creación colectiva con los objetivos de:  Las evidencias conductuales y estándares para agricultores que se presentan en la Tabla 3 describe un proceso iterativo de planificación e implementación en el que la información sobre el clima (y el suelo) se utiliza de forma sistemática e intencionada para la planificación a largo plazo de los sistemas de producción agrícola, así como antes y durante del ciclo productivo agrícola. Por lo tanto, estas evidencias conductuales y estándares detallan el principio 1 \"selecciona cultivos y prácticas sostenibles adaptadas a clima con base en información de suelos y clima\" a nivel del agricultor. , Para las decisiones de largo plazo, el objetivo es los agricultores tomen en cuenta como el clima está cambiando en su comunidad para introducir/eliminar cultivos en su sistema de producción, seleccionar prácticas de cultivo y realizar inversiones (evidencia conductual 1.3). Para las decisiones de mediano plazo, el objetivo es que tomen en cuenta información de los pronósticos estacionales del clima y el conocimiento local para seleccionar sus cultivos anuales o de ciclo corto, las prácticas de manejo, y los momentos oportunos para realizar las diferentes actividades en su finca (evidencia conductual 1.4). Para las decisiones de corto plazo, el objetivo es que los agricultores tomen en cuenta indicadores locales de clima, predicciones del tiempo y alertas meteorológicas para ajustar sus prácticas durante el ciclo de cultivo, según sea necesario (evidencia conductual 1.5).Restauración de la Tierra y la Gestión del Cambio Climático\" para el nivel de agricultor DESCRIPCIÓN DE LA COMPETENCIA: Desarrolla un plan para la restauración de la tierra que permita gestionar el riesgo climático, lograr objetivos nutricionales, económicos y medioambientales, y hacer un uso eficiente de los recursos disponibles.PRINCIPIO 1: Selecciona cultivos y prácticas sostenibles adaptadas al clima con base en información de suelos y clima.1.1 Usa el análisis/evaluación visual del suelo para seleccionar cultivos y áreas de siembra.1 1.4.1 Identifica los momentos en que realiza las diferentes actividades en su finca (calendario estacional) y lo relaciona con el clima para comprender como las afecta.1.4.2 Toma en cuenta la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos anormales o extremos para decidir si debe sembrar sus cultivos, qué cultivos sembrar y/o cuándo sembrarlos.1.4.3 Toma en cuenta la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos climáticos anormales o extremos para seleccionar prácticas ASAC para el manejo de sus cultivos.1.5 Toma en cuenta indicadores locales de clima, las predicciones diarias o semanales del clima, y las alertas meteorológicas para ajustar sus prácticas durante el ciclo de cultivo, según sea necesario.1.5.1 Revisa las decisiones tomadas antes de implementarlas con base en indicadores locales de clima, la actualización de las predicciones del tiempo, y las alertas meteorológicas.1.5.2 Ajusta sus prácticas durante el ciclo de cultivo si es necesario.1.5.3 Monitorea el desarrollo de sus cultivos considerando las predicciones del tiempo y las alertas meteorológicas.1.5.4 Reflexiona sobre los resultados logrados con el uso de información climática para la toma de decisiones sobre el nuevo ciclo de cultivo.Como se puede observar en la Tabla 3, el trabajo de diseño realizado por CRS y el CCAFS no sólo lista las cinco evidencias conductuales que debe demostrar un agricultor para tener la competencia de gestión de riesgo climático, sino que también define los estándares que aseguran que estas acciones listadas como evidencias conductuales se realicen siguiendo un protocolo que asegure la calidad de la implementación. Más aun, estos estándares enmarcan el diseño y organización de los contenidos y materiales para el desarrollo de esta competencia, así como el diseño de las herramientas para la evaluación de línea base, antes de iniciar la inversión en el desarrollo de capacidades, y en evaluaciones periódicas posteriores para evaluar avances y resultados.Aunque el uso de la información climática histórica y prospectiva es la base para la gestión del riesgo climático, la experiencia a la fecha ha demostrado que la difusión de información a los agricultores no se traduce automáticamente en conocimiento accionable a nivel local (Legia y Giraldo, 2017). Los agricultores comúnmente no cuentan con las capacidades necesarias para analizar e interpretar la información climática existente, ni con los mecanismos para relacionar esta información con el impacto de estos eventos climatológicos a nivel local y en sus actividades agropecuarias. Lo anterior, es fundamental para traducir la información climatológica en decisiones y acciones efectivas. Para que los agricultores estén mejor preparados para aprovechar la presencia de buenas condiciones climáticas y protegerse de los fenómenos climáticos anormales o extremos, es necesario ofrecer y asegurarse que tengan acceso a servicios de información climática (CIAT, 2020). Sin embargo, también son necesarios los servicios de extensión para asegurar que esta información es analizada y contextualizada a nivel local, y asociada a recomendaciones concretas y accionables mediante procesos de aprendizaje participativo (WMO, 2019).Dado lo anterior, llevar a escala la implementación de prácticas ASAC por parte de los agricultores para gestionar el riesgo climático requiere con una estrategia que incluya los siguientes componentes:1. Un modelo de extensión que permita desarrollar estas competencias a escala de manera efectiva;2. Materiales con los contenidos y las herramientas necesarias para el desarrollo de estas competencias; y 3. Herramientas para evaluar la línea base en el nivel de competencias al inicio del proceso de formación para informar el diseño de modelos de entrega a la medida de las necesidades; así como el avance en el desarrollo de estas competencias tanto a nivel de resultados como de impactos.A continuación, se proponen opciones para asegurar que cada uno de estos componentes fundamentales para el desarrollo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático sea implementado.Tradicionalmente los modelos de extensión agropecuaria se realizan a través de agentes de extensión, los cuales reciben de primera mano la información, la entienden, analizan, manipulan y transforman en forma de recomendación para su uso final por parte de los agricultores. En otras instancias, con el objetivo de llegar a un mayor número de agricultores y reducir los costos del modelo de extensión, los servicios de extensión utilizan un modelo de cascada en el cual los agentes de extensión capacitan a promotores locales o agentes de campo, quienes actúan como intermediarios entre los agentes de extensión y los agricultores. En otros casos se utilizan agricultores líderes o innovadores ya sea en reemplazo de los agentes de campo o promotores, o como un complemento a estos (Davis and Heemskerk, 2012).CRS ha venido trabajando con diferentes modelos de entrega en los diferentes países donde implementa su Programa de Agricultura y Medios de Vida en Latinoamérica, África y Asia, dependiendo de los objetivos del proyecto, los requerimientos de las diferentes fuentes de financiamiento, y los recursos disponibles. Como parte de estos modelos de entrega, CRS ha venido capacitando y certificando desde 2013 prestadores privados de servicios (PSP por sus siglas en inglés) como su principal estrategia para la creación y capacitación de grupos de auto ahorro y préstamo (SILC por sus siglas en inglés) lo cual ha venido mostrando resultados promisorios (Ledgerwood, J. & Johnson, D., 2018;Allen and Tang, 2019;Lawson-Mcdowall et. al, 2019). Con base en esta experiencia, CRS ha venido probando un modelo de extensión que incluye Prestadores Privados de Servicios Agropecuarios (PASP por sus siglas en inglés) en vez de promotores locales o agentes de campo para asegurar el acceso de los agricultores a servicios de extensión agrícola e insumos de calidad, con el doble objetivo de: 1) asegurar un modelo de extensión sostenible que no dependa de recursos de proyectos de desarrollo; y 2) generar empleos rurales, especialmente para jóvenes.Para asegurar el desarrollo a escala de estas competencias, y asegurar su sostenibilidad, es fundamental que los servicios de extensión sean institucionalizados a nivel local y nacional en organizaciones del sector público y privado, las organizaciones de productores, y las instituciones de formación profesional y académicas. La experiencia acumulada durante los 5 años de implementación del Programa ASA demostró que el enfoque de modelos de competencia facilita el diálogo con estos actores para acordar los objetivos de los procesos de formación de manera clara y explícita. También ayuda a acordar las metas y resultados de estos procesos a través del tiempo, y determinar la efectividad de los modelos de entrega, o de extensión, para el desarrollo de estas competencias con extensionistas y/o agentes de campo. De esta manera, el desarrollo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático inicia desde la academia con la formación de los futuros profesionales, las instituciones de gobierno responsables del diseño e implementación de estrategias de extensión agrícola, y de generación y diseminación de información climática, y las organizaciones del sector privado y asociaciones de productores que ofrecen servicios de extensión como parte de su modelo de negocio.Otra consideración muy importante es asegurar la calidad de estos servicios, lo cual requiere que los diferentes actores, con diferentes roles en el modelo de extensión, cuenten con las competencias necesarias no solo para transmitir la información y dar las recomendaciones a los agricultores, sino sobre todo para desarrollar las competencias de los agricultores y apoyarlos en sus procesos de análisis, interpretación y toma de decisiones mediante el uso de herramientas participativas que faciliten la comprensión y aprendizaje por parte de los agricultores. Por esta razón, CRS y el CCAFS diseñaron también modelos de competencias para: (a)promotores locales, agentes de campo y/o PASP; y para (b) agentes de extensión, a partir del modelo de competencias diseñado para los agricultores (ver Tabla 3).En la Tabla 4 se presenta la competencia \"Planificación para la Restauración de la Tierra y la Gestión del Cambio Climático\" a nivel de agente de campo, PASP y/o promotor. Esta competencia fue diseñada bajo la premisa de que los agentes de campo son personas que viven en la misma zona que los agricultores que apoyan, y que tienen la capacidad de contextualizar la información y conocimiento a las realidades y necesidades locales, y que han terminado la escuela primaria, pueden leer, escribir, manejar las cuatro operaciones básicas, y que son personas con legitimidad y liderazgo en la comunidad. Por lo tanto, el modelo define el objetivo de desarrollo de competencias de los agentes de campo, promotores o PASP como la competencia para apoyar a los agricultores a desarrollar su plan para la restauración de la tierra de manera para que éstos puedan gestionar el riesgo climático, lograr sus objetivos nutricionales, económicos y medioambientales, y hacer un uso eficiente de los recursos con que cuentan.Tabla 4. Competencia \"Planificación para la Restauración de la Tierra y la Gestión del Cambio Climático\" a nivel de agente de campo, promotor y/o PASP DESCRIPCIÓN DE LA COMPETENCIA: Apoya a los agricultores a desarrollar su plan para la restauración de la tierra para que estos puedan gestionar el riesgo climático, lograr objetivos nutricionales, económicos y medioambientales, y hacer un uso eficiente de los recursos con que cuentan.PRINCIPIO 1: Apoya a los agricultores en la selección de cultivos y prácticas sostenibles adaptadas a clima con base en información de suelos y clima.1.1 Apoya a los agricultores a seleccionar cultivos y áreas de siembra con base en el análisis y/o evaluación visual del suelo para 1.1.1.1 Apoya a los agricultores a tomar muestras de su suelo.1.1.1.2 Apoya a los agricultores para realizar la evaluación visual de sus suelos.1.1.2 Apoya a los agricultores en la interpretación de los resultados del análisis de suelos y/o la evaluación visual del suelo para la selección de cultivos y áreas de siembra. 1.2 Apoya a los agricultores a seleccionar prácticas de cultivo con base en el análisis y/o evaluación visual de su suelo.1.2.1 Apoya a los agricultores en la interpretación de los resultados del análisis de suelos y/o la evaluación visual del suelo para la selección de prácticas de cultivo.1.3 Facilita evaluaciones grupales sobre como el clima está cambiando en las comunidades para apoyar a los agricultores a tomar decisiones sobre la introducción/eliminación de cultivos en sus sistemas de producción, la selección de prácticas de cultivo y la realización de inversiones.1.3.1 Facilita evaluaciones participativas con agricultores de los cambios observados en el clima con base en percepciones locales. 1.3.2 Facilita el análisis colectivo de información histórica del clima con agricultores para mejorar su entendimiento sobre la variabilidad y las tendencias climáticas. 1.3.3 Facilita la comparación entre la variabilidad y tendencias históricas del clima y los cambios en el clima observados a nivel local. 1.3.4 Apoya a los agricultores en el uso de su entendimiento sobre la variabilidad y tendencias históricas del clima para introducir/eliminar cultivos y seleccionar prácticas ASAC. 1.3.5 Apoya a los agricultores en el uso del entendimiento sobre la variabilidad y tendencias históricas del clima para la toma de decisiones de inversión en prácticas ASAC.1.4 Facilita el uso de información de pronóstico estacional del clima y el conocimiento local por parte de los agricultores para seleccionar cultivos anuales o de ciclo corto, prácticas de manejo y los momentos para realizar las diferentes actividades en su finca.1.4.1 Apoya a los agricultores a preparar su calendario estacional y relacionarlo con el clima para comprender como este afecta las diferentes actividades que realiza en su finca. 1.4.2 Apoya a los agricultores a tomar en cuenta la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos climáticos anormales o extremos, para decidir si debe sembrar sus cultivos y/o cuándo sembrarlos. 1.4.3 Facilita el uso por parte de los agricultores de información sobre la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos climáticos anormales o extremos para seleccionar prácticas para el manejo de sus cultivos.1.5 Apoya a los agricultores a ajustar sus prácticas durante el ciclo de cultivo, según sea necesario, con base en indicadores locales de clima, las predicciones diarias o semanales del tiempo y las alertas meteorológicas.En la Tabla 5 se presenta la competencia \"Planificación para la Restauración de la Tierra y la Gestión del Cambio Climático\" a nivel de extensionista. Esta competencia fue diseñada bajo la premisa de que los agentes de extensión son graduados de escuelas técnicas y profesionales, y por lo tanto tienen la capacidad de acceder, analizar e interpretar información climática si: 1) reciben la capacitación y acompañamiento necesarios, y 2) cuentan con las herramientas y capacidades de facilitación.Dependiendo del modelo de extensión, los agentes de extensión pueden tener un contacto más o menos directo con los agricultores y/o trabajar principalmente con los agentes de campo, promotores y/o PASP. Por lo tanto, el modelo define el objetivo de desarrollo de competencias de los agentes de extensión como la competencia para: 1) acceder información climática, 2) facilitar su análisis mediante el uso de herramientas participativas, 3) capacitar a promotores y agricultores para la gestión del riesgo climático, y 4) recomendar prácticas ASAC para apoyar a los agricultores a desarrollar su plan para la restauración de la tierra y la gestión del riesgo climático. Todo esto con el fin de que los agricultores logren sus objetivos nutricionales, económicos y medioambientales, haciendo un uso eficiente de sus recursos.DESCRIPCIÓN DE LA COMPETENCIA: Accede a información climática y facilita su análisis mediante el uso de herramientas participativas, capacita a promotores y agricultores para la gestión del riesgo climático, y recomienda prácticas ASAC para apoyar a los agricultores a desarrollar su plan para la restauración de la tierra y la gestión del riesgo climático, con el fin de lograr sus objetivos nutricionales, económicos y medioambientales, haciendo un uso eficiente de sus recursos.PRINCIPIO 1: Facilita el análisis de información climática mediante el uso de herramientas participativas, capacita a promotores y agricultores y recomienda prácticas ASAC para apoyar a los agricultores en la selección de cultivos y prácticas sostenibles adaptadas a clima con base en información de suelos y clima.1.1 Desarrolla las competencias de los agentes de campo y/o agricultores y promueve herramientas participativas para seleccionar cultivos y áreas de siembra con base en el análisis y/o evaluación visual del suelo.1.1.1.1 Capacita a los promotores y agricultores en la toma de muestras para el análisis del suelo. 1.4.3.1 Ofrece un portafolio de prácticas ASAC para el manejo de cultivos bajo eventos climáticos anormales o extremos.1.4.3.2 Ofrece herramientas participativas para apoyar a los agricultores a usar información sobre la probabilidad de ocurrencia de eventos climáticos anormales o extremos para seleccionar prácticas ASAC para el manejo de sus cultivos.1.5 Desarrolla las competencias de los agentes de campo y/o agricultores para que los agricultores puedan ajustar sus prácticas durante el ciclo de cultivo, según sea necesario, con base en indicadores locales de clima, las predicciones diarias o semanales del tiempo, y las alertas meteorológicas.1.5.1.1 Accede las predicciones de tiempo y alertas climáticas de fuentes confiables, como el servicio meteorológico nacional o espacios de concertación como las Mesas Técnicas Agroclimáticas 1.5.1.2 Actualiza a los promotores y agricultores sobre las predicciones del tiempo, y las alertas meteorológicas.1.5.1.3 Ofrece herramientas participativas para apoyar a los agricultores a revisar las decisiones tomadas con base en indicadores locales de clima, las predicciones del tiempo, y las alertas meteorológicas.1.5.2 Da seguimiento a los promotores y agricultores para el ajuste de sus prácticas durante el ciclo de cultivo.1.5.3 Da seguimiento a los promotores y agricultores para el monitoreo de los cultivos considerando las predicciones del tiempo, y las alertas meteorológicas.1.5.4 Ofrece herramientas participativas para apoyar a los agricultores en la reflexión sobre los resultados logrados con el uso de información climática para la toma de decisiones sobre el nuevo ciclo de cultivo.Estos modelos de competencia tanto a nivel de agente de campo, promotor o PASP, como a nivel de extensionista, definen de forma explícita las evidencias conductuales que deben demostrar las personas que asumen estos roles en el modelo de extensión, así como los estándares a cumplir para asegurar que estas funciones se implementan con la calidad requerida. Por lo tanto, estos modelos se pueden usar para evaluar las competencias y el desempeño de estas personas, pero también pueden servir para establecer procesos de certificación por competencias. Los procesos de certificación por competencias, como parte del modelo de extensión, pueden asegurar que los agricultores reciban servicios de calidad para desarrollar sus competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático, a la vez que crean incentivos para que los extensionistas, agentes de campo, y PASPs mejoren los servicios que ofrecen.El diseño de la competencia \"Planificación para la Restauración de la Tierra y la Gestión del Cambio Climático\" no sólo pone de forma explícita los objetivos de fortalecimiento de competencias a los diferentes niveles (agricultor, agentes de campo / promotor / PASP, y extensionista), pero también define la estructura y contenidos necesarios para implementar procesos de desarrollo de estas competencias. El CCAFS junto con la Universidad de Reading del Reino Unido desarrollaron el enfoque de Servicios Climáticos Participativos de Clima para la Agricultura -PICSA (siglas en inglés) (Dorward et al., 2017), aplicado con éxito en países africanos y latinoamericanos. PICSA es uno de estos métodos para el desarrollo de competencias, y representa un avance importante en el diseño de contenidos y herramientas participativas para fortalecer el uso de la información para la gestión del riesgo climático. PICSA busca facilitar que los agricultores tomen decisiones sobre sus actividades agropecuarias de manera fundamentada, es decir basándose en información climática y meteorológica precisa y sitio-específica. Es por esto, que esta metodología fue utilizada como la base para el diseño de la competencia para los tres roles (agricultor, agentes de campo / promotor / PASP y extensionista).PICSA es una metodología de 12 pasos que se muestran en la Figura 4. Los primeros pasos se centran en identificar las actividades que implementa el agricultor, y el efecto del estado del tiempo y el clima en estas actividades. Los siguientes pasos permiten ayudar a los agricultores a utilizar una serie de fuentes de información sobre clima, tiempo, cultivo, especies pecuarias y medios de vida no-agrícolas, para la toma de decisiones y planificación para la gestión del riesgo climático.Durante el proceso de elaboración del Modelo de Competencia para la Gestión del Riesgo Climático, el CCAFS y CRS examinaron el enfoque PICSA para estructurar los contenidos, materiales e instrumentos de capacitación y para identificar y cerrar las brechas con relación al modelo de competencia. De esta manera, el enfoque de competencias ayudará al CCAFS a refinar el enfoque PICSA sobre la base de una clara definición de las competencias necesarias para que los extensionistas apoyen con éxito a los agricultores en la gestión de los riesgos climáticos. El desarrollo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático requiere de un proceso de extensión adaptativa y a la medida que permita evaluar la línea base, identificar brechas o áreas de mejora -y decidir que brechas se debe priorizar para diseñar planes de implementación para el desarrollo de las competencias. Es importante que los planes de capacitación están enfocados en un número manejable de cambios de comportamiento deseados, alcanzables dentro del marco de tiempo del programa, en vez de diluir esfuerzos en tratar de lograr muchos cambios al mismo tiempo.Una vez iniciada la implementación es también importante evaluar periódicamente los avances en el desarrollo de las competencias priorizadas para poder ajustar los planes de implementación según sea necesario, y tomar decisiones sobre el mejor momento para agregar nuevos contenidos relacionados con otros cambios de comportamiento.Adicionalmente, puede ser deseable realizar evaluaciones de medio término y/o finales para analizar el grado de internalización o asimilación de los cambios de comportamiento propuestos, y su efecto en los resultados e impactos esperados del proceso de desarrollo de competencias.Un enfoque particularmente útil y popular para evaluar competencias es el STAR (Situación, Tarea, Acciones, Resultados) que está basado en entrevistas basadas en comportamientos (Heinsman et. al, 2007). Según Buang et. al (2018), este tipo de entrevistas, a diferencia de las entrevistas tradicionales en las que el entrevistado puede decirle al entrevistador lo que quiere escuchar, incluso si está esquivando la verdad, tienen un mayor potencial de predecir si la persona tendrá un buen desempeño en el trabajo u oficio para el cual está siendo entrevistado. Este método está basado en preguntas abiertas que colocan al entrevistado en una situación pasada y específica en la que tenía que realizar una tarea, y le piden que comparta las acciones que realizó y los resultados que obtuvo.CRS y el CCAFS utilizaron el modelo STAR combinado con el método SenseMaker (ver Guijt et al. 2018) y entrevistas semiestructuradas, para desarrollar una herramienta para evaluar las competencias de gestión de riesgo climático a nivel de agricultor La herramienta para la recolección de datos contiene una pregunta abierta inicial con el objetivo de generar una narrativa; y un conjunto de preguntas significadoras, preguntas sociodemográficas, y preguntas de protocolo de recolección; y se denomina \"marco de significación\".La entrevista parte de una pregunta abierta prediseñada, llamada \"pregunta generadora\" que permite recolectar narrativas sobre las experiencias vividas por los entrevistados, y que fueron importantes para estos, en lugar de generar declaraciones u opiniones evaluativas. Esta narrativa no es un relato extenso de la experiencia, sino más bien un relato selectivo y centrado en lo que ocurrió.A esta pregunta inicial, siguen preguntas de seguimiento, llamadas \"preguntas significadoras\" que son fundamentales para el método SenseMaker e incluyen \"preguntas de selección múltiple significadoras\", \"deslizador\", \"deslizador con piedras\", \"tríada\" y \"canvas con piedras\" (vea la Tabla 6 para una explicación más detallada de estas preguntas significadoras). Este proceso de auto-significación reduce la influencia del evaluador o investigador externo durante el análisis y proporciona capas adicionales de información sobre la experiencia compartida por la persona entrevistada. La auto-significación es una cualidad esencial del método SenseMaker, haciendo que el diseño y la prueba de las preguntas significadoras sea tan importante como el diseño de la pregunta generadora de la narrativa.La forma en que se pide a las personas entrevistadas que proporcionen sus respuestas fomenta respuestas matizadas y deliberativas dado que la naturaleza de estas preguntas requiere que las personas entrevistadas piensen antes de responder. Esto las anima a tomarse un tiempo para reflexionar, lo que es menos común en las encuestas convencionales, y están diseñadas explícitamente para reducir las posibilidades de que las personas entrevistadas den respuestas socialmente deseables.Tabla 6. Definiciones de las preguntas significadoras fundamentales de SenseMaker (extraídas de Guijt et. al, 2018) El instrumento central de SenseMaker, equivalente a un instrumento de encuesta. Incluye una pregunta generadora de la narrativa, una pregunta sobre el título de la historia, un conjunto de preguntas significadoras y un conjunto de preguntas de opción múltiple de protocolo de colección y sociodemográficas.Las preguntas fundamentales de SenseMaker se usan para capturar capas de información adicionales a la narrativa. Los tipos de preguntas significadoras son: selección múltiple, tríada, deslizador, deslizador con piedras y canvas con piedras.Una pregunta fundamental de SenseMaker, en la que se pide a las personas entrevistadas que indiquen lo que sucedió en la experiencia que compartieron colocando su respuesta en una línea entre dos extremos.Una pregunta fundamental de SenseMaker, en la que se pide a las personas entrevistadas que indiquen lo que sucedió en la experiencia que compartieron, seleccionando opciones relevantes para su experiencia, llamadas \"piedras\", y colocándolas en una línea entre dos extremos.Una pregunta fundamental de SenseMaker que utiliza un triángulo equilátero con etiquetas de elementos en cada esquina para comprender la importancia relativa de tres elementos diferentes de un mismo concepto en la experiencia compartida por la persona entrevistada en su narrativa.Un tipo de significador o pregunta de seguimiento, en la que se pide a las personas entrevistadas que signifiquen lo que sucedió en la experiencia que compartieron seleccionando diferentes opciones, llamadas \"piedras\", e indicando dónde se encuentran en una matriz de dos ejes de continuos interrelacionados, que representan diferentes elementos de un concepto.Este mismo método será utilizado para diseñar las herramientas de evaluación por competencias para los agentes de campo / promotores / PASP, y los extensionistas, las cuales permitirán avanzar en los procesos de certificación para estos dos roles con el fin de garantizar la calidad del modelo de extensión; así como evaluar la efectividad y calidad de los modelos de entrega.Una versión revisada de la herramienta de evaluación piloteada en Guatemala se puede apreciar en el Anexo 3. La pregunta generadora de la narrativa usada en la herramienta es la siguiente:Comparta los retos que enfrentó en su producción agropecuaria con relación al clima, y describa como los ha manejado, y con qué resultados (positivos o negativos).Esta pregunta busca poner a la persona en una situación en la que enfrentó retos relacionados al clima en su producción agropecuaria, la tarea se refiere al manejo de estos retos, y a partir de esto, se espera que la persona entrevistada comparta las acciones que tomó y los resultados que logró. De esta manera, esta narrativa describe una situación pasada donde se puede observar las evidencias conductuales de la competencia para la gestión del riesgo climático que la persona mostró en su experiencia, e identificar aquellas que no, mostrando sus fortalezas y sus brechas o áreas de mejora.Una vez que la persona entrevistada comparte su narrativa, la herramienta incluye \"preguntas de seguimiento sobre las evidencias conductuales\" tipo entrevista semiestructurada para complementar la información que la persona compartió a través de la narrativa para evaluar si demostró o no cada una de las evidencias conductuales en la experiencia compartida. Estas preguntas se diseñaron con base en laLa ASAC representa un cambio de la agricultura intensiva en insumos (tipo revolución verde) a la agricultura intensiva en conocimientos. La ASAC es un marco ideal para integrar el conocimiento local sobre el tiempo y el clima con información climática para mejorar la toma de decisiones asociadas con la implementación de prácticas de corto, mediano y largo plazo que mejoren los sistemas de producción agropecuaria y los hagan más resilientes.Llevar a escala la implementación de prácticas ASAC relevantes y específicas al contexto requiere el desarrollo de nuevas competencias para interpretar e incorporar la información climática en la planificación de los cultivos y prácticas, no solo por parte de los agricultores, sino de los agentes de campo y extensionistas que los apoyan. Este es un aspecto primordial pero poco abordado en la literatura.En trabajo se propuso identificar y definir de forma explícita las capacidades requeridas (evidencias conductuales y estándares asociados) que requieren los agricultores para gestionar el riesgo climático, partiendo del Modelo de Competencias para la Restauración de la Tierra (elaborado por CRS), y el enfoque PICSA (desarrollado por CCAFS).Así mismo, se elaboró una estrategia para el desarrollo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático basada en tres pilares o componentes esenciales: 1) el modelo de entrega de las competencias o modelo de extensión; 2) la elaboración de contenidos, materiales y herramientas; y 3) el diseño de una herramienta de evaluación para establecer la línea base y evaluar periódicamente los avances en el proceso de desarrollo de estas competencias.Una parte fundamental del modelo de entrega pasa por el desarrollo de los modelos de competencia para agentes de campo y extensionistas que aseguren su calidad. Este modelo de entrega también enfatiza la importancia de incluir en los modelos de entrega: 1) Al sector académico para asegurar que formación de futuros profesionales incluye el desarrollo de estas competencias; 2) A las instituciones de gobierno responsables del diseño e implementación de estrategias de extensión agrícola; y de generación y diseminación de información climática, y 3) A las organizaciones del sector privado y asociaciones de productores que ofrecen servicios de extensión como parte de su modelo de negocio.Con relación al desarrollo de contenidos, materiales y herramientas para el fortalecimiento de competencias para la gestión de riesgos climáticos, durante el proceso de diseño del modelo de competencias y de capacitación de los asesores y técnicos de CRS en el enfoque PICSA, se hizo evidente que este enfoque brinda un marco general pero todavía tiene algunas limitaciones y brechas que deben abordarse, y que constituirán la base de la futura colaboración entre CCAFS y CRS.Con respecto al diseño de una herramienta de evaluación de las competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático, sobre la base de la experiencia desarrollada por CRS, en el presente documento se propone utilizar el enfoque STAR para comprender las competencias y el método de SenseMaker, complementado con preguntas tipo entrevista semiestructurada, para el diseño de las herramientas de recolección de datos, y el análisis e interpretación de los datos. Adicionalmente, se comparten los avances en el diseño de esta herramienta y su primera prueba en Guatemala.Sobre la base de los avances y los prometedores resultados iniciales que se describen en el presente documento de trabajo, CRS y el CCAFS continuaran con esta colaboración con los siguientes objetivos específicos:1. Elaborar contenidos, materiales y herramientas participativas para el desarrollo de competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático a diferentes niveles;agricultores, agentes de campo y extensionistas. Esto incluye: i) la armonización del enfoque PICSA con el modelo de competencias; ii) la elaboración y ajuste de una guía de campo para agentes de campo y extensionistas con herramientas participativas para apoyar los procesos de capacitación para agricultores; y iii) la elaboración/modificación de un compendio/guía de opciones de ASAC que puedan adaptarse a diferentes contextos y escenarios de riesgo climático.2. Probar y mejorar los enfoques e instrumentos de evaluación. Esto incluye i) revisar y finalizar la herramienta de evaluación con base a los resultados de la prueba rápida realizada en Guatemala; ii) Pilotear esta herramienta de evaluación en el marco de la implementación del PICSA con los TeSACs; y iii) Ajustar la herramienta con base en los resultados del piloto para llevarla a escala.3. Proveer lineamientos y mejores prácticas para el diseño de modelos de extensión para la entrega las competencias para la gestión del riesgo climático para los diferentes actores que participan en este proceso.4. Desarrollar un proceso similar al descrito en este documento para el diseño de un modelo de competencias para la gestión territorial del riesgo climático.Anexo 1. Registro fotográfico de talleres de desarrollo del Modelo de competencias para el Análisis y Gestión de Riesgos Climáticos de CRS y CCAFS (julio 8 a 10 de 2019, San Salvador, El Salvador / agosto 27 al 30 de 2019, Baltimore, Estados Unidos,)Anexo 2. Registro fotográfico del Taller regional de Capacitación en PICSA a técnicos de CRS (24 al 28 de febrero de 2020, Chiquimula, Guatemala)   □ 1.4.5 Analizó información de pronósticos de clima para evaluar la probabilidad de que la duración de la época seca (canícula) / lluviosa sea más o menos larga de lo normal □ 1.4.7 Utilizó la evaluación sobre la probabilidad de ocurrencia de situaciones climática anormales para seleccionar prácticas de adaptación al clima de corto y mediano plazo □ Ninguno de los anteriores □ 1.5.1 Revisó las decisiones tomadas antes de implementarlas con base en la actualización de los pronósticos del tiempo □ 1.5.2 Implementó las practicas seleccionadas de adaptación al clima de corto, mediano y largo plazo □ 1.5.3 Monitoreó pronósticos del tiempo para tomar decisiones sobre cambios en las practicas planificadas según sea necesario.  ","tokenCount":"9341"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ca6569c41901396a33ce79f3732808e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b4ef20c-a78d-4898-8859-e6e42ebf4bcc/retrieve","id":"-1482738047"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f380c450-0318-487c-a28a-690a0c3b5b9b","pagecount":"2","content":"The Fodder Innovation Project (FIP) was designed to help poor livestock keepers by addressing the perennial problem of fodder scarcity, the main obstacle preventing farmers expanding or intensifying their livestock enterprises. Project activities are focused on mixed crop-livestock systems in three sites in India and two sites in Nigeria.While Phase 1 addressed the need for technology transfer, Phase 2 has evolved to experiment with building capacity for innovation. The focus is therefore on building networks of relevant actors that can enhance access to and use of fodder-and livestock-related knowledge, thereby helping farmers to build better livelihoods.The project goal is to enhance fodder innovation capacity in equitable ways in India and Nigeria. Its purpose is to improve policies, habits and practices, and patterns of interaction among actors involved in fodder innovation. It will achieve these by: a) introducing appropriate mechanisms for facilitating innovation capacity; b) generating lessons for strengthening innovation capacity; and c) identifying options for policy and institutional change.Activities in each site were focused on context-and theme-specific network-building processes, with different entry points. Many different multi-actor networks are now developing. Overall, the project has improved collaboration among rural development actors who do not normally work together. By influencing a change in habits and practices, the project is helping to build long-term learning platforms.In Kano State (Nigeria) the project team helped farmers gain better access to bank credit and subsidized fertilizer. They also helped improve the efficiency of the agricultural extension service by bridging the gap between extension agents and farmers, minimizing overlap between different extension agents, and improving dialogue with veterinary services. Some networks have developed new sources of green fodder. For example, in Puducherry (India), farmers are growing fodder specifically for landless women dairy producers. In Ahmed Nagar, the forest department is allowing the production of fodder in protected forest areas. Good examples of research being put into use are emerging in several sites, where demand is being generated for fodder, as well as knowledge on breeding and other livestock-related technologies. Interestingly, this includes demand for technologies that were disseminated earlier but were not taken up. At the same time, the key partner organizations are introducing a similar approach in their other activities. By strengthening innovation capacity, the project has in-built sustainability, especially in its current phase of scaling out its positive experiences. These will be shared through publications, conferences and local workshops. Policy working groups have been set up in both countries to create awareness among policy and decision makers.Using  ","tokenCount":"412"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e78e2a8aa087912ad44ca9d1f97eae67","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/43677357-f230-407b-a9de-d4ebc377ed71/retrieve","id":"169031590"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"723ff2b4-1500-435d-8472-9578cede7c61","pagecount":"128","content":"A mis Padres y Hermanito, Quienes me han brindado su apoyo, amor y me enseñaron desde pequeña a luchar para alcanzar mis metas Doy gracias a Dios por tener esta gran familia A Paulo quien me brindó su amor, su cariño, su estímulo y su apoyo constante en estos años de mi vida ¡Muchísimas Gracias!El fríjol es una leguminosa cuyo grano es una fuente de alimentación proteica de gran importancia en la dieta alimenticia de la población mundial, pero en los últimos años se ha presentado un déficit en su producción debido al deterioro del cultivo observado en el campo, el cual trae consigo un desestimulo por sembrar. La necesidad de aumentar la producción agrícola, ha llevado a los mejoradores de plantas a un uso racional de los recursos genéticos; de manera que se maximice la producción sin afectar la diversidad de las plantas y se disminuya la escala de erosión genética. Por esta razón, diversos proyectos de mejoramiento genético buscan optimizar características agronómicas asociadas a componentes de rendimiento mediante la introgresiòn de características de interés de materiales silvestres en materiales cultivados. En el siguiente trabajo, se utilizo una retrocruza (RC2F2:5) originada entre un material cultivar Colombiano denominado Radical cerinza y una accesión silvestre llamada G24390. Se utilizaron marcadores del tipo microsatélites para construir un mapa genético, y así identificar posibles QTLs asociados a características agronómicas de interés relacionadas con características agronómicas asociada a rendimiento. Se obtuvo como resultado, un mapa genético con una longitud total de 350.44 cM, en el cual se establecieron los 11 grupos de ligamiento reportados para frijol, con una longitud promedio de 32.60 cM y una distancia promedio entre marcadores de 5.97cM, posteriormente, se hallaron un total de 9 QTLs para las características fenotípicas evaluadas por medio del análisis por intervalo compuesto, entre los que se resalta el QTL REND4,2 asociado a la característica rendimiento en la localidad de Popayán que explica una variabilidad fenotípica del 21% atribuida al padre silvestre G24390, demostrando la importancia de la introgresiòn de características de importancia de accesiones silvestres en líneas elites, para mejorar características de interés.Palabras clave: Frijol, Producción, Retrocruza, Cultivar, Silvestre, microsatélites, QTLs.  Figura 9: Histograma de días a madurez en la localidad de Popayán Figura 10: Histograma de días a madurez en condiciones de sequía en la localidad de Palmira Figura 11: Histograma de días a madurez en condiciones de Riego en la localidad de Palmira 45Figura 12: Histograma de días a floración en condiciones de sequía en la localidad de Palmira Figura 13: Histograma de días a floración en condiciones de riego en la localidad de Palmira 48Figura 14: Histograma de días a floración en la localidad de Palmira.Figura 15: Histograma de peso planta en la localidad de Popayán.Figura 16: Histograma de peso por planta en condiciones de riego en la localidad de PalmiraFigura 17: Histograma de peso por planta en condiciones de sequía en la localidad de Palmira Figura 18: Histograma de peso de 100 semillas en la localidad de Popayán 52Figura 19: Histograma de peso de 100 semillas en la localidad en condiciones de sequía en la localidad de Palmira 52Figura 20: Histograma de peso de 100 semillas en la localidad en condiciones de riego en la localidad de Palmira 53Figura 21: Porcentaje de polimorfismo evaluado en las diferentes cruzas 56Figura 22: Mapa de ligamiento con 276 individuos de la población G24390 X Radical cerinza 59Figura 23: Mapa de ligamiento con 276 marcadores de la población G24390 X Radical cerinza. 60Figura 24: Mapa de ligamiento con 276 individuos de la población G24390 X Radical cerinza 61Figura 25: Mapa de ligamiento con 276 individuos de la población G24390 X Radical cerinza. 62Figura 26: Mapa de ligamiento con 96 individuos de la población Radical cerinza x G24390 64Figura 27: Mapa de ligamiento con 96 individuos de la población Radical cerinza x G24390 65Figura 28: Mapa de ligamiento con 96 individuos de la población G24390 x Radical cerinza. 66Figura 29: Distorsión de la segregación de los microsatélites evaluados en la población Radical cerinza x G24390 68Figura 30: Análisis de marcador simple por medio del programa QGene v 4.0 72Figura 31: Análisis de marcador simple por medio del programa QGene v 4.0 73Figura 32: Análisis de marcador simple por medio del programa QGene v 4. 74Figura 33: Analisis de QTLs por mapeo por intervalo compuesto. Grafica realizada en MapChart v.2.2.Figura 34: Análisis de QTLs por mapeo por intervalo compuesto. Grafica realizada en MapChart v.2.2 80Figura 35: Numero de segmentos de introgresiòn por línea 82Figura 36: QTL asociado al rasgo peso por planta en condiciones de sequia en la localidad de Palmira 84Figura 37: QTL asociado al rasgo peso por planta Popayán 85Figura 38: Líneas de segmentos de sustitución cromosómica de la población G24390 X Radical cerinza. Radical cerinza: verde; G24390: Negro; Heterocigoro: Gris; Dato perdido: azul. 87.El fríjol es una leguminosa cuyo grano es una fuente de alimentación proteica de gran importancia en la dieta alimenticia de poblaciones de bajos recursos económicos, este grano contiene 22% de proteínas de alta digestibilidad, es un alimento de alto valor energético, contiene alrededor de 70% de carbohidratos totales y además aporta cantidades importantes de minerales (Ca, Mg, Fe),Vitaminas A, B 1-Tiamina, B2-Rivoflavina, C-ácido ascórbico, también es importante, porque al ser una leguminosa tiene la cualidad de realizar la actividad simbiótica con bacterias fijadoras de nitrógeno atmosférico (Rhizobium phaseoli) y así contribuye gratuitamente a mejorar la fertilidad de los suelos (CIT,2006).La producción mundial de frijol, según datos de la FAO, fue de 18.7 millones de toneladas en el año 2005. Los datos mundiales señalan que los países que concentran la producción de frijol son la India (18 por ciento), Brasil (16.5 por ciento), China (8.4 por ciento), Estados Unidos (3 por ciento) y México (6.8 por ciento) (IICA et al., 2007) FIGURA 1: Principales países productores de frijol 1994-2004.Fuente: IICA, 2007 Según la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la agricultura y la alimentación (FAO), la producción mundial de frijol en el año 2007 fue de 19.30 millones de toneladas; 0.52% menos respecto al 2006 y para el 2008 disminuyó 6.76% respecto al 2003, en promedio, mostró una disminución de 1.70% anual en este periodo (Dirección General Adjunta de Planeación Estratégica y Análisis Sectorial, 2009).Sin embargo, Colombia es considerada como un gran productor y consumidor de fríjol, pero esta producción no es suficiente y es necesario importar para cubrir la demanda. Las mismas estadísticas muestran un avance sostenido en cuanto a producción y productividad, gracias al aporte de la tecnología, pero un descenso en la superficie sembrada durante los últimos años dado el deterioro general observado en el campo el cual trae consigo un desestimulo por sembrar cultivos tradicionales (Voysest, 2000).La producción de frijol es afectada por diferentes factores, tanto bióticos como abióticos, que reducen el área sembrada y los rendimientos esperados. Entre los factores bióticos, las enfermedades pueden causar enormes pérdidas en rendimiento dependiendo de las características de la población prevaleciente del patógeno, la variedad de frijol, las condiciones ambientales de la zona, y el sistema del cultivo practicado (Beebe & Pastor-Corrales, 1991). Los eventos abióticos también pueden tener profundas repercusiones económicas y sociales. (Bonilla, 2000).La mayoría de las características heredables de importancia económica, tales como componentes de rendimiento, calidad nutricional y tolerancia a estrés, resultan de la acción conjunta de varios genes y son llamadas poligénicas, cuantitativas o de herencia compleja. Poco se sabe acerca del número, posición cromosómica, magnitud del efecto e interacciones de los loci que controlan la expresión de dichas características.Estos loci son denominados QTL (Quantitative trait loci), es decir, loci controladores de características cuantitativas (Ferreira y Grattapaglia, 1998). Estas características son afectadas también por el ambiente, que junto con las interacciones genotipo-medio ambiente reducen la eficiencia de la selección para caracteres agronómicos de importancia para un mejor rendimiento.Los marcadores genéticos, corresponden a entidades heredables que segregan como genes individuales, que no son afectados por el ambiente, son altamente polimórficos, están asociados a rasgos de importancia económica, son usados por los mejoradores como herramientas para la selección. Para loci múltiples o QTL pueden ser efectivos si existe una asociación significativa entre un rasgo cuantitativo y el marcador genético de la característica de interés.Estos marcadores pueden ser ubicados mediante mapeo genético, en un modelo abstracto de los arreglos lineales en los cuales están ubicados, ayudados por una herencia simple que puede ser seguida por generaciones debido a que este gen o marcador posee una variación detectable, lo que los convierte en una herramienta indispensable para el mejoramiento genético de características agronómicas de interés que mejoren el rendimiento (Liu, 1998) Es una planta herbácea autógama de ciclo anual, que se cultiva en zonas tropicales y regiones templadas. Esta característica permite agruparla en las denominadas especies termófilas, dado que no soporta bajas temperaturas (Debouck e Hidalgo, 1985). Se distingue por ser altamente poliforme, ya que es posible distinguir variaciones fenológicas entre la misma especie de una región a otra (Romero, 1993). El ciclo vegetativo del fríjol puede variar entre 80 (variedades precoces) y 180 días (variedades trepadoras). Dicho lapso se encuentra determinado sobre todo por el genotipo de la variedad, hábito de crecimiento, clima, suelo, radiación solar y fotoperìodo (Ortiz, 1998).Los caracteres de la morfología de las especies se agrupan en caracteres constantes y caracteres variables. Los caracteres constantes son aquellos que identifican la especie o la variedad y generalmente son de alta heredabilidad. Los caracteres variables reciben la influencia de las condiciones ambientales, y podrán ser considerados como la resultante de la acción del medio ambiente sobre el genotipo (Arias et al., 2007) Entre sus principales características podemos encontrar (CIAT, 1986):Es muy ligero y poco profundo y está constituido por una raíz principal y gran número de raíces secundarias con elevado grado de ramificación.La composición del sistema radical del fríjol y su tamaño dependen de las características del suelo, tales como estructura, porosidad, grado de aireación, capacidad de retención de humedad, temperatura, contenido de nutrientes, etc 2.2.2 Tallo principal: Es herbáceo, en general, es una sucesión de nudos y entrenudos donde se insertan las hojas y los diversos complejos axilares (Arias., et al. 2007) En variedades enanas presenta un porte erguido y una altura aproximada de 30 a 40 centímetros, mientras que en frijol de enrame alcanza una altura de 2 a 3 metros, siendo voluble y dextrógiro (se enrolla alrededor de un soporte o tutor en sentido contrario a las agujas el reloj).Cuando la planta es de hábito de crecimiento determinado el tallo posee, por lo general, un bajo número de nudos, y en las plantas de hábito de crecimiento indeterminado el número de nudos es mayor. Bajo condiciones similares de ambiente, el número de nudos del tallo de un material genéticamente puro se puede considerar como un carácter de poca variación.  Tabla 2: Escala de tamaño de la semilla de frijol según el peso de 100 semillas.Fuente: Referencia personalHallazgos arqueológicos, datos botánicos y tradiciones orales, han demostrado que el frijol silvestre se desarrolló en una gran variedad de ambientes, desde el norte de México hasta el noroeste de Argentina (Gepts & Debouck, 1991).Formas cultivadas de frijol estuvieron presentes hace 7000-8000 años en los valles de Tehuacan y Oaxaca, en México, en América Central, Perú, Ecuador, Argentina y Chile (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1988;Gepts & Debouck, 1991). Gepts (1988), Gepts & Bliss (1986)  Otros estudios sobre variabilidad de proteínas en la semilla (Gepts & Bliss, 1986), aloenzimas (Singh et al., 1991), caracteres morfológicos de la planta (Singh et al., 1991b), y marcadores moleculares (Nodari et al., 1992, Becerra-Velázquez & Gepts, 1994, Beebe et al., 2000, Blair et al., 2007, Blair et al., 2006) indican la presencia de dos centros de domesticación del frijol cultivado. En 1991 Singh et al.los describieron como producto de un proceso de domesticación simultáneo en diferentes regiones de América del Sur y Central, a partir de un ancestro que había pasado por una evolución divergente. Los acervos genéticos fueron denominados Andino y Mesoamericano, respectivamente.Con base en sus características morfológicas y tipo de faseolina (Gepts & Bliss, 1986), las variedades silvestres y cultivadas de la región mesoamericana se dividieron en tres razas: Mesoamérica, Jalisco y Durango. Beebe et al., (2000) determinó por medio de análisis RAPD un cuarto grupo conteniendo frijoles de origen mayoritariamente guatemalteco, trepadores, algunos de hábito de crecimiento tipo III, designada raza Guatemala.Análogamente, las variedades de frijol provenientes de la zona Andina fueron clasificadas como razas Nueva Granada, Perú y Chile. Posteriormente, Beaver (1993) sugirió que el Caribe puede ser considerado un acervo genético secundario para los frijoles andinos.Phaseolus vulgaris es una de las leguminosas más importantes en el mundo, procedida solamente por la soja y el cacahuate. Su importancia radica en que es una fuente de calorías, proteínas (20 y 28%), fibra dietética, minerales como la metionina (0,17 y 0,53%), la lisina, (1,69 y 2,44%), y el triptófano (14 y 0,22%) y vitaminas, tanto en países desarrollados y subdesarrollados.Es cultivado principalmente por vainas verdes, granos tiernos y granos secos aunque en algunos países de Latinoamérica y África se consumen las hojas y flores jóvenes y tiernas como vegetales y frescos.Además, las hojas verdes, las hojas y el tallo sirven como alimento para el ganado, además que los rastrojos de las plantas usados como abono y combustible para cocinar. En zonas de Perú y Bolivia también se consumen las semillas tostadas que reciben el nombre de ñuñas (Singh, 1999).La producción total del frijol en el mundo excede las 23 millones de toneladas métricas (TM), de las cuales siete se producen en América Latina y África. La dieta de subsistencia de los agricultores en África y en América Latina en general es rica en carbohidratos pero insuficiente en proteínas (Gepts et al., 2005).En el caso de México a pesar de que es uno de los principales productores de frijol a nivel mundial , en las últimas décadas ha pasado de ser un país productor a un importador, principalmente por las bajas tasas de productividad en el campo (Estrada G., et al. 2008), por orto lado Nicaragua al igual que otros países de Centroamérica presentan bajos niveles en el rendimiento y la productividad, lo que se ha debido a que el cultivo se muestra altamente vulnerable a daños climáticos (propios del trópico) e incidencias de plagas, y no ha alcanzado un buen desarrollo tecnológico (Paz et al.,2007).La producción nacional de estos países no logra cubrir la demanda interna del producto en cada país por lo que debe ser cubierta con importaciones interregionales (excedentes de producción) y extrarregionales, siendo los principales países de origen: Estados Unidos, Canadá y Chile (Paz et al. ,2007) El fríjol es una de las principales actividades de la economía campesina en varias regiones del país, de mucha importancia como generador de ingresos y empleo rural y como producto básico en la dieta alimenticia de la población por su alto contenido de proteínas y de elementos minerales esenciales. A él se dedican 120.000 pequeños productores que siembran 101.559 hectáreas, con una producción de 110.579 toneladas al año, que no son suficientes para abastecer el consumo interno.No obstante, en los últimos años el fríjol en Colombia ha perdido competitividad frente a la producción de otros países, en el marco de la globalización, especialmente por los altos costos de producción, además de diversos problemas bióticos que se presentan en la zona (Arias et al., 2007).La producción de frijol común se ve limitada por diversos factores (Singh, 1999) que se pueden agrupar en 3 categorías:Biológicos: Dentro de estos hay que considerar las enfermedades, plagas y malas hierbas, que afecta el cultivo disminuyendo el rendimiento.Edáficos: Un factor limitante es la baja fertilidad del suelo, la deficiencia de Fosforoso y Nitrógeno (Singh, 1999), además de las concentraciones de aluminio y magnesio (Wortman et al., 1998), que pueden llegar a niveles muy elevados siendo toxicas para las plantas. También son importantes las deficiencias de potasio y hierro, provocando esta última una clorosis, sobre todo en suelos con pH elevado.Climáticos: Aquí cabe destacar la sequía y las altas temperaturas (White, 1988)La necesidad de aumentar la producción agrícola, para la alimentación de la población mundial, ha llevado a los mejoradores de plantas a un uso racional de los recursos genéticos; de manera que se maximice la producción sin afectar la diversidad de las plantas y se disminuya la escala de erosión genética (Plucknett et al., 1992). En el último siglo, el fitomejoramiento basado en el método de hibridación entre diferentes variedades de la misma especie, junto con métodos especiales de selección en generaciónes segregantes subsecuentes, ha alcanzado extraordinarios resultados que han repercutido considerablemente en la producción agrícola mundial (Vallejo y Estrada, 2002), como tolerancia a la sequía y a los suelos ácidos, en la habilidad simbiótica para la fijación del nitrógeno en la arquitectura de la planta y en otras características Sin embargo, los mejoradores se han encontrado con limitaciones en la velocidad y precisión con que muchas de las características útiles pueden ser identificadas, seleccionadas, y utilizadas en sus programas de mejoramiento (Kelly et al., 1994).Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, los genotipos silvestres representan una fuente de diversidad adicional para los genotipos mejorados, convirtiéndose en un reto para el mejorador encontrar el sistema de cruzamiento y la selección que permita transferir esta diversidad con la mayor eficiencia a los cultivados. (Gepts, 1994).La obtención de genotipos mejorados con resistencia a estrés biótico y abiótico es un objetivo primario en programas de mejoramiento del frijol en cada región donde se cultiva.Con este objetivo se utilizan 3 pasos principales:1. Ampliación de la base genética de variedades comerciales, en el cual se tiene una gran variedad de germoplasma muy diverso que satisface el mejoramiento a largo plazo y del cual se busca introgresar genes a genotipos fácilmente manejables (Kelly et al,1999) 2. Se realizan cruces solamente dentro de la misma raza o el mismo pool de genes con el fin de ir buscando características deseadas y creando padres cercanos a un fenotipo comercial (Kelly et al,1999) 3. Cruce elite, es decir lo mejor por lo mejor, líneas agronómicamente similares de altos rendimientos pero genéticamente distantes y selección de parentales genéticamente diversos ayudados de marcadores moleculares (Kisha et al., 1997) Los parientes silvestres de las plantas cultivadas pueden ser importantes fuentes de genes en el mejoramiento genético, ya que han jugado un papel de importancia tanto en las supervivencia como en la evolución de los cultivos, y en varios casos una fracción de su material genético es exclusivo y es un recurso potencial en el mejoramiento de las especies cultivadas (Casas et al., 2003).Se ha señalado que con el uso de parientes silvestres como fuente de germoplasma para cultivares se podría incrementar el rendimiento de líneas elite, mejorar algunas características agronómicas y diversificar la fuentes de germoplasma y así mejorar su valor agronómico y genético (Cohen y Galinat, 1984: Edwards et al, 1996;Edwards y Coors, 1996). La infiltración gradual de germoplasma de una especie dentro de otra, a través de retrocruzamiento, ha sido considerado un factor importante en el enriquecimiento genético (Doebley et al., 1984).Este método propuesto por Harland y Pope (1922), constituye una forma precisa de mejorar variedades que son sobresalientes para un buen número de características pero que son deficientes para una o pocas. Ha sido muy utilizado para incorporar resistencia a determinadas enfermedades en variedades cuya susceptibilidad puede comprometer la estabilidad de la producción.Con esta estrategia se busca reducir la variación genética indeseable atribuida al silvestre, por medio de retrocruzamientos hacia el cultivado. Consiste en cruzar una variedad de interés que actúa como genitor recurrente (cultivar) con otra variedad que presenta un carácter de interés (silvestre), no presente en el parental recurrente. Los productos del cruzamiento que llevan el gen o los genes (F1) se retrocruzan con el parental recurrente. Este proceso se repite con los productos de los retrocruzamientos, teniendo en cuenta que la cantidad de retrocruzamientos depende del grado de disimilaridad entre los padres. Así, Cada vez que se hace el retrocruzamiento con el parental recurrente se reduce a la mitad el aporte del germoplasma del donante (Cubero, 1999). De esta manera, cualquier diferencia entre el parental cultivado y la línea avanzada puede ser atribuida a los alelos derivados del parental silvestre o donante (Kelly et al., 2000) Los marcadores genéticos representan diferencias genéticas entre individuos o especies, generalmente no representan genes blanco pero actúan como señales o marcas ya que se encuentran cerca de los genes de interés, la mayoría no afecta el fenotipo de la característica de interés ya que se encuentran cerca o ligados a los genes que controlan la característica (Collard et al., 2005). Existen tres tipos principales de marcadores genéticos: morfológicos (visibles), bioquímicos (isoenzimas) y de ADN (moleculares)La posibilidad de usar marcadores morfológicos como una ayuda en la selección de caracteres cualitativos y cuantitativos en plantas fue sugerida por Sax (1923) hace ya más de 90 años. Son caracteres fenotípicos controlados generalmente por un locus, que se expresan en diferentes ambientes, dicho carácter puede ser enmascarado por efectos epistáticos o pleiotrópicos, además, los alelos interactúan de manera dominante o recesiva lo que dificulta diferenciar un individuo homocigoto de un heterocigoto y, por tanto, su número y utilización es limitado (Vodenicharova, 1989).Tradicionalmente la variabilidad intra e interespecífica de P.vulgaris, se ha evaluado a través de características morfológicas, las que incluyen las agronómicas (Voysest et al., 1994). Sin embargo, este tipo de caracterización no siempre refleja la variación genética real, debido a que el fenotipo está determinado parcialmente por la información genética del individuo, e influenciado por el ambiente donde se desarrolla (Valadez et al., 2001).Fueron descubiertos en la década de los 70 (Kelly et al., 1994), son marcadores que constituyen los productos directos de los alelos, por ende solo basta con identificarlos para seleccionar la planta con el fenotipo deseado, que es producido por el alelo de interés (Vallejo y Estrada, 2002). Los isoenzimas han permitido la clasificación del frijol en dos grandes grupos de variabilidad genética, correspondientes a los dos centros de domesticación del frijol: el Andino y el Mesoamericano. Sin embargo, estos marcadores tienen limitaciones debido a la poca variabilidad que ellas permiten detectar en cada grupo genético (Kelly et al., 1994).Los marcadores de ADN se fundamentan en el análisis de las diferencias de las secuencias de ADN entre individuos. Estos marcadores pueden ser de diferente tipo según la metodología empleada (Karp y Edwards, 1998). Son utilizados para identificar o marcar alelos de difícil expresión fenotípica, en otras palabras son herramientas que facilitan la selección del alelo de interés a través del marcador.Estos deben ser altamente heredables, de fácil evaluación y estar íntimamente ligados al alelo que se desea seleccionar (Vallejo y Estrada, 2002) De esta manera los marcadores de ADN se convierten en herramientas muy eficientes para efectuar selección indirecta de alelos de interés para los programas de mejoramiento. Además, por poseer un número ilimitado de polimorfismos con base en el ADN y ser independiente del efecto del ambiente y del estado fisiológico de la planta, permiten identificar en forma precoz y precisa las plantas con una mejor combinación de alelos favorables (Vallejo y Estrada, 2002). En la actualidad son utilizados en estudios de variabilidad genética, identificación de cultivares, mapeo genético o incremento del conocimiento de la organización del genoma (Vallejo y Estrada, 2002) Según Karp et al. (1997) dentro de este grupo se incluyen tres categorías básicas.Categoría 1: métodos que no se basan en la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR). Por ejemplo, RFLP y número variable de repeticiones en tandem (VNTRs).Categoría 2: técnicas que utilizan iniciadores (\"primer\") arbitrarios o semiarbitrarios, por ejemplo, iniciadores PCR múltiples arbitrarios (MAAP), RAPD, RAMPO. Categoría 3: PCR con sitio \"objetivo específico\". Por ejemplo, SSR, Inter secuencias simples repetidas (ISSR). Las categorías 2 y 3 son marcadores basados en la PCR.Los microsatélites o secuencias simples repetidas (SSR) son repeticiones cortas en serie entre 2 a 10 pares de bases, altamente variables dispersas a través de los genomas de hongos, plantas y animales, los cuales pueden o no estar asociadas con genes. Igualmente, estas secuencias no codifican para formar ninguna proteína, y debido a que las secuencias de ADN repetitivo pueden recombinarse y expandirse más frecuentemente que otros tipos de secuencias, además de su alta variabilidad, son consecuentemente útiles para medir el polimorfismo entre especies o variedades muy relacionadas (Phillips et al. 1995;Valadez y Kahl 2000). Estos polimorfismos se dan debido por la pérdida o ganancia de repeticiones, lo que se atribuye a mutaciones durante la replicación.Así, Los tipos de repeticiones que ocurren en los SSR varían entre las especies.Las repeticiones más frecuentes en las plantas son (AA)n y (AT)n (Lagercrantz et al. 1993) que se encuentran en segmentos grandes del genoma que no codifican para genes conocidos (Philips et al., 1995). Wu y Tanksley (1993) reportaron que las secuencias GAn y GTn y sus complementos se presentan distribuidos por todo el genoma del maíz y arroz. Swati et al., (1997) reportaron que los di y tetranuecleotidos se presentan en su mayoría en regiones no codificantes del genoma, mientras que alrededor del 57% de las repeticiones de trinucleotidos se encuentran cerca de genes.Los SSR pueden ser Genómicos o Génicos: Se dice que son genómicos cuando han sido identificados a partir de bibliotecas genómicas y forman parte de regiones no codificantes, y pueden tener una naturaleza génica cuando forman parte de regiones que codifican para proteínas, por lo que generalmente son desarrollados a partir de secuencias expresadas o secuencias genéticas (Blair et al, 2003) En conclusión, los microsatélites constituyen una técnica basada en PCR altamente reproducible, robusta e informativa, de fácil implementación en laboratorios de medianos recursos siempre y cuando se utilicen en cultivos ampliamente estudiados, como es el caso del frijol (Ferreira y Grattaplagia,1998) explicando la diversidad existente y discriminando entre individuos (Blair et al. 2007a).Uno de los principales usos de los marcadores de ADN ha sido la construcción de mapas de ligamiento, en donde, se indica la posición y distancia relativa entre los marcadores dentro de un cromosoma (Patterson 1996;Collard et al., 2005).Los mapas de ligamiento son basados en el principio de que los genes (marcadores o loci) segregan vía recombinación de los cromosomas durante la meiosis, permitiendo así su análisis en la progenie (Patterson, 1996), de esta manera los mapas de ligamiento permiten realizar un análisis completo de los genotipos, descomponer características complejas en sus componentes mendelianos, localizar regiones genómicas que controlan caracteres de importancia agronómica, además de cuantificar el efecto de estas regiones (Ferreira y Grattapaglia,1998).El uso más importante de los mapas de ligamiento es la identificación de sitios que contienen genes y QTLs asociados con rasgos de interés, estos mapas se denominan mapas de QTLs, basados en el principio de la detección de la asociación entre marcadores fenotípicos y genotípicos. Los marcadores son usados para dividir la población en grupos genotípicos basados en la presenciaausencia de un marcador particular, y así determinar si existe diferencia significativa entre grupos con respecto al marcador y al rasgo evaluado (Tanksley, 1993, Young, 1996), una diferencia significativa entre la media fenotípica de los grupos, indica que el marcador está asociado a un QTL (Collard et al., 2005).Los padres que se utilicen para desarrollar un mapa de ligamiento deben divergir en una o más características de interés ya que si no son contrastantes la progenie puede llegar a resultar estéril y se pueden presentar grandes niveles de distorsión en la segregación durante el análisis de ligamiento. Las poblaciones de mapeo pueden ser de varios tipos: La progenie de la segunda generación (F 2), retrocruzas (BC), líneas recombinantes hermanas (RILs), dobles haploides (DH) y líneas isogénicas cercanas (NILs) (Burr el al., 1998;He et al., 2001;Doerge, 2002).Cada población de mapeo tiene sus ventajas y desventajas, por esta razón se escoge dependiendo del objetivo, el tiempo que se tiene para desarrollar la población y de los marcadores moleculares que se vayan a usar (dominantes o codominantes). Además, según Ferreira et al., (2006) las poblaciones de mapeo deben estar entre 50 a 1000 individuos, aunque se recomienda para una mejor resolución del mapa usar poblaciones con más de 200 individuos (Mohan et al., 1997).Llevando a cabo los requerimientos mencionados anteriormente, se procede a la identificación marcadores moleculares polimórficos entre los padres evaluados (Sayed et al., 2002;Xu et al., 1997), posteriormente se codifican los datos de cada marcador sobre cada individuo de la población y el análisis de ligamiento entre los marcadores mapeados (Collard et al. ,2005) Los marcadores mas recomendados para la construcción de mapas de ligamiento son los microsatélites ya que poseen un elevado contenido de información (expresión codominante, multialelismo e hipervariabilidad) en comparación con otros marcadores, lo que los hace muy confiables para trabajar con cualquier población segregante para estudios de ligamiento y mapeo genético, comportándose como anclas o puntos de referencia en regiones especificas del genoma a evaluar (Semagn, 2006).El ligamiento entre marcadores es usualmente calculado usando la desigualdad de proporciones (odds ratios) la probabilidad de ligamiento versus la probabilidad de no ligamiento. Esta probabilidad es expresada como el logaritmo de la probabilidad y es llamada LOD (Rish, 1992).Un valor LOD mayor a 3 es el comúnmente usado para la construcción de los mapas. Un valor LOD de 3 entre 2 marcadores indica que el ligamiento es 1000 veces más probable (1000:1).Los Software más comúnmente usados incluyen MapMaker/EXP (Lander et al., 1987;Llincoln et al., 1993), y MapManager (Manly et al., 2001).Los marcadores ligados son agrupados en grupos de ligamiento los cuales representan secciones del cromosoma o cromosomas enteros. De esta manera la frecuencia de recombinación y la distancia de los marcadores no son igual en todos o cromosomas (Hartl y Johns, 2001;Young, 1994). La medida de la distancia genética y la determinación del orden de los marcadores está relacionada con el número de individuos estudiados en la población de mapeo (Young, 1994).La distancia genética en mapeo de ligamiento se mida en Centimorgan (cM) unidad de ligamiento que hace referencia a la distancia entre dos loci determinada por la frecuencia con que se produce la recombinación entre ellos. Se dice que dos loci están a un centimorgan de distancia si se observa recombinación entre ellos en el 1% de las meiosis (Semagn et al., 2006) Dos funciones de mapeo son comúnmente usados:Kosambi: La cual asume que los eventos de recombinación influencian la ocurrencia de eventos de recombinación adyacentes.Haldane: Asume que no hay interferencia entre eventos de cruzamiento.En frijol se han reportado varios mapas de ligamiento entre los que podemos encontrar:BAT93 X JALO EEP558 (F2): El mapa tuvo 194 RFLP (Nodari et al.,1992), posteriormente se incorporaron RAPD junto con otros RFLP, así se estableció un mapa consenso con 470 RFLP, 570 RAPDs, 40 marcadores bioquímicos y morfológicos llegando a una longitud de mapa de 1200cM (Adam-Blondon et al.,1994;Nodari et al.,1992;Vallejo et al.,1992).La integración de microsatélites en el mapa molecular de frijol, fue realizada por primera vez por Yu et al., (2000), con una asignación de 15 marcadores microsatélites al mapa de ligamiento. Desarrollaron y probaron 37 primers en la población utilizada para hacer el mapa, 16 de los primers polimórficos de las líneas parentales se analizaron por segregación y 15 se asignaron a 7 grupos de ligamiento diferentes, lo que indico buena distribución a lo largo del genoma de frijol (Yu et al., 2000).Gaitan y Solis et al., (2002), aislaron microsatélites para establecer su capacidad de diferenciación y así utilizarlos en estudios de diversidad y mapeo genético.Aislaron, clonaron y secuenciaron fragmentos de ADN genómico que contenían loci de microsatélites de 3 librerías genómicas de Phaseolus vulagris. Casi todos los loci de microsatélites mostraron un gran poder de diferenciación y altos niveles de polimorfismo.En 2003, se desarrollo un mapa con marcadores microsatélites ligados al genoma de frijol común (Blair et al., 2003). La posición de 100 loci genéticos, fue determinada con un total de 150 microsatélites desarrollados para esta especie y probados por polimorfismos parentales. Estos marcadores microsatélites se utilizaron para ligar dos mapas basados en RFLP, incluyendo el realizado por Freyre et al., (1998) y Vallejos et al., (1992), con una mapa desarrollado en una población Mesoamericana x Andina (DOR 364 X G19833). Se mapearon dos tipos de microsatélites génicos y genómicos, de los cuales los primeros resultaron ser menos polimórficos (Blair et al., 2003).Por otro lado en cuanto a poblaciones generadas específicamente para evaluar características agronómicas relacionadas con el rendimiento podemos encontrar la reportada por Iriarte (2002), que es una cruza entre un silvestre 624404 y un cultivar Radical Cerinza con 157 individuos en donde se mapearon 62 marcadores microsatélites, 4 morfológicos y 1 SCAR con una distancia total cercana a los 2500cM con una marcador en promedio cada 5.6cM. También Buendía ( 2001) reporto u mapa de ligamiento de la población DOR390 X G19892 con 27 marcadores RAPD, 21 marcadores microsatélites y 1 tipo SCAR, en el que se logro una distancia de 692 cM.El mapeo de características cuantitativas a través de la identificación de loci de caracteres cuantitativos (QTL, Quantitative Trait Loci) (Cerón-Rojas y Sahagún- , 2007;Martínez-Gomez et al., 2005). Conceptualmente puede ser influenciado por un grupo amplio de genes que presentan una baja expresión sobre el rasgo o pocos genes que generan un gran efecto sobre este (Gelderman, 1975).Estudios de mapeo de QTLs se han reportado en diversos cultivos para diversos rasgos como componentes de rendimiento, enfermedades y resistencia a insectos entre otros, considerándose una herramienta importante dentro del mejoramiento genético de plantas (Cerón-Rojas y Sahagún-Castellanos, 2007).Por medio de software (WinQTL) se busca una asociación entre una característica fenotípica y un marcador genotípico. De esta manera los marcadores son utilizados para dividir la población de mapeo en diferentes grupos genotípicos basados en la presencia-ausencia de un locus marcador particular y determinar diferencias significativas existentes entre grupos con respecto al marcador y al rasgo evaluado (Tanskley, 1993;Young, 1996).Una diferencia significativa entre la medida fenotípica evaluada de los grupos indica que el locus marcador está ligado al QTL controlando el rasgo (Collard et al., 2005).Según Lander y Kruglyak (1995), los QTLs se pueden clasificar en sugeridos, significativos, y altamente significativos, esta clasificación sirve para evitar falsos positivos y medir el grado de confianza del QTL encontrado. Por otro lado, pueden ser definidos como QTL mayor o menor, clasificación que está dada por el porcentaje del fenotipo explicado por el QTL, cuando explica más del 10% de la variación fenotípica se clasifica como un QTL mayor y cuando explica menos del 10% es considerado un QTL menor (Lindhout, 2002;Pilet-Nayel et al., 2002).Hay que tener en cuenta que para la realización de un mapa QTL se necesita una población segregante como F2 o retrocruzas (Ferreira y Grattaplagia,1998) además de métodos biométricos que muestren si el marcador está relacionado con el rasgo fenotípico y detectar los parámetros de los QTL detectados.Los métodos para detección de QTLs mas ampliamente usados son:Es el método más simple para detectar QTL asociados con un solo marcador, entre los parámetros estadísticos usados para el análisis de un solo marcador se incluye la prueba-t, el análisis de varianza (ANOVA), y la regresión lineal. La regresión lineal, es la más usada porque el coeficiente de determinación (R2) del marcador, explica la variación fenotípica que surge del QTL unido al marcador.Este método no requiere un mapa de ligamiento completo y puede desarrollarse con \"software\" estadístico básico. Sin embargo, tiene una desventaja y es que entre más lejano esté el QTL del marcador, la probabilidad para identificarlo será menor y por lo tanto se subestime la magnitud del efecto del QTL (Tanksley, 1993).Este método hace uso de mapas de ligamiento y analiza intervalos entre pares de marcadores adyacentes y ligados a lo largo de los cromosomas, en lugar de analizar un sólo marcador (Lander y Botstein, 1989). El uso de marcadores ligados para el análisis compensa la recombinación entre los marcadores y el QTL, por lo tanto se considera estadísticamente más confiable, comparada con el análisis de un solo marcador (Lander y Botstein, 1989;Liu, 1998).Este método combina regresión lineal y mapeo por intervalo, e incluye marcadores genéticos adicionales. (Jansen, 1993;Jansen y Stam, 1994;Zeng, 1994Zeng, ., 1993).La principal ventaja del uso de éste método es su efectividad y QTL ligados (Collard et al., 2005).En frijol se han identificado varios QTLs para resistencia a enfermedades como Thrips palmi Karni (Frei et al., 2005) y a Apion godmani Wanger (Blair et al., 2006), para algunos caracteres agronómicos como rasgos de productividad (Blair et al., 2006), periodo de tiempo para floración y maduración, vainas totales por planta y semillas por vaina entre otros (Tar`an et al., 2002) y para rasgos fisiológicos como la producción de exudados y pelos radicales (Yan et al., 2004).Iriarte, G (2002) encontró un QTL para rendimiento causado por el padre silvestre lo que explica la introgresiòn del silvestre en la población, además de otros 2 QTLS atribuidos al padre recurrente, igualmente se ubicaron 19 QTLs mas de los cuales 4 fueron para días a floración, 5 para numero de vainas por planta.Igualmente, Izquierdo, P (2010) identifico un QTL relacionado con el rendimiento que explico el 8% de la variabilidad en la población G10022 x RADICAL CERINZA para este rasgo, además de 9 QTLs para peso de 100 semillas y 3 para vainas por planta.Los CSSLs son herramientas muy importantes para la identificación de alelos favorables en germoplasmas silvestres, evaluando la introgresiòn de estos genes en especies cultivadas (Liakat. M, 2010). Representando así, una gran herramienta para aprovechar el potencial genético de germoplasma silvestre y seleccionar las líneas con una superior introgresion que contengan particulares rasgos de interés.El máximo rendimiento experimental de algunos cultivares de fríjol arbustivo se estima en más de 5000 Kg./Ha bajo condiciones óptimas de producción en monocultivo, pero los rendimientos más altos obtenidos por los agricultores rara vez alcanzan los 2500 Kg./Ha bajo condiciones similares llegando solamente a un rendimiento promedio mundial de 600 Kg./Ha, esto se debe entre otras causas a que generalmente el fríjol se cultiva en áreas marginales, en época donde compite con otros cultivos y las variedades actuales son frágiles a los efectos del ambiente (Schoonhoven et al., 1985).México siendo el segundo productor de frijol en el mundo después de Brasil, consume aproximadamente 1.2 millones de toneladas de frijol al año y a pesar de cultivar cerca de 1800000 hectáreas de frijol, la demanda interna no es satisfecha por la productividad del cultivo, ya que la producción de frijol en el ámbito nacional es muy vulnerable a las condiciones climatológicas que prevalecen durante el ciclo productivo (FIRA,2001).Igualmente, Colombia, a pesar de ser un gran productor y consumidor de frijol no puede satisfacer las necesidades del mercado lo que ha llevado a la importación del producto (Voysest,2000).Por esta razón, es importante implementar nuevas tecnologías de fitomejoramiento como las técnicas moleculares que permitan la obtención de semillas con características genéticamente deseables que lleven a una mejor producción y rendimiento en campo. El uso de mapas genéticos de marcadores moleculares para el estudio de la herencia de características cuantitativas, permite la identificación de cromosomas (o grupos de ligación) los cuales son importantes para determinar la expresión de un carácter y de esta manera llegar a manipular el factor individualmente durante el proceso de mejoramiento.Identificar por medio de marcadores moleculares, regiones asociadas a características agronómicas relacionadas con componentes de rendimiento, que provengan de alelos del padre donante o silvestre, en una población de retrocruza avanzada, generada a partir de la cruza entre el genotipo de tipo silvestre G24390 y un cultivar Radical cerinza.Desarrollar el mapa genético de la población G24390 X RADICAL CERINZA.Establecer la ubicación relativa de los QTLs por medio de la asociación de los datos fenotípicos con los marcadores previamente localizados en el mapa genético de la población.Mapear los genes candidatos para rendimiento.La evaluación de los marcadores microsatélites se realizó en un grupo de 9 genotipos provenientes de diferentes acervos y países (ver tabla 3). erecto, ramas laterales cortas de altura entre 45 cm; hojas grandes de verde intenso brillante; flores blancas.; grano de color rojo oscuro, forma alargada ovoidal, tamaño de 15 mm de largo por 7 a 9 mm. de ancho, el peso de 100 semillas es de 53 gr. aproximadamente. CIAT. Es originario de México, la semilla es de color crema/negro, con habito de crecimiento es trepador y peso de 100 semillas aproximadamente de 5 g.Fue recolectado en el municipio de Srta. María del Oro, México a 640 m.s.m.Figura 4: Semillas de G24390. Fuente: Paginas recursos genéticos de CIAT.Las semillas F1 de la cruza simple fueron sembradas en el invernadero para ser cruzadas con el padre recurrente ICA cerinza. Los individuos procedentes de esta retrocruza se sembraron para volver a cruzar con el padre recurrente y obtener la segunda retrocruza (RC2F1). Esta generación se sembró en campo para su multiplicación obteniendo la población RC2F2.En este punto se realizo una selección individual, la cual se llevo por medio de descendencia de semilla única hasta la generación RC2F2:5. 1. Días a floración (DF)2. Días a madurez (DM).4. Peso por planta (PXPLAN) 5. Peso de 100 semillas (P100S).Comenzando el estudio se utilizo trifolios de cada una de las líneas que estaban conservados a -80º desde el año 1999, pero debido a la longevidad de este material, el ADN se degrado rápidamente, lo que llevo a utilizar la semilla y realizar la germinación de esta y así obtener un ADN de optimas condiciones. Se escogieron 10 semillas de cada una de las líneas que estuvieran en óptimas condiciones fitosanitarias y se pusieron en papel de germinación en la oscuridad por un periodo de 4 días a temperatura ambiente. Esta semilla se escarifico previamente para asegurar una rápida y uniforme germinación (Anexo A).La extracción del ADN tanto del material conservado como el de la semilla se realizo mediante el protocolo de MINIPREP (Afanador y Hadley, 1993).(Anexo B).Posteriormente, se hizo el gel de calidad en agarosa a 0.8% para cuantificar la concentración del ADN de los individuos, teniendo como patrón ADN λ de concentración conocida (50,100,200), esta cuantificación se llevo a cabo en el software Quantity one v 4,3,0, en el cual por medio de la comparación de la intensidad de los patrones con la intensidad de la banda de las muestras, se observa el valor aproximado de la concentración del ADN de estas y así posteriormente poder realizar la diluciones del ADN a una concentración final de 5ng/μl.Se evaluó en la prueba de padres un total de 285 marcadores microsatélites provenientes de varias publicaciones de los cuales se seleccionaron solo los marcadores polimórficos para los padres Radical Cerinza y G24390, para asi evaluarlos en la población derivada de esta cruza. Los microsatélites se visualizaron en geles de poliacrilamida al 4% con tinción de plata. La amplificación por medio de PCR se realizo en termocicladores Thermo (Thermo electron corporation) y PTC100 (MJ Research), con placas de polipropileno de 96 y 384 pozos, las reacciones de PCR se muestran en la tabla 5. (-) Cambio de temperatura de anillamiento y extensión dependiendo del microsatélitePosterior al producto de amplificado se adicionó 5 μl de buffer y se denaturo por un periodo de 5 minutos a 96ºC para sembrar en el gel de acrilamida, sembrando en cada uno de los canales 3µl de cada muestra (producto de PCR) con la ayuda de una Hamilton, incluyendo cada 24 pozos buffer carga.Las cámaras utilizadas para la electroforesis fueron OWL T'Rex, en las cuales se dejaron correr las muestras en promedio 45 minutos a una tèmperatura constante de 45ºC El proceso de tinción se hizo por el medo de Nitrato de plata de Promega Inc (Anexo C).Los programas para generar mapas genéticos trabajan con poblaciones de segregación 1:1, 1:2:1 o 3:1. Por ende, debido a que la población con la que se trabajo no posee ninguna de las segregaciones anteriores se hace más complejo el mapeo, teniendo que recurrir a los mapas de referencia (DOR 364 X G19833 y BAT 93 X JALOEEP558) para así confirmar la posición de los marcadores en el mapa.Se realizo un mapa genético con los 276 individuos con ayuda de Mapmaker Macintosh v.2, por medio de la opción B2F1 ya que es la que más se aproxima a la segregación de la población de trabajo, se utilizó un LOD mínimo de 3 y la función de mapeo Kosambi. Los marcadores que fueron consistentes con los mapas de referencia fueron anclados y por medio de los comandos Group, Parwise y Try se fueron añadiendo marcadores a cada uno de los grupos de ligamiento. Ya con la salida de Mapmaker se dibujo el mapa de ligamiento en Mapdisto v 1.7.2. Beta 9 y posteriormente, se realizo un mapa con los 96 individuos escogidos al azar que poseían evaluaciones fenotípicas y en base a este identificar los QTLs (siguiendo las condiciones mencionadas anteriormente para la población completa).Los marcadores moleculares asociados significativamente con las características evaluadas se identificaron por medio de una regresión simple o análisis de un solo marcador, realizada en el programa Qgene V. 4.0, asumiendo el modelo BC2F1 ofrecido por este para una segunda retrocruza de generación F 1.El nivel de significancia global tomado para el análisis fue del 5%, que corresponde a un X 2 DE 14.40 (LOD=3.12). Es decir, para declara que existe una asociación significativa del 5% entre el marcador y la característica el marcador debe presentar un LOD igual o superior a 3.12.El método de Mapeo por Intervalo (MI) y Mapeo por Intervalo Compuesto (CIM) del programa QTL cartographer fue utilizado para determinar la localización y el efecto de los QTLs. Se utilizo el 6 correspondiente a CIM, con un tamaño de ventana de 10 cM. Para todo el análisis.El número de marcadores de control fue 10, es decir, los 10 marcadores más significativos por fuera del intervalo tomado fueron ajustados al modelo que fueron detectados por medio de regresiones lineales múltiples para cada punto del cromosoma , estos punto se tomaron cada 1 cM.La probabilidad de la presencia de un QTL fue expresada como LOD y el umbral o valor por encima del cual se considera un supuesto QTL como significativo fue fijado en 2.46, según la corrección de Bonferroni (Lynch y Walsh, 1998). Todas la características se sometieron a 1000 permutaciones a un nivel de significancia del 5% para hallar un umbral empírico (Churchill y Doerg, 1994).El análisis se realizo mediante el programa CCSSL Finder v 0.5.3 donde se identificaron el número de segmentos homocigotos introgresados del padre silvestre y el grupo de ligamiento en el cual se encontraban. También se ubicaron los segmentos de las líneas de sustitución con el fin de ubicar los posibles segmentos cromosomales de interés del genotipo silvestre. Además, se ubicaron posibles asociaciones entre los loci y las características fenotípicas, siendo significantes los que se encontraban por encima de f<10.Se realizó una serie de pruebas estadísticas complementadas con histogramas simples de los datos de los dos tratamientos en condiciones de sequía y riego en Palmira y en Popayán en condiciones ambientales normales.Tabla 7: Comportamiento de las 96 líneas RC2F2:5 de la cruza Radical cerinza por G24390 evaluadas en Popayán. Por otro lado en Palmira, bajo condiciones de riego, el control Radical cerinza tuvo un rendimiento de 281Kg/Ha, teniendo en cuenta, que el 68% del promedio de la población presento un rendimiento por encima de este. En contraste, en condiciones de sequía Radical cerinza presento un rendimiento mayor con 435Kg/Ha, sin embargo este incremento no fue significativo como se puede observa en la tabla 10.  Popayán con una temperatura promedio de 18.15ºC y altura de 2470 m.s.n.m, que favorecen el desarrollo de la población.En Popayán el 45% de las líneas presentaron mayor número de días a madurez que el cultivar Radical cerinza con 80 días, pero a pesar de esto el promedio de días en que se tardaron las líneas de la población en madurar no se diferencio del cultivar.   Lambers et al., (2000), argumentando que temperaturas bajas reducen la actividad metabólica de la planta, originando una mayor duración de las etapas fenológicas como respuesta a esta condición.Por otro lado, un estudio realizado por Teran y Singh (2002), reporta una disminución del 3% en el número de días a madurez entre los ambientes de riego y sequía en Palmira Colombia, atribuido a las altas temperaturas, llevando a una aceleración en el proceso de maduración del cultivo.En condiciones de riego el 28% de la población supero al control Radical cerinza con 32 días a floración, y el promedio de la población fue igual que este. En contrate, en condiciones de sequía el 75% de la población supero a Radical cerinza con una duración de 30 días, pero el promedio de la población solo lo supero en 1 día, sin embargo, a pesar de que riego supero a sequía por dos días, no hay diferencia significativa como se puede observar en la tabla 12.  quienes dicen que en frijol se presenta un acortamiento en los días a floración por causa del estrés. Además, Machado et al., (2006), asegura que el aumento en los días a floración se debe probablemente a la disminución de la temperatura retrasando los procesos metabólicos de la planta.El 25% de la población supero al control Radical cerinza con un peso por planta de 4.1, y fue superado por el promedio con 0.3 gramos mas. Por otro lado, en condiciones de riego el control Radical cerinza tuvo un peso por planta de 2.6 y fue superado por un 49% de la población con un promedio de 3g y en condiciones de sequía se observo un peso por planta promedio de 3 y de Radical cerinza de 2.8.Figura 15: Histograma de peso planta en la localidad de Popayán.Figura 16: Histograma de peso por planta en condiciones de riego en la localidad de Palmira Figura 17: Histograma de peso por planta en condiciones de sequía en la localidad de Palmira En la tabla 13 podemos observar que existe diferencia significativa entre localidades mas no entre tratamientos, fenómeno que está muy relacionado con lo ocurrido en la característica rendimiento debido al hongo reportado anteriormente, que afecto los rendimientos de la población y por ende el peso por planta en la localidad de Palmira en las condiciones de riego. Por otro lado, se sigue el mismo patrón en Popayán en donde se registraron rendimientos y peso por planta altos gracias a las condiciones ambientales favorables para el cultivo de esta localidad.Tabla 13: Análisis de varianza de peso por planta Como se puede observar en la tabla 14 no existe diferencia significativa entre tratamientos en Palmira, ni entre riego Palmira y Popayán ya que este dato fue tomado realizando una única muestra de cada individuo, reuniendo en una solo pull una muestra de cada uno de los individuos de cada tratamiento.En los tres tratamientos el promedio de la población es de 53g siendo 9gmenor que el control Radical cerinza con 62g, que solo fue superado por el 15% de la población siendo el valor máximo de 70g.Figura 18: Histograma de peso de 100 semillas en la localidad de Popayán Figura 19: Histograma de peso de 100 semillas en la localidad en condiciones de sequía en la localidad de Palmira  Como se observa en Palmira en condiciones de sequía existe una correlación positiva alta entre días a floración y días a madurez, fenómeno que reporta Singh.,(1995), indicando que es normal que en condiciones de estrés las plantas presenten una reducción de los días a floración y los días a madurez como mecanismo de resistencia a la sequía por escape. Por otro lado, en Popayán la correlación fue moderada hecho atribuido a temperatura bajas que reducen la actividad metabólica de la planta, originando una mayor duración de las etapas fisiológicas.Se puede observar una correlación positiva media entre peso de 100 semillas y rendimiento en condiciones de sequía resultado que es comparado con Muñoz et al.,(2006), quienes reportan una correlación positiva pero no significativa entre rendimiento y peso de 100 semillas en condiciones de sequía. En contraste, se puede observar una correlación negativa entre rendimiento y peso de 100 semillas en condiciones de riego, al igual que una correlación poco significante entre peso de 100 semillas y rendimiento en Popayán, lo que es similar a los resultados encontrados por Teran y Singh.,(2002) quienes reportaron una correlación negativa entre peso de 100 semillas y rendimiento tanto en condiciones de sequía como de riego, soportado en que el rendimiento está en función de numero de semillas y al aumentar su número la planta hace una compensación, reduciendo el tamaño de la semilla.En general se puede considerar que el peso de 100 semillas o tamaño no jugó un papel importante en la consecución del rendimiento obtenido en cada uno de los genotipos evaluados en las dos localidades. También, podemos observar que existe una correlación negativa entre días a floración y días a madurez con rendimiento sequía y peso por planta sequía. Aceptando la versión de Kelly et al.,(1998)  El rendimiento en Popayán tuvo una correlación altamente significativa con el peso por planta, lo que concuerda con los resultados obtenidos por Morales, 1999. Que demuestra, que el peso por planta es un componente fundamental para obtener altos rendimientos, Además, este fenómeno fue favorecido por las condiciones favorables de temperatura de Popayán.Se evaluaron un total de 285 marcadores reportados como polimórficos en otros estudios (Blair et al., 2003;Blair et al., 2008;Blair et al.,2009;Blair et al.,2010;Gaitan y Solis et al.,2002;Grissi et al., 2007;Yu et al., 2000;Blair et al.,2011), en 9 genotipos de interés para estudio de mapeo genético (Ver anexo D).Se encontraron un total 132 marcadores genómicos con un porcentaje de polimorfismo del 46% y 152 marcadores génicos con un porcentaje de polimorfismo del 53%, observando un mayor porcentaje de polimorfismo en marcadores génicos para la cruza de interés (G24390 X RADICAL CERINZA), lo que se reitera con el estudio realizado por Blair et al.,(2003), ya que los microsatélites génicos son muy útiles para hallar polimorfismos entre poblaciones contrastantes al encontrarse en regiones codificantes del genoma , mientras que los genómicos son más útiles cuando se trata de encontrar polimorfismos entre poblaciones más relacionadas.Teniendo en cuenta las diferentes cruzas que se evaluaron, se pudo observar que los cruces con un mayor porcentaje de polimorfismo fueron GXR, S16XC143, S48XC143 Y S16XCAL96, S48XC96 mientras que las cruzas con menor porcentaje de polimorfismo fueron BXC143 y BXC96 (ver figura 21).Figura 21: Porcentaje de polimorfismo evaluado en las diferentes cruzas.Fuente: La autora. De esta manera, se puede observar la variabilidad genética existente entre los diferentes acervos de frijol, en donde las cruzas Mesoamericano x Andino presentaron un mayor porcentaje de polimorfismo ya que presentan una base genética más amplia que los cruces entre un mismo acervo (Mesoamericano x Mesoamericano y Andino x Andino),hecho sustentado por Blair et al.,(2006), en donde se encontró un nivel de polimorfismo más amplio (59.7%) en combinaciones de poblaciones inter-acervos (Andino x Mesoamericano) que en combinaciones de poblaciones intra-acervos (Andino x Andino) con un porcentaje de polimorfismo del 37.9%. En conclusión para el progreso del mejoramiento basado en una mejora de los componentes de rendimiento es necesario tener padres con un alto rendimiento, ser contrastantes para esta característica y poseer capacidad combinatoria (Singh et al., 1993).Es importante tener en cuenta los cruces que tuvieron mayor grado de polimorfismo, ya que esto garantiza la identificación de ligamiento con rasgos de interés, brindando la oportunidad de desarrollar mapas de ligamiento de alta calidad y la posibilidad de identificar posibles QTLs de importancia para ampliar la base genética de frijol para futuros estudios de mejoramiento.Se evaluó un total de 285 marcadores microsatélites obteniendo 134 marcadores polimórficos de los cuales solo se pudieron mapear 60 marcadores debido a problemas de amplificación y dificultad en la lectura.Para la construcción del mapa se tuvo en cuenta la ubicación de los microsatélites en los mapas previos a este estudio de la población DOR364XG19833 (Blair et al., 2003;Blair et al., 2008 y Natalia Hurtado (sin publicar) y BAT93 X JALOEEPP558 (Grisi, 2007).Se construyo un mapa de ligamiento con toda la población (276 individuos) y 60 marcadores microsatélites, en el cual se establecieron 11 grupos de ligamiento reportados para frijol con un tamaño total de 533.88 cM, estos grupos tuvieron una longitud promedio de 48.53 cM, con una longitud promedio entre marcadores de 8.89 cM.Tabla 18: Resumen del mapa de ligamiento con 270 individuos de la población G24390 x Radical cerinza. Como se puede observar en la tabla 18 el grupo de ligamiento que presento una mayor longitud con 93.92 cM fue el grupo 9 con 9 marcadores, al igual que el grupo de ligamiento 4 con 80.91cM y 7 marcadores. En contraste el grupo de ligamiento que menor longitud presento fue el grupo 10 con 16.8 cM y solo 2 marcadores, seguido por el grupo de ligamiento 5 con un tamaño de 20.30 cM y 4 marcadores.  Posteriormente se construyo un mapa de ligamiento con solo 96 individuos (individuos que tiene información fenotípica) y un total de 60 microsatélites con el fin de identificar los QTLs, obteniendo un mapa de ligamiento con un tamaño de 350.44 cM, en el cual se establecieron los 11 grupos de ligamiento reportados para frijol, con una longitud promedio de 32.60 cM y una distancia promedio entre marcadores de 5.97cMTabla 19: Resumen del mapa de ligamiento con 96 individuos de la población G24390 x Radical cerinza.   De la gran cantidad de mapas de ligamiento reportados para fríjol común, actualmente el de mayor saturación y utilidad es el mapa de la población DOR364XG19833 que tiene una longitud total de 1720cM (Blair et al., 2003).Al comparar la longitud total del mapa de ligamiento de D X G con el mapa en el que se utilizaron 276 individuos, se observa que se presenta una cobertura mayor correspondiente al 31.039%, en contraste con el mapa de 96 individuos en el que solo se obtuvo una cobertura del 20.27% del mapa de DOR364XG19833, hecho que es argumentado por Semagn. K et al., (2006), quienes reportan que las distancias entre dos marcadores es dada por el numero de recombinaciones que halla entre ellos, así al tener un mayor número de individuos que según lo reportado por Ferreira et al (2006), un total de 200 es lo requerido para construir un mapa de ligamiento razonable, se pueden evaluar mas recombinaciones entre marcadores y de esta manera obtener distancias mas exactas y por ende una mejor resolución del mapa. Por consiguiente, el mapa en el que se evaluaron un mayor número de líneas tiene una cobertura mayor del mapa referencia debido a que muestra distancias más precisas entre marcadores y por ende una similaridad mayor con este.La distorsión de los marcadores fue evaluada por medio de la prueba X 2 usando la proporción genotípica esperada para una población de RC 2 F 2 (81.25%RR, 12.5 RG, 6.25 GG), donde se observo que el 87% de los marcadores se comporto según lo esperado y el 11% de la población presento un sesgo hacia Radical cerinza y el 2% hacia el silvestre G24390. El grupo de ligamiento que presento mayor distorsión de la segregación fue el 3 con 2 marcadores sesgados hacia el padre recurrente (ver tabla 20), además en el grupo de ligamiento 4 y 9 se presentaron marcadores sesgados hacia el padre silvestre.La tasa de distorsión parece estar relacionada con causas diversas, como el incremento en la divergencia genética entre las líneas progenitoras (Quillet et al., 1995), irregularidades meióticas en la transmisión de los factores genéticos (Masuelii et al., 1995), selección gamética o cigótica (Kreike y Stiekema, 1997) y apareamiento preferencial entre genomas homólogos (Nybom et al., 2004).Además, a factores biológicos como selección natural durante la fertilización, crecimiento de la planta, gametogénesis y desarrollo de semillas (Jung et al., 1996;Xu et al., 1997;Nacagahra, 1972;Harushima et al., 1996;Garris et al., 2003), por otro lado el tipo de cruza también es un factor de gran importancia ya que por ser una retrocruza la proporción genómica está muy sesgada hacia un parental sobre todo cuando se involucra en la cruza un material silvestre con características agronómicas no deseadas (Chen et al.,2006y Blair et al.,2002) factores que influyen en que las proporciones esperadas según las leyes de Mendel no sean como los valores establecidos para la segregación en una población.El análisis de QTLs se realizò con el programa QGene v. 4.0 con la opción de análisis de marcador simple y por el programa QTL cartographer v 2.5 mediante el análisis de intervalo compuesto.Mediante el análisis por marcador simple se identificaron un total de 57 marcadores asociados a los rasgos fenotípicos observados (Ver tabla 21). Los días a floración mostraron una asociación con 7 marcadores, 2 en Popayán y 5 en Palmira, en los grupos de ligamiento 5, 7,9 y 11 que explican entre el 5 y 10% de la variación fenotípica, causada por los alelos del padre cultivar, a excepción del marcador ATA 26 que presenta variación gracias al padre silvestre G24390.Se encontró asociación con 6 marcadores en la localidad de Popayán en los grupos de ligamiento 1, 2,5 y 9; 5 en Palmira en condiciones de Riego en los grupos de ligamiento 1,4 y 11 y 4 en condiciones de sequía en los grupos de ligamiento 5, 6 y 9.El marcador Bmc35 localizado en el cromosoma 1, explico el 8.8% de la variación fenotípica en la localidad de Palmira, atribuido a Radical cerinza.En los cromosomas 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 y 9 se encontraron marcadores asociados a esta característica, que explican entre el 5 y 23% de la variación fenotípica.Entre los que resaltan en la localidad de Popayán el marcador BMc176 en el cromosoma 2 explicando una variación fenotípica del 25.7% atribuida al padre silvestre, el ATA143 ubicado en el cromosoma 4 que explica el 22.9% de la variación atribuida al padre cultivar. En condiciones de riego y sequía fue consistente el marcador BM200 en el grupo de ligamiento 1 explicando el 10% de la variación en riego y el 11% en sequía atribuida en los dos casos al padre silvestre, convirtiéndose en un sitio de interés para estudiar la expresión de este rasgo.Se identificaron un total de 15 asociaciones para esta característica, entre las que se destaca el marcador Bmc176 explicando el 10.4% de la variación fenotípica atribuida al silvestre, para este rasgo en la localidad de Popayán.Siendo consistente esta asociación con peso por planta con el mismo marcador, apoyando la alta correlación existente entre estas dos características en esta localidad.Por medio del programa QTL Cartographer v.1.21 fueron identificados un total de 9 QTLs para 3 de las 12 características evaluadas en este estudio.La nomenclatura se asigno según Taran et al, ( 2002) donde se enuncia el nombre de la característica, el grupo de ligamiento y el número de QTLs encontrados en ese grupo.El rasgo que mas asociación tuvo con los marcadores fue el Rendimiento en la localidad de Popayán, hay que resaltar el QTL (REND4,1) ubicado en el grupo de ligamiento 4 ya que presento el mayor porcentaje de variabilidad explicando el 58% para este rasgo aportado por el cultivar. Igualmente, en este mismo grupo de ligamiento encontramos otro QTL para esta característica que explica el 21% de la variación fenotípica aportada por el padre silvestre. También se encontró un QTL ubicado en el grupo de ligamiento 2 (REND2,1) que explica el 5% de la variación fenotípica aportada por el silvestre. En el grupo de ligamiento 3 se identifico el QTL (REN3,1) que explica el 18% de la variación fenotípica atribuida por el cultivar y por último se identifico en el grupo de ligamiento 11 el QTL (REND11,1) con un porcentaje de variación del 19% atribuida por el padre cultivar Radical cerinza. La ubicación de los QTLs ubicados en el cromosoma 4 concuerda con lo reportado por Iriarte, G (2002) encontrando también 2 QTLs para rendimiento en este mismo grupo de ligamiento.Por otro lado, se encontraron 3 QTLs asociados a la característica peso por planta: en el grupo de ligamiento 2 (PXP2,2) que explica el 25% de la variación fenotípica dada por el padre silvestre , en el grupo de ligamiento 3 (PXP3,2) explicando el 34% de la variación fenotípica atribuida al padre cultivar y en el grupo de ligamiento 11 (PXP11,2) que explica el 34% de la variación fenotípica atribuida al cultivar. El QTL identificado en el grupo de ligamiento 2 en este estudio concuerda con el reportado por Izquierdo, P (2010), quien identifico un QTL para peso por planta (PXP2,1) en este mismo cromosoma.Hay que tener en cuenta en cuenta que los QTLs encontrados en Rendimiento Popayán y Peso por planta Popayán están asociados a los mismos marcadores en los mismos cromosomas, lo que verifica la alta correlación existente entre estas dos características en esta localidad, Por otro lado, también se identifico un QTL asociado a la característica días a madurez (DM1,1), en el grupo de ligamiento 1 con un porcentaje de variación fenotípica del 10% aportada por el padre silvestre G24390.En términos generales, se observa introgresión del material silvestre en algunas características de importancia agronómica como en el incremento el peso por planta y por ende el rendimiento, por consiguiente, se puede decir que la mayor parte de alelos silvestre representaron un aporte positivo en la población desarrollada, llevando a la conclusión de la importancia de incluir accesiones silvestres en programas de mejoramiento (ver tabla 22) Figura 35: Numero de segmentos de introgresiòn por línea.Por medio del programa CCSSL Finder v 0.5.3 se buscaron marcadores que estuvieran asociados a características fenotípicas en las líneas que presentaron datos extremos, incluyendo solo las 15 líneas con mayor y con menor valor para cada característica y así reducir el número de grupos de ligamiento y observar de una manera más sencilla la introgresiòn del donador en la población. Tabla 24: Marcadores asociados con características fenotípicas 2.7.1.1 Peso por planta en condiciones de sequia en la localidad deSe observa que el marcador ATA 143 en el grupo de ligamiento 4 se encuentra asociado a peso por planta en la localidad de Palmira. Se identifica la introgresiòn del silvestre en una línea con menor peso (104), en contraste, también se presento introgresiòn del donante en la posición del marcador ATA 143 en 5 líneas (240,225,207,215,243) con mayor peso, dándole importancia a este segmento cromosómico para este rasgo (ver figura 36). Hay que tener en cuenta que este QTL, concuerda con los datos obtenidos por marcador simple con un alto porcentaje de variación fenotípica, resultados que certifican la alta confiabilidad de la asociación de este QTL con el peso por planta en condiciones de sequia en la localidad de Palmira. Como se observa en la figura 37, se encontraron 2 marcadores asociados a la característica peso por plante en la localidad de Palmira. El marcador BMc176 en el grupo de ligamiento 2 que está directamente relacionado con los datos obtenidos por intervalo compuesto resaltando así la veracidad de este QTL, y el marcador ATA 143 en el grupo de ligamiento 4. Se presentaron 3 líneas que presentaron introgresiòn del donante en la posición del marcador BMc176, igualmente se observa que la línea con el mayor peso presenta introgresiòn del donante en la posición del marcador ATA 143.Por medio de CSSL Finder 0.5.3 se seleccionaron las líneas de introgresiòn con mayor porcentaje del genotipo del padre recurrente, esta selección incluyo un total de 62 líneas de las 276, observándose que no se alcanza a cubrir el genoma de G24390 ya que falta cubrir segmentos en cada uno de los grupos de ligamiento (ver figura 38).Esta población no se puede considerar como una librería genómica, ya que presenta todavía un porcentaje de heterocigotos alto, que deben ser eliminados llevando la población a generaciones más avanzadas, por otro lado los segmentos del padre donante por fuera de la diagonal también deben ser eliminados por medio de retrocruzas con el padre recurrente y así teniendo en cuenta lo anterior poder estudiar de forma más precisa la influencia del silvestre en el genoma del padre recurrente Radical cerinza.Figura 38: Líneas de segmentos de sustitución cromosómica de la población G24390 X Radical cerinza. Radical cerinza: verde; G24390: Negro; Heterocigoro: Gris; Dato perdido: azul.El mapa de ligamiento con un total de 276 individuos tuvo una mayor cobertura y distancias más veraces comparadas con el mapa de ligamiento con 96 individuos.El tamaño del mapa utilizado para la identificación de QTLs (92 individuos) tuvo una distancia total de 350.44 cM, en el cual se establecieron los 11 grupos de ligamiento reportados para frijol, con una longitud promedio de 32.60 cM y una distancia promedio entre marcadores de 5.97cMSe hallo un total de 9 QTLs por medio de análisis por intervalo compuesto, 5 para rendimiento, 3 para peso por planta y 1 para días a madurez todos en la localidad de Popayán.El QTL con que mayor variabilidad explico fue el REND4,1 con un 58% de variabilidad fenotípica para la característica Rendimiento en el grupo de ligamiento 4 debida al cultivar, y el QTL REND 4,2 con una variabilidad del 21% para la misma característica atribuida al silvetre Mediante el análisis por marcador simple se obtuvo un total de 57 marcadores asociados a los rasgos fenotípicos, de las cuales un total de 15 marcadores estaban asociados con el rendimiento y 10 de estas fueron atribuida al genotipo silvestre G24390.Los QTLs encontrados en Rendimiento Popayán y Peso por planta Popayán están asociados a los mismos marcadores en los mismos cromosomas, lo que verifica la alta correlación existente entre estas dos características en esta localidad Se observa introgresiòn del material silvestre en algunas características de importancia agronómica como en el incremento el peso por planta y por ende el rendimiento, por consiguiente, se puede decir que la mayor parte de alelos silvestre representaron un aporte positivo en la población desarrollada, llevando a la conclusión de la importancia de incluir accesiones silvestres en programas de mejoramiento El análisis de líneas de introgresiòn mostro que existe gran cantidad del genoma del silvestre y de heterocigos que deben ser eliminados, por medio de retrocruzas y avance generación de las poblaciones para así lograr obtener una librería de introgresiòn en la que se pueda observar de forma más precisa la influencia del silvestre en el genoma del padre recurrente Radical cerinza.","tokenCount":"11618"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"80648fe370ee059eb1d317534b70ed17","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://millsonia.free.fr/publications/noguera2010SBB.pdf","id":"-499970614"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cbead4ba-c88e-48fe-a38b-14eb534bcf2e","pagecount":"11","content":"Adding biochar to soils and maintaining high earthworm biomasses are potential ways to increase the fertility of tropical soils and the sustainability of crop production in the spirit of agroecology and ecological engineering. However, a thorough functional assessment of biochar effect on plant growth and resource allocations is so far missing. Moreover, earthworms and biochar increase mineral nutrient availability through an increase in mineralization and nutrient retention respectively and are likely to interact through various other mechanisms. They could thus increase plant growth synergistically. This hypothesis was tested for rice in a greenhouse experiment. Besides, the relative effects of biochar and earthworms were compared in three different soil treatments (a nutrient rich soil, a nutrient poor soil, a nutrient poor soil supplemented with fertilization). Biochar and earthworm effects on rice growth and resource allocation highly depended on soil type and were generally additive (no synergy). In the rich soil, there were both clear positive biochar and earthworm effects, while there were generally only positive earthworm effects in the poor soil, and neither earthworm nor biochar effect in the poor soil with fertilization. The analysis of earthworm and biochar effects on different plant traits and soil mineral nitrogen content, confirmed that they act through an increase in nutrient availability. However it also suggested that another mechanism, such as the release in the soil of molecules recognized as phytohormones by plants, is also involved in earthworm action. This mechanism could for example help explaining how earthworms increase rice resource allocation to roots and influence the allocation to grains.Managing soil fauna (especially earthworms Lavelle et al., 2001) and biochar applications (Lehmann et al., 2003c;Glaser, 2007) are often proposed as appealing ways to increase the fertility of tropical soils in a sustainable way. Indeed, tropical soils are often poor in organic matter (Tiessen et al., 1994) and tend to have low cation exchange capacitites (Glaser, 2007) and both earthworms and biochar influence soil organic matter dynamics, the release of mineral nutriments and their retention. While studying the effect of biochar on plant growth is a fairly new field of researches (Lehmann and Rondon, 2006;Steiner et al., 2008;Blackwell et al., 2009), effects of earthworms on plant growth is an old field. Nevertheless, this issue has mostly been addressed in terms of biomass accumulation and more seldomly in term of resource allocation (Scheu, 2003;Laossi et al., 2009). Our study aims at meeting this need and particularly at determining the effect of biochar and earthworms on plant resource allocation and at infering the underlying mechanisms. Moreover, comparing biochar and earthworm effects that influence soil properties and plant growth partially (and only partially) through the same mechanisms, should throw new lights on this broad subject.The application of biochar, i.e. incompletely combusted organic matter, (Glaser et al., 2002;Lehmann et al., 2003c) is historically not a new practice. It has re-emerged after the study of the Terra Preta do Indio, which are highly fertile soils (Lehmann et al., 2003c). These soils were created by Amerindian populations in pre-Columbian times (Glaser et al., 2002). Apart from high SOM contents, the most striking feature of Terra Preta, is their high nutrient content (Glaser, 2007). This suggests that creating modern Terra Preta could be a way to increase tropical soil fertility and to maintain higher soil carbon stocks, thus mitigating the current rise in atmospheric CO 2 (Marris, 2006). Biochar can enhance long-term soil fertility through several mechanisms. The polycyclic aromatic structure of biochar makes it chemically and biologically stable, allowing it to persist in the environment for centuries (DeLuca et al., 2006). Besides this remarkable chemical structure, biochar has a porous physical structure which leads to very large surface area (Lehmann and Rondon, 2006). This increases the soil cation exchange capacity as well as its capacity to retain dissolved organic matter (Lehmann and Rondon, 2006). Moreover, biochar modifies the community of soil microorganisms as well as their activity, probably because it provides a suitable habitat for them (Pietikäinen and Fritze, 2000). This is likely to improve directly and indirectly plant growth (Reynolds et al., 2003;Marris, 2006).Maintaining high biomasses of earthworms would be another sustainable way to increase tropical soil fertility (Lavelle et al., 2001). Two reviews about the effect of earthworms on plant growth (Brown et al., 1999;Scheu, 2003) showed that plant shoot biomass is higher in the presence of earthworms (70e80% of the reviewed experiments). Five mechanisms have been shown to be involved in these positive effects (Brown et al., 2004a): (1) increased mineralization of soil organic matter therefore increasing nutrient availability; (2) production of plant growth substances via the stimulation of microbial activity; (3) biocontrol of pests and parasites; (4) stimulation of symbionts and (5) modification of soil porosity and aggregation which induces changes in water and oxygen availability to plants.Manipulating earthworms and soil content in biochar are two ways to manipulate soil fertility in the spirit of agroecology and ecological engineering. Indeed, in the two cases, soil physicochemical and biotic characteristics are modified interactively through ecological processes, which could allow a more parsimonious use of industrially produced fertilizers. Biochar and earthworms influence plant growth through mechanisms that are partially the same: they both change soil structure and soil microbial community (Pietikäinen and Fritze, 2000;Brown et al., 2004a) and influence nutrient cycling. While, earthworms increase organic matter mineralization on the short term (Scheu, 2003;Brown et al., 2004a), biochar increases the retention of mineral nutrients (Lehmann and Rondon, 2006) which decreases lixiviation and is likely to increase nutrient availability on the long term (Lehmann and Rondon, 2006;Lehmann et al., 2006). Finally, biochar and earthworms have been shown to directly interact: earthworms ingest biochar particles and reject them in their casts, which is likely to influence biochar distribution in the soil profile (Topoliantz and Ponge, 2003;Topoliantz et al., 2005, Van Zwieten et al., 2009). Therefore, we hypothesize that earthworms and biochar interact in the ways they influence plant growth. To test this hypothesis and to compare the respective effect of earthworms and biochar we investigated, in a greenhouse microcosm experiment, the effects of earthworms (Pontoscolex corethrurus) and biochar on rice growth (Oryza sativa).It has already been shown that earthworm effects on plant growth change with soil type (Doube et al., 1997;Wurst and Jones, 2003;Brown et al., 2004a;Laossi et al., 2010) but the effect of biochar on plant growth across different soil types has never been directly studied. Therefore, in the present work, each treatment (eathworm and biochar) was implemented in three different soil treatments: two unfertilized soils of contrasted fertility, and the lower-fertility soil supplemented with mineral fertilizer. Assessing the responsiveness of crops to biochar and earthworms in different soils and according to agricultural practices is indeed required to determine where and when using biochar and earthworms improves crop sustainability. This should also help infering the underlying mechanisms (Blouin et al., 2006;Laossi et al., 2010).Finally, the effect of earthworms and biochar on total plant biomass production has been studied much more than their effects on plant resource allocation. We thus also analyzed the way earthworms and biochar influence the allocation to seeds, roots and shoots, root system architecture and allocation of nitrogen. This is for example useful to determine whether earthworms and biochar increase crop yield (here, the total grain biomass) or only increase the accumulation of vegetative biomasses. This should also give insights on the mechanisms through which earthworms and biochar influence plants. Altogether, the following questions were specifically addressed: (1) What is the relative impact of biochar and earthworms on rice growth? (2) Do soil types and tretaments cause changes in rice responsiveness to earthworm and biochar?(3) Do earthworms and biochar interact in the way they influence rice growth? (4) In which way earthworms and biochar modify resource allocation in rice plants?The experiment was conducted at CIAT (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) greenhouses in Cali, Colombia. Plants were submitted to the four possible combinations of two factors, each one determined by the presence/absence respectively of earthworms and biochar. All the following treatments combinations were implemented in three soils treatments (see below): biochar x earthworms (BE), biochar (B), earthworms (E) and control (C) and five replicates were implemented for each treatment combination, resulting in 60 microcosms. Rice was grown in greenhouses for three months under controlled conditions: relative humidity ¼ 65e95%, temperature ¼ 27e29 C, light intensity ¼ 600 mmol m À2 s À1 and a 12 h photoperiod.Containers (microcosms) consisted of PVC pots (diameter 10 cm and 15 cm height). They were filled with 900 g of sieved (2 mm) dry soil. Drains at the bottom of pots were covered with 1 mm plastic mesh to prevent earthworms from escaping. Soil was maintained at 80% soil field capacity (checked through regular weighing of the pots).Microcosms were arranged in a completely randomized design. The soil was collected in July 2006, during the rainy season, from two long-term field experiments that aimed at comparing plant production in plots with and without the addition of biochar: (1) an experiment on coffee that was established in 2004, in the Andean hillsides of the Cauca Department, south-western Colombia (Pescador, 2 48 0 N 76 33 0 W), (2) an experiment on grass and corn production that was established in 2002 (Matazul, 4 19 0 N, 72 39 0 W in the Colombian Eastern Plains, Llanos). Soil was collected in the control treatments of these experiments for our microcosm treatments without biochar, and from their biochar treatments for our microcosm treatments with biochar. The rate of biochar application was respectively 25.5 and 45.5 g of biochar per dry kg of soil for \"Pescador\" and \"Matazul\" in the 0e10 layer. Since we collected the soil from the same layer, these rates also correspond to the rates of biochar application in our microcosms. In the two cases, biochar was ground mechanically to pass through a 5 mm mesh. For Pescador, biochar was produced from logs of Eucalyptus deglupta: temperature was maintained at 350 C and the oxygen level at 15%, the charring time was one hour (Rondon et al. 2007). This led to the following characteristics for Pescador: total C, 82.4%; total N 0.57%; P, 580 mg g À1 ; CEC, 46.9 mmol kg À1 . For Matazul, the biochar we used is commonly sold for cooking (Major, 2009a). It had the following characteristics: total C, 72.9%; total N, 0.76%; P, 129.8 mg g À1 ; CEC, 111.9 mmol kg À1 .The Pescador soil is a volcanic-ash soil, an inceptisol, in the USDA classification system. This soil is called hereafter the rich soil (R) because of its higher agronomic quality. The soil is moderately acid (pH (H 2 O) ¼ 5.1). It is relatively rich in organic matter MO (11.5%), and mineral nitrogen (12.9 mg NH 4 þ -N kg À1 , 27 mg NO 3 À -N kg À1 ). The CEC is relatively high (6.0 cmol kg À1 ). Texture is dominated by clay (24.06% sand, 27.56% silt, and 48.38% clay). The soil bulk density is 0.8 g cm À3 .The Matazul soil is a clayeloam oxisol which has developed from alluvial sediments (Rippstein et al., 2001). It is hereafter refered to this soil as the poor soil (P) because it is less fertile that the inceptisol. This soil is slightly more acid (pH (H 2 O) ¼ 4.3) than the R soil. The contents in organic matter (5.22%) and mineral nitrogen (4.32 mg NH 4 þ -N kg À1 , 7.39 mg, NO 3 À -N kg À1 ) are much lower than in the R soil. The soil has a low capacity to retain cations (CEC 3.0 cmol kg À1 ). The soil has a rather equilibrated texture (41.23% sand, 23.78% silt and 34.39% clay). (Gijsman et al., 1997).The bulk density in the native savanna is 1.30 g cm À3 (Trujillo et al., 1998). A last soil treatment (P þ F) was implemented in our experiment. It consists in the soil of the grassland oxisol to which fertilizer was added in our microcosms. The P þ F treatment received three times a NPK treatment (20, 20 and 40 kg ha-1, respectively for P, K and N) on day 20, 30 and 45. N was provided as urea, P as acidified rock phosphate and K as KCl.We use the terms \"poor soil\" and \"rich soil\" to facilitate the comprehension of our article. However, the two soils are very different and differ by many other characteristics than their content in organic matter and mineral nutrients. These characteristics are also likely to influence the effects of biochar and earthworms on plant growth (see the Discussion).For each microcosm, five adults (initial total fresh weight 4.0 (AE0.5 g) of P. corethrurus (Annelida: Oligocheata: Glossoscolecidae), were introduced. Earthworms were collected at the Pescador site (Cauca, Colombia). This species is not present in Matazul but is very widespread in the humid tropics and is able to colonize many different types of habitat, which is the main reason for the choice of this species. Individuals for Matazul soil microcosms were aclimated in this soil during one week. Two days after introducing earthworms, 5 rice seeds (O. sativa cv. Linea 30, Chatel et al., 2003) were sown. After 2 weeks, only one seedling was kept in each microcosm and these were regularly weeded during the experiment (other seedlings were removed).After ten weeks, plants were harvested and separated into grains, leaves, and stems. Roots were collected by wet sieving. Fresh root systems were scanned and analysed using a digital image analysing system (WinRHIZO, version 2003b, Regent Instrument, Quebec, Canada). Each plant part was dried in an electric oven at 60 C for 2 days and weighted. This material was then cut in small pieces (leaves and roots) and random subsamples were randomly selected to measure total carbon, total nitrogen and C/N with a Thermo Finnigan Elementary Analyser Flash EA1112. The plant variables considered were: total biomass, shoot biomass, root biomass, total grain biomass, total root length, mean root diameter, shoot root ratio, root ramification, mean grain weight, grain number, grain C/N, root C/N, leaf C/N and total N content in rice. Besides, at harvest time, a soil sample was collected for chemical analyses. Nitrate and ammonium were quantified colorimetrically using a segmented flow analyzer (Skalar Autoanalyzer, Skalar, The Netherlands).ANOVAs were implemented using the SAS GLM procedure (sum of squares type III, SS3) (SAS, 1990). Residual normality and homocedasticity were verified using Kolmogrov-Smirnov and Bartlett tests. A full model was first used to test all possible factors: Biochar (B), earthworms (E) and soil (S) and all, two-fold and three-fold, interactions between these factors. Since significant interactions between biochar and soil and earthworms and soil were detected, data were reanalysed separately for each soil (Tables 1e4). This allowed displaying complicated results in a more pedagogic way. To determine the direction of significant effects, we used multiple comparison tests based of least square means (hereafter LS means, LS means SAS statement), taking into account the Bonferroni correction.For all ANOVAs the R 2 values are very high, i.e. above 0.70 in most cases, and above 0.90 in many cases (see Tables 1e4). This shows that a high percentage of the measurment variability is explained by the treatments. The percentages of variation given below are relative to the control treatment and all correspond to significant LS means comparisons.Biochar and earthworms tend to increase both the nitrate and the ammonium contents of the soil in the three soil treatments (Table 1, Fig. 1). However, in the R soil, earthworms increase soil mineral nitrogen content (þ92% for nitrate and þ80% for ammonium) more than biochar (þ44% for nitrate and þ12% for ammonium). Conversely, biochar does not affect soil nitrate content in the P þ F soil treatment. Biochar and earthworm effects are most of the time additive, but there are also some exceptions. For example, in the P soil, both biochar and earthworms increase soil content in nitrate and ammonium, but the combination of the two does not increase further this content. Conversely, in the fertilization treatment, soil ammonium content decreases with earthworms (À7%), increases with biochar (þ14%), and increases more in the presence of both biochar and earthworms (þ40%).The shoot and total biomasses are higher in the R and P þ F soils than in the P soil (Fig. 2). Root and total grain biomasses are comparable in the two P soil treatments and higher in the R soil. There is a significant effect of E and B in most cases. The interaction between E and B is only significant for the root, grain and total biomasses in the P soil and for the root biomass in the P þ F soil. There is no significant effect on the shoot/root ratio in the P soil and on the total and shoot biomasses in the P þ F soil (Table 2).The total and shoot biomasses follow the same pattern. In the R soil, the effects of E and B are both significant but the effect of B (þ147 and þ166%) is stronger than the effect of E (þ82 and þ98% respectively). The two effects are additive (no interaction). In the P þ F soil, there is no significant effect on the total and shoot biomasses. In the P soil, the clearer effect on the total and shot biomasses is a positive E effect (þ167 and þ200% respectively). It must be highlighted that the combination of E and B allows reaching the same total biomasses as the ones obtained in the P þ F soil.The root biomass follows a different pattern than the shoot and total biomasses. In the three soils, the stronger effect is a positive E effect (Fig. 2). In the P þ F soil the pattern is more complicated due to a significant interaction between B and E.The total grain biomass follows another original pattern. In the R soil there are positive E (þ92%) and B (þ294%) effects. In the P soil there is an interaction between E and B leading to a þ800% increase in total grain biomass in the E and B treatment. In the P þ F soil there is only a negative E effect on the total grain biomass (À21%).All variables but root ramification are influenced by the soil treatment (Fig. 3). In general, variables take higher values in the P þ F soil. Differences between the R and P soils tend to be less clear. However, the mean grain weight and the grain number are higher in the R than in the P soil. Besides, the mean grain weight is comparable in the P and P þ F soils but higher in the R soil.The total root length and the mean root diameter follow roughly the same pattern (Fig. 3 and Table 3, LS means comparisons). In all soil treatments, the E and B treatments tend to lead to root systems with higher total root length and root diameter. The effect of B and the interaction between E and B determine the ranking between the four treatment combinations. Although B effect and this interaction are significant in the R and P soils but not in the P þ F soils, LS means comparisons show that in the three soil treatments the combination of earthworms and biochar tend to lead to higher total root lengths and root diameters than other treatment combinations. The number of ramifications per unit of root length (root ramification) presents a higher variability within treatments than other root related variables (Fig. 3). However, for the R, P and P þ F soils, E has a positive effect (þ22%, þ34% and 32% respectively) on root ramification, while B has a negative effect only in the R soil (À24%, Fig. 3).The shoot/root ratio follows a different pattern from the root biomass. In particular, the E and B effects are different in the three soils. In the R soil there is only a positive effect of B (þ220%) on the shoot/root ratio, i.e. decrease in the proportion of resources allocated to roots. In the P soil there is no significant effect of the treatments. In the P þ F soil there is a positive B effect (þ20%) and a negative E effect (À45%) on the shoot/root ratio (which leads to a complex ranking of treatments as described by LS mean comparisons, Table 3).Grain production and grain filling were very limited in the P soil. This leads to small and very variable values for the mean grain weight and the grain number (Fig. 3). There is no significant effect on the mean grain weight in the R soil (Table 3). However, in this soil, there are significant positive E (þ55%) and B (þ232%) effects on the grain number. In the P soil, there is no significant effect on the mean grain biomass, but positive E (þ150%) and B effects (þ250%) on the grain number. Finally, in the P þ F soil there is a negative E effect on the mean grain weight and no significant effect on the grain number.C/N ratios do not markedly differ between soil types. However, the total nitrogen content is higher in R and P þ F soils than in the P soil (Fig. 4). Earthworms tend to decrease the grain, root and leaf C/N ratios in the three soils (Fig. 4, Table 4). This effect is significant for the root (À9%) and leaf C/N (À40%) in the R soil; for the leaf C/N, in the P soil (À32%); for the grain, root and leaf C/N (À18%, À15% and À47% respectively) in the P þ F soil. Additionally, in the R soil, biochar increases the grain, root and leaf C/N, (þ22%, þ109% and þ45% respectively). The only significant interaction between earthworms and biochar is for the grain C/N in the P þ F soil.Treatment effects on the total nitrogen content highly depend on the soil treatment (Table 4). In the R soil, biochar (three-fold increase) and earthworms (þ30%) increase the total nitrogen content. There is no significant effect in the P soil. Earthworms decrease the total nitrogen content in the P þ F soil treatment (À20%). There is no significant interaction between earthworm and biochar for the total nitrogen content. In our study, there are more significant effects of earthworms than significant effects of biochar on rice growth and related traits (first question in the introduction). However this is due to the fact that earthworms and biochar effects depend on the soil type (second question). While there are many significant effects of earthworms and biochar in the R soil, there are mostly significant earthworm effects in the P soil. In the same vein, the fertilization of the P soil tends to decrease the amplitude of earthworms and biochar effects. However, in this fertilization treatment, there are significant earthworm effects on some plant traits and significant biochar effects on other traits. Contrary to our expectation few significant effects of the interactions between earthworms and biochar were found (third question). The different plant traits present different patterns of responsiveness to earthworms and biochar. For example; traits describing the root system, the C/N of the different plant parts and the total biomasses responded differently to earthworms and biochar. Moreover, we have shown that the shoot/root ratio was directly impacted by earthworms and biochar. These results show that earthworms and biochar affect the resource allocation of rice plants (forth question). Linking results on different plant traits, we interpret below our detailed results and infer from them informations on the underlying mechanisms.The fertilization treatment involved the addition of urea. This led to a clear increase (about five fold) in both nitrate and ammoium soil concentration. This shows that urea quickly mineralized. Earthworms increased the availability of nitrate and ammonium in the three soil treatments as usually found in earthworm experiments (Lavelle and Spain, 2001;Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay, 2004;Amador and Görres, 2005). This should be due to several mechanisms: microbial activity is stimulated in earthworm fresh casts (Lavelle et al., 1999;Brown et al., 2000;Chaoui et al., 2003), earthworms mix and fragment the organic matter particles they ingest without assimilitaing it (Lavelle et al., 1999), and earthworms assimilate and excrete a part of the nitrogen of the organic matter they ingest (Whalen et al., 2000).Although the influence of biochar on nitrogen transformation processes in soil is complicated (Singh et al., 2010), biochar globally increased mineral nitrogen concentration in our experiment. This could be due to the fact that biochar increases the CEC and thus increases the retention of cations such as ammonium (Lehmann et al., 2003a,b). The positive effect of biochar on nitrate concentration could be achieved through a retention of water by biochar particles (Glaser et al., 2002). However, biochar did not increase the concentration of nitrate in the fertilization treatment. This could be due to a saturation of the soil by the nitrate coming from the quick mineralization of urea and the subsequent nitrification. Finally, earthworms and biochar alone increased mineral nitrogen concentration in the poor soil but the combination of the two did not increase futher this concentration contrary to what was observed in the rich soil. It is not possible to conclude on the underlying mechanism but interactions between earthworms and biochar are possible, for example due to their respective effects on microbial biomass and the consecutive nutrient immobilization by microorganisms.4.2. Contrasted effects of biochar and earthworms in the three soil treatments Brown et al. (2004a) has remarked that the response of plants to earthworms should depend on the type of soil and it is generally assumed that positive effects of earthworms on plant growth are more likely in poor soils than in rich soils (Doube et al., 1997;Brown et al., 2004b). The rationale behind this hypothesis is that earthworms mostly affect plants because they increase the mineralization of soil organic matter. Hence, if a soil is naturally rich in mineral nutrients or if it is fertilized, earthworm effect should be diluted and could disappear (Blouin et al., 2006). In our case, earthworms increased the total biomass in the poor and rich soils but did not have this effect when the poor soil was fertilized. This effect of fertilization supports the above-mentioned hypothesis and suggests that P. corethrurus first increased rice total biomass through an increased mineralization. Although earthworms also increased the soil content in ammonium and nitrate in the fertilization treatment, the impact of this increase was somehow diluted by fertilization.Rice response to biochar depended on soil type. The positive effect of biochar on the total biomass observed in the rich soil was not seen in the poor soil with or without fertilizer. Using the same rationale than for earthworms (see above), this suggests that biochar mostly affected rice growth because of its positive effect on nutrient retention and availability. That biochar clearly increased  the availability of mineral nitrogen in the two soils but not in the fertilization treatment supports further this rational. The absence of biochar effect in the P soil is more difficult to explain. Indeed, field experiments showed that the same biochar treatment in the same soil has a positive effect on maize grown in the field (þ140%, Major et al., 2009 unpublished results of the field experiment from which our soil, with or without biochar, has been extracted). Moreover, (1) the concentration of biochar was higher in the P than in the R soil, (2) the CEC of the biochar used in the P soil was higher than in the R soil, and (3) biochar increased soil content in nitrate and ammonium in the P soil (see above). A possible explanation would be that P soil being intrinsically poorer in mineral nutrients than the R soil, biochar effects is lower in the P soils because there are less nutrient to immobilize.There are few significant interacting effects between biochar and earthworms on plant traits and, when there is a significant interaction, it generally has a small effect relatively to earthworm and biochar simple effects. This suggests that the mechanisms through which earthworms and biochar increased rice growth did not interact strongly. This is especially meaningful, in the R soil where there was a positive biochar and earthworm effect for most plant traits measured. In this soil, earthworm effect is supposed to be due to an increase in mineralization and biochar effect is supposed to be due to a decrease in leaching (see above). These two mechanisms could act in synergy, the first providing more mineral nutrient to the soil, the second helping to maintain them in the soil. That such a synergy was not observed in our experiment could be explained by the short duration of the experiment. Indeed, in the field, earthworms could build up the stock of nutrients immobilized in biochar year after year, which cannot occur in our short-term experiment. Moreover, on the long term, earthworms could also influence nutrient retention which could interact further with biochar, either positively or negatively (Subler et al., 1997;Domínguez et al., 2004;Sheehan et al., 2006;Barot et al., 2007). Earthworms increased root biomass in the poor soil, as already reported in other earthworm experiments implemented in nutrient poor soils (Welke and Parkinson, 2003;Wurst et al., 2003). Three types of explanation can be proposed. They are respectively based on earthworm impact on minerlaization, the release of phytohormones, and soil porosity. Besides, more than one of these mechanisms could be involved. First, it is usually assumed that earthworms foster mineralization and thus the availability of mineral nutrient, as was found in our experiment. Plant would then increase their root biomass to take advantage of this increased resource availability (Wurst et al., 2004). It is more surprising that P. corethrurus also increased root biomass in the rich soil and in the fertilized poor soil. This could be due to the fact that earthworms increased the availability of mineral nitrogen in these two soil treatments, while the subsequent nutrient availability might not have reached the threshold above which root biomass no longer respond to nutrient availability. Alternatively this could be due to the fact that plant investment to their root system depends both on the global availability of mineral nutrients and on their local distribution in the soil (Ingestad and Agren, 1991;Bell and Sultan, 1999;Farrar et al., 2003). Here, fertilization globally increased nutrient availability but earthworm activities are likely to increase locally the availability of mineral nutrients, in their casts (Lavelle and Martin, 1992;Lavelle et al., 1999;Jimenez and Decaens, 2004;Mariani et al., 2007;Tapia-Coral et al., 2006). This could in turn stimulate locally the root production (Fitter, 1976;Wurst et al., 2003) which could increase the total root biomass in spite of the globally high nutrient availability. Second, earthworms are known to trigger the release of molecules recognized as phytohormones by plants (Muscolo et al., 1999). In particular, they have been shown to trigger the release of auxin-like molecules that increase root biomass (Pasqualeto Canellas et al., 2002). This could explain the maintenance of an increase in root biomass in the rich soil and with fertilization. Besides, it cannot be excluded that these two mechanisms are not also involved in the observed increase in root biomass in the presence of earthworms in the two unfertilized soil treatments. Third, another explanation is possible for the increase in root biomass whatever the soil treatment: earthworms are known to increase soil porosity through bioturbation and this could have allowed rice to grow more roots through the facilitation of root penetration in the soil.Biochar is known to modify soil physicochemical parameters (Glaser et al., 2002;Lehmann et al., 2003a,b), which is likely to affect root biomass and architecture but has so far never been described. In all our soil treatments, and contrary to earthworms, biochar did not lead to an increase in root biomass. This could be due to the fact that biochar effect on the availability of mineral nitrogen is less clear than earthworm effect (no effect on ammonium in the rich soil, no effect on nitrate in the fertilization treatment). However, in the poor soil, earthworm and biochar effects on the availability of nitrate and ammonium are of the same magnitude (þ145%). Since, in this soil, earthworms but not biochar increased root biomass this suggests that nutrient availability is not the only mechanisms involved, as suggested above. Again, this suggests that either the release of phytohormones or an increase in soil porosity are involved in earthworm impact on root biomass.The increase in the total root biomass in the presence of earhtworms, in the three soil treatments, manifested itself in the three variables measured to describe root architecture. Taken together, root biomass increased in all possible ways in presence of earthworms: total root length, mean root diameter and the number of root ramifications increased in presence of earthworms. Once again, biochar increased mineral nitrogen availability but did not lead to the same effect on roots as earthworms. As for the total root biomass, these results support the hypothesis that other factors than nutrient mineralization and availability are involved in earthworm effect on root system. This is also confirmed by the fact that (1) root ramification had the same general level in the three soil treatments, while nutrient availability clearly decreased from the fertilization treatment to the poor soil treatment treatment), (2) root ramification reacted to earthworms that led to smaller changes in mineral nitrogen availability.In our study, earthworm and biochar effects on shoot/root ratio strongly varied with soil type: no effect in the poor soil, increase in the ratio with biochar in the rich soil, decrease in the ratio with earthworm in the fertilization treatment. These effects cannot be directly predicted from effects on the total root biomass: i.e. they result from the interaction between earthworm and biochar effects on the total biomass production and on resource allocation. Shoot/ root ratio is generaly though to be primarily determined by the availability of mineral nutrients (Wilson, 1988), which has been affected both by earthworms and biochar. However, the shoot/root pattern we observed is not well correlated with earthworm and biochar effects on mineral nitrogen availability. Taken together, these results on the shoot/root ratio and root system architecture suggest that biochar and earthworms have also directly modified resource allocation independently of their effect on mineralization and nutrient retention. This points again at earthworm effect on plant growth through the release of hormone-like molecules, which is known to influence the shoot/root ratio (Wilson, 1988;Atiyeh et al., 2002). Alternatively, earthworm effect on soil porosity might also have the same type of impact on the root system.For all soil treatments, the total grain biomass and the grain number tended to exhibit the same tendency as the total biomass. However, neither earthworms nor biochar affected significantly the mean grain weight in the rich and poor soils. Besides, earthworms both decreased the mean grain weight and the total grain biomass in the fertilization treatment. This effect is not well correlated with the increase in nutrient availability in presence of earthworms. Indeed, earthworms increased the availability of nitrate (independently of biochar) and increased ammonium availability in the biochar treatment. This is again an effect of earthworms on resource allocation. It is correlated with earthworm positive effect on root biomass: in the fertilization treatment earthworms did no influence the total biomass, increased root biomass, and decreased the total grain biomass. It is not clear why rice should decrease its resource allocation to grain in the presence of earthworms in a fertilized soil, unless it is primarily an effect of an increase in the allocation to the root system.Earthworms tended to decrease the C/N of all plant parts, even in the fertilization treatment, while biochar had small and less consistent effects on C/N. This effect parallels earthworm effect on mineral nitrogen availability: as usually acknowledged nutrient concentration in plants increase when nutrient availability increase (Lambers et al., 1988a;Ingestad and Agren, 1992). Such positive effect of earthworms on plant nutrient concentration have already been observed and attributed to their effect on mineralization (Brown et al., 2000;Araujo et al., 2004). It must however be marked that earthworm effect on leaf C/N is not proportional to their effect on nutrient availability. For example, in the fertilization treatment, the C/N decreased by 47% and mineral nitrogen availability increased by 12%. Meanwhile, the decrease in the C/N of grains and root was relatively much smaller (about 15%). This suggests that rice resource allocation strategy interacts with earthworm effects: a large proportion of nitrogen made available by earthworms is allocated to leaves where it can enhance photosynthesis (Lambers et al., 1988b,c).Both an increase in mineral nitrogen absorption (Lehmann et al., 2003a;Steiner et al., 2007Steiner et al., , 2008) ) and a decrease in plant C/N have already been observed with the addition of biochar (Lehmann et al., 2003b). In our experiment, in the R soil, biochar decreased nitrogen concentration (increased the C/N) in rice, whereas biochar increased both ammonium and nitrate concentration in this soil. Again, effects of treatments on rice did not perfectly parallel their effect on mineral nitrogen availability and biochar and earthworm effects are different. In this case, an explanation could be that earthworms but not biochar increased root biomass in the rich soil, so that earthworms both directly increase nutrient availability and rice capacity to absorb nutrients. This emphasizes again the importance of earthworm effects on plant resource allocation. The decrease in rice C/N in presence of biochar could be due to the fact that mineral nutrients maintained in the soil by biochar might not be perceived in the same way by plants as nutrients released by earthworms. For example, cations adsorbed on biochar might be poorly available to plants and thus could lead to an increase in root biomass (Lambers et al., 1988a;Wilson, 1988).We found that earthworm and biochar effects highly depend on soil type and we found few evidences of positive interaction between earthworms and biochar. Hence, the combination of the two practices could be advised because they have positive additive effects but does not increase further crop production. Due to the fact that our experiment is a short-term microcosm experiment, it cannot however be excluded that earthworms and biochar could interact synergistically on the long term to increase the availability of mineral nutrients and crop production. Indeed, earthworms increase mineralization, and biochar is likely to increase nutrient retention, so that the two mechanisms could lead to the building up of a much larger nutrient stock (Barot et al., 2007;Boudsocq et al., 2009). It is possible that a part of the biochar effect in our experiment is due to such a mechanism triggered by the presence of earthworms in the field experiments from which we collected our soil.The potential benefits of earthworms and biochar highly depend on soil type and on fertilization, which suggests that the use of biochar and earthworms should be more beneficial is some soil types than in other. It has already been recognized that earthworm effects depend on soil type (Brown et al., 2004a) and that the magnitude of earthworm effects does not necessarily decrease with soil fertility (Laossi et al., 2010). As far as we know, while biochar has been said to be beneficial in most tropical soils because they tend to be deprived of nutrients by an intense lixiviation (Lehmann et al., 2003c;Glaser and Woods, 2004;Asai et al., 2009), our experiment is the first one to attempt determining in which soil types biochar should be used. However, as for earthworms, it would be precocious, without further experiments, to predict which soil characteristics determine soil responsiveness to biochar in term of fertility and crop production. Indeed, in our experiment, the \"poor\" and \"rich\" soils differed by many other characteristics than their richness in mineral nutrients. To conclude on the interaction between biochar, earthworms and soil type, new experiments using soils with various textures, types of clay or content in organic matter are needed. Finally, the fact that both earthworms and biochar effects tended to disappear with mineral fertilization suggests that biochar and earthworms could be more beneficial instead of mineral fertilization than in combination with mineral fertilization. Other studies have suggested that biochar and mineral fertilization could increase fertility synergistically (Lehmann et al., 2003a;Steiner et al., 2007;Steiner et al., 2008). Our experiment does not support this view but this could again be due to the fact that it was not a long-term field experiment.","tokenCount":"6686"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1585511911ad8d1ace117e288a071072","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb3ca552-6309-4b64-afc9-059b6394e4fc/retrieve","id":"-648449276"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e5b28723-9bbb-4a4a-870c-af4b49822273","pagecount":"5","content":"In silico chromosome painting is a technique by which contributions of distinct genetic groups are represented along chromosomes of hybrid individuals. This type of analysis is used to study the mechanisms by which these individuals were formed. Such techniques are well adapted to identify genetic groups contributing to these individuals as well as hybridization events. It can also be used to follow chromosomal recombinations that occurred naturally or were generated by selective breeding. Here, we present GeMo, a novel interactive web-based and user-oriented interface to visualize in a linear-based fashion results of in silico chromosome painting. To facilitate data input generation, a script to execute analytical commands is provided and an interactive data curation mode is supported to ensure consistency of the automated procedure. GeMo contains preloaded datasets from published studies on crop domestication but can be applied to other purposes, such as breeding programs Although only applied so far on plants, GeMo can handle data from animals as well.Hybridizations and introgressions are at the center of multiple scientific questions in biology (1,2). Unraveling their origins and impacts is a key objective to understand the mechanisms by which organisms were formed and evolved, and thus feature in multiple topics such as human ancestries (3), plant domestication (4), crop improvement (5) and environmental adaptation (6). At the genome level, the result of these introgression events can be represented as genome ancestry mosaics, defined as a succession of large chromosomal DNA segments, or genomic blocks, of distint origin. These genomic blocks can be associated with genetic groups defined as groups of individuals with a homogenous genetic background resulting from a common ancestor or population (e.g. species, subspecies).Over the past decade, our ability to generate genomic data at high throughput for a large sampling has been revolutionized, enabling genome-wide characterization within a particular species (7,8). The availability of these genomic data led to the development of new methodologies that use genetic markers to study the genome ancestry mosaics of individuals (9, 10). Such methods, called local ancestry inference methods are based on hidden Markov model, multivariate analysis or ancestral allele ratio approaches. These methods have been applied to various animals and plant organisms (11)(12)(13)(14) and will be referred to hereafter as in silico chromosome painting analyses.To visualize in silico chromosome painting, packages with linear ideograms or karyotypes such as ChromPlot (15), ChromDraw (16), karyoploteR (17), RIdeogram (18) can be used, but they require advanced programming skills and generate only static images. A few online applications were developed but are specific to some organisms like DNAPainter for Humans (https://dnapainter.com) or favor circular-based visualization rather than linear (19). Until now, there were no web-based interfaces handling datasets in an interactive and linear fashion, and none addressing the challenges of polyploidy, which is often encountered in plants.Here we present GeMo, a web-based tool for visualization, curation and data sharing of genome ancestry mosaics. It comes with a script and step-by-step instructions, using two local ancestry inference-based methods, TraceAncestor (20) and VCFHunter (21), which assign alleles to genetic groups and use the allelic ratio observed in individuals to assign an origin to genomic blocks. GeMo can guide users through in silico chromosome painting starting with a Variant Call Format (VCF) file and acts as an online repository for genomics ancestry mosaics.GeMo is a lightweight web-based interface implemented in JavaScript. The display of the interactive graph is managed with the JavaScript D3JS library (https://d3js.org) and chromosome visual rendering builds on the Ideogram library (https://eweitz.github.io/ideogram). The web page design uses the Bootstrap library (https://getbootstrap.com), which ensures compatibility with modern web browsers. On the back-end, a NodeJS server (https://nodejs.org/en/) ensures data transfer and analysis.GeMo contains ancestry mosaics of preloaded individuals resulting from published studies conducted on subsets of plant genotypes (13,(20)(21)(22). When selecting a preloaded individual (Figure 1A), a form is automatically filled with the genomic coordinates of the genomic blocks and the visualization parameters (e.g. colors, reference sequence coordinates, ploidy). GeMo displays the ancestry mosaic drawing for each chromosome (Figure 1B). The chromosomal segments are colored according to their corresponding genetic group.An interactive legend labels each genetic group with a corresponding color (Figure 1B). After modifying the color of a group directly in the legend (free-mode and colorblind mode available), the visualization of the chromosomes is automatically updated. By hovering over each genomic block, a link is displayed for a pre-defined genome browser URL at the observed genomic position.Users have the possibility to enter their own files using the menu panel (Figure 1A). GeMo requires at least two types of datasets to generate the ideogram visualization: (i) a tabulated file for the reference chromosome metadata (names and respective sizes) and (ii) a tabulated file for drawing the genome ancestry mosaic of analyzed individuals. GeMo comes with a list of defined plant chromosomes, but users can enter their own chromosomes as well. The position of the centromeres can be optionally indicated in this file. The file containing genome ancestry mosaics can either be encoded as block position (genomic segment along a chromosome with defined start and stop positions) or normalized curve (observed allelic ratio for each gene pool along the chromosomes).Once data is provided, the karyotype diagram is generated dynamically. The resulting visualization depends on the encoding of the ancestry mosaic information. Segments are drawn along chromosomes if block positions are passed (Figure 1) but line plots and chromosome segments are drawn if normalized curves are provided (Figure 2-see next section for details about this visualization). Multiple ploidy levels are supported, enabling the representation of haplotypes for polyploid species. Ploidy is auto-detected by the system but needs to be specified when using curves.In addition, a list of genomic coordinates (e.g. genes of interest, Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL)) can be provided as a Browser Extensible Data file to visually spot the corresponding regions on the chromosomes (Figure 1B). This can be particularly useful to check co-localization between genomic blocks and genes/regions of interest. As a complement, and to avoid extracting genomic information already available in a JBrowse instance, GeMo allows the user to extract the genomic block information as JBrowse tracks (Figure 1C).To support data import in GeMo, step-by-step tutorials with two possible programs using VCFHunter and TraceAncestor are provided for users starting with a VCF file as well as a single script to facilitate execution (https://gemo. readthedocs.io/en/latest/QuickStart.html). The approach is compatible with genome-wide genotyping methods (e.g. GBS, RADseq, DaRTseq), transcriptomics (i.e. RNAseq) or wholegenome resequencing data, including both individuals to investigate and ancestral genetic groups. The complete data processing of these typically takes less than 1 h per individual. The tutorials describe the creation of either block-positionbased mosaics or curve-based mosaics for interactive display, the latter enabling manual curation of the ancestry mosaics via the GeMo Interface. Step-by-step tutorials, compared to the script, allow users to customize parameters and interactively monitor the result of each analytical step.In silico chromosome painting resulting from an automated bioinformatic procedure may not be exact, requiring expert review and adjustment. GeMo proposes a curation mode to edit thresholds for single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) ratios that are by default defined based on expected ploidy (0.5 for heterozygous diploids, 0.33/0.66 for heterozygous triploids, etc.). Indeed, such ratios are expected in the ideal case, but some variations relative to the expected value can exist, either associated with the sequencing and genotyping techniques, errors in the attribution of ancestral alleles or sampling of the individuals used as representatives of a genetic group. For example, if a genetic group is represented by only a few members representing only a small portion of its diversity, identified alleles will under-predict the contribution of this genetic group in individuals descending from it. In this context, the threshold may need to be adapted. As illustrated in Figure 2, the curation mode can be used to significantly improve automated results.When normalized curve datasets are available (from preloaded datasets or loaded by users online), GeMo displays interactive graphs that enable the curation of predicted  Comparison of genome ancestry mosaic results before (A) and after (B) curation in GeMo. In A, the genome ancestry mosaic is not well resolved (dark gray for undefined origin) with default parameters (0.5 for diploid). Once the curve-based mode is activated, an interactive graph facilitates threshold adjustment. In B, the genome ancestry mosaic is better resolved after reducing expected thresholds for the two curves with the main ratios (as indicated in circles).Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/database/article/doi/10.1093/database/baac057/6645005 by guest on 19 July 2022 genome ancestry mosaics. These graphs represent the proportion of haplotypes of each genetic group by chromosomes resulting from a normalization of the number of reads supporting each origin on a given window. This allows for visualizing the contribution of each genetic group along the chromosomes and checking the threshold that led to the colored painting of blocks (Figure 2A). With GeMo, users can change the threshold on the graph to recalculate the ancestry mosaic block contribution. Once a threshold is changed, the karyotype diagram is dynamically updated, which facilitates threshold adjustment (Figure 2B).Once data is visualized and customized, GeMo offers the possibility to download the latest version of the data sets and export the graphic outputs as SVG for publication purposes. In addition, data can also be stored temporarily online with a unique URL allowing users to share it.GeMo addresses several use cases that are illustrated in Figure 3. For ancestry inference, once genetic groups are defined and assigned to a putative descendant, in silico chromosome painting reveals their contribution to the genetic makeup of the individual, in particular when a hybridization event is recent (e.g. few meiotic events followed hybridization). This can be observed for example in plants with low fertility (e.g. banana, yam) (13) or with long generations (e.g. trees) (20). GeMo provides thus a visual way to analyze and deduce the steps that shaped the genome of a given individual (13), allowing users to reconstruct simple case pedigrees (Figure 3A).In a breeding context, GeMo provides a visual way to follow chromosome segregations and recombinations (crossing overs during meiosis) in bi-parental populations (Figure 3B). In silico chromosome painting visualization can help the user inspect chromosome structures in progenies to select the most desirable individual. Thus, GeMo has the potential to support the visualization of crosses in breeding programs working with molecular approaches (23).For functional genomics, drawing genome ancestry mosaics in which genomic segments are co-localized with a QTL (Figure 3C) may reveal traces of adaptative introgressions to be further investigated (5). The recurrent occurrence of a genomic block in natural hybrids, for instance, or co-localization with a given QTL may indicate positive selection. For transcriptomics studies, it provides a way to overlay the chromosomes with genes that display differential expression in a specific haplotype (24). The software interoperability with genome browsers allows to zoom into specific genes in a genomic block or to export the genome ancestry mosaics as tracks into a JBrowse instance.In conclusion, GeMo intends to help users exploit SNP markers and visualize genome ancestry mosaics in an easy and interactive way. GeMo proposes a procedure to conduct in silico chromosome painting with an interactive and online curation mode to improve results from such automatic analyses, enabling parameter adjustment based on organism specificities. GeMo can also act as an online repository, collecting public datasets for which in silico chromosome painting was conducted.","tokenCount":"1874"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7e8aaa7f90685778780bbe4af6c03562","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b0a2464f-78f4-42cb-b96a-888c2e06457e/retrieve","id":"622133613"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d3083574-1efb-4bc9-8704-b166def03d61","pagecount":"52","content":"El CIMMYT es una organización internacional pionera en el mundo, sin fines de lucro, dedicada a resolver hoy los problemas del mañana. Se encarga de promover mejoras en la cantidad, calidad y fiabilidad de los sistemas de producción y de los cereales básicos como el maíz, trigo, triticale, sorgo, mijo y cultivos asociados mediante la ciencia agrícola aplicada, especialmente en el sur global, a través de la creación de colaboraciones sólidas. Esta combinación mejora el desempeño de los medios de subsistencia y la resiliencia de millones de agricultores de escasos recursos, y trabaja por un sistema agroalimentario más productivo, incluyente y resiliente dentro de los límites globales.El CIMMYT es uno de los principales centros de investigación del GCIAR, una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria dedicada a reducir la pobreza, aumentar la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y mejorar los recursos naturales.Memoria del Simposio Internacional de Plataformas de Investigación 2023 \"Fortaleciendo la Agricultura ante el Cambio Climático\" Resumen de actividades cargo de Bram Govaerts, director general del CIM-MYT. Steve Fonte de la Universidad de Colorado impartió la ponencia magistral \"Cuidando la Salud del Suelo para apoyar Agroecosistemas Productivos y Resilientes\", en la que compartió los resultados de una investigación basada en suelos de todo el continente, sobre los beneficios de los sistemas de producción que cuidan la salud del suelo. Como siguiente punto en el orden del día, cuatro colaboradores de México presentaron los resultados de sus plataformas: Fermín Martínez presentó la plataforma de San Miguel Tlacamama, Oaxaca; Ana Rosa García presentó la plataforma de Cajeme I, Sonora; Raúl Olvera presentó la plataforma de Huichapan, Hidalgo, y Rocío Toledo presentó la plataforma de Iguala, Guerrero. Después de las presentaciones, los participantes formaron grupos regionales para participar en el taller sobre opciones para adaptar sus sistemas de producción locales al cambio climático.Después del taller el grupo se trasladó a una explanada donde se expusieron los carteles, donde todos los participantes podían presentar su investigación y aprender sobre la investigación de otros participantes. Posteriomente se realizaron más presentaciones de resultados de plataformas, por los colaboradores Paul García, de la plataforma de Pénjamo, Guanajuato; Mateo Pérez de la plataforma de Larrainzár, Chiapas; Guadalupe Itza Kantun, presentó resultados de investigación sobre aplicación de biol en Peto, Yucatán, y David Ramírez quien presentó alcances sobre el uso de e-Agrology para diagnosticar los sistemas de producción de papa en La Libertad, Perú. El simposio terminó con la presentación de Simon Fonteyne sobre los avances de la red de plataformas en los últimos años. Se reconoció a Roció Toledo como ganadora del premio a la mejor presentación y a Mateo Pérez como ganador del premio del mejor cartel. El evento concluyó con el anuncio hecho por Nele Verhulst, del establecimiento oficial de la Red de Investigación Agronómica para América Latina.El Simposio Internacional de Plataformas de Investigación 2023 \"Fortaleciendo la Agricultura ante el Cambio Climático\" se organizó para promover el intercambio de experiencias, ideas y resultados de investigación entre los colaboradores del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT), que trabajan en la investigación agronómica aplicada. Se juntaron colaboradores de varios proyectos como las iniciativas CGIAR Excellence in Agronomy y AgriLAC Resiliente, Cultivando un México Mejor (Heineken), Agriba Sustentable (por Trimex y Pepsico) y Maíz por México (Nestle). Los participantes llegaron desde todos los hubs en México y también de otros países donde existe colaboración con el CIMMYT: Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, Perú y Estados Unidos.El evento inició con un día de capacitaciones sobre temas que los participantes habían indicado como prioritarios. La primera capacitación se enfocó en la salud del suelo. Empezó con un curso impartido por Nele Verhulst sobre la teoría de la salud del suelo. Fue seguido por una sesión práctica en campo dirigida por Abel Saldivia y Jessica González sobre las mediciones que se pueden hacer en campo para cuantificar y diagnosticar la salud del suelo. La sesión terminó con una presentación de Francisco Buenrostro sobre el manejo integrado de la fertilidad del suelo. Por la tarde, los participantes podían elegir entre varios talleres: Comunicación y divulgación efectiva, impartido por Georgina Mena y el equipo de divulgación del CIMMYT; Diseño experimental, análisis estadístico y artículos científicos, dirigido por Mariel Guera y Simon Fonteyne; y Manejo Agroecológico de Plagas, presentado por Rodolfo Vilchis y Abel Saldivia. Finalmente, se regresó a la plenaria para participar en el taller sobre los temas relacionados con perspectiva de género y la investigación agronómica, impartido por Jessica González y Odette Gutiérrez.El segundo día se destinó a la presentación de resultados. La inauguración y bienvenida estuvieron aEn el marco del Simposio Internacional de Plataformas de Investigación 2023, se llevó a cabo el taller \"Inclusión de género en la investigación agrícola\" impartido por Odette Gutiérrez y Jessica González, pertenecientes al Programa Sistemas Agroalimentarios Sustentables del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT). El taller se desarrolló en dos etapas dentro de la misma sesión, la primera con una presentación teórica de los conceptos clave relacionados a género e inclusión, así como su relación en la agronomía. La segunda etapa consistió en una reflexión por parte de los participantes sobre actividades y prácticas de intervención con enfoque sensible a género aplicada a sus regiones de trabajo.Durante la presentación teórica se expusieron y analizaron, en conjunto con los participantes, conceptos clave del marco contextual sobre la participación de las mujeres en el sector agrícola y métodos para la implementación de soluciones agronómicas para las mujeres agricultoras en pequeña escala.• Definición de género y por qué es importante en agronomía • Diferencia entre sexo y género • Roles de género • Relaciones de poder y toma de decisiones • Centralidad del poder en las relaciones de género • Igualdad de género vs equidad • Acceso y control sobre recursos productivos • Niveles de desigualdad de género El marco contextual sobre las mujeres en América Latina en el medio rural incluyo información sobre:• La participación laboral en el sector agrícola • Ingresos entre hombres y mujeres • El tiempo de trabajo no remunerado • La propiedad de la tierra, otros recursos y la toma de decisiones • Ocupaciones extralaborales Enfoques y métodos para la implementación de soluciones agronómicas para las mujeres agricultoras • Diagnóstico para el análisis social y de género • Tipos de prestación de servicios e innovaciones con perspectiva de género Después de la presentación teórica se realizaron actividades de reflexión, incluyendo una discusión sobre el género en la agricultura local, y el desarrollo de actividades y prácticas como acciones de intervención. Los equipos de trabajo se dividieron en cinco regiones; un grupo para Centro América y cuatro grupos para México, los cuales se conformaron por las regiones de: 1) bajío, 2) centro, 3) norte y 4) sur.La discusión en equipos se guio con los siguientes cuestionamientos:1. ¿Cómo llegan-acceden las agricultoras a sus proyectos de investigación, validación y transferencia de tecnologías? 2. ¿Qué tan inclusivo es este método para llegar a las pequeñas agricultoras? ¿Cómo se ven reflejadas estas actividades?Las acciones de intervención se guiaron con la siguiente información:1. Enlistar acciones -actividades y prácticaspara una intervención en la investigación y extensión con enfoque de género.Los resultados de los equipos fueron los siguientes:Región Centro 1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Agricultoras comerciales y agricultoras de autoconsumo. 2. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• En la agricultura comercial los métodos para llegar a las agricultoras no son inclusivos.Por ejemplo, las convocatorias de invitación a eventos son abiertas, es decir, no dirigidas a hombres o mujeres, entonces los hombres atienden las actividades y no las mujeres. • En la agricultura de pequeña escala para el autoconsumo, la inclusión de las mujeres es más orgánica debido a las dinámicas sociodemográficas, por ejemplo, la falta de oportunidades laborales para los hombres estimula la migración, por lo tanto, las mujeres quedan como jefas de las unidades de producción y toman las decisiones de las actividades en la agricultura.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Diagnosticar áreas de interés agrícola con énfasis en la agricultura donde las mujeres tienen un rol importante en el sistema de producción para focalizar las acciones de género. • Contribuir en el fortalecimiento de los roles de género. • Sensibilizar que las actividades del sistema son integrales donde se visibilice el papel de las mujeres en la agricultura. Por ejemplo, en la agricultura comercial las mujeres son administradoras y no necesariamente están realizando el manejo agronómico de los cultivos, entonces la inclusión se enfocaría en desarrollar temas de investigación y capacitación más especializados, por ejemplo, administración, cultivos alternativos para la diversificación y poscosecha. Además de ser cuidadosos con el lenguaje y trato.Figura 1.Ing. Francisco López Olguín en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo centro de México.1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Agricultoras comerciales de San Luis Potosí, Jalisco, Sinaloa y Sonora. 2. San Luis Potosí y Jalisco tienen mayor participación de mujeres en la agricultura y menor en Sinaloa y Sonora. En Sonora no hay muchas mujeres con propiedad de la tierra y tampoco participan en las actividades agrícolas. Hay muchas mujeres en la actividad académica, investigación, administrativa y de servicios.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Invitaciones inclusivas.• Promover infraestructura sanitaria tanto en el lugar de los eventos como en los transportes. • Horarios adecuados.• Campaña de mujer a mujer que motive una participación más directa. • Vinculación con mujeres y grupos de mujeres que influyen en la agricultura.Figura 2.Ing. Eliud Pérez Medel en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo norte de México.Figura 3.Ing. Alejandrina Garcia Dávila en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo sur de México.1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Agricultoras de autoconsumo. 2. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• Las acciones que realizan son inclusivas porque promueven alta participación de las mujeres por las siguientes razones: • Proyectos exclusivos para la participación de las mujeres, por ejemplo, en Chiapas hay un proyecto de mujeres y maíz. • Es importante en las comunidades indígenas respetar los usos y costumbres, y en lo posible, llevar los mensajes en lengua indígena. • Éxodo rural donde las dinámicas de migración no empoderan a las mujeres, en estos casos los hombres por teléfono siguen dando instrucciones y toman las decisiones más importantes del sistema de producción.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Flexibilidad de horarios. Eventos de relación participativa de maíces nativos en horarios favorables a las mujeres. • Equipos mixtos para facilitar las sesiones.• Preguntas dirigidas a mujeres para motivar la participación y escuchar sus intereses. • Descarga y equilibrio del trabajo en casa para lograr mayor participación de las mujeres. • Hacer énfasis en investigación y extensión relacionada a la diversificación de cultivos por ser de mayor interés para las mujeres. • Apoyo de innovación tecnológica en la mecanización poscosecha -desgranadora, para bajar la carga de trabajo en las temporadas de poscosecha.1. Tipo de productoras colaboradoras: Productoras de agricultura comercial, líderes de organizaciones y empresarias. 2. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• Las agricultoras normalmente tienden a adaptarse a los roles de los hombres en la agricultura y para esto cada una desarrolla su estrategia para involucrarse en la dinámica agrícola, por ejemplo, algunas delegan responsabilidad a sus trabajadores hombres para vincularse y negociar con los proveedores de insumos. • Las actividades en la región para llegar a las agricultoras es a través de invitaciones, por la iniciativa de las propias mujeres y por las características del proyecto.3. Acciones de inclusión:• Realizar diagnóstico regional para conocer las características y necesidades de la población de mujeres en la agricultura. • Enfocar las acciones en investigar y extender las tecnologías y prácticas de interés para las mujeres. • Propiciar espacios físicos apropiados para capacitaciones a mujeres.Figura 4.Ing. Amador Tranquilino Aguillón Aguillón en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo bajío de México.Figura 5.Ing. Herlindo Morales en plenaria sobre la discusión del grupo de trabajo Centro América.Región Centro América 1. Acceso de las agricultoras a los proyectos de investigación y transferencia de tecnologías:• Hacer invitación a la familia.• Hacer invitación directamente a las mujeres y hay mejor respuesta de convocatoria que los hombres. • Hacer invitación a mujeres y jóvenes.• Políticas locales.• En la región Chorti llegan más mujeres que hombres, pero no toman decisiones. • Tener como facilitador a una mujer en todos los equipos. • Considerar horarios.• Priorizar a las mujeres en la proveeduría de los insumos y recursos necesarios para sus parcelas. • Hacer invitaciones personalizadas.• Tener personal técnico femenino.• Fomentar la participación en directivas.• Escoger horarios accesibles.• Promover políticas que incentiven la participación de las mujeres. • Establecer en los proyectos de las iniciativas un porcentaje de mujeres y jóvenes.Se consultó a mujeres participantes sobre sus reflexiones relacionadas con sus expectativas e impresiones antes y después de tomar el taller de género y compartieron lo siguiente:\"Mi expectativa era que al finalizar el taller pudiera identificar las causas que no permiten la inclusión de las mujeres en el proceso productivo y estrategias de capacitación en las plataformas. El taller me permitió identificar las áreas de oportunidad que existen en la inclusión de las mujeres en las actividades productivas agrícolas y se evidencio la necesidad de promover acciones que permitan una mayor inclusión, debido a que las responsabilidades de las mujeres no permiten que las mujeres sean más participativas. El contenido del taller fue adecuado para el cumplimiento de los objetivos pues permitió recabar información valiosa para establecer estrategias de identificación de acciones y de participación. Identifiqué que muchas veces el involucramiento de las mujeres en las actividades agrícolas y de capacitación deben responder a la elección personal de las propias mujeres, y visualizar su involucramiento como una decisión personal\".\"Al inicio me tomó por sorpresa este taller, al menos en mi experiencia nunca había asistido a uno referente a este tema. Sin embargo, me pareció muy interesante e importante que lo hayan puesto como uno de los temas a tratar en el simposio, ya que es necesario que más hombres conozcan y sean conscientes que, el trabajo de la mujer en el ámbito agrícola también es importante y que debe ser igualitario ante lo que ellos realizan, tanto en obligaciones como beneficios. El contenido me pareció bueno y estuvo claro cómo fueron abordando los puntos a tratar, en la actividad que se realizó por región nos dimos cuenta de que en todas las zonas del país se tienen problemas similares que impiden la inclusión de más mujeres en el ámbito agrícola\".\"El tema de género e inclusión creo que debe abordarse desde la óptica que hombres y mujeres podemos hacer cualquier actividad, romper con los estereotipos de género en que la sociedad ha encasillado a cada persona por su sexo. En este sentido, y cómo lo mencioné en la presentación, algunas actividades del campo pueden ser o no pueden ser del agrado de las mujeres, entonces poder identificar en qué actividades quieren participar las mujeres ayudará mucho al éxito de que ellas participen en los talleres. Es un tema muy adecuado para estos tiempos y se agradece mucho que se aborde desde instituciones que pueden proporcionar el cambio. Las estadísticas de las mujeres en ruralidad son adecuadas, pero no esperemos que esas cifras sean 50-50, porque es acorde a los gustos de cada persona, y en algunas otras porque no hubo otra opción. Creo sinceramente, que se debe invitar a alguien experta en el tema para la parte introductoria, para que la información no se mal interprete y se tenga certeza en la definición de los conceptos. También considero que debe haber un momento de reflexión para con nosotros mismos, si se fomenta la inclusión de las mujeres, si mi lenguaje es apropiado para referirme a ellas, si valoro su participación, si soy imparcial con la participación de hombres y mujeres\".\"Realmente no estaba predispuesta antes del curso, lo que pensaba era que sería redúndante como decir que tiene que haber mayor participación de las mujeres, pero no fue de esa manera, me llamó la atención el curso que inició la parte más conceptual y los términos porque desde ahí ya empiezas a entender la diferencia entre una cosa y otra cosa, y te permite comprender mejor cómo funciona esto. Me llamó también la atención, la participación de las personas que estaban presentes a pesar de que la mayoría eran hombres, noté esa sensibilización por su parte y algo que tal vez me hubiese gustado más es un ejercicio que concretice los temas en los que se pueda aplicar los conceptos que permita reflexionar y entenderlo. También me gustó que en el ejercicio que se hizo posterior -de la teoría-el repensar cómo estamos trabajando y me gustó en la parte en la que se incluyen acciones concretas porque creo que esto hace falta. Un poco distinto me gustó la participación y los comentarios\".\"Adquirí herramientas para realizar las invitaciones con inclusión de género y de jóvenes para los eventos de capacitación. Es un tema muy complejo, siento que el curso requiere de más tiempo de aná-lisis o profundidad, ya que para empezar la mayoría de las plataformas están compuesta de hombres, entonces hacer más inclusión desde las parcelas de investigación, también falta un diagnóstico de las creencias o de por qué no hay inclusión de género o jóvenes.\"\"Considero que fue bueno ese primer acercamiento. Me parece que los conceptos fueron abordados muy bien entendiendo que hay gente que, si no es la primera vez, si ha sido difícil para ellos que hayan retomado antes este tema. La segunda parte fue larga por el tiempo y considero que es buena la información, ojalá que se comparta a los demás colaboradores y esto requiere más tiempo de análisis, y tener la información por región también daría más luces. Siempre conocer las dificultades que tienen las plataformas para llegar a mujeres es importante, entonces considero que podría hacerse un esfuerzo posterior para saber realmente estas tecnologías a quién están llegando. Quizá brindar resultados específicos de alguna plataforma de como lo ha abordado con éxito y en algunos otros casos sin tener el éxito esperado y con resultados diferentes. Particularmente para mí, el tema es sumamente importante porque debemos retomar en colaboraciones e investigación porque aquí se puede incidir bastante bien el punto de vista de las señoras y que a veces los señores solo son portavoz.\"El cambio climático es un fenómeno que afecta a todos los productores de maíz y trigo en América Latina. Dadas las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero que ya se han emitido, son inevitables los cambios en el clima. Por eso, es necesario adaptar los sistemas de producción a las nuevas condiciones. Para generar conciencia sobre las posibles opciones de adaptación al cambio climático, se organizó un taller en donde en grupos regionales se reflexionó sobre la factibilidad de posibles opciones de adaptación.Las discusiones en el taller giraron en torno al centro del Bajío ubicado en el centro de México, con un enfoque particular en el estado de Guanajuato. Los participantes utilizaron la plataforma CAPTain, para analizar datos agrícolas de la temporada de cosecha 2021. El análisis de datos tuvo como objetivo estimar factores cruciales como el área de cultivo, el rendimiento y el valor del cultivo por tonelada para ocho cultivos diferentes, proporcionando información sobre la importancia económica relativa de cada cultivo.Además de analizar datos pasados, el equipo también examinó posibles eventos relacionados con el clima que podrían afectar la producción de cultivos en la próxima década. Evaluaron el porcentaje de superficie afectada y las consecuencias negativas en cada cultivo. Para abordar los desafíos planteados por el cambio climático, el equipo identificó diez tecnologías y prácticas que podrían ayudar a adaptar la producción de cultivos al clima cambiante. Estas prácticas abarcaban diversos aspectos como el manejo de la fertilidad del suelo, el uso eficiente del agua, la agricultura de precisión y el mejoramiento genético. Sin embargo, el equipo observó que los actuales servicios de extensión estaban mal equipados para aplicar eficazmente esas prácticas.Durante el taller, se consideró que el gobierno apoya para promover la mayoría de las prácticas sugeridas. Sin embargo, la incorporación de estas prácticas en las políticas públicas puede requerir un plazo considerable. Si bien las prácticas sugeridas se consideraron inclusivas para las mujeres, plantearon problemas de accesibilidad para los grupos marginados debido a limitaciones geográficas y de recursos.Los agricultores reconocen la importancia de la producción sostenible y la necesidad de adoptar estas prácticas para mitigar el impacto del cambio climático. Sin embargo, la viabilidad de la aplicación de estas prácticas no es claro. Entre las prácticas sugeridas, la mejora genética es considerada relativamente más fácil de adoptar en comparación con otras prácticas que se consideraron más intensivas en mano de obra y exigentes.El equipo hizo hincapié en la importancia de adoptar prácticas sostenibles en la producción agrícola. Destacaron la urgencia de que los agricultores adopten estas prácticas para minimizar los efectos perjudiciales del cambio climático en sus medios de vida y la seguridad alimentaria general de la región. Además, destacaron la importancia de proporcionar apoyo y recursos adecuados para garantizar la implementación exitosa de estas prácticas. El compromiso del gobierno de promover estas prácticas se consideró un paso positivo, aunque se reconoció que podría tomar varios años para que se integraran plenamente en las políticas públicas.En conclusión, el taller en el hub del Bajío proporcionó una plataforma para discusiones en profundidad sobre el análisis de datos agrícolas y la identificación de tecnologías y prácticas para adaptar la producción de cultivos al cambio climático. Si bien el gobierno apoya estas prácticas, se destacaron desafíos como la accesibilidad para los grupos marginados y la limitada capacidad de implementación de los servicios de extensión. Los participantes en el taller subrayaron la importancia de la producción sostenible e instaron a los agricultores a adoptar estas prácticas para mitigar el impacto del cambio climático. La implementación exitosa de estas prácticas requerirá apoyo continuo, recursos e integración en las políticas públicas a lo largo del tiempo.El taller reunió al equipo de investigación de la red de plataformas en el hub Valles Altos, que incluye los estados de Puebla, Tlaxcala, Hidalgo, Estado de México y Guerrero. El grupo discutió los patrones climáticos que afectan a los principales cultivos de la región, los desafíos asociados y las opciones disponibles para adaptar la agricultura al cambio climático en el corto y mediano plazo. Se utilizó la herramienta CAPTain para obtener un diagnóstico basado en los resultados.Los participantes identificaron siete cultivos a considerar, maíz, cebada, trigo, frijoles, avena, alfalfa y sorgo, como los más importantes en términos de área cultivada y valor de ingresos en los dos ciclos de producción en la región. La discusión y evaluación en la herramienta CAPTain se centró en estos cultivos. Se analizaron diversos aspectos como el rendimiento promedio, el valor de producción y la rentabilidad para estimar la importancia económica relativa de cada cultivo. La estandarización del análisis entre las zonas de temporal y de riego, así como entre las variedades nativas y mejoradas, resultó ser una tarea compleja.El taller también abordó las amenazas agroclimáticas más importantes de la región, incluida la escasez de agua, las altas y bajas temperaturas, las tormentas que provocan el alojamiento de cultivos, las sequías prolongadas y los daños causados por granizo. Los cuatro sistemas de cultivo más importantes identificados para el análisis en relación con eventos clave inducidos por el clima fueron el sorgo, la alfalfa, la avena y el maíz durante el ciclo primavera-verano, según el umbral sugerido por la herramienta CAPTain de una puntuación superior al 5%.Se identificaron y analizaron las opciones y prácticas tecnológicas para la adaptación al cambio climático en la agricultura para determinar su viabilidad. Sin embargo, errores en la herramienta CAPTain impidieron la presentación de resultados y la separación de cultivos por ciclos de producción. Se discutieron los desafíos asociados con cada práctica y tecnología de adaptación, aunque se mostró información incompleta en la herramienta.Los participantes en el taller hicieron hincapié en la necesidad de identificar prácticas que pueden implementarse para adaptar la producción de cultivos al cambio climático. Se consideraron prácticas como el uso de variedades tempranas y tolerantes, el manejo de la paja, la labranza mínima, las aplicaciones de pronóstico del tiempo y la diversificación de cultivos. Se evaluaron factores como el impacto potencial en la productividad, la evidencia científica, el tiempo requerido para observar un impacto, las tasas de conciencia y adopción entre los agricultores, la percepción de la comunidad, el apoyo gubernamental y la preparación de los servicios de extensión para cada práctica.En general, el taller en el Centro de Valles Altos brindó una oportunidad para que los investigadores discutieran el cambio climático y sus implicaciones para la agricultura. La identificación de cultivos clave, el análisis de las amenazas agroclimáticas, la exploración de opciones de adaptación y el examen de los desafíos y la viabilidad, subrayaron la importancia de las medidas proactivas para garantizar la resiliencia y la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agrícolas frente al cambio climático.La Región Norte de México, que abarca los estados de Sonora, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí y Jalisco, fue examinada con fines diagnósticos. El análisis se centró en dos regiones, el Hub Pacífico Norte y el Hub Intermedio. Los principales cultivos identificados en la Región Norte fueron maíz, trigo, sorgo y frijol. El maíz tuvo la mayor importancia debido a su gran área de cultivo, mayores rendimientos y precio de venta promedio relativamente estable. La importancia económica del maíz fue consistente a lo largo de ambas estaciones, según lo determinado por los participantes y respaldado por la herramienta CAPTain.Los eventos agroclimáticos más significativos que plantearon riesgos para la producción de cultivos en la Región Norte se relacionaron con la disponibilidad de agua y los cambios de temperatura. Estos incluyeron distribución de lluvias, horas frías y heladas. La gravedad y el impacto potencial variaron para cada cultivo y temporada. Por ejemplo, las heladas presentaron el mayor desafío para el cultivo de frijol, mientras que la distribución de la lluvia fue la principal preocupación para el sorgo en la temporada primavera-verano. Las sequías, la distribución de las lluvias y las horas frías fueron los eventos más desafiantes para los cultivos de maíz y trigo. Los aportes de los participantes y la herramienta CAPTain proporcionaron información sobre la priorización de los desafíos climáticos.Entre los cultivos identificados, el maíz enfrentó los mayores riesgos, dado su extensivo cultivo y rentabilidad. Los frijoles fueron el segundo cultivo más vulnerable, particularmente susceptible a las sequías y las heladas, ya que eran predominantemente de temporal. El trigo y el sorgo tuvieron porcentajes de riesgo más bajos, probablemente debido a sus áreas de cultivo más pequeñas y la siembra de una sola temporada.Para abordar los desafíos planteados por el cambio climático, los participantes propusieron varias prácticas de adaptación y tecnologías agronómicas adecuadas para la producción de granos en la Región Norte de México. Estas prácticas incluyeron la agricultura de conservación, que demostró mejoras en la salud del suelo, la eficiencia del agua, los rendimientos de los cultivos y la reducción de costos. Sin embargo, su adopción siguió siendo limitada debido a factores como la complejidad y la falta de participación del gobierno.Otra práctica recomendada fue la mejora tecnológica de los sistemas de riego. El riego tecnificado permitió un uso eficiente del agua y tuvo un impacto positivo en los rendimientos. Sin embargo, su implementación enfrentó barreras debido a los altos costos iniciales.Se determinó que el uso de variedades de cultivos apropiadas era una práctica de adaptación fácilmente alcanzable y ampliamente promovida. El desarrollo de variedades adaptadas a las condi-ciones regionales mejoró la producción de cultivos y fue respaldado por evidencia científica. Además, la rotación de cultivos con semillas oleaginosas fue reconocida como una práctica sostenible, reduciendo el uso de agroquímicos y rompiendo los ciclos de malezas, plagas y enfermedades.El acceso a los datos de las estaciones meteorológicas se consideró un instrumento valioso para reducir los daños causados por fenómenos naturales inesperados y optimizar las actividades agrícolas. Sin embargo, su utilización entre los agricultores siguió siendo baja, a pesar del apoyo del gobierno para instalar estaciones meteorológicas y compartir información en línea.Los participantes reconocieron que estas prácticas eran generalmente inclusivas para las mujeres, ya que no había restricciones en su acceso a la información o participación en programas relacionados. En cuanto a los grupos marginados, con la excepción del riego tecnificado, las prácticas de adaptación enumeradas se consideraron neutrales o positivamente inclusivas.En conclusión, la Región Norte de México enfrenta desafíos relacionados con la disponibilidad de agua y los cambios de temperatura. El cultivo de maíz tiene la mayor importancia económica y es más vulnerable a los riesgos climáticos. Para adaptarse a estos desafíos, se recomendaron prácticas como la agricultura de conservación, el riego tecnificado, el uso de variedades de cultivos apropiadas, la rotación de cultivos y el acceso a datos meteorológicos. Si bien existen algunas barreras para la implementación, estas prácticas tienen el potencial de mejorar la resiliencia agrícola de la región al cambio climático.Este informe ofrece una visión general de los resultados del diagnóstico de cambio climático realizado para el estado de Oaxaca. La información presentada se basa en dos fuentes principales: el taller de diagnóstico del cambio climático y los datos de cierre agrícola 2021 del Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera (SIAP). El análisis de esta información, junto con el uso de la herramienta CAPTain, ofrece información sobre los efectos del cambio climático en la agricultura en Oaxaca y las opciones de adaptación disponibles.Los impactos del cambio climático en la agricultura son cada vez más notables, y a pesar de los esfuerzos de mitigación, no hay indicios de que esta tendencia se revierta pronto. Las acciones de mitigación se centran en abordar las causas del cambio climático, pero deben ir acompañadas de medidas de adaptación que aborden los impactos, como los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos cada vez más frecuentes e intensos. Estos eventos deben identificarse en cada región y considerarse al proponer prácticas de adaptación para aumentar la productividad, la resiliencia y la sostenibilidad. Por lo tanto, este diagnóstico climático se realizó para identificar los principales eventos agroclimáticos adversos en el estado de Oaxaca y prácticas viables de adaptación. El diagnóstico comprendió dos etapas: identificación de posibles eventos climáticos y prácticas de adaptación para los próximos 10 años, y análisis de la información utilizando la herramienta CAPTain.Entre los principales cultivos agrícolas en Oaxaca, el maíz es de mayor importancia económica tanto en la temporada de primavera-verano como de otoño-invierno. Entre los cultivos perennes, la caña de azúcar tiene la mayor importancia económica.Varios eventos afectan la producción agrícola en el estado de Oaxaca, principalmente derivados de las variaciones de temperatura y precipitación. Es evidente que la agricultura de Oaxaca es más vulnerable al aumento de las temperaturas (calor, plagas) y al déficit hídrico (sequía prolongada) que a las bajas temperaturas (heladas) y al exceso de agua (lluvias torrenciales). Las sequías prolongadas, los huracanes, las heladas y las plagas tendrán un impacto significativo en los rendimientos de los cultivos.Todas las prácticas de adaptación al cambio climático pueden proporcionar una producción más sostenible y pueden extenderse a través del sistema de extensión. Están respaldados por evidencia científica que indica que pueden mejorar la productividad de los cultivos. La mayoría de estas prácticas son promovidas por el gobierno y no son difíciles de adoptar para los agricultores. A excepción de la labranza, todas las prácticas seleccionadas pueden incorpo-rarse a las políticas públicas en aproximadamente 2 años, con impactos notables dentro de los primeros 5 años. Sin embargo, todas estas prácticas son neutrales en cuanto a la inclusión de mujeres y grupos marginados, destacando la necesidad de asociarse. La mayoría de los agricultores desconocen estas prácticas, y las tasas de adopción son aún más bajas entre los productores que las conocen. Esta baja adopción puede atribuirse a la falta de orientación y apoyo proporcionado a los agricultores.maron que el área afectada podría oscilar entre el 30% y el 40%, con un impacto severo (reduciendo la producción en un 25% a 70%) en el caso de las heladas, mientras que se estimó que las heladas y los vientos huracanados afectarían entre el 5% y el 10% del área cultivada, lo que resultó en un impacto del 0% al 25% en el rendimiento de los cultivos.Los participantes creen que la producción podría adaptarse al cambio climático a través de la implementación de prácticas como la agricultura de conservación, las fechas óptimas de siembra, el uso de variedades de cultivos adecuadas, cultivos alternativos, tecnología de riego, recolección y conservación de agua, así como los sistemas agroforestales. En general, se considera que estas prácticas mejoran en gran medida los sistemas de producción y su adaptación al cambio climático, sobre la base de pruebas científicas sólidas que respaldan su implementación y el tiempo relativamente corto requerido para observar sus efectos (de seis meses a dos años en la mayoría de los casos). Sin embargo, una limitación identificada es que estas prácticas no son ampliamente conocidas entre los agricultores, ya que se estima que menos del 15% del público objetivo está familiarizado con estas prácticas, y menos del 5% las aplica actualmente.El enfoque de implementación de estas prácticas no considera la perspectiva de género y no es inclusivo para los grupos vulnerables. Sin embargo, la opinión del público objetivo es mayormente positiva con respecto a estas prácticas, y algunas de ellas incluso son promovidas por los gobiernos locales y federales, como el uso de variedades de cultivos adecuadas, que se ha convertido en política pública. Otras prácticas como la agricultura de conservación y la agrosilvicultura han sido promovidas por los gobiernos pero aún no han pasado a formar parte de las políticas públicas, y no se espera que sea así en el corto plazo, aunque existen programas federales que han promovido su uso.Al taller asistieron representantes de la Península de Yucatán, México, Guatemala y Honduras, quienes identificaron los efectos del cambio climático en la región. Los principales cultivos alimentarios son el maíz y los frijoles, mientras que el café y los plátanos son económicamente importantes. La información proporcionada por los participantes sobre los rendimientos y los precios de venta no fue representativa debido a la enorme variabilidad regional.La canícula, una sequía intraestival, es el evento climático más dañino, causando una disminución del rendimiento de hasta el 75% e incluso pérdidas del 100% en regiones con escasas precipitaciones. Otros eventos como los huracanes y la disminución de las precipitaciones también afectan negativamente los rendimientos. Las altas temperaturas y los fuertes vientos tienen un impacto menor, reduciendo los rendimientos en un 25%.en Perú son papa, maíz, quinua, trigo y tarwi, mientras que el maíz y los frijoles son prominentes en Colombia. Se identificaron dos ciclos de cultivo en la región, con fechas variables de siembra y cosecha.Los eventos climáticos más significativos en la región son las heladas, las sequías y las inundaciones, con tormentas de granizo y plagas emergentes que también representan riesgos para los cultivos, particularmente el trigo, el tarwi y la quinua. Se considera que estos eventos tienen impactos catastróficos en general, aunque se estima una disminución en el rendimiento del trigo de 0 a 25%. El área cultivada potencialmente afectada varía de 75% a 100%, excepto por las heladas que afectan solo al 50% del área de papa.Se propusieron varias medidas para adaptar la producción al cambio climático, incluida la implementación de plataformas de manejo agroclimático, el uso de nuevas variedades, la recolección de agua, la agrosilvicultura y la planificación de cultivos. Se cree que estas tecnologías tienen un alto impacto potencial en la productividad. Existe un fuerte apoyo científico para las nuevas variedades y un apoyo moderado para las plataformas de manejo agroclimático en la mayoría de los cultivos, aunque el apoyo para el tarwi es bajo. Se espera que estas tecnologías tengan impactos dentro de 2 a 5 años, excepto para tarwi, que puede requerir de 5 a 10 años para mostrar resultados. Aunque el conocimiento sobre estas tecnologías es alto (entre el 70% y el 90%), su adopción es baja (entre el 5% y el 15%) debido al acceso limitado. Las comunidades tienen una actitud positiva hacia estas prácticas, mientras que los gobiernos prefieren su implementación pero no las promueven activamente. Se estima que tomaría más de 2 años convertir estas prácticas en políticas públicas, aunque el sistema de extensión agrícola está listo para promoverlas.Estas tecnologías se consideran fáciles de adoptar y mejorarían la sostenibilidad de la producción. Se consideran inclusivos para las mujeres y neutrales hacia los grupos marginados.En resumen, promover la implementación de tecnologías de adaptación al cambio climático en la región andina es crucial. Esto implica mejorar el acceso a estas tecnologías, fomentar la adopción a través de servicios de extensión agrícola y transformarlas en políticas públicas. Además, es esencial abordar la vulnerabilidad de los grupos marginados y promover la participación de las mujeres en estas iniciativas. Las familias milperas de la Península de Yucatán obtienen los alimentos básicos en la agricultura tradicional bajo roza, tumba y quema. Actualmente, varios factores afectan el buen funcionamiento de la milpa, por eso es importante evaluar opciones para mejorar su productividad y sostenibilidad.Los factores evaluados han presentado resultados similares (p>0.05) en el rendimiento de grano de maíz, excepto en el ciclo 2018 cuando se registró mayor (p<0.05) rendimiento en el arreglo topológico de 1.0 * 0.5 m y en el ciclo 2021 en el factor quemar. La media general del rendimiento de grano de maíz fue 1537 kg/ha en el primer ciclo, en el segundo y el tercer año, 2016 y 2434 kg/ha, en el cuarto y quinto ciclo se aprecia un sensible descenso con 1406 y 1271 kg/ha, respectivamente. Debido a que las prácticas de AC se manifiestan en el mediano y largo plazo, se sugiere continuar con las investigaciones en la plataforma Peto YUC.Dr. José Bernardino Castillo Caamal e-mail: jose.castillo@correo.uady.mx Móvil: 9992427854  Castillo CJB 1 , Itzá KGM 1 , Vilchis R 2 ., Escalante EJF 11: Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán 2: Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de maíz y TrigoPor la reducción del tiempo de barbecho la agricultura milpera de Yucatán se ha convertido en un sistema de uso continuo del suelo para la producción. Lo que ocasiona la pérdida de fertilidad de los suelos, que repercute en la caída de los rendimientos. Por tanto, es necesario evaluar prácticas sostenibles de manejo.El rendimiento del grano fue similar entre estiércol y DAP, ambos fueron superiores (p<0.05) al control y Mucuna. El rendimiento de grano de maíz fue superior (p<0.05) con la aplicación del biol de microorganismos de monte en una concentración de 200 mL L -1 .Figura 1. Cosecha de maíz en plataforma Yaxcabá, Yucatán (21/11/2022).Figura 2. Efecto del manejo del tipo de fertilización y el uso de biol (200 mL L -1 ) en el rendimiento de maíz en la Plataforma Yaxcabá, Yucatán.El experimento fue establecido en Kancabdzonot, Yaxcabá, Yucatán, altitud aprox. de 20 msnm, precipitación pluvial anual de 800 a 1000 mm, en un Cambisol representativo de la región (INEGI, 2009).Todas las labores de cultivo fueron manuales. Se utilizó maíz Nalxoy amarillo. El arreglo de siembra fue 1 m x 0.5 m con 2 semillas por golpe, fue utilizado estiércol de ovino descompuesto (4000 kg/ha -1 ), DAP (100 kg/ha -1 ) y Mucuna como cultivo de cobertura. Se realizó la aplicación foliar de biol de microorganismos de monte (200 mL L -1 ) por las mañanas, a partir de la segunda semana de la siembra, por cuatro ocasiones con una frecuencia semanal. El proceso de elaboración del biol fue artesanal (captura, propagación y activación), el líquido resultante fue diluido a una concentración de 200 mL L -1 para su aplicación en el cultivo, se hicieron 4 aplicaciones de 24 L ha -1 del biol diluido.El diseño fue de bloques al azar con arreglo de parcelas divididas, fueron evaluados dos factores de manejo consistentes en el tipo de fertilización (parcela principal) y la aplicación de biol de microorganismos de monte (subparcela). Se estableció en el ciclo 2013/14 y se evalúan diferentes prácticas agronómicas dentro de un sistema de producción de trigo en condiciones de riego, atendiendo las necesidades de los productores del Valle del Yaqui y Mayo. Los factores que incluye son prácticas de labranza, manejo de rastrojo, número de riegos de auxilio, rotación de cultivo y número de hileras del cultivo de trigo.Los mayores rendimientos de trigo (promedio de 9.2 t/ha) fueron obtenidos después de cártamo, sea en rotación anual o en primer año después de cártamo en rotación de tres años (TC, CP, Dej y TTC, CP, Dej).Los arreglos topológicos de 2 o 3 hileras en camas permanentes resultaron con rendimientos similares. El rendimiento en TT, CP, Dej, 2H fue de 7.5 t/ha y el obtenido con 3 hileras fue de 7.6 t/ha (TT, CP, Dej).Con cuatro riegos de auxilio el rendimiento de monocultivo de trigo en labranza convencional (TT, CC, Dej) fue de 7.3 t/ha, mientras que, en camas permanentes aumentó 0.3 t/ha (7.6 t/ha; TT, CP, Dej).Con tres riegos de auxilio, la práctica del agricultor con labranza convencional (TT, CC, Dej, 3R) tuvo el rendimiento más bajo (6.7 t/ha). Mientras que, al convertir a camas permanentes el rendimiento fue de (7.1 t/ha; TT, CP, Dej, 3R). Abreviaciones: T=trigo, C=cártamo; Práctica de labranza: CC=camas con labranza convencional, CP= camas permanentes; Manejo de rastrojo: Dej= dejar todo el rastrojo, Rem= remover todo el rastrojo; 3R= 3 riegos de auxilio, 2H= Siembra a 2 hileras y GS= Sensor GreenSeeker.Para cártamo el rendimiento fue mayor (2.0 t/ha; CTT, CP, Dej) cuando fue sembrado después de dos ciclos de trigo en comparación con rotación anual (CT, CP, Dej; 1.6 t/ha), misma tendencia que se ha venido observando en varios ciclos. Juan Francisco Buenrostro y Andres Mandujano Bueno En 2012, CIMMYT e INIFAP validaron la tecnología del sensor óptico GreenSeeker en el cultivo del maíz para El Bajío, tecnología que ayuda a la aplicación racional de nitrógeno a los cultivos. Los componentes de la tecnología son: establecimiento de una franja rica en nitrógeno (FRN) en parcela, medición de la FRN y resto de parcela, uso del algoritmo para determinar la dosis de N que el cultivo requiere. Actualmente, INIFAP generó un nuevo algoritmo que permite la determinación de la dosis de N que el cultivo requiere, sin el uso de la FRN. El objetivo de la investigación fue validar el nuevo algoritmo en las condiciones de El Bajío.En el ensayo y módulos, no se observaron diferencias significativas (P≤0.05) para rendimiento. Sin embargo, en el ensayo se observó una diferencia de 60 kg N ha -1 entre NA y tratamiento de sobredosificación (Figura 1) y en módulos fue de 48 kg N ha -1 entre NA y manejo convencional (Figura 2) (equivalentes a $1,252.00 y $1,001.00 MN, respectivamente), Estos resultados indican que la recomendación generada por el NA contribuye ha evitar la sobre fertilización, mejorar rentabilidad del cultivo y contribuir a la producción sustentable.amandujanob@gmail.com Las láminas horarias de cada bloque se establecieron de acuerdo con un balance de humedad considerando las variables del clima de la estación agroclimática de Fundación Guanajuato Produce \" Distrito de Riego 011, la etapa fenológica del cultivo y los intervalos de riego registrados en la bitácora.Para evaluar el coeficiente de uniformidad de cada tratamiento se midió la presión de las cintillas de riego al inicio y al final de la misma con un manómetro, definiendo una presión inicial de 7.5 y final de 7.0 PSI como la ideal para esta investigación.Coordinador del uso eficiente del agua en Hub Bajío.La plataforma de investigación Irapuato I, cuenta con 2 sistemas de riego, goteo y superficial. En el ciclo OI 22-23 el riego superficial se realizó de forma convencional durante todo el ciclo, aplicando 1 riego de nacencia y 3 de auxilio. Para el manejo de riego por goteo se evaluaron metodologías para conocer el comportamiento del agua dentro del sistema y poder realizar mejoras con el fin de incrementar las eficiencias de aplicación. Se consideraron láminas de requerimiento que fueron calculadas con apoyo de herramientas digitales para conocer la evapotranspiración del cultivo y determinar la demanda hídrica al momento de regar. También se midieron los metros cúbicos requeridos dentro del sistema híbrido y camas permanentes.El volumen de agua aplicado al cultivo de trigo durante el ciclo OI 22-23 fue menor en el sistema de camas permanentes anchas (CPA) en donde se aplicarón 5,456.87 m³/ha mientras que en sistema híbrido fueron 5,873.54 m³/ha, diferencia que representa ahorro del 7.09% al utilizar riego por goteo y camas permanentes anchas.El uso de riego por goteo y CPA permitió ahorrar 12.63% de agua en comparación con el uso de riego superficial.Implementar láminas de riego, monitorear las condiciones del clima y considerar las etapas fenológicas del cultivo son actividades de suma importancia para generar riegos con eficiencias de más de 90%.Ing. Daniel Sandoval Hernández Correo: sandovalh.daniel@gmail.com  La Agricultura de Conservación es un sistema de manejo de cultivo construido sobre tres principios: Labranza mínima del suelo, uso de coberturas del cultivo anterior y diversificación de cultivos. En búsqueda de complementar la Estrategia de Diversificación bajo los principios de Cultivos de Servicio en sistemas de producción de maíz y trigo en el Bajío Guanajuatense, en la Plataforma de Investigación Irapuato I durante el ciclo OI 22-23 se estableció un ensayo para evaluar el efecto del uso de Vicia sativa y diferentes dosis de nitrógeno sobre el cultivo de trigo.Los valores NDVI y SPAD fueron mayores en los tratamientos de trigo intercalado con Vicia sativa en comparación con solamente trigo.Con cero dosis de nitrógeno y siembra de V. sativa intercalada se registró mayor verdor y mayor índice de referencia de concentración de clorofila en el trigo, este resultado puede ser indicador del beneficio del cultivo de servicio sobre el cultivo principal.Ing. Luis Ángel Meléndez Martínez.Cel : 412100 3996Correo: luisangelagricultura@Outlook.com Figura 1. Trigo intercalado con Vicia sativa, ciclo OI 22-23, Plataforma de Investigación Irapuato I.Figura 2. Valor NDVI de trigo con y sin intercalación de Vicia sativa y diferentes dosis de nitrógeno a los 49 días después de la siembra. Ciclo OI 22-23, Plataforma de Investigación Irapuato I.Se sembró trigo variedad Faisán S2016 bajo un diseño de parcelas divididas con arreglo de bloques completos al azar, en las cuales se establecieron parcelas de trigo intercalado con Vicia sativa y parcelas de trigo sin V. sativa. A estas parcelas se aplicaron diferentes dosis de nitrógeno, se establecieron 3 repeticiones de cada tratamiento.Con el aparato GreenSeeker se midieron los valores NDVI de cada tratamiento a los 49 días después de la siembra.La referencia de la concentración de clorofila en las plantas de cada tratamiento se obtuvo a través del valor SPAD a los 56 días después de la siembra. Ambos parámetros se relacionan con el verdor de la planta. Se utilizaron 6 especies de plantas, para conocer la adaptabilidad al sistema de producción. Se establecieron en dos cultivos bajo la estrategia de cultivos de servicio, en maíz en 3 fechas, Siembra, 30 dds, y R1, en Trigo en la siembra, 30 dds . Para el caso de maíz se estableció en al voleo mientras que para trigo interlineado con trigo. Ambos cultivos principales baso dos sistemas de agricultura; agricultura de conservación y agricultura convencionalLos sistemas intensivos de producción tienen como característica el uso de monocultivos, grandes extensiones, redes comerciales muy especificas. Uno de los retos mas importantes para estos sistemas es lograr la diversificación de cultivos. En la Plataforma de Investigación de Pénjamo se aborda esta problemática desde 2019 y se han desarrollado estrategias de diversificación bajo los principios de cultivos de servicio.La estrategia de diversificación con base en el enfoque de cultivos de servicio para sistemas intensivos de producción, es económica y agronómicamente viable. La técnica de interlineado en cultivo trigo (Figura 1) ofrece la posibilidad de incrementar el rendimiento en el maíz, mientras que la técnica de relevo en maíz (Figura 2), ofrece la posibilidad de incrementar el rendimiento en trigo. El valor NDVI fue mayor en los tratamientos con fuentes de fertilización comunes.Al fraccionar el nitrógeno el 70% a la siembra y 30% en la segunda fertilización, utilizando fuentes comunes de fertilización se mantuvo el mayor valor NDVI en las tres fechas de medición.Figura 1. Cultivo de cebada con diferentes fuentes de fertilización y fraccionamiento de nitrógeno. Ciclo OI 22-23La sobre fertilización del cultivo de cebada es una de las problemáticas actúales en la producción de este grano en la región Bajío de Guanajuato, mientras que las empresas cerveceras recomiendan 220 kg.ha −1 , la mayoría de productores aplican 260-280 kg.ha −1 , lo que ocasiona una baja calidad maltera por el alto contenido de proteína que lleva el grano. Por otro lado el adecuado fraccionamiento de nitrógeno es importante para un buen desarrollo del cultivo, por lo rápido del ciclo de la cebada.Se sembró cebada de la línea SC11126 en sistema de Agricultura de Conservación y con en el análisis de suelo y los requerimientos de la cebada se calculó la fórmula de fertilización para todo el ciclo. La fertilización se realizo en dos momentos, a la siembra y a los 38 días después de la siembra. Se eligieron dos tipos de fertilizantes y la aplicación de nitrógeno se realizo en distintos porcentajes. Se midió el valor NDVI en cada tratamiento con el aparato GreenSeeker a los 37, 51 y 66 días después de la siembra. Se realizó la preparación del suelo con arado de disco y rastra. La siembra (16/07) fue manual, la fertilización enterrada con ``macana'', 50 kg de P2O5 (DAP) y 20 kg de N (urea), para todos los cultivos, y para maíz y girasol se realizó una segunda aplicación de 50 kg de N (urea) a los 30 días, los deshierbes (5) fueron manuales. Los conejos afectaron a los cultivos de garbanzo, veza y grass pea.Isac Carlos Rivas Jacobo, nay,riv,jac@gmail.com Luis Arturo Solís Gordillo, larturo_solis@hotmail.com Sergio Espinosa Velasco, sergioev30@hotmail.com Jorge Márquez Juárez, mmarquezj@hotmail.comEl sistema de producción agrícola de la región meseta Comiteca de Chiapas se desarrolla en condiciones de temporal, los cultivos principales son maíz y frijol que se establecen bajo la modalidad de unicultivo o intercalados, cuyos esquilmos, ya sea total o parcialmente se queman, remueven de la parcela o sirve de alimento para ganado, lo que influye en la disminución de contenido de la materia orgánica del suelo y a largo plazo repercute en la disminución de la fertilidad y por ende en la productividad.Las condiciones de precipitación que se presentaron en la región en el ciclo PV 2021, afectaron negativamente el crecimiento y desarrollo de las plantas, lo que se manifestó en bajos rendimientos de grano y de biomasa. Uno de los cultivos que sobresalió en producción de biomasa seca bajo las condiciones prevalecientes fue dólicos.Isac Carlos Rivas Jacobo, 9637105967 nay.riv.jav@gmail.com Larráinzar, Chiapas, se ubica dentro de la región socioeconómica V Altos Tzotzil Tzeltal del estado de Chiapas. El clima es templado húmedo con abundantes lluvias en verano, la precipitación promedio es de 1,200 milímetros anuales. Los principales cultivos son maíz y frijol, calabaza bajo el régimen de temporal. El sistema se caracteriza por la producción de autoconsumo en laderas en su mayoría de las parcelas.Para generar alternativas sustentables al manejo convencional se instaló la plataforma de investigación Larráinzar, CHP en el ciclo PV 2018, donde se evalúa la respuesta de sistemas de producción con base en prácticas de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) y el sistema MIAF (Milpa Intercalada con Árboles Frutales), ensayo para obtener incremento a la productividad e ingresos económicos para pequeñas unidades de producción de autoconsumo.El sistema de producción MIAF con principios de agricultura de conservación (AC) a través de ensayos: densidades de siembra, arreglo topológico, ajustes a la nutrición de acuerdo a un análisis de suelo, la microrotación en franjas de doble hilera distribuida en 4 tratamientos han dado una respuesta cuál es la mejor opción para adoptar sistemas de producción que garanticen productividad e ingresos económicos en pequeñas unidades de producción quienes la adopten.Mateo Pérez Sántiz e-mail. mperezbio@hotmail.com Telcel: 9671025651Figura 1. Cosecha de frutos de durazno establecidos en sistema MIAF, 24 de Junio de 2022. Ver tabla de tratamientos. Ante la perspectiva de generar nuevos sistemas alternativos de producción que ayuden a los agricultores a mejorar la productividad de sus cultivos de manera rentable y sustentable, se estableció en la Plataforma un experimento para evaluar la respuesta del maíz a tres dosis de nitrógeno en tres sistemas de producción establecidos con leguminosas, bajo el manejo de Agricultura de Conservación vs el sistema convencional.Tabla 1. Descripción de tratamientos evaluados en la plataforma de investigación Villa Corzo, Chiapas. Ciclo P-V 2021.El ensayo se inicio en el ciclo agrícola Primavera-Verano 2016.Han sido evaluados cuatro sistemas de producción: Maíz-Frijol, Maíz-Canavalia, Maíz-Dolichos, Maíz unicultivo, y tres dosis de nitrógeno: 18, 90 y 180 kg/ha (Figura 1), dando como resultado 12 tratamientos (Tabla 1). El manejo ha sido bajo el sistema de cero labranza, dejando de cobertura el 50% de rastrojo (parcial) vs el sistema convencional (dos pasos de rastra, sin rastrojo). La fecha de siembra del maíz fue el 30 de julio y la de los cultivos de frijol, dolichos y canavalia, el 4 de septiembre, bajo el sistema de relevo al maíz. La fertilización del maíz, se realizo de manera superficial.En la Figura 2, se observa la respuesta del rendimiento del cultivo de maíz (ciclo 2021) a la siembra de las leguminosas en relevo, y tres dosis de nitrógeno (180, 90 y 18 unidades de N). Los mejores rendimientos fueron obtenidos con los sistemas donde se sembró canavalia y dolichos, los cuales obtuvieron en promedio rendimientos de 6,373 y 6,210 kg/ha, superando ampliamente al sistema convencional con la siembra en unicultivo de maíz, que obtuvo 2,865 kg/ha. Esa mejor respuesta se infiere, que ambos cultivos han tenido una mayor fijación de nitrógeno atmosférico y han aportado mayor cantidad de biomasa al suelo, lo cual ha permitido conservar y mejorar la fertilidad del suelo. Al analizar la respuesta de dosis de nitrógeno aplicadas por sistema; los mayores rendimientos fueron obtenidos con 180 kgN/ha. Sin embargo, cabe señalar; que la dosis de 90 kgN/ha, aplicada en los sistemas sembrados con leguminosas superaron en rendimiento al sistema convencional; fertilizado con 180 kg N/ha. Así mismo; es muy importante destacar, que la dosis de 18 kg N/ha aplicada en los sistemas Maíz-Canavalia y Maíz-Dolichos, tuvo muy buena respuesta; con rendimientos de 4,891 y 4,929 kg/ha de granos, superando el rendimiento alcanzado por el sistema Maíz unicultivo con 180 kg N/ha, quien obtuvo 4,104 kg/ha. Estos resultados, representan una alternativa rentable y sustentable que permite bajar la dosis de 180 kg N/ha aplicada por el productor, a 90 kg N/ha e inclusive 18 kg N/ha, sembrando Canavalia y Dolichos.Figura 2. Rendimiento de maíz al 14% hum. (kg/ha) de cuatro sistemas de producción y tres dosis de nitrógeno. Plataforma de Investigación Villa Corzo, Chiapas. P-V 2021.Responsable: Rubén de la Piedra Constantino.Correo electrónico: delapiedra78@hotmail.com  -Considerando los resultados de los cinco años de haberse establecido los sistemas: a partir del segundo año; los mayores rendimientos de maíz han sido obtenidos por los sistemas sembrados con canavalia y dolichos. -La dosis; 90 kg/ha de nitrógeno aplicada en los sistemas Maíz-Canavalia y Maíz-Dolichos, a partir del 2do. año han superado el rendimiento del Maíz unicultivo fertilizado con 180 kg N/ha. -Destaca la dosis; 18 kgN/ha aplicada en Maíz-Canavalia, a partir del 3er. año, ha superado el rendimiento alcanzado por Maíz unicultivo con dosis de 180 kg N/ha.Ocotlán, Jalisco, PV 2022.La plataforma tiene una superficie de 1.8 ha, se siembra trigo en O-I y maíz en P-V. En el P-V 2022, se implementó un experimento donde se evaluaron dos dosis de fertilización nitrogenada (100 y 75%), con y sin la aplicación de inoculantes microbianos (Glomus + Azospirillum) en un sistema de agricultura de conservación, y otro tratamiento con manejo convencional (labranza) con el 100% de la fertilización. Se sembró otro tratamiento con girasol como cultivo prometedor por su rusticidad, sus bajos costos de producción y como alternativa de rotación para el manejo plantas no deseadas.En 2017, en Ocotlán, en la Ciénega del lago de Chapala, la zona granera de Jalisco, se estableció una plataforma de investigación para aportar en la generación de soluciones a las limitantes de producción de la región. El clima es semicálido, con un promedio de precipitación de 800 a 900 mm anuales. Se trata de una zona productiva, sin embargo, la rentabilidad de los granos ha venido disminuyendo debido a los efectos del encarecimiento de los insumos agrícolas, a los bajos precios de los granos y a los del cambio climático, aunados a una creciente presión en los años recientes por el desplazamiento que ejercen cultivos como el agave y la caña de azúcar. Por ello, en la plataforma de Ocotlán, se han implementado diversos tratamientos orientados a diseñar recomendaciones que permitan a los productores, hacer un manejo agroecológico y más rentable de los agroecosistemas locales; sirviendo también, como un lugar de encuentro entre productores, de transferencia de tecnologías y de escalamiento de las mismas.• El uso de IM incrementa la eficiencia en el aprovechamiento del fertilizante, permitiendo reducir las dosis empleadas usualmente, manteniendo un rendimiento superior y similar en los tratamientos donde se utilizan IM. • No se obtuvo un beneficio significativo en los tratamientos Con LC en los tratamientos, se obtuvieron rendimientos similares, tendiendo un mayor costo de producción debido al requerimiento de maquinaria, de forma que se confirma que la Agricultura de Conservación, es un sistema rentable que permite reducir los costos de producción y mantener altos rendimientos, sobre todo con las variación en los temporales de lluvia que se han presentado en los últimos años.Correo: gabrielescobedo650@gmail.com Teléfono: 3921078382 Ubicación: Ocotlán, JaliscoEvaluación e intercambio de experiencias en la plataforma de maíz, girasol y abonos verdes en el ciclo P-V T, trigo, M, maíz AC, agricultura de Conservación, LC, labranza convencional, IM, Inoculante Microbiano, G, girasol, CPA, camas permanentes anchas Recorrido de compa con productoras y productores en el ciclo O -i• El cultivo de girasol, al ser un. cultivo de ciclo corto, tiene buena respuesta aun en temporales con menor precipitación, teniendo una mayor adaptación que los granos básicos. Los rendimientos obtenidos están sobre la media nacional, por lo que es un cultivo rentable que favorece la rotación de cultivos teniendo bajos costos de producción Ing. Fernando Antonio Urías Preciado.Jefe del Campo Experimental \"Miguel Leyson Pérez\". Asociación de Agricultores del Rio Sinaloa Poniente. AARSP Email. Fernando_campoexp@aarsp.com La plataforma esta ubicada en el municipio de Guasave, Carretera la brecha km 1.5; y tiene 12 años manejando la AC, en este tiempo se han reducido entre un 15% a un 25% los costos de producción. La diferencia en rendimiento entre el sistema convencional y AC es casi de 1 toneladas / ha. Donde a su vez se esta avanzando en la implementación de 4 y 3 riegos de auxilio donde también hay diferencia cercana a 1 ton/ha. Se Tuvo bajas temperaturas en la etapa de floración entre el 9 al 11 de Marzo del año 2022.El gran retos en los altos costos de producción y el gran riesgo de escases de agua; es en la implementación de la agricultura de conservación (AC) y además seguir trabajando en ver la afectación en la reducción de un riego al cultivo de maíz producido en Sinaloa.Ing. Fernando Antonio Urías Preciado.Tel. ( 687) 87 1 8421. Cel. (687) 107 3243. Email. Fernando_campoexp@aarsp.com Imagen 1 y 2 en el momento de la trilla de la Plataforma Guasave.Figura 2. Los costos de producción en que segmentos han aumentado en ambos sistemas de labranza y numero de riegos.  Se evaluaron los rendimientos de maíz grano de siete tratamientos, cinco de ellos basados en Agricultura de Conservación con maíz nativo e híbrido y dos niveles de rastrojo dejado sobre el suelo (50 y 100%) y dos tratamientos testigo bajo labranza convencional sin rastrojo para cada variedad respectivamente. La comparación se realizó a partir del año dos de agricultura de conservación a fin de tener un ciclo previo de rastrojo dejado sobre el suelo, así como un ciclo de rotación de cultivo. El mayor rendimiento observado durante el ciclo de cultivo PV 2022 se obtuvo bajo el sistema de Siembra directa en Camas Anchas con maíz Híbrido después de un ciclo de rotación con triticale + ebo establecidos bajo labranza mínima con subsuelo y rastra (figura 2) incorporando el 50% de rastrojo de maíz de manera previa a la siembra del cultivo de rotación. Se realizó una comparación con otros ciclos de cultivo mostrándose una tendencia similar (figura 3) seguido por el sistema de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) con maíz Híbrido dejando el 100% de rastrojo de este cultivo.Olvera-García, Raúl 1,* 1 Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Huichapan, División de Ingeniería en Innovación Agrícola Sustentable, Huichapan Hidalgo C.P. 42411. * Responsable de Plataforma de Investigación Huichapan, Hgo. rolvera@iteshu.edu.mxLa Plataforma de Investigación Huichapan se ubica el occidente del estado de Hidalgo, a una altitud de 2,157 m.s.n.m., su régimen de humedad es de temporal con una precipitación media anual de 518 mm. Su objetivo es evaluar la producción de maíz nativo e híbrido bajo sistemas de cultivo basados en Agricultura de Conservación vs Agricultura Convencional a fin de recomendar los sistemas más adecuados a los productores del área de influencia de la plataforma.• El sistema de siembra directa de maíz híbrido en rotación con triticale y ebo establecidos bajo labranza mínima e incorporando el 50% de rastrojo de maíz es una buena alternativa para producir grano y forraje manteniendo rendimientos sostenibles. Se recomienda implementarlo haciendo roturación vertical del suelo, apegándose al principio del movimiento mínimo de este.• El sistema de Agricultura de Conservación se recomienda implementar dejando el 100% de rastrojo para obtener los mejores resultados. Dejando el 50% se han obtenido resultados similares a los del sistema convencional para el caso particular de esta plataforma.Ing. Raúl Olvera García Responsable de Plataforma de Investigación Huichapan, Hgo. Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Huichapan Teléfono: 773 105 6130 Correo: rolvera@iteshu.edu.mx, olvera38@gmail.com Figura 1. Cultivo de maíz híbrido bajo agricultura de conservación (izquierda); cultivo de triticale+ebo como rotación después de maíz (derecha).Figura 2. Resultados de rendimiento en maíz, ciclo PV 2022. Los tratamientos con las mismas letras representan rendimientos estadísticamente iguales, las barras de error representan la desviación estándar.Figura 3. Rendimientos de maíz obtenidos en cuatro ciclos agrícolas. Se observa una tendencia a obtener mayores rendimientos en el sistema de siembra directa con maíz híbrido después de un ciclo de rotación con triticale + ebo establecidos bajo labranza mínima incorporando 50% de rastrojo de maíz, así como en el sistema de Agricultura de Conservación con maíz híbrido dejando 100% de rastrojo de este cultivo sobre el suelo. La plataforma de investigación tiene cinco años trabajando con AC y forma parte del nodo de innovación Pacífico Centro, y cuyo objetivo es evaluar el efecto de tipos de labranza y manejo de rastrojo sobre el suelo en el rendimiento y rentabilidad del maíz de temporal en rotación con crotalaria y soya.Las propuestas de producción en agricultura de conservación ofrecen alternativas viables y sustentables en el cultivo de maíz y soya, con mejor rentabilidad.toledo.rocio@inifap.gob.mx; rociotoag@Gmail.com.mx No se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas para grano de maíz y soya; en la prueba de comparación de medias (Tukey, 0.05) tampoco se observó agrupaciones, pero si hubo diferencias numéricas, en maíz, los tratamientos 3 y 7 mostraron los rendimientos más altos con 7.87 y 7.74 t•ha -1 (Figura 1), el primero ofrece rotación de maíz con soya, y en el segundo se integraron todas las prácticas de AC, rotación maíz-soya, dejar rastrojo en el suelo, y mínimo movimiento; así como siembra de crotalaria en OI. En la práctica del productor se obtuvo el menor rendimiento de grano de maíz. En el rendimiento de grano de soya, se observó mejor rendimiento en este ciclo, en la rotación con maíz con 4.4 t•ha -1 , en AC se obtuvo 4.3 t•ha -1 . Sin embargo, en la rentabilidad, se obtuvieron mejores resultados con las propuestas de AC (Figura 2).Figura 1. Rendimiento de grano de maíz y soya en plataforma experimental de AC en Iguala, Guerrero, PV 2022. T2: La siembra de maíz se realizará en PV y en OI, intercalado con frijol gandul de ciclo largo a hilera sencilla. T3: El maíz se siembra a doble hilera intercalado con frijol gandul de ciclo corto de igual manera a doble hilera, en PV y OI. T4: La siembra del maíz y frijol dolichos será en PV y OI rotando los cultivos entre las parcelas aguas arriba y aguas abajo. Los tratamientos 2, 3 y 4, no se queman se deja el 100% de rastrojo.Nombres y datos de autores José Moisés Rodríguez Castellanos.La región de Ocosingo juega un papel importante para el estado de Chiapas y en general para el sur de México, cuenta con la reserva ecológica de selva alta perennifolia conocida como Reserva de la biosfera de Montes Azules, pulmón para la producción de oxígeno más importante de la rivera Maya, en esta región habitan diferentes grupos de la etnia Lacandón, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Chol y Tojolabal principalmente. Sus características agroecológicas propias, facilita la producción de maíz en los ciclo P-V y O-I. El sistema de producción para la producción de alimentos es la milpa, el cual se basa en la roza, tumba y quema. El 90% de los terrenos se ubican en laderas con pendientes mayor a 20%; ocasionando erosión por las fuertes lluvias, dejando suelos con baja fertilidad el cual ocasiona que se obtengan bajos rendimientos que no son suficiente alimento para las familias.Por lo anterior la plataforma de investigación que se estableció en el rancho San José que pertenece a la comunidad San Miguel El Grande, municipio de Ocosingo, Chiapas; busca generar alternativas para fortalecer el sistema milpa; y tiene como objetivo \"Evaluar la respuesta de los sistemas de producción a través de prácticas de Agricultura de Conservación (MIAF, asociación maíz-frijol, rotación de cultivos) para incrementar la sustentabilidad y contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria\". La plataforma se diseñó con el enfoque de la milpa biodiversificada, bajo el esquema de Agricultura de Conservación (AC), y la Milpa Intercalada con árboles Frutales (MIAF) con tres bloques y cuatro tratamientos completamente al azar, cada tratamiento tiene tres repeticionesLos sistemas de producción como la AC y el MIAF, pueden ser una buena alternativa para fortalecer el sistema milpa, sobre todo para las familias de escasos recursos económicos.Los ensayos que se están evaluando nos indican que es posible mejorar la producción de alimentos, beneficiar la biodiversidad tanto en la superficial como en el subsuelo, generar ingresos, capturar de carbono y sobre todo practicar una agricultura amigable al medio ambiente general José Moisés Rodríguez Castellanos, Cel: 9632139809, correo: can.chixsc@gmail.com Milpa Biodiversificada con, maíz, cítricos, titonia Estimación de Rendimiento de maíz en la Plataforma Ocosingo, 4 años de intervención. Rendimiento de maíz en la plataforma de investigación Ocosingo, Chiapas, México. La Plataforma de Investigación es un espacio para evaluar sistemas de labranza y validar los beneficios de la agricultura de conservación como sistema resiliente a los retos del cambio climático.El sistema de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) es una alternativa viable para mejorar la gestión de las arvenses en el trópico húmedo. La AC mejora los rendimientos de manera sustancial y por lo tanto la rentabilidad del cultivo del maíz.Cultivo de canavalia como alternativa de rotación Arvenses por metro cuadrado, a los 56 días después de la siembra, en diferente sistema de labranza.Rendimiento de maíz al 14% de humedad, plataforma San Juan Cotzocón, PV 2022. Las actividades de manejo fueron manuales (siembra-cosecha), se aplicó una dosis de fertilización 91-60-40-15Ca-3Mg-4Zn-1.3B, el control de arvenses fue químico y mecánico, para el manejo de plagas se realiza con un enfoque agroecológico. El híbrido empleado es SKW 510. El diseño experimental es bloques al azar con tres repeticiones, la unidad experimental es de 57.6 m².Jonatán Villa Alcántara Correo electrónico: upapc080430kw6@hotmail.com; jonatan1000@hotmail.com Celular: 287 105 0249 La investigación se realizó en la parcela ejidal de Miguel Hidalgo municipio de Venustiano Carranza, en las coordenadas 16°20´43.54´´ LN, 92°36´13.36´´ LW a 597 msnm. El área de investigación consistió en 7 tratamientos distribuidos en bloques completos al azar, la siembra se realizó el 19 de agosto del 2022 con el genotipo hibrido amarillo Impacto, en los tratamientos 1 y 2 la siembra fue de forma manual con una densidad de 62,500 semillas por hectárea, para los tratamientos del 3 al 7 la siembra se realizó de forma mecanizada con una densidad de 70,000 semillas por ha. Los datos a colectar fueron: fecha de emergencia, fecha de floración, fecha de madurez fisiológica, rendimiento de grano y de biomasa, altura de la planta, peso de 200 granos y densidad de plantas con mazorca.Autor; Ing. Juan Diego López Durante lopez.durante73@gmail.com Tel celular 961 357 0882El cultivo del maíz en la región centro del estado de Chiapas, es de importancia económica y social. En el pasado 2019 los precios de garantía que ofreció SEGALMEX, permitió que muchos productores se interesarán en retomar las siembras de maíz, pero es necesario retomar el tema de una producción rentable con tecnologías sustentables.Ing. Juan Diego López Durante. lopez.durante73@gmail.com Teléfono celular 961 357 0882Figura 1. Visita del Dr. Simón Fonteyne a la Plataforma Venustiano Carranza.En el ciclo PV 2022 había diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos para la variable rendimiento, con un nivel de significancia del 0.05 % realizado con la prueba media de Tukey, el mejor resultado fue MM,LC,D,F2 con 5.05 ton/ha, con respecto a los demás que tienen la media de rendimiento de 3 ton una media general de 3.8 y un coeficiente de variación de 0.15%, como se observa en la figura 2, el tratamiento con menor rendimiento fue el testigo MM,LC,R,F1 con 3.02 ton/ha, pero este rendimiento es mayor a la media reportada para el municipio de Venustiano Carranza que es de 2.9 ton/ha, según el SIAP 2021. Los tratamientos con el mejor rendimiento y rentabilidad fueron aquellos que tienen en común el sistema de cero labranza y cultivando sobre el rastrojo del cultivo anterior, independientemente de la Rotación de cultivo. En este ciclo de evaluación, se confirma lo que se ha observado a través del tiempo: que el sistema de labranza mínima (testigo de referencia del productor) es el tratamiento que registra la menor rentabilidad económica para el cultivo de maíz.Plataforma de Agricultura de Conservación (AC) en Zacatepec, Morelos.La Plataforma tecnológica INIFAP-MasAgro está ubicada en la región agroecológica de trópico seco del estado de Morelos, a una altitud de 917 m, dentro del INIFAP-Campo Experimental \"Zacatepec\". En esta zona, bajo condiciones de temporal, se cultiva una superficie de 18000 ha de maíz, con rendimiento medio de 3.2 ton/ha y 25000 ha de sorgo con rendimiento medio de 4.2 ton/ha. Esta Plataforma de investigación tiene la finalidad de determinar la mejor interacción entre Sistemas de Labranza, Manejos de rastrojo y Rotación entre cultivos de Maíz, Sorgo y Amaranto (antes Cacahuate), mediante la evaluación del rendimiento y rentabilidad de los tratamientos (interacciones).El sistema de Rotación de cultivos Maíz-Maíz, Maíz-Sorgo y Maíz-Cacahuate (Amaranto) se realizó año con año hasta el ciclo 2019 (año-8). En los últimos tres años se han evaluado las interacciones que se muestran en el cuadro de tratamientos; es decir, monocultivos. Las diferencias en rendimiento de maíz, observadas en este ciclo 2022 (año-11), son debido al sistema de labranza, manejo de rastrojo y al \"efecto residual\" de las anteriores rotaciones. Con los tratamientos 2, 6 y 10 se obtuvo el mayor rendimiento y rentabilidad, rebasando las 7 ton/ha y una Relación Beneficio/Costo de 1.75, en promedio; estos tratamientos involucran cultivar con el sistema de cero labranza y sobre rastrojo del cultivo anterior. Considerando solo el manejo de rastrojo, dentro del sistema de cero labranza, el mayor rendimiento y rentabilidad se obtuvo al Dejar el rastrojo, en comparación con Removerlo, con valores de 7.099 ton/ha y Rel. B/C de 1.72. Los tratamientos testigo de referencia del productor, que implican el sistema de labranza mínima, presentaron la menor Relación beneficio/Costo (rentabilidad).Plataforma de Investigación de Agricultura Sustentable. Ahome, Sinaloa. Ciclo OI 21-22.Los ensayos evaluados fueron los siguientes: Labranza conservación vs. Labranza convencional, Programa de riego en tiempo real (Irrimodel en base a GDD, etapa, textura de suelo), Liberación de Controladores Biológicos de Plagas (Trichogramma pretiosum, Crisoperla carnea y Coleomegilla maculata), Fertilización nitrogenada (franja rica), comparada (monitoreo óptico con Green Seeker), fertilización (Análisis de suelo).La Plataforma a través de varios ciclos agrícolas ha demostrado las ventajas del manejo sustentable en el cultivo de maíz, a través de la agricultura de conservación y la reducción de costos sin sacrificar productividad, aplicando un manejo eficiente y racional de insumos y tecnologías que además buscan cuidar el medio ambiente.Ing. Diego de Jesús Herrera Eguino. AARFS A.C. Responsable Plataforma de Investigación Celular: (668)1 11 77 79 Correo: investigación1@aarfs.org  La Plataforma de Investigación de Ahome, tiene diez años trabajando en colaboración con CIMMYT, teniendo como objetivo el desarrollar, validar y promover sistemas sustentables con base en Agricultura de Conservación, con la finalidad de mejorar la productividad, sustentabilidad y rentabilidad a través de un buen manejo del suelo, agua y de los recursos naturales. En el comparativo por tipo de labranza se obtuvo un rendimiento de 18.49 ton/ha en labranza convencional y 18.01 ton /ha en labranza de conservación, marcando una diferencia de 480 kg/ha a favor de la primera.Aunque se observa una mayor producción en la labranza convencional, la mayor rentabilidad la obtenemos en la labranza de conservación, por el ahorro en costos en la preparación del suelo principalmente y un rendimiento muy similar. Fig. 1.En el tratamiento de agricultura de conservación dicho costo ascendió a $42,927 pesos/ha., en comparación al costo del tratamiento en agricultura convencional que fue de $46,370 pesos/ha, lo que significa una diferencia de 3,443 pesos/ha. Fig. 2. Tratamiento 2.-Todos los residuos se dejan sobre la superficie y descansa la parcela hasta que se vuelve a sembrar maíz en el ciclo PV. Las arvenses crecen en el otoño-invierno (OI), dejándolas florear pero desvarando o aplicando herbicida para que no incremente el banco de semillas. Este es un tratamiento con monocultivo de maíz, sobre camas permanentes y con residuos sobre la superficie (MM + CP + Con Res.). Tratamiento 3.-Antes de la siembra del ciclo PV realizamos la labranza (barbecho, rastreo y surcado), antes de que haya lluvias, para minimizar erosión del suelo, por lo que lo consideramos una \"labranza inteligente\". Este tratamiento no tiene rotación de cultivo (MM), sí una labranza Inteligente (Lab. Intel.) y se dejan los residuos del maíz sobre la superficie desde la cosecha hasta antes de iniciar el ciclo PV, (MM + Lab. Intel. + Con Res.). Tratamiento 4.-En este tratamiento consideramos que la mezcla de cultivos y arvenses naturales dan una rotación al cultivo de maíz. Ya cuando la mezcla de cultivos y las arvenses logran crecer y producir flores procedemos a controlarlas para que no semillen por lo que son \"chaponeadas = desvaradas\" y sus residuos incorporados junto con los residuos del maíz. Antes del nuevo cultivo de maíz y antes de la lluvia procedemos realizar una labranza mínima para evitar erosión del suelo (Barbecho, rastreo y surcado). Este tratamiento es expresado como: (Rot. + Lab. Intel. + Con Res.). En este 2022 se sembró maíz en una mitad del tratamiento y para el próximo rotaremos con Dolichus. Tratamiento 5.-El valor agroecológico de esta mezcla de cultivos y arvenses naturales ayudan a el sistema. Cuando llega nuevamente el ciclo PV se siembra directamente el maíz sobre la misma cama reformada. Aquí en este tratamiento tenemos una rotación Intensiva (Rot.) de maíz y mezcla de cultivos. La siembra tanto del maíz y la mezcla de cultivos se realizan sin labranza, sobre la misma cama (CP) y los residuos se dejan sobre la superficie (Con Res.). Su manejo se resume en: (Rot. +CP+ Con Res). En este 2022 se sembró maíz en una mitad del tratamiento y para el próximo 2023 rotaremos con Dolichus que se sembró en la otra mitad.La plataforma se ubica en el Campo experimental del CIMMYT en Tlaltizapán, Morelos y lleva 12 años derivando enseñanzas sobre maíz bajo temporal y tratamientos de labranza para tomar decisiones que ayuden aumentar el rendimiento y mejorar la utilidad de los sistemas en la zona. Esta información esta disponible para los agricultores, investigadores, autoridades gubernamentales, universidades y todos los interesados a través de seminarios en plataformas digitales del estado de Morelos y con visitas a la plataforma. En el ciclo PV 2022 la canícula fue más pronunciada que otros años y hubo exceso de humedad después de la sequía, además se padeció el incremento de fertilizantes por lo que la implementación de prácticas de agricultura de conservación y siembra de dolichos son una alternativa evaluada para incrementar el rendimiento y mejorar la utilidad de los sistemas de producción.1.-Las camas permanentes (tratamientos 2 y 5) respondieron muy bien ante la sequía durante la etapa de crecimiento del cultivo respecto a los tratamientos de labranza. En este ciclo, que fue quizá el de mayor sequía, las camas permanentes rindieron casi el doble respecto a los tratamientos de labranza en rendimiento de grano (muy similar en biomasa). La relación beneficio costo fue de 1.4 en ambos tratamientos de camas permanentes (2 y 5) y donde hubo labranza (1,3 y 4) no se alcanza a recuperar la inversión siendo de 0.74, 0.63 y 0.56 respectivamente.2.-El ataque a la raíz por plagas como el gusano alambre fue mucho mayor en los tratamientos de labranza que en los de camas permanentes afectando más el rendimiento en los tratamientos de labranza. En cuanto a pudrición de mazorca no hubo diferencia significativa entre tratamientos.3.-Tenemos en Tlaltizapán, Morelos dos barreras que determinan los rendimientos, uno es la sequía y el otro es el exceso de humedad en parte de agosto y todo el mes de septiembre. Con AC (camas permanentes y residuos) podemos hacer frente a la sequía pero requerimos estrategias adicionales para hacer frente al exceso de humedad.Oscar Bañuelos O.banuelos@cgiar.org Jessica González, J.GONZALEZ@cgiar.org Simon Fonteyne S.FONTEYNE@cgiar.org; Maíz de temporal en labranza mínima (lado izquierdo) y camas permanentes angostas (lado derecho) en ciclo PV 2022 en Tlaltizapán, Morelos.Rendimiento de grano al 14% de humedad de los diferentes tratamientos de la plataforma de CIMMYT-Tlaltizapán, Morelos, ciclo PV 2022 en Tlaltizapán, Morelos. Distribución de lluvias un mes antes de la siembra y después de la siembra en periodos de 10 días en PV 2020 Las tipologías identificadas resaltan los siguientes aspectos que deberían abordarse en el futuro: i) Implementación de un sistema de asesoramiento climático para la optimización de las fechas de siembra (para las tipologías I y III) y/o reducción del efecto de las heladas (para la tipología II); ii) Mayor acceso a la información de mercado para orientar la producción de patatas en función de la demanda (para las tipologías I y II); iii) Mejorar los sistemas de semillas para permitir el acceso a una mayor diversidad de variedades de patatas utilizando semillas limpias (para las tipologías I y II).  • Campaña principal (octubre-febrero), • Parcelas medianas (entre 0.5-1ha) y grandes (>1ha),• Basado en condiciones climáticas • Variedades communes (Peruanita, \"Embrosada\"),• Semillas propias.• Campaña secundaria (mayo-agosto),• Parcelas pequeñas (0.5 ha), • Basado en demanda del mercado • Variedades communes (Peruanita, \"Embrosada\"),• Semillas propias.En los Andes, la agricultura familiar es de gran importancia para el suministro local de alimentos y la seguridad y soberanía alimentaria. Caracterizar la diversidad de estos pequeños agricultores es clave para priorizar intervenciones, estrategias y políticas de desarrollo. La agricultura en el Valle del Mezquital es una actividad preponderante y se basa en la agricultura convencional donde se utiliza una cantidad excesiva de maquinaria debido a la escasez de mano de obra en la región, lo que ha provocado la compactación de los suelos y el incremento en sus costos de producción por hectárea cultivada. El riego es por inundación con utilización de aguas residuales provenientes del Valle de México por lo que se unen efectos adversos asociados a un manejo inadecuado de los recursos naturales, por tal motivo es necesario incorporar tecnologías derivadas de la investigación que permita generar una agricultura sustentable: mantener o incrementar el rendimiento, generar el bienestar en la región y conservar los recursos naturales.La plataforma está conformada por 6 tratamientos con dos replicas distribuidas al azar y un área de componentes donde se evalúa el efecto de la rotación de los cultivos, la práctica de labranza y el manejo del rastrojo (Tabla 1),. Para la toma de las variables de rendimiento y biomasa, se utiliza como referencia el manual dedeterminación de rendimiento del Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT, 2012).Nellybeth Rodríguez Martínez Julio Cesar Nieto Aquino Universidad Politécnica de Francisco I. MaderoLa implementación de la labranza de conservación es una práctica agrícola que permite incrementar y mantener el rendimiento del maíz. Dejar los cultivos de cobertura sobre el suelo permite que año con año el rendimiento se mantenga Nellybeth Rodríguez Martínez1Correo: nrodriguez@upfim.edu.mxCorreo: jnieto@upfim.edu.mx El municipio de Molcaxac, Puebla se caracteriza por practicar la agricultura convencional bajo condiciones preponderantemente de temporal en suelos calcáreos, someros y con alto índice de degradación, obteniendo bajos rendimientos así como la constante degradación del suelo; por lo que es necesario promover sistemas de producción sustentables y resilientes que ayuden a revertir este proceso.La Plataforma de Investigación se ubica en el CBTA No. 305 Molcaxac, Puebla en 18°43´33.17\" N y 97°55´40.22\" W a 1838 msnm. El experimento se desarrolló bajo condiciones de temporal durante el ciclo PV 2021 con los tratamientos indicados en la figura 2. Las densidades de siembra fueron: en maíz 55 plantas ha -1 utilizando una variedad nativa y el híbrido MX305, en frijol 60,000 plantas ha -1 con la variedad criollo negro y en avena/evo 150 Kg de semilla ha -1 en una proporción 75:25 respectivamente. La fertilización química se aplicó con la fórmula 69-00-00 y la orgánica mediante la incorporación de 1,500 Kg ha -1 de estiércol caprino. Se utilizó un diseño experimental de bloques completamente al azar con dos repeticiones y se aplicó la prueba de comparación de medias de Tukey con α ≤ 0.05.Raúl Torres Flores, CBTA No. 305. Arturo Nieves Navarro, CBTA No. 305.Las tecnologías de la agricultura de conservación permiten mejorar los rendimientos y hacer frente a los efectos del cambio climático en la producción de maíz.Cel: 2241030744 Email: maiztorres@hotmail.com A pesar de las condiciones climáticas adversas, los tratamientos bajo agricultura de conservación mostraron los mejores resultados pero el T4 bajo agricultura de conservación, cobertura del suelo con rastrojo y rotación con frijol mostró el rendimiento de maíz más alto en comparación con el T6 bajo labranza convencional en monocultivo. Cultivo de trigo en cero labranza rotación maíz, con retención de rastrojo en superficie.","tokenCount":"13726"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9f26212f8d1613815b500fa1925961af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7d8bc3b7-e5f3-4ed4-9a39-861a3c0a26f0/retrieve","id":"-168978576"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7bb2e7fd-99fb-4e91-b642-cfffc34c4fef","pagecount":"132","content":"To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) related to poverty, climate change and food and nutrition security by the year 2030, we need to change the way food is produced, processed and consumed. This is a very ambitious goal and will have to be met in the context of climate change impacts on all aspects of food and nutrition security: increasing resource constraints and trade-offs, massive urbanization, an ageing farming population, a need to rapidly reduce emissions from food systems, and dietary shifts. Perhaps it is in food systems, more than anywhere else, that we have the perfect illustrations of the noticeable certainties of climate change. If evidence were needed that the challenges of a changing climate are not just those of the future, but of today, recent food price shocks, crop failures, disease and damage caused by natural disasters should suffice. These events are not, of course, determined by weather alone, but are the manifestation of complex and cross-scale social, political, economic, and ecological processes, and should serve as a warning against simple interpretations of contemporary food systems. Thus to deal with these complex issue and to understand how climate change contributes toward risks to the food system, the project planned the following activities:1. To conduct a study on \"Identifying opportunities and challenges for creating a climatesmart food system in the Philippines and Vietnam\" 2. To work towards enabling targeted coordination of policy dialogue within and across governments.1. Detailed report of the study \"Identifying opportunities and challenges for creating a climate-smart food system in the Philippines and Vietnam\" 2. One policy brief each for both countries as recommendations from the study results 3. Minimum two manuscripts for journal publications : a. Opportunities and challenges for creating a climate-smart food system in the Philippines b. Opportunities and challenges for creating a climate-smart food system in Vietnam 4. Organizing one policy forum meeting in each country to share the results of the study with the policy makers and stakeholders and to also explore an agenda for the future course of action for promoting a climate smart food system 5. Sharing the knowledge generated with the academia, development sector , civil society and agriculture and climate change researchers Outcome 1. Formed an active network of diverse stakeholders in the Philippines to advocate for a climate smart food system. A similar policy network formation is also expected in the Vietnam, after the completion of the \"Regional Policy Forum\" scheduled on the 10 th of April, 2019.2. Promotion of short duration stress tolerant varieties in crops.3. Promoting production diversification, supporting climate resilient crops like sweet potato, cassava and vegetables. a. The Business World published an article 1 based on the recommendation from the policy forum organized in the Philippines on the 7 th of February, 2019 urgingThe impacts of global climate change on food systems are expected to be widespread, complex, geographically and temporally variable, and profoundly influenced by socioeconomic conditions. Historical statistical studies provide evidence that climate change will affect agricultural yields and earnings, food prices, reliability of delivery, food quality, and, notably, food safety.Philippines is considered one of the most vulnerable countries when it comes to impacts of climate change, including sea level rise, increased frequency of extreme weather events, rising temperatures and extreme rainfall. This is due to its high exposure to natural hazards (cyclones, landslides, floods, droughts), dependence on climate-sensitive natural resources and vast coastlines where all major cities and the majority of the population reside.Viet Nam is also considered as one of the countries to be severely affected by climate change, particularly in the coastal areas. Rises in average temperatures have been observed over the last decades, as well as substantial changes to precipitation patters. The average temperatures have been rising and the total precipitation has increased, especially during the rainy seasons, which is important for flood water management. In northern Vietnam the precipitation during the dry seasons has decreased, which poses important challenges to water management. Agriculture is a key economic pillar in the both the countries , contributing to approximately 10% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) in the Philippines and 15 % of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) in Viet Nam (Word Bank, 2017). Population for both the countries has also been rapidly growing reaching approximately 100 million people each by the year 2017.More than half of the population for both Philippines and Vietnam live in rural areas and are highly dependent on agriculture and agriculture-related industries (World Bank, 2017).Along with the growing population dietary preferences in both the countries are also changing.Cereals represent the largest share of food consumed in both the countries -41% of per capita annual calorie intake in the Philippines and around 80% per capita annual calorie intake in Vietnam (Albert, J andMolano, W., 2009 andHoang, 2017), Land for food production in both countries is limited, while demand is growing due to the combined effects of population growth and dietary change. Therefore the solution seems to be directed towards intensification of agriculture. However, the continued intensification of agriculture production with unregulated chemical inputs, may eventually increase the toxic and hazardous chemicals in the soil, air, and ground water. Also many farmers lack access to quality technical information regarding production options, weather patterns and risks.Therefore substantial attention needs to be shifted towards understanding:• What it will it take to increase the agricultural productivity, enhance food and nutritional security and raise farmer incomes to get rural communities out of poverty in a world where climate is changing?• How will we build resilience to climate change stresses? Thus, in the above context, this study examines the various elements of food production, consumption, processing and distribution in addition to infrastructure, institutions and markets in the Philippines and Viet Nam -to identify the challenges and opportunities for propagating a sustainable and climate-smart food system. This includes how the item was grown, how it was managed and harvested, how value was added, how it was transported, and how the food was purchased and any related relevant consumer behaviors. Thus through this study we try to understand the following key issues: i. What are the changes in the consumption patterns, which are inevitable to realize a food systems transformation and can include changes in consumer choices and social organization, as well as supply side changes, new products, markets and investments?ii. What are the producer/farmer practices, which enables leapfrogging of traditional learning curves through application of technology and adoption of best practices? In view of the above context the objective of this study is to explore what are the constraints and opportunities for creating climate-smart food systems along the value chains for (1) cereals,(2) roots and tubers (3) and livestock, in the Philippines and in Viet Nam. Thus understanding the following:• To understand how have the urban and rural diets changed in these climate variability affected areas• To assess the current production systems and its contribution (positive/negative) to environmental effects• And to explore the channels, processes and supporting institutions where CSA related changes needs to be introduced. This is a mixed methods research (MMR) which includes both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. Under mixed method approach, both inductive and deductive perspectives are assessed since the mixed method approach involves back and forth movement in order to combine the knowledge from both methods (Newman & Benz 1998).The study adopts a convergent parallel design of MMR. A convergent parallel design entails that the researcher concurrently conducts the quantitative and qualitative elements in the same phase of the research process, weighs the methods equally, analyzes the two components independently, and interprets the results together (Creswell & Pablo-Clark, 2011).With its quantitative strand of data collection and analysis, the study tries to understand the supply transformations and consumer demands -or in other words -why the producers or the farmers grow, what they grow. And with its qualitative strand of data collection and analysis, the study tries to explore and understand how food is grown, managed, harvested, how value was added, and how it was transported -in other words -how people grow what they choose to grow.Primary data gathering was done using Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and Key Informant Interview (KII), techniques. These techniques were chosen to gather contextual details of various food production processes and to add the perspective of local food growers and suppliers. Both the techniques used purposive sampling strategy, as the study participants were recruited according to pre-selected criterion relevant to the study, such as specific study locations and practicing specific chosen crops.The FGDs were held with farmers and were location specific. 3 to 4 FGDs were conducted for each selected province. Each FGD comprised of 8 to 12, mixed male and female participants. The KIIs were planed across the supply chain actors for each crop selected in the study. 3 to 4 KIIs were conducted per value chain actor, per crop.For Philippines, the study used the Family Income and Expenditure Survey 3 (FIES) data to analyze the consumption behavior. FIES data sets of 6 consecutive rounds (2000, 2003, 2006, 2009.2012, and 2015) were used in this study. The FIES data is a multiyear national representative household survey data collected by the Philippine Bureau of Statistics, every three years since 1985. And to analyze, the supply side changes, the study used other sub-national level data collected from local government units and government agencies such as the Department of Agriculture (DA) and other published sources.For Viet Nam, the study used the Vietnam Household Living Standards Survey4 (VHLSS) data.VHLSS data sets of 5 consecutive rounds (2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2016) were used in this study. The VHLSS is an ongoing longitudinal survey of the Vietnamese population that has been conducted in several waves. This data is collected by the General Statics office of Vietnam.3 http://www.psa.gov.ph/tags/family-income-and-expenditure-survey 4 http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=483&Philippines is heavily dependent on weather for its agriculture, only a third of the total harvested acreage is irrigated. Agricultural land in the Philippines covers 12.3 million ha, the equivalent of approximately 41% of the country's total land area (FAO, 2017). The number of individual farms increased by 63% from 1980 to 2012, while the average farm size decreased from 2.84 ha per farm in 1980 to 1.29 ha per farm in 2012 ( PSA, 2015) . Land holdings and parcels have been dispersed to new generations, contributing to a significant, continuously increasing fragmentation of farm land. Most of the harvested areas in the country are devoted to rice, coconut, and maize crops. Rice is the main staple crop. But the yields of both rice and maize crop are below the average reginal yields. Erratic, unpredictable weather conditions and tropical storms represent major constraints to higher yields. Moreover, farmers use less fertilizer than the recommended rate due to a lack of capital availability. Soil acidity and declining soil fertility also affect plant nutrition and yields in the Philippines (Dikitanan, et al., 2017) The climate in the Philippines is characterized by relatively high temperature, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. There are two major seasons in the Philippines: the dry season (from December to May) and the wet/rainy season (from June to November). Due to its geographical location and archipelagic formation, Philippines is one of the most vulnerable country to the impacts of climate change. The country ranks highest in the world in terms of its vulnerability to tropical cyclones, third in terms of people exposed to seasonal events, and fourth among countries most affected by extreme weather events (Sonke et al., 2017).Central Luzon, Visayas and Mindanoa are the main food baskets of the Philippines. So for this study we chose Central Luzon and Eastern Visayas regions. The selected provinces in the Central Luzon region were Tarlac and Nueva Ecija. And the selected provinces in Eastern Visayas were Leyte and Samar The study limited itself by choosing three crops or food items to dwell deep with its objectives viz. rice, maize and sweet potato.Two initial KIs were conducted in each province (one with the provincial level agriculture officer and another with a farmer) before picking up the primary crops under study. Later during the FGDs we verified this information and also tried to understand in great details the reasons behind those production choices.   The primary crop grown in the Central Luzon region is rice (Table 1 and 2). Central Luzon infact is referred to as the rice granary of the Philippines. The other crops which are important to region are maize, onions, sweet-potato and vegetables (Table 1 and 2). The entire production process usually is set along the production priorities and planting /harvesting dates of rice.Farmers in the Nuevs Ecija province mostly grow rice (two seasons) and some vegetables for self-consumption. But the farmers of Tralac province though definitely prefers growing rice in the wet season but also prefers maize and vegetables in the dry season. Rice in the Philippines is expected to be in the field for 90-110 days, so that planting decisions are made about three months before harvest. But farmers of Tarlac and Nuevs Ecija province shared that in the present times effective planning of the planting and harvesting schedule have become a big challenge, due to the erratic precipitation periods and temperature changes.Rice farmers of Tarlac shared that the length of rainy period in a year and the amount of precipitation has increased in the region in the past 10 years. They believe that increased precipitation has link to increased pest infestation too. They shared that these days they prefer short duration early maturing varieties so that it is easy to make shifts in the crop calendar in the event of early rains in the dry season or a longer period of wet season.Farmer incites:1. To avoid floods and Typhoon -\"we adjust the planting calendar and therefore prefer early maturing varieties\" 2. \"Sheath Blight\" disease in rice has increased because of the long duration of rainfall\" Also other insect pests attacks like Stem borer, Army worm, Cut worm and Rice Black Bug has increased.We found that most of the farmers are shifting towards hybrid seeds for both rice and maize.The reason for such shift in rice -is hybrids give good quality milled grain. Farmers are also aware that hybrid assuage is input intensive and requires more fertilize, which in turn increases their production cost. Eastern Visayas is primarily an agricultural region with rice, corn, coconut, sweet potato and banana as its major crops (Table 4). Corn, upland rice areas are also about the root and tuber crop areas (camote, cassava, yautia or takudo/karlang, etc.) since root crops are intercropped or rotated with upland food crops; even under coconut trees Most farmers in the Leyte and Samar provinces of Eastern Visayas grow only one season of rice followed by a second season of another crop. This region has two kinds of rice farms viz. upland rice farms and low land rice farms. The upland rice farming is completely rain fed but the low land rice farming has access to limited irrigation facilities in certain areas. Water supply for irrigation facilities is dependent on the watersheds of the region and degradation of these watersheds have hindered the agricultural productivity of the region.Farmer incites:1. \"Irrigation system is really important for farmers. In our community, water supply is not equally distributed due to the absence of irrigation system, giving farmers like us a very low yield.\"2. \"Credit access for farming is also a big challenge for us, the small upland farmers of the region\"The farmers of the Eastern Visayas region shared that the in the present times effective planning of planting and harvesting schedule have become a big challenge, due to the erratic weather conditions and the region being prone to climatic disasters ( Figure 5)The Farmers of this region are the survivor of the Super Typhoon Yolanda (international name Haiyan) and hence are of the opinion that they need to move towards more resilient agriculture and adopt crops like sweet potato (kamote) and cassava. This they think will not only address food security but will also provide better income for small-scale farmers, especially as storms and droughts make it harder for them to produce.Vietnam aims to become a producer and exporter of high standard food products to improve its export of value-added products. Given that small-scale production and the  Sea level rise presents a major threat to Vietnamese agriculture. Sea level rise threatens these regions and would drastically affect their peoples. Arable land might be reduced as some areas could become salinized. Agricultural lands are concentrated along the coast in the two major deltas viz. Mekong River Delta and the Red River Delta. These two regions are also the major food producing pockets of the country. Mekong River Delta region can be called the rice granary of the country. So for this study we chose both these river delta regions of Vietnam. International and National organizations working on the above topic were present in this program.The regional policy forum started with welcome address and introduction of participants by Dr.Samarendu Mohanty, Regioonal Director for Asia, International Potato Center (CIP).OPENING REMARKS: DR. MERCEDITA A. SOMBILLA, ASSISTANT SECRETARY, REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OFFICE, NEDA• Food system should be continuously discussed and studied and \"the Philippines is no exemption\". Impact of climate change on agriculture and whole food system.• There has been decline in agriculture production in the year 2017 and 2018.• Impacts are local and the Philippines is 5 th in the global climate risk index Adoption is usually in large scale, allowing them to benefit from such technologies and practices rapidly and productively. You will be amazed at the progress of adoption.There are 2 reasons that have pushed adoption of certain technologies in Vietnam: 1) being market-driven, there is an incentive to reduce cost and be more productive because of market competition; and 2) the government has invested in irrigation, roads, market support. As my friend, a vice minister of agriculture-related to me, very often, Vietnamese farmers do not even wait for government programs; if they see a good market, they will go for it. In both cases, when they implement a program, the detail of their planning is down to the smallest level of implementation.In the Philippines, we have worked with our farmers, some of us even managed big government programs that promoted large scale adoption of technologies and practices.The difference between Vietnam and the Philippines is the way wide scale adoption is provided with incentive and support. In Vietnam, they have a simple strategy-market and productivity driven. In the Philippines, we often end up with the government programs pushing hard, a lot of piloting to a few thousand farmers or hectares before we lost steam. Very often our plans are also very nicely worded but lack operational details on how we will go into scale beyond the pilot. Details such as who will do what and the capacity development and logistical requirement are lacking. We need to do things in scale. We focus so much on rice production-seed subsidy, inputs subsidy, machineries, post-harvest, trainings etc. but we often fail to consider the market, transport, finance, climate risks and other commodities and sectors. Hence, we have been so focused on rice self-sufficiency that we have not given the same attention to the other commodities that could have help reduced rural poverty.• Food security as we all know has four pillars: availability, access, utilization and stability.We have food security when all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food. Food and nutrition security embraces meeting energy, protein and nutrient needs for healthy life.• Food systems includes food production (which is a part of the agriculture system), the diverse set of institutions, technologies and practices that govern the way food is marketed, processed, transported, accessed and consumed. Food system activities are grouped into four categories: producing food, processing and packaging food, distributing and retailing food, and consuming food. It considers imports and exports, food services, finance among other things. A sustainable and climate smart food system supports food security.• In this respect, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Chang and Food Security (CCAFS) aims to evaluate the impact of climate change and the effect of various CSA interventions in the broader context of food systems at different levels in Southeast Asia. We hope that this will support policy formulation in response to climate change particularly in food (deficit) importing and (surplus) exporting countries, sub-national (delta/basins), national and regional food security, and the total food supply chain in the region. We want to see the effect of various CSA interventions in the food system in relation to the synergies and trade-offs in health, environment, and economic outcomes. Farmers do not practice/adopt the technologies promoted by the Department of Agriculture.Local technicians find it hard to encourage farmers in trying new technologies. In effect, DA getLocal Farmer Technicians to help them in the field.Farmers from the Eastern Visayas, particularly from my nearby farms, are not motivated to plant more sweet potato because of poor market system -buyers do not use weighing scale and just buy sweet potato per bunch (tumpok system) with a lower price.When I was invited by the Visayas State University (VSU) to participate in their display of newlyreleased sweet potato varieties, I likes the VSP30 variety and bought 1 bunch of planting materials and planted it in my farm. After observing its good performance, I planted it many times until I faced problem on its huge size-1 piece weighs up to 3kg so I decided to plant it in my hilly plot of land with poor soil quality. The results were medium-sized sweet potato which is preferred in the market. Many were encouraged to plant VSP30 variety seeing my successful harvest. We also introduced organic system. Then typhoon Yolanda came and brought devastation to many of our crops except for sweet potato. The government bought many sweet potato planting materials from the farmers for distribution to affected farmers. My farm was used as a learning site for sweet potato production and was named Abloy's Farm.1.2.My cropping pattern is Rice-Corn or Mungbean. I've been farming for more than 20 years. The effect of climate change is felt by the farmers through extreme heat. We don't have effective irrigation system. We only use shallow-tube well, which is very costly in producing rice. Other problems encountered were high cost of fuel and declining underground water level. To address these, we flood it in the morning and we do it daily. We adopted a system since we know the water level at each period. We changed our planting calendar and we had problems on pest incidence such as rats and birds. We also encountered flooding for longer periods. Another effect of climate change is depleting productivity even with sufficient water supply. We infused organic matter to improve soil quality but the result in yield is just the same. We are trying to consider every aspect of lecture given by DA technical staff, which we follow religiously.Climate-Resilient Agriculture Practices in Maize Farming: Engr. Erwin Apaga, Maize Farmer, Sapang MPC. Tarlac.In Moncada, Tarlac, we plant rice and corn during the rainy season then sweet potato and corn again on the dry season. We plant corn three times a year. We use corn cobs as fuel. We have the largest area on sweet potato and all varieties can be planted. We apply organic fertilizer. Our problem with climate change is the declining ground water. We have hard time in pumping water from the ground during the season and which is why we reduce the water schedule -bypracticing alternate wetting and drying. Engr. Erwin Apaga -We received machineries and inputs.Mr. Sol Gonzales -We have discussion with DA on how to cope with climate change and came up with recommendation -to do off-season production but we suffered pests and diseases. Tarlac farmer from the audience For Mr. Felixberto \"Ka Abloy\" Udtohan What technology do you practice in making sweet potato plant stand for two years? We haven't done it in our fields and we want to try it.Mr. Ka Abloy -Be careful in harvesting mature roots/tubers and make the area free from weeds.Dr. Julieta Roa, Professor, VSU -VSP30 variety has this characteristic to stand for longer period which can be done through priming (getting the mature ones then let it grow). There is this allopathic effect of sweet potato if you plant it two times or more, then yields decline.For Mr. Son Gonzales-Not all farmers believe on the adverse effects of climate change because for them, with or without climate change, the yield will always be the same.Engr. Erwin Apaga -We just based our planting schedule on the weather.Mr. Ka Abloy -We believe on climate change and its adverse effects but since our focus commodity is sweet potato, we do not face much problems with climate change. Our sweet potato crops are not much affected. Dr.Samarendu Mohanty, CIP Why is the area planted for sweet potato has been declining? (Area planted last 1980 was 250,000 ha. While only 80,000 ha. are planted in 2018)Mr. Ka Abloy -The government should promote/encourage planting more sweet potato.Engr. Apaga -Our area for sweet potato is increasing and many get bountiful harvest and profitsmany have become rich because of sweet potato.Mr. Gonzales -Before, we did plant sweet potato in our area but due to market problems and establishment of feed mills, majority has shifted to corn production. In climate-smart agriculture practices, we have sufficient technologies. All we need is creating access for the farmers. Generating knowledge from farmer to farmer is a good practice of extension that we need to focus. We have very few extension workers working with thousands of farmers and various programs of the government. Maybe private sectors can help. There is a need to focus on the social learning part of these and how to harmonize program better. • CIP with support of CCAFS conducted a study on \"Identifying opportunities and challenges for creating a climate-smart food system in the Philippines\". This study explored the various elements of food production, consumption, processing and distribution. Along with its supporting infrastructure, institutions and markets.• The study was designed to be a mixed method research -adopting a convergent parallel design • Agricultural production system of Philippines is heavily dependent on Heavily dependent on weather (only a third of the total harvested acreage is irrigated).Small land holding continue to decline and rice is the major food crop, comprising of 33% of the total harvested area; together with maize account for half.• Philippines is considered one of the most vulnerable country when it comes to impacts of climate change. Climate change (erratic rainfall, rising temperature, prolonged drought, etc.) and consumption diversification brings us with new challenges and opportunities to tackle in the food system.• In the study FGDs and KIIs were conducted at Central Luzon and Nueva Ecija provinces.• The food items looked at were rice, maize and sweet potato.• The opportunities suggested in the presentation for creating a climate smart food system were:  Invest and train the existing information sources and channels -especially the ones located at the barangay level : farmer's cooperative, barangay Leader  Support inter cropping or adoption of additional crop along with the primary choice of crop production -example Sweet Potato  Promote early maturing, stress tolerant (both biotic and abiotic) varieties in rice  More work towards promoting knowledge on Integrated Pest Management , Water Saving Technologies and Crop InsurancePresentation slides:• The role of the private sector in climate change mitigation has been more than emphasized. This can be easily observed in climate finance, where we see a great portion of private funds being channeled to mitigation, such as energy efficiency and renewable energy generation, as some of the topmost spends.• There continues to be challenges in estimating private sector investments, as it is not easy for businesses to divulge corporate strategy; or some business do not realize that they are already investing in adaptation, they just don't call it that. Business often frame it as business continuity or supply chain management or risk management or even corporate sustainability.• Climate adaptation has long been the domain of policy makers, multilateral and development banks, NGOs and other development organizations. While awareness of the need to adapt is increasing rapidly within the private sector, admittedly, though, climate change is primarily framed from the standpoint of risk, most often expressed in terms of \"weather\", as climate-related risks pose an increasing threat to public and private assets, and organizational and operational continuity. This is especially true in the Philippines where tropical cyclones, extreme flooding and drought receive the most public attention, when longer-term incremental climatic changes such as changing precipitation and temperature patterns and sea level rise may prove costlier, particularly in terms of systemic challenges to food and water security and the viability of settlements and productive assets.• In more positive terms, the concept of resilience is forcing on us a systemic perspective, not just in the sense of ecosystems, but one where the private sector is just as much a key economic and societal actor, an integral part of the system who can respond to the challenges of climate change (and not just in terms of humanitarian relief).• It is within this frame of resilience that the project called Private Markets for Climate Resilience was born. Working on the assumptions that people have begun to recognize that the climate is changing but still lack an understanding of the associated risks, and that most do not recognize how a changing climate is driving a growing demand for products and services that can help them manage their vulnerabilities, the Private Markets for Climate Resilience Project, or PMCR Project, sought out to determine if a market-wide response to climate resilience is in the works, and how complex a challenge it would be to grow this market into a system-wide forward-looking phenomenon.• The project is an investigation of the risks and opportunities of companies and investors in a potentially emerging market for products and services that enhance resilience.Focusing on the agriculture and transport sectors, the project is a six-country study in three continents that engaged both public and private actors, particularly those who invest in these products and services. Taking on a market perspective, it assessed challenges and opportunities in supply and demand, and looked at the role of financial institutions and policy in creating conditions that would enable such a market to grow and prosper.• While studies have shown that these negative effects of climate change on rice yield vary across the regions, on the average it generally has no effect on yield in irrigated rice fields with adequate use of fertilizer. In non-irrigated rice lands, the negative effects on yield are significantly higher, with overall yield decline by -4.5 percent.• Of course, there are other solutions and opportunities out there for climate risk management such as the development of hybrid varieties and crop insurance, but challenges persist in these areas -stress-tolerant varieties continue to be limited in their availability and accessibility, not to mention issues with uptake and adoption, while crop financing or insurance has yet to be more attractive and innovative to support the most vulnerable production areas. • Investment in irrigation would increase effective land area -increasing cropping intensity and opening up of new lands and also increase land productivity.• Economic costs of Climate Change can be very substantial• The analysis supports the adaptation of the agricultural sector to Climate change• Strategies for upscaling CRA/CSA should be developed and tested -a recommended strategy here is to develop and promote technologies by class-group and let the farmers decide/choose which specific (single or stacked) technologies are suitable to their specific circumstances.• Investment in R&D must be supported by extension services (e.g., training, demo farms, weather forecasting, and smart communications) and ancillary industries (e.g., seed industry, credit, and crop insurance).• There are several investment strategies and policies towards CRA, and are costlier and less effective than others. Comparable benefit-cost analysis must be conducted for ranking these strategies. Dr. Perez -Actually the farmers have already answered that if all of them will shift, they will benefit. The government has a role to pay also, they have to provide accurate weather. But you will also see that the gain is not really big like 1% gain. Farmers already know when to change their planting season.Ms. Baruah -Shift the planting calendar is a series of work. Lots of other things need to shift. Government really need to intervene like synchronization between system and farmers' processes. Development Plan. I observe that there are many policies that needs to be effectively implemented or improved. How do we translate these policies into actionable activities on the ground? There's a need for more investment in irrigation, inputs and infrastructure. We're talking about new technologies, methods, high-yielding/drought-resistant seeds, FMR and postharvest facilities.The following points really need to be considered:-Strengthening of climate-based management -Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation (PCIC) -made several pilot products on weatherbased insurance but the priority is still rice. They do not cover agricultural machineries and equipment.-Expand public-private investment in R&D -how to convince farmers adopt droughtresistant technologies.-Mitigation of greenhouse emission is more of production. Farmers must have a market-driven system/ approach. The business model is not given attention. We need to come up with simple models that could help the farmers. We also need to change their mentality on dole-out projects. Let's hope for the active participation of LGUs to make every efforts work.Panelist: Dr. Julieta Roa, Professor, VSU Food security and commodity-resilient policy is so broad. If AFMA law alone if implemented well then we're all good.The definition of food security in AFMA law is very good. We only need 30 brilliant minds with a big heart and feet on the ground. Has the definition of SAFDZ been operational? How about Food Sufficiency Staple Program? We have very good policies. All we need is good implementation. If we have appropriate mindset then we have resources.We need to look on the following:-Institutional framework on policies and governance -Deficiency in LGU capacities on agriculture and rural development -Information system on innovations delivery -We have lots of R&D projects but mostly piloting and never scaled up.-ATI is good at provision of many trainings. They just need to look at the qualification of participants Panelist: Dr. Thelma Paris, Gender and Development ConsultantThe role of women in the farming sector must be given attention. Women are not only wives or cook in their households but also involved in production. We need to change the mindset of \"Go home and plant camote\".In terms of climate change, root crops are the only resilient commodity. Women can be trained to be entrepreneurs. This is their role in the food chain. A Dr. Julieta Roa -We have lots of projects. We just need to make use of them and pool them together.Communication program needs investment.We need simple solutions from all data.Before, we asked for GIS maps to be used in the field, but they are not much useful. We just did simple mapping in the community.Big data can be used for policy makers. We need to shift focus from attaining food sufficiency to food systems analysis. Objective: We would like to know about the production details of livelihood options prevailing in this region like:• Crops production (such as rice, sweet potato) practiced?• Livestock rearing (such as pig, cattle, and chicken) practiced?A. Introduction1. The facilitator begins with introducing her/himself, and the team. Explain carefully and clearly the objective of this discussion and how long it might take. 2. Explain about informed consent and ask if the participants understand/agree with it. Ask if we could proceed.Thank you for joining us today. We came here to learn from you about your experiences of farming. The discussion will take around 1.5-2 hours. You are of course free to leave the discussion if you have any issues.Your views and experiences are very important to us. We cannot promise that you and your community will benefit directly from this study, but the information that we are collecting will help to improve agricultural research and development activities in your region/ province.Are there any questions before we begin?   • Has there been switch to any new variety/varieties in the last 10 years?• What kind of varieties?• Why did the farmers of this province switch? In which way are these better? (Better yield, taste, nutrients, commercialization, abiotic stress tolerance (flood, drought and saline tolerance), etc.)?• How do you get information about new varieties and where?• What are your considerations when determining which varieties to grow per season? • Do the farmers know their suppliers in advance? Do you have a long term relationship with him/her and know the price and conditions in advance?• How far are the suppliers and the market from the houses? How do the farmers of this province travel from home to market and how frequently do they go?• What type of labour is used in your production system? • Draw community resource map for rice production system• How many rice crops you grow every year?• Duration of rice crop: Season 1 (_______) and Season 2 (_______).• What kind of irrigation system do you have? Example: rain fed, pump irrigated etc.• Is rice inter cropped? Which crops? • What are the main constraints in expanding paddy sale for the farmers of this province?• Is paddy sold immediately after harvest or later stage by stage?• Does the buyers require certain quality standards of the paddy? What are important for your customers?Example:• What for you is good quality rice/paddy? What for you is low quality rice/paddy?• What effort do you do to improve the quality of rice/paddy for your buyers?• Are there long-term relationships with particular buyers? Specify that relationship?How does this work? What benefit and challenges do these relationships bring? Are they more likely to be male or female producers who maintain those relations?• What are factors that determine prices of rice/paddy? • Are there any differences in challenges between small-and large-scale farmers?Explain in notes -which type of farmer faces the particular constraints. • Why do you produce maize? Reasons?• Do you produce maize mainly for own consumption or for the market?• Is the production of maize increasing/stable/decreasing in this province and why?• What are characteristics of large-, medium-, and small-scale farmers in this province? In terms of average land size under production, inputs (machines/tools/fertilizers/labor etc.) used? And average % under each category? • Have the farmers of this province, switched to any new variety/ varieties in the last 10 years?• What kind of varieties?• Why did the farmers switch? In which way are these better? (Better yield, taste, nutrients, commercialization, abiotic stress tolerance (flood, drought and saline tolerance), etc.)?• How do the rice farmers in this province, get information about new varieties and where?• What are your considerations when determining which varieties to grow per season?• Out of these factors, what are the most, second and third most important? • Is there any other variety that you would like to grow? (You may have not grown this variety due to some limitations but you might have heard about it) Name of the variety and why you would like to grow this? • How far are the suppliers and the market from the houses? How do the farmers of this province travel from home to market and how frequently do they go?• What type of labour is used in your production system? • Do you plant maize on the basis of selling options? If yes for how long have you been selling maize?• In what form do you sell, the maize produce (green cobs or dried grains)?• How do you sell your produce? • What are the main constraints in expanding maize sale for the farmers of this province?• Do you sell your maize immediately after harvest or later stage by stage?• If stage by stage, where and how do you store the maize?• Do your buyers require certain quality standards of your maize? What are important for your buyers? • What for you is good quality maize? What for you is low quality maize?• What effort do you do to improve the quality of maize for your buyers?• Are there long-term relationships with particular buyers? Specify that relationship?How does this work? What benefit and challenges do these relationships bring? Are they more likely to be male or female producers who maintain those relations?• What are factors that determine prices of maize? • Are there any differences in challenges between small-and large-scale farmers?Explain in notes -which type of farmer faces the particular constraints. • Why do you produce sweet potato? Reasons? (E.g.: it's a climate resilient crop, its gives good income return, there is high in the market etc.)• Do you produce sweet potato mainly for own consumption or for the market? • Is the production of Sweet Potato increasing/stable/decreasing in this province and why?• What are characteristics of large-, medium-, and small-scale farmers in this province? In terms of average land size under production, inputs (machines/tools/fertilizers/labor etc.) used? And average % under each category?  • Have the framers of this province, switched to any new variety in the last 10 years?• What kind of varieties?• Why did you switch? In which way are these better? (Better size/color/shape, taste, nutrients, commercialization, etc.)?• How do you get information about new varieties and where?• What are your considerations when determining which varieties to grow per season?• Out of these factors, what are the most, second and third most important? • Is there any other variety that you would like to grow? (You may have not grown this variety due to some limitations but you might have heard about it) Name of the variety and why you would like to grow this?• What are the inputs you use for your sweet potato production system? Where do you get them from (source)? • How far are the suppliers and the market from the houses? How do the farmers of this province travel from home to market and how frequently do they go?• What type of labour is used in your production system? • What effort do you do to improve the quality of sweet potatoes for your buyers?• Are there long-term relationships with particular buyers? Specify that relationship? How does this work? What benefit and challenges do these relationships bring? Are they more likely to be male or female producers who maintain those relations?• What are factors that determine prices of sweet potatoes? Other (specify) • How are the chickens/pigs/cattle etc. (poultry/livestock) raised? On pasture, indoors, confined? Are they caged?• What are they fed? ( dig details)• How much time do the poultry/livestock spend outdoors each day?• Do you do forced molting to your hens? ( if applicable)• Are your livestock/poultry given antibiotics?• Are your livestock/poultry given hormones?• How do you decide the following ( whatever is applicable) : o Ask if there are any events such as disease / pest attack or disasters (such as flood, drought, etc.) that commonly occur every year in the village. If yes, ask them to write, draw a picture or symbolize these activities on the table.o Also list adapted practices due to climate vulnerabilities o Go on like this, meaning topic by topic. After finishing all the columns your matrix should have covered the following 14 topics: • What kind of varieties?• Why did the farmers of this province switch? In which way are these better? (Better yield, taste, nutrients, commercialization, abiotic stress tolerance (flood, drought and saline tolerance), etc.)?• How do you get information about new varieties and where?• What are your considerations when determining which varieties to grow per season? • Do the farmers know their suppliers in advance? Do you have a long term relationship with him/her and know the price and conditions in advance?• How far are the suppliers and the market from the houses? How do the farmers of this province travel from home to market and how frequently do they go?• What type of labour is used in your production system? • What are the main constraints in expanding paddy sale for the farmers of this province?• Is paddy sold immediately after harvest or later stage by stage?• Does the buyers require certain quality standards of the paddy? What are important for your customers? • What for you is good quality rice/paddy? What for you is low quality rice/paddy?• What effort do you do to improve the quality of rice/paddy for your buyers?• Are there long-term relationships with particular buyers? Specify that relationship?How does this work? What benefit and challenges do these relationships bring? Are they more likely to be male or female producers who maintain those relations?• What are factors that determine prices of rice/paddy? • Are there any differences in challenges between small-and large-scale farmers? Explain in notes -which type of farmer faces the particular constraints. • Why do you produce potato? Reasons? (E.g.: its gives good income return, there is high demand in the market etc.)• Do you produce potato mainly for your own consumption or for the market?• Approximately how much % of potatoes do you keep for the following purposes? • Is the production of potato increasing/stable/decreasing in this district and why?• What are characteristics of large-, medium-, and small-scale farmers in this district?In terms of average land size under production, inputs (machines/tools/fertilizers/labor etc.) used? And average % under each category? Inputs Source• Do the farmers know their suppliers (of inputs) in advance? Do you have a long term relationship with him/her and know the price and conditions in advance?• How far are the suppliers and the market from the houses? How do the farmers of this province travel from home to market and how frequently do they go?• What type of labour is used in your production system?  • Draw community resource map for potato production system and weigh/rank each actor according to importance• How many potato cropping cycles do you practice per year?• Duration of potato crop: Season 1 (_______) and Season 2 (_______)• How many months does each potato cropping cycle last?• Is potato intercropped? Which crops?• How do you grow potato from seed tuber/ tuber cutting/other?  • What for you is good quality potato? What for you is low quality potato?• What effort do you do to improve the quality of potatoes for your buyers?• Are there long-term relationships with particular buyers? Specify that relationship?How does this work? What benefit and challenges do these relationships bring? Are they more likely to be male or female producers who maintain those relations? Inputs Source• Do the farmers know their suppliers (of inputs) in advance? Do you have a long term relationship with him/her and know the price and conditions in advance?• How far are the suppliers and the market from the houses? How do the farmers of this province/district travel from home to market and how frequently do they go?• What type of labour is used in your production system? • Do you do any kind of processing of your vegetables harvest? What?• Where is the processing done?• Do you plant vegetables on the basis of selling options? If yes for how long have you been selling vegetables?• How do you sell your produce?o Directly o Through intermediaries • What for you is good quality vegetables? What for you is low quality vegetables?• What effort do you do to improve the quality of vegetables for your buyers?• Are there long-term relationships with particular buyers? Specify that relationship?How does this work? What benefit and challenges do these relationships bring? Are they more likely to be male or female producers who maintain those relations?• What are factors that determine prices of vegetables? • Are there any differences in challenges between small -and large-scale farmers?Explain in notes -which type of farmer faces the particular constraints. Informed consent:Thank you for joining us today. We came here to learn from you about your experiences of farming. The interview will take around 1.00 hour. You are of course free to leave the interview if you have any issues.Your views and experiences are very important to us. We cannot promise that you and your community will benefit directly from this study, but the information that we are collecting will help to improve agricultural research and development activities in your region/ province.Are there any questions before we begin?Duration: about 1 hours (60') 2) What are the areas where rice production is high, very high and low in this province?3) Does the rice go to other provinces for selling or mostly traded within the province?4) Does the government provide any subsidies for agricultural input or machineries? 5) What is the rice production value chain in the province -who are the actorsfrom the producer to the consumer how does the product travel.1) What kinds of training and extension services does the government provide on rice production?2) What are the challenges in increasing the uptake of new technologies and scaling up?3. Policy, challenges and constraints 1) Do you have any specific targets (goals) for rice production in the next five years in this province?2) Are there any specific government schemes or project by the government supporting rice production?3) What kind of agriculture loans or finances are provided to the farmers and through what mechanisms (agri-banks, cooperatives, other government services etc.)4) What are institutional challenges and opportunities in increasing rice production and trading in this province? (e.g. the state policy, collaboration with private sectors, shortage of staff, shortage of extension workers, lack of knowledge and experiences of extension workers, if any, infrastructure).  ","tokenCount":"8240"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3b825c26b139ef9dc80df42bb1d92e14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/12b901f4-c142-4bd6-b250-ad31cac2fa26/retrieve","id":"-1203184798"},"keywords":["tropics","wild species","grasses","legumes","germplasm","collection","utilization","genebank"],"sieverID":"9cce09df-ca73-4990-b555-c3b878962915","pagecount":"18","content":"A report on the tropical forage germplasm collection conserved in the CIAT genebank is presented. Emphasis is firstly on the assembling of the collection during 1972−1993 through about 70 major and minor collecting missions in tropical America, Africa and Southeast Asia. Along with introductions from existing collections, currently some 1,600 accessions of 134 grass species and 21,000 accessions of 637 legume species are being maintained. Secondly, information on the utilization of the collection, with emphasis on cultivar development based on selection of accessions from the CIAT collection, is presented. Worldwide, a total of 44 grass and 34 legume cultivars derived from germplasm maintained at CIAT are reported. Information on germplasm distribution and knowledge sharing during the last four decades is also presented as well as a brief discussion on future needs.Research related to forage genetic resources at the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Cali, Colombia, has been a continuing activity since the inception of the center in 1969. CIAT was the third of the international agricultural research centers established within the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), one of its missions being the development of beef cattle production in the lowlands of tropical America (Lynam and Byerlee, 2017). When looking at the development of the CIAT forages collection and its achievements, two phases can be distinguished: the first phase focused on assembling the collection and some initial, however intensive, characterization and utilization of the collected materials (1972−1993); and the second phase consisted of continuing utilization of germplasm, diversity studies and routine germplasm management and its optimization (1993−2020).This paper summarizes the assembling of the collection during the first phase as well as its utilization and germplasm distribution. Furthermore, research on forage diversity and knowledge sharing, including training, are addressed. Data presented were compiled mainly from information accessible via the CIAT website (https://ciat.cgiar.org/), CIAT annual reports (accessible at https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/ 35699), unpublished reports on germplasm collecting missions, research bulletins of CIAT´s national partner institutions and the like.It should be noted that in the past years there have been changes in plant nomenclature for numerous taxa of particular interest, even at the genus level (Cook and Schultze-Kraft, 2015). In this paper we are still referring to the earlier used names. Supplemental Table 1 lists new names of species mentioned in this report, following the taxonomy of GRIN, the database of the USDA Genetic Resources Information Network (https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/ taxon/taxonomysearch).At the beginning of research at CIAT in the early 1970s, a focus of the then Beef Production Systems Program was forage-based livestock production on acid, low-fertility soils in humid and sub-humid lowlands of tropical America, particularly savanna areas. The lack of edaphic adaptation of available, mainly Australian commercial pasture grass and legume cultivars, was soon identified as the main constraint to their use in Neotropical savannas. In the case of legumes, diseases, such as anthracnose in the promising genus Stylosanthes, were an additional restriction. It was consequently recognized that available species and genotype pools of grasses and legumes needed to be broadened for screening for adaptation to abiotic (mainly soil) and biotic (pests and diseases) constraints.Missions were thus initiated in 1972/73 to collect germplasm of wild species with forage potential throughout tropical America. The objective was to create a diverse germplasm pool that can be tapped for cultivar development, either by identifying suitable accessions for direct use or through genetic improvement. These collecting missions ranged from short excursions, particularly within the Center´s host country, Colombia, to field expeditions over several weeks. Another source of germplasm material was through opportunistic collecting undertaken by CIAT scientists during field visits. The missions were largely funded by CIAT, at the beginning of the collecting phase, also with support from the former International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR; later International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT). There was a focus on acid-soil regions and plant genera of known value. Emphasis was on legumes, in many cases including associated rhizobia, taking into account that the Neotropics are the main center of diversification of the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) family. The particular value of legumes lies in their ability of symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and the subsequent provision of protein-rich forage to livestock.From 1979 onwards, collecting missions within the new Tropical Pastures Program expanded to Southeast Asia, a minor yet important center of legume diversification (e.g. the genera Pueraria and Desmodium), and in 1984/85 and 1989 also to Africa, with focus on grasses (particularly the genus Brachiaria). The latter took into account that Sub-Saharan Africa is the main center of diversification of those genera with forage potential in the Poaceae family.All missions were organized as joint ventures in association with national research institutions. Table 1 provides an overview of the countries where the collecting efforts were undertaken; the main genera collected are summarized in Table 2. The germplasm collectors who participated in the missions are acknowledged in Supplemental Table 2.Alongside the collecting activities, the introduction of germplasm in the form of donations from existing collections held by national and international research and development (R&D) institutions around the globe has been an ongoing activity since the inception of the CIAT forages collection. It became the sole source of additions to the collection, when germplasm collecting with the involvement of CIAT scientists came to an end in the 1990s. A total of more than 9,000 accessions were received as donations; among them, in 2006, a significant part of the former Australian Tropical Forages Collection of CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) (Table 3).Two factors contributed to the cessation of collecting missions: (1) a sustained decline in funding for tropicalforages research and (2) the fact that hardly any tropical-forage species are included in Annex 1 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA; FAO, 2001), which streamlines germplasm distribution through the use of a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA). Instead, most tropical forage species are regulated by legal frameworks that require case-by-case negotiations of individual material transfer agreements, which would create unmanageable legal overheads given the frequent germplasm exchange in agricultural research.With more than 22,000 accessions from a total of 75 countries of origin, the CIAT collection is the largest tropical forages germplasm collection worldwide. Its particular value lies in its focus on: (1) plants adapted to acid, low-fertility soils; (2) legumes; and (3) the large and diverse collection of Brachiaria. This grass genus comprises currently the economically most important tropical forage species worldwide. The CIAT Brachiaria collection stems mainly from the Center´s collecting activities in the 1980s in East Africa and has become an important source of germplasm for selection and breeding programs throughout the tropics.It is recognized that there are still important gaps in terms of countries and regions where germplasm has been collected. The collection is likely far from being representative of the geographic diversity of tropical Poaceae and Fabaceae (Leguminosae).Table 4 provides a summary of the current tropical forages collection conserved at the CIAT genebank. Differences of numbers in Table 4 in comparison with Tables 2 and 3 are due to initial misidentifications and losses of accessions due to a range of reasons, including a limited number (or low viability) of collected seeds, lack of seed setting in the environments available for regeneration, and insufficient funds for regenerating large numbers of accessions between the 1990s and the launch of the CGIAR Research Program on Genebanks in the 2010s.   As a result of the germplasm evaluation and selection research conducted by CIAT and its partners, a number of grass and legume accessions that had been provided by the CIAT forages collection were developed into cultivars by national R&D institutions worldwide, in a few cases after incorporating them in national breeding programs (Table 5). Several issues should be pointed out:• In relation to cultivars selected from genebank accessions, formal release and/or registration has been and is the exclusive responsibility of national institutions. In the case of bred lines developed at CIAT (not included in  In the early 1990s, CIAT gradually changed its germplasm utilization research priority from development of grass/legume pastures for acid soils to selection of multipurpose plants for smallholders. This adjustment took into account the need for forage plants to maintain and restore soil fertility, including in mixed (crop-livestock) production systems, and to contribute to increased small-farmer livelihoods. Since 2006/07 the research focus of the CIAT Tropical Forages Program was further refined and includes the adaptation of forages to climate change and their potential contribution to ecosystem services, including the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Within these new developments, species selection is benefiting from the broad diversity represented in the CIAT forages collection.   The basis for effective and efficient utilization of CIAT's forage germplasm has been, and still is, the production and distribution of germplasm samples for plant introduction work by the Center´s GRU/GRP. Since 1980 a total of 93,222 germplasm samples, representing 14,695 accessions, were distributed to 110 countries. Approximately 41% of these samples went to CIAT's TPP/TFP. The remainder was distributed to users in Colombia (33%), Brazil (9%), Peru, China, Venezuela (4% each), Australia, Mexico, USA (3% each), and 102 other countries. Approximately 47% of all externally distributed samples went to national agricultural research institutes, 23% to universities, 16% to farmers, with the remainder going to CGIAR centers, NGOs, companies, regional organizations, and other genebanks worldwide (Figure 1). Seed samples were predominantly used for agronomic evaluations (64%), but also for basic research (13%), capacity building (12%) and other purposes such as applied research, genetic improvement and conservation, in alignment with the ITPGRFA and the SMTA. The list of accessions included in each seed shipment is linked to available passport data and more recently to accession-specific Digital Object Identifiers (DOI).For evaluation trials and on-farm experimentation with accessions that were considered as highly promising by CIAT, its network partners and/or development agencies, seed in larger amounts has been/is being provided by the Tropical Forages Program (Tropical Pastures Program until 1992). Between 1982 and 2014, the TPP/TFP produced and distributed almost 64 tons of grass and legume seeds, either free of charge for research purposes or at cost price for larger quantities, representing a total of 27,325 samples, to 88 countries worldwide.A strong multidisciplinary research program (TPP/TFP) at CIAT and its alliance with national partners and international networks was instrumental for effective and efficient utilization of the collection. This includes the capacity to supply sufficiently large seed samples for research beyond small-plot level and eventually for onfarm testing.The PPP arrangements between CIAT and the seed industry are proving to be conducive to increased adoption of improved-forage technology based on breeding lines.The number of legume species (15), of which cultivars were released (33), contrasts with the number of grass species (9) and released cultivars (44). We suggest that this reflects, on the one hand, the particular focus of CIAT and its research partners on legumes in the past; on the other hand it reflects, to some extent, that the user community of tropical forages seems to be more receptive to grasses as they are easier to manage and have a better developed commercialization pathway.Basic plant descriptors have been used during both the germplasm multiplication phase by the GRU/GRP and the primary evaluation phase by the TPP/TFP to provide information on phenotypic diversity within a species and subsequent reduction of accession numbers for evaluation (e.g. the formation of core collections). In addition, molecular marker studies have been used to assess the genetic (= intraspecific) diversity and to elucidate species relationships for species of particular interest. On species that are little-known but of interest, basic floral-biology studies have been performed with the objective of optimizing germplasm management and enabling breeding. The main publications resulting from such research are listed below (section Publications).The need for basic botanical and genetic studies to expand our knowledge about genera and species of forage interest must be stressed. Any future diversity research is recommended to focus on relevance for:(1) enhanced germplasm management and utilization (e.g. identification of duplicates, establishment of core collections); (2) relationships between traits and geographic origin of populations; and (3) identification of genes responsible for particularly important plant traits.During the period 1978−1990, the CIAT Tropical Pastures Program, within its coordinating role in the RIEPT network, held a yearly course 'Programa de Capacitación Científica en Investigación para la Producción de Pastos Tropicales'. The course, aimed at researchers from Latin America and the Caribbean, consisted of an intensive multi-disciplinary phase in which all participants were provided with lectures and practical training in all disciplines represented in the TPP (thus including the field of genetic resources of forage plants and germplasm handling) and a specialization phase. With an average of 20 participants per course, a total of around 250 researchers were trained during the 13-year period, with about 10 specializing in genetic resources. In addition, several dozen students from both Colombian and foreign universities conducted research for their theses (BSc, MSc and PhD) with focus on genetic diversity of forages under the supervision of TPP/TFP scientists.From 1990 onwards, training activities in forage germplasm management were essentially taken over by CIAT's GRU/GRP, mainly in the area of germplasm management and in the form of field days for Colombian university students and technicians, with demonstrations on field, greenhouse and laboratory activities. Several hundred students, technicians and researchers participated in this scheme.The following list comprises a selection of publications that, with regard to research topics and regions, we consider representative of the CIAT forage germplasm work during the past four decades:Having safeguarded the germplasm is a major achievement in view of increasing world-wide genetic erosion due to habitat destruction and land use changes. The very availability of conserved germplasm represents an option value whose potential impact cannot be calculated and should not be underestimated. Given that the CIAT tropical forages collection is an in-trust collection, held by CIAT on behalf of the countries of origin of the accessions, another incalculable option value is that all accessions stored in the genebank are available to users under an SMTA at any time. In this context, an important potential benefit to the 75 countries of origin of the germplasm conserved at CIAT's genebank is that it is available for repatriation.The present report has to content itself with showing the number of released cultivars developed from CIAT's forages collection. An estimation of the total economic benefits derived from the collection is beyond the possibilities of genebank managers or scientists engaged in developing varieties. For this, field studies are suggested to be necessary, which have to involve resource economists for the assessment of acreages planted to the new cultivars, resulting livestock production increases, benefits to the environment (e.g. soil conservation and improvement) and estimates of increased livelihoods of end users.Although this report is concerned with both past and present, a couple of thoughts related to the future seem to be appropriate. Funding for tropical-forage research and deployment has declined considerably over the last decades. Ex situ conservation of forages is substantially more expensive on a per-accession basis than conservation of other crops such as grains and pulses because cross-pollinating, wild and/or weedy accessions with long, asynchronous life cycles are substantially more expensive to regenerate thaninbred crops with short, synchronous life cycles (Koo et al, 2003), yet funding for tropical-forage research and deployment has declined considerably over the last decades. Accordingly, to ensure the long-term conservation and availability of critically important tropical-forage genetic resources, genebanks need to focus on the species with the greatest forage potential. A panel of well-known tropical-forage experts has grouped the species conserved at the CIAT and ILRI collections into priority categories based on the species' proven or suspected forage potential (Pengelly, 2015). Lowpriority accessions of both collections will be archived to focus conservation efforts on more promising species, with a view towards multiplying selected groups of 'bestbet' accessions so that larger quantities of starter seeds can be provided for research projects to shorten the path between the genebank and germplasm use in the field.Compared with tropical-forage collections at ILRI in Ethiopia (17K accessions), USDA in the US (15K accessions), KARI (Kenya Agricultural Research Institute) in Kenya (15K accessions), the Australian Pastures Genebank (APG) in Australia (13K accessions), EMBRAPA in Brazil (9K accessions), INTA in Argentina, and IGFRI (Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute) in India, CIAT's collection is particularly rich in legumes adapted to infertile, acid soils. A full list of accessions, including passport data, photos of plants, flowers and seeds and images of herbarium specimens, can be accessed on the Genesys web portal by filtering for 'COL003' for CIAT and 'forages' as a crop (https:// www.genesys-pgr.org).In 2021, the CIAT genebank will achieve all the CGIAR Genebank Platform's 'performance targets' for its forage collection (Crop Trust, 2016). One of these targets is making more than 90% of all accessions available for immediate distribution, which means the genebank holds sufficient numbers of seeds that have been tested and found to be free of more than 40 different pathogens of quarantine importance. The collection, therefore, will qualify for long-term funding from the Endowment Fund of the Global Crop Diversity Trust to ensure its in-perpetuity conservation.Although increasing germplasm collections by further collecting is currently difficult to justify, the policy framework may change over time, for example through an expansion of the ITGPRFA's scope to include all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Efforts to identify the most important collection gaps, therefore, are indicated to prepare for future collections. As suggested above, the forage germplasm collections currently conserved at the aforementioned genebanks, in addition to those at the CGIAR centers ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas) and World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) cannot be considered adequately representative of the geographic and taxonomic/ genetic diversity of the tropical and subtropical Poaceae and Fabaceae (Leguminosae), neither at the level of the individualcollections nor at that of their consolidated total. It is suggested that such gap analyses:• Consider both neglected areas/regions and genera/species of particular interest with emphasis on potential as forage and for environmental services. • Be based on ecogeographical surveys paying particular attention to regions where biodiversity loss (including danger of genetic erosion) has been identified and/or is likely to occur. • Consider the need for germplasm with focus on adaptation to the particular environmental challenges of the future in terms of the effects of climate change, such as increasing soil salinity, rising water table (including flooding), drought, temperature extremes etc. Collecting is suggested in areas of currently similar conditions under the assumption that germplasm occurring there has genetic adaptation to the respective limiting factors.Such gap analyses can be the basis for future internationally coordinated collecting actions -when they become feasible -but independently may also stimulate immediate plans of action at national levels.","tokenCount":"3114"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b46b57aa93e8667ee5c88e98bc149d61","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d6074cae-7d40-4d84-89d5-614adac12b86/retrieve","id":"560938753"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"151e1d44-6956-417c-901b-f3446d48e2f2","pagecount":"20","content":"Cambio Climático. Dichos hallazgos representan las opiniones independientes de los autores y no deben interpretarse como las opiniones de sus instituciones, sus financiadores, el CGIAR o la Plataforma Global de Donantes para el Desarrollo Rural.En un planeta con suficiente comida para todos, mil millones de personas pasan hambre 2 . Otros mil millones de personas consumen en exceso, lo que incrementa el riesgo de enfermedades crónicas 3 . El sistema alimentario afronta cada vez más presión a medida que la población mundial crecese estima que será de 9.000 millones de personas en 2050 4y a medida que las dietas tienden hacia un mayor consumo de calorías, grasas y productos de origen animal. La inseguridad alimentaria afecta a comunidades de todo el mundo en las que la pobreza impide un acceso garantizado a los suministros alimentarios. Aparte de causar un sufrimiento humano generalizado, la inseguridad alimentaria provoca la degradación y el agotamiento de los recursos naturales, las migraciones a las áreas urbanas y entre países, y la inestabilidad política y económica.La ineficacia en las cadenas de suministro alimentario tiene efectos negativos en el medio ambiente, la disminución de la productividad y el desperdicio de alimentos. Las prácticas agrícolas actuales, como la roturación de terrenos y el uso ineficaz de abonos y residuos orgánicos, hacen que la agricultura sea uno de los principales causantes de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero del planeta. Desde la granja hasta los consumidores, la refrigeración y otras actividades de la cadena de suministro son otra importante fuente de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. A medida que la demanda mundial de cultivos de alimentos, forraje y bioenergía crece, muchos sistemas agrícolas están agotando la fertilidad de la tierra, la biodiversidad y los recursos hidráulicos. En muchas zonas existe una gran distancia entre el rendimiento potencial y el rendimiento real de las cosechas. Cada año, unos 12 millones de hectáreas de 3Si continuamos haciendo las cosas como hemos hecho hasta ahora en nuestro sistema alimentario interconectado mundialmente, no lograremos la seguridad alimentaria ni la sostenibilidad medioambiental. Varias amenazas convergentes -desde el cambio climático hasta el crecimiento de la población, pasando por el uso insostenible de los recursos -están intensificando de forma sistemática la presión en la humanidad y en los gobiernos del mundo para que se transforme la manera de producir, distribuir y consumir los alimentos 1 . tierra de labranza, que podrían producir 20 millones de toneladas de grano, se pierden debido a la degradación de la tierra, que se suman a los miles de millones de hectáreas ya degradadas 5 . Se estima que una tercera parte de los alimentos producidos para el consumo humano se pierde o se desperdicia a lo largo del sistema de alimentación mundial 6 . Resulta evidente que debemos revisar nuestras elecciones colectivas en lo que a los sistemas agroalimentarios se refiere.1 Este resumen para responsabilidades políticos se complementará en breve con un enorme detallado de hallazgos y recomendaciones y con documentos de referencia. En 2007/8, el aumento de precios de los alimentos conmocionó a muchos responsables de la política de la creencia de que se podía dar por supuesto la estabilización o reducción de los precios de los alimentos y la garantía de los suministros. Antes de la escalada de precios, la pobreza suponía que 800 millones de personas pasaban hambre. Tras dicha escalada, esta cifra aumentó hasta algo más de mil millones de personas 7 (un aumento que obstaculizó considerablemente el progreso hacia el Objetivo de Desarrollo del Milenio de la ONU de reducir a la mitad el porcentaje de personas aquejadas de hambre entre 1990 y 2015 8 ). Y se calcula que 44 millones de personas más han caído desde entonces en la pobreza extrema debido al aumento del precio de los alimentos desde junio de 2010 9 . Estos acontecimientos han puesto cada vez más en evidencia que una parte significativa de la humanidad permanece crónicamente desnutrida, incluso durante los períodos de precios relativamente normales y poca inestabilidad.Resumen para responsables de la política de la Comisión sobre la Agricultura Sostenible y el Cambio Climático 5 UNCCD. 2011; Bai et al. 2008.   6 Gustavsson et al. 2011.   7 FAO. 2009.   8   HMG. 2010. 9 World Bank. 2011b.Nuestro clima está cambiando y, dado el nivel de gases de efecto invernadero ya presentes en nuestra atmósfera, seguirá haciéndolo. Los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos, como las altas temperaturas, las sequías y las inundaciones, ya son más frecuentes y graves, y tienen consecuencias sociales, económicas y ecológicas nefastas. Es probable que las temperaturas globales todavía suban más si no se efectúan cambios drásticos en las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero en toda una serie de actividades humanas. En las próximas décadas, el cambio climático mundial tendrá un efecto adverso global en la producción agrícola y nos llevará al borde de situaciones, o a situaciones, críticas en muchas zonas del planeta. Se Tabla 1. Estado de los parámetros mundiales seleccionados.Población desnutrida (2010) 11 Población mayor de 20 años con sobrepeso ( 2008) 12 Población que subsiste con menos de 1,25 dólares al día (2005) 13 Población que vive en zonas con tierras áridas (2007) 14 Población que depende de tierra degradada 15 Pérdidas debidas a fenómenos climatológicos (temperaturas extremas, sequías, incendios forestales) (2010) 16 Área de tierra de labranza (2009) 17 Área de tierras de cultivo, pastos y dehesas dedicada a la cría de animales 18 Crecimiento anual de la producción agrícola mundial (1997-2007)   prevé que las zonas que hoy en día padecen inseguridad alimentaria sufrirán efectos desproporcionadamente negativos. Para atenuar las consecuencias del cambio climático en los suministros de alimentos, los medios de subsistencia y las economías, debemos aumentar mucho la capacidad de adaptación de la agricultura -tanto a las tendencias climáticas a largo plazo como a la creciente variabilidad -como prioridad inmediata.La Comisión sobre la Agricultura Sostenible y el Cambio Climático ha examinado las pruebas científicas para encontrar un modo de lograr la seguridad alimentaria en el marco del cambio climático. Los sistemas alimentarios deben dar un giro para satisfacer mejor las necesidades humanas y, a largo plazo, alcanzar el equilibrio con los recursos del planeta. Esto requerirá importantes intervenciones, tanto a nivel local como mundial, para transformar los actuales modelos de producción, distribución y consumo de alimentos. Harán falta inversiones, innovación y un esfuerzo intencionado para capacitar a las poblaciones más vulnerables del mundo para construir un sistema alimentario mundial que se adapte al cambio climático y garantice la seguridad alimentaria, y que al mismo tiempo minimice las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y conserve nuestra base de recursos naturales. Las inversiones generalizadas en agricultura sostenible, como la mejora de las infraestructuras de apoyo y la recuperación de los ecosistemas degradados, constituyen un componente esencial del desarrollo económico a largo plazo. Cuanto antes se lleven a cabo, mayores serán los beneficios.Durante el transcurso del s. XXI, el mundo deberá producir bastantes más alimentos para proporcionar una dieta básica pero adecuada a toda la población. La cantidad de alimentos necesaria será incluso mayor si persisten las tendencias actuales en cuanto a dietas y gestión de los sistemas alimentarios. Debemos realizar esfuerzos concurrentes para establecer sistemas de producción agrícolas resilientes al clima, hacer un uso eficiente de los recursos, desarrollar cadenas alimentarias que generen pocos desperdicios, garantizar una alimentación adecuada y fomentar las conductas alimentarias saludables. Todo ello, en su conjunto, constituirá un sistema alimentario sostenible. La intensificación de la producción alimentaria debe ir acompañada de acciones concertadas para reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero procedentes de la agricultura, a fin de impedir una mayor aceleración del cambio climático y evitar amenazas para la viabilidad a largo plazo de la agricultura mundial. La realización de estos cambios, a pesar de ser técnicamente factible, requiere acciones internacionales, nacionales y locales urgentes, colectivas y considerablemente superiores.Debido a que el cambio climático incrementa los causantes medioambientales y socioeconómicos de la inseguridad alimentaria, resulta indispensable priorizar dónde, cómo y cuándo actuar. Se prevé que las amenazas del cambio 10 http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/worldtowelcome-seven-billionth-citizen.html 11 FAO. 2010. 12 World Health Organization. 2011. 13 Banco Mundial: Datos sobre pobreza y capital.http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/home/ 14 UNCCD. 2011. 15 Ibid. 16 Munich RE NatCatSERVICE. 2010. 17 Foley et al. 2011. 18 Ibid. 19  Bruinsma. 2009. 20  Gustavsson et al. 2011.Foto: E. Phipps (CIMMYT)-15% 0 +15% +35%Imagen 1. Cambios previstos en la producción agrícola en 2080 debido al cambio climático.Imagen: Hugo Ahlenius, PNUMA/GRID-Arendal Fuente: Cline. 2007. Los pronósticos suponen un incremento uniforme del 15% de la cosecha debido al efecto del abonado en el aumento de CO 2 en la atmósfera en algunas especies vegetales. (Tenga en cuenta que este análisis del grano grueso no muestra el impacto a escala local, para lo que se necesita un análisis geográfico específico.)climático sobre los suministros de alimentos y los medios de subsistencia sean variables según el lugar. Debemos detectar los puntos del planeta en los que las amenazas son mayores y desarrollar intervenciones concretas y prácticas para incrementar la resiliencia en dichas zonas. Por ejemplo, algunas de las principales zonas de producción de alimentos del mundo se encuentran en megadeltas amenazados por índices de penetración de agua salada cada vez mayores. En África, la gran distancia existente entre el rendimiento real y potencial de las cosechas y la disminución de la base de tierra por cápita 21 impide la seguridad alimentaria.En Europa, América del Norte y otras partes del mundo, una combinación de agricultura intensiva, prácticas de almacenamiento de alimentos, sistemas de venta al detalle y hábitos alimentarios genera unas emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y un desperdicio de alimentos elevados por persona. La diversidad medioambiental y humana del planeta impide la imposición de soluciones que sirvan para todos.Los problemas humanitarios, medioambientales y de seguridad mundial exigen un compromiso internacional para mejorar el destino del gran porcentaje de población que padece actualmente inseguridad alimentaria y que es vulnerable a la misma. Esto significa que debemos forjar una resistencia a los impactos climáticos y a la inestabilidad del precio de los alimentos, detener la degradación de la tierra e incrementar los activos productivos y las infraestructuras.Hay varios puntos por los que empezar a actuar. Muchas políticas y programas presentan pruebas abundantes de los múltiples beneficios para los medios de subsistencia y el medio ambiente de una participación significativa a escala local y zonal.Muchos millones de personas en todo el mundo dependen de la agricultura para su subsistencia básica. Los esfuerzos por reducir las emisiones netas de gases de efecto invernadero procedentes de la agricultura no deben tener efectos negativos en la seguridad alimentaria y el sustento de esas personas. Las técnicas para recuperar áreas degradadas y la retención de carbono del suelo para mejorar la productividad futura deberían incrementar o estabilizar la producción de alimentos. En los casos en los que el camino hacia la sostenibilidad a largo plazo implique una reducción de la productividad a corto plazo, serán necesarios estímulos económicos y programas de transición. Hay que llevar a cabo acciones específicas para ayudar a quienes son más vulnerables a los aumentos a corto y largo plazo del precio de los alimentos, antes que confiar en los efectos del goteo económico. Si se destinan adecuadamente un conjunto de intervenciones a puntos de vulnerabilidad clave, como satisfacer las necesidades alimentarias y nutricionales de las madres y los niños pequeños, esta actuación se verá recompensada exponencialmente en la productividad y el desarrollo venideros.Los múltiples retos emergentes -la inseguridad alimentaria y la desnutrición, el cambio climático, la creciente competencia por la energía y el agua, la degradación de la tierra y de la biodiversidad -están relacionados de manera compleja y requieren un enfoque de gestión integrado. La gestión y la gobernanza adaptables para mejorar la seguridad alimentaria, la prosperidad económica y los resultados medioambientales requerirán de un sistema mundial mucho mejor para integrar información espacialmente explícita sobre agricultura, servicios de ecosistemas, mercados y poblaciones humanas en tiempo real. Las inversiones actuales y futuras en información y conocimiento deben estructurarse para identificar límites, informar de las correlaciones y proporcionar una guía práctica para un futuro sostenible, y no simplemente para maximizar los componentes del sistema alimentario. Un sistema de información de este tipo hará posible que entendamos mejor los sistemas dinámicos de los que dependemos y nos permitirá renovar y ampliar nuestros esfuerzos para garantizar un sistema alimentario más sostenible y saludable tanto para nuestra generación como para las venideras. Debemos avanzar, como comunidad mundial, hacia un \"espacio de actuación seguro\" que proporcione la alimentación adecuada a toda la población y no sobrepasar los límites medioambientales críticos. El camino hacia ese espacio requerirá tecnologías, instituciones y políticas innovadoras, y pondrá a prueba de forma importante nuestro ingenio social, tecnológico y agrícola. En todas las circunstancias, necesitaremos una gobernación a varios niveles que dé cabida a la participación, el aprendizaje y la capacidad de corregir el rumbo. Para lograr el éxito, necesitaremos una revalorización firme y ampliamente compartida de la agricultura como empresa multifuncional que proporciona alimentos, desarrollo rural, servicios medioambientales y patrimonio cultural durante todo el s. XXI y más allá.Medición de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero del arroz.Sin un compromiso mundial para reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero por parte de todos los sectores, incluido el de la agricultura, ningún nivel de adaptación agrícola bastará en medio del clima desestabilizado del futuro. Aunque el cambio tendrá unos costes considerables, el coste de seguir la senda actual ya es ahora enorme y va en aumento. Teniendo en cuenta las condiciones ya intolerables para muchas familias y ecosistemas y el desfase entre la investigación y el desarrollo y la aplicación generalizada, debemos tomar acciones de forma urgente. proporcionar a los países en vías de desarrollo financiación inmediata para mejorar las acciones de atenuación (incluida la Reducción de las Emisiones debidas a la Deforestación y la Degradación Forestal, REDD), adaptación, desarrollo y transferencia de tecnología y construcción de capacidades. www.faststartfinance.org/home 43 El Crecimiento Verde es un enfoque de medidas que hace hincapié en el progreso económico medioambientalmente sostenible para promover un desarrollo con emisiones de carbono bajas y socialmente integrador. www.greengrowth.org 44 Río+20, Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Desarrollo Sostenible, Río de Janeiro (Brasil), 4-6 de junio de 2012.La transición hacia un sistema alimentario mundial que colme las necesidades humanas, reduzca su huella de carbono, se adapte al cambio climático y esté en equilibrio con los recursos del planeta requiere de acciones concretas y coordinadas, implantadas a escala, simultáneamente y de forma urgente. A partir de sólidos indicios científicos, la Comisión sobre la Agricultura Sostenible y el Cambio Climático ha identificado puntos de actuación básicos y medidas de alta prioridad.La Comisión propone las siguientes acciones basadas en indicios para lograr la seguridad alimentaria ante el cambio climático. Llevando a cabo estos pasos, podemos proporcionar beneficios a largo plazo a comunidades de todos los países. Establecer un programa de trabajo para la atenuación del cambio climático y la adaptación al mismo en la agricultura, de conformidad con los principios y las disposiciones de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (UNFCCC) y basado en el artículo 2, como primer paso hacia la incorporación de la agricultura al debate de las políticas internacionales sobre el cambio climático.  Hacer de la agricultura sostenible y respetuosa con el medio ambiente el eje central del Crecimiento Verde 43 y de la Cumbre de la Tierra Río+20 44 . Financiar \"acciones tempranas\" para que los sistemas de producción agrícola avancen hacia una resiliencia cada vez mayor a la variabilidad meteorológica y a los impactos medioambientales, y a la vez contribuyan significativamente a atenuar el cambio climático. Esto significa apoyar la evaluación de los riesgos climáticos nacionales, desarrollar estrategias de atenuación y adaptación y programar su implantación.  Desarrollar plataformas comunes a escala mundial, zonal y nacional para un diálogo coherente y una acción política relacionadas con el cambio climático, la agricultura, la respuesta a la crisis y la seguridad alimentaria, a escala mundial, zonal y nacional. Esto incluye fomentar las coaliciones a nivel nacional para la seguridad alimentaria y crear resiliencia, particularmente en los países más vulnerables a los impactos climáticos. Implantar y reforzar los programas y compromisos existentes adoptados por el G8 en L'Aquila en pos de una agricultura sostenible y la seguridad alimentaria, incluidos los compromisos a largo plazo de ayuda financiera y técnica a la producción alimentaria y capacitar a los pequeños agricultores.  Hacer que la financiación inmediata de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (UNFCCC) 45 , los principales bancos de desarrollo y otros Foto: P Casier (CCAFS)Granja de cerdos en el Reino Unido.Foto: K Robinson (Panos) mecanismos financieros mundiales prioricen en programas de agricultura sostenible que proporcionen seguridad alimentaria, mejores sustentos, resiliencia al cambio climático y beneficios combinados medioambientales. Dichos programas deberían hacer hincapié en mejorar la infraestructura y la rehabilitación de la tierra.  Ajustar los presupuestos de investigación y desarrollo nacionales y elaborar una capacidad científica integrada para reflejar la importancia de una agricultura sostenible en el crecimiento económico, la reducción de la pobreza y la sostenibilidad medioambiental a largo plazo, y centrarse en los asuntos de seguridad alimentaria clave (por ejemplo, desarrollar cultivos nutritivos que no sean de grano y reducir las pérdidas posteriores a la cosecha).  Aumentar el conocimiento de las buenas prácticas y el acceso a la innovación apoyando servicios de extensión agraria revitalizados, la transferencia de tecnología y las comunidades de práctica (por ejemplo, intercambios norte-sur, sur-sur, entre productos y entre agricultores), prestando especial atención en los países con rentas más bajas y en las mujeres agricultoras. Desarrollar, facilitar y recompensar sistemas agrícolas multibeneficio que permitan medios de subsistencia y ecosistemas más productivos y resilientes, con especial atención en mejorar el rendimiento de las cosechas y la nutrición.  Presentar estrategias para minimizar la degradación del ecosistema y rehabilitar los entornos degradados, haciendo hincapié en los programas diseñados para la comunidad.  Capacitar a los productores de alimentos marginados (en especial a las mujeres) para que aumenten la productividad de una serie de cultivos adecuados reforzando los derechos de suelo y aguas, incrementando el acceso a los mercados, la financiación y los seguros, y mejorando la capacidad local (por ejemplo, a través de organizaciones agrícolas y basadas en la comunidad).  Detectar y modificar las subvenciones (para agua y electricidad, por ejemplo) que incentivan a los agricultores a perpetuar prácticas agrícolas que agotan las provisiones de agua o destruyen los ecosistemas autóctonos. Implantar planes de compensación destinados a los pobres.  Combinar incentivos económicos para la intensificación sostenible de la agricultura con una gobernanza más firme de la propiedad de la tierra y la zonificación de las tierras para evitar más pérdidas de bosques, humedales y praderas. Crear fondos para afrontar los impactos climatológicos, como los \"fondos vinculados a índices\", que ofrecen ayuda rápida a las comunidades azotadas por fenómenos climatológicos extremos, mediante asociaciones público-privadas basadas en principios acordados.  Moderar las fluctuaciones excesivas del precio de los alimentos compartiendo información del país sobre previsiones de producción y reservas, reforzando las bases de datos de mercados, fomentando sistemas de comercio abiertos y reactivos, estableciendo sistemas de aviso temprano y permitiendo la importación y exportación libres de impuestos para la ayuda humanitaria. Esto incluye la introducción de salvaguardas relativas a los incrementos súbitos de importaciones y a las distorsiones comerciales en los acuerdos comerciales. Tratar los temas de la nutrición y la dieta en las políticas de desarrollo y en la educación puede contribuir a reducir la inseguridad alimentaria.Foto: Instituto Internacional de Investigación del Arroz (IRRI) Crear y respaldar redes de seguridad y otros programas para contribuir a que las poblaciones vulnerables de todos los países logren la seguridad alimentaria (por ejemplo, transferencias de efectivo y en especie, planes de garantía de empleo, programas para crear resiliencia, sanidad y nutrición, impartición de formación o entrega de semillas de alimentos de crecimiento rápido en épocas de hambruna).  Establecer sólidas reservas de alimentos de emergencia y capacidad de financiación que puedan proporcionar respuestas humanitarias rápidas a las poblaciones vulnerables amenazadas por las crisis alimentarias.  Crear y apoyar plataformas para armonizar y coordinar programas internacionales de donantes, políticas y actividades, prestando una atención especial a integrar sistemáticamente la gestión del riesgo del cambio climático, los beneficios combinados de la adaptación y la mitigación, y mejorar los resultados de nutrición locales.5. Reestructurar el acceso a los alimentos y los modelos de consumo para garantizar que se satisfagan las necesidades nutritivas básicas y para fomentar modelos alimentarios saludables y sostenibles en todo el mundo. Abordar el hambre y la desnutrición crónicas armonizando la política de desarrollo y coordinando programas zonales para mejorar los medios de subsistencia y el acceso a servicios entre comunidades rurales y urbanas con inseguridad alimentaria.  Promover cambios positivos en la variedad y la cantidad de dietas a través de campañas educativas innovadoras enfocadas especialmente a los consumidores jóvenes, y a través de iniciativas económicas que alineen las prácticas de marketing de los minoristas y procesadores con los objetivos medioambientales y de salud pública.  Fomentar y respaldar un conjunto coherente de medidores y estándares de sostenibilidad basados en indicios para controlar y evaluar la seguridad alimentaria, la nutrición y la salud, las prácticas y las tecnologías en todas las cadenas de suministro, la productividad y eficiencia agrícola, el impacto medioambiental y del uso de los recursos, y los costes y beneficios del sistema alimentario. Esto debería incluir facilitar a los consumidores un etiquetaje claro.6. Reducir las pérdidas y el desperdicio en los sistemas alimentarios, prestando atención a la infraestructura, las prácticas agrícolas, el procesamiento, la distribución y los hábitos domésticos  Incluir en todos los programas de desarrollo de agricultura sostenible componentes de investigación e inversión dedicados a la reducción de los desperdicios, desde la producción hasta el consumo, mejorando la gestión de la cosecha y de la fase posterior a la cosecha y el almacenamiento y transporte de los alimentos.  Desarrollar políticas y programas integrados que reduzcan los desperdicios en las cadenas de suministro de alimentos, como innovaciones económicas para que los productores de renta baja puedan almacenar alimentos durante los períodos de exceso de oferta u obligaciones a los distribuidores de separar y reducir los desperdicios de alimentos.  Promover el diálogo y fomentar asociaciones de trabajo a lo largo de las cadenas de suministro de alimentos para garantizar que las intervenciones de reducción de desperdicios sean efectivas y eficientes (por ejemplo, el desvío de los desperdicios de alimentos para otros fines) y no crear incentivos perniciosos. Mantener e incrementar las inversiones en controles regulares, sobre el terreno y a través de redes de teledetección de dominio público, para realizar un seguimiento de los cambios en el uso de la tierra, la producción de alimentos, el clima, el medio ambiente, la salud humana y el bienestar en todo el mundo.  Apoyar una mayor transparencia y un mayor acceso a la información en los mercados de alimentos de todo el mundo e invertir en sistemas de información interconectados con protocolos comunes sustentados en instituciones ya existentes.  Desarrollar, validar e implantar datos espacialmente explícitos y sistemas de apoyo a las decisiones que integren información biofísica y socioeconómica y que permitan a los responsables de la política encontrar el equilibrio entre intensificación agrícola, seguridad nutricional y consecuencias medioambientales.Foto: N Palmer (CIAT)Únicamente implantando cambios reales en la totalidad del sistema alimentario mundial podremos lograr la seguridad alimentaria y la estabilidad climática a largo plazo. Para ello será necesario romper con la forma tradicional de hacer negocios y un compromiso compartido considerable por parte de los responsables de la política, los inversores, los productores agrícolas, los consumidores, las empresas de alimentación y los investigadores.Foto: M Castley, Private Forests Tasmania Inversión, innovación y acción en el mundo real Los líderes de los sectores público y privado de todo el mundo ya están emprendiendo acciones. En este apartado se destacan una serie de medidas y programas diversos que abordan la seguridad alimentaria en el marco del cambio climático.Australia: Iniciativas nacionales y servicios de información en apoyo de la agricultura de adaptación La información y las previsiones en tiempo real sobre precipitaciones, temperatura, humedad y sequías son fundamentales para lograr la adaptación al cambio climático y mitigar sus efectos en la agricultura. Australia, además, debe hacer frente a estos retos teniendo ante sí el clima más variable de todos los continentes habitados. Por ejemplo, la Oscilación del Sur El Niño dirige ciclos de sequía e inundaciones que afectan considerablemente al sector rural. La agricultura australiana, incluida la roturación de tierras, es responsable como mínimo del 25% de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero del país (porcentaje similar al de la media mundial), lo que da lugar a una doble necesidad imperativa: reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero un 50-80% para 2050 e incrementar la producción de alimentos un 30-80%. La Iniciativa de Captura de Dióxido de Carbono en Suelos Agrícolas de Australia es la primera legislación nacional del mundo destinada a mitigar el problema utilizando el suelo agrícola y a mejorar las rentas rurales. Para que los productores australianos opten por la agricultura de adaptación y la captura de dióxido de carbono en suelos agrícolas, la Oficina de Meteorología (BoM) ofrece Pronósticos Meteorológicos Estacionales con predicciones detalladas y evaluación de riesgos, incluida una previsión de tres meses basada en el Índice de Oscilación del Sur de Troup y una previsión de seis meses de la Oscilación del Sur El Niño 46 . Asimismo, la Organización para la Investigación Científica e Industrial de la Commonwealth (CSIRO) y la BoM ofrecen pronósticos a más largo plazo para que los agricultores puedan prepararse para los cambios venideros. En algunas zonas, como el suroeste de Australia, los pronósticos meteorológicos ya constituyen una herramienta importante para los agricultores que se han visto obligados a cambiar sus prácticas agrícolas en respuesta a las condiciones meteorológicas cambiantes. Estas iniciativas cuentan con el apoyo del programa Futuro Agrícola de Australia, que ofrece información, financiación, formación y apoyo para que los agricultores puedan adaptarse al cambio climático, incluidas subvenciones para mujeres agricultoras y agricultores \"de nueva generación\" 47 .A pesar de triplicar la producción de arroz en los últimos 40 años, la seguridad alimentaria en Bangladesh se ve amenazada por el aumento de la población, el cambio climático, la escasez de recursos naturales, la vulnerabilidad a las crisis de los precios, la persistencia de la pobreza y la desnutrición. Producto de amplias consultas, el Plan de Inversión para el Campo de Bangladesh (BCIP) de cinco años establece 12 programas de inversión prioritarios que, cuando se implanten conjuntamente, mejorarán la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición. Su coste total será de 7.800 millones de dólares 48 . Algunos de sus elementos clave son: (1) mejorar el acceso a la tierra y a los recursos hidráulicos, así como su tenencia, (2) mejorar el acceso al crédito y a otros recursos financieros, (3) posibilitar la participación del sector privado y (4) reconocer el papel fundamental de la mujer en la producción doméstica de alimentos. Para comparar los progresos realizados respecto a los puntos de partida, se acordaron un conjunto de indicadores de objetivo, entre los cuales la reducción de la prevalencia de la carencia energética crónica entre las mujeres del 32% en 2005 al 20% en 2015. El BCIP, que centra sus esfuerzos en reproducir y ampliar a mayor escala las innovaciones que han obtenido buenos resultados, aborda la necesidad de servicios de extensión agraria, como escuelas de campo para agricultores, para permitir la adaptación agrícola al cambio climático, así como difundir herramientas como la guía de los suelos y las tierras, Upazila Nirdeshika. El objetivo del BCIP es que los programas de red de seguridad social que actualmente absorben el 15% del presupuesto anual del Gobierno de Bangladesh (2,4% del producto interior bruto) alcancen su destino con mayor eficacia, y en especial garantizar que las ayudas lleguen a las mujeres. El BCIP reconoce la necesidad de mejorar el acceso de los agricultores a los mercados, reducir las pérdidas previas y posteriores a laCanal de riego en Bangladesh.Foto: Instituto Internacional de Investigación del Arroz (IRRI) cosecha y añadir valor en las cadenas alimentarias en su totalidad, entre otras maneras trabajando con el sector privado en sociedades públicas-privadas.Brasil: Enfoque integrado a la política de uso de la tierra Los gobiernos nacionales pueden estimular la producción sostenible de alimentos coordinando sus políticas. Además de éxitos en materia de crecimiento integrador -disminución de la pobreza del 20% de la población en 2004 al 7% en 2010 -, Brasil cuenta con una serie de medidas y programas complementarios para reducir el impacto medioambiental de la agricultura. Como quinto emisor de gases de efecto invernadero del mundo, los sectores agrícola y forestal de Brasil cumplirán el 80% de los compromisos adoptados por el país en virtud del Acuerdo de Copenhague. Estos dos sectores generan más del 70% de las emisiones nacionales. Para cumplir su objetivo de reducir un 80% la tasa de deforestación en el Amazonas para 2015, Brasil ha establecido planes de zona ecológicos y económicos, así como un sistema de monitorización por satélite para poder emprender acciones rápidas contra la tala ilegal 49 . Al Plan Nacional del Cambio Climático de Brasil, presentado en 2008, se le atribuye la disminución de la deforestación y el cambio a una agricultura de bajas emisiones. Las leyes de zonificación agroecológica para la caña de azúcar y el aceite de palma equilibran unos usos de la tierra en competencia y abordan numerosos objetivos de los sectores agrícola, forestal, hidráulico y energético 50 . Documentos clave sobre políticas, como el Plan Nacional, el Plan para una Amazonia Sostenible y el Plan Nacional de Recursos Hidráulicos, prohíben el cultivo de caña de azúcar en áreas protegidas, como la Amazonia o el Pantanal 51 . El Código Forestal aboga por mantener la cubierta forestal en manos privadas en las áreas rurales. El Banco de Desarrollo de Brasil también ha reestructurado sus directrices para condicionar sus préstamos a la adopción de medidas de protección medioambiental que eviten la deforestación y la contaminación de la tierra y las aguas.En China, los recientes adelantos en productividad agrícola y reducción de la pobreza se han erigido sobre una importante base de investigación y desarrollo agrícola nacional. Con unos incrementos anuales de aproximadamente el 10% desde 2001, el gasto en I+D agrícola alcanzó los 1.800 millones de dólares en 2007 y sacó a unas siete personas de la pobreza por cada 1.500 dólares de inversión 52 . Las políticas y los programas piloto nacionales también catalizan la adaptación y mitigación agrícolas 53 . El Plan para la Construcción de Proyectos de Cultivos de Protección cubrirá 2,7 millones de hectáreas en 2009-2015. Además de aumentar la resistencia del terreno a la sequía, se han ahorrado entre 1.700 y 2.500 millones de metros cúbicos de agua de riego. A finales de 2009, un 25,6% de las praderas chinas se habían cerrado al pastoreo o se habían dejado en barbecho o dividido en zonas para un pastoreo rotativo, mientras que 1,6 millones de hectáreas de pradera muy degradadas se habían resembrado 54 . Se han fomentado estrategias para mejorar las cosechas de arroz y a la vez disminuir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero.Entre dichas estrategias están la de animar a los agricultores a cultivar variedades de arroz de bajas emisiones y alta producción, la de utilizar métodos de riego intermitente o la de transformar la paja en una materia prima de la biomasa para la producción de carburante, productos y energía. Se han creado subvenciones para las tecnologías, la maquinaria y los equipos de riego que ahorren agua, así como para mejorar las variedades de cultivos y los sistemas industriales. Gracias al Fondo Especial del Cambio Climático, se han puesto en marcha proyectos piloto para desarrollar fuentes de agua alternativas, adoptar tecnología de ahorro de agua y gestionar de forma adaptada el riego y el avenamiento en las cuencas de los ríos Amarillo, Huaihe y Haihe, así como en la región de Ningxia Hui. Las estrategias que den buen resultado se incorporarán a los futuros planes nacionales. Se ha estimulado la consecución de los objetivos nacionales del cambio climático para 2010, como un consumo energético procedente en un 15% de combustibles no fósiles o una cobertura forestal de 40 millones de hectáreas, mediante subvenciones, etiquetaje e incentivos fiscales.Etiopía: Una respuesta a largo plazo previsible y complementaria a la inseguridad alimentaria La ayuda a las poblaciones que padecen inseguridad alimentaria crónica se puede diseñar para que proteja y cree activos a nivel de los hogares y las comunidades, como alternativa a las peticiones de emergencia anuales de alimentos. En Etiopía, el Programa de Red de Seguridad Productiva (PSNP) adopta un enfoque orientado al desarrollo en lo que a la ayuda alimentaria se refiere, el cual crea una red de seguridad gubernamental garantizada y una mayor previsibilidad para los pequeños agricultores 55 . Combinando las donaciones internacionales (más de 1.270 millones de dólares en los últimos seis años) con las infraestructuras, la mano de obra y las aportaciones procedentes del gobierno (500.000 dólares al año), el PSNP garantiza el acceso a los alimentos, estimula los mercados y rehabilita los recursos naturales 56 . Los hogares con inseguridad alimentaria crónica con adultos sanos y capaces reciben transferencias de dinero y alimentos por participar en obras públicas que requieren numerosa mano de obra, mientras que los Una comunidad en Etiopía ayuda a recuperar una cuenca fluvial plantando árboles.demás hogares reciben transferencias sin condiciones. Las iniciativas de obras públicas mejoran la calidad de la tierra, el suministro de agua, la situación ecológica, las infraestructuras y los servicios sociales, priorizadas mediante un enfoque participativo de la planificación de la cuenca hidrográfica. El PSNP, actualmente en su tercera fase y operativo en 317 woredas (distritos administrativos), llega a 7,7 millones de beneficiarios. El programa PSNP está vinculado a una serie de logros, como la superación de la inseguridad alimentaria por parte de aproximadamente 1,3 millones de personas, la recuperación de 9 millones de hectáreas de tierra, el crecimiento de las propiedades ganaderas, un mejor acceso al agua salubre y un incremento de la asistencia escolar, así como a la mejora de los efectos de otros programas de seguridad alimentaria 57 . Existen programas complementarios que abordan la creación de activos en los hogares, el desarrollo de las infraestructuras comunitarias y la repoblación. El Programa Mundial de Alimentos (WFP) y otros socios han desarrollado una línea unificada de asesoramiento técnico, supervisada por una plataforma formada por las partes interesadas.Francia: Los mensajes de la salud pública fomentan hábitos alimentarios saludables Las medidas públicas pueden servir para cambiar los hábitos alimentarios poco saludables. En Francia, la preocupación por el aumento de la obesidad infantil y la influencia del sector de la comida rápida en los hábitos de consumo hizo que el Gobierno posara su mirada en la publicidad de la comida. En 2004, Francia aprobó una ley de salud pública que exigía que la publicidad de comida procesada y bebidas con azúcar, sal o edulcorantes artificiales añadidos incluyera información sanitaria 58 . Las empresas que no incluyeron un mensaje de salud pública en sus anuncios fueron obligadas a pagar un impuesto equivalente al 1,5% de su presupuesto publicitario. Esos impuestos fueron destinados al instituto nacional para la educación y la prevención sanitaria. Un estudio de 2007 confirmó la relación entre los anuncios y los hábitos alimentarios de los niños, destacando que el 89% de los anuncios publicitarios durante los programas infantiles eran de productos ricos en azúcares, grasas o sal 59 . El estudio también halló que el 57% de los niños no se fijaba en los mensajes sanitarios -normalmente pasados a toda velocidad por la pantalla en letra pequeña o en forma de aviso después delUn mejor etiquetaje de los alimentos puede fomentar cambios positivos en las dietas.Foto: IJ Clark anuncio -en los anuncios de televisión y en el cine. En 2007, se modificó la ley para exigir que los mensajes sanitarios hicieran hincapié en la necesidad de consumir fruta y verdura y evitar picar o comer demasiados alimentos altos en grasas, azúcares o sal.Los programas de reducción de la pobreza también pueden abordar objetivos de sostenibilidad medioambiental, en particular cuando comportan una planificación local adecuada desde la base. La Ley Nacional de Garantía de Empleo Rural Mahatma Gandhi (MGNREGA), creada en 2006, funciona hoy en día en todos los distritos de India. En 2010-2011, la MGNREGA proporcionó trabajo a más de 50 millones de hogares rurales a un coste de 9.100 millones de dólares. La MGNREGA da derecho a todos los adultos a 100 días al año de empleo manual no cualificado y con salario mínimo en obras públicas, como gestión del agua, obras para combatir la sequía, plantación de árboles, desarrollo de la tierra y conectividad rural. El Gram Panchayat, el gobierno local a nivel de las aldeas, propone proyectos basados en las necesidades percibidas de las comunidades locales y las prioridades de la MGNREGA. Más del 80% de los proyectos han contribuido a revigorizar la base de recursos naturales de un modo u otro. Los trabajos de la MGNREGA prestan servicios medioambientales locales, como la recarga de las aguas subterráneas, la mejora de la fertilidad de la tierra y el incremento de la biomasa que, a su vez, contribuye a la resiliencia al cambio climático y a su mitigación, así como a la conservación de la biodiversidad. El derecho al empleo y el acceso flexible al programa ayudan a los pequeños agricultores y a las familias rurales sin tierras a gestionar el riesgo. La MGNREGA estipula que como mínimo un tercio de los trabajadores deben ser mujeres. Gracias a los horarios laborales flexibles que tienen en cuenta el trabajo no remunerado de las mujeres y a la presencia obligatoria de mujeres en los comités de los Gram Panchayat, las mujeres constituyen más del 50% de la mano de obra de la MGNREGA 60 .Kenia: Mejorar el acceso al mercado y la eficacia de la producción de los pequeños agricultores La pobreza entre los pequeños productores de lácteos está causada, en parte, por el poco acceso a los mercados y la 60 Mahapatra. 2010.Mujeres rurales en India se benefician del empleo nacional garantizado.Foto: PNUD pequeños agricultores. En 2010, la compañía pública de seguros, Aseguradora Nacional de la Agricultura y Ganadería (ANAGSA), ofreció seguros tradicionales y basados en índices que abarcaron más de 8 millones de hectáreas, la mitad de ellas sembradas con cultivos anuales y principalmente maíz de secano 63 . Los agricultores que trabajan tierras del Gobierno, denominados \"ejidatarios\", pagan primas mucho más bajas que los demás agricultores. Sólo se pueden elegir cultivos principales de secano 64 . Los seguros basados en índices para salvaguardar los medios de subsistencia y los activos de los productores pobres, como los que ofrece ANAGSA, normalmente tienen que ser subvencionados y requieren canales de distribución especiales. Los programas para ayudar a los negocios agrícolas viables a gestionar el riesgo suelen ser ofrecidos por el sector privado 65 .Sudáfrica: Reforma de la propiedad de la tierra para capacitar a las mujeres agricultoras A pesar de que las mujeres de los países de rentas bajas tienen un papel notable en la producción de alimentos, muchas veces no poseen derechos claros sobre la tierra. Esto puede dificultar su capacidad para acceder a créditos, mejorar sus cosechas y su estado económico o adoptar métodos de agricultura sostenible. Desde 2009, Action Aid ha instaurado el Proyecto de Derechos de la Mujer y la Tierra en cinco países del sur de África: Malawi, Mozambique, Sudáfrica, Zambia y Zimbabue 66 . En Sudáfrica, las políticas de reforma agraria y los programas relacionados con la tierra postapartheid, como la Subvención para el Asentamiento/Adquisición de Tierra o el Programa de Adquisición de Tierra y Redistribución, suponen una oportunidad para que las mujeres agricultoras establezcan su derecho a poseer tierras, vivir en ellas y cultivarlas. Sin embargo, las mujeres se encuentran con obstáculos. Por ejemplo, se les puede prohibir la participación en sistemas locales de toma de decisiones que afectan a la tierra o puede haber desigualdades por razón de sexo relacionadas con los derechos de los supervivientes sobre la tierra. Varias organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG), como el Centro de Recursos Jurídicos o la Asociación para el Fomento Rural, ofrecen asistencia jurídica para fomentar los derechos de las mujeres sobre la tierra y combatir las leyes que discriminan a las mujeres. En Eastern Cape y KwaZulu Natal, las ONG han tratado en concreto problemas de tierras que afectaban a las mujeres a través de la educación y el desarrollo de liderazgo.Reino Unido: Reducción de las emisiones y de los desperdicios en las cadenas alimentarias Los esfuerzos para reducir el impacto medioambiental de los sistemas alimentarios pueden movilizar asociaciones entre el sector público y el privado. La Ley del Cambio Climático de 2008 compromete al Reino Unido a una reducción del 80% en toda la economía de los niveles de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de 1990 para 2050. El ambicioso Plan de Acción contra los Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GHGAP) del sector agrícola pretende reducir las emisiones anuales en tres millones de toneladas de CO 2 equivalente para 2018-2022 proporcionando de forma estratégica mensajes, asesoramiento técnico e información a los productores agrícolas en todos los sistemas de explotación 67 .El GHGAP se basa en iniciativas ya existentes (como el DairyLa mejora de los sistemas de recogida y almacenamiento de la leche puede ayudar a los pequeños productores de lácteos a acceder a los mercados y aumentar los ingresos.Foto: Fundación Gates 61 www.eadairy.wordpress.com 62 Barrett et al. 2007. Gates, este proyecto mejora los servicios y la formación para incrementar la producción ganadera y los ingresos de millones de pequeños ganaderos del África oriental. El proyecto, basado en el concepto de \"hub\", aumenta el acceso a los mercados y reduce las pérdidas posteriores a la cosecha. Se están desarrollando 27 hubs de recogida para almacenar y refrigerar leche. Dichos hubs serán dirigidos por nuevas asociaciones comerciales. Los pequeños ganaderos recibirán formación sobre comercio y producción, como tecnologías de cría perfeccionadas o prácticas de alimentación del ganado, para mejorar la calidad de la leche.Los fenómenos climatológicos extremos (como las sequías, las inundaciones o las olas de calor) no sólo pueden desencadenar crisis y causar privaciones a las familias que viven de la agricultura, sino también inhibir las inversiones en este sector. Los agricultores son reacios a invertir en sus empresas debido a la incertidumbre y el riesgo. Con un seguro basado en índices, el agricultor cobra automáticamente cuando la climatología sobrepasa un nivel establecido. No hace falta que las compañías de seguros visiten el lugar 62 . Si se garantiza a los agricultores el cobro rápido de los seguros, se podrán minimizar las ventas forzadas de activos. Los seguros basados en índices también hacen aumentar la tolerancia al riesgo de agricultores, bancos, entidades de microfinanciación e industrias agrícolas. En México, los productos de seguros de riesgo están bien desarrollados, sobre todo los destinados a los Roadmap) y une cadenas de suministro enteras para estimular la adopción de prácticas agrícolas más eficientes y con menores emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, y a la vez contribuir al ahorro de costes por unidad de producción y mejorar los paisajes y la biodiversidad. Otra iniciativa británica, el Programa de Acción de Desperdicios y Recursos (WRAP), trabaja con empresas, personas y comunidades para reducir el desperdicio de alimentos. Los desperdicios domésticos de comida y bebida representan unas pérdidas por valor de 12.000 millones de libras y 20 millones de toneladas de CO 2 equivalente en emisiones al año 68 . Las investigaciones del WRAP se centran en encontrar maneras de disminuir la cantidad de comida tirada por los consumidores, y abarcan los hábitos de consumo, las actitudes y los comportamientos, las formas de comunicación idóneas con el público prioritario y la innovación en la venta al público. En asociación con el WRAP, el sector de los supermercados ha realizado cambios para facilitar a los consumidores la compra de la cantidad adecuada de alimentos y para optimizar la frescura y el valor, así como iniciar campañas a gran escala orientadas al consumidor (como Love Food Hate Waste). De este modo se ha conseguido evitar que 670.000 toneladas de desperdicios alimentarios acaben en el vertedero, lo que ha supuesto un ahorro de 600 millones de libras al año 69 .Los gobiernos nacionales desempeñan un papel fundamental en la certificación y aplicación de estándares y etiquetaje alimentarios para garantizar que los consumidores reciban información precisa sobre la manera en que se cultivan y se procesan los productos agrícolas, su valor nutritivo y su impacto medioambiental. De 1990 a 2010, las ventas de productos biológicos en Estados Unidos crecieron de 1.000 millones de dólares a casi 27.000 millones de dólares 70 . De ahí surgió la necesidad imperativa de certificar la autenticidad de los productos etiquetados como biológicos. La normativa de etiquetaje biológico, introducida por el Departamento de Agricultura de Estados Unidos (USDA), exige que los productos biológicos, producidos tanto en EE. UU. como en el extranjero, 68 WRAP. 2011. www.wrap.org.uk 69 Ibid. 70 Asociación para el Comercio Biológico. www.ota.com cumplan los estándares fijados. Entre dichos estándares está el garantizar que los productos biológicos se han producido sin antibióticos, pesticidas, hormonas ni bioingeniería, y que cumplen los criterios de conservación de la tierra y el agua, así como los de bienestar de los animales. Un producto debe certificar que es biológico como mínimo en un 95% para llevar el adhesivo voluntario de producto biológico del USDA, o que lo es como mínimo en un 70% para llevar la etiqueta de \"elaborado con ingredientes biológicos\" 71 . Las personas o empresas que vendan productos con etiquetaje biológico pero que no cumplan los estándares del USDA pueden ser sancionados con multas de hasta 10.000 dólares por cada infracción. Los laboriosos procesos de certificación pueden excluir a los pequeños agricultores biológicos, así que los productores cuyas ventas de productos biológicos no superen los 5.000 dólares (por ejemplo, los agricultores que venden sus productos en pequeños mercados o ferias) quedan eximidos de la certificación USDA.Vietnam: Perfeccionar las técnicas para obtener mayores cosechas y beneficios climáticos La sostenibilidad agrícola depende del desarrollo y la adopción de técnicas agrícolas que proporcionen a la vez cosechas e ingresos sólidos, resiliencia climática y atenuación de los gases de efecto invernadero. Con un descenso previsto de la producción mundial de arroz del 12-14% para 2050 debido al cambio climático 72 , la Gestión Integrada de los Cultivos (ICM) ayuda a los agricultores a incrementar la producción adaptándose a la vez a los cambios climáticos y a la escasez de recursos. La ICM, desarrollada para beneficiar a los pequeños agricultores, reduce las aportaciones y la mano de obra necesarias. Con el método ICM, la Humectación y Secado Alternativos (AWD) y el abonado equilibrado de los arrozales reducen el metano y el dióxido nitroso en comparación con la inundación continua 73 . No se necesitan tantos abonos ni otras aportaciones, lo que minimiza las emisiones indirectas de gases de efecto invernadero. El aumento de las cosechas es atribuible, en parte, a unos sistemas de raíces más vigorosos y una mayor resistencia al estrés biótico y abiótico. En Vietnam, el programa ICM empezó en 2002, y en 2004 ya involucraba a 103.000 agricultores en 13 provincias (es decir, el 15% del área del delta del Mekong con dos cosechas de arroz por año). En comparación con los lugares de control, esas explotaciones agrícolas obtuvieron cosechas de grano más cuantiosas y redujeron considerablemente el uso de abono nitrogenado, semillas, agua y pesticidas, lo que redundó en unos costes de producción notablemente inferiores y mayores beneficios. Según un estudio reciente, los agricultores vietnamitas están implantando la ICM en más de un millón de hectáreas. El Sistema de Intensificación del Arroz (SRI) ha arrojado resultados positivos en Vietnam como método ICM alternativo. Los ensayos de campo, las demostraciones y la divulgación financiados por Oxfam han impulsado a los agricultores a actuar como agentes de extensión agraria locales y han ayudado a llevar el SRI a 21 provincias. En un examen de 2008 se observó un aumento del 11% de la media de cosechas SRI, una disminución del 16% del uso de abonos de urea, una reducción del 45% de la frecuencia de aplicación de pesticidas, una reducción del 35% de los gastos medios de riego y un incremento del 50% de los ingresos 74 .La Comisión sobre la Agricultura Sostenible y el Cambio Climático fue instaurada por el Programa de Investigación del CGIAR sobre el Cambio Climático, la Agricultura y la Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS) con el apoyo de la Plataforma Global de Donantes para el Desarrollo Rural (GDPRD) para elaborar un conjunto claro y autorizado de recomendaciones sobre políticas. La Comisión agrupa a expertos científicos del ámbito de las ciencias naturales y sociales que trabajan en la agricultura, el clima, los alimentos y la nutrición, la economía y los recursos naturales en instituciones gubernamentales, académicas y de la sociedad civil de Australia, Brasil, Bangladesh, China, Etiopía, Francia, Kenia, India, México, Sudáfrica, el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos y Vietnam. Durante 2011, la Comisión llevó a cabo una síntesis de los principales informes de evaluación para expresar con claridad los hallazgos científicos sobre los posibles efectos del cambio climático en la agricultura y la seguridad alimentaria a escala mundial y zonal, y para identificar las acciones y los caminos más adecuados para lograr la seguridad alimentaria en el marco del cambio climático.1. Integrar la seguridad alimentaria y la agricultura sostenible en políticas nacionales e internacionales. 2. Incrementar significativamente el nivel de inversión mundial en sistemas agroalimentarios sostenibles durante la próxima década 3. Intensificar de forma sostenible la producción agrícola reduciendo a la vez las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y demás consecuencias medioambientales negativas de la agricultura 4. Dirigirse a las poblaciones y los sectores más vulnerables al cambio climático y a la inseguridad alimentaria 5. Reestructurar el acceso a los alimentos y los modelos de consumo para garantizar que se satisfagan las necesidades nutritivas básicas y para fomentar hábitos alimentarios saludables y sostenibles en todo el mundo. 6. Reducir las pérdidas y el desperdicio en los sistemas alimentarios, especialmente los debidos a las infraestructuras, las prácticas agrícolas, el procesamiento, la distribución y los hábitos domésticos 7. Crear sistemas de información exhaustivos, compartidos e integrados que engloben las dimensiones humana y ecológica.Resumen para responsables políticosEste resumen para responsabilidades políticos se complementará en breve con un enorme detallado de hallazgos y recomendaciones y con documentos de referencia.Si desea más información, visite www.ccafs.cgiar.org/commission","tokenCount":"8424"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e15c30c9590c2dcb16fd6cd67839958a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e9c7a553-9443-4b32-8590-9baea38fb29f/retrieve","id":"1392135484"},"keywords":["Musaceae","Plastome","Phylogeny","Divergence time","cpDNA marker"],"sieverID":"219a9834-23f8-48b4-bea3-d145d0f7c6f0","pagecount":"20","content":"Background: Musaceae is an economically important family consisting of 70-80 species. Elucidation of the interspecific relationships of this family is essential for a more efficient conservation and utilization of genetic resources for banana improvement. However, the scarcity of herbarium specimens and quality molecular markers have limited our understanding of the phylogenetic relationships in wild species of Musaceae. Aiming at improving the phylogenetic resolution of Musaceae, we analyzed a comprehensive set of 49 plastomes for 48 species/subspecies representing all three genera of this family.Results: Musaceae plastomes have a relatively well-conserved genomic size and gene content, with a full length ranging from 166,782 bp to 172,514 bp. Variations in the IR borders were found to show phylogenetic signals to a certain extent in Musa. Codon usage bias analysis showed different preferences for the same codon between species and three genera and a common preference for A/T-ending codons. Among the two genes detected under positive selection (dN/dS > 1), ycf2 was indicated under an intensive positive selection. The divergent hotspot analysis allowed the identification of four regions (ndhF-trnL, ndhF, matK-rps16, and accD) as specific DNA barcodes for Musaceae species.Bayesian and maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses using full plastome resulted in nearly identical tree topologies with highly supported relationships between species. The monospecies genus Musella is sister to Ensete, and the genus Musa was divided into two large clades, which corresponded well to the basic number of n = x = 11 and n = x =10/9/7, respectively. Four subclades were divided within the genus Musa. A dating analysis covering the whole Zingiberales indicated that the divergence of Musaceae family originated in the Palaeocene (59.19 Ma), and the genus Musa diverged into two clades in the Eocene (50.70 Ma) and then started to diversify from the late Oligocene (29.92 Ma) to the late Miocene. Two lineages (Rhodochlamys and Australimusa) radiated recently in the Pliocene / Pleistocene periods.commonly recognized within Musaceae, viz. Musa L., Ensete Horan., and Musella (Franch.) Li. The largest genus Musa, comprises about 70 species [1,2] and is naturally distributed in Southeast Asia (Fig. 1, Table S1). Ensete, harboring 7-8 species, is sympatric with Musa in Asia but covers most tropical Africa [3] (Fig. 1, Table S1). The monotypic genus Musella is native to mountainous Southwest China [1], although its generic status was disputed [4][5][6] (Fig. 1, Table S1).The genus Musa was established by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753 [7]. Cheesman [8] divided the genus into four sections: Australimusa and Callimusa with n = 10, Eumusa and Rhodochlamys with n = 11 chromosomes. Later, Argent [9] established the Musa sect. Ingentimusa based on a single species, Musa ingens N.W. Simmonds with n =7. Sections Rhodochlamys and Eumusa are closely related, having bracts that are generally sulcate, glaucous and that become revolute on fading [8]. This contrasts with species of sections Australimusa and Callimusa, which have bracts that are smooth, polished on the outside, and that do not become revolute on fading. In contrast with the pendent inflorescences with dull-colored bracts and large plants (3 m or taller) in Eumusa, species of sect. Rhodochlamys are generally smaller in stature (less than 3 m), have erect inflorescences with brightly colored bracts. Species of sect. Callimusa are separated from those of sect. Australimusa by their unique seeds, which are cylindrical or barrel-shaped and possess a large apical chamber. Seeds of species of sect. Australimusa are subglobose or dorsiventrally compressed and possess a small apical chamber. These five sections proved to be very useful and have been widely accepted [8][9][10][11]. Since the molecular markers were applied in plant systematics, there are many related studies on the Musa section assessment. For example, Wong et al. [12] used AFLP to validate this classification system. Several phylogenetic studies have been published for the Musaceae, however, none of these five sections was recovered as monophyletic [5,6,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. Only two infrageneric clades corresponded well to the basic chromosome numbers (one clade with n = x = 11, the other with n = x = 10/9/7) [6,17]. Häkkinen [2] reappraised the five-section system by integrating molecular phylogenetic studies and proposed two infrageneric clades classification: sect. Musa and sect. Callimusa (referring as sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen). Sect. Rhodochlamys was synonymized with sect. Musa, sect. Australimusa and sect. Ingentimusa were treated as synonyms of sect. Callimusa [2].Most edible banana cultivars are from hybridization between Musa acuminata Colla different subspecies or with M. balbisiana Colla [3] and these two species are both from the sect. Musa [2]. A well-resolved phylogeny of Musaceae is critical for the germplasm conservation of cultivated banana ancestors and their wild relatives. However, a well-resolved phylogeny of Musaceae has been still missing. The lack of herbarium specimens and quality molecular markers limited our understanding of the phylogenetic relationships of Musaceae species. Studies with broad taxonomic coverage usually employed limited gene fragments and reconstructed phylogeny containing polytomy and low-support branches [5,6,[17][18][19]. For instance, using plastid atpB-rbcL, rps16, trnL-F and nuclear ribosomal ITS, Li et al. [6] generated a phylogenetic tree with many polytomies though this study covered 36 species. Recently, Burgos-Hernandez et al. [18] used ITS, trnL-trnF and atpB-rbcL to conduct a biogeographic analysis of Musaceae and covered 37 species. Their resulting phylogeny also encompassed multiple low-support branches. In contrast, studies using multiple low copy nuclear genes or even whole-genome sequences on Musaceae phylogeny have in-depth gene coverage and strong internal support, but their taxonomic coverage was often sparse [20][21][22][23] since their sampled species did not even exceed 20. Thus, it is worthwile to investigate phylogenetic relationships of Musaceae in more detail with both expanded taxonomic coverage and gene sampling.Genome skimming, an approach to sequence samples with shallow depth, is usually used to acquire the highcopy genomic fraction, such as plastome [24]. Many studies showed that the plastome significantly resolves phylogenetic relationships at lower taxonomic levels [25][26][27][28][29]. The plastome is maternally inherited without recombination in Musaceae [30]. They are generally comprised of four regions, namely the large single copy (LSC), the small single copy (SSC), and two inverted repeats (IRs, IRa, and IRb) [31]. Some highly variable regions in the plastome have been identified as \"hotspots\" and employed as useful molecular markers for phylogenetic studies [32,33]. In recent years, although some plastome sequences ofMusaceae have been reported [23,[34][35][36], most species studied concentrated on a few wild bananas cultivated at botanical gardens and did not propose a comprehensive plastome analysis for the Musaceae family. In this study, we used the genome skimming approach for the assembly of the plastomes of a large panel of Musaceae species. We analyzed their plastome (1) to investigate the plastome structure variations; (2) to identify highly variable regions; and (3) to reconstruct the phylogeny of the Musaceae, and (4) to assess the divergence time of the main clades.We analysed the structure of 49 full plastomes covering 48 species/subspecies in the Musaceae (including 45 new plastome assemblies generated for this study) (Table 1). The full-length variation of Musaceae and the genus Musa plastomes is approximately 5.7 kb (plastome length: 166,782-172,514 bp), with small variation in Ensete plastomes (163 bp, plastome length: 168,248-168,411 bp). All sequenced plastomes exhibited the typical quadripartite structure, composed of one LSC, one SSC, and two IRs (IRa and IRb) (Fig. 2). The overall GC content was nearly identical (36.5-37.1%) (Table 1). Individual plastome was annotated and followed by manual checking, resulting in a total of 113 genes, including 79 protein-coding genes, 30 transfer RNA (tRNA), and four ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes (Fig. 2, Table S2). Among these 113 genes, 21 genes have two copies (within IR region), the remaining 92 have one single copy. Sixteen genes have one single intron, and two contain two, the left 95 genes have no intron (Table S2). The complete plastome alignment for the 48 Musaceae species illustrated that there was no genomic rearrangement (Fig. S1).The IR/LSC and IR/SSC junctions of the 49 Musaceae species were compared to explore the IR expansion/contraction (Fig. S2). No noticeable expansion or contraction was found within the four Ensete species. Compared to Ensete species, the JLA and JLB of Musella lasiocarpa extended into gene rps19. Apparent differences in IR boundaries were observed among Musa species. The JSB of Musa gracilis withdraws to the spacer of ndhA1 and ndhF compared to other species from sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen, of which JSBs resided in ndhF (Fig. S2). On the contrary, the JSB of Musa balbisiana extended into the ndhF gene compared to other species in the sect. Musa. All those species from the sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen had only one copy of rps19 gene. In contrast, those species from the sect. Musa had one more copy of rps19, except Musa velutina. The four junctions between LSC/IRs and SSC/ IRs were confirmed with PCR-based sequencing. The assembly of the PCR product was mapped against the plastome that we generated previously and the mapping result was shown in Fig. S3. All of the IR borders could match the assemblies of PCR-based sequences.Among the 49 Musaceae plastomes, the total codons (including stop codons) ranged from 28,770 in M. itinerans to 29,521 in M. yunnanensis (Table S3). The codon frequency was relatively similar across Musaceae species (Table S4). Only methionine (Met) and tryptophan (Trp) were encoded by a single codon among all 20 amino acids encoded by 64 codons (Fig. 3). The three most frequent codons were GAA-Glu, AUU-Ile, and AAA-Lys (Table S4). The most and least abundant amino acids were leucine (Leu) and cysteine (Cys), encoded by about 10% and 1% of codons, respectively (Table S4). The relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) values of the same codon were very similar between all plastomes of Musaceae (Table S4). The two codons with the highest RSCU values were AGA-Arg and UUA-Leu. Codons ending in T or A had RSCU > 1. In contrast, codons with C or G in the third position mostly had RSCU < 1, indicating a significant preference for codons ending with T and A, which is generally observed in the angiosperm plastomes [37,38]. GC3 value is significantly higher than the GC2 in all Musaceae species, which supported this preference pattern (Table S3). Musa species exhibited higher usages in UUG, GUG, GAA, CGU, AGA, GGU, and GGA (Table S5).The total number of short dispersed repeats (SDRs) in the 49 Musaceae plastomes ranged from 33 (E. ventricosum) to 233 (M. yunnanensis) pairs (Fig. 4A, Table S6). There were more forward and palindromic repeats instead of reverse and complement repeats (Fig. 4A). The SDRs with 30-49 bp in length existed more widely than the repeats ≥50 bp (Fig. 4B, Table S6). The majority of the SSRs were mono-nucleotide repeats (ca. 48.34%), followed by tetra-nucleotide (ca. 17.46%), and the least was hexa-nucleotide (ca. 3.52%) (Fig. 4C, Table S7). When considering the base composition of SSRs, the most common repeats were mononucleotide repeats composed of A or T, accounting for  S7). Most SSRs (71%) were located in non-coding regions, while the remaining SSRs distributed in coding regions, including rpoC2, rps14, ycf2, ycf1, and ndhH (Fig. 4E, Table S8). Moreover, more than half of SSRs (62.8%) were found in the LSC region, only 9.2% and 28.0% were located in the SSC and the IR regions, respectively (Fig. 4F, Table S8). The total tandem repeats ranged from 36 in M. paracoccinea to 128 in M. rubinea (Fig. S4, Table S9). Most tandem repeats (61.6%) were located in non-coding regions, while the remaining tandem repeats were distributed in coding regions, including rpoC2, accD, rpl20, rps11, ycf2, ycf1 (Fig. S4, Table S10).Synonymous (dS) and nonsynonymous (dN) substitution rates, as well as dN/dS, were determined for the 79 coding sequences to estimate the selective pressure acting on them (Fig. S5, Table S11). The dN and dS ranged from 0 to 0.16, and 0 to 0.59, respectively. Among the 79 CDSs, ndhF and rpl32 showed relatively higher dS values (> 0.4), while accD and matK exhibited relatively higher dN values (> 0.1; Fig. S5, Table S11). For most genes (89.87%), dS was significantly greater than dN, resulting in a dN/dS value less than 0.5, suggesting a purifying selection. Two genes with relatively higher dN/dS value were identified (dN/dS > 1; ycf1, ycf2 valued as 1.16 and 4.44, respectively). The null model (dN/dS = 1) was performed for ycf1 and ycf2. The P value of Chi-square test for ycf2 was less than 0.05, indicating an intensive positive selection. P value of ycf1 was 0.4335, it suggested that ycf1 may not be in positive selection (Table 2).Nucleotide diversity (Pi) of the 49 Musaceae plastomes ranges from 0 to 0.03282, with an average of 0.00698 (Fig. S6, Table S12). Among LSC, SSC, and IR regions, SSC and IR regions exhibit the highest and the lowest Pi value of 0.01671 and 0.00389, respectively (Table S12). Ten most variable regions with peak Pi values > 0.020 and alignment length over 600 bp were identified as divergent hotspots (Fig. S6, Table S12). The ndhF-trnL sequence had the highest Pi value (0.02470), followed by ndhF, matK-rps16, and accD (Table S12). These four hypervariable markers had more haplotypes (45 vs. 34) and higher resolution than the three universal DNA barcodes (matK, rbcL, and trnH-psbA) based on the ML tree (Fig. S7, Table S12). Moreover, based on the combination of the four most variable markers, many indels sites could be found within those pairwise species with the lowest K2P distance (Table S13). These indels increased the species identification rate for those closely related species.Our Maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses generated a consistent phylogenetic tree supporting the same topological structure. The CDSs and the complete plastome dataset produced similar topology trees with only one discordance on the relationship between five species in sect. Callimusa (M. borneensis, M. barioensis, M. gracilis, M. salaccensis, M. lokok) (Fig. S8, Fig. S9). The full plastome dataset provided a better-supported phylogeny than CDSs dataset because it possessed fewer branches with bootstrap support values of less than 90%. The monospecies genus Musella is sister to the Ensete (Fig. 5). The genus Musa was subdivided into two large clades, which corresponded to the Callimusa and Musa Cheesman emend Häkkinen sections. Within the sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen, the lineage of Musa coccinea and M. paracoccinea (subclade I, with support value: 100/1.0) is at the base of this section (Fig. 5). Musa ingens (2n = 14), the physically largest member of Musaceae, is basal to the other species of subclade II (with support value: 100/1.0). M. beccari (2n = 18) nested at the different species with 2n = 20, and in the basal position for the species from sect. Australimusa. For the sect. Musa, subclade III (with support value: 100/1.0) consists of M. balbisiana, M. cheesmanii, M. basjoo, M. itinerans, M. tonkinensis, M. nagensium, etc. Subcalde IV (with support value: 100/1.0) consists of two groups, one from sect. Rhodochlamys, and another including different M. acuminata subspecies. Among the subspecies of M. acuminata, M. acuminata ssp. burmannica is the earliest diversified subspecies. Four species, namely M. siamensis, M. rosea, M. rubra, and M. laterita, were embedded within the clade of M. acuminata subspecies.Divergence time estimates suggested that the crown node age of Musaceae was 59.19 Ma (95% HPD: 46.26-74.47 Ma) (Fig. 6). Compared to previous phylogenetic studies on Musaceae [5,6,17], this study is the first one to analyze Musaceae phylogenetic relationships with density sampling using plastome-scale sequences. The resulting tree is fully resolved with substantially increased support value for several branches across the Musaceae tree (Fig. 5). The sister relationship between the genus Musella and Ensete is reassured. The genus Musa is well-supported into two clades, corresponding to Häkkinen's two-section reappraisal as Sect. Musa and Sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen [2] that delineated the basic chromosome number of n = x = 11 and n = x =10/9/7, respectively. For the infrageneric classification in Musa, Cheesman [8] indicated that\"the groups have deliberately been called sections rather than subgenera in an attempt to avoid the implication that they are of equal rank\". Although there are significant morphological characters and chromosome number difference between both clades, following the suggestion of Cheesman [8], Häkkinen [2] classified both clades as sect. Musa and sect. Callimusa, respectively (Fig. 5). x = 11 is most reasonable original basic number in Zingiberales [39], with x = 10, 9, 7 as a derived basic number in Musaceae. This phylogeny provided a frame to explore the chromosomal evolution in Musaceae diversification in future.The Callimusa section (senso Häkkinen) comprises different morphological and chromosome characters (2n = 14, 18, 20) with sect. Musa (2n = 22), divided into 2 subclades. In congruence with Janssens et al. [17], M. coccinea, M. paracoccinea formed one subclade (subclade I), and is in the basal position of sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen (Fig. 5). Indeed, according to Liu et al. [40] and our cytological observation, M. coccinea, and M. paracoccinea have the same chromosome number of 2n = 20, and this lineage distributes in the Indochinese Region, especially in northern Vietnam and adjacent southwestern China. This lineage started to leave the northern Indo-Brumease region during the Oligocene and was followed by a localized diversification at the late Miocene. Several new species from sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen were reported recently in this region, i.e., M. haekkinenii, M. viridis, M. splendida and M. lutea [41], but concentrating only on their morphological description. For this study, we could not access the material but it would likely help refining species delimitation and phylogenetic relationship within the subclade and between the two subclades.The subclade II (with support value: 100/1.0) distributes in the Malayan Peninsula/Sumatra, Borneo, and Papua Guinea, with the species diversity center in Borneo. Notably, it includes M. beccarii (2n = 18) and the physically largest wild banana, M. ingens (2n = 14), whose chromosome numbers differ from the other species in the sect. Callimusa (2n = 20) (Fig. 5). M. ingens, the only species in sect. Ingentimusa, was treated as one section by Argent at 1976 [9] due to its seven pairs of chromosmes. M. ingens distributes in the tropical montane forests of New Guinea, Indonesia. Our study sampled more Australimusa species than earlier phylogenetic studies [6,17,18,23]. Six species (M. jackeyi, M. johnsii, M. lolodensis, M. maclayi, M. peekelii, M. troglodytarum) were sampled from the 12 Australimusa species [2] and formed one single cluster. Although M. ingens and Australimusa species have different chromosome numbers or seed shapes, they are sympatric with other species in subclade II, and phylogenetically nested within subclade II. Therefore, in agreement with previous studies [6,17], we support the treatment of Häkkinen [2], that sect. Ingentimusa and sect. Australimusa should be reduced as the synonym of sect. Callimusa.The Musa section is also subdivided into two subclades (subclades III and IV, both with support value: 100/1.0) with the species diversity center in Indo-Burma (Fig. 5). Subclade III includes banana wild relatives that share interesting features for crop improvement, such as M. balbisiana which is resistant to the harsh environment, M. itinerans immune to Foc. 4 [42], and M. basjoo the most cold-tolerant wild banana. M. balbisiana is one of the ancestors of the interspecific cultivated banana, no obvious close relatives were reported earlier [43]. Both Li et al. [6] and Janssens et al. [17] found that M. balbisiana is basal to the other species in the sect. Musa. However, its relationship with other species in this section was not resolved. Our result demonstrated that M. balbisiana clustered with the other Musa species (M. basjoo, M. cheesmanii, M. itinerans, M. nagensium, M. puspanjaliae, M. rubinea, M. tonkinensis) as one subclade (subclade III). These species distribute from the eastern Himalayas region to South China, and grow from seasonal tropical forest to temperate forest, with drought and cold tolerance. Natural crossing between them is a relatively common event [44]. Therefore, these species can represent valuable genetic resources for banana breeding. However, as banana wild relatives, they were often neglected while more conservation and characterization is needed.M. acuminata species, the main wild ancestor of cultivated banana, is included in the sister subclade (subclade IV, Fig. 5). M. acuminata is an extremely variable species with a wide geographical distribution from Burma through Malaysia to New Guinea, Queensland, Samoa and the Philippines [44]. Among the M. acuminata subspecies, M. a. ssp. burmannica is the earliest diversified, consistent with the previous studies covering four M. acuminata subspecies based on whole genomes [22] and 72 M. acuminata accessions using restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing data [45]. Consistently with previous studies [5,6,17], we found that M. acuminata clustered closely with four species from sect. Rhodochlamys, namely M. rubra, M. laterita, M. siamensis, and M. rosea. However, contrary to Janssens et al. [17], M. siamensis is not nested within M. acuminata subspecies, and is clustered with M. rubra. This result reinforces recent studies that claimed M. laterita and M. siamensis as a synonym of M. rubra [46,47]. Moreover, it is worth noting M. rubra and M. rosea were described based on the vouchers cultivated in the botanical garden, without evidence of their occurrence in the wild. The only wild population of M. rubra was reported in Manipur and Mizoram, NE India [46]. M. rosea, only collected in Angkor ruins in Cambodia, has long been a \"lost species\" [48]. The high plastome identity between these species and M. acuminata suggests that M. acuminata have provided their maternal material during hybridization. Various Eumusa × Rhodochlamys hybrids have been observed, which gave rise to considerable taxonomic confusion in poorly understood Rhodochlamys [44]. We, therefore, speculate that both species (M. rubra and M. rosea) are hybrids between Musa acuminata and species from sect. Rhodochlamys, but more studies are needed to verify their origin and species status.Excluding Musa rubra, M. laterita, M. rosea, and M. siamensis, the other species from sect. Rhodochlamys formed one well-supported clade (support value: 100/1.0), with the common ancestor of M. acuminata. Although Rhodochlamys was morphologically characterized by the erect inflorescence and colorful bracts, this phylogenetic relationship suggests the separation of sect. Rhodochlamys from Eumusa was not clear-cut. Both Li et al. [6] and Janssens et al. [17] did not recover its monophyly due to the low resolution of few genes. This lineage experienced a recent (ca. 10.97 Ma) and rapid speciation (Figs. 5 and 6). Sect. Rhodoclamys species concentrate in the East Himalayas region, especially in the Assam-Burma mountain region. Reproductive isolation between Rhodochlamys species is slight [44]. Due to the difficult access for field investigation and rapid speciation, extending the sampling and employing more nuclear genes would provide further evidence for the evolutionary history of Rhodoclyamys species.Correct phylogeny and divergence-time estimation are essential for evolutionary history study. With a complete chloroplast gene set, we can choose suitable genes to facilitate and optimize divergence-time estimation. The crown node age of Musaceae (59.19 Ma, Fig. 6) estimated was younger than the ages estimated by Christelová et al. [20] (69.1 Ma) and Kress et al. [49] (110 Ma), while older than in Janssens et al. [17] (51.9 Ma). The crown age of Musa (50.70 Ma) corresponds well with the results of Burgos-Hernandez et al. [18] (52 Ma), [20] (50.7 Ma), and Kress et al. [49] (51.4 Ma). The timing of initial diversification set at 30.16 Ma for sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen and 29.92 Ma for sect. Musa is similar to Christelová et al. [20] (28.7 and 27.9 Ma, respectively). The taxon sampling, calibration point setting, and DNA marker selection are important possible sources of error in divergence-time estimation [50]. Our study used more taxon sampling and DNA nucleotide to increase the divergence-time estimation accuracy. Among those studies for divergence-time estimation of Musaceae [17,18,20,49], two fossils (Spirematospermum chandlerae and Ensete oregonense) were often used: Ensete oregonense, confirmed to be part of Musaceae [51] and Spirematospermum chandlerae Friis is the oldest known fossil of the Zingiberales. This study selected one more fossil (Zingiberopsis attenuate) and one secondary calibration point compared to other related studies [17,18,20,49].Our analyses suggest that main lineages within Musa diversified from the late Oligocene and accelerated at the late Miocene, and two lineages (Australimusa and most Rhodochlamys species) radiated very recently in the Pliocene /Pleistocene periods. As discussed in Burgos-Hernandez et al. [18], this time frame is consistent with the collision of India with Eurasia and the uplifts of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). With the uplift of the QTP, the Asian monsoon was initiated in the late Oligocene, followed by several periods of strengthening in the Miocene (e.g., ~15 Ma & ~8 Ma) and a putative abrupt strengthening in the Pliocene/Pleistocene periods (~3 Ma) [52,53]. The intensification of amount and seasonality of precipitation in South East Asia may have produced higher rates of diversification for various biotic lineages [54], which may have led to the evolutionary diversification of Musa, as demonstrated in other species from the lower altitudes of SE Asia, i.e., Lepisorus [54], Pogostemon [55], and Primulina [56]. The recent diversification of Australimusa species in the Pliocene and Pleistocene coincides with rapid orogenesis in New Guinea [57]. The orogenesis of the Central Range in New Guinea was initiated in the late Miocene, but most of the mountain uplift probably occurred since 5 Ma [54]. As found in the sect. Petermannia in the genus Begonia [58], the recent radiation in the Australimusa may be jointly triggered by orogenesis and associated microallopatry.Due to possessing many repetitive sequences, the size of IR regions could be variable, and their boundaries are in random dynamics in most plants [59,60]. The contraction/expansion of IR region could bring about gene loss/ addition [61,62]. This study found that the contraction/ expansion of IR region mainly existed in the boundaries of IR regions and LSC region, namely, JLA and JLB (Fig. S2). The IR borders variation showed phylogenetic signal in Musa to a certain extent. According to these two boundaries, the genus Musa can be roughly divided into two groups, i.e., sect. Musa and sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen. The divergences of IR borders also led to the variation of gene composition in the genus Musa. Specifically, within sect. Musa, except for Musa velutina with a single copy of gene rps19, the remaining species contain two copies of gene rps19. Whereas all species of sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen harbors only one copy of rps19, reducing the gene content to 135 (Table 1, Table S2). In addition, M. coccinea lost one copy of the trnH gene. This result is congruent with previous investigations [23]. The different copy numbers of trnH and rps19 genes may hint at their gene substitution on nuclear and/or functional redundancy in the plastid [63].Generally, variations in the synonymous mutation rate (dS) are likely to be affected by potential factors that could change the mutation rate, e.g., DNA repair. Nevertheless, the value of nonsynonymous mutation rate (dN) and dN/dS are impacted by the varied mutation rate and driven by selection regimes [64]. In our study, ycf2 and ycf1 were found with dN/dS value greater than 1 (Fig. S5, Table S11). The gene ycf2 was indicated under intensive positive selection. Huang et al. [65] suggested that ycf2 could be a useful DNA marker for estimating sequence variation and evolution in plants. Ycf2 is one of the largest genes encoding putative membrane protein [66,67] and was found to rapidly evolve in Fagopyrum [68], Ipomoea [69], Ophrys [70], Chrysosplenium [71], and Mimosoideae [72]. The extremely high dN/dS value (4.44) of ycf2 indicated that this gene is a valuable marker for the adaptive evolution study of Musaceae.The mutations in the plastome are not universally randomly distributed along the sequence and are concentrated in certain regions referred to as the \"hotspots\" [73]. The highly variable hotspot regions could be used as markers to distinguish closely related species [74] and act as the taxon-specific DNA barcode. In this study, we identified ten highly variable regions (Fig. S6, Table S12). Among them, ycf1 has been recommended as the most promising chloroplast DNA barcodes for land plants [75] and was found to harbor the greatest number of informative sites in this study. The compound region ndhF-trnL, which proved to have the highest Pi value here, has been considered to be the best marker for molecular studies at a low taxonomic level [76][77][78]. However, both ycf1 and ndhF-trnL were less discriminatory when used alone since they could not provide enough haplotypes. The species identification analyses showed the better discriminatory power of the four most variable regions combined (ndhF-trnL, ndhF, matK-rps16, and accD) (Fig. S7). Therefore, we recommend these four regions to be the specific DNA barcodes for Musaceae species.This study the genome-skimming approach and assembled the complete plastomes of 44 Musaceae species/subspecies, providing valuable genomic resources for this family. Based on the complete plastome analysis, the relationship within Musaceae was resolved with high branch support. In addition, the comparative analysis of plastomes revealed variable regions, which could be used as Musaceae-specific DNA markers. All the obtained genomic resources will contribute to future studies in species identification, population genetics, and germplasm conservation of Musaceae.The taxon sampling contains 49 accessions of Musaceae species/subspecies, representing four Ensete species (four accessions), 43 Musa species/subspecies (44 accessions), and one Musella species (one accession) (Table S14). Among these 49 Musaceae plastomes, 45 plastomes of 44 species/subspecies representing two genera (Musa and Ensete) were generated by the current study. Due to the sample collection challenges, 22 of 37 species from sect. Callimusa Cheesman emend Häkkinen could not be included in this study. Fifteen plastomes from other eight families were downloaded from NCBI for analysis. Sixty-four plastomes were used in the current study (Table S14). For data quality consistency, we dropped the plastome of Musa textilis, which presents a distinct short plastome compared to other Musa species (GenBank accession number: NC_022926.1, length 161,347 bp). Total genomic DNA was extracted from silica-dried materials using CTAB protocol [79]. The quality and concentrations of the DNA were assessed using agarose gel electrophoresis and a Qubit 3.0 Fluorometer (Life Technologies). We constructed sequencing libraries using the TruePrep DNA Library Prep Kit V2 for Illumina (Vazyme, TD501). Library lengths were evaluated with the High Sensitivity NGS Fragment Analysis Kit (Advanced Analytical Technologies, Ankeny, IA) on the Fragment Analyzer (Advanced Analytical Technologies). Lengths of all libraries ranged from 300 to 450 bp and were pooled together at equimolar ratios. Libraries were subjected to 150 bp paired-end sequencing on an Illumina X Ten platform (BGI, Wuhan, China). On average, approximately 3 Gb of clean NGS data were obtained for each sample. All raw reads data were submitted into the Sequence Read Archive (SRA) under BioProject PRJNA530661.Raw reads were trimmed, and adaptors were removed using Trimmomatric v. 0.36 [80]. The quality of filtered reads was assessed using FastQC (http:// www. bioin forma tics. babra ham. ac. uk/ proje cts/ fastqc) to assure adaptors and bases below PHRED 30 were removed. We employed NOVOPlasty v. 4.2.1 [81] for the assembly of plastomes by providing Musa balbisiana as the reference (GenBank accession number NC_028439), and all parameters were kept as default settings (see https:// github. com/ ndier ckx/ NOVOP lasty). To confirm the result reliability of the assembling, we also used the toolkit GetOrganelle [82] to assemble the plastomes, and the parameter settings followed the online manual (see https:// github. com/ Kingg erm/ GetOr ganel le). In rare cases, when NOVOPlasty and GetOrganelle failed to obtain a complete plastome, reads were mapped against the non-overlapping contigs from NOVOPlasty to extend their ends to close the gap in Geneious, performing with medium-low sensitivity for 100 iterations.Two independent approaches were applied to annotate these 45 plastomes. Firstly, the annotation of the plastome sequences was performed with GeSeq [83], choosing the plastome of Musa acuminata ssp. malaccensis (HF677508) as the reference genome. In the meantime, ARAGORN was selected as a third party to annotate tRNA. Secondly, we use MAFFT v. 7.388 [84,85] to align and annotate these plastome sequences using the \"Annotation Transfer\" option with Musa itinerans (NC_035723) as a reference in Geneious. The annotation results from GeSeq and Geneious were subsequently compared and manually integrated. The plastome maps were drawn using OGDRAW [86]. Newly generated plastomes were submitted to GenBank (see Table S14 for accession numbers).The boundaries between the four plastome regions, i.e., LSC/IRb (JLB), SSC/IRb (JSB), SSC/IRa (JSA), and LSC/IRa (JLA), were inspected with the online program IRscope [87]. According to the phylogeny generated in this study (Fig. 5), we chose 17 representative species for confirming the IR region expansion/contraction. The four junctions between LSC/IRs and SSC/ IRs of the 17 species were confirmed with PCR-based product sequencing. Target DNA regions were amplified in 25 µl reactions containing 10 ng (1 µl) template DNA, dNTP mixture 2 µl, 10 × LA PCR Buffer 2.5 µl, 0.5 µl of each primer, and 18.5 µl ddH 2 O. The primer pairs designed and used for PCR in this study were listed in Table S15. PCR products were bi-directionally sequenced by GENEWIZ Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Suzhou, China). The sequences were submitted to the Science DB (available at https://www.https:// doi. org/ 10. 11922/ scien cedb. 01436), and the accession number were listed Table S16.Codon usage analysis for protein-coding genes (PCGs) was conducted in DnaSP v. 6.12.03 [88]. PCGs were extracted and concatenated in Geneious before being imported to DnaSP for analysis. The relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) values were calculated to measure the usage bias of synonymous codons. Other three indices, including the effective number of codons (ENC), codon bias index (CBI), GC content of the synonymous second (GC2) and third codons positions (GC3), were also computed to assess the extent of the codon usage bias.The online program REPuter [89] was used to detect short dispersed repeats (SDRs), with the parameters setting as follows: (1) Hamming distance of 3; (2) maximum computed repeats of 500; (3) minimum repeat size of 30 bp. Besides, tandem repeats (≥ 10 bp) were calculated with the online program Tandem Repeats finder (http:// tandem. bu. edu/ trf/ trf. html). Three alignment parameters, i.e., match, mismatch, and indel were kept as two, seven, and seven. The minimum alignment score was set to 80 and the maximum period size to 500. Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were identified in MISA-web [90]. The minimum number of repetitions was set to 10, 5, 4, 3, 3, and 3 for mono, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-and hexa-nucleotide repeats. The Maximum length of sequence between two SSRs to register as compound SSR was set 0. Mauve v1.1.1 [91], a plugin within Geneious, was applied to detect the genome rearrangements and inversions among 49 Musaceae plastomes.Seventy-nine coding sequences (CDSs) were individually extracted from 49 Musaceae plastomes and separately aligned using \"Translation Align\" tool in Geneious. Nonsynonymous (dN) and synonymous (dS) substitution rates and the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous rates (dN/dS) were calculated using CODEML option in PAML v.4.9 [92]. The phylogeny generated from CDSs dataset was used as the constraint tree. The parameters in CODEML control file were set as follow: (1) F3 × 4 model for codon frequencies; (2) \"model = 0\" for allowing a single dN/dS value to vary among branches; (3) \"cleandata = 1\" to remove gaps; (4) default settings for other parameters (as alternative model, \"fix_omega = 0\" and \"omega = 2\") [64]. For the potential positive selection gene, a null model (set \"fix_omega = 1\" and \"omega = 1\" in the control file) was additionally performed following Xiong et al. [93]. LRT were used to test model fit and a Chi-square test was conducted to calculate the P value.A sliding window analysis was conducted in DnaSP v. 6.12.03 [88] to locate genomic regions with a high frequency of variation. The alignment of 49 Musaceae plastomes was generated in MAFFT (with default settings) and used as the input file. The window length and step size were set to 600 bp and 200 bp, respectively. Those regions with nucleotide diversity (Pi) values higher than 0.020 and alignment length longer than 600 bp were extracted from the alignment and analyzed individually to estimate their characteristics. The pairwise distance was calculated using Kimura 2-parameter (K2P) distance in MEGA 7 [94]. Indel polymorphism analysis was conducted in DnaSP v. 6.12.03.For the phylogenetic analysis of Musaceae, two datasets (coding plastid sequences (CDSs) and the complete plastome sequence) were generated. A total of 49 Musaceae plastomes representing 48 species/subspecies were used, including 45 plastomes generated in this study and four downloaded from NCBI (Table S14). Three Alpinia species with plastome in GenBank were added as outgroup (Table S14). The 79 coding plastid sequences were combined, followed by multiple sequence alignment (MSA). For the complete plastome sequence dataset, the IRa was removed and served as inputs for MSA. All alignments were performed using MAFFT [95] and then manually checked in Geneious. We used Modeltest-NG 0.1.6 [96] to determine an optimal nucleotide substitution model under the corrected Akaike Information Criterion (AICc) for each dataset. All the ML analyses were performed in RAxML v8.2.12 [97] by assigning the GTRGAMMA model, and 1,000 rapid bootstrap replicates were run to evaluate the support values for each node. All the BI analyses were conducted in MrBayes v. 3.2.6 [98], and the best-fit models selected for CDSs dataset and the complete plastome sequence dataset were both GTR+I+G. Two MCMC runs were performed with five million generations and four chains, sampling every 5,000 generations and discarding the 25% as burn-in. For the CDSs dataset, best-fit partitioning scheme (Table S17) was determined by PartitionFinder 2 [99], and an additional ML analyse was performed using IQ-TREE [100] with 1000 ultrafast bootstraps [101].The divergence time of Musaceae was estimated using BEAST v2.6.4 [102]. To incorporate multiple fossil calibration points and reduce the bias imported from a single calibration point, the divergence time was estimated by including the whole Zingiberales. SortaDate [50] was used to choose genes suitable for divergence-time estimation. This package determines which trees are clock-like, have the least topological conflict with the species tree, and have informative branch lengths. The ML tree generated from the complete plastome sequence dataset was used as an input species tree. As the result of SortaDate, the final screened genes were ccsA, matK, ndhF, rpoC1, and rpoC2. We selected optimal nucleotide substitution models for each of the five genes using Modeltest-NG 0.1.6 [96] under the AICc. These were identified as GTR+G4 for ccsA, matK, rpoC1, rpoC2, and GTR+I+G4 for ndhF.In BEAST, the newick ML tree of Zingiberales inferred from complete plastome sequences was used as a starting tree due to its more robust phylogenetic resolution. Clock models were linked, while site models were unlinked for each gene. The uncorrelated log-normal distribution relaxed molecular clock model was selected with the Yule model as the tree prior. MCMC run was set to 100 million generations, sampling every 10,000 generations. BEAST 2 output was assessed in Tracer 1.7.2 [103] to evaluate convergence and ensure an effective sample size for all parameters surpassing 200. TreeAnnotator v2.6.4 was used to annotate the maximum clade credibility tree after removing the first 20% of samples as burn-in.Three fossil records and one secondary calibration point were used in this divergence time estimation. Spirematospermum chandlerae [104] was used to calibrate the crown age of order Zingiberales with a mean age of 83.5 Ma. Zingiberopsis attenuate [105] was applied as a mean age of 65 Ma for the crown node of the Zingiberaceae family. Then Ensete oregonense [106] was used to calibrate the crown age of Ensete and Musella clade with a mean age 43 Ma. Each fossil calibration point was assumed to follow a normal distribution with a standard deviation of 2 and an offset of 2, resulting in 81.6-89.4, 63.1-70.9, and 41.1-48.9 Ma 95% intervals, respectively. The secondary calibration point was generated based on previous studies on Monocots [107,108]. It was placed on the stem node of Zingiberales with a normal distribution as a mean age of 100 Ma and a broad standard deviation of 5 (95% intervals 90.2 -110 Ma).","tokenCount":"6606"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d090fe2581c9762c5033b4fb784dab55","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6882cfdf-0aa7-474c-9eef-797bce5d7ad9/retrieve","id":"1003654627"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e7b277a6-5a4e-4932-8361-53f2e828ef51","pagecount":"7","content":"This factsheet gives answers on how climate exacerbates root causes of conflict in Uganda, using a network analysis. Results show that, with the Ugandan economy heavily reliant on subsistence agriculture, the network indicates the second cropping season is the most vulnerable, leading to poverty risks and conflict.The main objective of this analysis is to quantify the underlying structure of the climate, socioeconomic and conflict system. Understanding how the three main themes (climate, conflict and socio-economic) are connected, is key to defining intervention and mitigating conflict. The main research question we aim to address is: What is the underlying structure of the climate, conflict, and socio-economic system in Uganda?Using network analysis, a statistical model is built to quantitatively display the connections between several variables pertaining to climate variabilities, security threats and socio-economic risks, in order to identify the underlying structure of this complex system of relationships.Climate variables were compiled using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) data. 1 Conflict data were gathered from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED). Socio-economic data were collated from the Living Standard Measurement Surveys (LSMS).Uganda is a landlocked country that is highly vulnerable to climate disruptions. Temperatures in Uganda have continued to rise while seasonal precipitation has decreased and rainfall variability has increased. 2,3 The country also suffers from variable drought and flood events. 2,3 Seeing as agriculture employs a large portion of the Ugandan workforce, the climate crisis is likely to heavily impact the economy. 4,5,6 Since achieving its independence in 1962, Uganda has experienced decades of civil war, armed insurgencies, ethnic conflicts, and violent transitions of power. 7,8 Despite the end of the war in 2006 the country still faces many socio-economic vulnerabilities, especially through weak governance of natural resources. These socio-economic and political vulnerabilities and risks are likely to be exacerbated by the climate crisis aggravating instability and insecurity in the country.Among 30 variables, the network model retained 17 variables. Each category of variable is represented in the network model (different colours), suggesting the relevance of many sectors of the socioeconomic landscape to the climate-conflict nexus, for Uganda (Figure 1). At first assessment of the network, all climate variables are closely linked (nodes 1, 2, 3, 4). In the same way this is also the case with the employment and education variables (nodes 9, 10, 11) as well as the conflict variables (nodes 5, 6, 7, 8). Evidently, these variables within each category show strong relationships among themselves. There are also strong links to other categories indicating the interdependence between them. For example, climate (node 3) is linked to total household income (node 12). In Uganda, agriculture is a significant contributor to the economic sector, employing 72% of the workforce and representing 50% of the total exports. 6,9 The Ugandan agricultural sector is particularly vulnerable considering that it is mainly composed of small-scale subsistence farmers that do not have sufficient adaptive capacity to respond to climate shifts. 10 Climate change impacts agricultural production directly through lowering of water resources, increasing weather volatility, and changing the distribution and incidence of pests thus reducing crop production and productivity. 6,9 The climate challenges faced by farmers are likely to have severe consequences therefore on household income of Ugandan citizens that rely so heavily on agricultural outputs.As climate drives this nexus of poverty risks (e.g., nodes 2, 3 to node 12; node 3 to nodes 16, 17) so too these poverty risks drive conflict (e.g., node 17 to nodes 5, 7, 8). Indeed, climate variability and extremes have the potential to exacerbate existing risks and vulnerabilities in a system. In Kasese, the variability of climate and extreme weather events are negatively impacting land, water and food systems and therefore having an overall adverse effect on the economy. Coffee is a popular crop in Kasese and generates 80% of the agricultural income in the area. As a result of large climate extremes, coffee production faces production risks which could impact food security, and drive poverty in Kasese (and thus drive poverty). 11 Conflicts over land use and access in Kasese have been extensively reported while tensions between communities also exist over the access to water resources. 12,13,14 The network illustrates how climate extremes (node 17), drive/impact crop production (node 9) and in turn can result in multiple pathways of conflict outbreaks (nodes 5, 6, 7, 8).Employment and education also show its ties to conflict outbreaks in Uganda. Illiteracy, which tends to hinder health, participation in the labour market and poverty reduction, is considerable in Kasese with 32.1% of the total population aged 18 and above who are illiterate, while female percentages sit even higher. 15 If we look at our network structure, we can see direct ties between literacy level (node 9) and conflict outbreaks (node 7). In low-and middle-income African countries, education emerged as a development strategy to alleviate several forms of inequalities. 16 When it comes to the case of Uganda however, the country represents a striking paradox. Significant investments and policy reforms in education (such as Universal Primary and Secondary Education) since 1997, did not yield the expected results concerning poverty reduction through human capital investment. 16 Progress in poverty alleviation is idle in Uganda. 16 Here we can see in the network how direct links are seen between education (node 10) and poverty (node 14). The lack of education (node 9, 10) in turn exacerbates the conflict outbreaks (node 7, 8). This is most likely due to the major effects of inadequate education which include: unemployment, exploitation, and gender inequality.The climate, conflict nexus is therefore a multifaceted one in Uganda that requires focus both on socio-economic risks as well as climate risks to try reducing porosities in the system that are ultimately driving conflict outbreaks in the region.We use a regularized partial correlation network 17 , as part of Markov random fields, to model the climatesocio-economic-conflict relationships. A network is a graphical representation of the relationships (edges) between different entities (nodes). The variables, represented by the nodes, are categorized as (a) climate variables, (b) conflict variables, and (c) socio-economic risk variables which are further grouped into (c.1) employment and education variables, (c.2) poverty risks variables. The edges between nodes, representing the partial correlation coefficients encode the remaining statistical association between two variables after controlling for all other information possible (conditional independence associations). These partial correlation coefficients were estimated from a matrix of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients for continuous variables. Polychoric correlations were used for categorical variables, polyserial and biserial correlations used between variables of different types.To eliminate non-significant relationships, the partial correlation network was regularized using a Lasso regularization 18 with an EBIC model selection. 19 Climate variables were compiled using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) data 1  CGIAR aims to address gaps in knowledge about climate change and food security for peace and security policies and operations through a unique multidisciplinary approach. Our main objective is to align evidence from the realms of climate, land, and food systems science with peacebuilding efforts already underway that address conflict through evidence-based environmental, political, and socioeconomic solutions.","tokenCount":"1181"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6883f9a1b23e043c95d28a86a84d782c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da09eae5-dde3-436a-a7d1-32596d2c296a/retrieve","id":"849655552"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f444d218-d4c9-4b43-a027-39d15e792f87","pagecount":"16","content":"An analysis of the effects of climate change on 22 critical agricultural commodities and three important natural resources in the developing world reveals a number of cross-cutting themes: `The world's agricultural systems face an uphill struggle in feeding a projected nine to ten billion people by 2050. Climate change introduces a significant hurdle in this struggle. `Securing and maintaining necessary levels of calories, protein and nutrients for populations around the world will be an exceptional challenge. `Recalibrating agriculture in the face of climate change is more than planting crops that can tolerate warmer weather. Some commodities, for example, can grow in warm weather but cannot resist the insects and diseases whose prevalence will increase. Others can tolerate a lack of water but not the sporadic flooding that occurs with more common weather extremes. `Even as global deforestation continues, trees continue to be valued as a provider of agricultural commodities like nuts and fruit; as a mitigating resource that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere; and also as a staple of adaptation-trees help stabilize soil erosion, better regulate water, as well as provide shade, firewood and fodder.`Production of the most common commodity staples-wheat, maize and rice-will be challenged by new weather patterns. Adjustments in production, replacement with commodities that can tolerate the new conditions in different regions, and innovations in technology are key elements of adaptation. `Raising livestock and catching fish and other aquatic products-two of the more common sources of protein-will also be challenged by a new climate. In some areas, different plants, breeds and species can provide substitutions, but in others, adaptation is critical. `This recalibration of agriculture will eventually extend beyond what is grown and raised. The world's many cultures must adapt to the changing dinner menu forced upon them due to climate change.Around the world, weather patterns are shifting and farmers are scrambling to adjust as the leading edge of climate change is arriving.In quite a few places, growing seasons have expanded, in others they have contracted. Sea levels are rising and water tables are shrinking. For agriculture, climate change is no longer conjecture but a fact of daily life.Scientists predict that increases in temperatures and shifts in rainfall patterns will have a significant impact on agriculture during this century. The change could be both bad and good. Crops at higher altitudes could become more productive as temperatures rise. But in the tropics and sub-tropics, geographic areas that include the world's hungriest people, climate change could cause crop yields to fall 10 to 20 percent or more between now and 2050. 1 There will be more encounters with high heat, more bouts of drought, and more instances of severe flooding. The damage could come in many forms, but there is a common denominator: crops may not be able to grow where they had been grown for many generations.What is worse, climate change will disrupt growing conditions just as farmers are being pressed to significantly boost agricultural production. Food demand can only increase as the global population grows from seven billion now to a projected nine to ten billion by 2050. 2 To feed these people, farmers now must simultaneously increase yields-even double them in many areas-while adapting to climate change. Furthermore, they are being asked to accomplish these twin feats while reducing their own greenhouse gas emissions. If they cannot, then food production will be threatened further.Clearly, the ability of the world's many agricultural systems-particularly those in developing countries-to adapt to climate change will determine whether there will be enough food to feed an additional two billion by 2050. But first, more insight is needed into how climate change will affect the world's staple crops, livestock and the natural resources that nourish them both.In August 2012, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), responding to a request from the United Nations' Committee on Food Security, asked experts from CGIAR's 15 research centers to summarize the effects of climate change on 22 of the most important agricultural commodities and 3 critical natural resources in the developing world. 3 In compiling their analyses, the complexities of climate change adaptation became more apparent, and the urgency more obvious.The analyses revealed, for example, that some crops can withstand high temperatures but are sensitive to changes in rainfall. Other crops can tolerate occasional flooding but are susceptible to new or increased levels of pests and diseases brought on by higher temperatures. Conversely, some disease-resistant crop varieties suffer when nighttime temperatures rise above certain levels.In the face of these complications and the many knowledge gaps that still exist, these CGIAR summaries offer the most coherent picture yet of what climate change adaptation could look like for agriculture in the developing world.This brief reviews key issues raised in the crop, commodity and natural resource summaries, each of which forms a unique piece of the jigsaw puzzle that must be assembled to ensure the viability of food production in the near future. How will rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns affect crops in the field? How will climate change affect water and soil resources, crop pests and diseases, and trees and forests?It is important to consider the impact of climate change on diet, particularly in relation to the world's primary staple crops-wheat, rice and maize-but also for animal and vegetable sources of protein. Climate change could require large numbers of people in different parts of the world to consider new foods to meet their nutritional needs.Finally, there are a series of recommendations for actions that could be undertaken now to lay a better foundation for what will be a decadeslong endeavor. These will require a new level of collaboration among farmers, governments, researchers, consumer groups and international institutions to confront perhaps the single biggest challenge of our time.According to the United States National Academies of Sciences, \"The average temperature of the Earth's surface increased by about 0.8°C (1.4°F ) over the past 100 years, with about 0.6°C (1.0°F) of this warming occurring over just the past three decades.\" 4 This warming, which is expected to intensify another 1.8 to 4°C by 2099, 5 will have a significant impact on growing conditions. What are now \"record temperatures\" will become, for many regions, the new normal.But the hotter weather-which can be a critical drag on crop survival-is just one aspect of climate change. Climate change also is expected to usher in changes in rainfall patterns and more bouts of severe weather, from storms and flooding to record droughts. Entire regions face a shift to a different climate type and the geographic range for many crops will shift accordingly. Changing weather patterns would affect all aspects of the agricultural ecosystem.You Say Potato, I Say….Banana?Adaptation to climate change will require an understanding of what is likely to happen to particular crops in specific parts of the world as temperatures rise and weather becomes more volatile, along with an understanding of the options available for overcoming these problems.Potatoes, for example, rank as the world's fourth largest food crop. More than half of the potatoes grown around the world come from developing countries such as India and China. Potato cultivation is best suited to cooler climates, and the fear today is that steadily rising temperatures are likely to reduce potato yields in places where people already struggle to meet basic nutritional needs. But what crops should people turn to when their dietary staple is no longer viable?Photo credit: N. Palmer (CIAT)Rising temperatures may threaten potatoes, the world's fourth largest food crop.Options are available but there are no easy answers.Warmer winters caused by climate change could provide an opening for cultivating certain varieties of bananas in higher altitudes that soon may get much warmer-possibly even those places that currently grow potatoes. Warmer weather may increase banana productivity by shortening the time between planting and harvest. But, as with almost every agriculture-related adaptation strategy, there is a caveat: higher temperatures could also increase water demands for banana plants, so bananas might not be an option if climate change reduces rainfall amounts in these places over the long-term.The growing conditions required by a particular crop are such a nuanced affair that even those crops that can withstand harsh conditions may not survive the worst of what climate change will bring.Lentils, for example, are valued for their resilience. They do well in relatively dry environments and are mainly cultivated on rain-fed, as opposed to irrigated, lands. Yet their tolerance has its limits and they are in fact susceptible to both drought and heat stresses, both of which are expected to rise in intensity and frequency in ways that could severely deplete production. In South Asia, the crop is grown after the rainy season ends. If in the future the season ends early, lentil production will suffer.West Asia presents a case in point: lentils planted at higher elevations in the spring would be vulnerable to higher heat. But farmers trying to adapt by planting crops near the end of winter risk losing their lentil crops to cold temperatures and frost.Millet also is mentioned often as a crop whose production could be expanded in dry areas. Both pearl and finger millet can tolerate high levels of what are known as \"abiotic stresses,\" those non-plant elements, including heat, drought, and poor soil, that can drain a crop's productivity.For millet, \"biotic,\" or plant-induced, stresses include blast disease and the parasitic weed Striga. Climate change could intensify these stresses, diminishing millet's crop yields and its attractiveness as a resilient crop.In short, extensive research needs to formulate targeted, region-by-region approaches that recalibrate agricultural production according to the effects of climate change. In some cases, this could require farmers to embrace entirely new crops.Water scarcity has always challenged food security in the developing world and it will become even more critical with climate change.For example, 90 percent of all irrigated wheat is grown in less developed countries, 6 while developed countries mostly grow rain-fed wheat.As the planet heats up, crops that rely on water resources will come under increasing pressure. Unless farmers adapt by 2050, climate change could cause wheat yields in irrigated systems in -5 -58 percent of existing water resources. In South Asia, the rate is 52 percent. Doubts persist as to whether or not this level of use outpaces nature's ability to recharge groundwater and surface water sources. In sub-Saharan Africa, that rate of water usage is less than three percent. 9 More can be used, but how much more?Complicating matters further, annual average river runoff and water availability will change with the climate. Already, the amount of water that parts of the world rely on for agricultural production is stretched very thin-a concept known as water crowding. Figure 1 shows the population whose agricultural production is supported by one cubic kilometers of river water.Understanding the impacts of climate change on water resources in different parts of the world and devising viable water management strategies that conserve this resource thus becomes a critical focus of climate change adaptation. Already, developing countries to fall by around 13 percent.Similarly, climate change could cause irrigated rice yields in these countries to fall by 15 percent. 7Of all the fresh water used around the world, agriculture accounts for 70 percent. 8 As more water is needed to quench the thirst of the world's rapidly growing population, competition for this resource will force farmers to grow more with less water. Projected changes in water availability vary greatly by region and are lacking in specificity and certainty.Some regions have addressed rainfall shortages by tapping surface water and groundwater. But these sources are easily depleted if water is taken out faster than it can be naturally replenished.In the Near East, North Africa, and Central Asia, for instance, irrigation systems use approximately increasing water efficiency-producing \"more crop per drop\"-is a priority. Additionally, further research is needed to explore alternative sources of water for agriculture, such as energy efficient systems that recycle wastewater and remove salt from ocean water.Soil health is yet another agricultural concern that climate change will impact. With livestock manure difficult to obtain in some regions and the cost of synthetic fertilizer rising (and its availability and affordability in the developing world still very restricted), smallholders are being encouraged to revive traditional practices of planting crops that can recharge depleted soils and boost yields. But changing weather patterns and shifting climates could alter growing conditions for these \"green fertilizers.\"Strategies must be developed either to ensure current crops remain viable or to provide farmers with alternatives.Fava beans are one of the crops in question.In parts of Central and West Asia and North Africa, smallholder farmers grow fava beans in rotation with wheat. In addition to providing protein, fava beans provide nitrogen for the soil.They can infuse soils with as much as 178 to 251 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare. 10 But climate change threatens the use of fava bean plants to manage soil health-and to provide dietary protein-as they are sensitive to heat and drought.In tropical and semitropical areas, pigeon peas can play a similar role. The plant does not supply as much nitrogen as fava beans (69-134 kg per hectare 11 ), though it does provide a comparable level of protein. Also, the plant's perennial, tall, bush-like growth offers additional soil protection and its deep roots help recycle nutrients.But pigeon pea cultivation could be constrained if climate change intensifies precipitation extremes, as both drought and heavy rains can restrict its growth. The warmer weather would hasten the growth, and change the distribution of threats from pest and disease.Other plants, such as chickpeas and lentils, also have so-called \"nitrogen-fixing\" properties and, in general, mixing these \"fertilizer\" crops with others helps rejuvenate soil.Today, there is concern that the push to boost agricultural production to meet population increases will inevitably lead to wider use of synthetic fertilizer. During the Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, increased access to this fertilizer facilitated a large jump in production. One issue with synthetic fertilizers, however, is their potential to increase emissions of nitrous oxide, which has much more global warming potential than carbon dioxide. Price is another issue, as the production costs for many types of synthetic fertilizer are projected to rise.But if farmers are to use more climate-friendly alternatives, such as nitrogen-fixing crops, then the pace of research to ensure the viability of these adaptation approaches needs to quicken.Numerous studies have detailed the projected increase in pestilence and plant disease that could be caused by climate change. While pests and diseases have historically triggered catastrophic food losses-such as the potato blight that instigated the Great Famine in 19th century Ireland-the more typical pattern has involved a steady decrease in production.The warmer temperatures that climate change is expected to bring would hasten the growth, development and distribution of many pests and diseases. This is a primary point of concern for the potato as temperature is a critical variable with potato blight. As temperatures rise, so does the pace of blight proliferation. Aside from blight, there are other emerging potato diseases that climate change can impact, including more than two dozen viruses.Yams, which remain fundamental to sustaining the lives and livelihoods of West Africans, are also vulnerable to pests and disease that could intensify due to the effects of climate change. Mealy bugs, scale insects, beetles and nematodes, as well as several viruses, all impact the cultivation of yams. However, if these pests and diseases can be brought under control, yams could play a role in helping regions deal with climate change as they are relatively tolerant of extreme temperatures and dry seasons.One way to control pest outbreaks is through integrated pest management procedures, which obviate the need to apply pesticides on crops. When a sudden outbreak of mealy bugs threatened the cassava crop in Thailand, for example, the government released a parasitic wasp into cassava fields that brought the mealy bugs under control. But even as climate change unbalances local ecosystems, caution must be used in introducing additional species, as this could risk creating more imbalances.Another is through genetically modifying crops to develop or enhance their resistance to either pests and diseases or the pesticides and herbicides used to eradicate these threats. For example, crops modified to prevent Bacillus thuringiensis, including maize and cotton, have not been as susceptible to flies, beetles, nematodes and other insects.As the kinds and incidences of plant diseases grow, research to develop disease-resistant crop varieties will become increasingly important. Stem rust, which severely curtails wheat production, presents the classic case in point.Another key feature of the Green Revolution was the development and dissemination of new varieties of rust-resistant wheat. A new strain of stem rust-the now-famous Ug99-has recently emerged in Africa. Scientists have marshaled a global effort to develop and introduce wheat varieties that are resistant to Ug99 before it spreads widely around the world and sparks a global food crisis.Many discussions on how to slow the pace of climate change focus on the importance of maintaining and increasing forest cover. Forests play a primary role in absorbing and storing carbon. Their destruction-often for the purpose of grazing livestock or growing crops-is a major contributor to the overall build-up of greenhouse gas emissions.Forests also can help people adapt to climate change. Mangrove swamps, for example, protect coastal communities by serving as a buffer during storms. Inland forests help regulate the flow and quality of fresh water. Forests also provide numerous products that boost the diet and livelihoods of local communities.Today, smallholder farmers are increasingly adding fruit, fodder trees and other arboreal varieties to their fields through what is known as agroforestry, which itself offers another avenue of adaptation to climate change. Through agroforestry, farmers diversify their food and fodder production while stabilizing their soil, reducing runoff and erosion, and improving water retention.Unfortunately, changes in climate have severe impacts on forests, trees and the biodiversity that they house. Lower levels of precipitation leave forests more prone to catastrophic fires. In the Congo River Basin and other major forests, continued deforestation due to agricultural expansion, forest fires and the changing climate hasten their decline.Also, just as it does with crop pests, changing weather conditions appear to allow tree pests to flourish, such as the pine beetles now plaguing forests in the western United States.There are a growing number of initiatives focused on preserving and expanding the world's remaining forests. They include the effort to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation or REDD, which is part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the European Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) initiative that promotes sustainable forestry and reduces illegal logging. Many of these efforts attempt to generate income for impoverished communities that do not threaten wooded areas. Also, there is an effort to construct a forested belt 15 kilometers wide and 7,700 kilometers long stretching from Senegal in West Africa to Djibouti in East Africa. The so-called Great Green Wall of the Sahara and Sahel Initiative is intended to halt desertification but it could also help moderate the impact of climate change in the region.As climate change continues to take hold, the effects on food production will require reexamining what's in the cooking pot, especially in regions where people already do not get enough to eat. In fact, climate change will diminish yields of the world's three primary dietary staples: maize, wheat and rice.According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), more than half of the calories consumed globally come from these three crops. 12 But maize, wheat and rice production will be severely challenged by climate change. In some places, it may be possible to overcome the challenges by breeding more resilient varieties, such as those that can withstand high heat, drought or flooding. In other areas, adaptation strategies could involve replacing one of the \"big three\" with equally nutritious food crops more likely to provide adequate yields under the new growing conditions.By 2050, the demand for maize in the developing world is expected to double, 13 according to studies by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). 14 Maize is a critical source not only of food for people but also of feed for animals (the grain is used in rich countries and the stover, or stocks, in poor countries to feed ruminants) and of ethanol and other materials for industries.Unfortunately, maize is not well-suited for the changes in growing conditions-specifically, higher average temperatures-that appear to be in store for many regions where it is currently cultivated. Field tests and historic data show that temperatures above 30°C and drought conditions reduce crop yields. Estimates show that in Africa, climate change could depress harvests by 10 to 20 percent. 15 Without varieties that can survive higher temperatures, the only choice for farmers wanting to maintain their maize production is to move it to cooler regions.But doing so would leave big gaps in both local food and feed supplies. And while improved roads and other transportation infrastructure could help transport maize back to where it had been previously cultivated, it seems likely that some maize-producing regions will have to consider switching to planting and consuming a different crop that is more likely to survive in the growing conditions of the near future.Without adaptation to this problem at the local level, both the number of malnourished children and people at risk of hunger will climb.Wheat is the world's most important plantderived protein and calorie source. One of the first domesticated food crops, it has been a staple food for people in Europe, West and South Asia, and North Africa for more than 8,000 years.Climate change will have significant impacts on wheat yields, as the crop suffers under extreme heat and drought. The developing world in particular will be hard hit. Irrigation might help wheat survive stressful conditions, but the amount of water needed to do so would place an unsustainable demand on current water sources. Planting wheat earlier and developing improved varieties that have a shorter growing cycle may also help wheat farmers adapt to climate change.Photo credit: N. Russell (CIMMYT)A researcher and farmer in Ecuador examine a new drought-tolerant wheat variety.Rising prices for maize, cotton, soybeans and rice are likely to complicate wheat adaptation efforts, as they have pushed wheat production to marginal lands where the crop is more vulnerable to stresses induced by climate change.Eventually, many wheat farmers may have to seek out a replacement food staple that can be cultivated in the many places that, in the near future, may no longer support wheat production at levels required to maintain food security.Although rice production is spread among 114 countries, Asian farmers produce more than 90 percent of the world's total. In Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, rice provides 40 to 70 percent of the total calories consumed. So much rice is consumed locally that only 7 percent of the world's rice production is traded internationally. 16 Much of the international trade in rice flows toward Africa. During the past 50 years, people in West Africa (and Madagascar) have adjusted their diets to include more and more rice. In Côte d'Ivoire, for example, the share of calories 16 Thornton, ibid. page 122.obtained from rice has grown from 12 percent in 1961 to 22 percent in 2007. 17Climate change is expected to bring a host of challenges for rice-producing regions, including higher temperatures, more flooding, higher soil and groundwater salinity from rising seas, and more frequent droughts. Many of these problems are expected to appear concurrently.Researchers are working to develop rice varieties that can tolerate these stresses more effectively.While the economic benefit of more resilient rice has been calculated-about $1.8 billion for South Asia alone-fields are still being sown with older varieties that will not flourish in the new conditions.With the dominant status of the world's three major food crops potentially imperiled by climate change, agricultural experts see an urgent need to identify new sources of calories for the human diet.Already, almost one billion people around the world-one in seven-do not eat enough food to meet their energy requirements. As noted earlier, this problem will rapidly intensify as an additional two billion people populate the planet during the next 40 years. The dramatic increases in food production that are needed must also account for the impact of climate change on farming regions and crop varieties.Climate change will have an impact on calorie intake around the world. Even residents of developed countries will have fewer calories available for consumption, but their diets will remain for the most part at healthy levels. In the developing world, there is clear need for more food.One of the crops that can be used to fill this calorie gap is cassava, which is both a cash crop and a food staple in Africa and Asia. More importantly, cassava tolerates numerous stresses, ranging from infertile soils to heat and drought.Certainly, cassava could help to meet food needs in South Asia, where higher temperatures and prolonged dry periods will reduce the viability of wheat and rice.Bananas are another crop that could fill regional agricultural gaps. Plantains and cooking bananas provide some 70 million Africans with more than a quarter of their calorie requirements. 18 They are currently grown in the humid and sub-humid tropics, the tropical highlands and drier sub-tropics.Climate change may affect banana cultivation in certain areas, but its range is expected to adjust, not shrink. In the near future, it may be possible to cultivate bananas at higher altitudes with a shorter time between planting and harvesting (although bunch size may decrease). The effect of climate change on banana pests and diseases is less certain. Though biotic stresses will probably also expand in range, it is not clear whether the pests and diseases will thrive at higher altitude.The important point is: agriculture has to adapt beyond maintaining the viability of wheat, maize and rice in the face of climate change and finding replacement crops. And given the thicket of technical, environmental, cultural and political issues involved in shifting dietary staples, this adaptation work needs to rapidly accelerate to keep pace with climate change.Poor people in less developed countries typically subsist mostly, and in some cases almost exclusively, on calories obtained from cheap cereals and tubers, such as maize and 18 Thornton, ibid. page 15.cassava. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), these diets are frequently deficient not only in the overall quantity of calories consumed but also in the quality of those calories, as they often lack protein, iron and Vitamin A. 19 Given the availability of these nutrients in meat, dairy and eggs, livestock could address this dire need in the developing world. Figure 2 shows the current regional disparities and trend lines in how livestock contributes to daily diets.Increasing the productivity of (and production of) livestock can have trade-offs, however. Livestock producers in poor as well as rich countries will increasingly be encouraged to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that their farms produce.Complicating matters further is the impact of climate change on livestock. In particular, increased drought frequency could put many farm animals at risk. Also, climate change coupled with the intensification of livestock production has the potential to intensify transmission of \"zoonotic\" pathogens, which can jump from animals to humans.Climate change will also intensify problems with feeding livestock. The demand for maize and coarse grain for this sector is expected to account for nearly half the grain produced in the years 2000-2050, 20 but the prospects for maize, as discussed earlier, are not optimistic.Pastures are expected to decrease in quality, with increased temperatures forcing the grasses to become more fibrous and less nutritious. Soybeans, another crop used as animal feed, will not tolerate higher temperatures in many parts of the world.Fish and other aquatic products potentially could help fill the protein gap of the poor. For a third of the world's population, this sector already accounts for about 20 percent of their protein intake. 21  continue to increase the oceans' acidity, which eats away at the coral. Rising temperatures will also affect the range of many fish, further altering the underwater ecosystem. And continued overfishing in many parts of the world will exacerbate these climate-related stresses.In the more affluent countries, the amount of animal protein consumed can be scaled back; this would not only help populations in these countries eat more balanced diets but would also help lower the emissions footprint of their diet. In the developing world, however, increasing-rather than decreasing-the very low amount of calories from meat in the diets of these populations would have a significant positive impact on their health and well-being.In South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, for example, nearly one billion people living on less than two dollars per day keep livestock; This has translated into considerable growth in global per capita intake of energy derived from livestock products, but with significant regional differences (Figure 2). Consumption has increased in all regions except sub-Saharan Africa. Also, the former centrally planned economies of Eastern Europe and Central Asia saw major declines around 1990. The greatest increases have occurred in East and Southeast Asia and in Latin America and the Caribbean.Table 1 summarizes per capita consumption of meat, milk and eggs for the major developed-and developing-country groups since 1980. The most substantial growth in per capita consumption of livestock products has occurred in East and Southeast Asia. China, in particular, has seen per capita consumption of meat quadruple, consumption of milk increase tenfold, and egg consumption increase eightfold. Per capita consumption of livestock products in the rest of East and Southeast Asia has also grown significantly, particularly in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Malaysia and Viet Nam.Brazil too has experienced a rapid expansion in the consumption of livestock products -per capita consumption of meat has almost doubled, while that of milk has increased by 40 percent. In the rest of Latin America and the Caribbean, increases in consumption have been more modest, with some exceptions. The Near East and North Africa has seen a 50 percent increase in consumption of meat and a 70 percent increase in egg consumption, although milk consumption has declined slightly. In South Asia, including India, per capita consumption of livestock products has grown steadily, although meat consumption remains low. Among the developing-country regions, only sub-Saharan Africa has seen a modest decline in per capita consumption of both meat and milk.In two-thirds of those are women. 22 Fisheries and aquaculture support an additional half-billion people around the world. 23 There is no easy answer for adapting these sectors to changing climates. But the benefits to people from eating fish and animal protein-as well as raising livestock for their livelihoods-will not evaporate as the planet warms; answers must be found in securing their continued availability.While livestock and fish have a key role to play in maintaining food security in a fast-growing, fast-changing world, increasing production of vegetable protein must be examined as well. But here too, climate change could make it difficult to expand cultivation.One of the more common sources of vegetable protein is the soybean. While widely grown in the United States, Brazil and China, soybean is a relatively new crop in sub-Saharan Africa. But it has been adopted with some success in the savannah regions. Some African cultures are already adding the soybean, high in protein and vegetable oil, to their traditional recipes.Soybeans, however, are extremely susceptible to increased temperatures. The areas in the US and Brazil that cultivate proteins for export would face steep declines once the temperature exceeds 30°C. There are estimates that US soybean production alone could decrease by as much as 80 percent in this century. 24 Chickpeas, another traditional source of vegetable protein, are grown and eaten across five continents, including regions where hunger is a constant concern. The chickpea may be vulnerable to climate shifts, in part because it is usually grown on marginal lands and with minimal amounts of fertilizer and irrigation. In 22 Thornton, op.cit. page 93.23 Thornton, ibid. page 55.24 Thornton, ibid. page 145.these settings, the crop is already vulnerable to attacks from pests and environmental stresses. Climate change is likely to have a mixed effect on chickpeas. The anticipated increase in carbon dioxide levels could be beneficial, but higher temperatures will hinder their growth.Cowpea, known in sub-Saharan Africa as a \"poor man's meat,\" is an essential part of the diet in many regions. Not only does it have ample protein, but several varieties contain an exceptional amount of micronutrients. The crop is grown mostly in the dry savannahs and is generally more drought-tolerant than other plants. Cowpea vines play a valuable role in providing dry-season feed for ruminant livestock. These characteristics make the cowpea more impervious to climate change than other crops, although it can still fail in the face of severe droughts. In response, scientists have bred varieties with shorter growing seasons that can be cultivated in certain parts of Africa between the start of the rainy season and the start of the dry season. This adaptation strategy has been taking root in Niger and Nigeria, where farmers have moved away from cotton cultivation to the cowpea.It is not enough to measure food security strictly by calorie intake. Given the problems facing livestock and fisheries as food sources, additional research is needed to identify and improve crops that provide protein.An analysis of food sources that can help food-challenged communities adapt to climate change must consider the overall nutritional value of different crops and livestock, along with their suitability to situations in which weather extremes become the new normal.What is the overall nutritional profile of the food, and how many vitamins and minerals does it contain? Poor nutritional intakemicronutrients such as iron, zinc, folic acid and the vitamin complexes-in a diet that appears to provide sufficient calories is often called the \"hidden hunger.\"Photo credit: N. Palmer (CIAT)Comparison of good (top) and bad millet yields, in Ghana's Upper West Region, which has suffered failed rains and rising temperatures. Millet is a highly nutritious and resilient crop but is still susceptible to climate stresses.Barley is one cereal, though, that could help improve nutrition, especially in drier parts of the world. It contains high levels of micronutrientsespecially zinc and iron-and can be used as livestock feed. Barley also can fetch a relatively high price in markets as the grain is valued in producing alcoholic beverages.Barley could be attractive in a world of rising seas and more frequent droughts, as it is known for its ability to withstand salinity in the soil, in addition to heat and drought. There needs to be more research to determine just how much stress barley can sustain, but its ability to adapt to climate change appears to surpass many of today's most important crops.Millet and lentils are highly nutritious foods that are similarly able to withstand harsher growing environments. They are ready-made to help poor communities maintain and increase food security as climate conditions reduce yields from other food sources. However, as noted before, they are not a bullet-proof adaptation option since certain climate stresses can reduce their yields as well.It is often easy when reviewing the many threats facing food production in the era of climate change to become pessimistic about humanity's ability to survive this rapidly approaching storm, or to survive without condemning millions or even billions more people to poverty and hunger. The three main sources of our caloriesmaize, rice and wheat-face conditions that could significantly depress yields, and key sources of animal protein likewise may be imperiled.There are crops, such as cassava, yam, barley, cowpea, millet and lentils that could fill in the gaps caused by declining harvests of other crop types. Also, science has advanced to the point where plant breeders are optimistic that they can develop new crop varieties that are especially tolerant of heat and drought or resistant to particular crop diseases.But breeding new plant varieties is both timeconsuming and costly; efforts to develop more resilient crops must be deployed strategically.Efficiently allocating resources for such climate change adaptation efforts will require a strong body of research that provides robust predictions of what growing conditions will look like in different parts of the world during the next few decades.A key source of tension, however, surrounds adaptation that would involve abandoning a traditional food source for an entirely different one-for example, forsaking maize in the face of rising temperatures and cultivating cowpea instead. Will people embrace the new staple, however nutritious it may be? This cultural challenge is another facet of climate change adaptation that should get as much attention as plant breeding.Despite the enormous challenges climate change will bring to food production in the developing world-and in wealthy countries as well-a number of actions can be undertaken to prevent these problems from exploding into costly crises. In its final report, issued in March 2012, the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change issued a number of recommendations that that can help ensure agriculture not only survives but also thrives. 25 These include:`Financing initiatives to help agricultural production systems become more resilient to weather variability and shocks, while contributing significantly to mitigating ","tokenCount":"6168"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"af5982457ffad0e7a91dfa9078bf8365","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://hazeportal.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/22-907_Report-Stocktaking-and-gap-analysis_compressed-c.pdf","id":"-982240077"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d21ba5b5-f368-426b-bccf-e6ecc8b5bbab","pagecount":"35","content":"The Measurable Action for Haze-Free Sustainable Land Management in Southeast Asia (MAHFSA) programme is a joint initiative between the ASEAN Secretariat (ASEC) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) for supporting efforts to reduce transboundary haze pollution and its impacts in Southeast Asia. The programme's aims include systematizing data and information management; creating a flexible regional coordination platform for engaging all relevant actors; building capacity; harmonizing programmes and projects; and facilitating multiple sources of finance for promoting haze-free farming and sustainable management of peatlands, as well as developing and operationalizing a 10-year investment framework to enable enhanced and coordinated implementation of haze and peatlands projects/programmes towards a haze-free ASEAN region.One of the programme's objectives is to advance the haze agenda through systematic data collection, management and analysis. Programme partners will assist ASEAN member states (AMS) through the development of knowledge products aimed at guiding decision-making processes at the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the Environment and ASEAN Heads of State Summit on issues of land-use policy, regulation, enforcement, incentive frameworks and resource allocation to haze hotspots at local, national and regional levels. Anticipated outcomes are a reduction in forest conversion and land clearance using fire, and the adoption of haze-free farming systems by smallholders and large plantations. MAHFSA programme implementation comprises several activities, from generating knowledge products, developing and implementing communication and engagement strategies, and developing and implementing an investment framework.MAHFSA is co-developed by a consortium of the ASEC, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and the Global Environment Centre (GEC), working with IFAD and in close consultation with ASEAN member states (AMS). As a member of the MAHFSA programme consortium of partners, CIFOR is responsible for implementing Component 2: Data, information and results analysis for strategic knowledge product development. The objective of Component 2 is to enhance the availability and usage of knowledge products on sustainable peatland and haze management. The expected outcome is better availability and utilization of knowledge products on peatland and haze management. Component 2 has one output: the collation and development of new knowledge products for informing different stakeholder groups. There are two major activities: 1) Stocktaking of existing knowledge products; and 2) Development and deployment of a communications strategy and knowledge products.This report refers to Activity 2.1.1 (Stocktaking/ analysis of existing knowledge products) and aims to document activities carried out in stocktaking and analysing knowledge gaps.With their high water-holding capacity, peatlands play an essential role in conservation and climate regulation. Southeast Asia is home to 60% of the world's tropical peatlands; an area of 25 million hectares (ASEAN Environment Division 2016). High rates of deforestation on peatlands have resulted in them losing their key functions in mitigating climate change, particularly capturing and storing carbon. (Muslihat et al. 2009;Murdiyarso et al. 2017). Massive land clearing for plantations and the construction of drainage canals Ahmad Dermawan, Michael Allen Brady, Usman Muchlish, Beni Okarda, Herry Purnomo, Agus Andrianto, Heru Komarudin, Nining Liswanti and Sinta Haryati Silviana 2 have resulted in peatlands drying out and becoming highly vulnerable to fire. (Hooijer et al. 2012;Ritzema et al. 2014;Huijnen et al. 2016;Page and Baird 2016). Peatland drainage directly impacts groundwater levels and emissions, and increases subsidence in peat soils. (Wösten and Ritzema 2001;Agus and Subiksa 2008;Hooijer et al. 2012;Hirano et al. 2014). Emissions from converted and drained peatlands (including from peat fires) are significant and unavoidable (Gaveau et al. 2014;Huijnen et al. 2016;Warren et al. 2016;Hergoualc'h et al. 2017;Wijedasa et al. 2017). More than 45% of Southeast Asia's land has been logged or drained, posing a fire vulnerability threat to the region. Peatland fires cause significant losses of carbon reserves, water reserves and biodiversity (Cheyne et al. 2008;Kurnianto et al. 2015;Page and Baird 2016) and have major impacts on community livelihoods. Increases in emissions of greenhouse gases drive global warming (IAARD 2011).Transboundary haze pollution is one of Southeast Asia's most severe cross-border environmental issues. Indonesia has the most extensive area of tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia, with around 14.9 million hectares spread across the regions of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua (Ritung et al. 2012). Peatland fires in Indonesia contribute significantly to transboundary haze pollution across Southeast Asia with winds carrying smog from Indonesia to Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and other countries. Fires and the resulting transboundary haze have enormous impacts, including economic losses, loss of natural resources, ecosystem degradation, increased greenhouse gas emissions, health problems and social sector losses.Proper management of peatland ecosystems can help support climate change mitigation actions. Implementing ecosystem-based approaches to climate change mitigation, including conservation, sustainable management and restoration of peat forests, is critical to the sustainable development of peatlands. Assessments of, and improvements to sustainable peatland management practices can help maintain or increase carbon sequestration and other ecological functions and reduce the incidence of fires and recurring haze. Additionally, it is crucial to have post-fire rehabilitation work on peatlands. Hydrological management is critical in determining peatland ecosystems' long-term viability, and is essential for ensuring effective peatland fire prevention (Wösten et al. 2008;Barus and Iman 2009;Page et al. 2011).entries. This procedure resulted in the collection of 1,431 entries from these scientific databases. A complete list of these entries is provided in Annex 1.The second knowledge product data source was a list of publications of MAHFSA consortium members (CIFOR, GEC and ASEC). MAHFSA partners have published various products, including journal articles, books, information briefs, posters, etc. We collected publications from the websites of the ASEAN Secretariat and its associated projects, as well as those of GEC and CIFOR. We downloaded papers from two ASEAN websites: 1) Haze Action Online (haze.asean.org); and 2) Sustainable Management of Peatland Resources in Southeast Asia (aseanpeat.net). We also downloaded publications from the Global Environment Centre's website (www. gec.org.my). In addition, numerous CIFOR articles on peatlands are accessible through its website (https://www.cifor.org/library/). In total, we collected 253 publications. A complete list of hyperlinks to all MAHFSA consortium members' knowledge products is provided in Annex 2.Given that several CIFOR publications are journal articles, it is conceivable that overlaps may exist between the first and second data sources. The resulting list of publications is not exhaustive since documents in hard copy might not form part of the database. Figure 1 below presents trends in numbers of publications over time by year of publication.The third data source group was organizations in ASEAN member states. A list of these AMS organizations, which include government institutions and organizations and universities, is provided in Annex 3. This list should not be considered exhaustive, given the number of national organization publications on peatlands, haze, and fires are conceivably far higher than those provided in Annex 3. We searched for documents using the keywords:An essential feature in this stocktaking exercise is the notion of \"knowledge products\". In this paper, we follow ADB (2012), which characterizes knowledge products as \"… tangible outputs (products) … of development, sharing, or application of information and knowledge contents... those where the analytical value addition is significant, increasing the understanding of relations and causality between elements in a body of evidence.\"The types of knowledge products included in the paper are as follows: 1) journal articles; 2) books; 3) information briefs; and 4) strategies and plans. We have not included regulation and data. Regulation is not included because it is not always an outcome of the knowledge generation process. However, we have included analyses of policies. Meanwhile, we classify data as information requiring some analytical method to become a knowledge product.Our stocktaking of knowledge products focused on two groups of data sources. The first group consisted of scientific databases, where knowledge products were primarily journal articles. We searched for knowledge products in four major international scientific databases: 1) Web of Science; 2) Scopus; 3) CAB Abstracts; and 4) Proquest, assigning a timeframe from 1990 to January 2020. Initially, we created separate files using EndNote (a reference management software package) for the search results from each scientific database to understand the distribution of each database's search results on the topics of interest (see Section 2.3). We then merged the papers from the four scientific databases into one EndNote file, removing any duplicate \"peat\", \"peatland\", \"haze\", and \"fire(s)\", as well as Google translations of equivalents in AMS national languages, such as Burmese, Indonesian, Khmer, Laotian, Malaysian, Thai and Vietnamese. We also collected additional information through observations during events (webinars, workshops, etc.) about peatland management and forest fires in Southeast Asia.Following the MAHFSA Programme Implementation Manual, stocktaking and gap analyses of existing knowledge products in the ASEAN region applied the following topics or thematic keywords:• Policies on peatland management, fire and haze pollution (summarized as \"policies\") We developed a list of search keywords to capture the five thematic areas above.The basic structure of search keywords is presented in Annex 3. In addition, we adjusted searches to the format of the search form provided in each scientific database.To complement these keywords, we created another search group consisting of keywords relating to Integrated Fire Management (IFM), an internationally recognized approach that includes the keywords \"prevention\", \"preparedness\", \"suppression\" and \"recovery\" (Heikkila et al. 2007). In addition, we applied wildcards (e.g., prepare*, prevent*, etc.) to capture variations on each of the words relating to IFM.We also created a search group by country and region. In this group, we searched for text containing the keywords \"ASEAN\" and \"Southeast Asia\" and each ASEAN member country: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. This stocktaking analysis covered the period from 1990 to 2020.Most of the papers in the scientific databases are journal articles and conference proceedings. In addition, each MAHFSA consortium member has different comparative advantages in terms of types of knowledge products. Therefore, we separated the search results between scientific databases and MAHFSA consortium members' publications.We conducted a bibliographic analysis of the documents to gather information on their thematic and geographical scopes. We developed a simple system for classifying documents by type (article, book, chapter, brief, etc.) and content (analysis, information, guidelines, strategy, legislation). We analysed texts using the search codes listed in Annex 4, in addition to the IFM and country codes. Using Atlas.ti (a qualitative analysis software package) (Atlas.ti 2017), we created three projects: scientific databases, MAHFSA partner publications, and ASEAN member state government organizations relevant to peatlands. We applied the same analysis procedures to each of the sources.For each one, we identified the results for individual search groups (thematic and IFM keywords). We then cross-referenced these groups, i.e., between the country, thematic and IFM keywords. This cross-referencing identified where keywords co-occurred within the same sentence, with the unit of analysis set at the sentence level (Bullinaria and Levy 2012; Atlas.ti 2017).We presented the study's initial results in a regional workshop held on 16 March 2021. We also presented the proposed modifications to the existing knowledge products and the generation of new knowledge products. The workshop aimed to gather feedback on the findings and proposed knowledge product generation and modifications, and to develop a list of knowledge products to be prepared during the programme. We also received feedback through other mechanisms, such as the programme steering committee meeting.Publications  al. 2020;Trouve et al. 2020). These studies show climate change as a cross-cutting issue linking peatlands and fires, as well as their drivers and consequences.Figure 2 presents the numbers of publications resulting from the initial searches on the topics highlighted in Section 2.2. These searches focused on bibliographic information, i.e., title, abstract and keywords. Of the four scientific databases, Web of Science and Scopus returned higher numbers of papers than CAB Abstracts and Proquest. The total number of records presented in each scientific database indicates overlaps between search results across themes 1-5. Figure 2 shows an approximation of the distribution of topics recorded in the scientific databases by thematic keyword appearing in the title or abstract. Results indicate the thematic keywords occurring most frequently in the scientific databases to be \"economics\" and \"best practices\", with \"monitoring\" occurring least frequently.We classified scientific article titles or abstracts by country. Figure 3 shows Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are the ASEAN states occurring most frequently in scientific article titles or abstracts. We also found many papers mentioning ASEAN or Southeast Asia, indicating the prominence of regional-level analyses.After combining records of the four scientific databases into an EndNote file, we repeated the search protocol and removed any duplicate records. We continued by applying country keyword searches to bibliographic information and full texts. Figure 4 presents the results, in which as with Figure 3, Indonesia appeared most frequently, followed by Malaysia and Thailand. Combined results for ASEAN and Southeast Asia were slightly higher than for Malaysia, again indicating the prominence of regional-level analyses.We extended the scope of the search of bibliographic records to full papers. We  searched for sentences containing thematic keywords and recorded the numbers of those that did. Figure 5 shows the results of this extended search. The thematic keywords \"monitoring\" and \"tenure\" appeared most frequently in the scientific databases. We then applied another search to papers from the scientific databases using the keywords relating to Integrated Fire Management: \"prevention\", \"preparedness\", \"suppression\" and \"recovery\". Figure 6 shows the results of this search, where the keywords \"recovery\" and \"prevention\" appeared more frequently than \"suppression\" and \"preparedness\".The following exercise was to identify instances where thematic keywords cooccurred with IFM keywords in the same sentence. Figure 7 shows the keywords \"monitoring\", \"economics\" and \"policies\" cooccurred more frequently than others in the same sentence as IFM keywords. The IFM keyword \"prevention\" had the highest level of co-occurrence with all thematic keywords, while \"preparedness\" had the lowest.We then identified instances of co-occurrence between thematic keywords and country or region keywords. Figure 8 presents the results, showing the thematic keyword \"monitoring\" co-occurring most frequently with each of the countries and with ASEAN or Southeast Asia, while \"best practices\" co-occurred least frequently. The occurrence of other thematic keywords varied across countries. This figure reflects the need to analyse topics relating to best practices in managing peatlands and dealing with forest and land fires.Finally, we cross-referenced the country and IFM keywords. Figure 9 presents the results,showing country keywords frequently cooccurring with prevention. By combining these results with insight from Figure 8, this finding might suggest that monitoring is an essential instrument for prevention.We applied a similar exercise to MAHFSA partner publications by determining publication type and content. Figure 10 shows the distribution of MAHFSA partner publications by type. Books, journal articles and info or policy briefs constituted over 70 percent of all publications. Figure 11 shows that similar percentages of publications reviewed in this study provide information and analysis, with the lowest percentage of publications focusing on strategy. It is important to distinguish between information  as a content type presented in Section 2.1 and in this section. Information in Section 2.1 still requires processing to generate knowledge (for example, statistical data), and was therefore classified as a knowledge product (ADB 2012). In this section, information means a knowledge product having the general purpose to inform. The small number of publications focusing on strategy is understandable given the ASEAN Secretariat is probably the only MAHFSA partner producing such documents, and produces more publications on strategy than on other the other three content types.Figure 13 presents results of searches of MAHFSA partner publications for the five thematic keywords outlined in Section 2.3. We found sentences containing the keywords \"tenure\" and \"monitoring\" appeared most frequently across publications, while \"economics\" and \"best practices\" occurred least frequently.Figure 14 presents the results of searches for IFM keywords, where fire \"prevention\" and \"suppression\" occurred in sentences most frequently, and \"preparedness\" least frequently.Figure 15 presents the results of searches using the country and region keywords. Unsurprisingly, Indonesia, Malaysia, and  Figure 16 presents instances of co-occurrence between thematic and IFM keywords, showing \"prevention\" to be the IFM keyword with the highest levels of co-occurrence with all themes, and \"preparedness\" with the lowest. Indeed, several MAHFSA partner publications emphasize the importance of prevention in the context of Integrated Fire Management (see Figure 14).Finally, Figure 17 presents instances of co-occurrence between the country and thematic keywords, showing higher levels of co-occurrence for the thematic keywords \"tenure\", \"monitoring\" and \"policies\". Figure 19 presents the distribution of thematic areas for publications from national organizations in five ASEAN member states. For example, it shows \"economics\" to be the most prominent keyword for Brunei Darussalam, \"tenure\" for Indonesia, \"monitoring\" for Malaysia, \"best practices\" for the Philippines, and \"tenure\" and \"monitoring\" for Singapore.  Figure 20 shows the frequency of IFM keywords appearing in documents published in ASEAN member states. In the five selected states, the keyword \"prevention\" was most prominent. For example, though both Indonesia and Malaysia have publications covering several IFM keywords (prevention, preparedness, suppression and recovery), the other three countries focused only on the prevention aspect of IFM.We encountered several challenges translating national languages for Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, with relatively low returns from searches of documents on government websites using Google Translate. Consequently, we did not follow the procedures applied to other countries. Instead, Figure 20 presents the results of searches for the keywords \"peat\", \"peatland\", \"fires\" and \"haze\". We do not show instances of co-occurrence between these keywords since they were low to non-existent.In-depth examinations of full texts from the scientific databases indicate the keywords \"monitoring\" and \"tenure\" appear most frequently. This finding suggests that most papers mention the importance of aspects relating to monitoring and tenure, even documents not primarily about the policies and economics of peatlands, fires and haze. The prominence of the keywords \"monitoring\" and \"tenure\" is relevant considering the most relevant sentences relate to recovery and prevention. While papers frequently mention thematic areas and Integrated Fire Management separately, co-occurrence between thematic and IFM keywords only arises in a few instances. The co-occurrence analysis shows \"prevention\" to be the most frequent co-occurring thematic keyword.Several MAHFSA partner publications are books and journal articles, focusing primarily on analysis and information. Some exceptions include the ASEAN guidelines on peatland fire management (ASEAN 2015); RSPO manuals for existing oil palm plantations (Parish et al. 2019a(Parish et al. , 2019b)); and a manual on the management and rehabilitation of natural vegetation associated with oil palm cultivation on peat (Parish et al. 2019b). In addition, some available guidelines or manuals are presented in briefs, though these tend to focus on localized sites.Similar to scientific articles, MAHFSA partner publications also show the thematic keywords \"tenure\" and \"monitoring\" to be most prevalent. In addition, the IFM keywords feature prominently, with the notable exception being a lack of instances of the keyword \"preparedness\".National government documentation consists of regulations, government documents, statistics, research papers, and press or media releases. While sentences cover various thematic areas, the most frequently occurring keyword is \"prevention\".The two most prevalent thematic keywords across all three document sources are \"monitoring\" and \"tenure\", while the most frequently occurring IFM keyword is \"prevention\".The study shows far higher numbers of documents from the scientific databases and MAHFSA partners than from ASEAN member state national governments, except those of Indonesia and Malaysia. Government agencies in Indonesia and Malaysia provide various information relating to peatlands, fires and haze. Indonesia has at least three national agencies involved with peatland issues: the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Peatland Restoration Agency. In addition, both aforementioned ministries have their research and development agencies. We managed to collect more than 200 publications of different types covering various topics and content types.Meanwhile, additional effort is necessary to obtain relevant documents from the national governments of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, or information about such documents. The lack of available records may be due to the relatively small extent of peatlands in these countries. Another possible cause could be limitations resulting from the use of Google Translate in searches of several documents. This difficulty constitutes a significant challenge to understanding the extent of government policies, plans, studies, or information in several ASEAN member states, particularly those in the northern part of the region.Another issue was the study not attempting to assess the quality of each of the publications. The initial search of the scientific databases was the first filter for documents and publications on peatland fires and haze and associated thematic areas (policies, tenure, economics, best practices and monitoring).We did not apply any additional filtering for documents beyond removing duplicates. Instead, we tried to resolve this issue by implementing sentence-level co-occurrence analyses of the documents' bibliographic information as well as their full texts.Co-occurrence analyses between country and thematic keywords, and between country and IFM keywords indicate the different emphases of thematic and IFM areas. For example, Figure 8 suggests that the most frequently occurring keyword in the scientific databases for each ASEAN member state is \"monitoring\". Meanwhile, Figure 9 indicates the most frequently occurring IFM keyword is \"prevention\". A similar pattern is apparent in analyses of MAHFSA partners' publications. These findings suggest the possibility of a link between monitoring and prevention. Another interpretation might be that monitoring has become an increasingly prevalent topic with the advancement of remote sensing technologies and agencies that monitor fires and haze at both national and regional levels.We combined data from Figures 8 and 17 to develop a simple ranking system for thematic areas. The topic with the highest number of co-occurrences was assigned a rank of 5, while the lowest number was ranked 1. Table 1 highlights areas that might be considered for each country. It shows that partners could pay attention to developing knowledge products on topics relating to best practices in developing future knowledge products. For Cambodia, the development of knowledge products on policies and tenure seems to be of higher importance. For Myanmar and Laos, in addition to best practices, knowledge products could also be explored in the topic of economics.The findings are generally consistent with those that came from our participation in meetings or events. At the national level, knowledge products on tenure, economics and best practices are lacking. In the thematic area of tenure, there have been few knowledge products on the tenure situation and dynamics in peatland areas, changes in the tenure system and their implications on the communities, and collaboration and conflicts among tenure holders. The financial or economic analysis of income-generating peatland activities and their consequences on peatland conditions are gaps in the There are two thematic areas where future knowledge production could be considered at the regional level. First, there is a lack of products and standards on burned area identification and mapping in fire monitoring and mapping. Second, studies focus on lowland peat, which raises the need to fill in the gap in methods for and mapping of upland peat in ASEAN countries.We applied the same process to data on knowledge product type by assigning a simple ranking system. From the data presented in Figure 12, we developed a table showing knowledge product content that might be considered for each country. Table 2 shows that guidelines and strategies are a higher priority for most countries, while analysis is lower. Guidelines could be developed at a more localized level for Indonesia and Malaysia, as both countries have already developed national-and subnational-level guidelines. It is important to consult with key stakeholders in each country on the results of this prioritization exercise.While the findings provide some indications from thematic and IFM keywords for each ASEAN member state, soliciting feedback from focal points in those states could provide a better understanding of the knowledge product needs of each one. Consultations with ASEAN member state The study shows that thematic areas and knowledge product types vary between ASEAN member states. In general, knowledge products that provide analyses of various issues pertinent to peatlands outnumber knowledge products that translate studies to inform programme beneficiaries. In addition, this study indicates some areas that have been covered less frequently in previous studies. These areas relate to the economic aspects of and best management practices for peatlands. These are relevant, particularly in light of efforts being made to prevent fires and haze and strengthen various stakeholders' fire preparedness capacity. Since needs may vary between ASEAN member states, during the course of the programme, it will be necessary to gather feedback from ASEAN member states on issues of relevance.The workshop aimed to present and verify the findings and recommendations with relevant stakeholders on the stocktake analysis of existing knowledge products. In terms of knowledge product types, translating analytical products into information and necessary guidelines by key stakeholders will become a key area for consideration. Furthermore, as the MAHFSA programme envisages developing or enhancing a total of 20 knowledge products, consultation with ASEAN peatland and haze stakeholders is an important means for gathering feedback.Before the workshop, we selected 15 existing knowledge products developed by MAHFSA partners. We applied a scoring method using 23 criteria (Annex 11). We applied a score of 0-3 to all the existing knowledge products, where 0 represented no relevance, 1 -low relevance, 2 -medium relevance, and 3 -high relevance, to identify a list of 15 top-ranked documents (Annex 12). We then verified the list with workshop participants.During the workshop, participants classified the 15 knowledge products by mapping each of them into four quadrants: a) high urgency-high needs or \"do it now\"; b) high urgency-low needs or \"do it next\"; c) low urgency-high needs or \"do it when there is time\"; and d) low urgency-low needs or \"low priority\" (Figure 22).Using an electronic Miro board, the exercise showed that 14 of the 15 publications fall under the \"do it now\" quadrant (Figure 23). Numbers of votes shown in the figure provide an insight into priorities for modifying existing products during the MAHFSA programme.MAHFSA might consider starting with the top five choices in 2021, the following five in 2022, and the remainder in 2023.The stocktake analysis identified gaps in existing knowledge and also the need for new knowledge products on the following topics:• A guideline on burned area identification and mapping • Development of a methodology and mapping of upland peat in the ASEAN region • A review of best practices on sustainable peatland management in AMS • A review of tenure systems on peatlands across AMS • A review of essential livelihood sources derived from peatlands in AMS Similar to the previous exercise, using Miro, the participants prioritized the proposed new knowledge products by mapping each of them into the four urgency-needs quadrants: \"do it now\"; \"do it next\"; \"do it when there is time\"; and \"low priority\".The exercise showed all five proposed new knowledge products falling under the \"do it now\" quadrant. Numbers of votes shown in Figure 24  Using Miro, we asked the participants to suggest additional knowledge needs. We classified the input received into the following seven categories:• Paludiculture: A paludiculture study and manual; alternatives to slash and burn; and an overview of traditional controlled burning practices for shifting cultivation in hilly regions for haze pollution prevention  1 and Table 2 could either be developed simultaneously, or derived from the results of the systematic reviews.Table 3 shows the list of existing knowledge products for 2021 and their proposed modifications. We note that several of these products do not need to go through updating processes, particularly as this will be time consuming and require AMS re-approvals. We will consider translating the current knowledge products into AMS national languages or preparing other formats representing the original products, such as the development of info briefs or infographics, with updated information.We propose developing two new knowledge products in 2021. The first is a guideline on burned area identification and mapping. Building on the policies and practices underway in Indonesia, this new knowledge product will explain methodologies for identifying and mapping burned areas, which could be applied in other AMS.The second knowledge product is a review of essential livelihood sources derived from peatlands in AMS. A framework for livelihood analysis will be developed, and case studies on the ways communities derive livelihoods from peatlands and their implications on peatland conditions will be reviewed and analysed.Finally, in addition to transforming existing knowledge products and generating new ones, MAHFSA could consider supporting converting and sharing specific knowledge products that are not addressed in the stocktake analysis. One major area of concern is to emphasize the importance of peatlands for climate change mitigation, and elaborating on the opportunities and challenges therein.Another major area is to facilitate knowledge sharing between relevant agencies in AMS. For example, at the request of other ASEAN member states, MAHFSA could help translate some of the best management practices developed in Indonesia. MAHFSA could also build synergies with other ASEAN peatland programmes on developing knowledge products on topics that are deemed relevant. In this case, MAHFSA would facilitate knowledge exchange on various issues related to peatlands and haze between AMS and between ASEAN peatland programmes.Annex -List of scientific articles Being a host of 60% of global tropical peatlands, studies on Southeast Asian peatlands are enormous. This paper attempts to summarize the knowledge products on various issues related to peatland in the region. The report draws from a literature review of scientific databases and the publications of the partners of the Measurable Action for Haze-free Sustainable Land Management in Southeast Asia (MAHFSA) programme. The report aims to highlight how studies on five thematic areas (policies, tenure, economics, best practices, and monitoring) emerge over the last 30 years. This finding suggests that most papers mention the importance of monitoring and tenure and the focus on prevention and recovery. The report also indicates several knowledge gaps. At the regional level, new knowledge products could develop a framework for identifying and mapping burned areas applicable among ASEAN member states. As studies mainly focus on lowland peat, there is a need for knowledge products on the methods and mapping of upland peat in Southeast Asia. Other gaps are related to better understanding the tenure system on peatland and its dynamics, income-generating activities, their impacts on peatlands, and different best peatland management practices.","tokenCount":"4963"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9027ed2756b7ced9ebdc4065f71efcc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/97467cb9-1f0b-42f8-b878-cf484c7915ff/retrieve","id":"-2116467506"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"91cd6f0b-4734-4be9-9190-33a661aef834","pagecount":"2","content":"Muốn con khỏe mạnh lớn mau Ăn nhiều bữa với đủ màu thức ăn Củ vàng quả đỏ rau xanh Cá tôm hoặc thịt trứng ăn hàng ngày Dầu ăn, đậu đỗ thêm ngay Giúp tiêu hóa tốt mỗi ngày khỏe vui! MẸ VÀ BÉ CẦN ĂN ĐA DẠNG THỨC ĂN HÀNG NGÀY! Mỗi ngày bé cần ăn: -3 bữa ăn chính -1-2 bữa phụ -bú sữa mẹ theo nhu cầu Bé 1-2 tuổi có thể ăn thức ăn như người lớn cùng gia đình. Cần nghiền nhỏ hoặc cắt nhỏ thức ăn giúp bé nhai dễ dàng. MẸ VÀ BÉ CẦN ĂN ĐA DẠNG THỨC ĂN HÀNG NGÀY! Tinh bột là gạo, ngô, khoai Giúp bé nhanh nhẹn lớn cao từng ngày Nhóm đậu lạc đỗ thật hay Đạm béo thực vật mỗi ngày cần ăn Các loại rau lá đậm xanh Dự phòng bệnh tật, mắt tinh sáng ngời Rau trái vàng hoặc đỏ tươi Giúp mắt tinh sáng, thành người thông minh Cá, tôm, thịt trứng và gan Mỗi ngày vài miếng sẽ thành giỏi hơn Dầu ăn hoặc mỡ cần thêm Vài thìa vào bột, cháo, canh mỗi ngàyBé: 1 bát x 3 bữa/ngày Bé: 2 thìa canh mỗi ngày Bé: nửa bát rau/ ngày hoăc 2 thìa x 3 lần/ ngày Mẹ:4 thìa canh mỗi ngày Mẹ: hai bát mỗi ngày Bé : 2 miếng hoặc nửa bát hoa quả mỗi ngày ","tokenCount":"237"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c223b29a3c9c30ca4f809db54bf03155","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6e2c4746-96bd-4c3b-9be9-cc0df522e809/retrieve","id":"1417369081"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5e07b4d8-a8f3-455b-a24a-dbc9a7db8fa7","pagecount":"6","content":" La oferta para la formulación de políticas locales participativas para enfrentar desafíos climáticos suele ser aceptada por los líderes comunitarios bajo el incentivo de dar respuesta a los problemas tangibles y a corto plazo en su territorio, sin embargo, la información científica no es una prioridad y existen barreras estructurales para su entendimiento. La incertidumbre de los productos científicos aplicados a nivel local, por ejemplo; los escenarios de cambio climático, la limitada predictibilidad de eventos extremos como sequías durante la temporada de desarrollo de los cultivos, reducen la confianza y demanda de determinada información. Las mayores oportunidades de mejora para informar las políticas agroclimáticas desde la ciencia en Honduras se encuentran en la comunicación, fortaleciendo las capacidades de los actores de política y de la institucionalización de los canales de interacción.El valor de la evidencia científica cada vez se vuelve más preponderante a nivel de los tomadores de decisiones en el entorno público, la problemática climática y sus implicaciones de carácter multidimensional no solo condicionan situaciones adversas, ya que dentro de la búsqueda de soluciones se estimula la democratización del conocimiento científico, favoreciendo los mecanismos de acceso y uso de la información. En este sentido, es reconocido que aún falta mucho por fortalecer los espacios de dialogo entre científicos y políticos, como un elemento estratégico que contribuye al desarrollo sostenible y construcción de resiliencia climática a nivel de la sociedad (Daza y Le Coq, 2021).Gracias a los aportes de la ciencia se han identificado tendencias que denotan incremento en la frecuencia e intensidad de los eventos climáticos, como ser sequías prolongadas, lluvias torrenciales y huracanes (Navarro-Racines et al. 2018); condiciones de carácter físico que se adicionan a la baja capacidad adaptativa presente en los territorios e institucionalidad (Bouroncle et al, 2018). Situaciones que en su conjunto definen a Honduras como uno de los países más vulnerables del mundo.Por lo tanto, los ejercicios de construcción de política pública informada desde la ciencia bajo procesos de planificación incluyente y participativa, favorecen de manera efectiva a la identificación correcta del problema, que a su vez contribuye al planteamiento de soluciones desde la experiencia local con sustento técnico.Sin embargo, para que la ciencia informe los procesos de toma de decisión política, se requiere de acciones y estrategias eficientes desde los programas de investigación.Reconociendo que el éxito de estas estrategias depende de los contextos y de la forma en que son aplicadas.El programa CCAFS en latino América busca promover una transición de la agricultura en contexto de cambio climático, propone influir en decisiones durante la formulación e implementación de políticas vía procesos de interacciones ciencia -política (Science Policy Engagement) (Cramer et al, 2018). A partir de análisis de casos realizado a la escala internacional del proyecto, ya se identificaron lecciones aprendidas (Dinesh et al, 2018(Dinesh et al, y 2021) ) Sin embargo, estos estudios por su nivel global, no destacan las particularidades de procesos en un contexto especifico, ni tampoco la variabilidad de resultados en éste mismo sentido.Este infonote tiene como objetivo evaluar los procesos de incidencia en política en Honduras desde la perspectiva de los equipos locales del programa CCAFS y de destacar lecciones aprendidas en término de la acción de \"Science Policy Engagement\".La metodología para analizar el impacto de las actividades de los investigadores de la Alianza Bioversity -CIAT en el marco del programa CCAFS sobre las políticas facilitadoras de la transición de la agricultura en contexto de cambio climático, combina el enfoque de análisis de impacto basado en teorías (theory based assessment) (White, 2009;Temple et al, 2018) y la literatura sobre Science policy engagement (Dinesh et al 2018, 2019, Cramer et al, 2019).Se realizó una cosecha de alcances en documentos de políticas en los cuales los investigadores fueron involucrados (Wilson-Grau y Britt, 2012) (tabla 1). Posteriormente se reconstruyó la teoría de cambio de las intervenciones de los investigadores del programa CCAFS en Honduras, a partir del análisis de los productos de política y ciencia.En un segundo tiempo, a partir de una guía analítica derivada de Dinesh et al 2018, 2019y Cramer et al, 2019, se analizaron 22 procesos específicos de interacción cienciapolítica identificados en la teoría de cambio. Se seleccionó esta muestra de procesos con el fin de contrastar diferentes niveles de intervención (nacional, sectorial y local) y de resultados en termino de política (planes, estrategias, guías) y principales enfoques (Figura 1).En un tercer momento, se realizó un análisis reflexivo desde los investigadores involucrados, sistematizando los aprendizajes de esta muestra de procesos, para identificar resultados y lecciones aprendidas en términos de la estrategia e impacto de la relación ciencia-política.  La Teoría de Cambio de la estrategia de CCAFS para influir en políticas hondureñas está compuesta por 2 ejes principales de acción: 1. Elaboración de políticas; 2. Fortalecimiento de capacidades institucionales; incluyendo, generación de productos de capacitación, realización de estudios e implementación de pilotos con socios en territorios.El primer eje de la estrategia de CCAFS para influir en política se caracteriza por el apoyo en la formulación de documentos de política (política, plan, estrategia) a diferentes niveles (nacional, municipal, sectorial) (ver Figura 1). La principal hipótesis en la que se basa este eje es que la participación de CCAFS en el diseño de las políticas permite elaborar documentos enfocados en la transformación de la agricultura frente al CC, basados en evidencia científica. En efecto, CCAFS postula que, al aportar insumos científicos para el diseño de documentos de política, actores de gobierno puedan contar con (1) lineamientos y (2) planes de acción concretos (acciones, responsabilidades, recursos y plazos) basados en evidencias para orientar la acción climática de los actores de gobierno con la participación de la sociedad. Luego, teniendo estos documentos de política informados desde la ciencia con una orientación y planes de acción claros, los actores de gobierno pueden promover su implementación a través de la búsqueda de financiamiento (nacional y externo) y de la creación de mecanismos de implementación bajo instancias de gobierno, sociedad civil y empresa privada.El segundo eje para influir en política está enfocado en el fortalecimiento de capacidades institucionales en temas de agricultura y cambio climático. Se postula en este eje que, a través de su fortalecimiento de capacidades, actores de instituciones públicas, privadas y sociedad civil se sensibilicen en la importancia de incluir consideraciones de cambio climático en sus acciones y tengan las capacidades para hacerlo. En este sentido, la puesta a disposición de guías, manuales, herramientas y estudios desarrollados por CCAFS permite a los actores del Estado contar con (1) información científica para el desarrollo de políticas y (2) insumos para cumplir con compromisos internacionales (comunicación de CC). También, permite a actores como las secretarias de agricultura, ambiente o COPECO mejorar la calidad de sus servicios (pronósticos estacionales, servicio climático, promoción de prácticas resilientes, herramientas de gestión hídrica, históricos de deforestación, y costo eficiencia de prácticas sostenibles). A nivel de la cooperación internacional (Naciones Unidas, FIDA, multilaterales), estos productos les brindan argumentos científicos para responder a requisitos de elegibilidad de fondos internacionales (estudios de vulnerabilidad). Finalmente, actores de gobierno y de la cooperación internacional pueden priorizar inversiones e intervenciones basándose en criterios científicos.Estos dos ejes de la estrategia de CCAFS para influir en políticas, sumado a un componente de implementación (Mesas Agroclimáticas Participativas (MAPs) y del Territorio Sostenible Adaptado al Clima (TeSAC)), apuntan a un resultado esperado final global en el cual, actores del gobierno, de la cooperación internacional y sociedad civil gozan de un ambiente facilitador en el país (política, inversión nacional e internacional, fortalecimiento institucional, prácticas evaluadas) para la transformación de la agricultura frente al CC.Finalmente, el impacto deseado a largo plazo de esta estrategia es que las familias rurales de Honduras incrementen su resiliencia gracias a (1) la implementación de políticas informada desde la ciencia, (2) el fortalecimiento institucional, y (3) la adopción de prácticas ASAC.Retos importantes durante el proceso de formulación de políticas agroclimáticas en Honduras han sido identificados previamente, destacando a nivel local la cultura cortoplacista, asistencialista, el conformismo promovido por la cultura religiosa y la ausencia de mecanismos de monitoreo y evaluación (Obando et al, 2021). Así mismo, la limitada información técnica accesible, ejemplo; la gruesa escala de datos de escenarios de cambio climático limita la precisión de información a nivel local, o la incertidumbre y formato de los productos de ciencia limitan el adecuado entendimiento de los mismos.Financieramente la formulación de políticas ha usado una mezcla de recursos de cooperación internacional y públicos, esto ha hecho que técnicamente los facilitadores de las políticas sean instituciones internacionales acompañadas de los gobiernos nacionales (Witkowski et al 2017).Aunque la labor principal de CCAFS es la investigación, en Honduras el rol de implementador de proyectos de desarrollo permitió desarrollar la experiencia de facilitación de políticas multinivel, en el presente estudio, el equipo del programa CCAFS CIAT en Honduras coordinó la mayoría de los instrumentos de política analizados en la tabla 1, lo que supone facilitó informar desde la ciencia dada la cercanía a los productos de investigación y de la comunidad científica, siendo por ejemplo la información más incluida los escenarios de cambio climático, la adopción de prácticas de adaptación, las metodologías participativas inclusivas, las herramientas de gestión hídrica, los históricos de deforestación, entre otros.La demanda de los productos de política nacional suele venir del estado (secretarías de ambiente y agricultura, gestión de riesgos) mientras que a nivel sectorial la motivación incluye al sector privado de las cadenas agroalimentarias, sin embargo, para el nivel local no suele identificarse una demanda específica y es más bien aceptación de una oferta realizada por los proyectos de cooperación internacional. En el caso de productos de ciencia, los compromisos internacionales o requisitos para acceder a financiamiento motivan la demanda de los mismos. (Tabla 2)Al analizar los elementos de comunicación entre científicos y tomadores de decisión se identifica que la ciencia saliente está a tiempo para informar las políticas a pesar de las limitantes en acceso o calidad de datos reales locales históricos, probablemente la digitalización ayude a mejorar esta toma y acceso a datos. Sin embargo, donde se perciben las mayores oportunidades de mejora es en la divulgación y alcance a las audiencias, debido a las capacidades limitadas en las instituciones y comunidades para comprender y adoptar la información.A nivel de Honduras no se perciben dinámicas de poder fuertemente adversas que impidan la información de las políticas de resiliencia agroclimática desde la ciencia. Sin embargo, aunque no hay dificultad en términos de acceso al dialogo con actores de peso, las barreras surgen nuevamente en la limitada comprensión del mensaje técnicocientífico por parte de los líderes.En su gran mayoría las iniciativas de construcción de políticas públicas surgen desde la realidad que expresa el problema público en el ámbito social y civil y no desde la planificación estratégica anticipada que corresponde a las instituciones de gobierno, mucho menos aun desde la ciencia, existiendo una subjetividad relativa dados los recursos de acceso y disponibilidad de evidencia científica local por parte de los usuarios, su nivel de especificidad requerido según el proceso y capacidades de comprensión.Sin embargo, durante el desarrollo del marco político-estratégico nacional relacionado con cambio climático en Honduras, los compromisos internacionales suscritos por el Estado de Honduras han motivado al desarrollo de políticas informadas desde la ciencia.Generalmente los procesos de construcción de política han estado soportados bajo estructuras formales previamente conformadas, con sustento legal y operatividad institucional a nivel de gobierno y representación civil, favoreciendo los ejercicios de planificación publica multinivel, la evaluación de las distintas relaciones de la ciencia en la construcción de política pública y el reconocimiento de la articulación simultánea de las vías de planificación (bottom up-top down), en contribución a la coherencia y armonización del marco nacional con las propuestas en desarrollo. Situación que determina oportunidades para asegurar una comunicación efectiva de la ciencia, dirigida a los formuladores de política pública y tomadores de decisiones.El modelo identificado para la construcción de política pública de resiliencia climática en Honduras incorpora los siguientes elementos (Figura 3): 1) Reconocimiento de un problema público, 2) Respuesta a compromisos internacionales asumidos por el Estado o, 3) Desde una demanda social. Durante el proceso interactúan distintos intereses institucionales, capacidades de los actores para la comprensiónacción y componentes de gestión de financiamiento. La efectiva comunicación para informar desde la ciencia brinda robustez para una mejor implementación de la política que genere impacto, es así que es oportuno continuar fortaleciendo las estrategias de engagement desde los actores de ciencia como instituciones de investigación nacional, la academia y centros internacionales. El concepto de engagement (termino en inglés), aplicado como la relación de confianza y compromiso entre un programa de investigación como el CCAFS en Honduras y las instituciones multinivel con el propósito de informar las políticas de resiliencia climática desde la ciencia, evidencia casos exitosos de acompañamiento con múltiples productos informados a nivel nacional, sectorial y local en Honduras. El análisis de una Teoría de Cambio de la estrategia de engagement del programa CCAFS en Honduras, permite visualizar los resultados intermedios en la ruta para lograr el impacto de transformación de la agricultura en entorno de cambio climático, el nivel efectivo de información de las políticas desde la ciencia y el mejoramiento de las capacidades institucionales; son elementos estrechamente vinculados los cuales favorecerían implementaciones de impacto a diferentes escalas. Las herramientas y análisis de ciencia más usados para informar las políticas de resiliencia climática en la agricultura en Honduras fueron; los escenarios de cambio climático, la adopción de prácticas de adaptación, las metodologías participativas incluyentes, las herramientas de gestión hídrica, los históricos de deforestación, análisis de vulnerabilidad y costo eficiencia de prácticas CSA. A nivel comunitario se presentan las mayores necesidades de fortalecimiento organizativo y por tanto oportunidades de mejora de las capacidades, sin embargo, las acciones requieren de abordaje estructural en educación formal que incentive el pensamiento crítico de las comunidades y permita la comprensión y adopción de conocimiento y tecnologías para la resiliencia.","tokenCount":"2301"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b696aadad5c1ae9837f97784b58c5e5e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b042906-9bfc-4314-9a88-35f756ba8448/retrieve","id":"-1791661957"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"032765ec-e5f5-49a2-8a67-6346780463d1","pagecount":"56","content":"and the United States of America. ILCA conducts its own research programme, works closely with national agricultural research systems (NARS) in collaborative research projects and seeks to develop the research capacities of NARS by providing specialised training programmes and a range of information services.ILCA's publications series include Research Reports, Monographs and a quarterly ILCA Bulletin, as well as conference proceedings and a quarterly ILCA Newsletter. Responsibility for ILCA publications rests solely with the centre and with such other parties as may be cited as co-authors.Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4.Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8.          The performance of the livestock sector in sub-Saharan Africa over the last two decades has been disappointing; in most African countries, growth in livestock production has been insufficient even to maintain levels of consumption (Addis Anteneh, 1984). Many development policy analysts (see, for example, Schultz, 1976;Bale and Lutz, 1979;Peterson, 1979;USDA, 1980;Bates, 1983a) suspect that a major reason for this inadequate performance has been the prevalence of inap propriate government policies. Bates (1983b) analysed the validity of these suspicions and con cluded that policy analysts were on the right track: livestock policies too often have not only failed to assist but also, in some cases, have hampered livestock development (World Bank, 1981).There are, however, many technical difficult ies to be overcome, particularly in the develop ment of the dairy subsector. For example , extensive areas in the humid zone are tsetse infested and hence inimical to livestock production, leaving much of sub-Saharan Africa with no comparative advantage in milk production. In the arid zone and parts of the semi-arid zone where traditional pastoral systems produce milk mainly for subsist ence, it is difficult to develop production and mar keting systems which can efficiently serve the increasing urban demand. Moreover, African governments have often intervened on behalf of urban interests to the detriment of producer price incentives.The extent to which dairy production has been inhibited by policies adversely affecting pro ducer prices was addressed in the present study, but limited data availability prevented a very de tailed analysis. The study therefore focused on the degree to which policies have stimulated com mercial imports to increase more than would be expected from the excess demand arising from increased population and per capita income.Preliminary calculations in Chapter 6 show that less than two thirds of the changes in commercial dairy imports can be explained by increases in human population and per capita income. Obvi ously, other factors are involved, of which import prices and government policies are the two most important.Europe and the United States have substan tial dairy surpluses and are prepared to sell sig nificant quantities of dairy products at very low prices or to give them away free. This has a twofold impact, as the availability of cheap or free dairy imports not only discourages domestic milk production, but also stimulates an increase in domestic consumption, exceptions being countries where food aid is being used to help finance dairy development projects.In addition, a number of African countries maintain overvalued currencies, which also cheapens the domestic price of imported milk, discourages domestic production and encourages domestic consumption. And while some African countries have trade policies which may be de signed to protect domestic dairy industry and thus encourage domestic production and/or raise government revenues, such policies have generally been overwhelmed by the effect of overvalued currencies.It is hoped that this study will help improve the understanding of the effects of African live stock development policies and thereby contrib ute to the evolution of more favourable policies. The general trends in dairy production and con sumption in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the role of dairy imports in regions and countries with varying thresholds of sensitivity to the importation of certain foodstuffs, are discussed in Chapter 2. The objectives and instruments of dairy import policy are described in Chapter 3, while in Chapter 4 the potential of dairy food aid for dairy develop ment is considered, citing India's Operation Flood and similar, but so far less successful, projects in Africa.A general theoretical analysis of the economic effects of different import policies is presented in Chapter 5. Apart from some basic data which are given in Chapter 2, the empirical analysis of dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa begins in Chapter 6, with a discussion of the factors that have caused dairy imports to increase. The analysis is refined in Chapter 7 where two typical dairy import policies, those of Nigeria and Mali, are described in detail. And finally, a summary of the results of the study is given in Chapter 8, together with some observations on the methodology used and certain selected impli cations for policy-makers and policy analysts.In this chapter, the basic data available on dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa are compared with those on domestic production in individual countries in order to establish the magnitude of dairy imports in relation to total dairy consump tion. This is followed by a discussion of the import ance of dairy imports in individual sub-Saharan African countries and regions and by a cross country comparison of some economic and social parameters related to dairy imports.A word of caution is, however, necessary: the results presented here must be interpreted in light of the available data which may vary in qual ity among countries and are subject to substantial error at best. Yet, despite the reservation about the reliability of population and milk production data for sub-Saharan Africa, it can be safely con cluded that, within a decade, a large number of sub-Saharan African countries have become increasingly dependent on the importation of dairy products.Our analysis covers 45 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including 16 in West Africa, 10 each in central and southern Africa and 9 in East Africa (Figure 1).The term 'dairy products' includes fresh milk, skim and whole milk powder, sweetened and unsweetened evaporated and condensed milk, cheese and curd, butter, butter oil, and any other product that results from processing milk. Whole liquid milk equivalents (LME) of various dairy products are shown in Table 1.Dairy food aid products are those which are given free of charge, and so are outside the normal commercial networks. Although the recipi ent country sometimes has to contribute towards the shipping and/or distribution costs, food aid is usually provided as part of bilateral agreements or in emergency shipments. The two main dairy food aid products are skim milk powder and butter oil for milk reconstitution.   Areas not included in sub-Saharan AfricaFigure 2 shows the total value of dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa during 1972-82 in both nominal and deflated terms (the deflator has been re-indexed to 1972 = 100). In nominal terms, the value of commercial imports peaked in 1981 at just over US$ 700 million , after which both the nominal value and volume began to decline (Figures 2 and 3). The deflated value of commercial and food aid imports combined also peaked in 1981.In 1980, sub-Saharan Africa spent approxi mately 5% of its total revenues from agricultural, forestry and fishery exports on imports of dairy products. Whereas in 1960 dried and condensed milk made up two thirds of all dairy imports by value, from 1970 onwards these two products ac counted for almost 90% on average. Thus dairy imports have consisted mainly of basic or staple rather than luxury products, such as yoghurt, cheese and fresh milk.The situation by volume was very similar (Fig ure 3), as only 20% of the total increase in the nom inal value of dairy imports between 1970 and 1980 can be attributed to changes in the average values per unit of LME, whereas about 43% was due to increases in volume and the remaining 37% can be explained by the combined effect of in creased unit values and volume2.The formula to calculate the price effect is qo(Pi-Po) Pi qi -p<> qo where: q = volume p = unit value, and Subscripts 0 and 1 = beginning and end of the period. The numerator for the volume and price/volume effects changes to po(q,-q0) and (p!-p0) x (q,-q0) respectively. All three effects together add up to 100% . Sources: FAO Trade Yearbooks (various years) and IMF ( 1983).In deflated terms. -7.6% of the increase in total value between 1970 and 1980 is attributed to a price change while the portion attributable to vol ume change was 193.6% and the remaining -86% was due to the interacting effect of decreased real unit values and increased volume. The largest quan tity of dairy products (2.25 million t LME) was imported in 1981 (von Massow. 1984a, App. 3).Detailed statistics on dairy food aid are available only for the period 1977 to 1982 (FAO, 1984a).During that period the volume of food aid (in LME) more than doubled ( + 103%), compared with a 35% increase for commercial dairy imports (Figure 3). In 1981, food aid to sub-Saharan African countries amounted to 88 000 t of skim milk powder and 9000 t each of butter oil and other dairy products (FAO. 1984a), which is equivalent to almost 760 000 t of liquid milk.The value of these donations can be calcu lated using the current prices of commercial imports. Butter oil, which is hardly traded com mercially, is valued at the import price of butter Sources: Authors calculation based on FAO Trade Yearbooks (various years) and FAO (1984a).plus 20%, and other dairy products are valued at the price of condensed milk . On this basis, the value of total dairy food aid in 1981 amounted to almost US$ 140 million and that of commercial imports and food aid together to roughly US$ 850 million.In volume terms (LME), the share of food aid in total dairy imports rose from 17% in 1977 to 25% in 1981 and was 23% in 1982. The quantities imported both commercially and as food aid have to be considered when analysing the effects of imports on domestic prices, production and con sumption. Food aid can be given with special conditions attached to its use or as a direct con tribution to domestic supplies. Thus the precise The 20% is the price difference between butter and butter oil in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) minimum prices (GATT, 1983). A weighted regional price average was taken for those commodities and countries where no price for commercial imports was available. effects of each type of donation must be carefully analysed for each country.Figure 4 shows the volumes of commercial dairy imports by region. West Africa accounts for more than half of the total (about 55 to 60%), while the other three regions share the remaining 40% more or less equally, although East Africa increased its share from about 5 to 20% between 1972 and 1982.The pattern for dairy food aid is different: East Africa received almost 50% of all food aid deliveries to sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 5), while in West Africa the proportion fluctuated between 25 and 33% of the total.More information can be obtained by compar ing regional totals of commercial and food aid dairy imports per person. Table 2 shows that in southern Africa, the volume of commercial dairy imports per person was about stable from 1972 to 1982, but that of East Africa increased sharply from 0.62 kg per person in 1972 to 3.87 kg per person in 1982.    Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, commercial dairy imports and dairy food aid together added roughly 8 kg LME to the total per capita con sumption of dairy products in 1982 (Table 2). This represents almost 33% of the estimated share of imports in total dairy consumption. Total consumption is calculated as total domestic milk production plus total dairy imports. Since data on milk production in sub-Saharan Africa are not very reliable, changes in dairy importsxonsumption ratios may be used instead, if interpreted cautiously. Table 3 gives ratios averaged over 1971 -73 and 1981-83 respectively.West and central Africa, where dairy imports comprised about 50% of total consumption in 1982, are most dependent on imports. In East Africa, local milk producers provide most of the dairy products consumed. However, East Africa is more dependent on food aid; for example, in two thirds (6 out of 9) of its countries, food aid accounted for 40% or more of total dairy imports in 1982 (the regional average being 46%). In other regions, less than two fifths of the countries fall into this category, but there are five countries (Chad, Rwanda, Comoros, Tanzania and Lesotho) where food aid accounts for over 50% of total dairy imports .All countries in sub-Saharan Africa import some dairy products on a commercial basis. When commercial and food aid imports are combined, the largest importers by rank are Nigeria, Somalia, Angola, Senegal, Cote dTvoire, Ethiopia and Tanzania. Five of the 45 sub-Saharan African countries account for over 50% of total commercial dairy imports into the region. Nigeria is by far the largest importer with 31% of the total volume (LME) in 1982, while Angola, Cote dTvoire, Somalia and Senegal together account for another 22% .Food aid imports of dairy products are much more equally distributed, Somalia being the only country receiving almost 20% of total dairy food aid and therefore ranking second, after Nigeria, in total imports. The other major recipients of dairy food aid are Tanzania (9%), Ethiopia (7%) and Angola (6%). Five countries -Gabon, Cote dTvoire, Nigeria, Reunion and Swaziland -did not receive any dairy food aid in 1982.Total dairy imports may again be related to total domestic consumption of milk and dairy For more information at the country level see von Massow (1984a, App. 4).  FAO (1978a) andFAO (1984a).products (von Massow, 1984a, App. 4). Imports account for 50% or more of the total domestic dairy consumption in 24 of 45 sub-Saharan African countries. Most of these are coastal countries in West and central Africa which, because of their geographical location, local conditions (tsetse infestation) and climate, have limited livestock potential. But a calculation of total dairy imports per person shows a very different situation: 12 of the 24 countries import more than 20 kg LME per person and, with a few exceptions, all rank high in total dairy consumption per person. The un weighted average consumption is 33 kg LME over all countries. It is surprising that countries such as Somalia, Mauritania, Botswana and Burkina Faso, which have relatively high cattle population per person, are among the 12 countries which import most dairy products per person.The mere dependency on imports does not by itself create a problem. There is a cause for con cern, however, if the overall availability of food is low and imports form a crucial part of food supply, because importation may drain already limited foreign exchange resources from the external trade sector (von Massow, 1985b, p.l).The situation in any particular country can be assessed by determining:• the overall availability of food, which is measured by the calorie supply per person in relation to the theoretical calorie require ment (World Bank, 1984); • the country's economic situation, which is measured as GNP per capita; and • the economic importance of dairy products in the external trade balance, which is measured by the value of commercial dairy imports relative to total expenditure on all food and agricultural imports.In Benin, Congo, Ghana, Cote dTvoire, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Togo and Zaire, total milk consumption per person is less than 20 kg, of which over 60% is imported\" . These countries are highly dependent on dairy imports but, with the exception of Ghana and Sierra Leone, all meet at least 90% of the total calorie requirement of their population, which means that dairy imports do not play a crucial role in overall human nutrition. Despite lower nutritional levels. Ghana and Sierra Leone not only depend on dairy imports, but they also receive more than 30% of the imports in the form of food aid.The proportion of food aid in total dairy imports usually tends to decrease as the share of imports in total consumption increases, but not without exception. Benin, Central African Republic, Lesotho and Somalia have high pro portions both of food aid in total dairy imports and of imports in total consumption.Countries such as Congo, Cote d'lvoire, Liberia and Nigeria are highly import-dependent yet have a relatively low consumption and high For a detailed analysis see von Massow (1984a, pp. 12-15  and Appendices 5-10).average income (GNP per capita exceeds US$ 400). Also, they import most dairy products commercially rather than as food aid.At the other extreme are Burkina Faso, Burundi, Chad, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Somalia, Tanzania and Uganda, which have a GNP per capita of less than US$ 300 and receive more than 30% of all dairy imports as food aid. It is interesting to note that in all these countries except Somalia, more than 80% of the population lives in rural areas. So it would seem that the total dairy imports into these countries and the high proportion of food aid in them are not closely correlated with increasing urbanisation, but there is insufficient evidence av ailable so far to be certain of this.The economic importance of dairy imports in the external trade balance (which in most sub-Saharan African countries is negative) can be de termined by comparing the value of commercial dairy imports with total expenditures on agricul tural imports. It appears that many of those countries (except Mali) which in 1981 had GNP of less than US$ 350 per capita spent more than 10% of their agricultural import bill on dairy products. This is astonishing since dairy products are not usually considered as basic a staple as, for example, grain.On the other hand, most of the poor countries imported dairy products relatively cheaply; the average value in 1982 was less than US$ 0.25 kg\"1 LME compared with an average of US$ 0.31 kg\"1 LME for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. It could be, therefore, that the poor countries could not resist importing dairy products because they were relatively cheap on the world markets.To sum up, dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa increased tremendously during the 1970s, but their distribution was uneven. West and cen tral Africa now import about half of their con sumption of dairy products, while East Africa imports less than 20%. Some individual countries are very dependent on dairy imports which come partly as food aid. Not a single sub-Saharan African country was able to maintain, let alone increase, per capita dairy consumption over the last 10 years without increasing its imports. The products imported were mainly basic foodstuffs, such as milk powder or condensed milk, not luxury goods.National policies play a critical role in livestock development (World Bank, 1981, p. 55). They not only modify the overall economic environ ment for agricultural production, but also directly affect production, marketing, consumption and external trade in livestock products. Thomson and Rayner (1984, p. 162) defined national pol icies as \"a collection of governmental instruments -taxes, subsidies, quotas, regulations, statefunded research and development, and even speeches -which are coordinated by politicians and bureaucrats towards the attempted amelior ation of perceived problems\". Sandford (1985, p. 5) pointed out that 'hav ing or making a policy' also includes having to choose between different policy options. The definition of policy must therefore include government objectives as well as policy instru ments. Hence policy is \"a set of decisions which are oriented towards a long-term purpose or to a particular problem\" (Sandford, 1985, p. 4). In the context of this study, policies are defined as those decisions which affect the dairy sector, particularly dairy imports.The definition and subsequent analysis of the objectives and instruments of dairy import policy does not cover all the possible policy effects on dairy imports. Thus a distinction must be made between deliberate policies for which govern ments design instruments which they hope will be effective, and those expedients which are publicly espoused in the full knowledge that they can never succeed. Furthermore, some policies are clearly targeted towards dairy imports or the sector in general, whereas others, such as ex change rate setting, have an indirect effect on them. This may lead to incompatibility, since government decisions in one sphere may well conflict with those in another.Dairy imports have implications for food avail ability, for overall imports and for the develop ment of domestic milk production. Bates (1983b, p. 297) maintains that food policy in sub-Saharan Africa \"appears to represent a form of political settlement -one designed to bring peaceful re lations between governments and their urban constituents\". Other authors (e.g. Christensen and Witucki, 1982, p. 890) have drawn similar conclusions, namely that African governments have in their food and agricultural policies given highest priority to urban consumer welfare. The main objectives of their general import policies are usually to generate revenue for the national budget and to control the balance of foreign ex change, while sector policies usually aim to develop domestic production and achieve self-sufficiency.Most African governments are motivated by one or more of the following considerations when choosing policy options: i) To provide the urban consumer with dairy products at a price which the government feels they can afford to pay; ii) To generate revenues from dairy imports for the national budget; iii) To control and possibly reduce the amount of foreign exchange that is spent on dairy im ports; and iv) To stimulate dairy development, thereby generating income for producers and moving towards self-sufficiency in dairy products. Governments often pursue several objec tives simultaneously, some of which may be con flicting. For example, it is difficult to charge low consumer prices for imported dairy products and at the same time reap large benefits from taxing such imports. A balance must then be struck by weighing the relative priorities of the conflicting objectives. As Sandford (1985, p. 6) puts it, \"...governments do not have to opt exclusively for just one objective, but it is important that they consider which of their objectives are the most important and how much progress towards one objective they are prepared to sacrifice in order to make progress towards another\".The four objectives of dairy import policy are now briefly discussed before considering which instruments most efficiently promote the chosen objectives, which is the second decision facing any administration.A government may pursue consumer inter ests (objective i) for the simple political expedient of retaining power, but also because it is con cerned about overall consumption or the general level of nutrition of the people within certain areas or among specific groups, such as children or nursing mothers. The objective must be quan tified, since there is little point in pursuing it with an inappropriate instrument. For example, be fore subsidising the importation of baby milk, the desirable price and quantity must be determined, as well as the target group to whom the milk is to be made available.The main goals of a general import policy -to generate revenue and conserve foreign exchange (objectives ii and hi) -require little elaboration with reference to the dairy subsector. No foreign exchange payments are involved in dairy imports received as food aid, but neither is it politically feasible to charge tariffs on such imports. The two goals, which are otherwise compatible, are then in conflict.A further characteristic of dairy imports is that, unlike grain, they come in many different forms -butter, milk powder, condensed milk and even flavoured yoghurt. Different tariffs may be levied on these products to generate revenue, but only after taking into account the national objec tives towards the consumers.Both foreign exchange conservation and import taxation increase domestic prices. Such measures protect local dairy producers and in crease their share of the domestic milk market, though these effects may not have been the de clared policy objectives. Many governments do in fact declare the attainment of self-sufficiency in basic foodstuffs (objective iv) as their chief objec tive, and this entails three problems.First, to increase substantially domestic ag ricultural production, especially of milk, calls for a long-term commitment and consistent policy, but both are frequently lacking. Second, the term self-sufficiency itself needs clarification. By defi nition, a country becomes self-sufficient if it closes its borders and covers domestic consump tion by domestic production. But this begs the question, at what level of per capita consumption is self-sufficiency to be achieved? Public an nouncements of self-sufficiency must include fig ures on both target consumption per person and target production to justify a certain rate of pro duction, or direct measures to boost domestic milk production.The third problem relative to self-sufficiency concerns a country's overall welfare. Van Dijk et al (1983) challenged the validity of the general ar gument that the welfare of developing countries will be maximised through free trade in dairy products. They cited such qualifying factors as the allocation of scarce foreign exchange, income or food distribution and the possible indirect effects of dairy production on agricultural development, but these factors qualify the free-trade argument without altogether overturning it (von Massow, 1985b, p.l). A government wanting to follow a welfare-maximising policy must be able to justify any production target deviating from the level that would be achieved under free trade.Having discussed the reasons why governments may interfere with dairy imports, i.e. the objec tives of dairy import policy, we shall now consider briefly the methods by which they interfere, i.e. the instruments of dairy policy. For convenience, policy instruments have been grouped under the four objectives discussed above. They are de scribed in general, and their appropriateness to achieve one or more of the objectives in question is assessed.A general consumption target and/or con sumer price level for milk and dairy products (objective i) can be achieved by reducing existing import tariffs, by paying import subsidies and by using food aid. An overvalued exchange rate also stimulates imports. But to reach particular target groups within the population, more specific in struments must be designed, e.g. food stamps or special shops.An instrument which benefits all milk con sumers enriches those who can do without food subsidies. All general consumer-oriented instru ments (e.g. import subsidies or untargeted food aid) tend to depress domestic prices, which in turn serves as a disincentive for domestic producers. In contrast, subsidies to defined groups can create a demand for milk that would not otherwise exist.Targeted import measures help avoid or at least reduce disincentive effects, but they are dif ficult to implement. For example, it is possible to tax dairy imports at different rates or to subsidise imports of those products which are usually con sumed by the lower-income groups. Such methods, however, are not the best way of reaching selected groups of consumers as they primarily raise the general average level of milk consumption.Charging tariffs on dairy imports generates revenues (objective ii), but it also reduces the volume of imports. The level of tariff may be specified as a fixed amount, an ad valorem rate, or a progressive rate, and this has differential implications for the government's revenues. The different levels also determine the effect of the tariff on the quantities imported and consequently on domestic prices, production and consumption.Consumers of imported dairy products are usually assumed to be the more affluent members of society, hence better able to bear the burden of taxation. Clearly, imposing import tariffs is not compatible with the promotion of consumer benefit. Thus if the government wants to give the poorer or more vulnerable groups access to cheap dairy products, it must exempt them from duty payments -which presents a considerable admin istrative problem. Alternatively, dairy imports can be taxed progressively and the revenue used to subsidise milk to specific target groups. But although there are ways of reducing the negative effects of import tariffs for some consumers, the overall welfare effect as a whole will always be negative, because imposing import tariffs con flicts with the consumers' benefit in principle.Import tariffs also affect domestic producers and have implications for the foreign exchange account. Raising tariffs is compatible with two common objectives of dairy import policy, namely to save foreign exchange and achieve selfsufficiency. Reducing dairy imports reduces the hard currency bill and protects the domestic dairy sector, by increasing the price of dairy products. The rate of self-sufficiency automatically goes up when imports are reduced, but more often than not the increase is merely mathematical rather than a real success for dairy import policy.Exchange rates are directly influenced by government policy in almost all African countries. If the rate is overvalued, as is often the case, all import prices are comparatively low when trans lated into domestic currency. Moreover, prices for dairy imports in the mid-1980s were below production costs even in many exporting countries, and are likely to remain so in the foreseeable future (FAO, 1985). Low import prices consider ably reduce the drain of foreign exchange.Governments can impose substantial tariffs on dairy imports and raise revenues from them, yet the price of dairy imports (in local currency, including the tariff) will still not exceed the domestic cost of milk production. Such a policy lessens the trade-off between revenue generation and consumer interests, while the government gets away cheaply in terms of foreign exchange, but the bill for it must be paid elsewhere in the economy.Foreign exchange can be conserved (objec tive iii) by imposing tariffs to reduce dairy im ports, and directly by controlling the allocation of foreign exchange through import licenses. Al locating foreign exchange for dairy imports has the same effect as a variable import quota, whose limit in volume terms increases with declining international prices.As with all the other instruments which tend to reduce dairy imports, foreign exchange allo cation is not compatible with the promotion of consumer interests. It does save foreign exchange though and serves those objectives that aim to stimulate domestic milk production, thereby helping to achieve self-sufficiency (objective iv).Dairy development can also be pursued through a channelled increase in dairy imports, rather than a decrease. A number of different in struments are usually involved, including the use of dairy food aid as a major component. The com plexity of such a policy, and its potential for general livestock development in Africa, are discussed in detail in Chapter 4.Food aid in dairy products differs from commer cial dairy imports in three major aspects. First, the food aid commodities are supplied free of charge, so there is no burden on the foreign ex change account of the recipient country. Second, the offer of and the request for food aid are the result of a political decision, not only of market prices and milk supply and demand forces. The availability of dairy food aid, however, may well affect the market price and the demand for com mercial imports. Finally, dairy food aid has the potential to contribute to dairy development.The European Economic Community (EEC) is the most important donor of dairy food aid to Africa. Since 1979, the EEC has annually do nated 150 000 t of skim milk powder and 45 000 1 of butter oil to various developing countries, aid organisations and the World Food Programme (Commission of the European Community, Brus sels, personal communication). The major reason behind the EEC food aid policy is the large surplus of dairy products within the community: stocks of skim milk powder in mid-1982 were 1.6 times that of sub-Saharan Africa's total dairy im ports for that year (both in LME), and despite milk production quotas, the surplus is not likely to be substantially reduced in the near future (FAO, 1984b). In addition, the United States and other major dairy producers in the developed world also generate dairy surpluses which are available for food aid.The agricultural lobby within the EEC con stantly presses for more food aid donations, while those responsible for development issues have become reluctant to increase them. Some even favour a reduction, arguing that the use of dairy food aid cannot be effectively controlled (Com mission of the European Community, Brussels, personal communication; The Economist, 1984).But the main argument against additional dairy donations is that, because of their price effect, they may act as a disincentive to local milk production, especially when they are not targeted towards selected groups. Also, local milk process ing plants cease collecting fresh milk because they find it more economical and convenient to sell milk reconstituted from imported skim milk powder and butter oil6. Another argument against dairy food aid is the lack of control over its distribution: often the wrong people -the more affluent -benefit from the donations.These arguments against dairy food aid are nevertheless closely related to its one major strength -its potential to contribute to dairy development in the recipient country. Food aid for development purposes must be distinguished from emergency shipments and other consumeroriented aid such as 'Food for Work' programmes, for it aims to benefit consumers and producers alike. The strategy has been successfully im plemented on a large scale in India through 'Operation Flood\".The concept is very simple: aid-supplied skim milk powder and butter oil are reconstituted as milk or processed into other dairy products which are sold at commercial prices. (The net rev enue thus equals the market value of the products sold, minus processing and distribution costs; no product value is deducted since the raw materials are provided free). Profits realised from the sale of reconstituted milk are then used to support dairy development projects, and in time, dairy food aid imports are replaced by increasing local milk supplies. The particular advantage of food See Ministry of Agriculture, Tanzania (1977) and the Malian example in Chapter 7 for case-specific dis cussions of the dangers of dairy food aid imports.For more information on dairy development in India see Mogens (1977) and Patel (1979).aid for development is that, unlike direct financial aid, it overcomes the problem of underutilised processing capacities until domestic production increases.An essential aspect of the strategy's economics is to determine the sale price of the reconstituted milk. This is commonly done by taking the proportions of skim milk powder (roughly 0.10 kg) and butter oil (0.035 kg) in 1 litre of reconstituted milk and multiplying them by the equivalent border prices for commercial imports. Adding to this figure transport costs from the border to the area of consumption and processing costs gives the 'border equivalent' retail price. In theory, there is a comparative advantage if domestic production costs, net of all subsidies and taxes, are equal to or lower than the derived price for imports.In Mali, locally produced fresh milk can claim a substantial premium over reconstituted milk, so that the price of the latter must be adjusted for this consumer preference. For example, if the border price equivalent for 1 litre of liquid milk is US$ 0.20 and transport and process ing costs amount to US$ 0.15 litre\"1, then the 'border equivalent' retail price (net of distri bution cost) of reconstituted milk is US$ 0.35 litre\" . At a price premium of 50% for fresh over reconstituted milk, Mali can invest in dairy devel opment without incurring overall economic losses, as long as the cost of producing domestic milk does not exceed US$ 0.53 litre\"1 [US$ 0.35x(l + 0.50)]8. The consumer then buys reconstituted milk at world market prices, pro duction takes place at economically undistorted prices, and the government can spend US$ 0.20The calculation is given in more detail in von Massow (1985a).from any litre of reconstituted milk on dairy development.There are three common pitfalls in the im plementation of a dairy development policy based on food aid. First, the government must resist the temptation to win political popularity by selling reconstituted milk at a price below competitive levels, as such a price would serve as a disincen tive to domestic production and reduce the funds available for dairy development. Second, all rev enues from the sale of reconstituted milk must be reserved for the development of the dairy sector and not used for other urgent matters. And third, the government must withstand the pressure from processing plants to import ever more food aid in order to maximise profits. In this, again, consider able political will is necessary, since it is easier to process imported raw materials than to organise efficient local milk collection.Some of these pitfalls can be avoided by an appropriate institutional set-up. The processing plant, for example, will give the right emphasis to its collection activities if it is a true farmers' union. Sales revenues from food aid can be better targeted if they are held and administered separ ately from the general budget. A controlling body should be established by the aid donor with both government and producer representatives and invested with the right to stop aid deliveries or interfere otherwise if the aid programme is not appropriately implemented.Though necessary, these measures still do not guarantee that dairy production will develop with the help of food aid. On the other hand, fail ure to implement them is usually the reason for lack of development in the sector. The subject will be discussed further in Chapter 7 where an actual case of food aid for dairy development is considered.Before embarking on an empirical analysis of the causes and effects of dairy imports and import policy in sub-Saharan Africa, the theoretical framework for such an analysis must be estab lished. In this chapter, we consider the economic effects of such policy instruments as import tariffs and subsidies, exchange rate setting, foreign exchange allocation, and targeted and untargeted distribution of food aid.In economic terms, an import subsidy has the reverse effect of an import tariff. The effects of both instruments on the quantities imported are shown in Figure 6.In a free-trade situation, the domestic market price Pd is equal to the world market price Pw . The difference between domestic supply SS and demand DD at the price Pw is met by imports of the quantity M0 (i.e. imports in free-trade situation). If the government introduces an import subsidy s (a fixed amount per tonne in this case), the effective domestic price is reduced to Pd = Pw -s and imports increase from M0 to Ms (i.e. imports after import subsidy has been introduced).The consumers benefit, for their additional welfare is equal to the area a + b + c + d + e, but the producers lose the equivalent of the area a + b. The government's subsidy (loss) amounts to the area b + c + d + e + f (imports Ms x subsidy s), which is the difference between the import billThe following assumptions are made: a small country without influence on the world market price; an infinitely elastic world market supply; negligible transport costs between the world and the domestic markets; and all changes treated ceteris paribus. For a discussion of the concept of economic welfare see Corden (1974), Meade (1966) and Samuelson (1972,p.480etseq.). There is thus a substantial net social loss (rep resented by the shaded areas b and f) resulting from the import subsidy. This loss is referred to as a 'dead weight loss' in welfare economics (Just et al, 1982).To summarise, the introduction of an import subsidy (without further specification 1 will cause consumers to buy more of the imported goods since they can buy them at a lower unit price. The re duced price will cause a reduction or cessation of domestic production. The government outlays are funded from the national budget, but, depending on the relative tax burden, consumers and pro ducers share the cost of the additional government expenditure, and together incur a dead weight loss.Import tariffs generating funds for the national budget are more common than import subsidies. In Figure 6, let us assume that Ps is equal to the world market price Pw and t is the tariff (a fixed amount per tonne), then the domestic price increases from Pd = Ps to Pd = Ps + t and imports decrease from Ms to M0.The consumers' loss is equal to the benefit ac crued in the subsidy example (a + b + c + d + e), while the producers' gain is a + b. The govern ment collects tariff revenues equal to the area b + c + d + e + f (imports Msx tariff t), which rep resents the amount by which the value of imports at domestic prices exceeds the import bill. The effect of an import tariff is thus the opposite from that of an import subsidy in every aspect except the dead weight loss which is again b + f.To summarise, when import tariffs are charged, the consumers buy fewer imported products since they are more expensive, and producers expand production in response to the higher domestic price. The government collects the tax revenues which may be used to the benefit of society, but in the process generates an overall dead weight loss. The amount of revenues, as well as the changes in consumer and producer welfare and the overall net social loss, depend on the level of the tariff and the price elasticities of domestic demand and supply.The effects of an overvalued exchange rate can be deduced from Figure 6. Let us take again the freemarket situation, where domestic price Pd is equal to the world market price Pw, and give a numerical example. If Pw = US$ 250 is equal to Pd = DC 100011 (at-the undistorted exchange rate of US$ 1 = DC 4), then by fixing the exchange rate at US$ 1 = DC 3 the government reduces the domestic price of the import to Pd = DC 750.The effect of an overvalued exchange rate is identical to that of an import subsidy: imports increase, consumers benefit by area a + b + c + d + e and producers lose by area a + b. Overvalu ing the domestic currency does not have any DC = domestic currency. Quantity direct budgetary implications and there appears to be a net social gain of c + d + e, but the analysis of this is incomplete. While government saves on expenditures (b + c + d + e + fin Figure 6), the bill is paid elsewhere in the economy. For example, consumer expenditures are diverted from domestic consumables to imported goods, or domestic production of the commodities that are being im ported is reduced. Exports are equally discour aged, which reduces income and employment in all export commodity sectors.The expenditure of foreign exchange may be re stricted by a licensing system. In a free-trade situ ation, the world market price Pw prevails in the country (Figure 7), and domestic supply S0 and imports M0 meet the total demand for dairy prod ucts at this price. A fixed allocation of foreign exchange of Pw x M* will reduce imports to M* and the domestic price will increase to Pd, causing local production to increase to S*.As in the case of import tariffs (Figure 6), consumption is reduced and consumers lose the area a+b+c+d+e while producers gain a + b. The country's savings in foreign exchange are equal to Pw x M0 -Pd x M* (i.e. the area g + h + i -d -h in Figure 7). The effects of foreign exchange allocation on producers and consumers are thus identical to those of import tariffs, but the government loses revenue when restricting foreign exchange expenditure.Area d in Figure 7, which is equal to (Pj -Pw) x M*, is a quota rent created by the allo cation of foreign exchange, and its existence shows that restrictive allocation of foreign exchange has the same effect as any other quan titative import restriction. The rent is usually acquired by the importing traders, but the government can impose a tariff for the same amount or auction the foreign exchange licences12.Food aid is distributed in many ways, but we shall discuss only two: untargeted food aid. which adds to or substitutes for commercial dairy imports, and targeted food aid, which is reserved for specific regions or consumer groups.See Rom (1979) for a further discussion of different forms of import restriction. The likely beneficiaries of such rents are discussed in Rom (1979, p. 143 et seq.) and Tollison (1982).In Figure 8, the free-trade situation is de picted by domestic production S0 and commercial imports M0 providing market equilibrium at the world market price Pw. If food aid M^is avail able, the domestic supply curve SS shifts to SiSi (domestic supply plus food aid), and commercial imports M0 decrease to Mi since some of them are replaced by food aid.If the food aid is distributed at the existing world price, neither domestic producers nor con sumers are directly affected by it. They are, how ever, affected indirectly since the country as a whole benefits by the value of the food aid, which is equal to Pw x Mi or the shaded area in Figure 8. However, for these effects to be valid, a per fectly elastic supply of commercial imports at the world market price Pw has to be assumed.Consider now the case when the amount of food aid M2 coming in is larger than the com mercial imports M0 in the free-trade situation. In a case like this the supply curve (domestic supply plus food aid) shifts from SS to S2 S2, providing market equilibrium at a domestic price Pd which is below the world market price Pw.When food aid M2 more than substitutes for all commercial imports, domestic producers have to decrease their output from S0 to S2, Quantity thereby incurring a welfare loss equal to the area a in Figure 8. Bringing in more dairy food aid than commercial imports thus acts as a disincentive to domestic production. Total consumption, on the other hand, increases from S0 + M0 to S2 + M2 and consumer welfare increases by the area a + b + c + d + e. The country as a whole also gains, in the form of the value of the food aid (the dotted area in Figure 8).Again, a perfectly elastic supply of commercial imports is assumed. It is also assumed that all those who benefit from the food aid are estab lished consumers of dairy products, i.e. the demand curve DD remains unchanged. This last assump tion does not apply in the case of targeted food aid, since this is distributed to groups that have so far been excluded from the market because they either lack the necessary buying power or are far from the existing outlets.Targeted distribution of dairy food aid is illustrated in Figure 9. Providing dairy food aid M 1 A to an urban slum area where no dairy products were previously consumed shifts the demand curve from DD to D^(i.e. additional demand appears on the market), with SiSi being the aggregated supply of domestic production, com mercial imports and food aid.Targeted food aid does not affect the domestic market price or producer welfare, or for that matter the consumers of commercial dairy imports. Only the target group benefits from the food aid, the benefit equaling the product value (the shaded area) plus the welfare effect (the dotted area).The real effects of the policy instruments dis cussed may differ substantially if some or all of the assumptions made do not apply. They also depend on the administrative processes involved, as the marked difference between the effects of targeted and untargeted food aid distribution have shown. Nevertheless, such generalised presentations are very useful in pointing out the underlying implica tions of different policy instruments, such as whether their effects on consumers and producers are complementary or in conflict, and whether overall social gains are positive or negative. An increase in dairy imports is a common feature in many African countries, and thus it may be assumed that there are common factors causing it.In this chapter, the potential reasons for the increases are discussed with general reference to various countries. Chapter 7 gives some details on two countries, Nigeria and Mali.A comprehensive analysis of the effects of in creased dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa is not possible for two reasons. First, the available data base for dairy production, human nutrition levels and household incomes is weak and, consequently, unable to reflect the changes expected from in creased dairy imports. There is also the problem of time-lag between the changes in price patterns induced by increased imports and the production modifications in response to them. Second, the effects of dairy import policy on consumer and producer welfare are influenced by a number of other policies which have not been considered in this study.According to the basic theory on market equilib rium, consumption during any period of time is equal to domestic production plus net imports (plus any net change in stocks, but this will be ignored). In this section it is assumed that: • consumption is wholly composed of market demand (i.e. non-market elements such as free school milk and other social pro grammes are excluded), and that • market demand and domestic supply are not influenced by the level of imports, which means that imports are treated as a residual to fill the gap between supply and demand. Discussion in Chapters 3 and 5 has shown that the second assumption is not quite true. Governments may interfere directly or indirectly with imports, such that the levels of imports are partly determined by factors exogenous to market supply and demand, and these factors must be quantified and explained. To do that the actual levels of dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa are compared with the quantity of imports necess ary to fill the gap between domestic supply and demand. The actual development of dairy imports as affected by policy is then compared with a theoretical one which assumes that imports change only as a function of changes in domestic demand and supply. This calculation is done on a per country basis below.Although population growth and rising real incomes are generally assumed to be the main factors stimulating demand, changes in real con sumer prices and the possible effects of urbanis ation must also be taken into account. The human population of sub-Saharan Africa increased by 2.9% on average each year between 1970and 1980(World Bank, 1981). If all other factors remained constant, and assuming no alteration in consumption caused by changes in age distri bution, the demand for milk should have increased at the same rate as the population .Over the same period, incomes (measured as GNP per capita) increased annually by an average of 0.8% in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 1981). Part of this additional income was probably spent on milk products. The increase in the demand for milk due to rising incomes can be calculated from the income elasticity of the quantitative demand for milk in sub-Saharan Africa, estimated in the mid-1970s (FAO, 1978b) to be 0.68.Based on this income elasticity of demand, an annual growth rate of about 0.54% could be A changing age distribution could have influenced the demand for milk if the proportion of children in the population increased and they consumed more milk per person than adults. But since no empirical data exist , a population elasticity of demand equal to 1 will be assumed. expected (0.8 x 0.68). There are, however, sev eral complicating factors, for consumers differ ac cording to their rural or urban status and income, and their preferences change over time. Further more, different dairy products have different in come elasticities. The income elasticity of 0.68 is, therefore, only a rough indication of the general relationship between incomes and the demand for dairy products.The data base is inadequate to calculate the income elasticities of milk demand for individual African countries and different products. But when the effects of population growth (2.9%) and of increased per capita income (0.54%) are added, it is obvious that the demand for dairy products in sub-Saharan Africa should have in creased by an average of about 3.4% per annum during the 1970s.The effect of retail price changes on the con sumption of milk is well defined in economic theory: rising prices with a normally shaped de mand function will lead to a decrease in consump tion, and vice versa. The extent of the change is determined by the price elasticity of demand. But while cross-price elasticities could in theory indi cate the effects on consumption of the changing prices of commodities which are complementary to or substitute for milk, in practice there are several problems.First, milk is not a homogeneous product and qualitative differences in fat content, purity, freshness and taste are likely to lead to substantial price differences. Reconstituted milk often cannot compete at the same price as fresh milk because, allegedly, it is of poorer quality. Second, the effect of price on consumption also depends on the dis tribution systems for milk and dairy products. In most sub-Saharan African countries, petty traders compete with cooperatives and/or parastatals and each tends to provide different services to the consumers, which, combined with differences in product quality, can have important implications on the price elasticity of demand for milk.Finally, there is the problem of insufficient information on retail prices and their fluctu ations. In most African countries, no single price can be established because of the diversity of dis tribution channels. Some tentative calculations on price ratios and exchange rates are given later, but the information is inadequate to quantify the effects of changing consumer prices on the de mand for milk. The effects of changes in import prices and exchange rates are discussed below.Migration of people from rural to urban areas is often quoted as a major factor determining the demand for food. But while rapid urbanisation may change consumption patterns, it certainly boosts demand for imported foodstuffs, since the change of status from rural subsistence to that of the urban dweller would seem to force people to meet most of their food requirements in the market place. In most sub-Saharan African countries it is easier to import milk products than to provide them locally, given the state of existing marketing channels and general infrastructure.According to the World Bank (1981), urban population in sub-Saharan Africa increased dur ing 1970-80 by 6% annually, and by as much as 8.5% a year in 35 major capitals. There are, how ever, no empirical data available to relate this growth rate to an increasing demand for dairy products, particularly imports.A number of causal factors affect domestic supply, none of which has ever been quantified. The change in total domestic milk supply in any one period is a function of changes in the accessible production technology; in production costs (both absolute and in relation to other products); in the ratio between effective producer prices for milk and other agricultural products; and of the influ ences of weather and other unforeseen factors. The difficulties in finding quantitative evidence for these factors are partly methodological (e.g. how to quantify changes in technology) and partly empirical (e.g. how to establish effective farmgate prices at statistically representative levels).A further complication arises from the fact that different production systems react in various ways to changes in the relevant factors. This is particularly true in respect of the producer price for milk. Rodriguez (1986) quantified the shortterm price elasticity of supply for commercial milk producers in Zimbabwe at + 0.63, but found only qualitative evidence for the reaction of communal farmers.The majority of milk producers in Africa are rural producer/consumers such as the communal farmers of Zimbabwe. These farmers belong to a system where a high, if not dominant, propor tion of the milk produced is used for their own subsistence, making it difficult to determine their reaction to changing producer prices. This could be done using the ratio between milk and cereal prices, but very little is known about the size, or even the sign (positive or negative), of the cross price elasticities of either demand or supply.In view of the practical problems in quantify ing the factors affecting domestic milk supply in sub-Saharan Africa, and the difficulties of cover ing even one country satisfactorily, domestic milk production has been treated as an exogenous variable in this cross-country analysis. Domestic production of cow's milk increased by an average of 1.3% per year between 1970and 1980(Addis Anteneh, 1984, p. 9). Comparing the actual increase in production with the calculated increase in demand (3.4%), it is clear that imports were needed to supply the difference.Commercial dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa grew by an average of about 10% per year during the same period. Since this tremendous growth cannot be explained by the effects of population growth and rising incomes alone, other factors must be considered, of which dairy import policies and changes in the real prices of dairy imports are the most important. To quantify these other factors, a rough calculation on a per country basis is given below.The first calculation concerns a general com modity balance identity. The equation is defined as:where a country's net dairy imports within a cer tain period (M,N), plus its domestic production for the period (Qt) and end-stocks carried over from the previous period (St,_i), equal total milk consumption (Ct) and the end-stocks to be carried over to the following period (Stt) .Stocks of milk and milk products are as sumed either to have a very short shelf-life (e.g. whole milk), so that significant amounts are not stored, or to be constant over the years. If this is so, then equation 2, which deals with changes in the variables15, can be derived from equation 1:i.e. the relative change in imports is equal to the relative change in total consumption minus the relative change in production. All changes have to be weighted according to their respective shares in total consumption in the base period. Total consumption (C) is believed to be mainly determined by population (N) and per capita income (Y), so changes in these (and their elasticities) are now substituted for changes in C, together with a residual (e*) comprising changes in all other factors determining consumption.14 Includes only commercial imports; data for food aid are not available for a sufficiently long period.15 For reasons of legibility, all subscripts and superscripts have been left out. All imports are net imports, and the calculation covers changes within one period only.Equation 2 thereby converts to:where t\\ is the income elasticity of demand for milk and the population elasticity of demand is assumed to be equal to one.Isolating the residual term (e*) and expressing the share of domestic production in total consump tion as a rate of self-sufficiency (RSS) gives:The residual term (e*) includes all influences on changes in dairy consumption other than changes in population and income. One of these other in fluences is policy.We can now define a new variable, e, which is the residual proportionate change in dairy imports that cannot be explained by changes in population, income growth or domestic produc tion. From equations 3 and 4 we can see that 1 (e*) (5) 1-RSS where:1 -RSS is the share of imports in consumption.Table 4 gives the values of the residual import growth rates (e) and those of other variables from which the rate was calculated for 32 sub-Saharan African countries. All figures denoting change (d) are given as annual averages between 1972-74 and 1980-82.A comparison of signs shows that the sign of the residual term and that of the average annual change in commercial dairy imports were the same for 22 of the 32 countries listed in the table. Thus in almost three quarters of the countries for which relevant data were available, the hypothesis was confirmed that in addition to population growth, increased income per person and short falls in domestic milk production, other factors were responsible for the increase in dairy imports during the 1970s. It now remains to be determined to what extent did national dairy import policies directly affect this increase.Let us now give an example of how to interpret Table 4 by using the data for Nigeria. Commercial dairy imports into Nigeria grew by an average of 15.4% annually over the period 1972-74 to 1980-82; no food aid was imported. The residual term value of +10.4% indicates that the balance The full form of equation 5 is: Source: Author's calculation based on FAO Production Yearbooks (various years), FAO (1978a), World Bank (1981), and World Bank (1984).between population, income and milk production growth in Nigeria can explain only a 5.0% (i.e. 15.4% -10.4%) increase per annum in dairy im ports; the remaining 10.4% must therefore be due to other influences on dairy imports, such as government policy.When there is no government interference, the amount of imports entering a country depends on the relationship between international prices and domestic production costs. At market equilibrium, the domestic price equals the international price, but if the government interferes with the price of imports either directly or indirectly, the domestic price will differ from the international one and import totals will change (see Figures 6 and 7 in Chapter 5). Similarly, changes in international prices affect import levels, but this assumes that no additional import quantity restrictions are simultaneously imposed.Towards the end of the 1970s, world market prices for dairy products came increasingly under pressure from the protectionist policies of the main dairy producers, the United States and the EEC (Tangermann and Krostitz, 1982). Real world prices of dairy products began to fall during 1975/76, and within a period of 3 years (1980/81 to mid-1984) the prices for skim and whole milk powder reached the GATT minimum export price (FAO, 1985).The stocks of skim milk powder held by the EEC and the United States at the end of the third quarter of 1983 were approximately double the annual volume of international trade in this prod uct (GATT, 1983). No change in the position is foreseen (FAO, 1985;van Dijk et al, 1983), as the recent introduction of milk quotas has stabilised rather than reduced the EEC dairy surplus. Theoretically, depressed international prices for dairy products stimulate imports of such products, thereby exerting a constant downward pressure on domestic milk prices in sub-Saharan African countries (see also explanations to Figure 6 in Chapter 5).The little empirical evidence that exists on dairy prices in African countries is inadequate to prove the stimulating effect of depressed inter national prices on dairy imports. We have therefore used ratios between the indices of international and domestic prices (Table 5), where the numerator is import price in the recent period divided by import price in the base period, and the de nominator is domestic price in the recent period divided by domestic price in the base period.A ratio of less than one means that domestic prices increased relative to international prices, providing a stimulus for increased imports. This ratio does not indicate the absolute relationship between international and domestic prices in the base period, and parity should not be assumed.On the other hand, a ratio of unity between the indices means that the ratio of international to domestic prices in the base period is maintained in the recent period.An analysis of these ratios for 20 sub-Saharan African countries shows that the changes in commercial dairy imports, in dairy production, or in the rate of self-sufficiency (calculated for commercial dairy imports only) did not depend on the ratio between the indices of current inter national and domestic dairy prices (in local cur rencies at official exchange rates). The import price index of all but 7 of the 27 dairy products imported into the 20 countries has fallen more , or increased less, than the domestic price index, and although this must have influenced the quantities imported, there is no statistical proof. The diffi culty in finding significant correlations may also be due to the effect of tariff policies.Another complicating factor is that import prices vary greatly among countries, even for the same commodity. For example, in 1982 the coef ficient of variation of the prices of imported dry milk powder was 0.35 across 42 sub-Saharan Af rican countries. This was calculated on the basis of the unweighted mean of dry milk prices for the 42 countries, which in 1982 was US$ 0.20 kg\"1 LME with a range of US$ 0.37 kg\"1 to US$ 0.07 kg\"1 LME.Figure 10 shows the deflated prices 6 of dry milk for four selected countries -Gabon , Nigeria, Senegal and Somalia. Gabon was selected because of its relatively high import prices for dry milk, and Nigeria because it is the greatest importer in terms of volume. Both Senegal and Somalia are among the five largest importers by volume, but Somalia imports at relatively low prices. The great disparity in import prices, even for the same commodity, suggests discriminatory and variable dumping policies on the part of EEC and other surplusproducing exporters.The third major influence on the price mechanism in trade is the exchange rate, which translates international prices into domestic prices. Although exchange rate policy is not a specific instrument of dairy import policy, it may have had important effects on the growth of dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa during the 1970s.A common criticism levelled at African govern ments is that their exchange rates are fixed above Cost, insurance and freight prices deflated by the consumer price index for industrialised countries; 1980 = 100. The numerator index is import price in the recent period divided by import price in the base period. The denominator index is domestic price in the recent period divided by domestic price in the base period. 2 n.d. = not defined.Imports have been adjusted for the 1972-74 drought.Source: Author's calculation based on FAO Trade Yearbooks (various years) and FAO Production Yearbooks (various years).the rates that would prevail without their inter ference, thereby encouraging imports. If the nominal or official exchange rate (ERoff) is defined as the number of units of domestic currency per unit of foreign currency, then the exchange rate distortion factor (ERDF) can be calculated as a ratio of an adjusted exchange rate in year t (ER,adj) and the official exchange rate in the same In calculating the adjusted exchange rate, the cost of living indices were re-indexed to the base year (i.e. index = 1.0 when t = 0, which in this case was in 1972). The adjusted exchange rate represents the real exchange rate if the official exchange rate in the base period is undistorted, that is:The adjusted exchange rate is the official ex change rate in a base year adjusted by the ratio of domestic and international rates of inflation as follows: ed, eft ER,ad) = ERtoff x where: ed, = the domestic cost of living index in period t, and ef, = the international cost of living index in the same period.Most countries in sub-Saharan Africa have tended to overvalue their currencies, while only a few maintain floating exchange rates and perhaps none have undervalued currencies. Most over valued currencies are likely to have been over valued already in 1972, the base period for the present calculations.Assuming that the initial official exchange rate (ER0 °) was overvalued, the trend in the de gree of overvaluation is indicated by the exchange rate distortion factor (ERDF). An ERDF greater than unity indicates that the exchange rate has be come even more overvalued, while an ERDF of less than unity indicates corrections to lessen the The ERDFs are not comparable among countries, since the degree of exchange rate distortion in the base year is variable among countries and usually not known. However, in each case where the ERDF is above unity there is an increasing tendency for imports to be drawn in.In many sub-Saharan African countries, fail ure to adjust exchange rates in response to differ ential rates of inflation between domestic and international currencies may have contributed to the increase in dairy imports. This hypothesis was tested using a model relating per capita dairy im ports to domestic milk production per person, to While this model is not founded on any struc tural theory, significant relationships between dairy imports and the ERDF would suggest that trends in exchange rates have influenced the level of the imports. Regressions calculated separately for 24 sub-Saharan African countries show that in most of these countries, the regression coef ficients for real dairy import prices during 1972-82 had the expected negative signs (Table 6). However, for 9 countries (Ghana, Madagascar, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo and Zambia), none of the coef ficients was significant and the R was less than 0.60.An analysis of import elasticities (measured at the mean) in relation to changes in real import prices and the exchange rate distortion factor showed that the own-price elasticity of dairy im ports for the 21 countries with the expected nega tive sign is -0.89 on average (unweighted). Kenya and Zimbabwe, which changed from net exporters to net importers of dairy products in the mid-1970s, had positive import price elasticities as did Mada gascar, where commercial dairy imports accounted for only 5% of total dairy imports in 1982.The expected sign for the exchange rate dis tortion variable is positive, i.e. the greater the trend toward overvaluation of domestic currency, the greater the imports per person. The average elasticity of the exchange rate distortion factor was 0.42 for the 21 countries with negative import price elasticities, and 1.37 for those 14 (but excluding Zimbabwe) which had positive ERDF coefficients. These results imply -if we use the average of values for only those countries whose elasticity has the expected sign -that for every percent decrease in real import prices in US$ terms, dairy imports have gone up by about 0.89%, and for every percent increase in the exchange rate overvaluation they have further increased by about 1.37%.Several of the regression coefficients relating per capita dairy imports and per capita milk pro duction show an unexpected positive sign, which implies that greater domestic milk production en courages higher dairy imports. In some countries this may be explained by the poor quality of milk production data, but for Ghana, Madagascar, Zaire and Zambia, the positive coefficients are due to the fact that both milk production and dairy imports per person declined between 1972 and 1982. In Kenya, the positive coefficient for real import prices reflects both increased per capita production and increased per capita dairy imports during 1972-82.In countries such as Somalia, Burkina Faso or Nigeria (see Chapter 7), links between dom estic milk production and dairy imports are weak owing to poor transport facilities. Imports only reach the capital and a few larger towns and may increase since urban areas are the main consump tion areas, even while domestic milk production in the rural areas is also increasing but milk cannot be transported to the urban markets.The effects of the various factors influencing dairy imports have been calculated in two differ ent ways. Annual average rates of change in the volume of commercial dairy imports between 1972-74 (av.) and 1980-82 (av.) were first explained as the result of the combined effects of changes in human population, per capita income, domestic milk production, and a 'residual' import growth rate representing policy and other un identified factors (see Table 4). Then, a regression relating commercial dairy imports to import prices and the exchange rate distortion factor was calcu lated for the same period (equation 9 and Table 6). It now remains to be seen whether the residual term for each country (Table 4) fits with the calcu lated effects of the two variables investigated in some detail in this chapter, namely import prices and the exchange rate distortion factor.We can examine the fit in two ways: by exan> ining the signs ( ± ) of the residual and by calculat ing a multiple regression. There is a fit if the sign of the residual for each country agrees with the di rection in which one expects the actual changes in the country's exchange rate distortion factor and import prices to have altered its imports. In the cross-country regression analysis, the 'residual' (dependent variable) is expressed as a function of two independent variables, the exchange rate dis tortion and import prices, and the value of the coefficient of determination (R ) shows how much of the originally unexplainable (residual) rate of change in imports over the 1972-82 period can be attributed to changes in the two indepen dent variables.The signs of the residuals given in Table 7 will be examined first to determine whether each country's residual change in imports (column C) is compatible (columns H and I) with the size and signs of the corresponding factors and elasticities of the exchange rate distortion (columns D and E) and import prices (columns F and G). 'Compatible with' means that the values of columns D, E, F and G explain to some extent the size and sign of the residual.Among 22 sub-Saharan African countries for which data were available, 12 had positive import residuals (i.e. their dairy imports grew faster than can be explained simply by changes in population, income and domestic production) , and of these all except four (Sudan, Togo, Gambia and Malawi) had exchange rate factors and elasticities compat ible with their residuals. Among the remaining 10 countries with negative residuals, all except four (Ethiopia, Rwanda, Cameroon, and Zaire) had residuals compatible with their exchange rate dis tortion. Altogether, 14 out of 22 countries had import residuals compatible with the exchange rate distortion.With respect to import prices, 9 out of the 12 countries with positive residuals had import price factors and elasticities compatible with the sign of the residual, the exceptions being Togo, Nigeria and Swaziland. Among the countries with nega tive residuals, only 2 (Madagascar and Zimbabwe) had residuals compatible with the situation they face in respect of import prices.Thus we can say that where imports grew faster than can be explained by changes in popu lation, income and domestic production, the in crease was due to the effects of exchange rate overvaluation and low import prices (probably because of exporting countries' subsidies). But where the growth in dairy imports was unexpec tedly low, import prices (particularly high ones) do not seem to be a plausible cause, and other reasons have to be sought.We now turn to the use of regression analysis to assess to what extent the size and sign of the residuals (i.e. the so far unexplained rates of change in commercial imports during 1972-82) can be explained. In our cross-country analysis (n = 22), the residual was treated as the dependent variable and changes in the exchange rate distor tion factor (ERDF) and in import prices (valued in 1980 US$), each multiplied by their respective  4; exchange rate distortion factor (column D) defined in equation 6; column E figures drawn from Table 6; column F figures are c.i.f. import prices for 1980-82 calculated as a proportion of 1972-74; column G figures drawn from Table 6. The rules used to determine compatibility between import residual and exchange distortion or import price change are as follows.• In respect of the exchange rate distortion factor, there is compatibility (marked as Y in column H) if:-either column D (exchange rate distortion factor) is > 1 and column E is positive -or column D< 1 and column E is negative Absence of compatibility is marked as N in column I .elasticities, were treated as the independent vari ables. A third term, an interaction between the exchange rate and import price, was also intro duced17.Analyses were carried out with one (ERDF), two (ERDF plus price) and three (ERDF, price and their interaction) independent variables. The value of R for regressions with one variable was 0.26, with two it was 0.28 and with three 0.47. The coefficient for the exchange rate variable had the expected sign (i.e. positive) and was statistically significant (P<0.02) in all three analyses. Its value was not affected by the inclusion of the price variable but nearly doubled when the inter action effect was added. The price coefficient had an unexpected sign (i.e. positive) and was statistically insignificant in both the analyses that included the price variable. The coefficient for the interaction effect was negative and statistically significant (P = 0.03). The absolute values of the coefficients have no particular meaning.The value of R was an important statistic, for it indicated, in broad terms, that in the 22 countries for which comparable data are avail able, between a quarter and a half (depending on the form of the equation chosen) of the hitherto unexplained changes in the rate of import growth can be attributed to changes in exchange rate dis tortion and import prices. The countries whose residuals the regression was least able to explain were Rwanda and Somalia, clearly showing that in these two countries other important influences were at work. 17 The actual form of the regression was: Y = Constant + 0, (X,) + ft, (X2) +/33 (X3) where, with reference to the columns of Table 7:When the 3-variable regression was re-run excluding Rwanda and Somalia, the signs of the coefficients remained the same and their values did not change much. The coefficient of the price variable remained statistically insignificant, but the value of R rose to 0.88 and the coefficients for the exchange rate distortion and interaction variables improved in statistical significance (P<0.01).The exchange rate distortion factor is clearly a 'policy variable'. The level of import prices, and the changes in it over time, are less clearly influ enced by policy, although the very different prices paid at the same time and for the same product by different African governments suggests that they are not entirely 'price takers'. An attempt to in corporate the ratio between international and domestic prices, which is a policy variable, did not yield statistically significant results (see Table 5).To summarise, the results provide evidence that, in addition to the factors normally cited as the main determinants of increased imports into sub-Saharan Africa (i.e. population and income growth), national governments have significantly influenced this increase through their own policies, specifically their interference with the exchange rate. There are, however, many other policies, some specifically directed at dairy imports, which are likely to have been of importance and whose effects depend on the combination of instruments and the details of their design and implemen tation18, but which cannot be described suf ficiently using cross-country analysis. Some typical examples of dairy imports and dairy import policy for selected countries will be given in the next chapter. Compare Chapter 5 above, and see von Massow (1984b) and Mbogoh (1984) for rough outlines of individual countries' policies.The dairy import policies of Nigeria and Mali have been selected for further discussion. In the past, government interference with dairy imports in Nigeria was limited to the imposition of import tariffs, which is a classical instrument of trade policy, but more recently, three other policy instruments have been applied. The following description and analysis of the country's present dairy import policy is based on the work of Nwoko(1986).The dairy import policy in Mali is a typical example of a government pursuing multiple ob jectives by employing many instruments. The rationale behind such a policy and its effects have been analysed in some detail by von Massow (1985a), the major aspects being presented in the second part of this chapter together with a separate discussion of the special role of food aid in dairy development in Mali. The latter includes some results of a milk producer survey carried out around Bamako to investigate the effects of dairy imports on local milk production and the poten tial of using dairy food aid to stimulate it (see Kone and von Massow, 1986).Nigeria is the largest importer of dairy products in West Africa. Its human population is dense in the humid southern coastal region, but becomes sparser towards the drier north. Because of tsetse infestation, the cattle population has the opposite distribution (Jahnke, 1982, p. 114).Dairy imports into Nigeria are almost exclus ively commercial, having risen steadily since the 1940s to reach almost 800 000 t LME in 1983. Condensed milk and dried milk powder account for about 50% each of the total volume (in LME). Between 1972-74 (av.) and1980-82 (av.) the volume of dairy imports increased by an average of 15.4% per annum (see Table 4, Chapter 6), but their economic importance remained marginal, accounting for only 2% of the value of Nigeria's total exports in 1980-82 (av.) (von Massow, 1984a, App. 4). The rate of self-sufficiency in 1980-82 was roughly one third of the estimated total dairy consumption of 12 kg LME per person.Approximately two thirds of domestic milk production originates from traditional producers and one third from mainly large-scale modern dairy enterprises. Ninety-seven percent of the national cattle herd consists of indigenous breeds (Nwoko, 1986, p. 14).There are three marketing and processing channels for dairy products in Nigeria: • traditional marketing of milk and products processed on-farm, • collection and processing of raw milk in dairy plants, and • distribution of dairy imports. In all three systems relatively free compe tition prevails, even though government may be involved in some of the dairy plants. The real dis tinction between the systems lies, however, in their regional distribution and in the consumers they serve: the traditional system operates mainly in the north, serving low-income rural consumers, whereas dairy imports are sold mainly to higherincome urban consumers in the south.In theory, dairy plants link rural milk pro ducers to urban consumers, thereby transferring some of the urban buying power to rural areas, but this goal has not been achieved in Nigeria, be cause there are few processing plants in the country and their operations are limited (Nwoko, 1986, p. 136;Mbogoh, 1984).Efforts to improve marketing and substan tially increase local milk production have so far been ineffective. According to Nwoko (1986, p. 40), \"The development programmes have re corded remarkable failures in harnessing local resources to increase domestic milk production.Local milk processing has failed because of the existence of only very few milk collection centres and [because] of the preference of processors for imported raw materials...\".Information on Nigeria's dairy import policy is available for the period since the country's political independence in 1960, but the objectives of this policy were never precisely denned. Dairy products were considered as merely one element of the total import bill and thus subject to the general policy objectives of saving foreign exchange, generating government revenues and protecting infant industries, although the priorities assigned to these changed periodically (Nwoko, 1986, p. 56).Over the years, four different policy instru ments have been applied to dairy imports in pur suit of the stated objectives: general import licensing, import prohibition, import tariffs and foreign exchange control. The effects of the first, third and fourth instruments are compatible with the stated objectives, but import prohibition by definition does not allow for revenue generation from taxing imports.Before 1984, import licences were either open or restricted. An open licence permitted importation of unspecified quantities from desig nated countries only, whereas a restricted licence also specified the quantities to be imported. Dairy products were imported under open licences and thus enjoyed a preferential import position, ex cept fresh milk which has been the only prohibited dairy import since 1976.Import tariffs on dairy products have not been in force constantly, or on all items, although butter and cheese imports have been taxed throughout. The rates imposed never exceeded 40% of the import value and have been lowest on condensed and evaporated milk since 1970. Rev enues generated from taxation were insignificant, accounting for less than 0. 1 % of total government revenues and for a maximum of 1.3% of customs and excise revenues in 1987. Foreign exchange control involves a general inspection of all import bills exceeding -N-20 000, an advance deposit (until 1984) and foreign exchange allocation by product group.Overall, the instruments of the Nigerian im port policy have the potential to restrict severely, and even to ban, dairy imports. Depending on their design and implementation, however, they can also leave dairy imports completely unre stricted.The residual term calculated for Nigeria (Table 4) indicates that between 1972-74 (av.) and 1980-82 (av.), other factors have stimulated commercial dairy imports to grow by an average of 10.4% per annum more than the rate of growth implied solely by changes in population, income and domestic production (Table 7). This result does not seem to be in line with the expected effects of the policy instruments applied: import tariffs (Figure 6) and foreign exchange control (Figure 7) tend to decrease rather than stimulate imports.Until 1984, some stimulus could have de rived from the open-licence control of dairy im ports, while competing products were subject to restricted licences. This assumes, however, that the consumer was willing to substitute other products for dairy goods, which seems unlikely. For the calculation of the residual term to be valid there must therefore have been other stimu lations which overruled the restrictive effects of the applied policy instruments. An attempt is now made to analyse the situation. Nwoko (1986) used two approaches in assess ing the effects of the import control measures applied in Nigeria. First he considered the in creasing imports of various dairy products in light of the policy measures applied, and concluded that these measures had had little, and at most temporary, effect on dairy import levels. Tariff reductions seem to have influenced these levels more than tariff increases, but this has not been proven statistically.The second approach involved calculating log-linear regressions (Nwoko, 1986, p. 31), with the quantities of individual imported dairy prod ucts and of aggregated dairy products being the dependent variables. The independent variables in the analysis were real import prices (own and cross-price), tariff rates, domestic milk pro duction, real foreign exchange reserves, real per capita income, a time trend and a dummy variable for the Nigerian civil war. External reserves were included in the equations to measure the capacity to finance imports in any given year. The corre sponding variable at the micro-level was real income (GDP) per person, which served as a proxy for household expenditure. Domestic milk production was taken as an exogenous variable, because the changes in pro duction could not be explained. Nwoko argues that strong market segregation may be responsible for this lack of any statistically significant corre lations between domestic production and the volumes or prices of imported dairy products.It must also be remembered that milk production data for Nigeria are particularly dubious, since they include a major jump in the time series (Nwoko, 1986, p. 18).The results of the regressions (Nwoko, 1986, p. 35) substantiate the previous observation that, while generating some revenue, tariffs may not have been effective as a means of reducing im ports. The level of external reserves has also had a very limited influence on dairy imports; the cal culated elasticity for aggregate imports was +0.15 when external reserves were lagged by 1 year. Domestic milk production showed the ex pected negative effect on most of the dairy prod ucts imported. The elasticity of aggregate dairy imports to domestic milk production was, however, low (-0.27) and statistically insignificant. Aggre gate dairy imports reacted more strongly to changes in real import prices (index weighted over all dairy products), as is shown by the statisti cally significant price elasticity of -1.08.A statistically significant correlation was also found between aggregate dairy imports and the time variable (elasticity +0.67). This reflects population growth, but may be due to consumer or processor preference changing in favour of im ported dairy products or to the effect of urbanis ation, manifested as an increasing reliance of consumers on imports rather than domestic milk sources. The conclusion to be drawn from Nwoko's analysis is that Nigeria's dairy import policy does not account for the large increase in imports; it has not prevented the increase, but neither has it positively stimulated imports.To explain the growth of dairy imports into Nigeria, another regression equation was specified, using the volume of dairy imports per person as the dependent variable and import prices, the ex change rate distortion factor and domestic milk production as independent variables. This equa tion (R\" = 0.917) shows that the two main factors responsible for the inordinate growth of dairy imports into Nigeria were real import prices (as indicated by Nwoko, 1986) and the differences between official and real exchange rates.The increased volume (in LME) of aggregate dairy imports per person between 1972 and 1982 can be attributed mainly to a decline in real im port prices and to currency overvaluation. These variables had to compensate for the small (and statistically insignificant) effect of declining domestic production per person.The elasticities of response (measured at the mean) were -0.78 for real import prices (average unit value in US$ kg\"1 LME) and 1.36 for the exchange rate distortion factor as specified in equation 6. The price elasticity of -0.78 is not significantly different from that of -1.1 found by Nwoko (1986), although the import prices are specified in different ways and the periods covered also differ.It may thus be said that a major part of the increase in dairy imports into Nigeria was the result of policy, but not of specific dairy import policy. The instruments applied are consistent with the stated policy objectives and with each other -they tend to restrict imports, but their effect has been overshadowed by the effects of the declining real dairy prices on the world market and of overvalued domestic currency. The latter is, of course, influenced by government policy, but not specifically by dairy policy.Despite a policy aiming to restrict dairy im ports (which, if successful, would have benefited domestic milk producers), the Nigerian Govern ment has stimulated dairy imports by way of its exchange rate policy to the benefit of consumers, particularly the urban consumers in the south. More detailed analysis is needed to investigate the link between dairy imports and domestic milk production and the hypothesis of segregated mar kets, but the quality of the available data was inadequate for this to be undertaken within the present study.Mali is a land-locked country sparsely populated by about 7 million people of whom 10-15% live in the capital Bamako. The national cattle herd has been estimated at about 5 million. According to the Ministere charge du developpement rural (1982), 41% of the animals are in the south of the country and in the Sudanian belt, another 35% are in the inland delta of the Niger river and the remainder are scattered in other pastoral or agropastoral systems (von Massow, 1985a, p. 2 et seq.). Inter-regional marketing links for milk and dairy products are even weaker than in Nigeria. Around Bamako, for instance, there is no estab lished milk marketing system (von Massow, 1985a, p. 3;Kone and von Massow, 1986), al though the cattle population in the area numbers about 140 000 head. Domestic milk production is generally low and only in peri-urban Bamako is there a move towards specialised production.Estimates of per capita consumption suggest that pastoral areas may have a milk surplus which, however, does not reach the market. The main milk-deficit areas are Bamako, where annual milk consumption per person is 27-29 kg (von Massow, 1985a, p. 8), other major towns and the southernmost part of the country. Dairy imports serve primarily Bamako and other major towns. During the drought years of 1972-74, emergency foodstuffs were distributed in many parts of the country, and some dairy food aid came in as part of the Tood for Work' project.Commercial dairy imports increased from less than 1000 t LME in 1968 to a peak of 34 000 t LME in 1975 and have since then dropped to between 15 000 and 21 000 t LME (von Massow, 1985a, App. 4). Dairy food aid peaked in 1974 at almost 23 000 t LME or 43% of total dairy imports for that year, but since 1979 food aid has ranged between 6000 and 11 000 t LME19 per year. The rate of self-sufficiency in dairy products in 1980-82 (av.) was 0.85, or 0.79 if food aid is included. Commer cial dairy imports (in value terms) constituted 3% of total exports and provided on average 3.8 kg LME per person (von Massow, 1984a, App. 4).Although the objectives of the Malian dairy import policy\" are not explicitly mentioned in the Government's 5-Year Plan for 1981-85 (Gouvernement de la Republique du Mali, 1981), it can be assumed from the policy instruments used that the Government is concerned about foreign exchange and revenues, and that it is also somewhat interested in consumer and producer welfare. As with other imports into Mali, dairy imports are subject to licensing and allocation of foreign exchange, and to a value added tax (VAT) which in 1984 was 1 1 . 1 1 % (Commerce interieur et prix, Bamako, personal communica tion). In addition to these measures, dairy food aid is used for milk reconstitution in dairy plants.Any authorised importer is entitled to a foreign exchange quota and can allocate it between different products at his own discretion , as long as this is within the respective regulations. All foodstuffs are subject to an import tariff, the rates for dairy products having been fixed in 1967 at 15% of the import value (c.i.f.) for butter; at 25% for cheese; and at 10% for all other dairy products. In 1983/84, import tariffs were 40% for butter and cheese, 10% for yoghurt and 5% for liquid milk.These import tariffs may reflect the objec tives of generating funds, or of saving foreign exchange by reducing import demand, or both, or they might also have been intended to protect the domestic milk processing industry. But the country's only dairy plant, the Union laitiere de Bamako (ULB) sells hardly any processed dairy products, offering instead milk and sour milk (lait caille) reconstituted mainly from food aid.Milk powder and condensed milk are not open to private trade, but come under an import monopoly given to the parastatal Societe malienne d'importation et exportation (SOMIEX). A major importer of all food commodities, which it sells in its own retail shops, SOMlEX's role is to secure the continuous supply of basic consumer goods at 'reasonable' prices (SOMIEX, Bamako, personal communication). These prices are sub ject to government approval and are uniform throughout the country, regardless of differences in transport and distribution costs.Both dairy products covered by the SOMIEX monopoly are still subject to import tariffs and VAT but, at FCFA 55 kg\"1 for milk powder and FCFA 44 kg\"1 for condensed milk, these rates\"\" are considered to be preferential. On the other hand, consumers of SOMlEX's products appear to belong to a group of people whose incomes are lower than the incomes of those who buy 'luxury' dairy products carrying higher tariffs (SOMIEX, Bamako, personal communication). Thus SOMIEX has the slightly ambivalent objectives of benefiting lower-income consumers through import subsidy, while gener ating funds for the national budget through import tariffs. Unfortunately, there are not enough data available to calculate the net drain or contribution to the national budget of this import monopoly.A summary of policy measures applied to dif ferent types of dairy imports, and of the quantities imported, is given in Table 8. It is clear that the instruments of the Malian dairy import policy result in inconsistencies. Revenue generation, im port control and consumer and producer wel fare cannot all be achieved simultaneously (see Chapter 5, Figures 6-9) since these aims are not compatible and the success of one implies the failure of another.The two extremes were in two consecutive years and may have been due to a delay in shipment. If we take their average, food aid ranged between 7500 and 9200 t LME.For a more detailed description of the Malian dairy import policy see von Massow (1985a, p. 13).The monopoly includes the right to authorise private traders to import milk powder and condensed milk. 22 1984 rates; the exchange rate in that year was FCFA 1000 = US$ 2.296. A conflict arises with products subject to both import monopoly and retail price fixing: re stricting the quantity of imports increases con sumer prices above free-market levels (unless the restriction is handled in a non-restrictive way and then, by definition, it is superfluous), while retail prices fixed below the free-market prices benefit consumers. This obvious contradiction is partly explained by the government's intention to main tain a uniform national price level regardless of substantial differences in transport costs, which implies that consumers in areas of high transport costs arc subsidised by consumers in areas with low transport costs. Even then, since SOMIEX retail prices are fixed at a level that supposedly covers transport costs to Bamako, the monopoly need apply only to areas with transport costs lower than those to Bamako.The effects of government policy on dairy imports into Mali have been discussed in detail by von Massow (1985a), but it is useful to re-examine the most important findings. First, the calculation of the residual term (Chapter 6) does not provide any strong evidence about the overall effects of policy and other factors on dairy imports. With a growth of only 0.3% per annum between 1972 and 1982. commercial imports have increased slightly less than the 1 % that would have been ex pected from increased population and incomes and decreased domestic production per person. And even when dairy imports are adjusted for the effects of the Sahelian drought (1972-74 is replaced by a trend value for 1968-82), the un explained change in dairy imports is only +2.2 per annum (see Table 4).More detailed analysis by product shows that in Mali, dairy imports have generally been sold below the local market prices (in FCFA kg\"' LME), so that by setting the retail price the Government has been subsidising consumers. Retail prices for condensed and reconstituted milk (in FCFA kg\"1 LME) are also lower than the c.i.f. import prices even without deducting transport costs. If transport costs are included, the slight taxation of consumers of dry milk is converted into a subsidy (von Massow, 1985a, p. 27).No data are available on how SOMIEX handles the import monopoly. It would appear, however, that the consumption of SOMIEX dairy products has been subject to two contradicting effects. First, if handled restrictively, a monopoly, like restrictive foreign exchange allocation (Fig ure 7), reduces imports and thereby consumer welfare. On the other hand, if retail prices are subsidised, they stimulate imports and increase consumer welfare (Figure 6).There is some evidence that SOMIEX's re tail prices indeed stimulate demand, but that the quantities imported under the monopoly are not sufficient to meet that demand. Additional amounts of dry and condensed milk are imported without SOMIEX's authorisation. 'Black imports' may also result from regional differences in transport costs which in the southern and western regions are so low as to make it attractive to break the monopoly and the system of nation-wide uniform pricing.Following the theoretical approach shown in Figure 6 (import subsidy/tariff), but using differ ent assumptions about the own-price and crossprice elasticities of demand, von Massow (1985a, p. 34 et seq.) calculated the changes in consumer surplus. The important conclusion of this welfare calculation is that the overall changes in consumer surplus resulting from the government's dairy import policy are relatively small. If the govern ment seriously intended to benefit the consumers of imported dairy products, it has failed to achieve its objective.This statement may be slightly modified by considering the distributional effects of the Malian dairy import policy; the further north and east of Bamako that SOMIEX sells imported dairy products, the more these sales are sub sidised, because uniform price fixing ignores dif ferences in transport and distribution costs. Von Massow (1985a, p. 7) estimated that about 60% of SOMIEX's dairy imports are consumed in Bamako. The government's policy may thus have provided more substantial benefits to consumers through that part of the remaining 40% which is sold in areas with transport costs exceeding those incurred in reaching Bamako.Also, despite their high nutritional value, milk and dairy products are often not considered a basic foodstuff in Mali. Grain and rice, not dairy products, tend to be the staple food of the poorest sections of the community, particularly in the urban areas and in the southern and western re gions of the country where cropping rather than livestock is the basis of subsistence. This implies that the government's dairy import policy does not affect the lowest-income groups of the popu lation.The stated concern of many African govern ments that increases in food prices would cause particular hardship among the poor thus needs careful examination where the food in question is a dairy product. The Malian Government cer tainly does not seem to be too concerned, since it continues to charge import tariffs on all dairy products to generate revenue.Besides consumer welfare, the other implicit objectives of Mali's dairy import policy are rev enue generation and import control. Yet despite the government's restrictive policy, unauthorised importation of dried and condensed milk is com mon, suggesting that this policy cannot effectively control the set targets.So while Nigeria's policy is an example of a consistent dairy import policy overruled by other policy (i.e. exchange rate policy), in Mali, dairy import policy itself simultaneously pursues con flicting objectives, with the result that there may as well have been no policy at all.The leading institution in dairy development in Mali is the Union laitiere de Bamako (ULB), which has only one processing plant, located in Bamako itself. ULB was established with external assistance in 1967 and started milk processing in 1969, with a planned capacity of 10 000 litres day\" Its two main objectives were to help develop milk production in agropastoral and pastoral farming systems and to provide milk and milk products to urban consumers in sufficient quantities at low prices (see Kone, 1983).From 1969 to 1974, raw materials for milk reconstitution were provided by the World Food Programme, and the revenues were to be used mainly for the promotion of dairy development, through a fund allocated to the Sotuba research station23 (FAO, 1978c, p. 18).Since 1984, the EEC has been supplying annually 600 t of skim milk powder and 200 t of butter oil as food aid. These products are sold by the government to ULB at a price of FCFA 95 kg\" for skim milk powder and FCFA 235 kg\" for butter oil. The revenues from the sale (FCFA 104 million per year) are credited to the Commission nationale d'aide aux victimes de la secheresse in the Ministry of Interior, but the allocation of this so-called 'compensation fund' was open for re negotiation in 1986. ULB's profit in 1986 was taxed at the special rate of 33.3%, applicable to young industries; in the long run, the tax rate is expected to be 50%. Of the post-tax ULB profit, 60% is allocated to the Sotuba research station, 35% is reserved for ULB's investment fund, and The station's crossbreeding programme is designed to produce for dissemination a new standard breed of 50% Montbeliarde, 25% Zebu Maure and 25% N'Dama inheritance (INRZFH, personal communi cation).5% goes to a social security fund (ULB, Bamako, personal communication).The ULB sale price for milk was fixed in 1982 by a government directive at FCFA 110 litre\" (wholesale ex factory) and FCFA 130 litre\" (retail). Comparing ULB's sale price with the border equivalent price for reconstituted milk we see that in 1982 and 1983, the wholesale price for reconstituted milk was 76% and 73% respectively of the estimated border price equivalent (von Massow, 1985a, p. 27). Thus, even without allow ing for transport costs, the ULB consumer has been subsidised.The sale price of reconstituted milk has the second function of determining the competitive position of food aid against domestic production. ULB's sales affect only the area immediately around Bamako. Depending on season, Bamako retailers of fresh milk charge consumers between FCFA 200 and 225 litre\"1, which is almost double the ULB retail price (von Massow, 1985a). The reason given for the price difference is poor quality of reconstituted milk, but even so, it would ap pear that the Malian Government has not set an appropriate retail price for food aid sales. Yet although the consumers benefit, local production is unlikely to be affected directly, since fresh milk and ULB's reconstituted milk serve different clients i.e. the market is segregated into two con sumer groups (see also Kone and von Massow, 1986).ULB's past efforts to promote local milk production have not been very successful. Its two milk collection centres at Dialakoroba and Bankoumana (each about 60 km from Bamako) only operate in the rainy season and at far below their capacity. The prices paid to producers are the lowest in each area and producers complain about irregular services (Kone and von Massow, 1986). As a result, the share of local milk in ULB's total output is negligible (von Massow, 1985a, App. 8). Recently, ULB has started taking milk directly from the newly created dairy cooperative (Cooperative laitiere de Bamako; COLAIBA), whose producer price is significantly higher at FCFA 225 litre\"1 than that paid at the collection centres, although it is based on the supply of a minimum quantity.The availability of dairy food aid has allowed ULB to neglect local milk collection, and ULB has even gone so far as to import milk powder and butter oil commercially, allegedly because no milk is available from local producers. This argument does not stand close scrutiny, for the increasing deliveries of COLAIBA producers, and certainly Kone and von Massow's (1986) survey, clearly show that the potential is there. Increased milk production only needs stimulation and appropriate market outlets.Funds from ULB sales have also not had much positive effect on dairy development, since the Sotuba crossbreeding station has yet to pro duce any significant results. The amounts allo cated for dairy development are only a minor fraction of the benefit of the dairy food aid, while a major part is diverted to other purposes. Of the wholesale value of any one litre of milk reconstituted from food-aid materials that is sold at FCFA 110 litre\"1, FCFA 49 (44.5%) goes on processing costs, FCFA 20 (18.2%) on raw materials (to the so-called compensation fund), FCFA 20.5 (18.6%) is tax (assuming a 50% tax rate), and only FCFA 12.3 is spent on dairy devel opment at the Sotuba research station. The last amount represents only 11% of the wholesale price or 30% of pre-tax profit. Even if all ULB in vestment (a further FCFA 7.2 litre\"1) is assumed to benefit milk producers in the long run, this still means that less than 50% of the pre-tax profit goes to stimulate dairy output.The use of food aid for dairy development in Mali was only partially successful. Although ULB suc ceeded in one of its roles, that of providing urban populations with milk and milk products in suf ficient quantities at low prices, it may be argued whether ULB's present output, which provides Bamako residents with about 10 kg LME per person per year, can be called 'sufficient'. Moreover, given ULB's present production tech nology, the actual wholesale price per litre is FCFA 15 less than the cost of commercially im ported milk powder and butter oil, without any profit margin (von Massow, 1984a, p. 48). Thus, at a consumption of 10 kg of ULB milk annually, the average inhabitant of Bamako is subsidised by FCFA 150 per year through food aid.In contrast, milk producers around Bamako do not seem to have gained any benefit from dairy food aid, although market segregation prevents its direct disincentive on domestic milk pro duction through depressed consumer prices. But an indirect disincentive has occurred, reflected by ULB's marked reluctance to improve its market ing services to producers. Also, the financial support given to Sotuba has not led to any genetic improvement in the herds, since no crossbreds have as yet been disseminated (Kone and von Massow, 1986).In the past, the Malian Government has minimum quantities, is a move in a new direction, chosen not to control ULB's activities closely andThe government also needs to reconsider the to withdraw a major part of the food aid benefit extent to which it should drain potential funds for other purposes, but there is some reason to from dairy development. believe that a change has taken place since 1986. ULB's effort to stimulate direct milk deliveries 24 The use of funds generated by dairy food aid is to the factory gate by a higher price and to set discussed by Kone and von Massow (1986).PROBLEMS When asked to comment on their countries' dairy imports, African government officials are often concerned about the declining degree of selfsufficiency in milk and the methods by which this trend can be arrested. The discussion often leads to the question of government action and whether dairy policy in Africa has failed or succeeded.Both the data and the methods currently applied are often believed to be inadequate to design policies that stand a chance of successful implemen tation. These problems have been considered in this report and it is hoped that the cross-country analysis and the specific case studies will throw light on the policy question and related problems of dairy imports into sub-Saharan Africa. Dairy imports make up about half the total milk consumption in West and central Africa and almost 30% in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Dairy food aid accounts for approximately half of all dairy imports into East Africa and for just under a quarter in sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. There is, however, a great deal of variation among countries in their dairy imports, both com mercial and food aid, and also in their respective economic situations against which the importance of these imports can be measured.Most of the mainly coastal and tsetse-infested countries of West and central Africa, where dairy imports form a major part of a low milk consump tion per person, are comparatively well off econ omically and meet at least 90% of the theoretical calorie requirements of their people. A number of other countries, however, depend on dairy imports, particularly dairy food aid, for a large percentage of their milk consumption, and many of these have a relatively poor overall economic performance. In most countries of either group, dairy imports in creased throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, often at annual growth rates of 10% or more.Since the products imported are mainly skim milk powder and/or condensed milk, dairy im ports into sub-Saharan Africa may be classified as basic foodstuffs rather than luxury products. This factor and the increasing proportion of imported basic dairy products in total dairy consumption have given rise to considerable government con cern about the rate of self-sufficiency in dairy products.The objective of self-sufficiency in basic dairy foodstuffs may well be desirable politically, but it is not always or automatically an economically sensible policy. Pursuing the objective may lead to heavy economic losses and bad use of scarce resources, unless the country has a comparative advantage in milk production.Comparative advantage may be measured in terms of the ratio between the costs of domestic production and border-equivalent prices, both the method and the necessary data being accessible to any African government wishing to use them when designing its dairy policy \" . The Malian and Nigerian examples showed, however, that one overall measurement is not sufficient. Dif ferences in production systems, transport costs and consumer incomes and preferences often lead to segregated internal markets, so that the calcu lation of comparative advantage needs to be adjusted accordingly.Market segregation may lead to a situation where dairy imports do not compete directly with domestic milk production, as in Mali, or only compete in some regions, as in the south of Nigeria. The desirable policy should again be based on the assessment of comparative advantage, but it would differentiate, for instance, between coastal areas, where the comparatively cheaper See p. 15 in Chapter 4 for theoretical reasoning behind the calculation and pp. 37-38 in Chapter 7 for a practical example.imports meet virtually all dairy demand, and the better production potential in other parts of the country, which should be stimulated by a regional dairy development programme. And although the overall self-sufficiency rate would still not measure up to all the ambitious policy statements, the government could claim the credit for provid ing all consumers with the cheapest milk available, without disregarding producers' interests.Both theory and the Malian experience have shown that the use of dairy food aid can pose par ticular problems. First, if dairy food aid is to be used solely for the benefit of underprivileged con sumers, it should be targeted towards specific consumer groups or areas to avoid disincentive ef fects on local milk production. If, nevertheless, dairy food aid does compete with domestic milk supply, then its retail price should be set at the border-equivalent price or at the undistorted im port price level. Second, if dairy food aid is used to stimulate domestic dairy development, it should be sold at the undistorted retail price for commercial imports or at the respective border equivalent price, so that the revenues can be used for any type of dairy project.Although it has not been possible to analyse in detail the reasons behind the declining self-suf ficiency in dairy products for countries other than Mali and Nigeria, a cross-country outline of the factors which had caused dairy imports to in crease between 1972-74 (av.) and 1980-82 (av.) has been given. First, the actual growth of com mercial dairy imports during the period was com pared with a theoretical figure derived from changes in population, incomes and domestic milk production, and any deviation or residual between the actual and derived growth was then interpreted as the influence of other factors. Using this approach it was found that domestic prices and policy stimulated dairy imports in 19 of 32 sub-Saharan African countries, and by more than 10% per annum over a decade in almost one third of the 32 countries.Second, an attempt was made to explain the increase in dairy imports and the changing selfsufficiency rates in terms of the changing ratios between international and domestic prices. But although international prices have decreased more or increased less than domestic prices, no statistically significant relationship could be es tablished for most products and countries for which the relevant data are available.Dairy import policies entail the use of different policy instruments, and these have been described together with the underlying objectives in some detail. Two important conclusions emerge. First, as the different policy objectives contradict each other so do the instruments employed to pursue them. Governments should therefore endeavour to identify at least internally the trade-offs between competing objectives. Second, the impact of dairy policy depends on various policy instru ments, including some not primarily directed at the dairy sector but nevertheless affecting it. Any policy analysis must therefore go beyond the narrow scope of the specific policy instruments.The heterogeneity of individual countries' dairy policies was an obvious problem during the analysis, such that it was possible to analyse only the effects of individual policy instruments in a cross-country study, leaving the more detailed analysis of multi-instrument situations to specific country studies. And since the setting of the ex change rate supposedly influences dairy imports in many sub-Saharan African countries, the de viations between official and real exchange rates during 1972-82 were included in a regression analysis of the volume of dairy imports per person on domestic milk production per person and real dairy import prices.The results (see Table 6) support the hypothesis that depressed international dairy prices, coupled with overvalued exchange rates, have had greater effect on increased dairy imports than specific dairy (import) policies. This con clusion certainly holds for Nigeria and for a number of other sub-Saharan African countries, including some of the largest importers of dairy products.The Nigerian example is also interesting in terms of the implementation of dairy import pol icy. The stated objectives and the instruments of the country's policy are consistent, but no signifi cant effects could be shown to result from this conjunction. This arose from an imbalance in the relative weight of different policy measures, for import tariffs of up to 40% obviously could not counterbalance the effects of low international prices and of exchange rate overvaluation.The impact of the Nigerian dairy import pol icy on domestic milk production could not be es tablished within the scope of this study, but it is hard to believe that the high proportion of dairy imports (almost 50%) in consumption did not hamper domestic milk production. The lack of empirical evidence may reflect the particularly poor quality of milk production data for Nigeria and some market segregation due to consumer preferences and transport problems, but more analysis is needed to clarify the situation.The Malian dairy policy differs from that in Nigeria because of the complexity of its objectives and the instruments applied. Whereas Nigeria has followed a consistent -though ineffective -policy of trade control and revenue generation, Mali has pursued conflicting targets, mostly inexplicit, but reflected in actual policies. The overall result is little different from total non-intervention, ex cept that the administrative and welfare costs of such a policy probably exceed its benefits. And while the total costs and benefits of the Malian dairy policy could not be precisely quantified, it is obvious that, in spite of government claims to the contrary, consumer benefits have been rather small.In Mali, milk is produced in the nomadic pas toral system in the north, where livestock and their products form the backbone of subsistence, and in the mixed crop-livestock system which prevails in the south. Almost certainly, dairy imports have had no effect on milk production in the pastoral system, and only minimal or indirect effects on producers in the south. This apparently strong market segregation is explained by the inadequate infrastructure and distribution systems and by the consumers' preference for fresh milk as opposed to reconstituted liquid milk, indicated by different consumer prices for the two types of milk in Bamako.Mali has sought to promote local milk pro duction through the use of food aid, but although theoretically sound, the scheme has not met its goals because of three major defects. First, in stead of setting the sale prices of dairy food-aid products at their border-equivalent retail prices to stimulate local milk production, the Malian Government has been subsidising consumers. Even if the disincentive effect of lower consumer prices on production was minimal due to market segregation, the revenues to be used for the ben efit of producers were reduced.Second, the revenues from the processing and sale of food aid should have been spent in ac quiring the critical means of dairy development, rather than diverting a substantial part of the funds to other purposes and using the rest unproductively. Third, although the overall objective of dairy development through dairy food aid is to replace gradually the aid deliveries by domestic milk supply, ULB's price and collection policies have only recently been directed towards this end.Policies and problems common to many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa were identified and analysed. And while there are no ready-made solutions which can be transferred from one country to another, the cross-country analysis shows that the methodology is similar for many countries, and that policies and their effects need not be a 'black box' to policy makers and analysts. Although inadequate, the available data can be used for some analyses which do not require complicated econometric models, but which nevertheless provide some very useful insight.In many sub-Saharan African countries, five conclusions apply, namely that: • General exchange rate policy may well over ride sector-specific policies. •Sector-specific policies are often impeded by contradictory incentives to consumers and producers, arising from conflicting trade, food and agricultural policies. • Dairy imports may increase without necess arily hampering domestic milk production, since the markets for imports and local produce may be different.If food aid is used for dairy development, such policy must have not only a consistent design but also well controlled implemen tation, for there are serious inherent dangers. • Dairy development or self-sufficiency in milk must never be the sole objective: there is always a point beyond which the costs of further stimulating domestic production are too great. Despite their relatively low rates of self-sufficiency, many African countries may be closer to that point than their official speeches suggest.The study has pinpointed several worthwhile fields of further research, of which tackling the problem of improving the quality and quantity of available data would seem the most important. The highest priority undoubtedly must be given to milk production data, to furnish the necessary information on the location of the different pro duction systems, the key distinctions between them, the constraints or limitations and whether these are of a technical or economic nature. An important part of that assessment is to establish the cost structure in the different production systems, for price differences in major cost items may themselves be a criterion distinguishing between the systems and also lead to an assessment of the economic constraints within them.Generating such data is not a major drain on resources, as was shown by a study of the economics of supplying fresh milk to Bamako, which took two man-months of field work and two additional months of data analysis and in terpretation. The potential usefulness of the information to policy makers is substantial, since it would enable them to design economically sound policies and to target their activities ac cordingly. Much fruitless effort and considerable financial and welfare losses can thus be avoided.Further research is also indicated with regard to market segregation, particularly in West and central Africa where dairy imports are prominent in total consumption. It should address such aspects as the differences between consumer groups in their preferences for specific products and related services, and in their buying power; the location of these groups and the specific distribution systems serving them; and the uses of different dairy products, e.g. in cooking or for direct consumption by children or adults.Such information may be obtained from dairy consumption data which can be acquired selectively and with relatively little effort. The result of the analysis would be a differentiated pattern of consumer preferences, expressed in the prices of different dairy products. Using this information, governments would then be able to design a policy for domestic milk production and dairy imports that can meet a differentiated demand.The third area where a limited amount of data gathering and analysis would substantially improve the basis for decision making at the national level involves trade and distribution sys tems for dairy products. Again, the resources needed are relatively modest, although several areas of investigation may be named, including: • Border prices for different dairy products, both in nominal and real terms, and their development over time.Existing distribution channels for imports and domestic supply.The costs and possibly the cost-effectiveness of these distribution channels, as well as a comparison of cost structures.Constraints limiting the collection of locally produced milk and the distribution and mar keting of both dairy imports and fresh milk. This type of basic information is essential to any government wishing to design a dairy policy with a reasonable chance of successful implemen tation. The relatively low costs involved are more than justified, since it enables policy makers to save resources by tackling specific problems rather than working by trial and error. If national institutions and, above all, national governments take up the challenge, then their dairy policies will be more successful and will be designed for the benefit of the country as a whole.","tokenCount":"20556"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0010d99424382d128226d01303cf2654","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a39a575-ea84-4859-b8c5-a67615ee8ffd/retrieve","id":"-2130536051"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8589d72b-ea12-4289-b616-be03c7ce3f26","pagecount":"2","content":"Shamba Shape Up is an East African TV show that helps smallholders 'make over' their farms by providing help with recurrent agricultural challenges such as lack of water, pests and diseases, crop production and reaching markets. Using knowledge from CCAFS, CGIAR Centers, and numerous development partners, the show is increasingly presenting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to East African smallholders-airtime dedicated to CSA is up to 35% of total programme time. The number of average viewers per month is over 9 million, 42% of which (over 5.5 million smallholders in 2014) have adopted new practices, boosting Kenya's gross domestic product (GDP) by over USD 24 million in the maize and dairy sectors. November 2015 CCAFS Outcome Case LEAD CENTER / PARTNER CCAFS YEAR 2014 CONTACT Philip Thornton (FP4) THEME Policies and institutions (FP4)Shamba Shape Up's SMS service has received messages from over 70,000 viewers since it began in 2012, with the second and third series generating over 37,000 texts in just 26 weeks. Internet use is also rising-the Facebook page has 20,000 followers and the Africa Knowledge Zone 400,000 hits. So the audience is accessing the programme off air and online, too.CGIAR scientists and development partners proactively engage with Shamba Shape Up. Parent company Mediae is expanding CSA platforms in East Africa by linking to their iShamba mobile, SMS and Internet services. For example, Shamba Shape Up undertook a study for the World Bank to evaluate how to improve risk management in agriculture in Kenya.• Shamba Shape Up has over 9 million average monthly viewers.• In 2014, 42% of Shama Shape Up viewers (over 5.5 million) adopted new practices, boosting Kenya's GDP by USD 24 million from productivity increase in maize and dairy.• Dissemination of CSA information in a creative manner via television reaches a wide audience.• Bringing together a range of interactive formats, such as television, SMS, iShamba etc., gives farmers the ability to access, interact and ask questions regarding agricultural production, markets and seasonal forecasts.• Shamba Shape Up homepage: http://bit.ly/1RzdAH9• These are some of the impacts an agriculture TV-show can have: http://bit.ly/20dYSqK• Searching for that evergreen farm with the Shamba Shape Up make-over team: http://bit.ly/1nkUisU ","tokenCount":"355"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e13df350a1e612246106db75ce596fa5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b876eb4-3f7d-4274-8fb9-715e71c5b025/retrieve","id":"-1350092174"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7d8ab00f-fa4b-457e-8fda-287d113a982d","pagecount":"68","content":"Os relatórios do CCAFS têm por objetivo difundir internamente as pesquisas e prácticas sobre as mudanças climáticas na agricultura e segurança alimentar e estimular a partilha de informações entre a comunidade científica. O Programa de Pesquisa do CGIAR sobre Mudanças Climáticas, Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar (CCAFS) é uma parceria estratégica do CGIAR e Terra do Futuro, liderado pelo Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). O Programa é realizado com o financiamento dos doadores do Fundo do CGIAR, a Agência Dinamarquesa de Desenvolvimento Internacional (DANIDA), o Programa de Ajuda Internacional do Governo Australiano (AusAID), a Ajuda Irlandesa, o Environment Canada, o Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros dos Países Baixos, a Agência Suíça para o Desenvolvimento e Cooperação (SDC), o Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical (IICT), a Ajuda do Reino Unido \"UK Aid\", o Governo da Rússia, a União Europeia (UE), o Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros e do Comércio da Nova Zelândia, com o apoio técnico do Fundo Internacional de Desenvolvimento Agrícola (FIDA).The current biophysical characterization work was carried out in the Chicualacuala district, as part of the IIAM-CCAFS collaborative project \"Managing climate Related Risks to Improve Livelihood Resilience and Adaptive capacity in Agricultural Ecosystems in Southern Mozambique\". Its main objective was to identify, describe, classify and map the main land units and uses in the districts, and evaluate their current potential suitability for agriculture and livestock in order to make recommendations to promote the sustainable use of resources.This biophysical characterization covered an area of 108,50 km 2 corresponding to 180.500 ha in the Chicualacuala disctrict (between 21º 46´ -23º 00´ South and 31º 16´-32º 50 East). It was carried out during the dry season, from April to May 2013 and evaluated three components: soil, land use suitability, vegetation and agroforestry systems.The methodological aproach of the study included the interpretation of satellite images, the collection of existing research documents, and the collection and analysis of 61 soil samples collected from total of 12 soil profiles to determine suitability for different uses.The study area is predominantly characterized by subsistence agriculture, with very little use of mechanized farming, the most popular being the use of animal traction. Crop rotation is almost non-existent, since there is enough space to open new fields, but intercropping is practiced namely with: maize-Bambara nuts, maize-cowpea, maize-groundnuts and, to some extent, maize-groundnut-cowpea.The various types of vegetation present in the study area include riparian forests, bushland thicket, semi-open bushland, open bushland, grassland and savannas. There is an abundace of trees such as Colophospermum mopane (xanatsi) and Androstachys johnsonii (cimbirre) forests and some grasses. The grasslands are dominated by Aristida congesta, Panicum maximum, Digitaria decumbens, Urochloa mosambicensis and Eragrostis sp.Communities usually practice logging and felling for charcoal production in the forest. Familyowned fields can be found where the forest has been cleared and grazing areas are located in some long depression areas, where there is acumulation of surface watter during the rainy season. Sclerocarya birrea (canhueiro) are sometimes found as isolated plants scattered across cutivated areas and harboring Panicum maximum under their canopy, especially on the banks of the Limpopo River. The residential areas are mainly located on the uplands, on the sandy plain and near the banks of the Limpopo River.O Projecto de investigação sobre Adaptação às Mudanças Climáticas financiado pela parceria IIAM -CIAT no âmbito do Programa Mudanças Climáticas, Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar (CCAFS) visa gerir o risco climático para melhorar o modo de vida e a capacidade de adaptação das famílias rurais nos ecossistemas agrários no distrito de Chicualacuala, província de Gaza, Moçambique.A caracterização biofísica foi feita durante a época seca, nos meses de Abril a Maio. O levantamento biofísico é constituído três tipos de levantamentos a saber; levantamento de solos, uso e aptidão de terra; flora e sistemas agro-florestais. O levantamento de solos visa produzir um mapa de solos e avaliar a aptidão da terra para agricultura pecuária com vista a recomendar sobre práticas a adoptar para um uso sustentável dos recursos. Para concretização do estudo, recorreu-se à interpretação de imagens de satélite, consulta documental, colheita e análise de amostras de solo para determinação de aptidão para diferentes usos.O tipo de agricultura predominante é de subsistência, há muito pouco uso de agricultura mecanizada, sendo o mais popular o uso de tracção animal. A prática de rotação de culturas é quase inexistente, uma vez que existe terra suficiente para se abrir novas machambas, mas pratica-se a consociação de culturas. As consociações mais comuns são as de milho-feijão jugo; milho-feijão nhemba e milho-amendoim, aparecendo por vezes milho-amendoim-feijão nhemba.Sobre os sistemas de cultivo recomenda-se face às condições semiáridas o cultivo de culturas tolerantes à seca como a mandioca, feijão bóer, feijão nhemba, feijão jugo, mapira, amendoim, mexoeira, grão-de-bico, entre outras que toleram a escassez de humidade (seca) e adoptar práticas de irrigação suplementar nos locais onde existem condições propícias, para minorar a escassez das chuvas. A introdução da agricultura de conservação, particularmente o cultivo em sulcos espaçados em curvas de nível, cultivo em micro-bacias afiguram-se como algumas das alternativas por explorar para minorar os efeitos das baixas precipitações na área de estudo.Na área de estudo, foram identificadas presença de cobertura vegetal constituída de florestas ribeirinhas; matagais fechados, semi-aberto, aberto e arbustivos; savanas e ou florestas deColophospermum mopane e de Androstachys johnsonii (cimbirre) interrompidos por alguns gramíneas. Estes gramíneos são dominados por Aristida congesta, Panicum maximum, Digitaria decumbens, Urochloa mosambicensis e Eragrostis sp. Geralmente é na floresta onde as comunidades praticam corte de estacas e abatem árvores para o fabrico de carvão. Podem ser encontrados campos de produção familiar; áreas de pastagem, por vezes com Sclerocarya birrea (canhoeiro) que ocorre de forma dispersa (plantas isoladas), mas que tem a particularidade de albergar debaixo da sua copa Panicum maximum, sobretudo nas margens do Rio Limpopo. As áreas habitacionais são geralmente localizadas na parte alta, na planície arenosa e próximo das margens do rio Limpopo. Nas zonas baixas não usadas para a agricultura, principalmente nas margens do rio Limpopo, ocorrem matas de Acacia xantophloea, Faidherbia albida e Dycrostachys cinerea, onde estas vii árvores convivem com varias gramíneas, quer por baixo da copa, quer em manchas extensas.Seis unidades geomorfológicas foram identificadas na área de estudo nomeadamente: planície arenosa; Plataforma de mananga; plataforma dos seixos rolados; Afloramento de rochas sedimentares; Coluviões e Aluviões. A planície arenosa é composta por solos arenosos amarelados e solos arenosos alaranjados; A Plataforma de mananga é constituída por: solos de mananga com cobertura arenosa de espessura inferior a 25 cm, solos de mananga com cobertura arenosa de espessura de 25-50cm. A plataforma dos seixos rolados é constituída por solos líticos com espessura inferior a 30cm sobre seixos rolados e solos de mananga pouco profundos sobre seixos rolados. O afloramento de rochas sedimentares apenas com solos pouco profundos sobre rocha calcária. A zona de coluviões é constituída basicamente por solos de coluviões de Mananga, enquanto a zona dos aluviões é constituída por solos de aluviões argilosos e solos de aluviões estratificados de textura grossa e média.Considerando as culturas actualmente praticadas, as preferidas são milho, mapira e mexoeira, feijão nhemba, melancia; o amendoim e a mandioca são cultivados em menor escala. As hortícolas como tomate, cenoura, cebola e repolho são feitas nas proximidades dos rios com possibilidades de irrigação principalmente nos solos aluvionares ao longo do rio Limpopo.Duma forma geral a aptidão de culturas pré -seleccionadas para avaliação (algodão, caju, mandioca, feijão bóer, amendoim, milho, mapira, mexoeira, arroz e feijão nhemba) varia entre S3 (marginalmente aptas) a N2 (permanentemente não aptas), ou seja, o rendimento das culturas não ultrapassará 45% e 8% do seu potencial, respectivamente; apenas o caju apresenta uma aptidão moderada. A mapira e mexoeira mostram uma aptidão moderada nos solos de mananga, bem como nos coluviões de mananga.No geral, os afloramentos rochosos, solos delgados, baixa retenção de água, alguns factores climáticos e inundações periódicas são alguns dos elementos que limitam a prática de agricultura. A aptidão para diferentes culturas é limitada devido à baixa precipitação durante o período de crescimento. Porém, o vale do Limpopo possui condições favoráveis para a pática da agricultura irrigada, mas são poucos os que recorrem à irrigação, com excepção de umas associações.Apesar das condições difíceis para a prática da agro-pecuária, esta constitui uma das principais actividades económicas, sendo praticada por quase todos os agregados familiares do distrito.Moisés F. Vilanculos é mestrado em ciências de solos nos domínios de inventário, mapeamento e classificação de solos e avaliação de terras para usos agrários. Possui uma experiência acumulada de mais de 35 anos de pesquisa nas áreas de pedologia e avaliação de terras. Técnico do IIAM, Direcção de Agronomia e Recursos Naturais, Sector de Recursos Naturais.Jacinto M. Mafalacusser é mestrado em ciências de solos nos domínios de inventário, mapeamento e classificação de solos e avaliação de terras para usos agrários. Possui uma experiência acumulada de mais de 25 anos de pesquisa nas áreas de pedologia e avaliação de terras. Técnico do IIAM, Direcção de Agronomia e Recursos Naturais, Sector de Recursos Naturais.Orlando I. Jalane é licenciado em geografia e especializado em sistemas de informação geográfica. Possui uma experiência acumulada de 7 anos em análise digital de imagens de satélite, desenho de modelos para interpretação de imagens e pedologia. Técnico do IIAM, Direcção de Agronomia e Recursos Naturais (DARN), Sector de Recursos Naturais e GIS-Processamento de dados.Os autores agradecem ao Centro Internacional da Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) através do CCAFS pelo suporte financeiro para a execução desta actividade. Um agradecimento especial se endereça aos técnicos e chefes dos Serviços Distritais de Actividades Económicas de Chicualacuala por todo apoio concedido, à Dr a Fernanda Gomes, pela coordenação e criticismo na correcção deste relatório e a toda equipe envolvida no nos trabalhos de levantamento de solos, análise de dados e produção do presente relatório.Fotografias na capa e no relatório: © Moisés F. Vilanculos & Jacinto M. Mafalacusser. Estas fotografias ilustram situações encontradas durante a execução das actividades de campo no âmbito de levantamento biofísico.    Identificar, descrever, classificar e mapear os principais Unidades de terras nos distritos de Chicualacuala e Xai-Xai,  Identificar e caracterizar os principais tipos de utilização da terra nesses distritos, e  Determinar a aptidão potencial corrente da terra para os tipos de utilização da terra identificados.Para atingir os objectivos acima indicados, algumas actividades pré-identificadas foram executadas para colher informações que irão ajudar a desenvolver ferramentas que permitam a gestão sustentável, monitoramento dos ecossistemas, dando enfâse nas intervenções a serem feitas no âmbito das diferentes áreas que compõe o projecto.Pretende-se com este estudo, disponibilizar informação que possa apoiar nas algumas intervenções de desenvolvimento e de investimento distrital e ou local. Espera-se que, com os resultados deste estudo permitam melhorar a gestão dos recursos naturais e contribuir para um desenvolvimento socioeconómico sustentável, tendo em conta a variabilidade e o risco climático e a necessidade de integrar práticas melhoradas de maneio agrícola, pecuário, e florestal. Para a concretização dos objectivos deste estudo, uma equipa multidisciplinar de pedologia, florestas e biodiversidade deslocou-se ao distrito de Chicualacuala para realizar o trabalho de campo relativo ao levantamento e caracterização do ambiente biofísico (solo, vegetação, ecologia e uso de terra). Esta actividade foi complementada com a avaliação de aptidão potencial de terra para diferentes culturas e pastagens.O  , 1975). Geograficamente a área é limitada pela latitude Sul 21º 46´ e 23º 00´e Longitude Este: 31º 16´e 32º 50´. A área de estudo perfaz cerca de 108,50 km 2 correspondendo a180.500 ha, constituída por planícies de panoramas variados pela diversidade das suas terras, e consequentemente da sua vegetação e solos.Figura 1: Mapa de localização da área de estudoA área estudada é constituída por um relevo ligeiramente acidentado, com altitudes inferiores a 500m. Com estas características, é notória a presença de inúmeras linhas de drenagem e vários riachos não permanentes com muitos sinais de erosão, principalmente na margem esquerda do rio Limpopo, devido aos fortes declives em direcção ao rio Limpopo. Estas servem como linhas de drenagem de águas pluviais para a planície do rio Limpopo. Em temos hidrológicos pode se destacar os seguintes rios que constituem parte dos grandes afluentes do rio Limpopo e que fluem na área de estudo: Rio Nuanetzi, Madambalale, Guiuzo, Chinhezane e Chefu. Todos eles escorrem de noroeste para sudeste, sendo nesta última região onde apresenta crescente presença de pequenas lagoas com água durante a época chuvosa prolongando-se até os princípios e meados da época fresca.Este processo hidrológico influencia de certo modo a geomorfologia criando-se condições para a existência de extensas áreas de relevo aplanado, que se denomina \"plataforma Sedimentar\", com zonas propícias para a pastagem, mas devido a outros factores relacionados com clima, a zona ressente-se com problemas de falta de água. Na parte Sudoeste do distrito de Chicualacuala, devido aos processos de erosão, predominam o remanescente de terras arenosas das dunas antigas alongadas, com um direcionamento de Noroeste a Sudeste. Esta dunas estão já consolidadas e aplanadas, sendo por isso caracterizadas por um relevo suave, com vegetação, na sua maioria, secundária. Parte da vegetação primária foi e está sendo destruída para diversos fins, (exploração de madeira, carvão e estacas para construção). Ao longo das margens do rio Limpopo, há formações pouco extensas de aluviões e coluviões formando a \"zona aluvionar\".Entre as dunas antigas alongadas, ocorrem depressões com maior ou menor expressão, associadas à presença de algumas lagoas de diferentes dimensões e \"dambos\" (pequenas depressões sazonalmente húmidas), uma zona com sedimentos de Mananga frequentes. Entre estes dois relevos é frequente a presença de uma zona de transição com solos de pequena profundidade, principalmente nas proximidades da \"zona aluvionar\". As formações de origem Terciária afloram principalmente ao longo dos rios mais importantes, neste caso o rio Limpopo, e caracterizam-se por algumas escarpas com afloramentos na base de um grés calcário amarelado, pouco argiloso, de grãos finos até médios.A maior parte da área de estudo pertence à era das formações do Quaternário, caracterizada por sedimentos deixados durante as diferentes transgressões e regressões marinhas, tendo sido colocados a descoberto durante as regressões (recuo do mar). Estas áreas formaram largas planícies constituídas principalmente por materiais arenosos de textura franco-argilo-arenosa a argilo-arenosa. Estas planícies distinguem-se pelo seu ligeiro desnível, sendo a planície arenosa um pouco mais alta e com um estrato vegetativo predominantemente lenhoso dominado por comunidades de cimbirre ou brachystégias. Nas planícies arenosas durante a estação chuvosa, a água infiltra-se facilmente no solo, enquanto as planícies argiloarenosas são extensamente alagadas, formando em muito dos casos pequenas lagoas dispersas; aqui a vegetação predominante é de diversos estratos herbáceos e formações de mopane.O distrito de Chicualacuala possui três estações climáticas com dados climáticos históricos, mas a área de estudo é coberta por apenas duas estações climáticas. O distrito de Chicualacuala é do tipo semiárido a árido seco, com uma precipitação média anual inferior a 500 mm. O clima corresponde à variabilidade do padrão de precipitação em que a chuva diminui significativamente à medida que se parte da costa em direcção ao interior.As estações climáticas que se localizam na área de estudo são a de Mapai e a da vila Eduardo Mondlane, denominados até os anos 70 por \"São Jorge do Limpopo\" e \"Malvérnia\" respectivamente. Estas estações situam-se a altitudes de 254 m e 452 m respectivamente. A estação de Pafuri, situada a sudoesta da vila Eduardo Mondlane a uma altitude de 215 m, os seus dados históricos, indicam uma precipitação média anual relativamente mais baixa.Considerando a localização do distrito de Chicualacuala e segundo o mapa de Reddy (1986), o distrito encontra-se numa zona de altitude inferior a 500 metros e com duas zonas distintas em termos de precipitação: a primeira com precipitação média anual inferior a 400 mm e a segunda com intervalos de precipitação média anual de 400 a 600 mm. A temperatura média anual varia entre 23 a 26ºC. De acordo com os índices de humidade, a área é considerada como árida e semi-árida seca. A época média de sementeira é tida como sendo o mês de Janeiro com um risco moderado de sementeira, mas um elevado risco de falha de colheita em cerca de 75% dos anos; o período médio disponível de chuvas é inferior a 5 meses mas com uma distribuição variável.As duas estações da área estudada apresentam uma estação de chuvas de cerca de 4 a 5,5 meses e cerca de 6 a 6,5 meses de estação seca, sendo cerca de 2,5 meses de transicionais de uma estação à outra, mas sempre com precipitação inferior à metade da evapo-transpiração ao longo de todo o ano na estação de Mapai e com apenas três meses na Vila Eduardo Mondlane com precipitação um pouco acima de metade de evapotranspiração, nos meses de Dezembro, Janeiro e Fevereiro. A informação refere-se a uma série de dados e estudos feitos pela FAO (Kassam et al, 1981), referentes a cerca de 11 a 13 anos de registo.  30,7 33,5 32,8 31,0 28,8 26,4 26,1 28,6 31,0 32,7 33,3 33,2  30,6 T-min ( o C) 21,4 21,0 19,8 17,9 14,8 11,8 11,3 13,3 15,0 17,7 19,4 20,8  17,7  n/N  (%)  62,0 62,0 66,0 65,0 75,0 75,0 75,0 75,0 77,0 67,0 59,0 60,0  68,2   ET-Penman (mm) 160,4 142,5 139,4 112,1 83,9 69,9 77,9 114,4 153,8 177,4 173,4 172,5  1 O total da precipitação média anual no distrito é de 405 mm (357-492 mm), considerando uma série de 11 anos para Mapai, 23 anos para a estação Eduardo Mondlane e 29 anos para a estação de Pafuri.Na estação da vila Eduardo Mondlane, a precipitação média anual varia desde os 190 mm nos anos secos a 750 mm nos anos mais húmidos, segundo Westerink (1996); A estação das chuvas tem o seu início no mês de Outubro, onde a precipitação é cerca de 76 mm, e termina em Abril com cerca de 32 mm, onde a média mensal varia entre 70-80 mm de chuva. Constata-se ainda que de Dezembro a Fevereiro a precipitação é ligeiramente superior a metade da evapo-transpiração total. Nos três meses caem cerca de 280 mm correspondente a cerca de 57% da precipitação anual, caindo os restantes 43% durante os meses de Março a Novembro. 89% da precipitação média anual ocorre entre os meses de Novembro a Abril. Os meses de transição entre as estações húmida e seca e vice-versa são os de Abril e Outubro. Embora a precipitação média mensal da estação seca se situe nos 7 mm, os meses de Maio a Setembro têm uma precipitação média total de 33.2 mm, que representa a quantidade de chuva que cai no inverno.Na estação de Mapai, a precipitação média anual é de 365 mm, a estação das chuvas tem o seu início no mês de Outubro e termina em Abril. A precipitação média mensal durante a estação de chuvas é de 49,6 mm, correspondendo a cerca de 95% de precipitação média anual. Os meses de transição entre as estações húmida e seca e vice-versa são os de Abril e Outubro, a precipitação média mensal é cerca de 4 mm, durante os cinco meses da estação seca. Durante esse período a precipitação média total é de 18.4 mm, que representa a quantidade da precipitação durante o inverno.De um modo geral, nas estações de Eduardo Mondlane e Mapai, observa-se uma maior irregularidade na ocorrência da precipitação ao longo dos anos, fazendo com que haja grande incerteza quanto ao início do período de crescimento e desenvolvimento das culturas durante o seu estágio vegetativo. Observando o balanço hídrico (Figura 2), pode se notar que a quantidade de precipitação é muito inferior ao valor da metade da evapo-transpiração média mensal ao longo do ano, o que dificilmente pode garantir a obtenção de boas colheitas sem a tomada de algumas medidas de maneio e conservação de água para a produção agrícola.As temperaturas médias anuais são de 22.9 e 23. A humidade relativa média anual do ar é de 68,2% na vila Eduardo Mondlane sendo aproximadamente igual em Mapai segundo os dados fornecidos por (Kassan,1981). Nos meses mais secos, a humidade relativa anda abaixo dos 77%, (p.e. 59% em Novembro). Os valores da insolação são relativamente constantes durante todo o ano sendo mais elevada durante os meses de Dezembro a Maio rondando por 65.0 -71.0% e mais baixa nos meses de Junho a Novembro, com cerca de 55% -62%.A evapo-transpiração determina a necessidade de água de uma cultura de referência, assumindo a quantidade de precipitação que ocorre numa determinada região. Considerando que o período de crescimento, segundo o método da FAO (1981), corresponde ao período húmido definido pelo número de meses que em média a precipitação excede metade da evapo-transpiração potencial. Os dados da precipitação e evapotranspiração média mensal são apresentados nas tabelas:1, 2 e 3. O balanço hídrico da estação climatológica da Vila Eduardo Mondlane (Figura 2) demonstra claramente a variação existente em termos de precipitação e evapo-transpiração ao longo do ano. A figura ilustra que existe apenas um período húmido de cerca de 110 dias que ocorre entre o início do mês de Novembro a fins de Fevereiro ou início de Março.O balanço hídrico para a estação climatológica de Mapai apresenta características bastante diferentes das da vila Eduardo Mondlane. A precipitação média mensal é inferior a metade da evapo-transpiração potencial em todos os meses, o que significa não existência de um período húmido ao longo de todo o ano. O período das chuvas indica ter seu início na segunda metade de Outubro e prolonga-se até ao mês de Março. A data de sementeira mais provável pode ocorrer de Novembro a Janeiro, período considerado como de risco moderado para sementeira.A vegetação predominante, correlaciona-se com as grandes unidades geomorfológicas e/ou fisiográficas da área de estudo. Na unidade dos seixos rolados (Zona de transição) apresenta-se com a estrutura da vegetação típica de matagais e savanas, com revestimento arbóreo ou arbustivo bastante heterogéneo, com diversidade de estratos herbáceos, variando de acordo com a topografia e solos.Nas planícies arenosas, a maior parte da floresta primária já não existe devido à exploração florestal assim como abertura de novas machambas para cultivo. São os locais que a população prefere para construir as suas residências, dado que são áreas bem drenadas durante a época da chuva, preferindo abrir os seus campos de cultivo na \"planície argilo-arenosa\" localmente denominado por mananga. A estrutura de vegetação predominante nestas planícies arenosas são basicamente constituídas de bosque fechado a savana arbórea arbustiva segundo a classificação INIA/UEM, (1995).Nas áreas dos sedimentos de \"Mananga\" ou seja, na planície areno-argilosa, predominam florestas de Colophospermum mopane \"mopane\", localmente conhecida por \"Xanatsi\", por vezes encontra-se a vegetação do tipo savana arbustiva e por vezes com presença dos Aloe marlothhi. Esta zona é de múltiplo uso, devido à sua condição edafo-climática, nomeadamente para a agricultura e pastagem. Durante a época das chuvas faz-se agricultura e na época seca, depois da colheita das culturas, a área é usada para pastagem extensiva. O clima, em particular as precipitações, influenciam as actividades produtivas na área. Devido a esses factores, principalmente a quantidade diminuta e a irregularidade de chuvas, desenvolve-se uma vegetação mais tolerante/resistente à seca, e que durante a época das chuvas desenvolve-se um estrato graminoso, propício para pasto dos animais.Estes factores climáticos condicionam também em grande escala a prática da agricultura de subsistência na região. Tratando-se duma zona árida e semi-árida seca, a actividade sócio-económica predominante é a pecuária (pastagem tradicional) e a exploração de produtos florestais. A agricultura só é relevante quando as condições climáticas (precipitação) são favoráveis, ocorrendo principalmente na época quente e das chuvas.Poucas são as áreas de agricultura utilizando sistema de irrigação, embora com potencial agro-ecológico para tal, sobretudo ao longo das margens do rio Limpopo.A produção agro-pecuária destina-se principalmente à subsistência familiar sem grande margem de produção de excedentes, dado que a produção agrícola é feita em regime de sequeiro, sendo portanto influenciada pelo regime de chuvas e humidade residual do solo para o crescimento das plantas. Uma grande parte da área é explorada em regime de consociação de culturas alimentares, nomeadamente: o milho/mapira, feijão nhemba, melancia, abóbora, amendoim, batata-doce; em alguns locais cultiva-se o arroz em pequena escala principalmente nas depressões com solos de textura pesada e que acumulam água por algum tempo.Para além das culturas alimentares e de rendimento, o distrito possui um apreciável número de fruteiras tais como mangueira, mafureiras e cajueiros incluindo algumas fruteiras silvestres, tais como Annona (Maronfva); Vangueria infausta (Fhilwa); Sclerocarya caffra (Canho), Strychnos spinosa (Massala).Para a preparação do terreno, normalmente recorrem ao uso de tracção animal, sendo esta prática a mais comum, dado existência de uma larga criação bovina no distrito e poucos usam a enxada manual, sendo muito poucos os que utilizam tracção mecânica (tractor), exceptuando algumas associações e privados que o fazem a título de aluguer.Durante a época seca, as áreas utilizadas como campos de produção, são utilizadas como áreas de pastagem, onde os animais aproveitam os restolhos das culturas.Na altura do levantamento, pouco se verificava em termos de produção agrícola, por se tratar de período sem chuvas; foram encontradas apenas algumas parcelas de terras ocupadas com culturas nas partes baixas onde ainda era possível a produção com recurso a humidade residual no solo principalmente ao longo do aluvião do rio Limpopo, deixado pelas últimas cheias. É de salientar que, como forma de minimizar as necessidades alimentares básicas das populações que vivem na área do levantamento, algumas famílias, recorrem à exploração e venda de produtos florestais (corte de estacas, lenha, carvão, madeira) e à actividade pesqueira artesanal no rio e nas lagoas como fontes de rendimento para colmatar a insuficiência da produção alimentar. A terminologia usada no presente estudo pedológico, é baseada no manual de descrição e codificação de solos (SDB) em uso na IIAM-DARN, e os solos são classificados segundo a legenda da FAO/UNESCO do \"Mapa Mundial de Solos, Legenda revista\" (FAO et al. 1997).Na base do mapa de solos de Maputo e sul de Gaza (INIA/DTA, 1993), a área de estudo aparece cartografada com 6 unidades geomorfológicas, nomeadamente a (i) \"Planície arenosa\" constituída pelas unidades Aa e Aj; (ii) 'zona de Plataforma de Mananga)\" constituído pelas unidades M1, M2, M4; (iii) \"Plataforma de seixos\" rolados SI, Sm; (iv) \"Afloramento de rochas sedimentares\" Wpk; (v) \"Coluviões\" constituído por Cm; e (vi) \"zona de aluviões\" constituída pelas unidades de mapeamento Fs e Fa).A legenda foi elaborada de forma a realçar a influência da paisagem geomorfológica e da geologia da zona.As primeiras letras indicam a unidade geomorfológica, enquanto a segunda letra indica as características dominantes da rocha-mãe, na qual os solos se desenvolvem. As outras letras minúsculas que seguem representam as fases do solo. Para além das características já referidas, a legenda descreve ainda com maior detalhe as características essenciais da diferenciação das unidades de mapeamento, delineadas no mapa de solos (Figura 4). A variabilidade e a distribuição / localização dos diferentes tipos de solos é fortemente influenciada pelos processos e variações pedogénicos e paleoclimáticos ocorridos durante o Quaternário, pelo relevo / topografia, assim como pelos processos de transporte e deposição de materiais pela acção fluvial e de erosão e sedimentação a partir do troço superior do Rio Limpopo, por isso, são denominados sedimentos fluviais recentes estratificados.Localmente, estes solos são denominados de Tlhava pelos residentes. Tlhava refere-se a posição ou localização de um determinado terreno ou área, comparativamente um pouco elevada, com uma vegetação característica de mata fechada ou aberta de tipo miombo. As áreas são basicamente usadas como pastagem natural e nas áreas em que é constituída por uma vegetação um pouco densa, mata semi-aberta, são explorados pelas populações através do corte de estacas para diversos fins (como fonte de renda familiar e para edificação das suas casa e outras construções). A estrutura da vegetação é composta por árvores e arbustos constituindo mata semi-aberto predominado pelo (tsotso), (xibutswana), (xikutsu), Strychnos spp (Kuakua ou Macuacua); Sclerocarya caffra (Kanhi, canhueiro ou Ocanhi) (Lucemani) e por vezes Androstachys johnsonii (cimbiri).O solo é geralmente excessivamente a bem drenado e de textura grosseira. Estes solos arenosos assentam-se sobre a plataforma de mananga e formam linguetas longitudinais ao rio Limpopo, orientados de Noroeste a Sudeste, intercalados pela formação de sedimentos de solos de mananga, com relevo relativamente baixo em comparação com a de unidade Aa. Esta unidade apresenta-se por vezes, na parte Sudeste com formato de grandes ilhas alongadas dentro da plataforma de Mananga.Estas áreas, para além de serem áreas de pastagens e de corte de estacas, também são usadas como local onde as populações edificam as suas residências devido à boa permeabilidade de solos, não sendo por isso susceptíveis a alagamento durante a época das chuvas. Poucas são as áreas cultivadas devido à baixa capacidade de retenção de água destes solos e não permanência da humidade residual por um tempo suficiente para um ciclo vegetativo completo das culturas anuais.O relevo é quase plano com superfícies suavemente inclinadas. Por vezes, ocorre a presença de morros de térmites (muchém) de altura variada e com um distanciamento irregular entre si.Este tipo de solos desenvolve-se nas zonas aplanadas arenosas do Pleistoceno, ligeiramente elevadas em relação à base da plataforma de Mananga, o que significa que estes solos assentam sobre esta plataforma. O solo é caracterizado por uma drenagem excessiva a boa, a espessura do horizonte B varia de 40 a 150+ cm, presença de um horizonte ócrico profundo, textura arenosa, a cor do solo superficial varia de castanho acinzentada escura a castanho amarelada e o subsolo apresenta-se com cores amarela a amarelo-acastanhada.A textura do solo não varia tanto ao longo de todos os horizontes do perfil, e o pH é ligeiramente ácido, não variando muito com a profundidade; a conductividade eléctrica também se apresenta com valores baixos sem influência negativa para o crescimento das plantas.Estes solos ocorrem de forma isolada em formato de ilhotes, por vezes alongados. Também ocorrem em associação com solos arenosos amarelados (Aa). Este agrupamento de solos alaranjados apresenta características similares às da unidade descrita anteriormente, intercalado dentro da plataforma da unidade geomorfológica de Mananga. De notar que na denominação local destes solos, não há diferenciação em termos de classificação a não ser apenas para a diferenciação em termos de coloração do solo.Em termos de uso, possui os mesmos descritos no agrupamento Aa. A estrutura da vegetação é constituída por árvores e arbustos, predominando mata aberta e semi-aberta composto pelo mesmo tipo de vegetação que ocorre nos solos Aa, nomeadamente: tsotso Estes solos são de coloração castanho-avermelhada a avermelhada, descrita pela matriz de cor (Hue) de 7.5YR a 10R. As texturas dominantes variam de areia a areia franca. São solos profundos, bem a excessivamente drenados, não salinos e não sódicos.Geralmente apresentam um horizonte \"A\" ócrico de 10 a 15 cm de espessura e textura areia média a areiafranca. A cor do solo é castanha (7.5YR 4/3) a alaranjada (7.5YR 7/3) quando seco e castanha escura (7.5YR 3/3) a castanha (7.5YR 5/4) quando húmido. Nestes solos predomina material de grãos simples \"single grain\", por vezes com estrutura fraca, média, anisoforme subangulosa; é solto a brando quando seco e solto a muito friável quando húmido; é não pegajoso e não plástico, quando molhado. Não apresenta fragmentos rochosos nem efervescência na presença de HCL a 10% de concentração.O subsolo mostra um horizonte B câmbico e é muito profundo, podendo estar assente sobre substrato de Mananga e atingir profundidades superiores a 2 metros dependendo da sua localização na paisagem. O solo é de textura arenosa e uma coloração castanho-avermelhada escura (5YR 3/4) a vermelha (2.5YR 4/6) quando seco e castanho-avermelhada escura (5YR 3/3 a 2.5YR 3/4) quando húmido. Não tem estrutura (grãos simples) ou possui estrutura fraca; é solto ou brando quando seco, solto a muito friável quando húmido, não pegajoso e não plástico quando molhado; sem fragmentos rochosos, e sem efervescência na presença do HCL a 10% de concentração.Este é também um solo que, devido à sua textura arenosa, apresenta baixa fertilidade natural, baixa capacidade de retenção de água e nutrientes, o que o torna um solo marginalmente apto para maior parte das culturas anuais. Apresenta contudo a vantagem de ser um solo facilmente arável.A plataforma de Mananga é coberta com uma camada arenosa de espessura variável, INIA, 1993. Em algumas áreas, com uma espessa camada de areia, a erosão tem removido a cobertura arenosa e a superfície de Mananga aparece exposta como um vale ou uma superfície de drenagem de fundo. Nas imagens satélites aparecem como planícies aluvionares pequenas, grandes ou alongadas, circundadas por áreas arenosas.Segundo a (INIA), 1993, os solos da província de Maputo e Gaza, a espessura da cobertura arenosa classifica os solos de Mananga em quatro (4) subgrupos:(i) M1: com uma cobertura arenosa inferior a 25 cm de espessura; (ii) M2: com uma cobertura arenosa que varia de 25 a 50 cm de espessura; (iii) M3: com uma cobertura arenosa que varia de 50 a 100 cm de espessura; e, (iv) M4: com uma cobertura arenosa superior a 100 cm de espessura.Os solos de Mananga são geralmente profundos, por vezes com pouca profundidade cobrindo o cascalho rolado (seixos rolados), principalmente nos terrenos com relevo acentuado. São caracterizados pela presença de morros de térmites, típicos nos solos de Mananga com cobertura arenosa pouco profunda.Segundo o INIA, 1993, originalmente, essas áreas tinham uma vegetação de floresta, porém a pastagem extensiva, queimadas e agricultura itinerante tem destruído maior parte desta. A floresta primária era de fraco desenvolvimento. A superfície de Mananga é dura a extremamente dura na estação seca, dificultando assim a penetração por sonda, apesar da elevada percentagem de areia.Nos solos de Mananga verifica-se o desenvolvimento de um horizonte B ou E, maciço a prismático, extremamente duro, por vezes com películas finas de argila podendo dificultar a penetração de raízes das plantas. O subsolo tem uma cor mais clara e é menos duro, mais friável, calcário e geralmente salino-sódico Foto 2: Estrutura prismática que pode ser encontrada no subsolo dos solos de Mananga ou sódico. Quantidades consideráveis de concreções calcárias em forma de pó (meteorizado), e por vezes concreções de óxido de ferro são comuns.Localmente, estes solos são denominados de Mananga ou Madaca, e são descritos como solos lamacentos quando húmidos. Este material ocorre principalmente na zona relativamente baixa, sendo nítida a relação entre algumas espécies de vegetação, geologia e solos, como no caso do Colophospermum mopane (mopane/Xanatsi), ela é dominante nos terrenos com concreções calcárias.Esta unidade de solo é desenvolvida em topografias planas a suavemente onduladas, por vezes com ocorrência de morros de térmites 0,2 a 1,0 m de altura. Os solos são profundos, imperfeitamente drenado. Uma das características deste agrupamento é que o solo superficial é cinzento a cinzento muito escuro; arenoso; grãos simples ou com estrutura fraca fina a média sub-angular; consistência solta a ligeiramente dura quando seco, solta a muito friável quando húmido, não pegajosa e não plástica quando molhado; alguns poros finos e muito finos; raízes muito finas e médias; sem efervescência na presença de HCl a uma concentração de 10%. O teor de matéria orgânica é baixo a muito baixo (0,7-1,5 %), o pH é fortemente ácido a ligeiramente ácido (pH 5,1-6,2).O subsolo é muitas vezes manchado, com abundantes manchas ferruginosas médias, distintas, castanhoamareladas; textura franco-argilo-arenosa; estrutura moderada a forte, fina a média sub-angular; ligeiramente dura a dura quando seco, friável a muito firme quando húmido, pouco pegajoso e pouco plástico quando molhado; poucos poros finos e muito finos; por vezes presença de horizonte endurecido (cimentado) por carbonatos; raros a poucos poros finos; o subsolo pode, por vezes apresentar quantidades consideráveis de concreções calcárias ou em forma de pó (meteorizado) e por vezes a presença de concreções de óxido de ferro; raízes finas e muito finas.O solo é de textura Franco-arenosa a Franco-argilo-arenosa, compacto e pouco permeável; profundo, drenagem moderada a imperfeita. O solo superficial é de textura franco-arenosa; moderadamente ácido a ligeiramente alcalina; o teor de matéria orgânica é baixo a moderado; não salino, por vezes sódico.O subsolo pode por vezes apresentar quantidades consideráveis de concreções calcárias em forma de pó (meteorizado) e também a presença de concreções de óxido de ferro.Estes agrupamentos de solos são classificados como sendo Solonetz estágnico, Planosolos ou Luvissolos. Nas depressões, este tipo de solo é sujeito a alagamentos periódicos, principalmente durante a época das chuvas. A grande limitante destes solos para a produção agrícola são: existência de uma camada compacta muito próximo da superfície, que pode dificultar a penetração das raízes das plantas; a sua fraca permeabilidade por vezes má drenagem; a sodicidade e por vezes a salinidade. Nas áreas com uma camada arenosa espessa, a sua aptidão para a produção agrícola pode ser limitada pela fraca capacidade de retenção de água e nutrientes e a sua baixa fertilidade.Trata-se de cascalho basal de granulometria arredondada exposto em diferentes altitudes acima do nível actual do rio, considerado como sendo depósitos aluvionares ocorrido a partir dos depósitos Pluviais Pleistocénicos ou, segundo referências (Barradas, 1962) como depósitos de praias ascendentes. O cascalho é composto de rochas sedimentares locais, vulcânicas e do Pré-cambriano, derivado da sub-cobertura de rochas sedimentares e conglomeráticas do Cretácico e Terciário.Os solos dos seixos rolados são constituídos por abundantes quantidades de seixos rolados a uma profundidade inferior a 1m. Originalmente estas plataformas eram cobertas por um manto espesso de Mananga, mas a erosão removeu parcial ou totalmente esta camada de terra fina. Na área de estudo, distinguem-se dois agrupamentos de solos dos seixos rolados:(i) Os solos líticos, com seixos rolados a menos de 30cm de profundidade, (Sl). (ii) Os solos onde 30-100 cm de Mananga sobrepõem os seixos rolados numa matriz de Mananga, (Sm).São solos líticos de profundidade inferior a 30 cm, sobrepondo-se ao cascalho rolado numa matriz da terra fina. As camadas de cascalho podem atingir vários metros de profundidade e podem-se sobrepor a uma camada espessa de substrato argiloso alterado.O horizonte A é ócrico ou mólico, com variação da espessura do solo superficial de 5 a 30 cm; com variação de cores de cinzento a cinzento muito escuro, preto, castanho muito escuro a castanho-avermelhado escuro e preto; textura franco-arenosa a argilosa; estrutura grumosa grosseira, maciça, ou fraca a moderada, anisoforme subangular; brando a muito duro quando seco, firme quando molhado, pouco pegajoso, pouco plástico a plástico quando húmido; existência de fendas; sem efervescência na presença de HCl; um conteúdo de cascalho variável; transição abrupta e plana.Há pouca penetração das raízes abaixo do horizonte A e em geral o cascalho é mais grosso na base. A transição para o substrato alterado é ondulado ou irregular, algumas vezes com grandes ondulações.A vegetação abundante na zona é dominada por ervas, árbutos e poucas árvores tais como: Setaria, Themeda, Androstachys johnsonii (mecrusse), Acacia nigrescens (micaia) e Strychnos innocua (macuacua).Geralmente ocorrem ao longo das margens da plataforma da Mananga onde a erosão removeu uma parte dos seus depósitos. Os declives são acentuados (2-5%) e a drenagem é melhor que a parte do interior coberto por Mananga. O relevo é suavemente ondulado, solos pouco profundos e geralmente circundam a unidade \"Solos de Coluviões de Mananga-Cm\". São solos geralmente de profundidade moderada, drenagem boa a imperfeita.O horizonte A é ócrico com espessura variando de 10 a 20 cm; castanho a castanho muito escuro, cinzento muito escuro, castanho acinzentado; argilo-arenoso a franco-arenoso; estrutura fraca a moderada, fina a média anisoforme (sub)anguloso ou maciço; ligeiramente duro a duro quando seco, friável a firme quando húmido, pouco a não-pegajoso e não-plástico quando húmido; sem efervescência na presença de HCl; transição abrupta ou nítida e plana.O subsolo pode alcançar a profundidade de 40-70 cm, cinzento muito escuro, castanho-amarelado escuro, castanho-escuro; apresenta uma estrutura maciça ou moderada a forte, por vezes prismática, média; podendo subdividir-se em anisoforme angulosa, média a muito grosseira, muito forte; firme, pouco plástico a plástico, pouco pegajoso a pegajoso; sem efervescência na presença de HCl; transição plana, nítida ou gradual seguido de uma camada composta de fragmentos de cascalho rolado misturado com material franco-argiloarenoso por vezes presença de material calcário concrecionado.Presença de alguma árvores de Colophospermum mopane (Xanatsi) em certos casos em regeneração, pouca presença de Sclerocarya birrea (Kanyi ou N´kanyi) e Acacia nigrescens (Mikaia) e alguns casos arbustos de Pterocarpus rotundifolius (Tsanzandlofu) e cobertura herbácea (capim) por vezes de cerca de 80 % da superfície.São solos castanhos de profundidade moderada (geralmente <100 cm); franco-argilosos, sobre rochas calcárias.O horizonte A é ócrico ou mólico; apresenta uma coloração preta, cinzenta muito escura, castanha muito escura; a textura é franco-arenosa, franco-argiloarenosa a argilosa; a estrutura é anisoforme subangulosa, moderada, média e fina; solo duro a brando quando seco, firme a friável quando húmido, não pegajoso a muito pegajoso e não plástico a muito plástico quando molhado; às vezes com a presença de alguns elementos grosseiros e fendas na superfície, sem efervescência na presença de HCl.O horizonte B é variável em termos de profundidade, principalmente nas zonas de topografia ondulada.Geralmente possui uma profundidade de 50-80 cm e é câmbico ou argílico; a parte inferior pode ser um horizonte cálcico podendo continuar na parte superior do horizonte C; a cor varia de castanho, castanhoescuro a castanho acinzentado muito escuro; a textura é franco-argilosa, argilosa ou franco-argilo-arenosa; a estrutura é anisoforme subangulosa, moderada a forte, média ou grosseira; por vezes apresenta-se maciço; duro a muito duro quando seco, firme quando húmido; pouco plástico a muito plástico e pouco pegajoso a muito pegajoso quando molhado; reage ao HCl com uma efervescência fraca ou nítida; apresenta por vezes concreções calcárias na parte inferior do horizonte e às vezes alguns elementos grosseiros.O horizonte C é um horizonte cálcico com uma variação de cores do castanho a castanho-acinzentado muito escuro, do cinzento a castanho-acinzentado, ou castanho-escuro; a textura é argilosa ou franco-argilosa, maciço, com muito material detrítico grosseiro, cascalho; apresenta pedras calcárias na parte inferior.Foto 4: Solos Wpk -pouco profundos, de cor castanha sobre rocha calcária.Geralmente são solos profundos, argilosos, por vezes salino, sódicos, muito duros e fendilhados quando secos. São solos resultantes da acumulação de sedimentos no fundo das depressões e nas áreas de incisão das linhas de drenagem, nas partes ligeiramente colinosas da paisagem das rochas sedimentares.O horizonte A é ócrico por vezes mólico; a camada superficial varia de 10 a 50 cm de espessura; a coloração apresenta-se como cinzento-escuro, castanho muito escuro, castanho-escuro, e preto; a textura é francoargilo-arenosa a argilosa, franco limosa a argilo-limosa; estrutura é fraca a moderada, média a grosseira, anisoforme sub-angulosa; é verticalmente fendilhado; muito duro, muito firme, pegajosa e plástica; apresenta manchas abundantes, distintas, finas; a transição é nítida ou abrupta e plana.O subsolo é de cor castanho-acinzentado escuro, cinzento muito escuro, castanho-amarelado escuro, com manchas distintas, comuns a abundantes; a textura é franco-argilosa, argilo-limosa, ou por vezes argila pesada; a estrutura é moderada a forte, média a grosseira colunar (ou prismática), separando-se em anisoforme angulosa, grosseira, forte; maciça na profundidade; duro a muito duro quando seco, muito firme quando húmido, pegajoso e plástico quando molhado; por vezes salino e sódico; são comuns as abundantes concreções calcárias.A unidade é dominada por uma vegetação praticamente herbácea e, em alguns casos, sem vegetação onde a área permanece húmida ou inundada durante período longo do ano. Essas áreas são de múltiplo uso agrário, tanto para agricultura principalmente para o seu aproveitamento na produção agrícola com o uso da humidade residual e para pastagem extensiva por serem manchas com muita possibilidade de conservar um estrato herbáceo por um período longo do ano e que serve de pasto para o gado.Os aluviões correspondem às deposições fluviais diversamente estratificados com texturas variáveis dependendo da topografia da bacia sedimentar do leito dos rios. Todos os outros elementos fisiográficos, tais como o dique natural, a bacia de decantação e os terraços aluvionares constituem a fisiografia desta unidade geomorfológica. As unidades de mapeamento que compõe a Zona de Aluviões na área de estudo são Fa, Fak e Fs.Esta unidade posiciona-se às áreas adjacente ao rio Limpopo ou à unidade Fs, na planície aluvionar do rio. O relevo desta unidade é quase plano com uma micro-topografia muito irregular devido à influência da intervenção humana, especialmente pela prática da agricultura, e com as feições dos processos de deposição de sedimentos transportados pelo rio.A topografia é quase plana, com algumas irregularidades do micro-relevo, havendo algumas partes da bacia aluvionar com algumas depressões argilosas que retém água por mais tempo durante a época chuvosa e cheias. Geralmente a textura é quase homogénea e fina; a drenagem é moderadamente boa a imperfeita; em algumas zonas é má, principalmente nas depressões ligeiras onde geralmente se acumula água por mais tempo.Estas são áreas que há muitos anos não são exploradas tendo como estrato dominante nas encostas/zonas baixas a floresta ribeirinha ocorrem na planície do Rio Limpopo da espécie \"Acacia xanthophloea\", Vulgarmente conhecido por acácia amarela. Esta espécie aparenta não ter uso, provavelmente por estarem em locais saturados. Contudo, os residentes indicam ter potencial para carvão, mas que no presente, há preferência para a produção de carvão a partir do Colophospermum mopane.O solo é caracterizado por um horizonte A câmbico, profundo, de textura argilosa, por vezes antecedida por uma capa superficial limosa de cerca de 10-12cm resultante da última deposição de sedimentos (ano 2000 e 2013), mudando abruptamente para textura mais fina (argilosa). As cores do solo superficial variam de castanho acinzentado muito escuro a castanho, de cinzento muito escuro a castanho-escuro; a estrutura é anisoforme subangulosa, de tamanho grosseiro e grau forte; a consistência é dura quando seco, firme quando húmido, muito pegajoso e muito plástico quando molhado; muitas raízes finas sendo comum aparecerem raízes muito finas; sem efervescência na presença de HCl; com transição nítida e plana.O subsolo é geralmente de cor cinzenta muito escura a preta; são comuns manchas médias, distintas e nítidas, de cor castanho-avermelhadas; textura argilosa, com uma estrutura anisoforme subangulosa a prismática, tamanho grosseiro e o grau moderado a forte; a consistência é extremamente dura quando seca, extremamente firme quando húmido, muito pegajoso e muito plástico quando molhado; são comuns raízes muito finas; transição nítida e plana. Não foi observado o lençol freático até à profundidade de 1,50 + m; muito ligeiramente ácido e sem restrições em termos de teores de salinidade; apresenta valores de conductividade eléctrica rondando 0,05 mS m -1 . Por vezes nota-se a presença de poucos nódulos minerais finos, de forma irregular, brandas, de natureza calcária com cores brancas ou esbranquiçados a profundidade superior a 75 cm.Este agrupamento de solos, devido a sua natureza de formação, encontra-se, dentro da área de estudo, na planície aluvionar do rio Limpopo, por vezes adjacente ao rio e ao agrupamento de solos Fa; relevo quase plano, micro relevo irregular. O tipo de uso actual de terra predominante é Agricultura de sequeiro tradicional, e muito pouco a presença de agricultura irrigada. As lavouras são predominantemente feitas com recurso a tracção animal e para alguns, as lavouras são feitas manualmente e muito poucos com o recurso a tracção mecânica.O solo é caracterizado por um horizonte A câmbico; estratificado e profundo; textura franco-limosa a francoargilo-arenosa no solo superficial, com uma espessura superior a 60 cm; mudando abruptamente para texturas grosseiras (arenosas ou areia fina) a uma profundidade superior a 70 cm com espessura variável.A cor do solo superficial, camada arável, é geralmente preto acastanhado a castanho-escuro; textura franco limosa a franco argilo arenosa; estrutura anisoforme subangulosa moderada a fraca, fina e média; consistência ligeiramente dura a dura quando seco, muito friável a firme quando húmido e pouco pegajoso e pouco plástico quando molhado; comuns raízes muito finas e finas.As cores do subsolo são bastante variáveis como são também variáveis as texturas devido a estratificação das camadas, desde preto acastanhado a castanho amarelado sombrio; arenoso franco a franco-argilo-arenosos; estrutura grãos simples a anisoforme subangulosa fraca a moderada, média a muito fina; consistência solta a ligeiramente dura quando seco e solta a friável quando húmido não a pouco pegajoso e não a pouco plástico quando húmido; o pH (acidez) do solo superficial (0 -20 cm) é muito ligeiramente ácido a muito ligeiramente alcalino, enquanto, o nível da conductividade eléctrica é baixo. O desenvolvimento rural pressupõe o uso sustentável dos recursos de terra de uma determinada região, através de desenvolvimento de propostas de uso de terra que satisfaçam não só o potencial biofísico de uma determinada unidade geográfica ou área, como as expectativas sociais, económicas e culturais do utilizador do recurso. Pois este, procura tendo como base as características e qualidades dos atributos biofísicos ou agro-ecológicos, a melhor repartição do factor humano por unidade de área, tentando adequar no espaço geográfico, as políticas sócio-económicas, culturais e ambientais de uma determinada sociedade.A avaliação da aptidão de terra é considerada como um sistema que permite dar resposta a questões tais como: (i) onde se encontra (localização/distribuição) a melhor terra para produzir a cultura \"x\", (ii) que culturas crescem melhor nesta ou naquela terra e, (iii) quais são as limitações, problemas ou constrangimentos para a prática desta ou daquela cultura nesta ou naquela terra.Esta avaliação permite que se faça a comparação entre os requisitos dos diferentes tipos de utilização e a capacidade da terra para suportá-los de forma sustentável, seguindo princípios mestres orientadores da \"FAO Framework for Land Evaluation ((FAO) 1976((FAO) , 1983((FAO) , 1984a((FAO) , 1984b((FAO) , 1985;;Sys 1985)\" que providenciam os conceitos básicos para a avaliação de terras.A avaliação de terras está especificamente associada com o uso de terra, compreendem duas fases: a descrição do tipo de utilização de terra, e  a avaliação dos requisitos de cada tipo de uso de terra.Neste estudo, os tipos de utilização de terra são definidos como sendo as culturas anuais produzidas em condições de sequeiro e segundo o maneio resumido na Tabela: 6 de \"Níveis de Utilização de Factores de Produção\" . Apenas são avaliadas as culturas identificadas tais como: milho, mapira, mexoeira, mandioca, feijão Nhemba, Feijão bóer amendoim algodão e arroz, pois é sobre elas que posteriormente foi feita uma avaliação da sua vulnerabilidade face às mudanças climáticas no período entre o presente e 2090.Um tipo de utilização da terra é o tipo de uso de terra definido de maneira mais detalhada em termos de especificações técnicas, num dado meio biofísico, económico e social (FAO, 1983). Neste estudo e tendo em conta os objectivos da avaliação do potencial agrário do distrito, são considerados os seguintes tipos de uso de terra: i) tipos generalizados de utilização de terras: que constituem subdivisões maiores do uso rural de terra, por exemplo: produção agrícola de sequeiro; produção agrícola de sequeiro com recurso à tracção animal; pastagem extensiva do gado, reflorestamento. ii) tipos específicos de utilização de terras: estes podem ser culturas singulares, por exemplo: produção de milho em sequeiro com recurso à tracção animal; produção de arroz com recuso à irrigação por inundação.Os requisitos ou exigências para os diferentes tipos de usos, por exemplo, as culturas podem ser agrupados em categorias tais como: (i) potencial de inundação; (ii) disponibilidade de humidade; (iii) disponibilidade de nutrientes; (iv) potencial para mecanização; (v) nivelamento do terreno para rega e facilidade de rega, em caso de agricultura com recurso à irrigação; (vi) disponibilidade oxigénio; (vii) toxicidade do solo; (viii) salinidade e sodicidade do solo; etc.De uma forma geral, e para uma melhor compreensão, estes aspectos podem ser agrupados em três pilares a saber: (i) requisitos do tipo de utilização de terra (culturas); (ii) requisitos de gestão e; (iii) requisitos de conservação do recurso terra.(i) Os requisitos associados ao tipo de uso de terra são a) disponibilidade de oxigénio na zona radicular; b) condições de enraizamento; c) condições de germinação e estabelecimento da cultura; d) disponibilidade e capacidade de retenção de nutrientes, e) excesso de sais (toxicidade) na zona radicular. E dada a sua influência significativa no desempenho dos tipos de utilização de terra, as qualidades de terra e as características de terra são resumidas na tabela abaixo.(ii) Os requisitos de gestão são os factores externos (o homem e o nível de maneio) que incidem directa ou indirectamente na preparação e maneio da terra tais como a) facilidade de trabalhar a terra e b) potencial para a mecanização.(iii) Os requisitos de conservação do recurso terra, estes estão associados aos aspectos relacionados com a) o potencial risco para a ocorrência de erosão, e b) o perigo da degradação do recurso terra.Na \"Classe Apta\", são empregues quatro níveis de limitações para as qualidades de terra, considerando uma situação ideal, sem qualquer acção limitante até às condições menos óptimas, correspondendo a uma limitação mais severa. Os níveis de limitação determinam as classes de aptidão de terra em função da qualidade de terra avaliada iii) Subclasse: (S2e = Moderadamente apta, sendo a erosão o atributo de limitação moderada); iv)Unidade: (S2e1 = Moderadamente apta, sendo erosão o atributo de limitação moderada e o número indicando o tipo de erosão -e1 = erosão hídrica e e2 = erosão eólica.Tabela 5: Níveis de limitação e sua influência na classificação da aptidão de terra (indicar a referência)Grau Definição 0 Sem a qualidade de terra é óptima para o desenvolvimento do uso de terra. 1 Ligeira a qualidade de terra apresenta uma ligeira limitação para o desenvolvimento do uso de terra podendo necessitar de melhoramentos ligeiros. 2 Moderada a qualidade de terra tem influência moderada no tipo de uso proposto, sendo necessário recorrer a melhoramentos consideráveis que nunca se aproximarão do nível óptimo. 3 Severa situação marginal ou mesmo potencialmente não apta para um determinado tipo de utilização de terra Tabela 6: Níveis de utilização de factores de produção Atributo Baixo nível de uso de insumos de produção -situação corrente Médio a alto nível de uso de insumos -Adaptação/Mitigação climática Sistemas de produção Consociação de culturas -sequeiro.Monocultura -sequeiro e irrigação.Não há uso de fertilizantes, pesticidas e herbicidas; ausência de medidas de conservação a curto e longo prazo; observância de pousios para a restauração da fertilidade.Uso de variedades altamente produtivas; aplicação de fertilizantes, pesticidas e herbicidas; rotação de culturas; \"mulching\", conservação de água e solo.Trabalho manual e instrumentos de trabalho simples (enxada de cabo curto), por vezes com recurso à tracção animal.. Mecanização completa incluindo na fase de colheita.Alta, incluindo força de trabalho familiar; não remunerado. Baixa; trabalho familiar remunerado quando usado.Destino da produção Subsistência e venda do excedente ComércioPouco exigente para acessibilidade comercial; serviços de extensão deficientes ou ausentes. Essencial a acessibilidade comercial; alto nível de consultoria e aplicação de novas descobertas dos serviços de investigação agrária.Tradicional, costumeira DUATs e arrendamentos Durante o trabalho de campo foi comum notar que a produção agrícola é feita, quase na sua totalidade, em regime de sequeiro e cultura consociadas. A consociação é tida como uma estratégia dos produtores locais de se fazerem face às incertezas e irregularidades já tão regulares das precipitações. As culturas identificadas e objectos de avaliação são: milho (Zea mays), mapira (Sorghum bicolor), mexoeira (Pennisetum glaucum), mandioca (Manihot esculente), feijão nhemba (Vigna unguiculata), feijão boere (Cajanus cajan), amendoim (Arachis hypogaea), algodão (Gossypium hirsutum) e arroz (Oryza sativa).Para efeitos de comparação na análise da vulnerabilidade climática, dois \"sets\" de mapas de aptidão são apresentados sendo o primeiro \"set\" o resultado da integração dos dados de solos e dos parâmetros climáticos reais colhidos e sistematizados a partir das estações meteorológicas de Mapai, Pafuri e vila Eduardo Mondlane.É importante realçar que os parâmetros climáticos integrados no modelo de avaliação de terras para a determinação da aptidão da terra para determinado tipo de uso incluem os outros factores para além das variações da precipitação, temperatura e período de crescimento -estes usados no MODELO \"EcoCrop\".O segundo \"set\" de mapas de aptidão da terra inclui apenas a integração de dados pedológicos, a parte climática será feita usando os dados gerados pelo modelo EcoCrop para os períodos 2030, 2060, 2090 E 2120 para cada cultura identificada na área de estudo e posteriormente a avaliação climática será cruzada com a pedológica e o factor mais limitante será o determinante para a classe final de aptidão.  profundidade efectiva muito rasa e topografia acidentada;  drenagem imperfeita dos solos.Aptidão Limitações:  Incidência do fungo (oídio) na época de floração.  Fracas sachas e podas regulares nas plantas.o Observância da época de plantação ou transplante, capitalizar a ocorrência do orvalho e regas suplementares no estágio inicial de implantação (época fresca ideal para o transplante com recurso à irrigação suplementar).  ","tokenCount":"9270"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7e4e0ab48a2d5bd24d9f1922df3042aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b879ca0-f36d-426b-9fef-42dc5cc812e4/retrieve","id":"1150609640"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7ae81535-d611-4783-80e6-2fb8e83cdc0a","pagecount":"12","content":"Diversified farming systems are promoted as a pathway to more sustainable agricultural production. Yet widescale adoption may be slow because of uncertainty about the viability of farmer livelihoods on diversified farms and entrenched perceptions that monocultures are key to making farming profitable. Here, a global meta-analysis of 3192 effect sizes from 119 peer-reviewed articles provides evidence that diversified farming systems are at least as profitable as simplified farming systems. Our study showed that, on average, total costs, gross income and profits (net income, or gross margin) were higher in diversified systems relative to simplified ones, while the benefit-cost ratio was equivalent. These results held in developed and developing countries and across geographic regions. From a subset of 43 articles reporting labour inputs, we found that labour costs increased in diversified farming systems, but so did gross incomes leading to farm profits equivalent to those in simplified systems and dispelling myths that higher labour requirements undermine the viability of diversification. Our global meta-analysis provides compelling evidence that diversified farming systems are not only viable but actually economically preferable to simplified systems in the wide range of contexts represented in this study. Policies, markets, investments, and value chains need to align with this evidence and promote diversified farming systems for the benefit of farmers and rural economies.Agricultural systems around the world have become increasingly simplified across time and space over the last 150 years as a strategy to meet food production demands of growing populations, while increasing economic profits and reducing physical and financial risks in the shortterm (Barrett, 2020;Pretty, 2008;Ramankutty et al., 2018). Now, more farms than ever before are characterized by high-yielding monocultures, heavy use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and a dependence on irrigation and fossil-fuels (Hendrickson, 2015). Transnational agribusinesses and food supply chains tend to favour large-scale producers specialized in certain crops and livestock, making it hard for smallholders and diversified farms to compete and secure viable incomes (Harris, 2019;Stringer et al., 2020). At the same time, large-scale specialized farms are now experiencing economic constraints because they are not resilient to climate change (Nelson and Phillips, 2018;Ray et al., 2015) or global supply chain shocks (like Covid-19- Altieri and Nicholls, 2020;Clapp and Moseley, 2020;FIAN International, 2020).Scientists have flagged the dangers of high-input simplified production systems for failing to meet human nutritional needs (Snapp, 2020), eroding soil health (Kopittke et al., 2019), and contributing to widespread biodiversity decline (Allen and Hof, 2019;Benton et al., 2021;Brühl and Zaller, 2019;Carmona et al., 2020) sometimes with substantial negative consequences not only for farm yields and economic returns (Pérez-Méndez et al., 2020) but also society as a whole (IPES-Food, 2020). Simplified, intensive agricultural systems need shifting to deliver on the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) ambition to double income for small-scale producers by 2030 (SDG 2.3), while ensuring sustainable food systems (SDG 2.4) that provide more than just food (Barrett, 2020;Wezel et al., 2020).Diversifying farming systems may be part of the solution. Diversified systems incorporate different species and/or varieties of plants, fish, and/or livestock at multiple temporal and/or spatial scales (Kremen et al., 2012). Multiple reviews show that, compared to simplified farming systems, diversification of fields and farms improves biodiversity and ecosystem services including pollination, soil nutrients, and water regulation (Beillouin et al., 2021;Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019;Sánchez et al., 2022;Tamburini et al., 2020) improving outcomes for people and nature. However, the effects of these diversified systems on costs and profits are unclear. While Beillouin et al. (2018) and Rosa-Schleich et al. (2019), provide evidence that farming system diversification can improve economic outcomes, these reviews also show outcomes are highly variable.In theory, diversified farming may provide better financial outcomes than the simplified ones by reducing the risk of profit losses that arise from yield, price, input, or output market risks (Bowman and Zilberman, 2013). For example, risks can be lowered by selecting crop combinations with uncorrelated price risks (i.e., variability in prices do not follow the same market trends, reducing price risks), or that have different input constraints (e.g., different dry spell and frost tolerance levels, reducing yield risks), or different input requirements (e.g., planted or harvested at different times, reducing labour risks) (Bowman and Zilberman, 2013). Yield risks can also be lowered by enhancing ecological processes through diversity-based practices, such as crop rotations to control the spread of pests and diseases, or fallow periods and use of cover crops to restore soil nutrients and minimize yield losses caused by adverse weather conditions (Power, 2010;Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019;Swinton et al., 2007).In practice, several large-scale reviews have compared financial outcomes of diversified versus simplified farming systems including in low and middle-income countries (Castle et al., 2021) but provide conflicting evidence on the profitability of diversification. Some reviews show that, relative to simplified systems, diversification can lead to higher gross incomes (Himmelstein et al., 2017) and lower direct production costs (Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019;Sanderson et al., 2013). Others show diversification leads to comparable incomes, e.g., agroforestry (Castle et al., 2021), and still others show diversification leads to lower profits, e.g., in North America (Roesch-McNally et al., 2018) and Europe (Gawęda et al., 2020). This variability is unsurprising, since farm system profitability is affected by many factors including crop choices (e.g., timing of peak management requirements, perishability, complementarity), use of technology (e.g., precision farming to minimize and target fertilizer and water applications, in-situ rainwater harvesting with basins, ridges or terraces, and digital tools facilitating market access), input conditions (e.g., labour availability, water constraints), farm size (larger farms benefiting from economies of scale), and output market conditions (e.g., prices and price stability, transportation and processing costs, trade policies) (Bowman and Zilberman, 2013). These factors play a role and may drive differences in the profitability between simplified and diversified farming systems. For example, previous reviews have shown that intercropping in Africa has a more positive effect on gross incomes when herbicides are applied helping suppress weeds (Himmelstein et al., 2017). Another example is agroforestry, which research in Zambia shows can be more profitable when compared to monocultures grown without fertilizer applications, but less profitable when compared to fertilized monoculturesthough the latter is likely due to government fertilizer subsidies reducing the true costs of production (Ajayi et al., 2009). On the other hand, Himmelstein et al. (2017), found that in Africa, the gross returns of intercropping systems relative to monocultures did not depend on the inclusion of legumes, tillage practices, pesticides (i.e., fungicides, insecticides, nematicides, fumigants) or fertilizers.This conflicting evidence and the remaining knowledge gaps about the profitability of diversified farming systems are understandably offputting to farmers and investors. Consistent concerns of agricultural research donors about investing in diversified agricultural practices include uncertainties about profitability and scalability (Anderson et al., 2020). It is highly likely that knowledge gaps are slowing down uptake of diversified practices even in places where these are profitable, since lack of information about costs and benefits deters farmers from shifting to a new practice (Arslan et al., 2020). Stronger evidence is needed to provide clear messages about what circumstances make diversified farming profitable, versus situations that lead to higher production costs or a loss of income and support may be needed to enable diversification. No global review to date has sought to identify the agronomic and socioeconomic conditions in which diversified farming is economically viable and yet this is arguably the primary concern for farmers and policymakers.Here, we conduct a global meta-analysis to help close evidence gaps on the economic costs and benefits of diversified farming systems, relative to simplified farming systems. We compare five economic outcomes: benefit-cost ratio, gross income, total cost, gross margin and net income, in diversified and simplified farming systems. We address the question: In what situations are financial outcomes more favourable in diversified relative to simplified farming systems, and where can financial losses be expected? To answer this question, we compare economic outcomes of diversified and simplified farming systems across situations that vary in terms of crop type (woodiness, life cycle) and commodity group, diversification practice, agrochemical management, geographic region, country development level, and year of assessment.The literature search strategy aimed to identify studies comparing the financial performance of diversified and simplified farming systems. First, we searched for relevant, peer-reviewed studies in two online databases: Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/) and Web of Science (htt ps://apps.webofknowledge.com/), placing no restrictions on the publication year or geographic focus of the study (Table A.1). Second, we expanded the article search by extracting the list of primary studies included in 6 meta-analyses and 15 reviews on related topics (Table A.2). In total, 10,396 articles with the potential to be included in the meta-analysis were identified (Appendix B: Dataset_1; Fig. A.1).All articles were screened and excluded if they did not satisfy our inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria were based on the five PICOC components (Population, Intervention, Comparator, Outcomes, Context) (Mengist et al., 2020) (Table 1).Article screening was accomplished in two different stages. First, two reviewers classified each article as \"relevant\", \"irrelevant\" or \"borderline\" (i.e., uncertainty about whether or not the article should be included), through reading the title and abstract in the software Abstrackr (Wallace et al., 2012). All articles classified as \"relevant\" and \"borderline\" were assigned a unique numerical ID (Article_ID). Secondly, all accessible articles that passed the first screening stage were downloaded in PDF format, and two reviewers read the full article to ensure they satisfied our inclusion criteria. After the screening process, a total of 119 articles were retained (Fig. A.1 and Table A.3). The excluded articles were coded with an exclusion reason (Appendix B: Dataset_1).We extracted qualitative (e.g., financial outcome, diversified and simplified systems; application of inputssuch as fertilizers, pesticidesand agricultural practicessuch as soil management, irrigation), and quantitative (e.g., financial mean, variance values, sample sizes) data from the articles that fulfilled all inclusion criteria (Appendix B: Data-set_2). Qualitative and quantitative data were extracted directly from publication text, tables, figures, or supplementary information. Data from figures were extracted using WebPlotDigitizer v4.2. Where data values or units were unclear or not provided, corresponding authors were contacted by email. When the authors did not respond, the article was excluded. More details about the coding strategy are available in Appendix A: Coding Strategy).We calculated effect sizes to compare the impact of diversified relative to simplified farming systems on five financial outcomes using the escalc function of the R-4.0.0 package metafor (Viechtbauer, 2010). For the benefit-cost ratio, gross income, and total cost, the effect size was calculated as the weighted log-response ratio (log-RR) (Hedges et al., 1999). For the gross margin and net income, some comparisons presented negative mean values meaning log-RR could not be calculated. For these two outcomes, the effect size was calculated as the standardized mean difference (SMD) (Borenstein et al., 2009).Both effect size metrics were calculated in such a manner that a positive value meant diversification had a positive effect on the financial outcome, while a negative value meant the financial outcome was better in simplified systems. We reported the average and confidence intervals for the log-RR as percentages (100 × (exp(logRR) − 1)) to aid interpretation of the results (Pustejovsky, 2018).In total, our meta-data included 3192 effect sizes from 119 articles that compared financial performance between diversified and simplified systems (Fig. A.1). We performed an internal validity assessment to account for the possibility of effect sizes being biased (CEE, 2013), classifying the effect sizes as having a High (score 0-4), or Low (score 5-7) risk of bias based on seven quality criteria (Table A.4).We applied three-level meta-analytical models to calculate the average effect of diversified (relative to simplified) farming systems on the financial outcomes using the rma.mv function of the metafor R package (Viechtbauer, 2010). In contrast to two-level meta-analytical models, three-level models consider the statistical dependency within effect sizes coming from the same article (López-López et al., 2018). Effect sizes in this analysis were potentially statistically dependent in cases where articles provided multiple effect sizes corresponding to: the same agricultural controls or treatments (i.e., articles reporting financial Agroforestry Satisfies three conditions: (i) at least two plant species interact biologically, (ii) at least one of the plant species is a woody perennial, and (iii) at least one of the plant species is managed for forage, annual or perennial crop production.Includes alley cropping with trees, shade monoculture, silvo-pasture (Beillouin et al., 2019).Plants grow in addition to the main crop for agronomic purposes, e.g., to manage soil erosion, pests, soil fertility or soil quality. The associated plant could be harvested or not, perennial or not (e.g., cover crops) (Beillouin et al., 2019).Includes the combinations of single practices, such as crop rotation and cover crops used in unison, and integrated crop-livestock systems.Recurrent succession of a set of selected crops grown on a particular agricultural land each season or each year according to a definite plan (Beillouin et al., 2019).Land on-farm not used for farming and where non-crop plants are sown or regenerated naturally to benefit biodiversity or for other environmental purposes. Includes fallow (regular, >6 months), fallow (regular, >1 yr), hedgerows.The simultaneous cultivation in the same field of two or more crop species, varieties, or cultivars, for all or part of their growth cycle. All crops are harvested (adapted from Beillouin et al., 2019).Articles reporting outcomes in relatively simplified farming systems. We defined simplified farming systems as agricultural plots with a single crop species or variety (e.g., monocultures), or with comparatively far fewer plant species or varieties than a paired diversified system (e.g., an agroforestry system grown with a single tree species versus agroforestry with multi-strata mixed tree species), or with no embedded natural habitat when compared to a system with embedded natural habitat (e.g. field with no hedgerows versus field with hedgerows), or that do not integrate livestock or fish with crop production compared to an integrated crop-livestock or crop-fish system. We included articles comparing a diversified system against a simplified system irrespective of whether the latter was a monoculture, because the simplified system can still have a severe lack of diversity and the difference in diversity between the two systems can still be very large. We excluded comparisons where there was no major difference in diversity between the two systems.The cultivation of a single crop species or variety in the same plot at the same time or continually in different seasons.Relatively low diversity (usually only 2 species) agroforestry, cover crop, crop rotation or intercropping, for studies comparing these against the same cropping system planted with relatively high diversity (usually ≥3 species); or cropped areas with no embedded natural features (e.g., hedgerows, vegetation strips) when compared against cropped areas with these embedded natural natures.Articles reporting quantitative assessments of the effect of the intervention and comparator farming systems on financial outcomes (benefit-cost ratio, gross income, gross margin, net income, and total costs). Suitable metrics for financial outcomes included monetary values (any currency) for interventions and comparators. Articles Gross income minus the direct production costs, such as labour, supplies (e.g., fertilizers, seeds, pesticides), irrigation, machinery (Gross income − Direct cost)Net income Gross income of a farming system minus the total cost of production (Gross income − Total cost)Total cost Includes all costs directly and/or indirectly related to the production.Articles reporting outcomes from primary field-based studies, and surveys. We excluded articles reporting experiments carried out in laboratories or greenhouses and reporting results from secondary data (i.e., data from another study, reviews or meta-analysis).outcomes for multiple treatments compared against the same control); multiple time or location points (i.e., articles reporting financial outcomes for multiple study sites, or over multiple years), or; multiple outcomes (i.e., articles reporting multiple financial outcomes for the same comparator-intervention system).We controlled for possible dependencies between effect sizes by adding the following random effects to the meta-analytical model: sampling variance as the random effect at the first level of the model, effect size ID as the second level, and article ID as the third level (van den Noortgate et al., 2013). The t-distribution was used to calculate the 95% confidence intervals around average effect sizes (Knapp and Hartung, 2003). Overall effect sizes were estimated using the Restricted Maximum-Likelihood (REML) as this method is more efficient and less biased when calculating heterogeneity (Viechtbauer, 2005).First, we applied meta-analytical models to estimate the overall mean effect of simplified and diversified farming systems on each of the five evaluated financial outcomes. We ran two separate one-sided loglikelihood-ratio tests for the variances at the second (within studies) and third (between studies) levels to test the suitability of conducting the three-level comparing to the two-level meta-analysis (Assink and Wibbelink, 2016). The three-level model is justified when variance at the second and third levels significantly deviate from zero (Cheung, 2014). We quantified the proportion of the observed variance (I 2 ) accounted for by each of the three levels (Cheung, 2014). The application of meta-regression models is justified when the I 2 at the first level is close to zero, compared to the total variance (Borenstein et al., 2009).Second, we applied univariate meta-regression models to examine whether the following variables moderated the overall effect of farming system diversification on each financial outcome: FAO commodity groups, crop life cycle, crop woodiness, diversification practice, agrochemical (chemical fertilizer and/or pesticide) inputs, chemical fertilizer inputs, pesticide inputs, irrigation inputs, tillage practice, UN country development status, UN geographic sub-region, year of assessment, and labour inputs difference of diversified compared to simplified farming systems (Table A.5). The moderating effect of each assessed variable was tested based on a F-distribution (Viechtbauer, 2010).Third, multivariate meta-regressions were used to examine whether each variable continued to have a moderating effect when controlling for effects of other significant variables (Ho, 2006) (see further details in Appendix A: Multivariate meta-regressions results).We tested for the presence of publication bias in our database using statistical and visual approaches. The statistical approach involved conducting Egger's regression test with the inverse of the standard error of the effect sizes as a moderator (Kunc and Schmidt, 2019;Tamburini et al., 2020). An intercept significantly different from zero means there is evidence of publication bias (Egger et al., 1998). Funnel plots were used to visually detect whether the effect sizes were asymmetrically distributed, which can also indicate publication bias (Borenstein et al., 2009).We conducted a sensitivity analysis to establish whether the direction and significance of our overall results were robust to the exclusion of effect size outliers, potentially biased effect sizes (Aguinis et al., 2013), and effect sizes involving a non-monoculture control (i.e., simplified other). We classified as outliers those effect sizes with a Cook's distance greater than 4 n− p (Bollen and Jackman, 1985), where n refers to the number of effect sizes and p refers to the number of model coefficients, or those with comparatively large Cook's distance values based on visual inspection (Viechtbauer and Cheung, 2010). We considered effect sizes to have a high risk of bias if they were assigned a bias score ≤ 4 (see Section 2.3). The R code used to run all the analyses presented in this paper is available in Appendix C.The 3192 included effect sizes (119 articles) span 39 countries covering six continents and ten . Most of these effect sizes represented net income (1265 effect sizes) from experiments in North America (74%) and Southern Asia (9%) (Fig. A.2b). Effect sizes for gross margin (800 effect sizes) were mainly from experiments in Western Europe (67%), Southern Asia (14%) and Sub-Saharan Africa (12%). The majority of effect sizes that represented gross income (534 effect sizes) or total cost (503 effect sizes) came from studies performed in North America (46% and 50%, respectively), Sub-Saharan Africa (25% and 21%, respectively), and Southern Asia (20% and 15%, respectively). Relatively few effect sizes represented benefit-cost ratios (90 effect sizes), and most of these were collected from farming systems in Southern Asia (59%). Overall, the financial data were dominated by articles analysing diversified farming systems combining annual crops (e.g., cereals, cereals-vegetables, cereals-pulses) (Fig. The overall mean gross income, gross margin, net income and total cost were significantly higher in diversified farming systems compared to simplified ones (Fig. 1). The mean benefit-cost ratio tended to be positively affected by farming system diversification but effects were not significant. The heterogeneity analyses supported the application of three-level meta-analysis and moderator analyses for each of the studied financial outcomes (Table A.6).All variables considered in our analysis moderated the effects of diversification on at least one financial metric (Table A.7). The financial metrics assessed here can be grouped into three types: i) metrics that assess profits, which include benefit-cost ratio, gross margin, and net returns, ii) metrics that assess gross income, and iii) metrics that assess total costs. We discuss the results across these three metric groups, for each of the moderators assessed.Among FAO commodity groups and relative to simplified farming systems, net income was higher in diversified systems combining cereals and pulses (0.96 SMD [0.5, 1.4], e.g., rice with lentils), cereals with -'others' -which includes fibres and/or roots and/or tubers and/or fruits (0.4 SMD [0.1, 0.7], e.g., cereals with cotton or potato) and in diversified systems containing fruits (1.23 SMD [0.14, 2.3], e.g., apple, pear) (Fig. 2). Gross margins were higher in diversified systems with cereal-pulse crop combinations (0.9 SMD [0.01, 1.8]) and those with cereals and oil-bearing crops (1.03 SMD [0.1, 1.9]). For diversified systems with cereals and pulses, total costs were positive but not significantly different to those in simplified systems, which may explain why profits can still be higher than in simplified systems despite significantly lower gross income (− 28% [− 47, − 3]). Profits were variable when systems with other commodity groups were diversified, with the magnitude and significance of the response varying across the three metrics. The average benefit-cost ratio and gross margin were higher in diversified vegetable systems (e.g., eggplant, onion, spinach) relative to simplified systems (327% [169,579]; and 1.5 SMD [0.2, 2.8]; respectively), despite higher costs (101% [59,154]). In diversified vegetable systems, gross income was also higher (86% [48,133]) and net income tended to be positive but was not significantly different to net income in simplified systems. Of note, net income was higher in diversified stimulant systems (i.e., coffee), relative to simplified systems (1.36 SMD [0.2, 2.5]). No studies in our database assessed gross income or total costs in stimulant systems.Crop life cycle and woodiness altered the effect of diversification on profits and costs (Table A.7). Profits, in terms of net income and gross margins, were higher in diversified annual, compared to simplified cropping systems (0.5 SMD [0.2,0.8] and 1.1 SMD [0.5, 1.6], respectively), despite higher costs (28% [11,49]) (Fig. A.9). Linked to this (since annual crops are often herbaceous), net income and gross margins  Labels in parentheses on the y-axis represent the number of effect sizes followed by the number of articles.were higher in diversified herbaceous, relative to simplified cropping systems (0.5 SMD [0.2, 0.7.] and 0.9 SMD [0.4, 1.4], respectively), while gross income and total costs were also higher (40% [24, 57] and 29% [14,48], respectively) (Fig. A.10). In contrast, diversification of perennial, or mixed annual and perennial, crops presented similar profitability and total costs as simplified systems. Of interest, we found that diversified tree cropping systems were less costly than simplified systems (− 63% [− 81, − 29]), while gross income and profits were comparable.Diversification practice moderated the impact of farming system diversification on gross income, total cost, gross margin and net income (Table A.7). Combining practices, crop rotations, and embedding natural habitat, had a positive effect on net incomes relative to simplified farming systems (1 SMD [0.5, 1.5], 0.5 SMD [0.2, 0.8], and 0.5 SMD [0.07, 0.9], respectively), and gross incomes were also higher in systems with combined practices or crop rotations (72% [32,122] and 54% [28,85], respectively) (Fig. 3). The total production costs of diversified and simplified farming systems were similar across all diversification practices, except in the case of crop rotation which was 34% [9, 64] more costly. The benefit-cost ratio was higher in diversified systems using agroforestry (87% [18,196]), while differences were not significant when other diversification strategies were used.Agrochemical inputs moderated the effect of farming systems on gross income, total cost and net income (Table A.7). Net income, gross margin and gross income were higher in diversified farms when agrochemicals (synthetic fertilizers or pesticides) were applied in both the simplified and diversified systems (0.4 SMD [0.1, 0.6], 0.7 SMD [0.1, 1.3] and 29% [15,45], respectively), while the benefit-cost ratio was positive but not significantly different (Fig. A.11). When agrochemicals were applied in the diversified system and only organic inputs in the simplified system, net income was higher (1 SMD [0.6, 1.5]) but gross margin was not (no data on benefit-cost ratio), while gross income and total costs were also higher (109% [71,157], and 67% [40, 106], respectively). Crop diversification significantly improved gross income on organic farms. The unique disaggregated effects of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides on financial outcomes are shown in Fig. A.12. and Fig. A.13. Irrigated and rainfed diversified farming systems both presented higher net incomes (0.7 SMD [0.06, 1.4] and 0.32 SMD [0.04,0.6], respectively) than rainfed simplified systems (Fig. A.14). When comparing rainfed-only farms, diversification resulted in higher gross margins (0.9 SMD [0.3, 1.6]), while the benefit-cost ratio was not significantly different. Implementing irrigated or rainfed diversified systems was more costly than non-irrigated simplified systems, while irrigated simplified and diversified systems presented similar total costs. However, gross income was higher in diversified irrigated (139% [56,266]) and diversified rainfed (36% [18,58]) systems compared to their simplified equivalents, which may explain the higher profitability of these diversified systems despite their higher costs.Profits in terms of benefit-cost ratio and net income, and total costs, were not significantly different across diversified and simplified systems under different tillage practices. However, profits in terms of gross margin were higher in diversified systems under conventional tillage than in conventional or no-till simplified systems (1.2 SMD [0.34, 2] and 1.4 SMD [0.3, 2.4], respectively). Gross incomes were higher in diversified systems when tillage practices were applied in the diversified and Fig. 3. Mean effect of farming system diversification on a) benefit-cost ratio, b) gross margin, c) net income, d) gross income, and e) total cost for the diversified practices. The absence of points on the forest plot means no data were available for that variable. Note the difference in scale of the x-axes when comparing the figures. Labels on the figures show the statistical significance of the average effect size: *p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01, ***p ≤ 0.001. Labels in parentheses on the y-axis represent the number of effect sizes followed by the number of articles.not in the simplified system, but also in the reverse case (no till in the diversified and conventional till in the simplified system) suggesting that tillage practices have variable effects on gross incomes (Fig. A.15).Labour input moderated the effect of farming system diversification on benefit-cost ratio, gross income and total cost, but not net income or gross margin (Table A.7). Gross incomes in diversified farming systems increased by 0.5% [0.4, 0.6] with every 1% increment in the labour input in the diversified system relative to the simplified system (Fig. A.16). At the same time, total costs of implementing diversified systems increased by 0.45% [0.37, 0.5] with every 1% increment in labour input. However, diversified and simplified systems were equally profitable in terms of gross margin and net income, despite higher costs associated with increased labour requirements in diversified systems.UN sub-regions moderated the effect of farming systems on benefitcost ratio and gross income (Table A.7). Farming system diversification in south-eastern Asia led to large increases in net incomes (1.4 SMD [0.24, 2.6]), gross incomes (119% [29,274]) and gross margins (3.4 SMD [0.8,6.1]), but also a significant increase in total costs (106% [5,303]) (Fig. 4). Diversification also led to large increases in net income in southern Asia (0.8 SMD [0.1, 1.5]). In sub-Saharan Africa, there were large increases in the benefit-cost ratio (320% [99, 787]), gross margin (1.2 SMD [0.2, 2.2]) and gross income (55% [26,90]) in diversified systems, relative to simplified, while total costs were not significantly different.UN development country status moderated the effect of farming systems on gross income, gross margin and net income (Table A.7). Diversified farming systems were more profitable in developing countries, leading to higher net incomes (0.6 SMD [0.3, 1]), gross margins (1.1 SMD [0.4, 2]), benefit-cost ratios (33% [3,70]) and gross incomes (38% [21, 58]) relative to simplified systems (Fig. A.17). Importantly, in developing countries, total costs were 21% [2,43] higher in diversified compared to simplified farming systems.Inter-annual fluctuations in market prices and economic contexts may explain why the year of assessment moderated the effect of farming system diversification on gross and net income (Table A.7). Diversification led to significantly higher gross and net incomes between 2000 and 2010 (55% [31, 82]; 0.7 SMD [0.3, 1.2]; respectively), but also higher costs (34% [6, 68]) (Fig. A.18). There were no significant differences in financial outcomes in diversified and simplified systems in other decades.The results from the multivariate meta-regression models applied by adding the non-collinear variables that had a significant moderating effect on the assessed financial outcomes are described in the Appendix A (Section: Multivariate meta-regression results).For the benefit-cost ratio, adapted Egger's regression tests (t 88 = 0.81, p ~ 0.42) (Table A.8) and visual inspection of the funnel plot (Fig. A.19) revealed no evidence of publication bias. However, the intercept from the Egger's regression test was significantly different from zero for gross income (t 532 = 5.19, p < 0.001), total cost (t 501 = 2.6, p ~ 0.0106), gross margin (t 7988 = 3.2, p ~ 0.001) and net income (t 1263 = 13, p < 0.001), and the funnel plots showed clear asymmetry, suggesting evidence of publication bias. This may reflect that, articles reporting non-significant or negative effects are not well represented in our database, because research on economic performance of farming We identified statistical outliers (based on Cook's distance values) in effect sizes representing benefit-cost ratios (1 effect size), gross margins (12 effect sizes), net income (17 effect sizes), gross income (4 effect sizes), and total costs (12 effect sizes) (Fig. A.20). A number of effect sizes were found to have a high risk of selection or performance bias, including those representing net income (10 effect sizes), gross income (50 effect sizes), and total costs (31 effect sizes) (Fig. A.21).The exclusion of effect sizes with high risk of bias, effect sizes outliers and effect sizes involving a non-monoculture control, did not affect the direction or significance of the overall mean effect of diversification on gross income, total costs, gross margin or net income. (Fig. A.22). However, the mean positive effect of diversification on the benefit-cost ratio switched from not significant to significant (27% [4,57], p = 0.023) after excluding effect size outliers.Providing evidence of situations where diversified farming systems are economically viable could have major implications for donors, policymakers and farmers who recognise the unsustainability of the simplified systems that dominate the world's agricultural land. This study presents the most comprehensive meta-analysis to date on the total costs, gross income, and profitability of diversified farming systems relative to simplified ones. The results show that average profits are higher in diversified systems compared to simplified ones, particularly in developing countries. However, average total costs are also higher in diversified farming systems compared to simplified systems. The benefits and costs of diversification are driven in part by crop commodity and arrangement, agrochemical and water management, geographic region and economic context. Considering these factors will help determine the range of affordable and profitable diversification strategies in a specific farming context.Our results show that gross margins and net income are, on average, higher in diversified farming systems. This is consistent with several reviews showing the economic benefits of diversification (Beillouin et al., 2021;Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019). Our study revealed several situations where diversified farming has particularly favourable economic outcomes.First, we found that diversification of systems with high-value crops such as mixed cereal-vegetables (e.g., maize with radish, or sorghum with peas), fruits (e.g., pear, apple) and stimulants (i.e., coffee) were more profitable than simplified systems. Incorporating high value crops typically improves the overall profitability of a farming system and previous research indicates this result holds even when yields of the original crop are negatively impacted. For example, a previous metaanalysis (Jezeer et al., 2017) found the lower production costs and higher prices of cocoa or coffee growing in diversified systems improved their financial profitability despite their lower yields. High-value fruit and vegetables may be particularly effective crops to include in profitable diversified systems because of their nutritional benefits. A growing body of literature is demonstrating that fruit and vegetable production can generate higher farm incomes and more rural employment than other commodities (Basu, 2014;Birthal et al., 2008;Feliciano, 2019;Joshi et al., 2006), promoting food and nutritional security (Ebert, 2020;Feliciano, 2019;Schreinemachers et al., 2018). However, the implementation of diversified systems with high-value crops usually requires capital to purchase specific inputs (e.g., fertilizers, seeds) and train employees/farmers to ensure good management (de Roest et al., 2018). Perennial high-value crops (e.g., fruit trees, coffee) have longer gestation periods than annual commodities, which often make them inaccessible to poor farmers in developing countries (Basu and Gallardo, 2021;Birthal et al., 2015;Do et al., 2020). Moreover, input-intensive crops are not biophysically viable to grow everywhere and effort and investment will be needed to prioritise and develop profitable value chains for locally adapted fruits and vegetables (Abraham and Pingali, 2020;de Roest et al., 2018).Second, our results revealed that diversified annual cropping systems were more costly but also much more profitable than simplified cropping systems. Diversified systems combining annual crops may generate more regular and higher seasonal returns, being an attractive alternative for poor farmers (Feliciano, 2019). The higher production costs of diversifying annual crop systems may be compensated at medium or long-term by enhancing ecological benefits and optimizing resource use (Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019).Third, based on our data, combined practices, crop rotation, embedding natural habitat, and agroforestry, each lead to significantly higher profits in terms of net income, or benefit-cost ratio in the case of agroforestry. Previous reviews have similarly suggested that crop rotation usually results in higher income and fewer production risks, particularly for low-income smallholder farmers (Feliciano, 2019;Shah et al., 2021). However, the adoption of diversified rotation systems may be negatively influenced by the higher investment (e.g., inputs, machinery, labour) needed to integrate and manage extra crops compared to simpler rotations (Feliciano, 2019), which may explain the higher costs for crop rotations found in our study. On the other hand, our results showed that total production costs are comparable to those in simplified farming systems for combined practices, embedded natural infrastructures and agroforestry systems. Combined practices were also highlighted by Beillouin et al. (2021) and Rosa-Schleich et al. (2019) as among the most promising strategies for boosting economic outcomes, while providing multiple co-benefits. Meanwhile, embedding natural habitat is gaining global attention as a strategy to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem function in agricultural landscapes (Garibaldi et al., 2020). Our results support previous literature showing that maintaining semi-natural habitat on-farm and other practices that boost biotic services supporting agricultural production may enhance crop yield and quality (Ricketts, 2004), with no significant variation in monetary returns compared to simplified farming systems (Pywell et al., 2015). In contrast, previous research indicates the financial performance of agroforestry is highly variable. Jezeer et al. (2017), indicated that cacao and coffee systems under shade trees present a better financial performance with greater cost-efficiency and lower total production costs than unshaded sun plantations. Contrarily, Niether et al. (2020), found that although cocoa agroforestry systems present higher productivity, their profitability and total costs are the same as those in monoculture systems when prorated. Moreover, Do et al. (2020) revealed agroforestry systems yield higher net profits than monocultures, yet the time-lag these diversified systems need to compensate for the initial investment depends exclusively on the crop combination. Given the scarcity of evidence in our database about financial performance of embedded natural systems (<5 articles), our results for these practices should be interpreted with caution and additional primary studies are needed to confirm the relative economic costs and benefits accruing from these practices.Fourth, our results suggest that synthetic inputs amplify the economic benefits of diversification. The use of agrochemicals (i.e., fertilizer or pesticides) in diversified systems generated higher gross and net profits compared to simplified systems applying organic or chemical inputs for soil fertility and pest control. This is consistent with previous syntheses (Harris and Orr, 2014;Himmelstein et al., 2017;Jezeer et al., 2017;Niether et al., 2020) where the mean effect of farming systems on the economic outcomes assessed depended on the agricultural management applied in those systems. Contrarily to results in Crowder and Reganold (2015), we found that the use of agrochemical inputs (specifically chemical fertilizers) in diversified farming systems was associated with higher total costs compared to simplified organic systems, but also higher gross and net incomes. These findings suggest that the additional investment cost of applying chemical fertilizers in diversified systems can be compensated by the higher quality (and associated price premiums) and/or quantity of agricultural outputs (Tey and Brindal, 2014) resulting in higher net profits.Fifth, our results indicate that the economic benefits of diversification are minimally affected by water inputs and tillage management. Diversified systems were more profitable than rainfed simplified systems, regardless of whether or not they were irrigated. Conversely, profits from diversified rainfed systems were not significantly different to those from irrigated simplified systems, suggesting that diversification can be an effective strategy to close profit gaps in irrigation-limited areas (Harris and Orr, 2014). Water scarcity is already a pressing issue in many agricultural landscapes and predicted to intensify under climate change (Rosa et al., 2020), meaning that strategies like diversification will be increasingly important to maintain productive and profitable rainfed and water-limited farming systems (Wezel et al., 2014).Regarding tillage management, net profits and total costs were similar across diversified and simplified systems under all tillage treatments (i.e., conventional/reduced/no-tillage) where data on tillage practices were reported. Our results provide an added incentive to reduce the application of costly soil tillage practices, since diversification in no-till or reduced tillage systems leads to profits that are comparable with conventionally tilled simplified systems. Wezel et al. (2014) suggested that the application of agroecological practices such as minimum tillage increase soil fertility by promoting soil biota activity, and reduce herbicide use by limiting weed growth. Moreover, diversified systems in themselves have been found to provide a natural mechanism for controlling the dynamics and propagation of weeds through competition of available resources (Weisberger et al., 2019), maintaining soil health, and improving water efficiency (Kremen et al., 2012), that will be particularly beneficial in systems with low or no access to soil management technologies, agrochemicals and irrigation inputs.Diversified farming systems have previously been shown to be labour intensive at all levels (land preparation, planting, management and harvesting) and, in addition to other costs related to inputs and seedlings, are associated with much higher costs than simplified systems (Iles and Marsh, 2012). Yet, our results show that higher labour requirements do not translate to lower profits. This result might be explained by both agronomic and economic factors. For example, inclusion of cover crops or shade plants eventually reduces labour requirements associated with weed management (Joshi et al., 2006;van Zonneveld et al., 2020). On a larger scale, increasing employment stimulates rural economies, allowing markets to grow and farmers to sell more produce, boosting the standard of living for everyone (Rodríguez-Pose and Hardy, 2015). The lower labour requirements of industrialized, simplified systems are much more likely to create problems for rural economies (de Roest et al., 2018). Improving working conditions for farmers and farm labourers worldwide is essential, through the use of technology and local networks that reduce difficult and back-breaking tasks (FAO, AUC, 2018;Visser and Ferrer, 2015), as well as regulation, support, and education to elevate the farming profession to a respected, attractive livelihood, particularly for youth (Eissler and Brennan, 2015). While labour costs can be higher, there are ways to offset these costs in both the short and long run.A primary concern with the adoption of diversified farming systems is that it can drive up labour and investment costs, undermining farm profits (Bowman and Zilberman, 2013;Iles and Marsh, 2012). Focusing on production costs is probably creating unnecessary hesitancy in switching away from less profitable industrialized farming systems. We found that diversified systems promote more employment opportunities with no loss of profits when compared to simplified systems. The higher gross income and comparable profits in diversified systems in our study may be explained by higher productivity associated with increases in farm work and crop diversification (Branca et al., 2021;Durham and Mizik, 2021;Tey and Brindal, 2014). Improving data collection on labour inputs would help strengthen the evidence base. Although almost all articles in our study included labour in their total cost or profit analyses, only 36% of them reported labour requirements as separate data and these were reported in many different formats (e.g., hours/ha, USD/ day), a weakness already highlighted in previous studies (Garibaldi et al., 2016;Harris and Orr, 2014;Jezeer et al., 2017).Overall, we found no situations where diversified farming systems incur significant losses, as measured by net income, gross margins, or benefit-cost ratios. However, we did find several situations where total costs were significantly higher in diversified farms. In these cases, as with the onset of any transition to new practices, subsidies and investments are likely to be needed to incentivise farmers and ensure inclusivity and realization of economic benefits for the poorest (Ding et al., 2021). Despite growing evidence of their environmental, social, and economic advantages, the implementation of diversified systems is mostly restricted to small areas in low-and middle-income countries (Herrero et al., 2017). Our results showed diversified farming systems in developing countries presented higher gross and net financial benefits compared to simplified systems, especially for farms in Sub-Saharan Africa, south-eastern and southern Asia, with higher total costs only in diversified systems in south-eastern Asia. This is consistent with many other studies that have concluded that crop diversification leads to gross income gains in smallholder farming systems across African and Asian countries, simultaneously increasing their climate change adaptation capacity and food security status (Himmelstein et al., 2017;Makate et al., 2016;Pellegrini and Tasciotti, 2014). On the other hand, our study found that diversified farming systems in developed countries tended to be as profitable and costly as simplified systems. The adoption and spread of farm diversification in both low and high-income countries may be obstructed by reinforcing economic and political incentives to industrialize agriculture, the erosion of agroecological knowledge to implement these systems, and supply-chain constraints (Iles and Marsh, 2012). Farmers already implementing or considering shifting to diversified practices need strong policy support (Ding et al., 2021), market incentives (Swensson et al., 2021;Valencia et al., 2019) and access to cost and labour-saving social and technological knowledge and resources (Jones et al., 2022), to maintain and scale diversified farming systems.We note that the reasons why diversification leads to more profitable farming systems may depend on several factors not directly considered in our study. For example, according to Lancaster and Torres (2019), crop diversification helps farmers in the US sell their fruits and vegetables in high-value local markets, which is reflected in higher profitability through access to premium prices. However, not all markets are adapted to charging premium prices for food produced from diversified farms and moreover this makes food from diversified farms unaffordable or economically unattractive to many consumers (IPES-Food, 2020). Particularly in developing countries, diversified horticultural systems may enhance smallholders' profits through other means, such as by increasing farm economic returns per unit land area (Joshi et al., 2006) and reducing market and climate risks (Ahmed and Stepp, 2016;Ali, 2015). This may in part explain the highly favourable economic outcomes in developing countries found in our study, helping dispel the notion that diversification is a dead end for poverty alleviation (Mugwanya, 2019). In fact, our results show that simplified systems are more likely to leave farmers in poverty.Our meta-analysis contributes to the scientific evidence promoting the implementation of diversified farming systems as economically viable food systems in the context of global environmental and market changes. The spread of diversified systems is, however, challenged by the lack of market support, and dominant policies supporting simplified agricultural systems. Policies promoting paddy monoculture in countries from South-eastern Asia (Nguyen, 2017), and fertilizer subsidies encouraging maize monoculture in Zambia (Ding et al., 2021) are just examples of strategies that need to be redesigned and adjusted to improve farmers' livelihood while ensuring food security and agroecosystem resilience. In contrast, public food procurement programs in Brazil (Valencia et al., 2019) and Denmark (Holmbeck, 2020) are successful model examples of how the public sector can support the transition to more diversified food systems. Policy interventions must account for the true cost of production, including the cost of negative externalities and the benefits of the positive ones (TEEB, 2015). Moreover, market structures and value chains for diversified farms produces are needed for farmers to thrive when diversifying their production systems (IPES-Food, 2020).Future field experiments should include closing knowledge gaps for poorly studied commodities, regions and practices. For example, across FAO commodity groups, cereals and vegetable crops were relatively well represented in our database (2412 and 355 effect sizes, respectively), yet fruits, nuts, pulses, roots, stimulants, livestock and dairy products, and some staple food crops (e.g., cassava, sweet potatoes), were poorly represented despite their nutritional and economic importance in global food systems. As with many other reviews, a disproportionate number of effect sizes in our database are from experiments in North America, while experiments in Africa and South and Central America together represent only 17% of the effect sizes. Another notable gap is on certain diversification strategies with lesser-known agronomic benefits but high potential to benefit biodiversity conservation, climate mitigation, and other sustainability objectives. For example, while crop rotations, intercropping and cover crops were widely studied, embedded natural habitat and agroforestry systems were not, despite being among the most beneficial strategies for enhancing ecosystem services and climate resilience on-farm.Moreover, primary studies need to be more consistent in how they collect and report information on financial outcomes (e.g., report gross and net income, and costs per production factor) and agronomic characteristics at the study sites, to enable robust predictions of the costs and benefits of diversification in different contexts. For example, many studies fail to report the amount and type of fertilizers and pesticides applied, tillage practices, and crop species and arrangements, limiting whether and how comprehensively these factors can be considered in synthesis studies.This global meta-analysis provides evidence that, on average, diversified farming systems are at least as profitable as simplified ones. In developing countries, diversification results in significantly higher gross and net financial returns and total costs relative to simplified systems, while in developed countries, profits, gross income, and costs are comparable. Further, our results show that diversified farming systems provide more employment opportunities with no loss of profits. The findings suggest that promoting diversification is a promising strategy for providing sustainable livelihoods for farmers and nutritious diets for households and society alongside contributing to biodiversity conservation and climate mitigation.","tokenCount":"7832"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"afcf1d8e8fc2f7b92cd22ddfcba6d61d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51741a45-a1d9-4db6-983a-37116adb2319/retrieve","id":"-756255315"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"021a7561-9c57-48b4-adf4-9ee6657279e8","pagecount":"2","content":"While it is still too early to rigorously assess IBLI's impact on policyholders, the following insights are indicative of its promise and lessons learned to date. IBLI contracts attractive to pastoralists who buy them and the commercial financial institutions that sell them appear feasible. Demand for IBLI appears considerable, as manifest in its relatively robust uptake in Kenya. Interest within the region and among private sector, government and civil society actors elsewhere in pastoral areas abounds. Misconceptions about the product's features and the extent of coverage offered continues, requiring continued extension and communication of the state of the index. It remains unknown whether the product can be entirely commercially viable without any subsidy support. Extension packages that capture the essence of complex IBLI products can be readily understood by pastoralist and agro-pastoralist populations. The cost-effectiveness of the sales delivery vehicle and density of touch points are critical to IBLI's commercial viability. Data critical to the functioning of IBLI must be available from multiple sources, in case one becomes unavailable. A detailed operational manual that clearly outlines the specific activities and responsibilities of each partner is required so that miscommunication and the considerable transactions costs of product delivery and management can be reduced.    Index insurance calculates average losses and policyholders' indemnity payments based on an index, not on individual losses, which eliminates the financially and logistically costly loss verification step that inhibits traditional insurance providers from covering pastoralists and other geographically remote, dispersed, or mobile populations. Although the design of index insurance products introduces basis risk-the difference between individual policyholders' actual losses and those predicted by the index-a well-designed product capably approximates catastrophic losses shared across a wide geographic area, known as covariate losses. Index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) insures pastoralists in arid and semi-arid regions of northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia against the livestock mortality that often follows severe or catastrophic drought, such as that which gripped the Horn of Africa in 2011. During drought, widespread livestock mortality is caused primarily by forage scarcity, so IBLI tracks local forage conditions using real-time, publicly available satellite data (\"greenness maps\") to determine the severity of drought, predict area-average livestock losses, and calculate policyholders' indemnity payments.When the contractual threshold-or \"strike\" point-of forage loss or predicted livestock mortality is reached, the IBLI contract is triggered, and policyholders receive a payout proportionate to the number and type of animals insured and the severity of vegetative loss and expected herd loss in the policyholder's geographic area. IBLI aims to serve as a productive safety net for households affected by livestock loss and help them effectively manage the resulting shock. It may also incentivize investment in livestock and promote financial deepening in pastoral areas. Index Insurance: Strengths and LimitationsDue to statistical differences between historical herd loss patterns in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya, IBLI-Ethiopia tracks a slightly different measure of drought risk than that used in Marsabit. IBLI-Ethiopia tracks the cumulative deviation of vegetative cover from the historical average, which signals when forage levels have become catastrophically low for livestock survival. IBLI-Ethiopia disburses indemnity payments when average forage cover falls within the 15th percentile range of historical drought conditions. IBLI-Ethiopia is designed and implemented by Oromia Insurance, ILRI, and Cornell. The following comprise the primary challenges encountered during the implementation of IBLI-Kenya and IBLI-Ethiopia: ▪ Pastoralists' geographic dispersion and seasonal mobility ▪ illiteracy and innumeracy ▪ unfamiliarity with and mistrust of insurance ▪ lack of banking infrastructure ▪ poor transportation and communication infrastructure ▪ infrequent payouts can undermine interest in product","tokenCount":"583"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15d8fc82833e7ab04f9cccd30f4e150d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc0ba998-1178-4039-954a-86a382418526/retrieve","id":"41556758"},"keywords":["women's empowerment","agriculture","value chains","women's empowerment in agriculture index (WEAI)"],"sieverID":"f208d827-d7ec-4f1b-9687-bf10fc21e418","pagecount":"67","content":"Rural development projects face the challenge of meeting multiple goals such as reducing poverty and empowering women and/or reducing gender inequalities. Many projects focus on value chains, specifically on increasing women's participation to increase their incomes, empower them, and reduce poverty. However, there are few studies that have compared women's empowerment in different value chains or across different nodes of value chains or by women's roles in them for Latin America. In this study we examine different indicators of women's empowerment between the production and processing nodes of two agricultural value chains -cashew and dairy -to better understand if and how women's participation in value chains is related to their empowerment. We use both qualitative and quantitative data, to address this issue. The quantitative data comes from four intra-household surveys that sampled households participating in each of the nodes and value chains (i.e. cashew production, cashew processing, dairy production, and dairy processing). The surveys include data about the households, agricultural production, processing activities, and indicators of women's empowerment (using A-WEAI). Qualitative data includes information about family participation in productive tasks, decision making, asset ownership, and beliefs about appropriate behavior and activities of men and women and their contributions to production within the value chains, which was collected through interviews, participatory workshops, and focus group discussions. The results suggest that levels of empowerment differ (as measured by A-WEAI) between the value chains and across the different nodes of the value chains. For example, women in the processing nodes have lower levels of empowerment than those in the production nodes. This is contrary to the common assumption that women's empowerment would be higher in the processing node because the employment opportunities are greater. Closer examination of the different indicators comprising the empowerment index for the different groups shows that women in the processing nodes face greater time burdens associated with employment, which contributes to a lower empowerment score for these groups.Development projects often focus on agricultural value chains as a way achieve multiple development goals, such as increasing employment and income, reducing poverty, and working towards gender equality, and/or women's empowerment. While such projects often assume that increasing women's participation in production activities, be they on-farm or off-farm, will increase women's incomes and thus their empowerment, previous research has shown mixed results indicating that women's employment and earning an income in some cases is related to women's empowerment and in other cases it is not (Ihalenien et al., 2021). Furthermore, agricultural projects that promote the commercialization of traditional women's crops sometimes result in men taking over the production, sales, and income associated with these crops once they begin generating incomes (von Bronn and Webb, 1989;Kaaria and Ashby 2001;Njuki et al., 2011). All of this indicates a need for additional research related to how women's participation in agricultural value chains is (or is not) related to their empowerment.In their review of gender and agricultural value chain studies, Ihalenien et al. (2021) focus on whether women's participation in agricultural value chains is associated with women's empowerment and identify gaps in gender and agricultural value chain research. One is that most gender and agricultural value chain studies focus on one value chain rather than comparing across value chains, which limits what research can tell us about the issue across different types of value chains. A second gap they identify is that most of the attention in gender and agricultural value chains is on the production node, less is known about women's empowerment in other nodes of the value chain and even less comparing multiple nodes in multiple value chains.In addition, women have various roles in agricultural value chains. While many women self-identify as \"helpers\" who support their husbands in agricultural activities (see for example Twyman, Muriel, and Garcia, 2015), women are often actively participating in different production, processing, and marketing roles; they may also be owners and/or managers making key decisions; or employees in processing plants, or work as unpaid family laborers; still other women may not be involved in the value chain activities but someone else in the household is, these women often play indirect roles in the value chain by freeing up time of other household members to be involved (for instance by caring for children, cleaning, washing clothes, cooking and feeding the family, and caring for children, the sick, and/or the elderly). Some studies have considered the trade-offs women face in terms of taking employment to earn an income or having more time to do the household reproductive and care activities (such as cooking healthy/nutritious meals, ensuring a clean, sanitary environment, etc.) that are often associated with household member health, nutrition, and overall wellbeing (see for example Komatsu, Malapit and Theis, 2018;Anderson, Butcher, and Levine, 2003;and Lamotagne, Engle, and Zeitlin 1998).The main objective of this study is to understand how women's participation in value chains is linked to empowerment. By doing this we hope to inform development practitioners about how they can address women's empowerment through agricultural value chain projects. The following two research questions guided our inquiry into this topic.What is the relative performance of the value chains (and/or nodes) in terms of participation and empowerment?What factors (opportunities, and/or barriers) impact women's participation and empowerment?Value chain is a term used to describe the system and steps involved in turning a raw product (or idea) into a final product or service; it includes all the activities involved, such as production, transformation, delivery, and final consumption (see Kaplinsky andMorris, 2000 andILO, 2006). Value chains are comprised of nodes, which are points in the value chain where exchange or transformation occurs, and segments, which are the processes and activities that occur between two nodes (Bolwig et al., 2010). When talking about production or nodes closer to production, the term \"upstream\" is used; and \"downstream\" is used to refer to the nodes closer to consumption (Bolwig et al., 2010). Vertical integration is a term used to refer to coordination among various nodes and horizontal integration refers to coordination among actors in the same node.When discussing gender dynamics within value chains, governance and upgrading are often mentioned. Upgrading is about improving something in the value chain. Upgrading has been defined as \"a desirable change in participation that increases rewards and/or reduces exposure to risk -where rewards and risks are understood both in financial terms and with regard to outcomes related to poverty, gender and the environment\" (Bolwig et al. 2010: 177). Furthermore, Mayoux and Mackie (2008,) distinguish between four types of upgrading: process, product, functional, and chain upgrading. In their classification, process upgrading refers to increasing efficiency of an internal process; product upgrading to improving products and/or adding new ones; functional upgrading to changing the mix of products; and chain upgrading to switching to a new chain.Governance refers to how activities, especially non-market activities, are coordinated across the chain and deals with relationships of actors between nodes and within nodes (Kruijssen et al., 2018 citing Humphrey andSchmitz, 2004). Kruijssen et al. (2018) also include power relations at the household and community level in their gender analysis of value chain governance in the fish and aguaculture value chains.Nearly all farmers are actors in agricultural value chains merely by offering their produce for sale (Senders et al., 2014). And, given that many agricultural products originate on family farms and the multiple facets that make up rural livelihoods, it is important to consider gender dynamics and power relations at different levels. Several authors have examined gender in agricultural value chains and provide insight into the types of issues that are important to consider when conducting a gender analysis in the context of agricultural value chains. For example, the division of labor between men and women in the different value chain nodes; and any invisible work that is done to transform the product (or support its transformation) done by either women or men. Furthermore, women tend to be more involved in low-value chains and activities (Mutua et al., 2014), with few women in decision-making and/or leadership positions (see for example, Manyungwa-Pasani et al., 2017). Relatedly, it is important to consider the benefits derived from participating (in all types of work, both visible and invisible).Another issue is the relationships among actors and how gender plays into the power relations. Furthermore, access to and control over assets and resources, information, and decision-making power are all important topics related to gender analysis of agricultural value chains (Herr and Muzira, 2009;KIT et al., 2012;and Mayoux and Mackie, 2008). Senders et al. (2014) discuss four aspects for consideration when conducting a gender analysis in value chains: 1) the work women carry out, especially invisible work, when it comes to vertical integration; 2) women's decision-making power, when considering horizontal integration; 3) gender dynamics and women's agency at the household and community level, as well as across the value chain nodes; and 4) the institutional context in terms of how social and gender norms impact women's participation and the structure of the node and/or chain. Johnson et al. (2018) stress the importance of aligning development objectives related to gender and/or women's empowerment with the activities of the project. They explain how many development projects state that their objective is women's empowerment but the activities are more aligned with reaching or benefitting women rather than empowering them. They provide a framework that describes development project strategies that are most aligned with reaching, benefitting, and/or empowering women. They also mention that due to a lack of clear alignment between objectives and activities, there is little evidence of the types of interventions that empower women or which strategies work for empowering women.Similarly, Chavarro et al. (2020) found that many development projects in Latin America lack a strong alignment between the conceptualization and operationalization of women's empowerment. Part of the issue is perhaps due to the use of the term empowerment without really considering what it means and how positive changes can be made in this regard. One of the most cited definitions of empowerment is that by Kabeer (1999: 435): \"the process by which those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability.\" Kabeer also discusses three elements of empowerment: a) resources (human, material and social), serving to enhance the ability to make choices and shape one's life; b) agency, \"the ability to define one's goals and act upon them;\" and c) achievements, the manifestations, or outcomes of the different choices, and the different shapes their lives take.In general, the term empowerment refers to gaining or acquiring power in some way and/or gaining control over one's life (see Said-Allsopp & Tallontire, 2015;Mudege et al., 2015;Terrillon, 2010;Rowlands, 1997). Rowlands (1997) identifies four types of power. Perhaps the most common usage of the term power is what she refers to as \"power over,\" which refers to the power gained by one and lost by another. The other three types of power do not imply any losers. \"Power to\" refers to making decisions or making things happen; \"power with\" is the power of a collective; and \"power within\" refers to the personal power found within.Agricultural value chain projects often cite an objective related to women's economic empowerment. There is less consensus in the gender and development literature about the meaning of economic empowerment. It seems to imply how increased income and control over it can increase women's financial independence and thus their power to purchase small items, like clothes, or even assets, like land or livestock (Said-Allsop and Tallontire, 2015). Some studies find that women often control lesser amounts of income than men or control income from agricultural commodities of lesser value than that of men (Njuki et al., 2011). Thus, economic empowerment as a concept is limited to focusing on one element of empowerment -access to and control over income -without considering how this may impact other elements, like workload. As such, using the framework presented in Johnson et al. (2018), this could be considered benefiting women rather than empowering them. Furthermore, economic empowerment tends to focus more on the individual and less on social structures that may impact the opportunities available to individual women.Examining tools and methods related to gender and agricultural value chain development projects, Twyman and Ambler (2021) found that many of the identified tools and methods draw on Kabeer's (1999) definition of empowerment. The tools and methods reviewed provide ideas on how agricultural value chain development projects can move beyond benefitting women, by for example, increasing their incomes, to empowering them by considering the multiple dimensions of empowerment and providing suggestions for how to use gender analyses to improve strategies (the project activities) to empower women.The literature around gender and agricultural value chains, identifies several factors related to women's empowerment and/or its various dimensions. As mentioned above, Kabeer (1999) discusses resources, agency, and achievements as key elements related to empowerment. Expanding on this the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), discusses five domains of empowerment: agricultural production (input in productive decisions), resources (ownership of assets and access to and control over credit), income (control over income), leadership (group membership), and time use (workload and leisure). Chavarro et al. (2020) identify seven categories discussed in the literature related to women's empowerment in Latin America: learning, agricultural resources, work, leadership, society, laws, and wellbeing. Factors related to empowerment often include participation or equality of opportunity, which refers to women having equal opportunity to participate in and benefit from their participation in agricultural value chains (see Mayoux andMackie, 2008 andTerrillon, 2010). Thus, participation could be seen as a necessary but not sufficient requisite for empowerment (see also FAO, 2013).Another factor is that women have access to cooperatives, groups, and/or organizations; that they can be members with a voice and/or voting power, that they have access to leadership, and can actively participate. IFC (2016) explains how cooperatives and farmer associations play a critical role for members in terms of accessing inputs, resource sharing opportunities, providing training, creating networks, and providing access to markets. However, rules may limit one person per household to participate in these cooperatives and farmer associations; and since gender norms often prescribe men as farmers and heads of households, the membership often goes to men instead of women (FAO, 2013). Ihalainen et al. (2021) discuss how gender norms play a role in whether value chain participation leads to empowerment. Such gender norms impact gender equality of opportunities, access to resources, and freedom of movement. They go on to discuss how value chain participation can increase one (or a few) dimensions of empowerment while decreasing others. For example, value chain participation may increase a woman's income while intensifying her workload and responsibilities without necessarily increasing her agency or decision-making power. Similarly gender and nutrition research has ambiguous results about how women's increased income relates to women and children nutrition (an achievement related to well-being), some suggest a positive relation and others a negative relationship (see Twyman et al., 2020).Another important factor related to women's empowerment in the context of agricultural value chains is freedom of movement. In contexts where women's physical mobility is restricted because of gender norms and/or safety concerns, women are less likely to go to markets as vendors or buyers (Farnworth, 2011 andWaithanji et al., 2013). Gender inequalities in access to and control over assets and other resources also limit women's participation and potential empowerment in agricultural value chains (see for example, FAO, 2011). Several previous studies have focused on gender inequalities related to land, agricultural technologies and machinery, crop and agronomic information, inputs, and credit and financial services (see IFC, 2016;Coles and Mitchell, 2010;GRiSP, 2013;KIT et al., 2012;and FAO, 2013).Other factors include gender inequalities related to time use (impacted by gender norms that influence the gender division of labor), education, sexual harassment, gender-based violence, discrimination in hiring practices, among others (see Coles andMitchell, 2010 andIFC, 2016). Social networks and connections can also limit participation in global agricultural value chains (Baquero-Melo, 2017). Coles and Mitchell (2010) suggest that women are more likely to participate in value chains when capital barriers to entry are low; thus, when they can participate with little or no capital to begin. Furthermore, low-cost equipment for product transformation is another factor that may make it easier for women to participate in value chain activities.Many of the articles reviewed, implied a theory of change related to how women's participation in agricultural value chains could lead to women's empowerment. For example, ensuring that women have equal access to resources can help ensure production levels similar to those of men. That in turn could lead to increasing women's incomes and reducing poverty (GRiSP, 2013). Similarly, participation is thought to increase women's access to and control over income, which in turn will reduce poverty and improve household well-being, such as improved nutrition and children's education. Others focus on the need to tailor products and packaging to women, for example women farmers need information and to be included in marketing activities along with their husbands, which will lead to more informed decisionmaking (IFC, 2016). Coles and Mitchell (2010) point out the importance of focusing on institutional and household gender issues as well as targeting value chain nodes since the institutional and household level will affect the value chain nodes.In general, these theories of change relate to women's roles in agricultural value chains and/or how they participate. Value chains are complex systems with various actors. In terms of gender and value chain projects, a question of interest is often how do women participate and how do they benefit from participation. Ihalainen et al. (2021) find that there is potential but also many challenges for value chain participation to result in women's empowerment. For example, while value chain participation my provide employment opportunities for women, that employment may be insecure, temporary, low pay, long hours, and lack social protection. The low-skill, low-pay work that is often available to women is aligned with gender stereotypes, for example that women are more patient, they have nimble fingers, they lack strength, skill, and/or education.While the link between participation in value chains and empowerment is still weak, several potential benefits of value chain participation have been identified. Perhaps the most common potential benefit found in the literature is increased income in the hands of women, which is then linked to reducing poverty and improving household wellbeing. Value chain participation is a way to diversify household livelihoods and avoid risky work, such as sex work. Increased income for women can also result in financial autonomy and/or increased participation in household financial and expenditure decisions. Some studies link women's income to increased household spending on food and children's education. Furthermore, women's participation in value chains may increase their knowledge, skills, and capacity, they may also have more freedom of movement and gain social acceptance of women in spaces that were previously seen as men's spaces. In addition, women may gain dignity and pride in their work. However, none of these benefits are given. Increased incomes often come at the price of increased workloads and may not result in women controlling the income they generate (Ihalainen et al, 2021). Some gender and value chain studies have compared the benefits to women in different roles. Kruijssen et al. (2018) found that women benefitted more from being hired as employees than from contract farming since as employees they received a direct income whereas income from farm contracts more often went to men. However, an increase in income does not necessarily increase women's empowerment as it may not increase their freedom of movement, social freedoms, or reduce their workloads. On the other hand, Said-Allsop and Tallontire (2015) found that employment and earning their own income increased women's self-confidence and participation in decision-making and overall agency over their lives.Other studies have identified women's often invisible and unpaid labor in value chains. For example Kruijssen et al. (2013) explain how women prepare fishing gear and meals for men's fishing trips to Malaysia in a fish value chain. Women in smallholder agricultural households are often considered (and consider themselves) \"helpers\" who support their husbands in farming activities (see for example Radel, 2011 andTwyman et al., 2015). Social gender norms often dictate that women take care of household, domestic chores, and family well-being tasks and as such limit their opportunities for employment, management positions, and/or entrepreneurship activities within value chains (see for example, IFC, 2016; Coles and Mitchell, 2010;FAO, 2013). It is also a reason that women's activities go unrecognized and under-valued in value chains (KIT et al., 2012). Overall, this literature review suggests that there is potential for women's participation in agricultural value chains to lead to empowerment. However, there are still several gaps yet to be addressed.There are few gender and value chain studies in Latin America. Furthermore, many gender and value chain studies focus on one chain, for example coffee, but do not compare across different kinds of value chains. Furthermore, gender and agricultural projects that consider different products/chains, tend to focus on on-farm production, so there is less information about gender in other nodes of the value chains, such as traders, processors, and/or retailers. Similarly, these studies tend to be based in rural settings rather than exploring the issues in urban and/or peri-urban areas and how the value chain process cuts across different geographical settings. Furthermore, few gender and agricultural value chain studies focus on empowerment as the main emphasis; the focus tends to be more on poverty reduction, income generation, and household wellbeing. When empowerment is included, many times the objective is related to women's empowerment without fully explaining the specific objectives the project can achieve. Furthermore, intersectionality is not often considered to understand whether women's empowerment differs across different social groups, for example, among women of different ethnicities (African descent or indigenous women) and/or ages (younger and older women). The focus on women (rather than gender), also limits what we know about how men and masculinities relate to women's empowerment; and more generally how gender inequalities relate to women's empowerment.This study uses a mixed methods approach to collect and analyze both qualitative and quantitative data about women's (and men's) participation in two nodes of two value chains. Both quantitative and qualitative methods collect sex-disaggregated data to conduct gender analyses of participation and empowerment in the value chains. In this section we first describe the study site and the value chains under study. Then, we explain how quantitative and qualitative data was collected and analyzed.This study was conducted in the Gulf of Fonseca region of Honduras (see Figure 1), which is in the southern part of the country and is also known as development region 13 (Región de desarrollo 13 Golfo de Fonseca). 1 This region includes the departments of Choluteca and Valle as well as the southern parts of La Paz, El Paraiso, and Fancisco Morazan. The Gulf is a biologically diverse area that encompasses marine and coastal ecosystems, valleys, and mountains; it is strategically located along the triple border between Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. These characteristics make it a strategic place for the development of agricultural and tourism value chains and for strengthening business sectors. Despite these strengths, this region and its inhabitants are especially vulnerable due to its location in the Central American dry corridor 2 whose characteristics increase the risks caused by climate change, directly impacting the agricultural sector in the Gulf (Siles et al., 2020). The region is known for extreme climate events such as long droughts followed by intense rains, which impact livelihoods and food security in the region (FAO, 2021). A total of 798,267 inhabitants lives in the Gulf of Fonseca, of which 539,696 (about 68%) live in the rural zone and 258,571 (32%) live in the urban zone (IIES, 2021). For the Gulf region, the agricultural sector 3 is a key link that sustains local people and boosts the regional economy. In addition to the traditional production of basic grains, the economy of this region is sustained by non-traditional crops such as melon, watermelon, and especially shrimp, which are part of the business sector's exports. Small and medium-sized farmers diversify their income between day labor and subsistence crops.The peasant family structure in Latin America has been widely described (Hidalgo et al., 2014) as one in which the entire family is dedicated to work in agricultural production. Thus, both parents and children play important roles in production. This structure, however, has undergone major modifications due to the changes brought about by the industrialization of production, which has led many men to leave work on their own plot of land to sell their labor for daily wages in large monoculture plantations or as laborers in the cities.Due to its climatic, economic, and social vulnerability, this region has been a focus for development projects 4 and improvement plans to diversify opportunities for producers and inhabitants in general. As part of the strategy to strengthen the region's economy and the dynamics of family agriculture, national government programs and programs of national and international non-governmental organizations have strengthened agricultural value chains, including the cashew and dairy chains, which are considered key to positively impacting vulnerable populations due to their economic potential in the domestic and export markets.The cashew tree (Anarcadium Occidentale), which is native to Central and South America, was introduced and commercialized in semiarid tropical areas in Africa, India, and Sri Lanka (Joshi et al., 2017;Laddha et al., 2020). This evergreen tree produces the cashew nut and the cashew fruit but is widely cultivated for its nuts and derived products throughout Australia, Asia, and Africa (Ogunwolu et al., 2010;Liu et al., 2018in Balandrán-Quintana et al., 2019).Cashew cultivation was introduced in southern Honduras during the 1970s as part of a reforestation and economic exploitation plan, expanding rapidly with the support of Agrarian Reform projects (SAG et al., 2016). According to the National Agrarian Institute (INA), in 1983 there were 5,580 ha (7,812 mz) of cashew trees planted in Honduras (SAG et al., 2016). Nonetheless, during 1980's the Government of Honduras stopped supporting the Cashew Cultivation and Processing Project, leaving the crops under the responsibility of the agrarian reform beneficiary groups. This hindered the development of cashew production due to a lack of knowledge, technical assistance, commercialization, and processing plants in the region. Factors such as drought, fire, pests, and diseases triggered the loss of several hectares of cashew crops between the mid-1980s and early 1990s (Duncan, 2000;SAG et al., 2016).Later 1990's cashew nut processing companies, such as CREPAIMASUL, began to emerge increasing the demand for cashew nuts in the region, which encouraged new cashew tree plantations (VECO Mesoamérica, 2008). This crop represents an important asset for the region's development due to the availability of crops, a potential growth in the national and international market and the willingness of organizations to strengthen support services to improve chain performance. However, it does not provide a sustainable source of income or good quality of life for most of its producers and artisanal processors. In recent years, initiatives by governmental and non-governmental organizations have promoted the intensification of cashew cultivation and the improvement of processing plants to reinforce capacities and links in the VC.The cashew value chain in the south of Honduras is composed mostly of small farmers, some of whom are organized in cooperatives. About half of the cashew production is sold to local middlemen and the other half is sold either directly to semi-industrial cashew processing plants or to community collection centers. Local middlemen sell the product to processors, who then sell it to exporters (rarely do processing companies sell directly to supermarkets, only one was identified in the study by Swisscontact, 2014), and some semi-industrial plants make the exportation directly (Swisscontact, 2014). Figure 2 provides a map of the cashew value chain in the region. Cashew producers, mainly small-scale family systems, are concentrated in the departments of Choluteca and Valle and number around 1,372 (Swisscontact, 2018). According to the study conducted by Swisscontact in 2018, of these cashew farms, approximately 24% are operated primarily by women 5 . Most producers are over 50 years of age and only 2% are between 18 and 29 years old. Men and women in the production node are older on average than those in the processing. Additionally, educational levels are quite low with only a small proportion (3.4%) who completed secondary education (Swisscontact, 2014).The average productive area that cashew producers have is 2.2 manzanas (1.54 ha) and most of them do not exceed 3 manzanas (2.1 ha) (Swisscontact, 2018). Their low yields of 8.9 quintals per manzana (about 1276.5 kg/ha) on average, compared to the 10.9 quintals per manzana (or 1563.4 kg/ha) produced in the entire Central American region, are associated with multiple factors: inadequate agronomic management of the crop and soil, and climate conditions, among others. High production costs coupled with low yields result in low profits generated by cashew production. Average annual profits are even lower for women operated cashew farms than those operated by men. In addition, hired men laborers earn more than hired women; they receive on average US$418 per year, while women only receive US$281 (Swisscontact, 2018). In general, men who are hired for production work are hired significantly more days at a higher wage (71 days and 91 lempiras per day) than women (15 days and 22 lempiras per day). Because of the low levels of profits (and income) generated from cashew production, most producers (60%) have other livelihood activities, such as planting other crops, working as day laborers on other people's farms, and obtaining remittances (Swisscontact, 2014).As far as cashew processing is concerned, it is concentrated in five processing companies that export cashews to Costa Rica and Europe, and approximately 27 individual (artisanal) processors that sell their product in local markets (Swisscontact, 2014). The main final product is roasted cashew nuts. Although some companies have manual machines to open the nut to reduce the percentage of cracked or broken cashews, many of the processors crack it open manually (by giving it a blow with a club or hitting it with a hammer), which increases the probability of cracked or broken cashews (Swisscontact, 2014). Considering that market prices are better for whole cashews, the profitability of processing companies and artisanal processors fluctuates according to the percentage of whole or cracked cashews available for sale.Most employees (93%) in processing companies are women, however, they receive 68% less than the salary received by men (Swisscontact, 2018). Additionally, workspaces present deficiencies in compliance with good practices. For example, employees do not wear adequate clothing or personal protective equipment, there is no first aid kits to respond to any occupational accidents, and there is a high risk of contamination of raw material or final product (Swisscontact, 2014).The nodes in the cashew value chain are closely linked and are typically informal. In general, cashew cultivation, processing and marketing face many challenges ranging from low yields and incomes to weak organizations, insecure labor conditions and little associativity.Dairy production is currently one of the most important and dynamic productive activities in the Central American region. Although between 1978 and 1983 there was a drop in production, in subsequent years there has been a continuous increase in milk production as a primary product in the region ( de Groot, 2018). When it comes to consumption, \"in Central America there has been an increased demand for dairy products such as soft cheese, semi-dry cheese, fresh cheese, creams, butter and cottage cheese\" (Swisscontact, 2018in Muriel et al, 2020a, p.6).According to Comisión para la Defensa y Promoción de la Competencia (2013), Honduras, Costa Rica, and El Salvador have the highest levels of consumption of milk per capita in the region. However, in lower income strata which represent most of the population in these countries, the per capita consumption is far below the Latin America average (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), (2011).Milk and dairy production constitute the fastest growing livestock sub sector in the region and is becoming a great opportunity for small-scale producers (ILRI, 2011). Honduras has a total of 70,000 livestock producers (large-and small-scale) (CAHLE, 2020), which are key players for developing the dairy sector and strengthening the different nodes of the value chain to ensure better outcomes for the sector.The primary link of node of the dairy value chain in Honduras is mainly composed of small scale livestock producers. According to the National Institute of Statistics of Honduras (INE) data there are 96,622 livestock producers of which 48% are small producers (Comisión para la Defensa y Promoción de la Competencia, 2013). It is estimated that 76% of these farms are dual-purpose for milk and meat production, 15% are dedicated exclusively to specialized milk production and the remaining 9% to meat production (Alvarado, 2020, p.18). The Golfo de Fonseca region ranks fourth in milk and meat production in Honduras; there are 278,662 head of cattle in 13,498 cattle farms; most of these farms are small, with between 1 and 19 animals in an area between 7 and 11 hectares (Alvarado, 2020, p.18). Bovine milk production in Honduras is based on four different production systems: dual-purpose (milk and meat) in pastoral systems, specialized pastoral systems, semi-stable systems, and intensified stable systems (CAHLE, 2020). As shown in Figure 3, milk is commercialized in two channels: producers (small or big) sell to the Milk Collection Centers (CREL) which are livestock producer associations who collect and cold down milk to deliver to processing plants. The second one is when producers sell milk directly to processing plants (artisanal and semi-industrial). In the Atlantic Coast and North-West, raw milk is predominantly delivered to industrial plants, while in dairy basins such as Olancho and the South of the country, farms deliver to artisanal dairies. Now that the plants have extended their milk purchases to other regions of the country, producers are increasingly using both channels, depending on the season and the price (Comisión para la Defensa y Promoción de la Competencia, 2013). There are few intermediaries or middlemen purchasing milk from farmers and selling to production plants in the dairy value chain in Honduras; but the Milk Collection Centers have an important role as intermediaries in the chain for collecting and keeping milk in cold storage until it is purchased by the processing plants. In the Gulf of Fonseca region, most of what is produced in the dairy industry comes from artisanal plants (60%), followed by industrial plants with 21% and semi-industrial plants with the remaining 19% (Swisscontact, 2018).The dairy chain stands out for its sensitivity to climatic periods. The amount of cheese and other dairy products made (in the processing node) depends on how much milk is available, which varies by the climatic season of the year. In the rainy season around 1053 liters of milk are processed daily, while in the dry season only 525 liters per day, a statistically significant difference. The price per liter of milk is higher in the dry season (when it is relatively scarce) at 9 lempiras per liter than in rainy season (when it is relatively abundant) at 8 lempiras per liter, which is also statistically significant. Table 1 shows the different products, their prices and production by season. Overall, the production of different dairy products is typically greater and prices lower in the rainy season than in the dry season. This study was conducted as part of the Rural Opportunities Project in the Gulf of Fonseca in the Dry Corridor of Honduras (2017-2022), led by Swisscontact in collaboration with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), 6 which led activities in the project to measure women's empowerment, using different versions of the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), in the cashew and dairy value chains. At the time of implementation, IFPRI was in the process of designing the Pro-WEAI+MI. 7 Thus, the survey instruments included a pilot version of that instrument as well as the questions for calculating the Abbreviated WEAI (A-WEAI). 8 Four samples were taken to represent the population of households involved in the production and processing nodes of the two value chains. For dairy production, additional support and funding was provided by the CGIAR Research Program (CRP) on Livestock and Fish and by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) to pilot the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI), which is a version of the Project-level WEAI (Pro-WEAI) with additional indicators specific to the livestock sector. Data from the four surveys were analyzed and the results were summarized and published in 2020 in a series of reports about the gender gap analysis and gender and social inclusion strategies of both value chains (Muriel et al., 2020a(Muriel et al., , 2020b(Muriel et al., , 2021a(Muriel et al., , 2021b)). In this study, funded by the CRP on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), we expand the previous analysis by comparing the WEAI results across the four samples and further analyzing the data available to help explain differences (and similarities) in women's empowerment between the value chains, the nodes of the value chains, and different ways women participate in them. This study also draws on the qualitative research that was conducted in the project. Table 2 provides a timeline of the study activities.The quantitative data collection sampled four independent samples to represent the population of households in each of the two nodes of the two value chains of interest. The sample sizes were estimated based on the estimated populations of households involved in each of the value chain node activities provided by Swisscontact and based on the baseline surveys they conducted for the design of the Rural Opportunities Project. Table 3 shows the sample sizes for each survey conducted. Overall, 1,231 individuals from 620 households were interviewed. The sample of cashew producers included 204 women and 195 men from 204 households. We interviewed 98 men and women from 98 households involved in processing cashew. For the sample of dairy processors, we interviewed 132 men and women from 132 households. The dairy production sample used in this study includes responses from 186 men and women from 186 households. 9 Participatory workshops with cashew and dairy processors (April).with cashew and dairy producers and processors.Submitted proposal to PIM for funding of HEO study.Publication of the analysis of gender gaps in the cashew and dairy value chains (Muriel et al., 2020a andMuriel et al., 2020b).Writing and presenting of the gender and social inclusion strategies for the cashew and dairy value chains (Muriel et al., 2021a andMuriel et al., 2021b).HEO study funded; quantitative analysis started.Additional qualitative interviews conducted by phone (May -June).Conference presentations of HEO study with preliminary results. IAFFE (May/June) Cultivating Equality (Oct.)Webinar (Dec.) 9 The original sample was representative of the agricultural population in the study site and thus included a much larger sample size. For this study we included the responses from households that had milk producing livestock (cows, sheep, and/or goats).Intra-household surveys were conducted, in which a man and woman, typically spouses, 10 from each household were interviewed using a two-part questionnaire. In the first part, general household information about the household members, their demographic and socioeconomic information, their occupations, and household agriculture production activities was collected by the couple together or by one of them individually. In the second part of the questionnaire, the men and women were asked separately about their work, decision-making, control of income, ownership of assets, access and decisions on credit, group membership, and time use, as well as employment, participation in value chain activities, mobility, respect within the household and extension services. The questionnaire used in the survey of households involved in dairy production was a pilot version of the WELI and included additional questions specific to livestock producers. Following Malapit et al. (2015), we calculated the A-WEAI for each sample and the combined sample.The A-WEAI has two main parts: 5 domains of empowerment (5DE) and the gender parity index (GPI).The 5DE is a score that accounts for 90% of the overall index and measures whether women reach an adequate level in each of six indicators that map to the five domains. The five domains, six indicators,input in production decisions, ownership of assets, access to and decisions on credit, control over income, group membership, and workload, -conditions for obtaining adequacy, and weights are listed in table 4. The GPI is relevant for households in which spouses were interviewed. It reflects the inequality in empowerment between spouses and accounts for 10% of the overall A-WEAI score. \uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC38\uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC3C = 0.9 * 5\uD835\uDC37\uD835\uDC38 + 0.1 * \uD835\uDC3A\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC3C As can be seen in the table above, each of the indicators that make up the 5DE have a certain weight, such that each domain has a weight of 1/5, which implies that for the asset domain with its two indicators, the weights are distributed in 1/15 for the indicator of access to and use of credit, while with a weight of 2/15 we find the indicator of assets. After the sum of the indicators multiplied by their respective weights, we find the 5DE.To calculate the GPI we compare the 5DE of the man and woman respondents (spouses); the GPI is calculated by subtracting the difference between the man's 5DE and the woman's. If the result is less than or equal to zero, the GPI is 1 and the couple is considered equal. Finally, using the averages of the 5DE and the GPI (across the whole sample), we apply their weights and thus obtain the A-WEAI, an index that gives the level of empowerment of the selected sample. In addition to being important for this study to show the results of the A-WEAI, we use the result obtained in the 5DE as a variable that we will later present as the level of individual empowerment of the women in the study.While the A-WEAI is calculated based on individual responses to questions related to the indicators in general, we were also interested in women's and men's involvement in specific value chain and node activities. We specifically wanted to see if women's roles as helper, employee, owner, and/or manager was related to their empowerment. Thus, we used the quantitative data to create some variables that would allow us to categorize women (and men) according to their participation. We created the following variables related to a person's roles in the value chains. Qualitative data was used to explore what empowerment means to women in the value chains as well as how women achieved (or not) positions of power such as being managers or owners. Furthermore, qualitative data provided extensive information on the cultural, social, and economic context.Qualitative data was also used to address the third research question focusing on the barriers and opportunities women face to participate in, benefit from, and be empowered in different value chains, different nodes of those value chains, and/or different positions within them.We collected information through three main qualitative data collection methods: focus group discussions, participatory workshops, and individual interviews. Table 5 lists the different activities, the main objectives, and number of participants in each. Focus groups discussions allowed for the acquisition of first-hand information from household members (women and men) who participate in the cashew production activities. Participants in the discussions were selected among beneficiaries (cashew producers) of the project Rural Market Opportunities in the Gulf of Fonseca. In September 2018 a total of six focus groups (three with women, three with men) were organized in three different representative sites of cashew production inside El Triunfo and San Antonio municipalities: Río Grande, Matapalo y San Antonio. Each group consisted of between 4 to 13 respondents. In total, 24 women and 15 men participated in the focus groups discussions.Facilitators led discussions around a set of guiding questions and activities to identify perceptions about 1) women's participation in the cashew value chain inquiring in gender roles at productive activities (e.g. planting, weeding, fertilizing, harvesting, and processing) and reproductive tasks (e.g. cooking, cleaning, and care activities), at both the household and farm level; and 2) local meanings of empowerment explored through questions focused on eliciting local perceptions and descriptions about women who are respected and considered as role models inside the family or community. The discussions considered various dimensions of empowerment including decision making, time use, income control, freedom of movement, and workloads.The qualitative data collected through this method is used to identify ways women participate in the cashew production activities, and if/how their participation is related to agency and participation in decision making processes. Furthermore, this information is used to complement the quantitative results; both in terms of deciding which explanatory variables to use in regression analyses and to help explain/interpret some of the quantitative results.While similar to the focus group discussions with cashew producers, we conducted participatory workshops that primarily use interactive and participatory activities (rather than discussions) to explore gender perceptions around women's participation and empowerment with men and women involved in cashew and dairy processing activities. Women and men heads of the same household (spouses) were invited to attend these workshops together. This study includes two participatory workshops that were conducted with cashew and dairy processors in the department of Choluteca from April 23 to 26 2019. 11  Couples, who participate in the Rural Opportunities Project, were invited to participate; 5 couples participated in each workshop, for a total of 10 women and 10 men in the two workshops.Our facilitator team led and conducted participants through diverse activities (some in couples, some separate by men and women) with the primary purposes being to identify gender roles in the value chain-node, stereotypes of value chain participation, control over income, participation in household decision-making processes (related to property, resources, and consumer goods), and women and men's participation in community organizations.We also used semi-structured interviews to go deeper into the context and local perceptions about gender roles. For this purpose, we did two rounds of interviews: the first one was during September 2018 when we carried out nine interviews, four with women and five with men, mostly technicians and representatives of local development organizations. We designed two different interview guides, one for technicians and one for representatives of local organizations, to inquire about gender roles, gendered participation in decision-making processes, opportunities and barriers for women (and men) to participate in the value chains, women's roles in associations, and the impact of projects on women's participation in the value chains. The second round of interviews was done via phone calls between the end of May and the beginning of June 2021. Eight women, who were identified as employees, owners, or managers in the cashew and dairy value chains by POR staff, were interviewed. An interview guide was developed with different questions for women in different positions (employees, helpers, owners, or managers) and questions for experts in the value chain (those women with extensive experience); along with basic demographic and household information, the interviews included questions about women's aspirations, and opportunities and barriers for participating in different roles in the value chains. These interviews were used to identify opportunities and barriers women face to become employees, owners, or managers in the value chains. During these interviews women explained how they acquired their positions and any difficulties they encountered along the way as well as any factors that helped them achieve their positions.For data analysis, the semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were audio-recorded and transcribed, while for the participatory workshops' insights were captured in written notes about activities and the researcher's observations about behaviors and ways of relating among people during group activities. Data collected from focus group discussions were manually coded in twenty-two codes grouped into four categories (women activities, gender roles, empowerment, climate change). Participatory workshop data was systematized in a matrix that summarized findings, and in a final report with complete analysis by activity and findings related to the research topics. Individual interview data were systematized in a deductive logic matrix which includes respondents' characteristics, project categories (opportunities, entry barriers, level of empowerment), and emerging categories from the interviewee's answers. Manual cross-examination of qualitative data in transcriptions and notes was used to identify common and divergent elements in the different discussions and conversations.In this section we present the quantitative and qualitative results of the study. We start by providing general descriptive results to characterize the households and individuals of our samples, including socio-economic and demographic information. Next, we explore the different ways men and women participate in the value chain nodes, examining the data about the types of activities men and women do as well as their varied roles as producers, processors, helpers, employees, managers, and/or owners. Then, we turn to the analysis of empowerment, examining local perceptions of empowerment and the different dimensions of empowerment. Furthermore, we explore the overall level of women's empowerment according to the A-WEAI by value chain, node, and role. We also disaggregate the overall index to examine how each indicator contributes to empowerment (and disempowerment). Finally, we present the results related to the factors, opportunities and barriers associated with women's participation and empowerment in the value chain nodes.Descriptive analysis: Household and individual characterization, livelihood strategies, socio-economic and demographic informationTable 6 provides some descriptive statistics at the individual level for men and women in each sample.On average there are no major differences between the ages of men and women; however, comparing by vale chain node, in the production nodes, men and women are older than in the processing nodes.Regarding the number of years of schooling and illiteracy, the cashew production sample shows the worst conditions with few years of schooling and the highest percentage of men and women who do not know how to read or write. It should also be noted that, in terms of education, the dairy chain has better numbers than the cashew chain, even though cashew processing has similar results to the dairy chain. Most of the women interviewed in the survey reported their main occupation as housewife, while most men reported being day laborers. In the processing nodes many men and women are self-employed or employed in work unrelated to agriculture. Table 7 gives the results of this analysis of occupations.According to the information obtained in the surveys conducted, 76% of the total households interviewed have access to a public electricity network, through the national grid. In the case of cashew producers, 40% of households do not have access to a public electricity supply. Meanwhile, 95% of dairy processors have electricity as a public service. With respect to water, 61% of the total households interviewed have access to a public water source, while 39% must resort to private sources. Among cashew producers, 49% of producers do not have access to a public network, and in the case of processors, 43%. In comparison, 80% of dairy processors have access to water as a public service. Of all the men and women interviewed, 17% of the principal men and 15% of the principal women reported not knowing how to read or write. The highest levels of illiteracy were found in the cashew chain, especially in the production node, where illiteracy among the main men and women was 29% and 27%, respectively. At the global level, of all the members of the households belonging to the chains, 20%of the people were found to be unable to read or write. On average, the principal men and women completed 5 years of education, which reflects the fact that most of them have at most a primary school education. Table 8 shows the proportion of men and women in each value chain node completing each level of education. Most dairy producers, both men and women, have completed primary school. In the other value chain nodes, most men and women have less than a primary education. In terms of household ownership, it was found that, of the total households surveyed, the majority own their home (89%), in a few cases they have a borrowed house (8%) or are renting (3%). Of the 432 households surveyed (excluding the dairy producers), 328 households responded that they owned a plot of land. It was evident that the ownership of these plots is especially concentrated in cashew producers, where most households responded that they owned plots (98%) with an average area of 5 hectares. In the case of cashew processors, the majority (59%) responded that they own plots of land averaging 3 hectares. These plots of land are being used for agriculture and housing, with a great dedication to cashew and corn harvesting by cashew producers, while cashew and dairy processors tend to have a greater variety of products harvested on their plots, e.g., corn, coffee, cashew, banana, among others.As shown in Table 6, the average household size is 3 -4 people with about 1 child under the age of 15.In the Gulf of Fonseca, many families have separated so that the men go to work in the city, in the sugar cane fields, or in the melon fields, while the women and children remain working on their land. In the specific case of cashew producers, the households surveyed are composed of an average of 4 members, usually the main couple and children, as is the typical composition of households in the different nodes.On average, the men respondents are 50 years old, while the women respondents are 49 years old.Disaggregating by value chain and node, we found that the respondents in the production nodes are on average more than 50 years old, while, in the case of processors, their average age is about 45 (see Table 7).Most households in the samples are involved in multiple livelihood activities as is indicated in Figure 4. Most households produce basic grains and raise poultry. Many households have someone working in non-agricultural economic activities and/or with a remunerated job. The implication here is that in both the production and processing nodes of the value chains, the value chain node of interest is not the only economic activity in the household, and it is unlikely to be the primary income source, although it could be a significant source of income for the family. Each individual has on average 2 other on-farm activities and 0.3 off-farm activities. The qualitative research indicated that most of the women are involved in other agricultural and/or service activities that are complementary to value chain activities, such as grocery stores, restaurants, raising pigs, chickens, etc. Specifically, qualitative results suggest that cashew production is considered a complementary economic activity rather than a primary economic activity in the household (and especially for men). On the other hand, dairy processing is often considered the main economic activity in the household.The qualitative results indicate that women in both the production and processing nodes of the dairy and cashew value chains move between the productive and reproductive spheres. Women play an important role in household care work, where men have less influence. Within the women's activities at home are domestic responsibilities such as childcare, and other relative's care, cooking, supporting school activities, house cleaning, backyard animal husbandry, and general household chores. The following quotes exemplify this point. Gendered roles in the production and processing nodes of the cashew and dairy value chainsIn this section we examine men's and women's participation in activities related to their corresponding value chain nodes. Table 9 lists the activities in each value chain that are most frequently reported as being done by men and women. In general, we can see that there are some activities that many men and women perform, however, in many activities more than half the men report performing the activities while few activities are reported as being performed by more than half of the women. For example, planting in cashew production; feeding, milking, and caring for animals in dairy production; and lastly, milk preparation in dairy processing are all activities that more than half the men report doing. More than half the women report slaughtering livestock, feeding livestock, and selling dairy products.Table 9. Activities done by men and women in each value chain node associated with men according to men's and women's reports.Based on the information about the activities that men and women report in the household, we investigated who might be considered a producer. We do this in two different ways. First by considering if the person is involved in any of the activities related to the value chain node. Using this definition, we find that all the men and women in the cashew production sample can be considered producers. In the cashew processing sample, 55 percent of men and 69 percent of women are involved in some aspect of cashew processing; in the dairy production sample, about 77 percent of men and 34 percent of women are involved in some aspect of dairy production; and in the dairy processing sample, 93 percent of men and 64 percent of women are involved in some aspect of dairy processing. Second, we examined the proportion of men and women who report being involved in most of the value chain node activities (reported being done by anyone in the household). Using this definition, we find that 65 percent of men and 88 percent of women can be classified as cashew producers; 47 percent of men and 60 percent of women can be classified as cashew processors; 53 percent of men and 24 of women can be classified as dairy producers; and 83 percent of men and 52 percent of women are dairy processors. This classification implies that many of the households have both a man and woman producer (processor) and that in general women have a higher participation in the cashew value chain than men and less participation than men in the dairy value chain.We were also interested in whether the person was a manager, or in other words, if they were involved in making most of the decisions related to the value chain node. Using the information about whether the person was a producer, in the sense of participating in any/most of the activities in combination with information about their involvement in decision-making, we determined if they were a manager, helper, or not involved in the value chain node. Figures 5A and 5B present the proportion of men and women in each sample classified as managers, helpers, or not involved in the node. It should be noted that in almost all the nodes (except for cashew production) many of the women surveyed are considered managers; they are reporting to be involved in both production activities and making decisions related to the value chain node. Another important fact is the large percentage of women who are not involved in dairy processing (34%). On the other hand, we also characterized the women in each sample as owners and/or employees. They are considered owners if they own any assets related to the value chain node and employees if they are employed in a job related to the respective node. Figure 6 shows the proportion of men and women classified as owners and employees in each value chain node. In dairy processing we did not ask about key assets for processing milk, which is why no owners were identified in this node. More than 70% of women in the other nodes own at least one asset related to the value chain node and are thus considered owners. In cashew production we take women who are sole or joint owners of cashew land; in processing those who have ovens developed for cooking or hammers for cracking the nut; in dairy production an owner is a woman who owns any dairy livestock (cows, sheep, or goats). The category of employees is only valid for the processing nodes, since we are interested in women with formal employment in the value chains and this information was not available in the production nodes; furthermore, it is unlikely for women (or men) to have formal employment in the production nodes. Approximately 26% of the women in cashew processing are employees and only 5% in the dairy processing sector. The ways women and men participate in the productive activities of two VCs (cashew and dairy), and their level of involvement in them vary among roles, chains, and nodes. Women in cashew production in part of their day are involved in farm activities, such as weeding, organic fertilization in new plantations, and harvesting in the old ones. Their cashew plantations are small (about 1 ha or less), therefore households do not need to hire labor, leaving the agricultural maintenance work (especially in new plantations) to boys, girls, and women. On the other hand, men are more likely to hold salaried jobs, or work for a day's wages in other crops. They also participate in cashew activities such as the maintenance of old plantations which require pruning. Men are recognized by the women as the heads of the family and household decision-makers. Women's participation in the cashew processing node is notable. A considerable number of artisanal plants are run by women. Data collected at workshops carried out with couples show that all family members participate in the processing plant activities, therefore it is difficult to clarify who performs a specific task, which leads to differences in saying who did what. This could be related to an undervaluation of the level of involvement of each family member and the recognition of the participation of women.Among the activities in which women participate are seed purchase (trade relations with suppliers), drying, peeling, and sale of the final product. Men are hired mostly to shell the nuts. Women respondents in the workshops reported participating in six out of twelve activities that integrate the processing node. However, we identified differences with men's answers in two of the activities mentioned by women. For example, women did not identify themselves with the roasting activity, but according to men's perceptions women's participation is important in this step. Conversely, women respondents considered that women have active participation in sales and commercialization, while men respondents did not consider women to participate in this area. Some women and men are involved in the processing node through the jobs offered in the semi-industrial plants, in which women are included mainly in the shelling tasks. Employment in cashew processing plants is also influenced by gender stereotypes linked to physical abilities and strength.In dairy VC, there were no semi-structured interviews with women livestock farmers; although, according to the interviews carried out with women linked to the processing node, the suppliers are mainly men, and the women are helpers in caring for the livestock.Yes In the processing node, women actively participate in various activities in the production area of the plant, such as: quality control, product weighing, curd making, packaging. They are also in charge of the commercial area, suppliers, orders, and sales. Men also participate actively in all activities, especially in the purchase and transport of milk, and according to the women's perception, the work is done jointly (in the case of married women). In dairy processing plants, male and female employees are hired through informal contractual relationships, a hiring based on gender stereotypes related to strength and ability. Men are hired for cheese or cheese-making, an activity that requires strength, while women are hired for dairy sales. Some plants have only men in the production area, and according to the perception of the interviewees, most plants are male owned.During participatory workshops women reported participating in the 12 activities in the processing node. However, in six out of 12 activities, differences were found in the responses of men and women with respect to women's participation. For example, in collecting milk and preparing it, women said they participated, while men did not. In other cases, the difference arose because women did not consider themselves in the performance of an activity while men did, as in the case of curd making, storage and cutting.In general, we found that household chores and childcare are still in the hands of women, activities contributing to their workload. The qualitative analysis suggests that in all the nodes and chains, gender stereotypes influence the division of labor and responsibilities in productive and reproductive tasks.There are learned structures intimately related to physical characteristics and traditional conceptions of women as housewives, more delicate and less physical strength, while men are considered workers and strongest.Both dairy and cashew production areas have very well-defined activities for men and women (See tables 10 and 11). To the question related to activities that women and men like the most, we found men are generally the ones who do the shelling \"because it is a process that requires strength\", while women are usually the ones who do the peeling \"because it requires delicacy\". In the dairy VC, neither driving nor transporting milk are considered activities to be performed by women. The allocation of physical characteristics and skills by gender is observed, reinforcing stereotypes that increase the gaps between men and women.   At the community level, women's participation in groups and varies by value chains and nodes. According to interviews, focus groups and participatory workshops, women in the cashew production node have been involved in the farmer field schools (FFS) for training and education in technical knowledge of the crop. Men also participate in the FFSs, varying according to the topic being addressed (fertilization, pruning).Another important point is the role of the cooperatives in the linkage of new female members as part of the cashew production base. According to the information acquired, some cooperatives are reporting more and more involvement of women in producer organizations, however, there is no active participation in boards of directors. This is an issue that is related to their motivation and level of empowerment that we will analyze later. Nevertheless, there are some cases of women's incursion into positions of power, such as the manager of one of the cooperatives, which marks a milestone of change for this type of dynamic. Unlike women cashew producers, women in the cashew nut processing and dairy processing node do not mention groups or networks of women to which they belong. Women are not actively involved, nor is there an association that brings them together.Qualitative Results about Women and Men's Own Identification/Recognition of Their RolesOne of our research interests is to understand the relationship between women's roles within the VCs and whether the level of empowerment varies according to their role. According to our initial assumption, those who consider themselves owners of their farm/plant should have an active role in decisions concerning the productive sphere, while those who are only partially involved, whom we identify as helpers, have a lower level of influence in productive decision-making and, consequently, in the economic income generated by this activity.Based on qualitative data analysis, we found that although some women are owners or consider themselves owners of the farms/processing plants and are involved in almost all the activities, married women (and women in consensual unions) in cashew and dairy production continue to define their activity as a support or help to their husbands, or to the household income, mostly in the production nodes.In the case of cashew production, women are involved in cultivation and sales activities, and perform daily tasks in the plantations, but their role is not recognized, an issue that can lead to less women's participation in decision-making. This can be explained because: 1) in the producing families the most significant economic income comes from other activities such as salaried work and/or food/shop businesses, and cashew cultivation does not yet provide a significant income, 2) the plantations are new and small, the development of cashew cultivation is still in an initial stage, and 3) women are just beginning the process of technical training and knowledge about VC dynamic. This, connected to the cultural stereotypes, reinforces women producers' lack of self-recognition of their active role in production, reflected in phrases such as: \"My husband, he works. I am the one in charge of the cashew\" implying that cashew activity is not a job.From in-depth interviews held with women owners and employees of cashew and dairy artisanal processing plants, we identified that women who are managing the operation are involved in all the activities with a 360 degrees knowledge of operation and commercialization. There are managers in the dairy processing node holding professional degrees related to accounting and business. Their level of empowerment in terms of decision-making is high due to expertise and knowledge. Their high level of involvement as coordinators and experts allows their participation and voice to be considered in household and business decisions. As a dairy processor woman expressed \"Since we started, since I am married, we do it between the two of us; but since I am the one who is in control, I am the one who is in charge. \" (Dairy processor, May 2021).Owners project their future in the processing node as a life plan to ensure their family's economic wellbeing and see it as an on-going opportunity for future generations. As a cashew processor mentioned: \"I really want to implement [improve] a business like that, the processing plant, to be able to give work, to open doors, to be able to process, and to earn.\" (Cashew processor, May, 2021).Some women in the processing node suggest teamwork with their partners/husbands in terms of household economic decisions. However, they still do not fully recognize their agency in decision making despite being demonstrated in practice and in their daily work, as the following statement indicates:\"I think that as a woman, you want to fade away or give up when times are hard for dairy products. So, I believe that men have more courage to face the things that are coming, they have more skills. I got the support of my husband, and we talked about how we are going to do this, and about the other little business, the grocery store, and so on\" (Dairy processor, May 2021).Empowerment related to time use and workload is low due to their double work in the reproductive and productive spheres, and also for their other tasks in other businesses such as the grocery stores.\"I get up at half past five in the morning. When it's time to order, when my husband goes to bring the order, I get up at 4:30 a.m., because he leaves at 5 a.m. I spend the morning at the grocery store. When the milk is coming in I go to the plant, around 10 am, to see how they are processing, about two hours. That's how I spend my time because I'm close by\".In relation to employees, we found that for both VCs and nodes, labor relations are informal and temporary due to the seasonality of the crops and economic activities. Women employees in artisanal dairy processing plants have restrictions to be hired according to the activities in which they can perform, due to stereotypes related to strength, ability, and capacity to perform certain tasks in the product's elaboration.\"In the process it is a little bit complicated because the work is heavy for a woman. That is why I think that in the production area there are not many female employees. But in the marketing area, I think we can make the decisions ourselves. The process is more dynamic. You go, you look for customers. I think the marketing area is more for women than the process [operation] itself.\"(Dairy processor, May 2021) \"Yes, it would not be possible to manage a dairy plant with just women, because making cheese or quesillo is a bit heavy. Well, we do not have the capacity to buy a machine to make cheese, because the machines will make the cheese almost by themselves. We make it on a stove, with iron pots. With a stick you move the quesillo, you have to stretch it. That's what manpower is for\" (Dairy processor, May 2021).In the case of semi-industrial processing plants, we did not inquire about women employed in the operational part of processing, but for future studies it will be important to explore this area and the level of empowerment of women employees in semi-industrial plants. This would allow a better understanding of the way in which they are hired and what factors drive or retract their forms of participation and empowerment from the employee's role in this type of plant.Management positions are held mostly by men, but there are cases of women as cooperative or company managers, who play a role as employees in a leadership position. These women became leaders due, at least in part, to their professional training (international trading) and work experience (credit and savings cooperatives). Women in management positions prove to be role models and positive change agents through the generation of jobs and associative models that increasingly link women in different VC nodes. Women's empowerment in the production and processing nodes of the cashew and dairy value chainsFirst, we explore the local meanings and perceptions of empowerment to understand how value chain participations conceptualize this term and could provide key information about how it may differ or converge with theoretical definitions of empowerment on which the study's measurement is based. In focus group discussions, we asked women and men producers and processors to share their concept of empowerment, the characteristics that they consider an empowered/autonomous woman or man to have, and perceptions of empowered women in their community.Focus group discussants' answers reveal that empowerment has both positive and negative connotations at the community level. Negative perceptions about empowerment seem associated with the idea of \"power over\" where power is gained at others' expense (Rowlands, 1997).For me empowerment is a person who wants to do everything, who does not need others, they want to have everything, they do not let others have it. (Men's Group. Río Grande)Empowered is that he commands you too, he exercises power over me (Men's Group. Matapalo).As Rowlands (1997) explained, this negative assumption can be an obstacle to women's empowerment due to men assuming that in the process they are losing power and control, a process that will resist. For this reason, empowerment approaches in development and gender analysis should take the conceptualization of power and empowerment to a model which considers \"an increase in one's person's power does not necessarily diminish that of another\" (Rowlands, 1997, p. 12).On the other hand, positive comments about empowerment dealt with a future vision and attitude changes, perceptions closest to a power concept related to agency which Kabeer (1999) identified as \"the ability to define one's goal and act upon them\" (p. 438). The empowering process is associated with motivation and purposes of individuals which can lead to active decision-making.Seeing what you want in the future will help everyone to improve. (Men's Group. Río Grande)Empowerment can be experienced and demonstrated in different dimensions including the collective one \"where individuals work together to achieve a more extensive impact than each could have had alone\" (Rowlands, 1997, p.15). According to women's discussants women empowerment is strongly related to community/collective actions and equality with men. Participation in groups and women networks enables them to learn about other women's experiences and the rights they have as women at the household and community level.Organized is how women get ideas. (Women's Group. Río Grande)When a woman knows her autonomy, she gets involved in all the activities and projects of the community, just like a man. (Women's Group. Río Grande)There are changes when women are empowered and we know our rights and we say stop this, machismo always exists, but it all depends on us to diminish it, not eradicate it because that would be a lie. (Women's Group. Matapalo)Collective action facilitates spaces for the exchange of knowledge, which is an intellectual asset that can help ensure women have access to information, which in turn contributes to their agency or their \"capacity to define their own life choices and to pursue their own goals\" (Kabeer, 1997, p. 438).Additionally, collective action and information supports women to recognize and exercise their rights as women, as implied in the following quote.In me it has changed, I am participative, I have been in the Women's Network, I like to train myself because I learn a lot, and I share my knowledge with other women, before women could not speak, we have the freedom to participate, give our opinion, choose, the truth is we have changed, since 1980 I have participated in organizations, I am one of the few that have remained, I was president for 10 years of SDM Defenders of Life, I have trained women who have been abused by their husbands, and that helped them to change their lives (Women's Group. Río Grande).Although there have been some changes in women's participation and their involvement in the public sphere, the path to be empowered is also still associated with the limitations that women face to belong to these spaces of collective action, or to economic spaces. One of the main barriers is a lack of formal education, which prevents them from accessing jobs or even training because of illiteracy.I think that all of us who are here, none of us went after sixth grade, we could not go to school. (Women's group. San Antonio).Gender norms often assign women to the private, home sphere. Machismo is a learned social structure in which the contributions, especially contributions to production and economic well-being of women is not recognized. Furthermore, the perception of who qualifies as a \"good woman\" is typically associated with the care of the home and family.Machista is not the same as empowered, machista is the one who says that here she does not leave until he says so. (Men's Group. Matapalo).These perceptions and restrictive gender norms often limit what opportunities are perceived as available to women (by both the women themselves and the larger society).The women in the community work as housewives because there is no other activity, there are women who go to the shrimp farm, but not us, only the husbands and grown children go to work, we only do the housework, because there is no other activity that can be done. (Women's group. San Antonio)Using the quantitative data, we calculate the A-WEAI as a measure of women's empowerment. Figure 7 show the calculation and final A-WEAI scores for the samples. As shown in Figure X, women in cashew producing households have the highest A-WEAI score, followed by cashew processors, then dairy producers and dairy processors. The score of the combined samples is 0.802. The A-WEAI scores, especially in the dairy value chain are quite similar to the WEAI scores reported by IFPRI (2013) of 0.749. We also calculated the A-WEAI by women's roles. We found that employed women are less empowered than women not employed in the value chain node. Women owners of value chain assets are more empowered than women who do not own such assets. There is not much difference in the empowerment of women who are considered managers and those considered helpers. We can also disaggregate the A-WEAI score and consider each indicator separately. In the following sections we explore each of the six A-WEAI indicators and the number of women (and men) who attain adequacy in each of them.Input in productive decisions is one indicator related to empowerment in the A-WEAI score. A woman is considered adequate if she participates in (or feels she could participate in) at least one type of decision related to food crops, cash crops, livestock rearing, or fishing. The survey asked both men and women about their perspectives on how decisions related to each value chain node are made. In general, most women report that decisions are made jointly by the couple (husband and wife). In the cashew value chain, many men (50 -60%) also report decisions being made jointly and a significant portion report that the principal man makes the decisions alone (about 40% in both nodes of the cashew value chain).In the dairy value chain, more than half of the men report that they alone make the decisions. Few men or women report that women make the decisions alone (less than 25% in all value chain nodes). In few cases other household members are reported to make the decisions.Ownership of assets is another important indicator of women's empowerment. The A-WEAI considers a woman adequate in this indicator is she owns at least one large asset (something besides chicken or poultry, nonmechanized farm tools/equipment, or small consumer durables).In general, men and women report that more men own assets than women. Many men consider themselves to be the sole owners of the assets, especially agricultural land, or the house. For women, there are very few cases in which they consider themselves to be the sole owners of an asset; they generally feel that they are joint owners with their partners. Similarly, for the house and agricultural land, there are several men who think that they own these assets jointly with their partner. One issue to note is the large number of cases where non-ownership of assets is reported, such is the case of agricultural equipment and means of transportation, two factors that can be detrimental to the production and distribution of products.The A-WEAI considers a woman to be adequate in this indicator if she has access to credit and makes decisions or feels she could make decisions about credit. Overall, many men and women across the nodes and value chains do not have access to credit, or do not have decision-making power in their households over the loans made (see Tables 12 -15). When disaggregated by source of financing, we found that both men and women have access to formal sources of credit such as banks and cooperatives. However, when analyzing who has borrowed, we find that it is women who borrow the most. Also, many women made the decision to apply for loans with banks in the year prior to the survey (79 women). Finally, for most of the credit sources surveyed (Cooperative, Caja Rural, Informal Lenders, and Microfinance) more men than women decide to apply for loans. Control over income is another indicator of women's empowerment. The A-WEAI considers a woman adequate if she makes decisions over income or feels she could if she wanted to. In the case of women producers involved in cashew activities, more than 80% feel that they have a great deal of influence over the management of cashew income. On the other hand, although almost 60% of the men feel the same way, about 40% of them feel that their influence over this income is not as strong.We find a similar pattern in the cashew and processing nodes; most women (about 80%) report their involvement in decisions related to income from cashew (dairy) as \"to a large extent\" whereas most men (about 60%) report the involvement in such decisions as \"to some extent\". For dairy production, the pattern is a bit different; the majority (about 80%) of both men and women report that their participation in income decisions is a \"large extent\".Participating in groups is considered an indicator of empowerment as it provides women access to information, knowledge, network with other women, and potential leadership roles and skills. In the study site, there are several different types of groups. Many women participate in religious and civic groups and men mainly participate in religious, business, and water groups.The last indicator of empowerment is workload; a woman is considered adequate in this indicator if she works less than 10.5 hours a day in all kinds of productive and reproductive work. On average, women in cashew producing households dedicate 8 hours per day between productive and reproductive work, while men dedicate 6 hours per day. Women are the ones who dedicate a greater amount of time to tasks such as childcare, housework and cooking, confirming that they dedicate a large part of their days to reproductive work. On the other hand, for activities that are considered productive work, women dedicate a greater amount of time to work as employees, while men dedicate a greater amount of time to work in their own businesses, agricultural production, and other productive activities.Figures 8 and 9 show the proportion of women reaching adequacy in each of the A-WEAI indicators in the cashew and dairy value chains. Overall, most women are achieving adequacy in several of the indicators. In general, fewer women in the dairy value chain than the cashew value chain reach adequacy across the indicators; and fewer women in the processing nodes than the production nodes reach adequacy. Across all four samples, the indicators with the fewest women reaching adequacy are workload and group membership, followed by access to and decisions on credit. Women in cashew producing households fare a bit better in workload and group membership with over 70 percent of women reaching adequacy.  A similar trend is found if we look at adequacy levels by type of role women play in the value chains (see figures 10 -12). Only 19 percent of women employees in the processing nodes meet the adequacy level of group membership, while 35 percent of all women in the processing nodes meet the criteria. Only about one third of women in the processing nodes, whether employees or not meet the condition of adequacy in terms of workloads, implying that two thirds of women in processing nodes work more than ten and half hours per day. And about half of the women employees and non-employees in the processing nodes have access to and make decisions on credit. While owners fare better, with more than half reaching adequacy in all the indicators; workloads, group membership and credit are the indicators with the fewest women reaching adequacy. In terms of managers, helpers, and those not involved, some interesting patterns arise. We see expected patterns where more managers than helpers Another way to examine the data related to A-WEAI is to consider the women who are disempowered and identify which indicators contribute most to their disempowerment. As shown in figures 13A -D, across both value chains, both nodes, and the various roles women play, we find that workload and group membership are the two main indicators contributing to disempowerment. For cashew producers, asset ownership is the third largest contributor to women's disempowerment. For dairy producers it is control over income. For women employees the third biggest contributor to disempowerment is input in production decisions, indicating that women employees are less involved in making farm production decisions than other women. For women who are not employees, access to and decisions over credit is the third largest contributor to their disempowerment. Women who own value chain assets and are disempowered, after workload and group membership, credit is the next indicator contributing to their disempowerment, while for women who do not own value chain assets, control over income is the third largest contributor to their disempowerment. Disempowered women who were identified as managers have workload as the main contributor to their disempowerment, followed by group membership, and then control over income. For helpers, the first contributor is group membership, followed by workload, and then tied for third place is participation in productive decisions and ownership of assets. For women not involved in the value chain node activities, after group membership and workload, the next contributor is participation in production decisions. Through the qualitative methods, women identified different barriers and opportunities both for their participation and for the economic sector in which they are involved. These included gender stereotypes, workloads, lack of networks, limited education and trainings, as well as sector-specific barriers like seasonality, generational turnover, labor force, and low investment. We discuss each of these in detail.One of the barriers to women's empowerment in the dairy and cashew VCs are gender stereotypes regarding labor division which lead to an inequity in time use, access to new jobs, participation, access to economic resources, and limited access to positions of power (management, boards of directors). With respect to social norms, the workshops revealed that there are many learned structures regarding the ideals of men and women, closely related to traditional conceptions of gender roles that place women as housewives and men as workers.\"The woman cannot work at home and outside because if she is away from home, she does not take care of the household.\" (Men's group. Rio Grande) This has led to a lack of awareness of the work performed by women both inside and outside the home and to the normalization of the multiple roles they play. Women's key and contributing role in the economically productive sphere is not sufficiently recognized by men and women, associating it with \"help\" and \"support\" of men's activities and roles. Expressions such as \"help\" and \"support\" qualifying women's roles result in women's work being invisible or ignoring the important work women perform daily in private spaces such as homes, and public or productive spaces such as farms.\"As rural women, our work is to support our husbands\" (Women's group. Río Grande).Positive characteristics associated with both genders are conditioned by stereotypes that reaffirm women as good mothers, obedient wives, and orderly housewives, always linked to the home and the private sphere. While the man is placed in public and/or productive spaces, as a worker and provider. This labor division based on gender norms lead to an excessive workload for women, and a barrier to access employment or other economic activities which are separated from the household chores and childcare.Furthermore, the gendered division of labor within value chains are based on stereotypes related to physical characteristics typically assigned to men or women such as strength or delicacy. For example, many women are hired in cashew plants because the work is seen as needing a delicate touch not to crack or break the cashews. Similarly, dairy processing plants prefer to hire men for operational tasks that require physical strength. According to the testimonies of the women interviewed, a plant could not be run by women alone due to lack of technification in the plant processes.\"Yes, to manage a dairy plant with women alone would not be possible, because the question of making cheese, or making cheeses is a bit heavy. Well, one who does not have the capacity to buy a machine to make cheese, because the machines will make the cheese almost by themselves, one makes it on a stove, with iron pots. With a stick you move the quesillo, you have to stretch it. That's what manpower is for\" (Dairy processor, May 2021).Gender-based preconceptions impact whether women participate in community groups; as described above, women tend to work many hours a day (in both productive and reproductive activities), thus considering their workload, they often do not have time for other activities, like participating in groups.Women's mobility out of the private sphere (household) is conditional on maximizing their time, safety, and communication with their partner.\"We women cannot go out, since we are housewives, we cannot go out just for the sake of going out, we cannot go out for no reason.\" (Women's group. Rio Grande).Women face barriers to entering administrative positions because their capacity for management and control is constantly questioned. Cooperatives and/or processing plants have historically been managed by men. When women do get into management positions, they face the challenges of the position (administrative and operational), plus the challenge of being respected in their decisions.\"The cooperatives have a problem, when I joined, there was no generational replacement, there was no participation of women. Most of them are managed by men. At the beginning it was not easy because I had many barriers, because they were elderly people, and women were not seen as a person who could take the reins of a company, much less that they could be considered for decision making. So, it was quite a challenge, but little by little they calmed down when they saw the decisions, when they saw the results, and then they calmed down. In the end, I can't say that they got used to it because there is always that barrier, but they have accepted that women can manage a company much better than they can.\" (Woman manager of a cooperative, May 2021).Not only do women face judgement from others, their own self-perception about their skills and their ability to belong in these positions, which added to the limited time they have, all impede women from gaining positions of leadership in these new spaces.\"Yes, we still have challenges in that area. It is that even though we encourage [women], we train them, they still do not position themselves in their place, there are still dents, but it is already their mind the way they have been raised.\" (Woman manager of cooperative, May 2021)The national, regional, and local cultural context is transversally crossed by a macho culture inserted in the sociocultural patterns reinforced from upbringing. The challenge is to train new generations aware of gender equality.\"Let us remember that our countries have a very macho mind, too much machismo, and it is not only seen in the suburbs, but also in the city. Women are discriminated against. In a job sometimes she works more than a man, she is less rewarded than a man. And that is true, not only in some, but in many countries, including those in the first world.\" (Woman cooperative manager, May 2021)Another barrier identified mainly by women dairy processors is the amount of time they have available to dedicate to these activities. Women consider themselves as \"pillars of the household,\" and also fulfill productive roles between the plant, alternative businesses (salaried jobs, grocery stores, restaurants). Their role as multitasking women limits their space and time for attending training events and for free time.Well, I think it's a job, as I say, that takes up a lot of her time. Although in the cashew production node there are opportunities to network through groups, associations, cooperatives and farmer field schools, the cashew and dairy processing nodes seems to lack these networks. They do not know each other as owners, nor does there seem to be a training, capacity building or cooperative network to provide support among women linked to this node. This clearly may be linked to the limited time they have to participate, or mobility issues, however, there does not appear to be external support on these issues.However, it is important to point out that the existence of an organization does not guarantee that there is a high level of participation; therefore, it is necessary to promote local initiatives that promote organization and continue to motivate women's participation in the different meeting spaces.For many women it is impossible to participate in workshops and training because they consider that their knowledge is not sufficient to attend, such is the case of women who have not attended school or who have not finished it, even if they know how to read and write, there are few spaces in which they can exercise this knowledge.The restriction of women to housework and the lack of job opportunities represents an impediment to developing communication skills, which require constant practice, especially to lose the fear of public speaking. Many women may not attend the spaces because they feel they do not have the right words or anything important to say.As part of our research, we asked women to identify barriers/challenges related to the sector to which they belong. They mentioned generational turnover, labor force, low investments, and seasonality as some barriers related to the sectors. In general, there is a migration of young people to the capital or larger towns to look for other types of jobs that are not related to agriculture or artisanal processing which represents a challenge for keeping the sector dynamic. Seasonality is a barrier to the relative performance of the sectors, as it makes the economic activity attractive or unattractive, and the involvement of women and men in the chain. Both cashew cultivation and milk production occur at certain times of the year, or at least the quantity produced increases, which causes the economic dynamics of the chain to fluctuate.The qualitative results show how women identify these fluctuations as a barrier to their performance for several reasons: 1) cashew activity is only temporary and does not guarantee (at least for those who have small and new plantations) a significant economic income. For this reason, it is still considered only an alternative activity. 2) In the case of dairy processing, they identified that in winter there is increased competition due to oversupply of milk, which causes price fluctuations and limits cash flow. New spaces for women's participation have been made possible through institutional interventions with a gender approach. Women have been supported in technical, commercial and empowerment and rights training. This is evidenced in their narratives of equality, besides the importance of leaving this legacy to their new generations at the household and community level.\"For me when you have children, your children are a motivation. For example, my daughter says she wants to be a chef. I tell her that's fine, but she has to study so she can be the restaurant's owner and not work for someone else. So that is part of the motivation, we have to motivate ourselves as women to be empowered in this economy. I think women are more determined, and we take more risks\" (Dairy processor, May 2021).Women in cooperatives and associations management positions play a role as change agents to counteract gender stereotypes. Women who are role models capable of recognizing in themselves and in their peers the capabilities will guarantee to leave agency as a legacy for other women, leading them to participate and make decisions at this level. In addition to raising awareness of gender issues among generations of men and women who have been marked by machismo.We began to visit them [women] house by house, and there were young girls who already wanted to work, they were 18 years old. We visited them [women], and so we went…, and so little by little. They noticed that they could have minimum wage. We also focused a lot on single mothers, there are quite a few single mothers here. At the present level, in the cooperative the majority of its workforce are women. (Cooperative manager, May 2021).After having just 5 members [women]... The cooperative is made up of 5 groups from Namasigüe and El Triunfo, and those 5 groups have autonomy, they have their own board of directors, and they have their own certified organic farms, ... and of those 69 farms, 22 are already women, the owners of those lands, of those farms. So, from 5 to 22 is quite a big challenge, and we continue to work for women (Cooperative manager, May 2021).For these changes to be sustained over time, it is important for the value chains to be economically sustainable to ensure economic benefits for women. Cooperatives, associations, and companies should include gender equity as part of their corporate policies. These actors including final consumers/clients could support the inclusion and participation of women along the value chain through incentives or higher prices to products that are produced, processed and marketed by women. For example, dairy processing seems to be a promising economic scenario for women due to it being a rising sector with a future perspective of growth in the national and even international market. In addition, there are already some technical skills installed in some women involved in this node that can be extended to other women. However, there is a lack of work in collective actions and the sector needs to be more inclusive in technologies with gender approach. To encourage women, participation in groups can lead to improved self-recognition and active agency in decision making.A strength among women in these sectors is their sense of solidarity among women, also known as sorority. Especially among women who have been raised in single-mother households, a sense of independence and empowerment is created. This movement of solidarity and awareness of women's power is an important asset for empowerment work in production chains.One of the main motivations for these women is to educate their children, to provide better living conditions and even to have the opportunity to complete their own academic training. Women seek to leave legacies of empowerment in which their sons and daughters have the tools to have better economic income and a better projection in their future. At the value chain level, women project their businesses as an opportunity for economic income, but the processors in both chains have a greater projection than the cashew producers. The processors see much more technified plants, a more profitable business with the possibility of providing more jobs for people in the region. The producers see opportunities and make their projections in other businesses (restaurants, cashew farming, etc.).\"I really want to implement a business like that. The plant is able to provide work, open doors, be able to process, and earn. Generate the product when it comes out of the plant, that is in the shell, and make the production to take it out already in the baking process, and also already for the customer.\" (Cashew processor, May 2021).\"My aspiration is to have a cold room to store products, and to have the capacity to store them, so that I have time to process the milk, pay for it, and store the product, because in the summer it fetches a better price. So, in order to sell it in summer I have to store it in winter, but in winter I have to have capital to pay for the milk because the producers need the money. So, my aspiration would be that, someday, maybe. \" (Dairy processor, May 2021).\"The idea is to be able to start my business when the pandemic subsides, and to be able to open normally, to continue working with the food business, to keep the business afloat\" (Cashew producer, May 2021).In this study we found women dairy processors with a high degree of power with decision-making capacity and knowledge of the operation and commercialization of the chain; with low levels of selfconfidence and self-recognition about the role they play. The results show women with greater collective power in cashew VC, but it would be important to evaluate whether this is something transitory due to project interventions or whether they are structures that will be maintained over time.The testimonies of these women producers show that their power in decision-making in value chains (farms, plants) is somewhat more limited, and their power in household decisions does not seem to be at high levels because their economic activity continues to be considered secondary. On the other hand, we found that the role of cooperatives is important as long as there is leadership with a gender focus that motivates and shows the advantages of equity.With the quantitative data, we use probit regression models to identify factors related to women's participation in value chains and their empowerment as measured by the 5DE component of the A-WEAI. Table 15 presents the results of the regression analysis of women's participation in value chains.Model 1 shows the factors related to women being managers or participating in most of the decisions that the household makes regarding the value chain node. The second column gives the results for the model of women being employees in the processing nodes. The third/final column shows the results for the model of women being owners of value chain node assets. The results indicate that a woman's age and on-farm activities is negatively correlated to being a manager, while her spouse's on-farm and offfarm activities is positively correlated to her being a manager. Furthermore, holding all else equal, women in cashew processing, dairy production, and dairy processing are all less likely than women in cashew production to be managers.In terms of employees (for women in the processing nodes), education is negatively correlated to being an employee, while number of children and number of off-farm activities is positively related to being an employee in the value chain node. The spouse's age and number of on-farm activities is negatively correlated with a woman being an employee. Examining the third column, we find that age, number of children, and number of on-farm activities is positively correlated with the woman being an owner, while number of off-farm activities, and spouse's number of off-farm activities are negatively correlated with being an owner of value chain node assets. The results for the regressions about women's empowerment and adequacy in the empowerment indicators are given in table 16. The first column shows the results for women's empowerment as measured by the 5DE score. These results suggest that age, education, number of on-farm activities, number of off-farm activities, and being an owner of value chain assets are all positively correlated with a woman's level of empowerment as given by her 5DE score, while her spouse's age is negatively correlated with her empowerment. Also, women in cashew processing, dairy production, and dairy processing are less empowered than women in cashew production. Furthermore, women helpers and those not involved are less empowered than women managers.The second column gives the results for a logit regression of women's adequacy in productive decisions.Here we find that age, and number of on -farm activities, and spouse's number of on-farm activities are positively correlated with achieving adequacy in productive decisions. A spouse's age and education are negatively correlated with women participating in at least one type of production decisions. Furthermore, women in cashew processing and dairy production are less likely to achieve adequacy in this indicator than women in cashew production. Furthermore, helpers and not involved women are less likely to achieve adequacy than women managers.As shown in the third column, factors that are positively correlated with women being owners of at least one large asset include her age, her education, and the number of her on-farm activities. Women in cashew processing, dairy production, and dairy processing are more likely to own a large asset than women in cashew production. This result is different from the overall empowerment levels which suggest women in cashew production are better off than women in the other value chain nodes.Factors that are positively related to women accessing and making decisions on credit include the number of her on-and off-farm activities, and her spouse's level of education. Women in cashew processing, dairy production, and dairy processing are less likely to access and make decisions about credit than women in cashew production. Furthermore, employees and owners of value chain assets are less likely to achieve adequacy in this indicator than women who are not employees or who are not owners.A woman controlling income is positively associated with her level of education, and the number of her on-and off-farm activities. Women in dairy production are less likely than women in cashew production to control income, and women who are not involved in the value chain node, are less likely than managers to control income.Being a member of at least one group is positively associated with women's age, education, number of children, number of on-farm activities, and being an owner of value chain assets, it is negatively associated with her spouse's age and education. Women in cashew and dairy processing are less likely to be a member of a group than women in cashew production.Finally, in terms of workload, a woman's education, the number of her on-and off-farm activities are negatively correlated with her achieving an adequate workload (less than 10.5 hours per day). Women in cashew processing, dairy production, and dairy processing are less likely than women in cashew production to achieve adequacy in this indicator. Overall, our results suggest that women in the cashew value chain are more empowered than women in the dairy value chain. And, women in the production node tend to be more empowered than women in the processing node. These results seem to be related primarily to workload and group membership. In the processing nodes, women are less likely to achieve adequacy in workload, implying that many women in the processing node work more than 10.5 hours. They have less opportunity, perhaps given their time constraints, to participate in groups. While women in the production nodes may work fewer hours on average, there are still a significant number of women who work long hours and do not achieve adequacy in workload or group membership in these nodes as well.Overall gender norms and stereotypes limit women's opportunities. Women are often expected to take care of the home and family, which can limit the time they have for other activities. Freedom of movement is another limitation of women, both because they are expected to be at home and because of security reasons it is often thought to be unsafe for women to travel alone. Furthermore, levels of education can limit women's participation in groups and in accessing employment or leadership positions. In terms of the value chains, seasonality plays a role in production and profits and can also impact women's ability to exercise agency and thus her empowerment.Our results indicate that the value chains and nodes may not be as important as other issues when it comes to women's empowerment. The two biggest factors related to disempowerment are workloads and group membership. This implies that development projects could support initiatives and interventions that support women in ways that can reduce their workloads and increasing their opportunities for group membership. For example, working with men and women to change gender norms, encouraging men to participate in household responsibilities, promoting women to do things that they are not normally seen doing like operating machinery, leading groups, etc. Projects must also","tokenCount":"18181"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"37d7bf2eac7020cda6b43cdb0ecab811","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4641612f-be0b-4cf6-8e7d-f7fa1703ac98/retrieve","id":"256029323"},"keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","WLE -Water, Land and Ecosystems Contributing Flagships:","F4: Managing Resource Variability, Risks and Competing Uses for Increased Resilience (VCR) Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined>"],"sieverID":"56490682-5022-4b12-b938-6e6758a3322a","pagecount":"5","content":"Since 2019, when WLE/IWMI reported on the impact of its research on groundwater knowledge generation and management in Laos, policies and investment programs have evolved that are benefitting groundwater-dependent communities. There is now greater recognition of the strategic importance of groundwater, and more emphasis placed on the systematic management of groundwater by responsible government agencies and in development projects. In particular, WLE/IWMI-facilitated knowledge and capacity development are helping Laos establish a national groundwater roadmap and sub-national groundwater management plans.Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: WLE/IWMI has been collaborating with the Government of Lao PDR on sustainable groundwater management since 2012 (1). The most recent phase of groundwater research conducted in Laos since 2019 by WLE/IWMI and its partners has delivered important research content, capacity enhancement and awareness-raising (1,2), contributing significantly to improved groundwater management policies and practices as reflected in the points below:• The Lao Department of Water Resources (DWR), one of the key research partners, has strengthened the regulatory framework through its National Groundwater Agreement enacted in 2019. This agreement builds on the Water and Water Resources Law of 2017 that drew upon inputs from an earlier phase of the research. DWR is presently developing a more targeted ministerial agreement on the management of groundwater use that will authorize licensing and charging of borehole drillers and larger water users (3).• New technical assistance projects have been initiated, with the support of development partners such as the World Bank and the Australian Water Partnership, to help DWR prepare groundwater management plans integrated with river basin management. These plans build on experience gained in preparing a pilot plan from the earlier phase of the research (4,5,6).• A new groundwater irrigation scheme implemented by the Lao Department of Irrigation is using knowledge from the current phase of the research and drawing on experience gained from farmer-managed irrigation trials established in the previous phase (7,8).•The research has identified the emergence of farmer-and investor-driven solar-powered irrigation schemes as a new climate-resilient solution for enhancing livelihoods. This provides fertile ground for new research in this area to support sustainable and equitable growth (7).• Most of these efforts have been enabled by WLE/IWMI prioritized support for enhancing the skills of Lao nationals through postgraduate studies, internships and training. There has been one PhD graduate, one Masters graduate and two internships. A one-week, field-based hydro-geophysics training course held in Southern Laos included 14 attendees from government agencies and the national university. Part of the research impact is linked to Masters and PhD trained graduates working within government and academia that were trained through the research (7,9,10).","tokenCount":"427"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c1ba5241c5bd68facc5258d09d584de1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25a10acd-7b10-41e0-88b3-108c896f3ed4/retrieve","id":"550418576"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3d7f9764-d847-49cf-9ffd-516a4f625844","pagecount":"19","content":"In Latin America, the cultivation of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) plays a critical role in rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development. Over the last 20 years, coffee farms and landscapes across the region have undergone rapid and profound biophysical changes in response to low coffee prices, changing climatic conditions, severe plant pathogen outbreaks, and other drivers. Although these biophysical transformations are pervasive and affect millions of rural livelihoods, there is limited information on the types, location, and extent of landscape changes and their socioeconomic and ecological consequences. Here we review the state of knowledge on the ongoing biophysical changes in coffee-growing regions, explore the potential socioeconomic and ecological impacts of these changes, and highlight key research gaps. We identify seven major landuse trends which are affecting the sustainability of coffee-growing regions across Latin America in different ways. These trends include (1) the widespread shift to disease-resistant cultivars, (2) the conventional intensification of coffee management with greater planting densities, greater use of agrochemicals and less shade, (3) the conversion of coffee to other agricultural land uses, (4) the introduction of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) into areas not previously cultivated with coffee, (5) the expansion of coffee into forested areas, (6) the urbanization of coffee landscapes, and (7) the increase in the area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards. Our review highlights the incomplete and scattered information on the drivers, patterns, and outcomes of biophysical changes in coffee landscapes, and lays out a detailed research agenda to address these research gaps and elucidate the effects of different landscape trajectories on rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, and other aspects ofCoffee cultivation plays a vital economic, social, cultural, and environmental role in Latin America and shapes rural landscapes and livelihoods across the region. Latin America is a key region for coffee production, accounting for roughly 60% of the world's coffee supply and 80% of the world's Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica; ITC 2011). Millions of farmers, agricultural laborers, and other workers across the region depend on coffee production, purchasing, and processing for their livelihoods (Canet Brenes et al. 2016;CABI 2018). Coffee has consistently played an integral role in the region's economy, and coffee exports continue to be an important source of income generation, though the overall contribution of coffee to national GDPs has declined in recent decades (CABI 2018). Since many of Latin America's coffee-growing areas overlap with biodiversity hotspots (Jha et al. 2014), coffee cultivation practices (e.g., the type and use of shade trees, agrochemical use, soil conservation practices) can have variable and significant impacts on biodiversity conservation and the supply of ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration and water provision (Perfecto et al. 1996;Somarriba et al. 2004). The coffee sector therefore plays a critical role in efforts to improve farmer livelihoods, enhance biodiversity conservation, tackle climate change, and achieve sustainable development across Latin America.In the coffee-growing regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Andean countries (referred to hereafter as \"northern and Andean Latin America\"), coffee production has historically involved the planting of Arabica coffee, a high-quality coffee that is grown in higher, cooler elevations. The majority of coffee farmers across this region are smallholders who cultivate small coffee plots (typically < 5 ha and often <2 ha), often in combination with annual crops (e.g., maize, beans), fruit and timber trees, small-scale livestock production, or small areas of forest (Méndez et al. 2010;Bacon et al. 2017;Harvey et al. 2017;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2020). Consequently, coffee landscapes are typically diverse landscape mosaics composed of coffee fields interspersed with other land uses. Arabica coffee is grown under a wide range of management types from traditional rustic systems where coffee bushes are planted under heavily thinned natural forest and few inputs are used, to specialized shade systems where shade trees and inputs are carefully managed, to intensive systems with high densities of coffee bushes, little or no shade, and heavy use of agrochemical inputs (Moguel and Toledo 1999;Perfecto et al. 2019). Depending on the type, diversity, and density of their shade canopy, coffee agroforestry systems can provide fruit, firewood, timber, and other goods to farmers (Rice 2008); serve as critical habitat, resources, and landscape connectivity for biodiversity conservation (Perfecto et al. 1996;Moguel and Toledo 1999;Somarriba et al. 2004;Valencia et al. 2016); store significant carbon stocks and thereby contribute to climate mitigation (e.g., Haggar et al. 2013;Vaast et al. 2016); enhance the resiliency of agricultural landscapes and help farmers adapt to climate change (Eakin et al. 2014;Harvey et al. 2017) and provide valuable ecosystem services (such as water provision, soil conservation, pollination, habitat for biodiversity, fruit and firewood provision) that underpin rural livelihoods (Jha et al. 2011;Cerda et al. 2017).Coffee production across northern and Andean Latin America has historically gone through periods of expansion and contraction in response to market supply and demand, climatic events, pest and disease outbreaks, and volatile coffee prices (Flores et al. 2002;Blackman et al. 2007). For example, in the 1970s and 1980s, the combination of neoliberal policies, growing global demand for coffee, and the need to prevent the spread of coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) led to the rapid intensification of coffee landscapes, with many shaded coffee farms being converted to low-shade or open-sun systems with high agrochemical inputs and densely planted coffee bushes (Perfecto et al. 1996(Perfecto et al. , 2019;;Rice 1999). However, for the last two decades, the biophysical changes in coffee-growing landscapes have been particularly pronounced and rapid. The widespread changes in coffee-growing regions reflect a combination of interacting stressors and shocks. Global coffee prices are volatile but have followed a continued downward trend since 2016 (ICO 2019). In September 2018, coffee prices were the lowest in 12 years (Amico et al. 2020). The prolonged period of low prices, coupled with rising labor and input costs, threatens the viability of coffee farming in the region (CABI 2018;ICO 2019;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic is placing additional stress on coffee production, as sanitary measures implemented in response to the pandemic are affecting the costs of production, reducing the availability and cross-border movement of workers who harvest coffee, and disrupting field visits by extension services (Aquino 2020;Guido et al. 2020;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2020). At the same time, the coffee sector is facing significant challenges from climate change, as rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent and intense extreme weather events (e.g., severe droughts, hurricanes, and flooding) reduce yields and quality, increase pest and disease outbreaks, and change the suitability of areas for coffee growing (Bunn et al. 2015;Läderach et al. 2017;Harvey et al. 2018). Climate change is expected to significantly reduce the area available for coffee production in Latin America in the future unless adaptation measures are put in place (Bunn et al. 2015;Läderach et al. 2017).The region's coffee production has also been profoundly affected by severe outbreaks of coffee leaf rust (a disease caused by the Hemileia vastatrix fungus) which results in heavy yield losses (Avelino et al. 2015;Avelino and Anzueto 2020). Leaf rust outbreaks have swept across northern and Andean Latin America, moving from Colombia (2008 to 2011), to Central America and Mexico (2012 onwards) to Peru and Ecuador in 2013. In Central America alone, coffee leaf rust reduced yields by 10-55% with regard to pre-rust levels (Amico et al. 2020) corresponding to an estimated 515 million USD in losses (ICO 2014), led to widespread food insecurity and malnutrition of smallholder coffee farmers and laborers (Avelino and Anzueto 2020), caused massive unemployment, and significantly increased migration to North America (Dupre 2018). Although coffee production started to recover from 2014 onwards due to the implementation of expensive management measures (such as coffee plant renovation and increased use of fungicides), the disease continues to hamper production in the region (Avelino and Anzueto 2020).The confluence of low prices, unfavorable climatic condition, coffee leaf rust, increasing production costs, and other stresses has led to profound and unprecedented biophysical changes to coffee farms and landscapes across northern and Andean Latin America, transforming how and where coffee is grown (Figure 1). In some coffee-growing areas, coffee fields have been abandoned and replaced by pastures, other agricultural crops, or other land uses (e.g., Haggar et al. 2013;Babin 2020), changing the composition and spatial configuration of coffee landscapes. In other regions, coffee is expanding into new areas, sometimes leading to deforestation (e.g., Blackman et al. 2005). Hundreds of thousands of hectares of coffee are also being renovated with high-yielding coffee varieties that are resistant to coffee leaf rust, and/or being put under intensified conventional management practices (including a reduction in shade tree cover and greater use of agrochemicals), leading to changes in both coffee productivity and the structure and composition of coffee landscapes. In other landscapes, there is an expansion in the area of coffee produced following voluntary sustainability standards that reward, among other measures, the maintenance or increase of shade density and diversity, forest conservation, soil conservation, and responsible use of pesticides and other agrochemicals (Milder et al. 2014;Lernoud et al. 2018). While some of these changes in coffee farms and landscapes have been documented previously in specific regions (e.g., Guhl 2008;Jha et al. 2014;Hite et al. 2017), there is very little comprehensive information on the extent, magnitude, dynamics, and consequences of landscape change across the Latin American region. The limited information on the ongoing transformation of coffee landscapes is concerning given the pervasiveness of biophysical changes and their potential to significantly affect the socioeconomic and ecological sustainability of coffee landscapes and livelihoods.The objective of this paper is to synthesize biophysical changes in coffee farms and landscapes across northern and Andean Latin America, explore potential consequences of these changes, and identify key research needs for better understanding of the dynamics and consequences of landscape transformations. We focus our review on coffee-growing regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Andean countries of Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador, as these coffee-growing regions share similar coffee production systems. Using expert knowledge and available literature, we highlight the major land-use trends occurring in coffee landscapes in response to coffee leaf rust, low prices, climatic change, increasing production costs, and other drivers, and explore some of the potential consequences of these changes on the social, economic, and environmental sustainability of coffee systems. We also identify key elements of a research agenda that could enable a more comprehensive understanding of the drivers, dynamics, and impacts of different landscape trajectories and how these trajectories could either contribute toor detract fromcurrent efforts to promote more sustainable coffee landscapes. This information is critical for informing the development of public and private sector strategies, programs, and incentives to promote a more sustainable coffee sector (e.g., Millard 2017;ICO 2019;Bager and Lambin 2020;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2020).We used a two-pronged approach to assess the current state of knowledge on ongoing landscape transformations in coffeegrowing landscapes and identify key research gaps. First, we organized an expert workshop at the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Cali, Colombia (February 17-20, 2020), with representatives from coffee institutions, development NGOs, agricultural extension agencies, farmer organizations, agricultural research centers, and academia. The experts possessed long-term experience and deep knowledge of one or more coffee regions in Latin America. Participants included experts from Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Peru, and Colombia, but many experts also had experience in other countries across the region. The participants represented a wide range of expertise, including phytopathology, agroecology, entomology, plant physiology, soil science, conservation biology, climate change, market value chains, and political ecology. During the workshop, the participants discussed changes in the coffee sector and drivers of coffee landscape change, identified biophysical changes that had occurred (or were ongoing) within different coffee regions during the last two decades, and explored the known socioeconomic and ecological impacts of these landscape-level changes. They also identified knowledge gaps and research needs.Second, we conducted a detailed literature review (primarily of scientific literature, but also of grey literature from key national-level coffee organizations, national research centers, and the International Coffee Organization) to find examples of the key landscape trajectories identified in the workshop and to identify the main knowledge gaps. Our literature review centered on publications on landscape change in coffee-growing regions during the last 20 years (2000-2020); however, because there is often a delay between research and publication, some of the publications included also provide information on landscape and management changes observed in the late 1990s.In our focus region (northern and Andean Latin America), coffee is a major land use, covering more than 2.8 million ha of land (Table 1). Most of the farmers cultivate Arabica coffee, which represents ~94% of the coffee area grown, in mountainous areas, often on steep slopes. Coffee production is the livelihood of an estimated 1.68 million farmers in the region, the majority of whom are smallholders (Table 1). Coffee has consistently played an integral role in the region's economy, serving as a critical source of income generation and employment for millions of people (in coffee production, harvesting, processing, and retail) and contributing between 0.3 and 3.7% of countries' gross domestic product (Table 1).Fig. 1 Photographs illustrating the current land use and ongoing transformation of coffee farms and landscapes across Latin America: a) a typical smallholder coffee farm in Yoro, Honduras, where coffee is grown in small plots under a sparse canopy of bananas and shade trees; b) a landscape dominated by intensive coffee production with highly managed shade in Los Santos, Costa Rica; c) coffee leaf rust, a disease which has caused widespread damage to coffee plantations and led farmers to replace traditional coffee varieties with disease-resistant varieties; d) an example of an intensified coffee farm in the lowlands of El Salvador, with coffee grown in open sun and with irrigation; e) a landscape in Colombia's coffee zone where some coffee fields have been converted to pasture and other agricultural land uses; and f) a landscape in Risaralda, Colombia, where coffee agroforests and forests have been cleared to establish new coffee. Photo credits: Milagro Sandoval (a), Jose Mario Cardenas (b), Alyssa Pritts (c), Jacques Avelino (d), ©2009CIAT/Neil Palmer (e), Inge Armbrecht (f).An overview of the importance of coffee in different countries within northern and Andean Latin America, including area planted with coffee, the number of coffee farmers, the contribution of coffee to national exports or national gross domestic product, and the number of people dependent on coffee for their livelihoods (including farmers, coffee pickers and laborers, and jobs related to the coffee sector), with 2,000,000 (2020) 29  We excluded Brazil from our analysis because its coffee production is distinct from that of the target region (Canet Brenes et al. 2016;Volsi et al. 2019). Contrary to its production in northern and Andean Latin America where coffee is grown at high elevations and shade trees are common, Brazilian coffee is primarily grown under full sun, on less steep slopes, and is intensively produced, often with mechanization and irrigation (Jha et al. 2014;Volsi et al. 2019). We also excluded Venezuela, Bolivia, and Panama from the analysis, due to the limited coffee production occurring in these countries and the relatively limited information on their coffee sectors.Our analysis suggests that there are at least seven major types of farm and landscape-level changes across northern and Andean Latin America that are reshaping the spatial configuration and makeup of coffee-growing landscapes in divergent ways (Table 2). These trends in land-use change are not necessarily mutually exclusive and may occur simultaneously in the same landscape or region. In addition, two of the trends (conventional intensification and increased in the area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards) affect shade levels and agrochemical use in opposite ways.The first landscape trend is that coffee farmers are actively changing the coffee varieties they grow, replacing traditional Arabica varieties (such as Bourbon or Typica) with highyielding, introgressed coffee varieties (e.g., Catimores or Sachimors) that have been bred to be resistant to coffee leaf rust (Avelino and Anzueto 2020). Following the devastating coffee leaf rust outbreaks, national governments, coffee institutions, and the coffee industry have made concerted efforts to restore production by replanting affected plantations with resistant varieties, distributing resistant coffee plants, and providing technical support, agricultural inputs, and credit schemes to help cover farmers' renovation costs (Valencia et al. 2018;Amico et al. 2020;Wiegel et al. 2020). For example, in response to the 2008 outbreak in Colombia, the National Federation of Coffee Growers began a national campaign, \"Colombia sin roya\" (or \"Colombia without coffee leaf rust\"), that replanted an estimated 45% of the country's total coffee area with resistant Castillo cultivars (van der Vossen et al. 2015). In Honduras, renovation efforts increased the country's area of coffee planted with resistant cultivars from 40 to 62%, though some of these so-called resistant cultivars (e.g., 'Lempira') have recently been shown to be losing resistance (Avelino and Anzueto 2020). In contrast, renovation in El Salvador has been much slower and more than 50% of the coffee area is still planted with susceptible varieties (Avelino and Anzueto 2020). Although there are no statistics on the full extent and distribution of resistant cultivars across the region (see Table 2 for available country-level information), many hundreds of thousands of hectares of affected coffee plantations have been replanted with resistant cultivars over the last decade. This large-scale replanting has transformed the structure and composition of many coffee landscapes and, in some cases, has reduced the extent and diversity of shade trees within coffee fields, simplifying landscape structure (Jha et al. 2014;Perfecto et al. 2019).A second trend is that many coffee farmers are continuing to intensify the management of existing Arabica coffee fields in an effort to obtain higher yields, reduce labor costs, and control pest and disease outbreaks (Table 2). The \"conventional intensification\" of coffee production involves reducing, simplifying, or eliminating shade and increasing the planting density of coffee plants and the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and fungicides (Perfecto et al. 1996(Perfecto et al. , 2019;;Rice 1999;Guhl 2008). From the 1970s onwards, there has been a steady loss of diverse shade-grown coffee systems and their replacement by simplified shade systems or sungrown coffee, with nearly 50% of shade coffee farms in Latin America converted to low-shade systems between 1970 and 1990 (Perfecto et al. 1996(Perfecto et al. , 2019;;Rice 1999;Jha et al. 2014). Shade-grown coffee systems are continuing to be lost in certain countries. For example, from 1996 to 2012, the percent of coffee area under traditional, diverse shade fell in El Salvador (from 92 to 24%), Nicaragua (from 55 to 25%), Guatemala (from 45 to 40%), and Costa Rica (from 10 to 0%; Jha et al. 2014 supplementary materials). However, during the same time period, shade levels in Colombia stayed more or less stable (~30%), and the percent of coffee under shade increased in Honduras (from 15 to 35%) and Mexico (from 10 to 30%; Jha et al. 2014, supplementary materials). In Costa Rica, almost all coffee is now grown either under simplified shade systems (in which trees are frequently pruned) or in open sun (Jha et al. 2014) with intensified management (Blackman and Naranjo 2012). Comprehensive data on the extent and distribution of intensified coffee production for the region, especially information on the density, composition and diversity of shade trees, and levels of agrochemical use, are either lacking or out of date (e.g., Rice 1999). In some landscapes, the rapid shift from high-yielding resistant varieties is leading to further intensification of coffee production, as farmers often plant the new varieties under little or no shade and apply heavy doses of agrochemicals (Perfecto et al. 2019;Amico et al. 2020). For example, smallholder farmers in both Guatemala (Bielecki and Wingenbach 2019) and in Chiapas, Mexico (Valencia et al. 2018) who previously produced organic coffee under diversified, dense shade, have recently switched to resistant varieties and started applying synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in an attempt to control pests and diseases and increase yields.In regions where coffee production is increasingly difficult or unprofitable, a third trend is that coffee farmers are either abandoning their coffee plantations or converting some or all of their coffee fields to other land uses (Table 2). For many smallholder coffee farmers, coffee farming is no longer economically viable, as low coffee prices make it difficult to cover the high costs of labor, fertilizer, and other inputs needed to sustain coffee production (Blackman et al. 2005; van der Vossen 2005; Panhuysen and Pierrot 2020). Rising temperatures and coffee leaf rust outbreaks have also impacted coffee production, reducing yields and farmer incomes even further (ICO 2019; Panhuysen and Pierrot 2020). In these circumstances, many farmers are abandoning their coffee or converting them to other land uses in an attempt to restore farm productivity. For example, 42% of the coffee farmers in the Chinantla subregion of the Sierra Norte de Oaxaca, Mexico, abandoned their coffee agroforests or converted them to another land use from 1990 to 2010, due to low coffee prices, low yields, and other stressors (Hite et al. 2017). Similarly, the area under coffee in Turrialba, Costa Rica, decreased 7% annually from 2000 to 2009, as farmers replaced coffee with crops such as vegetables or sugarcane (Bosselmann 2012). In the community of Emiliano Zapata in Central Veracruz, Mexico, coffee farmers have converted a portion of their farm to sugarcane and also planted lime trees to diversify their income sources (Hausermann 2014). In some low-elevation regions of Peru and Colombia, the combination of declining coffee prices and disease outbreaks has led farmers to replace some or all of their coffee plantations with the cultivation of illegal crops such as coca leaves, which are more profitable (Rettberg 2010) or temporarily abandon coffee production and move to coca-producing areas (Grisaffi  A fourth trend is that while the area under coffee is contracting in many regions, coffee production is also expanding into new areas previously under forest (Table 2), driven in part by the growing local and global demand for coffee (ICO 2019).Although there is surprisingly little information on the extent to which coffee is driving deforestation (Panhuysen and Pierrot 2018), there is evidence that coffee expansion is contributing to deforestation in certain regions, including the Chiapas and Oaxaca regions of Mexico (Blackman et al. 2005;Covaleda et al. 2014;Valencia et al. 2018), the Amazonian regions of Ecuador and Peru (Ganzenmuller and Castro Nuñez 2019;Marquardt et al. 2019), and the Trifinio transboundary area of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras (Schlesinger et al. 2017). For example, in the Department of San Martin, Peru, the area under Arabica coffee production tripled to an estimated 102,101 ha between 1995 and 2010, largely at the expense of primary forest (Marquardt et al. 2019). The encroachment of coffee on forest areas is expected to intensify in the future, as optimal locations for coffee production will move up in elevation under climate change (Baca et al. 2014;Bunn et al. 2015). Since many Arabica coffee-growing regions are adjacent to forests or protected areas (e.g., in El Salvador, 72% of the protected areas are within a 10-km radius of coffee-growing areas; Jha et al. 2011), any upward shifts in coffee production could encroach on remaining forest areas and lead to biodiversity loss, if these areas are not adequately protected.The fifth shift in coffee-landscapes is the recent introduction of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) in some countries including in areas that have no coffee-growing history. With the exception of Mexico and Guatemala, where Robusta coffee has been grown for decades on a limited scale, coffee production in northern and Andean Latin America has historically centered on the planting of Arabica coffee. To protect their reputations as providers of high-quality (Arabica) coffee, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua have historically banned the production of Robusta coffee (Pretel 2018) and other countries (such as Colombia) have strongly discouraged Robusta production (Nicholson and Menchu 2018). Some of these Robusta bans have been recently lifted (in 2013 in Nicaragua, and 2018 in Costa Rica; Pretel 2018), opening up the door for Robusta production, though there is still resistance among some of the coffee-growing organizations. Robusta coffee is a high-yielding species that generally produces lower quality (and lower value) coffee, is less susceptible to coffee leaf rust, and able to tolerate hotter temperatures, a characteristic that is increasingly desirable given the rising temperatures across the region (Bunn et al. 2015). As a result, Robusta coffee can be grown in lower elevations that are marginal for Arabica production. While it is unclear to what extent Robusta will spread across the region, recent news reports indicate that farmers in Mexico, Nicaragua, and Guatemala are being encouraged to plant Robusta in new areas (Nicholson and Menchu 2018;VOA 2018). For example, in Mexico, the government is supporting the establishment of an additional 20,000 ha of Robusta coffee in the southern and southeastern states of Chiapas, Veracruz, and Tabasco (Aceves Navarro et al. 2018). This expansion is mainly into lowland areas where coffee has previously not been grown, leading to deforestation, but in some areas of Chiapas, Robusta coffee is being planted in areas that were previously under Arabica coffee (Barrera 2016;Amico et al. 2020). In Nicaragua, the coffee industry started testing the suitability of Robusta coffee in the Autonomous Region of the South Atlantic (Bjørge 2017;Nicholson and Menchu 2018) in 2005 and had planted Robusta on nearly 900 hectares by 2016 (Bjørge 2017). A recent Nicaraguan law allows the production of Robusta in all regions of Nicaragua lower than 400 masl and in those located more than 30 km from Arabica plantations (Gonzalez 2016), setting the stage for further Robusta expansion. In Colombia, Robusta coffee is being tested in different regions of the country where Arabica is not grown, but has not yet been planted at scale (Portafolio 2017).A sixth trend is the increasing urbanization of coffee landscapes, especially near major cities. A key example is the Central Valley of Costa Rica, an area once renowned for its coffee production, which has now largely been converted to residential land due to population growth within the metropolitan area (Jha et al. 2014). A study by Filho et al. (2008) found that the area under coffee in Costa Rica declined 20% from 2001 to 2008, in large part due to urbanization and conversion to pasture. Urbanization has also accounted for 90% of the loss of coffee fields in the western region of El Salvador between 1990 and 2000, and 68% of the clearing in the central region (Blackman et al. 2007). The loss of coffee areas to residential and urban areas has also been reported in the traditional coffee triangle area in Colombia (e.g., Manizales, Pereira; Portafolio 2018; Muñoz-Rios et al. 2020), the Bosquete and Chiriqui regions of Panama (Jha et al. 2014), Guatemala (Jha et al. 2014), and parts of Mexico (Hausermann 2014), but is likely also occurring other coffee-growing regions near urban centers.A seventh and final trend that is affecting coffee landscapes is the increase in the coffee area that is being managed under voluntary sustainability standards (VSS), which has the potential to affect the presence of shade trees and forest cover within coffee farms and landscapes. The global area of coffee grown under voluntary sustainability standardswhich include both independent, third party certifications (such as Fairtrade, Organic, Rainforest Alliance, 4 C, and UTZ) and private industry standards (such as Starbuck's C.A.F.E practices and Nestle's Nespresso AAA programs)has grown significantly in recent years, increasing 78% from 2011 to 2016 (Lernoud et al. 2018). Latin America (including Brazil) currently provides the majority of the world's certified coffee, accounting for 72% of the 4C-certified coffee area (in 2016), 67% of the UTZ-certified area (2016), 46% of the organic certified area (2016), 64% of the Rainforest Alliance-certified areas (2016), and 55% of the Fair-tradecertified coffee area (2015; Lernoud et al. 2018). Market trends indicate that the area under VSS-compliant coffee in the region is continuing to increase (Lernoud et al. 2018;Meier et al. 2020), though uptake varies by country and within different regions of individual countries (Lernoud et al. 2018;Grabs et al. 2016).The growth of VSS-compliant coffee has the potential to increase shade tree diversity, shade density, the extent of forest cover, and landscape connectivity within coffee landscapes, if standards have strong environmental requirements, are applied in a rigorous and transparent way, and result in tangible changes in on-farm tree and forest management (Milder et al. 2014;Elliott 2018). Most of the sustainability standards include measures intended to improve the overall sustainability of coffee production, promote biodiversity conservation, and minimize environmental impacts, in addition to measures to promote social and economic sustainability (Milder et al. 2014). Ecological principles, criteria, and indicators vary among sustainability standards, but can include the use of dense and diverse shade trees, promotion of native trees for shade, protection or restoration of forest areas within coffee farms, maintenance of vegetated riparian buffers, maintenance or restoration of natural ecosystem connectivity, responsible use of agrochemicals, and adoption of good agricultural practices such as soil conservation, among others (Milder et al. 2014;Tscharntke et al. 2015;Bray and Neilson 2017). While the rapid and widespread adoption of certified coffee production by farmers has the potential to reconfigure coffee landscapes and transform the ecological, social, and economic sustainability of coffee production, there are only a handful of studies that have examined the impacts of certification on the structure and composition of coffee landscapes in a rigorous way (Blackman and Rivera 2010;Traldi 2021). One example is a study by Rueda et al. (2015) that found that Rainforest Alliance-certified farms in the Santander region of Colombia had greater tree cover and more diverse tree cover within their coffee plots than non-certified farms, enhancing the overall connectivity of tree and forest cover in the landscape. In addition, certified farmers were more likely to have planted trees outside the coffee plot and to have protected water sources through reforestation (Rueda and Lambin 2013b). In Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, organic coffee farmers had higher shade levels, a greater number of tree species, and more tree strata than conventional farms (Haggar et al. 2015). Other studies show mixed impacts of certification on the composition of coffee farms and landscapes. Blackman and Naranjo (2012), for example, found the organic coffee production by Costa Rican farmers reduced the use of chemical pesticides, fertilizer, and herbicides, but had no significant impact on the use of shade trees or windbreaks. Similarly, Haggar et al. (2017) found variable impacts of certification on the shade tree diversity, species richness, number of tree strata, and density in Nicaragua coffee farms, with some aspects being better on certified farms and others showing no impact of certification. Overall, the extent to which certification impacts the biophysical structure and composition of coffee landscapes is still unclear and merits more vigorous investigation (Bray and Neilson 2017), given the widespread (and growing) area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards.The rapid and pervasive biophysical changes in coffee farms and landscapes are likely to have significant social, economic, and ecological impacts across the region, both positive and negative (Table 3). However, in most cases, there is insufficient information on what these impacts are or how these impacts may vary in different landscape contexts with different biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics. Here we briefly highlight some of the potential impacts of major transformations in coffee-growing landscapes which require greater attention and research.Of the seven major changes identified above, the intensification of coffee plantations (with less shade, more densely planted coffee bushes, and greater agrochemical use) is the landscape change that has been most closely examined in terms of its potential social, economic, and ecological benefits and risks (e.g., Perfecto et al. 1996Perfecto et al. , 2019;;Rice 1999;Jha et al. 2014). Coffee intensification has significantly increased crop yields and coffee productivity per hectare within coffee farms (Guhl 2008). In some regions, the intensification of coffee production has also enabled farmers to decrease the overall area planted with coffee (as they can produce more coffee on less land), making land available for new agricultural crops and diversifying the composition of coffee landscapes (Guhl 2008). However, the overall impact of intensification farmer income, livelihoods, and is uncertain due to the high demand for labor and inputs (which are costly), the need to more frequently renovate coffee plantations due to the shorter lifespan of coffee bushes under intensive management, and the homogenization of coffee farming systems and landscapes which makes farmers more vulnerable to soil degradation and climatological or ecological shocks (Rice 1999;Jha et al. 2014;Perfecto et al. 2019). Reductions in the diversity and density of shade trees (especially fruit trees) may also exacerbate food insecurity among smallholder farmers, who harvest fruits to supplement their diets and use on-farm trees as firewood for cooking (Rice 2008;Anderzén et al. 2020). The simplification and loss of shade cover within intensified systems also significantly reduce the value of coffee landscapes for biodiversity conservation and for ecosystem service provision by reducing habitat and resource availability and disrupting landscape connectivity (Perfecto et al. 1996;Moguel and Toledo 1999;Somarriba et al. 2004).The ongoing expansion of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards clearly has the potential to have significant ecological, social, and economic impacts on coffee farms and livelihoods across northern and Andean Latin America, as voluntary standards programs are intentionally designed and implemented to promote socioeconomic and ecological sustainability. Voluntary sustainability standards can enhance the sustainability of coffee production by promoting the adoption of good agricultural practices (including shade management and more responsible use of agrochemicals); improving coffee productivity and marketing; enhancing farmer income, health, and livelihoods; promoting sustainable water use; and avoiding or minimizing negative environmental impacts such as deforestation or forest degradation, among other aspects (Bray and Neilson 2017;Traldi 2021). However, despite the large and rapidly expanding literature on the impacts of voluntary sustainability standards, in particular third-party certification (e.g., Bacon et al. 2008;Blackman and Naranjo 2012;Haggar et al. 2015Haggar et al. , 2017)), the evidence on ecological, social, and economic outcomes of Major transformations of coffee-growing regions 1. Replacement of traditional Arabica coffee varieties with high-yielding, resistant varieties 2. Conventional intensification of coffee production, including the reduction, simplification, or elimination of shade, increased planting densities and increased use of agrochemicals 3. Abandonment of coffee fields and/or conversion of coffee to other agricultural land uses 4. Expansion of coffee production into forested areas, leading to deforestation 5. Introduction and expansion of Robusta coffee 6. Urbanization of coffee-growing regions 7. Increased area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards Potential drivers of landscape change Economic drivers: low and volatile coffee prices, high input prices, high labor costs, global market demand and supply, economic impacts of COVID-19 Biophysical drivers: climate change, extreme weather events, coffee leaf rust, other pest, and disease outbreaks Social drivers: aging of coffee farmers, changing importance of coffee within farmer livelihood strategies, shortages of labor, migration, rural conflict Policy drivers: certification processes, growing demand for VSS-compliant coffee, increased demand for specialty coffee, government programs and policies for renovation of coffee plantations, subsidies and fertilizers, private investment, certification processes, sustainability initiatives Potential impacts of landscape changes Ecological impacts: biodiversity loss, changes in tree and forest cover on agricultural land, changes in deforestation patterns and associated GHG emissions, soil erosion, changes in forest extent, structure and connectivity, changes in farm and landscape carbon stocks, changes in GHG emissions (from coffee production and deforestation), impacts on ecosystem services (e.g., water, pollination, pest regulation, slope stabilization), contamination of water and soil by fungicides, pesticides, and synthetic fertilizers, changes in the incidence and type of pests and diseases Socioeconomic impacts: changes in farmer food security and nutrition, changes in household income and poverty levels, changes in coffee yield and quality, shifts in livelihood strategies, changes in the relative importance of coffee to farmer livelihoods, impacts on provision of fruits, firewood, timber, and other products for household use and sale, more families engaging in non-farm work, rural conflict (due to alternative, illegal land uses), rural abandonment, increased migration of farmers and coffee laborers to urban areas or other countries, sales of farmland, changes in the adaptive capacity of coffee farmers Mediating factors Farm size, land tenure and property rights, proximity to roads and markets, slope and elevation, quality of the coffee-production region, coffee management system, land availability, farmer experience and education, membership in coffee cooperatives, remittances, participation in certification schemes, technical assistance, government and non-governmental programs to support farmers, cultural factors, farm diversification, private sector investment certification is inconclusive, and certification outcomes often pear to specific to the contextual and institutional setting or specific program implemented (DeFries et al. 2017;Traldi 2021). A review of the impacts of coffee certification programs on smallholder livelihoods, for example, found that while some studies clearly enhance livelihood assets among certified coffee farmers, many studies found either neutral or mixed impacts and a small number even reported negative outcomes (Bray and Neilson 2017). Similarly, a review of the sustainability outcomes of certification of coffee and other tropical agricultural commodities found 34% of the response variables were significantly positive, 58% not significant, and 8% significantly negative (DeFries et al. 2017). Clearly there is a need for more studies on how VSS-compliant coffee affects the structure and composition of coffee landscapes, and influences the economic, social, and economic sustainability of coffee farms and landscapes, using more robust scientific methods that account for selfselection bias (i.e., producers already meeting environmental certification criteria tend to disproportionately obtain certification, Bray and Neilson 2017), include reliable baseline data (to allow for the comparison of conditions before and after certification), and include realistic control groups (Ibanez and Blackman 2016;Bray and Neilson 2017).The impacts of the ongoing conversion of hundreds of thousands of hectares of coffee plantations with high-yielding resistant varieties are also unknown. The rapid shift to varieties that are resistant to coffee leaf rust has been critical for recovering coffee production across the region, has greatly reduced the risk of harvest loss, and has enabled coffee farmers and laborers to maintain their livelihoods despite the continued presence of coffee leaf rust (Avelino and Anzueto 2020). Other benefits of the resistant varieties include significant increases in coffee production and savings in fungicide use (Avelino and Anzueto 2020). However, since the new varieties are often (but not always) established with little or no shade and require increased use of fertilizers, their adoption could result in a loss of tree cover and the increased contamination of water, with potential negative outcomes for biodiversity and ecosystem services (Jha et al. 2011(Jha et al. , 2014;;Amico et al. 2020). However, studies on the longterm environmental and social impacts of these changes across the region are not yet available.The amount of natural forest that is being lost to coffee expansion is not known. Considering that coffee is grown in some of the world's most important biodiversity hotspots, the clearing of additional forest for coffee production will undoubtedly threaten biodiversity and disrupt the provision of key ecosystem services (Perfecto et al. 1996;Jha et al. 2011). Coffee-driven deforestation will also result in the release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change (Miles and Kapos 2008).Impacts of the recent introduction of Robusta coffee to new areas in Nicaragua, Mexico, and other regions are equally unclear. On the one hand, Robusta could provide a critical livelihood opportunity for smallholder farmers who live in areas which are currently unsuitable for Arabica cultivation or will become unsuitable for Arabica in the future (Bunn et al. 2015;Nicholson and Menchu 2018). Climate models suggest that the suitable areas for Arabica production in Latin America may be reduced 73-88% by 2050 across different climate scenarios unless adaptation measures are quickly put in place (Imbach et al. 2017), so Arabica coffee may be replaced with Robusta in certain areas in the future. If Robusta coffee replaces subsistence crops (as is happening in parts of Nicaragua, Bjørge 2017), it may impact household food security strategies and potentially affect farmer resilience to climate change and other shocks. The potential impacts of Robusta production on biodiversity conservation, ecosystem service provision, and carbon stocks will depend largely on what land use it replaces and how the Robusta systems are managed. Although Robusta is often cultivated with little or no shade, a recent meta-analysis of the impacts of shade on Robusta cultivation found that shade trees can positively impact growth and yields of Robusta coffee plants, but that the effects of shade vary based on the type of clone planted and the plant age (Piato et al. 2020).Finally, in areas where coffee is being converted to other agricultural land uses (e.g., pastures, sugarcane, vegetable production, cocoa, citrus) or urban areas, the impacts of these changes will depend on what specific land use replaces coffee and how this land use affects the overall structure, composition, and function (e.g., hydrological) of the landscape. The specific land-use transitions can affect the potential economic profitability of the crop, farmer income levels, labor and input requirements, and whether or not families can continue to make a living from their farm or whether they need to shift to other livelihood strategies, including migration and off-farm work (Hausermann 2014;Bielecki and Wingenbach 2019). If coffee is converted to illegal crops, this shift can also potentially lead to social conflict, as has occurred in certain areas of Colombia where the conversion of coffee to coca production has led to increased violence (Rettberg 2010). The specific type of land-use conversion will also determine changes in on-farm tree cover, in landscape carbon stocks, GHG emissions, pesticide use, and agrochemical contamination of water and soils (Haggar et al. 2013). More detailed information on the specific land-use transitionsand whether these changes are permanent or reversibleis needed to better understand these impacts.5 A research agenda for understanding the drivers, patterns, and potential outcomes of land-use change and informing coffee sustainability policies and practiceOur review shows that coffee-growing regions across northern and Andean Latin America are undergoing rapid and profound transformations, with hundreds of thousands of hectares undergoing changes coffee varieties, of shade and and/or land use. However, information on how, where, and why these changes are occurring, and what the consequences of these changes will be, is extremely scattered and incomplete. Without a more detailed understanding of the rate, magnitude, distribution, and consequences of biophysical changes in coffee landscapes, it is difficult to know which of these landscape trajectories are beneficial for rural livelihoods, biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and sustainable development more broadly, and what types of policies, programs, or investments may be needed to promote sustainable coffee landscapes. Here we propose five priority research areas that could greatly enhance our understanding of the dynamics and consequences of changing coffee landscapes in the region and help inform both public and private-sector efforts to enhance coffee sustainability.First, there is a need to better understand the extent, distribution, rate, and direction of changes in coffee farms and landscapes and to identify the hotspots where rapid and extensive landscape change is occurring and where interventions may be needed. More comprehensive data is needed on both the current distribution, structure, and composition of coffee farms and landscapes (so that there is a consistent baseline from which to measure change) and on the types, rates, and magnitude of landscape change. In particular, more robust information is needed on where coffee production is expanding or contracting, which land uses are replacing coffee (or are being replaced by coffee), where shade cover in coffee plantations is being removed or simplified, where compliance with voluntary sustainability standards are changing on-farm tree and forest cover, where Robusta is expanding, where coffee production is leading to deforestation, and how the structure and composition of coffee-growing farms and landscapes are changing (Blackman et al. 2012;Haggar et al. 2013;Schmitt-Harsh 2013;Guhl 2008;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2018). In addition, it will be important to identify which of these changes are permanent and irreversible (e.g., deforestation to establish coffee plots, or the urbanization of coffee areas), how quickly coffee landscapes are being transformed, and whether there are time lags in responses to particular shocks (e.g., coffee leaf rust, falling prices, COVID-19 impacts, long droughts), so that it is easier to anticipate potential landscape trajectories and their ecological and socioeconomic consequences.A second research need is to better understand the factors that drive land-use dynamics in coffee landscapes and how these factors interact in different socioecological contexts (Jha et al. 2014). For example, what factors (or combination of factors) spur the conversion of coffee plantations to other land uses, drive the expansion of coffee into new areas, or lead to the replacement of diverse coffee agroforestry systems by open-sun coffee? Or conversely, what factors lead farmers to shift from conventional intensified production to diversified shade-grown production? What factors cause some coffee landscapes to have highly dynamic land use, while others remain relatively stable even amidst rapidly changing contexts (e.g., Hausermann 2014)? While low coffee prices, changing climatic conditions, rising production costs, and coffee leaf rust are clearly driving many of the observed changes in coffee farms and landscapes, there are many additional factors that can transform coffee landscapes, including social factors (e.g., aging of coffee farmers, migration, limited labor availability, social conflict), biophysical factors (e.g., altitude, climate factors, land degradation), economic factors (global coffee demand, certification processes, specialty markets), public policies and institutions (e.g., coffee renovation programs, coca substitution programs, technical assistance, support for ecosystem services), and private investment by the coffee sector (Table 3). The impacts of voluntary sustainability standards merit particular attention given the large and growing areas under third-party certification and private standards, and their potential to significantly impact shade, land use, forest cover, and coffee management. More information is also needed on the potential impacts of the rise in specialty coffee production. It is also important to explore how each of the drivers affects farmer land-use decisions either individually or in combination, and in different socioeconomic and ecological contexts (Bacon et al. 2017). While many of the key drivers are likely specifically related to the coffee sector, there may also be broader factors unrelated to the coffee landscapes to consider (e.g., demographics, urbanization, the COVID-19 pandemic).A third critical research area is to better understand the socioeconomic and ecological impacts of the changes in coffee landscapes, including potential impacts on coffee production, farmer livelihoods, sustainable development, and the conservation of biodiversity, soil, and water. Coffee farmers across the region are already facing multiple socioeconomic challenges including low-income generation, high poverty levels, recurring food insecurity, high production costs, limited access to education and health services, migration of young male farmers, social conflict, an aging farmer population, and low adaptive capacity (Morris et al. 2013;Baca et al. 2014;Bacon et al. 2017;Harvey et al. 2018;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2018), as well as environmental challenges such as the contamination of water by agrochemicals, soil erosion, biodiversity loss, climate change, and deforestation (Jha et al. 2014;Panhuysen and Pierrot 2018). As discussed in the previous section, it is not yet clear how the ongoing biophysical changes in coffee landscapes will affect landscape-level social, economic, and ecological outcomes. A better understanding of the types, magnitude, and distribution of both positive and negative impacts of different landscape changesas well as the potential tradeoffs and synergies across different social, economic, and environmental outcomesis critical for informing ongoing policies, programs, initiatives, and finanincentives designed to enhance the overall sustainability coffee sector. A research need is to explore the mediating factors that explain why the same drivers or set of drivers sometimes lead to very different outcomes in different landscapes. For example, why have price shocks in some places led to the abandonment of diverse, rustic coffee while in other regions, these systems have persisted despite (or perhaps because of) shocks (Hausermann 2014)? Why has the adoption of new rust-resistant varieties led to the elimination of shade in some areas but not in others? Many potential factors may mediate the impacts of different drivers or shocks within a given landscape (Bosselmann 2012), such as farm characteristics or management (e.g., topography, farm size, elevation, coffee varieties, coffee productivity), farmer and household characteristics (e.g., family size, dependence on coffee production, education levels, market access, off-farm labor opportunities, migration), and institutional aspects (e.g., technical support, policies, coffee cooperatives). However, we have little understanding of how different factors (or combinations of factors) affect both the trajectory of change and overall impacts on farmer livelihoods, rural economies, and the environment within individual landscapes.A final research area is the development of innovative modeling and analytical methods for the study of these complex socioecological systems, including farm system modeling, landscape modeling, participatory scenario modeling, agent-based modeling, and other approaches (e.g., Parker et al. 2003;Matthews et al. 2007;Speelman et al. 2014;Johnson and Karlberg 2017;Meijer et al. 2018;Rahn et al. 2018). These models should (1) allow the exploration of different scenarios of changes, for instance, in the extent, distribution, and management of Arabica and/or Robusta coffee, different shade systems, and other land uses within coffee-growing landscapes;(2) analyze the potential socioeconomic and ecological outcomes of different farming systems design and landscape trajectories for different stakeholder groups; (3) identify potential tradeoffs and synergies across different production and landscape goals (e.g., improved farmer livelihoods, coffee production, climate change mitigation, ecosystem service provision, biodiversity conservation); (4) take into account both the drivers and mitigating factors affecting landscape change; and (5) examine how different interventions (e.g., policy interventions, market prices, certification premiums, payments for ecosystem services) are likely to influence the trajectory of a particular coffee-growing landscape and affect its social, ecological, and economic sustainability. Such scenariobuilding and modeling efforts will be critical for helping coffee institutes, public entities, research organizations, agricultural extension services, private companies, the financial sector, and other stakeholders identify which types of interventions are likely to lead to sustainable landscape trajectories that deliver the desired environmental and socioeconomic goals, and can be used to inform the design of effective system designs, policies, and incentives.Moving this ambitious research agenda forward will require greatly improving the availability and quality of biophysical and socioeconomic data on the region's coffee farms, landscapes, and farmers and developing new research and development collaborations. There is an urgent need for comprehensive, spatially explicit, and up-to-date information on where and how coffee is grown in each country, with details on farm size, coffee area, coffee management (e.g., planting density, shade type, agrochemical use, Haggar et al. 2013), certification status, coffee varieties and species, coffee age, yield, and the composition and structure of coffee landscapes (including information on other crops, pastures, forests, and residential areas), so that there are clear baselines against which future landscape changes can be measured. It is critical that biophysical data on coffee landscapes is linked to key socioeconomic data regarding coffee farmers and their livelihoods (e.g., family size, farmer age, level of education, income levels, participation in certification schemes, participation in farmer cooperatives, labor use, other crops they cultivate, non-farming sources of income, the relative importance of coffee relative to other income sources). This linking allows the exploration of interactions and feedbacks among socioeconomic and ecological aspects. In order for these data to be useful for decision-making, datasets should be regularly updated using consistent methodologies so that it is possible to quickly detect changes in both biophysical and socioeconomic conditions and take the necessary actions to address any trends that threaten sustainability of coffee landscapes and livelihoods.Some of this spatially explicit data is already available from national coffee institutes, national government censuses, or the private sector (which typically have their own proprietary information on the landscapes where they source coffee from), but increased cooperation and data sharing are necessary. In the many coffee-growing landscapes where data is missing, incomplete, or out-of-date, national-level surveys or censuses by governments, national coffee institutes, or agricultural extension agencies could be adjusted to provide the required data on household, farm, and landscape characteristics and dynamics. Recent advances in remote sensing and machine learning could also make it easier in the future to track coffee production; identify different land uses within coffee landscapes; monitor changes in landscape structure, composition, and function; and potentially also characterize shade levels within coffee fields (Hunt et al. 2020). Long-term research on coffee landscape structure, patterns, and socioecological processes could be centered on a network of coffee \"sentinel landscapes\" representing a minimum, but sufficient, set of socioecological contexts in which a broad range of biophysical, social, and economic characteristics and processes are monitored using a consistent set of methods (Dewi et al. 2017). Such research networks would ideally be supported by a broad suite of stakeholders (including farmers, agricultural research centers, academia, sector organizations, NGO's, academia, coffee cooperatives, retailers, and private sector all of whom stand to benefit from more sustainable coffee landscapes.Coffee farms and landscapes across northern and Andean Latin America are undergoing rapid and profound biophysical changes in response to low coffee prices, coffee leaf rust, changing climatic conditions, and other factors. Key changes include the widespread adoption of new rust-resistant varieties, the conventional intensification of coffee production, the abandonment and conversion of coffee to other land uses, the expansion of coffee into forested areas, the introduction of Robusta coffee, the urbanization of coffee regions, and the increase in the area of coffee produced under voluntary sustainability standards. All of these changes have the potential to profoundly change the sustainability of the coffee sector in different ways (both positive and negative), yet, as our review demonstrates, there is insufficient and scattered information on how, where, and why different land-use and landscape changes are occurring, and the ways in which they will affect coffee production, farmer livelihoods, ecosystem services, and other aspects of sustainable development. The research agenda we have laid out aims to address these knowledge gaps and ensure that governments, the private sector, NGO's, agricultural technicians, and other stakeholders have the information to make strategic and informed decisions about their efforts to promote sustainable coffee systems and landscapes across the region. It can also inform ongoing sustainability efforts in other coffee-growing regions across the tropics which are undergoing some of the same landscape transformations and grappling with similar sustainable development and conservation challenges (e.g., Garcia et al. 2010;Hylander et al. 2013;Millard 2017). While our research agenda is ambitious and will require significant investment, it is critical for better understanding both the current and future contexts of coffee landscapes and communities, and their contribution to sustainable development. A better understanding of the drivers, patterns, and outcomes of ongoing landscape change is vital for steering the global coffee sector towards landscape trajectories that lead to desirable socioeconomic and environmental outcomes.","tokenCount":"9027"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"10637e1a19a0fbe22cce2045c8aff737","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99cf4007-a41a-4117-a0ff-8d398a046497/retrieve","id":"770594125"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a7296043-e731-4219-88a7-e340bd975cb3","pagecount":"20","content":"The conservation of biodiversity on private land is both a high priority and a considerable challenge. An effective response to this challenge requires a combination of legislative and incentive mechanisms, coupled with preparedness by government to review and revise administrative arrangements. Preliminary results from the Environmental Stewardship Program, established by the Australian Government, highlight that there is a role for market-based approaches. However, implementation of this program through a Commonwealth bureaucracy was not without its challenges. Here we provide an overview of the program's implementation from 2007 to 2012, followed by discussion of some key lessons learned.We summarise these lessons as:• Designing for the long-term presents many challenges.• Land managers liked the program but there were a few surprises.• Monitoring is important.• Start simple and engage early and often.• Governance and administrative reforms are needed. In mid-2007, the Commonwealth established the Environmental Stewardship Program, a ground-breaking scheme that used competitive tenders to engage private land managers in long-term contracts (up to 15 years) to manage environmental assets of high public value. The program resulted in a series of tenders being implemented by the Commonwealth across New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia. We were involved in the design and implementation of the program and, more than most, we are aware of the challenging ecological, social, and economic dimensions of designing and implementing such a process. Here we reflect on the experience and offer several lessons that may help with the design of similar schemes in the future.The Environmental Stewardship Program initiated a new way for the Commonwealth to support the conservation of biodiversity on private land, through a process where land managers were empowered and funded to be recognised as environmental stewards.Being a Commonwealth initiative meant funding was targeted at matters of National Environmental Significance as listed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC). 1  Therefore, the program was only permitted to target nationally threatened species and ecological communities, migratory species and wetlands of international importance, and natural values associated with world and national heritage places.Aligning a market-based incentive scheme to clear Commonwealth legal responsibilities for biodiversity conservation was critical to gaining initial approval for the program. Depending on the assets targeted, the program sought to achieve a range of outcomes including:• Improved habitat quality across the landscape.• Increased viability, integrity, and buffers to high quality remnants for species, ecological communities, Ramsar wetlands, and World Heritage areas. • Improved long-term protection of nationally threatened species and ecological communities. • Improved condition and function of ecological communities.• Enduring changes in land manager attitudes and behaviours towards environmental protection and sustainable land management practices.The initial funding for the program was $42.5 million from 2007/08 to 2010/11, with a contingency reserve to allow annual payments until 2024/25 (a contingency reserve for a program represents funds committed for the program beyond the standard three-year forward estimates period). In the 2011 budget, the Commonwealth announced additional funding of $84.2 million from 2011/12 for a further four years. However, no further funding rounds were offered after 2012.1 Note, not all departmental programs need to target matters of National Environmental Significance. They can have their constitutional basis through external affairs powershelping the Australian Government meet their international obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity, for example.In the implementation phase of the program (2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012), managers designed and delivered the competitive tenders through two projects in collaboration with on-ground delivery agents and external scientific experts: the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project and the Multiple Ecological Communities Project. Both projects, which comprised the entire program, employed a reverse auction tender process (see Zammit et al. 2010), which resulted in a total government investment of approximately $152 million in approved grants with individual land managers up to 2025/26. Landowner contributions remain uncosted, but are likely to be significant.From 2007-2009, the program targeted the critically endangered box gum grassy woodland ecological community in south east Australia through the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project. This project targeted the remaining patches of woodland on private land, without specific reference to the adjoining matrix of agricultural lands or other nontarget native habitats. In total, five tender rounds across New South Wales and Queensland were conducted under the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project, resulting in 26,470 ha being managed by 210 land managers for an approximate cost of $71 million over 15 years.Program managers recognised an opportunity to increase the program's efficiency through experience gained from implementing the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project; desktop research; staff expertise (see, for example, Attwood et al. 2009); and formal review and structured feedback mechanisms with delivery agents and land managers.Consequently, they sought to improve program design by broadening the program's reach through targeting multiple EPBC-listed ecological communities in a region, and incorporating options for conservation management of the surrounding matrix through buffers and connectivity. These program refinements were subsequently found to have improved the efficiency and effectiveness of the implementation model (see, for example, Marsden Jacobs Associates 2010).In 2010-2011, the program implemented the Multiple Ecological Communities Project in New South Wales and South Australia, across six different Natural Resource Management Regions. Five nationally threatened ecological communities were targeted: in New South Wales, basalt and alluvial grassland, weeping Myall woodland, and box gum grassy woodland; in South Australia, iron-grass grassland, and peppermint box woodland. In 2011-2012, a second round of the Multiple Ecological Communities Project was implemented in South Australia. In total, after these two tender rounds, 87 land managers were contracted to manage 26,988 ha of threatened ecological communities, which included over 7,000 ha of adjoining land for an approximate cost of $81.3 million over 15 years.Relative to the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project, the development of the Multiple Ecological Communities Project recognised the need for a more integrated and landscape-scale approach to conserving threatened ecological communities. As such, more technically nuanced protocols and tools were required (Whitten et al. 2011). These, in turn, required more sophisticated management planning with land managers. Building on the successful uptake of the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project and Multiple Ecological Communities Project, the program managers commenced designing a more generic reverse auction framework that targeted native vegetation (habitat), which supported nationally threatened species and ecological communities. Under this approach, the program could then be rolled out without specifying a precise target, but rather allowing land managers with different assemblages of EPBC-listed species and communities on their properties to participate in a tender round. This approach was never implemented, given the Commonwealth's decision not to undertake further funding rounds of the program.In summary, after five years of implementation, 297 land managers across New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia were approved by the Commonwealth to implement (up to) 15-year conservation management plans over 56,527 ha of private land. The last of these contracts will end in 2026/27. The realisation of the potential conservation benefits from a public investment of approximately $152.3 million will depend on how these contracts are managed, and how land managers are supported. The program can justifiably be called groundbreaking because it required a longer-term perspective to the management of grants than has customarily been taken by Commonwealth governments. Consequently, the program contained many innovations, which were developed and implemented in a relatively short period of time. As we look back on what was achieved, we believe there are several important lessons for policymakers seeking to set up similar schemes in the future.The original design of the program that supported long term payments for conservation management on private land was a significant achievement. The original budget -for the full funding term to 2026 -contained the necessary allocations for outsourcing the management of tenders to third-party providers, environmental and social monitoring, compliance, and extension support.Retaining these features adequately through the implementation and maintenance phases of the program proved to be difficult due to a combination of factors, including budget pressures, changes in department staff, and changes in priorities and attitudes within government and the department towards how the program should best be managed. For example, the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project featured ecological and social monitoring, and externally contracted delivery agents to manage site assessments and provided ongoing extension support to land managers. However, the Multiple Ecological Communities Project had few of these features. The challenge was presented by the fact that governments always retain the prerogative to reallocate limited funds, and other resources -and to shift priorities as circumstances change.The translation of policy decisions into programs with long-term budgets can be difficult to maintain successfully over time. Original planning cannot deliver intended results without the institutional commitment and enduring support to implement a program as intended. This is a reflection of the vulnerability of agreed government policies and investment programs to shifting political ideologies and their preferences. Such shifts can limit long-term policy coherence in favour of short-term flexibility. This can, in turn, limit opportunities for securing enduring long-term environmental improvements. The major challenge for any future agri-environmental program will therefore be securing enduring bi-partisan political support, combined with institutional governance arrangements that make it more robust to withstand short-term pressures and shifting attitudes.Land managers liked the program but there were a few surprisesThe program was popular with land managers (Coggan et al. 2013;Ecker and Thompson 2010;Marsden Jacobs Associates 2010). The features of the program prompting the most positive feedback from land managers were site assessments and ongoing monitoring, information packs and evenings, and the use of state-and-transition models, which were used to explain the desired conservation outcomes. Zammit et al. (2010) and Attwood and Burns (2012) provide further information on the use of state-and-transition models by the program. Zammit (2013a) outlines the social benefits to farmers from participating in incentive programs for conservation. Here we focus on land manager feedback, with selected quotes from land managers from semi-structured interviews.To some, the offer of 15-year contracts was appealing; to others it was daunting. Some found the Commonwealth's interest (through weighting in the metric) in conservation covenants -deeds to land titles that define the limitations, conditions, or restrictions on the use of that land in perpetuity (see www.environment.gov. au/topics/biodiversity/biodiversity-conservation/conservationcovenants) -was a barrier to participation, even though it was not a requirement to participate.Many land managers were proud of their involvement and thought the department should go further to develop a brand for the program (something akin to current organic farming branding). The department did provide them with signs for display on properties (e.g. gates) that recognised their participation in the program, but did not develop a brand. As yet, there is no evidence of a clear market advantage to properties that have participated in such schemes, but as such schemes mature, the competitive advantages of products that arise from participating properties might be more evident: I would like to see stewardship branded as a premium product. We have happy sheep and look after the environment -wouldn't you want to buy that wool? Some saw the reverse auction process as confusing and undesirable: I had a hard time coming up with a bid price because I didn't know what I was doing. Why don't you just tell us a flat price then we can decide if it is worth it? At the outset, managers did not know a reasonable price to make direct offers, but after running multiple rounds within a region, there was sufficient price information for direct offers. This approach had already been successfully used in the Commonwealth's Tasmanian Forest Conservation Fund (Binney and Zammit 2010). Some felt the management plans developed were too prescriptive and should be outcome-based rather than input-focused:Rather than tell us what to do, you should have a hands-on person come around and pay us a bonus if we are getting the outcome you want.Implementation of the program produced some surprises, including a large number of requests for site assessments. For example, the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project had initially budgeted for 150 site assessments, but received over 350 requests in round one. Project managers were further surprised by some applications worth millions of dollars over the contract period. To address this, managers introduced a capped total bid amount (e.g. $3.5 million maximum over 15 years for the Multiple Ecological Communities Project).From initial rounds, project managers discovered that land managers were generally costing their bids linearly. As efficiencies were expected, this made large holdings more expensive than anticipated. As the program was rolled out, concern grew within the department regarding what was an appropriate $/ha/year figure for management. The concern was that, in many cases, it could be cheaper to purchase the property, as was the approach for funding the purchase and covenanting of private land through a state government or private entity under the National Reserve System. Under that approach, the new owner carries the ongoing costs to implement the conservation management plan.In response to this concern, the Australian Government's Evaluation Panel (which was responsible for overseeing the process and recommending successful tenderers to ministers) developed a $/ha/year cap as a red flag when evaluating Multiple Ecological Communities Project bids. This figure was informed by cost data from existing Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project contracts, such as the average annual cost and the variation from the mean. This information is commercial-in-confidence. However, in a commissioned review, Marsden Jacobs Associates (2010) reported that across the Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project, the average annual cost was $202 per hectare per year, with significant variation around the average both within and between regions. The actual figure used was not communicated to land managers, but the Evaluation Panel's discretionary powers to support their responsibility to make the best value for money judgements was communicated in the program guidelines (see, for example, nrmonline.nrm.gov.au/catalog/mql:2408).In recognising that several kinds of monitoring and engagement activities are needed, a set of monitoring tools and approaches were developed for the program. These aimed to:• Provide feedback to land managers to engage them to increase their understanding of the program and its aims, and to engender positive attitudes towards the environment. • Provide information for compliance checking, risk management, grant acquittal requirements, and departmental reporting for the program. • Provide rigorous evidence for the performance of the program in achieving its conservation and attitudinal change outcomes.A structured approach should highlight the benefits from the investment, and the positive behaviours and attitudes of those participating. Critical components include annual (short term) compliance reporting by land managers against contracted obligations; longer term ecological monitoring to reveal ecological improvements; and longer term social monitoring to track changes in attitudes and priorities to biodiversity conservation among farmers.These monitoring systems are coupled with extension support, which gives land managers somewhere to go for advice, and provides them with opportunities to build capacity and share their learnings with other land managers, researchers and government. Finally, monitoring systems require regular independent auditing of a proportion of contracts to help detect and deal with fraudulent activity at an early stage.The lack of fit-for-purpose long-term biodiversity monitoring has been a source of considerable criticism, from both scientific and policy perspectives, of agri-environment schemes in Europe, as well as earlier conservation initiatives in Australia (Kleijn and Sutherland 2003;Morrison et al. 2010;Lindenmayer et al. 2012). In recognising these shortcomings, the program contracted The Australian National University to undertake scientific monitoring of woodland sites on 153 farms in New South Wales and southern Queensland (Lindenmayer et al. 2012). Securing this monitoring project was a significant policy achievement, and was vital for determining progress towards achieving the program objective and desired outcomes. The monitoring project had an initial budget of $2 million over four years. In 2013, the project was re-funded, but at half its initial budget. Consequently, the size of the monitoring has been adjusted by introducing rotational sampling, as described in Lindenmayer et al. (2012). In addition, some sites are no longer visited, such as those for which property ownership has changed and stewardship payments are no longer being made. Despite these changes, the monitoring project is still considered appropriate to assess many aspects of change in certain groups of biota, and woodland condition.The results of the monitoring project are provided to the department in annual reports. These reports include evidence-based recommendations for alterations to the prescribed Box Gum Grassy Woodland Project grazing regime. To date, results from the monitoring indicate that the areas of vegetation being managed are on a different trajectory to the controls (currently being prepared for publication). More time is needed to understand these trajectories, but early indications are that the management plans are effective in achieving conservation outcomes. (See Kay et al. 2013 for an insight into reptile and amphibian assemblages at these sites.)When seeking to establish a new biodiversity market, it makes sense to begin with a simple investment target, but one that is sufficiently recognisable and widespread to ensure a reasonable number of eligible participants. In the case of the Environmental Stewardship Program, the targeted asset was box gum grassy woodlands. This critically endangered ecosystem is distinctive and widely spread from north eastern Victoria across western NSW and into southern Queensland.Building on the targeting of a single asset (i.e. box gum grassy woodlands), one can then use early learnings to improve effectiveness and efficiency through increasing the amount of land secured and decreasing the administrative costs associated with program management. In the case of the Environmental Stewardship Program, this led to introducing multiple ecological communities into the reverse-auction process, and thereafter to the design of a more generic, habitat-based approach to tender design. The habitat-based approach leads logically into more explicit consideration of how landscape-scale outcomes can be secured through formal inclusion of opportunities for creating corridors and other kinds of functional connectivity (see Chapter 11 for Geoff Kay's discussion on how the landscape-scale of an agri-environment program can affect outcomes).Agri-environment schemes and markets for biodiversity are a novel idea to many land managers, so misinterpretation of the process and resulting contracts is a risk. It is important to investigate concerns early and to regularly engage with land managers. It is also important to use simple tools to communicate program intentions, operational guidelines, and contractual conditions. As understanding grows and early successes become evident within rural communities, there is significant opportunity to build land manager capabilities for biodiversity conservation on their properties and to cultivate new social networks around these environmental assets. This is because some of the biophysical and social benefits from stewardship projects could be privately captured (i.e. be of personal rather than public benefit). This should help facilitate the acceptance of such programs within land manager communities (see Chapter 10 on restoring ecosystem services on private farmland).Several independent reviews provided valuable insights and generally concluded that the program was well designed (Ecker and Thompson 2010;Marsden Jacob Associates 2010;Whitten et al. 2011). During this time, it was also well regarded by the ministers for the environment, the scientific community, many farmers, and the National Farmers Federation. The program proved successful in targeting threatened ecological communities, and in highlighting the role played by other native habitats and the surrounding agricultural matrix in marketbased conservation management on private land.There were other benefits for the department in meeting its legislative requirements under EPBC, including improved knowledge of the location, condition, and extent of certain threatened ecological communities, with flow on benefits to recovery planning processes. For all these benefits, however, there were also considerable challenges, and the Commonwealth closed the program to further investment rounds in 2012. While the authors do not know the reasons why the program ceased further investment after two successful projects, we speculate several factors had some influence on that decision. As a relatively small and discrete investment, the program was vulnerable to cost-savings efforts during the more restrictive fiscal budgets from 2012. Second, the program never secured the political support of the mainstream environmental non-government organisations during its life, so no pressure was placed on government by them when funding was under threat.The program, as originally approved, was designed to be innovative in addressing the long-term management of specific matters of national environmental significance on private land. But the realities of implementing an innovative conservation program through a Commonwealth bureaucracy, with rigid business processes, were broadly underestimated. Essentially, implementing reverse auctions was demanding because running a cycle of market-tenders inside a broader culture based around funding open-call public grants caused a range of procedural and time-critical constraints.There was also the issue of dealing with scientific knowledge and its application, something essential in designing a program aimed at sustaining complex threatened ecosystems. The Commonwealth successfully administers a number of technically and scientifically complex policy areas (e.g. the Bureau of Meteorology, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, and the Antarctic Division within the Department of the Environment) which are resourced and willing to support scientific research and analysis in policy design and program management. However, this kind of approach to scientific knowledge and its application was not fully adopted for the Environmental Stewardship Program. Rather, it was delivered through the Caring for our Country (CfoC) initiative, and administered by a bureaucracy with a primary focus on managing a large and complex national grants program. (CfoC involved spending $2 billion over four years.) However, an administrative culture more akin to those in the above Commonwealth areas, which have a strong scientific focus, will be critical to designing and implementing any future national agrienvironment scheme successfully over an enduring period.Institutional learning is a slow and iterative process, with inevitable pockets of resistance to change. Governance and administrative arrangements need to be made more responsive and adaptive to implementing new policy innovations -with scientific underpinnings -if there is a genuine commitment to significant policy reform.Policy reform will take a long time, and will be built step by step through innovation and experimentation. The Environmental Stewardship Program experience showed that, although governments demonstrate that they are sometimes willing to try new ways to protect biodiversity, their administrative arrangements are often so inflexible that they stifle the original innovative idea and approach.Innovative policy instruments need to be supported by more flexible and adaptive governance arrangements and an enduring commitment to credible scientific input. If this can be achieved, governments will be best placed to successfully implement market-based conservation initiatives.Despite the challenges, we consider that the lessons learnt from the Environmental Stewardship Program can usefully inform future agri-environment schemes implemented by governments. Our key recommendations for any future public-funded and market-based program are:1. Design and implement fit-for-purpose business processes and staff management strategies up front. Procurement plans that allow for ongoing provision of external services are needed, and land manager contracts should not be considered grants (and be regulated under grant guidelines). Rather, they should be commercial fee-for-service contracts to promote a business culture reflective of the service(s) the government is purchasing. 2. Focus on developing a more generic approach to maximising high-value biodiversity outcomes for as many priority investment targets (e.g. threatened species or ecological communities) as possible. A generic approach targeting habitat for multiple species/ communities will minimise the knowledge intensity of program design. That is, it will reduce the need for species-specific or community-specific conservation value metrics and management plans. This approach could also easily accommodate the design principles of the Multiple Ecological Communities Project, including conservation management actions in the adjoining matrix at little additional cost (Whitten et al. 2011). 3. Any habitat-based approach should continue to develop greater landscape-scale connectivity between properties and across catchments (Zammit 2013b). This can be achieved by designing biodiversity markets that also support corridor development and continue to manage the agriculture matrix more sympathetically for conservation. 4. A greater emphasis needs to be given to the development of conservation management plans and appropriate performance assessment of their effectiveness. In particular, different grazing management strategies used by any new agri-environment scheme should be monitored and compared, to inform future programs. 5. A direct offers option can be implemented once sufficient market price information is available. Subject to considering other conservation priorities and the availability of funds, there is scope to offer additional interested land managers a fixed $/ha/year rate, and thereby improve efficiency and increase the area managed for biodiversity. A direct offer is a one-off offer of a contract by the government to a land manager with a stipulated price, duration, and management plan. The price is based on modelling price information from successful bids in previous tenders (see Binney and Zammit 2010 for a forest example). These land managers would hold an asset of quantified biodiversity value, as they would have participated in the initial aspects of a previous tender but either withdrew or were not successful. The subsequent fixedprice scheme would improve the return on investment for the program, which has high upfront costs because of the initial assessments, developing a suitable conservation value metric, and management plans.Finally, a valuable outcome that the Commonwealth secured through this program (in addition to the hectares being managed) were the relationships forged with the contracted land managers and developed with the CSIRO and ANU. These relationships should be nurtured to foster further learning and trust (Gibbons et al. 2008). Effective conservation will come from mutual respect and common goals -the implementation phase of the program has provided the framework, but ongoing land manager support to 2025/26 is needed for enduring success. The more educational support provided to generate effective conservation outcomes, the more likely it is that land managers will believe in the benefits of a change in management practice. This will become critical for the maintenance of asset condition beyond 2025/26, although regulatory frameworks which prevent wilful degradation of protected assets will also play a role, as will conservation covenants for a number of properties.","tokenCount":"4254"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cc9b3eae13b0e2d2178b72299a54ce07","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP282Zhou.pdf","id":"-1486436599"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b7e724e2-7d98-41f1-b0e7-658ff6ef19ff","pagecount":"63","content":"In recent years, the concept of \"nature-based solutions\" (NBS) has seen increasing emphasis as a means of realizing transformative change for climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental conservation, and sustainable development. As defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), NBS are \"actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges…effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits\" (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016: xii). The promise of NBS to achieve wide-ranging natural and societal benefits, as well as their evident cost efficiency in relying on existing ecosystems, has spurred widespread policy uptake by government agencies and non-profit organizations. Despite the potential of NBS, however, the emerging diversity of their modes of operation and sites of application suggests that an assessment of existing and proposed NBS can contribute much to improved understandings of the breadth, nature and potential impact of naturebased solutions.Our analysis finds nearly 30% (n= 54) of submissions come from the People's Republic of China, followed by 6.4% (n=12) of submissions from the United States; all other contributing countries are represented by three or fewer submissions each. Governmental bodies authored more submissions than any other type of organization (39%; n=73) with the majority of these contributions originating from China. Non-governmental organizations, networks (i.e., coalitions of individual organizations), and UN and other multilateral organizations contributed the majority of remaining submissions. Forests, cultivated landscapes, and marine and coastal regions comprise the main ecosystems of interest, and nearly half of all submissions consist of interventions in ecosystem conservation and restoration and promotion of sustainable agriculture and food systems. With regard to the specific nature of interventions, there is significant emphasis on technological change and innovation, followed by more conventional ecosystem conservation and restoration activities.Our analysis identifies significant concerns for the design and implementation of NBS interventions, while noting that the abbreviated format of the submissions may have led to the exclusion of pertinent information. First, the majority of submissions fail to provide adequate information on intervention safeguards, transparency, and monitoring activities. This oversight raises questions regarding the potential for adverse impacts during implementation, as well as the ability -or lack thereof -to ascertain impacts on baseline or business-as-usual conditions. Second, only four submissions provided comprehensive explanations of how their proposed contribution comprises a nature-based solution for climate change adaptation and mitigation. This lack of conceptual clarity regarding NBS may reflect the novelty of the approach, but also raises questions for its ongoing operationalization as a coherent body of practice. Indeed, many submissions take the form of discrete project proposals, rather than interventions conceived in the holistic manner of ecosystem-based or landscape-scale approaches.Finally, our analysis identified only 28 contributions as having high transformational potential in their sectors of intervention, with transformational potential assessed on the basis of the scale, speed, sustainability and depth of proposed change. This evaluation is qualified by the observation that high transformational potential does not necessarily correspond to an equivalent degree of feasibility, and may not even correlate with well-defined nature-based solutions. However, our findings do suggest that submissions with both high transformational potential and a high likelihood of success are often smaller-scale contributions adapted to their site of implementation, such that interventions are tailored to the particular features and requirements of target populations and ecosystems. Nonetheless, this raises questions of whether NBS will be able to attain the scale and depth necessary to meet expectations for their sustained and transformational impact.In recent years, the concept of \"nature-based solutions\" (NBS) has seen increasing emphasis as a means of realizing transformative change for climate change mitigation and adaptation objectives (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016;Griscom et al. 2017;Maes and Jacobs 2017;Seddon et al. 2020b), as well as enhancing the provision of ecosystem services, contributing to biodiversity conservation, and supporting sustainable development more generally (Keesstra et al. 2018;Malhi et al. 2020;Seddon et al. 2020a). While the European Commission broadly defines NBS as solutions to societal challenges \"that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience\" 1 (European Commission 2020), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines NBS more narrowly as \"actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges…effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits\" (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016: xii). As such, NBS include existing landscape approaches that emphasize the importance of resilient natural ecosystems and their provision of diverse environmental services across multiple scales (Nesshöver et al. 2017;Cohen-Shacham et al. 2019;Seddon et al. 2020b). Indeed, it should be underscored that NBS do not necessarily refer to new interventions, but rather serve as an overarching framework to mobilize actionable commitments for the principles and practices encompassed by the term.In this manner, Cohen-Shacham et al. (2019: 22) present NBS as an \"umbrella concept\" for a wide range of ecosystem-based approaches, organized into the following five categories: As evidenced above, NBS refer to a diversity of interventions that operate across a multitude of scales and targets. In addition to the variation across NBS interventions, Seddon et al. (2020a) further note significant differences in the extent to which individual NBS support biodiversity, and the degree to which they are designed and implemented by local communities; attention to these two latter aspects is argued to be critical for the resilience and sustainability of NBS. Of course, these considerations are also included in a list of NBS principles formulated by IUCN and its Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM) (adapted from Cohen-Shacham et al. 2019: 23-24):Principle 1: NBS embrace nature conservation norms (and principles).Principle 2: NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner with other solutions to societal challenges (e.g., technological and engineering solutions).Principle 3: NBS are determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include traditional, local and scientific knowledge.Principle 4: NBS produce societal benefits in a fair and equitable way in a manner that promotes transparency and broad participation.Principle 5: NBS maintain biological and cultural diversity and the ability of ecosystems to evolve over time.Principle 6: NBS are applied at a landscape scale.Principle 7: NBS recognize and address the trade-offs between the production of a few immediate economic benefits for development, and future options for the production of the full range of ecosystem services.Principle 8: NBS are an integral part of the overall design of policies, and measures or actions, to address a specific challenge.The apparent capacity of NBS to achieve multiple and wide-ranging objectives for natural and human well-being, with the additional promise of cost efficiency due to their reliance on existing natural ecosystems, has meant that the concept of NBS has already seen significant policy uptake.The European Union has committed to NBS as a priority area of its Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme with a particular focus on urban sustainability, and is funding large-scale NBS demonstration projects for climate and water resilience and urban regeneration across European cities (European Commission 2016, Raymond et al. 2017). More recently, the occasion of the United Nations Climate Action Summit, convened in New York in September 2019, prompted the creation of a Nature-Based Solutions Coalition to identify transformative propositions to address climate change and sustainable development goals (UNEP 2019a). Co-led by China and New Zealand, the Coalition issued a global call for contributions that would serve as examples of good practices with high potential impact, so as to further inform the enhancement and scaling-up of NBS (UNEP 2019a, UNEP 2019b).Despite the promise of NBS in promoting integrated approaches to complex societal and environmental challenges, the diversity of their modes of operation and sites of application suggests that an assessment of existing and proposed NBS can contribute much to improved understandings of the breadth, nature and potential impact of nature-based solutions. This present report thus explores the variations and potential convergences in approaches to NBS through an analysis of 187 proposals submitted to the Nature-Based Solutions Coalition 2 , taken here as an illustrative sample of global NBS interventions that primarily address climate change adaptation and mitigation goals (see Annex 1 for a full list of submissions). Eight principal features of these submissions are examined:(1) the nature of proposing organization(s); ( 2 By transformational change, we refer to a \"movement away from the current status, business-asusual regime or behaviour, and an opening of new pathways\" (Atmadja et al. 2021: vi) that is further characterized by a commitment to sustained change, the targeting of root causes and relationships, and a fundamental reliance on knowledge as a driver and indicator of change (Ibid). Noting the analytical challenges of assessing transformational change across diverse interventions, particularly on the basis of limited information, we nonetheless use the four key parameters of scale, speed, sustainability and depth of proposed change as guidelines in our consideration of the transformational potential of NBS proposals. While depth of change is difficult to ascertain, and even more so on a priori basis, we base our evaluations of this parameter upon Atmadja et al.'s (2021) definition to consider the degree to which proposals seek movement away from existing status, target root causes and relationships, and integrate knowledge and learning in proposed activities. Further information on this evaluation process is presented in Section 9.As the Nature-Based Solutions Coalition requested the submission of summaries rather than full proposals (see Annex 2 for submission guidelines), and with the intended forum being one of communication rather than funding purposes, these submissions provide only a limited overview of the current state of thinking and implementation on nature-based solutions. Nonetheless, the diversity of NBS encompassed in these submissions, ranging in scope, sector and mechanism of action, offers both insights into the potential range of an emerging body of practice, as well as the divergences in conceptualization that may challenge the operationalization of NBS as a coherent and cohesive approach for transformative change. Indeed, our analysis raises key questions regarding the nature of transformative change for climate change mitigation and adaptation, and asks if the achievements of scale and speed may not be quite compatible, or else take secondary precedence, to the realization of far-reaching (i.e., deeply transformational) and sustainable change.Submissions were received, in descending order, from government bodies, NGOs, networks (i.e., coalitions and alliances, as defined by the submitting organization), UN or other multilateral organizations, the private sector, academic institutions, and private foundations (Table 1). Jointly authored contributions were also submitted, although where a single organization was clearly the lead partner, only the nature of this organization was recorded. Individual organizations frequently submitted multiple contributions, with the government ministries and agencies of the People's Republic of China representing the single largest source of submissions with 50 contributions. There is also a notable number of submissions from the Climate Land Ambition and Rights Alliance -CLARA (10), the World Wildlife Fund -WWF (9), and the Food and Agriculture Organization -FAO (7).No other organization submitted more than two contributions each, and these four aforementioned organizations (including the government of the People's Republic of China) account for 41% of all submissions. Submissions were categorized according to the location of submitting organization(s), with a total of 34 countries represented across the 187 submissions (Figure 1, Table 2). Seven submissions come from organizations based across multiple countries, while 63 submissions do not specify a country of origin (often in the case of international NGOs and UN and multilateral agencies). The greatest number of submissions comes from the People's Republic of China (54), distantly followed by the United States ( 12); all other named countries submitted three or fewer contributions each. On the other hand, the distribution of target regions (Figure 2) shows that the majority of contributions are designed to be implemented across multiple countries (84). China remains the single country with the greatest number of target contributions (39), comprising 85% of all contributions targeting Asian countries (Table 3). While there are 46 contributions located in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean sees 11 contributions, with Brazil being the target of four contributions alone, followed by Oceania (7), Europe (6), Africa (3) and North America (2). Papua New Guinea is the site of three contributions, while all other named countries saw two or fewer contributions each. 28 submissions do not specify a location for the implementation of their contribution. In reviewing the distribution of target countries, however, it is also necessary to take into consideration multiple submissions that appear to describe either the same intervention or otherwise different elements of an overarching programme (see Annex 3), which may contribute to an inflated accounting of certain countries. There are also multiple contributions that appear to describe broadly similar interventions (see Annex 4).The divergences in regional representation that emerge in this comparison of submitting countries and target countries attest to incongruities between the sources of NBS and their eventual destinations. The significant representation of European and North American countries among submitting countries (Table 2) and their minor presence among target countries (Table 3) suggest that a considerable number of NBS are conceived far from their sites of implementation. China is a notable exception to this trend, where projects proposed by China-based organizations either take place in the same country or across multiple countries. At the same time, the underrepresentation of Africa among both submitting and target countries is noteworthy, although there may be African countries included in programmes implemented across multiple countries. Of course, the large number of NBS submissions that are to be enacted across multiple countries raises questions of the scaling up of NBS interventions, and whether approaches are appropriately designed for their specific contexts.   In order to assess the range and nature of ecosystems targeted by the proposed NBS contributions, a typology of 12 generalized ecosystem types was created based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework, comprising marine, coastal, inland water, forest, dryland, island, mountain, polar, cultivated and urban regions (see Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2003). For the purposes of this analysis, watersheds and wetlands were added to reflect the exact ecosystem categories used in constituent submissions.Forests (33), cultivated landscapes (19), marine (18) and coastal regions (12) comprise the main areas of focus among contributions that specified a target ecosystem for their intervention (Figure 3). Alternately, island, mountain and polar ecosystems see the fewest number of targeted interventions, with only one submission each. It should be noted, however, that there may be categorical overlaps between coastal, marine and island ecosystems, as well as between watersheds, forests and inland water systems.Of course, a significant number of submissions (57, or 30%) did not specify any target ecosystem for their intervention, and 11 submissions named multiple ecosystems of interest. As nominally naturebased solutions, this omission of those ecosystems that should constitute the foundation of climate change mitigation and adaptation measures raises questions of their qualification as NBS. Indeed, an examination of submissions that do not name a target ecosystem finds a number of proposals for capacity building and/or technical support to aid the design and implementation of future NBS (#27, 97, 98, 103, 113, 161), as well as general declarations of support for NBS by government, civil society and private sector actors (#32, 44, 93, 95, 96, 141, 155). A number of proposals advocate for the widespread establishment and improved management of protected areas (#92, 108, 129, 130, 131, 135, 159) as well as generalized tree planting activities (#85, 94, 112, 170, 188, 189), both with little consideration of the particular environments in which these activities are to be implemented (see Section 6 for further discussion on the specific activities proposed by the 187 submissions). However, we find that these categories may lead to the conflation of the broad objectives of NBS (i.e., restoration, protection) with the manner of their implementation (i.e., management, infrastructure), as well as with a particular sector of intervention (i.e., infrastructure, protection). The category of \"issuespecific approaches\" would also seem to provide little thematic guidance as to the nature of constituent activities. Thus, we expand and reinterpret these categories as \"target sectors of intervention\", defined as those sectors that NBS contributions seek to change or within which they operate. We also carry out detailed consideration of the particular activities proposed by each submission (see Section 6).Based on an initial review of 30 randomly selected submissions, we listed nine target sectors of intervention, and included two additional categories for (a) contributions targeting other unnamed sectors, and (b) those contributions for which no specific sector was or could be defined (Figure 4; see Annex 5 for operational definitions for each of these sectors). While these nine target sectors also include the categories of restoration, infrastructure and protection 3 proposed by Cohen-Shacham et al. ( 2019), the addition of agriculture and food systems, energy, forestry, education, industry/private sector and governance reflect the broad range of sectors targeted by the NBS submissions. Indeed, nearly half of all submissions (92, or 49%) fall within the three primary sectors of conservation, ecosystem restoration, and agriculture and food systems.3 In this analysis, 'conservation' is used in place of 'protection', but comprises the same activities. In order to further account for the nature of activities proposed by each submission within their target sectors of intervention, a typology of 10 categories of principal activities was developed during the initial review of 30 selected submissions (Table 4).While there are certain overlaps in category headings between target sectors and specific activities (i.e., ecosystem conservation and ecosystem restoration), this additional analysis shows that technological change/innovation is the most commonly proposed activity (29 submissions), followed closely by ecosystem restoration (26 submissions) and conservation activities (19 submissions) (Figure 5).However, this emphasis on technological interventions appears to represent quite a different interpretation of nature-based solution from the IUCN definition cited above, which valorises the restoration, management and protection of natural ecosystems. For instance, these submissions include proposals for extracting drinking water from the atmosphere (#78), using \"bioenhancing\" concrete for coastal infrastructure (#37), creating artificial wetlands for wastewater filtration in industrial settings (#9), carbon capture and storage in geological formations (#70), and promoting microalgae and seaweed production both as alternatives to fossil fuels and as carbon sinks (#24 and 34). There are also a number of more traditional proposals for the installation of alternative solar, wind and hydro-electric energies (#57, 119, 123, 124, 164, 173, 179). In these aforementioned submissions, however, the functioning of natural ecosystems would seem a negligible concern, if considered at all. 4 With accelerated industrial production and energy consumption among the principal causes of global warming, it would be difficult to characterize such contributions as having the potential to catalyse transformative change for climate change mitigation and adaptation when they may further entrench, if not accelerate, these very same processes. 5   On the other hand, there are also a number of submissions proposing technical interventions for improved agricultural practices to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, to improve soil carbon sequestration, and to promote the climate resiliency of cropping systems (#11, 18, 19, 20, 35, 105, 166). While these contributions appear to take into greater consideration the enhancement of natural ecosystem functions (i.e., the decomposition and recycling of nutrients between soil and ground vegetation) than the technological interventions described above, the primary mechanisms of action (i.e., reducing chemical inputs, improving tillage practices, planting a greater diversity of crop species) might be better characterized as 'nature-supported' rather than 'nature-based' solutions for climate change mitigation and adaption. Similarly, contributions proposing 'ecosystem restoration' activities include a large number of afforestation projects that argue solely for the carbon sequestration function of trees with limited consideration of the existing natural ecosystems into which they are to be planted (#71, 157, 172, 174, 187, 188, 189, 191, 193). Of course, there are also a few instances of carefully designed forest restoration interventions that have clearly considered how to best introduce planted trees to rehabilitate pre-existing ecosystem functions (#45, 77, 132).There is also a significant number of submissions that seek to leverage market-based solutions (16) and direct financial transfers in the form of loans or grants (6) to effect nature-based solutions. Particular emphasis is placed on the development of carbon offset credits (#16, 86, 136 and 169), as well as the creation of \"bankable\" nature-based solutions that would provide financial returns for potential investors (#32, 48, 65, 81, 126). On the other hand, the emphasis on leveraging investment returns from NBS appears to share a theoretical and practical hesitancy with those submissions proposing technological innovations to attenuate and capture greenhouse gas emissions, rather than directly addressing the economic and production practices that contribute most to climate change and its felt impacts. Indeed, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Freshwater Team makes its strategic shift explicit in its 'Bankable Water Solutions' submission (#65):\"Instead of us fighting to halt poorly planned infrastructure projects, we can use our expertise and partners to drive more desirable outcomes. From large infrastructure programmes using our system scale planning approach to the latest cleantech solutions -these can all have a positive impact if we are part of the design and investment process\" (1, emphasis added). If one of the fundamental premises of transformational change is \"movement away from the current status, business-as-usual regime or behaviour, and an opening of new pathways\" (Atmadja et al. 2021), nature-based solutions that abandon more radical ambitions in favour of incremental adjustments to existing practice would appear to fall far from the desired measures and targets of transformational change (see Section 9 for further discussion on transformational change).Finally, it should be recognized that a considerable number of submissions presented multiple activities that spanned several categories. 6 For example, submissions 111, 116, 117 and 145 simultaneously propose ecosystem conservation, improved resource management, and marketbased solutions to incentivize investment funding or promote new sustainable industries. Similarly, submissions 68, 122 and 151 propose to undertake conservation and resource management activities alongside improved monitoring and evaluation that would contribute to knowledge production. Often, such multi-faceted submissions describe ongoing programmes: for instance, submission 122 describes a broad range of activities planned under Papua New Guinea's REDD+ strategy, while submission 151 outlines a regional initiative across Central American countries for climate change mitigation and adaptation activities across the agricultural and forestry sectors. While it is certainly likely that these broad programmes, with activities designed and implemented in complementary fashion, may lead to more effective overall outcomes, it is difficult to compare such multi-faceted submissions alongside contributions that propose a single modality of change.In order to evaluate the nature of NBS implementation, this analysis considered the submissions' answers to the following questions on three design elements -safeguards, transparency and monitoring -as posed in the submission guidelines (Annex 2), as well as relevant information found elsewhere in their proposals:How have stakeholders (for example local communities, young people and Indigenous Peoples, where applicable) been consulted in developing the contribution?Transparency What is the communication strategy?What are the means of stewardship, metrics for monitoring?The great majority of submissions failed to provide adequate (or any) descriptions for these three aspects of intervention design and implementation, although there was somewhat more information provided on safeguards compared to transparency and monitoring (Figure 6, Table 5). Only 14 submissions provided comprehensive explanations for one or more of these three elements, or else alluded to detailed plans found elsewhere on their respective websites, reports or publications (see Annex 6 for a full list). Noting the space limitations imposed by submission guidelines, the lack of information on these important programme design elements nonetheless, casts some doubt on the transformational potential of many submitted proposals. These include aspects considered central to achieving transformational change (Atmadja et al. 2021), such as the need to broadly and meaningfully involve stakeholders, as well as implementing activities with transparency.   61 submissions (33%) provided limited explanations of the pathway(s) by which they leverage natural systems to mitigate or adapt to climate change, often consisting of allusions to the carbon capture and storage function of natural ecosystems (i.e., forests and oceans), their ability to mitigate the impact of extreme weather events (i.e., mangroves acting as a barrier to storm surges), or in terms of avoided carbon emissions through the introduction of alternative technologies or methods (i.e., use of \"clean\" energies to reduce fossil fuel emissions) (Figure 7). However, the majority of submissions (122, or 65%) failed to provide an adequate or any explanation of how their contribution comprises a naturebased solution.Indeed, based on the nature of their proposed activities, many of the submissions should not be classified as nature-based solutions at all. Discounting those submissions whose proposed activities are so unclear as to be ineligible for analysis (i.e., #26, 115, 125), or so limited in scope that they consist of solely promotional activities (i.e., #141), there are a number of submissions that aim to provide supporting conditions for the identification and implementation of nature-based solutions, rather than proposing specific contributions of their own. For example, submissions 44, 93, 153, and 155 call upon governments, individual \"nature champions,\" partner organizations, and private sector stakeholders, respectively, to commit to the adoption or integration of NBS in their ongoing activities. Submissions 65 and 126 promote the creation of \"bankable\" NBS projects for private sector investment, while submissions 79, 81, 95, and 99 would channel multilateral, state and private funding towards NBS. A number of submissions seek to provide technical expertise in the development of future NBS activities (#27, 28, 53, 60, 103, 152), while submission 69 (Harvey Locke, individual) offers to share a theoretical framework for NBS to ensure that contributions will provide mutual benefits for nature conservation and climate change adaptation and mitigation. Finally, submission 32 (World Business Council for Sustainable Development) seeks to produce a video encouraging private sector actors to invest in NBS, while submission 96 (Youth4Nature) further promotes the involvement of youth in advocating for greater uptake of NBS.In addition, a number of submissions outline large-scale programmes or multiple existing interventions that they believe would meet the definition of NBS (see submissions from the European Commission (#13), International Bamboo and Rattan Organization (#33), UN-REDD (#59, outlining global REDD activities), and Papua New Guinea (#122, presenting its national REDD programme). With the compilation of such initiatives in summary form, however, there is limited explanation of how each component activity, or the programme as a whole, would comprise a nature-based solution.On the other hand, many other submissions take the form of discrete project proposals, rather than interventions conceived in the holistic manner of ecosystem-based or landscape-scale approaches.Indeed, the absence of explanation among submissions for large-scale programmes and individual activities alike indicates a general lack of understanding of the theoretical and operational parameters of nature-based solutions, which may well stem from current ambiguity surrounding the concept itself. For example, the Nature-Based Solutions Coalition provides wide-ranging characterizations of what an NBS may be understood to be, describing it as \"a holistic, people-centred response to climate change,\" which \"support[s] vital ecosystem services, biodiversity, access to fresh water, improved livelihoods, healthy diets and food security from sustainable food systems\" while also being \"effective, long-term, cost-efficient and globally scalable\" (UNEP 2019b: 1). While these qualifications may be useful in evaluating whether a proposed intervention could be considered an NBS, the very breadth of these characterizations does not lend themselves to the development of a concrete set of principles or programme of activities.Evaluations of the transformational potential of contributions for climate change adaptation and mitigation were made based on four key parameters -the scale, speed, sustainability and depth of the proposed change -as presented in submission documents. 7 As a general guideline, we rated contributions as having high transformational potential should they receive positive evaluations for least three of these four criteria, and low transformational potential if three or more criteria were negatively evaluated. As we proceeded in the analysis, we came to consider intervention sustainability and depth of change (understood as the degree of movement away from 'business-as-usual' practices as well as the creation of new pathways) as being more indicative of a proposal's transformational potential than the measures of scale and speed, which might have otherwise unduly biased our evaluation towards large-scale programmes and those with short implementation timelines. For those contributions that appeared to be borderline cases, we used our best judgment to make a final determination.For the majority of submissions (109, or 58%), however, there is insufficient information to assess transformational potential. Often, contributions failed to provide information on three or more of the aforementioned parameters, particularly when describing programmes comprising multiple activities.Of the remaining contributions, 28 were considered to be of high transformational potential, with the depth of proposed changes often being the deciding factor (see Annex 8). For instance, multiple submissions explicitly seek to secure tenure and management rights for Indigenous and local communities, while others advocate for the significant expansion of protected areas over terrestrial and marine ecosystems. While we assessed 50 submissions as being of low transformational potential, the frequent absence of information on one or more of the four aforementioned criteria lends only a low level of confidence in these classifications.  Indeed, these assessments of transformational potential must be qualified as only preliminary evaluations, based on the information available in the brief and often incomplete contributions. 8  Frequently, there was insufficient information to determine the speed of change of the proposed contributions other than stated timelines to completion; indeed, this may well be an element that can only be evaluated following implementation. Sustainability of the proposed change proved difficult to determine in the majority of cases, as such would require further information on the duration of funding/component activities, the degree of uptake among target populations, and the presence of other external factors that may limit or contribute to intervention effectiveness. Finally, evaluations of the depth of change were challenged by the limited information on those existing conditions and/or baselines into which these interventions would be introduced, thus to be able to determine the degree of proposed movement away from business-as-usual scenarios. Indeed, only two contributions (#98 and 99, submitted by IFAD) included counterfactual projections of environmental change with and without interventions.The high transformational potential of these 28 contributions does not necessarily correspond to an equivalent degree of intervention feasibility, and may not even be indicative of well-defined naturebased solutions. For instance, there are a number of contributions with global-scale ambitions for ecosystem conservation and broad changes in agricultural production. Submissions 1, 54 and 92 aim to conserve 30% of Earth in protected areas by 2030, with the two latter submissions calling for an additional 20% of Earth to be designated as \"Climate Stabilization Areas\" to mitigate the impacts of climate change. Similarly, submission 25 (IUCN) calls for the restoration of 350 million hectares of forest landscapes by 2030, while submissions 11, 18, 23 and 35 seek to transform global agricultural systems through fundamental changes in crop cultivation and livestock rearing practices. While the proposed scale, speed and depth of change of these interventions have contributed to their characterization as possessing high transformational potential, the realization of these overarching targets on the ground may prove challenging, particularly in the absence of concrete plans for sitespecific actions.Similarly, high transformational potential contributions that seek to leverage far-ranging legal reforms often fail to define concrete steps to accomplish their proposed objectives. For instance, submissions 4, 49, 50, 100, 137 and 139 seek to secure forest or land management rights for local and Indigenous Peoples, arguing that tenure security will result in sustainable resource management. However, the political mechanisms and capacity to realize such targets are undefined, an omission that is particularly glaring in submissions that would seek global-scale transformations in land use and land tenure. For instance, submission 100 (Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change; Indigenous Peoples Major Group) aims to secure land rights for Indigenous Peoples over 50% of the global land mass that they are said to currently manage on a customary basis. In a similar manner, submission 51 (Climate Land Ambition and Rights Alliance) advocates for the cessation of financial incentives given to large agribusinesses operating across South American landscapes. While the transformative potential of such initiatives, if successful, would be particularly high, the feasibility of coordinating such broad-scale changes in political and economic policy would appear to be equally challenging.On the other hand, those submissions that would appear to have both high transformational potential and a high likelihood of success are smaller-scale contributions narrowly adapted for their particular site of implementation. In particular, submissions 76 (Wageningen University), 77 (Auckland University of Technology), and 105 (Rythu Sadhikara Samstha and the state government of Andhra Pradesh, India) 9 document stakeholder engagement throughout the respective interventions' design and implementation process, as well as the careful tailoring of interventions to the needs, considerations and features of target populations and ecosystems alike. Even if all three submissions are small-scale, subnational (and indeed site-specific) projects, their likelihood of success and sustainability may well render them far more effective than global-scale programmes that seek to apply a one-size-fits-all solution across diverse peoples and landscapes. Indeed, these observations reflect the conclusions of a recent study arguing for the prioritization of such tailored interventions as being better positioned to deliver \"continuous transformational change\" (Termeer et al. 2017), despite their divergence from traditional measures of transformational potential that emphasize the simultaneous achievement of speed, scale and depth of change. In these submissions, deep and sustainable change may be achieved even as the scale and rapidity of change are less emphasized.While the majority of submissions assessed as having high transformational potential provided some explanation of how their contributions constitute nature-based solutions (17 out of 28 submissions, or 61%), only two submissions (#18 and 77) provided comprehensive explanations detailing how proposed activities would contribute to climate change adaptation or mitigation. Indeed, the failure of even high transformational potential submissions to provide detailed explanations for how they constitute a nature-based solution may well attest to the novelty of the terminology, as well as a general lack of understanding for how this new concept may represent a shift from existing approaches for climate change adaptation and mitigation that valorise ecosystem services provided by natural landscapes (i.e., #1, 4, 15, 49, 54, 76, 80, 100), seek alternative sources of clean energy (i.e., #34, 57, 173), or promote climate-smart agriculture (i.e., #11, 18, 23, 35, 195).This review of diverse contributions to the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, while limited by the abbreviated character of submissions, nonetheless allows us to draw certain conclusions on the current state of thinking and practice on nature-based solutions. Without a clear and shared definition of what constitutes a nature-based solution, proposals have shown tremendous variation in their consideration of the role of natural ecosystems. In particular, the emphasis on technological solutions sees interventions that would operate independently of natural processes, or else seek to mimic or replicate ecosystem functions without regard to existing ecosystems. 10 At the same time, there are evident continuities between NBS and existing landscape and ecosystem-based approaches. Proposals for payment for ecosystem service schemes and ecosystem restoration interventions, for example, could well be classified under either of these former categories. However, what particular, unifying features would render NBS an unique and transformative approach (or body of practice) require further definition.Indeed, the transformative potential of NBS to achieve climate change adaptation and mitigation objectives requires further consideration of both the means by which such interventions are implemented, as well as the metrics by which transformational change is itself measured. The frequent absence of information on the incorporation of safeguards in intervention design and implementation, transparency in communication strategies, and plans for monitoring and stewardship of activities, raises questions for the potential negative impacts of NBS interventions, even should they realize gains for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Measuring transformational change by the scale, speed, sustainability and depth of change has demonstrated a certain incompatibility between criteria, where large-scale and rapid changes may not necessarily reflect deep and sustainable shifts in practice. Indeed, these two latter criteria may well serve as more accurate measures of transformative potential. If sustainability can be predicted (if not assured) by the level of stakeholder engagement and the careful tailoring of interventions to target populations and ecosystems, and depth of change assessed through the degree of departure from business-as-usual practices, which would address the root causes of climate change as well as mitigating its final impacts, then these evaluation criteria can also be repurposed as fundamental parameters for the ongoing design of transformative naturebased solutions. Noting the self-selected nature of the sample and the public nature of its intended forum, this analysis nonetheless considers these contributions in aggregate as illustrative of the variety of current conceptions and practices of NBS. The analysis finds that forests, cultivated landscapes, and marine and coastal regions comprise the main ecosystems of interest, with NBS most often taking the form of technological change and innovation. The analysis identifies certain concerns for NBS design and implementation, with the majority of submissions failing to provide adequate information on safeguards, transparency, and monitoring. Furthermore, only four submissions provide comprehensive explanations of how their proposed contribution comprises a nature-based solution, raising questions for the ongoing operationalization of NBS as a coherent body of practice. Finally, only 28 contributions are identified as possessing high transformational potential in their sectors of intervention, assessed on the basis of the scale, speed, sustainability and depth of proposed changes. While these findings suggest that submissions with both high transformational potential and a high likelihood of success are often smaller-scale interventions adapted to their sites of implementation, this raises questions of whether NBS will be able to attain the scale and depth necessary to meet expectations for their sustained and transformational impact.","tokenCount":"6233"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7d1e6d68166f4022d2eb2e7658434b49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/28616cc5-aaae-4153-9225-22d55dcd1fe3/content","id":"121260512"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0d9c276d-331b-4a7c-9d50-5bca5168588c","pagecount":"3","content":"Huihui Li, 1,2 Awais Rasheed, 1,2, * Lee T. Hickey, 3 and Zhonghu He The vast number of valuable germplasm collections in gene banks is a source of genetic variation to potentially raise genetic gain. However, there are two major constraints: (i) time and resources required to precisely characterize the accessions at large scale, and (ii) identifying and transferring the useful alleles into adapted germplasm. An integrated approach using a combination of speed breeding and genomic selection could fast-track gene bank mining. Realistically, only a small fraction of the accessions can be phenotyped, yet genotyping of gene banks is becoming a routine activity in the post-genomics era and could enable prediction of traits for larger numbers of accessions in the gene banks [3]. Such useful variants can be rapidly backcrossed using speed breeding, which has several advantages over double haploid technology, including phenotypingon-the-go, which allows selection during development of inbred lines [2]. An extension to this approach could be the use of gene bank passport data to extract the long-term climate data (e.g., rain fall, temperature, soil PH, frost, aridity index) from the Geographic Information System (GIS) collection sites. These environmental data can be used as a proxy for tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and could lead to discovery of favorable alleles/haplotypes that are valuable for crop improvement [4]. In this way, the efficiency of prebreeding and research could be improved, thus accelerating the deployment of climate-smart cultivars.Genomic selection has emerged as one of the most promising breeding strategies to increase genetic gain and its advantages over traditional practices have been demonstrated for major crops [4]. More recently, genomic selection has also proven a useful tool to accelerate genetic gain for heterosis breeding [5]. Several low-cost and high-throughput SNP chips and NGS (next generation sequencing)based platforms have made it to genotype large breeding populations for genomic selection [6]. Genomic selection can be fine-tuned by incorporating high throughput phenotyping for yield-associated physiological traits, markers for wellcharacterized major genes, and parametric and nonparametric statistical and computational models [4]. Remarkably, there has been a three-million-fold increase in sequencing throughput since 1975 and a million-fold decrease in cost over a decade, which has led to huge progress in sequencing crop species [7]. Efforts are now focused on whole-genome sequencing of members of a gene-pool (pan-genome) to increase our understanding of the genetics underlying crop adaptability [6]. Such insight could enable the adoption of several approaches already implemented in livestock genomics. For example, haplotypes consisting of two or more SNPs with strong linkage-disequilibrium are multiallelic in nature and are more informative than bi-allelic SNP markers. Highly conserved haplotypes selected by plant breeders during modern breeding could be replaced by more beneficial haplotypes from genetic resources. Furthermore, gene-editing could play an important role for fine tuning expression of key genes and reducing linkage drag. It is now possible to create new alleles or inactivate/activate homoeo-alleles of a gene with major effect on phenotype.The CRISPR-Cas9 tool, allowing multiplex gene editing, has become more high-throughput and is considered a non-GMO approach in some countries [8]. DNA synthesis platforms have evolved significantly with one-billion-fold increase in oligo-nucleotide synthesis and the promising success of gene-editing have prompted a realistic discussion of writing and radically re-writing complex genomes [9]. Such advocacy for large-scale genome re-writing is motivated by experiments on simple bacterial organisms, which have shown that re-engineering the genome of particular bacterial strains could render the bacteria less susceptible to viruses and more efficient at producing a biomolecule of interest [10].If applied in isolation, a tool or technology will unlikely accelerate the rate of genetic gain in crop breeding. However, the successful integration of several technologies has the potential to break stagnant yield barriers in various crops (Figure 1). For instance, high-throughput hyperspectral phenomics for yield-associated physiological traits [11] could be used to discover haplotypes that are different from haplotypes of conventional phenotypes (plant height, flowering time, grain yield per se, etc.) that have been selected by plant breeders. The fast-track replacement of historically fixed haplotypes with new beneficial haplotypes of yield-associated traits could potentially make room to further improve the harvest index in crop plants. Integration of 'speed breeding' with aforementioned approaches could help achieve the 2050 genetic gain targets for the four Fs (food, feed, fiber, and fuel). The catalyst is the globally coordinated network for the development of unified standards and common monitoring protocols integrating genomics with phenotypic data, including eco-geographic information, all with open-access terms for the availability of physical (e.g., germplasm and infrastructure) and information resources to the scientific community [12]. One example is the Excellence in Breeding (EiB; http:// excellenceinbreeding.org/) platform, under which the CGIAR (Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers) is aligning its overall bioinformatics across modern breeding technologies. These types of initiatives will help to modernize breeding programs, particularly those in developing countries, by embracing new technology and innovation. The tools, services, knowledge, resources, and peer interactions facilitated by the EiB, will allow breeders a transition into the digital era, including storage, retrieval, analysis, sharing, interpretation, and utilization of electronic data. This will enable breeders to adopt best practices, use new tools, and integrate breeding approaches, saving time in developing new higher yielding cultivars, of better quality, and more resilient to weather extremes and local stress environments. However, the enthusiasm over the role of genomics and other breeding tools must not overlook the yield gap between developed and developing countries (largely due to the lack of farm mechanization) and the significant contributions from agronomy and management to raise yield on farms in developing countries by up to 30%.  Technologies. The features of individual aspects, such as genotyping, phenotyping, generation turnaround, and breeding strategy are described in biplots, along with key advantages (denoted as 4) and disadvantages (denoted as 5 ). The low color intensity indicates the higher possibility of technologies to integrate with other technologies.","tokenCount":"974"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b1ceb24aaf772bef879848af4c218352","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6eb0caa0-b98a-41b2-9b68-12524bbde096/retrieve","id":"-488745347"},"keywords":["..","Nl2071~t . . .. ll.a2071..c..et .... ~~","._ 1.2.2 Marker assisted selection in Brachiaria IP4-Project. 2. IDEA. Caracas. Venezuela. 3. Biotechnology Center","Rutgers University 2.2.1. Identifying target"],"sieverID":"ad48ae0d-7912-438b-be01-e9d31189bd8c","pagecount":"244","content":"3.1.2 Collaborations with public and prívate sectors 3.1.3 Scientific Meetings 3.1.4 Workshops. training and theses ACTIVITY 3.2 ASSEMBLING DA T ABASES, GENETIC STOCKS, MAPS PRO BES • AND RELATE O INFORMA TION 3 .2.1 Flora Map: a computer tool for predicting the distribution of plants a nd other organisms in the wild 3.2.2 Regional yield trials extrapolation: A method for extrapolating probable varietal y ield from large regional trials networks O 3 .2.3 Local BLAST implementation and bioinforrnatics applications 13 IMPORTANT ASSUMPTIONS Pro-active pa11icipation of CIAT and NARS agricultura! s<.:icntists and biologists. 1 Availabi lity of up to date genom ics equipmcnt, opcrational funding. Access to genes and gene promotcrs.The Challenge: The project's approach to the challenges involved in increasing agricultura! productivity. wi th probably less water and soil. and agricultura! competitiveness in tropical developing countries, is based in the application of modem biotechnology to enhance our ability to develop improved strategies for the characterization and sustainable utilization of genetic diversity in crop improvement and conservation. Common bean, cassava and rice are vital to food security and human welfare and along with tropical forages, are grown in developing countries. Our research on the mandated crops expands to other crops of current or potential economic importance in Latín America.In a project financed by the Belgian government to explore the potential of P. coccineus (PC) and P. polyanthus (PP). a core collection was forrned as reported in past years. The core was studied for severa! agronomic traits and for the relationship of these to the agroecological characteristics of the si tes of origin of the accessions.Last year we noted a very high level of resistance in P.coccineus/polyanthus to isolates of anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemutheanum or CL) that were obtained locally in Popayán. These isolates had been characterized as Andean or Mesoamerican type in relation to bean differential varieties, but in fact they were Colombian in origin. This raised the question whether isolates from Central America or Mexico (region in which coccineus/polyanthus evolved as species) might in fact present more virulence than Colombian isolates. Thus, we wished to confirrn this result of broad resistance with a truly Mesoamerican isolate ofCL. We selected an isolate CL-77 from Costa Rica which had previously proven to be among the most virulent of Mesoamerican CL isolates. overcoming the resistance of 02333 which possesses three resistance genes. An evaluation of the core was carried out in the greenhouse under controlled conditions at CIA T headquarters.The core collection was also shared with colleagues outside of CIA T. Reaction to BGYMV was evaluated in Puerto Rico in 1999 by Dr. James Beaver using inoculation with white flies in the greenhouse. Dr Beaver also evaluated resistance to web blight (Thanatephoris cucumeris) in the field and greenhouse. Web blight is one of the primary limitations on the cultivation of bean in the lowland wet tropics, and prevents the planting of bean in the coastal areas of Central America in Guatemala and El Salvador. Production in these regions would obviate the need for continuous deforestation on fragile hillsides. Resistance to web blight has been an elusive objective for breeders, and while differences in degrees of susceptibility exist, no P. vulgaris is capable of withstanding a severe attack of web blight. Thus, resistance to web blight is a logical objective for looking at the potential of interspecific crosses.Exactly the same result was found with the Costa Rican isolate of the anthracnose pathogen as with the Colombian isolates: coccineus/polyanthus accessions were almost uniformly resistant to the Costa Rican isolate. Thus, the bread resistance of coccineus/polyanthus seems to hold even to virulent Mesoamerican isolates. While this ought to be confirmed further, it appears that the distance among Phaseolus species is more important in limiting pathogenesis than is the fact that the pathogen evolved in the same geographical region and supposedly could have been exposed to the coccineus/polyanthus host o ver millions of years.In the evaluation of BGYMV, six accessions were evaluated as resistant. aH of which are coccineus from Mexico or Guatemala. Another 1 O presented no chlorosis, which is only one of several manifestations of symptoms of the virus, and all 1 O were coccineus, mostly from Mexico and Guatemala. Thus, this evaluation has opened the possibility that more accessions ofcoccineus are resistant to BGMV, in addition to 035171 and G35172 that were reported previously. lt is noteworthy that all resistant accessions are coccineus and none are polyanthus. In our own experience with greenhouse inoculations of polyanthus, we have seen that it is especially susceptible. This points up an important difference between the two species that was not evident previously.In the evaluation of the core for reaction to web blight. severa! materials presented a high level of resistance, in particular G35006 and G35513. Additional seed was supplied to Dr Beaver for a confirmation tria! and the resistance was confirmed. Thus. for the first time bean breeders access to high levels of resistance for web blight. These sources are now being investigated in more detail to determine if they hold against all isolates of the pathogen.The foregoing results and those of past years invite reflections on the host-pathogen relations of coccineus/polyanthus. and certain tentative conclusions:• PC and PP ha ve resistance genes that are absent in PV. This was recognized previously, especially in the case of ascochyta blight, and to sorne degree for BGMV and Bean Stem Maggot. Now this conclusion can be extended to web blight and perhaps to Angular Leaf Spot andlor anthracnose.• The resistance of PC and PP is almost universal in the case of diseases that present clear-cut physiological races with common bean, ie, anthracnose and ALS. both of which are found in the ecological regions where PC and PP evolved. The resistance of PC/PP appears to hold up to those races that evolved within the same region in which the two species evolved, thus proximity of the races did not appear to be conducive to breakdown of resistance. Evidence with wild accessions suggest that this resistance is ancestral.Since the selection of the core collection was based on agro-ecological variability among the si tes of origin of the collections, we wished to determine if any of the traits that were evaluated were in fact associated with the agro-ecological parameters. In other words. were these parameters in fact useful criteria to recover genetic diversity in the selection of the core?The agroecological parameters that served to select the core were tested individually as factors in an ANOVA, and appear in Table 1 under the heading \"Agro-ecological parameters\": soil, temperature (represented as length of growth cycle, long cycles being typical of cool temperatures, etc.), rainfall and daylength at flowering. The effect of species is included, as are the interaction terms of species x ecological parameters, to test if the genetic resources of the two species demonstrate the same variability in relation to ecological parameters.The same agro-ecological parameters described in the previous paragraph served to define classes. Potentially a total of 54 classes could exist (3 levels of soil x 3 of temperature x 3 of rainfall x 2 of daylength). A total of 27 such classes were represented in the core but sorne included only one accession, thus 21 classes were included in the ANOV A. This classification is identified in Table 1 as \"Agro-ecological classes\". Since the parameters used to define the classes were the same as in the previous analysis, this analysis is in a sense duplicative. but is more comparable to the Holdridge classification (see following paragraph).A third option that was not employed to select the core but is included here for comparison is the Holdridge system of classifying native vegetation and therefore environments. It was a simple task to identify the Holdridge equivalents of the sites of origin. to apply the ANOV A to accessions as grouped by Holdridge classes.Another criterion that was used to select the core was based on a multivariate analysis of climatic data (average temperature. day-night temperature difference, and rainfall), and thus was an altemative to the former system of classifying the environments where accessions originated. Since this was based on a cluster analysis of quantitative climate data at the sites of origin of each accession. this analysis was performed species by species, and the test of this classification is done within species. In Table 1 this analysis is identified as \"Climate clusters\".Five data that were taken on the core collection were analyzed by the foregoing classification systems: reaction to ALS-Andean races and ALS-Mesoamerican races; reaction to ascochyta; reaction to web blight; and total number of seeds produced. Data on anthracnose were not included due to minimal variability in the resistance reaction. Data on BGMV resistance were taken as resistant or susceptible and thus were not subject to ANOV A.The effect of species was evident in the reaction to ascochyta (as expected), to ALS-And, and to ALS-Meso, and was independent of the classification system, as it should have been.In the analysis of the effect of individual ecological parameters, significant effects were noted for temperature ( on ALS-And and only marginally for AL S-Meso and seed production), and for rainfall ( on ascochyta resistance, especially in coccineus in which accessions from wetter climates presented better resistance). But the most important effects were those of daylength at flowering (ALS-And, seed production and marginally web blight).The interaction terms of species x ecological parameters were significant for: species x soil (seed production); species x temperature (ALS-And); species x day length (ALS-And and rnarginally for web blight); and only marginally for species x rainfall (seed production). But what was important in this regard is that the interaction terms were significant in all cases due to polyanthus and not coccineus. That is, the variability in ecological parameters was associated with variability within polyanthus but not within coccineus. Does polyanthus present adaptation to more specific ecological niches than coccíneus? With regard to the rnethodology used to select the core, all ecological parameters used were associated with genetic diversity in one or more traits, for one or both species.Thus. the use of ecological criteria probably served to recover genetic diversity in these species. This validares the method and commends it for use in other species.When ANOVA was applied to the agroecological classes (as opposed to the individual ecological parameters that defined the classes), relatively few significant effects were noted. This was probably due in large part to having lost statistical power. since many classes were represented by only 2 or 3 accessions which functioned as repetitions in the analysis. The analysis by Holdridge classes was statistically firmer in terms of more uniform representation of classes. However, the two systems recognized very similar pattems of diversity in the data taken on accessions, and in spite of statistical difficulties. the agro-ecological classes recognized slightly more differences although at marginal significance levels. Thus. the agroecological classes are at least as good as and possibly better than the Holdridge classes for revealing genetic diversity.The analysis by climatic clusters was different than the other analyses since it was performed only within species. This was because the clusters were derived from the data on each species individually. Surprisingly, the climatic clusters did not have any significant effect at all on the structure of data taken on coccineus. but this system was the most successful in di stinguishing variability within polyanthus! Significant effects were noted for ALS-And (*). for web blight (the only effect significant at p=0.05 for this variable). and for seed production (**). In relation to seed productíon. this system of classification recognized three environments, accessions from which were very poorly adapted in Popayán. Ironically. two of these environments were in Colombia and one in Peru (and Mexico). Environments that produced accessions of PP with good production formed two clusters, both centered in Guatemala.The cluster of polyanthus that presented the best reaction to web blight was centered on Chiapas (Mexico) and Totonicapan (westem Guatemala), as well as individual accessions from Cajamarca (Peru), Venezuela and Veracruz (Mexico). Another 44 accessions from this climate cluster in Mexico and Guatemala exist that could be assayed for resistance to web blight.Although the effects of the climatic clusters on coccineus were not significant statistically. pattems could be discemed in seed production by clusters. Again. the two poorest clusters were dominated by Colombian environments. while the two environmental clusters that produced best were centered on Oaxaca and surrounding states of Mexico. Both the climatic system of classifying environments and the classification by individual environmental parameters suggest the same conclusion: that P. polyanthus presents more specific adaptation to ecological niches than does P. coccineus. This is a surprise, since one would expect more inherent genetic variability within coccineus, for severa! reasons. First. the wild ancestor of coccineus is distributed over a much larger area than wild polyanthus, at least based on co llections made in this century. (This does not rule out a wider distribution of wild polyanthus in the past.) Wild polyanthus has been found only in Guatemala. while wi ld coccineus is found from central Mexico south and east as far as Honduras. This same geographic range is associated with wide genetic diversity in P. vulgaris . Thus. one would expect that as a species. P. coccineus should present broad variabilíty. and wider than P. polyanthus. Secondly, and of Iesser weight. is the wider morphological variability of domesticated coccineus compared to domesticated polyanthus. Coccineus presents seed colors including white, black. purple. and cream. while polyanthus is largely cream colored. Similarly, coccineus presents both climbing and bush (type 3 and even type 1) habits, while polyanthus is limited to climbing types. These raise questions about visible vs inherent variability that may be elucidated by DNA analysis of the core collection.The agroecological parameters were in fact associated with phenotypic data of resistance to severa! diseases and seed production, thus the parameters had served to capture genetic variability. Classification of accessions by environrnental parameters suggest that P. polyanthus presents more specific adaptation to ecological niches than does P. coccineus.      Congruity backcrossing (CBC) was shown by Mejía-Jiménez et al. ( 1994) to be a useful technique for increasing the success of introgressing tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius) genes into a comrnon bean (P. vulgaris) background. This technique uses multiple backcrosses done alternately between both species which allows the recovery of mature backcross F 1 hybrid plants. Congruity backcrossing was postulated by the authors to reduce inter-specific hybridization barriers such as hybrid sterility, genotype incompatibility, embryo abortion often found in crosses between P. vulgaris and P. acutifolius. In their original study. Mejía-Jiménez et al. (1994) used seed protein (phaseolin) and morphological markers to verify introgression among the congruity backcross lines generated by a cross between the Tepary accession G400land the comrnon bean variety, ICA Pijao.In this study, our primary objective was to quantify the leve! of introgression using random DNA markers generated by AFLP analysis on a group of congruity backcross lines derived from the study described above.Over 420 congruity backcross introgression lines were initially tested in the field from which a smaller group was selecred based on their tolerance to drought conditions. AFLP markers have been applied before to study wild species of Phaseolus (Tohme et al., 1996) and lima bean, P. lunatus, accessions and their close relatives (Caicedo et al., 1999) A total of 61 genotypes were used in the experiments. The first part of the experiment included four lines that were derived from a single backcross of the inter-specific F 1 hybrid to the common bean parent (CBC 1 F 5 ), and 35 lines that were derived from five alternating congruity backcrosses (CBC 5 F 10 ). Among the latter, 18 lines were drought tolerant and 17 were drought susceptible (Table 1 ). The parents of the introgression lines, 040001 and ICA Pijao, were used as controls to confirm the identity and source of the DNA polymorphisms.In a second part of the experiment the leve! of introgression in lines derived from standard recurrent backcrossing and selection was compared with the leve! of introgression found in the !in es developed by congruity backcrossing. F ourteen comrnon bean advanced lines (from the XAN and V AX series) and varieties ('Tara' and 'Jules') derived from tepary beans by standard recurrent backcrossing and selection were included in the experiment. Many of these genotypes were originally deve1oped for resistance to common bacteria! blight, a trait that was identified in severa! tepary bean accessions, such as 040020 and PI207262 ( = G 13 20), which were in el uded in this study.Three other tepary beans. G40035. G40036. G40006. were selected for this study to represent other accessions of P. acutifolius and to confirm the identity of AFLP bands introgressed from tepary parents into the common bean advanced lines and varieties.Total genomic DNA was extracted from 2 g of fresh leaf tissue. Amplicon-template preparation, pre-amplification. and selective amplification were as described for the protocol of the Gibco BRL AFLP analysis system 1 kit for small genomes. An initial parental screening was conducted with 24 primer combinations based on the EcoRI (E)-Msel (M) adapters and using primers with 3 selective nucleotides each. The most primer polymorphic combinations were chosen for the two parents, 040001 and ICA Pijao. This initial screening included bulked DNA of 1 O drought tolerant and 1 O drought-susceptible lines.The full set of introgression lines was then analyzed with the most four polymorphic AFLP combinations given in Table 2. Fragments were sized by comparison to a 50bp ladder molecular weight size standard. All the polymorphic AFLP bands between 100 and 350 bp were scored for presence or absence among the lines. Genetic similarities between genotypes was determined with the Dice coefficient using the software packages SAS (SAS Institute, 1 989) and NTSYS 2.02 (Rohlf. 1993).In the twenty-four AFLP combinations that were tested on the parents and bulks from the congruent backcross set, from 73% to 95% of bands were polymorphic. Sorne combinations produced generally larger or smaller bands and were discarded. Four AFLP combinations had high polymorphism rates, clear amplification profiles and welldistributed ranges in PCR product sizes. These four combinations generated 207 bands including monomorphic and polymorphic bands across the 41 congruent backcross individuals and their two parents. On average each primer combination produced 51.8 bands, however sorne primer combinations produced more bands than others (Table 2). Each band was scored as a possible introgression event if it was present in one of the parents and in severa! of the introgression lines. Markers showing predominantly the tepary allele in the congruent backcross lines were not considered. Non-parental bands (bands present in the introgression lines but absent in either parent) occurred on average 2.25 times per AFLP combination. The remaining genotypes, including the common bean varíeties and advanced lines and the tepary accessions, were evaluated for the same bands that were present in the introgression lines and their parents. Analysis of the genotypes with the four different primer combinations produced genetic similarity matrices that were significantly correlated.A multiple correspondance analysis was done for the datasets from each AFLP combination for the complete set of 61 genotypes. The results were similar for each combination, therefore only one analysis is presented here (Figure 1 ). Three majar clusters were observed. 1) The most distinct cluster consisted of the four tepary bean accessions; 2) a second cluster contained all of the common bean varieties or advanced lines without tepary bean parentage (ICA Pijao. DOR476, BAT41 ). This cluster also contained previously developed genotypes with tepary beans in their pedigrees (Tara. Jules. MARI. SEL 1309 as well as all the VAX and XAN lines), all of the CBC,F3:5 introgression lines. and a group of 9 CBC 5 F 6 : 1 o introgression lines. 3) The remaining cluster was closely related to the other common beans but consisted solely of CBCsf6:IO introgression lines.Drought tolerant introgression lines were found in both of the common bean clusters.Congruity backcross lines derived from 5 cycles of inter-specific hybridization (C BC 5 F 6 : 1 o) showed 6.0% introgression on average while the lines derived from a single backcross (CBC 1 F 5 ) showed only 3.6% introgression on average (Table l ). The levels of introgression in both sets of lines were far below those expected.Compared to a single recurrent backcross, the process of congruity backcrossing helped increase the leve! of introgression from P. acutifolius into P. vufgaris. However. the overall amount of introgression was still below the leve! expected. indicating that there must be genetic incompatibilities in the inter-specific crosses that are still not resolved even with five cycles of congruity backcrossing. Introgression was seen to be even lower in cultivated varieties and advanced lines previously generated from inter-specific hybridization with tepary beans that did not use congruent backcrossing. In addition. many of the initial common bean genotypes containing tepary genes ha ve now been used in multiple generations of crosses and recurrent selection.The lower than expected introgression rate has serious implications for the transfer of quantitative traits from tepary bean to common bean. While a simple trait such as common bacteria! blight resistance has been transferred successfully from tepary bean to common bean advanced lines and varieties, it may be more difficult to transfer complex traits which would rely on the simultaneous introgression of the right combination of tepary genes. Despite this concem it was noted that drought tolerance was not confined to the lines with the most introgression suggesting that a few well -placed loci may be having a greater influence on this trait than previously thought -and that these can be successfully transferred even when introgression levels are low. It remains to be confirrned whether any particular marker is associated with drought tolerances.In the future, the genotypic data presented here will be correlated with phenotypic data for the same introgression lines tested in replicated field experiments under drought and non-stress conditions. We also planto determine the genetic diversity in a larger range of P. acutifolius accession using AFLP markers so as to identify how genotypes used in inter-specific hybridization are related to other accessions within the species, especially since tepary bean diversity may have arisen from more than one domestication event.  Microsatellites markers are based on short segments of DNA in which a specific simple sequence motif of 1-6 bases is repeated in tandem, multiple times. Due to the innate variability at microsatellite loci, these markers have been ideal for characterizing genetic diversity in crop species at the inter-specific, inter-subspecific, inter-varietal and even intra-varietal levels. Microsatellites have been found to vary in the polymorphism they detect depending on the length and sequence of the repeat motif they contain and their location along the chromosomes, specifically whether they reside in gene-coding or noncoding segments of the genome. The objective of this study was to evaluate all new Phaseolus microsatellite markers for their allelic variability on a panel of 18 common bean genotypes representing diverse germplasm, both cultivated and wild. Mesoamerican and Andean. within the species.The genotypes consisted in 18 common bean genotypes, including five Andeans. ten Mesoamericans, two wild Andeans, and one wild Mesoamerican (Table 1), which are the parents of 11 mapping populations being studied at CIA T for the inheritance of micronutrient content. abiotic stress tolerance. disease and insect resistance. These included eight intra-genepool (three Andean x Andean and five Mesoamerican x Mesoamerican) and three inter-genepool populations (Table 2). The genotypes were evaluated with a total of 70 microsatellite markers ( of which 34 were derived from genomic libraries and 36 were derived from cONA or gene sequences). The markers were amplified at different annealing temperatures according to the estimated melting temperatures of the primers. The PCR products were resolved on silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and microsatellite alleles were sized by comparison to the 1 O and 25 bp molecular weight standards (Promega).The average polymorphism rate between the parents of the inter-genepool crosses (61.1 %) was higher than that of the intra-genepool crosses (30.0% for Mesoamerican x Mesoamerican and 39.5% for Andean x Andean) (Table 2). Genomic microsatellites detected more polymorphism than cONA microsatellites in the intra-genepool crosses but were about equally effective in uncovering polymorphism in the inter-genepool crosses.Overall the average polymorphism rate for cONA microsatellites was 36% versus 46% for the genomic microsatellites.Significantly fewer average alleles per locus were found for microsatellites from genes (2.9 alleles) than for rnicrosatellites from non-coding sequences (5.1 alleles) (unpaired ttest: P= 0.03).The gene-derived microsatellites frequently were bi-alle1ic and distinguished the difference between Andean and Mesoamerican genepoo1s. Meanwhile the genomic microsatellites detected more alleles and were thus able to resolve sorne within-genepool variation.The polymorphism information content (PIC) of the gene-derived microsatellites was lower (0.40 1) than for the genomic microsatellites (0.520). The PIC values were positively correlated with the number of alleles produced at the locus, which were likewise lower on average for the gene-derived microsatellites (2.9) than for the genomic microsatellites (5 .0). Null alleles were uncommon in both types of microsatellites. The allele size range was generally a good predictor of the number of alleles present for a locus. The allele range was 50% wider for the genomic microsatellites (29.6 bp) compared to the gene-derived microsatellites (19.3 bp). However there were severa! individual microsatellites with large size ranges but few alleles.The differences in allelic variability observed at specific bean microsatellite loci are probably due to the differences in the mutarion rate inherenr for each locus . Microsatellites mutate when they add or subtract a small number of perfect repeats or undergo changes in the fl anking regions of the SSR. These changes can occur due to polymerase slippage. unequal crossing-over and/or insertion-deletion events. Although microsatellites are believed to have sorne of the highest mutation rates observed at any type of molecular loci. sorne microsatellites will evidently be more stable than others. In this study as in others before. microsatellite variability seems to be intluenced by the structure. moti f. SSR length and genomic context of the locus.The more polymorphic genomic microsatellites may well become the mainstay of mapping studies since they wi ll be useful even in narrow intra-genepool crosses. They will also be very useful for to analyzing recent changes in population structure and selection history in closely-related germplasm from a given area or from a specific comrnercial class.Meanwhile the more conserved and stable cDNA-derived microsatellites may find their greatest util ity in mapping in wide inter-genepool or interspecific crosses and in the phylogenetic analysis of the genus Phaseolus.We planto continue testing all new Phaseolus microsatellites on the existing panel and if the need arises. will create another panel of varieties to survey for polymorphisms in the parents of additional populations. In the future it will be very useful to genotype many of the comrnon parents and genetic sources used at CIA T, as this will allow us to implement whole-genome marker assisted selection that is specific to the genetic crosses made in our bean breeding program.  ) is a self-pollinated crop with a very low rate of out-crossing. It is a common assumption that in such a crop, modern varieties grown on medium to Iarge farms are maintained as pure lines while traditional Iandrace varieties grown on small farms are maintained as populations of mixed genotypes. In this study we attempt to describe the amount of genetic variation at the molecular level that is found within and between on-farm populations (here referred to as local varieties) collected from farmers in different geographical regions of Nicaragua. Seed color is an important commercial trait in Nicaragua, and farmers predominantly grow small red seeded beans, although they also have landraces that have brown or cream colored seed. Within these seed classes there are slight variations in seed size and pigment tones. The genes underlying these differences in seed appearance are not well understood, but the discovery of allelic variation at molecular markers may give sorne clues as to how farmers maintain the diversity in their seed stocks.Thirty-three local varieties representing three seed classes (30 small red. 3 brown/cream) were genotyped with bean microsatellite markers. In the first step. DNAs from 12 individuals each of the 33 local varieties. were pooled and tested with 20 microsatellites.In the second step. the seven most polymorphic markers on the intital set of genotypes were chosen to assay the separare DNAs from each individual from 21 local varieties (Table 1 ). Seven Nicaraguan varieties that are part of the CIA T core collection were used as controls for gel-to-gel variation. The microsatellite alleles were resolved on silverstained polyacrylamide gels and sized by comparison to the 1 O and 25 bp molecular weight standards (Promega).The results indicate that microsatellites were ideal markers for detecting DNA polymorphisms in the closely-related but somewhat divergent genotypes of Nicaraguan farmers. In the bulk samples. an average of 3.2 alleles were identified per locus with a range from 1 to 12 alleles depending on the individual microsatellite. In the full array of individuals tested with the seven most polymorphic markers. an average of 6.9 alleles were identified per locus with a range of 2 to 21 alleles. The average polymorphism information content (PIC) values across Nicaraguan varieties ranged from 0.211 for the marker BMy-4 to 0.915 for the marker GAT91. and averaged 0.541 (Table 2). The average PIC values within each Nicaraguan varieties (ie among the 12 individuals of the variety) were lower than across al! the varieties together and ranged from 0.085 to 0.514 for the same markers mentioned above and averaged 0.253. Within varieties sorne of the markers detected no polymorphjsm (PIC values of 0.0).The genetic markers facilitated the differentiation of sub-populations within al! the local varieties even when the individuals withln the variety were all similar in terms of seed color and other phenotypic characteristics. This intra-population diversity was not correlated with agro-climatological zones or other variables. Although most of the individuals were homozygous for most loci. the frequency of heterozygous individuals in several of the populations was higher than 10%. This suggests that out-crossing had occurred at the farm leve! and that gene-flow between diverse individuals within the population or between adjacent populations from neighboring farms might be important.The presence of individuals with different alleles is proof that farmers are planting genetic mixtures or populations rather than pure line varieties. These results suggest that traditional farmer-managed local varieties are reservoirs of genetic diversity and highlight the importance of preserving genetic resources by in si tu conservation.On-farm trials of single-plant selections (pure lines) from the mixed varieties are being grown in Nicaragua to determine the morphological variability associated with the genetic diversity identified in this study. The introgression and mixing of improved, BGMV -resistan t. modem varieties into the loca] populations will be studied by comparing the microsatellite fingerprints of varieties released in Nicaragua in the last twenty years to the alleles observed in this study. The amount of genetic variability present in today's landraces will be compared to that of the \"same\" varieties stored in genebanks in CIA T and in Nicaragua to detennine the changes that occur over time with in vitro gennplasm storage.  Molecular data play an essential role in the reconstruction of evolutionary relationships arnong many organisms. For assessing molecular phylogenetic relationships among plants. the nuclear genes coding for the 18S and 25S ribosomal RNA components of the cytosolic ribosomes have been used extensively at family and higher taxa levels (Hamby and Zimmer, 1991). To study the phylogeny among closely relate genera or species. however. a more rapidly evolving gene is needed for the analysis. Interna! transcribed spacer (ITS) regions have been shown to be relatively conservative in length and can be used as a source of nuclear DNA characters for phylogenetic reconstruction in plants (Baldwin, 1992). Both ITS regíons (ITS 1 and ITS2) are part of the rRNA genes (rON A), which are organized in a tandemly repeated manner. Each rDNA repeat unit consists of the genes coding for the 18S, 5.8S, and 25S rRNA, which are separated from the next repeat unit by the intergenic spacer region (IGS). The coding regions are interrupted by two interna! transcribed spacers: ITS 1 and ITS2.We have initiated a molecular phylogenetic study of the different section of the Phaseolus genus starting with the group of species related to the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The second group to be analysed is ofthe Lima bean. A third target for this project is a total phylogeny for the genus including all species available at CIA T.Plant material and PCR reactions:Total DNAs were isolated from fresh or frozen leaves following the protocol of Afanador et al. (Afanador, L. pers comunication). PCR amplifications of the ITS sequences were done using a total volume of SO ¡.ti, contaíning 2.5mM MgCh, 0.1 uM each primer, 1 mM dNTPs mixture and 1 OX Taq polymerase buffer and 1 unit Taq DNA polymerase was added to each reaction. PCRs were performed in a MJ research thermocycler. PCR products were purified using Wizard PCR Preps (Promega Corp.) or by elution in a low melting point agarose. Fragments were sequenced on a ABI Prism 377 (Perkin-Elmer) using Big-dye terrninators and AmpliTaq FS (Perkin-Elmer).Nucleotide sequences were aligned using the CLUSTALX program. Phylogenetic analyses are carried out in PAUP version 4 (Swofford, 1998) with a Power Macintosh G3 , and used maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood to search for optimal trees .Ma'<ímum-parsimony analyses were conducted with characters weíghted •equally (MP) using l 00 heuristíc searches employíng tree bisection-reconnection (TBR) branch swapping and random addition sequence. with the following settings: all characters of type unordered. one tree held at each step during stepwise addition, steepest descent option not in effect. branches collapsed if mínimum branch length = O. MAXTREES unlimited. and MULPTARS optíon in effect. To evaluate branch robustness in the parsimony trees. bootstrap (Felsenstein, 1985) analyses is being conducted. Bootstrap supports is going to evaluate using 100 bootstrap replicates. each replicate consisting of 1 O heuristic search with simple addition sequences and TBR branch swapping. Maximum-likelihood ratio test (L TR) is going to be employ to identify a simple and robust substitution model for each data set (the '•best-fit model\")ITS sequencing shows us the organization of the genus Phaseolus into severa! phyla. As expected, the American Phaseolinae Vigna adenantha and lvfacroptilium atropurpureum fall outside the genus. and serve as outgroups. Check is needed about sp 1 O, a Mexican Phaseolinae with hooked hairs that has not bloom so far. The phylum that includes the Lima bean and its Andean and Mesoamerican gene pool also comprises the secondary gene pool of Andean species, confirming early results (Caicedo et al. 1999). The tertiary gene pool of Lima bean with taxa such as maculatus. jaliscanus. polystachyus, indeed links with the group of P. lunatus (Fofana et al. 1999;Maquet et al. 1999). lf the link is through P. leptostachyus and P. micranthus remains however a point to be checked.Because they share the unique trait of rugase testa (Debouck 2000), it was expected that P. jiliformis, P. angustissimus and P. carteri would be grouped together at sorne distance between the P. lunatus phylum and that including the common bean, and this is confinned by ITS sequencing. The phylum of P. vulgaris includes P. vulgaris. P. polyanthus, P. costaricensis, and P. coccineus. The parsimony analysis thus confirms many former molecular studies (Schmit et al. 1993;Llaca et aL 1994;Hervieu et aL 1994: Jacob et al. 1995;Delgado et al. 1999). We need however to check further through bootstrap analysis the robustness of the present analysis, because the differences between cpDNA (e.g. Schrnit et al. 1993) and nuclear DNA (Llaca et al. 1994;Jacob et al. 1995: Delgado et al. 1999) analyses are not fully revealed as such. Interspecific hybridization has long shown the remete but existing linkage between the common bean phylum and the tepary; this is also confirmed by ITS sequencing. Interestingly, P. parvifolius that was thought to belong to the secondary gene pool of P. acutifolius is indeed shown as such.The last group would need additional bootstrap analysis: it includes species as morphologically diverse as P. xanthotrichus, P. chiapasanus, or P. neglectus. Certain affinities revealed in previous studies (Delgado et al. 1993(Delgado et al. , 1999) ) appeared once again.For instance, P. glabellus appears close to the P. pedicellatus group; we know it to be quite separate from the P. coccineus group (Schmit et al. 1996). The differences between the P. pedicel/atus group and the P. neglectus group although morphologically important would not be very strong on the basis of ITS sequencing data; both are however confirrned as groups including a couple of ta'<a (Debouck 2000). Sorne synonymy that was inferred from morphological studies would be validated by ITS sequencing.As compared to a similar recent study (Delgado et al. 1999). our work 1) confirms the different phyla existing in the genus such as the P. lunatus phylum, the P. vulgaris phylum. etc, 2) validates the identity and position of several new species discovered by one of us mainly in Mexico. and 3) indicates better species relationships as a preamble to successful future breeding. For severa! years now. it has been shown that the \"tremendous genetic potential locked up in germplasm banks can be released by shifting the paradigm from searching for phenotypes to searching for superior genes with the aid of new tools of \"genomics\" (Tanksley and McCouch. 1997). The value of exotic species as a source of useful alleles, while predicted by Vavilov. the founder of modem gene banks. more than 50 years ago , is only now being recognized and exploited using molecular genetic maps and the advanced back cross mapping scheme (Tanksley and McCouch, 1997). The tools, in particular a molecular genetic map of cassava, and easily assayed PCR-based molecular markers are now available in cassava (Fregene et. al. 1997, Mba et al., 2000), opening new horizons for the efficient use of exotic germplasm. Root quality traits known to exist in the wild and not in cassava include higher levels of protein content from A1.trisris and /vi. carrhaginensis and waxy starches from Al crasisepala. Resistance to post-harvest deteriorarían have also been reported to occur in M walkeraeAn inventory was made of .Vfanihot species and their hybrids wíth cassava available as seeds and plants at C IA T in collaboration with the genetic resources unit. A representative sub-set of germplasm available at CIA T was germinated from seeds and stakes in the green house and transferred to the field at the UniValle experimental farm in August. At 9 months after planting, two roots will be '•milked\" from the wild Manihot accessions and interspecific hybrids and evaluated for the following root quality traits according to standard procedure established at CIA T : l. Protein content 2. Dry matter percentage 3. Amylose/amylopectin content 4. Percent post-harvest deterioration, evaluated at 3 days after harvest Genotypes that show high root protein or dry matter, or amylopectin content or resistance to PHD will be crossed or backcrossed (for inter-specific hybrids) to elite parents of the cassava genepools. these parents have also been established nearby for this purpose. l. Inventory of available seeds and plants of Manihot species and inter-specific hybrids available at CIA T 2. Field establishment of a representative sub-set of seeds of .\\1anihor species and interspecific hybrids for evaluation of root quality traits.l. Evaluation of root quality traits on roots of the Manilwt species and inter-specific hybrids 2. Crosses and backcrosses to initiate the advanced backcross scheme.SSR ma rker assessment of the genetic structure of cassava from principal growing regwns in sub-saharan Africa and Latín AmericaThe principal objectives of the cassava molecular genetic diversity study of cassava in major growing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America is to elucidate the genetic structure of cassava land races, determine the salient factors responsible for the structure and use the information to rationalize cassava improvement strategies. A pilot genetic diversity assessment study was conducted in an important cassava growíng area of Southern Tanzania, a region that has one of the highest per capita consumption of cassava in the entire African continent. A sub-set of 92 SSR markers from the Cassava MapPairs of SSR markers was multiplexed in the Tanzanian collections and 110 genotypes from CIA T. To graphically represent relationships between the genotypes, the raw SSR data was converted into genetic distance matrices and analyzed by a principal coordinare analysis (PCA. The experienced gained in the pilot study will be extended to an assessment of genetic diversity of cassava land races in subsequent studies which includes studies of cassava collections from Nigeria. Uganda and the Amazonian region of Colombia. 'A survey of genetic diversity in cassava was carried out in the Mtwara. Newala. Masasi. and Nachingwea districts of Southern Tanzania, a region between latitude l 0° and 20° and Jongitude 30° and 40°. A total of 1 O villages were visited. At each village farrners were invited to share their knowledge on the cassava Jand races grown by them and a few stakes. usually 4 to 5 500cm stakes. were then requested for each land race from the farmer. A total of 96 genotypes were collected. Another 100 land races were collected from the cassava germplasm banks at the Agricultura! Research Institute (ARl) at Naliendele, and at Kibaha. where land races from all over Tanzania are kept for breeding purposes. Woody stakes of all genotypes were planted in the green house in 20litre pots at the Kíbaha agriculture research station and young fresh shoots were harvested after 3-4 weeks for DNA isolation. DNA extraction. according to Dellapona et. al ( 1983), was carried out at the biotech laboratories of ARl Mikocheni (Dr Allois Kulaya). Quarantine restrictions due to the African cassava mosaic disease (ACMD), prohibits the shipment of cassava tissue from Africa to Latín Ame rica. Leaf tissue was from 3-4 week old plants of the collection established in Kibaha, and DNA extraction was. The DNA samples were shipped to CIA T. Cali. Colombia, quantified and diluted in preparation for the SSR Marker analysis. DNA from the core collection genotypes was isolated from the CIA T and liT A accessions by the same method.A subset of 92 SSR markers. with broad coverage of the genome. from the 186 SSR markers developed at CIA T (Mba et. al. 2000), were organized into 23 quadriplexes (multiplexes of 4 markers). The quadriplexes were designed by searching for sets of 4 markers. from the pool of 186 SSR markers, with the condition that their primers do not form heteroduplexes at the 3' end. The primers were multiplexed on all the 315 genorypes using flourescent primer pairs. PCR product was denatured and electrophoresed on 4% polyacrylamide gels using an automated DNA sequencer ABI model 377 (Perkin Elmer Inc.). Extraction of the raw gel data was done using the ABI PRlSM Gene Sean analysis software (Perkin Elmer Inc), and the Genotyper software. The SSR raw allele data obtained from genotyper was transformed into genetic similarity matrices by the Nei .. s standard distance (Gst), and proportion of shared alleles (PSA) using the computer software microsat (http:www.lotka.stanford.edu/microsat.html). Prinicipal Component Analysis (PCA) (Sneath and Sokal 1973) to test the degree of clustering among land races was performed on the similarity matrix using the JMP computer software (SAS Institute 1995).Raw SSR allele data could be extracted for 68 SSR markers; 24 markers yielded complex non-disomic marker genotypes or had too many missing data points. The PCA analysis of relationships from similarity índices of the Tanzanian genotypes is shown in Fig l . The PCA reveals genetic differentiation amongst the land races that is not strictly according to taste or location. The other basis for the clusterings may be the so urce of the land races; attempts are therefore being made to trace the sources of the land races. The clusters may also represent heterotic groups which is of benefit to cassava breeding. An effort is being made with collaborators in Africa to perform crosses between representatives of the clusters.Tanzanian collection (by taste). .. ,.. .      -..    The expression of hybrid vigor is a feature that has been extensively used in agriculture to increase of crop yields in corn. rice, etc. Unfortunately this vigor is quickly lost in subsequent generations after the F 1 • Due to this, plant breeders ha ve been trying to create hybrids with good agronomic features which don' t lose the hybrid characteristics and on the other hand are able to retain their vigor. In arder to achieve this goal the exploitation of a natural phenomenon called apomixis has been proposed. Apomixis is found in a number of families of higher plants. is an asexual mode of reproduction by seed. During apomictic processes. both meiosis and egg fertilization are omitted in embryo formation making the offspring exacr genetic replicas of the mother. Apomixis is of immense potential value to agriculture because it can be used to fix hybrid vigor, which would make hybrid seed production much more economical.The common mode of reproduction of commercial cultivar of Brachiaria is by facultative apomixis. Apomixis is not yet well understood genetically, although research efforts have increased significantly in recent years. Apomixis has significant potential as a too! in plant breeding, in that even highly heterozygous genotypes breed true through seed. Brachiaria pastures rely essentially on a few genotypes of seven species. Five accessions of tour species have been the source of 20 cultivars, released in different tropical American countries. Consequently. the genetic base of cultivated Brachiaria is extremely limited (Keller-Grein et al. 1998). Probably the best known and most widely used Brachiaria cultivar is B. decumbens cv. Basilisk which is well adapted to infertile acid soils, forming high-yielding sward that withstands heavy grazing and trampling. Cultivar BasiJisk is apomictic and tetraploid (Valle and Savidan, 1998). Probably the best known and most widely used cultivar, its susceptibility to spittlebugs (Homoptera: Cercopidae) reduces its value as a pasture plant in areas where this pest is a majar constraint. Another widely used species is B. brizantha cv. Marandu which is tetraploid and apomictic. This grass provides a palatable forage of nutritional quality similar to that B. decumbens cv.Basilisk. However it does not tolerate poor soil drainage and requires higher soil fertility: but it has antibiotic resistance to spittlebug. Objectives of existing Brachiaria breeding programs follow from recognized deficiencies in existing commercial cultivars and germplasm accessions. The initial objective is to develop an apomictic cultivar combining the persistence, productivity and adaptation to infertile acid soils of common B. decumbens cv. Basilisk with durable antibiotic resistance to spittlebugs, which are its principal biotic constraint (Valério et al.. 1996). Additional attributes would be desirable in any bred Brachiaria cultivar.The principal objective this work was to characterize with SSR marker of 41 new sexual clones and apomictic clones to select new potential parents of hybrid apomictic cultivar. We also sought marker loci that would unequivocally identify germplasm accessions and apomictic hybrids with commercial potential.The SSR or microsatellites are random short repeated sequences found all eukaryotic geno mes. The simple repeated unit can range from two to six base pairs (bp ). SSRs show high polymorphism, are locus specific and multiallelic; they have mendelian inheritance with codominance. This kind of marker is useful for population studies, germplasm characterization, genetic mapping, and gene tagging of traits of agronomic importance.The Brachiaria SSRs developed at CIAT, (Gaitán, personal communication) BRCT13A, BRCT14, GM18, GM34, GM37, GM40, GM44, GM80, GM88 and GM90 were used. These SSRs were selected because they presented polymorphism among the parents (B. decumbens cv. Basilisk, B. brizantha cv. Marandu and B. ruzíziensis) of a sexual hybrid population developed at CIAT (J. W. Miles, personal communication). We used the correspondence analysis procedure (Joseph. et al. , 1992).Plant Material: Sixty-seven Brachiaria genotypes (clones) were used (Table 1)  One hundred eighteen different alleles were obtained in the 67 Brachiaria genotypes with the 1 O SSRs analized (Fig. 1 ), (table 2).With the correspondence analysis procedure, using all SSR loci and alleles, we clasified the genotypes in nine groups. These explain 99% of the total variability.  3). Individual #15 (B. brizantha CIAT 16327) is separated in another group which rnight be the result of this individual being the only one with pentaploid features (5 alleles in the SSRs GM44 y GM80).In another approach constructed starting with similarity (Nei-Li similarity coefficient) we found sexual hybrids forming a group closer to both B. ruziziensis and the apomictic hybrid 4. different from the results obtained with the correspondence procedure analysis.After joining Basilisk and the apomictic 12, finally they join the other apomictic hybrids. then the accessions of B. brizantha (that include Mulato, 26, 25, Marandu y el híbrido 11) form an isolated subset. We found other groups with the remaining accessions of B. brizantha: 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 23, 24, 9, 21. 8oth analyses. correspondence and similarity, agree in forming a compact group with the hybrid sexual population and have more affinity with B. ruziziensis followed by 8asilisk and Marandu. 8oth analyses agree in identifying accessions of B. brizantha as an outgroup. In conclusion given the level of similarity expressed by Nei-li coefficient and the X 2 distance which assigns different informative value to the allele. we found similar population schemes (Fig. 2).SSR l 3A SSR 14Fjg.l : Silver stained polyacrylamide gel showing SSRs 13A and 14 in the 67 Bracltiaria genotypes   Cassava bacterial blight (C BB). caused by Xanthomonas a.xonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam) is a worldwide disease that affects cassava crops in Africa. RFLP analyses have shown that Xam is more genetically di verse in South America than in Africa. However, genetic diversity was recently detected among strains collected in Africa leading to the characterization of 14 haplotypes (Assigbétsé et al.. 1996).The main objective of this study was to characterize the genetic and pathotypic diversity of a Xam population recently collected in Togo in experimental or farrner fields. Results will be compared to the Xam database available at CIA T.Infected cassava leaves and stems samples were collected in Togo from which 137 Xam strains were isolated. For long-terrn storage, bacteria colonies were kept in glycerol at -80°C....,...,Genomic DNA was extracted and digested by EcoRl according to the manufacturer instructions (Gibco BRL, Life Technologies. Md.). Electrophoresis of DNA was carried out in 1% agarose in T AE buffer for 15-18 h. Alkaline transfer were perforrned to Hybond N+ membranes (Amersham). All of the strains were analyzed by RFLP using the plasmid probe pthB. The DNA probe was labeled with 32 P(dA TP), according to the manufacturer instructions (Multiprime DNA labeling system, Amersham). Hybridization and washing were conducted as described previously. Autoradiography was done at -80 °C. using Kodak. film with intensifying screens. Then each RFLP banding pattem were compared with others banding pattems.AFLP markers were analyzed according to Restrepo et al (1999). DNA was digested with the combinations of enzymes EcoRll Msei, then ligated to the respective adapters. The selective amplifications were perforrned using two selected primer combination EcoRl+T!Msei+T. EcoRl+T!Msel+A. After completing the second amplification: products were separated on a 6% polyacrylamide denaturing gel. as described by Restrepo et al ( 1999) and stained using the sil ver staining technique. The banding pattem of each strain was coded in binary form, representing the presence or absence of each band.13 7 Xam strains were analyzed by RFLP using the pthB gene as a pro be. 13 haplotypes were characterized and will be compared to the Xam haplotype database available at CIA T. This will pro vide information on the origin and evolution of Xam strains in Africa. First results obtained with AFLP fingerprinting allowed a better definition of the genetic relationships between Xam strains.• Evaluation of AFLP EcoRl+T/Msel+A primer combination between 137 Xam strains.• Assessing the genetic diversity among Xam strains. Selecta set of strains for further pathotypic characterization . • Select a group of strains representing the haplotypes for disease resistance screening assays.• Marker assisted selection was pursed this year for bean. rice and Brachiaria. A total of 5616 bean plants from 109 crosses were screened for the bgm-1 Scar marker. In the case of Brachiaria. 96 hybrid clones were screened with the N 14 SCAR linked to apomixis. In rice bulks from 159 genotypes with different level of resistance to Sogata were screened with 330 RAPO primers resulting the identification of putative five markers tightly linked to the resistance to Sogata.• The mapping of resistance to Thrips palm, a damaging pest in bean resulted in the identification of QTis for damage and reproductive adaptation.• The mapping of bean angular leaf spot and anthracnose disease resistance genes was completed using the cross DOR 364 x G 19833. QTSI for disease resistance were found in five basic regions of the bean genome. A common QTLs for both disease wwas identified suggesting a genes cluster.• The identification of a SSR and RFLP markers that flank at a distance of 1 O cM and 6 cM respectively the single dominant gene controlling resistance to Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) providing with the tools for marker assisted breeding of CMD resistance at CIA T in the absence of the disease.• A comparison of marker assisted selection and conventional methods for the rapid conversion of African gene pools to CMD resistant lines was initiated in collaboration with IITA. About 6000 progeny from 12 crosses were generated to start the comparison.• The QTLs analysis of early bulking in cassava resulted in the identification of QTLS associated with harvest index and dry foliage weight with strong influence on early bulking. F 1 S 1 population for marker inheritance and fidelity studies were developed in vitro and established in the field.• The QTL analysis ofthe advanced backcross rice 288 B2F2 families ofBG 90-2 by O rufipogon was completed. QTLS for yield and yield components were identified.Association between markers and yield on chromosomes 3, 5, 6, 9 and 12 were detected. Based on these results 87 families associated with QTLs were selected for the deve1opment of near isogenic lines. Sorne modifications were made to the protocols in arder to reduce time-consuming activities such as sampling and DNA extraction. Briefly, leaf disks were cut and placed in the microtiter plates directly in the field, thereby eliminating the need to prepare plastic envelopes and organize samples in Elisa plates. Also the utilization of an apparatus to macerate 96 tissue sarnples at the sarne time made it possible for one person instead of two to isolate the DNA easily. In comparison with 1999 the total time for selecting the bgm-1 gene in a 3000-plant nursery was reduced by approximately two days (Table l ). 9. Reading gels 0.5 1 0.5 Total Time 15.9 14.1The SCAR selected ~5.6% of the total number of plants in the nurseries ~valuated. Plants ha vi m.! the marker \\vere adYanced and used in the ueneration of ne\\v crosses.--BGiWV selection in red-seeded lines. The effecti\\•eness of MAS for the bgm-1 SCAR was shov.-n in a group of red-seeded lines. F 1 plants previously selected ( 1998) with the SCAR \\Vere used to deYelop the 18 final crosses.The populations were advanced using gamete selection and evaluated for resistance to CBB. ALS. BSMV. BCMV and low phosphorous tolerance (n=826) in complementary nurseries (Mesoamerican Bean Genetics Program). Then in 1999. one F 5 plant per line was screened with the BGMV SCAR. and those that had the resistant band were selected (n= l 94). In the F 6 (Feb. 2000). 5 plants per line were sampled. and DNA bulks were used to amplify the SCAR (Fig. 1 ). It was concluded that the same result is obtained when evaluating 1 or 5 plants in F 5 or F 6 progenies. which means that they are already homozygous for the marker. Two sets of lines with commercial seed quality were selected and inoculated with BGMV in the Virology Research Unit greenhouse. The first set of 61 lines had the bgm-1 SCAR, but the second set of 22 lines did not. Ten plants per line were inoculated with BGMV. The results were as follows: A comparison can be made between the SCAR and the evaluation in the greenhouse. Both agreed on 66.3% ofthe lines (55/83). of which 50.6% had the marker and high or intermediare levels of resistance and 15.7% lacked the marker and were susceptible. For the remaining 33.7%, the SCAR did not match the result ofthe greenhouse evaluation. If the bgm-1 gene were present in susceptible lines, it would not be expressed: and if absent in resistant lines other genes would probably be involved in the expression of resistance to BGMV (Table 2). As a breeding tool, apomixis offers severa! advantages because it associates fixation of hybrid vigor with seed propagation (do Valle and Savidan, 1996). Breeding initiatives aim to creare apomictic genotypes combining desirable characteristics such as spittlebug resistance and high productivity (Miles and do Valle, 1996). Severa! efforts have been made to tag the apomixis gene; and RFLP, AFLP, RAPO and SCAR markers have been identified (Rocha et al.. 1997). The objective of this project is to use those markers for selecting apomictic plants in order to improve Brachiaria breeding.A population of 96 hybrid clones was screened with a SCAR derived from RAPO Nl4, which is located at 6cM from the apomixis gene (Rocha et al, 1997). These clones were obtained from crosses between clones selected in 1997 from the sexual breeding population and elite apomictic genotypes including both accessions and hybrid-derived clones. DNA was extracted using the protocol described by Rocha et al. (1997). Because of the complexity of this DNA extraction, an effort was made to develop a rapid and suitable method for large-scale screening of markers. The protocol of Edwards et al. ( 1991)  In a subsequent trial. nine open-pollinated progenies derived from the aforementioned hybrid clones were planted. and their DNA was extracted using the short protocol. Not only \\Vas the N 14 marker amplified in the total number of 202 plants. but also five microsatellite markers were developed from the apomictic genotype CIA T 606 (E. Gaitán. pers. comm.). Simultaneously. a progeny test was conducted in the field.The progeny test showed the apomictics BR98NOI1 251. BR98N0/40 15. BR98N0/4132. Also. the N 14 marker was found only in these hybrids and their pro gen y. being absent in the sexual ones (Fig. 2).Figure 2. Identification of apomictic and sexual families, using tbe N14 SCAR ma rker.When microsatellite markers were amplified. similar results were obtained. A high degree of monomorphism was observed in the three hybrids listed above and in their progeny. Plants in sexual fami lies, when compared to the maternal genotype. showed absence of sorne alleles (Fig. 3). Only BR98N0/125 1 was absolutely monomorphic for the ti ve microsatellites. In this group of fami lies the utilization of molecular markers was useful in the identification of apomixis.Figure 3. Identification of apomictic and sexual families, using the GM6 microsatellite.In another tria!. 44 hybrids with their offspring (at least 9 plants) were screened for the SCAR marker and th.ree of the microsatellites. Al though N 14 was tound in 1 ~ matemals. only BR98N0/0313. BR98N0/0314, BR98N0/0627 <:..1!:1 BR98N0/0861 were monomorphic with the microsatellites (GM6, GM7 y GM80). A MAS scheme for apomixis in Brachiaria will be established.Hoja blanca virus (HBV) is one of the most important diseases in rice, transmitted by the insect Tagosodes orizicolus (Muir) known as Sogara.  , 2000). Although a number of varieties resistant to both insects and viruses are available, looking for molecular markers linked to the resistance genes would be useful in the breeding program for a rapid development of new lines.Over severa! evaluations of rice germplasm, 159 lines were chosen for the consistency of their reaction to the virus and its vector. DNA was extracted individually and then eight groups (bulks) were formed according to resistance and origin (Table 3). The RAPD technique was used and approximately 600 ten-mer oligonucleotide primers were amplified in the eight ONA bulks. Up until September. 330 primers were electrophoresed. For Sogata. five RAPO bands were found consistently in all the resistant bulks (Fig. 4) and 27 in the susceptible ones. When two of the primers showing resistant bands were screened in each of the resistant varieties. only CT8447-5-6-3P-1X did not have the OPZ-19 marker. For HBV. sorne RAPO markers that are also linked with resístance or susceptíbility were found. but the results were not as consistent as those for Sogata. This work is still ongoing. • Continue with the MAS scheme for beans • Evaluate a large set of microsatellites forMAS in Brachiaria • Continue with RAPO screening in rice and cloning po lymorphic DNA fragments linked with the resistance to Sogata and HBVThe availability of molecular markers for CMD resistance has made possible for the first time its breeding at CIA T. As a first step to CMD resistance breeding at CIA T, the new source of resistance to CMD, found in a group of closely related Nigerian cassava land races were imported from liT A to CIA T. Due to quarantine restrictions, the land races themselves could not be imported into Colombia, rather F 1 progeny obtained crossing the resistant parent to an improved line and resistant to CMD maintained as in vitro culture of embryo axes were imported as the source of CMD resistance. The CMD donor lines were imported with the approval of the Colombian quarantine authorities. The in vitro plantlets were tested on arrival by ELISA and PCR methods for the presence of ACMV or EACMV before sub-culturing and transfer to the green house. Permission to transfer the plants to the field will be obtained from the Colombian quarantine authorities, and the plants will be transferred to a healthy site for hybridization with the elite parents of Latín American cassava gene pools at CIA T.Twenty cassava lines from an F 1 mapping population having TME3. one of the land races with the new source of CMD resistance as parent, and resistant to CMD were shipped to CIA T from liT A as in vitro plantlets. The plantlets were obtained from embryo axes cultures that have always been kept in vitro and have never been in the field. neither have they been in contact with the virus or its vector. The plantlets were subcloned using 2 nodal cuttings cultured in Murashige and Skoog's (1962) basal medium supplemented with 2% sucrose, lmgr 1 GA3 (growth hormone) and 0.7% agar, pH adjusted to 5.6± 0.1 befare sterilization. All plant cultures were maintained at 25-29oC with 12 hours photoperiod and 5,000 lux in culture rooms. The plantlets were tested for presence/absence of cassava mosaic virus (CMV) using enzyme 1inked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and PCR-based diagnostic methods.Plantlets were transplanted to the screen house after 5-6 we<::ks of culturing. Plantlets were carefully shaken out of culture tubes into a plastic bucket containing clean water and culture medium was washed off from the roots and then placed in jiffy peat pots three-quarters full of peat moss mixture. They were kept for hardening under a humidity chamber with an initial relative humidity (RH) of 100% for the first 3 days at 25-35oC in a shaded screen house. The RH in the chamber was gradually reduced, by perforating the chamber increasingly until it was equal to atmospheric humidity, by the 6th-8th day after transplanting. After 3 weeks of hardening, the plants were transplanted into polythene plastic bags filled with sterile topsoil and kept in the screen house.An average of 5 plants each, per genotype, was successfully sub-cloned in-vitro (Table 2). A copy each from the 20 genotypes is maintained in-vitro in the tissue culture lab, while the remainder have been moved to the screen house.  The CMD resistance donor plants are currently in the green house and will be moved to the field for hybridizations with elite parents of Latin American cassava gene pools once approval for this is obtained from the Colombian quarantine authorities.l. Cassava plantlets from 20 resistant lines to CMD successfully transferred in-vitro from liTA, Nigeria to CIA T. 2. Cassava plantlets free from CMD from the 20 lines subcloned and copies maintained in-vitro in the tissue culture room ofCIAT's BRU. 3. Cassava plants from 20 resistant lines successfully established in the green house in CIAT.• Cassava plants from the 20 resistant lines to be planted on the field and hybridízed with elite LA elite. • Hybridized lines to be used in marker-assisted selections in collaboration with liT A, Nigeria in Africa.Legumes provide essential micronutrients that are found only in low amounts in the cereals or root crops. An ongoing project, has shown that bean seeds are variable in the arnount of minerals (iron, zinc and other elements), vitarnins and sulfur amino acids that they contain and that these traits are likely to be inherited quantitatively. The objective of our most recent studies has been to tag sorne of the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling mineral content in beans.We began this study with the parents of four recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations that were developed for micronutrient studies (Table 1). These eight parents were chosen because they had contrasting amounts of micronutrients. As an initial step for genetic mapping, we analyzed whether the parents were polymorphic using 1 00+ RAPOs and 25 microsatellite markers. The two populations that were selected for genetic mapping, represented both major gene pools of common bean: one population was derived from an Andean x Andean cross (G 21657 x G 21 078); while the other was from a Mesoamerican x Mesoarnerican cross (G 14519 x 04825). Miniprep DNA was extracted from all the lines in both populations and all the individuals were genotyped for RAPOs and microsatellites. The marker information was used to construct separate genetic maps for each of the populations. using the software program MAPMAKER. The phenotypic data was obtained by analyzing both the parents and the recombinant inbred lines for mineral and sulfur amino acid content by ICP (Inductive coupling plasma) and HPLC analysis. respectively. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) analyses were conducted by regressing the phenotypic data for micronutrient content onto marker genotypes with the software program qGENE.In general the rate of polymorphism was low in these crosses since they were from within a single genepool. however both types of markers used detected sufficient polymorphism to allow us to proceed. RAPD primers were used to generate a large number of markers, while microsatellites were used because they have severa! advantages including occupying unique mapped positions in the genome and a somewhat higher rate of polymorphism. The two most polymorphic populations were chosen for the mapping effort and two genetic maps were constructed. For the Mesoamerican population, eight linkage groups could be detected, while the Andean population had a total of 14 linkage groups. As common bean has 11 homologous chromosomes, the present maps are unlikely to be complete. The single locus nature of microsatellite markers was useful for anchoring the RAPD markers to known chromosomes.In both the populations both iron and zinc content in the RlLs presented a continuos distribution, suggesting that mineral content behaved as a quantitative trait. Highly significant correlations were observed among iron and zinc content in the recombinant inbred Iines (Table 1 ). QTLs were found for iron and zinc content in both populations.The positive markers varied in their leve! of significance and the proportion of variance in mineral content that they explained (R-squared value). The most significant QTLs explain up to 19% of the variance in mineral content. In sorne cases the QTLs for both minerals occurred jointly at the same marker, in other cases there were QTLs specific for each mineral. It can be concluded that sorne of the QTLs for the accumulation of both minerals may be genetically linked or pleiotropic, controlling both traits at once. lf the same QTLs contribute simultaneously to both iron and zinc content, it may be easy to select for these traits jointly. Of 29 markers that were positive for a significant effect on mineral content in the Andean population, 1 O controlled both Fe and Zn content, 7 controlled Fe alone and 1 O controlled Zn alone. These results agree well with what is suggested by the number of segregating lines that presented iron contents similar to the high parent. Positive QTLs were found on linkage group 2 for the G 14519 x G4825 population, and on chromosome 83 and linkage groups 2 and 5 for the G21242 x G21 078 population. The majority of the positive QTLs are associated with alleles from the high mineral parent. Therefore, it appears that high mineral content parents provide most of the genes for high mineral content to their progeny, while low mineral parents pro vide only a few additional genes for mineral content. This may explain why the distribution of mineral content in the progeny was similar to the range between the parents and why transgressive segregation was minimal.At the moment is difficult to integrate the results from the two populations without using common markers across the separate maps through a process called comparative mapping. Progress in linking the two maps derived from both populations will depend on the development and mapping of more microsatellite markers. Since these markers are single-copy and map to specified regions of chromosomes they can be used in comparative mapping to anchor two maps to each other and to previously published maps that have these markers. By next year. we hope to be able to identify and anchor the chromosomes and to compare the QTLs located on each map with a full set of microsatellites.The present work will hopefully permit us to focus on certain parts of the genome to determine if desirable alleles for higher mineral content are located at the same loci in the different populations developed specifically for this purpose. Future analysis will also include the detection of QTLs for the amount of sulfur containing amino acids (SAA), as well as for the amount of the other minerals analyzed in the ICP study, which include Mn, Ca, Mg, K, P and S. The QTL analysis will help us to consider the possibility of genetically increasing SAA (methionine or cysteine) or Lysine as uptake promoters of iron or decreasing antinutritional factor such as tannins or lectins that reduce the uptake of iron. We also planto integrate the information about the map locations of QTLs for micronutrients with those for other agronomic traits that we have been studying, so that we can select for the best recombinants from crosses between high micronutrient lines and the best varieties. Ecuador and Venezuela). The greatest darnage inflicted to common bean production in Colombia is seen in climbing bean varieties that are grown for the fresh market (including snap beans and Cargamanto dry beans). Sequential plantings, common in the production of snap beans is very conducive to heavy infestations of thrips and whiteflies, which are synergistic in the darnage that they inflict. Mis use of insecticides also can lead to resurgence in thrips populations. The first studies in integrated pest management of thrips have been conducted recently at CIA T (see IP-1 project annual report). One of the bean genotypes with the best thrips resistance has been BA T88l. The objective of this research was to study the inheritance and 1ocation of quantitative trait loci controlling the resistance derived from this variety in a recombinant inbred line (RJL) population derived from BAT881 x G21212.The BAT881 x G21212 population. cons1stmg in 139 RJLs was evaluated over two seasons ata field site in Pradera. Valle, Colombia. In the first season (semester 1999A-April), the population was planted as an un-replicated trial; while in the second season (semester 19998 -July) it was planted in a randomized complete block design with three repetitions. The parents of the populatíon were included in both seasons. The bean genotypes, PV A 773 and RAZ 136. were used as check varieties in the first season while PV A 773 was used alone in the second season. lnfestation by Thrips palmi was increased with an initial planting adjacent to a heavily affected snap bean field. The lines were evaluated on a per row basis using a 1-9 scale according to the CIA T standard evaluation ( 1 =resistant; 9==susceptible ). DN A was extracted from 95 of the RJLs by a standard miniprep procedure. One hundred and fifty one RAPD markers were run on these individuals and the segregation infonnation was analyzed to construct a genetic map using the software prograrn MAPMAKER. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified through single-point regression analysis of the phenotypic data onto the marker genotypes using the software prograrn qGENE.The population of RJLs was nonnally distributed for thrips resistance, suggesting that the inheritance of resistance was truly quantitative. Sorne of the RILs outperformed either parent suggesting transgressive segregation had ocurred, however the best lines were different in each season. BA T881 was the more resistant parent for both resistance scores (darnage score = 6.0 and 7.5 in first and second seasons, respectively; reproductive adaptation = 7.0 and 7.1), however G21212 was somewhat similar for its reproductive adaptation (9.0 and 7.6) but inferior for its susceptibility to thrips darnage (8.0 and 8.2).Overall the correlation between seasons was moderate (r = 0.277 for damage score and r = 0.371 for reproductive adaptation), while the correlation between the two resistance scores within a season were high (r = 0.873 for the first season and r = O. 751 for the second season).Positive QTLs were found for thrips resistance in both seasons and were associated with both parents (Table 1). However, it appeared that G21212 was the principal source of QTLs for resistance to thrips damage, while both BA T881 and G21212 were the sources of QTLs for reproductive adaptation under thrips infestation. However this varied from the first season when a mix of both genotypes provided QTLs for reproductive adaptation to the second season when all the positive QTLs except one were provided by G21212.An additional single QTL from BA T881 provided resistance to damage in the second season but was unlinked to other markers. The existence of additive QTLs from both parents may explain why transgressive segregation was observed in sorne of the individual progeny.In general different markers were associated with QTLs for the two traits. lndeed the QTLs for the two traits were usually found on separate linkage groups. The only exceptions to this rule were for the markers AJ90 1 and E40 1 in the first and second seasons. respectively. In the first season QTLs for both traits were found together on the link.age group 809. However in this season additional QTLs. albeit with low significance were found on severa! additional linkage groups. Meanwhile, it was interesting that the marker that detected the only QTL from 021212 that was significant for reproductive adaptation in the second season, was the same marker associated with the top QTL for damage score in that season. This suggest that resistance to thrips damage from 021212 does allow for pod set under thrips infestation but is not the only factor controlling it.8ecause the trial was replicated in the second season, QTLs tended to be more highly significant for the second season's data (up to F-value of 11.2) than for the first's (maximurn F-value of 6.5). In addition. in the second season the inheritance of resistance appeared to be fairly simple: only one QTL each could be identified for resistance to damage and reproductive adaptation. The QTL for resistance to damage consisted in six significant markers on link.age group BO 1 with the strongest association with the 021212 allele at E401. The QTL for reproductive adaptation was found on linkage group 807 and was associated with the 8A T881 alle1e at the loci for AO 1002. H 1202, P403 and L205. This QTL was also observed in the data from the first season but at a slightly different location along the linkage group 807 with the markers, 1702 and Q302.Another population derived from the cross 8AT477 x DOR364 will be analyzed for thrips resistance. The results from the 8AT881 x 021212 and BAT477 x DOR364 populations will be integrated by comparative mapping using PCR-based microsatellite markers. The four genotypes used to produce the two population are from the same race of Mesoamerican beans. therefore it will be interesting to see how well the genes for thrips resistance identified in these studies can be transferred to other genepools. All together. severa! dozen major resistance genes have been tagged in common bean mostly through bulked segregant or simple genetic linkage analysis with either RAPDs or SCARs. Reliable markers have been developed for the well known genes for resistance to bean comrnon mosaic virus (/. bc-3, bc-12), bean golden mosaic virus (bgm-1 ). rust (Ur-3. Ur-5. L•r-11) and anthracnose (Ca--/ and Co-2). Most of the resistance genes studied have been simply-inherited. Relatively fewer studies have looked at the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling partial resistance to diseases. The objective of this research was to identify QTLs for resistance to two pathogens of common beans.Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, the causal agent of anthracnose and Phaseoisariopsis griseo/a. the causal agent of angular leaf spot (ALS) in a well-characterized genetic mapping population based on the cross DOR364 x G 19833. Recombinant inbred lines (RILs) from this population have been a very useful resource for field and greenhouse studies because they are a, genetically-stable set of advanced lines that can be tested in replicated trials with a series of disease isolates.The 87 RlLs of the DOR364 x G 19833 population were tested with six isolates each of ALS (PG3COL. PG260COL. PGCRl, PG3ELS. PG14HND and PG12MEX) and anthracnose (CL5DOM, CL20COL. CL43COL, CL 77CRL CL235COL and CL289COL) by artificial inoculation in the greenhouse. Disease evaluation was done qualitatively by treating disease reaction as a binary trait; and assigning the RILs into a susceptible or resistant category. For six of the disease isolates (PG260COL. PG3ELS, PG14HND, CL20COL, CL43COL and CL 77CR1) data was also taken quantitatively; and the individual plants were scored for resistance on a 1-9 scale according to the CIA T standard evaluation (where 1= resistant and 9= susceptible). The genetic map for the population consisted of 417 markers (AFLPs, microsatellites, RAPOs and RFLPs) and was constructed using the software program MAPMAKER. The microsatellite markers were placed at a mínimum LOO score of 2.5, while the rest of the markers had a mínimum LOD score of 2.0. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified using the software program qGENE by 1) single-marker contingency analysis using chi-square tests comparing the genotypic classes to the categorical data from the qualitative disease evaluation; and 2) single-point regression analysis of the quantitative disease score data onto the marker genotypes. A probability threshold of P = 0.0001 was used for the individual marker tests to reduce overall type I error rate to P = 0 .05 , based on the full set of genetic markers used in the experiment.For anthracnose. significant QTLs were found on chromosome 3. 4. 1 O and 11 (Figure 1 ). Three isolates (CL 77CR1. CL20COL and CL5DOM) uncovered the same resistance QTL on chromosome 3. One of these isolates (CLSDOM) also uncovered a QTL on chromosome 4. Another isolate (CL235COL) uncovered a second QTL for resistance on chromosome 4 proximal to the previous QTL. A fifth isolate (CL43COL) uncovered two QTLs, one on chromosome 1 O and another on chromosome 11. No significant QTLs were detected when using the isolate CL289COL.The QTLs on chromosome 4 coincided in location with known resistance factors for anthracnose (Co-8, Co-y and Co-z cluster) and BGMV resistance. Meanwhile the QTL on chromosome 11 was probably a previously undescribed allele of the Are gene (renamed Co-2). The resistance QTLs on chromosomes 3 and lO do not coincide with any previously mapped resistance genes in common bean but may be allelic to the anthracnose genes that have been characterized and tagged but not mapped .For angular leaf spot, significant QTLs were found on chromosomes 3, 4 and 10. Four isolates (PG12MEX, PG3ELS, PG14HND and PGCRl) uncovered QTLs on chromosome 1 O in the vicinity of the QTL for anthracnose described above. The isolate PO 12MEX also detected a QTL at one end of chromsome 3. All along chromosome 3 minor genes appeared to be proportioning resistance against severa! isolates but their effects were less significant. The isolate PG260COL uncovered a significant QTL on chromosome 4, while the isolate PB3COL uncovered no QTLs for resistance. The QTLs uncovered in this study may be alleles of the two angular leaf spot resistance genes. Phg-1 , and Phg-2, which have been tagged with SCARs but have not been localized on the genetic map of common bean.Analysis of the quantitative data showed the same QTLs as those of the qualitative evaluation described above. For all the QTLs identified in this study, the positive effect was always from alleles of the resistant parent G 19833 not from those of the susceptible parent DOR364. In contrasta similar study showed that the DOR364 provided resistance QTLs for bean golden mosaic virus.The inheritance of resistance to both anthracnose and angular leaf spot appeared to be surprisingly simple in the DOR364 x G 19833 population. A maximurn of two chromosomes were involved in resistance to any single isolate and on average only one significant QTL could be identified per inoculation. QTLs for disease resistance were found in five basic locations in the genome; both in areas that are already known to contain resistance genes and in areas where no resistance genes have been previously identified. A common QTLs was found for resistance to both diseases. At resistance gene clusters it is cornmon to find resistance genes that function against multiple diseases and to find minor genes associated with major genes. Therefore, it is not surprising that We have made crosses between other sources of ALS resistance, inlcuding a set of Mesoamerican and Andean differential varieties and plan to study the inheritance of resistance. It will be interesting to see whether the genes found in these studies are at the same locations of QTLs found in the DOR364 x G 19833 population. The genetic diversity of cultivated P. vulgaris is thought to be larger than that of wild common bean due to a genetic bottleneck that occurred during domestication. Yield increasing alleles may still reside untapped in the wild accessions that could be exploited to improve cultivated beans. The advanced backcross method has been shown to be a useful method for incorporating wild germplasm into cultivar breeding programs for tomato and rice. Although wild beans have been used before to transfer resistance to diseases and insects, as in the noted case of the Arcelin gene that provides resistance to bruchids. the studies presented here are among the first to attempt to obtain a higher yield potential from wild beans. The objective of this research was to conduct a molecular analysis of two advanced backcross populations to find quantitative trait loci derived from wild beans that can be useful in the improvement of cultivated beans.Two Andean advanced backcross populations were analyzed. The populations were derived from G24390 and G24404, which are wild beans from Mexico and Colombia, respectively, that were backcrossed into the background of a Colombian, large redseeded, \"Radical\" type, commercial variety, ICA Cerinza. Each population consisted of 95 selected lines, while the first and second populations had 215 and 62 additional lines, respectively. The population Cerinza /2/ G24390 had a total of 309 lines; while the population Cerinza /2/ G24404 hada total of 157 lines. The selected and additionallines were yield tested in three locations for each population. The field sites were Puerto Rico, Palmira and Popayán for the Cerinza /2/ G24390 population and Darien and twide in Popayán for the Cerinza /2/ G24404 population. Three repetitions in a lattice design were used for each of the experiments, except in Puerto Rico where a randomized complete block design with two repetitions was used. An array of RAPO, SCAR and microsatellite markers was used to evaluate the introgression level in the full set of lines for each population. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) were identified through single-point regression analysis of the phenotypic data onto the marker genotypes using the software program qGENE. Map positions of markers were inferred by their locations on other genetic maps of beans.In the BC2F 1 generation, 25% of plants are expected to contain an introgressed allele for a given locus, but all of these plants are expected to be heterozygous. Upon selfpollination, the loci are expected to segregate in a Mendelian ratio whereby in each generation heterozgosity is lost and the loci are fixed to homozygosity. In this study we analyzed B2F3 derived families, in which the total amount of introgression for a given locus is expected to be 15.675% of which. 9.375% should be homozygous and 6.25% heterozygous for the introgression.The selected lines had a significantly 1ower introgression rate than the additiona1 lines (Table 1 ). indicating that selection had eliminated large amounts of introgression. The observed rate of introgression was 1ower than expected for the se1ected lines for each of the Andean populations. However the additionaJ lines had rates of introgression that were not significanltly different from those expected. By comparison the rate of introgression in the Mesomaerican population. OOR390 x O 19892. was much lower than expected for both selected and additionallines (IP-1 AnnuaJ report. activity 1.1 ).The microsatellites were ideal for this study because they had the advantage of being codominant and single copy and therefore could diagnose the families derived from heterozygous genotypes and differentiate them from those derived from homozygous individuals. For each microsatellite marker, the percentage of genotypes that represented heterozygous or homozygous introgressions was close to that expected for the BC2F3 generation. Meanwhile, the RAPO markers were dominant and could only diagnose the full number of introgressed individuals when the polymorphic band was present in the wild parent and absent in the cultivated parent. Oiven the opposite situation. band present in the cultivated parent and absent in the wild parent. the RAPO marker only detected introgression in those individuals that were homozygous for the marker locus.As expected. the detectable rate of introgression was lower when the RAPO band was absent in the wild parent than when it was present.Significant QTLs for yie1d were found in both the Cerinza x 024390 and Cerinza x 024404 crosses (Table 2). However. the majority of the QTLs associated with the wild alleles were negative. in effect, positive QTLs whose source was Cerinza. This indicates that there were still a large number of the alleles transmitted from the wild parent that had negative effects on yield and that remained to be eliminated from the progeny. Only negative QTLs were detected in Puerto Rico, Palmira and Oarien, which are environments that are atypica1 for the production of Cerinza or other Radical type varieties. In these environments, yields were low and differences were not significant in the replicated trials. The negative QTLs detected in each season were at different positions in the genome, indicating that there is a significant QTL x environment interaction for this trait.Positive QTLs were found for both populations when grown in Popayán. This field site at 21 00 mas! was closer to the ideal growing environment for the Cerinza variety therefore a more appropriate testing site for advanced backcross progeny derived from Cerinza. In Popayán, the positive QTLs had phenotypic effects that ranged from 99 to 225 kg/ha increased yield and these significant QTLs explained from 7 to 22% of the variance for yield in these seasons. The QTLs were not associated with later flowering or reduced seed size. This suggests that wild beans can be a useful source of genes for higher yield in cultivated beans and that advanced backcross strategies can be successful at transferring these yteld genes into commercial seed -types.We will compare the location of QTLs found for the two Andean and one Mesoamerican populations by their association with homeologous RAPO and microsatellites markers that have been positioned on the DOR364 x G 19833 reference map. We will analyzed for the QTLs controlling seed size, days to flowering and days to harvest to determine if these are associated with the yield QTLs identified here.A. Bohorquez. B. Arias  The whitefly is one of the most serious pest and disease vectors affecting agricultura! production around the world. In cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), the whitefly causes from 70-80 percent economic losses. The principal symptoms in the plant are: total chlorosis of the leaves, curling of the apical leaves, yellowing and drying of the basal lea ves and retardation of plant development.Different sources of resistance to whitefly have been reported (CIAT, 1995). The most important so urce of resistance genes was genotype Ecu-72. Due to the importance of the whitefly as a pest and virus vector, it is necessary to know about the nature of genes that confer resistan ce to whitefly in genotypes like Ecu-72. F or this purpose it would be useful to know the F 1 segregation of the cross Ecu-72 ( resistant genotype) x any highly susceptible genotype, using molecular markers. This would help accelerate selection of materials resistant to whitefly and the isolation of the resistance genes.For this work the cross Ecu-72 (as the resistant parent) x M Col 2246 (as the susceptible parent) was used. Although the latter has advantages such as tolerance to other pests including mites and thrips, and good flowering, it seems to be very susceptible to the whitefly. An Fl offspring of282 individuals was produced by this cross.Sexual seeds of this cross were cultured in steriie soil in piastic dishes with 67 spots under greenhouse conditions for 6-8 weeks. ~he temperature was ±30°C. The seedlings were transferred to the field for mu1tiplication.For the greenhouse evaluation, the seeds were multiplied in vitre to obtain enough material in a short period of time (approx. 3 mo); This period is brief compared to the normal 6-month period that cassava requires to obtain stems. Optimal health conditions were also achieved.ln vitro propagation methodology. developed by Escobar ( 1991 ). will be used in this work. This methodology is based on cutting plant tips, which are transferred to the lab. disinfected first by washing them with sterile deionized water, ethanol 70%. hypochlorite 0.25% and finally washed three times with sterile deionized water. The tips are cultured in 4E medium (Roca. 1984) in 16-ml assay tubes. The calculated growing period is from 60-80 days. Following this period a second in vitro propagation in 4E medium in small. 1 00-ml flasks will be performed to increase the amount of material per clone. After this the tips of each clone will be cut for culturing in 17N rooting medium (Roca, 1984) for 30-40 days. Finally the plants will be transferred to the greenhouse. This methodology will allow the conservation of material under optimal health conditions, and it will supply sufficient material in a reduced space.The parents Ecu-72, M Col 2246 and their offspring will be evaluated in the greenhouse, using the •'clip cage'' methodology, which consists in two polyethylene cylinders of different height joined by forceps. Both cylinder bases are covered by muslin, and the higher cylinder has a small hole through which flies are introduced. With this evaluation it is expected to be able to identifY the gene segregation in the offspring and identifY the resistant and susceptible materials.Simple sequence repeats (SSRs) are being used to find markers associated with resistance for mapping and ultimately cloning the resistant genes. The SSRs are random repeat sequences across al! eukaryotic genome. These simple repeats can range from 2-6 base pairs (bp ). SSRs show high polymorphism, are locus-specific and multiallelic, they have a mendelian inheritance and also are codominant. Silver staining is being used to visualize the allelic segregation of the markers.Both parents Ecu-72 and M Col 2246 were evaluated with 2 18 cassava SSRs including 32 recently developed cONA SSRs (Mba et al., submitted). Approximately 60% of the SSRs were polymorphic (Fig. 1, Table 1). Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) remains the most economically damaging disease of the crop in Africa. and it is a threat to cassava production in the Americas. The whitefly vector biotype of CMD has recentl y invaded the New World increasing the possibility that the cassava mosaic virus (CMV) ora native geminivirus will cross over to cassava in the near future. CMD also prevents the transfer of germplasm from the crop's center of diversity in Latin America to Africa; resistance to CMD has not. unti1 recently, been emphasized in gene pool development goals in LA. Host-plant resistance to CMD is the best method of containing the disease and currently deployed resistance was originally obtained from a wild relative of cassava, Af. glaziovii. A more durable source of resistance controlled by a single dominant gene (Akano et al. 2000) was identified in closely related Nigerian cassava land races in liTA. Given CIA T's global cassava mandare it is necessary to develop gene pools adapted to CMD fo r Latin America should the CMD disease makes its debut in the region, and for the transfer of useful variability to Africa, such as hi gh carotene content, and tolerance to drought. CMD breeding at CIA T requires a method to select in absence of the disease agent a task for which molecular makers are best suited.To develop markers for marker-assisted breeding of CMD resistance, populations segregating for genes controlling both sources of resistance were developed and evaluated under disease pressure in Nigeria over a period of two years under the auspices of a Rockefeller Foundation funded CMD resistance gene mapping project project. Last year a SSR marker was found for the currently deployed CMD resistance introgressed from Af. glaziovii. which is recessive in nature. We report here identification of a simple sequence repeat marker and an RFLP marker that are tightly linked and flank the dominant R gene comrolling the new source of resistance to CMD. This result opens up the possibility of marker-assisted selection for breeding resistance to CMD in the absence of the pathogen as in CIA T and for rapidly introducing the gene into African cassava genepools.The mapping population was a F 1 progeny from a cross between a Nigerian land race (TME3) that represent the new source of ACMD resistance and a susceptible improved line (TMS 30555). The F ¡ progeny, of 240 individuals. was established from embryo <L'<es, multiplied and six copies per genotype were transferred to the field in a low CMD pressure site in Nigeria and two copies kept in-vitro. For field evaluation of CMD resistance, the mapping population was established from woody cuttings 15-20cm long, in two CMD high-pressure sites, Onne, a high humid forest agroecology and Ikenne, a low humid forest agroecology. both in Nigeria. The experimental design was an augmented randomized complete block design with 1 O plant rows per genotype per block. CMD disease resistance was evaluated at 3 and 6 months after planting (MAP).Visual assessment of symptom intensity was conducted according to the liT A scale. ranged from O for no observable symptom to 5 for very severe chlorosis and reduction in leaf area, for each leaf on each plant and averaged by genotype. Genotypes were observed to fall into two broad classes of no symptom score of 1, and very severe symptom score of 4, in both sites, suggesting a qualitative inheritance. Genotypes were therefore scored as resistant and susceptible and a chi square test was performed to test a single heterozygous gene model of resistance.A bulk segregant analysis (BSA) using two pools of 40 susceptible and 40 resistant genotypes from the mapping progeny was used as a quick method to identify markers associated with the resistance gene. The two bulks and two parents were screened for with the 186 Cassava MapPairs SSR markers using PCR conditions as described by Mba et al. (2000). Any marker found to be polymorphic in the two parents and the two bulks was employed to evaluate members of the bulks individually and markers that were still polymorphic in the resistant and susceptible progeny were used to genotype a subset of 162 genotypes from the progeny. Single point marker analysis using a simple linear regression of CMD resistant data on the SSR marker genotypic classes as independent variable was conducted to determine how much of the phenotypic variation was explained by the marker.The ratio of resistant to susceptible genotypes in both si tes was not significantly different from a ratio of 1 : 1 in the mapping progeny by a Chi square test at a probability leve! of 0.0 l . This suggests a single dominant gene heterozygous in the ACMD resistance parent.In the bulk segregant analysis, only one SSR primer SSR Y 28 showed an allele that was present in the resistant parent and in the resistant bulk but absent in the susceptible bulk and the susceptible parent. The polymorphism was confirmed when members of the bulks were individually screened although there were 6 recombinants (Figure 1 ). Analysis of a total of 162 progeny revealed 16 recombinants, suggesting the marker is at least 1 OcM from the CMD resistance gene. A simple regression analysis al so revealed that the marker explains 70 % of the phenotypic variance of CMD resistance. SSR Y 28 was found to Iocated on Iinkage group R of the male-derived map of cassava linked in coupling to marker G Y 1 (RFLP), and in repulsion to marker Ai 19 (RAPD). See Fig 2.RFLP analysis of the mapping progeny with GY1 revealed the CMD R gene is located between SSRY 28 and GY 1 ata distance of lOcM, and 6cM respectively.• ldentification of a SSR and RFLP marker that flank, at a distance of 1 Ocm and 6cM respectively. the single dominant gene controlling resistance to CMD. • Tools for marker-assisted breeding of CMD resistance at CIA T.-----~ -- 11 .,.\"\" The two markers that flank the CMD resistance gene are linked in coupling and can be used together to determine genotypes which bear the CMD resistance gene. However, the RFLP marker does not readily lend itself to high-throughput genotyping required for MAS compared to the SSR marker. It is therefore planned to convert the RFLP marker toan SSR by identification of BAC clones that contain GY l , andan SSR sequence.Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) remains the most economically darnaging disease of the crop in Africa, and it is a threat to cassava production in the Americas. The whitefly vector biotype of CMD has recently invaded the New World increasing the possibility that the disease may eventually cross over to cassava. Breeding efforts in Latin America have cassava not placed an important value on resistance to the disease for two reasons: a) the disease is not present in the Americas and, therefore, there was no need for resistance against it and b) since the disease is not present, we cannot select for it. Latin American varieties, consequently, are very susceptible to the disease. Resistance to CMD is the only reliable method for disease control. The first source of resistance was probably derived from M glaziovii and its mode of action was reported to be a recessive trait. A better source of resistance, controlled by a single dominant was recently identified in Nigeria.Materials and Methods: Until recently severa} thousand crosses between the M glaziovii source of resistance and elite Latín American germplasm have been produced. However, given the excellent level of resistance conferred by the new gene and its dominant mode of action, we will start using this new source. The advantage is that being dominant, the F 1 thus produced will al so show high levels of resistance. The old so urce of resistance required a back-cross to the donor which complicated greatly the breeding process and made considerably more difficult the recovery of the desirable traits of the Latin American elite lines.To fulfill the requirements of the Colombian plant quarantine authorities for introducing cassava gerrmplasm from A frica into Latin America we introduced F 1 pro gen y from the cross between TME3 (source of the new resistance) and TMS 30555 (and improved variety from liTA) rather than TME3, the CMD resistant land race. Seeds of TME3 by TMS30555 cross were germinated in vitro from embryo axes and sub cloned; two copies were kept permanently in vitro to avoid any risk of infection by the virus (back-up copies) while 6 were sent to the field for replicated evaluation of CMD resistance. Tissue culture plantlets, obtained from the back-up in vitro copies, of genotypes showing field resistance to CMD comparable ro rhe TME3 parent were then shipped to CIA T. The in vitro plantlets were tested on arrival by ELISA and PCR methods for the presence of gemni virus including ACMV before transfer to the green house. When permission to transfer the plants to the field is obtained from the Colombian quarantine authorities, and the plants will be transferred to a healthy site for hybridizationOnce we have plants in the field we will start the crosses between these sources of resistance and about 20 elite varieties from tropical (low and highlands) and subtropícal adaptation. In addition we will also used these materials for crosses to be shipped to Africa. CIA T and liT A are interested in continuíng the introgression of germplasm from Latín America into Africa. Particular goals here will be to combine resistance to ACMV with: a) high carotene levels in the roots, a trait present in severa] Latín American materials with yellow/orange coloration; and b) drought rolerance, also present in Latín American genotypes {particularly from North East Brazil).One of the primary objectives of genetic mapping and gene tagging efforts in cassava is to provide tools that can increase the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of cassava breeding. Markers íncrease the efficiency of breeding by the elimination of inferior genotypes at the seedling stage allowing the breeder concentrare on fewer genotypes for the crucial single row tria! stage. Fifteen years of cassava breeding at the CIAT-Asia program has shown that that negative selection ar the seedling stage, combined with indírect selection for yield. using harvest índex, is most the efficient breeding scheme for yield in cassava. The availability of genetic markers for the new and more durable source of CMD resistance provides a unique opportunity to test the cost etfectiveness and efficiency of marker-assisted breeding compared to conventional breeding for the introduction of CMD resistance gene into African cassava genepools. The advantage of genetic markers for CMD resistance is that it enables the breeder to eliminate. at an early stage inferior genotypes and thus considerably reduce. by 50%. the materials to be established in the field. thus cuning his task and costs by half. Provided a cheap. slab gelfree method of genotyping can be developed. the cost-savings and increase in efficiency can be considerable. A joint project to test marker-assisted selection of CMD resistance was initiated with UTA this year.The Nigerian cassava land races TME 3. TME4 and TME28. that carry the single dominant CMD resistance gene, were crossed to TMS 53808, TMS 30572. and TMS71173, and TMS91934, important parental lines at liTA. A target of about 500 seeds for each of the 12 crosses, making a total of 6000 seeds, has been set for the experiment. Seeds from all 6 crosses will be divided equally into two and designated as population A and population B. Seeds from populations A will be planted in the seedling nursery and evaluated with markers associated with the CMD resistance gene at 3 weeks after planting, while seeds from B will be planted but not evaluated. Plants bearing the CMD resistance gene from population A and all plants from population B will be introduced into the regular liT A cassava breeding scheme of seedling tria! (ST), and single row trial (SRT). At the end of SRT the cost of maintaining populations A and B, and of genotyping population A will be estimated. The selection efficiency of markers against no markers will be also estimated for population A and B by determining the mean of both populations for traits of agronomic interest such as resistance to CMD. CBB. dry maner content and dry maner yield. The above activities are the objectives of a Ph.D dissertation to be conducted by a student at IITA with technical and partial financia! support from CIAT.More than 1500 pollinations each were performed for all possible unique crosses between the CMD donor parentsTME 3, TME9, TME28, and the liT A breeding parents TMS 53808, TMS 30572, TMS71173 TMS91934 at the liTA crossing block in Ubiaja, Nigeria. The total number pollination are more thant 18,000. A mínimum of about 500 seeds is expected per cross. The seeds will be harvested beginning late October and will be established in the seedling nursery by early January 2000.• Generation of 12 crosses of about 6000 progeny in total for the comparison of MAS and conventional approach to cassava breeding Plans for Next Year  et al. 1994). It is also a much sought trait in Latín America due to the increased flexibility of supply of raw material it offers in the industrial production of cassava for animal feed and starch. The objectives of the early bulking study were to identify traits strongly associated with early bulking, and subsequently find markers linked to genes or QTLs controlling such traits for marker-assisted breeding of earliness. Results obtained from the early bulking study are presented in this report. To verify QTLs identified in the early bulking study, a new F 1 S 1 mapping population of 240 individuals was developed and established in vitro from embryo axes and transferred to the field. The population will be genotyped on a genomewide basis with SSR markers and evaluated in replicated trials for traits found to be most strongly associated with early bulking next year.A preliminary assessment of early bulking was conducted in 1998 by harvesting the F 1 mapping population at 7 MAP in CIAT Palmira location (Fregene et. al. 2000). Dry matter yield was determined on three plants per genotype. Based on results from this evaluation. 40 early bulking genotypes and 40 late bulking groups were selected.Carefully picked healthy cuttings of the 80 selected genotypes were planted in a new experiment in December 1998 in CIA T Palmira. A early bulking cassava land race (Mandioca de tres meses) introduced from Brazil was used as control. Field layout was a randomized complete block design of two replications. Each plot had 60 plants of each genotype in a 6 x 10 (column by row) arrangement; the central 32 plants, arranged as eight rows of four plants, were used in the sequential harvest with an interval of three weeks. beginning at 6WAP through to 30 WAP. A total of nine harvests were done within a seven month duration after which the experiment was terminated (July 1999).At each harvest. four plants in a row within a plot. per genotype, were evaluated for root yield and other traits assumed related to bulking. The traits evaluated were: plant height. plant vigor, leaf area index, fresh root yield. fresh foliage, number of roots per plant, root diarneter of the biggest five storage roots. Others were harvest index. measured as the ratio of root yield to total harvested biomass. root dry matter and dry foliage. Plant vigor was evaluated on a visual rating scale of l -5 (l = poor; 5 = best). Dry matter assessment for root and foliage were carried out by taking sarnples of each plant and oven-drying to a constant weight to determine dry matter content. Starch initiation ( or commencement in bulking) was also evaluated. Samples from roots were randomly picked. sectioned and then stained with iodine for blue black coloration test for starch presence.Multiple regression analyses were performed to determine the linear relationships between evaluated traits (independent variable) and dry matter root yield (dependent variable) for each harvest time based on the linear equation:Where Y is the dependent variable ( dry matter root yield); a is the intercept and b ( l ,2 ... k) is the partí al regression coefficient of the corresponding independent variable and X (1 ,2, .. . k).refer to the independent variables, with e as the error term.Regression coefficient of each trait variable was accepted as significantly associated to early bulking at P < 0.05. Single linear regression of dry matter root yield with time (i.e. progressive increase in dry matter root yield (bulking) over the nine harvest periods) per genotype was done to determine rate of bulking given by the regression coefficient. QTL analysis was done for traits significantly linked to early bulking using QGENE (Nelson, 1997) and markers linked to the traits associated with early bulking were declared significant at P< 0.005. The PGRI computer package (Liu, 1995) was also used for QTL analysis.At 6W AP when sequential harvesting commenced, it was observed that 79% of the early bulking population had already started synthesizing starch implying little genetic variation in starch initiation within the population but only 16% of the population had shown development of storage roots based on visual observation. At the next evaluation, 9WAP, over 75% of the population had storage roots. Results showed that yield was significantly correlated to all other traits evaluated. The multiple linear regression model using all other traits as independent variable adequately explained variation observed for early bulking. The proportion of variation accounted by the independent variables, given by the multiple coefficient of determination (R 2 ) , was high and the adjusted R 2 varied from 0.67 -0.86 between 12 WAP and 30WAP. Our analysis reveal that foliage and harvest index are the two most important factors influencing early bulking. These traits were evaluated between 12W AP and 30 W AP and were found to be significantly associated to early bulking for most of the times (Table 1 ). Within the evaluation period of 12WAP and 30 WAP, dry foliage and harvest index were highly significant in their partial regression coefficients for early bulking in five of the six evaluation times or 83% of the evaluation period. All other traits were most of the times non-significant in their partial regression coefficients and thus weakly related to early bulking (Table 1 ). Based on our result. root dry mater yield is a function of total plant biomass. harvest index and dry matter percentage of fresh root yield.QTL analysis for harvest index and dry foliage showed genomic regions with significant effects for these traits associated with early bulking. Three QTLs each were found for foliage dry weight and harvest index (Table 2). An RFLP marker CDY76 on linkage group J alone explains about 33% of the phenotypic variance for foliage at 24 WAP and hold great potential for marker assisted breeding given its major effect for foliage/shoot development. For harvest index, a major QTL (rBEST-2) chromosome A in the male map accounted for 32% of the phenotypic variance at 18W AP (Table 2). Kawano et. al. ( 1998) showed that selection of harvest index in breeding scheme is an efficient indirect selection parameter for root yield. Based on the analysis and inforrnation from the early bulking study, it is apparent that early bulking (and by extension yield), can be increased more effectively by using a selection criteria based on foliage (or total plant biomass), and harvest index in addition to yield potential of the genotype. *Chromosomes with prefix \"Ng\" are for the female derived map while chromosomes with prefix •'Cm\" are for the male derived map.ldentification of putative QTLs for traits associated with early bulking provides a first step in the understanding of the genetics of these complex traits. Deploying these marker tools in crop improvement requires further testing. To confirm putative QTLs identified for early bulking and to pro pose a model of genetic control for these traits, a F 1 S 1 population was developed by selfing a genotype from the F 1 mapping population possessing high foliage and high harvest index, and favorable QTLs alleles for these traits. Self pollination resulted in 725 seeds, which were then tested for viability by soaking seeds in water. After the viability test, embyro culture was carried out for 4 73 seeds in the 17N culture medium (113 medium, supplemented with 0.01 mg r 1 NAA, 0.01 mg r 1 GA 3 , 1.0 mg r 1 thiamine-HCL, 100 mg r 1 inositol, 2% sucrose, 0.7% agar (Sigma Co.) and 25 mg 1 -t of a commercial fertilizer containing: N 10, P 52, K 10, pH 5.7-5.8 (Roca 1984) as follows. Mature seeds were treated with sulfuric acid for 50 minutes, then thoroughly washed and rinsed before soaking in water for 30 minutes. Seeds were surface-sterilized by immersion in 70% alcohol for 5 minutes followed by immersion in 5% sodium hypochlorite and tween for 20 minutes, and then rinsed thrice. Under aseptic condition, the seeds were split along the longitudinal axis and embryonic axes removed by means of sterile forceps and scapel.germinated. Excised embryonic axes were placed radicle down on 17N medium. The embryo cultures were incubated in darkness for three days to promote radicle growth and then transferred to growth chambers with a 12hr photoperiod. A total of 240 progeny were hardened and established in the field.• Identification of traits (harvest index and dry foliage weight) with strong influence on early bulking • QTLs associated with harvest index and dry foilage weight • Development. in vitro and field establishment of F 1 S 1 population for marker inheritance and fidelity studies.The F 1 S 1 population will be genotyped on a genome-wide basis with SSR markers and evaluated in replicated trials for traits found to be most strongly associated with early bulking next year.Wild Oryza species represent a potential source of new alleles for improving yield, quality and stress resistance of cultivated rice. Nevertheless, the effective use of wild species genes remains unexplored. Advanced backcross-breeding schemes using molecular mapping techniques represent an altemative for reducing the genetic background from wild species parentals and detecting these alleles in segregating populations more easily.This collaborative project between CIAT, W ARDA and Comell University is aimed at characterizing and utilizing the genes from rice wild species to improve cultivated rice. This report focuses on progress made in identifying quantitative trait loci (QTLs), associated with yield increase in Oryza rufipogon and Oryza barthii, and the selection of families with these QTLs.Experiments for identifying segregant alleles from advanced backcrosses were set up in the field. greenhouse and the CIAT Biotechnology laboratory. The BC 2 F 2 segregant families (288) from the cross BG90-2 x O rufipogon and BC 3 F 2 segregant families from the cross Lemont x O barthii (326) were planted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two replications. Planting was done in a 4-row plot, 5 m long each, at CIA T HQ from June-Dec. in 1996 and 1997. Data on 13 traits were taken from 1 O randomly selected plants. Based on yield potential and agronomic performance. 38 BC 2 F 2 families from the Bg90-2/0 rufipogon cross were selected for grain yield evaluation, using a RCBD design with four replications.The DNA of young leaves from the parental genotypes and the segregating populations in both crosses was extracted using the Dellaporta Method (McCouch et al., 1988) and modified for the PCR assay by the CIA T Biotechnology Research Unit. A total of 127 markers (83 RFLPs and 44 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were used to evaluate the segregants from the Bg90-2 x O rufipogon cross, while the offspring of the Lemont x O barthii cross were evaluated with 85 SSR markers. These markers, which were used in the evaluations and the QTL analyses. were selected from the rice molecular framework linkage map ( 10-20 cM intervals throughout the genome) (Causse et al., 1994;Chen et al. 1997).Based on the screening of 210 SSRs in the parents of both crosses (Temnykh et al .. 2000). the PCR assay protocols for 40 of them were standardized for use in the screening the progeny of the Lemont x O barthii cross.Based on the results obtained in the molecular analyses of the 288 BC2F2 families from the Bg90-2/0 rufipogon cross, 87 families associated with QTLs from O rufipogon were selected to start the development of NILs. A total of 40 plants from each family were planted in the greenhouse and later transplanted in the field. Data on 13 agronomic traits were taken and used to select more promising families for the traits of interest.While the plants were still in the greenhouse, leaf discs (5 mm in diam.) were taken from each plant of the selected BC2F2 families for DNA extraction using the Alkali Method (Klimyuk et al., 1993). Approximately 40 SSRs were analyzed in a total of 235 PCR assays done with the 87 families. Plants carrying horno-or heterozygote alleles for the O rufipogon genotype were chosen and backcrossed to BG90-2. BC3F1 seed was obtained to continue the development ofNILs carrying specific QTLs. Severa! cross combinations were made to combine different QTLs derived from O rufipogon.Based on the 83 RFLPs and 44 SSRs from the RF-Cornell framework map screened in 288 BC 2 F 2 families from the cross BG90-2 x O rufipogon, putative linkages were identified with yield and yield components from replicated data available for the whole mapping population. Using the Qgene software for molecular breeding (version 3.0 -Nelson 2000), associations between markers and yield on chromosomes 3. 5. 6. 9 and 12 were detected. Results obtained for chromosomes 5 and 12 showed similar associations to those reported by Xiao et al. (1996: 1998) (Fig. l. Table 1 ). In addition. another 61 QTL associations with yield and the various yield components were detected. For exarnple, five markers were found associated with plant height on chromosomes 1, 2, 6, 8 and 12. RZ538 explained 70% of the phenotypic variation in plant height in this BC2F2 cross (Fig. l, Table 1) and showed a similar location on the chromosome as reported by Xiong et al. ( 1999). These results suggest that each QTL derived from O rujipogon has a different effect on plant height, which gives breeders the opportunity to develop improved breeding lines having different plant heights to suit diverse growing conditions.WARDA. In 1997 WARDA initiated the Africa!Asia joint research project on interspecific hybridization between the African and Asían rice species for deve1oping improved rice varieties having greater weed competitiveness. resistance to the African rice gall midge, drought and iron toxicity, and good grain quality. CIAT was invited to participate in the development of improved breeding populations through interspecific crosses and evaluation of breeding lines.Seeds of 100 interspecific O sativa/0. glaberrima progenies were received from W ARDA in 1998 and planted in observational p1ots under upland, acid soil conditions at La Libertad Experiment Station, Villavicencio (Meta). Oryzica Sabana 6 and 1 O and Line 30 were planted as control checks. Nearly 60% of the lines were susceptible to rice blast, but most of the lines showed good tolerance to leaf scald and Helminthosporium. Based on preliminary data on field performance and yield potentiaL 36 lines were selected for further evaluation in 1999. These selected progenies continued to show high resistance to principal diseases such as leaf and neck blast (P. oryzae). brown spot (H. oryzae) and grain discoloration. as well as tolerance to acid-soil conditions. Sorne of them had better seedling vigor and earliness than local checks. Lines W AB450-l-B-P-82-2-l. W AB450l B-P-91-HB. W AB450-l -B-P-133-HB. W AB450-l-B-P-6-2-l and W AB450-l-B-P-92-3-l yielded as well as local checks (2 t/ha). In terms of grain quality. however, these interspecific progenies do not meet consumer preferences in Latín America for a long, slender. translucent grain type. Sorne of these lines are being used as progenitors in our breeding program. A CIA T rice breeder traveled to W ARDA in Sept., selecting 300 interspecific lines from their nurseries for evaluation in Villavicencio in 200 l .In 1998. 305 lines derived from the BC2F2 generation of 8090-2 and O rufipogon were sent to WARDA for evaluation under the different ecologies found in West Africa. Many promising lines were identified and selected by their breeders. Nearly 1283 segregating breeding lines derived from interspecific crosses were sent to W ARDA this year for evaluation.Cornel/ University. A pilot project on rice was initiated between CIA T and Cornell in 1994. The basis of this project is a forward-looking strategy for improving crop performance using existing collections of genetic resources and biotechnology tools.Crosses involving Oryza glaberrima, O rufipogon and O barthii, in combination with elite irrigated and upland varieties, were made; and severa! improved populations have been developed thus far. An advanced backcross-breeding strategy was used to identify QTLs associated with eight agronomic traits in a BC2F2 population derived from a cross between Caiapo, an upland Oryza sativa subsp. Japonica rice from Brazil. and an accession of O rufipogon from Malaysia. Based on analyses of 125 SSLP and RFLP markers distributed throughout the genome and using single-point, interval and composite-interval mapping, two putative O rufipogon-derived QTLs were detected for yield, 13 for yield components. 4 for maturity and 6 for plant height. lt was concluded that advanced backcross QTL analysis offers a useful germplasm-enhancement strategy for the genetic improvement of cultivars adapted to stress-prone environments. Although the phenotypic performance of the wild germplasm would not suggest its value as a breeding parent, it is noteworthy that 51% • Complete the characterization of agronomic and molecular data. and QTL analyses to determine the number of QTLs associated with yield increase across environrnents for Bg90-2/0 rujipogon and Lemont x O barthii crosses.• Develop NILs carrying specific QTLs for use in breeding prograrns from the cross Bg90-2/0 rufipogon.• Develop a mapping population (CG 14/ WAB56-l 04) in collaboration with WARDA.• Prepare draft papers for publication of results.• Fingerprint advanced lines from Bg90-2/0 rujipogon and Lemont/0 barthii crosses. Apomixis is an asexual mode of reproduction by seed. which occurs in a number of families of higher plants. During apomictic processes, both meiosis and egg fertilization are omitted, making offspring exact genetic replicas of the mother. Apomixis is of value to agriculture because it can be used to fix hybrid vigor, which would make hybrid seed production much more economical.The common mode of commercial-scale reproduction of Brachiaria cultivars is by facultative apomixis. Apomixis is not yet well understood genetically although research efforts have increased significantly in recent years. An additional step toward a better understanding of apomixis in Brachiaria is the establishment of a cDNA library, which has been developed with a new, highly effective method known as suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH). Using this approach, two mRNA populations, extracted from both apomictic and sexual genotypes. were examined to elucidate the differential gene expression between them.Plant material. Two different species of Brachiaria. which are parents of the apomixis gene-mapping population, were used to develop the cONA library: B. decumhens (CIA T 606), tetraploid apomictic; and B. ruzziciensis (CIA T 44-3), colchicine-induced tetraploid sexual. Severa! plants from each species were maintained in pots in a greenhouse at a temperature ranging from 25°C during the day to 20°C at night. RNA isolation. Inflorescences from severa! pre-anthesis stages of development were excised from five apomictic and five sexual plants. The different tissues were polled for every genotype and immediately put into liquid nitrogen. Total RNA was extracted from lOO mg of fresh material using the RNeasy™ Plant Total RNA kit (Qiagen. Oorking. UK). ONA contaminants were removed using RQI ONase (1 U/~1). The mRNA was isolated using OynabeadsBl mRNA purification kit (Oynal 61 0.06), following the manufacturer's instructions.cDNA synthesis and SSH. Both cONA synthesis and SSH were done with the CLONTECH PCR-Select™ cONA Subtraction Kit. following the manufacturer's instructions. SSH compares two populations of mRNA and obtains clones of genes that are expressed in one population but not in the other. First both populations of mRNA are converted into cONA.The cONA of B. decumbens. which contains specific ( differentially expressed) transcripts. is referred to as the \"tester,\" and the reference cONA of B. ruzziciensis. as the •'driver.\" Both tht.. rester and driver were hybridized: and hybrid sequences, removed. The remaining unhybridized cDNAs represent genes that are expressed in the tester but are absent in the driver mRNA.In order to confirm that the sequences really expressed differentially, two sets of dot-blots were prepared with the clones obtained in the cONA library and hybridized with cONA of both the apomictic and sexual genotypes. The products from the SSH were inserted into the pGENTeasy vector plasmid (Promega), and ligated cDNAs were transformed into E. coli OH5a with selection for ampicillin resistance. Random transformant clones were picked to 3 ml of LB medium with ampicillin in wells of a microtiter plate and grown at 37°C for 12 h. After the plasmid isolation. the inserts were amplified using primers M 13 forward and reverse in 25-~1 vol. for 25 cycles and sequenced using an ABI Prism 377 sequencer. Homology searches were carried out using BLAST programs through servers at the National Center for Biotechnology Information and the National Center for Genome Research.A total of 288 random transformant clones were picked and grown, and the plasmid isolated. The PCR product of these clones was then submitted to restriction with enzymes Alu! and Jvfspl in order to identify duplicates. Different restriction pattems were, --------however. found among them: thus each one corresponds to particular sequences. With the dot-blot hybridization. 45 clones were identified as being expressed differentially between the apomictic (35 == 78%) and sexual (lO) genotypes. This means that at least 12% of the transcripts in the cONA library are expressed only in the apomictic parent. Finding sequences that are expressed exclusive ly in the sexual genotype in the cONA subtractive library could be explained because the genotypes used in this study are very closely related. Thus the genomes are similar to each other. and few sequences among them are different.Of the 22 clones sequenced using BLAST search. 12 contained patches that closely matched sequences related to a stress response. reproductive organs and embryonic development in plants (Table 1 ). In particular, sequences expressed during pre-anthesis, anthesis. embryo and endosperm development in grasses. as well as pathogen response. Another ten clones had little or no significant ONA sequence match in the database to genes of known function. Sorne function-unknown genes might encode completely new classes of proteins with specific roles in apomictic or sexual development in Brachiaria. Others might be vestigial and thus make little or no contribution to apomictic or sexual development. which would involve other pathways. In order to identify differentially expressed sequences. a new technology known as DNA chips or microarray is available to sean a significant number of clones. Microarray expression profiling detailed experiments will be used to identify putative early-response regulatory and/or signaling genes and to test the function of selected candidate genes using reverse genetics.• Bean microsatellites were obtained either from gene sequences deposited in public databases or from enriched library developed and screened at CIA T. A sub set has already been mapped onto the CIA T bean mapping population of Dor 364 x G 19833 as a first steps towards their use in MAS.• Bean cDNA and small-insert genomic libraries for microsatellite development were established. A set of 768 cDNA clones were sequenced. This collection of new gene sequences for common bean represents as many sequences as are currently in the Genbank public database for all Phaseo/us species together.• Cassava micro satellites set was expanded this year by the development and mapping of new SSR markers coming from either enriched genomic or cDNA libraries. The cDNA library consisted of 80,000 clones picked and arrayed onto high density filter using the Clemson University facilities.• Brachiaria microsatellites were developed and used in conjunction with AFLP markers to establish the first framework molecular map for the species opening the way for QTL analysis for complex traits.• The Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE) method was implemented for cassava as part of a collaborative project with the Iwate Biotech Center in Japan. The SAGE protocol is being used to identify candidate genes for the cloning of the CMD resistance gene. In additiona to the SAGE method. the postional cloning of CMD was initiated.• The cDNA-AFLP technique was implemented to study plant gene expression for Cassava -Xam interaction.• Resistance gene analogs (RGAs) in cassava resulted in the characterization of 12 classes of RGS and one cDNA clones related to R gene.• Bean RGA were mapped onto the Rils population of Dor 364 x G 19833. Tight linkage with resistance genes was detected. The screening of a bean BAC library allowed the isolation of regions flanking the RGAs in order to clone the targeted R genes.• The region of the Pi-2 gene cluster for resistance to rice blast was saturated with AFLP and RAPD maker as a first step toward cloning the gene. The markers mapped also provided new options for MAS.Microsatellites based on simple sequence repeats have been developed for a wide range of plant species. V arious techniques exist for discovering new microsatellite markers from anonymous genomic sequence. All of these techniques rely on the availability of DNA libraries. lt is best if these libraries consist of small-insert clones(< 1 kb) because they are easier to screen for microsatellites and to sequence if they are shown too be positive. Various enrichment procedures have been used to increase the prevalence of SSRs in genomic libraries. One method relies on the selective capture of small fragments with oligonucleotides on hybond membranes (Edwards et aL, 1996). An enrichment method has been used at CIA T to develop two GAn and CAn microsatellite-containing libraries for common beans (CIAT Annual Report 1999). In this study. we were interested in developing non-enriched libraries to screen for microsatellite sequence motifs that have not been screened in the enriched libraries. The screening of nonenriched random genomic libraries will allow us to investigate the normal frequency with which different microsatellite motifs occur in common bean.Seven small insert genomic libraries were constructed (Table 1): 1) Taqi library (from bean DNA of the genotype OOR364) 2) Rsai library (DOR364) 3) Alui library (DOR364); 4) Haeiii library (DOR364); 5) DraiJA/ui library (G 19833); 6) Drai/Haeiii library (G 19833) and 7) Sonicated library (DOR364). For the enzyme-digested libraries, bean DNA was digested with the appropriate restriction enzyme, size selected to the range of0.4-1.2 kb and ligated into vectors using T4 DNA ligase. In the case ofthe Rsai library the insert was first ligated to Mlui adapters, amplified by PCR using the adapter primers and ligated into the pGEMTeasy vector from Promega; while for the Taqi library a modified pUC19 vector (pNl) was used. The other libraries were made in the pBluescript vector. All ligation reactions were transformed into Electromax DH5alpha E. coli cells and plated onto the appropriate antibiotic containing LB agar media. DNA was extracted from 20 white colonies per library by standard alkaline lysis procedures using an Autogen robot and checked for insert presence and size by restriction digestion with appropriate enzymes. A leaf cONA library (Stratagene, pCMV Sport 6.0 vector, EMDH1 25 cells) was also prepared for microsatellite screening.The clones from the libraries were plated on Q-plates with Carbenicillin (1OOm giL) and in the case of the small insert libraries, x-gal and IPTG as well. A Q-bot robot was used to pick and array colonies for both the small insert and cONA libraries. Automatic blue/white screening was used to pick the clones. All the clones were placed into 384well plate forrnat glycerol stocks. grown overnight and stored. The master plates for the library were copied twice into working copies of the library. The clones were spotted onto gridded Hybond N+ membrane filters containing 6 fields of 8 x 384-well plates each for a total of 48 plates per filter. Clones ~ere arrayed in a double-replicate 4 x 4 pattem.The three small-insert genomic libraries with the best transforrnation efficiency. the highest percentage clones with inserts and the average insert size closest to 0.5 kb were the libraries made for Alul. Haeiii and Rsal. These were chosen for further analysis and plating. A total of 57.984 clones were arrayed from the three small-insert libraries (Table 1 ). These libraries each represent a total of 1 O Mb of ONA which is equivalent to 0.015 X genome equivalents considering that the genome of comrnon bean is 650 Mb in size.Taken together the three libraries contain approximately 30 Mb of bean ONA which should be equivalent to 5 % of the total genome. If the average distance between microsatellite loci is between 20 and 100 kb throughout the bean genome. as it is in other crops with small genomes. than this number of clones should provide between 600 and 3,000 SSR-containing clones which can be developed into new microsatellite markers. In addition. these clones will give an accurate picture of the relative frequency of different SSR motifs in the bean genome.A total of 64,128 clones were arrayed from the cONA library (Table 1). The average insert size of the cONA clones was 1.3 kb which compares favorably to other cONA libraries that have been used in sequencing projects of expressed sequence tag sites (ESTs). A set of 768 cONA clones were sequenced from the Sp6 end (equivalent to the 5 ' end of the insert). The new sequences were a) searched for vector segments to check for insert integrity and b) BLAST searched against each other to check for sequence redundancy (redundant clones consist in 90% identity over half the nucleotides in a sequence). The vast majority (97%) of the sequences were unique and very few short clones were identified. The sequences were also compared to the Swissprot database and to all the soybean proteins downloadable from Genbank. Out of the 745 unique sequences, 240 were homologous to annotated genes forrn the Swissprot database and 170 were homologous to soybean genes, both with expectation values of at least 1 x 10-7 • This collection of new gene sequences for comrnon bean represents as many individual sequences as are currently in the Genbank public database for all Phaseolus species together.Our future plans are to begin screening the libraries with different oligonucleotide probes representing microsatellite sequence motifs to give us an estímate of the relative abundance of microsatellites on an absolute scale per kb of genomic sequence. Given the small genome size of comrnon bean, we hope to recover a large number of microsatellites from these libraries. We plan to sequence all positive SSR containing clones to design microsatellite prímers for the development of new markers. The sequenced cONA clones represent the first substantial number of EST sequences in beans. Ultimately many of these cONA sequences can be genetically mapped as RFLPs or SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) based assays, especially as simple procedure such as dense chips. become available.  Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), exhibit a considerable amount for morphological traits and for resistance to diseases. Identification of molecular markers has been of great help to bean breeders. geneticists and taxonomists. The objectives of this work are to identify simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers in the cultivated common bean and to test these markers for their ability for gene tagging and to discriminate among accessions.SSR markers, which are reported to be more variable than RFLPs or RAPOs, have been widely adopted for genetics in plants such as soybeans (Rongwen et al., 1995) and rice (Penaud et al., 1996). SSRs are valued because they are genetically defined. highly variable, codominant markers, and because they are easily detected by PCR amplification of small amounts of DNA. Detection and analysis of SSRs can also be automated, facilitating high-throughput projects (Michell et al., 1997). The present study was initiated to identifY SSR markers in the common bean and detennine whether these markers might exhibit enough variation to be useful for studies of genetic variation and for bean breeding.New bean libraries for dinucleotide (GA and CA) and trinucleotide (A TTt4• CAG t4, CAA 14 and ACG 14 ) motifs were constructed. following Edward's methodology (Edwards et al., 1996). with sorne modifications. After enrichment. positive clones were identified by hybridization. Cells from hybridizing co lonies were cultured individually. and DNA minipreps were prepared for automated sequencing using dye tenninator chemistry. Samples were analyzed on an automated DNA sequencer (377 Perkin-Elmer).Using the PRIMER computer program (version 3.0). 68 locus-specific primer pairs were designed and tested for PCR amplification and polymorphism, using DNA from the parents of mapping popu1ations (OOR 363 * G 19833). The PC R reaction was carried out in a 20-ul final vol. containing 20 ng of genomic DNA, 0.1 uM of each forward and reverse primer. 1 O mM Tris-HCI (pH 7.2). 50 mM KCl , 1.5-2.5 m1\\1 MgC12. 0.25 mM of each dNTP and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase. The temperature-cycling pro file was an initial denaturation step for 3 min at 96°C. followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 15sec. annealing from 48-60°C for 15 sec, and primer extension at 72°C for 15 sec. From 3-4 u! of the PCR reaction were resolved on 6% polyacrylamide-sequencing gels for 2 h at 100 W, and DNA was visualized by sil ver staining according to the manufacturer•s guide (Promega Inc., USA)For the dinucleotide library 1007 positive clones were identified, of which 479 were sequenced, and 379 were redundant (70%). From the 140 nonredundant clones, it was possible to design 64 primer pairs. Both the occurrence of short-tandem repeats ( <6 core units) and the clase proximity of the SSR to the end of the cloned insert DNA limited the design of primers. For the trinucleotide library, 3321 positive clones were identified, 86 clones ofwhich were sequenced. There were 61 redundant positive clones (70%). lt was possible to design 4 primer pairs.The 68 primer pairs were assayed against parents of mapping populations (DOR 363 * G 19833) to test the ability to detect polymorphism between them. Of these, 28 po lymorphic and 11 monomorphic primers were found (Fig. 1 ), 16 did not amplify, and 13 remain to be tested. Microsatellite loci are often found in non-coding regions of the genome where the effect of their contraction and expansion will not affect gene expression or introduce mutations into open reading frames. However. in many organisms simple sequence repeats (SSRs) ha ve al so been found at a predictable frequency in gene coding regions. F or example. a large number of SSRs have been discovered in expressed sequence tag (EST) database entries of rice. These SSRs are often located in introns. and untranslated regions of sequenced cDNAs. Our objective in this study was to develop microsatellite markers for common bean from sequences in the Genbank database.In this study. we developed and tested a group of 44 common bean microsatellites derived from database searches for SSR-containing sequences. Eleven markers were available from a previous study by Yu et al. (1999) and were implemented at CIAT with our PCR conditions. Thirty-five additional microsatellites were obtained using database searches of sequences deposited in the Genbank database before September l. 2000 for any Phaseolus species. SSR containing Genbank sequences were identified using Repeatrnasker software that screens for all possible dimeric. trimeric and terameric repeats. Any SSR-containing sequence with more than five repeat units in the case of dinucleotide repeat, four in the case of tri-nucleotide reptlts, or three repeat units in the case of tetra. penta and hexa-nucleotide repeats wcre selected for microsatellite development. Compound repeats containing several adjacent SSR sequences were favored over SSRs that only had the mínimum number of repeat units. Of the 612 Phaseolus sequences obtained from Genbank. microsatellite markers were derived from 43 P. vulgaris sequences and one P. coccineus sequences. Primers were designed using Primer 3.0 software to produce PCR amplification fragments that were on average 150 bp long, and to have melting temperatures of 55 C or above and an average length of 20 nucleotides.Sorne repeat motifs were more frequent than others in the Genbank sequences. AJmost half of the microsatellites were di-nucleotide based SSRs (Table l ). Of these, the A Tn 1 TAn or TCn 1 GAn motifs were the most common SSRs in the Phaseolus sequences. while GTn 1 CAn sequences were very infrequent. Several of the tri-nucleotide motifs. notably CCAn 1 TGGn, CTTn 1 AAGn and GA Tn 1 A TCn were represented by three or four sequences each, while four other trinucleotide motifs were represented by only one sequence each. The highest number of repeats detected in the sequences was nine. while the average number of repeats was 6. 7 among all the microsatellites identified.SSR repeats we;e found in a range of coding and non-coding sequences. A total of 492 sequences represented partial or full-length cDNAs or genes. Over 130 of these sequences were of multiple alleles of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene from different Phaseolus species none of which contained SSR motifs.A total of 230 sequences that were searched represented partial and complete genes from P. vulgaris, P. lunatus. P. coccineus and P. acutifolius. GAn. ATn and a variety of tri-nucleotide repeats were common in these sequences. Interestingly sorne trinucleotide repeat in gene sequences were associated with amino acid repeats in the corresponding protein, for example the gene for hydroxyproline rich glycoprotein contains multiple repeats of the CCA codon for proline throughout the open reading frame.An additional 120 of the individual sequences searched in this study represented geno mi e RFLP clones from the Bng series. that have been mapped in common bean by Vallejos et al. ( 1992). Three of these sequences contained S SRs. Interestingly, these non-coding RFLP sequences contained two tri-nucleotide motifs (A TC and A TT) which were uncommon in the coding sequences described above. In addition a single RFLP clone contained a di-nucleotide GA repeat. These RFLP clones originated from Pstl restriction fragments which are often in areas of the genome that are under-methylated and have a higher than average GC-content. This may explain why none of the clones contained A T repeats, which are postulated to be the most common motif among plant genomes. The 120 entries contained a total 50.5 kb of sequence information. Therefore, the average density of microsatellites in a random sample of non-coding sequence can be predicted to be 1 SSR every 16.8 kb. These results confirm that the frequency of SSRs in common bean (total genome size of 650 Mb) is similar to the frequency of SSRs in other smallgenome species such as rice (450Mb) and Arabidopsis (1 50Mb). This is promising for the further development of new rnicrosatellites for beans.In the future more EST and genomic sequences will be available for common bean. In this regard. CIA T should begin to develop and sequence cON As from tissues and genotypes that are expressing traits of interest for our bean breeding program, such as roots from low-phosphorous tolerant varieties or pods, leaves and roots of disease resistant varieties. Severa! new BAC libraries are being developed for common bean in the United States and it is like1y that entire clones or insert ends will be sequenced. This new sequence information will give the Biotechnology program at CIA T a host of opportunities to develop additional microsatellite markers.  A large number of microsatellite markers have been developed for soybean by the USDA (Cregan et al.. 1999) and at companies such as Dupont (Peakall et al.. 1998). Relatively fewer microsatellites have been developed for other tropical legume crops. However at liTA an effort is underway to develop cowpea microsatellites (C. Fatokun, pers. Comm.), and an initial set of peanut microsatellites is also available (Hopkins et al., 1999). Our objective in this study was to try to adapt the microsatellites available for other Phaseoleae legume crops ( especially soybean and cowpea) to common bean. If successful. the transfer of microsatellites between legume species, would reduce the cost and time needed to develop markers specific for each crop individually.The microsatellites tested included 423 from Glycine ma.r: ( 408 with A TTn moti f. 3 with GAn motif and 12 from coding sequences) and 67 from Vigna (mixture of GA. CA. AT and compound motifs). These markers were tested against a panel of nine legumes, that included the soybean. Mesomerican and Andean common bean genotypes (Williarns, DOR364 and G 19833, respectively) that have been the sources of microsatellite libraries made for these crops. That way we would have a control in the size of the allele that was detected. For the other legume species we used genotypes that were representative of varieties grown in the Andean region. Primer arnplification was tested with a range of conditions. The soybean microsatellites were tested initially with Iax amplification conditions using 45 to 47C for annealing temperature and 2.0 to 2.5 m!\\1 final concentrations of MgCl2. The cowpea microsatellites were amplified with 52 C annealing temperature and 2.5 MgC12. Both sets of markers were analyzed on agarose (2.0%) gels with ethidium bromide staining. The cowpea microsatellites were analyzed on polyacrylarnide (6%) gels with silver staining.Microsatellites have been successfully transferred among related animal species such as birds, tortoises, primates (eg. gorillas/apes), ungulates (eg. horses/cattle) and rodents (eg. rats/mice) more than among plant species. Ultimately it is the genetic distance between species and genera that determines the ability of SSR primers to amplify in different genomes and the ability to transfer microsatellites between species must be determined empirically.Soybean and common bean appeared to be especially divergent in regard to their microsatellite loci. The soybean genomic A TTn microsatellites generally do not amplify well in common bean. At low annealing temperature and la'< conditions required to arnplify PCR products with these primers in common bean, these markers arnplify multiple bands from common bean, tepary bean, lima bean, cowpea or mung bean DNA that is completely different in size compared to the soybean allele. The likelihood that these represent homoelogous microsatellite loci was deemed low and these microsatellites were not investigated further. Therefore. it seems that soybean primers may be less useful in common bean than we thought because of the evolutionary distance separating these species.It seems that in plants. unlike animals. microsatellites loci are not well conserved over large genetic distance between species. Why sorne related lineages maintain intact microsatellites over evolutionary time or why microsatellites in certain location are more conserved is not known. However it seems that the gene-derived microsatellites may be more conserved than the microsatellites from non-coding sequences. Especially promisisng are any gene sequences in Vigna species which have microsatellites in them. VM21 represents a gene from Vigna radiata for ACC oxidase that contains an A Tn repeat in the 3' untranslated region which amplifies well in a range of legumes. We will investigare whether the Phaseo lus homologues of this clone, one of which has been sequenced. contains this microsatellite.In the future we planto clone the alleles that amplify across legume species and sequence them in a rder to determine if the simple sequence repeat is conserved. We also plan to analyze more GAn. CTn and gene-derived microsatellites from soybean to determine if they are better conserved than the A TTn microsatellites. We are collaborating with a group in Canada that is looking at another set of soybean microsatellites and will be comparing our results with theirs.It will also be interesting to determine whether common bean microsatellites amplify most member of the Phaseolus genus and whether this extends to Vigna species as well. At liT A, a project has begun to look at the amplification in cowpea of gene-derived microsatellites developed at CIA T from common bean. The overall gene arder along the chromosomes, or synteny, of many legume genera is thought to be conserved. however this has been less well studied than in the grass family. Soybean. common bean and mung bean have been shown to have regions of macrosynteny across much of their genomes. however there has been no analysis of microsynteny or sequence conservation at homoelogous loci in the geno mes of these related legumes.If we can obtain a set of microsatellites that can amplify consistently across sorne legume crops. we may use them for comparative mapping -it will important therefore to determine ifthe microsatellites amplify homoelogous locations in the genome.Peakall. R.: Gilmore, S.: Keys. W.: Morgante. M.: Rafalski. A. 1998. Cross-species amplification of soybean (Giycine max) simple sequence repeats (SSRs) within the genus and other legume genera: implications for the transferability of SSRs in plants. Mol. Siol Evo l. 15: 1275-1287  Microsatellites have been found to be dístributed densely throughout the genomes of higher plants. making them very appropriate for genetic mapping. Nearly-saturated microsatellite maps are now available in severa! crop plants including soybeans, rice. wheat. barley, etc. It would be tremendously useful to have a genetic map for common bean consisting entirely of microsatellites. These second-generation markers would be easy to assay and would enable a large number of segregating individuals to be analyzed in gene and QTL tagging studies. For now, we have implemented a set of forty microsatellite markers in genetic mapping studies for common bean at CIAT. These microsatellites come from genomic sequences, gene or cONA sequences and database searches mostly of common beans but also of other legumes as described m othe r sections of this annual report.The parents of the OOR364 x G 19833 RIL population were surveyed for polymorphism with 60 microsatellites that could be reliably PCR amplified. The polymorphic microsatellites were used to amplify ONA from the ~7 recombinant inbred line progeny and the parents of the population. PCR product were run on silver-stained polyacrylamide gels and scored for the parental allele that they represented. Segregation data was used to place the microsatellites on a genetic map constructed with RFLP, RAPD. AFLP and SCAR markers (CIAT annual Report. 1998) using the software application Mapmaker.Forty-three microsatellites (7 1.6%) were polymorphic for the parents of the OOR364 x G 19833 population. Figure 1 shows the amplification pattem of 1 O of the polymorphic microsarellites on a subset of 24 recombinant inbred line progenies. No difference in band intensity between the cONA and genomic derived microsatellites was observed. Heterozygous loci were rarely found and the majority of RILs were homozygous for all markers.A total of 38 microsatellites could be located on the genetic map of common bean. An addirional 5 microsatellites from Yu et al ( 1999) could be placed by compararive mapping between the DOR364 x G 19833 and 8A T93 x JaloEEP58 (Freyre et al.. 1998) maps.Each chromosome was tagged with ar leasr one microsatellire. Two chromosomes. 8020 and 804B had a relatively grearer number of microsarellites, 11 and 9 markers respective! y. placed on rhem. Considering that the total generic disrance of the entire map was 2. 157 cM, the average disrance between microsarellires was 51.4 cM. However many large gaps remain and the range in distance between microsatellites ranged from 17.8 (on B02C) to 242 cM (on 8 111), depending on the chromosome.The markers BMy-11 and 8Md-28. both from cONA sequences consisrently amplified two polymorphic bands per reaction. which are suspecred to represent duplicare loci. In another mapping popularion. the two BMy-11 loci ca-segregare and are presumed to be very tightly linked (under 1 cM).Severa! microsarellites designed fo r related phyrohemagglurinin gene sequences amplified single bands buc were found to casegregare, indicating that this gene fam ily clusrers ar a single locarion in the genome. The microsatellites mapped during the course of this research will be invaluable for marker assisred selection because they are simple to analyze, specific for single genes of interest and diagnostic in most crosses due to their high leve! of polymorphism.We will be studying the potential of specific microsatellites to be used in MAS selection for specific genes with which they are linked. The mapped microsatellites will provide a good set from which to chose markers for diversity studies and future QTL analysis. We plan to develop a set of tluorescent microsatellites for accurate allele calling and highthroughput mapping. A full set of anchor markers for the bean genome will probably require 300 or more working microsatellites, therefore the work of developing and mapping new microsatellites will continue. ------1C hromosome s  (2000). The latter also describe the initial mapping of 36 of these SSR markers. In order to achieve a target of placing at least 200 SSRs, corresponding to approximately 1 SSR marker per 1 Oc M of the cassava molecular genetic map, further SSR-discovery efforts from a cassava root and leaf cONA library were initiated. More SSR loci were also mapped on the cassava genome.Mapping of SSR markers. SSR markers with a unique allele in either or both parents of the mapping population were used to screen the 150 progenies making up the F 1 mapping population. The segregation data of the markers that fitted the expected ratio of 1: 1, presence:absence of the unique parental alle1e were used to place the markers on the framework map, using the linkage analysis computer package MAPMAKER 2.0. (Lander et aL 1987). The data analyses followed the same procedures as described for the mapping of the initial 36 SSR markers (Mba et al. , 2000).SSR discovery from cassava cDNA library. A cassava cONA library was constructed commercially by Life Technologies (MO) from RNA extracted from leaf and root tissue.Approximately 80,000 clones were picked from this library and arrayed onto 6 single high-density filters using the QBOT robot (Genetix PLC, UK) of the ~lemson University Genome Institute (CUGI), C1emson, SC. The fi1ters were screened .vith the appropriate di-, tri-or tetranucleotide and end-labeled with a.e 2 P]dA TP (Maniatis et al., 1987). A total of 587 putative positive clones were isolated. The sequencing and initial primer designs and syntheses were as described for the whole genomic SSR clones (Mba et al., 2000).Genome location of SSR markers. Figure 1 shows the map positions of 77 SSR loci from the 1 72 SSR markers analyzed to date on the male-and female-derived molecular genetic maps. Linkage groups nomenclatures are as described for the molecular genetic map of cassava by Fregene et al. (1997), except for groups O and P, which have now been merged with other groups. The SSR markers reveal an almost complete spread over the cassava genome-at least one marker being placed on all but one of the 18 linkage groups. The existence of markers with unique alleles in both of the parents or \"allelic bridges\" will assist in the construction of a consensus map of analogous male-and female-derived linkage groups for the cassava genome.SSR discovery from cONA library. The sequencing of the 587 putative SSR-containing cONA clones is ongoing. From the approximately 400 putative SSR-containing cONA clones sequenced thus far, 167 contain SSR loci in good enough positions for primer design. Less than 10% redundancy has been observed. Many of these clones contained more than one repeat motif, at times in different loci. However, a great majority of the repeat loci were the CT/GA repeat, which accounted for over 81% ofthe SSR-containing clones suitable for PCR primer design.Pilot parental survey of SSR markers from cDNA. A batch of 32 primer pairs was designed and synthesized from the SSR markers obtained from the cONA library. All these primer pairs amplified the corresponding locus in the cassava genome in the parents of the cassava F 1 mapping population. Interestingly. o ver 60% polymorphism was obtained with these markers. Moreover, a number of them show allelic bridges, whichindicates that the saturation of the cassava molecular genetic map with SSR from both whole genomic DNA and cONA libraries will be feasible in the very near future.Ongoing activities and future perspectives • Application in the tagging of the ACMD-resistance locus in CIA T. This has revealed two SSR markers that are closely linked to the ACMD-resistance locus, one of which has been mapped.• Application in the tagging of ACMD resistance in liT A. using a different population• Application in the CIA T -University of Uppsala (Sweden) cassava genetic diversity studies in Africa• Application in the CIA T -IRD collaborative effort to tag the CBB-resistance locus• A manuscript, \"Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers of the cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) genome: Towards an SSR-based molecular genetic map of cassava\"• A poster describing the mapping of 77 SSR markers was presented at the Plant and Animal Genome VIII (Jan.) conference in San Diego, CA. .. •:::. .. , ... .. ---... .Position of n SSR markers. shown in red, on the trame worl<. (L00>2.0) molecular genetic map of cassava. M ap distanc1 \\11\\ap uníts. Groups at the \\ower right hand comer are yet to be merged wíth the ana\\ogous ma\\e-and female-derived linka~The application of the molecular genetic map of cassava in crop improvement is becoming more and more of a reality in light of successes in discovering associations between mapped markers and genes controlling traits of agronomic traits. However one draw back remains and that is the majority of the markers on the map do not lend themselves easily to the large-scale high throughput genotyping required for MAS. An effort to remedy the situation was initiated two years ago and has currently yielded more than 200 SSR markers of which at least 90 have been placed on the male-and femalederived maps. However many more SSR markers are required to provide wider coverage, and there is a need to convert existing mapped RFLP markers to PCR-based markers. The need for a PCR-based map of cassava is all the more urgent considering that an advanced back cross QTL (ABC-QTL) mapping project has been initiated to introgress enhanced root quality traits from wild relatives of cassava. The success of any ABC-QTL relies heavily on a reliable frame-work map amongst other criteria.The SSR enriched library from variety CMC40 enriched for (CT) 8 , (GT) s, developed by Keith Edwards. Bristol University, UK, and cloned in pNl , has been used to identify more than 150 SSR markers. It was decided to plate and screen many more clones from the library again with the oligos (CT) 20, and (GT) 20 . The dot blot screening of the library is as described earlier (Mba et. al. 2000). Plasmid DNA was isolated from a total of 1000 positive clones by the QIAprep plasmid isolation kit, and l -3ul of plasmid preparation was sequenced on an ABI377 automated sequencer. using the Universal M13 primers at the Comell University Biotechnology Resource Center. Primer design was by the web based software Primer 3.0 found at http://waldo.wi.mit.edu/c!! i-bi nlprimer/primer3.cl!i .The genetic map of cassava comprises of at least 250 RFLP markers on the male-and female-derived maps. lt is an important resource and if they can be converted into codominant PCR-based markers sequencing and primer construction they will go a long way to ensure a quick completion of a PCR-based map of cassava. Plasmid DNA was prepared from ovemight mini-prep cultures of E. coli stocks containing the appropriate RFLP probe using the QIAprep plasmid isolation kit. The clones are ready and will be sequenced shortly from both ends using the universal and reverse M13 primers (for PUC 18 plasmids), and T3 and T7 primers (for pBlueScript plasmids).A total of 2400 putative clones were identified from screening 10,000 clones. A sub-set of 1000 clones were selected for sequencing. Of this about 450 clones contained unique SSR markers and primers. 20-mers long, could be designed tor 300 clones from regions flanking the repeats. Other clones had the SS R too close to the end of the fragment, or had very short. <4 di-or tri-nucleotide repeats. The primers will be synthesized and tested in the parents of the mapping population and polymorphic ones scored in the progeny.• Sequencing of 1000 positive SSR clones and the design of primer pairs for 300 new SSR markers. • Initiation of the conversion of RFLP markers on the genetic map of cassava to PCR based markers such as sequence tagged sites (STS) of cleaved amplified polymorhic sites (CAPs)• Survey of 300 new SSR primer pairs in the parents of the cassava map population and evaluation of polymorphic markers in the pro gen y At CIA T. the bulked segregant analysis (BSA) approach had earlier been used to identify a simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker linked to a dominant gene that confers resistance to the devastating cassava mosaic disease (CMD). The SAGE and BSA techniques were combined to obtain the gene expression pattern in CMD resistant and susceptible plants as a first step to identi fying candidate genes for map-based cloning of the CMD resistance gene.Leaf tissue for SAGE analysis carne from progeny of the TME3 X TMS30555 CMD resistance mapping pro gen y. About 1 g of young leaf shoots were harvested from each of the 40 resistant plants and 40 susceptible plants used earlier to identify a CMD resistance marker by BSA. The plants have been kept in the field under very high disease pressure at the liTA high rain forest Station. Onne. Nigeria for more than two years and were ratooned at 12 months after planting. Ratooning cassava plants greatly increases virus disease pressure. The leaf samples were bulked for resistant and susceptible plants. ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen and dissolved in 5 volumes of •'RNA later\"' (Arnbion Inc.) and shipped directly to Japan.Leaf tissue in ''RNA later\"• was recovered by centrifugation in microfuge tubes. 2min room temp, and total RNA isolated using the Qiagen (Gmbh) RNA mini or midi prep kit. Typical yields were about 800ug total RNA/g of leaf tissue. Messenger RNA isolation was by the Amersham-Pharrnacia Biotech (PLC) mRNA isolation kit. Construction of the SAGE library was with 4.5ug and 6ug mRNA for the resistant and susceptible samples respectively, according to the SAGE protocol, as modified by Dr H. Matsumura. Additional modifications made include:• Optimization of ditag PCR. by perforrning a MgCh concentration curve of 1.5mM, 2mM, 2.5mM, 3mM, 3.5mM. 4mM, 6mM, and 8mM using ditag template dilutions of 1 :5, 1:1 O. and 1 :20, ma.ximizes efficiency of ditag generation.To prevent contamination of ditag PCR with previously amplified ditag, the required PCR reactions, 600 in all. were perforrned the same day prior to running ditag PCR PAGE gels.• Treatment of N laiii digested ditag with 400ul of streptavidin beads befare and after PAGE electrophoresis, to reduce the risk of contamination by linker molecule, and thus increase the purity of ditag molecules which greatly enhances the efficiency of concatemerization of ditags.• Replacing the pZERO plasmid vector of the SAGE protocol with another vector that permits the blue/white screening of recombinant plasmids; in this case phosphorylated (RT Inc.) pGEM-3Z (Promega inc.) plasmid was used. Nine nanograms of vector is the optimum amount for the ligation reaction with a 3: 1 insert:vector ratio in a l Oul reaction volume, and 4 hours incubation time at I6°C. Knowing the exact the concentration of inserts, for example by ethidium bromide dot quantitation. is therefore required.• Electroporation into 40ul of ElectroMax DHIOB cells (GibcoBRL) of the ethanol precipitated ligation, using the BIO-RAD Electro-pulser and the following conditions: 2.5k V, 25uF, l OOohms, 0.1 cm cuvette. Electroporated cells are recovered in l mi SOC and IOOul plated on IOcm ampicillin (lOOug/ul), IPTG/X-gal LB plates.White colonies were picked into l Oul of sterile water and l Oul of a PCR-mix added; PCR thermal cycling was according to the SAGE protocol. About 3ul of the PCR reaction were run on a 1.2% agarose gel, stained with ethidium bromide, and visualized on an UV trans-illuminator. Inserts above 586bp, approximately 29 tags, were selected for PCR clean up, with the QIAGEN kit, for sequencing. Sequencing was done with the T7 primer on a Perkin Elmer 377 Automated sequencer, using 1.5ul from the approximately 50ul volume obtained after PCR product purification. Sequence data was edited and saved as severa! text files, no larger than 9kb. then inputed into the SAGE bioinformatics program.Two SAGE libraries, of more than l 00,000 clones with an average insert size of 620bp , were constructed from mRNA isolated from the resistant and susceptible progeny bulks. About 288 clones were sequenced from each library anda total of 5733 and 7053 tags. total of 12,786 tags, were obtained from the resistant and susceptible SAGE librarie.:J. About 1, 700 unique genes were expressed at equal levels in both samples. Of these, 1 O abundantly expressed genes accounted for about 5% of all expressed transcripts. One hundred and eight transcripts were differentially expressed in the resistant bulk, at >5% probability level, including several transcripts that were completely absent in the susceptible bulk; twenty eight transcripts were at least 5 times more abundant in the resistant bulk (Fig 1 ). Primers were synthesized from these 28 tags for further analysis, namely tag annotation and genetic mapping. Transcripts that are found to map to the same region as the CMD resistant gene, in other words, that are strongly associated with the CMD resistance phenotype, will be used for fine-mapping, to screen BAC libraries for contig mapping and finally complementation. Partiallength cDNAs for more than10 of the 28 tags have been recovered by PCR, using the tags as sense primers and an antisence primer from the plasmid vector, from a cONA library constructed from mRNA of the resistant bulk in the vector p YES (Pharmacia biotech). Sequencing of the partial cDNA revealed down stream known to be expressed in response to pathogen attack in plants, including a peroxidase gene. Annotation of other tags is still ongoing.• lmplementation of the SAGE protocol for cassava• Generation of5.733 and 7.053 tags respectively for 2 mRNA samples obtained from• CMD resistant and susceptible bulks. a total of 12.786 tags. • Annotation of l O of the 28 differentially expressed tags in the two bulks.The lack of ESTs in cassava. especially in CMD resistant genotypes has considerable slowed down the annotation of the tags.• Genetic mapping of the 28 tags • Generation of ESTs from the resistant bulk project to hasten tag annotation. m collaboration with the Iwate Biotech Center, Kitakami The heterozygous nature of cassava implies that any attempt to introduce any trait, even when those controlled by a single gene leads to the loss of a favorite variety. A more efficient way to introduce single gene controlled traits, such as CMD resistance, is through genetic engineering. F ollowing the discovery of genetic markers linked to the gene controlling the new source of resistance to CMD and current efforts to identify candidate genes by the serial analysis of gene expression of CMD resistance, the stage is set for positional cloning of the CMD resistance gene. Three important criteria for positional cloning are a fine map of the appropriate genome region, based on a large mapping population, a bacteria! artificial chromosome (BAC) library, and an efficient transformation protocol for complementation analysis. An appropriate cross for fine mapping was identified at liT A and permission was sought and obtained to isolate DN A from the cross. A cassava BAC library has been constructed by CIA T in collaboration with the Clemson University Genome Institute (CUGI), however the BAC library was in a cassava genotype other than TME3, donor parent of the new source of CMD resistance, plans are underway to construct another library from TME3. Finally the BIBAC agrobacterium based transformation kit for the introduction of large DNA fragment into plants was obtained from Cornell University (Dr Caro! Hamilton) and is being tested out on cassava at CIA T.The fine mapping population consists of two crosses between TME 3, the new source of CMD resistance, and TME117 or TMS30555, a susceptible land race and a susceptible improved line with a total of 789 progeny. The population was phenotyped for resistance to CMD under high natural field infection pressure in June 2000. DNA was isolated from very young fresh leaves according to Dellaporta et al. (1983) .. Total DNA obtained was dissolved gently overnight at 4 °C in TE ( 1 OmM Tris-HCL 1 mM EDT A) and quantified by fluorimetry (TKO 100 Hoefer). The CMD phenotyping and DNA isolation of the mapping population was done at liT A during a visit by the post-doc CIA T scientist, and the DNA was shipped to CIA T for genotyping with candidate genes that will soon be identified.In preparation for transformation of candidate BAC clones with the BIBAC vector, friable embryogenic callus (FEC) were induced in a CMD susceptible lines CM2177 -2 using a protocol described by Taylor et al. (1996. Embryos were obtained by direct embryogenesis, culturingsomatic embryos on Greshoff and Doy salts supplemented with vitamins and 1 O mgll picloram. Severa! selection rounds were carried out in this medium to obtain pure friable embryogenic cultures. The FECs are intended for use in the BIBAC agrobacterium-mediated transformation system; in preparation for this four different A. tumefaciens strains contammg BIBAC2.H150 have been cultivated m mediurn AB and the bacteria concentration measured.About 200-500microgram of good quality DNA was obtained for each of the 537 genotypes, sufficient for both RFLP and PCR-based analysis of the population. CMD resistance valuation revealed the expected ratio 1: l. FECs were successfully induced in CM 2177-2 although the frequency was very low, they are currently being proliferated in liquid mediurn supplemented with Schenk and Hildebrand salts and vitamins and 1 Omg/1 Picloram. Al so the cultivation of BIBAC constructs in medium AB is succesfull.• DNA isolation of 537 genotypes from population derived from a cross between CMD resistant and susceptible African landraces • Evaluation of CMD resistance under high disease pressure of the population.• FECs developed in cultivars CM 2217-2 and TMS60444 • BIBAC transformation system received from Connell University confirmed to be still viable• Genotype the 53 7 pro gen y with candidate genes identified in the cassava SAGE experiment• Make a BAC library from TME 3 and build a contig around genome region carrying the CMD resistant gene• Transform the FECs with candidate BAC clones carrying the CMD gene using the BIBAC systemThe two hybrid system or interaction trap, uses yeast and transcriptional activation of a reporter system to identify proteins that specifically interact with a target protein of interest. In this method, one plasmid is used to express the probe or \"bait\"protein as a fusion to the heterologous DNA-binding protein LexA. The plasmid expressing the LexA-fused bait protein is used to transform yeast possessing a dual reporter system responsive to transcriptional activation through the LexA operator ( 1 ).The purpose of this study is to develop the two-hybrid system to characterize cassava proteins involved in the interaction with the PTHB protein of X axonopodis pv. manihotis (2).Y east and bacterial strains and plasmids. Strain used was S. Cereviseae EGY 48 (MATA URA3 LEU2::pLEXAopG-LEU2) and Escherichia coli DH5a.. Plasrnids used were: plexA (His3), to clone the PTHB protein; pGAD (Trpl ), to clone the cDNA library; the reporter plasmids pSH18-34 (Ura-LacZ) and pJKlOl (Ura-LacZ) and the control plasmids pSH17-4 (His3) y pRFHMl (His3). Strain yeast growed in YEPD medium ( 1 Og yeast extract, 20g peptone, 20g glucose, 20g agar, Difco) and transformants growed in CM (selective minimal medium with glucose whitout histidine and uracil).Transformant strains E. Coli DH5a.-with plasmid pLEXA and pGAD were grown in Luria Bertani (LB) with ampicilin 50ng/ml.Transformation of yeast. Y east strain EG Y 48 was transformed by electroporation method with the plasmids pLexA (pLexNpthB) + pSH1834 and with the plasmids pSH17-4+pSH18-34 and pRFHMl +pSH1834 as positive and negative transformation control respectively.Characterization of the bait protein expression and activity. The transcriptional and repressor activity of LacZ gene by P-Galactosidase activity were tested on plates containing X-Gal (40mg) and lOOml of 1M potassium phosphate. The activation of Leu was assayed in selective medium with and without leucine. Expression of the PTHB/PLEXA fusion protein was conducted by ELISA, using the EGY48 yeast lysed cells transformed with the plasmids pSH17-4 + pSH18-34 as a test andE. coli DH5a. lysed cells transformed with the clone A315 (pGEX!pthB) as positive control. The antibody anti-PTHB (dilutionl/1 000), negative rabit antibody (not irununized) and the antibody anti-rabit marked with peroxidase were used.Construction of a cDNA. For the •'prey\" library. we synthetized cONA from mRNA isolated from stems of CBB resistant variety MBRA685, inoculated with Xam strain CI090. Plant materials were collected 7days after inoculation and stored to -80°C until its extraction. The mRNA was isolated using magnetic beads (OYNAL) and the cONA was synthesized using the Stratagene Kit. The cONA inserts were cloned in the down stream site of the acidic transcriptional activation domain of pGAD. This plasmid was previously digested with Xhol and EcoRI enzymes. Then, the yeast strain (transformed with pLexA+pSH1834) was transformed with the plasmid pGAD+cDNA library by lithiurn acetate method and plated directly onto X-Gal SC omission medium lacking Histidine, Uracile, Leucine and Tryptophan (CM/ Glu, His-. Ura-, Leu-, Trp-).The entire open reading frame of pthB gene was cloned to the C-terminus of the ONAbinding domain of LEXA in the •'bait\" plasmid pLEXA, this clone was sequenced to verify correct insertion of the PTHB protein, and was transformed into yeast strain EG Y 48 containing two reporter genes (LexAop-LEU2 and lexAop-lacZ). The plasmid pLEXA-pthB did not actívate transcription of the two reporter genes in the activation assay. and a repression assay indicated that the LEXA-pthB fusion protein entered the yeast nucleus. The test for Leu requirement showed that the bait protein alone did not actívate transcription of the LexA operator-LEU2 gene. observing no growth on medium lacking Leu. The E LISA test demonstrated the expression of the PTHB protein.From the library constructed. only 300 clones were obtained, which were cloned in pGAD and transformed into EG Y 48 containing the plasrnids pLexA and pSH 1834.Results obtained suggested that the EGY 48 lacks sorne markers and possibly that a mutant was selected.• Implementing the work with a new yeast strain • To obtain other two cDNA libraries from resistant CBB variety MBRA685 inoculated 48 hours withXam strain CI015land from cassava leaves that show HR toXam. • Transformation of the cDNA library into yeast containing pLEXA+pS H1834 using heat shock method. • Screen and selection of interacting proteins • Transformation into E.coli. and sequencing positive isolates.In previous molecular studies, Jorge et al. ( 1999) suggested that several genes are probably required for resistance to CBB, based on the location of 12 QTL's in the framework map of cassava, which explained 9-27% of the phenotypic variance. Recently, a cDNA-AFLP strategy was developed toward studies in differential expression in Solanum and has been used to generate 70 transcript-derived fragments (TDF's) specific for the tuberization process in potato (Bachem et al.. 1996). This is a robust and reliable method of RNA fmgerprinting that allows the characterization of gene expression in a wide range of biological processes (Bachem et al., 1996) and has been applied in tomato (Durrant et al., 2000), cassava (Suarez et al., 2000), and Arabidopsis (van der Biezen et al., 2000).In order to identify genes in cassava involved in the defense reaction against the pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis, we are analyzing the changes occurring in the transcription process with an incompatible reaction. F or this purpose, we are implementing the cDNA-AFLP technique, comparing the expression patterns between two cassava varieties (resistant and susceptible to Xam).Stem inoculation: Cassava plants resistant (MBRA685 and SG107-35) and susceptible (MCOL1522) to CBB, were inoculated withXam strain CI0151 by stem puncture. Plants were collected in the greenhouse in liquid nitrogen and stored immediately at -80°C. Plants were collected as follow: 1) non inoculated plants 2) 24 hours, 3) 48 hours. 4) 72 hours. 5) seven days after inoculation and 6) 24 hours after stem puncture with sterile water.RNA extraction: Plant tissue was ground to a fine powder using liquid nitrogen and 3g were used for RNA extraction. The proteinase K method, described by Hall et aL (in Rocha, 1995) was used with sorne modifications. The purity and quantity of the RNA was calculated according to the absorbance at 260nnm/ A280nm measured in a spectrophotometer. cONA synthesis: mRNA was obtained from total RNA using magnetic poly-A OYNAbeads according to the manufacturer instructions (OYNAL). The synthesis of the first strand of cONA was carried out following different protocols. It was finally standardized using an oligodT primer (PROMEGA) and the Superscript 11 reverse transcriptase (Gibco BRL). removing previously the poly-A OYNAbeads. Second strand cONA synthesis fo llowed the protocol from Bachem (http:/ /W\\.vw.sp!!. wau. n 1/p\\• •staff/aflp .htm ).cDNA-AFLP: The cONA was digested with a pair of restriction enzymes EcoRI/Msei (a rare and frequent cutter, respectively). Adapters corresponding to each restriction site were ligated according to AFLP protocol described by Vos et al (1995). A PCR preamplification was performed using one of the adapter's strands as primer without selective bases (PCR +0). The PCR profile consist on 35 cycles of 94°C for 30s, 52°C for 30s and l min extension at 72°C. The second amplification was performed using two selective bases for each primer, with all possible combinations (256). The PCR product was electrophoresed for 2h and 30min on a 5% denaturing polyacrylamide gel [5M Urea] in IX TBE at 100W and 50°C.. Afterwards, the gel is processed with the silver staining technique, in which silver nitrate binds to ONA and makes it visible as bands.Ouring this year, all the methods have been under standardization, solving the problems that have arisen during the development of the project.RNA of the different cassava varieties was extracted at the different times established, except for the resistant variety SG 107-35, from which RNA was extracted at O and 24 hours after inoculation. Samples with high purity (ratio A260/280 around of 1.8-2.0) were selected for the reverse transcription process, in order to avoid enzyme inhibition problems by the presence of proteins or phenolic residues. For optimal cDNA synthesis, we found that the OYNAbeads have to be eluted first, and then use oligodT sequences to prime the synthesis of the first strand instead of the o li go dT attached to the OYNAbeads. Once the second strand is synthesized, the cDNA should be cleaned with phenol-water. chloroform-isoamil (24: 1). and precipitated using ammonium acetate and ethanol (95%).For the standardization of the AFLP reaction, we performed dilution series of the cDNA. ranging from 1120 to 11100, and of the preamplification reaction (1/30 to 1160) prior to selective amplification (PCR+2). The pattem of bands observed in the final electrophoresis depends specially on the amount of template used for the reactions. lf there is a lot of template. a black smear would probably hide important bands in the pattem. This process is still under standardization.In a previous work. we characterized three classes of RGAs isolated from cassava by using degenerare primers designed from the conserved domain Nucleotide Binding Site (NBS) of the resistance proteins L6 (Flax), RPS2 (A rabidopsis) and N (Tobacco) ((BRU Annual Report. 1999). In this this work we used a set of primers that enable us to differentially isolate RGAs from the two major groups of the NBS domains. Group I NBS domains contain group-specific motifs that are linked to the TIR sequence in the N terminus. and which are significantly associated with dicot species (Qilin, P. et al. 1999). The MOTIF! primer (Lopez. C and Acosta, l.. pers comm.) corresponds to the Group I NBS domain. Group II NBS domains are always associated with putative coiled-coil domains in their N terminus and appear to be present throughout the angiosperms (Qilin. P. et al. 1999). The PRS3 primer was designed from the Group II NBS domain of the Rgenes (Peñuela, S. pers. comm.).Analysis of the resistance-gene analogs (RGAs) showed high homology with the nucleotide-binding site (NBS) of previously cloned resistance genes. However, NBS domains are not unique to R-genes and identification of other motifs would provide more compelling evidence of the relationship between RGAs and plant R-genes. While this technique is useful for identifying disease-resistance loci, identification of functional resistance gene within a cluster of paralogs is much more difficult. Sorne members of a resistance gene cluster are nonfunctional.Identification of RGA sequences from expressed gene messages (mRNA) will provide evidences for function of these sequences. In this study. we used class-specific RGAs probes to screen a cassava's cONA library in order to determine the functionality of RGAs isolated. The objectives were to i) to isolate new RGAs classes and map them in the F 1 population used to develop the cassava molecular map ii) identify expressed gene sequences in a leaf cDNA library corresponding to functional RGAs and iii) identify additional R-gene conserved motifs based on cONA sequences.ONA was extracted from leaf tissues of two genotypes. NGA-2 and CM2177-2, both of them showing partial resistance to the disease and the F 1 individuals from this cross. PCR reactions were performed using different degenerare primer combinations (Table 1 ). PCR-purified products were cloned into the pGEM-T easy vector system (Promega) and transformed into E. coli electrocompetent cells. Seventy clones of each combination were randomly selected and grouped based on restriction patterns. About two clones of each group were hybrid. ized as RFLP probes in the parentals (NGA-2 and CM2 177-2). At least two clones of each group were sequenced using the Big-Oye Terminator Cycle Sequencing kit and Applied Biosystems Prism 377 DNA Sequencer of Perkin-Elmer, USA. RGAs were used as probes to detect RFLPs in cassava genomic DNA (CM2177-2, MNGA2, SG107-35, MColl522) digested with a set of eleven different restriction enzymes (A/ul,Bamffl,EcoRI,EcoRV,Dral,Hindlll ,Haelll,Msel,Pstl,Sau3A and Xbal). We also determine the correlation between the phenotype showed by the 150 Fl individuals CM6744 (SG 107-35 x MColl522) and RGA segregation. These plants were inoculated with five strains of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv manihotis (Xam) (ciol, cio84, cio 136, cio295 and orstom 27).Young leaves and roots from NGA2 were used for RNA extraction using the proteinase K method (Suarez, MC 1998 tesis). GIBCO BRL manufactured the cDNA library. To study the RGA expression, 89000 clones were screened from this library with 12 classspecific RGA probes. Hybridization were performed at 65°C in 0.5M sodium phosphate, 7% SDS, lmM EDTA and 10 mg/ml denatured salmen sperm DNA hybridization buffer. Washing solutions were 2X SCC, 0.1 % SDS for 15 min and if necessary followed by washes with IX SCC, 0. 1% SDS solution for 5 min. Nucleotide sequences of the clones were determined using the ABl PRISM Dye Terminator kit (Perkin-Elmer) with primers T7 and SP6 and an Applied Biosystems Prism 377 DNA sequencer (Perkin-Elmer) and edited with Sequencer (Genecodes, Ann Arbor, MI). The cDNA sequences were analyzed and conserved motifs were identified using BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al. 1997).With primer combinations S2-MOTIF1 and S2-PRS3 a single band 680bp was amplified for each combination. Clones from these bands show high homology with R-genes and RGAs from Arabidopsis. With primers from the TIR domain we amplify a 280 bp product that shows the expected size and homology with the corresponding domain of Rgenes. In total , we characterized 12 classes of RGAs. Two classes are from the TIR domain primers. The other . 1 O classes are divided in two groups. Classes 1 to 5 corresponds to NBS Group 1 and are linked to the TIR sequence in the N terminus and classes 6 to 1 O corresponds to NBS Group 11 and are associated with putative coiled-coil domains in their N terminus.Hybridization of the different RGAs use a s a pro be did not revealed any polymorphism within the parents with the set of enzymes used.Asan alternative, RGAs detect RFLPs between SG107-35 and MCOL1522, which are the parentals ofthe 150 F1 population CM6744. We wanted to test ifthere is any correlation between RGA segregation and the phenotype of the progeny after inoculation with 5 different strains of XAM tested. Until now, we have no correlation between the molecular data and the phenotype showed by the inoculated plants.cDNA library screening 12 RGAs representing the 12 classes were used as specific probes to screen cassava leaf and root cONA libraries to determine their expression. Sixteen cDNA clones ranging in length from 1 to 2-kb were identified.A total of 16 clones were detected by the RGA probes from the cONA library (A-3, A-7, A-16. A-17, C-20. F-2, F-13, F-14, I-10. J-8, K-10, L-16. M-10, N-5. 0-11, P-6) and digested with restriction enzymes to verify if they were unique. Nucleotide sequences of the clones were determined using the ABI PRISM Oye Terminator kit (Perk.in-Elmer) and an Applied Biosystems Prism 377 ONA sequencer (Perkin-Elmer) and edited with Sequencher (Genecodes, Ann Arbor, MI). The cONA sequences were analyzed and conserved motifs were identified using the BLAST algorithm (Altschul et al. 1997).Sequence analysis of the unique clones showed that only one (L 16) 1690 kb, from the RGA class 10-probe shows homology with R-genes. Additional to the NBS, this sequence revealed an LRR domain, characteristic of plant R-genes. The highest homology was with a NBSILRR disease resistance protein from Arabidopsis thaliana (score=l34 and e-value=2e-34). We did not detect other motifs like TIR or LZ. The other 15 clones sequenced presented homology with putative ubiquitin like proteins and ribosomal proteins.Our results permitted to characterize 12 classes ofRGA and one cDNA clone related to R gene. Presence of the NBS and LRR domains and absence of the TIR or LZ domains confirm that this clone belongs to the NBS Group Il. In conclusion, we report the constitutively expression of a protein that shares characteristics with the resistance proteins previously reported and that the RGA L-16 ís a member of the NBS-LRR resistance gene family.• Use of a BAC library to do physical mapping of ROAs.• Use the L-16 clone in the two hybrid assay to detect possible interaction with the PTHB protein of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv manihotis.The study of disease resistance in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) is important because this major staple crop is one of the most susceptible to diseases such as anthracnose, angular leaf spot (ALS) and bean go lden mosaic virus (BGMV) (Schwartz and Pastor-Corrales, 1994 ). Recent efforts to understand bean disease resistan ce better led to the identification of a set of Resistance Gene Analogs (RGAs), employing PCR with degenerate primers (BRU Annual Report, 1999). Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) detected for anthracnose. BGMV and ALS resistance were co-localized with RGA classes l , 2 and 9, respectively. A manuscript reporting these data is in preparation.Resistance (R) genes are clustered in the genome of severa! species as shown by genetic and molecular studies (Richter and Ronald, 1999). They display an apparent multiallelic structure or group as genetically separable loci. Examples of such complex resistance loci are found in maize (Richter et al.. 1995), tlax (Ellis et al., 1995), lettuce (Witsenboer et al., 1995) and barley (Jorgensen, 1992). Furthermore, different genes within the same cluster determining resistance to diverse pathogens have been reported in tomatoes (Oickinson et al., 1993: Jorgensen, 1992;Kaloshian et al.. 1995;Vanderbeek et al. , 1994;Zamir et al. , 1994). R-genes are thought to be functionally and evolutionary related. The sequences of severa! R-gene clusters from rice (Song et al.. 1997), tomatoes (Pamiske et al. , 1997) and lettuce (Meyers et al., 1998) have now shed light on the molecular mechanisms leading to their evolution. Interestingly. RGA classes 1. 2 and 9 from beans display a complex hybridization pattem. characteristic of a mult.gene fam ily. It was concluded that these RGAs are part of R-gene clusters that contain determinants of anthracnose, BGMV and ALS resistance; therefore, RGAs could be used to initiate the dissection ofthese R-gene clusters from beans. Two main objectives are being pursued:• Identify expressed gene sequences in bean cONA libraries corresponding toRGAs • Use and construct contigs of bacteria! artificial chromosome (BAC) clones containing the RGA familiesTo examine RGA expression. a leaf cONA library with RGA classes l. 2 and 9 was screened. The library was custom-made (Gibco-BRL) from RNA collected from uninfected young bean leaves. About 90000 cDNA clones were screened by hybridization, using RGAs as probes. Positive clones were sequenced using the Oye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit and an Applied Biosystems Prism 377 DNA sequencer; and sequences were edited with Sequencher (Genecodes. Ann Arbor, MI). Database searches were performed with the BLASTX algorithm (Altschul et al.. 1997).Each RGA class detected a corresponding cONA clone. They were < 1500 bp long and could encode partial polypeptides. cDNAs from classes 1 and 2 contain the arninoterminal region of the coding sequence because they show homology with the corresponding region of R-genes from tomate (/2) and lettuce (Dm3), which are of the non-TIR type. Analysis of these clones is currently under way to identify de coiled-coil domain characteristic of this kind of R-genes. However, the clones are truncated in their carboxy-terminal region so that the other characteristic domain of R-genes, leucine rich repeats (LRRs) were not identified. Expression oftruncated R-gene sequences could have evolutionary and functional implications that are object of discussion.RGA classes 1, 2 and 9 and marker Bng 160 were used as pro bes to screen filters containing 18000 gridded clones of a genomic BAC library of beans. They represent 4.5 genome equivalents. DNA gel blot hybridizations were performed according to standard protocols (Sarnbrook et al.. 1989). From this point, the work has concentrated on 42 BAC clones detected by RGA class 2, which is located in chromosome 804, associated with a QTL for partial resistance to BGMV. The R-gene cluster detected by this RGA also contains an anthracnose R-gene reported by a French group (Geffroy et al., 1999).Bng 160 is a molecular marker located in close association with the QTL for BGMV partial resistance but distant 6 centimorgans (cm) from RGA 2. However, Bngl60 also shows a complex hybridization pattern, and it was reasoned that it could detect sorne of the clones identified by RGA2. Of the 42 BAC clones containing RGA2, 13 were also detected by Bng 160.The 42 BAC clones were mini-prepped using a modified alkaline lysis protocol (Sanchez et al., 1999) that guarantees a cleaner product. Hindlll fingerprints were obtained for individual BAC clones by digestion of BAC DNA and analysis of the resulting fragment sizes through separation on 1% agarose gels. Fragments will be compared between BACs to identify duplicated bands as potentially overlapping fragments. In the meantime, overlap has been confirmed by DNA gel blot hybridization, using RGA 2 and Bng160 as pro bes.BAC-end sequencing , BAC clones (13) from RGA2 and Bng160 span an interesting region, with an R-gene cluster containing the QTL for BGMV partial resistance. Additional markers positioned there include the SCAR AN017G, which is homologous to the LRR domain of R-genes and the microsatellite 1845555 (F. Pedraza, pers. comrn.). These markers will be employed to establish possible overlapping between BAC clones. The development of infonnative PCR-based markers for the ends of the BACs is also required to identify genuine overlaps (Meyers et al.. 1998). In order to obtain BAC end sequences in a lowcost, less time-consuming manner. a sequencing strategy that uses BAC clones as a direct template was developed. Clear sequences ranging from 600-700 bp have been obtained. Initially, only the T7 ends of the 13 BAC clones of interest have been sequenced. BLAST searches using end-clone sequences found sorne significant similarity to sequences in the databases (Table 1). The presence of an RGA class 2 in one of the BAC end sequences confmned the presence of this genic family in BAC clone 1 O and revealed sorne genomic structure characters of its amino-tenninal region (Table l ). Other homologies are indirectly related to resistance (BAC clones 5 and 9) as potential components of responses to pathogens or stress. events that have been correlated befare. All sequences are potentially suitable for new PCR-based markers; e.g .. the BAC 7 T7 end contains a. microsatellite.  Clone BAC 34-C8, which is known to contain RGA 2, was digested with EcoRI. Fragments were ligated to an EcoRI adapter and PCR-amplified using the primer ECOR1ADAPTER1 in combination with RGA 2 specific inverse primers designed to isolate regions 5' and 3' of the NBS. On1y the region flanking the 5' end of RGA 2 produced an amplification product (1 kb long) that was cloned and sequenced. As cDNA clones and T7 end from BAC 10, it was homologous to non-TIR R-genes 12 from tomatoes and Dm3 from lettuce. However, it has a putative intro n at 5' end. The genomic structure of this and the other sequences is shown in Figure l. I t was concluded that they represent different members of the genic family represented by RGA2, characterized by a non-TIR amino-tenninal domain, an NBS and a predictable LRR that is expected to be isolated soon.• Screening of 90000 filter-gridded clones from a cONA library with an average insert size > 1600 bp to isolate full-length sequences of RGAs.• Sequencing of SP6 end from BAC clones containing RGA 2 and Bng 160.• Design of PCR-based markers from BAC end sequences.• Analysis of Hindlll fingerprintings of the 42 RGA2 BAC clones to comp1ement contig construction• Analysis ofBAC clones identified by RGA classes 1 and 9.• Isolation ofRGAs from Brachiaria in order to locate a putative R-gene cluster that could contain an NBS-LRR R-gene conferring resistance to spittelbug (currently, we have isolated 11 RGA classes).CIAT is dissecting the genetics of rice blast, using crosses between the varieties Fanny and Iratl3, which are susceptible and resistant, respectively, to different isolates of P. grisea (SRL-1 to SRL-6). The project focuses on fine mapping genes on chromosome 6 of rice: Pi-i, Pi-z (pi-2), Pi-8, Pi-9(t), Pi-13(t), Pi-22(t), * which have been reported by severa! authors.The DNA of 104 lines (from cross Fanny x Iratl3) is being used to construct a fine map of chromosome 6, using probes for RFLPs (Comell University, probes RG and CDO).MapMaker, with an LOD of 6.0 and e of 0.4, was used to map new markers such as microsatellites, RAPOs, SCARs, AFLPs and RGA (CIA T Annual Report, 1999).Resistance toa: blast isolate from lineage 1 (cica 9-31-4) was mapped using phenotypic data from greenhouse plants, falling between the markers RG648 and RG456. The interval between these two markers and the \"potential gene\" was saturated with more markers as described by Giovannoni (1991 ).Giovannoni ' s methodology comprises the formation of two DNA pools from individuals homozygous for opposing alleles for a targeted chromosomal interval, defined by two or more linked RFLP markers. The DNA pools are then screened for polymorphism.Polymorphic DNA bands should represent DNA sequences within or adjacent to the selected interval. It is expected to find markers 1inked to the potential resistance gene(s) within 1 cM, which will allow a more accurate screening of BAC libraries to construct contigs.ln addition, marker SCAR B 1 O, which is close to RG456, was PCR-amplified in the parentals. Resistant and susceptible parents and lines showed bands of different molecular size. The DNA bands were then cloned and sequenced.A fine map of chromosome 6 was constructed with several markers (Fig. 1 ). Resistance to isolate cica 9-31-4 was located within L5 cM from RG648. and 2.3 cM from RG456.Six hundred RAPO primers with resistant and susceptible DNA bulks were PCR-tested for interval RG648/RG456. Ofthese, 16 were polymorphic and evaluated in the progeny.Ten mapped to chromosome 6, adjacent (outside) to the interval; none was inside the interval.64 combinations AFLPs (Gibco-BRL kit) were tested with the same two DNA bulks. Thirty-two bands were polymorphic and co-segregated with the resistant bulk. All 32 bands were eluted from gels and cloned. They were also evaluated as RFLPs, with the parentals showing sorne polymorphism with the enzymes EcoRV and Hindlll. The evaluation of the pro gen y with these pro bes is still ongoing.Misclassification of susceptible and/or resistant individuals may have contributed to the partial success in saturating interval RG648/RG456. It is important to reclassify individuals by measuring the percentage of affected leaf area (ALA). Individuals classified as resistant should have from 0-3% ALA, while susceptible individuals would have more than 70% ALA.The marker SCAR B 1 O shows a 1-kb band in resistant individuals and a 703-bp band in susceptible ones. When these bands were cloned and sequenced, an (AT) 115 microsatellite was found in the resistant parent only (lrat13). A null allele (absence of AT 11 5 ) was present in the susceptible parent Fanny. A similar situation has been reported for molecular markers for rice blast resistance genes (Zheng et al. , 1995).The AFLPl marker showed a close linkage for resistance to isolate cica 9-31-4. lt will be possible to develop a PCR-based marker from AFLPl (SCAR) for large screenings in marker-assisted selection (MAS).• Test more markers to saturate the interval RG648/RG456• Screen BAC libraries with markers in close linkage to rice blast-resistance genes ( 5.5 %) 5.8(141) AFLP25-1 (117) RM238b( 2.6 %) 2.61-\"\"\"' \\.1-\"\"\"'(135) W81R( 5.7 %) 6.0( 2.7 %) 2.8 -....., \\. (122) AFLP1( 1.5 %) 1.5 -  As PCR-based markers, microsatellites and AFLPs will facilitate the application of markers in a breeding program. With microsatellites locus-specific primers were designed and used to analyze crosses between apomictic, sexual and spittlebug-resistant parents to increase the saturation of the Brachiaria map (unpublished data). Such primers will provide codominant, PCR-based and locus-specific markers that could be used in gene tagging and marker-assisted selection for a spittlebug-resistance gene and an apomixis gene. With AFLP markers two combinations of primers were used to analyze the same populations.Microsatellites_;_PCR amplification and evaluation of polymorphism. The PRIMER computer program (version 3.0) was used to design 97 locus-specific primer pairs. These primers were then tested for PCR amplification and polymorphism, using DNA from the parents of both mapping populations (CIA T 606 x Clone 44-3 and CIAT 6294 x Clone 44-3). The PCR reaction was carried out in a 20-¡..tl final vol. containing 20 ng of genomic DNA, 0.1 ¡.tM of each forward and reverse primer, 1 O mM Tris-HCI (pH 7.2), 50 mM KCl, 1.0-2.5 mM MgC12, 250 mM oftotal dNTPs.and 0.5 units ofTaq DNA polymerase.The temperature-cycling pro file was an initial denaturation step for 3 min at 94 °C, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 15 sec, annealing from 45-65°C for 15 sec, and primer extension at 72°C for 15 sec. Three microliters of the PCR reaction was resolved on 6% polyacrylamide-sequencing gels for 2 h at 100 W , and DNA visualized by silver staining according to the manufacturer's instructions (Promega Inc., USA), with sorne modifications. Polymorphic primers were used to evaluate 316 individuals belonging to CIAT 6294 x Clone 44-3 populations, using the PCR conditions standardized for each one.Clone 44-3 populations was carried out using the AFLP Analysis System 1 kit from Gibco-BRL, following their instructions with sorne modifications. All individuals were evaluated using four combinations of primers. Microsatellite amplification. Ninety-seven primer pairs were designed and used to amplify in all three parentals (apomictic parental -CIAT 606, sexual clone 44-3 and CIAT 6294) of two mapping populations. When evaluated in all three parentals, 35 polymorphic primer pairs were obtained (Table l ). Polymorphism was observed in 22 primer pairs between two parentals, and only 5 primer pairs amplified in the -606 accession. The polymorphic amplification and the mobility in the parentals using severa! primers can be observed (Fig 1). The range ofthe amplification was from 120-330 bp.    In the en tire F 1 progeny of 215 individuals, 54 primer pairs were amplified: CIA T6294 x Clone 44-3. Sorne of them amplified in only one parental (CIAT-6294), while others amplified more than one allele. For this study one locus could be screened on a single polyacrylamide gel loading. A typical wide-sequencing gel with 96 well combs. loaded sequentially three times. was used to analyze the genotypes of 215 individuals sirnultaneously per locus combination, using silver-staining detection (Fig. 2). Silver staining provides a valuable alternative to the use of radioisotopes. It is rapid, sensitive and inexpensive, and can be used routinely and economically to detecta variety of PCRbased amplification products.An analysis was made of 64 combinations of primers with both parentals CIA T6294 and Clone 44-3 and both bulk of 20 resistant DNA and 20 susceptible DNA to spittlebug. Sorne fingerprintings showed low numbers of polymorphic bands between parentals, while others showed a good number. The combinations with polymorphic bands between both parentals and bulks were chosen, and four combinations were used (E-AAG/M-CTG, E-AGG/M-CTT. E-AACIM-CAT and E-AGC/M-CTT) to amplify 20 individuals from F 1 progeny because they showed a sufficient level of polymorphism and a high number of bands ( Fig 3). In two combinations more than 30 polymorphic bands were observed. All 215 individuals were analyzed with these four combinations, and a total of 130 polymorphic bands were observed.--.,., .,.., ..-...... ---------------  Ongoing activities• Construction of a molecular map in Brachiaria using microsatellites and AFLP markers anchored with RFLP clones from other grasses (Fig. 4)• A methodology for the reproducible genetic transformation of tepary bean was developed.• plants with different levels of expression were selected, and will be evaluated for sheath blight resistance under greenhouse conditions.• As part of the Science Park collaboration, CIA T assisted in the gener..tion of transgenic sugar can e carrying viral resistance gene for Se YL V, and transgenic tomato targeting resistance to tomato fruitworm and budworm.• CIA T obtained registration from the Colombian Biosafety Commission for the generation and importation of transgenic plants for germplasm development, as well as approval to conduct field trials with transgenic rice plants at CIA T experimental Station. A selected number of transgenic lines with resistance to RHBV, and F2 populations derived from crosses with different varieties will be planted in the field on November 2000. This trial is the frrst official field test of transgenic material in Colombia . .The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), has been recalcitrant to conventional in vitro plant regeneration methodologies, as has been the case with other grain legumes. This has delayed the application of recombinant DNA technologies in the breeding of this crop. Transgenic plants ha ve been obtained only by the direct introduction of foreign DNA into the meristems through particle bombardment, thus overcoming the necessity of an in vitro regeneration protocol. Although transgenic plants carrying agronomically important genes have been produced severally using this methodology (Russell et al., 1993;Aragao et al., 1996), there is to date no transgenic common bean plant in the market worldwide.The reason for this may be that:(i) Transfonnation methodologies available are still too inefficient; and/or (ii)Stable expression of the transgenes in the obtained plants has not been as desired.Agrobacterium mediated transfonnation has not been achieved in common bean as has been the case in one wild genotype of tepary bean (Dillen et al. 1997).The main objective of our research is the development of efficient and reproducible genetic transforrnation protocols. F or achieving this, both Agrobacterium and particle gun mediated transfonnation are being explored.Mature but not dry pods were used as sources of sterile explants (whole mature seeds without one cotyledon) for transforrnation experiments. Particle bombardment was carried out with the common bean genotype, Bayo Madero. The plasmid used was the pGV1040 which carries the NPTII, BAR and GUS genes. After bombardment, transforrned tissue was selected in a culture medium containing 1 O mg/1 of phosphinothricin (PPT), the active ingredient of the herbicide Bastan•. Agrobacterium transforrnation was carried out with the hypervirulent strains LBA4404 pTOK233 (Hiei et al. 1994) and C58C 1 harboring different binary plasmids. Meristematic calli induction and plant regeneration were perforrned as described earlier (Mejía-Jiménez et al. 1998).A methodology for the reproducible genetic transformation of tepary bean has been developed. This includes the following steps: (i) Sonication of the explants for wounding; (ii) inoculation with hypervirulent Agrobacterium strains: (iii) coculture at 22°C for 3 days; This protocol is different in many ways from that developed by Di !len et al. ( 1997). The most important difference is the use of embryo axes attached to one cotyledon instead of pedicels of greenhouse growing plants as explants. The former is much easier to produce, sterilize and to handle in general.Three transgenic plants from independent experiments have been produced. Although no southem blot has yet been done. the segregation of GUS + and GUS -progeny plants and the transfer of the GUS transgene by sexual crosses, confirms their transgenic character. Hygromycin resistant. GUS expressing meristematic calli and transgenic plants were produced only from the tissue of intraspecific hybrids of tepary bean: G40065xNI576 and G40022xNI576 (table 1). These hybrids involve the genotype NI576, the same that could be transformed by Dillen et aJ. ( 1997). G40065 and G40022 are two cultivated tepary bean accessions that we chose as the best meristematic callus forming genotypes from the screening of more than 20 different accessions of tepary bean.• After a six-week culture on culture medium containing 30 mg/1 hygromycin .Although many wild common bean accessions (G l0013, Gl0024, GI2875, G12922, G12947, G23429, G23490. G23511A, G23652, G23653 and G27893) and cultivated (La Victoire, G3807, Gl8253. A295. G04090. G01853. Tamazulapa. BAT 93, G6413, G18255, G05706, G04449, Gll071, G02997, Vaxl, Vax2, Vax3 , Vax4, Vax5, Vax6, C20, Jalo EEP 558, Olathe Pinto, Carioca, Dor 364, Bayo Madero, BAT477 and lea Pijao) have been tested with this transformation methodology, no GUS expressing regenerable tissue has been obtained.It is noteworthy that stable transformed GUS expressing meristematic callus could be obtained only from hybrids which included the genotype NI576 as male parent and not from other tepary genotypes (which also show high transient expression and form a mcalli of good quality). This would suggest that sorne nuclear genes of NI576 could be in volved in the Agrobacterium transformation competence of this genotype.A methodology for the genetic transformation of common bean through particle bombardment of mature seed meristems is also being developed. This methodology ínvolves the following sequential steps: (i) Explant preparation for exposing the meristematic regions of the embryo axis to the microprojectiles; (ii) bombardment with gold particles coated with DNA; (iii) induction of a meristematic callus out from the bombarded explants; (iv) selection of meristematic callus resistant to 1 O mg/1 PPT during 6 weeks; (v) bud induction from the selected tissue; and (vi) whole plant regeneration through micrografting ofthe induced buds.Meristematic calli of the genotype Bayo Madero that resist concentrations as high as 1 O mg/1 PPT for 6 weeks (which are lethal to control explants), are being obtained from these experiments. These calli also show a weak blue coloration in response to the GUS test, whereas control explants remain white. Plants from these calli will be regenerated and analyzed for the presence of the transgenes in the next few weeks.Transfer of transgenes from tepary to common bean through interspecific crosses Another possibility for obtaining transgenic common bean plants is to initially transform tepary bean through Agrobacterium, and then to transfer the transgenes to common bean through interspecific hybridization. The use of selectable (antibiotic resistance) or screenable (GUS) marker genes could facilitate and speed up this process, by making it easy to select the plants which contain the transgenes in the progeny of the crosses.The hybridization as well as the introgression of genes from tepary to common bean through interspecific crosses has been difficult. The use of advanced congruity backcross (CBC) hybrid lines of both species, which we developed in the past years (Mejía-Jiménez et al. 1994), could facilitate the hybridization process. These advanced CBC lines were produced by the method of Haghighi and Ascher (1988), by backcrossing the hybrids obtained severa! times alternately with genotypes of both species.Seventeen hybrids of the cross CBC7 x (G40022xNI576)-T2+ (GUS positive T2 transgenic plant) were produced. However they were totally sterile and could not be backcrossed with com.mon bean genotypes or CBC hybrids. to produce viable fertile hybrids. It was necessary to make the following severa! complex crosses before viable CBC hybrids with a P. vulgaris cytoplasm could be obtained and which express the GUS transgene:(i) first develop advanced CBC lines with a P. acutifolius cytoplasm; (ii) cross the GUS+ transgenic tepary bean plant as male parent to them: and finally (iii) cross the GUS+ CBC hybrid to an advanced CBC hybrid with P. vulgaris cytoplasm.More than 40 GUS-positive CBC hybrids having the cytoplasm of P. vulgaris have been obtained, many of them are expected to be fertile.In previous crossing experiments we have been able to establish that fertile CBC hybrids with a P. vulgaris cytoplasm can be crossed (as male or female parent) to every comrnon bean genotype. Thus. it will be possible to transfer the transgene to any common bean variety by conventional breeding methodologies.Transfer of traits involved in competence to Agrobacterium transformation from tepary to common bean trough interspecific hybridization Most comrnon bean genotypes of agronomic importance tested so far show little or no transient GUS expression after inoculation with hypervirulent Agrobacterium strains, like the LBA4404 pTOK233. This is in spite of the fact that many mono-and dicotyledons plant species have been transfonned with this strain. This shows the lack or reduced competence of the regenerable tissues of these cultivars to Agrobacterium transfonnation Although our experiments ha ve shown that the use of tepary bean to introgress transgenes into comrnon bean is possible, it can take more than three years to develop a transgenic comrnon bean variety by this way. It would be faster if the Agrobacterium-transfonnation competence (A TC) genes could be transferred through interspecific hybridization to important cultivars of comrnon bean to produce A TC comrnon bean genotypes. Severa! interspecific CBC hybrid lines have been produced, which include A TC tepary bean genotypes in their pedigrees. From these, severa! F 3 lines are being tested for increased competence to Agrobacterium transfonnation. Once developed, the A TC comrnon bean line can be used to transfer the A TC genes to elite comrnon bean genotypes through conventional breeding.Advances have been achieved in both Agrobacterium-mediated and biolistic transfonnation of tepary and common bean. Both methodologies should be further developed since they offer different advantages. While biolistics is a more genotypeindependent methodology, Agrobacterium allows the achievement of higher transfonnation efficiencies. The latter also pennits the introduction of DNA fragments of the desired size to the plant cells ( which in sorne cases can be more than 1 00 kb) and al so the insertion of one or few copies of the transgenes. This can lead to more predictable pattems of expression of the transgenes.• The use of antibiotic resistance genes in transgenic plants, suitable for human consumption, is currently a major public concem, even though the safety of these markers has been tested and preven for several years. Non-antibiotic based selection of transgenic plants is now widely accepted (Joersbo et al., 1998). We assembled genetic cassettes with the manA gen(mannose 6-phosphate isomerase, from E. coli) to use it as a selection marker for cassava transformation. Additionally, we cloned the cry1A(b) in front of the cassava-specific prometer CsVMV (from the Cassava Vein Mosaic Virus; Verdaguer et al., 1996;IL T AB, 1997) to enhance expression of this gene in cassava. Cs VMV directs a strong and constitutive expression in a large variety of plants like tobacco, cassava, rice and tomate.Using standard cloning techniques, the manA gene was placed between the 35S prometer and termination signals. The gene was then placed next to the gus-intron and crylA(b) genes (see Figure 1). Similarly, in a different plasmid. the crylA(b) gene was placed in front ofthe CsVMV prometer and terminated by the NOS3' signal (see Figure 2).A new plasmid, pSGMC (Figure 1), containing three genes (gus-intron, cry 1A(b) and manA) within the left and right borders (T-ONA) was constructed. pSGMC is 12.49 kbp long, and contains the spectinomycin-streptomycin resistance gene for selection in bacteria. pSGMC was introduced into Agl-1 and C58C 1 Agrobacterium strains by electroporation for transient gene expression assays in cassava. The assays showed that the gus-intron gene is expressed in the embryogenic cells, which confirms that the T-DNA is properly transferred to them. This plasmid will be used in larger transformation experiments for stable transformation. The cry1A(b) gene was p1aced in front of the CsVMV promoter in the new p1asmid piLCry 18, which is 15067 bp long and contains the npt II gene under the NOS regu1ator sequences (Figure 2). piLCry 18 actually serves as an intermediary plasmid from which the cry gene, regulated by the cassava-specific promoter, may be moved to other cassettes containing the marker genes manA and gus-intron. • Two new gene cassettes. containing new se1ectable marker genes and cassavaspecific promoters, were developed for cassava transformation.• The T-DNA ofpSGMC is transferred and expressed (the gus-intron gene) in cassava embryogenic cells.• Set up large transformation experiments using pSGMC and cassava embryogenic tissues• M ove the cry 1 A(b) gene, with its regulatory sequen ces, from piLCR Y 18 to other cassettes containing the manA and gus-intron genes. Set up transformation experiments with the new construct.To evaluate the effect of the CRY recombinant toxin (from the gene cry 1A(b)) on cassava stem borer (Chi/omima clarkei) larvae, we cloned the cry1A(b) gene into a vector (pGEX-SX-1) for expression of recombinant proteins in E. coli. The protein obtained from the bacteria! cultures will be used to evaluate its toxic effect on stem borer larvae using synthetic diets that are being tested. To guarantee enough supply of stem borer larvae, an artificial colony is being established at Nataima (Tolima) in collaboration with CORPOICA.The cry1A (b) gene was cloned into pGEX-SX-1 expression vector using standard cloning techniques. The new plasmid pGEXCry has the entire coding sequence of crylA(b) attached to the 3 '-end of the Glutathione S-transferase gene sequence. The recombinant protein will then be expressed as a fusion protein (Figure 1). pGEX-SX-1 was introduced in E. co/i via electroporation. and the cells grown in liquid medium, after induction with 1mM IPTG, to produce the fusion protein. The leve! of protein expression was evaluated in 12 % polyacrilamide electrophoresis gelsFor the methods to establish an artificial colony, and to rear Chilomima under laboratory conditions, please refer to IP-3 report.To develop the diets, the ingredients described in Table l were mixed and, after sterilizing by autoclaving, approximately 25 ml were poured in 50 ml plastic recipients. Two or three larvae were placed in each recipient and stayed in darkness in the laboratory. Evaluations were done daily to check survival of larvae.Recombinant CR Y Protein Express ion No differences between induced and non-induced bacteria were observed. More induction time (beyond 4 hours) may be necessary to produce larger amounts of the fusion protein in E.coli. Additionally, assays for the expression of the Glutathione S-transferase gene will serve as indicators of expression of the recombinant protein.Amp' pGEXCry (7.72 Kbp) Artificial Diets to Rear C. clarkei. A colony to rear the stem borer under laboratory and greenhouse conditions was established in Nataima. Tolima, in CORPOICA's experimental station. C. clarkei larvae and adults were collected from cassava cultivars in the region. The whole cycle of development was completed under greenhouse conditions (see report of IP-3 project). Eggs laid by adults under laboratory conditions, on paper or nylon screens in glass jars, are being collected and sent to CIA T to test two artificial diets. These experiments are still running, although preliminary results showed better results with Miskimen-Pan diet (Table 1 ).  • Artificial diets are being tested to rear e clarkei, under contained conditions. at CIAT.• A colony of e clarkei has been established in Nataima, Tolima, for permanent supply of eggs to perform experiments at CIA T .The sugar mannose is being used for selection of transgenic plants instead of antibiotics (Joersbo and Okkels, 1996) due to the fact that the Iatter is currently a major public concem. The gene manA, from E. coli, encodes the enzyme mannose-6-phosphate isomerase, which allow cells to grow on media containing mannose as a carbon source.Plants do not normally contain the manA gen, so if manA is introduced through transgenesis in plant cells. and expressed correctly, mannose can be used as a selective agent to recover transgenic plants. We tested the effect of mannose on the growth of FEC of Cassava to estímate the levels at which mannose could be used for selection of transgenic cassava.We grew FEC on GD medium (Gresshof and Doy, 1974) contammg variable concentrations of mannose (Oto 2%), sucrose (O and 2%), or both (2% sucrose and 0.5% mannose). The medium was supplemented with 50 uM Picloram as growth regulator. Initial and final fresh weight of FEC was measured in each treatment. Each treatment had two replicas, with six repetitions per replica (six FEC clusters per plate with two plates per treatment).The results are sumrnarized in Figure l. There was an apparent effect of mannose on the growth of FEC compared with controls containing sucrose (Cl, 2% sucrose). Controls almost doubled the difference between final and initial fresh weight, which suggests that mannose, at concentrations below 2% in the medium, may reduce the growth rate of FEC, although not halt it completely. No mannose and no sucrose (TI) in the medium had apparently the same effect as 2% mannose (T5), suggesting that concentrations above 2% mannose may be detrimental for cell growth. Adding a little sucrose (0,5%) toa medium containing 2% mannose (C2) seemed to have the same effect as 0,5 to 1% mannose alone in the medium (T2 to T4). For selection of cassava transgenic cells, mannose at concentratíons between 1 and <2%, or 2% mannose plus 0.5% sucrose, may be desirable.• Mannose, as the so le carbon source in the medium. slows the growth of FEC • Concentrations larger than 2% mannose in the medium may halt growth of FEC • Mannose plus sucrose (2% and 0,5% respectively) also seem to slow the growth of • FEC • Concentrations of mannose between l and <2% may be used to select transgenic ce lis of cassava expressing manA Future activities• Fin e-tune the concentration of mannose for selection of transgenic cells • Determine viability of cells after exposure to mannose Effect of mannose on the growth (fresh weight differeoce) of FEC from cassava cultivar Venezolana. TI= no mannose and no sucrose; T2= 0,5% maonose; T3= 0,7% mannose; T4= 1% mannose; TS= 2% mannose; Cl= 2% sucrose; C2= 2% mannose plus 0,5% sucrose.-----------------------  The fast spreading of the stem borer is threatening other plantations where it has not been reponed yet (i.e. in Valle del Cauca and Quindio). We are trying to introduce, through transgenesis, insect resistance genes into two cassava varieties: Mcol2215 and TMS60444. The former is a variety selected by farmers of the Northem Coast, and the latter is a model variety for which efficient transformation has been achieved.We used Friable Embryogenic Callus (FEC) of both varieties to introduce the plasmid pBIGCRY (see Annual Report 1999), carrying a gene from Baci//us thuringiensis (cryiA(b)), one selectable marker (nptll), and one scorable marker (gus-intron). The cry 1 A(b) gene confers resistance to Lepidoptera, and stem borers, in severa! crops. Agrobacterium tumefaciens was used as the vector to transfer the genes into cassava. Selection with the antibiotic Paramomycin is being applied to potentially transformed FEC. Although the target variety is Mcol2215 , we used TMS60444 to speed up the process of introducing the gene, checking its expression and determining if it confers resistance to C. c/arkei.We obtained FEC from TMS60444 expressing the gus-intron gene after 15 to 20 days of selection with Paramomycin. These calli were freed of selection to produced somatic embryos at cotyledon stage. Sorne of these embryos still showed gus expression, although less in tense than with FEC, after o ver 20 days of no selection. More than 100 potentially transformed embryos (at cotyledon stage) are on regeneration media, without selection, to produced whole plants.Transformation of Mcol22 15 has preven more difficult. Although severa! experiments have been performed, and transient expression of the gus-intron gene is quite efficient in FEC from this variety, no stable-transformed calli ha ve been obtained. FEC from Mcol2215 grows slower than that of TMS60444, under non-selective conditions. On selection medium (with Paramomycin), FEC proliferation seems to be halted. Viability tests of FEC that has been freed of selection (for more than a month) indicated that cell surviv .ll after antibiotic treatment is minimal for Mcol2215.• Stable transformation ofTMS60444 using the plasmid pBIGCRY may be achievable, judging by the stable expression of the gus-intron gene in FEC and cotyledon-stage embryos of this variety The main goal of this project is to provide new source(s) of resistance to complement the single breeding resistance source present in most of the commercial varieties grown in Latin Arnerica nowadays. This breeding source is conferred by one or two genes, and does not protect plants at ages younger than 25 day-old. The project aims to transform rice with novel gene(s) for RHBV resistance, and to incorporate these genes into Latin American commercial varieties or into genotypes to be used as parents in breeding.Previous reports described the generation using particle bombardment and selection of Cica 8 transgenic plants carrying the nucleoprotein (RHBV -N) viral gene. The resistance conferred by the N gene is characterized by a significant delay in the progression and severity of disease respect to inoculated non-transgenic controls. Advanced generations of transgenic lines with stable RHBV resistance has been selected. In contrast, the Cica 8 non-transgenic control is highly susceptible throughout the whole life cycle, showing severe disease development and most plants die at 60 days after inoculation. Last year, results also suggested that the resistance conferred by the N transgene towards RHBV disease is expressed independently of the genotype background. The transgenic resistance could be used to complement rhe natural resistance source to the virus. when crossing selected transgenic lines with diverse genotypes carrying the breeding resistance gene(s). Results showed that the non-transgenic F 1 s control plants were susceptible, whereas the transgenic F 1 s were resistant even when inoculated at 1 0-day-old. These results suggested that the protection conferred by the RHBV -N transgene is inherited and expresses independently of the genotype background, and that the transgene could be used to complement the natural resistance source . A total of 421 selected transgenic lines representing various generations, and F2 populations derived from crosses with FB007, Oryzyca 1, Iniap 12, and Cica 8 will be planted in the field on November 2000. These lines will be evaluated for RHBV resistance and agronomic traits following International as well as the Colombian environmental biosafety regulations at Palmira experimental station. The approval for field testing by the Colombian Biosafety Committee was issued on September 2000. Following it is reported the characterization of mode expression of the transgenic resistance conferred by RHBV-N, and the progress generating transgenic rice containing the RHBV non-structural4 (NS4) gene from the RNA 4.The leve[ ofresistance conferred by the RHBV-N viral gene was evaluated by scoring the percentage of leaf area diseased, severity of symptoms. and vigor. Evaluations were conducted once a week starting 5 days after removal of viruliferous insect vectors, up to 54 days after inoculation. To conduct this study, preliminary 25 transgenic lines represented by 8 plants each were evaluated at 15 days after germination. Of these, eight lines were selected showing high vigor. These lines were used to study the effect of the plant age on the leve! of transgenic resistance. Two disease pressures were used, intermediare disease pressure (colony of 65% of virulence) and high disease pressure ( colony of 70% of virulence ). and each plant was inoculated with four insects per plan t.Line AJ-49-60-12-3-3 showed the highest leve! of resistance throughout the whole life cycle. Between 74% to 81 % of the plants did not show any disease symptoms when inoculated either at 14 days or 28 days ofage, and only a 22% ofthe plants showed more than 25% of the leaf area affected when inoculated at 14-day-old (Table 1 ). In contrast, Cica 8 control showed between 70% of the plants with severe disease symptoms at 14day-old (Table 1 ). Line A3-49-60-4-5-8 showed intermediare leve! of resistance at 14day-old and 71% ofthe plants without symptoms at 28-day-old (Table 1). About 70% of the plants of line A3-49-60-19 had less than 25% of leaf area affected at 14-day-old, whereas Cica 8 showed 100% of plants highly diseased (Table 2). In general, the leve! of transgenic resistance increased at 28-day-old when yet Cica 8 control is still highly susceptible (Table 1 and 2). Sister lines AJ-60-12-3-l (susceptible) y A3-60-12-3-3 (resistant) showed different disease reaction indicating that the resistant phenotype is still segregating at the T4 generation or gene silencing maybe affecting the expression of the RHBV-N gene in sorne of the plants. A comparative Southern blot analysis using methylation sensitive and methylation insensitive restriction enzymes will be conducted to elucidate if gene silencing is involved in the lost of gene expression.Analysis was conducted to compare the mode of phenotypic expression of RHBV -N transgenic resistance respect to the standard breeding resistance source derived from Colombia l . Fifteen day-old plants from the varieties IR8, Cica 8, Oryzica 1, Oryzica Llanos 5, Colombia 1, Fedearroz 50 and Fedearroz 2000 were inoculated in the field using plots of four rows per variety, and a colony of 70% of virulence. All the seven varieties, including the highly resistant variety Fedearroz 2000, showed disease symptoms. Although Fedearroz 2000, had the lowest percentage of plants with symptoms and a reduced leaf area diseased. When symptoms developed, including on those of highly resistant varieties (i.e. Fedearroz 2000), symptoms appeared as the typical white leaf strip or white spots throughout the leaf similarly to the highly susceptible varieties IR8 and Cica 8. In contrast, when diseased symptoms developed in resistant transgenic plants they sometimes appeared as necrotic spots resembling hypersensitive reaction.Often times these symptoms were mainly observed on the originalleaves were the insects fed onto, but new leaves appeared free of symptoms giving a recovery phenotype to the plant. This type of resistant phenotype suggest that the mode of action RHBV -N resistance might be restraining the virus replication or mobility throughout the leaf once the plant cells are infected.  Earlier studied conducted by Lee Calvert and coworkers at CIA T using specific antiserum had indicated that the major NS4 protein is expressed in rice plants, but not in any of the instars or adult plant-hoppers (Tagosodes orizicolus). There also appears to be a control mechanism that allows expression in the plant but not in the planthopper, since the complete RHBV genome could be isolated from viruliferous vectors. In contrast the N protein is expressed in both the plant and the insect vector. It is inferred from the differential expression of these proteins that the major NS4 protein may has a function that is needed in the plant but not in the plant-hopper. The differential plant-insect NS4 expression, and the similarity of NS4 sequence with well characterized helper proteins described for other insect transrnitted viruses, suggest that NS4 might be invoJved in the RHBV transrnission frorn the plant to the plant-hopper, or in the virus movernent frorn cell to cell. The strategy for the expression of the RNA4 in transgenic rice is to determine the function of the majar NS4 protein and study the potential for a novel and different method of producing viral resistant plants.The RHBV NS4 gene in sense and anti-sense orientations driven by the 35S CaMV promoter were placed into the plasmid pCAMBIA 1301 carrying the gus-intron and hygromycin resistance gene (Table 3). The NS4 gene in both directions driven by the unbiquitin promoter was also cloned into vectors carrying the hygromycin-cat 1 intron gene from Peter Waterhouse's Jaboratory at CSIRO, Australia (Table 3).The indica rice vanettes Cica 8 (control for transformation efficiency), Palmar, and Cimarrón are being used as targets. Palmar (high grainl milling quality) and Cimarrón (high yielding variety) are commercial varieties from Venezuela highly susceptible to RHBV. Part of the project is funded by the Centro Tecnológico Polar, Venezuela. A total of 24 transgenic plants carrying the NS4 sense orientation. and 25 plants carrying NS4 anti-sense orientation driven by the 35S CaMV promoter were produced from independent events by Agrobacterium mediated transformation using the Agll strain. Southem analyses using Bam HI or Eco Rl which excise the complete NS4 gene in sense or antisense orientation, or using Sal 1 which does not cut the gene cassette within the right and left borders were used. Results indicate that l 00% of the plants had integrated single non-rearranged copy ofthe gene (Figure 1). Northem and Westem analyses will be conducted and RHBV resistance evaluations will proceed next season. The fungal complex composed Rhizoctonia solani (sheath blight), Helmithosporium, Rhincosporium, and Sarocladium is already causing important rice yield losses in the Southem cone of South America and increasing spreads had been reported in Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela. All rice varieties are susceptible and there are not known sources of stable genetic resistance for these diseases in rice. In the case of sheath blight, IRRI had placed a major effort in developing biological control strategies for this disease without success either. At present, the control of this complex mainly depends on use of fungicides (Dr. Fernando Correa, CIAT Rice Pathologist, Cali, Colombia, personal cornmunication). Recently. FLAR suggested CIAT (Dr. Peter Jennings. personal cornmunication), to develop molecular strategies for incorporating resistance to this fungal complex. However, very little is known about the interaction between the rice and these pathogens in order to direct specific resistance strategies for each of these fungi. Of the four, the plant-pathogen interaction with Rhizoctonia solani is the better known.Work conducted by another principal investigator of this project (Dr. Nilgun Turner, Biotechnology Center at Rutgers University, USA) showed that a pokeweed antiviral protein (PAP), a 29-kDa protein isolated from Phytolacca americana (a weed naturally found from USA to Argentina), has a ribosome-inactivating ability. Mutated versions of P AP gene has potent antifungal activity (Zoubenko et al., 1997). Homozygous progeny of transgenic tobacco plants expressing these P AP genes displayed resistance to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani. Transgenic PAP potato showed protection against Phytophtora infestans. and transgenic PAP turfgrass are resistant to various fungal pathogens. These results suggest the possibility of designing molecular strategies for incorporating fungal resistance by introgression of mutant PAP gene(s) in transgenic rice plants. Here we report the progress made during the first year of this project.Indica rice varieties Cica 8 (control for transformation efficiency), Palmar. Cimarrón, and Fundarroz PN 1 are used as targets. Palmar and Cimarrón shows high and moderate tolerance to sheath blight. whereas Fundarroz PNl and Cica 8 are highly susceptible to sheath blight. The strategy includes to evaluate the mode of action of P AP in highly susceptible as well as in tolerant sheath blight genotypes, to determine if P AP could increase the leve! of protection. This project is supported by the Centro Tecnológico Polar, Venezuela. To generate new point mutations in the PAP gene, a rapid change site directed mutagenesis kit from Stratagene was used. Gene constructs carrying various mutant versions ofthe PAP gene, were placed in vectors driven by 35S CaMV prometer or maize ubiquitin promoter, and using hygromycin resistance as gene selection.Eight new P AP mutations were generated directed to change the aminoacids composition in the PAP protein (Table 1 ). These new mutated genes were placed into yeast vectors, and transformed into yeast to check for no toxicity. The non-toxic mutated genes are being transformed into tobacco first to check the gene expression and toxicity before using them for rice transformation.Two mutated versions of P AP (I deleted and II) already tested for no toxicity in turfgrass (another monocot species ) are being used as the first approach to transform rice (Table 2). These genes driven by the ubiquitin promoter were placed in the plasmid vectors pWBVec8, pWBlOa, and pBGXiHGFP kindly supplied by Dr. Peter Waterhouse (CSIRO, Australia). These plasmids had been used successfully by Waterhouse to transform rice via Agrobacterium. They contain a hpt gene with a CA T -1 intron for increased expression of hygromycin resistance and selection in rice, a gus-intron-gene, or a gfp (green fish fluorescent) gene, respectively, to aid the recovery oftransgenic plants.Agronomic traits of TO and T1 transgenic p1ants generated with LBA4404 (pTOK233) were evaluated in the greenhouse. Results indicated that differences were not seen neither on flowering, nor on plant height between the transgenic lines and the corresponding control (Table 1 ). V ariation respect to control were noted on the nwnber of tillers, fertility and total grains weight per plant. Sorne plants showed sterility at TO, but TI plants derived from selected TO showed no difference on fertility and grain weight respect to control (Table 1 ). Transgenic plants from the indica varieties Cica 8, Palmar, Cimarrón, and Fundarroz PNl were generated using the Agrobacterium strains LBA4404 (Hei et al., 1997) or Agll (Wang et al. , 1997) carrying eíther of the plasmids pTOK233 (hpt-gus intron genes, Hei et al., 1997), pCambia 1301 (hpt-gus intron-NS4 genes), or pWBVec 8 (Wang et al., 1997) (hpt cat intron-NS4 or PAP genes). No major differences were noted in the percentage of hygromycin resistant plants regenerated per initial callus agroinfected (Table 2). Between 50% to 100% of the plants regenerated had integrated the transgenes as indicated by the Southem blot analysis, giving a transformation efficiency of 13% to 26% (Table 2). In contrast, about 6 to 9 fold increase in the regeneration of hygromycin resistant plants per explant was noted, and the transformation efficiency was 14 to 17 times higher when using Agrobacterium respect to biolistic for indica types (Table 2). The transformation efficiency of indica with Agrobacterium is similar to that of j aponica with particle bombardment (Table 2). In general. plants generated via Agrobacterium showed simple-non rearranged gene introgression whereas most plants recovered from particle bombardment contain multiple rearranged insertions (Figure l , and Table 2). Currently, evaluations to determine the stability of gene inheritance and gene expression throughout T2 and T3 generations are in progress.  Most selection systems comrnonly used for the generation of transgenic rice using either biolistic or Agrobacterium mediated transformation. relies on the use of the hpt gene conferring antibiotic resistance to hygromycin. Although the selection using hygromycin resistance gene has been highly efficient for the production of transgenic rice, and hpt gene has been de-regulated for transgenic crop directed to human consumption, it has not yet been approved fo r animal feed since hygromycin is sometimes used tor veterinary applications. As a response to public perception concems. recent intemational food biosafety recomrnendations suggest to use non-antibiotic selection markers genes. From the year 2005 it is most likely that food or feed crop containing antibiotic resistance will not be approved for comrnercialization. Recent developments using selection systems different from either antibiotic or herbicide resistance suggest that the phosphomannose isomerase (pmi) is an efficient selection gene tor production of transgenic plants from maize, sugar beet, and cassava (Wang, et al. 2000;Negrotto et al., 2000). When nontransgenic cell tissue are cultured on mannose, after uptake mannose is phosphorylated by a hexokinase yielding mannose-6-phosphate which accumulates in plant cells and causes severe growth inhibition.Mannose isomerase gene converts mannose-6phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate. thus giving to the plant cells the capacity of metabolizing mannose as a carbon source. Following is described the progress made towards the development of a selection system using mannose isomerase gene as a positive selection in rice. Embryogenic callus derived from mature embryos of indica rice Cica 8 was cultured on callus medium containing 1% mannose (168 mOsmolfkg), 2% mannose (212 mOsmol/kg ); 3% mannose (26 1 mOsmolfkg ), and 6% mannose (429 mOsmol/kg ), to determine the concentration of mannose which totally inhibits the callus growth of rice . Controls consisted of callus medium containing 3% sucrose (200 mOsmollkg ), or without carbon so urce (1 00 mOsmol/kg ). In arder to determine if the growth inhibition was due to the effect of mannose and not by an increase in osmotic potential by the mannose. medium containing a combination of sucrose and mannitol resembling the osmotic potential of mannose 3% and 6% were also included. These treatments consisted of 3% sucrose + 1.5% mannitol (261 mOsmolfkg). and 6% sucrose + 3% mannitol (429 mOsmol/kg), respectively.Callus showed a significant reduction in growth when cultured on mannose containing medium respect to sucrose. An inhibition of 59%, 64%, 95% and 98% were noted when callus were cultured on mannose 1%, 2%, 3%, and 6%, respective! y (Figure 2). The leve! of this inhibition was even higher than that observed on medium without carbon source which shows a 87% of growth inhibition respect to 3% sucrose (Figure 2). The inhibition 5 4 3 2 1 o of growth was due to the effect of mannose and not due to an increase of osmotic potential, since callus on 3% sucrose + 1.5% mannitol or 6% sucrose + 3% mannitol develop alike to those on 3% sucrose (Figure 2). Based on these results in the case of Cica 8 a concentration of 3% mannose is considered sub lethal, and 6% mannose a lethal dose. Work is now in progress targeting various indica rice genotypes usmg Agrobacterium mediated transforrnation and pmy as a selection marker gene. Tomate (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) is one of the most important crops in the fresh vegetable market as well as in the food processing industry (Rick and Y oder, 1988). Tomate is the major consumed vegetable crop in Colombia, with a planted area of 15.000 hectares yielding 450.000 tons per year (UNAL, 1997). In Colombia, this crop is highly affected by several pests and diseases, and abiotic stresses such as drought, high and low temperatures, and salinity. Since 1985, the vegetable breeding program at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Palmira Campus, has as main objective the development of varieties with resistance or tolerance to sorne of these traits. In 1997, this program released the tomate variety UNAPAL Arreboles, which has several traits attractive to tomate growers such as fruit firmness and good adaptability specially to the Valle del Cauca region. But this variety is susceptible to the two major limitations to tomato in this region: the fruitworm (Neoleucinodes elegantalis) which damage the fruit even at early stages of development, and the budworm (Scrobipalpuloides absoluta), which eats the tomate buds and young leaves. It had been difficult to breed tomate resistant to these two pests by standard breeding. The only sources of resistance genes is from wild tomate species which are incompatible with the cultivated tomate, and so far the attempts for an inter-specific breeding program has not been successful (Lourencao et al., 1985). The main objective of this work is to transform the tomate variety Arreboles with the Bt gene cryiA(b), which had been used successfully to obtain resistance against Lepidoptera pests in various economical important crops (i.e. maize, cotton).In previous reports it was described the evaluation of three protocols commonly used for tomate callus induction and plant regeneration (Fillatti et al., 1987, Narvaez, 1993, and Ultzen et al ., 1995). Results indicated that the highest response for callus induction and plant regeneration is noted on M3 medium sequence (Ultzen et al ., 1995). An increase in response of about 2-fold and 4-fold on callus induction and plant regeneration was noted on M3 media respect to the other media tested. The lowest response was obtained on M2 medium (Fillatti et al.. 1987).Last year. two Agrobacterium mediated transformation protocols commonly used for tomato McCormick et al.. 1986: Fillatti et al., 1987), were tested using the tomato variety UNAP AL-Arreboles. This year three Agrobacterium strains C58C 1, Agll and LBA4404 containing the pBIGCry construct (L.I. Mancilla at CIAT) were used. This gene construct contains the cryJAb gene driven by the 35s CaMV promoter, the nptll gene for kanamycin resistance as selection markers, and the gus-intron as a reporter gene. Gus transient expression analysis of the explants after 48 hours of co-cultivation with the three Agrobacterium strains showed that the strain LBA4404 presented a major efficiency of transformation on tomato UN AP AL-Arreboles.A total of four hundred tomato explants (cotyledonary leaves of 7-lOday-old plantlets) were infected with LBA4404/pBIGCry weekly. After co-cultivation for 48 hour, about 10% of the explants were analyzed for gus transient expression. Explants from cultures showing transient expression were transferred to selection media containing kanamycin for selection. After three weeks on selection media, regenerated plantlets were recovered. The number of transformed plantlets isolated varied among the different experiments. From O to ten plants were recovered per experiment.A total of 51 putative transo ni e plants were produced from 8 experiments ( 400 explants by experiment). This shows an efficiency of 1.6 % for recovering kanamycin resistant plants from the initial agro-infected explant. Of these plants 15 were transferred successfully to the greenhouse and 6 plants had shown stable gus expression throughout the vegetative and reproductive life cycle. One of these clone (P35) has not flower yet after severa! months in the greenhouse, reason why not seeds are available from it. The other 5 clones (P2, P17, P28, P33, and P47) had set seeds, and currently being evaluated by Southern, Northern, and Westem analysis to determine the introgression ofthe crylab gene into the Arreboles genome, and characterized the level of gene expression. Each cloned is being clonally propagated, and evaluations at TO and Tl generations will proceed for morphological characterization and transgene inheritance studies, as well as for insect resistance bioassays. not appropriate for the maintenance of embryogenic callus needed for bombardment since plant differentiation occurs as soon as callus induction is obtained. A modification of the standard tissue protocol was introduced by culturing the induced callus under dim light rather than direct light. This change in light culture conditions restrained callus differentiation by 85%. allowing the maintenance of embryogenic callus at a optimal for bombardment. Callus cultured under dim light conditions, showed about 80% of plant regeneration when transferred to direct light. These results suggest that changes of light conditions at early stages of callus induction, does not have deleterious effects on the plant differentiation process.Callus bombarded using plasmids pGV1040, pCAMBIA 1201 , and pCAMBIA 1301, following a two step-wise bombardmerit under 1,100 psi at 6 cm target distance, and by 1,300 psi at 9 cm indicated that between 20% and 49% of callus showed GUS transient expression 48 hours after bombardment. This year report include the optimization of bombardment conditions , the establishment of lethal and sub-lethal genetycin concentrations for selection of stable transformants at the embryogenic callus, plant regeneration, and plant rooting stages.; and the progress towards the recovery carrying the ScYL V coat protein gene.Results using plasmid pAct-!D indicated that 51.3 % ± 27.8% of bombarded tissue showed gus transient expression 48 hr after bombardment (Table 1 ). As expected for biolistics, results varied from experiment to experiment. The conditions optimized were then used to generate transgenic sugar can e plants carrying the Se YL V coat protein gene. Explants were cultured on medium containing genetycin concentrations of O, 1 O, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 mg/1. F orty days after culture, the percentage of dead tissue were assayed. Results indicated that genetycin 30 mg/l is a sub-lethal conferring about 50% of morta1ity, whereas genetycin 50 mg/1 can be used as 1ethal antibiotic concentration for selection (Figure 1 ).  After a complete stepwise se1ection at genetycin 30 mg/l followed by genetycin 50 mg/1, a total of 68 petri plates with 20 to 25 explants each had been evaluated so far. About 50% ±_29 % of the bombarded callus were resistant to genetycin 50 mg/l. Of these resistant callus, about 4% ± 5% are regenerating plants. Plant regeneration is still in process. Pre1iminary data shows that most of the plants recovered are resistant to genetycin 50 mg/l when transferred to root induction medium. Future plans include the complete molecular characterization of these putative transgenic plants to select those of which are going to be evaluated for Se YL V resistance.• Progress in the study of the occurrence of secondary metabolites and enzyme activities related to wound responses that may play a deterrninant role during the postharvest physiological deterioration in cassava. Two main secondary metabolites, hydroxycoumarins and flavonoids were analyzed.• The analysis of carotene content in yellow-seeded common bean varieties suggested that carotenoid levels are very low in both the dry bean embryo and in the seed coat and that the yellow color is probably not due to carotenoids, but rather to sorne other pigment, such as xanthaphylls• A total of 500 accessions (not from the core collection) from the cassava world gerrnplasm bank held at eiAT were evaluated for vitarnin e and carotene content. For vitamin e in the roots, there were at least 120 genotypes with concentrations higher than the highest value found in the core collection For carotene content the values were very similar to those found in the core collection.As a crop, cassava offers many advantages that have made it a suitable plant for poor farmers in marginal areas. Despite the foregoing, cassava suffers rapid postharvest deterioration, starting within 48 hours after harvest, rendering the root unpalatable and unmarketable. The postharvest deterioration process in cassava begins with physiological deterioration (PPD), followed by microbial deterioration from days 4 to 6 (Booth 1976).PPD, the product of abiotic stress, is characterized by vascular streaking, a blue-black discoloration of the xylem parenchyma, followed by a general discoloration of the storage parenchyma. The tissue damage, produced during harvesting and handling of the roots, results in a cascade of wound responses, which show many parallels to those in other plants (Wenharn 1995).Wound responses result in the defense of the injured tissue by the activation of lytic enzymes such as chitinases and ¡3-1 ,3-glucanases; and oxidative enzymes such as peroxidases and phenol oxidases, which oxidase phenolic compounds produced by the induction of the phenylpropanoid pathway. The oxidation of phenols results in the production of compounds toxic to microorganisms and tissue browning (Beeching et al. 1998). These phenols also play a defensive role, acting as allelochemicals, antioxidants, metal chelators, UV protectants, phytoalexins, signaling molecules and polymers (lignin).The goal of this project is to identify biochemical markers for PPD, studying the occurrence of secondary metabolites and enzyme activities related to wound responses that may play a determinant role during the PPD process. The identification of these PPD markers will facilitate the improvement of cassava germplasm with respect to PPD through the development of screening methods for use in germplasm evaluation by breeding prograrns.This strategy is based on the evaluation of cassava cultivars with different reactions to PPD (CM 2177-2 and M Col 22 as high response; M Nga2 and M Ven 77 as medium response; and M Bra 12, M Bra 337 and M Per 183 as low response), following a 7-day period of deterioration. After determining the key biochemical tests to be used, the progeny of a cross between two cultivars with different susceptibility to PPD, which are being used at CIA T to construct the genetic map of cassava, will be screened. The biochernical tests are the evaluation of secondary metabolites, such as the quantification of the soluble phenol content and specific compounds as coumarins and flavonoids by HPLC, and the activities of enzymes that can be related to PPD, such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (P AL), polyphenol oxydase (PPO), peroxidase (POX), catalase (CA T), chitinase and B-1 ,3 glucanase.The quantification of the soluble phenol content in cassava root tissue undergoing PPD can be used as an indicator of phenylpropanoid metabolism induction. Results showed no clear differences arnong cultivars nor a marked tendency to increase or decrease concentrations over time.As reported before, two main groups of secondary metabolites were identified in ethanol extracts of cassava roots undergoing PPD: hydroxycoumarins and flavonoids, specifically catechins. The hydroxycoumarins are scopoletin and esculetin and their respective glucosides scopolin and esculin. The catechins are (+)-catechin, (+)-gallocatechin and ( + )-catechin gallate. Quantification of coumarins showed no significant changes in concentrations of esculin and esculetin during the PPD period, while scopoletin and scopolin presented an increase in concentration over the same period. Scopoletin showed a more rapid accumulation than scopolin. which was then followed by a decrease in cv. M Col 22 and M Nga2 (Fi g. 1 a). A difference among cultivars is the late accumulation of scopoletin and scopolin in M Bra 337 on day 4. Scopoletin increases at day one, but the accumulation is not so obvious as that at da y 4 (Fig. 1 b ). Flavonoids were not synthesized de novo but were detectable in low concentrations during the first days of the storage period. The concentration of (+)-catee hin gallate did not show significant changes o ver the PPD period, while ( + )-catechin and ( + )gallocatechin started increasing after 2-4 days (Fig. 2a). There is a marked difference among cultivars in the accumulation of (+)-gallocatechin. Low-PPD cultivars accurnulate higher quantities after 5 days in contrast with the other cultivars (Fig. 2b). Although there is a significant difference in accumulation of flavonoids among cultivars, they cannot be considered as markers due to their late increase during the storage period. This late accumulation, could be a defense response to scopolin, due to their rapid increase in concentration during the PPD period.The secondary metabolites present in extracts of cassava roots undergoing PPD preved to have antioxidative and antimicrobial properties. Flavonoids are very potent antioxidants, while scopoletin inhibits the growth of pathogens such as Cladosporium cucumerimum and Fusarium avenaceum (standard microorganisms for antimicrobial tests).Regarding enzyme activities, P AL and CAT did not show any tendencies or differences arnong cultivars. In contrast, POX, PPO, P-1 ,3 glucanases and chitinases increased activity throughout the storage period. The lytic enzymes started to increase activity after 5 days, but did not show differences arnong cultivars. As for the accumulation of flavonoids, this fact can be related to a defense response to microbial decay. Both oxidative enzymes, POX and PPO, increase from the early stage of the deterioration, presenting higher values in the susceptible cultivars (Fig. 3). PPO shows a clearer difference arnong the cultivars, and the increase of activity in the most susceptible cultivar preved to have a direct correlation with tissue browning.  The coumarins (scopoletin, esculetin and esculin) were tested as substrates for POX. The three phenols react with the enzyme root extract, but scopoletin presents the most interesting reaction. Scopoletin quickly oxidases, showing a dark bluish coloration. Then, after approx. lO min., the solution starts to tum light in coloration and develops a black precipitate, like the precipitates observed in vascular streaking. Scopoletin is distributed throughout the storage parenchyma, but tissue prints for POX activity have shown that it is concentrated around the vascular parenchyma. This may reflect a positive correlation between vascular streaking and coumarin oxidation.Present and future activities include the screening of a selected population of the genetic mapping cross progeny (M Nga2 x CM 2177-2). The biochernical tests are the quantification of coumarins and enzyme activities for POX, PPO and scopoletinperoxidase.Y ellow-seeded beans are a minor commercial grain type from the Andean gene pool that are eaten in a subset of Latín American bean-producing countries, notably in Peru, Mexico and Brazil. Recently, they have become embroiled in a controversy in the United States where a patent was claimed on the marketing of a yellow bean variety. In the meantime, the scientific basis for the yellow color is not known. In this study we decided to analyze whether the yellow color was derived from Carotenoids or not. Todo this we selected a group of accessions representing all the types of yellow beans that are found in primary and secondary centers of diversity to determine the vitamin A content of the seed and if there is genetic variability for the trait.A total of 1 O common bean genotypes with various tones of yellow-colored grain (from canary to sulphur yellow) were selected for this study (Table 1 ). Three parts of the grain were analyzed: 1) whole seed. 2) peeled seed (embryo) and 3) seed coat (both stored and fresh). The tissues were ground into a fine powder with a coffee mill anda tungsten hall bearing mill. Extraction began by resuspending 0.3 g (for the stored seed coat and embryo) or 1.0 g (for the whole seed) ofground tissue in 10 ml ofpetroleum ether and 5ml of water at 35-60 oc. The mixture was homogenized before centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 5 min at 1 O oc. The ether phase was removed to a new tu be while the aqueous phase was re-extracted with an additional 1 O ml of petroleum ether and combined with the previous ether phase. Both of these aliquots were dried down with sodium sulfate in a vacuum centrifuge. The extracts were then resuspended in 1 mi of petroleum ether and used immedíately for the analysis. The samples were analyzed in a UV -visible spectrophotometer at 455 nm, using petroleum ether at 30-60 oc as a blank. A standardization curve was made from P-carotene in a petroleum ether solvent and used for the quantification of P-carotene in the sample. The linear regression of the calibration curve was C(ppm) = K x Abs +B, where K= 6.6707 and B= 0.2084. To confirm the presence of p-carotene in each group of samples, readings were made for the UV -visible spectra in the range from 200-600 nm and compared to the commercial standard (Sigma).The arnount of P-carotene found in the stored and freshly-ground seed coats was similar and relatively low, averaging 0.131 mg per 100 g of tissue. Fresh embryo had similar amounts of carotene as the seed coat, averaging 0.147 mg per 100 g of tíssue. Whole seed contained even lower amounts of P-carotene, averaging 0.042 mg per 100 g of tissue. Since the absorbance levels at 455 nm were very 1ow, no additional readings were taken at other wavelengths.Since the first experiments were done with sample sizes (0.3 g and 1.0 g) that are at the lower limit of detection, a second trial was undertaken with a larger amount of freshly ground tissue. Ten grams of fresh tissue was extracted with a fmal volume of 1 mi and this was analyzed as described above. The spectra of the new sample, measured at wavelengths from 200 to 600 nm, was compared to that of the ¡3-carotene standard.There generally was a good fit between the data for the sample and the standard, indicating that ¡3-carotene was present in the fresh bean seeds (Figure 1).These preliminary results show that carotenoid levels are very low in both the dry bean embryo and in the seed coat and that the yellow color is therefore probably not due to carotenoids, but rather to sorne other pigment, such as xanthaphylls. For future P-carotene analysis, the arnount of ground tissue will be increased to 1 Og. To avoid the interference by other pigments at 455 nm, the samples will be read at an absorbance wavelength of 490 nm. To confirm the presence of P-carotene. more sensitive tests using HPLC and Mass spectrophotometry will be undertaken. Mass spectrophotometry can determine the identity of xanthophylls that have been suggested as the majar pigrnent in seed coat of yellow beans. The arnount of B-carotene in various stages of bean seed maturation will be another area that we will pursue. Especially in the Andes and certain areas of the Caribbean, bean seeds are commonly consumed at physiological maturity but befare they dry down. Todo this the beans are shelled while the pods are still green or just starting to tum yellow but befare they dry down to maturity. These beans are often referred to as green-shelled beans and command a premium price because of their fast cooking time. We will look at the changes in carotenoid levels during grain development. Another issue is the stability of the carotene upon cooking and whether this is different in mature dry versus green shelled beans.for propagation. and their quality influences early crop establishment as well as final root yield. It is expected that new cultivars with higher micronutrient contents will also have an agronomic advantage. which will ensure their competitiveness in the market place.The short postharvest storage life of cassava is a characteristic that limits the marketability of the fresh root and necessitates either consumption or processing shortly after harvesting. Postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD) of cassava roots, which begins within 24 hours of harvest, results in crop and product-quality losses, high marketing margins and risks, and restricted management flexibility for farmers. traders and processors. Thus the reduction of PPD has been identified as a priority target for strategic research. In many respects, PPD resembles wound responses found in other better studied plant systems; but cassava appears to lack the wound-healing capacity that is normally associated with the inhibition of wounding responses. Normally, such defensive wound responses are inhibited by wound repair; however, this repair process does not occur in the harvested cassava storage root, leading to the hypothesis that unrestrained cascarles of wound responses ultimately result in deterioration. An important component of these wound responses is the oxidation processes. Ascorbic acid and carotene are known to have antioxidant properties; therefore, PPD was measured in a sarnple of genotypes to evaluate the potential correlation between these two vitarnins and PPD.The overall objective of this project is to improve the nutritional status of people living in marginal environments of the tropics by selecting and promoting cassava genotypes with high and good bioavailability of micronutrients and vitamins.The extraction procedure outlined by Safo-Katanga et al. (1984) was adjusted. The extraction protocol for leaves and roots is described in the 1998 annual report.Ascorbic acid concentration measurements. The protocol for determining ascorbic acid by Fung and Luk ( 1985) was adjusted for cassava leaf and roots, taking as a base the procedure outlined in the 1998 annual report.Correlation between vitarnin content and PPD. Postharvest physiological deterioration was measured 6 days after harvest in 500 genotypes, whose ascorbic acid and carotene root concentrations were known. The correlation between vitamin concentration and PPD was then measured.A total of 500 accessions (not from the core collection) from the cassava world germplasm bank held at eiA T were evaluated.Analysis of vitamin C content. Table l summarizes the ascorbic acid results for leaves and roots from the 500 accessions evaluated. As in the case of the genotypes from the core collection (see 1999 annual report), there was a strong skewness with long right tails. In general data from leaves were similar to those already reported for the core collection. In the •case of vitamin e in the roots, there were at least 120 genotypes with concentrations higher than the highest value found in the core collection. In fact, the highest value was almost twice as high in this sample compared with that from the core collection (71.19 vs. 37.52 mg/100 g FW).Analysis of carotene content. earotene coucentration in the leaves ranged from 12.05 to 96.42, with a mean of 43.59 mg/1 00 g FW (Table 2). These values are very sinúlar to those found in the core collection. As in the case of vitamin e, carotene distribution was also skewed to the right, but to a lesser degree. earotene concentration in roots showed a strongly skewed distribution with a long tail to the right (test = 2. 11 ). Values ranged from 0. 12 to 0.93 mg. Following the same trend observed for ascorbic acid, carotene concentrated significantly more in the leaves than in the roots, illustrating once again the excellent nutritional value of cassava leaves. There was no correlation between carotene and ascorbic acid concentrations in leaves and roots.The correlation between PPD and vitamin e and carotene contents in roots were, respectively, +0.297 and -0.113. This positive correlation between vitamin e and PPD may be due to curnulative errors in measurements for both vitamin e and PPD or to genetic differences between the genotypes of the core collection and those reported herein.The relationship between PPD and carotene content seems to be more consistent to the one reported previously ( -0.169 vs -0.1 13 ). Therefore, the hypothesis that caro ten e content can help reduce PPD (through its antioxidant capacity) is supported again by these results. The graphs plotting the relationship between carotene in the roots and PPD (Fig. 1) suggest that >50 mg carotene/100 g FW, PPD does not exceed 30%. At lower carotene concentrations, the association is lost, finding a large variation in PPD that cannot be accounted for by carotene content. There is no association between vitamin e content in the roots and PPD (Fig. 2).  Segregation study to break the linkage between high carotene content and intense yellow coloration in the roots. In sorne crosses made between yellow-and white-rooted cassava varieties, it is desirable to break the apparent linkage between high carotene and intense yellow coloration in the roots (Graham et al., 1999). Table 3 summarizes the results from 397 progenies evaluated. Color intensity was estirnated. using a 1-9 visual scale ( 1 = white; 9 = intense yellow-orange roots). There was a strong correlation (0.81 ) between carotene content and color intensity. The correlation coefficients between these two variables for each individual family are listed in Table 3. The families CM 9733 and CM 9712, each with more than 15 plants, had low or negative correlations (-0.202 and 0.673, respectively). Other families had interesting results; but their performance was based on only a few plants (i.e. families CM 9149, CM 9150) or the segregation for color was reduced (family CM 9684). suggesting almost white roots in every plant). Based on these preliminary results. a few famílies were selected and from each plant making up the family, five stakes were taken and will be planted for future replicated evaluations to be carried out by January 2000.  ..       • lmprovement of propagation rates of cassava cultivars Meo! 2215 and Mcol 1505 using RITA. We achieved substantial reduction in hyperhydricity of tissues.• Sixty-six cassava accessions from the core collection cryopreserve l and recovered after freezing in liquid nitrogen. Results were reproducible through üme. Also, the first steps towards developing a methodology for cryospreservation ofFEC were made.• Validation oflow-cost, cassava propagation methods with women (small farmers) from Santa Ana, Department of Cauca, Colombia. Expensive media components were replaced by cheaper, locally bought ingredients.• The automated temporary immersion system RITA has shown to be an efficient system for the expedite generation of large number of embryogenic callus of Brachiaria and rice.• A protocol for an increased rate of conversion from somatic embryos into plants suitable for genetic transformation was optimized for Brachiaria.• This year the distribution of lines derived from rice anther culture represented about 26% of the lines distributed by FLAR to the member countries of the South.• Optimization of an in vitro propagation methodology for selected Colombian varieties of lulo and development of an in vitro regeneration protocol for selected varieties through organogenesis  The introduction of new genes into cassava via transgenesis is a reality. Transgenic cassava has been reported with at least two cultivars (Schopke et al., 1996;Sarria et al., 2000). However, the different laboratories that work on transformation of cassava should start focusing on commercial cultivars as targets to introduce desirable genes. The long breeding cycle of cassava makes it impractical to transform model cultivars and transfer the transgene(s) to commercial ones by classical breeding. We are analyzing the transformation potential of commercial varieties by: 1) developing FEC, an efficiently transformed embryogenic tissue; and 2) testing FEC from these cultivars for their ability to be transformed usíng Agrohacterium. We present the results of the ftrst phase.FEC was induced from young, immature lea ves, or lateral buds of in vitro grown plants. Thirteen commercial genotypes were used as source of explants (see Tablel). Explants were placed on embryo induction medium for lS days. Then, when somatic embryos appeared, they were subcultured onto the same medium for at least 15 more days. Then, somatic embryos were transferred to FEC induction medium, and checked every week for the appearance of FEC. The experiment is still ongoing, although we present the results of induction of somatic embryos in these cultivars.Table 1 summarizes the production of somatíc embryos in 13 commercial cultivars of cassava. The first somatic embryos were observed after 25 days of placing the explants on embryo induction medium. Basically all genotypes produced somatic embryos at ditferent frequencies from leaves or buds, or both. In all but one case, the induction of somatic embryos was more etfective with buds than with leaves. The quality of the embryos produced from buds was also better since they had less non-embryogenic callus (not shown). So far only one cultivar, CM 3306-4, has produced FEC in two out of eight embryogenic clusters (groups of soma tic embryos) on FEC-induction medium. The process of inducing FEC may take up to 6 months once the embryogenic callus is on FEC-induction medium. It is advisable to wait more time for a final evaluation.• Its is possible to induce somatic embryos, at relatively high frequencies, in commercial cassava cultivars • The induction of somatic embryos seems to be more etfective from bud explants • It is also possible to induce FEC in commercial cassava cultivars• Continue doing weekly checks for the production of FEC in the rest of cultivars • Proliferate FEC once it is produced • Perform transformation experiments with Agrobacterium, using FEC as source of explants, for transient gene expression assessment  lntroduction There are at least seven different procedures for vitrification: Encapsulation-dehydration, vitrification per se, encapsulation-vitrification, desiccation, pre-growth, pre-growthdesiccation and droplet freezing (Engelmann, 2000). In vitrification-based procedures, cell dehydration is performed prior to freezing by exposure of samples to concentrated cryoprotection media and/or air desiccation. The encapsulation-dehydration technique (Palacio 1998) was established as an alternative to slow (Escobar et al 1997) and rapid freezing (Escobar el al 1997) for cassava. We adjusted the encapsulation-dehydration methodology, and used a wider range of genotypes to test the modifications.• 66 cassava clones were cryopreserved and were recovered after frozen in liquid nitro gen. • The adjusted protocol (described above) showed reproducible results across time.• Using recovery media with ffiA or IAA reduced callus induction.• Standardizing the growth conditions of plants that served as source of shoots in material such as MNga l , previously reported as recalcitrant (Annual Report 1999), improved their response after freezing. Other accessions such as MPar 1 O 1 and MPer 205 were still recalcitrant.• The Genetic Resource Unit (GRU) provided us with lOO cassava clones frorn the core collection to test them for cryopreservation with the adjusted protocol. • We will work on recalcitrant materials with different desiccation procedures. • We will test different cryopreservation times (2,4, and 6 months) with selected materials.Taylor et al in 1996 established a technology to develop Friable Embriogenic Callus (FEC) for cassava. We also developed FÉC for a Latín American cassava cultivar commercial use (this report). FEC can be maintained as a suspension culture or on solid medium. However, in vitro cultured plant cells are genetically unstable, and the labor and cost of maintaining cell lines is high (Reinhoud et al 2000). Besides, the older the FEC the more difficult it is to recover nonnal plants.Cryopreservation of FEC may provide a means of ensuring more genetic stability of cell lines. Therefore, our objective is to develop a method to cryopreserve FEC for cassava, to have a source of\" fresh\" FEC useful for genetic transformation.We used the encapsulation-dehydration procedure developed at CIAT (Annual Report 1999) to test it with FEC. Different steps, e.g., pre-growth, encapsulation and dehydration, were adjusted to obtain re-growth before the freezing phase. This allows knowing the effects of treatments previous to freezing, therefore selecting the best ones before the actual freezing step.We tested the effect of different sucrose concentrations (2,6,12 and 17%) on cell growth. It was observed that tissue growing on 2% developed faster, while with 17% sucrose it did not growth. Moderate growth was obtained at 6-12% sucrose.Beads pre-treated with 6-12% sucrose for 3, 5 or 7 days were dehydrated on silica gel during 4, 6 or 8 hours. The following two treatments allowed to control the size ofthe beads and to recover tissues after the treatrnent:• 6% sucrose, during 7 days, and 4 hours of dehydration • I 2% sucrose during 5 days, and 8 hours dehydration on silica gel Different concentrations of sodium alginate (1.5, 2 and 3%) and calcium chloride (75 and 100 mM) were tested for bead formation. Beads prepared with 1.5% were unstable and did not resist manipulation. The best bead quality was obtained with 2% alginate and 75mM CaCh.• We established a relation between FEC (1 gr.) and alginate (10 mi) for bead formation. • FEC pre-grown on GD6-50Pi, before encapsulation, increased its weight to 21 % (fresh weigh) in 14 days. • FEC was recovered from beads pre-treated wíth sucrose (6-12%) during 5-7 days, and dehydrated on silica gel (4-8 hours) . • Dífferential growth response of encapsulated tíssue was observde depending on gellíng agent. Media containing agar was better than media with gel ríte.Based on CIA T's experiences in handling the cassava's world collection we modified and simplified the in vitro propagation method. Tissue culture related materials and equipment where replaced by those more frequently used in regional agriculture practices.A pilot experimental station was established in Santa Ana, Department of Cauca. A group of eleven women was selected to transfer a low-cost micropropagation methodology. C. Hemandez (a farmer selected by his own community) has been trainied at CIAT to transfer the technology to his community. In the same way, we implemented a low-cost facility at CIA T', where we are trying modifications to the propagation system, that allow increased propagation rates and reduce inputs.Propagation media, using local íngredients such as nutrients (salts) and growth regulators were designed (®Honnonagro 0.02 mg/1 and ®Progibb 0.05-0.5 mg/1) (Annual Report 1999). Using these media we could obtain the same propagation rate ( 1 :3) as with 4E medium (Roca 1984).• A scheme for production of certified planting material with MCol 1522 (a clone widely accepted by farmers) will be implemented • The community is already planing on adapting crops like plantains to her facilities • A cost analysis may need to be established • Santa Ana's group is producing planting material for experimentation plotsParticipatory research in the development of low-cost input, in vitro propagation method for cassava. R.H. Escobar, C. Hemandez, J. Restrepo, J. In the Northern Coast of Colombia cassava has been considered the most important altemative crop since it is the only crop that yields acceptably under marginal conditions with mínimum inputs.More than 250,000 ha are cultivated by small farmers, with cassava occupying a third of this area. According to CORPOICA, in the coming years, more than half of this area will be cultivated with cassava alone, which will rnake the quality and quantity of planting material a constrain. W e are using a massive propagation system (RITA) to produce enough planting material of desired, indexed cornmercial clones.We adapted the RITA system for two clones: MCol 2215 (Venezolana) and MCol 1005 (Verdecita), which are widely accepted by farmers. We tested immersion periods of 1 minute every 4 or 6 hours, 5 minutes every 8 hours, and 10 minutes every 12 hours. We al so tested different concentration of TDZ (0. 024 and O. 00 l mg/1) as growth regulator. The objective of using RITAS is to find a propagation scheme to increase rates, reduce time, or both.The longest immersion period ( 1 O min every 12h) reduced hiperhidricity, one of the most important problems associated with high growth regulator concentration and liquid propagation media. It also reduced propagation rate to 1:4 or 1:5, if compared to previous results obtained with RITA ( 1:6 to 1 :8; Annual Report 1999). It is desirable to avoid hiperhydrated tissues since they usually have problems with propagation and post-flask management. Tissue grown on 12h period had better appearance: solid green color, thick stems, although it had increased root formation. Excessive root formation is a problem since the roots penetrate deep into the foam and they get damaged when removed from the RITA We are testing an altemative connection using two RITA recipients: one contains the medium and the other the tissues without foam (see explanation in Figure 1 ). Eliminating the foam will reduce damaging the roots and the excessive media retention, which in creases hyperhydricity.We found that high temperatures, possibly due to the light system set up in the growth room (tubes set at the side and not at the top of shelves), increased hyperhydration. We decided to set 3 light tubes at the top of each shelf, leaving 45 cm between the tubes and the bottom of the shelf (Berthouly, personal communication). These conditions aid to reduce temperature, light, humidity and hiperhydricity.We also found that the evaluation time could be reduced to 45 instead of 60 days, saving roughly 25% of the time required. Also, adding Tween to the medium increased propagation rate with M Col 1505 but not with M Col 2215.One more advantage of RITA for cassava propagation is the need of only one medí u m to induce roots, regardless of the type of explant. Previous protocols estab1ished for propagation needed two media: 4E (Roca 1984) for propagation using buds and shoots, and 17N (Roca 1984) for rooting shoots only; it does not work with buds (Escobar, 1991 ). With the RITA system, transfer of rooted plants to the greenhouse has taken as few as 20 days. We have already transferred rooted plants to the screen-house with high recovery rates.   Plant in vitro culture using temporary immersion offers all the advantages of a liquid medium system (automation, large scale production, easy changes of medium, filter sterilization, easy cleaning) without any of its drawbacks (reduced gas exchange, vitrification ). The RITA device has the additional advantages of low cost and automation. And it is suitable for both industrial production and research use. This system has preved its efficiency for somatic embryogenesis of banana (Alvarat et al,  1993 ; Escalant et al, 1994), coffee (Berthouly et al, 1995;Etienne et al, 1997), citrus (Cabasson et al, 1997), oil palm and rubber plant (Etienne et al, 1997), and at CIAT for cassava (Escobar and Roca , 1999); for clona! propagation through micro-cuttings of coffee, and sugar cane (Lorenzo et al, 1998); for proliferation of meristems of banana, and pineapple; and for micro-tuberization of patato (Teisson & Alavarad, 1998). RITA system !mproves plant cell nutrition and gas exchange, and enhances the quantity and quality of micro-propagated tissue. One of the major bottlenecks for generating transgenic plants derived from zygotic embryos as in the case of rice, is the generation and maintenance of sufficient large number of embryogenic callus. Following is reported preliminary experiments directed to induce embryogenic callus of rice using the automated RITA system. Mature embryos were removed aseptically from the seeds of Ciac8 variety with the aid of a dissection microscope and plated onto 20 mi of solid callus culture medium in a petri plate. Fifty embryos per RITA ( 6 hours immersion ) and 50 embryos (25 per plate, control) were evaluated. Two replicatíons were tested per treatment.Callus induction was noted 8 to 15 days earlier in the RITA system respect to the control (Table 1). A larger number of embryos showed callus formation, and between 2 to 4 fold increase in the number of embryogenic callus was seen in the automated system. Experiments are in progress to determine the reproducibility of these results with various indica genotypes, and the regeneration capacity ofthe callus induced from RITA system. between decumbens and hrizantha species, thus recurrent back-cross is needed to recover the agronomic characteristics from decumbens. Plant genetic transformation offers an expedite altemative to transfer genes between unrelated species. A protocol for genetic transformation of Brachiaria will be particularly useful to introduce resistance gene(s) for this homoptera pest, and to improve further the quality traits associated with the nutritional value ofthe pasture. Earlier work at CIAT's included the establishment of tissue culture methods for plant regeneration (Lenis, 1993), and genetic transformation by direct methods using particle bombardment (Galindo, 1997) of Brachiaria species. Last year we reported the progress made towards the establishment of a protocol for a reproducible and efficient method for Agrobacterium mediated transformation of Brachiaria species. One of the major bottlenecks encounter is the availability of sufficient starting material ( embryogenic calli derived from mature zygotic embryos) for co-cultivation with Agrobacterium, and the low and variable rate of conversion from callus into plants. This year we report developments to optimize a protocol for the massive generation of embryogenic callus using the temporary automated RITA system, and to obtain a high rate of conversion from callus into.To standardize a methodology for genetic transformation of Brachiaria it is important to have sufficient starting material in optimal stage of development. The experience with tissue culture of Brachiaria is limited to the works done at CIA T (Lennis, 1992 andGa1indo, 1997). The availability of material for transformation has been one of the major limiting steps, therefore it is necessary to explore new altematives to improve the quality and quantity of embryogenic callus required to conduct experiments for optimizing the transformation protocol.The principal objective is to test the induction of somatic embryogenesis in Brachiaria using the RITA® system. The temporary immersion system , commercially known as RITA®' has been successfully used with sorne species of plants like banana (Alvarat et al, 1993;Escalant et al, 1994), coffee (Berthouly el al, 1995 ;Etienne et al, 1997), Citms (Cabasson et al, 1997), rubber tree (Etienne el al, 1997), potato (Teisson & Alavarad, 1998) and sugarcane (Lorenzo et al, 1998). More recently at CIA T, the RITA® system has been used by Escobar and Roca ( 1999) for cassava micro-propagation. Sorne advantages of RITA® are mass production, decrease time production, synchronization of somatic embryogenesis and reduction in labor costs through a simplified handling of plants and medium.Seven days old mature zygotic embryos of B. decumhens cv. basilisk from CIAT accession 606 were used. Fifty explants for treatment were used. A total of two replications were treatment were tested. One immersion period ( 1 min 1 6 hours) was evaluated and compared with conventional induction system used for Brachiaria. In both cases Brachiaria induction M 1 medium was used (Lenis, 1992;Galindo, 1997).The evaluation was done for 3 5 days and expressed in terms of: Preliminary results indicated that RITA® system reduced the time of embryo formation in one week (Figure 1 ), and increased by two fold the production of embryogenic respect to the conventional culture on salid medium (Figure 2).  • In crease the number of tests to the two systems.• T o use RITA® as a conventional methodology to induce somatic embryogenesis m Brachiaria. • Use RITA® system to improve somatic embryo development in Brachiaria.Effects of medium composition on callus induction and plant regeneration in Brachiaria decumbens  (Lenis, 1992) and genetic transformation by particle bombardment (Galindo, 1997). Last year we reported the progress made on the genetic transformation of Brachiaria via Agrobacterium. However, the efficiency of transformation is highly influenced by the physiological stage and the type of embryogenic callus. When using the conventional regeneration medium for Brachiaria (Lenis, 1992;Galindo, 1997), it is not possible to observe the different developmental stages of somatic embryos. In general, most callus show a pre-embryogenic development, and few follow a normal development and regenerate plants. Most of these pre-embryogenic callus tum brown after isolation, its growth is highly inhibited, and finally the tissue dies. Following is described a set of experiments directed to improve induction of somatic embryo formation, and the rate of conversion into plants.Somatic embryogenesis of Brachiaria was induced using various culture media compositions. The basal medium consisting on MS salts and 3% sucrose, for somatic embryos induction was complemented with 2,4-D 2 mg/1 (1). Somatic embryos a globular stage were transferred onto medium containing 1 mg!L and, embryos with advanced stage of development were placed on medium with BAP 0.4 mg!L, NAA 0. 1 mg!L, and GA 3 2 mg/L for embryo elongation. Elongated embryos were then transferred to regeneration medium consisting on MS basal medium 0.1 mg/1 NAA and 0.4 mg/1 kinetin. Most embryos developed into plants when transferred to regeneration medium. The induction, maturation and germination of somatic embryos were reproducible using this new protocol described above. For the first time, the three stages of development (globular, transition and trumpet-like) of Brachiaria somatic embryos were observed. The established protocol allowed plant regeneration at higher averages than those obtained with previous methodology.Evaluation of Effects of Antioxidants Compo!Jnds on Brachiaria Callus Viability Embryogenic calli of B. decumbens from CIAT accession 606 were pfaced on M l medium (Lenis, 1992;Galindo, 1997), supplemented with antioxidant compounds as describe in Table l . None ofthe antioxidant compounds did not decrease cell death rate in Brachiaria (Figure 3). Callus viability was highest at 7 days (75% viability) and 14 days (50% viability) when using activated charcoal (T4), but not significant differences with the other treatments was noted at 21 days. There was a correlation between the size of the callus and its viability. Callus smaller than 2 mm, had a higher probability of browning and dying. Browning increased with time, and it was more evident after the first two weeks.Results suggest that activated charcoal maybe used to delay the browning process at early stages, but is likely that other medium components need to be added in order to stimulate the callus growth during this period. Next experiments will include the addition of various aminoacids and varying the NH4: N03 ratio seeking a higher rate of embryogenic callus development.4 ~----------------------------------------------------~ ~ 3 ----------------------------  The effects of two different concentrations of maltose (3% and 4%) and one of sucrose (3%) were tested on the induction of somatic embryos. Three seed batches, from CIAT accession 606, were also compared. The following seed lots were used :lot 95-065 (harvested on 13-l 0-95) , lot 99-034 (harvested on 18-06-99), and lot 99-005 (harvested on 23-03-99). Nine treatments (three per each seed lot) were evaluated, using 15 mature germinated embryos per treatment. The evaluation was expressed as total number of embryogenic callus developed.No differences in response between seed batches were noted in all three treatment (Figure 4). Maltose 4% maltose seemed to increase embryogenic callus production (Figure 4, batches 2 and 3). But the difference was not statistically different. More replications using maltose 4% will be tested to evaluate the reproducibility of this increased response. Plant regeneration from callus induced with these various concentrations of carbon so urce is in progress, to determine its effect on regeneration capacity.  orpmca Biotechnological advances in the improvement of tropical fruits is progressing albeit slowly, the need for the development of improved varieties of these species through genetic transformation has been identified as an imponant too\\ for achieving this goaL This essentially requires the development of an efficient system of plant regeneration, in addition to the establishment of an efficíent methodology for the genetíc transformation.Equally important is the necessity to standardize in vitro propagation techniques as a method for producing disease free planting material of novel hybrid varieties.Research efforts initiated in July 1999, has resulted in the development of an efficient regeneration protocol and an optimized in vitro propagation procedure for selected varieties.In vitro shoot cultures of five different accessions of lulo were kindly provided by the Centro Frutícola Andino-CEFA (La Uníon, Valle, Colombia). For in vitro propagation different media and techniques were used. These were developed based on the methodologies used for cassava at the BRU (table 1 ).For in vitro regeneration, the explants were pretreated with a sonicator (BransonrM Sonifier 450 watt). For this, whole leaves were submersed in liquid RAS medium containing 2mg/l of BAP or Zeatine, and treated for 1 minute at output level 4. Once sonicated, the explants were divided in leaves and petiols, and placed severa! culture • media in petri dishes (Table 1 ).The first regeneration repon on organogenesis in lulo involved the use of tissues isolated from plants obtained from in vitro-germinated seeds (Hendrix. et al 1987). However, the use of this kind of tissues is not advisable due to the high variability generated through sexual reproduction of this allogamous species.For producing genetically, and physiologically homogeneous tissue for plant regeneration and transformation experiments, a methodology for in vitro propagation was optimized.lnitially, a methodology similar to the one used routinely at the BRU, to micropropagate cassava, was applied with sorne success. This consisted in dividing in vitro cultured plants in micro-cuttings of one inter-nodal segment with one node, and inserting them in agar solidified 4E medium (Mafla, pe::sonal cornrnunication). However, only two of five different varieties could be propagated on this mediurn. The other did not produce adventitious roots and rernain srnall and weak.After testing severa! modifications of the culture medium, and different culture conditions, we found one that was optimal for the development of lulo plantlets in vitro for all 5 different clones tested. These conditions included culturing micro-cuttings in: (i) 4E medium witb half of the concentration of the MS-Salts; (ii) at a temperature of 24 oC and (iii) in tubes covered with vented plastic caps (with polyurethane foam) in order to allow gas exchange.Table 2. Culture media used for the induction of organogenesis in lulo. After 4 weeks of culture of the micro-cuttings under these conditions, the youngest developed leaves were taken for the plant regeneration and transformation studies.A rate of hundred percent survival of the in vitro propagated plantlets was obtained if they were transferred after six weeks of culture to the greenhouse.The optimized micropropagation methodology can be used for rnultiplying lulo varieties for producing disease-free planting material. Sorne existing varieties (like \"La Selva\"; Berna! et al. 1998), and new ones that are being developed (M. Lobo, Corpoica, pers.Communication), are not pure lines but early generations of interspecific hybrids, and would lose their agronomic characteristics if propagated sexual! y.Methodologies for inducing of organogenesis in lulo leaf explants, described by Hendrix et al. ( 1987), were tested with several modifications. There was no success in regenerating plants. The reason for this could be that we used different genotypes in the experiments. Only after applying an ultrasonic pretreatment to the explants (petiole and leaf blade of the first or second youngest leaves of in vitro propagated plants) in a liquid BAP-or Zeatine-containing medium, befare they were placed on the solidified medium, an organogenic response was induced. Supplementing the medium with glucose (Uitzen al. 1995;H. Ramirez, pers. communication) seemed to be also important for the induction of organogenesis. Under the best-tested conditions, 25% of the explants produced adventitious buds. These buds developed plants easily after subculture on hormone-free medium.The methodology for micropropagation of lulo was optimized to produce vigorously growing, well-rooted plantlets of all five genotypes tested. This optimized methodology can be used for both, massive in vitro propagation and the production of genetically and physiologically homogeneous tissue for plant regeneration and genetic transformation. Also, a protocol for in vitro plant regeneration through organogenesis was developed. This is the first protocol developed using tissues from selected, Colombian varieties of lulo. The use of this protocol, or an optimized version of it, may allow the production of transgenic plants of this species.• To carry out experiments for increasing the efficiency of regeneration.• Publish results from studies on micropropagation and regeneration.• Develop a methodology for genetic transformation of selected varieties. A total of 8 presentations were made during the workshop. Three talks dwelled on new methodologies, namely: recent advances in plant genomics and the implications for study and use of genetic diversity; GIS tools for guiding co llection of genetic diversity; and the need to involve farmers in the study of genetic resources. There were 3 genetic diversity assessment reports, conducted in Brazil, Malawi and Tanzania respectively; the other 2 presentations were from CIA T on the study of genetic diversity in wild relatives and the CIA T cassava collection. The presentation on advances in plant genomics, given by Dr Matthew Blair, CIAT bean geneticist, on behalf of Prof Steve Kresovich, was a good introduction to advances and powerful new tools of plant genomics that are redefining traditional thinking on genetic diversity. In particular, the new methods of uncovering biallelic, highly abundant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) promises to provide unprecendented resolution for genetic studies.The studies of genetic diversity assessment of cassava Jand races in two African and one Latín American country provided new evidence on the elucidation of the genetic structure of cassava in its primary anda secondary center of diversity. The studies, conducted with SSR, AFLP, and RAPO markers revealed genetic differentiation in the land races along lines that are not full y understood at the moment, although sorne evidence points to bitter and sweetness of roots, and multiple introductions. Questions raised about the underlying reasons for observed organization of genetic variatio n and the preservation of the genetic structure in the primary and secondary centers of will be the objective of further studies. Finally, we were reminded about the wisdom of properly marrying farmers' knowledge of cassava with molecular tools to make the best interpretation of results.rPICs, the principal donar of MOLCAS has invited the network to apply for funding during the period 2001-2003 , the last session of the workshop was therefore spent brainstorming projects the network considers priority for the future. Anke Van de Hurk, rPGRI scientist based at CIAT, served as a very able facilitator in this process. In the period 2001-2003, the network has prioritized the following studies:• SSR marker study of the role seedlings play in preserving genetic diversity during the disease epidemics (Uganda) • A study of bread adaptation of cassava genotypes in Southem Africa (Malawi, Tanzania, Mozambique, Uganda) • Farmer keys for identification oftheir varieties (Malawi).• A study of bread adaptation of cassava genotypes in Brazil (Brazil) • Continuation ofthe country study of genetic diversity structure (Democratic Republic ofCongo, Ghana and Mozambique) • Development of a set of highly polymorphic markers for studying genetic diversity in cassava• Three members of SB-2 (W Roca, A Bellotti and P Chavarriaga) visited Novartis Agribusiness Biotechnology Research, Inc., (NC-USA) to advance collaboration on technology transfer for cassava transformation (genes for insect resistance and nonantibiotic selection), as well as for bio-assaying gene products against cassava' s main insect pests.• Four members of SB-2 (S. Beebe,M. Blair, C. Martinez and J. Tohme) visited Novartis facilities in Minnesota to discuss marker assisted selection and the Univ of Minnesota to discuss bioinformatics and legume genomics. Previously, J. Tohme had visited Novartis in Toulouse, France to discuss MAS and databases.• Two members of SB-2 (M. Blair and J. Tohme) visited Monsanto and the Danforth center to discuss possible collaboration on cassava and molecular biology.• Novartis-Colombia held conversations with SB-2 members on greenhouse testing of tnú1sgenic maize lines against maize's major insect pests (i.e., Spodoptera spp).• Aventis-Colombia also held conversations with SB-2 members for greenhouse-and field-testing of transgenic rice Iines with resistance to herbicides. They also were interested in developing bioassays for in-vitro testing of fungicides against Mycosphaerella fijiensis (Sigatoka negra).• CIA T jointly with Corporación BIOTEC filed a patent, in Colombia, for in vitro propagation of Anonna muricata (Soursop) via cyclic micro-grafting (SIC # 00076031, 06-l O of 200).• Two staff ( W. Roca and J. Tohme) attended the sustainable agriculture in the new millennium the impact ofbiotechnology on developing countries organized by NGOS (OXF AM and Friend of the Earth). J. Tohme gave a plenary presentation on the role ofbiotech for sustainable agriculture.• Z.Lentini visited DuPont to explore possibilities of strategic alliance collaboration was conducted on April 2000. Main contact Dr. Barbara Valent. . ZL also visited Pioneer to explore possibilities of strategic alliance. Main contact Dr. Paul Olson and Larry Beach. A follow up will continue to define possible collaboration in the area of quality traits.• SB-02 staff took an active part in the IP audit from coordinating activities to participation in the review ofCIAT IP.• Two members of SB-2 (R. Escobar adn J. Tohme visited Maizena-Com Product Intemational, Secciona! Barranquilla. to discuss the transfer of CIA T cassava propagation technologies to the Coast of Colombia. A agreement was reached for training.• The collaboration with the Humboldt coninued in the forms of joint projects and training.• Two assistants from the genome lab received a full ftl lowship to attend two advanced training courses on sequencing and bioinformatics at tbe Cold Spring harbor Lab US . The courses a very competitive and only 12 -15 participants are accepted. • Three staff (C. Mba, E. Gaitan and A. Almeida) received training in the US on the use ofthe microarray system ofHitachi.• SB-02 staff collaborated with CorpoiCA, Cenicana, Corporación BIOTEC and Cenicafe researchers and provided molecular biology and transformation expertise to these centers.• CGIAR workshop on nutritional quality, IRRI, October, 1999. Talk entitled \"Research on Trace Minerals in Common Bean\", (Steve Beebe, Alma Viviana Gonzalez, Judith Rengifo)• Beebe, S., A. Velasco, y F. Pedraza. 1999. \"Marcaje de genes para rendimiento en condiciones de alto y bajo fósforo el las accesiones de frijol G21212 y BAT 881 \". Poster presented at V1 Meeting ofRENAFE, November, 1999, Salvador, Brazil.• Cortéz D, Almeida A, Escobar R and Chavarriaga P. lnvited speakers at \"IV Congreso Colombiano de Genética, Popayán\" 21-25 February 2000. The following talks were given: \"Conociendo el Germoplasma Vegetal Mediante Marcadores Moleculares\", \"Mapeo Genómico\", \"Plantas Transgénicas: La Polémica\", \"Preservando y Propagando la Diversidad del Germoplasma\"• Chavarriaga P' , \"Herramientas de la Biotecnología para Reforzar la Agricultura en Colombia: El Caso de la Yuca\" , invited speaker at \"Seminario Tópicos Actuales de Investigación en Genética Conmemorativo 15 Años Grupo GETEG\", sponsored by GETEG-UNIV ALLE-ACCB, June 6-7, 2000, Cali, Colombia.• Escobar R, \"El uso de la biotecnologia en la conservacion y multiplicacion de la yuca\" , invited speaker at \"Seminario Tópicos Actuales de Investigación en Genética Conmemorativo 15 Años Grupo GETEG\", sponsored by GETEG-UNIV ALLE-ACCB, June 6-7, 2000, Cali, Colombia.• Chavarriaga P. lnvited speaker at \"XXXIV Congreso Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Octubre 27 al 30 de 1999, Santiago de Cali, Colombia\". Panel I: Genetically Modified Organisms.produce a probability distribution model. This is used to map the probability surface from a set of interpolated climate grids.Alexander Gladkov, our Windows Application Developer left CIA T in October 1999, but the job was so well in hand that writing up and publishing the manual and CD-ROM went ahead without majar hitches. The software was officially released on 18th January 2000 and an email notice was sent out to potentially interested scientists. A World Wide Web page was available at the time of release and took 1785 sessions with download of ! ,552Mb of data in the first week. This has now fallen of toa steady rate of about 120 sessions per '.¡eek.The Users Group listserver at http://www. Florru\\1ap-CIA T. Qrg now has 102 registered users. It is being used to service the software with answers to questions from users and to fix a few problems that have occurred with the installations. Of the 92 registered members whose country of origin can be identified from their email address, the numbers in the following list shows that the users ofFloraMap are wídely díspersed. It should be noted however that these are only those users who have registered with the listserver. Many more copies ofFioraMap have, in fact, been distributed.Many of the users are employing FloraMap to map plant species distributions from germplasm collections, herbaria or from sample surveys. One user in Bolivia is mapping the distribution of many hundreds of endemic species. He requested a custom made climate grid for Bolivia to speed up the work and we were happy to oblige. Other users are finding new ways to use FloraMap.One set of users in Mexico is using it to predict the spread of Cactoblastus which is threatening native cacti in northern Mexico and over the border into the USA. 1 hope shortly to make a l km climate grid available to them for Mexico. This is being produced by Oswaldo Tellez-Valdez in the laboratory of Dr. Mike Hutchinson in Canberra, Australia. He is using data from the CIAT climate database and data from the ERIC database that ha ve been pre-processed in CIA T.More adventurous users are attempting to use FloraMap for determining, invading weed populations, small mammal distributions and even coastal and estuarine marine life. It remains to be seen how successful sorne of these efforts will turn out.• Extend FloraMap coverage world wide using IWMI lO min World Water & Climate Atlas files .• Incorporate high precision climate grids, especially for mountainous areas. Moving to a 1 km grid will increase the data density almost 400 times.• Rewrite FloraMap data storage structures and data retrieval routines to cope with increased data density.• Further refinements to the probability analysis, including, amongst other things, an automatic transform for rainfall which will take the onus off the user to normalize this variate. There are subtle differences in the adaptation range of the two varieties. lea Pijao is generally thought to have a better adaptation to cooler climates, hence the better adaptation in Mexico. the Central American highlands and southern Brazil. Whereas Porilllo Sintetice would marginally out perform it in the Brazilian Cerrados. These maps were plotted from the test algorithms without any adjustment of the adaptation ranges that were caJculated directly from the IB YA.1 \"1 yield and variance data. • There is a great deal to do in testing the algorithms, the tests to date on the clustering algorithm have been on random networks. The fact that they work the same on the IBY AN network leads me to think that the 'S mall Worlds' effect is effectively allowing the IBY AN network to behave as random. This needs to be rigorously tested .• The probability calculations have to be put on a sound mathematical footing.Including validation from the available yield data sets.• Ways have to found of making do with few points in a probability cluster. This work is also needed for FloraMap when using small accession data sets.• Although we may be able to use sorne of the software controls from FloraMap, there will be considerable work in designing and coding new software for the application.D.F. Cortes, F. Rojas, J. TohmeWe are establishing a Computational Molecular Biology Laboratory (CMBL) in order to provide CIAT with the necessary tools and training to approach biological questions from a systems~wide perspective Three different operating systems as platform for data analysis software wee established: Unix, Macintosh and Microsoft. The following program have been either acquired from offiicial dealers or from the public domain: . Sequencher, Clustal, PHYLIP, Paup, PHRAP, PHRED, Primer design, MapMaker and Consed.A Sun Server was acquired in order to increase the speed in the BLAST search and formatting database with the sequences obtained in the BRU work,. A copy of the NCBI database as well as the BLAST programs were installed in the server (http://gene2/BLAST/inicio.htm). In addition toa local web site had been created to make available databases and BLAST programs through Internet browsers into CIAT, as weU as more accessible and friendly the work in the BLAST searches.:' . NCBrs sequence ;ímllanty ~eh tool des1gned to support analysís of oocleotíde and . :, :: proteín databucs. We are developing a database to store the information from the RAPO analysis of genetic diversity of the core collection of Andean common beans. Our first step was to find a software system for storing, handling and presenting images within a relational database. Fortunately, a new version of the Oracle software, v. 7.3 .2, has been released which has these capabilities, as well as a more user-friendly interface and the capacity to be loaded onto the web . As a relational database, Oracle has the advantage of being an efficient program for organizing and managing data that has multiple layers of relational structure and which is based on a series of data tables. This software provides a set of tools for building new interfaces for a database and asking new questions of that database. The three principal components are tools to generate worksheets, reports and graphic images. The program DEVELOPER/2000, part of the Oracle suite, has a web-compatible format that uses windows and buttons to allow for interactive searches and queries. Oracle software is the standard program for databasing the information from the breeding programs at CIAT. We hope that this preliminary database will be the basis for collecting genotypic information on common bean and a dynamic analysis too! allowing researchers to ask such questions as: how many polymorphisrns can 1 expect when comparing two varieties that might be potential parents? Which polymorphisms distinguish one variety from another?A total of 330 photographs of RAPO banding pattems were scanned and analyzed using the software package Quantity One from Biorad. These represented 1 O primers run on 680 genotypes. A total of !51 bands were scored, averaging 15 polymorphic bands per RAPO primer. Molecular weights were estimated by comparing the most intense bands to the lambda-Pstl molecular weight size standard. The annotated gel images were loaded into the database using the Oracle graphics development too! and the estimated band sizes were loaded using the Oracle worksheet development too!. The finished database has three main windows for \"gel\", \"accession\" and \"bands\" as shown in Figure l . Each of these has a datasheet forrnat with columns and entries. The \"gel\" window indicates the center of origin for the genotypes, the molecular technique used, the primer used and shows all ofthe genotypes run together in a given gel. Clicking on a genotypes entry brings up all the sized bands for that individual. Embedded windows are used to call additional items such as the gel images as shown in Figure 2. The \"accession\" window can be used to compare the markers present in two genotypes (Figure 3). Activities are realized either through the menu bar or action buttons. A console line indicates the status and location of the user. The first version of this database was written in Spanish.  Future plans are to load additional molecular rnarker data into the present database. We hope to place the database on the internet using Microsoft Interdev or with the Oracle software too!, Web-DB. With either systern, the database can be accessed from any type of computer, via cornrnon web-browsers such as Netscape or Internet Explorer. To date, the database contains RAPD fingerprints but could also accornrnodate data frorn other rnultiple-copy rnarker systerns such as AFLP fingerprints. The inforrnation stored in this Oracle database could be arnenable to incorporation into databases that use other software applications. The basic components of this database will be easy to transfer to ICIS (International Crop lnforrnation Systern http://www.cgiar.org/icis), which is the database systern for rnanaging and integrating genetic resource, crop irnprovernent and crop management information of the CG-systern. IPHIS (International Phaseolus lnforrnation System -http://www.ciat. cgiar.org/icisO is the database that has been developed at CIAT to hold bean-breeding data. Molecular data is foreseen to be an important part of these databases in the future. It would also be interesting to link the data on genetic diversity with the location of individual rnarkers on the bean genetic rnap. Many of the RAPD prirners used in the diversity study ha ve also been genetic rnapped at CIA T and therefore the chrornosornal location of the rnarkers can often be inferred. A comparative rnapping• Evaluación de la compatibilidad entre clones de guanábano (Annona muricata L.) y patrones de diferentes especies de anonáceas, microinjertados in vitro\", approved by \"Fundación para la Promoción de la Investigación y la Tecnología -Banco de la República• Caracterización molecular y agromorfológica de la variabilidad genética nativa de guanábana (A1mona muricata L.) y especies de anonáceas relacionadas\" approved by Colciencias.• Integration of biofertilisation in bean cultivation by optlmtsmg the use of the Rhizobium-bean symbiosis\": a project to work with Mexico and with the Catholic University of Leuven on the topic of Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation (SNF) was tentatively approved by the Belgian government. This will permit follow-up on the gene tagging work initiated severa! years ago to improve SNF under conditions of low P availability.• An Integrated Approach for Genetic Improvement of Aluminum Resistance of Crops on Low-fertility Acid Soils\", to explore aluminum tolerance in bean and Brachiaria was approved by BMZ-Germany. The bean component includes on-site selection of aluminum resistant genotypes in Mrica, and will serve to maintain contact between headquarters and Mrican breeders.• Broadening the Genetic Base of Cornmon Beans (Phaseo/us vulgaris L.) through Biotechnology\" : A project was approved by AGCD-Belgium to extend activities carried out previously with Ghent University on interspecific hybridization and transforrnation. • Wallace Genetics Foundation \"The development of molecular markers for breeding of common beans\". Approved, April, 2000.• Project proposal: Gene Flow Analysis for Assessing the Safety of Bio-Engineered Crops in the Tropics. BMZ. Approved September 2000. Euro 766,938 for three years.• Sustainable management of P and N to improve production and quality of peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) in Latín America\" , a project submitted to the European Union with partners in Belgium, France, Scotland, Spain, Cuba, Argentina, Mexico and Brazil, that will permit exploring further applications in the use of FloraMap in predicting crop productivity across environments.• Broadening the Genetic Base of Common Beans (Phaseo/us vulgaris L.) through Biotechnology\", the same project that was approved by AGCD-Belgium with Ghent University, was submitted for extension.• Interspecific solutions to intractable problems of common bean: Understanding the genome of the secondary gene pool to facilitate interspecific transfer of genes and broadening the genetic base of common bean\". This is a request for extension of a project that was ongoing for the previous four years, in partnership with Gembloux University, to exploit the diversity of P. coccineus and P. polyanthus.• Breeding beans for resistance to drought, mites and root rots for Iran, a proposal for extension of collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture of Iran that would incluse gene tagging for drought resistance.• Establishment and operation of a pilot in vitro base gene bank under cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen using cassava (Manihot esculenta) as a model crop\", a project submitted to the GTZ in partnership with CORPOICA and two German Institutions (DSMZ and F AL), presented by COLCIENCIAS in the World Fair Expo-Hannover 2000.• Collaborative project CIAT-CffiCM for deployment oftransgenic rice plants resistant to rice hoja blanca disease: from field testing to cultivar release under tropical environments, currently under review by Dr. Gary Toenniessen. The Rockefeller Foundation• Real digestibility and stimulating effect of phaseolin, the bean storage protein, on endogenous secretion in rats\", a proposal developed with the Universidad Nacional de Palmira, to study the effects of different morphotypes of phaseolin protein on endogenous protein loss from the gut, to be submitted to the Volkswagon Foundation.• Exploiting diversity among genes pools of common bean for underprivileged farmers in the highlands ofMesoamerica and Ecuador\", a pre-proposal developed with NARS of Guatemala, Mexico and Ecuador, and with Michigan State University and submitted to the McKnight F oundation, to extend the benefits of breeding to farmers that have been bypassed by past efforts in varietal development.• Breeding staple crops for improved micronutrient value\", a concept note subrnitted to the Gates Foundation, to improve the nutritional status of bean consumers in Africa and Middle Arnerica.• Mineral-rich grains for better nutrition: Beans with higher zinc and iron for African farmers and consumers\": a concept note developed for submission to USAID-Uganda.• Avances en la elucidación del mecanismo de acción del fungicida Pyrimethanil en el control de Sigatoka Negra (Mycosphaere/la fijiensis) en Musaceas\", a concept note subrnitted for financing toA VENTIS-Colombia, in partnership with A VENTIS. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"046524d3d740b20e26169bd191b36c82","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/466cbf7f-f351-4625-8aa4-ea098763c9ed/retrieve","id":"-2031937337"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d0e86ca0-7a72-498e-b36f-339d36e30957","pagecount":"130","content":"PRODUCE -Ministerio de producción SENASA -Servicio nacional de Sanidad agraria Agradecimientos: a todos los pequeños agricultores, colegas e instituciones que han trabajado de manera conjunta con el proyecto inCOpa en el desarrollo del sector papa en el perú.Buenas prácticas para el desarrollo de la cadena productiva de la papa: Experiencias con el proyecto inCOpa en el perúEl proyecto innovación y Competitividad de la papa (inCOpa) del Centro internacional de la papa (Cip), se ejecuta en cooperación con la agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y Cooperación (COSUDE) y articula a una serie de socios públicos y privados, quienes se orientan a mejorar la competitividad de la cadena de la papa, con énfasis en pequeños productores, aprovechando las nuevas oportunidades del mercado y promoviendo el uso de la papa peruana en el marco de una institucionalidad públicoprivada que favorezca la modernización del sector. a través de su trabajo, ha demostrado que la investigación y el desarrollo tienen que ir de la mano para obtener impactos efectivos a nivel de los pequeños agricultores. inCOpa es un proyecto que forma parte de un esfuerzo regional llamado iniciativa papa andina, en cuyo marco se diseñaron y desarrollaron los instrumentos que se han aplicado en cada una de las tres fases en que operó (entre el 2002 y 2010). La evaluación final realizada a inCOpa indica que el mayor efecto que ha logrado en sus tres fases se produce en esta última, y consiste en poner en aGEnDa naCiOnaL a La papa (en general) con el propósito de mejorar su competitividad. En paralelo, se empezaron a mostrar los resultados del trabajo realizado con las papas nativas que fueron incorporadas con nombre y apellido en un proceso de articulación con el mercado donde encontraron un espacio para diferenciarse.Uno de los hallazgos claves de la evaluación fue la identificación de Buenas prácticas, definidas como un conjunto de acciones que forman parte de un proceso que es ejemplar o que destaca por si mismo o por el resultado final alcanzado. En este sentido, puede ser un proyecto completo o alguna actividad de ese proyecto; y, se puede materializar en una herramienta de gestión o en una técnica o forma de proceder. Una recomendación planteada consistió en que se sistematicen las Buenas prácticas identificadas y es en ese contexto que la presente publicación muestra el proceso seguido en cuatro acciones desarrolladas por el proyecto: i) Día nacional de la papa; ii) Grupo Temático de Semilla; iii) plataforma de la Tunta; iv) alianza con el sector gastronómico. para la selección de estas Buenas prácticas se han utilizado cinco criterios: i) Contribuye a mejorar una situación o la situación de quienes se quiere favorecer; ii) involucra un trabajo en equipo: es participativa; iii) Tiene elementos innovadores: es creativa; iv) Es social, cultural, ambiental o económicamente sustentable; v) puede ser replicable y por lo tanto tiene que se transferible.Esperamos que esta publicación sea de utilidad para los diferentes proyectos y experiencias que se vienen implementando para promover la investigación y el desarrollo en el perú y que las Buenas prácticas sistematizadas puedan ser replicadas en otros productos y contextos. agradecemos al equipo de proexpansión, Gladys Triveño y Katia Samanamud que realizaron un arduo trabajo de sistematización del presente documento.La papa es el cuarto alimento más importante en el mundo, por lo que su papel para garantizar la seguridad alimentaria mundial presente y futura es, sin lugar a dudas, clave. Tiene como centro de origen el perú, donde existen más de tres mil variedades y donde hoy en día más de 600 mil familias de pequeños productores se dedican a cultivarlas.La cadena productiva de la papa es una sucesión de actores y procesos sociales de gran complejidad, que se inicia con la producción de semillas, pasando por los agricultores, procesadores y comercializadores a distintos niveles, para terminar en el consumidor final.Lastimosamente, durante mucho tiempo, las mejoras e innovaciones que se producían en esta cadena fueron pocas y beneficiaron a los eslabones con mayor poder de negociación, estancándose la competitividad de la rama productiva y dejando en una situación vulnerable a los agricultores.Las cuatro buenas prácticas que se presentan a continuación son experiencias que fueron parte del Proyecto Innovación y Competitividad de la Papa (INCOPA) que formó parte de la Iniciativa Papa Andina, un programa regional implementado por el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) y financiado por la Agencia Suiza para el Desarrollo y la Cooperación (COSUDE).Como su nombre lo dice, el proyecto INCOPA tuvo como objetivo mejorar la competitividad de la cadena de la papa, poniendo énfasis en los pequeños productores, sacando partido de las nuevas oportunidades que se presentaban en el mercado y promoviendo el uso de la papa peruana, en un marco institucional que incluyó tanto entidades públicas como privadas y que favoreció la modernización del sector.La estrategia de intervención de inCOpa fue a nivel de segundo y tercer piso, lo cual explica que para actuar haya diseñado instrumentos que le permitieron desarrollar y promover innovaciones comerciales, tecnológicas e institucionales, sin actuar directamente sino facilitando procesos, involucrando a otros actores y empoderando a los mismos. asimismo, uno de los aspectos clave en el desempeño de inCOpa fue haber entendido que el desarrollo debe ir de la mano con la innovación para obtener impactos efectivos en el nivel de los pequeños productores de papa. Dicha innovación permitió producir ideas creativas, alrededor de las cuales fue posible el impulso de mejoras en beneficio de la cadena productiva.parte de los instrumentos o estrategias utilizadas para actuar y lograr los objetivos planteados fueron estas cuatro buenas prácticas que se desarrollan a continuación. aunque se han ejecutado a distintos niveles de la cadena productiva de la papa, todas comparten ciertos elementos comunes que han hecho posible la generación de resultados positivos. Uno de ellos es el involucramiento de actores provenientes de distintos sectores, cuyos intereses convergieron y se reflejaron en su compromiso por sacar adelante los respectivos proyectos. así también, la intersectorialidad significó que se compartieran ideas, recursos, responsabilidades y acciones.Entre los distintos actores, destaca la presencia del sector privado en todas las buenas prácticas, lo que muestra que la construcción de relaciones de largo plazo con todos los agentes del entorno deviene en una mayor capacidad de la cadena para crear valor.El estilo de trabajo participativo y la confluencia de actores de distintas esferas, incluyendo la cobertura de los medios de comunicación, consiguieron poner a la papa en la agenda nacional y revalorizarla en ese proceso. Esto a su vez agilizó la consecución de los objetivos propuestos y generó conciencia en la colectividad sobre la importancia de esta cadena productiva.Es importante señalar que en el caso del Día nacional de la papa, el responsable directo de la actividad es el Ministerio de agricultura; sin embargo, inCOpa facilitó la institucionalización de la celebración y tuvo un rol protagónico para acercar al sector público con el sector privado y dar otra dimensión a este evento. Esto explica que haya sido considerada dentro de este grupo de experiencias con las que este proyecto cierra su tiempo de ejecución en el perú, que comenzó en el 2001.El documento se ha estructurado en cinco secciones, además de esta introducción. En la primera se esboza un breve marco conceptual de los criterios bajo los cuales se analizan las buenas prácticas que se presentan, las cuatro secciones corresponden a cada una de las experiencias que se desarrollan.Cada buena práctica está estructurada en once apartados que en conjunto buscan explicar cómo se lograron los objetivos, cuatro de esos apartados tienen como propósito facilitar la compresión de la experiencia y los otro siete desarrollan la buena práctica desde el punto de vista de los criterios básicos que permiten calificarla como tal.Los apartados que han sido incluidos en el desarrollo de las cuatro prácticas para efectos de facilitar su compresión son: una ficha técnica que contiene datos de identificación a nivel de fechas y actores claves; un resumen de la buena práctica; una descripción de la buena práctica en el contexto de la problemática que está detrás del tema que se aborda, el contexto donde fue desarrollada y la importancia del tema que aborda; y, una reflexión sobre las principales lecciones aprendidas que deja cada una de las buenas prácticas.Los apartados que recogen el desarrollo de los criterios que caracterizan una buena práctica son: la innovación, la sostenibilidad, la participación y la asociatividad, el impacto positivo, la eficiencia, la transferibilidad y la inclusión.i) la innovación está asociada con la novedad en las formas de actuación o en las estrategias particulares con las que se han afrontado los procesos o actividades para lograr los resultados previstos.ii) la sostenibilidad tiene que ver con la fortaleza de la experiencia para enfrentar escenarios adversos que incluyen el fin de un proyecto, el final de una fuente de financiamiento, el cambio de liderazgo, entre otros.iii) la participación y asociatividad están asociadas al nivel de participación de los actores, en este caso, de la cadena productiva y las alianzas o coaliciones que hubieran podido crearse entre el sector público y privado como resultado de la experiencia promovida.iv) el impacto positivo tiene que ver con los cambios o efectos de la experiencia en alguno de los eslabones de la cadena productiva. Estos cambios se traducen en resultados que deben ser medibles, visibles y positivos.v) la eficiencia está orientada a evaluar la capacidad que tuvo la experiencia para conseguir la mayor cantidad de resultados con los recursos invertidos.vi) la transferibilidad mide la capacidad de replicabilidad de la experiencia, aquella que no puede ser transferible a otras áreas o situaciones no puede ser una buena práctica, aún cuando los contextos sean distintos, debe ser posible reproducir los elementos centrales.vii) la inclusión está relacionada con el beneficio de poblaciones en desventaja que e puede generar como resultado de la ejecución de la buena práctica.El ánimo principal de este documento es dar un aporte a la sociedad civil, sentando las bases para que nuevas entidades cooperantes y OnG puedan recuperar los resultados de estas prácticas, aprendiendo de las estrategias que se plantearon, las metodologías que se siguieron y los errores que se cometieron, para eventualmente replicarlas, en este y otros ámbitos de la economía.1. DEFiniCión DE BUEna pRáCTiCa Una buena práctica es un \"proceso, método o actividad que se considera más efectivo para alcanzar un resultado determinado\". Tiene que ver con la forma más eficiente y eficaz de lograr un objetivo, a partir de un procedimiento que es susceptible de repetirse y ser exitoso en el tiempo para un gran grupo de personas u organizaciones. a pesar de lo anterior, una buena práctica funcionará dentro de cierto conjunto de circunstancias o condiciones, por lo que necesitará modificarse para que pueda adaptarse a otras situaciones.para algunos, puede ser una experiencia desarrollada en el marco de una intervención de investigación o de desarrollo que, en su totalidad o en parte, funciona para cumplir el propósito u objetivo general.Distintos actores plantean una serie de criterios para calificar una experiencia como buena práctica.para efectos de esta sistematización, se consideran los siguientes: impacto positivo, innovación, sostenibilidad, participación, asociatividad, eficiencia, transferibilidad e inclusión.a continuación, se desarrolla cada uno de ellos:Los resultados son evidentemente una variable esencial para la identificación de una buena práctica.Los cambios que se generan deben ser: positivos: esto significa que deben resultar en beneficios para la población a la que el proyecto está dirigido. Los cambios deben poder generar mejoras en la calidad de vida de las personas en el área temática en que intervengan (empleo, salud, educación, empoderamiento, etc.).Visibles: aspecto que es especialmente importante cuando la continuidad de la buena práctica requiere del visto bueno de ciertos actores, que pueden ser, por ejemplo, quienes brindan financiamiento o el propio grupo beneficiario, que va a continuar con la práctica en la medida que sienta que le reporta utilidad.Medibles: resulta importante que se hayan definido previamente metas, las cuales servirán de referencia para evaluar la magnitud del impacto. La mayor objetividad posible es deseable cuando se establecen las metas a cumplir; aunque los objetivos pueden ser de carácter cuantitativo como cualitativo. Sin embargo, lo anterior no significa que una práctica deja de ser buena si no cumple a cabalidad los objetivos inicialmente propuestos. En muchos casos, los objetivos pueden superarse, pero otras veces eso no sucede y pueden surgir imprevistos que impidan su consecución.por otro lado, es común que los cambios que una determinada actividad o proceso generen sean distintos a los inicialmente previstos. Tales cambios no planificados suelen denominarse externalidades, y pueden ser positivas como negativas. En algunas situaciones, por ejemplo, el involucramiento de ciertos actores puede superar las expectativas iniciales, de manera tal que su contribución al proyecto sea mayor y genere beneficios indirectos adicionales. no obstante, es también posible la existencia de impactos negativos no previstos. Estos deben ponerse como contrapeso en la balanza a la hora de evaluar los resultados.Las buenas prácticas suelen generar efectos multiplicadores, los cuales son muy difíciles de prever en un inicio, e incluso cuando la práctica ha terminado puede resultar complicado medirlos en su totalidad, por ser muchos los agentes que indirectamente se benefician y porque la posibilidad de replicar el proceso en cuestión significa que los efectos van a generarse mucho después de que la práctica se considere finalizada.Una segunda variable crítica es el capital humano. Muchas prácticas requieren de un know-how específico para poder tener éxito, el cual puede estar referido al manejo de una nueva tecnología, o a herramientas de gestión eficaces. Es lógico que no todos los actores que participan en el proyecto posean este know-how; sin embargo, se espera que mientras dure la práctica, se vaya capacitando a los agentes que posteriormente van a quedar a cargo de su ejecución. Esto es especialmente importante cuando dentro de los objetivos de la práctica está el empoderamiento de ciertos grupos beneficiarios.De otro lado, hay prácticas que nacen con un horizonte delimitado, es decir, su ejecución finaliza luego del periodo en que se ha previsto que se cumplirá con los objetivos propuestos. En este caso, la sostenibilidad no hace referencia a la continuidad de la práctica, sino a que los impactos que esta ha generado sean duraderos. por ejemplo, si el proyecto consistió en generar ciertos cambios de conducta en un grupo objetivo, tales cambios deben ser permanentes, incluso cuando el grupo ya no recibe el estímulo inicial.Lo óptimo es que las personas que reciben el beneficio directo de un proyecto sean parte fundamental del mismo y en consecuencia conozcan el proceso desarrollado y participen activamente del mismo.por tal motivo, en la medida de lo posible, debe dársele a los beneficiarios oportunidades de expresión, e incluso actuar como voceros suyos en los casos en que sea necesario.Una razón práctica para promover la participación de los agentes beneficiarios es poder entender cuáles son sus necesidades reales y más urgentes, para poder dirigir el proyecto hacia su satisfacción.La participación activa hará más probable que el proyecto sea aceptado y que por tanto su aplicación no encuentre obstáculos (protestas públicas, indiferencia, etc.)En el caso de que las buenas prácticas tengan un objetivo de inclusión, la participación de los agentes víctimas de exclusión es importante en la medida que implica su empoderamiento, favoreciendo su autonomía y su capacidad para tomar decisiones. En un contexto como el mencionado, en que existen grupos excluidos, la diversidad cultural puede ser un factor sumamente importante, que habrá que manejar con sumo cuidado, a fin de poder aprovecharlo en beneficio del proyecto.2.5 asociatividad implica el trabajo conjunto y organizado de distintas entidades. Mientras más tipos de actores aporten con sus recursos al proyecto, este adquirirá mayor perspectiva para enfrentar los problemas y plantear las soluciones. Se plantea que una buena práctica debe contar con la participación de al menos dos de las siguientes entidades (Magelsini, 2003, pág. 16):Gobierno, en sus distintos niveles: nacional, regional y local •Empresas del sector privado • Organismos internacionales. • Centros académicos y/o de investigación • asociaciones de profesionales y/gremios •Hay que tener en cuenta que mientras más sea el número de asociaciones que participen y mientras más distintas sean en cuanto a los objetivos que persiguen, más complicado será llegar a consensos, lo cual puede afectar al desarrollo de la práctica. El nivel de compromiso de los participantes es una variable decisiva para el éxito del proyecto. por este motivo, es importante que el proyecto adquiera una identidad propia de la cual se sientan parte los distintos agentes y que impida protagonismos individuales innecesarios. Es importante que los agentes sientan que están contribuyendo significativamente al proyecto y que van a verse beneficiados por este.Una práctica es preferible a otra si puede alcanzar los mismos resultados empleando menores recursos, o, visto de otro modo, puede tener mayores impactos positivos empleando los mismos recursos. La eficiencia es una cualidad fundamental en situaciones en donde los recursos son escasos, que suele ser el común denominador en la mayoría de proyectos.La sistematización de una buena práctica pierde todo sentido si no va a poder ser de utilidad en el futuro, en otro lugar, grupo objetivo, actividad, área temática, etc. Si el éxito de un proyecto depende de circunstancias muy específicas o requirió de ciertos recursos con los que ya no es posible contar, entonces no debe considerarse una buena práctica, por más buenos resultados que haya generado.Evidentemente, no se trata de replicar, tal y como se llevó a cabo, un determinado proyecto. Hay que tener en cuenta que los actores y circunstancias van a variar, por lo que la buena práctica necesitará una adaptación.La pregunta de si una metodología que funcionó bien en un caso particular va a ser exitosa en otra situación es totalmente válida en este punto. para responderla, deben tenerse en cuenta variables de tipo tecnológico, cultural, legal, financiero, etc. Como se ha dicho, las buenas prácticas admiten modificaciones; pero si estas implican cambiar elementos centrales, es posible que, o pierdan la clave de su éxito, o los cambios sean demasiado costosos en relación a los resultados que se espera obtener. En este sentido, corresponde hacerse las siguientes preguntas: ¿Son competentes los actores que van a llevar el proyecto a ejecución?, ¿Cuentan con los conocimientos técnicos, las capacidades de organización y gestión necesarias?, ¿Se cuenta con los recursos financieros necesarios? ; Y si no, ¿es factible conseguirlos? ahora bien, por lo general la posibilidad de imitar, previa adaptación, una práctica no debiera ser algo insólito. Sin embargo, mucho influye la forma en que la buena práctica se transmite, de ahí la importancia de la sistematización. Esta última debe ser una interpretación clara, genuina y de carácter crítico de los procesos que se siguieron, a fin de que puedan ser aprehendidos y puestos en práctica en otros contextos correctamente.Si bien el objetivo central de una buena práctica no tiene que ser necesariamente el beneficio de poblaciones en desventaja o que son víctimas de alguna forma de discriminación (por raza, lengua, género, etc.), esta se hace más valiosa si además se actúa con responsabilidad social, para luego de cierto tiempo mejorar la calidad de vida de grupos menos favorecidos.La inclusión puede darse en distintos niveles y grados de involucramiento. por ejemplo, se puede insertar a ciertas comunidades al inicio de una cadena productiva, como proveedores de materias primas, o al final de ésta, como vendedores de bienes o servicios.En muchos casos se encontrará que los grupos en cuestión ya eran parte de la cadena; pero el reto está en que su participación se produzca en condiciones favorables y equitativas. En otros casos, la práctica puede favorecer a los grupos tradicionalmente excluidos de manera indirecta.Tal es el caso, cuando la práctica crea o facilita el acceso a ciertos bienes o servicios que significan alcanzar mejores estándares de vida (el acceso a agua potable o alumbrado eléctrico por ejemplo), o la generación de nuevas oportunidades de negocios que son un primer impulso para entrar a una especie de círculo virtuoso (como el acceso a tecnologías más eficientes). a continuación, se presenta una matriz donde se analizan algunas de las buenas prácticas identificadas en el proyecto inCOpa, a la luz de los criterios seleccionados.Cuadro 1. Resumen de las características de las cuatro Buenas prácticas.Día nacional de la papa Grupo temático de semillas plataforma de la tunta La alianza con el sector gastronómico innovación Cuestiona los enfoques tradicionales. Enfoca el problema y el uso de recursos de manera creativa. propone soluciones novedosas. Fue el primer antecedente de la celebración nacional de una cadena productiva, después del pisco (tiene ocho años de vigencia).Se convirtió en el instrumento estratégico para la promoción de tecnología de producción de semilla de calidad de papas nativas. La plataforma de actores fue un instrumento para promover el desarrollo productivo y comercial de la tunta.Esta plataforma funcionó bajo unos Códigos sociales que permitió fortalecer a organización, innovar tecnológicamente y acceder a nuevos mercados.Se apalancó el proceso de revalorización de un producto en el apoyo de un sector en crecimiento y con una imagen moderna.Cambios duraderos en las instituciones, políticas, sistemas de gestión, independientemente de la ayuda financiera y técnica inicialmente provista. Efectos en las personas e instituciones. incremento del consumo per cápita de papa. articulación de todos los eslabones de la cadena. introducción de papas nativas.La condición de evento nacional convirtió a la celebración en un asunto de todos los niveles de Gobierno. Revalorización de la imagen de la papa.Se llamó la atención sobre la problemática existente en la cadena.Creación del Registro nacional de papa nativa.Transferencia de conocimiento sobre nuevas formas de reproducción de semilla: técnica de aeroponía. Exoneración al instituto nacional de innovación agraria -inia del pago por derecho de inscripción de variedades de papa nativas en el Registro de Cultivares Comerciales.Creación del Registro nacional de papa nativa. La formulación de la Guía de Buenas prácticas. Fortalecimiento de 11 organizaciones de productores.La diferenciación de la producción de tunta del Consorcio Los aymaras. La elaboración de 2 normas Técnicas de la Tunta.La capacitación de 800 productores de ilave en la aplicación de la Guía de Buenas prácticas.La difusión de la tecnología a comunidades vecinas.La mejora de la calidad del producto final permitió pasar de S/. Transferibilidad.posibilidad de repetir, previa adaptación, la práctica, en otros lugares, temas, productos, etc. La experiencia puede ser replicada, por ejemplo, Día de los Granos andinos.La experiencia puede ser replicada en cualquier cadena productiva que requiera de semilla de calidad.La buena práctica puede replicarse para distintos productos. Un ejemplo sería el de los quesos tipo paria o el tocosh, preparado con atributos terapéuticos de antibiótico.El apalancamiento de la revalorización de un producto a partir de la gastronomía es posible aplicarlo a otro tipo de cadenas.Combate la discriminación y las desigualdades. La celebración del Día nacional promovió la articulación de los eslabones iniciales de la cadena (productores) con los actores finales. Esto se tuvo presente en todas las actividades, incluso en las del aip, cuando se reconoció el aporte de los productores conservacionistas.La inclusión de los productores se produjo a través de los socios de inCOpa que han trasladado los resultados del acceso a la tecnología de aeroponía a los pequeños productores. La esencia de la plataforma giró alrededor del trabajo con las organizaciones de productores.El sector gastronómico ha demostrado una gran sensibilidad con la problemática de la cadena y los productores forman parte de estructura de las ferias gastronómicas anuales.FiCHa TÉCniCa: Día nacional de la papa La buena práctica de la experiencia del Día nacional de la papa corresponde a la intervención apoyada por inCOpa para impulsar la cadena productiva, a través de la celebración de un Día nacional, lo cual fue posible en el marco de la aplicación del Enfoque participativo de Cadenas productivas (EpCp) que posibilitó la articulación de una serie de actores públicos y privados de la cadena de la papa.El interés en promover esta intervención surgió desde 2001, pero no fue hasta el año 2004, cuando se convirtió en un reclamo nacional. Dicho año, el perú organizó un conjunto de actividades relacionadas con la celebración del año internacional del arroz declarado por la OnU. Bajo el mensaje, el arroz es vida, se le reconoció como alimento básico de la mitad de la población del mundo y con un consumo per cápita mundial de 30kg por año.En ese contexto, se planteó la posibilidad de gestar un Día nacional para la papa, con doble propósito:recuperar su posicionamiento respecto a productos sustitutos como el arroz y el trigo e impulsar la demanda en la época en que los precios de la papa caen por exceso de oferta (meses de mayo y junio).La Dirección General de promoción agraria (DGpa) del Ministerio de agricultura (MinaG) empezó con las acciones de incidencia política a nivel del propio sector con el fin de lograr que se emitan las disposiciones correspondientes que declaren el Día nacional de la papa.Una vez conseguido el objetivo, se constituyó una Comisión Multisectorial con el objetivo de involucrar a todos los actores que pudieran aportar a la definición de un grupo de actividades para celebrar el Día nacional de la papa. El objetivo que se planteó la Comisión fue diseñar un programa de actividades que permitiera poner en valor la papa, alimento fundamental de las culturas pre-inca e inca, y sobre la cual el perú tiene la mayor diversidad genética silvestre y cultivada y cerca de 3000 variedades nativas de todas las especies.Como resultado de los esfuerzos realizados se obtuvieron logros importantes en la promoción de la cadena productiva.Las actividades en el marco de esta celebración han permitido poner en contacto a los eslabones iniciales de la cadena, los campesinos, con aquellos agentes que se ubican hacia el final de esta, los supermercados, restaurantes y consumidores. así también, se ha convertido en un espacio que ha facilitado la introducción de la papa nativa y su mayor conocimiento.La consideración de la celebración como evento nacional ha generado un movimiento en los distintos niveles de Gobierno para realizar actividades que conmemoren el Día nacional de este tubérculo cada año y ello ha permitido revalorar la imagen de la papa a lo largo de todo el perú.Se incrementaron los niveles de consumo de la papa en el país hasta alcanzar los 80kg per cápita en el 2008. La meta de incrementar el consumo continúa vigente. ahora lo que se busca es alcanzar los niveles que se tuvieron en la década de los sesenta: 100 kg por persona.Se logró captar la atención pública y sensibilizar personas y sectores acerca de la situación problemática y complejidad de relaciones que existe en la cadena de la papa. Eso explica que el sector gastronómico se haya convertido en un aliado estratégico en esta celebración y esté preocupado por lograr que el boom gastronómico genere oportunidades para la pequeña agricultura. pero es importante mencionar que la participación de este mismo sector les ha generado también beneficios tangibles, al otorgarles oportunidades de innovación y ampliarles la ventana por la cual pueden mostrar tal innovación a los consumidores.Los medios de comunicación se convirtieron en aliados estratégicos para la comunicación de esa nueva imagen de la papa que se quería proyectar a diferentes niveles en el perú: su riqueza genética, su diversidad cultural, las tecnologías ancestrales que forman parte de su historia y su contribución a la seguridad alimentaria.La industria desarrolló nuevos productos participando de un proceso de articulación socialmente responsable con los productores rurales. Estas prácticas inclusivas legitimaron el esfuerzo realizado y otorgaron un argumento de venta adicional para los nuevos productos que aprovecharon la oportunidad del Día nacional para su lanzamiento.Los supermercados incorporaron la celebración en su calendario comercial, difundiendo la fecha y destacando las variedades de tubérculos y las distintas formas de presentación de estos.Las principales lecciones que se pueden destacar de esta experiencia son las siguientes: La clave para generar una institucionalidad que garantice mayores posibilidades de impacto, es involucrar a actores del sector público y privado que participen de la cadena productiva; la importancia de establecer alianzas con sectores económicos como la gastronomía y el supermercadismo fue fundamental para lograr los objetivos planteados; la comunicación hacia la población garantiza mayores niveles de apropiación y genera compromisos mutuos; y, el cambio de mensaje fue transcendental para mejorar la imagen del producto: la papa está en las ligas mayores: aparece en los encartes de los mejores supermercados; la papa es versátil, democrática y está lista para acompañar el crecimiento internacional de la gastronomía peruana.a lo largo y ancho de los andes y explica por qué el perú cuenta con la mayor diversidad genética de papa tanto silvestres como cultivadas, encontrándose 91 de las 191 especies de papas silvestres reconocidas y cerca de 3,000 variedades nativas de todas las especies existentes.El cultivo de papa en el perú está extendido en 19 regiones, desde el nivel del mar hasta los 4,500 m.s.n.m.; su superficie aproximada de siembra a nivel nacional es de 260,000 hectáreas las cuales producen más de 3 millones de toneladas, generando aproximadamente 110,000 puestos de trabajo permanentes y más de 27 millones de jornales. Esto significa que representa más del 8 % del pBi agrícola, mayor que cualquier otro cultivo alimenticio nacional y es cultivado por más de 600,000 familias.El cultivo de la papa siempre ha estado asociado a pobreza, bajos precios, escasa capacidad de acceso al mercado y casi nulo valor agregado. antes de 2003, cuando se diseñó el plan estratégico de la cadena de la papa que propuso la creación de un Día nacional de la papa, había tres hechos que caracterizaban la cadena:Las manifestaciones de los agricultores para obligar al Estado a comprar la sobreproducción porque no tenían mecanismos para promover una mayor demanda.La reducción de las diferencias entre la dieta urbana y rural, en desmedro del consumo de productos autóctonos que redujo el consumo de papa en beneficio de productos sustitutos como el arroz y derivados del trigo.El impacto de la estacionalidad de la papa entre los meses de abril y junio, que traía el efecto de la baja en los precios.Estos tres hechos fueron los que inspiraron la creación del Día nacional de papa. El propósito fue promover el consumo para evitar la reducción del precio en mayo y atenuar el efecto de la mayor demanda de los productos sustitutos como el arroz y los derivados del trigo.En junio de 2001, el Ministerio de agricultura, a través de la Dirección General de promoción agraria, elaboró un documento titulado \"Diagnóstico y perspectivas del Desarrollo de la papa\". Este documento sirvió como base para, en abril de 2003, elaborar el \"plan Estratégico de la Cadena productiva de la papa\", que se planteaba el objetivo de desarrollar mercados de papa a nivel nacional e internacional, e implícitamente, ya proponía la celebración del \"Día nacional de la papa\".En ese contexto y luego de la validación del plan Estratégico a nivel de las regiones, la Dirección General de promoción agraria del MinaG inició las acciones de incidencia política a nivel del propio sector con el fin de lograr que se emitan las disposiciones correspondientes. para ello, se promovió una primera reunión con el fin de impulsar la creación del Día nacional de la papa. En esa primera reunión participó el MinaG, el Centro internacional de la papa, aDERS, la UnaLM y el COnaM 2 .La celebración del año internacional del arroz en 2004, terminó por desencadenar el interés en promover la declaración del Día nacional de la papa con un doble propósito: recuperar su posicionamiento respecto a productos sustitutos como el arroz y el trigo e impulsar la demanda en la época en que los precios de la papa caen por exceso de oferta (meses de mayo y junio).Como resultado de este proceso, el 24 de febrero de 2005, se publicó la Resolución Suprema nº 09-2005-aG que instituyó el Día nacional de la papa el 30 de mayo de cada año y se dispuso su registro dentro del calendario de eventos nacionales, así como las celebraciones regionales, locales y comunales.posteriormente, con Resolución Suprema nº 018-2005-aG se constituyó la Comisión Multisectorial (CnM) de celebración del Día nacional de la papa, la cual es la encargada de la elaboración del programa de actividades cada año.Gráfico 1 acontecimientos importantes en el Día nacional de la papaLa idea de crear un Día nacional de la papa fue resultado de un proceso de reflexión sobre la necesidad de incrementar el consumo de papa para evitar la sobre oferta entre los meses de abril y junio y la consecuente reducción de precios. Existen antecedentes de un primer plan de Trabajo de la Dirección General de promoción agraria en 2001 que proponía una semana de actividades con un día central.En 2003, con la elaboración del plan Estratégico de la Cadena, se puso énfasis en la necesidad de incrementar el consumo de papa fresca y derivados promocionando su valor nutritivo y cualidades culinarias para revertir la reducción del consumo de papa que se produjo en la década de los noventa.El propósito fundamental de la creación del Día nacional de la papa fue incrementar el consumo de dicho tubérculo para mantener el nivel de los precios entre los meses de abril y junio, a fin de evitar perjuicios en la economía de los agricultores. no obstante, la Comisión Multisectorial del Día nacional de la papa definió objetivos concretos para cada año, los que se muestran a continuación: Gráfico 2 Los objetivos del Día nacional de la papa, año a año La estrategia seguida consistió en posicionar a la papa como un alimento de identidad peruana, esencial para la seguridad alimentaria, de gran valor nutricional y versatilidad gastronómica.Esta imagen de la papa buscó atenuar el efecto de la relativamente reciente mayor demanda de los productos sustitutos como el arroz y los derivados del trigo.La estrategia comunicativa buscó conseguir el apoyo de los principales líderes de opinión, estableciendo alianzas con medios radiales, de prensa escrita y televisión, para poder proyectarse a todos los demás medios a nivel nacional e internacional.Como se sabe, para desarrollar el programa de actividades, se constituyó por Resolución Suprema nº 018-2005-aG, la Comisión Multisectorial de celebración del Día nacional de la papa con el fin de que elabore el programa respectivo, el plan de acción y ejecute los actos programados año a año.Una Resolución Ministerial nº 046-2006-pCM precisó la forma en la que tenían que ser designados los representantes de los sectores y de las entidades no estatales, así como se señaló la importancia de destacar en el programa de actividades los componentes de biodiversidad, interculturalidad, ciencia, gastronomía y comercio. a lo largo de todos estos años, la Comisión Multisectorial mantuvo la misma conformación establecida en las resoluciones referidas, a excepción de los años 2006-2007 y 2008 cuando las cadenas de supermercados tuvieron una participación protagónica y el 2008, en el cual la Comisión Multisectorial del Día nacional se fortaleció con la participación de otros actores para organizar las actividades de celebración del año internacional de la papa 2008-aip.El concurso de todos los actores en la definición del plan de actividades fue muy importante, por las siguientes razones: Generó el aprovechamiento de sinergias para diseñar un programa de mayor impacto. 1.Cada uno de los actores pudo proponer acciones, desde su campo de trabajo, que se complementaban con las de otros actores, lo que permitió desarrollar actividades con una mayor perspectiva y un mayor impacto. permitió definir metas precisas que se orientaron a la consecución de resultados y que año 2.a año han mejorado la imagen de la cadena en su conjunto.promovió la participación de sectores que para el Estado había sido difícil convocar: 3. supermercados y gastronomía.Facilitó el trabajo del año internacional de la papa, en la medida en que el Comité ya había 4.consolidado la experiencia de trabajo en conjunto alrededor de la promoción de la papa.inCOpa (proyecto innovación y Competitividad de la papa) ha aportado un aproximado de US$ 6,000 por año, lo que hace un total de US$ 36,000 a lo largo de seis años. Dicho presupuesto no contempla el tiempo del equipo dedicado a la organización y coordinación de las actividades, ni la infraestructura cedida para la celebración de dos de los eventos centrales que se realizaron en 2005 y 2006.Desde 2007, el MinaG contempla en su plan operativo un presupuesto de treinta mil nuevos Soles por año. En 2008, con motivo del año internacional, se asignó una partida adicional de la alta Dirección que fue de más de 6 millones de nuevos Soles, fecha que coincidió con la celebración de dos eventos internacionales importantes: aLC-UE y la Cumbre apEC, reuniones que fueron aprovechadas para organizar diversas actividades relacionadas con las celebraciones del año internacional de la papa.El resto de actividades fueron realizadas gracias al aporte de los distintos actores. Todos estos se materializaron directamente a través de pedidos concretos de financiamiento y no se centralizó la capacidad de gasto en ninguno. MinaG se responsabilizó de la elaboración de afiches, programas, trípticos y otros materiales impresos y Supermercados WOnG asumió los gastos de elaboración de los encartes sobre el Día nacional, la distribución logística de los mismos y el montaje de espacios del supermercado en los eventos de 2005 y 2006.Se estima que el presupuesto invertido hasta la fecha en la ejecución de esta buena práctica es casi de 7 millones de soles, de los cuales el 93% fue utilizado en 2008 con motivo del año internacional, lo cual significa que en el resto de años de celebración se mantuvo un ritmo de gasto conservador y; no obstante ello, se obtuvieron resultados importantes. La naturaleza de esta buena práctica permitió la participación de distintos actores de la cadena productiva y promovió la articulación con distintas entidades. Esto se puede apreciar a lo largo de las tres etapas que tuvo el desarrollo de esta experiencia: la creación, la formación de alianzas y la celebración del año internacional.En la primera etapa, la Dirección General de promoción agraria -DGpa -validó a nivel nacional el plan estratégico de 2003 que recogía una propuesta sobre el Día nacional de la papa y se organizó una primera reunión con la alta dirección del Ministerio de agricultura para presentar el objetivo -la promoción del consumo de la papa-y hacer incidencia política. 3   Gráfico 4 El camino hacia la institucionalización del Día nacional de la papa 5.2 La segunda etapa: las alianzas En una segunda etapa, ya se había decretado el 30 de mayo como Día nacional y estaba constituida la Comisión Multisectorial, conformada por representantes del sector agricultura, Educación, Mujer y Desarrollo Social, producción, Comercio Exterior, Universidad nacional agraria La Molina, el Consejo nacional del ambiente y el Centro internacional de la papa, a través de inCOpa.El desafío entonces fue crear alianzas que permitieran diseñar y desarrollar un mayor número de actividades, de modo que se logre tener una mayor llegada a las familias peruanas. En este sentido, resultó fundamental la intervención de inCOpa 4 para convocar a otros actores que pudieran contribuir a conseguir mayor impacto, en base a la experiencia de la aplicación del Enfoque participativo de Cadenas productivas (EpCp). Entre esos actores destaca la relación que se estableció con los supermercados, la industria, el sector gastronómico y los medios de comunicación que se convirtieron en aliados y socios estratégicos en el diseño de las actividades.Gráfico 5 actores clave en la organización del Día nacional de la papa En lo que respecta a los supermercados, es notoria la participación del Grupo de Supermercados Wong, que viene participando desde el 2005 en las celebraciones oficiales del Día nacional de la papa, promocionando una gran variedad de papas en sus catálogos de venta, realizando degustaciones en sus tiendas y publicitándolas en avisos de prensa. Esta corporación también se unió a la iniciativa papas nativas, para promover las papas nativas y su comercialización responsable con más fuerza.por su parte, la empresa Supermercados peruanos también ha participado de la celebración con la firma de convenios de compra de grandes volúmenes de las distintas variedades del tubérculo, así como la presentación de platos y su degustación.Dentro del sector gastronómico destacó la participación de restaurantes y escuelas de cocina, en las diferentes ferias y concursos que fueron organizados en el marco de la celebración. Fue clave poder aprovechar la gran riqueza gastronómica que ha acumulado nuestro país a través de su historia.Gracias a la gran creatividad de los cocineros peruanos, existen muchas formas de preparar la papa y su versatilidad no deja de sorprender a los comensales, tal como lo atestiguan las diversas escuelas de cocina de Lima e interior del país que desarrollaron una gran variedad de recetas que tienen como insumo básico a la papa en sus diversas variedades.De otro lado, los medios de comunicación -televisión, radio, prensa escrita, internet -dieron cobertura desde un inicio los eventos realizados en el marco del Día nacional, como las ferias agropecuarias y los festivales gastronómicos. En algunos casos, se realizaron reportajes o se publicaron artículos sobre la papa: su historia, valor nutricional, diversidad, recetas, etc.La metodología que tuvo que seguir la Comisión Multisectorial para conseguir que el evento sea exitoso y logre llegar al público objetivo consistió en:Realizar reuniones mensuales ordinarias y reuniones extraordinarias cuando fuera necesario. • Establecer un programa de actividades cada año. • Establecer subcomisiones y coordinadores responsables para desarrollar y coordinar las actividades • programadas, incluyendo la logística y fuentes de financiamiento.Determinar los detalles de las actividades: temas a tratar, lugar, fecha, hora, participantes, • etc.Ejecutar las actividades programadas según cronograma. • Escribir memorias del evento, con relación de participantes, programas, exposiciones y fotos. • Cabe resaltar que durante estos años, la celebración se realizó a nivel nacional, incluyendo regiones costeñas, selváticas y regiones andinas, contando cada región con su propio plan de actividades.El primer año de celebración del Día nacional, el 2005, tuvo el objetivo específico de dar a conocer la cadena de la papa al público. Detrás de la papa y los productos derivados que son consumidos por los peruanos hay una serie de agentes trabajando e interactuando unos con otros, desde los agricultores, pasando por las instituciones que promueven el desarrollo del sector, hasta los puntos de venta al consumidor, llámense supermercados o restaurantes.La Comisión Multisectorial consideraba que era fundamental que se conozca la complejidad de esta cadena, a fin de poder sensibilizar a la población acerca de sus implicancias sociales y económicas.Con este propósito, el día central se realizó un evento en el local del Centro internacional de la papa (Cip), que convocó a productores de papa, supermercados, empresas procesadoras, escuelas de cocina, líderes de opinión, funcionarios públicos -destacó la participación de los ministros de agricultura y producción-, entre otros.Durante este evento, como acto simbólico se realizó un pago a la tierra; se pusieron algunos stands que buscaron replicar en pequeño las instalaciones Supermercados Wong, donde se mostraron y ofrecieron variedades de papa; mientras que las escuelas de cocina prepararon algunos platos elaborados a base de papa.El 2006, el evento central también tuvo lugar en el Cip, donde se dispuso un escenario similar al del año anterior. Ese año se buscó poner énfasis en mejorar la comercialización de la papa, como medio para elevar el volumen de ventas y los ingresos de los productores. El Centro internacional de la papa aprovechó la ocasión para mostrar al público sus diversas actividades de investigación en favor de la seguridad alimentaria y la reducción de la pobreza. En ese sentido, se escenificó una obra de teatro que dejaba como mensaje la importancia de la investigación y la innovación en la mejora de la cadena productiva de la papa. Como no podía ser de otro modo, el evento incluyó también la degustación de platos a base de papa.El 2007, se iniciaron los preparativos para el año internacional de la papa, que sería el año siguiente, con lo cual el realce y el número de actividades realizadas fueron mayores. Ese año, el evento del día central tuvo lugar en la Universidad agraria La Molina. El mensaje que se buscó transmitir al público fue el de la importancia de la innovación en los diversos eslabones de la cadena de la papa. Dentro de las actividades programadas, resaltó la premiación de los Seed awards 5 a la marca T'ikapapa, por su gran éxito comercial y social al haber sabido aprovechar la biodiversidad de la papa para articular a pequeños productores andinos en nichos de mercado en los que se posiciona su producción de papas nativas limpias y embolsadas. Este premio dio gran visibilidad a las papas nativas como un producto andino con gran potencial. pero la innovación se dio también en el campo de la gastronomía. así, se llevó a cabo una feria en donde se ofrecieron platos típicos de cada continente del mundo que tuvieran como ingrediente principal a la papa. Con esto, y como antesala a la celebración del año internacional, se buscó demostrar la universalidad de este tubérculo, que ha conseguido ser imprescindible en casi todas las cocinas del mundo. a diferencia de los principales cereales, sólo una parte del total de la producción de la papa entra en el comercio internacional, con lo cual los precios por lo general se determinan por los costos locales de producción y no por las fluctuaciones del mercado mundial. por lo tanto, es un cultivo muy recomendado para la seguridad alimentaria que puede ayudar a los agricultores de bajos ingresos y a los consumidores vulnerables a atravesar momentos de inestabilidad en el suministro y la demanda mundial de alimentos. Otras ventajas del tubérculo para ser considerado como uno de los alimentos más esenciales, cuya promoción a nivel mundial es importante, son que su producción está extendida en casi todo el globo, es idónea para producirse con poca tierra, poco tiempo y climas difíciles, emplea abundante mano de obra y tiene un alto valor nutricional.Es por ello que la Organización de las naciones Unidas aceptó la resolución propuesta por el perú a finales del 2005, para dirigir la atención internacional a la papa en el 2008.año internacional de la papa La aSaMBLEa GEnERaL, Observando que la papa es un alimento básico de la dieta de la población mundial.Recordando la resolución 4/2005 de la Conferencia de la Organización de las naciones Unidas para la agricultura y la alimentación, aprobada el 25 de noviembre de 2005. afirmando la necesidad de concentrar la atención mundial en la función que puede desempeñar la papa en la consecución de la seguridad alimentaria y la erradicación de la pobreza para apoyar el logro de los objetivos de desarrollo acordados internacionalmente, incluidos los Objetivos del Desarrollo del Milenio.invita a la Organización de las naciones Unidas para la agricultura y la alimentación a facilitar la observancia del año internacional de la papa, en colaboración con los gobiernos, el programa de las naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo, los centros del Grupo Consultivo sobre investigaciones agrícolas internacionales y otras organizaciones competentes del sistema de las naciones Unidas, así como las organizaciones no gubernamentales pertinentes.[22 de diciembre de 2005] Esto explica que fuera fundamental aprovechar los dos eventos internacionales que se realizaron en el país para destacar la importancia de la papa en la seguridad alimentaria. para el perú, en cambio, conseguir que el 2008 sea denominado el año internacional de la papa significaba una enorme oportunidad para posicionarse como el país que dio origen al mentado tubérculo y que es poseedor de una gran riqueza genética. La ventaja de este posicionamiento es su facilidad para extenderse hacia otros ámbitos como el turismo, la agricultura, la gastronomía, la industria y el orgullo nacional, con sus consecuentes beneficios económicos y sociales.Se instaló un stand en la sede del Centro internacional de prensa (Biblioteca nacional), en el que se proporcionó información sobre los objetivos del aip y la importancia de la papa como cultivo y producto alimentario. En dicho módulo se mostraron 18 variedades de papa en sus diferentes formas, texturas, colores y tamaños.En ese escenario, se ofrecieron degustaciones de papas nativas en hojuelas o chips de colores, así como recetas de platos preparados a base de papa e información sobre las cualidades nutritivas de este producto oriundo del perú.El evento fue el marco adecuado para presentar la exposición fotográfica \"papa madre\", en la terraza la muestra de la exposición fotográfica \"papa Madre\", de Jean-Louis Gontere; se montó la exhibición \"La odisea de la papa\" del Centro internacional de la papa (Cip), cuya muestra recorrió las principales ciudades de varios países de Europa.En lo que respecta a la celebración del Día nacional de la papa, el objetivo específico del 2008 fue promover el consumo masivo de papa. El día central tuvo lugar en el parque Sinchi Roca en el distrito de Comas, pues se buscó darle mayor alcance al evento, de modo que la celebración pudiera ser compartida también por los consumidores finales. De hecho, hubo una concurrencia de aproximadamente 60 mil visitantes. Se contó con la presencia de importantes exponentes de la música y la televisión, como Los Caribeños de Guadalupe, Dina paucar, la Chola Chabuca y Hernan Vidaurre. además, se brindaron una serie de conferencias y exposiciones.La participación de restaurantes fue más notoria y organizada en el 2008 gracias a la iniciativa de lanzar la Feria Gastronómica internacional de Lima, que, en su primera edición, llevó el nombre de \"perú, mucho gusto\", y que congregó a cerca de 20 restaurantes y 15 huariques. Entre los varios concursos que hubo, el premio al mejor cocinero joven requería la preparación de platos usando las diferentes variedades de papas nativas y oriundas del perú.El Congreso nacional de la papa La primera versión de este congreso, organizado por el instituto nacional de investigación agraria (inia) y la Dirección General de promoción agraria (DGpa) del Ministerio de agricultura, tuvo lugar en Huancayo y buscó resaltar la importancia económica y nutricional de la papa a través de exposiciones de agentes de la cadena de valor de la papa en seis ejes temáticos: genética, producción, comercialización, procesamiento, gastronomía y consumo; además de propiciar la divulgación de conocimientos y tecnologías generadas, como el negocio de bocaditos en base a papas nativas o el papapan. Esta actividad se ha institucionalizado y se han celebrado los Congresos de ayacucho (2009) y de Huánuco (2010), habiéndose programado el congreso del 2012 en apurímac (andahuaylas).Una de las actividades más importantes realizadas durante el año internacional de la papa fue la campaña papea perú. El éxito de esta campaña fue tal, que obtuvo el premio a la Creatividad Empresarial, otorgado por la Universidad peruana de Ciencias aplicadas (UpC), en el 2008. Se le premió en la categoría productos alimenticios nutricionales, por \"revalorar y promover exitosamente el consumo de la papa como base de la alimentación popular\".La campaña se planteó como objetivo principal incrementar el consumo per cápita de papa por los peruanos a más de 80 kg al año, teniendo en cuenta que, a inicios del 2008, el consumo del tubérculo se encontraba en 75 kg anuales.Un objetivo secundario que se buscó fue dar a conocer los beneficios nutricionales de la papa, en especial, a las amas de casa. Ello debido a que se encontró que existían una serie de mitos alrededor de la papa que afectaban su consumo. por ejemplo, existía la falsa creencia de que la papa engorda o de que sólo sirve como guarnición; mientras que se desconocían sus muchas cualidades nutritivas y propiedades en beneficio de la salud.El uso del peruanismo \"papea\" fue parte de la fórmula de éxito, pues se trata de una palabra bastante aceptada en el vocabulario de gran parte de la población. así, se buscó relacionar la idea de comer papa (\"papear\") con la idea de alimentarse adecuada y saludablemente.Con los lemas \"Este pechito come papa, la papa es nutrición\" y \"ponle papa al plato, la papa es nutrición\", la campaña consistió fundamentalmente en hacer publicidad llamativa en medios masivos, con comerciales de televisión, comerciales radiales, titulares periodísticos, avisos publicitarios en muros y en buses. Los comerciales en televisión y radio resaltaron ciertos beneficios de la papa: el vigor, el crecimiento sano, el desarrollo mental, la productividad, la vitalidad, entre otros.Sin embargo, también tuvieron lugar otras actividades complementarias, como la charla en el instituto nacional de Recursos naturales (inREna), a cargo de una reconocida nutricionista, sobre la importancia de la papa en la alimentación familiar. asimismo, chefs peruanos se sumaron a la campaña papea perú en un evento realizado en el restaurante La Mar, presentando una variedad de novedosas, atractivas y deliciosas propuestas culinarias para incentivar el consumo de papa a nivel nacional.Después de un año 2008 cargado de actividades que permitieron poner a la papa en la agenda nacional productiva e incluso política, el 2009 la asignación presupuestaria fue menor, con lo cual se redujo drásticamente el número de actividades de celebración. Sin embargo, es importante destacar que se mantuvo el interés de los medios de comunicación y otros actores de ofrecer mayor exposición a los temas de la cadena de la papa desde distintos ángulos. El objetivo del 2009 fue posicionar a la papa como un alimento de éxito. por ello, se buscó relacionarla con una personalidad peruana que reflejara esa imagen. De esta manera, la celebración en la plaza Mayor contó con la presencia de la actriz y cantante Magaly Solier, por entonces recientemente ganadora del Oso de Oro por su participación en la película \"La teta asustada\". Solier departió con los asistentes y dirigió palabras alusivas a la importancia de la papa, producto oriundo del perú. posteriormente, deleitó al público asistente con sus canciones.El evento fue cubierto en vivo por diversos medios, entre ellos Radio programas del perú (Rpp). La implementación estuvo a cargo de Supermercados Metro (Grupo Supermercados Wong) y de pepsiCo, con la colocación de pancartas alusivas y la instalación de un estrado en el pasaje Olaya.Un evento que cabe destacar, realizado en el marco del Día nacional de la papa, fue la presentación del libro \"Papa Madre: Historia de una Exposición Fotográfica\", que, como sugiere su nombre, es el producto editorial de las exposiciones fotográficas antes realizadas alrededor del tema de la papa. El evento se llevó a cabo en la alianza Francesa de Miraflores, estando la presentación a cargo de la socióloga y experta en gastronomía isabel álvarez, propietaria de El señorío de Sulco; y del historiador antonio Zapata.por otro lado, el sector gastronómico empezó a mirar su actividad con un enfoque inclusivo, donde los productores de papa tenían un rol que jugar. Si bien en la primera versión de la Feria internacional Gastronómica Mistura en 2009 la papa no fue la protagonista, esta le quitó el lugar que se había separado para el ají. El tubérculo ha mantenido su liderazgo en la siguiente versión de dicha feria. El 2010, el Gran Mercado, colorido y con cientos de stands ofreciendo una gran diversidad de productos peruanos, fue el mejor escenario para rendir un justo homenaje a la estrella principal de la feria que brilló con luz propia: la papa (fue nombrada como el producto estrella de la feria). Se exhibieron y pusieron a la venta más de 800 variedades, permitiendo que muchos peruanos y extranjeros vieran por primera vez algunas de ellas, ofrecidas por los propios agricultores provenientes de distantes regiones del país.Las OnG recuperaron el interés en la cadena, lo cual explica que entre 2008 y 2010, las tres versiones del Concurso de proyectos de Fondoempleo 7 , tengan al menos cinco proyectos productivos orientados a la papa nativa. por ejemplo, se puede mencionar el proyecto de aDERS perú en pasco \"producción tecnificada de papas nativas orientada a la nueva demanda comercial\", o el de CaRE perú en Huancavelica \"pequeños productores alto andinos de Huancavelica articulados a los mercados competitivos de papa nativa\" (2009), o el de Swisscontact en puno \"Fortalecimiento de capacidades de los productores de tunta y chuño en el altiplano puneño\" (2008).Las cadenas de supermercados continuaron publicando encartes alusivos al Día nacional de la papa, mostrando el compromiso con la cadena. Los medios de comunicación eligieron como ángulo de análisis la conservación de la papa nativa y mantuvieron vigente la problemática de la cadena.a iniciativa de la Municipalidad de Lima y el Ministerio de particularmente, es importante mencionar que entre el 23 y 28 de mayo del 2010, se realizó en el Cusco el XXiV Congreso de la asociación Latinoamericana de la papa (aLap) donde el eje se centralizó en las papas nativas y se enmarcó dentro de las celebraciones del Día nacional de la papa. En esta actividad participaron 430 personas de diversos países: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Brasil, Chile, Uruguay, paraguay, perú, argentina, Bolivia, panamá, México, Costa Rica, Estados Unidos, Francia, Canadá, Holanda, España, Japón e india.La creación del Día nacional de la papa ha tenido un impacto importante como acción de política pública que promovió la cadena de la papa en general. año a año, las actividades en el marco de esta celebración permitieron poner en contacto a los eslabones iniciales de la cadena, los campesinos, con aquellos agentes que se ubican hacia el final de esta, los supermercados, procesadores, restaurantes y consumidores. así también, en particular se ha convertido en un espacio que ha facilitado la introducción de la papa nativa y su mayor conocimiento.En relación a estas últimas, hoy en día ya es claro el potencial que existe para el desarrollo y posicionamiento comercial de las papas nativas, un segmento que anteriormente no era tomado en cuenta por los diferentes actores de la cadena de la papa. por un lado, se introdujo estas variedades en las cadenas de supermercado, lo cual ha permitido que los consumidores puedan apreciar sus extraordinarias cualidades nutritivas, su diversidad de formas, tamaños, colores de la cáscara y de la pulpa, sabores y texturas. pero el éxito comercial de estas papas también se ha dado a nivel de productos procesados, con el lanzamiento de \"Lay's andinas\" por la transnacional Frito Lay y de \"Mr.Chips papas nativas\" por el grupo Gloria.La consideración de la celebración como evento nacional ha generado un movimiento en los distintos niveles de Gobierno para realizar actividades que conmemoren el Día nacional de este tubérculo cada año y ello ha permitido revalorar la imagen de la papa a diferentes niveles en el perú.Se logró incrementar los niveles de consumo de la papa en el país, hasta alcanzar los 80kg per cápita en el 2008. La meta de incrementar el consumo aún más, continúa vigente. ahora lo que se busca es alcanzar los niveles que se tuvieron en la década de los sesenta: 100 kg por persona.Se logró captar la atención pública y sensibilizar personas y sectores acerca de la situación problemática y complejidad de relaciones que existe en la cadena de la papa. Eso explica que el sector gastronómico se haya convertido en un aliado estratégico en esta celebración y esté preocupado por lograr que el boom gastronómico genere oportunidades para la pequeña agricultura. pero es importante mencionar que la participación de este mismo sector les ha generado también beneficios tangibles, al otorgarles oportunidades de innovación y ampliarles la ventana por la cual pueden mostrar tal innovación a los consumidores.La feria perú Mucho Gusto de 2008, tuvo como producto principal a la papa, la feria Mistura 2009 quiso destacar al ají como el principal insumo de la gastronomía, pero la papa que estaba en segundo lugar lo opacó; y, en Mistura 2010, la papa nativa fue la vedette del mercado que se implementó.Los medios de comunicación se convirtieron en aliados estratégicos para la comunicación de esa nueva imagen de la papa que se quería proyectar a diferentes niveles en el perú: su riqueza genética, su diversidad cultural, las tecnologías ancestrales que forman parte de su historia y su contribución a la seguridad alimentaria.La industria desarrolló nuevos productos participando de un proceso de articulación socialmente responsable con los productores rurales. Tales prácticas inclusivas legitimaron el esfuerzo realizado y otorgaron un argumento de venta adicional para los nuevos productos.Los supermercados incorporaron la celebración en su calendario comercial, difundiendo la fecha y destacando las variedades de tubérculos y las distintas formas de presentación de estos. pero también es importante reconocer que una experiencia participativa como esta no estuvo ajena a problemas, entre los cuales se pueden destacar como los más importantes, los siguientes: La dificultad para asegurar la convocatoria de todos los actores, sobre todo para la organización de las actividades del año internacional de la papa: Se convocaban a 20 actores y solo llegaban 8 instituciones; y, la falta de presupuesto de parte de las instituciones del Estado para poder, además de organizar eventos, festivales gastronómicos o difundir los logros comerciales, hacer estudios e investigaciones que beneficien a la cadena productiva, tales como las perspectivas del mercado del Brasil, la implementación de un centro de acopio o de plantas de procesamiento.La sostenibilidad de la experiencia del Día nacional está garantizada desde el punto de vista legal y económico. Desde el punto de vista legal, la Resolución Suprema que crea el Día nacional lo hace de forma indefinida, sin fecha de término o conclusión de las celebraciones. por el lado económico, como ya se señaló, desde hace unos años la actual Dirección de Competitividad agraria, incluye en su plan Operativo y en el presupuesto correspondiente, una partida destinada para la celebración del Día nacional cada año.Si bien es cierto, esta partida es sumamente pequeña, respecto a los presupuestos que se manejaron cuando se contaba con la participación de otros actores involucrados, gracias a la gestión de inCOpa, también lo es que MinaG tiene muchas posibilidades de seguir gestionando la participación de entidades del sector público y privado interesadas en apoyar la cadena y como consecuencia de ello, comprometer una asignación de recursos que permita desarrollar más actividades. adicionalmente, hay un nivel de apropiación importante de la celebración, de parte de los cuatro sectores que más contribuyeron a crear una institucionalidad para la organización de las actividades conmemorativas del Día nacional: el sector gastronómico, los supermercados, los medios de comunicación y la industria.Los medios de comunicación tienen los incentivos necesarios para continuar observando y documentando los avances que realicen la cadena y sus aliados, aunque no participen directamente de la Comisión Multisectorial.La papa es el producto más comprado en las cadenas de supermercados y eso determina el interés permanente en ofrecer mayores variedades del mismo género de producto. para estas cadenas comerciales un Día nacional dedicado a un producto es un argumento adicional de venta que puede ser interesante aprovechar y eso explica que los encartes de celebración que difunden se extiendan a una semana de celebración. no obstante, hay que mencionar que desde 2008 ya no participan activamente en la Comisión Multisectorial, aunque han mantenido como política la elaboración del encarte y el lanzamiento de promociones relacionadas a la papa y sus derivados. . El sector gastronómico está empezando a observar la importancia del desarrollo de la cadena de aprovisionamiento, bajo el entendido que este debe estar en condiciones de acompañar su proceso de internacionalización. para este sector, un evento como el Día nacional de la papa en el calendario nacional es, al igual que para los supermercados, un argumento de venta adicional que les permite usar su creatividad alrededor de la celebración.Finalmente, pero no menos importante, la industria también necesita garantizar su fuente de aprovisionamiento. El Día nacional es un espacio para mostrar y poner en evidencia las experiencias prácticas de la forma en la que la industria se ha articulado a los productores rurales para desarrollar nuevas formas de presentación de sus productos.La experiencia de crear un Día nacional, con los propósitos que fue diseñado el de la papa, es un modelo replicable y transferible. Existen diversos productos que podrían requerir la misma estrategia de trabajo que fue implementada para lograr los objetivos esperados. Uno de esos casos podría ser el de los granos andinos, categoría donde se requiere incrementar el consumo a través de la mejora de la imagen que tienen en la mente de los consumidores o la articulación con el sector gastronómico.Cuatro son las razones que permiten asegurar que la experiencia es transferible: Ha tenido resultados. Los esfuerzos permitieron mejorar la imagen de la cadena productiva y eso repercutió directamente en el consumo del producto que pasó de 64kg en 2004 a 80kg en 2008.Está documentada. Existe información que da cuenta de las actividades que han formado parte de la experiencia, así como de la participación de los actores.Es sostenible. La celebración del Día nacional se ha mantenido vigente desde el 2005 que fue creado hasta la fecha y la norma de creación establece que la naturaleza de la celebración del Día nacional es indefinida. Tiene aliados. La gastronomía, los supermercados, la industria y los medios de comunicación se convirtieron en socios estratégicos que tienen incentivos para mantener la vigencia de la celebración porque es noticia, porque es un argumento adicional de venta o porque la papa es un insumo importante de su negocio y revalorizarla a ella, es mejorar la imagen de su propia actividad.La celebración del Día nacional de la papa facilitó un espacio para humanizar la cadena productiva de la papa. La estrategia de mostrar a quienes la producen y ponerle un rostro a la cadena caló en el imaginario de la población, de los sectores económicos vinculados directamente y de las autoridades de Gobierno.En todas las celebraciones, eventos y ferias, los productores fueron los encargados de visibilizar la riqueza del país en variedades de papa y explicar las particularidades de su cultivo, así como comercializarlas y permitir que más peruanos conozcan las distintas variedades que han custodiado por miles de años.La industria, la gastronomía y los supermercados se dieron cuenta que era posible conectar el éxito de sus actividades con una actuación responsable con los productores pagando precios justos. Esto motivó la creación de iniciativas papas andinas (www.papasandinas.org), una alianza entre empresas, OnG, organizaciones de productores, y chef que reconocen el valor de las papas andinas para el consumidor y apuestan por promover su consumo y comercialización bajo la premisa de desarrollo sostenible y de responsabilidad Social Empresarial.El Gobierno también privilegió el acercamiento entre el eslabón inicial de la cadena (productor) y los eslabones finales. para ello, parte de su presupuesto fue orientado a facilitar la participación de los productores en las distintas celebraciones y en las ferias gastronómicas, en reconocer a los productores íconos del conservacionismo y permitir la llegada de su producción al mercado con los trenes de la papa.Las principales lecciones que deja esta buena práctica son las siguientes: La clave para generar una institucionalidad que garantice mayores posibilidades de impacto 1.es involucrar a actores del sector público y privado que participen de la cadena productiva.Su concurso fue fundamental para que el conjunto de actividades se complementara y para dar una imagen de modernidad a la cadena. Esto se puede observar claramente a través de los programas de los tres Congresos nacionales de papa, donde los contenidos pasaron a ser de exclusivamente técnicos a comerciales e institucionales, con el fin de mostrar una cadena articulada e integrada.Las sinergias de trabajo que se generan por la concurrencia de actores que tienen un 2. mismo objetivo, permiten que todos estos puedan ampliar sus horizontes productivos, comerciales, tecnológicos e institucionales. La participación entorno a la celebración permitió que todos los actores pudieran capitalizar la experiencia y plasmarla en acciones orientadas a aprovechar la celebración para sus respectivas actividades. así sucedió con el lanzamiento de Lays andinas en 2008, o los Encartes de Wong que convirtieron el Día nacional en la Semana de la papa.La importancia de establecer alianzas con sectores económicos como la gastronomía y 3. el supermercadismo fue fundamental para lograr los objetivos planteados. El primero fue clave en la revalorización de la imagen de la papa en general y de la nativa, en particular. El segundo sirvió para dar continuidad al esfuerzo de generar una mayor conciencia sobre las papas nativas.La comunicación hacia la población garantiza mayores niveles de apropiación y genera 4. compromisos mutuos. Contar con los medios de comunicación de aliados, permitió dar una dimensión nacional e internacional a la celebración y tener un alcance mayor en la difusión de las actividades que se realizaron para promover el mayor consumo de papa.El cambio de mensaje fue transcendental para mejorar la imagen del producto: 5.la papa está en las ligas mayores y aparece en los encartes de los mejores supermercados. La papa es versátil y democrática y está lista para acompañar el crecimiento internacional de la gastronomía peruana.La celebración del Día Nacional ha cambiado la imagen de la papa y ha resaltado el sentido. 6. de la peruanidad. Fecha (efectiva) en que finalizaron las actividades: no hay fecha de finalización.investigación sobre variedades aptas para procesamiento industrial. Desarrollo agrícola: producción de semilla de papa. incidencia política.proyecto innovación y Competitividad de la papa-inCOpa, ejecutado por el Centro internacional de la papa.CapaC: http://www.capacperu.org/ FOViDa: http://www.fovida.org.pe aDERS: http://www.aders-peru.org.pe inia: http://www.inia.gob.pe SEnaSa: http://www.senasa.gob.pe inCOpa/ Cip: http://www.papandina.org/hacemos/proyectos/en-curso/fase-de-capitalizacionde-papa-andina-incopa pEpSiCO: http://www.pepsico.comCapaC: Mario Sevilla y Oscar Delgado FOViDa: Carmen Gamarra, Eloy Rodriguez, John Guinet, Carmen Gutarra aDERS: Celfia Obregón inia: Elsa Valladares, Manuel Sigueñas SEnaSa: Gonzalo Tejada inCOpa/Cip: Kurt Manrique y Rolando Egúsquiza pEpSiCO -Lays: Julio EyzaguirreEl grupo temático no tuvo una fuente de financiamiento específica de parte de inCOpa, salvo una Caja Chica de US$ 2000 por año, lo que hace un total de US$6,000. Sin embargo, gracias al trabajo realizado, los costos de caracterización y registro que fueron asumidos por el Estado, suman un total de 200 mil nuevos soles.Como resultado de las tres fases de ejecución del proyecto innovación y Competitividad de la papa-inCOpa, se desarrollaron una serie de innovaciones comerciales, institucionales y tecnológicas. En todas ellas el denominador común fue la participación directa de los actores públicos y privados que participan en la cadena de la papa.En el caso de las innovaciones tecnológicas, el Grupo Temático de Semillas 8 fue el instrumento diseñado para la promoción de tecnología de producción de semilla de calidad de papas nativas.La finalidad de la constitución del grupo temático fue congregar una masa critica de actores interesados en desarrollar y promover actividades para mejorar los sistemas de producción y difundir el uso de semilla de calidad, con la finalidad responder a la mayor demanda comercial e industrial que venía experimentando la papa nativa. para ello, se promovió un marco legal apropiado y la adopción de tecnologías que fomenten un sistema de multiplicación de semilla eficiente y al alcance de los pequeños productores.El objetivo que se planteó el grupo fue lograr desarrollar una oferta de semilla de variedades nativas seleccionadas de una calidad equivalente a semilla registrada y certificada en el plazo de tres años. para ello, se definieron seis ejes de trabajo que fueron: Contar con variedades priorizadas y evaluadas, tener variedades registradas, disponer de plántulas de variedades priorizadas disponibles, desarrollar un sistema alterno de producción de semillas de calidad y hacer prospección de campos semilleros e invernaderos.Entre los principales logros del grupo temático destacan la exoneración al instituto nacional de innovación agraria -inia del pago por derecho de inscripción de variedades de papa nativas en el Registro de Cultivares Comerciales; la creación del Registro nacional de papa nativa en el que se deben inscribir las diferentes variedades de papas nativas peruanas en base a los indicadores genéticos, morfológicos y anatómicos reconocidos; la facilitación del acceso de las OnG y de los pequeños productores, a través de ellas, al conocimiento sobre la tecnología de aeroponía que permite multiplicar tuberculillos con mayor nivel de eficiencia que bajo el sistema tradicional; e, involucrar a las OnG socias de inCOpa en procesos de manejo de experiencias en invernaderos y semilleros.Las lecciones aprendidas con esta experiencia pueden ser replicadas en otras cadenas productivas que involucran a pequeños productores. Hay cuatro lecciones importantes de la experiencia del grupo temático: La participación de un Centro de investigación como el Cip en la ejecución de un proyecto que busca mejorar la competitividad de una cadena productiva fue fundamental para enfrentar una coyuntura de mayor demanda de papas nativas de calidad; hacer incidencia política puede tener mayores posibilidades de éxito a partir de una plataforma o grupo de trabajo donde están involucrados actores del sector público y privado; la retroalimentación que se genera en un grupo de trabajo de esta naturaleza promueve la ampliación del horizonte productivo y de trabajo de todos los actores; y, que no se puede generar ningún tipo de innovaciones comerciales sostenibles en una cadena productiva sin semilla de calidad.Como resultado de los esfuerzos realizados, es evidente que se obtuvieron logros importantes, pero también quedó claro que la incorporación, identificación y registro de nuevas variedades demandadas por el mercado, el consiguiente proceso de limpieza para la obtención de plántulas in-vitro libre de virus, la multiplicación y producción de tuberculillos, y la aplicación y desarrollo del proceso de certificación de semillas, tiene que ser un proceso continuo.En la medida que el mercado impulse la demanda de papa nativa de calidad, surgirán nuevos desafíos para el grupo temático. Más allá de que inCOpa ya no esté, el nivel de apropiación logrado por las OnG que actuaron como socias de inCOpa a lo largo de sus tres fases de vigencia, permitirá que se mantenga el dinamismo en la multiplicación de tuberculillos bajo alguno de los métodos de reproducción que el proyecto introdujo. además, se tiene previsto elaborar una carta de entendimiento con inia para darle un nivel de formalidad a los acuerdos que tomen en el grupo y promover las plataformas regionales como instancias que promuevan la comercialización de semillas de calidad.La experiencia de trabajo del grupo temático tiene un alto nivel de replicabilidad en cualquier otra cadena productiva donde exista una demanda de semilla de calidad.2.1 Situación inicial y formulación de prioridades antes de la intervención del proyecto inCOpa, las papas nativas no tenían presencia en el mercado y menos aún había semilla, elemento indispensable para la producción.Como se sabe, para obtener semillas de calidad, se deben seguir ciertas reglas de cultivo;incrementar sistemáticamente el número limitado de productores para conseguir mayores cantidades de semillas que puedan ser distribuidas a los agricultores; introducir procedimientos de control de calidad para asegurar las cualidades genéticas y fisiológicas de las semillas en el proceso de multiplicación; manejo post-cosecha; y almacenamiento hasta que llegue la nueva época de siembra. Gracias al constante progreso tecnológico, el sistema de semillas ha evolucionado en gran parte del mundo.Sin embargo, en el caso de las papas nativas, la semilla era producida al interior de las parcelas familiares y sin aplicar conceptos de calidad, lo que técnicamente perpetuaba un ciclo vicioso porque no se refrescaba la semilla, se mantenía el mismo lote y la carga de varias enfermedades.Después de la segunda aplicación del Enfoque participativo de Cadenas productivas (EpCp), que es una herramienta que promueve el intercambio de información para la innovación de productos y procesos, con el fin de mejorar la competitividad de la cadena de papa nativa, los actores se dieron con la sorpresa que no había información sobre variedades de papa nativa aptas para chips. Existía el trabajo de la División iii del Cip 9 : Mejoramiento del cultivo que había identificado 18 variedades y las 10 variedades que FOViDa tenía identificadas, pero no había semilla de estas y menos aún semilla certificada.El sector privado, en ese momento representado por la industria (pEpSiCO), quería comprar ciertas variedades de papa nativa bajo contrato a productores que trabajaran con semilla de calidad, al igual que lo hacían con la papa blanca. Como se sabe, para la producción de hojuelas fritas, son fundamentales la materia seca y el contenido de azúcares reductores que deben estar dentro de un rango crítico que es como sigue:Cuadro 3 Compuestos del tubérculo más importantes para la producción de hojuelas En 2007, no solo no había semilla de calidad sino que tampoco habían expedientes técnicos: las papas nativas no tenían Dni. En esas circunstancias se decidió actuar colectivamente y se creó el Grupo Temático de Semillas para lograr que se produzca semilla de papa nativa de calidad.La primera acción fue acercarse a SEnaSa (en aquel entonces autoridad nacional de Semillas 10 ) e inia (entidad responsable de elaborar los expedientes) para conocer el procedimiento de registro de semilla en el Registro de Cultivares Comerciales (RCC) 11 .El Registro de Cultivares Comerciales (RCC) es un padrón oficial donde se registran obligatoriamente todos los cultivares de las especies que cuentan con reglamentación específica, a fin de que ingresen en el sistema de comercialización de semilla certificada. Dicho registro confiere protección a los cultivares registrados, toda vez que permite acreditar la perdida de novedad ante cualquier intento de reclamar derecho de propiedad de una variedad o cultivar nativo.El sistema de certificación de semilla, garantiza la calidad de la semilla estableciendo límites y tolerancias de los niveles de infección en las semillas. Según el Reglamento de la Ley General de Semillas, existen tres clases de semillas. La primera es la semilla genética, que es la directamente controlada por el fitotecnista originador, y que provee la fuente para la semilla de la Clase Certificada. La segunda clase es la semilla certificada, que ha sido sometida al proceso de certificación, controlado por inia, instaurando categorías a partir de la semilla genética: básica, registrada, certificada y autorizada.Gráfico 6 Categorías del sistema de certificación Fuente: Ley nº27262, Ley General de Semillas La semilla de categoría básica o de fundación es la semilla manejada para mantener la identidad genética específica y pureza indicadas por el fitotecnista o institución originadora patrocinante.Esta semilla sirve como fuente de toda semilla de la Clase Certificada -Categoría Certificada, tanto directamente como a través de la semilla de la Clase Certificada -Categoría Registrada.La semilla de categoría registrada es la progenie de la semilla de la Clase Certificada -Categoría Básica o de Fundación. Esta categoría de semilla se utiliza en la producción de semilla de la Clase Certificada -Categoría Certificada.La semilla de categoría certificada es la progenie de: (i) la semilla de la Clase Certificada -Categoría Registrada; o, (ii) la semilla de la Clase Certificada -Categoría Básica o de Fundación que se manipula para mantener la identidad y la pureza genética específica.La semilla autorizada es la semilla que posee suficiente identidad y pureza varietal, que ha sido sometida al proceso de certificación y que cumple con los requisitos establecidos para la semilla certificada, excepto en lo que a su procedencia se refiere. La categoría autorizada podrá incluirse cuando la producción de semilla básica, registrada y certificada no sea suficiente.Se han establecido límites máximos de tolerancia de las enfermedades que pueden encontrarse en los tubérculos, los cuales son distintos para cada categoría de certificación. Dichos límites toman en cuenta distintos pesos de acuerdo a la gravedad de la enfermedad (plagas o defectos en la semilla), así como el porcentaje de infestación o mezcla en el campo.Finalmente, la tercera clase es la semilla común, que en principio, se ofrece a la venta de acuerdo con las exigencias de la Ley y el Reglamento vigente, sin haber sido sometida al proceso de certificación.En el momento que el grupo temático se puso en marcha, solo 36 variedades de papa estaban registradas, de las cuales solo habían cuatro variedades nativas registradas.En 2008, el grupo de trabajo conformado por representantes de MinaG, FOViDa, aDERS, CapaC, Cip DiV iV, Cip-inCOpa/papa andina, pEpSiCO -Lays e inia decidió diseñar un plan estratégico, que tendría horizonte de tres años, y cuyo objetivo fundamental era contar con semilla de variedades nativas seleccionadas de una calidad equivalente a semilla registrada y certificada. para alcanzar tal propósito, se concibieron seis ejes de trabajo.El concurso de todos los actores en la definición del plan fue muy importante, por las siguientes razones:Cada uno de los actores pudo compartir información de lo que estaba haciendo y eso permitió definir metas realistas sobre los resultados que se podían alcanzar en beneficio de la cadena de papa nativa.Las OnG miembros del grupo señalaron los avances realizados en la evaluación y priorización de 13 variedades para la industria e incluso aDERS indicó que estaba trabajando en multiplicar 18 variedades que disponen de Cip number en uno de sus semilleros; la industria adelantó que estaba trabajando en evaluar 27 variedades; y, FOViDa/ innOVanDES dieron alcances de la investigación para determinar el efecto del calcio (fertilización cálcica) en las características de calidad en tubérculos de papa nativa para la industria.por su parte, el inia manifestó que estaban en proceso de poner disponibles in Vitro algunas variedades de papa nativa con aptitud industrial en inia Santa ana en Huancayo, las mismas que forman parte de las variedades registradas en el RCC.El caso del inia es el más importante porque se plantearon tareas importantes:Lograr la exoneración del pago para el registro de papas nativas en el registro de cultivares • comerciales RCC.Elaborar expedientes técnicos de variedades de papa nativa para registrarlas en el RCC. • promover la creación del Registro nacional de papa nativa. • Estimuló el interés en desarrollar nuevas acciones de parte de los actores aDERS se planteó sembrar campos de semilla básica de las 18 variedades que tenían en sus • semilleros en pasco, Cajamarca y Huancavelica. También asumió el reto de construir y equipar un módulo de aeroponía para producir semilla pre-básica en pasco y se solicitó apoyo al a UnaLM y al Cip para capacitar al comité de gestión del módulo de aeroponía de pasco.FOViDa y CapaC se interesaron en desarrollar núcleos semilleros en Junín/Huancavelica y • andahuaylas, respectivamente.El Grupo Temático solo tuvo un presupuesto de inCOpa para actividades menores de US$ 2000 por año, lo que resulta en un total de US$ 6000, cifra que no incluye los tiempos asignados de los miembros del equipo que participaron del grupo.En 2007, el 100% de aporte de los actores participantes fue en tiempo, interés y compromiso de cumplir con las actividades que les eran encomendadas. En 2008 y 2009, si se valoriza lo que significó que inia hiciera la caracterización de 61 variedades que posteriormente fueron registradas, se tiene que se asignaron cerca de 200 mil nuevos Soles.Los logros alcanzados y la contribución de esta buena práctica a la cadena productiva superan largamente los recursos invertidos, en la medida que sirvieron para proteger las variedades, registrarlas y generar las condiciones para producir semilla de calidad que pueda mejorar los niveles de rendimiento de las papas nativas en el campo.El primer desafío del Grupo Temático fue contar con variedades priorizadas y evaluadas y tener variedades registradas.La preocupación que estaba detrás era asegurar el aprovisionamiento de semilla de calidad de papas nativas para familias campesinas de las zonas altoandinas. Eso explica que con el fin de conseguir ese objetivo se haya promovido la participación de distintos actores directos e indirectos de la cadena en la ejecución de las actividades realizadas y fomentado su concurso en la consecución del objetivo, tal como se puede apreciar a lo largo de las distintas etapas que tuvo la implementación del Grupo Temático.En agosto de 2007, se conformó en perú un \"grupo temático\" en el tema de producción de semilla de papa, donde se involucró a actores interesados en desarrollar y promover actividades para mejorar los sistemas de producción y difundir el uso de semilla de calidad, con la finalidad responder a la mayor demanda comercial e industrial de la papa nativa.El grupo de trabajo quedó conformado por el Ministerio de agricultura (MinaG), el Servicio nacional de Sanidad agraria (SEnaSa), el instituto nacional de innovación agraria (inia), el proyecto inCOpa del Centro internacional de la papa, las siguientes OnG: CapaC perú, FOViDa y aDERS. adicionalmente, en determinadas reuniones del grupo temático se contó con la participación de la empresa pepsiCo, representando a la industria. Esto puede observarse en el gráfico anterior.En junio 2008, el grupo temático aprobó, de forma consensuada, un plan estratégico para llegar a la meta de disponer de semilla de variedades nativas seleccionadas de una calidad equivalente a semilla registrada y certificada en el plazo de 3 años.El plan estratégico definió 6 ejes o líneas de acción que fueron: Contar con variedades priorizadas y evaluadas, tener variedades registradas, disponer de plántulas de variedades priorizadas disponibles, desarrollar un sistema alterno de producción de semillas de calidad, aplicar el sistema CiC para sistema alterno y hacer prospección de campos semilleros e invernaderos.El objetivo inicial fue lograr que un número de variedades de papa nativa se inscriban en el Registro de Variedades Comerciales, en la medida que éste faculta la producción de semilla de papas nativas dentro del sistema formal y les confiere protección indirecta como patrimonio nacional. para lograrlo, se tenía que conseguir que el inia fuera exonerado del pago de la tasa de registro (aproximadamente S/.500 por cada variedad). Con este propósito, SEnaSa que en ese momento era la autoridad nacional de Semillas, presentó un proyecto de Decreto Supremo a la Secretaria General del MinaG ((SEGMa), el mismo que estaba entrampado en el Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas (MEF).El camino que debía seguir el Decreto Supremo hasta ser oficialmente promulgado se muestra en el siguiente gráfico: Gráfico 9 Camino hacia la promulgación del Decreto Supremo de Exoneración para ello, el Grupo de Trabajo dividió las tareas entre los actores de la siguiente manera: MinaG tuvo a su cargo identificar en qué instancia del MEF estaba el Decreto Supremo.• inCOpa consultó a inia los datos técnicos requeridos para el registro de nuevas variedades. • DGpa/MinaG solicitó la inscripción de las nuevas variedades al inia. • SEnaSa se encargó de elaborar una ayuda memoria para hacer incidencia sobre el propósito del • Decreto Supremo. Este esfuerzo fue asistido por inCOpa y aDERS. En dicha ayuda memoria, se realizó un análisis costo-beneficio de la exoneración del pago de la tasa de registro. El análisis mostró como beneficios el crecimiento sostenido de las ventas de papa y derivados de calidad (puso como caso emblemático a T'ikapapa), la mayor rentabilidad que obtendrían los agricultores vinculados a una cadena productiva, el mayor número de familias y comunidades campesinas que participan de tal cadena, así como el desarrollo de un enfoque de responsabilidad social de las empresas procesadoras y comercializadoras. Se argumentó que los ingresos que SEnaSa dejaría de percibir por el trámite de registro, serían más que compensados por los ingresos que captaría por concepto de certificación de semillas, ya que cultivares nativos de papa registrados mediante la exoneración propuesta ingresarían a un sistema formal de producción de semillas.En la medida que pasaban los meses, la falta de disponibilidad de expedientes técnicos de las variedades específicas que la industria necesitaba se hizo más evidente. Si bien existían algunas variedades que ya contaban con expedientes técnicos, sólo algunas eran requeridas por empresas del sector privado, al ya disponerse de un mercado identificado (T'ikapapa y chips de colores, por ejemplo). Es así que inia estuvo encargado de supervisar el avance en la elaboración de los expedientes técnicos de variedades y estableció un cronograma de finalización y entrega de expedientes técnicos. a la par de esta tarea, hubo de elaborar la lista de variedades nativas que debían ser priorizadas, la misma que tenía que tener en cuenta las variedades ya aceptadas y aprobadas por la industria. Una vez elaborados y presentados al SEnaSa 61 expedientes técnicos, el Grupo Temático se encontró con la tarea de establecer el nombre de la variedad de papa que iría en el registro, ya que es común que algunas variedades tengan varias denominaciones. por tanto, debería escogerse la denominación de mayor reconocimiento, a la vez que era necesario definir consistentemente su escritura.Mientras se gestionaba la dación del Decreto Supremo de la exoneración nº 022-2008-aG de 2 de octubre de 2008, se realizaron otras actividades complementarias:asegurar que todas las variedades cumplieran el procedimiento de caracterización varietal a cargo de inia para la elaboración de los respectivos expedientes técnicos. La lista de variedades nativas priorizadas por los socios iba actualizándose continuamente, por la incorporación de nuevas variedades en proceso de evaluación por parte de Fritos Lay. Las variedades ya aceptadas y aprobadas por la industria entraban a una lista definitiva para elaborarles el correspondiente expediente técnico, mientras que las que estaban en proceso de evaluación se incluían en una lista de espera.asimismo, se debe indicar que en este marco se publicó el libro promovido por el MinaG \"papas nativas del perú: Catálogo de Variedades y Usos Gastronómicos\" cuyo propósito fue dar a conocer las propiedades y el potencial de las principales variedades de papas nativas y en la presentación se mencionaba que \"tras un minucioso trabajo de investigación que ha permitido describir al detalle cada una de las variedades, se confía en que se constituya también en referencia para el registro y protección de las papas nativas del perú\".Con el objeto de contribuir a la ampliación de uso de semillas de calidad, el grupo temático de semillas buscó capacitar a los productores en la técnica de la aeroponía. En octubre del 2007, se llevó a cabo el i Taller internacional de aeroponía, con participantes de Bolivia, Ecuador y perú. Dicho taller fue dirigido por especialistas de Lima y Huancayo del Centro internacional de la papa. Los temas tratados en el taller incluyeron obtención y acondicionamiento de material de siembra, uso de soluciones enraizadoras, preparación de soluciones nutritivas, costos de producción de tuberculillos, entre otros. posteriormente, se realizaron más talleres de capacitación, con resultados exitosos.La aeroponía 12 es un sistema de cultivo alternativo que se realiza en condiciones controladas que fue desarrollado por primera vez en italia. Bajo este sistema, las plantas se introducen en las llamadas \"columnas de cultivo\". Una columna de cultivo consiste en un cilindro de pVC, u otros materiales, colocado en posición vertical, con perforaciones en las paredes laterales, por donde se introducen las plantas en el momento de realizar el trasplante. Las raíces crecen en oscuridad y pasan la mayor parte del tiempo expuestas al aire, lo que explica el nombre de aeroponía. por el interior del cilindro, una tubería distribuye la solución nutritiva mediante pulverización media o baja presión.Este novedoso sistema provee de excelente aireación a las raíces de la planta, lo cual lo diferencia y lo hace superior a la hidroponía. asimismo, esta técnica permite reducir los costos de producción de tuberculillos al aumentar la tasa de multiplicación por planta y suprimir el uso de sustratos sólidos.Con el método tradicional de cultivo se obtienen de 8 a 12 tuberculillos por planta, mientras que con aeroponía se consiguen de 60 a 70 tuberculillos por planta.a continuación, se presenta la línea de tiempo de la buena práctica del Grupo Temático de Semilla y como se puede observar de las actividades planteadas, a lo largo de todas las etapas desarrolladas ha habido una participación activa de actores directos e indirectos de la cadena:Gráfico 10 Etapas clave de evolución del Grupo Temático de SemillaEl Grupo Temático cumplió los objetivos prefijados en términos de poner a disposición del mercado semilla de papas nativas de mejor calidad. Sin embargo, quizá uno de los logros más destacables es que la experiencia permitió avanzar en la transferencia de conocimiento sobre nuevas formas de reproducción de semilla, en una muestra de la importancia del trabajo que resulta cuando un centro de investigación como el Cip se acerca a las necesidades del mercado, a través de las OnG socias de inCOpa. Se facilitó el acceso al conocimiento sobre la tecnología de aeroponía que permite producir 80 tubérculos por papa, en comparación a los 10 o 15 tubérculos por planta de semilla básica que se produce por el método convencional. aDERS, OnG socia de inCOpa casi desde el inicio del proyecto, maneja una experiencia con un invernadero en Cerro de pasco y ha ampliado su horizonte de actuación al conseguir su registro como productor semillerista, lo cual le ha permitido producir semilla que por ahora es solo común, pero de muy buena calidad.El nivel de apropiación de los objetivos del Grupo Temático de Semilla por parte de los socios de inCOpa es lo que garantiza la continuidad de la interacción y el estilo de trabajo del Grupo.Los resultados alcanzados y la interacción facilitada por inCOpa con el Cip como fuente de conocimiento tecnológico, ha motivado que actores como la OnG aDERS hayan logrado conseguir otras fuentes de financiamiento para implementar invernaderos, producir semilla de calidad, caracterizar sistemas de producción de semilla, hacer selección positiva, entre otros. actualmente, está ejecutando pROpapa pasco con fondos proporcionados por la Minera Milpo y realiza actividades en el marco del proyecto financiado por la Fundación McKnight.Sin embargo, hasta la fecha aDERS no ha logrado certificar su semilla y solo la pueden vender como semilla común, debido a que la transferencia de funciones de autoridad nacional de Semilla de SEnaSa a inia, encontró a esta última sin capacidad para poder atender los pedidos de certificación que vienen realizándose. precisamente, esta situación de \"emergencia\" ha planteado un nuevo desafío para el Grupo Temático de Semilla, que es lograr que el inia cree un Sistema de Semilla de Calidad Declarada, el cual requiere que la semilla debe haber sido producida conforme a un mínimo de requisitos (QDS en siglas en inglés siguiendo el modelo que existe en COnpapa en Ecuador), el mismo que permitirá que las variedades que no han podido certificarse, puedan acogerse a este tipo de procedimiento.El Grupo Temático de Semilla surgió como respuesta al cuello de botella que se generó frente a una mayor demanda de producción de papa nativa para la industria. La falta de un procedimiento más expeditivo para la certificación de semilla, está motivando una nueva reacción del Grupo Temático que es lo que finalmente garantizará su vigencia a lo largo del tiempo.La experiencia del Grupo Temático de Semillas puede transferirse a otras áreas de trabajo que podrían beneficiarse de las ventajas de la experiencia.Esto ya ha sucedido, en el área de post cosecha, donde se logró que CapaC obtuviera su inscripción como agricultor importador Usuario para adquirir el CipC (Clorpropham en concentrado emulsionable) que es un fitoregulador utilizado para evitar la brotación de los tubérculos de papa almacenada que se destina para el consumo y el uso industrial. Este inhibidor de brote ahorra gastos de desbrote, mantiene las papas turgentes por más tiempo, evita pérdidas de peso por brotación y permite conservar las papas son mejor sabor y calidad.Como se sabe, en el marco de la Resolución Directoral nº 084-02-aG-SEnaSa-DGSV del 10 de mayo de 2002, se permitió que asociaciones de productores organizados pudieran importar productos químicos que no existen en el mercado nacional, como es el caso del CipC. para lograr la inscripción de CapaC, se formó un grupo de trabajo, soportado en el Grupo Temático de Semillas, que se planteó los siguientes objetivos:Organizar y formalizar a los productores para lograr la inscripción de CapaC como agricultor • importador Usuario, condición que le permitirá importar de Chile, el producto que necesitan para prolongar el tiempo de mantenimiento de la papa almacenada en buenas condiciones. promover que CapaC y FOViDa implementen infraestructuras de acopio en tres localidades, • las mismas que tenían cumplir determinados requisitos de acondicionamiento. Tal es el caso de los almacenes de la Comunidad Campesina de pomamanto en Concepción Junín o de la Comunidad Campesina de Chicche en Jauja, los mismos que fueron apoyados por FOViDa.Realizar el Registro de Uso del producto. • Las Comunidades que respaldaron el registro de CapaC fueron las siguientes:Huinchos-Sacclaya en andahuaylas 7.99Sipillhuay en Kishuará-andahuaylas 11.10Chicche en apata-Jauja 6.22 pomamanta en Comas-Concepción 20.38Chuquitambo en pazos-Tayacaja 7.51En este proceso, queda por definir la política de uso que se dará al insumo químico, la misma que es un requisito que exige SEnaSa en el proceso de fiscalización al que estará sujeto el uso del CipC.La experiencia de trabajo del grupo temático tiene un alto nivel de replicabilidad en cualquier otra cadena productiva donde exista una demanda por semilla de calidad.La experiencia del Grupo Temático permitió el acceso de campesinos de las zonas altoandinas a semilla de calidad, pero sobre todo al conocimiento de nuevas tecnologías de reproducción de semillas. LasOnG han jugado un rol fundamental para permitir la participación de los productores en los talleres de capacitación que promovió el Grupo Temático.adicionalmente, el Grupo Temático quiere garantizar la continuidad del trabajo realizado a través de la promoción de un modelo de comercialización de semilla de calidad, centrado en la presencia de los productores de semilla asociados o individuales que venden semilla a productores de papa y estos a su vez a procesadores.para ello, se deben crear plataformas regionales de semilla a partir de las cadenas de semillerosproductores-procesadores con el apoyo de sus autoridades locales. Este esfuerzo permitirá colocar semilla de calidad de papa nativa en el mercado y mejorar los niveles de rendimiento existentes, así como asegurar un adecuado aprovisionamiento de semilla de las variedades demandadas por la industria y otros sectores de procesamiento.Esta buena práctica deja una serie de lecciones sobre la importancia de tener en cuenta el aprovisionamiento de semilla de calidad cuando se quiere mejorar la competitividad de una cadena productiva como la de la papa nativa, de lo contrario se pueden afectar las expectativas de los actores que se logren interesar en el producto.La importancia de la participación de un Centro de Investigación como el CIP en la • ejecución de un proyecto que busca mejorar la competitividad de una cadena productiva. La interacción que se promovió en el grupo temático entre inCOpa/Cip y los socios aDERS, CapaC y FOViDa, permitió el acceso de estos a tecnología a la que antes no hubieran podido acceder. Tal es el caso de la aeroponía que es un sistema alterno de producción de semilla, desarrollada por la División iV del Cip: Manejo integrado de Cultivo.por derecho de registro de variedades, a partir de una plataforma o grupo de trabajo donde están involucrados actores del sector público y privado. El grupo de trabajo pudo hacer incidencia política, a partir de un trabajo coordinado en función de un objetivo común: poner a disposición del mercado semilla de papa nativa de calidad.La retroalimentación que se genera en un grupo de trabajo de esta naturaleza promueve la • ampliación del horizonte productivo y de trabajo de todos los actores. Los socios pudieron ampliar sus horizontes de trabajo gracias al acceso a conocimiento: aDERS logró acceder a nuevas fuentes de financiamiento que le permitieron implementar semilleros con tecnología aeropónica y CapaC y FOViDa también empezaron a apostar por la implementación de viveros para reproducción de semilla de calidad.No se puede generar ningún tipo de innovaciones comerciales sostenibles en una cadena • productiva sin semilla de calidad. inCOpa promovió y facilitó el desarrollo de innovaciones comerciales como los chips de papas nativas, pero la sostenibilidad de esta innovación no estaba asegurada, sin el impulso de la producción de semilla de calidad de las variedades de papa nativa aptas para este tipo de procesamiento.Lugar de ejecución Distrito de ilave, provincia del Collao, punoFecha de inicio de las actividades: noviembre de 2004 Fecha (efectiva) en que finalizaron las actividades: indefinidaDesarrollo Rural Mejora de los ingresos económicos de las familias campesinas que tienen como principal sustento la producción y la transformación de tuntaproyecto innovación para la Competitividad de la Cadena de la papa-inCOpa, ejecutado por el Centro internacional de la papa actualmente, la plataforma es coordinada por la Dirección Regional agraria puno (DRa).Hacia futuro hay interés de aGRORURaL de asumir el liderazgo de la plataforma para incidir en resultados comerciales La buena práctica de la experiencia de la alianza para el Desarrollo Competitivo de la Tunta corresponde a la intervención realizada por inCOpa para la modernización en el procesamiento y comercialización de la tunta, producto ancestral que se orientaba al mercado informal y de bajo precio, prioritariamente,de Desaguadero e ilave.para impulsar el interés de trabajar con la tunta, se creó una plataforma (alianza de actores de la cadena para desarrollar acciones) donde todos los participantes compartían el objetivo de promover el desarrollo productivo y comercial de la tunta, un producto procesado de la papa con una técnica ancestral, bajo el sustento que la producción de tunta cumple un rol importante en la generación de ingresos de las familias de la región de puno.Las particularidades de la cadena de la tunta obligaron a orientar la estrategia de trabajo de la alianza hacia el desarrollo de tres componentes básicos: 1. Fortalecimiento organizacional, 2. innovación tecnológica y 3. articulación al mercado.La estrategia fue definida con la participación de todos los miembros y el desarrollo de las actividades tuvo como soporte las fortalezas propias de cada una las instituciones que conjugaron los aspectos económicos, profesionales y/o logísticos. Cada año se estableció un plan operativo, donde se especificaron las actividades, los responsables de su ejecución; y, cada 15 días en las sesiones de trabajo se tomaron acuerdos sobre el desarrollo de las tareas y los avances.Si bien se llegó a cumplir el objetivo de crear un producto nuevo en base a tunta seleccionada y elaborada con mejor calidad, se tiene que señalar que los mejores resultados se centraron en generar innovaciones tecnológicas en el proceso productivo de la tunta y la ampliación del mercado sigue siendo un desafío para la cadena.Del conjunto de logros y de resultados alcanzados a lo largo del funcionamiento de la plataforma, destacan los siguientes:La formulación de la Guía de Buenas prácticas de procesamiento y la elaboración de la Guía • de capacitación, con la interacción de productores líderes y el equipo técnico de la alianza, que implicó estandarizar, modernizar y hacer transferible un conocimiento ancestral.El fortalecimiento de 11 organizaciones de productores y la motivación para incorporar a • otras para que se beneficien de la capacitación en Buenas prácticas de procesamiento, que significó un reconocimiento al valor de la aplicación de la Guía y su efecto en la mejora de ingresos de los productores.La producción de tunta de mejor calidad para mercados tradicionales de Desaguadero • (frontera con Bolivia) e ilave que permitió diferenciar la producción de la plataforma, a través del Consorcio Los aymaras.La elaboración de dos normas Técnicas de la Tunta (norma Técnica peruana nTp 011.400:2007 • Tubérculos procesado: papa deshidratada, tunta, requisitos y definiciones; norma Técnica peruana nTp 011.401:2009 Tubérculos procesado: papa deshidratada, tunta, Buenas prácticas de procesamiento artesanal).La capacitación de 800 productores de ilave en la aplicación de la Guía de Buenas prácticas de • procesamiento, casi el 15% del total de productores que se estima que hay en ilave (más de 5000).La difusión de la tecnología a comunidades vecinas y ajenas a las microcuencas. Se trabajó • en tres estratos: los socios de Los aymaras, los vecinos y las comunidades ajenas.Una experiencia de la naturaleza de la alianza para el Desarrollo Competitivo de la Tunta también se enfrentó con problemas que en su caso tuvieron triple naturaleza: socio-culturales, de mercado e institucionales. a nivel socio-cultural, hubo recelos de uno de los cuatro grupos de la comunidad de Chijichaya que participa en el Consorcio, por la inclusión de otras comunidades vecinas de pequeños productores de tunta en las capacitaciones de la Guía, debido a la potencial amenaza de competencia comercial.Respecto a la articulación al mercado 13 , se siguieron dos modelos: 1) a través de ferias tradicionales festivas con venta al por menor y ferias-mercado con venta al por mayor y 2) Con la aplicación del modelo seguido para la papa nativa y su introducción en los supermercados bajo una marca registrada, con un producto previamente seleccionado y con la garantía del cumplimiento de la Guía de Buenas prácticas.Los resultados fueron mejores en las ferias-mercado donde se vende el producto al por mayor y donde acuden los consumidores del perú y también del país vecino de Bolivia, se transan mayores volúmenes y se consiguen precios atractivos para un producto de buena calidad. En cambio, en los mercados de autoservicio, la tunta se vende en bajos volúmenes, probablemente por su alto precio, que se explica porque se vende con una marca comercial y previamente empacada. no obstante, los supermercados son una vitrina que contribuye a mejorar la imagen de la tunta.En lo institucional, la plataforma tuvo que hacer frente a las dificultades propias del trabajo con instituciones multidisciplinarias que tienen agendas particulares y expectativas diferenciadas sobre cómo capitalizar los resultados de la intervención. Esta circunstancia, en determinado momento, retrasó e hizo poco fluidas las relaciones entre los actores; sin embargo, luego fueron superadas.Existen una serie de lecciones que deja la experiencia. probablemente, la más importante está relacionada con que es posible modernizar un conocimiento ancestral con el fin de mejorar su valor de mercado.Una segunda lección tiene que ver con el modelo de intervención basado en la plataforma que fue el más apropiado para trabajar con la cadena productiva de la tunta donde habían discrepancias entre las comunidades productivas sobre la conveniencia de la intervención. La participación de todos los actores hizo más potable y sólida la plataforma y la legitimó para actuar a nombre de la cadena. además, la plataforma permitió el aprovechamiento de sinergias entre actores para la ejecución de actividades multidisciplinarias y la ampliación de los horizontes de trabajo de los actores. pero lo más importante es que la condición para que este modelo de intervención funcione es que todos los participantes compartan un objetivo común.2.1 Reseña sobre el procesamiento ancestral de la tunta en los andes En 2005, cuándo se hizo un diagnóstico de la situación del procesamiento de la tunta en ilave se encontraron problemas en las distintas fases del procesamiento: la selección, congelado, remojo, descascarado y enjuague, secado, pelado final y venteo, selección final y envasado y almacenamiento.Había una deficiente selección de los tubérculos que normalmente se trabajaba al contacto con • el suelo con restos orgánicos, plásticos, vidrios y en muchos casos con tubérculos afectados con gorgojo y con roña (Rhizoctonia solan).Los tubérculos se ponían a congelar en contacto directo con el suelo: restos orgánicos, plásticos, • vidrios, entre otros.Las pozas y los sacos tenían poca ventilación lo que provocaba una alta fermentación de los tubérculos • y que la tunta presentara manchas amarillentas y un fuerte olor que afectaba la calidad.El riesgo de contaminación de la tunta era alto en el momento del descascare por el contacto • directo con los pies dañados y la frecuente fricción de la tunta. El enjuague que se hacía en el río era muy ligero.En el secado, se empleaba un sobre piso ligero, lo que generaba que la tunta entrara en • contacto con restos orgánicos, plásticos y vidrios que se encontraban en el suelo, además de que no se completaba el secado.El pelado era deficiente y había presencia de restos de cáscara que influyen en la calidad. por • su parte, el venteo ocasionaba abundante polvo que perjudicaba la salud de los operarios que no usaban protección.En la selección final, había presencia de manchas amarillas en la tunta, con fisuras oscuras por • las marcas de daño de plagas.Los almacenes eran poco apropiados por la falta de limpieza de las paredes y techo, el riesgo • de presencia de roedores y humedad del suelo.Estas circunstancias motivaron la necesidad de la modernización en el procesamiento y • comercialización de la Tunta y de diseñar una estrategia para fortalecer a las organizaciones de productores, transferir el conocimiento sobre las innovaciones y articular la cadena al mercado.La región puno, situada en la meseta del Collao tiene una superficie de 71,999 km 2 y una población de 1,320,075 habitantes 14 . La actividad agropecuaria es la principal ocupación, pese a las inclemencias del clima (heladas, sequías o inundaciones). El trabajo agrícola tiene un carácter estacional, lo que afecta la economía de la población.La incidencia de pobreza en el 2009 fue de 60.8% 15 , ocupando esta región, el quinto lugar en pobreza a nivel nacional. La desnutrición crónica afecta al 27% de los menores de 5 años, siendo 24% el promedio nacional.Entre 2001 y 2004, la alianza trabajó al interior de tres distritos de puno: Mañazo, en la provincia de puno; ilave, en la provincia de El Collao; y nicasio, en la provincia de Lampa. algunas características de estos distritos se muestran en el siguiente cuadro. Toda la familia de las asociaciones productoras de tunta participaba de la actividad agrícola, enfatizando el cultivo de la papa, siendo igual la intervención de hombres y mujeres.2.3 aspectos socioeconómicos de las asociaciones productoras de tunta involucradas en la empresa Los aymaras, ilave, puno a partir de 2005 y hasta 2010, la alianza centró sus actividades en 8 comunidades del distrito de ilave, Chijichalla, Jarani, Jallmilla, Concahui, Quelicani, Yarihuani, Churomaquera y Cutimbo. El Consorcio Los aymaras representaba a 11 asociaciones de productores de tunta ubicadas en las microcuencas de Hueque, ilave y Camillaque en el mencionado distrito.En un estudio realizado en 2007 16 , se entrevistó a 78 socios involucrados en el procesamiento de la tunta en el Consorcio. La mayor parte de las familias (59.0%) se ubicaban en el nivel de muy pobres, con extensiones de tierra de 0.01 a 5 ha. El 33.2% eran considerados pobres, con extensiones de tierra mayores de 0.51 a 10 ha y el 7.8% como pudientes, con extensiones de tierra, que iban desde 10.01 a más hectáreas.La falta de recursos económicos y la necesidad de trabajar en las labores agrícolas desde la infancia, había ocasionado que una tercera parte de los hombres mayores de 30 años sea analfabeta, mientras que no hay mujeres analfabetas de este grupo etario.Entre los cultivos predominantes en estas microcuencas están la papa, cebada, quinua y avena. La agricultura en la zona se basa en el sistema de secano; es decir, con el régimen de lluvias, las que se presentan en los meses de noviembre a febrero, con variaciones muy importantes en el tiempo durante el año y entre años. Este factor climático, conlleva a que la producción de cosechas y los rendimientos por cultivo, sean muy variables.La mayor parte de la producción de papa de las microcuencas donde están ubicadas las asociaciones se dedica al procesamiento de tunta, seguido de la asignación de semilla para la siguiente campaña.Esto explica la importancia social y económica de la tunta y la urgencia de trabajar en aspectos técnicos agrícolas y buenas prácticas de procesamiento.Cuadro 6 Destino de la papa cosechada por microcuencas, en porcentajes 17 Fuente: informe de aspectos socioeconómicos y productivos de las asociaciones productoras de tunta involucrados en la empresa Los aymaras. ilave-puno, 2007Como se muestra en el siguiente cuadro, la principal fuente de ingresos de estas familias es la agricultura y la papa es uno de los cultivos importantes, seguida por el procesamiento de tunta o chuño.Cuadro 7 principales fuentes de ingreso por microcuencas, en porcentaje La prioridad de la experiencia era lograr que aproximadamente 600 productores se capaciten no para producir la tunta, porque se estima que todas las familias de ilave saben cómo hacer tunta, sino para producir un producto homogéneo que cumpla con las normas de higiene, se haga una selección minuciosa y un buen envasado que les asegure mejores posibilidades de acceso al mercado.En noviembre de 2004, se formó la \"alianza institucional para el desarrollo Competitivo de la Tunta\", impulsada por inCOpa con el objetivo de promover el desarrollo productivo y comercial de la tunta a fin de rescatar una técnica peruana ancestral de conservación de alimentos, así como para mejorar los ingresos económicos de las familias campesinas que tienen como principal sustento la producción y la transformación de papa.para ello, se reunieron actores claves que estaban comprometidos en articular a los pequeños productores de tunta con los mercados, para lo cual se optó inicialmente por dos líneas de trabajo: asociatividad y articulación al mercado. Sin embargo, posteriormente se incorporó la innovación tecnológica como condición para llegar a los mercados. 17 papa dañada, es aquella que presenta daño ocasionado por plagas: picaduras, agujeros y/o cortes.Gráfico 11 Los actores clave de la cadena de la tuntaLa selección de localidades para implementar la plataforma (los distritos de Mañazo, ilave y nicasio, entre 2001 y 2004; y 8 comunidades dentro de ilave, de 2005 a 2010) respondió en gran parte a que se trataba de centros de producción de tunta por excelencia.Las ventajas competitivas de esta zona frente a las otras de puno o Cusco que procesan tunta están en la presencia del río ilave y en las bajas temperaturas que llegan a tener. asimismo, se eligió ilave 18 por la importancia social y económica que tiene la tunta, dado el alto volumen de producción y su importancia comercial.Si a esto se añade que se trata de poblados que viven en serias condiciones de pobreza, como se ha visto líneas arriba, se deduce que cualquier intervención orientada al desarrollo de la competitividad iba a generar impactos muy positivos.La estrategia de inCOpa en 2004 fue impulsar la formación de una plataforma con un grupo ampliado de instituciones entre públicas y privadas que definió tres componentes para el desarrollo productivo y comercial de la tunta: fortalecimiento de las organizaciones, mejoramiento de la tecnología y articulación al mercado.El concurso de todos los actores en la definición de los componentes fue muy importante, por las siguientes razones:El grupo de actores estaba sensibilizado con la problemática asociada a la producción de 1.tunta en ilave.El nivel de sensibilización permitió que la priorización de actividades tuviera en cuenta la 2. importancia de la capacitación a las comunidades en Bp de procesamiento de la tunta y el empoderamiento del trabajo de mujeres y hombres.La condición multidisciplinaria del grupo de actores facilitó definir acciones en el ámbito del 3. fortalecimiento de organizaciones, lo tecnológico y el mercado.Los actores apoyaron las distintas iniciativas. 4.La existencia de la plataforma contribuyó a su rápida incorporación a las actividades del Día 5.nacional de la papa y del año internacional de la papa, a la formación del Comité Técnico para la elaboración de la norma Técnica, a la creación de un brazo comercial que se encargase de facilitar el acceso al mercado, entre otros. El contenido de los componentes diseñados en los planes operativos incluyó las siguientes actividades: i. Fortalecimiento de la organización de productores: consiste en potenciar las capacidades organizativas y de liderazgo de los pequeños productores de tunta. para ello, se asumió como retos el empoderamiento de la empresa de productores Consorcio Los aymaras y lograr la formalización de las organizaciones de base; es decir, las asociaciones de productores dedicadas a la tunta.ii. innovación tecnológica: orientada a la mejora continua de la calidad sanitaria y comercial de la tunta. Como parte de este componente se propuso el desarrollo, capacitación, seguimiento y difusión de las Buenas prácticas en procesamiento (Bpp) de este producto, en numerosas comunidades campesinas, la implementación de un programa HaCCp para el manejo del producto en la planta de acopio y envasado de ilave, la elaboración de las normas Técnicas de la tunta y la publicación de materiales para capacitar y generar incidencia pública.iii. articulación al mercado: la comercialización de tunta se caracteriza por la demanda geográficamente concentrada en ciertas regiones como producto de la migración de la población puneña, incluido sus usos y costumbres alimenticias. Estas regiones son Cusco y arequipa como las más importantes en términos de consumo, seguidas de Moquegua y Tacna. En este sentido, se plantearon promover la comercialización de la tunta en dichos mercados, así como en Lima, bajo una estrategia comercial diseñada. Esto debería permitir lograr márgenes más altos, al eliminarse el trato con intermediarios. asimismo, se planteó la incursión al mercado boliviano (por su alta demanda), a través del mercado fronterizo de Desaguadero.Los recursos asignados por inCOpa a la plataforma se estiman en US$ 6,000 anuales entre 2004 y 2010, lo que da un total de US$ 42,000 de financiamiento.Cuando inCOpa empezó a trabajar en puno, el presupuesto era entregado a la OnG piwandes para fines específicos como realizar un estudio de diagnóstico del procesamiento y evaluaciones tecnológicas en tres zonas. posteriormente, inCOpa decidió cambiar la forma de trabajar. Se optó por trabajar con otras entidades que incluso pudieran realizar aportes económicos, como pROnaMaCHS, pRODUCE, las Universidades y Mi Chacra. adicionalmente, es importante mencionar que entre el 2004 y 2006, pRODUCE, la DRa e inCOpa contrataron a consultores para el diseño y ejecución del programa de organización y gestión. Las otras instituciones aportaron su tiempo, conocimiento y logística para plantear actividades.Los logros y avances alcanzados en la cadena productiva de la tunta respecto a los recursos invertidos, claramente evidencian que se actuó con eficiencia en la implementación de la buena práctica y que esto fue posible gracias a que el trabajo se realizó a través de una plataforma de actores.Esta buena práctica, en particular, evidencia un alto nivel de participación de las organizaciones de productores (11) que fueron beneficiadas por la capacitación sobre la aplicación de las Buenas prácticas de procesamiento de tunta. Como se sabe, gracias a ello, hoy en día, su producción llega al mercado con mejores precios. a través del desarrollo de las distintas fases de la experiencia, se muestra el grado de participación que se promovió con los productores, así como los niveles de articulación alcanzados con distintos actores, los cuales permitieron conseguir los objetivos planteados a nivel de la modernización de la cadena productiva.La experiencia comprendió tres fases de desarrollo: Fase 1: La formación y el crecimiento (2004)(2005)(2006), Fase 2: introducción al mercado y mejora de la calidad (2006)(2007)(2008) y la Fase 3: Fortalecimiento y norma técnica de procesamiento (2009)(2010). En el siguiente diagrama, se describen las fases identificadas en la implementación de la buena práctica, donde se incluye el número de organizaciones de productores que se fueron involucrando en el proceso de implementación.Fases del desarrollo competitivo de la tunta 5.1 Fase 1: La formación y el crecimiento (2004)(2005)(2006) De forma previa a la creación de la plataforma, entre los años 2001 -2004, inCOpa interactuaba con la OnG piwandes, que ejecutaba las actividades con el apoyo de CiRnMa, la Universidad del altiplano y el inia. a finales de 2004, se cambió el modelo de trabajo con la formación de la plataforma alianza para el Desarrollo Competitivo de la tunta y en el 2005 se integraron nuevas instituciones: DRa, pRODUCE, pROnaMaCHS, aSpRODEp, Mi Chacra y el Colegio nacional de nutricionistas del perú (Cnp). Esto vino acompañado con la integración de seis nuevas organizaciones de productores que se sumaron a las cinco con las que ya se trabajaba: Ullacachi, Chijichalla, Concahui (2) y Quelicani.En paralelo, se producía la segunda aplicación del EpCp en Lima, donde se definió para la tunta la necesidad de mejorar la difusión y promoción con la innovación culinaria (participaron escuelas y restaurantes) y también con la innovación de subproductos a base de tunta. para todo lo demás, el modelo que se siguió fue el de la plataforma.Comunidades Churomaquea Quelicani Concahui Cutimbo Jalamilla Yarihuani Chijichalla Jarani Fuente: informe de aspectos socioeconómicos y productivos de las asociaciones productoras de tunta involucrados en la empresa Los aymaras. ilave-puno, 2007En el proceso de formación se utilizó la metodología de trabajo participativo, basado en el modelo de plataformas de inCOpa 19 que ofrecen un espacio para la colaboración público-privada y facilitan el empoderamiento de los actores de la cadena productiva, sobre todo de los pequeños agricultores. Eso explica que conjuntamente con pRODUCE y la DRa -puno se centraran en el fortalecimiento de las organizaciones de productores vinculadas a las instituciones que eran miembros de la plataforma.El proceso participativo de toma de decisiones dio lugar a la idea de la constitución de una empresa de productores formada por los líderes de las once organizaciones: Consorcio \"Los aymaras SRL\".para ello, inCOpa y DRa calcularon los costos de producción del procesamiento artesanal de tunta; pROnaMaCHS y la DRa realizaron capacitaciones en técnicas de selección y empaque de la tunta; aSpRODEp e inCOpa realizaron estudios de diagnóstico sobre el procesamiento de la tunta en el ámbito de trabajo de la plataforma (Microcuencas de los ríos ilave, Huenque y Camillaque) y establecieron pilotos de procesamiento de tunta con la participación activa de los productores de las dos asociaciones de Concahui.por su parte, inCOpa y pRODUCE diseñaron una estrategia de promoción comercial de la tunta y de sensibilización de productores líderes, para su acceso a mercados modernos: Los pilotos comerciales.En 2005 se empezó con la ejecución de los pilotos comerciales en arequipa, Cusco, Lima y Tacna y se logró la participación de seis productores líderes, de escuelas de cocina locales y la prensa local.Como parte de la estrategia de mercado, inCOpa, pRODUCE y pROnaMaCHS promovieron la creación de una marca comercial del producto: ¨Los aymaras¨, el establecimiento del primer Festitunta 2005 y la participación en ferias regionales.5.2 Fase 2: introducción al mercado de Lima y mejora de la calidad (2006 -2008) La segunda fase del proceso de consolidación de la plataforma se inició con la presentación oficial de la tunta en Lima con participación de inCOpa, pRODUCE, Escuelas de Cocina como D´Gallia y la prensa (30 de mayo 2006). Ese mismo año dos productores líderes, participaron en Feria internacional TERRa MaDRE: Torino -italia por invitación de anpE -pERU, donde pudieron vender 500 empaques de 300 g de tunta Los aymaras.El objetivo en esta fase fue el mejoramiento de la calidad de tunta con la participación activa de los productores (hombres y mujeres), para facilitar su ingreso al mercado. para ello, el Consorcio Los 19 Las plataformas congregan a varios actores que desean compartir intereses vinculados a cadenas productivas y procesos de innovación específicos. Una vez que interactúan en la plataforma, estos mejoran la comprensión mutua, generan confianza, aprenden, alcanzan un consenso sobre las prioridades, definen los roles y participan en acciones conjuntas. Las plataformas de actores desempeñan tres funciones que son fundamentales para fomentar la competitividad y el empoderamiento de los agricultores de pequeña escala: Estimulan la innovación conjunta y formulan demandas de investigación, mejoran la coordinación y la gobernabilidad de la cadena productiva (por ejemplo, mediante la articulación de la demanda y la oferta o el establecimiento de servicios de información y estándares del negocio) y llevan a cabo actividades de incidencia para cambiar políticas y generar conciencia pública. http://www.papandina.org/hacemos/metodologias/plataformas aymaras, pROnaMaCHS, DRa, aSpRODEp e inCOpa trabajaron en la formulación de las buenas prácticas de procesamiento (BBp) de la tunta, la elaboración de nTp de papa deshidratada: tunta: nTp 011.400 de 2007, tanto a nivel de requisitos y definiciones, se implementó la planta de acopio y envasado de tunta en la ciudad de ilave, se elaboró el diseño del envase y empaque, se realizaron gestiones para el expendio de la tunta, se registró la marca en inDECOpi, se consiguió el registro sanitario y se consiguió el código de barras.El esquema que siguió el proceso de mejora del procesamiento de la tunta fue el resultado de la articulación de los actores a partir del cual se generó intercambio de información.La metodología para reconstruir el proceso de elaboración de tunta fue participativa, aprender haciendo y aprender a aprender. para ello, se realizaron talleres en los que con la participación de productores y técnicos y, por consenso, se reconstruyó el proceso de elaboración de tunta. En cada etapa, se sistematizó la información y se dio a conocer los resultados a los productores para la estandarización.Gráfico 13 innovación tecnológica en el procesamiento de la tunta asimismo, en 2006 SOLaRiS y Mi Chacra hicieron un sondeo de mercado en La paz, Bolivia e inCOpa y la DRa realizaron capacitación a productores en requisitos para la exportación.Se promovió la participación en ferias regionales con empaques de 300gr, ½ kg, 1kg y 5 kg, se realizó la 2da Festitunta con participación de restaurantes y hoteles y se logró la incursión comercial de la tunta ¨Los aymaras¨, en supermercados de arequipa, Cuzco, Lima y puno En 2007, se incorporaron nuevos integrantes a la plataforma: Universidad peruana Unión (UpEU) y OnG Solaris y se realizó la presentación pública de la nTp (011.400) de la papa deshidratada: tunta, en Lima y puno (junio) y se empezó a desarrollar la Guía para la elaboración de tunta con aplicación de Bpp.El procedimiento de la tunta que se plasmó en la Guía de Buenas prácticas fue como sigue: Cuadro 9 Etapas del procesamiento de la tuntaEl proceso de transformación de la papa en tunta empieza con la recepción de la papa fresca.El proceso de selección normalmente está a cargo de las mujeres.1er congelado Las papas se exponen a temperaturas inferiores a 5°C, durante tres a cuatro noches en las pampas ubicadas en los patios de las casas o en las playas adyacentes al río.inmersión en agua Una vez congelados los tubérculos, se sumergen en el río en pozas o jaulas con mallas que resisten hasta tres toneladas, por un periodo largo, entre 21 y 30 días.Se vuelve a congelar los tubérculos de papa ya remojados por una sola noche. Luego se extraen del río, con ayuda de un colador gigante o \"wiscaña\" y se extienden sobre una capa de paja limpia y mallas.Se trabaja con los tubérculos de papa aún húmedos y con la cáscara semi desprendida.El secado se realiza con exposición al sol y a las heladas nocturnas durante siete días aproximadamente.Una vez seca la tunta, se coloca una arroba de tunta en una manta de malla y se balancea de un lado a otro, provocando el roce entre estas y el pelado final. Luego, las mujeres proceden al venteado para separar completamente los restos de cáscara.La selección es la labor final y determina el precio final.almacenamiento La tunta se almacena en un espacio habilitado dentro de las viviendas de los productores: cerrado, con techo y paredes fáciles de limpiar y ventanas selladas con mallas.Fuente: Documento elaborado bajo la coordinación de la alianza institucional para el desarrollo competitivo de la tunta, puno, 2007 pRODUCE organizó un curso de capacitación en gestión empresarial al Consorcio Los aymaras y las organizaciones socias y en 2007 con el apoyo de pROnaMaCHS, DRa, aSpRODEp e inCOpa se empezó la formación de once promotores aymaras para capacitar en Bpp Tunta a los productores de base.adicionalmente, se realizó el curso taller sobre el uso y valor nutricional de la tunta dirigido al Consorcio Los aymaras, la recopilación y elaboración del recetario de productos -base de tunta; y, la caracterización morfológica de tunta: Variedad Locka y Chasca (dimensiones/peso). La UpEU inició la capacitación de productor a productor, en Bpp a once asociaciones vinculadas al Consorcio Los aymaras (100).También durante 2007, se creó un sistema de información de mercado donde se registraron los precios de tunta en puno y arequipa; pROnaMaCHS apoyó la promoción y difusión del uso de la tunta (spots publicitario) en medios de comunicación: TV, radio; se realizó un concurso gastronómico en la ciudad de puno; y, se hicieron sondeos sobre el uso de la tunta a nivel de restaurantes y hoteles de arequipa, Cuzco y puno; y, con el apoyo de inCOpa y DRa se participó en diversas ferias en arequipa, Cuzco, Lima y puno.que Desaguadero comercializa más tunta de las variedades mejoradas donde predomina Canchán a diferencia de otros años cuando predominaba la Chaska y en ilave predominó la venta de las variedades amargas como la Locka.Cuadro 10 Resultados del sondeo sobre la comercialización de tunta en mercado de Desaguadero  Una experiencia de esta naturaleza no fue ajena a los problemas, básicamente en la primera etapa, y el primero que surgió fue con relación a la institucionalidad de la plataforma debido a la mayor presencia o referencia en los medios de comunicación que tuvo en algún momento inCOpa/Cip, entre otros pequeños incidentes propios de la confluencia de distintas instituciones con agendas particulares. Sin embargo, todos esos pequeños sucesos fueron superados y terminaron por enriquecer el funcionamiento de la plataforma.Un segundo problema que se presentó estuvo asociado a la custodia del conocimiento ancestral, implícito detrás de la producción de tunta.Las comunidades tuvieron mucho recelo de los técnicos puneños de habla aymara que fueron enviados para recuperar los pasos del proceso para elaborar la guía de buena práctica de procesamiento. El temor que existía es que empezaran a producir tunta con mejoras tecnológicas para competir en el mercado. no obstante, más adelante comprendieron que formaban parte del equipo de trabajo y que su contribución trascendería a nivel nacional, a través de la Guía de Buenas prácticas de procesamiento y las dos normas Técnicas.Relacionado con esto, cabe destacar la actitud de uno de los cuatro grupos de la comunidad de Chijichaya que participaron del trabajo de la plataforma, que en una oportunidad causaron contratiempos que luego se superaron. Su principal argumento era que nadie podía venir a enseñarles cosas sobre un procedimiento que ya conocían y que les pertenecía.El tercer problema estuvo relacionado con el acceso a mercados similares a los que se intentaban para la papa nativa. La experiencia de venta a supermercados no fue como se esperaba por varias razones: débil conocimiento que existía en el mercado sobre el producto, la competencia en precio del producto que se vendía a granel en mercados informales y el largo periodo de pago que manejaban estas grandes superficies.para poder comprender mejor las fases de la implementación de la plataforma, se propone una Línea del tiempo que contiene una serie de divisiones temporales que permiten visualizar mejor los hechos históricos asociados a la experiencia según su duración.Gráfico 14 Hechos más importantes en la implementación de la plataforma 6. iMpaCTO pOSiTiVO La alianza para el desarrollo competitivo de la tunta ha tenido muchos resultados a nivel de los tres componentes del diseño estratégico: fortalecimiento de organizaciones de productores, innovación tecnológica en el procesamiento de la tunta y articulación al mercado:6.1 Fortalecimiento de las organizaciones de productores vinculadas a las entidades que participan en la plataformaEste fortalecimiento se logró a través de un programa de capacitación en organización y gestión para las organizaciones articuladas y la creación de un brazo comercial.Las actividades de este componente estuvieron a cargo del Comité de organización: DRa, inCOpa y produce, quienes diseñaron un programa de capacitación en organización y gestión. En tal sentido, se logró articular a once organizaciones, entre asociaciones y micro empresas (cada uno con entre Se capacitó a 800 productores de ilave, casi el 15% del total de productores que se estima que hay en ilave. La difusión de la tecnología alcanzó a comunidades vecinas y ajenas a las microcuencas. Se trabajó en tres estratos: los socios de Los aymaras, los vecinos y las comunidades ajenas.En esta misma línea es importante mencionar que los procesos de capacitación permitieron desarrollar habilidades especiales tanto en hombres como mujeres en la selección de semilla en la siembra y en la cosecha 20 . En el caso de las mujeres, se puede resaltar que las capacitaciones mejoraron su capacidad de negociación para la venta del producto como también para manejar los ingresos familiares, lo cual permitió que adquirieran mayor confianza.no era difícil oír a los productores hablando de costos de producción, de proyecciones de gasto y e ingresos; o de tener perspectivas de consolidación de sus negocios.\"He aprendido a hacer negocio, cómo tenemos que lograr capitalizar, cuánto debo de ganar aplicando mis conocimientos, sacando costos, ahora me relaciono con empresas a nivel nacional y extranjero, he viajado hasta Italia para contar mi experiencia, antes no podía ni hablar, no sabía ni acotar palabra, hasta hablo por celular; asisto a todas las reuniones que me invitan\" (…) tengo que ajustar mi tiempo, tengo que hacer mi agenda todas las semanas, allí escribo lo que tengo que hacer, cuándo tengo que ir a la chacra, cuándo tengo que despachar, cuándo tengo una reunión. (…) Quiero ser una gran empresaria, necesito más capital, necesito varios mercados, como productora, necesito tener productos de calidad\". Teresa Ramos Flores 21 /36 años/ secundaria incompleta/divorciada/socia de Asociación de Productores Agropecuarios Concahui.Cuando se analiza el nivel de empoderamiento alcanzado por mujeres y hombres, se encuentra que las primeras cada vez comparten más actividades con los hombres y de forma exclusiva han asumido la responsabilidad de la selección de la papa, debido a que son más cuidadosas. 20 ZEGaRRa Begazo, Giuliana. Los cambios más significativos que los hombres y mujeres identifican en sus vidas a raíz de su articulación a nuevos canales de comercialización. Estudio realizado con productores de papa nativa en Huancayo -Huancavelica y tunta en puno. proyectos: inCOpa e innOVanDES, diciembre 2010 21 ibíd.Esto permitió llegar a los mercados tradicionales de Desaguadero e ilave con tunta de mejor calidad. La comercialización de tunta se caracteriza por su concentración geográfica en algunas regiones como producto de la migración de la población puneña incluido sus usos y costumbres alimenticias.Estas regiones son Cusco y arequipa como las más importantes en términos de consumo, seguidas de Moquegua y Tacna.El objetivo de este componente fue apoyar el acceso de los pequeños productores de tunta al mercado con un producto de calidad. Dicho componente estuvo a cargo del Comité de Mercado: inCOpa, Mi Chacra, produce y Solaris que diseñaron una estrategia comercial para revalorizar la tunta.La estrategia de incidir en la calidad, selección y presentación era un cambio respecto al producto tradicional, por lo que la búsqueda de nuevos mercados tenía que estar asociada a la puesta en valor de un producto nuevo que tiene ventajas respecto a otros tipos de tunta que se comercializan en puno: un tamaño mayor, el color blanco intenso, la disminución del olor fuerte y una cocción más rápida de la tunta previamente remojada.Esta estrategia tuvo las siguientes líneas de acción: La capacitación a los productores en la importancia del valor agregado, en las técnicas de • mercadeo (2005) La promoción comercial a través de su participación en \"pilotos comerciales\" en cuatro • ciudades del país: arequipa, Cuzco, Lima y Tacna. para los pilotos se unieron esfuerzos en cada ciudad con las entidades locales, como las Escuelas de Cocina, el gobierno regional y los medios de prensa, para favorecer la promoción del producto.El desarrollo de la marca comercial: \"Los aymaras\" en empaques de 300g. cuya propiedad • fue asignada a la empresa de productores Consorcio Los aymaras (2006). La introducción de la tunta a los mercados de autoservicio de arequipa, Cusco, Lima y • puno donde se venden aproximadamente 20kg mensuales; con el objetivo de acercarse a los sectores económicos a y B, a la vez levantar la imagen del producto.La participación en diversas ferias regionales por el día nacional de la papa y ferias regionales, • nacionales e internacionales. En dichas ferias la venta promedio de tunta ascendió a 200 kg. (periodo de 3 días).La Empresa de productores Consorcio Los aymaras instaló una planta de acopio y envasado • de tunta, local cedido por la Dpa e implementado por inCOpa y la Municipalidad de El Collao (2006).La realización de un Estudio de Mercado para La Tunta en los departamentos de puno, • Cusco y arequipa así como en la Ciudad de La paz en Bolivia, a cargo de la OnG SOLaRiS perú y la Empresa Mi Chacra (2006). Dicho estudio fue la base para promover la venta al por mayor, en sacos de 50 kg en los mercados mayoristas: ferias de ilave y Desaguadero (frontera con Bolivia), donde, lograron diferenciarse del gran grupo de comerciantes por la marca Los aymaras. En el siguiente cuadro, se muestran los resultados favorables a nivel comercial.Cuadro 13 Evolución de ventas al por mayor, por tipo de productor Como se sabe, el mercado tradicional de la tunta en ilave y Desaguadero existía y absorbía la mayor parte de la producción de tunta de la zona, pero era un mercado informal y de bajo precio sobre todo hasta el año 2006. En los siguientes años, este mercado, en especial Desaguadero, empezó a pagar mejores precios y los volúmenes de venta fueron mayores. por esta razón, a partir del 2007 se dio mayor impulso a la estrategia de venta al por mayor en sacos de 50 kg con marca Los aymaras para Desaguadero e ilave.La propuesta de llegar a mercados más sofisticados, como el limeño, los llevó a aplicar el modelo de comercialización que se estaba usando para la papa nativa. Sin embargo, ese modelo partía de la premisa que la tunta era conocida por la población en las zonas urbanas y que había disposición de pagar un mayor precio por tunta envasada que a granel, situación que no era exacta. Es así que el desconocimiento del producto en Lima, la competencia de venta de tunta a granel, la lenta rotación en góndola de supermercados, entre otros fueron factores que impidieron una exitosa articulación a este mercado.a pesar de lo anterior, se puede afirmar que el beneficio económico neto que ofrecía la tunta de papa dulce de primera y segunda calidad en 2007 23 fluctuaba entre S/. 58,801 para 22.9 t en tunta de primera calidad y una TiR (tasa interna de retorno) de 65.8% a 97.6% y para tunta de segunda calidad el beneficio era de S/.39,678 en 33.9 t con una TiR de 21.1% a 44.4%. por su parte, el beneficio económico para la tunta de papa amarga de primera calidad, en las tres microcuencas, sobresaliendo la microcuenca de Camillaque, era de S/. 13,158 para 5.1 t con una TiR de 50%.  a nivel institucional, el esquema de trabajo a partir de una plataforma como la creada para la alianza para el Desarrollo Competitivo de la Tunta, funcionó para modernizar un producto que tenía un proceso productivo artesanal y ancestral.El objetivo de recuperar y modernizar la producción ancestral de tunta, condicionó al equipo técnico de la alianza al trabajo con los dueños de ese conocimiento. Esto significa que todas las innovaciones realizadas como parte de esta buena práctica fueron resultado de la participación directa de los productores, principalmente del distrito de ilave.Ellos aportaron para el desarrollo del diagnóstico de la situación previa a la intervención, pero también fueron actores importantes para la formulación de las Buenas prácticas de procesamiento, y elaboración de la Guía de capacitación, gracias al conocimiento sobre el procesamiento y la experiencia adquirida a lo largo de todas sus vidas.Esta forma de proceder, que en el camino generó algunas sensibilidades con algunas comunidades, fue fundamental para legitimar el trabajo que se realizó. Sin embargo, no fue la única experiencia inclusiva de esta buena práctica. La creación del Consorcio Los aymaras se convirtió en un instrumento para crear capacidades locales para la comercialización y pese a las dificultades presentadas y los éxitos y fracasos alcanzados, las organizaciones miembros del Consorcio tuvieron acceso a los requerimientos y demandas del mercado, pero además, se mejoró la autoestima y empoderamiento de hombres y mujeres.Esto los motivó a modificar sus estrategias de trabajo y la definición de su público objetivo. Hoy en día, la tunta del Consorcio Los aymaras tiene una mejor apreciación en sus mercados tradicionales y gracias a ello los productores obtienen mayores ingresos.La experiencia de la alianza institucional para el desarrollo Competitivo de la Tunta aporta un conjunto de lecciones que se podrían clasificar en tres tipos: las relacionadas con la aplicación del modelo de plataformas, las institucionales asociadas al funcionamiento de la plataforma y las relacionadas con las innovaciones incorporadas en la Buena práctica.aplicación del modelo de plataformas El modelo de la plataforma que se aplicó consistió en un conjunto de procedimientos 28 y mecanismos de decisión compartida y ejecución de acciones colaborativas para el fortalecimiento de la cadena productiva y el posicionamiento de los pequeños productores de tunta. La clave en la aplicación de ese modelo fue el impulso que le dio a una nueva forma de relacionamiento entre los actores de la cadena que permitió que los productores aprovechen las oportunidades del mercado, mediante el mejoramiento de la calidad, rentabilidad, sostenibilidad y equidad de la cadena.La construcción de la plataforma facilitó la convocatoria de entidades con objetivos comunes para el fortalecimiento de la cadena, como también a otras instituciones que podían apoyar operativamente en la consecución de objetivos específicos, como inDECOpi en el caso de las normas técnicas.La participación activa de los actores, desde el inicio del proceso, así como el hecho que sus intereses se vean reflejados en las acciones planificadas, generó compromiso y responsabilidad sobre los resultados.institucionales La comunicación fluida y la búsqueda de concertación con las comunidades son variables especialmente importantes cuando se trabaja con grupos de antecedentes culturales distintos. Esto se pudo comprobar cuando hubo un impase puntual en junio de 2008 con uno de los cuatro grupos con los que se trabajó la capacitación en la comunidad de Chijichaya, que dicho sea de paso es la que tiene más cantidad de población con 2000 habitantes, respecto a las otras que tienen apenas 500 habitantes.La composición multidisciplinaria de la plataforma fue beneficiosa para el planeamiento y la ejecución de actividades con mayor alcance y favoreció la ampliación de los horizontes de trabajo de los actores.Las plataformas solo funcionan si sus miembros llegan a tener una filosofía de trabajo alrededor de un objetivo común y no anteponen intereses individuales. por lo tanto, es, esencial buscar desarrollar una identidad de grupo y tener claros los beneficios del trabajo en conjunto.Las prácticas ancestrales admiten la incorporación de mejoras tecnológicas que beneficien la calidad del producto y sus posibilidades de acceso al mercado. Los procesos artesanales pueden mejorarse tecnológicamente respetando la identidad de los sistemas agroalimentarios locales.La clave para el desarrollo de las innovaciones fue la interacción constante entre técnicos y productores, a través de la aplicación de métodos participativos (diagnóstico, pilotos de procesamiento, capacitación horizontal), en donde los productores siempre fueron escuchados con el objetivo de que se apropien de la innovación.La sola mejora tecnológica en el procesamiento de un producto puede generar un efecto positivo en los ingresos de los productores: reduce los costos, afecta la calidad, mejora la percepción del producto en el mercado, entre otros.Los pilotos comerciales fueron una experiencia positiva para los productores porque les permitió captar los requerimientos básicos del mercado para las transacciones comerciales (emisión de facturas, registro sanitario, el código de barras, etc).FICHA TÉCNICA: La alianza con el sector gastronómico y su rol promotor en la revalorización de la papa nativa Sobre los 3,000 m.s.n.m. viven productores agrícolas que durante muchos años han custodiado un tesoro preciado de papas de colores y sabores particulares que básicamente se orientaba a su consumo personal o al trueque.antes de 2002, era difícil encontrar papa nativa en los mercados locales de las regiones de producción.Únicamente cuando había una feria importante, bajaban los productores a ofrecer sus papas especiales, aquellas que son para las grandes ocasiones como cumpleaños, matrimonios y otras celebraciones.Hoy en día, las papas nativas están en los mercados locales, regionales y han ingresado al mercado de Lima.La buena práctica que se quiere destacar es la decisión de establecer una alianza con el sector gastronómico para promover la revalorización de la papa nativa y cómo este facilitó el impulso de la cadena productiva al atender una necesidad: mejorar la imagen de la papa en general; y, de la nativa, en particular.La vinculación entre una actividad moderna y en crecimiento con una cadena productiva tradicional y asociada a pobreza y exclusión, generó un efecto inmediato en la mejora de la imagen de la papa.El proceso de revalorización de la papa nativa empezó con la aplicación del Enfoque participativo de Cadenas productivas-EpCp. Como se sabe, el EpCp es un modelo para trabajar las cadenas productivas en general partiendo del involucramiento de los actores directos e indirectos con una clara orientación hacia el mercado. La clave del proceso es la generación de innovaciones que generen mayores beneficios a los productores, teniendo como meta lograr eficiencias en la cadena productiva o aumentando el valor final de los productos de la cadena 29 .En la primera aplicación (2002 y 2003), donde participaron productores, comerciantes, procesadores, agentes de supermercados, OnG, investigadores y funcionarios del MinaG, se propuso la creación de dos productos comerciales, uno de los cuales era a base de papa amarilla que es una nativa comercial (papy Bum), uno institucional y dos productos de información.En la segunda aplicación (2003)(2004), se incorporaron en el grupo los chef y las Escuelas de Cocina con el fin de reforzar el trabajo de valoración de las papas nativas según su uso. El resultado fueron 4 productos nuevos, de los cuales uno era a base de papa nativa (T´ikapapa). pero adicionalmente, elEpCp promovió la interacción social entre los actores que podían promover la revalorización de la papa, entre ellos las Escuelas de Gastronomía.La revalorización de la papa nativa es un proceso que empezó con el mensaje que estaba detrás de las innovaciones institucionales, comerciales y tecnológicas que fueron creadas: Mejorar la imagen de la papa nativa y mostrar que era posible generar valor en un producto que durante miles de años había estado asociado a pobreza y exclusión.El concepto de T´ikapapa, creado en la segunda aplicación del EpCp, más allá de la marca es papa nativa fresca, seleccionada, clasificada, limpia, lavada y empacada -al que hay que agregar-lista para ser consumida y a disposición de los consumidores en los formatos de distribución minorista más modernos: los supermercados. La introducción de ese concepto en el mercado significó poner la papa nativa al alcance de los consumidores individuales o institucionales y la forma de presentación contribuyó al proceso de diferenciación que quería mostrar una papa con valor agregado.El interés en la papa nativa ya estaba generado y fue la industria, la que habiendo participado de las reuniones de aplicación de EpCp, tomó la iniciativa para investigar la posibilidad de trabajar chips de papa nativa e introducir el producto en las ligas mayores de mercado, dada la dimensión internacional de la transnacional Fritos Lay que fue quien asumió el liderazgo en este tema.pero no fue hasta que la gastronomía la hizo suya que la papa nativa se pudo lucir en todo su esplendor. Las variedades nativas tienen un mayor contenido de sólidos y son óptimas para los purés o cremas, pero la creatividad de los Chef peruanos recreó nuevas formas de uso de la papa nativa, aprovechando sus colores y texturas. La Cocina de autor empezó una revolución en los usos tradicionales de la papa nativa.La gastronomía modernizó lo popular y puso de moda un producto que solo formaba parte de la reserva alimenticia de los clanes de las zonas altoandinas y la terminó de introducir al mercado.El proceso empezó acompañando la segunda aplicación del EpCp, continuó con la participación en eventos y las celebraciones del Día nacional de la papa mostrando la amplitud de usos y versatilidad de la papa nativa, siguió con un compromiso con la revalorización, facilitando la presencia de la papa y sus variedades en las ferias gastronómicas y ahora la Sociedad peruana de Gastronomía se ha convertido en un socio estratégico de la cadena. Esto explica que en 2010 haya decidido encargar a una consultora la realización de un estudio para determinar el impacto del boom gastronómico en la generación de oportunidades de mercado para los pequeños productores.En un contexto de crecimiento del sector gastronómico a nivel nacional y una evidente proyección internacional del mismo, resulta fundamental que esta actividad económica asuma el liderazgo para lograr que su crecimiento genere oportunidades para lo pequeños productores, entre ellos, los de papas nativas.La práctica sujeta a sistematización es la alianza con el sector gastronómico para promover la revalorización de la papa nativa a partir del aprovechamiento de su versatilidad y cómo esta facilitó el impulso a la cadena productiva y el surgimiento de un conjunto de oportunidades que requerían ser atendidas.Las papas nativas fueron durante muchos años las grandes desconocidas de los mercados urbanos.producidas en las zonas altas de la Sierra peruana, algunas de ellas se pueden llegar a considerar en peligro de extinción. a esta altitud, las papas nativas son el principal cultivo de los pequeños productores, para quienes es una especie importante de trueque, alimento e incluso, forman parte de su acervo cultural.El cultivo de la papa nativa siempre ha sido marginal respecto al resto de la producción de las parcelas altoandinas. no es posible encontrar grandes extensiones de producción de papa nativa sino más bien parcelas aisladas a diferente altitud, donde se siembran diversas variedades y tan difícil como eso, es encontrar semilla de papa nativa de calidad en el mercado.Estas circunstancias limitaron el alcance de la intervención de inCOpa para revalorizar la papa nativa.Los esfuerzos realizados para incentivar a los supermercados, la industria y la gastronomía enfrentaron la falta de aprovisionamiento sostenido e hicieron necesaria la implementación de actividades orientadas a trabajar con los productores con el fin de que amplíen su horizonte productivo de papas nativas y con todos los actores, en su conjunto, para que se produzca semilla de papa nativa de calidad.El proceso de revalorización de la papa nativa empezó con la aplicación del Enfoque participativo de Cadenas productivas-EpCp. Como se sabe, el EpCp es un modelo para trabajar las cadenas productivas en general partiendo del involucramiento de los actores directos e indirectos con una clara orientación hacia el mercado. La clave del proceso es la generación de innovaciones que generen mayores beneficios a los productores, teniendo como meta lograr eficiencias en la cadena productiva o aumentando el valor final de los productos de la cadena 30 .En la primera aplicación (2002 y 2003), donde participaron productores, comerciantes, procesadores, agentes de supermercados, OnG, investigadores y funcionarios del MinaG, se propuso la creación de dos productos comerciales, uno de los cuales era a base de papa amarilla que es una nativa comercial (papy Bum), uno institucional y dos productos de información.En la segunda aplicación (2003)(2004), se incorporaron los chef y las Escuelas de Cocina con el fin de reforzar el trabajo de valoración de las papas nativas según su uso. El resultado fueron 4 productos nuevos, de los cuales uno era a base de papa nativa (T'ikapapa).La innovación, siguiendo a Fano (2010), es la introducción de lo nuevo en las prácticas colectivas y aparece como el encuentro o síntesis entre la capacidad potencial de hacer algo y la percepción de una oportunidad o necesidad de aprovechar tal capacidad. En el caso de la alianza con el sector gastronómico de lo que se trata es de capitalizar la vinculación entre un sector moderno y en crecimiento con un producto tradicional que se requiere modernizar y revalorizar para que pueda avanzar a la velocidad del sector que requiere ser acompañado.Este acercamiento entre un sector en auge que tiene una imagen potable de modernidad y calidad y la cadena productiva de la papa nativa permitió desencadenar una serie de externalidades que favorecieron la imagen de la cadena. algunas de ellas fueron la visibilidad de la conciencia del sector sobre la versatilidad de las papas nativas y la atribución de valor del insumo respecto a sus pares.La idea de revalorizar la papa nativa surgió como resultado de la constatación de que las zonas altoandinas del perú concentran altos niveles de pobreza, pese a la gran biodiversidad con la que cuentan. El caso más resaltante es el de la papa en general y la nativa en particular que son poco conocidas y su consumo es poco difundido más allá de las zonas rurales de los andes peruanos.La principal explicación de esta circunstancia es que la cadena productiva de la papa nativa no estaba articulada y tenía poco desarrollo mercadológico.ambos aspectos, formaban parte de los objetivos generales del proyecto inCOpa (promoción de la producción Competitiva de la papa peruana), el cual era coordinado por el Centro internacional de la papa-Cip, con apoyo y financiamiento de COSUDE y ejecutado en alianza con socios públicos y privados.Mejorar la competitividad de la cadena de la papa 1.aprovechar las oportunidades del mercado en un contexto de interés por la conservación del 2. medio ambiente y la biodiversidad.En la ejecución de actividades orientadas a cumplir esos dos objetivos estaba desarrollar y aplicar mecanismos participativos y plataformas de concertación para generar innovaciones comerciales, tecnológicas e institucionales.Como parte de ese proceso surgió la posibilidad de trabajar con supermercados, la industria y el sector gastronómico.Los supermercados tenían el incentivo de acceder al abastecimiento de papa de mayor variedad con buena aceptación del mercado y asegurar un aprovisionamiento continuo; la industria estaba interesada en explorar las variedades para ver sus potenciales de uso y trabajar con cadenas que permitan acceder a papa de mejor calidad; y, el sector gastronómico tenía el incentivo de acceder a insumos que les permitieran recrear nuevas posibilidades de uso de las distintas variedades. precisamente, la experiencia que se quiere destacar como Buena práctica tiene que ver con la forma en que la relación con la gastronomía, permitió impulsar la revalorización de la imagen de la papa nativa.La clave fue el desarrollo de nichos relacionados con los sectores aliados.El de la papa nativa seleccionada y envasada para los supermercados. • Los chips de colores para la industria. • Los platos de la cocina de autor que incluyen a la papa nativa. • El caso de la gastronomía destaca en particular porque surgió espontáneamente pero adquirió un protagonismo más importante que el de los otros dos sectores. En el proceso de gestación de la alianza se pueden distinguir cuatro etapas: El acompañamiento de la segunda aplicación del EpCp. 1.La participación en eventos y las celebraciones del Día nacional 2.de la papa mostrando la amplitud de usos y versatilidad de la papa nativa.3.2 La participación en eventos y las celebraciones del Día nacional de la papa mostrando la amplitud de usos y versatilidad de la papa nativaLas Escuelas de Cocina empezaron a participar en las celebraciones de los Días nacionales desde 2005 cuando el evento central se realizó en las instalaciones del Centro internacional de la papa y continuaron participando en dichos eventos en los años siguientes.adicionalmente, tomaron un espacio importante en los Congresos de papa de 2008, 2009 y 2010, no solo a través de eventos de degustación sino con presentaciones sobre lo que el sector gastronómico está haciendo para dinamizar la cadena.El sector gastronómico también fue el eje de la campaña del Estado para incrementar el consumo de papa en la población y acompañó el lanzamiento de la misma, capitalizando el lugar privilegiado que ocupa la gastronomía en el imaginario nacional, en la medida que es una de las pocas cosas de las que casi unánimemente los peruanos se sienten orgullosos. Los beneficios de esta iniciativa alcanzan a los productores, sus organizaciones, el sector gastronómico, las instituciones públicas y privadas, las empresas y los consumidores.31 La información proviene de la página web de la iniciativa papas andinas www.papasandinas.org para los productores porque su identidad se ve fortalecida por las acciones de la ipa y se promueve que reciban una retribución equitativa de su trabajo y la conservación de sus recursos. El sector gastronómico encuentra respaldo para difundir una visión de la gastronomía peruana que contribuye al desarrollo del país, las empresas obtienen visibilidad y credibilidad para sus acciones de RSE vinculadas al sector papas nativas, presentadas y respaldadas por una iniciativa colectiva, las instituciones públicas acceden a una plataforma de actores que trabajan con la misma visión de promoción del desarrollo rural en la zona andina y los consumidores son informados de los beneficios nutritivos y culinarios de las papas nativas.3.4 El compromiso con la revalorización, aceptando la presencia de la papa y sus variedades en las ferias gastronómicas.En el Congreso de papa 2010, Gonzalo angosto miembro de la Sociedad peruana de Gastronomía-apEGa realizó una presentación sobre lo que significa MiSTURa y la forma en que está organizada. Esta participación de un representante de apEGa en el Congreso fue una manifestación del compromiso que ha asumido la Sociedad con la cadena productiva y con el impacto que puede tener la articulación del sector con los pequeños productores rurales. pero esta no era la primera vez que se producía este acercamiento.En 2008, en la versión de perú Mucho Gusto, el mercado de la exposición tuvo un conjunto de stands de papa, en la primera versión de MiSTURa, el producto elegido como ícono fue el ají. Sin embargo, la papa y, en particular, la papa nativa, destacó entre todos los stands que se presentaron. Esto motivó a la Sociedad a elegir a la papa nativa como el producto ícono para 2010.3.5 Liderazgo: apEGa se convierte en socio estratégico de la cadenaEl interés de la Sociedad peruana de Gastronomía no es solo un interés mediático, sino que ha dado muestras de ser parte de una visión del sector sobre las oportunidades que puede generar el boom de la gastronomía para los pequeños productores. Eso explica que en 2010, encargaran un estudio con el fin de evaluar oportunidades de negocio para la pequeña agricultura peruana en el contexto del boom de la gastronomía. El objetivo de este estudio era analizar 6 productos representativos de la agricultura peruana con la finalidad de evaluar el aporte económico y social de la pequeña agricultura en la actualidad. Estos 6 productos fueron los siguientes: ají amarillo, rocoto, cacao, quinua, café orgánico y papa nativa.El análisis interno y externo del producto 32 permitió llegar a definir cuatro tipos de estrategias:En este grupo destaca la idea de promocionar la marca \"papa nativa peruana\" en el mercado nacional e internacional que ayude a difundir sus propiedades nutritivas y saludables, impulsar el desarrollo de investigaciones para aplicaciones industriales que puedan innovar en productos más sofisticados (ejemplo: cremas) e inclusive curativos y generar líderes de opinión de las papas nativas (chefs, gastrónomos, etc.)Este tipo de estrategia comprende capacitaciones sobre comercialización de productos, intercambiando ideas con los agricultores e impulsar el \"aprovisionamiento escalonado\" donde durante un período de tiempo se puede abastecer de una variedad, y en otros de otras.Considera la promoción de la biodiversidad de la papa en función de sus orígenes que permiten diferenciar los diversos usos y aplicaciones industriales, promover mesas de diálogo entre pequeños agricultores y representantes de empresas, especialistas y comerciantes y desarrollar la inversión en infraestructura tecnológica y comercial que mejore la accesibilidad a las zonas alejadas.a nivel de este tipo de estrategia, se considera capacitar en avances teóricos como tratamiento de semilla, formas de cultivo, formas de almacenaje; y avances prácticos como tecnología y usos actuales de sus variedades de papa nativa; así como desarrollar y comunicar un calendario de papa nativa.32 aRELLanO MaRKETinG, Oportunidades para la pequeña agricultura con el boom gastronómico. Diciembre 2010.La línea de tiempo que plasma el proceso por el cual la gastronomía asume el rol de promover la revalorización de la papa nativa es como sigue:Gráfico 15 Evolución del rol de la gastronomía en la revalorización de la papa nativa El nivel de revalorización alcanzado por las papas nativas permite que hoy las cartas de importantes restaurantes en Lima incluyan un 30% de platos que tienen a la papa en general como un elemento importante. Sin embargo, probablemente lo que más puede llamar la atención es que estas contengan platos de papa nativa. a continuación, una muestra de los platos que figuran en las cartas de algunos de estos restaurantes.Cuadro 14 Revalorización de la papa nativa en la gastronomía En ese contexto, los autoservicios y la industria jugaron un rol fundamental porque la experiencia los motivó a ampliar sus horizontes productivos y eso explica que los Supermercados y en particular la cadena Wong, se convirtieran en aliados estratégicos de la cadena y participaran no solo como compradores de la ya convertida en marca T´ikapapa, sino que ampliaron su horizonte de participación en la revalorización de la papa y en la promoción de la misma.Una evidencia de ello, fue su participación en la celebración del Día nacional de la papa, de 2005 a la fecha. Esta participación se plasmó prioritariamente en la inclusión de la festividad en sus encartes comerciales con temática alusiva a la celebración y la promoción de la papa y sus derivados.adicionalmente, participaron directamente en el evento central de los Días nacionales de 2005, 2006 y 2009.algo similar sucedió con la industria, que inicialmente estuvo representada por pequeñas empresas agroindustriales que desarrollaron un proceso de investigación y desarrollo para productos como los chips de papa amarilla, o la papa nativa seleccionada, clasificada y envasada. posteriormente, fue la gran industria la que se interesó en el conocimiento que se estaba generando a partir de la interacción de los actores de la cadena y decidió participar activamente y hacer investigación y desarrollo orientado a obtener nuevos productos que no serán analizados en esta experiencia.El caso del sector gastronómico es algo distinto. Empezaron acompañando los eventos de las distintas La industria también sostiene la vigencia de su interés a través de distintas manifestaciones. por un lado, el ingreso de nuevos actores interesados en el sector que han desarrollado nuevos productos o formas de presentación de los conceptos trabajados y por otro lado, la apuesta por las empresas más grandes de integrarse verticalmente en la cadena, o contribuir de alguna manera, para garantizar ciertos privilegios de acceso a determinadas variedades de papa nativa que tienen aptitud para ser industrializadas.En el caso de la gastronomía, la relación se ha estrechado y está en otro nivel. La gastronomía ha asumido el rol de popularizar y poner de moda un producto que solo formaba parte de la reserva alimenticia de los clanes de las zonas altoandinas.Eso explica que en 2008, la feria perú Mucho Gusto incluyera dentro del área de mercado un espacio especial para la papa en general, donde la papa nativa sobresalió y cautivó al público. En 2009, la primera versión de MiSTURa eligió al ají como el producto protagonista del evento, en su calidad de primer insumo nacional de la gastronomía peruana. Sin embargo, la papa nativa se lució como nunca y le quitó protagonismo al ají. Esto casi obligó a que en 2010, los organizadores de MiSTURa eligieran a la papa nativa como el producto ícono de la exposición, en un reconocimiento del protagonismo que estaba adquiriendo la papa de color.Esta circunstancia y el hecho que apEGa (Sociedad peruana de Gastronomía) se haya convertido en promotora de actividades relacionadas con la revalorización de la papa nativa, ponen en evidencia que hay signos claros de vocación de sostenibilidad en esta relación.La alianza entre la gastronomía y la cadena de la papa contribuyó a la revalorización de la papa en general y de la papa nativa, en particular.Los principales resultados alcanzados como producto de esta alianza son los siguientes:La gastronomía peruana se ha convertido en uno de los actores claves de la cadena productiva • de la papa.EL sector gastronómico recrea, a través de platos distintos, la versatilidad de la papa • nativa.La papa en general es considerada el segundo insumo de la gastronomía nacional. • La papa nativa tiene un lugar privilegiado en las ferias perú Mucho Gusto (2008) y Mistura • (2009 y 2010).Los líderes de opinión del sector gastronómico reconocen las bondades de la papa nativa. • apEGa invirtió en realizar estudio sobre Oportunidades del Boom Gastronómico para los • pequeños productores de papa nativa y otros cinco productos (2010), lo que significó un reconocimiento de la vinculación existente entre el crecimiento del sector y el de las cadenas productivas que lo acompañan.La experiencia es sostenible en la medida que existe una sociedad entre la gastronomía y la cadena de la papa, la misma que está vigente para el mercado nacional pero tiene proyección internacional. no en vano, la papa es el segundo insumo de la gastronomía peruana y en un contexto de crecimiento del sector a nivel interno y externo, se prevé que la cadena pueda acompañar al sector y crecer con él.Sin embargo, el aprovisionamiento de las papas nativas no está totalmente garantizado y eso constituye una amenaza para las expectativas que se han creado en el sector gastronómico sobre las posibilidades de uso de las distintas variedades de la papa nativa y podría ser un factor limitante.Si bien hay un entendimiento del carácter estacional del aprovisionamiento para determinadas variedades, también existe la expectativa de que al menos, durante la época de producción, existan los niveles de articulación adecuados en la cadena que permitan contar con el producto oportunamente. para esos efectos, en la medida que los productores no sean empoderados para poder negociar directamente su producción, será necesaria la asistencia de actores locales del tipo de OnG que puedan cumplir esa labor. precisamente, la vigencia de las OnG FOViDa, aDERS y CapaC que han adquirido un expertise en la articulación de la cadena con el mercado es una garantía de la sostenibilidad de la experiencia. adicionalmente, es importante mencionar que si bien el rol que ha cumplido el sector gastronómico ha servido para revalorizar a la papa nativa, también lo es que no es suficiente poner en vitrina el producto, sino que es importante que los consumidores que empiezan a conocer la versatilidad de la papa nativa, puedan acceder al producto y seguir aprendiendo de este. por ello, resulta fundamental el papel que cumplen los supermercados para permitir el acceso de la población a las distintas variedades de papa nativa.La experiencia de la puesta en valor de la papa nativa en el proyecto inCOpa tiene varias dimensiones y la que se recoge en esta buena práctica es la que tiene que ver con la revalorización de un producto a partir del establecimiento de una alianza estratégica de trabajo con un sector que tiene sus propios incentivos para apoyar el proceso de puesta en valor.En el caso de la papa nativa, se ha destacado el rol que han jugado los supermercados, la industria y la gastronomía. pero principalmente, esta última ha cumplido un papel protagónico en el proceso de creación de valor de la papa nativa, el mismo que válidamente podría servir para otras cadenas productivas, como la de los granos andinos, las frutas andinas, entre otros.Esto significa que hay posibilidades de adaptación de la buena práctica a otros entornos y en otros contextos con las mismas posibilidades de éxito. Los rasgos que permiten hacer esa afirmación son los siguientes: la incorporación del sector para que participe de la cadena fue un proceso simple y sencillo (participación en reuniones de EpCp, Días nacionales de la papa a través de las Escuelas de Chef y de la Sociedad peruana de Gastronomía-apEGa); y, la racionalidad del funcionamiento de la cadena de la papa es similar a la de otras cadenas productivas que pueden tener la misma necesidad de ser revalorizadas.no se encuentran elementos de la metodología que ha seguido el proceso que no puedan ser replicados.\"Mientras visitaba Vilcashuamán en Ayacucho, fui testigo de los sacrificios de un productor que tenía que bajar un cerro cargando dos sacos de papa para llegar a un camino donde pasó un intermediario que le compró ambos sacos por 25 Nuevos Soles. Después de ver eso, tuve claro que lo que hacemos los Chef tiene que servir para que eso deje de suceder y estas personas reciban un precio justo\". Jaime Pesaque, Chef ejecutivo del Mayta.Esta es la visión que comparten la mayoría de chef del sector gastronómico peruano y esta buena práctica refleja esa filosofía que ha inspirado a este sector a concebir su éxito y modernización como parte de un proceso que debe generar mejores oportunidades a los pequeños productores.Gracias a ello, nadie puede dudar que ha habido un proceso de revalorización de la papa. Solo eso explica el lugar que los mayores eventos gastronómicos le han dado a este tubérculo milenario y a la participación de los productores en esas jornadas.Los productores son reconocidos como parte importante de la cadena productiva del segundo insumo de la gastronomía nacional y se realizan esfuerzos para que se generen nuevas oportunidades para ellos.Lo sucedido entre el sector gastronómico y la cadena de la papa es una evidencia del efecto de arrastre que puede tener una actividad. Esta experiencia deja una serie de enseñanzas particulares.Ha demostrado que las actividades económicas conexas, cuando se sustentan adecuadamente 1.una en otra, pueden ser palancas importantes de desarrollo de las cadenas productivas.La gastronomía es una actividad que cuenta con todas las características para impulsar el 2. desarrollo de la cadena productiva de la papa por una serie de razones entre las cuales destaca: su creciente desarrollo y modernización, la proyección nacional e internacional que tiene, el uso intensivo del insumo y el liderazgo de opinión que están adquiriendo algunos chef.Las expectativas sobre las papas nativas se han generado en los productores y los usuarios 3.del insumo, pero es necesario trabajar para que estas no se frustren y no se pierda el interés en trabajar con las papas nativas. ","tokenCount":"27885"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5d9cd83677429dacdace16ed75f2271a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9377c23-507b-4b9a-b452-7af5d7f3545b/retrieve","id":"-1138334733"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8aa4af6b-8949-4b29-9456-899dc3380c3c","pagecount":"59","content":"In! ' .... D.ire 1 What are the advantages of informal surveys? 2 Who can carry out infol'Dlal lurvey.? 3 What i. the objeetive of a feasibility survey? \" How can you use an infomJal lurvey to prepare formal lurveYI? Ii How can you use an informal lurvey for direct planning of on-fal'Dl trials? 6 Where can you find secondary information? 7 How should you consider government statistics? 8 What is the mOlt difficult early decision in the informal survey? 9 What i. the beat way to get a rapid overview of a region? 10 Where can you find aerial photos and maps? 11 What are tentative basic topics for investigation? 12 What are three limple techniquel to make your field work comprehensible? 13 Why should you inform local leaders of your survey? 14 What are \"key infol'Dlants\"? 15 What are five ltagel of an infol'Dlal interview' 16 What does \"low profile\" mean? 17 How should you talk with fanners? 18 When and how should you record your observationa? 19 How can you quantify data? ~ Why Ihould you write aummary reports as quickly aa poaaible?Objectives. This guide is intended to enable you to:Jist the objectives of infonnal surveys, describe the working environment, carry out pre-fiel~ work, carry out field surveys, organize data, write reports, design infonnal surveys_ Study matetiala• Samples of secondary information.• Aerial photos and maps.• Agricultural zones (and transport) to practice field surveys.• Demonstrate the use of secondary infonnation.• Interpret aerial photos and maps.• Practice field surveys.• Organize data.• Design formal surveys.1 The informal survey 2 Why conduct informalllUl'VeY!l?3 The frame at mind 4 Getting ready: pre-tieldwork preparation 5 In the field 6 Informally organizing data 7 Use of materials: writing it up 8 Recommendations lor on•farm trials: example 9 Guide for informaIsurveya 10 Bibliography 11 Suggestions for trainers Abstract. The informal survey is cheap, practical and fast. It can give an accurate comprehension of local farming ecologies and practices. Informal surveys can be used for feasibility studies, for preparing formal surveys, and for direct planning of on•farm trials. This document gives some basic guidelines on how to conduct informal surveys.1 TIle Informal eurveyThe informal survey has often been called \"quick and dirty,\" tIte approach of rural development \"tourists.\" Thi. put-down derives from the belief that ahort-term surveys yield imprellionietic and \"101\\\" data.Formal survey. baaed on the written questionnaire, however, are thought to be \"objective,\" capable of pro-duCinl \"hard\" data amendable to quantification and computer analyai.. Neverthele .. , budgetary, time and perlOnnel limitations in Third World countries and international agencie. frequently require uae of informal aurveys for agricultural development planning (Chambers, 1980).The informal lurvey i. in fact a form of appropriate technology: cheap, practical, and faat (Bradfield, 1981).If properly executed such surveys can produce at minimum coat a rich deaeription of life in a farming community, an undentandina of how farmers, merchants, extenaion worken, and othen perceive their condition. and make decisions. On top of this, a properly conducted informal eurvey can give an accurate comprehension of local farminl ecology and practicel. And anyone can do it -1IJI\"OIl0miats, extension workers, biologiats, and lOCial lICientiats. All you need is a little time (a few d.,. to two weeks), pencil, paper, common sense, and a down-to-earth approach to farm people and tIteir eireumstanees.Surveys .... GIlly tools -means to an end -to provide inform.tioo (or intellipnt decision-making in aolvinC naral development problem.. AI the springboard of plaDDinC, tit. informal .urvey places project implementon in eontaet witlt their clients for the firat time and on th. clieDt'. home turf.In this early phase, the researcher is like an explorer, making a rapid survey of the horizon before plunging into the thickets from which the wider view is no longer possible. If we observe keenly at the start, the remainder of our journey stands a better chance of success.However, if we gather faulty information we may wander aimlessly throughout the project or lose precious time and funds backtracking. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to suggest a few basic ideas on how to guarantee the efficient and successful execution of the informal survey.1be feulbility .urvey. Informal surveys can function to provide baaic information on the feasibility of begin• ning a project in a region. Thil it eapecially the case when dealing with areas or farming systems about which little it known. In this situation, the informal lurvey may be of more immediate use to policy makers than to field agronomists, and it will probably be less concerned with specific production problems than with a balanced overview of the region, unless the introduc• tion of a apecific technology is under consideration.RecoDDai •• anCle aurveyJI to prepare formal lurveys.The objective is to quickly obtain basic information lpecifically for the design and execution of formal sur• veys or more in•depth investigations which may, in turn. lead to on-farm experimentation. Thus, the im• mediata purpose is to help focus a subsequent formal survey that will utilize random sampling and quantify critical aspects of the production system.The need is not simply to get a \"feel\" of the area, but to discover important, albeit tentative, organizing con• capts upon which to baae future research. For example, we may want to map agroeeological zones, develop a working typology of producers, and find out how farm• era describe their problema.The exploratory, informal survey can also help insure that the questionnaire is written in a manner under• .tandabl. and relevant to farme .. ' circumstances and _.it.ive to IocaJ i .. ues.hdorm.sl .urvey. for the direct plalmln, on-farm afl\"OJlcmic triala. In this case, the formal survey stage is altipped and on-farm experiments are designed on the be.ail of IIZI informal 8urvey which aims to pinpoint farm-level problems. Most developing country projects will, out of financial necessity, opt for this approach.FOT this reason, we need to rationalize the informal survey and make it a powerful tool capable of yielding accurate data upon which to base our research decisions. In this case, we may wish to ask more specific production questions or attempt to rank constraints in order to make sure the trials answer important local problems.In cases where the informal survey is the only planning investigation the team should be interdisciplinary, made up of at least one technical person and one social scientist. If this is not possible, team members should try to incorporate the missing perspective, be it social or biological, into the research .Long used by anthropologists in their study of everyday people, the informal survey is more in the vein of art than a set of fixed procedures. And like art, it involves creativity and teehnique which, if properly applied, make the difference between success and failure. And there is no substitute for experience as the teacher.The formal survey is methodologically simple but usually physically tough. And dirty. It normally canl be accomplished by driving along a main road looking at fields, although a \"windshield survey\" may be a way to beg;n .The successful survey may require sloshing through muddy fields, scrambling along rocky paths and dangerous slopes, or whiling away hours in fly-ridden tea shops casually talking with farmers. The surveyors must be country-oriented, grubbing out information in fields, market places, bars, or wherever farmers' daily routines carry them. Those unwilling to face a few village hardships have no business doing informal surveys .The successful informal survey also requires mental and methodological flexibility. It does not proceed like the formal questionnaire survey where pre-determined hypotheses are tested. Instead, important questions and the direction of study emerge as information is collected. This is not to say the informal survey lacks logic, but that one must be able to accommodate new information and adjust research plans accordingly. As the survey advances, YOIl will pass from initial vaguene.s to a mid-way focusling and finally arrive at a stage where you can begin pulling the threads together and test specific ideas.Literature review. Before going to the field, assemble and review any relevant secondary socioeconomic and production information about the general area to be studied. A surprising amount of data can be found if an effort is made to dig it out of libraries, research stations, and government offices. Secondary materials, especially government statistics, should be taken as suggestive of possible lines of inquiry and not as gospel truth.Attempt to acquire secondary data on rainfall, soils, population, markets and prices. Do not forget to conoult studies conducted by other disciplines; it is a mistake for an anthropologist to read only anthropology, an economist only economic studies, or an agronomist to consult only agronomic reports.Defining the region. The most difficult early decision in the informal survey centers on delineating the geographical region to be studied. This depends, of course, on time, available manpower, and the project's aim.One must be careful, however, not to define the study region too broadly or narrowly. If the target area is vast, covering more than 300 km 2 , it will be better to plan mini-surveys in representative areas.In the agricultural research, a target region will most likely share common physical and economic characteristics or linkages. In Peru, for example, the highland area selected for on-farm research was the Mantaro Valley, a high intermontane river valley marked clearly by right and left marginal slopes.On the arid coast, research was conducted in Catiete, a lowland valley, the territory of which is defined precisely by its irrigation system.In the Peruvian jungle, however, the informal survey was carried out in selected farming communities located at various pointe along the major river which served to link communitiu with the nearest commercial oenter. In this case there was no concept of a valley or plain but a broad study area linked by transportation arteries.u.in, aerial photo. and maps. The best way to get a rapid overview of a region is to acquire aerial photos, land-use, relief, or ecological maps. In fact, do not even think of going to an area without at least one map, preferably a topographic map. A few hours studying such visual materials can reveal more than years on the ground trying to figure out agroecological zonation or land use patterns.Contrary to popular belief. excellent maps and aerial photos now exist in the geological or military survey offices of most under developed countries. Satellite imagery already provides excellent coverage for some of the most remote areaa of the world.The ability to read maps and aerial photos is of greatest importance for conducting informal surveys. The images on an aerial photo may at fint seem strange because ODe is not accuatomed to a view from the air.With a little practice, however, the kaleidoscopic patteminll' of an aerial photo can tell us a great deal about both the hiatorieal and present .truelure of mllJ'l-lllJ'ld relationship.. By tracinr field diatribution and size, shadow. and tone. which reflect variations in crops or soil texture, irrigation channels, location of towns and roads. one can rapidly understand in a very general way the regiOllal organization of agriculture.Later, on the ground, the reality of the photo (called \"ground truth\" in satellite imagery interpretation) can be checked. For example, in planning on•farm research in Callete, an International Potato Center survey team examined aerial photos of the valley. Three outstanding images were observed:• marginal belt circling most of the valley's edge made up of tiny fields; • center region made up of medium to large fields; • area of seemingly mixed field sizes and per• haps wasteland reflecting a light tone.The team hypothesized that these images may represent distinct agroecological belts. The aerial photographs and the agroecological map developed from them are shown in Figures 1 to 3.With additional data on communities in each zone and soil maps from the national resources office, the team conducted a windshield survey of the valley for two days and talked to farmers. Using aerial photos, field clusters were located. It was discovered that the zonation reflected in the photos did correspond to ground lev• el reality, although some modification was required.The marginal zone, characterized by poor, rocky soil, was inhabited by small• scale producers. The center zone, historically the location of large estates, turned out to be a zone of large fields and the best soil in the valley. The third zone was mixed in terms of landholding size but was characterized by a common problem of ex• treme soil salinity and poor drainage and thus better suited for livestock and saline adapted crops such as sweet potato, peppers, and cotton.  Militar). Later, \"ground truth\" can be checked by visiting selected areas and surveying farmers and fields. In this case, three hypothetical zones were determined. Following further study on the ground, an agroecological map (Fig. 3) was drawn. Field observations and interviews with farmers revealed that each zone was characterized by distinct combinations of crops, farming practices, and production problems. The differences between zones and similarities within zones were taken into consideration in implementing on-farm trials (see Section 8 for the summary recommendations of this survey).Basic questions and techniques. Before we ever set foot in any farmer's field, we need to go to the drawing board and decide: what kinds of information are we after and for what end? Our general objectives should be clear, even though we may not yet know relevant questions. Draw up a list of tentative topics for investigation:• What are the agro-climatic zones?• What are the principle crops?• What is the cropping (or post-harvest) system?• What are the types of farmers?• What are the farmer's practices?• Why do farmers follow these practices?• What do they feel are their main problema?5 In tile fieldArmed with the que.tiona you decide are relevant and available aecondary material, you are ready to begin. At Bnt, everything will eeem a booming confusion in the field. Thi. initial dilOrientation ill inevitable, so don't let it concern you. Juat remember three simple bread-end-butter technique. and before long your relion will become comprehensible.Ob.uve. Converu. Talk with people and liBten to their concern. and view8.Record. Diacreetly, write everything down. Try to keep a. complete rleld notes as possible. Thi. is essential in the early stage to help orpnise your thinking.Inteniewing t.r-n. The key to a successful infonnal survey, especially in relation to understanding how farmen lee their problems, is the successful interview.It is important to decide early whom you want to interview. A frequent bias in qr1cultural development is to think in terma of \"th. farmer\" Farmera, however, usually do not live in isolation . They belon, to croup. -families, communities, nations and cleeiaions about farming are often made by these croup.. Although you may talk to individuals, place their eommenta in the eontext of social pressures and beH.' .. Interview. with croup. of farmen are frequently more lively than with only one penon.Be sure that local leaders know what you are doing. Informal does not mean incognito. In fact, in many parts of Asia and Mrica you must go through the local headman or village leader to gain coope rati on. Don\"t try to shortcut the local chain of command. Although be aware that local leaders will selectively introduce you to the people that support their biases.One way to understand the total farming system (not just on -farm production) is to con struct a chain of \"key informants\" (Fig. 4 ). The key informant is an individual who is accessible , willing to talk, and has great depth of knowledge about an area, ceTtain crops, credit, marketing and oth er agricultural problems.Do not believe everything key informants say but do not pass up the old-timer who enjoys talking. In any community it won't take long to construct a chain of key informants: banker or money-lender, landlord, ministry official, extension agent, farmer, merchant, and middlemen . Each person in the chain may see the problem differently.ExecutiDg the IDterview. The mechanics of the informal interview itself can be arbitrarily divided into five stages (Rhoades, 1980):• approach,• warm-up.• dialogue,• departure, • recording.Approach. With our general objectives in mind, information from secondary materials, and possibly names of local \"key informants: we are ready to enter the field. It is best to keep as Iowa profile in the rural setting as possible. Oversized vehicles bearing official looking numbers driven by chauffeurs should, if possible, be avoided.Walk aa much as possible. Do not go in large numbers (Fig. 5)_ Two in a team is often beat. If you have a sizeable team it i8 advisable to divide the study area into a number of zonel in order to avoid duplication efforts or interviewing the same farmers.Once yo u spot a man in a field or a woman in her garden who ap pea r as persons to interview, don 't drive around indecis ively creating suspicion. Approach him or he r directl y. However , avoid the \"opinion poll syndrome, \"wh e re you sta rtle the farmer by driving up to him in hi s field and jumping out with notebook in hand ready to intervi ew. Try to blend into the local context as much a s possible without \"going native\". Be sensitive to the fact th a t people may be suspicious of you. Fig. 5. One purpose of the informal survey is to communicate with farmers . If large numbers of re searchers de3cend upon a farmer, the result is likely to be like this . The farmer is the man on the left , isolated and alienated. When he works with only one or two researche;s he is known to be an excellent and talkative informant.Timin, is extremely important. One has to be aware of the daily work echedule, seasonal activity, work habita, climate, and how these affect farmers' willingness to talk. In Peru's highlands, we have found that interviewing is acceptable early in the morning before the day's activities get underway. In Indonesia, however, the beat time to interview is between\" p.m. after prayer, and the evening meal when people are in their homes. I( one is willing to take the time and physical effort to walk to the field, interviewing is of\\en more successful since discuBsions can center around ongoing agricultural activities. If appropriate, lend a helping hand without getting in the way. The slack season is also an excellent opportunity for informal interviewing.Informal interviewing is a dynamic process in which important information develops out of ca-Bual conversation. The first interviews may be very simple but soon, as our knowledge of an area increases, questions will become more penetrating and valuable. Don't go directly to the subject at hand. The farmer should first be greeted according to local custom. Farmers should be treated with respect (if the local language requires it, use the •polite\" form o( address).Here, avoid what I call the \"sahib syndrome\" which is condescending and aggressive. Treat farmers with courtuy. Don't talk to the farmer from a vehicle; try to avoid potitionin, yourself above him. Open the convenation with loeally accepted polite talk about the weather, how hit ~ ar doin\" or the price of potatoes. Tell him exactly who you are, why you wiah to talk, and the nature 01 your work.Observe the situation to make sure the context is conducive to an interview. For example, if the farmer is irrigating and receives water only once a week for an hour, he may not be interested in small talk. Ask for an appointment. Sometimes farmers can suggest the best time and place to continue.The key to the successful informal interview is to be natural and relaxed while guiding the conversation to a fruitful end. Let the discussion flow and mix up your questions. At first avoid sen sitive questions. Don't fall into the \"Joe Friday syndrome\" (The famous TV policeman whose interrogation always began with a blunt \"just give me the fact, ma'm\"). Allow people to stray onto another topic or tell stories. You are seeking general information and what is said may be revealing of local customs or psychology. You can return to the main line of thought later. By all means, don't ask too many questions back to back. Intersperse the conversation with personal comments of your own. One method that gains farmer cooperation anywhere in the world is the straight forward, honest admission on your part that the farmer is the \"expert\" about farming in his area and you are the learner. Just say \"I am not from around here and I don't know much about how you farm . Would you kindly explain? Then , go to your specific questions. If you have personal farm experience from your region or country, farmers always like to compure notes.If you ask a question that causes silence or it is obvious he can't answer it, don't try the Socratic method of suggesting answers to lead the conversation where your bias thinks it should go. Rephrase the question. Always use plain understandable language with farm-en. After .11. they hue • rich voeabul.ry tied to their profusion and ...... but they do not undentand seien• tific j.rgon. INptJrture . After you h.ve covered all relevant topic. or exhausted the time the farmer can .fford to give you. bring the convereation to an end. Not too abruptly. however. If the weather ia unf.vorable (too hot. rmning) or the f.rmer _m. praHeCi for time you may wish to prematurely stop the informal interview. Remember to do it gr.cefully and n.turally. Avoid the \"gringo syndrome,\" the abrupt., baain .. I-lik. \"gotta go\" departure.Thank him for his ti-. IIDd depart with the proper local far .... II.If locally .ccepted the .. _ra ean be an important rellearch tool. Ph . . can be IUed later to help deaign formal '\",\",,' or aperimanta. So_time. you can do the farmer • f.wr (and win hi. confidence for future on- Recording . Immediately after (or if permi ssible during) the inter view jot down me mory-jarring notes. Whether one sh ould take notes in front of farmers depends on the situation (Fig. 6). Be sensitive to your actions .Fig . 6. This field notebook is indispensable to the informal survey. Although you have to discreetly use pen and paper in front of farmers, write down in detaif your observatio ns and thoughts during or immediately alter interviews. Without a complete data-packed notebook the informal survey will ikely fail.The best rule is to ab.tain from uaing pencil until you feel the situation is truly relaxed. Informal interviews laBting more than 30 minutes wil1 usually be casual enough to allow the writing of some notes. Don't pull out an official-looking questionnaire in any ease. Thi. wil1 aurely destroy confidence.Test the ground firat by \"interacting\" with the farmer on paper by drawing a field layout or cropping pattern. Ifhe does not react sWlpicioualy to the pen and paper, you can probably continue to take some notes. However, if is.ues turn sensitive, atop writing.Try to get the farmer's name and address unless he prefera not to give it 80 that you can contect him or if you visit the area again you can make specific personal reference to your previous visit. Agricultural scientists, in particular, tend not to write down what farmers l8y or their own personal observations. However, it is amazing how facts, ideas, and important observations that one \"will never forget\" quickly slip away.It is estimated that 50 per cent of the detaila of an interview are lost within 24 houri and by the end of the second day, over 75 per cent. After that, only Ikeletal notes can be salvaged. ,\",us, remember during the interview to take mental notes reminding yourself: \"don't forget to write that down: Jotted notes wil1 serve to aid your memory later when you write out full field notes on interviews and • day's obeervationa.How lona _ waits before jotting down notes or writing full field notee depends by and large on the setting, people interviewed, and personal .tyle. In eases of team re ... rch, it may be belt to appoint a ICribe, a person w-. job i. to write everything down. After interview-ing farmers in the morning, for example, stop around midday and write out field notes while they are still fresh in mind. It is also valuable for the research team to meet daily in the evening to go over notes and plan for the next day (Hildebrand, 1979).Think by writing in your field notebooks. One method of recall is to think in terms of a \"sequence of events,\" that is writing while remembering the activities sur• rounding an interview.If you discover your questions are not yielding new in • formation it may be time to ask them in way or change the questions themselves. Through this rethinking process and \"brainstorming•• with your team workers, you will have analytical flashes where sudden realizations will consolidate into a pattern. For example, when at once you saw isolated fields and crops, now you can see how they associate to form an agroecolo/pcal zone.One purpose of the informal survey il to define relatively homogeneous type. of fanner. and agroecological or production zonel_ Technology i. frequently locational and group specific:. What worlta for one group of farmers in one ecological zone may not work elsewhere. Thil fact is complicated through a widespread tendency by technical agriculture scientists to lelect larger, ''better'' (more successful) farmen for experimental research sinee this group is more accessible and has resources to carry out experiments. AI so, agronomi sts have been known to prefer level fields with quality soil near roads rather than perhaps more representative sloping, rocky, fields located far from the main road. Thus, one should be aware of the representatives of the experimental plot for extrapolation of research results.Type. of farmen. Early in the informal survey , one can begin to develop a typology of producers. Typically, such groupings are based on a predetermined and quantifiable landholding size (e.g. 1-5 hectares is small farmer, 5-10 hectares il medium, over 10 hectares are large farmers).However, care mUlt be taken not to assume size is necessarily correlated with specific cropping patterns or even economic ItatuS. Often both large and small farmers in the same area punue similar cropping Itralegies. And it may be that the \"amall\" farmer with hia limited farm lize il more efficient or a better larmer becauae he must be able to lubsist on a much amaller landholding.Thill, multiple faeton have to be conaidered in developinc a typology of producers; e.g. size of holding purpose of production, and technology involving large to small commercial seed growers, small-scale subsistence farmers, and large, medium and small-scale commercial growers of ware potatoes. However, remember that typologies are merely ways of organizing thinking and that farmers cannot be so easily stereotypes. Do not automatically assume that all farmers in a type wiII behave the same. Agroecological zones. An agroecological zones represents an association between a set of natural conditions (climatic, topographic, soils) and agricultural activity (farming, hearding) utilized to exploit that environment. The usefulness of zones resides in the possibility for extrapolation sinee conditions within zones are more similar than between zones. Presumably, farmers living in the same zone would have similar problems and technological needs.• transects, • field plotting.The transect is simply a cut or cross-section of a territorial expanse wherein fields are mapped, cropping patterns and practices observed through space, and the boundaries of agroecological zones defined. Transects are relatively easy to do, depending on the ruggedness of terrain and visibility as affected by topography and natural conditions, such as in mountainous regions.For example, a transect was made in Peru's Chanchamayo valley to determine agroecological zonation and crop distribution (Table 1)  ------------------------------_   The Chanchamayo stretches between Peru's high jungle on the eastern Andean slopes down to the lower Amazon Basin. The region ranges in altitude from 500 to 800 meters on the valley floor up to surrounding 2000 meter ridges.Using an altimeter, aerial photos, and topographical maps, the survey team started walking from the valley floor along an access road toward higher elevations. Detailed notes were periodically taken of natural vegetation and sketches of field shapes and crop associations made. Technological observations were likewise taken and, whenever possible, farmers interviewed.It is important to observe settlement patterns, distance of dwellings from fields and distance between fields . These aspects might be important, for example, in determining labor or time requirements in getting to fields or transporting a harvest to market. Transects similar to this were made in several parts of the valley and later the information assembled to give us a general idea about land use in the region.Field plotting is a second simple technique for rapidly understanding cropping patterns and practices in a region. It can be conducted in relation to the transect exercise or while systematically driving through a region .Periodically, especially if it is sensed that the ecology has altered, the team should stop and plot a field in terms of its crop associations and observed farming practices (Fig. 7). We do not even have to talk to a to learn a tremendous amount. In a single day, data on several hundred fields can be recorded in an nrea of open terrain with good roads. For example, agrono-mists at the International Potato Center were considering trials related to intercropping in the Peruvian highlands.A subsequent informal survey conducted in one day yielded data on 275 fields. Field plotting was done for representative types. The results showed that 86 % of the surveyed fields were monocropped and that potatoes are rarely intercropped even in the remaining 14 %. Agronomists dropped the idea of conducting no-farm intercropping trials for this region (Werge, N .D.).The sampling may not be random but after two to three hundred fields are covered, the cropping pattern should be generally understood. This, for example, can indicate whether experiments should be done with intercropping, monocropping, or what field trials might be considered.The problem is that such field observations are time frozen . To gain a long term view of a field or zone, interviews with farmers are necessary. This can be done, however, by having the farmer tell the history of a few parcels as far back as memory and time allow. It is import ant to gain an understanding of rotations and the overall cropping system so as to determine how a farmer views the role of different fields in his farming strategy.Moving toward quantification: satisfying an impulse. If the informal survey lasts more than one week, you may feel the need for some degree of quantification, a first step toward a formal survey. It is at this point, that the development of a simple one-page interview schedule is suggested. Immediately after fieldwork, the team should sit down and quickly write a summary report even if it lacks professional polish. Don't worry too much about grammar and style. Re-writing can come later. It is important to get the information down while still fresh on everyone's minds. The exact format or outline will depend on the purpose of the survey but be sure to write in a language understandable to everyone.If the report is to be used to implement of farm experiments, summarize only directly relevant material. Keep recommendations brief. Copies of summary and final reports should be sent to all offices, institutes, or interested individuals, especially those who assisted in the research . This final reciprocity is only fair. The people ofthe region have given you their time. The lea:;t you can do is give them a copy of the study which they have so kindly help you prepare.It is important not to let the report be shelved away only to gather dust. Take it seriously: it should be your guide throughout future activities but constantly upgraded as you progress. The informal survey is for immediate utilization , not as an historical document. It should serve to keep uS honest (or at least caution against slip• ping into our prior biases without reason ).If, for example, our survey shows that the majority of potatoes in a target region are produced by resourcepoor, small growers located in a high, marginal zone 1 hour walk from the-main road, we should fight off the understandable desire to carry out trials with a few la\"ge-scale producers located on fertile valley floor lands (unless the technology being tested is relevant to all growers, large or small in either zone).Unless we take seriously our findings and what farmers have told us, we are likely to discover that farmers will not take us seriously either. We have to be sensitive to their needs, opinions, customs, and capabilities. Otherwise, we may fall victim to what I call the \"which way to Little Rock Syndrome?\"In a rural area of the United States, in the state of Arkansas, a farmer was hoeing cotton in his field near a forked road. A city \"slicker\" (country term for pretentious people from big cities) in a big, shiny car, was headed toward this fork trailing a cloud of dust behind.When he got to the fork and was obviously confused he yelled to the farmer: \"Hey, buster (an insulting form of address not used in Arkansas), does it matter which road I take to get to Little Rock? \"No\" yelled the farmer back .Satisfied the man turned left and sped away. The farmer with a sly grin paused, leaned on his hoe and yelled again: \"No, don't matter to me no how\" as he watched the city slicker drive away on the wrong road.8 Recommendations for on-farm trials: exampleIn the Cal\\ete Valley, Peru, an informal survey was conducted over 10 days in late February and early March, 1980, to help CIP's agroeconomic team focus better on farm•level problems in conducting trials. In this case, the agronomic team had already been through one season of trials and had considerable knowledge of the area. However, they had conducted trials mainly with larger farmers located in the center of the valley and on problems generally defined from the outside rather than by farmers. The attempt then was to:• define agroecological zones;• identify representative types of farmers and their perceptions of production problems; • interview local extension and ministry work• ers to better pinpoint relevant problems for which improved technology might be available.This report, highly simplified, presents the finding of this informal survey.AgroecoIogical production zones. We would strongly urge that the upcoming trials take into account the in• ternal agroecological diversity of the valley. Mainly based on soil irrigation, and socioeconomic conditions, we have determined the existence of three main zones:• upper valley margin,• valley center,• lower valley saline margin.(See Fig. 3 earlier in this report). In each of these zones farmers distinct sets of production problems or possi• bilities. Although we cannot present the mass of a data we have available, we can briefly summarize the dif• ferences in the valley.Upper valley margin. This is a zone of smsll sgriculturists with most holdings varying from 1-3 hectares. It contains the poorest &<Iii in the valley being quite shallow, sandy, and rocky. Since the agriculturists here receive water only every 8-10 daYII (by mita) and face water management problems, water supply is considered a major problem. They tend to opt for plants which require lells water, mainly cotton (which also has price stability). The water problem has been severe for two years because of a lack of rains in the highlands and predictions are that this year will see an even greater scarcity of water.Here one finds the greatest variations in crops and intercropping. Potatoes are grown mainly in the sectors of Quilmana Alto and Nuevo Imperial (47 % of all Cai\\ete potato growers for 1980 are programmed in these areas according to ministry data).Valley center. The valley center was historically the location of the large fanns which are today cooperatives. This region contains the \"alluvial plains\" soils, considered to be deep and the best in the valley for agriculture. Scattered throughout the valley are sections of small and medium-size agriculturists.The cooperatives and medium-scale producers concentrate on 3 or \" main commercial crops (cotton, potatoes, maize, sweet potato). They farm with tractors and have a strong market orientation. The small agriculturists in the zone also plant commercial crops but also pursue cultivation for home use (pan lIevar). The cooperatives receive water at all times so there are no major water problem. A typical rotation is cotton-potatoes-maize.Lower valley .aline margin. The main characteristics of soil are: salinity, clay texture, and poor drainage. Farmers complain especially of salinity which they note prevents the growing of potatoes. Cotton, maize and pasture for cattle are the main crops here.The zone has a mixture of CAPS (cooperatives) and small to medium producers. Under a land rehabilitation project, more 3,000 hectares will be improved for cultivation purposes.Since most irrigated, arid zone have problems with salinity, Callete would be an area for fruitful investigation with application to other world areas. Many fanners in this area wish to plant potato but are willing to take the risk because of salinity.Types of tarmen and farmer's perceptions of problema. In addition to identification of major zones, we also studied 6 areas within the valley. It was learned that significant variation occurs in agricultural prac• tices even within our larger zones. Each area has its own special characteristic. (demographic patterns, crops, irrigation system, etc.) and anyone doing experiments would benefit enormously from the detailed studies on 17 areas of the valley earried out by the agronomists of Valle Grande. This information includes complete and detailed questionnaire, often covering every farmer of the selected area.Contrary to popular belief, Callete is not a valley of only large farming operationL It is also a farming community made up of small landholdings. According to 1976 data, 84.2 % of all farm units contain less than 3 hectares, ll.~ % with 3-9.9 hectares and other units are medium or CAPS. It is also not an established fact that mainly medium size farmers and CAPS grow potatoes.In fact, according to the ministry's registration (all farmers must submit a cultivation plan) the average size planting is around .. hectares. The vast mlijority plant only 2-3 hectares.Furthermore, since 1976 the CAPS have drastically cut the number of hectares they plant in potatoes. According to 1980 ministry data (not quite complete for 1980) only 25 % of total hectareage will be planted by CAPS this year. Farmers' perception of production problems. To ac• quire a better understanding of farmers ' perception of probl ems we conducted a non -random survey with farmers from various zones. Among other things, we ask ed them to r ank their production problems. The ranking of all farm er s was the follow ing: The farmers of Cailete are presently weighing the decision whether to plant. The may have biased our survey, but there is little doubt tha't the prevailing cost of seed (105 Soleslkg) is a major concern in the valley. Nearly all farmers mentioned risk in conjunction with cost of seed and other inputs: Potatoes are extremely expensive and a crop failure would be a strong financial setback for small farmers.Each agroecological zone has its own type of production problems. In addition to their concern with costs, the farmers of the marginal zone rank irrigation as a major problem eN = 14, 50 % of total farmers in the zone).In the central zone (where they mainly receive water continuously) problems with insects (mosca minadors) was a major concern (N = 7, 50 % of central zone farmers).Along the coastal-saline zone, fanners perceive soil problems as the next problem after cost of seed. This is due to high salinity, poor drainage, and what they call a lack of \"agua dulce\" (sweet water) since they are at the end of the irrigation channel and receive the water after it has gone through the entire system.The implications of this data on perception of problems are that seed storage experiments may benefit fanners in all zones (including CAPS in the center of the valley), irrigation experiments may be most beneficial on the margins where water problems exist. Of course, experiments with salinity along the coast may be worthwhile if the transfer-stated in the justification of the Callete project).Interviews with extension workers and ministry officials. In addition to our work with farmers we also interviewed extension workers and ministry officials. Eng. Trellea, who is in charge of the potato section at l. he ministry, recommended three broad categories of experiments:• Nematode control (cultural practices, chemical control or resistant varieties). • Waterlirricatlon (any experiment to help solve water problema of small farmers). • Salinity with the opening of 3000 new hect8res, potatoes could playa role if we had the varieties or agronomic techniques to deal with salinity.Other extension workers added the following:• Storage experiments; need to store \"criolla\" seed from September/October to March. • Inaecl. control, especially \"mosca minadora\".• Fertilizer trials, incorporating more organic material in soil or trials with \"guano del corral\" . • Biological control of insects.Conclusions. Based on all the evidence we have available we would recommend the following:• Most of the experiments (70 %) should be carried out wit small farmers living in the marginal zone, the remaining 30 % among medium size and CAPS.• The experiments should aim to increase the efficiency in seed use, decrease cost of seed and inputs while increasing output (high cost complex packages will only increase the risk factor).• The key problems identified by farmers should be addressed: \"mosca minadora\", water problems, cost of seed, and salinity (in one zone).• Most farmers did not identify nematodes or storage as problems but these were stressed by knowledgeable extension workers in the area.• The experiments should be relevant to the agroecological zone where the experiment is conducted and to the majority of fa rmers in the zone.• Traditional fertilizer trials should be pursued only after an extensive review of the data on current farmer fertilize practices available in Valle Grande, a local private research institute. Guide) to traineea one or several days betore your trainin, activity, or distribute them at the end of your presentetion.• Do _t di.tribute handouu at the begjnning of a presentation, otherwise trainees will read instead of listen to YOI1_• Keep your training activitiea practical. Reduce presentation. to the minimum that is necessary to follow the practical exercises.• Uee the questionnaire on page 4 (or a selection of questiona) for examinations (quines, periodical teata, etc.). Allow consultation of this Research Guide durin, the eumination.• Promote interaction of trainees_ Allow questions, but do not deviate from the subject.• Control your time.• At the becinnin, of your training activity, present the followinc quelltion to participanu (blackboard, overhead tranapanncy, ... ):\"H_ ,u, you upect former. to nact to tecluaology illllovotio\".y\"Ask each participant to write the answers on cards (10 x 15 em) ulling felt-tip pens and big letten, wellreadable from distance; one to three words per answer, one answer per carei. Allow five minutes.Ask one or two participanta to recollect and, with the help of all participants, to group the cards on a free wall space (scotch/cello tape) into the categories \"positive\", \"negative\", \"in-between\", or similar categories_ Ask participants to compare their ana wen with their experience during the following informal sur-Vf!1. Diseuse the experience after the survey.• Present and discuss the major points of this Research Guide as introduction to an informal survey practical (45 to 60 minutes).• Explain local circumstances and logjstica of the IUrvey (30 minutes).• Conduct the informal survey, and dillCuss conclu-lIions. One morning and one afternoon, respectively, should be enough if the practical is part of a course on a topic other than on-farm research, farming systems research, or similar. In these latter courses you certainly want to spent more time on informal survey •. ","tokenCount":"7256"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b0d531b8d994b21d34af8796c2edbabe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e07179a-ece3-4ef6-8107-c4b49e0810c3/retrieve","id":"1260810365"},"keywords":["agriculture","compositae","crop improvement","domestication","gene flow","genetic resource conservation","local adaptation"],"sieverID":"f29b9667-12de-49e3-9ef4-83ba19221d75","pagecount":"12","content":"Noug (Guizotia abyssinica) is a semidomesticated oil-seed crop, which is primarily cultivated in Ethiopia. Unlike its closest crop relative, sunflower, noug has small seeds, small flowering heads, many branches, many flowering heads, and indeterminate flowering, and it shatters in the field. Here, we conducted common garden studies and microsatellite analyses of genetic variation to test whether high levels of crop-wild gene flow and/or unfavorable phenotypic correlations have hindered noug domestication. With the exception of one population, analyses of microsatellite variation failed to detect substantial recent admixture between noug and its wild progenitor. Likewise, only very weak correlations were found between seed mass and the number or size of flowering heads. Thus, noug's 'atypical' domestication syndrome does not seem to be a consequence of recent introgression or unfavorable phenotypic correlations. Nonetheless, our data do reveal evidence of local adaptation of noug cultivars to different precipitation regimes, as well as high levels of phenotypic plasticity, which may permit reasonable yields under diverse environmental conditions. Why noug has not been fully domesticated remains a mystery, but perhaps early farmers selected for resilience to episodic drought or untended environments rather than larger seeds. Domestication may also have been slowed by noug's outcrossing mating system.Domestication is most accurately described as a process rather than an event (Zeder et al. 2006), and cultivated plants differ widely in their level of domestication. Some strongly domesticated crops, such as rice, wheat, corn, tomato, and sunflower, are substantially different from their wild ancestors. They often differ in traits that contribute to the ease of harvesting, such as reduced shattering, a more determinate growth habit (or increased apical dominance), larger inflorescences, larger seeds or fruits, loss of seed dormancy, reduction in nonpalatable substances in edible parts, changes in photoperiod sensitivity, and synchronized flowering time (Harlan et al. 1973;Koinange et al. 1996;Doebley et al. 2006;Purugganan and Fuller 2009). Other crops, however, including the Ethiopian cereal t'ef (Eragrostis tef), known as the world's smallest grain, and the Andean tuber crop yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius), as well as many other locally important crops, show much weaker signs of domestication (Gepts 2004;D'Andrea 2008;Dempewolf et al. 2008). Possible explanations include variation in the type and strength of artificial selection pressures during domestication, interactions between natural and artificial selection, the length and duration of the domestication period, variation in the genetic architecture of the crop and its progenitor, variation in mating system, and varying degrees of gene flow with wild progenitors (Hillman and Davies 1990;Gepts 2004;Burger et al. 2008;Dempewolf et al. 2008). Here, we ask why noug (Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass.), a Compositae oilseed crop from Ethiopia (Hiremath and Murthy 1988), appears to be considerably less domesticated than sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), a closely related seed crop also in the Compositae, which is thought to have been domesticated in the East-Central United States (Blackman et al. 2011).It is unclear when noug was first cultivated, although there is some archaeobotanical evidence that suggests it was present in the Aksumite period (800 B.C.-A.D. 700) and was therefore likely first domesticated in pre-Aksumite times (Boardman 1999(Boardman , 2000)). Some authors even suggest noug was domesticated earlier than 3000 BC (Hiremath and Murthy 1988). At present, noug is grown primarily in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and India. The crop is popular with small-scale farmers in Ethiopia as it grows well in adverse conditions such as water-logged soils and produces reasonable yields under low-input conditions. It is well embedded into the traditional planting cycle and produces an edible oil that is highly sought after on the domestic market (Getinet and Sharma 1996).Despite its importance to developing countries in East Africa, we know little about the domestication history of this species. Noug has been described as semidomesticated (Dempewolf et al. 2008); the crop is self-incompatible and highly branched, and flowering heads and seeds are less than one-tenth the size of sunflower, its closest oil-seed crop relative (Funk et al. 2009). Hence, unlike sunflower, noug does not exhibit strong signs of artificial selection and bears much greater resemblance to its wild relatives (Geleta 2007) than does sunflower to its wild relative. Despite their phylogenetic proximity within the Compositae, sunflower has responded to human selection pressure quite differently from noug; cultivated sunflowers, unlike their wild progenitors, are single-stemmed and often single-headed, do not shatter, and have much larger seeds (Burke et al. 2002). As both noug and sunflower are cultivated for their oil, one might expect similar artificial selection pressures in the two species, but this does not appear to be the case. Because sunflower and noug are so closely related-both are members of the Heliantheae tribe-comparisons between the two species can inform our understanding of general domestication patterns and processes.In this study, we investigate two core hypotheses that might explain why noug remains semidomesticated despite thousands of years of cultivation: (i) crop-wild gene flow and (ii) unfavorable phenotypic correlations.Noug is not known to occur in the wild and noug's closest relative Guizotia scabra ssp. schimperii (Sch.Bip. ex Walp.) J.Baagøe is thought to be its progenitor (Hiremath and Murthy 1988;Dagne 1994;Geleta 2007). As previously has been shown, and we confirm in this study, Guizotia scabra ssp. schimperii has smaller seeds than noug (Geleta 2007) but is also multibranched, shatters in the field, and exhibits differential maturity. It is a common and widespread species in many parts of Ethiopia, providing ample opportunity for gene flow between the two species (Geleta et al. 2010). Because G. scabra ssp. schimperii can produce fertile hybrids with noug (Dagne 1994), widespread introgression between the two species may have prevented full domestication of the latter. We test this hypothesis using a set of simple-sequence repeat (SSR) markers, also known as microsatellites, to estimate population structure and levels of admixture between noug and G. scabra ssp. schimperii.In seed crops, yield may be enhanced by selection for increased seed size, increased seed number, or both. However, seed size often is negatively correlated with seed number, so selection on one trait may lead to reductions in the other. This may be due to genetic factors such as the pleiotropic effects of the same genetic locus or linkage disequilibrium among underlying loci, or to natural or conscious selection against unfit trait combinations (Falconer and Mackay 1996). In sunflower, for example, because of negative genetic correlations between seed size and branching (Tang et al. 2006), sunflowers with large seeds have fewer flowering heads (and fewer seeds) than plants with small seeds. Thus, a possible explanation for the atypical domestication syndrome in noug is that early farmers selected mainly for an increase in number of seeds or flowering heads, which inhibited the evolution of larger heads and larger seeds due to negative phenotypic correlations. Such negative phenotypic correlations are of considerable relevance to breeders; as such, plant-architectural constraints, if present, can be a major hindrance to targeted crop improvement efforts. We test this hypothesis by analyzing phenotypic correlations among key traits in common garden experiments at two sites in Ethiopia.Lastly, we investigate the level and partitioning of genetic diversity between different noug accessions and determine whether there are any signs of local genetic structure across noug's range in Ethiopia. When combined with the phenotypic results, this information allows us to examine the importance of local genetic differentiation, perhaps due to adaptation to local environmental conditions during noug's history of domestication-an aspect that is also of relevance to future germplasm collection missions, which aim to capture a maximum amount of phenotypic diversity.Collections of noug and of noug's putative progenitor, Guizotia scabra ssp. schimperii, were made across an altitudinal gradient of approximately 2300 meters, ranging from semiarid climate conditions at 896 meters above sea level to subalpine conditions at 3199 meters above sea level. From each field of noug (or population of Guizotia scabra ssp. schimperii), approximately 50 individuals were sampled at random and the seeds from each individual plant were kept separate. Samples from each field of noug or stand of Guizotia scabra ssp. schimperii were considered a population for the purpose of this manuscript. Five administrative regions in Ethiopia (i.e. Amhara, Oromia, Tigray, Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples, and Beni-Shangul Gumuz) were covered during the harvest season. A GPS device was used to record the precise geographical location of each collection (Fig. 1).The noug diversity collected in the field was characterized in two common garden experiments to evaluate phenotypic trait variation. These common gardens were located at the Holetta (2390 m altitude, 35 km west of Addis Ababa) and Ginchi (2200 m altitude, 85 km west of Addis Ababa) experimental stations operated by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). Although the two sites are only 38 km apart, Ginchi is at a lower altitude and has soils with higher clay content than Holetta. The soil types and elevation of both sites are typical of those found at the collection localities. Precipitation during the growing season (the wettest quarter) at the Ginchi and Holetta sites in 2009 was 587 mm and 525 mm, respectively. This is within the range of average wettest quarter precipitation for the collection localities (344-1135 mm). Seeds collected from the ~50 individuals from each field were pooled before sowing. Four blocks containing each of the 29 accessions in randomized locations were sown with 0.3 m distance between two rows of the same accessions and 0.6 m distance between plots of different accessions. Stand count at establishment was assessed per plot at approximately 4 weeks after planting and varied between one and 222 individuals at the Ginchi site (51 individuals on average), and between 5 and 490 individuals at the Holetta site (222 individuals on average), depending on survival success during the establishment phase. The Ginchi common garden was damaged by a frost, which increased the variance in survivorship within the Ginchi site, as well as between the two sites. If fewer than ten individuals from a population survived to maturity, the accession was excluded from the analysis. The accessions at Holetta were planted on the 15th of July 2009 and in Ginchi on the 17th of July 2009. The following traits were phenotyped on ten mature plants, which were selected at random from each accession: leaf width, leaf length, stem diameter, number of heads, number of primary branches, number of secondary branches, number of stem leaves, plant height, and head size. Individual plants were bagged before seeds matured to minimize the loss of seeds through shattering. The number of seeds per plant, number of seeds per head, and the mass of 1000 seeds (used as a proxy for seed size) were measured after harvest. In addition, flowering time was assessed for each accession as the number of days until 50% of plants per plot flowered.We obtained environmental data for all collecting locations using the publicly available Worldclim/Bioclim dataset (http://www.worldclim.org/bioclim), which contains a set of 19 environmental variables, including precipitation and temperature data. In addition, we compiled altitudinal and latitudinal data for each collection point. Statistical analyses of the phenotypic data were carried out in R v. 2.10.0 (R Development Core Team 2011). Where necessary, variables were transformed using square or square root transformations to meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance. Correlations between traits were determined using Pearson's partial correlations. Partial correlations were used to control for the effect of differing stand densities at maturity, which varied substantially between the two common garden locations due to a severe frost and subsequent high mortality at one site. For correlations between individual and pooled traits (1000 seed mass and day of 50% flowering), we used the population mean of the individual trait. Correlations were calculated for each site separately, and P-values were Bonferroni-corrected to compensate for multiple comparisons. We conducted an ordination of the phenotypic trait data from both common garden sites using a nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis with Bray-Curtis dissimilarity in the R package 'vegan' (v. 1.7-8)  (Oksanen et al. 2010). Trait values were averaged for each population within each site. We then estimated the correlation between the multivariate trait data and the environmental variables (Table 1) using the envfit function (also in the 'vegan' package), which fits environmental vectors onto the ordination and estimates the strength (R 2 ) and significance of the relationship with P-values based on 1000 random permutations of the data.To test whether significant effects could be the product of spatial differentiation, we performed partial Mantel tests on Euclidean geographic, precipitation, and NMDS distances. Using the mantel function of the 'ecodist' package, the effect of precipitation distance on trait distance while controlling for spatial distance was estimated and tested with 1000 permutations and one-sided tests.We used linear mixed effects models or generalized mixed effects models with a Poisson error distribution (for those variables that were counts) to determine whether each trait changed significantly with precipitation at the population origin. We included the precipitation during the wettest quarter (evaluated at each collection locality), common garden site, and stand density at maturity as fixed effects in the model, as well as interactions between all pairs of variables. Population was included as a random effect to account for the nestedness of individuals within each population, with random slopes for common garden site to allow populations to vary by site. Models were run using the lmer or glmer functions in the R package lme4. Nested models were compared using chi-squared likelihood ratio tests. Terms that did not improve the model fit were dropped from the model (P ≤ 0.05), and only the significant terms are reported. We used linear models for the two traits (day of 50% flowering and 1000 seed mass) that were measured at the population level.A subset of 29 noug accessions as well as four populations of G. scabra ssp. schimperi were genotyped with a set of 16 microsatellite markers that had previously been developed for noug: GA003, GA012, GA029, GA035, GA081, GA082, GA107, GA108, GA117, GA138, GA139, GA150, GA156, GA162, GA182, and GA210 (Dempewolf et al. 2010). Genotyping was performed following the protocol described in Dempewolf et al. (2010), using between 14 and 23 individuals per population (average 19.3 individuals per population).Microsatellite summary statistics were calculated, and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed in GenAlEx 6.5 (Peakall and Smouse 2006). Shannon's diversity indices, which partition diversity within and between populations, were used to compare the genetic diversity unique to each taxon (Sherwin et al. 2006), with calculations based on the natural logarithm. The information content of the data for ancestry estimation (I a ), based on the noug-wild relative distinction, was estimated using infocalc version 1.1 (Rosenberg et al. 2003). We then employed a model-based clustering method using the software program STRUCTURE v. 2.3.2.1 (Pritchard et al. 2000;Falush et al. 2003;Hubisz et al. 2009) to assign individuals to a predefined number of groups, as well as to infer levels of admixture. The correlated allele frequency model with admixture permitted was used here. The burnin period was set to 500,000 generations, and the number of MCMC generations was set to 4 000 000. Twenty independent runs were performed, and a range of one to 20 clusters (Ks) was explored in each run. We determined the optimal number of clusters by comparing the log-probability of the data among values of K and using the 'Evanno' method (Evanno et al. 2005), as implemented in Structure Harvester v. 0.6.5 (Earl and vonHoldt 2011), which estimates the optimal number of clusters (K) by inferring Delta K, which is the second-order increase in likelihood for each K (Evanno et al. 2005).To test for spatially structured genetic variation among noug accessions, spatial autocorrelation analysis was performed on genetic distances between subpopulations in GenAlEx 6.4 (Peakall and Smouse 2006;Smouse and Peakall, 1999). Multiple distance classes were tested and gave qualitatively similar results; only 50 km nonoverlapping distance classes are shown here (Fig. 2). Permutation and bootstrap tests were conducted with 1 000 replicates in each case.Contrary to expectations, Pearson's partial correlation analyses (Table 2) failed to detect significant negative correlations between 1000 seed mass (used as a proxy for seed size) and head diameter, the number of flowering heads, and the number of seeds per plant. In fact, a significant positive correlation was observed between 1000 seed mass and head size at one of the common garden sites (Site 2, Ginchi). We also observed the expected significant positive correlations between the number of primary/secondary branches and the numbers of heads and seeds per plant at both sites.The NMDS analysis shows that noug accessions cluster according to common garden site along the axis of most variation (NMDS1) (Fig. 3). The spread of noug accessions along the second axis (NMDS2) correlates most strongly with the precipitation variables 'precipitation of wettest quarter' (r 2 = 0.0945, P < 0.001), 'precipitation of wettest month' (r 2 = 0.074, P < 0.001), 'annual precipitation' (r 2 = 0.051, P = 0.012), and 'precipitation of coldest quarter' (r 2 = 0.0397, P = 0.045, Table 1). No other environmental variables were significantly correlated with the multivariate trait data. Although geographic distances between populations were correlated with both distances along NMDS2 (Mantel's r = 0.113, P = 0.027) and the differences between populations in the precipitation of the wettest quarter (Mantel's r = 0.135, P = 0.006), the correlation between trait and precipitation distances remained significant when controlling for geographic distance (partial Mantel's r = 0.154, P = 0.003). The results of the mixed effects model testing for differences among populations according to their native precipitation regime were significant for several traits, including leaf width, leaf length, stem diameter, number of heads, number of primary branches, number of secondary branches, height, head size, number of seeds per head, and days to 50% flowering (Table 3, Fig. 4). Three variables (leaf width, height, and head size) showed significant interactions between precipitation and common garden site. Only the number of seeds per plant and 1000 seed weight did not change significantly with precipitation regime.The microsatellite loci displayed moderately high variation (Table 4), but possible evidence of ascertainment bias: of 137 alleles, 53 were private in noug, compared with 7 in its wild relative (77 were shared). However, sampling was also more intensive at the population level in noug.Significant population structure occurred within both noug (Φ PT = 0.058, P = 0.001) and G. scabra ssp. schimperii (Φ PT = 0.046, P = 0.001). Overall, AMOVA indicated that 6% of variation occurred among populations (Φ PR = 0.061, P = 0.001; Φ PT = 0.397, P = 0.001) and 36% between taxa (Φ RT = 0.368, P = 0.001). Shannon's diversity indices indicated approximately equal diversity within noug and its putative progenitor (mean S H A across loci of 0.989 and 0.987, respectively), despite significant differentiation at all loci (P < 0.001, Table S2). Principal coordinates analysis also indicated differentiation between the taxa (Fig. 5) along the first axis, which explained 72.0% of the variation (axis 2 explained 11.8%). STRUCTURE analyses revealed a genetic discontinuity between noug and its putative progenitor. For the dataset that included all 29 noug accessions and four populations of the wild relative, G. scabra ssp. schimperii, the log-probability of the data given the model increased sharply from K = 1 to K = 2, with small increases thereafter (Fig. S1a) and the 'Evanno' method (Evanno et al. 2005) estimated the optimal number of clusters (K) to be two (Fig. S1b). The STRUCTURE graph at K = 2 clearly assigns all populations of G. scabra ssp. schimperii (Fig. 6) to one cluster, and all but one of the noug accessions to a second cluster. One noug accession (70011) appeared to contain multiple admixed individuals; however, only two individuals showed strong evidence of admixture based on the 90% probability intervals of their ancestry coefficients (Fig. S3), indicating that overall levels of recent introgression between noug and its wild relative are low.Within noug, no clustering was detected using this method (Fig. S2). However, spatial autocorrelation analysis detected significant spatial structure among noug populations (Fig. 2). Significant positive spatial autocorrelation occurred within 50 km and between 100 and 150 km. Congruent results were obtained for each of the distance class sizes that we applied, ranging from 30 to 80 km (not shown).We tested the hypothesis that unfavorable phenotypic correlations have hindered noug domestication. Specifically, we asked whether plants with more flower heads and more seeds tend to have smaller flower heads and smaller seeds. Such negative phenotypic correlations are frequently evident in seed crops, including annual sunflowers, in which this phenotypic correlation is at least partially genetically based (Tang et al. 2006). In noug, however, a significant Seeds per plant P = 0.1989 P = 0.0009 P = 0.7061 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 -0.06441 0.0022 1000 Seed weight P = 0.1247 P = 0.489 P < 0.0001 P = 0.1371 P = 0.013 P = 0.6832 P = 0.5728 -0.2553 Days to 50% flowering P < 0.0001 P = 0.0610 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P = 0.9846 P = 0.0223 -Pearson's partial correlation between traits after removing the effect of varying stand densities at both common garden sites. Numbers of above the diagonal are the correlation values, numbers below the black line are P-values. Bold and italicized numbers are significant after a Bonferonni correction for multiple comparisons was applied.positive correlation was observed between seed mass and the number of seeds per plant. Correlations between seed mass and the number of seeds per head and the number of seeds per plant were not significant and showed different trends at the two different common garden sites. Thus, we found no evidence that unfavorable phenotypic correlations have constrained the evolution of seed size in noug. It can therefore be concluded that plant-architectural constraints to breeding for larger and more seeds in noug are minimal. A possible caveat is that we have analyzed phenotypic rather than genetic correlations, and it is possible that some of the variation underlying these phenotypes has a common genetic basis that could limit responses to selection despite the lack of negative phenotypic correlations.We also tested whether introgression between noug and its putative wild progenitor is the cause for the observed similarity in phenotype between the two species. If this hypothesis were true, we would expect to see evidence of repeated introgression from the wild species into the domesticated species in our microsatellite analysis. In this analysis, however, evidence of recent introgression between noug and its closest wild relative and putative progenitor, Guizotia scabra ssp. schimperii (Figs 5 and 6, Fig. S3), was limited to two noug individuals. Although these results do not preclude more widespread historical introgression, current levels of gene flow are too low to prevent genetic divergence, especially when driven by artificial selection.Genetic divergence among noug accessions was surprisingly low relative to other crops. Many noug farmers attempt to save their own seed for sowing in the next year whenever possible, but they often run out of stored seed and will buy market seed instead-especially in years when noug production is low and saved seed is needed for personal consumption (Dempewolf, personal observation). Figure 3 NMDS analysis of phenotypic data of both sites (red = Holetta Site 1 and blue = Ginchi Site 2) with environmental variables fitted onto the ordination. Each point represents the population-mean trait composition of one population at one site. The length of each arrow is proportional to the correlation between the variable and the ordination.The four precipitation variables: (i) precipitation of wettest quarter (r 2 = 0.095, P < 0.001, (ii) precipitation of wettest month (r 2 = 0.074, P < 0.001), (iii) annual precipitation (r 2 = 0.051, P = 0.012), and (iv) precipitation of coldest quarter (r 2 = 0.040, P = 0.045), are highly correlated with each other, which is why their vectors point in a similar direction.Table 3. Phenotypic differences among noug accessions from different precipitation regimes.  Farmers also frequently exchange noug seeds with neighboring farmers, resulting in additional seed (and thus gene) flow between farms, even across large geographic distances.When asked about the level of diversity, farmers usually did not distinguish between different noug types, nor were they usually aware of noug diversity elsewhere (Dempewolf, personal observation). The apparent lack of awareness of diversity within noug stands in stark contrast to diversity recognized by farmers in many other crops (Jarvis et al. 2008).Earlier studies have reported regional genetic differentiation within noug based on RAPD and AFLP markers (Geleta et al. 2006(Geleta et al. , 2008)), which is consistent with the significant spatial genetic autocorrelation observed in our data. Nevertheless, only a small proportion of genetic variance (F st = 0.044) occurred among noug populations. Genetic exchange between different noug accessions is facilitated by the fact that the crop has a self-incompatibility system and is obligately outcrossing (Geleta and Bryngelsson 2010). Crops with self-incompatibility systems are known to be more challenging to improve through breeding, as it is difficult to keep lines of interest 'true to type.' If an interesting phenotype is discovered in a certain accession, there is a high risk that the phenotype of interest will no longer be present in the next generation, as maintenance of the genetic identity of the line through selfing is not possible.This may also present a barrier to farmer-led improvement efforts and may be the reason why none of the farmers we encountered claimed to actively improve or select for certain agronomic characteristics in noug. A lack of farmer-led improvement would also explain why most farmers were not aware of much noug diversity in terms of landraces or varieties. A lack of intensive improvement efforts by farmers during earlier phases of noug domestication might have also been a major cause for the crop's apparently 'weak' domestication syndrome.The wild progenitor of sunflower is also self-incompatible, so why does the case of sunflower domestication differ in this respect from noug? One possibility is that self-compatibility evolves more easily in sunflower, as alleles that confer self-compatibility are not uncommon in wild sunflower populations, with frequencies ranging from 1 to 16% (Burke et al. 2002;E. Drummond and L.H. Rieseberg unpublished). However, no comparisons have been made with noug to determine the ease with which self-compatibility evolves in the two crops.Our results, as well as conversations with noug farmers, indicate that an important focus for future breeding efforts  should be the development and use of self-compatible lines.There also is a clear need to increase yield and to reduce the amount of seed lost because of asynchronous flowering and shattering. Our phenotypic analyses indicate that strong selection for increased seed size may be the most straightforward means of achieving the desired increases in yield.Even though there is little genetic divergence among different noug accessions, there does appear to be some adaptation to different environmental conditions across noug's range. In the NMDS analysis (Fig. 3), accessions clearly cluster according to the common garden site at which they were grown. Major variation is evident between sites, indicating that phenotypic plasticity plays an important role in explaining phenotypic differences between the two common garden sites and, by extension, much of the phenotypic diversity observed in farmer's fields across Ethiopia. However, none of the environmental variables considered here are correlated with the spread of data along the x-axis, implying that plasticity is not structured according to the environmental variation among source locations. The spread of the data along the y-axis, which explains the second largest proportion of variation in this NMDS analysis, is most strongly correlated with four precipitation variables (Fig. 3). The results of the mixed model analyses (Table 3) show that leaf width, leaf length, number of heads, number of primary branches, number of secondary branches, plant height, and days to 50% flowering are all traits that significantly differ between accessions that originated from different precipitation zones, even when grown in common gardens. This suggests that the level of precipitation during the growing season of noug may be a key environmental factor driving noug phenotypic diversityan important aspect to consider in future collection missions that aim to capture the maximum diversity of the crop for conservation purposes. The results of the NMDS and mixed effects model analyses therefore provide some evidence for local adaptation to different precipitation regimes.It will be important for noug breeders to be aware of the high levels of phenotypic plasticity of the crop, which requires that cultivars be tested in a wide variety of different environments. However, high levels of phenotypic plasticity also mean that even under strong seasonal environmental fluctuations, such as drought or flooding events, noug will likely still be able to produce some yield. Episodic drought events and variable climatic conditions have been characteristic in the region for several thousand years (reviewed in Harrower et al. 2010). Therefore, an alternative hypothesis which could help explain noug's phenotype is that farmers did not prioritize selection for seed size or other domestication traits as seen in sunflower, but rather (consciously or unconsciously) selected for a resilient crop that performs well under diverse conditions (Zohary 2004). This hypothesis has been suggested in the context of the domestication history of the Ethiopian cereal t'ef (Eragrostis tef), which is commonly recognized as the world's smallest grain and has a high level of branching and uncompacted panicles (D'Andrea 2008). A third alternative hypothesis is that the high levels of phenotypic plasticity are a consequence of the poorly developed domestication syndrome in noug rather than the cause of it. High levels of plasticity could be slowing down the response to artificial selection (Ancel 2000). Even though the experiments described here do not allow us to clearly distinguish between these three hypotheses, the results of our common garden experiments do suggest that phenotypic plasticity plays a major role in explaining trait variation in noug. To determine whether increases in phenotypic plasticity have accompanied noug domestication, we must first compare noug productivity with that of its putative progenitor in a series of common garden experiments across diverse environments.Neither introgression between noug and its progenitor nor unfavorable phenotypic correlations were found to be substantial barriers to noug domestication. The crop's self-incompatibility system and extensive gene flow among farmer's fields likely contributes to noug's status as a semidomesticated crop and to its apparent lack of selection and diversification attempts by farmers. Phenotypic plasticity appears to be an important factor in explaining trait variation observed in noug in farmer's fields, and plasticity may permit the crop to produce reasonable yields even in diverse conditions. There is also evidence of adaptation to different precipitation regimes. We propose a series of common garden experiments to investigate the alternative hypothesis that domestication in noug has focused more on resilience to diverse environmental conditions rather than a sunflower-like domestication syndrome.","tokenCount":"5101"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a5bdf3ebcd77622fc6132d435b69ee92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c7aa54d-020a-4f64-a7ee-6f8da8dce0b7/retrieve","id":"-903959259"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"052cad4e-3a67-410e-ac31-9dadac5fd891","pagecount":"1","content":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:• Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains • Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / study: The survey employed desk reviews and key informant interviews with a total of 16 seed companies/entities, both public and private sector. The major findings were: more than 50% of seed transfer/sale to farmers is conducted through the informal seed sector; the most commonly demanded propagation materials are grasses and leguminous forages; within the informal seed sector, farmers receive seeds as \"gifts\" from other farmers; seed quality certification standards are limited to large-sized companies, thus, small-medium sized companies often trade in uncertified seeds/planting materials; the major marketing challenge is lack of reliable demand for improved forages occasioned by lack of farmer awareness on improved forages.• ","tokenCount":"148"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0b350d359e2681b43e2a18116004d12f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c181a445-bd4d-40ad-b680-12898947cb7d/retrieve","id":"1625529873"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"12e83379-d143-48aa-8854-c2b6a0c59140","pagecount":"3","content":"In periurban areas of the world where cattle are present, dairy farming has typically been part of the adjustment in production patterns of smallholders faced with shrinking arable land, higher population density and rising wage rates. In subSaharan Africa, where the economic viability of smallholder agriculture has come under increasing pressure, smallholder periurban dairy development has not been widespread outside of the East African highlands. Understanding the nature of constraints limiting smallholder periurban dairying so as to promote this activity and improve the livelihoods of smalholders is, therefore, a key public policy issue for African countries.It is now widely accepted that the costs of arranging exchange may reduce or even prevent exchanges from occurring, and give rise to institutions and organisations to offset their negative impacts. Transactions costs include the costs of searching for and screening trading partners, bargaining with potential trading partners to reach an agreement, transferring (transporting, processing, packaging and securing title) the exchanged product, monitoring the agreement to see that its conditions are fulfilled, and enforcing the exchange agreement.The nature of milk and its derivatives partly explains the high transactions costs associated with dairying. As a highly perishable and bulky product, milk requires rapid transportation to consumption centres and processing at relatively high cost. This may involve substantial losses due to spoilage and result in small quantities marketed, thereby limiting marketing outlets for small dairy producers.In eastern Africa, empirical evidence on the nature and importance of transactions costs in dairying is scarce. As a result, the few studies that have addressed the issue have tended to infer the magnitude of transactions costs incurred from indirect evidence of lack of commercialisation. Indirect as such evidence may be, it suggests that both small and largescale dairy producers face high transactions costs, though at different levels, and that these influence production and marketing behaviour in a manner detrimental to efficiency and equity.The role and potential effects of transactions costs on the structure of dairy production and marketing in eastern Africa can be illustrated using data from recent surveys of dairy cooperatives in Central Province, Kenya, and of dairy producers in the Addis Ababa periurban area, Ethiopia.Data for the two countries show that only a small portion of domestic dairy production is marketed. In Ethiopia, which has significant per capita milk production, only 5% of estimated national production was commercialised in the early 1990s. In Kenya, the African country with the largest number of smallholder dairy producers selling milk offfarm, estimates of commercialisation in 1990 range from 43 to 48%.In Ethiopia, most milk and dairy marketing occurs through the informal sector. Almost 88% of all urban milk is supplied as raw milk through the informal market, largely by small producers. Few large farms or collective marketing organisations exist, so that production and marketing costs reflect the dispersed and smallscale nature of the dairy sector. The parastatal collection system, the Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE) which acts as a buyer of last resort, handles only 12% of urban milk supply and pays the lowest average prices. Thus, direct sales by producers to individual and institutional consumers, bypassing the dairy parastatal and private middlemen, constitute the bulk of milk sales in the Addis Ababa milkshed. In this environment, both producers and consumers of dairy products appear to put a premium on contracting with only a small number of clients/suppliers, suggesting that transactions costs are especially high in open milk markets.There is, however, considerable variation in the importance of marketing outlets depending on the scale of production and on the location (proximity to urban markets). Consistent with this, sources of average dairy and dairyrelated revenues and costs differ between small and large producers, and between urban and peri urban producers of the same size. Since different producers face different levels of transactions costs, depending on asset (capital intensity) and information levels, season and location, they respond to these differential costs with differential sales strategies.As a general rule, transactions costs increase with distance due to the increased costs of information and risk of dairy product spoilage before a buyer is found. Thus, farmers located further away from Addis Ababa have significantly less attractive options for disposing of their milk. Average revenue per tonne of milk in the survey was remarkably similar across producer types. But the unit cost for large urban producers was much lower than for other types of producers, especially with respect to feed costs. Low credit availability, combined with the capital intensive nature of largescale dairying, could partially explain the predominance of smallscale production.Overall, smallholder dairy producers in the Addis Ababa milkshed appear to generally face higher transaction costs than larger producers. The prices received by producers decrease with distance and appear to vary considerably depending on the size of sales and the flexibility of contractual relationships between producer and consumer, smaller producers receiving lower prices than larger producers in some marketing channels (e.g. dairy parastatal).In terms of organisations of collective action, Kenya's experience with the Kenya Cooperative Creameries (KCC) as a buyer of last resort seems to indicate that a fullfledged parastatal processing company like the KCC can lower transactions costs during the initial phase of smallholder dairy development. Indeed, KCC initially served to reduce transactions costs faced by individual producers through pooling risk, lowering collection and search costs, making inputs available to them and rendering milk supplies more reliable.In recent years, however, KCC's financial performance has been severely compromised by panseasonal and panterritorial pricing policies adopted for political reasons. Milk prices paid by KCC to cooperatives and producers have failed to keep pace with increases in input prices, and payments for milk supplied have been delayed, exposing producers to higher risks and irregular cash flow.In 1992, the Kenyan Government liberalised the dairy industry, revoking the KCC's monopoly on urban milk sales. This resulted in the rapid development of a variety of 'selfhelp groups' and dairy cooperatives mainly marketing raw milk. These cooperatives had largely emerged in response to the continued delays in milk payments by the KCC and began to explore alternative market outlets, but only in regions where transportation and other transactions costs permitted. In avoiding KCC payment delays, however, these co operatives had to contend with the considerable uncertainty and high transactions costs of searching for market outlets, screening, bargaining, monitoring contractual agreements with customers etc.Comprehensive policy recommendations require a more detailed study of the structure and determinants of transactions costs and their impacts on the behaviour of economic agents. However, some tentative policy implications can be drawn from the evidence already available for Ethiopia and Kenya.First, because of the potentially important role of collective organisations in lowering transactions costs in dairy marketing, government actions are required to provide an enabling and supportive environment for collective action in the dairy sector. Such actions should include reducing the bureaucratic obstacles to effective formation and management of cooperatives and selfhelp groups, support of market information flows (e.g. market opportunities and prices), resources for training in management and planning and, where appropriate, greater access to credit.Another action to support smallholder dairy development would be greater transparency of dairy marketing policies, and greater consistency in their implementation. In Kenya, greater transparency is likely to be required with regard to liquid milk marketing by private processors in urban areas. The 1992 liberalisation has yet to be finalised, perhaps discouraging investment and marketing activities by private dairy companies, including producerbased cooperatives. Ethiopia's policy concerning privatisation of state dairy farms and the DDE has yet to be made definitive, and government support for the formation of genuine cooperatives is uncertain. It is important that caution should be taken before policies are adopted which impede the indigenous and sometimes informal market mechanisms which currently serve smallholder producers.Opportunities also exist for research to better document transactions costs that are observable. Perhaps what is most needed is methodological development with regard to conceptualisation of transactions costs and how to measure them. Research on household and subsector models that better integrate both existing transactions costs and institutions and contracts that govern individual transactions, would be beneficial in a broader sense to improve policies and promote the wellbeing of rural smallholders.","tokenCount":"1350"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3009437877.json b/data/part_1/3009437877.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c8bb93d3a8faecaf7a663b1b62a6d813","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31a09f5a-b7cc-4367-82ae-ef8860986f3f/retrieve","id":"277279343"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6d9fc29d-18b5-493b-8212-1f07cff76afc","pagecount":"1","content":"Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) is one of the five cultivated Phaseolus bean species, which originated in the Neotropics. Lima beans have two botanical varieties, var. silvester and var. lunatus that refer to the wild and domesticated ones, respectively. Within the silvester variety two gene pools, the Mesoamerican and the Andean, have long been recognized (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6). However, recent evidence suggest that the structure of genetic diversity in wild Lima beans may be organized into three gene pools: gene pool AI is restricted to the Andes of Ecuador and northern Peru, gene pool MI is mostly found in Mexico in the area to the north and northwest of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and gene pool MII is widespread and found in Mexico (to the south and southeast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), Central America, Colombia, southern Peru and Argentina (Serrano et al., unpublished data). Wild Lima bean is one of the few species where multiple domestication events have been documented, which gave rise to three cultigroups: two small-seeded ones called \"Sieva\" and \"Potato\" (their place of origin is still controversial) and one large-seeded called \"Big Lima\" of Andean origin (Ecuador-northern Peru) (1,3,6). It is widely known that the domestication process has important consequences on genetic diversity and phenotypic traits (e.g. the domestication syndrome), therefore the importance to determinate where and how domestication events took place in a given species. The purpose of this research was to evaluate domestication patterns in Lima beans with special emphasis on the small-seeded cultigroups, and the effect of domestication on genetic diversity. For this purpose, two intergenic spacers of the chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) (atpB-rbcL and trnL-trnF) and the internal transcribed spacer of the ribosomal DNA (ITS/5.8S) were sequenced in a sample of wild and domesticated Lima beans. The results confirm a domestication center for the \"Big Lima\" cultigroup on the western slope of the Andes in Ecuador and northern Peru. The results support a second domestication event in Mexico for the small-seeded cultigroups, in the area to the west and northwest of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. There was a strong domestication founder effect in both Mesoamerica and the Andes (about 70% for cpDNA and 75% for ITS/5.8S).All plant material used in this study was obtained from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture in Cali, Colombia. A total of 42 wild and 35 domesticated Lima bean accessions were selected on the basis of their geographic distribution and complete passport data. Leaflets were collected from each of 5 seedlings per accession for DNA extraction with a standard CTAB method.Two intergenic spacers of the cpDNA (atpB-rbcL and trnL-trnF) and the ITS/5.8S region were sequenced in the sample of wild and domesticated Lima beans. In order to evaluate the genetic relationships among wild and domesticated Lima beans, two genetic distance matrixes were obtained (for cpDNA and ITS/5.8S data) under the F84 model of molecular evolution. From these distance matrixes, two dendrograms were built by using the NJ algorithm (Figure 1). As it can be seen from the cpDNA and ITS/5.8S NJ topologies, most of the domesticated accessions group together with wild Lima beans in only two clusters: cluster AI (blue color) and MI (red color) (Figure 1). The cluster AI contains wild accessions from the wild gene pool AI (as defined by Serrano et al. unpublished data) restricted to the western side of the Andes of Ecuador and northern Peru, and domesticated accessions distributed in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina (Figure 2). Domesticated accessions from this cluster are large-seeded (100seed weight>70g) and have been identified as the \"Big Lima\" cultigroup. These results suggest a domestication event in the Andes of Ecuador-northern Peru, as it has been reported previously (5,6). The cluster MI contains wild accessions from the wild gene pool MI (as defined by Serrano et al. unpublished data) that occur in Mexico, in the area to the west and northwest of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and small-seeded domesticated accessions widely distributed from Mexico to Argentina (Figure 2). These results reveal a second domestication event from smallseeded wild populations, possibly in an area restricted to Mexico (as stated above). Previous studies (6) have already suggested a possible domestication event for the small-seeded domesticated forms in the Mexico-Guatemala zone (including the Caribbean and the Isthmus of Panama). In the present study the possible domestication area is narrowed to the north part of the distribution of wild Lima beans. However, in order to locate more precisely domestication sites of small-seeded cultivars, germplasm collections of wild populations should be improved, specially in Mexico, where sampling is still deficient. One of the purposes of the present study was to validate the existence of two different small-seeded cultigroups (\"Sieva\" and \"Potato\") (3). The present results (Figure 1) do not support the existence of two small-seeded cultigroups, therefore, it is recommended to group all the small-seeded domesticated forms in only one cultigroup.The founder effect due to domestication was calculated on the basis of nucleotide diversity indexes (π) (7) estimated for wild and domesticated Lima beans (Table 1). For the Andean domestication event, the reduction of genetic diversity was estimated as 48% and 75% according to cpDNA and ITS/5.8S data, respectively. For the Mesoamerican domestication event, the reduction in genetic diversity was even greater and estimated for cpDNA as 91.87% and for ITS/5.8S as 75.75%. The average reduction in genetic diversity for cpDNA (about 70%) and for ITS/5.8S (around 75%) for the two domestication events indicate that in general there was a strong founder effect due to domestication with a magnitude that is about the same or larger to that reported for other crops such as common bean (38-55%) (8) and maize (20-65%) (9). These results suggest that wild Lima beans contain unique genetic diversity not present in domesticated Lima beans and therefore special attention should be taken to preserve these genetic resources.In summary, the results support two domestication events for wild Lima beans, one would have occurred on the western side of the Andes in Ecuador and northern Peru from the wild gene pool AI, and the second one would have occurred in Mexico from the wild gene pool MI, in the area to the west and northwest of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. According to diversity indexes calculated for wild and domesticated Lima beans, in both domestication events there was a strong reduction of genetic diversity due to founder effects which suggest that wild Lima beans may be considered as reservoirs of genetic diversity not present in domesticated Lima beans that may be useful for future breeding programs.We are grateful to the Universidad Industrial de Santander, Colombia, and the Banco de la República, Colombia, for providing funding to carry out this research. We are also grateful to the Genetic Resources Unit of CIAT for providing the plant material used in this research. ","tokenCount":"1127"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c10296311c70016babf639f757e04f6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e795a6d9-7d2a-4051-8d35-a6b70f3f4f4c/retrieve","id":"-1956368571"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eaba7cd0-6af4-4392-b472-a1a7f0e5cde4","pagecount":"3","content":"CGIAR IPSR Innovation Profile | Feed pellet production with locally availably productsThe nature of this innovation isInnovations that already exist and undergo constant, steady progress and improvement.CGIAR Innovation Packages and Scaling Readiness (IPSR)This innovation is characterized asInnovations of technical/material nature, including varieties/breeds; crop and livestock management practices; machines; processing technologies; big data and information systems.This innovation is developed, tested and/or scaled for/in the following regions The innovation is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled conditionsThe innovation is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled conditionsThe innovation is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled conditionsThe innovation's key concepts have been validated for their ability to achieve a specific impactThe innovation is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled conditionsThe innovation's key concepts are being formulated or designedThe innovation is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled conditionsThe innovation's basic principles are being researched for their ability to achieve a specific impactThe innovation is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled conditionsThe innovation is at idea stage For more information on this innovation please contact Udo Rudiger (u.rudiger@cgiar.org)","tokenCount":"205"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3030043137.json b/data/part_1/3030043137.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c5b1999db8f9da76141564c44d32a42bc33a33e8
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce59aa5f63b9ae3f1f3326f534c8ff09","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c2041d80-1c95-46e8-82d7-c35a939d6643/content","id":"-1930585671"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ba8b7b19-c6dc-476f-b975-7dfeb978fe3f","pagecount":"26","content":"• Compared to other cereals, maize yield is the highest and large proportion of smallholder farmers use improved technologies in maize production.• However, given the potential, maize yield is still low and use of improved technologies are sub-optimal.• Maize is an important staple crop produced by 10 M smallholder farmers in Ethiopia.• Strong breeding and extension program in releasing improved varieties fitting to different agroecologies (including drought tolerant maize varieties).• (A)biotic stresses put maize under production risk and suppress the level of investments farmers make in using improved seed and fertilizer.• Consequence of production risk is severe to resource poor smallholders and discourage investments in externally purchased yield enhancing inputs (improved seeds and chemical fertilizers).• Diversification across time and space helps to break the life cycle of pests/diseases and also replenish soil nutrient.• Downside risk: -increasing the asymmetry or skewness of the risk distribution towards low outcome, holding both mean and variance constant (Di Falco and Chavas, 2006) • Plot level yield assessment under different practices.• Self-selection bias corrected endogenous switching regression model to capture treatment effects.• ATT and ATU controlling for plot, household, farm and village level observed characteristics.• Decompose the costs of risk at the lower side of yield distribution• Diversification (D), Improved variety (V) , Chemical Fertilizer (F)• Eight possible combinations of technologies/practices in maize plots, (D0V0F0, ….. ….., D0V1F1, D1V1F1)• Eight maize yield estimation equations defined as follows:Empirical Models (3)Expected Conditional Treatment EffectsTreated plots Non-treated plots Average treatment effect on treated (ATT) and untreated• Quintile moment approach (k quintiles).• Arrow-Pratt relative coefficient of risk in measuring the cost of risk proxied with risk premium. • Applied in several studies Kim and Chavas (2003); Kassie et al. (2015); Di Falco andChavas (2006, 2009); Kim et al. (2014). • Yield increases with increasing the combination of improved technologies/practices.• The highest and lowest average maize yield were recorded under D1V1F1 and D0V0F0 , respectively. • In isolation, on average, the yield response is higher for fertilizer.• On average, at the absence of fertilizer and improved seed, diversification alone couldn't enhance yield. Average treatment effects (ATT and ATU) moving from untreated (D 0 V 0 F 0 ) to fully treated (D 1 V 1 F 1 ) plots and vice versa.Combinations compared Adopted plots Non-adopted plots Adoption Effect    Comparison of risk premium (cost of risk) by quintile of yield distribution (with and without diversification on plots treated with both improved seed and chemical fertilizer)Obs. • At the lower quintile of maize yield distribution, the risk premium is higher for• Overall, keeping the use of improved seed and chemical fertilizer the same, the risk premium for plots with diversification is lower compared to plots with no diversification. Risk premium (R) and its decomposition by quintiles (comparing V 1 and F 1 use with and without diversification, D)• At all quintiles, for plots treated with improved seed and chemical fertilizer, the downside risk premium is lower when plots were treated with crop diversification. • Use of improved seed and chemical fertilizer shifts the distribution of maize yield to the right (D0V0F0 versus D0V1F1).• This is further supported when complemented with crop diversification, i.e., intercropping and/or crop rotation (D0V1F1 versus D1V1F1). The risk premium is higher for maize plots with no diversification (D0…).• Using either crop rotation or intercropping maize with legumes, farmers could reduce the downside risk in maize yield.• For plots treated with yield enhancing purchased agricultural inputs, the cost of downside risk is lower when complemented by diversification.• Essential to promote crop diversification practices along with the promotion of improved seed and fertilizer use in maize production through the extension system.• Spatial diversification (intercropping) could be used when temporal diversification (rotation) is less attractive to smallholder farmers aiming at household food consumption security from small farms.","tokenCount":"627"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3039852069.json b/data/part_1/3039852069.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..929c14f314b430d8813e1db68f16e49d75c74321
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8cdf528534f02be4daa464d716771722","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ac0a3000-0783-471c-b154-280bca899ec7/retrieve","id":"-264161997"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"073828b9-62c0-4fa9-945a-1e8d1ae7326a","pagecount":"11","content":"• Index: Predicted average livestock mortality.• Contract Evolution: From Asset Replacement to Asset Protection• Index: Seasonal Forage Availability • Well articulated policy structures as the foundation for sustainable scale• The important role of public support• Determining the optimal mix of public/private roles and responsibilities as critical• Over 11,750 herders in N. Kenya and 4,000 in S.Ethiopia have purchased IBLI• The GoK and the launch of the Kenya Livestock Insurance Program• WFP Ethiopia testing comprehensive inclusion of IBLI• How to meet the growing demand across SSA:• impacts based targeting -strategic deployment in areas of high relevance• Standardization and rating of contracts The IBLI Program is a Collaboration of Many Players better lives through livestock ilri.org ILRI thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR systemFor more information on IBLI, visit https://ibli.ilri.org/","tokenCount":"138"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3046442743.json b/data/part_1/3046442743.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b0cb33c2e1b2ebb3b750d5ab09d412208cc9b916
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"59836d8dfb9af789590eac28f2f6a166","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/152258c5-590b-464f-b115-a96c59ecf3e1/retrieve","id":"-766744005"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b45d0a14-72ff-4ec6-8206-0caee5c94723","pagecount":"43","content":"Over the last three years, the CGIAR Gender and Breeding Initiative (GBI) has been developing the G+ Customer Profile Tool and the G+ Product Profile Query Tool (the G+ Tools) to help integrate gender issues into breeding programs to increase crop varietal adoption and bring about greater social impact. In 2019, the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding Platform (EiB) approved a grant to pilot the G+ Tools in two African-based breeding programs for beans and cassava. The piloting implied integration of the Tools into the EIB product profile development framework. Later CIP, with the support of RTB, incorporated the sweetpotato breeding program in Uganda to be part of the piloting process.Eventually, representatives from the banana and cereals and lentils breeding programs in Uganda and the CWANA region, respectively, also joined the process.A workshop in Nairobi in March 2020 marked the beginning of the piloting project. Following the workshop, each of the piloting teams returned to their home institutions to pilot the Tools and their standard operating procedure (SOP). However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, changes were made to the original project timeline. Most notably, the project got a no-cost extension until the end of December 2020 and the planned \"Evaluation and Learning\" workshop was replaced by eight digital meetings taking place from September to December 2020.By generating feedback on the G+ Tools and their SOP, the piloting project was pivotal in advancing towards an alpha version of the Tools, to be released in 2021. Additionally, the piloting helped identify critical gaps in the EiB framework. Through two main rounds of adjustments, the GBI made important suggestions for improving the social inclusiveness and gender responsiveness of the EiB product profile development process, most notably by emphasizing the human face of breeding: the definition of market segments and product profiles should strongly focus on the people -gender and social inclusion should be at the heart of breeding. Thus, addressing in particular those who have been missed by breeding programs or are not currently served by available varieties.The piloting teams further found that the G+ Tools helped facilitate insightful and constructive discussions with breeders and economists on the importance of being gender responsive, including the potential for harmful and beneficial effects of traits on men and women, and how being socially inclusive can lead to increased variety turnover rates. Furthermore, the piloting process has been important in highlighting the need to give voice and power to gender researchers in developing, monitoring, and evaluating market segmentation and product profiles.Many participants felt that the piloting project was only the beginning -a first, essential step towards the goal of rendering breeding programs gender responsive. For most, the G+ Tools helped identify key information gaps that should be communicated to higher management levels, donors, and other partners: the data gaps suggest the need to reallocate effort and budgets towards understanding, ex ante, what the customer landscape looks like.Over the last three years, the CGIAR Gender and Breeding Initiative (GBI) has been developing the G+ Customer Profile Tool and the G+ Product Profile Query Tool (the G+ Tools) to help integrate gender issues into breeding programs to increase crop varietal adoption and bring about greater social impact. The G+ Customer Profile Tool helps identify and disaggregate users by gender and other socioeconomic variables for a specific breeding product (Appendix 10.3). The Tool ultimately yields a G+ Customer Profile, which provides a comprehensive description of the customers of a breeding program, including their social characteristics and trait preferences. The G+ Product Profile Query Tool in turn, inspects the gender dimensions of plant or animal traits and attributes, including the potential for harmful rather than beneficial outcomes (Appendix 10.4).In 2019, the CGIAR Excellence in Breeding Platform (EiB) approved a grant to pilot the G+ Tools in two African-based breeding programs for beans and cassava. The piloting implied integration of the Tools into the EIB product profile development framework (see section 3). Later CIP, with the support of RTB, incorporated the sweetpotato breeding program in Uganda to be part of the piloting process. Further down the line, representatives from the banana 1 and cereals and lentils breeding programs in Uganda and the CWANA region, respectively, also joined the process. For an overview of the cases, please refer to Appendix 10.2.A workshop in Nairobi in March 2020 marked the beginning of the piloting project. Following the workshop, each of the piloting teams returned to their home institutions to pilot the Tools and their standard operating procedure (SOP). However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, changes were made to the original project timeline (Fig. 1). Most notably, the project got a no-cost extension until the end of December 2020 and the planned \"Evaluation and Learning\" workshop was replaced by eight digital meetings taking place from September to December 2020 (Appendix 1o.1). The meetings consisted of presentations by the project organizers and participants, lively discussions, and brainstorming using Conceptboard. In addition to the eight meetings, the organizers arranged bilateral meetings with each of the piloting teams. This report provides a summary of the main experiences, discussions, and suggested revisions that arose during the eight digital meetings, and further demonstrates how the thinking and propositions of the project participants changed over the course of the piloting process. The report is structured as follows:The first section introduces the report. Sections two and three addresses the initial experiences using the Tools and the EiB product profile development framework. Sections four and five address the first and second rounds of adjustments to the EiB template.The sixth section addresses the processes of case systematization and review. Sections seven, eight and nine outline some general reflections, a forward-looking perspective on communication, outreach, and partnerships, and concluding remarks.This section outlines key experiences shared by each of the teams on the piloting of the Tools in the period from mid-March to mid-August 2020.The Cassava group shared experiences on completing step 1-3 of the G+ Customer Profile Tool (Appendix 10.3). Through an extensive literature review, the group expanded on the original product map by breaking segments into smaller, more specified components according to what was being processed, towards what use/market, and by whom. This exercise revealed that 85% of processing is done by small-scale processors, the majority of whom are women. The group was also able to fill some of the information required in the customer mapping. Ultimately, the evidence table provided a good indication of whose trait preferences that need consideration when developing the product profile.Drawing on the evidence table, the group also added several lines of information to the EiB product profile development template (e.g., number of men/women farmers growing the crop in the market segment and the quantity processed by men/women small-scale processors).There was lack of data to provide all the information needed to complete the product and customer map and, as a result, the evidence table. For instance, there is limited information available on what is happening in the home processing segment. Additionally, references are at times conflicting or use different scales and methodologies, and as a result are of different quality and representativity. Thus, a lot of time was spent comparing the relevance of different types of data and data sources. This made the task of product-and customer mapping very time-and labor-intensive.There was a concern that a lot of effort would be spent on consolidating information that ultimately might not be employed in breeding calculations and decision-making. There was a challenge of where to draw the line between small-scale and larger-scale farmers and processors. Additionally, there were concerns from the wider breeding team that, while the information from the G+ Tools would be useful, there might be insufficient resources (budget, time, people) to do the extra research needed to fill information gaps. Finally, many plant (quality) characteristics mentioned by customers (variety-users) have yet to be 'translated' into 'breed-able' traits, which requires involvement by among others food scientists.Create a systematized, \"one-stop-shop\" repository of references in an excel spread sheet which will enable easier access to information that can be used when comparing references as well as in calculations. This may provide a starting point for discussions within the breeding team on which data sources to use moving forward. A software could be developed which identifies overlay of information (e.g., poverty levels, user groups, location, and poverty level-specific traits). Transport all the information from the SOP tables to an excel spreadsheet that aligns with the EiB's and breeders' formats. The final template should have space for all information, but still be workable without having a complete set of data. Introduce changes step-by-step to avoid losing the active involvement and feeling of ownership of the process by the breeders.Data and findings should be presented in ways that are tangible to biophysical researchers (for instance, one should avoid presenting long narrative documents with qualitative information to breeders). Bigger datasets (e.g., FAO stats), that are often extrapolated and projected, should be combined with more focused qualitative and quantitative studies. Study earlier, relevant interactions between social scientists (e.g., economists) and breeders (Orr et al., 2018).The Cereals and Lentils group had adapted aspects of the G+ Product Profile to adjust the EiB product profile templates for durum wheat, soft wheat, and barley. The group noted that the current EiB template for product profile development, in which traits are evaluated on whether they are \"gender relevant\" by answering \"yes\" or \"no\", was unintelligible and insufficient from a gender perspective. Consequently, in collaboration with breeders, the group had developed three alternative ways of including gender considerations into the EiB template: 1. A narrative approach which specifies who benefits and why from a particular trait. 2. A scoring system that addresses gender inequality and emphasizes equitable benefits.3. A scoring system that captures who benefits, in which drudgery reduction is accorded high value, and mitigation measures are put in place in the case of harmful effects.The group also introduced new indicators into the EiB template based on data from, e.g., ILO and the World Bank (e.g., \"women/men employment in agriculture\", \"10-year trend for men/women employment in agriculture\", and \"gender inequality index\"). They further identified indicators that could be useful, but for which there was insufficient data (e.g., \"no. of men/women farmers\", \"no. of men/women processors\", and \"gender yield gap\"), as well as indicators related to agronomy (e.g., \"number of fertilizer applications\", which can be a proxy for biomass/livestock feed, which is a trait of importance to women). Indeed, a more general findings was the lack of sex-disaggregated data.Breeders were generally open and willing to address gender, but that they differed in their preferred approach to including gender considerations in the template. In fact, the breeders would often contribute with innovative ideas: in addition to developing ways of ranking traits for their gender relevance, one of the breeders made an important point with respect to disease traits and gender, namely the need to consider at what growth stage or part of plant the disease hits, as this may have different implications for men and women. Interactions with breeders further highlighted the importance of having multidisciplinary teams, including discussions on technical and biophysical aspects of breeding. For instance, the gene for a desirable plant attribute or trait may not always be available, it may have negative genetic and phenotypic correlations, or its heritability may be too low. Accordingly, it is important to understand the way breeders think and the terminology they use.Evaluate the variety rather than trait-by-trait, as negative effects were often emergent and not readily evident when investigating each trait separately. In some instances, there appeared to be some conflict within and between the \"positive benefits\" and \"do no harm\" analyses (Appendix 10.4). For instance, malting quality in barley is associated with high content of carbohydrates which is disadvantageous when used as livestock feed and as a result can be harmful to women (who are customarily responsible for livestock in some of the areas where ICARDA work). However, this harmful effect can be counteracted by breeding for higher biomass or through application of fertilizer. In another example, Ethiopian men and women preferred larger and smaller lentils, respectively, which reflected their involvement in marketing and cooking. Thus, women and men expressed conflicting needs with respect to the same trait (i.e., lentil size). Thus, there are questions on how to address conflicting traits and how to prioritize who benefits. Finally, the group noted that the market focus of the EiB product profile development process may not capture traits and benefits that are not necessarily directly related to the market (e.g., drudgery reduction).The Sweetpotato group shared experiences using both the G+ Customer Profile Tool and the G+ Product Query Profile Tool. They found that incorporating gender considerations in defining customer and product profiles has evolved over the years, albeit slowly, mainly induced by donor requirements. By reviewing the literature (including but not limited to FAO, CIP, and HarvestPlus data), the group was able to gain further insight into the customers, including their socioeconomic characteristics and traits preferences, as well as potential gender impacts (e.g., gendered differences in benefits from growing OFSP).They further showcased two examples of traits that had been evaluated using the G+ Product Profile Query Tool, namely root yield and vine yield. The former was given a score of 3 as both men and women were considered to benefit in terms of food and income. The latter was given a score of 2 and thus it was recommended to avoid the trait. The scoring was based on the assumption that, since most actors in the vine trade are women, higher yields would impose increased time and drudgery, while the revenues would go predominantly to men. Following the presentation by the group, some of the other participants suggested that vine yield could be important for women as a source of animal feed/silage and represent a future business opportunity for women. There are also known ecological benefits of high vine yield -namely erosion control and soil organic matter replacement -that are medium to long-term in nature but nonetheless beneficial for root yield and, hence, to women. Thus, the valuation of the trait may require further discussions.Among their challenges, the group found that many of the articles that boasted \"gender\" in their titles and abstracts did not include relevant and disaggregated gender information (\"gender as a clickbait\").It also found that the current definition of product and customer profiles ignore the heterogeneity of actors and preferences, and the inter/intra-connections, and hence fail to address the problem of intersectionality. The group further noted that some data, such as on the sweetpotato value chain in Uganda, were outdated and often case-specific/non-representative, and thus might not reflect the current situation and do not provide a national picture. To fill data gaps, the Sweetpotato team sometimes had to draw inferences from studies conducted elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., studies on gendered benefits of OFSP in Mozambique and Malawi). Such data gaps, the group argued, can result in scoring bias in the G+ Product Profile.The G+ Tools should contain clear examples to make them more user-friendly, while an excel version of the Tools could be helpful.The Beans group shared experiences with using both the G+ Customer Profile Tool and the G+ Product Query Profile Tool and their SOP. Most of the data sources consisted of previous PVS studies, as well as a few impact assessments and baseline surveys. The analysis demonstrated different expected impacts on the various customer segments across the three bean products (i.e., with respect to income, labor requirements, poverty, improved nutrition, market opportunity, etc.). However, as with the other groups, there was lack of sex-disaggregated data for completing the templates. For instance, it was not possible to answer questions concerning post-harvesting in dry beans. Thus, the group noted the need for future studies (some of which are being planned), which should include a gender specialist. The beans team will furthermore cooperate with industry partners to collect relevant market data.The development of the product profile was mostly driven by the breeders and economists from the NARS, as there is an emphasis on building capacity and ownership in the national systems. The team acknowledged that a gender specialist had not been involved in the creation of the decision matrix and its voting exercise (i.e., where potential customer segments are ranked for targeting) but was included during this piloting exercise. The product profile development would be led by the bean breeder, while other members of the breeding team would monitor the process to ensure that it is moving in the right direction, with the gender person ensuring that it is gender responsive.The EIB template should have a column where the different value chain actors or clients can be included in addition to farmers. There should be a section where the drivers of these clients are mentioned and their trait preferences. Additionally, the EIB tool also needs a section where information on the reasons for choice of a variety by men, women, or youths can be written and explained. Lastly, simplified tool is easier to use than when it is complex and needs a lot of information.On the G+ tool, the group suggested that it could be reworked and integrated in the PVS tool, for greater adoption and scalability.In addition to the feedback provided by each of the groups, further reflections were made during subsequent discussions.Crop breeders and economists typically include variables and indicators that relate to the production phase. However, there is a need to include indicators that capture social dimensions across the entire value chain, including processing, marketing, trading, and consumption.Breeders often breed for 'mega-environments', which sometimes stretches across national borders, upon which market segmentation is based. However, such a broad definition of market segments may overshadow important social and gender nuances (intersectionality) that are visible at a smaller scale, such as at national or national-regional levels. Furthermore, as argued by one of the participants, if one tries to cover every mega environment with all potential market segments and gender issues therein, one might risk getting lost and instrumentalizing all gender research into gender traits alone. One participant stressed that there is no need to breed for every market segment, and that available diversity can also be selected (e.g., among of landraces).There is a tendency to oversimplify by merely generalizing across men and women. Thus, emphasizing more on intersectionality may provide a more nuanced and accurate picture.Potentially, a Venn diagram could be used to better illustrate the interrelationship between product preferences and the social characteristics of the customer.A stand-alone reference list may not be particularly useful in understanding the basis on which figures are reached. Thus, when developing the product and customer maps, it may be useful to include a short explanation on how the numbers and percentages are determined.Relatedly, information should be provided on the data accuracy of references.One suggestion was that the EiB template could be adapted so that selecting \"yes\" on whether a trait is gender relevant or not would take the template user to the G+ Product Profile Query Tool.There needs to be space in the templates to include information about unpaid labor as there are often important associated gender dimensions. However, a common challenge is the lack official statistics on unpaid labor, although qualitative studies and reports can be used as a starting point.A representative from EiB presented the current EiB framework for developing market segments, product concepts, and product profiles (Fig. 2). The representative addressed potential confusion concerning definitions, recognizing that concepts have often had multiple meanings in the past. He argued for the need to develop a common and consistent understanding and language across institutions. Most notably, the definitions included:1. Biological region components: biological components of the geographical region that breeding products are being developed for (e.g., agro-ecological zone, ecosystem, country, province, target population of environments, evaluation zone).developed. These include, among others, whether the crop is a clone, variety or hybrid, the production system, input level, characteristics of the end-product, and biofortification. These components will also include gender dimensions. 3. Market segment: is defined based on a unique combination of customer-preferred biologicalregional components and value-chain components that together describe a market opportunity. Note that there can be multiple market segments in any one region (e.g., a producer/processor may produce/process products for several market segments). 4. Product concept: describes the ideal product for a market segment, i.e., the relevant set of key traits, each with a minimum trait score for meeting or exceeding customer needs. The product concept also includes traits for seed production/multiplication and product registration. 5. Product profile: describes a commercialized product based on a product concept. 6. Pipeline investment case: aligns the research investment with market segment value where \"value\" is dollar opportunity and/or human impact. Does the research investment and effort correspond to the market opportunity or is the breeding program over-or underinvesting? If there were discretionary dollars available, where would they have the greatest impact? The answers to such and related questions will depend on how value is defined.The representative recognized the lack of adequate data, especially at the market segment level, and the challenge in collecting such information, as among the biggest hurdles. Thus, he argued that it is necessary to work with the funders to establish key indicators for measuring value and impact of investments. He further acknowledged the challenge in defining poverty as market segments often cut across geopolitical boundaries. Accordingly, and as a more general point, users of the EiB template should include carefully selected references that ensure consistency in the way data are collected and represented. Importantly, the representative also emphasized the need of addressing the question of who benefits -a question that requires broad and inclusive discussions and creative thinking. He expressed openness and willingness to engage with the GBI in determining whether the EiB framework and its definitions made sense and whether they align with the work of the GBI. This includes a consideration of whether components and traits relevant to gender are included in the definitions of the market segment and product concept.Using the software Conceptboard, participants brainstormed on how to make changes to the following elements of the EiB framework to make it more socially inclusive and gender responsive: 1. Overall structure of market segments, product concepts, and product profiles. 2. Product concept general structure.3. Market segment general structure.The results of this brainstorming exercise were later compiled and synthesized, the result of which can be seen in Appendix 10.5. The main findings and suggested revisions are presented below.There was not enough information on home consumption. A lot of what is produced is consumed on-farm which needs to be accounted for. Indeed, on-farm and off-farm consumption may differ with respect to trait preferences. When general information is presented, the existing level of aggregation should be included.The \"social dimension\" was unclear.Value chain components need to include value chain actors and gender division of labor.Include a box for customers (i.e., customer segment) before the market segments box. Include information on the social dimensions of market segment.Include gender relevant information on different stages of the value chain and for different actors.Include information from the G+ Customer Profile Query Tool. Include elements of the G+ Product Profile in Product Concept.Based on these observations and ideas, a \"Customer Profile\" block was added to both the overall structure of market segments, product concepts, and product profiles (Fig. 3) and the components that define a market segment (Fig. 4). The \"Customer Profile\" is meant to describe the social characteristics of the potential customers, including gender and other social inclusion information, as well as identifying additional traits not included in the product profile.  Observations Definition of market segment as initially presented by EiB seems more aligned with the product and less with users/producers. As a result, the \"human face\" of the market segment becomes less visible. Generic numbers at national/regional level are not always available, and they are not particularly useful in identifying gender relevance.Include a section that helps clarify what the \"customer segment\" is. Explore other measures of relevance for market segments (other than monetary value). Include customer segment data for production and other value chain links, including gender relevant disaggregation (a block of rows).Based on these observations and ideas, a \"Customer Segment Data\" block was added to the \"Market Segment Definition\" (Fig. 5). This segment includes information about genderdifferentiated roles and responsibilities for different segments of the value chain. The section should also contain information about the implications of traits on gender-differentiated inputs, use, labor, control over crop products, etc. The \"Customer Segment Data\" is adaptable according to the breeding context and objectives, meaning that information can be added/removed to fit the particular social context. Observations Detailed description of value chain segments and actors should inform traits in the production system and other levels.There is a missing section on traits that have a key gender component (culinary traits, nutrition, health, etc.).Create a link between value chain information in the market segment description and traits defined.Include a section in or near production system on gender relevant traits (link to value chain components and processes).Create an additional column that includes an assessment of traits from a gender perspective (link to G+ Product Profile).A \"Customer Profile\" was added to the template (Fig. 6), which created space for including key gender relevant traits that may otherwise have been ignored (e.g., dealbreaker-and dealmaker traits). Dealbreaker and dealmaker traits are traits that strongly negatively or positively affect adoption, respectively, which possibly have a strong gender dimension (e.g., processing quality, storage, taste, texture, etc.). Additionally, specific columns to include gender valuation of traits generated using the G+ Product Profile Query Tool were added (Fig. 6). The first round of adjustments was piloted by each of the teams to identify further gaps and potential rooms for improvement. Below is a list of the main experiences and comments made by the participants using the adapted templates (note that the Cereals and Lentils group did not present their experiences).The Cassava group partially completed the templates. However, aspects such as the number of men/women farmers and processors in the customer segment were not readily available and/or the data were often too general. This further posed the question of how to define a farmer, which the group argued should be based on who carries out and benefits from particular tasks. Such an assessment might not include \"no. of farmers\", but rather relative importance in percentage of production. Still, the absolute number may be important in determining the importance of a market segment for breeding.The group suggested having a 'drop-down menu' in the customer profile template that allows one to add/remove relevant data that have already been entered into the template (e.g., when producers and processors share the same trait preferences). Also, for purposes of social inclusion and food security, home consumption should be considered as a separate value chain. Thus, one would have distinct columns for home consumption and sale in the templateThe Cassava team argued that gender insertion in the customer profile section was missing the point because the market segmentation had already been defined. The team argued that gender should have been considered when analyzing the target population and their preferences. They believed this to be symptomatic of working with an already existing framework (i.e., the EiB templates). The group also expressed difficulties in envisioning the hierarchy of the EiB product profile development framework and how the different components relate to one another.The Beans group was not able to complete the whole template, which was mostly due to lack of clarity on the difference between production-and multiplication traits and the product registration traits.The group questioned the extent to which traits addressed under \"biological region\", \"production/multiplication traits\", \"product registration unique traits\", and \"production system\" would differ. In the case where traits turn out to be similar, there might be replication and redundancy of information. Additionally, the group was unsure of what the \"strength of NARS breeding in this\" referred to. Some of the other piloting participants expressed similar uncertainties.The group further identified areas in need of improvement. Among others, \"region\" should be defined at the national or local level as opposed to at a continental level (e.g., 'Africa'). Additionally, certain sections of the template should allow for more options than one. For instance, breeding programs might address several agro-ecological zones. Similarly, the geographical area should be disaggregated according to whether it is rural or urban as this may have important implications for demand (e.g., dry beans, canned beans, and flour).The group further considered the option of simply answer \"yes\" or \"no\" on whether the product contributes to, e.g., human nutrition and climate change, as being insufficient. Information on the level of relative impact should also be included, so that it enables a discussion on the development impacts of the different market segments. Finally, the group argued for the need of a decision matrix to help guide the choice of target customer segments, similar to the decision matrix provided in the G+ Customer Profile Tool.The Sweetpotato group completed most of the template, except for information on the \"product multiplication traits\" and the \"product registration traits\". This was due to lack of clarity on what these traits are. Another area of confusion was the \"scale\" column, and whether this referred to the agronomic performance required or the variety benchmark.In order to make the template more user-friendly, the group argued that one could include pop-up notes that provide definitions of various concepts (e.g., \"customer profile\", \"gender score\", \"biological region\", \"geographical region\"). Additionally, justification for gender scoring (i.e., why trait was given a particular score) and sources of evidence should be provided, and care taken to ensure that traits are as uniquely 2 defined as possible to ease the scoring process. Furthermore, there should be separate tabs for the customer segment, market segment, and so forth for ease of navigation. Finally, having a tool guide could also make the template more user-friendly, which could be placed in a tab of its own. This way, the template becomes a one-stop-shop.Other points of improvement included consistency in the naming of traits, as these currently differ between the EiB template and the G+ Tools (e.g., \"disease traits\" vs. \"biotic traits\", \"value chain traits\" vs. \"end-user traits\", etc.). In the EiB template, there was some confusion regarding the naming of the different templates: \"market segments\" and \"market segment details\". Either, one of them should be renamed to ensure consistency or explanatory notes or a manual should be included to explain the difference between the two.In addition to the feedback provided by each of the groups, further reflections were made during subsequent discussions. Some of the key issues included:How to best include minority groups and intersectionality (e.g., regional differences, ethnicity, and age) in the template.The product profile development framework could be translated into a software, but this would require technical competence, which may not be readily available in all breeding program, particularly national institutions. As such, an excel version may also be necessary.Simply referring to \"key gender traits\" ignores the nuances which a gender score provides (i.e., whether and why a trait is gender neutral, beneficial, harmful, etc.).One participant argued that a line should be included in the \"Customer Segment Data\" block in which important gender traits would be listed. This way, it becomes more clear which traits need attention in each customer segment.Another participant stressed the need to add \"culinary traits\" as a component making up the market segment, as these can have important gender dimensions.Based on feedback and brainstorming on the first round of revisions, a second round of adjustments were made to the EiB templates. This time around, two parallel and complementary processes were identified: i) Market segmentation: divides the market into specific groups with their unique characteristics. ii)Market segment valuation: assigns value to each market segment, which forms the basis for the final assessment of outcomes and impacts of the intervention.Figure 7 outlines the two processes and how these are conceptualized by the EiB and the GBI. The EiB segmentation process is mostly based on prioritized products, whereas GBI proposes that market segmentation should be based on the specific people being targeted. In other words, the definition of market segments should be clarified by including the customer profile, as was suggested in the first round of adjustments. Additionally, from the very start of the process, one should clarify the definition of the breeding program objectives in relation to the target population, as opposed to in relation to the product and the expected targets to be achieved for that product. As an example, if a breeding program has nutritional objectives, then the program should target specific groups related to that objective.Furthermore, there is a need to include information from all value chain actors -local and external, from \"farm to plate\" -including their discrete sets of demands. This requires a clear gender and intersectionality analysis for the different value chain actors. Finally, for the market segment valuation, in addition to the geo-social space information, there needs to be a direct reference from the breeding program objectives to how preferences from different value chain actors are valued and the basic criteria used. Leading on from this, in replacing the block on \"Customer Segment Data\" in the market segment definition (Fig. 5), a new \"Customer Profile Description\" tab was added to the EiB template. The first part of the tab included the \"Customer Profile Description\", which describes the target population as defined by the objectives of the breeding program (Fig. 8). This is followed by a ranking of the \"expected impacts of the breeding program for the target population\". This ranking exercise helps define and value the customer segments, as well as being important in monitoring and evaluating the outcomes and impacts of the products developed by the breeding program. Following the ranking of the \"expected impacts of the breeding program for the target population\", the \"Customer Mapping\" provides more detailed information on each value chain actor generated from the G+ Tools (Fig. 9). The section for each of the value chain actors also includes specific variables related to the breeding program objective. Again, using the example of where a breeding program has a nutrition objective, such variable could be directly related to the micronutrient deficiency being targeted, for example: \"level of stunting in children under 5 y.o.\" for iron biofortification. In addition to identifying the characteristics of the value chain actors, the template also includes a section where plant traits and characteristics demanded by the value chain actor are listed. All the information provided is disaggregated according to gender and other intersecting social variables. However, which value chain actors and what information to include will depend on the objectives of the breeding program. In summary, the second round of adjustments to the EiB framework helps address gender and social differentiation, not only in terms of how gender is being integrated but also how gender is assessed in the evaluation of market segments.The second round of adjustments was piloted by each of the teams to identify further gaps and potential rooms for improvement. Below is a list of the main experiences and comments made by the participants using the adjusted templates (note that the Beans group did not present their experiences), as well as feedback on the adjustments from the EiB.The Sweetpotato group was able to complete most of the sections of the template. As for the ranking of the traits, the group struggled with the fact that existing studies use different approaches when valuing and ranking traits (i.e., there is no standardized method for ranking and scoring). Thus, rather than identifying a specific value, the group ranked the traits in order of importance to men and women. The group summarized by arguing that, while they had found the new template easier to fill, it was likely to be challenging for first-time users.The Cereals and Lentils group had completed the Customer Profile section but noted that the \"do no harm\" section was missing. Importantly, however, working through the template enabled a discussion on the potential existence of gender-related differences among traders, which had not previously been considered. Finally, the group considered some of the breeding program objectives listed as being similar, such as \"increased income\", \"decreased poverty\", and \"increased market opportunities\". The group expressed difficulty in ranking these, which reflected a broader confusion among several of the participants: there was a misconception that the ranking was the responsibility of the multidisciplinary team filling out the template. Rather, the ranking should be evident from the objectives of the breeding program.The Cassava group noted that there should be a distinction also between on-farm and off-farm processors (and not only between on-farm and off-farm consumers).Following the seventh meeting (Fig. 1), each of the piloting groups updated and finalized their baseline case systematization (the first draft was prepared at the beginning of the piloting project). Additionally, each of the teams were asked to review the G+ Customer Profile Tool, the G+ Product Profile Query Tool, and the SOP using both tracked documents and a set of review forms. This allowed the participants to make smaller and bigger suggestions for changes to the Tools and the SOP, along with an explanation of the rationale underlying such revisions.The next subsections summarize some of the overall experiences of the piloting process by the participants, including key learning lessons and positive experiences, as well as the need to address data and process gaps.The Sweetpotato Group. The Sweetptoato group considered the piloting project to be an initial journey into identifying gender gaps in the \"Stage Gate\" process 3 , and in the creation of an information repository. They indicated that lack of sex-disaggregated data and case-specific nature of existing information made application of the G+ Tools challenging, even though they found the Tools easy to use. They considered the flexibility of the piloting process important in customizing the learning curve, and they underscored the importance of working close with breeders for learning, ownership, and uptake of the The gender specialist on the team spoke of how the economists and others on the breeding team had become more gender aware and -responsive. Ultimately, the group found that the G+ Tools had help ensure the inclusion of men's and women's trait preferences in the product profile, and the need to apply an intersectional lens to product profile development. The Cassava Group. The Cassava group noted how the Tools had helped highlight the importance of (i) including all actors in the value chain among the targeted users, and thus their preferences; (ii) considering the gender division of labor and gendered expertise within each value chain node; (iii) and knowing the relative importance of each food product for the target customer segment. The group further found that the G+ Tools had helped emphasize the need to create a clearer picture of the products made by the target population and their relative importance for men and women in terms of, among others, income generation and food security (household use). The Cassava group argued that the G+ Tools could be promoted to donors as a means to help provide a realistic overview of where to invest to achieve the highest impact with regards to breeding for food and nutrition security, increased incomes, and other development outcomes. As such, the G+ Customer Profile and G+ Product Profile can act as a succinct or summarized version of a gap analysis.The Beans Group. The piloting process had demonstrated to the Beans group how gender gaps may influence the development of a product profile. They found that breeders expressed willingness in testing the Tools, but that the Tools need to be simplified, including a clear indication of the stage at which the Tools should be applied. There is furthermore a need to demonstrate the value of the Tools.The group suggested that, to increase chances of acceptance and applicability, the Tools should be linked to the deliverables of other projects within the program or institution. For instance, the Beans group were linking the Tools to the Accelerated Varietal Improvement and Seed Delivery of Legumes Based on these data gaps, the participants made suggestions for existing projects/activities, as well as for new research design, that could help advance current and future work. For the former, it was suggested to link up with the AVISA and PRIMA project. In terms of the latter, it was suggested that new research should include socially/gender inclusive consumer testing in rural and urban areas, as well as inclusive research that goes beyond the binary 'men vs. women' but focusing more on intersectionality.Some of the process gaps, referring to gaps in how the process is organized to develop the product profile, and means to address these were identified as follows:The EiB template should be accompanied by a simple guide that helps users navigate the template.The EiB template needs to be \"workable\": describing the intension rather than a very detailed description to facilitate breeding case specific interpretations.There is need for an overarching framework (basis for EiB template) that provides space for all the required information. This framework should include interdisciplinary discussion steps for filling in the template, as well as validating, weighting, and prioritizing information.There needs to be a space for extensive brainstorming with breeders to get at the bottom of trade-offs, once traits have been analyzed for gender impact.A guide on how to incorporate all the information collected into decision-making processes would be beneficial. Some raised the question of whether reducing social inclusion to a modeled decision-making process is a good approach or whether the decision-making process should be rendered more interactive.A bottom-up approach, which involves practitioners in the development of templates as well as creating synergies between different templates and platforms, may help avoid them feeling confused and irritated as a result of having to deal with too many templates and frames of thinking.There is a danger in using spreadsheets and templates that 'flatten' an otherwise complex and intricate process. As such, an important task is also to make a processual suggestion on how to perceive, collect, and consolidate all the data. It may be better to have one simplified ranking given the inherent interactions between \"do no harm\" and \"positive benefits\".This section lists some general observations and reflections that were made across the eight meetings:Further inspection of a customer segment may reveal smaller and more distinct market segments which in turn can help target traits preferred by women and men. Small, specialized markets should not necessarily be ignored due to low cost-efficiency, as it may represent a growing niche market with future potential. This can be revealed through market-and foresight analysis. The importance of foresight analysis -that takes into consideration potential changes in markets, production systems, demographics, climate and environment, and policy and regulatory condition -was raised several times by participants. One participant argued that, for more specialized markets, such as canning, producers will usually be aware of the market specifications and requirements, and that processors and industry might have the upper hand in determining quality characteristics which are subsequently passed down to producers. However, it was also highlighted that the information flow from processors to producers do not necessarily happen smoothly in many markets the groups work with. Additionally, the Beans group argued that farmers might grow a variety which does not have a market to begin with, but for which a market subsequently develops.It may be necessary to consider the differences between men-managed, women-managed, and jointly managed plots (with respect to, e.g., production level, access to resources, technology adoption rates, etc.), as this can affect trait preferences. There were several discussions on the contentious use of the categories FHH and MHH, and that studies based on such a distinction may not adequately demonstrate intra-household gender dynamics (e.g., in resource allocation and bargaining-and decision-making power, which can have important implications for trait preferences). However, as the G+ Tools use secondary data, it was recognized that data on FHH and MHH must necessarily be used. In many cases, frequencies of traits mentioned in conversations with value chain actors were used or preferred compared to ranking of traits by value chain actors.Most tools do not consider that farmers grow a portfolio of varieties for multiple purposes.For instance, multipurpose use is important in cassava, where farmers/processors do not always know beforehand what they will produce/process, as they may react to fluctuating market prices and other livelihood challenges and opportunities. Accordingly, 'customers' may represent multiple market segments, and/or they may express contrasting preferences for the same trait. As a result, a single product concept will not sufficiently cover all their needs. This speaks in favor having the customer profile as the initial step in product profile development. Furthermore, this may have implications for collecting data on variety and trait preferences, as the timing of data collection may result in differences in responses.It is important to remember that the EiB framework and G+ Tools are only meant to inform decision-making by presenting information in a clear, consistent, and tangible way. The actual decision-making power lays in the hands of the multidisciplinary team.The G+ Tools are meant to be adaptable to any breeding program, regardless of whether they adhere to the EiB framework or not. Indeed, the idea behind the G+ Tools is not to provide a blueprint that is to be followed slavishly, but rather to be a source of inspiration on how to make the breeding process more gender responsive and socially inclusive. Encouragingly, the piloting demonstrated the flexibility and adaptability of the G+ Tools. It was suggested that one could develop one generic, simplified, and highly adaptable version of the Tools, and another version more aligned to the EiB product profile development framework. Results from the \"do no harm\" analysis may be important also in informing policy-and decision-makers, such as when a plant trait may potentially lead to the loss of jobs.One suggestion was to create a map of all traits in order to identify crosscutting needs among certain groups of clients which could be useful in informing decision-making within an interdisciplinary team.It was suggested that 'Gender' and social inclusion could become a module of its own in the EiB.It is important to consider and build the gender research capacity in national breeding programs, also with respect to the use of the G+ Tools. For instance, the role of the CGIAR is often to breed and provide elite lines to NARS, which are subsequently crossed with locally adapted varieties. As such, it is important to create awareness of the results generated using the G+ Tools, as well as building capacity in using the Tools, so that gender-relevant traits which have been selected for in elite lines are not later selected against (or, alternatively, that harmful traits that have been selected against in elite lines are selected for when crossed with local varieties).In addition to the eight progress meetings, a few group members made other presentations or interacted in other forums to showcase the findings from the piloting process. The working group felt a need to further showcase the Tools and to continue the conversations around the definition of market segments and product profiles through different media, such as via webinars, white papers, etc. Furthermore, it became clear throughout the piloting period that many partnerships are needed to move from the piloting phase to scaling the use of the tools to inform breeding programs throughout the CGIAR and beyond. This section addresses these aspects.EiB Contributor Meeting (global/digital, 10 th -12 th November 2020): The EiB Contributor Meeting is organized annually by the EiB in which members of the CGIAR, national programs, universities, funders, the private sectors, and other stakeholders are invited to discuss previous experiences and next steps in optimizing breeding programs. Ahead of the meeting, interested parties could submit an application to present their \"Stories of Excellence\". This offered a chance to showcase some of the results of the piloting to the wider breeding community.The selection process was based on a voting system, where participants voted on their preferred \"Stories of Excellence\". In the end, the GBI did not receive enough votes. However, one of the contributors to pilot project was selected to share on the NextGen cassava experience. She presented the two Tools and further highlighted how the working group had identified a missing and critical piece in the EiB product profile development framework: the need to describe the social characteristics of the potential customers (i.e., the \"customer profile\") as part of market segmentation and product profile development. She further acknowledged the EiB for supporting this work, hoping to see continued support in the future. The presentation was very well received by the wider community, including the donors and the head of EiB.Additionally, many of the participants in the pilot project were present throughout the EiB Contributor Meeting, initiating and engaging in discussions on, among others, the importance of social inclusivity and gender intentionality. The EiB representative who had presented the EiB framework to the working group also made a presentation during the Contributor Meeting where he mentioned that they were engaging with the GBI. Following the presentation, there was an important discussion on the role of social scientists and the social sciences, such as when characterizing market segments and designing product profiles.RTB Hackathon (global/digital, 18 th -19 th November 2020): In close engagement with the EiB, the RTB breeding programs shared experiences on product profile development. Several social scientists and gender specialists, including some of the members of the gender and breeding working group, attended the hackathon. They promoted the work of the GBI, in particular the need to include social issues and a customer profile in market segmentation and product profile development.The GREAT Symposium (global/digital, 23 rd -24 th November 2020): The symposium showcased some of the achievements of the Gender-Responsive Researchers Equipped for Agricultural Transformation (GREAT) (Cornell University/Makerere University), including the work of some of their fellows. One of the members of the gender and breeding working group presented work on beans in Uganda, as well as mentioning some insights gained from the G+ Tools piloting project.GENDER Platform Planning meeting (global/digital, 7 th , 9 th and 16 th of December, 2020): The series of meetings are meant to gather information from gender researchers across the CGIAR on topics to be addressed in the '\"Methods\" module of the GENDER Platform. This provides an opportunity to present the work of the GBI, including identifying potential linkages with other topics, working groups, and projects. For instance, the many data gaps that the piloting project has helped identify may serve as a basis for linking up to other groups to establish ways of filling these gaps (e.g., the group working on labor dynamics), which will benefit gender responsive agricultural research and development more broadly (not just breeding). Encouragingly, while the details are still to be determined, the GENDER Platform has a Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation-funded project until 2022 that includes a component on gender and breeding.A webinar needs to be arranged through the GENDER Platform or RTB, where breeders, economists, and others can learn more about the Tools, the piloting project, and the work of the GBI.A white paper that unpacks three or more different strands of ideas that emerged over the course of the piloting could be produced. These were identified by one participant as being: (i) gender and intersectionality, (ii) methodology, (iii) specialized markets. Such a white paper could be done together with the EiB to further ensure that conversations occurring within the Gender and Breeding Group, the EiB, and AbacusBio are on the same page and moving in the same direction.A policy brief that addresses the need for a structural management change and commitment in the way gender work is funded -in which a portion of the breeding programs' budget is earmarked for gender research, thus making individual researcher less reliable on having to successfully apply for grants -could be created.A series of papers on both the individual cases authored by the each of the piloting teams, as well as a joint paper on the overall piloting experience and the Tools (multi-authored), could be published.CGIAR programs or projects:The GENDER Platform. The GENDER Platform is CGIAR's new platform on gender. Through its three modules -evidence, methods, and alliances -the Platform will work across the CGIAR and beyond to put gender at the heart of agricultural research for development. As such, the GENDER Platform will be a key partner of the GBI in the years to come. IFPRI. Together with Oxford Poverty and the Human Development Initiative, IFPRI has developed among others the Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI). WEAI is a tool for measuring women's empowerment in agriculture and comes in multiple versions, including the Project WEAI (Pro-WEAI) which measures women's empowerment as it relates to specific projects, and the WEAI for Value Chains (WEAI4VC). The WEAI Resource Center contains data on empowerment, agency, and inclusion of women in several countries, which can be an important source of information for users of the G+ Tools.The 'One CGIAR' working group. Each center is represented in the 'One CGIAR' working group, in which the new organizational structure and governance of the CGIAR is discussed. This represent an opportunity for the GBI to present its work at higher organizational levels. CGIAR Platform on Big Data in Agriculture. The Platform on Big Data in Agriculture is pivotal in generating data and knowledge-sharing across the CGIAR. As such, a partnership between the Platform and the GBI could be mutually advantageous in terms of identifying and filling data gaps.CGIAR \"Crops to End Hunger\" (CtEH). Among the goals of the CtEH is to gain greater awareness of traits preferred by both men and women for inclusion in product profiles. As such, there is potential for fruitful exchanges between the initiative and the GBI, including sharing of results generated using the G+ Tools.• CIRAD France/RTBfoods. The CIRAD-led project RTBfoods aims to identify quality traits of importance to adoption of new roots, tubers, and banana varieties in Benin, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Nigeria and Uganda. The project includes several CGIAR and national partners. Seeing as the G+ Tools piloting project has highlighted the importance of, but lack of information on, quality traits for adoption, the two initiatives can benefit from cooperating in promoting this work further.• NARS. Cooperating with national partners, including building gender research capacity, will be essential in the successful widespread dissemination of the Tools.• Demand led Breeding Group (DLB). The DLB includes key African partners across the continent, including Alliance Bioversity-PABRA, and is supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, the Crawford Fund, and the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable Agriculture. The group is committed to promoting the need for demand-led breeding, among others through training of graduate students. Thus, engaging with this group can also be an important entry point not only into national research institutes, but also into the university sector. Indeed, as the next generation of social and natural scientists, including gender specialists and crop breeders, are being trained and educated, it is important to ensure that they become cognizant of the available tools and methods for addressing gender and social inclusion in agricultural research and development.As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, what was meant to be a physical workshop organized in September of year 2020 turned into a series of digital meetings and other types of interactions expanding over several months. This was not an easy undertaking and required significant time and effort on part of the organizers and participants. While the digital format offered challenges in terms of managerial and technical issues, it nevertheless also offered advantages, such as making the piloting more accessible to a diverse team of people from across the globe.By generating feedback on the G+ Tools and their SOP, the piloting project has been pivotal in advancing towards an alpha version of the Tools, which is meant to be released in 2021. Additionally, the piloting has helped identify critical gaps in the EiB framework. Through two main rounds of adjustments, the GBI made important suggestions for improving the social inclusiveness and gender responsiveness of the EiB product profile development process, most notably by emphasizing the human face of breeding: the definition of market segments and product profiles should be less about the plants, crop traits, and 'mega-environments', and more about the people -gender and social inclusion should be at the heart of breeding. Thus, the starting point should be the consumer personas, addressing in particular those who have been missed by breeding programs or are not currently served by available varieties.Encouragingly, the EiB is currently considering including quality traits (e.g., \"aroma\") among the components making up the market segment definition, as well as a wider range of sex-disaggregated value chain actors (i.e., women and men \"processors\" and \"consumers\"). Furthermore, there are ongoing conversations on how to refine and where to incorporate the customer profile description in EiB product profile development framework, along with results generated using the G+ Product Profile Query Tool.The piloting teams further found that the G+ Tools helped facilitate insightful and constructive discussions with breeders and economists on the importance of being gender responsive, including the potential for harmful and beneficial effects of traits on men and women, and how being socially inclusive can lead to increased variety turnover rates. Furthermore, the piloting process has been important in highlighting the need to give voice and power to gender researchers in developing, monitoring, and evaluating market segmentation and product profiles.Many participants felt that the piloting project was only the beginning -a first, essential step towards the goal of rendering breeding programs gender responsive. For most, the G+ Tools helped identify key information gaps that should be communicated to higher management levels, donors, and other partners: the data gaps suggest the need to reallocate effort and budgets away from ex post adoption studies and towards understanding, ex ante, what the customer landscape looks like.the evidence table with variables according to the breeding objectives of the respective breeding program). The outcome of the targeting process is the customer profile. 3. Profiling, which analyzes the who that was identified during targeting, including their characteristics and preferences, in order to build the G+ Customer Profile description The G+ Product Profile Query Tool consist of three key steps:1. Information, meaning gathering information and identifying data gaps related to gender gaps and gendered trait preferences in the target segment. 2. Analysis, which entails analyzing the information gathered in step 1 using the gender gap analysis template and the positive and negative trait preferences template. The gender gap analysis template consists of four key gender themes that have been identified as important across several crops and contexts. However, the working groups may identify other areas that can be added to the template (e.g., leisure/time component). 3. Scoring, which uses the \"Do No Harm\" and \"Positive Benefits\" analyses to score each trait (Fig. 11). The output of this process will be used to inform the novel or existing product profile.  ","tokenCount":"9787"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4654de5ca7c63236c81764800f8bb8f7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/915d7453-7b05-421a-9f32-403d7397694e/retrieve","id":"2099385104"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"61fddc64-b04c-447e-bda5-0619a93c2860","pagecount":"94","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-Breed composition of sheep and goat populations (2002/03-2012/13) Small ruminant carcass yield (kg)by country (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) Table 8. Daily per capita calorie intake and share (%) by food group and location Table 9.Annual per capita meat consumption (grams) by type of meat and location of consumers (1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) Table 10. Per capita expenditures for meat and selected other items (2010 prices)Table 11. Annual capacity of abattoirs to export sheep and goat carcasses (t)Table 12. Trends in live animal and meat exports (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012) Table 13. Number of live animals exported (2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012) Table 14. Value of live animals exports (2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(million USD)               Ethiopia covers 1.13 million square km with relatively good climatic conditions for crop and livestock production. Agriculture provides sustenance for more than 80% of the population and accounts for 41% of GDP and 83% of total exports (NBE 2011). The socio-economic significance of livestock in the highland mixed crop-livestock and lowland pastoral systems is widely recognized. The livestock sector is a source of draught power, nutritionally rich foods, fertilizer, industrial raw materials and foreign currency, to name a few. It also plays several other important social, cultural and economic roles difficult to quantify monetarily. In fact, livestock rearing is one of the few viable economic activities in pastoral areas, while highland crop cultivation would be nearly impossible without draught power. Hence, livestock play a significant role in household and government strategies to alleviate poverty. Overall, based on 2008/09 data, the livestock sector contributes up to 25% of agricultural GDP (45% if the value of ploughing services is accounted for) and 11% (23% if cross border trade is fully accounted) of total Ethiopian foreign exchange earnings (Behnke and Fitaweke 2011).The total livestock population in Ethiopia in 2012 was estimated at 54 million cattle, 25.5 million sheep and 24.1 million goats (CSA 2013), which places Ethiopia first in Africa and ninth in the world in terms of total stock. The high stock number, however, is not leading to higher exports or export earnings for live animals or meat. Ethiopia's annual exports of cattle and sheep meat were valued at USD 79.13 million in 2012 (ECRA 2012), while Botswana with a much lower stock number was able to reach USD 150 million export earnings from beef alone (FAO 2012).In Ethiopia, cattle are reared primarily for draught power and milk production. The low maintenance cost of livestock in the prevailing production systems and the secondary importance of meat in smallholder production strategies, to a lesser extent, explain the low off-take rate. In the absence of climate shock, pastoralists' long-term herd building objectives and short-term consumption needs are the primary factors influencing the decision to destock. The determination of what and how much to sell should balance these two seemingly contradictory objectives (Barrett et al. 2004). About 64% of the cattle herd is between three and 10 years and 36% are females (CSA 2013). Small ruminants, however, are raised and sold for income and occasionally for household consumption. Short-and longterm financial obligations are the primary factors that shape evolution of livestock production systems (Solomon et al. 2010) and markets play a minimal role in this paradigm. Sheep and goat production in Ethiopia is mainly carried out by smallholder farmers and pastoralists. The population of sheep and goats has steadily increased over the years.Despite its economic significance, investments in modern animal husbandry are limited, especially in the pastoral areas that are the sources of most animals destined for export markets (Belachew and Jemberu 2003). Some noticeable gains were made following liberalization of the Ethiopian economy and increased presence of the private sector in the meat processing industry with construction of export abattoirs. Performance in livestock and livestock products had been poor, however, compared to countries such as Kenya for dairy or Botswana for meat. Value addition in the livestock sector is limited and exports remain dominated by live animals, thus hampering the sector's potential to ease high unemployment in rural and urban areas.Inadequate veterinary services, feed shortages, poor infrastructure, insufficient financial services and low levels of technical inputs are well documented in the Ethiopian livestock sector (Solomon et al. 2010;Aklilu 2008). Some of the few achievements noted in the export markets are primarily the result of institutional support such as the Meat Development Enterprise and Livestock Marketing Authority. There is evidence that livestock exports tend to rise and fall as these institutions are created and phased out. It has been difficult to sustain any gains without them. Aklilu (2008) attributed these tendencies to the delayed take over by the private sector following phasing out of these projects.Biomass availability relative to current stock is becoming a major constraint for livestock development. It is estimated that 99% of smallholders rely on natural pasture to feed their stock (CSA 2009). Alemayehu (2006) estimated that, depending on production systems and regions, between 80 and 90% of the feed utilized by livestock come from pastures and 10-15% from crop residues. This implies that the livestock population would in general remain undernourished unless adequate targeted intervention strategies capable of reversing this trend were found.The Ethiopian economy has achieved a 10.5% average growth rate over the last five years (IMF 2013). The economy has also exhibited some resiliency in these times of slow recovery noted in the world economy, managing 8% between 2010 and 2011, especially for one that relies on foreign investments and remittances to finance its development.The rise in income, combined with rapid growth of Addis Ababa and other major cities, are the primarily factors driving domestic demand for meat and dairy products, which is expected to continue to grow. Expected changes in the demand for livestock products in general and small ruminant meat in particular would also be qualitative, with an increased demand for quality as well as value-added products such as special meat cuts, hence inducing further changes in livestock product procurement systems.Factors such as suitable agro-ecology for livestock production, genetically well-adapted livestock resources, a growing domestic market and geographic proximity to growing export markets illustrate the possibility for a thriving livestock sector in Ethiopia. It would require identifying constraints and applying remedies along the entire value chain, however, for the livestock sector to fully play its role as a pathway for development. This study addresses the current situation of the Ethiopian livestock sector. It is based on desk reviews, secondary data and primary data collected through key informant interviews. The study also applies a simulation model to generate a medium-term outlook of the small ruminant sector if everything stays the same. A detailed description of the model is presented in Appendix 1.The Ethiopian small ruminant population is almost entirely indigenous breeds. A very small portion of the sheep population is represented by exotic breeds (Table 1). The genetic characteristics of the Ethiopian sheep and goat populations are the results of interactions between historical patterns of migration and geographic isolation and interbreeding, while their phenotypic traits are primarily determined by ecological patterns (Solomon et al. 2010). Solomon et al. (2007) regrouped sheep breeds into six categories-short-fat-tailed, Washera; thin-tailed, long-fattailed, Bonga; and fat-rumped breeds, encompassing nine subbreeds, Simien and Sekota for the short-fat-tailed group; Washerea, Gumuz for the thin-tailed; Horro and Arsi for the long-fat-tailed; and Bonga for the Bonga group. For goats, Tesfaye (2004) identified eight separate genetic entities for goats associated to their genetic dispersion-Arsi-Bale, Gumuz, Keffa, Woyto-Guji, Abergale, Afar, highland goats and Hararghe goats. A recent study by Hassen et al. (2012) identified two major groups-the first with the Abergale goat and the second regrouping the Agew, Gumuz, Bati, Begia-Medir and central Abergale goats. The study confirms a close relationship between these breeds and suggests uncontrolled breeding, which is favoured by free movements of animals as the main facilitating factor. All these breeds may well be classified into fat-and thin-tailed groups. Small ruminants are produced under two major production systems-the sedentary mixed crop-livestock production system and the nomadic pastoral or agropastoral production system (Alemayehu 2006). The former is based on limited communal and/or private grazing areas, industrial by-products, crop residues, cultivated forage and naturally grown bushes and shrubs. The pastoral production system is based on extensive communal grazing, while agropastoralists are characterized by a combination of pastoral and mixed crop-livestock systems. According to the traditional classification of livestock production systems, there are two distinct areas in the Ethiopian livestock production system. Highland areas more than 1500 metres above sea level (masl) cover 40% of the country, primarily the regions of Tigray, Amhara and parts of Oromia and SNNPRS.Though the exact number is not known for various reasons, 40% of goats, 40% of sheep, 20% of cattle and 100% of the camel population are concentrated in the lowland pastoral and agropastoral areas (Asfaw and Jabbar 2008). Cattle and sheep are the major livestock in highland areas,while camels and goats are the prominent domestic animals in the pastoral lowlands (Ayele et al. 2003). The major pastoral lowland areas are located in four regional states-Somali, part of Oromia, Afar and part of SNNPRS. The pastoral areas are the major sources of livestock for the export market.Forty-seven percent of sheep and 56% of goats are below two years of age, 53% of the sheep and 45% of the goats are more than two years old, 27% of sheep and 25% of goats are under six months and 10% of sheep and 12% of goats are aged between six months and one year (Table 2). The preference for any specific breed is normally dictated by the specific attributes buyers seek. For instance, some lowland breeds may be preferred because of carcass yield, but other breeds may be sought by consumers because of their specific taste, skin quality, milk yield (for goats), or quantity and quality of their wool. Fifty-one percent of sheep and 43% of goats are kept for breeding. Around 3% of the sheep and goats are utilized for meat. While the reproduction parameters of Ethiopian sheep and goat breeds are similar to those of other breeds in sub-Saharan Africa, 17.5-16.4 months for age at first parturition, 230-437 days for lambing and kidding intervals and 1.0-1.5 for litter size (Otte and Chilunda 2002), the production parameters are quite different. They range from a daily growth rate of 100 grams before weaning to less than 50 grams afterwards, with an average slaughter weight at about 18-20 kg for sheep and 16-18 kg for goats, yielding a carcass dressing of about 10 kg (Belete 2009).More than 90% of meat from sheep and goats is from the male herd. This meat is destined for consumption in Addis Ababa and other large urban centres or for export following complex, intricate and long marketing channels. Many Ethiopian households also procure live small ruminants for slaughter during festivals or for family consumption as well.The sheep and goat herd build-up depends on factors that contribute to the inflow of animals such as births, purchases and gifts and outflows such as sales and deaths (due to diseases and other reasons). As indicated in Table 3, producers obtain most of their animals through births on their farms. A small portion of the herd comes from purchases and gifts. Sheep are more often purchased than goats. There are four outlets for sheep and goat outflow-sales, slaughter, death and offerings. Sales and deaths are the two most important for sheep and goat producers. It is estimated that producers lose up to 23% of their herds by deaths through diseases, predation and other sources (CSA 2004(CSA to 2013)). The number of animals lost through death almost equals the number sold by producers, calling for proper attention to animal health issues.Ethiopia's cattle stock reached 51 million in 2010 and likely reached 54 million in 2013 based on our projection. It is expected to grow at an average of 1.74% per year over the next 10 years, reaching 57 million by the end of 2016, 61 million by 2020 and 65 million by the end of 2023 (Figure 1). The projected number of new-born calves is based on the number of mature females. The projected new-born calves is relatively stable, hovering around 7 million/year, with an estimated average growth rate of 1.95% per year over the next 10 years. Source: Historical data from CSA and FAO and projected data from simulation.There was a sharp increase in the number of both sheep and goats between 2003 and 2012 (Figures 2 and 3), which could be attributed to increased demand by both domestic and export markets. This period also coincides with increased export earnings from live animals and meat. The internal demand for meat also increased during this period mainly because of population growth and increased income of the population in general. Historically, there was a decline in the number of sheep and goats during the 1970-1979 decade by 0.39 and 0.23%, respectively, which was followed by a slight increase (0.36 and 0.40%, respectively) during the 1980-1989 decade. As a result, total sheep and goat stock remained unchanged during these two decades. A sharp decline followed in the 1990-1999 decade (7.1% for sheep and 7.5% for goats), which was recovered in the 2000-2009 decade with an increase of 12.5% for sheep and 17.3% for goats, which more than compensated for the decline during the preceding decade.   Sources: Historical data from CSA and FAO and projected data from simulation.Regional distribution, herd size and ownershipThe regional distribution of livestock provides insights about where efforts may be needed for livestock value chain development. The main sheep-and goat-producing regions are Amhara (35% sheep and 21% goats), Oromia (34% sheep and 31% goats), SNNPRS (16.2% sheep and 16.3% goats) and Tigray (5.42% sheep and 13.26% goats). This is based on a CSA 2012/2013 livestock sample survey, which does not include the major pastoral areas in Afar (three of five zones) and Somali (six of nine zones) regional states. These two regions (Afar and Somali) and the Borena zone of Oromia regional state are the major pastoral areas of the country that supply sheep, goats, cattle and camels to the export market.Understanding holding size at the household level could help develop targeted interventions on behalf of smallholder farmers and pastoralists. Holding size also determines household responsiveness to price incentives. There is a variation in size of holding of small ruminants between production systems, with larger herd size for pastoralists relative to highland farmers. As reported by Asfaw et al. (2011), more than 60% of smallholder sedentary farmers do not own sheep and more than 70% do not own goats. They also reported that more than 80% of Borana pastoralists do not own sheep and more than 58% of them do not own goats. Holding size at the household level is very small despite Ethiopia's large stock numbers. More than 62% of households own fewer than six sheep and more than 72% of households own fewer than six goats. The common holding is two sheep or two goats. Households may own both sheep and goats (Table 4).Gender matters with respect to land and livestock ownership and the position of men and women in decision making related to livestock. Livestock production systems are undergoing profound changes. Some of these changes are exogenously induced and include a changing policy environment with the rise of a market economy and government emphasis on exports. These changes also have endogenous origins. The transition from livestock keepers to crop producers, the increased prevalence of female-headed households and access to better technology and support systems are leading to changes in livelihoods (van Hoeve and van Koppen 2006). The realignment of livelihood costs are affecting asset ownership structure, asset management and the intra-household decision making process.In central and northern highlands such as Amhara, Tigray and parts of Oromia and SNNPRS, both the husband and the wife own livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, equines and honey bees (MoA 2007a). In the event of divorce, the wife is entitled to half of the stock. Within the household, poultry is owned by women and children. Women are involved in small economic activities such as petty trade and weaving and can use the money to buy livestock that will belong to them. In pastoral areas, men own cattle, camels, donkeys and small ruminants, but women do not, except those who are household heads. The sale of cattle, sheep, goats and equines by households is carried out by husbands. In some cases women/wives sell these animals. Women are mostly involved in selling sheep and goats and attending the home herds. Average holding size of sheep and goats varies by region and production systems (Table 5). House holding size for sheep is higher in Somali region, followed by Afar and Gambella regions. For goats, holding size is higher in Afar, followed by Somali and Dire Dawa regions. The highland regions such as Amhara, SNNPRS and Oromia have smaller average herd size per household relative to the pastoral areas.   Only 10% of sheep and goats aged two years and above are slaughtered. This could be the category of animals that issued especially for domestic markets. It includes barren and aged ewes and castrated/uncastrated, fattened, matured male sheep/goats that are usually used for domestic markets. Sheep and goats between six months and two years are an important source of meat for both domestic and export markets. The export market targets young male sheep and goats within these categories.    Sources: Historical data from CSA and FAO and projected data from simulation.Slaughter volume and carcass yield determine meat production. Carcass yield has been historically flat for cattle, sheep and goats and is projected to remain so in the future. Hence, the expected growth in meat production will come from growth in slaughter volume. One of the major challenges of Ethiopian sheep and goat production systems is low carcass yield. Table 7 compares the carcass weight of Ethiopian sheep and goats with that of neighbouring countries in East Africa and other less-developed countries. The average carcass weight of Ethiopian sheep and goats is the lowest relative to all countries and the world average, which could be because of poor genetic performance, poor animal husbandry practices, or a combination.For cattle meat (Figure 7), the historical production high was in 2002 at 352,000 t. This was followed by a drop in production in 2003 to 338,000 t but has been trending up; reaching 404,000 t in 2010. It is expected to be at 471,000 t by the end of 2013. Production is expected to continue its upward trend with an average growth rate of 3.6% per year, reaching 528,000 t in 2016, 604,000 t in 2020 and 676,000 t by 2023. Slaughter volume is expected to increase for production to increase and total consumption is expected to mimic total production in its evolution as long as beef exports stay relatively insignificant as they have over the last five years. Goat meat production grew by an average of 2%/year between 2005 and 2011, reaching 51,000 t in 2011 (Figure 9). Carcass yield is expected to revert to its historical levels, hovering around 8.4 kg/animal. Thus, goat meat production is expected to grow annually by 4% on average for the 2012-2016 period, reaching 61,000 t in 2016 as a result of strong demand for goat meat in the domestic and export markets. Source: Historical data from CSA and FAO and projected data from simulation.Carcass yield is usually determined by genetics, feed and health (more on these later). The historical low carcass yield per animal for sheep and goats in Ethiopia could be attributed to poor selection practices to improve the genetic performance of local breeds, as well as poor feeding, healthcare and other management practices. Efforts to improve selection of breeding stock, feeding, animal health services and management practices to improve the feed conversion ratio and carcass weight at slaughter age could be one intervention option. Source: Historical data from CSA and FAO and projected data from simulation.Smallholder farmers produce sheep and goats mainly as sources of income to meet urgent cash needs. They also raise small ruminants for meat, manure and occasionally milk. Households sometimes slaughter sheep and goats for their own consumption, depending on their wealth status (Legese et al. 2008;Legese and Hordofa 2011;Duguma et al. 2012). This means that consumption of small ruminant meat by households is not a common practice because they usually sell their sheep and goats. Table 8 presents the daily per capita calorie intake by food groups in Ethiopia during 1995 and 1999. The major sources of calories during these periods are cereals followed by potatoes, stems and other tubers and pulses. Meat as a whole constituted only 0.8% of the per capita daily calorie intake in 1999-2000. However, this varies between urban (0.6%) and rural (2.3%) consumers. It is important to point out that the contribution of meat to the overall diet has increased by 29% between the two periods from 14 calories to 18 calories. It has significantly increased (by 60%) for rural consumers and slightly decreased by (-3.4%) for urban consumers.Annual per capita meat consumption (Table 9) in 1999 was 3.3 kg. This is a lower figure than historic accounts such as FAO, which estimates per capita beef consumption at 4.6 kg. This may be due to consumption sourced from group slaughters not fully unaccounted for in the FAO statistics or for other reasons, but in any case it is substantially higher for urban consumers than for their rural counterparts. It has increased by 20% at the national level and by 37% for rural consumers and has declined by 2% for urban consumers (CSA 1996 and2000). Beef constitutes 63% of the total annual meat consumption followed by mutton (17.5%) and goat meat (11.7%). The evolution of beef, mutton and goat meat in the domestic market provides some insights for the growth potential of the domestic market and competitiveness of the export market relative to the domestic market. The competitiveness of these commodities in the export market is also related to level of domestic demand because the latter affects the price of live animals in domestic markets. There was a dramatic increase in the per capita consumption of mutton between 1995 and 1999/2000 by 138% while beef and goat meat consumption increased by 21% and 7%, respectively. Further analysis of the difference between rural and urban consumers reveals that the per capita consumption of beef, mutton and goat meat has increased by 39%, 201% and 137%, respectively.  Household meat consumption is sourced from informal slaughter in the backyard and through formal avenues such as abattoirs and official slaughter houses. The Ministry of Agriculture estimates that close to 80% of beef and 90% of mutton and goat meat is sourced from backyard slaughter. Ahmed (2000) indicated that 50-60% of all slaughter is conducted informally. These estimates were based on the collection of hides and skins. Hence, the FAO and CSA data used for simulation studies likely include consumption from both formal and informal slaughter.Ethiopia's per capita beef consumption is expected to hover around 5 kg/year, higher than its historical average. Beef consumption is expected to grow to 465,000 t in 2015. Per capita consumption of mutton is anticipated to hover around 0.78 kg/year but would probably be around 1.15 kg/year if all consumption sourced from backyard slaughtering were accounted for. The projections indicate that total sheep meat consumption is expected to reach 971,000 t by the end of 2013 and grow at an average annual rate of 2%, reaching 104,600 t by 2016, 112,900 t by 2020 and 121,100 t by 2023. Based on these figures, it is expected that on average close to 11 million sheep will be slaughtered annually for consumption in Ethiopia over the next 10 years, with backyard slaughtering accounting for a significant share of total slaughter. Similar findings are obtained for goat meat consumption, where per capita consumption from formal and informal slaughtering is expected to be around 1.07 kg/year,with a significant portion from informal sources. Goat meat consumption is expected to grow on average by 4.3%/year, leading to 568,000 t in 2016, 687,000 t in 2020 and 778,000 t by 2023, with a significant contribution from informal slaughter.Annual per capita expenditures for food and non-food items in 1999 are presented in Table 10. Expenditures for food items were 63% of the total per capita annual expenditures, which is similar for rural and urban households.Expenditures for cereals have the highest share (21%) of annual per capita food expenditures, followed by restaurants, cafés and hotels (17%) and meat (10%). Expenditures for meat are higher for urban consumers (10%) relative to that of the rural consumers (5%). The share of restaurants, cafés and hotels seems to be high by developing country standards.Meat and live animal export performance Ethiopia has seven export abattoirs that are currently exporting meat to the Middle East and African countries such as Angola, Comoros Islands and Togo. However, except for the two recently opened abattoirs, Abergale and Ashraf, already-existing abattoirs are exporting only chilled small ruminant carcasses. This is because they do not have the capacity to debone and export frozen beef. Moreover, they could not become competitive in exporting beef carcasses given a very high demand for meat in domestic markets that raises the price of slaughter animals.Looking into the capacity of already-existing export abattoirs and their actual performance during the last six years provides insights about the nature of the supply of slaughter animals (sheep and goats) to the export market. Most of the export abattoirs are operating at less than 40% of their capacity (Table 11). They attribute this to a shortage of animals ready for slaughter and explain that animals of export quality are not available in the market. However, past studies (Legese et al. 2008) reveal that other factors such as the purchasing system of export abattoirs to be the main causes of the supply shortage. Most export abattoirs buy animals at the factory gate and their price is not attractive enough to get animals of the required quality. Note: These are the most recent data on consumer expenditures that were available to us. A recent survey was conducted but the data were not available to the public when the study was being implemented.However, some abattoirs such as Luna provide premium prices for traders that collect thousands of animals per week. Luna also provides trucks for transportation of animals at cost. The performance of this abattoir relative to the others indicates that the supply of animals could be increased by attractive prices and other incentives for producers and traders. An assessment made by the Ministry of Agriculture in 2009 also attributed the supply shortage to the low price that export abattoirs are paying for slaughter animals. In some places, farmers/pastoralists are not willing to sell to traders that are collecting animals for export abattoirs because they depress the price. This has been observed in the Abergale area where cooperatives and traders who signed supply contracts with the Abergale export abattoir could not supply animals as specified in the contract, mainly because the low prices paid by the abattoir were not acceptable to producers. This observation certainly contradicts the existence of a supply gap that could be beneficial to smallholder farmers. Recently established abattoirs are built with better capacity for beef slaughter, deboning, cutting, vacuum packing and exporting frozen beef. These export abattoirs, however, are too far from pastoral areas to obtain a sustainable supply of price-competitive slaughter animals. The cost of transportation from pastoral areas to these locations (Bahir Dar and Mekele) erodes the competitiveness of products processed through these abattoirs. As a result, Abergale export abattoir that started exporting frozen beef in 2009 to Angola and Comoros could not sustain its operations because of competitiveness issues and stopped its activities in early 2012. Ashraf did not start operation, except some test slaughters. Additional bigger slaughterhouse projects are expected to be implemented in the near future to meet expectations of the Ethiopian Government for its Growth and Transformation Plan to export 111,000 t of meat in 2015 valued at USD 400 million, which seems overly ambitious judging by the current performance of existing export abattoirs and the reluctance of the new companies to actively engage exports.Earnings from animal exports (meat and live animals) during the period 2000 to 2012 increased from USD 2 million in 2000 to more than USD 200 million each year from 2010 (Table 12). Earnings from live cattle exports have been the highest over the last six years. Although sheep numbers were second, their value was lower than that of camels in most of years. Goat exports yielded the lowest earnings. The largest number of animals is exported to KSA, followed by UAE (Table 13). KSA is importing live sheep from Ethiopia mainly for sacrifices during the Hajj, a one-time event during the year and may involve highland sheep if air transport is possible. Egypt is also a major market for live camels and cattle, but has been a volatile market for Ethiopia over the years. Sudan, Somalia, Djibouti and Yemen are also formally importing substantial number of animals from Ethiopia, mainly for re-export to other Middle East countries. Significant yet informal cross border trade with Somalia and Kenya is often not adequately accounted for. Somalia pays the most money for live animals, followed by Egypt, UAE and Sudan, while KSA is seventh (Table 14). Somalia, Sudan and others are mainly importing cattle, while KSA is importing sheep and there is a considerable price difference.Similar to live animal exports, the value of exported meat that was less than USD 2 million in 2000 exceeded USD 63 million in 2010. The value of exported meat increased over the period under review, except in 2007 (Table 15). The decline in volume and value of exported meat is mainly attributable to an import ban imposed by UAE for nine months in 2007 in association with Rift Valley Fever in some parts of the East African countries, but without any grounds for its occurrence in Ethiopia. Not all importing countries imposed a ban on Ethiopian meat during that period. The export volume revived and grew by 11.8% during 2007, mainly because the import ban imposed by UAE was lifted after a series of negotiations. Since 2007, meat exports continuously increased, reaching a record level of 17,700 t in 2011, but both the volume and value of meat exported in 2012 declined by 13.3% and 6.3%, respectively. One reason for the decline was closure of the Abergale export abattoir, mainly because it was not competitive given a very high demand for highland cattle that are needed both for traction and meat. Another important reason was the overvalued domestic currency relative to the U.S. dollar. At the current rate, export abattoirs are not competitive in the beef export market because the domestic price of meat is higher than what the export market is paying. The share of beef in total meat production is about 77%; whereas that of small ruminants is 20%, yet 77% of the meat exported during 2005 to 2011 was chilled small ruminant carcasses, while beef exports during this period were only 14% of total meat exports. Small ruminants contributed 86% of the total value of meat exports (Table 15). It is important to note that Ethiopia is exporting small ruminant carcasses with no further processing or cutting that would add value to the products (Table 15). Lack of motivation from exporters is viewed as the major impediment to developing new products and an effective strategy to develop markets for new products.  Program (2005Program ( -2010)). Most major importing countries import frozen and chilled small ruminant carcasses and cuts. However, Ethiopian meat exporters have never attempted to export small ruminant meat cuts, although the demand exists. The lowland areas are the primary source of animals destined for exports, for two important reasons-the rate of weight gain in feedlots and the high competition due to high meat demand in the highlands (Legese et al. 2008). The controversial issue of meat darkening that used to be associated with highland sheep and goats is now overcome by the export abattoirs. Export abattoirs were associating meat darkening with origin of the animal; however, the reason behind fast darkening of meat is lack of body fat cover rather than origin of the animal or other reasons (Dugumaet al. 2012). Carcasses of emaciated and skinny animals darken more quickly than those of well-conditioned animals. Thus export abattoirs are managing meat colour through proper chilling and selection of animals with good body condition and are buying small ruminants from both the highlands and lowlands. The major problem with the highland animals is the degree of competition between domestic consumers and export market operators. The demand for highland small ruminants by highlanders is very high. The competition between domestic consumers and traders buying for export markets raises prices, leading export abattoirs to cede highland markets during religious festivals such as Christmas, Easter and Ramadan, when the domestic demand is very high.  2002 and 2008) show that about 1.7 million live animals are informally exported each year (Table 18). These animals are sourced from different regional states and cross borders informally to different neighbouring countries. By the MoA accounts, 66% of these animals are informally exported to Somalia, 22% to Djibouti and 12% to Sudan (MoA 2008). The animals exported to Djibouti and Somalia are re-exported to different Middle East countries and are considered exports from those countries. Between 1993 and 2000, the total value of the unofficial crossborder livestock trade from Ethiopia has been estimated at USD 105 million per year, 100 times greater than the average annual official livestock export trade (Pavanello 2010). Through efforts to boost formal exports, however, formal live animal exports have dramatically increased since 2006 and the gap has been significantly reduced. For example, Desta et al. (2011) estimated informal crossborder livestock exports through Berbera and Bosaso ports at USD 144 million per year,while formal live exports were more than USD 207 million. The formal channel is growing over time.During the seven years up to 2012, the volume of the informal crossborder livestock trade was four times that of formal exports;however, this varies with animal species. Goats are the major species informally exported at 49% of the total, followed by cattle with 27%. The largest difference between formal and informal exports is goats (informal goat exports are more than 63 times formal exports), followed by cattle and sheep. About 74% of goats cross the border through Somali region, 24% through Afar region, 1% through Oromia and 1% through Southern Nations, Nationalities and People'sRegion (SNNPRS). Formal live camel exports are far larger than informal exports. Live camels are transported from the Kenyan border all the way to Adama and then to Port Metema, mainly because of the attractive price in the formal channel.Experience with camel formal exports demonstrates the possibility of diverting the huge number of goats, cattle and sheep absorbed by informal channels to the formal export system through price incentives. Pastoralists and other actors in the value chain use the informal system primarily for access to better markets (prices and less harassment in the market). Excessive taxation on animals informal livestock markets in the country also contributes to an increased flow of animals to the informal channel (Solomon et al. 2003). A recent study by the Ethiopian Meat and Dairy Technology Institute (unpublished document) shows that the treatment of recipient neighbouring countries has also contributed to the growth of informal crossborder livestock exports. For example, Sudanese customs charges ETB 400 per animal exported through the formal channel, but only ETB 20 exported through the informal channel. This clearly encourages the informal channel.Ethiopia's informal crossborder livestock exports are now directed to Somalia, Djibouti and more recently, to Sudan. While crossborder exports from Ethiopia into Kenya and Sudan are destined mainly for the domestic markets in those countries, Ethiopian exports to Djibouti and Somali (Somaliland and Puntland) are mostly re-exported to the Middle East (Aklilu 2010). Desta et al. (2011) reported that live animal exports from Berbera and Bosaso have often reached a peak of 3 to 3.5 million per year. About 65% of this volume is believed to originate in Ethiopia.Informal crossborder livestock exports contribute to price escalation in domestic markets and erode competitiveness of formal live animal and meat exports. The Ethiopian treasury loses revenue and although informal markets positively affect the livelihood and food security of market agents, the lost revenue adversely affects long-term development goals of the government through its impact on the tax base (Lesser and Moisé-Leeman 2009). For these reasons, the Ethiopian Government has tried various initiatives in lowland pastoral areas to curb the informal crossborder livestock trade. These include schemes such as a hard currency deposit Cash against Commodity/Advance Payment arrangements, small-scale border trade directives and Franco Valuta basic commodity import permits in the Somali regional state (Desta et al. 2011). However, all three arrangements have their own limitations and did not succeed in reducing the flow of animals to informal export channels, rendering any growth in the formal trade not sustainable.Studies on off-take rates indicate that they vary based on production systems, species and ecological conditions; for example, they tend to be higher during drought and disease outbreak years (Bekele et al. 2006). On average, off-take rates were estimated at 10% for cattle, 35% for sheep and 38% for goats (Belachew and Jemberu 2003). Simulation studies on off-take rates calculated as a ratio of animals that exited through slaughter and export to total stock indicated that the off-take rate has historically been high for both sheep and goats.    Currently the federal and regional research institutes and agricultural faculties at universities are providing inputs for breed improvement and multiplication of technologies. However, the capacity for multiplication of these technologies is limited because these institutions are not mandated to multiply technologies for extension, apart from the component relating to their on-farm activities and they are limited because they often operate on a small farm. Thus, multiplication of livestock species has remained in the hands of public and private breeding and multiplication centres/ ranches established in different parts of the country at different periods.For cattle, multiplication and improvement farms/ranches currently exist in Oromia (Did Tiyura ranch for Boran), Amhara (Metekel and Andassa ranches for Fogera) and SNNPRS (Sodo and Tatessa farm for Jersey and Friesian crosses). Some of the farms in Oromia region have been privatized (Abornosa for Boran breed improvement) and transferred to universities (Horro Guduru farm for Horro breed improvement and Assela farm for Arsi breed improvement) and may not actively support extension activities due to a change in their mandate.Sheep improvement farms are located in Amhara (DebreBerhan and Ahmed Guya), while no centre is designated for goat improvement and multiplication activities apart from research works at Adami Tulu. Extension activities for small ruminants currently rely more on breeds from research and university farms than multiplication centres. A collaborative project among the federal Ministry of Agriculture, USAID, regional states and institutions of higher learning to improve and market small ruminant meat has also started bearing fruit. It utilizes Boer goat and Doper sheep breeds imported from South Africa to improve meat production; however, these sheep and goat breeds have yet to be multiplied on a larger scale or disseminated, except those given for demonstration to a limited number of farmers/pastoralists. Thus, sheep and goat production in Ethiopia relies on indigenous breeds and more than 99% of both sheep and goats are indigenous breeds (Table 19). There are more hybrid and exotic sheep breeds than goats.In principle, the federal and regional extension packages for breed delivery generally include crossbred heifers and bulls, selected indigenous cattle heifers and bulls, crossbred bucks and rams (mainly indigenous breeds) and exotic three month-old pullets/cockerels, day-old chicks and fertile eggs. In addition, AI service, mainly to improve milk production through use of exotic semen for indigenous breeds and liquid nitrogen as a component of breeding support, are part of the package. Bull service for natural mating is also promoted on a limited basis. Animal nutrition is among the top challenges to improve livestock productivity because availability of affordable quality feed is a challenge. Crop expansion into pasture land, overgrazing of marginal land, seasonal variation in productivity and quality of pasture land, underdeveloped feed preservation practices and limited use of improved fodder production explain feed shortages in the highland mixed crop-livestock system. In pastoral and agro-pastoral areas, the constraints include bush encroachment, rangeland deterioration due to overgrazing and frequent drought cycles and a critical shortage of water. In most cases, use of scarce water and rangeland resources is a leading cause for social conflicts among pastoral communities.The federal and regional research centres and agricultural faculties at universities operate feed improvement programs. This list includes federal and regional research centres such as Kulumsa that generate feed technologies without having a livestock research branch. International research centres like ILRI are also involved in the evaluation and generation of feed technology inputs ready to be used by the national extension services. A number of improved varieties of grasses, leguminous fodder and multipurpose shrubs/browse have been evaluated and recommended for the different agro-ecological zones (AEZ) of the country. NGOs and smallholder farmers and farmer training centres (FTCs) are engaged in multiplication and sourcing of forage seeds used in extension activities. These forage seeds typically include Napier grass, Rhodes grass, cowpea, pigeon pea, alfalfa, Dolichos lablab, Desmodium, oats, Leucaenaleucocephala and Sesbaniasesban. These sources produce a limited amount of seed relative to national demand. Currently there is no effective mechanism for uptake.Extension work in feed development is largely geared toward introduction and use of improved fodder crops in the highlands and improving rangeland management and use in the lowlands. Improved conservation and use of crop residues and by-products have not attracted equal attention as introduction of improved forages. Resource-poor farmers in the mixed crop-livestock production system have ready access to ample straw and stalks/stovers that are used wastefully during the harvest period. Most of these feed resources are either not conserved at all or conserved inappropriately.Farmers obtain forage seeds from Bureaus of Agriculture. Woreda offices place their annual request for seeds to the regional/zonal bureaus that purchase the requested seeds and deliver the amount available. Seeds complemented with what can be obtained from different sources within/outside the Woreda through its efforts are distributed to farmers. Grazing was the most common feeding practice reported by livestock producers (40%), followed by crop residues and hay. Less than one percent of livestock producers were reported to use improved forage and the proportion of those using crop residues did not exceed four percent over years (Table 20).   About nine case teams are organized under the Animal Health Directorate. These case teams perform different functions such as regulatory, disease control, public health, epidemiology, quarantine, abattoir inspection, traceability and identification. There are six functional quarantine stations in the country, staffed by one veterinarian, one animal health assistant, one animal health technician and one laboratory technician. In addition to the quarantine stations, three border check posts also provide quarantine service in different parts of the country, including Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa with three veterinarians and three animal health assistants, Moyale with one animal health assistant and Lafa'essa with one animal health assistant rendering border inspection services. Meat inspection in export abattoirs is conducted by two veterinarians, three meat inspectors, one meat technologist and one laboratory technician.Public veterinary service delivery relies on district veterinary clinics located in district towns supported by animal health posts located in the vicinity or villages of farmers/pastoralists. There is one animal health post for each three Kebeles. As in the Federal Veterinary Services, the Regional Veterinary Services are responsible for both animal health and public health activities. According to assessments made by Dugasa and Belachew (2009)  There is a small number of privately-owned animal health service providers conducting clinical services for fees, selling drugs and extending advisory services. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and an assessment made by Dugasa and Belachew(2009), there are 64 clinics, 239 rural drug shops, 149 pharmacies and 30 drug importer businesses owned and run by private operators. The development of private veterinary services is largely hampered by a highly subsidized public veterinary system that provides services inexpensively to the detriment of private operators. Public veterinary service providers charge very low fees, making it very difficult for private sector operators to compete with the public sector.Major animal diseases and control CBPP is one of the most important cattle diseases in Ethiopia. It predominantly occurs in a few pastoral and agropastoral areas, particularly in the southern Rift Valley and occasionally in other parts of the country. Mass annual vaccination measures have been and are still being undertaken to control the disease. APHRD has developed a national CBPP control and eradication strategy. The proposed policy is eradication by mass prophylactic vaccination, control of cattle movement and slaughter of infected, chronic and latent carrier animals once a high level of control is achieved. To tackle the CBPP problem, the policy proposes identifying short-term and long-term strategies that divide the country into epidemiological zones as the basis for a phased eradication program.LSD is one of the newly emerging cattle diseases in Ethiopia. It is sporadically encountered mainly in the highlands and its spread is controlled by systematic vaccination.FMD is endemic in Ethiopia, with significant variable prevalence across farming systems and agro-ecological zones. Five serotypes of FMD virus (A, O, C, SAT 1 and SAT2) prevail according to the national epidemiological survey. Local herds exhibit mild symptoms for the disease, hence, only exotic improved breeds and their crosses are vaccinated.Recently, Ethiopia has developed a national short-and long-term strategy to control FMD. The short-term strategy envisages enhanced FMD vaccination, surveillance, diagnosis, animal movement control and development of export compartments to promote safer trade of livestock and livestock products.The export zone concept involves quarantine, inspection, testing, vaccination and certifying animals as appropriate at different times in different places as they move from their origin to export abattoirs and port of embarkation.Compartmentalization of the animals destined for export at an early stage in pre-quarantine holding areas and appropriate mitigation of the risk of disease transmission through livestock and meat destined for export are the major features of the system. The totality of risk reduction measures would reduce the risk of exporting dangerous pathogens potentially present to a low or negligible level.Rift Valley fever (RVF)RVF has been cyclically occurring in Kenya, Sudan and recently in Somalia. Areas of Kenya and Somalia bordering Ethiopia were affected with the disease in 1997. Active disease search, GIS monitoring and banning livestock exports from risky areas were instituted to restrict disease introduction and dissemination. There is a significant degree of awareness by the veterinary services and a contingency plan exists for screening herds when and if necessary.In Ethiopia, Brucellosis is endemic in many AEZ. However, it causes problems mainly in intensive dairy farms around urban centres. Serological screening is practised in cattle and small ruminants destined for (external trade) export, as well as for brucellosis control ondairy farms.PPR was confirmed in Ethiopia for the first time in 1989 in the southern Omo River Valley before moving to other parts of the country. The disease is endemic in most pastoral areas of Ethiopia. The recent use of a homologous vaccine has significantly reduced its incidence. A national strategy was developed based on a serological survey conducted in 1999. A total of 13,849 sera samples were collected from 72 districts of seven regional states. As expected, the prevalence was higher in lowland pastoral systems compared to highland sedentary systems. This was expected of a disease that is transmitted by direct contact. The strategy is to vaccinate all small ruminants in those districts considered endemic for the disease including their neighbours, based on the results of the 1999 serological survey and outbreak disease reports.CCPP is a very important disease of goats. It is concentrated in north and south Omo, Borana, Asosa and eastern Tigray. Control of the disease relies on prophylactic and therapeutic measures.The occurrence of sheep and goat pox has been reported mainly in the central highlands. There is no report from sheep and goat breeding areas in the Somali and Afar regions. Control is based on prophylactic vaccinations.Sporadic diseases such as anthrax, black leg and haemorrhagicsepticaemia have been diagnosed in the country and are effectively controlled through prophylactic vaccination.Different trade-limiting diseases and parasites that cause damage of economic importance are found in Ethiopia. Four species of mites cause a condition called mange in sheep and goats-Sarcoptes, Psoroptes, Demodex and Chorioptes. These external parasites cause rejection of more than 35% of sheep skins and 56% of goat skins collected by tanneries. This problem is unnoticeable until the skins enter the processing stage and thus causes very high economic losses to tanneries and the country at large. A report indicated that six tanneries in Addis Ababa rejected 2,037,745 skins in 1996/97 which caused a loss of USD 6.3 million (MoA 2007b). Apart from economic losses caused by rejection of skins, mites cause the animal to lose weight and it takes a long time until the treated animal regainsa normal condition after clinical recovery. It is thus difficult to produce good quality animals for the market in areas where mites are prevalent. Mites also have a zoonotic dimension affecting humans.Internal parasites such as liver fluke and roundworms are the major impediments to sheep production in marshy areas. This problem is growing with expansion of irrigated agriculture. Haemonchosis and round worms are also serious parasites. These parasites cause heavy weight losses and poor growth in kids and lambs (MoA 2007b).The National Veterinary Institute (NVI) in Debre Zeit was established in 1963 with the help of the French Government. It produces and supplies most of the vaccines needed in the country as well as occasional surplus for export. The NVI is managed as a government enterprise and operates on a cost recovery basis. Its current vaccine production capacity is shown in Table 21.The number of animals that have been vaccinated against different diseases in the last seven years is summarized in Figure 12. The number of vaccinated animals has increased over the last seven years. Ethiopia stopped vaccinating against Rinderpest since the country was declared free of the disease.Apart from disease prevention, the animal health system takes control measures through diagnosis and treatment of animals afflicted by different diseases. Table 22 shows animals afflicted by different diseases and treated over the last seven years.   The major proclamations and regulations enacted and enforced for regulatory veterinary services and meat inspection have helped Ethiopia for many years to fulfil its obligations for food safety and animal disease management; however, discussion with animal experts reveals that they mostly fail to meet required standards for international trade of animals and animal products and have not always been implemented as intended. Strict enforcement of the laws has always been a problem. MoA distributed the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) guidelines to meat and livestock exporters and the Ministry's field inspectors. The materials have not been strictly applied because they were voluntary and not part of the regulatory framework. Their strict use and implementation in the future requires making them mandatory and part of animal health laws.Veterinary professionals believe that the need for legal support to implement animal health and food safety standards cannot be overemphasized. Control of animal diseases is only achievable by establishing a sound regulatory framework and strong enforcement mechanisms. Ethiopian laws related to animal health and meat safety are outdated and do not conform to OIE standards, SPS Agreements and Codex Alimentarius and need to be updated to address emerging challenges.Inputs and services-Access to finance and creditThe National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) requires that all commercial banks (other than the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia) purchase a bond for 27% of each loan. The bond has a maturity period of five years and an interest rate of 3%. As a consequence, repeated complaints are heard about liquidity constraints, thus, when private banks finance new projects, they prefer more promising and less risky projects such as industries, retail and construction rather than livestock projects.The NBE recently reduced reserve and liquidity requirements for commercial banks from 15%and 25% to 10% and 20%, respectively, which is expected to at least temporarily improve available loans. The business and finance community, however, widely acknowledges that this measure alone will not improve the situation in any significant manner.The other constraint for the livestock value chain is a requirement for a Letter of Credit (LC) to export live animals or meat. The National Bank requires exporters to trade through an LC or an advance mode of payment for exporting live animals to any destination. An LC is a commitment by a bank on behalf of the buyer that payment will be made to the beneficiary (exporter), provided that the terms and conditions have been met, as verified through presentation of all required documents. An LC is useful when reliable credit information about a foreign buyer is difficult to obtain, but the exporter is satisfied with the credit-worthiness of the buyer's foreign bank. The buyer pays service and confirmation charges and deposits a minimum of 30%of the value of the consignment at its bank. This system is not commonly preferred by importers because it is time consuming with relatively expensive transaction costs. The reliability of an LC system also depends on the reliability of the foreign (issuing) bank. Thus, live animal exporters face challenges, especially when dealing with new customers.Meat exporters do not have such problems because they commonly use a telegraphic mode of payment, which is actually an advance payment. In this system, five parties are involved-the importer, importer's bank, intermediary bank, the exporter and exporter's bank. The importer deposits the value of the consignment at his bank, which in turn orders the intermediary bank to transfer the amount to the exporter's bank, which in return informs the client and issues an export permit. The consignment will then be shipped. The NBE controls and ensures transfer of the foreign currency.Live animal exporters can get short-term loans by submitting export licenses, an LC and contractual agreements as collateral. The amount of the loan depends on the value of the LC; however, some exporters have at times withdrawn the shipment after collecting loans from banks. Because there are no fixed assets or securities as collateral, it is difficult for lending banks to recover disbursed loans through an LC holding mechanism. Such untrustworthiness increases transaction costs and in some cases bars trustworthy exporters from access to credit.There are 21 banks in Ethiopia, including the three state-owned banks-Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE), Development Bank of Ethiopia (DBE) and Business and Construction Bank (BCB), as well as 18 private commercial banks.The CBE is the largest bank in the country, three times larger than the capacity of all the private banks together.The private commercial banks are also potential sources of financing for the meat and live animal business. The governing issue is that all the banks need security (physical assets) for the loan, but it is difficult for most new business operators engaged in the livestock business and smallholder livestock producers to provide such security. Land in Ethiopia belongs to the government, so land lease certificates cannot be used as collateral for bank loan unless 30%of the investment on that land is developed. If the stated proportion of the project on the land is developed, banks can consider a land lease certificate as collateral for loans to new projects or expansion of existing businesses.The DBE is another source of credit for livestock businesses (investments). It finances projects that are proven to be feasible by its own project appraisal team. Unlike other banks, DBE considers new projects as collateral provided borrowers submit a viable project feasibility study, the land to be used for the new project and 30% of the proposed project capital in cash as equity contributions. The bank considers refinancing requests for projects already financed by other financial institutions, but DBE does not consider retroactive financing of projects already financed by owners. This is prohibitive for most business people because the terms and conditions of DBE are different than other lenders and not known by many people. Most business people tend to use bank loans for completion of their projects rather than entering into bank loan arrangements from the very beginning.Apart from the commercial banks, other formal sources of finance such as credit and savings associations, microfinance institutions and informal saving arrangements such as Ekub play a vital role in supporting access of livestock and meat businesses in general-and smallholder livestock producers in particular-to financing. Credit and savings associations are organized in urban and rural areas by different groups. These associations mobilize savings from their members and provide credit to members depending on the amount of their savings. The interest rate of these cooperatives is lower than that of other lenders. Members repay their loans while they continue their regular savings. The interest collected on credit is distributed annually to members. The problem with credit and savings associations is their poor management and limited financial capacity to reach a large number of borrowers simultaneously. Some organizations provide them with seed money to raise their lending capacity. Credit and savings associations are managed by a committee selected from its members. It is rare for trained personnel to serve as committee members, so these cooperatives have a gap in the technical capacity of their management.Microfinance institutions are the other important sources of financing for agribusinesses, including the livestock sector. The microfinance institutions need group collateral to extend loans to small business operators and farmers/ pastoralists. In addition to their demand for group collateral, the amount of money these institutions make available for lending to individual borrowers is too small to run livestock businesses. A high interest rate is also prohibitive for the target users. They charge as high as 18% per year and although they serve both urban and rural dwellers, the interest rate is higher for rural borrowers because follow-up costs are higher. The short gestation period of microfinance credits does not take into account the nature of livestock production. Farmers and pastoralists are required to start repayment of the credit before the animals start to give birth or achieve better condition (by fattening) and to be sold at higher prices. This means rural youth who are keen to start livestock businesses lack credit. Some initiatives such as Household Asset Building Program (HABP) arrange special credit programs for their target groups. These are still administered by MFIs, but with a lower interest rate (10-15%), better repayment modalities and more follow-up to ensure best use of the loan. Some NGOs such as International Development Enterprises (IDE) and SOS Sahel have succeeded in similar arrangements for small ruminant rearing and fattening activities.Some microfinance institutions are learning from the experience of rural credit and savings cooperatives to overcome problems related to group lending (group collateral) and have started establishing rural banks in some areas. Rural banks are similar to credit and savings associations (cooperatives) in that they are established by a group of farmers/ pastoralists and depend on the savings of members. However, they make use of hired, full-time technicians rather than a committee to run the day-to-day activity of the bank. These banks use a steering committee selected from members to screen the credit worthiness of borrowers. The steering committee is selected from the community (members of the bank). Overall activity of the rural banks is monitored by the National Bank of Ethiopia.The Ethiopian microfinance market is dominated by a few large MFIs, all of which are linked to regional state government ownership (Ebisa et al. 2013). The four largest institutions account for 71% of market share in terms of borrowing clients and 82% by loan provision. The total number of active borrowing clients of the microfinance institutions in Ethiopia reached more than 2.4 million in 2011 (Table 23). The total credit extended by all microfinance institutions was ETB 6.9 billion in 2011 and reached ETB 12.79 billion in 2013. Of the total credit granted in 2011, the share of the four largest microfinance institutions was ETB 5.6 billion. The National Artificial Insemination Centre (NAIC) in Kaliti is responsible for the generation, import and delivery of improved cattle semen. In cooperation with regional bureaus, the ministry also generates and delivers liquid nitrogen to support cattle breed improvement activities. Institutions that multiply livestock technologies are limited to public research or improvement farms which are few and inefficient due to small farm sizes, budgetary restrictions, constraints with facilities and understaffing. With the probable exception of poultry and beehives, the multiplication of other livestock technologies has so far largely remained unattractive to the private sector despite lucrative markets in the country.There is strong commitment from the government to make the country's fertile land available for agricultural investment. Availability of investment land varies with agro-ecological zones and it is relatively easier to get land in the lowlands where there is lower population pressure. Population pressure in the highlands makes it difficult to get large plots of land for livestock breeding activities. However, because of the nature of the business, land used for export abattoirs is in close proximity to major urban centres such as Addis Ababa, Bishoftu, Mojo, Bahir Dar, Mekelle and Jijiga to facilitate easy access to airport cargo terminals. Access to a sustainable supply of slaughter animals is also considered in demarcating land for slaughter houses.The government created an Agricultural Investment Support Directorate (AISD) under the MoA to facilitate acquisition of large tracks of land (greater than 3000 ha) for foreign and local investors. For this purpose, the government has about 3.7 million ha that was allocated by four regional governments (SNNPRS, Oromia, Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella), which is earmarked for large-scale agricultural investments. There are some additional incentives to encourage investment in large farms in remote areas of the country. For example, a 30% tax deduction for three consecutive years after expiration of the income tax exemption period set for the investments is offered by the Council of Ministers in regulations on investment incentives and investment areas reserved for domestic investors. This includes the states of Gambella, Benishangul/Gumuz, Afar (except in areas within 15 km left and right of Awash River); Somali, Guji and Borena zones of the state of Oromia and South Omo zone;Segen, Maji, Sheka, Dawro, Keffa zones; and Konta and Basketo special Woredas of SNNPRS. The MoA has the responsibility of providing technical support for private investments in agriculture. The support includes, among other things, providing areas larger than 5000 ha, information, technical support and facilitation of relationships with other public services. The Agricultural Investment Support Directorate (AISD) was established under the MoA to serve as a focal point to support crop and livestock investments. The AISD prioritizes foreign investment proposals in different areas and also assists investors with services such as work permits, connects them with agricultural research centres, liaises with the MoT to facilitate export of their products and collaborates with regional governments to mediate any conflicts between investors and local residents.The Ethiopian Investment Agency (EIA) has a mandate to facilitate allocation of land for Foreign Direct Investment projects throughout the country. Both the Ethiopian Investment Agency and the Agricultural Investment Support Directorate are providing a one-window service for agricultural investors. Prior to an investment proclamation, AISD was the entity providing these services to agricultural investors, but the proclamation has given EIA power to administer and allocate land to investors.The Regional Land Administration and Environmental Protection Bureaus and Regional Investment Offices have the mandate to allocate and administer investment lands that are not under the jurisdiction of the federal government. Investment land allocation is recommended by investment offices and approved by an investment board chaired by regional presidents. City councils and municipalities are the main government administrative bodies to offer or allocate land to investors. However, discussion with some value chain actors and their sectoral associations such as ELTA, EMPEA and ELIA as well as supporting government institutions such as EMDTI and LIDI reveals that getting land in cities, particularly around Addis Ababa, is difficult due to cumbersome bureaucratic procedures and civil servant attitudes. In these areas, land lease rates are relatively high. Available information indicates that the federal and regional states have developed industrial zones with necessary infrastructure, but the use of compartments is low probably because of competing interests from multiple sources, including sectoral associations that are looking after the interests of their members, the federal government, state government and investors.The state owns all the land in Ethiopia, hence it can't be purchased or sold, but it can be leased. Farmers do have user rights over their plots of land, which can be inherited. The highlands concentrate most of the human and livestock population in Ethiopia and access to investment land in these areas comes at the expense of smallholder farmers. It is common that farmers can be evicted from their land with little compensation (a value of 10 years' crop production). Without any experience or training in handling such an amount of money, most of these farmers spend the compensation money in a very short time and find it difficult to feed their household. In the pastoral areas, land is more communal and pastoralists use seasonal mobility in search of pasture and water for their animals. Access to investment land in these areas should also not threaten the livelihood of the pastoral community.Recently, 40 million parcels were registered in the highlands under the land registration and certification program (FDRE 2010). Ghebru and Holden (2012) found that land registration policy contributed to enhanced livelihood through increased food availability and stronger tenure security when first initiated. The initiative also enhances women's participation in land markets by renting out their rights to richer households and using the proceeds to buy food or finance other economic activities, including purchasing livestock. Recently, there have been some amendments in Tigray stipulating that not more than 50% of the land can be rented out. The amendment is perceived as weakening tenure security because holders who may not be able to fully exploit the land run the risk of having the rights withdrawn. This could disproportionately affect women, especially women heads of households.Under Ethiopian family law, both husband and wife are entitled to an equal share of land ownership, and in case of divorce, the wife is entitled to half of the land. In the pastoral lowlands, there is a territorial unit for exclusive use by the respective clans, which have the right to utilize the resources available on the land. In south Omo, farmland mostly belongs to women and they decide on crops to be grown (Ayele 1998 and2006).Improved market participation is a key avenue to improve the livelihood of smallholder sheep and goat producers. Analysis of CSA data for the 2005 to 2013 period reveals that more than 48% of cattle producers, 41% of sheep producers and 45% of goat producers did not buy or sell their animals. Twenty-four percent of surveyed producers sold cattle, 24.1% sold sheep and 25.5% sold goats (Table 24). The other important dimension of smallholder market participation is the quantity of animals sold through markets. More than 70% of sheep, goat and cattle producers did not buy any of these animals and more than 62% did not sell during the 2010-2013 period (Table 25). The transactions involved a very small number of animals. The proportion of farmers who sold three animals a year is highest for goats and lowest for cattle (Table 25). The reasons for no or low participation are generally attributed to small herd and flock sizes, low fertility and high mortality, all of which lead to a relatively slow herd growth rate (Asfaw and Jabbar 2008). In general, large numbers of smallholder farmers and pastoralists do not participate in the livestock market and those who did participate sold or bought very few animals in a year. There is no commercial sheep or goat producer in Ethiopia and herd size for smallholder producers varies depending on agro-ecological setting and wealth of the producer. Larger herd sizes are usually observed among pastoralists, but herds are very small in highland mixed crop-livestock systems. There are, however, variations within agro-ecologies, depending on household wealth. Small ruminant producers tend to sell for cash and their animals are important sources of milk and meat for the household. It is important to note the marketing behaviour of smallholder sheep and goat producers in Ethiopia. Although every producer intends to sell his/her sheep and/or goats, the sale decision is not guided by market demand, but rather most producers (especially those who have very small herds) sell their animals when cash is needed to meet obligations. Thus supply of sheep and goats to the market is governed by factors apart from market price incentives. In general, supply is very high during dry seasons, at planting time in the highlands and agropastoral areas because farmers need to buy fertilizer and improved seed, at the beginning of the school year to pay school expenses for children and religious festivals such as Easter, Christmas and Ramadan. Supply is usually low during major Christian fasting seasons in the highlands, during the rainy seasons (especially in pastoral areas), harvesting seasons in the highlands because producers are too busy with harvesting activities to take animals to market and during months after crop harvest (because farmers are in a good financial position and are buying animals to make use of the available crop aftermath).Smallholder producers usually sell their animals in primary markets: however, there are cases when they sell at the farm gate, bush markets (for pastoralists), or on their way to the market. Farmers/pastoralists perceive that collectors waiting at the farm gate on the way to market are depressing the price of animals, so they want to sell their animals to traders, individual consumers, or other farmers in the market. However, those who want sell their animals early to meet urgent cash needs tend do so either at the farm gate or on the way to the market. Bush markets in pastoral areas are very far from primary markets. These markets could be around water points and other common gathering places where collectors buy animals to sell in primary markets.Collectors could be smallholder farmers or pastoralists who trade livestock as a part-time business. They usually make use of their knowledge of local conditions and relationships. The sources of capital for collectors vary depending on relationships they have with their buyers and the level of trust they have developed with traders. Those collectors who have developed trust with traders usually get advance payment from these traders so that they will collect animals satisfying the trader's quality requirements. They hand over the animals either based on market prices or receive a commission on the number of animals that were collected (Legese et al. 2008). Those collectors that have not developed trust among traders usually depend on their own capital or borrow money either from money lenders or microfinance institutions. Collectors buy animals by going to remote areas at farm gates, village markets (smaller than the primary markets) and bush markets in pastoral areas. Those collectors operating in pastoral areas usually cross into the neighbouring regional states to collect animals from nearby markets when there is better price in domestic markets. This happens especially during the months prior to the Hajj pilgrimage season when there is very high demand for live sheep in lowland markets for live export to KSA. They also play a key role during restocking operations following drought seasons in pastoral areas. They usually supply breeding stock by collecting from remote markets because they have the knowledge to select animals of the required quality.As used in this document, large-scale traders refers [Even though 'traders' is plural, the noun phrase 'largescale traders' is singular and therefore takes the singular verb] to those sheep and goat traders who supply thousands of animals a week to export abattoirs or live-animal exporters. They do not have a written supply contract either with their buyers or suppliers, but they have permanent buyers that will absorb all the animals they have collected as long as the purchases display the agreed animal attributes. Large-scale traders have a network of small traders and collectors that will collect animals from different corners of the country. The level of involvement of these traders depends on the nature of their agreement with buyers. Some export abattoirs provide premium prices to traders that can supply thousands of animals a week. Suppliers to such buyers establish their collection networks and try to supply as many animals as they can. They share the premium prices with small traders who otherwise would have sold the animals directly to the abattoirs and try to maximize their supply to export abattoirs.Such traders do not go to markets to buy animals; rather they coordinate collection of animals in all possible markets using mobile telephones. They send advance payments to their suppliers through bank transfers and receive animals at their rented holding grounds around the export abattoir. Such animals rest for three days to let them regain weight lost during transportation before they are handed over to the abattoirs. Some traders operating this way supply up to 70% of the total demand of abattoirs (Legese and Hordofa 2011). Traders that operate at non-premium-paying abattoirs also use a networking strategy to collect a large number of animals in a given time and maximize their profit.The difference between such traders and those supplying to premium-price-paying abattoirs is the involvement of the former in transportation of animals from secondary markets to holding grounds around the abattoir site. The number of small-scale traders supplying animals to such traders is also very small. Because there is no premium price advantage in this case, small-scale traders using their own capital want to sell directly to export abattoirs and get the price that large-scale traders are getting.Small-scale shoat trader in this document refers to those livestock traders who supply more than a truckload (100 head) of sheep or goats per month to the market. The basic difference between collectors and small-scale traders is the scale of their operation and where they buy animals. While collectors usually buy up to five animals each week, small-scale traders buy up to 40 animals a week and they are usually full-time operators. Such traders supply to both domestic (local) markets and export abattoirs or live animal exporters. They usually make use of their own capital; however, those small-scale traders who supply animals to large-scale traders may take advance payments from large-scale traders to be able to buy a large number of animals at one time. Small-scale traders sell to large-scale traders either to make use of their capital without paying any interest or to benefit from premium prices as indicated above. At times when they fail to buy a truckload of animals, small-scale traders join to rent trucks and benefit from economies of scale. Small-scale traders also supply to hotels, restaurants, supermarkets and also consumer markets in bigger cities, especially during holidays. In addition to the number of animals collected through the network of their suppliers, small-scale traders also buy shoats on their own from primary markets. If they are not providing advance payments for collectors, they buy from their customers (collectors) at prevailing market prices. In order to benefit from such transactions, collectors tend to depress prices when they buy from producers.Cooperatives that are involved in sheep and goat trading are either multi-purpose or marketing. Such cooperatives are available mainly in pastoral areas. They are established to create forward and backward links to livestock producers; however, they mainly focus on the forward links by collecting live animals from their members and non-members (Legese et al. 2008). Different NGOs and projects have tried to strengthen these cooperatives and link them to export abattoirs. Several cooperatives have also signed supply contracts to export abattoirs, however, none of them have honoured the supply contract because they could not compete with individual traders and be profitable. The day-to-day activity of cooperatives is decided by the committee and lacks flexibility to make on-the-spot decisions such as changing the price of a sheep or goat when the market changes. Such committee-based activity is also costly because the committee members need to be paid for their time. Cooperatives are organized by farmers or pastoralists, so they usually lack entrepreneurship skills.Brokers are those market actors that mediate transactions between buyers and sellers in livestock markets. The influence of brokers varies from place to place: for example, they are playing a key role in Somali markets where it is impossible to buy or sell in the absence of brokers. Brokerage in Somali livestock markets is based on clan structure of the society whereby different clans sell their animals through brokers from their clan. In some markets, brokers are needed because they take responsibility for genuine ownership of animals by the seller (Ayele et al. 2003), which avoids sale of stolen animals that usually creates conflict in livestock markets. The role of brokers is not as strong in most highland sheep and goat markets and they are replaced by those actors that do on-the-spot buying and selling of these animals. They buy two or three animals in the morning (usually before the animals enter the marketing yards) and sell them in the same market (Legese and Hordofa 2011). The number of animals handled by such actors varies depending on the time of the year. They can buy and sell up to 10 animals a day during peak supply seasons and obtain ETB 30-50 per animal.There are seven export abattoirs buying sheep and goats to export chilled carcasses to Middle East and North African countries. They buy animals at the factory gate from large-and small-scale traders that can supply at least one truckload at a time. As indicated above, some export abattoirs provide premium prices for those traders that can supply thousands of animals in a week. Most are operating at less than 50% of their installed capacity, mainly because of a shortage of export quality animals. In addition to premium prices, some abattoirs deploy their trucks at cost to collect animals that are already procured by their suppliers. Unlike other buyers, export abattoirs buy animals on a live weight basis and the animal is weighed after it has rested for 24 hours in the holding area at the factory gate. This is to avoid filling animals with water which is usually done by feeding salt to add extra weight when selling on a live weight basis. Export abattoirs compete with each other, which raises the per kg live weight price, especially during the peak Ramadan fasting seasons. Most of the export abattoirs are located in Bishoftu and Modjo areas. Transporting animals from the Somali pastoral areas beyond Babile is becoming less feasible and there are projects to establish export abattoirs in these areas.Live animal exporters are those traders that export live sheep and goats to Middle East markets. They usually collect seasonally and export live animals during the Hajj season. They use collection networks similar to the large-scale traders that buy animals for export abattoirs. The difference between the two is in the quality of animals. While export abattoirs need male, intact sheep or goats within a weight range of 14-27 kg, live animal exporters need animals that weigh more than 25 kg live. The origin of animals is also an important criterion for live animal exporters.Because animals from the highlands cannot tolerate the high temperature in Djibouti, low-land animals are needed for this channel. Unlike that of export abattoirs, the number of live animal exporters varies every year because it does not involve any major investment and there is no restriction on entry and exit to this market.Sheep and goat butchers slaughter for domestic markets. They are available in big and small towns and their number is increasing. In terms of animal quality, they can slaughter male intact or castrated, sterile fattened females or young animals. However, they usually focus on fattened males of 40-50 kg (Legese and Hordofa 2011). They sell either fried meat or raw meat that could be consumed either at their premises or as take away. Butchers buy slaughter animals from small-scale traders.Supermarkets in Addis sell mutton and beef at retail. Some new supermarkets such as Fresh Corner and others that are opening in Addis Ababa focus mainly on meat and dairy products, fruit and vegetables. These supermarkets sell raw meat to individual consumers as take away. They also supply sheep carcasses to hotels and restaurants on a contractual basis. According to information obtained from owners of supermarkets through key informant interviews, they buy animals from small traders. Some of them like Fresh Corner and Hadiya supermarkets slaughter animals in the Luna export abattoir, which sources slaughter animals through large-and small-scale traders. Supermarkets usually focus on sheep and beef rather than goats due to consumer preferences. Unlike the export abattoirs, supermarkets debone and cut mutton and beef and pack meat in bundles attractive to consumers.Hotels are the major outlets for live sheep and goats. They slaughter sheep and goats and process them into different dishes. Slaughter is usually carried out for most hotels except some big ones in Addis and other urban centres.According to information obtained from hotels and managers through key informant interviews, they usually slaughter fattened sterile ewes. These animals have a better meat yield compared to other animals (Legese et al. 2008). Prices for such animals are relatively cheaper relative to yearlings and fattened male sheep or goats. Most hotels have permanent suppliers (usually small-scale traders). Some hotels also buy from producers or collect in markets.Individual consumers usually buy sheep or goats during religious festivals. The type of animals demanded by individual consumers varies with the wealth of the consumer. Wealthy households buy fattened sheep and goats while others buy male yearlings.To demonstrate value added along the value chain, data were collected from markets using Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques. Primary and secondary data were used to build the cost and margins tables in this document. Primary data were collected through key informant interviews with collectors, traders, managers of export abattoirs, supermarket owners and butchers. The original data were collected in October 2011 (Legese and Hordofa 2011) and updated in October 2013. Secondary data were obtained from the Central Statistical Agency, Revenue and Customs Authority and Ministry of Agriculture. Net marketing margin of a particular marketing agent, as an indicator of the efficiency of the channel, is defined as the residual of the gross marketing margin after paying marketing costs. Marketing costs include total marketing costs of each agent (Table 26). Reception costs are incurred when animals collected from different sources arrive at the holding ground. These include vaccination and treatment against diseases and ear tags for identification and are usually incurred by formal live animal exporters and are necessary to receive export permits. Feed is the major cost for live animal exporters because they are required to keep animals at the holding area (in quarantine) for three weeks in order to receive an export permit. Other actors also incur feed costs for only a couple of days, but it is only 3-5% of the total marketing cost. Feed cost per animal is derived by determining the total amount of feed that traders/export abattoirs buy during harvest seasons for an entire year's consumption and the average number of animals slaughtered by the abattoir in a year.Labour is calculated based on the firm's total labour cost for a month and the number of animals slaughtered or sold by the firm. Telephone calls are search costs used to communicate with suppliers. Two types of transport costs are included in the table (transport to the centre and to the port), which shows cost of transportation from production areas to the centre (for processing, consumption, or holding area in case of live exports), from the export abattoir to the port and from the waiting area to the seaport for live exports. Trucking (transportation) cost to the centre is the major marketing cost for large-and small-scale traders, while trekking costs from bush markets and production areas to primary markets are the major cost for collectors. There are additional costs such as combiner's cost.'Combiner' is the name given to the individual at the back of the truck whose primary function is to make sure that animals do not fall in the truck and get trampled and do not jump from the truck. Combiners are paid about ETB 300 per trip.Transportation to the airport is the major cost for export abattoirs, which use refrigerated trucks. All these costs, including labour, fuel (electricity), water and other supplies are considered in the calculation. Processing, packing and labelling costs are incurred by export abattoirs, butchers, supermarkets and hotels.Export abattoirs slaughter sheep and goats, chill the full carcass and wrap it with cotton linen when shipping them. They also freeze offalin plastic bags and pack them in labelled cartons for shipment. Supermarkets also prepare shoat meat in different cuts, pack it in plastic and make the product ready for distribution from their retail outlets. Butchers roll cuts of carcasses as per the order of the buyer for take away. Hotels process shoat meat into different dishes to serve on site: however, take away and the associated packing are not common from hotels. Tax payments included in the two tables are taxes at market gates and profit taxes that firms or individuals are required to pay. Based on analysis of secondary data from the Central Statistical Agency, Customs Authority, Ministry of Agriculture and past studies on the small ruminant value chain (Legese et al. 2008;Legese and Hordofa 2011;Duguma et al. 2012), we have identified five major channels each for sheep and goat marketing in Ethiopia. Using CSA data, we computed the share of each marketing channel (Tables 28 and 29 for sheep and goats, respectively). For sheep, 67% of the transacted animals are sold to consumers via traders and 24% are sold to hotels, butchers and supermarkets. Overall, the domestic market accounts for 92% of total transactions for sheep. Live sheep exported formally and informally account for 3% each, while the remaining 2% is exported as mutton.  (2002,2007,2008,2010). Channel 3: Live goats exported through informal channel 9Channel 4: Goats sold to hotels 3Channel 5: Live goats exported through formal channel 1Source: Computed from CSA (2012/13) and MoA (2002MoA ( , 2007MoA ( , 2008MoA ( , 2010)).For goats, the domestic market channel is also important, accounting for 78% of the total goats transacted, with 75% sold live to consumers and 3% to hotels as goat meat. The second most important channel in the goat value chain is meat exported to Middle East countries. About 12% of goats in the value chain are sold to export abattoirs. These animals are mainly sourced from pastoral lowlands and are primarily intact male yearlings. The other important channel is the informal live goat export channel. About 9% of the total goats in the value chain are informally exported to neighbouring countries, while formal live goat exports are less than 1% of total animals in the value chain. The number of animals informally crossing Ethiopia's borders to neighbouring countries has different implications. This channel is competing with domestic consumers and export abattoirs, which leads to higher domestic prices for live animals. This in turn threatens the competitiveness of export abattoirs and the resulting supply shortage compels these abattoirs to operate under their installed capacity. There is significant loss of hard currency as a result of the informal crossborder trade.Another important aspect is the flow of benefits among actors that highlights efficiency of the different marketing channels identified in the Ethiopian small ruminant value chain. We computed gross margin (marketing margin), net marketing margin and producer share of the final price of sheep and goats. Accordingly, producers receive 69% of the final price when individual consumers buy the animal live though traders (Table 30). They receive 59% of final price if export abattoirs are the buyers and 51% if the buyers are hotels. There are multiple reasons explaining the hotel price-hotels incur higher marketing and processing costs compared to live sheep traders and export abattoirs,16% of the final sheep price when the animal is sold to hotels compared to 4% when sold to consumers by traders, 3% for export abattoirs and 11% for informal exporters. Although informal live animal exports are discouraged by the government, the share of the final sheep price that reaches producers (47%) was higher when animals are sold to this channel rather than the formal channel (44%). Informal live animal exports benefit individual producers,but suppress national revenue and the resulting long-term development activities that could be financed by the government. Large-scale traders achieve the highest net margin in the channel when sheep are sold to individual consumers. These are primarily castrated fattened males and sterile ewes. Large-scale traders also have the highest share of total marketing costs incurred in this channel, perhaps justifying their net margin.The 'hotel channel' is the most lucrative in the entire sheep value chain with the highest marketing net margins and marketing costs as well. Seventy-three percent of the net margin realized in this channel goes to hotel operators. The hotels usually buy mature ewes (Table 31). The 'export' channel whereby animals are sold to formal live animal exporters ranked third in terms of transaction volume. The primary targets are intact, well-conditioned, male sheep. Exporters buy animals with a live weight of between 25 and 40 kg, with the majority exported to Saudi Arabia for sacrifice during the Hajj. This is a seasonal demand, at its prime during that time of the year. As a result, turnover is high because opportunistic market agents, primarily exporters, tend to exit after the season. These agents are more interested in short-run market opportunities than building durable relationship with suppliers for long-term business. Net marketing margin for exporters is higher than that of final sellers in the other channels (Table 32). Sheep producers in lowland pastoral areas take advantage of their geographical proximity to ports in neighbouring countries. As a result, they have the option to sell their stock in domestic markets or in nearby markets in these neighbouring countries, depending on prices. The marketing environment in the lowland areas plays a significant role in this decision and at times more so than price (Table 33). Traders contacted for this study indicated that their main reason was an attempt to escape bureaucratic hassles. About 50% of the total net margin created in this channel is obtained by exporters. Other actors also benefit proportionally to their cost. The 'meat export' channel has the lowest volume of animals entering the sheep value chain (Table 34). Export abattoirs have been functioning below capacity for a long time and sheep are only 10-20% of the slaughter volume of export abattoirs. Meat export volume is still very low and has never surpassed 18,000 t. The maximum net margin (49%) is obtained by export abattoirs and the least goes to large-scale traders. In this channel, large-scale traders primarily benefit from the animal volume sent to export abattoirs because they usually collect animals through a network of small-scale traders and collectors at premium prices. Hence, their net margin per animal may be small but their overall weekly gain is high considering the large number of animals they supply to export abattoirs. Similar cost calculations for the goat value chain are indicated in Annex 3. Analysis of end markets provides important information about the characteristics of final consumers of products, quality requirements, tests and preferences, times of high and low demand, volume of demand and other relevant information. This information provides good guidance for suppliers to maximize benefits from transactions with their buyers. Hence, end buyers are important sources of demand information, can transmit learning and in some cases are willing to invest in firms further down the chain (Campbell 2008). End markets for sheep and goats could be broadly classified as domestic and export markets.Domestic markets serve individual consumers, hotels, butchers and institutional consumers (such as hospitals, universities and the army). These consumers need animals of different qualities and parameters vary with agroecology, season, wealth category and type of institution. Individual consumer preferences, for example, vary with location. Highland consumers usually consume mutton while low landers prefer goat meat to mutton. However, butchers in Addis and other urban centres in the highlands serve raw and fried goat meat. This is expected to change the attitude of highlanders for goat meat. Wealth category and timing are also important parameters for individual consumers. Well-off households usually go for castrated, fattened sheep or goats, while others go for male yearlings. The demand for sheep or goats by individual consumers is seasonal because of religious festivals, thus there is a high domestic demand for sheep and goats at the end of August to celebrate Ethiopian New Year, in December for Christmas and for Easter. There is also high demand during the celebration of Ramadan and Arafa.Hotels usually slaughter fattened ewes, which is a continuous demand throughout the year, except during the major Orthodox Christian fasting seasons (mainly mid-February to beginning of April for 55 days) when livestock markets in most highland areas are closed. Most hotels serving Christians in the highland areas do not slaughter sheep or goats because demand for meat decreases by this time. This applies to butchers, too. Butchers need male intact/castrated goats and their demand is also continuous except those following Orthodox Christianity. Supermarkets are also emerging as important buyers of live sheep. They usually slaughter fattened, intact, or castrated sheep. The number of animals purchased by hotels, butchers and supermarkets varies on the degree of market penetration. Institutional consumers such as universities and the army follow a similar pattern. They are bulk consumers that buy thousands of animals mostly through their suppliers (on a contract basis).Seven export abattoirs export live sheep and goats, mutton and goat meat to Middle East countries. Vietnam, Turkey, China and Hong Kong are also important destinations for offal. The most important markets for Ethiopian chilled sheep and goat carcasses are UAE and KSA. These markets have specific requirements, especially carcass weight. The UAE market needs sheep and goats carcasses of 5-10 kg, which requires slaughtering animals of 13-25 kg live weight.On the other hand, the KSA market needs larger sheep and goat carcasses of 7-12 kg for goats and 8-12 kg for sheep. This in turn requires slaughtering goats of 16-30 kg and sheep of 20-30 kg live weight. The new market that has opened an opportunity for highland sheep is the Bahrain market. This market accepts sheep carcasses of 9-12 kg. In general, although quality requirements vary, the sheep and goat export market generally requires animals with these characteristics-male, intact, young (1-2 years) and with a live weight of 12-30 kg. The export market needs noncastrated sheep and goats with good body fat cover (Legese et al. 2008).Ethiopian meat is competing with meat from New Zealand, Brazil, India and Pakistan in the Gulf markets. The market in these countries is segmented according to income, with higher-income populations preferring freshly slaughtered meat, while lower-income populations (particularly low-income expatriates) opt for low-cost meat that is usually frozen. Ethiopian meat is geared toward the low end of the market. This is also the segment of the population that consumes chilled Ethiopian sheep and goat carcasses. Ethiopian meat is sold at lower prices in these markets.Ethiopia is also exporting live sheep and goats to Middle East markets. The major importer of Ethiopian sheep and goats is KSA. This is a seasonal market targeting the Hajj pilgrimage season. As indicated above, intact male sheep and goats of over 25 kg are required for this channel.Smallholder farmers and pastoralists/agropastoralists are the major producers and suppliers of sheep and goats to the market. According to information obtained through focus group discussions with producers and interviews with key informants on livestock trade in different parts of the country, these producers sell their animals to any buyer whenever they go to markets and do not have any long-standing customers (Fillip 2006;Teklewold et al. 2009;Legese and Hordofa 2011;Duguma et al. 2012). Long-term contracting relationships between market agents are almost non-existent. Traders usually buy animals from any producer by negotiating price to its minimum. There is no trust between producers and traders, which means there is no information and knowledge shared among producers and buyers. The power balance (bargaining power) varies with seasons depending on the nature of demand and supply.During planting seasons (June and July) and in times of drought, market supply is at its peak. These periods tend to coincide with times of low demand with many producers desperate to sell their animals. On the other hand, during high-demand seasons such as Easter, Christmas, New Year and Ramadan, producers set the market. The difference in this case is that the major buyers during such seasons are individual consumers, not traders. Traders do not have absolute market power to set prices in such seasons. To understand the real market movers, final buyers who are sourcing from large-and small-scale traders need to be considered.As indicated earlier, large-scale sheep and goat traders are those selling animals to export abattoirs. These traders determine market prices depending on an agreed price. The agreed price, hence traders' procurement price, fluctuates mainly because of the competition between export abattoirs to buy a large number of animals, especially during Ramadan. Hence, export abattoirs have the leadership position in this market dynamic with the power to determine the price and flow of animals in markets supplying animals to them. Export abattoirs reduce their operations by the time domestic demand (during religious festivals) becomes higher. Horizontal links between producers that could be a source of strength by improved bargaining power are generally weak. There are ways to strengthen producer positions through collective action such as livestock marketing cooperatives linked to buyers, but these cooperatives were not successful mainly because of poor management.Foods of livestock origin are highly perishable because they are the ideal media for the growth of bacteria, which can make the food unsuitable for consumption. Some bacteria produce toxins that are very dangerous and cause severe gastrointestinal problems. Food-borne diseases are caused not only by bacteria but also parasites that are ingested with food. Extensive consumption of raw meat in Ethiopia is the major cause for spread of tapeworms such as cattle tapeworm (cysticercosis in meat) and by cysts of the canine tapeworm (hydatitosis in meat).There are also other zoonotic diseases that could be transferred from animals to humans through ingestion of different animal products, such as brucellosis and tuberculosis. Consuming raw meat and milk are the major mechanisms for transfer of such bacteria.Many cities in Ethiopia established municipal slaughterhouses mainly as a result of nationwide livestock projects in 1990s. These abattoirs incorporate line slaughter and processing systems in which carcasses are vertically suspended on rails, thereby allowing the different operations (bleeding, hide removal, evisceration, etc.) to be carried out at different locations (MoA 2007c). These slaughterhouses provide slaughter services to butchers and residents in the area. Slaughter in the backyard is normally forbidden and meat sourced from outside slaughterhouses may be discarded. However, slaughter of cattle by groups to celebrate festivals usually takes place in backyards in most places.Small ruminants are not commonly slaughtered in the municipal abattoirs. By some accounts up to 80% of all slaughter is conducted in the backyard (Mahmud 2000). This poses significant health risks simply because procedures to limit cross-contamination are not followed and there is heightened environmental risk posed by a failure to manage slaughter waste, some of which is dumped in streams (Addisu et al. 2010). There have been some attempts to gauge consumer value of food quality and safety in Ethiopia. First, it is important to note that in a developing country context, including Ethiopia, there is no clear demarcation between quality and safety attributes, although studies such as Jabbar and Samuel (2010) for beef and dairy, Addisu et al. (2010) for beef and small ruminant meat and Aga (2011) for sheep meat in Addis were conducted for that purpose. The central hypothesis of these studies is that all attributes are not equally preferred by consumers. They are valued differently with a premium paid for the most preferred and discount for the least preferred.The veterinary stamp, health certificate, neatness of the butchery, equipment such as availability of cold facilities and display chamber to avoid exposing meat to dust, flies and unnecessary contamination are indicators of food safety.With beef quality and safety, Jabbar and Samuel (2010) found that for consumers, freshness is the most important attribute, followed by hygiene of the sales outlet and personnel, abattoir stamp, fat content and price. There is a prevailing attitude among Ethiopian consumers that price is an indicator of quality and safety. For sheep meat, Aga (2011) derived the relative importance of each prevailing quality and safety attribute in shaping consumer purchasing decisions. Hygiene is the most important attribute contributing to 37.4% overall utility, followed by freshness at 18.5%, price at 16.0%, official stamp at 14.3% and fat content at 13.8%. How consumers value these attributes could provide useful insights to processors and other value chain actors about what to produce and how to produce, which could be helpful in terms of market innovation and value chain upgrading. Ethiopia is evidently far from making significant inroads in livestock product development as the predominance of uncontrolled backyard slaughter indicates.Some supermarkets have meat retail sections and some are targeting meat as their main commodity, especially in Addis (MoA 2007c). These supermarkets are following international hygiene procedures and are equipped with cooling facilities to ensure safety. On the other hand, the vast majority of butchers in the country are selling fresh meat without cooling it. This is associated with the habit of eating raw meat, which requires freshness and will continue as long as the habit of raw meat consumption continues despite potentially serious public health implications.Export abattoirs are required to follow strict international regulations and maintain cold chains that are regularly monitored by inspectors from meat importing countries. They are required to produce chilled sheep and goat carcasses having 10-day shelf-life in destination markets. However, domestic slaughterhouses are not required to fulfil these standards (MoA 2007c  colour). For export meat products, grades enable purchase of unseen products once buyers have built confidence that the product delivered will be of a specified quality and type.Ethiopia's Quality and Standards Authority (EQSA) has developed grades and standards for live animals and carcasses; chilled and frozen mutton and goat specifications; codes of hygienic practices for processed meat products, fresh meat, mutton and goat meat, curried and canned specifications; and basic requirements for a livestock market. However, these codes remain unfamiliar to livestock traders and producers. To our knowledge, there isn't any livestock market in the country that is known to use this system. The application of these codes in the processing and grading of livestock products is minimal and no training was conducted for qualified graders to implement these quality standards and grades (Dugasa and Belachew 2009).The drafted regulatory text on live animal marketing contains articles that seek to enforce sales of animals at auction points and the respect of quality standards. The existing live animal grades and standards are not popularized nor enforced and a quality base pricing system is not being executed because professional graders are lacking. There are other articles that seek to enforce animal movement, health certificate requirements and transporting animals using adapted trucks. However, the use of such trucks by transport service providers is rare. The reason often evoked is the prohibitive cost of these specialized vehicles, especially when they are subjected to import duties. Overall, it seems that there is adds connection between the drafted regulatory framework and existing marketing practices. The draft proclamation requires some revision;otherwise it may have some unintended consequences by depressing formal market operations and encouraging informal cross border trade.Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) to the development of the small ruminant value chainThe Ethiopian small ruminant sector is challenged by several factors, ranging from supply of essential inputs and services to produce quality animals to processing products. The SWOT analysis of the Ethiopian small ruminant value chain is presented in Table 35.Table 35. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis of the Ethiopian small ruminant sector• Increased awareness of smallholder farmers/pastoralists about income diversification benefits of small ruminants.• Use of small ruminates, especially goats, as risk mitigation mechanisms in pastoral areas. Since loss of pastoralist assets(that usually depend on large ruminants) because recurrent droughts are increasing, they are shifting towards goats and camels as a coping strategy for the effects of climate change.• High number of trained livestock extension agents to support smallholder farmers in livestock production.• New veterinary faculties in more than six universities are producing a tremendous number of veterinarians every year. These veterinarians could be better organized either in the private sector or public institutions to improve the veterinary health service and support the supply of better quality animals to markets.• Federal and regional research centres and universities provide inputs for breed improvement and multiplication of technologies.• Different NGOs and smallholder farmers engaged in multiplication of forage seeds.• Multiplication of livestock technologies such as breeding stock and forage planting materials is limited because research centres and universities are not mandated to multiply technologies apart from their on-farm activities and they have limited capacity to do so.• Most public breed multiplication farms and ranches are privatized and owners shifted them to other nonlivestock farming activities. As a result, there is a large shortage of improved breeding stock.• Forage seeds and other planting materials are not commercialized and markets are not developed for these commodities. Forage development is usually a project initiative that ceases with the lifetime of projects.• Improved conservation and use of crop residues does not get enough attention and this resource is not efficiently utilized. Though huge amounts of crop residues are produced in the crop-livestock mixed farming systems, farmers are not trained in their proper conservation and use. Producers are not aware of different treatment mechanisms to increase the nutritional value of crop residues.• There is no clear breeding policy. Emphasis is given to introduction of exotic breeds and crossing them with indigenous breeds rather than selection and improvement of indigenous breeds.• Inefficiency of genotype multiplication farms. Most of the existing ranches/farms operate under capacity due mainly to understaffing, budget constraints and weak management systems.• Lack of private sector participation in multiplication of genotypes and forage planting materials and shortage of improved breeds and forage planting materials.• Feed shortages and absence of a well-established feed marketing system in most parts of the country.• Shortage of veterinary drugs and clinical equipment in veterinary clinics and health posts, mainly because of inadequate budget allocations by regional governments. The problem of drug shortages is resolved by Oromia and Amhara regional states mainly through allocation of revolving funds at the Woreda level, however, this problem still exists in other regional states. Shortage of clinical equipment is a general problem in all regions because drug revolving funds are not used for this purpose.• Shortage of veterinary personnel. The government has built at least one veterinary clinic in each district and one veterinary health post in three Kebeles. One veterinary technician is assigned to serve the community in each health post. This technician is expected to do both technical veterinary services and administrative issues, including financial management. Because the Kebeles cover large areas, one technician could not satisfy the service demand from the community.• Shortage of transportation facilities for veterinary service providers. Farmers and pastoralists need emergency veterinary services at their places because it is difficult to transport sick animals or pregnant animals that have delivery problems. However, technicians in most places do not have transportation such as ordinary bicycles, motorcycles, cars,or horses to respond to such demands.• Limited participation of private sector operators in provision of veterinary services and drug supply. This is mainly because of a highly subsidized public veterinary system that does not charge the real cost of services. Farmers/pastoralists are accustomed to very low service charges that are not attractive for private sector operators. This may need either withdrawal of the government from the veterinary clinical service or devising a level playing field for both public and private service providers.• An increasingly high demand for shoat meat in Middle East and North African countries. The demand for Ethiopian shoat meat has dramatically increased following market promotion activities and the general increase in demand for meat globally. This has created an opportunity for shoat producers to sell more goats and sheep at better prices. Meat exports have increased from 870 t in 1991 to about 18,000 t in 2011/12 and more than 90% is shoat meat (Legesse et al. 2008).• Government commitment and support to increase export of meat. In its five-year growth and transformation plan, the government has decided to increase meat exports to 110,000 tby 2015. The government envisages earning USD 1 billion from the export of meat and live animals by this time. Thus, GoE is committed to support all actors involved in development of livestock value chains in the country. It is assessing constraints along the meat export value chain and is ready to take all the necessary measures to increase the supply of live shoats to export abattoirs and export of meat according to targets set in the GTP. This creates better market opportunities for shoat producers.• Suitable agro-ecology to produce different livestock species.• Availability of a significant livestock population.• Increasing domestic and international demand for meat.• Proximity to Middle East countries relative to other meat and live animal exporting countries.• Attention of NGOs to small ruminants as a mechanism to diversify household income and create household assets.• Efforts to introduce and disseminate improved forage species by GOs and NGOs Threats • High competition in export markets. Ethiopian meat exports compete with meat exported from Australia, India and other countries that provide higher quality products.• Recurrent droughts in pastoral areas. Pastoral areas are prone to recurrent droughts in which shortages of forage and water damages livestock herds and flocks.• Huge informal trade absorbs the majority of animals and escalates domestic prices, reducing competitiveness of formal export markets.• Frequent clan conflicts in pastoral areas result in supply shortages in major markets. The Ethiopian pastoral system includes different ethnic groups with their own clan subdivisions. Conflicts frequently arise between different ethnic groups as well as clans within specific ethnic groups. Conflicts are not predictable and can happen when the export market is at peak demand. Such conflicts result in supply shortages in livestock markets.• Repeated bans on Ethiopian livestock and meat by importing countries. The Ethiopian livestock and meat export trade is jeopardized by repeated bans, in particular from countries on the Arabian Peninsula, because its products are perceived as carrying livestock diseases.• Prevalence of different diseases and parasites reduces the productivity of small ruminants.• Weeds/tree species invade grazing lands in the highlands and dominate the bushes in pastoral areas• Informal veterinary drug trade and poor regulatory system to control it. Besides the formal public veterinary clinics and private veterinary drug shops, there is a huge informal livestock drug business in the country. These are contraband businesses with products of unknown source sold in the market without any sense of responsibility. The regulatory system is incapable of controlling such businesses, leading ordinary shops, human pharmacies and other traders operating in open air markets to get involved in selling livestock drugs.Ethiopia is endowed with abundant livestock resources; however,overall productivity of the livestock sector is very low. The level of participation of smallholder farmers and pastoralists in sheep and goat markets is very low, mainly because of high mortality and low fertility rates that limit herd size per household. Improved fertility and reducing the mortality rate are required to increase flock size sufficiently to allow smallholders to sell more animals more often than they do now. This requires a number of actions, including:• Increased investments in animal health services and making those services accessible to smallholders at the right time and at affordable prices.• Improved content and quality of livestock extension services. Extension messages should be designed to advise producers to better utilize scarce feed resources to improve productivity and quality of marketed animals.• Revision of the extension package to influence the marketing behaviour of producers.• The Ethiopian small ruminant population is almost entirely indigenous breeds with a very small portion represented by exotic breeds. Breed improvement activities to select indigenous breeds or crossbreed with high quality exotic breeds are lacking. The low proportion of exotic and crossbred animals is because of reliance on multiplication of breeding stock at federal and regional research centres and higher education institutions that do not have a mandate for large-scale multiplication. These institutions also lack the capacity because they were established to undertake research and multiplication of a limited number of animals mainly for demonstration. Considering the need for huge investments to setup big multiplication centres within a short time, more economical and sustainable alternative strategies to this problem are needed. One of those strategies is promotion of community-based breeding programs whereby the community selects its best performing animals and uses collective action in their maintenance, multiplication and marketing. This does not involve much external investment and could be carried out by farmers/pastoralists once they are trained and closely supported by professionals. The other option is strengthening existing public livestock multiplication centres. Existing public farms perform under capacity. In order to satisfy the national needs for livestock extension inputs, the capacity of existing public multiplication centres needs to be enhanced for them to operate with the necessary competence to carry out their mission. This may need budgetary support so that they will fulfil their human resource requirements, facility maintenance and cover their running costs.• Delivery of animal health services in Ethiopia is predominantly performed by the public sector and is far from satisfactory, leaving many areas without services. The presence of private veterinary practices on the ground is spotty and does not give an indication of active participation. This is mainly attributed to a subsidized service rendered by the public sector which is far below its actual cost. Competition with such a subsidized system may not be as such attractive for the private sector. Thus, creating a level playing field for the private sector to compete with the public service is mandatory to improve the animal health service delivery system. Three issues are of paramount importance for participation of the private sector in an animal health delivery system:• Animal health practitioners with the necessary educational background need to be certified to deliver services both in the form of drugstore and/or clinical operations.• New graduates from the different veterinary faculties are unemployed while there is shortage of personnel to properly address the required health services in the country. This calls for encouraging these young professions to be engaged in private services, which may involve providing credit (initial capital) and developing their business skills.• In light of the shortage of skilled animal health personnel to render services with wider coverage than is currently available, utilization of paravets under the supervision of vets should be expanded. Recurrent monitoring and training to update their skills is also essential.• The current focus on distribution of improved seeds and other plant materials for fodder crops to improve on farm feed resources is commendable. However, it is limited by a chronic shortage of seeds/cuttings. These plant materials are multiplied by some research centres and higher education institutions. Unlike crop seeds, there is no private or public institution dedicated to multiplication of these materials. Markets are not developed for fodder planting materials because they have been distributed for free. To attract participation of private sector operators or promote farmer-based multiplication of these materials, there is a need to develop markets for forage plant materials.• Most extension interventions in feed development focus mainly on introduction and use of improved fodder in the highlands and rangeland management in the lowlands. However, farmers in the highlands and lowland agropastoral areas produce ample amounts of crop residues (straw and stover), but use them wastefully during the harvest period. In most places, farmers do not conserve them properly. Because these crop residues have low digestibility and high fibre content, there is a need to augment these nutrient-deficient feeds with cheap and easily available protein-rich supplementary browse forage crops or through urea and/or molasses. Training and demonstrations for farmers and extension agents are needed.Currently, there is a huge demand for sheep and goat meat both in domestic and export markets. Though willingness to pay for different quality attributes varies, both domestic and export markets need well-conditioned animals at competitive prices. There is very high demand for fattened, non-castrated, young male sheep and goats in domestic and export markets, but farmers in most parts of Ethiopia follow a traditional fattening practice that demands feeding an animal for more than a year after it is castrated. There is a need for interventions targeted to change such practices into quick feeding of animals in a more cost effective way that allows producers more turnover and with better margins. Such interventions would enable producers to catch both the domestic and export markets with better quality products.The major export markets for Ethiopian sheep and goat meat are the Middle East countries. These countries are importing cuts of meats in addition to chilled carcasses. Exporting meat cuts increases the value of meat and also creates more employment opportunities, but Ethiopia is currently exporting mainly chilled carcasses and offal. This implies a need to build the capacity of private sector operators and motivate them to broaden their product line.Participation by smallholder farmers and pastoralists in livestock markets is low. Sales are often driven by need rather than being a node in the business continuum. Under such circumstances, investment in high-payoff inputs when available is limited, thus extension education about market incentives is necessary to improve productivity and sustain production gains. Such changes often occur slowly because smallholders and pastoralists tend to participate in markets only if compelled to by their specific circumstances.An analysis of cost structure indicated that transportation accounts for the highest share of marketing costs. Animals are transported using various means, including ordinary trucks not suitable for livestock transportation. Besides direct monetary costs, the impact of such transportation on marketing is far reaching. It tends to induce stress and weight losses that affect meat quality at slaughter. The need to enforce the rules and regulations about animal transportation by means of designated livestock trucks is important.Overall, the outlook for the Ethiopian livestock sector is expected to follow its long-run trend with no significant changes. For the sector to thrive, significant interventions are needed to improve its trajectory. These include actions on the input generation and delivery system, including genetic resources, feeds, animal health, credit and other relevant production factors, including land. It is only through these interventions that value chain development can be expected.","tokenCount":"19875"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"07292c0d84838715b271b253fe89c346","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/796325fe-7a91-4e43-9b08-8104de78cb72/retrieve","id":"1127889576"},"keywords":["drought","maize","multinomial switching regression","impact","Uganda"],"sieverID":"ae0610c2-da48-48d3-a416-78b0ed4f2e7e","pagecount":"18","content":"Habte E, Marenya P, Beyene F and Bekele A ( ) Reducing susceptibility to drought under growing conditions as set by farmers: The impact of new generation drought tolerant maize varieties in Uganda.Given the challenges brought about by the increasing frequency of climatic stressors (droughts) and other biotic challenges (pests and diseases), breeding for tolerance to these traits is now seen as an indispensable adjunct to the enhancement of yield potential. Drought tolerant (DT) maize varieties that do well under moderate drought and outperform (or do not underperform) commercial checks under normal rainfall are becoming available. This study examines the role of these maize varieties in mitigating the e ects of drought on maize yields in drought-prone areas of eastern Uganda. We estimate the causal impact of these new generations of maize varieties using a multinomial endogenous switching regression treatment e ect framework. The average treatment e ects of adopting DT maize show that farmers who actually cultivated DT maize achieve % more yield than what they would have obtained with non-DT hybrids. Similarly, average treatment e ects on the untreated, revealed that farmers who grew non-DT modern and local maize would have and % more yield, respectively, if they instead had adopted DT maize. While being superior to all other maize seeds, the magnitudes of the benefits of DT maize varieties were more pronounced in areas with comparatively less rainfall amount providing strong evidence that the yield potential of these varieties is stable across space and a wide range of rainfall conditions. If the genetic gains of these varieties can be secured over the long term, their impacts in improving the resilience of maize farming systems are likely to be considerably large and favorable.Achieving food security and related goals cannot happen without considerable enhancement of agricultural productivity through high yielding crop cultivars. The enhancement of yield potential has been the cornerstone of maize breeding programs for decades and justifiably so (Bänziger et al., 2006;Cairns et al., 2013). Yet, given the challenges brought about by the increasing frequency of climatic stressors (droughts) and other biotic challenges (pests and diseases), breeding for tolerance to these traits is now seen as an indispensable adjunct to the enhancement of yield potential. High-yielding varieties that are susceptible to droughts, pests, or diseases are not likely to impart the needed resilience to the millions of African families who depend on staple crop production under precarious economic and climatic conditions.Ongoing climatic changes have exceeded farmers' existing adaptive capacities and experiences (Fisher and Carr, 2015). Traditional low-cost practices, such as shifting planting dates, changing crop species, or switching between existing crop varieties, used by African farmers may no longer be adequate to mitigate the negative impacts of weather variability (see Fisher et al., 2015). Projections on the impact of climate change in SSA suggest that in the absence of more climate-resilient crops, drought-induced constraints will not only decrease yield but also amplify the rate at which yield loss will happen (Li et al., 2009;Cairns et al., 2013). Conceivably, drought-related challenges will continue to threaten the region's prospect of achieving food security.About 40% of the maize area in Africa faces occasional drought stress that may lead to yield losses of about 10-25%. Nearly, a quarter of the maize crop suffers from frequent drought which involves losses extending up to half of the potential harvest (Fisher et al., 2015). Likewise, in Uganda, maize production is predominantly rain fed and, therefore, vulnerable to weather and climatic risks such as extreme temperature and drought [Hartmann et al., 2013;Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2014]. Improving maize production and productivity thus requires dealing with these challenges, not least the threats of drought-induced yield losses or even crop failure (Twinomugisha, 2005;Ekiyar et al., 2010;Nabikolo et al., 2012). Such risk is notable; particularly, because maize is most susceptible to drought stress occurring at the flowering and grain-filling stage which can cause barrenness and serious yield degradation (Magorokosho et al., 2009).Maize is an important crop among Uganda's staple crop system. It is cultivated by at least 86% of smallholder farmers across all agro-ecologies [United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 2010; Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2013], shared 63% of the area planted to cereals, ranked third after plantain and cassava in average daily calories intake, and a major source of income for most farmers in eastern, northern, and north-western Uganda [Ferris et al., 2008; United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 2010]. Maize productivity in Uganda is three to four times less than the potential [Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fishery (MAAIF), 2011 ;Ahmed, 2012]. The overall trend of production, area, and yield shows that yield has either stagnated or declined, and the growth in maize production has primarily been due to area expansion [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2013]. Efforts at developing and mainstreaming new drought-tolerant varieties are important to ensure resilient maize production systems in the decades to come.New maize varieties that can withstand drought and achieve yield parity with legacy varieties under normal rainfall conditions offer farmers greater flexibility in adapting to these changes (Lobell et al., 2008;Lybbert and Sumner, 2012). In the last decade or so, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) has facilitated the development of over 200 such maize varieties. The Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) was such a project.Multi-location on-farm trials conducted in eastern and southern Africa by CIMMYT scientists in conjunction with those from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and national research institutes in 13 SSA countries have demonstrated the strong agronomic performance of these new drought tolerant (DT) maize seeds. The evidence from these trials suggests that these new generations of DT maize varieties can out-yield commercial hybrid checks by 83-137% (controlled drought), 26-47% (random drought), and 25-56% (under optimal rainfall conditions) (Fisher et al., 2015). Additionally, an ex-ante impact assessment suggested that wider adoption of DT maize varieties developed through DTMA can generate US$ 532 million of increased maize grain value under conservative yield improvement. These maize seeds are expected to reduce not only the chances of drought-related harvest failure but also harmful post-failure coping strategies like reducing food consumption, selling assets, or withdrawing children from school (La Rovere et al., 2014).While researcher-managed trials have largely confirmed that the DT varieties have superior yield advantage, especially, when \"all states of nature\" (normal rainfall and moderate drought conditions) are considered, the realization of these benefits on farmers' fields under their own management and resource conditions is another matter. It is only when farmers can observe these benefits for themselves under their own growing conditions will they sustainably adopt these varieties. Although the ex-ante assessments based on simulated yields predicted positive impacts of using these varieties on yield potential, food security, and household income, these results remain to beThe DTMA project was implemented by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in conjunction with International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and national research institutes in African countries including Uganda.Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems frontiersin.org replicated by data retrieved from farmers' fields. The most recent adoption studies (such as those by Tambo and Abdoulaye, 2013;Fisher and Carr, 2015;Fisher et al., 2015) that looked into the level and determinants of DT maize seed adoption, generally did not address the incremental yield or economic impacts of these seeds under farmers' conditions. This study is designed to offer evidence of the impact of the new DT varieties in reducing susceptibility (potential harm) due to drought in the form of yield penalty based on farmers' own production data to determine if the promise of these varieties is being realized on-farm, i.e., under growing conditions as set by farmers. An important contribution to this study is that our analysis uses plot-level survey data collected from 34 villages in Uganda to examine, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, the causal effect of cultivating DT maize seed on the productivity of maize farmers operating in droughtprone areas of eastern Uganda. The study further evaluates if the cultivation of DT maize had meaningfully larger per unit production of maize when compared to other commercial maize varieties developed for other traits than drought. Finally, using locally observed rainfall data, we spatially correlate the impacts of DT with observed rainfall conditions. This was important to determine the impacts of DT varieties both under adequate and less adequate rainfall. The yield stabilization effect of DT varieties is their key advantage. This study helps to confirm this using farmer survey data as an important check on on-station or researcher managed trials.Data for the present study came from a household survey conducted in Uganda between June and August 2014. The geographical focus was eastern Uganda, where the DT maize seed dissemination activities have been concentrated. The region constitutes 32 districts lying over an area of 39,478.8 hectares covering about 16% of the total area of Uganda. The elevation of the area ranges between 1,075 and 1,524 m above sea level. The region's population is estimated at 9,154,960 of which about 90% lives in rural area. The average household size for the region is about 4.9 vs. 4.7 for the country as a whole [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2014]. The mean annual rainfall varies from 1,374 to 2,058 mm with a range between 895 and 3,001 mm. The rainfall exhibits significant annual and seasonal variation in the amount and distributional pattern (Kansiime et al., 2013). The region has three distinct agroecological zones (AEZs) viz., Lake Victoria Crescent; Southern and Eastern Lake Kyoga basin; and Mount Elgon high farmlands. These AEZs also capture variability in altitude, soil productivity, cropping system, livestock systems, and land use intensity. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood in the region. Crop production is dominant.The major crops produced in the region are finger millet, maize, rice, sweet potato, and cassava. The region accounted for about 38% of the total maize area and half of the total maize produced in Uganda in 2008/09 [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2012]. Important livestock includes cattle, small ruminants (goats and sheep), pigs, and poultry (chicken, ducks, turkey). While about 57% of agricultural households face food shortages in certain periods of the year, the Eastern region was reported to have the highest percentage (30%) and the least was for the central region (17%). Households with access to credit are low both at the national (10%) and in the Eastern region (9%). From 31% of the agricultural households using improved seed, the region has the highest share (43.7%) vs. the lowest in the Western region (16.6%) [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2010]. The Eastern region is subject to the vagaries of climate variability. The effect of climate variability is assumed to be complicated by poorly developed economic and social services and infrastructures, and severe poverty status in the region. Generally, the region is characterized by a combination of acute poverty, vulnerability to drought, floods, landslides, and natural resource degradation (Kansiime et al., 2013).Unlike many cross-sectional data sets, the current data has information on the spatial heterogeneity of selected districts which we use as a proxy for the temporal dimension of rainfall variability. Multistage sampling was employed to identify sample households for the study. In the first stage, three districts were purposively selected from Lake Victoria Crescent agroecological zones (LVC AEZs) of the eastern region where drought risk is more likely and where the DT maize seeds are disseminated. The LVC AEZ is one of the three distinct AEZs in the eastern region of Uganda which includes the southern and eastern Lake Kyoga basin and Mount Elegon high farmlands (Figure 1). These AEZs are mainly differentiated by the amount of rainfall. According to 40-year (1971-2010) observational rainfall data for the region, there is significant inter-annual rainfall variation within and across AEZs. Particularly, the long-term data show that the LVC exhibits significant intra-and inter-seasonal rainfall variations (Kansiime et al., 2013). The sample districts (Iganga, Tororo, and Bulambuli) are geographically well spread across the LVC AEZ (see Figure 1). Accordingly, they are assumed to account for the spatial heterogeneity as well as the temporal rainfall variability within this AEZ. In the second stage, we used probability proportional to size sampling to select a total of 34 out of 3,119 villages from the study districts. Details of the number of households in each village were acquired from the 2012 Uganda population and housing census of enumeration areas by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS). Finally, from each sampled village, 12 households were selected for interview using a simple random sampling technique. The interview involved 696 individuals (householders and their spouses) drawn from a total of 408 sampled households.Both household and plot-level data were collected through face-to-face interviews using two structured questionnaires, viz., a household and an individual questionnaire. A village questionnaire was also used to interview key informants [including extension workers, local council chairpersons (an elected head of the village-the lowest administrative level), progressive farmers, and local opinion leaders] regarding villagelevel variables such as input/output prices, distance to markets, and subjective assessments of rainfall patterns.The survey covered plot-level information where for each plot, the respondent recounted the names and details of maize varieties cultivated during the 2013/2014 production year. Other plot-level data collected included slope, soil fertility, plot size, irrigation access, plot tenure, erosion incidence, crop production estimates, and input use. Important socioeconomic and demographic variables collected were age (number of the year lived), gender, education (number of school years), family size (number of household members), access to extension service (dummy variable for the source of information), the likelihood of getting credit (dummy variable), and social capital (an index calculated based on the number of groups the respondent is a member out of a list of selected group related to agricultural activity). Moreover, maize network size was defined as the number of other farmers the respondent regularly talks to get information regarding maize farming, the number of progressive farmers in the respondent's village, the number of DT maize seeds known to the respondent, and sources of information on new maize seed were also retrieved from the respondents.We collected data on drought shocks based on the number of times the farmer could remember having encountered drought and drought-induced maize harvest loss in the previous 5 years prior to the date of the interview (i.e., 2010-2014). Experiencing frequent episodes of drought may influence farmers' decisions to cultivate DT or other types of maize that withstand droughts and help minimize yield losses.Data related to rainfall patterns were collected from village key informants based on their subjective assessment of the timeliness, amount, and distribution in the major growing season immediately prior to the date of the survey. We considered farmers' perception of the timeliness (onset and cession), adequacy (whether the amount received is enough to Progressive farmers are those who achieve higher agricultural yields and earn higher agricultural profits than other farmers. These farmers are also usually the first in the village to adopt new technologies.Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems frontiersin.org support maize production), and distribution [based on rainfall availability at critical growth stages and extent of dry-spell (based on farmers' estimate of the time interval between any rainy day and the next rainy day) experienced] of rainfall to construct an index variable for the adequacy of rainfall or lack thereof. Perceived responses to each of these items (as \"yes\" or \"no\") were coded as favorable and unfavorable rainfall outcomes and averaged over the number of questions. The index values range from zero to one where one stands for a favorable outcome and zero for the worst. While farmers' decision to cultivate a particular maize seed (i.e., DT or non-DT maize seed) may depend on their expectations regarding rainfall pattern, their perception of the actual rainfall pattern may help to explain the performance of a particular type of maize cultivated (Teklewold et al., 2013). Also, the survey involved the administration of a risk elicitation experiment to measure farmers' risk preferences (risk-taking behavior) using Gneezy and Potters (1997) risk elicitation mechanism. The experiment provided a hypothetical situation that elicits the risk preference of farmers based on actual pay-offs made following: (1) respondents' choice from the combination of high and no-risk maize seeds and (2) probabilistic determination of weather conditions (favorable or unfavorable outcomes) which is based on the toss of a coin. Farmers' risk-taking behavior is important in explaining decisions regarding the cultivation of new maize varieties as a potential adaptation strategy. Although DT maize seeds are developed to deal with drought risk, a decision to switch to new unfamiliar varieties may involve some risk, the potential benefits notwithstanding. Farmers who are more vulnerable to extreme weather events are less likely to use improved varieties as an effective means to cope with drought; instead, they tend to delay it (Cavatassi et al., 2011;Liu, 2013). In this study, we expect that farmers who are averse to risk could decide to cultivate DT maize if their belief in drought tolerance of the variety outweighs the potential risk associated with its being new.Given that the DT maize seeds are developed for drought tolerance and yield, farmers who have a preference for these two traits are expected to cultivate these varieties. Farmers' preferences for these traits are captured based on whether he/she mentioned them among his/her most preferred traits of maize variety. Social capital may exert behavioral influences in various ways (that is, information sharing, positive externality, resource sharing, and relaxing liquidity constraints through informal credit). The possible roles of farmers' social capital in the decision to grow DT maize are captured using the social capital index constructed based on group membership, roles assumed in each group, the nature of the group composition (homogeneous or diverse), and its functionality.Actual rainfall data are preferable for the purpose, but reliable data that are villagespecific are scarce in most developing countries, including Uganda.The adoption of new technology is often modeled as a utilitymaximizing choice between two or more alternatives. It can be influenced by the characteristic features embodied in the technology and many other factors. Observed adoption choice of agricultural technology (for example, modern crop varieties) is hypothesized to be the end result of a process of preference comparisons by farmers.In this study, adoption is defined as the reported use of DT maize variety (that is when the farmer exactly mentions the variety by name) on a specific plot managed by the head or spouse of a household during the 2013/14 growing season. Adopting the utility maximization concept, a maize farmer (also referred to as plot manager )-who has to make decisions regarding what type of maize to grow-has three possible alternatives, which are DT modern maize, non-DT modern maize, and \"unimproved\" or local maize seed. Each one of these categories of choice includes a distinct list of maize varieties. Plots are identified with the type of maize varieties cultivated by matching the name of the varieties reported by farmers with the list under each category. The DT maize seeds are mainly developed for drought tolerance and yield whereas the non-DT modern maize seeds are developed for traits other than drought (mostly higher yields under optimal conditions). The actual choice is assumed to be made based on farmers' utility derived from the adoption of one of these maize varieties.Farmers' decisions to adopt a particular maize seed are assumed to be driven by maximization of the utility derived from the alternative types of maize seeds. For farmer i to choose any maize type, j, from available alternatives, m, it is required that U ij > U im , m = j; the expected benefit, U ij , that a farmer derives from the adoption of maize type j (that is, DT, non-DT modern, or local maize) is a latent variable determined by observed household, individual, plot, and location characteristics (X i ), and unobserved characteristics (e ij ):Where X i is a vector of observed exogenous variables; β j is a vector of parameters to be estimated for each type of maize; andPlot manager, also referred to as farmer, refers to the head or spouse in a household who made decision (had management access) regarding what type of maize variety to cultivate on a given household plot.In this study unless specified, modern maize refers to all improved maize seed-DT or non-DT modern maize. In addition, the terms \"DT maize\" and \"non-DT maize\" are used in subsequent sections to denote DT modern maize and non-DT modern maize, respectively. While modern maize seeds are products of formal breeding process, the local ones are results of farmers own long years of selection. for all m = j, (2) Equation ( 2) implies that ith farmer will adopt modern maize type j to maximize his/her expected gain (η ij ) if j provides greater benefit than any other alternative type of maize m; that is, if Bourguignon et al., 2007).Assuming that e ij are independently and identically Gumbel distributed, the probability that farmer i with characteristics X will choose maize type j can be specified by a multinomial logit (MNL) model (McFadden, 1973):Since MNL is a model where regressors do not vary over choices, coefficients are estimated for any choice. MNL requires identification, thus one of the choices of m maize types (the local maize seed in our case) is treated as the base category (correspondent β m is constrained to equal 0).Based on the adoption literature, farmers' decisions to adopt a new agricultural technology depend, among others, on socioeconomic, demographic, and institutional factors. Hence, the choice of explanatory variables in this study is made based on a review of past studies on technology adoption and impact in developing countries (these include Feder et al., 1985;Bandiera, 2006;Deressa et al., 2009;Matuschke and Qaim, 2009;Kafle, 2010;Kassie et al., 2011;Asfaw et al., 2012;Teklewold et al., 2013;Fisher and Carr, 2015;Jain et al., 2015). This body of literature indicates that many factors influence adoption and thus affect our outcome variable. The factors are categorized as demographic and farmer characteristics (family size, gender, age, education, risk attitude, preference to drought tolerance, preference to yield, drought risk perception, experience of maize loss due to drought), social and institutional characteristics (social capital, number of progressive farmers in the village, main sources of information, credit access, distance to input market, distance to extension office), maize plot characteristics (plot size, tenure, extent of erosion, soil fertility, slope, irrigation), and geographic characteristics (captured through district dummies).A fundamental problem when comparing adoption outcomes between individuals is that adoption is not randomly assigned-farmers endogenously select themselves into adopters or non-adopters of particular technologies. So decisions are likely to be influenced by both observed and unobserved characteristics. Unobserved factors that can influence adoption include aptitude, motivation, experience, or other factors, which are not readily observed in the present data. These \"other\" factors may be correlated with the adoption outcome. As adopters and non-adopters can be systematically different, estimating the effect of adoption without accounting for this implied endogeneity problem would lead to inaccurate results where outcomes are attributed to adoption when in fact significant aspects of the outcome are the result of other factors not accounted for. We apply an endogenous switching regression treatment effects approach to correct for self-selection bias (Dubin and McFadden, 1984) and provide treatment effects that take both observed and unobserved factors into account.The endogenous switching regression (ESR) framework we used to estimate the impact of adoption while accounting for selection biases involves two stages. In the first stage, farmers' choices of maize types are modeled using the MNL selection model as specified above; and in the second stage of the estimation, the impact of adoption on the outcome variable is evaluated using ordinary least squares (OLS) which includes a selectivity correction term from the first stage.The relationship between the outcome variable and the set of exogenous variables Z is estimated for the maize type chosen. The outcome equation for each possible regime j is given asWhere Y ij are the outcome variables of the i th farmer in regime j, Z is as defined above, and the error terms (u) are distributed with E(u ij |X,Z) = 0 and var u ij X, Z = σ 2 j . For consistent estimation, Equation (4) will be augmented with plotspecific unobservable characteristics such as land quality that can help in controlling for unobserved heterogeneity among plots. Y ij is observed if and only if alternative j is adopted which  4) requires the inclusion of the selection correction terms of the alternative choices as recovered from the MNL models. Bourguignon et al. (2007) show that consistent estimates of the parameter in the above equation can be obtained by estimating the following multinomial endogenous switching regression models:Where θ j is the covariance between e's and u's; and λ j is the inverse Mills ratio (IMR) computed from the estimated probabilities in Equation (3) as follows:of the selection equation and u's of the outcome equations, and ω represents error terms with an expected value of zero. In the multinomial choice setting, there are J-1 selection correction terms, one for each alternative maize type. The standard errors in Equation ( 5) are bootstrapped to account for the heteroscedasticity arising from the generated regressor (λ j ).For Equation (5) to be identified, it is good practice in empirical analysis to use variables that affect the choice decision but not the outcome variable (as exclusion restrictions) in addition to those automatically generated by the non-linearity of the selection regression. The specification chosen for the outcome equations in Equation ( 5) follows the common practice in the agricultural economics literature (see, e.g., Solis et al., 2007;Di Falco et al., 2011;Teklewold et al., 2013), allows us to use variables related to information sources, farmer and farm household's characteristics as well as including the number of DT maize varieties known to the farmer as exclusion restriction. The validity of the exclusion restriction is tested based on the significance of these variables in the selection model but not in the outcome equation.Using the above framework, the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) which is the average effect of adoption for adopters (DT maize growers), and on the untreated (ATU) which is the average effect of adoption for non-adopters, are both examined by comparing the expected actual and counterfactual outcomes. The computation of the counterfactual and average treatment effects using endogenous switching regression is implemented in the same manner as in Di Falco et al. ( 2011), Teklewold et al. (2013), and Kassie et al. (2014).Actual outcomes forAdopters:Counterfactual outcomes forAdopters:While Equations ( 6) and ( 7) represent the actual outcome observed in the sample for adopters and non-adopters, respectively, Equations ( 8) and ( 9) are the respective counterfactual outcomes. These conditional expectations are used to compute ATT and ATU. The average adoption effect for adopters (ATT) is calculated as the difference between Equations ( 6) and ( 8). The difference between Equations ( 7) and ( 9) provides the average adoption effect for non-adopters (ATU). ATT, for example, is shown as follows:The first term on the right-hand side (RHS) of Equation ( 10) represents the expected change in adopters' average outcome if adopters' characteristics had the same return (coefficient) as the characteristics of non-adopters. In the second term (on the RHS), λ j , is the selection correction DT maize   term that captures all potential effects of difference in unobserved variables.The average treatment effect (ATE) can be calculated by taking the difference between the two actual outcomes (Equations 6, 7). In observational studies, ATE gives the treatment effect without accounting for selection bias. The computation of the conditional expectations and treatment effect are summarized in Table 1.About 77% of the sampled respondents grew modern maize varieties of which 24% used DT maize. The average size of all maize plots was 0.40 hectares; the corresponding figure for plots allocated to all modern and only to DT maize seed was 0.41 and 0.45 hectares, respectively. DT growers tend to cultivate maize on relatively larger plots. The share of maize plots planted to DT maize was about 19%. Comparatively, non-DT modern maize seeds were widely cultivated covering 60% of the maize plots of the sample households. These maize seeds have been part of the seed systems in Uganda since the 1960s (Balirwa, 1992) and their spread might imply that over time the DT maize would also follow similar diffusion trends. At the time of this study, the uptake level of DT maize suggests that it is still at the early diffusion stages (Figure 2).Table 2 presents descriptive statistics of variables that are used in the empirical models (selection and outcome equation) applied to make casual attribution of adoption of DT maize. From the three types of maize used as the categorical dependent variable, local maize is used as the base category. The tests of goodness-of-fit reported at the bottom of the table show the model fits the data reasonably well. The Wald χ 2 test statistics (672.26) rejects the hypothesis that the regression coefficients of the explanatory variables are jointly equal to zero (p = 0.00). Accordingly, the result showed that the gender of plot managers, size of the maize plot, preference for the drought tolerance trait, number of DT varieties known to the plot manager, source of information on new maize seed and location dummies, as expected, influenced the probability of adopting DT maize varieties. Male-headed plot managers have a higher adoption probability than their female counterparts.Also, plot managers who receive information about new maize seed varieties from research centers and other farmers, are more likely to cultivate DT maize. Research can provide reliable technical information, but it may not be accessible to many farmers mainly due to limited presence in terms of geographical spread. As expected proximity to the nearest extension service increases the chances of adoption.Farmers who have a preference for DT traits are expected to cultivate DT maize. The results indicate that compared to the base category, preference for drought tolerance is an important driver for the adoption of DT varieties. This suggests that those who grow DT seeds are well-informed about this unique trait. Moreover, these DT varieties maintain (to a large degree) yield parity with extant hybrids. It stands to reason then that preference for DT trait would be the main differentiation for many farmers in evaluating DT varieties compared to non-DT ones.Finally, the positive correlation of some location dummies with adoption could be a reflection of agro-ecological factors (like rainfall) as well as other underlying unobserved spatial differences. The reference district (Iganga) received relatively better rainfall (in amount and distribution) over the main growing season (March-June; see Table A1). Comparatively, low  In parentheses are standard errors. Since the unit of analysis is plot, the standard error is adjusted for within-cluster correlation using the household identifier variable.rainfall signal at planting time (March) might have prompted a higher likelihood of growing DT maize seeds in Bulambuli and Tororo than in Iganga.The results presented in this section are based on the conditional and unconditional average effects of DT maize adoption on expected maize yield. The ATT and ATU are computed using the predicted value of yield following the schema presented in Table 1.The coefficient estimates from the second stage regression (OLS) are presented in Table A2. It is to be noted that the coefficients on selection correction terms are almost not significant suggesting that our results are unlikely to be driven by selection bias. The regression estimates without the correction terms remain similar but in the interests of brevity, we have not reported the results.The figures reported in Table 4 are expected values of yield. A simple pairwise comparison of means (ATE) indicates that cultivation of DT maize, on average, gives higher maize yield to  adopters than non-adopters who grew either non-DT or local maize. Such comparisons, however, could be misleading as it does not control for observed and unobserved factors that may influence the outcome variable. We used Equation (10) to estimate the true average adoption effect and compare the expected yield of farmers cultivating DT maize with their counterfactual outcome-if the same farmers had instead cultivated local or non-DT maize seed. The results indicated that both adopters and non-adopters would benefit from adoption. The magnitude of the adoption effect, however, differs when the comparison is between DT vs. non-DT and DT vs. local maize growers. The ATT showed that farmers who actually cultivated DT maize get 30% more yield than what they would have obtained had they instead adopted non-DT maize seed. The corresponding yield effects of adopting DT instead of local maize were four times high. Similarly, ATU revealed that farmers who grew non-DT modern and local maize received 32% and 54% more yield, respectively, if they instead had adopted DT maize. That is, non-adopters would have realized higher productivity if they decide to switch to DT maize.We examined the treatment effect both by location (districts) and rainfall status, the latter was determined using the rainfall index (as described in the data section). Table 5 presents the ATT and ATU of DT adoption against non-DT and local maize by the district. In all the districts, the average yield of DT outperformed that of non-DT and local maize. As would be expected, the magnitude of the ATT was relatively higher against local varieties than non-DT maize varieties. The ATT against local maize indicates a yield advantage ranging from 2.6 times at Tororo to six times at Iganga. The corresponding yield advantage for ATU ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 times more at Tororo and Bulambuli, respectively. The ATT against non-DT growers shows a yield advantage of 52% at Iganga, 18% at Tororo, and 17% at Bulambuli. The ATU (for DT vs. non-DT) had a relatively better yield advantage than the ATT in all the districts suggesting that the adoption of DT would have been even more beneficial to those who grew non-DT (had they grown DT) than those who already adopted DT.According to the rainfall records from proximate weather stations (Table A1), the amount of rainfall received by each of the study districts during the 2014 main season covered by the survey (that is, March-June 2014) was well below the long-term average (that is, 659 mm) reported by Kansiime et al. (2013). In relative terms, the Iganga district received a higher amount with better distribution during the main season of 2014. Theoretically, the treatment effect should have been pronounced more in the Bulambuli district where the amount and distribution of rainfall received during the surveyed season was relatively less favorable. But this might be an indication that district-level rainfall data adopted from the meteorological stations are less representative of the rainfall distribution under more granular scale conditions at the micro level, given the low density of weather stations in Uganda.To mitigate this, we tracked rainfall conditions/patterns at a lower level using the rainfall index constructed for each village. The index is then used to categorize the villages into those  which had potentially poor rainfall status (with a rainfall index value equal to or <0.5) and those which had potentially good rainfall status (with an index value greater than 0.5) in the 2014 main season.Table 6 shows the treatment effect by rainfall status of sample villages. In all cases, be it under poor or good rainfall conditions, DT adoption makes the productivity of adopters (ATT) and non-adopters (ATU) better off. Leaving the substantial yield advantage of DT maize adoption over local maize under the two states of rainfall aside, the treatment effect over non-DT reveals an interesting result. The average treatment effect (ATT) over non-DT maize under poor rainfall conditions was about 417 kg ha −1 , that is, cultivation of DT maize offers a yield advantage of 44% over what would have been obtained if the plot was instead planted to non-DT maize. The corresponding ATT under good rainfall conditions has an additional yield advantage of about 21%. This supports the claim that DT maize outperforms other commercial maize (non-DT) more in seasons when the rainfall condition is less favorable.Despite its inability to account for confounding effects, we further ran ANOVA of the linear prediction of DT yield as  a partial metric to compare its performance difference across the three districts. The result suggests a significant (p = 0.00) productivity difference in mean DT maize yield across the three districts. Pairwise yield comparisons between these districts further revealed statistically meaningful differences (Table 7). Bulambuli district-where the highest share (40%) of plots was planted to DT maize varieties-had the highest mean DT yield, and Tororo district had the least.To help in visualizing the results described above, we summarized these spatial variations in the impact of DT in Figure 3 based on the ATT comparing DT with local maize varieties (Figure 3A) and DT with non-DT maize varieties (Figure 3B). Although the mean ATT is positive and significant across all districts, there are pockets where the impact as measured by ATT was below the sample average. This can be seen in the Tororo district where both the magnitude of the impact is relatively lower (see Tables 5, 6), and the DT coefficient on the district dummy is comparatively smaller (see Table A2). Further examination of the particularities of the Tororo district might be worth looking at to bring out and learn about the underlying causes.This study evaluates the potential impact of maize varieties developed for drought tolerance. These varieties are said to stabilize maize yield under drought conditions thereby offering maize farmers living in drought-prone areas a greater possibility to adapt to climate change. The study utilizes crosssectional household and plot-level data collected from 696 plot managers of randomly selected 408 sample households. The finding of this study revealed that compared to plots planted to non-DT/local maize varieties, those planted to DT maize had superior yield performance both across locations and under varying rainfall conditions. Particularly, putting the superior yield performance of DT over non-DT maize varieties in favorable rainfall conditions aside, the more pronounced yield performance observed when the rainfall conditions were less favorable provides evidence that the yield potential of these varieties is stable across space and a wide range of rainfall conditions. Irrespective of locations and rainfall conditions, the magnitude of the yield impact of cultivating DT maize over non-DT maize, which is about 30% larger, is consistent with the previously reported experimental results which showed that DTs offer a yield advantage of 26-47% (random drought), and 25-56% (under optimal rainfall conditions) over commercial (non-DT modern) maize seeds (Fisher et al., 2015). As expected, the corresponding ATT (yield effect of adopting DT instead of local maize) was found many times larger. Likewise, it is not only the farmers who already started cultivating DT maize who reap the benefit but also farmers who grew non-DT modern and local maize would have potentially received 32 and 54% more yield benefits, respectively, if they instead had adopted DT maize. That is, non-adopters would have realized higher productivity if they decide to switch to DT maize. The results generally confirm the direct role and prospect of DT maize adoption in reducing susceptibility to drought, thereby improving food security and welfare status of maize farm households-as higher yields are likely to translate to a greater household food supply, sellable surplus, and better crop income, all else equal.Farmers' decision to cultivate DT maize tends to follow rainfall signals. Spatial differences observed in technology adoption across districts are partly the results of variable rainfall on-set signals across sample districts. Teklewold et al. (2013) and Kassie et al. (2014) also observed spatial differences in technology adoption induced by various factors. The DT impacts observed in each of the districts showed that the adoption of DT would have been even more beneficial to those who grew non-DT (had they grown DT) than those who already adopted DT. This implies that those not currently using DT maize would greatly benefit from them once the factors preventing these farmers from adopting them are removed.The impact analysis based on the rainfall condition indicated that cultivation of DT maize offers more yield  advantage over non-DT maize during relatively poor rainfall conditions than a favorable one (44 vs. 21%). This supports the claim that DT maize outperforms other commercial maize (non-DT) more in seasons when the rainfall condition is less favorable. In fact, the DT maize varieties are meant to ensure stable yield across variable rainfall conditions.The fact that DT maize seeds are cultivated by only about a fifth of the sample households is suggestive of an initial diffusion cycle. The relatively wider cultivation of other commercial non-DT maize varieties which had long been in the seed system suggests that over time the DT maize would follow a similar trend as most of the barriers would be removed. In addition, a higher potential benefit for non-adopters should they cultivate DT maize suggest the barriers to adoption are not occasioned by the low benefits of DT varieties, but by the interplay of factors such as access to information and ready availability of retail supplies of seed. For example, compared to the female head plot managers, higher adoption probability associated with plot managers who are male household heads could be an indication of variable access to key resources (land, capital, information, and so on) that can influence adoption decisions. Such gender-linked resource constraints which resulted in variable adoption status is also observed in earlier studies (Doss and Morris, 2001;Smale, 2011;Fisher and Kandiwa, 2014). Interventions to improve adoption might require, among others, appreciating and accommodating such gender-linked differences through affirmative actions in favor of female farmers.The implication is that public policy institutions involved in agricultural development may need to provide necessary supportive actions which can strengthen and leverage public extension services to promote these new generations of varieties. Government should underwrite programs for technology promotion and dissemination at early stages to provide the basis for the private sector (particularly input dealers) to enter into retailing these varieties. Promising policy mix to speed up adoption may include exposing farmers to these technologies through networks of field demonstrations and using farmers' social networks as most of the sample farmers relied on their fellow farmers for information. Distribution of sample seeds for farmers to experience the benefit and improving local availability of seed at affordable prices can accelerate the uptake of the DT maize varieties.Although this study presents evidence that the benefits of DT maize are commensurate or better than existing non-DT maize seeds, the results are based on crosssectional analysis which offers a snapshot and associational effects. In the future, panel data analysis will be needed to truly capture the dynamics and account for unobserved heterogeneities that underpin DT maize variety adoption and its corresponding impact.","tokenCount":"7099"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce717e722edee1de7f040954b5b47276","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3fe236a3-a82d-4e23-8c72-329dd76d4911/retrieve","id":"-1363502697"},"keywords":["Dairy cattle","greenhouse gases","climate change mitigation","feeding","manure management"],"sieverID":"0ca96574-c629-4895-8660-f390c76e88ad","pagecount":"39","content":"The demand for milk and dairy products is growing in Indonesia. At the same time, Indonesia has committed itself to substantially reduce national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Lowemission strategies are required to sustainably increase milk production of the Indonesian dairy sector. Objectives of this study were to estimate the current level of GHG emissions and land use of dairy farms in Lembang District, West Java, and evaluate the potential effects of feeding and manure management interventions on GHG emissions and land use. A life cycle assessment was used to estimate cradle-to-farm gate GHG emissions and land use of an average dairy farm in Lembang District, using data from a survey of 300 dairy farmers in Lembang in 2016. Total GHG emissions were 33 ton CO 2 e. per farm/year, and emission intensity was 1.9 kg CO 2 e per kg of fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) and 8.8 kg CO 2 e per kg live weight. Total estimated land use was 2.1 ha per dairy farm, which was equal to 1.2 m 2 per kg FPCM and 5.6 m 2 per kg live weight. Hotspots of GHG emissions were rumen enteric fermentation (CH 4 ), manure management (CH 4 and N 2 O; especially discharged manure), and off-farm feed production (CH 4 , N 2 O and CO 2 ; especially rice straw). Feeding and manure management interventions evaluated in a scenario analysis in this study changed total GHG emissions by -12 to +24%, and GHG emission intensity by -1 to -14%. Total land use changed by -6 to +22%, and land use intensity (i.e., land use per kg FPCM or life weight) by 0 to -11%. Largest reductions in GHG emission intensity were found in the scenarios with maize silage feeding, improved manure management, and an increased amount of roughage in the diet. We concluded that improvement of feeding and manure management can reduce GHG emissions and land use of dairy farms in Lembang District. As results were based on scenario analysis, the mitigation potential of interventions should be validated in practice.Marion de Vries 1 (MSc, PhD) is researcher in sustainable livestock production. Bram Wouters (MSc) is senior researcher in animal feeding and nutrition. Theun Vellinga (MSc, PhD)  The demand for dairy products in Indonesia has increased sharply over the past decades, and consumption is expected to continue to grow. Projections show that regional consumption in Southeast Asia is expected to grow by 13% between 2017 and 2026 (OECD/FAO, 2017). In addition, the government of Indonesia aims to increase domestic milk production to about 40% of national industrial demand by 2021 to increase its self-sufficiency and reduce dependency on imports. This increase in demand for dairy products may offer opportunities for Indonesian dairy farmers to increase milk production and income, and improve their livelihoods.Dairy farming in Indonesia is concentrated on Java, particularly in West and East Java, and takes place on small-scale, zero-grazing dairy farms. Most farms have little land for forage production, and productivity is below potential due to poor feeding, poor reproduction and animal health problems (De Vries and Wouters, 2017). This situation leads to challenges of obtaining sufficient and good quality fodder and recycling of manure as a fertilizer. Forage supply throughout the year is a challenge in regions with high livestock stocking densities, both in terms of quantity and quality. On many farms, waste management is poor, and manure pollutes water streams and rivers, while only a small part of manure is used to fertilize crop production. These challenges are common to many regions with a high livestock density in Southeast Asia.Total GHG emissions in Indonesia were 1.4 gigaton CO 2 e in 2000 (including land use change), with a considerable contribution from deforestation and land use change (Indonesian Ministry of Environment, 2010). Agriculture contributed 5% of Indonesia's total emissions. Dairy farming contributes to global warming via emissions of methane (CH 4 ) from enteric fermentation and manure management, nitrous oxide (N 2 O) from manure management and fertilizer application, and carbon dioxide from energy use (CO 2 ).To date, there are few studies that have estimated GHG emissions of Indonesian dairy production. Permana et al. (2012) estimated that GHG emissions from dairy cattle in Indonesia were 671 gigagram CO 2 e per year (CH 4 and N 2 O emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management only). More recently, Taufiq et al. (2016) reported on emission intensity: 2.3 kg CO 2 e per litre of milk among small-scale dairy farms in Pangalengan, West Java, and 1.5 kg CO 2 e per litre of milk in a 'modern' farm using a life cycle assessment (LCA).The Government of Indonesia has committed itself to reduce national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 29-41% compared to the business-as-usual scenario by 2030 (NDC, 2016). For agricultural sectors, Indonesia aims to realize a reduction in GHG emissions by increasing anaerobic digestion of cattle manure and provision of feed supplements to cattle, among other measures (NDC, 2016).An increase in milk production can be realized in two ways: by increasing number of cattle or by increasing productivity per head. Increasing the number of cattle is inherently associated with increases in GHG emissions, whereas an increase in productivity per head will most likely lead to a smaller or no increase in GHG emissions, depending on the measures taken.Improved feeding and manure management are measures known to increase productivity and potentially reduce GHG emission intensity of cattle production systems (Opio et al., 2013).To our knowledge, no LCA studies have evaluated feeding and manure management strategies to reduce GHG emissions from dairy farms in Indonesia. Our study conducted a survey of 300 dairy farmers in Lembang District, West Java, to identify characteristics of dairy farms and the constraints and opportunities for increasing productivity of farms (De Vries and Wouters, 2017). Lembang District has a high population density (2,390 people per km 2 in 2014), and a predominantly hilly landscape at an elevation between 1,312 and 2,084 m. Dairy farms are mostly small-scale, zero-grazing farms with an average herd size of 6 heads. Based on survey results and stakeholder meetings, a number of feeding and manure management options for improving productivity of dairy herds in Lembang have been suggested: increasing the amount of roughage in the feed ration, feeding a better quality conserved feed in the dry season, balancing feed rations according to nutritional requirements of cows, continuous water provision, reducing discharging of manure, and recycling of manure as a fertilizer for feed and food production. These interventions are in line with best practices guidelines for dairy farming (FAO and IDF, 2011).Objectives of the present study were to i) estimate current GHG emissions and land use of an average dairy farm in Lembang District, West Java, ii) identify hotspots of GHG emissions and land use, and iii) evaluate the potential effects of feeding and manure management interventions on the reduction of GHG emissions and land use.This study focused on small-scale dairy farms in Lembang District, West Java. Three hundred dairy farms were randomly selected from a list of 4,361 farms delivering milk to the largest dairy cooperative in Lembang; KPSBU Jabar (De Vries and Wouters, 2017). We evaluated GHG emissions of an average dairy farm in this district to estimate overall effects of strategies across the general population of dairy farms in Lembang.The global warming potential and land use of dairy value chains in Lembang were quantified following LCA. LCA evaluates the use of resources and emission of pollutants or other negative impacts along a production chain, according to ISO 14040 and 14044 (ISO, 2006).In this study, the LCA approach was based on international Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance (LEAP) Partnership Guidelines for Animal Feed and Large Ruminants (FAO, 2015a, b). These guidelines, developed by the LEAP partnership, reflect a common vision among partners to the initiative, including farmer organizations representing smallholders. The LEAP guidelines can be applied to smallholder farming systems, while enabling consistent and science-based environmental assessments, with a view to reduce the environmental footprint of animal products.The Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model (GLEAM) framework (MacLeod et al., 2017) was used to calculate environmental impacts using a LCA. The LCA in this model, which is defined in ISO standards 14040 and 14044 (ISO, 2006), simulates the interaction of activities and processes involved in livestock production and the environment. GHG emissions were assessed based on current IPCC Guidelines (2014), mainly working at Tier 2 level. The IPCC Tier 2 method was used for estimating enteric methane emissions and nitrogen and phosphorus excretions in the model.In this study, we considered the environmental impact categories global warming potential (GWP) and land use. For GWP characterization, factors of 1, 28, and 265 were used for CO 2 , CH 4 and N 2 O, respectively (IPCC, 2014).System boundaries of the dairy production system evaluated in this study are shown in Figure 1. All processes were assessed up to the farm gate (i.e., cradle-to-farm gate; including production of farm inputs and on-farm production activities, but excluding transport of animals and products to market or processing plants, processing, refrigeration, packaging, transport to retail distributor, and consumer). LCA can be performed in two ways: consequential or attributional. Consequential LCA aims at quantifying environmental consequences of a change in a production system or a change in product demand (Thomassen et al., 2008). In this study, we used attributional LCA, which aims at quantifying the environmental impact of the main product of a system in a status quo situation. GHG emissions related to land use and land use change (LULUC) were not included in the LCA. GHG emissions were estimated in two ways:total GHG emissions at the value chain level (cradle-to-farm gate);The allocation method used for emissions related to feed production was economic or digestible fraction allocation, depending on the type of feed ingredient (MacLeod et al., 2013). For allocation of emissions to milk and live weight, a causal relationship allocation was used, as this is the method preferred by International Dairy Federation (IDF) (Thoma et al., 2013).In In most farms, manure is flushed to outside the cow barn several times per day. In some farms, manure is first entered in a bio-digester before being discharged to the environment.In this study, we assumed the following emission factors for discharged manure:• For manure discharged daily from barns, CH 4 and N 2 O emission factors of 'anaerobic lagoon' were used (IPCC, 2014) with a leaching factor of 100%.• For manure discharged after anaerobic digestion (discharged digestate), the methane conversion factor of anaerobic digestion was used for CH 4 emissions, and the emission factor of daily discharging of manure for N 2 O (see previous bullet).Primary data used in the LCA analysis were mainly based on results of a survey of 300 dairy farms in Lembang, as described in De Vries and Wouters (in press). Farms in this survey were small-scale, zero-grazing farms with an average herd consisting of 4 adult cows and 2 young stock, and an average milk production of 4,415 kg milk per cow/year. Most farms were specialized dairy farms (84%), and in nearly all farms the main purpose of keeping cattle was to produce milk for sale. Few farmers had other sources of income. Farmers owned/rented small areas of land for production of fodder or food crops, implying a very high stocking density (on average 46 livestock units/ha). Sixteen percent of the farms were managed by female farmers. More details can be found in De Vries and Wouters (in press).Primary data and data sources used in the LCA are shown in Table 1 and 2  (Verweij, 2017), which were selected from the list of farms in the survey described in De Vries and Wouters (in press). For some aspects of herd performance, additional data were collected from literature (Table 1). The composition of the feed ration assumed in this study (Table 2) was based on results of the survey of De Vries and Wouters (in press) and Verweij (2017). The reason for combining results is that the survey only included relative shares of different types fodder fed, whereas absolute amounts of feed and fodders were quantified in on-farm measurements in the study of Verweij (2017). compound feed 1 6.9 5.0 2.31 Compound feed was assumed to be 0.3 kg higher than report for the dry season, to obtain similar production levels in dry and wet season in the ISNM model.Composition of the compound feed and production location were derived from the dairy cooperative KPSBU Lembang (2016). Two types of compound feed were used in KPSBU dairy farms:• Quality A 1 : wheat pollard (80%), corn gluten feed (13%), dregs of soy sauce (3%), CaCO3 (3%);1 For the calculation of the carbon footprint of compound feed we used a slightly simplified composition:wheat pollard (80%), corn gluten feed (13%), dregs of soy sauce (7%).• Quality B 2 : wheat pollard (40%), corn gluten feed (13%), dregs of soy sauce (3%), CaCO3 (3%), rice bran (7%), palm oil dregs (23%), coffee hulls (6.7%), and corn tumpi (3%).According to the survey (De Vries and Wouters, 2017), the type of compound feed used on dairy farms in Lembang was 32% of quality A, and 68% of quality B. Farmers did not change the type of compound feed in different seasons.Assumptions for nutritional values of feed ingredients are shown in Table 3. To determine nutritional values of feed ingredients, feed samples were taken from farms in Lembang in 2016 (not necessarily farms in the baseline survey or farm assessment) and analyzed in EUROFINS laboratory. For some feedstuffs, values were based on expert opinion or Feedipedia (see Table 3 footnote). Dry matter content of fresh cut grass (road-side and home grown) was assumed to be 25% lower in the rainy season than the dry season (pers. comm.Bram Wouters, August 2017). Metabolic energy and total digestible nutrients (TDN) were calculated based on organic matter (OM) and organic matter digestibility (OMD), and nitrogen content was based on crude protein content. The following locally suitable strategies for improving feeding and manure management were identified in farmer and stakeholder workshops in Lembang District in 2016 and 2017 and from existing knowledge about potential contribution to climate change mitigation:• increasing the utilization of manure;• selling cattle manure;• increasing the amount of roughage in the ration;• balancing rations;• fodder conservation (maize or grass silage);• improved feed/water trough. Interventions and assumptions made for the different scenarios are explained in the following paragraphs and summarized in Table 5.The survey among dairy farmers in Lembang (De Vries and Wouters, 2017) showed that 84% of farmers are discharging manure into the environment. The discharging of manure causes high GHG emissions, both as CH 4 and N 2 O. Part of cattle manure is applied on land located closer than 500m to the barn, which covers about half of the on-farm land used for fodder production. On land located further away from the barn or land that is difficult to reach, farmers apply synthetic fertilizer (mainly urea) more often than cattle manure because cattle manure is liquid and thus difficult to handle and transport.Replacing (part of the) urea by cattle manure can contribute to reducing GHG emissions because it reduces the emissions from manure discharging and from the production and application of synthetic fertilizer.In this scenario, we evaluated effects of increasing the utilization of cattle manure as a fertilizer. Because of the practical difficulties of using slurry, farm yard manure (FYM) was used because it is easier to handle and transport, and costs little for farmers to apply manure on land located further away from the barn.In this scenario,• The amount of discharged manure is reduced and used as organic fertilizer (FYM);• The organic fertilizer (FYM) is used to (partly) replace urea;• This is expected to lead to lower GHG emissions related to discharged manure and production and application of urea.The following assumptions were made for manure management and fertilizer application:• Total nitrogen excretion of 430 kg N per farm/year, with 190 kg excreted in dung and 240 kg excreted in urine. This estimate is based on the Tier 2 method in IPCC guidelines (IPCC, 2014), thus accounting for diet composition and excretion in milk produced. This corresponds to 93 kg N per adult cow per year, and 28 kg N per young stock per year (dung and urine together).• Destinations:-238 kg N discharged (56%; Table 1), with 105 kg N in dung, and 133 kg N in urine.-126 kg N used as fertilizer (29%), corrected for 20% N loss for slurry and 40% N loss for FYM, of which: daily spread of fresh slurry (52 kg N) or digestate (36 kg N), and solid manure (assuming FYM; 10 kg N)-65 kg N sold (15%).• The average farm applies 277 kg N/ha/y via urea (46% N), and 343 kg N/ha/y via animal manure on 0.28 ha of land (0.26 ha for fodder production, 0.03 ha for food crops; SIDPI baseline survey). A plant-available N coefficient of 1.0 and 0.4 was assumed for urea and cattle manure, respectively; hence 277 and 137 kg plantavailable N/ha/y for urea and animal manure.• For the intervention, we assumed all fresh feces were collected from discharged manure with a ratio of feces/urine of 50/50, thus reducing discharged manure by 50%(urine still being discharged). Collected fresh feces were stored on a heap as FYM.With an initial amount of 105 kg N in the collected fresh feces (see assumptions above), we assumed 25 kg plant-available N would be available in the total amount of FYM (40% N loss during storage, plant available N coefficient of 0.4). Produced FYM can replace 25 kg of current urea N applied (i.e., 9%).The survey among dairy farmers in Lembang (De Vries and Wouters, 2017) showed that limited space for storing manure is a major constraint to avoiding discharge of manure on dairy farms. Selling fresh cattle manure can be a solution; farmers can either sell manure directly to vegetable or flower farms or to middle men. Also, farmer groups in Lembang showed interest in setting up a compost facility with their farmer group, as compost can be sold at a higher price compared to slurry and FYM. Selling part of the cattle manure can contribute to reducing GHG emissions related to discharging of manure. Possible mitigating effects of using cattle manure in other sectors (e.g., replacing synthetic fertilizer, soil C sequestration) were not included as these were outside the boundaries of the system studied (dairy chain).In this scenario, feces are no longer discharged but stored on a compost heap, after which the compost is sold (urine is still discharged).The farm assessment among 50 dairy farmers in Lembang (Verweij, 2017) and otherIndonesian projects investigating nutrition of dairy cattle showed that amounts of roughage fed to lactating cows are often far below potential intake. Insufficient dry matter intake from roughage negatively affects milk production.Increasing the amount of roughage fed can increase absolute GHG emissions from dairy cattle due to an increase in CH 4 from enteric fermentation and an increased amount of manure produced. On the other hand, the increase in milk yield can dilute GHG emissions, leading to lower GHG emissions per unit of milk or meat when milk yield increases more strongly than GHG emissions.In this scenario,• Amount of home-grown grass fed to lactating cows was increased in the ISNM model to reach maximum potential forage intake (Zemmelink et al., 2003).• We evaluated how increasing the amount of home-grown grass in the ration affects milk yield, GHG emissions and land use.Especially in the situation of scarce feed resources, there is scope for enhancing milk production by more efficient use of existing feed resources. Balanced rations can contribute to a lower GHG emission intensity due to an increase in productivity, leading to lower GHG emissions per unit of milk or meat.In this scenario,• We evaluated effects of adjusting feed rations per cow to individual cow requirements depending on her milk yield and lactation stage (balanced rations).• We assumed no changes in the feed ration of the total herd, because some (lower yielding) cows would require less, while other (higher yielding) cows more of certain feed ingredients.• We assumed a 5% higher annual milk yield per cow (assumption based on expert judgment).The survey among dairy farmers in Lembang (De Vries and Wouters, 2017) revealed that in half of the farms cows do not have continuous access to drinking water. Lactating cows require sufficient amount and quality of drinking water for milk production. The required amount of drinking water and the effect on milk yield depends on various factors, such as milk production level, water intake from moisture in feeds, and ambient temperature and humidity.Ad libitum water provision can contribute to a lower GHG emission intensity due to an increase in productivity, leading to lower GHG emissions per unit of milk or meat.In this scenario, we assumed ad libitum water provision would increase milk production by 0.5 kg per cow/day in the dry season. This amount was based on subjective estimates by dairy farmers in another project in Indonesia.The survey among dairy farmers in Lembang (De Vries and Wouters, 2017) showed that shortages of green fodder in the dry season are compensated by increased amounts of rice straw and compound feed in the dairy ration. This was also found by Fella et al. (2009).Because rice straw is of low nutritional quality, farmers increase the amount of compound feed in the dairy ration to maintain milk production levels. This strategy has several negative side effects:• Rice straw has a low palatability causing a lower forage intake by ruminants.• Feed costs per kg of milk increase due to the relatively high price of concentrates.• Feeding high amounts of compound feed can lead to problems in rumen and cow health (such as abomasal displacement, acidosis, and poorer reproductive performance).• The relatively high carbon footprints of compound feed and rice straw increase GHG emissions from animal feeding.In the baseline survey we found a small, but significant, difference in the amount of compound feed fed in the dry and wet seasons, probably because in 2016 the dry season was less pronounced than in other years. Data on the amount of compound feed sold to these 300 farms by the dairy cooperative KPSBU in 2016 showed the same result. Milk production levels were the same in the dry season and the rainy season (KPSBU data). To obtain the same milk production in wet and dry season from the ISNM model, we assumed a slightly higher amount of compound feed in the dry season in our analyses (0.3 kg).Replacing rice straw and compound feed by whole crop maize silage can contribute to lower GHG emissions because the production of whole crop maize silage has a lower carbon footprint than rice straw and compound feed, and the improved digestibility of the ration reduces GHG emissions from enteric fermentation.In the first scenario ('maize silage', same milk yield as baseline):• We evaluated the effects of replacing part of the rice straw and compound feed fed to lactating cows with whole crop maize silage.• The amount of dry matter intake from whole crop maize silage was determined based on similar milk production per cow as the baseline scenario in the ISNM model.In the second scenario ('maize silage+', higher milk yield by maximizing forage intake):• We evaluated the effects of replacing part of the rice straw and compound feed in the dry and wet seasons with whole crop maize silage on milk yield, GHG emissions and land use.• The amount of dry matter intake from whole crop maize silage was determined by maximizing the potential forage intake, thus realizing higher milk production per cow.  b Increase in milk yield based on assumption.Total estimated GHG emissions of an average dairy farm (including upstream emissions, i.e., cradle-to-farm gate) in Lembang was 33 ton CO 2 e/year. Estimated GHG emission intensity was 1.9 kg CO 2 e/kg fat and protein corrected milk (FPCM) and 8.8 kg CO 2 e/kg live weight.Total estimated land use was 2.1 ha per dairy farm (including on-farm and off-farm land used for feed production, excluding stables and other land). Estimated land use per kg FPCM was 1.2 m 2 , and 5.6 m 2 per kg live weight (based on causal relationship allocation), which is relatively low compared to other studies (De Vries and De Boer, 2010;De Vries et al., 2015).In total farm GHG emissions, the most important greenhouse gas in terms of CO 2 e was CH 4 , followed by CO 2 and N 2 O (Figure 2). As shown in Figure 3, the most important sources of total farm GHG emissions were rumen enteric fermentation (CH 4 ; 40%), followed by manure management (CH 4 and N 2 O; 29%), and feed production (CH 4 , N 2 O, and CO 2 ; 28%). The most important source of emissions related to manure management systems (MMS), including storage and treatment, was discharged manure (accounting for more than 80% of emissions from MMS).Most emissions related to feed production occurred off-farm, as more than 80% of the ingredients in the feed ration (dry matter) were produced off-farm. CO 2 emissions from energy use contributed most to total emissions from on-and off-farm feed production (Figure 4). Energy is used for production of inputs (synthetic fertilizer and pesticides), field work, transport, and processing of feed ingredients. N 2 O emissions were caused by synthetic and organic fertilizer application, leading to direct (N 2 O) and indirect (via leaching of NO 3 , and volatilization of NH 3 and NO x ) nitrogen losses. CH 4 emissions occurred during rice cultivation (Figure 4). Rice straw contributed most to total emissions from feed production (Figure 5). The relatively high emissions from rice straw are caused by CH 4 emissions from rice paddies and CO 2 emissions related to cultivation and processing of rice. Part of these emissions were allocated to rice straw (using digestible fraction allocation between rice grain and rice straw) and rice bran (using economic allocation between flour and bran; Vellinga et al., 2012). Emissions of home-grown grass were relatively high because we assumed high fertilization rates, leading to relatively high nitrogen losses. Emissions of compound feed result mainly from high energy use (CO 2 ) for the two main ingredients: corn gluten feed and wheat pollard. Corn gluten feed requires relatively significant energy for processing and drying, and wheat pollard (derived from Australian wheat) has a high energy use from production (inputs, field work, transport, processing) combined with relatively low yields per ha.Feed ingredients with the highest emissions per kg product (DM) were rice straw (0.9 kg CO 2 e/kg DM), compound feed (0.4-0.5 kg CO 2 e/kg DM), rice bran (0.4 kg CO 2 e/kg DM), and home-grown grass (0.3 kg CO 2 e/kg DM). Emissions of wet by-products were low (<0.1 kg CO 2 e/kg DM) because no upstream emissions were allocated to wet by-products (Vellinga et al., 2012). Regarding land use, most land was used for production of compound feed (51%), grass (home grown and roadside; 33%) and rice straw (12%; based on allocation of land for rice production between rice grain and straw). Compound feed used more land than other feed ingredients because of its large share in the ration (about 35% of total DM intake), relatively low yields per ha compared to forages, and high allocation fractions compared to other byproducts.In the scenario analysis, feeding and manure management interventions showed different effects on total GHG emissions and emission intensity (Figure 6). Total farm GHG emissions reduced in the scenarios of improved manure management and maize silage feeding compared to the baseline emissions, increased with increased roughage feeding, and remained about the same with balanced rations and ad libitum water provision. GHG emission intensity (i.e., emissions per kg FPCM) reduced in all scenarios; the largest reductions were found in the scenarios with improved manure management, increased roughage, and maize silage feeding.Total land use decreased or remained about the same in most scenarios, except for increased roughage. However, as milk yield increased more strongly than land use, land use per kg FPCM decreased by more than 10% with increased feeding of roughage. Effects are discussed in more detail below.It should be noted that milk yield was based on assumptions (scenarios on improved manure management, maize silage (no change), balanced rations (+5%) and ad libitum water provision (0.5kg milk/cow/day)) or on modelling results (increased roughage provision and maize silage+ scenario). Also, emissions related to land use and land use change (LULUC)were not included in the calculation of GHG emissions. Utilizing FYM for application on land for fodder production reduced both total farm GHG emissions and GHG emission intensity (emissions per kg FPCM) by 12% (Figure 6). The reduction in GHG emissions was due to lower emissions related to discharged manure (CH 4and N 2 O) and lower emissions related to production and application of urea (CO 2 and N 2 O).Although emissions related to production and application of FYM increased, net GHG emissions reduced due to the strong reduction in GHG emissions from avoided discharge of manure and avoided urea.In our analysis, we assumed no effects on milk yield or land use. However, replacing urea by organic fertilizer could lead to increased forage yields in the longer-term due to other benefits of animal manure (e.g. increased organic matter and micro-nutrients). This could lead to higher milk yields due to increased forage availability, a lower land use per kg milk, and a lower GHG emission intensity. Using cattle manure for application on land for fodder production is expected to be cost-effective (Ndambi and De Vries, 2017). Some constraints should be taken into account:• The amount of manure available on farms may be too much compared to the amount of land available, and thus could lead to over-fertilization. In this case, surplus FYM should be sold (or composted and sold, see 3.3.2 Selling manure).• Farmers indicated that a lack of space for storing manure was a main constraint for improving manure management (baseline survey). In this case, slurry should be collected (e.g. in sacks) and sold directly (e.g. to traders).Composting manure and selling the compost reduced both total farm GHG emissions and GHG emission intensity by 12% (Figure 6). The reduction in GHG emissions resulted mainly from lower emissions related to discharged manure (CH 4 and N 2 O).Selling manure could contribute to reduced emissions in other sectors if the cattle manure replaces synthetic fertilizer in those chains. Moreover, it could help to improve soil quality, and hence soil productivity, and contribute to soil carbon sequestration. These effects are not included in current analyses because they are outside the boundaries of the system studied (dairy chain). Selling manure does not affect milk yield or land use, unless it leads to changes in current fertilization practices.Feeding approximately 3.5 times more home-grown grass in the ration of lactating cows increased total farm GHG emissions by 24% (Figure 6). The increase in emissions was caused by an increase in CH 4 from: enteric fermentation due to a higher roughage intake and more fibre in the diet (lower digestibility) and increased amount of manure produced per animal thus increased emissions from (currently improper) manure management. Additionally, the increase in land area for the production of additional grass required field inputs (e.g., fertilizer), which are accompanied by GHG emissions (e.g., synthetic fertilizer production and application).Though increasing the amount of grass in the diet increased total farm emissions, it reduced GHG emission intensity by 9% because the increase in milk production has a diluting effect on GHG emissions, even including the additional GHG emissions caused by the intervention.Hence, the increase in milk production was stronger than the increase in GHG emissions caused by the intervention.Land use increased by 22% due to the additional land required for grass production, but land use per kg FPCM decreased by more than 10% because milk yield increased more than landuse. An increase in land use is undesirable because land is scarce in Java, and an expansion of agricultural land may drive deforestation (Gollnow and Lakes, 2014;LULUCF emissions were not included in current LCA analyses). Especially in the dry season, farmers already have problems obtaining sufficient green fodder. To solve this problem, two possible solutions could be explored. First, current grass yields and quality could be increased through good agricultural practices (fertilization, timing of harvesting, etc.). Second, farmers in Lembang have indicated abundant grass is available during the wet season which can be ensiled and used as grass silage in the dry season. In both cases land use does not increase, but total farm emissions will still increase due to the increase in emissions from enteric fermentation and manure.Balancing rations increased total farm GHG emissions by 1%, as cows with higher production produce more manure. At the same time, balanced rations reduced GHG emission intensity by 3% due to higher milk yields (Figure 6). Land use remained the same and land use per kg FPCM slightly decreased. In an Indian study by Garg et al. (2013), enteric methane emissions per kg milk reduced by 15-20% due to balanced rations. The smaller impact of feeding balanced rations in this study is because baseline milk yields were much lower in the Garg et al. study, and the increase in milk production was higher in the Garg et al. study than the assumed increase in this study (2-14% versus 5%). It should be noted that the effects of balanced feeding on milk yield might differ from our assumption; further, the effects could differ among farms depending on the current milk production level. This should be evaluated in practice in Indonesia. 29We assumed an increase of 0.5 kg milk production per cow in the dry season through ad libitum water provision. The increase in milk production reduced GHG emission intensity by 1% (Figure 6). Total GHG emissions and land use remained the same. Effects of ad libitum water provision on milk yield might differ from this assumption, and effects could differ among farms, depending on the situation. This should be evaluated in practice in Indonesia.Replacing nearly 60% of the rice straw and 8% of the compound feed fed to lactating cows with 5 kg whole crop maize silage per lactating cow per day reduced total farm GHG emissions and GHG emission intensity by 9% (Figure 6). In this scenario, the amount of maize silage in the ration was determined based on a similar milk yield per cow as in the reference scenario. GHG emissions were lower because maize silage has a lower carbon footprint than rice straw and compound feed (0.1 versus 0.9 and 0.4 kg CO 2 e/kg DM, respectively). Additionally, emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management decreased due to a lower feed intake and higher digestibility of the ration. Land use reduced by 6% because maize silage required less land than rice straw and the ingredients of compound feed (consisting mainly of wheat pollard, corn gluten feed, and palm oil dregs).In this second scenario ('maize silage+') the amount of whole crop maize silage in the ration was increased to maximum potential forage intake of 16 kg maize per lactating cow/day (Zemmelink et al., 2003). This caused an increase in milk yield of 13%. Total farm GHG emissions decreased by 4%, and GHG emission intensity decreased by 14%. Land use increased slightly (2%) due to the additional land required for maize production, but land use per kg FPCM decreased by 8% because milk yield increased more than land use.This study investigated the current level of GHG emissions and land use of small-scale dairy farms in Lembang, West Java, hotspots of GHG emissions and land use, and the effects of improved feeding and manure management on emissions and land use.We found total GHG emissions to be 33 ton CO 2 e. per farm per year, and emission intensity was 1.9 kg CO 2 e per kg FPCM and 8.  Taufiq et al. (2016), partly due to higher milk production in our study (12 litre versus 10 litre/cow/day).A number of methodological aspects should be considered when interpreting results of our study:• Results from the baseline survey were mostly based on subjective answers from farmers, which may have led to less reliable or less accurate results. To more accurately estimate emissions, data should be collected with on-farm measurements.• In the absence of emission factors in IPCC guidelines, we made assumptions for emission factors of discharged manure (fresh slurry and digestate). As discharged manure was a major source of emissions and reduction of discharged manure was an intervention in our study, assumptions about the emission factor of discharged manure influenced our results. Estimating methane and direct and indirect nitrous oxide emissions from discharged manure is difficult, and requires further investigation to accurately estimate effects of improved manure management on farms.• GHG emissions were estimated for an average dairy farm in Lembang. This was a suitable method to predict overall effectiveness of mitigation strategies in the SIDPI project on Lembang dairy herds, but a large variation may be expected in the characteristics of farms (De Vries and Wouters, 2017). This will influence the effectiveness of interventions in individual dairy farms. Therefore, evaluation of GHG emissions and mitigation options should be carried out for a number of distinct types of farms, especially with regard to land base, feed ration, and manure management system.• Carbon sequestration and emissions related to land use and land use change and forestry (LULUCF) were not included in our analyses.• Scenario analyses were used to estimate potential effectiveness of various feeding and manure management interventions on mitigation of GHG emissions. Assumptions in these scenarios and mitigation effects should be validated in practice.The most important sources of GHG emissions were rumen enteric fermentation, followed by manure management and feed production. High enteric methane emission per kg milk were mainly caused by poor quality of feed rations and herd performance (milk yield, reproduction). With regard to emissions from manure management, discharging of manure caused more than 80% of GHG emissions from manure management systems. This implies reduction of discharged manure is important for reducing GHG emissions, but also for other environmental and social impacts (pollution of ground and surface water, public health, nuisance). As emission factors for discharged manure were based on assumptions, methods for estimating emissions of discharged manure need to be improved. GHG emissions related to synthetic fertilizer use on land located further away from the cow barn showed there are opportunities to reduce GHG emissions by replacing synthetic fertilizer with animal manure.With regard to feeding, rice straw and compound feed were associated with relatively high carbon footprints due to the GHG emissions associated with production of rice, poor nutritional quality of rice straw, and high energy use of compound feed.All scenarios for improved feeding and manure management evaluated in this study resulted in reduced GHG emission intensity (i.e., emissions per kg milk or beef). We expect that implementing combinations of feeding and manure management interventions will lead to even larger reductions. Mitigation options evaluated in this study are in line with mitigation options suggested by Gerber et al. (2013) and with best practices guidelines for dairy farming (FAO and IDF, 2011).In two feeding interventions (increased roughage and maize silage feeding), GHG emission intensity decreased, but total GHG emissions increased. The increase in total emissions is (partly) due to the increase in milk yield per animal, which is associated with absolute increases in GHG emissions per animal, as a higher milk yield requires a higher feed intake, which causes an increase in CH 4 from enteric fermentation and higher manure production, and thus more emissions from manure per animal. Targeting reductions in both total GHG emissions and GHG emission intensity will be crucial considering the projected increases in milk volumes in Indonesia.Replacing rice straw and compound feed with maize silage resulted in the largest reduction in GHG emission intensity. Two points should be considered when interpreting this result. First, the reduction in GHG emissions from dairy farms due to omission of rice straw in the diet does not mean the emissions of rice straw are not present anymore, but the emissions are no longer allocated to the dairy sector. Emissions avoided by not using rice straw were about 1.6ton CO 2 e. This was less than the mitigation of GHG emissions in this scenario (2.9 ton CO 2 e), which suggests this intervention is still effective in reducing total GHG emissions.Secondly, whereas use of rice straw in fact does not require additional land (being a crop residue), whole crop maize silage does require additional land. Hence, as with GHG emissions, omission of rice straw from the diet does not imply less land is used, but that the land is no longer allocated to the dairy sector. If the reduction in land use from omitted rice straw (about 0.12 ha) would be not be taken into account, total land use would reduce only slightly due to this intervention. In this context, technical solutions that can improve the nutritional quality and digestibility of rice straw are promising, such as fungi treatment of rice straw (e.g. Tuyen et al., 2013), and are expected to contribute to reduction of GHG emissions when evaluated at a higher scale.The second largest reduction in GHG emission intensity found was through improved manure management. The effect of improved manure management is expected to be larger than found in this study because carbon sequestration and effects of utilizing cattle manure in other sectors were not taken into account (system boundaries of the LCA were limited to the dairy chain). Animal manure might replace synthetic fertilizer in other sectors, which can have additional benefits for reducing GHG emissions at a regional scale (i.e., regional nutrient cycling). Additional methods to estimate GHG emissions at a regional level or multi sector approach are required.Feeding and manure management interventions evaluated in this study aimed to produce more from the same resources while reducing negative impacts on the environment, also known as sustainable intensification. Resource use efficiency is particularly important for small-scale farmers in developing countries, who are often coping with resource scarcity. In the periurban situation of West Java, where there is limited availability of feed and land, improving resource use efficiency is key to increasing milk production in a sustainable way. For feeding interventions, this means improved efficiency of feed production and feed conversion of animals to milk and meat. For manure management, this implies improved nutrient-use efficiency, including recycling of animal waste. Besides feeding and manure management, animal health plays an important role in efficiency of animal production. Interventionsproposed in this study might not only contribute to a reduction in GHG emissions, but also limit the amount of land used by dairy farming systems as a result of improved resource-use efficiency. Additionally, improvements in manure management and fertilization can reduce other environmental problems, such as pollution of ground and surface water, public health problems, and nuisance.Total estimated GHG emissions of an average dairy farm in Lembang District, West Java, were 33 ton CO 2 e/year, which was equal to 1.9 kg CO 2 e per kg FPCM, and 8.8 kg CO 2 e/kg live weight. Total estimated land use was 2.1 ha per dairy farm, which was equal to 1.2 m 2 per kg FPCM, and 5.6 m 2 per kg live weight.Hotspots of GHG emissions were rumen enteric fermentation, manure management (especially discharged manure), and off-farm feed production (especially rice straw). Of all feed ingredients, compound feed contributed most to total land use.Feeding and manure management interventions evaluated in the scenario analyses in this study changed total GHG emissions by -12 to +24%, and GHG emission intensity (i.e., emissions per kg FPCM or life weight) by -1 to -14%. Total land use changed by -6 to +22%,","tokenCount":"7279"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"18f412ed473a74d136db3a1901a07aa5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6f2c6eba-3b2b-4741-9149-637fb724eb21/retrieve","id":"-843558611"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c6c32208-7084-425a-accb-42588083b21d","pagecount":"2","content":"Semi-arid rangelands in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are an important source of food security and nutrition but are under increased anthropogenic pressure by a growing population. These rangelands are characterized by nutrient poor soils and distinct wet and dry season(s). Due to the soil and climate combination, conventional crop agriculture is rarely feasible without irrigation and mineral fertilizer amendments, which in turn are limited by prohibitively high fertilizer prices and lack of water. Instead, pastoral livestock keeping is a valuable option to use these marginal lands and -under the right management -can be a sustainable form of food production and biodiversity protection given that most of these landscapes have co-evolved with megafauna over millennia. Despite the global role of livestock systems on climate change, there is still limited understanding on the role of SSA rangelands. At the same time, livestock systems emit greenhouse gases (GHG) and can promote global warming. But despite the impact of livestock systems on climate change, our understanding of the role of SSA rangelands is limited. To date, a thorough assessment that includes continuous GHG exchange measurement in combined wildlifelivestock systems on the African continent has not been undertaken. Here we provide the first eddy covariance (EC) measurements of CO 2 /CH 4 /H 2 O fluxes from the ILRI Kapiti Wildlife Conservancy -a benchmark rangeland site in East Africa that is grazed by livestock and wildlife. Our results show continuous ecosystem CO 2 uptake from the wet to dry seasons with considerable CO 2 emission pulses following precipitation events after long dry periods that turn the landscape into short-term net CO 2 emitters. In contrast to CO 2 , CH 4 fluxes are highly variable and depend particularly on wildlife and/or livestock being present in the fetch of the EC tower. In addition to EC measurements and given the need for scaling of our results, we relate CO 2 and CH observations across a climatic gradient and along varying management intensities are needed to reduce existing uncertainties in the effect of SSA rangelands on climate change. To build a complete GHG budget, hot spots of greenhouse gas emissions such as from livestock enclosures or water bodies as well as soil carbon sequestration have yet to be accounted for.","tokenCount":"372"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3109424303.json b/data/part_1/3109424303.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"25d25df726e367accccc9a4c58931305","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H029120.pdf","id":"-1613294576"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f19e25f7-84e3-4086-9dc3-3dd0aa59f769","pagecount":"32","content":"The Gediz is a closing basin with little new water available for allocation. It is not, however, a mature basin, in the sense that the institutional set-up is not yet fully developed. Both surface and groundwater use are largely unregulated, and groundwater extraction is growing rapidly in response to urban and, particularly, industrial demand. There is no functional system of allocating rights to either surface or ground water. The most serious current problem, however, is deteriorating water quality in the Gediz and its tributaries resulting from urban and industrial wastewater discharges and, to a lesser extent, agricultural return flows.Two public agencies are responsible for in-stream and wastewater quality monitoring, but neither has enforcement powers. These are concentrated in a third party in each province-the provincial governor. Governors are subject to competing pressures and are generally unable to mount effective enforcement programmes. Responsibilities for basin planning and monitoring are compartmentalised, broken out into dimensions of ground and surface water on one hand, and quantity and quality on the other. Co-ordination among the responsible units is limited.Ultimately the roots of the water quality problem are political in nature, as there is presently a severe imbalance in power among the various inVOlved parties industry, municipalities, agriculture, and the environment. The environment, in particular, is underrepresented and an internationally-recognised bird sanctuary at the mouth of the Gediz currently receives only extremely limited quantities of poor quality water during the summer months.Solutions to these problems involve systematising water rights, developing co ordinating mechanisms among managers, involving the private sector in wastewater treatment, and the emergence of an effective NGO-based advocacy for environmental concerns in the basin.The Gediz basin in western Turkey (Figure 1) has changed considerably in the past decade, moving from being a comparatively water-rich basin to one that is now closing', This change has been in part a result of a severe drought that affected the basin from 1989 to 1994, in part due to an above average increase in urban and industrial demand, and in part due to a rapidly growing concern for issues of water quality and environmental protection, Paralleling these hydrologic changes has been a much slower institutional response that has not kept up with the requirements for changes in the way water is allocated and managed, The basin is currently caught up in a very dynamic period of reassessment and change which began with the onset of drought in 1989. Before the drought, there was little competition for water, and the established mechanism for allocating water to different users through a set of bilateral agreements worked well. The only serious conflicts were internal to irrigation systems where there were disagreements between the state Hydraulics Works Organisation (DSI) and water users.When the drought struck, water issues for irrigation in the peak summer season were reduced sharply, return flows diminished, and, as a consequence, water quality in the lower third of the basin deteriorated. Rural residents began to complain that water was unsuitable for irrigation. At the same time there was widespread desiccation of the important wetland areas in the Gediz delta, leading to large reductions in bird populations and. possibly. loss of species diversity.Although the drought has now passed, the legacy is seen in a number of important issues that continue to lie at the core of the debates surrounding the management of water in the Gediz basin. Several of these are highlighted below and discussed in more detail in the remainder of the paper.The increasingly apparent need for a unified co-ordinating mechanism for allocating water among irrigation, urban demand, industrial requirements and environmental protection to replace existing bilateral processes.The continuing struggle between older long-established institutions dealing with water resource development and water allocation, and emerging institutions concerned primarily with water quality and environmental issues.The need to represent and protect the interests of certain water users, such as the Gediz delta ecology and the Irrigation . Associations established during the past five years to assume responsibility of operation and maintenance for 110,000 hectares of large-scale irrigation systems, within the wider debate on water resources allocation and management.The need for clear rules assigning responsibility for setting water quality and quantity standards and monitoring actual conditions, and for sufficient political power and will to sanction violators of the standards.In the remainder of the paper we deal first with the hydrology and water use patterns within the basin and then turn to the legal, policy, and institutional conditions which influence how the basin is governed and managed. Finally, we combine the two assessments to summarise the problems facing the basin and the challenges it must meet to overcome them. The economic and social context of Turkey is described briefly in Annex 1.The Gediz basin contains a typical range of water users, although the balance among them has been changing during the past couple of decades. Each user category is described briefly hereunder.Traditionally the largest user of water has been irrigated agriculture, originally deriving from small run-of-the-river diversions from the Gediz and its tributaries dating back some three thousand years. Since 1945 the development of large scale systems and groundwater exploitation have transformed irrigated agriculture.The first investments in modern irrigated agricuHure began in 1945 with the construction of two large regulators to tap the flow of the Gediz River. Adala regulator serves some 20,000 hectares of land in the middle portion of the basin while Emiralem regulator commands 22,000 hectares in the Gediz delta (Figure 2). In the 1960s, a second set of investments were made that included the construction of Demirkopru Reservoir a few kilometres upstream of Adala, a third regulator at Ahmetli, and the regulation and raising of the natural lake of Gol Marmara. Ahmetli Regulator commands some 45,000 hectares of land. The final surface water developments took place in the Alasehir valley with the construction of two small reservoirs. The total command area of the large-scale surface systems is approximately 110,000 ha. The predominant crops are cotton (50%), grapes (35%), maize, fruit orchards, and vegetables. At present surface water issues from Demirkopru are limited to the interval between mid-June and mid-September which is focused on the cotton growing season. Natural stream flows from tributaries can be used for land preparation for cotton or for early irrigation of grapes and fruit trees, but there are no releases made into the Gediz River from Demirkopru outside this period.Water use in the 90,000 hectares of the central and delta zones is limited to 75 m 3 /sec from Demirkopru and 15 m 3 /sec from Gol Marmara for a release perioO of. approximately 60 days, or a total of some 550 million cubic metres during the year. This is equivalent to some 450 mm of irrigation water for the growing season.In the Alasehir Valley in the east of the basin, irrigation is almost exclusively for grapes. Application rates are approximately 350 mm/season and during the summer there is no significant net outflow into the main part of the basin. It is estimated that, through a combination of surface application and some pumping of the shallow aquifer, approximately 60 million m 3 are consumed during the summer season.In many tributary valleys into the Gediz there are small-scale surface water diversions that take advantage of winter run-off and spring snowmelt. Typical crops are fruit trees, winter wheat, and vegetables because these require water only in spring and early summer before the streams dry up.There are no accurate records of the total area involved, but it almost certainly is more than 25,000 hectares since almost every village situated on the valley fringe has some irrigated area (Kayam and Svendsen, 1999). Because the number of irrigations is low, normally 2-4 irrigations of about 50 mm each for the entire season, total water use is also low and is estimated at 50 million m 3 •There are two different categories of groundwater users: those who are members of village or pump co-operatives and those who make private investments.Starting in the 1960s, but increasingly in the 1970s, the government has fostered community-based irrigation based around deep tubewells. Most deep tubewells have discharges in the range of 50-150 I/sec and are often tapping groundwater at least 100m below the surface. The majority of wells are outside the boundaries of the surface irrigation systems and are concentrated in the Akhisar and Nit valleys. Typically crops are high value and include tobacco, vegetables, and fruit trees. Total water extractions are estimated at 30 million m3/year on the basis of 100 wells having a typical discharge of 75 I/sec and operated for 40-50 days per year.Private groundwater exploitation started during the drought of 1989-1994. Many individuals purchased centrifugal pumps to exploit shallow groundwater within the boundaries of surface irrigation systems, and in some cases neighbours formed informal pump groups to purchase a pump and well, and share operating costs at the end of the season. Farmers have kept using these pumps and there has been a recent small increase as some farmers adopt trickle irrigation systems for high-value fruits and vegetables.The vast majority of private pump owners are within the boundaries of the surface irrigation systems. As such they rely on the seepage and management losses from the surface irrigation system. While there is some evidence that the shallow groundwater table dropped during the drought, it has since recovered and it is assumed that they do not mine groundwater but merely re-use surface water. Their net water use is therefore included in the total surface irrigation volumes. However, official records of surface irrigation shows that only about 70 percent of farmers use surface water and some of those also pump. It is estimated that some 40,000 hectares of land in the command areas of the surface irrigation systems are actually pump-based with only 70,000 hectares relying primarily on canal water.A few private pump owners are situated on the fringes of the surface irrigation system or in the area between the Alasehir valley and the main Gediz valley, These are estimated to use some 5 million m3Jyear that is not direct recharge from surface irrigation systems.The Gediz basin has two separate classes of urban and municipal water users: the towns and villages within the basin itself, and a substantial trans-basin diversion of drinking water to Izmir.There are no accurate records of total water extractions for urban and municipal water consumption in the Gediz basin. All municipal extractions are from groundwater. Based on estimates provided by the different municipalities, it appears that extractions are in the order of 130 million m 3 Jyear. However, much of this returns in the form of wastewater, either percolation into the groundwater or discharge in surface water. Allowing for 20 percent actual consumption, the net municipal extraction within the basin is estimated to be 26 million m 3 Jyear. Some municipalities also have shown interest in using good-quality spring water for their water supply. In a few cases municipalities have arranged with villages to use a portion of their spring water and agree to compensate them by improving village irrigation systems.The city of Izmir has had a long-standing claim on groundwater within the Gediz basin. There are two main well fields, at Sarikiz in the north of the basin and Goksu near Manisa. Actual consumption data are not available, but Izmir has extracted as much as 108 million m3Jyear from these well fields. Because the water is transferred out of the basin, there is no return flow 2 . An important potential source of additional water for in-basin use is the estimated 50 percent of the water entering the Izmir municipal system which is lost to underground leakage. Since Izmir is on the sea, no reuse of these losses is possible. If the conveyance efficiency of the Izmir piped system were improved, up to 50 million m 3 0f high-quality groundwater could be left in the Gediz basin annually and used for other purposes.\"There is a proposal for Izmir to supply irrigators in lower portions of the Gediz basin with treated wastewater. Irrigators are enthusiastic about this because of the very poor quality of the surface water they currently receive. There are concerns, however, about possible high salinity in the treated effluent. At design output, the treatment plant would produce about 880 million ma/year, roughly equivalent to the entire current use in the basin.There are two important industrial areas in the basin. The largest is in the Nif Valley immediately east of Izmir in Kemalpasa municipality. There is also a growing industrial estate in the western edge of Manisa. Industries included ceramics, leather, food processing, metal works and assembly plants.In both areas groundwater is used for the industries, and each industry must obtain a permit from DS!. However, there are no records of how much water is consumed and it is difficult to make an estimate of total water use.Between 1970 and 1988, Demirkopru Reservoir was used for hydropower generation throughout the year. Since the drought, however, power generation has been restricted to periods when water is released for irrigation or for flood control and no special releases for hydropower are made.The seaward fringe of the Gediz delta is an important nature reserve and has recently been designated as a Ramsar site to protect rare bird species. Originally the area received excess water from the Gediz River for much of the year, but since 1990, with restrictions on irrigation releases, the reserve suffers from water shortages. The summer months are the critical time for providing water specifically for the nature reserve, since during the winter water is available from the Gediz River before flowing to the sea.In response to demands to preserve bird habitat, one small channel with a capacity of 0.7 m 3 /sec does now extend from the irrigation system into the nature reserve. However, the channel does not always flow at the maximum rate during the 60 day irrigation season, and so the potential volume of about 4 million m 3 per day is not normally provided. One preliminary estimate suggests that to maintain appropriate conditions for freshwater bird habitat, as much as 1.5 m 3 1 sec is required during the 120 days of the summer season, or a total of about 15 million cubic meters. Enlargement of an existing irrigation channel to carry an additional 1 m 3 /sec flow is proposed.A second component of environmental demand is the water needed for waste conveyance from points of origin within the basin to the sea. In transporting wastes, the flow must provide sufficient velocity to prevent organic compounds and heavy metals, adsorbed on to soil particles, from settling out before reaching the sea, and sufficient dilution to avoid in-stream environmental harm. Obviously, reducing the pollutant loads which must be carried will reduce the quantity of water needed for this purpose.The total estimated water extraction by the different users is shown in Table 1. Annual precipitation varies from 800 mm in higher inland areas to about 450 mm near the cost, with about 80 percent falling in the winter months. Under natural conditions there is a steady decline in stream discharge until May when many of the smaller streams dry up. Summer flows are only present in the Gediz River and its largest tributaries, and even they may be negligible in the peak summer months. Following the irrigation season, the only flows in the Gediz River are from the few larger tributaries plus residual return flows from irrigated areas and industrial and municipal wastewater discharges to the river.Following the construction of Demirkopru Dam and before the drought, net annual surface water availability in the main basin and the delta is estimated to have been approximately 1,900 million m 3 /year. Since 1990, however, there has been a perSistent decline in surface water flows into Demirkopru and water availability has averaged only some 940 million m 3 during this period. As some of this flow occurs in winter and is derived from tributaries where there is no storage, there is little difference between annual surface water availability and current demand of about 660 million m 3 .Groundwater resources are able to make up some of the potential shortfall in overall water availability. The central part of the basin is an alluvial plain whose groundwater reserve is replenished in most years. Only during the peak of the drought, from 1991 to 1993, were there reports of declining year-to-year water tables, and they have since recovered.In the alluvial fan areas on either side of the main valley and in the Nif Valley the situation is more critical. Tubewell-based farmers in the Akhisar area complain of a steady and long-term decline in water tables, and in the Nif Valley the water table is reported to have dropped by 5-8 meters in the past 10 years as industrial extractions have burgeoned. Springs in the limestone areas are also reported to have declined in the past decade.The estimated safe annual yield for groundwater in the main part of the valley is estimated to be 160 million m 3 /year which is about one-third considerably less than the 219 million cubic meters estimated as being extracted from the main and Nif valleys. Despite the absence of definitive figures, it appears that groundwater use presently exceeds, by a sizeable margin, the sustainable limit.In the Gediz delta there is little groundwater utilisation, and extraction near the coast is prohibited to prevent salt water intrusion. The groundwater is deep and therefore there are no shallow tubewells.The drought had an impact not only on the releases made from Demirkopru but also on changing demand. Rice used to be grown in poorly drained central parts of the basin but has been replaced by cotton, while there has been a steady increase in grape and fruit tree areas as agro-industrial enterprises have grown up to support cash crop agriculture. The trend toward grape cultivation, although partly a response to the growing market for raisins, resulted in decreased demand for irrigation water, and total irrigation deliveries are now only about 70 percent of the pre-drought situation. With a recent surge in interest in drip irrigation by fruit, vegetable and seed corn growers, demand is likely to continue to decline.In contrast, non-agricultural demand is growing rapidly. The area has a higher than average growth rate because of in-migration from poorer parts of Turkey, and Izmir has promoted industrial development to complement agricultural production. Domestic demand for water has been growing by approximately 2-3 percent a year, industrial demand by as much as 10 percent per year. Given that most non-agricultural consumption of water is from groundwater rather than surface water, aquifer management requires closer attention than surface water with respect to available volumes. However, an additional demand is arising which is associated with growing concern over water quality, particularly during the peak of the summer season when surface water supplies are limited (see Annex 1). Figure 3 shows actual and estimated growth of basin population between 1970 and 2010, along with estimated organiC load from both domestic and industrial sources. As seen, although domestic load increases modestly along with population growth, industrial load grows exponentially. Note that the chart shows only pot'3ntial loads and does not take into account the effect of treatment facilities which mayor may not exist as of a particular date.Irrigation currently uses a large share of the surface water resources of the basin. Withdrawals total about 660 million m 3 , with 83 percent of that going to large scale irrigation systems. Current surface water allocation practices are primarily aimed at providing reliable water deliveries to the Irrigation Associations in the large irrigation systems, and this has been achieved with considerable success. Hydropower generation has no priority of its own and uses only water which is to be released for irrigation. A small and probably inadequate allocation of poor quality surface water is currently made for the wetlands in the Gediz delta.Heavily-polluted wastewater discharged from urban areas and industries within the basin seriously degrades the quality of surface water in natural channels, particularly in the low-flow summer months. Since water use for these purposes is growing at an estimated rate of six to eight percent per year, this degradation can be expected to worsen unless major efforts at control are made successfully.Groundwater supplies roughly a quarter of basin water use, of which about 16 percent is for irrigation, and the remainder for urban and industrial use.Groundwater supplies nearly all of the water used for these two latter purposes. Irrigation use of groundwater is largely static or declining as less-water intensive crops replace cotton and improved water application technology gains a foothold. Municipal and, particularly, industrial uses are expanding rapidly, however. At present as much as one-quarter of groundwater withdrawal in the basin may be unsustainable overdrafting, and pressure on these aquifers is expected to increase as industrial demand continues to grow.Much of the water withdrawn for municipal and industrial use within the basin is returned to surface waterways, but in seriously degraded condition. This, in turn, gives rise to a need for additional allocations of surface water for waste load transport and dilution, water which is simply not available at present. The alternative is to improve quality of wastewater discharges significantly at their sources.All natural water resources, except some small privately-owned springs, are vested in the state by the Turkish constitution (Yavuz and Cakmak, 1996). The basic principle governing surface water use rights in Turkey provides that water is a public good which everyone is entitled to use, subject to the rights of prior users. Surface water use is normally free of any obligation to obtain prior authorisation.Conflicts are resolved by first referring to local customary rules and regulations. If the dispute cannot be resolved in this way, rights are settled by court decision.There is no registration system for surface water rights or water use. In large basins where impacts of new diversions are diffuse, this system is generally unable to prevent or resolve conflicts between new and existing claims, and this is leading to serious problems of over-allocation in some basins (Svendsen and Nott, 1997).Groundwater also is state property. Its management is governed by a 1960 law giving sole authority over the use and protection of groundwater to the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI). Drilling a well deeper than 10 meters requires prior approval from DSI, while constructing shallower wells requires only that DSI be notiiied. Shallow groundwater is thus an open access resource, while deeper aquifers are subject to some controls.According to the groundwater law, when abstractions \"approach the safe output level\" of the aquifer, a committee of representatives of \"relevant ministries\" is to be formed to decide on pending and future applications for groundwater utilisation.Frederiksen and Vissia (1998) conclude that enforcement of the groundwater law is weak, which by extension implies that, in practice, the system of groundwater rights created by the current groundwater law is not as effective as it could be.Rights to both ground and surface water use are thus not formalised. Although they follow roughly the appropriative doctrine of allocation, there are no guarantees of continued access. The principles of the system of water rights outlined above apply in the Gediz basin.In an earlier section, five categories of water users in the Gediz basin were identified and their respective water uses outlined. Some of these water users are able to represent their own interests (industries and municipalities), while others may be either many and unorganised (small-system irrigators) or unable for other reasons to represent themselves (ecosystems). In addition there are other State actors such as OSI involved in Gediz basin water management which, while not water users, are important players. The range of basin stakeholders is thus different, and broader, than the group of actual water users. The major ones of these are described below.The General Directorate of State HydrauliC Works (OSI) is the main executive agency of the Government of Turkey for the country's overall water resources planning, execution and operation. It was established in 1954 and is currently a part of the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. The mandate of the OSI is \"to develop water and land resources in Turkey\" (OSI, 1995). It is responsible for major irrigation, flood control, drainage, hydropower development, and supplying water to cities with populations over 100,000. OSI centralises most of the state functions involved in planning and developing large-scale water resources.Until recently, OSI's policy has been to manage the irrigation schemes it designs and constructs. Current policy and practice is to transfer schemes to locally based Irrigation Associations (lAs) to manage. OSI also transfers hydropower and municipal water supply schemes that it designs and constructs to other agencies to operate.OSI is also responsible for managing and allocating groundwater to prospective users, It does this 'through the permitting system described in the previous section. Its responsibilities for groundwater quality are limited to monitoring.OSI maintains 26 regional offices across the country, organised along watershed lines. The Gediz basin lies entirely within one of these regions and is serviced by the regional office in Izmir.The Ministry of Environment (MoE) is the public agency with overall responsible for surface water quality. In spite of this general status. however, its mandate and capacities extend to cover only some of the functions that implementing this responsibility entail. Its major responsibilities include co-ordinating plans among the various public and private agencies involved with protecting the environment, commissioning environmental impact assessments of major water resources projects, and setting standards for and monitoring surface water quality. Actual monitoring and reporting of water quality and wastewater discharges are carried out by provincial offices of MoE. The explicit mandate of the MoE does not extend to groundwater quality. Neither the national nor the provincial offices of MoE possess direct enforcement powers.Towns and villages play three important roles in the water resource arena. First they are water users and dischargers of wastewater. There are 19 settlements in the basin with a combined population of 1.35 million. All draw their domestic water supplies from groundwater. Of the 19. only 3 have completed wastewater sewage systems and treatment plants. The remainder discharge untreated wastewater into the Gediz and tributaries.The second important role played by towns and villages is that of representing irrigation water users in their areas. They do this (a) through their statutory dominance of the boards of large-scale Irrigation Associations. (b) as owners and operators of municipal irrigation wellfields, and (c) as representatives of the interests of otherwise unorganised farmers irrigating from private wells or small surface water sources who make up parts of their constituencies.The third role is that of environmental regulation. Municipal and village administrations are responsible for operating water and wastewater treatment plants within their jurisdictions and monitoring the quality of domestic water supplies 3 • They also have some authority to monitor industrial wastewater discharges, although most are not active in this area.Provincial and district governors. appointed by the Ministry of the Interior in Ankara. are the only authorities with the power to assess fines or issue and enforce prohibitions against violators of water quality regulations. All other actors, including MoE. MoH. DSI, and municipalities, may only report cases that contradict laws for which they are responsible to the provincial or district governor. District governors must secure approval from the provincial governor before taking action. Provincial governors are thus singularly responsible for water quality enforcement proceeding.The state Planning Organisation is an arm of the Prime Ministry which prepares a rolling five-year investment plan for the nation. It is responsible for planning all public capital investment in the country, including investments for water resource development, wastewater treatment, and environmental problem mitigation.The General Directorate of Rural Services (GDRS), a part of the Prime Ministry, is responsible for developing small-scale groundwater resources for irrigation, developing surface water sources with flows of less than 500 lit res per second for irrigation, on-farm irrigation development, and the construction of rural roads and village water supply systems. GDRS's minor irrigation schemes are transferred to farmers' co-operatives or local governments upon completion. GDRS does not have an operation and maintenance capacity.Thirteen Irrigation Associations (lAs) were established in the seven large canal irrigation commands in the basin in 1995 under the accelerated irrigation management transfer programme of DSI and have assumed operational control of canal irrigation in those areas. DSI continues to operate the main reservoir and river diversion structures, but operational management below that level is now in the hands of the lAs.The legal basis for forming lAs is a law allowing the establishment of associations of local governments, and the present governance structure of the lAs is dominated by elected village heads, town mayors, and elected members of local municipal councils. Irrigation Associations are public bodies that enjoy tax exemptions and are non-profit, but are not bound by standard government civil service regulations and financial procedures. Although this system has drawbacks, it does provide valuable links with local government structures. lAs operate the canal systems within their areas, employing hired staff and financing operations and maintenance through fees collected from water users. The 13 lAs collaborate extensively on an informal basis and have discussed the possibility of forming a more permanent association to represent their common interests. They are the most important water users in the basin and retain a strong functional tie to DSI, which provides their bulk water supply and serves as the basin water allocation authority in the absence of a more explicit system of water right allocation.Other irrigation water suppliers and users not encompassed by lAs include towns and villages which have developed well-fieldS for irrigation supply in their areas, individual farmers and groups of farmers who have invested in irrigation wells, and farmers who employ small surface water diversions in upper parts of the Gediz catchment to irrigate crops. There is no formal organisation tying these water users together, though their number is significant. To some extent, local village heads and town mayors are able and generally willing to represent the interests of these irrigators when a need arises. Such representation is not co-ordinated among villages, however, and in general would not be expected to be particularly potent in competition with larger better-organised interests. .There are many NGOs active in the field environmental conservation in Turkey.A 1995 directory lists 98 of them, and there are others which are not included in the directory. With respect to water-related issues in general, and the Gediz in particular, the following are among the most important. Although concerned with water, none of these organisations place a priority focus on it. Most of NGO activities to date have been concerned with education, awareness raising, and lobbying, with little independent scientific or information collection effort evidenced so far.Although industrial plants are scattered throughout the Gediz baSin, the largest concentration is in two Organised Industrial Districts, one in Kemalpasa in Izmir 4DSI has an agreement with TEMA for reforestation of certain catchment areas above DSI reservoirs.Province with abut 180 enterprises, and the second near Manisa in Manisa Province with about 50 enterprises, The owners of these industries are organised into several associations which wield considerable political power. These include the Aegean Chamber of Industry, the Businessmen's Association, and the Young Businessmen's Association.Local environmental assemblies (MahaUi Cevre Kurulu) have recently been formed in several basin areas. Authorised under the Environmental Law, assemblies are broadly constituted, comprising mayors, DSI, the Chamber of Industry, and so on, and are typically chaired by the provincial governor. They meet rnonthly and are authorised to make fairty influential decisions on issues relating to urban environmental quality. Such an authority, chaired by the district governor, exists also for the Kemalpasa Organised Industrial District.As always, the poor, particularly those living in makeshift and illegal housing on the urban fringe, have the worst access to safe drinking water and sanitation services. Because of more limited mobility, they are also the ones most affected by pollution of the Gediz which they are more likely to use for recreational purposes. Access to irrigation water is determined by access to land, which in tum is also related to wealth, both as a cause and as an effect. Many smallholders do practise very productive agriculture, however, often growing high-value horticultural crops.Burton (1999) has identified 11 essential functions of basin management. A somewhat modified listing of these functions, as they apply in the Gediz basin, crossed with the key actors identified in the previous section is shown in Table 2.   ::;points. Water distribution refers to the more routine practices associated with the regular delivery of water to multiple users. It might also be thought of as provision of a water-related service to users. Monitoring water quality refers to taking measurements, taking and analysing samples, and storing the resulting data. Ensuring water quality is a more active process of investigating deviations from quality standards based on monitoring information, identifying causes, and taking remedial action. Enforcing water quality refers to the process of securing compliance with wastewater quality standards on the part of the discharging municipalities, industries, or agriculturalists.A number of interesting points emerge from an examination of Table 2, supplemented with background observations.There has been very limited planning at the basin level with respect to surface water and virtually none for groundwater and waste disposals. There is no integrated plan which considers both groundwater and surface water availability, nor does existing planning consider water quality, wastewater disposal, current and projected land use, anticipated future demand and return flows, or projected future quantity and quality of water resources.Water is allocated, in practice, by a variety of agencies and users operating independently of each other. These include OSI, private surface and groundwater irrigators, and industries. There is no national legal framework for surface water rights and only a rudimentary system of allocating access to groundwater, and both are largely open access resources at present. Although nominal control is stronger for groundwater than for surface water, groundwater is presently the most stressed of the two resources resource. It is also the more desirable of the two, in part because of the poor quality of Gediz surface water, but also because of the relative ease of access provided by groundwater. The current system of registering groundwater withdrawals does not appear to be effective at present at limiting overdrafting which is occurring in certain sub•basins.Water quality monitoring takes place, but information is often not available in useful forms to interested parties. OSI operates 14 water quality sampling locations within the Gediz basin, sampling about 35 parameters on a monthly or bi-monthly basis. The information collected remains as pure data in OSI files and is not generally used as a basis for policymaking or decision-making for basin management.6DSI is currently anticipating a new Gediz basin planning exercise. The previous plan was prepared 35 years ago and updated in 1982, but covered only surface water. The groundwater section of the DSI regional office is also planning a new groundwater survey in the near future.A single actor, the provincial governor's office, is empowered to authorise enforcement of breaches of wastewater discharge regulations by banning offending practices or imposing fines. In practice, attempts to process fines or prohibit industrial activities often leads to confrontation between industrialists and public administrators, with the administrators generally lacking the political will and power to make penalties stick: It is very common for files of violation reports to remain unprocessed in the offices of district and provincial governors.Ensuring surface water and groundwater quality is not actively practised in the Gediz basin. Ensuring water quality involves conducting follow-up investigations of observed sub-standard water quality to identify its sources and proposing remedies.No attention is currently paid to the quality of agricultural return flows.It is sometimes presumed that these flows contribute nitrates to groundwater and nitrates, phosphorus, and organic chemical residues, e.g. from pesticides, to surface water, but there is little hard information on this, nor is any responsible party actively monitoring or assessing the quality and impact of agricultural return flows.Agricultural drainage infrastructure is inadequately maintained at present. Drain maintenance receives a lower priority from lAs compared with delivery channel maintenance and DSI has inadequate budget and equipment to fully maintain larger drains. In addition, responsibility for maintaining main drains which serve more than one IA is under dispute by DSI and lAs.NGOs have no role in performing essential management functions, but clearly have an important role to play in overall basin governance. This suggests that cataloguing essential functions, while useful, does not constitute, by itself, a sufficient analytic methodology for understanding and diagnosing problems affecting basin governance? .The essential functions and actors' roles depicted in Table 2 provide a static view . of responsibilities. Additional attributes of well-functioning basin governance systems relate to its dynamics. We term these attributes enabling conditions. Enabling conditions are features of the institutional environment at the basin level that must be present, in some measure, to achieve good governance and management of the basin. These attributes are not specific to anyone actor, but apply to all actors and their interactions and comprise necessary (but not sufficient) normative conditions for success. Basic enabling conditions are shown in the box below. A full analysis of these factors is well beyond the scope of this paper. A brief sketch of each in the context of the Gediz basin will be attempted to illustrate the concepts and indicate broad strengths and weaknesses.This is perhaps the most important gap in the current set of enabling conditions. Although some water users are well represented, others are not, and in the arena of political give and take those without representation become losers. Industrialists, for example, have ample financial resources, are well organised, and have ready access to political decision makers. Other irrigators, on the other hand, are unorganised and enjoy representation only through their local village heads. Their interests are rather fragile. Irrigation A~sociations are intermediate. They enjoy multiple connections to the local political establishment by virtue of having a number of village heads and town mayors on their managing committees. In addition they collaborate informally, sharing information and co-ordinating activities. Irrigation Associations would benefit by establishing more formal linkages among themselves to allow a single spokesperson to represent them collectively in discussions over basin water allocation, water quality standards, potential irrigation return flow restrictions, and so on. Other irrigators could affiliate with such an association and, contributing financially to it, participate in its representalional benefits.The most serious failure of representation at the moment relates to the environment. Although it is nominally represented by the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry is still relatively young and has yet to establish presence and capacity in many areas. For example, it currently has provincial offices in only two of the four provinces covered by the Gediz basin. It also lacks sufficient budget to perform its many duties fully. Moreover, as a government agency, it will always be subject to political pressures and pulls that encourage or inhibit vigorous pursuit of particular water quality issues. Experience from other countries has shown that strong non-governmental organisations (NGOs) rooted in civil society are essential components of the political system surrounding environmental issues. These NGOs serve as advocates for environmental values and for unrepresented future generations. There are several groups with potential to fulfil this role, but at present they provide an ineffective counterweight to other interests.Just as important as the existence of representational bodies is the need for a rough balance of political power and influence among various interests. When power is one-sided, issues are not aired adequately, and decisions are also one sided. A key to the evolution of a suitable and balanced governance regime for the Gediz basin is further maturation of non-government organisations and associations based in civil SOCiety which can advocate for environmental interests.Another essential enabling condition is the presence in the public domain of accurate and up-tO-date descriptive information on water-related issues in the basin, along with open public transaction of decision making processes related to plans, regulations, violations, and sanctions. The first of these stipulations require that information on basin water allocations, reservoir pOSitions, groundwater elevations, water quality conditions, available resources, and so on be a part of the public record. Information collected with public funds should be available to the general public at little or no charge in the interest of sound and democratic public decision making. This disclosure condition applies to intra and inter-departmental information relationships as• well as to those with the general public. The second stipulation, transparency of public proceedings, is likewise essential to fair democratic processes. Rent-seeking behaviour requires darkness and privacy to thrive, and conducting regulatory processes in full view of the public is an effective antidote to such practices.Establishing appropriate institutions requires suitable legal authority. This does not appear to the most serious current problem constraining the emergence of an effective governance regime in the Gediz basin. Although improvements can be made, and a number of legislative changes are proposed in the Eighth Five Year Plan, the most important short-term constraints appear to lie in other areas, such as balanced political power and providing adequate resources. Over the longer run, however, the legislation of a new legal basis for an effective system of water rights allocation, protection, and transfer will be essential.Clearly, all four types of resources listed in the box are needed for effective implementation of basin management activities. In a number of the responsible public organisations they are inadequate. In some this constraint may be relaxed by reassigning staff positions from functions which have lost importance to those which are increasingly so. Another potential problem is scattering of resources among a variety of institutions, where each lacks a critical mass to be effective. In a context of co-operation, it is not necessary that resources be consolidated under a single administrative structure for effective implementation. However co-operation and co ordination must be effective if a decentralised strategy is to be effective.In this section the hydrologic, policy, and institutional problems identified in earlier sections are brought together and summarised.The most pressing water-related problem facing the Gediz basin presently is the poor and deteriorating quality of its surface water. The deterioration results primarily from the basin's recent rapid growth in population and the even more rapid growth in local industry, coupled with the widespread use of agricultural chemicals in a highly productive agriculture. Failure to control this growing problem at its several sources leads to large requirements for in-stream flows for dilution-flows which are then unavailable for other uses. The problem stems from several sources.First and foremost, it is the inability of the provincial and district governors, appointed by the Ministry of Interior, to apply and enforce sanctions and penalties on violators of wastewater discharge standards that is responsible for the growing pollution problem. Although monitoring could be improved and standards tightened, the failure to enforce existing standards effectively, on the basis of existing information, sends a powerful signal to polluters that compliance is unnecessary.Weak co-ordination. A second cause of deteriorating surfaced water quality is poor co-ordination and co-operation among the three separate agencies responsible for (a) surface water quality monitoring, (b) wastewater discharge monitoring, and (c) enforcement of standards. To some extent this is driven by bureaucratic tussling over turf. In addition, the failure of any of the three parties to come forward with effective, inclusive, and forward-looking leadership is a cause.Limited availability of data. Because of restricted access, the debate on water quality is poorly informed and emotional rather than scientific, making development of acceptable remedial measures difficult and contentious.Haphazard monitoring of wastewater discharges. The most readily identifiable and correctable causes of Gediz pollution are untreated or inadequately treated wastewater discharges from industries, cities, and towns. It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Environment to monitor these discharges and report breaches of standards to the provincial governor. Limited staff, laboratory facilities, and funds currently forestall an adequate monitoring programme.Inadequate funding for wastewater treatment plants. Inadequate funding has two components -capital and operating expenses. Several funding windows are available to industries and municipalities for investment capital but a shortage remains. For municipalities, there is little private sector involvement in constructing and operating treatment facilities, in contrast to the case in many other countries. A considerable amount of the funds made available by the state for municipal treatment plant construction have come through the bank of the provinces, but with little expectation of repayment. This makes the discipline of mobilising private capital for such investment difficult or impossible. Inadequate investment in wastewater treatment by the industrial sector relates, in part, to the weak enforcement record of provincial governors. As long as the costs of compliance exceed the costs of non-compliance, this situation is likely to continue.Limited public awareness of the problem. Negative effects of surface water pollution include harm to public health, increased costs to other water users, and negative environmental effects, particularly in the Gediz delta. Limited public awareness of the problem and its impacts results in limited public pressure and support for reforms, which in turn affects every single one of the factors outlined above. Causes of limited public awareness include restricted public access to water quality data collected by government agencies, inadequate MoE efforts to publicise water quality problems, and the long gestation period for non-governmental environmental organisations to become effective advocates and spokespersons.The extent of possible groundwater contamination, particularly in the Nef Creek watershed, is unknown. Due to coarse alluvial soils and the extensive use of in ground holding pits, some wastewater from both urban and industrial sources may go into groundwater rather than being disposed of as surface water effluent. The primary cause of this uncertainty is the following.Groundwater quality monitoring is not widespread and the results not publicly available, making it difficult to know if significant degradation of groundwater quality is occurring. This is a significant gap because aquifer pollution is often more difficult and expensive to mitigate than pollution of surface waters. The possibility of contamination gains added significance as a result of the almost total dependence of the basin's population on groundwater for domestic supplies.Shallow groundwater is an open-access resource in the Gediz basin, meaning that anyone with physical access to such water can withdraw and use it. Unregulated use of shallow groundwater creates difficulties where there are clear hydrologic linkages between surface water flows, shallow groundwater availability, and deep aquifer .conditions. Deep groundwater and surface waler, once released from the Demirkopru Reservoir, share this open access characteristic, in part, as well. The result is that some legitimate needs, especially environmenial needs, are inadequately met, access of existing users is insecure, and it is difficult to transfer water allocations among users in a rational way. Among the causes are the following. .Interests of some users are not well represented in allocational planning and decision-making. The most salient example is the environment, and, in particular, the needs of the Gediz delta and its rich complement of wildlife.Inadequate specification. While water needs in the basin for large scale irrigation and urban use are generally known at present, present use and future requirements for small scale irrigation, the burgeoning industrial sector, and the environment are not well specified in terms of quantity, timing, and quality requirements. This makes allocation decision making difficult.Ineffective reporting and record-keeping. While municipal extractions are reasonably well-documented, industrial extractions from groundwater remain largely a matter of conjecture. This makes evaluation of new requests for withdrawal permits difficult. There is likewise no cumulative inventory of the total number of permits issued, the agreed extraction rates, and the depth from which water is extracted, rendering this process even less rigorous and reliable./ntersectora/ Management of River BasinsIn addition to the current problems affecting water allocation and basin governance, there are longer-term problems which will require more fundamental changes in laws, pOlicies, institutions, and practices. Two of the most significant are the following:Rudimentary water rights system. The current national system of recording and harmonising rights to use water dates from an earlier simpler day and is not well adapted to a water short environment. It does not provide security for present users, does not allow for or adequately protect environmental uses of water, and does not provide incentives for economy of use or for orderly transfers among sectors.Lack of integrated planning. Assessment of basin water resources is currently. separated irito ground and surface water components: Because these interact in practice, there is a need to understand the basin as an integrated water resource system. Also, because water quality influences the uses to which water can be put, and gives rise to its own quantitative demands for dilution flows, quantity and quality must also receive joint consideration.The current situation in the Gediz basin, and at the national level, is dynamic and somewhat fluid. Locally a number of steps have been or are being taken to improve the enforcement of water quality standards and protect the natural environment. Many of these steps began with a Franco-Turkish basin study of the Gediz in the mid-1990s. Although this study was intended to lead to various action programmes, the latter failed to materialise because of lack of co-operation among the different institutions involved 8 . The study did raise awareness of problems and stimulate other initiatives, however.In 1996. the provincial MoE office conducted a study of polluting industries in Izmir province which resulted in sanctions on 14 firms. In that same year, MoE offices in Izmir and Manisa began a two-year surface water quality sampling exercise in the lower Gediz.In early 1998, three provincial governors from the Gediz basin, together with MoE and other parties, convened a \"co-ordination meeting\" for the basin, which led to the establishment of a co-ordinating committee consisting of the directors of the three provincial MoE offices. More recently, this co-ordinating committee was transformed into a permanent body named the Environmental Protection Service Association of Gediz Basin Provinces. This Association was officially authorised by the cabinet of the national government in December 1999 giving it a legal persona. This association has a broader base than earlier initiatives, and. in principle, hasSThe study was neller formally \"accepted\" by DSI or MoE.considerable power. Since its creation, however, it has lain largely dormant due to lack of resources and the ongoing bottleneck in the enforcement of existing standards and regulations.At the national level, sentiment for change is reflected in the recently published Eighth Five Year Plan covering the period 2001-2005. The Plan recognises the need for change in the way water is allocated and managed. There is a commitment to introduce new water legislation that will cover such issues as water rights, responsibilities for water allocation, setting and enforcing environmental standards, and consolidating the position of the Irrigation ASSOciations. However, the Plan does not specifically mention basin level water management nor is there any provision for establishing basin level entities that could implement or co-ordination various basin-level activities. Reduction in support for utilisation of fertilisers and agricultural chemicals is a preliminary step toward addressing non-point source pollution problems. Revising water and wastewater standards to comply with EU standards will raise the bar for existing polluters and those in compliance alike.The Plan does indicate that the private sector will become more involved in various aspects of water, adding an additional set of regulatory challenges to the existing situation and raising the question of the security of rights to water use by less well-represented groups. Until these new initiatives are defined and brought into place, however, current institutional arrangements will continue within the context of rapid growth in demand for water and increasing pressure on water resources from wastewater disposal from urban, industrial and agricultural users.Although the problems faced are formidable, Turkey and the Gediz basin have a number of strengths on which to build an effective basin governance regime. These include the following.The premier water resource agency in the country, DSI, is responsible for both ground and surface water, providing a strong base for integrated treatment in the future. This is not the case in many other countries where separate organisations are responsible. Moreover, handing over irrigation management responsibilities to lAs positions it well to take on the role of basin planner and water quality monitor for both ground and surface waters.Water quality is squarely identified as an important problem in the Gediz basin. Moreover, while serious, it has not yet reached catastrophic proportions, offering a grace period in which action Can be taken. Actors in the basin appear to be responding to the warning signals.There is recognition that a number of different actors must be involved in solving water quality problems in the Gediz. It is important to transform this recognition into effective ways of working together, rather than squandering energy and resources in intra-governmental squabbles over bureaucratic turf.Likewise, there is recognition that there are multiple dimensions to water resource management problems-different disciplines, different interests, different uses, ground and surface water, quantity and quality, and so on. Recognising this provides opportunity to develop an integrated approach to basin water resource planning and management.A new water law is under consideration, offering an opportunity to lay legal groundwork for effective basin management and protection for the Gediz and other water-short basins in the country.There is a strong university-based scientific community, e.g. CEVMER and others, providing capability for applied problem-solving research and, where needed, independent scientific assessment.There are linkages with international institutions such as IWMI which provide access to international experience of basin governance problems. Moreover, there is a healthy willingness to look outside the country to the experiences of others and a strong interest in harmonising standards, practices, and procedures with those of the European Union.A number of immediate solutions to problems affecting governance and management of water resources in the Gediz basin are self-evident from the listing of problems in section 5.1. In this concluding section, we indicate four important longer-range challenges facing the basin. Addressing these challenges effectively would go a long way toward putting into place a strong, dynamic, and flexible system of basin governance.The current rudimentary rights system cannot continue to provide security and flexibility in an era of growing water scarcity. A new system which is fair, flexible, and effective needs to be designed, based on both Turkish and international experience.Some basin water users, such as the natural environment, are not well represented in water-related discussions at present, and there are severe imbalances of political power among the various water users. Fair and equitable governance of basin water resources requires that users and interests be represented in discussion and decision-making fora in a balanced way. NGOs rooted in civil society provide an important voice and advocacy presence for the environment, supplementing the efforts of the MoE, and their emergence as a political force will add balance to decision-making 'and pressure for effective enforcement of sanctions for water quality violations.Alternative models for water basin governance exist. At one pole is a comprehensive basin authority, which concentrates power, responsibility, and capacity to implement directly many basin management tasks. At the other pole is a co-ordinating committee which simply provides a forum for discussion and voluntary co-ordination. Between these poles many variations are possible. One thing that is clear is that the present system of compartmentalising water quantity and quality, ground and surface water, and fresh water and wastewater is not an effective base for the future. Mechanisms have to be developed for bringing these components together in a functional integrated system for planning, governance, and management 9 .A useful first step would be the completion of an integrated assessment of basin water resources of all types and of the present and predicted demands on those resources. High-level political commitment to such an undertaking and strong leadership would be essential. It is equally important that this exercise not be carried out by a single organisation, but that it involves the various agencies, and the different departments within agencies, which have mandates to address water-related issues in the basin. The report produced is only half of the desired output of such a process. The other half is the experience of joint action among agencies and groups to implement the study and the creation of \"ownership\" of the result by the various stakeholders.In many countries, the private sector plays important roles in water resource management. Turkey is well embarked on the devolution of responsibility for managing previously state-operated irrigation systems to locally-based associations.The private sector can also playa major role in providing safe drinking water and effective sanitation services to urban areas, Private sector involvement has a number of advantages, including operational efficiency, ability to mObilise private capital, and access to new technology. To attract such involvement without state guarantees of repayment, firms must have confidence that the principle of payment for-service will be honoured and supported by'the involved governmental entities. Bringing in such private participation would provide needed capital for wastewater collection and treatment systems and provide wider access to these essential services.\"Turkey is not pursuing the concept of basin-wide authorities at present because of the difficult issues posed by important trans-national river basins shared by Turkey and several of its neighbours. The next five-year plan may address this option.Turkey is a parliamentary democracy of approximately 65 million people. As of 1997, its population was growing at a rate of 1.5 percent. There is extensive internal migration and rapid urbanisation. At present, 65 percent of the population lives in urban areas, and, while the rural population is shrinking at an annual rate of 0.7 percent, urban population is growing at 2.8 percent per year. At the sub-national level, the country is governed by a mixed system employing both local elections and central government appointments. Population centres (cities, towns, and villages) are governed by locally-elected assemblies or councils with administrations headed by locally-elected mayors. Provinces and districts, while having locally-elected assemblies, are headed by senior civil servants appointed by the Ministry of the Interior. National level policy guidance and instruction is important at all levels and centralised revenue collection makes revenue transfers from national to local levels important and enhances the power of the centre.Turkey has a strong mixed economy, larger than that of Russia. The present one year-old government is taking strong steps to privatise publicly-owned enterprises and introduce other economic reforms under an IMF-backed programme (WSJ, 2000). Economic growth averaged 6.1 percent per year in 1997-98, but shrank at a rate of 6.4 percent for 1999 as a result of the earthquake and the economic restructuring programme. Inflation, however, which has been chronically high for more than two decades, has declined sharply. Turkey hopes to join the European Union, providing a powerful motive across all sectors for harmonising Turkish policies, practices, and standards with those of the EU,In 1999, agriculture provided just 15 percent of GOP and provided 45 percent of national employment as a result. Agricultural incomes are just one-fifth to one-quarter of those in other sectors. Industry makes up 23 percent of the economy and services 62 percent.Based on the data in Table 3 and assuming that in a typical year since the end of the drought, the only surface flows are 75 m3/sec released from Demirkopru, 15 m 3 / sec released from Gol Marmara, 5 m 3l sec as urban wastewater return flows, and a further 5 m3/sec from industrial return flows, then the estimated biological oxygen demand (BOD) concentration on a basin-wide basis can be estimated.Table 3.2 shows these estimates (which are not spatially distributed within different parts of the basin). Irrigation water extractions at different regulators will show different concentrations because of the concentration of BOD generation in urban and industrial areas.The drought year of 1990 shows a marked increase in potential BOD concentration because irrigation water was only released for 32 days out of a possible 60 days in July and August. In 1992 it would have been higher, on the order of 40-45 gI m 3 released, because irrigation water was only released for 27 days during July and August. By 1997 the potential concentration has dropped despite urban and industrial growth because water is issued for the full 60 days. However, if there are no releases from  Demirkopru to dilute wastewater return flows, the situation in 2010 will be at least 20 percent higher than in the peak of the drought of 1992.These data only refer to BOD, With no reliable estimates of chemical oxygen demand (COD) releases from industry, it is not possible to generate similar estimates, but they will surely show the same growth trends,In the Menemen portion of the delta, where there is extensive cultivation of soft fruits and vegetables, most farmers rely on groundwater pumping, because the surtace water is considered too polluted to use on edible crops, Even the cotton farmers complain of \"water that burns\", In the tail-end areas downstream of a large tannery complex, water quality is appalling and directly affects the nature reserve,","tokenCount":"10110"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"62c781539ee0e77af013a8131dd1c24f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06a8cf62-d4c5-402a-8dee-6c0f98fb7f9d/retrieve","id":"887853998"},"keywords":["Dairy","Hub marketing model","Intensification","market access"],"sieverID":"e043677d-1ba4-45cc-9d22-7cffeba78795","pagecount":"1","content":"The total available area for sustainable agriculture in Kenya is about 17 % of the country's land area. As the country's population pressure on land increases, growth in agricultural production must substantially come from enhanced productivity of land already under cultivation, and from capital investments in transforming marginal lands to zones of high-value agricultural production. While this would increase pressure on marginal lands, increasing productivity will reduce pressure on these (marginal) lands. This is because intensification will reduce the need to expand production into marginal fragile lands. Improved smallholder dairying has long been identified as a route towards enhancement of the country's agricultural production. Eastern Africa is Africa's most promising region for dairy production with Kenya having one of the largest dairy industries in the region. History shows that Kenya's dairy industry has evolved through a sequence of distinct phases that saw the collapse or reorganisation of the industry: from establishment of organised milk marketing through a state-controlled system of cooperatives, to the collapse of the system, that left the producers with the duty of coordinating both production and marketing themselves. Collective milk marketing, through co-operatives and farmer groups, still appeals to farmers owing to economies of scale, convenient payment arrangements and, access to input credit as well as other dairy related services. However, cooperative development efforts have for the past years, not yielded the desired impacts. For efforts to improve and encourage sustainable intensification in smallholder dairy business though institutional innovative system (in this case, the \"dairy hub marketing\") to yield fruits, clear understanding of barriers and opportunities is pertinent for targeting in order to increase intensification. This study uses a tobit model to analyse factors that affect the intensity of use of dairy marketing Hubs in the East African Dairy development project. Primary data was collected from 300 dairy farmers in Western Kenya milk shed. While farmers using the hub were found to have a comparatively high economic endowment, indicating the merits of hub participation, the analysis reveals the need to prioritise the focus on increasing dairy intensification and consequently milk production through breed improvement and other production-relevant strategies while investing in elaborate market access system.","tokenCount":"358"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"98a6b930a52edd3ad3552aafbdaa5dfa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a606e87a-3164-45e0-87e5-357586ddd7b3/retrieve","id":"384290788"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e53acb50-f165-4b69-b50b-97c29cd5b65e","pagecount":"97","content":"Colombia ha sido tal vez el país más beneficiado al aumentar su producción desde cuando se inició la introducción de variedades de alto rendimiento durante los últimos años de la dllicada de los 60. En 1965 su área arrocera fué de 375.000 has. sembradas con unmillones de habitantes que si el consumo continúa constante. la demanda va a aer de 2 215.000 toneladas, si la producción de arroz no aumenta para ese año habría un dl$ficit de 228.000 toneladas.Analizando solamente el aumento de la población en las ratas proyectadas para el año 1995 habria una demanda de 2 436.000 toneladas y para el año 2000 la necesidad seria de 2.657.000 toneladas de arroz paddy. Esto quiere decir que si la producción sigue constante como en ]985, el pais tendrla un déficit de 449.000 toneladas para 1995 y 670.000 para el año 2.000 (Fig. 2). Estas proyecciones asumen que el consumo de arroz per cápita va a ser constante, sin embargo si el incremento de la población se combina con el incremento en el consumo los déficits pueden ser mas severos, llegando fácilmente a 1.500.000 toneladas para el año 2000 (Fig. 2).En resumen, estos datos muestran claramente que la producción fué estática durante los últimos siete años mientras que la demanda Be encuentra en aumento, Sl. ésta tendencia continúa el pais va a tener dlíficits en su producción arrocera en un corto plazo.1. Zonas y Sistemas de producción.Actualmente existen tres zonas principales arroceras y dos s~Btemas de producción. La zona central compuesta por los departamentos del Tolima, Buila y Valle que contribuye con el 43% de la producción nacional (Tabla 1). En esta zona el sistema de siembra es exclusivamente baJO riego y por eso Se encuentran los rendimientos mas altos del pa1s. Es la m §s antigua productora de arroz y su lirea sembrada desde hace muchos años se encuentra eatitica en su expansión, debido a que casi toda el irea sujeta a irrigación ya estfi en uso. Lss regiones de Tolima y Huila contribuyen con más del 90% de la producción de la Zona Central y como veremos posteriormente aqui se encuentran los costos más altos de producción del pais y Am¡:;rica Latina. El Valle contribuye solamente con un 6% de la producción en la Zona Central. su mayor parte bajo el sistema de riego-fangueo presenta buenos rendilnLentos y los costos de producción más bajos que los anteriores departamentos. En total, la Zona Central produce aproximadamente 800.000 toneladas de arroz paddy anualmente. Por eso es necesario reducir los costos de producción para que su área no sea reemplazada por otras actividades agrícolas o agropecuarias que sean más rentables.La segunda zona productora en importacia es la Costeña, compuesta por los departamentos de la Costa Atlántica y los Santanderes, contribuyendo aproximadamente con el 35% de la producción nacional (Tabla 1).El sistema de produccLón más importante es riego, aportando anualmente 540.000 toneladas de arroz paddy.En los valles del bajo Cauca y Magdalena principalmente se cultiva bajo el sistema de secano favorecido, produciendo anualmente 110.000 toneladss. Generalmente la actividad arrocera en esta zona es m §s rentable debido a que tienen rendimientos altos con costos de producción no tan elevados, sin embargo en los últimos sños los costos de producción se han incrementado debido sI uso excesivo de pesticidas. Esta zona es la más promisoria para expandir su §rea arrocera por la calidad de sus suelos, abundante agua para riego y clima favorecido para obtener rendimientos altos. Aunque con todo esto, si los costos de producción siguen aumentando, ls expansión de Iste cultivo va a ser muy lenta.La tercers zona en importancia son los Llanos Orientales, que producen anualmente 421.000 toneladas de 10 cual el 68% proviene del sistema de riego y el 32% de secano favorecido (Tabla 1).froduc1r arroz en ~sta zona es costoso y más dificil y costos que en las otras dos, debido principalmente a los limitantes bio16gicos. Hay abundante suelo pero la mayoría infértil y hay abundante agua pero se carece de distritos de riego. Actualmente la producci6n de arroz en ésta zona es factible haciendo uso de agroqu!micos particularmente fungicidas debido a que faltan variedades apropiadas. Con la introducción de variedades más resistentes a enfermedades combinado con mejores prácticas agron6micas, ¡¡¡sta zona puede aumentar significativamente su contribución nacional.En resumen, el sistema de riego aporta el 87% de la producción y es el sistema más promisorio a expandir debido a los grandes recursos en la Zona Costeña. Las regiones del Tolima y del Huila son las más productivas en el pars. sin embargo los costos son los mil a altos. Si no se encuentran formas para reducirlos van a experimentar mermas en su IIrea arrocera dando paSo a otros cultivos que sean rolIs rentables. La zona Costeña está entrando en el mismo problema que Tolima y Huila, es decir altos costos de producción.Los Llanos tienen recursos a producir más arroz que lo actual, sin embargo la expansión esta lim1tada por los problemas bio16gicos.-8Un resumen de los costos de producci6n en las diferentes zonas bajos los dos sistemas está presentado en la Tabla 2. Los datos se presentan en términos de kilos de arroz paddy debido a la fluctuaci6n de la moneda. La presentaci6n en ésta forma hace factible comparar los costos sobre el tiempo y respecto a otros pa!ses.Los costos de producci6n en Tolima y Huila son los más altos en América Latina con un promedio equivalente a 5.86 Tm/ha. El arrendamiento de la tierra es muy costoso por alrededor de 21% del total o 1.258 kg/ha. Este costo es fijado y no es subjetivo a reducir, por el contrario más posible que el costo por la tierra vaya a subir por la competencia de otros cultivos más rentables.Otros costos que representan un porcentaje alto como son, protecci6n del cultivo, fertilizaci6n y siembra están sujetos a cambiar. Los costos incurridos para controlar malezas, insectos y enfermedades suben a 1.315 kg/ha o aproximadamente el 23% del costo total de producci6n Los gastos para estas operaciones en Tolima son J veces más que el promedio de América Latina. Una gran parte de los costos para protecci6n del cultivo se dan por un exceso injustificado en el uso de insecticidas. También hay sobreuso de herbicidas que es factible a mejorar por la aplicaci6n de berbicidas en la época oportuna combinado con un buen maneJo de agua. Su clima generalmente no favorece la incidencia fuerte de pat6genos, sin embargo las aplicaciones de fungicidas preventivas son frecuentes debido Il la presi6n indiscriminada de muchas casas comerciales.Por ejemplo, aplicaciones dirig:ld8s a prevenir el Manchado de Grano que más 8delante se explican.El costo de siembra es excesivo, representando unos 689 kg/ha o un 11% de los totales, estos son 2 veces más que el resto de Aml!r:!ca Latina. Los agricultores están acostumbrados a sembrar hasta 300 kg/ha de semilla, siendo la razón principal p8ra que dicho costo sea 8lto. Mlís adelante se demuestra que es factible reducir la cantidad de semll1a a sembrar sin que se present8n mermas en los rendimientos. Los costos por fertiliz8ción son excesivos, por estar involucrando el mal manejo de herbicidas, densidades altas de siembra y uso deficiente del agua. En el caso de aplicaciones oportunas de mezclas de herbicidas post con preemergentes, una alta población de plántulas de arroz reduce el contacto de herbicida post emergente (propanil) con la maleza inhibiendo su acción considerablemente.Al mencionarse por parte de los agricultores sobre la \"poca capacidad macolladora de algunas variedades\" , ellos con la población tan alta de plántulas de arroz crean el medio propicio para que las variedades modernas no produzcan macollar.Datos que muestran los trabajos efectuados a través de muchoa años en diferentes zonas arroceras baJO un rango de preparaciones, con diversas condiciones climáticas, consistentemente demuestran que una densidad de siembra de 150 kg/ha es sufic~ente para producir un rendimiento con desviaci6n estandar (e1astic1dad) igual a 250 kg/ha. En las Tablas 3 y 4 se presenta el resumen de 45 ensayos conducidos bajo riego y 25 ensayos conducidos bajo secano favorecido utilizando densidades de 80 hasta 300 kg/ha Estos datos demuestran que 80 kg/ha producen un rendimiento igual que más de 200 kg/ha. Lo anter~or hace concluir que la densidad de siembra de 150 kg/ha es la más adecuada economicamente para los dos sistemas de cultivo.El fangueo no representa un sistema de producci6n de gran significación, pero aquellos agricultores que 10 emplean, utilizan las mismas cantidades de sem1lla que con los otros sistemas. Datos de investigaci6n de tres ensayos conducidos a nivel semicomercial, demuestran que densidades entre 60-80 kg/ha produjeron los mayores rendimientos (Tabla 5).En conclusión, los resultados de investigación sobre densidades de siembra efectuados por Fedearroz y el TCA indican que una densidad de siembra de 100-150 kg/ha es suficiente para producir un rendimiento máximo. Estos datos concuerdan con ensayos efectuados a nivel mundial en el (rea tropical.A través de muchos sños anteriores, se ha venido informando a los agricultores sobre las consecuencias desfavorables del uso de alta cantidad de semillas, el obJetivo de reducir la densidad no se ha podido lograr posiblemente por carecer de una metodologia demostrativa capaz de llegar al agricultor. Los agr~cu1tores se van a resistir a reducir densidades con el sistema actusl de control de malezas, por esto es necesario demostrarles que el control oportuno de las malezas permite perfectamente el uso de cantidades adecuadas de semillas, estos dos puntos aon muy ligados. Si va a perm:Ltir crec1miento de malezas hasta 4 o más hOJas para su control seguramente neces! ter( de mayor cantidad de semilla. Se requiere evaluar a nivel de áreas bien grandes (parcelas demostrativas semicomerciales) en las propias fincas de agricultores de todo el pa1s las densidades adecuadas con buen control de malezas comparándolas con aquellas que emplea el arrocero.Tabla 3. Efectos de la cantidad de semilla sembrada sobre el rendimiento promedio y su variación bajo condiciones de riego 1/. Y Los datos son resumen de ensayos conducidos a nivel de parcelas y semi comer-c1ales por reA y Fedearroz en todas las zonas productoras del pals durante los años 1974-1984.11 El rendimiento relativo fue calculado dando el 100% al rendimiento más alto de cada ensayo y las otras densidades estan relacionadas con él.... El problema general del cultivo de arroz en toda el área arrocera es las malezas. Con laa prácticas de control utilizadas actualmente los agricultores deben invertir en promedio nacional, alrededor de 400 kg/ha de arroz paddy producido ($ 18.000) para obtener un control de malezas satisfactorio. La preparaci6n inadecuada del suelo, la ~poca inoportuna de aplicaci6n del herbicida. las dosis altas de herbicida utilizado y el mal maneJo del agua. contribuyen a elevar los costos de producción por €ste concepto.La Zona Central, especialmente los departamentos del Tolima y Huila presenta los costos mb elevados, con un promedio de 474 kg/ha de arroz paddy producido, en ~stas regiones el mal manejo del agua y las aplicaciones inoportunas con dosis altas de herbicidas son los mayores problemas. Una lista de las f6rmulas más comunmente usadas se presenta en al Tabla 6. Como Be puede ver las mezclas ~s frecuentemente empleadas tienen un mínimo de 7-8 lts de Propanil con 4-5 lts de preemergente. Generalmente las aplicaciones son divididas, porque efectúan una primera aplicaci6n en preemergencia y posteriormente una mezcla de preemergente más propanil. Esto es uso excesivo de productos químicos que es muy costoso y frecuentemente f1tot6xico.La Zona de la Costa, aunque presenta altos costos por control de malezas, son menores que en el Tolima. Las mismas causas mencionadas para la Zona Central, prevalecen para la región costera. Los costos para control de malezas están en el orden de 350 kg/ha de arroz producido o $ 13.300 (Tabla 7).En los Llanos Orientales los costos para control de malezas, estlin alrededor de 356 kg/ha de arroz paddy producido (Tabla 8).El control de malezas en esta zona es más dif{cil debido a que los agricultores tienen problemas con la preparación del suelo generalmente por escasez de maquinaria y exceso de humedad inhibiendo la destrucción de la maleza.Las mismas prlicticas inadecuadas de control de malezas en el pa{s, son generalmente utilizadas aln, esto es altas dosis de herbicidas aplicados en épocas tard{as resultando en un control deficiente de malezas y fuerte fitotox~cidad al cultivo.El problema principal en la elevación de costos para el control de malezas es el uso excesivo de herbicidas debido a que el tiempo de splicaci6n es muy tardIo (malezas con más de 5 hojas).El herbicida más comunmente usado en el país es el propanil. Es una ley por costumbre el uso de 1 ga16n del herbicida por hoja desarrollada de la maleza. La misma tendencia existe cuando se utilizan mezclas de propanil con preemergentes. La consecuencia de esto se demuestra en la Tabla 9 en la cual se observa que las dosis de propanil requeridas cuando la maleza tiene 2 hojas tienen un costo de $ 4.361 en comparaci6n con aplicaci6n en maleza de 5 hOJas el valor sube hasta $ 7.632 y el producto es menos efectivo.La ef1ciencia del control de malezas y las dosis de producto requeridas están en funci6n del estado de desarrollo de las malezas.Este principio estlí claramente demostrado en la Tabla 10, en la cual se puede ver mezclas de propanil con productos preemergentes en dosis normaJes (4-6 lt/ha de propanil) aplicado cuando la maleza tiene de 1-3 hojas son eficientes. Sin embargo, si las mismas mezclas de productos Se aplican cuando la tiene de 4-5 hojas el control de ellas es deficiente resultando en pérdidas de rendimiento de 1-6 toneladas/ha de arroz respecto a la apliceci6n oportuna.En resumen la selecci6n de productos es menos importante que la época de aplicaci6n Datos de ensayos conducidos en varias zonas del pa!s durante varios años, soportan s6lidamente este concepto y existe un rango de productos que func~onan cuando se si aplica en tiempo oportuno (Tablas 11,12,13,14,15,16,17 y 18).Los resultados de los ensayos presentados en tablas anteriores demuestran que hay cuatro mezclas de propanil con preemergentes que se pueden recomendar, usándolas en épocas oportunas (malezas de 1-3 hOJas) con dosis razonables. En promedio el costo total de estas aplicaciones cuesta alrededor de $ 10.000, equivalente a 260 kg/ha de arroz paddy lo cual es una reducci6n importante de más de 200 kg/ha para solamente control de malezas. Con estas dosis razonables. las fitotoxicidades son minimas, no requiriendo aumentar la cantidad de semillas en la siembra nJ. ferti11zac:lones excesivas para tratar de recuperar las plantasActualmente se realizan a n~vel nacional en fincas de agricultores pruebas dirigidas a demostrar comercialmente la efic~encia de estos puntos.       La Tabla 23 demuestra adem4s que no hay una base racional para la decisión sobre la necesidad de aplicaciones. Entre 20 y 100% de las aplicaciones contra Spodoptera se hacen preventivamente sin analizar la situación en el campo y entre 85 y 100% de la aplicación para chinches ocurre la misma situación.En resumen el análisis demuestra, que no hay una base racional para las prácticas predominantes que se usan Plu•a el control de plagas en el pars. Las frecuentes aplicaciones preventivas de insecticidas en los campos de arroz causan preocupación sobre las consecuenCl.as económicas, ecológicas y toxicológicas de las pr §cticas actuales. De seguir con este ciclo se va a requerir del uso de más insecticidas con mayores dosis y más frecuentemente como sucedió con el cultivo de algodón en años pasados.Para la búsqueda de alternativas a las prácticas actuales se Por ejemplo el control de Sogatodes oryzicola con pesticidas produce muchas veces poblaciones más altas de esta plaga que las pohlaciones en campos stn aplicaciones (Fig. 3).En todo el país los agricultores tratan de controlar quimicamente la Sogata con el objeto de reducir la infecci6n y el riesgo del virus HOJa blanca (HBV). Observaciones de ensayos hechos en el pais muestran que parece imposible bajar la infección del Vl.rus con la aplicación de insecticidas (Tabla 27) y por el contrario la aplicaci6n de insecticidas resulta en poblaciones más altas del insecto, en más tallos afectados por HEV, en más vectores de HBV y en una destrucci6n grave del equilibrio natural (Tabla 28). Aplicaciones no adecuadas aumentan entonces el riesgo del cultivo y abren un ciclo cada vez mayor de plagas y aplicaciones.Seguramente se necesitan alternativas a las prácticas actuales pero pocos ensayos indican ahora el beneficio al arrocero que puede producir un maneJo de plagas con niveles de daño economl.co. Con un sistema de control integrado de plagas se pueden lograr los mismos rendimientos con menos o sin aplicaciones de insecticida (Tabla 29). Una evaluación de 7 fincas del Valle durante todo el pedodo vegetativo muestra que ninguna plaga sobrepasó los niveles de daño económico. Sin embargo se hacen alrededor de 4 aplicaciones en esta zona (Fig. 4).En ciertas épocas del año hay ataques fuertes de algunas plagas tempranas. que ponen en grave riesgo el cultivo.Or~entales en Abril y Mayo y de Hydrellia en el Valle durante los meses de Junio y Noviembre. Para estas épocas se debe asegurar el cultivo contra estas plagas con tratamiento de semillas.Tratamientos con Carbofuran, Propoxur y Triazophos, parecen efectivos (Tabla 30).Los análisis de la situación actual y de los resultados de investigación demuestran lo siguiente El manejo de plagas en los campos de arroz en Colombia carece de una base racional.Las aplicaciones de pesticidas causan preocupación económica, ecológica y toxicológica porque estas aumentan los costos de producción, agravan el riesgo del cultivo enormemente con la destrucción del equilibrio natural y enfrentan innecesariamente el peligro de intoxicaciones.Existen enSRVOS que indican la factibilidad y el beneficio potenc:lal de la introducción del sistema de manejo integrado de plagas. Estos ensayos aemicomerciales indican la utilidad de los métodos de evaluación y de las decisiones en csda regi6n y permiten una reducción del sistema general del MIP a los problemas regionales. Las 14 evaluaciones que se hacen en los ensayos de confirmac~6n se pueden reducir facilmente de 4-6 evaluaciones por cultivo después de una adaptación adecuada en cada zona. Una evaluaci6n suficientemente exacta necesita 10-15 minutos por csmpo.El primer paso de las pruebas de confirmaci6n semicomercial se puede hacer segfin UNA metodolog!a que est § disponible y actualmente utilizada por todos los t~cnicos involucrados en la implementación del Plan Nacional.Adicionalmente se recomienda analizar si las plagas tempranas con importancia regional se pueden controlar facilmente efectuando el tratamiento de semillas con insecticidas. Los ensayos de invest1gación a utilidad de este m~todo son preliminares y por esto se necesitan pruebas regionales para buscar el método m §s adecuado para el control de las plagas tempranas en diferentes zonas tratamiento II semillas pruebas de evaluaci6n regional t .d.p\"\"\" r\"' ' ' ' '  La estructura de los costos para el control de las enfermedades en cada región.La base de la preocupación de los arroceros sobre estas enfermedades.El análisis de la estructura de los costos para el control de las enfermedades demuestra, que piricularia y manchado de grano se sospechan como las principales enfermedades en todo el pa!s (Tabla 30,31,32 Y 33). Mientras que casi 100% de los agricultores hacen por 10 menos una aplicación contra manchado de grano, en todas las zonas y la mayorIa de los agricultores en Meta. Tolima y Bui1a, hacen 2 o 3 aplicaciones. La frecuencia de aplicaciones contra piricularia parece menos uniforme y neceaita un análisis regional.El Meta tiene por su clima alta predisposición para el desarrollo de enfermedades como piricularia y por esto Se hicieron en 1985 en promedio 3.1 aplicaciones contra piricularia con costos totales de más de $ 7.300 (192 kg de arroz paddy). El 100% de los agricultores hacen por 10 menos una aplicación temprana para la protección del follaje y el 90% aplican por lo menos dos veces en Las pr §cticas actuales psra el control de piricularia en las zonas endémicas como el Meta tienen su base en la susceptibilidad de todas las variedades comerciales. En zonas menos favorables para el desarrollo del patógeno se necesita analizar qu~ porcentaje de aplicaciones en la panlcula no se requieren.Los costos para tratar de controlar el manchado de grano var!an entre promedios de $ 10.677 para el Meta y 5.822 para la Costa, equivalente a 281 y 153 kgs. de arroz paddy, respectivamente. El 40% de los agricultores en Tol1ma y Huila tratan de controlar el problema con 3 aplicaciones. La confusión sobre las causas de éste problema y sobre su control parecen una base importante para las prácticas actuales del agricultor. Existe demasiada presión de parte de las casas comerciales hacIa técnicos y agricultores para que hagan uso de fungicidas de manera indiscriminada con el objetivo de controlar el problema.Para considerar la racionabilidad de las pr~cticas actuales se necesitan datos de investigación sobre los siguientes aspectos Parece que problemas de suelo, provocan la manifeatac~ón mayor de slntomas de manchado de grano, sin que ello sea considerado COm factor causal (Tabla 41).Se puede concluir de estos resultados de investigación que El manchado de grano no parece relacionado con la patogenicidad de hongos y por esto no se justifican las aplicaciones de fungicidas.Los niveles convencionales de manchado de grano no afectan muchas veces rendimiento en comparación can el testigo en la calidad de molinerla.Investigaciones recientes han demostrado que el problema es probablemente inducido por una bacteria sistémica que se transm~te por semillas, Pseudomonas fuscovaginae. La ocurrencia de la bacteria corelaciona bien con síntomas de manchado, aunque falta más información para aclarar definitivamente esta bacteria como la única causa del problema. La bacteria esta distribuida en todo América. La.tina y otros continentes. En Colombia se analiza ahora su distribución. pero mas del 90% de muestras colectadas en el Meta tenian este patógeno (Fig. 5). Su control es posible con tratamiento de semillas por 6 d1as a calor seco a 65°C elim~nando la bacteria en las semillas (Tabla 42). Este método se puede usar también para el tratamiento de cantidades más grandes (por ejemplo sem~lla genética o básica) (Tabla 43). Recomendaciones.Según el análisis de la situación actual y los resultados de investigación se puede concluir que Los arroceros pueden evitar costos entre $ 6.000 Y $ 12.000 por hectárea con la eliminación del control qufm1co de manchado de grano equivalente a producir entre 158-316 kg de arroz paddy.Los productores de semillas necesitan aplicar métodos para eliminar la bacteria!. fuscovaginae de sus semillas.El control de piricularia en la época temprana se puede hacer más barato y seguro con el tratamiento de semillas COn algunos fungicidas como Triciclazol.La reducción de las aplicaCiones de fungicidas en la pantcula contra manchado de grano se puede lograr solamente cuando los asistentes técnicos y los agricultores esten convencidos de que sus prácticas son inútiles y costosas.Los productores de semillas necesitan concentrarse en las búsqueda de una estrategia para eliminar la bacteria en las semillas. Los m~todos disponibles no permiten ahora el tratamiento de todas las semillas certificadas, por esto se recomienda comenzar a tratar las semillas básicas y producir las siguientes generaciones en lotes nuevos.Respecto a piricularia el m~todo de tratar las semillas con fungicidas es bien conocido pero solamente alrededor de 1% de los agricultores 10 ha usado en el semestre de 1986 en la zona endémica de los Llanos. Se requieren parcelas demostrativas en todas las regiones endémicas para mostrar la eficiencia y economia de ests práctica.    ---------Pesos Co1.-------------      Muchos trabajos experimentales y muchas aplicaciones comerciales, demuestran que no podemos controlar \"manchado de grano\" con aplicaciones de fungicidas.Por eso podemos recomendar a los agr1cultores la no aplicación de estos productos. con la seguridad de que ni los rendimientos, ni la calidad del productos se demeritan. Esto darta como resultado la eliminación de por 10 menos dos aplicaciones en el pais.En resumen, existen cuatro prácticas listas para demostrar a los agricultores Reducción de la densidad de siembra.Epoca critica y mezcla de herbicidas para el control de las malezas.La eficiencia del tratamiento de la semilla con fungicidas para el control de P1ricularia en los estados iniciales.Eliminación del uso de fungicidas destinados a controlar el manchado de grano.?ara el uso del control integrado de plagaq solamente se requiere confirmar en lotes comerciales los niveles de daño.concentrada en zonas donde piricularia es epidémica (Llanos, Bajo Cauca, Urabá, Magdalena, Santander). TambH!n debido a que existe suficiente información positiva y poca transferencia de tecnologia, justifica efectuarla en el mayor número de sitios que sea manejable.El plan nacional de agronomía cuenta para la eJecución de los proyectos programados con técnicos de Fedearroz y el lCA, ubicados en las diferentes zonas productoras de arroz del país (Tabla No. 48).Para la eJecución de los proyectos 3 y ","tokenCount":"4063"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"626d0446635593ed70599717f07e0771","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/430a56ec-5289-4599-a30b-f3beff870586/retrieve","id":"335353663"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"de67ab7c-08ad-4150-a634-d5f86bdd3b39","pagecount":"2","content":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:• Reduced net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forests and other forms of land-use (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems)• More productive and equitable management of natural resources  summit (held in 2006). The summit has again been postponed, due to COVID-19, now to early 2023 and has as a preliminary title 'the 2nd African Fertilizer Summit'. While the P250 project will end, we have some resources from other projects to continue working on two papers (to benchmark nutrient use in cereal cropping) and to complete a publication on the combined use of organic and mineral fertilizers. Through the P250 coordinator's (Van Ittersum) membership of the IFA Africa Forum we stay engaged in the preparations and trust to contribute beyond the lifetime of P250.","tokenCount":"127"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5a59fe3bec21b60d651fda9305e7688","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99b2b161-7bbb-4346-bf63-e28cef1b047f/retrieve","id":"-1350294893"},"keywords":["políticas agropecuarias","adopción de tecnologías forrajeras","sistemas ganaderos sostenibles","servicios de extensión"],"sieverID":"c1b8ebfe-1ae6-475c-a3f5-732a769af710","pagecount":"7","content":"Los Pagos por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) se han convertido en una estrategia útil para la adaptación y mitigación del cambio climático en Latinoamérica: al tiempo que contribuyen en la restauración y conservación del medio ambiente, favorecen el desarrollo social y productivo. Sin embargo, su implementación resulta desafiante dadas las características inherentes al contexto: desde bajos sistemas de tecnificación agrícola y poca integración entre actores interesados hasta deficiencias institucionales. El presente estudio pretende servir como piedra angular en el establecimiento de futuros PSA en Latinoamérica al analizar la ejecución de estos esquemas para sistemas silvopastoriles a partir de nueve dimensiones (políticas PSA, sistemas de gobernanza, regímenes de tenencia de tierra, conocimiento base, relaciones entre las partes, genero, juventud, costo-eficiencia y sostenibilidad financiera). Se realizó un meta-análisis indagando acerca de las experiencias en países en desarrollo, y se llevaron a cabo entrevistas semiestructuradas con tomadores de decisiones en Colombia. Los resultados destacan: a) las dificultades del país para realizar procesos como el monitoreo; b) los PSA son más eficientes cuando se acompañan de estrategias complementarias (p. ej. extensión, dotación de mallas, cercas vivas, semillas), y; c) la necesidad de redirigir los esquemas PSA desde la conservación hacia la articulación de la oferta del servicio ambiental en cadenas y mercados especializados, transfiriendo así los costos a los consumidores.Dentro de la producción de alimentos, la actividad ganadera resulta particularmente desafiante; constituye un factor determinante en la atenuación del cambio climático y, sin embargo, también presenta un gran potencial para mitigarlo (Neely et al., 2009). Las tecnologías emergentes y las buenas prácticas están haciendo posible que dicha actividad se transforme bajo diversos mecanismos de mitigación y adaptación. Uno de estos mecanismos es el Pago por Servicios Ambientales (PSA) para la adopción de Sistemas Silvopastoriles (SSP), pues éstos reducen las emisiones de la ganadería a través de efectos directos e indirectos: mejoran la captura de carbono gracias a los árboles introducidos, mejora los suelos gracias al incremento de la materia orgánica, reducen la emisión de metano como efecto de las pasturas forrajeras adoptadas, disminuyen la utilización de fertilizantes nitrogenados y pesticidas, reducen la presión sobre los bosques, disminuyen las temperaturas en los potreros y las afectaciones de la estacionalidad, lo que a su vez genera aumentos en la productividad de carne y leche (Murgueitio et al., 2014). A todo esto también se le debe agregar el potencial para reducir la pobreza, eliminar el hambre, promover la salud, la igualdad de género, reducir las inequidades y generar mejoras en el empleo en las zonas rurales (FAO, 2018).Ante este escenario es válido preguntarse por aquellos factores que se deben tener en cuenta para la entrada en operación de esquemas PSA para sistemas silvopastoriles para garantizar el éxito de los mismos. Aquí, los PSA son entendidos desde la definición propuesta por Wunder (2005;2008). Esta definición utiliza cinco criterios: 1) debe ser una transacción voluntaria; 2) debe haber un servicio ambiental definido; 3) este servicio debe ser \"adquirido\" por al menos un comprador; 4) debe tener por lo menos un proveedor del servicio, y; 5) el proveedor del servicio debe cumplir con los términos del contrato (condicionalidad).El presente estudio pretende traslapar la teoría con la práctica, examinando los puntos de encuentro, las barreras y oportunidades que se han presentado y se pueden presentar al aplicar los esquemas de PSA para el establecimiento de sistemas silvopastoriles en Colombia. Para ello, la investigación se apoya en un marco en el cual se examinan factores políticos, económicos, institucionales, ambientales y contextuales con el ánimo de generar un diagnóstico crítico de estos elementos en relación a las dinámicas generadas o que se pueden generar a partir de la implementación de dichos esquemas. Dichas dimensiones y sus dinámicas son caracterizadas para el contexto colombiano, teniendo como principal recurso las experiencias del proyecto \"Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible\", ejecutado durante el periodo 2010-2020 por instituciones tales como la Federación Colombiana de Ganaderos (Fedegán), el Centro para la Investigación en Sistemas Sostenibles de Producción Agropecuaria (CIPAV), el Fondo para la Acción Ambiental y la Niñez (Fondo Acción) y The Nature Conservancy (TNC). Algunas otras instituciones involucradas fueron Global Environmental Facility (GEF), el gobierno de Reino Unido, el Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, el Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural y el Banco Mundial (BM).La propuesta metodológica utilizada es la propuesta por Papagallo (2018). Se trata de un conjunto de variables que, aunque separadas, se encuentran íntegramente relacionadas y que deben funcionar de forma armónica para que se puedan cumplir los objetivos de dicho esquema (Figura 1). Para completar esta documentación, se establecieron entrevistas con actores clave en el diseño y establecimiento de los esquemas PSA en Colombia quienes brindaron información sobre las dinámicas observadas, así como la identificación de los riesgos y oportunidades de un esquema PSA. En Colombia, y a través del Ministerio de Ambiente, se han decantado marcos normativos para los PSA los cuales han aclarado el concepto y los lineamientos a través de los cuales se rigen estos incentivos. Un primer diagnóstico es que la legislación de los esquemas PSA se encuentra más orientada hacia la conservación de los recursos hídricos que hacia cualquier otro tipo de esquemas PSA como es la delimitación de la frontera agropecuaria. Desde 1979 se observan movimientos orientados a promover pagos por cuidados del medio ambiente, pero es en 1994 cuando surge el primer mecanismo directo: el Certificado de Incentivo Forestal (CIF) creado a través de la Ley 139 de dicho año. A esta norma le seguirían el decreto 953 de 2013, la resolución 97 de 2017, la Política Nacional de Gestión Integral de Biodiversidad y Servicios Eco sistémicos (PNGIBSE), el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2014-2018, el documento Conpes 3886 de 2017 y el Decreto 870 de 2017, iniciativas encaminadas a ampliar los esquemas, no sólo hacia el cuidado de fuentes hídricas, sino también ecosistemas y áreas de conservación que representen importancia para el cuidado de la biodiversidad.Un aspecto importante del contexto político y jurídico, y que a su vez constituye una amenaza para el éxito de los PSA, han sido los problemas derivados de la tenencia de la tierra. Dadas las situaciones de violencia histórica evidenciada en la relación entre ganadería extensiva y el apoderamiento de tierras, muchas de las reglamentaciones sobre la tenencia de tierra no han podido ser aplicadas para participar en los esquemas PSA. Sin embargo, el proyecto Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible utilizó un esquema en el que las personas con un contrato de arrendamiento verbal son beneficiadas por el esquema de PSA. También fue posible que aplicaran a los beneficios situaciones en las cuales un predio ganadero cuenta con más de un propietario; sólo fueron necesarios los documentos de cada uno de los dueños.Ahora bien, el contexto social fue primordialmente analizado a la luz de la perspectiva de inclusión. Se evidencia que los proyectos de PSA para SSP, entendidos como relativamente nuevos en el contexto colombiano, han logrado involucrar perspectivas de género para comprender y transformar las realidades productivas de los territorios abordados. No obstante, esta no es la situación para todos los demás proyectos que se han trabajado anteriormente. Los esquemas PSA generales, han tenido poca o ninguna incorporación de componentes de género y juventud tanto en su diseño como en su implementación. En la legislación sobre PSA no se genera una distinción clara acerca de los potenciales actores y sus características, incluyendo las normas sociales y el contexto que las determinan y, por lo tanto, se ha dejado de lado la perspectiva de género.Relacionado a la participación en la toma de decisiones, la literatura sugiere que la poca participación de las mujeres en estos espacios se debe a la falta de propiedad de recursos, especialmente de ganado y tierra. A pesar que las mujeres no son las dueñas y pocas veces tienen derechos de propiedad, Gumucio et al., (2016) sugieren que la inclusión de mujeres en el enfoque ganadero y en los esquemas PSA debe entenderse como una medida de protección social, de tal manera que se genere una mayor efectividad en la ejecución de programas agro, dándoles mayor visibilidad y superando las normas tradicionales de género.Además, con la introducción de sistemas silvopastoriles, la visión tradicional de los hombres como los encargados exclusivos de la producción ganadera, y las mujeres asumiendo únicamente roles de apoyo en el cuidado y la alimentación de los animales empieza a ser cuestionada. Es decir, los sistemas silvopastoriles ocasionan que el rol que juegan las familias de los pequeños y medianos criadores de ganado gane mayor importancia, pues la introducción de estos sistemas significa la necesidad de una mayor mano de obra que tiende a ser suplida con todos los miembros del hogar. Así, las nuevas labores son repartidas entre madre e hijos, asignado un reconocimiento de mano de obra en ganadería a estos miembros, que en sistemas tradicionales tienden a ser opacados por el hombre principal del hogar (Gumucio et al., 2017).Relacionado con el contexto ambiental, el proceso de selección de las áreas de trabajo parte de una priorización de las regiones más importantes en el país en cuanto a sus atributos ambientales, la diversidad de ecosistemas, el grado de fragmentación, el potencial de conectividad, la amenaza existente de degradación entre otros. Bajo esta lógica, en el proyecto Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible se priorizaron cinco regiones: a) Región de la ganadería del Valle del Río Cesar; b) Bajo Magdalena; c) Regiones lecheras de Boyacá y Santander; d) Ecorregión cafetera y el valle alto del río Cauca; e) Piedemonte del Orinoco (específicamente los departamentos del Meta, Cundinamarca y Casanare). Todos estos territorios caracterizados, además, por una alta presencia de la actividad ganadera.Ahora bien, los esquemas PSA se enfrentan a riesgos y desafíos que deben ser correctamente identificados. En el proyecto Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible se identificó la falta de reconocimiento de los derechos legales de los productores, la marginalización de los pequeños productores, la transparencia y el acceso a la información, la inestabilidad política y el conflicto. No obstante, un riesgo que requiere atención significativa es la fase de monitoreo de un proyecto, puesto que los compradores de los servicios pueden perder la confianza en la provisión de los mismos si no se desarrollan mecanismos adecuados de medición o no se reportan adecuadamente. Los productores inmersos en un esquema de PSA pueden desviar su rumbo, pues no se enfocan en el cumplimiento de las políticas sino más bien, se dirigen hacia el cumplimiento de los compromisos contractuales, como consecuencia del planteamiento de distintos objetivos. Esta situación genera a su vez, problemas en la evaluación del impacto de los incentivos económicos como medio para lograr beneficios en términos ambientales y sociales.Además, En el proyecto Ganadería Colombiana Sostenible se tuvieron en cuenta nueve usos de la tierra que se iban a monitorear, y con base en ellos se pagaría el diferencial del aumento o la permanencia del servicio eco sistémico proveído. Ante una mayor complejidad en el monitoreo, en la última fase del proyecto se estableció el monitoreo por \"autodeclaración\", el cual consistía en que los productores manifestaran cuánto había cambiado el área de intervención y se realizaba un mínimo muestreo para verificar dicho cambio. Así, se genera un cuello de botella dado que las mediciones pueden ser poco exactas y los actores que pagan por el servicio, pueden perder la confianza. Es importante resaltar que, con el paso de los años, los costos del monitoreo han disminuido en la medida en que se logran avances tecnológicos haciendo más viable la medición y monitoreo a partir de imágenes satelitales, no obstante, la selección de los predios debe estar concentrada en un determinado territorio y se debe evitar en lo posible la dispersión de los mismos, pues esto aumenta considerablemente los costos de transacción.Respecto a la sostenibilidad financiera, Papagallo (2018) presenta tres situaciones en las que dichas estrategias pueden sufrir de ineficiencia, entendida ésta como la cantidad del servicio ambiental ofrecido por unidad monetaria invertida, a saber: a) altos costos de transacción e implementación de la estrategia, los cuales determinan el número de contratos que pueden ser ofrecidos por un programa con un presupuesto determinado (Börner et al., 2017); b) posibilidad de implementación de las prácticas sostenibles para el uso de la tierra/recurso en ausencia de los incentivos; y c) incentivos que no proporcionan los resultados esperados en el uso de la tierra/recurso. En esta línea, Börner et al. (2017) habla de efectividad ambiental 1 , la cual no solo está determinada por los escenarios mencionados por Papagallo (2018), sino también por: a) los efectos indirectos (positivos o negativos) del programa sobre el uso de la tierra/recurso y la provisión de servicios ambientales por parte de aquellos que están por fuera de la estrategia pero se ubican en el área de influencia (spillovers), y; b) por los impactos que tienen estos cambios en el uso de la tierra/recurso entre los participantes y no-participantes sobre la actual provisión de los servicios ambientales (es decir, el vínculo entre las condiciones del proyecto y la oferta del servicio).Estos efectos se alteran por la selección adversa y/o el riesgo moral de los participantes proveedores, lo cual genera la principal fuente de inefectividad ambiental en programas de PSA (Börner et al., 2017). Por un lado, los implementadores no saben cuáles proveedores podrían cumplir con las practicas sostenibles para el uso del suelo/recurso sin recibir a cambio los pagos; estos propietarios tienden a autoseleccionarse para recibir el incentivo, reduciendo la adicionalidad del programa. Pese a lo anterior, como se ha mencionado, los implementadores del esquema pueden buscar objetivos adicionales y entonces, sea de manera intencional o no, pueden canjear la búsqueda de costo-efectividad frente a, por ejemplo, la reducción de la pobreza.El presente estudio discutió sobre una serie de dimensiones vitales que deben ser tenidas en cuenta para asegurar el éxito de iniciativas PSA para la ganadería. Asimismo, se evaluó la forma como estas dimensiones se han abordado dentro de las recientes experiencias en el contexto colombiano, analizando las distintas configuraciones que dan forma y sentido a la realidad social, cultural y natural del país. A partir de estas consideraciones se han generado una serie de reflexiones sobre la aplicación de estos esquemas.Como primera medida, y teniendo en cuenta los desafíos que sobrevienen al intervenir los contextos de la ganadería, se encuentra que resulta poco probable que los esquemas PSA por sí solos puedan cambiar el comportamiento o las prácticas de los productores. Se trata de una estrategia que debe ir acompañada de múltiples elementos como la asistencia técnica y la provisión y apoyo de elementos para el establecimiento de los SSP. No sólo eso, dado que la institucionalidad colombiana se encuentra orientada a promover PSA para el cuidado de los recursos hídricos, es importante promover esquemas PSA para SSP en asocio con la conservación de los recursos hídricos. Asimismo, para obtener una mayor eficiencia es importante crear mecanismos que permitan involucrar, no sólo a los propietarios de los predios, sino también a administradores y trabajadores. No obstante, se hace necesario comprender que los estímulos de corte económico no son suficientes para la transformación de comportamientos en productores ganaderos hacia la sostenibilidad ambiental. De hecho, una de las recomendaciones de los actores entrevistados consiste en no seleccionar productores que acceden al incentivo únicamente por motivos monetarios, pues en ausencia de otros intereses, los comportamientos hacia la conservación se difuminan con el tiempo.Al integrar en la formulación consideraciones como el valor cultural de la ganadería, los cambios que experimenta en el tiempo, las dinámicas de relevo generacional y los roles y preceptos familiares y de género que inciden en la misma, se vislumbra con certeza que el ofrecimiento de estímulos económicos no responde ni puede hacerlo a la complejidad de relaciones sociales que engendran los comportamientos a transformar. Es por esto que las dimensiones aquí abordadas integran no sólo los aspectos de sostenibilidad económica sino también el contexto social, cultural y natural, así como las interacciones que se generan a partir de la implementación de estos incentivos.","tokenCount":"2646"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69edfff3a5c8142e0e8538ad3f058582","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b751c4e-73d3-44f2-a8fc-0fd2faafbe1d/retrieve","id":"404473678"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4e0c27c8-c713-4389-b440-c2603deaf8e7","pagecount":"23","content":"Nothing in this licence impairs or restricts the author's moral rights.Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Agriculture is the largest sector in East and Southern Africa, employing 65% of the population and contributing over 30% of the region's GDP 1 . Despite its vital role in the region's economy and global food production, the sector faces many challenges, including climate change, poor infrastructure, and global supply chain disruptions, leading to high levels of food insecurity and poverty in the region. Introducing climate-resilient solutions to enable climate adaptation, strengthen value chains, and empower smallholder farmers with a focus on youth and women are key to strengthening the sector and driving its growth.However, building and scaling these innovations remains a challenge. As of December 2022, only 4% of investment in technology companies in Africa has gone to agriculture-related products. Within this, only 3% went to the growth or late stage, typically associated with scaling innovations. Many challenges exist. Key among them is the fragmented nature of the ecosystem. Support for early-stage innovations is largely delivered through the network of agribusiness entrepreneur support organisations (AESOs) on the continent including hubs, accelerators, incubators, hackathons, donor programmes and projects on the continent. AESOs, in this context, refer to organisations providing support to smallholder farmers, agtechs, and agribusinesses in a variety of formats. Powerful scaling partners needed to reach agribusinesses and smallholder farmers, like agriculture corporations, government or even mobile network operators (MNOs), operate outside of this ecosystem.In 2022, CGIAR launched the Research Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawi) to bring together the agribusiness ecosystem in East and Southern Africa to co-design and implement solutions to accelerate the scaling of agricultural innovations for the transformation of food, land, and water systems. The three-year initiative aims to change the behaviour of 50,000 farmers, value chain actors and consumers towards more climate-smart and diverse practices, reach 1 million farmers with new digital agro-advisory and risk management products, scale up to thirty agribusinesses through new financing and mobilise USD 100 million of investment into the agribusiness ecosystem.Within the Research Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa, there are six work packages geared towards achieving these milestones. including a diversifying and intensifying, de-risking and digitising, supporting and accelerating, governing and enabling, empowering and engaging and scaling and coordinating. The report is structured as follows:• Section 1 explores the landscape of the agribusiness support ecosystem in East and Southern Africa.• Section 2 identifies barriers to scaling agriculture innovations in the region.• Section 3 presents recommendations for the Hub to address the underlying barriers and define its value proposition. • Section 4 introduces a way forward with immediate next steps for the Hub.This section explores the landscape of agribusiness support across East and Southern Africa. Specifically, it looks at Eswatini, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It maps and analyses the existing support framework and services provided by AESOs across the region to identify the barriers and opportunities to scaling up agricultural technologies and innovations. It looks at the type of AESOs by the type of role they play in providing funding or implementing support to the ecosystem, the geographic distribution of AESOs, the funding and technical assistance activities offered by the AESOs and the beneficiaries that the AESOs aim to impact.Figure 1 The agribusiness support landscape in East and Southern Africa 2 2 It should be noted that the mapping below does not claim to be 100% comprehensive. While there are likely more organisations present in the space, the mapping focuses on active AESOs with a strong digital presence. Further some projects/programmes do not have a logo and therefore do not appear in the map but are considered in the analysis. DFIs provide financial support to all of the AESOs identified in the mapping. This includes funding accelerator programmes and competitions, as well as non-profits and programmes and projects related to the agricultural sectors in Africa. They also fund large-scale programmes where they work closely with the government and traditional agricultural corporations. For example, the World Bank is funding a USD 2.3 billion program to address escalating food insecurity in Eastern and Southern Africa. In Mozambique, IFAD is providing funding to help mitigate the impact of crises on small-scale producers and the underserved in Mozambique. In Zambia, the World Bank funds the Zambia Agribusiness and Trade Project aimed at contributing to increased market linkages and firm growth in agribusiness. • Non-profit organisations and foundations provide some technical and financial assistance to reach agripreneurs. Like programmes and projects, non-profits and foundations are impactdriven organisations with specific beneficiaries they are looking to support. They typically act as implementation partners in a programme setting. Out of the 205 mapped AESOs, 30 are nonprofits and foundations. For example, the Agripreneurship Alliance is a non-profit that enables young African entrepreneurs within the agri-food sector to develop or enhance their business ideas and create a high-quality business plan to support the launch or growth of their agribusiness. Agripreneurship Alliance is also piloting an approach to reach out and support smallholder farmers in rural areas. Another example is the Yunus Environment Hub (YEH), a global social business network creating solutions for the environmental crisis. YEH provides services such as social business incubation, education, venture building, consulting and training.beneficiaries such as smallholder farmers, youth or women. Out of the 205 mapped AESOs, 41 are programmes or projects. Programmes or projects are time-bound with specific milestones.The consortium behind a programme/project typically includes a funding partner, providing the financial resources needed to deploy and deliver the programme, and an implementing partner with the know-how to implement and deliver the programme. Most programmes and projects mapped for this report target youth and women. For example, the Youth in Agroecology and Business Learning Track (YALTA Initiative) initiated by the Netherlands Food Partners (NFP) and IKEA Foundation with support from local partners targets youth. The AgriBiz Programme in Kenya primarily targets underemployed rural and peri-urban youth and women lacking the financial resources and know-how to create viable sustainable businesses.operating in the agribusiness ecosystem. Usually tech-powered, platforms represent an important support provider facilitating access to information and fostering connections between the different stakeholders. The mapping shows twenty-nine active platforms and networks. For example, the Digital AgriHub, hosted by Wageningen University and Research, is being developed in partnership with GSMA, Grameen Foundation and the Netherlands Advisory Board for Impact Investment. The hub connects organisations that are supporting and investing in Digitalisation for Agriculture as a channel for delivering inclusive products and services for small-scale producers. Another example is SPROUT, an open content and services platform where global agriculture experts and farmer-facing organisations meet to share and discover farmer-friendly, digital-ready content and services designed to build smallholder skills, resilience and income-earning opportunities. Sprout has been designed as a public good by Mercy Corps AgriFin, with funding from GIZ Digital Agriculture Africa.Competitions include hackathons and challenges. They represent spaces encouraging the emergence of innovations and solutions targeting the agriculture sector.Competitions are organised through a partnership between different stakeholders and usually offer prizes and awards to the winning teams. Aside from the funds, competitions often provide support services to the participants by mobilising mentors and industry experts to support participating projects during the competition. Only 12 out of the total mapped AESOs are competitions. While this seems low, it is off a low base and more and more support organisations move away from general innovation support to specific sector support for innovations. For example, there is Pitch AgriHack, an initiative of Heifer International, managed by Generation Africa. The competition identifies and amplifies efforts by young innovators to build resilience beyond COVID-19 through digital agriculture products and services. Winners receive funding and continued support to scale up their innovations to transform the agriculture sector. Heifer International is also behind the AYuTe African Challenge, which aims to support promising young agtech innovators across Africa using technology to reimagine farming and food production across the continent. In Uganda and Rwanda the WFP launched the IGNITE Food Systems Challenge, allowing food system innovators to pitch their businesses to win financial and technical support.It is important to note that many of the organisations and initiatives mapped above operate across these six groups. For example, non-profits often implement programmes on behalf of Donors and DFIs. Similarly, many incubators, accelerators and innovation hubs host competitions or receive funding from Donors and DFIs, as well. In addition to the six groups identified in the mapping, this section also includes agricultural corporates and governments as relevant to the AESO landscape, particularly as it relates to scaling innovations.• Government can be a critical partner in attracting both scalable funding and implementing partners. While governments were not included in the AESO mapping directly, more than a third of AESOs reported working closely with governments. For example, Musika, a Zambian nonprofit works closely with the government to stimulate and support private investment in the agricultural market, with a particular focus on smallholder and emerging farmers. The YALTA Initiative, initiated by the Netherlands Food Partners works in close collaboration with the governments of Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Rwanda. The Zimbabwe Agriculture Development Trust (ZADT), initiated by SNV, Netherlands Development Organization and Humanistic Institute for Development Cooperation (Hivos), and in collaboration with the local government, aims to contribute to the recovery and improvement of smallholder farming and improve the food security and incomes of rural households in Zimbabwe. Governments are also getting involved directly. For example, the government of Uganda, through the Uganda Development Bank, has been supporting agribusinesses' activity by allocating funds which contributed to the development of the sector. • Agricultural corporates are missing as both funding and implementing partners in the agribusiness ecosystem. While the mapping does not include corporates, it has less to do with their visibility and more to do with their absence from the agribusiness ecosystem. To date, there is no significant evidence of agriculture corporates engaging in AESO programmes. Most of their engagement is related to working with agribusinesses through partnerships or supplying smallholder farmers or rural households with fertilisers, seeds, or access to knowledge. Yet, corporates have had limited involvement in the support programmes either as an implementation or technical partner. This could be a missed opportunity as agriculture corporates could play a central role in support programmes. For example, OCP Africa, a leading fertiliser provider with a presence across 12 African countries including Kenya, Zambia, Ethiopia, Rwanda and Tanzania, deployed smallholder farmer-centric support initiatives such as the OCP School Lab and Agribooster. In partnership with local partners, the OCP School Lab reaches out to farmers directly to raise awareness on soil testing and offers recommendations on how to apply fertiliser in their soil and crop mix. Another example of a corporate involved in the AESO landscape in Africa is Syngenta, a leading science-based agtech company operating in various African countries including Kenya, Tanzania, and Rwanda. Syngenta launched the Good Growth Plan aimed at accelerating innovation to offer solutions to help farmers overcome climate change-related challenges by providing the tools they need to manage their land sustainably.Partnering with agriculture corporates for programmes does not come without its challenges, and it is important to showcase the incentives and benefits of working with the start-up ecosystem as well as smallholder farmers. A mapping of agricultural corporates operating across East and Southern Africa can be found in the Appendix.The previous section aimed to provide an overview of the type of AESOs operating in the agribusiness ecosystem and the funding or implementation support they provide. This section seeks to explore where these AESOs are currently most active. The presence of AESO is used as a proxy for innovation activity and ecosystem maturity 3 . The assumption for the Hub is that AESOS are active in these markets because they also have a strong agricultural sector and that the more AESOs that are present, the more likely they have potential scalable innovations to source. It is in these more mature markets that the Hub is likely to have the most success. In addition, we have compared this against the landscape of Agriculture Corporates as another data point to consider whether there are powerful scaling partners for the ecosystem. Figure 2 provides a breakdown of the AESOs by country. Based on the assumptions noted above, these can be segmented into three groups by their potential to contribute to the activities of the Hub.There are a limited number of high-potential ecosystems for scaling agriculture innovations. Kenya (53 active AESOs) and Uganda (41) have nearly twice as many active AESOs as the next group. These countries benefit from dynamic ecosystems and mature business environments, with Kenya having the largest agribusiness support ecosystem. The private sector is well-developed, reflecting the increase in terms of private-public partnerships to provide support programmes. They also have the largest number of agricultural corporates with Kenya, home to more than 60 agricultural corporates, and Uganda, home to more than 50. South Africa ( 27) is the other market considered as high potential. It is less to do with the robustness of the agribusiness support ecosystem and more to do with the agricultural corporates present there, as well as the wider funding support in the ecosystem.The majority of ecosystems are on the cusp. Ethiopia (27), Tanzania (26), Rwanda (22), Zambia (18) and Zimbabwe ( 12) are all on the cusp. These countries have a growing agribusiness support ecosystem and a strong presence of agricultural corporates. Zimbabwe stands out here as it falls below the other countries in terms of the presence of AESOs, but has the most agricultural corporates. Many of the countries also benefit from proactive support from the government. For example, Rwanda launched the National Agriculture Policy in 2018 with the vision of ensuring the food and nutrition security of Rwandans by using modern agribusiness technologies, professionalising farmers in terms of production, commercialisation, and creating a competitive agricultural sector 5 .This group includes Malawi (12), Mozambique (12) Madagascar (2), and Eswatini (2). These countries present the lowest number of AESOs in the study and the lowest number of corporates. Both Mozambique and Malawi have less than 5 corporates. Eswatini and Madagascar were not included in the mapping. This can in part be attributed to a more nascent innovation and technology scene and the fact that innovative models in agriculture remain underresourced, despite the increasing traction, funding, and assistance they have received over the past few years. In countries such as Eswatini, where the private sector is still underdeveloped, support initiatives are mainly deployed by the government and development organisations. In addition, since subsistence agriculture remains the backbone of rural livelihoods, the sector is mainly dominated by smallholder farmers rather than agtechs and agribusinesses, which are playing a bigger role in other countries in East and Southern Africa.The following section explores the beneficiaries of the AESOs and the related initiatives. The Research Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawi), for which the Hub is one work package, is ultimately focused on the impact it has on different types of stakeholders. Therefore, any collaboration with the AESOs requires an understanding of who the potential beneficiaries could be. The mapping revealed six beneficiary groups including agtechs and agribusinesses, smallholder farmers, youth, women, farmer support organisations and farmer groups. Figure 3 below shows the number of AESOs targeting these groups.Figure 3 Beneficiaries' distribution Agtechs and agribusinesses are the primary beneficiaries of AESOs. Agtechs and agribusinesses are the primary targets of support across the sample, providing entrepreneurs with resources to build and expand on their business ventures. Agtechs and agribusinesses have a key role to play in the sector as they provide innovative solutions to strengthen the sector, as well as employment opportunities in the economy.Smallholder farmers are the second biggest target group, as AESOs look to, directly and indirectly, improve farmer practices and livelihoods for widespread and long-term impact. However, reaching smallholders at scale is challenging which highlights the limited role AESOs play in scaling innovations.The following section explores the activities of AESOs operating in the ecosystem. It includes an overview of the stage of support the AESOs are focused on, and the type of technical and financial support offered at this stage. Another example is the Founders Factory Africa and Small Foundation programme, aimed at scaling high-potential agtechs across the continent. As Joan Mwangi, Programme Manager at Pangea Trust, said, this stage is still a real struggle as the pipeline of agribusinesses at this stage is limited.More than 60% of funding from AESOs is in grants and awards/prizes. Briter intelligence data shows that this type of funding is typically associated with small ticket sizes of less than USD 100 thousands and early-stage start-ups.There is limited, if any, growth or later-stage funding from AESOs.Support services in this study are classified into nine groups: business training, technical assistance, financial support, coaching and mentoring, access to partners and networks, connection to financial institutions, access to markets, and investment readiness. Figure 6 shows that the most common services offered by the mapped AESO is business training and technical assistance. The goal of these services is to assist agribusinesses and agtechs in building innovations at the early stages. There is less focus on scaling them. Very few AESOs are focused on supporting start-ups with scaling their business through accessing new markets and partners or getting them investors ready for follow-on rounds. This speaks to the limited role that AESOs can play in the acceleration of innovations' scaling.While there are many organisations supporting early-stage agriculture innovations, few initiatives are focused solely on scaling them and driving adoption in the market. In order to ensure faster, more sustainable and more inclusive innovations' scaling, having an enabling and supportive financial and institutional environment is crucial. In this section, we highlight some of the main barriers to scaling innovations in East and Southern Africa.The analysis revealed that markets are different across East and Southern Africa in terms of maturity level. However, regardless of being a competitive, emerging or early-stage market, the agribusiness ecosystem is still fragmented on both the country and the regional levels. There are limited connections between the different agribusiness stakeholder groups. As an example, although agriculture corporates have a role to play in accelerating the scaling of innovations in the region by collaborating with other stakeholder groups from the ecosystem such as AESOs and agtechs, their contribution remains relatively limited. Another example is research institutions that are building cutting-edge innovations but are still lagging in terms of their distribution to the end users.The mapping revealed that despite the rise in the number of AESOs, their role in scaling agriculture innovations in the region and their ability to create value for entrepreneurs remains limited. As discussed above, AESOs have a key role to play in accelerating the building and the promotion of agricultural innovations but a lower contribution in taking them to scale as they intervene mainly in the early stages. This shows that AESOs alone are not capable of scaling innovations and need to be connected and collaborate with other stakeholders from the agribusiness ecosystem to create value.There is currently limited visibility in the agribusinesses ecosystem on who the potential partners could be to scale up new agricultural innovations and products. The current focus on agricultural corporates may also be limited, as their reach is limited to agribusinesses and some smallholder farmers. The majority of smallholder farmers and subsistence farmers therefore do not operate within the value chains of these agricultural corporates. Further, agricultural corporates have not demonstrated interest in engaging with the ecosystem. Identifying and getting buy-in from these partners remains a key challenge for the agribusiness ecosystem support landscape.The Research Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawi) aims to support climate-resilient agriculture and livelihoods across 12 countries in East and Southern Africa by helping smallholders intensify, diversify, and de-risk maize-mixed farming through improved extension services, enterprise development, and private investment. The initiative focuses on improving public and private extension and delivery channels enabled by the agribusiness ecosystem, enterprise development, and private investment by setting up a Scaling Hub to advance the science and practice of scaling agricultural innovations in the region.This section explores how the scaling hub could be positioned within the agribusiness support ecosystem, as well as its potential role and delivery mechanisms to accelerate the scaling of innovations while building strong and strategic partnerships with existing ecosystem players.Africa. The barriers identified above show that there is a gap in the ecosystem between the products and technologies being incubated by the majority of AESOs and the funding and implementing partners able to take these to scale. This gap creates an opportunity for the Hub to act as a connector, convener and facilitator to bring together innovations that are ready to scale with powerful scaling partners. For the Hub to step into this gap, it will need to both get buy-in from scaling partners to participate in the scaling process and demonstrate the Hub can facilitate the implementation of these partnerships as well. This does not mean getting involved in the actual operations of the partnerships, but rather in sourcing different types of partners and funding that can assist in the implementation.The Hub has a limited budget that it must leverage to contribute to the milestones of the Ukama Ustawi initiative as set out in the introduction. Changing the behaviour of 50,000 farmers, reaching another million with new services, supporting agribusiness in scaling their operations, and mobilising USD100 million is no small task. The Hub is going to need to make some strategic choices about where it deploys its limited resources.Focusing on where it can get a big, immediate impact to demonstrate the potential of the hub and pull in new partners. The mapping highlighted that there are currently three markets where there is the right combination of agribusiness support ecosystem, funding, corporate presence, and government support for scaling up agricultural innovations. These are Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda. We recommend focusing the limited resources of the Hub on one of these markets.Working with the incubators, accelerators, and hubs to assess and source potential innovations. While the majority of AESOs do not have a role in helping to scale agricultural technologies and innovations, they do play a critical role in incubating them. The Hub should work with these AESOs to provide a ready pipeline for scalable innovations. This includes making AESOs aware of the scaling readiness assessment of CGIAR innovations and how to use CGIAR Results Dashboards effectively. This does not need to be a major outreach initiative for the hub but can rather be a side event or session during one of its partnership workshops.Going beyond the agricultural sector in terms of scaling partners. Agricultural corporates have the largest direct reach to agribusinesses through production, processing, and distribution. Further, many operate across multiple countries making it easier to scale. This is sufficient for reaching agribusinesses and even many smallholder farmers. However, the majority do not reach smallholder farmers who often operate outside of major value chains as subsistence farmers. The Hub will need to consider what scaling partners are best able to reach these. For example, mobile network operators (MNOs) often reach smallholder farmers through their services. This could be one potential scaling partner to bring to the table. The challenge will be competition with other more profitable services for their attention such as digital credit, ringtones and mobile money. A critical step for the Hub will be in assessing the potential of different scaling partners.There are many initiatives that are being launched in East and Southern Africa to support the agriculture sector. The Hub should aim to work with the relevant partners behind these initiatives to mobilise resources for convenings and facilitate the implementation of the partnership by connecting the partners with the necessary technical and financial support.Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawi) and its partners for iterative learning. The Hub is attempting to do something very different than the other AESOs that have been researched for this report. In blazing a new trail for scaling up agricultural innovations, the Hub will identify new tools, such as an assessment tool for scaling partners, as well as new barriers. These tools and knowledge need to feed back into the CGIAR Research Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawi) and its partners so other organisations can adopt the tools or learning for future work.The above recommendations provide a way forward for the role the Scaling Hub should play. One possible next step is to develop a roadmap for how to operationalise this approach in a specific market, with specific activities, resourcing, and partners. The below could provide a basis for the development of the roadmap which would be fleshed out by the Scaling Hub team in consultation with the CGIAR Research Initiative on Diversification in East and Southern Africa (Ukama Ustawi) community.Step Activity Resources What will be required?1 Identify a market where the innovation ecosystem is robust and there are scalable partnership opportunities (e.g., Kenya or Uganda).From existing work Finding time to discuss 2 Assess potential innovations and scaling partners. This includes making AESOs aware of the existing CGIAR innovations.In-house / $10 -15kIn-house or identify consultant with expertise in assessing scaling partners 3 Consult assessed funding and implementing scaling partners to identify barriers to connect the scaling partners with the innovation ecosystems in the country.In-house / $10 -15kIn-house or identify consultant with expertise in assessing scaling partners 4 Convene scaling partners and innovation ecosystem to promote potential partnerships through local ideation workshops.Sourcing additional funding for workshop 5 Facilitate the implementation of the partnership by connecting the partners with the necessary technical and financial support.Sourcing additional funding for implementation","tokenCount":"4306"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"99de8ea2411b6343647e6cf4762b5a17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e4911725-a5ef-40fe-a52f-5de48ac62ea7/retrieve","id":"-1293611538"},"keywords":["smart breeding","genomic selection","integrated genomic-enviromic selection","spatiotemporal omics","crop design","machine and deep learning","big data","artificial intelligence"],"sieverID":"b7299dd9-3a3b-4f41-9d9b-0aaf647af3d3","pagecount":"32","content":"The first paradigm of plant breeding involves direct selection-based phenotypic observation, followed by predictive breeding using statistical models for quantitative traits constructed based on genetic experimental design and, more recently, by incorporation of molecular marker genotypes. However, plant performance or phenotype (P) is determined by the combined effects of genotype (G), envirotype (E), and genotype by environment interaction (GEI). Phenotypes can be predicted more precisely by training a model using data collected from multiple sources, including spatiotemporal omics (genomics, phenomics, and enviromics across time and space). Integration of 3D information profiles (G-P-E), each with multidimensionality, provides predictive breeding with both tremendous opportunities and great challenges. Here, we first review innovative technologies for predictive breeding. We then evaluate multidimensional information profiles that can be integrated with a predictive breeding strategy, particularly envirotypic data, which have largely been neglected in data collection and are nearly untouched in model construction. We propose a smart breeding scheme, integrated genomic-enviromic prediction (iGEP), as an extension of genomic prediction, using integrated multiomics information, big data technology, and artificial intelligence (mainly focused on machine and deep learning). We discuss how to implement iGEP, including spatiotemporal models, environmental indices, factorial and spatiotemporal structure of plant breeding data, and cross-species prediction. A strategy is then proposed for prediction-based crop redesign at both the macro (individual, population, and species) and micro (gene, metabolism, and network) scales. Finally, we provide perspectives on translating smart breeding into genetic gain through integrative breeding platforms and open-source breeding initiatives. We call for coordinated efforts in smart breeding through iGEP, institutional partnerships, and innovative technological support.Climate change, human population growth, and arable land loss have driven the field of plant breeding to seek innovative approaches to produce improved varieties for more sustainable crop production (Xiong et al., 2022). The phenotype (P) or performance of a plant is the result of the genotype (G), growth environment (E), and genotype by environment interactions (GEIs). Many indirect selection indices have been developed to efficiently select genotypes based on quantitative genetics for phenotypic selection (PS) of target traits and their components (Baker, 1986). In many cases, the phenotypic performance or target trait can be predicted using genetic models constructed with phenotypic and genotypic information. Various genetic models, including the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) procedure, have been developed for prediction (Bernardo, 2021).Classical breeding pipelines can be improved by incorporating new data-centric technologies for increasing genetic gain in breeding programs (Wallace et al., 2018;Crossa et al., 2021). With the development of molecular markers, genetic variation across the whole genome can be effectively captured. Thus, marker-trait association can be established and used to develop genetic models to predict phenotypes (e.g., Lande and Thompson, 1990). As a general method, genomic selection (GS) was developed to predict complex traits from genotypic data based on a model constructed using a training population that has been genotyped and phenotyped (Meuwissen et al., 2001;Bernardo and Yu 2007;Heffner et al., 2009).In addition to the molecular marker and phenotype information that have long been used in predictive breeding, multiomics information, involving genomics, phenomics, enviromics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, microbiomics, and metagenomics, are being generated with increasing complexity. However, many of these data types have seldom been used in predictive breeding. Full utilization of ''omics'' requires a strong capacity to handle multidimensional big data, integrate information from multiple sources, retrieve useful genetic and molecular information through comparative analysis and artificial intelligence (AI), and develop optimized genetic models.To better understand crop phenotypes, environmental factors need to be fully explored. A large volume of envirotypic data has been amassed in breeding activities, for example, through multi-environmental trials (METs). However, enviromic data have seldom been utilized in predictive breeding and instead have historically been considered as a single collective component (E) in interpreting GEIs and all the unexplainable variations (Flores et al., 1998;Kang, 2002;Xu, 2010). The E component should be treated more comparably with G and P for improved predictive breeding.Bringing fully informative G, P, and E into the simple but universal formula P = G + E + GEI will generate more powerful genomic prediction (GP) models. However, the translation of G-P-E data into meaningful knowledge remains a genotype-phenotype gap (Gosa et al., 2018). Recently, multiomic (including enviromic) data have been used in predictive breeding in several ways, by developing predictive models (Costa-Neto et al., 2021a;Cooper and Messina, 2021), enviromic similarity (Costa-Neto et al., 2021b), and the environmental index (EI) (Li et al., 2018(Li et al., , 2021b;;Guo et al., 2020) to enable integrated modeling and prediction, and by defining climatic or landscape-based variables as enviromic markers (Resende et al., 2021). Plant breeding is expected to become smarter in the near future with the integration of more data types and increasingly sophisticated and improved predictive models. AI can increase the probability of identifying truly favorable genotypes by focusing on current breeding materials with the potential to achieve optimal traits. Multinational seed enterprises (MSEs) have been using AI or AI-like approaches for predictive breeding of major crops for more than a decade. With the support of stakeholders and funding agencies, AI will continue to evolve and create new opportunities for plant breeding (Lee, 2021). This article will address challenges in the field of predictive breeding and develop a potential smart breeding strategy. This strategy incorporates an integrated genomic-enviromic prediction (iGEP) or selection by combining multiomics information with innovative breeding technologies that are driven by big data and AI.Plant breeding has been evaluated by the genetic gain that can be achieved annually. For PS and GS, we have the following formula for evaluation of genetic gain: DG = ih 2 s p /t and DG = ir A s A /t, respectively, where i is the standardized selection differential, s p is the SD of population trait values (phenotypic basis), r A is the correlation between genomic estimated breeding value and true breeding value, s A is the additive variance, and t is time (in units appropriate for breeding-program cycles, e.g., years). The goal of iGEP is to improve r A by developing and optimizing predictive models using all available big data and AI technologies. Predictive breeding helps reduce the cycle time required to ''solve'' the breeding puzzle, producing a plant with the desired combination of traits, adapted to specific and changing environments.The history of plant breeding can be divided into four existing or near-future stages (Wallace et al., 2018). The first stage largely consists of incidental selection performed by farmers. The second stage involves experimental design and statistical analysis to improve selection effort, with the involvement of phenotypic prediction. Marker-assisted breeding, including GP, has been incorporated at the third stage. We are able to combine all favorable alleles/haplotypes into optimal combinations at the fourth stage. Smart breeding will enable effective use of both traditional and big data generated in the past as well as in the present and future.The phrase ''big data'' refers to datasets that are too large to fit into local memory and cannot therefore be processed by conventional means (Cox and Ellsworth, 1997). More generally, big data has been defined as ''extensive datasets''-primarily in terms of volume, velocity, and/or variability (NIST, 2015). In comparison with smaller datasets, the sheer volume of big data can help distinguish the part from the whole, the local from the global, the current from the historical, and thus, ''the tree from the forest.'' It also helps us to distinguish signal from noise, cause from association, and essence from phenomenon. We can make decisions through comparisons of big data in many ways, for example, at micro and macro scales, from finite and infinite sources, and with zoom-out and zoom-in images.Breeding-related big data have some specific and important attributes, referred to as ''the 9 Vs'' (Figure 1). Plant breeding programs often produce enormous datasets from myriad sources, most of which are structured and can be organized in Excel sheets or databases. However, a great deal of relevant unstructured data are also produced, such as emails, social media posts, data-and word-processing documents, web pages, and audio, video, and photo files. Sorting and extracting value from these unstructured data are more difficult. Smart breeding programs generate and use both structured and unstructured data (Table 1).Big data technologies: Data processing, data mining, and cloud computing Modern breeding programs face the challenges of collecting, archiving, and mining big data from multiple sources. The raw data generated in plant breeding must be processed into a format that can be used for computer-based analysis (e.g., machine learning [ML]) (Figure 2). Data processing includes cleaning (identifying and replacing incomplete, inaccurate, irrelevant, or otherwise problematic data), integration (combining data from different sources and formats), transformation (performing normalization or concept hierarchy to suitably format the data), reduction (presenting a less complex representation of the data, e.g., through dimensionality reduction [DR], numerosity reduction, and data compression), discretization (replacing continuous raw values with interval ranges), and sampling (selecting a subset of samples from which to estimate the characteristics of the entire population). After processing, data can be mined through statistical analyses, ML, artificial neural networks (ANNs), or pattern discovery. Some of these methods are used in modeling and prediction.As we have scaled our breeding and begun to collect data spatiotemporally, it has become virtually impossible to sift through the ocean of data to perform predictive breeding without the assistance of innovative technologies. Big data technologies, services, and tools, such as Hadoop, MapReduce, Hive, and NoSQL/ NewSQL databases, and data integration techniques, inmemory approaches, and cloud technologies, have emerged to help meet the challenges posed by the flood of web, social media, internet of things, and machine-to-machine data. Bringing big data under the cloud roof presents great opportunities and advantages, allowing researchers to focus on data analysis and mining instead of managing servers and databases.Cloud computing can be used to deliver a full set of computing services over the internet (Figure 2). Cloud-based scalable environments make it possible to deploy applications for data on the scale of zettabytes. Cloud computing also simplifies connectivity and collaboration within and between organizations, providing access to relevant analytics and streaming data sharing. Many enterprises, including MSEs, have adopted cloud computing to improve their IT operations and develop better software more quickly. The major challenges of big-data cloud implementations include network dependency, latency issues, and decreased control over security and compliance (Chan, 2018).The plant breeding pipeline begins with natural and artificial populations and ends with the release of commercial varieties or novel germplasm. In between, many types of big data are collected: empirical breeding, selection indices, parental and cross combinations, combining ability, hybrid performance, parental relationships (relativeness and pedigrees), genetic distances, developmental and growth records, dynamic variation, environmental factors, and varietal replacement or renewal (Figure 2). Most of the data collected fall into three dimensions (G-P-E). Collecting these data spatiotemporally introduces additional dimensions.We discuss phenotyping first because tri-typing began with the collection of phenotypic data in classical field trials and precision and high-throughput phenotyping (HTP) becomes a bottleneck compared with other typing technologies. Phenotyping can be performed at various and ever-finer scales, such as populations, individuals, plots, fields, plant parts, tissues, cells, molecules, and metabolism. However, several phenomics issues must be seriously considered: (1) scientific issues involving the whole phenome (integrated phenotypes), relationships with other omics, genetics of phenotypes, and environmental effects; (2) technical issues including throughput, precision, cost, automation, integration with other data, and data management; and (3) the phenomic industry, such as agronomy and crop production.Phenotyping has evolved from capture by visual observation and simple facilities to HTP supported by improved facilities (Araus et al., 2018). With the advent of HTP technologies, including novel sensors and high-resolution imagery, an underutilized reservoir of data has been generated over the past decade (Kyratzis et al., 2017;Watanabe et al., 2017;Araus et al., 2018;Atkinson et al., 2019;Harfouche et al., 2019;Pieruschka and Schurr, 2019;Watt et al., 2020;Jin et al., 2021). HTP solutions in plant breeding can be complicated by many factors that influence output data: research goals, applications, environments, crop species, plant parts and tissues, and growth media. Two major HTP methods are generally used: plant-to-sensor and sensor-to-plant (Li et al., 2021a). The former uses fixed sensors, and the plants are brought to the sensors for detailed phenotyping. This option may not be feasible if it is impractical or impossible to move the studied plant, and the phenotyping environment may vary significantly from the field conditions under which the plant grows, limiting the utility of the collected data. The alternative is the sensor-toplant method, in which sensors are moved close to the plant. This can be achieved through the use of gantries, spidercams, tractors, or unmanned aerial vehicles.High-throughput, nondestructive field phenomics can be used to quantify plant performance in specific environments. Compared with their wild ancestors, modern crops are often planted in genetically uniform stands with high densities and improved characteristics, such as steeper leaf and root angles and shorter  Figure 1. Big data properties associated with smart breeding and their impacts and value.''Breeding events'' represent the breeding activities from which big data are generated. ''Datafication'' refers to the processes by which subjects, objects, and practices are transformed into digital data. ''Analyzing'' refers to data analyses for breeding-related activities. ''Artificial intelligence'' (AI) represents the fields that need to be supported or assisted. Breeding-related big data have large impacts on breeding value through increased genetic and economic gain. Data properties are described by nine words beginning with V. Smart breeding plant heights (Duvick, 2005;Denison, 2015). In general, the currently available HTP platforms are not comparable with visual observation, which enables close access to any individual in a high-density population. International phenotyping networks like IPPN and European plant phenotyping networks (Morisse et al., 2022) could help to coordinate phenotyping worldwide. Future robots, equipped with G-P-E big data and AI, could enable automatic, precision HTP for all target traits, rivaling human observation and measurement.As the second ''-typing'' technology, genotyping has been extended to include sequencing, genotyping by sequencing, mo-lecular profiling, and various other approaches that identify genotypes. Over the past 40 years, genotyping technology has experienced significant evolution in methods from systems based on gels (G1) to those based on fluorescence (G2), solid chips (G3), and liquid chips (G4), and finally to whole-genome sequencing by ultra-automatic sequencing facilities (G5) (Xu et al., 2020b). Technical revolution has significantly improved the throughput (from single to millions of markers at a time), resolution (from a 10-30-cM interval per marker to many markers per gene), and cost (from several dollars to less than one cent per data point). Genotypic information has been expanded from DNA to RNA (identifying genes and gene expression levels; Boyle et al., 2008), proteins, and networks (linking genes to specific pathways), and can thus include all data that distinguish between genotypes, such as full sequences and their variations, multiomic variants, gene expression levels, and haplotypes.Three representative genotyping platforms that evolved over the past four decades are gel-based RFLPs, fluorescence-based SSRs, and chip-based SNPs for application of different marker types; KASP and TaqMan platforms for single-marker genotyping; and Illumina and Thermo Fisher systems for chip-based high-density genotyping. In addition, genotyping by sequencing has been used to randomly capture a large number of markers across the whole genome (e.g., Elshire et al., 2011). As a more recent genotyping technology, genotyping by target sequencing combined with capture-in-solution (liquid chip) is a highthroughput, automatic, and large-scale platform developed to capture multiple SNPs (mSNPs) from single amplicons (Guo et al., 2021). From a set of 40K maize mSNPs, multiple panels with various marker densities (1K-40K mSNPs) could be developed by sequencing at different depths. Two alternative approaches, multiplexing PCR and probe hybridization, can be used to generate a wide range of marker scales required for different predictive breeding programs. Genotyping by target sequencing has fixed target SNPs so that genotypic information can be easily handled, accumulated, compared, and shared.The third ''-typing'' technology, envirotyping, refers to collecting and capturing all environmental factors that could affect plants and their phenotypes. The concept was first proposed at international conferences as e-typing or environmental assay in 2011 and 2012, followed by formal publications (Xu et al., 2012;Xu, 2015) and full discussion as envirotyping (Xu, 2016). The term ''envirotyping'' has also been used to refer to the collective body of methodologies for characterizing environments within METs and frequent repeatable environment types (Cooper et al., 2014b(Cooper et al., , 2016)). Envirotyping is considered one of the seven most popular trends in plant improvement since the 1990s (Bernardo, 2016). A recent literature search for the term ''envirotype'' identified two references that were unintentionally missed in our previous publications. The term was first introduced in ecosystems research by Patten (1998), who considered that the direct genotype-phenotype model of classical genetics was incomplete and an external envirotype was needed to complete the mechanism. Later, Beckers et al. (2009) adopted the term in the context of disease research in mice, arguing that incorporating envirotypes into experimental designs would be essential for the accurate modeling of human diseases. To match with genotyping and phenotyping, the term envirotyping is recommended to describe the measurement of envirotypic (enviromic) variables, including all micro-and macro-environmental factors that influence the growth and development of plants.Plants are affected by both internal and external environments. Internal environments can be further divided into intercellular and intracellular, including temperature, moisture, nutrients, and chemicals. External environments are those that surround the plant and have direct effects, such as light, air, temperature, water, and soil. In a broad sense, crop management (e.g., crop rotation) and companion organisms around the plant (such as insects and weeds) can also be considered part of such environments (Xu, 2010) (Figure 2).Soil, as a substrate for crop growth, is arguably one of the most complex ecosystems on Earth (Daniel, 2005)  The concept of heritability for genotypes can be extended to envirotypes. The genotype has 100% heritability because it remains unchanged across environments and experiments, whereas the heritability for envirotypes can be defined as the proportion of environmental variance that can be repeatedly explained spatiotemporally. It is similar to ''repeatability'' and largely ''determined'' by mega-and major environmental variables that are predictable, repeatable, or manageable. Mega-environmental variables have almost zero variance and can be treated as fixed effects, whereas major or minor environmental variables may have non-zero variance and can be treated as fix or random effects, depending on their heritabilities.If repeatable GEI patterns are identified, then the target region must be divided into subregions or mega-environments. Breeding and utilization of mega-environment-specific cultivars will convert the repeatable GEI into G within mega-environments, thereby improving heritability (selection reliability) and genetic gain. If no repeatable GEI is found, then the target region must be treated as a single mega-environment, and the GEI must be accommodated by adequate testing (Yan et al., 2022).Envirotyping has received increasing attention with the establishment of advanced phenomics platforms and facilities, becoming a routine practice in controlled or managed environments. For example, the Netherlands Plant Eco-phenotyping Centre consists of six complementary, experimental modules, two of which were designed for HTP under simulated multi-environment climates. Shennong National Phenomics Research Facility (Wuhan, China) was designed to precisely monitor and control light, temperature, water, soil, insects, and diseases.There are additional reasons why envirotyping and its applications should receive more attention, including the six aspects described previously (Xu, 2016). Here we discuss only those that affect iGEP. First, in addition to the overall performance of specific varieties across environments, breeders care about not only the ranks of varieties within the environments but also the environmental effects. Major environmental factors can be identified and used to classify environments, which generally also contribute to GEI. Second, improved envirotyping can help better understand genes, pathways, and networks; crop performance under abiotic and biotic stresses can be better predicted using predictable mega-environmental factors. Third, by controlling environmental variation, environmental profiles can be built, relevant factors can be dissected into functional components, and EIs can be constructed. Fourth, by characterizing and classifying environments or experimental sites, we can optimize MET sites and determine target environments or market segments for the release of improved crop varieties. Fifth, envirotyping and enviromics enable better understanding of GEI. GEI components can be dissected, and the effects of crop management on gene expression (agronomic genomics) can be determined. All these five aspects will contribute to improving prediction accuracy and optimizing models and parameters in iGEP.In early plant breeding history, breeding data included only one dimension (phenotype). Although METs and field tests have collected environmental data in MSEs for many years, this third dimension (envirotype) has only been used more recently (Costa-Neto et al., 2021a;Cooper and Messina, 2021). In the era of smart breeding, a significant proportion of big data will be collected by tri-typing technologies across time and space (developmental stages, METs, and years). These multidimensional data, in addition to G-P-E, have become increasingly important for breeding across various environments and ecological conditions.MSEs have been partitioned into functional components to enable optimal execution; this starts from new breeding tools/ technologies, moves forward to line development and commercial or product development, and ends with value chain development (Eathington et al., 2007). There are significant differences between conventional and smart breeding pipelines (  (Lee, 2020). Continued success in breeding depends on developing novel algorithmic and computing system approaches and evaluating these methods in agricultural settings. For storing, transferring, analyzing, and sharing data internally, an efficient data management system must be built and integrated with other internal services.The big data analytics process comprises three major components-data capture, data analysis, and interpretation-that lead to insights into the underlying biology, optimized genetic models, and breeding decisions. There is a risk of drowning in the massive Plant variety protection molecular marker numbers used as a major criterion, with a small number of markers; both phenotype and molecular profiles used, with pedigree information involved genetic similarity indices constructed using highdensity marker and omics data; molecular profiles used as criteria along with phenotypes; pedigree and parental contribution determined and derived based on marker and omics data or profiles Molecular Plant amounts of data generated by automated tri-typing systems. The major challenge lies in data management and synergism across data collection and analyses (Coppens et al., 2017). Breeding data have diverse data formats, including raster, vector, topography, model, table, text document, statistical, map, and figure formats, largely characterized by their site-and seasonspecific collection, source diversity, and generation periodicity. They are usually difficult to process and analyze using regular statistics and methodologies (Table 1).There are five key issues to be considered in future tri-typing and data collection. First, ontology and protocol systems: all data collection should follow the same ontology and protocols to maximize the capacity for data integration, archiving, and comparison. Such systems should be implemented with consistent funding to support the breeders' focus on the breeding target, as shown in maize for long-term selection of protein and oil contents (Moose et al., 2004) and in data collection over years and METs (Cooper and Messina, 2021). Second, facilities: they must be able to extend breeders' hands and senses to reach more complicated situations, provide standardized and consistent measurements, and generate uniform data. Third, throughput: methods for high-throughput data acquisition are necessary to collect data from a huge number of individuals within a specific time window automatically and efficiently. Fourth, precision and accuracy: ''garbage in, garbage out,'' data precision, and accuracy are crucial for big data. Garbage data are not better than nothing and cause trouble in data mining and utilization. Fifth, individuals versus populations: data should be acquired in environments comparable with the field condition. Plant density significantly affects both phenotyping and envirotyping, owing to GEI. Therefore, phenotyping protocols established for single plants should be updated for populations grown at high densities. How these five key issues are addressed will determine the extent to which the collected phenotypic data can be used for predictive breeding.''Point-to-point'' integrations were the norm until middleware, data integration platforms, and application programming interfaces became fashionable. To facilitate more efficient use of data, new technologies have emerged over time, including data warehouses (ETL [extract-transform-load]), data mapping (data relationships), semantic mapping (ontologies), data modeling (integrated databases), and data lakes (raw data storage) (Morgan, 2018).Data can be integrated in different ways (Lund, 2020): uniform data access, common data storage (the cloud), application-based solutions (specialized programs to locate, retrieve, and integrate data), common user interfaces, and middleware data integration. Data integration can be categorized into three types. (1) Link integration begins the query with one data source and then follows links to related information in other sources. Software solutions to integrate multiomics data leverage data-mining algorithms to collate heterogeneous biological information from across the web into knowledge networks (Marsh et al., 2021). ( 2) View integration leaves the information in its source database but builds an environment around the databases. (3) A data warehouse or cloud brings all the data together under one ''roof.'' Cloud-based solutions are very cost-effective, allowing fast, auto-mated, and secure data integration (Lund, 2020). Multiple challenges arise when multiomics datasets are integrated intelligently. Some are more general to ML analysis, such as the presence of missing values or class imbalance, and existing reviews have already covered those subjects (Mirza et al., 2019;Song et al., 2020). Some are more specific, including the noisiness and complexity of multiomics datasets.With each pre-processed dataset, the multiple datasets could simply be assembled with sample-wise concatenation and used as input for ML (known as ''early integration''). There are three vertical integration approaches (Ritchie et al., 2015): concatenation-based integration combines datasets before analysis, transformationbased integration performs mapping or data transformation of each dataset before analyzing the transformed datasets, and model-based integration performs analysis separately on each dataset before combining the results (Picard et al., 2021). As different types of genomic data often have very large differences in scale, the data need to be transformed to a proper scale before integration (Table 1; Figure 1). On the other hand, prediction models can be established for each data type by multi-stage analysis, and individual models or results can then be integrated (Xu et al., 2020a;Xu, 2020). Deep learning (DL) algorithms can capture nonlinear patterns and integrate data from different sources (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021a).Convolution and pooling are two data integration strategies for combining small datasets into big ones. As almost all ML models need to work with very large datasets, the first strategy is to combine relatively small datasets to form a large dataset (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). As a mathematical operation, convolution merges two functions (sets of information) to produce a third one as a modified (filtered) version of one of the original functions. A pooling operation, such as downsampling or subsampling in ML, is used in convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to bypass the need to explicitly define which independent variables (inputs) should be included or selected for the analysis by optimizing a complete end-to-end process to map data samples (Wang et al., 2019c). Maximum pooling and average pooling are the two most popular pooling operations. The former performs DR and denoising, whereas the latter mostly performs DR (Lo ´pez et al., 2022).Data integration among systems has been traditionally difficult and expensive owing to the complexity of data formats, data types, and even the ways in which data are organized. Multiomics datasets are noisy, sparse, and irregularly collected under diverse conditions and time points, resulting in heterogeneity, high dimensionality, and, thus, an ill-defined prediction. For example, multiomics data are hampered by the problem of a small number of observations and a large number of independent variables (''large p small n'') (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). Therefore, integration can make the datasets large and comprehensive enough for iGEP. Making multiomics data findable, available, identifiable, and reusable is crucial for data reuse and discovery through good data management (Wilkinson et al., 2016), including integration. Development of international standards, ontologies, and vocabularies, including the breeding application programming interface, will ensure integration and interoperability across multiomics datasets (Selby et al., 2019). Knowledge networks and information hubs are used to centralize multiomics data, and research should be extended to incorporate the growing knowledge base of GEI and environmental data (Xu, 2016;Morais et al., 2019;Marsh et al., 2021). Cloud and web computing are essential for integrating data and analysis together (Marx, 2013).Before data integration, the original data should be optimized by removing or adding variables (Kuhn and Johnson, 2013). An independent variable should be removed if it has zero or nearzero variance, as such a variable has a single unique value or very few values. For highly correlated or nearly perfectly correlated variables, only one should remain, as they all measure the same information, and such collinearity could inflate the parameter estimates. Models with less correlated variables can minimize unstable parameter estimates, numerical errors, and degraded prediction performance. Removing variables also reduces the computational resources required and may result in a more parsimonious and interpretable model. On the other hand, variables can be added by creating dummy variables from nominal or categorical inputs and a categorical variable through original data transformation (Lo ´pez et al., 2022).For optimal information integration, it is recommended to include a substantial overlap of common entries for the best prediction.As an example, GP accuracies were evaluated in two independent prediction sets in combination with calibration sets.Including data from all selection cycles in model training yielded the best results because interactions between calibration and prediction sets, as well as the effects of different testers and specific years, were attenuated (Auinger et al., 2021).Data integration platforms have focused on low-code and no-code tools that do not require specialized knowledge of query and programming languages, data management, data structure, or data integration (Morgan, 2018). Available data integration tools have been reviewed by Morgan (2018), and those most relevant to breeding data include ETL platforms to extract data from a data source, transform it into a common format, and load it to a target destination; data cleansing tools to identify, correct, or remove incomplete, incorrect, inaccurate, or irrelevant parts of the data; data warehouses to centralize data repositories; metadata management tools to enable the establishment of policies and processes that ensure information can be managed across the organization; data connectors to import or export data or convert them to another format; and data profiling tools to understand the data and their potential uses.Modern breeding for mechanized, engineered, and facility agriculture introduces immense challenges. These challenges arise from increasing data volume, diverse samples, low valid-event rates, network complexity, heterogeneous data, and the need for data sharing (Figure 1), thus calling for AI. AI algorithms are used to create expert systems for prediction or classification based on input data. AI will have extensive impacts on breeding information systems. Breeders' experience and knowledge can be transferred into future AI-assisted breeding systems, and digitalization of breeding experience will promote the transition of breeding from empirically driven to AI-driven.The combination of big data and AI has been referred to as both the fourth paradigm of science (Hey et al., 2009) and the fourth industrial revolution (Gil et al., 2014;Schwab, 2017). Buried deep within big data are immense opportunities for future plant breeding through AI (Figure 2). Plant breeding will be driven by AI in four ways: (1) AI-assisted breeding systems will play a significant role in theoretical study, evaluation, selection, breeding procedure development, and field management;(2) AI-equipped robots will interact with all the processes involved in data collection, storage, analysis, sharing, and utilization, significantly upgrading breeding information systems; (3) AI systems will benefit from historical experience and relevant knowledge produced and accumulated in breeding programs; and (4) breeding systems driven by big data and AI will have a great capacity for design and prediction through model simulation and optimization.Robots equipped with AI have found success in solving scientific problems. For example, AlphaFold 2, an AI-robot algorithm, significantly outperformed other teams in a protein-folding contest at the Critical Assessment of Structure Prediction 14 in 2020, and it recently predicted the 3D structures of almost all proteins. It follows that AI technologies automated via robotics could facilitate breeding and crop production in many ways, including information capture (observation and identification of breeding-related data), data analysis (integration of data and empirical breeding information to build selection models), and breeding decisions (genotype selection for starting the next cycle of breeding) (Table 2). Applying a careful experimental design, using adequate biological replicates, and capturing as much information as possible about environmental heterogeneity within and across field sites are important steps in generating datasets with which to properly train a model for predictive breeding.Recently, Bernardo (2021) comprehensively reviewed predictive breeding. The word ''prediction'' was first used in this context by Doxtator and Johnson's ''Predictive breeding,'' begun in the 1930s, which was initially focused on developing superior double-cross maize hybrids (Jenkins, 1934). The advent of recurrent selection in the 1940s led to predictions for the next cycle of selection. To predict the performance of single-cross hybrids, genomic BLUP (GBLUP) was developed in 1994 (Bernardo, 1994). With the development of molecular markers, rapid-cycle recurrent selection became possible in the 1990s, and multiple regression was used to predict plant performance, enabling early selection based on predicted genetic values (Edwards and Johnson, 1994;Hospital et al., 1997;Eathington et al., 2007). After a landmark article on genome-wide selection (Meuwissen et al., 2001), prediction methods shifted from multiple regression with fixed marker effects to ridge regression and Bayesian models with random marker effects (Habier et al., 2011). Since then, GP has been widely used in both animals and plants (Crossa et al., 2017;Voss-Fels et al., 2019;Xu et al., 2020aXu et al., , 2021a;;Fu et al., 2022). Using the concept of genomicsassisted breeding, Varshney et al. (2021) proposed genomic breeding with the incorporation of GP.Although molecular marker-based GP has been widely used, the currently available system has six potential limitations: it is suitable for highly related germplasms, which have historically been used in predictive breeding (Bernardo, 2021); it is affected by many external factors; it is environment specific, with limited incorporation of envirotypic information; traditional models typically perform a linear regression analysis with clear assumptions and are unable to capture complex G-P relationships; it uses only genotypic data largely generated by molecular markers; and, finally, it optimizes models using limited historical data. Models using different breeding programs have rarely performed well (Wallace et al., 2018), and accuracy can drop rapidly, even beyond half-sib family structures (Beyene et al., 2015). On the other hand, current GP approaches largely rely on the G-P association. Many other important data layers that explain trait variation, including multiomics information, particularly enviromics, should be fully incorporated.As a new strategy for GP, ML has been receiving increased attention. The most popular ML methods, such as random forest (RF) and support vector machines (SVMs), are very easy to implement because few hyperparameters need to be tuned, although more user intervention is needed to preprocess inputs manually. As a part of ML, however, DL is more model robust; it performs automatic feature engineering by learning through multilevel transformations, and it captures complex patterns more powerfully (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021c).Accurately predicting and selecting the best lines and hybrids for specific environments relies on the ability to model complex systems from a web of G-P-E data. Multiomics data are a prominent example of such high-dimensional, heterogeneous datasets, and they have complex multilevel structures, contributing to difficulties in model construction and optimization. GP models involve several complexities, as model selection depends on several factors, including trait genetic architecture, marker density, sample size, linkage disequilibrium size, and GEI. Among the factors that affect GP, models are the only one that determines the predictability when a set of training data and breeding populations are given.Here, we propose a next-generation prediction strategy, iGEP.The phenomic data used to upgrade current GP models include agronomic traits as well as molecular phenotypes that are measured at the molecular level, e.g., gene expression with the transcript abundances of thousands of genes (Jansen and Nap 2001;Brem et al., 2002;Schadt et al., 2003), and the enviromic data involve cellular, intercellular, and external environmental factors. Variables used in predictive model construction can be upgraded from single dimensions (the vectors p, g, e) to multiple dimensions (the matrices P, G, E) (Table 3).In the context of predictive breeding, iGEP can be classified into five categories based on the variables included in the model (Table 3). First is conventional GEI, i.e., GP across environments using marker data and the phenotypic data collected across environments. Conventional GEI is included to understand the contribution of GEI to the phenotype being predicted. Second are predictive models with envirotypic information incorporated. Here, vectors of enviromic data are included in the model to understand the contribution of each environmental factor and its interaction with genotype. Third is iGEP, which uses both multiomics and enviromics data. Matrices of genomic data and vectors of enviromic data are included in the model to understand the contribution of a specific environmental factor and its interaction with all omics factors. Fourth is iGEP using multiomics and enviromics data for all relevant environmental factors collected across time and space. This method uses matrices of multiomic and spatiotemporal enviromic data in the model to understand the contribution of all environmental factors and their interactions with all omics factors to phenotypes across time and space. Fifth is iGEP for simultaneous prediction of multiple traits using all G-P-E data collected across multiple environments.Several examples have demonstrated the potential for enhancing prediction of yield and other complex traits by including GEI effects in prediction models (Burguen ˜o et al., 2012;Jarquı ´n et al., 2014;Acosta Pech et al., 2017;Cooper and Messina, 2021). In wheat, modeling GEI using information on markers or pedigrees could enhance prediction accuracy (Burguen ˜o et al., 2012). Using interactions between markers and environmental covariates to account for GEI, the prediction accuracy was substantially higher (17%-34%) than  that of models based on main effects only (Jarquı ´n et al., 2014). In maize, using 2724 hybrids evaluated for three traits in 58 environments, genomic models that included the interaction of general and specific combining ability with environments increased the prediction accuracy by 12%-22% (Acosta Pech et al., 2017). More recently, a decentralized durum wheat trial distributed across the Ethiopian highlands showed that datadriven decentralized breeding could double the prediction accuracy and enhance local adaptation and superior yield performance (De Sousa et al., 2021). As phenotypic data collected across environments become increasingly available, incorporating GEIs into prediction should become a routine practice.iGEP with envirotypic data Identifying and harnessing suitable sets of coordinated genotypic and envirotypic predictors will provide new opportunities for predicting the consequences of GEI. Several approaches have been proposed for incorporating environmental data into GS to improve prediction (Heslot et al., 2014;Jarquı ´n et al., 2014;Cooper et al., 2016;Li et al., 2018;Millet et al., 2019;Costa-Neto et al., 2021a, b;Li et al., 2021b). However, the environmental dimension has been explicitly addressed in very few instances. In an early attempt, day length and temperature were used as examples to generate an EI to enable integrated modeling and prediction (Li et al., 2018;Guo et al., 2020). Three major crops (maize, wheat, and oat) were used, with 35 212 phenotypic values for flowering time, plant height, and grain yield across 51 year-location combinations. Identifying such an EI enabled the GS of complex traits with an explicit environmental dimension (Li et al., 2021b). With a quantitative EI established, the observed phenotype with this EI can be modeled, and phenotypic performance in new environments can be predicted using historical weather averages, in-season weather, or forecasted weather data.Along with this general framework, an analytical package, CERIS-JGRA, was developed to enhance GP. However, more complicated models should be developed to adapt prediction models to complex EIs or a complete envirotypic profile including all environmental variables.Two MET maize datasets were used to investigate new kernel models involving genomic and nongenomic sources of variation (Costa-Neto et al., 2021a). A total of 16 environmental factors were used to create an envirotype covariable matrix, which was added to five whole-GP models involving environmental covariables and their interactions. The models were tested under three prediction scenarios: newly developed hybrids, sparse MET conditions, and new environments. Gaussian kernels and deep kernels are more efficient at translating model complexity into accuracy and are more suitable for including dominance and reaction-norm effects (Costa-Neto et al., 2021a). As a toolkit, EnvRtype was developed to offer remote sensing tools for collecting and processing ecophysiological variables from raw environmental data; environmental characterization by envirotyping and profiling environmental quality; and identification of enviromic similarity for an enviromic-based kernel. Envirotyping parameters were fine-tuned for each plant species and target environment by literature mining (Costa-Neto et al., 2021b). EnvRtype, CERIS-JGRA, and other similar software packages represent cost-effective envirotyping pipelines capable of utilizing high-quality enviromic data for a diverse GP set.iGEP can be improved by incorporating diverse but well-managed environments. Diverse environments consist of both predictable and unpredictable environmental variables, whereas wellmanaged environments can form near-isogenic lines (NIEs) that significantly differ in only one major, predictable variable (Xu, 2016). Comparison of diverse environments and NIEs provides opportunities for detailed dissection of phenotypic differences caused by complex environmental variation. A single set of NIEs can be used to characterize the contribution of each major environmental variable to specific phenotypic variations. Such analysis can be used to improve model construction in iGEP. The same applies for the following discussion involving multiomics data.iGEP with multiomics and enviromics data Multiomics data enable the generation of a global profile of a plant, including genomic sequence (genomics), DNA methylation (epigenomics), gene expression (transcriptomics), protein abundance (proteomics), gene translation (translatomics), metabolic flux (metabolomics), genotypic and environmental contributions to phenotypic variation (phenomics and enviromics), and metadata (Harfouche et al., 2019;Wu et al., 2021). Some sources of omics data have much more complex data structures than marker data, and multiomics data, being multidimensional, already complicate model construction and fitness. High-level omics data, such as gene expression or metabolite concentrations, can capture additive and epistatic signals from multiple genetic loci owing to their molecular proximity to macro-scale phenotypes.For example, transcriptomic and metabolomic data can be treated as an intermediate phenotype, endophenotype, or something close to a genotype to best model all the data. Predictive models developed with data from multiomics layers are expected to provide better prediction than the use of molecular markers alone.Integration of multiomics data into GS models improves prediction accuracy by efficiently capturing minor and nonadditive effects (Westhues et al., 2017;Schrag et al., 2018;Xu et al., 2020a). In two early reports, using a combination of parental genetic and metabolic markers significantly improved predictions for biomass heterosis in Arabidopsis (Gӓrtner et al., 2009) but not for general combining ability in maize (Riedelsheimer et al., 2012). Later studies using genomic, transcriptomic, and metabolic data from larger datasets improved predictions of complex traits in maize (Guo et al., 2016;Westhues et al., 2017;Schrag et al., 2018;Hu et al., 2019;Yang et al., 2022) and rice (Wang et al., 2019b;Xu et al., 2021b). To improve predictions, multilayered LASSO was developed to enable learning of three layers of genetic features (genome, transcriptome, and metabolome) (Hu et al., 2019). Incorporation of higherorder gene interactions significantly improved the predictability of rice yield from 0.159 (GP alone) to 0.245 (multilayered LASSO).Another major category of genotypic data is molecular interaction networks. The whole set of molecular interactions that occur within a particular cell is defined as the ''interactome.'' An integrated strategy proposed for combining the interactome with ML involves mining information hidden in big data to identify the genetic models or networks (Wu et al., 2021). The strategy includes seven steps, three of which are related to training and prediction: model training and construction using basic algorithms (linear regression, logistic regression, naive Bayes, SVM, and decision tree), evaluation to find the best models, and novel gene prediction. As a new dimension of omics data, interaction networks can be incorporated into iGEP to improve predictive breeding.iGEP models need to include higher-dimensional profiles to accommodate enviromics information collected across time and space. For example, mega GEIs can be revealed with temporal, spatial, and climatype data using models such as: Space 3 Time 3 Genome 3 Mega-genome 3 Metagenome. Prediction with such complicated variables will require more AI support and higher computational capacity. iGEP for multiple traits The single phenotypic variable (p) becomes a single-dimension vector (p) when multiple traits are considered and a multidimension matrix (P) when multiple traits are observed across multiple environments (Table 3). Correlation and similarity among multiple traits should be used to develop iGEP models. Recent progress in multi-trait GP enhances accuracy in multi-year wheat breeding trials (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021b). A multi-trait GP based on a multivariate linear mixedeffect model could efficiently leverage thousands of traits at once (Runcie et al., 2021). Using maize as an example, a multi-trait predictive breeding strategy was developed (Yang et al., 2022). The similarity between genomic predicted and observed values could be trained using agronomic, transcriptomic, and metabolic traits and then used to predict multi-trait similarity among the target traits of predicted objects (inbreds or hybrids).When multiple traits are included as response variables, the model becomes a multi-trait GBLUP, which can be developed using GBLUP and Bayesian methods (as reviewed by McGowan et al., 2022). A multi-trait GS model can be expanded to a multi-trait and multi-environment (MTME) Bayesian model or realized through nonlinear frameworks such as ML. Multi-trait GBLUP is expected to improve prediction accuracy by enabling information to be borrowed among correlated traits (Chen et al., 2023). There is evidence that the larger the correlation between traits, the better the prediction performance of multi-trait analysis (Jia and Jannink, 2012;Jiang et al., 2015). Incorporation of environmental variables into iGEP must take into account the correlations among multi-environment variables and the contribution of each factor to total environmental variance and the predictability of environmental variables.Feature selection and DR Big data in predictive breeding are characterized by high dimensionality, which refers to both the sample size and the number of variables and structures (Xu, 2020). High dimensionality poses challenges to computation and analysis, even with AI-assisted data analytics. As the number of features or dimensions increases, the amount of data required for accurate generalization increases exponentially, a phenomenon known as the curse of dimensionality (Bellman, 1961). Traditional algorithms can become unstable with a large number of variables, which also contributes to false positives owing to multiplicity of statistical testing. Because of the large number of genetic variants, it is not generally feasible to use the data matrices directly in standard statistical analyses. To avoid the curse of dimensionality, feature selection (FS) and DR methods are used (Figure 2).FS yields a subset of features from the original set that best represent the data, whereas DR transforms the features into a lower dimension. There are a large number of FS methods available, such as clustering, linear transformations (principal component analysis [PCA], singular value decomposition), spectral transformations, and convolutions of kernels (Gabur et al., 2022). In general, unsupervised FS methods are less prone to overfitting (Guyon and Elissee, 2003) and have the ability to improve predictions. The combined prediction models and FS methods have been compared for microarray datasets (Bolo ´n- Canedo et al., 2014;Bommert et al., 2020), text analysis (Forman, 2003), and image interpretation (Dy et al., 2003). In soybean, a recursive feature elimination approach was used to reduce the dimensionality of hyperspectral reflectance data, resulting in considerably decreased computation time and enhanced prediction accuracy, especially for nonlinear learners (Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi et al., 2021).High dimensionality greatly challenges traditional statistical theory (Fan and Li, 2006). Owing to the size and complexity involved, the associated mathematical theory can differ from the traditional approach. Methods such as PCA may therefore not be feasible, and more efficient DR methods such as random projection based on the Johnson-Lindenstrauss Lemma (Johnson and Lindenstrauss, 1984) should be used. FS methods were included in ML, along with nonlinear DR and random selection using 80% of the input dataset, and prediction accuracies were evaluated with the remaining 20%. Features obtained from FS filter methods were combined with rrBLUP, LASSO regression, gradient boosting machine (GBM), ANN, and RF predictors. Using a spring Brassica napus population composed of 950 F1 hybrids (for seed and oil yields) and a diversity collection of 191 wheat cultivars (for grain yield traits), ML methods outperformed current approaches, increased prediction accuracy, drastically decreased computation time, and improved detection of important alleles involved in qualitative or quantitative traits (Gabur et al., 2022). Therefore, FS methods and modern prediction models can be combined to effectively exploit cost-efficient genotyping data and improve prediction accuracies.Aside from DR, various other approaches can be used to reduce the number of variables to make big data more manageable. For example, a large number of SNPs can be transferred into a significantly smaller number of marker bins (An et al., 2020). Alternatively, a subset of markers can be extracted by biological filtering (Kim et al., 2020). For a large number of environments, environmentrelated variables can be compressed into one variable by coding environmental effects to identify complex interactions (Li et al., 2022b). It is also possible to pinpoint the major environmental factors that can be used in DR. For well-established gene networks, key genes that regulate a network can be identified to form a subset of multiomics data. In addition, unique plant materials, such as NILs, and well-managed environments, such as NIEs, can be used to develop strategies for reducing dimensions and variables. Dimensions can also be reduced by using correlated high-heritability traits or high-heritability secondary traits to replace low-heritability traits and by using an index constructed for multiple traits.As the complexity of the ML model increases, the bias between the expected prediction and the true observed values is reduced and the error variance (change in the estimate with different training datasets) increases (Lo ´pez et al., 2022) Modeling iGEP faces increasing challenges of data complexity. First, metabolites, transcripts, near-infrared wavelengths, or hyperspectral wavelengths can serve as agronomic traits or features in place of SNP markers in GBLUP to estimate relatedness (Bernardo, 2021), complicating data origins, structures, and formats. Second, enviromic data increasingly change with management practices, such as application of growth regulators, water, and fertilizers to the target environment. It is important that models are capable of employing enviromic data to predict which practices are optimal for breeding objectives. Third, not every sample is perfectly clean. Interaction network data, in particular, commonly include incomplete, missing, or unbalanced data. Such imperfections can be improved with the accumulation of complementary data that have similar patterns.For iGEP, strategies need to be developed for modeling situations with complicated, big, and changing datasets. Alternatively, a subset of samples can be used to predict the remaining samples using the leverage effect (to generate a big return by predicting with a small subset of samples for training). For example, two sets of parental lines (with N1 and N2 parents, respectively) can be used to produce N1 3 N2 hybrids. Some hybrids can then be selected to train a model to predict the rest. With the accumulation of more populations, the best training population can be developed from the large pool. A GS4.0 breeding program using the leverage effect was recently proposed to combine doubled haploid (DH) breeding with GS to fit various breeding schemes in maize (Fu et al., 2022).Extending the use of omics and systems biology approaches is necessary to understand complex biological processes and their interactions with the environment (i.e., GEIs) through the integration of multiple datasets at the level of a defined system (Pazhamala et al., 2021). Notably, these components of data complexity are under the influence of environmental changes (Figure 2). Using a comprehensive map of rice QTNs, a genome navigation system, RiceNavi, has been developed for QTN pyramiding and breeding route optimization (Wei et al., 2021). However, because of the limited information available on potential genetic interactions, outcomes cannot be precisely predicted for pyramiding QTNs that underlie the same trait. Therefore, a better understanding of genetic networks for the target traits, such as QTN-QTN and QTN-E interactions, will improve the precision.In traditional statistics, genotypic values can be predicted by linear mixed models (GBLUP, rrBLUP), penalized regressions (ridge, Lasso), and Bayesian methods (A, B, Cp, R) (reviewed by De los Campos et al., 2013). AI-assisted GP involves ML techniques, including kernel methods, SVM, RF, and all kinds of modern machine and deep learners. The philosophy behind the techniques includes bias-variance trade-offs, training and test sets, cross validation, matrices, penalties, priors, kernels, trees, and deep learners (forward in Lo ´pez et al., 2022). Integrated AI models enable the analysis of an organism in a dynamic multiomic fashion. The development of more sophisticated AI algorithms, such as iterative RF (iRF), will enable the creation of new integrated discovery spaces (Harfouche et al., 2019). AI, coupled with high-resolution, high-throughput, and field-scale phenotyping and envirotyping technologies, will serve as a key tool for understanding GEI and unlocking greater potential for iGEP.The predictive models summarized in Table 3 can be implemented by developing specific statistical models for each case and by integrating G-P-E data with AI. As AI-based predictions, ML classifiers fall into three primary categories. (1) Supervised learning uses labeled datasets (genotypes and phenotypes) to train algorithms. When the labeled datasets are fed into the model, it adjusts its weights until the model has been fitted appropriately.(2) Unsupervised learning analyzes and clusters unlabeled (for example, unphenotyped) datasets to discover hidden patterns.(3) As a happy medium between these approaches, semi-supervised learning uses a smaller labeled dataset to guide classification and FS from a larger, unlabeled dataset. In iGEP, some multiomics data may be suitable for modeling by supervised learning and others by un-or semi-supervised learning, by which, for example, environmental variables can be classified.Envirotypic data are probably more suitable for semi-supervised learning models. Some envirotypic data can be collected for individual genotypes at the scale of experimental plots, whereas others can be collected only for the training and testing populations as a whole at the scale of the experimental station.Many ML models are constructed to incorporate fixed effects, whereas others use random effects. As an extension of regression models, mixed-effects models allow the incorporation of random effects (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). Traditional prediction models consider environmental effects as a random effect, whereas other models consider them as fixed effects. Major or predictable environmental variables can be considered fixed effects, and unpredictable or minor environmental variables can be considered either fixed or random effects, depending on which kind of model is used.ML models are commonly classified based on parameter properties (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). In parametric models, all the predictors take predetermined forms with the response. Linear, generalized linear, and nonlinear models are examples. In nonparametric models, the predictors are constructed according to information derived from the data rather than being predetermined with the response. Kernel regression and smoothing spline are two common ML models. In general, nonparametric ML models are very flexible and are better at fitting the data, particularly some phenotypic and enviromic data. In semiparametric models, one portion of the predictors does not take predetermined forms, whereas the other portion does.In ML, a ''kernel'' usually refers to the kernel trick, a method of using a linear classifier to solve a nonlinear problem so that the original nonlinear observations can be mapped into a higher-dimensional space where they become separable (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). The kernel trick enables nonlinear versions of any linear algorithms to be built by replacing their independent variables (predictors) with a kernel function, giving them greater advantages, particularly for iGEP. Among the 11 advantages (Lo ´pez et al., 2022), 6 are most relevant to the development of efficient iGEP models: (1) interpretation as scalar products in high-dimensional spaces; (2) complexity controllable through regularization;(3) integration with classical methods for gene prioritization, prediction, and data integration; (4) ability to enable further improvements in the scalability of conventional ML methods and their versatility for working with heterogeneous variables; (5) flexibility and elegance for use in spatial analysis of classification problems; and (6) great promise for dealing with very large multidimensional datasets.Different types of predictors can also be combined as in kernel methods, where different types of input variables serve to define multiple kernels, which translate to (transformed) GGI similarity matrices that structure genotypic random effects. For example, two random genotypic effects may be defined. The first one can be structured with an SNP-based relationship matrix and the second by a metabolite-based relationship matrix. Another example consists of adding a dominance kernel to a mixed model that already contains a kernel for the additive effects.To include epistatic effects of all orders in addition to additive effects, reproducing kernel Hilbert space (RKHP) models can be used.In addition to mixed models and Bayesian methods, many ML models are powerful for capturing complex nonlinear patterns and have thus been explored for GP (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2022); for example, DL is used for training networks with multiple hidden layers, such as deep neural networks (DNNs). As ''semi-parametric inference models,'' DL generalizes ANNs by stacking multiple processing hidden layers, each consisting of many neurons. The most popular topologies in DL are feedforward networks, recurrent neural networks, and CNNs (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021a). DL approaches can be extended to any trait of interest for breeding with available high-resolution phenomics and enviromics imaging data.Given a set of multidimensional data structures, no currently available AI methods can accurately identify combinatorial patterns within and across those structures. The most appropriate class of algorithm for fixing this problem is likely to be a DL approach, such as CNN, or a decision-tree-based approach, such as iRF (Ma et al., 2018;Harfouche et al., 2019;Abdollahi-Arpanahi et al., 2020;Yan et al., 2021b). The first step in the progression toward iGEP is to introduce AI algorithms that can not only be incorporated into predictive models but also used to expose the underlying rules that inform these predictions, offering meaningful insights for breeding.To quantify how close the predicted values produced by an ML model are to the true values, a loss function is developed to measure the quality of the model output by computing a distance score between the observed and predicted values (Chollet and Allaire, 2017). A similar concept in ML is explainability, indicating that what happens in the model can be explained from input to output. Interpretable ML extracts associations through the correlations between features and outcomes (Azodi et al., 2020). Explainability for G2P prediction is relatively new, and new DL algorithms may have enhanced interpretability (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021a).Although it is not possible with most ML methods, DL models more efficiently incorporate large numbers of omics and G-P-E data in the same models, including the model types listed in Table 3, by: (1) naturally capturing nonadditive effects and complex relationships and interactions; (2) efficiently handling large data and raw data without any preprocessing; (3) allowing training models with many hidden layers and capturing very complex linear and nonlinear patterns involving many types of inputs, such as images; (4) designing specific topologies (DNNs) to deal with any type of data; and (5) significantly reducing the number of parameters by allowing parameter sharing and performing data compression (using the pooling operation) (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021a).ML methods more easily capture complex relationships for iGEP. Like nonlinear methods, ML architectures can also include multimodal data and data types that are not suited to simple tabular formats. For example, RF can capture patterns in highdimensional data to deliver accurate predictions and can also take into account nonadditive effects (Heslot et al., 2012). It demonstrated superior performance compared with linear models such as Bayesian LASSO (Ornella et al., 2014) and rr-BLUP, depending on the genetic architecture of the predicted trait (Spindel et al., 2015). Other ML models that have shown potential for prediction include CNNs and feed-forward DNNs that can outperform linear methods (Ma et al., 2018;Sandhu et al., 2020). Multi-trait DL models can help us understand the relationships between related traits for improved prediction (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2018), and ensemble models are powerful by combining multiple ML methods that may produce weaker predictions by themselves (Jubair and Domaratzki, 2019;Banerjee et al., 2020). DL is efficient for extracting representative features from large datasets and has the capacity to account for feature interaction effects in multidimensional G-P-E datasets.Including multidimensional datasets increases the complexity of analysis exponentially, requiring algorithms that are able to uncover relationships between the data types and the target trait (Danilevicz et al., 2022). ML methods can help improve iGEP, as they enable computers to learn patterns that could be used for analysis, interpretation, prediction, and decision-making without being explicitly programmed. ML-based iGEP has the potential to transform methods for plant breeding owing to the four factors summarized by Lo ´pez et al. (2022): ( 1) the massive amounts of data being generated in breeding programs are now available for training ML models;(2) new technologies, such as sensors, satellite technology, and robotics, allow scientists to generate not only genomic data but also phenotypic and envirotypic data that can be used in the modeling process to increase performance;(3) increased computational power now allows complex ML models with larger datasets to be implemented in less time; and (4) userfriendly ML software has become available for implementing a great variety of ML models.Multimodal DL models are composed of multiple models, each trained using a single input type (e.g., rainfall, soil measurements, genetic data, hyperspectral imagery), or a single model trained on concatenated multimodal data. The different modalities enrich the available features for model learning, contributing to an improved final prediction (Danilevicz et al., 2022). Use of DL in iGEP is attributed to its more powerful automatic feature extraction, greater data representation capability for dealing with high dimensionality, and ability to capture complex patterns (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021c). It can be expected that DL methods will outperform conventional ML methods for iGEP, with progress in the following fields: increasing numbers of large datasets available; more computer resources available for tuning of large grids of hyperparameter combinations; spatiotemporal multiomics available as inputs and preprocessed using nonlinear models to retain complex patterns; exploration and implementation of transfer learning and reinforcement learning; exploration of deep generative models (generative adversarial networks and variational auto-encoder methods) to generate new inputs; increased expertise dedicated to model calibration; increasing data sharing and open-source breeding; and development of more user-friendly software.The incorporation of DL in breeding pipelines is in progress and has been used for predicting parental combinations in hybrid breeding programs (Khaki et al., 2020), modeling and predicting quantitative traits (Sadeghi-Tehran et al., 2019), genetic diversity and classification (Yang et al., 2019a), and GS (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021b). However, prediction methods, including those based on ML, have difficulty carrying their experiences from one case to another. Transfer learning in this regard should focus on storing knowledge gained when training a particular prediction algorithm and then using this stored knowledge to solve another related problem (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). The transfer can be based on, for instance, feature, model, and relation (Niu et al., 2020). Transfer learning provides an effective solution for the large volume of highquality labeled data and considerable computational resources required to train a large ML/DL model (Yan and Wang, 2022) and has thus been successfully applied to cross-species prediction and plant phenotyping (Moore et al., 2020;Nabwire et al., 2021). Large-scale omics datasets have been generated and annotated for only a very limited number of model plants, such as Arabidopsis, rice, and maize, and it is impractical to produce well-annotated training data for all nonmodel species (Yan and Wang, 2022). One possible solution is to use transfer learning to achieve cross-species prediction by considering conserved gene functions and pathways between evolutionarily related species (Cheng et al., 2021).Nonlinear learners (GBM, ANN, and RF) outperformed linear learners (rrBLUP and LASSO) on average when relevant features were selected in prediction across training sets (Gabur et al., 2022). The prediction of hybrid grain yield in maize was better with a 20 hidden multilayer perceptron (MLP) model than with classical linear models (Khaki and Wang, 2019). In another study with datasets from yeast, wheat, and rice, six ML methods (elastic net, rrBLUP, LASSO regression, RF, GBM, and SVR) outperformed two classical statistical methods (Grinberg et al., 2019). In a comparison of 23 independent studies, nonlinear models outperformed linear ones in 47% of all studies that included GEI and in 56% of studies that ignored GEI (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2021a). In wheat, four ML methods, including SVR, kernel ridge regression, RF, and AdaBoost.R2, significantly outperformed GBLUP, single-step GBLUP, and BayesHE (Wang et al., 2022b); improved prediction accuracies were reported for neural networks (Pe ´rez-Rodrı ´guez et al., 2012;Ma et al., 2018) and kernel-based models (RKHS) (Pe ´rez-Rodrı ´guez et al., 2012); and RF and MLP were the bestperforming ML models for prediction of spectral data.In general, ML models outperformed four explored Bayesian models and required less computational time (Sandhu et al., 2021). In white wheat, multi-trait ML models performed better than GBLUP and Bayes B for cross-location predictions, but their advantages diminished when GEI was included (Sandhu et al., 2022a). For soybean yield, an RF algorithm had the highest performance among all individual algorithms tested, including MLP and SVM (Yoosefzadeh-Najafabadi et al., 2021).As an ML technique for regression and classification, GBM uses the assembly of multiple weak learners to establish a strong model; thus, its prediction ability is significantly better than that of single models (Che et al., 2011). XGBoost, one of the implementations of GBM, outperforms DL in some tabular data problems (Zamani Joharestani et al., 2019). In three out of four wheat datasets, GBM outperformed a Bayesian GBLUP model (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2022). With a large dataset of inbred and hybrid maize lines, LightGBM exhibited superior performance in terms of prediction precision, model stability, and computing efficiency (Yan et al., 2021a). With data collected from multiple years (2014-2017) across the US and Canada, including environmental predictors, two GBM methods (XGBoost and LightGBM) improved prediction accuracy for grain yield of new genotypes by up to 20% compared with models of linear random effects (Westhues et al., 2021). In soybean, XGBoost or RF outperformed DL models in 13 out of 14 sets of predictions (Gill et al., 2022). Results from both cattle and plants showed that GBM outperformed RF, ANN, and CNN (Ma et al., 2018;Azodi et al., 2019;Abdollahi-Arpanahi et al., 2020).In an extensive study with 6 linear and 6 nonlinear algorithms evaluated with data on 18 traits across 6 plant species, no overall winner was found (Azodi et al., 2019). However, the prediction using a combination of multiple ML methods did outperform that using conventional linear methods.Using two training populations phenotyped in multiple years and genotyped with 40 368 markers, 17 GS models for complex traits were compared. Only a few significant differences were found between models, with SVMs reaching the highest accuracy of 0.56. The parametric models showed consistently moderate accuracy, with little advantage over nonparametric models within individual years, but the nonparametric models had slightly increased accuracy when combining years (Merrick and Carter, 2021). Using one simulated animal breeding dataset and three empirical maize breeding datasets from a commercial breeding program, several groups of supervised ML methods, including regularized regression and deep, ensemble, and instancebased learning algorithms, were compared (Lourenc ¸o et al., 2022). All the methods showed reasonably high predictive performance, but their relative predictive performance was both data and trait dependent, complicating and precluding omnibus comparative evaluations of the prediction methods and thus ruling out selection of one procedure for routine use.Potential challenges for deploying ML for prediction include: (1) developing and implementing consistent protocols, (2) reducing dataset dimensionality, (3) reducing class representation imbalance, and (4) accounting for environmental variations between conditions for plant growth in the training and deployment datasets (Danilevicz et al., 2022). The use of multimodal models and other DL architectures, such as recurrent neural networks and graph neural networks, remains largely unexplored (Danilevicz et al., 2022). It is important to note that when the dataset is considerably large, it is better to randomly split it into three parts for training, validation (or tuning), and testing (Lo ´pez et al., 2022).With more and more accumulated G-P-E data, cross-validation and model optimization can be performed more efficiently for iGEP.When spatiotemporal multiomics data are incorporated into iGEP, the number of features (dimensions) grows, the amount of data required to generalize accurately grows exponentially, and it becomes difficult to generalize the model. Therefore, more training data are required. As enviromics data have been largely excluded from previous prediction models, our discussion will focus on how we should take envirotyping and environmental variables into account in our future predictions. Including environmental variables as the third key dimension in prediction, as shown in Table 3, significantly increases dimensionality, as these variables can be collected spatiotemporally. It complicates prediction models owing to many unpredictable contributors, such as climate change, and it introduces multidimensional interactions that must be addressed in the prediction.The omics data generated during the past three decades largely lack temporal and spatial information. There is an urgent need to link space and time using integrative and scalable G-P-E data to better understand plant phenotypes and associated metabolic processes (Munne ´-Bosch, 2022). Collecting spatiotemporal omics data has become increasingly important, and more multiomics data have begun to appear. For example, stereo-seq combines DNA nanoball-patterned arrays and tissue RNA capture to achieve large field-of-view spatial transcriptomics at a cellular resolution, enabling the dissection of spatial cell-type heterogeneity in mouse embryonic tissues (Chen et al., 2022a). As a specialized form of DNNs, CNNs can be used to analyze input data that contain some form of spatial structure (Goodfellow et al., 2016).Spatial mining uses data related to experimental sites, locations, and geography to extract spatial relationships and measurements that are not explicitly stored in spatiotemporal databases.Temporal mining uses large quantities of implicit or explicit temporal data to extract information and temporal relationships, such as whether temporal data follow cyclic, random, or annual/seasonal variations, etc. In plants, it usually involves omics data collected across growth and developmental stages and across crop seasons and years.Crop growth models and ML methods can be employed to integrate large vectors of primary environmental covariates into meaningful environmental characterizations (Resende et al., 2021;Diepenbrock et al., 2022). By scanning for the time window that gives the best prediction of mean environmental performance, useful temporal environmental variants can be identified (Li et al., 2022a). By way of analogy, these approaches have been called enviromic prediction or envirome-wide association studies (Piepho, 2022).Spatiotemporal environmental variables can be dissected into the major variables collected from predictive mega-or macroenvironments and minor ones collected from less-or unpredictive micro-environments. Including spatiotemporal envirotypic data as fixed effects can improve the fitness of the model and reduce the noise caused by treating predictive environmental factors as random effects, as the phenotype can be better predicted. As an example, for modeling spatiotemporal environmental variables, a half-diallel maize experiment with 35 families and 2367 hybrids was conducted at 17 locations in the US and 6 locations in managed-stress environments. Crop growth models linked to whole-genome prediction offered a predictive accuracy advantage compared with BayesA (r = 0.43 versus r = 0.27) (Diepenbrock et al., 2022).iRF is designed to model across the multiple polytopic space and may provide one of the first tractable AI solutions for systems biology and an ML algorithm for iGEP. For example, iRF would be able to use spatiotemporal G-P-E data to predict the phenomic layer and identify sets of genes and environmental factors that affect each of the phenotypes and their combinations (Harfouche et al., 2019). In parallel, spatiotemporal microclimate data can be repeatedly collected with ground-based sensor networks and used as a reference on which data analysis pipelines can be developed. AI-enabled iGEP algorithms can then be used to evaluate breeding decisions and predict which variety will show the best performance in field testing (Harfouche et al., 2019) or under specific environments characterized by envirotyping.Using detailed environmental data arranged in a quantitative descriptor, such as a covariate matrix, analyses can be performed to dissect the GEI, model genotype-specific sensitivity to critical environmental factors, dissect QTL3E interaction components, incorporate environmental data to model the GEI reaction-norm, profile the environmental gradient in an experimental network, and generate environmental relationship matrices for prediction (Costa-Neto et al., 2021b). We have three options for handling GEI in iGEP: reducing or eliminating GEI, optimizing iGEP using GEI, and optimizing GEI and METs using environmental data. In general, environmental data are collected under specific environmental conditions. Environmental similarity is largely determined by mega and major environmental variables and will, in turn, determine the similarities and patterns of GEI and the accuracy of iGEP.The environmental mean (t j ) was used by Li et al. (2021b) as an EI (regressor variable). Thus, the regression for the index can be written as t j = c 0 + c 1 x j , where x j is the environmental variant for the jth environment (Piepho, 2022). One of the prediction methods for multiple traits or multiple environments is to construct a selection index as in quantitative genetics. An EI can be treated as a new trait for performance prediction and heritability estimation. The EI for a single environmental variant can be extended to comprise several environmental variants.The regression model was further extended to comprise several EIs, each predicted using a linear combination of several environmental variants (Piepho, 2022), as envirotypes can be dissected into components, as is done for genotypes, and then used to construct EIs.When an envirotypic item is included explicitly to model iGEP, its mean is no longer zero. Although ML provides a catalog of different models and algorithms from which we try to find the one that best fits the G-P-E data, there is no universally best model, and a set of assumptions that works well in one domain may work poorly in another (Wolpert, 1996). Therefore, when envirotypic data are incorporated into iGEP, different models, algorithms, and sets of hyperparameters should be tested for each specific dataset so that the best model and prediction can be found. Multivariate models, such as PCA and modern approaches from AI, will likely allow better definition of enviromic variables for improved EI.To identify EIs, the Critical Environmental Regressor through Informed Search algorithm was implemented by examining four environmental parameters (photoperiod, temperature, photothermal time, and photothermal ratio) and by genotyping maize, wheat, and oat. The average value of the environmental parameters was calculated for the window from the ith to the jth day after planting. The parameter-window combination with the strongest correlation was then chosen as the EI, enabling GS of complex traits with an explicit environmental dimension (Li et al., 2021b).Mixed models have been generalized for MTME by defining a structure for the random G3T and GEI effects (forward in Lo ´pez et al., 2022). For phenotypic traits or environments, unstructured or factor analytic variance-covariance matrices can be chosen. When explicit environmental characterizations are available, relationships between environments can also be defined based on environmental similarities (Jarquı ´n et al., 2014). Therefore, prediction models for EIs can be built by using the environmental similarities and various relationship matrices derived from all kinds of combinations of G-P-E and their interactions. Important environmental variables can be measured to provide suitable environmental predictors for envirotyping and to enhance prediction (Cooper et al., 2014a, b;Jarquı ´n et al., 2014;Messina et al., 2018;Voss-Fels et al., 2019;Costa-Neto et al., 2021b;Resende et al., 2021). SVM can learn nonlinear decision surfaces and perform well in the presence of a large number of predictors, even with a small number of cases (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). This makes SVM very appealing for tackling environmental classification and EI construction. Considering the importance of high-throughput environmental data (Rogers et al., 2021), GEIs and environmental covariates, among other factors, should be incorporated into prediction models (Crossa et al., 2021). Through enviromic assembly, relatedness among field trials can be established and only the most representative set of experiments is used to train models, an approach called ''enviromic + genomic prediction'' (Crossa et al., 2021).With improved proximal and remote sensor technologies, important environmental variables that determine G3E3M interactions have been quantified and measured, bringing a wide range of opportunities for accelerating crop improvement through enviromic technologies (Cooper et al., 2020;Peng et al., 2020;Kusmec et al., 2021) and enabling environment-specific prediction (Rogers et al., 2021). With genotypic and environmental predictors, an integrated view of G3E3M interactions can be predicted across all breeding program stages for selection and hybrid advancement (Cooper et al., 2014b). In this case, M, as a way to modify E, can simply be included in prediction models as an environmental variable (Harfouche et al., 2019).Using simulated data, an index-based enviromics method (GIS-GEI) was developed. Because of its higher granular resolution, GIS-GEI allows for accurate identification of sites for their most appropriate genotypes, better definition of target environments with high genetic correlation to ensure selection gains across environments, and efficient determination of the best sites for future experiments (Resende et al., 2021). To probe the genetic underpinnings of climate adaptation for crop species, climatype data have been amassed for every square kilometer of land on Earth. Using the Summit supercomputer, each square kilometer was then compared with every other square kilometer to identify similar environments (Streich et al., 2020). These climatype data were combined with GPS coordinates associated with individual crop genotypes to project which genes and genetic interactions are associated with specific climatic conditions (Beans, 2020). EI: Kernel approaches Enviromic kernels can be constructed to capture the macro-environmental relatedness that shapes the phenotypic variation of relatives (Costa-Neto et al., 2020). To implement this modeling approach, main functions were designed for constructing environmental relationship kernels using environmental information, integrating these kernels into statistical models that account for different structures capable of explaining the phenotypic variation, and fitting regression models that account for genomic and enviromic data (Costa-Neto et al., 2021b). This model can be extended to handle more complicated models involving environmental variables and iGEP. The task of classification is to classify different classes based on known input labels (supervised learning). One method is SVM, in which kernel methods are used. A user-specified kernel function (similarity function) adds another dimension to the dataset.A factor structure is a correlational relationship among a number of variables. Plant breeding data involve many variables with a complex factorial and spatiotemporal structure of multiple layers. Therefore, plant predictive breeding must consider all these complications (Shahi et al., 2022), involving MTMEs of multiple layers (Figure 2).When low-heritability traits have at least moderate correlation with high-heritability traits, the predictability for the low-heritability traits could be strongly increased by using a multi-trait model (Jia and Jannink, 2012;Montesinos-Lo ´pez et al., 2016;Budhlakoti et al., 2019). The prediction accuracy for low-heritability key traits can be improved by using high-heritability secondary traits (Jia and Jannink, 2012;Muranty et al., 2015). Building on the strength of ML, an integrative multi-trait breeding strategy that uses targetoriented prioritization was performed, with up to 91% of the accuracy achieved for identifying a candidate that is phenotypically closest to an ideotype, or target variety (Yang et al., 2022). This strategy first learned the similarity between genomic-predicted values and measured phenotypic values and then predicted the degree of similarity between inbreds or hybrids and the target with respect to hundreds of traits.When environmental information is available, a univariate GBLUP model can be extended as a Bayesian genomic MTME model by adding the interaction term (Montesinos- Lo ´pez et al., 2016). Large-scale correlations among traits evaluated across diverse environments can be used to train prediction models. The performance of 13 quality traits in wheat was predicted using 2 multitrait models and 5 datasets based on field evaluations over 2 years (Ibba et al., 2020). The Bayesian MTME model helps capture the correlations among traits and among years, thus increasing prediction accuracy. A combinatorial optimization model was combined with an RF for predicting the yield performance of crossing testers and inbreds. When the model was designed to detect GEIs, the RF model was able to capture other types of linear and nonlinear effects (Ansarifar et al., 2020).To produce a model for important biological interactions, an algorithm should be developed to build an accurate prediction from multiomics data layers to identify the combinatoric interactive elements within and between those layers. In iGEP, the ''layer'' represents different categories of G-P-E. Taking envirotype as an example, the layer consists of the envirotypic data from weather, climate, canopy, agronomic practice, and accompanying organisms (Figure 2). With two hidden layers, neural networks can usually represent functions with any type of polytope shape. Empirical evidence shows that using more than two hidden layers can better capture nonlinear patterns and complex interactions (Chollet and Allaire, 2017).To approximate any continuous function, MLPs are designed for solving problems that are not linearly separable; they contain input, output, and hidden layers, and the input layer receives the input signal for processing. The output layer performs the required task, such as prediction and classification. When only one hidden layer is present, the DL model becomes a conventional ANN model, but more than one hidden layer can better capture complex interactions, nonlinearities, and nonadditive effects.Each layer performs nonlinear transformations, and connections among these layers are made using weights. Using too few or too many neurons in the hidden layers will result in underfitting or overfitting, respectively. For example, using 5000 markers as input variables to predict grain yield (a continuous outcome) means that we should have the same number of neurons but only 1 output layer. There is no unique and reliable rule for how to determine the required number of neurons in the hidden layers, as this number depends on input neuron number, training data (amount and quality), and learning task complexity (Lantz, 2015).To determine the required neuron number, two approaches can be taken. The backward approach begins with a very large number of neurons and evaluates their performance, then decreases the number of neurons until there is no more gain in reducing the testing error. The forward approach begins with half of the input neurons and increases the number of neurons until no significant gain is observed.Hyperparameter tuning and dropout Successful applications of ANN/DL depend on how the right hyperparameters are chosen to begin the learning process. As a critical aspect of the ML training process, hyperparameters need to be tuned for network topology, activation functions, hidden-layer number, neuron number in each layer, learning rate, etc. (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). Hyperparameter selection is performed with the goal that a model should neither underfit nor overfit the training datasets. However, this task is challenging because the number of hyperparameters required in ANN/DL is large. Tuning hyperparameters for DL models tends to be more computationally intensive (Danilevicz et al., 2022) and can be performed by grid search, random search, Latin hypercube sampling, and optimization (Koch et al., 2017). With more and more accumulated G-P-E data, hyperparameters need to be tuned more efficiently.To prevent overfitting and improve the model's generalizability, regularization (penalization) is used to reduce testing errors so that the model performs well on new data as well as training data. One means of regularization is to minimize an augmented loss function. For ANN/DL models, more than one hyperparameter is needed, and different levels of penalties can be applied to different layers and hyperparameters. Another type of regularization is the dropout, which consists of setting to zero a random fraction (or percentage) of the weights of the input neurons or hidden neurons (Srivastava et al., 2014). The dropout (%) is determined based on starting point, network size, application layer, step size, and network weight (Lo ´pez et al., 2022). The dropout method can be implemented with any type of loss function. All the loss functions can be converted to regularized (penalized) functions. It remains to be determined how loss functions and dropout can be used for enviromic data and the integration of different datasets.Recent developments in genetics, genomics, and molecular biology have significantly accelerated the discovery of functional genes, metabolic pathways, and molecular networks.Multiomics information has quickly driven plant breeding from selection-based programs to prediction-based crop redesign, contributing to improved genetic gain through the creation and utilization of genetic variation. Smart breeding can be performed through iGEP to improve selection efficiency, accelerate the breeding process, breed new crops via de novo domestication, and design ideotypes through synthetic biology. In contrast to the iGEP methods discussed in previous sections, three strategies that may not require any proposed statistical models are pathway-driven breeding, de novo domestication, and synthetic biology (Wu et al., 2021). However, information from genes, pathways, and networks can be transformed into a new dimension of genotypic data and then incorporated into predictive models.Three models can be used to redesign crops at the micro scale (Table 4), including designs based on genes, metabolisms, and networks. As a model crop for gene design, gene cloning, and functional analysis, rice has provided deep insights into phytohormones and growth, nutrient use efficiency, responses to abiotic stresses, defense activation, and signaling in biotic interactions, photoperiodic flowering, and the control of fertility and sterility (Chen et al., 2022b). With functional analysis of increasing numbers of candidate genes, the best alleles, allele combinations, and favorable haplotypes can be identified, modeled, edited, designed, and used for marker-assisted selection (MAS) and prediction. Similarly, crop design was proposed to develop ''smart super rice'' (Qian, 2017) and ''green super rice'' (Yu et al., 2020;2021b), identifying target genes controlling phenotypes of interest and germplasm resources where the relevant genes could be sourced.At the micro scale, metabolic pathways can be substituted, modified, or improved through metabolism design. ''The C4 Rice Project,'' an international collaboration to introduce C4 traits into rice, is expected to increase photosynthetic efficiency by 50% (https://c4rice.com). A pan-European research initiative, the CropBooster Program, aims to explore scientific options for improving plant performance by increasing photosynthesis (Harbinson et al., 2021). To address water limitations and mechanized rice production, elite rice varieties have been developed by introgressing drought tolerance and water-saving genes (and probably unspecified but associated pathways) from upland rice in an example of the network design strategy.The new rice can be planted by direct seeding in rainfed fields (Luo et al., 2019), triggering the rice ''blue revolution'' in China by freeing rice cultivation from irrigation, planting, and harvesting rice as wheat and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Xia et al., 2022).Multi-scale regulation of networks can be measured as changes in mRNA synthesis, stability, and decay and in protein translation, activity, affinity, and decay. Molecular Plant topology, and clustering, and serves as a source of variation for novel traits (Hetti-Arachchilage et al., 2022). Predictive modeling and quantitative characterization of synthetic modules provide a detailed understanding of complex regulatory and signaling networks.The genes, metabolic pathways and networks that control agronomic traits can be classified into independent modules, such as those for yield, quality, and resistance. Breeding by molecular module design began with the dissection of molecular modules for complex traits to identify allelic variations and gene network interactions (Xue et al., 2015). Molecular modules can be dissected into multiple components for a group of associated traits and then integrated to interact with one another through high-efficiency design and assembly. Finally, improved varieties can be developed through designed and predictive breeding by incorporating the modules and associated genes and networks in predictions. For example, using Kongyu131 as a base variety, several improved versions were developed by introgression of different trait modules, including a single-point substitution line with significant heading date delay (Wang et al., 2019a).Future efforts will need to incorporate multiple layers of information to predict systems-level behavior of crop plant networks and their dynamics in changing environments. Network rewiring arises from changes in node and edge linkages, topological properties of individual nodes, subnetwork properties, and global topological properties. Hetti-Arachchilage et al. ( 2022) summarized several approaches for network rewiring: plant growth and stress responses that occur through signaling cascades can be fine-tuned by miRNA-mediated stress regulatory networks; gene regulatory networks can be mediated by heritable and robust epigenetic regulators; expression of regulatory and downstream stress-related genes can be fine-tuned by alternative splicing; diverse and complex protein translational modifications can be performed by dynamic control of the proteome; and natural and induced allelic variation can be leveraged for gene regulation.Crop redesign can also be performed at the macro scale for individuals, populations, and species (Table 4). Individual design dates back to the development of wheat and rice ideotypes by combining semi-dwarfism, erect top leaves, and strong stems (Jennings, 1964;Beachell and Jennings, 1965;Donald, 1968;Peng et al., 2008). The maize ideotype has been characterized by Mock and Pearce (1975), including stiff, vertically oriented leaves above the ear, a short interval between pollen shed and silk emergence, and small tassel size. At the population level, maize has been improved over the past decades to increase its suitability for high-density planting (from 30K to 79K plants/ha) (Duvick et al., 2004), contributing to significant yield increases. An array of prospective redesigns of plant systems, including straightforward alterations and conceptual redesigns, have been explored for improved photosynthetic efficiency and performance (Ort et al., 2015). Species design at the macro scale would dramatically reshape a plant species to adapt to a completely different ecological environment or production system (Tian et al., 2021). Two examples of such species design are perennial rice and seed-propagated diploid potato.To increase food and ecosystem security, production of perennial grains has been proposed (Glover et al., 2010). To develop perennial crops, breeding programs must combine multiple desirable traits, including reliable regrowth with high yield and quality over multiple years, adaptation to abiotic stresses, and resistance to pests and diseases. A successful example of such population design is perennial varieties of rice. The first variety of rice capable of surviving for consecutive years, PR23, was bred in 2018 via clonal propagation of the rhizome from Oryza longistaminata. This variety was released in China and is now being tested throughout Asia and Africa (Huang et al., 2018).Developing a self-pollinated diploid potato that can be bred through regular hybridization and selection is another example of crop redesign at the macro scale (here, species), although it will be achieved by genetic modification of many genes and pathways at the micro scale. Transforming potato from clonally propagated into seed propagated represents a significant innovation in plant breeding. Owing to deleterious mutations, it has been challenging to develop highly homozygous inbred potato lines.Redesign at the macro level was used to develop a generation of pure and fertile potato lines and thereby uniform, vigorous F1s. The redesign involved: (1) selection of starting materials, (2) genetic analysis of Solanum populations, (3) development of inbred lines, and (4) generation of vigorous F1 hybrids. During breeding, beneficial alleles were combined in the hybrids, and large-effect deleterious mutations were eliminated (Zhang et al., 2021a). The selection criteria included genome homozygosity and deleterious mutations in starting materials, segregation distortion in the S1 population, haplotype information for inferring the break of tight linkage between beneficial and deleterious alleles, and parental genome complementarity. Chromosome-scale and haplotype-resolved genome assembly enabled reconstruction of the four haplotypes of cultivated potato (Sun et al., 2022), ultimately increasing breeding success for the seed-propagated diploid.Metabolic pathways that are more efficient than native ones could be synthesized based on predictive results. An example is the attempt to install synthetic glycolate metabolic pathways in tobacco, maximizing flux through the pathways by inhibiting glycolate export from the chloroplast (South et al., 2019). With the synthetic pathways, photosynthetic quantum yield was improved by 20%, indicating that engineering alternative glycolate metabolic pathways into crop chloroplasts can drive increases in C3 crop yield. In rice, it was demonstrated that a partial C4 pathway can be established by transformation with a single construct harboring coding sequences for five enzymes of C4 metabolism (Ermakova et al., 2021). Although the enzyme expression levels require improvement, their cell-specific expression patterns were largely appropriate for two-cell C4 photosynthesis; furthermore, the observed photosynthetic phenotypes of the transgenic plants were consistent with the occurrence of C4 carboxylation in vivo, suggesting that a full C4 metabolic pathway may be possible in rice. Smart breeding (Bozsoki et al., 2020). Plants evolved lysine motif (LysM) receptors to recognize and parse microbial elicitors and drive intracellular signaling to regulate microbial colonization. Two motifs in the LysM1 domains of chitin and nodulation (Nod) factor receptors of Lotus japonicus determine the recognition of specific ligands and enable discrimination between their in planta functions. Binding specificities in LysM receptors can be altered to facilitate Nod factor recognition and symbiotic signaling from a chitin receptor. A more recent study revealed the mechanism of nitrogen fixation in legume plants (Dong et al., 2021): a SHORTROOT-SCARECROW (SHR-SCR) stem cell program in cortical cells of the legume Medicago truncatula was found to specify their distinct fate. Legume species have a conserved cortical SHR-SCR network for response to rhizobial signals and initiation of cortical cell division for de novo nodule organogenesis.Discovery of key domestication genes suggests that de novo domestication is a feasible method of crop redesign (Fernie and Yan, 2019;Tian et al., 2021;Chen et al., 2022c;Yu and Li, 2022). A new species could be shaped through selection of specific organs (Osnas, 2012), de novo domestication of a wild relative with different ploidy (Yu et al., 2021a), allopolyploidy among subspecies (Griffiths et al., 1999), or absorption of new alleles through introgression from nearby species (Arnold et al., 2016). Many genes have been studied for domestication traits, including fruit/seed size and weight, grain filling, growth habits, plant/inflorescence architecture, seed casing/color/dormancy, shattering, style length, and flowering (reviewed by Fernie and Yan, 2019). Wild crop relatives can be redomesticated to breed improved cultivated species that are adapted to climate change and environmental stresses. Traditional breeding approaches and gene editing have been proposed as two parallel approaches for de novo domestication (Fernie and Yan, 2019;Yu et al., 2021a). At present, gene editing in all plants relies on transformation technology. New technologies for addressing this dependency include high-efficiency transformation (Lowe et al., 2016), pollen-based transformation (Zhao et al., 2017), functional cloning of genes that overcomes genotype dependency (Wang et al., 2022a), and marker-assisted transfer of gene-edited traits.A comprehensive survey of US and European executives involved in big data initiatives identified the top 10 challenges in operationalizing big data and turning them into value (Capgemini Inc., 2016): IT budget constraints, data security concerns, integration challenges, lack of technical expertise, proliferation of data silos, corporate culture, poor or insufficient data quality, compliance concerns, user adoption and training needs, and manual processing/time constraints. In the field of plant breeding, big data and AI could potentially transform plant breeding from an art to a more data-driven science. Turning smart breeding into genetic gain and finally into breeding value and economic gain depends on how well all resources can be integrated and utilized together, including big data, AI, and innovative breeding technologies such as iGEP. In developing countries and small-and medium-sized breeding enterprises, sharing breeding platforms and resources while protecting the intellectual property of participants will be critical for the application of smart breeding.Turning plant breeding from art to more data-driven scienceLargely owing to limited information and resources for trait prediction, plant breeding has long been considered both an art and a science. However, prediction models can be constructed and validated using real data, simulated data, and their combination. This procedure can be facilitated by AI. In the era of smart breeding, breeders can be both generators and users of big data. We are moving into a new stage of mega data-and cloud technology-assisted breeding. Transition of plant breeding from an art to a data-driven science will have four significant features: targeted design, predicted selection, pipeline-driven approaches, and step-by-step improvement by ''standing on the giant's shoulder'' (using the best base variety or material for further improvement). Marker-assisted plant breeding requires many years in developing countries and small-and mediumsized enterprises (Xu and Crouch, 2008). Smart breeding is expected to take approximately the same amount of time to become a routine practice worldwide. Even if it becomes widely applied in some countries or MSEs, it will take years to spread out and be recognized by the whole community, similar to the application of GS from livestock to crop plants (Xu et al., 2020a).Smart breeding driven by big data, AI, and iGEP can use all available information and resources collected spatiotemporally. With optimized models generated using well-selected data and populations, prediction should be equivalent to a comprehensive evaluation across multiple years and MET sites. Therefore, predictive breeding can reveal phenotypic performance better than any single observation. Although breeders may place greater trust in what they can see with the naked eye in the field, each such observation is just one of many samplings required for accurate judgement. Evaluation and thus selection from such a random sample will vary greatly with time, location, and individual breeders.Modern plant breeding has become a field with a great deal of technological support and a breeding pipeline that brings together breeders, technicians, platforms, facilities, experimental stations, and METs. For example, an intelligent greenhouse has many components, including monitors, sensors, and controllers. Smart breeding should aim to integrate the ''internet of things'' with intelligent facilities and crop management, driven by big data, AI, and iGEP (Figure 3).Although application of new breeding technologies has been largely crop dependent, most crop species share a similar panel of innovations (Figure 3). Breeding facilities (e.g., genotyping, phenotyping, and envirotyping), information management (breeding data archiving, integration, analytics, and mining, through a system such as Tripal; Staton et al., 2021), and decision support (simulation, prediction, validation, optimization, and selection) can be integrated, and improved germplasm and varieties can be protected through big-dataassisted plant variety protection (Figure 1).Although genetic transformation has been used in commercialized varieties globally, transgenic technology remains to be fully integrated into routine breeding pipelines. One of the major limitations is that most base varieties are recalcitrant to genetic transformation. The same situation occurs with genome editing using CRISPR/Cas9 (Jinek et al., 2012), in which genetic transformation is also required. Once transformations are completed using a tissue-culture-friendly variety, marker-assisted backcrossing (MAB) can then be used to introgress target genes from transgenic or genomeedited lines into base varieties or desirable breeding materials. MAB has been widely used in MSEs to simultaneously introgress two to seven transgenes into several hundreds of inbreds or varieties each year (Kunsheng Wu 2017, personal communication).Plant breeding programs can be accelerated by shortening the number of generations required to reach pure breeding and by speeding plant growth and development (Xu et al., 2017;Sinha et al., 2021). DH approaches can generate true-breeding lines in two generations (De La Fuente et al., 2013), compared with the eight or more generations required with continuous inbreeding, significantly shortening the breeding cycle. The gene that controls haploid induction in maize has been cloned (Kelliher et al., 2017;Liu et al., 2017), and DH breeding is now expected to be used for all crop species through genomic editing (e.g., Wang et al., 2022b). Although pollen culture has been very successful in the generation of DH lines, DH breeding has not been widely used in self-pollinated crop species, largely because generation of true-breeding lines by selfing is much easier than with outcrossed species. It is expected Beginning at the center, level 1 represents big data. Moving outward, level 2 represents iGEP models (S, spatiotemporal G-P-E). In the formulas, lowercase, bold lowercase, and bold uppercase letters represent single, vector, and matrix variables, respectively. Level 3 shows a breeding pipeline from strategic plan and line development through hybrid development and multi-environmental trials to release and commercialization. Level 4 shows new breeding technologies (CD, crop design; DH, doubled haploids; SP, speed breeding; MAS, marker-assisted selection; GP, genomic prediction; TG, transgenics; GE, genome editing). The white cross that divides the figure into four quadrants represents information flow between layers and circles, integrating all components together like an internet of things. The large arrows in circle 3 represent the direction of the breeding workflow and pipeline, starting from I, moving to IV, and circling back through the breeding pipeline. Divided by the yellow circle, the inside contains levels 1 and 2 that share data and models, and the outside contains levels 3 and 4 that share the breeding pipeline and new breeding technologies.that combining cloned genes with genome editing (Yao et al., 2018;Liu et al., 2021) will stimulate DH breeding in selfpollinated crops.In contrast to DH-based approaches, speed breeding can be used to accelerate the generation time and thus shorten the breeding cycle for all crop species and breeding programs. However, the environments required for the speed breeding process will be crop specific and case dependent. Combining embryo culture with management of water stress, light intensity and duration, temperature, and potting mixture enables the production of up to eight generations of wheat and nine generations of barley per year (Zheng et al., 2013). For some crops (wheat, barley, chickpea, and canola), growth in a managed environment with an extended photoperiod (22/2 h light/dark) causes plants to flower in a much shorter time (Watson et al., 2018). Adjustment of photoperiod and temperature can be combined with alterations in other factors that affect growth and flowering, such as nutrients and microelement levels. Reproduction processes could be accelerated by regulating all of the genes that affect plant growth and development (Fasong Zhou, personal communication). MAS can be used to identify the best combination of relevant genes for manipulation. As a result, a suite of accelerating factors could be developed for each crop species or for specific genotypes.In response to the challenge of GS with big data, Bayer built an AI assistant that helps breeders select the right candidates. Cloud-based algorithms built on a foundation of roughly 1.7 trillion calculations enables a dramatic shift in the scale and speed of the breeding pipeline. Predicting the potential of multiple breeding lines allows breeders to disregard certain lines that are not likely to achieve the intended goal. With neural networks, AI-assisted models are literally learning throughout the entire process, providing breeders a road map to follow with enhanced accuracy and efficiency (https://www.bayer.com/en/agriculture/ article/how-math-and-data-science-accelerate-innovation-whileconserving).Large-scale commercial breeding programs typically operate as a coordinated network, increasing the efficiency of breeding platforms and saving costs (Xu et al., 2020a). These programs generate enough big data to build their own iGEP models. With open-source breeding, small-and medium-sized breeding enterprises will each function as a breeding team within an MSE. Supported by synthetic pipeline services, low-cost genotyping platforms, and the capacity to obtain models and haplotype effects, partners can share their breeding data and materials after each breeding cycle. This will allow each member to move to the next cycle with accumulated information and materials, updated designs, and optimized models, ultimately improving genetic gain (Xu et al., 2017(Xu et al., , 2020a)). Such an open-source breeding initiative creates additional challenges with respect to big data management, model construction, and prediction, owing to the increased complexity of the breeding information being incorporated. In open-source breeding programs, the intellectual property of plant varieties can be protected using a highly efficient, low-cost molecular marker system such as genotyping by target sequencing and liquid chip (Guo et al., 2021). As DNA profiles can be constructed for almost all selections and breeding materials that have been or are being shared in the initiative, an acceptable royalty system can be established as a revenue generator.The prediction accuracy of ML models is largely determined by the quality of the dataset employed (LeCun et al., 2015). Consequently, a frequent challenge for training robust ML models is the lack of appropriate datasets with enough data points and sample variability. A few international consortia, such as AgBioData (Harper et al., 2018) and Breeding API (Selby et al., 2019), are making an effort to share and transform breeding datasets. However, a centralized platform for collecting, hosting, and managing enviromic data is needed to make the relevant data more widely available, similar to the approaches used to share other omics data. An alternative approach to protect sensitive information while supporting collaboration toward data-driven breeding is the establishment of federated learning cohorts (Kone cny ´et al., 2016). Within these, each participant institution trains the model with its own dataset and shares the updated model peer to peer or through a centralized server that will aggregate the model's weights. The updated model parameters thus improve the baseline model, which is then shared among institutions (Yang et al., 2019a(Yang et al., , 2019b)). Another factor that prevents researchers from employing previously published datasets is the lack of standardized metadata descriptions, including experimental design, data collection protocol, field management, environmental variables, and other information (Danilevicz et al., 2022). The minimum information about a plant phenotyping project (Papoutsoglou et al., 2020) offers a resource to guide researchers in annotating metadata to increase usability and interoperability.There are several ongoing open-source breeding programs in China, including maize molecular breeding initiatives and integrated plant breeding platforms, members of which share nearly all of their data and materials (Xu et al., 2020a). By integrating the breeding technologies discussed above (Figure 3), opensource breeding initiatives can be established in locations with nontarget environments. An example is Hainan, China, where almost all breeding enterprises perform off-season breeding (Zhang et al., 2021b). Using 44 624 wheat lines and over 7.6 million genotyping-by-sequencing data points, a reference wheat genotype-phenotype map was built with a large number of marker-trait associations (Juliana et al., 2019), providing a valuable resource for worldwide open-source breeding in wheat.International initiatives, such as the Excellence in Breeding Platform (http://excellenceinbreeding.org), enable greater technology uptake by breeders and farmers and integrate the community globally. In addition to the five modules established, envirotyping should also be included as an independent module. With a wellestablished open-source breeding system, the accumulation of small dispersed datasets from all partners and collaborators builds large and diverse datasets that can be shared, ''many a little making a mickle.'' All public information, including genotypic data for germplasm bank materials and envirotypic data for weather, climate, and soil, should be made available for opensource breeding.Future plant breeding will become smart with the implementation of big data, AI, and iGEP. Smart breeding will enable all breedingrelated information, including spatiotemporal omics, to be broadly accessible in a usable format. Innovative breeding technologies, including transgenics, genome editing, DH-based breeding, speed breeding, and MAS, will be integrated into a smart breeding pipeline (Figure 3). Model selection and optimization can be performed in iGEP, with the best option identified for each breeding population. Incorporation of enviromics can improve prediction accuracy through better understanding of GEIs, enhanced phenotyping precision, managed environments, and optimized model construction. Establishment of integrative plant breeding platforms and open-source breeding initiatives will aid in translating smart breeding efforts into genetic gain in the breeding pipelines of national programs as well as small-and medium-sized breeding enterprises.","tokenCount":"17759"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f789512365c69755bd01bdb4617ca5ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b71c8ede-f15d-4e0c-97f3-39af810ce7de/content","id":"-895487425"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c69592db-196d-4b08-a144-57a14704d3a9","pagecount":"4","content":"èññëåäîâàòåëüñêèìè ó÷ðåaeäåíèÿìè áûâøèõ ñîþçíûõ ðåñïóáëèê. Îñòàíîâèëñÿ îáìåí ñåëåêöèîííûì ìàòåðèàëîì, ÷òî ñåðüåçíî óõóäøèëî ñåëåêöèîííóþ ðàáîòó â êàaeäîé èç ñòðàí. Ñåëåêöèîíåðû ðàáîòàëè ñ èìåþùèìñÿ ó íèõ ñåëåêöèîííûì ìàòåðèàëîì, êîòîðîãî áûëî ÿâíî íåäîñòàòî÷íî äëÿ äîñòèaeåíèÿ óñïåõîâ â ñåëåêöèè. Êðîìå òîãî, â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ãåîãðàôè÷åñêîãî ìåñòîïîëîaeåíèÿ êàaeäîé ñòðàíû, íåêîòîðûå áèîòè÷åñêèå ôàêòîðû (áîëåçíè, âðåäèòåëè è ñîðíûå ðàñòåíèÿ), à òàêaeå àáèîòè÷åñêèå ôàêòîðû (ðåçêîå ïîâûøåíèå òåìïåðàòóðû â ïåðèîä êîëîøåíèÿ è öâåòåíèÿ ïøåíèöû) ñóùåñòâåííî ñäåðaeèâàëè ðàçâèòèå çåðíîâûõ êóëüòóð â ðåãèîíå. ýòîì ñâåòå îäíèìè èç ãëàâíûõ çàäà÷ ìåaeäóíàðîäíûõ öåíòðîâ ñòàëè îáåñïå÷åíèå ñåëåêöèîíåðîâ ðåñïóáëèê Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè èñõîäíûì ìàòåðèàëîì çåðíîâûõ, çåðíîáîáîâûõ è êîðìîâûõ êóëüòóð, ïîäãîòîâêà êàäðîâ è ïåðåäà÷à íîâûõ òåõíîëîãèé è ìåòîäîâ âûðàùèâàíèÿ ñ/õ ðàñòåíèé. and high yields lines). The new lines are resistant to yellow rust and some plant pests, such as sunny pest. The breeding material provided by the centres is widely used by the breeders around Central Asia. As a result of this activity, new promising varieties performing higher yields and better resistance to diseases and pests are developed.The regional breeders are working on control yellow rust race in the region. Over the past years, the scientists have collected enough information from Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan to be used for mapping spread of yellow rust in Central Asia. Measures are undertaken to control sunn pest that damages wheat crops in the region. In 2003, the special wheat nursery having lines resistant to bread leaf beetle was sown in Kyrgyzstan. After studying these lines will be distributed among other countries in the region.In frameworks of cooperation with international centres many young local scientists working in agricultural sector participate at training courses at CIMMYT and ICARDA headquarter offices and attend various international meetings supported by the centres. . . .","tokenCount":"280"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d992920849ec66fd1c881bd7f730338f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3f8de28c-396c-4cf0-a29d-8f4f91119dc6/content","id":"377429496"},"keywords":["Wheat","agriculture","biologics","strain","yield","disinfectant","Biologics effectiveness","plant protection","root rot"],"sieverID":"1f5d361e-4de2-40a0-99dc-eb05b6234190","pagecount":"5","content":"The article studies the application of biologics in agriculture. Laboratory and field experiments were conducted on spring wheat. The effect of biologics on germination and biomass accumulation of wheat was studied. Also, laboratory and field experiments were conducted with \"Baisheshek\" barley variety. Rating of winter wheat biometrics in soil salinity conditions was conducted as well. The effect of biologics on germination and yield of wheat was studied.In today's environment it is the challenge of finding new promising areas in agriculture for the use of technology safe for human health, animals, and the biosphere in general. In this regard, there is a gradual transition from intensive industrial agricultural production to alternative production (biological or environmental, in particular), which provides for the rational use of energy resources and reduction of environmental pollution, production of high quality agricultural products, the preservation and increase of soil fertility, and non-waste use of agricultural products 1 .An integral part of ecological agriculture is the application of biologics, which improve plant nutrition, as well as biological means of plant protection. BioHumate is one of such biologics, produced through phytogenic waste bioconversion. Since cereals are major source of food, enzymes, trace elements, mineral salts and other biologically active substances and are the components of indispensable products of human rational nutrition, the requirements concerning their quality is quite high [2][3] . To ensure high quantitative and qualitative productivity indicators it is necessary to observe technology of cropper cultivation. Application of biologics at cultivation of grain crops initiates plants growth and development, improves nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition, increases their resistance against pathogens and as a result helps to increase productivity and product quality, gives the opportunity not only to save significant amounts of energy, but also creates a favorable environment for agriculture in general, since it helps to increase fertility of soils using much smaller amounts of mineral fertilizers and, consequently, reducing the level of environmental pollution [4][5] .In this regard, we have conducted laboratory and field experiments.The tests were carried out at the experimental facility of Kazakh Research Institute of Plant Protection and Quarantine (\"Kapal\" farm situated in the village of \"Akyn Sara\" in the Eskeldy District of the Almaty Region). Spring wheat variety \"Kazakhstan 10\" was the research object in the current study.The mechanical composition of the soil was made up of dark brown soil, medium loamy soil, and humus (3.0 -3.5%), pH 7.0. Forecrop was spring wheat plowed to the depth of 15-17 cm by \"BD\" disc header, pre-sowing cultivation, rolling after sowing. Sowing of seeds was produced on May 11 employing \"SZ-3.6\" tractor seeder. Seed application rate was 4.0 mln pcs/ha, while depth was 5-6 cm. Eight variants were tested in the experiment: 1.Control -seeds treated with water; 2.Vial TT disinfectant -0.4 l/t; 3.Tank mix of Vial TT -0.4 l/t + TS3 Strain -0.25 l/t; 4.Tank mix of Vial TT -0.4 l/t + GZ14 strain -0.2 l/t; 5.Tank mix of Vial TT -0.4 l/t + Extrasol-0.1 l/ t; 6.Extrasol-0.1 l/t; 7.Strain 2 -0.15 l/t; 8.BL01 Strain -0.05 l/t. The experiments were conducted under field conditions in four replications. The size of the plots was 0.25 ha. Biologics were applied using seed treatment technique before sowing. Seed pickling machine (PS-10) was employed for seeds treatment, water consumption rate was 10 l/t. The results of biological effectiveness are presented in Tables 1 and 2.Currently, environmentally focused technologies are increasingly used in crop production to achieve clean production, which is the most promising in the development of agriculture 6 . The lack of any substances in grain crops leads to disturbance in carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism, protein synthesis, as well as reduces the resistance of plants to adverse environmental conditions [7][8] .The aim of our study at this stage consisted in testing of biologics prepared on the basis of a rhizosphere bacteria strain of Bacillus suptilis.The experiments were laid out in the Almaty Region, in Talgar District, in the village of \"Panfilov\", LLP \"Bayserke Agro\", at the Experimental Base of Kazakh Research Institute of Plant Protection and Quarantine. Laboratory and field research methods were used when conducting experiments. \"Baisheshek\" barley variety was taken as a research object.Mechanical composition of the soil consisted of dark chestnut soil, medium loam soil, and humus (3.0 -3.5%), pH was equal to 7.0. Sowing of barley seeds was produced on April 24 employing SZ-3.6 tractor seeder, seeding rate was 3.5 mln pcs/ha, at a seeding depth of 5-6 cm. Field experiments were carried out according to the following scheme: 1.Control -seeds treated with water; 2.Disinfectant Vial TT -0.4 l/t; 3.Tank mix of Vial TT -0.4 l/t + TS3 Strain -0.25 l/t; 4.Tank mix of Vial TT -0.4 l/t + GZ14 Strain -0.2 l/t; 5.Tank mix of Vial TT -0.4 l/t + Extrasol -0.1 l/t; 6.Extrasol -0.1 l/t; 7.Strain 2 -0.15 l/t; 8.BL01 Strain -0.05 l/t. Registration plot area was 0.25 ha. The experiments were carried out in four replications. Biologics were applied using seed treatment technique before sowing. Seed pickling machine (PS-10) was used for seeds treatment, water consumption rate was 10 l/t. Biological effectiveness of biologics and the infestation of plants with root rot are presented in Tables 3 and  4.The results of study have shown that in the pre-sowing treatment of barley seeds, biologics did not significantly affect the germination energy and laboratory seed germination, but at the same time slightly inhibited the infestation of seeds by mold fungi (15.8 -86.8%). This resulted in increased seedling density by 7.3-13.6 pcs/m 2 . The biologics reduced the infestation of barley with root rot at the plant tillering phase by 31.5-66.3% (Table 3). Besides, the biologics increase physiological growth of plants and contribute to accumulation of crops biomass in comparison with the control variant (Table 4).In this experiment, treatment of seeds and crops by biologics positively affected the sowing qualities of the resulting seeds as compared to control.In Kazakhstan, wheat is the most important grain crop in terms of food significance and scale of production. Production of this crop in all continents amounts to 615 mln tones per year. About half of the global wheat grain production accounts for just five countries: Canada, USA, China, India, and Russia [9].Winter wheat is a valuable crop in field rotation and a good forecrop for a number of crops (maize, sunflower, sugar beet, winter barley, stubble crops, etc.).Yielding capacity refers to the average size of particular crop produced per unit of cultivated area, measured usually in hundredweight per hectare [10]. Yield characterizes the total amount of given crop production, while yielding capacity of the crop is its productivity under specific conditions of cultivation. In accordance with the specifics of these concepts, the yield is characterized by a number of indicators. These indicators include specific yield, yield before the beginning of timely harvesting, the actual yield, the so-called crop in storage, and net yield. In the beginning, crop harvesting is estimated in the original recorded weight, and then in the actual weight of the grain after modifications, as well as based on the conversion with regard to standard humidity 11 .Crops yield and yielding capacity are direct statistical characteristics of the level of crop production development and total agricultural production. Yield (bulk yield) is the total amount of production of any agricultural crops (group of crops) in real terms, obtained from the entire area of the crops 12 . In relation to the importance of the crop yield index, we have investigated the plant biometrics and yield of winter wheat.Biometric analysis and yield estimate were conducted at the phase of full ripeness. To carry out proper recording, 50 plants were selected in four replications. The results of the biometric analysis and the yield index are shown in Tables 5  and 6.The results of field and laboratory studies, presented in Table 1, have shown that pre-sowing treatment of wheat seeds with biologics slightly increases laboratory germination of seeds, enhances field germination rate (7.8-15.4 pcs/m 2 ), inhibits the development of mold fungi by 26.9-90.4% and root rot -by 29.4-66.7%. Besides, the biologics increase physiological growth of plants and accumulation of crops biomass in comparison with the control variant.According to the above data we can As a result of the study it was revealed that the effectiveness of Vial TT disinfectant amounted to 178.1% in comparison with the control, while effectiveness of Vial TT + TS3 Strain was 161.8% relative to the control. Effectiveness of Vial TT + GZ14 Strain equaled to 187.0%, Vial TT + Extrasol -to 166.7%, Extrasol -to 64.8%, Strain 2to 58.9%, and BL0 Strain -to 45.9%. In terms of the susceptibility to root rot, the lowest rate was indicated in the variant of Vial TT + GZ 14 Strain, while high level of susceptibility was shown by BL 01 Strain.The study of seed germination, the susceptibility of agricultural crops by different fungal diseases, and study of the biologics application effectiveness play very important role both round the world and in Kazakhstan. Therefore, concerned problem is extremely urgent in providing the population with a healthy nutrition and receiving high crop yields. ","tokenCount":"1504"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"32552cf6ddf0c1e3bbe58d95cf0e8dad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3d4bc0db-1e2b-44c8-9764-b945b09ab7e8/content","id":"1448790774"},"keywords":["Bacterial identification","conservation versus conventional agriculture","DGGE analysis","genomic libraries"],"sieverID":"34c2bdc6-8595-43d4-b090-20041e6eecef","pagecount":"11","content":"Carbon and nitrogen dynamics are altered by tillage so it was hypothesized that the composition of the microbial population that control these processes was affected too. Soil was sampled from conventional beds (CB) tilled and reformed each year with crop residue incorporation and permanent raised beds (PB) with zero tillage seeding and residue retention on the top soil, while the bacterial community composition was investigated with a phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rDNA. Five phyla were detected in both treatments, that is, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes and Proteobacteria with Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria the most abundant. In PB, the GP6 class belonging to the Acidobacteria with a relative proportion of 42.0%, Sphingomonadales with 17.3% and the Xanthomonadales with 10.7% were the most abundant. In CB, Xanthomonadales with a relative proportion of 31.5%, GP6 with 24.5% and Sphingomonadales with 13.3% were the most abundant groups. Other groups found in both treatments were GP3, Caldilineales, Caulobacteriales, Gemmatimonadales, Pseudomonadales and Rhizobiales. Oceanospirillales, GP4, GP17 and GP22 were only found in the PB soil, whereas GP1, Actinomycetales, Anaerolineales, Myxococcales, Burkholderiales and Rhodospirillales in the CB soil. It was found that tillage did not change the most abundant bacterial groups, but it did affect their relative proportion.Agronomic and soil management practices are known to affect characteristics and soil processes, which are essential to maintain soil fertility. Crop residue management and tillage can alter a soil profoundly. Tillage can deteriorate the soil structure aggravated by the use of heavy machinery (Bronick and Lal, 2004). Removal of crop residues can dramatically reduce the soil organic carbon (SOC) content within a short time and *Corresponding author. E-mail: dendooven@me.com. reduce the soil microbial biomass (Albaladejo et al., 1998). Soils under no-till with crop residues retention have higher organic matter contents in the surface layer than soils with conventional tillage, which results in increased water infiltration and a higher water holding capacity in the former (Calderon et al., 2000;Ussiri and Lal, 2009). Thus, no-till soils with surface crop residue retention do not only contain more organic material in the top soil, but they are also wetter and cooler with less fluctuation in water content and temperature (Shinners et al., 1993;Ussiri et al., 2009). There are also indications that the chemical composition and structure of soil organic matter is different under conventional and no-till with crop residue retention (Ding et al., 2002). Surface soils (0-5 cm) under no-till are high in light fraction material as well as particulate organic matter (Motta et al., 2001) and humic acids in no-tilled soil contained more reactive functional groups than in conventionally tilled soil (Peacock et al., 2001).Crops have been cultivated on raised beds presumably since the beginning of intensive agriculture (Sayre, 2004). Cultivation on raised beds have been used by farmers mostly to manage water. Raised beds can often be found along rivers or nearby lakes to reduce the possible negative effects of excess water on crops. Examples are the 'Chinampas' used in the Valley of Mexico, the 'waru warus' near lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia, the 'deep ditch-high bed systems' found in the Pearl River basin in China, and the mound planting systems used to avoid problems with the shallow presence of petroplinthite in Africa, Asia, many Pacific Islands and the Americas (Thurston, 1992). In arid or semi-arid parts of the world, such as Central Asia, China and Zimbabwe, crops have been cultivated on raised beds to maximize irrigation efficiency. For instance, the technique has been used in the arid western United States for the production of rowplanted crops, such as cotton (Gossypium sp.) (Sayre, 2004).Before planting the next crop, intensive tillage operations are used to form the beds (Aquino, 1998;Sayre, 2004). However, making the raised beds 'permanent', and only reshaping them before planting without destroying or altering the top of the raised bed, would strongly reduce costs for the farmer. This agricultural system gave promising results under irrigated conditions. Therefore, a field experiment was started under rain fed conditions by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) in the volcanic highlands of Central Mexico in 1999. Higher yields for both maize (Zea mays L.) and wheat (Triticum spp. L.) were obtained for permanent raised beds with full residue retention, compared to conventionally tilled raised beds (Sayre et al., 2005). Permanent raised beds with retention of crop residue resulted in higher soil organic matter content, aggregate stability and an increased protection of C and N in the micro-aggregates within the macro-aggregates compared to conventionally tilled raised beds. Emissions of N 2 O and CO 2 were reduced, and production of NO 3 increased in soil with permanent raised beds with crop residue retention, compared to soil under conventionally tilled raised beds. The C and N cycling was affected by tillage so it could be hypothesized that the bacterial communities were also affected. Soil was sampled from permanent raised beds and from beds remade each crop cycle (conventionally tilled raised beds), in both systems crop residue was retained in the field. Phylogenetic trees and dominant groups were determined in both soils. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of permanent raised beds (PB) Núñez et al. 7049 and conventionally tilled raised beds (CB) on the composition of the microbial population when crop residue was retained. It was hypothesized that the different management practices would change the bacterial population in soil.The mean maximum and minimum temperature at the experimental site are 24 and 6°C, respectively (1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009) and the average annual rainfall is 625 mm y -1 , with approximately 545 mm falling between May and October. Short, intense rain showers followed by dry spells typify the summer rainy season and the total yearly potential evapotranspiration of 1550 mm exceeds annual rainfall.The El Batán experiment station has an average growing period of 132 days.The soil at the experimental site is classified as a Haplic Phaeozem (Calyic) in the World Reference Base system (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007) and as a fine, mixed, thermic Cumulic Haplustoll in the USDA Soil Taxonomy system (Soil Survey Staff, 2003). The particle size distribution was clay 409, silt 240 and sand 351 g kg -1 .The rain-fed experiment was started in 1999. Each plot in the experiment measured 6 m  20 m with 8 raised beds of 75 cm width. Four management practices were studied in 14 treatments with two replicates in a randomized complete block design. The first factor studied is residue management: 1) all above ground crop residues chopped and kept in the field whether incorporated for CB or retained on the soil surface for PB (K), 2) all crop residues removed by baling for fodder (R) and 3) crop residues partly removed (P), wheat residues cut by combine, and maize residues cut just below the ear. The second factor studied is tillage: 1) conventional tillage with raised beds formed after each crop (CB) 2) zero tillage with continued reuse of the existing raised beds (reshaped if required) (PB). The third factor is both phases of the maize-wheat rotation, while tied-ridges (T) and open furrows (NT) between the raised beds are the fourth factor. Currently recommended crop cultivars were used with maize planted at 60,000 plants ha -1 in two rows on top of the 75 cm raised beds and wheat planted in 20 cm rows at 100 kg seed ha -1 . Urea was applied at 120 kg N ha -1 with all N applied to wheat at the 1 st node growth stage (broadcast) and to maize at the 5-6 leaf stage (surfacebanded). Herbicides were applied to control weed when necessary, but no disease or insect pest controls were utilized, except for seed treatments applied by commercial seed sources. Maize and wheat were planted between June 5 and 15 at the onset of summer rains.Two treatments were considered in this study, that is, conventional beds tilled and reformed each year with crop residue incorporation (considered the CB treatment) and permanent raised beds with zero tillage seeding and residue retention on the top soil (considered the PB treatment). Beds were formed after each crop (CB) or the beds were reused each year and re-shaped if required without disturbing the top of the bed, only lightly retracing the furrows. The soil preparation in CB consisted of harrowing at 20 cm depth, with a disc harrow starting some days after harvest incorporating the crop residue and repeated when needed for weed control (at least once) during the dry season. To prepare the seed beds, a spike tooth harrow was used at least once after which the beds were freshly formed. Crop residue was chopped before being incorporated through tillage to a depth of 20 cm in the CB. Soil samples were collected from the 0-15 cm soil layer of plots cultivated with maize on 21 st of July 2008. Composite soil samples of four random sub-samples per plot were collected with an auger  of 2 cm diameter, 5 mm sieved and characterized (Table 1). Crop residues large enough to remain on the sieve were discarded.The DNA was extracted from soil with a technique based on direct cell lysis (Guo et al., 1997). A 5 g soil sample was added to a 50 ml Oak Ridge tube containing 5 ml 0.12 M sodium phosphate buffer (PB buffer pH 8.0), vortexed for 1 min, incubated at room temperature for 10 min and centrifuged at 3,000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was decanted and 5 ml PB buffer was added to the soil pellet. The procedure of vortexing, incubation and centrifugation was repeated once. The soil pellet was re-suspended in 5 ml lysis solution I (0.15 M NaCl, 0.1 M EDTA, pH 8.0, 10 mg lysozyme ml -1 ), mixed and incubated at 37°C for 1 h with occasional gentle mixing. A 5 ml lysis solution II (0.1 M NaCl, 0.5 M Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 12% SDS) was added. The soil suspension was passed through two cycles of freezing at -40°C for 20 min and thawing at 65°C for 20 min and then centrifuged at 7,700 g for 10 min. The supernatant was mixed with 2.7 ml 5 M NaCl and 2.1 ml 10% TRITON-X100 in 0.7 M NaCl and incubated for 10 min at 65°C. An equal volume of CHCl3: isoamyl alcohol (24:1) was added, mixed and centrifuged for 5 min at 3,000 g. The supernatant was transferred to a clean tube.An equal volume of 13% PEG [polyethylene glycol (8,000 MW) dissolved in 1.6 M NaCl] was added to the supernatant, incubated on ice for 30 min and centrifuged at 12,000 g and 4°C for 10 min.The supernatant was decanted. The pellet was washed with 5 ml 70% cold ethanol and air-dried. The pellet of crude DNA extracts was re-suspended in 500 l deionized H2O. Two volumes of ethanol were added to the supernatant, mixed and centrifuged for 30 min at full speed at 4 o C. The pellet was washed with 500 l 70% cold ethanol and air-dried. The DNA was recovered in 500 µl of bidistilled water. The DNA yield was quantified by the use of a UV Transilluminator 2000 (Gel Doc 2000, BIO-RAD Laboratories Inc., Carlsbad, CA) after 0.8% (w/v) agarose gel electrophoresis, and staining with ethidium bromide solution (0.5 μg ml -1 ). The 1-kb DNA ladder (Invitrogen Life Technologies Carlsbad, CA) was used as molecular size marker and compared with DNA. The DNA extract was stored at -20ºC until required for PCR amplification.Purified DNA was used as template for the amplification of bacterial 16S rDNA via PCR.  and  1540R (5´GGTTACCTTGTTACGACTT3´) were used to amplify the V1-V9 highly variable regions of 16S rDNA, ca. 1500 bp (Edwards et al., 1989;Yu and Morrison, 2004). Amplification conditions included a denaturation step at 94ºC for 12 min followed by 25 cycles at 94ºC for 1 min, at 50ºC 1 min, at 72ºC 2 min and a final step at 72ºC for 7.5 min. The amplification was done with a Touchgene Gradient FTGRAD2D (TECHNE DUXFORT, Cambridge, UK).The PCR products of 16S rDNA were cloned directly into the vector Topo® TA by using the TOPO TA Cloning Kit (Invitrogen Life Technologies Carlsbad, CA). The positive clones were detected by the appearance of white colonies in LB plates containing 40 g ml -1 of X-Gal (Invitrogen Life Technologies Carlsbad, CA) and 50 µg ml -1 ampicillin. Recombinant plasmids were isolated from overnight cultures by alkaline lysis (Sambrook et al., 1989) and a restriction analysis with EcoRI was done to assure the insertion was successful. The 16S rDNA sequences were obtained with a 3730X DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) using M13 primers.All sequences obtained in this work were checked for chimeras using the CHIMERA-CHECK online analysis program, of the RDP-II database (Cole et al., 2003). The partial sequences were then subjected to a BLAST search (Altschul et al., 1997) and the naïve Bayesian rRNA classifier was used to determine taxonomic hierarchy of the sequences (Wang et al., 2007). Multiple alignment analyses were performed with CLUSTAL X (Thompson et al., 1997) selecting related sequences from the NCBI Taxonomy Homepage (TaxBrowser) and Ribosomal Database Project-II databases. Only common 16S rDNA regions and parsimony informative sites were included in the analysis. All alignment gaps were treated as missing data. The transversion/transition weighting using the Tamura-Nei model (Tamura and Nei, 1993) and the number of base substitutions between each pair of sequences was estimated using program MEGA v. 2.1 (Kumar et al., 2001). The phylogenetic trees were constructed using the Neighbor-joining method and Tamura-Nei model of distance analysis and 500 bootstrap replications were assessed to support internal branches. Sequences that differed by less than 3% were considered to belong to the same phylotype (Stackebrandt and Goebel, 1994). Sequences with similitude percentages below 95% were assigned to the closest family (Rosselló-Mora and Amann, 2001).Rarefaction, richness, and diversity statistics were calculated using mothur (Schloss et al., 2009). The input files were in the form of distance matrices generated by using the program phylip dnadist (Felsenstein, 1989). Mothur used the furthest neighbor algorithm to collapse similar sequences into groups at arbitrary levels of taxonomic similarity and then computed the Shannon, Chao1 and ACE statistics for that taxonomic level (Schloss et al., 2009). Furthermore, the Good's coverage of our libraries was calculated (Good, 1953). Operational taxonomic units (OTUs) for community analysis were defined at a 98% difference in nucleic acid sequences (Rosselló-Mora and Amann, 2001). Two hundred ninety-three clones were used for the phylogenetic reconstruction (Table 2). The size of the 16S rDNA sequences was between 1480-1510 bp. Phylogenetic reconstructions were done by distance (data not shown) and maximum likelihood methods. Similar tree topologies were obtained for both techniques. Figures 1  and 2 shows the phylogenetic relationship between amplified 16S rDNA sequences from CB and PB with known 16S rDNA sequences from the GenBank.The sequences were deposited in the GenBank database and assigned the accession numbers HM447651-HM447960.Five phyla were detected in both treatments, that is, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes and Proteobacteria, but 2.0% of the sequences remained unclassified in PB and 1.4% in CB (Table 3). After phylogenetic analysis of the PB sequences, 23 could be assigned to the level of genus, 11 to that of family, eight to that of order and 10 to a class (Table 2). After phylogenetic analysis of the sequences obtained from CB, 17 allowed characterization to the level genus, 14 to that of family, 12 to an order, 11 to the level of class and five to a phylum.The most abundant groups in the PB treatment were the class GP6 belonging to the Acidobacteria with a relative proportion of 42%, 17.3% were Sphingomonadales and 10.7% Xanthomonadales (Table 3). In the CB soil, Xanthomonadales were the most abundant group with a relative proportion of 31.5%, while 24.5% of the sequences belonged to the class GP6 and 13.3% to the Sphingomonadales.Other groups found in both treatments were GP3, Caldilineales, Caulobacteriales, Gemmatimonadales, Pseudomonadales and Rhizobiales. Bacteria belonging to GP4, GP17, GP22 and Oceanospirillales were Núñez et al. 7051 exclusively found in the PB soil, whereas GP1, Anaerolineales, Actynomycetales, Burkholderiales, Myxococcales and Rhodospirillales in the CB soil.A LIBSHUFF analysis indicated that the differences in the composition of the libraries were due to underlying differences in the communities from which they were derived, since both systems, that is, PB and CB, were significantly different (P < 0.001). Rarefaction analysis at the 3% cut-off showed that the libraries of each treatment showed little difference in diversity (Figure 3). A decline in the rate of OTUs at 10 and 20% cut-off indicated that only the most dominant bacterial phyla were detected (No data shown). Analysis with the mothur software showed that the diversity and richness were similar in PB and CB (Table 4).It can be speculated that the agricultural system applied can have a profound effect on the soil microorganisms. For instance, the amount of crop residue retained in soil will determine the total amount of micro-organisms, that is, organic material serves as a C substrate, and the characteristics of residue left, for example, C-to-N ratio, lignin (hemi) cellulose content, will favour certain microorganisms. No-till enhances physical and biological soil quality parameters. The modification of the soil structure due to the agricultural practices, affects directly the oxygen concentration in the soil allowing different rates of microbial respiration (Müller et al., 2002). This respiration can create zones of low O 2 concentration and even anaerobic conditions. The diffusion of O 2 is highly dependent on soil water content; a reduced water content and better soil structure favors O 2 diffusion.It is clear that the combination of the above mentioned factors could have a profound effect on the bacterial communities in soil, but not in this study (Wolf et al., 2005). As such, differences in tillage practices, that is, incorporated in CB and left on the soil surface in PB, and the response of the bacterial enzymatic machinery to the subsequent changes in environmental conditions, that is, water, oxygen, nutrients availability and plant activities, did not affect on the bacterial community structure (Fauci, 1994;Ha et al., 2008).The three most dominant groups in both PB and CB were bacteria belonging to the class GP6 (Acidobacteria), Sphingomonadales (Alphaproteobacteria) and the Xanthomonadales (Gammaproteobacteria). The Acidobacteria have been reported as the dominant bacterial group in different types of soil (Felske et al., 2000;Upchurch et al., 2008). They are considered to have K-strategist features, such as degradation of soil organic matter and slow growth by focusing on extracellular enzyme production (Rui et al., 2009). They also possess r-strategist capabilities, such as adaptation to rapid growth depending on inputs of fresh organic  material (Beare et al., 1997). The genus Sphingomonas is often found in association with plants and different strains have been isolated from the rhizosphere. They might play different roles in the rhizosphere as some have been identified as pathogens, for example, Sphingomonas suberifaciens causing corky root disease of lettuce (Van Bruggen et al., 1990;Kim et al., 1998), while other bacteria belonging to the order of the Sphingomonadales have shown antagonism against the phytopathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae (Berg and Ballin, 1994). The Xanthomonadales are well known bacterial phytopathogens, which can affect plants in different ways (Alfano and Collmer, 1996).Other bacterial groups were found also in both treatments, that is, GP3, Caldilineales, Caulobacteriales, Gemmatimonadales, Pseudomonadales and Rhizobiales. Pseudomonadales have been isolated from different soils, indicating that these bacteria easily adapt to different conditions (Latour et al., 1996). An isolated strain of Pseudomonas sp. has the capacity to colonize plants when temperature and water content are favorable, thereby affecting their growth and development (De Weger et al., 1995). There are reports that suggest that disease suppressiveness in plants might be caused partly by the enzymatic complex of Pseudomonas sp. that inhibits pathogen growth (O´Sullivan and O´Gara, 1992;Khalid et al., 2004). The genus Pseudomonas might affect plant growth by producing antibiotics, siderophores, and/or plant growth promoters, such as auxin (Arshad and Frankenberger, 1998;Herman et al., 2008). The presence of Pseudomonadales in both CB and PB might indicate that soil in both systems are not degraded, while bacteria related to the genus Burkholderia found in CB, but not in PB, might indicate a more deteriorated soil in CB than in the PB. Rhizobiales contain a large number of genera that have been studied widely, such as the symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria that usually develop symbiotic association with leguminous plants (Young, 1996). The importance of the interaction is based on the capacity of Rhizobium strains to form nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen (Miethling et al., 2000). Normally these microorganisms are ubiquitous in soil and form symbiosis in 80% of terrestrial plants (Jeffries et al., 2003). Although the Pseudomonadales and Rhizobiales have been studied extensively, little is known about other groups, such as the Gemmatimonadales. The phylum Gemmatimonadetes was only recently described by Zhang et al. (2003). Based on surveys of 16S rDNA, this group appears to be abundant in a number of soils (Axelrood et al., 2002;Furlong et al., 2002).Oceanospirillales were exclusively found in the PB soil. The clones analyzed were related to an isolated strain of Halomonas sp. and this genus can reduce NO -3 to NO -2 under anaerobic conditions (Llamas et al., 2006). Bacteria belonging to the class GP1, Rhodospirillales, Burkholderiales, Myxococcales and Actinomycetales, were found in the CB soil. The bacteria related to the genus Burkholderia are found in deteriorated soils (Giller et al., 1997). In these systems the biodiversity declines, inducing a loss in soil functions resulting in a reduction in the ability of these agricultural systems to withstand further disturbances or unexpected periods of stress. Salles et al. (2006) reported that agricultural practices, such as fertilization and tillage, have an impact on the Burkholderiales community structure. Species belonging to the genus Burkholderia have been identified as biocontrol agents of many plant-pathogenic fungi (Li et al., 2002).The ability to suppress plant disease was observed in different crops, such as corn, sweet corn, cotton, pea, tomato and pepper. Xanthomonadales and Pseudomonadales, common pathogens in agricultural soil, were found in both treatments, so the antagonistic effect of Burkholderia was not absolute. Other studies have shown that Beta-and Gammaproteobacteria are important copiotrophic taxa in soil and their relative abundance might be related to the supply of labile C substrates in soil (Eilers et al., 2010).The normal habitat of Myxococcales, found in CB only,   is the soil as long as the pH is near neutral, that is, ranging between 5 and 8. There is still little information about the population density of myxobacteria in soil. They are generally considered mesophilic, strictly aerobic organotrophic soil microbes with a temperature optimum of 30ºC. Two main groups are considered depending on their ability to utilize N-lacking compounds. The first group can degrade N-lacking compounds, such as cellulose and glucose. The other group, representing the majority of the myxobacterial species, is unable to use cellulose. They depend upon amino acid containing growth substrates as N providers that are supplied by enzymatic degradation of proteins, such as oligopeptides or single amino acids. Under natural conditions, these myxobacteria feed on other organisms, such as eubacteria or yeasts by bacteriolysis or cellular lysis. Secreted exoenzymes (proteases, nucleases, lipases, glucanases) destroy intact living cells. The nutrient lysate formed in this way is the nutritional basis of these myxobacteria and they have therefore been called micropredators (Reichenbach and Dworkin, 1991). The Actinomycetales are abundant in acidic environments and important cellulolytic bacteria found when cellulose is abundant in soil (Ulrich and Wirth, 1999). They are known to fix nitrogen in different types of soils (O´Neill, 1994) and have been described as antagonist to fungal root pathogens (Scott et al., 2008). Although, current molecular techniques have substantially improved our knowledge of bacterial diversity, the study of environmental microbial diversity is still a largely unexplored field (Sogin et al., 2006). This work, like most of the published studies on environmental microbial diversity, is limited to the identification of dominant groups that mediate biogeochemical processes. While this offers an important characterization of the soil microbial communities, complete characterization of its biological diversity will require the development of techniques that allow the identification of members of microbial populations with low abundance.It was found that tillage did not affect the bacterial groups that were most abundant in the PB and CB soil, that is, GP6, Sphingomonadales and Xanthomonadales, but their relative proportion changed. The presence of Pseudomonadales in both CB and PB might indicate that soil in both systems are not degraded, while bacteria related to the genus Burkholderia found in CB, but not in PB, might indicate a more deteriorated soil in the first than in the latter. The biodiversity had declined in the CB soil compared to PB soil, which will result in a reduction in the ability of these agricultural systems to withstand further disturbances or unexpected periods of stress. Additionally, reducing tillage has a positive effect on microbial population and appears thereby to reduce disease pressure by increasing biological control. It can be speculated that a higher diversity in PB results in a system more resilient to changing environmental conditions. Further research, however, will be required to link changes in the microbial population with changes in soil processes. As such, the role and importance of each bacterial group will have to be investigated and the effect of the different management practices on them determined. Although more functional information is needed, the results already support the importance of adopting PB with residue retention as increased diversity supporting resilience.","tokenCount":"4228"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd5f68a1f9819bcefae751bbc536075c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b388225-631d-4667-bd7a-bec9588164bd/retrieve","id":"1095607503"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d2c5eec3-ee60-4cf8-9893-5d41b6aa4d96","pagecount":"26","content":"• Biosciences for Africa• High end biosciences facilities for CGIAR researchers and NARS • Mazingira (environmental) research centre• First verifiable greenhouse gas emission parameters for crops, livestock and land-use changes in Africa • One Health Centre in Africa (and Asia)• Improving the health of humans, animals and ecosystems • BUT animal-human/emerging diseases and unsafe foods need to be addressed and the role of livestock-derived foods in healthy diets continues to be debated• BUT equitable development can be a challenge e.g. benefits to small scale livestock keepers• Gender equity, youth and social inclusion• BUT needs new approaches to equity• BUT GHG emissions must be greatly reduced• Environmental health and biodiversity  -AMR (poultry and pigs) -Rabies -Food Safety","tokenCount":"116"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d2ba00c963edf5d456a0e282a4a2abc3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f12f4ced-a082-45ef-bf7a-71db27db8b09/retrieve","id":"-1173604615"},"keywords":["€1 = ¢12,212.81 (30","3","2007) Source: Ghana Association of Bankers"],"sieverID":"df99b287-e96a-4c7a-a40a-a013cafcd25a","pagecount":"79","content":"This report has been commissioned by the CTA to enhance its monitoring of the information needs in ACP counties. CTA does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this report, nor does it accept responsibility for any use made thereof. The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of CTA. CTA reserves the right to select projects and recommendations that fall within its mandate.(ACP-EU) Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) Agro Business Park 2 6708 PW Wageningen The Netherlands Website: www.cta.int E-mail: cta@cta.int  Introduction CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilize information in this area. CTA's programmes are organized around three principal activities: providing an increasing range and quantity of information products and services and enhancing awareness of relevant information sources; supporting the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensifying contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and developing ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate information and communication management (ICM) strategies, including those relevant to science and technology. These activities take account of methodological developments in cross-cutting issues (gender; youth, information & communication technologies -ICTs, and social capital), findings from impact assessments and evaluations of ongoing programmes as well as priority information themes for ACP agriculture.Since 2003, CTA has been systematically conducting needs assessment studies across the Pacific, Caribbean and Africa regions -the regions it has been mandated to service. These studies have been in direct response to calls for CTA, in various evaluations of its products, services and programmes, to be more strategic in its choice regarding the setting of its own agenda and reacting to demand. This study aims at developing strategies to improve support to agricultural organisations in Ghana.Three methods were used for this study. These are the desk study the field study, and a stakeholder validation meeting. The desk study was used to compile the country profile as well as finding basic statistics and other information for the work. This included a search on the Internet and personal enquiries. A sample of fourteen (14) institutions in Agricultural and Rural Development was used for this study. These include Agricultural Training Institutions; the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Research Institutions; the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (URA Radio); the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) and the Ghana National Association of farmers and Fishermen (GNAFS). The field study included face-to-face visits and interviews with personnel of the twelve identified key agricultural institutions. The preliminary findings were discussed at a validation seminar with the stakeholders.The expected results of the study are as follows;• Status of infrastructure, information services and ICM capacity of institutions involved in agriculture and rural development described and analysed; • Information and capacity building needs in the areas of ICM identified for key institutions and potential CTA partners involved in agriculture and rural development; • Baseline data on the status of ICM and ICT in agriculture and rural development compiled for monitoring purposes and improved outreach.The study should therefore also provide updated country profiles on the status of agricultural information services the status of ICM/T in Ghana which will allow CTA to make informed decisions as on the type and mode of intervention as well as partner selection.Major findings of the study include the following:• Agriculture plays a dominant role in the economy of Ghana, with about 60% of the labour force in the country involved in agriculture. • The use of ICT ((telephone, Internet, websites) for agricultural information is very limited in Ghana. • Although a few telecentres have been set up in the country, access to these are limited owing to the high illiteracy among rural dwellers, high cost of Internet connectivity and frequent power outages. • The main information sources used by the key institutions in the study include the Ministry of Agriculture, CTA; libraries of the various Universities and research institutes in Ghana.The information products and services provided by the main actors include information on crop production; fertilizer use; marketing avenues; and animal production.• The number of staff involved in agricultural information provision are not many, though their qualifications are however appreciable. • A number of the key institutions in agriculture do not have any fixed information budgets. • The major information needs of key institutions are development and funding programmes; social development issues; and credit and micro-credit. • There is a heavy demand of current agricultural journals among the key agricultural institutions. • The other needs are materials in local languages and visual or pictorial information. • There is a clear lack of resources in information management in the key institutions.The major information needs among the sample studied are information on development and funding programmes; social development issues; credit and micro-credit; conferences and meetings; and information on government and international regulations.There is the urgent need for agricultural information provision in Ghana to involve more use of radio, television and newspapers.Most of the institutions interviewed made little or no use of the Internet, mobile phone, radio and television in rural information provision. The type of information needs cut across the urban/rural divide as well as the literate/illiterate requirements.Although Ghana has seen a lot of improvement in Internet access in the past ten years, this does not appear to have covered the rural folks who are mostly farmers. Training should begin with basic computer usage, through to Internet searching, to the design and development of websites.iii Training must be done in a systematic manner to cover all zones in the country, as there is a tendency for such activity to be restricted to the national or regional capitals.Sequel to the training, is the need to ensure that equipment and their resources are also provided. As evidenced in the research, most of the computer hardware for agricultural information provision in Ghana is either outmoded or non-functional.For those institutions or organizations that have above-average resources, emphasis needs to be placed on issues such as bandwith problems and software renewal.Local CTA partners and beneficiaries are doing a good job in propagating CTA materials. It is therefore expected that these partners would be given more support so as to make them provide better assistance to farmers and rural dwellers.CTA must increase its support to its existing partners in Ghana such as the Institute for Scientific and Technological Information (INSTI) and the Ghana National Association of Farmers and Fishermen (GNAFF) as they are already providing good services.More support is also requested for agricultural libraries in Ghana in the form of current materials, enhanced training of staff and updating knowledge of their staff.CTA should engage consultants and translators to translate some of its materials into major local languages for the use of rural farmers.It is also recommended that Consultants be engaged to provide more materials in visual and pictorial format to assist farmers in rural areas on their agricultural production and services.Agricultural libraries in Ghana should also be given more support in their information-provision functions. This could be in the form of provision of current materials, enhanced training of staff and the upgrading of their equipment.In the area of partnerships, we recommend five main strategic partners. These are: a radio and television station; a publishing house; the National Film and Television Institute (NAFTI); a major newspaper; and an NGO based in the northern part of the country.For the radio stations, the following are recommended: Unique Radio in Accra; Radio Peace at Winneba; Royal Radio at Wenchi; and URA Radio at Bolgatanga. The Ghana Television (GTV) is also recommended, while the Daily Graphic and Ghanaian Times Newspapers are appropriate partners. For the Northern-based NGO, Action Aid is recommended.URA Radio (Ghana Broadcasting Corporation and Graphic Corporation) were among the Institutions interviewed. The other Broadcasting stations and newspapers have been recommended because of their national coverage. Action Aid is recommended because it is a major NGO based in the Northern part of Ghana. ADRA can also be considered.This study aims at developing strategies with ACP agricultural organisations in order to improve support to these organisations in Ghana. The study will focus on:• Providing an overview of main agricultural services and actors existing in the country (information supply side) in terms of their strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for collaboration with CTA; • Identifying agricultural information and ICM capacity building needs of key actors/key strategic partners for CTA products and services; • Identifying potential strategic partners for CTA and services (paying special attention to e.g. print media, editors, radio, TV and journalist networks); • Developing some baseline data on the status of ICM and ICTs in the country to facilitate subsequent monitoring and updating activities.The study should assist CTA to improve and better target interventions and activities aimed at potential partners and beneficiaries (including women, youth, private sector and civil society organisations) to have a more informed picture of their needs and aid in the elaboration of a strategy and framework of action. The study should also highlight where there are specific needs for CTA's products and services thereby enabling improvement in the delivery of the same.The study is conducted in three parts: Desk Review, Field Study and a stakeholder validation meeting. The Desk Review aims at collecting background information and data, preparing a country profile and list of institutions involved in agriculture.The Field Study involves face-to-face interviews with relevant stakeholders/concerned parties, using the data capture form and guidelines provided by CTA.Interactions between the consultant and the Regional Coordinator were maintained for the duration of the study. In all, a total of 14 institutions/organisations were selected for more in-depth interviews for this study. A sample of fourteen (14) institutions in Agricultural and Rural Development was used for this study. These include Agricultural Training Institutions; the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Research Institutions; the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (URA Radio); the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA), the Ghana National Association of Farmers and Fishermen (GNAFS), Afram Publishing Company and Graphic Corporation. Efforts were made to ensure that these covered the Northern, Middle and Southern Zones of the country. The preliminary findings were discussed at a validation seminar with the stakeholders.Ghana lies in a central position in West Africa. Roughly rectangular in shape, the country is bordered by Togo to the east, Burkina Faso in the north, Cote d'Ivoire to the West and the Atlantic Ocean in the South.The geographic location of the country is latitude 4,44's, 11,11'N and Longitude 3,11'W and 1.11E. Formerly called the Gold Coast, Ghana became an independent nation on 6 th March, 1957 and a republic on 1 st July, 1960. The capital city is Accra.The country practices a multiparty parliamentary democracy based on the 1992 Constitution. It has an executive president, the legislature and the judiciary as the three arms of government.Ghana has a population of 18.9 million (2000 Census) comprising 50.7% female and 49.3% male. The principal ethnic groups are the Akans, Ewes, Ga-Adangbes, and the Mole-Dagbani. Ghanaians are hospitable and friendly people with a rich culture.Ghana has a total landmass covering 239,460 square kilometers. Mountains are few, but the Mount Afadzato is the highest peak at some 900 metres. Its pristine coastline stretches for a distance of about 560 kilometres. The country has a tropical climate.There are 5 main agro-ecological zones defined on the basis of climate, reflected by the natural vegetation and influenced by the soils.These are Rain Forest, Deciduous Forest, Transitional Zone, Coastal Savannah and Northern Savannah.Rainfall is biomodal in the coastal, semideciduous forest, rain forest and transitional zones, with two growing seasons as a result, while it is unimodal in the northern savannah area, where there is adequate water for only one major growing season.The main wet season in Southern Ghana is from April to July and the minor season during September and October. However, Northern Ghana has a single rainfall regime with the wet season extending from April to October and the dry season from November to March. Annual temperatures range from 26.1°C to 28.9°C.On the economic front, the government has done well to stabilize the macroeconomic environment after years of decline. All the macroeconomic indicesinflation, currency stability, growth rate -have been positive over the past six years. The economic projections for 2007 are a GDP growth of at least 6.5% and an average inflation rate of 8.8%. The country continues to rely on gold, cocoa, timber, pineapple, tuna, bauxite, aluminium, manganese ore and diamonds as the major foreign exchange earners. The fastest growing sector of the Ghanaian economy is the services industry, notably hospitality, communication and banking. The major challenges facing the government is the growing unemployment and the energy crisis.Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry and LivestockAgriculture is the dominant sector of the Ghanaian economy contributing about 40% of the country's GDP and employing nearly 60% of the active Ghanaian workforce.Ghana's economy is basically agrarian and agriculture is the largest sector. The agricultural sector is made up of five sub-sectors namely crops (60% agriculture GDP), cocoa (16%), forestry (11%), fisheries (5%) and livestock (4%). The sector is therefore at the centre of Ghana's developmental process. The agricultural sector is contributing to the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I&II) and the Millennium Development Goal (MDG1) through improved food security and livelihoods and eradicating extreme hunger and poverty programmes respectively.Several agricultural programmes and projects have been instituted to support the Ghana Government's objective of an accelerated agriculture growth of 5-6% p.a. The latest of such programmes is the Agriculture Service Sub-sector Investment Project (AgSSIP). Specific activities of the agricultural research component of AgSSIP include the strengthening/rationalizing the scientific information system among others. Despite the contribution of agriculture and forestry to national food security and improved livelihood, growth rate in productivity is still low (3.1%).Food production in the country is mainly rain-fed, small-scale, labour intensive with high post-harvest loses of between 30-35%. Crops grown are tubers, cereals, oilpalm, plantain, fruits and vegetables. Food production is in the hands of peasant farmers. Ghana's Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) has overall responsibility for the growth of this sector and livestock. One major positive point is the country's qualification for the Millennium Challenge Account which will inject US$547 million.Ghana is the world's second largest producer of cocoa, producing over 600,000 metric tonnes. Its production had been in the hands of private farmers, although the marketing of the produce is in the hands of government. Over the past few years, the government has focused attention on processing the cocoa beans locally to add more value to it before export. The Ministry of Finance has oversight responsibility for the cocoa sector.This is under the Ministry of Fisheries and only 60% of domestic fish demand is met from local sources. Efforts are underway to develop aquaculture, most especially in the production of tilapia. The Ministry is using surveillance to monitor the depletion of fish stocks at the high seas and the Volta Lake.The fisheries sector contributes about 5% of agricultural GDP and 3% to overall GDP in Ghana. Furthermore, close to 10% of the population are dependent on it for employment.A substantial part of this fish intake is derived from the country's marine capture fishery, while agriculture contributes only a small percentage. The marine capture fishery accounts for about 80% of the annual landings, the inland fisheries, principally the Volta Lake, account for about 19%, while freshwater fish culture accounts for about 1%. The annual fish production over a 5 year period (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002) ranged between 290,000 and 472,000 metric tons. The fisheries sector also contributes about 5% to the agricultural gross domestic product. The annual fish requirement for the country is estimated to be about 700,000 metric tons. Current production therefore provides only 50% of annual requirement. Over the years, the stocks have declined posing a major threat to their sustainability. This downward trend is expected to continue if new stringent conservation measures are not introduced into the industry at both national and regional levels.A large chunk of Ghana's forest reserves have been depleted through mining and human activities. Managing the country's forests and wildlife is the responsibility of the Forestry Commission.A key focus of the Forestry Commission is the encouragement of individuals, organisations and commercial bodies to invest in large scale tree planting development.The livestock sector, which includes poultry, is able to meet only 30% of the country's meat requirements, although there are vast pasture lands available for increased livestock production. Over 80% of milk and other dairy products come from imports. Lately, many rural communities have expressed concern about the negative practices of Fulani herdsmen whose cattle destroy farmlands and river bodies.A critical review of the poor performance of the agricultural sector has revealed that a myriad of problems militate against the growth of the sector. These problems include:Policy • Vaguely defined mission and functions of MOFA.• Difficulty in acquiring agricultural land.• Absence of land use policy.• Inadequate investment by government in agriculture.• Over-reliance on donor funding with its stringent conditions and procedures.• Un-co-ordinated donor funded projects and NGO activities across the country with different implementation policies. • Ineffective monitoring of on-going projects, poor evaluation of completed projects and non-utilisation of lessons and experiences. • Unfair domestic and international trade policies. • Weak enforcement of fisheries laws.• Poor dissemination of information on trade agreements and protocols.• Poorly coordinated agricultural and trade policies.Institutional • Weak producer organisations.• Limited monitoring, control and surveillance of fisheries resources.• Inadequate agricultural extension staff (both in number and skills).• High attrition rate of trained staff.• Weak research-extension-farmer linkage.• Lack of reliable statistical data for decision-making.• Weak enforcement of laws.• Inefficient marketing systems.• Weak market-processor-farmer linkage.• Weak agri-business system.• Slow progress in decentralization.• Poorly motivated public service.Infrastructure • Poor access to production areas.• Inadequate haulage vehicles.• Unhygienic marketing centres.• Inadequate processing facilities.• Inadequate and inappropriate storage facilities.• Poor, unattractive and unhygienic packaging.• Limited irrigation facilities.• Inadequate energy supply and distribution.Financial • High cost of inputs relative to output prices. • High interest rates and transaction costs on credit.• Non-availability of medium and long-term capital.• Low investment in agro-processing.• Lack of innovative financial packages favouring agriculture.• Unfavourable timing of credit disbursement.Social • Aging farmers.• Low interest of youth in agriculture.• High rural-urban migration.• High rate of illiteracy among farmers and fishermen.Wealth/Environmental • Over-reliance on rainfall.• Poor preparedness against outbreaks of pests and diseases.• Seasonal destruction of range land by bush-fires.• Poor management of natural resources.• Encroachment on farmland by mining and estate developers.• Destruction of farmland by mining operations.• Slow pace of appropriate technology development.• Over-reliance on imported of machinery, spares, and other inputs.• Poor communication.The challenge to the agricultural sector is to develop appropriate policies, strategies, and programmes to address the above problems.In response to global policy change in the information and communication technology (ICT) industry, Ghana was among the first African countries to reform its ICT sector and establish the necessary legal and regulatory frameworks to support the growth of the sector. Since 1990, the government of Ghana has liberalized the telecommunications sector with the aim of enabling the private sector to participate in the provision of services to increase access and coverage, introduce value-added services and boost consumer access to the state-of-the-art technology.The liberalization policy was based on a 5-year Accelerated Development Programme (ADP) for the telecoms sector, introduced in 1994. It aimed to increase teledensity from 0.31 per cent to about 1.5-2.5 per cent through provision of public and private phones; improve public access in rural and urban areas; expand coverage of mobile services; promote Ghanaian ownership of telecommunication companies; and retain overall public regulatory control of the sector through the creation of a single agency. (Teledensity is determined by the ratio between the population and total number of fixed lines).By 2000 the ADP had achieved an increase in teledensity from 0.34 lines to 1.16 line per 1,000 inhabitants, public phones from 0.001 to 0.16 per 1,000 inhabitants. A Second National Operator (SNO), Westel, was licensed, and a number of private FM and TV stations were operating.The government of Ghana introduced its ICT4AD policy in the latter part of 2003. According to the basic premise of the policy, Ghana's development process can be accelerated through the development, deployment and exploitation of ICTs within the economy and society. The overall aim of ICT4AD was to engineer an ICT-led socioeconomic development process with the potential to transform Ghana into a middleincome, information-rich, knowledge-based and technology-driven economy and society.Access to telephone services improved considerably in the early stages of liberalization, and until recently landlines dominated the telecommunications landscape in Ghana and have had a sustained growth. The mobile phone market has been one of the fastest growing sectors of ICT in Ghana. In spite of the inroads made by mobile telephony, there is still a huge demand for landlines.Despite high hopes from the early introduction of competition in the fixed line market, Ghana's ICT sector development has been steady but not spectacular. Factors influencing Ghana's performance, particularly in the fixed line telephone service, include an ineffective strategic investor, management problems, interconnection problems and a weak regulatory regime. Telekom Malaysia, acting as the strategic investor in Ghana Telecom, failed to raise the necessary capital to undertake the major network expansion needed to meet its rollout obligations. The second national network operator, Westel, has not provided effective competition for the highly entrenched incumbent, and management problems have made it unattractive in domestic and international capital markets.As a result, since starting operations in 1999, Westel has rolled out only about 3,000 lines out of its mandatory target of 50,000 by 2002. Difficulties in interconnection negotiations with the incumbent not only delayed the launching of Westel's services by a year, but also adversely affected the penetration rates and service quality. Political interference in the regulatory regime and an ineffectual regulatory authority also contributed to this.The emergence of new wireless and satellite-based solutions is positioning the country to take advantage of the benefits to be derived from ICT. The use of computers has increased tremendously in the past 5 years, while the number of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) has also increased. At the end of 2005, the National Communications Authority (NCA) had licensed a total of 114 companies to provide Internet services in the country. Of these, only 27 had actually commenced.Institutional, regulatory and policy framework 39.The government's policy objectives for agriculture were still based on the transformation of the rural economy through modernized agriculture, as outlined by the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I). Specifically, the agricultural sector is expected to ensure the following: (i) food self-sufficiency and food security; (ii) the production of raw materials for industry; and (iii) increased foreign exchange earnings through diversification of exports.The US government's aid package to Ghana under the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) promises to give the agricultural sector a boost. According to the programme,t he $547 million Millennium Challenge Compact over a five-year period aims at reducing poverty by raising farmer incomes through private sector-led, agribusiness development. The focus of the programme is on increasing the production and productivity of high-value cash and food staple crops in certain areas of Ghana, and enhancing the competitiveness of Ghana's export base in horticultural and other traditional crops. The agricultural project under the MCA covers six areas: Rehabilitation of Feeder Roads.Various local information sources have been used in the dissemination of agricultural information in Ghana. One of these is the use of radio. This has been used with some effect in providing information to farmers. The availability of the transistor radio makes it easy for more families to own radios, and for people to carry them anywhere. As at 2007, there are 12 stations in Ghana. The success achieved by the use of FM stations to transmit programmes to farmers in the Upper, Central and Volta regions of Ghana testifies to the potency of this method. The initial problem encountered with the use of this method, cost of transistor radios, has been partially solved by the Government's decision to subsidise the cost of preset radios for rural farmers.Television is another means of providing agricultural information. As at 2007, there are 1.73m Television sets in Ghana. There is a specially designed 30 minutes agricultural magazine programme which is shown on Wednesday evenings on Ghana Television. There is also a weekly adult education programme which sometimes discusses agricultural issues.Unfortunately, television sets are expensive and not widely accessible to rural farmers. They also require the use of electrical power which is not available in most of the rural areas. One way of solving the problem of unavailability of television sets is for the Government to subsidise the cost as in the case of preset radios, to peasant farmers in the villages. The farmers can be encouraged to form cooperatives to buy solarpowered television sets so that members can watch agricultural programmes.Agricultural information in Ghana is also provided through the use of posters. This was used successfully in the campaign against the cocoa disease known as the swollen shoot. Many of these posters are in the form of easy and simple texts with diagrams and illustrations which an illiterate can understand. The major advantage of a poster over other means of communication is the permanent interaction it fosters through repeated contact which imposes, strengthens, and institutionalises the message being conveyed. Its greatest shortcoming is that it does not come close to person-toperson communication. What is usually required of such posters is that they should be designed to be informative, persuasive and self-explanatory.Agricultural research stations in the country have been organizing open days when farmers are invited and shown new developments and new findings. These activities are usually followed by question-and-answer sessions which help to provide information for the farmers.Comic plays effectively combine visual and oral effects in driving home their messages, and they are also familiar language and popular especially among the rural and illiterate people, majority of whom also happen to be farmers.A number of local and international Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO's) are involved in the information transfer process. These include Sasakawa Global 2,000, a Japanese organisation; Africa 2,000; OXFAM; Canadian University Service Organisation (CUSO); Farmer's Services Organisation; and various religious bodies such as the Adventist Development Relief Agency (ADRA) and the Catholic Church.These organisations have contributed immensely to the agricultural development of Ghana. It is heartening to note the remarkable progress being made by the Sasakawa Global 2,000 to get information to farmers in the Northern, Upper and Volta regions. In some cases, output of corn, millet and other food crops has already increased at least four-fold through information given to farmers in the use of artificial fertilizers.Currently Agricultural Extension Services and the various agricultural libraries and information centres are the main sources of agricultural information and rural development.Result from the data capture form provide a summary of the following services The information sources used by the various institutions in the study include CTA; the Ministry of Agriculture; the libraries of the Faculties of Agriculture in the various Universities; various Research Institutes of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research; and the FAO Library.A summary of the data capture form indicates that the following information services and products are provided by the main actors; in the order of importance; a.Technical advice b.Academic literature/journal articles c.Questions and Answer Services. d.Library and information services. e. Abstracts f.Conference papers g. DatabasesBased on the findings of this study, the number of staff in the agricultural/information/communication sector are not many. With the exception of the agricultural libraries that have an average staff of between 2 and 6, most of the other information provision agencies depend on two or three members of staff. Qualifications of staff are however appreciable, as these range from Basic Level Education Certificate to M.Phil. In the area of resources, more needs to be done as most of the computers and documents are either non-functional or outdated. Budgets range between €80,000 and €400,000 per annum. Access to the Internet is also encouraging. Except for two organisations GBC (URA Radio and GNAFF), the remaining twelve en institutions under the study, have full Internet connectivity. Various interventions have been made by the government, NGOs and donor agencies. The government in its ICTAD policy, intends among others, to promote the deployment and exploitation of ICTs to support the activities of the agricultural sector including, the production, processing, marketing and distribution of agricultural products and services. The government has also established the E-Commerce Division under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to provide information electronically on prices and avenues of marketing of farm products to farmers.In relation to rural development, one major target group is women. Hence the Ghana Information Network for Knowledge Sharing (GINKS) an NGO, has established a rural telecentre mainly to train women in the use of ICT for information on farming and commerce. International organisations such as the CTA are also assisting farmers' organisations to address some of these issues.Internet usage is negligible in rural areas, which is disturbing, since the bulk of Ghana's population that generates the greater part of the country's income, live there. Therefore, providing Internet access and other ICT facilities is not only an issue of equity, but has great economic consequences for the whole country. This is due to the inherent positive contributions. ICTs can make to improve efficiencies, productivity and the well-being of rural people.To reduce this gap, the government has drawn up a programme to establish community ICT centres throughout the country. At these centres, rural people will be trained and have access to a number of ICT services, including the Internet. Under the programme, ICT centres are to be established in 230 communities. The first phase consists of establishing 62 community ICT centres, of which 60 have been completed.A sample of fourteen (14) institutions in Agricultural and Rural Development was used for this study. These include Agricultural Training Institutions; the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Research Institutions; the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (URA Radio); the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) and the Ghana National Association of Farmers and Fishermen (GNAFS). Efforts were made to ensure that these covered the Northern, Middle and Southern Zones of the country.60.An analysis of the information needs of the respondents is indicated in The analysis indicates that information needs of the respondents vary as much as there are needs common to some of them. The Table below shows the top five information needs. It can be seen from table 2 above that the highest number of the sample requested information on development and funding programmes. The next demand is for information on social development issues. The two cases cited above, are not unexpected, as all the organisations surveyed provide information to farmers and rural dwellers and therefore need such information for their clients.It was also clear that the universities and research institutes had common information needs such as conference and meetings, while the non-governmental organisations (NGOs) also had common needs such as credit and micro-credit information and information on gender issues. Being civil society organisations, this information is necessary to determine the level of benefits that citizens are getting from the various government interventions. An interesting revelation from the interview is that none of the sample surveyed indicated the need for information on waste utilization or crop insurance systems, although these are very necessary in Ghana. As indicated in table three above, a large number of respondents in the survey requested that they be provided with current journal articles. This was mentioned by ten out of the twelve respondents. This request was not restricted to the universities and research institutes (as would be expected), but there were also requests from some NGOs and the only radio station in the sample.The high demand for local language materials was also expected, as most of the clients find it easier to read and understand issues in their local languages. As stated earlier in this research, illiteracy among farmers in Ghana is very high. In dealing with this group of people, it is easier to use visual or pictorial information. Hence the demand for this type of format. Analysis of the possible sources that provided information on agricultural needs had interesting revelations. Locally, the Institute for Scientific and Technological Information (INSTI) was cited by 66% of respondents as one of their main sources. This was followed by the university libraries (58%). At the international level, CTA was mentioned by 58% of the sample surveyed as one of their sources of agricultural information. This was followed by the FAO Library with 33%.Most of the formats demanded is in journal literature.It was also surprising to note that only two of the respondents (16%) mentioned the electronic media (radio and television) as possible sources of information. None of the respondents cited the Internet as a possible source of agricultural information. In this age of information technology, this was rather disappointing. The use of cell phone technology and video tapes as means of agricultural information provision is virtually non-existent in most parts of the countryCapacity-Building NeedsIn order to determine the capacity needs of the sample surveyed, it may be pertinent to discuss the different types of agricultural information services in Ghana and their different actors. Table 5 below indicates this. The varying training needs may therefore create challenges in attempts to provide a broad-based training programme in Ghana. It may be pertinent to mention here that a number of respondents requested that training be done locally to cover many people, instead of a few people being sent overseas for training.In the area of equipment, two main observations were made during the research process. First, there was a clear lack of resources for information management in the organisations. In fact, two of the respondents (ADRA and URA) did not have any room or facility dedicated to information management purposes. Secondly, even in cases where these resources were available, they were mostly old and non-functioning computers, matching with outdated books and journals. This explains why there is a large demand for equipment, as indicated in Table 7 below: As can be seen from the table above, nine of the respondents mentioned computer hardware as their main equipment requirement. This goes to confirm the researcher's observation during site visits that most of the organisations either do not have enough computers or the few available are outmoded.A number of organisations did not have Local Area Networks (LAN) while others did not also have websites. A few had created websites but they were not functioning properly. The UDS and PGRRI had problems with bandwidth. This is a common problem with institutions and organisations that are located outside the national capital -Accra. Similarly, some of the areas outside Accra have problems with telephone connectivity as indicated by CRI, UDS and PGRRI. It is interesting to note that the only respondent who did not have any of the major problems faced by the other respondents (E-C) had its own peculiar problem with payments for software renewal.In the area of funding, this did not seem to be a major problem among respondents. Except for three respondents (25%) -GBC (URA Radio); ADRA; and Kwadaso Agricultural College, who cited funding as a problem, the remaining 75% respondents appear satisfied with their funding.One main feature with the funding however, is that as manya s five (41%) respondents -MOFA; Kuapa Kokoo; Crops Research Institute; Kwadaso Agricultural College; and the Plant Genetic Resources Institute had no idea of how much money had been allocated for their information management services. For those who provided information about their annual budgets -GNAFF; ADRA; GBC (URA Radio); E-Commerce Unit; Faculty of Agriculture (UG); Faculty of Agriculture (KNUST); and the UDS, these range between €80,000 and €450,000 annually.The conclusions and recommendations are presented based on the findings of this research and informal discussions with agricultural planners and other groups in the sector.The major information needs are information on development and funding programmes; social development issues; credit and micro-credit, conferences and meetings; and information on government and international regulations.It is very clear that this type of information cuts across the urban/rural divide as well as the literate/illiterate requirements. While the urban dwellers may be looking for information on development and funding programmes, rural dwellers may be more interested in information on social development issues.Similarly, while information on meetings and conferences may be the priority of the educated elite, the needs of the illiterate information searcher may be more in the area of credit and micro-credit facilities for agricultural production and services.There is urgent need for agricultural information provision to involve more use of the mobile phone, Internet facilities, radio and television. This is especially in the area of rural information provision which may not be able to meet the more organized and formalized avenues such as libraries and information centres.The past ten years have seen a lot of improvement in the use of computers and Internet access in Ghana. Unfortunately, this improvement does not appear to have covered the rural folks who are mostly the farmers.The first-stage of capacity-building should include staff who provide information to farmers and rural dwellers, library and information personnel as well as front-line agricultural staff such as extension officers. Training should begin with basic computer usage, through to searching on the Internet, website design and updating.There is a need for training to be done in a systematic manner to cover all the zones in the country, as there is a tendency for such activities to be restricted to the national or regional capitals.Sequel to the training, is the need to ensure that equipment and other resources are also provided. As evidenced in the research, most of the computer hardware for agricultural information provision in Ghana is either outmoded or non-functional. This should be the beginning point.For those institutions or organisations that have above-average resources such as the universities and research institutes, emphasis needs to be placed on issues such as bandwidth problems and software renewal.CTA has a number of partners in Ghana such as INSTI, GNAFF and MOFA (Directorate of Extension).Under the INSTI, the following institutions are partners: The INSTI has a network of Question and Answer Service that covers all the research institutes and the Faculties/Schools/Colleges of Agriculture in the universities. The GNAFF also has direct links to farmers and fishermen throughout Ghana. The results of this linkage is the large number of respondents in the survey who depend on CTA for their information sources. These include all the Universities and Research Institutes.It would therefore seem that these local partners and beneficiaries are doing a good job in propagating CTA materials. It is therefore expected that these partners and beneficiaries would be given more support so as to make them provide better assistance to farmers and rural dwellers.It is clear that although CTA provides assistance in the area of information in Ghana, this needs to be improved especially in the areas of social development issues and literature relating to credit and micro-credit.There should also be an increase in the area of current journal publications on Agriculture, as this is a major area of concern among a large number of respondents. Currently, all the agriculture-related libraries have a free use of AGORA. The Institute for Scientific and Agricultural Research (INSTI) and the University for Development Studies (UDS) have in addition, access to TEEAL. What may be required now is for CTA to sponsor the publication of a local academic journal in the field of Agriculture.Another major area that needs serious consideration is the provision of local language materials. It is recommended that CTA provide support in this area by commissioning consultants and translators to translate some of the materials into the major local languages such as Twi and Fante for the use of rural farmers. Local materials could be produced in the local languages in subjects such as fish farming; snail farming; and grass-cutter rearing.It is also recommended that consultants be engaged to provide more materials in visual and pictorial format to assist farmers in rural areas on their agricultural production and services.Agricultural libraries in Ghana should also be given more support towards their information-provision functions. This could be in the form of provision of current materials, enhanced training of staff and updating of their equipment.Apart from the communication options discussed above, it is suggested that efforts should be intensified in the use of comic or folk plays as a means of providing information for farmers. Appreciable results have been achieved with this method in the provision of family planning and AIDS information to rural populations in Ghana.In the near future, it is expected that more villages and rural information centres would be established by the government of Ghana to provide information for farmers.A number of respondents indicated the poor telecommunication and electricity services as major challenges in information provision. The government of Ghana has to improve upon these services in order to enhance agricultural information provision. The problem of high Internet cost and bandwidth issues are also in the area of government support. Policies should be put in place by the government to subsidise bandwidth and encourage Internet usage in Ghana.Efforts should also be made by the government to establish more rural radio stations such as the URA Radio to provide agricultural information to rural farmers. 100. One major finding of the study is the fact that there is no newspaper presently in Ghana that is devoted to agricultural information provision. Perhaps the CTA could take this up and support a local newspaper(s) or newsletter(s) in this area. Examples of newspapers that immediately come to mind are the Daily Graphic and the Ghanaian Times. In the case of a newsletter, the GAINSNEWS is recommended. (These are popular newspapers that are circulated nationwide).101. Five main strategic partner institutions are recommended to the CTA. These are: i. A partnership with a major publishing house to produce agricultural materials in local languages, (e.g. Afram Publications). ii. A partnership with a major radio and TV station to package agricultural information for rural dwellers. In the case of Radio Stations, the following are recommended: Radio Peace at Winneba; Royals Radio at Wenchi; Unique Radio in Accra; Radio Ada at Ada; and URA Radio at Bolgatanga. For the Television Station, Ghana Television (GTV) is recommended. iii. A partnership with a major newspaper editor to provide periodic columns for discussion of agricultural issues. (e.g. Graphic Corporation) iv. A partnership with a local NGO based in the northern part of the country whose population are mainly farmers, but who have little or no access to CTA materials. The NGO could serve as a link to disseminate CTA materials and propagate its activities in the Northern part of Ghana. In this vein, ADRA is proposed. v. In the area of repackaging information for the peasant farmer, CTA can also partner with the National Film and Television Institute (NAFTI) to produce documentaries on agriculture. vi. Another avenue for a partnership is with the Information Support Unit of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.102. Most of the institutions covered in the research have fairly-well developed links to relevant sources of information. What is often lacking is the availability of current, up-todate and easily accessible information. There is also an information gap between the researcher, the policy maker, the extension agent and the peasant farmer. In terms of intervention, CTA must not only provide the information needs as indicated previously, but must also ensure that the quantity of information matches with the quality of information.103. It is proposed that the avenues of information provision be increased beyond what is presently available. In this vein, CTA should link up with agencies, organisations and NGO's that operate mainly in the interior and northern sections of the country. One of these is ADRA. This NGO covers a large part of Ghana and is mainly involved in rural development. They will therefore be able to provide information to the community level and enhance participatory approaches to resource management.104. In the case of the universities and research institutes, CTA is already providing some information resources to them (as indicated by the research findings). The libraries of these organisations/institutions have benefited from the use of ICTs to facilitate the exchange of information, changing the ways in which researchers and teaching staff are interacting with each other.105. What is expected as a CTA intervention in this area may be in the following:• Assist in establishing electronic network links among the universities and research institutes to promote universal availability of information. • Improve the competence of library personnel in handling information sources, especially in the area of information-sharing. • Support negotiations with document delivery centres and electronic database providers on one hand, and libraries on the other in order to attain favourable bulk materials.It is hoped that these interventions by CTA will make a major impact on agricultural information provision and dissemination in the country.106. Agricultural growth and development depends on well trained and competent manpower both in the public and private sectors. The low level of education, especially among the rural population has contributed to low levels of technology adoption. There is the need therefore to develop the requisite capacity at all levels to move the sector forward. CTA can intervene in this area in the following ways:• Training in animation (GNAFF; ADRA; GC (URA Radio) CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access for information for agricultural and rural development and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilize information in this area. CTA's programmes are organized around three principal activities: providing an increasing range and quantity of information products and service and enhancing awareness of relevant information sources, supporting the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensifying contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP) and developing ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate Information and Communication Management (ICM) strategies including those relevant to science and technology.These activities take account of methodological developments in cross-cutting issues (gender, youth, information and communication technologies -ICTs, and social capital), findings from impact assessments and evaluations of ongoing programmes as well as priority information themes for ACP agriculture.CTA's activities are currently distributed among three operational programme areas/departments:• Information products and Services;• Communication Channels and Services;• Information and Communication management Skills and Systems.These operation departments are supported by Planning Corporate Services (P&CS) which is charged with the methodological underpinning of their work and monitoring the ACP environment in order to identify emerging issues and trends and make proposals for their translation into programmes and activities. This current exercise, therefore, falls within the mandate of P&CS.Background Since 2003, CTA has been systematically conducting needs assessment studies across the Pacific, Caribbean and Africa regions -the regions it has been mandated to serve. These studies have been in direct response to calls for CTA, in various evaluations of its products, services and programmes, to be more strategic in its choice regarding the setting of its own agenda and reacting to demand. In putting together its Strategic Plan and Framework for Action 2001-2005, CTA look a pragmatic view and opted to develop a strategy combining the benefits of both approaches, whereby the need to address the expressed demands of its stakeholders and the potential long-term advantages of developing progrmmes that address future needs were combined. The Centre's new strategic plan covering the 2007-2010 period places emphasis on improving CTA's efficiency and increasing the Centre's outreach by addressing the major bottleneck of difficult or insufficient access to information in ACP countries, (ii) honing CTA's profile and further defining the riches where the Centre has a comparative advantage. Consequently, reaching more beneficiaries and further strengthening CTA's partnership networks is key as well as the thrust to make ICTs and ICM strategies more widely available.Main Issues CTA works primarily through intermediary public and private partners (research centres, extension services, libraries, NGOs, farmers' organisations, regional organisations and networks, …) to promote agriculture and rural development. Under the new strategic plan, the organisations targeted will be extended to include print media, editors, radio, TV and journalist networks in order to further maximize outreach. Through these partnership CTA hopes to increase the number of ACP organisations capable of accessing and combining modern and conventional ICTs, generating and managing information and developing their own ICM strategies. The identification of appropriate partners is therefore of primordial importance, with bearing in mind issues such as geographical coverage, decentralization, regionalization, thematic orientation and transparent and objective criteria and procedures for partner selection.Overall Objective Collaboration strategies with ACP agricultural organisations and relevance of CTA's support to African ACP countries improved.Scope of the Study The study will focus on:• Providing an overview of main agricultural services and actors existing in the country (information supply side) in terms of their strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for collaboration with CTA; • Identifying agricultural information and ICM capacity building needs of key actors/key strategic partners for CTA products and services; • Identifying potential strategic partners for CTA activities and services (payi8ng special attention to e.g. print media, editor, radio, TV and journalist networks); • Developing some baseline data on the status of ICM and ICTs in the country to facilitate subsequent monitoring and updating activities.The study should assist CTA to improve and better target interventions and activities aimed at potential partners and beneficiaries (including women, youth, private sector and civil society oganisations) to have a more informed picture of their needs and aid in the elaboration of a strategy and framework of action. The study should also highlight where there are specific needs for CTA's products and services thereby enabling improvement in the delivery of the same.The expected results of the study are as follows:• Status of infrastructure, information services and ICM capacity of institutions involved in agriculture and rural development described and analysed;• Information and capacity building needs in the area of ICM identified for key institutions and potential CTA partners involved in agriculture and rural development; • Baseline data on the status of ICM and ICT in agriculture and rural development compiled for monitoring purposes and improved outreach.The study should therefore also provide updated country profiles on the status of agricultural information services, the status of ICM/T in the country, which will allow CTA to make informed decisions re type and mode of intervention as well as partner selection. This will be summarized in one (1) main report per country not exceeding 30 pages excluding annexes (cf. section 8 below).The consultant will use a combination of qualitative and quantitative rapid appraisal methods including:• The desk review of available literature and information sources including the findings of programme evaluations; • The conduct of face-to-face interviews with relevant stakeholders/concerned parties; • The limited use of questionnaires.The rapid appraisal approach will allow a general overview of the key issues and company/organisational profiles on a per country basis and may give rise to more indepth studies as and when needed in the future.The country reports will not exceed 30 pages (excluding annexes) and is broken down as follows:Main Report strategic focus and principal characteristics, opportunities and threats posed by the political, institutional and regulatory environment. From the above analysis, establish a link between the needs which are not currently met or for which complementary actions are needed and CTA's supply (products and services). This should lead to an overall and coherent strategy for CTA and an action plan and priorities are identified and an implementation schedule defined.Media and telecommunications (update/check) 2.2.1 Newspapers, periodicals, magazines, radio stations, television channels. 2.2.2 Telecommunication services (fixed, mobile, etc.) 2.3.3 Computer and Internet access.Profile of Institutions 3.1 List of all main institutions involved in agriculture and rural development activities, including private sector and civil society organisation, with name, contact details, type and role of institution.Select list of key institutions involved in agriculture and rural development, with extensive data and information on the institution, the problems faced and why it is considered a key actor.List of institution/persons interviewed (to include full contact details) 5. BibliographyThe draft final report is to be submitted within three months after contract signature by CTA, the final report is due two weeks after receipt of comments from CTA.Expertise Needed The national consultant should have a university degree or equivalent by experience. In addition, he/she should have at least 10 years experience in the field of agriculture, rural development or social/economic sciences. He/she must have in-depth knowledge of the agricultural sector in his/her country and be able to identify key players and institutions/organisations active in this area. Some knowledge of information sciences would be an added advantage. The ability to communicate and write clearly in English is essential, while knowledge of at lest one of the local languages for communication/interview purposes is an added advantage.In addition to the skills above, the overall coordinator is expected to be fluent in English, have some knowledge of the 9 countries forming the object of the study, have demonstrated experience in coordinating studies with several consultants and in producing synthesis reports.The overall coordination of the exercise will be carried out by Ms. Christine Webster, Deputy Head, Planning and Corporate Services CTA.Implementation Schedule (CTA) • Preparation/Finalisation of ToR; identification/short-listing of (potential) consultants; call for offers: July -October, 2006. • Respect the timeframe regarding submission of reports and deadlines • Help identify/vet country consultants • Attend pre-briefing and briefing meetings • Review the terms of reference • Finalise questionnaires and methodological approach after due consultation with CTA Team. • Finalise the briefing notes and guidelines for local consultants to ensure accurate and consistent application of the agreed methodology in data collection. • Answer queries (technical & otherwise) of local consultants.• During the studies, monitor and provide technical assistance/information to the local consultants. • Review preliminary country reports and findings and send comments back to local consultants. • Send edited draft final country reports to CTA for feedback.• Coordinate and ensure consistency of country reports.• Prepare the overall report taking into account the findings and recommendations of all the country reports (table of contents to be agreed).• Respect the timeframe regarding submission of reports and deadlines.• Attend briefing meeting.• Familiarise themselves with background document received from CTA; including the Terms of Reference. • Undertake desk study and prepare country profile, list of institutions involved in agriculture as well as preliminary list of select institutions. • Conduct interviews and gather information in the country specified in the contract. • Draft preliminary country reports and send to Overall Coordinator for initial comments. • Based on comments received from Overall Coordinator, revise country reports and send draft final report to CTA within the specified timeframe. • Finalise country reports based on comments and observations received from CTA and send final report back to CTA.• Draw up initial Terms of Reference and prepare relevant background documents.• Appoint the Overall Coordinator and the ACP Local Consultants.• Prepare and attend briefing meeting consultants.• Invite the overall Coordinator and Local Consultants for Briefing Meeting.• Provide input to the Overall Coordinator with regard to fine-tuning terms of reference. Questionnaires, interview guide and reporting guidelines for the consultants.• Provide relevant background documents to the Local Consultants & Overall Coordinator. • Elaborate budget and discuss contractual obligations with the Team of Consultant & Overall Coordinator. • Liaise with Overall Coordinator throughout the study.• Pay invoices for services rendered in a timely manner on condition that all payment conditions are fulfilled. • Overall responsibility for the supervision and implementation of the studies.• Bear the agreed costs of expenditure in respect of the study (economy class return tickets, hotel accommodation and subsistence allowances during briefing meeting, or during agreed and specified field visits).Consultants.• Give feedback to the Overall Coordinator on the Overview Report.General Agricultural ProfileThe Agricultural sector in Ghana consists of four main sub-sectors: crops, livestock, forestry and fishing. About 60% of the population is engaged in Agriculture. 35% of these are female; 25% are male and 10% are youth. (Ghana. Ministry of Agric., 2006).Available farmed land is about 17.54% of the land area in Ghana. The pattern of land use in Ghana is the result of the interaction of a number of factors of the country's physical and human geography.Ghana may be divided up into five land use zones, which are allied to the main vegetation formations: compound farming; interior savanna; forests; derived savanna; coastal thicket; and savanna. About 65.34% of the land area in Ghana is savanna woodland to the north and 34.47% is high forest to the south. Forestry is therefore one of the major land use systems in the country. There are 280 Forest Reserves covering an area of 2.68 million hectares. This is made up of 1.80 million hectares in the High Forest Zone and 0.88 million hectares in the Savanna Zone.The demand for agricultural land in the high forest zone has been so great that farmers have been bold enough not only to encroach upon reserved forests but, in some cases, to settle permanently in them. In 2006, Ghana earned US$149 million from timber exports. (ISSER. State of the Ghanaian Economy in 2006).The fisheries sector contributes about 5% of agricultural GDP and 3% to overall GDP in Ghana. Furthermore, close to 10% of the population are dependent on it. (Armah, et al., 2006).Fisheries in Ghana play an important role in the economy and social fabric of coastal fishing communities. The sector provides about 65% of the animal protein for human consumption for Ghana's population and can be categorized into the artissanal (mainly canoe), inshore (semi-industrial), and industrial (distant water and tuna) fisheries. Many coastal communities depend on this sector for their economic viability and livelihood. The big issue is the fact that fish stocks in Ghanaian waters have dwindled over the years and annual catch now hovers around 400,000 metric tons. Examples of the critical issues that affect the conservation of stock can be traced to population pressure, overfishing, socio-economic problems, lack of effective governance, changes in international access rights, and climatic change. Current critical issues affecting the coastal fisheries of Ghana, however, relate primarily so governance and management strategies for the fisheries sector of Ghana. The Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for all matters concerning fisheries management and administration in Ghana.Land rotation and shifting cultivation are both practiced in Ghana. Land rotation is the principal agricultural system in use in Ghana. 'Intensive' land rotation means the land in frequently rotated, that is, fallows are of short duration and the area concerned is devoid of unfarmed natural vegetation. In areas of 'less intensive' land rotation the length of fallows is in general longer and patches of near-climax vegetation nor well developed secondary regrowth normally occur. The less intensive land rotation becomes the greater is the proportion of unfarmed land to land under rotation (i.e., cultivation and fallow land together). Fallow is always more extensive in area than cultivated land, but the proportion between the two varies widely with the crops grown, the nature of the regrowth vegetation and the proximity of the cultivated land to markets.There appears to be no formal rule as to how land is rotated. The only valid generalization at this stage in our knowledge of agricultural practices is that recently cultivated land (that is, potentially less productive land) is avoided when plots are chosen for clearing and planting, and potentially more productive land (bearing natural vegetation of some years' growth), if available, is used in preference.Shifiting cultivation is carried out by a family or group of families who are the occupants of temporary settlement. The land immediately surrounding the settlement is cleared and farmed for a few years and then abandoned, when the settlement is rebuilt in a new location where clearing and cultivation is again repeated. The land used for this type of agriculture is well developed fallow farmland or land unfarmed in recent generations. Shifting cultivation is practiced only in a few localities in Ghana and is often a short-lived precursor of agriculture by land rotation.Agriculture remains the largest contributor to GDP, with a 39.3% share in 2006 compared with 32.9% and 27.8% for services and industry, respectively. This was only marginally less than the 2005 share of 39.5 About 41.1% of foreign exchange earnings were derived from agriculture, namely cocoa, timber, and other non-traditional commodities. It is however notable (see Table ) that the share of agricultural products in total foreign exchange earnings began to decline after 2004. For instance, while agricultural products (cocoa, timber and nontraditional exports) contributed 52.8% of total foreign exchange earnings in  The main agricultural produce in Ghana are cocoa, timber, fish and seafoods. Cocoa exports for 2006 earned Ghana an amount of US$1187.4m, while timber exports in 2006 produced US$119.5m. In the same year, fish and seafoods earned for Ghana an amount of US67.9m. (ISSER. The State of the Ghanaian Economy 2006).Secondary agricultural produce include horticulture; wood products; cassava; nuts; pineapples; plantain; rice; oil palm; maize; yam; and sorghum.The two principal destinations for Ghana's exports as of June, 2006 were the United Kingdom (12.7%) and the Netherlands (12.2%). These two countries were also the top two in 2005 but their order was reversed with the Netherlands absorbing 12.5% of Ghana's exports and the United Kingdom 8.3%. These two countries took 24.9% of Ghana's exports, up from 20.8% in 2005 (Table ). On the West African market, Nigeria absorbed 1.5% of Ghana's exports as for June, 2006, a marginal increase from the 2005 figure of 1.4%. Ghana is a member of the ACP-EU, and the WTO. These are trade protocols which commit member countries to comprehensive trade liberalization. However, there are controversies presently in the country with civil society organizations and NGO's protesting against some requirements of these agreements, especially in the area of the export of bananas, palm oil and fish products from Ghana.The NEPAD and ECOWAP agreements are mainly restricted to the African and West African Sub-region respectively. These also stipulate that the signatory countries enter into a free trade agreement, with the intent of elimination of trade barriers and duties on goods.The Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP) seeks to address some major constraints facing the Agricultural sector in Ghana. These include:• Promotion of selected products through improved access to markets.• Development of, and improved access to technology for sustainable natural resource management. • Improved access to agricultural financial services.• Improved rural infrastructure.• Enhanced human resources and institutional capacity.The first phase of FASDEP began in 2002 and the programme is currently under review in order to assess the impact of the policy for the second phase.The The Policy Statement sets out the road map for the development of Ghana's information society and economy and provides a basis for facilitating the socio-economic development of the country in the emerging information, knowledge and technological age to be dominated by information and knowledge-based economies. The Policy is aimed at addressing a number of developmental challenges facing the country as a basis for achieving a number of policy goals and objectives.From the population table below, it can be seen that there are more males in Ghana than females. Population growth has however, concentrated more in the southern regions such as Greater Accra Region and the Eastern Region. The two Upper Regions (Upper East and Upper West) have the lowest population. As can be seen in Table, the percentage of literates in Ghana is below 50%. This is mainly those who can read and write in English. For the local languages, Akan has the higher rate of literates (49.1%), with Ga having the lowest (8%). In the rural areas, very few households have indoor plumbing or standpipes, but some get their water from a public standpipe or other reliable outside supply. A great majority of rural households, however, have to get their water from wells (47%) or from natural sources (43%). Much of the water from wells in rural areas are fitted with pumps and account for almost a third of water sources for households.In the case of lighting, the main source for households is kerosene (60%), while 39%have access to electricity of occasionally a generator (0.5%). About 90% of the households in Accra, and 72% of households in other urban areas, use electricity for lighting. Many rural households (82%) use kerosene for lighting.Almost two-thirds of the households in Ghana use wood as their main source of fuel for cooking, and 30 per cent of all households use charcoal; only 4% use liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). In urban areas and particularly in Accra, charcoal is widely used; more than two-thirds of Accra households (71%) and about half of households in other urban areas (57%) use charcoal for fuel. In Accra, gas ranks second as a source of fuel, whereas in other urban areas wood is the preferred second choice. In rural areas many households (about 84%) use wood, but some households use charcoal or other sources. The old secondary school system was phased out and the new system installed during the reform period from 1990 to 1996, and involved the reduction from a seven-year programme to a three-year one. In terms of gender equity, the participation of female children in senior secondary education is also substantially lower than at the basic education level. Again, female participation is lowest in the northern parts of the country. For example, the proportion of girls enrolled in senior secondary is as low as 24.8% in the Northern Region.Enrolment in Senior Secondary Schools, 2001 to 2004 ( On the tertiary front, there were 19 universities by the need of 2006 of which six were public institutions and 13 were private. While the number of public institutions has not changed over the years, between 2004 and 2006, three new private universities have been given full accreditation to operate. No new polytechnic institutions was added to the 10 existing polytechnics, one in each regional capital. The government continued to pursue programmes and projects to expand access to tertiary education. These included infrastructural developments such as building libraries with funding from the Ghana Education Trust Fund (GETFund) among other sources. Trends in enrollment into the universities clearly show a rise over the years, with public universities admitting larger numbers of students than the private institutions. After nearly 20 years of the current educational system, the government set up a committee in 2002 which reviewed the system and proposed key reforms. The government eventually came out with a White Paper on education reform, and in 2006, it set up a secretariat alongside nine sub-committees to work on the fine details of the new system which is to be implemented in the 2007-2008 academic year. Enrolment in all tertiary-level courses offered by the polytechnics.Out of the total adult population in Ghana, about 52% are migrants mainly from rural to urban centres. Across localities, the proportion of migrants in rural forest is slightly larger (60%) than in other urban and rural localities with the rates for males and females being almost identical.Extent of migration by present locality and sex (per cent) ( Overall, 36% are in-migrants and 16 per cent are return migrants. In regional terms, about four in every ten of the population of Greater Accra, Volta and Western Regions, are in-migrants. In contrast, in the north of the country the level of in-migration is fairly low, particularly in the Upper East Region where just about 10% of the population are inmigrants. When one looks at the overall level of migration, the contrast between regions I the south and north of the country becomes very clear. In the Upper West region, for instance, less than a third of the population are migrants, and about a third in the Northern Region are migrants, whereas in each of the other regions as at least half the population are migrants. E. Addo-Dankwa MOFA, Accra nyareba@gmail.com 6.Joel Sam GAINS egy28@yahoo.co.uk 7.Ibrahim Inusah GINKS ibrahiminusal@yahoo.com 8.Prince Deh GINKS papalenzd@yahoo.com 9.John A. Dziwornu GNAFF dzijoh@yahoo.com 10.Regina Dogoe Plant Genetic Radogoe2000@yahoo.com A validation workshop was organized for the stakeholders at which the findings were presented for discussion.Unfortunately, only three of the interviewees were able to attend. The rest sent representatives who were mainly their Librarians and ICT Specialists. Interestingly, all the people present were also contributors to the interview process when their Organistions/Institutions were visited.• Comments from members present point to the fact that MOFA Library has been in such a deteriorating state and that has accounted for it's low ranking as source of information because of the low level of support from management. However, efforts are being put in place to uplift the status of the library. There is the need to support publicity effort of the library. • Even though CTA made it clear to the management that the library will receive substantial support once it is organized, much has not been seen in that direction. MOFA Library could serve as a repository of policy documents for use by institutions and other organisations, as at now, the library is not serving that purpose. (This was a suggestion from participants) • CTA also has plans to support more radio stations.• Telecentres: Telecenters or CICs have a major problem, because there was no information needs assessment in the initial stages of their establishment. Sustainability has now become an issue. MOFA for sometime now has been struggling with the issue of connectivity for the centres. It has been recognized that emphasis was placed too much on connectivity rather than content. • It will also be necessary to recommend to CTA to build capacity in information management and dissemination.","tokenCount":"11537"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ed137bffe72fa79e399f98c06f1280ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/41fa845f-92a6-4271-aeff-d9e8f276b1ac/retrieve","id":"557501168"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"05304244-28d0-44d5-8f5a-f6f1864b37d5","pagecount":"17","content":"Developing drought-resistant rice (Oryza sativa, L.) is essential for improving field productivity, especially in rain-fed areas affected by climate change. Wild relatives of rice are potential sources for drought-resistant traits. Therefore, we compared root growth and drought response among 22 wild Oryza species, from which Oryza glumaepatula was selected as a promising source for further exploration. A geographically diverse panel of 69 O. glumaepatula accessions was then screened for drought stressrelated traits, and 6 of these accessions showed lower shoot dry weight (SDW) reduction, greater percentage of deep roots, and lower stomatal density (STO) under drought than the drought tolerant O. sativa variety, Sahbhagi dhan. Based on whole-genome resequencing of all 69 O. glumaepatula accessions and variant calling to a high-quality O. glumaepatula reference genome, we detected multiple genomic loci colocating for SDW, root dry weight at 30 to 45 cm depth, and STO in consecutive drought trials. Geo-referencing indicated that the potential drought donors originated in flood-prone locations, corroborating previous hypotheses about the coexistence of flood and drought tolerance within individual Oryza genomes. These findings present potential donor accessions, traits, and genomic loci from an AA genome wild relative of rice that, together with the recently developed reference genome, may be useful for further introgression of drought tolerance into the O. sativa backgrounds.Improvement of drought tolerance has been a major breeding challenge for rice (Oryza sativa, L.), and in recent decades, the most successful strategy has been to cross droughttolerant traditional varieties with high-yielding but droughtsusceptible modern varieties (Kumar et al. 2014). However, continued improvement of drought tolerance in rice is still needed to meet the challenges posed by climate change and projected demands of a growing population (Lesk et al. 2016;Anderson et al. 2020). One potential source of drought tolerance that has thus far been explored to a lesser extent is from the wild relatives of rice (Menguer et al. 2017). The wild relatives of rice harbor many alleles for both abiotic and biotic stress adaptive traits (Liu et al. 2004;Hajjar and Hodgkin 2007;Brar and Khush 2018) that may be useful for rice breeding programs globally.The genus Oryza consists of 2 domesticated and 25 wild species, harboring a large degree of genetic diversity among them (Vaughan 1994;Sanchez et al. 2013). The Oryza species are widely distributed across the globe and vary in their morphology, biology, and genome structure. A number of the wild relatives of rice have been previously identified as sources of useful genes and quantitative trait locus, such as disease and pest resistances, heat-and drought-related traits, and tolerance to toxic elements (Sanchez et al. 2013). Earlier studies have reported that Oryza longistaminata and Oryza rufipogon possessed improved leaf elongation, leaf membrane stability, and stomatal conductance under drought stress (Liu et al. 2004). Despite this potential, only a small portion of the diversity has been tapped into from the wild relatives of rice and therein lies an unexplored resource from which to screen and identify stress-tolerance traits. Of note, >4,000 wild Oryza accessions are maintained between the Rice Genebank of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, and the National Bio-Resource Project of The National Institute of Genetics (NIG), Japan, and an array of genomic tools has been developed to facilitate their use in rice improvement (Alsantely et al. 2022).Among the wild relatives of rice, Oryza glumaepatula is the only diploid AA genome (i.e. the primary gene pool for cultivated rice) endemic to the new world and is found in South and Central America and the Caribbean (Khush 1997;Vaughan et al. 2003). Depending on its geographical location of origin, the growth habit of O. glumaepatula can be annual, biennial, or perennial (Akimoto et al. 1998). The habitat of O. glumaepatula is typically in flooded areas, marshes, and river beds (Fuchs et al. 2016). Earlier studies on O. glumaepatula have identified genetic regions responsible for erect panicles, late heading (Sanchez et al. 2003), and yield-related traits (Brondani et al. 2002). Physiological studies have characterized the O. glumaepatula accessions to have very low stomatal density (STO) but higher photosynthetic parameters compared with O. sativa (Kondamudi et al. 2016). These findings suggest that O. glumaepatula possesses important morphological, physiological, and agronomic traits that could be used for crop improvement. However, there is very limited information on traits in O. glumaepatula, which are related to abiotic stresses such as drought and heat responses that could possibly help improve existing rice varieties.There is substantial eco-geographic variation exhibited among the AA genome Oryza species, and a high degree of adaptive differences among individual accessions within a species are expected (Vaughan et al. 2003). In this study, we identified O. glumaepatula as a potential source of drought tolerance based primarily on root traits observed under drought stress and hypothesized that physiological traits from O. glumaepatula that confer drought tolerance could be identified. To comprehensively assess the genetic diversity of O. glumaepatula, we first assembled a high-quality reference genome using the PacBio SMRT long-read sequencing technology followed by the generation of a high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) dataset for a diversity panel of 69 O. glumaepatula accessions. We then evaluated this panel (Supplemental Table S1) to pinpoint potential sources of drought tolerance in terms of root growth, STO, and maintenance of shoot biomass and to identify the related genetic regions that could be used in breeding programs.To obtain a preliminary assessment of how the wild relatives of rice respond to drought, we began by screening one accession from each of 22 Oryza species (out of 24 species that were planted; Supplemental Table S2) under drought stress and well-watered (WW) conditions in both greenhouse cylinder and screenhouse paddy experiments. O. glumaepatula was the only species that ranked among the top 5 species of both experiments for maintaining its shoot dry weight (SDW) under drought when compared with WW conditions (Fig. 1). O. glumaepatula also ranked among the top 5 species for maintaining its number of crown roots and number of forks per nodal root in the greenhouse cylinder experiment and for maintaining its deep root length percentage, deep root mass percentage, and leaf osmotic potential (LOP) in the screenhouse paddy experiments under drought when compared with WW conditions (Fig. 1, Supplemental Figs. S1 and S2).Based on the performance of this representative O. glumaepatula accession in comparison with other wild Oryza species, we explored the physiological diversity in drought response of a diversity panel of 69 O. glumaepatula accessions that originated from the new world (Supplemental Table S3) over 2 growing seasons. In both seasons, drought stress had a significant effect on most of the traits measured (Supplemental Table S4), especially in terms of SDW, plant height (PHT), tiller number (TLN), root dry weight (RDW) at the shallow depth (0 to 15 cm), and crown root number (CRN) (Supplemental Figs. S3 to S5).Using maintenance of SDW (under drought stress compared with WW conditions) as the direct measure of drought tolerance, different traits were directly correlated with drought tolerance in the 2 seasons studied (Fig. 2). Positive correlations with maintenance of SDW were observed with TLN (r = 0.45, P < 0.001), chlorophyll content (r = 0.36, P = 0.003), RDW at shallow depths 0 to 15 cm (r = 0.39, P < 0.001) and 15 to 30 cm (r = 0.27, P = 0.026), and CRN (r = 0.35, P = 0.003) in the drought stress condition during the dry season (Fig. 2). During the wet season, maintenance of SDW was positively correlated with PHT (r = 0.36, P = 0.003) and LOP (r = 0.27, P = 0.028) under drought. In both seasons, STO was negatively correlated with specific leaf area under drought stress (dry season, r = −0.52, P < 0.001; wet season, r = −0.38, P = 0.002; Fig. 2). PHT and TLN were negatively correlated in both the dry (r = −0.48, P < 0.001) and wet (r = −0.49, P < 0.001) seasons under drought stress (Fig. 2).When maintenance of SDW was regressed with multiple traits measured under drought stress using stepwise multiple regression, PHT, TLN, chlorophyll content, lateral root percentage (LRP) at 30 to 45 cm depth, and RDW at 0 to 15 cm depth were the significant traits that predicted the maintenance of SDW in the dry season (r 2 = 0.37; P < 0.001, Table 1). PHT, TLN, CRN, and RDW at 30 to 45 cm depth were the significant traits predicting maintenance of SDW in the wet season (r 2 = 0.48; P < 0.001, Table 1).All the O. glumaepatula accessions were ranked from the highest to lowest reduction in SDW along with O. sativa checks over both seasons (Fig. 3). Variation in SDW reduction among the O. glumaepatula accessions (30% to 85% in the dry season and 40% to 90% in the wet season) was generally smaller than the degree of variation that had been observed across species (−27% to 95% in the greenhouse cylinder experiment [Supplemental Fig. S1] and −38% to 61% in the screenhouse paddy experiment [Supplemental Fig. S2]). Compared with the drought tolerant check variety, Sahbhagi dhan, 6 O. glumaepatula accessions (W2192, 82035, 100184, 100894, 100971, and 105688) showed lower SDW reduction in both seasons and were therefore identified as potential drought tolerance donors for use in breeding. We then examined the grouping of those potential donors with respect to Sahbhagi dhan for other physiological traits, of which STO and deep root growth under drought showed the largest degree of advantage for the potential donors. Across entries (the O. glumaepatula panel and several O. sativa checks), STO under drought stress ranged between 250 and 550 stomata mm −2 in both seasons (Fig. 4). Overall, the majority of the O. glumaepatula accessions had lower STO than the O. sativa checks. The 6 potential donors selected from this experiment all had lower STO than Sahbhagi dhan in both seasons. Accession W2192 appeared to be the most consistent in showing low STO, ranking lowest in the dry season and the 5th lowest in the wet season.Accessions W1185, 101960, 100968, and W1187 had relatively higher STO values than W2192 in both seasons, but these values were still lower than that of the most O. sativa accessions evaluated.The deep root percentage (root length below 30 cm/total root length in the soil core) among the O. glumaepatula accessions and O. sativa checks ranged between 20% to 56% and 11% to 55% under drought in the dry and wet season experiments, respectively (Fig. 5). All 6 O. glumaepatula potential donors identified had higher deep root percentage under drought stress, compared with Sahbhagi dhan in both seasons. However, Sahbhagi dhan had higher deep root percentages than most of the potential donors under WW conditions (Supplemental Fig. S6).To develop markers for breeding and begin to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms that control the phenotypic responses to drought described above, we first generated a high-quality genome assembly of a single O. glumaepatula (GEN 1233 from the EMBRAPA germplasm collection [BRA 00011525-3], collected in Matrinchã, Goiás, Brazil) using PacBio long-read sequencing and Genome Puzzle Master (GPM) editing (see Materials and Methods). The resulting chromosome level assembly is composed of 33 contigs (N50 = 18.2 Mb) assigned to 12 chromosomes with a total length of 386 Mb and was used as a reference   genome sequence to perform all the remaining downstream analyses.To assess the genetic diversity of the O. glumaepatula diversity panel, each accession was Illumina resequenced to a minimum coverage of 3× (Supplemental Table S5). The resequencing data were then mapped to the O. glumaepatula RefSeq to call SNP using the genome analysis toolkit (GATK) pipeline (McKenna et al. 2010; see Materials and Methods). SNP calling and subsequent quality filtering (see Materials and Methods) resulted in a dataset of 14,238,207 biallelic SNPs, of which 14,222,318 are on chromosomes 1 to 12 and 15,889 are on unaligned contigs. Following variant calling, we explored the population structure of the panel as well as associations between the genome and phenotypes. Five samples were found to be genetic outliers, based on significantly lower (P < 0.01, t-test) transition-to-transversion (T s /T v ) ratios (2.11 to 2.29, while the rest of the panel had 2.43 to 2.57), indicating possible contamination. Consistent with this hypothesis, 4 of these had a markedly higher number of variant calls compared with the bulk of the panel, as well as elevated number of missing calls (>30%; Supplemental Fig. S8C). The remaining one sample (100894, geographical annotation: Cuttack) was found to contain a higher number of heterozygous SNPs. Three more samples within the bulk of the panel had a higher proportion of heterozygous SNP calls as well.Using a neighbor-joining tree, the 6 potential donor accessions were distributed across several clusters (Fig. 6A). Based on the ADMIXTURE bar plot, using different numbers of ancestral populations to indicate population structure (Fig. 6B), K = 6 represented the lowest cross-validation error (Supplemental Fig. S7), and K = 4 and K = 5 revealed the possible genetic proximity of Clusters 1 and 5 as they merged. Among accessions, 2 potential donors (100184 and W2192) and 2 other accessions (104387 and 88807) had the highest proportion of their genome represented by Cluster 1. Further investigation based on mapping short read sequences of the O. glumaepatula accessions along with 2 O. sativa varieties to the Nipponbare reference, as well as differences in T s /T v ratios, suggests that those 4 accessions share a high proportion of their genome with O. sativa (Supplemental Fig. S8, A to D). Phenotypic observation of the seeds (Supplemental Fig. S8E) suggested an O. glumaepatula origin of the Cluster 1 accessions based on the dark brown color of the hulls when compared with the lighter color that is typical of O. sativa (except accession 100894 whose seeds were lighter-colored). The first axes of a principal component analysis (PCA) on the whole-genome sequence data (Supplemental Fig. S9, top row) were heavily influenced by the introgressed samples (Cluster 1, black), which was consistent with the ADMIXTURE-based clustering. PCA also indicated the 4 Cluster 1 accessions to be well-separated by PC1 (Fig. The subsequent axes reflect population differentiation as found in the ADMIXTURE analysis (PC3 separates Cluster 3 from Cluster 5 and PC4 separates Cluster 2 from Cluster 4). As indicated by PC3 to 4 (Supplemental Fig. S9), Cluster 3 may share more alleles with Cluster 1 than other clusters, suggesting that the population could have been crossed with O. sativa to give rise to Cluster 1. These clusters were well separated by the PCs with and without different levels of minor-frequency allele filtering (Supplemental Fig. S9), indicating that the analysis is detecting real genetic structure.The geographic distribution of collection sites among accessions within a cluster was varied (Fig. 6D). Representatives of all clusters were found in Brazil. All of the potential donors were collected from within the Amazon River Basin. Cluster 5 had the broadest geographic dispersal. Clusters 2 and 4 were found in similar locations.Based on the consistent ranking of the O. glumaepatula accessions with the least reduction in shoot biomass under drought (i.e. the potential donors) as showing lower STO Table 2. Genomic loci associated with drought-response traits characteristic of the potential O. glumaepatula donors that colocated between seasons: (A) colocating 100-kb windows for SDW significant SNPs, with a threshold of −log 10 (P) > 3.5. (B) SNPs colocating for stomatal density by MLM, filtered, where at least one season has −log 10 (P) > 5 (and the other >4), (C) colocating 100-kb windows for RLD at the 30 to 45 cm soil depth by MLM with 2 principal components, with a threshold of −log 10 (P) > 3.0 and deep root ratio (DRR) compared with the drought tolerant check Sahbhagi dhan, we examined the genomic regions associated with those traits (with the introgressed accessions excluded). Between the 2 seasons of study, no significant GWAS peaks were detected for relative SDW, but three 100-kb windows were identified for SDW under drought (Table 2, Supplemental Fig. S10). Six significant SNPs colocated in the 2 seasons for STO under drought stress (Table 2, Supplemental Fig. S10). Although the GWAS model did not converge for the DRR data of the drought stress treatment, four 100-kb windows colocated between seasons for root length density (RLD) at the 30 to 45 cm depth under drought stress (Table 2, Supplemental Fig. S10). These results should be considered as preliminary given the relatively small set of genotypes used for GWAS in this study.The large distribution among accessions for the traits measured in this study reveals the variation in drought response within O. glumaepatula and suggests that different combinations of traits can contribute to drought tolerance in different accessions. Given the large variation in phenology and biomass, we used maintenance of shoot biomass as our standard measure of drought tolerance in this study and selected 6 O. glumaepatula accessions with the greatest degree of maintenance of shoot biomass under drought. Some of those potential donors showed interesting admixtureslikely with O. sativa-that may help explain their adaptability to drought stress conditions. The trend of the 6 O. glumaepatula accessions showing higher deep root percentages than Sahbhagi dhan under drought stress (Fig. 5), but lower deep root percentages under WW conditions (Supplemental Fig. S6), suggests that O. glumaepatula could be a potential source for drought avoidance mechanisms via plasticity in deep root growth. A hypothesized advantage of plasticity in deep root growth over constitutive deep root growth is that the plant does not invest resources unnecessarily when deep root growth is not needed, e.g. under WW conditions, which could help maintain higher grain yields (Schneider and Lynch 2020). We also observed that maintenance of SDW was positively correlated with shallow RDW in the dry season but not in the wet season, which may be due to the differences in soil drying rates between the 2 seasons. These results further suggest a relatively high level of plasticity in O. glumaepatula root growth in response to different types of drought.One trait for which all O. glumaepatula accessions stood out was STO. Overall, most of the O. glumaepatula accessions showed lower STO when compared with the O. sativa checks in this study. Low STO is a trait hypothesized to improve crop water use efficiency under drought and is therefore a key candidate for trait-based breeding, but its potential tradeoffs for yield potential must be assessed. O. glumaepatula accession 104387 was previously identified among wild relatives of rice for its very low STO despite showing high photosynthesis rates (Kondamudi et al. 2016). Caine et al. (2019) reported a lack of reduction in grain yield in rice lines edited to overexpress OsEPF1 with reduced STO despite their lower stomatal conductance and photosynthesis rates. Those studies indicate that lower STO may not necessarily result in tradeoffs in terms of grain yield under WW conditions. In addition, recently developed drought breeding lines have shown slightly lower STO than the check variety IR64 across different environments (Kumar et al. 2021), further highlighting this trait as beneficial for yield and suggesting that O. glumaepatula lines with even lower STO than Sahbhagi dhan could be promising drought donors for breeding. The consistent GWAS peaks identified for STO in this study can be used in developing markers that could be used for introgressing low STO into an O. sativa background.The lack of a significant relationship between canopy temperature (CPT) and STO in this study may reflect the interaction between reduced STO (which is likely to raise CPT by reducing evaporative cooling) and greater maintenance of shoot biomass (which is likely to reduce the CPT measurement via higher groundcover). STO was negatively correlated with specific leaf area in both seasons under drought, indicating that leaves with higher STO tended to be thicker, which is in agreement with observations in Leymus chinensis, another C 3 grass species (Xu and Zhou 2008). Furthermore, while phenotyping for STO in this study, it was observed that the leaf imprint quality of O. glumaepatula accessions was distinctly clearer than that of the O. sativa checks. Two possible reasons could be the variation in the leaf surface structure or physiological age of the leaf as the O. sativa checks flower earlier. Therefore, further investigation of O. glumaepatula leaf structure may provide additional insights into potential drought tolerance traits that could be conferred by O. glumaepatula. This observation also has implications for potential high-throughput screening of O. glumaepatula accessions that are currently not possible for O. sativa due to its complex leaf surface structure.The 6 selected O. glumaepatula accessions that had higher maintenance of SDW all showed both lower STO and higher deep root percentage than the drought-tolerant O. sativa check Sahbhagi dhan under drought stress conditions (Figs. 4 and 5). Earlier studies in O. glumaepatula have been focused on agronomic traits and used to improve the yield of O. sativa varieties in South America (e.g. Brondani et al. 2002;Rangel et al. 2013). Given the range of traits related to the performance of our 6 selected O. glumaepatula accessions as potential drought donors as well as their well-distributed relatedness within the species, a number of combinations of these promising characteristics of O. glumaepatula could be further evaluated to potentially be used in breeding rice for drought conditions.It was notable that the O. glumaepatula potential drought donors originated near flood-prone regions of the Amazon River Basin. Previous work has also reported some beneficial drought traits coming from Riz Africain de Mali Oryza glaberrima lines collected from flood-prone areas (Ndjiondjop et al. 2010) and their progeny from crosses with O. sativa (Kijoji et al. 2013) and from deepwater rice based on deep root growth and low CPT (Rayada; Henry et al. 2011) and based on gene expression under drought (Bhadoia: Groen et al. 2022). The coexistence of drought and flooding tolerance in rice has been hypothesized to be related to ethylene-responsive pathways being common to both drought and flood response (Bin Rahman and Zhang 2016;Bin Rahman and Zhang 2022). These common pathways may confer a certain degree of plasticity in response to both types of stress.Another notable aspect of origin of the O. glumaepatula accessions having been collected along riverways (Fig. 6D) is regarding the geographic distribution of the accessions, especially since there was no apparent geographic grouping of population structure clusters. Riverways may have facilitated human dispersal of O. glumaepatula accessions prior to collection either through transportation of seed by boat or through river dragging that has been documented to disperse O. glumaepatula (de Campos Vaz et al. 2009), and it may be that riverways were used by the germplasm collectors to acquire the seed. Furthermore, O. glumaepatula has a habit of stems breaking and floating down the river and becoming reestablished at other locations (Akimoto et al. 1998;Abreu et al. 2015). On the other hand, the distribution of the potential drought donors among several clusters (Fig. 6C) suggests that adaptive alleles are present in different genetic groups, independent of geographic distribution. Whether these adaptive alleles represent shared ancestral alleles that entered the populations through sorting or introgression, or from novel variation that arose independently in different groups, is an interesting question that needs further investigation. Furthermore, the similar drought tolerance traits observed across those 6 potential donors implies that a few genomic regions that are beneficial for these traits might appear in several subpopulations. Another possible explanation for the distribution of drought tolerance in the panel among geographic locations and population structure clusters is introgression: the 4 introgressed accessions may represent some crossing events that occurred before collection and deposition in Genebanks. Likewise, the similarities between Cluster 1 and Cluster 5 (Fig. 6B) may represent possible crosses between O. glumaepatula and O. sativa most likely through natural gene flow (Karasawa et al. 2007); these lines may also contain traces of introgressions from other Oryza species, as proposed by Stein et al. (2018) between Oryza barthii and O. sativa. Introgression into wild relatives of rice has been reported previously (Brondani et al. 2005;Fuchs et al. 2016) and has been cited as both a key evolutionary mechanism for adaptation as well as a major concern for conservation of wild populations in nature. In the case of the potential drought donors identified here, the high degree of O. sativa introgression may indicate that the related drought-response genes are well-adapted to the O. sativa background, which would be promising for their use in breeding.Although some progress has been made in improving the level of drought tolerance of cultivated rice (O. sativa), this has mainly been through introgressions from the aus and indica subgroups, and these sources of drought tolerance are becoming exhausted in terms of their utility in rice improvement. More and diverse introgressions are needed to further improve the productivity of rice in the face of climate change, specifically under the increased incidence of drought globally. The potential drought donors and genomic regions associated with their increased root length at depth and lower STO identified here can be crossed with improved O. sativa backgrounds, which is feasible given the AA genome of O. glumaepatula. The sequence data of the 69 O. glumaepatula accessions mapped to the high-quality reference genome presented here will be beneficial for allele mining and dissecting the genetic basis of drought response traits. With these phenotypic and genetic resources from O. glumaepatula, researchers can advance the use of wild relatives of rice for developing new O. sativa varieties that are better adapted to climate change.Two sets of experiments were conducted as part of this study to screen for root growth and drought response among wild relatives of rice: (i) evaluation of 24 Oryza species, and (ii) evaluation of an O. glumaepatula diversity panel.High molecular weight DNA was extracted from young leaves adopting the protocol of Russell and Sambrook (2001) with minor modifications. PacBio library preparation followed the 20 kb protocol (https://www.pacb.com/wp-content/uploads/ 2015/09/Insert-SMRTbell-Template-Prep-Kit-1.0.pdf) and was sequenced on a PacBio Sequel sequencer with movie collection time of 10 h. The raw sequence data were assembled with FALCON (2017.06.28-18.01-py2.7-ucs4) (Chin et al. 2016), Canu (v1.5) (Koren et al. 2017), and MECAT (v1.3) (Xiao et al. 2017), respectively. Detailed statistics of each assembly are shown in Supplemental Table S6. Canu de novo assembled contigs were used as backbone to build pseudomolecules using GPM Zhang et al. (2016), and then all pseudomolecule components were polished twice with PacBio raw reads using Arrow (https://github.com/ PacificBiosciences/gcpp). During manual GPM editing process, MH63RS2 (NCBI Accession# GCA_001623365.2) genome sequences were used as guiding sequences to order and orientate the Canu-assembled contigs; if any contigs in FALCON or MECAT assemblies could bridge a gap between 2 Canu-assembled contigs, they would be integrated to increase the contiguity of the final assembly. The statistics of OgluRS3 sequences are also in Supplemental Table S6. The final assembly was submitted to the NCBI GenBank under the WGS accession ALNU03000000, and the genome is available at Gramene_Oryza https://oryza-ensembl.gramene. org/Oryza_glumaepatula/Info/Index.The genome assembly (ALNU00000000.3) was assessed by BUSCO analysis (Manni et al. 2021) based on core genes of Viridiplantae, which show the 99.0% completeness for the genome. Compared with the previous O. glumaepatula_v1.5 assembly (containing 17,900 gaps) and the MH63RS3 gapfree genome, our latest assembly (containing only 21 gaps in chromosomes) showed high collinearity and completeness (Supplemental Fig. S11). The gene annotation data are available at Gramene: https://ftp.gramene.org/oryza/release-6/gff3/oryza_glumaepatula/oryza_glumaepatula_core_3_ 87_4.gff.One accession from each of 24 Oryza species was selected based on their inclusion in the Oryza Map Alignment Project (Wing et al. 2005) and obtained from maintained plant stocks at the IRRI, Los Baños, Philippines. The Oryza species were grown in one greenhouse cylinder experiment and one screenhouse paddy experiment (Supplemental Figs. S1 and S2).The greenhouse cylinder experiment was conducted from March to April 2015. The cylinders were comprised of soilfilled tubes (5 cm diam, 40 cm height, 1.14 g cm −3 bulk density) including an inner mylar tube liner with a freely draining fabric bottom and an outer PVC cylinder with a sealed bottom. Plants were germinated from seed, except for O. rufipogon, O. australiensis, O. schlechteri, and O. coarctata, which were grown from clones: newly emerged shoots that were separated from the main plant of each wild species. All seedlings (either from seed or from clones) were established in soil-filled seedling trays before transplanting to the greenhouse cylinders. Plants were grown under WW (flooded 7 days after transplanting [DAT]) and drought (DD: drydown starting at 75% of field capacity from the time of transplanting the seedlings into the experimental cylinders) treatments in 4 replicates per treatment for 21 d. Of the 24 Oryza species planted in the cylinder experiment, only 16 survived for a duration sufficient to collect data (Supplemental Table S2).Phenotypic screening of the 24 Oryza species in a paddy field within a screenhouse was conducted under both WW and drought stressed conditions in the 2016 dry season (January to March 2016) at IRRI, Los Baños, Philippines (Supplemental Fig. S12). Plants were pregerminated on a filter paper before establishing in soil-filled seedling trays, except for O. longiglumis, O. longistaminata, and O. meyeriana, which were germinated in a test tube containing 1/4 MS media, and then placed in a dark room until its germination after 2 to 3 d. The germinated seeds were placed in a lighted room and later transferred to soil-filled trays when the roots were well developed. O. schlechteri and O. coarctata were clonally propagated due to difficulty to germinate the seeds. Clonal propagation was done by separating a newly sprouted tiller from the base of a mature plant, and each individual tiller was planted in pots filled with soil. Seedlings were then transplanted into the main experimental paddy. The plot size was 2 rows × 6 hills with 0.25 m between rows and 0.2 m between hills, although the actual number of plants per plot ranged from 1 to 12 based on germination and establishment. A one-row border space was left between adjacent plots. In the case of the WW condition, the soil was flooded throughout the growing season, and in the case of the drought-stressed treatment, the field was initially flooded and then drained to impose drought stress during the vegetative stage. The layout was according to a randomized complete block in a split plot design with 3 replications. The drought stress treatment was initiated at 34 DAT, and the experiment was continued until 68 DAT. Of the Oryza species planted, 21 survived for a duration sufficient to collect data (Supplemental Table S2).A diversity panel of 69 accessions of species O. glumaepatula was evaluated in 2 screenhouse paddy experiments. Of the 69 accessions, 50 were obtained from the International Rice Genebank Collection (IRRI) and 19 accessions from the National Institute of Genetics, Japan (Supplemental Table S3).Screenhouse experiments evaluating the panel of O. glumaepatula accessions were conducted in the 2017 dry season (February 2017 to May 2017) and wet season (November 2017 to February 2018) at IRRI. The seeds were manually dehulled and germinated in Petri dishes prior to sowing in germination trays to achieve better germination rates, given the limited seed availability and the possibility of low germination rates and seed dormancy typically observed in wild relatives of rice. Two weeks after emergence in the seedling trays, the seedlings were transplanted in the screenhouse in drought and WW treatments as described above. The drought stress treatment was initiated at 37 and 35 DAT in the dry and wet seasons, respectively, and rewatering in the drought stress treatment was done at 74 and 85 in the dry and wet seasons, respectively.Average temperature/humidity values were 29.3°C/68.3% in the greenhouse cylinder experiment, 26.5°C/81.6% during the screenhouse experiment on Oryza species (measured outdoors), and 28.5°C/61% and 26.8°C/58.7% in the dry season and wet season experiments (measured inside the screenhouse) on the O. glumaepatula panel, respectively.Soil moisture levels of the drought stress treatment were monitored in the screenhouse experiments by tensiometers (Soilmoisture Equipment Corp.) installed at a depth of 30 cm in each replicate. Between the 2 O. glumaepatula experiments, the soil water potential indicated that the stress was more severe at the vegetative phase (around 50 DAT) during the dry season when the soil water potential at a depth of 30 cm reached −60 kPa, compared with the wet season when the minimum soil water potential reached −10 kPa (Supplemental Fig. S13).Shoots were sampled in all experiments: the greenhouse cylinder experiment on Oryza species was harvested at 21 DAT, and destructive shoot sampling in screenhouse experiments was performed on 2 plants per plot at 64 DAT in the Oryza species and at 60 to 64 and 60 to 69 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) in the O. glumaepatula panel in the WW and drought stress treatments, respectively. PHT and TLN were measured, and the shoots were dried at 70°C to determine the SDWs. Maintenance of shoot biomass was calculated to normalize for the diverse plant size and flowering time among accessions and was compared with all the traits measured under the drought stress treatment. This normalization of SDW was performed to account for the high natural variation in flowering time, photoperiod sensitivity, and plant biomass among the O. glumaepatula accessions, which made harvest of grain yield unattainable in many accessions.Concurrent to the shoot sampling, root crown sampling (whole root sampling in greenhouse cylinder experiment) was conducted. In the greenhouse cylinder experiment, the depth of the longest nodal root was noted before washing the entire root system from the soil. In the screenhouse experiments, root crowns were excavated to a depth of 20 cm, cleaned, and stored in ethanol. Root crowns were manually counted to determine the total CRN of each sampled plant.Leaf water potential measurements and sampling for LOP were conducted at 64 DAT in the screenhouse experiment on the Oryza species and at 50 and 57 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) for both WW and drought stress treatments on the O. glumaepatula panel. Two youngest fully expanded leaves from 2 different plants were selected and were immediately inserted into a pressure chamber (3000HGBL Plant Water Status Console, Soilmoisture Equipment Corp.) to record the leaf water potential and then stored in a plastic bag with a small amount of water and placed in an ice chest for further analysis. The same leaf on which leaf water potential was determined was used to determine leaf area (LI-3100C, Li-Cor Inc.). After determining leaf area, the leaves were placed inside coin envelopes and dried at 70°C to determine the leaf dry weight and calculate the specific leaf area (cm 2 mg −1 ).For LOP measurements, 3 youngest fully expanded leaves from different plants were harvested from each plot and immediately folded and placed inside a syringe covered with aluminum foil and stored in ice. The syringes were then stored at −20°C. The sap was extracted by squeezing the samples in the syringe, and the LOP was determined using a vapor pressure osmometer (Vapro model 5520, Wescor, Logan, UT, USA).In the O. glumaepatula diversity panel experiments, nondestructive chlorophyll content measurements (CCM-200, Apogee Instruments) were conducted on 2 youngest, healthy, and fully expanded leaves selected from 2 plants in each plot at 3 different positions on a single leaf at 36 to 37 and 65 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) for both WW and drought stress treatments. CPT was measured at 62 DAT (2017WS) in both the WW and drought stress treatments of the O. glumaepatula panel experiments on a clear sunny afternoon. A hand-held infrared sensor (Apogee Instruments) was positioned about 0.5 m above the canopy and held at 45° angle during the measurement. Three readings were taken for each plot for all 3 replications in the screenhouse. STO was determined on the O. glumaepatula panel experiments for which 2 youngest fully expanded leaves were selected from each plot at 53 to 54 and 58 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) in the WW and at 58 to 59 and 56 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) in the drought stress treatments. Clear nail polish was applied to a 2 to 3 cm length on the middle of the leaf's adaxial surface and allowed to dry for about 5 min. Cellophane sticky tape was placed on the nail polish patch and gentle pressure was applied. The tape was then carefully peeled to remove it along with the intact nail polish imprint (the stomatal peel), which was then mounted on a glass slide and viewed under 20× magnification with the brightfield using a compound microscope (Olympus microscope, BX51). The stomatal number was counted on 3 fields of view for each sample. STO was calculated by dividing the stomatal number by the field of view area which was 0.1452 mm 2 .Soil cores were extracted in the screenhouse experiments between 2 plants in a plot for all 3 replications to a depth of 60 cm using a 4 cm diameter core sampler on 68 DAT in the 24 Oryza species and at 52 to 53 and 63 to 64 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) in the WW treatment and at 56 to 57 and 70 to 72 DAT (2017DS-2017WS) in the drought stress treatment of the O. glumaepatula panel. The cores were then split into 4 depth segments 0 to 15, 15 to 30, 30 to 45, and 45 to 60 cm. These soil core segments were washed thoroughly to remove the soil and other major impurities using a fine sieve, and the roots were stored in 50% ethanol (v/v) at 4°C. The stored root samples were then scanned at 600 dpi (Epson Calibrated Color Optical Scanner STD4800), and the images were analyzed using WinRHIZOPro v. 2013e (Regent Instruments) to determine total root length and also lengths within different diameter classes. RLD for each depth was calculated by dividing the scanned root length by the volume of each soil core segment (188.5 cm 3 ). The LRP was calculated by dividing the total root length with diameter <0.2 mm by the total root length in all diameter classes times 100. DRR was calculated using the formula below:Deep root ratioSum root lengths (30 to 45, 45 to 60 cm) Sum root lengths (0 to 15, 15 to 30, 30 to 45, 45 to 60 cm)The scanned roots were then stored in an envelope and dried at 70°C to determine the RDW. The RDWs were divided by the volume of each core (188.5 cm 3 ) to estimate the RDW density. In the greenhouse cylinder experiment, the whole root system was scanned as described above to determine total root length, number of root forks, LRP, and the RDW was divided by the SDW to calculate root:shoot ratio.All data analysis was conducted using R v. 3.5.2 (R Core Team 2018). The genotypic mean values for all traits were used to calculate the Pearson's correlation coefficients between the traits, and the correlation plot was constructed using the corrplot package (Wei et al. 2017). Stepwise multiple regression analysis was done with the relative SDW as the dependent variable and all other phenotypic traits under drought stress as independent variables.Whole genome sequencing and variant calling of all 69 O. glumaepatula accessions were performed at the University of Arizona, USA, using DNA extracted from leaf tissue from the 2017WS screenhouse experiment. Using BWA-MEM (Li and Durbin 2009) with the default parameters, all clean reads were mapped to the O. glumaepatula reference genome. PCR duplicates of reads were removed using the Picard program (http://broadinstitute.github.io/picard), and reads around InDels were realigned using the IndelRealigner option in the GATK (McKenna et al. 2010). GATK was used to identify SNPs using the unique mapping data. SNPs were then applied hard filtering with parameters settings \"QUAL< 30.0|| QD < 2.0|| MQ < 40.0,\" where QUAL is the overall variant quality, QD is the quality by depth (a normalized quality per number of reads supporting alternate alleles), and MQ is the mapping quality. Of 69 samples, one sample had a very high number of missing calls (accession 105672) and was therefore removed from the dataset for some analyses (PCA). The full SNP dataset was used for phylogenetic tree construction and PCA in Supplemental Fig. S9; prior to running other population structure analyses, the dataset was filtered by requiring minor allele count to be at least 8, number of missing genotypes at most 10, and number of heterozygous calls per SNP at most 8, resulting in a set with 915,349 SNPs. For the ADMIXTURE analysis (Alexander et al. 2009) and kinship matrix construction, we also generated an LD pruned subset using PLINK 1.9 (Chang et al. 2015) using parameters r 2 = 0.85 and window size 50 kb, resulting in a set of 238,751 SNPs.A model-based population structure analysis implemented in the software ADMIXTURE was run with the number of putative ancestral populations (K ) ranging from 2 to 9. For each K value, we generated 20 randomly thinned SNP subsets of the LD pruned set, by removing every SNP with probability P = 0.4 (using PLINK -thin command). We ran ADMIXTURE on each thinned subset and aligned the resulting Q matrices using the R package \"pophelper\" (Francis 2017), which was also used for creating the ADMIXTURE bar plot. Upon removal of aberrant runs, the final Q-matrices were averaged and aligned using the same package. The lowest cross-validation error appeared at K = 6; thus, it was chosen for defining genetic groups (clusters). The clusters were defined as follows: if the admixture proportion from a single ancestral population exceeded 70%, the sample was assigned to the corresponding cluster, otherwise it was classified as admixed. The R package \"phangorn\" v.2.7.1 (Schliep 2011) was used for phylogenetic analysis (neighborjoining tree).Genotype data were further filtered by minor allele count (>8) and genotyping rate (>80%). Genome-wide efficient mixed model analysis (GEMMA) software (Zhou and Stephens 2012) was used to run MLM-based GWAS. For each trait, a null GWAS model (i.e. mixed model with kinship, covariates, but no test SNP) was run, and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) value was calculated. For all traits considered, the optimal BIC value was attained at zero covariates; however, the values of BIC were not substantially different when 1 or 2 principal components were added; thus, we also evaluated MLM models with up to 2 principal components as covariates. The 4 introgressed accessions that were identified from the ADMIXTURE analysis were excluded from the GWAS. PCA was done in PLINK v1.9. The kinship matrix was computed in GEMMA using -gk 1 command-line option.","tokenCount":"7013"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a77b57242f09d994071420cf0b08ece4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e4ec262-649b-40b0-98c0-39b65136c968/retrieve","id":"240837355"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"afd42140-f01f-47ee-8c10-e73d08ef788c","pagecount":"111","content":"The European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN) is a collaborative programme among European countries aimed at ensuring the effective conservation and the sustainable utilization of forest genetic resources in Europe. It was established to implement Resolution 2 of the Strasbourg Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe.EUFORGEN is financed by participating countries and is coordinated by IPGRl, in collaboration with the Forestry Department of FAO. It facilitates the dissemination of information and various collaborative initiatives. The Programme operates through networks in which forest geneticists and other forestry specialists work together to analyze needs, exchange experiences and develop conservation objectives and methods for selected species. The networks also contribute to the development of appropriate conservation strategies for the ecosystems to which these species belong. Network members and other scientists and forest managers from participating countries carry out an agreed workplEm with their own resources as inputs in kind to the Programme. EUFORGEN is overseen by a Steering Committee composed of National Coordinators nominated by the participating countries.The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRl or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these participating organizations.The second EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network meeting was held from 22 to 25 March 1997. It was hosted by the Centro de Investigaciones Forestales in Lourizan, Galicia, Spain. Participants from 22 countries attended the meeting (seeIt was recognized that inventories are the prerequisite of gene conservation strategies for Noble Hardwood species. Reliable data are needed regarding the ecogeographic distribution of individual species. The next fundamental step will be the inventory of information on genetic and phenotypic traits. Basic requirements for inventories of genetic resources at the level of populations, used in forestry practice, were presented by J. Kleinschmit. These inventory requirements were then broadly discussed and will be further developed. A more general presentation was given by G. Eriksson on the sampling for genetic resources in the absence of genetic knowledge.G. Eriksson will send his paper on sampling strategies to J. Turok by 1 July 1997. Jochen Kleinschmit, Richard Stephan, Csaba Matyas and Fulvio Ducci will prepare a paper on inventory requirements for the next meeting (to be circulated 1 month prior to the meeting).Several models of databases and descriptor lists used in various projects on forest genetic resources were briefly presented and discussed from a technical point of view. The type and structure will differ according to the groups of species. A decentralized structure should preferably be used. IPGRl was asked to assist with the organization of the databases and their possible connection through the Internet.to J. Turok for inclusion in the Report of the meeting by 1 July 1997. Brigitte Demesure to prepare a concept note on the principles of databases at a national level for the next meeting (to be circulated 1 month before the meeting).All the countries gave very brief updates of the current situation and the activities that have taken place since the last meeting. It was noted that a number of activities on genetic resources have been initiated or further developed and that contacts between the Network members and relevant institutions in their countries have been improved. Introductory country reports on the conservation of genetic resources in agreed Noble Hardwoods species from Romania, Ukraine, Poland, Russian Federation and Sweden were provided and will be published in full.An overview table showing the relative importance of individual Noble Hardwoods in the national gene conservation programmes at the level of species and populations was updated (see Table 1).Insufficient coverage of many Noble Hardwood species by the current legal regulations on the movement of reproductive material was emphasized as a common and continuous concern. The application of minimum standards for source-identified reproductive material for trade was outlined as the main objective to be pursued. The formulation of a letter reflecting this position will give the Network members the possibility to address their national authorities concerning legislation on forest reproductive materials.Introductory country reports to be submitted by Romania, Ukraine, Poland, Russian Federation and Sweden to J. Turok by 1 June 1997. Sven de Vries and J. Turok to formulate and circulate among all Network members a letter with recommendations regarding the agreed position of the Network on seed legislation by 1 May 1997.The literature reviews developed so far on individual species and groups of species were presented. It was noted that this task could not be finalized owing to the short time. All references which are relevant from each Network member's perspective should be included. The Network members were encouraged to compile literature reviews on behalf of and in collaboration with all national institutions. It was agreed to concentrate on 'grey literature' but references from refereed international journals may be included as well. Regarding accessibility of the literature included, the source (originating institute) should always be cited, in addition to the information agreed upon at the last meeting. Any original literature should be kept by the compilers of the reviews for individual species and groups of species.   :.l:ie.::.L:.l::f?..: .. , .... L.•:~t.:U:±;.B~.Li: .. Acer pseudoplatanus ,:.P' .,j;L:L:e::U; ... E.i?2.;::):t.P..;;;:l[d.J?.:.::G:]lS:.:.l.:.::d .. § ..... ;.:LP. .. r:~~~:a:~~:~:lm ;:~ . . :;;j,~;ji~~!,~;:;i,t~;;;j~\"~:I.t.!,:,:j;;i;,:,tl~~~j;~2iit?~;J::~::ti,;:t]:;.;j;#.,i . . ;ti=l:k;j:t~.t~~:ii:~i,i- ~~~~:~~:S;;iS ,;:~::;;;::::I::~:;:;:;d:: §;:;t;:d::~:;:::.;;;L~::.;;:i;+•:::::::::i;;L~::;:;[J:~:m];;;k~;:::j][:Lp.;~]JE:L~:::;:;:.J::~::::::::i:::::::::::::L~;[~:;:d:::::::::::::i::p.:::::::::I::::::::::::J::;~:::;d:: §::::::j::~::::::;;i:1::::::1:::::::::::::: ~:: ~;~:s~:~onnis:::~::::::::I::::::::::::J::::::::::::bp.:~~;}:~+p.::::::::f:::::::::::::f::~::::::::l:p.::E:;:::hp.~;:•::;d:::::::::::::L §::::::::i::p.::::::::i::~::::::::k §];JI:d:::::::::::::1::::::::::::::t::::::::::::+ §i:::::d:::::::::::::I:::::::::::::i::~::::::::i:::::::::::::: *~::!~7:a~: :!:2~\"t=i~~.ij€;~~;TI:J~Ef~~rr~B~f~f~1:.,:;~I;if;;:~jl~;¥(i:I•:~i:f!':1~t~IT~~'~i!~t~~1;cl:i;;_i:I~;~~ ~::;i;:£~~s ~:;:I,:;;li•~jj;:.;j~;.\"~~I;:;I~!~!~;•:iJt~;;i~!,::I;z\\:t~J~•i'•;•t•:;i;tJ~j•:~:•:~;tZ::;;;~t;:~•\"t:;;i:j.'~;,I;,l:•:li~,•j;~i•,:!;::~i:zt~t::AUT =Austria, BEL=Belgium, HRV=Croatia, CZE=Czech Republic, DNK=Denmark, FIN=Finland, FRA=France, DEU=Germany, HUN=Hungary, ITA=ltaly, LVA=Latvia, LTU=Lithuania, MLT=Malta, NLD=the Netherlands, POL=Poland, ROM=Romania, RUS=Russian Federation, SVK=Slovakia, ESP=Spain, SWE=Sweden, CHE=Switzerland, UKR=Ukraine.Romania is located in the southeastern part of Europe between 43°30'-48°20' N latitude and 19°50'-29°00' E longitude. The country elevation ranges between 0 and 2542 m above sea level. The Carpathians with their Pre-Carpathians hills, the Transylvanian and Moldovan plateaux, as well as the southern Romanian lowlands, represent the most prominent parts of the country.The climate is a typical temperate continental one, i.e. with heavy winters and hot summers, but mild springs and autumns. Rainfalls are normal at higher elevations and more or less poor at lower ones.Because of the favourable geographic and climatic conditions, the Romanian forest flora is very rich (Table 1). But since the late 1970s a heavy drought has been the main characteristic of the weather. Such dry weather, combined with local and overall pollution, as well as some pests and diseases, is causing serious negative effects on several trees and shrubs (Blada 1995).After agriculture, forests represent the most valuable natural resource in Romania. According to the Romanian Forest Inventory (Anonymous 1986), forest represents about 27% of the country's area. Table 2 shows that out of 6341472 ha of total forest land, 6223416 ha represent forest-covered areas while 118056 ha represent other forest lands. The afforested areas include broadleaved species (4312650 ha or 69.3%) and conifers (1 910766 ha or 30.7%).The major indigenous broadleaved species are Fagus sylvatica (1 909 187 ha or 30.7%) and different Quercus species (1142500 ha or 18.4%) while the most widespread conifer species is Picea abies (1431 670 ha or 23%), followed by Abies alba (311452 ha or 5%). The major indigenous species which can be found within virgin or virgin-like natural forests are: Fagus sylvatica, Picea abies, Abies alba, Larix decidua, Pin us nigra subsp. banatica and Pinus cembra.Other economically and ecologically important species (Quercus petraea, Q. petraea subsp. dalechampii, Q. petraea subsp. polycarpa, Q. robur, Q. pedunculiflora, Q. frainetto, Q. pubescens, Q. virgiliana, Q. cerris, Populus alba, P. nigra, Salix alba, etc.) have in the past been components of the virgin forests; unfortunately, especially owing to man's destructive activity, these forests no longer maintain their natural state.According to the Romanian Forest Law (1996) all forests are managed taking into consideration:• sustainable, close-to-nature and multifunctional forest management according to the principles of dynamic gene conservation • active protection and conservation of biological diversity of forests • support of the biological and economic stability and continuity of forests by promoting natural regeneration and by improving the planting stock • natural regeneration supported in all forests, where possible; if seedlings are used, they should derive from adequate seed sources,• and only suitable species / provenances can be used. Why the need for conservation?There are several reasons why there is a need for forest genetic resources conservation in Romania:• for maintaining, at least, the present genetic diversity of all native species • because, according to the monitoring data, the health state of Romanian forests is negatively influenced, mainly by combined effects of drought and pollution • because, according to long-term prognoses and owing to the climate change, a desertification process will take place in the southern part of Romania; consequently, ecosystems including many tree species (Le. Quercus spp., Populus alba, Populus nigra, Acer spp., etc.) are already in danger • because all species of Ulmus have been seriously damaged by Ophiostoma ulmi for about seven decades; because of this disease and perhaps other causes, most of the Ulmus populations disappeared.Selected seed stands About three decades ago, the Forest Research and Management Institute, together with the forestry authorities, started an extensive programme aimed at selecting the best seed stands within both natural and artificial populations. According to the Seed Stand Catalogue (Enescu 1986) the selected seed stands are as follows (Table 3):• total number of seed stands: 2912, of which 1555 (53%) were conifers and 1357 (47%) broadleaved species • total (conserved in situ + ex situ) seed stands area: 70178.7 ha, of which 32886.0 ha (47%) were conifers and 37 292.7 ha (53%) broadleaved species • total area of seed stands conserved in situ: 61 705.2 ha, of which 26 302.2 ha (43%) were conifers and 35 397.0 ha (57%) broadleaved species • according to the national regulations (Enescu et al. 1988), all the seeds for reforestation of commercial stands have to be collected from approved seed stands and seed orchards. It must be stressed that some very valuable Noble Hardwood species, such as Acer campestre, A. platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus and Prunus avium, had no selected seed stands yet. Some other important Noble Hardwoods species, e.g. Ulmus spp., Malus sylvestris, Pyrus pyraster and Sorbus spp., could not have designated seed stands because they are found in general only as scattered trees. Other species like Carpinus betulus and Betula pendula, though widely spread, have little potential silvicultural and industrial importance. For this reason, selection for most Noble Hardwood species has not taken place yet.It must also be stressed that, at present, the new inventory of the seed stands (and other forest genetic resources) is ongoing in Romania, and in 1999 a new catalogue will be released. An inventory was started in 1993 and should be finished in 1998. However, the main results, by counties, were presented at the end of 1996 (Lalu and Nicolescu 1996) (Table 4). It is a special category of natural populations with high genetic variability and economic value, and also comprising numerous seed stands, where finally natural regeneration is desirable. The major criteria for selection were origin, wood production, wood quality, adaptability to the environment and natural pest resistance. Such forest reserves consist of the main productive species, and include Noble Hardwoods from the following genera: Pieea, Abies, Larix, Pin us, Fagus, Quereus, Aeer, Ulmus, Fraxinus, Prunus, Tilia, Alnus, Sorbus, Castanea, Malus, Pyrus, Populus. Many other, less productive species, including shrubs, are also covered.Table 4 shows that selection of forest reserves was made in 42 counties with the following results (Lalu and Nicolescu 1996):• there are 347 delineated units, each unit consisting of a 'core' and a 'buffer zone' surrounding each core • the total core area at the country level was 11 304 ha, with an average of 33 ha per core • the proportion of the genetic reserves from the total national forest land was 0.17%. At the completion of inventory, probably in 1998, a catalogue with Natural Forest Reserves by counties, species and area, including Noble Hardwoods, will be released. All these forest reserves fall into the IUCN IVth category.Protected areas: national parks and biosphere reserves According to Toniuc et al. (1992), in Romania there are 586 protected areas. From the forestry viewpoint 13 national parks representing a total of 397 761 ha are the most important. Almost all tree species, including Noble Hardwoods, could be found in these areas. Unfortunately, detailed information on their tree species composition cannot be given here. Alnus glutinosa (20.9 ha) and Castanea sativa (144.5 ha). Even though these stands have good phenotypic characteristics, their origin is unknown.According to Enescu et al. (1989), 1004 ha of clonal and seedling seed orchards of phenotypically selected plus trees were established in Romania, but only 972.8 ha remain at present.  At present, 23 species are considered Noble Hardwoods in Romania (Table 6).Beech and oaks are considered among the most important Noble Hardwoods in our country, but they belong under the scope of the 'Social Broadleaves Network' and are therefore not dealt with here (see Table 7). According to the author, some softwood species, such as Betula pendula and Tilia spp. cannot be called \"Hardwoods\" even if they fulfill the criteria to be \"Noble\"; it seems that the designation of \"Hardwoods\" is not suitable for such species.A special remark should be made regarding Juglans regia which is neither a native nor a typical forest species but produces the best veneer for the furniture industry. For its extremely valuable timber, it should be recommended for further introduction into the forestry practice.According to their occurrence and population size, four categories of Noble Hardwoods (including oaks and beech) were established (Table 6), such as large, medium, small populations and scattered trees.The first category comprises species with large population sizes like Fagus sylvatica, Quercus spp., and the last one comprises species that have more or less only scattered trees like Ulmus spp., Pyrus pyraster, Malus sylvestris, etc. Within the first category the best interpollination occurs, while the highest self-pollination and hence inbreeding could be found within the species that have only scattered trees or small populations. Noble Hardwood species are very important for the national economy: in the woodprocessing industry, other industrial sectors, silviculture and various other purposes (Table 7). The wood-processing industry uses Noble Hardwoods mainly for furniture, e.g. maple, ash, lime, wild cherry, alder and, of course, walnut produces high-quality veneer. Some other industrial sectors, such as paper, colouring and even the food industry, use Noble Hardwood products as raw materials. For example, alder wood is used for colouring, and walnut and chestnut nuts and wild cherries are used in the food industry.Almost all Noble Hardwoods are used or should be intensively used in silviculture in establishing mixed stands, as associated species with the principal ones.Similarly to other tree species, Noble Hardwoods have been affected by several damaging agents, such as drought, pollution (and other adverse human activities), vascular diseases, defoliators, seed predators, genetic drift and inbreeding (Table 8).Elms (Ulmus minor, U. glabra, U. laevis and U. procera) are the most endangered species; in Romania they have been attacked by Ophiostoma ulmi since 1924 (Georgescu et al. 1958). As a result, most of the populations have disappeared, and at present, only scattered trees could be found. Because of this situation, the genetic diversity within elms has been severely reduced. Research on the breeding of elms for Ophiostoma resistance is ongoing in Romania (Borlea 1997).To prevent losses of genetic diversity in Noble Hardwoods, conservation combined with breeding and use, according to the genetic principles, is compulsory. • House construction, fuel, handicrafts, landscaping, etc .Noble Hardwoods usually grow either in association with major species within mixed populations or as scattered trees. Range fragmentation gives rise to insufficient geneflow. Genetic drift and inbreeding followed by an inadequate use in forest plantations lead to a gradual loss of genetic diversity. To avoid such undesirable phenomena, the genetic structure of planting material has to comprise as many genes as possible.To meet this requirement, two breeding/ conservation/utilization schemes are proposed (Fig. 1).According to these schemes, the country is divided into several provenance regions, and the work should be done separately for each of them: The basic principle of both schemes consists of: (a) combining in situ with ex situ conservation, but using predominantly planting material from populations conserved ex situ; (b) joint breeding, conservation and utilization by maintaining as broad a genetic diversity as possible, i.e. a dynamic conservation by breeding and use which is in accordance with other authors' opinions (Kleinschmit 1994;Eriksson 1996). The planting stock produced by using these two schemes will be characterized by high genetic variability.In Romania, special attention should be given to elms, where Ophiostoma ulmi has caused loss of most of the populations. Therefore, the dynamic conservation according to these two schemes, is strongly recommended. Identify parents with the best GCA for OU resistance or other traits Establish seed orchards into PR-1 by using at least 100 parents with a good GCA for OU resistance or other traitsConserve ex situ the above-mentioned seed orchards Produce seeds and planting material improved for OU resistance or other traits; this material, characterized by a high genetic diversity, will be planted into PR-1 t A tester design could also be used. In Ukraine the total area covered by forests is about 8 600 000 ha with an average proportion of forest coverage of 14.3%. The total growing stock is about 1319.9 million m 3 (as in 1989). The forest cover is higher in the following regions: Carpathians (39.9%), Crimea (30%), Polissya (29.8%). According to general information on the state forest fund of Ukraine, coniferous stands cover 47% of the territory occupied by forests, hardwoods 42% and softwoods 11%.Since the beginning of the century, activities for the conservation of forest genetic resources have been carried out. The long-term programme for conservation of genetic diversity of natural forests in Ukraine has, in fact, been operational for 70-80 years. It foresaw selection, conservation and reconstruction of valuable genetic resources. According to this programme, mature populations were selected for in situ conservation in the more widespread type of forest gene reserves. They preserved the typical characteristics of the occurring forest type. In general, these are highly productive stands where plus and other best-performing trees were selected and registered. The gene reserves with a high proportion of rare species sometimes have lower productivity. Provenances trials, clonal archives, seed orchards and seed plantations also belong to gene conservation units. Most gene conservation units contain the principal forest-forming species: Pin us sylvestris, Quercus robur and others. Rare and Noble Hardwoods species are present in several units.The stands in which Noble Hardwoods predominate (species of the genera Betula L., Alnus Mill., Carpinus L., Fraxinus L., Ulmus L., Acer L., Tilia L.) occupy about 12% of the territory covered by forests. At the same time Noble Hardwoods are disseminated in the hardwood forests almost everywhere, and Betula in coniferous forests, with a range from single occurrence to 40% of the species composition.Characteristics of the Noble Hardwoods stands, some results of breeding and methods of conservation for each species are given below.Betula pendula Roth (verrucosa Ehrh.) This species is one of the most important and widespread in the forests of Ukraine. It often grows in mixture with Betula pubescens Ehrh. Betula pendula requires more light than B. pubescens and grows worse on soils with high water content. The stands in which these two species predominate occupy 290 200 ha (Table 1). There are many geographical, ecological and morphological forms (intraspecific variation) of B. pendula in Ukraine. Two gene reserves of B. pendula were chosen, one in Polissya forest zone and one in forest-steppe zone (Table 2). Edaphic conditions of the stand essentially influence the growth performance of ash. Forms which need much water perform worse in dry valleys than droughtresistant forms. All this proves that ash, like other similar tree species, requires a good understanding of seed behaviour and good choice of planting sites.Numerous forms of ash differ by volume and morphology of fruits and winged seeds. During the planting of the above-mentioned provenance collection a special trial was established with seeds of different size. Individuals from big, middle-:size and small seeds do not differ significantly with regard to tree height, diameter, resistance and productivity.Ashes with seeds of narrow-shovel, sharp-pointed and narrow-winged linear forms are the most widespread in the forests of Ukraine. Dependence of the growth performance and productivity on the form of seeds was not observed.To conserve and study ash stands, seven reserves with predominance of F. excelsior were chosen in different regions of Ukraine (Table 3). The genetic diversity of Fraxinus is also conserved in the mixed oak-ash stands. Fifty-one reserves of the European oak with a total area over 1500 ha are now designated in nine regions of Ukraine. Ash makes up 10-50% of their composition (Table 4). Altogether 31 plus trees of F. excelsior and 9 plus trees of F. angustifolia were selected. Clonal seed orchards were established from cuttings of F. excelsior (total area 6.8 ha) and F. angustifolia (1.9 ha). Fraxinus angustifolia Wahl. grows naturally in Crimea. It is less investigated.    6 and 7). is a species with early occurrence, mainly in the north-western regions. There is one gene reserve with 10% share in the species composition of the stand (Table 8). Malus sylvestris (1.) Mill.Malus sylvestris grows widely as individual trees.European walnut breeding in Ukraine for winter hardiness and high fruit quality has been the object of investigations since the 1930s. During that period genetic forms have been developed withstanding low temperatures as low as -35 to -37°C practically without damages, affecting the degree of yield. These trees do not compare unfavourably with the best foreign breeds. For example, the protein content in the nut kernels can be up to 21-24%, and the fat content reaches as much as 70% and higher.During the last 25 years in European walnut breeding, the species' ability for apomixis resulted in autonomous and induced parthenogenesis and pseudogamy.In the mentioned cases the developing ovicell nucleus reduces a diploid set of chromosomes during one of the first divisions, causing homozygosity of the plant, i.e. lines appearance. The plants having lethals and semilethals are rejected. Among the remaining forms of the increased genetic level the fast-growing forms are isolated, having fruits of high quality, some of which possess increased winter hardiness. Some forms have been further improved, with average fruit (nuts) mass 23 g and average kernel yield 7.5 g.Methods of vegetative propagation of the European walnut have been developed for the steppe conditions, by summer inoculations with ennobled planting material up to 84-86% as well as by indoor winter grafting into a small stem and root. The survival of planting material is up to 79% and 60%, respectively.When different Juglans species are crossed among themselves, including European walnut, forms with heterosis growth are selected. For example the volume of a decorative wood suitable for veneering wood manufacture for one tree at the age of 42 years was 6 m 3In Ukraine, long-term breeding programmes are designed for the development of further improved genetic material and include the conservation of genetic resources of natural Noble Hardwood stands. Genetic investigations of these species and their populations should be intensified. Unfortunately, breeding research is considerably reduced owing to lack of financial support. Taking into account the increasing importance of Noble Hardwoods, additional programmes on these species are necessary. They must include detailed information on their distribution, the objectives of genetic resources conservation, and studies of their morphological and genetic diversity.The area of forests in Poland amounts to 8732000 ha, representing 27.9% of the total country area. There are public and private forests. The area of public forests is 7 240 000 ha, wherein 7 164 00 ha are state property (6 855 000 ha are under State Forest Service administration), and local communities own 76 000 ha. Private forests cover 1492 000 ha, wherein 1394000 ha are the property of individual persons.The average age is 50 years (in the State Forest Service 55 years and in private forests 36 years). Almost 96% of the forests are artificially regenerated, while only 4% naturally. The forest health condition is constantly deteriorating. The percentage of damaged deciduous tree species is growing and it has reached the proportion of 51.3%, while the respective proportion for coniferous tree species is 55.4%.In Poland, the only law in force defining the methods for the in situ preservation of plants and animals is the Nature Protection Law of 16 October 1991 (Anonymous 1991a). It also prescribes the penalties for its infringements. The Nature Protection Law comprises the following forms of protection:• national park • nature reserve • landscape park • protected landscape area • plant and animal species protection • nature monument • ecological grounds.The Forest Law of 28 September 1991 mentions the necessity of gene resources conservation (Anonymous 1991b). The background of this issue was more widely elaborated in the report published in December 1994: 'The Polish policy concerning the broad preservation of forest resources' (Rykowski 1994;Grzywacz 1994).The Forest Research Institute, under the responsibility of the State Forest Service, creates and carries out the forest tree breeding and gene resources conservation programmes, and coordinates the activities with other collaborating institutions. Until 1990 some of our activities concerning gene conservation were carried out under the actual breeding programme . One of the main aims of this programme was to conserve, mainly in situ, economically important species, populations and trees. In January 1993 the 'Programme of gene conservation and tree breeding' was formally confirmed for the period 1991-2010 (Matras and Korczyk 1993).There are 31 native broadleaved species occurring in Poland's forests. Only a few of them are economically important, because of their wide distribution and wood quality (Table 1). At the end of 1994, the total area covered by broadleaved species amounted to 1 924 000 ha, i.e. 22.1% of the total forest area in Poland. The proportion of individual species areas including most important Noble Hardwoods is as follows: Fagus sylvatica -4.1 %; Quercus robur and Q. petraea, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer platanoides and A. pseudoplatanus and Ulmus spp. -6.0%; Betula pendula and B. pubescens and Robinia pseudoacacia -5.8%; Alnus glutinosa and A. incana -5.3%; Populus tremula, Tilia cordata and T. platyphyllos and Salix spp. -0.4%; Carpinus betulus -0.3%; Populus hybrids -0.2%.Forests under legal protection represent 41.5% of the total forest area in Poland. They include:• 22 national parks -284811 ha (of which forests 64.2%), 0.9% of the whole country area • 524 forest reserves -38200 ha (0.44% of the forest area), 0.38% of whole country area • 96 landscape parks -1860500 ha (of which forests 56.6%), 6.0% of the whole country area • 231 protected landscapes -5 257500 ha (of which forests 44.7%), 16.8% of the whole country area. Additionally there are in situ and ex situ conservation units, which are chosen for tree breeding purposes (Table 2). In 1996 a new type of in situ gene conservation units was started. A number of 'protective tree stands' were designated. Fragments of old-growth, natural or seminatural stands were selected, using the criteria of threat level. Seeds harvested from these stands are maintained for long-term storage in the Gene Bank. Only sanitary fellings are allowed in the category of the protective tree stands. The first stands were designated in the state forest of the region Bialystok where four Fraxinus excelsior stands (total area 39.73 ha) and five Quercus robur stands (46.98 ha) were selected.The following research programmes are carried out: Andrey Prokazin, Iliodor Routkowsky and Nadezhda Shchegunova Russian Tree Breeding Centre, 141200 Pushkino, Russian FederationHardwoods grow all over the territory of Russia, from the Kola Peninsula in the north to the Caucasus in the south, and from western frontiers as far as the Far East.There are dozens of species, and they prevail on an area of more than 120 million ha. The most widespread are oak, beech, maple, lime, birch and aspen (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Although most deciduous forests are situated in the Asian part of Russia, they also cover a significant area (more than 40 million ha) in the European-Urals region. The above species are of economic importance and are used intensively (especially in the regions with developed infrastructure). Considering a huge growing stock of deciduous forests (of which more than 13 billion m 3 belong to the six above species), a difficult economic situation in Russia, as well as relatively high profitability of woodworking industries, one may predict maintenance of or increase in the exploitation of hardwood species. It should be noted that those species are especially endangered which produce a highly valuable timber. In this connection, the efforts aimed at study and conservation of the rich genetic diversity of Russian deciduous hardwood forests would be timely. As is evident from the previously published EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network materials, the discussion of the criteria for assignment of particular hardwoods to the Noble Hardwoods group is not completed yet. However, the Network participants are using the two following criteria: the species must be local (not introduced), and it must produce either highly valuable or extensively used merchantable wood. The Noble Hardwoods also include endangered species, as well as species which must be preserved because of their ecological significance and scattered distribution patterns.If the forest fund in Russia (characterized by a very rich diversity of site conditions) is viewed in this context, it may be concluded that all main hardwood species may.be classified as Noble Hardwoods, depending on specific regions of their distribution, with the areas covered being comparable with those of some European countries. The species in question, with their stands covering (depending on a region) hundreds of thousands, or millions of hectares, may produce highquality (oak, beech) or extensively used merchantable wood (birch, poplar); they may be of major environmental importance, or may be used in protection forestry (maple, lime); finally, those species may not comply with the above criteria for belonging to the Noble Hardwoods group. For instance, Quercus robur is considered a Noble Hardwood species in the North Caucasus, whereas it does not belong to the Noble Hardwoods group within its northern range because of the frost damages preventing a widespread use of Q. robur wood. In some regions, Populus tremula is not susceptible to rot attacks and produces valuable raw materials for the pulp and paper industry, and it is commonly used for establishing water conservation and soil protective stands; hence, it belongs to Noble Hardwoods. In other regions, this species does not belong to the Noble Hardwoods group and is of minor importance. The authors of this report follow the species list adopted by the Network member countries and conventionally attributed to the group of Noble Hardwoods. Consequently, the situation of genetic conservation of oak, beech and poplar is not described here.Maple and sycamore(Acer) Acer platanoides and A. pseudoplatanus occur in the European-Urals part of Russia. The most widely distributed is A. platanoides, as a component of stands mixed with oak, ash, birch and other species, within forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones. Maple is used in protection forests. Acer ukurunduense (with the most extensive range), A. mandschuricum, A. ginnala, A. mono, A. tegmentosum and others are found in the Far East. The stands of A. mono occur within river terraces, those of A. mandschuricum in valleys. As a result of A. platanoides breeding, ornamental types of maple were selected, featuring a globe-shaped or pyramidal crown, cut white-motley and red leaves, various texture of wood. Crossing of A. platanoides with other species made it possible to obtain fast-growing hybrids (especially valuable ones as a result of crossing with A. negundo). At the foothills of the southern Urals, maple is of particular importance for its soil-protecting, waterregulation and water-storage role.The most widely distributed species is Tilia cordata, of which virtually pure stands are found in Bashkorostan, Chuvashia and Tatarstan, with the mean growing stock of 80-year-old stands being about 350 m 3 /ha. This species occurs everywhere in the forest-steppe zone of European Russia. Tilia sibirica, a relict species of Siberian broadleaved forests, occurs at the foothills of the Kuznetsk Ala Tau ('Lime island' of 400 km 2) and in the neighbourhood of Krasnoyarsk. Tilia amurensis is often found in the Far East, within river valleys and in mountain broadleaved forests.Less distributed are T. mandshurica and T. taquetii. During selection of T. cordata within natural stands of the central Urals, the ornamental types were selected with a wide column-shaped, oval or weeping crown, as well as other phenological types. As a result of remote crossing, a number of ornamental and stable types of lime was obtained. Lime is introduced in artificial stands mixed with oak, pine and larch; it is used for planting of greenery and in protection forestry, and is also a good melliferous species. The light and soft lime wood is used in the production of plywood, turnery and fretwork.There are about 50 species of birch in Russia. However, only two main species of long-boled, white-barked birch -Betula pendula and B. pubescensprevail over the major part of the territory, with the exception of the extreme north and south regions. Both species are often found in the same stand, although B. pendula prefers drier and higher sites. Birch forests come third in area behind larch and pine stands, respectively. Growin? conditions being favourable, the productivity of birch stands may reach 350 m /ha by the age of 50. The extensive areas of West Siberia are covered with B. krylovii. The most widely distributed in East Siberia and in the Far East are the dark-barked B. lanata and B. dahurica, as well as the whitebarked B. platyphylla. A small range in the East Sakhta is occupied with B. cajanderi. Betula costata occurs to the south of the Lower Amur (the Far East), and B. schmidtii, which was entered in the Red Data Book, is distributed over dry rocky slopes in the extreme south of the Primorski Territory. As a result of breeding carried out with B. pendula and B. pubescens, a considerable number of morphological types were selected, differing in the rate of growth, and the structure of bark and crown; a long-boled variety of B. pendula f. carelica was also selected. Within forest and foreststeppe zones, birch is introduced in the artificial stands of pine and spruce, with the purpose of raising their tolerance and productivity; birch is also used in protection forests and amenity planting, and is of great environmental and recreational value. Pure birch stands may produce high-quality wood for diverse uses.Despite a long history of hardwood breeding in Russia, we have so far only a vague idea of their genetic structure. Moreover, genetic distinctions between some species are not clear. This problem is very complicated and hardly studied, for the following reasons: the research work mostly involves conifers which are the main timber species of the highest economic value; extensive ranges of hardwoods that make it necessary to collect considerable quantities of experimental data; small number of scientists who are sufficiently skilled in applying sophisticated research methods; high prices for the preparationEi which are indispensable for carrying out genetic research. Today, the progress in studies of hardwoods' genetic structure in Russia could be achieved only on the condition that some external financial sources be available. Thus, the term 'ecotype', or 'climatype', is widely used now by Russian breeders when considering intraspecific structure of hardwoods, as applied to stands within a certain administrative region. For instance, the \"Moscow climatype\" refers to stands growing within the bounds of the Moscow Region.Lack of systematic research into this problem, as well as no distinct ideas available concerning the genetic structure of hardwoods, could not leave unaffected the regulations of the 'Division of the main forest timber species in the USSR into tree seed zones' that was issued as early as 1982. Pursuant to that document, the boundaries of tree seed zones should run along the administrative boundaries. However, such a condition does not lessen the significance of that document which was developed from the results of a large-scale evaluation of provenance trials of main timber tree species, and paved the way for the regulation of seed utilization.The first basic document on the conservation of national forest genetic resources is 'The Regulations on designation and conservation of tree species genepools in the forests of the USSR which have been in force since 1982. This document determines the main directions of the work to be performed and the criteria for designation of forest gene reserves, as well as the relevant procedures to be followed.The designation of forest gene reserves in Russia takes into consideration specific features of the national forest legislation which divides all forests into three groups. The group I forests (20%) perform mainly water-storage, protective, sanitary and other ecological and social functions. In the group II forests (5.5%) forest exploitation is permitted with certain restrictions; those forests are located in densely populated, or in sparsely forested regions. The group III forests (74.5%) are of mainly exploitable, commercial value. Accordingly, particular forest management rules are specified for each group, the group I forests being managed most carefully.The group I forests comprise several protection classes, including reserve forests, national and natural parks, etc. Forest gene reserves are thereby referred to the protection class of \"forests of scientific or historical value\".The special protected forest areas (SPF A) are to be allocated within each group of forests. In this connection, forest gene reserves may be considered as \"special protected forest areas of particular economic value\". Generally, only relatively small forest gene reserves are assigned to SPFAs. SPFAs are not allocated within those of the group I forests which are referred to protection classes with similar or even more strict forest management regime.It is permitted to transfer the forest areas which were assigned formerly to gene reserves within the group Il and III forests, to the group I forests.Pursuant to the current rules, the gene reserves may be allocated in:1. the forests of protected reserves, national and natural parks (group I forests), without transferring to another forest group or protection class (the decision must be made by forest management bodies of the Russian Federation's regions); 2. the group I forests, with transferring to the protection class \"forests of scientific or historical value\" (the decision must be made by the authorities of the Russian Federation's regions); 3. in the forests of all groups, with assigning to \"special protected forest areas of particular economic value\" (to be decided upon exactly as in 2); 4. in the groups Il and III forests, with transferring to the group I forests and assigning to \"forests of scientific or historical value\" (the decision must be made by the Federal Forest Service of Russia).Accordingly, each of the above alternatives requires a particular set of necessary source documents (application to be submitted by a relevant organization, expert's conclusion, cartographic materials, silvicultural characterization of areas, etc.), as well as specific procedures for considering, coordinating and approving a decision on the designation of gene reserves.One can point out roughly three lines of work relating to the conservation of hardwood genepools in situ and ex situ. The first one comprises conservation of genepool by means of breeding. Seed stands and plus trees are selected, and seed orchards, provenance trials, progeny trials and clonal archives established. This work is carried out most broadly and systematically owing to financial support of the Federal Forest Service of Russia under the coordination ensured by the Russian Tree Breeding Centre. It should be noted that Russian forest legislation also binds forest owners and users with an obligation to carry out tree breeding work.The second group of activities aimed mainly at genepool conservation envisages designation of forest gene reserves according to the criteria determined above. Generally, this scope of work is carried out from scientists' own initiative, without any coordination at a national level or financial backing.The third line of work aimed mainly at the conservation of forest ecosystems includes the establishment of national parks and reserves, as well as forest reserves and other specially protected areas intended, in addition to their main function, for genepool conservation. This work is performed, as a rule, on the initiative of administrations of the Russian Federation's regions, and is not in progress at the present time.This report comprises the information on gene conservation units which either exist naturally or have been established artificially when carrying out work within the framework of the first two directions.The above system on gene conservation in the forests, as well as the lines of that work, allows to specify a list of participating institutions.The breeding work is performed, principally, by Russian forest management units under the guidance of regional forest management bodies, and, methodically, with the participation of research institutes.Designation of gene reserves is carried out on the initiative of the following research institutions, subordinate to the Federal Forest Service of Russia and the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS):• and the network of 34 directly subordinated zonal seed testing stations.The above-mentioned zonal seed testing stations are entrusted with a task of gathering the regional data on the available gene conservation units in the Russian forests, while the staff of CENTRLESSEM is responsible for keeping a summary national register of those units.The main results of activities on the conservation of genetic resources of hardwood species in Russia are presented in Table 2. Forest gene reservf'S with a total area of 6725.7 ha are designated for one species of Noble Hardwoods only -birch in the European-Drals part of Russia. The absence of forest gene reserves for lime and maple can be explained because, similarly to the other Hardwoods, they are not considered the most valuable species (compared with oak and beech). There is a relatively low interest of scientists in studying their genetic diversity and safeguarding their genetic resources. Maples along with other broadleaved species occur in forest gene reserves designated for other, principal species with a total area of 3067.1 ha (Kostroma and Orenburg regions, Karachaevo-Cherkesia, North Osetia). Furthermore, the function of gene reserves for maple, lime and birch is also fulfilled by some of the nature protected areas: nature reserves, national parks, botanical gardens and others.Results of breeding of Noble Hardwoods (Table 2) can be viewed as insufficient for the Russian Federation. The isolated areas of seed stands are minimaL Selected plus trees, with rare exceptions, are not regenerated in the seed orchards.But the necessity of saving the genetic resources of the mentioned species is also defined by their extensive intraspecific variability and the presence of valuable forms. For example, 13 decorative forms of Acer platanoides were selected, differentiating from each other by the shape of crown and the leaf colour. They bear significant value for amenity forestry. In Russia the following forms of Norway maple are known:• Acer platanoides f. columnarewith columnar crown and reddish by the foliation leaves • A. p. f. globosumforms dense and globular crown, especially by cutting in young age; grows more in width than in height • A. p. f. laciniatumhollows between the leaf blades are very deep, lobes are narrow, with very long narrow and thin-pointed to othes and lobes of the second order; leaf blade commonly with the down wrapped edges • A. p. f. palmatifidum -leaves symmetric nearly to base divided, lobes deep and thinly cut, often recovering each other by the edges • A. p. f. Stollii-Schwerinleaves are c1ean-3-lobed, from time to time slightly 5lobed, lobes are intact, base is cut or shallow-heart-shaped, sometimes cratershaped; leaves are by development reddish; it grows slower as the typical form and has more raised branches • A. p. f. crispumthe edges of leaves are more or less turned up inside, wavy; leaf blade is bent-folded • A. p. f. variegatumleaves are with white spots, pinkish by leaves development • A. p. f. Schwedlerileaves by development bloody-red, later becomes olive; petioles stays red; this form is particularly beautiful in spring • A. p. f. rubrumleaves are reddish-green, sometimes with more dark red spots, in late summer becomes black-red colour till autumn. Sycamore is an excellent species for parks and amenity forests of big groups, making background for lesser groups and solitary trees with more light or brightorange (in autumn) leaves. It looks well in alleys in gardens and parks, in row street, boulevard and road stands too, has many forms with different colour of leaves. In Russia the following forms are known:• Acer pseudoplatanus f. variegatum -leaves are dense covered with white spots and points of different sizes, in the spring leaves are yellow-pink • A. psp. f. flavo-variegatum -leaves are with yellow spots • A. psp. f. Worleeileaves are deep-dissected, light-cupidate, by development deep-orange, later gold-yellow, in shade more greening • A. psp. f. Leopoldii -leaves are by development intense-pink from dense spots of different sizes, later becoming white, as in A. psp. f. variegatum • A. psp. f. purpureum -it has purple from below leaves • A. psp. f. euchlorumleaves are from above brightly-green, and from below whitish • A. psp. f. erythrocarpumfruits are coral-red. For Tilia cordata, growing in different forest zones, individual variability and isolation of ecological forms are frequent. In Russia the principal forms are:• Tilia cordata f. ovalifoliadiffering from the usual T. cordata by the more or less oblong leaves, sidelong-cut by the base, rounded or even slightly wedgeshaped, as a rule smaller than in the typical form • T. c. f. penduladiffering by pendent branches • T. c. f. aureovariegatait has golden-variegated leaves of very different forms • T. c. f. vulgarisit is, probably, the hybrid of T. cordata x T. platyphyllos, raised artificially, occupies intermediate status between these species; leaves are from below with brownish and whitish furrows of straight hairs in corners of veins, the plates are gentle-haired, with the faint ribs or without them. The mentioned forms of maple and lime are broadly used in amenity forestry in cities, and these plantings can be seen as a kind of saving the intra specific diversity ex situ.Development of activities for studying genotypic variation of Noble Hardwoods, broadening the scale of gene conservation measures and their long-term maintenance can be fulfilled only by the establishment of respective federal programmes.The prospects for the development of work aimed at gene conservation in Russian Federation's forests will involve the question of financial support and coordination at the federal level: one needs a national, well-supported development programme. Unfortunately, all efforts of the Russian scientists along this line have gone unrewarded. One of the most urgent tasks is the creation of a computer-aided database on the units of gene conservation in the Russian forests. Another problem of no less importance is the organization of systematic research into the genetic structure of principal tree species in Russia by application of modern methods of biochemical genetics. Without having comprehensive information of the genetic structures and creating an up-to-date database on the units available for gene conservation, it is hardly possible to develop scientific and practical aspects of further work.The participation of Russia in international cooperative programmes is of particular importance for solving those problems. Some approaches have now been found for the methodological and even financial problems related to the creation of a database on the units of genepool conservation in the Russian forests, the coordination of activities has been promoted also among the former USSR countries, and the scientists from Russian research institutes have obtained access to the information on how similar work is organized and what methods are applied in other European countries and in the rest of world.The work on gene conservation in Russia needs further development, more dynamic approaches, coordination and financial support. Complicated economic situation in forestry relegates the problem of gene conservation to the background. There are not more than 10 highly skilled scientists in Russia who can handle this problem. Without any specialists and funds available, some regional research institutions have curtailed the efforts. Many of the formerly established units of ex situ conservation may be lost because proper tending and protection practices were ceased. The lack of any economic incentives is also a problem.On the one hand, the huge efforts of Russian scientists are essential in working out a clear governmental commitment to solving the problems of forest gene conservation in general, and hardwood species in particular. On the other hand, it is necessary to increase the pressure of the international community on those authorities which are responsible for the development and implementation of such a commitment. Of no minor importance would be also direct financial backing of the most urgent lines of work aimed at conservation of a very rich genepool of Russian forests.There are many types of genetic resources populations, from cryopreserved tissue cultures to large in situ forest gene conservation stands comprising a few hundred hectares, all with their specific merits. A scrutiny of the merits of different units was carried out by Varela and Eriksson (1995). As regards the Noble Hardwood species there is no intensive breeding programme in Sweden. Owing to their comparatively low economic importance, the gene conservation programme has to rely on low-cost measures like approved seed stands, existing seed orchards and genetic field trials. Before a detailed description is given, a brief presentation of Noble Hardwoods distribution, forest policy, and the Swedish programme on forest genetic resources is presented.Sweden is situated at the northern fringe of the distribution area of Noble Hardwoods. Their northern limit of distribution constitutes the border line between the boreal zone (>latitude 60 0 N) and the more southern nemoral or hemiboreal zone. Interesting relict stands or groups of trees are found as north as 65°N latitude (Ulmus spp.). Other interesting populations on the borderline of the species distribution with an endemic character are the populations found on the major islands in the Baltic sea.According to the National Inventory the broadleaved species are dominated by Betula, with 262 million m 3 standing volume, followed by Populus 34, Quercus 24 and Fagus 17 million m 3• The sum of the other broadleaved species, among which the Noble Hardwoods, according to EUFORGEN's definition, dominate is 56 million m 3 standing volume.Since the early 1980s the National Board of Forestry has the responsibility for forest gene conservation in Sweden. According to the resolutions from the Ministerial Conference in Helsinki, in 1993, long-distance transfer of forest reproductive material should be avoided. The National Board of Forestry has performed an investigation about the availability of forest reproductive material for broadleaved species within Sweden. Because of our climatic conditions, seed crops from domestic sources are frequently outcompeted by less expensive seeds from warmer regions. This has a great impact on the seed material used in reforestation. Our objective is to inform landowners about proper silvicultural measures in seed stands and seed orchards, and to facilitate the availability of the needed amount of well-adapted, tested seed material on the market. This aspect of gene conservation is particularly interesting for rare species with populations unevenly distributed, as is the case for some of the Noble Hardwoods species.Since the early 1980s the Programme has carried out activities mainly on Picea abies and Pin us sylvestris. During the 1990s, work with broadleaved species was initiated. For Quercus, which in the Swedish forestry is considered a Noble Hardwood species, six plantations with more than 20000 seedlings from 513 open-pollinated families of autochthonous origin were established (ex situ).With regard to species Included in the Network's definition as Noble Hardwoods, we are participating in the EU project on Ulmus conservation with Eric Collin (CEMAGREF, France) as project coordinator. The task for the Swedish partner in this project is to collect and regenerate material from approximately 10 populations including relict populations from latitudes between 64° and 65°N. The material will then be allocated to several clonal archives.For seed and plant trade purposes, selected stands have been approved (Table 1). Each seed stand must have at least 100 trees able to participate in the matings within the stand. These stands constitute the genetic resources used for artificial forest regeneration and are part of the overall gene conservation programme. Some of them might be included in a European network consisting of multiple populations according to the suggestions by Namkoong (1984), if such a network is established. A few approved seed orchards exist for Noble Hardwood species (Table 2). Normally these seed orchards contain 100 selected plus trees each and the clones are represented by 20-60 grafts. All orchards are located in the southemmost province of Sweden. The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (SkogForsk) is responsible for these activities. The Department of Forest Genetics, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), has established two progeny trials (between 56° and 59°N latitudes) with several populations of both F. excelsior and P. avium. Each population is represented by up to 30 open-pollinated progenies.Another indirect measure of gene conservation is to withdraw forest management from certain areas. Nature reserves or national parks are examples of this. In the three southern provinces of Sweden, 55% of the protected areas (5500 ha) are Noble Hardwood forests (however, including Quercus and Fagus as per the Swedish definition) and in the rest of the hemiboreal zone 11% of a total area of 44 500 ha.Further to the main goal of the Network, agreed as being the \"identification of minimum gene conservation activities from a European perspective in the long term\", it was decided at the first meeting to develop a joint gene conservation strategy. It was agreed to structure the strategy according to genera and groups of species as follows (see Report of the last Network meeting and updated Workplan in this volume):• Acer: Acer platanoides and Acer pseudoplatanus • Ulmus spp.• Sorbus spp.• rare wild fruit trees: Prunus avium, Malus sylvestris and Pyrus pyraster • Fraxinus spp.• Castanea sativa and Juglans regia • Alnus spp.• Tilia spp.The first four strategies, developed by members of the Network and endorsed at the Network meeting, are provided below. The remaining four strategies will be presented and discussed during the third Network meeting.The strategies aim at providing guidance to Network members and stimulate activities at a national level. They will also serve as a basis for developing concise, practically oriented recommendations ('technical guidelines') for gene conservation of Noble Hardwoods. The strategies, concentrating on the various Noble Hardwoods genera and groups of species, illustrate that different options and approaches are possible.Some species are rare under almost all conditions whereas others are rare close to the margin of their distribution area. This means that gene conservation to be applied for a species in its marginal areas may be different from the methods in the areas in which it is common. Therefore, general principles for gene conservation, with population size as a critical starting point, will be elaborated and included in the guidelines.For forest managers who implement gene conservation at a practical level it will be useful to obtain some basic knowledge in evolutionary genetics. The technical guidelines for gene conservation of European Noble Hardwoods to be produced by the Network will also be complemented with a chapter providing such basic overview of forest genetic concepts.Both Norway maple and sycamore flower regularly in their central distribution area, and even in the margin the seed production is not a limiting factor. Often the seed production is abundant and germination is good. There is wide variation in both the morphology and function of flowers in the genus Acer. The proportion of insectand wind-pollination is difficult to estimate and probably varies according to the external conditions. The role of self-pollination is not known, but isolated trees have been known to produce seed, which suggests at least partial self-fertility (de Jong 1976).It is necessary that knowledge on the genetic variation, in both neutral and adaptive characters of insect-pollinated species like maples, be widened by further research at the European leveLIn order to preserve sufficient genetic variability to maintain the adaptive potential of Norway maple and sycamore in Europe it is necessary: 1. To conserve and enhance variability in small local populations In situ gene conservation stands should be selected throughout the distribution area. This could be linked to seed stands as many countries have already chosen to do. The structure of the in situ network of gene conservation stands would be based on the following guidelines.• The essential in situ network of populations is situated in the natural distribution area. • In order to cover the variability of adaptive characters, the network should be structured according to climatic variation. • The network should consist of at least 20 stands to ensure sufficient coverage.The absolute minimum number of regularly flowering and seed-producing trees in a gene conservation stand should be 20 trees. • Marginal areas of the natural distribution area must be covered. Another option would be to limit the network in the centre of the distribution area, assuming that most of the variability can be found within the centre. However, since the data to support this assumption seem to be inadequate, a safer strategy would be to include the margins in the network. • In many cases it is not reasonable to aim at pure stands; the efforts should be combined for including several species. The in situ network could be complemented with ex situ collections, which would be designed to serve provenance research at the same time. The material would include the whole geographic variation of the species and it would be planted throughout the distribution area. Since not all of the material would have good prospects in all places, the collections would finally serve conservation of only part of the originally planted materiaL A disadvantage would be that these populations could not be used for seed production because the variation in the next generation might be too wide and unpredictable.Local ex situ collections can be established to serve both conservation and seed production. They should be designed to enhance variability within a region of provenance and to avoid inbreeding. Thus they would improve the genetic quality of the seed materiaL In some special cases the variability of a natural stand may need to be enhanced with controlled seed transfers.2. To ensure that afforestation material is used in a proper way and that the regeneration methods, as well as used seed sources, are well documented The trade with maple seed as well as other Noble Hardwoods reproductive material is generally under weak control compared with more important forest species. In addition, maples are regularly used for non-forestry purposes like horticulture and landscaping, where the tradition for controlling and documenting seed sources is recent or non-existent. The present EU directive does not cover maple species and in many countries the national legislation is limited to the principal species.It is essential that maples moving in trade be properly documented and that the users are guided to select suitable material according to their conditions. Any longdistance transfers should not be encouraged unless they are based on knowledge from long-term provenance trials. At the moment this knowledge is generally not available. Seed transfers are usually not necessary since in most cases the seed crops are regular and abundant.3. To protect the species in areas where the whole species is threatened Although Norway maple and sycamore are generally not endangered as such on the European level, some countries have indicated that heavy forest utilization and management practices threaten these species and that they should be protected by appropriate measures.Maples have several biological and cultural features which make their populations rather vulnerable to threats. However, it seems clear that neither Norway maple nor sycamore has high priority in the conservation programmes of most European countries. As resources are limited, it is probably wise to ensure a minimum conservation level through actions which do not demand high economic inputs or which can be integrated to the conservation of other species. The main approach will be to establish a network of a minimum of 20 in situ gene conservation stands. In addition, local ex situ collections may be combined with seed production and a few collections can be established to serve provenance research. The use of maples as forestry species should be promoted and special actions to be taken to ensure wise use of certified reproductive material.Elm (Ulmus Spp.)The need for a pragmatic 'step by step' strategy Before defining a long-term gene conservation strategy, it is necessary to take into account the following factors and particular features of Ulmus species and their populations:• the drastic decrease in elm populations, mainly due to Dutch elm disease (DED) and to the disappearance of characteristic riparian ecosystems • the taxonomic complexity within the genus, especially within U. minor (Mill.) sensu lata • the different population types and regeneration modes of the species concerned (U. minor is a scattered species with excellent capability to form rootsuckers, whereas U. glabra can be found in large stands and reproduces sexually; the former can be propagated by cuttings and preserved in clonal, 'hedge' banks, whereas the latter is more easily conserved in situ or grafted for the establishment of seed orchards. It seems that U. laevis is well adapted to the different types of conservation). Current situation in the gene conservation of elm species in European countries: • altogether 9 European Union (EU) member countries participate in as-year (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001), EU-funded project for the 'Conservation, characterization, collection and utilization of genetic resources of European elms' • many other countries are currently taking measures to preserve elms in situ and/ or ex situ, and opportunities exist for central and eastern European countries to apply for EU grants in the framework of an extension programme to the above mentioned EU project. This very brief characterization indicates that we should not launch a 'monolithic' European programme but coordinate a 'step by step' approach, adapted to the research and conservation opportunities in each country and to the extent of threats to the local genetic resources of elms. Moreover, the results obtained by research conducted in some countries should be transferred to others in the short term.Preliminary steps  In the framework of EUFORGEN 1. Evaluation of the present range of elm species and identification of most endangered resources A questionnaire should be sent to the researchers specialized in elm studies through EUFORGEN participants and Network members. This would allow us to acquire a better knowledge of the present situation of indigenous elm species in different parts of Europe and to identify the most endangered resources. When necessary, emergency preservation measures should be discussed in the Network and practical recommendations should be proposed.• protection of habitat (e.g. population of a major riparian species Ulmus laevis directly threatened in their existence by deforestation) • in situ conservation (e.g. facilitating and monitoring the natural regeneration of Ulmus glabra in a mountain forest where all large elm trees are dying, or will be felled)• ex situ conservation (e.g. collection of germplasm in a major population before the area is deforested).3. Inventory of in situ conservation stands (database) Several countries have already started selecting in situ conservation stands. A database and a map are necessary to give an overall view of the number and location of such stands.In the framework of the EU project 4. Inventory of ex situ clone collections (database) All clones in the collections held by partner institutes should be recorded in a database with common standards for passport data (e.g. accession number, location of collection site, latitude, longitude, altitude, population type, environment type, diameter class of the original tree).5. Acquisition of material from the margins of the distribution area (within the EU) About 300 new clones should be acquired and most of them should originate from the margins of the elm distribution area in the member states of the European Union (e.g. Sweden, Greece, Portugal, southern Italy).By the end of 1999, a sample of over 700 clones should have been characterized with molecular markers (cpDNA and microsatellites), and the geographic structure of genetic diversity assessed.7. Evaluation of tolerance to DED (susceptibility to the pathogen and attractiveness for the vector) A sample of about 300 clones whose original trees are assumed not to have died from natural infection will be screened for their susceptibility to Ophiostoma novoulmi in inoculation tests. Besides this, about 24 clones will be evaluated for their attractiveness to Scolytus spp. Two experimental designs will be used: (1) a net tent covering the experimental plot where captive Scolytus will fly and feed on young elms in large pots; and (2) a 2-way air box allowing the captive Scolytus to choose between the scent of two clones, produced by twigs and leaves placed in the ventilation system.8. Study of the mating system in natural stands Based on the application of molecular markers, such study would be crucial for the definition of efficient in situ management rules. Most trees of a population and a sample of their progenies (e.g. 30 seedlings per tree) need to be analyzed. This kind of study could be applied to several populations of both U. glabra and U. laevis.In the framework of the EU project 9. Definition of a core collection representative of the elm resources in the EU A core collection composed of over 800 clones (one half being Ulmus minor, and the rest U. glabra and U. laevis) will be conserved in the long term.The selection of the material will be based on different criteria such as:• clones representative of taxonomic units (species, subspecies, microspecies)• provenances representing a wide range of habitats• provenances recognized of particular interest in studies carried out on the phylogenetics of elms and the partitioning of genetic diversity • clones representative of the polymorphism revealed by molecular markers • clones showing valuable phenotypic traits • different natural and artificial hybrids. Conservation methods will associate cryopreservation of buds and plantation of sustainable field clonal banks. 10. Maintenance of the core collection in field clonal banks As the pathological pressure is still strong throughout Europe, the best solution is to have the whole collection spread in several field clonal banks, with duplicates stored in at least two different field clonal banks. Duplication of the clones will be achieved through cuttings or grafting. Each partner will be in charge of the conservation of a part of this core collection: his own material and some other, exchanged with partners. The field clonal banks will be maintained as low hedges, which has proven to be an efficient method to protect them from the Scolytus vector and subsequent contamination by DED. All clonal banks should be planted by 2001.Cryopreservation of dormant buds sent by partners will be carried out in two different sites (France and Germany) between 1998 and 2000. Collaboration between the two teams will result in exchange of cryopreserved buds, so that the complete 450 subsample will be held in both places.12. Establishment of a long-term plan for the conservation of elm genetic resources in Europe At the end of the EU-funded project in 2001, conclusions will be drawn and perspectives will be discussed in collaboration with EUFORGEN Network.Opportunities exist for central and eastern European (CEE) countries to apply for EU-funding in the framework of an extension of the existing elm project. Such an application could take place in 1998 or 1999, in close collaboration with the coordinator of the currently ongoing EU project.The following steps would follow the same procedures as those described above.13. Inventory of ex situ clone collections in CEE (database) 14. Evaluation of natural variability in CEE with molecular markers 15. Definition of a core collection representative of the elm resources in CEE 16. Conservation of the core collection in field clonal banks 17. Cryopreservation of part of the collection (in the EU and in CEE).In the framework of the EU project 18. Extensive use of the elm clones selected in the EU collection The screening of existing collections for low susceptibility to DED and good landscaping traits will provide native material for prudent reconstitution of countryside elm landscapes. Such clones could be used, mixed with other tree species, for amenity planting and afforestation. At the same time, this would contribute to the preservation of the adaptive potential of elms.In the framework of EUFORGEN 19. Guidelines for elm stand management and in situ conservation in Europe Silvicultural practices have major consequences on genetic conservation, both from quantitative (success of regeneration) and qualitative (genetic diversity) points of view. Guidelines for elm stands management should be based on silvicultural observations and the genetic studies mentioned under 8. 20. Guidelines for the management of elm seed orchards Unlike the above-mentioned gene conservation measures (clonal ex situ conservation and in situ stand management), elm seed orchards can provide many possibilities for truly dynamic genetic conservation and the realization of crossings. Such possibilities should be discussed in relation to the main goal of the Noble Hardwoods Network being promotion and creation of good conditions for future evolution.Suggestions for additional research 21. Linking of conservation strategies with breeding and genetic transformation strategies Several countries are currently working on elm genetic transformation research programmes. It would be interesting to discuss the theoretical aspects and possible practical links between conservation, breeding and genetic transformation.The genetic resources present in the thousands of useful tree species on the earth constitute an intergenerational resource of vast social, economic and environmental importance. Most of the forest species are characterized by extensive natural range and high levels of diversity. This high genetic variation at the level of individual trees, within and among the populations, enables adaptation to the environmental conditions they face during the very long life cycle of forest trees and forest stands. Nevertheless, many tree species are considered to be threatened because of global climate change, pollution, reduction of the forest and uncontrolled seed transfer, and require the intensification of joint efforts for genetic conservation. These efforts must be based on a better knowledge of the diversity and the genetic structure of the species. This strategy emphasizes the preservation of genetic variation and hence evolutionary adaptability of populations to a changing environment over generations, as the main goal of gene conservation. The preservation of genetic variation is also crucial for its effective use for human needs in the future. From a more practical point of view, the conservation of forest genetic resources must be taken into consideration not only for timber and other forest products, but also for a whole range of values provided by forest ecosystems, including the ecological and social benefits not limited by national boundaries.The genus Sorbus complex (Sorbus torminalis, Sorbus aria, Sorbus aucuparia and Sorbus domestica) belongs to the Rosaceae family. This indigenous genus exists in Europe from temperate to boreal countries and from mountain to plains. These widespread species typically grow in mixed hardwood forests.They are characteristic of ancient and undisturbed lowland. Despite their weak competitive ability they are mostly to be found in extreme sites where their competitors do not survive. Most of the Sorbus species are interfertile, even sometimes with related species of Malus and Pyrus. In most countries represented in the Noble Hardwoods Network, s. torminalis and s. aria are not considered to be really threatened as species, but sometimes as populations. On the contrary, s. domestica is considered under threat by most of the countries. The countries in which Sorbus species are considered to be threatened are shown in Table le.The main causes contributing to the endangerment of Sorbus are:• extensive cutting for commercial purposes • narrow genetic base for small effective population sizes • lack of natural regeneration • competition with other species • inadequate silvicultural management • uncontrolled seed transfer. Some countries have already developed gene conservation programmes on Sorbus, but most have only just started.Sorbus species flower regularly everywhere in their distribution area and seed production is not a limiting factor. Although seed production is often abundant, germination and regeneration are frequently low, especially for s. domestica. For the time being, it seems that the species are only insect-pollinated. New studies on S. aucuparia seem to show that self-pollination is not possible (0. Raspe, pers. comm.). Nevertheless, partial self-pollination for isolated individuals cannot be excluded.For Sorbus, vegetative regeneration is important. Moreover\"these species are very sensitive to competition; pure stands are non-existent. Isolated trees or small patches are most common.Because of the high economic value of timber and especially for S. torminalis, the increasing demand on the market, uncontrolled seed production and uncontrolled seed transfer takes place. Indeed an early exploitation of stands before their regeneration may promote plantation with uncontrolled material. Seed transfers occur among provenances and countries. For these species the demand for afforestation material is higher than the supply. The seed transfers may pose a threat to local populations because of introgression with other populations which can be genetically very different. The other species less intensively used for wood production are in the same situation, for example S. aucuparia used for landscaping. Important seed transfer occurs across Europe for ornamental plantations.For a realistic programme of gene conservation, one of the key issues is to gain better knowledge of the genetic variability of Sorbus. Very little is known about these species. Some countries are starting to undertake research on this topic (Table ID). The first results of genetic analyses indicate that S. torminalis has relatively high population differentiation compared with other disseminated species and especially Prunus avium. But the geographical structure seems to be very weak (Prat and Daniel 1993). New studies must be carried out with more populations all over the range and with more markers including adaptive traits which are an important component of the diversity. Moreover, these characters are often strongly linked with genetic structure. The characterization of all aspects of diversity is necessary for an efficient strategy or a policy of gene conservation.Sorbus, it is necessary to:• identify and protect very small autochthonous populations 2 under threat because of their small effective size • protect and conserve the genetic variability of autochthonous populations.In situ methods, the main component of gene conservation, maintain the genepool of natural populations and species over many generations. In situ conservation, where evolutionary forces in populations are very close to natural conditions, is appropriate for saving populations and maintaining their genetic adaptability within individual species. The following guidelines can be given:• network of gene conservation stands must be sufficient to cover spatial variation of the species • effective population size must be maintained for a good system of regeneration • the regeneration stock must originate from matings within each population • if artificial regeneration is necessary, seeds must come from the same stand or neighbouring stands in the same area • adequate forest management must be promoted.Ex situ methods aim at maintaining the material from endangered stands (destruction by natural or anthropic effects, or lack of regeneration) with no influence of evolutionary forces on the collections. This is the case with clone collections or seed banks. The main aim for ex situ conservation will thus be to maintain or enhance the existing genetic structures (and thus the existing adaptability). Ex situ conservation can also be used to develop breeding programmes for high-quality wood.Ex situ conservation is complementary to in situ methods and is especially important when the conditions for in situ conservation cannot be applied. Indeed it can be recommended for: • Endangered populations: within the distribution range of Sorbus the further existence of small populations under threat, and especially when the efficient size of the populations is too low. The populations can be eaSily maintained by planting or grafting. • Establishment of clone collections: the material must come from the whole range and must be planted in different areas. The different species of Sorbus must be conserved separately in order to avoid hybridization. The collection can serve for static conservation and also for seed production; for its establishment it would be recommended to:• sample with respect to genetic variation within and between the stands • sample at least 10 stands within each region of provenance • collect seeds in a year of abundant seed crop and from 20-30 trees well distributed in the population and 30-50 m apart • Establishment of seed banks: Gene conservation can be achieved through the storage of bulked seed lots with precise identification of sampled individuals in a region of provenance. An adapted procedure of seed drying methods can be used. Temperature above zero (2-4°C) can be recommended for short-term storage. Another purpose for seed storage can be to ensure good supply of afforestation material. For the time being, only the principal forestry species benefit from national and international rules on seed transfer. No long distance transfers should be encouraged.The conservation strategy for the genus Sorbus can not be considered as a whole and has to differentiate among the needs of individual species. It seems that S. domestica is more endangered than the other species, few populations remain and the recommendations for this species are more focused on ex situ conservation than in situ. On the contrary, S. torminalis and S. aria populations are not threatened and in situ conservation is more suitable for them.Of course all these required activities are implemented on a voluntary basis. It is clear that Noble Hardwoods conservation is just beginning, and no programme is totally sufficient at the moment. All three wild fruit tree species are native to central, western and southern Europe. Pyrus pyraster does not occur naturally only in the north European countries. Malus sylvestris and P. avium were introduced into new areas where they can be grown. Nevertheless, the knowledge about autochthonous origin is often insufficient. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare a survey of the natural range in Europe and to improve the information about the occurrence of autochthonous stands, groups or individual trees of the pure species not contaminated by domesticated cultivars or originating from those. This should be done in close cooperation between research institutions. The results of such surveys can be shown in maps as, for example, the occurrence of M. sylvestris (Fig. 1) or of P. pyraster (Fig. 2) in northern Germany. Each occurrence was registered by its geographical data and additional information was assessed.In comparison with other tree species, one can also assume that these tree species migrated into southern refugia during the different glacial periods, e.g. into areas south of the Alps. There are also several closely related species, e.g. Pyrus nivalis in southeastern Europe or Pyrus amygdaliformis, which occurs only in southern Europe (e.g. Malta and Slovenia). Malus sylvestris has a great intraspecific variability where several varieties can be differentiated. The intraspecific variability should be maintained by suitable conservation methods.The three minor Noble Hardwood species are important from an ecological as well as from an economical point of view. They are growing in mixed hardwood forests, often at the margins of forest stands due to competition for light. In mixed hardwood stands with beech as a major component thinning usually favours the minor Noble Hardwood species in order to prevent heavy competition and to reach sufficient size for an economically interesting utilization.Prunus avium has been planted extensively in the past in many European countries. Pyrus pyraster and M. sylvestris only survived occasionally on very wet or very dry sites due to the competition with beech. Plantation of these species was very rare and only imeased in recent years slightly due to more public concern about their endangered status. However, seed from suitable sources is mostly missing due to the lack of sufficiently large breeding populations.Both Prunus avium and Pyrus pyraster can reach considerable size and diameter of high quality stems. Their wood is highly valued on the market. These two species are also very interesting for afforestation of marginal farmland for the production of valuable timber in mean (50-70 years) rotation time.• Single tree ( 258 The variability and genetic structure of P. avium, M. sylvestris and P. pyraster is not yet known in detail and should be investigated intensively. All three species show great phenotypical variation. One can assume that various ecological types can be distinguished due to the large natural distribution area, and the fact that populations or individual trees of the same species are growing under different environmental conditions, e.g. on calcareous or siliceous soils. Rangewide provenance experiments on P. avium do not yet exist. Only regional provenance/progeny and clonal tests have been performed.They show considerable variation in morphological and phenological traits (Weiser 1996;  Meier-Dinkel et al. 1997; Santi, pers. comm.; Kleinschmit, unpublished). Santi and Lemoine (1990a) studied the inheritance and linkage of isoenzyme loci and described variation in isoenzyme patterns. They use these patterns to discriminate between Prunus cerasus and Prunus cerasus x P. avium (Santi and Lemoine 1990b).Studies conducted at seven isoenzyme systems in 14 Italian P. avium populations showed a higher intrapopulation variability in the northern areas of the natural range, where the distance between populations is low. The interpopulation variability was higher in the Tuscany region and in the central southern Apennines, where the distance between populations is large. The lowest degree of polymorphism was found in isolated populations (Ducci and Proietti 1997). Treutter and Feucht (1985) showed differences in phenolic composition of P. avium clones.For fruit juice colour and albinism, Watkin and Brown (1956) found simply inherited dominant-recessive pairs of alleles. The gametophytic incompatibility 5 locus is polymorphic with at least 6 alleles (Berger 1963).Many of the data concerning genetic traits in fruit trees are from cultivars. It is supposed that there is no difference between the technique to separate isoenzymes from cultivated or wild fruit trees (Chevreau, pers. comm.).Many analyses have been carried out on apple, mainly in domesticated varieties. Malus is a genus of the northern temperate zone with 25-35 species that are difficult to circumscribe due to lack of distinguishing traits. Reasons for taxonomic confusions may be:• widespread crossability • transportation by people to distant habitats • escapes from cultivation • introgression • wnsidering selections with horticultural value as species.In the apple industry, a reliable verification of the cultivar being grown is also of great importance, particularly for nurserymen and growers. Isoenzyme analysis offers a possible method for cultivar identification which has been successfully applied to several other crops. Previous isoenzyme studies in Malus focused on:• Identifying apple cultivars and rootstocks: Weeden and Lamb (1985) characterized 54 apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars and found out that intercultivar polymorphism at 6 isoenzyme systems was sufficient to permit reliable and unambiguous identification of nearly every cultivar • Identifying genetic markers linked with horticultural traits: no correlation could be established between the inheritance of an isoenzyme and a resistant (apple scab, cedar-apple rust, fire blight) phenotype of the populations investigated (Weeden and Lamb 1987) • Isoenzyme inheritance (Chevreau and Laurens 1987;Manganaris and Alston 1988) • Extraction techniques (Korban and Bourniva11987) • Grouping Malus x domestica accessions by using isoenzyme markers • Using phenotypes to identify closely related forms. Isoenzyme analyses at the species level in Malus are limited.Recent investigations deal with the isoenzyme diversity in North American Malus species (Dickson et al. 1991) and in wild populations of Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M.J. Roem. (Lamboy et al. 1996).Malus sieversii, native to Central Asia, is thought to be the primary progenitor of the cultivated apple M. domestica Borkh. and therefore important in apple breeding, genetics, evolution and germplasm conservation.Until now the method has failed to distinguish M. sylvestris, M. pumila, M. orientalis, M. asiatica and M. sieversii from each other or these closely related wild species from M. domestica using isoenzyme polymorphisms. The level of genetic diversity is very high in all these species and is very similar to that found in the domesticated apple. So there is one hypothesis that interspecific hybridization is so rampant among these forms that they actually constitute one panrnictic species. The mentioned species are perhaps not distinct, but form _ one large panrnictic population with an extension from western China to Europe. Analyses of many more samples of the other close relatives of apple (others than M. sieversii), especially of M. sylvestris, could result in a rejection of that hypothesis as long as species-specific alleles can be identified.Genetic analyses based on DNA markers may provide better information regarding the immediate ancestors of cultivated apple and pear. So there is a second chance to at least partially reject the hypothesis, but the experiments for using DNA markers have yet to be performed (Weeden, pers. comm.).There is little information about pear. To work with isoenzymes in pear is much more difficult than working with apple. In Europe experiences with pear do exist at INRA Angers.The genetic resources of P. avium, M. sylvestris and P. pyraster are seriously endangered, mainly for the following reasons:• Extensive felling for commercial purposes. Rare occurrence and a narrow genetic base cause genetic drift due to small numbers of mother trees and large distances between adult, reproducing trees. • Natural regeneration is not guaranteed and, if it occurs, it is endangered by grazing. Hybridization with cultivated forms of cherry, apple or pear is a main obstacle. The identification of the wild fruit tree species is difficult, especially for M. sylvestris and P. pyraster, but suitable identification keys have been developed (Wagner 1995;Muller and Litschauer 1996). • Uncontrolled seed transfer. In EU countries P. avium, M. sylvestris and P. pyraster are not included under national legislation for forest reproductive material. Therefore, seed of unknown origin (even residuals from distilleries) is used for plantations or for afforestation purposes in the landscape and along highways. Also clonal plantations are established through vegetative propagation of selected material from unknown origin.• Several diseases, especially viral diseases, have contaminated the three wild fruit tree species and may endanger their existence in some areas.Measures must be taken for the conservation of genetic resources of the three rare Noble Hardwood species. Activities concerning collection and study of the existing material is already underway in some countries. But Europe-wide activities or projects are still lacking. Regarding P. avium, M. sylvestris and P. pyraster, the following overview informs about the actual situation and possibilities of conservation measures in European countries. Most of the information was presented at the first meeting of the EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network (Turok et al. 1996).Prunus avium: Conservation measures of different intensity are carried out in 13 European countries (Table 2). The main activities cover in situ conservation of selected stands and single trees, as well as ex situ conservation of clones or families in seed orchards and clonal archives. Other ex situ conservation measures have obviously had no importance until now. In some areas the trees are contaminated by viral diseases. Nevertheless, wild cherry is used for plantations or afforestations in several countries. Forestry practice is now interested in planting wild cherry because of the high value of its timber.Malus sylvestris and Pyrus pyraster: Although wild apple and wild pear are autochthonous in several European countries, intensive conservation measures are still lacking with the exception of Germany, where for both species conservation programmes have been carried out by federal-state institutes for several years. These programmes concentrate on seed orchard establishment to restore breeding populations of sufficient size. The necessity of a Europe-wide cooperation programme for the conservation of genetic resources of these two valuable wild fruit tree species needs to be emphasized.The natural situation of the rare fruit tree species restricts the possibilities for implementing in situ conservation strategies. In only a few cases, e.g. Prunus avium, natural stands with a minimum number of 30 to 50 individual trees can still form in situ conservation populations. If such stands exist, they should be designated for this purpose and naturally regenerated. However, due to the high value of the timber, it will be difficult to maintain such stands in private ownership over a long time, especially since P. avium tends to decay from an age of 80 years onwards. Therefore, the selection of in situ conservation stands is probably restricted to public ownership where the necessary measures for natural regeneration can be taken.One has to take into account that P. avium propagates vegetatively by adventitious shoots from roots. Therefore, monoclonal stands occur.For all three species the establishment of ex situ conservation seed orchards seems to be the most suitable and efficient conservation measure. Grafting is not difficult in any of the three species. Prunus avium can also be propagated by tissue culture methods (Meier-Dinkel et al. 1997). Seed orchards can be relatively easily established. They should be regionally structured due to the ecological conditions. A minimum of 50 clones per seed orchard should be aimed at. Especially in M. sylvestris and P. pyraster, new interbreeding populations can be established when individual specimens, scattered over a large, but ecologically similar area, are collected and planted together in a seed orchard. Because regular and sufficient seed crop is hardly possible in natural populations, the establishment of seed orchards is also a necessity for ensuring seed procurement.Seedling seed orchards seem to be less suitable owing to the danger of pollen contamination from cultivated forms within the seedlings and the risk of inbreeding when only one or few trees are left for seed harvest as a base for the seedling seed orchard. For P. avium, however, seedling seed orchards may be a solution in those cases where sufficiently large populations are available.As far as possible, seeds of the three species should be stored. The methods for long-term storage need to be improved or further developed.Investigations about naturally occurring populations, groups or individuals of the three wild fruit tree species should be started with joint forces. Significant occurrences of the species, e.g. P. avium, should be protected in situ as gene conservation stands. Small groups or individuals should be grafted and planted in clone collections for further use. Those materials should be tested to verify whether or not they are contaminated by diseases (virus, bacteria, fungi).Research about intraspecific variation and genetic structure by using, among others, molecular markers, as performed by Santi andLemoine (1990a, 1990b) for P. avium, must be intensified in cooperation between the European countries.The establishment of clone collections or archives and the exchange of those materials and information between the Noble Hardwood Network members will facilitate conservation and propagation of the three species. Suitable clones can be used for the establishment of seed orchards, from which one can expect genetically variable and valuable seed material for plantations. Such plantations should guarantee a type of \"pseudo in situ conservation\". The combination of gene conservation and utilization is in the long term the only viable and meaningful method of conservation, since without utilization the conservation strategy would lead to a dead end.   Sampling of the existing adaptedness is a central element of any forest gene conservation programme. This sampling may be simple if all variation exists within populations and not between them. Then, conservation must only ensure that sufficient population sizes are included and anyone population or any mixture of populations would be as good as any other for those purposes. However, if variation exists among populations, the apportioning and design of population sampling, as well as sample sizes within them, becomes a problem. Therefore, the existing variation in adaptedness should be seen as a means to capture maximum variance rather than as a final goal of conservation. Sampling of the present state does not necessarily oblige a conservation programme to freeze the available structure but should instead be seen as a starting point for continued evolution (Eriksson et al. 1995).For the majority of tree species there are limited or no solid facts on amongpopulation genetic variation in adaptedness. This means that sampling, at best, will be informed guesses about existing structure. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how such guesses might be derived from expected among-population genetic differentiation, with the main emphasis on random mating populations.The effects of the evolutionary forces: mutation, genetic drift, natural selection, and geneflow are discussed in textbooks in population genetics and evolutionary genetics. It is well documented that geneflow is a strong force to prevent fixation of neutral alleles. Similarly, genetic drift is a strong evolutionary force in small populations, though unlike geneflow it causes fixation of alleles. According to the survey on the strength of natural selection in the wild carried out by Endler (1986), natural selection can vary from weak to as strong as inbreeding. Mutation frequencies are mostly regarded to be low in individual loci amounting to approximately 10-5• However, the pooled mutation frequency in loci influencing a trait may be considerably higher, 10-2 /10-3 (Lande and Barrowclough 1987). Kiirkkiiinen et al. (1994) reported a mutation frequency for chlorophyll mutants in Pin us sylvestris of 10-2 based on data published by Eiche (1955). Phenotypic plasticity which might be regarded as a disguise of the genotype has not been discussed much as an opposing force to natural selection.The relationship between these forces and the among-population differentiation is illustrated in Figure 1. It should be noted that natural selection should here be understood as disruptive. The action of these forces on within-population variation is illustrated in Figure 2. Geneflow, genetic drift and inbreeding constitute the forces making up the mating pattern. The latter is here defined as the matings realized in the population. The mating pattern creates the raw material that the stabilizing natural selection can act upon. Under the assumption that geneflow brings in migrants from other populations with other gene frequencies, geneflow is the only force that causes an increase of the genetic variation within a population. Similarly, new mutations will increase the within-population variation. Note that in Fig. 1 it is assumed that mutations increase the differentiation among populations. The contradiction that might appear from a comparison of Figs. 1 and 2 is due to the assumption that individual mutations are of such a low frequency that different populations will get different mutations and in this way they will contribute to a small extent to population differentiation; simultaneously each new mutation will increase the genetic variation within a population. The mating pattern, defined as the matings realized in a population, is a consequence of geneflow, genetic drift and inbreeding in that population. The mating pattern creates the raw material that natural selection will act upon. Natural selection should in this case be understood as stabilizing.In populations with a large effective population size (Ne), the effect of genetic drift is negligible. Nor will mutations influence the structure to any great extent in large populations. Therefore, the discussion of the interaction between disruptive natural selection and geneflow in development of among-population genetic differentiation will be the main focus. Some comments on phenotypic plasticity will be given.A prime prerequisite for among-population differentiation is that the environment occupied by a species is experienced as heterogeneous by this species. A second prerequisite is that there is some consistency in this heterogeneity over generations. The concept of selective environmental neighbourhood (SEN) introduced by Brandon (1990) is useful for a discussion of this prerequisite. Within a SEN there is no ranking change of the genotypes with respect to fitness, conferring a degree of homogeneity to a SEN. Thus several SENs are required for among-population differentiation. Stabilizing selection within each of several populations in different SENs will be experienced as disruptive selection among populations. Besides, the geographic extension of the SEN over generations must not vary too much, otherwise natural selection will not have enough time to bring about a differentiation. A SEN should be regarded as a genetic delimitation rather than a geographic one, which means that a SEN may contain non-contiguously growing populations (Fig. 3). As one example of this, populations at each of the two slopes of a valley may physically not grow adjacent to each other but still be parts of one SEN. As the environment changes the physical shape of a SEN may change or even merge with another SEN. One physical popUlation constituting one single SEN remains so until environmental changes cause ranking shifts of fitness in this population. It should be noted that SENs are trait-specific. Within a certain geographic area one trait may contribute to fitness whereas another does not. In another area both traits may contribute to fitness and the SENs for the two traits may in the extreme case be identical. Thus different traits may have different numbers of SENs within a species. Differences in the physical area of different SENs among traits are dependent upon the contribution to fitness of the trait and its correlation with other fitness-contributing traits.With high probability a wide climatic distribution of a species will give rise to numerous SENs and adaptation to different climatic zones (= among-population differentiation) may take place. Other abiotic and biotic elements of site conditions may also be suspected to give rise to different SENs, although much less is known about adaptation to such environmental variables (e.g. Jonsson and Eriksson 1989;Weiser 1995). In summary, a prerequisite for a species to consist of one single SEN is that it grows under homogeneous conditions both in space and time.As long as there is additive variance for fitness of a trait, disruptive natural selection may cause a trait differentiation among populations inhabiting different SENs. A large difference between two SENs will give rise to a stronger disruptive selection than when the difference is small. Even if there are large differences and ample additive variance is present, among-population differentiation may be absent owing to substantial gene flow among individuals of different SENs as will be discussed in the next section.If there is no intermating among selectively divergent populations, evolution can be expected to eventually lead to speciation, but with complete intermating, then every generation would re-establish the original Hardy-Weinberg frequencies regardless of the intensity of selection. For most forest trees, however, populations are neither completely isolated nor completely intermating, and in these cases, the outcome of the balance between selection and migration is not clear. When the population structure is one in which a very large central population (a continent) exists and small islands are attached by isolated migrants only to that continent, it does not take more than one migrant per generation to prevent strong divergence from evolving. However, if populations are only partially isolated, and particularly if migration is limited to only a few adjacent populations of similar size (a stepping stone model), then the same exchange rate may allow a wide distribution of allele A physical area, A, at time t, Area A at time t2 Border for zone of shared genepool (ZSGP) frequencies to evolve among the populations, even if no speciation occurs (Hedrick 1988). Even if selection was not divergent among the populations, local mutations may still lead to the existence of genetic variations if migration was at a low rate (Phillips 1996). Forest trees might also differ among the sexes in their rates of migration, with sometimes, pollen or seed being less mobile than the other, and the effect of the less mobile sex may allow for more variations to evolve than if an average migration rate were computed (Gregorius and Namkoong 1983;Namkoong and Gregorius 1985).Border for the zone of shared genepoolOne selective environmental neighbourhood Fig. 7. One selective environmental neighbourhood in which intermatings occur within certain isolated groups.Among-population differentiationFig. 8. Schematic illustration of the expected among-population differentiation as a result of interaction between geneflow and disruptive natural selection. Random mating and a certain stability in the direction of the disruptive selection are assumed.In case of non-disruptive natural selection the ratio is only influenced by random processes which in large populations would lead to the largest ratio of within-and among-population variation (Fig. 10, position 1 and 3). This ratio will be lowest at strong disruptive selection combined with a limited geneflow (position 2, Fig. 10). At high SCF a strong disruptive selection will reduce the W / A ratio to some extent as indicated in Fig. 10 (position 4). Fig. 10 is a reflected image of Fig. 8.Strength of disruptive selection Fig. 9. Schematic illustration of the expected among-population differentiation as a result of interaction between geneflow and stability of the disruptive natural selection under situations of random mating.Ratio within/amongpopulation differentiation Fig. 10. Schematic illustration of the expected ratio of within-to among-population genetic variation. Random mating and a certain stability in the direction of the disruptive selection are assumed.A species with a short generation turnover can respond to changed directions of selection by adaptation via natural selection, presupposed that the species contains enough additive genetic variance. On the other hand a species with a long generation turnover cannot during its lifetime respond to the multitude of directions of selection that the environment may provoke. Rather it is probable that a certain degree of phenotypic plasticity would be evolutionary advantageous (Fig. 11). If the situation for a tree is that of Fig. 4, the tree might spread its genes over all seven SENs. Then it would be an advantage for that tree, to give rise to a progeny that performs well in all SENs, i.e. to have a large phenotypic plasticity. In other words phenotypic plasticity confers fitness to its carrier. The larger the SGF, the higher the probability that phenotypic plasticity would confer fitness in species with long generation turnover ..Some examples from tree species will be given to illustrate observations about among-and within-population variation. Pine and spruce species are windpollinated with pollen flights over wide areas (Koski 1970;Savolainen 1991). Many species also occupy wide, continuous, and climatically variable areas which would indicate firstly that they have a large number of SENs and secondly that the geneflow is considerable among different SENs. In agreement with this, estimates of Ne are high, amounting to several thousand trees (Schoen and Brown 1991;Yang and Yeh 1995).Of particular interest is the investigation of among-and within-population variation in Pinus sylvestris in Finland by Karhu et al. (1996) since it treats one adaptive trait, bud set, and several molecular markers in the same populations. There was a 21 days difference in bud set between the most southern (latitude 60°) and the most northern population (latitude 70°). All the molecular markers showed limited among-population variation while the within-population was large. The results presented clearly demonstrate that the number of SENs varies from trait to trait. Markers like isoenzymes, RAPDs, and RFLPs are assumed to be neutral (cf. Kimura 1983). Therefore, we expect that there is just one SEN for each of them (see position 1 in Fig. 8). Pin us sylvestris in the northern part of its distribution in Sweden (latitudes 61-68°) shows a steep clinal variation in tree survival (Eiche 1966). There is also a large within-population variation in survival (Eriksson et al. 1980). At different latitudes an adaptation to a growth period that matches the climate at this latitude is taking place. This matching is to the largest extent exerted by the photoperiodic conditions at different latitudes. The night length triggers the onset of hardening. With a too late onset of hardening the trees suffer from severe frost damage. The observation on survival in Pinus sylvestris fits the anticipation that the among-population variation in survival would be large since a strong disruptive selection counteracts the swamping of pollen into several different SENs (see position 4 in Fig. 8). The disruptive selection thus causes a clinal variation of the means of the populations. The large variation within the populations could mainly be explained by swamping of pollen among populations (see position 4 in Fig. 10).In Sweden south of latitude 59° there is good survival among all Pinus sylvestris populations (Johnsson 1971). With respect to survival it is probable that there is just one SEN in this part of the country, which explains the absence of variation in this trait (below point 3 in Fig. 8). In contrast there is a clinal variation in stem volume all over Sweden (Johnsson 1971;Eriksson et al. 1980). Again there is an adaptation going on of the duration of the growth period to different latitudes. This is triggered by the night length as regards the cessation part of the growth period. Less growth is accomplished during a short growth period than during a long growth period. With respect to growth we have different SENs not only in northern Sweden but also in the southern part of the country.In Picea abies steep clines have been reported for bud flushing (Eriksson et al. 1974), bud set (Holzer 1966;Dormling 1979) and stem volume (Persson and Persson 1992) as well as large within-population variation for growth and growth rhythm traits (Ekberg et al. 1985). It is probable that there are several SENs for each of these traits. In spite of a large geneflow among SENs the disruptive selection has caused a population differentiation (position 4 in Fig. 8). The large W / A ratio (position 4 in Fig. 10) must be attributed to pollen swamping.Several conifer species from North America show similar results to those found for Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris from the Old World (Rehfeldt 1970(Rehfeldt , 1980(Rehfeldt , 1982;;Conkle 1973;Campbell 1979). There are a few exceptions to this, Pinus monticola and Pinus resinosa being two of them. In P. monticola most genetic variation in growth and phenology traits remains within populations and only small differences are found among populations, though with a sharp border between south and north in central Oregon (Camp bell and Sugano 1989 and lit. cit.). Similarly there is some variation among populations of Pinus resinosa without any clear clinal pattern of variation (Overton and Johnson 1985 and lit. cit.).As regards Pinus monticola, Campbell and Sugano (1989) discuss a few evolutionary explanations for the limited among-population variation for a large area of its distribution in northwest USA. They rule out phenotypic plasticity as the major reason for this since the large genetic variation among trees should contradict such an explanation. Another possible explanation is that the species does not experience the environment as heterogeneous; with the terminology of Brandon (1990) there is just one single SEN for the species north of central Oregon (see position 1 in Fig. 8). In support of this it seems to occupy a specific habitat and is evidently outcompeted by other species in other habitats. Still another explanation would be that the environment changes strongly over time, preventing any stabilizing selection within certain areas. SENs thus should vary strongly over time (position 3 in Fig. 9). However, it remains to be proven why P. monticola experiences the environment as very variable while other conifers experience the same environment as fairly stable.Pin us resinosa grows predominantly on xeric sites in a band approximately 700 kilometres wide from south eastern Manitoba and Minnesota to the Atlantic coast. The east-west distribution of the species covers different climatic zones which presumably should give rise to several SENs. As a consequence of that, one would expect adaptation to these different SENs as long as large random mating populations exist. It has repeatedly been reported that it has low genetic diversity (see Mosseler 1995) and the species does not suffer from much inbreeding depression (Fowler 1964(Fowler , 1965)). This has given rise to speculations that the species has passed through several bottlenecks after the last glaciation and in this way lost genetic diversity. However, as stated by Overton and Johnson (1985), P. resinosa is not devoid of genetic variation in quantitative traits but the variation is less than in other comparable pine species. One possible explanation for the limited genetic variation is that SENs of this species do not differ as much as for other species. The emphasis that P. resinosa predominantly grows on xeric sites (Mosseler 1995) supports that view. The larger genetic variation in P. strobus might be attributed to its occupation of a wider range of site conditions and accompanying larger differences in its SENs.In agreement with the observations by Karhu et al. (1996) many earlier separate analyses of isoenzyme variation revealed a much larger within-population variation than among-population variation (e.g. Bergmann 1973;Rudin and Lundkvist 1977;Wheeler and Curies 1982). Sometimes clines are observed (Bergmann 1978;Lagerkrantz and Ryman 1990) but never as steep as for metric traits. The clinal variation observed for some isoenzyme markers is most likely a consequence of isolation by distance (cf. Wright 1943) and not a consequence of disruptive selection since it takes a long time to reach the same frequency of a new mutant allele in all subpopulations. The absence of marker differences among P. resinosa populations summarized by Mosseler (1995) must also be attributed to the absence of different SENs for these markers. The lack of within-population variation of biochemical markers (Fowler and Morris 1977;Mosseler 1995) contrasts with the observations in most other conifer species. This lack of genetic variation lends support to the bottleneck hypothesis put forward by Fowler and Morris (1977).Unfortunately most of the tree species classified as Noble Hardwoods (Turok et al. 1996) are rarely random mating, owing to their scattered distribution and pollination by vectors that are flying over short distances only. Therefore, random genetic drift may play a great role in their evolution. Loss of additive variance in a population occurs at a rate of 1/2Ne per generation. It must be remembered that Ne in many cases is much less than the census number of trees. A population with less than ten mating trees for several generations will have a high degree of allele fixation. If an originally large random mating population is split into many small populations the frequency of fixation of allele a j after many generations of exposure to genetic drift will be proportional to the original frequency of this allele in the original large population. Since there are many unlinked loci, a random fixation of alleles over the whole genome will lead to a large differentiation among populations. The predictions of the among-population differentiation will in absence of other evolutionary forces be a reflected image of the curve for loss of additive variance due to drift.The joint effects of genetic drift and natural selection may take the shape illustrated in Figure 12. At position 1 the random mating populations may differentiate owing to natural selection. By increasing importance of random genetic drift, non-adaptive differentiation becomes more important and the amongpopulation differentiation increases (position 2).The among-population differentiation will probably not change much from position 2 to position 4. As genetic drift gradually becomes less important when moving from position 4 to position 3 the among-population will exponentially be reduced to a low level at position 3.To capture the existing genetic variation in situations when genetic drift is thought to play a major role, the number of populations has to be larger than when random mating prevails. Even if the existing tree population is far from maximum fitness, it has proven to be competitive in its present environment and can advantageously be included in the gene resource population (Eriksson et al. 1993). Although methods of gene conservation are not the subject of this paper, it must be remarked that for the long-time survival of the species, putting trees together from different populations into a seed orchard would be the best measure to improve the additive variance in the offspring.Research observations Mattila and Vakkari (1997) reported on FSI values for isoenzyme variation at 18 loci in Ulmus laevis populations in Finland. Many of the populations are small and the species has its northern margin in Finland. The estimated FSI value amounted to 0.33 which must be regarded as a high value for this wind-pollinated species, suggesting that random genetic drift might be a cause of this substantial differentiation. Like the elm species referred to above, Acer platanoides has its northern margin in southern Finland. Rusanen et al. (1996) reported a FSI value of 0.126 for this species based on a study of 14 isoenzyme loci in 14 populations. Compared with the values for Ulmus laevis, the importance of genetic drift seems to be much less. The results suggest that the pollen vector can transport vital pollen over considerable distances.Habj0rg (1978) reported on growth rhythm in Acer platanoides and showed that there was a clinal variation for growth cessation. Similarly, Westergaard and Eriksen (1997) reported on clinal variation in the same species. It is evident that there is some adaptedness to the climatic conditions of this trait in Scandinavia. In the latter report, there was one population from latitude 56° that did not differ from a population with its origin more than 4° further north. One possible explanation for the deviating performance of the latitude 56° population is genetic drift.Our own studies of Acer platanoides, Fraxinus excelsior and Quercus robur have indicated that there is a larger among-population variation for some traits in Acer platanoides (insect-pollinated), than in the others (wind-pollinated), supporting the hypothesis that insect-pollinated species should show larger among-population differentiation than wind-pollinated ones.All sampling for gene conservation ought to capture the existing adaptedness. When genetic information is totally absent and sampling for gene conservation has to be carried out, it may be useful to consider:1. Whether there is random mating; if this is the case, then consider:• how many SENs there may be for a species and how strong the disruptive selection may be among different SENs • how strong the geneflow among different SENs may be • how these two evolutionary forces interact. 2. If genetic drift is assumed to have taken place, comparatively more samples have to be included to capture the existing genetic variation which is partly non-adaptive.During the last decades, forestry in Europe has shown a growing awareness of the high importance of a specific group of tree species known as Noble Hardwoods.The acknowledgement of their eminent si1vicu1tura1, economic and/or ecological values led to their upgrading from a former status of 'minor' species.Out of this awareness arose a major concern to safeguard the existing resources of these species (isolated individuals, relict popu1ations, small-scale homogeneous stands). Because one can not protect what one does not know, substantial efforts have been needed, in the first place, to identify the still existing resources.Furthermore, the gene conservation programmes, set off in different European countries, very rapidly urged for an effective characterization of these resources once they had been identified. In this way a varying set of criteria, techniques and traits was developed and applied in each country, aiming at:• determination of wild forms vis-a.-vis cultivated and hybrid forms (e.g. wild apple) • assessment of the levels of (genetic) diversity within the entities • characterization of diversity between geographically disjunct entities. The EUFORGEN Noble Hardwoods Network provides a mechanism for monitoring the practices currently used throughout Europe for such evaluation of genetic resources. In order to carry out an overview of the current evaluation methods and practices in different countries, a questionnaire was chosen as the most appropriate way to gain good information from all the participating countries (see list of Participants).It was agreed to classify the different traits used for evaluation of Noble Hardwoods genetic resources into four categories: morphology, phenology, resistance characteristics and biochemical! genetic traits.The received information was rearranged into a fairly limited number of tables representing the individual Noble Harwood species. The aim is to provide each member of the Network (and other scientists concerned) with a guide indicating where to search for additional information in order to compare, complete, refine and/or optimize their own evaluation techniques.The purpose of this task is certainly not to produce one uniform methodology for the evaluation of Noble Hardwood species in all countries. The form of the questionnaire used for conducting this survey allowed for obtaining well-balanced and standard information. However, one should keep in mind that putting the available information into a fixed questionnaire inevitably entails a certain loss of information which does not fit into the presented form and can not be comprehended in the following overview tables (Tables 1-16).Some similarities and common features between the different countries could be observed:1. For all species considered, the evaluation of genetic resources is most often done on the basis of morphological and phenological traits, as these are readily observable and do not require any sophisticated equipment (Fig. 1).Exception is made for the Ulmus species, for which tolerance/susceptibility to the Dutch elm disease is adopted as a major distinctive characteristic used. 2. Morphological observations most often focus on leaves and fruits/seeds (Fig. 2). Among all phenological traits observed, flushing and flowering appear to be the most important ones (Fig. 3).     A flowers and twigs; B = buds; C = lamma shoots.Croatia Italy   This outline results from discussions at the Network meeting in Lourizan. It includes a list of common minimum descriptors suggested for Noble Hardwoods.Countries and institutes will have their own databases with differently structured and detailed information level, but the minimum set of de scrip tors should be common to all. A common Network database, hosted by a volunteer institute may be established later.In a list of descriptors for Ulmus, Nieto and Gil (1996) refer to IPGRI's standard definitions of passport, management, environment, characterization and evaluation descriptors. \"Evaluation descriptors\" include most common genetic descriptors. Their proposal includes description of morphological data on single trees.Noble Hardwoods include several fruit tree species. Standard descriptor lists (IPGRI) for peach, apple and cherry are primarily constructed for single tree description with a high number of describing characters, particularly related to the economical importance.Within forest tree breeding, several databases exist. They often include technical data, and need to be maintained by trained specialists (SQL databases). They are constructed for single tree units as well, however a limited number of characteristics is used. Some of these databases may easily be fitted to gene conservation purposes.Stand evaluation descriptors are proposed by Danida Forest Seed Center (1996). It can be argued that stand be the basic unit for evaluation rather than a collective of well-described individuals. The stand may be regarded as composed of single species being members of a complex system. Factors as life history, management, ownership, geography, climate and regeneration may be very important parameters for conservation purposes. The stand and its variability is the central unit for evaluation. The descriptors may reflect the multipurpose use of the stand, its socioeconomic value. These aspects may be important for in situ conservation stands, but obviously no importance for pollen banks.The group of Noble Hardwoods may be describ~d as being very heterogeneous. Some of the species are fragmented in their distribution, or even occupy marginal sites outside optimum habitats for the respective species. Noble Hardwoods are often threatened by deforestation, improper forest management, agriculture, etc. Another problem is the wide use of non-local provenances.A simple list of descriptors, similarly to the model developed by the Picea abies Network, is proposed. Then we suggest a number of additional descriptors which may be useful specifically for Noble Hardwoods. This proposal for descriptors has been developed in discussion with Erik D. Kjcer (Tree Improvement Station) and Allan Breum Larsen (Danida Forest Seed Center) in Denmark.Name of species Including name of species, subspecies, etc.Country where maintained Name of country or three-letter official country abbreviation (ISO code).Registration number A national number identifying the genetic resource. As most countries have different systems for different institutions and/or type of units, the registration number will consist of two parts, the first one identifying the national system and the second the code within the system.Name of genetic resource 4.1 The local name under which the genetic resource is known and name of locality or municipality 4.2 Forest region or district, where applicable 5Geographic location of site 5.1 Latitude Degrees (0) and minutes (') followed by N or S. 5.2 Longitude Degrees (0) and minutes (') followed by N or S.Lower altitude of site (m above sea level).Upper altitude of site (m above sea level).The geographic parameters refer to the site where the genetic resource is growing in the wild (in situ and ex situ), or is stored.Responsible institution and ownership 6.1 Name of institution responsible for identification and maintenance, and contact address 6.2 Ownership: forest owner, institution or ministry 7Type and function of genetic resource Categories are • in situ natural population(s) or plantation(s):• nature reserve The term genetic resources is used to denote all collections of biological material that are managed with gene conservation objectives in mind; including natural populations, plantations, clonal banks, seed and pollen collections. The descriptors proposed are not intended for individual families, genotypes, individual seed or pollen lots. Only a few of the proposed descriptors are coded into a specific format. No attempts are made to produce a standardized coding system of all descriptors. Conservation and utilization of genetic resources has to be applied according to several objectives, especially if dealing with as heterogeneous a group as Noble Hardwoods. Different methods will be applicable at the same time, and it is not possible to identify a set of common descriptors that are meaningful or can be used for all types of genetic resources. A set of additional or voluntary descriptors is given below.for genetic resources• Original seed source Ex situ stands may be composed of many different seed origins or single. This may indicate the geographical representation. Such data may be overwhelming, and are not compulsory.• Status of conservation Danger of extinction -IUCN status category.• Regeneration Natural regeneration, replanting.• Tree data -Age: young-middle aged-old -Size: (dimension -distribution) -Numbers: (numbers at regeneration stage).• Topography -Slope -Mountain, hill, upland, plain, plateau, basin, valley.• Soil texture -Sand, loamy sand, silty loam, loam, clay loam, clay -Stoniness.• Additional use of the area The area may be used for conservation of wildlife, etc. Point 6 (see minimum descriptors above) could include more specific information about area utilization.• Management regime -Recent and earlier land-use history: high forest, coppice forest -Required management: thinning, removal of unwanted species -Game management.• Threats -Inbreeding, species competition, pollution -Status of protection: undisturbed, disturbed.• Isolation -Barriers for the control of geneflow and the invasion of species/ provenances -Genepool in danger of contamination (currently) -potentially O.• Year of establishment• Seed crop Light -medium -heavy.• Associated species Noble Hardwoods often exist in mixtures influencing each other. This review comprises selected references of publications which are relevant to the conservation and use of genetic resources in elms (Ulmus spp.). The list may not be fully exhaustive as to the research fields covered by the review, but attempts to provide an up-to-date status from the Network's viewpoint. The references included should be of interest to scientists and forest managers involved in activities on the genetic resources of elms in Europe.The contributions to this review from many Network members, participants of the EU Project on elms (GEN RES 78) and other scientists are gratefully acknowledged. The review will be updated and further developed, aiming particularly at I grey literature' with valuable research results produced in many countries. Such references are often not available internationally. Any comments and suggestions about relevant publications not included in this review are very welcome and should be sent directly to the compiler.Literature reviews for other Noble Hardwood species are currently under preparation by the Network members and will be available later as a separate joint publication of the Network (see Workplan).The references in this review are ordered by author and include: year of publication, English title, original title, source and language of text and of summary.","tokenCount":"20442"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"52d26df8acf084363556c947a0015c3c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/157a00fa-2e66-4f49-b65a-29147f1c5713/content","id":"541360253"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9c7815ce-220d-49b4-a265-9f054b59b4c0","pagecount":"9","content":"Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as a staple crop is closely interwoven into the development of modern society. Its influence on culture and economic development is global. Recent instability in wheat markets has demonstrated its importance in guaranteeing food security across national borders. Climate change threatens food security as it interacts with a multitude of factors impacting wheat production. The challenge needs to be addressed with a multidisciplinary perspective delivered across research, private, and government sectors. Many experimental studies have identified the major biotic and abiotic stresses impacting wheat production, but fewer have addressed the combinations of stresses that occur simultaneously or sequentially during the wheat growth cycle. Here, we argue that biotic and abiotic stress interactions, and the genetics and genomics underlying them, have been insufficiently addressed by the crop science community. We propose this as a reason for the limited transfer of practical and feasible climate adaptation knowledge from research projects into routine farming practice. To address this gap, we propose that novel methodology integration can align large volumes of data available from crop breeding programs with increasingly cheaper omics tools to predict wheat performance under different climate change scenarios. Underlying this is our proposal that breeders design and deliver future wheat ideotypes based on new or enhanced understanding of the genetic and physiological processes that are triggered when wheat is subjected to combinations of stresses. By defining this to a trait and/or genetic level, new insights can be made for yield improvement under future climate conditions.. Shifts in climatic conditions over time are likely to cause further spatiotemporal variations in abiotic and biotic stresses for wheat producers that will likely lead to significant spatial changes in yield and grain quality (Fradgley et al., 2022). These challenges will need to be addressed from multiple perspectives, including researchbased solutions. Too often, current crop research efforts operate in silos of distinct disciplines that do not reflect the plant-or crop-level experience of stress: encountering multiple abiotic and biotic stressors simultaneously and sequentially during field growth seasons (Suzuki et al., 2014). We propose that this is an important research gap in the development of climate change adaptation strategies for crops, limiting opportunities to breed future crops that integrate resilience and potential for higher production.Conservative predictions for a 2˚C increase in global mean temperature (Deutsch et al., 2018) are predicted to change the timing and severity of both biotic and abiotic stresses as well as changing or expanding their geographic distribution (IPCC Secretariat, 2021). This includes expected changes in pest survival rates during heat waves or frosts, increased latency of spores for fungi, shifts in population growth dynamics and geographical distribution for insects, and reduction of crop cycle length (Atkinson & Urwin, 2012;Eigenbrode & Macfadyen, 2017). To avoid further damage to the environment, wheat productivity must increase without expanding agricultural land area and limiting the use of water and fertilizers. The reduction of inputs being enforced through legislative changes in several countries in the world, stricter regulations on permissible pesticides and changes in usage of growth promoters is expected to have a confounding effect on the likelihood of significant crop damage and resultant food insecurity (O'Hanlon, 2019).To increase crop resilience to changing climates, it is proposed that selecting and crossing parents with improved resource utilization and allocation within the canopy will be key for increasing yields (Burgess et al., 2022;Kromdijk & Long, 2016). This will have little impact on crop productivity if adaptation to harsher heat and drought conditions (Langridge & Reynolds, 2021), increases in atmospheric CO 2 concentration (Ainsworth & Long, 2021), and co-occurring biotic and abiotic stressors (Juroszek & von Tiedemann, 2013) are not considered.Wheat varieties mostly represent germplasm adapted to biotic and abiotic stressors selected and assessed at a point in time with specific climate conditions. Wheat ideotypes can be selected for their responses to certain environmental conditions (i.e., genotype × environment, G × E) or alternatively with superior performance across targeted environments (i.e., stable genotypes with low G × E). This represents a major gap in current research, and further understanding of the real-time and dynamic genetic and physiological mechanisms involved• To improve wheat yield, it is critical to understand the responses to co-occurring biotic and abiotic stresses. • The use of omics and data-driven approaches will facilitate the integration of complex traits in breeding programs. • Developing wheat ideotypes will require multidisciplinary work across stakeholders from researchers to end users.in perceiving and responding to different and co-occurring or sequential stresses is urgently required. Here, we discuss common biotic and abiotic stresses in wheat, the effect of their interactions on productivity and highlight the necessary transfer of knowledge from the laboratory to the field. We also describe existing tools to help breeders deliver future wheat ideotypes and propose new approaches to address interacting biotic and abiotic stresses in crop research.Global wheat production faces a range of interacting biotic and abiotic stresses. Water stress is one of the most important factors affecting wheat productivity and is usually more severe when high temperatures or prolonged drought occur. Water and heat stress, both individually and in combination, are known to cause a reduction in stomatal conductance (gs), spike fertility, lower photosynthetic capacity and efficiency, and affect the source-sink balance (Posch et al., 2022) ultimately reducing yield.Heat stress is known to alter wheat plant architecture, and if aggravated by drought, it causes impaired osmotic adjustment, damage by reactive chemicals (e.g., reactive oxygen species) and reduces photosynthetic pigment content (Barnabás et al., 2008;Tricker et al., 2018). Drought and heat stress are often intertwined and can take place during the same crop cycle. For example, drought might be the result of a heat wave at a local level or due to chronic increases in regional temperatures, which can cause severe or lethal effects at the organ or plant level, and by increasing evaporation rates and depleting water stored in the soil (Breshears et al., 2021). Crops have developed adaptations to drought such as the reduction of amino acid content (Michaletti et al., 2018), or the extra accumulation of sugars to be remobilized to the grain when photosynthesis cannot support grain filling (Guo et al., 2018;Marček et al., 2019;Nemati et al., 2018).Low nitrogen (N) availability can also co-exist with drought and heat stress disturbing phloem transport, changing sap composition (Sevanto, 2014) and depleting reserves of watersoluble carbohydrates in plant leaves and stems. A recent study found that drought stress reduces protein content needed for photosynthetic activity especially Rubisco and lightharvesting complexes such as cyclophilin 38, HCF136, and adenosine triphosphate synthase. Additionally, Rubisco activase is down-modulated inhibiting photosynthesis in droughtstressed leaves (Michaletti et al., 2018). When heat stress is applied to wheat, metabolite content gets altered in the different plant organs. In the spikes, glycine, methionine, maltose, and raffinose content increases while aspartate decreases; in the stems, glutamine and β-alanine content decreases (Impa et al., 2019). Negative effects of N deficiency in the soil are exacerbated by drought-driven decline in soil microbiota that makes inorganic N forms unavailable for the plant, causing growth impairment and floret sterility, altering the sourcesink balance and leading to a rapid decline in the amino-acid content of the phloem (Caputo & Barneix, 1997;Curci et al., 2017;Jeuffroy & Bouchard, 1999). The latter examples may trigger plant defense mechanisms or alter resource allocation in different ways to cope with interaction of different stresses; hence, it is important to understand wheat physiological and genetic responses to develop integrative understanding of these interactions.Atmospheric elevated CO 2 concentration (eCO 2 ) studies in wheat are scarce compared to other crops (e.g., rice, soybean, maize, and tobacco), but scarcer are field experiments where more than one abiotic stress interacts with eCO 2 . Understanding of these interactions is limited since the majority of eCO 2 studies have been conducted in controlled conditions which differ fundamentally from how light and N are distributed within the canopy in the field, as well as ignoring soil physiochemical conditions and farmer management practices (Cormier et al., 2016;Poorter et al., 2016).Some findings indicate that when air temperature increases, eCO 2 can stimulate greater wheat biomass accumulation and plant height with up to ∼53% yield increment compared to regular ambient CO 2 (Fitzgerald et al., 2016). However, grain quality decreases when the C:N ratio increases (Robinson et al., 2012) and when there are reductions in grain protein content due to eCO 2 (Taub et al., 2008). Other reported yield reductions when eCO 2 combines with heat and/or drought stress conditions include inhibition of nitrate assimilation (Bloom et al., 2010), higher photosynthetic rates (Bloom et al., 2010;Chavan et al., 2019), and photo assimilate depletion (Chavan et al., 2019). Additionally, eCO 2 can co-occur with pest outbreaks (e.g., Zymoseptoria tritici Desm. and Fusarium graminearum Petch.) reducing yield even further (Váry et al., 2015). Hence, we will need to design future studies more objectively by systematically targeting and generating data on the magnitude of these interactions (e.g., drought × eCO 2 , increased temperature × eCO 2 , pathogen × drought × eCO 2 , pathogen × drought × increased temperature × eCO 2 ) in field conditions.Life cycles of wheat pathogens and pests are influenced by their environment, and many are known to thrive at elevated temperatures. Wheat pathogen response to changes in environmental conditions include changes in geographical distribution, seasonal phenology, and population dynamics. Studies of wheat leaf rust (Puccinia triticina Eriks.) in Europe suggest warmer field conditions increase inoculum accumulation during winter and spring and extend the duration of latency period of spores (Miedaner & Juroszek, 2021). Further, modeling scenarios for Ethiopia have shown that stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici) resistant wheat varieties can have higher yield than susceptible ones under drought conditions (Abro et al., 2017). It has also been shown that there are genotypic differences in the response of heat stress and susceptibility to yellow rust in bread wheat in Egypt suggesting that heat stress tolerance could be bred alongside rust resistance and not penalize yield (Megahed et al., 2022).For cereal aphids, a temperature rise of 2˚C would increase the number of generations reproduced per year in regions where temperatures are currently near optimal for aphid development (Aljaryian & Kumar, 2016;Deutsch et al., 2018;Hullé et al., 2010). With rising temperatures, it is expected that pests and pathogens will disperse beyond their original habitats; for example, the English grain aphid (Sitobion avenae Fabricius) has already extended its habitat to cover almost the entirety of the North Hemisphere (Bebber et al., 2013). However, for an insect pest to become invasive in new geographical areas, external factors such as the presence and quality of the host, food trade, and agricultural practices play an important role (Bebber et al., 2014;Skendžić et al., 2021). Nonetheless, climate sets the dispersal range of pests to the point at which a pest can become invasive, increase earlier infestations of native pests, and/or increase the presence or fecundity of multiple pests in wheat growing regions.Interesting effects on co-occurring biotic and abiotic stresses, such as the relation of climate-driven changes in phloem chemistry and aphid feeding patterns, highlight the need for an integrated approach to study interacting stresses. For example, in cereals, the greenbug (Schizaphis graminum Rondani) has better reproductive rates when its plant host does not suffer from drought stress (Cabrera et al., 1995;Pendleton & Veerabomma, 2008;Sumner et al., 1986) because the nutritional value of the phloem sap is correlated to the level of aphid infestation (Douglas & van Emden, 2007). When S. graminum is exposed to drought stress, its feeding rate increases due to low quality phloem sap, and this combination of biotic and abiotic stresses reduces photosynthetic capacity (Dorschner et al., 1986;Ryan et al., 1987).Additionally, studies have shown that the concentration of phenylalanine, proline, glutamine, and tryptophan increases in the plant when fed upon by S. graminum (Sandström et al., 2000;Zhang et al., 2019). The concentration of these amino acids also increases in drought-susceptible wheat genotypes (Michaletti et al., 2018), which highlights the importance of incorporating aphid resistance in drought-tolerant wheat varieties. These effects must also be taken into consideration when making plant selection decisions: drought stressed plants may have reduced insect damage, but this may be an artifact of the abiotic stress interaction causing low sap nutritional value in drought-stressed plants.Irrigated and high rainfall wheat growing regions are commonly affected by collapsed crop fields (lodging) that result in low yield and quality. Future shifts in weather conditions will cause further spatiotemporal changes that will strongly affect crop lodging incidence and expansion in its geographical distribution. Greater susceptibility to pests and diseases is common in crops subjected to lodging events (Berry et al., 2004;Joseph et al., 2020), but lodging can also result from foot-rot or root-rot diseases and insectattacked stems (Pinthus, 1974). Fusarium foot-rot (Fusarium spp.), eyespot or strawbreaker (Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides (Fron) Deighton), Hessian fly (Mayetida destructor Say), and sawflies (Cephus cinctus Norton and Cephus pygmaeus L.) are the most common diseases and pests that can cause lodging (Berry et al., 2004;Bockus et al., 2010;Pinthus, 1974). It is evident that interactions, and the changing magnitude of lodging, disease, and pest damage should be more proactively addressed by research and breeding programs.In the case of stem sawfly, plant damage and lodging are caused by larval tunneling down to the base of the stems (Oiestad et al., 2017) destroying parenchyma tissue and vascular bundles. This induces low kernel number, inefficient harvest (due to the collapsed crop), and loss of grain quality (Beres et al., 2007). Breeding for solid stems has been targeted over the past 60-70 years to reduce sawfly-related losses (Varella et al., 2016). Interestingly, solid stems can also increase mechanical strength (Bisht et al., 2022), which is crucial to improve lodging resistance in wheat and could be an important source of carbohydrates reserve during grain filling. This showcases the opportunity to solve two problems with a single strategy for example, through the development and application of reliable markers for solid stems (Oiestad et al., 2017;Piñera-Chavez et al., 2021).The examples discussed in this section demonstrate the necessity to not only consider individual biotic and abiotic stresses but to understand and integrate their current as well as future interactions. Developing methods to assess the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying these interactions will help to accelerate deployment of knowledge and ensure the successful adaptation of wheat to climate change. For this to be achieved, it is necessary to develop novel controlled environment and field-based studies that consolidate this new knowledge with current and future breeding efforts.Innovation has been a key driver in increasing food availability and affordability, especially in the developed world (Campos, 2021). Primary research will be a key basis for some of the major innovations required to adapt wheat to the multiple challenges of a changing climate if they can be translated into knowledge applied at scale in farmers' fields.Large environmental datasets are becoming available, including daily solar radiation, air temperature, and relative humidity from multiple field locations. These datasets can be used to characterize target environments, used as covariates for statistical analyses and applied to derive crop parameters with modeling (referred to as enviromics) (Costa-Neto et al., 2021). Remote sensing data collected at different scales can give us information on the physiological status of the crop (phenomics), and increasingly cheaper DNA-based technologies can help us unravel the basis of traits with a large amount of genetic information (genomics). New data types that profile plant chemical response processes can also be harnessed (metabolomics) as can real-time expression of genes and/or functional proteins (transcriptomics and proteomics). These datasets can be integrated through the utilization of newly developed statistical machine learning models to predict the performance of unobserved plant genotypes.Controlled experiments often do not provide an accurate picture of the biotic and abiotic stresses that fieldgrown plants experience (Poorter et al., 2016). This means that results may not be directly applicable in a current or future breeding context. To address this, we need to make more efficient use of field and laboratory highthroughput phenotyping (HTP) capabilities and combine conventional and HTP to develop statistical models that could be used to introduce complex trait enhancements in photosynthesis, gs, biomass accumulation, and radiation use efficiency (RUE) into breeding pipelines. It has been shown that gs can be predicted with 97% accuracy using machine learning models (Gibbs et al., 2021), and RUE and photosynthesis can be predicted with 69% (Robles-Zazueta et al., 2021) and 48% accuracy (Robles-Zazueta et al., 2022), respectively. These models need to be fine-tuned to improve accuracy, especially for gas exchange by increasing the amount of ground truth data available to build the models. Nonetheless, the time spent collecting data in the field and processing samples in the lab can be reduced approximately by 27 times for agronomic traits and 40 times for photosynthetic traits (Robles-Zazueta et al., 2021, 2022). HTP protocols applied in combination with interdisciplinary 19403372, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tpg2.20365 by Cochrane Mexico, Wiley Online Library on [03/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License The Plant Genome efforts such as the Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) (Rosenzweig et al., 2013) can aid in the development of low-cost platforms to phenotype multiple traits at the same time in the field, and coupled with field informed controlled environment experiments, combined stresses can be studied at a mechanistic and genetic level.There are several parametric, semi-parametric, and nonparametric statistical models based on machine learning available for genomic prediction (Crossa et al., 2021). This includes Bayesian methods to estimate the genomic best linear unbiased predictors incorporating relationship genomic matrices with environmental covariables to assess G × E, predicting unobserved genotypes in different years or siteyears (Jarquín et al., 2014). Kernel functions capture nonlinear patterns from original input data using machine learning algorithms in the transformed data for genomic prediction values of complex breeding traits and their interactions (i.e., G × E, G × G, G × G × E, G × E × M). Furthermore, partial least squares regression modeling has been used to predict singleand multi-trait performance dividing the site years datasets for training and validation of the models (Montesinos-López et al., 2022a,b). Finally, deep learning neural networks have been used to capture small cryptic associations between markers that reflect genes and genetic epistasis (Montesinos-López et al., 2019, 2021). We propose that all these integrative methods offer new opportunities to combine data on multiple co-occurring or sequential stresses and predict crop performance more dynamically and accurately than using conventional methods and individual protocols or analysis timepoints.Beyond genetic effects, metabolomics can be a powerful technology to accelerate the understanding of metabolic pathways related to abiotic and biotic stress tolerances and interactions (Razzaq et al., 2021). Together with metabolomics, proteins play a key role in the plant responses to pathogens, and proteomics has enabled the identification of germplasm and genetic response to stem sawfly and Fusarium-related diseases (Biyiklioglu et al., 2018;Feussner & Polle, 2015;Gunnaiah et al., 2012;Kage et al., 2017). Metabolomics and proteomics can offer a deeper understanding of stress interactions by providing information on additional levels of regulation and defining the role of small molecules while increasing the spatiotemporal resolution of the interaction analysis (Feussner & Polle, 2015). Likewise, understanding gene expression over time can augment the resolution of traditional genetic and genomic data.These available tools can help elucidate the complex processes that affect wheat growth and underpin current and future productivity. A concerted effort to develop a platform to integrate these and develop an intuitive user interface to enable wide uptake would be a key step change in mainstreaming this integrative approach. Attention should be given to developing this as an open access solution considering lowresource programs without access to state-of-the-art omics technologies or computational resources, or the economic ability to sow thousands of lines in the field to explore the physical interaction of the biotic and abiotic stresses mentioned above.The global wheat system from single plant to global commodity is fascinating yet complex. Wheat scientists are continually challenged to develop new ideotypes based on changing target environments with overlapping and interacting stress factors.We argue that delivery of resilient wheat production now and, in the future, requires a holistic approach integrating not just yield and quality components, but an integrated view of plant architecture, physiology, biotic and abiotic stresses affecting the crop system. New open access experimental and data platforms are needed to support cutting-edge science efficiently translated into the field to understand the interacting stresses. This will ensure that information flows from research to farmers faster. The use of omics, new integrative statistical and computational methods, and crop modeling will allow researchers and breeders to simulate experimental and breeding systems for hundreds or thousands of genotypes, multiple environments and years to predict new ideotypes and understand the underlying genetic and physiological processes triggered when wheat is subjected to multiple stresses.We conclude that none of these efforts will have true meaning unless their main goal is to benefit farmers, improve the sustainability of crop production, and enhance food security. Ultimately, any research project should include tangible impacts that shifts from the current siloed approach toward a more holistic package of wheat resilience (and for any crop) to climate change. This will create a fertile ground for a second Green Revolution with a smooth transition from large-scale industrial agricultural production to a more resilient and sustainable production which includes traits recommended from national programs for a specific region creating lasting positive impacts for society and the environment.Carlos A. Robles-Zazueta: Conceptualization; writingoriginal draft; writing-review and editing. Leonardo A. Crespo-Herrera: Conceptualization; writing-review and editing. Francisco J. Piñera-Chavez: Conceptualization; writing-review and editing. Carolina Rivera-Amado: Conceptualization; writing-review and editing. Gudbjorg I. Aradottir: Conceptualization; writing-original draft; writing-review and editing. The Plant Genome Varella, A. C., Talbert, L. E., Hofland, M. L., Buteler, M., Sherman, J. D., Blake, N. K., Heo, H. Y., Martin, J. M., & Weaver, D. K. (2016) ","tokenCount":"3642"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"73a0d54d9037d4c474e9ea2354b1194a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3ed94ddd-c856-42f3-b986-16135ad08010/content","id":"912992718"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ee75d257-fee5-4166-a6d8-b5436c284907","pagecount":"18","content":"Cellulose is the primary determinant of mechanical strength in plant tissues. Late-season lodging is inversely related to the amount of cellulose in a unit length of the stem. Wheat is the most widely grown of all the crops globally, yet information on its CesA gene family is limited. We have identified 22 CesA genes from bread wheat, which include homoeologs from each of the three genomes, and named them as TaCesAXA, TaCesAXB or TaCesAXD, where X denotes the gene number and the last suffix stands for the respective genome. Sequence analyses of the CESA proteins from wheat and their orthologs from barley, maize, rice, and several dicot species (Arabidopsis, beet, cotton, poplar, potato, rose gum and soybean) revealed motifs unique to monocots (Poales) or dicots. Novel structural motifs CQIC and SVICEXWFA were identified, which distinguished the CESAs involved in the formation of primary and secondary cell wall (PCW and SCW) in all the species. We also identified several new motifs specific to monocots or dicots. The conserved motifs identified in this study possibly play functional roles specific to PCW or SCW formation. The new insights from this study advance our knowledge about the structure, function and evolution of the CesA family in plants in general and wheat in particular. This information will be useful in improving culm strength to reduce lodging or alter wall composition to improve biofuel production.Cellulose is the primary determinant of mechanical strength in plants [1,2]. It is also the world's most abundant renewable carbon source [3,4]. In plants, the secondary cell wall is deposited inside the primary wall and, because of its greater thickness, it generally constitutes majority of the vegetative biomass [5]. Primary cell wall is deposited during cell division and expansion stages, whereas the secondary cell wall begins to form as cell expansion approaches cessation [6]. Cellulose in plants is synthesized by multimeric protein complexes, which consist of hexameric, rosette-like structures in the plasma membrane [7]. Individual members of each of the hexameric components are referred to as cellulose synthase A (CesA), where the letter A stands for the catalytic subunit [3]. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) genome contains at least 10 CesA genes, which cluster into six groups [8][9][10]. Mutational genetics established that six of the ten genes each had a nonredundant function in primary or secondary cell wall (PCW or SCW) formation. Three of the genes, AtCesA1, AtCesA3, and AtCesA6, are involved in PCW formation and another three, AtCesA4, AtCesA7 and AtCesA8 in SCW formation [11,12]. The remaining genes, AtCesA2, 5 and 9, are partially redundant with AtCesA6 [13,14]. AtCesA10 remains uncharacterized. Maize and rice possess 13 and 11 CesA genes, respectively [15,16]. Barley has nine genes, of which HvCesA1, HvCesA2, and HvCesA6 make PCW, and HvCesA4, HvCesA7, and HvCesA8 form SCW [17]. HvCesA3, 5 and 9 are different from both the groups because of their unique tissue-specific transcript levels [18]. Mapping studies from Arabidopsis, maize and rice revealed that the members of the CesA gene family were spread across the genome although some genes were clustered together [16,19].Plant CESAs belong to family 2 of glycosyl transferases (GT2), which catalyze beta linkage between the glycosyl residues. CESAs are intrinsic plasma membrane proteins with their catalytic domains extending into the cytoplasm [20]. Each of the six subunits of a cellulose synthase complex (CSC) is believed to be composed of 6 enzymatically active CESAproteins. Each of the CESA proteins catalyzes the synthesis of an individual beta-1,4-linked chain [21,22]. Multiple chains extruded from the CSC then polymerize through hydrogen bond formation into a microfibril outside the plasma membrane.A CESA protein of higher plants possesses eight transmembrane domains (TMDs), which are believed to form a pore in the plasma membrane to allow extrusion of the newly synthesised glucan chain. Two zinc-finger domains (ZnF), which are highly homologous to the RING-finger motif, are present on the cytoplasmic face close to the amino terminus [23]. The central or the catalytic domain, is located between the second and third TMDs [24]. Three aspartyl residues (referred to as D1, D2, and D3) and a QXXRW motif in the catalytic domain of the CESA proteins are conserved across all the species studied thus far. The D1 and D2 residues are believed to coordinate UDP binding while D3 provides a catalytic base for glucan chain extension [25] The QXXRW motif acts as a binding site for the terminal disaccharide of the glucan [21].Motifs are the conserved groups of residues in proteins, which can be associated with structural and functional variability across species. A highly conserved motif, CXXC, which is located within the ZnF, distnguishes CESAs from the CSL (cellulose synthase-like) proteins [9,10]. Crystal structure of the cellulose synthase subunit A (BcsA) and accessory protein BcsB of Rhodobacter sphaeroides demonstrated the involvement of a single catalytic site in the formation of beta-1,4-glycosidic bond of the glucan chain [21]. Computationally predicted model of GhCESA1 revealed two class-specific regions (C-SR-I and C-SR-II), which distinguished different CESAs, and two plant-conserved regions (P-CR), which were absent in the bacterial BcsA but highly conserved in all the plant CESAs [22,[26][27][28]. The P-CR might be potentially involved in the multimerization of the plant CESA polypeptides, leading to the formation of rosettes. C-SRs are probably responsible for regulating cellulose synthesis at different developmental stages.The CesA gene family has not yet been compiled from wheat, the most widely grown crop in global agriculture. Functional classification of the CesA genes in cereal crops has proved helpful in associating various genes with culm or stalk strength [2,17]. In this report, we present the CesA gene family from wheat. To understand the involvement of the different CesAs in primary or secondary wall formation in grasses or dicot plants, we have identified unique sequence motifs. Sequence comparisons of the PCW and SCW TaCesA genes were performed at both the DNA and protein levels. Phases of intron evolution were predicted and compared between the groups of the TaCesA genes involved in the formation of PCW or SCW. Unique motifs were identified among the representative monocot and dicot species. RNA-seq expression profiling of the TaCesA genes revealed unique, homoeolog-specific expression patterns in different tissues.The conserved cellulose synthase domains from barley CESA proteins was used as query to perform tBLASTn search with Chromosome Survey Sequence (CSS) (http://plants.ensembl. org/Triticum_aestivum/Info/Index) generated by the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium (IWGSC) [29]. Availability of whole genome sequence of barley (http:// webblast.ipk-gatersleben.de/barley/) made it possible to isolate full-length barley CesA sequences [18]. Genome databases of Triticum urartu and Aegilops tauschii, A and D genome progenitors of wheat, respectively, were also explored to identify full-length CesA genes for the sequences missing in hexaploid wheat. The homoeologs were first identified from Ensembl Plant database followed by amino acid sequence alignment for the presence of conserved motifs and domains. Highly variable class-specific regions (C-SRs) present in different CesAs were used to differentiate the homoeologous genes from each other (Fig 1).Orthologs of various CesA genes were identified through alignment of the wheat CesAs with those from Arabidopsis, barley, rice and maize. The ortholog of each gene was selected based on the sequence identity and query coverage, presence of all domains and motifs similar to the query sequence, Amino acid content/size and distance among various new motifs identified in this study relative to the query sequence. Arabidopsis, rice and maize CesA sequences were retrieved from Phytozome v9.1: Home (http://www.phytozome.net/) [30].Although in this study we identified 22 TaCesA genes, comparative studies for gene structure were performed only for the genes that were specific for PCW and SCW cellulose synthesis. Based on analysis of the orthologs, TaCesA4, 7 and 8 were characterized as one-to-one orthologs of SCW-specific, TaCesA1, 2, and 6 as PCW-specific, and TaCesA3, 5 and 9 as partially redundant to the PCW CesAs. The homoeologous copies of each gene shared 95-99% sequence identity in addition to all the motifs and domains. Therefore only one copy among the three homoeologs was used for comparative analysis. Intron-exon boundaries and translation start and stop sites were predicted through alignments of full-length genomic copies of TaCesA genes with their corresponding cDNA sequences. The introns and exons were drawn to scale for all the genes as indicated by the cDNA-genomic sequence comparisons. Phases of intron evolution were predicted using Plant Intron Exon Comparison and Evolution database (PIECE) (http://wheat.pw.usda.gov/piece/) [31].Amino acid sequence similarity of TaCESA protein sequences was determined by multiple sequence alignment (http://www.genome.jp/tools/clustalw/). Color Align Conservation tool (http://www.bioinformatics.org/sms2/color_align_cons.html) was used to differentiate the conserved patterns of aligned sequences. Conserved domains and motifs were identified by manual search in the aligned sequences.22 newly identified wheat CESA proteins were used to deduce their phylogenetic relationships. Protein sequences for Arabidopsis thaliana (AtCESA), Beta vulgaris (BvCESA), Eucalyptus grandis (EgCESA), Glycine max (GmCESA), Gossypium hirsutum (GhCESA), Hordeum vulgare (HvCESA), Oryza sativa (OsCESA), Populus trichocarpa (PtCESA), Solanum tuberosum (StCESA), Zea mays (ZmCESA) were retrieved from NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) [32]. An unrooted phylogenetic tree was constructed with bootstrap analysis over 1000 replicates, using the Neighbor-Joining method using the MEGA6 program [33,34]. Evolutionary distances were computed using Poisson correction method [35]. All positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated.GenBank accession numbers for CESA amino acid sequences used to generate the phylogenetic tree are: AtCESA1, AF027172; AtCESA2, AF027173; AtCESA3, AF027174; AtCESA4, AB006703; AtCESA5, AB016893; AtCESA6, AF062485; AtCESA7, AF088917; AtCESA8, AL035526; AtCESA9, AC007019; AtCESA10, At2G25540; ZmCESA1, AF200525; ZmCESA2, AF200526; ZmCESA3, NP_001292792.1; ZmCESA4, AF200528; ZmCESA5, AF200529; ZmCESA6, AF200530; ZmCESA7, AF200531; ZmCESA8, AF200532; ZmCESA9, AF200533; ZmCESA10, AY372244; ZmCESA11, AY372245; ZmCESA12, AY372246; ZmCESA13, KJ874174; OsCESA1, AF030052; OsCESA2, D48636, OsCESA3, BAD30574; OsCESA4, AK100475; OsCESA5, BAD30574; OsCESA6, XM_477282; OsCESA7, XM_477282; OsCESA8, XM_477093; OsCESA9, XM_477093; OsCESA10, LOC_O-42g29300; OsCESA11, LOC_OS06g39970; HvCESA1, AY483150; HvCESA2, AY483152; HvCESA3, AY483151; HvCESA4, AY483154; HvCESA5/7, AY483153; HvCESA6, AY483155; HvCESA8, AY483156; HvCESA9, AK367031; PtCESA6, XP_002319002; EgCESA5, XP_010063196; StCESA3, XP_006354075; GmCESA2, XP_003531396; GhCESA5, AFB18634 and BvCESA2, XP_ 010678670.Gene expression profiling for 21 of the wheat CesA genes was performed using publicly available RNA-seq data from two different databases (http://wheat-urgi.versailles.inra.fr/Seq-Repository/RNA-Seq) at McGill University and Genome Quebec Innovation Center. First dataset was a non-oriented library with five wheat organs analysed in duplicates at three development stages for each of the organs. The five organs taken into consideration with respect to developmental stages were root (at seedling, three leaves, and meiosis stages), leaf (seedling, three tillers, and 2 days after anthesis), stem (spike at 1 cm, 2 nodes, and anthesis), spike (2 nodes, meiosis, and anthesis) and grain (2, 14, and 30 days after anthesis). The second dataset was the oriented library with five wheat organs (root, leaf, stem, spike, and grain) with five conditions pooled for 4 lines per organ [36].The abundance of transcripts from RNA-Seq data was reported using the estimated counts quantified by a programme Kallisto (v0.42.1) [37]. Counts-per-million reads were obtained using Bioconductor's edgeR [38]. Ward's linkage method was applied to the matrix of Pearson's correlation distances for cluster analysis. Heat map of the candidate transcripts was reported by log2 counts per million (CPM) standard deviation [39].We queried the Chromosome Survey Sequence (CSS) (http://plants.ensembl.org/Triticum_ aestivum/Info/Index) generated by the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium to identify the orthologs of various CesA genes from bread wheat corresponding to the barley CesA sequences [32]. Twenty-two TaCesA genes were isolated, six of which were partial (S1 Text). The identified genes were named following the nomenclature of barley, which shares synteny with wheat. To simplify the nomenclature, we attached a suffix corresponding to the specific wheat genome identifier (A, B, or D) at the end of the gene number. For example, CesA1 in genomes A, B, and D is named as TaCesA1A, TaCesA1B, and TaCesA1D, respectively. As expected, we found three copies for majority of the nine CesA orthologs corresponding to the barley genes. For CesA6, 7, and 8 we were able to find only two CesA homoeologs. Only one copy was identified for TaCesA9. The missing homoeolog of CesA6 belonged to the D genome but we obtained it from the D genome progenitor Aegilops tauschii. The TaCesA7 homoeolog, which was absent in the A genome, was recovered from the A genome progenitor Triticum urartu. We were unable to find the A genome copy of TaCesA8 from bread wheat as well as the A genome donor, Triticum urartu. The three homoeologous copies of each of the CesA genes shared 95-99% sequence identity. Different CesA genes within a species possessed two highly variable class-specific regions (C-SR-I and C-SR-II) that differentiated them from each other. The wheat orthologs of the CESA proteins of other species exhibited a similarity of 70-80% at the amino acid level with Arabidopsis and 90-95% with rice and barley. The TaCesA genes ranged from 4044 to 5251 bp in length and contained 9-13 introns. The ensembl IDs of all the newly identified wheat CesA genes are given in Table 1.The newly identified wheat CesA genes were mapped to respective chromosomes based on the physical mapping information available in the wheat IWGSC survey sequence annotation database (http://www.wheatgenome.org/). As expected the chromosomal locations of different CesA genes followed the trend reported earlier in the syntenic species barley [18]. TaCesA4A, B, and D mapped in respective genomes to chromosome 1; TaCesA7B and D to chromosome 3; and TaCesA8B and D to chromosome 5. Similarly, the homoeologs of TaCesA1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 mapped to chromosomes 2, 5, 5, 1 and 6 of the respective genomes. However, TaCesa9B mapped to chromosome 2B, unlike its ortholog from barley, which is located on chromosome 6. The approximate location of TaCesA genes and their homoeologs is presented in Table 1.On average, a PCW forming gene was longer than the one involved in SCW formation. The longest gene, TaCesA6, was 5251 base pairs (bp) and the shortest, TaCesA4, was 3923 bp in length. The size variations among different CesA genes arose mainly from the number and length of introns (Table 2). TaCesA1, 2, and 6 had 13 introns each, whereas TaCesA4, 7 and 8 had 7, 12, and 9 introns, respectively (Fig 2).The introns in PCW TaCesA1, 2, and 6 accounted for 1732-2026 bp of the genes, approximately double that of the 791 and 879 bp for the SCW TaCesA4 and 8 genes. One of the SCW genes, TaCesA7, possessed a large total intronic region of 2095 bp, which was similar to the PCW TaCesA genes. Exonic regions in all the PCW forming genes (~3.2 kb) were similar in length to those of the SCW forming genes (2.9-3.2kb). Exon-intron boundaries were random in all the genes studied, which was in contrast to the conserved boundaries reported in other species [40]. The PCW and SCW genes, across groups, were 45-52% similar. Sequence similarity within the PCW and SCW groups was 54-56% and 46-63% respectively. Three different phases of intron evolution were predicted. Phase 0, 1, or 2 referred to the insertion of an intron between two consecutive codons, between the first and the second base or second and the third base of a codon, respectively [41]. In PCW TaCesA genes, all of the introns had identical phase distributions: introns 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, and 13 occurred in 0 phase, introns 2, 4, and 11 were in phase 1, and introns 5 and 6 occurred in phase 2. In contract, SCW TaCesA genes exhibited variable patterns of intron phase distribution. Introns 2, 5, 6, and 7 in CesA4 had 0 phase distribution, introns 1 and 3 had 1, and intron 4 had a phase distribution of 2. TaCesA7 also had introns with all three types of phase distribution; introns 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 were in phase 0, introns 1, 3, and 10 in phase 1, and introns 4 and 5 in phase 2. CesA8 similarly had introns 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9 in phase 0, introns 2 and 7 in phase 1, and intron 3 in phase 2 (Fig 3). The largest proportion of introns (57-66%) in all the studied genes was found to be in phase 0, followed by phase 1 (22-28%) and phase 2 (11-16%).The predicted size of PCW and SCW TaCESAs ranged between 1075-1091 and 991-1055 amino acids (AA), respectively. To identify group-specific changes in primary and secondary cell wall CESA proteins, AA sequences from all TaCESAs were aligned. All the complete CESA proteins possessed the already known, specific CESA domains, such as a ZnF (CX2-CX14-ACX2-CX4-CX2-CX7-GX3-CX2-C) near the N-terminus of the derived amino acid sequence Major differences among TaCESAs resulted from the deletion of up to 45 AAs in hypervariable regions. The N-terminii of the PCW TaCESAs possessed more highly conserved motifs and fewer deletions in comparison to the SCW TaCESAs. ZnF consisted of 46 AAs in the predicted TaCESAs, with the exception of an 8 AAs deletion in TaCESA7 and its homoeologs, resulting in the following domain: CX2-CX6-ACX2-CX4-CX2-CX7-GX3-CX2-C as compared to the known domain (CX2-CX12-FXACX2-CX2PXCX2-CXEX5-GX3-CX2C), where X is any amino acid [42]. Four of the TaCESAs out of 22 were missing the ZnF as did TaCESA9 because they were incomplete on the N-terminal end.A new motif distinguishing the PCW CESAs from the SCW CESAs was found within the ZnF. The motif, CQIC, was identified within the small motif, CXXC, reported earlier for differentiating CESAs from the CSL genes [8]. This motif was present in all the PCW TaCESAs. Although SCW TaCESAs also possessed a \"CXXC\" motif, the two middle amino acids in these proteins were variable. In the SCW TaCESA4, the polar amino acid glutamine was replaced by the negatively charged amino acid, glutamate; in TaCESA7, both the amino acids were replaced by the marginally hydrophobic amino acid alanine; and in TaCESA8, glutamine was replaced by a highly basic (positively charged) amino acid, arginine, and isoleucine was replaced by a relatively conservative substitution of alanine (Fig 4). Another conserved motif, SVICEXWFA, was located within the second transmembrane domain in all the PCW CESAs. In the SCW-specific CESAs, TaCESA4, 7, and 8 this motif was variable but all the amino acid replacements were conservative. For example, isoleucine, a hydrophobic amino acid next to glutamate was replaced by an iso-amino acid, leucine, in CESA4; alanine was replaced by glycine, both somewhat hydrophobic, in CESA7; and valine and isoleucine, both hydrophobic amino acids, switched places in CESA8.The two motifs, CQIC and SVICEXWFA, distinguished the PCW from the SCW CESAs (Fig 4). That these motifs were conserved was confirmed by analysing the CESA proteins in the PCW and SCW groups from dicot (Arabidopsis) and monocot (barley, maize, rice, and wheat) species. Alignment results demonstrated that the CQIC and SVICEXWFA motifs were completely conserved only in the PCW-specific CESAs in all the plant species studied. The completely conserved amino acid residues in each motif across all the CESA proteins were CXXC and SXXCEXWF (Fig 1).Motif analysis was performed by aligning CESA proteins from Arabidopsis, barley, maize, rice and wheat. Arabidopsis CESA4 and its orthologs from wheat, barley, maize, and rice exhibited 73-74% sequence similarity. In the case of SCW, nine motifs ranging from 2-15 amino acid residues in length provided ortholog-specific identity to the SCW CESAs from different species (Fig 5). These motifs were highly conserved among the orthologs from the five species analysed in this study. Only one gene from each species, with the exception of maize which had two closely related copies for one of the three SCW genes (CESA12 and 13), shared these motifs including a dicot, Arabidopsis. This suggests that the genes for SCW had already duplicated before the separation of monocots and dicots. The number of amino acid residues among most of these motifs was also conserved among different species (Fig 5). CESA7 and 8 from wheat showed 71-75% and 77-79% sequence similarity with the corresponding orthologs from different species, respectively. Although the motifs were unique for CESA4, 7 and 8, they were highly conserved among the orthologs form different species (Fig 5).Two PCW CESAs, AtCESA1, 3 and their orthologs from other species differed from AtCESA6 and its orthologs in structural features. AtCESA1 and 3 were highly similar (77-79%) to the corresponding orthologs from barley, maize, rice and wheat. Four motifs in TaCESA6 and three in TaCESA1 orthologs differentiated them from each other and all other CESAs (Fig 6).Arabidopsis CESA6 and its orthologs from other species in this study exhibited 68-70% sequence similarity but lacked any specific patterns that could differentiate them from the other CESAs. However, this group possessed motifs that were only conserved in the orthologs from monocots (grasses) but not in Arabidopsis. To confirm the specificity of these motifs for grasses, we retrieved the sequences of TaCESA2 orthologs from seven dicot species: Arabidopsis thaliana (AtCESA6), Beta vulgaris (BvCESA2), Eucalyptus grandis (EgCESA5), Glycine max (GmCESA2), Gossypium hirsutum (GhCESA5), Populus trichocarpa (PtCESA6) and Solanum tuberosum (StCESA3). The CESA2 and its orthologs from grasses were compared with its orthologs from dicot species. For this particular gene nine motifs were highly conserved in the orthologs from grasses (Fig 7). But in dicots, these motifs were replaced by variable amino acid residues.The evolutionary history of the CESAs was inferred from the analysis involving 70 CESA protein sequences from different species. An unrooted phylogenetic tree revealed that the orthologs from Arabidopsis, barley, beet, cotton, maize, poplar, potato, rice, rose gum, soybean and wheat were grouped together. Branch lengths, which are indicative of the evolutionary distances were used to interpret the phylogenetic tree (Fig 8). The paralogs from various species were grouped in different clades from those of the orthologs. This suggests, again, that divergence of the CesA genes had occurred prior to the separation of monocots and dicots. RNA-seq analysis of TaCesA genes Gene expression of 21 of the 22 TaCesA genes was studied in five organs at three development stages. We left out the TaCesA9 gene because it was represented by a highly truncated cDNA. A heat map displaying transcript abundance of the CesA genes from different wheat tissues is shown in Fig 9.Transcript abundance data revealed the presence of two distinct groups. Group I consisted of TaCesA4A, B, D, TaCesA7B, D and TaCesA8B, D genes, all involved in SCW synthesis. These genes were highly expressed in the mature tissues, for example, stem collected soon after anthesis, and at very low levels in the PCW formation (Fig 9 ). For example, TaCesA7B, D and TaCesA8B, D genes were expressed at extremely low levels in the spike and grain tissues (Fig 9).Group II comprised the PCW TaCesA genes: TaCesA1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 along with their homoeologs from A, B and D genomes. These genes were expressed at lower levels in the mature tissues and at relatively high levels in the PCW forming cells (Fig 9 ). For example, all three homoeologous copies of the TaCesA3 gene were expressed in the grain and the leaf tissues. These genes were expressed moderately in the developing grain, which agrees with grain having a relatively low cell wall fraction. The expression of the TaCesA5A and B genes was highest in the grain tissues from 14 and 30 DAAs, whereas the TaCesA5D was moderately expressed in these tissues. The expression of TaCesA5D homoeolog was dramatically lower in the leaf tissues at 2 days after anthesis (DAA), whereas TaCesA1D was expressed at higher level. The transcript abundance of TaCesA1A was highest in the grain tissues at 2DAAs whereas TaCesA6B homoeolog was moderately expressed. The expression level of TaCesA1B was moderate in the root and grain tissues.Cellulose consists of paracrystalline microfibrils of multiple, unbranched beta-1,4-glucan chains, which are synthesized by the individual CESA polypeptides in the plasma membranelocalized rosette. CesA is a multigene family consisting of more than eight members in higher plants [43]. Structure and function of the CesA genes in wheat remains undocumented. Most studies about structural and functional characterization of CesAs have been performed in Arabidopsis [10,44,45], maize [2,19], and rice [46,47]. Bread wheat, an allohexaploid, has a complex genome, ~17 Gb in size, ~80-90% of which consists of repetitive DNA [29]. The availability of large-scale genomic sequence information and conserved synteny between barley and wheat is valuable in exploring wheat gene function and structure [48]. In barley, the CesA gene family consists of nine genes (HvCesA1 to HvCesA9. Three genes, HvCesA1, HvCesA2, and HvCesA6, are expressed during primary wall formation, and another three, HvCesA4, HvCesA7, and HvCesA8, during secondary wall formation [18]. In this report, we document 22 CesA genes from wheat, which we identified using a comparative genomics approach using barley sequences as anchors. As expected, most of the TaCesA genes each have three paralogs in the homoeologous genomes A, B and D. Four of the 22 genes deviated from this pattern: only one paralog was identified for TaCesA9, and two each for TaCesA6, 7, and 8. One of the genes, TaCesA2, had two paralogous copies on chromosomes 5B and 5D but the third on chromosome 4A, which was most likely because of a translocation between chromosomes 5A and 4A (Table 1) [49].All the CESAs possess domains known to be highly conserved among all the plant species studied thus far [10]. Sequences in the non-conserved domains, however, are useful for the identification of the orthologs of individual CesA genes (Table 3). In the case of gene families, it is often difficult to determine true orthology among different species solely based on sequence similarity. Many previous studies reported CesA orthologs based on phylogenetic analyses [16,18]. We supplemented the phylogenetic analysis as a tool for the identification of the CesA orthologs by searching for the conserved motifs in addition to the ones already known [49].Knowledge about the conserved structural motifs that can distinguish CesA genes involved in PCW and SCW formation as well as CesAs between monocots and dicots is limited. Distinct patterns of intron placement, removal, and the phases of insertion in TaCesA genes suggested that the phases of intron insertion remained conserved during the evolution of these genes doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147046.g009 [50]. Deviation of phase distribution from the expected 33% suggested a bias in intron insertions towards the 0 phase, that is, between the codons rather than within the codons [41].The motif CQIC in ZnF distinguishes the PCW and SCW CESAs from both the monocots and dicots. Distinct CSCs for the synthesis of primary and secondary cell walls have been reported [44][45][46]. The high level of conservation of the CQIC motif suggests that it is possibly related to cellulose synthesis. This concurs with the observation in other major gene families, where domains and motifs were conserved during the evolution [44][45].A similar trend of intron phase distribution and motif conservation was observed when we compared CESA1 of Arabidopsis thaliana with its orthologs from angiosperms (Arabidopsis lyrata, Aquilegia coerulea, Brachypodium distachyon, Carica papaya, Citrus clementina, Citrus sinensis, Cucumis sativus, Eucalyptus grandis, Glycine max, Manihot esculenta, Medicago truncatula, Mimulus guttatus, Oryza sativa, Populus trichocarpa, Physcomitrella patens, Prunus persica, Ricinus communis, Setaria italica, Sorghum bicolor, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays), Chlorophytes (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Volvox carteri), and pteridophyte (Selaginella moellendorffii).We also identified new, highly conserved motifs among the CESA orthologs of five species (Arabidopsis, barley, maize, rice and wheat). Despite the variable protein sequence of each member of the CESA family among the orthologs from various species, the organization of the motifs remained conserved.RNA-seq expression profiling revealed that the three SCW genes (TaCesA4, 7, 8) and their homoeologs were co-expressed in the mature stem tissues (Fig 9). This observation provided support for these genes being functionally orthologous to the secondary wall-forming genes from other species, for example, Arabidopsis [10,44,45], barley [18], maize [2,19], and rice [46,47]. Five genes (TaCesA1, 2, 3, 5, 6) and their homoeologs from the A, B and D genomes of wheat constituted a second group involved in PCW synthesis.Most of the TaCesA genes were differential expressed among three different genomes of bread wheat, which is a common phenomenon in hexaploid wheat [51]. This differential expression pattern is attributable to the genetic divergence of paralogous genes during the evolution [52]. TaCesA genes are distributed across the wheat genome ( Fig 10). Similar distribution patterns were observed in Arabidopsis, barley and maize [18,19].Our study compiles a list of the CesA genes in bread wheat, classified them into PCW and SCW formation, and maps them to the chromosomes. This information will be useful in breeding wheat for culm strength and biofuel-related traits.We have identified 22 CesA genes from bread wheat and compared them with their orthologs from Arabidopsis, barley, maize, and rice. New structural motifs were identified, which allowed Table 3. TaCesA genes and their orthologs from Arabidopsis, barley, maize, and rice involved in the formation of primary cell wall (PCW) or secondary cell wall (SCW).differentiation of the CESA proteins for their in primary or secondary wall (PCW or SCW) formation in higher plants. Further characterization of the motifs would be needed, however, to establish their respective biological roles. Several new motifs identified in this study would be useful as signatures for the identification of orthologs of the CesA genes from various species. The compilation of the CesA gene family in bread wheat along with the expression patterns and genomic map positions of individual members will be helpful in improving culm strength for reduced lodging as well as improving the straw for biofuels.","tokenCount":"4814"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d0b36563e1fd825bbee8d9ac9d1ca8c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2a21f13-0880-4274-b582-d8b9714234b5/retrieve","id":"1462301094"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e4a09b79-35a1-4869-9883-90db7b270603","pagecount":"24","content":"From 1983 to 2020, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was an international institution of the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) and the European Union (EU). Its mission was to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in African, Caribbean and Pacific countries. In its project portfolio (2016-2020) of 73 projects, CTA focused on digitalisation, youth entrepreneurship, and climate resilience as its priority intervention areas.CTA came to the end of its mandate as the Cotonou Agreement between the EU and the ACP countries, the legal and financial framework within which CTA functioned, ended on 31 December 2020. As part of CTA's orderly closure, all major projects created project completion reports which are now being made available to the wider public to share lessons learned. These reports specify sections on results, financial information, lessons learned and references.CTA complies with the European data protection legislation, in particular Regulation 2016/679 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data ('GDPR'). When personal data have been processed in the context of the project in which CTA and project partner are involved, CTA can request from project partner to a) permanently delete the personal data, or b) undertake the Data Controller role by signing the Data Controller Role Transfer letter issued by CTA as an Annex to Project Completion Report.This means that the processing of personal data that project partner eventually continues to perform after the project closure date are under sole responsibility of the project partner, as sole controller.The project partner as the new Data Controller shall have the responsibility to comply with the applicable legislation on the protection of personal data, which it is for project partner to verify, and the obligations such applicable law imposes on the Controller.CTA will no longer bear any responsibility for the processing operations, not towards the data subjects, nor towards the data protection authority.Afrique de l'OuestBurkina FasoLe projet a mobilisé les technologies numériques pour renforcer l'entrepreneuriat agricole mené par les jeunes au Burkina. 146 jeunes entreprises et coopératives agricoles ont bénéficié de divers types de produits et services numériques. Bien que la plupart de ces services aient été offerts par des fournisseurs de services professionnels matures, en lien avec l'esprit du projet, quelques jeunes entrepreneurs numériques soutenus par le projet ont eu des engagements professionnels avec les jeunes producteurs et entrepreneurs agricoles. Les entrepreneurs numériques identifiés ont été incubés auprès d'incubateurs réputés de la place tels que KeoliD, afin de les préparer à développer leurs services et à les offrir aux jeunes entrepreneurs/exploitants agricoles.Les exploitants/entrepreneurs agricoles ont bénéficié d'un soutien numérique intense. En dehors des formations à l'utilisation des outils de traitement de texte (en particulier le tableur Excel très utile pour la tenue des comptes) et à l'utilisation des réseaux sociaux dans un but professionnel, un accent a été mis sur les services numériques favorisant un meilleur accès au marché (conseils agricoles, services de ventes collectives, informations sur les prix des produits agricoles, facilitation de vente via une plate-forme e-commerce, etc.). L'entreprise EcoData, qui gère le système d'information de marché AgriData a été un fournisseur de service principal du projet. En outre, vingt coopératives et entreprises agricoles impliquées dans le projet ont été sélectionnées et dotées de matériels informatiques pour consolider leurs usages des TIC.Les jeunes agriculteurs/agripreneurs impliqués viennent d'organisations de producteurs et ou ont été proposés par des projets soutenant l'entrepreneuriat agricole (Congrégation Paysanne du Faso (CFP), Fédération des Producteurs Agricoles du Burkina (FEPAB), projets du ministère de l'agriculture et d'organisations diverses, etc.) afin de favoriser synergies et durabilité. Un grand nombre d'exploitants/agripreneurs ont pu augmenter leurs revenues, trouver de nouveaux clients. Les activités liées aux TIC ont constitué un complément au soutien purement agricole dont les jeunes exploitants agricoles ont bénéficié.Différents produits communicationnels et de capitalisation des résultats ont été réalisés et promus. Il s'agit notamment de vidéos promotionnelles pour les meilleurs jeunes producteurs et entrepreneurs agricoles ainsi que d'un rapport sur les usages des TIC dans l'agriculture au Burkina.Le tableau ci-dessous donne un aperçu des principales activités mises en oeuvre dans le cadre du projet ainsi que des principaux résultats obtenus. • Des formulaires en ligne conçus ;• Des sorties d'explication dans les organisations Paysannes Un atelier de pré-réflexion sur le projet a été organisé par Yam-Pukri en septembre 2017 pour recueillir les recommandations de divers acteurs.• Augmentation du chiffre d'affaires des bénéficiaires : Le chiffre d'affaires moyen par mensuel/cycle des bénéficiaires avant intervention du projet étaient de huit cent quarantetrois mille cinq cent soixante-neuf francs (843 569) CFA. Ce chiffre d'affaires est passé à un million huit cent quarante-deux mille cent un franc (1 842 101) tout au moins en partie grâce aux acquis du projet. Soit une augmentation du chiffre d'affaire s'étant de 25% à 300% selon les répondants à l'enquête d'évaluation réalisée en fin de projet par Yam-Purki.Les principaux maillons ayant bénéficié de cet accroissement sont généralement les légumes et les fruits.• Un grand nombre de bénéficiaires ont décidé de renforcer leur utilisation des outils TIC pour le développement de leurs activités commerciales agricolesAfin d'atteindre les résultats du projet iDEAL, des activités prévues dans le cadre du projet ont été entreprises suivant différentes composantes à savoir :Différentes rencontres ont été organisées, entre jeunes entrepreneurs agricoles, entre jeunes entrepreneurs développant des produits numériques, et une autre réunissant ces deux différents bénéficiaires. Des sessions de recyclage ont été aussi organisées.A l'issu des formations à l'usage des réseaux sociaux, les jeunes agripreneurs ont pu créer des comptes et Pages Facebook pour la promotion de leurs activités agricoles. Au total 112 jeunes agripreneurs ont pu créer leurs plates-formes. Une étude de suivi a été menée auprès des jeunes pour connaître la valeur ajoutée que l'utilisation de ces plates-formes.Un forum de match-making (mise en relation) entre les agripreneurs et les entrepreneurs TIC a été organisé à Ouagadougou du 21 au 22 août 2019. Il a notamment permis de :• faire un diagnostic approfondi participatif en collaboration avec les entrepreneurs eagricoles pour faire ressortir les problèmes ou les difficultés rencontrées dans les systèmes de production agricole sur le terrain ; • proposer des solutions opérationnelles concrètes par l'usage des TIC aux problèmes diagnostiqués par les jeunes agripreneurs ; • maintenir des liens étroits entre les entrepreneurs e-agricoles et les entrepreneurs agricoles du projet ; • faire des recommandations précises, notamment sur l'importance d'optimiser davantage le potentiel des TIC pour contribuer à développer le secteur agricole ; en effet, les participants ont conclu que les TIC permettent réellement de créer de nouvelles capacités et des réseaux entre les différentes parties prenantes à la chaîne de valeur agricole ; • de recueillir des souhaits des exploitants agricoles formulés à l'endroit des jeunes entrepreneurs numériques : il s'agit notamment de la recherche de solutions numériques facilitant l'accès aux intrants de qualité, la mesure de l'humidité du sol par exemple avant les semis, la conservation des produits agricoles hautement périssables, la classification des sols et surtout des systèmes d'alerte contre les attaques des nuisibles cultures.Les activités réalisées dans cette composante sont entre autres : : Une cérémonie de remise des prix aux lauréats a été ultérieurement réalisée en présence de représentants des ministres en charge de l'Agriculture et de l'Economie Numérique et des Postes.Cette activité a été scindée en deux sous activités :Outre les prix en espèces, les start-ups ont bénéficié d'une incubation de trois (3) mois. Ainsi, les lauréats ont été affectés dans les structures suivantes : Dénommée « Forum e-agriculture », le forum sur le e-agricole s'est tenue du 11 au 12 février 2020 au Salon International de l'Artisanat de Ouagadougou (SIAO) en partenariat avec ECODATA et la Chambre Nationale de l'Agriculture (CNA-Burkina).Les activités de cette composante étaient les suivantes :• Dotation d'ordinateurs à vingt jeunes coopératives/entreprises agricoles Des sessions de formations ont été ensuite organisées à l'attention des bénéficiaires du projet.Cette étude sur l'utilisation des TIC par les entrepreneurs agricoles a été mise en oeuvre ; elle avait pour objectif d'évaluer les acquis de l'utilisation des TIC et envisager des perspectives de renforcement de ce dispositif de soutien aux jeunes agripreneurs. Elle a été notamment axée sur les points suivants :• L'utilisation des outils TIC ;• L'effet commercial induit par l'intervention du projet.Au terme de cette étude, il ressort que 98,4% des agripreneurs interrogés sont satisfaits de l'appui du projet. Ils ont notamment très positivement apprécié les connaissances techniques acquises pour la vente des produits par l'usage des TIC.Le niveau de la maîtrise des bénéficiaires de la suite office s'est accru de 57% ; 80% pour l'utilisation de l'internet, 77% pour l'utilisation des réseaux sociaux.83% des bénéficiaires ont eu recours au TIC comme outil pour la vente de leurs produits.Environ 17% des bénéficiaires qui n'ont pas utilisé les TIC pour la commercialisation de leurs produits. Les principaux canaux utilisés pour la commercialisation sont Facebook, WhatsApp et AgriData.Les revenus générés par la vente de différents produits (maïs, petit mil, sorgho rouge) via la plate-forme AgriData s'élèvent à 14 124 000 F CFA (environ 21 500 euros).Les revenus générés par la vente de différents produits (orange, oignon, mangue, papaye, poulets, etc.) via les réseaux sociaux s'élèvent à 15 152 000 F CFA (environ 23 000 euros).Les activités réalisées de cette composante sont entre autres :• Atelier de lancement du projet • Etude de référence • Visibilité en ligne, promotion et mobilisation des ressources additionnelles • Atelier d'Evaluation à mi-parcours • Atelier régional de fin de projet et de partage d'expérienceUn atelier de trois jours du 25 au 27 Avril 2018 a été consacré au lancement du projet Ideal au niveau national. Il avait bénéficié de la participation de trois ministères (en charge de l'agriculture, de la jeunesse, et de l'économie numérique), ainsi que de différents partenaires, y compris le comité de pilotage du projet.Cette étude avait pour objectif de disposer des indicateurs de départ du projet ; elle s'est déroulée du 21 juin au 31 juillet 2018 et a concerné les zones retenues pour la mise en oeuvre du projet (Cf : Rapport de l'étude sur la situation de référence des indicateurs du projet iDEAL)Plusieurs sous activités ont été entreprises pour la visibilité et la promotion du projet :• La conception d'un site web (http://ideal.yam-pukri.org/ ) géré par Yam-Pukri ainsi que d'une page projet sur le site du CTA (https://www.cta.int/en/projects/ideal-burkina) Le 20 juin 2019, l'équipe projet, les partenaires techniques et financiers, quelques agripreneurs et les personnes ressources se sont réunis à l'occasion d'un atelier de bilan à mi-parcours du projet iDEAL. Les résultats du projet ont été discutés et des recommandations identifiées pour sa finalisation efficace. Une des plus importantes recommandations a été la nécessité d'impliquer davantage les entrepreneurs actifs dans la transformation et la commercialisation, alors que jusqu'alors les exploitants agricoles actifs dans la production avaient été essentiellement ciblés.Le 24 juillet 2020, l'équipe projet, les membres du comité de pilotage, les partenaires d'appui et quelques bénéficiaires du projet se sont réunis dans le but de tenir un atelier de capitalisation et de clôture du projet iDEAL. L'idée de cette activité était de présenter les différents résultats par le projet, les acquis, les leçons apprise et les bonnes pratiques engrangés par le projet. C'était également le lieu de présenter les points sur la stratégie de pérennisation du projet. Au total une quarantaine de personnes ont pris part à l'atelier de fin de projet.Le projet iDEAL a introduit une approche très originale saluée par tous les partenaires. Elle a constitué d'une part à se focaliser sur l'offre de services TIC pour compléter les opportunités et renforcements de capacités agricoles offerts aux exploitants agricoles collaborant avec d'autres projets/initiatives ; et d'autre part, à mettre en relation les jeunes entrepreneurs agricoles et ceux développant des services TIC pour l'agriculture. Compte tenu des ressources financières limitées du projet et aussi de l'originalité de l'approche, le projet s'est limité à quatre régions du Burkina. Même à l'intérieur de ces régions, la caractère novateur et expérimental de l'approche n'a pas permis au projet de se déployer dans toute son envergure théoriquement possible. Un grand nombre de partenaires souhaitent sa pérennité et Yam-Pukri s'active actuellement à mettre en oeuvre une stratégie de pérennité qu'elle a pu mettre en place.Le projet iDEAL a été subventionné par le CTA à hauteur de 216 140 euros, de 2018 à 2020. Yam-Pukri a contribué à hauteur de 16 653 euros. Le budget total du projet est donc de 232 793 euros. La totalité du budget a été dépensée.Au regard de la réalité du terrain, certaines activités du projet ont été réaménagées. L'objectif de ce réaménagement était de permettre de mieux répondre aux besoins identifiés des bénéficiaires. C'est dans ce contexte que l'équipe du projet a organisé des sessions de formation sur une thématique purement agricoles au profit de quarante-cinq (45) d'agripreneurs repartis dans les zones d'intervention du projet que sont les Hauts Bassins, la Boucle de Mouhoun et le plateau central. Il s'agissait d'une formation sur l'importance et l'engagement dans les chaînes de valeur agricole au Burkina.Une autre formation sur les stratégies de marketing digital (non prévue) a été aussi pour répondre aux demandes des jeunes.Une autre session d'échanges non prévue, au profit des entrepreneurs TIC, dénommée « Modèles d'affaires et facteurs de succès des start-ups numériques agricoles » a été également organisée. Elle a été réalisée en utilisant la publication du CTA du même nom, publiée avec l'appui du projet AgriHack talent du CTA.Les économies réalisées sur certaines activités ont permis de mettre en oeuvre ces activités non prévues.Cette économie a été notamment réalisée sur la ligne consacrée à la subvention qui était prévu pour les entrepreneurs numériques TIC s'ils offrent des services aux entrepreneurs agricoles. Cette activité n'a pas pu être pleinement réalisée du fait du peu de maturité de la plupart des plates-formes TIC des entrepreneurs numériques burkinabè. Yam-Pukri n'avait pas auparavant mis en oeuvre un projet d'une telle envergure sur les jeunes entrepreneurs agricoles et les TIC. L'organisation a ainsi pu acquérir davantage de certitude sur cette approche innovante ainsi que sur ces limites, notamment si les plates-formes numériques identifiées ne sont pas matures. La signature d'un contrat avec un fournisseur de services TIC plus mature (Ecodata) qui a été prévu dès le départ, a permis toutefois de contourner efficacement cette limite. L'organisation a aussi pu développer sa conviction que :• Les TIC sont un puissant outil pour les agriculteurs pour favoriser leur accès au marché • L'usage des TIC pour l'agriculture n'exige pas forcément un niveau d'études élevé pour l'agriculteur, mais plutôt la nécessité d'utiliser des outils numériques adaptés (différents types d'outils existent, du moins sophistiqué au plus sophistiqué).Les problèmes rencontrés lors de la mise en oeuvre du projet sont :• L'identification et la mobilisation des jeunes agripreneurs et entrepreneurs TIC qui a pris plus de temps que prévu ; • La mauvaise qualité de la connexion internet (dans certaines localités plutôt pour les formations) • La non-disponibilité de certains partenaires pour la mise en oeuvre du projet • L'émergence de la pandémie du Covid-19 qui a induit la mise en quarantaine de différentes localités du pays et un certain confinement. Ceci a induit des retards et une lenteur dans la mise en oeuvre du projet depuis fin février. L'atelier de fin de projet a été organisée dans une envergure très limitée (par rapport aux prévisions initiales).Pour assurer la continuation du projet, la pérennité de ses acquis ainsi que l'adoption des leçons apprises, Yam-Pukri entrevoit de :• développer un partenariat avec les centres de formation des ministères en charge de l'agriculture et celui de l'élevage (CPR, centre de polyvalent de MATOURKOU, etc.) afin de plaider pour l'introduction des modules sur l'usage des TIC dans l'agriculture, notamment dans la commercialisation des produits agricoles ; • promouvoir le développement des modules de formation dans le domaine de l'usage des TIC dans l'agriculture ; • promouvoir le soutien aux entreprises numériques et leur réseautage afin qu'ils puissent développer des solutions agricoles plus efficaces ; • favoriser la création d'un réseau national des agripreneurs avec la mise en place des coordinations régionales leur permettant de mieux consolider les acquis du projet ; • encourager la continuité de vulgarisation et l'envoi des alertes SMS à travers la plate-forme AgriData ","tokenCount":"2704"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dfdde500ab7d434dd963642797c36428","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4aa41bc-3a91-40d7-8d73-2510823ab59e/retrieve","id":"-434091577"},"keywords":["P801 -1. Restoration (forest and landscape restoration) New Innovation","Yes Innovation type","Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools"],"sieverID":"42392fb5-0e6e-414f-aef1-1d4a4da98c21","pagecount":"2","content":"The Global Tree Knowledge Platform is all about the trees in 'treed' landscapes. Its purpose is to support the better use of tree species -to promote the right tree in the right place for the right purpose -to bring greater benefits to humans and the environment.• Policy-makers have incorporated appropriate certification standards into delivery systems in two countries. Changes in policies and strategies by national governments and implemented by national extensions services have resulted in entrepreneurial suppliers becoming more engaged in delivery in three countries. The role tree nursery operators within efficient tree seed and seedling systems will be understood and demonstrated. Tools will be available to account for the potential effects of climate change when planning for national and regional tree seed production and distribution.• 8 -More efficient use of inputs ","tokenCount":"132"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"082341fa7df53e940dfc4d5fd343635f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/67de495a-83cb-48e5-84c5-8a6a9180546b/retrieve","id":"1229057265"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"742ba3fe-1e93-478c-8cc7-df82fd47b286","pagecount":"226","content":"The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO.Table 8. Percent of women having consumed none, one or the other, or both food sub-groups, coming from the disaggregation of selected food groups of the FGI-9 (without restriction), and mean MPA for each case, by study site 28 Table 9. Potential new candidate FGIs 30 Table 10. Mean (standard deviation) and range of the FGI scores, restricted or not, for all women and by study site 33 Table 11. Median intakes of energy and macronutrients, by study site and physiological status 34 Table 12. Median micronutrient intakes per day, by study site and physiological status 35 Table 13. Probability of adequacy (mean of each micronutrient) and mean probability of adequacy (MPA) across 11 micronutrients, by study site 36 Table 14. Datasets with very low, low or high probability of adequacy for each micronutrient 37 Table 15. Correlations between FGIs or FGI-Rs and total energy intake (kcal/d), by study site and physiological status 41 Table 16. Correlation between FGI-7R and estimated intakes of micronutrients, by study site [44][45]. Correlation between FGI-9R and estimated intakes of micronutrients, by study site 46-47 Table 18. Correlation between FGI-10ER and estimated intakes of micronutrients, by study site 48-49 Table 19. Correlation between FGI-12R and estimated intakes of micronutrients, by study site 50-51 Table 20. Correlation between FGIs and MPA, by study site and physiological status 52-53 Table 21. Simple linear regression on MPA: FGIs coefficients, with or without total energy in the model, by study site and physiological status 60 Table 22. Simple linear regression on MPA: adjusted R2, with or without total energy in the model, by study site and physiological status 61 Table 23. Percent (number) of women above selected MPA cutoffs values, by study site and physiological status 62 Table 24. Area under the curve (AUC) for all food group diversity indicators for NPNL women, by study site 63 Table 25. Comparisons of AUC from each FGI among NPNL women, by MPA level 65-73 Table 26. Summary results from AUCs comparisons at various MPA level, by study site 74 Table 27. Summary of combinations of MPA cutoff / FGI cutoff identified with the sensitivity analysis 77-78 Table 28. Summary of indicator characteristics for FGI-7, restricted and non-restricted, for NPNL women, across all sites 79-80 Table 29. Summary of indicator characteristics for FGI-9, restricted and non-restricted, for NPNL women, across all sites 81-82 Table 30. Summary of indicator characteristics for FGI-10E, restricted and non-restricted, for NPNL women, across all sites 83-84 Table 31. Summary of indicator characteristics for FGI-12, restricted and non-restricted, for NPNL women, across all sites 85-86 Table 32. Prevalence rate at various MPA thresholds and restricted-FGI cutoffs 89 Table 33. Spearman rank correlations of prevalence rates above restricted-FGI cutoffs and MPA thresholds 93 Table 34. Number and percentage of women reaching or not various restricted-FGI cutoffs, by study sites 94 Table 35. Mean MPA at-or-above and below various restricted-FGI cutoffs, by study sites 95 Table 36. Number and percent of women at-or-above and below the restricted-FGI cutoff having consumed at least one portion (minimum 15g) of animal-source food, by study site 98 Table 37. Number and percent of women at-or-above and below the restricted-FGI cutoff having consumed at least two portions (minimum 15g) of fruits or vegetables, by study site 100 Table 38. Number and percent of women at-or-above and below the restricted-FGI cutoff having consumed at least one portion (minimum 15g) of legumes or nuts and seeds, by study site 101Table A1 -1. Characteristics of each dataset 110 Table A2 -1. Energy and macronutrient intake goals/acceptable ranges 112 Table A3 -1. Requirements (EAR) to be used for assessing probability of adequacy 116 Table A3 -2. Probabilities of adequate iron intakes (mg/d) and associated ranges of usual intake in adolescent girls (15 -18 years) not using oral contraceptives (OC) 117 Table A3 -3. Probabilities of adequate iron intakes (mg/d) and associated ranges of usual intake in adult women not using oral contraceptives (OC)vi Table A6 -1. Summary of \"best\" cutoff identified for FGI-9R, FGI-9AR, FGI-9BR, FGI-9CR and FGI-9DR, for NPNL, across all sites Table A6 -2. Summary of \"best\" cutoff identified for FGI-9, FGI-9A, FGI-9B, FGI-9C and FGI-9D, for NPNL, across all sites Table A7 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A7 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A7 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A7 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A7 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A7 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A7 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A7 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A7 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2) Table A8 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A8 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A8 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A8 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A8 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A8 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A8 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A8 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A8 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2) Table A9 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A9 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A9 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A9 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A9 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A9 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A9 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A9 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A9 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2) Table A10 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A10 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A10 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A10 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A10 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A10 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A10 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A10 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A10 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2) Table A11 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A11 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A11 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A11 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A11 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A11 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A11 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A11 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A11 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2) Table A12 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A12 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A12 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A12 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table urban (Mali)   A13 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A13 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A13 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A13 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A13 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A13 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A13 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A13 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2) Table A14 -1. Bangladesh, rural (Ban1) Table A14 -2. Bangladesh, rural (Ban2) Table A14 -3. Burkina Faso, urban (BF1) Table A14 -4. Burkina Faso, rural (BF2) Table A14 -5. Mali, urban (Mali) Table A14 -6. Mozambique, rural (Moz) Table A14 -7. Philippines, peri-urban (Phi) Table A14 -8. Uganda, rural (Ug1) Table A14 -9. Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2)Figure 1. Percentage of all women who consumed at least 15g of selected food groups, by study site Figure 2. Estimated prevalence of adequacy for micronutrients, by study site, for NPNL 38-39 Figure 3. Total energy intake by FGI-7 levels among all women, by study site Figure 4. Total energy intake by FGI-9 levels among all women, by study site Figure 5. Total energy intake by FGI-10E levels among all women, by study site Figure 6. Total energy intake by FGI-12 levels among all women, by study site Figure 7. Correlation between FGIs-R and MPA, by study site Figure 8. Correlation between FGIs and MPA, by study site Figure 9. Relationship between FGI-7, restricted or not, and MPA, by study site Figure 10. Relationship between FGI-9, restricted or not, and MPA, by study site Figure 11. Relationship between FGI-10E, restricted or not, and MPA, by study site Figure 12. Relationship between FGI-12, restricted or not, and MPA, by study site Figure 13. AUC for restricted FGIs among NPNL women, by study site Figure 14. Average prevalence rates at various MPA thresholds and restricted-FGI cutoffs Figure 15. Prevalence above MPA > 0.50 against prevalence above \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, by study site Figure 16. Prevalence above MPA > 0.60 against prevalence above \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, by study site Figure 17. Prevalence above MPA > 0.70 against prevalence above \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, by study site Figure 18. Mean MPA at-or-above and below the \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, averaged across all study sites Figure 19. Percent of women having consumed at least one portion (minimum 15g) of animal-source food at-or-above and below the \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, averaged across all study sites Figure 20. Percent of women having consumed at least two portions (minimum 15g) of fruits or vegetables at-or-above and below the \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, averaged across all study sites Figure 21. Percent of women having consumed at least one portion (minimum 15g) of legume or nuts/seeds at-or-above and below the \"best\" cutoff for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, averaged across all study sites viii Figure A6 -1. AUC for MPA > 0.50 among NPNL women, by study site, for restricted FGI-9, FGI-9A, FGI-9B, FGI-9C and FGI-9D Figure A6 -2. AUC for MPA > 0.60 among NPNL women, by study site, for restricted FGI-9, FGI-9A, FGI-9B, FGI-9C and FGI-9D Figure A6 -3. AUC for MPA > 0.70 among NPNL women, by study site, for restricted FGI-9, FGI-9A, FGI-9B, FGI-9C and FGI-9DD ietary diversity is well-recognized as an important dimension of diet quality but is difficult to achieve in resource-poor settings where monotonous diets fail to meet many micronutrient needs. This is particularly crucial among vulnerable groups which include women of reproductive age (WRA). Yet, dietary surveys using repeat 24-hours recalls that provide quantitative information on micronutrient adequacy of diets remain out of reach for most resource-poor countries. In these settings the lack of such information impedes assessment of needs, advocacy for programmatic actions and tracking of improvements. This has motivated the search for simpler population-level proxy indicators to reflect micronutrient adequacy of the diets of WRA that can be collected via large-scale surveys.In 2005-2010, the Women's Dietary Diversity Project (WDDP), coordinated by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) through the Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project (FANTA), undertook a collaborative data analysis from five sites with dietary intake data from multiple 24-hour recalls to examine the relationship between food group diversity and micronutrient adequacy of the diets of WRA. The WDDP concluded that a quasicontinuous food group diversity indicator (number of food groups consumed) was consistently associated with micronutrient adequacy, but did not conclude with the selection of a dichotomous indicator for use across all contexts. Yet, many users have indicated the need for a dichotomous indicator, similar to the \"minimum dietary diversity\" indicator of four out of seven food groups now in use for infants and young children, since dichotomous indicators are particularly useful for advocacy purposes and for communication with nontechnical audiences, including policy-makers.In 2012, to help address this need the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) initiated a follow-up project (WDDP II) with the objectives of a) identifying additional data sets to analyse, following the same general protocol and syntax developed under WDDP; b) exploring if the inclusion of additional data sets in the analysis will provide stronger evidence to inform the most appropriate food group composition, both in terms of the number and types of food groups to comprise the indicator; c) investigating whether a standard cut-off can be identified to formulate a valid dichotomous women's dietary diversity indicator. These further analyses were led by the Institute of Research for Development (IRD, Montpellier, France) and are described in this document. IRD extended the work done under the WDDP to a larger number of sites (four supplementary datasets) and to complementary analyses. This is expected to provide a more robust evidence base for balancing indicator characteristics and for selecting a dichotomous indicator.The nine datasets analysed under WDDP II were collected in rural Bangladesh in 1996 (Ban1; n=412) and in 2008 (Ban2; n=422), urban Burkina Faso in 2007 (BF1; n=178), rural Burkina Faso in 2010 (BF2; n=407), urban Mali in 2007 (Mali;n=102), rural Mozambique in 2006 (Moz;n=391), peri-urban Philippines in 2005 (Phi; n=848), rural Uganda in 2007 (Ug1; n=452) and rural and urban Uganda in 2008 (Ug2; n=954).The exclusion of outliers was harmonized across datasets by applying Goldberg criteria: women with energy intakes either below 0.9 x BMR (basal metabolic rate) or above 3.0 x BMR were excluded from the analyses. The exclusion rate was of concern for the Philippines dataset (61 percent) but the distribution of energy or nutrients intakes from the remaining sample did not show any unexpected patterns.Using currently recommended approaches, we assessed the probability of adequacy (PA) for 11 micronutrients and we constructed the \"mean probability of micronutrient adequacy\" (MPA) which summarizes micronutrient adequacy across the 11 micronutrients.We reviewed and updated the estimated average requirements (EAR) used to calculate the micronutrient PAs as appropriate, according to available information newly published since WDDP.For each dataset we looked at various candidate foodgroup indicators (FGI). Among the indicators chosen for the analysis was the one currently recommended by FAO and FANTA and used in several USAID programmes, FGI-9, comprised of nine food groups: \"All starchy staples\"; \"All legumes and nuts\"; \"All dairy\"; \"Organ meat\"; \"Eggs\"; \"Flesh foods and other miscellaneous small animal protein\"; \"Vitamin A-rich dark green leafy vegetables\"; \"Other vitamin A-rich vegetables and fruits (including yellow-and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes and red palm oil) \"; and \"Other fruits and vegetables\". We also looked at the FGI-7 used to assess the \"minimum dietary diversity\" as part of the infant and young child feeding indicators, because harmonization would have advantages.We analysed the contribution of all food groups and sub-groups to the MPA and found that the relationship between FGI and MPA could be enhanced by disaggregating (relative to FGI-9) four food groups: \"All starchy staples\" into \"Grains and grain products\" plus \"All other starchy staples\"; \"All legumes and nuts\" into \"Beans and peas\" plus \"Nuts and seeds\"; \"Flesh foods\" into \"Meat\" plus \"Fish\"; and \"Other fruits and vegetables\" into \"Other fruits\" plus \"Other vegetables\". Thus, two new candidate FGIs were identified. The FGI-12 included the four disaggregations above; the FGI-10 included the disaggregation of \"All legumes and nuts\" and of \"Other fruits and vegetables\". For both of these new candidate indicators \"Organ meat\" was reaggregated with \"Meat\".For all food-group combinations, two indicators were constructed depending on whether or not a minimum consumption of 15g was imposed in order for a food group to count in the score. The indicators were called \"restricted\" (FGI-R) or \"non-restricted\" (FGI), respectively. At last, eight candidate indicators were analysed: FGI-7 and FGI-7R, FGI-9 and FGI-9R, FGI-10 and FGI-10R, FGI-12 and FGI-12R.Each site presented a different dietary pattern according to the frequency of consumption for the main food groups. The contribution of starchy staples to total energy intake was higher in rural areas (from 68 percent in Mozambique to 87 percent in the Ban2 dataset) with the exception of the Ugandan sites (54 percent and 43 percent for Ug1 and Ug2, respectively) because of the frequent consumption of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes in Uganda (OFSP, classified as vitamin A-rich vegetables). Conversely, food groups not considered for constructing dietary diversity scores because of their very poor micronutrient content (i.e. fats, oils, sweets and alcohol) contributed more to total energy intake in urban sites (from 20 percent to 26 percent) than in rural sites (from 3 percent to 9 percent).When considering the four non-restricted FGIs, the BF1 and the Mali urban sites had the highest mean FGI scores. However, when considering FGI-9R, FGI-10R and FGI-12R, those sites had the biggest decrease of the mean score while the Philippines and both Ugandan datasets showed the highest mean scores. The lowest mean scores were encountered for BF2 and Mozambique, but while the 15g restriction did not change significantly the score in Mozambique, the decrease was high in BF2. Overall, the impact of imposing the 15g minimum consumption for a food group to count varied widely by food group and across contexts.Median micronutrient intakes varied by site, but intakes were notably low relative to average requirements for a number of micronutrients in each site. Given the much higher requirements during pregnancy and lactation, PAs varied strongly according to physiological status, thus results were described separately for non-pregnant non-lactating (NPNL) and for lactating women (but not for pregnant women that were too few in most sites). Considering all micronutrients and all sites, the estimated PA was below 50 percent for half of the cases for NPNL women and for two thirds for lactating women. Among NPNL women, site by site, out of eleven micronutrients the number for which the PA was below 50 percent was three in Ug2 dataset, four in Ug1, five in BF2, Mali and Philippines, six in Mozambique and Ban2, and seven in Ban1 and BF1. Among lactating women, corresponding xiii numbers were four in the Ug2 dataset, five in Ug1, eight in BF2 and Mozambique, nine in Ban2, and ten in Ban1. There were correspondingly low levels of MPA in almost all settings, reflecting poor diets. Among sites, MPA for the 11 micronutrients ranged from 34-60 percent for NPNL women and from 23-50 percent for lactating women. MPA was highest in the two Ugandan datasets and lowest in BF1.Correlations and simple linear regressions were used to describe relationships between each candidate FGI and energy intake, PAs and MPA. The relationship between diversity and energy intake was of interest in order to understand if any observed relationship between diversity and MPA was due to higher quantity of food, higher micronutrient density (quality) of diets or both. Correlations between FGIs and energy intakes were low to moderate for both NPNL and lactating women. They tended to be higher for NPNL women than for lactating women and for FGI-12 than for FGI-10E, FGI-9 and FGI-7, in that order, but this pattern was not consistent across all datasets. Correlations with energy intake were higher for restricted FGI. The increases in mean energy intakes at successive values of the FGI scores were fairly consistent across sites. Not controlling for energy intake, correlations between FGIs and PAs were statistically significant for almost all nutrients in almost all sites. Across all sites, there were between 11 percent (FGI-12R) and 24 percent (FGI-7R) non-significant correlations among NPNL women, more frequently in the Ug1, Ban2 and Mozambique datasets, and for vitamin C, B6, B12 and iron. When energy intake was controlled for, correlations were attenuated and many more of them became non-significant. This was particularly visible for the Mozambique dataset, regardless of the physiological status and of the FGI. This may mean that higher quantities rather than higher variety of foods drove micronutrient intakes more strongly in Mozambique than in other sites. Correlations between FGIs and MPA were almost always significant but only moderately strong. Adjusted for energy intake, correlations ranged from 0.12 to 0.52 and were higher for restricted (from 0.12 to 0.52) compared to non-restricted FGIs (0.02 to 0.40) and for NPNL women (from 0.09 to 0.52) compared to lactating women (from 0.02 to 0.38).The performance of the eight candidate indicators in predicting different thresholds of MPA (0.50, 0.60 or 0.70) was assessed using receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) analysis. The area under the curve (AUC) summarizes the predictive power of each indicator across all possible FGI cutoffs. As a rule of thumb, we considered an AUC ≥ 0.70 to indicate some promise for the indicator. In 87 percent of the pairwise comparisons, higher AUCs were observed when the 15g restriction was applied. For all the FGI-Rs, across all sites, the AUC was ≥ 0.70 in 22 out of 36 cases for a MPA threshold at 0.50, in 18 out of 36 cases for a MPA threshold at 0.60, for 15 out of 32 cases for a MPA threshold at 0.70 (for the Ban2 dataset there were not enough women reaching this MPA level to calculate the AUC). Overall, comparisons of AUC values across restricted FGIs and the various thresholds of MPA were clearly at the disadvantage of FGI-7R and, but to a lesser extent, also at the disadvantage of FGI-9R. There was a tendency of higher performance for the more disaggregated FGIs (i.e. FGI-12R > FGI-10ER > FGI-9R > FGI-7R). However, few differences in AUC were statistically significant. We identified potential dichotomous indicators, according to various FGI cutoffs, by examining the sensitivity, specificity and total misclassification of those indicators associated with several thresholds of MPA. This allowed identification of a \"best cutoff\" for those FGIs that performed correctly (i.e. AUC ≥ 0.70) in a sufficient number of datasets and at different MPA levels. As a rule of thumb, the \"best\" FGI cutoff was determined for each MPA threshold by considering the following characteristics: (i) Rate of misclassification: preferably ≤ 30 percent; still considered if ≤ 40 percent; (ii) Sensitivity and specificity: preferably both ≥ 60 percent; still considered if one of the two only is ≥ 50 percent; (iii) At least ten women should have reached the MPA threshold to give some robustness to the analysis; still considered if at least one woman did so. Finally, it was possible to define the \"best\" dichotomous indicator for the following cases: (i) FGI-9R with a cutoff point of minimum five food groups; (ii) FGI-10ER also with a cutoff point of minimum five food groups; and (iii) FGI-12R with a cutoff point of minimum six food groups.We examined how well the prevalence of women ator-above the FGI cutoffs identified through the above analysis matched the prevalence of women above MPA thresholds of 0.50, 0.60, and 0.70. The best matching over all sites was found for MPA > 0.60. Graphically, as well as through use of non-parametric tests, the xiv relationships between both types of prevalence estimates (i.e. according to FGI cutoff or to MPA threshold) was stronger for FGI-12R, followed by FGI-10ER, then FGI-9R, noting that two datasets (BF2 and Mozambique) were considered as outliers for reasons described herein.We also compared some characteristics of women's diet (mean MPA, percentages of women having consumed at least 15g of several nutrient-dense food groups) between those reaching or not the various FGI cutoffs. Non-negligible differences in the mean MPA and in the frequency of consumption of nutrient-dense food groups were found for the three FGIs. For the \"best\" FGI-9R cutoff, over all sites the mean MPA was on average 0.13 points higher among women reaching the cutoff than among others. For both the \"best\" FGI-10ER and FG-12R cutoffs, over all sites the mean MPA was on average 0.16 points higher among women reaching the cutoff than among others. The nutrient-dense food groups of interest were the animal-source food groups, the fruit/ vegetable food groups, and the legumes, nuts and seeds food groups. In almost all datasets and whatever the FGI and the cutoff considered women who met or exceeded the FGI cutoff were more likely to consume nutrientdense food groups than were women below the cutoff.All the above results were carefully and extensively reviewed and also discussed against additional nontechnical criteria for evaluating indicators, related to use and communication. We considered the nutritional meaning of the dichotomous indicators, their possible use/misuse at the global or programmatic level and their practical advantages or drawbacks in terms of operationalization or communication. Considering all the above, the WDDP-II group makes the following recommendations:(i)While acknowledging moderate to poor sensitivity and specificity at the individual level results are consistent enough to recommend the use of a dichotomous food group indicator for global use in population-level assessment and advocacy.(ii) FGI cutoffs of five groups for FGI-9R, 5 groups for FGI-10ER and six groups for FGI-12R can be recommended as reasonable predictors of a MPA>0.60. However, since disaggregations required for constructing the FGI-12 entail nutritional or environmental drawbacks, only FGI-9R and FGI-10ER are proposed for further consideration.(iii) Reaching a MPA level of 0.60 is not optimal but was considered reasonable given the yardstick of a mean MPA of 0.83 estimated among a sample of German women with no food access restriction.In recognition that this MPA is not optimal, and in parallel with the infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicator, we suggest reflecting in an indicator name such as \"minimum dietary diversity\".(iv) Neither the FGI scores nor dichotomous indicators should be used for screening or assessment of individuals. Comparisons within and across sites suggest that the FGI could be used also to track changes in dietary diversity across countries and regions, thus contributing to monitoring progress at the global level.In resource-poor settings where micronutrient deficiencies are serious public health problems, the association of food group diversity with micronutrient density and micronutrient adequacy of diets has already been explored among infants and young children, notably through the Infant and Young Child Feeding Project (Daelmans, et al., 2009;WHO, 2008) and among WRA, in particular through the Women's Dietary Diversity Project (WDDP) (Arimond, et al., 2010;Arimond, et al., 2011).For infants and young children, World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the lack of feeding and dietary indicators as a constraint to action. They responded by leading a multi-stakeholder process that resulted in the adoption of a new set of indicators for the quality of complementary feeding, including a food group diversity indicator (WHO, 2008;WHO, 2010). These indicators are now in wide use (Dibley, et al., 2010;Joshi, et al., 2012;Mariott, et al., 2012;ICF International, 2011). The first step in that process was a collaborative data analysis activity to examine the relationship between food group diversity and micronutrient density of infant diets from a range of geographic areas. The analysis activity was coordinated by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). The results were presented in several stakeholder meetings and supported the adoption of the new \"minimum dietary diversity\" indicator for global use. At these meetings, other considerations were also emphasized along with indicator performance (e.g. WHO and other stakeholders strongly urged the need The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report for a positive indicator of \"good practice\" vs. a negative one).Subsequently, the Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project (FANTA), with funding from USAID, chose IFPRI to coordinate a similar analysis project for WRA. The Women's Dietary Diversity Project (WDDP) undertook a series of analyses for five sites and showed consistent associations between food group diversity indicators and micronutrient adequacy for WRA. More specifically, the WDDP concluded that a quasi-continuous indicator (number of food groups) was associated with micronutrient adequacy, but did not conclude with the selection of a dichotomous indicator for use across all contexts (Arimond, et al., 2010;Arimond, et al., 2011). This was because all dichotomous indicators entailed substantial misclassification, and also because the best choice indicator varied among the five sites included in the analysis. Further, the WDDP was less \"demanddriven\" than the IYCF project as there was no end-user global agency coordinating dialogue and promoting harmonization.However, the demand for a WDDI has recently increased, in part in relation to a surge of interest in integrating agriculture and nutrition programming. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) have both adopted a quasicontinuous WDDI reflecting the conclusions of the WDDP (see below), but many users have indicated the need for a dichotomous indicator, similar to the \"minimum dietary diversity\" indicator of four out of seven food groups now in use for IYC. The dichotomous indicator for IYC also entailed misclassification but was considered satisfactory enough to provide a populationlevel yardstick for global use in assessing and tracking progress. Dichotomous indicators are particularly useful for advocacy purposes and for communication with nontechnical audiences, including policy-makers.The analyses proposed in this document are meant to extend the work done under the WDDP to a larger number of sites and to complementary analyses. This is expected to provide a more robust set of evidence for balancing indicator characteristics and for selecting a dichotomous indicator to be proposed to a multistakeholder group.The WDDP looked at eight candidate food group indicators (FGI) comprised of 6, 9, 13 or 21 food groups (FGI-6, FGI-9, FGI-13, FGI-21) and with or without imposing a minimum consumption quantity of 15g of a food group in order to count in the score (respectively called \"restricted\" or \"non-restricted\" indicators -e.g. FGI-6R and FGI-6).Important WDDP results were:• Significant and moderately strong correlations between all FGI and the mean probability of adequacy (MPA) calculated over 11 micronutrients; • Low levels of MPA in all settings; • Better results for all FGI when the 15g restriction was applied (FGI-'restricted' indicators); • Best statistical performance (across all FGI) varying by sites: the three best candidate indicators were FGI-9R, FGI-13R and FGI-21R. There was a tendency towards better results when the disaggregation of food groups was higher (i.e. FGI with more food groups) but no single FGI could be identified that out-performed others across all five settings; • Moderate to high misclassification rates, confirming the food group diversity indicators should not be used at individual level; • Identification of indicators and cutoffs providing reasonable estimates of the proportion of women above selected MPA cutoffs, but which varied by study sites.• Though they represented a variety of settings there were only five datasets in the analysis -rural (2), urban (2), and urban/peri-urban (1), and of continents -African (3) and Asian (2); • Sample size was rather small for two datasets; • No dataset allowed the ability to look separately at pregnant women; • There was a large rate of exclusion (because of under-reporting) for one dataset and a medium one (because of both under and over-reporting) for two other datasets; The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report• There were statistical issues related to the possibility of correlated errors inflating measures of association, and conversely some noise in dietary data attenuating correlations, but both these statistical issues are inherent to such an analysis.Further work was done in one WDDP study to compare FGI to dietary diversity indicators derived from a simple qualitative recall (such as the ones used in large surveys) (Martin-Prevel, et al., 2010). This study showed that the risk of misreporting was higher when the disaggregation of food groups was higher; it also highlighted the challenges in operationalizing dietary diversity questionnaires, in particular to avoid counting foods consumed in negligible amounts (i.e. operationalizing the 15g minimum quantity to construct 'restricted' FGI). Therefore, the two conditions increasing the strength of the performances of FGI (15g minimum and higher disaggregation) were shown to pose problems when the indicator is built from a list-based questionnaire. These considerations related to operationalizing an FGI for use in larger scale surveys go beyond analysis of the pure statistical performance of FGI and include ease of data collection and burden on both enumerator and respondent.The FAO has produced guidelines for measuring household as well as individual-level dietary diversity. These guidelines for individual measurement are based on use of the FGI-9 examined in the WDDP; however, it is recognized that depending on the purpose of the survey, other choices can be made. In addition, several USAID programme initiatives (notably Feed the Future initiative [FTF] ), and the Title II Development Food Assistance Programs) have adopted and are using the FGI-9 as a standard indicator. There is also potential leverage to advocate with DHS to adopt this indicator.Both the FTF handbook (Feed The Future, 2012) and FAO guidelines (FAO, 2010) recommend that a more disaggregated set of food groups than the nine food groups of the indicator should be used in the questionnaire; a list of 17 or 16 food groups, respectively, is currently proposed in these documents.Whatever the number of food groups in a questionnaire, to get good results in the assessment of dietary diversity, careful work is always needed to adapt the questionnaire to the local context, to train enumerators in using the questionnaire in a standardized manner and to decide which foods need to be excluded because they are consumed in small quantities. This last topic leads to the issue of the operationalization of the 15g minimum consumption which still needs to be refined. While WDDP results consistently showed that restricted indicators increased the statistical performance of FGI when derived from 24-hour recall data, in the study that compared FGI to dietary diversity indicators derived from simple qualitative recall, the FGI-9 (non-restricted) showed the highest performance to predict an MPA > 0.60 (Martin-Prevel, et al., 2010).As stated above, while there are many advantages to using a continuous FGI -and even to look at the frequency of consumption of specific food groupsthere is a strong need for dichotomous indicators for advocacy and communication purposes.Defining a dichotomous indicator relies on two cutoffs. First, a cutoff has to be chosen for the gold standard indicator of micronutrient adequacy (here the MPA). Second, one needs to select a cutoff for the number of food groups, to examine how well it predicts the status indicated by the gold standard indicator. The above selection of cutoffs leads to choosing one in two options for the indicator: either a \"positive\" one (i.e. indicator of \"good\" dietary diversity) or a \"negative\" one (i.e. indicator of \"poor\" dietary diversity).In WDDP, because of the rather low values of the gold standard indicator of micronutrient adequacy (MPA) in all datasets, cutoffs for FGI could be looked at only for MPA levels of 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70. Even the last one can hardly be considered to define \"good micronutrient adequacy\" of the diet. However, it is very likely that a similar situation would be found in any developing country since, even in developed countries, there are gaps for some key micronutrients (Troesch, et al., 2012) (see also Section 4.4.2 in this report and Appendix 5).The best results of the WDDP in terms of performance to predict MPA were obtained with the 0.50 MPA cutoff but it is hard to say that an MPA above 0.50 indicates a good or even acceptable level of micronutrient adequacy.Regarding the benefits of \"positive\" vs \"negative\" dichotomous indicators, a positive indicator is favoured for programming because it encourages the definition of optimal targets vs minimal targets. In addition, this would be coherent with the FGI recommended and used for IYC. On the other hand, better results for a positive indicator are likely to be obtained with more disaggregated FGI. A negative indicator can still provide a population yardstick, but defines an \"undesirable\" or \"unacceptable\" dimension of the dietary quality problem and will run the risk of misuse in programme messages if those above the cut-point are defined as \"adequate\" or \"acceptable\". However, based on the low MPA found in the WDDP datasets, it is more likely that a dichotomous cutoff representing poor MPA could yield more robust and consistent results across countries.The same result was obtained in the IYCF indicators project, i.e. indicator performance was better for a negative indicator. However, the multi-stakeholder process revealed a strong necessity for a positive indicator, partly in order to include dietary diversity as one element in a composite positive indicator for IYCF practices \"minimum acceptable diet\". The \"minimum dietary diversity\" indicator was so named in order to emphasize that achievement of the four food group cutoffs is not a guarantee of micronutrient adequacy. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report• Bangladesh, rural (Ban1)• Bangladesh, rural (Ban2)• Burkina Faso, urban (BF1)• Burkina Faso, rural (BF2)• Mali, urban (Mali)• Uganda, rural (Ug1)• Mozambique, rural (Moz)• Uganda, urban and rural (Ug2)• Philippines, peri-urban (Phi)A mong the limitations pointed out in the final WDDP-I report was the limited number of datasets included in the analysis (n=5). Consequently, we looked for additional datasets in order to carry out this phase of the project (hereafter referred to as WDDP-II). In the end, four additional datasets were identified and provided thanks to the HarvestPlus Challenge Program. All datasets are succinctly presented in this chapter and their characteristics are summarized in Table A1 -1 (Appendix 1).Several datasets came from the same country. In order to easily distinguish them, throughout this report all datasets will be referred to using the references in brackets in the above lists.As in WDDP-I, dietary data collection methods were not standardized because this is a secondary analysis project. Yet, since analysis of all datasets was centralized, conversion of units, adaptation of variable names, creation of missing variables (such as source of protein) and many other data transformations were easier to manage.Each dataset was provided as a food-level file in order to allow construction of new candidate indicators as envisaged in the second part of the analysis. Rural Bangladesh and Mozambique datasets, already used in WDDP-I, were also provided in a ready-to-analyse file (i.e. for direct running of the Stata syntax) 1 . This means that all FGIs considered in WDDP-I were already constructed and variables containing information about amount and energy intakes of each food group were already created.Food composition tables (FCTs) used for the primary analysis of each dataset were collected, except for the Philippines' peri-urban study (WDDP-I). As well as in WDDP-I, no standardization of FCTs was made due to the existence of true nutrient content variations of a same food between countries and regions.Several observations can be made from the examination of FCTs and survey reports:• Dietary data came from 24-hour recalls in all studies except the Ban2 dataset, where direct observation with weighing of food was performed; • Overall, methods reflected good standard practices; • Datasets were distributed and analysed over two rounds in all studies except the BF1 dataset, which comprised three rounds; • The minimum number of subjects and repetitions that was required for a dataset to be included in the analysis was at least 100 women with at least 40 repetitions (or 10 percent repetitions when sample size was >300). In the same way, sub-groups (non-pregnant non-lactating, lactating and pregnant women) were considered for analysis only if the sample size was at least 100; • The smallest sample was the one collected in Mali. It had 102 women in the first round with 96 repeated observations. The largest sample was collected in the The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical ReportPhilippines and had 2 191 women in the first round with repeated observations for all of them. • A separate analysis on lactating women was feasible for six datasets only: Ban1, Ban2, BF2, Mozambique, Ug1 and Ug2; • No dataset had enough pregnant women to allow a separate analysis. Results will therefore be presented for all women, non-pregnant non-lactating (NPNL) women, and lactating women when possible; • In all datasets, information was present for the intake of: energy, total protein, total carbohydrate, total fat, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, vitamin A, vitamin C, iron, calcium and zinc (see Chapter 4 and Appendix 2).A brief description of all datasets is given below:The entire dataset comprised a subset of women's dietary intake data from surveys undertaken by IFPRI and collaborators in 1996. The surveys were originally designed to determine both nutrition and resource allocation effects of several non-governmental organizations (NGO)-disseminated agricultural technologies in three rural areas in Bangladesh.While the three study areas varied according to a number of characteristics (e.g. landholding), they were similar to each other -and to rural Bangladesh in general -in average per capita income (approximately USD 200 per capita per year). Diets were dominated by rice, with similar rice intakes across all income strata. No fortified foods were consumed by women in the study sample. Intakes of animal-source foods, fruits and vegetables were low. Anemia prevalence was very high (50-60 percent of women, depending on study area). There was no information gathered on iron/ folate supplement consumption during pregnancy, but approximately 20 percent of the non-pregnant women reported receiving and consuming iron tablets that were routinely distributed with birth control pills, for a median duration of approximately two years. No information was available on the actual consumption of iron tablets.The study also showed that, within their household, women consumed a disproportionately low share of preferred foods, such as animal-source foods, potentially exacerbating a poor nutrition (and micronutrient) situation. Further details are available from the WDDP-I country report (Arimond, et al., 2009) and from the original study (Bouis, et al., 1998). Data from urban Burkina Faso were from the last survey in a series of qualitative and quantitative explorations of food habits and dietary intakes conducted in the study area (Becquey, 2006;Savy, et al., 2008). This survey shared the WDDP main objective, i.e. data were gathered with the aim of validating simple dietary diversity indicators as a measure of micronutrient adequacy among women of reproductive age (WRA). Secondary objectives were to explore links between nutrition knowledge, food habits and the nutritional status of women, and also to examine changes in dietary diversity over time since data from a previous (2005) survey was available for the same individuals. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical ReportThe study was conducted in two districts of Ouagadougou, the capital city of Burkina Faso, in 2006.The city is divided into districts with amenities in the town centre (the so-called \"structured districts\") and peripheral districts without amenities (the so-called \"non-structured districts\"). One \"structured\" district and one \"non-structured\" district were purposely selected for the study because of the availability of demographic and socio-economic data from an already existing monitoring system. Comparison of study sample characteristics, including level of education, size of the household, gender of the head of household, water and electricity supply, quality of housing and ownership of some assets (television, radio, bicycle, moped, car, refrigerator, telephone) showed good agreement with same indicators derived from demographic and health survey (DHS) data for Ouagadougou 3 . A more detailed description of the study is available in the WDDP-I country report (Becquey, et al., 2009).Data from rural Burkina Faso was from a food consumption and iron status multi-stage cluster survey carried out jointly by the French Institute of Research for Development (IRD), the Institute of Research in Health Sciences (IRSS) of Burkina Faso and HarvestPlus.The survey took place in two rural provinces of Burkina Faso, the Sourou and the Sanguié provinces, in 2010.The main objective of this study was to provide reliable information on micronutrient deficiencies and quantitative estimates of the intakes of sorghum and some key nutrients among women and preschool children. The two provinces were part of two regions (Northwest and West) that were selected based on a combination of health, agriculture, living conditions and demographic criteria, which included data on sorghum production, household consumption and prevalence of malnutrition. The provinces were chosen purposely based on available information on sorghum production and/or consumption and on some of the principal investigators' general knowledge of the field.Dietary data collection was performed through 24-hour recalls among children 36-59 months old and their mother, with repetition on a sub-sample (three out of 3 INSD, 2004 eight in each cluster). The survey comprised two rounds of data collection, one in the lean season and one in the post-harvest season, conducted for the same mother and child pair. For the purpose of the current project, only the second round of data was used 4 . This round was deemed to be a bit more reliable due to the experience gained during the first round by both the survey team and the surveyed women. Further details are available from the survey report (Martin-Prével, et al., 2013).Data from urban Mali was from a European Union (EU)-funded research project, Fonio 5 , which aimed at enhancing the quality and competitiveness of fonio in West Africa by improving production, technology and market systems for local and export markets. Data collection included two 24-hour recalls of food consumption among women aged 15-49 years with the objective of determining the role of fonio in dietary patterns and the contribution of fonio to iron and zinc intake as well as the iron status of women of reproductive age living in an urban area in Mali.The research was carried out in Bamako, the capital city of Mali. The study sample was selected to be representative of NPNL women of reproductive age. Women belonged to a homogenous Malian sociolinguistic group and respondents were preferably responsible for household food preparation. Please see the WDDP-I country report for further details (Kennedy, et al., 2009).Data from rural Mozambique was gathered as part of a baseline survey for an impact evaluation of a HarvestPlus Reaching End Users (REU) Project implemented in 4Other options would have been to estimate a cross-seasonal MPA using all 24-hour recalls available for each woman, regardless of the season, or to use each season as a separate dataset. The first option would have weakened the association between FGI and MPA since the FGI would have come from one round only while the MPA would have been calculated from the two rounds. The second option was discarded since it would have given too much weight to the dataset compared to the others, because same women were studied. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report Zambezia Province. The REU project aimed at reducing vitamin A deficiency through encouraging the adoption of vitamin A-rich orange-fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) as an agricultural crop and a household food. Infants and young children, and women of reproductive age constituted two targeted groups. The project aimed at simultaneously increasing access to planting materials and markets, and at increasing demand for OFSP. Agricultural and nutrition \"extensionists\" worked with volunteer \"promoters\" to reach large numbers of households with new knowledge and practices.The study areas in Mozambique were characterized by high levels of malnutrition, very monotonous diets and very poor resources. Few households had regular cash income and most practised subsistence agriculture, in some cases supplemented by fishing and other activities. Much of the area was drought-and/or flood-prone, although some areas of higher elevation were less so. Maize, and to a lesser extent, cassava and rice were the primary staples. Both maize and cassava were cooked as a paste and served with simple sauces, usually made of beans, dark green leaves and/or dried or fresh fish.Coconut was available in some parts of the study area. Importantly, the baseline survey was carried out during the mango season. More details are available from the WDDP-I country report (Wiesmann, et al., 2009).Data were from the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey (CLHNS) and included all women of reproductive age present during the 2005 round of that study. The CLHNS began in 1983 as a prospective study of infant feeding patterns, their determinants and consequences. At the inception of the CLHNS, all pregnant women in selected communities were invited to participate in the survey. Since that time, extensive data have been collected on mothers and their offspring, as well as other family members and household residents. The initial phase led to an expanded focus on pregnancy outcomes, maternal and child health, and birth spacing issues for which a prospective research design was favoured 6 . No interventions have been provided to the subjects belonging to the cohort.6 OPS, 1989.The CLHNS was a community-based survey of metropolitan Cebu which surrounded and included Cebu City, the second largest city of the Philippines.Families were surveyed face-to-face in a variety of settings, including densely-populated urban areas, urban squatter settlements, peri-urban neighbourhoods, rural areas stretching into the mountains and some small surrounding islands. Sampling consisted of two independent two-stage cluster samples, one urban and one rural. The CLHNS did not originally intend to be nationally or provincially representative of Filipino women, but only to reflect existing variations in infant feeding strategies. However, women in the CLHNS were generally similar in socio-economic status to women in the Philippine Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), as well as to women in national surveys from the Food and Nutrition Research Institute of the Philippines (FNRI) 7 . See the WDDP-I country report for further details (Daniels, 2009). A sample of households with a child aged 3-5 years (n=544) and their mothers or primary female caregivers (n=539) was drawn from this survey. Dietary intake was assessed through the interactive, 24-hour recall method.One day of dietary intake data was obtained for all individuals, and a second day of data was obtained on a non-consecutive day for a randomly-selected subset of individuals 8 . Data were extracted from the Uganda food consumption survey that was carried out in one urban and two rural regions of Uganda in 2008 to characterize the dietary patterns of children 24-59 months of age and of WRA (15-49 years). The study was undertaken to serve as a baseline for strengthening Uganda's National Food Fortification Program and to help in developing a food fortification strategy. The survey focused on two rural regions (in Southwest and North) and on one urban sector (Kampala) that were purposely selected.Within each region, districts and then households were randomly selected in a two-stage process that provided samples representative of that area. The study design planned to include 320 WRA in each area. The multipass 24-hour recall method was used to assess dietary intakes and repeat dietary recalls were conducted on 10 percent of the sampled subjects in each region, on a non-consecutive day. Results showed that dietary patterns varied across the three regions with the diet in the rural Southwest providing larger amounts of most nutrients than the diets of other regions, including urban Kampala. Further details are available from the survey report (Harvey, et al., 2010). The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report for each level of MPA; e. Comparison of prevalence rates at/above FGI cutoffs and above MPA cutoffs; f. Stratification of the above results according to physiological status (depending on the number of lactating women in each dataset).The second objective was to look for alternate candidate FGI which should be as -or almost as -simple as the FGI-9R to collect but could show better performance in predicting MPA and/or provide higher sensitivity and specificity when used as a dichotomous indicator. The corresponding tasks were to:a. analyse the mean contribution to the MPA of each food group among the 21 used in WDDP-I in each dataset (see Table 2); b. Based on the above, construct one to two new candidate FGIs that are both meaningful and still easy to collect; and consider also the FGI-7 which is used for IYCF since using the same indicator for both women and children would simplify data collection; c. For each promising candidate FGI perform the tasks 'c' to 'f' described for the first objective.The third objective was to provide recommendations for the choice of a food-group indicator and dichotomous cut-point valid across cultures, balancing statistical performance with practicality. The corresponding tasks were:a. Summarize the results of objectives 1 and 2; b. Make written recommendations, considering the current indicators in common use and trade-offs in statistical performance.Beyond the analytical work covered by WDDP-II (the three objectives above), the final objective is to recommend a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity suitable for global use. Y ears have passed since WDDP-I, new references have been published and several members of the group have gained in practical experience using food group indicators. All the above made the group reconsider some parameters of the WDDP-I analysis for the current phase. This chapter describes changes operated in WDDP-II. Appendix 2 briefly presents how and why nutrients have been selected in WDDP-I.Table A3 -1 shows the EAR and standard deviations (SD) selected for WDDP-II. Requirements are presented for both adolescents and adult women, respectively from 15 to 18 years and from 19 to 65 years. The full range of \"reproductive age\" (from 15 to 49 years) is therefore completely covered.Given the purpose of the WDDP, it was agreed that the WHO and FAO EAR would generally be the most appropriate. Nevertheless, exceptions were made in the cases of calcium, iron and zinc. Values from the Institute of Medicine of the United States of America (IOM values) were used for the first two and International Zinc Nutrition Consultative Group (IZiNCG) values for zinc.In addition, IOM values were also used when standard deviations (SD) or coefficients of variation (CV) were not available from WHO and FAO, as was the case for vitamin A and niacin.For iron and zinc, the appropriate absorption level has to be applied depending on dietary patterns observed in each country (see Appendix 3). For the purpose of WDDP-I, it was agreed that this selection could be made at the sample level rather than characterizing each individual diet in order to choose the appropriate absorption levels. For each dataset the choice was made by the principal investigator of the study, based on his/her knowledge of the usual dietary pattern in the context. Therefore, the results presented in this document intend to reflect at best the reality of the different contexts. Choices made for the five datasets within WDDP-I were applied again within WDDP-II. For the four additional datasets levels of absorption for iron and zinc were either those indicated in the survey report, when available, or determined after a quick review of literature and an overview of the dietary patterns as reflected in the dataset. When women were identified as both pregnant and lactating, the higher requirement was selected for each nutrient.Final decisions made are presented in Appendix 3.Regarding requirements for iron, the decision was made in WDDP-I to use EAR from the Institute of Medicine because it provides a separate reference table to evaluate probability of adequacy (Tables I-6 and I -7 in IOM, 2000). Indeed, as the requirement distribution for iron is strongly skewed, the corresponding probability of adequacy cannot be directly assessed since the usual method assumes a symmetric distribution of requirements in the population.However, IOM guidelines give an EAR for an absorption level of 18 percent while, according to WHO and FAO (WHO, 2004), only a very low (5 percent) or low (10 percent) iron absorption level can be assumed in developing countries. Thus, within WDDP-I the EAR was back-calculated from IOM (IOM, 2001) for these two levels of absorption for NPNL and lactating women. Only the EAR used for pregnant women remained similar The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report to the one given by IOM, i.e. 22 mg/d for an assumed bioavailability of 23 percent -which was a weighted average of the bioavailability across the three trimesters of pregnancy. Subsequently, back-calculation from Tables I-6 and I-7 of the Institute of Medicine (IOM, 2001) were used to assess the probability of adequacy for non-pregnant non-lactating women. Since IOM gives CVs for pregnant and lactating women, the usual method was used to estimate probability of adequacy for these two categories.For WDDP-II, the group carefully reviewed the issue of iron availability during pregnancy. It seems unlikely indeed that, starting from a 5 percent or 10 percent (depending on the context) iron absorption level when non-pregnant, women in developing countries would reach the iron absorption levels of 18 percent in the first trimester of pregnancy and of 25 percent in other trimesters that are assumed by IOM (even though iron absorption level would increase in the second and third trimesters). It was therefore decided to define new values for iron absorption level during pregnancy to be used in the WDDP-II analysis, based on the fact that bioavailability during the first trimester is estimated to be roughly the same as for non-pregnant women, and using the WHO and FAO guidance for the second and third trimesters (WHO, 2004). This document states that \"iron absorption is increased by about 50 percent\" 9 in the second trimester; therefore for the second trimester we applied to the bioavailability level for non-pregnant women a factor of 1.5. The same document states also that iron absorption \"may increase by up to about four times the norm\" 10 in the last trimester. Our interpretation of this was that four times is a maximum and should not be taken as an average. We arbitrarily chose to apply, for the third trimester, a factor of 2.5 to the bioavailability level used for non-pregnant women. Our method thus gives averaged absorption rates over the last two trimesters of 10 percent and 20 percent for an initial bioavailability of 5 percent and 10 percent, respectively (Table 1). These are lower than IOM values but not by much. As information about the month of pregnancy was not available in most datasets, these averaged absorption levels were used for all pregnant women.At the time of WDDP-I no reliable EAR was available for calcium. Only an adequate intake (AI) value was established (IOM, 1997) but without SD. By the time of WDDP-II, new EAR values for calcium have been released by IOM (IOM, 2011). We therefore decided to use them.The IOM report indicates an EAR value of 800 mg/d for women from 19 to 50 years and of 1 100 mg/d for women from 14 to 18 years. Whether women are pregnant or lactating does not modify the EAR. No CV is specified but recommended dietary allowance (RDA) values are defined as 200 mg above the EAR in all cases, i.e. 1 000 mg/d for adults and 1 300 mg/d for adolescents. This allowed us to back-calculate two CVs: 12.5 percent for adult women and 9 percent for adolescent women. We then applied the usual method for calculating probability of adequacy for calcium instead of the Foote et al. method used within WDDP-I (Foote, et al., 2004).Compared with WDDP-I indicators, the only changes that were decided were related to the flesh foods group. New instructions were given (FAO, 2010;WHO, 2010) and it was deemed that some specific food groups were not adequately classified. Thus, in the proposed new classification, reptiles and amphibians are considered alongside mammals, and molluscs are considered alongside fish, shellfish and seafood (   As indicated earlier in this report, results from WDDP-I clearly showed better performance of all FGI when a 15g restriction was applied (FGI-'R'; i.e. 'Restricted' indicators). However, a key remaining question is how such a restriction can be operationalized. Within WDDP-I the 15g limit was calculated over all foods eaten at all meals during the 24h. Another option under consideration would be to calculate the 15g limit over each food/dish eaten on any occasion; this would bear the advantage of being more easily operationalized. It was envisaged that analyses could be made with the WDDP-II data to explore changes that such a strategy might cause in the results. However this would have required a rather huge work on the syntax and some datasets would have had to be reorganized. In addition, it was found that many datasets are lacking a variable to indicate meals so this issue was not explored in the end.As in WDDP-I the probability approach was used to assess nutrient adequacy for groups. This approach is based on information or assumption about both the distribution of nutrient requirements in the population and the day-to-day variations (intra-individual) in nutrient intakes (Barr, et al., 2002). This is appropriate given the ultimate objective of this work, which is to develop The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report simple indicator(s) for use at population level. Using the repetition of the 24-hour recalls on a subsample of subjects, the probability of adequacy associated with \"usual intake\" was calculated for each of them and the prevalence of adequacy was estimated as the average of these probabilities. Once probability of adequacy is estimated for all nutrients, they were averaged across 11 nutrients to construct the mean probability of adequacy (MPA).The following summarizes the steps required to construct the MPA as described in the WDDP-I protocol:• Transform nutrient intakes: nutrient intakes are nearly always skewed. Thus, intake distributions need to be adjusted to approximate normal. We have used a Box-Cox transformation (a power transformation) for energy and each micronutrient; • Calculate individual and population means for intakes of each nutrient, using the transformed variables (note that some individuals have only one observation); • Calculate within-and between-person variances for the transformed intake variables; • Using these variances, calculate the best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP) of the usual intake for each nutrient, for each woman; • Using the BLUPs, calculate the probability of adequacy for iron (non-pregnant non-lactating women) from tables in Appendix 3; • With the exception of iron for NPNL women, information on the distribution of requirements (CV/ SD) is available and distributions are assumed to be approximately normal for all nutrients. By generating a random normal variable (with \"n\"=800) the requirement distribution for each nutrient is simulated, and this distribution is then transformed using the same power transformation as above. • The probability of adequacy (PA) for each nutrient (excluding iron) can now be calculated. • Finally all PA, including iron, are averaged to form MPA.As stated above, the low distribution of the MPA in all datasets only allowed choosing MPA levels of 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70 within WDDP-I. In order to support the choice of a threshold, typical MPA values encountered among women from developed countries where the population is not economically constrained and does not benefit from general fortification can serve as comparison.The report of a nationally representative dietary study carried out in Germany in 2005-06 was used for this purpose (Max Rubner Institut, 2008). The mean MPA for German women was calculated, across the same 11 micronutrients considered in WDDP, from the results tables presented in the report. The details of the analyses are presented in Appendix 5. It has to be noted that food fortification is only performed by manufacturers for a few selected food products in Germany and the authors of the study considered them in the FCT they used. The tables used to derive MPA for the purpose of our study therefore included nutrient intakes from fortified foods; however, given the small number of fortified foods the impact of food fortification on the mean MPA across the sample should be minimal. In contrast, nutrient intakes from supplements were presented in separate tables in the report and those not taken into account in the calculation of mean MPA.The German data thus demonstrated an MPA of 0.83 for women of reproductive age, showing that even in a highly favourable context the micronutrient adequacy is unlikely to be total. Even though the methods used by the German authors differed slightly from the WDDP-II approach (data collection, derivation of \"usual\" nutrient intakes, etc.) it was deemed that the magnitude is comparable. Therefore a threshold of 0.70 seemed a reasonable choice to define a positive indicator in resource-poor contexts. In contrast, there is no real clue to help defining a negative indicator. In this report, thresholds of 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70 have been considered.In some occasions a threshold of 0.80 has been also investigated, but there was only a few datasets with enough women reaching this MPA level to allow sound analyses (these results are consequently not presented in this report).1. Compute the indicators of dietary diversity (FGI-9 and FGI-9R), the probability of adequacy of each micronutrient (PA) and the mean probability of micronutrient adequacy (MPA).2. Describe the relationships between the two FGI, energy intake and MPA, using correlations and simple linear regressions on transformed or untransformed variables, according to their initial distribution 11 . When sub-sample sizes are sufficient, stratify the analyses according to physiological status (pregnant, lactating and non-pregnant non-lactating women).3. Assess the performance of each FGI in predicting MPA through receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) analysis.4. In order to support the choice of FGI cutoffs, examine the proportion of women consuming various nutrient-dense food groups (such as animalsource food) when different FGI cutoffs are selected.11 When intake distributions were skewed a Box-Cox transformation was applied.5. Perform sensitivity, specificity and misclassification analysis for various MPA thresholds and FGI cutoffs defining either a positive or a negative dichotomous indicator.6. Examine prevalence of women above the MPA thresholds and above the FGI cutoffs for the best performing combinations of these two cutoffs.7. Using the above results for each dataset, try to identify a combination of FGI cutoff and MPA thresholds performing satisfactorily enough across all datasets (or most of them) to allow suggesting a FGI cutoff for an acceptable dietary diversity and/or a minimum dietary diversity.The second objective, which was to look for an alternative food group indicator, was investigated following the ensuing steps: F or the purpose of WDDP-I, it was initially decided to use the basal metabolic rate (BMR)-based criteria to define exclusion ranges. Distributions were examined and women whose energy intakes were either below a BMR factor of 0.9 or above a factor of 3.0 12 were excluded. However, in a subsequent group meeting it was agreed that those researchers who had been more directly involved in data collection and who could review and assess raw data might make different decisions about exclusion of outliers. It was recognized that single-day intakes can, indeed, be very extreme and that caution must be used in applying BMR-based cutoffs (Black, 2000). Therefore slightly different approaches were employed in Burkina Faso, Mali and Mozambique; they are detailed in the corresponding WDDP-I country reports.The Philippines dataset presented a particular situation. Across survey rounds, the 24-hour recalls in the CLHNS generated estimated intakes that are low by comparison to other data from the Philippines and by comparison to estimated intakes in other studies from South and South East Asia. Therefore, to avoid excessive bias while eliminating the most extreme low outliers, in WDDP-I it was decided for the CLHNS data to use a 0.3 x BMR cutoff instead of the 0.9 x BMR cutoff used for the other countries.12 Goldberg, et al., (1991) provide a method for assessing the quality of dietary data through evaluating estimated energy intake. The estimated energy intake (EIrep) is compared with the person's estimated BMR (BMRest). The ratio between EIrep and BMRest is called the BMR factor. The BMR factor can be used as a lower cutoff value for identifying under-reporters. The lower cutoff value, with a 95 percent confidence interval, is based on an energy requirement of 1.55 X BMR for a person with a sedentary lifestyle, adjusted for the number of days of recall data. For a single recall day, the lower cutoff value is 0.90 X BMR. The highest energy intake that can be sustained over a longer period of time is 2.4 X BMR (FAO, 2004). An upper cutoff value of 2.4 X BMR has therefore been used by some. However, a single day's energy intake can be more extreme. For our purposes we set the upper cutoff to 3.0 X BMR to identify likely over-reporters.Within the WDDP-II, the additional datasets provided by HarvestPlus were almost in a \"raw\" state in the sense that no exclusion had been applied. Indeed, except for some obviously flawed cases, it was considered that if 24hour recalls are properly administered, the probabilities of under and over estimation are nearly equivalent so that the average of intakes among the survey population is ultimately not biased. Nevertheless, it appeared that a primary exclusion rule was applied to the Ug2 dataset. Outliers were identified according to several steps: exploration of implausible values using the SPSS Explore procedure; adjustment of the amount of food consumed by cost or by food frequency questionnaire data from the 24-hour recall (Gibson and Ferguson, 2008), analysis of mean, median, SD and scatter plot of each nutrient density per age group and region; and finally use of the inter-quartile range to define a threshold for outliers (Q3 + 3 * IQR) for each consumed food quantity and nutrient density per age group and region.Finally, to ensure consistency between all datasets it was decided to apply the same exclusion criteria to all of them before carrying out the WDDP-II analysis. The criteria used previously in WDDP-I were considered and women with energy intakes either below 0.9 x BMR or above 3.0 x BMR were excluded. Table 3 presents the percentage of exclusion arising from this.As stated above, the use of the 0.9 x BMR cutoff in the Philippines dataset implied a high rate of exclusions. The sub-sample obtained after exclusions was compared to the original sample for available women's characteristics. It turned out that women in the final sub-sample were slightly younger, more educated and had a lower body mass index (BMI) than excluded women. However, a visual inspection of the shape of the distributions of energy and micronutrient intakes, PA and FGI revealed that they remained quite unchanged. T he characteristics of each dataset considered in the WDDP-II are presented in Table 4. It provides the final sample sizes according to physiological status and, when information was available, a basic description of mean age, height, weight, BMI and level of education of the women.Total sample sizes ranged from 102 women (Mali) to 954 (Ug2). This wide range should be kept in mind when interpreting the results. Three datasets (Mali, BF1 and the Philippines) included too few or no lactating women to allow a separate analysis of this group. No dataset had enough pregnant women to allow a separate analysis.The mean age of women was approximately 30 years, ranging from 27 years (Ban2) to 32 years (Ug1). As could be expected, non-pregnant non-lactating (NPNL) women were older than lactating women in every study site (when the comparison was possible). Women were tallest in the West African samples, and heaviest in the urban West African samples (mean BMI of 23.2 kg/ m² for BF1 and 23.6 kg/m² for Mali), followed by the peri-urban Philippines dataset (22.0 kg/m²) and the rural African sites: Ug1 (22.5 kg/m²), Mozambique (21.5 kg/ m²) and BF2 (20.8 kg/m²). In contrast, the women from Bangladesh datasets had much lower mean BMI (Ban1: 18.8 kg/m²; Ban2: 19.7 kg/m²). Accordingly, the prevalence of overweight ranged from 1.7 percent (Ban1) to 36.5 percent (BF1) and the prevalence of underweight from 6.8 percent (Ug1) to 47.8 percent (Ban1).Available data on the level of education or literacy varied across studies and therefore were not directly comparable. However, it is possible to say that education and literacy levels appeared higher in the urban/periurban samples, as expected, and lower in Mozambique, as expected as well given the extreme poverty and absence of infrastructure and services in the study area.Table 5 and Figure 1 present the proportions of women who consumed the different food groups 13 . The table gives information for the nine food groups of the FGI-9, but two of the nine groups are omitted from the figure: starchy staples because they were consumed by 100 percent of women across almost all sites -with the exception of Ug1 and Ug2 datasets for which the consumption reached 99 percent and 95 percent, respectively; and organ meat because it was not consumed at all, except in the Philippines dataset.Starchy staples were consumed by almost all women in all sites, with the exception of the Ugandan datasets where some women consumed orange-fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) instead of starchy staples. Consumption of legumes and nuts with the 15g minimum ranged from 33 percent to 38 percent of women in the Bangladesh sites to 78 percent and 85 percent in the Ugandan sites. Imposing a restriction of 15g minimum consumption had no impact for starchy staples. For legumes and nuts, this made a real difference for the urban West African study sites (24 and 33 percentage points of difference in the BF1 and Mali datasets, respectively), maybe because of the use of rather small quantities of groundnut paste in sauces. No strong differences were found in the other datasets.In general, food group patterns did not vary markedly with physiological status. Therefore, results in this section are presented for all women together and not for subgroups of lactating and NPNL women. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report   The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical ReportAs noted, organ meat was only consumed in the Philippines dataset. Among animal-source foods that were rarely consumed eggs came next: frequency of consumption was null for BF2 and under 10 percent for the Ugandan sites, Mali, Mozambique, BF1 and Ban1. Only the Ban2 and Philippines datasets showed a noticeable frequency of egg consumption (12 percent and 32 percent, respectively, with the 15g restriction).Consumption of dairy was null in Mozambique, very small for BF2 dataset (2 percent), intermediate (11 percent to 29 percent, with the 15g restriction) in the two Bangladesh sites, BF1, Philippines and Ugandan datasets, and widely consumed in Mali (47 percent). The 15g restriction had virtually no impact on the indicator, with the exception of the Philippines where women use small amounts of milk or cream in coffee (leading to a 6 percentage points of difference).Flesh foods were the most frequently consumed animalsource foods and were widely consumed in almost all study sites. The percentages of consumption were higher in urban sites than in rural ones: with the 15g restriction, values were up to 73 percent in BF1, 95 percent in Mali and 98 percent in Philippines datasets. Only the BF2 dataset showed a relatively low percentage of consumption (only 15 percent with the 15g restriction).Besides, this restriction did not matter much in Mali, Mozambique, Philippines and Ugandan sites while it made a relatively large difference in the other sites (from 16 percentage points difference in the Ban1 dataset to 40 points difference in the BF2 dataset).Considering the 15g restriction, consumption of vitamin A-rich dark green leafy vegetables ranged from 25 percent in the Philippines to 51 percent in the urban Burkina Faso. The 15g restriction made remarkable differences in all West African sites (from 13 percentage points difference in Mali to 28 in urban Burkina Faso). This may be related to the use of dried leaves in small quantities in mixed dishes and sauces.Consumption of other vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables (such as mango, pumpkin and yellow/orange squash or yellow/orange-fleshed sweet potatoes) tended to be lower in rural than in urban areas: from 6 percent in BF2 to 23 percent in Ug1 datasets, versus 25 percent and 33 percent in Mali and BF1 datasets, respectively. The Ug2 and the Mozambique datasets showed very high level of consumption of vitamin A-rich fruit and vegetables (66 percent and 77 percent, respectively). This was due to the mango season in Mozambique and the wide consumption of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes in Uganda. The 15g restriction made rather large differences: from 7 percentage points in the Philippines to 61 percentage points in Mali, but this was not the case in Mozambique where the mango season rubbed out the difference. These differences occurred for different reasons according to the sites. In Bangladesh, this was entirely due to the use of chilies in very small quantities, and in Burkina Faso and Mali to the use of tomato paste in dishes.Other fruits and vegetables, even with the 15g restriction, were consumed by at least half of the women in all sites (except the BF2 dataset: 44 percent). The frequency of consumption was even > 80 percent in many datasets (Ban1, BF1, Mali and Ug1). The 15g restriction made no substantial difference in the BF1, Mali and Ug1 datasets. The differences in other sites ranged from 6 to 25 percentage points.In summary, with the exception of starchy staples, each site presented a different pattern of consumption for the main food groups. The impact of imposing the 15g minimum consumption for a food group to count also varied by food group and by site. However, overall it was clear that for a number of food groups and in a number of sites, imposing the 15g minimum consumption made a substantial difference in the proportion of women who were considered to have consumed the group. This was true in most sites for at least three of the nine food groups. This was less important in Mozambique, Philippines and first Uganda sites. This may reflect the fact that where diets and mixed dishes in these poor rural sites were generally very simple, the few foods/ingredients consumed tended to be consumed in substantial quantities.Two very simple indicators of diet quality are the proportion of total energy intake that is accounted The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report for by starchy staples and the proportion contributed by animal-source foods. Other micronutrient-dense foods such as fruits and vegetables are generally not expected to contribute to a substantial proportion of energy, although there are exceptions, such as mangos and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes. Table 6 shows the proportion of energy intakes accounted for by several foods groups, for all sites.The contribution of starchy staples to total energy intake was higher in rural areas (from 68 percent in Mozambique to 87 percent in the Ban2 dataset) with the exception of the Ugandan sites (54 percent and 43 percent for Ug1 and Ug2, respectively) because of the consumption of OFSP (classified as vitamin A-rich vegetables); by contrast, the contribution of starchy staples to energy intakes was lower in urban areas (46 percent and 56 percent for Mali and BF1 datasets, respectively). In Mali, the proportion of animal-source foods was noticeably higher than in other sites. Regarding the contribution of fruits and vegetables to energy intakes, Mozambique and the second Ugandan study stood out. As explained above, mangos and OFSP highly contributed to energy intakes from this group. The bottom line in Table 6 corresponds to food groups not considered for constructing diversity scores because of their very poor micronutrient content but still contributing to energy intakes (sometimes highly). These groups include fats, oils (except red palm oil which was counted along with vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables), sweets and alcohol. Frequency of consumption of these foods varied widely across sites, and more specifically depending on the urban or rural milieu. As a matter of fact, their contribution to total energy intake reached 20 percent to 26 percent in urban sites, 11 percent in urban-rural Uganda, and 3 percent to 9 percent in rural sites.The first phase of the analysis (July 2013) concerned only the FGI-9 and FGI-9R. In the second phase of the analysis, we investigated the contribution of each food group to the individual PAs and to the MPA with the aim of constructing new food group indicators that might perform better than the FGI-9(R). These results are presented first to allow the subsequent presentation of the results of analyses for new candidate FGI along with results for FGI-9, and FGI-7.The list of 21 food groups which constituted the most disaggregated FGI in WDDP-I was considered. We investigated first the contribution of each food group to the individual PAs, in each dataset and for each micronutrient. For this we calculated the aggregate of all intakes of nutrient X from the FG (summed over all women) and divided it by the aggregate of all total intakes of nutrient X (summed over all women). This resulted in the contribution of the FG in the sum of all total nutrient intakes. The percent contribution of each FG to each nutrient was then weighted with each woman's PA to obtain the mean, assuming that each FG contributed to the PA of X proportionally to its contribution to the total intake of nutrient X. Similarly, for each food group, a \"partial MPA\" was calculated based on the contribution of the food group to each of the 11 PA values to derive FG contribution to overall MPA. The aim was to highlight which food sub-groups contributed \"significantly\" to the MPA across the datasets, in order to be able to suggest alternate food groupings that maximize the odd of a good correlation, at the individual level, between the FGI and the MPA. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical ReportTable 7 presents the percent contribution to the MPA of each food group included in the FGI-21. It should be noted that the total of these contributions did not reach 100 percent because other food groups such as \"Other fats and oils\", \"All other beverages\" and \"Spices and condiments\" contributed to the MPA but are not included in the FGI-21.The food group which contributed the most to the MPA was undoubtedly the \"Grains and grain products\" group, ranging from 10.8 percent for the Ug1 dataset to 59.2 percent for the Ban2 dataset. The contribution of \"All other starchy staples\" was also noticeable, especially in the both Ugandan datasets. The \"Vitamin A-rich DGLV\" contributed more than 5 percent for 6 out of 9 datasets, ranging from 7.0 percent in Mali to 25.1 percent for BF2. The \"Cooked dry beans and peas\" and \"Nuts and seeds\" groups contributed to the MPA from 0.3 percent (Mali) to 12.3 percent (Ug2) and from 0.1 percent (Phi) to 13.2 percent (BF2), respectively. The contributions of \"Mammals, reptiles and amphibians\" as well as \"Large fishes\" groups were particularly important in the Philippines dataset. Finally, vitamin A-rich fruits highly contributed to the MPA in the Mozambique and BF1 datasets, due to mango season.From Table 7, one can observe that some food groups which seem to contribute independently to the MPA are aggregated in the FGI-9. For example, both \"Grains and grains products\" and \"All other starchy staples\" showed good contribution to the MPA across all datasets. Yet, the FGI-9 includes only one aggregated group. In this example, however, one should be cautious since contribution to MPA is in part a function of the quantities consumed; this in turn leads to a diet dominated by starchy staples, which is not what we are aiming for when we talk about diversification. Indeed, we would rather see diversification of animal-source foods, vegetables and fruits.The fact remains, nevertheless, that the assessment of dietary diversity of women who had consumed both food groups was attenuated by aggregating them in the FGI-9, even though this does not mean that the relationship between the FGI value and the MPA would be modified if both food groups had been counted separately. To investigate this we first aimed to gauge the proportion of women who consumed simultaneously two sub-groups of an aggregated one (in the FGI-9). Table 8 shows for each pair of sub-groups of potential interest that we identified from Table 7 the proportion of women having consumed none, one or the other, or both of them (without the 15g restriction). For information, mean MPA among women presenting each combination has been computed. We can imagine that if women having consumed both sub-groups have a higher mean MPA than other women, disaggregating the original food group in a new candidate FGI might improve the relationship between the FGI value and the MPA, particularly if this relationship was robust when controlling for energy intake.Many women consumed both \"Grains and grain products\" and \"All other starchy staples\" sub-groups.When they consumed only one of them, it was generally \"Grains and grain products\". Overall, mean MPA tended to be higher for women who had consumed both sub-groups. The same pattern appeared for \"Cooked dry beans and peas\" and \"Nuts and seeds\", \"Meat\" and \"Fish\", and to a lesser extent \"Vegetables\" and \"Fruits\". For all the above, differences were of varying magnitude, depending on the dataset and on which pair of food groups was considered. Finally, for \"Mammals\" and \"Birds\", and \"Large fish\" and \"Small fish\", there was only a very limited overlap for most datasets (0 -1 percent consuming both groups), with the exception of the Philippines (18 percent consuming both).Consequently, some new candidate FGIs could be articulated around the following disaggregations:• All starchy staples è \"Grains and grain products\" (group 1 in Table 7) and \"All other starchy staples\" (group 2);• All legumes and nuts è \"Cooked dry beans and peas including soybeans and soy products\" (groups 3 + 4) and \"Nuts and seeds\" (group 5);• Flesh foods è \"Meat\" (groups 8 + 9 + 10 + 13) and \"Fish\" (groups 11 + 12);• Other fruits and vegetables è \"Other vegetables\" (groups 17 + 18) and \"Other fruits\" (groups 20 + 21). The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report     Given that \"Organ meat\" was never or very rarely consumed in all datasets, one can suggest that it be aggregated with \"Meat\". We acknowledge however that this is debatable since, thinking about future use of the indicator, particularly if programmes are to recommend consumption of organ meats (and succeed in that), it might be better to keep organ meat separate.Finally, various combinations of the above can be worked out:• The four new sub-groups at the same time: would lead to a FGI-12;• One new sub-group by one: would lead to four new FGI-9;• Two new sub-groups by two: would lead to six new FGI-10;• Three new sub-groups by three: would lead to four new FGI-11.All new candidate FGIs are presented in Table 9.We first analysed the performance of FGI-12 in predicting MPA (through correlations, regressions, AUCs, sensitivity -specificity analyses) because this new candidate indicator includes the four disaggregations identified above. Therefore, it maximizes the odds of enhancing the relationship of the indicator with MPA through those disaggregations. Corresponding results, which will be presented later in the report along with those of other candidate indicators, were good enough to merit further exploration and comparison with the original FGI-9.We then carried out a similar analysis to assess the performance of each of the four alternate 'new' FGI-9 (FGI-9A/B/C/D). These FGIs all aggregate \"Organ meat\" with \"Meat foods\" and each of them presents one of the four disaggregations presented above. The aim was to assess if the performances obtained with the FGI-12 were likely to be more supported by one or several of these four disaggregations. It appeared that FGI-9B (disaggregating \"Beans and peas\" and \"Nuts and seeds\") and FGI-9D (disaggregating \"Other vegetables\" and \"Other fruits\") performed better than the two others. These results are presented in Appendix 6 of this report. We thus carried out new analyses with the FGI-10E (which includes these two disaggregations).Finally, the continuation of the analyses presented hereafter included and compared the performances of the FGI-7(R), FGI-9(R), FGI-10E(R) and FGI-12(R).Descriptive statistics (mean and range) for the FGI-7, FGI-9, FGI-10E and FGI-12, restricted and not restricted, are presented by study sites for all women in Table 10.The highest mean scores for FGI-7, restricted or not, were observed in the two urban West African sites: BF1 (4.9 and 4.2) and Mali (5.2 and 4.4). It remained the same for FGI-9 (5.4 for BF1 and 5.5 for Mali), but for FGI-9R the score of the Phi dataset was at the same level as BF1 (4.3; Mali was 4.4). For FGI-10 and FGI-12 again BF1 and Mali came first (FGI-10: 5.8 for BF1 and 5.6 for Mali; FGI-12: 6.1 for both), but for the restricted indicators it was Ug1 (4.8 for FGI-10R and 5.5 FGI-12R), Ug2 (4.6 for FGI-10R and 5.2 for FGI-12R), then Mali, Phi, BF1.Overall, Mali and BF1 were the datasets for which the decrease of the mean score was the biggest when the 15g restriction was applied (-0.8 to -1.7 point depending on the FGI). This is consistent with the results shown in Table 5.The lowest mean scores were encountered for BF2 and Mozambique; but while the 15g restriction did not change significantly the score in Mozambique (-0.2 point for FGI-7, FGI-10 and FGI-12 and -0.1 for FGI-9) the decrease was high in BF2 (-1 point for FGI-7, -1.1 for FGI-9 and -1.2 for FGI-10 and FGI-12). The two Bangladesh sites also showed a substantial decrease of the mean score (from -0.7 to -1.1 points) while for Ugandan sites and for the Philippines site mean scores decreased from 0.3 to -0.9 depending on the site and on the FGI. Overall, the decrease from non-restricted to restricted FGIs was more important when there were more food groups in the FGI. This appears logical, because a larger number of food groups implies a smaller amount per food group on average. Food groups with smaller quantities are therefore more affected by the restriction. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report   Table 11 provides information on energy and macronutrient intakes by study site and physiological status for a single observation day. The first observation day was used for the majority of datasets (among a maximum of two available observation days per woman); urban Burkina Faso data was from the second of three observation days.Considering the median energy intakes, the same pattern emerged regardless of the physiological status. The Ugandan sites presented the highest values (from 2 198 kcal for NPNL women in Ug2 to 2 473 kcal for lactating women in Ug1). On the contrary, the Philippines site and, to a lesser extent, the Ban2 dataset had the lowest median energy intakes (1 665 kcal in the Philippines;and from 1 902 kcal to 1 920 kcal in the Bangladesh, depending on the physiological status). The other sites presented very similar values, ranging from about 2 000 to about 2 100 kcal for NPNL women, to about 2 100 kcal for all women and to about 2 200 kcal for lactating women. In general, lactating women had higher median energy intakes than NPNL women, with the exception of Mozambique for which the difference was not substantial.The proportion of total energy provided by protein, carbohydrates and fat was examined against WHO recommendations for populations (WHO, 2003 14 ). In the urban or peri-urban sites, percentages of energy coming from protein, carbohydrates and fat intakes were within or very close to WHO recommended ranges.     WHO (2003) recommended population averages: 10-15 percent of kcal from protein; 55-75 percent of kcal from carbohydrates; 15-30 percent of kcal from fat. However, differences of 1-2 percent points from recommended ranges are not meaningful and are likely to be within range of measurement error.In rural sites the proportions tended to exceed the recommended range for carbohydrates and, in contrast, to fall behind the minimum recommended level for fats. As underscored in Table 6, urban sites had higher percentages of energy coming from fats than rural sites. For protein, intakes were within or very near the accepted range of 10 -15 percent of energy in all sites.Table 12 presents median intakes of selected micronutrients. It must be kept in mind that even differences between sites reflect differences in diet patterns, but they also reflect differences between food composition tables (FCTs). It is realistic to use different FCTs in different countries since they are often constructed using local information, however this means that different nutrient values may be used for some of the same foods, depending on the site, since nutrient values can vary by geographical area and may are affected by the biodiversity of crops. Of course, part of the differences in assigned nutrient values may also be attributable to errors and different measurement methods. All this will be reflected in micronutrient intakes. In the case of the first Philippines site, underreporting may have resulted in low estimates of intakes for some or all micronutrients.For some nutrients, median intakes were quite close to the EAR values: thiamin (from 0.6 to 1.6 mg/d depending on the study site and physiological status); riboflavin (0.       values: folate (86 to 470 μg/d); vitamin B12 (ranging from 0 to 1.3 μg/d, reflecting very low intakes of animalsource foods, with the exception of the Philippines: up to 3.7 μg/d for lactating women); calcium (from 147 to 596 mg/d). For some others nutrients, median intakes were highly variable: vitamin C (from 17 to 173 mg/d) and to a lesser extent iron (from 8.3 to 23.8 mg/d) and zinc (from 5.4 to 12.5 mg/d -largely related to the consumption of sorghum, dried leaves and dried okra).For most of the micronutrients, Ugandan sites showed the highest median intakes. One can notice that median intakes for vitamin A and C in Mozambique approximated those of the Ugandan sites. One can also notice that the first Philippines site and the second Bangladesh site were often those exhibiting the lowest median intakes.Dietary patterns and micronutrient intakes were fairly similar across physiological subgroups. However, given the much higher requirements during pregnancy and lactation, PAs varied strongly according to physiological status. Therefore, PA results are described separately for NPNL and lactating women but, as stated previously, no study site had a sufficiently large subsample of pregnant women to describe PA results separately for this group.Table 13 provides the estimated PA for each micronutrient by study site and physiological status and Figures 2 -A and B summarize the results for NPNL women.Considering all micronutrients and all sites, the estimated prevalence of adequacy was below 50 percent for half of the cases (49 of 99 cells) for NPNL women and was two thirds (44 of 66 cells) for lactating women (  Site by site, out of eleven micronutrients the number for which the PA was below 50 percent among NPNL women was four and three in Ug1 and Ug2 datasets, respectively, five in BF2, Mali and Phi, six in Mozambique and in Ban2, and seven in Ban1 and BF1. Among lactating women, who have higher requirements, corresponding numbers were four in the Ug2, five in Ug1, eight in BF2 and Mozambique, nine in Ban2 and ten in Ban1.PA estimates exceeded 75 percent in 27 instances for NPNL (12 of them being in the Ugandan sites) and in ten instances for lactating women (five of them in the Ugandan sites). Another way to summarize the magnitude and consistency of micronutrient gaps across sites is to consider the number of cells (i.e. number of sites per nutrient) with very low PA estimates, arbitrarily set below 25 percent. Estimated PA was very low for 35 out of 99 cells among NPNL women and for 29 out of 66 cells among lactating women.There were low levels of MPA in almost all settings. Among NPNL women the highest mean MPA were of 0.58 and 0.60 in the Ug2 and Ug1 datasets, respectively; the lowest MPA were of 0.34 and 0.36 in the Ban1 and BF1 datasets, respectively.As demonstrated in previous studies 15 and confirmed in WDDP-I, there were positive relationships between dietary diversity and energy intakes in all WDDP-II datasets. Even if the main objective was to characterize the relationship between food group diversity and micronutrient adequacy, the relationship between diversity and energy intake was also of interest in order to understand if any observed relationship between diversity and MPA was due to higher quantity of food, higher micronutrient density (quality) of diets or both.Table 15 shows simple correlations between the four FGIs, restricted and not, and energy intake. Most relationships were significant but differences in levels of statistical significance between sites should be interpreted cautiously as sample sizes and therefore statistical power varied largely across sites. The number 15 Ogle, Hung and Tuyet, 2001;Foote, et al,. 2004;Torheim, et al,. 2004. of significant correlations tended to increase along with the level of disaggregation of the FGI but the pattern was not so clear for the restricted indicators.Correlations were low to moderate for both NPNL and lactating women. They tended to be higher for NPNL women than for lactating women (with the exception of the Ug1 dataset). They tended also to be higher for FGI-12 than for FGI-10E, FGI-9 and FGI-7, in that order, but this pattern was not consistent across all datasets. Generally speaking, correlations with energy intake were higher for restricted FGI. The highest correlations were found for the Ug2, then Mozambique, then Ban1 datasets; the lowest correlations were found for the Phi, then Ban2, then Ug1 datasets.Figures 3 to 6 illustrate the relationship between energy intakes and FGI-7, FGI-9, FGI-10E and FGI-12, restricted and not, among all women. This relationship was positive and quite similar across sites for the eight indicators, even if in some cases it was a bit uneven. The increases in mean energy intakes at successive values of the FGI scores were fairly consistent across sites, with the exception of the Philippines for which there was a substantially lower energy intake.Table 16 to 19 show correlations between restricted FGIs and estimated usual intakes of each micronutrient, by study site and for each physiological status.Correlations for non-restricted FGIs were generally weaker and more often non-significant; they are not presented here.Raw correlations (i.e. not controlling for energy) were statistically significant for almost all nutrients in almost all sites, regardless of the women's physiological status and of the FGI. Across all sites, there were between 11 percent (FGI-12R) and 24 percent (FGI-7R) nonsignificant correlations among NPNL women. These nonsignificant correlations were more frequent in the Ug1, Ban2 and Mozambique datasets, and more frequently for vitamin C, B6, B12 and iron.When energy intake was controlled for, correlations were attenuated and many more of them became The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report    non-significant. This was particularly visible for the Mozambique dataset, regardless of the physiological status and of the FGI. This probably means that higher quantities rather than higher variety of foods, or than more micronutrient-dense foods, drove micronutrient intakes more strongly in Mozambique than in other sites. This is consistent with previous observations about the very limited number of foods in the Mozambique diet and specifically with the lack of animal-source foods. There were also quite remarkable changes for Ug2 and sometimes Ug1 datasets, even with some correlations assuming a negative sign instead of a positive one (and remaining significant) when controlling for energy. In general, West African sites presented lower correlations than other African sites or Asian sites. However, one should keep in mind that sample size matters here. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report a Data points representing fewer than ten women are not presented on the graph. a Data points representing fewer than ten women are not presented on the graph.Tables 20 -A and B show correlations between the food group diversity indicator and the MPA by study site and physiological status for the eight FGIs (FGI-7, FGI-9, FGI-10E and FGI-12, restricted and not).Without controlling for energy, correlations between FGIs and MPA ranged from 0.10 to 0.57 among NPNL women and from 0.02 to 0.53 among lactating women. These correlations were significant in almost all sites, with the exception of some non-restricted indicators, mainly in rural Burkina Faso. Correlations were almost always higher for restricted (from 0.24 to 0.57) than for non-restricted (from 0.10 to 0.48) FGIs. On average, correlations were the highest for the first Bangladesh site, the second Ugandan site, the Mozambique and the Mali and the lowest for the rural Burkina Faso and the first Philippines site.          Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 50The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report  Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 52The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report   Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 54The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report When energy was controlled for, correlations tended to be attenuated and some of them became not significant (most often for FGI-7 and among lactating women). This attenuation was most noticeable for the Ug2 dataset. But there were quite a few exceptions where correlations increased slightly (notably for Ug1, Mali, Phi and Ban2 datasets). Correlations adjusted for energy intake ranged from 0.12 to 0.52 and were still higher for restricted (from 0.12 to 0.52) than for non-restricted FGIs (0.02 to 0.40) and for NPNL women (from 0.09 to 0.52) than for lactating women (from 0.02 to 0.38).In the BF2 dataset the difference between correlations for non-restricted FGIs (weak and non-significant) and restricted ones (strong and highly significant) was striking, whether energy was controlled for or not. This could come from the consumption of small quantities of several foods, probably put as ingredients in sauces (e.g. groundnut paste, pepper, fish, sometimes altogether but all in small quantities so that women tended to get < 15g of each). This would then lead to increased FGI scores without an increase of the MPA by the same magnitude.Correlations generally increased with the disaggregation of the FGI meaning they were higher for FGI-12 than for FGI-10E, FGI-9, then FGI-7, in that order. This pattern tended to be more visible when energy was   C and D) by study site. All figures 16 A possible explanation would be that higher correlations for more highly disaggregated FGIs are mainly driven by the association of FGIs with quantity (overall, correlations with energy are also higher for higher disaggregation), and not so much by the association of FGIs with micronutrient density; consequently, when taking the energy/ quantity component out, not so much difference would remain among correlations of MPA with FGIs of varying levels of disaggregation.show fairly consistent patterns and positive slopes. However, there were quite uneven relationships in some datasets and for some FGI, sometimes for NPNL women, sometimes for lactating women. These uneven relationships did not follow a clear pattern. It seems there is a tendency of more uneven relationships for FGI that are more disaggregated, and for some datasets (BF1, Ban1, Mozambique, principally; also Ban2, BF2, Philippines, but to a lesser extent; more rarely for Ug1, Ug2, Mali). This is probably an effect of the distribution of MPA values across different FGI levels and the fact that data points with fewer than ten observations are not shown. These uneven relationships do not appear The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report to be linked to the total sample size of the dataset nor to the strength of the correlation.Overall, the relationship was rather similar for the eight FGIs considered.Tables 21 -A and B and Tables 22 -A and B provide results from simple linear regressions on MPA for each site, from models including age, height (when available) and FGI, and both with or without energy intake in the model. When energy intake was not in the models, the coefficients for the FGIs were almost always significant (with the exception of most of the non-restricted FGIs in BF2, where coefficients were significant only for FGI-10E and FGI-12 among NPNL women). Coefficients represent the increase in MPA, or transformed MPA, associated with an increase of one point of the corresponding FGI. Those coefficients are therefore not readily comparable since depending on whether MPA was transformed (or not) it does not correspond to an increase of the same magnitude.Correlation coefficients were attenuated when total energy intake was added in the model, but almost all coefficients remained significant for NPNL women (exceptions were in    Mozambique for all FGIs, except FGI-10E, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, and in BF2 for FGI-10E and FGI-12; Table 21).For lactating women, coefficients remained significant except for the FGI-7 in the Ban1, Ban2 and Mozambique datasets, for the FGI-10E in the Ban1 dataset, and for the FGI-12 in the Ban1 and Mozambique sites. The decrease in coefficients highlights that part of the positive relationship between diversity scores and MPA is in fact due to the increase in energy (i.e. quantity of foods consumed) 17 . 17It has to be noted that regression coefficients were attenuated without any exception when controlling for energy while there were quite a few exceptions to this for correlations (see Section 7.9). The All adjusted R² were significant except for the FGI-7 in the Mozambique site and for most of the non-restricted FGIs in BF2. For the coefficients of the FGI, R² was significant only for FGI-10E and FGI-12 among NPNL women Table 22. Generally speaking, the adjusted R² s were quite good. They were slightly higher for restricted than for non-restricted FGIs and largely higher when energy was in the model. For NPNL women, without energy in the model they ranged from 0.03 to 0.24 for fact that BLUP of energy was used for the correlation analysis, while simple day 1 energy intakes was used for the regression analysis might explain these somewhat divergent results.   non-restricted FGIs, and from 0.08 to 0.33 for restricted FGIs. When energy was accounted for, they ranged from 0.32 to 0.66 for non-restricted FGIs, and from 0.36 to 0.67 for restricted FGIs. Corresponding values for lactating women were lower: from 0.00 to 0.17 (nonrestricted FGIs) and from 0.03 to 0.28 (non-restricted FGIs) when energy was not in the model; and from 0.01 to 0.68 (non-restricted FGIs) and from 0.02 to 0.69 (nonrestricted FGIs) when energy was controlled for.FGIs can be presented as quasi-continuous or as dichotomous indicators, yielding prevalence estimates for the proportion of the population below/above a specified cutoff of the FGI. For communication and advocacy purposes, dichotomous indicators may be preferred and necessary. In order to assess the performance of dichotomous indicators, cutoffs must be selected both for MPA and FGIs. Indicators can only be assessed for MPA cutoffs that are reached by a non-  negligible proportion of women. Table 23 summarizes the proportion of women above selected cutoffs of MPA in each site.Table 24 shows the area under the receiver-operating curve (AUC) for each indicator, in each site and for each of the three MPA cutoffs for NPNL women. The AUC summarizes the predictive power of each indicator across all possible FGI cutoffs. An AUC of 0.50 represents a neutral value (no predictive power). A statistically significant AUC indicates predictive power, but AUC can be statistically significant even when predictive power is weak. As already stated, because of the various sample sizes across datasets, levels of significance should be interpreted cautiously. As a rule of thumb, we considered an AUC ≥ 0.70 to indicate some promise for the indicator.Results were consistent with those for correlations and regressions. In 87 percent of the pairwise comparisons, they showed higher AUCs when the 15g restriction was applied. Divergent cases came mainly from Ban1, BF1 and Mozambique datasets. Because this result strongly favours restricted indicators, analyses regarding AUCs will be further presented (or commented) mainly for those restricted indicator.    Chapter 7: ResultsThe \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report    Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 62The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report Figures 13 -A to C illustrates these results for the four restricted FGIs. They give a visual appreciation of the level and significance of AUCs for these restricted FGIs across all datasets and at various levels of the MPA threshold.With the MPA > 0.50 threshold, all AUCs were significant. AUCs for FGI-10ER and FGI-12R tended to be higher than those for FGI-9R followed by those for FGI-7R.With the MPA > 0.60 threshold, the AUCs were not significantly different from 0.50 for all indicators of the Ban2 dataset (noting that there was less than five women reaching this level of MPA in this particular dataset). The AUCs tended to be slightly higher for FGI-10ER than for FGI-12R, followed by FGI-9R and then by FGI-7R.With the MPA>0.70 threshold, the Ban2 dataset had no woman reaching this level. Among the eight remaining datasets, AUC was not significant for the Mozambique except for FGI-12R. Otherwise AUCs values followed approximately the pattern described above.The statistical paired-comparisons between AUCs from the different FGIs, within each country, are displayed in Tables 25 -A to I and a summary of differences that were found statistically significant is given in Tables 26 -A and B.From Table 26 -A it can be seen that, with the MPA > 0.50 threshold, AUCs for FGI-7R were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R in 3, 2 and 3 datasets, respectively. Similarly, AUCs for FGI-9R were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-7R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R in 1, 3 and 1 datasets, respectively. AUCs for FGI-10ER were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-7R The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report                and FGI-9R for the Mali dataset only. The AUC for FGI-12R was significantly lower than the AUC for FGI-9R in the BF2 dataset only.With the MPA > 0.60 threshold, AUCs for FGI-7R were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R in 4, 2 and 1 datasets, respectively. AUCs for FGI-9R were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-10ER and FGI-12R in 2 and 1 datasets, respectively. AUCs for FGI-10ER were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-7R, FGI-9R and FGI-12R in 1, 2 and 1 datasets, respectively. The AUCs for FGI-12R were not significantly lower than AUCs for any other dataset.With the MPA > 0.70 threshold, AUCs for FGI-7R were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R in the Ug2 dataset only. AUCs for FGI-9R were significantly lower than AUCs for FGI-7R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R in 1, 1 and 2 datasets, respectively. The AUC for FGI-10ER was significantly lower than the AUC for FGI-12R in the Philippines dataset only and the AUC for FGI-12R was significantly lower than the AUC for FGI-10ER in the BF2 dataset only.Overall, comparisons of AUCs across restricted FGIs and the various thresholds of MPA were clearly at the disadvantage of FGI-7R and, but to a lesser extent, also at the disadvantage of FGI-9R. AUCs values were less distinguishable between FGI-10ER and FGI-12R although FGI-12R performed slightly better against FGI-7R and FGI-9R.For non-restricted FGIs (Table 26 -B) this overall picture is deeply accentuated, with FGI-10E and FGI-12 performing almost the same, clearly above FGI-9 and even more clearly above FGI-7.The performance of food group indicators can be assessed through a sensitivity -specificity analysis, examining error rates of classification across a range of FGI cutoffs and for various MPA cutoffs (Table 28). Box 1 provides an explanation of indicator characteristics, specifically as used in this context.Table 27 summarizes all combinations of MPA threshold/FGI cutoff that met the criteria used to define a \"best\" cutoff. Tables 28 to 31 show a summary of the results of the sensitivity -specificity analyses for the restricted and non-restricted indicators, respectively, among NPNL women in all countries. Appendix 7 to 14 provide details for each study site. There was a relationship between the range of FGI values observed in the datasets and their \"best\" FGI cutoff. For example, Mali, exhibiting high diversity scores, had higher \"best\" FGI cutoffs. As a rule of thumb, the \"best\" FGI cutoff was determined for each MPA threshold by considering the following characteristics:• Rate of misclassification: should be ≤ 30 percent; still considered if ≤ 40 percent; • Sensitivity and specificity: should be ≥ 60 percent; still considered if one of the two only is ≥ 50 percent; • At least ten women should have reached the MPA threshold to give some robustness to the analysis; still considered if at least one woman did so.We observed that the higher the MPA threshold, the lower the proportion of misclassification and the higher the sensitivity.Across all sites, FGI-12R and FGI-10ER were those presenting more combinations of MPA threshold/ FGI cutoff that fully met all the above criteria (i.e. misclassification ≤ 30 percent, sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60 percent, and at least ten women reaching the MPA threshold). Indeed, there were five of these combinations for FGI-12R (from 3 different datasets: Ban1, BF2, Ug2) and FGI-10ER (but from two different datasets only: Ban1, BF2) while there were only three of them for FGI-9R (from two different datasets: Ban1, Mali) and one for FGI-7R (from Mali), see Table 27.In six cases (from five different datasets) for the FGI-12R, the rate of misclassification was at or below 30 percent but either sensitivity or specificity was < 60 percent (though still ≥ 50 percent). Such combinations occurred in four cases for FGI-10ER (from three datasets), in three cases for FGI-9R (from three datasets) and in two cases for FGI-7R (two datasets). The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report Box 1.Predicting Higher Diet Quality: Indicator CharacteristicsBecause we are trying to \"predict\" higher (better) MPA (above the cutoff), indicator characteristics have different interpretations than they do when the aim is to assess risk, which is the more standard use in epidemiology.In this case, sensitivity assesses the proportion of all those who truly have better MPA who are identified by the indicator. Specificity assesses the proportion of those who truly have lower MPA who are identified by the indicator.There are always trade-offs between sensitivity and specificity; which one should be \"favoured\" depends on the intended uses of the indicator and sometimes on other factors, such as level of resources available for helping those identified as in need. For our purposes -the development of indicators to assess and compare diet quality for women and to track change across time -it is reasonable to aim for a balance between sensitivity and specificity, but to favour specificity when trade-offs must be made.This means that we prefer to be certain to identify all those with low MPA and are willing to accept that some women with better MPA are classified incorrectly. The alternative would be to accept more women with low MPA but classified as \"better.\"There are no fixed criteria for determining what absolute levels of sensitivity, specificity and misclassification may be acceptable. The costs and risks of misclassification depend on the use of the indicator. In general, yardsticks for population-level assessment may have lower requirements (i.e. more misclassification could be tolerated) than would indicators used to differentially allocate resources or to trigger action. Indicators used at the individual level (e.g., in screening) may have even higher requirements.For the purposes of the WDDP-I, and then WDDP-II, we aimed to minimize misclassification but considered levels of misclassification at or below 30 percent to be acceptable. *Arimond, et al., 2011 When assuming that the rate of misclassification could be > 30 percent but still ≤ 40 percent with both sensitivity and specificity above 60 percent, the FGI-10ER presented nine such combinations of MPA threshold/FGI cutoff (from five datasets) while the FGI-12R had six (from five datasets), the FGI-9R had three (from three datasets) and the FGI-7R had three (from three datasets).The rate of misclassification was > 30 percent but still ≤ 40 percent with either sensitivity or specificity below 60 percent but still above 50 percent for 11 combinations based on the FGI-12R (from seven datasets), for five combinations based on the FGI-10ER (from four datasets), for ten combinations based on the FGI-9R (from six datasets) and for six combinations based on the FGI-7R (from five datasets).In sum, there was no restricted FGI with a cutoff that met acceptable criteria for any MPA threshold across all The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report  Misclassification ≤ 30%; specificity ≥ 0.60 and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%. d Misclassification ≤ 30%; sensitivity ≥ 0.60 and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%. e Misclassification > 30% but still ≤ 40%; both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%. f Misclassification > 30% but still ≤ 40%; specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%. g Misclassification > 30% but still ≤ 40%; sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%.Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 78The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report   In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected.  In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report  In selecting the \"best\" cutoff, we considered the balance of sensitivity and specificity, with a preference for specificity; we also considered the total rate of misclassification (which is indicated in parentheses for each site's \"best\" cutoff).bBold font indicates rate of misclassification ≤ 30%; Italic font indicates ≥ 10 women reaching the MPA level; Pink highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Green highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Brown highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report sites. FGI-7R definitely performed worse than the others. For FGI-9R, a cutoff of five groups or more seemed to perform \"best\" more frequently, whatever the MPA threshold. In total, assuming original strict criteria could be relaxed (as described above), eight \"best\" cutoffs were identified for an MPA threshold > 0.50; seven for MPA > 0.60; five for MPA > 0.70. Considering FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, results seemed more consistent across datasets. A cutoff of five groups or more for the FGI-10ER and six groups or more for the FGI-12R performed \"best\" for an MPA level either > 0.60 or > 0.70. Generally speaking, the higher the MPA threshold, the less acceptable indicators were identified (whatever the MPA threshold and FGI cutoffs). Indeed, there were 10 and 12 such \"best\" cutoffs for FGI-10ER and FGI-12R at MPA > 0.50, respectively; corresponding figures were seven and ten at MPA > 0.60, and eight for both at MPA > 0.70 (see Tables 28 -A to 31 -A).Finally, it was possible to define a \"best\" dichotomous indicator for the following cases:• FGI-9R with a cutoff point of minimum five food groups: in four out of nine datasets with an MPA>0.50, five datasets with an MPA>0.60, four datasets with an MPA>0.70. • FGI-10ER with a cutoff point of minimum five food groups: in six out of nine datasets with a MPA>0.50, five datasets with an MPA>0.60, five datasets with an MPA>0.70. • FGI-12R with a cutoff point of minimum six food groups: in four out of nine datasets with a MPA>0.50, six datasets with an MPA>0.60, five datasets with an MPA>0.70.It should be noted that the above \"best cutoffs\" did not work at all for the Ban2, BF2 and Mozambique datasets, whatever the MPA threshold. For the two latter datasets, however, a cutoff point of four groups, or sometimes three groups (BF2) or five groups (Mozambique), worked for the three indicators, at various levels of MPA. For the Ban2 dataset, there was only a cutoff point of four groups that worked only with the FGI-9R for an MPA>0.50.The same analysis was performed for the non-restricted indicators (FGI-7, FGI-9, FGI-10E and FGI-12). As expected given the results of correlations and regression analyses and the AUC values, performances in terms of sensitivity -specificity analysis for the FGI-7, FGI-9, FGI-10E and FGI-12 were lower than those for FGI-7R, FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, respectively. The results for the non-restricted indicators are summarized in Tables 28 -B to 31 -B.In addition to the analysis of the performance of FGIs at the individual level, we looked at how well the prevalence at/above certain FGI cutoffs matched the prevalence above mean probability of adequacy (MPA) of 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70.The rationale for this analysis is that any dichotomous proxy indicator will be mainly used for deriving a prevalence rate at the population level (percentage of women consuming at least a given number of food groups), for monitoring trends and for comparing prevalence rates between regions or countries. It is very clear from the results presented above, as it was already clear from results of WDDP-I, that FGIs should not be used for screening and targeting at the individual level as this would require much better performance in terms of sensitivity and specificity. Thus, we concluded that emphasis should not be put exclusively on the ROC and sensitivity -specificity analysis for choosing the best indicator and cutoff.Correlation analysis, ROC analysis and sensitivityspecificity analysis described above identified promising FGIs (FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R) and the \"best\" cutoff for each FGI across sites (five or more food groups for FGI-9R and FGI-10ER, and six or more for FGI-12R). Ideally, for each site, we would then like the prevalence at/above the FGI cutoff (\"FGI prevalence\") to equal the prevalence above anMPA threshold indicating acceptable micronutrient adequacy (\"MPA prevalence\").In practice, we would already be content if sites with higher FGI prevalence were also found to have higher MPA prevalence, and if low FGI prevalence corresponded to low MPA prevalence. This would be important for the intended uses of the indicator.Therefore, still for NPNL women only, we calculated \"MPA prevalence\" at the thresholds of 0.50, 0.60 and 0.70, The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report and the \"FGI prevalence\" for the three FGIs-R for their \"best\" cutoffs, and for the cutoffs right above and below the \"best\" cutoff. Results are displayed in Table 32. The average MPA prevalence at each MPA threshold was then graphically compared to the closest average FGI prevalence for each of the three indicators (Figure 14). The best matching of the average MPA prevalence and the average FGI prevalence at/above the \"best\" cutoff was found for MPA > 0.60, then for MPA > 0.70, then for MPA > 0.50.To further explore the relationships between MPA prevalence and FGI prevalence, they were plotted against each other for each FGI/cutoff combination and each MPA threshold across all sites. Direct scatter plots of prevalence rates and side-by-side histograms displaying prevalence rates for each site are presented in Figures 15 -A to 17 -C.Two sites with relatively high MPA prevalence and, in contrast, relatively low FGI prevalence clearly appeared as outliers: the Mozambique and BF2 datasets. For Mozambique, the survey was performed at the peak of the mango season when large amounts of mangoes were consumed. For rural Burkina Faso, the rather high MPA is partly explained by the consumption of large quantities of grains, mainly sorghum, quite rich in minerals (iron and zinc), and of some condiments made out of sorrel seeds. Therefore, in both cases, the MPA was driven by quantities rather than by diversity 18 .When considering the other seven sites, we found that the FGI-10ER (Figures 15 -B, 16 -B and 17 -B) and especially the FGI-12R (Figures 15 -C, 16 -C and 17 -C) aligned the sites with more complex diets and a higher mean number of food groups much better than the FGI-9R (Figures 15 -A, 16 -A and 17 -A); but there was not much difference for the two outliers and for the two Bangladesh sites with simpler diets and lower mean FGIs.The relationships between MPA prevalence and FGI prevalence were further examined through Spearman rank correlation analyses, with each site considered as one observation 19 . When all nine sites were used, no significant correlation was found. However, correlation coefficients tended to be higher for FGI-10ER and FGI-12R (Table 33 -A). When excluding the two outliers 18 These two sites were already recognized as outliers in other parts of the analysis. However, the remaining question is to what extent situations similar to these are frequently encountered -or not, in resource-poor settings, globally speaking.We must acknowledge that such an analysis on a limited number of data points raises caution about robustness. Statistical advice is being sought on whether methods such as bootstrapping can be used to put confidence intervals around the correlation coefficients.  (Moz and BF2), we observed significant correlations for FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, with coefficients ranging from 0.82 to 0.96 for the \"best\" cutoffs and MPA > 0.60 as well as MPA > 0.50, and from 0.71 to 0.93 for the \"best\" cutoffs and MPA > 0.70 (Table 33 -B).Given the intended use of the indicator, we explored in this last analysis how the quality of women's diet would be reflected by the various FGI prevalence rates.Before doing so, it is useful to recall the percentages of women reaching the various FGI cutoffs (i.e. what these FGI prevalence rates were) in each dataset (Table 34). Over all sites, there were 28 percent, 37 percent and 30 percent of women reaching the \"best\" cutoff of five groups for FGI-9R, five groups for FGI-10ER and six groups for FGI-12R, respectively. For FGI-9R this percentage varied from 1 percent to 43 percent depending on the site (from 18 percent to 43 percent without the two outliers, BF2 and Mozambique). For FGI-10ER the percentage varied from 5 percent to 58 percent depending on the site (from 23 percent to 58 percent without the outliers). For FGI-12R it varied from <1 percent to 51 percent depending on the site (from 18 percent to 51 percent without the outliers).We compared first the mean MPA among women reaching or not reaching the various FGI cutoffs, for all sites (Table 35 and Figure 18). Mean MPAs calculated over all sites were weighted according to sample sizes.For the \"best\" FGI-9R cutoff, over all sites, the mean MPA was on average 0.13 points 20 higher among women reaching the cutoff than among others. Depending on the site, this difference varied from 0.04 (BF2) to 0.15 points (Mali, Ug2). For both the \"best\" FGI-10ER and FG-12R cutoffs, over all sites, the mean MPA was on average 0.16 points higher among women reaching the cutoff than among others. Depending on The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report       Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 96The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report the site, this difference varied from 0.05 points (Ban2) to 0.20 (BF2) for FGI-10ER and from 0.01 (BF2) to 0.18 (Ug2) for FGI-12R.Then, to further gauge how the quality of women's diet would be reflected by the various FGI prevalence rates, we compared the percentages of women having consumed some nutrient-dense food groups between those reaching or not the various FGI cutoffs, for all sites.We decided to compare women having consumed at least 15g from:(i) at least one of the animal-source food groups from the list of 21 groups in Table 2 (Table 36 and Figure 19);(ii) at least two of the fruit and vegetable food groups (Table 37 and Figure 20); (iii) at least one of the legumes, nuts and seeds food groups (Table 38 and Figure 21).The mean percentages calculated over all sites were weighted according to sample sizes.As expected, in all datasets and whatever the FGI and the cutoff considered, there was a higher percentage of women having consumed the required number of all these nutrient-dense food groups among those women who reached the FGI cutoff than among those who did not. The very few exceptions to that were found for animal-source foods (ASF) in Mali for a FGI cutoff of four (both for FGI-9R and FGI-10ER) and for ASF in Mozambique for a cutoff of five or six for FGI-10ER.In those cases the difference and/or the sample size of one of the two groups were small. Another exception was that all women in the Ban2 dataset had consumed at least two of the fruits and vegetables food groups, whatever their FGI value.Over all datasets, the average percentage of women having consumed at least one ASF group was 20.9, 9.9 and 12.6 percentage points higher among women reaching the best FGI cutoff than among others, for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, respectively. These differences varied considerably between datasets: from 0.2 percentage points (Philippines) to 55.3 percentage points (Ug2) for FGI-9R; from -0.3 percentage points (Mozambique) to 38.9 percentage points (Ug2) for FGI-10ER; and from 0.2 percentage points (Philippines) to 43.9 percentage points (BF2) for FGI-12R.Over all sites, the mean percent of women having consumed at least two of the fruit or vegetable food groups was 14.4, 17.4 and 15.6 percentage points higher among women reaching the best FGI cutoff than among others, for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, respectively. These differences ranged from zero (Ban2) or <1 percentage point (Ban1) to 59.0, 59.8 and 55.8 percentage points (Philippines) for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12RFinally, over all datasets, the mean percent of women having consumed at least one of the legumes, nuts and seeds food groups was 13.8, 17.8 and 15.5 percentage points higher among women reaching the best FGI cutoff than among others, for FGI-9R, FGI-10ER and FGI-12R, respectively. These differences varied from 4.2 percentage points (Ug2) to 50.2 percentage points (Ban1) for FGI-9R; from 7.3 percentage points (BF1) to 49.1 percentage points (Ban1) for FGI-10ER; and from 2.6 percentage points (BF1) to 41.1 percentage points (Ban1) for FGI-12R.Overall, the differences were not negligible; they were more marked for ASF with the FGI-9R, and for fruits and vegetables and for legumes, nuts and seeds with the FGI-10ER. Together with the differences in mean MPA, they gave a sense of the nutritional meaning of dichotomous indicators.In terms of nutritional meaning, however, it should be noted that the FGI-12R includes the disaggregation of all starchy staples into grains and other starchy staples, which is not meaningful from a nutritional point of view. It includes also the disaggregation of flesh foods into meat and fish. However, promotion of consumption of these two food groups on the same day is not recommended because of environmental concerns. It was therefore suggested that despite slightly better results for FGI-12R in most of the analyses, only FGI-9R and FGI-10ER should be considered for recommendation at the global level.  T his report presents the results of a large set of analyses performed on nine datasets over six countries with the aim of identifying a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity that could be recommended for global use. The results described above are purely technical. However, any recommendation must take into account many other, more practical considerations. This chapter will give first a summary of technical results which then will be weighed against other criteria to provide some recommendations. As envisaged from the beginning of the project these recommendations will then be brought up to a wide group of stakeholders to look for a consensus on final choice and decision.The search for a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity presented in this report has proven to be difficult. First, the analysis could be performed for only nine out of the 11 datasets that were gathered. The main reason was that the food composition tables were incomplete for the Indian dataset and for the second dataset from the Philippines. Thus the analysis finally involved nine datasets over six countries, among which five (from five countries) were included in WDDP-I. A further concern is that a large rate of exclusion had to be consented for the first Philippines dataset since it was decided to apply Goldberg criteria to all datasets. However results from this reduced dataset did not show any unexpected pattern.The initial objective of this work was to look for a cutoff to define a standard dichotomous indicator based on the nine-group indicator currently recommended by FAO and FANTA and used in several USAID programmes.Somewhat mixed results regarding this objective triggered the search for alternate food group indicators. Through an analysis of the contribution of food groups and sub-groups to the MPA, two new food group indicators were selected as the most promising (FGI-10E and FGI-12). A seven-group indicator similar to the one currently recommended for assessing IYCF practices was also considered.Overall, key results from WDDP-I were confirmed. There were low levels of MPA in almost all settings, revealing rather poor diets. Among NPNL women the highest mean MPA were 0.58 and 0.60 in the Ug2 and Ug1 datasets, respectively; the lowest MPA were 0.34 and 0.36 in the Ban1 and BF1 datasets, respectively. Correlations between FGIs and MPA were almost always significant but only moderately strong. Better results were almost systematically observed when the 15g restriction was applied.The performance of FGI-Rs in predicting MPA, as assessed through the ROC analysis, remained modest; however an AUC value of 0.70 was reached in a non-negligible number of cases. The sensitivity -specificity analysis allowed identification of a best cutoff of the various FGIs that performed correctly in a sufficient number of datasets and at different MPA levels. There were slight differences between the candidate indicators, with a tendency of higher performance for the more disaggregated FGIs (i.e. FGI-12R > FGI-10ER > FGI-9R > FGI-7R). However, only few differences were statistically significant, with the only strong result that the FGI-7R performed significantly lower than the others. This indicator was therefore excluded from the rest of the analysis.In the end, at various MPA levels a cutoff point of five groups was defined a \"best\" dichotomous indicator The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report for FGI-9R and FGI-10ER and a cutoff point of six groups was defined a \"best\" dichotomous indicator for FGI-12R. However, these \"best cutoffs\" did not work for the Ban2, BF2 and Mozambique datasets, whatever the MPA threshold.While the above results apply at the individual level, the main intended use of any dichotomous proxy indicator of dietary diversity would be at the population level. Therefore we looked at the matching between the prevalence of women at or above FGI cutoffs and the prevalence of women above the various MPA thresholds. The best matching of the average (over all sites) MPA prevalence and the average FGI prevalence at/above the \"best\" cutoff was found for MPA > 0.60. Graphically, as well as through use of non-parametric tests, the relationships between both types of prevalence estimates was stronger for FGI-12R, followed by FGI-10ER, then FGI-9R, admitting that two datasets (BF2 and Mozambique) can be considered as outliers.Finally, non-negligible differences in the mean MPA and in the frequency of consumption of nutrient-dense food groups were found between women at-or-above the FGI best cutoff and women below that cutoff, for the three indicators. This highlights the nutritional meaning of the dichotomous food group indicators at the best cutoff we determined.All the above results were carefully and extensively reviewed and discussed against other than technical criteria, notably the nutritional meaning of the dichotomous indicators, their possible use/misuse at the global or programmatic level and their practical advantages/drawbacks in terms of operationalization or communication.Considering both technical and other considerations described above, the WDDP-II group makes the following recommendations:(v) While acknowledging somewhat mixed conclusions from the sensitivity -specificity analysis, at the individual level, results are consistent enough to recommend the use of a dichotomous food group indicator for global uses.(vi) FGI cutoffs of five groups for FGI-9R, five groups for FGI-10ER and six groups for FGI-12R can be recommended as reasonable predictors of an MPA>0.60. However, since disaggregations required for constructing the FGI-12 entail nutritional or environmental drawbacks, only FGI-9R and FGI-10ER are proposed for further consideration.(vii) Reaching an MPA level of 0.60 is not optimal but can be considered as a \"minimum dietary diversity\" (final denomination to be discussed), notably given the yardstick of a mean MPA of 0.83 estimated among a sample of German women with no food access restriction.(viii) The suggested dichotomous FGIs would work well enough to be able to track changes in dietary diversity across countries and regions, thus contributing to monitoring progress at the global level. They are on the other hand strongly not recommended for individual screening. Whether FGIs can be recommended for programmatic uses still needs to be debated and would likely depend on the scale of programmes.   Sample sizes specified here correspond to the size of the sample as considered for the analyses, i.e. after exclusions according to Goldberg method and other reasons described in the last row of this table.  T he following sections are derived from the WDDP-I protocol and present the parameters of the analysis that have not been modified for the purpose of this second project.The objective of reporting intakes of energy and macronutrients is to provide a general, qualitative description of diets. Our focus on micronutrient adequacy leaves aside questions of energy adequacy. While we do not plan to focus on energy adequacy, we propose to describe energy intakes in each dataset and compare them with requirements as a rough yardstick of adequacy, at the level of the sample (not individual women or observation days). We will use the FAO and WHO energy requirements (FAO, 2004) for this purpose. In the same way, macronutrient intakes will be presented as percent of kilocalories and compared with recommended ranges.Table A2 -1 below shows descriptive statistics that will be presented at best -depending on what is available in each dataset -and WHO recommendations that will be considered for comparison. When possible, we will present descriptive statistics for protein from animal-source foods and plant-source foods separately, as this relates both to protein quality and, probably more importantly, to bioavailability of several micronutrients. At a minimum, descriptive statistics can be report for energy, total protein, total carbohydrate, and total fat.In addition to describing energy intakes and comparing to requirements, energy intakes will be controlled for in some analyses of the relationship between diet diversity and micronutrient adequacy. This is because in many previous studies, energy intakes have been shown to increase with increases in dietary diversity (Ogle, et al., 2001;Foote, et al., 2004;Torheim, et al., 2004). We want to be able to understand to what extent any observed increases in micronutrient intakes are due to increases in quantity as compared to increases in micronutrient density.Considerations included known public health relevance, as well as availability of nutrient data both in datasets collected by the potential collaborators, and in a range of food composition tables likely to be used.In previous work with infants and young children, we used a set of \"problem\" nutrients identified in a global review (WHO and UNICEF, 1998). However, it is known that poor pregnancy outcomes can result from a wide range of micronutrient deficiencies, including deficiencies in iron, folate, B vitamins, antioxidants, vitamin D, and iodine (Allen, 2005).Similarly, low maternal intake or stores during lactation can also affect breast milk levels of B vitamins, vitamin A, and iodine. In addition, low intakes of calcium have also been documented among women of reproductive age (Bartley, et al., 2005). Consequences for child-bearing and lactation are not the only concerns; micronutrient deficiencies affect women's health from adolescence through aging. The group agreed on the following list of micronutrients:Vitamin D had been considered but was dropped both because it does not have an estimated average requirement (EAR) and because of absence from many food composition tables. Similarly, reliable data on iodine content of foods are generally not available. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report Values for EAR are adjusted for an assumed bioavailability (WHO, 2004). Thus, EAR refers to intake of the nutrients and not the physiological need for the absorbed nutrient.c All SDs were calculated based on EAR and CV (SD=CV*EAR/100). CV is assumed to be 10% for all micronutrients except 15% for niacin (IOM, 2000), 20% for vitamin A (IOM, 2000), 12.5% for zinc (WHO, 2004), 9.4% and 30% for iron, for pregnant and lactating women respectively (IOM, 2000), 12.5% and 9% for calcium, for adults and adolescents women respectively (IOM, 2011).d One μg retinol equivalent (RE) is equal to 1 μg all-trans-retinol, 6 μg β-carotene and 12 μg α-carotene or β-cryptoxanthin (WHO, 2004). Note also the EAR for vitamin A refers to intake adequate to prevent the appearance of deficiency-related syndromes (WHO, 2004).e EAR taken from WHO and FAO (WHO, 2004).f EAR back-calculated from RNI (Recommended Nutrient Intake) (WHO, 2004).g EAR taken from IOM (2011).h Gives EAR on iron for two levels of absorption. According to WHO and FAO (WHO, 2004), either a very low (5%) or low (10%) absorption level can be assumed in a developing country setting.i EAR back-calculated from IOM (2000) on WHO and FAO guidance from a basis of 22 mg/d for an average bioavailability assumed to be 23%.  As suggested by IZiNCG (2004), two sets of requirements (one for both NPNL and pregnant women and one for lactating women) should be used depending on dietary patterns: 34%/44% for mixed diets or refined vegetarian diets; 25%/35% for unrefined cereal-based diets. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report  2000) which gives probability of adequacy (PA) for various levels of iron intakes, using an iron bioavailability of 18%.Based on those figures, the PA for various levels of absorbed iron has been calculated, adjusted for a bioavailability of 10% and 5%.  IOM (2000) which gives probability of adequacy (PA) for various levels of iron intakes, using an iron bioavailability of 18%.Based on those figures, the PA for various levels of absorbed iron has been calculated, adjusted for a bioavailability of 10% and 5%. The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical ReportVitamin AAccording to WHO and FAO (WHO, 2004) the CV for vitamin A requirements is unknown, but IOM has used 20 percent. We use the EAR of WHO and FAO with a CV of 20 percent. For adolescents (ages 15-18), WHO and FAO give a range for the EAR of 330 -400 µg/d. We use the mid-point of this range.The WHO and FAO EAR for adolescents is lower than for adult women, and also lower compared to other recommendations. WHO and FAO also note that this EAR of 40 mg/d is \"arbitrary\". We therefore chose to use the EAR for adult women (45 mg/d) for adolescents.In 2004, IZiNCG presented revised dietary zinc requirements, including EAR 1 . It also estimated a CV for the requirement distribution of 12.5 percent, indicating a narrower requirement distribution than implied by the WHO and FAO 2 CV of 25 percent. Hotz assessed the internal validity of these new requirements and found that they predicted zinc status (Hotz, 2007). They also yielded similar estimates of prevalence of zinc deficiency as did biochemical indicators, including among pregnant and non-pregnant women. Therefore, since these requirements were adopted for the purposes of the WDDP-I, they were also used for the WDDP-II.As with the WHO and FAO requirements, researchers must choose a requirement depending on an assumption for absorption, which is based on knowledge of diet patterns and likely bioavailability. For mixed or refined vegetarian diets (with a phytate to zinc molar ratio of 4-18) an absorption level of 34 percent is suggested for both NPNL and pregnant women and an absorption level of 44 percent for lactating women. For high phytate, unrefined cereal-based diets (molar ratio greater than 18), an absorption level of 25 percent 1 IZiNCG 2004. is suggested (IZiNCG, 2004). Note that the level of absorption IZiNCG suggests for high phytate diets (25 percent) is considerably higher than the absorption level suggested by the WHO and FAO requirements document (15 percent). The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical ReportD ata source: Report on the findings of a nationally representative dietary study in Germany in 2005-2006, Part II, Annex Tables A. 34, 39-45, 48, 50, and53 on percentiles of dietary intakes of vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, calcium, iron, and zinc, pp.245-264 (Max Rubner-Institut, 2008). Reports from this study are only available in German, basic information in English is posted at http://www.was-esse-ich.de/index.php?id=44Fortification and supplementation: Basic staples are not fortified in Germany. Some breakfast cereals, beverages and special dietetic products are fortified, and this was taken into account by the authors of the study for the nutrient intake calculations. Twenty-eight percent of all respondents (men and women 14-80 years) took supplements (Max Rubner-Institut, 2008). However, micronutrient intakes from supplements were not considered for estimating PA and MPA from the annex tables in the report. This was not possible because micronutrient intakes from supplements were presented in separate tables, and the findings could not be aggregated with the percentiles of micronutrient intakes from foods. It can be argued that for the purpose of estimating MPA as a reference point for the WDDP-II, using data for a population that is not economically constrained and does not benefit from general fortification of basic staples, it is preferable to neglect supplementation entirely.The main survey instrument was a computerized diet history interview over four weeks, which was complemented by a weighed record for a random subsample of respondents, and two 24-hour recalls via telephone (http://www. was-esse-ich.de/index.php?id=47). Although not stated explicitly in the report, it can be assumed that this information was used to derive the long-term, \"usual\" food and nutrient intakes of individuals.Sample size: 4 876 women were in the relevant age group 14-50 years (because of the specified age groups, the age range 14-50 years had to be used instead of 15-49 years as in the WDDP). The survey covered men and women 14-80 years. Information on pregnancy and lactation status was collected, but the annex tables are not disaggregated by physiological status. The vast majority of women 14-50 years can be assumed to be non-pregnant and non-lactating in Germany.Sampling weights: A complex weighting scheme was developed and applied to calibrate the demographic groups in the sample to the findings of the national census from 2007, and avoid that the results became distorted by varying degrees of non-response (Max Rubner-Institut, 2008, p.24f).Data quality: Among women of reproductive age, median energy intakes for the age groups 14-18, 19-24, 25-34, and 35-50 years varied between 1 870 and 1 966 kcal/day, and mean energy intakes between 1 948 and 2 108 kcal/day. Recommended daily intakes ranged from 2 500 kcal/day for females aged 14 years to 2 300 kcal/day for the age groups 25-34 and 35-50 years (Max Rubner-Institut, 2008). It is likely that energy intakes are downward biased by under-reporting, yet, this is probably not a large problem.Content of report tables: The annex tables in Max Rubner-Institut (2008) indicate the 5 th , 10 th , 25 th , 50 th , 75 th , 90 th and 95 th percentiles of nutrient intakes. They also provide the recommended daily intakes (RDI) by age group for Germany, Austria and Switzerland (referred to as \"D-A-CH\" in the tables, from the acronyms of these three countries), and the percentage below the RDI. Results for the PA of micronutrient intakes are not given.To approximately estimate PA and MPA, micronutrient intakes of German women aged 14-18, 19-24, 25-34 and 35-50 years were matched with the EARs for non-pregnant non-lactating (NPNL) females 15-18 and 19-65 years used in the WDDP-II (see WDDP-I protocol addendum from October 1 2008, and EARs for calcium from IOM 2011). The percentage of women with intakes below the EAR was then estimated by applying the EAR cutpoint method to the percentiles.The calculation of the PA was simple in case the EAR coincided with one of the percentile values. For example, the EAR of thiamin for NPNL females is 0.9 mg/day, which equals the 25 th percentile of thiamin intakes of women 19-24 years in Max Rubner-Institut (2008). It was therefore assumed that 25 percent of women in this age group had thiamin intakes below their EAR. The probability of inadequacy (\"PI\") of thiamin intakes of women 19-24 years was consequently estimated at 25 percent, and the probability of adequacy (\"PA\") at 75 percent.If the EAR fell between two percentile values, the percentage of women between the percentiles was divided up. A simplified approach was used for this purpose, assuming that the number of women increased linearly with the micronutrient intake between the percentile values (in reality, increases in the number and percentage of observations between the percentile thresholds are not linear for the skewed distribution of micronutrient intakes or any normal distribution, because observations are clustered around the median). For example, for women 25-34 years, the 10 th percentile (P10) of vitamin B 12 intakes was 1.9 mg/day, and the 25 th percentile (P25) 2.7 mg/day. The EAR for NPNL women 15-65 years is 2.0 mg/day. The PI was computed as follows: PI = (EAR-P10) / (P25-P10) * 15 + 10 = (2.0-1.9) / (2.7-1.9) * 15 + 10 = 11.875The value of 15 represents the percent of women between the 10 th and 25 th percentile. A fraction of these 15 percent is calculated and added to the 10 percent of women in the 10 th percentile. The PA is then derived as: PA = 100 -PI = 88.125Aggregation: After estimating the PA for each age group, the aggregate PA for women 14-50 years was calculated, weighting the PA for each age group by the number of women in each group. Sampling weights could not be applied, because they were not provided in the report.For calcium, the above approach to determine the percent of women at certain intake thresholds was fitted to the method by Foote et al. (2004), which had been applied to the adequate intake of calcium in the WDDP-I. This was done in addition to deriving the PA from the EAR of calcium following the method described above.PA of iron: For iron, tentative estimates of PA were computed by inserting the midpoints of the skewed requirement distributions of NPNL women 15-18 and 19-50 years in place of the EARs. To take into account the skewed distribution of iron requirements and obtain a better estimate of PA, the tables in IOM ( 2001) were used, estimating the percent of women falling between the thresholds for each level of PA. The same level of iron absorption of 18 percent as given in IOM ( 2001) was assumed for Germany.MPA: MPA is computed by averaging the estimated PA across 11 micronutrients (vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B 6 , folate, vitamin B 12 , calcium, iron, and zinc).Unknown physiological status: Because the annex tables provide results for all women and the proportion of lactating and pregnant women is unknown and likely to be very low, the EARs for NPNL women were used. Because pregnant and lactating women have higher EARs than NPNL women, this could result in a slight overestimation of MPA for all women. The magnitude of this error is probably very small.The neglect of sampling weights when aggregating the PA for the age groups 14-18, 19-24, 25-34 and 35-50 years is one potential source of error. To assess the likely size of this error, the percentages of women below the RDI were copied from the report (Max Rubner-Institut, 2008) for all age groups, including the ages 51-64 and 65-80 years.The percentage below the RDI was then aggregated for all age groups based on the number of women in each group, corresponding to what was done for the PA. The aggregated value for percent below the RDI was compared to the percent of all women below the RDI given in the report. The differences were minimal, ranging from -0.3 to 0.3 percentage points. This suggests that the neglect of sampling weights is a very minor source of error. Simplified assumption about the distribution of intakes: Another source of error is the simplified assumption about the distribution that is used for dividing up the percent of women if the EAR falls between percentile values. To obtain an impression about the likely magnitude of this error, the above method to estimate percent below the EAR (that is, the PI) from the percentiles was applied to estimate percent below the RDI. These estimates were then compared to the actual percent below the RDI given in the report tables.At the level of the age group, the deviations between the estimated and reported values for percent below the RDI ranged from -2.3 to 4.0 percentage points. When the two sets of values were aggregated for the four age groups to obtain an estimate of the percent of women 14-50 years with intakes below the RDI, the differences narrowed down, ranging from -1.2 to 2.2 percentage points. When averaging the percent of women with intakes below the RDI across all 11 micronutrients, the value obtained from the estimation method fell 0.4 percentage points below the value calculated from reported figures. Thus, it can be concluded that the effect of the simple estimation method on MPA is unlikely to be large; the error might be in the range of 1-2 percentage points.  H ere are presented the summary results of the analyses for FGI-9A, FGI-9B, FGI-9C and FGI-9D. Table A6 1 and 2 present the \"best\" cutoffs identified from the sensitivity -specificity analysis for the restricted and non-restricted FGIs.                                                  Green highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Orange highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Yellow highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected.     Green highlighting indicates both sensitivity and specificity ≥ 60%; Orange highlighting indicates specificity ≥ 60% and sensitivity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; Yellow highlighting indicates sensitivity ≥ 60% and specificity < 60% but still ≥ 50%; When either sensitivity or specificity was < 50% or rate of misclassification was above 40%, no \"best\" cutoff was selected.Moving forward on choosing a standard operational indicator of women's dietary diversity 208The \"Women's Dietary Diversity Follow-up Project\" (WDDP-II) -Technical Report ","tokenCount":"26172"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e20858ff05e1d8917c74bce732d010e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e070b33f-b0f5-4340-9af3-57a557d2d835/retrieve","id":"-1733182830"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c9b3b6b7-cca7-4c53-8ef6-9d8f98e7fad7","pagecount":"13","content":"• These inter-annual transmissions might be responsible for sustaining herd immunity over time, especially when there are no external shocks associated with droughts, migration and tribal animosities.Herd immunity patterns • The rate of decline is intensely higher in sheep than cattleModifying the length of inter-epizootic intervals• Other model analyses -50% herd immunity sufficient to prevent a full-blown outbreak• Predicted full-blown outbreak prevention window range Modifying the length of inter-epizootic intervals• Average herd immunity in the population declines to 50% in between these ranges (317 -723 days)• suggest that host diversity can influence the temporal pattern of a multi-host epizootic• i.e. at a given time, assuming a single species host population and suitable climatic indices, full-blown outbreaks may either occur or not Interpretation• Findings provide a better understanding of immunity patterns critical in refining existing control strategies aimed at boosting herd immunity during the interepizootic period.• Findings provide huge potential for use in evaluation of cost-effectiveness of vaccination campaigns.Thank you","tokenCount":"159"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"262d5cb79ad84d87e9532bc7a96dbf8e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c297ea4-bf00-459f-8477-87e2fcfcce67/retrieve","id":"-828962892"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"74575438-2d41-4098-b209-c39b7f7078a1","pagecount":"52","content":"Many people made useful contributions in the course of this study. We are grateful to ILRI scientists in Addis Ababa and Nairobi for providing ideas and comments that formed the basis of the study. In particular we are grateful to Adam Drucker who made useful contributions during and after the brainstorming meetings in Addis Ababa. We also acknowledge other ILRI scientists, too numerous to name here, who participated in the brainstorming sessions. Our thanks also go to the many scientists, researchers, and practitioners from the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, University of Nairobi, Ministry of Agriculture, NGO's and the private sector who provided valuable inputs during the brainstorming workshop in Nairobi. Willis Oluoch-Kosura made useful suggestions and comments during the course of the study. The authors alone are, however, responsible for any shortcomings in the study.Table 1: The budget items needed to establish and run one 500-1000 cow breeding units Table 2: Results of previous cattle improvement programmes in Maseno, Sangalo, and Baraton in Kenya Table 3. The definition of dairy cattle technology for the animal Breed/feed/management system alternatives Table 4. Prices, production, uses, and trade for major products under alternative dairy cattle technology scenarios in the ASM Table 5. Regional land and labor usage, producers and consumer's surplus, and homeconsumption expenditure in the ASM Table 6. Regional production (ton) for major commodities in the ASM Scenarios Table 7. Raw milk production quantity, number of dairy cattle and percentage by region under the current dairy technology scenario in the ASM Table 8. Raw milk production quantity, number of dairy cattle, and percentage by region under traditional dairy scenario in the ASM  There has been increased concern about the potential long-term costs of genetic biodiversity loss and this has focused global attention on the need to conserve plant genetic resources. Until recently, animal genetic resources have received much less attention. Within the domesticated animal genetic resources, most of the indigenous livestock breeds have been and continue to be lost through crossbreeding programmes, however well intended, such programmes are. Animal genetic diversity allows farmers to select stocks or develop new breeds in response to changes in the environment, changing market preferences, threats to disease and societal needs, all of, which are largely unpredictable. Besides, such obvious aesthetic, economic and scientific reasons, the need to conserve the diverse animal genetic resources could be justified on both ethical and moral grounds.Although indigenous livestock breeds may not be as productive as their exotic counterparts, they nevertheless, posses valuable traits such as tolerance and resistance to disease, high fertility, good maternal qualities, unique product qualities, longevity and adaptation to harsh environments and poor quality feeds. These qualities are desirable for achieving sustainable agriculture under low-input conditions prevalent in many developing countries.Granted, crossbreeding has had great success in terms of improving the production potential of indigenous livestock breeds, it has in many instances led to the loss of original breeds and to a large extent, the collapse of self-sustaining traditional production systems. If executed indiscriminately, crossbreeding is a great threat to animal genetic diversity and therefore, there is growing support for strategies for breed conservation and improvement that avoid inappropriate breed dilution or replacement. This study seeks to support efforts to prompt action on the conservation of indigenous farm animal biodiversity by assessing the impact of crossbreeding programmes in economic terms. To do this, the dairy cattle crossbreeding programme in Kenya was chosen as it provided a suitable example of a long-term and systematically undertaken crossbreeding programme. Expediency in data availability was also an important consideration in choosing the dairy cattle crossbreeding programme. In particular, the Dairy Research Programme of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has accumulated a good body of data on crossbreeding for dairy development in Kenya. Where data is not limiting, simpler crossbreeding programmes, such as meat livestock genetic improvement, may be more suitable choices for initial analysis.The net benefits of crossbreeding 1 programmes may have been overestimated. Subsidies by national governments and international donors are rarely taken into account when these programmes are evaluated. Crossbreeding programmes also often entail increased costs in terms of management, such as for veterinary support services. Figure 1 is a representation of intervention points for livestock improvement. In addition, the changed production systems are associated with higher levels of risks while replacement of indigenous breeds has socioenvironmental costs associated with the loss of the (usually non-market) values of the indigenous genotypes.Most of these costs and foregone benefits are never considered in the evaluation of crossbreeding programmes. There is, therefore, a need to carry out comprehensive studies that correctly quantify all the relevant benefits and costs of crossbreeding programmes.1 \"Crossbreeding\" is used in the context of this report as \" the use of exotic (usually temperate) breeds in combination with indigenous breeds in an attempt to improve productivity.i) To develop a conceptual framework and analytical models to be used for the analysis of the benefits and costs of crossbreeding programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa.ii) To assemble and analyse data for a case study -crossbreeding of indigenous cattle with exotic breeds in Kenya.iii) To identify conditions under which crossbreeding programmes could be beneficial and not threatening to indigenous farm animal biodiversity.i) That the net benefits of crossbreeding programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa are significantly lower than suggested by conventional evaluations of crossbreeding programmes.ii) That the net benefits of a breeding programme that is not threatening to indigenous farm animal biodiversity are greater than a programme that focuses on the replacement of indigenous genes.Outputs and Benefits of Crossbreeding ProgrammesRepresentative Scenarios for Empirical Evaluation of Crossbreeding ProgrammesWhen evaluated using conventional benefit-cost analysis, it appears that the net benefits of crossbreeding programmes are large. Granted that this impression could be wrong, it should motivate a study to try and establish the true benefits and costs of crossbreeding programmes. The main objective of crossbreeding programmes is to increase productivity. This presumably would benefit producers and consumers. It is assumed that increased productivity would result in more income for producers and more produce available at lower prices for consumers. Most economic analyses consider only producers and consumers as the beneficiaries of crossbreeding programmes. They fail to take into account other groups that may have a stake in the crossbreeding programme.In order to correctly quantify the benefits and costs of crossbreeding programmes, analysts need a conceptual framework that facilitates the identification and proper quantification of all the relevant inputs and outputs. Such a framework requires the visualisation of livestock production as a system and therefore amenable to systems analysis. The system approach requires one to define limits around the relevant system and also to identify the important components of the system, the critical interactions among the components and the critical interactions between these components and the environment outside the limits of the system. The composition and relation among components constitutes the structure of the system. The interaction (type, timing, location, and intensity of exchanges) among components and of these with the systems environment constitutes the system's behaviour. Finally, the net effects of the system behaviour on its own components and on components of the environment outside the system constitute the system's performance.This section outlines a conceptual framework that could be applied by analysts to correctly evaluate any livestock improvement programme. Its applicability is demonstrated using the case of the crossbreeding of zebu and exotic cattle breeds in Kenya. Figure 2 depicts a generalised relationship between livestock production and crop production. Depending on the level of \"modernisation\" and intensification, two extreme production systems can be identified: (i) a traditional agricultural system based on indigenous livestock breeds and (ii) a modern production system based on crossbreeds, or pure exotics.The traditional agricultural system links land, water, farm animals, and plants in a sustainable way, where each is dependent on the other and the relationship between them is thus strengthened. In this system it can be reasonably assumed that the total size of resources such as land and to some extent water remain constant in a given region. Due to the increases in human population, demands for livestock products and food and non-food products increase. This initially leads to expansion of both the livestock system, especially the grazing system and the crop system, through mutual support such as opening of more land for crop production and rotation through adoption and use of animal draught power and use of manure to increase crop yields. The system also allows for an efficient nutrient recycling through the utilisation of crop by-products. Thus, a reasonable crop/livestock balance is maintained. As human population pressure increases, available land size per household decreases. Consequently, the need for intensification and/or specialisation arises, eventually becoming inevitable. Livestock breeding programmes replace the integration inherent in the traditional system at the level of the farm with the integration of external inputs such as veterinary services and concentrate feeds. Not merely does the external input package break the traditional farming interlinkages, it also sets up its own interactions with land and water systems. While the modern system may be successful in providing high value products and services, natural resource degradation, including loss of genetic diversity may result and can only be avoided at high cost. The new interactions brought about by modernisation are often not taken into account in the assessment of crossbreeding programmes. The additional costs incurred when agricultural practices shift from the self-sustaining traditional system to a system based on crossbreeds ought to be taken into account when crossbreeding programmes are being evaluated.Crossbreeding programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa have in the past emphasised marketable products such as milk and meat, but ignored services such as draught power and the cultural roles that indigenous livestock play. More importantly, the potential value of indigenous livestock genes is usually totally ignored, yet such biodiversity losses may be very costly. Under subsidised crop/livestock production systems, where animal health, extension and farm inputs are offered at subsidised prices, and marketing and other supporting infrastructure are poor, crossbreeding may lead to production of unsuitable genotypes (exotic upgrades), that produce below their genetic potential. More importantly, popularisation and large-scale adoption of such genotypes leads to loss of invaluable indigenous livestock genetic diversity through creation of bottomless genetic sinks (Figure 3). The important point here is that outputs and inputs should be defined in the broadest terms to include all those outputs that currently have a market value, all non-marketed outputs, and any outputs that have negative values (external costs) to society. Inputs should be valued at their opportunity cost to reflect their true economic value.The conceptualisation of livestock improvement programmes as depicted above will permit the comparison of a system based on indigenous breeds and one based on upgraded livestock with the full range of inputs and outputs included. A clear understanding of the relevant livestock improvement programme is important, as it would facilitate the process of delineating the proper variables to be included in the economic analysis. This is because such understanding will help the analyst to perceive how the livestock improvement programme affects whom, when, how, and where and what the direct and indirect effects are.The rest of this section elaborates and applies the generic framework depicted in Figure 2 to the case of crossbreeding zebu with exotic livestock breeds in Kenya. Such a crossbreeding programme is depicted in Figure 3. As can be deduced from Figure 2, a livestock system based on crossbreeds and another based on indigenous breeds will differ dramatically in terms of inputs. It is important to appreciate that increased productivity of the system based on crossbreeds is not intrinsic to the modified germplasm, but it is a function of the availability of the required inputs. If the required inputs are not available to all farmers, then crossbreeds will not be widely adopted. A subtle and often ignored factor is the differential availability of the required inputs among farmers. This has obvious implications for the distributional effects of crossbreeding programmes. A fair comparison of a system based on indigenous breeds and others based on crossbreeds should include the external costs of the additional inputs.To estimate the benefits of crossbreeding programmes, the use of the economic surplus method is indicated. As noted earlier, the main objective of crossbreeding programmes is increased productivity. This implies that the adoption of crossbreeding reduces the private per unit cost of production causing the supply curve to shift outwards. The gross benefits of crossbreeding programmes can therefore, be evaluated using the economic surplus method. The costs of establishing, adopting and using the crossbreeding technology (which constitute costs to society) can then be subtracted from the gross benefits to yield the net benefits of a given crossbreeding programme. All the outputs and inputs of the crossbreeding programme have to be taken into account so that the net benefits are correctly calculated. This is important because crossbreeding programmes often entail increased productivity of one or two outputs of direct commercial interest while reducing the productivity of a host of other byproducts of livestock production. In other words, supply curve shifts for some of the products will be to the left as a livestock production system shifts from one based on indigenous livestock to one based on crossbreeds. In sections 5.1 and 5.2 we discuss the outputs and inputs of a conventional crossbreeding programme for dairy improvement and suggest ways of valuing them. Milk, meat, animal draught power, manure, and hides are marketable outputs of a dairy production system. The impact of crossbreeding local indigenous stock with exotic breeds on these products can be evaluated using herd simulation models (Upton, 1989). The herd simulation models should be developed so that they can convert the benefits of changing the livestock traits shown on Figure 1 through crossbreeding into annual changes per animal in milk, meat, hides, draught power, and manure. It would be necessary to develop several models so as to simulate representative herds that take into account different types of crossbreeding programmes (full upgrading, half grades, etc.), agroecological zones, management practices (low, medium and high input systems) and other important locally specific factors that determine the type of production system adopted. The results of the herd simulation models would then be extrapolated and aggregated to represent the national situation. Extrapolation will require estimates of the national adoption rates of the simulated representative herds. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques have been successfully used for extrapolation purposes (Kristjanson, et. al. 1999). It must, however, be noted that more complex biophysical models would be required to represent the system shown on Figures 2 and 3. Such models would take into account the interactions between livestock, plants, land and water.To calculate the gross social benefits of the crossbreeding programme, it would be necessary to estimate the elasticities of supply and demand for all the products. In addition to these, data on prices and national production figures for all the products would be required.The Ministry of Agriculture and the Central Bureau of Statistics of Kenya regularly report market prices for milk, meat, hides and skins. Manure and, to a large extent, animal draught power, are not normally traded in the market and as such, their prices may not be readily available. Where manure and animal draught power may be sold, the prices paid for them may, in some instances, not represent their true value. Farmers will sell these products only after satisfying their requirements and therefore, attach a lower value to what is in excess of their requirements. In such situations, the inputs have higher values when used in the producers' fields than when sold in the market. For instance, animal draught contributes to increased productivity through enhancing timeliness in farm operations, especially land preparation. Farmers will first use the animals on their farm before hiring them out. As such the buyers of such services will not achieve the same degree of timeliness as the owners of the animals and the price they will be willing to pay will, therefore, be lower. Better estimates of the value of manure and animal draught power may be obtained if we considered their contribution to increased farm productivity. This could be achieved by estimating a production function with manure and animal draught as inputs.Estimates by Barrett (1992) show that, for communal herds in Zimbabwe, manure and animal draught power contributed between 21 to 72 per cent of the total value of livestock. For the crossbreeding case, it seems reasonable to assume that the crossbreeds do not contribute animal draught power since many farmers are not willing to use them for this purpose. Moreover, when crossbreds are used, their ability to endure under stressful tropical heat and poor nutrition is usually below par.If, for each of the products listed above, linear supply and demand curves with parallel shifts are assumed (common assumptions in applications of the economic surplus method), the change in total surplus is estimated by the area I 0 abI 1 in Figure 4 below (see Kristjanson et al. 1999). Change in consumer surplus = P 1 P 0 ab Change in producer surplus = P 1 bcd Change in total surplus = P 1 P 0 ab + P 1 bcd = I 0 abI 1The change in total surplus is computed annually for the life of the crossbreeding programme.Other indirect benefits of crossbreeding for dairy production are not taken into account in this model. They include the benefits of the extra employment created since the intensive dairy production system based on crossbreed animals requires a higher labour input than the extensive indigenous system. There are also other spillover effects of processing and marketing of the extra output.The economic surplus model gives the gross benefits of a crossbreeding programme. In order to compute the net benefits of such a programme, we need to take into account all the costs of establishing, maintaining, adopting and using such a technology.At the society level the costs of crossbreeding programmes include the establishment and maintenance costs such as research infrastructure, equipment, and personnel costs. The costs of adoption and diffusion include the costs of extension services for dissemination of the technology and farmer education. The latter inputs are required because farmers lose their indigenous knowledge and the new system requires new management skills. Crossbreeding is associated with the loss of tolerance to disease and stress that is inherent in the indigenous breeds. In order to mitigate the loss of tolerance to diseases, the society incurs extra costs for the public provision of disease and vector control services. Other support infrastructures include milk processing plants, marketing and transport infrastructure. All these extra costs need to be taken into account when evaluating the costs of crossbreeding programmes.At the farm level, the requirements for establishing and using a crossbreeding programme include exotic germplasm (semen or bulls), indigenous germplasm (female breeding stock), land, fodder/pasture, concentrate feeds and feed supplements, water supply, fencing, housing, veterinary drugs and services, pest control equipment, pesticide disposal and marketing facilities, and labour. Other important direct and indirect costs that are associated with environmental pollution and pollution controls are also often ignored.In theory, many of the above costs can be estimated from farm records, and government budgetary allocations. In practice, it is difficult to apportion the costs so as to establish the components attributable to the crossbreeding programmes since many of the inputs are used by several enterprises at the farm level and different government services at the society level.For instance it is difficult to establish the portion of the cost of extension services that is attributable to the dairy crossbreeding programme in sub-Saharan Africa.There are other costs associated with the changes in the livestock production system due to crossbreeding. These include changes in resource use patterns and the associated environmental problems presented in Figure 3. An important category here is the value of the genes lost due to the crossbreeding programme. In addition, indigenous genetic resources have existence value, option value, cultural value, and recreation values that are lost when full-scale crossbreeding is undertaken. These non-market values present formidable estimation problems. It is not clear that the usual methods of non-market valuation of environmental goods are appropriate for animal genetic resources (AnGR) (Drucker, et. al., forthcoming). Valuation of AnGR is currently a subject of major research effort by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) where existing non-market valuation techniques will be tested for their suitability in valuing AnGR.While awaiting the development and/or testing of more suitable valuation techniques, we propose the adaptation of a simple method developed by Brush and Meng (1996) for valuing landraces (plant genetic resources) as a first step in capturing some of the value of AnGR. The application of this method would involve identifying production systems where both crossbreed animals and indigenous stock are raised simultaneously. Since crossbreeding leads to increased productivity measured in terms of the major commercial products (milk in the case of dairy), the benefits foregone by the farmer by not specialising in crossbreeds represent the private value of the indigenous germplasm. Aggregating this value over all the households that diversify in this manner provides a lower bound estimate of the value of such AnGR to the society as whole. It should be noted that this value is a compound value including the above non-market values as well the values that the farmer attaches to the reduced risk, transaction costs and the effects of missing markets. Livestock farmers have to contend with high degrees of risk associated with weather and environmental conditions. In many rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa, high transaction costs restrict access to markets by smallscale livestock producers. In addition, livestock farm households (e.g. pastoralists) may have demands for products with specific quality characteristics that may entail high search, transportation and transaction costs because markets for such products may be missing. Due to these reasons, rural-based smallscale livestock farmers may be forced to continue raising indigenous livestock that possess such `desirable' attributes. The Brush and Meng method would provide a composite estimate of all these values that the smallscale farmers attach to indigenous livestock genetic resources. Including this value on the cost side of the cost-benefit analyses of crossbreeding programmes should therefore improve the analyses.Using the economic surplus approach as suggested here will yield estimates of the welfare impacts of crossbreeding at the society level. However, to estimate the impact of crossbreeding on individual households will require a different set of data and analytical approach. In section 5.3 four representative crossbreeding scenarios that may be extracted from Figure 3 are presented. The data for these four scenarios are presented in Appendix 1.To make such analyses inclusive, empirical evaluations of the respective improvement options are made. The scenarios considered include different crossbreeding and within-breed genetic selection programmes involving indigenous zebu cattle populations. Where possible, hypothetical situations are derived and analysed to specifically illustrate some possible scenarios. The scenarios are evaluated to provide estimates of the impact of crossbreeding at the farm level. The analysis was implemented using the Farm Level Income and Policy Simulation Model (FLIPSIM) whose details and results are discussed in section 6.2.For purposes of illustrating possible scenarios that can be considered for empirical evaluation of crossbreeding programmes, we consider four options that can be extracted from Figure 3 above. These are discussed in turn in the following sections. They are: a) Full-scale grading up of indigenous breeds to the desired exotic one.b) Partial replacement of a fraction of the indigenous population with the exotic germplasm, while retaining the other fraction intact.c) Initial crossing of the indigenous breed to the exotic breed(s) using the latter as the sire breed, then selecting the resultant F 1 individuals and inter-se mating them. Over generations, through selection, the population stabilises with intermediate genotype developed in which 50% of additive effects of either breed are retained, and 50% of the maximum heterosis effect maintained.d) An extreme case is where the indigenous population is subjected to artificial selection pressure, with equivalent resources for technical and infrastructure support as in option (1) above.In this case, the bull or semen of the exotic breed is used on indigenous cows, and the resultant crossbred females are later mated to bulls of the exotic breed and so on. This exercise continues until in the 6th generation, the animal resulting from such a mating system will, for all practical purposes be composed of over 97.5% of the desired exotic breed. In some instances, the bulls used in the subsequent generations may be of different exotic breeds other than the one used in the first cross. If such a programme is undertaken in a large enough scale and consistently so, then over time, the desired exotic breed would gradually replace the local breed. The genes of the local breed would be lost, most likely forever. This scenario represents what has taken place in the Kenyan central highlands, where the indigenous highland zebu cattle breed and its eco-types have been totally replaced by the exotic dairy cattle breeds such as the Friesian and Ayrshire. Initially, the indigenous zebus were the only type of cattle existing in these areas. They were used as a source of food, draught, cultural values, wealth storage and investment. Zebus also offered producers protection against risk associated with factors such as disease outbreaks and periodic droughts.Estimation of net benefits of a crossbreeding programme under this scenario would involve costing each of the items listed as inputs in Table 1 and aggregating them over all farms. Alternatively, a hypothetical case could be considered, where the crossbreeding is carried out by a few centralised farms, who then sell the resultant crossbreeds and upgrades to the rest of the farmers in their neighbourhoods as replacements, initially of their zebu cattle, and later on the old or previous generations of crosses. This way, the indigenous zebu cattle populations around each of the breeding farms are gradually replaced, so long as other support services such as extension, disease control, artificial insemination services are provided. There are examples, however, where these support services have subsequently collapsed, or subsidies withdrawn, leaving behind animals that cannot survive or produce at desired levels. In response, farmers bring in any indigenous stock they can find, often at a time when their original breed has been wiped out.In the case in which a centralised farm is used, the same model farm would be assumed to provide the needed support services at a cost to the participating farmers. However, the cost of support services in such a system would underestimate the real situation, where governments are involved in the promotion of a similar technology. This is because, proximity of the model central farm to the farmers would play a central role, thus allowing for the services to be rendered much more efficiently to the farmers that are nearer to the model farm. It is worth noting that, all the items listed in Table 1 would also be required in a within-zebu breed genetic improvement programme, if an open nucleus breeding scheme were to be adopted. However, in the case of an open nucleus breeding scheme, such expenses would be shared among 500 or so cooperating member farmers. Besides, the veterinary and maintenance costs would be approximately 30% and 50%, respectively, less compared to pure exotic dairy breeds. Additionally, the land required for a zebu herd, of the same size, would be 30% less, due to the comparatively lower biological requirements of zebu cattle. Details of such a scenario are presented in Box 1.From the information provided in Box 1, it would seem that production of upgrades from centralised breeding or multiplication centres, may not be cost-effective. It would take too long, or require too many such breeders to accomplish the task. In fact, in Kenya, a similar approach, but under government management was initiated back in the early 1940's using indigenous and exotic zebu cattle breeds, in what were known as livestock improvement centres at Baraton, Maseno and Sangalo, but with very little impact on the neighbouring farms.Box 1: Notes on a Within-Zebu Breed Genetic Improvement Programme i. Start off in year1 with 5000 cows and heifers in ten 500-cow units, and during the first year, 60% of these lactating, given a fertility rate of 75% and that 15% of the purchased animals in the in herd were yearling heifers.ii. In Year 2, 75 % (3125) of the 4900 cows will be in milk, having given an allowance of a maximum of 2% loss through mortality among the adult cows, and with a culling rate of 15%. This means that 7350 cows, each weighing an average of 275-300kg would be available for sale as culls at Ksh. 50/kg liveweight. These could be replaced through new purchases.iii. In year 2, the 3750 (half zebu, half exotic dairy) calves born in first year, 20% (750) will have been lost through mortality, giving rise to 1500 male calves and a similar number of heifer calves. Of the 1500 male calves, 1440 will be ready for sale as steers at three years of age, weighing an average of 400kg each, at a price of Ksh. 55 /kg liveweight iv. Three and a half (3.5) years later, only 555 of the 1500 heifers will be in-calf and therefore distributable to the farmers, so as to calve down for the first time 4.2 years after the initiation of the programme, producing calves composed of 75% : 25% exotic : zebu breeds, given an allowance of 25% for culling rate and 67% fertility rate among such heifers. The other 200, should be the top best, must be retained at the central breeding farm so as to produce the next generation of 75% exotic dairy : 25% Zebu calves. These 200 heifers will be producing about 6.25litres of milk/cow/day, while the 555 half-bred heifers will be producing 6.25litres of milk/cow/day or less depending on the level of management under their new owners.v. If the initial herd consisted of 1000 cows for each centralised breeding farm units, then twice the number of improved animals given under 1-4 would be realised each generation. A cowherd of more than 1000 would be too large to manage effectively. Besides, there would not be enough land available to cater for such a herd in one ranch or farm, within these areas. Therefore, such herds need to be replicated in 500-1000 cow units.vi. Revenue would be realised from the sale of the following items: culled stock; steers; milk; manure; and artificial insemination services.vii. Artificial insemination should be used for breeding the cows in both the central farm and the recipient farmers to enable the use of a few top bulls and accurate progeny tests.viii. In order to determine the feasibility of the crossbreeding programme hypothesized here the following questions need to be answered: a. How large would each farm have to be to serve the purpose effectively?b. How long would it take to supply enough crosses and upgrades to replace most of the zebu in the neighbouring area? c. When would the farmers begin to participate in the production of male breeding stock and female replacements?d. Would it be based on a fixed herd or on replacements (i.e. constantly getting zebu cows from the local population in order to broaden the genetic base)?ix. Each of these questions represents a scenario worth pursuing on its own, but are not the subject of the present analysis. The pursuit of their answers is, therefore, not made.Half-scale upgrading of indigenous breeds to the exotic ones (parallel upgrading, while keeping half indigenous populations intact)In this option, part of the indigenous zebu population is upgraded to the exotic dairy breeds and the rest are left as purebreds. The latter must contain a sufficiently large enough number of individuals to allow for effective selection (within-breed genetic improvement) while retaining a reasonable degree of genetic diversity. The question here is \"How large need the purebred population be to allow for effective and sustainable within breed genetic improvement and diversity?\"Crossing of indigenous breeds to the exotic ones to produce F 1 , then selection and improvement undertaken on the crossbreeds with repeated F 1 production each time to produce a synthetic breed.Systematically the indigenous cows are mated to the exotic breed bulls, preferably using the latter's semen to produce F 1 s, then selecting the resultant F 1 individuals, with higher selection pressure on the F 1 males and inter-se mating these each generation. Initially, only weak selection pressure is applied to the resultant population, because, males who are age-mates of the females are used to mate the latter, and therefore, will not have been progeny-tested. Over generations, through selection, the population stabilizes with intermediate genotype developed in which 50% of additive effects of either breed are retained, as well as 50% of the maximum heterosis effect maintained. This is important as the resultant population, if large enough will have increased variability, and therefore more responsive to selection. In addition, 50% of the indigenous genes are on average, retained. Indeed, if the selection programme is carried out under the indigenous environment it is likely that a significant proportion of the alleles responsible for the adaptive fitness will be retained.Synthetic breed formation based on 50% zebu and 50% exotic dairy breed can be achieved in two ways. One, through upgrading to 50% exotic dairy, by initially mating selected zebu cows to top performing exotic dairy bulls (E) to produce F 1 bulls. These are then selected and the top best mated to the F 1 females to produce 50% E and 50% Z offspring. Alternatively, zebu cows (Z) are initially mated to exotic dairy bulls (E) to produce F 1 (50%Z and 50%E). This is repeated in many populations. Then, a few outstanding bulls are selected and mated to unrelated F 1 cows to produce 75%Z and 25%E. Continuous production of unrelated F 1 bulls is made, and the best of such bulls used on F 1 cows as illustrated on Figure 5. The procedure is repeated on a large scale and by the sixth generation the population of the animals will be approximately 50% exotic and 50% Zebu. Thereafter, an inter-se mating programme can be initiated with inbuilt progeny testing programme to further improve the synthetic stock and stabilize the new breed.The second option, involves an initial large scale mating of zebu cows to selected exotic dairy bulls to produce F 1 s. The F 1 males are performance tested for dual purpose (growth and conformation) attributes and the 20-30 out of say 200 male calves are selected based on the combined growth and milk production of their dams and sire's daughters milk yields for the next test stage (progeny testing). Based on the progeny test results, obtained by mating the F 1 males to their unrelated F 1 female counterparts, the best 2 or 3 out of the 15 males are selected for large scale semen collection and use in the population of F 1 females. The production of F 1 s is repeatedly done until most of the population consists of 50% exotic and 50% zebu.After 8 generations, a new (synthetic) breed will be in place, to be further improved through within breed selective breeding. The whole process can, however, be hastened by application of multiple ovulation, embryo splitting and transfer or cloning. It must however, be noted that such technologies (embryo transfer and cloning) still do not have practical, commercial application in Sub-Saharan Africa.The final product (48.4% (E) ) is selected and inter se mated to produce young bulls for progeny test programmes henceforth.Results of previous cattle improvement programmes in various centres in Kenya using local indigenous zebu ecotypes are tabulated in Table 2. From Table 2 and other studies reported elsewhere (Mosi et al., unpublished.), it is clear that, there exists a large variation in milk yield among zebu cattle populations in Kenya. Significant improvement of zebu cattle genetic merit through selection can be realized from such populations. In a case where a within-breed selection programme is opted for, one would assume that the same resources used in the full scale grading up are directed towards selection and general breeding programmes of the indigenous breed. The activities that would facilitate such an exercise include performance and pedigree recording, genetic evaluation of animals, collection, storage and distribution of semen or bulls. The questions of relevance would be:i) What levels of genetic progress would have been achieved? Alternatively one could ask these two questions:i) What levels of genetic progress would be equivalent to the overall gains (summed over all the performance traits) arising from heterosis and breed replacement through upgrading under different production and market systems?ii) What level of resources would such an exercise require?Supposing many generations ago, the average milk yield of zebu cows was 700kg/lactation per cow, and that initially 300-500 cows which produced 1000kg/lactation and over were to be selected and placed under various nucleus herds and supported by various Kenya highland zebu cattle populations as source and cooperating herds in an open nucleus herd breeding scheme. Genetic gain of between 2.5-5 per cent per year would be attainable, assuming heritability estimates of between 25 and 30 per cent for milk yield and selection pressure that allows only between 2 and 5per cent among males and 35-40 per cent among females in both the nucleus and cooperating herds respectively, to be retained and used for breeding.After thirty years of selective breeding, the average zebu cow in herds that participated in such schemes would be producing just under 2000kg of milk per lactation. Taking into account the positive genetic correlation between milk yield and cow size, the selection need to have been restricted to ensure only slight increases in mature size.The resultant production level would equate to 80% of the current average lactation performance of the exotic grade dairy cattle in Kenya, which stands at 2500kg/lactation (Wakhungu, 2000). Given that only 60% of the costs would be required to produce a litre of milk by the zebu as opposed to the exotic grade counterpart, and given that the zebu would perform multiple functions (cultural, draught etc.), then one would conclude that it would have been worthwhile to have invested in a within-zebu breed genetic improvement as opposed to upgrading of zebu to pure exotic dairy types. However, the magnitude of such responses would heavily depend on the breeding plans adopted and selection methods employed as well as the level of technical support available. Such support would include: performance recording, provision of artificial insemination service, effective genetic evaluations, selection intensity applied, among others.An alternative approach would be genetic improvement based on centralized government institutional herds. A successful centralized breeding programme in Kenya involving the Kenya Sahiwal cattle has been described by Meyn and Wilkins (1974) and Mason and Buvanendran (1982), and analysed by Wakhungu (1991) and Rege and Wakhungu (1992), whose performance so far can be said to have been fair. However, the Kenya Sahiwal case is a unique one, in that very close supervision and dedication went into its initiation and reasonably good management, albeit with some \"bad years\" has been applied in this herd thereafter.The above approach can be modified such that, the centralized institutional herd would play the role similar to that of a truly nucleus herd. In this case, farmers or groups of farmers who are within the proximity of such a centre would get together or are brought together to form a partnership with an institution providing technical support. Such an institution could be a university or an agricultural research institute to provide technical back-stopping to the genetic improvement programme. The technical support can take the following forms: design and planning of the performance recording, progeny testing programmes and most importantly computation of breeding values, selection and design of mating plans..The open nucleus breeding scheme would start with the selection of between 500 and 700 best cows from the cooperating farmer herds, based on their performance (growth and milk yield). This initial screening from the base population will itself produce a sub-population that is genetically superior to the general population. A few (5 to 10) \"best \" bulls are selected, on the basis of the performance of their relatives (dams or daughters) and placed in a centralised bull stations. The 700 or so cows are all placed into a central location (\"nucleus\") and given uniform and adequate management. A mating plan is drawn, and naturally or using artificial insemination (room temperature semen), the five to ten bulls are mated to the 700 cows.Meanwhile the rest of the cooperating farms are encouraged to use the old (already replaced) bulls used in the nucleus or the next genetically superior excess bulls from the nucleus. In addition, the institutional centre could coordinate and supervise the performance recording of the farmers' stock, besides co-drawing the mating plans.The cows are assessed based on their milk yield and the poor producers are culled at rate of 30%. The top 30-50 best young cows from the cooperating farms replace these. Two to five of the best bulls out of the five to ten are selected based on their progeny performance. Selection is done in both the nuclei and cooperating farm herds. The best bulls' semen are collected and intensively used to inseminate cows in the nucleus herds.In order to broaden the genetic base, 15-20 young bulls bred in the nucleus are initially selected out of the 200 or so bull calves born. These are performance tested for growth, and other traits considered important, then based on the test results, 10-15 are selected to undergo progeny tests, and out of this 3 to 5 bulls are finally selected and used to breed the female replacements and future bulls in the nuclei herds. The collaterals of the 15 or so bulls can be further assessed for growth, beef and where necessary, draught power attributes. Such information, when appropriately indexed would enable the computation of the candidate bulls' breeding values. As part of the evaluation process, each of the above activities (inputs) can be delineated, costed, and then compared with the costs of inputs in an upgrading programme.It must, however, be pointed out that a nucleus breeding scheme is not easy to execute. First, all the participating farmers must be organized into functional groups, and each group must identify themselves with the programme. Overtime, some members may default and take up alternative improvement methods such as upgrading. Therefore, for the whole exercise to work, institutional support must be efficiently and consistently provided, at least initially, including regular demonstrations and field days at the nuclei herds in order to appraise the members of the achievements so far made.Record keeping in the cooperating herds needs to be accurate and must be used in ranking the individual animals. Additional support services need to be part and parcel of the selection exercise. For example, supplemental feed production and distribution, produce marketing, and extension would be some of the additional services which would go along way in ensuring thesuccess of an open nucleus breeding scheme, so long as similar environment at the nucleus to those of the cooperating farmers' herds is maintained.The local breed to be improved must be appropriately matched with the prevailing environment. Product pricing policies that reward improvements in product quality are also required; otherwise the full value of the improved zebu may not be realized. Additionally, improvement in infrastructure (roads and telecommunication) would even make it easier for such a programme to operate, through reduced cost of transport of both inputs and outputs.Policies that encourage rural based industries would further work in favour of such an open nucleus breed improvement programme.Some considerations for within-breed improvement of Zebu improvement of zebu using within-breed, open nucleus scheme approach would involve all the cost items listed in Table 1, except that improvements in milk production will be much slower (at best 2% gain/year), and that of draught power and beef production may not be any faster. However, most of the costs listed in the table would be shared out among the many cooperating farmers who would also be sharing some of the facilities.Other advantages of the open nucleus-breeding scheme over centralized upgrading programmes, lie in the ability of the former programme to improve a larger herd (all cooperating herds plus all those who buy breeding stock from them). This means therefore that the actual cost per unit of genetic improvement in the entire population, and on overall trait basis is much lower. For example, the veterinary and maintenance (feed) costs of an improved zebu would be 50 and 33 per cent respectively, of those of exotic dairy cattle (Friesian breed) upgrade based on the comparative adaptive and productive characteristics of these two genotypes (Appendices 1.1 and 1.2). Besides, when appropriately executed, withinbreed genetic improvement programmes would lead to minimal biodiversity loss. Neither would losses associated with the cultural values be incurred. Finally, increased number of recorded herds would be high enough to allow for effective progeny testing to be undertaken.It is important to note that in Kenya today, small dairy cattle herd sizes (1-3 cows/herd) which are associated with the improved exotic dairy breeds, is a major limitation in operating a nationwide genetic improvement programme in dairy cattle. Consequently imported semen from bulls proven under entirely different production and market systems such as Europe and North America is still the main source of genetic \"improvement\". This is resulting into a mismatch of genetic potential and the existing environment, hence the observed generally lower production under local conditions.Genetic improvement of the zebu through selection would, however, require that the herds, particularly the nucleus herds, be performance-recorded and the genetically superior bulls once identified be used intensively in both the nucleus and cooperating herds. However, because the latter could be located near or within access to the nucleus herds and one another, use can be made of room temperature semen technology, thereby lowering the overall cost of AI delivery compared to a full scale grading up scheme. This would also hasten the rate of genetic progress, because younger superior bulls could be simultaneously used by both the nucleus and cooperating herds for breeding, thereby minimizing the between-cadre genetic lag.In an open nucleus breeding system, the technology users (farmers) themselves can participate in the evolution and development of appropriate service delivery systems, thereby reducing overall costs, and ensuring that the delivery of these services is carried out efficiently. In addition, this option provides for productivity improvement with minimal loss in genetic diversity as improvements within and around the various nuclei would be matched with the prevailing environments at the producer's farms, in which case, the adaptive ability to the different local nuclei environments would be ensured.Gradual improvement of the indigenous livestock will ensure that indigenous knowledge systems for livestock production will be least disrupted. Various studies, (Okeyo et al., 1994;ITDG and IIRR, 1996;Wanyama, 1997;Munyua et al., 1998) including, an indigenous cattle breed characterization survey in Kenya by Mosi et al. (unpublished), document evidence that the value of indigenous knowledge is immense. Such values include aspects such as, ethnoveterinary medicine, animal retraining, training and handling methods, and traditional selection methods. Most of this knowledge has been lost where original zebu owners took to exotic germplasm and associated husbandry and abandoned traditional husbandry. The losses associated with the grass and herbal species that used to be grazed by the indigenous breeds, particularly those that were endemic to the Kenya highland ecologies, are potentially large.An approach that targets indigenous livestock for genetic improvement programme, but that also recognizes, and exploits the existing diverse genetic potentials among the indigenous zebu cattle populations would lead to an evolution of home-grown production and marketing systems, where both the desirable indigenous and western sets of knowledge would profitably blend themselves to produce more robust, sustainable and cost effective systems. With such hybridization of technical knowledge, the levels of collapse (failure of artificial insemination and animal health delivery services) in the dairy industry, which is currently witnessed, could be avoided.In summary, we have, in this section, shown that to comprehensively undertake an economic analysis of a specified technological intervention, such as a crossbreeding programme, an exhaustive listing of all the inputs and services required to accomplish such an intervention must be made. Similarly, a listing of all the outputs and/or benefits is needed followed by appropriate valuation of each of these components. While undertaking all these, accounts need to be taken of the interrelationships between the various inputs and outputs.Complications arising from multi-sectoral cause and effects such as changes in resource use patterns need special consideration, when the cost-benefit analyses are being done, and allow for aggregation to macro-economic levels. Such aggregation should obviously take cognisance of the genotype by environment interactions, which lead to differential production and productivity of genotypes in different agro-ecological zones and under different production systems. Such approaches would allow for varied listings of input and output prices and supply and demand elasticities. Crossbreeding programmes must take into account the users resource endowment both in terms of quantity and quality; their knowledge base and abilities, including managerial capacity; and their motivations, including consumption, employment, income, and the cost of using the programme in relation to the net benefits expected. Decisions are also influenced by the expectations on how users' resources, knowledge, and motivations can be affected (positively or negatively) by existing or forthcoming rules, regulations, and policies and institutional support, infrastructure, and finances. Thus when evaluating the benefits of crossbreeding a number of things need to be explicitly taken into account: changes in risk levels faced by producers, the dynamic nature of the process and its consequences, and its effects on the environment and farm animal diversity.To accomplish the task of economically evaluating crossbreeding programmes it is necessary to develop biophysical models to represent the system depicted in Figures 2 and 3 and feed the outputs of such models to the economic models such as the economic surplus model as suggested in section 5.1. Such models would ensure that all the critical interactions among the components of the livestock production system and the critical interactions between these components and the environment outside the limits of the system are taken into account in the analysis. The development of such models is outside the scope of the current study. A substantial investment in time and resources will be required. In the next section we present some tentative results of the assessment of the impact of crossbreeding at the society and farm levels. The two analyses are based on unmodified ASM (Impact Assessment Group, 2000) and FLIPSIM (Richardson, 1999), which were not specifically developed for the conceptual framework described here. The results, therefore, are only illustrative and based only on a partial list of the variables envisaged in the conceptual framework. Caution is urged in interpreting the results. A more complete analysis will be required before firm conclusions can be made.As demand for milk has increased and markets improved over the last 20 years, there has been an evolution of dairying in Kenya. Dairy breeds have been introduced and used as crossbreeds or purebreeds, and improved forage varieties have been introduced. Several management and marketing practices, including improved animal health and the use of fertilizers to enhance forage production, have been made available. National research and extension programmes have contributed to the development and adoption of improved technology. The following is a partial list of the technologies which have been adopted to varying levels depending on size of operation, location, and market demand: -Improved animal genetics by introducing dairy breeds and crossbreeding them with local zebu cattle. Improved forages, including Napier grass, Rhodes grass with manure and fertilizer application.Use of commercial concentrate feeds and mineral supplements. Improved animal health programmes to minimize the impact of external and internal parasites and diseases. Intensification of production system through part-time confinement of animals (semi-zero grazing) or complete confinement (zero grazing) with adoption of various stall management technologies.The ASM analysis presented below captures the welfare impacts of all the technologies listed above with the traditional system based on indigenous cattle breeds as the base case. It is assumed that improvements in nutrition, animal health and management are necessary complements to the realization of the benefits of crossbreeding. While these improvements could be exogenous and may have benefits of their own, this assumption accords well with the framework presented in Figure 4. However, there are limitations associated with the Kenya ASM and data availability that precluded the complete isolation of the impact of crossbreeding programmes. Another assumption is that the pure exotic dairy breeds were the result of complete upgrading of local breeds rather than direct introductions from abroad. This is a realistic assumption in the case of Kenya.The Kenya ASM model requires definition of the categories of animals within production systems, average annual yields of crops and supporting forages, annual nutrient requirements in terms of protein and energy, annual milk production, and annual nutrient requirement of cow-units (protein, energy, intake). In the ASM the market is assumed to be competitive and, therefore, equilibrium price and quantity are determined by the intersection of supply and demand for each commodity. Many consumers and producers are assumed to be in the competitive market. Consumers maximize their utility subject to budget constraints. Similarly, producers maximize their profit given production technology and prices; therefore, the supply function depends on prices and technology. Aggregating individual consumer demand functions and individual producer supply functions results in market demand and supply functions. In this competitive market, social welfare is maximized when the market is in equilibrium. That is, maximum welfare will occur at the intersection of the demand and supply functions. The model includes market balance constraints and resource constraints and assumes that maximizing social welfare is the objective function. The model generates estimates of agricultural commodity prices and quantities, input use, land use and crop mixes, and consumer and producer economic surpluses.The Kenya ASM considers seven of the eight geographical provinces that include the Nairobi, Central, Coast, Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, North Eastern, and Western regions. Nairobi is treated as a demand only region, and the North Eastern region is neither an agricultural production nor demand region in the ASM. The other six regions have both demand and agricultural production activities. The ASM is cast in a sectoral multi-market framework where it is assumed that there are interactions among markets both on the product and factor sides. Multi-market models allow one to follow the impacts of particular price and nonprice policies and reforms on production, factor use, the prices (for nontradables) and net exports (for tradables) of products and factors, household incomes, household consumption, and the balance of trade (Sadoulet and de Janvry, 1995). Account should, therefore, be taken of all crop and livestock sub-sectors that have significant interactions either as substitutes or complements in consumption and production. For practical purposes and manageability of the model only the major crop and livestock sub-sectors are considered in the Kenya ASM. Crop production is defined by region, crop, and agricultural zone. Livestock production activity is by region, animal breed, and agricultural zone. Major crops modelled in the Kenya ASM are maize, millet, beans, wheat, sorghum, coffee, and tea. The major livestock enterprises modelled are dairy cattle, beef, sheep, goats and pigs. Agricultural zones depict crop growth and yield potential of land and climate resources and are designated as high, middle, and low zones. Labour and land are used in the crop and livestock production activities and are limited in quantity by production region. Commodity demand in the model depicts three market levels: home consumption expenditures, regional markets, and international trade. Home consumption represents farmer and family self-consumption while regional markets refer to the local urban markets. International trade represents the national market, which includes both exports from, and imports to, Kenya.Crossbreeding is evaluated by setting up different breed, forage, animal management systems, and cost of production to provide simulations with and without crossbreeding.Simulation results for the indigenous breeds (traditional system) are compared with those of the system based on crossbreeds (current system) to evaluate the economic impact of crossbreeding on regional, national, and foreign consumers and producers. The traditional dairy system is zebu-based without the improved feeding and management technologies. The current dairy production system represents the existing mix of traditional and improved dairy production systems (Table 3). The available data indicated that milk production primarily occurs in the Central, Coast, Eastern, Nyanza, Western, and Rift Valley provinces.The ASM analysis compared results from the current dairy technology scenario to the results of the traditional dairy technology scenario. The current dairy technology scenario allowed all the technologies listed above to enter the ASM solution. The traditional dairy scenario allows only the zebu cattle dairy production technology to be used to meet current demand. The results of this comparison were analysed to indicate the impact of the current dairy technology. Results of the ASM (Tables 4-9) showed that crossbreeding has had a positive effect on the economy and social welfare. If current milk demand had to be met with traditional dairy technology rather than improved dairy technology, the raw milk price would be 16.31 Ksh/kg, which is 0.94 Ksh/kg higher, or with 18 Ksh/kg import price 6.1 % higher, as shown in Table 4. The quantity of raw milk produced would be down by 1.81 million tons, or 48.5%. Regional demand for milk in the urban areas of Kenya would drop by some 58 thousand tons and the deficit supply for milk would have to be met from increased imports, totalling some 1.58 million tons with an import price of 18 Ksh/kg. The burden of the price increase for raw milk would fall primarily on home consumption by farmers and their families. Home consumption expenditures would increase some 2.2 billion Ksh. annually (Table 5). Price, production, and regional demand for other commodities would be little affected, as shown in Table 4. The major change in commodity production and price would be a 7.9% decrease in wheat production with a corresponding 2.17% price increase.Regional milk production would decrease if the traditional dairy technology were currently in use to produce all milk. Milk production would be down substantially in the Central, Coast, Nyanza, and Rift Valley provinces, with much less reduction in the Eastern and Western provinces. The impact of change in dairy technology would extend to other commodities that are either substitutes or complements to dairy in production or consumption. In this regard, regional shifts in wheat, maize, millet, and bean production would occur. The Rift Valley and Nyanza provinces would experience increases in maize and bean production while the Western province would have decreases in production of these two crops. Much smaller changes in wheat and millet production would occur (Table 6). Thus, one result of the development and adoption of the improved dairy technologies has been to foster these changes in land use and crop production, allowing the expansion of maize production in the Nyanza and Rift Valley regions with a corresponding reduction of maize production in the Central and Western regions. The changes in the production of these commodities may be explained by the differential requirements for land and labour and the availability of these resources in the different regions. Specific regions may have comparative advantage in the production of specific products that is altered by changes in dairy production technology.There are also differences in regional demands for the commodities especially for subsistence, hence influencing the pattern of production.   The current dairy production scenario resulted in an estimated 285 thousand fewer number of cows required to produce the raw milk to satisfy total demand compared to the traditional dairy scenario. However, the regional distribution of cow numbers has been substantially changed (Tables 7 and 8). For example, the Central and Rift Valley provinces would have a total of 408,323 and 1,124,878 head, respectively, under the current dairy technology scenario. Under the traditional dairy scenario, the Central Region would have to increase cow numbers to 682,663 head, nearly 67% more cows to produce sufficient milk to meet current demand (Table 8). The Rift Valley region would have a total of 1,072,526 dairy cows, a 4% decrease in cow numbers. The Eastern and Western provinces would experience increases in cow numbers by 95.2% and 30.0%, respectively, while the Coast and Nyanza regions would reduce cow numbers by 31.5% and 88.2%, respectively. Labour and cropland usage listed in Table 5 show that the changes in labour and cropland use varies among regions and between the two dairy technology scenarios. Both labour and cropland use would be lower under the traditional dairy scenario as compared with the current dairy technology scenario. This is because the traditional system is less labour intensive and requires more land for grazing compared to the current system. About 30.2 million fewer mandays, or 5.3% less labour, would be required in the dairy, other livestock, and crop enterprises if current demands for milk had to be met with traditional dairy technologies. This decreased labour requirement would be primarily in the Coast, Nyanza, and Rift Valley provinces, which would need an estimated 27.0%, 8.9% and 8.8% less labour on farms, respectively. The Central and Eastern provinces would need more labour: 4.8% and 1.3% more, respectively. This means that the current agricultural system in the Coast, Nyanza, and Rift Valley provinces uses more labour input than would be required under the traditional dairy system. On the other hand, the Central and Eastern provinces are using less labour than would be employed under the traditional dairy system. This may be explained by the fact that these provinces are currently engaged in the production of the more mechanized coffee and tea which would be replaced by the traditional dairy system because of its higher land requirements. Total cropland use for Kenya would be less by some 1024 thousand hectares, or 8.2% with the scenario. This reduction would mainly affect wheat production which would decline by about 8 per cent while the production of other crops would remain largely unaffected (Table 4). The Eastern, Rift Valley and Central provinces would experience a 573, 465, and 17 thousand hectare decrease in cropland use, respectively under the traditional dairy scenario. This is because it would be necessary to release cropland for grazing. In contrast, the Western province would experience an increase of 32 thousand hectares in cropland use under the traditional dairy scenario, perhaps because already 80% of the herd is made up of zebu cattle.The regional economic benefits to producers and consumers from the dairy technology scenarios are summarized in Table 5. Producers' surplus is the return to land, labour, management and risk for all farmers and their families. Home consumption expenditure is the value of food produced and consumed on farms by rural people. Consumers' surplus is the economic benefit accruing to consumers in urban areas. Foreign surplus refers to the trade surplus in Kenya. Farmers and their families benefit from both increases in returns to land, labour, management and risk resources and reductions in home consumption expenditures. Total social welfare is the summation of consumers' surplus, foreign surplus, producers' surplus, and home consumption expenditure.Producers' surplus would be Ksh. 500 million, or 7.4%, less annually if Kenya were to depend only on the traditional dairy technologies (Table 5). The increase in prices that would be occasioned by the reduction in supply of the commodities would not completely offset the effect of the reduction in quantities produced, resulting in a slight decrease in total returns to farmer and family labour and land. Producers in most regions would experience a decrease in returns to these resources; however, producers in the Eastern province would have Ksh. 15 million more income annually. Home consumption expenditures would be higher in each region under the traditional dairy technologies. For Kenya as a whole, these expenditures would be higher by Ksh. 2.24 billion or 4.1 %, annually. When the change in producer surplus and home consumption expenditures are combined, a measure of the economic benefits to farmers and their families from the current dairy technology is obtained. The current dairy technologies resulted in Ksh. 2.74 billion annual gain to producers and their families. The gains varied among regions, ranging from a low of Ksh. 108 million annually in the Western province to a high of Ksh. 1.28 billion annually in the Rift Valley Region.Regional consumers in urban areas would experience economic welfare losses under the traditional dairy technology compared to the current dairy system, amounting to Ksh. 458 million annually. The losses would be primarily to consumers in the Nairobi, Central, Rift Valley and Coast provinces. Consumers in the Eastern, Nyanza, and Western regions would experience economic welfare gains from the traditional system ranging from Ksh. 37 million in the Eastern province to Ksh. 47 million annually in the Western province. The gains to consumers from the current dairy technology have not only come from increased supplies of milk and a lower price, but also from changes in the production quantities and prices of other commodities. Wheat and mutton/goat meat contributed to the gain in consumers' surplus. Maize and beef are commodities that have exhibited losses in consumers' surplus as current dairy technologies were adopted (Table 9). Gains to farm families through reduced home consumption expenditures from the current technology have come primarily from milk. Foreign surplus has increased by Ksh. 318 million annually with the adoption of current dairy technology. In other words, if Kenya relied solely on the traditional dairy technology to meet current milk demand, total social welfare would be lower by Ksh. 2.883 billion or 1.43%, annually. Most of the reduction in social welfare would result from substantially increased imports of milk. As indicated in section 5.1, the economic surplus represents the gross benefits of the crossbreeding programme. In the case of the Kenya ASM, it is summed over all the commodities included in the model. It is worth noting that the costs incurred in the research and development and the maintenance of the programme are not accounted for in the model. Also not accounted for are the forgone benefits of the indigenous breeds, which include the value of the genes lost due to the crossbreeding programme. In addition, indigenous genetic resources have existence value, option value, cultural value, and recreation values that are lost when full-scale crossbreeding is undertaken. These costs and foregone benefits can be substantial. For instance the annual cost of veterinary services in Kenya have risen from a low of just under Ksh. 19 million in 1957/58 to a high of over Ksh. 1.1 billion by 2000/2001 (see Table 10). These costs include both the development and recurrent expenditure. Note also that state expenditure on veterinary services and other livestock development activities was in excess of Ksh. 3 billion in the year 1995/1996. While all these costs cannot be attributed to the advent of crossbreeding programmes, there is no doubt that a sizeable proportion is due to these programmes, that is the introduction of germplasm less adapted to the local environment, hence requiring increased veterinary inputs to survive and remain productive.Other costs include those incurred to import and adapt the exotic germplasm. In 1957/58, 23 per cent of the Veterinary Department's development budget was meant for the `improvement' of indigenous livestock mainly through upgrading of the indigenous stock towards European breeds. In the 1987/88 financial year, 48% of the total government expenditure allocation on livestock development was apportioned to veterinary services. Out of the total allocation for veterinary services, 79.8% was used for disease control, clinical services, livestock/agricultural education and regulatory expenses while 1.2% was spent on artificial insemination services. If, after proper quantification, all the costs and foregone benefits are included in the benefit-cost analysis of crossbreeding programmes, the net benefits may be very small or even negative.This analysis lends tentative support to the hypothesis that the net benefits of crossbreeding programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa are significantly lower than suggested by conventional evaluations. Evaluating the Economic Impact of Crossbreeding at the Farm (Household) Level Using the FLIPSIM ModelThe agricultural sector model (ASM) provides a description of expected impact on production, trade, and economic welfare at regional, national, and global scales for a technological change in agriculture. It also provides information on changes in resource allocations, prices, and quantities consumed. The ASM approach does not, however, examine impacts of technological innovation at the farm level. By incorporating equilibrium price and quantity changes from the ASM solutions into a farm-level economic model such as Farm Level Income and Policy Simulation (FLIPSIM) (Richardson, 1999), an assessment of the impacts of a technological innovation at the farm level may be achieved.A wheat-dairy representative farm scenario was used to evaluate the farm-level economic impacts of adopting the breeding technologies in Kenya. The farm-level analysis considered stochastic conditions with regard to commodity prices and yields for a farm in the wheat-dairy zone. The FLIPSIM model was used to simulate the impact on this farm, of adopting the different breeding options described in section 5.3 above. The base case in this analysis was the unimproved zebu technology. The alternative technologies were: the 50% zebu:50% exotic dairy; the 75% exotic:25% zebu; 100% exotic; and the improved zebu. The stochastic simulations described the risk to a producer associated with adoption of a technology through use of yield and price variations over time and generation of probabilistic projections of future outcomes. Results from the ASM were used to determine changes in equilibrium commodity prices under the different technology scenarios. These national crop and livestock price forecasts were used as a reference base for estimating farm-level commodity prices. Prices from the ASM results were modified by randomly selected error terms, calculated as percentage deviations from observed historical mean prices, and used as initial prices for all years in the FLIPSIM stochastic runs. Certain macro-economic variables included in FLIPSIM, such as the inflation rate, were held constant in the farm-level analysis.Table 11 provides a profile of the wheat-dairy farm used for simulation. Grazing land available was varied from 0 acres (exotic dairy) to 2.0 acres under unimproved zebu system. Total land available was set at 3.5 acres, of which 1 acre was under maize and 0.5 acres under potatoes and pyrethrum. Forage yields were estimated with a forage simulation model and historical yields estimated from previous work undertaken by the Impact Assessment Group (Impact, 2000). Available nutrients for animal consumption were then calculated from these estimated yields. Yields estimated from the forage simulation model applied to the estimated land area provided an estimate of forage yield variation for the wheat-dairy farm under different breeding scenarios. These yield variations were used in the FLIPSIM analysis to estimate the farm-level impacts of the breeding technologies. The stochastic analysis used probability distributions for commodity yields and prices in the simulations. Results from the FLIPSIM analysis are presented in Table 12. They indicate that net present value was highest for the improved zebu followed by pure exotic dairy breeds, the three-quarter upgrades, the half upgrades and the unimproved dairy in that order. The net present value is defined as the present value of net cash farm income plus changes in real net worth over the 10-year planning horizon. Similar patterns were observed for total cash receipts, and net cash farm income for all the breeding scenarios. While the real net worth exhibited the same general pattern, it is noteworthy that the farm would have a higher real net worth if it raised unimproved zebu rather than the half-upgrades. The improved zebu scenario outperformed all the other breeding scenarios on all four measures of the farm's performance given the prevailing farm conditions. The exotic dairy and 75% Exotic:25% Zebu scenarios were next to the improved zebu technology and only minor differences were observed between the two scenarios. The poorest scenario was unimproved zebu followed by the 50% Exotic:50% Zebu. Introduction of the exotic genes increased revenues but net cash farm income increased only slightly perhaps because cash costs increased as well. Further analysis will be required to determine the variation in performance (an indication of the level of risk) that may have accompanied the introduction of the exotic genotypes.The FLIPSIM results show that at the farm level, the introduction of exotic genes results in little improvement in performance. While animal productivity in milk and meat increases with the introduction of exotic genes, this is achieved through higher expenditures on purchased inputs such as veterinary costs, fertilizers, and labour. It is worth noting that the FLIPSIM model accounts only for changes in productivity in milk and meat. It does not account for the foregone benefits of animal draught power and cultural values of the indigenous stock when the latter is replaced by exotic stock at the farm level. If, however, funds were expended on improving the local zebu, the results of the FLIPSIM analysis suggest that farmers stand to gain since farm performance in terms of all four measures is superior. Not only would farmers gain from the increased milk and meat productivity, but also they would retain the benefits of using the indigenous stock for animal draught power and cultural functions. This means that the benefits of improving the zebu would even be higher than suggested by the FLIPSIM analysis. A programme for improving the indigenous stock would, therefore, not only improve farm performance but also would be very supportive of a sustainable conservation programme of indigenous genes at the national and global levels.The analysis of breeding scenarios presented in this sub-section provides results at the household level that are generally not consistent with the aggregative macro-level impacts as revealed by the ASM results for Kenya. However, when the public subsidies are factored into the ASM results, the two analyses are somewhat reconciled and both do not appear to support the introduction of exotic germplasm. According to the ASM, the current dairy technology that has involved crossbreeding, and the complementary nutrition and management improvements has had a positive effect on the Kenyan economy and social welfare. With the adoption of the improved dairy technologies, total social welfare increased by Ksh. 2.883 billion annually. These results indicate that the improved dairy technologies have substantially benefited producers and their families through expanded supplies and lower prices for milk and other commodities and through reduced milk imports.Reductions in the returns to land and labour resources would be nearly equal to the additional savings in home consumption expenditures for rural people. Increased production and consumption of milk accounts for nearly one-third of the increase in welfare of regional consumers in towns and cities, and about 72% of the increase in home consumption expenditures of farmers and their families. These results indicate that domestic consumers in towns and cities are likely to be the major beneficiaries of the breeding research and technology transfer relative to rural producers and their families that adopt the new technologies and increase the available domestic supply of milk.The ASM analysis, however, ignores important social cost components of crossbreeding programmes. Society has incurred enormous costs in the development and maintenance of these technologies. In Kenya, we have seen that the annual costs of veterinary services are substantial. A large proportion of these costs have been necessitated by the introduction of exotic genotypes, which have low resistance and tolerance to diseases and stress. In addition, society has had to forgo the benefits of indigenous livestock represented by non-market values of these animals. Loss of farm-animal biodiversity, the sure result of successful crossbreeding, though difficult to quantify, represents a large cost to society. The value of lost genes may be very high when viewed from an intergenerational perspective. It is therefore, conceivable that the net benefits of crossbreeding are substantially lower than conventional analyses suggest. There is need to develop analytical framework that explicitly takes these costs into account. Indeed, it may well be the tradition of ignoring these costs that has led to unfettered promotion of crossbreeding at the expense of the genetic improvement of the indigenous breeds.The results of the FLIPSIM analysis suggest that the introduction of exotic genes may not have been beneficial at the farm level. Farm performance is little improved by replacing the indigenous zebu with exotic breeds. Farmers who are unable to purchase the inputs required by the exotic inputs would not gain by adopting this technology. On the other hand, the FLIPSIM analysis indicates that a breeding programme that concentrates on improving the local zebu breeds would improve the financial performance at the farm level. This has an important implication for the conservation of farm-animal biodiversity. A conservation programme that has farmers as the central players is not only cost-effective but also sustainable given the scarcity of resources facing many sub-Saharan economies. The tentative nature of these results, however, requires that we exercise caution before making firm conclusions.The tentative nature of the empirical results presented in this report precludes the setting down of firm recommendations. However, a number of actions that need to be undertaken to allow for the delineation of firm recommendations are suggested.(1) There is a need to develop all-inclusive biophysical models to convert changes in traits resulting from breeding to products that can be valued.(2) Implementation of the simple Brush and Meng (1996) methodology to obtain initial estimates of the non-market values of indigenous genetic resources needs to be undertaken under different production systems in selected sub-Saharan countries.(3) Preliminary results indicate that the improvement of the indigenous breeds may have greater benefits compared to crossbreeding. Further analysis needs to be undertaken with simulations covering different agroecological zones and management practices. Some courses of action are suggested below.3.1 The starting point for this analysis would be to establish the expenditures that have so far been incurred in crossbreeding programmes. Using experiences elsewhere and expert opinion it would then be possible to answer the question \"What levels of genetic progress and production would have been achieved if equivalent funds were used on a within-zebu selection programme?\" Kenya would provide a good case study because of its long history of crossbreeding and the generally good records of public expenditure. The analysis should be more inclusive to account for the non-market values of indigenous breeds, as well as other livestock products (in addition to milk and meat), and the lower risk levels associated with indigenous livestock production systems.3.2 Identify key variables and data sources for inputting into the ASM and FLIPSIM for these models to better addresses the issue of evaluating crossbreeding programmes. Some of the key variables not currently accounted for in the ASM are: manure, traction, milk quality, market access and the non-market values. For the FLIPSIM model to be better applicable to the task of evaluating crossbreeding programmes, we need to select representative farms for the various breeding options above. This will entail carrying out PRA's to identify representative farms on which more detailed data collection will be undertaken. Such data are essential for reliable estimation of the risk levels faced by farmers raising different genotypes. Some of the key secondary data may be sourced from the ILRI's Dairy Research Programme and the IMPACT Study Group. Besides these sources, Kenya's Ministry of Finance database on public expenditure would provide estimates of public subsidies to crossbreeding and supporting services. Wherever possible the ministry's estimates will be validated using field surveys.The suggested activities would complement the work reported here by addressing the specific limitations highlighted. They would generate estimates of the outputs and inputs/costs of crossbreeding zebu cattle with exotic breeds for dairy production in Kenya at producer and farm levels. These data would then be used to modify the Kenya ASM and FLIPSIM models (by incorporating key variables currently missing in these models including animal traction, milk quality, market access and the relevant nonmarket values of indigenous cattle) to more accurately estimate the impact of crossbreeding at the farm and national levels. Funds need to be provided to facilitate the case study in Kenya to take advantage of the current experience and initiatives already in place.The suggested activities would complement the work reported here by addressing the specific limitations highlighted. They would generate estimates of the outputs and inputs/costs of crossbreeding zebu cattle with exotic breeds for dairy production in Kenya at producer and farm levels. These data would then be used to modify the Kenya ASM and FLIPSIM models (by incorporating key variables currently missing in these models including animal traction, milk quality, market access and the relevant non-market values of indigenous cattle) to more accurately estimate the impact of crossbreeding at the farm and national levels. Funds need to be provided to facilitate the case study in Kenya to take advantage of the current experience and initiatives already in place.Appendix I: Some performance parameters (averaged) of unimproved Zebu and Dairy cattle upgrades in Kenya ","tokenCount":"13407"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"24a26c05f0aa69822823adaed74b4f6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13f8118d-c8c8-4112-891d-3530c6082bdd/retrieve","id":"-2042827051"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aa31a02b-d6ef-41cd-a297-7a0985b3040d","pagecount":"18","content":"Levantamento dos danos economicos causados pelo arroz vermelho PROJETO No. II Efeito da rotaQao cultural com soja no controle do arroz vermelho PROJETO No. !II Eficiencia de variedades precoces para reduzir lotes infestados com arroz vermelho PROJETO No. IV Eficiencia da gradagem sucessiva na eleminaQao do arroz vermelho PROJETO No. V Eficiencia do Plantio Direto no controle de arroz vermelho PROJETO No. VI Efeito de sementes contaminadas por arroz vermelho sobre o rendimento e infestaQao de lotes novos PROJETO No. VII Eficiencia de barra qu!mica (Rope Wickl no controle do arroz vermelho ANEXO: Necessidades de um programa para combater o arroz vermelho 1. Equipamentos 2. Pessoal CONTROLE DE ARROZ VERMElHO (1) 1 -lNTRODU!;Jl:O Atualmente sao cultivados aproximadamente 680.000 ha com arroz irrigado no Rio Grande do Sul com uma produ~ao anual em torno de 3.200.000 t. Nos últimos cinco anos houve um grande aumento na produ~ao devido, principalmente. a introdu~ao de cultivares de alta capacidade de rendimento. Na safra 1984/85 o rendlmento me dio do Estado fol 4.760 t/ha. Ainda que estes avan~os sejam notaveis estao longe do potencial produtívo das cultivares do tipo moderna. Conseqftentemente. a simples introdu;io de cultivares no.as .io ter um Impact~ mfnimo na produtivldade devido a existincia de outras 11 míta~oes.Para que as cultivares do tipo moderno exteriorizem SUI capacidade genética de produ;ao necessitam de um conjunto de priticas agronomicas melhoradas que hoje limitam os rendimentos.Ha pucas dúvidas que a limita~io principal seja a grande incidencia de arroz vermelho nas hvouras do RS. Este pro .blema e malor em terras arrendadas que atualmente representam aproximadamente 70% da area semeada. Os orizicultores frenqaent~ mente argumentam que a produtividade em areas arrendadas é a ~ tade da verificada em terras proprias. atrtbuindo esta grande d1 feren~a a maior infesta~ao de arroz vermelho. Também o rendimento das variedades modernas em ensalas regionais e parcelas de d! monstra~¡¡o. onde nao exIste o arroz vermelho. os rendlmentos ati.!). gem 7 a 8 toneladas. Em contraste estas mesmas variedades nas la vauras dos produtores raramente rendem mais que 5,5 t/hi.Em grande parte as diferen~as ae rendimento sao explicadas pela elevaea infesta~ao de arroz vermelho nestas lavoo ras.As perdas economicas causadas pelo arroz vermelho sao enormes. Se esta reduzindo o rendimento somente 20% (~O t/ha) os prejuizos sofrido pelos agricultores estao na ordem de US$100 milhoes anual.(1) Preparado por Pedro R. Souza e Maur;cio M. Fischer com cola-bora~ao do Dr. E. l. Pulver do CIAT.Devido a estes danos económicos e necessario que se estabeleG3 um PROGRAMA DE PESqUISA que desenvolva metados que possam reduzir significativamente a incidencia desta invasora nas la-YQuras dos produtores.Atualmente sao empregadas pelos agricultores vari~ as pritlcas. tratando de reduzir a incidencia desta invasora, entretanto, nio sabemos a real eficiencia ~e nenhuma dessas priticas.Na zona sul alguns produtores estao utilizando um siatema de prep3ra~io do solo no verio. Neste sistema se prepara o sOlo,lnc1uindo aplainamento. nos meses de janeiro ate mar~o,após semeia-se pastagem. o arroz vermelho que nasce juntamente com a pastagem i consumido pelo gado. Nos meses de outubro e novembrQ o solo e preparado novamente e semeia-se arroz. Este sistema tem tres grandes vantagens, segunda es produtores, a primeira é de melhoraproveitamento das maquinas, facilitando semeaduras mais ripidas, a segunda é a obten,io de pastos para os animais no período de iove! no e como terceira vantagem a redu,ao da incidencia de arroz yerro! lho no cultivo seguinte de arrriz.Os agricultores dizem que o método reduz a inciden cta do arroz vermelho na ordem de 10%, sendo que as razoes principais para a utiliza,ao deste método, o melho~. uso da maquinaria e a pastagem para os animais. Em resumo nao 1he parece que esta é urna forma efetiva para o controle do arroz vermelho.Outra pratica, que e multo comum no estado e a gr~ dagem sucessiva. Com este sistema a prepara,ao esta se3do feita bem antecipada, ou .seja nos meses de agosto e setembro. Sendo per mitido a germlna~ao do arroz vermelho que .pos e eliminado com gra .dagem. Esta opera~ao pode se\\ repetida varias vezes ate semear em outuoro e novembro.Seguramente o sistema está reduzindo a quantidade de sementes no solo, mas nio existe informa~oes sobre a quantidade que esta reduzindo. E necessario avaliar a efetividade desta p~i tica, para determinar o número de gradagems necessarlas para reduzlr efetivamente a popul.,30 de plantas invasoras.Mals recentemente esta se utilizando a pritica do Plantio dirato com cultivo mlnimo. Ka safra Be/SS aproximadamente 2.000 h~ foram plantados utilizando esta pratlca, estqndo previstas para a próxima safra urna área de aproximadamente 16.000 ha a serem implantados. O sistema consiste num preparo inicial do solo com gradagens, aplainamento e compacta~ao, permitindo após a gc~ minal,;ao do arroz vermelho e outras invasoras. ApÓs U'!l período de tempo de 30 a 60 dias é aplicado ~ produto químico pos emergente nao seletivo (corno glifosato) para eliminar o arroz vermelhoe as outras invasoras, após 24 horas da aplicaqao o arroz é semeado em linha com ~'!la semeadeira que pode penetrar em solos compas tos, sem revolver o solo entra as 1inhas. Ainda que haja umaut;!.. lizaqao da prática pelos agricultores existe muito pouca infor~ 9ao sobre a efetividade do sistema, bem como sobre análises economieas. A grande desvantagem,deste sistema é, que os agrioultores tem que adquirir ~'!la semeadeira especial que pcde sornear no máximo 20 ha por dia; Outro prob1e~a é o alto ousto do produto químiCO utilizado ( glifosato US $ 1,/lt por 4 lt/he '\" L'S$ 60/ha). Sendo necessários pesquisar o número de aplica90es r~queridas ~ tes de sernear, a dosagem necessária levando em conta o número de folhas do arroz vermelho e a possibUidade de utUiza\",ao de outras produtos químiCOS que tem menores custos: T~bém é nscess4 río'investigar a distancia entre as linhas, tratando de previnir o revolVi!:l¡mto do solo durante a semeadura\" ApÓs coletar todas estas inrorma90es dcve-se fazer a análise economica do sistema completo.uro sistema que também está sendo iniciado o uso, é a barra química (Ropa Hick). Neste sistema qur:r.do há a dife-rencia<;ao do arroz ver:nelho pela al t<U'a em relac¡ao a cul tivar P!!l!l tada, se passa com Q~ tubo com cordas empregnadas oom g11fosato.Este sistema é bem popular nos E.U.A. no controle de milho em campos de soja, coro equip~entos adaptados a extensoos grandes, que nao existem no BrasU. ~ factivel que co~ o uso das rodas de ferro de perfil \"V\" que permitem a entrada dos tratares nas lavouras já com água, combinadas com um aplicador de cordas ( Rope Wick ) na rrente do trator.A grande desvantagem do sistema e que estamos el~ minando o arroz verme1ho anós ele ter reduzidoo rendimento pela oompeti~ao; Esta técnica sem dúvida tém um potenoial na pro-dU9ao de sementes isentas do arroz vermelho;Como as outras técnicas descritas também nao exi~ tero informa~oes sobre a eficiencia;A rota~ao de culturas é ~~a das prátioas mais antigas a previnir a infestagao das invasoras nocivas. O sistema maia prático no Rio Grande do Sul é a rota~ao de soja com arroz. Este s5.stema e'stá li: .. itado a ca.':lpos ondg existcm boa drenagem e sucet!vel a urna influencia grande. do mercado de soja; Sendo que atualmente é necessário de$en~olver ~ariedadas de soja adaptadas ao solo de varzea, bem como determinar a eficiencia do número de rota~oes e o e~eito do cultivo sucessivo de soja em lavouras de arroz bem como a eficiencia dos herbicidas de soja para o contr.Q l . do arroz vermelho.O sistema de lI~anguCO\" com aplica'iao de produtos, em doses altas na água seguida do emprego de sementes pré germinadas é bem e~etivo: Mas nao é prático para a zona do Rio Grande do Sul onde existem grandes extensoes de área e 1imita'ioes de O primeiro passo é estabelecer a rela'iao entre a pcpula'iao do arroz vermelho e OS danos economicos causados. Este dado e excencial para convencer os produtores sobre a necessidade de combater, ta~bém este dado é exceneial para avaliar os sl § temas de controle qua~to a L,álise economica dos diferentes méto dos de controle. Igualmente estes dados sao neeessários para que se conven'ia as autoridades, sobre a necessidade de implanta'iao de U~ programa de sementes que estabele'ia a limita~ao da semente ~ calizada em zero de arroz vermelho e liberem recursos ~inaneeiros e h~anos para este programa.O segundo passo e avaliar a efetividade das pratieas mais promissoras que os produtores estao utilizando atualmen~ te, tais como, a gradagem sucessiva, direrentes varia~oes de p1~' tio direto e a rotagao de culturas.Detalhes sobre estes projetos estao anexo., IV -~ESSlDADES PAR&. II'.PLANTA($lo DO PROGRAKA Atualmente nos projetos de pesquisa desenvolvidos pelo IRGA existem paucas atividades dirigidas a limita'iao principal -Arroz Vermelho. , As pesquisas que estao em andamento na área de agz:g nom1a, nao viro resul tar em impacto's na produ;ao. ConseqUentemen te é necessário a troea de diretrizes de pesquisa e de material ~ mano ou contratar mais recursos humanos para um programa concentrA O ponto final é muito claro: tiA ¡-leta S Zero\" de arroz vermelho na semente fiscalizada.Devido o arroz vermelho ser \"Orizea sativa\" é muito (imposs{vel) encontrar produtos qu{micos que va eliminar selet! vamente nos campos de arroz. O arroz vermelho tem a grande vantagem de ter ciclo curto e fácil desgrane. condi~oes estas que favorecem a reinfestagio dos campos ano apÓs ano. Também taiss~ mentes tem latencia grande que permitem a sementes permanecer no solo por vário anos.ConseqUentemente a única forma de combater esta invasora e desenvolvem urna forma integrada de controle e aPlica-la • por varios anos.O programa integrado tem que ser dirigido a reduzir a populagao existente no solo e prevenir a reprodugao que vá reinfestar os campos. A única forma de prevenir a introdugao .de novas fontes de infesta.ao e a utilizagao de sementes livres do arroz vermelho, portanto a tolera~cia permitida. te~ que ser \"Z~ ro\".Igualmente as Plantas que estao crescendo com o cu! tivo. tem que ser eliminadas antes da reprodugao. propondo-se 2 tipos de práticas para facilitar a eli:n.tnagao. A primeira é o uso de variedades do mesmo ciclo(precoces) do arroz vermelho, ca lhendo os 2 simultaneamente~ A segunda ~orma é sesear variedades de ciclo medio e porte baixo e eliminar o arroz ver\"-elho que é mais alto coro aplicador de cordas (Rope-Wick) montado em tratares com rodas de ferro de perfil. Para reduzir a quantidade no solo . ' . e poss~vel fazer varias gradagens combinadacom urna forma de sem~ sr (semeadura direta ou semear com mínimo revol\\~mento do solo). O arroz vermelho que germina apÓs a semeadura deve ser eliminado com ~~a das formas descritas anteriormente.No primeiro ano do programa de controle de arroz veX melho está dirigido a estudar a eficiencia das várias for:r.as de CC!l trole. selecionar as melhores técnicas e integrar estas em ~~ pacote;No segundo ano levar o pacote a lavouras de produtores e avaliar a queda da infestagao e o a~~ento do rendimento sobre vários anos. bem como fazer uma .análise economica do paco te Selecionar varias lavouras infestadas com arrozver melho e identificar parcelas de 3m X 3m que contenham varias .populacoes de arroz vermelho. As populacoes necessarias sao as se<¡¡uintes: l. Testemunha -O plantas de vermelho/m' 2. O a 5 plantas de vermelho/m' 3. 5 a 10 plantas de vermelho/m' 4. 10 a 20.plantas de vermelho/m' \\ 5. 20 a 50 plantas devermelho/m' 6. 50 a 100 plantas de vermelho/m' 7. Acima de 100 plantas de vermelho/m' ~ necessario identificar as parcelas com os diversos nIveis de infestacao. aproximadamente 90 a 100 dias apás a semeadura e contar a populacáo de arroz vermelho nos 93'.Na rnaturacao colher a parcela previamente identificada. Em c~ da lavoura deve-se fazer 3 repeticoes de cada nIvel de infestacao.o ensaio deve ser repetido em varias lavouras e em regioes distintas.No final teremos urna curva com a populacao de arroz vermelho•x•réndimento de graos nas duas cultivares em diferentes regioes.    Determinar as doses otimas de Paraquat e Glifosato para eliminar o arroz verrnelho.1-2 produtos (paraquat. glifosato).11-5' doses ( 2; 2.5; 3; 3.5; 4 lt/ha de produto comercial).111-!pocas de aplica~ao ( 2; 4; 6 1'olhas) O total é 30 tratamentos com 3 repeti~oes em parcelas de l x 3 m. OBJETIVO: Estudar a possibilidade do uso da barra qu{mica para eliminar a reintestayao das lavouras.Em um lote bem infestado de arroz vermelho se passa várias vezes urna barra qu!mica (Rope Wick) montado na frente de um trator com rodas de ferro perfil V.Estudos anteriores demonstran que o arroz vermelho morre com dosagem de 50' de glifosato.Atualmente existe equipamento para aplicayao manual com eapaeidade de aplieayao de no máximo 4 hectares por día, mas é necessária a sua utilizacao em tratores para aplicar em extensoes grandes. O equipamento para trator tem que ter um controle de altura e também angular. ","tokenCount":"2113"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4bd35c49f29f647eb11da1e927ca8294","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/927261b4-1d00-4c88-8364-218a61851596/retrieve","id":"-648984134"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8edcd06e-99d3-4649-99e1-8bda0d4ea786","pagecount":"78","content":"Primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi, in contrast to other farmer-level organizations, have legal status and can own assets, borrow money for their operations, and sign contracts, making it easier for them to do business for the profit of their members. Conceptually, such cooperatives enable their member-farmers to achieve economies of scale for their commercial activities. By joining together in a cooperative, members can obtain commercial inputs at lower prices closer to wholesale prices than if they purchased the inputs as individuals. In selling their output, by aggregating their crops and other products into larger lots that the cooperative then negotiates to sell on their behalf, buyers can achieve greater efficiency in buying from them and can be expected to offer a premium over the prices that they would offer farmers selling those products individually. Cooperatives can also serve farmers in providing an important channel for obtaining information and advice to increase their productivity and the profitability of their farming. Moreover, by joining together to achieve common objectives in primary agricultural cooperatives, member-farmers can exercise greater influence on local and national policy issues of concern to them, while also building social cohesion, solidarity, and trust within their communities.The development of agricultural cooperatives is an important component of the agricultural and rural development vision of the government of Malawi, featuring prominently in key development policies. Such cooperatives are viewed as an important vehicle for achieving the goals on agricultural productivity and commercialization set out in the first pillar of the development vision for the country, Malawi 2063. Correspondingly, many of the strategy statements and investment plans of the government's development partners involved with agricultural development include commitments for increased engagement in strengthening primary agricultural cooperatives. However, despite their prominence in agricultural development policy discussions, there is a relatively poor understanding of the number of such cooperatives nationally, how well they are performing, and what public investments would enable them to maximize the benefits they provide their member-farmers.Recognizing this knowledge gap, the research described in this report was conducted in early 2022 to provide a more detailed evidence base on primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi. Data for analysis were collected from multiple sources, including published and unpublished documents on agricultural cooperatives, both from Malawi and elsewhere; an existing household survey dataset; interviews with key informants involved with agricultural cooperatives in Malawi, and focus groups discussions at the primary agricultural cooperative level with member-farmers and with cooperative leadership, separately.Overall, there is a low level of penetration of primary agricultural cooperatives in farming communities in Malawi. Nationally, the government has registered about 950 such cooperatives, although the accuracy of the register of cooperatives is problematic. Under 10 percent of communities report having a primary cooperative. In terms of their development into professional commercial organizations, most agricultural cooperatives in Malawi are at an infant stage, with most being dependent on external financial and technical support, often having low management capacity and weak governance, and many providing through their commercial activities no clear or reliable benefits for their member-farmers.While cooperatives can contribute to mindset change among their members to foster increased farm productivity and greater commercialization, key informants highlighted that primary agricultural cooperatives often fall into a trap of dependency on external resources and leadership. Financial and technical aid can be a powerful external motivator and, therefore, comes with the danger of undermining any internal motivations for the formation of a cooperative. To ensure their sustainability, it is important to guard the authenticity of cooperatives as farmer-formed and farmer-led organizations. Cooperative support programs should be designed specifically to incentivize cooperatives with internally motivated members.vii Cooperative membership in Malawi in general is quite inclusive, at least in so far as membership of most includes both women and youth. This is at least in part driven by requirements from funders. However, leadership positions in cooperatives are less well-balanced, and it remains unclear how inclusive cooperatives are with respect to socioeconomic factors beyond age and gender.However, there are some remarkable success stories among agricultural cooperatives in Malawi. Examples are presented in the report of agricultural cooperatives that have built strong management teams and professionalized their operations; have successfully identified, entered, and operated within new, more remunerative markets; have implemented significant innovations in how their members farm; have moved beyond farming and primary production to value-addition and trading; and through all these advances and improvements have generated significant income for their members. While these examples of highly successful primary agricultural cooperatives may be relatively unique and difficult to replicate in their entirety, newer cooperatives can use the successful ones as models, adapting for their own situation some elements of the approaches that were important to the success of those older cooperatives. The government and its development partners can play an enabling role in this process. Recommendations for policies and investments are made and motivated throughout the report and summarized in Section 5.The government of Malawi has placed primary agricultural cooperatives near the center of its strategic vision for how to accelerate agricultural development and to transform the economies of rural communities across the country. It is important to recognize, however, that cooperatives cannot simply leapfrog existing barriers to agricultural development. Just like other actors in this sector, their success will, to a large extent, depend on solving other well-known constraints to growth: weak markets; the unpredictability of government interventions in the sector; poor transportation, communication, and marketing infrastructure; and unreliable supplies of staple foods in local markets forcing farmers to continue to engage in maize production for subsistence, to name a few. Continuing to make public investments in rural infrastructure more generally and strengthening the institutions that support farming households, including those in agricultural extension, research, and rural finance, are crucial forms of support that the government needs to provide primary agricultural cooperatives if they are to thrive alongside other actors. Without improved agricultural policies, most new cooperatives will be unable to surmount the many hurdles they face and, so, will fail. The right policy environment combined with professional cooperatives will ensure that these farmer organizations perform well for their diverse membership, helping farming household to significantly commercialize their production and to expand the contributions they make to Malawi's economy.Agriculture is critical to Malawi's economy, with the sector contributing 23 percent to total GDP in 2020.Farming is central to the welfare of most households-agriculture is a principal livelihood for over 80 percent of the population (World Bank 2022). Most of this population is made up of smallholder farming households. Individual farming households operate at a small scale, farming, on average, only 0.65 hectares of land-75 percent of farmers have access to less than one hectare of cropland. Thus, cooperatives and other types of farmer organizations are one way to achieve economies of scale and greater efficiency in the production and marketing of agricultural commodities in Malawi. Participating farmers should see greater returns to their farming through their joint efforts.Because of agriculture's importance to Malawi, many government policies, interventions, and programs focus on agriculture and rural development. Among the strategies advocated for accelerating such development is sharply increasing the share of farming households that are members of primary agricultural cooperatives. Such farmer-based organizations are expected to benefit their members in several ways:• Improved bargaining power in agricultural markets for producers (Bernard et al. 2010;Franc et al. 2015;Navarra and Francini 2015;Penrose-Buckley 2007;Wiggins and Keats 2020).• Improved market access and reduced product transportation costs through aggregation of farm produce into larger lots (Ministry of Agriculture 2020; Penrose-Buckley 2007).• Reduced transactions costs through economies of scale that are possible when market transactions involve larger quantities (Bernard 2010;Francesconi et al. 2015;Wiggins and Keats 2020).• Improved access to services for member-farmers, including to agricultural extension and advisory services and other training opportunities, to credit providers, and to contract mediation to resolve any commercial disputes (Ministry of Agriculture 2020; Penrose-Buckley 2007; Vicari and Borda-Rodriguez 2014).• Greater political representation and influence (Ministry of Agriculture 2020; Penrose-Buckley 2007; Wiggins and Keats 2020); and• Strengthened social cohesion, solidarity, and trust (Ministry of Agriculture 2020).At the same time, there are potential drawbacks to agricultural cooperatives. Incentive problems inherent to cooperatives include free-riding, in which individuals are able to benefit from investments without bearing any of their costs. Free-riding on the commercial benefits that cooperatives generate weakens incentives for individuals to become or to continue to be vested dues-paying members of cooperatives (Valentinov 2007). The horizon problem, a second incentive problem, is a result of the time period needed to generate the maximum returns on any investments a cooperative may make possibly being longer than the investment time horizon of its individual members. Members may seek an earlier economic return on their membership in the cooperative, so will advocate for the cooperative to undertake shorter, sub-optimal investments, resulting in opportunity costs for the cooperative as a whole (Olesen 2007). Cooperatives also must be able to raise sufficient capital for their business ventures, which is a challenge in the context of Malawi where access to formal agricultural credit is poor (Lwanda 2013). Moreover, agricultural cooperatives in Malawi are not exempt from tax, which could substantially increase operating costs for the cooperative, resulting in higher membership fees (Gondwe 2018). 1  Cooperatives and other farmer-based organizations are increasingly seen as a potentially important engagement channel between government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) engaged in agricultural and rural development, on one side, and farmers on the other. For example, government's strategic vision for how smallholder farmers are to access extension services, inputs, and markets is progressively via primary agricultural cooperatives and other farmer groups, even if few report now doing so.Moreover, government promotes inclusiveness and participation of all social and age groups as one of the principles of the Farmer Organization Development Strategy (FODS) (Ministry of Agriculture 2020).Cooperatives and other farmer-based organizations are expected to be designed and to operate in a manner that will allow them to include in their membership all types of smallholder farming households.Building increasingly diverse membership across agricultural cooperatives will extend the benefits of public investments in agriculture and broader economic growth to generate increased incomes for all those involved in farming so that they are better able to meet the needs of their household members.For this report we focus on primary agricultural cooperatives, rather than the full range of farmer organizations, many of which may have no commercial motivation. This restriction to cooperatives is done, first, to set boundaries to and to focus the study. Second, the government of Malawi has placed primary agricultural cooperatives near the center of its strategic vision for how to accelerate agricultural development and transform the economies of rural communities across the country. Cooperatives are to increasingly be the institutions through which farming households in Malawi sell their farm output, while also serving as the channel through which smallholders obtain farm inputs. These farmer-level organizations are to support farming households in shifting their production strategies from a focus on subsistence and meeting their household needs directly through their own farming to increasingly engaging in market-oriented production and using their improved farm income to meet their consumption needs by purchasing what they require.A cooperative is defined as an \"autonomous body of individuals with common economic, social, or cultural goals through a jointly-owned, democratically-controlled enterprise (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, xv).\" (See Annex A for definitions of key terms related to cooperatives and other farmer organizations in Malawi.) There are three levels in the organization of cooperatives nationally-primary cooperative societies, comprised of individuals (Text Box 1.1); unions or secondary societies, comprised of primary cooperatives; and a national apex organization, comprised of cooperative unions (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, 7). In Malawi, the apex organization is the Malawi Federation of Cooperatives (MAFECO).The importance of cooperatives and other farmer organizations is recognized both in the National Agricultural Policy for Malawi (MAIWD 2016) and in the National Agricultural Investment Plan (NAIP) (MAIWD 2018), which lays out how the priorities established in the Policy are to be achieved. The NAIP sets the strengthening of such organizations as the second of its 16 intervention areas. The overall outcome for this intervention area is \"Performance and outreach of farmer organizations strengthened at all levels.\" During the implementation period of the NAIP, 2017 to 2023, work will be done to achieve two intermediate outcomes necessary to achieving the overall outcome:• \"IO 2.1: Legal framework and institutional support for farmer organizations strengthened.• \"IO 2.2: Strong, well-organised and inclusive farmer organizations conduct business and provide services to their members.\"However, despite the prominence of farmer cooperatives in these two central policy statements guiding actions to develop Malawi's agricultural sector, information concerning farmer organizations in Malawi in general, and agricultural cooperatives in particular, is incomplete, outdated, and fragmented. In consequence, the current performance of agricultural cooperatives in Malawi is not well understood by agricultural policy researchers or by program implementers. The potential benefits that such institutions might offer individual farmers in terms of access to production and marketing information, to crop and other agricultural inputs, and to output markets that offer higher prices than farmers might obtain on their own need to be examined more closely. Information on how inclusive agricultural cooperatives are would also be valuable, but is not readily available.The context for this research includes the current productivity and commercialization challenges facing smallholders in Malawi and the focus of government and its development partners on expanding and strengthening agricultural cooperatives to attain the agricultural development vision for the country. The goal of our research is to provide information that can be used to enhance the performance and inclusiveness of agricultural cooperatives so that they can more effectively and profitably conduct business on behalf of their small-scale member-farmers and provide the services needed by those members (Figure 1.1). For the purposes of this paper, we define performance as the actual outputs of an organization-here, primary agricultural cooperatives-as measured against its intended outputs or goals.Our research on the performance of primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi was done through an extensive literature review, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and site visits.Text Box 1.1. How do primary agricultural cooperatives operate in Malawi?Primary cooperatives are formed in Malawi to undertake collective marketing and obtain services. They:• use capital obtained from membership dues and past profits to purchase members' produce at a mutually agreed upon price; • aggregate produce from the individual members; and • market the produce based on the size and quality of the lot to potential buyers who typically will pay a premium price to obtain good quality produce in a large amount in order to obtain economies of scale.Typically, a proportion of the revenue from the sale of the produce is retained by the cooperative to fund future commercial activities and to cover management costs. At the end of the financial year, remaining revenue is then distributed as income to the members of the cooperative in proportion to their relative share of ownership in the cooperative. Some cooperatives purchase from nonmembers, but those nonmembers do not receive dividends from profits, nor do they benefit from member pricing-members have lower warehouse storage fees, for instance.In addition, cooperatives offer members:• access to agricultural advisory and extension services;• management and financial training and technical training; and• loan facilitation.Increasingly, cooperatives also are being encouraged to add value to their agricultural produce.As legal entities, cooperatives can own capital, machinery, and land; sign contracts; and access special funding schemes or borrow money for their operations. This makes it easier for them to do business than is the case for farmer organizations not registered as cooperatives.Source: Authors. This report on the research on primarily agricultural cooperatives in Malawi will give stakeholders a better understanding of the current performance of these cooperatives-why and how they work or do not work-and what investments are needed or institutions strengthened to sustainably improve their performance. We provide policy recommendations and other messages to an audience that includes government agencies, primary agricultural cooperatives and their umbrella organizations, development partners and other donors of funds to efforts to strengthen cooperatives, private sector partners who are keen to engage commercially with cooperatives, and NGOs and other development program implementers that work closely with cooperatives. Our findings will provide evidence to this audience and other stakeholders as they work to develop strategies and mechanisms to build the capacity and inclusivity of cooperatives, as well as guidance on the institutional support system and legal frameworks needed to enable them to operate most effectively on behalf of their members. In this way, the vision of such cooperatives making substantial contributions to agricultural sector growth and to improved welfare for farming households is more likely to be realized. Through increased economies of scale, cooperatives help farmers achieve several agricultural production or marketing objectives more efficiently or profitably than individual farmers would be able to achieve on their own (Wiggins & Keats 2013). However, cooperatives must have good performance and be commercially successful to provide benefits to their members. We examine here the theoretical literature on cooperatives and their performance to develop conceptual frameworks to guide the design of our study.To understand how cooperatives can be successful, the cost-benefit framework of Johnston and Clark (1982) provides insights-the benefits a farmer receives from participating in cooperative activities must outweigh the benefits a farmer could achieve alone (Curtis 1991;Wiggins & Keats 2013). Many factors contribute to the success, performance, or \"health\" (Cook & Burress 2009) of cooperatives. Sexton and Iskow (1988) identified several organizational, financial, and operational factors as correlates of successful agricultural cooperatives in the United States. These included open membership and full-time management. In Poland, success was associated with leadership strength, group size, business relationships among members, and member selection processes (Banaszak 2008).The \"structure-conduct-performance\" paradigm is useful for this study: market structure, which is an external factor, affects the organization and conduct of a firm, of which cooperatives are a type. The conduct of the firm in turn affects its performance (Tan 2016). With regards to primary agricultural cooperatives, the types of conduct of interest are the actions of the cooperative regarding price taking or collusion. For farmer cooperatives, as for most firms, performance can be measured by profitability and by efficiency indicators, among others (Tan 2014). Similarly, Richard et al. (2009) state that organizational performance is based on three outcomes: financial, such as profits; product market, such as sales or market share; and shareholder return. Shiferaw, Hellin, and Muricho (2011) used profitability as an indicator of the success of agricultural cooperatives across Africa, alongside their degree of autonomy and level of member participation. In Ethiopia, Bernard et al. (2010), examining how successful cooperatives were in staple crop marketing, used as success indicators marketing performance, which included the value of produce sold by each cooperative studied, knowledge of prices in cities by cooperative leaders, and the degree to which intermediaries were used for commercial transactions.Also in Africa, Francesconi and Wouterse (2017), in a study aimed at optimizing and scaling up the impact of cooperative development interventions, note several principles that contribute to the success of primary agricultural cooperatives. The authors link these to the universal cooperative principles of the International Cooperative Alliance (2015). The principles the authors highlighted include regulated entry of new members in the cooperative, exit bonuses 2 to prevent side selling, a democratic cooperative governance structure, voluntary tradable investments, visionary leadership, and socioeconomic balance in the membership.In Zambia, Siame (2020) presented a theoretical framework for a \"social venturing and cooperative entrepreneurship business model.\" Such a cooperative enterprise business model is one comprised of both social and technical systems. Siame asserts that the performance of cooperatives that are organized and operate according to the model results from factors within the cooperative itself, including in-ternal governance forms; the institutional, legal and policy environment in which the cooperative operates; and incentive structures (Siame 2020, 235). Moreover, although the focus of our research is on cooperatives in Malawi that focus on commodity production, Siame emphasizes that primary agricultural cooperatives can be located anywhere along agrifood value chains-they can be positioned to facilitate input supply, commodity production, value addition, wholesale sales, or retail (Siame 2020). Nkhoma (2011), in a thesis on cooperatives in Malawi, examined the international research literature on the factors affecting the success or the failure of cooperatives. The author divides these into external and internal factors: Lwanda ( 2013) similarly studied cooperative business performance in Malawi, confirming Nkhoma's findings that both internal factors, including managerial skills, business structure, and capacity, and external factors, including the policy and market environments, affect cooperative performance.In a case study analysis of a specific cooperative in Malawi, the Phata Sugarcane Outgrowers Cooperative, carried out by Landesa Rural Development Institute (Text Box 2.1), the \"building blocks\" necessary for sustaining success in a commercial cooperative outgrower scheme were found to include (Landesa 2019, 5):• Community demand • Management, money, and market-the \"Three M's\"• Access to land and water These insights were echoed by AgDevCo (2018), who listed the reasons for the success of Phata as including: demand-led activities; expert management; reliable markets; prudent financial management, including sufficient levels of reinvestment; community-created constitution; independent board members; and continuous capacity building.Specific to the Malawi context, stakeholders have identified many of the key challenges adversely affecting the performance of farmer organizations across the country. The national strategy for farmer organizations, FODS, highlights insufficient human resource capacity; weak leadership and governance structures; insufficient financing; low production and productivity; unreliable output markets; a weak policy environment; and insufficient coordination as important challenges facing all farmer organizations, including cooperatives (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, 14).In addition to the quality of cooperative performance based on profitability and efficiency indicators, inclusion is an important measure of success, given the government's promotion of participation by all social groups in farmer organizations (Ministry of Agriculture 2020). Much of the theoretical literature talks about the importance of \"homogenous interests\" (Cook and Burress 2009;Ortmann and King 2007) among the members of a cooperative. Heterogeneity among the members of a cooperative-in terms of age, sex, socioeconomic group, and the like-may make identification of common interests among cooperative members difficult. It is quite likely that the more homogeneous a primary cooperative is, the more effectively it will operate, due to the members having a larger set of shared interests and objectives, values, and expected patterns of group conduct.However, having homogeneous primary cooperatives does not necessarily work against inclusiveness within primary agricultural cooperatives as a whole. Heterogeneous interests can be served through a diversity of primary agricultural cooperatives locally. This requires that all types of farming households, particularly female-headed and youth-headed, can find in their communities or immediate surrounding areas primary cooperatives to join that are aligned with their own interests and can support them to be as effective as possible in meeting their own needs through their farming. Any single primary agricultural cooperative may not be suited for all households that farm in an area. However, with sufficient choice locally in the cooperatives a farming household might join, the household will be able to receive the benefits cooperatives can offer.An important additional component contributing to cooperative performance is the ability to change or to innovate (Bernard et al. 2010;Penrose-Buckley 2007). Institutional innovation is defined by Rafaelli and Glynn (2015, 2)   (Landesa 2019). This case provides an example of success through participatory approaches, collectivism, governance structures, and management. Its members switched their production from being primarily subsistence oriented to being much more commercially oriented by growing sugarcane in a joint manner by pooling their land. This innovation in how they farmed came from the smallholders themselves.Management also has played a key role in Phata's profitability and, hence, its success. The cooperative members agreed to hire a management company to maximize its financial performance. A private company runs the operation in return for 5 percent of production revenues. Furthermore, emphasis is placed on reinvestment and loan repayment, with 40 percent of profits going back into the cooperative to cover costs and to repay loans, with the remainder being paid out to members as dividends. This organizational and management structure is set up transparently, with clear decision-making mechanisms and regulations.However, access to sufficient financial resources also has played a role in Phata's success. The cooperative was able to obtain loans from the European Union to expand its operations under the new production system and management structure.Source: Gammelgaard et al. 2021;Landesa 2019. scheme, through their reinvestment and dividend payment policies, and by hiring external management professionals.Finally, Porritt (2007) highlighted \"five capitals\" necessary for sustainable performance by a firm that operates on capitalist principles. Most primary agricultural cooperatives are among these types of firms.The elements required for a firm to deliver products or services consistently and profitably include possessing adequate and appropriate natural capital, human capital, social capital, manufactured (physical) capital, and financial capital.We drew upon the research literature, both theoretical and empirical, to develop a conceptual framework on the factors which affect the performance of primary agricultural cooperatives and their performance (Table 2.1). Following Nkhoma (2011), we organize these into external and internal sub-sets, but also include the five capitals noted by Porritt (2007) and additional factors or indicators noted by other researchers. Source: Authors, with insights from Nkhoma (2011) and Porritt (2007).These factors were then used as the basis for the content of the questionnaires and interview guides used in the key informant interviews and focus group discussions for the research. We also used these factors in structuring the analysis of the data we obtained, in organizing the presentation of the research results here, and in formulating policy recommendations.Additionally, a three-category typology of agricultural cooperatives in Malawi was formulated to further inform the study. This typology categorizes primary cooperatives by their stage of development-infant, professionalizing, or professional-based on ten criteria (Table 2.2). Most Malawian primary agricultural cooperatives are in the infant stage (Nyondo and Nankhuni 2018). This typology emerged as we gained knowledge of the varied operations of primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi, the quality of their management, issues of professionalization within them, and consideration of the internal and external factors affecting their performance. An early form of the typology was used to guide the design of the fieldwork and the selection of primary cooperatives for the qualitative case studies. It then was further detailed, refined, and confirmed by drawing on the perspectives offered by key informants and cooperative members during the fieldwork, before finally being used to structure aspects of our analyses.Using a mixed-methods approach to implement the study and triangulate the findings, the study was conducted in early 2022. Data was collected from multiple sources, including published and unpublished documents, household survey datasets, interviews with key informants, and discussions with focus groups at the primary agricultural cooperative level. Several methods were used to collect and analyze these data, including document review, personal interviews, site visits, and quantitative and qualitative data analysis. Rather than setting out all the research questions a priori, we used an inductive approach, using insights gained earlier in the research process to help determine, to some extent, the relevant questions upon which to focus as the research proceeded.Broadly speaking, our research objectives were to:• Understand the factors contributing to the performance of successful cooperatives; and• Understand the factors contributing to whether a cooperative has an inclusive and diverse membership.Because the study was designed primarily to obtain information of a qualitative nature on the performance and inclusiveness of primary agricultural cooperatives, the informants for the study needed to be familiar with such cooperatives. Consequently, we used purposive sampling to select those informants. Such a sampling approach is also called criterion-based selection (Merriam and Tisdell 2016). Since we selected respondents purposively, our specific study results cannot be generalized to the larger population.We developed from the research literature and our own personal contacts a list of potential informants for an initial set of key informant interviews. The number of informants we interviewed was not set beforehand. Rather, the saturation principle was used-we ended our program of key informant interviews when we were certain that we had received sufficient information to answer the research questions or as much information as we could expect to obtain from any key informant.Based on the findings from the literature review and the initial key informant interviews, and combining that information with the three-category typology of primary agricultural cooperatives by their stage of development, we developed a set of criteria to select primary agricultural cooperatives as case studies.Criteria were used to provide us the most learning possible through innovations or success, while still choosing somewhat typical primary agricultural cooperatives. These criteria included that the primary cooperatives selected:• Demonstrate one or more internal institutional innovations that are scalable or replicable. Relevant innovations were identified using the sets of performance factors drawn from the conceptual literature on cooperatives presented in Table 2.1.• Demonstrate innovations in their operations that address current challenges affecting agriculture and the development of the economies of rural communities across Malawi. These include restricted access to foreign exchange, dependence for financial and technical support on donors and government agencies, diminishing agricultural land size for farming households, and environmental degradation. Cooperative-specific challenges were also considered, such as capacity building within primary cooperatives (DCAFS 2020).• Show a level of success or performance as judged by the study leaders or key informants.• Be of average size in terms of membership and operations-neither very large nor very small.• Have been in operation or more than five years (established pre-2017), so that there is some history in the operations of the cooperative to draw upon and a record of bookkeeping against which to assess its financial performance.• Demonstrate diversity in the membership of the primary cooperative in terms of gender, age, or physical abilities of members.• Demonstrate diversity in the primary cooperatives making up the membership of the cooperative union (second-tier cooperative institution) of which the primary cooperative is a member.In addition, attention was paid to ensuring that there was sufficient diversity across the cooperatives selected in terms of the position of each in the agricultural value chains of which they were a part, whether producers, processors, or other sorts of enterprises and whether they operated in a traditional or a more innovative manner (Siame 2020).Using these criteria, initially 22 primary agricultural cooperatives were selected to be studied. They were selected by combing the lists of registered cooperatives provided by the Ministry of Trade and Industry and by asking key informants to recommend ones that fit the selection criteria. However, we were not able to interview all of the cooperatives selected due to being unable to contact some groups to arrange to meet or because funerals or other community events disrupted arrangements made. In the end, we successfully conducted case studies with 11 cooperatives in six districts in the Central and Northern regions of Malawi (Table 3.1). Their locations are mapped in Figure 3.1.  Note that our sampling of cooperatives was purposive but was also constrained by time and budget. Thus, the cooperatives selected tend to be located more in the center of the country, which poses some limitations on the study. The Southern region is considerably more densely populated and poorer than the Central region. The Shire valley and the Southern highlands are quite distinct agroecological zones and probably have the most developed estate sectors nationally. Thus, what works for cooperatives in the Central and Northern regions, where fieldwork for our study was conducted, may not necessarily be true in the Southern region. Smaller landholdings on average might make participation in cooperatives more attractive to farming households in the Southern region, or conversely, pervasive poverty among farming households might make it harder to establish cooperatives there. Estates in the South might be conducive to cooperative establishment by serving as examples of economies of scale and by providing demand for produce. However, on the other hand, these same estates might outcompete cooperatives in both local produce and local labor markets, adversely affecting cooperative performance.We started our multiple case study approach to the research (Yin 2003) by undertaking a content analysis of published literature, administrative documents, and any unpublished documentation on agricultural cooperatives in Malawi that we could obtain. This was done to gain a historical understanding of cooperative development in the country and deeper understanding of the recent conduct and performance of primary agricultural cooperatives. We also examined the agricultural policies and strategies relevant to expanding and strengthening agricultural cooperatives across the country. The history and current structure and operations of the national three-tier network of cooperatives in Malawi was also examined-primary cooperatives, unions of primary cooperatives, and the apex national cooperative coordination body, MAFECO.Secondary data on agricultural cooperatives and on the participation of farming households in such cooperatives were analyzed from administrative documents and the nationally representative fifth Malawi Integrated Household Survey (IHS5) of 2019/20.Qualitative primary data were obtained through key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Interview guides were developed to structure the conversations with interviewees and focus group discussion participants (Annex B). The key informant interviews were conducted in English, while the focus group discussions were done in Chichewa. With permission from the participants, photos were taken of some of the data collection processes and settings. We did not collect any personal information from respondents. The questions asked of them focused on institutions and organizations rather than on individuals. Information on the identities of the respondents was not included in the analytical datasets developed from this field research. The design of the research conducted with these respondents, including the interview guides used, was approved by IFPRI's Institutional Review Board.Thirteen key informant interviews were conducted with government officials, with the leadership of agricultural cooperatives, and with donors, NGOs, and service providers working with agricultural cooperatives. In some cases, these interviews were conducted with more than one individual. Generally, twoperson teams of researchers managed the interviews, with one researcher focused on asking questions and the other on taking notes. In addition, researchers used online meetings to interview some key informants when in-person interviews could not be held.Focus group discussions with farmers and agricultural cooperative leaders took place in the communities in which the cooperatives are located in Dedza, Lilongwe, Kasungu, Mchinji, Mzimba, and Nkhata Bay districts. All COVID-19 public health protocols were observed in these interactions.With the individual cooperatives studied, separate focus group discussions were held with the leadership and with selected cooperative members to obtain a better understanding and more balanced picture on the key research issues pertinent to the particular cooperative. We attempted to collect information from both male and female key informants, but it was not always possible to ensure equal representation of both sexes.The interviewer teams that managed the focus group discussions included three types: mixed gender, all male, and all female (Annex C). Due to timing and the expertise available, it was not possible to have all mixed teams. All interviewers were trained on gender-sensitive data collection methods.All online interviews were recorded using the record and transcribe function of Microsoft Teams or, in one case, the record function on the computer used. A handheld recorder was used to record all faceto-face meetings. In the case of the focus group discussions, which were carried out in Chichewa, the responses were translated into English as the recordings were transcribed. One of the two lead researchers cleaned the transcriptions, while the lead researchers worked together to deal with any ambiguity or unknown terms in the transcriptions.The English version transcriptions of the interviews and focus group discussions were entered into the NVivo qualitative data analysis software package as Microsoft Word files. Photos from the research processes and some recordings were also entered into NVivo as data sources. We coded the data by nodes using factors derived from the review of the literature on agricultural cooperatives, as well as through identifying new nodes or merging or splitting some topics. The nodes used in the data analysis are summarized in Annex D. Using NVivo, we conducted content analysis on all textual data and word frequencies and word searches within nodes or cases for a set of key terms relevant to the purpose and objectives of the study.Independent experts on agricultural cooperatives in Malawi reviewed the research interview guides and other instruments to assess the validity of their content. The focus group discussion interview guides were translated into Chichewa in advance and back-translated into English by Chichewa experts not involved with the research to check for any possible miscommunication arising from the translation. The interview guides were also pre-tested to ensure good understanding of their content by both the enumerators and the key informants to whom they would be administered.The principal researchers are all experienced in data collection using key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and document analysis. For the focus group discussions, several other facilitators joined the principal researchers to conduct the discussion and to collect the data generated. The facilitators were trained in how to conduct focus group discussions and together undertook a pilot test of the focus group discussion guide. Following the piloting, several of the questions in the guide were slightly modified. Thereafter, two research teams were formed to collect data from the cooperatives selected for the case studies. All transcripts from the focus group discussions were reviewed by the lead researchers and any questions arising from a particular focus group discussion were clarified with the facilitators responsible for conducting that discussion.As part of the effort to ensure the reliability and validity of the data and the interpretations drawn, a stakeholder validation meeting was held on 31 August 2022 in Lilongwe. Fifty-four individuals attended the validation meeting in-person, while 14 attended online. Farmers who were members of three of the interviewed agricultural cooperatives participated, as did stakeholders from MAFECO, cooperative unions, government, the private sector, donor organizations, universities, and NGOs.The first draft of this report was shared with all key informants interviewed in the research and with the cooperatives whose leadership and members participated in the focus group discussions.To better situate the findings from the research, we first present background information on agricultural cooperatives in Malawi and the types of services they provide their members. We then examine the factors that potentially may affect their performance.There are three recognized types of primary farmer organizations in Malawi:• Farmer clubs are informal groups typically of 10 to 15 farmers who come together to obtain services, such as extension, financing, or inputs (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, xv).• Agricultural associations are legal non-profit organizations that provide services to their members, often farmer clubs (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, xv). Associations are registered under the Trustees Incorporation Act which regulates charities, and not as cooperatives. Charities include associations of persons that come together \"for any purpose which […] is for the benefit or welfare of the inhabitants of Malawi (Malawi Government 2015a).\" Two of the most prominent national agricultural organizations in Malawi are formally established as agricultural associationsthe National Smallholder Farmers' Association of Malawi (NASFAM), which is described in Text Box 4.1, and the Farmers' Union of Malawi, which is described later in this section.• Agricultural cooperatives are autonomous for-profit bodies registered under the Cooperative Societies Act and comprised of individuals with common economic, social, or cultural goals, operated through a jointly owned, democratically controlled enterprise. Members own the cooperative through acquiring shares. They control the enterprise and are direct beneficiaries of services provided by the cooperative and of any surpluses generated through its commercial operations. Similarly, the members are jointly responsible for any commercial losses incurred by the cooperative (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, xv).Some confusion arises as to the difference between agricultural cooperatives and agricultural associations due to inconsistent usage of the labels. According to one participant at the stakeholder validation meeting for this research, even some frontline staff who are sensitizing farmers about farmer organizations may not know the difference. However, they are mainly differentiated by the fact that in the cooperative model, members own the cooperative through acquiring shares (Nyondo and Nankhuni 2018), and that cooperatives, including agricultural ones, are for-profit businesses.A primary agricultural cooperative is registered under the Cooperative Societies Act of 1998, in which a cooperative is defined as an \"autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic and social needs in accordance with cooperative principles through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise (Malawi Government 2015b).\" The cooperative principles are then listed:(i.) \"membership of a society is voluntary and open; (ii.) \"the management of the society is carried out democratically whereby each member has one vote and there is no voting by proxy; (iii.) \"the distribution of surplus is done justly in proportion to the amount of the business contribution of each member; (iv.) \"there is payment of limited return on capital; (v.) \"there is self-reliance; (vi.) \"race, creed, ethnic origins, language or political beliefs are no bar to voluntary membership and membership is open to all who can use the services of the society.\"The Cooperative Societies Act also describes the national federated structure under which cooperatives are organized and the activities coordinated. A primary society is \"a cooperative society registered under the Act, the membership of which consists of individual persons.\" A primary cooperative must have a minimum of 10 members. A cooperative union or secondary society is \"a cooperative society registered under the Act, the membership of which is restricted to primary societies.\" An apex society is defined as \"a cooperative society registered under the Act, the membership of which is restricted to cooperative unions.\"Cooperatives that provide financial services to their members are further regulated by the Financial Cooperatives Act.This report focuses on primary agricultural cooperatives. Agricultural cooperatives have a long tradition in Malawi with the oldest ones started in Malawi in 1946 under the colonial government (Nyondo and Nankhuni 2018). A primary agricultural cooperative is a local cooperative membership body composed of individual member-farmers. (Also see Text Box 1.1.) Within primary agricultural cooperatives, management and governance is carried out by member committees. While the Cooperative Societies Act does not specify the numbers or types of committees necessary for the proper governance and oversight of the operations of a primary cooperative, in the course of the research, committees supporting cooperative governance were mentioned 87 times in 22 different interviews and focus group discussions. The committees within cooperatives that were identified in the research included committees on discipline, education, finance, loans, marketing, production, and welfare, as well as the executive committee. One cooperative had an evaluation committee that \"goes around to verify the acreage that farmers had indicated earlier. This also gives them an assessment of how the farmers are faring, the challenges they are facing, and expected changes to their yields (Cooperative 8).\"Formed in 1997 as an organization to support market access for smallholder growers of cash crops, NASFAM has evolved into a complex conglomerate of service provision, program implementation, commercial enterprises, and associations. It spans both developmental and commercial activities across several value chains, including groundnuts, rice, tobacco, soyabean, pigeonpea, bean, and sunflower.With a membership of around 100,000 smallholder farmers, at the base of the NASFAM institutional structure are farmer clubs, each with 10 to 15 member-farmers. Clubs combine to form action groups, which serve as nodes in NASFAM's network both for dissemination of extension information to members and for the bulking of members' crops.Action groups combine to form NASFAM's associations, of which there are currently 54 nationally. NASFAM associations are legally registered entities, member-owned and managed by annually elected farmer boards. The associations are grouped by geographical location under 14 Innovation and Productivity Centres. These IPCs provide to associations management and operational support for production, marketing, and community development activities. The IPCs are in turn supported and managed by the NASFAM head office.Along with other civil society organizations grouped under the Civil Society Agriculture Network (CISANET), NASFAM is active in agriculture policy analysis and advocacy, including on issues that will affect the operations and performance of primary agricultural cooperatives.Source: NASFAM ( 2022)Primary cooperatives can join unions, also known as secondary cooperatives. The first secondary cooperatives were established about 40 years ago (Key informant interview (KII) 2). Unions are formed to support primary cooperatives through advocacy, development, and the provision of joint services, such as marketing. For instance, a primary cooperative producing macadamia could join the Highland Macadamia Cooperative Union, which buys nuts and also offers other services to primary cooperatives producing macadamia. There are seven area-based or commodity-specific secondary cooperative unions in Malawi that focus on agriculture-Mzuzu Coffee Planters Cooperative Union; Horticulture Cooperative Union of Malawi; Salima District Cooperative Union; Nkhotakota District Cooperative Union; Highlands Macadamia Cooperative Union; Maluso Cooperative Union; and Mwandama Producers and Marketing Cooperative Union.Secondary cooperatives do not do much for the primary cooperatives beyond serving as buyers of their produce, according to respondents. However, the unions have the potential to benefit primary cooperatives by providing them with services and also leading advocacy efforts on their behalf with legislators and government officials. Cooperative members and key informants both said that they would like secondary cooperatives to exert political influence to improve prices for the products produced by the primary cooperatives. One informant suggested that if cooperative members needed tractor services, the machinery could be owned by their cooperative union with mechanization services then offered to the individual member-farmers of the primary cooperatives that make up the union.The third tier of the national structure under which cooperatives operate is the national apex cooperative society, the membership of which is restricted to cooperative unions. The Malawi Federation of Cooperatives (MAFECO) is the apex body for cooperatives. It was established in 2015. MAFECO provides facilities for banking, insurance, and the supply of goods or services to cooperative unions and their member primary cooperatives (Malawi Cooperatives Societies Act 2015, 1). The institution remains in an early formative stage with only four employees and three cooperative union members at the time of the study, but it is in discussions with other potential members. To join MAFECO, cooperative unions apply for membership. Their application information is reviewed by the board of MAFECO. If approved, the cooperative union must pay an entrance fee and purchase shares in MAFECO (KII 2).Support the full cooperative structure at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. The higher-level tiers can provide services to their members and give them a voice in the policy making process.While it is not a cooperative, another organization of relevance to the primary agricultural cooperatives is the Farmers' Union of Malawi, which serves as a national-level body for all farmers' organizations. Formally, it is an agricultural association, registered under the Trustees Incorporation Act, like NASFAM. The Farmers' Union of Malawi was established in 2003 to provide institutional development services, policy advocacy, and market access for farmer organizations, including farmers groups and agricultural associations, but also registered primary agricultural cooperatives. However, it also is a key partner of government on agricultural development policy and related issues. It seeks to ensure \"that farmers effectively and meaningfully participate in the design, formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies, strategies, programs and plans aimed at improving the livelihoods of farmers in Malawi (Devex 2022).\"The government promotes agricultural cooperatives. Malawi 2063, the national development vision that outlines how Malawi will achieve the vision of becoming a wealthy and self-reliant upper middle-income country by 2063, envisages that agricultural commercialization, adoption of modern technologies, and farm mechanization will be led by large commercial farms and cooperatives (National Planning Commission 2020, 16). The National Agriculture Policy promotes professional organizations, such as cooperatives, to meet the goal of commercializing smallholder farmers, strengthening their participation in value chains, and enhancing their contributions to Malawi's economy (Ministry of Agriculture 2020).\"Cooperative development is not an option. The farmers have to be organized. As long as we are in this market-based economy, it's not an option, it's a must. So, we are making efforts to make sure that we have cooperatives in this country (KII 5).\"The number of cooperatives in Malawi is growing. Nkhoma (2011) reported that 284 agricultural cooperatives were registered between 1993 and 2010. In 2016/17, out of 933 primary cooperatives registered nationally, 459 were agricultural in nature (Makiyoni 2019). More recent data provided to the research team by the Ministry of Industry and Trade in early 2022 lists 1,390 registered cooperatives, of which 941 can be categorized as agricultural (Table 4.1). 3 According to the Ministry of Industry and Trade, ten cooperative unions have been formed.However, it is difficult to confidently determine the number of cooperatives registered and operational in Malawi. Numbers differ in various reports, in part because the cooperative register-an Excel spreadsheet file-maintained by the Ministry of Industry and Trade has duplicate entries for many primary cooperatives. Furthermore, the sub-sector in which a specific primary cooperative operates is not always clearly stated in the register. The Ministry of Industry and Trade has a generic \"agro\" category for primary cooperatives. However, a number of primary cooperatives listed in the register that clearly focus on the production, processing, or marketing of specific agricultural commodities are not categorized under this label. These include cooperatives involved with groundnut, cotton, rice, or cassava. These inconsistencies in the register of primary cooperatives contributes to inconsistencies in reports on the numbers of primary agricultural cooperatives nationally.Strengthen the management information system on cooperatives in Malawi to make it internally consistent, more accurate, and more frequently updated. However, despite the growth in the number of primary agricultural cooperatives suggested by these data, one informant pointed out that high numbers of primary cooperative and rapid growth in those numbers are not necessarily good things.\"Every year, figures are growing. In fact, we are now worried because at some point more cooperatives is not necessarily a good story. We better have one strong cooperative in an area which can [provide] necessary services. Because if you have a cooperative here, a cooperative there… small, small quantities are not sustainable (KII 5).\"Put efforts and resources into strengthening existing cooperatives and avoid starting new cooperatives without prospects to strengthen them. For instance, some government projects may provide investment opportunities for cooperatives (KII 3).Registration is not an easy process. Many potential cooperatives struggle to register themselves, with many giving up. Respondents mentioned that registration was a hassle, took years in some instances, and costs time and money.Streamline the primary agricultural cooperative registration process.The Ministry of Trade and Industry is also responsible for cooperative member education and orientation through which potential members of a cooperative are informed about the nature and principles of cooperatives. According to the Cooperative Societies Act, in addition to the steps mentioned in Text Box 4.2, potential cooperatives must provide in writing to the Ministry their own assessment of the viability of their cooperative. However, in practice this is not usually done by the cooperatives; rather, the Ministry conducts this assessment in most cases.Because the Government of Malawi is in the process of decentralizing many of its functions, it is expected that many of the development functions in support of primary cooperatives will be devolved toHow does registering a cooperative in Malawi work?According to key informants, a cooperative officer in the Ministry of Agriculture liaises with officers from the Ministry of Trade and Industry to support farmer groups that wish to register as primary agricultural cooperatives. The following registration process then is followed:1. Form a group and notify the Registrar of Cooperative Societies of its intention to register as a cooperative society. The process guidelines state that \"a cooperative society is formed by ten or more persons having common economic and social needs.\" 2. Before registering the group, cooperative member training conducted by an officer from the Registrar's office must be arranged. 3. The training officer will help the members formulate by-laws for their proposed cooperative society. 4. After training, the group applies for registration. 5. The application is submitted with the registration fees and three copies of the by-laws signed by the chairperson, secretary, and treasurer of the proposed cooperative society. 6. Within 30 days the group is notified if it has been registered as a cooperative.Source: Key informants 3, 5, and 6 and Wiki Procedure (https://www.wikiprocedure.com/index.php/Malawi_-_Register_Cooperative_Society) district councils. In future, this would involve cooperative member education being conducted by district officials, who would then recommend registration, which will still be done centrally (KII 3). Following registration, the role of the Ministry of Industry and Trade mainly will be to conduct regular inspections of cooperatives and audits of their financial records (KII 5).Recent efforts have been made to give some oversight of agricultural cooperatives to the Ministry of Agriculture, which in 2020 developed the Farmer Organization Development Strategy (FODS). The Ministry of Agriculture, together with its partners implementing aspects of the farmer organization strategy, proposes to work with interested farmers and the Ministry of Trade and Industry to register cooperatives (KIIs 5, 6). Several observers thought that the additional support the Ministry of Agriculture might offer would be valuable.\"Some of the procedures required for a farmer organization to register into a cooperative are too prohibiting. They need to be flexible and understand that they are dealing with farmers organizations that are at the grassroot level (KII 7).\"According to another informant from government, Participants in the stakeholder validation meeting for the study echoed many of these coordination concerns, especially regarding the difficulties to register-including the length of time to do member education, and that there is a long queue. One participant stated that there was a very small number of peo-ple who organize all the trainings for the cooperatives. Nyondo and Nankhuni (2018) also noted the limited number of staff and high vacancy rates in positions in the Ministry of Trade and Industry that have support to cooperatives in their scopes of work.Increase the number of government staff supporting cooperative member education.There can be a lack of coordination with so many actors supporting farmers: Organizations supporting cooperatives also collaborate with private sector companies. \"For the past three years we have been collaborating with seed companies by mounting demonstration plots to showcase various high-yielding, drought-tolerant varieties,\" said one respondent (KII 10).Better streamline support to cooperative development through collaborative efforts involving the district councils and cooperative unions.A farmer should receive services through the primary cooperative of which they are a member. These could include agricultural extension and training, marketing, and financial services, as well as inputs, such as improved seed and fertilizer. In this section we examine national secondary data and primary data from the study to corroborate this.The Fifth Integrated Household Survey (IHS5), conducted by the National Statistical Office of the government of Malawi between April 2019 and April 2020, with support from the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study -Integrated Surveys on Agriculture initiative, sheds some light on how smallholder farmers make use of primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi. Analysis of the IHS5 dataset shows that agricultural cooperatives are present in 9.7 percent of communities in Malawi. These cooperatives have 41 members on average, and typically hold monthly meetings.Despite the government's intentions that farmers should access services through farmer organizations, few farmers report using cooperatives to access inputs, to market their outputs, or to obtain veterinary services or extension advice. Just over one half (52.4 percent) of farmers purchased commercial seed, but only 1.8 percent purchased any seed from a cooperative. The remaining 50.6 percent purchased all their seed from other sources. Similarly, only 4.1 percent of farmers purchased at least some chemical fertilizer from cooperatives, while 58.1 percent purchased all their chemical fertilizer from other sources.Utilization of cooperatives is very uncommon when it comes to livestock. Based on the IHS5 dataset, 11.6 percent of farmers bought livestock, 6.3 percent had animals vaccinated, 22.2 percent sold livestock and 3.2 percent sold livestock products. However almost none of these transactions-0.01 percent, 0.2 percent, 0.04 percent, and 0.01 percent, respectively-were facilitated by a cooperative. The only animal product that was reported sold through cooperatives was cow milk.This secondary data analysis indicates that cooperatives currently play a very small role in the agricultural sector in Malawi. This should be a source of concern given the prominent place of farmer organizations, including primary agricultural cooperatives, in both the current National Agricultural Policy and the current National Agricultural Investment Plan. Moreover, the continuing limited role for cooperatives in how farming households operate and meet the needs of their members represents a missed development opportunity.\"You know, currently there is a different approach; in the past it was the extension service [would] 'go to them.' The current extension approach is 'come to us.' So, if the farmers don't reach out to the extension office, the extension officer will not engage them (KII 2).\"Farmers are told to be in a cooperative or group to receive government agricultural extension services (KII 5). Agriculture extension workers are tasked with facilitating extension advice and providing advisory services to the cooperatives (KII 6). Extension staff also conduct mobilization and sensitization for farmers on topics such as group development, business development, and governance issues. Once farmer clubs are formed, their members are oriented on associations and cooperatives and provided with basic training by government agents on forming and operating a primary agricultural cooperative (KII 5).One group stated that they started a cooperative to access extension services (Cooperative 5). However, according to national-level data, accessing agricultural extension services through cooperatives is rare. Analysis of IHS5 shows that in 2018/19, fewer than 0.6 percent of farmers received any extension advice through cooperatives, while 52.3 percent received extension advice through other channels.Many different actors provide training and education to cooperatives, including government ministries, projects and programs, NGOs, the private sector, and unions. In addition, education committees within primary cooperatives also organize training and education for members. One cooperative stated: \"It is easy to demand for trainings when you work as a group as opposed to working as individuals. Using the group, it becomes easy to access these trainings (Cooperative 8).\" Table 4.2 indicates the types of training cooperative members said that they received. Training topics that were reported requested by the cooperatives interviewed included:• How to run a cooperative Generally, farmers in Malawi do not utilize cooperatives much to market their produce, according to analysis of IHS5. More than half (51.9 percent) of farmers sold some of their rainfed produce, but only 0.5 percent sold any to or through a cooperative. 10.4 percent of farmers sold produce from perennial crops but only 0.1 percent sold any to or through a cooperative.The underutilization of cooperatives as a source of inputs or as a marketing channel could be because the cooperatives do not seem to offer better prices than other suppliers-farmers who purchased inputs from cooperatives paid on average the same prices as farmers who purchased the same inputs from other suppliers. Similarly, farmers who sold tobacco-the only crop sold to cooperatives in any significant volumes-received the same prices as farmers who sold their produce elsewhere.\"We need capital to be able to run the cooperative. With capital, you can do everything (Cooperative 10).\"\"But then they have to be assessed. As a bank you always have to do a proper assessment, but you find there are no records. How do you give someone money when they have no records (KII 3)?\"According to analysis of the IHS5 dataset, one tangible advantage provided by cooperatives is that they seem to be slightly more willing than other input suppliers to advance credit to their members to obtain inputs: 4.4 percent of those who bought seed and 3.2 percent of those who fertilizer from cooperatives received them on credit, whereas only 3.3 percent who bought seed and 1.9 percent who bought fertilizer from other sources did so.Financial capital was noted in both key informant interviews and in focus group discussions as an important external input if a primary cooperative was to succeed. Cooperatives receive financial capital through bank loans or microfinance. But they only receive such capital if they keep good records, which many cooperatives do not. Cooperatives reported that it was sometimes difficult to repay loans in good time because prices were poor. \"It may happen that you do not repay on time and the bank may take the cooperative resources or equipment. This is what we do not want to happen (Cooperative 7).\"Many cooperatives find it difficult to obtain working capital to keep their operations going. Much of the external support to cooperatives tends to be in the form of material or infrastructure, rather than working capital. Cooperatives find that it often is easier for them to obtain productive assets than working capital. However, these material assets cannot be used properly without working capital.Most respondents felt that access to capital was constrained for most primary cooperatives. However, these constraints reflect in part the types of agricultural production that banks and other lenders are willing to support. \"I think financing…is very important. When you look at the tobacco industry, it is well financed from production up to the market. So, why not do the other value chains?\" (KII 8).In talking about financial services in general, farmers frequently talked about the importance of finances, loans, and money (Figure 4.1). In our analysis of statements made in key informant interviews and in focus group discussions coded to \"financial services\", \"loans\" were mentioned 54 times. Respondents talked about \"access\" to financial capital 15 times. \"Support\" was mentioned 14 times, which could imply that financial capital is seen as a type of external support that cooperatives should receive, rather than something that they should generate themselves through the sale of membership shares. Related, some cooperatives studied were more interested in grants than in loans.\"The ones that are driven by organizations, NGOs, and all that, … they tend to be dependent on the grants. They've got a low-risk appetite when it comes to getting a loan (KII 4).\"Respondents complained about interest rates: \"we need lower interest rates for all the loans we get from organizations or the government (Cooperative 5).\"Cooperatives also struggled with collateral to secure loans or with raising the required contribution to obtain matching grants.\"When we want to access a service, they ask us to contribute 30 percent. But what you are asking for is MWK 75 million, and 30 percent of MWK 75 million is a lot of money. This is like you are providing an opportunity as well as constraining the farmers at the same time (Cooperative 3).\"Issues of knowledge and capacity also constrained the ability to obtain financial services: \"we do not know where to access these loans\" and \"we do not know the procedures people follow to access the loans whether from any group or the bank (Cooperative 1).\" In the cases of recently formed primary cooperatives and how they access financial services, it may be best for them initially to work through existing mechanisms that local farmers know, such as the village savings and loans associations. For instance, the Feed the Future Malawi Agriculture Diversification Activity is working with the Women's Legal Resource Centre to provide capital injections of MWK 300,000 to village savings and loan associations for lending on to their community members. This mechanism is designed to provide smallholder farmers with an opportunity to invest in their own economic empowerment and create a pathway that links them with the formal banking sector (Palladium 2019).Target financial interventions for some primary agricultural cooperatives through local institutions, such as village savings and loan associations and \"village banks,\" which farmers better understand.More advanced and experienced primary agricultural cooperatives could take advantage of initiatives such as the Productive Alliance model of the Agricultural Commercialisation Project run by the Ministry of Agriculture with financial support from the World Bank (Text Box 4.3).One organization provided coaches specialized in business development to help primary cooperatives apply for loans (KII 12). This type of customized support may be more useful to cooperatives than standardized and generic training on financial management and on writing grant proposals.In addition, the provision of the various services to cooperatives must be sequenced properly. For instance, one organization interviewed for the study makes sure that the primary cooperatives with which it works have sufficient managerial capacity before providing any financing to them (KII 4).The Productive Alliance Model is an approach based on commercial agreements between project-supported producer organizations, including primary agricultural cooperatives, with buyers and other value chain players. The model improves the capacity of producer organizations to finance and execute productivity-enhancing investments and to respond to the requirements of buyers and other off-takers of the commodities they produce.Under the Productive Alliance, producer organizations can access financial support through matching grants. The financial support meets the costs of capital investment in the producer organization that directly contribute to enabling it to meet the market requirements or other specifications of the buyers. The Agricultural Commercialisation Project meets a maximum of 70 percent of the total cost, while the producer organization covers 30 percent. The producer organization contributes a minimum of 10 percent of the total cost in cash and can cover the remaining 20 percent of the costs for which it is responsible through in-kind contributions.Source: https://www.agcom.gov.mw/project-components/building-productive-alliancesWe present the findings on cooperatives in Malawi by several of the key performance factors from Table 2.1. As in the table, the factors are grouped into external and internal factors. External factors include the policy environment and marketing systems. 4 Internal factors include social capital and membership; governance and leadership; management systems; and human capital, including the mindsets of cooperative members and leaders.Note that in our research we only examined registered cooperatives; that is, those with a certificate from the Ministry of Trade and Industry. However, distinctions between the different types of farmer organizations-from cooperatives registered with Ministry of Trade and Industry to farmer associations to farmer clubs-are often minimal in practice. Some entities call themselves cooperatives but are not officially registered. \"The main difference between many of the community level farmer organizations and how they characterize themselves as cooperatives, associations, or clubs seems to be that piece of paper [the registration certificate]\" (KII 11).\"The policy environment, I'm not sure about the figures, but there is a political will (KII 5).\"Political will, an enabling environment, and supportive policies exist in Malawi for strengthening and expanding primary agricultural cooperatives for smallholder farmers (KIIs 6, 9). The Government of Malawi has promoted the growth of primary cooperatives since independence, primarily through the Ministry of Trade and Industry. Several laws and policies affect cooperatives and other farmer organizations (Table 4.3). The Cooperative Development Policy provides the main reference document for cooperatives in Malawi (Ministry of Commerce and Industry 1997). It encourages farmers to form cooperatives and to use cooperatives for procuring inputs, storage, and for marketing of produce. The policy is currently undergoing a review process. A cooperative development strategy is also being drafted under the leadership of the Ministry of Trade and Industry with funding from the German Development Cooperation.\"I think most of the things that we have in that [revised] policy will simplify things in the cooperative sector, but also address critical challenges in the sector. This includes the issue of how do we support cooperatives in Malawi? … And once we have a good policy, I think it will unlock most of the barriers that cooperatives in Malawi are seeing (KII 12).\"Within the agricultural sector, Priority Area 3.8.2 of the National Agriculture Policy (MAIWD 2016, 65) is to \"promote development of professionally-operated and efficient farmer organizations, particularly cooperatives,\" with the objective to \"transform subsistence farmers into commercialized farmers.\"The National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP) operationalizes the National Agriculture Policy. In the discussion for Intervention Area 2 of the NAIP, it notes that past efforts at strengthening cooperatives have been disjointed. Consequently, the first intermediate outcome for Intervention Area 2 is to put in place a proper legal framework and institutional support system for farmer organizations, while the second outcome is to build strong, well-organized, and inclusive groups that can effectively conduct business and provide services to their members.FODS provides a roadmap for achieving these objectives (Ministry of Agriculture 2020). Published in December 2020, the national strategy on farmer organizations is part of the response to the NAIP intervention area of strengthening such organizations. It is one of 15 frameworks that the government committed to draft with the aim to improve returns on investments made in the agriculture sector. The strategy provides a framework for organizing farmers into sustainable organizations that are professional and market-oriented-hallmarks of cooperatives.In addition to the policy frameworks in Table 4.3, informants noted that the new National Livestock Development Policy plans to engage cooperatives to support livestock production.Respondents shared perspectives on deficiencies within the general policy environment in which cooperatives operate. The challenges they highlighted centered on market restrictions and regulations and on produce quality certification. Tax codes were also viewed as not being as strategic as they might be to develop and expand primary agricultural cooperatives across Malawi.Farmers want to export their products but face challenges in doing so: \"The cooperative fails to export its commodities because of complicated logistics (Cooperative 7).\" Cooperatives are often unable to obtain an exporter license (Cooperative 3) or sufficient capital (Cooperative 10). They also did not know where to export and asked for assistance to be linked to foreign markets (Cooperative 8). Several noted that transactions involving foreign exchange are problematic for cooperatives to enter into.Some mentioned interference from others in the marketing by cooperatives of their members' produce.Licensing and certification are important to help farmers to market their produce. The Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS), which is responsible for product quality standards, plays an important role here.One cooperative stated: \"We lack a Malawi Bureau of Standards certificate. This document can help us to access other markets, like Farmers World and Chipiku (Cooperative 7).\" Another member said that MBS stickers allow them to get their products into big shops. But they further stated: \"the MBS certificate is too complicated to obtain. We already applied, but MBS has not yet responded.\" To obtain the certificate, they were requested to \"have a storeroom for commodities, a toilet, and uniforms for the people who work here. …in addition, they wanted … a fence around this place.\" MBS also is said to charge a fee (Cooperative 6).\"One of the challenges that cooperatives have been facing is … getting their products certified. It has been a very lengthy process. So, they have now tried to simplify the process for working with Malawi Bureau of Standards. By implementing this simplified regime, I think they are … trying to ensure that the cooperatives do not have to go through the same process that big companies have been using to ensure that their commodities are certified. This [simplified] process means most of the products that are produced by cooperatives will now be pre-certified or that they will be certified, depending on whether [the cooperatives] are meeting the standards that MBS is putting in place to accommodate cooperatives (KII 6).\"Make the process for Malawi Bureau of Standards certification or pre-certification simpler and faster for cooperatives and/or provide them support in obtaining it.Certification also occurs for different crops and within different value chains, which helps farmers market their products. \"In 2015, we started to sell green maize as horticultural products, so we often used the horticultural license. So currently we use both the legume certificate and the horticulture license (Cooperative 9).\"For more advanced and experienced cooperatives, informants suggested that they could be provided support from MBS to obtain product quality certificates. As part of this effort, they would be trained in how to use those certificates to negotiate for higher prices for the high-quality produce they sell.Provide coaching and capacity strengthening for some of the more newly formed cooperatives to link with the larger, more organized buyers.Taxes were another policy issue mentioned by agricultural cooperatives, since cooperatives are not tax-exempt (Figure 4.2). While most did not consistently remit taxes, because it is not enforced, sometimes they do so if a buyer requires it.\"We also complain about the tax that we pay. The government deducts the tax from the farmer instead of deducting the tax from the processor. This is a very hot issue worthy of discussion with them. The ministers should deduct taxes from the processors instead of deducting from the farmer (Cooperative 2).\" Markets and the marketing system are major challenges for primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi. This goes beyond market policies and regulations to how produce prices are set and commercial transactions made between cooperatives and buyers. \"The main challenge that farmers are facing is access to markets (KII 11).\" \"Access to markets, understanding market dynamics, and having legal agreements [with buyers] is the number one thing affecting the performance of cooperatives in Malawi (KII 12).\" Marketing pitfalls related to market intermediaries (middlemen/women), the prices cooperatives receive for their produce; and problems or delays in payments were among the most frequently mentioned themes during the interviews, particularly in the focus group discussions in the primary cooperatives (Figure 4.3). for the produce cooperatives offer, discussions with the cooperative members and leaders and with key informants revealed a lack of formality in the cooperatives' marketing activities, for the most part. Several cooperatives said that they were formed to aggregate the produce of their members so that they could sell the larger quantity of produce they offered at a higher unit price than if it was sold in small lots by the individual farmers. But they then faced difficulties in finding buyers for the larger quantity of produce they offered as a cooperative. \"We aggregated the maize, but we failed to find markets. … The major challenge that we experienced was to find an off-taker (Cooperative 9).\"However, most of the cooperatives interviewed for the study appeared to be generally unable to negotiate with buyers for higher prices on their produce. An informant (KII 8) noted that 80 percent of the cooperatives and other types of farmer organizations that they worked with sell to market intermediaries. The respondent thought that larger firms in the private sector tended to buy from \"big cooperatives\" that are better established, leaving many cooperatives selling their produce to smaller and more informal traders. Another stated \"…but the market is very informal and unfortunately the off-takers that we have … flourish in that informality (KII 10).\"\"The challenge is that most of the off-takers [wholesalers, exporters, larger agro-processing firms], … because they know it is a cooperative, they know it will be able to bargain for better prices. So, what most of the off-takers do is, instead of going direct to the cooperatives, they hire middlemen who go around and mount weighing scales so that farmers as individuals sell to them. So, what these off-takers do, they just buy and aggregate the produce they need from their middlemen, instead of going directly to the cooperatives (KII 10).\"\"Maybe it should be a regulation that should be enforced. These big manufacturers should directly contract a cooperative or group of farmers in the rural communities to produce for them. We have seen that working well in the tobacco industry, because tobacco has local contract funding with individuals and groups. So, why cannot that be cascaded into other value chains? (KII 8)\"The government is working on more formally organized export mandates for selected agricultural commodities, but the domestic market for these products tends to be highly informal. While regulations, such as the minimum farm gate prices, may be set, enforcing them is problematic.\"From our end, we feel like it's because there is no market leader. You can say these are the minimum farm gate prices, but there is no institution that is leading in implementing those [prices]. So, eventually the prices are determined by market forces.Several respondents also noted that better formalizing the operation of domestic markets would also allow the government to collect revenues from market activities. However, the government lacks the capacity to enforce existing rules and regulations, let alone new ones. The introduction of rules which end up unenforced can normalize inconsistent rule application, which in turn facilitates preferential treatment that stems from political motivations or corrupt business practices. Putting in place clear and realistic criteria and decision-making processes for government intervention in agricultural markets would, on the other hand, make prices more predictable, enabling all actors in the sector, including cooperatives, to better plan their operations (Duchoslav et al. 2022).Make sure domestic markets are reliable and predictable. Any government intervention in the market should be rule-based and not ad-hoc.Price can be a great motivator. \"If you find better prices, it makes you work hard. You can even improve your skills in order to improve the quality of your produce (Cooperative 11).\"Some respondents noted that the value chains in which they were engaged also affected the performance of their cooperative.\"The performance of the cooperative also depends on the value chain that they are working on and how they were established. I do not think you will be able to find any cooperatives that literally just came out on their own, [except] maybe the ones dealing with the plantation crops, like tea and coffee. ... But when you come to those that are dealing with crops that are used as food crops, that is where you have some issues (KII 9).\"However, there are also a limited number of buyers for some of the commodities that cooperatives produce, notably the milk and macadamia value chains. This prevents adequate competition among buyers when the cooperatives are negotiating with potential buyers on the price of the produce they wish to sell (KII 12).In general, cooperatives are price takers. A member of a milk cooperative stated: \"We do not decide on the prices of milk. Instead, the processor decides the price (Cooperative 2).\" Some farmers do not know what current prices are for their produce or what price they should accept, assuming they even have a choice: \"You grow [the crop] without knowing the buying price (Cooperative 11).\" One of the functions of agricultural extension officers in most districts is to provide price information: \"We have agribusiness officers in all districts in Malawi … who communicate on marketing issues. Most importantly, annually we conduct the national agricultural fair where a lot of market information issues are discussed, and farmers are linked with markets (KII 5).\"Cooperatives need to have better marketing options. In addition to providing them with better marketing information and increasing the capacity of cooperatives to conduct effective marketing, particularly in negotiating higher prices for their produce, the government can also do more to directly purchase products from cooperatives.Focus capacity strengthening efforts on negotiating prices and searching for markets, possibly through coaches.Encourage government and its agencies, when procuring agricultural outputs, to do so from cooperatives.The narrative around market intermediaries in both KIIs and focus group discussions was mainly negative; negative sentiments were expressed 33 times, while positive sentiments only three times (Table 4.4). In focus group discussions, several cooperatives said that traders steal from them. \"The government must support cooperatives to make laws to bar [unscrupulous] traders. Traders usually steal from the farmers. They take farmers as their tenants (Cooperative 9).\" \"In addition, when we grow crops, we do not have stable markets. Instead, the traders steal from us (Cooperative 4).\"\"We started a cooperative after noticing crooked trader activities-they were stealing from us, manipulating their weighing scale with wires; stealing kgs, etc. ... They just want to cheat us, and they already have plans. The middlemen companies are becoming rich because of the farmers. This is why farmers in Malawi are lagging behind-because of the middlemen (Cooperative 3).\"Several also mentioned being duped by traders. \"We sent three pails to Lilongwe, and we received the money worth two pails. We did not get the money for the third pail (Cooperative 6).\" \"Traders sell us uncertified seed and dupe people (Cooperative 8).\" \"The traders will dupe us and go. … This is why we fall prey to the traders who exploit most of us (Cooperative 5).\" \"We wanted to avoid selling through traders, who in most cases dupe farmers (Cooperative 10).\"However, these traders and other market intermediaries are also important-they offer services to farmers by buying at the farm gate. Several cooperatives mentioned the importance of off-takers (35 references in eight interviews), buyers (52 references in 17 interviews), and market intermediaries (\"middlemen\" were mentioned 12 times in six interviews) (Figure 4.3). Off-takers that are more formal in their operations can be quite beneficial to cooperatives.\"Basically, there are two types of middlemen: not all middlemen are bad. But there are the ones who come to 'steal' from the smallholder farmers. They take advantage of the smallholder farmer and set prices that are low, and the farmer will not make any profit. Those are the ones we discourage. In the value chain you will find that there are other middlemen who are more organized and are trying to provide services. These are necessary (KII 7).\"When cooperatives do find a buyer, many do not have formal contracts, or they may encounter further difficulties. Cooperative 5 talked about a buyer who gave them paprika seed. The cooperative raised the crop, but the buyer never came. \"Had we known them, we could have contacted them\" one member stated. A side note is that, in this case, the cooperative trusted the paprika agent because they came with the extension worker.However, the difficulties can go both ways. Buyers too can be left frustrated by the cooperative. In KII 6, one informant noted that \"[cooperatives] sometimes fail to meet the quantities as well as the qualities that are required by the buyers. The buyers are left frustrated, and they dump these farmers.\"Late payments from buyers were also problematic in some cases. \"This is a big challenge. We stayed for five months without payments,\" stated Cooperative 2 members. A key informant added:\"But you see a cooperative which is not paid, maybe in almost three to four months. If you ask the cooperative why they are not following up with the buyer, they simply say, 'We do not have another buyer. So, when they are ready to pay, they will pay us.' And that also kills the cooperative spirit (KII 12).\"To increase their profits, some cooperatives were adding value to their produce or were considering doing so.\"We sell the milk at a low price. So, we need processing machines that can add value to our milk so that we make more money (Cooperative 2).\"\"The other thing is that we need to add value to our crops so that we can sell at higher prices. An individual cannot add value at home. You can only achieve this when you are working as a group. You can make soy milk out of soyabean as a market. We registered our cooperative as both producing and marketing, which means that we can add value to our farm produce. We came together because you cannot manage all these things on our own (Cooperative 4).\"Transport also affects markets and is an important cost that cooperatives face. \"To transport our commodities is very challenging and expensive. Sometimes we book transport on loan that we pay afterwards. So, we need to have reliable transport, ideally our own (Cooperative 9).\"\"We learn a lot from the cooperative, like trainings, and we benefit from the advice among ourselves. You achieve faster when you work as a group than as an individual (Cooperative 1).\"Cooperatives are essentially a social entity made of up their members. Issues of membership that have been identified as affecting performance include homogeneity, socioeconomic balance, female inclusion, and gender equity and norms. Other related issues include having a common purpose, solidarity, trust, motivation, ownership, initiative, dedication, commitment, grassroots demand; and being demandled. Underlying these issues of cooperative membership and formation is motivation (Figure 4.4). Social capital was a motivator for Cooperative 8. Its members said \"we thought it was difficult to get motivated and improve your life when you work alone. So, we thought working together was very important [for motivation] and also for the sake of business.\"Other motivations come from physical, financial, and natural capital (Figure 4.4). \"Whenever we are in groups, it becomes easy to find certain things (Cooperative 2).\" \"There are a lot of things that we can do to motivate farmers to cultivate enough acreage. e.g., purchasing machinery (Cooperative 4).\" Increasing the honey its members produced was noted as a motivation for organizing Cooperative 6.\"The other reason [the cooperative is growing] is that we are now able to find markets for our commodities. This encourages people to join the cooperative. As we mentioned earlier, we also take loans to increase our capital to buy farm produce and sell. Members are motivated by all of these, and they join the cooperative because of these activities.\" (Cooperative 10) Solidarity and dedication were not mentioned in any of the interviews. Trust was mentioned in the context of leadership. A cooperative leader stated:\"If there are no rumors of mismanagement, you are likely to win the trust of farmers. In addition, somethings that are paramount are the quality of reporting and how conflicts and similar issues are handled. This is very important to farmers. When the farmers trust you and you are transparent, you gain their trust. They will back you, and you will not be voted out.\" (Cooperative 2)\"No cooperative should claim to be a cooperative without being trained on governance, capacity, management. … There is one cooperative which made a lot of noise to the Ministry of Trade. Because there was no project in the area, the farmers wanted a cooperative. So, we supported them. The officer went to Mzimba, camped there for one week, two weeks, another week. Now it is one of the most successful. As we talk now, they can afford anything.\" (KII 5) Human capital includes things such as capacities, competence, skills, motivation, mindsets, and attitudes. Several respondents mentioned that trainings were particularly important for them. \"Trainings are important because they empower people to be able to perform well-governance trainings, financial management trainings, veterinary know-how trainings (Cooperative 2). Cooperative 3 stated: \"People have to be trained in how to run a cooperative. In all this group, I am the only one who has been trained in leadership. This means that most members come here as a club, not a cooperative (Cooperative 3).\" \"Without trainings, you remain at the same level,\" said Cooperative 8 respondents.Skills also link back to the issue of marketing discussed earlier. Lack of skills can prevent cooperatives from marketing through certain channels. \"We need produce processing and packaging skills so that we can sell these products on our own through the shops. We lack this skill and that is why we sell to traders (Cooperative 6).\" Similarly, Cooperative 8 said, \"We need marketing trainings. When we deliver the crops, there are a lot of marketing elements that we do not understand.\"Cooperatives may work though their own structure to identify trainings they require and to obtain them.Cooperative 5 has an education committee that is responsible for teaching members. \"If there is an organization that wants to deliver some important messages, it is the members of this committee that get trained and communicate what they learned to the rest of the group.\"Strengthen the role of the education committee in cooperatives to ensure continuous relevant training opportunities for members.Issues around the mindsets of cooperative members and leaders were addressed specifically by only four key informants. However, these issues underlay many of the discussions with respondents. The topic was usually mentioned in the context of change, particularly attitude change. Several informants stated that mindset change among cooperatives and their members was needed. Figure 4.5 depicts a word cloud of the frequency of words coded by the researchers to the category on attitudes and mindsets. We can see by the size of the words the importance of certain concepts-the importance of business, thinking, and change when considering mindsets.Mindset change was highlighted as a key element in cooperatives becoming more commercially-oriented (KII 4). Specifically, the importance of having a business mindset was highlighted in this regard (KII 7).The dependency syndrome or handout mentalities were also seen to be related to issues of mindsets and attitudes. These were mentioned in several interviews in a negative light. As part of conversations on these topics, several respondents highlighted the importance of cooperative members asserting ownership of their cooperative and actively controlling its operations so that the cooperative better serves their needs and contributes to achieving their aspirations. The handout mentality is an important factor to consider in primary agricultural cooperative performance in Malawi:There is a history in Malawi of this type of external support that ends up undermining farmer organizations that needs to be addressed.Since many farmer organizations in Malawi were started as part of external time-bound projects, the sense of ownership of the cooperative by its members and, thus, the sustainability of the cooperative may be at risk from the outset (Ministry of Agriculture 2020). In one interview, agricultural cooperatives were compared poorly to savings and loans cooperatives. \"When it comes to savings and loans, the members often are self-reliant and self-sufficient. But with agriculture production, there is an expectation of external support and handouts (KII 9).\" Savings and loans groups often are village-based, homegrown cooperative organizations that do not rely on much external support.A sense of ownership is an important component of the mindset of farmer-members in effective cooperatives. \"If we improve their understanding that they own the cooperative, you will find that people will be willing to put money into the cooperative, to buy shares, and to pay membership fees, because they will know they are going to benefit (KII 3).\" Another key informant added, \"They should feel like they are in control. If they rely mostly on the government, they will say … the government will bring inputs. This is a disaster (KII 5).\"The Malawi Market-Oriented Smallholder Horticultural Empowerment and Promotion Project highlighted this. No inputs are provided by the project itself. \"We provide zero inputs and zero money to the community. ... We bring capacity. … 60 percent of the groups have managed. So, dependency syndrome for 60 percent of the groups is zero. They cannot even make a call to say, 'Where are we going to get inputs?' (KII 5).\" Another informant expanded on this point: \"There's an issue of mindset change. I think … the handout syndrome is killing some of these cooperatives. I actually attribute it to project financing, because I think that for a lot of projects on cooperatives, we invite leaders to meetings and give them allowances and the like. What is happening is that when the time for [cooperative] elections come, these leaders feel reluctant to leave their positions. This is because when leaving the position, they are parting from the per diems and the allowances. So, you will find that if a project is supporting a cooperative, when elections are due, the [leaders] feel like they cannot leave. … The issue of handouts is very challenging. We see that whenever project people visit them [cooperative leaders], instead of presenting a true picture, they distort things in anticipation of maybe obtaining project funding by the end of the discussion (KII 10).\"As business entities, cooperatives need to be set up with the right mindsets among their leaders and members, rather than primarily as mechanisms to obtain handouts. Cooperatives, through effective operational mechanisms, can also contribute to mindset change among their members.An important component of changing mindsets within a cooperative is seen in members' attitudes toward innovations such as new ways of producing crops or using their resources. We saw examples of innovation in several cooperatives. For instance, in Cooperative 11, members contributed plots for joint production, receiving a certificate for the plot that indicated its size. The cooperative shared profits based on the relative size of the plot each member contributed. Cooperative 3 planned to venture into the industrial hemp business. Others were planning to obtain processing equipment for value addition (Cooperative 2).Text Box 4.4 provides detail on a cooperative that has successfully implemented a significant innovation with a private firm around the joint use of the farmland of its members.There are important advantages to farming large plots of land. Large farms can make efficient use of capital investments, such as tractors, combine harvesters, and irrigation infrastructure. Services such as professional agronomic and business management start paying off only beyond a certain farm size. Malawian smallholder farmers miss out on these profitable investments because they tend to farm very small plots.Cooperatives allow farmers to benefit from economies of scale, allowing for services such as bulk discounts on agricultural inputs purchases. Cooperatives can aggregate and store agricultural outputs to negotiate better sales prices for their members. A new generation of cooperatives is aspiring to move up the value chain by adding value to members' agriculture produce. So far, however, few cooperatives have overcome the limitations of farming on highly fragmented pieces of land.However, a few cooperatives are experimenting with ways to unleash the benefits of farming larger pieces of land. The prime example in Malawi is the Phata cooperative (see Text Box 2.1). Other cooperatives are following suit.(continued)The Mtengula cooperative was set up in Chizuma Traditional Authority in Kasungu district to grow groundnut seed for Pyxus, an agricultural company focused on groundnuts in Malawi. Farmers with contiguous pieces of land, forming a circle of around 30 ha were invited to pool their land into a cooperative. Members were given a share in the cooperative proportional to the amount of land they put in. The land was cleared, and a center pivot for irrigation was installed, tapping water from a river 1.6 km distant. The set-up allows for two cropping cycles, which are currently rotated between groundnut seeds and beans. A professional farm manager hired by Pyxus oversees the production. The labor costs and part of the capital expenditures took the form of a loan to the cooperative. Part of the capital took the form of a grant through another organization.In a cropping cycle, Pyxus provides crop inputs as a loan to the cooperative. Members of the cooperative can work as casual laborers on the land. Those who do are paid wages per hour worked. Pyxus handles the upfront payment of these costs, accumulating them into a loan to the cooperative. The cooperative has a contract to sell its harvest to Pyxus. Outstanding loans are deducted from the final post-harvest payment.It was not easy to set up the cooperative, since the farmers were hesitant to utilize their land in this new way. Many meetings and a visit to the Phata cooperative were required to get started. Moreover, once set up, the experience was not all positive. Total sales initially were insufficient to cover total loan costs, so part of the loan had to be carried forward. The high loan costs were partly related to land clearing, an expensive one-off activity. There was considerable side selling and some exaggeration of labor costs. These actions were surprising because, in doing so, farmers were hurting their own cooperative. It took one season for the farmers to realize this. The next season's experience was more positive. Farmers now monitor themselves to avoid side selling. Members doing so are fined.The experience with Mtengula suggests that being the first adopter of innovations in cooperatives in a particular area may not make business sense for a private company. It also has shown, however, an important demonstration effect, with farmers maintaining a 'seeing is believing' attitude. Such positive experiences do not go unnoticed and generate positive spillovers. Both the government and its partners could play an important role in unleashing similar positive externalities by working with private firms to set up land-pooling cooperatives in other areas to unlock this model going forward.Formation of cooperatives is not easy. There must be consensus among adjoining farmers within the circle where an irrigation pivot is proposed to be placed. One farmer in the circle who does not want to join jeopardizes the scheme. In some cases, bartering land provided a way forwardsomeone with land outside the circle was willing to trade with someone within it. But in other cases, center pivots were not built because one individual could not be convinced to join.Similarly, problems could manifest themselves after forming the cooperative. For example, someone may decide to leave after the pivot is in place. To avoid this, members agreed members cannot pull the land out, but must lease it at market rates to another individual willing to participate.Paradoxically, it was helpful for the challenges mentioned that the plots were under customary tenure. This gave some discretionary power to the local traditional authority to mediate and broker a deal which all farmers could accept. That said, a system of regulations to organize such transactions and move them out of legal grey zones would be beneficial.The cooperative, after several profitable cropping cycles, intends as an institution to buy the land from the individual farmers. The cooperative will then officially register it as its own freehold land.Source: Authors, based on KIIs and focus group discussionsTo build human capital and change mindsets and attitudes, training cannot be seen as one-off exercises, but should be iterative and sequenced. Many agricultural cooperatives initially obtain cooperative education training, which then is followed by occasional ad hoc training, depending on whether the project remains or on the resources of the Department of Extension Services. However, education should be continuous and regular, especially as new leadership and members cycle in and out of the cooperative.Moreover, human capital can be built in ways other than traditional training sessions. A couple cooperatives mentioned being inspired by going on learning tours to successful cooperatives (Cooperatives 5,11). Cooperative 5 also mentioned that through external meetings, cooperatives can share ideas and learn from friends. A key informant highlighted one cooperative as being particularly successful because \"they had so many links\" and through the exposure these links gave them (KII 8). However, we obtained no evidence on which types of human capital development efforts work best. This is an area for further research.It is clear, however, that tailored coaching is useful.\"Cooperatives that want to succeed need support. They require a coach, whether an extension worker or a business development worker, that can advise them with regard to their own governance, mediate any disputes between members, and so on. Many cooperatives that had coaching to resolve their governance issues informed me that it really helped their cooperative develop into the kind of viable organization that can support their members (KII 1).\"\"You know, two cocks do not crow from one house (KII 2).\"Research literature repeatedly shows that the governance structure of the cooperative contributes to its performance (Table 2.1). Factors that are important to governance include autonomy, participation, democracy, well-defined rules and rights, regulated entry, incentivized exit, possessing a constitution and legal documents, leadership, term limits, transparency, and communication, and having independent board members. Governance was seen as foundational by key informants:\"Many [cooperatives] are very weak, and one of the main issues keeping them weak is governance (KII 1).\"\"The success factor number one is governance-leadership and governance (KII 5).\"\"If they have a strong and solid governance structure, everything works (KII 7).\"\"When we are doing our institutional capacity development, first of all we look at their governance structures (KII 10).\"Cooperatives themselves did not discuss these types of governance issues directly, but discussed the training on governance that they had received or needed to receive.Good leadership was said to contribute to cooperative sustainability.\"If you have an organization that doesn't have a business plan or leadership that appreciates the instruments that must be used to sustain the organization, then you have a lot of problems. It is common to see that most of these farmer organizations are simply there when marketing time comes, when they want to access farm inputs, or reasons of that sort. … So yes, in terms of sustainability, leadership is quite key. … The cooperative's management needs to understand exactly where they are and where they are actually going (KII 6).\"We asked both key informants and cooperative members about factors that make cooperatives struggle or succeed. We were warned during one key informant interview early in the research (KII 10) that we might not be able to obtain open information from the cooperatives on governance and leadership challenges. In reviewing the interview transcripts later, we found that key informants (who were not part of primary cooperatives) mentioned challenges related to governance and leadership as a factor in the relative success of a cooperative much more than did the cooperative members themselves. However, this imbalance could also be related to the possibility that cooperative members may not be as aware as our key informants of what good governance entails.We asked cooperatives how their leaders were chosen and what qualifications were most important in leaders. The most frequent qualification mentioned was a person's character (mentioned 14 times). Another important characteristic was education level (10 times). \"[Members] look at someone's behavior or character and the education background of an individual (Cooperative 2).\" Other characteristics important in the choice of leaders mentioned included leadership skills, commitment, and being approachable. It also was noted that good leadership is characterized by an openness to innovation and the ability to manage change.However, unqualified leaders may negatively affect performance, and some cooperatives had the same leaders from their foundation even though it was clear that they did not effectively carry out all the roles and responsibilities that they should to enable the cooperative to grow into a strong institution (KII 12). Providing leadership training to those selected to lead the cooperatives can be problematic. Courses for cooperative leaders are not regularly held, and it may be difficult for all leaders to attend. However, such leadership training opportunities, both on governance issues and on financial management, as are available can be important for opening doors to further training or other support for the cooperative. For some types of support from projects or donors, such training is a pre-requisite necessary to qualify a cooperative for such support (KII 12).Maintaining good leadership capacity within a cooperative can be difficult with any turnover of leadership. That obtaining governance and financial management training for any new leaders of the cooperative is not assured may result in a loss of leadership capacity as those leadership roles are handed over to less experienced members (KII 11).When there is some problem with the leadership of a cooperative, for the most part, cooperatives appeared to encourage open discussion. \"We reach out to one of the leaders and explain our grievances.After that, they decide whether we should select someone to replace the person or not (Cooperative 3).\" Three of the cooperatives that we spoke with mentioned a disciplinary committee that helps to deal with such issues.Communication within a group and especially between leadership and the membership can affect the group. The leadership of most cooperatives met face-to-face on a regular basis, whether fortnightly, monthly, or every few months. There are also annual general meetings involving the entire membership of the cooperative. Active efforts are made before these meetings to inform all members of the meeting and the need for their attendance.This section focuses on some of the specific business operations of cooperatives, regardless of what commodities they might produce. We consider the operations associated with financial management, the shares of cooperative members and associated member dividend payments, and overall business professionalism.Some limited research related to financial management has been done on agricultural cooperative performance in Malawi. In a multiple case study approach, Nkhoma (2011) found the main problems affecting cooperatives in Malawi to be limited market access, poor governance, and lack of managerial skills. Following up on Nkhoma's study using a similar case study approach, Lwanda (2013) examined the financial performance of three primary cooperatives, as well as associated factors such as organization and management culture. She linked performance to the structure and management of the cooperatives. She found that organizational problems were associated with poor financial performance and excessive reliance on external funding. Problems of management were related to low education and limited skillsets, hence, low human capacity. The study encountered difficulty in finding just two years of financial records for any of the cooperatives studied. Lwanda also observed that the policy environment was not supportive of cooperatives or conducive to their success.Following on Lwanda's work, Gondwe (2018) analyzed the performance of two agricultural cooperatives using a case study approach, examining the role of grants in their performance. He utilized the PESTLE tool (political, economic, sociological, technological, legal, and environmental) developed by Vanags and Jirgena (2008) for examining factors that influence development in agriculture. Gondwe states that grants from donors and government helped the cooperatives stay profitable, but that they were not stable. He advised capacity building in management for cooperatives, particularly financial management, if they are to become more sustainable enterprises.Shareholding is an essential ingredient for the agricultural cooperative business model. It allows the entity to obtain capital from which if finances the services it provides to its members.\"We have the benefit because, when you buy more shares, the cooperative's capital increases. In future, we envision using the same shares to buy and sell some crops … [and] to buy seed for the members (Cooperative 4).\"\"Everyone who owns a share shows ownership of the cooperative. He or she has the power to run the cooperative. These people can decide what needs to change in the cooperative. … These are the people who have the power to do such things (Cooperative 1).\"However, a key informant noted that \"ninety plus percent of all cooperatives in Malawi, especially the agricultural cooperatives, are not obliging shares. … without their shares, they cannot do any business without having their shares as a cooperative (KII 10).\"It could be that the shareholding mechanisms were not always functioning as they should. Many of the cooperatives that we talked to have a membership or entrance fee. In some cases, this was a nonrefundable fee of MWK 500 (Cooperative 4) or MWK 5,000 (Cooperative 8). Some charged an administration fee and accommodation fee (Cooperative 9). To join the cooperative, farmers had to buy shares. Some cooperative had limits to the number of shares (1,000 shares maximum for Cooperative 9), while others did not. The price of shares ranged from MWK 1,000 per share with a limit of three shares (Cooperative 6) to MWK 15,000 per share with a limit of five (Cooperative 1).Cooperatives mentioned taking a commission and giving dividends or bonuses (Cooperative 7) to their members, usually at the end of the year.\"When the farm produce is successfully sold, the cooperative takes a commission of 2 percent from the sales. During the annual general meeting, the cooperative takes 25 percent of the profits and uses it to run the cooperative. The rest of the profits are left for sharing as dividends (Cooperative 9).\"\"When we grow the rice, the cooperative buys it from us. When they buy at MWK 250 per kg and sell at MWK 400, they give members dividends [from the difference]. The capital is left at the cooperative. They also leave some money at the cooperative for emergencies. For instance, if someone is sick, he or she can take a loan from the cooperative that has no interest, provided he or she is a member of the cooperative (Cooperative 7).\"\"In fact, the member with more shares will have an advantage because he [or she] will be able to receive more profits in terms of dividends than the one with fewer shares (Cooperative 7).\"Cooperatives also make money from fines: \"The cooperative has a disciplinary committee. Every member who has a case with the disciplinary committee pays a fine and this way, the cooperative also makes money (Cooperative 7).\"Cooperatives discussed the issue of side selling-selling privately rather than through the cooperative.\"Some people sell as individuals because they want money right there and then without considering the future implications of their decisions. While other members still keep their commodity until it is sold through the group. When you sell as a group, some buyers pay a higher price because they buy at once. So, we still discuss with the members in order that they know the beauty of working as a group and selling as a group (Cooperative 4).\"\"However, it happens that a member has a pressing need and would want sort it out, e.g., school fees and others household needs. In the absence of a readily available market, you see some members selling their farm produce [individually] to traders (Cooperative 9).\"The higher prices a farmer obtains from selling her or his produce through the cooperative provides the farmer with the incentive for doing so.\"For anyone who sells through the cooperative, they receive a bonus during the sharing of dividends. So, people are encouraged to sell to the cooperative to receive bonuses and dividends. Whenever someone sells outside the cooperative, it means they are reducing their bonus. They won't be able to receive the bonus, and they must pay a fine (Cooperative 6).\"The cooperative often applies penalties to members engaged in activities such as side selling, including fines or suspension from membership. However, respondents noted that members sometimes are not able to sell through the cooperative due to the cooperative not having identified a market for their produce or not having a warehouse in which to bulk members' produce before sale.Many cooperatives also have informal cooperative savings and loan mechanisms as an additional activity that members can use for emergencies or to increase their income (Cooperative 3). Cooperative 5 respondents said they paid 20 percent interest on the credit they receive from their cooperative. Members can use the loans to obtain agricultural inputs or to meet personal needs, such as medical care.Cooperatives sometimes have a loans committee to follow up and make sure people repay the loans they obtain from the cooperative (Cooperative 10).The issue of professionalism was mentioned by many cooperatives and key informants as a critical factor that is directly correlated to the success of the cooperative. Professionalism is a combination of several factors that have already been discussed-governance, management, capacity, and attitudes. While noting the connections to these separate topics, we have a standalone section here to consider them jointly.Farmer organizations can have many purposes. Some are social rather than business entities. Cooperatives, however, are defined by their business structure. But newly-formed agricultural cooperatives do not necessarily have the business drive or mindset to start functioning immediately as a successful business entity. Cooperative members and their leaders must be taught how to do business. \"We were taught that with a cooperative, it is easy to engage in business and improve our livelihoods (Cooperative 10).\"What do professional cooperatives look like? Based on the insights reported by our study respondents, professional cooperatives:• Have a business plan (Cooperative 3)• Conduct collective marketing (KII 10) • Have professional management staff and management system (KIIs 3,6) One respondent compared agricultural cooperatives to financial cooperatives.\"The financial cooperatives, they are mostly a self-initiative. And most of the financial cooperatives are payroll-based. So, the people that are in the cooperatives are a little bit educated and literacy comes into play there. You will find that people with degrees are in the board. It is managed by professionals. That is why it works (KII 3).\"The farmers that make up the membership of agricultural cooperatives will not necessarily have these business and management skills. However, it is not necessary that they have those skills themselves if they can hire-in such expertise.\"I think we miss the point somewhere because they are farmers, they are not business managers. They need to appreciate business principles because they need to operate as a business. But when it comes to managing their business, I think they need to come to a level where they have someone who can manage the business (KII 7).\"\"Everybody focuses on capacitating the cooperative members, expecting them to manage a cooperative as a business. Yet we know that, you know, people spend years to really gain that skill to be able to manage a business as a business. … [Just ]  In contrast, key informants felt that the less professional cooperatives were from their formation doomed to fail as commercial entities:\"[These cooperatives] need to move into the business arena and develop and execute a business plan. But you know that they may not really have a business plan that is feasible. This is because they were established not on a business facilitation approach, but basically just on a social development approach (KII 6).\"Having professional management can benefit in other ways. A sugarcane out-growers cooperative uses a management firm to manage its business. An added benefit is that demonstrably having such professional management in place assists the cooperative in obtaining additional resources to expand its operations. An observer noted, \"But through [having professional managers in place], they have also attracted external funding, which has been good (KII 6).\"However, professional help may not solve all problems. \"Other [cooperatives] have tended to think that they need to bring new management-people employed from town. That if they come and manage, as they are educated, they will drive a cooperative. But in the end, it still does not solve the problem. It brings more problems (KII 4).\"A typology of cooperatives was presented in Table 2.2 in which primary agricultural cooperatives are placed into one of three categories by their stage of development-infant, professionalizing, or professional. Based on the data collected during the fieldwork, we discuss further details of this typology here.Infant cooperatives have low capacity and weak governance. \"Most [of their members] are … illiterate. They cannot comprehend, you know, some of these things that go on. For example, on their own they cannot just come up with their business plan (KII 6).\" Infant cooperatives also do not operate in cooperative mode all the time.\"When it comes to marketing, they still sell as individuals. One of the things that we promote is that they should be collectively marketing their Without sufficient operating capital, infant cooperatives are unable to purchase produce from their members in order to aggregate the produce into a single lot for marketing. Being unable to achieve economies of scale in their marketing, the cooperative realizes lower profits on its sales and, hence, pays out lower dividends on those profits to its members. Moreover, the risks of commercial loss for the member-farmer in such cooperatives are considerably higher than in more mature cooperatives.The second category of primary cooperatives, professionalizing cooperatives, also struggle to perform well. Farmers should not have to be both producers and business managers.According to the Malawi Cooperative Societies Act, 2015, \"It shall be the duty of every registered society to cause its accounts to be audited at least once in every year by an auditor from a list of registered auditors appointed by the annual general meeting, and the cost of such audit shall be borne by the society (Malawi Government 2015b, 6).\" However, many primary cooperatives are not audited: \"The house by-laws tell them that they need to submit financial reports to the office of the Registrar. They need to be audited. Yet, you find that most primary cooperatives are not audited even one time. Their resource base is still very small. They cannot afford to do so (KII 2).\"In Malawi, the Ministry of Trade and Industry offers audit services, whereas in other countries the cooperatives sector under the leadership of the national apex organization for cooperatives-MAFECO in Malawi's case-provides this service (KII 3). This could be an area to work on for both providers and receivers of audit services for cooperatives in Malawi.Allow larger, more professional cooperatives or other registered companies to provide audit services to primary cooperatives, along with coaching and financial support to obtain these services from implementing partners or government. Harris et al. (1996) discuss the development of cooperatives in the United States from initially focusing on member coordination and marketing of member produce, which is done by primary agricultural cooperatives in the infant and professionalizing stages, to increasingly focusing on market integration and value addition, as these cooperatives advance to the professional stage. These professional cooperatives that take this pathway are referred to as \"new generation cooperatives\" (Harris et al. 1996).Professional primary agricultural cooperatives are thus quite different from cooperatives in both the infant and the professionalizing categories:\" [Such] cooperatives are at an advanced stage. You note that they have good record keeping [and] good financial management. This contributes to the sustainability of these institutions, because they are able to make profits using their business case. At the end of a period, they are able to share out dividends [to their members], and they keep on moving. They have some staff to manage their books and financials, as well as governance systems. They are trading like entrepreneurs. They have the financial literacy skills necessary to be able to sustain themselves … without external support. But those [cooperatives] that are still at the infant stage, they do not have financial books. They are not even audited. So, it is very challenging for them to sustain themselves (KII 6).\"Additionally, regarding finances, professional cooperatives \"talk sense in obtaining credit from the bank, managing debt, and being able to generate profits out of the other activities that they undertake\" (KII 6).Professional cooperatives generally have good, though not necessarily internal, management.\"For any cooperative to survive, it has to survive on a good management system, which may be procured [externally] depending on the size of the cooperative. … [ProfessionalCertain social groups, including women, youth, and disabled persons, generally are less able to participate in important economic groupings or benefit from economic development initiatives and programs, including those centered on expanding primary agricultural cooperatives (Babu et al. 2021;Czikl 2013;Franzel et al. 2020;Kosec et al. 2020;Magnan et al. 2020). FODS \"is premised on the concept of inclusive development,\" recognizing that all social groups should be able to participate in and benefit from the activities of farmer organizations (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, 6).One result of this focus on ensuring that the membership of primary agricultural cooperatives is inclusive of farmers from disadvantaged social groups is that there appears to be external pressure on cooperatives to report statistics on the inclusion of youth and women in their membership. While this is an important step in building more diverse cooperatives, such statistics do not necessarily reflect the quality of such inclusion and whether members from disadvantaged social groups have any say in the operations of the cooperative.Moreover, respondents acknowledged that increased inclusion does not always result in strengthened cooperatives. A more diverse membership base may result in conflicting priorities or objectives for the group, which could affect the overall commercial and financial performance of the cooperative and the level of benefits it provides its members. Policymakers should be aware of these issues and not place the burden of inclusiveness on the cooperatives alone.Diversity in cooperative membership is not a goal in and of itself and may be harmful if members' goals do not align. Rather than encourage diversity within the same cooperative the government should encourage practices that capacitate and empower all social groups to form cooperatives to suit their needs.Mixed and often conflicting statements were made by study respondents about women's participation in cooperatives. For instance, \"we can say most women do not have the courage to join the cooperative. There are just few women who have the courage (Cooperative 9).\" In contrast, other respondents believed \"sometimes men are [more] shy to participate in a group than women (Cooperative 8).\" And \"women rush to any development activity more so than men. Men want to see first whether something is profitable before joining (Cooperative 7).\"Several groups mentioned that they had more women than men members (Cooperatives 3, 4, 7). In addition, several key informants noted that half to two-thirds of the members of groups they worked with were women (KIIs 8, 13).\"Traditionally, the membership of cooperatives and other farmer groups is often more women than men. This is because women are more often involved in agriculture activities, and are interested also in being part of a group … to obtain support. Women seem to be more open to learning and experimenting than do men, who stick to the traditional ways of farming (KII 1).\"However, one key informant provided insights on the adverse effects on women's engagement in cooperatives of encouraging farmer associations to become cooperatives.\"I think one of the negative impacts that we saw was on women. … Moving from an association to a cooperative, at the end of the day, [the women] could not see the benefits of this change. Many farmers were saying, 'I do not see really the added value of transitioning from an association to a cooperative.' … We thought that if the group could have more capital and be able to expand their business, that would make them more active.So, the drive was to encourage them towards cooperative registration. But that alone reduced the number of members by half, … and many of those that dropped out were women (KII 8).\"The costs from the combination of entry fees and buying shares in cooperatives may be a barrier preventing women, as well as many other farmers, from joining cooperatives, particularly when it takes some time to see the benefits from those investments. However, the respondent also noted that farmer organizations are roughly 50 percent women. \"So, females seem to be represented. But then when you look at the records of the cooperatives on those who are actually selling, you find very few women (KII 8).\"Cultural issues may inhibit women's participation in cooperatives:\"Women are usually afraid to speak at gatherings like these. So, they resolve not to come. Secondly, it is to do with family norms. Most men restrict women from attending such gatherings, because they want them to be at home cooking. This is what hinders women to progress (Cooperative 7).\"On issues of gender in relation to leadership:\"We notice very clearly that women are in numbers in the membership of most farmer organization. Their share may go up to 60 percent and higher. But when you examine the leadership, the numbers are in reverse. … Women in leadership are very few (KII 10).\"However, members of one cooperative suggested a more nuanced perspective on women in the cooperative leadership. \"Yes, in the executive we have only one woman, who is the chairperson. But in the procurement subcommittee, it is only women. In the marketing committee, we have ten women and four men (Cooperative 7).\" Two cooperatives stated that they had women leaders and practiced gender equality, but these women were not able attend the focus group discussions for the research (Cooperatives 1, 6).Women tend to be involved in cooperatives that focus on those value chains that provide returns in a short period, such as tomatoes, or on technologies that are appropriate for them, such as in horticulture. One informant stated that management of dairy cows is a suitable cooperative enterprise for women since it is not that labor-intensive (KII 12).Youth were involved in several of the cooperatives interviewed (Figure 4.6). Six of the groups talked about their youth members. Cooperative 8 stated, \"We have youth. They are so helpful to us.\" Cooperative 5 also used the youth to go around and inform members about issues. Cooperative 4 stated, \"The youths are lagging behind [in membership], because they want readily available money. They think staying at a group is wasting time.\" Similar to the statement about women noted earlier, several respondents observed that youth tend to be involved in short-duration value chains, such as tomatoes, to have readily-available money. They were said to not be involved in macadamia, because of the long-time horizon before benefits from producing macadamia are realized.One cooperative had plans concerning youth involvement. They wanted to get into processing to:\"create employment opportunities for our youths in our respective villages. We are confident that if we start these initiatives, we can easily train our idle youths who are languishing in the villages. … The youth are future leaders, but they can also be current leaders. When you look at most of us, we have aged. So, this is why the youth learn what we are doing so that they can continue afterwards. Today, some youths who are in our executive committee did not manage to come to the meeting because of the rains. They are in the executive, so that they continue when we retire from these activities (Cooperative 1).\"Women, youth, and disadvantaged social groups can contribute to Malawi's development through participating in and benefitting from primary agricultural cooperatives. To do so, they must be included in a meaningful way and have the requisite support such as finances and other inputs.We have placed policy recommendations throughout the report next to relevant findings or analyses. These recommendations are summarized in Table 5.1. In this section, we conclude by emphasizing key recommendations to strengthen the performance of cooperatives in Malawi. We also refer to the pillars, objectives, strategies, and actions mentioned in the Farmer Organization Development Strategy (Ministry of Agriculture 2020). The FODS strategies and actions can be read as recommendations that should be prioritized and implemented.\"I think what is required is action rather than words (KII 3).\"The policy environment, which can enable or, conversely, impede activities of agricultural cooperatives and related actors, is critical. In Malawi, the policy environment overall is quite positive toward cooperative formation and expansion. There are, however, several areas where policy could be improved to benefit farmers in general, and thus also agricultural cooperatives. For instance, there is a need to increase investments in soil health, agricultural research, and in extension to improve yield response to fertilizer (De Weerdt & Duchoslav 2022;Chadza & Duchoslav 2022;Nyondo et al. 2022). Investments in irrigation would also boost agricultural production and food security (Chafuwa 2017;Schuenemann et al. 2017). The government should also refrain from formulating and enforcing regulations that impinge on trade, such as grain export bans. By reducing demand, export bans have been shown to depress prices of agricultural produce without improving food security in Malawi (Edelman 2016;Gondwe & Baulch 2017), as well as in neighboring countries (Koo et al. 2021).Beyond the policy environment, other factors enable agribusiness, including cooperatives, to expand, particularly investments in infrastructure like roads, electricity, and telecommunications. Many respondents discussed how the lack of electricity or power cuts hinder the commercial activities of their cooperative, forcing them to use solar power or to buy generators. Four different cooperatives discussed the use of solar equipment. Improved roads and communication are critical services to support the marketing activities of agricultural cooperatives.For good reasons, cooperatives and farmer organizations are being promoted in Malawi. However, cooperatives are not the only business models through which farming households can expand and more profitably engage with the market. Primary cooperatives might not be suitable for all farming households. For very small-scale farmers, particularly those with limited financial resources or skills or with low social capital, a cooperative might be too difficult a model to participate in effectively. The government should consider a range of options beyond primary cooperatives alone to enable farming households to better engage in commercial agricultural production. Such options might include, among others, farmer groups created to address a specific need for farmers in a community, non-profit agricultural associations, or contract farming arrangements. As part of their support to increasing the commercial orientation of farming households, the government should develop and widely disseminate a guide for farming households to use in choosing which business model might be best suited to their situation and resources.Also, particularly at district and farmer levels, better implementation of existing policies and strategies promoting agricultural cooperatives is needed. Much of the discussion around such cooperatives seems to be happening at national level, but not among the farmers who would most immediately benefit from them.Farmers in Malawi often do not obtain good prices for their crops. The \"government uses minimum farm gate prices to improve farmers' access to market information, to encourage agricultural commodity traders to pay farmers higher prices for their crops, and to improve the incomes and, thereby, the welfare of smallholder farmers (Edelman 2016, 1).\" However, minimum farm gate prices are not well enforced, nor do such prices necessarily increase farmers' income (Edelman 2016;Baulch and Ochieng 2020;Baulch and Jolex 2021). What is needed is an open trade policy.Prices were an issue repeatedly mentioned by the cooperative leaders and members in focus group discussions. The informants proposed several mechanisms as to how they might obtain higher prices. These include expanded value addition, processing, and certification, e.g., Fair Trade certification for macadamia. In the tea sector, Sukambizi cooperative has been assisted by the Rainforest Alliance to receive carbon credits. Sukambizi is also Fair Trade certified, and the cooperative members receive dividends when their buyer, Lujeri, sells their tea abroad (KII 6).Respondents mentioned several systems for price and market information. However, while the information is available, frequently farmers are unable to find it. More efforts are needed to provide price information in a manner that farmers can actually use. Strategy (ii) of FODS Pillar 4 is to \"design and establish a harmonized market information system (MIS) for the farmer organization sub-sector\" (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, 20).The government and implementing partners can also use existing approaches to better provide price information to cooperatives. Notable among these are the market support efforts for cooperatives under the Market-Oriented Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment and Promotion project. The project's tools include a market survey, stakeholder forums, action plans, and production and marketing calendars. These tools strengthen the ability of farmers to negotiate the prices they receive from buyers of their produce from a position of knowledge and to build working relationships with a range of market players.In meeting with informants and cooperative members for this research, the discussion often centered on how best to professionalize cooperatives. Table 2.2 provides a typology of three categories of cooperatives defined along a spectrum of how professionally they operate-infant, professionalizing, and professional cooperatives. Here we give more detail on several initiatives for professionalizing cooperatives and other farmer organizations. While some of these initiatives are being implemented in Malawi, others are not, but are underway elsewhere in Africa. However, we describe the initiatives and the cooperative performance appraisal tools they use to prompt further discussion on how efforts to professionalize primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi could be strengthened.• The AGCOM Productive Alliance Model is an approach based on commercial agreements between project-supported producer organizations. More details are in Text Box 4.3.• Tradeline Corporation Group is a diversified business portfolio conglomerate. It empowers small and medium agricultural enterprises in Malawi to equitably enter the commercial sector and facilitate their penetration into high-value domestic and export markets (Tradeline Corporation Group 2020). Tradeline offers business consulting services, financial services, a farmers' commodity market, and trade and market services.• The Agricultural Commodity Exchange for Africa (ACE) internally uses a farmer organization assessment method that could be replicated nationwide to better understand, assess, and categorize cooperatives and other farmer organizations according to their strengths and weaknesses. ACE conducts an annual assessment of the farmer organizations with which it works in Malawi at the start of the agricultural season, administering a quantitative questionnaire and checking compliance by each group on several aspects of their business. After the assessment, ACE decides which groups are ready to work with it and receive its services, including regular market information, participation in ACE's warehouse receipt system, and access to finance.When a farmer organization starts working with ACE, it benefits from three days of training through the ACE Marketing School. In the early stages of their cooperation, ACE provides intensive support. More services are availed to the farmer organization as it graduates to higher levels of professionalism in carrying out its business operations. These include providing the farmer organization with high-quality inputs and access to formal markets, after which ACE support decreases.ACE does not involve itself in marketing for the farmers organizations. ACE only provides market information to the farmers, with the farmers then accessing and using the markets themselves.• Similarly, the Land O'Lakes Cooperative Development Activity 4 developed a tool to measure cooperative performance, called PM2. The tool examines \"the services the cooperative offers its members, its business performance in terms of sales, financial statements, net profits, membership growth, sales contracts, and any additional business the cooperative has generated (KII 12).\" Land O'Lakes is using this tool in Malawi.• With the Market-Oriented Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment and Promotion project, several tools are used to strengthen market orientation and business skills. Farmer groups interact with a wide range of market actors through the Farm Business Linkage Stakeholder (FABLIST) Forum.The forum allows them to establish links with farm input suppliers, horticultural traders, financial institutions, and other actors (Mwangi, et al. (2021). Farmers also conduct a market survey themselves where they identify what commodities are in high demand and based on that, agree what commodities to produce.• The Agribusiness Market Ecosystem Alliance is a member network made up of public and private sector organizations working with farmer organizations and small and medium agribusiness in over 20 countries globally, but not yet in Malawi. The Alliance provides a platform which enables stakeholders to learn, innovate, and scale up the most effective approaches for supporting farmers. It also provides assessment tools and training materials for members.• The Cargill Coop Academy was developed in Côte d'Ivoire for cocoa cooperatives. The Academy is essentially a \"mini-MBA program … combining 28 days of intensive classroom training with a year of personalized on-the-ground coaching. Its aim is to help farmers develop the financial and management knowledge and skills to enable them to improve the day-to-day running of their businesses and support the long-term success and growth of their cooperatives\" (Cargill 2022). In providing this training, Cargill uses a combination of farmer field schools to disseminate good agricultural practices and individual coaching to lead to the effective adoption of these practices on the farm. Each coach engages with about 60 farmers per year. While the Coop Academy has not yet been replicated in other countries, it provides a model for supporting farmer organizations that could be adapted for use elsewhere.• Finally, SCOPEinsight, a business intelligence company has assessment and data collection tools to help professionalize agribusinesses such as cooperatives. The company segments cooperatives to better provide business development services and supports development of national cooperative databases. SCOPEinsight, an international organization, has partnered with organizations working at strengthening farmer organizations in Malawi to add value and rigor to those efforts.Using tools and solutions from one of the organizations above or developing their own, the Ministry of Trade and Industry, with its partners, including the Ministry of Agriculture, should be better able to measure the capacity of cooperatives in key areas like finance and governance, and their need for business development support services. This should be done in close collaboration with the cooperative unions of which the primary agricultural cooperatives are members and with MAFECO.Doing so would necessarily require tailoring the assistance offered to any cooperative based on its track record and degree of professionalization. Per the cooperative typology ( Specific needs of the cooperatives by cooperative typology category might include:• Infant cooperatives-capacity strengthening; sort out and strengthen their governance systems.• Professionalizing cooperatives-require support in identifying and accessing better markets; work with them to build better management systems for their operations.• Professional cooperatives-require specific coaching as they expand and explore new business opportunities; require specialized marketing support.Interventions targeted for a cooperative should be sequential in nature, building on existing capacity. \"Support to cooperatives should take a stepwise approach and should be flexible and tailored. Use of coaches may help in that regard. You cannot start with trainings on marketing and supporting a cooperative on marketing when their governance is not in order (KII 1).\"Efforts to improve the operational capabilities of primary agricultural cooperatives must be targeted. Many development organizations focus on building the skills of the leadership of cooperatives. Similarly, cooperatives send key members or their education committee members when training opportunities arise. Other groups target capacity building for women or other marginalized groups among their members.\"But capacity for who and how to build it? That is where the issue is. … They need some capacity. But who are you building capacity for? Who is the target? (KII 9)\"Strengthening the capacities of cooperatives and related actors is a consistent element in all strategies to expand and improve cooperatives in Malawi. Lwanda (2013) mentions that \"well structured business management training and development programs [should] be instituted to improve agriculture cooperatives business and management efficiency.\" FODS Pillar 1 on human resource development and partnerships mentions skills development for Ministry staff. It would be important, given decentralization, to also strengthen the relevant knowledge and skills of district-level officers who support cooperatives.Capacity for advocacy is also needed, particularly at the level of cooperative unions and the national apex cooperative organization, MAFECO. Development partners can provide these institutions with data, give them technical training, and provide them with a platform to advocate for their members on important issues, including on addressing poor prices, lack of markets, and lack of competition among buyers of their produce.More empowerment is needed for farmers who make up the membership of primary agricultural cooperatives in Malawi. Infant cooperatives just starting out generally will not have the empowerment or skills and knowledge to negotiate effectively with buyers on prices and to set up sales contracts. Support from unions and from the Department of Agricultural Extension Services could help in this regard.In particular, cooperative leaders need further training to develop the expertise that will enable them to act and to make decisions on behalf of the cooperative in a knowledge manner. FODS Pillar 2, which is about strengthening leadership capacities and the governance of farmer organizations, reflects this need. Government and other actors should put more efforts here.More research is needed on how to strengthen and expand primary agricultural cooperatives. Under FODS Pillar 1 is a strategy to \"promote collaborative research between research institutions and farmer organizations\" with a specific action to \"institute special research programs deliberately targeting farmer organizations\" (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, 17). The research presented here is aligned with this aim.Such research can take advantage of existing data collection efforts and large projects centered on agricultural cooperatives and other farmer organizations. ACE has quantitative data from their assessments. The Agriculture Commercialization Project and Land O'Lakes have valuable data as well. Data from the Agriculture Commercialization Project similarly could provide important insights for how best to strengthen agricultural cooperatives across Malawi:\"We could do really comprehensive work by using the [quantitative] data that is being generated through the Agriculture Commercialization Project. That is one of the huge projects that is being spearheaded by government. It is supported throughout Malawi. It is an opportunity to really look at the cooperatives that have been supported and to try to build cases [for best practices in strengthening cooperatives] from there. What is it that is making them do well, if indeed they are doing well? Which models are working for Malawi? So, with the information they have and with very rich information from Land O'Lakes, that is good information to build cases. We have done lots of pocket-size research [here and there], but we need to consolidate and move forward (KII 9).\"FODS Pillar 1 continues in the same vein with a strategy to \"institute annual research dissemination symposiums targeting farmer organizations where knowledge, experiences, and information about existing and emerging technologies and challenges could be shared\" (Ministry of Agriculture 2020, 17). While some research has been done on agricultural cooperatives in Malawi, more is needed. We hope that this report will be viewed as an important component of this research literature. Our findings provide a baseline understanding of primary agricultural cooperatives that can be used to inform the strategies that the government and its partners, including smallholder farmers, develop to ensure that such cooperatives accelerate progress towards achieving the development vision for the country, Malawi 2063, particularly in rural communities.However, the research presented here is only a starting point. Nearly every cooperative that we spoke to mentioned something along the lines of 'people always come and talk to us, and nothing ever happens.' \"If the research is done and not used, it is not even worth starting the research (KII 1).\" The person went on to say that dissemination is very important, as is follow up with policymakers and NGOs that are supporting cooperatives on taking action based on the research findings. The findings presented here from the research literature, from key informants, and from the agricultural cooperatives themselves provide a solid basis for organizations to alter where necessary their approaches in supporting cooperatives.In conclusion, there is political will to support cooperatives across Malawi. Many documents and policies exist, and the government, private companies, NGOs, and development programs and projects are engaging cooperatives. However, more evidence-based strategic action is needed to support the professionalization process that most agricultural cooperatives in Malawi need to undergo.Furthermore, professionalization will only take cooperatives so far. Cooperatives and other agribusinesses can only work as well as the enabling policy environment. Thus, there is a need to ensure that general agricultural sector policies are suitable so that the businesses of cooperatives can thrive. This will require predictable government interventions, predictable markets, and expanded infrastructure.The right policy environment combined with professional cooperatives will ensure that cooperatives are a well-performing and inclusive force in Malawi, helping farmers to significantly commercialize their production and to expand the contributions they make to the economy, helping to achieve the development vision of Malawi 2063.• Probe: Do you think there are any emerging threats to agricultural cooperatives that might not yet be major issues, but have the potential to become more important? What are these? Why do you think these are important? What respondents say about the policies in existence or what should be done. Also, incentives.Funding for this work was provided by the Government of Flanders. This publication has been prepared as an output of Malawi Strategy Support Program (MaSSP) and has not been independently peer reviewed. Any opinions expressed here belong to the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by IFPRI or the Government of Flanders.A world free of hunger and malnutrition ","tokenCount":"23603"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"76a680ac5ad9e2d794e2fe8c8aee6663","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b49b5c5-b3fc-45a3-81f2-ff593f5ef05d/retrieve","id":"-912329209"},"keywords":["wild species","utilization","food and nutrition security","changes over time","Uganda","wild plant species for food","wild animal species for food"],"sieverID":"d519b80d-da06-496c-bc9e-209578919409","pagecount":"16","content":"Wild foods significantly contribute to the global food basket, and food and nutrition security. Worldwide, wild food species form an integral part of local diets and their widespread assimilation into local food culture suggests an untapped potential to ensure easy availability and access to micronutrients for sustainable food systems. However, wild species are often overlooked within nutrition-related policies, and their levels of availability remain unknown. This paper, therefore, focuses on understanding the changes in availability, access and utilization of wild animal and plant species in Teso and Acholi sub-regions of Uganda. A four-cell agrobiodiversity mapping protocol was applied through focus group discussions to establish the different wild animal and plant species that have played and still play a role within local communities' livelihoods in the two subregions. Findings showed that at the time of the study (2017), wild foods were considered to be important contributors to food and nutrition security, although the number of species reported to be available was slightly lower [91 (Acholi) and 103 (Teso)], compared to 20 years ago, where around 109 edible wild species were reportedly available in both the Acholi and Teso sub-regions. Reasons for the decline included (i) increased cultivations, and (ii) natural habitat destruction due to settlements and changes in land ownership. In the latter case, individual owners have further fragmented their land and do not allow villagers to freely participate in hunting and gathering. Lastly, rebel unrest increased feelings of insecurity, and thus prompted a decline in hunting and gathering. The noted presence and contribution of wild foods in Teso and Acholi calls for collective efforts to increase access to knowledge on the value of these wild foods for not only food and nutrition but also for their potential contribution to the social and cultural lives of the people.Hunger and food insecurity remain major global challenges with approximately 768 million people reportedly undernourished and one in three people having inadequate access to food in 2020 (FAO et al., 2021). Although agroecosystems have been modified to ensure plants and animals can be used as food, fiber, fodder, medicines, traps, and weapons, the global food system is currently dominated by only three food crops (wheat, rice and maize), while 5,000 food crops are estimated to exist (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010;FAO, 2021;Padulosi et al., 2021). According to FAO (2019), the drivers of this trend toward such predominance have mainly been: population growth and urbanization; climate change; natural disasters; infestations of pests, diseases and invasive alien species; emerging advanced technologies and innovations; changes in management and use of land and water; overexploitation of available resources; and implementing policies that do not favor conservation. Nevertheless, there still exists substantial evidence that wild foods which are part of neglected and underutilized species (NUS) remain an important component of the global food basket (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010), are playing a significant role in traditional food systems and are still often known to Indigenous and traditional communities (Padulosi et al., 2021). The term wild in this regard implies spontaneous growth outside of cultivated areas (Heywood, 1999). Overall, wild foods can play a vital role in providing food and nutrition security, either by income generation or consumption (FAO, 2019). It is estimated that globally, over one billion people use and incorporate wild foods into their diets (Burlingame, 2000). As such they are integral to traditional food systems, especially when availability is scarce, the household budget is insufficient or market access is difficult (Borelli et al., 2020). Often these wild foods have the same or even superior nutritional profiles compared to their cultivated counterparts (FAO, 2019). Across Asia and Africa, wild foods obtained from non-domesticated species are still an important resource, as a recent review corroborated, reporting agricultural and forager communities using 90-100 different wild species (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). Ray et al. (2020) report the whole of India has more than 1,000 reported wild edible plant species, yet aggregate three-country national use has been estimated to be between 300 and 800 species for India, Ethiopia and Kenya. In Tanzania, it was established that the Tanzanian Batemi agro-pastoralists use 31 wild species as food, six wild species as thirst quenchers, seven for chewing, two as flavoring, one for honey beer and a further 35 wild, edible plant species have been incorporated into their cultivated systems (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). However, at the regional and national level, the available food balances that guide policies on trade, aid and the declaration of food crises, notably do not include the contribution made by wild edible species (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010;FAO, 2019). Wild foods are often missing within food composition data and the information on use, conservation and state are limited, as well as financial support and lack of prioritization (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010;FAO, 2019;Borelli et al., 2020). Further, wild foods or NUS, in general, are perceived to be \"food for the poor, \" or \"women's food\" (Powell et al., 2014;Hunter et al., 2019;Borelli et al., 2020). This, therefore, enhances the probability of neglecting the provisioning ecosystems and supportive local knowledge systems that sustain food chains around wild foods.In Uganda, the situation is not different. Uganda ranks among the countries with the greatest diversity of animal and plant species with almost 19,000 recorded species of fauna and flora, even though the country only occupies ∼2% of the world's area (land and water) (NEMA, 2016). Still, malnutrition persists in Uganda and 70% of the population experienced moderate to severe food insecurity in 2018-2020(FAO, 2021)). According to NEMA (2016), the National Environment Management Authority, Uganda hosts around 11% (1,063 species) of the world's recorded bird species, which represents half of Africa's bird species It also hosts 7.8 % (345 species) of global mammalian diversity, or 39% of Africa's mammal diversity (NEMA, 2016). In addition, Uganda hosts 19% of Africa's amphibian species, 14% of Africa's reptile species, and 600 different species of fish. A study of indigenous woody species in Agoro-Agu Central Forest Reserve in Northern Uganda identified 86 different woody plant species where 16% are used for consumption within the area (Olanya, 2020). In the Teso-Karamoja region, a total of 100 edible plant species were identified within the forest reserves (Ojelel et al., 2019), while 73 edible plants from 39 families were identified in the Acholi sub-region (Nyero et al., 2021).In another study carried out in Bulamogi, Uganda, edible wild plants embraced 105 mostly-herbaceous (70.7%) species (Tabuti et al., 2004). Most of the edible plants were found to yield fruits mainly consumed as snacks (41.4%) (Tabuti et al., 2004). However, the wild foods were noted to be infrequently eaten and their consumption was limited to casual encounters, periods of food shortages and as supplements to major food crops (Tabuti et al., 2004). The main reasons reported by Tabuti et al. (2004) for reduced use and neglect of wild foods were (i) the wide variety of introduced cultivated foods and (ii) erosion of traditional knowledge about wild foods (Tabuti et al., 2004). In addition, according to Plumptre et al. (2016), other major threats to biodiversity in Uganda include (i) the increasing human population that fuels a high demand for land in addition to overutilization of the species, and (ii) consequences of climate change that reduce their natural habitats leading to a decline in species or their extinction (Plumptre et al., 2016).This paper focuses on mapping out the different animal and plant wild food species used within two sub-regions of Uganda, assessing the changes over two distinct time periods in their availability, access to and consumption by smallholder households. The paper aims to understand the changes and factors that influence, the availability, access to and utilization of wild foods for food and nutrition security comparing the two time periods. The past period (1997) was purposively selected, based on the time when the target communities of the Teso sub-region in the East, and Acholi sub-region in Northern Uganda had to leave their homes to live in camps due to the heightened Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) rebellion. The insurgency due to the civil unrest lasted for 20 years , leading to internal displacement and community raids which disrupted the communities' practices related to food production, food acquisition, food handling, food consumption, and other community practices that influence species' conservation. The current period (2017) was selected based on when the communities were back on their farms.The study was conducted in two sub-regions of Uganda, located in the Northern and Eastern regions of the country, named Acholi and Teso, respectively (see Figure 1). Both sub-regions suffered the brunt of insurgency from 1985 to 2005 and in addition, Teso experienced intermittent insecurity between 1990 and 2003. The Acholi region is predominantly occupied by the Acholi ethnic group and is composed of seven districts (Agago, Amuru, Gulu, Kitgum, Lamwo, Nyoya, and Pader). The sub-region occupies a total land area of 29,174 km 2 , which accounts for 12% of Uganda's total land area (Kasusse et al., 2015;Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2018). This region is situated at a mean altitude of 1,050 m above sea level and experiences on average an annual rainfall of 1,434 mm with the temperature ranging between 16.8 and 30.5 • C while the soil types are mainly petric plinthosols (Acric) and leptosols (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2015;Akongo et al., 2016). On the other hand, the Teso sub-region covers a land area of approximately 13,031 square kilometers comprising the districts of Amuria, Bukedea, Kaberamaido, Kapelebyong, Katakwi, Kumi, Ngora, Serere, and Soroti (Dbedia, 2022). The region experiences a humid and hot climate modified by its large swamp area, which mediates the rains over the great plain of Central Karamoja, and the Western slopes of the volcanic mountains of Napak (Kamalinga), Kadam (Debasien), and the Northern side of Elgon (Masaba). In general, the area receives bimodal rainfall averaging between 1,000 and 1,350 mm per annum supporting a predominant grassland savannah vegetation (Egeru, 2012;Okoboi, 2016;Uganda Investment Authority, 2016). Teso subregion is predominantly inhabited by the Itesot ethnic group, which is the fourth largest ethnic group in the country (Uganda Bureau of Statistics and ICF, 2018).Due to insurgency occasioned by the LRA rebellion and People's Redemption Army (PRA) in Teso, and the Karamojong cattle raiders, both Acholi and Teso suffered disruption in the social and agrobiodiversity systems which may predicate changes in the current culture. The changes between the past and current traditional systems can affect the way land is governed and household food security status. It is for this reason that the study was conducted in Acholi and Teso.The data used to develop this article was part of data collected during a baseline study for the project on \"Influences of land impermanence syndrome on conservation and utilization of agrobiodiversity and the subsequent effect on food attitudes and consumption patterns.\" The study regions, districts, sub-counties and specific project sites were selected in 2017 following a mixed-method (subjective and objective), multi-stage approach as shown in Figure 2.Districts were selected based on the opinions of local leaders in both sub-regions. Four districts were purposively selected subjectively considering land security perceptions, selecting one district per region representing an area perceived to be land insecure (regarding land ownership), and one district which is considered to be land secure. After articulation and description of the study objectives by the core project team and through consensus, local leaders in the Acholi sub-region selected Nwoya and Lamwo, while those in the Teso sub-region selected Amuria and Bukedea. In the second sampling stage, four sub-counties per district and in each sub-county, one village (16 villages) were selected following simple random sampling.The study employed a qualitative method approach that involved the use of focus group discussions (FGDs), which have the advantage of enabling in-depth information gathering within a considerably shorter period (Gundumogula, 2020). A total of 32 FGDs were targeted between November and December 2017. Group size ranged from 10 to 15 participants and the discussion lasted between 5 and 8 h. Each group was homogenous representing one gender to allow free participation basing on social and gender dynamics of the target communities. Thus, in each village two FGDs (one female and one male) were targeted. Additionally, FGDs comprised a mix of participants of all age groups with minimum age of 18 years and participants older than 35 years old specifically encouraged to participate. Based on an existing FGD methods guide for facilitators and note-takers, developed by the PAR ( 2018), each session began with a brief introduction of the project, and each participant, and continued after verbal consent was obtained from each person (PAR, 2018). Every FGD was guided by two well-trained research assistants in the local language and was recorded using both notebooks and voice recorders. During the participatory FGDs, the trainers constantly reminded the participants that all their views were important, assured them of high level of confidentiality in data collected and created an open atmosphere for the participants to speak freely by avoiding the dominance of one individual or group of individuals during the discussion directly asking for the opinions of individual or group of individuals whose views seemed not to be coming out during the discussion. As the interest of the current paper is on the wild foods' availability, access and utilization, only FGDs that captured the respective information were considered within the analysis.Qualitative data on wild foods was collected following the agrobiodiversity mapping protocol, also called four-cell analysis (FCA), developed by Bioversity International in 2006 (Lochetti et al., 2020). In general, the four-cells were established to document the role of agrobiodiversity in the local food system. The tool is created according to two axes, labeled for a relative number of households (many vs. few) and area of cultivation (large vs. small) (see Figure 3), to measure richness (abundance) and evenness (distribution) of local crop diversity, common, unique and rare/endangered varieties or species. The participatory method identifies the most important biological assets that play any role within local-community livelihoods. It also examines the species' utilization across four components: availability/production, consumption, purchase, and sale of various food species (including wild plant and animal species) (Lochetti et al., 2020). Additionally, the element of access to the species and the ease or difficulty with which households in the community find the species are considered, to help indicate the availability or scarcity of a food species. This study examined the current (2017) and past (before 1997) availabilities (access), consumption, sales, and purchases of wild foods. As illustrated in Figure 3, species that are available to many households and easily found (common) would be placed in cell 4, while a species that is available to many households but is difficult to find (unique and vulnerable) would be placed in cell 3. Furthermore, a species that is available to a few households and easily found would be placed in cell 2 (unique and vulnerable), while a species that is available to a few households and difficult to find (rare and under threat) would be placed in cell 1. The same method is applied to consumed, sold and purchased wild food species.In addition, to help place the species within the 4-cell categories reasons and examples for the different categories were provided which can be seen in Figure 4.We acknowledge limitations that may have arisen from a possible lack of precision in the language used in the transcripts. The audio recordings were transcribed from Acholi and Itesot to English. Thus, some nuance could have been lost in the translation, although most of this was addressed during the review which involved transcribers exchanging the transcripts and checking to see whether the audio recordings were transcribed as accurately as possible. Also, the list of wild species provided is a mix of the local language and English. The communities were encouraged to name any type of edible species and often members did not know the name in English. Where possible the local names were validated via discussion with colleagues, the local community and available literature (Kimani et al., 2020). However, we acknowledge, that within this research it was a challenge to validate all named species and thus, we list the folk taxonomies, e.g., using the names and explanations provided by the participants instead of the specific scientific taxonomies and traits. Therefore, the number of named species might differ if species could be also identified through scientific taxonomy. Future studies should ensure data backup with scientific names and if possible, obtain pictures of any named food species for further verification. Due to the nature of FGD to let the community speak freely and with the exercise focusing on nine food groups, the information collected at this level focused on species, further studies could be done to move forward and look into varieties within species. In addition, this study presents information gathered only through FGDs it doesn't include details on quantities consumed and level of nutrients.In the first analysis step, data on the wild plant and animal species were of interest and the perceived levels of availability, purchase, selling and utilization in diets of each species considering dimensions such as (i) large and small areas; (ii) many and few households; and (iii) more and less frequently following the definitions and specifications of the community in both subregions. An example of how the maps looked can be found in Figure 5. The analysis included sorting and looking at the recordings to map the qualitative responses of the participants. In general, the village was considered as the target unit of the analysis. In the second step, the results of four-cell agrobiodiversity data collection were used to compare species' diversity for both the current (2017) and past (1997) periods to ascertain whether there were changes in wild species' diversity and levels of utilization over time, according to folk taxonomy. As reported by Harris and Mohammed (2003) and Ojelel et al. (2019) who classified plant based wild foods according to use category, this study adopted the same approach. The wild foods were later categorized as per what was obtained from the wild and the actual use category especially for plant-based foods. The categories included animal, bird, fish, fruit, insect, leafy vegetable, and stem/root/tuber.In total, FGDs from 16 villages within the four sub-counties were considered within the analysis of wild foods. Fourteen FGDs (eight female and six male) adequately listed information on wild foods in Teso, while nine FGDs were considered for Acholi (three female and six male). Since data collection was not solemnly on wild foods but incorporated 8 other food categories (starchy staples, domesticated animals, fruits, vegetables, legumes, milk and milk products, eggs, oils/fats) in some villages not all data gathered from both male and female groups was complete enough to enable the desired analysis. For instance in one of the districts, Nwoya district, all the complete data came from male FGDs (see Table 1). In the following, we present the results separately according to Teso and Acholi sub-regions.The participants within the Teso FGD named a total of 109 different wild species. Of those, 108 were available in the past compared to 103 species in the current period. The prevalence of the foraged wild foods according to species type comparing the past and current periods is summarized in Table 2. A complete list of the local names or folk taxonomy mentioned by the participants can be found in Supplementary Table 1. For both periods, the most listed species types were animals (32%), followed by birds (19%), fruits (18%), and stem/root/tuber (13%). In the past, more animals and uncategorized species were found compared to the current period, but the differences are small.In total, at the sub-regional level, 490 different species were identified as available and accessible during the focus group discussions, which are grouped into six different wild species. Thirty species more were named to be accessible in the past compared to the current period. The difference between current and past periods according to the four dimensions displayed in Figure 6 displays how often different wild food species were named by the participants (count). The greatest decline can be seen within the wild animal species. As for the dimension of consumption only three species are named to be consumed today compared to the past, although this does not consider the perception if found by a few or many.Disaggregated per village, almost all of the wild species were available to many households and easy to find during the past period, but this changed over time and the availability in the current period is more diverse and different. Table 3 displays the different species mentioned as being available per village in the Teso sub-region according to the locations and perceptions of the participants. A list of wild species according to folk taxonomy per level of availability can be found in Supplementary Table 4. The results generally revealed a decline in the level of availability of the different wild animal species in Teso over time. For instance, in Atarukot village, 4 animal species were easily available to many households during the current period compared to fifteen species that were easily found by many households during the past period. Similar declining trends were also observed in the other villages in the Teso subregion.Most of the participants across the FGD mentioned that the wild species were difficult to find during the current period and only available for a few households, displaying that most of the common wild species in the past are rare and under threat  today. This was mostly attributed to the reduction in the size of the communal land from which most of the wild species were gathered/ hunted. One respondent explained that in the past the villages had high vegetation and the number of villagers was smaller, hence the wild animals had more space and were also easier to find (see Quote in Figure 7). Most of the animal species which were hunted for their meat were reported to be easily available during the past period often by many households but only in a few communities, while mostly in the Bukedea district male participants indicated that certain types of animal species are difficult to access.Similarly, the level of consumption of wild species was high in the past with most of the species being consumed by many households frequently since they were abundant and easy to find (see also Supplementary Table 3). While within the current period (2017), participants across the Teso FGD reported a decline in the level of consumption of wild species, which was attributed to the reduction in their natural habitats making them hard to find in most of the communities. In 2017, the female and male participants across the Teso sub-region reported that around 15 different animal species were consumed frequently, while 18 species were identified as having been frequently consumed in the past period. A complete list displaying the frequencies of wild species according to the village, 4-cell placement and gender is displayed in Supplementary Table 5.A list of wild species according to folk taxonomy per level of purchase and sale for the Teso sub-region according to the village can be found in Supplementary Tables 6, 7, while on species level it can be found in Supplementary Table 3. Generally, the level of trade, meaning sales or purchase of wild species was low during the past period and higher in the current periods for different reasons. In the past, almost all households had easy access to the wild species as sufficient numbers existed. Thus, there was no market for them, but during the current period, almost all the wild species especially the animals and birds are proving difficult to find and are only available in small numbers, so they rarely come up for sale/ purchase. One participant told us if someone is lucky enough to hunt a wild animal it is used for own consumption (see quote Figure 8).A slightly smaller number of wild species was reported within the FGD in the Acholi sub-region. In total 97 different wild species were named by the different villages. In the past period, 97 compared to 91 species in the current period were available, which were categorized into six different species types (see also Table 2). A complete list of named wild species in the past and present including their categorization can be found in the Supplementary Table 1. In general (past and current), although as shown in Table 2, there were about 6 categories of wild species, the most mentioned wild foods were animals (35%), followed by fruits (24%), insects (14%), and birds (13%). Interestingly no fish Fish species only mentioned in Teso sub-region.FIGURE 6 | Frequency of wild species according to the 4-dimension in Teso sub-region (availability, consumption, purchase, and sale) (Supplementary Table 2).species were mentioned in any of the groups in Acholi, while in the Teso sub-region 5 different fish species were mentioned and compared to five different wild species in the Teso sub-region.In general, fewer species were easily found in Acholi compared to the Teso sub-region. Overall, disregarding the perception/categorization of the wild species 279 different wild species were accessible, as displayed in Figure 9. In the past, more species types were easily found by many households across the districts (Table 4). Although most of the wild species were found in only a few communities, their level of availability was high in those communities where they were found. In Mudu West, Iromo, and Ngomoromo villages, in Lamwo district, the number of wild animal species easily available to many households has not changed over time. On the contrary, Bwobonam B, Lamoki and Korobar villages in Nyowa districts all reported a decline in the number of animal species easily available to many households over time. However, Bwobonam B and Korobar villages in Nwoya and Alenyo south in Lamwo reported having more wild fruits being available to many households easily in the current period compared to the past. A male participant in Nyowa district argued that the level of availability of most wild species has declined because most of their habitat has been destroyed for cultivation. Many wild species, especially animals were easily available in the past as the hunting restrictions were not enforced due to the level of political insecurity (see quote in Figure 10).Similarly, the level of consumption of wild species had declined considerably over time due to restrictions on hunting wild animals. Consumption, purchase, and sale according to the 4-cell placement for the current and past period for Acholi sub-region according to the village and FH_EF, Few Households/Easily found; FH_DF, Few Households/Difficult to find; MH_EF, Many Households/Easily found; MH_DF, Many Households/Difficult to find. For a complete list of available wild species see also Supplementary Table 5. aggregated form can be found in Supplementary Table 8. Today, around 12 different wild species were named as being consumed by many households frequently, while over 35 different types of wild species were consumed by many in the past (Supplementary Table 10). A complete list of wild species according to folk taxonomy for purchase and sale according to the village can be found in Supplementary Tables 11, 12.Trade was higher in the current period compared to the past, but less frequently and for a few households. As reasons, several participants across the Acholi sub-region groups indicated, additionally, that most of the communal land, where their natural habitat was located, has been converted into farmland and agricultural production. This has made it harder to access wild species, leading to less frequent consumption and a reduction in their sales/purchase levels. Similarly, some wild animals are   2).difficult to hunt requiring rare, highly-specialized skills. Today these skills are almost lost within the community due to poor inter-generational knowledge transfer and sharing. In addition, the high level of insecurity due to rebel activities has limited people's access to the different wild species. Another participant in Pabit east noted that due to past poor security and surveillance, wild animals were easily available when park rangers were less rigorous than they are currently (see quotes in Figure 11).Within this paper, we have considered the changes in the availability and utilization of wild food species over time within two sub-regions in Uganda. Our study mentions more than 100 different edible wild plant and animal species in both regions considering the two time periods (2017 and 1998). It further confirms that wild foods still play a major role in our food systems. However, the number reported here is significantly lower than what has been reported in a number of studies. In a study carried out in the Oraon tribal community in Jharkhand, India, more than 130 varieties of indigenous foods were identified, many of which were rich sources of micronutrients (Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2015). In another study that considered the whole of India, more than 1,000 wild edible plant species were reported (Ray et al., 2020). This high number could be because the study was carried out in a significantly larger geographical area considering the size of India than our study area of 8 sub-counties in 4 districts of Uganda. Nevertheless, all three studies acknowledge that wild food species form an integral part of local diets and their widespread assimilation into local food culture suggests an untapped potential to ensure easy availability and access to micronutrients for sustainable food systems (Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2015;Ray et al., 2020). In addition, in the India study, more categories of plant wild species were observed such as leafy shoots, seeds, and legumes while   9. in this study the plant-based wild foods were fruits, other plant materials (stem, root, tubers) and leafy vegetables. This difference could be because Indian diets are more leafy vegetable/plantbased thus increased focus and utilization also contributes to an increase in conservation and availability. In another study carried out in Tanzania, a total of 92 species of wild (or spontaneous growing/uncultivated) foods were reported in the dietary surveys conducted between March and May and September and October 2009 (Powell et al., 2013).The availability and use of wild foods can be influenced by several factors, some of which boost or reduce the use of wild foods, while the impact of others is very ambiguous and based on a particular context (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). This study aimed to understand the level of availability and utilization of wild foods considering the two time periods. Participants were able to mention their perceived factors that either negatively or positively influenced availability and utilization. The availabilities and numbers of wild foods were indicated to be negatively influenced by increased clearing of natural habitats to pave the way for cultivation and establishing new settlements to accommodate population increases. In addition, the rearing of newly introduced and exotic species has reduced interest in natural habitats and foraging for wild foods. Access to knowledge has been reported as a major factor influencing access to and use of wild foods. Studies have shown that foraging, hunting and trapping knowledge and skills have dwindled due to trans-generational information erosion (Tabuti et al., 2004;Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2008;Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). Our study corroborates these findings, whereby participants clearly indicated a lack of knowledge on how to sustainably and successfully trap, and hunt wild animals, [\"you have to have good hunting skills which most of the current generation do not have\"]. Bharucha and Pretty (2010) further indicate that the quantity and quality of indigenous knowledge on wild foods especially edible plants are closely related to the traditions, environment and cultural heritage of each country. Ali-Shtayeh et al. (2008) state that the observed decline in wild foods gathering is due to socioeconomic conditions that lead to lifestyle changes and road networks needing space.The expansion of intensive agriculture limits the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food production and at the same time maintain wild-food species' habitats, which has restricted the availability of wild foods (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). In addition, the commercialization of agriculture, an important driver of land-use change, has decreased reliance on wild foods, thus eroding the knowledge and skills associated with wild food species conservation, sustainable trapping/hunting/gathering and sustainable utilization (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010), which was also confirmed during the focus group discussions.In addition, the relatively rapid turnaround of intensive agriculture leads to easier access to and higher availability of commercialized agricultural products, in addition to negative perceptions toward consumption of wild edible foods. Wild foods are perceived to be for the poor and thus are associated with poverty and backwardness (Meldrum and Padulosi, 2017;Padulosi et al., 2022). Other drivers documented include agricultural and land use policy, infrastructure development, and widened access to markets that have been implicated in the declines of wild species in Thailand and China (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010). Although land and agriculture were identified as drivers in this study it was not in relation to policies. Infrastructure, market access and association with poverty did emerge as drivers of wild species' loss during the discussions.The continued reporting of high levels of food insecurity and malnutrition among communities dependent on forestry, natural habitats and agriculture for food and nutrition makes it important to understand current trends for wild foods. As wild food species offer a potentially critical role as a buffer against stress, especially during lean seasons or calamities as famine, and natural disasters (floods, fires, insect infestation on farms). This also applies when caught up in pandemics such as COVID-19 which results in restrictions that influence livelihoods activities such as farming and marketing. In addition, the innate resilience of wild species to rapid climate change, and other harsh conditions which are often lacking in exotic species' , means that they could play an increasingly important role in sustaining the diet and food systems of communities reliant on forests, natural habitats and production for their food and nutrition (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010).Greater access to and availability of wild food species are often linked to more diverse diets, thus contributing to food and nutrition security and the livelihoods of rural communities (Powell et al., 2015). The noted presence of wild foods and their potential to contribute to food and nutrition security in the Teso and Acholi sub-region necessitated the reinforcement of strategies that support the preservation and conservation of wild foods and related agrobiodiversity. This study supports a call for collective efforts and actions for more capacity building and reinforcement of policies that enhance agrobiodiversity, forest conservation and functional ecosystem services. Synergies and linkages between wildlife and forestry should be developed and sustainably harnessed. Policies and laws directed toward characterizing documenting and managing the available biodiversity should be prioritized and enforced. This is especially true for wild foods, with an emphasis on their multi-faceted value, sustainable utilization and conservation. Additionally, the communities' access to user-friendly, timely information should be ensured, through motivated and wellequipped extension service providers. and functioning extension service providers. To add value to the folk taxonomic data, the authors have proposed a follow-up MSc study to identify the scientific names of all species listed, for subsequent analysis.This study has highlighted the importance of wild animal and plant species in Ugandan food and nutrition security. Aligning with other studies, our research acknowledges that wild food species form an integral part of the diet and their widespread assimilation into local food culture suggests an untapped potential to ensure easy availability and access to micronutrients for sustainable food systems (Ghosh-Jerath et al., 2015;Ray et al., 2020).Our study findings indicate that over the last two decades there have been significant declines in wild food availability, access, consumption, and sales. It has been revealed that the reasons for the decline include increased cultivations and natural habitat destruction due to settlements and changes in land ownership. In the latter case, individual owners have further fragmented their land and do not allow villagers to freely participate in hunting and gathering. Lastly, rebel unrest increased feelings of insecurity, and thus prompted a decline in hunting and gathering. The noted presence and contribution of wild foods in Teso and Acholi calls for collective efforts to increase access to knowledge on the value of these wild foods for not only food and nutrition but also for their potential contribution to the social and cultural lives of the people.","tokenCount":"5992"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"28b5c9a43b64ef396c5f583f57bd59c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1e25eff-8e6f-41f1-bde9-bae1785a1fec/retrieve","id":"-1342945545"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4992deda-95bc-4d3f-9a72-aa2f475c2635","pagecount":"10","content":"Over 378 indicators from DfID, World Bank, CCAFS, USAID, IFAD, GIZ and FAO were compiled into a database and revisited thought the \"CSA lenses\" forming the basis for this tool.Beyond identifying their relevance to the three pillars (Productivity/Income; Adaptation/Resilience; Mitigation) the following characteristics were also included in the classification exercise: Indicator Type (Readiness/Enabling environment; Process/Output; Outcome/Impacts) and related topic/area  CSA Type of Intervention (Technologies and Practices; Services; Tools; Incentive Mechanisms/Financial; Empowerment, Capacity Building and Planning)  Scale at which the changes are intended to be measured i. Household/ Farm ii. Subnational (including the regional, landscape, value chains, institutional scales) iii. National (policy, institutional and programmatic scales) Process indicators: allow programs to be evaluated for meeting CSA and planned objectives. They provide insights into implementation processes (such as the diversity and gender of team composition, number and quality of interactions with communities, etc) and adaptation measures, and monitor or measure the development of adaptation policies and building of adaptive capacity. They are more specialized and generally must be developed and measured specifically for an adaptation program or plan. See Also: CSA Guide. They may fall somewhat short in measuring achievement of adaptation, as indeed, e. g there is no guarantee that successful development and implementation of an adaptation policy translates into effective adaptation (Harley et al., 2008) Outcome/impact indicators: allow measuring progress, downstream effects or medium/long-term impact on the three CSA objectives/pillars. E.g: Effectiveness of adaptation measures, policies and actions or progress towards pre-defined goals (See Also: CSA Guide).Specific relevance rating was also (subjectively) assessed to help users identify most appropriate indicators from a long list.Indicators relating to income and poverty were classed under productivity; Indicators that did not directly relate to a CSA pillar, such as health and nutrition, were not included. Some indicators were edited to be more in line with CSA outcomes and 85 \"new\" indicators were created.In the database, the most common indicators are those pertaining to the pillars of productivity and adaptation while there was significant lack of indicators relating to mitigation outcomes.• Productivity: indicators emphasis on yields, income and livelihood security, with a notorious gap on indicators related to: support policy and legal framework to improve food security and food availability and access.-There are a significant amount of indicators measuring investment in agriculture and sales of agricultural produce, for example, which are suitable to measure productivity. However, this does show how skewed towards monetary outcomes FTF's metrics are, so the balance between the three pillars is uneven. -34indicators from the database have the potential to address mitigation related issues to some degree, 10 exclusively targeting mitigation and only 8 focus on mitigation outcomes.-Assumption that if the technologies are in place, then mitigation is happening and at sufficient levels.The few indicators relating to mitigation outcomes, such as the one below from IFAD ASAP were included in the tool:Indicator Source Percentage tons of GHG emissions (CO2e) avoided and/or sequestered IFAD-ASAP Net carbon balance (GHG emission in tons of CO2-equivalent emission/ha/year) of project compared to a without project scenario.  promote the use of renewable energy (this may be an artefact of the food security focus of the indicators incorporated into the database)  contribute to use of crop residues for energy generation  reduce burning of residues, or reincorporation of residues to increase soil organic carbon  improve feed to livestock which will increase production efficiency  reduce post-harvest losses and food waste  promote information services and sharing to foster climate change mitigation actions • Some of the indicators collected from the different development agencies are CSArelated, however, there is a focus on quantitative measurements as proxies for environmental outcomes. • In order to adequately measure CSA outcomes, more specific and varied indicators would be needed to avoid ambiguity and develop a balance between the three pillars.Generally, the indicators lacked the ability to show a change over time, or to measure specific changes in low/lean season. This temporal element is key to bring stability in environmentally unstable times. Furthermore, there lacked perception indicators. There were some good examples, however, which inspired several new indicators:  ","tokenCount":"679"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"519bae171d4db855bceeeac5be20bb0f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/041c0ff5-d27e-4be5-b4f1-bca7a108ffad/retrieve","id":"1566613933"},"keywords":["Recommended Citation: Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition","2020","Assessing food safety interventions relevant to foodborne zoonoses in low-and middle-income countries","A USAID EatSafe Project Report"],"sieverID":"33444f08-c253-40c4-8d61-ac0f6597759d","pagecount":"36","content":"Foodborne diseases associated with zoonotic pathogens can be transmitted to humans primarily, but not exclusively through animal source foods (ASF). It is estimated that 75% of all emerging diseases are zoonotic in origin. Globally, foodborne zoonoses are associated with approximately one third of the foodborne disease burden, though this is likely an underestimation. Some regions, particularly Africa, have a higher attribution of disease burden to foodborne zoonoses. As the population, urbanization, and expendable incomes of low-and middle-income countries (LMIC) increase, the demand for ASF is also projected to rise, bringing with it the risk of foodborne zoonoses. If the consumption of ASF continues to increase without adequate attention to risk mitigation strategies, the burden of foodborne zoonoses is likely to worsen.The majority of ASF in LMIC are sold in informal markets, which represent highly important nodes that can be targeted for risk mitigation. The nature of zoonoses, however, requires that, where possible, a 'farm to fork' approach is adopted; an approach guided by robust risk assessment techniques to address risk in the most effective and cost-effective way. A holistic vision of foodborne zoonoses control requires multi-sectoral collaboration, within surveillance, response, and prevention functions. The nature of pathogen transmission between human and animal hosts and make collecting data on their prevalence, distribution and risk factors a common goal between the human health and veterinary science communities.This report highlights the multiple and complex factors involved in mitigating foodborne zoonoses in ASF sold at informal markets in resource-poor settings. Many of those factors may also be relevant to pathogens in non-ASF. The evidence discussed here is meant to inform the design of interventions to potentially be tested in phase two of the EatSafe project, as well as the design of other food safety programs. Given that most food safety interventions (ASF and non-ASF) require a \"farm to fork\" approach, this report discusses interventions implemented at the market and consumer level, as well as at the farm and processing stages. In addition, factors that previous interventions have identified as inhibitory or enabling to effective food safety strategies, such as cultural settings, governance policies, or infrastructure, are highlighted and recommendations for intervention design discussed.The case studies reviewed here highlight several lessons to consider when designing interventions to mitigate foodborne zoonoses in food markets. For instance, accounting for the local socio-economic and cultural context and how it shapes attitudes and behaviours is key to intervention effectiveness. While one-off education and training interventions have had short-term success, evidence is lacking for long-term interventions. Also, knowledge alone does not usually result in changed behaviours. Appropriate equipment and infrastructure, as well as other factors, are often necessary to enable a new practice. Participatory approaches can be effective, at least in part, because they account for and leverage key behaviour drivers. Establishing draconian standards, on the other hand, has often failed. Overall, strategies to control zoonotic and non-zoonotic pathogens at food marketplaces exist and are generally similar. However, the role of other critical control points throughout the supply chain is particularly important for the control of zoonoses and should be considered for the effective application of food safety interventions.Vertebrate animal species are natural reservoirs for many pathogens of animal origin that cause human infections (zoonoses). Zoonotic pathogens can be transmitted through ASF, and secondarily via non-ASF that become contaminated during their production process (1). The importance of these pathogens is hugely significant; 75% of all emerging diseases are zoonotic in origin (11), which puts consumers of ASF at increased risk.Consumption of animal source food (ASF) is rapidly increasing, especially in low-middleincome countries (LMIC) where consumers are increasing consumption of higher-protein diets (1). Rapid population growth, urbanization, and increased income drives demand for ASF, resulting in an intensification of livestock production (2). ASF supply several bioavailable nutrients lacking in plant-based diets, providing the nutrients required for healthy human development and growth (3). Especially important is Vitamin B12 which is not naturally available in plant foods unless these have been fortified (4). The majority of ASF products in LMICs are sold through informal markets (5), with the proportion of food sold through retail (supermarkets and convenience chain stores) remaining low, even in cities (6).Informal markets are important hubs of trade and commerce. They supply the growing ASF demand among urban populations and are a source of employment for small scale livestock producers and others involved in the transport and sale of animal source food (7), including women and youth. Informal markets play an essential cultural, social, economic, and nutritional role in communities across LMIC. Consumers of ASF sold in informal markets nevertheless face a double-edged sword scenario: while standing to gain from the nutritional benefits of high-quality, animal sourced protein and micronutrient-rich diets, they also are at risk of foodborne zoonoses.Infrastructure in many informal markets is poor, which is an important factor in raising concern about food safety issues (5). Informal markets are often located close to low-income urban housing settlements where irregular electricity supply, poor drainage, and a lack of sanitation increases the risk of food contamination and foodborne diseases (8). Some of the markets operate outdoors in the open air, either partially or entirely. Vendors in informal markets operate without electricity, clean potable water, or proper waste disposal and sanitation facilities -all factors that increase the risk of foodborne pathogen occurrence or transmission (9,10).In food marketplaces, foodborne zoonotic hazards can be introduced through ASF, adding to the risks related to the hygienic conditions of informal markets where ASF are sold. ASF also provide a good environment for zoonotic and non-zoonotic pathogens to survive and grow. Pathogens that could not survive in sugar, salt, or dried grains may remain viable in the moist, nutrient rich matrix provided by ASF. While consumers of ASF may be at particular risk from foodborne pathogens of zoonotic origin, consumers of non ASF may also be at risk, since vegetables sold at these markets can become cross-contaminated by zoonotic pathogens, for example by being irrigated with contaminated water or through poor vendor storage and hygiene practices (12).The human health burden associated with foodborne illness from ASF is estimated to be 168 (137-219) DALY lost per 100,000 individuals, or approximately 35% of the estimated foodborne disease burden (13). Three biological hazards are responsible for 70% of the foodborne zoonoses burden: non-typhoidal Salmonella spp., Taenia solium, and Campylobacter spp., with the highest burden found in Africa (13). However, this analysis (13) included only 13 foodborne zoonoses, and hence may have underestimated the burden of this important sub-set of food safety hazards. Notably it does not include all foodborne zoonoses, or non-zoonotic pathogens commonly found in ASF. Country-level studies have hinted at this under-estimation, with 78% and 71% of foodborne disease in the UK and India being attributed to ASF (1). The burden of common foodborne zoonoses of relevance to Africa and Asia, and the ASF most commonly associated with each pathogen, are outlined in Table 1. Metecercaiae are harboured in the muscles of fish which are then consumed by humans and can cause chronic liver disease, pancreatitis, and cholangitis in some people. These trematodes are common across South East Asia (14). Paragonimus spp.15 (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21) 100% ASF Shellfish Humans acquire this zoonotic parasite through the consumption of raw/undercooked shellfish. Immature flukes migrate to the lungs where they are responsible for pulmonary signs linked to inflammation; aberrant migrations including to the central nervous system can occur. The parasite is most commonly distributed across Asia where cultural practices relating to the consumption of raw shellfish sustain its life-cycle (19). * (13) An effective method used in in higher income countries (HIC) to mitigate foodborne zoonoses is a \"farm to fork\" system of surveillance using food supply chain information to allow full traceability and transparency in the supply chain (20). Unfortunately, such systems, which could help identify how and where animal source foods become contaminated, prove too costly in LMIC (15) and are not feasible in systems that are largely traditional and more informal. At present, hygiene improving interventions are lacking to address the infrastructure, resources, and knowledge of the multiple actors along the ASF supply chain necessary for successful food safety (21). Given the significant role that traditional markets have in food security and food safety (7), and the growing consumption of ASF (22), it is increasingly important to investigate how foodborne zoonoses transmission risk evolves along the supply chain before, at, and after the informal market nexus. This report is focused on understanding how interventions applied at traditional markets impact foodborne zoonoses. Interventions associated with foodborne zoonoses in informal markets are gaining traction for two main reasons: the increase in demand for ASF from these markets (1) and the resulting burden of foodborne disease attributed to ASF in LMIC (23). Despite high foodborne disease burdens attributed to ASF sold in informal markets, informal markets should not come under undue scrutiny because they belong to an unregulated sector (24). Firstly, informal market food is often safe for consumption and food hazards, which are very common in informal markets, do not necessarily translate into foodborne illness (7). Secondly, supermarket food, commonly believed to be safer than informal market food, is sometimes no better (and sometimes worse) at meeting standards than food sold in the informal sector (25). Informal markets play a vital role in fragile food systems in LMIC (26); they are important for food security and livelihoods and as such merit protection and support through integrated safe food approaches.Evidence gathered in this report highlights barriers and bridges to interventions associated with foodborne zoonoses in LMIC. The informal market will be presented as the interface where vendor and animal sourced food producer meets consumer, a key moment in understanding transmission pathways for foodborne zoonoses. Approaches at a governmental and intersectoral level, such as a One Health approach and its relevance to integrated surveillance and other strategies, will be reviewed. Given how foodborne zoonotic pathogens have developed efficient and effective strategies to exploit food as a vehicle for transmission from animals to humans (27), special consideration will be given to the drivers of foodborne zoonoses at the informal market interface; as well as the socioeconomic and cultural considerations that successful interventions must consider in mitigating risk.A non-systematic literature review, including drawing on the literature identified in EatSafe activity 1.12, was conducted to identify specific aspects of food safety interventions relevant to foodborne zoonoses in LMIC across Africa and Asia, with a focus on lessons learned from recent projects. This review aims to synthesize evidence to the EatSafe audience, setting out why, where, and how interventions linked to informal markets have succeeded, or failed, to mitigate pathogens of animal and human-associated health risks and their transmission through food. Specifically, this review is intended for technical experts who design evidence-based interventions, and for program managers who need to prioritize investments based on potential impacts of an intervention.The review specifically provides guidance to the design of EatSafe and other food safety interventions in informal markets in LMIC by addressing three key questions: Across Africa and Asia, large volumes of meat, milk, eggs, and fish are sold through informal markets. These markets play an important role in livelihood strategies and food security, particularly among the poorest members of society (28). There are, however, risks of foodborne zoonoses associated with the consumption of ASF from informal markets. Disease knowledge, cultural practices, and perception of risk of both vendors and consumers are all important factors that have been the focus of past food safety interventions.Market operators can play an important role in the transmission or control of FBZ outbreaks (5). Foodborne pathogens may be already present in a food when it arrives at the market, or it may be transferred to the food by vendors either directly or by cross contamination (29). For example, a study in an informal market in Vietnam showed how Salmonella enterica, a bacterium often carried by cattle and poultry, had contaminated multiple food products of non-ASF origin across the market due to poor vendor sanitation practices (12). The ways and means by which vendors may transfer pathogens as they prepare and handle food at markets is common to most zoonotic and non-zoonotic pathogens, and to both ASF and non-ASF (30). These practices are influenced both by the knowledge, beliefs, and values of the food handlers as well as the physical market infrastructure they are working within.Understanding and improving vendor awareness regarding foodborne zoonoses is one area where research has been undertaken. In LMIC settings surveys have been used widely to survey the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of food handlers (31,32). These surveys show that vendors of ASF lack knowledge about disease transmission (24,33). Interventions addressing this lack of knowledge have been associated with a reduction in foodborne disease transmission. Training on hygiene and business skills among meat vendors in Nigeria and milk vendors in India saw a significant reduction in coliform bacteria, which are indicators of faecal contamination, in meat and milk post intervention (22,34). A hygiene educational intervention showed increased hand washing among food handlers in Malaysia 6 weeks post intervention (35).Interventions involving the provision of information, training, and skills-building will lead directly to a change in attitude and, consequently, a change in behaviour or practice can be successful in the short term (31). However, if not repeated, its long-term sustainability is questionable. Follow-up studies 9 years later saw coliform bacterial load creep back up to high levels again in meat and milk sold by vendors in both the Nigerian and Indian study (34,36). KAP interventions do create temporary improvements in food safety, but education alone (especially one-off education initiatives) can only partly improve food safety practices of food vendors (37); other factors linked to behaviour change must be considered. For example, in meat plants in HIC, interventions aimed at improved food safety among meat handlers found that both the \"behavioral setting\" and the cognitive processes associated by the meat handler with that behavior must be changed for training interventions to succeed (38).In LMIC, rigorous, long-term impact assessments of food handler training interventions often fall outside the scope of studies, which tend to be more exploratory in design (39), hence failing to identify factors associated with long-term training success. One example of a longterm evaluation method based on the Theory of Change (ToC) approach, designed to define long-term goals and then map backward to identify necessary preconditions, showed that more evidence is needed to validate hypothesized causal relationships between vendor training interventions and food safety outcomes among meat and milk vendors in informal markets in African and Indian settings (40). While there is evidence that educational interventions among vendors of informal markets is beneficial, mechanisms enabling longterm impact assessment need to be incorporated into the study design.In Kenya, culturally accepted and religious practices influence informal market vendors perceptions of food safety risks and disease transmission, and ultimately their willingness to adopt biosecurity measures. For example, some vendors believe that disease outbreaks are a divine punishment (41). Vendor values and beliefs must be considered, as approaches used to reduce foodborne zoonoses usually fail if engagement with key actors is lacking (25). Informal milk vendors in Mali, for example, refused efforts to wash milk containers with soap (7), as their belief that soap taints the taste of milk trumped their concerns over pathogenic milk borne bacteria.The underlying level of knowledge on disease transmission and high-risk practices is important to understand in order identify areas where educational interventions may be of use. In areas of Morocco where the foodborne zoonotic disease echinococcosis, caused by the parasite Echinococcus granulosus, is endemic, butchers and meat vendors continue to dispose of offal where street dogs roam. They do not consider their actions as contributing to cystic echinococcosis in the community and are unaware of the role of dogs in the complicated life cycle of Echinococcus granulosus (42). Similarly, in Pakistan, butchers are identified as being at high risk for echinococcosis, yet few reported knowledge of the disease and therefore are unlikely to take mitigating actions (43). In many African countries, it is not uncommon to see meat retailers turning carcasses destined for human consumption into sitting chairs or resting platforms without concern for potential contamination, either of the meat or of themselves from the carcasses (44). These studies illustrate how any interventions to mitigate foodborne zoonoses among animal sourced food vendors, must consider both local cultural beliefs and the current level of knowledge regarding zoonotic disease transmission pathways.Vendors in informal markets operate within challenging occupational settings, often without electricity, clean potable water, or proper waste disposal and other sanitation facilities (5). Often market vendors use leftover perishable raw materials for next-day preparation without appropriate storage facilities (45). Lack of refrigeration, proper containers, and equipment and clean water needed to effectively wash reusable tools provides opportunities for crosscontamination particularly for highly perishable ASF (10). Vendors use open air, crude structures such as push carts, wooden display tables, or chop bars to display goods, which can facilitate transmission of foodborne pathogens from one food to another, by direct contact or via surfaces (30). In Uganda, a study linked the lack of public sanitary facilities within a market setting to poor personal hygiene among meat food vendors (10), predisposing them and their food products to possible foodborne pathogens. Meat workers in Vietnam were observed to use poor cleaning practices when washing utensils, increasing the opportunities for cross-contamination of meat products (46). Without running water, milk vendors in a Tanzanian market wash utensil in basins designed for hand washing, thus increasing the risk of food contamination (47). In India, pork sold in open stalls sampled morning and evening of the same day showed rapid growth levels of Salmonella spp., toxigenic E. coli and Listeria spp., all causative agent of foodborne zoonoses (48). Interventions aimed at reducing the time to market for meat have been recommended to reduce pathogen transmission risk (7). However, actions that identify poor market infrastructure or technologies as the sole cause of poor hygiene practices by vendors, without due regard to cultural beliefs and practises, fail to mitigate foodborne zoonoses.Interventions to upgrade or build new marketplaces with proper sanitation and lighting for informal vendors, attempting to reduce transmission of foodborne pathogens (zoonotic and non-zoonotic alike), often do not work (8). Interventions to upgrade market infrastructure must first gain insights into the needs, concerns, and demands of vendors if risks associated with foodborne zoonoses are to be reduced. It is much easier to install infrastructure than to maintain it. A recent study in Nigeria (unpublished) found many markets had water supply towers but few were operating. Coliform bacterial levels on meat sold in a marketplace in Ibadan in Nigeria increased despite the building of a modern abattoir for butchers. While the modern abattoir had objectively better facilities, no market survey had been carried out to establish demand for it among butchers; its location and higher usage costs meant butchers reverted to the original market facility which had no access to running water (36). In Kenya, when milk vendors were asked why they failed to wear the mandatory PPE required by the Kenyan government, they described the PPE as cumbersome, reducing their productivity, and not generating any tangible benefits (41). The same study found that food safety practices should be feasible, inexpensive, and not time-consuming for vendors. Street vendors in Zambia who were moved into new and hygienic premises were soon found to return to their former market location; the improved market, despite having better environmental conditions, meant less accessibility to customers and higher transaction costs for vendors (49). Limitations to sustained adoption of hygiene practices in infrastructure-constrained settings reflect a still-developing understanding of the factors that influence these practices (50). While issues related to the interactions between technology and behaviour are common to all foodborne hazards, impacts can be amplified for inherently perishable food products such as animal source foods.One method that has proven effective in understanding social structures among vendors and improving the safety of animal sourced food is Participatory Learning and Action. Participatory Learning provides a tool to navigate the complex dynamics among vendors and their supply chains in informal markets (41). In Nigeria, interactive training workshops were held for Butchers Associations' representatives, who were then responsible to pass on information and training to their groups. In addition, an analysis identifying task differentiation by gender was carried out; findings identified both gender and membership in a trade association as important food safety determinants, and hence as promising entry points for interventions to improve food safety (51). This participatory learning and action intervention in Nigeria also highlights how food safety has gender equity implications that should be considered in future interventions.As an increasing number of consumers purchase foods of animal origin from informal markets in LMIC, consumers themselves have an increasingly important role to play in the safety of the food they consume; their purchasing habits and food handling practices are an important node for food safety interventions.Consumers across informal markets in LMIC span a broad range of demographic characteristics (1). Despite the heterogeneity of consumers, most consumers of informal markets express concern about food safety (25). Also, consumer purchasing behaviour has been observed, in some occasions, to change due to food safety concerns. For example, 40% of surveyed consumers reported switching to alternative meats in the wake of animal disease epidemics (7), and were observed to preferentially purchase poultry and avoid pork after a swine flu outbreak in Asia (27). This growing awareness among consumers together with improved consumer knowledge, attitudes, and practices can reduce the burden of foodborne zoonoses (52). However, while consumers will change purchasing behaviour in the face of publicised animal disease outbreaks, there is much less evidence that poor consumers will pay a premium for food credibly branded as safe (53).Awareness does not necessarily equate to behavior change. In India, growing concern among consumers about the purity and quality of milk marketed by informal milk vendors and the possible health risk posed by it, paved the way for the introduction of a successful milk certification program (40). However, attitudes and behaviours differ across countries and regions. Informal market consumers in Nigeria, despite claiming to be knowledgeable and aware of hazards and pathogens in foods that may cause health risks, still engaged in risky eating habits such as lack of hand washing prior to eating; high consumption of raw milk products, beverages made with raw milk or with untreated water from boreholes; and high consumption of suya, a beef product prepared under unhygienic conditions and linked to many foodborne disease outbreaks in Nigeria (54). In Thailand, a public health food safety campaign aimed at increasing consumer awareness of disease risks caused by Streptococcus suis, which is associated with the tradition of consuming raw pork,, found a positive reduction in disease incidence two years after intervention. However, on the third year, disease incidence increased, suggesting that deep-rooted cultural behaviours prevailed, and continuous public health information campaigns tailored to local cultural settings may be needed to sustainably mitigate foodborne zoonoses (64). These findings highlight that a onesize-fits-all approach for consumers in different cultural settings will not work, and also that knowledge alone may not be associated with behaviour change.Translating consumer knowledge and awareness of foodborne zoonoses into practices to mitigate risk is challenging (29,54). In one study in South Africa, pork consumers were aware that T. solium cysticercosis could be harmful but they lacked knowledge on how to identify T. solium cysts in pork. They also lacked sufficient awareness that a butchery certification related to disease control, slaughter, and food preparation had been put in place by the public health department, and would therefore continue purchasing meat from uncertified premises that may not have adopted appropriate hygiene practices (55). Consumers are often either unaware of the presence of foodborne zoonotic pathogens or unaware of the necessary steps to mitigate transmission risks. This is not unique to LMIC. Campylobacter is the most reported causative agent of foodborne bacterial infection in Germany, with contaminated chicken meat identified as the most important source of infection; yet in a survey of 1008 consumers only 11.5% knew how to protect themselves from Campylobacter infection (56). This highlights how inadequate knowledge on the causes of foodborne zoonoses and the actions which may mitigate their risks is not restricted to LMIC consumers and exists even where safe food media campaigns are in place (57).The rise of social media as an alternative platform for sharing food safety risk information has brought a significant change in how risk communication occurs among food consumers in LMIC (58). Mass media and social media have played the role of \"risk amplifiers\" among food consumers in Vietnam (59), with social media platforms influencing consumers judgment and purchasing behaviour following dairy industry scandals in China (60). Examples of planned food safety interventions relevant to foodborne zoonoses using social media platforms in informal LMIC markets where not identified in this report. Nevertheless, given the power of such platforms for sharing food safety risk information, they could prove to be a strategic tool in future intervention designs to improve information accuracy and trust among consumers.Willingness to Pay (WTP) surveys have been used in informal markets as a tool to gain insights into consumers' willingness to pay a premium for safe food (45). In Vietnam, a consumer WTP intervention identified gender, household income, and the severity of a hazard as positive determinants of consumers demands for \"safe\" pork from informal markets (46). The same study identified consumer perception of \"safe\" pork as pork that is packed and labelled, distributed from hygienic selling points, and certified by certificate bodies. However, in most LMIC the official certification of products sold in informal markets is problematic and scarce (7). What consumers may want but what they actually access can differ (expressed versus revealed demand). Standards for food quality and safety are either non-existent or exist as defined by public health norms in developed countries, with no real relevance for informal markets (61). In these circumstances, consumers will seek out branded food products only if they trust the specific branding program and the training and certification activities on which they are based (7). But even when consumers are willing to pay more for branded animal sourced foods, certification may not always guarantee food safety and hygiene (31), with other market forces restricting consumer access to safe products (46). Consumers, despite being willing to pay for safer products, are often left in a vulnerable situation and rely heavily on the hygiene practices of vendors and other market actors in mitigating risks to their health (62). When used as part of a consumer food safety intervention, understanding the willingness to pay (either stated or revealed preference) will reflect consumer values regarding safe food but by itself will offer limited insight into foodborne zoonoses mitigation strategies.Epidemiological data indicate that improper food preparation practices in consumers' homes is responsible for a substantial proportion of foodborne disease (52). Most foodborne diseases are preventable with proper food handling, and foodborne zoonoses are for the most part no different (25). Applying the WHO's five keys to safer food could theoretically mitigate the risk of exposure to many foodborne zoonoses by keeping food clean; separating raw and cooked foods; cooking food thoroughly; keeping food at safe temperatures; and using safe water and raw materials (63). In Bangladesh, an educational intervention based on the WHO's 5 keys and targeted at female food handlers showed improvements in food handling practices, increased washing of utensils with soap, and overall improved 'kitchen cleanliness' post intervention (52). Nevertheless, large-scale education targeted to the inhome food preparation environment tends to be costly (48) and often fails in reducing foodborne disease burden (14). Why such actions fail requires a deeper understanding of consumers customs and practices relating to food preparation as well as their perception of risk within the kitchen setting and how it contributes to foodborne zoonoses transmission.Public health education also presumes access to a minimum level of appropriate infrastructure, such as clean spaces to store and prepare food, access to clean water and soap, and access to an appropriate heat source for cooking. In some communities, particularly those served by informal markets, these needs may not always be met. It is therefore not only important that educational campaigns are contextually relevant, but that they are undertaken in parallel to wider socio-economic development activities to ensure everyone has the capacity to prepare safe food. In high-income countries it has also proven difficult to change behaviour in households, so emphasis has shifted to ensure food is safe when it enters the house.Holistic approaches to risk management in informal markets can prove cost-effective (15), allowing for potential synergies through behavioral changes in both vendors and consumers.In informal markets, both vendors and consumers must perceive that their current behaviour endangers their health, and that taking action has a strong likelihood of reducing foodborne zoonoses risks (65). Sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 of this report highlight the lack of knowledge regarding foodborne zoonoses among vendors and consumers and how their values and traditional belief can be barriers to their perception of risk from foodborne pathogens. A riskbased approach, i.e. explicitly prioritizing and designing interventions based on their estimated potential to reduce risk, has been recommended for informal markets (66). Importantly, the terms hazard (the intrinsic potential to cause harm) and risk (the probability of harm occurring at a given exposure) must be distinguished, something the public and even professionals often confuse (67). After all, vendor or consumer interventions focusing on controlling the level of foodborne zoonotic hazard, may not result in a satisfactory reduction in the risks to human health should issues of cross-contamination not be considered (66). Conversely, high levels of hazard in raw products may not equate to high risk to consumers if appropriate mitigation strategies are in place. In East Africa for example, the number of zoonotic hazards in milk responsible for diseases such as brucellosis, tuberculosis, listeriosis, salmonellosis, and others has been found to be extremely high, but due to commonplace practices by vendors and consumers such as boiling milk prior to consumption, the risk of these hazards to human health is dramatically reduced (7).In high-income countries, the use of risk-based approaches brought new insights and are now standard for food-safety issues (68). In the EU, where Campylobacter disease is the most frequently reported bacterial foodborne zoonosis, the prevalence of this pathogen in poultry is often high. Hazard-based control is not realistic because banning the supply and sale of fresh chicken is not a societally acceptable option. A risk-based microbiological criteria approach, where a predefined number of samples are taken from batches of poultry meat for microbial concentration analysis allows risk managers to decide on the most appropriate course of action for each batch based upon its risk profile, possibly balancing residual risk against economic consequences and practical feasibility (67). In LMIC settings, however, risk analysis is not widely used in informal markets because of human and financial resource constraints (48). To make risk-based approaches more common place in informal markets, several considerations need to be addressed, such as lack of pre-existing information on diverse structures and practices, difficulties of working with informal sector participants due to poor relations with officials, and lack of laboratory capacity (66). Examples from the literature describing interventions which encompass these challenges are lacking.Risk-based methods can identify the true players in disease transmission; food products or disease transmission pathways originally perceived as risky may in fact not be when a riskbased method is used. An example is the case of Cryptosporidium parvum in Kenya. This zoonosis, whose main reservoir is cattle, was found to pose most risk to consumers from eating fresh vegetables, cross-contaminated at some point in the supply chain, and not from consuming milk or being in direct contact with cattle, as previously assumed (68). Similarly, food safety interventions which recommend specific practices rather than principles can negatively impact food safety (40), thus highlighting the need to address infrastructural weaknesses as well as change in behaviour. For example, washing hands could pose a health risk if the water is not clean and if soap is not used (7) Faced with high levels of hazards in informal markets but little understanding of the risks, a risk-based approach is recommended (68) to help quantify risk and identify appropriate mitigation strategies for foodborne zoonoses.The use of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) approach, an effective and economically efficient method of food safety control based on a qualitative risk assessment, is one aspect of a risk-based approach that has proven effective in reducing contamination of home-cooked weaning food in peri-urban Mali and Bangladesh (69). In Bangladesh, this approach, through examination of infant food processing steps, enabled the identification of the critical control points in infant weaning food preparation essential to food safety (cooking, reheating, and cooling), thus facilitating appropriate targeting of educational messages to mothers when preparing food for their infants (69). In India, a HACCP approach was used in the pork supply chain to identify nodes where mitigation of the potential risk from foodborne zoonotic hazards could be implemented by vendors (48). Therefore, the HACCP approach allows for a starting point where foodborne hazards and their related risks can be identified, before designing effective preventive mechanisms for vendors or consumers.Contamination of food may occur at any stage in the process from production to consumption ('farm to fork' or 'stable to table') (70). Markets are one stage where pathogen control is possible, but the relative effectiveness of market-focused interventions needs to be put in the broader context of what level of control is possible at other supply chain stages. Understanding how food safety is influenced by the roles played by multiple stakeholders along this \"farm to fork\" supply chain is needed; previous food safety campaigns which neglected the role of actors in food processing, packaging, and distribution have been ineffective (36). Since contamination of ASF can result from environmental pollution, including water, soil, or animal feed contaminants (70), and these foods can in turn contaminate other non-ASF in the pathway to markets (15), a broader view of interventions beyond the marketplace is necessary. To fully mitigate the risk of foodborne zoonoses, factors \"before\" and \"above\" informal markets (i.e. upstream in the supply chain, or overarching aspects at play throughout the supply chain) must be considered. Therefore, in this section interventions that target foodborne zoonoses transmission pathways from \"farm to fork\" will be reviewed.As vertebrate animal species are natural reservoirs for many zoonotic pathogens, and ASF can pose high health risks due to such pathogens, it is logical that controls at farm level should be considered to prevent unsafe food from entering the supply chain. This is especially the case for parasitic risks that enter the food chain at the farm level and populate in the live animal. It is important to note that other potential hazards carried by ASF also include natural toxins, adulterants, and other chemical contaminants such as animal drug and pesticide residues (1).Insufficient knowledge and a lack of understanding about foodborne zoonoses among producers in the agricultural sector is a barrier to food safety in LMIC (71). In India, brucellosis is endemic and can spread to humans from animals through consumption of raw milk or milk products and through direct or indirect contact with aborted materials from infected animals, yet few farmers know about it or its zoonotic importance (72). One study among Indian small ruminant farmers showed how lack of knowledge of brucellosis was significantly associated with brucellosis prevalence in farmers, underpinning the critical link between farmer awareness and human infection risk (30). However, knowledge of zoonoses is not the only barrier. Even if farmers know how to identify a livestock disease of zoonotic potential, there are disincentives for farmers to do so, such as stigmatization by their peers, financial losses from market exclusion, or culling without compensation (2). This can result in animals sick and unfit for human consumption entering the food chain. Cattle farmers in Senegal also were unaware of brucellosis as a disease or its transmission pathways, with 95% of farmers reporting to drink milk without prior heat treatment (73). Sheep and goat famers in Morocco, who are at a high risk of the parasitical zoonoses echinococcosis, practice home slaughter and feed offal to dogs, both factors associated with increased prevalence the Echinococcus granulosus tapeworm (42). Lack of knowledge combined with traditional belief systems and practices put farmers' health, and that of potential consumers, at risk.Training interventions can be effective in improving farmer knowledge and farm hygiene levels, especially if combined with incentives (25). An example of this was a study carried out among dairy farmers in India, where initial KAP surveys showed low levels of awareness about milk-borne zoonoses but post training follow-ups showed improved farmer knowledge and milk safety standards. An additional benefit was that messages from the training were observed to have been disseminated among the wider community (34). Other KAP studies among Indian dairy farmers found that small dairy farms had worse food safety standards than their larger counterparts (74), indicating opportunities for interventions to improve practices. A review of Indian farming systems identified farmers with a low education and economic standing as those most in need of education to reduce the health and economic impacts of zoonotic diseases (75). Identifying subgroups or cohorts of farmers who are more at risk or have more to learn in mitigating foodborne zoonoses could aid in the design of targeted educational interventions.Ownership and personal responsibility for a problem are important influences of farmer behaviour and should be considered when adopting any training approach. In Uganda, a participatory training was used where pig farmers were encouraged to explore the problem of African Swine Fever in relation to their activity, and how their livelihoods could be affected if not addressed. The training created a feeling of ownership of the entire process and gained an insight into pig farmers KAP on good biosecurity practice and readiness to implement these practices in relation to African Swine Fever. An important outcome of the study was that knowledge is not the binding constraint to the uptake of biosecurity interventions (76). To improve understanding of why pig farmers still maintain poor biosecurity in relation to a particular foodborne zoonosis, the same approach could be applied to the control of cysticercosis, caused by the porcine tapeworm Taenia solium endemic across much of sub-Saharan Africa (77).,A Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach at the farm level can allow for poor sanitation, hygiene, biosecurity, quarantine, cleaning, and disinfection practices by farmers to be identified and modified where needed (78). Milk and dairy products, raw meats, and fresh fruit and vegetables produced in an environment contaminated by the intestinal protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum pose a health risk to humans, with livestock faeces identified as an important vehicle of transmission within herds, farms, the water supply, the fresh food chain, and the wider environment (79). Outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis, due to C. parvum, are linked to cockroaches, flies, mice, and rats introducing C. parvum oocyst into food and water (79). Good farm hygiene and rodent control is needed to reduce the risk of potential entry routes for this foodborne zoonoses. On-farm HACCP could identify likely opportunities for environmental contamination by this parasite and indicate measures, such as the correct storage and/or treatment of animal waste, to limit parasitical transmission to the farm environment and food chain (79).Farmers' willingness to participate in good agricultural practices can be problematic and is often incentivized in HIC by government controls and certification (80), with these incentives either absent or flawed in LMIC. In Thailand for example, implementation of mandatory Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) among commercial poultry layer farms was done without any prior consulting with poultry farmers or other stakeholders related to egg production (81) and adoption has been inconsistent. The farmers' KAP scores were shown to be positively correlated with the adoption of GAP in Thailand, indicating that increased education may be needed in non-complying farms as compulsory adoption is rolled-out (81). Motivating farmers to adopt good agricultural practices will remain a challenge unless they perceive a benefit, either social or economic, to such interventions and when adoption is facilitated by both educational and infrastructural interventions.Another approach to reducing foodborne zoonoses at the farm level is through the use of vaccines. Vaccination interventions can reduce the prevalence of zoonoses in livestock, which can reduce risks to human health (79). Vaccines have been developed to reduce the shedding from farm animals of zoonotic pathogens. Examples include vaccines for enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli in cattle and Salmonella enteritidis in chickens (82). A highly effective vaccine is available to protect pigs against infection with T. solium cysticercosis, with resultant reduction in infection risk to humans (83).Large-scale zoonoses vaccination campaigns may be exciting, but there are many real-world practicalities and logistical challenges involved in such control measures. First, in livestock species, the cost of a vaccine is an important consideration, and farmers must see a positive cost-benefit ratio for vaccination of their herd if long term and wider vaccination use is to be successful (82). Second, many zoonotic pathogens circulate between livestock and wildlife. Spill-over of pathogens to wildlife hosts can by driven by growing immunity among livestock, as evidenced by poor brucellosis vaccination efficacy in cattle as wildlife species created new disease reservoirs, thus preventing disease eradication (86). Finally, poor veterinary infrastructure in LMIC and a lack of veterinary personnel to oversee vaccination campaigns complicates vaccination programs. (82).Antibiotics are an intervention used to treat sick animals, to provide prophylactic protection, or as growth promoters in animals destined for human consumption. Targeted antibiotic treatment in the animal, e.g. in a chicken flock, can reduce zoonotic pathogen levels so that the risk of infection to animals and humans is better controlled. . However, the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), commonly but not exclusively in the form of resistant microbial strains, can exacerbate the FBD burden. Regulations on antibiotic usage (AMU) and the presence of antibiotic residues are in place in HIC (87). Such controls are absent in LMIC, resulting in the unregulated usage of antibiotics in livestock and creating a foodborne toxicological hazard to humans (87). Farmers' knowledge of antimicrobial usage in terms of withdrawal periods and the risks associated with AMR potential is low across various livestock systems in LMIC (88). A KAP study of poultry farmers in Cameroon showed poor knowledge about the risks of human exposure to antibiotic residues in food (89). In Vietnam, pork farmers seemed aware of the risk of antibiotic resistance based on observed poor outcomes after antibiotic use in animals (90). In the absence of food screening and sampling, improving farmer knowledge on the prudent use of antimicrobials will be an important to reducing AMR in food animals and antimicrobial residues in ASF. Educational interventions that focus on the economic benefits of correct antibiotic usage are likely to generate traction among farmers, thereby reducing the growth of AMR. Antimicrobial prescribing practices are poorly understood, with little or no studies conducted regarding the usage of antibiotics in veterinary medicine or the role of physicians and pharmacists in AMR control (91). AMR interventions that target farmers only, despite their vital role in antibiotic stewardship, may fail to understand the diverse influence which lead to antibiotic residues in ASF. Consideration of the cultural and technical challenges and competing interests in each country, as well as the sustainability of funding for successful AMR programmes (15), is needed.Informal supply chains usually lack official regulation and governance throughout (7). While opportunities to improve food safety in informal markets through a restructuring of governance exist, their feasibility and effectiveness is not well understood (25). What governance approach is most effective depends on the local context. For vendors in informal markets, attempts to regulate through a 'command and control' method do not appear to improve food safety (40). In Ghana one third of meat vendors acquired meat from unlicensed sources despite government certification requirements and oversight by government officials (9). Setting safety standards at the market level alone has been unsuccessful in mitigating foodborne zoonoses; banning or criminalizing vendors of animal sourced food on the basis on poor food safety can have negative implications for health and nutrition overall (40). A light touch governance approach may yield better results. For example, the voluntary training schemes for milk suppliers and traders in Kenya have demonstrated a marked improvement in milk safety (92). When hard-line approaches are taken, with strict enforcement on informal market vendors, consequences can be serious not only for food security (8), but also in extreme cases due to violence (36). Draconian food safety policy can make things worse (25).Interventions to regulate informal markets will require appropriate public policies that consider everybody along the chain if the health of vendors and consumers is to be protected (45).Across many of Africa's urban food markets, a vibrant set of informal sector workers' associations have emerged in recent years (8). Understanding the social structures between and among these vendor groups or associations can help identify opportunities for interventions. Food safety standards 'rules in use' can differ among groups and subgroups of traders, as seen among butchers' associations in Nigeria, with better hygiene standards among female butchers compared to their male counterparts (51). Such subgroups within the marketplace could act as champions of good food safety standards, and future research should endeavor to understand the social dynamics within the marketplace and how this could leverage improved food safety standards.Policy makers need to be convinced of the benefits of improving food safety in the informal sector (48). This will require more empirical evidence on the cost-effectiveness of food safety interventions (93). The use of standardized metrics and formal assessment of the health and economic burden of foodborne zoonoses can document their relative importance and improve resource allocation (36). However, in LMIC, accessing this data is challenging (94). Data supporting food safety interventions at informal markets should be made available for policy decision makers. These may take the form of cost-effectiveness data (the cost per unit of 'health', often a Disability Adjusted Life Year or Quality Adjusted Life Year) or cost-benefit analysis (94), where the cost of food safety interventions, such as training meat retailers in informal markets, may be less expensive than the health care costs linked to the diarrhoea suffered by those who eat unsafe meat, as seen in a Nigerian study (51).While mitigating foodborne zoonoses and improving food safety should be a long-term policy goal at the informal market level, a consequence to improving governance is that as standards increase there is a risk that poor producers and value chain actors will be displaced from rapidly growing domestic markets (8). This has already occurred in export markets where smaller farmers tend to drop out, as they lack the human and financial capital needed to participate in highly demanding markets (25). Costly farm to table tracking systems effective in HIC may not be an option within informal markets in resource poor settings. Instead, locally orchestrated, vertically integrated systems may be more effective in reducing food safety risks and in providing small-scale farmers with increased access to markets, locally and internationally (93).Training on developing businesses and establishing contracts between farmers and markets to improve the safety of food and gain certification may counteract growing pressure on small scale producers, retailers, and distributors to meet higher standards (5,40). Governments need to promote accreditation programs for food safety; including training to promote traceability, record-keeping, and sharing information along the value chain (20). Long-term investments in food safety can have significant positive development impacts. Countries with agri-food sectors that have a limited capacity to manage food safety might find themselves excluded from lucrative export markets or face periodic, yet costly rejections of products. Improving agri-food exports contributes to sustainable economic development and poverty reduction (20).A One Health approach, i.e. multi-sectoral collaborations in which the health of humans, animals, and the environment are improved for the benefit of all, has been strongly advocated for the control of many foodborne zoonoses and other 'wicked' problems (94,95). Antimicrobial resistance, for example, affects the health of humans, animals, and the environment and mitigation approaches must involve all relevant sectors (96). Models for integrated systems, where multiple sectors work together for improved surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in farm animals, food and humans exist in HIC such as Denmark (94). However, public sector legislative and budgetary changes made in these countries to support such programs may not translate easily to LMIC. Previous collaborative efforts between the human and veterinary sectors regarding disease surveillance in developing countries have often failed (25). Implementing coordinated zoonoses surveillance in LMIC is challenging (87) given the collaboration among various institutions and agencies with human health, animal health, ecosystems, agriculture and food safety mandates needed to contribute to effective surveillance systems (2). Timely and open reporting and information-sharing among all those involved at the human-animal-ecosystems interface is crucial to enhance health and ensure overall food security (2). To achieve this, strategic, country-lead plans with a One Health approach meeting human, animal, and environmental health challenges are needed (97).A One Health approach can enhance the performance and cost-effectiveness of surveillance systems and response to disease events, as compared to more conventional approaches (95). Such cost-saving incentives could be used to improve engagement among public and private actors and accelerate the adoption of integrated surveillance systems for foodborne zoonoses. An integrated West Nile virus surveillance program in mosquitos, wild birds, horses, and humans in Italy demonstrated financial savings produced by closer cooperation between the human and animal health sectors (98). Timely and open disease reporting is clearly linked to financial gains as seen in the case of a bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE) outbreak in the UK and Canada. A timely response to the outbreak in Canada enabled Canada to avert 88% of the costs which the UK incurred in its sub-optimal effort to control the outbreak (99).One Health approaches have been championed in the control of several foodborne zoonoses, including T. solium, the pork tapeworm and a leading aetiology of epilepsy in endemic countries. An intervention in Laos, which targeted both the porcine and human hosts of this parasite, a production-limiting disease in pigs (classical swine fever), and soil-transmitted helminth infections in people, was shown to be cost-effective from a societal perspective (100). Future interventions showcasing the cost effectiveness of integrated surveillance specific for foodborne zoonoses could facilitate quicker adoption by all stakeholders involved.The suspected emergence of the SARS-CoV2 virus from an unknown animal source in or around the vicinity of the Wuhan Seafood Market in late 2019 is the latest, and most dramatic, example of the potential emergence of zoonotic disease in human populations. If proven true, the COVID-19 pandemic is one of the most visible examples of zoonotic spill-over in recent history, and it follows the relatively recent emergence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), Nipah virus, 'Swine Flu', and Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1) (94). Though not technically a foodborne zoonosis as it is not transmitted to people via food, COVID's origin and spread from its source in an informal wet market clearly show that similar foodborne risks could be amplified through such settings. Its \"ripple effect,\" and disruption on local food systems in LMIC, demonstrates the challenge in preventing and controlling such pathogen spill-over worldwide (26).In recent years foodborne zoonotic pathogens have developed efficient and effective mechanisms to exploit food as a vehicle for transmission from animals to humans (27). Understanding the drivers of foodborne disease emergence at market level is necessary to develop control strategies. As urban populations grow, livestock enterprises tend to locate close by to facilitate supply to markets, increasing interactions among people, livestock, other domestic animals and wildlife, and creating a fertile ground for zoonotic disease transmission (15). Epidemics like Ebola and HIV were driven by poverty and food insecurity, and an increase in demand for wild animals for consumption and trade increased contact between these animals and humans (101).Climate change also increases foodborne disease by bringing novel vectors and pathogens into temperate regions or by temperature-associated changes in contamination levels (21,25). Ecosystem degradation due to rapid urbanization, intensification of animal production, modernization of food marketing systems as well as changes in food consumption habits have had major impacts on human exposure to animal pathogens and the overall risk of zoonotic disease transmission (14). Some of these factors drive the emergence of new zoonotic pathogens and some drive re-emergence of endemic zoonoses. Intensification of farming systems, for example, can impact new pathogen emergence as well as \"old\"; for example, intensive bovine and dairy production has increased bovine prevalence of tuberculosis and brucellosis in Vietnam (14).Poor adherence to food-safety standards has allowed wet markets, where improper storage of animals, overcrowding, inadequate hygiene, and improper disposal of faeces and carcasses occur, to become infectious disease hot spots (21). In countries like China, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand, the social status, prestige, and gastronomic exclusivity deriving from ye wei (literally \"wild taste\") is the main driver of the demand for wild meat, particularly among the wealthy and those aspiring to be, resulting in the increased sale of wildlife meats in markets (102). This consumer demand for bush meat and other \"exotic\" foods, has increased the risk of human exposure to animal pathogens (7). Interventions to prohibit the sale of such products by banning wet markets, wildlife trade, and wildlife farming, without discouraging the demand for wild meat, will risk driving the trade underground (101). Also, research shows that bans on wildlife markets often include calls for bans on wet markets, but the two are not the same thing, and wet markets (synonymous with 'fresh' markets) can be a critical underpinning of informal food systems that deliver healthy nutrition (102).Therefore, the complex interplay of social, economic, and cultural factors influencing the sale of wildlife must be taken into consideration. If not, interventions to control or regulate these markets or practices could jeopardize fragile food systems, undermine human rights, and harm sustainable development (101).Research on the self-regulating systems that local communities put in place to avoid overexploitation of specific resources, as well as political ecological research on how governance systems at different levels impact ASF supply chains (102), are some areas that can inform interventions to mitigate foodborne zoonoses emergence. Examples of such systems include voluntary, community-based systems to govern the use of common-pool resources such as water or fisheries, as studied by the Nobel-prize winner Emily Ostrum (103).Another area of intervention key in mitigating foodborne disease emergence is a One Health approach to integrated surveillance systems (see Section 3.2.2). Taking proactive steps to incorporating One Health expertise along with food safety interventions could reduce the risks of emergence of new diseases (21). Disease surveillance systems which allow for the integration of data from the human, animal, and environment sectors are an important aspect of early warning for novel emergence events (94). While surveillance is not the focus of the EatSafe program, the need for and benefits of One Health knowledge integration, which also play out in informal supply chains, should be kept in mind.The race to investigate the pathogenesis and the epidemiology of COVID-19 has seen governments and funding agencies allocate substantial resources to fund COVID-19 related research with unusual swiftness (104). Such international collaboration and funding were not always apparent. Previously, the emergence in China of two foodborne zoonosis (severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and H5N1 avian influenza) failed to get the attention of the international community, thereby limiting opportunities to enhance disease surveillance systems that could provide risk assessments for the preparation and consumption of animal sourced food (27). Hindsight prompts consideration of whether the current pandemic could have been avoided if the wake-up calls given by the emergence of SARS and H5H1 had been acknowledged. While further scientific inquiry to ascertain the zoonotic origin of COVID-19 is required, integrated wildlife, livestock, and human disease surveillance-response may help prevent future zoonoses outbreaks (98). To this end, deficiencies in the availability of quantitative data on the burden of foodborne zoonoses must be addressed.Overall, while major challenges still exist concerning the reorientation of market incentives and food safety standards, consumers are increasingly aware of the broader public health effects of current food systems (94). Possible upsides to this pandemic may be that the whole world is now aware of the significance of informal food markets and the interconnectivity of our global food-systems, and that policy makers may have increased motivation to reshape global food systems to better protect public health. As a result of this increased awareness, policy makers may have increased motivation to reshape global food systems to better protect public health, and future foodborne zoonoses interventions targeted at informal markets may gain more support from national and international governments.Foodborne zoonoses, transmitted directly through ASF, or through cross-contamination from animals or animal products to non-ASF, are a crucial focus for informal market-based food safety interventions in LMIC. The increasing consumption of ASF in LMIC alongside poor riskmitigation practices is driving a high burden of foodborne disease from ASF in these regions. Knowledge, values, and beliefs associated with foodborne zoonoses among key informal market actors must be understood within their local context before intervention can be successfully implemented. This report highlights that knowledge regarding foodborne zoonoses among farmers, vendors, and the consumer is low.Similarly to the evidence discussed in EatSafe's Activity 1.12 report \"Food Safety Interventions in Africa and Asia: a Review of studies relevant to traditional markets in low-resource settings\", this report concludes that knowledge alone is not the sole determinant to bring about change in hygiene and food safety practices. Training as a stand-alone tool is also insufficient to bring about long-term mitigation of foodborne zoonoses risk. Behavioural changes are multifaceted and need to be considered together with appropriate infrastructure to facilitate the adoption and maintenance of new practices. Long term impact assessment of training interventions among market actors is lacking in the current literature and needs to be addressed in future studies.Both this report and the 1.12 report highlight the need for an enabling environment to support successful food safety interventions. Participatory Action and Learning methods are recommended to gain insights into the motivations and incentives behind stakeholder behaviour; what drives their adoption of interventions and what physical and social determinants of food safety must be considered to bring about long-term improvements. For example, successful participatory approaches involved understanding gender roles among butchers in Nigeria, traditional beliefs among Ghanaian fishermen, and biosecurity measure adoption by pig farmers in Uganda to control infectious disease.At the informal market interface, interventions to improve food safety and mitigate foodborne zoonoses risks should adopt a risk-based approach. A risk-based approach can allow for a more targeted, cost-effective strategy to be put in place identifying human health risks rather than focusing purely on hazards in foods of animal origin. A hazard may be present in an animal, but the degree to which it poses a risk to the end consumer depends on the presence (or absence) of risk-mitigation steps between 'farm and fork'. Differences in consumer and producer motivations constitute a challenge to the adoption of risk-based food safety interventions. With HACCP, for example, consumers may readily recognize the benefit of adopting household controls, but livestock producers may require incentives. They need to see a commercial benefit before implementing good agricultural practiced. This report highlights that a one-size-fits-all approach is unlikely to work across all informal market actors; understanding and leveraging what motivates each group is key to successful improvements.Governance of informal markets is complex and strict measures to regulate them have been demonstrated not to work. Fragile food systems can be made more unstable by top-down pressure for improved food safety standards. Policy alone will not bring about change in food safety standards. Similarly, consumer willingness to pay for certified meat, eggs or milk may not translate into the improved food safety of a product. Certification programs should reflect the local context in which they are developed.Interventions that focus on marketplace regulation should begin at the grass roots level where the actions and values of local market players are considered when introducing mandatory changes. If not, such changes will be short lived, as seen in this report's examples of butchers in Nigeria and Zambia. As evidenced by the female butchers in Nigeria referenced in section 3.2.2 (51), identifying vendor associations within informal markets, including the gender dynamics within these associations, could help improve governance at the local level.Consumer food safety information has been widely disseminated through social media platforms in many countries; such tools, if accurately moderated could mobilize local consumer behaviour at informal markets, leading to opportunities for safer, consumer driven ASF purchasing.A One Health approach is essential to effectively mitigate foodborne zoonoses, which by definition involve both humans and animals, and often the environment. This approach, which utilizes multi-sectoral collaboration to solve intrinsically complex problems, has facilitated vaccination of both humans and animals; improved understanding of the drivers of AMR; and facilitated integrated disease surveillance so that endemic zoonoses and novel, emerging zoonotic pathogens may be identified and responded to in a timely fashion. In reinforcement of findings in the I.12 report, a One Health approach is suggested by multiple authors as a flagstone from which a supportive environment can be created to improve food safety in informal markets. Implementing this approach presents logistical and economic challenges but should remain a goal for those working in food system development. Costbenefit analyses in HICs have shown the advantages of the approach. Economic evaluations to support a business case for One Health are recommended to improve stakeholder engagement in LMICs.The transmission of zoonotic pathogens from animals to humans is not new and has been a by-product of the socio-economic and cultural drivers leading to increased proximity of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife for some time. The SARS and Avian Influenza outbreaks from China highlighted how quickly pathogens of animal origin can infect humans. The drivers behind disease emergence must be intervened on, for prevention to be effective.EatSafe aims to generate evidence and knowledge to drive consumer demand for safe, nutritious food in informal market settings. Central to EatSafe's work is understanding (and potentially shaping) the motivations, attitudes, beliefs, and practices of consumers and food vendors. We recommend EatSafe consider the following lessons emerging from this document in the design of its interventions:• There is no one-size-fits-all intervention that can be used as a blueprint for mitigating foodborne zoonoses in informal markets in LMICs. Understanding the site-specific cultural, social, and economic factors is needed to support tailored intervention designs.• Actors at informal markets lack knowledge on foodborne zoonoses, their existence, transmission pathways, and health implications. Values and beliefs regarding safe food systems vary among actors and geographical regions and are much more resistant to change.• Educational interventions can improve the knowledge of farmers, vendors, and consumers but knowledge alone does not bring about a reduction in foodborne zoonoses risk;• Appropriate infrastructural improvements are also required to support the adoption and maintenance of improved food safety behaviours.• Educational/awareness interventions to mitigate foodborne zoonoses should adopt a Participatory Action Learning approach; if this is neglected, key drivers of behaviour may be misunderstood or not reflected in the intervention design, leading to their possible failure.• Initiatives should not be one-off, but should have a sustainability mechanism built in so knowledge and skills can be refreshed. Blended learning approaches show promise.Interventions must be simple, comprehensible, compelling, and affordable.• Risk based approaches to understand foodborne zoonoses pathways and health impacts are recommended but challenging to undertake in LMICs where the necessary metrics for risk analysis are missing.• Aspects of the HACCP tool can be useful to systematically identify areas where contamination of food by foodborne zoonotic pathogens occurs, allowing for targeted intervention design.• Strict regulatory approaches for informal markets or wet markets do not work and make already fragile food systems even more unstable. Participatory and voluntary approaches have gained more traction among market vendors in improving food safety standards.• A One Health approach is highly recommended to mitigate foodborne zoonoses transmission in informal markets. Such an approach would create a more supportive environment for interventions, as has already proved useful in areas such as integrated disease surveillance, human and animal vaccination campaigns, and the control of antimicrobial resistance.","tokenCount":"10699"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f08fae798b0fff5ad1f4231dbd4147e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fa25a76b-7049-4060-b4de-be361e6a2f00/retrieve","id":"-1091202943"},"keywords":["time allocation","time poverty","energy","firewood collection","gender","agricultural production","firewood availability","Ethiopia","rural v"],"sieverID":"962d1f49-d09e-41d2-82f7-21875df52e89","pagecount":"48","content":"established in 1975, provides evidence-based policy solutions to sustainably end hunger and malnutrition and reduce poverty. The Institute conducts research, communicates results, optimizes partnerships, and builds capacity to ensure sustainable food production, promote healthy food systems, improve markets and trade, transform agriculture, build resilience, and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is considered in all of the Institute's work. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world, including development implementers, public institutions, the private sector, and farmers' organizations, to ensure that local, national, regional, and global food policies are based on evidence. IFPRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium.A.1 Regional differences in gender of households' main energy collector A.2 Shares of fuel resources used for cooking and heating by regionIn Africa south of the Sahara (SSA), more than 620 million people, two-thirds of the population, have no access to electricity, and nearly 80 percent of all people without access to modern electricity service live in rural areas. In those areas, biomass from firewood resources, animal dung, and agricultural crop residues make up 80 percent of people's total energy supply (OECD/IEA 2014). The high dependence of rural households on natural energy resources for cooking and heating, extensive agricultural cultivation, and continuous population growth have contributed to natural resource depletion, deforestation, land degradation, and climate change (Lambrou and Piana 2006). The consequent reduction in the availability of fuel increases the distance household members must travel to collect energy resources. With often limited financial means to purchase alternative fuels and poor road infrastructure, growing resource scarcity adds to the amount of time households must allocate to collecting fuel (Köhlin et al. 2011). Additionally, due to lack of infrastructure and high market prices for improved cooking technologies, most income-poor households continue to use traditional three-stone cooking stoves. These (unimproved) traditional stoves are characterized by low energy efficiency and high demand for fuel resources and lead to great exposure to indoor air pollution (OECD/IEA 2010).The dependence on diminishing natural energy resources increases fuel collectors' time poverty, defined as people's inability to invest the desired amount of time into income-generating farm and offfarm activities, education, community decision-making processes, and leisure (Kes and Swaminathan 2006). 1 Within the household, women and female children are most affected by time poverty, as they are traditionally responsible for the collection of cooking fuel and devote a substantial part of their time and energy to this exhausting activity. Policies that help reduce the amount of time allocated to fuel collection are therefore expected to free up time for household members' engagement in income-generating farm and off-farm activities, leisure, and children's school attendance. Furthermore, empowering female household members has a multiplying effect on maternal health, children's nutritional status, and all household members' well-being (World Bank 2012).The analysis of household members' time allocation to different activities such as wage-earning activities, work on family farms or enterprises, and household chores inside (cooking, cleaning, childcare) and outside (water and energy collection) the house is therefore crucial in rural areas of developing countries, where access to markets is limited and households' own labor serves as the principal input factor of production (Ilahi 2000). When time is a valuable resource, understanding differences in time allocation along gender lines, age, social status, and wealth is critical to designing effective policies for poverty reduction.This paper examines gender differences in time allocation to different activities. It further analyzes the relationship between the availability of natural energy resources and household members' time allocation to fuel collection work, income-generating farm and off-farm work, and, consequently, households' total income. Specifically, we examine the following three hypotheses:• Households located in areas with lower firewood availability allocate more time to the collection of natural energy resources.• Women are mainly responsible for the collection of fuel resources, and therefore their time allocation to different activities is more affected by changes in fuel collection time than men's. An increase in the amount of time allocated to natural energy resource collection work decreases the amount of time spent on income-generating farm and off-farm work, reducing households' total income. This paper adds to the existing literature by presenting new regional evidence from an International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)/International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) household survey implemented by the Association of Ethiopian Microfinance Institutions (AEMFI) in Ethiopia between May and August 2013. It further draws on qualitative information from focus group discussions that the author conducted with farmers in three rural areas of Ethiopia for a mixed-methods approach.To analyze the relationship of household members' time allocation to energy resource collection and income for rural Ethiopian households, the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents background information on the context of households in rural Ethiopia. The literature review in Section 3 presents empirical evidence about the link between natural resource scarcity and time allocation to energy collection work, income-generating activities, household income, and children's schooling. The methodology for this paper follows the example of Ilahi and Grimard (2000) and Damte, Koch, and Mekonnen (2012), who apply a farm household model with natural energy resource production and consumption, discussed in further detail in Section 4. The data for the mixed approach of focus group discussion results, descriptive statistics, and regression analyses (Section 5) are taken from primary and secondary data sources (Section 6). The time allocation results are presented in Section 7. Using qualitative and quantitative evidence, Section 8 presents results from focus group discussions and regression analysis. Section 9 concludes and presents several policy suggestions.Located on the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia has been a landlocked country since Eritrea gained independence in 1993. With a rapidly growing population of 92 million people in 2012 and a land area of 1.1 million square kilometers, Ethiopia is one of the largest and most populated countries in SSA (World Bank 2013). Ethiopia is a largely rural country and its population lives scattered across the vast country. Only 17 percent of the total population live in urban areas, and more than 45 percent are located more than five hours away from a city of 50,000 inhabitants (Dorosh and Rashid 2012).According to the poverty headcount ratio, 30.7 percent of Ethiopians live below the $1.25 2 (purchasing power parity [PPP]) poverty line and 66.0 percent have less than $2.0 (PPP) a day (World Bank 2014). According to the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), 3 87.3 percent of Ethiopians are considered multidimensionally poor and 64.6 percent are deprived of 20 to 50 percent of the weighted education, health, and standard-of-living indicators, leading to the second lowest MPI (0.564) 4 worldwide (OPHI 2013). Ethiopia has relatively low standard-of-living indicators, with 83 percent of the population having no access to electricity and roughly 87 percent of all Ethiopian households using wood, charcoal, or dung for cooking purposes (OPHI 2013). These findings are largely driven by the rural areas of the Amhara and Oromia regions, where 25.2 and 38.7 percent of the total population live, whereas the highest rates of severe poverty are found in the sparsely populated Afar and Somali regions (OPHI 2013).Ethiopia is diverse in terms of its landscape, ranging from dry, semiarid lowlands in the east to rain-sufficient highlands in the west and more drought-prone highlands in the northern and central parts of the country (Dorosh and Rashid 2012). Such geographical differences have important implications for agricultural production and the availability of natural energy resources.As in many developing countries, agricultural production forms the basis of Ethiopia's economy, generating 46.4 percent of gross domestic product and providing employment to 85 percent of the total population in 2011 (World Bank 2013). Teff, wheat, maize, sorghum, and barley are the main crops for domestic consumption, while coffee from the southern highlands is the main export good, and livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats provide the principal source of livelihood for the pastoralist population (Dorosh and Rashid 2012). Most agricultural production occurs in the highland areas by smallholder farmers, who often cultivate less than a hectare of land per household. Rural livelihoods in Ethiopia are thereby strongly influenced by the varying biophysical conditions and cropping patterns, as well as access to markets, labor availability, local demand, and transportation networks (Chamberlin and Schmidt 2012).In Ethiopia only 17 percent of the total population has access to modern electrical services, and in terms of magnitude (68 million people) Ethiopia is the worst-performing country in SSA (OECD/IEA 2014). Although the government's current five-year Growth and Transformation Plan aims to raise the country's power-generating capacity from 2,000 megawatts to 8,000 megawatts by 2015 to generate energy for an additional four million people, that still leaves a large number of households without access to electricity, especially in rural areas (World Bank 2013). The national energy supply is largely dominated by the use 2 Throughout the paper, the currency denoted with $ refers to US$. 3 The MPI reflects the proportion of people who are multidimensionally poor with regard to their education (years of schooling , school attendance , health (child mortality , nutrition status , and standard of living (use of cooking fuels , access to sanitation , safe water , electricity , flooring, that is a household is considered deprived if the household has a dirt, sand, or dung floor , and asset ownership ) times the average proportion of indicators in which people are deprived (OPHI 2013). The variables for education enter with the weight 1/6 (=1/2*1/3), for health with 1/6 (=1/2*1/3) and for standard of living with 1/18 (=1/6*1/3). A low MPI is preferred. of biomass fuel. Woody biomass like firewood contributes 95 percent of the total biomass energy sources, while animal dung and crop residues make up 3 and 2 percent, respectively (World Bank 2013).Forestry statistics state that natural forests cover 12.2 million hectares, or 11.9 percent of Ethiopia's total land area, while woodlands make up 44.7 million hectares. As Figure 2.1 shows, forests are mainly located in the Oromia (40 percent), Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region of Ethiopia (SNNPR) (24 percent), and Amhara regions (15 percent) (FAO 2010; Guta 2012). Wood required for fuel and construction is mainly taken from secondary high forests, woodlands, and bushlands. Natural high forests are largely located in the less populated and less accessible southern and southwestern parts of the country, which are difficult to reach due to limited road infrastructure and mountainous terrain (FAO 2010).According to the International Energy Agency, 99 percent of all households in Ethiopia, 70 percent of the domestic industries, and 94 percent of all service enterprises use biomass as an energy source, of which 77 percent is from woody biomass, followed by animal dung (13 percent) and crop residues (9 percent) (Guta 2012). Whereas rural households in Ethiopia have depended on woody biomass and dung for centuries, alternative energy sources like kerosene (for lighting), diesel, electricity, and liquefied petroleum gas are hardly used (Mekonnen and Köhlin 2008). This is due to many households' limited access to alternative energy resources, lack of income to afford higher fuel prices, and lack of knowledge of alternative sources. In rural areas, biomass is predominantly used for construction material and for cooking and heating purposes on three-stone cooking stoves. However, the low energy efficiency of the traditional cooking stoves results in high demand for fuel wood and increasing biomass scarcity in Ethiopia (Mann and Tilahun 2014). Due to the heavy dependence on firewood, as well as ongoing demographic, socioeconomic, and climatic changes, the pressure on Ethiopia's forest ecosystems has been increasingly high. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a loss of 140,000 hectares of forestland per year and 70 percent of the high forest areas are considered heavily disturbed (FAO 2010).The use of animal dung as an alternative and more affordable fuel or heat source also has negative environmental and agricultural implications. It decreases the availability of manure, which in the absence of fertilizer use is an important means to enhance agricultural productivity. As 85 percent of the total population is dependent on agricultural production, deforestation and the degradation of land and forest inputs is likely to have a negative impact on smallholder farmers' livelihoods (Mekonnen and Köhlin 2008). The lack of affordable fuel alternatives and therefore large dependence on woody biomass and dung implies that with increasing deforestation, households have to spend more time collecting their natural energy resources.In response to the rural population's dependence on firewood and the deforestation of national forest areas, national policies have been designed to cope with the status quo (summarized in Mann and Tilahun [2014]). Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (1997) recognizes that exploitation of forest products for firewood has been progressing at an unsustainable pace fueled by population growth. The same policy paper identifies the retrieval of firewood and dung as well as the conversion of forestland into rainfed agriculture as major reasons for deforestation and declining agricultural productivity. Recognizing the importance of forest area for rural development and livelihood security, Policy and Strategy on Forest Development, Conservation, and Utilization (2007) prioritizes sustainable forest management, forest protection, and reforestation through fiscal incentives, technical support, preferential access to land, and agroforestry. Ethiopia's Climate-Resilient Green Economy Strategy (2011) proposes several measures including rural forest protection, encouraging agroforestry policies, and promoting the use of more fuelefficient cooking and heating appliances.The heavy dependence of rural households on natural resource fuels coupled with environmental depletion has economic implications not only for the country but also for the household members' time allocation to collection. The literature exploring the relationship between the diminishing availability of natural energy resources, household members' time spent on fuel collection work, and other development indicators is outlined in the following section.A number of empirical studies analyze the relationship between firewood scarcity and household members' time allocation to natural resource energy collection.In a study of 120 households in hilly areas of Nepal, Kumar and Hotchkiss (1988) provide empirical evidence that deforestation, measured by the amount of time required to collect a standard head load of firewood, increases the time households spend collecting firewood. A 1 percent increase in deforestation is found to reduce households' total fuel consumption by 0.3 percent and to increase the energy collection time by 0.6 percent. The authors also find that women are most strongly affected by deforestation. In high-deforestation areas in Nepal, women spend an additional 1.13 hours a day on the collection of fuel resources relative to men. However, Ilahi and Jafarey (1998) point out that the scarcity indicator of Kumar and Hotchkiss (1988) is likely to be endogenous, if households that value women's time invest highly in fuel-saving technology. Instead, Ilahi and Jafarey apply an instrumental variable approach with the distance to firewood sources as the crucial identifying exclusion restriction that enters the fuel scarcity equation. Their results still support Kumar and Hotchkiss's, showing that in rural Pakistan, worsening access to firewood due to deforestation increases the amount of time women allocate to collection activities. Cooke (1998a) provides further empirical evidence, showing that when environmental products become scarcer and their shadow prices increase, households spend more time collecting such products. In her analysis of rural households in Nepal, 80 percent of the increase in the collection time was attributed to women. Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar (2000) and Palmer and MacGregor (2009) present similar results. In rural India, households react to increasing scarcity of forest resources, reflected by a 10 percent increase in per unit collection time, accompanied by a 1.1 percent reduction of the amount of fuel collected and an 8.9 percent increase of the collection labor time (Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar 2000). These findings imply that fuel is a basic necessity, as the increase of labor inputs is larger than the reduction of consumption or substitution toward other energy resources. Palmer and MacGregor (2009), however, show that in Malawi the reduction of energy consumption is larger than the increase of labor inputs in response to economic scarcity. As forest stocks decline, substitution from firewood to other energy sources is not common for the analyzed Malawian households.Although one might assume that substituting other fuel resources such as animal dung and crop residues might be an appropriate response to increases in firewood scarcity, Ilahi (2000) concludes that there is limited agreement in the literature on whether animal dung and crop residues are suitable substitutes or complements for firewood. Arnold et al. (2003) argue that women and children, who are the primary collectors of biomass, shoulder the largest burden of the increase in energy collection time and that it decreases their time available for other tasks. Women are more affected than men by this increase in energy collection time, especially in the short run and when firewood is primarily collected from common areas (Cooke, Köhlin, and Hyde 2008).The preceding empirical evidence strongly suggests that greater firewood scarcity increases the amount of time households must allocate to the collection of energy resources.Whereas the link between firewood scarcity and energy collection time is relatively intuitive, the effect of energy collection time on households' well-being is more ambiguous. Kumar and Hotchkiss (1988) show that the increase in women's energy collection time reduces their contribution to field labor by about 1.5 hours per person per day. Indicating some complementarity between men's and women's labor, this reduction also decreases men's agricultural labor inputs by about 0.8 percent per person per day. This leads to a 40 percent decline in a household's total labor inputs in high-deforestation areas. As most households in rural areas of Nepal are dependent on agricultural production, a reduction of agricultural labor inputs has negative implications for the household's total income, food consumption, and members' nutritional status. Using an instrumental variable approach, however, there is no evidence that an increase in energy collection time due to firewood scarcity has an adverse effect on the time attributed to income-generating activities in Pakistan (Ilahi 2000). Cooke (1998b) further suggests that households, and especially women, do not necessarily spend less time in agricultural production when the cost or collection time for energy resources increases, but that the additional time must originate from productivity increases or a reduction in leisure time. Besides the reallocation of labor to energy collection, agricultural production and productivity may be reduced through the increased use of farmland to produce firewood (Cooke, Köhlin, and Hyde 2008).A number of studies further consider how changes in natural energy resource availability affect children's and especially girls' schooling, which in turn is expected to influence households' future income. Using data from a 1997-1998 Malawian Integrated Household Survey, Nankhuni and Findeis (2004) find that Malawian children are significantly involved in resource collection work and that their likelihood of attending school decreases with increasing hours allocated to natural resource collection. The study also shows that environmental degradation is a determining factor in this regard, as children from the most environmentally degraded areas spend three to five more hours per week on the collection of natural resources and are therefore less likely to attend school than children in less environmentally degraded areas. In a study from Kenya, Ndiritu and Nyangena (2010) find that beyond a two-hour-perday threshold, children's school attendance is negatively affected by natural resource scarcity and the greater amount of time needed for resource collection. This effect is 9 percentage points larger for girls than for boys. The most recent contribution to this literature from Gebru and Bezu (2014) confirms that in northern Ethiopia, a 50 percent increase in collection intensity (hours per week) reduces the likelihood of child schooling by 11 percent. However, in this study the gender bias mentioned in Nankhuni and Findeis (2004) and Ndiritu and Nyangena (2010) cannot be confirmed.This literature shows that increases in energy collection time due to firewood scarcity have negative implications for the amount of time households, and especially women, spend on agricultural labor with adverse effects on households' overall welfare. If children are involved in natural energy resource collection work, there is a likelihood of children's reduction in school attendance. Given these empirical findings, it is of particular interest to understand how households, and how particular household members, react to policy interventions designed to reduce deforestation and dependence of rural households on the collection of natural energy resources.Cooke, Köhlin, and Hyde (2008) present a summary of the empirical literature on how policy interventions-such as reforestation, improved access to electricity infrastructure, and provision of improved cooking stoves-influence the effect of firewood scarcity on households' welfare.For instance, Amacher, Hyde, and Joshee (1993) show that when firewood is sufficiently scarce on common lands, that is, if forest stocks are less accessible and prices too high, households start to grow wood on their own land. In Ethiopia, the decision to plant eucalyptus trees is positively associated with the distance to main fuel collection areas (Amacher et al. 2004). Furthermore, Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar (2000) show that the presence of community forest management institutions reduces households' labor inputs to fuel collection from community sources and increases privately produced fuel consumption.Besides policy interventions to improve forest management initiatives, the spread of more energy-efficient improved cooking stoves might reduce the amount of energy required and thereby reduce energy collection time. Empirical evidence shows that Nepali households that use open, unimproved cooking stoves collect significantly more firewood than others (Cooke, Köhlin, and Hyde 2008). Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar (2000), however, do not find statistically significant evidence that the use of improved cooking stoves reduces the amount of firewood collected from common sources or from privately produced fuels. According to Amacher, Hyde, and Joshee (1993) higher firewood prices encourage households to adopt improved cookstoves, but do not necessarily increase the likelihood of them being used efficiently. The use of improved cookstoves, however, decreases the demand for firewood of households in Nepal (Amacher, Hyde, and Joshee 1993) and reduces firewood collection time in Ethiopia (Amacher et al. 2004). In an overview of the empirical literature, Dutta (2005) shows that the introduction of improved cooking stoves brings about significant reductions in women's workload for the collection and processing of firewood and cooking activities. The time women spend on cooking may be reduced due to the ability to use two pots at the same time, raise cooking temperatures quickly, and utilize greater heat-efficiency. Dutta summarizes that the majority of studies find that women use the freed-up time for income-generating activities such as handicrafts, sewing, other home-based work, and agriculture.IFPRI's Report on Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia (Dorosh and Rashid 2013) further indicates that productivity per worker was 40 times higher in electrified areas than in nonelectrified rural firms in SNNPR. Workers in electrified rural villages were able to work for 10.7 hours a day versus 7.2 hours per day in nonelectrified villages (Chamberlin and Schmidt 2012). Costa et al. (2009), who test the implications of water and electricity supply for time allocation of women in rural Ghana, conclude that access to electricity infrastructure tends to increase the amount of time women spend on incomegenerating activities but does not necessarily increase the probability of engaging in such activities in the first place. They therefore suggest that electricity provision should be accompanied by public policies that encourage women to enter the labor market.The literature review shows that a reduction in the availability of natural energy resources is likely to increase the amount of time households, and especially women, spend on fuel resource collection. Access to electricity infrastructure and the type of cooking technology also affect the required amount of fuel resources and thus the amount of time and physical energy dedicated to collection. The impact on household members' time allocation to income-generating activities, however, is less conclusive. Therefore, this paper makes a valuable contribution to the existing body of literature by using new household data from Ethiopia and qualitative information from focus group discussions with rural household members.The theoretical foundation for the analysis of households' time allocation to energy resource collection is based on the home production and time-allocation framework of Becker (1965) and later Gronau (1973). These authors extend the neoclassical labor supply model of consumption and leisure to home production, as another activity requiring labor inputs. Home production includes activities performed inside or outside the house and that are directly consumed by the household, such as childcare, cleaning, and cooking as well as collection of water and energy resources. Due to a lack of market prices for home production, the value of household work is reflected by the opportunity costs of foregone income, that is, income that could otherwise be generated with the given amount of labor and time inputs. Home production thus responds to the same economic incentives as market work, including changes in market wages, unearned income, and productivity changes. Singh, Squire, and Strauss (1986) further modify the neoclassical labor supply model to capture the specific behavior of agricultural farm households in developing countries. In rural areas of developing countries, markets are often incomplete and households are therefore subsistence producers and consumers of their own agricultural goods and offer only their surplus labor and agricultural produce at the market. The same holds for energy production, which, besides labor and capital, is another important input factor for households' home and agricultural production. Damte, Koch, and Mekonnen (2012) and Ilahi (2000) therefore extend Singh, Squire, and Strauss's agricultural farm household model to include households' time allocation to the production of energy resources.In this modified version, the representative household \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 generates its utility from the consumption of goods and services (\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ) as well as leisure time �\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC59 �, according to its preferences (\uD835\uDF0F\uD835\uDF0F \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ):The consumption function (\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC50 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ) depends on the amount of time devoted to household production �\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ℎ �, a set of market-purchased goods (\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC5A ), home-produced agricultural goods (\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E ), the amount of natural energy resources used for cooking and heating (\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52 ), and a vector of household-specific characteristics (\uD835\uDC67\uD835\uDC67 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ):In developing countries only a few rural households have the financial means and access to markets to purchase their fuel supplies and thus most collect them. Following Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar (2000), it is assumed that the representative household produces all its fuel resources by collecting natural energy resources like firewood, animal dung, and crop residues in forests, on common lands, and on its own fields, without making any fuel purchases. The total amount of energy consumed (\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52 ) therefore depends on the household's time devoted to the collection of natural energy resources from different sources �\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52 = \uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52,\uD835\uDC53\uD835\uDC53 + \uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52,\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC51 + \uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52,\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC5F � and the availability of fuel resources in the area �\uD835\uDF03\uD835\uDF03 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC57 �.Households' access to electricity infrastructure (\uD835\uDEFC\uD835\uDEFC \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ) also affects whether households are dependent on natural energy resources, and the home technology parameter (\uD835\uDEFE\uD835\uDEFE \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ) influences the amount of energy required for cooking and heating (Ilahi and Grimard 2000):Following Damte, Koch, and Mekonnen (2012), it is further assumed that all energy sources are perfect substitutes, that the trade-off for using dung or crop residues for energy instead of manure leads to a reduction in agricultural output, and that if no firewood is available households can still produce agricultural goods while using all dung and crop residues for energy.Under these assumptions, the representative household maximizes its utility from consumption and leisure, subject to its time constraint (\uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC47) allocated to energy collection (\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52 ), agricultural production (\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E ), market (\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC5A ) and household work �\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ℎ �, and leisure �\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC59 �:and subject to the budget constraint generated by selling agricultural goods and surplus labor at market prices (\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E , \uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52 ) and wages (\uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ), and nonlabor income (\uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC3C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ):The first-order conditions yield the optimum time and goods demand functions:where \uD835\uDC58\uD835\uDC58 = \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52, \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC5A, \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E, \uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC59.As derived in Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar (2000), the theoretical model shows that the representative household chooses its time inputs to equate the marginal rate of substitution between leisure and consumption with the shadow price of natural energy collection, the shadow wage of market production time, and the shadow wage of home production time. Households collect natural energy resources until the point where the marginal utility of leisure equals the marginal utility of natural energy resources in household consumption times the marginal product of natural energy resource collection, which is equalized to the marginal values product of labor in agriculture. This shows that natural energy resource collection is determined by the household's opportunity costs of time.The agricultural farm model with energy collection assumes that the representative household is a unitary entity that jointly decides about time and resource allocation and pools the household's income. However, this framework fails to acknowledge differences in individual-specific opportunity costs of time and intrahousehold bargaining. Especially in developing countries, where labor is a crucial input for income-generating activities and home production, it is necessary to understand the drivers of gender differences in time allocation and the implications for gender-specific time poverty and well-being (Ilahi 2000). The following paragraphs therefore present analyses of how household members' time allocation to market, agriculture, resource collection, and home production differs by gender, age, social status, wealth, and season (Ilahi 2000).The World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development (World Bank 2012) states that clear differences exist between women's and men's total labor time and activities. This division of total labor inputs and time use patterns is driven by economic reasons, social norms, and family formations. Relative to men, women are found to work longer hours once all productive activities-such as agriculture, marketing, childcare, and household work-are considered. Women are largely responsible for home production, water and firewood collection, and childcare, while men take care of incomegenerating market and farm work.The intrahousehold time allocation to specific agricultural tasks is divided according to household members' physical strength and availability. Men usually perform agricultural tasks that require more physical strength, such as preparing the land and plowing. Women are typically in charge of weeding and hoeing, animal care, and horticultural production, which can be done within or close to the homestead. This allows them to perform multiple tasks like childcare, cooking, and agricultural production simultaneously (World Bank 2012). The gender-specific division of agricultural production tasks is more distinct during the dry season, when less female contribution is required for agricultural production. During the farming season, however, more total labor inputs are needed and in response women contribute more work to agricultural production and their leisure time decreases. During this season, men, however, reduce their contribution to household work such that women's total work load is higher (Ilahi 2000).Household members' time allocation to off-farm labor is influenced by gender differences in access to education, the income-versus-substitution effect, opportunity costs of working away from home, and sometimes cultural barriers. In many patriarchal societies, men enjoy more privileged access to education, and that accumulation of human capital enables them to benefit from higher returns to labor in off-farm employment (Mammen and Paxson 2008). Whether educated men spend more time in incomegenerating activities, where every hour of work fetches more money (substitution effect), or substitute their time for leisure (income effect) depends on the sign of the income-versus-substitution effect. The same holds for an increase in market wages, which relaxes the household's income constraint. An increase in market wages earned by the household men also affects household women's time allocation through the so-called \"unearned income\" effect. It relaxes the household's income constraint and reduces the need for women to participate in income-generating work to meet the family's basic needs. The impact of female education and wage increases on women's time allocation to off-farm work, however, also depends on the functioning of the labor market and whether off-farm wages are high enough to compensate for the fixed costs of working away from home. As cultural and social norms often assign (married) women the burden of home production and child rearing, women's labor force participation is more constrained than men's (Mammen and Paxson 2008).The allocation of time to various activities affects households' total income and well-being. If household men and women spend more time in income-generating farm and off-farm work, the household is likely to have more income available to purchase goods and pay for children's schooling. However, the gender of the income-generating household member also matters, as it affects the intrahousehold bargaining power. Whereas men are more likely to make investments for their own benefit, women's control over income and assets also improves children's well-being through investments in children's human capital and health (World Bank 2012). Women's time allocation to child rearing and home production may also have positive implications for children's education and health. This in turn is likely to affect the household's future income in a positive manner. Thus, if additional time is freed up from natural energy resource collection work and allocated to income-generating farm or off-farm work, child rearing, or physical relaxation, a positive effect on the household's well-being can be expected.The following section presents factors that influence the amount of time household members (and especially women) spend on the collection of natural energy resources.As presented earlier in section 4, the amount of time spent on natural energy resource collection work is determined by the availability of natural energy resources, access to electricity infrastructure, type of cooking technology, and a number of household-specific characteristics. These factors are discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs.Low availability of firewood resources implies that households have to travel longer distances to collect one unit of firewood resources and thus spend more time on firewood collection �\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52,\uD835\uDC53\uD835\uDC53 �. Given the total time constraint (\uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC47), an increase in the amount of time devoted to the collection of natural energy resources is likely to reduce the time available for market and agricultural work or leisure (Kumar and Hotchkiss 1988). Reducing the amount of time spent on income-generating activities is likely to have negative implications for the household's total income. However, an increase in the market and shadow prices of firewood resources might also lead to a reduction of the total amount of firewood consumed. Instead of spending more time on firewood collection, price-sensitive households might shift to firewood substitutes such as animal dung or crop residues �\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52,\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC51 , \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52,\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC5F � in response to firewood scarcity (Damte, Koch, and Mekonnen 2012). The effect this has on the household energy collection time again depends on the availability of animal dung and crop residues. However, if animal dung and crop residues are used for energy supply and are less available as manure in agricultural production, agricultural productivity and subsequently income from agricultural production might be reduced (Mekonnen and Köhlin 2008).Access to electricity infrastructure is expected to affect the amount of time spent on income-generating activities, but not for energy-collection work (Ilahi and Grimard 2000). Unless households also use electric stoves for cooking, access to electricity does not reduce the amount of energy fuel required for cooking. Nevertheless, access to electricity for in-house lighting or mechanization of home production or agricultural work processes is likely to extend the amount of time available for income-generating farm or nonfarm activities and have a positive effect on households' total income (Köhlin et al. 2011).Furthermore, the amount of energy supply required for cooking and heating purposes depends on the energy efficiency of the cooking stove. The large majority of households in rural areas of developing countries use traditional cooking stoves, which require a larger quantity of firewood or dung compared with more energy-efficient, improved cooking stoves. With a lower demand for energy fuels, the amount of time spent collecting energy resources is also lower and time is freed up for income-generating activities (Amacher et al. 2004). The adoption of improved cooking stoves often depends on the household members' income, infrastructure, market penetration, and information, as well as available know-how about utilization (Guta 2012). Cultural cooking methods also affect the user's willingness to adopt a new technology. For instance, in Ethiopia cooking stoves need to be suitable for baking injera, which is the most widely consumed national dish (Mann and Tilahun 2014).The amount of time allocated to the collection of fuel resources and income-generating activities varies across households due to differences in characteristics and composition. Household size is expected to increase the amount of fuel collection time, due to larger households' higher energy demand and increased supply of labor for collection. Similarly, household size positively correlates with households' time spent on income-generating activities and households' total income (Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar 2000). As women are mainly in charge of fuel collection work, a greater number of household women increases the amount of collection time, while more household men increases the household's time spent on and income generated from farm and market work. Women are also the ones responsible for child rearing; therefore, a higher number of young children will likely reduce the amount of time devoted to women's tasks.When donkeys are used as pack animals for transporting heavy goods, the number of donkeys owned by the household is expected to reduce the household's workload for transporting the required energy resources and free up time from energy collection work for other income-generating activities.Furthermore, the household's level of education is expected to have a negative impact on the amount of time allocated to energy collection and agricultural farm work, because education increases human capital and therefore the returns to market labor. The same holds for an increase in market wages, depending on the sign of the income-and-substitution effect. Households with a higher average age are likely to spend more time in daily activities like energy collection work and income-generating activities than younger households, although the effect is likely to be diminishing (Damte, Koch, and Mekonnen 2012).The relationship between households' landholdings and livestock ownership on time allocation decisions is ambiguous. Households with more land and livestock are likely to spend less time on the collection of firewood when alternative fuel sources like animal dung and crop residues are available on their farm. However, using animal dung and crop residues for cooking and heating purposes reduces the amount of manure available for agricultural production, which might reduce household income.Market distance is relevant only for the amount of time households engage in market work as most of the energy resources are collected and not purchased from markets. A greater distance to market is therefore expected not to influence the energy collection time but to be negatively correlated with time available for market work and household income.The aim of the following empirical analysis is to shed light on women's and men's allocation of time and physical energy to different activities in rural households in Ethiopia. The main topics include household members' time allocation to natural energy resource collection, factors that influence the amount of time required for energy collection, and the implications for households' time allocation to other activities. To gain firsthand insight into household members' assessment of their time and physical energy requirements for different daily and weekly activities, we conducted gender-disaggregated focus group discussions in three rural villages in western and central Ethiopia. The information is analyzed by gender group, highlighting individual-and village-level differences. Though not entirely representative, the gathered focus group information provides useful indications about households' behavior in rural villages of Ethiopia and adds valuable qualitative information to the dataset that is used in the consequent part of the analysis.In a second step, we assess how changes in the availability of fuel resources, lack of access to electricity infrastructure, and the use of traditional cooking technologies affect the amount of time households spend on the collection of natural energy resources, like firewood, animal dung, and crop residues, for cooking and heating purposes. For a conclusive picture of the relationship we use a mix of background information from the focus group discussions and quantitative data from an Ethiopian household survey on \"Energy Use in Agriculture\".According to the theoretical considerations presented early in section 4, the amount of time allocated to the collection of different energy resources (\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC52 ) is explained by the environmental conditions in the area �\uD835\uDF03\uD835\uDF03 \uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC57 �, access to electricity (\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC4E \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ), the type of cooking technology (\uD835\uDEFE\uD835\uDEFE \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ), and a vector of householdspecific characteristics (\uD835\uDC4D\uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 ), such as household size, household composition, education, and income:In a third step, we test the relationship between time spent on energy collection work and time spent on other income-generating farm and off-farm work, which are likely to be interlinked. A two-stage least-squares regression then attempts to establish a causal relationship between the factors that influence time allocation to natural energy resource collection and household income:The following section provides information about the data used for this empirical analysis, site selection, and data collection methodology.The quantitative data come from an IFPRI-CIMMYT household dataset collected by the AEMFI funded by the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land, and Ecosystems in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia between May and August 2013. In this second survey round of a 2005 IFPRI household survey on \"Food and Water Security under Global Change\", 930 of the original 1,000 households (93 percent success rate) were interviewed in 20 different woredas in five regions of Ethiopia (Tigray, Amhara, Oromiya, Benishangul Gumuz, and SNNPR).For the initial sampling frame, each woreda in Ethiopia was classified according to its agroecological zone, percentage of cultivated land under irrigation, average annual rainfall, rain variability, and vulnerability of food production systems. The 20 woredas marked in Figure 6.1 were then selected such that across the dimensions the proportion falling into each class for the sample matched as closely as possible the proportions of the entire Nile basin. From the sampled woredas, one kebele each was purposely selected to include households with farm irrigation systems. Finally, 50 households were randomly chosen from these peasant associations. The questionnaire included modules on the socioeconomic characteristics of the households, energy use for cooking activities, climate shocks experienced by the households, crop and livestock production, and climate change perceptions and adaptation strategies, as well as risk preferences. Most of the questionnaire was targeted at household heads. However, for some gender-disaggregated data, the In April 2014, the author of this paper revisited four of the initially 20 villages in the kebeles of Haru, Nunu Kumba, Hidabu Abote, and Bereh Aleltu to gather additional qualitative information on households' time allocation and physical burden associated with different daily activities and people's habits for the collection of natural energy resources. The four sites were selected considering regional differences in households' access to electricity, and to reduce travel costs preference was given to sites relatively close to Addis Ababa. Two of the selected sites, Haru and Nunu Kumba, are located in western Ethiopia, close to the towns of Gimbi and Nem'kete, while the sites of Bereh Aleltu and Hidabu Abote are located north of Addis Ababa. Unfortunately, the site of Bereh Aleltu had to be excluded from the sample, due to restructuring of the woreda administration and lack of consent for data collection in rural households.In each of the visited sites, male and female groups consisting of 8 to 10 participants were separately engaged in a focus group discussion about their daily activities, time allocation to different activities, and the physical strength required to perform these tasks. The interviewees were selected through a local facilitator based on their availability and comparable age balances. The discussions were facilitated by a group of four enumerators from the AEMFI in the local language Afan Oromo.First, participants were asked to name the activities they perform in a normal day or week (if activities differed throughout the week), and afterward the different activities were summarized on flip chart paper. Subsequently, each participant was asked to think about the amount of time and physical energy each activity requires, using 24 beans to reflect the hours of the day and differently sized stones to express whether an activity requires little, intermediate, or a lot of physical strength. The consensus-based results are presented later in this report.The second activity focused on learning about the participants' natural energy resource collection behavior, observed changes in the availability of energy resources, implications for their daily lives, and their proposed adjustment mechanisms. In this resource mapping exercise, the participants drew a picture of their village using local materials to point out where (if applicable) they collect firewood and if the collection site had changed over the past 10 years.The first focus group discussion aimed to gain insight into individual household members' time and physical energy allocation to different activities. The gathered information, summarized in Table 7.1, shows that across the three villages, the type and number of activities differ substantially between men and women. Based on the question of what daily and weekly tasks members of the male and female discussion groups perform, men are mostly engaged in agricultural and market work, while women additionally take care of household production tasks. In each of the three sites, women stated that they are responsible for the following tasks: collecting firewood; fetching water; fieldwork, such as weeding or cultivating teff, peppers, or onions; taking care of livestock; preparing and selling areke (a homemade alcoholic drink) at the local market; household activities, such as cleaning the house and preparing meals; grinding flour (either manually or mechanically in the closest town); washing clothes; looking after young children and the sick or the elderly; eating; and preparing the coffee ceremony. Women perform a number of the activities daily, while other activities like collecting firewood (three times a week) and going to the market (twice a week) are less frequent and vary from household to household.Men mentioned they are primarily engaged in market and fieldwork, which includes preparing the land for plowing, irrigation, building or fixing fences, and animal care. In all three villages, men considered household work to be a female domain to which they do not regularly contribute. Furthermore, only in the male discussion groups, some participants pursued part-time income-generating activities unrelated to agricultural production, such as working as a barber or producing handicrafts.The focus group discussions in the three rural villages confirmed there are strong gender differences in household tasks as described in the World Development Report 2012 (World Bank 2012).Table 7.2 shows women's total time spent working and the allocation of time to different activities. The background indicates the perceived physical burden associated with each activity. Light gray represents tasks that are considered easy; medium gray is used for medium and dark gray for heavy tasks. For women, household production takes four to five hours every day, while fetching water occupies one to two hours daily. During farming season, women spend substantial time supporting household men in the field. This includes cooking meals for the household members that are working in the field and transporting meals to the agricultural production sites. Firewood is collected only two to three times per week, but requires three to five hours per trip. Less frequent activities like making areke and grinding flour were mentioned as very time-consuming activities, since the process must be done manually in the absence of electricity.During the focus group discussions, several of the determinants of household members' time allocation mentioned earlier in the section \"Intrahousehold Gender Differences\" were confirmed. Women with young children stated that they spend more time (up to five hours a day) caring for their newborn and do not engage in firewood and water collection. During discussions, women also confirmed that the amount of time allocated to different activities also depends on distance. If the distance of the entire village or specific households to (high-quality) firewood sources, the nearest market, or the relatives' house is far, women have to spend more time traveling to those sites and therefore allocate more time to the activity.As Table 7.3 illustrates, men's daily activities and time allocation differ from women's. Men spend most of their time and energy on agricultural farm work and livestock care. They also have less variation in their daily activities, perform fewer tasks simultaneously, and have more time available for eating, sleeping, and drinking coffee than do women in the same village. Men's discussion groups agreed that the amount of time devoted to farming activities depends on the men's age, land size, and irrigation system. Older men are more likely to spend more time at coffee and social/religious gatherings. Men with larger farms and irrigation systems, however, spend more time farming than men with small, rainfed agricultural land. Similar to discussion groups with women, men also mentioned spending more time on agricultural production during the rainy season due to conditions and heavier workload. In Haru, men stated that over the past 10 years the amount of time spent on agricultural production has increased due to reduced land productivity, diminishing land size per household, excessive land use, expensive fertilizer and soil erosion due to heavy rains, and long-lasting dry seasons. Most of the men therefore work as daily laborers in lowland farm areas, and their children support the families as shepherds or farmer boys. In Hidabu Abote, men have benefited from infrastructure investments and environmental protection measures funded by nongovernmental organizations like World Vision, which were common in this area. They now spend less time on fetching water, traveling to and from the market, collecting fertilizer, and weeding, since the village has gained access to pumped water, new roads, a fertilizer distribution center, and improved access to anti-weed chemicals.Figure 7.1 shows a direct comparison of the time allocated to farm, market, and household work (inside and outside) and leisure. On average, women in Haru spend the largest share of their waking hours working. Men, on the contrary, have a third of the day available for leisure.Source: Author.The results of the focus group discussions have several limitations. First, respondents are likely to recall days in which certain activities were predominant and then use the hours spent on that day as representative for the amount of time they typically spend on those activities. By using consensus-based group information we tried to reduce this risk, but we cannot entirely suspend it. Also, especially for the group of women, the 24 beans per day rule was not always followed, because activities largely differ from day to day and we wanted to capture all activities. 6 Another limitation is that weekly frequencies of activities were not explicitly asked about during discussions. Thus, the weekly frequencies considered in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 are generalizations drawn from individual-specific responses. Household-or villagespecific differences in the frequencies of weekly activities, however, influence the calculated weekly time allocations significantly.We now look at the types of fuel resources used in different areas and changes in the availability of those resources using data from the focus group discussions and the \"Energy Use in Agriculture\" quantitative dataset. 6 Twenty-four beans were handed out to reflect the average amount of time per day spent on different activities. However, due to a large variation in women's daily activities throughout the week, this rule was relaxed after it was clarified that one bean stands for one hour. Although the kebele of Haru has access to electricity, the amount of power is only sufficient for lighting purposes and none of the participants were found to use electricity for cooking or heating purposes. As kerosene and electric power are scarce, they mainly use firewood, dung, agricultural residues, and charcoal for household production, whereby firewood is the main energy source for cooking. In Hidabu Abote, firewood is also the main source of energy for cooking, but the use of animal dung, crop residues, and charcoal is common for cooking. As mentioned in section 7, in all three villages women and children are mainly in charge of collecting energy resources from the communal forest and other woodlands surrounding the village as well as forest reserves. Some households also collect firewood from their own land or from common lands within and beyond 1 to 2 kilometers from their village boundaries. Transportation of firewood from the source to the house is usually done manually by carrying it on the head or the back, and in rare cases with donkeys.When asked whether and how their time allocation to fuel collection has changed over the past 10 years, participants from all three sites mentioned that changes in land productivity and deforestation have affected their time. In Haru, the majority of participants reported that over the past 10 years firewood has remained their main energy source but that the collection sites used to be closer to the village. Now, only individuals who have trees on their own land can get firewood easily. Moving to a more distant collection site has increased the amount of time spent searching for, collecting, and transporting firewood, which leaves less time for other activities.In Nunu Kumba, women mentioned that while they used to collect firewood from nearby forest areas, today there are no nearby firewood collection sites. Compared with 10 years ago, they have to travel to distant forest sites to collect firewood, which takes up to 10 hours versus 2 hours in the past. Instead people buy trees from the owners, cut down their own trees, or collect firewood from the church forest area. This also means an additional financial burden for households.In Hidabu Abote, participants noticed that forest areas and grazing lands have become scarce due to land protection rules and clearing for cropland expansion. In response they now cut and carry home animal fodder and use dung instead of firewood for cooking and heating.The quantitative household survey captures the responses of 930 households with an almost equal share of men (51 percent) and women (49 percent). 34 percent of the 5,716 participants come from the Amhara region, 31 percent from Oromia, followed by Tigray (15 percent), Benshangul Gumuz (14 percent), and SNNPR (6 percent). Each household has on average 6.9 members, or 4.6 members using the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) equivalence scale. 7 Counting the (unweighted) number of individuals, households have on average 2.4 females above the age of 14, 2.6 males, and 1.8 children younger than 5 years.Only 15 percent of all households are headed by women. Across the sample, most household members are below the age of 18 years (54 percent), followed by the share of people in the 31-to-60-years age group (23 percent), from which most of the household heads are drawn. 42 percent of all participants are illiterate and 49 percent can read and write (formally), having attended on average 5.6 years of school. In comparison, among the group of household heads only 34 percent have attended formal education and 53 percent are illiterate. Across the sample, households own on average 1.9 hectares of land. Furthermore, across the sample approximately 0.6 households own a donkey. As donkeys are often used for transporting goods to market or fuel resources, they are an important asset for households.Virtually all households in the sample are engaged in agricultural production for their livelihoods. Men spend on average 13 person-days on agricultural production per season.8 For women, the contribution to agricultural production is more stable at around 4 person-days. For both men and women, threshing is the most time-consuming activity, and for men land preparation, planting, and irrigation are additionally time-consuming aspects of agricultural production.In comparison, only 23 percent of all households have a household member who earns income from non-own-farm or nonfarm employment, and 85 percent of those individuals are male. Employment opportunities are highest in the Oromia region (95 cases, compared with roughly 25 to 50 in the other regions) and mainly involve crop production or work as farm laborers. Men and women employed in offfarm labor spend on average 5 person-days on off-farm work.Considering households' total income from agricultural production, growing perennial crops, raising livestock, other nonfarm enterprises or labor employment, and nonlabor income such as remittances, households have an average annual income of 58,712 Ethiopian birr (ETB), which is equivalent to $2,955. Divided by the household size, the annual income per capita is on average ETB 13,964, or $702. However, it should be noted that the average income calculated from the production variables in the dataset is likely to be overstated, as not all production costs may be accounted for. The World Bank in comparison summarizes that income per capita in Ethiopia was $498 in 2013(World Bank 2013).In the sample, 95 percent of all households collect fuel for cooking and heating purposes, compared with 3 percent that purchase and 2 percent that either collect or purchase. In about 70 percent of cases women are the household's main collectors of energy resources (Appendix Figure A.1). The large dependence of households on collected fuel resources was confirmed during the focus group discussions, and only women mentioned being involved in fuel collection.Figure 8.1 shows the average amount of time households in the different regions devote to energy resource collection work, distinguishing between firewood, animal dung, and crop resources. For the entire sample, households spend on average 121 minutes per week to obtain fuel resources, ranging from 89 minutes per week in the Tigray region to about 162 minutes per week in Benshangul Gumuz. The collection of firewood resources from their own or neighbors' woodlots and communal lands, on average, takes 123 minutes per week of households' time; for animal dung 115 minutes per week are needed, and for crop residues 88 minutes per week.However, for the three kebeles of Haru, Nunu Kumba, and Hidabu Abote, the average fuel collection times differ substantially from the findings of the focus group discussion. In the quantitative dataset we find that with 111 minutes per week (Haru), 118 minutes per week (Nunu Kumba), and 88 minutes per week (Hidabu Abote), households' average fuel collection times in these three sites are much lower than women indicated during the focus group discussions. One explanation could be that women's time judgment during the focus group discussions was overstated. Another explanation is that since the household survey was mainly targeted at household heads (who are predominantly male), men significantly underestimated the average amount of time their (mainly female) household members spend on fuel collection per week.Although the collection time for firewood is highest in Oromia, Benshangul Gumuz, and SNNPR, Figure 8.2 shows that those are the regions where most of the households are dependent on firewood fuel sources (see also Appendix Figure A.2). This implies a lack of alternative fuel sources and the larger distance to reach firewood sources in those areas. In contrast, in the regions of Tigray and Amhara, where the average collection times for the different fuel resources are lowest, households use firewood and animal dung in a more balanced manner. The availability of firewood resources can be measured in a number of ways. Following the example of Nankhuni and Findeis (2004), a village is located in a high fuel collection time area if the median value of hours spent on fuel collection in a respective kebele is higher than the median for the entire sample. In the sample, 54 percent of all kebeles are located in areas with a high median fuel collection time. As Figure 8.1 shows, those are mostly villages in the Amhara region (65 percent), Benshangul Gumuz, and SNNPR (both 100 percent).When asked whether they had noticed changes in the availability of fuel resources over the past 10 years, about 70 percent of participants responded affirmatively. Of those who had, an average of 42 percent said they had witnessed a reduction in the availability of fuel resources from their own land and 28 percent from common lands. The perceived reduction of fuel resources is again most present in the Benshangul Gumuz and SNNPR regions.  Descriptive statistics show that across the sample one-third of the interviewed individuals have easy access to electricity. Again, there is a large regional variation between SNNPR, where none of the interviewed households has access to electricity, and the Oromia region, where 44 percent of households were connected to public electricity. This confirms that in the sparsely populated areas electrification rates are close to nonexistent compared with the more urbanized and more densely populated areas in the Oromia, Amhara, and Tigray regions. However, as the insights from the focus group discussions suggested, this provides little information about the amount, reliability, and use of electricity.In the sample, 88 percent of all households use traditional three-stone stoves for cooking.9 Among households that own a secondary cooking stove, 96 percent use charcoal on that stove. While 72 percent of the interviewed households are aware of improved cooking stoves, only 19 percent of all households actively use this technology and adoption rates are highest in the regions of Amhara (37 percent) and Benshangul Gumuz (36 percent).The descriptive results support the information from the focus group discussions: households located in areas with low fuel availability or that have experienced a reduction in fuel availability are likely to spend more time collecting natural energy resources. These statistics provide little indication of the effect of time spent on fuel collection on households' time allocation to income-generating activities and thus household income. However, based on the theoretical model, we would assume that an increase in time spent collecting fuel resources is likely to reduce time available for income-generating activities and thus households' total income or household members' leisure time.To determine the correlation and causal relationship between the availability of fuel resources and the amount of time households spend on the collection of natural energy resources, we test a number of proxy variables for fuel availability. First, we use a binary variable to indicate whether or not households have 9 As their primary stove only 5 percent use charcoal stoves and 7 percent other types of cooking stoves.  (2001, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a, 2003b).Testing the correlation between the total amount of time households spend collecting fuel resources and the availability of fuel resources, we find a positive relationship. Households that noted a reduced availability of fuel resources from common land areas also spend more time collecting fuel resources. However, for households that observed a reduction of fuel resources from their own farmland, the positive relationship is not statistically significant (Appendix Table A.1).Using a dummy variable for households' location in a high fuel deficit area like Nankhuni and Findeis (2004) may be a more suitable indication for resource scarcity. Here, we also find evidence of a statistically significant positive correlation between households' location in areas with an above-average median fuel collection time and time spent collecting fuel resources (Appendix Table A .2).In a third specification, we test the relationship between total forest stocks in a specific zone and time allocation to fuel collection. Contrary to our expectation, the correlation matrix shows that the relationship between larger forest stocks and fuel collection time is positive (Appendix Table A.3). One explanation could be that households with access to larger forest stocks spend more time collecting fuel resources in order to sell the surplus at the local market. However, that statement cannot be verified through this analysis. Another reason could be that the variable for total forest stocks and availability of forest stocks per capita is imprecise. Additionally, this data source does not provide any information on households' actual access to the available forest stocks, which are protected by the government in many cases and thus may increase the amount of time required to collect firewood.The ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis shows that households that noticed a reduction in the availability of fuel resources from common land areas spend 21 minutes more per week collecting fuel resources than those households that did not notice a reduction in resources from common lands. However, the low value of the adjusted R-square and large residual indicate that the perceived reduction in fuel resources from common land can explain only a small share of the variation in time allocation to fuel collection (Appendix Table A .4). Controlling for a number of household characteristics, we find that the effect of reduced fuel availability from common lands remains statistically significant and increases weekly fuel collection time by 16 minutes.Using a dummy variable for households located in an area with high environmental stress, we find that households that are further from fuel sources compared with the average spend 40 additional minutes per week collecting fuel resources (Appendix Table A .5). When controlling for other explanatory impact factors, the magnitude of this effect decreases to an additional 24 minutes per week. Table 8.1 summarizes the regression results for households' average collection time of all fuel resources and the average amount of time spent collecting firewood, using the two different proxies for low availability of fuel resources. collected for cooking and heating purposes, access to electricity would have to coincide with the use of electric cooking stoves to affect households' time allocation to fuel collection. The use of improved traditional stoves rather than unimproved traditional stoves does not seem to have a statistically significant effect on households' time allocation to fuel collection. One reason could be that the fuel savings are not large enough to translate into a significant reduction of fuel collection time. This could be the case if the amount of time spent collecting fuel resources is mainly determined by the time needed to walk to the collection site rather than the act of collecting firewood. This statement was supported during the focus group discussions with women mentioning that it takes them about two hours to walk to the collection site, one hour to collect firewood, and again two hours to walk back. Furthermore, the highly statistically significant negative effect of market wages on time allocation to fuel collection is striking. This indicates that due to the higher opportunity costs, households that can earn higher market wages spend less time collecting fuel resources. Although not shown with this analysis, it could be assumed that with higher market wages, households are more able to purchase their fuel resources instead of collecting them.In the following paragraphs we examine the implications of an increase in households' average fuel collection time for their time allocation to income-generating activities and total household income.Preliminary analysis does not show a statistically significant correlation between the amount of time households spend on the collection of natural energy resources and farm production work (Appendix Table A .6). This could stem from the gender division of labor discussed in section 4. If a change in households' time allocation to fuel collection work mainly affects household females, it may not affect the amount of time household men spend on agricultural production.However, there is a statistically significant negative correlation between households' time allocation to fuel collection work and off-farm work (Appendix Table A .7). Regression results show that an increase in energy collection time significantly reduces the time available for income-generating activities, though the magnitude of this effect is very small. This may be because across the sample, the number of women who spend time in off-farm employment work is much smaller than the number of men, such that households' (mostly women's) time allocation to fuel collection does not significantly affect households' (mostly men's) time allocation to off-farm work.To understand whether this negative relationship is driven by time increases in fuel collection due to a household being located in an area with low fuel resource availability, we must run a two-stage least squares regression. The dummy variable for perceived reduction of fuel availability from common sources is used as an instrument. It fulfills the exclusion restrictions, as it is not correlated with time spent in off-farm work but is significantly correlated with households' time allocation to fuel collection. However, no statistically significant relationship is found using this approach (Appendix Table A .8).Finally, we test whether an increase in energy collection time affects households' total income. In the analysis we do not find a statistically significant effect of time allocation to energy resource collection work on households' total annual income. As expected, the sign for energy collection time is negative, but it is not statistically significant (Appendix Table A .9). This result is not surprising given the low correlation with time allocation to income-generating farm and off-farm activities.As already indicated, the empirical regression analyses presented above are prone to a number of limitations, which are discussed in the following paragraphs.First, we use a cross-sectional dataset to estimate the effect of differences in natural energy resource availability on households' time allocation to natural energy resource collection, farm and offfarm work, and household income. The \"Energy Use in Agriculture\" dataset does not include a subjective component about the de facto availability of forest stocks in the different areas and households' access to these resources. We were only able to use zone-level data on forest stocks and population size, summarized in the WBISPP reports, which do not allow for conclusions about the relationship between village-level availability of forest stocks and households' time allocation to fuel collection. In the absence of more conclusive data, we used households' perceived reduction of fuel availability from their own or common land, which is subject to perception bias. For a more objective indicator of a change in resource availability, it would be more suitable to use panel data of forest stocks to allow for a cross-sectional analysis across time.Furthermore, the dataset does not mention how much time each household member spends collecting fuel resources, but only states the household's average amount of time spent collecting fuel resources and whether the main energy collector is male or female. The difference in energy collection time for households where the main energy collector is male or female is minimal. However, as indicated by the preceding qualitative analysis, there is reason to assume that within each household large gender differences exist between the amounts of time each member spends on the collection of fuel resources.Endogeneity and multicollinarity are further shortcomings of the regression analysis. The relationship between households' time allocation to natural energy resource collection and household income is likely bidirectional. Furthermore, income is likely correlated with other independent variables that explain households' time allocation to natural energy resource collection. For instance, household income is likely to improve household members' access to schooling and thereby increase the level of education. For poor families in developing countries, progeny is a common way of ensuring old-age income and agricultural farm labor. In this context, it is therefore likely that households with low overall income have more children, which in turn increases the amount of energy resources needed. Excluding income from the regression analysis and putting it into the error term is therefore likely to lead to endogeneity, where the explanatory variables are correlated with the error term. In this case the OLS estimators are inconsistent and biased. However, if income is included as another explanatory variable, multicollinarity-that is, correlation between the explanatory variables-could be the result. To avoid this situation, an instrumental variable approach should be applied to estimate households' time allocation to natural energy resource collection work and income-generating activities.Keeping these pitfalls in mind and taking the empirical regression analysis as an imperfect indication for households' behavior, the following section summarizes the empirical findings and puts them into a broader context.Using a mix of qualitative evidence from focus group discussions in three kebeles in rural Ethiopia and quantitative evidence from an IFPRI-CIMMYT rural household survey, we show large differences according to gender in time allocation to different activities, and we find that reduced availability of fuel resources increases the amount of time households, and especially women, spend collecting natural energy resources. The focus group discussions revealed that women are mostly engaged in agriculture, marketing, and home production, while men allocate most of their time to agricultural production and the purchase and or sale of agricultural goods at the market. These results support evidence from other developing countries that women spend more time per week than men working in different activities and often have to perform a number of tasks simultaneously (World Bank 2012). Both data sources further confirm that in rural Ethiopia almost all households collect their fuel resources and predominantly use firewood and that the main household energy collector is female. Focus group discussions reveal the perception that firewood has become less available in local areas, while the quantitative analysis shows a positive relationship between increased resource scarcity and time spent collecting fuel resources.The quantitative data do not allow analysis of sex-disaggregated time allocation to firewood collection; however, based on insights from the focus group discussions, it is likely that women are more affected by the increase in fuel collection time than men due to their disproportionate responsibility for collection. The regression analysis shows only a small negative relationship between time allocated to fuel collection work and income-generating farm and off-farm activities, which is statistically significant only for time allocation to off-farm work. Based on the low significance of these effects, we cannot verify a statistically significant effect on household income.To develop a more conclusive picture about intrahousehold time allocation to different activities, future research should use more objective data for the availability of forest stocks and differentiate households' time allocation to natural energy resource collection on an individual level. Despite this limitation in the quantitative analysis, the focus group discussions revealed that women consider collection of firewood a physically exhausting activity and are therefore negatively affected by a reduction in firewood availability.The existing literature suggests a number of policies and forest management initiatives that could help alleviate the problem of deforestation and dependence on dwindling firewood stocks. To appropriately design and implement policies, an analysis of intrahousehold time allocation to different activities, and especially fuel collection work, is necessary to identify which household members or population groups are most affected by firewood scarcity (Damte, Koch, and Mekonnen 2012). Efforts to reduce rural poverty should give due consideration to the needs of all group members to avoid shortchanging the interests of users with less bargaining power (Arnold et al. 2003). Policies could be targeted at improving the management of common land areas, encouraging the planting of forest stocks on private land, diversifying and upgrading households' fuel dependence, and improving the energy efficiency of fuel conversion mechanisms.To avoid the overuse and exploitation of forest resources with common, unrestricted access, clear rules about how to manage such resources are necessary. Local institutions must be accountable to their members, manage the resources on their behalf, and balance the interests of different community groups. Decisions about resource management within a community are often dominated by men who prefer forest protection to improve agricultural production and generate high-value products. This often comes at the expense of meeting the firewood needs of women. Arnold et al. (2003) suggest that in these situations, external support from the forestry sector may be helpful to develop forest management practices that better reflect the needs of all community members and assist those who have been dependent on firewood to find alternative energy sources.Initiatives encouraging farmers to grow additional trees on their own farmland are another way of improving the availability of firewood stocks and decreasing the amount of time needed for collecting natural energy resources. Interventions that increase the available spectrum of low-cost multipurpose tree and shrub species could therefore broaden households' choices and increase their supply of firewood as a co-or by-product (Arnold et al. 2003). Government interventions range from providing subsidized seedlings and selecting high-performance tree species to monetary incentives for planting and growing trees and better access to information for farmers (Heltberg, Arndt, and Sekhar 2000). This requires a close cooperation between forest departments, local institutions, and villagers.Linking rural villages with decentralized modern biomass and other renewable energy investments (like solar, wind, and mini-hydropower) is essential for rural electrification. Enhancing private-government cooperation on modern renewable energies and promoting the dissemination of energy-saving technologies are therefore important policy measures (Guta 2012). Improved end-use efficiency of energy conversion technology also has the potential to reduce pressure on forest stocks while recognizing local people's right to a livelihood. Energy strategies should therefore focus on removing obstacles to users' access to more efficient, more convenient, less hazardous sources of energy and on enabling those without better alternatives to use firewood more efficiently (Arnold, Köhlin, and Persson 2006).      ","tokenCount":"12634"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"05ec0fddfd418bbf423ab3d440646c62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H012291.pdf","id":"1968220689"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"807eb6bb-df0f-4519-89bb-6a01debdfedc","pagecount":"6","content":"As stated in the last issue of the Newsletter we are pleased to share with you the outcome of the workshop held in Dhaka, Bangladesh during 18 21 May 1992.A four-day South Asian Regional workshop on Groundwater Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems and Sustainable Groundwater Managementwas held in Dhaka, Bangladesh from 18 to 21 May, 1992. Fifty-seven participants from 10 countries including 5 lIMI professional staff, attended the workshop. Five Indonesian participants who attended the workshop were taken ona one-week field trip after the workshop. The first day's activities began with an inaugural session followed by presentations of syntheses of the papers that had been prepared. Discussion groups were then formed and assigned the task 8 of identifying issues of particular concern for further exploration during the remainder of the workshop. These discussion groups were organized around the topics of: i) Aquifer and drawdown conditions; il) FMIS groundwater support services;iii)FMIS sustainability under water-surplus conditions; iv) FMIS sustainability conditions; and under water-deficit v) FMIS sustainability within surface irriga tion systems.The second and the third day were devoted to field visits to see the working of various types of FMIS under different management conditions in the northern part of Bangladesh. On the final day, there were again small group discussions-this time set up to address and make recommendations about some of the areas of concern identified earlier. These three groups focused on: technical considerations; institutional issues; and socioeconomic aspects.On the first day, the five discussion groups came up with a number of concerns for further exploration. These issues are listed below by discussion-group topic. Valuable groundwater is often used inefficiently and at times wasted. Therefore, integration of efficient utilization of groundwater through better water management practices in conjunction with rainfall and surface water is necessary.Selection of type of tubewells, their installation, operation and management are to be matched to meet the aquifer characteristics and drawdown conditions.There is a need to enact proper groundwater regulatory mechanisms through a proper mix of technology and management for groundwater utilization so as to maintain groundwater at desired levels and prevent environmental degradation.!t would be useful to find solutions to problems associated with: There was a lively discussion on the use of shallow and deep tubewells as extraction devices.Arguments were put forward for and against the use of deep tubewells. While discussing deep tubewells, two sets of issues were identified. The first set is with regard to existing deep tubewells.In Bangladesh itself there are more than 30,000 deep tubewells. The process and results of turnover and local management of these tubewells need to be looked into. Ultimately, most of these tubewells are likely to be owned by selected individual farmers who will be invariably well to-do. The second set of issues is with regard to the installation of new deep tubewells. There were forceful arguments to ban turbine pumps for installation of deep tubewells. It was also argued that in view of these large deep tubewells in water deficit areas such as hard rock areas, groundwater levels are receding fast, requiring innumerable shallow well owners either to deepen the wells or to abandon them. Therefore, there is an urgent need to regulate the use of deep tuhewells in these area too.At the end, it was recommended that a three phase approach be adopted which initially emphasizes shallow tubewells and groundwater management for stabilizing the drawdown level at an appropriate depth by regulating the use of shallow tube wells; secondly, to go for deep-set shallow tube wells and, finally, attempts may be made to go for deep tubewells where other methods of extraction have failed or are inefficient.Under watershed conservation and management, it was recommended that the micro-aquifer should be the unit for groundwater conservation. It was suggested that a water balance study of the micro aquifer be carried out to study the impact of surface water on groundwater and to design appropriate extraction mechanisms.In order to improve the efficiency ofgroundwater use and to manage the groundwater resources in a sustainable manner it was suggested to: i) Provide adequate technical extension serv ices;ii) Establish a strong unit for maintenance of groundwater structures; ''ii) Bannmg of deep tubewells is not a possible solution. But their use should be regulated through viable local institutional arrange ments.•iv) Landless laborers should be given prefer ence to manage tubewells in a sustainable manner;• v) Some of the aquifers extend overmore than one nation (for example the Gangetic aqui fer). Regional efforts are necessary to as sess groundwater potential and intercon nectedness.vi) State policies toward groundwatermanage ment should target not only the individual pump owner but the network of wells that will interact now or in the future.vii) Well ownership may be individual, but communities in an area should be organized and be invested with the right of taking decisions on new individual invest ments in wells in their area. Conservation technologies must be adopted by all owners of wells. Group purchase and distribution of power to these owners and enforcement ofcollection / loan repayment for credit provided to them are needed.viii) Aquifer characteristics, and recharge rates vary greatly within even smallareas; there fore, state policies should be tailored to the natureofeach ecological zone (Le., ground water resource endowment region). Blan ket countrywide or statewide policies for areas of high ecological heterogeneity are likely to be mefficient and wasteful of state capital when direct subsidies are involved.• be) When the cost of pumping exceeds publi cized and agreed-upon locally defined lim its, all further official credit for extractive investmentsshouldbe cutoff. Theseindude mvestments in well deepening, pump en ergization, construction of new wells, etc.x) Choice of technology should be such that small groundwater groups are preferred to large groups when the resource base so permits. If shallow groundwater exists, then shallow tubewells are to be promoted rather than deep tube wells.{R. Saktllivadirtcl, D. Parker and S. MarlOr, IlMIJ","tokenCount":"971"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"55023eab46fb7236f7c5a63d7c82e23e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b56a4d6a-b50b-4bfd-be85-538c430c69a1/retrieve","id":"-46747631"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e9bc8c3b-6341-4399-9e4e-334c32422328","pagecount":"22","content":"The CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) is a multi-institutional research for development program that seeks to create and disseminate international public goods to improve the productivity of water in river basins in ways that are pro-poor, gender equitable and environmentally sustainable. In doing so, CPWF contributes to efforts by the global community to ensure that global diversions of water to agriculture are maintained at the level of the year 2000.The specific objectives of the Program are to increase food production using less water, to improve livelihoods and nutrition of the rural and peri-urban poor, to decrease water pollution from agriculture, to maintain water-related ecosystems services and to reduce water-related diseases. To address these objectives, the program is structured into five thematic areas: crop water productivity improvement; water and people in catchments; aquatic ecosystems and fisheries; integrated basin water management; and the global and national water and food system. Research is conducted in nine benchmark river basins, including the Andean system, Indus-Ganges, Karkheh, Limpopo, Mekong, Nile, Sao Francisco, Volta and the Yellow.Research in the Challenge Program is implemented through one of four focused research initiatives. First call projects, selected through a competitive process, make up the greater part of the present CPWF research portfolio. Basin focal projects add value to individual research project outputs by identifying in specific benchmark basins opportunities for water-related interventions to achieve CPWF and partner development goals. Small grants for impact serve to remind Program researchers of how their research should have practical outcomes for communities on the ground. Synthesis research is essential to drawing together a large body of disparate and diverse information into a comprehensive whole.The past year has seen a number of valuable technical achievements emerge from Challenge Program research. In general, these include but are not limited to; increasing water productivity in different production environments, developing mechanisms to facilitate multi-stakeholder dialogue and negotiation, valuing water to produce ecosystem services, and understanding water-food-poverty links and their policy context.Theme 1 seeks to improve crop water productivity and has made significant progress in the areas of plant breeding and evaluation of water-efficient and stress tolerant crops; water saving farm practices and need-based water supply; and improving relevant policies and institutions. By linking farmer participatory trials of improved varieties with improved soil and agronomic management practices, researchers make use of the synergy between variety and management.. A range of soil management and mulching practices for increasing in-field capture and use of rainfall and reducing erosion have also been investigated in rain fed areas of several basins.Water and people in catchments is the focus of Theme 2, where researchers have generated information identifying where different pro-poor technologies for improving water management are most likely to achieve impact. A bioeconomic simulation model has also been developed in order to improve dissemination of a given technology, by increasing awareness of both its benefits and constraints. Economic 'game theory' is at the heart of the theme's investigations of social learning interventions, designed to build collective capacity and incentives for technology adoption. Success has also come in the form of improving stakeholder's capacity to engage with formal institutions, thanks to development of a model that allows users to quantify and value the economic, social and environmental impacts of land use changes at the watershed scale.Theme 3 studies fisheries and aquatic ecosystems. Through applied research on the effectiveness of using adaptive learning approaches as an integral part of management processes, theme researchers contributed to developing the capacity of communities, local and national institutions to manage aquatic ecosystems in a sustainable and equitable manner. Progress in the area of trade-off analysis has led to the development and testing of a model used to depict the consequences of different water management regimes on aquatic biodiversity, a tool that is ready for use in decision support at a district level. Theme 3 researchers have also contributed to the development of tools that enable rapid estimation of seasonal water requirements needed to sustain specific aquatic ecosystems, fish communities and fisheries.Theme 4's focus is on integrated basin water management systems. In the past year this theme has developed, tested, and disseminated a number of innovative technologies and management strategies designed to increase the productivity of land and water resources. Tests on the utilization of a livestock water productivity framework; insights into the constraints and opportunities of wastewater irrigation and optimization of the design and operation of small reservoirs are among the advances made by researchers, leading to better basin planning and greater agricultural outputs and incomes for basin communities. A multi-agent simulation model that gives insight into the complexity of water uses and users contributed to effective policy making and improved institutional arrangements, as did a multidisciplinary groundwater capacity building program.Theme 5 is concerned with shaping the international, national and regional policies and institutions that influence water and food. Through organizing multi-disciplinary and organizational research teams to debate the management of upland watershed development and flood risks, among other issues, researchers learned lessons about enhancing participatory water governance at the basin scale. Research into large-scale water transfer schemes has yielded a number of published reports and papers that contributed to an assessment of a baseline scenario for Indian water and food futures to 2050.Basin Focal Projects (BFPs) have made a number of advances in the areas of poverty analysis, assessment of water availability, water productivity, institutional analysis, intervention analysis and knowledge management. Small grants for impact have researched the development of locally-tailored technical and managerial practices that increase food security. Lessons learned from a number of small grants projects serve to remind researchers of the relationship between technology and the capacity of farmers to implement it. The Integrated Data and Information System Project (IDIS) is serving the water and food research community by improving access to data on water, agricultural and environmental issues. The IDIS team worked to compile and distribute temporal and spatial data for the CPWF benchmark basins along with a spatial analysis for the Basin Focal Projects. Researchers have supported IDIS database management activities for eight additional CPWF projects whilst developing protocols for transferring scientific data to the IDIS platform.Communications initiatives led to the creation of a number of virtual, print and video materials. The Living Labs DVD series was created in collaboration with Challenge Program investigators and Program partners in eight river basins to highlight the CPWF and its research in those regions. A wide range of print and web-based materials were also produced, including 10 research highlights, new brochures, and a regular newsletter, among others., Communication materials were actively and widely distributed throughout the water and food community via a number of international events.Signatories to the Joint Venture Agreement (JVA), under which CPWF operates, make up the Consortium Steering Committee (CSC). The committee is an autonomous policy and decision making body of the CPWF and meets face to face once a year and otherwise through virtual means. The Challenge Program Management Team comprises six people, four of them part-time , including two 'external' members. Under the JVA, the five member CGIAR centers are tasked with management of the project portfolio and work with theme leaders and basin coordinators in ensuring quality control of projects under their remit. All operations of the CPWF are managed, guided and supported from the secretariat based in Sri Lanka, where offices are provided by IWMI.During the last quarter of 2006, CPWF was advised to update its procurement guidelines for competitive processes, following an independent external audit, commissioned by the Director of the CGIAR. A number of controls were recommended and adopted that will strengthen processes not just for the CPWF, but for all Challenge Programs and the CGIAR as a whole.More than 200 different institutions participate officially in CPWF projects, providing expertise alongside the project lead institutions. The 2007 -2009 Medium Term Plan provides more information about partnerships that exist across the project portfolio and within the river basins. The CPWF partnership with the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA) continued to be of particular importance. The CA and CPWF co-organized several sessions for Stockholm World Water Week 2006, and finalized the CA-CPWF summary of priorities and scenario predictions of CPWF basins.There has been progress in obtaining and maintaining donor commitment. The CPWF has sufficient cash to meet the ongoing financial commitments of the program.The Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) seeks to contribute to efforts by the global community to ensure that global diversions of water to agriculture are maintained at the level of the year 2000. By increasing food production the Program will help to achieve internationally adopted targets for decreasing malnourishment and rural poverty by the year 2015, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas in river basins with low average incomes and high physical, economic, or environmental water scarcity or water stress. The Program has a specific focus on low income groups within these areas.The objectives of the CPWF are therefore, to increase food production using less water, to improve livelihoods and nutrition of the rural and peri-urban poor. However, these objectives must be achieved while decreasing water pollution from agriculture, maintaining water-related ecosystems services and reducing water related diseases 1 .To address these objectives, the program is structured into five thematic areas at different scales. These are represented as follows:Five senior scientists, each based in one of five CPWF consortium member CGIAR centers 2 , lead the thematic areas.The research is undertaken in nine river basins that act as laboratories for the research. Representatives of National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), a regional consortium and an international river basin organization 3 oversee the research activities in each basin. This approach ensures that regional priorities are addressed, that stakeholders are actively involved in the program, and that it has direct and measurable impacts on the quality of life in poor communities. The nine benchmark basins are the Mekong, Yellow River, Indus-Ganges, Karkheh, Nile, Limpopo, Volta, Sao Francisco, and the Andean System of Basins. Basin Focal Projects (BFPs) are innovative additions to the research strategy. The challenge for the BFPs is to present a coherent picture of whole-basin systems that recognizes the large differences in hydrological conditions (and consequent livelihood systems) within and between basins. The work of the BFP teams is therefore to show the link between poverty, agricultural productivity, and water while taking into account other uses of water. The intention is to provide robust conceptual frameworks that enable scientists to analyze these links in other river basins at various scales of resolution, depending on data availability. The results will be useful for the CPWF and governments within the river basins to identify strategic opportunities for poverty alleviation through improvements in agricultural water use. Bi-lateral and multi-lateral donors who wish to invest in complementary research for development or in development projects will also benefit from research findings. An important element of these projects is to develop a scientific framework for evaluation and outreach (scaling up) of interventions (as developed in projects). The initial four BFPs were implemented in the Mekong, Karkheh, Volta, and Sao Francisco basins. BFPs for the remaining five basins, plus the Niger (funded by France) will be implemented in mid 2007.A second addition to the strategy is the Small Grants for Impact initiative. A set of 14 competitively selected projects commenced in January 2006, with an aim to identify and harness novel, high-impact innovations in water productivity with potential to achieve significant developmental impact, thereby bridging the gap between research and development, and emphasizing impact and innovation. The initiative serves as an example and reminder for Program researchers of how their research should have practical outcomes for communities on the ground. The projects reach completion in mid 2007, after which information from the projects will be compiled through a 'lessons learned' workshop. In the sections that follow, Program technical achievements and outputs are described according to theme or research initiative. Achievements are presented in a way that shows progress along the impact pathways as described in the 2007 -2009 Medium Term Plan.This theme strives to improve crop water productivity through research in crop genetic improvements for stress tolerance, crop and agroecosystem management, landscape management, innovative institutions and supporting policies.Significant progress has been made by project 7 4 in the development and evaluation of improved varieties for a range of environments. This includes salinity and drought tolerance in non-rice and rice crops, and the commencement of its incorporation into locally preferred and adapted high yielding rice varieties for millions of hectares of sodic and/or salt affected areas, especially in the eastern Gangetic plains. There is a synergy between variety and management, and the improved varieties are being tested in farmer participatory trials along with improved soil and agronomic management.In project 2 5 , participatory varietal evaluation and plant breeding have also helped to identify superior germplasm of barley, wheat and legumes (chickpea, faba beans, lentil) for the highly topographically variable Eritrean highlands in the Nile basin. Superior lines of cowpea, sorghum and cassava with increased drought tolerance have also been developed by researchers in project 6 6 , ready for on-farm testing commencing in 2007 in northern Ghana (Volta basin). Project 16 7 investigators have developed three aerobic rice varieties capable of producing 4 -6 t/ha of grain while using 30 -50% less water than traditional lowland rice; these have been released in the Yellow River basin, while development of varieties for the Indo-Gangetic and Mekong basins is at earlier stages.A range of soil management and mulching practices for increasing in-field capture and use of rainfall and reducing erosion are under investigation in the dry to wet rainfed areas of several basins. Results vary depending on climate and other site specific factors, hence the importance of the development, validation and application of models to identify extrapolation domains. This work is underway and minimum data sets for the models have been compiled for several applications. A different approach is used by project 6 researchers in northern Ghana. Numerous on farm trials have shown that sorghum transplanting gives an average yield and rainfall water productivity increase of 50% through advancing maturity time and avoiding terminal drought stress. In the rainfed area of the Karkheh basin, supplementary irrigation has given substantial yield increases of both wheat and barley (project 8 8 ). In the coastal salt affected areas of Bangladesh, research is showing that it is possible to take advantage of the pre-monsoon rains. At the other end of the season, during the long, hot dry season when the river water becomes too saline for irrigation, research is showing the opportunity for growing a post wet season rice crop by a combination of earlier planting and sourcing freshwater from the groundwater or river water stored within the polders before it becomes too saline. CPWF project 16 has shown that aerobic rice can be grown with only 2 -3 supplementary irrigations in the target areas of the Yellow River and the Philippines (wet season) and initial aerobic rice production guidelines have been drafted for these regions.Surveys and pilot trials have been undertaken or are in progress to identify and evaluate opportunities for increasing farmer access to micro-credit for inputs, availability of quality seed of improved varieties, and availability of seed, fertilizer and other inputs in small, affordable packages. An effective network has been established for the exchange and knowledge of the performance of genetic material in salt-affected environments within the Consortium for Unfavourable Rice Environments (CURE). Results from the work on aerobic rice have begun to inform the research priority setting process and training activities in several countries.Using both technological and institutional interventions, this theme aims to develop water management strategies that support more equitable and sustainable livelihoods within catchments.A solid understanding of catchment hydrology, especially land/water interactions, is imperative if any technical or institutional intervention is to be designed and implemented in a way that successfully addresses livelihood issues. Theme 2 projects are contributing to the design of appropriate technologies by generating information on the role of water in the livelihoods of the poor. In the Limpopo basin, CPWF project 17 9 seeks ways to increase water availability for the poor. Project researchers found that use of drip kits can reduce the need for irrigation water by up to 50%. However, poor farmers with no water resources of their own cannot benefit from the drip kits unless access to water is improved. Based on this finding, a protocol for sustainable drip kit distribution, requiring a detailed analysis of the existing water resources to assess availability and potential conflicts prior to distribution of drip kits, has been developed and adopted by a number of NGOs in Zimbabwe.The introduction of water management systems designed to support multiple uses (MUS) is another way Theme 2 researchers seek to benefit the poor. Project 28 10 has, through research on MUS systems in 10 countries, created a generic framework for designing, implementing and up-scaling MUS systems that has been adopted for use in five basins: Andean system, Indus-Ganges, Limpopo, Mekong, and Nile. Successful advocacy work on the part of project researchers and participants has led to wide-spread commitment to MUS by many water professionals and development practitioners. For instance, MUS was accepted as a stand-alone topic session at the World Water Forum in Mexico, and received full endorsement by the top management of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in South Africa.Once technologies exist, the next challenge is to ensure their adoption. In some cases, such as soil and water conservation practices, adoption requires investment in the short run that only pays off over time. In addition, not all of the benefits from adoption accrue to the farmers; in some cases, downstream people may also benefit although these benefits may not be taken into consideration by decision makers. Effective dissemination strategies need to take into consideration all of the benefits and constraints associated with a technology to ensure that they are attractive at both the individual and aggregate scale. Project 22 11 has developed a bio-economic simulation model that estimates the on and off farm impacts of the adoption of farming practices. The model, implemented in the Andes with pilot-scale success, has been used to determine financial compensation to farmers for reducing water use or improving water quality by reducing siltation and contamination. The approach is currently being validated in the Limpopo and Nile basins.While it is important to maintain a focus on individual incentives for technology adoption, some technologies such as water management systems (potable, water harvesting, irrigation, spring protection) require collective investment. In other cases, individual level technologies such as soil and water conservation practices will only have catchment scale impacts if they are widely adopted. These cases require an understanding of both individual and collective incentives for technology adoptions. Project 20 12 is testing social learning interventions designed to build this collective capacity in the Andean system and Nile basins. Using methods drawn from economic 'game theory', project researchers simulate realistic situations in which an individual's decisions affect not only his/her payoffs, but those of other players as well.The games, when used in a watershed context, have given insight into how people cooperate in water management and in assessing the size of losses from failure to cooperate. Changing the rules of the game or composition of the player groups reveals important information about how best to foster trust between upstream and downstream water users.The use of gaming approaches is taken one step further in the Mekong basin. Project 25 13 uses companion modeling, where agent-based models are combined with participatory role-playing games to elicit stakeholders' knowledge and perceptions of water dynamics, examine scenarios of resources sharing and stimulate dialogue in order to help resolve water-related conflicts. A companion modeling exercise in one watershed in northern Thailand led stakeholders to understand the huge difference in benefits and benefit distribution associated with different water management options.When an opportunity arose to invest in public funds in irrigation infrastructure, community members, also companion modeling participants, agreed to propose an option where the modeled outcome was highly attractive to all stakeholders.The work on fostering collective action around a particular technology or natural resource management (NRM) problem is often the basis for interventions designed to improve water and other NRM institutions more broadly. For example, a better understanding of the bottlenecks to achieving desired outcomes such a technology adoption or better collective management can lead to identification of appropriate institutional and biophysical entry points for interventions. The action research approaches of projects 28, 22 and 17, among others, involve analyzing problems scientifically and then looking at how those problems can be addressed within the existing social and political environment. The lessons from these experiences can lead to better decisions in specific instances as well as to changes in existing policies and institutions. In some cases, achieving these changes requires that stakeholders improve their capacity to engage with formal institutions such as government officials or environmental authorities. For example, project 22 studies the relationship between land use and hydrology in the Andes. Using the concept of Hydrological Response Units (HRU), defined as the minimum hierarchical level required to integrate hydrological dynamics and performance of production systems, researchers have been able to identify the location and magnitude of negative externalities and who is causing them. When the HRU concept is applied to a model for ex-ante evaluation of alternative land use, users can quantify and value the economic, social, and environmental impacts of land use changes at the watershed scale. This approach has resulted in a greater appreciation of the potential for conservation agriculture and agroforestry systems to reduce negative externalities.Theme 3 studies the contribution of fisheries and aquatic ecosystems to livelihoods, the value of the ecosystem services they provide, and the ways in which these values are considered in water-use decision making processes.Theme 3 aims to develop capacity in NARES to manage aquatic ecosystems in a sustainable and equitable manner. In 2006, the objective was met in part through improved understanding of the institutional context of the project sites and through strengthened capacity of NARES partners to conduct research activities and institutional analysis. Partnerships have been established with local organizations to facilitate work on community management and organization. Project 35 14 conducts research on the effectiveness in three different basins of an adaptive learning approach as an integral part of the management process. Project partners are encouraged to work with stakeholders to evaluate their interventions and identify strategies for improving previous outcomes. As a result, project beneficiaries in Bangladesh have an increased awareness of the role they can play in the management of the floodplain, thereby increasing their capacity to obtain a greater proportion of floodplain benefits through engagement with other stakeholders and government agencies.Progress made by Project 10 15 in the area of trade-off analysis led to development and testing of a model of the consequences of different water management regimes on aquatic biodiversity. The BayFish trade-off model highlights the need for a clear identification of the socio-political options that drive environmental management. The outputs of another model, the Vietnam River Systems and Plains (VRSAP) model, which describes the consequences of sluice gates management on water quality and water control scenarios are integrated in BayFish. The tool is ready for use in decision support at the district level.In 2006, the theme sought to develop management strategies for optimizing benefits from culture-based fisheries in reservoirs and community-based fish culture in irrigation systems and seasonal floodplains. This objective has largely been achieved in large part due to projects 35 and 10 which have contributed to the development of simple tools that enable rapid estimation of seasonal water requirements, specific to different sorts of aquatic systems, needed to sustain aquatic ecosystems, fish communities and fisheries. Both projects contribute tools for determining water requirements, while project 35 also works on in-river structures and project 10 on irrigation system design and management.Theme 4 contributes to the broader goal of reducing levels of poverty through sustainably increasing productivity of land and water resources, thereby increasing basin level agricultural output and income. Projects operating under this theme focus on increases associated with (a) tapping the potential of under-utilized land and water resources; (b) improving the technical and economic performance of existing agricultural production systems; and (c) enhancing sustainability through reduced pollution and over-use of water and land resources.Data generated by project 5 16 allows for better understanding of yield response to technical change. The data adds to our knowledge of site characterization and of identification of recommendation domains in the Volta basin, specifically, areas where the prototype \"Savannah Eco-farm\" and \"Sahelian Eco-farm\" would perform well. The data will also be used to calibrate and validate the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) model which will be used to generate information on spatial and temporal variability of cereal yield in the Volta basin. In this way, the project moves closer to determining the hydrological, social, environmental and economic impacts of basin wide application of profitable on-farm technologies and management strategies.Project 37 17 carried out detailed studies in Uganda, and Ethiopia to test the utilization of the livestock water productivity framework developed by project researchers. Using this framework, farmers and extension officers have increased their awareness on five complementary strategies: (a) adopting a diversified feed source strategy that includes natural pasture, improved pasture, crop residues, or rainfed/irrigated grain or fodder; (b) managing pastures to improve feed quantity and quality per unit rainfall or irrigation water applied; (c) increasing the efficiency of feed utilization through appropriate storage to reduce wastage; (d) adopting livestock management strategies (livestock type, variety, health status, feeding habits) which increase livestock production per unit of feed and per unit of water; and (e) investing locally in livestock processing and marketing strategies that add value and increase \"shelf-life\". New insights generated by this project have enhanced cooperation between ministries of agriculture, livestock, environment and water in Uganda and raised awareness of the enormous livestock feed that irrigation systems produce as a by-product in Sudan. Project Project 38 18 continued to shed more light on constraints and opportunities of wastewater irrigation. The risk assessment studies have raised awareness of health risks and strategies to minimize health risks. Through frequent interactions of project researchers with urban planning and health department officials, insights from the project are now being integrated into the operational procedures of these departments. Farmers have increased uptake of technical strategies that reduce health risk and enhance outputs and incomes. Wastewater irrigation has also gained national recognition through the introduction of a best waste-water farmer category in Ghana. All these experiences have implications throughout developing countries where wastewater irrigation is increasingly important in urban and peri-urban economic activities.Project 46 19 has generated a knowledge base on a wide range of issues and developed tools for optimizing basin level planning and design and operation of small reservoirs. At basin level the focus is on determining the optimal number, capacity and location of small reservoirs so as to balance the needs of water locally and in downstream locations. The utility of remote sensing based tools developed by the project for mapping location and assessing their storage capacities has been recognized by planning units of departments of water affairs and of river basin organizations. At local level, farmers in Ghana, Burkina Faso, Brazil and Zimbabwe are benefiting from new insights on how to improve agricultural outputs (fish and irrigated agriculture) from the water stored in the reservoirs, how to share the water more effectively, how to reduce water pollution, and how to reduce associated health risk.Case studies produced by project 40 20 have identified collective action problems and technical issues that should be taken into consideration in water governance, as well as main areas and sources of conflicts and technical and governance options for sustainable water management. They have adapted and applied a Multi-Agent Simulation model to gain insights into the complexity of water uses and users. The simulation model and other tools have generated information needed to support good governance processes, for example, to assess the impact of technical change and informal water markets on household income and water use efficiency. In its outreach activities, the project has developed and applied an influence network mapping tool. This tool was applied in understanding influence network maps of the board members of the White Volta Basin Authority in Ghana. It improved the understanding of board members' political arenas, their influence and how they can use their influence and their networks to improve the performance of the Board and catalyze progress towards sustainable water management in the basin.Project 42 21 through its innovative capacity building program continued to expand the knowledge base and networks required to tackle the burgeoning problem of groundwater governance in China, Nepal, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Through a series of case studies, project researchers have documented (a) trajectories of technological change in response to increasing demand for groundwater, falling groundwater tables, rising energy prices and increasing water pollution; and (b) the evolution of the groundwater economy in response to policy and legal reform, privatization, groundwater markets, energy price increase and adoption of water saving technologies. The information generated is being disseminated as web-based training material on groundwater governance, as journal articles, technical and policy briefs and as mass media material (TV broadcast, videos and newspaper articles). The largest impact of this project is likely to come from the multi-disciplinary (natural and social scientists and the media) and regional and national approaches that the project is promoting.Project 36 22 carried out case studies to investigate dam planning and operational issues and how to address them. The main insights are on how benefits derived from dam reservoirs can be enhanced through better planning and operation of dams and on how benefits can be shared. The project findings were disseminated during an International Workshop organized by the project and attended by dam planning and operation specialist from USA, Germany, Netherlands, and eight Sub-Saharan African countries. The workshop papers were submitted to the International River Basin Management journal. Some of the major findings will be incorporated in the guidelines being developed by Dam Development Project of UNEP. These dissemination pathways will facilitate enhanced use of the information in the identification of opportunities for enhancing investment in more sustainable water storage.The goal of Theme 5 is to support policymaking both within and outside the water sector, to enhance food security and human health, to promote the production of more food with less water, to help alleviate poverty, and to protect ecosystems. Researchers investigate the links between policies normally seen as lying outside the water sector, such as those on trade and macroeconomic issues, and policies specific to the sector, such as those on water rights, prices, and investment. They also evaluate policy-related strategies for adapting to change, mitigating its negative effects, and enhancing pro-poor agricultural growth.In 2006, research progress was made in all four key research areas of Theme 5 along the impact pathway graphically depicted in the objective tree of the Medium Term Plan:The Role of Globalization, Trade, Macroeconomic, and Sectoral Policies in achieving water and food security Project 50 23 contributed to advances in this research area through organizing multi-disciplinary and organizational research teams for interaction and debate in the areas of management of upland watershed development; flood risks; institutional dimensions of global environmental change; and informed and fair water and trade futures. Issues crosscutting these comparative studies aim to draw attention to critical principles and practices of social justice, dialogues, policies and knowledge that underpin the democratization of water governance in the Mekong basin countries.This key research area is studied comprehensively through a project located in India: Project 48 24 . In 2006, the project completed its first phase of assessing the social and economic costs and benefits of the NRLP, which has been designed to ease water shortages in western and southern India while mitigating the impacts of recurrent floods in the eastern parts of the Ganges basin. Project researchers published several working papers and reports on such diverse topics as: the future of irrigation; agriculture and the WTO; environmental flow requirements of rivers; demographic projections; the future of food grain production; urban population growth; water productivity and water savings; consumption patterns and changes in the structure of food demand; groundwater management; labour migration; and water harvesting and rainwater management. These papers together contributed to an assessment of a baseline scenario for Indian water and food futures out to 2050, which provides the basis for assessing the Indian NRLP, and is beginning to enter the larger debate on the NRLP nationally. There are many lessons internationally for large-scale water transfer schemes in other countries and basins.Project 50 organized a \"Mekong Region Waters Dialogue\" in mid 2006, which is an example of a \"multi-stakeholder platform\". As a result of the Mekong Region Waters Dialogue in Vientiane, there has been greater recognition by Mekong country states and multilaterals that they must improve their level of engagement with other sectors in Mekong societies. Project 47's25 entire program is dedicated towards investigating and sharing mechanisms that allow the poor a voice in the sharing of transboundary water resources. Participants at the African Water Laws Workshop (2005), organized by project 47, called for research and capacity building to record and understand community-based water arrangements and the interface with other legal frameworks, including the gender dynamics of how water is used for multiple purposes.Adapting to Changes in the Global Water Cycle.In 2006, Project 5326 has developed conceptual frameworks and is finalizing the development of several modeling tools at different scales of analysis to support governments in South Africa and Ethiopia with policy analysis tools useful for adaptation to climate change. These tools are likely to have widespread applicability.The first four Basin Focal Projects (BFPs), commissioned in late 2005 (Mekong, Volta, Sao Francisco and Karkheh 27 ), are well established and producing detailed analysis on poverty, hydrologic conditions and water productivity within basins. While teams have varied the methods of analysis to accommodate variations in availability of data and expertise, there is considerable overlap enabling comparative analysis to be undertaken of certain key issues across basins.There exist some institutional and political difficulties in the Karkheh and negotiations are under way to determine whether this BFP team can continue to work in the entire basin, or just the upper Karkheh.Unfortunately, the competitive call for six new BFPs was cancelled in October 2006 (see information in section 5.4.1). As a consequence, the intended six new project teams could not participate in the BFP workshop held immediately before the CPWF International Forum on Water and Food in November 2006 as had been planned. However, during that meeting, existing BFPs took further the sharing of ideas, including the development of cross-basin research interests.The BFPs have made advances in the areas of poverty analysis; assessment of water availability; water productivity; institutional analysis; intervention analysis and knowledge management. These areas correspond to six work-packages, developed during the inception of BFPs, as a useful framework from which to approach the research. Teams for the second set of BFPs are being identified and assessed against these same work-packages and will therefore benefit from the development phase of the first round of projects.Poverty analysis: All basins have assembled the best available data on poverty and analysis is well advanced, though efforts to define the link between water and poverty are at an early stage Water productivity: The basic concept of water productivity is defined as the benefit derived from a given volume of water consumed 30 . BFP teams from the Karkheh, Mekong and Volta have developed water productivity maps for their basins, while the Sao Francisco team extended this to include a more complex multi-crop value index map 31 .Institutional analysis: Few teams have yet progressed far with institutional analysis beyond establishing contacts with immediate stakeholder groups necessary to undertake analysis. Once BFPs have established how best to respond to the needs of stakeholders, a task for the BFP coordination project in 2007 is to identify users of the project outcomes to determine how BFP outputs can be developed into products of most use to beneficiaries.Intervention analysis: Teams in the Sao Francisco and Karkheh are leading the way on analysis of livelihood systems.In the Karkheh, this is through detailed field surveys coupled to biophysical analysis. In the Sao Francisco, this is through Land Use Systems (LUS) analysis, and other econometric models that are able to predict farmer behaviour under dynamic operating environments. LUS is being adopted by other basin teams.Knowledge management: Knowledge management is an increasingly important role for the BFP coordination project. In addition to a number of cross team workshops, wiki pages and web page, there are plans to make an Integrated Database Information System (IDIS) the main communication tool as it evolves from a data warehouse to platform for information exchange.The BFP Impact Assessment project is a sub component of the BFP coordination project. It has a cross basin perspective and complements the individual BFPs by providing information on the impact potential of the current CPWF portfolio of projects. A methodology called Participatory Impact Pathways Analysis (PIPA) was developed in 2006 and used to facilitate the construction of impact pathways for projects in the Volta, Mekong, Karkheh, IGB and Andes basins. By linking impact pathways work with network modeling, researchers focus on who they need to include in their project in order to undertake research, ensure adoption, and achieve impact. Extrapolation domain and scenario analysis was carried out for selected projects to explore the potential for scaling up and out of high potential research products. A component of PIPA -the use of problem and objective trees to clarify and communicate the logic of a project -was adopted by the CPWF Secretariat in the CPWF Medium Term Plan 2007 -2009. The Science Council said the following:\"The CPWF has introduced the use of \"objective trees\" at the MTP project and program level, a useful and innovative complement to the MTP logframe. In addition to providing a useful overview, the process of preparing these flow charts has clearly helped the CPWF provide the necessary focus, clarity and cohesion that now exists in the research plans at all levels.\"World Fish, CIMMYT and ICRISAT have used elements of PIPA in planning processes, including formulation of their MTPs for 2008 -2010.A follow-up of the outcomes of the first Impact Pathways Workshop held in the Volta Basin yielded positive feedback. Inspired by the knowledge gained at the workshop, CPWF project 40 developed a methodology for \"Influence Network Mapping,\" 32 while the workshop helped a project 38 identify the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) and Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) as key stakeholders; researchers subsequently lobbied both organizations to change a crucial by-law. Project 42 attributed their success in organizing a workshop on Capacity Building Needs Consultation involving primary stakeholders to the clarification and crystallization of project outputs as derived from constructing project problem and objective trees taught to them in the workshop. On the whole, the workshop motivated projects working in the basin to meet to identify synergies and share impact pathways methodology with colleagues who had not attended the workshop.In response to a request by the CSC at their 2006 meeting to provide a rigorous and more quantitative analysis of investment in and by the CPWF, a study has been commissioned that builds on the data collected by the impact assessment project. The project will become active in 2007 and intends to carry out cost-benefit analysis to quantify some of the high potential impacts that the CPWF is likely to achieve and to provide hard evidence that the respective progress along the impact pathways has begun.In 2006, synthesis came to the fore of CPWF research activities. Nine basin profiles, the CPWF Baseline Report, and Synthesis 2005 report were released to the public, and an on-line platform for synthesis was established. Rounding out 2006 synthesis activities, the CPWF International Forum on Water and Food was a great success. These products are explained below and are accessible through the CPWF website.Nine Basin Profiles draw together the information available in each of the benchmark basins at the start of the CPWF research period. They provide descriptions of the biophysical, socioeconomic, and institutional settings of each basin, as well as discussion of the water, food and environment related challenges and a projected research agenda 33 . The CPWF Baseline Report draws together these individual profiles, links them with the status of research identified in the CPWF thematic areas, describes the situation facing the Program at the commencement of implementation of CPWF research. It identifies emerging issues and draws attention to how CPWF might address these issues 34 .Synthesis 2005 reviews CPWF research activities and achievements according to theme and with an emphasis on the 33 first-call competitive grant projects. Cross-basin and cross-theme implications are highlighted along with opportunities for collaboration or dialogue across projects 35 .A major CPWF event for synthesis, the CPWF International Forum on Water and Food (IFWF), November 2006 held in Vientiane, Laos saw 245 agricultural researchers, development professionals and policy experts gather to discuss and debate wise water management strategies, innovative technologies and effective institutional arrangements at multiple scales. Great effort went into designing and implementing an original and stimulating event. Participants commented on the extraordinary energy palpable during the week and described it as a model for future scientific conferences. An impressive range of scientific outputs, including papers, session outputs and position papers was produced. These are available on the Forum website at http://forum.waterandfood.org.A web-based platform for synthesis attempts to capture results and ideas from CPWF projects and related water and food research on an ongoing basis, through a few direct, impact related questions posed by each theme every three months. Theme leaders have engaged in a rigorous process of establishing a framework by which to develop monthly questions so that input received is of the highest value to the overall synthesis process. These questions have a direct relationship to the objective trees in the CPWF Medium Term Plan, projects 1 -5. Please refer to http://synthesis.waterandfood.org for more details. The questions also form part of the monitoring and evaluation process, as selected projects will be required to respond to questions that relate directly to the research undertaken in their projects.The small grants projects have thus far succeeded in aiding the development of locally-tailored technical and managerial practices that increase food security, often while reversing environmental degradation. The small grants for impact initiative has revealed important information about the processes that most effectively lead to the adoption of beneficial technological and managerial solutions, and about the opportunities for scaling-up the impact of interventions.The major lessons of the projects to date deal largely with the way that researchers and development experts can encourage widespread uptake of new technologies and practices. An example of a small research grant for impact is described in the box below.Thanks to the efforts of a full-time capacity building officer, CPWF completed in 2006 just over a year of work on three interrelated tasks:• describing and evaluating the capacity building ongoing in the first call research projects;• identifying needs outside of the first call projects;• developing partnerships and plans to extend the scope of capacity building for water and food research. Data and information management continues to be a major challenge for researchers and practitioners. To address this challenge, CPWF, in partnership with IWMI, invested in a data and information sharing initiative -the Integrated Data and Information System (IDIS) project. IDIS is an on-line data and information sharing platform that improves access to data and information on water, agriculture and environment issues.Upon identifying constraints on the adoption of water saving and moisture innovationsnamely, not enough land or labor (including insecure land tenure) and the farmer's feelings of not having enough education, expertise, or experience to properly implement theminterventions in the form of exchange visits and the use of innovator farmers as local leaders as educational tools as well as training in specific technologies and management practices addressed community lack of expertise and helped to overcome a lack of 'risk willingness'. Project leaders involved villagers in gathering information about commonly used innovations (such as storage ponds or tanks, wells, wetlands, tree planting, basins/borders, terraces), in analyzing those innovations, and scaling up by disseminating the information to other farmers who could use it. These lessons have wide applicability, especially in reminding researchers of the relationship between technology and capacity of farmers to implement it.IDIS is serving the water and food research community by contributing to reducing the time researchers spend in accessing and managing data. The IDIS team compiled available temporal and spatial data for the CPWF benchmark basins as inputs for the time series and spatial analysis of Basin Focal Projects. The data was distributed in the form of IDIS basin DVDs. The IDIS team also supported eight other CPWF projects to adopt good database management practices. This also served as a basis for developing protocols for transferring data from project databases into IDIS.The system comprises of a set of databases, data quality control and loading procedures and utilities, metadata, and supporting hardware and became fully operational in July 2006. A CIAT team contributed to the enhancement of the data access sub-system; and hardware and software measures have been put in place to guard against hardware failure, computer network (cyber) attacks and illegal access or download of data that is not in public domain category.To secure intellectual property rights (IPR) on the data from on-going research projects, the data are stored with restricted access (only accessible to the project research team members for a duration of one to two years). Consequently, both public domain and restricted access data sets are stored in the databases. Data sets (104 Gigabytes) on climate, water, soil, land use, hydrology, agriculture, biodiversity and socio-economic parameters are now available. Two computer main severs (one in Colombo and the other in Pretoria) have been installed and facilitated the access of over 10,000 visitors and 3200 data downloads. The IDIS metadata is linked to GEONETWORK thereby linking our servers to a larger community of water, food and environment researchers and practitioners.In future, information generated by researchers will be packaged for use by basin stakeholders in the form of performance indicators (for example water productivity and poverty maps) and best-bet technical and institutional intervention options for addressing water, food and environmental challenges that they face.Communications initiatives in 2006 focused on creating and implementing a communications strategy and operational plan for the CPWF. Projects have centered on marketing the program and its activities and improving information sharing and communications within the CPWF.With an aim to target donors, development practitioners and water and food researchers both within and outside of the CPWF, significant investments were made in developing a coherent package of virtual, print and video materials, available on the website 36 . These include:Living Laboratories, DVD series: Building on the work of two previous CPWF program videos, TVE Asia, in collaboration with partners in eight of the nine CPWF river basins produced a 30 minute documentary about the program, and a series of short films featuring projects in eight basins. The DVD series had its premiere at the International Forum on Water and Food.Print Materials: In 2006, CPWF updated and redesigned our program, theme and basin brochures, added capacity building and IDIS brochures to the portfolio, produced 10 research highlights, two synthesis reports and other program documents. A shared brochure among the four CPs was also completed. These were widely distributed through international water and food related events.Publication series: CPWF recently developed publications guidelines that allow for both a research report and a working paper series. By the end of 2006, several papers were ready to initiate the review process. This is additional to the many papers published by CPWF researchers through other routes.CPWF Website: With further content development in 2006, the website has allowed CPWF to be the major hub of information about the program, with dynamic content and accessible to all visitors, regardless of bandwidth. In 2006, the website received, between 8000 -10 000 unique* visitors each month, navigating, on average, 3 pages into the site. (* an IP address is only registered once).Water and Food Newsletter: Distributed to the CPWF community and available on the web the newsletter continued to offer a platform for highlighting specific research projects and giving insight into the Program's activities. In the last quarter, the decision was made to end production of the print version of the newsletter and update the 'look' of the electronic edition.A number of online tools were developed and refined in 2006 to facilitate discussion and exchange of information among CPWF members located around the globe.Online discussion spaces: These spaces offer the management team, theme leaders and basin coordinators a place to share information on the projects as well as information about their interactions with projects.CPWF was very active in a number of scientific meetings on water and agriculture during 2006 in which major international participation in events such as the 4 The CPWF operates under a Joint Venture Agreement (JVA). Members of the agreement include five CGIAR centers; six NARES and one IRBO located in the river basins in which the CPWF operates; four ARIs, and three NGOs. One NGO, WRI, withdrew from the Consortium in 2006 as their research portfolio no longer included water and agriculture. The Members meet as a Consortium Steering Committee (CSC) comprising one representative of each Member organization. IWMI is the 'Leading Member' and the legal representative of the JVA. The CSC is an autonomous decision making body and does not report formally to any boards of the JVA Members to ratify decisions made by the CSC. The CSC meets once a year in person, and virtually as required for program operations. The 2006 meeting was convened in Cairo, Egypt through the invitation of the National Water Research Center, from 2 -3 May. The main points for discussion and decisions at this meeting were the proposal for a second competitive call, including confirmation of identified priorities; the review and ratification of lead institutions selected from the 'expression of interest' process of BFPs; and plans for the International Forum on Water and Food.The Under the Joint Venture Agreement, the five CGIAR centers are tasked with the substantive management of the project portfolio for which the centers can charge an overhead on contracted research of 4%. This includes administrative and management services, including reporting and project reviews to ensure quality and effectiveness of the research projects under the thematic area lodged within the center. An MOU between the CPWF and the Managing Centers sets out the procedures under which the projects should be managed to ensure equity across the five centers. A meeting was convened in August 2006 of the centre representatives who provide these management services, and the CPWF Secretariat in order to revisit the procedures and identify where efficiencies of operation can be made, and to enable the centre representatives to become more familiar with the rationale behind the procedures.On 18 September 2006 the Director of the CGIAR commissioned an independent external audit of the selection process for BFPs, so as to investigate an anonymous allegation that the selection process was biased. On 16 October we received the report of the external auditor together with a statement that the CGIAR Secretariat fully supported its conclusions and recommendations. The report was analyzed by the CPWF Steering Committee which reached its decision on 20 October to accept the report and its recommendations.The report found no merit in the anonymous allegations and no evidence of any wrong-doing by the CPWF. It also found that the process of BFP selection was logical, broadly consistent with generally accepted principles of procurement, including World Bank guidelines, and that all key decisions were duly approved by the Steering Committee. However, the auditor considered that the CPWF had no ex-ante procurement procedure, nor did it comply with CGIAR Financial Guideline 6 (that refers to procurement of goods and services) and that critical elements of detail, including \"some which are subtle and easily overlooked\", were lacking.In view of these findings, the external auditor recommended cancelling the BFP 2006 competitive call that had reached the stage of contract negotiation. In the case of this second competitive call, the auditor recommended that the competitive process be paused to request the input of a procurement expert to ensure that it closely followed all aspects of procurement practice required in the CGIAR Financial Guidelines.The CPWF was advised to implement additional controls before it proceeded with any further competitive bidding. The controls required include a process for public opening of electronic bids, the inclusion of the draft contract as part of the bidding documents, the inclusion of an explicit complaints process, and the design of a process for secure electronic submissions and communication with reviewers and steering committee. These will strengthen processes (and prevent difficulties such as those experienced in the anonymous allegations) not just for the CPWF, which is a pilot program, but potentially for all Challenge Programs and for the CGIAR as a whole, should there be wider adoption in the system.The CPWF Program Manager worked closely with a World Bank procurement specialist and other advisers within the CGIAR for the remainder of 2006 to prepare documents in which CPWF outlines how its competitive procedures deviate from the CGIAR Financial Guidelines No 6 (FG6). The Program also submitted an explanation of the implications for the second call and Basin Focal Projects. of the CGIAR, we were advised that it would be desirable to adopt a different strategy 37 . For this reason, as well as experience showing that while the procedure is desirable from a partnership perspective, there were issues of unnecessary complexity, the financial management of projects is now conducted by the CPWF Secretariat. This has the added advantage of being able to produce more rigorous financial data for Program management and governance needs.As a result of this procedural change, the CPWF Standard Clauses and Procedures were rewritten. This provided the opportunity to adopt a new audit approach that had been under consideration by the CGIAR Internal Audit Office during 2006. The new procedures allow for an annual threshold of USD 500 000 under which no external audit statement is required, . This will enable future disbursements to be reported as expenditures to provide greater clarity in the financial status of the Program. Provision is also made for contracted institutions that have a different financial year to the CGIAR system to provide interim statements, with the subsequent formal statement provided at the time of the normal audit cycle. This prevents institutions having to invest resources in audits specifically for one Program.","tokenCount":"9099"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26e8d6c378e1dd613f2ffb270d349421","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3fef0e65-056b-4bc8-9720-d8d94ceeeb0a/retrieve","id":"-285158213"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ae23fe28-8866-4668-b9b8-8f567efac4fc","pagecount":"13","content":"Por muchos anos EMBRAPA. lICA, ICRAF, CATIE y CIAT han desarrollado varias investigaciones sobre agricultura en el tropico bajo htlmedo. En Febrero de 1992 entre estas instituciones se firmo un acuerdo para coordinar mejor esta investigacion y desarrollar trabajos conjuntos en el Estado de Para por un lado y en Acre y Rodonia por otro. En mayo de 1992 se propusieron tres areas candidatas para el trabajo en Acre y Rondonia. El criterio principal era que sea area de interes para todas las instituciones. Es decir, como las diferentes instituciones trabajan con diferentes usos de la tierra, desde manejo de bosques naturales hasta cultivos limpios, las areas propuestas tenian que presentar una buena variedad de condiciones biof¡Sicas como agroecologicas. Esto podra ayudar en la formulacion de investigacion relevante y a largo plazo.Desde un comienzo de este proceso se ha querido asociar la investigacion en agricultura con sesormento remoto del uso de la tierra. Es decir, se quiere basar futura investigacion con un analisis de tendencias actuales de uso de la tierra. Por esta razon se selecionaron tres areas que exhiben diversidad de uso de la tierra y condicion legal de la tierra, y que pueden ser facilmente relacionado con pases del satelite LANDSAT. Estas areas las denominarnos abajo como ventanas, y se refieren al area que cubre una imagen o dos imagenes contiguas.En otra reunion de julio se elimino un area potencial, quedando dos:1. \"Machadinho\" (Figura 1), una ventana en el noreste de Rondonia que inciuye partes de lo municipios de Jam, Ouro Preto, Ji Parana, Ariquemes, ademas de la zona de colonizacion que se conoce como Machadinho. La ventana cubre tamblen las areas indígenas de Piripicu e Igarape Lourdes y la reserva bíologica de Jan:!.2. \"Acron• Como esta ventana cubre partes de Acre y Rondonia, pusimos ese nombre para facilitar la referencia (Figura 2). Esta ventana consta de dos imagenes que cubren la mayor parte de las carreteras entre Rio Branco, Porto Velho y Guajara Mirim. incluyendo tamblen partes del estado de Amazonia y los departamentos de Panda y Beni en Bolivia. En Acre cubre parte de los municipios de Rio Branco. Senador Guiomard y Placido de Castro. En Rondonia cubre parte de los municipios de Porto Velho. Vila Nova y Guajara-Mirim. Tambien cubre las areas indígenas de Caxarar¡, Ig. Ribeirao, Ig. Lages, Pacaas Novas y Caripunas, como tambien la reserva astratívista de Porto Dias.El prasente reporte tiene como objetivo la caraterizacion de las diferencias biof¡sicas y agroecologicas, en especial su distríbucion espacial. Se identifican las diferencias principales en terminos de geolO9la, vegetacion, suelos y uso de la tierra. Concluye con un analisis de las implicaciones de esta para el muestreo y levantamiento que se propone ..En este trabajO se digitalizo informacion de dos diferentes fuentes principales, y se relacionaron usando un sistema de inforrnacion ge09rafica (SIG) llamado IDRISI ~. (Eastrnan, 1987). La primera fuente de informacion fue el estudio de RADAMBRASIL (1976de RADAMBRASIL ( y 1978) ) que tiene mapas exploratorios de suelos, geolOg¡8 y fitoecolO9¡a, entre otros, a una escala de 1:1,000,000. Estos tres mapas se digitalizaron para cada area usando Atlas*Draw (fuente) para luego ser pasado a IDRIS!.La segunda fuente de informacion fue imagenes de satelite a falso color provenientes de combinar las bandas 3,4 y 5 de LANDSAT de Agosto de 1991. Estas im.genes estan impresas a una escala de 1 :250,000. Usando las imagenes como base se dibujaron regiones aparentemente hom0geneas de uso de la tierra. La mencionada combinacion de bandas es usada regularmente para distinguir areas de deforestacion y fue posible identificar 6 patrones de uso de la tierra. 1. Bosque aparentemente entero 2. Bosque intervenido, y por su coincidencia con areas conocidas como extrativistas, llamamos \"extrativismo•. 3. Latifundio, es decir unidades relativamente grandes, con uso aparentemente homogeneo. En general estos tlltimos fueron areas deforestastadas en unidades mayores que 100 ha., y generalmente con I¡mites derechos y angulares. 4. Areas que llamamos colonizacion organizada, donde es evidente que el gobierno ha constrUido una alta densidad de caminos de acceso. 5. Areas que llamamos de colonizacion espontanea, donde el patron de deforestacion es aparentemente oportunista y se caracteriza por su falta de simetría. 6. Zonas urbanas.Esto tambien se digitalizaron en ATLAS*DRAW y fueron pasados a IDRISI.~ , Este tIltimo es un paquete que maneja la informacion en matrices grandes donde cada pixel (celda) lleva valores diferentes para cada nivel de informacion, y las sobreposiciones se calculan en base a estas celdas.En general los estados de Acre presentan muy distintos perfiles geologiCOS. --La Folha SC-19 o Aio Branco (AADAMBAASIL, 1976) solo tiene tres importantes unidades y predomina la Formacion Solimoes que son sedimentos Pleio-Pleistocenicos. Por contraste la Folha SC-20 o Porto Velho (AADAMBAASIL, 1978) tiene una gran diversidad de formaciones, sin salir de la era Precambrica, aunque predomina el complejo Xingtl. Estas tendencias estan reflejadas en las dos zonas del estudio. La Tabla 1 indica las proporciones de las diferentes unidades que se ecuentran dentro de las ventanas de las imagenes de satelites ya mencionadas. La Formacion Solimoes ocupa mas de 16000 km\" o el 24% de la ventana de Acron, y 44% de la parte brasilera. Es seguido por el Complejo Xingtl que ocupa 42% del area brasilera de la ventana, aunque soio ocupa el 3% de la folha. Esto es porque todo el Complejo Xingtl en Acre queda dentro del area de estudio. Es comtln asociar estas unidades con la formacion de sueios podzolicos y latosolicos respectivamente, pero esta convencion es peligrosa, ya que muchos de los famosos suelos eutroficos de Rondonia se encuentran en areas mapeadas como el Complejo Xingtl.La ventana que estamos llamando Machadinho esta dominada por el Complejo Xingtl (83%), inciuyendo el area propiamente llamado Machadínho (Tabla 1). Hay dos otras unidades de significancia: el Grupo Benficente (are nitos) ocupando el 6% del area y la Serra de Providencia (granito) con el 10% del area. Sin embargo estos dos tIltimos solo representan el 2% del area deforestado en la ventana.En conclusion, laa !DI unidades que hay, que es imprescindible muestrear, son la Formacao Soli~ y el Complejo Xingtl. Aunque este tIltimo no es muy representativo del estado de Acre, SI es representativo de mucho del area de deforestacion en el escudo brasilero en general. El s¡ntesis abajo indica que hay relevancia para el uso actual y potencial de la tierra.Como demuestra la Tabla 2, hay cinco distinciones importantes en la vegetacion de las areas de estudio usando el sistema de AADAMBAASIL (1976,1978): Floresta densa, floresta aberta, savana, formacoes pioneiras y 8I'eas antroplcas.Estas a su vez estan divididas dependiendo de la unidad geomorfologica al cual pertenecen. Los tlltimos tres solo ocupaban el cinco % del 8I'ea de la ventana de Acron, en el momento de mapeo. Esto ha cambiado, ya que analisis de satelite indica que en 1991 el 8% de la ventana estaba deforestada, y otros 3%, que aparentan ser areas de extratMsmo tambien podrían ser considerados antropicos. Excluyendo a Bolivia, floresta abarta (principalmente submontana, Alto Madeira) cubre el 62%. Roresta densa cubre 26%, principalmente en baixos platees de Amazonia. La relaeion de estas con el uso de la tierra sa vera abajo.La ventana de Machadinho tiene el 81% cubierto con una sola unidad: floresta abarta, submontana, Alto Madeira. Otros 3% tambien tienen floresta aberta, y 13% estan con floresta densa submontana. Sorprendentemente, el mapa que fue publicado en 1978 solo indica 368 km\" de 8I'eas antropicas, o el 1% de la ventana. Como se vera abajo, la imagen Landsat del 1991 indica que aproximadamente 37% de la ventana ha sido deforestado.La Tabla 3 demuestra que las dos ventanas estan dominadas por suelos de tierra firme. Excluyendo a Bolivia, 43% de la ventana de Acron consta de Podzolicos Vermelho Amarelos distroficos (Ultisoles) y 41% de Latossolo Vermelho Amarelos distroficos. Estas proporciones son muy similares a los de geolog/a, y en general parecen haberse trazado I¡mites muy similares. Posiblemente es mas difiCil mapear suelos que geolog¡a con radar, porque existe evidencia que el area de Podzolico Vermelho Amarelo eutrofieos son mas extensas que los 89 knr (O.1%) que RADAMBRASIL sugiere dentro de esta ventana. Por ejemplo, los suelos del 8I'ea de Vila California aparecen como Latosolos aticos, y a simple vista son mucho mas fertiles que eso.Otros 5% de la parte Brasilera son suelos hidromorficos, pero la agricultura de v.zea no parece ser tan predominante comparado con el bajo amazonas. Seria interesante profundizar mas esta relaeion.La ventana de Machadinho presenta mas variabilidad en suelos de lo que muestra en suelos y vegetacion. 35% del 8I'ea son cubiertos por Podzolicos Vermelho Amarelos eutrofieos y otros 10\"A. Terra roxas estructuradas eutroficos y distroficos. Esto constituyen la mayor parte de los suelos buenos por el cual tenia tan-. Rondonia. El 18% se reportan como Podzolicos Vermelhos Amarelos distroficos, en 8I'6as tambien consideradas como de suelos buenos. 34% de la ventana'\" Latossolos Vermelhos Amarelos distrofiCOS, incluyendo el 8I'ea propio de Machadinho. Estas son consideradas como areas de mIlIS dificil produccion agr¡cola. Sin embargo, las calidades de suelos son relativas al uso que se les da, que indica la importancia de uno de los tlltimos pasos del anl!llisis: la relacion del suelo con el uso actual.Como se ha mencionado, imagenes de satelite (Landsat, Agosto-1991) fueron analizadas para distinguir los predominantes patrones de uso de la tierra. La Tabla 4 indica rapresentacion relativa de los diferentes patrones. Hay dos patrones que son faenes de identificar usando imagenes. El primero es el latifundio. Son les areas mayores a 100 ha (4mmX4mm en una escala 1 :250,000) que aparentan tener uso homogeneo, es decir por ejemplo que fueron deforestados en el mismo ano, o que las unidaded de rIW!Ijo son grandes. El segundo uso que es facil de distinguir es la colonizacion organizada o dirigida, especialmente en I!Ireas como Pedro Peixoto en Acre, o el eje central de Rondonia.Las areas deforestadas donde la textura es heterogenea y de forma irregular se llamaron colonizacion espontanea. Existe para la ventana de Acron el fenomeno de parches grandes donde la vegetacion aparentemente permanece como bosque pero tiene un color verde mas claro que el resto del bosque, y aparenta ser mIlIS ralo. Por la relseian que tienen estos parches con areas designadas como reservas de extrativismo, y por sus cercan las a ciertos rlOS, hemos llamado provisionalmente como areas de extrativismo. En la ventana de Acron el 89% de estas I!Ireas se encuentran en Bolivia. Bolivia a su vez parece tener relativamente poca deforestacion y coIonizacion. Estas llamadas areas de extrativismo no se perciben en lo que resta del bosque en la ventana de Msehadinho.Al comparar el uso de la tierra simplifico que entre las dos areas de estudio se pueden resaltar las siguientes conciusiones (Tabla 4). La ventana de Acron es menos deforestada, con 88% aparentemente vegstacian natural, comparada con 62% para Machadinho. La mitad de este I.'lltimo esta legalmente protegido (Figura 2), una mayor proporcion a la de Acron.En Acron hay un relativo balance entre los cuatro usos de la tierra, entre 2 y 4% del area de la ventana. A comparacion, en Machadinho predomina la colonizacion organizada con 32% del I!Irea total, y latifundio con 6% del area.• Como se ha dicho el objetivo de este ejercicio fue de characterizar e idenfificar las diferencias mas importantes de suelos, geolog¡a y vegetacion. Como las condiciones agroecologicas dependen ademas del uso de la tierra, el Apendice 1 consta de los resultados de cruzar esta tres fuentes de informacion con uso de la tierra. Es decir, por medio de IDRISI, fue posible construir tablas de contingencia que indican cuales son las combinaciones mas representativas.La Figura 3 es ílustracion de las combinaciones mas importantes de suelos y uso de la tierra en la ventana de Acron. La comparadon de esta con el Apendice 1 demuestra que la situacion mas comtm es de colonizacion organizada en Podzolicos Vermelhos Amarelos distroficos (CO I Pd) en 1405 km'. Esto es seguido por Latifundio en Latossolos Vermelho Amarello (Lat I LVd) en 999 km'.Hay 697 km' de Colonizadon Organizada en Latossolos, y 504 km• de Latifundio en Podzolicos Vermelho Amarelos.Es muy posible que estos tlltimos son subestimados.La Figura 4 es ilustracion de la sobreposicion de suelos con uso de la tierra en la ventana de Machadinho. Predomina Colonizacion organizada en Podzolicos VA eutroficos (6017 km\"), en Pozolicos VA distroficos (1475 km\"), yen Latossolos (1355 km\"). Hay mas latifundio en POdzolicos VA eutroficos (922 km\") seguidos por Latossolos (515 km\").El Apendica 1 indica que las situaciones mas representativas en Acron son colonizacion organizada y latifundio en la Formacao Solimoes. Le siguen en importancia los dos tipos de colonizacion y latifundio en el complejo Xingtl. En la ventana de Machadinho predomina colonizadon espontanea en el Complejo Xingtl (9523 km\") y latifundio en el mismo (1905 km\"). La tlnica otra unidad de importancia es la de colonizacion en el Grupo Beneficente (687 km2).Para vegetacion el Apendica 1 indica que ninguna situacion predomina en la ventana de Acron, pero el de mayor area es de Latifundio en floresta densa, baixo plat. Amazonia, seguido por colonizacion organizada en la misma. En la ventana de Machadinho predomine por mucho la colonizacion organizada en floresta abarta, Alto Madeira, seguido por colonizacion organizada en floresta aberta, submontana, Sul AmazoniaEn lo m¡nimo sera importante considerar estas diferencias que se han identificado en el momento del ava/tlO rural. Se hen identificado importantes diferencías dentro y entre las ventanas, y seria 8tln mejor que estas esten consideradas antes de salir al campo. Es decir, esta informacion sería de msxima utilidad en el momento de planear el muestreo. \"--~,,-.,\" \"~\"'~\"\"\"'<~'~'~\"\"\"'-\"-\"'~~',--~ ~\"'~\"---_.,~\"\"\",,.~~ \"''' \",' .. ' ,\" \"-\"~\"~\"\"\"\"\"\"''''''~_''~\"'''\"'\"'''',.l > \",,,.\",'_\"'''''''''''''\"-._, FIGURA 1. uso de tierra simplü. Jandsat Agosto/91.  ","tokenCount":"2268"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4798d4a997448eb47bc100a4dde62056","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/869ce29f-fc7b-4106-9c6e-99836239ad66/retrieve","id":"1641455643"},"keywords":["Cassava brown streak disease","inbreeding","cassava partial inbreds","new sources of resistance","inbreeding depression","resistance breeding"],"sieverID":"51934918-5a94-4ad6-bb85-bce8b2ae6bce","pagecount":"12","content":"Eastern and Southern Africa. Breeding for resistance has been hampered by a lack of sources of resistance and the complexity of CBSD. This study was initiated to assess the possibility of exploiting inbreeding, as a strategy for generating new sources of resistance to CBSD. This was based on the premise that inbreeding increases the additive variance upon which selection for desirable phenotypes can be made. Eight cassava progenitors (S 0 ): Namikonga, 182/006661, Kigoma Red, Tz/130, Tz/140, 130040, 0040 and 100142 were selfed for one generation to produce the first inbred generation (S 1 ). The S 1 progenies generated were evaluated for two seasons (seedling and clonal evaluation trial) in a high CBSD pressure area. Promising clones were re-evaluated to confirm their CBSD reaction status. Results obtained showed that within each family, a few S 1 inbreds (1-15) had higher levels of resistance compared to the S 0 progenitors with the highest number observed in Tz/130. It is possible therefore to get transgressive progenies through inbreeding.Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz.) is one of the most important root crops grown widely in tropical countries notably in sub-Saharan Africa, South America and Asia. In recent years, cassava production has been greatly hindered by a myriad of biotic stresses. Of these, cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) is the major disease affecting cassava production in Eastern and Southern Africa (Pennisi, 2010). The disease is caused by two virus species, cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) and Uganda cassava brown streak virus (UCBSV), both are Ipomoviruses of family Potyviridae characterized by an elongate flexuous filament 650 to 690 nm long (Monger et al., 2001;Mbanzibwa et al., 2011). The presence of two distinct species of virus that causes *Corresponding author. E-mail: m.ferguson@cgiar.org. Tel: +254733524685.Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License CBSD and a lack of natural resistance has posed a great challenge to breeding efforts tailored towards increasing cassava productivity in CBSD affected areas. These viruses are distributed in Tanzania (Ndunguru et al., 2015), Kenya (Munga, 2008), Uganda (Alicai et al., 2007), Democratic Republic of Congo (Mulimbi et al., 2012), Rwanda (Tomlinson et al., 2013), Burundi (Bigirimana et al., 2011), Malawi (Mbewe et al., 2015) and Mozambique (Zacarias and Labuschagne, 2010). Undocumented reports of CBSD outbreaks in Zambia have also been made.Breeding for CBSD resistance is the most efficient way to combat the disease. The pioneering breeding program for cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and CBSD was started more than 70 years ago at Amani Research station in Tanzania. The program initially focused on searching for sources of resistance among different cassava genotypes. According to Jennings (1957), limited progress was made which led to the use of cassava wild relatives in the program. Several crosses were made between M. esculenta and wild Manihot species (Manihot glaziovii, Manihot melanobasis, Manihot cathartica, Manihot dichotoma and Manihot saxicola) in order to introgress CMD and CBSD resistance genes into preferred cassava genotypes (Hillocks and Jennings, 2003).Through interspecific hybridization and backcrossing several hybrids with reasonable levels of CBSD resistance, such as Namikonga (also known as Kaleso in Kenya) were developed and incorporated in the farming system. IITA have actively been breeding for CBSD resistance in Tanzania since 2004, incorporating germplasm derived from the Amani program.Diallel studies of the inheritance of CBSD resistance/tolerance conducted in Kenya (Munga, 2008), Uganda (Tumuhimbise et al., 2014) and Tanzania (Kulembeka et al., 2012) have demonstrated the relative importance of additive genetic effects as opposed to nonadditive effects). Zacarias and Labuschagne (2010) showed the importance of non-additive genetic effects in germplasm from Mozambique. Additivity presents the possibility for enhancing levels of resistance through the inbreeding of tolerant genotypes. According to Walsh (2005), inbreeding allows \"concentration\" of desirable genes originally present in the elite clone. By forcing an average of half of the loci to become homozygous, the additive value of a selfed individual or progeny is increased, and through selection, any resultant homozygous deleterious alleles can be purged (Barrett and Charlesworth, 1991). Inbreeding results in progeny at both fitness extremes, that is, extremely high fitness with many homozygous advantageous alleles with few deleterious mutations and extremely low fitness with many homozygous deleterious mutations. Indeed, a recent study on the segregation of selected agronomic traits in cassava inbreds (Kawuki et al., 2011) showed an increase in performance in agronomic traits (harvest index and root dry matter content) in some inbreds compared to their respective non-inbred parents. Here, it was hypothesized that S 1 partial inbreds will not only be better progenitors but will also possess higher levels of resistance to CBSD than their respective non inbred parents. This study was initiated to generate and evaluate cassava partial inbred for resistance and/or tolerance to CBSD in Uganda.Ten cassava progenitors (S0): Namikonga, 182/006661, Kigoma Red, Tz/130, Tz/140, 130040, 0040, Kiroba, Nachinyaya and I00142 from Tanzania were selected after CBSD tolerance had been confirmed using quantitative real-time PCR diagnostics (Kaweesi et al., 2014) and established in isolated plots at National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI), Central Uganda. With the exception of Tz/130 and Tz/140, which were selected in Uganda from open pollinated seeds introduced from Tanzania in 2005, all other progenitors were introduced from Tanzania as stem cuttings in 2009. Each parental line was represented by 20 plants which were established in two-row plots of 10 plants. At flowering, selfing was done by hand according to standard procedures to generate partial inbred lines (S1). Within a cassava field, it is possible to get mature pollen and mature female flowers of the same clone (from different branches or plants) and thus selfing is possible. After selfing, flowers were bagged for at least 2 to 3 days to avoid contamination, labeled appropriately and the number of flowers selfed and the number of selfed fruits per plant were recorded. Any open pollinated flowers were removed to avoid mixtures. After three months, the mature fruits were harvested and numbers of seeds recorded. The harvested S1 seeds were established in a nursery at NaCRRI after a two month period to break dormancy. After two months in the nursery, the S1 seedlings were transplanted in a well-prepared field for CBSD evaluation.Eight S1 families were evaluated. All seedlings belonging to a single family were established in the same block. Spreaders using a CBSDsusceptible variety (TME 204) were planted after every four rows of test genotypes to augment the CBSD pressure. This trial was planted during the first rains (March -June) of 2011. Data for CBSD were collected on individual seedlings at two-month intervals after the third month after planting (MAP). Cassava raised from seed usually produces a few storage roots (1-10) (Tumuhimbise et al., 2014) which also provide an opportunity for CBSD root necrosis evaluation. However, subsequent evaluations were done on cloned genotypes, thus, after nine months, each plant in the seedling evaluation trial (SET) was individually harvested and data were taken for foliage yield, root yield, CBSD root severity and CBSD root incidence. Thereafter, 8 to 12 cuttings were taken from each parent (S0) and self (S1) to generate clones for further evaluation.S1 clones were evaluated in clonal trials during 2012/13 and 2013/14. Clonal evaluation trials (CET) were established at NaCRRI using single rows of six plants per genotype. Both S1 progeny and the non-inbred parent (S0) were established in the CET. The first clonal trial was planted during the first rains (April) of 2012. Each row represented a single clone and the spacing was 1 m within and between the rows. To control variability in the field, clones from a given family were separated into three groups of roughly equal size and each group of a family was randomly allocated to one of the blocks along with respective parental genotypes for comparison. No selection was done; all seedlings were cloned and evaluated. Spreader rows of TME 204 were established between rows to augment CBSD pressure. The genotypes were grown for 12 months under rain fed conditions with no fertilizer or herbicide applied.Above-ground CBSD symptoms (on leaves and stem) were assessed visually on every plant in each plot. Both incidence (proportion of cassava plants in a plot expressing CBSD symptoms) and severity (degree of infection of CBSD on the individual plant) were used to quantify the disease. Five data sets at three, five, seven, nine and eleven months after planting (MAP) were collected. A severity scale of 1 to 5 (Gondwe et al., 2003) was adopted for above ground symptoms where 1-no symptom, 2-mild symptom (1-10%), 3-pronounced foliar chlorotic mottle and mild stem lesion (11-25%), 4-severe chlorotic mottle and stem lesion (26-50%) and 5-very severe symptoms (>50%). Severity scores for root necrosis were also taken on all roots harvested per plot at 12 MAP. Severity scores for root necrosis were based on a 1-5 scale where 1-no necrosis, 2-mild necrotic lesions (1-10%), 3-pronounced necrotic lesions (11-25%), 4-severe necrotic lesions (26-50%) and 5-very severe necrotic lesion (>50%).Clones that maintained a root severity of 1 or 2 were selected and re-evaluated at NaCRRI during the CET-2 established in 2013/2014 season to further confirm their resistance/tolerance levels. Thus, the S1 inbreds with scores of 1 or 2 were evaluated for three seasons.Root severity scores were converted into disease severity mean (DSM) using the following formula: Disease incidence (DI) of CBSD in harvested roots was quantified as a ratio of the number of roots showing roots symptoms to the total number of roots harvested per plant per genotype. Disease index of every clone was derived as a product of DI and DSM.Data on disease index was subjected to one-way analysis of variance using Genstat (ver. 14) at a significance level of 5% to compare families. The field reaction of each generated partial inbred to CBSD was compared to that of the respective progenitor (S0) by subjecting disease index data for the family (S0 progenitor and its S1 inbreds) to the analysis of variance using Genstat (ver. 14) (Payne et al., 2011). To determine the effect of inbreeding, the disease index of each partial inbred was compared to the disease index of their respective parent to determine the total number of positively transgressive progenies per family. Each S1 partial inbred that had a lower disease index compared to its respective progenitor was considered a positively transgressive progeny. The percentage of positively transgressive progenies per family was compared to determine the best progenitors.To measure the heritability of resistance or tolerance to CBSD, a parent-offspring regression was made using mean values of disease index of parents and offspring based on root necrosis data collected in one environment, NaCRRI. The offspring were regressed on that of their parent using standard linear regression model y1 = b0+b1x1 +e, where y1 is the mean of offspring of the i th family, b0 is the intercept, b1 is the regression coefficient and x1 is the parent of the i th family and e is the random error. The expression h 2 =2b1 was used since partial inbred families are regressed on a single parent. Parent-offspring regression analysis was performed using Genstat (ver. 14).Ten cassava genotypes (S 0 ) were evaluated and selfed to produce partial inbreds (S 1 ). Of the ten S O progenitors, only eight were able to produce seeds in variable proportions while two genotypes (Kiroba and Nachinyaya) did not produce seed due to male sterility. Due to high heterozygosity of cassava as a crop, it had been hypothesized that a low rate of germination would be obtained due to inbreeding depression. Results show variable germination rates among the families, ranging from 47.8 to 73.2%. Under ideal conditions, the germination rate of non-inbred cassava population is expected to be 90 to 100%. Therefore, these results show moderate effects of inbreeding on germination.A general reduction was observed in the survival rate in all the families between the SET and CET. Two S progenitors (0040 and 100142) that produced the highest number of seeds had the lowest survival rate at CET of 13.5 and 6.1%, respectively, as compared to TZ/130 and TZ/140 with a survival rate of 66.7 and 41.2% (Table 1). Though, this study intended to explore the benefits of inbreeding in search of resistance to CBSD, effects of inbreeding on fitness traits were noted. A large proportion of seedlings generated was characterized by a loss of vigour, height and reduction in growth, and therefore, did not survive to be advanced to the clonal evaluation trial. The low survival rate could be partly attributed to inbreeding depression and virus challenges (both CMD and CBSD). Inbreeding depression for sprouting, vigor, height, flowering, harvest index and dry matter content was low or absent in some families of the clones that were advanced to the CET (Supplementary Tables 1 and  2).Both foliar and root symptoms were used to determine the response of the generated partial inbreds to CBSD. Variation in susceptibility to CBSD among different clones of different cassava families was striking. It ranged from to 100% foliar incidence with a severity score of 1 to 4.5. All the parents showed foliar symptoms while a variable number of partial inbreds in each family remained symptomless (Table 2). A similar pattern was observed also for root symptom. Different phenotypic classes (partial inbreds with max root necrosis score 1, 2, 3, and 5) for CBSD were observed differentially in the different families. At SET, most of the partial inbreds had a maximum score of 1 for root necrosis while family Kigoma Red and 182/00661 showed even distribution across classes (Figure 1). This distribution changed from the SET and CET-1 with increasing frequency of genotypes with maximum root severity scores 4 and 5 as compared to scores 1 and 2. On the other hand, inbreds from Namikonga exhibited two extremes, that is, 42% had score 1 (resistant), while 42% had score 5 (susceptible).In comparison to S 0 progenitors, there was no significant difference between the mean of all the generated partial inbreds in a given family compared to their respective S 0 progenitors. However, there were partial inbreds that performed better than their respective parent based on both foliar and root symptoms as hypothesized. These were considered positively transgressive progenies. A small proportion (1-15) of partial inbreds generated from all families (except 182/00661) did not show both foliar and root symptoms after SET and CET. The highest percentage of partial inbreds that remained symptomless was obtained in family Namikonga and TZ/130 (Table 3). The TZ/130 and Kigoma Red families contributed a large percentage of positively transgressive progenies (Table 4). Contrastingly, some families like 182/00661 and TZ/140 did not perform as expected, with a higher number of inbreds with higher disease index than their respective progenitors. These parents produced higher percentages of negatively transgressive progenies (Table 5).When S 1 partial inbreds with root severity, scores of 1 and 2 were re-evaluated in 2013/2014, some with a maximum score of 1 for root necrosis remained symptomless, while some maintained a very low incidence and maximum severity of 2. Of the 34 S 1 partial inbreds that remained symptomless in 2012/2013, nine S 1 inbreds remained symptomless for CBSD root necrosis, while six S 1 inbred maintained a low incidence (1.25 to 7.96%) and a maximum severity of 2 (Table 6). The absence of root symptoms and/or limited symptom expression after three years of exposure to CBSD at Namulonge suggests the presence of elevated tolerance or resistance levels in S 1 progenies compared to the parents which all showed some symptoms. These results show that inbreeding can not only enhance field resistance to CBSD, but can also be used as a strategy to generate new genetic stocks with high resistance level for CBSD resistance breeding.Offspring-parent regression analysis provided a linear model (y=0.216x + 1.752), with a slope of 0.216, thus providing an estimate of heritability across all the families of 0.43.The objective of this study was to develop and screen S 1 partial inbreds derived from some of the most tolerant genotypes to CBSV and UCBSV in Uganda. Most of these parental lines were sourced from Tanzania, where CBSD has been prevalent for over 50 years, and where an interspecific breeding program for CMD and CBSD was conducted from the 1930s. Evaluations were done at the seedling and clonal stages in a CBSD hotspot at Namulonge, relative to their parents.Promising S 1 partial inbred clones with a score of 1 and 2 were further evaluated in a replicated clonal trial for the third year (2013/2014).A varying number of the generated S 1 clones remained symptomless for both UCBSV and CBSV (on roots) for the two seasons evaluated in a \"hotspot\" zone (Tables 3  and 6). Within each family, a few S 1 inbreds (1-15) showed higher levels of resistance than the S 0 progenitors and are therefore considered positively transgressive progenies.These clones are potential sources of resistance to CBSD. Certainly, the absence of root symptoms and/or limited symptom expression after three years of exposure to CBSD at Namulonge suggests the presence of elevated tolerance or resistance levels in S 1 progenies compared to the parents which all showed some symptoms.Inbreeding increases homozygosity, thereby changing the distribution of genetic variation of a trait (in our case, resistance or tolerance to CBSD). This change increases the visibility of genetic variation to selection and also exposes the phenotypic effects of previously hidden recessives (both beneficial and deleterious) (Charlesworth, 1992). According to Kelly (1999a and1999b), the extent of these effects depends on the pattern of dominance, linkage disequilibrium and allele frequency in the parent. Our study showed strong parental genotypic differences in inbreeding effects on CBSD resistance/tolerance which is likely to reflect the number of advantageous recessive CBSD resistance alleles in the heterozygous state in a parent, and dominance. For example, family T Z /130 had a comparatively higher percentage of positively transgressive progenies compared to other families. It is likely this parent possesses more loci influencing CBSD resistance in the heterozygous state. Therefore, selection of S 0 progenitors is important for the success of an inbreeding program. Once outperforming S 0 progenitors are identified based on partial inbred performance, a higher number of partial inbreds from the best performing S 0 progenitors could be generated in addition to further selfing generations. This will increase the chances of generating more positive transgressive progenies with elevated levels of resistance to CBSD.Previous studies conducted on the genetics of CBSD resistance (Munga, 2008;Kulembeka, 2010;Tumuhimbise et al., 2014) indicate that CBSD resistance is largely under the control of additive genetic effects. Additive effects can easily be exploited with inbreeding. From quantitative genetics theory, additive and nonadditive genetic effects in S 1 can be partitioned between and within families in the following proportions; between families (σ 2 A =1, σ 2 D =1/4) and within families (σ 2 A =1/2, σ 2 D =1/2). Consequently, total additive effects will be σ 2 A = 3/2, while total non-additive effects will be σ 2 D =3/4 (Hallauer and Miranda, 1981). This explains to some extent the higher levels of CBSD resistance observed in the few S 1 clones. The positive transgressive segregation observed in some cassava families may also be due to the unmasking of advantageous recessive alleles that are heterozygous in parental lines and the additive action of these unmasked alleles. According to Kawuki et al. (2011), there was an increase in mean performance in amylose content among six cassava S 1 families generated at NaCRRI. That study also observed S 1 individuals with higher dry matter content and harvest index compared to S 0 . Desirable phenotypes have also been previously reported in S 1 cassava (Ceballos et al., 2004(Ceballos et al., , 2007)). Inbreeding, therefore, presents opportunities to improve traits in cassava especially those that are quantitative in nature. Inbreeding has also been used in other crops to improve plant defense system against biotic stresses.One example is a study by Hall-Sanders and Eubanks (2005), in which inbreeding increased the resistance of Ipomea hederacea var intergniuscula to both specialist and opportunistic generalist herbivore among inbreds compared to the outcrossed. The heritability estimate of 0.43 obtained in this study implies that only 43% of the observed phenotypic variance in response to CBSD among inbreds is due to additive genetic effects. This is a modest estimate which implies that the response of generated partial inbreds to CBSD can be predicted by severity or disease index of parental genotypes. Moderate estimates obtained in this study also suggest that substantial genetic gain would be obtained when selecting for resistance in partially inbred cassava families though selection would be more effective in later generations (S 3 or S 4 ).The CBSD phenotypic class frequency distribution (Figure 1) observed in different families in this study showed that there was continuous variability in all families except for Namikonga which had two distinct classes (susceptible and resistant). Segregation implies that some resistance genes are in the heterozygous state; however, in Namikonga, it is likely that some dominance effects are also operational. Breeding will be easier if we know that resistance genes are fixed in the source genotype, however as soon as these are crossed, they would return to the heterozygous state, and would have to be backcrossed, selfed or intercrossed, to recover the homozygous state.Therefore, if molecular markers were available that were associated with the quantitative trait loci (QTL) that confer the resistance, breeders could determine whether associated genes were in the homozygous or heterozygous states which would help in the accuracy of breeding. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping experiments are underway to better track contributing alleles and their homozygous/heterozygous states during breeding.Furthermore, there was variation in the symptom expression within a genotype in the SET and the CET (Figure 1). This variability could be due to virus multiplication and the accumulation over the first season, and carry over, through stakes to the second field season. This study shows the importance of screening cassava genotypes for more than one cycle in a hotspot to properly determine their response to CBSD, if starting with uninfected stakes or seedlings.Low germination percentage could be attributed to inbreeding depression. In addition, low survival rates at the clonal stage could have resulted from a combination of inbreeding depression and cassava virus accumulation notably CMD. With selfing, some recessive deleterious alleles, once masked by dominance effects in the heterozygous form become homozygous and express these effects on the components of fitness.According to Charlesworth and Charlesworth (1987), there are two, not necessarily mutually exclusive, hypotheses that describe the decline in fitness with inbreeding; partial dominance and over-dominance. On the over-dominance hypothesis inbreeding depression results from the loss of advantage from the heterozygote state. This hypothesis assumes superiority of the heterozygous state, relative to the homozygous state. On the partial dominance hypothesis inbreeding decline results from the fixation in the homozygous state of recessive or partially recessive deleterious alleles.It is possible that both of these mechanisms are in operation in cassava, with low germination rates and survival being indicative of the dominance hypothesis. The data generated in this study also indicated a general increase in mean performance for sprouting, vigour, height, flowering, dry matter content and harvest index among some partial inbred families at the CET which cannot be explained by over-dominance. When the surviving clones were evaluated for inbreeding depression (supplementary Tables 1 and 2), it was found that some families did not exhibit inbreeding depression for the evaluated fitness traits while others showed a low inbreeding depression, however it is likely that those individuals showing inbreeding depression did not survive, contributing to low survival rates. The low rate of survival also suggests that inbreeding depression is caused by genes of major effect or dominance (Ritland, 1996).To our knowledge, this is the first study that has explored inbreeding for purposes of getting new resistance and/or higher resistance levels to CBSD. These findings are encouraging and thus justify the use of inbreeding in cassava, a highly heterozygous crop. Flowering which is critical in advancing generations of selfing appears not to be restrained by inbreeding in the clones used. This provides further motivation to explore inbreeding in cassava.This study was initiated with a premise that inbreeding would significantly improve resistance to CBSD among partial inbreds as compared to their respective noninbred progenitors. Results indicate that, within each family, a few S 1 inbreds (1-15) showed higher levels of resistance than the S 0 progenitors. It is, therefore, possible to get higher levels of resistance upon selfing. If field resistance is controlled by several heterozygous loci, it can be envisaged that more cycles of inbreeding for those clones that remained symptomless will lead to the generation of more new sources of resistance and/ or increase in levels of resistance to CBSD once all contributing loci are homozygous for the positive allele.Alternatively, the generated S 1 can be crossed in a different combination (between families) to exploit both additive and non-additive genetic effects of CBSD. Having molecular markers associated with these QTL would aid in the selection process.","tokenCount":"4148"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"14af1f682dc8839ca4d41004776016b9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c3b93657-4e11-45ba-aa64-5a31e62ce116/retrieve","id":"1683939397"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"02d678a7-5f5f-425a-aa6b-c1c3d696ce40","pagecount":"3","content":"Agrobiodiversity and integrated seed systems to improve smallholder livelihoods Crop and tree diversity are essential to agriculture sustainability and food and nutrition security. The diversity of species and varieties that are available for farmers and the ways through which this diversity is made accessible to them depend on seed systems. But what must seed systems be like to enhance agrobiodiversity and smallholders' livelihoods? Our authors take a look at the strengths and weaknesses of existing seed systems and experiences gained from a ten-year project in five countries on three continents.Seed systems (see Box) are at the origin of agriculture. Over millennia, for each crop present in the farm, the farmer had a strategy to select, multiply and use seeds for the next season. Remaining seeds were sold or exchanged for other seeds from neighbouring farms. Thus farmers themselves were breeders, seed multipliers, quality controllers and seed suppliers. As agricultural research and development has become more specialised and agricultural production has evolved towards industrialisation in many parts of the world, what used to be performed by farmers has been taken over by specialised actors -with a profound impact on the shaping of seed systems and on the diversity of crops and varieties that they supply to farmers.At present, several types of seed systems exist: Formal seed systems: small farmers usually underserved On the one extreme, formal seed systems deliver seed of crop varieties that have been bred, registered and released by specialised organisations based on predetermined criteria and procedures created through national policies and laws. The seeds in this system are a result of investments in research and breeding governed by the principles to maintain varietal identity and purity, and to deliver seed of optimal physical, physiological, and sanitary quality. Actors who operate in the formal system produce and supply seed whose quality has been certified by official governmental organisations (or their appointed agents) according to existing laws and regulations, which are often based on internationally agreed standards. In developing countries, public and private investments in agricultural R&D and seed sector development have generally targeted the main staple crops (rice, maize, wheat), with much less investment in minor cereals (e.g. millets, sorghum), tubers, legumes, fruits and vegeta-bles. Commercial vegetable seed production is taking off in a number of developing countries, such as Kenya, India and Thailand, but often relies on exotic varieties of 'cosmopolitan' vegetables rather than native crops or locally bred varieties. In addition, commercial seed companies are reluctant to extend their business to geographical areas with poor market infrastructure, due to the difficulties involved in reaching these areas, and the lack of reliable information about the actual and potential demand for certified seed and other complementary inputs such as fertiliser, pesticides and irrigation systems. In consequence, remote areas, which is where many poor smallholder farmers live, remain underserved by 'formal sector' components of seed systems.On the other extreme, informal systems continue to be managed mostly by farmers and their communities. In these systems, farmers select and multiply seed of both landraces and improved varieties that are adapted to the local conditions. Seed distribution takes place based largely on the application of local indigenous knowledge passed down over millennia, and is regulated by informally established norms. Informal systems prevail in many developing countries around the world, supplying at least 65-80 per cent of seeds in many of them. While high levels of crop and tree diversity have characterised local seed systems in many regions, this diversity is threatened or in the verge of disappearing in many territories because of climate change, decreasing quality of the seed and local communities' isolation as more and more farmers migrate to urban areas. Diversity is also affected by land use changes and conversion to high-input agriculture, which often leads to homogenisation of crops and varieties.The functioning of informal seed systems and the role they play in ensuring seed availability and accessibility have attracted considerable attention in the last decade. A number of scholars have stressed the need to look for complementarities between formal and informal seed systems, the potential of informal seed systems to provide seed wherever the for-Ugandan banana farmers.Photo: A. Vezina/ Bioversity International RURAL 21 02/21 mal sector is absent, or in addition to it, and the possibility to mobilise informal channels to distribute improved crop varieties from the formal system alongside farmers' varieties. Mixed or integrated systems have emerged in a number of countries. They combine formal and informal elements. For example, farmers and farmers' organisations working outside the formal channels cultivate, multiply and distribute both improved varieties developed by the formal sector and their own landraces; governmental and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) provide support for the certification and distribution of farmer-bred varieties and farmer-produced seed, in line with national rules and regulations.So far, integrated seed systems facilitated by governmental organisations and NGOs have overly focused on the commercial and operational aspects of seed production, often overlooking the importance of the genetic quality of planting material. This is because, generally, these systems have relied on the same varieties used in the formal systems. So although they contribute to enhancing distribution of seeds, particularly in areas not served by the commercial seed sector, they do not add much to the diversity of crops and varieties that become available to farmers. Taking four Nepalese sites as illustrative examples, the Table presents the gradient from purely informal to purely formal seed systems, highlighting how some basic characteristics change along this gradient.Against this background, in the last decade, the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), in partnership with the Swiss Agen-cy for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and research and development organisations in Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Nepal, Uganda and Uzbekistan, has led a project aimed at increasing crop diversity in seed systems, with a particular focus on informal and mixed or integrated systems. The following paragraphs summarise the project's main activities and achievements, and include reflections about the challenges that still persist.The project's first step was to understand and characterise the varietal diversity of the target crops in the project sites. For this purpose, scientists, seed enterprises, governmental agencies and seed sellers were involved in a widescale participatory characterisation of varietal diversity together with farmers' communities. The farmers led the process of identifying the characteristics they wanted to focus on, based on their own contexts and preferences, and ranking varieties accordingly. They identified a number of characteristics that breeders often do not focus on, including adaptability/ robustness, cooking requirements, taste and fodder values. In addition to increasing various actors' understanding of the actual and potential value of the varieties, this work allowed the teams to identify and prioritise traditional and farmers' varieties for registration in the national catalogues of commercial varieties, and their subsequent commercialisation in the form of quality certified seed, as we explain below.The project reinforced the technical capacities of farmers in the project, who produce and cultivate seed for themselves, local markets and seed industry, either individually or as part of farmers' associations and cooperatives. Thanks to combinations of training, new facilities, technical equipment and good quality foundation seed, farmers increased their capacities to produce quality seed of a broader range of varieties. The project also supported marketing and promotional activities. Ultimately, seed producer groups and individual farmers were able to sell more seed and at higher price in all five countries. A number of farmers in Uzbekistan, Nepal, Uganda and Bolivia have become custodian farmers. They maintain high levels of crop diversity on their farms, produce high quality seed for sale or distribution within their communities and train other farmers on good agricultural practices and seed production. Specialisation in native varieties, landraces and traditional varieties improved through participatory plant breeding has given a comparative advantage to the seed producer groups and individuals involved in the project. In Nepal, Uganda and Uzbekistan, community-based seed producer associations have managed to establish long-term seed supply arrangements Seed systems comprise the actors and the institutions that govern the development, multiplication, processing, quality control, storage, distribution and marketing of seeds. (Maredia and Howard, 1999).with farmers' cooperatives and medium-size seed enterprises. Along all the steps, the involvement of seed quality control agencies and officers, as well as extension agents, has been crucial to helping farmers become familiar with regulatory aspects and with the individuals who enforce the rules. At the same time, officers and extension agents have become more aware of smallholder farmers' realities, needs and potential, particularly as holders and providers of seed diversity.In Burkina Faso, Nepal and Uganda community seedbanks existed when the projects started to operate. Community seedbanks are local organisations whose core functions are to maintain, safeguard and exchange local and farmer-preferred seeds for local use. The project's efforts focused on improving the seedbanks' capacities to operate both as repositories of local genetic diversity and reliable seed providers for their communities. These objectives were largely met. In Uganda, the success of the existing community seedbanks encouraged the project team to support the opening of three more in different sites of the country. However, economic sustainability continues to be a challenge for community seedbanks. To address this challenge, in Nepal and Uganda, the cooperatives in charge of the seedbanks received assistance to open commercial branches. While these branches are demonstrating to be effective financial mechanisms, questions are being raised with regard to the possible negative effects they may have on the seedbanks' interests and capacities to continue conserving crop genetic diversity, and supplying such diversity to farmers under favourable conditions.Discussions are slowly progressing in the five countries to develop policies and programmes from municipal to national levels to support informal and integrated seed systems. We see advances in this direction in the adoption of the Food and Agriculture Organization's Quality Declared Seed System in Uganda for areas where the presence of a formal seed sector is limited and for crops and varieties that are not usually produced by seed enterprises. Another example is the official commitment by district offices in Nepal to provide technical and financial support to community-based seedbanks and cooperatives as part of those districts' programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity. In Uzbekistan, the project has contributed to raising the profile of crop diversity in the existing policy The project has also contributed to advances in the registration of landraces and farmers' varieties in national catalogues of commercial plant varieties in Bolivia, Nepal and Uzbekistan. The process of applying for registration of these types of varieties has challenged countries' established standards and procedures, and has led to the adoption of flexibilities which, in some cases, have been normalised and integrated in the regular procedures. Thanks to these advances, landraces and farmers' varieties have changed their status from \"informal\" to \"formal\", resulting in small farmers being able to produce and distribute seed of these varieties with certified quality, for which they can request a higher price than that of informal seed. The opportunity to sell certified quality seed has also allowed them to reach markets beyond the local ones. The inclusion of landraces and farmers' varieties in national catalogues contributes to the diversification of crops in the seed market and the recognition of farmers as generators of crop diversity.However, there are still some loose ends. In all three countries, most of the varieties registered so far bear the name of the seed authority that processed the registration, a public research institute or the national agricultural research organisation, and not those of the farmers who have conserved and developed those varieties. These governmental or research organisations, and not the farmers, are thus in charge of maintaining the varieties. This raises fundamental questions in relation to farmers' rights and responsibilities over the genetic resources that farmers generate and maintain.It is also important to note that despite the technical and procedural flexibilities that have been introduced in the mentioned countries, the length of the process for applying and the technical requirements still keep farmers from following the procedures by themselves. In these countries, it is too early to assess whether or not the transaction costs involved in variety registration are worth assuming. This will depend on farmers and other actors' capacities to effectively multiply and sell the seed of the registered varieties, which in turn will be very much influenced by farmers' demand for landraces and farmers' improved germplasm. ","tokenCount":"2050"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0ba6534b989806b96586ed4c0b91b133","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/836fb38d-0f4a-4060-b7aa-2713bbc15d2c/retrieve","id":"-86850140"},"keywords":["s.",". ' .~"],"sieverID":"a22c8238-a31f-4259-90e3-b547f4c0eb4e","pagecount":"22","content":"Uno de los factores limitantes en las grar::.íneas trop:i.c.s.les, soi:n:e .'~ todo en époces de sequía. es su bajo contenido de proteína, 10 éual influye negati,,,Tamente en el conSt1.rno de raateria seca y, por ende, é-:\\ i.a producción 8.nimal (Hinsc'n y ~aJ.ford. 1967; Siebert y K~n!ledYJ 1932; l,ascano !:..~ al, 1982). Existe un gran número de traot\\jos en la literatura en los cuales se demuestra que mediante la sup.l;:;m~entac~ón de nit~6geno no proteico se puedeI\\ disminuir las pird1das de peso en an::í.males, asociadas con forrajes deficientes en pr.oteína Oloh'o::d et al, 197'1; 'faylor .~. al, 1982) u obtCllCt• gananciG.s de peso con suplemente.ción de proteína vegetal (Norman, 1963b. T:ayior ~ !l, 1982). l1esarortunaclamente, la F-uplementad.ó:::. de nitróleno no ¡;n\"oteico o protetnas de origen ~rgetal o aoigal en 6pocas ~ec&s. no siemprE es posible por razones de ialt~ de :i.nrracstn1C:tura eH .:l1.gulIas fireéls ¿el tr6pico. o por no rc~ultar econ5~icR (Pal~dines y L~a]. 1979).Una alternativa a la suplcmentaci6n con fu~n[cs de proter~a durante la ~poca seca, es el uso de ]egumiuos2~ pura~ corno suple~ento •• u -~.3 misma localidad con suplementación de proteína vegetal durante la época seca (Norman, 1963b). Es la opinión de los autores que el cambio frecuente de animales de pasto nativo a banco, tal como se realizó en el estudio reportado. sería impracticable en condiciones comerciales de ganadería extensiva en Australia. Como alternativa sugieren un sistema que incluya una sucesión de bancos a los cuales los animales tendrían acceso libre durante la época seca.Otro experimento de pastoreo de leguminosas como complemento a pasto nativo fue realizado por Raggar et al (1971) en la estación, , experimental Shika en Nigeria, Africa, donde la época seca se prolonga Andropogon como especies co-dominantes. Se establecieron 5 tratamientos de pastoreo, así:1. Sólo leguminosa. 2. Pastoreo de la leguminosa cada 2 días.Pastoreo de la leguminosa cada 4 días.Pastoreo de la leguminosa sólo en la noche.Pastoreo de pasto nativo durante el día, con encierro en la noche y suplementación de 3 niveles (340. 682, 1021 g/A) de sem~lla de algodón .El ensayo se inició en Enero y se llevó a cabo durante 10 semanas, período correspondiente a época seca. Los resultados indicaron que los mejo~es tratamientos en términos de ganancia de'peso -] -1fueron en pastoreo de leguminosas ~~ la noche (137 g A día.) y pastoreo de sólo ] epl!ninCSá (172 .. ,,'.~ \",\".'. ' .~ ..pequeñas ganancias de peso (leguminosa cada 3 días: +34 g A díé-1 ) o pérdidas de peso (leguminosa cada 4 días: ~33 g A-1-1 día ). Para lograr las ganancias de peso obtenidas con los 2 mejores tratamientos con leguminosa se encontró que se requería 820 g A-1 día-1 de suplemento de semilla de algodón, lo cual representaba un alto costo.En la interpretación de los resultados, Raggar et al (1971) indican que no parece existir mayor beneficio de dejar consumir un exceso'de leguminosa a los animales, como obviamente sucedió en el tratamiento de sólo leguminosa. Por otro lado, parece necesario dar acceso a la leguminosa con cierta regularidad, pues de 10 contrario es poco lo que se logra. Por último, recOnocen los autores que para mantener 'leguminosa durante los 5 Ó 6 meses de época seca sería necesario. sembrar en varios sitios de la sabana bancos de leguminosa, los cuales se abrirán a los ani'males en la medida en que la disponib.ilidad en cada banco fuera limitante. Esta recomendación es similar a la expuesta por Norman y Stewart (1967).  Stewart (1967). Durante los primeros tres años. (1979)(1980)(1981) el acceso de los animales a los bancos fue res'tringida en forma variable durante la época de lluvia para asegurar recuperación de la leguminosa.Los resultados del ensayo en términos de ganancia de peso indicaron una fuerte interacción año x carga, estando los efectos confundidos con los diferentes manejos impuestos en el banco. El promedio de los 4 años indicó que invariablemente los animales ganaron peso durante la época seca, siendo las ganancias mayores en la cargabaja (183 g A-día-) que .e~ la carga alta (78 g A A ).Durante las lluvias no hubo diferencias significativas debidas a carga (383 vs 365 g A-1 día-1 ) en cargas baja y alta, respectivamente • . '. Las ganancias anuales por animal fueron mayores en carga baja (118 kg) que en carga alta (101 kg), básicamente debido a las diferencias observadas en época seca.-\\ Sin lugar a dudas, de los tres trabajos revisados resulta claro que existe un beneficio en época seca con el uso de bancos de leguminosa corno complemento a pastos nativos. No es muy claro sin embargo, si es o no factible manejar los bancos con acceso libre de los animales todo el año. Algunas ideas en este sentido se ganaron en el ensayo realizado con bancos de Kudzu en los Llanos. En ..... , ., ,\"~..Las anteriores observaciones sirvieron como base para plantear la hipótesis de que variaciones estacionales en proteína y energía digestible de la gramínea podían afectar considerablemente la utilización de leguminosas en bancos de proteína (Tergas y Lascano, 1982). En otras palabras\", a medida que la calidad de la gramínea se reduce, particularmente en época seca, el consumo de leguminosa aumenta. Bajo condiciones de sabana nativa en los Llanos, es factible manipular la calidad de la gramínea medianLe quemas estratégicas, 10 cual le quitaría presión al banco de leguminosa.Para validar la hipótesis anterior, se realizaron una serie de ! mediciones en sabana nativa manejada con quema y complementada con un promedio 247 y 283 g A díarorn e, s~en o estas gananc~as 4~rga baja (183 g A-1 día-1 ).en carga baja y alta, respectivai mayores a las obtenidas con Kudzu en laLas relativamente buenas ganancias de peso en época seca con bancos de~. capitata estuvieron relacionadas con un 35-40% de tiempo de pastoreo en los bancos (Figura 1) y con niveles altos de leguminosa en la dieta total (30-50%) medido con 12C -13 C (Figura 1). Contrariamente a lo esperado, al inicio de lluvias (Abril-Mayo) se encontró un incremento de tiempo en pastoreo de los bancos de leguminosa y consecuentemente de leguminosa en la ~ieta (Figure 1) aun cuando la calida~ de la dieta en sabana en términos de proteína aumentó en este perfodC' (Figura 3). El aIteconsumo de leguminosa conjuntamente con 1& mejor calidad de la sabana  durante el inicio de lluvias estuvo asociado con aumentos en la tasa de ganancia de peso (Figura 4). Después de los primeros meses de lluvi'a, los animales continuaron pastoreando el banco de leguminosa resultando esto en una reducción drástica de leguminosa en oferta (Figura 2), de leguminosa en la dieta total (Figura 1) y de la tasa de ganancia de peso de los animales (Figura 4).Es evidente que mediante la quema de sabana nativa no fue posible lograr que los animales autoregularán la utilización de S. capitata en banco. Por otro lado, el deterioro de los bancos de S. capítata fue ! mucho mayor a lo observado en el experimento con bancos de Kudzu.Estas diferencias parecen deberse en gran parte a la mayor palatabi1i-T dad y tasa de consumo de S. capitata en relación a Kudzu (Cuadro 1).Se' puede infe~ir de lo anterior, que en la, selección de 1eguml- Otros atributos que deberían reunir las leguminosas para bancos de proteína, fuera de tener adaptación a condiciones edáficas y bióticas prevalentes, son: hábito vigoroso de crecimiento, resistencia a sequía y libre de factores anti-calidad (alcaloides, taninos). Estos factores se discuten brevemente a continuación.Un aspecto importante en la utilización de leguminosas como bancos es el de la habilidad de ~stas de competir con malezas, sobre todo teniendo en cuenta que en la medida que fijen nitrógeno, las;.'l.:. : .... :', '.,:.' \" .. '.'* : • • \" :... el nivel de proteína en la dieta de animales en sabana durante ~poca \\ seca (Enero-Marzo) fue adecuado, debido básicamente a la quema de la [ vegetación en Diciembre del año anterior y a pastoreo selectivoJ Es posible que con la quema, el factor limitante en la sabana duraJte la \" . ~'-\" época seca y aún lluviosa sea la cantidad del forraje de buena 1>-calidad. Se desprende entonces, que podría esperarse una mayor'respuesta en producción animal, con meno,r área de banco por anilIlfll, si , la sabana quemada es suplementada con un banco de gramínea mejO;~da + leguminosa en lugar de una leguminosa pura. Esto se deduce si se tiene en ,cuenta: (I) la mayor producción de biomasa y de energía de una gramínea en relación a una leguminosa; (2) aporte de nitrógeno de la leguminosa a la gram.ínea, 10 cual incide positivament.e en su calidad; y (3) contribución directa de proteína de la leguminosa al animal. sobre todo en ~poca seca. Una ventaja adicional de la 'asociaci6n sobre la leguminosa pufa como suplemento de sabana podría ser ~l de un menor riesgo de sobrepastoreo del banco. ]0 cual reduciría la necesidad de manejo, aspecto fundamenta] en sistemas ext.ensivos. como .. ,.:  . ,',<'. ,Se reconoce que de un solo trabajo experimental es peligroso sacar conclusiones generales. Sin embargo. parecería que con gramíneas mejoradas, capaces de aprovechar el nitrógeno reciclado de las leguminosas, existen mayores ventajas con la asociación íntima de leguminosas en compara.ción con el uso de éstas como banco. Por otro lado, en regiones donde predominan suelos de mediana fertilidad y sistemas intensivos de carne y/o leche el uso de bancos de leguminosas arbustivas (Leucaena leucocephala) podrían causar gran impacto en ganancia de peso o producción de leche como complemento de gramíneas mejoradas, en épocas de lluvia o seca, tal como lo demuestran los resultados experimentales que a continuación se resumen.Existe un gran número de 'experimentos con Leucaena 1eucocepha1a en la literatura. Para desta~ar está el experimento realizado en Fiji por Partridge y Ranacou (1974). Se compararon en este ensayo 3 . . ...O\" e \"'~. \",Oli~ '\"'( ~\"\"\", . ......,.... -:\"'-\"\"\"\"'-' .. \"'t:F\\Cd. ... ) l.Pastoreo en solo Dichanthium ~i~~m. ... , 2.Pastoreo de D. aristatum + 10% (área) de L. leucocephala.Pastoreo de D. aristatum I 20% (área) de L. leucoceEhala.Con una carga de 1. 5 A ha se obtuvieron ganancias de 215, 300   ., aS1 como tam 1en e porcentaJe e grasa e a ec e.-\\ ' 1 'El uso de bancos de leguminosas como alternativa para la suplementación de ganado pastoreando gramíneas nativas en sistemas extensivos de producción ha sido estudiado experimentalmente en varios locales, incluyendo los Llanos Orientales de Colombia. Es claro que existe un efecto benéfico en términos de producción.~nimal cuando los animales tienen acceso a bancos de leguminosa en época seca, sobre todo cuando la sabana nativa se tnaneja sin quema. Para que el uso de.'12 bancos en sistemas extensivos tenga aplicación práctica, parece necesario que el sistema pueda ser manejado con acceso libre de animales, por 10 menos durante la época seca. Esto pareciera factible con algunas leguminosas con características de alta producción y relativamente baja palatabi1idad y/o tasa de consumo. Con leguminosas muy pa1atables se corre el riesgo de que sean sobrepastoreadas, aún manejando el pasto nativo con quema para mantener su calidad. Por otro lado, en base a algunos resultados experimentales se plantea la posibilidad de que el Uso de bancos. de gramíneas mejoradas + ! leguminosas sea un mejor complemento para sabana nativa manejada con ! quema que el de banco's de leguminosas puras. Esto si se tiene en cuenta, que la dietalseleccionada en sabana no parece ser deficiente \\ en proteína y que la I~sociación puede producir mayor cantidad de biomasa y que la legJ~ino~a asociada contribuye tanto a la calidad d~ la gramínea en -~fert; como directamente al animal, es;ecialmente en época seca..~.: . .Una ventája adicional de la asociación sobre la , .'\", leguminosa pura sería' que se requeriría menos manejo para evitar . j ¡ sobrepastoreo del banco.El uso de banco~ de leguminosa como complemento de gramíneas mejoradas ha sido menos estudiado. En base a resultados experimentales obtenidos en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia, parecería que asociación de leguminosas con gramíneas es mejor estrategia que la del uso de bancos, ya que se aprovecha más eficientemente el nitrógeno reciclado de la leguminosa. lo cual es importante para mantener la gramínea productiva a través del tiempo. Sin embargo. trabajos experimentales demuestran que el uso de bancos de l~guminosas. sobre todo arbustivas. como complemento de gramíneas mejoradas tiene gran potencial en sistemas intensivos de producción de carne y/o leche en el trópico. , .. , ',..Al, ,.,.... \" '\". . . \"\"'------Q\"\"\" \" Figura l. Frecuencia de tiempo pastoreando banco y % leguminosas en la dieta total en sabana + bancos dta S. capitata ll1::mejado con dos c8rg;)g y acceso libre todo el año (Carimagua).  Forraje disponible en sabana y bancos de S. capitata manejados con 2 cargas y acceso libre todo el año (Carímagua). Nov.Figura 3. Contenido de proteína cruda en la dieta de animales pastoreando sabana + bancos de S. capitata manejado con 2 cargas y acceso libre todo el aao. (Carimagua).\"... .......'\\ \"'-~~.;T\"\"\"'==:ii~-. . , . . , . , . . , .. '\" --\"._0,'       ","tokenCount":"2163"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7aaf19b508b5526db9c9e2e2ec17e626","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b5071564-950b-461e-9068-774ec18e05f6/content","id":"1507771533"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe65cdac-699e-427d-a090-d1d25fe194b3","pagecount":"7","content":"• Greater yield stability -yield up to 20 to 30% more under moderate drought conditions than other commercial varieties. • High yield potential (no yield loss in optimal years).• Resistance to major diseases (e.g., maize streak virus (MSV), Turcicum leaf blight (TLB) and grey leaf spot GLS), and superior milling or cooking quality. • Very uniform.• Seed must be purchased every season.• Three-way hybrid, released in 2014.• Yield potential: 9-10 t/ha. • Three-way hybrid, released in 2014.• Yield Potential: 9-10 t/ha -1 . • Maturity: early, 120 days.• Tolerance to MSV, GLS and leaf blights. • Drought tolerant.• Texture: dent. • Color: white.The hybrids and open-pollinated varieties listed in this brochure were rated based on collaborative trials conducted annually by National Agricultural Research Programs, non-governmental organizations, private seed companies and CIMMYT across southern and eastern Africa between 2007 and 2015. Results are based on a minimum of two years' data. The information in this publication is based on results available at the time of publication. This does not exclude that the varieties may perform differently if grown at other sites, or under different conditions, or that certain varieties are also produced by other seed producers.  ","tokenCount":"195"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a20d7e93bc7379d04bdff918451ce91d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/72817d11-f58f-4914-bbcb-014daaaf6441/content","id":"-1973736513"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e45a38fc-ec41-45d6-8e52-44166fed3196","pagecount":"10","content":"Wheat (Tritium aestivum L.) productivity is severely hampered by various pathogens and changing climatic conditions. Spot blotch and terminal heat stress are the major constraints of wheat production in the eastern Gangetic plains of India. To identify novel breeding sources and to understand underlying resistance mechanisms, forty-four gamma rays mutagenized wheat genotypes, derived from three different parents were screened under favourable agro-ecological conditions for spot blotch and terminal heat stress. Ten mutants showed reduced spot blotch infection calculated based on Area Under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC), than their respective parents. The mutant TAW41 had the least infection (AUDPC: 354.32), significantly lower than its parent HD2967 (AUDPC: 675.51) and other checks. TAW41 also had a higher Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and chlorophyll content than the parent. Gene expression analysis of TAW41 showed differential accumulation of transcripts involved in hormonal pathways (Salicylic acid, Jasmonic acid, and ethylene) and other defense-associated genes, indicating that TAW41 might have unique resistance mechanism that facilitates this genotype to perform better against the combined stress of spot blotch and terminal heat. Hence, mutant TAW41 has been identified as a novel source of resistance that could be exploited in wheat improvement programmes to enhance tolerance to spot blotch and terminal heat stress.☆ This article is part of a special issue entitled \"VSI: Resilience to climate\".Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a primary staple food crop of about half of India and 1/3rd of the global population [1]. However, its productivity is hampered by climate change and rapidly evolving new races of pathogens [2]. Among the various stresses in major wheat-growing regions of India, especially in the eastern Gangetic plains, spot blotch and terminal heat stress are the major constraints [3]. Spot blotch caused by Bipolaris sorokiniana, a hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen exhibits varied mechanisms such as heterokaryosis, multinucleate, nuclear migration (induces variability in the pathogen), and being asexually reproduced under warm and humid climate [4]. South-East Asia [5], North and Latin America, Africa [6], India [7], China [8], and Brazil [9] are among the major spot blotch affected areas where a significant reduction in wheat production was observed due to spot blotch disease. Average yield loss due to spot blotch was estimated to be in the range of 15-25%, however, higher losses are reported in micro-environments [10].In addition, the proximity to the equator and late sowing of wheat in India exposes the crop to high temperatures, mostly above 30ºC during the grain filling stage, causing terminal heat stress [11]. It is estimated that 13.5 mha. area under wheat cultivation in India alone is affected by terminal heat stress [11]. Heat stress at the flowering stage causes pollen sterility, while during grain filling stage reduces grain filling rate which in turn declines grain weight and seed yield [12]. For every degree increase above 15 • C, susceptible wheat genotypes showed a 3% reduction in seed yield [13]. Additionally, the coincidence of warm and humid climatic conditions with the post-anthesis phase exaggerates spot blotch infection which usually happens in the rice-wheat cropping system of eastern Gangetic plains [14].Therefore it is imperative to develop novel cultivars having better tolerance to both spot blotch and terminal heat stresses for this region [15]. Several quantitative trait loci (QTLs) conferring spot blotch resistance have been identified in wheat such as Sb1, Sb2, Sb3, Sb4, QSb. bhu-2B, QSb.bhu-5B, and QSb.bhu-7D [16], and many QTLs were also reported for tolerance to terminal heat stress [17]. In addition, many resistant and tolerant traits have been identified for spot blotch and terminal heat respectively [7]. However, there are gaps in our understanding of key defense regulation and the physiological basis of tolerance and susceptibility to combined stresses of spot blotch and terminal heat [18].Previous studies on molecular defense response mechanisms against various abiotic and biotic stresses in wheat have shown the importance of different hormonal pathways and their cross-talks [18]. During spot blotch infection in wheat, resistant genotypes exhibited significant upregulation of salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene (ET) signaling genes, however, no significant induction for most of these genes were found in susceptible genotypes [19]. SA and JA play an important role in transcriptional reprogramming in plants as a defense response to counteract biotic and abiotic stresses [20]. Accumulation of SA during spot blotch infection in wheat showed a negative correlation with AUDPC [21]. Production of SA in turn results in the massive synthesis of PR proteins and collective action of SA and PR proteins ensures resistance against a wide range of pathogens [22].Furthermore, Reactive oxygen species (ROS) involves majorly in signal transduction during infection and also in further prevention of infection [23]. However, the role of ROS as a signaling molecule or causing oxidative damage to the cell depends on the maintenance of equilibrium among ROS production and their scavenging [24]. Further, secondary metabolites like, phenolic acids participate in plant defense by acting as antimicrobial and antioxidants compounds [25]. Findings have independently confirmed the role of phenolic acids i.e., syringic acid for its inverse correlation with spot blotch disease progression in wheat, suggesting its role in defense signaling [21]. Evidence for the individual role of the various phyto-hormones and secondary metabolites is well established in model species like Arabidopsis [26] whereas, information on their response under field experiments involving combined spot blotch and terminal heat stresses in wheat is limited.Therefore, lack of clear understanding of defense response regulations against these combined stresses [27] and limited availability of locally adapted resistant genotypes suggests to generate and characterize novel variation for combined stresses. Induced mutations play a critical role in creating new variations and also identifying key regulatory genes [28]. Thus, screening and characterization of diverse genetic sources including mutants for combined stresses of spot blotch and terminal heat would help in identifying new donor lines and their underlying defense mechanisms. Introgression of such novel alleles into elite lines could help in developing region-specific climate-resilient cultivars [29].Thus, the present investigation aims to identify novel sources of resistance and to understand their tolerance mechanisms by studying expression dynamics of major hormonal, antioxidants, and senescencerelated genes in mutant wheat genotypes grown under spot blotch and terminal heat stress conditions in the field. We identified a wheat mutant (TAW41) with tolerance to the spot blotch and terminal heat stresses with differential regulation of hormone signaling and biosynthesis genes in response to these stresses.Forty-four gamma rays induced mutant wheat genotypes abbreviated as TAW (Trombay Aestivum Wheat), derived from three parent varieties namely PBW677, HD2967, and Borlaug100 were obtained from Nuclear Agriculture and Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai. These mutants were grown in the field station of the Institute of Agricultural Sciences of Banaras Hindu University (25.2677 • N, 82.9913 • E) from December to April 2021 in augmented block design with parents and local checks (HUW510, HUW234, and HUW468). Each genotype was planted in a three rows plot (row length: 3 m, spacing: 20 cm × 5 cm) with repeated checks at regular intervals for better comparison. Recommended package of practices was followed to raise the crop [30].The experimental field was inoculated with a mixture of HD3069 (NCBI SRX7473632, NCCS-NCMR accession: MCC1572) and PUSA2 (NCBI SRX7473635, NCCS-NCMR accession: MCC1533) isolates of Bipolaris sorokiniana. For spot blotch infection, wheat plants were inoculated twice at 78th and 85th day, with the spore solution (10 spores ml − 1 ), whereas terminal heat (terminal heat) stress (31-36 ºC) was naturally coincided at post-anthesis stage of the crop. The humidity was maintained for uniform development of the spot blotch disease by flood irrigation. Wheat lines were scored for the spot blotch disease for 21 days with an interval of 7 days starting from initiation of flowering (Zadoks Growth stage-Z 59) to late milk stage (Z-77) [31]. A double-digit scale (00-99) [32] was employed to score the disease where the first digit designates vertical disease progress (D1) and second digit stands for disease severity (D2). The disease severity percentage (DS%) was calculated according to the formula, DS% = (D1/9) x (D2/9) x [33]. The area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) was estimated using DS% based on the following formula [7]:Where Y i = disease level at time t i , (t i+1 -t i ) = days between two disease scores, n = number of readings. For control samples, uppermost fully emerged 62 days old flag leaves from 9 different plants were collected just before the first inoculation and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at − 80 ºC for further analysis. Similarly, for treated (spot blotch+terminal heat) samples, the uppermost fully emerged infected flag leaves were collected during the last disease scoring to study the interaction between spot blotch and terminal heat stress. Parameters like normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), chlorophyll content (Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) values), canopy temperature depression (CTD) were recorded for 24 days post inoculation (dpi) with an interval of 4 days.NDVI was recorded by hand-held crop sensor (Green seeker, Trimble Agriculture) as an average for each row between 11 AM to 2 PM, while leaf chlorophyll content was recorded by SPAD meter at a position 2/3rd of the distance between the leaf base and leaf apex of the uppermost fully expanded flag leaf. Additionally, CTD was recorded by an infrared thermometer on the same day of NDVI & SPAD recording at 2 pm. All other agronomic traits like days to heading, plant height (cm), number of tillers, spike length (cm), days to maturity, and thousand kernel weight were also recorded.Four biological replicates of each condition (control and stress treatment) were processed for RNA extraction. Total RNA was extracted using RNeasy plant mini kit (Qiagen, Germany) with on-column DNase treatment according to user instructions. RNA was quantified in Nano-drop™ spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and integrity was checked on agarose gel. For cDNA synthesis, one microgram of total RNA was reverse transcribed through QuantiTect reverse transcription kit (Qiagen, Germany).Quantitative real time-PCR was performed as described previously [34]. cDNA was diluted 10-15 folds for the expression analysis. KAPA SYBR FAST (Sigma-Aldrich) was used for RT-qPCR reactions. The reaction mixture was consisted of SYBR green (1x), forward and reverse primers (10 µM each), cDNA (20 ng), and nuclease-free water. All reactions were set up in duplicates for each sample. The actin gene [35] was used as an internal reference for normalization. Gene-specific primers for all the genes analyzed were collected from previously published literature (supplementary table 1). The RT-qPCR was performed in Rotor gene Q (Qiagen) with thermal cycle conditions of 95 • C for 3 min, 40 cycles of 95 • C for 5 s, and 61.5 • C for 30 s, and a final melting curve analysis was done as per default parameters. The relative expression data analysis was performed according to 2 − ΔΔCT method [36] where ΔΔCT was calculated by comparing expression with control of parent HD2967.The data were analyzed in IBM SPSS Statistics version 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The treatment means were compared using oneway analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK) and least significant difference (LSD) posthoc test with a 5% significance level (p < 0.05). While, principal component analysis (PCA) and heatmap analysis were performed using a publicly available online tool, ClustVis [37].Mutant genotypes derived from three parents namely PBW677, HD2967, and Borlaug100 were grown under field conditions and analyzed for spot blotch and terminal heat. Spot blotch infection calculated based on AUDPC showed a significant increase in all genotypes after inoculation (Supplementary table 2). Three mutant genotypes derived from PBW677 showed different response compared to PBW677. In them, TAW58 had a significantly higher disease level (AUDPC: 825) and TAW94 showed lower disease (AUDPC: 531). In case of HD2967 derived mutants, nine genotypes had shown different responses where, TAW41 and TAW134 showed significantly lower and higher spot blotch infection respectively. The level of spot blotch infection on mutant TAW41 was 47.5% lower than its parent HD2967 (Fig. 1). However, in Borlaug100 derived mutants, no lines showed significant difference from it, for spot blotch infection (Supplementary table 2).We also used three checks HUW234, HUW468, and HUW510, in our study as these varieties are being popular among the farmers of the Northern Eastern Plain Zone. All these three check varieties showed significantly high disease infection. HUW510 was the most susceptible genotype that showed 137% more spot blotch infection than the mutant TAW41 (Fig. 1 and Supplementary table 2). The NDVI has been a reliable physiological parameter to check the performance of wheat genotypes against spot blotch infection [38] and terminal heat stress [39]. At the end of the experiment (where spot blotch and terminal heat stress were in peak), mutants of PBW677 showed NDVI ranging from 0.233 (TAW99) to 0.423 (TAW73) with ten mutants significantly differing from PBW677 (0.323) (Supplementary table 3). In HD2967 derived mutants, 26 genotypes were significantly different from it for NDVI, with a range of 0.207 (TAW115) to 0.59 (TAW122), while HD2967 had a 0.380 NDVI value. TAW41 also had significantly higher NDVI than HD2967 (34.2%) and HUW510 (155%) (Fig. 2a and Supplementary table 3). In case of the mutants of Borlaug100, only TAW147 (0.303) differed significantly from Borlaug100 (0.217). Further, NDVI values for all mutant genotypes derived from three parents were in the same range as with the mutants of HD2967.In case of SPAD values, at last reading 10 mutant genotypes of PBW677, 27 of HD2967, and 3 of Borlaug100 differed significantly from their respective parents. Overall SPAD values ranged from 11.8 (TAW144) to 51.3 (TAW122) (Supplementary table 4). TAW41 also maintained significantly higher SPAD values with 22.2% and 64.5% more chlorophyll content than HD2967 and HUW510 respectively under the combined effect of spot blotch and terminal heat stress (Fig. 2b and Supplementary table 4). In of CTD, mean values ranged from 0.07 (TAW150) to 7.93 (TAW125), and 11 mutants of PBW677, 21 of HD2967, and none of Borlaug100 differed significantly from their respective parents (Supplementary table 5). TAW41 showed significant difference at the 12th and 16th day after treatment than the parent, whereas no difference was observed at the end of the stress treatment (Fig. 2c). Agronomic traits like days to heading, days to maturity, plant height, spike length, number of tillers, and thousand kernel weight were also recorded for all mutant lines and presented in Supplementary table 6.Since the mutant genotype TAW 41 had the least disease infection (AUDPC: 354) and significantly higher vegetation index (NDVI: 0.51), this line was chosen for further analysis. To avoid the effect of genetic background, we chose another mutant genotype TAW132 that was also derived from HD2967. Although the TAW132 had the same background as TAW41, the mutant showed different response such as higher AUDPC (717) (Fig. 1 and Supplementary table 2) and lower NDVI (0.243) (Fig. 2a) than TAW41. No changes in SPAD and CTD was observed for TAW132 and TAW41 (Fig. 2b & c). Thus, in total four genotypes HD2967, TAW41, TAW132, and HUW510 were further analyzed for expression dynamics of phytohormones and other associated genes involved in spot blotch and heat stress tolerance. Fig. 1. Spot blotch infection in wheat genotypes grown under field conditions. Disease infection was calculated as area under disease progress curve (AUDPC). Data are means ± SE. The different letter above each bar indicates significant differences calculated by one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05 SNK test.The role of SA is proven in the plant defense regulation process [40]. The host plant accumulates SA and activates downstream signaling cascades, as defense response to pathogen attack [41,42]. Pathogenesis-related (PR) genes are the important downstream components of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in response to SA, JA, and ET [43][44][45]. Biosynthesis of SA in plants occurs via isochorismate (IC) and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway [46]. We chose three PR genes (PR1, PR1.1, and PR3), an NPR1 like gene (NPR1-3), and PAL (PAL1, PAL2, and PAL3) genes to check their expression pattern. These genes were analyzed in TAW41, HD2967, TAW132, and HUW 510 under control and treatment samples.Expression analysis revealed that NPR1-3 gene expression pattern didn't show any significant variation between TAW41, TAW132, and HD2967, but it was significantly up-regulated in the control samples of HUW 510 (7.26 folds). Further, no significant variation was observed for PR1, PR1.1, and PR3 genes between TAW41, TAW132 and HD2967. However, PR1 and PR1.1 showed significantly higher expression in the HUW510 treatment sample (32.9 and 11.41 folds respectively) compared to HD2967. Likewise, PR3 gene expression was significantly higher in both control and treatment samples of HUW510. This expression pattern may be due to the higher susceptibility of HUW510 to spot blotch, which would have induced more PR genes in response to pathogen attack (Fig. 3a).The scenario was quite different in phenylpropanoid pathway genes, where PAL1, PAL2, and PAL3 were significantly down-regulated in TAW41 compared to parent HD2967. However, PAL1 and PAL3 expression didn't differ significantly between TAW41, TAW132, and HUW510. But PAL2 expression was observed to be significantly higher in TAW132 and HD2967 compared to TAW41. With respect to expression dynamics of PAL1, PAL2, and PAL3, mutant genotype TAW41 differed significantly from HD2967 (Fig. 3a).Jasmonate biosynthetic pathway initiates when linolenic acid is converted by successive actions of lipoxygenase (LOX), allene oxide synthase (AOS), and allene oxide cyclase (AOC) into the precursor 12oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA), which is further reduced by OPDAreductase 3 (OPR3) for the production of JA [47,48]. MYC2, a master switch transcription factor (TF) acts additively with its close homologs MYC3 and MYC4 and regulates JA responses for diverse stimuli [49]. Furthermore, many genes of the WRKY TF family are responsive to pathogen infection and phytohormones such as SA and JA [50]. Thus, three biosynthesis genes of JA (AOS2, LOX2, and OPR3) and two TFs WRKY33 and MYC2, which regulate JA signaling and response were selected for the expression analysis [51]. Transcription factors MYC2 and WRKY33 were significantly downregulated in TAW41 compared to HD2967. In case of WRKY33, TAW41 showed significantly lower expression compared to TAW132 and HD2967 (Fig. 3b). However, there was no significant difference between TAW41 and TAW132 for MYC2.Further AOS2 expression was significantly downregulated in both samples of TAW41 compared to HD2967 (Fig. 3b), while its expression pattern in TAW132 considerably differed from HD2967 and TAW41. While LOX2 gene showed an unusual expression pattern where its expression was mostly similar in HD2967 and TAW41, but TAW132 and HUW510 showed significantly higher expression, 223 and 152 fold changes in control and treatment samples of HUW510 respectively, and 89 and 68 fold changes in control and treatment samples of TAW132 respectively. As expected OPR3 expression showed similar patterns of AOS2, as OPR3 acts downstream to AOS and ACO in the JA biosynthesis pathway. Overall, all analyzed genes of JA were relatively downregulated in TAW41 as compared to the parent HD2967.Ethylene is known to stimulate various PR proteins or phytoalexins and rigidify cell walls by inducing phenylpropanoid pathway [52,53]. The 1-amminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase (ACC synthase) and ACC oxidase (ACO) are the two major enzymes involved in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway.Thus, two ACS genes (ACS6 and TaACS1), one ACO gene (ACO4), a novel pathogen-induced ethylene-responsive factor (ERF) gene of wheat, TaPIEP1 and ethylene signaling gene TaEIL1 (Ethylene-Insensi-tive3-Like1-EIN3-Like1) were selected to check their expression dynamics in the test genotypes. All biosynthesis pathway genes ACS6, TaACS1 and ACO4 were downregulated in TAW41 compared to HD2967 (Fig. 3c). But there was no significant variation seen for these genes among the genotypes TAW41, TAW132, and HD2967. The expression of ACS6 and ACO4 significantly differed between control and treatment samples of HD2967. There was no significant variation in the expression of TaPIEP1 gene among the genotypes. Though TaEIL1 had lowest expression (0.41 fold) in treatment sample of TAW41 but it didn't differ significantly from TAW41 control and TAW132. However, TaEIL1 expression differed significantly between HD2967 treatment (2.47) and TAW41 treatment sample (0.41).We checked the expression analysis of IPT1, TaIPT2, TaIPT5, and TaCKX1 [cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) which irreversibly degrades cytokinins and regulates its level)]. IPT1 gene was significantly downregulated in TAW41 treatment sample compared to HD2967 treatment, while in control sample, there were no changes (Fig. 3d). But IPT1 expression in TAW132 control differed significantly from HD2967 and TAW41 control. Gene TaIPT2 did not show any significant variation, though its expression appeared to be higher in TAW41 control. But TaIPT5 expression was significantly higher in control of TAW41 (2.6 folds) and it differed significantly from all the samples. For TaCKX1 both TAW132 and TAW41 behaved similarly and both showed significantly higher expression in their control samples compared to respective treatment samples. In overview, IPT1 and TaCKX1 were significantly downregulated in TAW41 treatment compared to HD2967. While there was no significant variation observed in TaIPT2 and TaIPT5 between genotypes, TaIPT5 showed higher expression in TAW41 control (Fig. 3d).The Fe-SOD (Superoxide dismutase) was relatively downregulated in both samples of TAW41 compared to HD2967. But it was upregulated significantly in control sample and downregulated in treatment sample of TAW132 compared to HD2967 control (Fig. 4a). There was no significant variation in the expression of catalase between HD2967, TAW41 and TAW132. However, Catalase was expressed relatively higher in control samples of HD2967, TAW41, TAW132 and HUW510 compared to their respective treatment samples. Expression of APX (Ascorbate peroxidase) differed significantly in TAW41 and TAW132 Fig. 4. Expression pattern of antioxidant enzymes genes (4a) and senescence-associated genes (4b). Data are means ± SE. Different letter above each bar indicates significant difference calculated by one-way ANOVA, p < 0.05 SNK test. compared to HD2967. Its expression in control samples of TAW41 and TAW132 was significantly upregulated compared to control of HD2967. In brief, antioxidant enzymes weren't induced significantly in TAW41 treatment samples.Mutant genotype TAW41 had relatively higher NDVI and lower AUDPC (Figs. 1 and 2). To support this observation, we analyzed the expression of a few senescence-associated genes in all four wheat genotypes. A wheat copper-binding protein (WCBP1) has been involved in leaf rust resistance and leaf senescence inhibition [54]. Similarly, TaSAG4 and a TaSNAC11-4B (wheat NAC transcription factor regulating leaf senescence) have well-defined roles in the senescence process [55,56].WCBP1, in treatment sample of TAW41 showed highest expression compared to other genotypes and it differed significantly from HD2967 and TAW132 (Fig. 4b). The control sample of TAW41 also had a significantly higher expression of WCBP1 compared to HD2967 and TAW132. TaSAG4 was significantly downregulated in the treatment sample of TAW41 compared to its control and treatment of HD2967. But its expression was highest in control of TAW41 compared to all other genotypes including check variety (Fig. 4b). There was no significant variation seen in the expression of TaSNAC11-4B between TAW41, TAW132, HUW510 and control of HD2967. However, HD2967 treatment sample showed significantly higher expression compared to all genotypes.PCA was performed with the observed gene expression differences in all the four wheat genotypes under control and treatment. In control, two principal components captured 84.6% variation and TAW41 was spotted far apart from HD2967 and HUW510 (Fig. 5a). Whereas, in the treatment of spot blotch and terminal heat, PCA components captured 88.1% of the total variation and TAW41 was spotted far apart from HD2967 but in opposite direction (Fig. 5b). This implies that TAW41 behaved genetically different in response to combined spot blotch and terminal heat stress compared to the parent HD2967. A summarized analysis of gene expression differences in all the four genotypes are given in the heat map where TAW41 showed a different pattern compared to HD2967 in both control and treatment (Supplementary figure 1).Spot blotch and terminal heat stresses are the two major constraints for wheat cultivation in the eastern Gangetic plain of India. Heat stress was reported to enhance disease infection, thus reducing the yields significantly. Crop plants were found to respond differently under combined stresses compared to individual stress [57,58]. Moreover, under field conditions, a crop season may witness several stresses in a given time period. Hence, screening diverse genotypes and understanding their defense mechanisms under combined stresses is essential to develop climate-resilient cultivars. Genetic diversity and new variation play a vital role in crop improvement and breeding programmes [59]. Mutations are quick sources of genetic variation and create new alleles. Therefore, in the present study, a set of mutant genotypes developed from agronomically superior cultivars through gamma-ray irradiation were screened against combined spot blotch and terminal heat stresses. The screening clearly showed significant genetic variation among the mutant genotypes for spot blotch and terminal heat stress tolerance. The experiments identified TAW41 as the best performing mutant genotype under combined stresses of spot blotch and terminal heat compared to parental genotypes and other check varieties. TAW41 mutant was also different at the molecular level where genes involved in various hormonal pathways/signaling were differentially expressed than the parent (Supplementary figure 1).It is noteworthy that TAW41 is a longer duration genotype (85 days to heading and 132 days for maturation) than HD2967 (75 days to heading and 120 days to maturation) which raises a possibility that the resistance response of TAW41 against spot blotch and terminal heat might be due to a difference in developmental stage with its parental genotype. However, our results identified other mutant (TAW115) that flowered in 70 days and matured in 112; but it had a similar AUDPC (671) level like that of the parent (675.5). Similarly, another line TAW143 (heading 84 days and maturation 133 days) showed AUDPC value 684 (Supplementary table 2 & 6). The observation clearly implies that at the adult plant stage, this much difference in flowering and maturation time may not contribute to the resistance mechanisms against the combined stress of spot blotch and terminal heat in wheat. Lower thousand kernel weight of TAW41 than HD2967 may be due to its increased investment in tolerance and survival mechanisms under both stress conditions.Hormonal homeostasis in TAW41 which showed the lowest AUDPC and relatively higher NDVI compared to other genotypes was significantly different from its parent HD2967. PR genes such as PR1, PR2, and PR5 are often considered as marker genes for salicylate-induced plant defense response [60]. Further, NPR1 (Non-expressor of pathogenesis-related genes1) plays a pivotal role in SAR [61] and master regulates plant defense signaling and cross-talks of SA and JA/Ethylene responses [62,63]. In this study, PR genes and NPR1.3 genes did not show any significant variation between mutant genotype and parent, but PAL genes were significantly downregulated in TAW41 compared to HD2967. This could be due to cross-talk between abiotic (terminal heat) and biotic (spot blotch) stresses. Previous studies have reported that ABA-mediated water-deficit stress tolerance and SA-based immunity antagonized each other [64] and were also observed to be age-dependent [65]. Additionally, at higher temperatures, NLR (Nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat) nuclear accumulation (an important step in ETI) was found to underwent ABA-dependent suppression [66]. Further, in addition to PR genes, there could be other regulatory mechanisms facilitating defense response in TAW41.Similarly, most of the JA genes except LOX2 were significantly downregulated compared to parent HD2967 suggesting that TAW41 behaves differently from HD2967 under combined stress. Further JA regulators, MYC2 and WRKY33 were observed to be not induced significantly in TAW41 compared to HD2967. However, Anderson et al. showed antagonistic interaction between ABA and JA-ethylene signaling pathways, where endogenous and exogenous ABA suppressed transcript levels of JA-ethylene responsive defense genes [67]. Therefore, elucidating hormonal signaling cross-talk under combined stress remains a challenging task and seems to be important to develop stress-tolerant cultivars. Overall, JA signaling and pathway genes were observed to be less induced in TAW41. An exact reason is not clear; however, it is possible that the TAW41 might have suppressed its defense signaling components to activate tolerance mechanisms against the terminal heat stress which during crop season co-appears with spot blotch.Ethylene pathway and signaling genes were differentially expressed in both TAW41 and TAW132 compared to HD2967. Ethylene regulator TaEIL1 found to be significantly downregulated in TAW41 treatment compared to HD2967 treatment suggests that either ethylene is not induced in TAW41 treatment or it was suppressed by other pathways or cross-talks. ROS homeostasis and scavenging seems to be not well initiated and/or accumulated as mostly they were downregulated in treatment samples suggesting that plant may be investing more in defense and tolerance signaling.Though there was no clear trend in cytokinin pathway genes but its relative downregulation in TAW41 treatment compared to its control and HD2967 treatment could be attributable to relatively low accumulation of senescence-associated genes and significantly higher expression of WCBP1 in treatment sample of TAW41. Cytokinins are well known to delay leaf senescence in many plant species by promoting cell division and growth [68,69]. WCBP1 is proven to be involved in stripe rust resistance and inhibiting leaf senescence [54]. Downregulation of senescence promoting genes TaSAG4, TaSNAC11-4B and upregulation of WCBP1 in treatment samples of TAW41 could be probable possibility of low AUDPC values of TAW41. But further controlled environment studies on interaction with cytokinin, ABA, and senescence-associated genes could provide more clues about defense mechanisms under combined terminal heat and spot blotch stress.Overall, hormonal homeostasis in TAW41 majorly differed from HD2967, and further investigation is needed to understand the expression patterns and cross-talks of cytokinin, WCBP1, and senescenceassociated genes.Based on the expression pattern of PR, JA, and ethylene genes in TAW41 treatment, there could be a possibility of some physical barriers or anatomical features and/or biochemical composition, hindering pathogen penetration or hyphal establishment. For example, trichomes create an unfavorable environment for the fungal spores to germinate and penetrate [70], similarly, lignin in leaves spatially restricts and limits their mobility [71]. Hence further microscopic observations and biochemical analysis of leaf could help in better understanding of the resistance mechanisms of TAW41.The present study identified a novel source of resistance against combined stress to spot blotch and terminal heat stresses. The genotype TAW41 may further be utilized in the wheat breeding program to enhance the tolerance against these stresses. An extensive-expression analysis of hormonal pathway genes in the present study shows their role in tolerance mechanisms against spot blotch and terminal heat. The information will improve our understanding of tolerance mechanisms against both stresses in wheat. TAW41 may be utilized to develop mapping populations to identify regulatory components involved in tolerance mechanisms against the combined effect of spot blotch and terminal heat stresses in wheat.Mutant genotypes derived from three parents showed considerable variation for AUDPC, NDVI, SPAD, CTD and other agronomic traits. Mutant TAW41 derived from HD2967 performed significantly better against combined spot blotch and terminal heat stress. Hormonal homeostasis in TAW41 differed significantly from its parent HD2967. A few genes were found to be significantly altered in TAW41 treatment that have proven roles in disease resistance. However, the exact mechanism by which TAW41 suppresses pathogen infection is not fully understood. A further holistic investigation including genetical, morphological and biochemical analysis could reveal more information. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.","tokenCount":"5125"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4cc75261a8b1cd448f783d459e6d67a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff6e0e2d-53b8-4207-87dc-6f5c97c0a698/retrieve","id":"-1624532135"},"keywords":["food security","food and nutrition systems","hidden hunger","food-based strategies","undernutrition","agriculture"],"sieverID":"2a1fc57c-57ec-41a5-a487-6a9b3dbe07f5","pagecount":"16","content":"One of the World's greatest challenges is to secure sufficient and healthy food for all, and to do so in an environmentally sustainable manner. This review explores the interrelationships of food, health, and environment, and their role in addressing chronic micronutrient deficiencies, also known as -hidden hunger‖, affecting over two billion people worldwide. While the complexity and underlying determinants of undernutrition have been well-understood for decades, the scaling of food and nutrition system approaches that combine sustainable agriculture aimed at improved diet diversity and livelihoods have been limited in their development and implementation. However, an integrated system approach to reduce hidden hunger could potentially serve as a sustainable opportunity.At the Millennium Summit in September 2000, world leaders adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, committing their nations to a bold global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and to address a series of time-bound health and development targets [1]. Among these Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is a commitment to reduce the proportion of people who suffer from hunger by half between 1990 and 2015 [2], as set in the first MDG, with two targets monitored globally.Statistics show that hunger continues to be a dramatic problem in developing and emerging countries and that the progress towards the achievement of this goal is slow, with nearly 1 billion hungry people [3]. However, hunger and calorie deficits are only one part of the story. Many have access to the minimum amount of calories, but are deficient in one or more micronutrients. Micronutrient deficiencies, estimated to affect at least 2 billion people, are the cause of so-called -hidden hunger‖. Since micronutrient deficiencies lead to a vast range of diseases and other health disorders, their decrease is likely to help the achievement of the other health-related MDGs such as Goals 4, 5 and 6 which call for reductions in child mortality, maternal mortality and prevalence of HIV-AIDS, malaria and other diseases, respectively.This paper examines the concept of hidden hunger and tries to sort out possible strategies to tackle the problem. We review the recent history of agriculture and nutrition policies and programmes with a focus on recent food-based approaches to improving micronutrient deficiencies, and some insights into the possible benefits of a more -food and nutrition system‖ approach to combating hidden hunger.There are nearly 925 million hungry people in the World [3]. This is a rough estimate based on the prevalence of people who are assumed to have an energy intake below that which is required to maintain body weight, body composition and levels of necessary and desirable physical activity for long-term good health. The number of those hungry is higher than that in 2007 as a partial consequence of the 2007-2008 food price crisis, and the overall recent economic crisis.While the FAO is one of the most cited sources of data concerning hunger and food security, some experts disagree with the theoretical model in which these final numbers are obtained. The assumption is that hunger (often referred to as food security) is an exclusive outcome of the lack of sufficient calories for survival. The statistic is measured using a complex calculation which entails several steps: (1) identification of the total amount of food available in the country, through the -food balance sheet‖, an input-output matrix where the quantities of food produced, traded, or eventually received under the form of food aid are registered; (2) subtraction of the quota of food which is assumed to perish and the one used for purposes different from human nutrition; (3) conversion of food into calories; (4) estimates of food distribution among households, first, and then within households based on household food, consumption or expenditure data; and (5) final estimates of the prevalence of hunger [4].The FAO estimates show a decrease of those who are hungry during periods of increased national production because of assumed constant distribution of food nationally (household surveys are rarely undertaken, thus the distribution of calories is based on the previous survey). This emphasizes only the benefits of policies and programs focused on food availability, which we now understand is a limited view. Studies show that rising production may not have any impact on people's access to food, and does not take into account the quality of food accessed or consumed [5,6].The fact that hunger statistics deal only with caloric intake has been heavily criticized by nutritionists and by scholars advocating for a multi-dimensional idea of food security (Figure 1). A strictly calorie-based approach is incoherent with the widely accepted definition of food security given at the 1996 World Food Summit, according to which, -Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life‖ [7]. The stress on -safe and nutritious food‖, as well as the final goal to ensure -an active and healthy life‖ calls for a broader, though more complex, analysis of people's diet. What does it mean to be hungry? In its common usage, hunger describes the subjective feeling of discomfort that follows a period without eating [8]; however even temporary periods of hunger can be debilitating to longer term human growth and development [9]. We may further distinguish acute from chronic hunger: the first situation occurs when the insufficient intake of food is temporary, usually caused by an external shock, whereas the latter indicates a shortage of food on a persistent basis [10]. The term undernourishment defines insufficient food intake to continuously meet dietary energy requirements [11], with the FAO further defining hunger as the consumption of less than 1,600-2,000 calories per day. Undernutrition is commonly used to describe people who are malnourished if their diet does not provide adequate calories, protein for growth and maintenance, and micronutrients; or they are unable to fully utilize the food they eat due to illness. The concept of food security goes beyond caloric intake and addresses both hunger and undernutrition. Reducing levels of hunger places the emphasis on the quantity of food, and refers to ensuring a minimum caloric intake. Conversely, ensuring adequate nutrition refers to a diet's quality. A diet rich in proteins, essential fatty acids, and micronutrients has been proven to improve birth weight, growth, and cognitive development while leading to lower levels of child mortality [12][13][14][15][16].A lack of these essential vitamins and minerals often results in -hidden hunger‖ where the signs of undernutrition and hunger are less visible. A person may have access to a sufficient amount of calories but lack adequate micronutrients [17]. This phenomenon has been defined -hidden hunger‖ because its symptoms are not always obvious and people may not even be aware of it. Its negative, sometimes lifelong, consequences on health, productivity, and mental impairment, are devastating [18].Micronutrients are nutrients (dominantly vitamins and minerals) required by humans throughout life in order to carry out a vast range of physiological functions. While it is argued that at least 51 different nutrients are needed in adequate amounts by human beings [19], there are 19 essential micronutrients -for physical and mental development, immune system functioning and various metabolic processes‖ [17]. Recent data highlight that an estimated 2 billion people suffer from one or more micronutrient deficiencies [19], demonstrating that hidden hunger is responsible in part for the global malnutrition burden. Most development programmes have focused on three micronutrients, which have devastating consequences for many: vitamin A, iron, and iodine.The estimated numbers of individuals deficient in micronutrients are likely to underestimate the prevalence of the hidden hunger because of the actual presence of the various diseases associated with poor nutrition and the simplification of diets worldwide. Moreover, there are potentially many more people who do not have an adequate amount of other essential micronutrients such as vitamin B 12 , zinc and folate. Unfortunately, data concerning the prevalence of deficiencies in these micronutrients is limited. Zinc deficiency, for example, has proven difficult to quantify and statistics of global prevalence of zinc deficiency remain estimates [20].Traditionally, agriculture, nutrition and health sectors have operated as separate entities, and therefore policies and government structures have been designed without looking closely at the interactions among these sectors.Agricultural policies and projects have traditionally focused only on increasing yields, productivity, and general food availability in countries or regions, relevant in both developing and developed nations. As argued by Bouis and Welch, -Agricultural systems have never been explicitly designed to promote human health and, instead, mostly focus on increased profitability for farmers and agricultural industries‖ [21].In an industrialized country such as the United States, national agricultural policies have rarely focused on public health [22,23]: since the 1930s their main aim has been to maintain or improve the living standards of farmers and their families, and to ensure availability of enough food to feed all Americans in the present and future times [24]. The standard federal food assistance programs have been largely focused on calorie-based approaches to improve nutrition with little attention to improving the quality of food. As the authors argue, -All of these programs appear to have been developed with the assumption that if consumers were provided with an adequate supply of food and calories, good nutrition would naturally result‖ [22].In the context of developing countries, during the 1970s, the -Green Revolution‖ was launched in Asia and Latin America. Labor-saving technologies, fertilizers, pesticides and various types of improved seeds were promoted to increase agricultural productivity. While there is still an ongoing debate of the revolution's impact on hunger alleviation [24,25], some limitations of these interventions can be delineated. The green revolution focused predominantly on the increased production of rice and wheat-staple grains consisting mainly of carbohydrates, modest amounts of protein and a few other nutrients essential to meet human nutritional requirements [26]. Before the revolution, many Asian farmers maintained a more diversified agricultural production system including pulses and legumes. This push to concentrate on a few staple crops may be a contributory factor to the simplified diets, the continued undernutrition in South Asia and widespread hidden hunger [19]. India is a clear example of the failure of these policies to achieve improved food and nutrition security. While it is estimated that between 1966 and 2007, the per capita availability of calories increased by nearly 25% in South Asia [27], with India having an amount of food sufficient to feed its population, the prevalence of child malnutrition there is among the highest in the World. While the green revolution improved food productivity significantly, the role of healthcare, childcare, and diverse and quality foods for household food and nutrition security was less emphasized [28]. More detailed analyses have also highlighted that women and children benefited the least from the technological revolution [29,30], and there was insufficient attention towards women's empowerment and intra-household distribution of resources. However, the revolution had a specific goal-to increase food productivity-and it did accomplish that. One lesson emerging is that massive policy reforms in one sector could be more impactful if other sectors are integrated simultaneously in both policy and practice.In the beginning of the 1980s, more nutrition elements were incorporated into agricultural policies because of a well defined concept of food security with an emphasis on access [31,32]. Agriculture is an important instrument in reducing hunger in rural areas, by increasing farmers' income and assets [33]. However, there is plenty of evidence of agricultural projects increasing farmers' income and assets, which did not succeed in improving child nutrition [34]. Only those programmes which included additional components such as nutrition education, produced improved nutrition outcomes [35].During the 1990s, agricultural interventions have drawn more attention to nutrition with agricultural production, research, and technology as fundamental for the alleviation of micronutrient deficiencies. This has led to the implementation of -food-based‖ strategies [35][36][37]. The new emphasis on nutrition security and public health is well reflected in the definition of food security given at the 1996 World Food Summit (see above). This definition recognizes the presence of a third component of food security, namely food utilization, encompassing diet quality and child care practices (Figure 1).During the 1970s, the focus of nutrition policies and programs was on protein-energy deficiencies. However, as the determinants of poor nutrition become more defined, it was clear that vitamins and minerals play a key role in improved nutrition outcomes. Many pioneers in the nutrition field promoted supplementation and fortification programs to treat obvious deficiencies, such as vitamin A to treat night blindness and iodized salt to treat goitre. These programs are still ongoing and have demonstrated improvements in select micronutrient deficiencies in the developing world.While there is large empirical evidence of projects based on food supplementation and fortification having improved the nutritional status of the targeted population, this type of intervention (at least in the way it was realized) has some weaknesses. First, these programs have been mainly concerned with the -big three‖ micronutrients-vitamin A, iron and iodine. Though they are the most widespread as well as those with more significant effects on public health, there are many other essential nutrients whose role in human nutrition has been highly neglected. Second, projects have focused on single nutrient interventions: however, a person is likely to suffer from multiple micronutrient deficiencies [38,39]. What Allen defines as -nutrition isolationism‖ does not reflect the reality that often people suffer from deficiencies in multiple nutrients [38].The third limitation is that there is no universal coverage of micronutrient supplements geographically and in populations. Supplying supplements to the most vulnerable and isolated populations is a challenge, as is the case with zinc supplementation in managing diarrhea in sub-Saharan Africa. In population coverage, iron supplements are targeted only to children, adolescents and all women of childbearing age, while vitamin A supplements are targeted only to preschool children and postpartum women [38]. The final limitation of micronutrient supplementation programmes is that they follow a top-down, stop gap approach [36], and take on a short-term solution [17,26]. These technical interventions do address the root causes for the specific micronutrient inadequacies, but do not affect the overall quality of their diet to ensure dietary (along with important non-nutrient elements such as phytochemicals) needs are covered for long lasting health. Therefore, single-nutrient supplements, although critically important in tackling some of the vitamins and minerals deficiencies with large burdens, are unlikely to ensure a sustainable improvement of diets worldwide.In a few cases supplementation programmes have failed to improve the various nutritional indicators even in the short term. One clear example is the -Accelerated Child Survival and Development programme‖, implemented by UNICEF in 11 West African countries between 2001 and 2005. One central pillar of this programme consisted in the delivery of vitamin A supplements. A comprehensive evaluation in Benin and Ghana shows that: (1) there was no reduction in child wasting in Benin due to the intervention, while child wasting increased in Ghana; and (2) there was no significant reduction of childhood mortality due to the project [40].The above criticisms of supplementation programmes do not imply a rejection of this strategy. Yet, there is a need to move from vertical sectoral interventions to multi-sectoral approaches, where supplementation can be an important component, especially if aimed at addressing multiple micronutrient deficiencies. A comprehensive strategy to address hidden hunger should involve sectors such as agriculture, health, and the environment, with the final goal to improve people's diets in a sustainable manner. A recent international scientific symposium -Biodiversity and Sustainable Diets,‖ was an attempt to provide a comprehensive definition of -sustainable diet‖ and to identify guidelines for programmes aiming at improving diets and micronutrient deficiencies for all [41].Public policies aimed at improving the standards of living of the population are often inadequate for economic growth -corrected‖ with some social or pro-poor policies. One reason for this is because socio-economic problems such as poverty, lack of education and social services need to be addressed simultaneously to improve nutrition and health in the long-term. Agriculture, health, nutrition, and environment sectors, all examined with a gender lens, need to be viewed as a unicum [21,26,42].In recent years, programs have made an initial effort to move towards more integrated and multi-sectoral solutions to food security, through -food-based‖ strategies [35,43,44]. In the majority of cases, these interventions have combined a few components, focusing on agricultural production including land usage and ecosystem services with nutrition education, food supplementation, social marketing, or basic primary health care. Some of these programs advocate for the use and consumption of locally available, nutrient-rich foods as a contributor to diverse diets and improved nutritional outcomes [39,45,46].Lack of diversity is a critical issue particularly in the developing world in which the diets consist mainly of starchy staples, with less access to nutrient-rich sources of food such as animal proteins, fruits and vegetables [37]. Evidence is clear that increasing the consumption of a variety of foods across and within food groups, and within varieties is recommended to ensure adequate intake of essential nutrients and important non-nutrient factors [45]. The biodiversity of foods includes plant based species such as leafy vegetables but also non-timber forest products and other gathered foods, livestock, fish and wetlands species, wild game, and insects. Studies have also shown that dietary diversity is associated with child nutritional status and growth and with socioeconomic status, and links between socioeconomic factors and nutrition outcomes are well known [14,[47][48][49].Food fortification programmes are often referred to as food-based interventions in improving hidden hunger [43]; however some consider fortification more of a -post processing‖ intervention that does not necessarily integrate agriculture practices with nutrition outcomes. Fortification consists of adding vitamins and minerals (called -fortifiers‖) to common foods (called -vehicle foods‖) such as wheat flour, maize flour, rice, sugar, and oil. For this intervention to be effective, it is important to choose the food vehicle carefully to ensure that the vehicle is consumed locally by many. Fortification can be part of a food-based strategy but must be complemented with education to increase the demand of fortified foods in conjunction with other interventions targeting increased diet diversity and quality.A related strategy but one that falls squarely within agriculture, is biofortification. It refers to the use of traditional crop breeding practices or modern biotechnology to increase the micronutrient concentration in crops. This type of intervention aims at improving the specific micronutrient deficiencies of a target population [17,21,50]. Early studies have demonstrated some success. In Mozambique, production, access and consumption of biofortified orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) was promoted to tackle vitamin A deficiency in young children [35]. Farmers' access to improved orange-fleshed sweet potato vines and roots increased, nutrition knowledge improved, demand for this product increased, and a stable market for orange-fleshed potato was promoted [37]. Vitamin A intake increased largely due to increased OFSP intake and serum retinol concentrations improved in young children in the rural communities [51].Recent work has demonstrated that there is a range of variation in the provitamin A carotenoids (pVACs) contents of bananas, Musa fruit (Musa cultivars grown and consumed locally, including e.g., the plantains of West Africa and Latin America, the East African highland bananas in East Africa and the Silk bananas in India), with levels approaching those found in the best-performing sweet potatoes and carrot varieties [52]. Next steps will be to demonstrate their effectiveness in decreasing vitamin A deficiency in populations that consume these fruits.In many food-based programmes, home gardens play an important role in improving access to micronutrient-rich foods. The project -Integrating Homestead Gardening and Primary Health Care Activities in South Africa‖ is an interesting case study of agriculture, health, and nutrition sector coordination with a goal of improving the nutritional status of the population. The agriculture intervention was only indirectly related to food production since it consisted of vegetable production training [53]. The agriculture component was complemented with an education intervention on the importance of vitamin A in human health, the sources of vitamin A rich foods, and promotion of local production and consumption. The impact included improved nutrition knowledge of mothers, increased consumption of vitamin A rich foods (in particular, carrots, pumpkin, and spinach) amongst children, as well as increased serum retinol concentrations [37].Another important case study is the homestead food production program implemented by Helen Keller International in four countries characterized by high levels of hidden hunger-Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, and Philippines. This program, which integrates home gardening with animal husbandry, has led to a substantial increase in dietary diversification, in consumption of animal food, and has reduced the prevalence of childhood anaemia [54].When thinking of food based approaches, animal source proteins are critically relevant. The Nutrition Improvement Project in Vietnam was a community-based project, with two main interventions [43]. The first established a system of productive activities in household gardens consisting of horticulture, pond culture of fish, and small-animal husbandry, while the second activity aimed at increasing mothers' knowledge of nutrition-related information and practices [55]. The project had success with an increase in production and intake of several micronutrient-rich foods, an improvement of women's nutrition knowledge and children's nutritional and health status [55,56].Traditionally and most commonly, food approaches to addressing food security have been limited in scope. The first limitation is the assumption that production of more diversified foods will lead to higher intake of micronutrients and consumption of more types of food. A local food culture abundant in sources of micronutrient rich foods is essential in these production systems. However, there are many other factors influencing the access to micronutrient-rich foods and people's dietary choices beyond simply -staple production followed by consumption.‖The second limitation is that these strategies have been designed to address the problems of hidden hunger and food insecurity predominantly in rural areas. They are less suitable for urban areas, though the number of urban people that depend on urban agriculture for their food needs is growing rapidly.The third limitation is that these approaches focus on only two, though crucial sectors-agriculture and nutrition-while leaving aside other important ones. Socio-economic factors such as people's education, women's empowerment, cultural beliefs, infant and young child feeding practices, intra-household food distribution and social norms are key determinants of people's access to adequate and nutritious food, and their dietary behaviours, and can themselves be affected by changes in diets and nutritional status.Food-based solutions to improve food security have surely contributed to our knowledge on the effectiveness of integrated approaches as these case studies demonstrate, and it is important to emphasize these types of approaches when designing interventions [43,45,57]. These studies provide strong evidence that education and knowledge enhancement are key components as well as working with women as agents of change. The strategic linkages between health, culture, environment and agriculture and nutrition to combat hidden hunger have been described as -food systems‖, -field fortification‖ and -food based‖ strategies [58,59]. It is in these food systems that ecological concepts can be of particular use to study and optimize the sustainability and nutritional value of the underlying food systems.Community and household food security depends on underlying social, economic and institutional factors, which ultimately affect the quantity, quality and affordability of food as well as nutrition, health and wellbeing [60,61]. Conceptually, this can be thought of as a system-a set of elements that function together as collective units which have properties greater than the sum of their component parts. Food systems are dynamic and depend on agriculture, food, eating and health. Policy makers, development agencies and governments often talk about a -health system‖ or a -farming system‖ as something that is the total sum of all the organizations, institutions and resources whose primary purpose is to improve health or food production.A resilient food and nutrition system involves people, as consumers, as the central focus. This system also ensures that environmental integrity, economic self-reliance and social well being are maintained and emphasized. A healthy food and nutrition system is self-reliant, controlled, accessible, safe, sustainable, resilient and food-secure. It ensures that links are made between sustainable natural resource management, food production, food consumption and nutritional health [62].Sobal and colleagues provide a cohesive -food and nutrition system approach‖, which can help in the design of more comprehensive policies and programmes [62] which encompasses characteristics from food chain, cycle and web models (Figure 2). Following their definition, this system consists in -the set of operations and processes involved in transforming raw materials into foods and transforming nutrients into health outcomes, all of which functions as a system within biophysical and sociocultural contexts‖ [62]. An integrated food and nutrition system (adapted from [62]).The food and nutrition system is characterized by three sub-systems: producer, consumer, and nutrition. This allows for a visualization of a potential sequential order of activities, beginning with food production and ending with food transportation and utilization, with a health outcome. However, the sequential order is not always satisfied, and many relationships between and within the subsystems can follow alternative paths. Moreover, many feedback effects take place: for example, a well-nourished person living in rural areas can engage better in agricultural activity, thus contributing to produce food (with higher productivity).This system operates with the utilization of resources incorporated into the system in a holistic manner. Resources include biophysical (climate, energy, soil, water, and biodiversity) and sociocultural (economic factors such as markets and capital, cultural values and traditions, individual satisfaction, knowledge and skills, and policy) with health as the major outcome of the entire system. Although a system should not be thought of as linear, one starting point could be the use of resources from the biophysical environment, such as agricultural biodiversity, for production of food. These resources are critical for a well nourished population to engage in farming, cooking and digestion of nutrients and foods.The producer subsystem is based on farmers and those engaged in food gathering, herding, fishing, processing, distribution and marketing, products derived from food commodities as well as types of food processor and distribution services. Within the producer subsystem, ensuring nutritious food is available in markets (and marketing of products) is a critical element for ensuring that not only is food available, but that healthier food plays a prominent role from the production side. Though raising smallholder agricultural productivity increases incomes and allows families to purchase more nutritious food such as fruits, vegetables, and animal products, farmer-focused initiatives focusing on the production side can also improve diet diversity and the associated micronutrients lacking in the diet of sub-Saharan populations [63,64]. Diets can be improved through production by breeding of more nutritious crops including traditional local foods and leafy greens and improved nutritionally rich processed foods.The consumer subsystem is made up of consumers and food preparers, products, foods, dishes and meals. Within the consumer subsystem, access to these foods (either grown or purchased), safe and nutritious preparation of foods, and consumption (with equal distribution across a household) are all critical elements of improved nutrition. Typically, poor households subsist on monotonous staple-based diets. They often lack access to micronutrient-rich foods, such as fruits, vegetables, animal source foods (fish, meat, eggs, and dairy products) for consumption. Traditional local foods of high nutrient content and wild food are often underutilized and neglected.Lastly, the nutrition subsystem is made up of food components including macro and micronutrients, fiber, water, and non-nutrient factors. The status of the nutrition subsystem is reliant on the health state of an individual, which is determined by the proper digestion of food, along with the absorption and utilization of nutrients within the body. To have food available and accessible to eat, whether purchased at the market or grown at home, is not the sole solution to food security. A person's body must be in good physical condition in order to properly utilize the food and its micronutrients efficiently for optimum health. Utilization requires not only an adequate diet, but also a healthy physical environment, including safe drinking water, better knowledge of nutritional needs for women and children, improved infant feeding practices, fair intra-household distribution of food, adequate sanitation and hygiene, decreased burden of infectious disease, and the knowledge and understanding of proper care for oneself, for food preparation and safety [44].A functional food and nutrition system should interact with other systems, such as the health systems, water and sanitation systems, and agriculture production systems, to be effective in reducing hidden hunger [62]. The main problem is to understand how the food and nutrition systems can work at the country policy level and how systems approaches can be implemented on the ground.Both nutrition and hunger fall within a broader mandate that necessitates the inclusion of agriculture, health, education, water and sanitation, and other departments. This poses clear challenges to leadership and coordination in many developing countries. Too often, no single entity takes primary responsibility for working at the nexus of systems in research, policy and program development. Many governments under invest in programs and efforts to reduce food insecurity, and fail to provide the essential domestic public goods and investments to integrate agriculture and health systems for sustained growth. One important explanation is to be found in the complexity that policy makers and governments encounter in the implementation of multi-sectoral interventions, here deemed as indispensable for tackling the multi-dimensions of food insecurity. There needs to be new political incentives and institutional arrangements, particularly in sectors that are traditionally thought of as very distinct-agriculture and health. It is much easier to design an intervention that looks separately at three core sectors like agriculture, health and nutrition, and does not tackle complex problems that involve land, gender, trade and markets, among others.Countries should identify context-dependent solutions, which integrate technical prevention and treatment-based interventions with wider efforts to enhance food security and diet diversity. It will be critical to ensure that food and nutrition system approaches are embedded centrally in poverty reduction or development plans or as stand-alone initiatives linked to the overall development vision for countries moving forward. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that in the absence of clear policy, rapid gains are much more limited. But financial support is a must. In countries where resources are scarce, international development assistance will remain an important, temporary solution. Strong evidence and robust tools are available to leverage agriculture that ensures positive nutritional outcomes. Knowledge and expertise to address food security and reduce poverty by leveraging existing food systems are available as well. It is now time to utilize these tools, evidence and knowledge, and to support governments to invest in systems in order to address these issues at global scale.Communities also play a major role. Community and household food and nutrition security depends on underlying social, economic and institutional factors, which ultimately affect the quantity, quality and affordability of food as well as nutrition, health and wellbeing. By giving communities the tools and knowledge to make choices, a resilient food and nutrition system can be developed that ensures environmental integrity, economic self-reliance and social wellbeing.A new focus must be undertaken that addresses the longer-term determinants of nutrition insecurity and hidden hunger. There must be an emphasis on interventions that address food and nutrition security as part of a wider multi-sector strategy tailored to diverse conditions of major agroecological, socioeconomic and epidemiological situations. While underlying determinants of undernutrition have been well understood for decades, the design, testing and scaling of more holistic multi-sectoral packages that combine child care and disease control interventions with food system and livelihood-based approaches has been limited in their development and implementation.","tokenCount":"5189"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"629210aaabe5b2dcfb5bf50bdb3fee45","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b9a8778-0757-4c2e-a633-9c62922fc6f2/retrieve","id":"-2096781611"},"keywords":["Degradation. partlcipation","research","perception","fertility and soils Compost","microorganisms. organic fertilizers","organic wastes","environmental quality"],"sieverID":"4836da86-c379-49e0-9bf1-cb0d09583dea","pagecount":"181","content":"Project DescriptionTo develop and disseminate participatory research (PR) principies. approaches. analytlcal tools. indigenous knowledge and organizatlonal principies that strengthen the capacity of R&D institutions to respond to the demands of stakeholder groups for irnproved levels of human well-being and agro ecosystem health Outputs l .Participatory approaches and methodologies for strengthening farmers' organizations and rural innovation systems to accelerate and institutionalize demand-driven innovation in production systems. researched and disseminated 2.Organizatlonal procedures, institutional mechanisms and policies for using participatory methodology in the co-development of technologies. designed and tested with national and local innovation systems in Latin America (LA) and Africa 3.The resource-to-consumption (ERI) framework developed. tested and applied to strengthen farmer organizations and rural women's capacity allowing transition from semisubsistence to competitive market-oriented production in Africa and LA 4.Methodologies for establishing community-managed participatory monitoring and evaluation systems (PM&E) tested, applied and widely disseminated 5.Institutional and organizational capacity of R&D partners in development and adaptation of PR methodologies. strengthened• Users involved at early stages in decisions about innovation development • New and better links between farmers' groups and local markets • Adaptation of PM&E systems in Bolivia and incorporated in their technological innovation projects (PITAs). enabling the farmers to exercise greater control over their projects and then give feedback on their execution to the project suppliers • Online tool based on database development with informatlon inpu t from our partners based on results from different CIALs and second-order organizations in five LA countries •The knowledge management approach to extension work tested in 10 different sites in 4 agroecological regions of Bolivia with 9 different crops and species. and proven to be highly effective in technology appropriation by farmers • Evidence of scaling up and institutionalization of ERI approaches and methods: partnerships increased from 3 to 13 R&D partners in 3 countries and expanded to 7 new ones (Mozambique. Zimbabwe. Rwanda, Kenya. DR Congo. Zambia, Ethiopia) •The effectiveness of the CIAL methodology. the extent to which the problems addressed by the CIAL are relevant to the community. and the benefits of the CIAL to its members as well as to the community. assessed in terms of developing appropriate technologies and who benefits from the innovations in Colombia and Honduras • Prototype methodology developed for mapping. strengthening and monitortng networks of•small rural groups This work wil1 benefit small-scale, resource-poor farmers. processors. traders and consumers in rural areas. especially in fragile environments. IPRA has a strong focus on supporting rural women and the poor in order to build their capacity to generate and use agricultura! technologies to their own advantage. R&D service providers will receive more accurate and timely feedback from users about acceptability of production technologies and conservation practices. R&D planners wil1 profit from methods for conducting adaptive research and implementing policies on natural resource conservation at the micro level. The national agricultura! innovation systems are a target of the Project's activities. Strengthening their capacity to link local demands with service providers is being addressed by our Project in Bolivia.Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Research Complex for the Eastem Region, India: Sri Lanka: Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF) Secretariat. . Particlpatlng marginal groups enjoy socloeconomlc benefits to a greater extent than similar groups where saJd declslonmaklng has not been lncorporated.Partlclpatory research. Set of at least five partlclpatory declslons taken on . lmpact study . Instltutlons willing to mlnorltles and women• At least three sets of new methods and tools (e.g .. analysls prepare and support of social networks, appreclatlve lnqulry) that lncorporate facilltators and share equtty and gender developed, applled and dlssemlnated at lnformatlon. the leve! of members and stakeholder groups at the end of . End-users-above all.the thlrd year (2007) farmers-wllllng to. A set of lnstltutlons not prevlously 1nvolved 1n the SN-3 participa te. actlvltles lmplement, together wlth the project, codevelopment processes of declslon-maklng and ecotechnologtes wlth a partlclpatory approach.. A set of lnstltutlons not prevlously lnvolved In the SN-3 actlvltles lmplement processes of lntegrated lncorporatlon of particlpatory declslon-making (Le. , Agroenterprlses + CIALs + InforCom).. The approaches and dectslon-makJng developed by SN-3 orlented toward.. Evaluatlons of the peñormance of the project and lts members show that they are 1n llne wlth the mlsslon and L _ _ --vlslon of SN-3 and CIAT.--participatory research and monitoring techniques. and if the insights gatned by the groups will translate into measurable interventions in the future. For now, the maps are being used as communication and fundraising strategtes tools by the groups. Additionally, gtven the importance of Social Capital and Networks for these small rural communities, any insight into the concept and even a partial approximation of the status of these in the community is bound to be of help. Periodical remapping is the longer tenn objective of this study, step 5 will take place in stx months.For now. this prototype will be further developed and honed to apply in other cases. and presented to NGOs. so it can hopefully go into a further stage of collaborative research (between NGOs themselves and with communities).In the 1990s CIAT began working in the Department of Cauca setting up CIALs, usually with four members. to provide their a research service. At flrst CIAL research was largely aimed at addressing issues related to food security. Over time. however. many of the CIALs undertook other activities. CIAL Carpintero for example has a membership of 16 women who engage in chicken rearing, coffee production, bread-making. and social work with the elderly in additlon to their CIAL research. CIALs are not the only type of small rural group (SRG) in Cauca. Other types of groups include those organized around coffee, sugar-cane and cnssava production. Such small rural groups (SRGs) are motivated to better their own lot as well as working to improve their communities. They represent a powerful force for rural development.In setting up and running actlvitles and projects, SRGs often look for resources from outside, including knowledge and funding. Their success depends on their a ccess to these resources. It also depends on group organization. communication and trust between group members. and communicatlon and trust between group members and their respecitive communities. Access to knowledge. access to funding, communication and trust can all be represented by network maps.To increase in rural communities their access and exchange of ideas, infonnation and technology, to facilitate innovation process with more sustainable and equitable outcomes.Our main research hypotheses were that:Drawing network maps would help group members visualize networks of relationships that are important to them; • Group analysis and discussion of these maps will help the group identify measures to strengthen their networks; • Strengthening networks of relationships will help the group grow and prosper: • Redrawtng the network maps after a period of time will allow the group to monitor and evaluate interventions made to strengthen its networks.We set out to test these hypotheses by undertaking action research to develop a participatory approach to social network analysis.Our methodology has five (5) steps, they are:l . Exploring the nature and importance of social networks with participating groups : We designed a basic workshop in which participants were able to build a social network deflnition like this one, made by Fellsa Suárez, a woman fanner of the Carpintero rural community, located in Morales, Cauca, described social networks:\"It looks like to a parable oj the Bible, where the.fish is tcaught and. thefwnilies have their daily food. ... the networks are our hands and those oj people that care about our needs and our dreams ... Networks are a way oj sustaining us.\"lt was possible through a simple but clear exercise done in this way: facilitators ask participants to answer two questions:From whom did you fmd out about today's meeting? • What was the means through which you received the information? Phonecall Someone told you Was at a meeting and someone mentioned it Another. Specify?The flows of information linked the participants together in a network. We used wool yarn in a group exercise to depict these flows between people, with different colours to indicate the different ways information was received.Once participants did this exercise. they discovered through a brainstorming session, the usefulness of a network mapping tool for groups of fanners or small producers organized in CIALs. Here are sorne ideas that carne from this:We can see invisible threads and who connects them.We can visualize whom we need to contact to achieve our objectives.We can see the dlfferent types of networks that exist within the community (information flow. confidence. markets, etc.).After that. we took into account previous process that these groups have developed with PM&E IPRA-Team, which allowed us to identify with participant these networks to study:  Group membership: What groups are you a member of?Searchjor resources: Name the people whom you have contacted. as well as those who have contacted you. seeking funding and/or resources in the last two years.Searchjor advice: Name the people whom you have contacted, as well as those who h ave contacted you, requesting guidance or advice related to agriculture in the last two years .Strategic contacts: Who are the key people you know at the different institutions wlth whlch your group works?Marketing: What products do you sell? How important are they for your family in come?Although we designed thls as a survey made of clear and common Ianguage. we decided todo it person by person to have opportunity to interact and to dialogue wlth participants more deeply about thelr networks and environments in where they were developing. Every interview took almost one hour to be done.Once we did all surveys 1 interviews. we systematized all information in excel tables, it is previous step to use our software Inflow 3.01 in (Figure 1) which we draw a1l networks maps for these two CIAL groups.Taking into account two ideas: first. every one of these social network maps is a kind of picture that could show sensitive aspect of lnternal dynamic in CIAL groups. and second that maps that carne from lnterviews are not necessary the same perception of social network participants can have In their minds.Because of that, the maps were printed out. poster size, and first checked with the CIAL leaders before presenting to the CIALs as a whole. The objectives of presentlng the maps were:To share and explain the information contained in the maps.For the facilitators to assess how easy the maps are for group members to understand.To carry out a reality check on whether group members agreed with the information contained in the maps.To motívate participants to think about ways of strengthening the networks depicted Sorne of the comments made during the participatory analysis indicate the usefulness of the maps. Comments included:• You know you\"re there, but you don't know where. The map shows the locatlon.The map serves as a guide.We work differently, but a map (of any type) can be used to locate oneself.Neither outsiders nor insiders should feel bad; each one to themselves.There was important reflection about the importance of the roles other CIAL members play, who, despite not being leaders, help motívate and maintain the groups' interna! networks.There was reflection in one CIAL about the urgent need to redistribute lea dership responsibilitles among CIAL members. This helps ensure the continuity of the group and reduces the risk of the group disappearing if the leader is absent.The maps helped group members to:Better understand how they are linked together within the group, and how they link to the outside to organizatlons such as CIAT, the municipal seats of govemment and the capital of the department of Cauca. • Initlate processes of reflection and change around issues such as the allocatlon of leadership responsibilitles within the CIAL.Better visualize the impact of the group on their respective communities • Recall other links or relationships that they did not remember at the time of the interview and that will further enhance the social network maps. bringing them closer to reality.An unexpected development was that groups wanted to use the maps to present themselves to outside organizations, to explain the way they worked and their impact.In this phase, it means, through this process in which participants could analyze network maps, to discuss and to reflect about all those themes that were emerging during sessions, it was possible to identify what network these CIAL groups wanted to prtorttize and to study more deeply towards to design interventions strategtes.Both groups chose to priorttize the networks related to: search for resources and links to strategic contacts.Two dynamics were employed to identlfy actions to strengthen the prioritized networks:Network maps were presented together with tables that showed the number of links that group members had to outside organizations. This helped the groups see how they rrúght better share the work of building and maintaining these networks. It also showed how interactlons rrúght be better coordinated, and which links rrúght need more, or less. effort.To help make the maps real the network maps were re-constructed using the individuals present. Bamboo poles were used to represent extemal actors. Coloured wool was used to represent links.Using this dynamic, the CIALs of each network answered the following questlon: Does the network operate sufficiently well asto respond to the group's initlatives and projects? They were also asked if sorne actors were rrússing who should be present. Concrete actions were identified to strengthen the respective networks, which were prioritized using a secret ballot.Both groups gave frrst priority to the idea of holding a workshop. To prepare these workshops, facilitators developed two previous meetings as follow:To identify key institutions and people to invite: it was necessary take into account social networks maps. and also to design sorne criteria such us make decision power, afflnity with CIAL groups project to undertake. influence zone and previous positlve experiences between invited and CIAL groups.To build an agenda. In this case facilitators made this question to guide discussion, it was: What message do you want to delivery to invited? To answer this question implied a deep reflection about importance and relevance of every single activity inside of agenda, as well as logistics aspects and group preparatlon.CIAL groups did a previous workshop in which all participants could developed their performance, It means, to do their own part inside of this workshop with opportunity to receive feedback from their partners and facilitators before to held real workshop.Finally, the workshops took place in the 'Fortaleza Carpintereña' CIAL on 17 November 2005 and in the 'El Progreso• CIAL on 18 November 2005. These events became opportunities for dialogue and each CIAL had the opportunity to present its projects and initiatives to participants and in tum they received comments and comrnitments for future support in terms of knowledge and resources.In six months we will re-interview and re-draw the network maps to monitor changes.Prototype methodology to apply in social network analysis, tested in two CIALs. The methodology proved to be useful in the strengthening of social networks considered key for the sustainability and continuity of target groups (search for resources and strategic contacts). • Social network analysis helped the two groups we worked With better understand their networks and based on this understanding identify steps to strengthen them.The discussion of the meaning and the importance of network maps helped individuals in the groups better appreciate each others roles. Management issues, such as the over reliance on a group on certain individuals, were discussed.Rob Cross, Andrew Parker, and Robert L. Cross. 2004 Constructing an 'innovation history' is a method for recording and reflecting on an innovatlon process. People who have been involved in the innovatlon jointly construct a detailed written account based on their recollections and on available documents. The process of prepartng this history stimulates dtscussion. reflection and learning among stakeholders. Others can also leam, either by studying an individual case or by compartng experiences across severa! cases. Subsequent planning can build on the lessons learned. formulate a shared vision and act as a catalyst for change. Based on the initial detailed account of the innovation process. more conctse information products can be prepared that summarize the innovation process for wider promotion or sharing of flndings . These may include public awareness matertals, policy brtefs or articles in professional journals.Innovation histories provide causal explanations for two outputs:• An innovatlon timeline that sequentially lists the key events • Actor-network matrices and maps that show the 1inks among stakeholders at different points on the timeline. usually at the beginning and end of the history.6. This document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for lnternational Development (DflD) for the benefit of developing countries. Constructing innovation histories usually begins with a start-up workshop in which participants work together to develop the first drafts of the tlmeline. network matrices and maps. The participants decide on which themes they wish to investiga te; e.g .. partnerships and their effect on the innovation process. The participants then identify whom they need to interview and what literature they need to collect. They electa core group to manage the process, including sharing drafts of the innovation history as it is written and fostertng discussion. This discussion culminates in a second workshop in which the lessons learned from the innovation history are identified and dtscussed; then the next steps are agreed upon and implemented after the workshop. The participants also agree on a strategy for publishing and disseminatlng findings at this workshop. A more detailed description of the method can be found at http:/ /www.cgiar-ilac.org/downloads/Brief5Proof2.pdfWorking in partnership, when it allows for two or more organizations to leverage each other's comparative advantages, is now recognized as a successful strategy for improving livelihoods of the rural poor. However. to form functioning partnerships effectively can presenta challenge. Partnership requires mutual recognition of each partner's strengths and, possibly. changes in organizational culture that reflect that such strengths are valued.Both the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) Natural Resource Management (NRM) directorate and the Department for Intemational Development (DflD) Natural Resource Systems Programme (NRSP) have supported research projects that have directly challenged scientists to explore new ways of working, with sorne good results. This workshop was part of a project funded by DflD-NRSP (PD140). which sought to validate the lessons learned by such projects and explore ways to promulgate good partnertng practices.The workshop organizers saw an opportunity to scale up good partnering practices through the new World Bank-funded National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) that will begin in 2006 with a budget of US$250 million. NAIP wil1 set up 'consortia' of different types of organizations, including research, extension, public-and private-sector organizations, to work in partnership to foster rural development. The NAIP coordinator was interested in using the workshop findings to help NAIP understand what working in partnership means in an Indian NRM context and to take advantage of the lessons learned.The workshop was held from 7-1 O November 2005 in New Delhi. The objectives were to identify:• the benefits of working in partnership • enabling and constraining factors • policy and research management strategtes to foster partnershipsThe workshop proposed to achieve these objectives through joint analysis of four NRM case study projects by resource people knowledgeable about their respective organization's role. The projects were selected on the basis of being innovative in their partnering arrangements (Box 1).  We carrted out the analysis of the case studies using adaptations of the innovation history approach. Due to time and budget constraints, an adaptation was made, dropping one workshop and asking participants to prepare timelines and network maps from their own organtzation's perspective ahead of time. Another input to this workshop was a report written by one of the authors based on a series of interviews of policymakers and senior research managers to document their questions and insights with respect to partnership in the context of NRM research and development. The workshop participants then analyzed the case studies and the policy study to identify lessons and principies.The second adaptation was to design the workshop to \"prepare for a policy panel.\" Participants carrted out the analysis on days 1 and 2 and then became the resource people on Day 3 when peers joined to discuss the findings from the individual case studies and help identify policy implications and develop the presentatlon to the pollcy panel. The presentations to the policy panel were rnade on Day 4. The process and relatlonships between the various elernents of the workshop are shown in Figure l . Eight senior and midlevel policymakers were invited to forrn the policy panel to react to the workshop's findings, and their inherent policy implications. This was a strategy to begin dissernination of the workshop fmdings immediate1y. The other strategy was to pay for a professional writer to attend the workshop to produce a policy brief and partner resource from the workshop findings.Partner5hlp tlmelines and ac101 network mauw:es p<epared by case ~ludy participants               The flrst phase of the workshop brought together 25 representatives from each of the organizations involved in the case study partnerships. On Day l participants worked in case-study groups to analyze their individual case studies in detall, drawing on draft innovation histories and actor-network matrices, which they had prepared in advance and brought to the workshop. The lnitial plan had been for them to develop a single composite timeline for each case study on the moming of Day l and a similar composite actor network matrtx in the aftemoon. However, the group construction of the timelines generated more discussion than was anticipated as the stakeholders in each case-study group negotiated their differtng views of what had happened. In case study A for example, the participants gained insights durtng a discussion of the importance of leadership in managtng differences between partners, which later proved highly beneficial for the project. In case study B, the participants identlfied the importance of budgetary flexibility in setting up and managtng new partnerships among organlzations; and they realized that there was a role for extemally funded projects in allowing such flexibility. Such was the length and richness of the plenary discussion that the facilitators were able to extract enough partnership lessons to provide a basis for group work on Day 2 (Box 2). There was insufficient time for the network matrix exercise.Stgniftcant time ts requtred to build relatlonshtps (from 3 -6 years). Pollcymakers, donors. etc. don't take into account the time requtred. Jt takes time to butld trust among colleagues.Worldng in new partnerships creates new potenttal for research and flextbility to respond to demands. Mid-term corrections (e.g. all case study projects needed them) need to be considered. Project management must be flexible. Flexibility must be butlt into project documents. Govemment instituttons are constratned by guidelines and thus cannot be flexible.Champtons (strong leadership) are Irnportant for pushing for flextbility.Contlicts are inevitable and there need to be mechanisms to maintatn communicatton to sort them out. On Day 2. partlcipants (in two groups that mixed the original four casestudy groupsJ worked to prepare the lessons learned in arder to identify benefits of partnersWps and how they could be rneasured. Presentations to be rnade on Day 3 were then prepared by partlctpants, describing each case study and summarizing the findings of their analyses on days 1 & 2.On Day 3 the workshop was joined by representatives of the target audience for the resource rnatertals being generated from the workshop-NRM researchers and development professionals. Participants in the initial two days thus became resource people within the larger group (sorne 40 participants in all). Day 3 began with presentations of each of the four case studies, the lessons learned, and the main points frorn the policy discussion on the aftemoon of Day 2. Befare participants broke for lunch, we asked them to write the policy question they would most like to put to a senior policymaker on a card. During lunch the facilitators grouped the questions into categories. After sorne initial reallocation and consolidation, people were asked to stgn up for different topics. There was then a final consolidation that resulted in two groups.On Day 4, a panel cornprising four senior and mid-level policymakers 1 2 who had contributed to the policy paper joined the workshop to respond to the findings of participants and discuss the policy implications. The policy panel was asked to address what needed to change in existing systems:   Stgnificantly more time is needed than normally anticipated for establishing research partnerships in order to achieve buy-in to shared goals and to build trust and understanding among partlctpants. Donors need to understand the reality that 1-2 years will be needed for most partnerships to begin to achieve impact.Successful partnerships frequently revisit their overall goals and objectlves, as well as the means by which those are meant to be achieved. Success is highly correlated with responsiveness to changtng needs.Successful partnerships are characterized by vibrant leadership. Also, they usually embrace the principie of decentralized dectsion-making.The strongest partnerships are those that explicttly recognize and build upon the partners' strengths.Successful partnerships depend on integrating communities in the planning and implementation of partnership activitiesBuilding formal and informal relationships among key public and private stakeholders can help agricultura! reseatch organtzations achieve their goals and objectives.Successful partnerships are characterized by transparency in planning, decision-making and ftnanctal management.• A policy brief published by NIAP called \"Effective partnerships: Principies and practice,\" the audience for which is senior research managers and policyrnakers We sought feedback and reflected on how the workshop was progressing through a 'barometer' group meeting after Day 1 (facilitators and three resource-person volunteers), an after-action review carried out by the facilitators on Day 3, and an end-of-workshop evaluation at the end of Day 4.The workshop was successful in that it generated materials of sufficient quality to produce the workshop outputs. Employing a professional writer to attend the workshop and produce these materials contributed to this success. One of the policy panel members requested for an immediate briefing note after the workshop. NAIP has requested that the partnership resource be made available for use by their help desk. 1 5  This is an indication that the project outputs are relevant to the intended audience.Participants liked the workshop's focus on working in partnerships and the fact that much of the work was done in smaller groups. They said they liked the workshop structure and the flexibility of the same, which they felt was conducive to real participation and a free and frank exchange of ideas. This was partly a result of ongoing discussion among the facilitators and key resource people about how the workshop was progressing, and long discussions among the facilitators late into the night to plan for the next day.The policy study carried out before the workshop was useful input and created an awareness of the workshop and its outputs among the policymakers and senior research managers. The timeline exercise worked well. It stimulated dialogue among case study resource people, particularly those from different organizations. as to which were the significant events and why. Asking case-study participants to name the actors identlfted with each significant change encouraged people to think about partnerships without having to construct the actor network maps.Having peers joining the workshop on Day 3 helped focus the work on days 1 and 2 in preparation for their arrival. Similarly. the workshop to prepare for a policy panel worked well by focusing participants' minds on a concrete output. Presenting the findings first to peers on Day 3 and then the refinement of the message for the presentation to the policy panel helped build ownership of the fmdings among the partlcipants. The interaction with the policy panel itself immediately began the process of communicating the workshop findings to a policy audience.The main dissatisfaction voiced by participants was with the facilitation and attendance at the policy panel session. People felt that the discussion did not address the issues identified in the first three days of the workshop adequately. Sorne partlcipants were disappointed that sorne of the more senior members of the policy panel were absent. Others were expecting a panel of the real Mtop brass.\"Reflection among the facilitation team suggests that perhaps we need to explore participants' expectations better and clarify the purpose of the policy panel discussion. Our expectation (and the design of the workshop) was that the panel discussion would help workshop participants gain insights into policymaking and how it can be influenced in order 15. The NAIP help desk is being set up to provide support to teams propostng to establish consorUa partnerships.to refine the planned products. In this respect the workshop was successful. However. hav1ng strongly focused on pollcy messages and distilling key issues during the workshop , there was an expectation from sorne participants that the workshop would lead directly to policy change. and that the pathways to that change would be explored in the panel discussion.A number of participants thought that the workshop could have been done in three days, instead of four. If the peers had not joined on Da y 3, half a da y of presentations could have been saved. This time could have been used to allow fuller discussion of the timelines and actor network matrices or the workshop could have been half a day shorter. On the other hand, the engagement of a wider range of practitioners would be lost.Quite a lot of time and effort were spent on preparing individual tlmelines and actor network matrices before the workshop. The idea was that doing so would give people who could not attend the workshop a voice. Actual preparation of these inputs was patchy, plus they created a false expectation that individuals would have an opportunity to present their projects. More time and resources should be allowed for mentoring and following up the preparation of these inputs prior to such a workshop.The facilities used for the workshop were excellent. However. the rooms we worked in had fixed tables laid out in a boardroom style, which Robert Chambers (2002} 16 describes as wamong the worst pattems for participatory work.\" Breakout groups had to fit themselves either end of the big table in spaces that were not conducive to group work.The panel members engaged with project before the workshop by giving their valuable time in preparation of the policy study. Panel members were inv1ted personally to attend the workshop, both verbally and in writing. Despite the fact that they expressed their willingness and availability to participate, four out of the eight members did not attend. Several had competing commitments. This reflects one of the challenges that such a workshop faces. Strategies for better attendance in the future include more personal follow-up and engaging the organizations that the policy panel members represent to co-host the workshop.The adaptation of the innovation history method to a single workshop was judged by workshop participants and facilitators as something that worked and was well worth repeatlng. It has the important advantage of being much cheaper and quicker than the full innovation history method, while still being able to surface and socialize lessons from innovative experiences. The innovation of having a workshop to prepare for a policy panel focused participants' minds and immediately began the process of communicating the workshop findings toa policy audience. In the same way, having participants join the workshop on Day 3 focused the work on days 1 and 2. and engaged a wider audience of practitioners with the workshop findings. The preparation of two sets of presentations for differing audiences (peers on Day 3 and the policy panel on Day 4} helped to refine the findings . This helped the workshop produce materials of sufficiently high quality to produce a policy brief and partnership resource materials. The joint construction of a timeline of significant partnershlp events prompted interaction and analyses. both within and between case studies.  Secretariat, 2005). The CPWF responds to a worldwide need for irnproving water-use efficiency, especially aiming at meeting the rnost pressing current and near future global challenge: increasing food production using less water.On l October 2005, Phase 1 of the CPWF Impact Assessrnent Project (IA Project) began. It is a part of the Basin Focal Project (BFP) initiative and will work in the Volta, Mekong and Karkheh basins. Phase 2 will work in the rernaining CPWF basins which are Sao Francisco, Yellow River, Ganges, Indo-Gangetic Basin, Andean Systern of Basins and Limpopo.The IA project focuses on carrytng out ex-ante impact assessment on work canied out by the CPWF projects in the basins. The basin-specific focal projects (Volta, Mekong, Karkheh and Sao Francisco) focus on more fundamental questions about the extent to which water can influence livelihoods and poverty, andas such are carrying out a different sort of ex-ante impact assessment.The rationale of the IA Project is summarized in Figure l. The CPWF needs a better appreciation of the existing and potential impact of research on water use in agriculture to justify current and future funding. At the same time CPWF projects would benefit frorn a better understanding of how and what irnpact they hope to attain, and a rnonitortng and evaluation approach that both fosters and tracks progress towards achieving impact. The IA project aims to contribute to both of these requirernents.The intemational public goods that this project expects to generate are methods for carrying out ex-ante irnpact assessment in cornplex programs, such as the CPWF.  The IA project has three components:• Analysis of the potential extrapolation domain (potential for scaling out and up) of selected project outputs. The CIAT-Land Use Project is responsible for this component. • Scenario analysis that extrapolates the impact of selected high-potential research outputs to the globallevel. IPGRI is responsible for this component.Construction of impact pathways and narratives of CPWF projects and basins, and piloting of the Most-Significant-Change (MSC) approach to monitoring project progress along its impact pathway. CIAT-IPRA is responsible for this component.A project impact pathway is (i) the causal chain of events and outcomes that link outputs to the goal; and (ii) a network map that show the relationships between project implementing organiZations. boundary partners and beneficiarles that are n ecessary to achieve the goal. A project impact narrative describes the project's rationale. It describes the outputs, outcomes. assumptions. links and relationships shown in the project impact pathway. It weaves together the chain of outcomes with the evolution of the partner r elationships (shown in the network map) . It is quantified and substantiated by literature and expert opinion as far as possible. Most-Signiftcant-Change (MSC) involves the periodic collection of significant change stories resulting from a project's implementation (following its impact pathway) and the subsequent selection of the most significant changes. The regular dlscussion and selection of change stories fosters an ongoing reevaluation of what really contributes to impact in a project. The changes identified a s significant beyond a local context are circulated within the project or program, thereby stimulating crossfertilizatlon of ideas and innovation (www.mande.co.uk/ docs/MSCGuide.htm) .The way the project outputs relate to each other. the intermediate outcomes that we hypothesize will result from their production and how these will contribute to the final project goal are shown in Figure 2. The wide and high rate of soil degradation in form of soil exhaustion and erosion in the highlands of Uganda (Muzira et al., 2004) have led to decline of crop yields in the recent past (Muzira et al. , 2003). Soil erosion is predominant dueto steep and long slopes that favor high soil erodibility and erosivity (Mbabazi et al., 2003). The high population pressure on the land has resulted into intensive cultivation in tum leading to deforestation exposing soil to agents of erosion (Bamwerinde and Place, 2000). Most of the marginalized areas ha ve been cultlvated and conservation measures such as grass bunds destroyed by farmers in search of fertile soils. Most of the hUltops are abandon ed due to soil infertility associated with erosion and shallow soil depth {Raussen et al, 2002).In this paper, findings of farmers' perception regarding causes of soil degradation, extent of the problem and possible solutions are presented as part of the land degradation assessment project initiated by African Highlands Initiative in Rubaya sub-county. Kabale district.Study site: Kabale district is located about 410 km from Kampala, capital ofUganda in the southwest. It covers an area of 1.827 km2 and according to the 2002 population census results it is one of the most densely populated (350 persons km• 2 ) districts in Uganda. The relief ranges between 1.800 to 4,000 m.a.s.l and rainfall is bimodal with short rains in February-May and long heavy rains in September-December with annual mean of 800-1000 mm. The participatory study was conducted in 3 partshes of Buramba-Mugandu and Kitooma watersheds in Rubaya sub-county.Researchers guided community members to assess land degradation levels in the 3 watersheds. Focus Group Discussions in each community was used to get information pertaining land use. land degradation and soil fertility management. Members conversant with the community drew resource map showing location of the natural resources. areas with land degradation and need interventions. Transect walks were used to re-affirm what was in the community map drawn. More data was generated through field interview, discussion, observations and measurements in selected plots of the wealth and poor farmers as ranked by the communities. Soil loss determinations were based on methods described by Stocking and Mumaghan (2001).Farmers' perception of land use and management: The hills are extensively and intensively cultivated to the extent of encroaching marginalized areas leaving less land under fallow, woodlots and grazing (Figure 1) . Woodlots are normally planted in already exhausted plots with shallow soils. which are mostly located on hilltops. Approximately 23% of the total arable land is under natural fallow for one or two season as a means of replenishing soil fertility. Most farmers prefer natural fallows dueto its positive attributes compared to other technologíes {Table 1). Where perennial crop such as fruits and trees are dominant. fallow is not used at all.                  • Btg variation in quality• Good for low value crops • May cany diseases pathogens for crops However. hou seholds who depend more on non-farm activities in their livelihood are more apt to use of fallows. Fewer farmers engaged on commercial production of potato apply fertilizer less than 1 kg of a nutrtent ha-1 on average. This has resulted into negatlve nutrient balance, as more nutrients are lost from the soils.Most hilltops have been abandoned dueto lower returns to land and labour. Lower terraces are associated with fertile and deep friable soils as observed during cultivation. Dueto declirung soil fertility sorne farmers opt for bun d destruction in search of fertile soils (Table 2). Bund destruction was also associated with heavy rains and livestock grazing exerting pressure on the bunds while others are destroyed dueto increased heights attained resulting from soil accumulation. New ones are normally formed with help of trash Unes. Nonetheless. Muguli B village in Mugandu parish had lowest bund destruction in relation to households compared to other communities. This could be attributed to the variation in effectiveness of community leaders in implementing the bye-laws. Due to excess soil erosion, surface runoff and continuous cultivation most of the farmers' plots have declined soil fertility (Table 3) associated with shallow septh. Soilloss in individualfarmers' plots: Soilloss was greatest in Karambo and Muguli B villages dueto long and steep slopes resulting into high soil erodibility (Figure 2). This implied that very steep areas are not suitable for cultivation. Soilloss was mainly through rills developing in farmers' plots. In Habugarama in Kitooma parish with reduced slope angle and length expertenced low soil erodibility and erosivity. This is contrary to the effectiveness of byelaws of the community. Byelaws should not only look at soil conservation measures in individual plots but keeping off steep slopes from being cultivated and planted with trees and grasses. Soil loss was mainly highest at the beginning of the rain season as there is normally low soil cover provided by crops. Soilloss was also closely associated with the crop failure. For instance bean crop destroyed by root rots do not provide sufficient soil cover leading to soil and nutrient losses within rain seasons.  It was also observed that the rich farmers lost more soils in Karambo and Habugarama though average soilloss was lowest in the latter community (Figure 4). This shows that less investment is done on soil conservation as the environment is exploited to improve household income. Muguli B the poor experienced higher soilloss than the rich though on average soils loss was highest in this community. The poor were mainly composed of the widows and female-headed household whose plots were mainly situated on steep slopes and could not afford the costs of soil conservation measure. Trenches are nonnally used to control soil erosion and surface runoff and yet they are labor demanding. This becomes almost impossible for the poor and weak to afford. Also farmers who manage to use trenches go further to de-silt every time they get fllled up with the eroded soil implying that they are costly and time consuming. Farmers have considerable knowledge about their ecological niches and therefore soils. Farmers' perception of specific land quality exists but land degradation is rather explained by crop responses. Farmers are generally aware of the causes of low soil fertility. In sorne cases, the possible solutions are known but various types of constraints limit application. Thus priority has to be given to solutions with low capital requirements. Addressing the problem of land degradation entails improving fanners education and development of high value crops that fetch high household incomes. This could reduce extensive cultivation of the land and therefore saving marginalized land from encroachments. Increas ed non-farm activities would reduce labor capital on land, which has led to intensive cultivation. Population pressure on land could be reduced through controlled population growth and encouragement of emigration from the highlands, thus reducing man's activities on the land. Private investment in soil and water conservation structures such trenches (ditches) and tree planting and promoting livestock production especially small ruminants such as goats and sheep and poultry could be enhanced. Forages grown for livestock provides protective cover to the soil against rain splash and more rainwater could infiltrate through the soil hence reducing surface runoff and erosion. Bamwerinde, W. and Place F., 2000. Factors  The purpose of this research is to determine the factors that influence the outcomes of different PR&E approaches on farmers and scientists. This will be done by answertng the following research questions:l.What are the characteristics of the organizations implementing PR&E? 2.What are the characteristics of the vartous types of PR&E? 3.What are the outcomes of PR&E on farmers and scientists?This research will be conducted in three stages: When strongly dtsagreeing, a value of 1 is asstgned, while 5 indicates that the respondent strongly agrees with the statement. To determine the influence of the characteristics of the organization on the PR&E approach , independent sample T-tests are condu cted to compare the m eans of the characteristics of the PR&E approach and the outcomes of the groups formed by the ch aracteristics of the organization. The questionnaire is distributed vía e-mail and handed out during interviews of govemment organizations (GOs) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), dealing with input-or knowledge-based technologies.• Cany out case studies in Uganda to collect information from organizations and farmers. The case studies consist of two parts: First 12 research, extension and development organizations were selected based on their size, objectives and funding. Then interviews were held with the management of these organizations to get a general view on PR&E in Uganda. Secondly, four organizations working directly with farmers were selected for an in-depth study, which focuses on farmers because they are the main intended beneficiarles of the PR&E approaches.The theoretical framework has three components: the characteristics of the organization and of the PR&E method, and the expected outcomes of the PR&E approach.There are three main characteristics to describe an organization with: l. Technology the organization is promoting: Technologies can be classified as input-or knowledge-based (Rogers 1995). Input-based technologies usually have direct outcomes on yield and depend mostly on the availability of a physical input. Knowledge-based technologies depend on farmers' learning biophysical principies involved in pest control and then applying the acquired knowledge to make better decisions. This type of technology is more complicated and requires a change in attitude.2. Objectives: The organization's objectives can be research, extension or development. The orientation of the organization will have an influence on the type ofPR&E.The Government can fundan organization, making it subject to all its prevalent regulations. NGOs are organizations that supplement government tasks. They may work within govemment programs but are financed by outside donors.The donors exert substantial influence on the NGOs, which have to apply to the donors for funding their projects but get money when the project fits within the donor's policy.To describe the differences between the various PR&E approaches Probst et al. (2003) used four characteristics:The selection of participants is important. When they all have the same background, the range of possible solutions is restricted beca use all participants have more or less the same knowledge. By exposing the members to new ideas from other group members, new solutions can be found. The selection of the group members can be done on different grounds: self-selection. based on efficiency. the community can select the participants. or the scientist may appoint them.3 . Roles ofthe f acilita tor: The facilitator's role is very important in the execution of the program because this person is the link between the organization and the participants. The facilitator is the one that has to implement the program and transfer the learning strategies. In a learning situation the facilitator will have more of a teaching functlon whereby the facilitator is seen as the expert providing knowledge to the participants. In a development-orientated PR&E method, the facilitator will have a more coaching role. thereby stirnulating the participants' learning process.The organizational structure of the research and extension organizatlon will greatly determine the design of the leaming event. If the organization is centralized, it wil1 have a top-down approach to learning. A decentralized organization will be more likely to seek involvement with the stakeholders. All PR&E methods take groups as leaming units and actively involve farmers' groups in the learning process.There are two main groups that will benefit from the PR&E. These are:l . Fanners: The learning strategies are aimed at the participants' learning and therefore determine the success of the intervention. The technology is disseminated in a program to the partlcipants who are supposed to leam. This Iearning is shown as a change in attitudes and increased skills. Applying these changes will result in a changed behavior, which should lead to better results.The expected results of PR&E for the scientists are a direct link between the farmers and the scientists. resulting in more valid research data. Through the farmers-scientists link, the latter will get feedback on their work in order to develop technologies that have a close fit with the farmers' needs. More approprtate technologles will enhance the farmers' adoption of the same. By involving farmers in the research process. the technologies can be tested under a wider range of conditions because more test si tes are used so the validity of the research results will increase. The theoretical framework is summarized in Figure l.In total 37 people representing 23 organizations responded to the questionnaire. Table 1 gives the division of the 23 organizations. distributed by types.Table 2 gives the average scores for the various aspects of the theoretical framework.• Technology• Objectlves • Fu nding• Type of participatlon  Table 3 gives the influence of the three organizatlonal characteiistlcs on the level of participa tlon. If the organizatlon is disseminatlng an input-based technology, farmers' participatlon appears to be less when compared to organizatlons disseminating a knowledge-based technology. The objectlve of the organization has a great influence on the level of participatlon. For funding it was found that goverrunent-flnanced organizations invest more in the learning strategies; thus they have a better result for learning and the application of the new knowledge.Table 4 gives an overview of the results of the interviews with the twelve organizations. The objectlves, funding and the type of technology being promoted are indicated for each organization. An inventory was made of ten actlvitles cariied out by the organizatlon duiing the research and extension process. Five of these actlvities can be labeled as participatory: participatory rural appraisal, community-based facilitators. farmers' involvement in evalu ation, technology development by farmers, and organizations working with farmers directly. Nonparticipatory actlvttles are a central demonstratlon plot and training. The remaining three actlvitles-exchange visits, technology testlng and on-farm demonstratlonsare undetermined. To indicate the level of farmer participation in the PR&E approach. the total of the participatory activities is presented in the column \"Level of participatlon\"; e.g .. BARNESA is working directly with farmers and evaluates with farmers so the level of participation is 2.The four selected organization were A2N in Tororo distiict, ActionAid 1 ccc in Kapchorwa distiict, NARO (bananas) and VEDCO in Luwero distiict. In total 17 interviews with 135 farmers were conducted, representing 17 farmer groups (total membership 665) assisted by the four organizatlons. The groups for the interviews were selected by the organization.The farmers'level of participatlon in the design is determined by the organization's objectlve. In a researchoriented organization like NARO, scientlsts will do the design without farmers; therefore scientlsts and farmers will have a consultatlve relatlon (Johnson et al. 2003) . In development-oiiented organizations like A2N, ActionAid or VEDCO. the farmers will be more involved in the design and therefore their relation can be characterized as collaborative. The implementatlon is characterized by the range of activitles that together form the PR&E approach. Depending on the type of activity, the farmers will be more or less involved . All organizatlons involved farmers in the evaluatlon.  ü Africa Highlands Initiative (AHI) The facilitators often act as teachers. They organtze the learning activities and provide inputs like seeds and fertilizers, and knowledge. There are three types of facilitators:FacUitatorsjrom organization headquarters: They are well-educated facilitators who train other facilitators and provide training to different farmer groups. but are not attached to a specific group. Group-basedfacUitators: They are attached to one or two farmers' groups and are paid by the organization. Their leve! of education is lower than the frrst group of facilitators. They often ortginate from the government extension service but start working for NGOs beca use of the better payment. Community-basedfacUitators: They are often members of the farmer group who has received training for sorne weeks to become a facilitator. They are not paid, but get incentives like a bicycle. The way they have been trained is determining the way they are interacting with the farmers.Leaming strategies: Each organization has its own PR&E approach consisting of a selection of learning activities like study tours to create awareness, training that includes practica! components. trials and demonstrations. and printed support material. The farmers are not involved in selecting these learning activities. The PR&E approach is developed by the organization as part of its policy. based on beliefs within the organization asto the best way to engage farmers in the development process. the available resources and previous experiences. This approach is applied uniformly, regardless of the level of complexity of the technology being promoted. A2N is using a constructivist approach to learntng. Observation and analysts fonn the startlng point of the learning process. Possible causes and solutions are discussed. Farmers learn from each other's experiences; and where applicable. the facilitator's expertise is brought in. The other three organizations use a more technocratic way of teaching. Learning methods like explanation, questioning, exercises, presentations and practica! work are employed. Demonstrations are used to create interest in the technology. Model farmers in the community show the posstbilities of the technologtes in the local context. Demonstrations and practica! work are not really encouraging the fanners to apply what they have learned because these events usually consist of showtng and telling. Working in a group assumes a unifonn type of farmer with the same ability, needs and learning style.The two main outcomes for farmers are empowennent and an increased income. All organizations are working on the empowennent of groups, but the groups are not yet equal partners in the development process. In the newly introduced demand-drtven extension system in Uganda, farmer groups have to request assistance. To prepare groups for their new role, organizations invest a lot of time and effort in group development, aimed at increasing group cohesion. All PR&E approaches are leading to an increased income from sales of the surplus of food or cash crops.The main outcomes for scientists are an improved technology-development process. Farmers from A2N and NARO are involved in technology development by carrying out experiments for the scientists.There are two main reasons that the reported results have a positive bias:The selection of respondents was not at random beca use the farmers and groups to be interviewed were chosen by the organization. The presence of a representative of the organization during the inteiViews with the farmers will also have contributed to the positive results.The reported results cannot be attributed to PR&E alone. The personal charactertstics of the leamer and the leaming environment are also important for achieving results (Baldwin & Ford 1988).When the farmers and scientists develop technologies jointly, extension becomes superfluous because the farmers have leamed the technologies during the development process, but only a small portion of the farmers are participating in the research process. This is excluding the farmers who have not taken part in the development process for leaming the n ew technology.The survey and the case studies show that NGO-funded organizations with a development objective, promoting an input-based technology, have a higher level of farmers' participation, which leads to more leaming and better results.In this research it was found that participation increases the farmers' level of learning. For organizations to become more effective, they have to increase the level of farmers' participation. Their participation should not be restricted to the problem identlflcation and evaluation stages. It should be incorporated in all processes like the development of technology, the design of the leaming environment. and the implementation of the program. This requires a change in attitude on the part of both the farmers and scientists. The farmers must take up the role of partner in the development process. The farmers are no longer only providers of information and receivers of solutlons; they are actlvely involved in developing the solutions. The scientlsts need to functlon more in the role of coach rather than that of teacher. Thus the organizations must develop programs to prepare the farmers and scientists for their new roles. This Project propases to re-train extension workers into \"knowledge managers\" who are experts in promoting technology appropriation31 by farmers, through the application of a variety of farmer-centered \"methodological arrangements\". This KM approach has now been tested •m ten sites throughout the four agro ecological regions of Bolivia with a variety of actors. commodities and rural contexts.Research results render their impact as the different institutional and local actors assimilate the methodological approach. This project has undertaken to collect field-based evidence by means of numerous visits, on-site videotaping3 2 of applications and testimonies from users and beneficiaries of this approach. Evidence will help SIBTA decision makers to reflect on the ways planning, contracting, monitoring and evaluation of agricultural technological innovation projects (PITA 33 s,Sp. Ac.)  build arguments in favor of the use of the KM approach in the implementatlon of these projects.The KM approach. as defmed in this project. departs from a critical assessment of traditional approaches to technology transfer. These emphasize the role of deliverers and the importance of content-delivery in the disseminatlon of agricultura! technologtes. The socalled \"technology transfer\" process has been based on assumptions which have proved to hinder \"technology appropriation\". Assumptlons refer to (a) farmers having the necessary resources to apply technologies. regardless the size and cost of inputs, (b} farmers and their communities not having the necessary knowledge or experience to manage their farming problems, (e) fanners understanding technical jargon and easlly translating it to their local language as delivery takes place, (d) farmers accepting information based on the authority of technical personnel and quality of delivery (e.g. excellent delivery-support materials}, (d) extension agents interpreting their role as lecturers and demonstrators. and farmers the secondary role of following their recommendatlons. (e) putting aside any efforts to improve farmers' abilities to learn.SIBTA was also established under two assumptlons that proved to be wrong: (a) the existence of a large national body of qualified agricultura! technology transfer professionals. with expert knowledge of prioritized agricultura! production chains, and (b) the existence of organized farmer groups able to identify and express their technological demands and exercise control over external interventlons generated by the Agricultura! Innovation Projects, (PITAs).Several DFID funded projects such as FOCAM34, have made important contributions to strengthen the capacity of different actors of the SIBTA system to match technological demand and supply. Much has been done in terms of improving the local capacities to exercise control over externa! interventions. Nevertheless. the interaction mechanisms and strategies among professionals and farmers for a true appropriation of technologies needs to be re-eng¡neered, to incorporate endogenous knowledge and experience to the participatory constructlon of agricultura! innovations.FIT 8 has developed a glossary to describe the new methodological components of an approach that responds to identified weaknesses. Terms such as \"knowledge managers\", \"methodological arrangements\", \"knowledge constructlon encounters\", and \"development of fleld competencies\" have been introduced as research has evolved. On the other hand an intentional move away from terms such as \"technology transfer\", \"extension\", \"technical assistance\"; \"training\". \"teaching\" and \"coaching\" has been promoted among knowledge managers. It is not only new words. but also an effort to review and renew attitudes regarding the relationship between \"facilitators and learners\".The design and implementation of this project has been accompanied by a review of Uterature on critica! aspects of extension methods and knowledge sharing methodologies and approaches: (Angel 1979); (Swanson y Peterson 1991); (Roling 1991); (Elliot 1994); (Berdegué 2001); (Engel 1995)  and (McMahon y Nielson 2004), all of them providing ideas for a redefinition of the role of agricultura! extension. Other insights on the most significant participato:ry methodologies such as the Participato:ry Rural Appraisal, (PRA) developed by Ch ambers et al. (Chambers, 1992); as well as other agricultura! extension experiences summarized by Berdegué and Ramírez (1995); and others compiled by Jiggins, J. and De Zeeuw et al. (1997)   (Engel and Salomon, 1997). Other methodologies from which contributions were drawn for this project include the Local Agricultura! Research Committees (CIALs for the Sp.Ac.) developed by the Intematlonal Center for Tropical Agriculture (Ashby. 1998). the Farmer to Farmer Methodology (Medinacelli y Peigné. 1999). and the Farmer Field Schools (Okoth, 2003) The so-called agricultura! extension is a component of a larger system in which agricultura! edu catlon and research are present. This triad is what FAO has called the AKIS/RD or Agricultura! Knowledge and Informatlon Systems for Rural Development. called by the OECD countries AKS or Agricultura! Knowledge Systems. At the center of this triad is the clientele: farmers and other local actors who play important roles in rural-agricultura! development. as is clearly the case in production postproduction and commercialization chains. These components are viewed by Eicher (200 1) as involving complementary investments which need to be planned as a system. Nevertheless. the review of Uterature regarding AKS ( Fray and Echeverría, 1990;Kaimowitz. 1990, Crowder andAnderson 1997) shows that integratlon of these three pillars has not been ve:ry su ccessful. Maguire (2000) suggests a change in the agricultura! education subsystem in developing countries to make a clear emphasis on rural development and food security. Nevertheless the traditlonal view of educatlon does not allow a closer linkage between educatlon and extension. The same is true for research and extension. Even though. in the classical paradigm, agricultura! research provides inpu ts to extension agents. the truth is that research instltutlons have agendas, which are not necessarily linked to farmers needs.The KM project assumes ag-extension with a broad perceptlon (Rivera. 1987), which is interpreted as not only taking from the educatlon and research sub-systems inputs to deliver them to farming communitles, but generatlng knowledge by means of a participato:ry merge of local experience and information with technical informatlon coming from the research and edu cation sub-systems.There are severa! interpretatlons of the term \"Knowledge Management\". Sorne call it the act of translating knowledge from one level of technical complexity to another to make it accessible to other clients . Others call it the process of collecting infonnatlon and experiences. organtzing them in manageable clusters (paper, magnetic or digital collections) for people to find them when needed. Still others call knowledge management a process by which people make use of infonnatlon -as well as wisdom and experience-to crea te new knowledge. In the organizatlonal scenario, knowledge management is the process by which people make the best use of available knowledge in arder to develop new knowledge.Scholars have made a distinctlon between two different branches of knowledge management. \"First generation KM\" involves collectlng tnfonnatlon and expertence so that it is available to users. The idea was to collect technological infonnation, store it and retrteve it at will. This trend gave way to the so called \"knowledge technologies\". Essentlally knowledge management implied developing sophisticated data analysis and retrteval systems giving little thought to how the infonnation they contained would be used or further developed.At the turn of the twentieth century, theorists became more interested in the ways in which knowledge is created and shared. Organizations were now seen as capable of learning. This idea gave way to a linkage between learning theory and management. At the same time, new organizational structures were responsive to continuous structural change to adapt to rapidly changing environments.\"Second generatlon KM\" gives priority to the way in which peop!e construct and use knowledge. It is closely related to organizationallearning and recognizes that learning and doing are more important to organizatlonal success than dissemination and imitatlon. These ideas from the second generatlon KM theory provided the motlvation to prepare and develop this project. We have tested several ideas that stem from second generation KM.The KM project has trained teams of \"knowledge managers\" who are groups of professionals and fanners. who have developed abilities to elicit tacit knowledge from fanners, validate it under the light of successful experience and current scientific theory and practlce, and merge it with explicit knowledge in order to fonnulate a \"new response\" to overcome agricultural problems.Participants in this project have learned to design learning strategies to carry out fie!d experiences useful for fanners to develop \"agricultura! competencies\", which are complex tasks involved in the applicatlon of a technology component ora technology. Approprtate performance of these tasks requtres the development of an arra y of mental abilities, physical skills and attltudes. to which no attention is paid in traditional approaches to technology transfer.Development objectives: Development objectlves go hand in hand with research objectlves. In this highly meaningful activity CIAT has the opportuntty to answer research questions regarding participation with an ample group of national partners, as it develops international public goods that can be asslmilated not only by the Bolivian SIBTA but by other Natlonal Agricultura! Innovatlon Systems-NAIS35 in the Andes and Africa. To build local capacity to adapt and appropriate technological innovatlons by retraining agrtculture professionals and farmer-leaders to use the principies and strategies of knowledge management.To promote an instltutlonal dialog about knowledge management, its applicatlons and advantages in agrtcultural innovatlons to influence SIBTA decision makers to incorporate lessons Iearned from the application of the KM approach. into the system.To strengthen the capacity of FTDAs to monitor KM results and accompany innovation projects executing groups in the application of innovatlve learning methodologies.Action research activities are geared to:l. Make a theoretical and strategtc contributlon to the development of new knowledge sharing methodological altematives 2.To provide the Natlonal Agricultura! Innovation System with field-based evidence regarding the usability and effi.cacy of new methodological arrangements as to motiva te their use in the development of agricultura! innovation projects.During the last phase of the project. a study was conducted to respond to the following specific questions:Were there previous experiences in the system regarding the application of the KM approach? • Was the training provided to knowledge managers sufficient for an adequate performance in accompanying farmers in technology appropriation processes? • What were the contextua! and institutional factors. which facilitated or inhibited the application of the KM approach?Evaluator Gabriela Silva36 will presenta fmal report on the answers to these questions in April2006. Gabriela has worked with project participants in providing answers to research questions. A separate document on the methods used for this analysis is also presented in 2006 RII Annual Report.The project leaders. to achieve the stated objectives. carried out a series of steps. which are briefly presented in the following paragraphs:The action-research process started by the socialization of the project among different stakeholder groups (FrDAs. technology service providers. MACA37) and the organization of the project platform which included the stgning 36. Gabriela Silva ts the Assistant to the FIT 8 Project at Fundación Valles. 37. MACA Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios (the Bolivian Mlnistry of Agriculture).of contractual agreements with the Foundations and partners who were to incorporate the trials of various methodological arrangements within the KM approach while carrying out the agrtcultural innovation projects.Training knowledge managers: Between the months of December 2004 and May 2005 a series of five workshops was carried out to train knowledge managers. More than 150 professionals from the four macro-eco-regions were trained. Workshops were canied out in Cochabamba (2) Oruro (2). and Tarija (1) . Additional reinforcements were conducted in severa! visits toa variety of groups interested in the methodology to cover over five-hundred people influenced by the project in two years.During the workshops, action plans to test the KM approach and specific methodological arrangements were prepared by participants. integrating them to the execution of innovation projects.The training currículum for knowledge managers is presented in a Manual to Train Knowledge Managers to be published in April 2006, along with a Guide to KM: Basic Principles and Application, a video that presents local evidence of KM applications and a CD with project's documentation to be released on the same month.The following diagram shows the different types of training events carried out to train knowledge managers.Training in participatory evaluation of technologies: Methodologies to improve communication processes must be evaluated under the light of the relevance of technologies supplied. This has todo with the appropriateness of a given technology in a particular context for a particular group of farmers. Knowledge managers need to be aware of the fact that a communicatlon technology can be very effectlve to M sell\" a technology that farmers. at the end. will not apply given the difficulties they face to use its technological components. A resource-reach project may convey an impression on the feasibility of application. Once the project's resources are spent and the project closed, farmers may not be able to apply the technology for whose ~transference\" severa! thousand dollars were invested.A CIAT expert was hired by this project to conduct two workshops (Tarija and Santa Cruz-J u ly and August 2005) for knowledge managers and other technical personnel invited, on this topic. This additional reinforcement provided our people with new tools to conduct knowledge managing activities with a critica! view of the viability of technologies being exposed by innovation projects.A total of ten action plans were monitored and results recorded for evaluation pu rposes (see Appendix 1: Action Plans). During the second half of 2006 twelve field-visits were paid to knowledge managers. In each of these sites videotape recordings of experiences were made. Feedback sessions were also conducted with knowledge managers to reflect u pon their experiences and adjust means and ways to apply the approach.The accompanyi.ng team for FIT projects -an initiative of the FIT Program Facilitator-is a group of people with expert knowledge and experience on topics related to the FIT themes. They are externa! to the particular interests and activities of projects and fulfill the function of providing advice to FIT Project coordinators to ensure good project performance.These meetings were particularly interesting and helpful. Participants brought up issues to take into consideration , such as the need to involve universities in the topics dealt with in FIT projects. This idea, in the case of this project made the coordinator search for universities interested in a trainlng program leading toa ~diploma certificate\" for a variety of potential users of the methodology, among them university professors. The proposal for such a program has been submitted to three Bolivian universities for their consideration.Creating CIALs to improve a Farmer Field School performance: One of the most significant developments of the application of the KM approach took place in Sucre with a group of oregano growers, (Executing UNEC-Agrocentral38) by creating a Local Agricultura! Research Committee -CIAL. in Sillani -Padilla. The training of UNEC professionals and oregano growers in the CIAL methodology conducted by a CIAT expert, the organization of the Local Agricultura! Research Committee and the seed-money to start off with the first research topic (roya in oregano) were activities financed and accompanied by this project's coordinating team. One month later, the president of the newly appointed research committee reported progress made on six different treatments with three repetitions in one of the farmer's fields. The financia! support provided to the CIAL committee was a motivating factor to encourage farmers in the region to start making contributions to support this service for the community of oregano growers. This is a living example of a combination of methodologies: the existing farmer field school which was reinforced with the knowledge management methodology and with the CIAL. now in charge of respondtng to qu estions the farmer field school was not fit to answer.38. UNEC-Agrocentral is a cooperatlve of oregano growers in Sucre.By the end of May 2005, the FIT Program evaluators carried out a visit to one of the sites where the methodology was being expertmented (Trópico Húmedo-La Guardia. Honey Extraction-Execution group: ADAPICRUZ). The perceptions from the evaluators (Jonathan Woodsworth and Pierre de Zutter) shared with this project coordinator were positlve tn general. It provided important pathways to integrate severa! FIT projects in the extension phase of the FIT Program.The following outputs can be reported at the end of the project's two-year perlad:• Output 1: Project's institutional platform (Foundations, extension service providers and farmer participating grops) agreed u pon including responsibilities of participants at each level, to ensure sharlng of knowledge management strategies and results.• Output 2: A digital document dedicated to knowledge sharing methodologies and their application in marginalized contexts published (Aprtl 2006). Document recollects experlences with ethnic grops (aymara, quechua and guarani communities).• Output 3: A group of forty knowledge managers tratned in the four agro ecological regions of Bolivia. These knowledge managers belong to nine extension service providing organizations in the country.• Output 4: Ten different participatory methodological arrangements tested in the same number of sites with a varlety of nine commoditles and species.• Output 5: National Agricultura! Innovation System (SIBTA) leaders. Fpoudations• directors and technical personnel sensitized to the potential of the KM approach to improve extension processes in terms of higher levels of technology approprlatlon by farmers.Application of the Knowledge Management Approach in the SmTA 3 9's PITA 4 0s:Gabriela Silua Andreu41The evaluation process of the Knowledge Management (KM) Project reported in thts progress report intends to provide KM leamers with (a) a synthesis of testimonies from people who applied the KM approach to extension work and (b) an analysis of success-case stories useful to FDTAs 4 2 and the SIBTA as a whole to evaluate the use of the KM approach in the planning, contracting, monitortng and evaluation of agr1cu1tural innovation projects. A complete study report will appear in Apr112006. which summalizes an ample number of testimonies and evidence.The KM approach has been successfully applied by ten different knowledge managers' teams. in a variety of cultural. social and geographic settings. in different agrtcultural market chains, dealing with a variety of agrtcultural and livestock development topics. within the four agro ecological regions in which Bolivia is divided for agrtcultural development purposes. Evidence suggests that the KM approach can be very useful to improve technical assistance and extension practices. within the SIBTA system.The KM approach to technical assistance takes the form of a variety of M methodological arrangements\" 4 3 for knowledge sharing in agrtcultural innovations dissemination settings. which are (a) participatory. (b) based on local knowledge and experience, (e) client-centered for the development of field competencies and (d) reflexive -as they provide opportunities for practitioners of this approach to reflect on their experience and results and continuously improve methodological arrangements.The Success-Case Method 44 was selected for it allows for a rapid. efficient and credible way to estimate the impact of a particular intervention isolating those aspects which realiy work from those that do no. Highlighted aspects become lessons leruned for the organization. An as. sumption regarding the application of the KM approach was that sorne of the people trained in its use, would certainly apply it with positive results and others would not. The application of this method would allow us to clarify the reasons why the application had been successful or unsuccessful.By means of a structured interview. applied to different groups of knowledgeable stakeholders. we could be certain that the KM approach had been successfully applied, with different degrees of success, in all ten cases studied. As interviews were administered certainty about success grew. Then we proceeded to apply sorne of the principies and tools of the Most Significant Change4s methodology. This methodology is a participatory monitoring and evaluatlon instrument, which involves gathering and selectlng stories that tell about significant changes that participants (users. beneficiarles. and others) have witnessed or modifl.catlon in perceptlons or practlce that have occurred. in this case. after the introductlon of the KM approach in the development of agricultura! innovatlon projects. Farmers, technological services providers and supervisors in the four FDTAs wrote concrete stories which were later classified by the type of stakeholder who wrote the story: Farmers significant changes refer to motlvatlon growing among participants in leaming and applying a given technological component or technology. knowledge interchange. a difference marked with the traditlonal (what technical assistants did before). ease to leam and technology being easier to adapt.Technical personnel most significant changes related to greater trust on the part of farmers, the deviatlon from traditlonal models to technology disseminatlon, the move away from the academic style and the possibilitles to instltutlonalize the KM approach Supervisors of field personnel from FDTAs, identlfied as most significant changes evidence that shows this approach promotes adoption and greater sustainability of technical assistance work due to the innovatlve and partlcipatory character of this approachThe Bolivian Agricultura! Technology System-SIBTA, created by Decreto Supremo 25717. March 30, 2000. and hosed by the Minlstry of Rural and Agricultura! Affairs (MACA for tts Sp.Ac.) is a governmental initlatlve. which pursues to promote and provide support to agricultura! innovatlon and sustainable development of the agricultura! sector, with an tmportant participatlon of the private sector.SIBTA is facing the challenge to facilitate agricultura! innovatlon among poor farming communitles. It has chosen to work through two different strategies: the chain-oriented Agricultura! Innovatlon Projects (PITAs for their Sp. Ac.) and the Strategic Innovatlon Projects (PIENs. for their Sp. Ac.) which cut across regional boundaries to advance innovation in areas of natlonal strategic importance.The Department for Internatlonal Development (DFID) of the U.K. decided to provide economic support a series of projects to strengthening the SIBTA. through the Program to Facilltate Agricultura! Innovatlon (FIT for its Sp. Ac.). This program expects to develop new capacitles in SIBTA's actors to enable them to forge new innovatlon pathways for the beneflt of poor fanning communitles. At present the FIT Program is providing support to siX FIT projects and three consultantships for SIBTA. New methodologies. training processes. instruments and synergisms are being developed by these initlatlves. Among these ís the Knowledge Sharing Methodologies Project for Pro-poor Agricultura! Innovatlon Project (FIT 8) which has been led by CIAT<W. The KM project has presented the different SIBTA actors with a new approach to technical assistance (also called technology transfer and extension) that can be incorporated to the execution of the PITAs and other agriculturalinnovation initiatives. Through a systematic training process. the project has trained at least one professional of each of the four FDTAs and ten teams of knowledge managers composed by professionals and fanners. who, in tum have applied the KM methodology in ten different sites of Bolivia.Two process components are the essence of this approach: (a) knowledge reconstruction, a process by which local and technical knowledge merge through active participation of fanners and knowledge managers taking advantage of encounters that take place among them in FFS, CIALs, FTF and other forms of sharing agricultura! technology: and (b) the \"development of field competencies\" a process that departs from the identification of the key competencies expected form fanners to take a particular agricultura! innovation in their hands (appropriation). These two components are used to design learning experiences. As competencies are analyzed. it is possible to identify the technical information that needs to be shared, the mental abilities and perceptual or physical skills farmers need to strengthen or develop in order to make an efficient use of technology. From this analysis learning objectives are designed. learning and facilitation strategies identified and evaluation instruments designed.Knowledge managers are experts in the design of this type of methodological arrangernents for knowledge sharing. Their performance and the perceptions of different stakeholders about this approach were the focus of evaluation. Appendix A is a list of the institutions that participated in training and application, the project in which the approach was ínserted and the eco-region in which the PITAs were located. Participating PITAs were selected by FDTAs, using a vartety of selection criteria.To evaluate the use of the KM approach. as proposed by the FIT 8 Project. in the PITAs developed by the SIBTA system.Sorne of the questions we expected to answer were the following:1.What are the rnethodological cornponents of the KM approach which show to irnprove the development of PITAs? 2 .What are sorne of the contextua! factors. which facilitate or inhibit the application of the KM approach in different settings? 3.What positive and negative factors in the use of the KM approach do the SIBTA officers perceive? 4.Is the KM approach universally applicable to the PITAsof the SIBTA systern and is this application sustainable? 5.Can an applicable and sustainable KM rnodel be derived from experiences in the FIT 8 project?1 . The Success-case Method: This analytic methodology. as presented by Brtnkerhoff ( _ ) 47 is an effective way to evaluate organizational change. It has been designed to analyze impact of project implementation and uses results of this analysis to introduce organizational change and in their learning capacity. The questions this method helps to respond are the following: l . What are the results this project is generating? 2. What is that aspect which works better? 3. What are the factors, which facilitate implementation? 4. How can success factors be disseminated 5. What are the benefits for this organization? 6. What is the value added when using this approach?The application of this method includes five steps: l . To focus the cases and plan their study 2. To design the model for a success case 3. To apply a survey instrument to identify the best cases (and therefore those which are not best). 4. To interview and document successful and non-successful cases 5. To report results and draw conclusions and recommendations 2. The Most Significant Change Technique: Davies (2005) explains that the most signiflcant change (MSC) technique is a form of participatory monitoring and evaluation. in which stakeholders are involved in deciding the changes that are to be recorded as well as the analysis of data. 1t is also a monitoring tool for it helps identify how a process is being implemented and 1t is also an evaluation strategy for it provides data about outcomes and impact to assess a project or program as a whole.The methodological process tnvolves the collection of significant change stories about what is happening on the field and the systematic selection of the most significant of these stories by panels of destgnated stakeholders. These people are in search of project's impact. Once the changes have been identified through stories. analysts read the stories and discuss about the value of reported changes.Thorough implementation of this technique follows a series of ten steps. which can be reviewed by readtng Davis' cited document. For this evaluation. only three steps were followed: (a) collectlng the success case reports. (b) selecting the most stgnificant of these reports and (e) feeding back the results to the project and to people who generated the reports.Interviews were carrted out to collect information regarding successful experiences. Even though there were not stories written for the higher level (Foundations) . the reporter collected valuable information based on a series of questions destgned to elicit stakeholder evaluation of the KM approach. Three groups of stakeholders were interviewed: farmers who had participated in the knowledge management process. professíonals who applied the approach and supervisors of field personnel in the FDTAs. The data collection was not an easy task due to the fact that interviewees were located in the four cardinal points of Bolivia and also that these type of data collection exercises are not highly valued by many.The following table shows the different questions asked to stakeholders to develop reports on the application of the KM approach : make a parallel between thls the KM expertence in terms of actlvity using the KM approach benefits for the FDTA? and using other approaches?How do you evaluate the future How do you think this approach farmers to continue using thls u se of thls approach in your could be institutlonalized at the type of method for other organizatlon? SIBTA level? projects?Interpretation of reports pursues the identiftcatlon of common themes across stakeholders. Even though each stakeholder group has a preferable way to express its perceptions about any tssue, tt ts posstble to identlfy themes that repeat along severa! reports. These constitute the key aspects of success-failure of a particular intervention .All stories obtained with the help of intervtews are not here related. The evaluation study is still underway anda final report will be presented in Aprtl 2006. A couple of examples will demonstrate the type of perceptlons the KM approach has prompted and the corresponding tssues that are included in the stories. Producers and professional from the technology servtce providers were most active in the Writing of stortes. We expect to collect a series of reports drawn from a partlcipatory analysis of intervtews along with intervtewees. Stories are kept in Spanish to maintatn the original flavour of percetved changes.\"Mi nombre es MUton Perez, soy productor de uva desde hace 15 años. En estos últimos tres años la FDTA-Valles nos está apoyando con un proyecto para mejorar nuestra producción. Los técnicos que trabqjan directamente con nosotros son los de AGRO XXI. algunos de ellos son hyos de productores de la zona que han podido ir a la universidad a estudiar y alwra nos vienen a enseñar como podemos mejorar.El año pasado recién ha entrado el proyecto FIT 8 con la Gestión del Conocimiento. Yo nunca había escuchado de ese tema. pero he participado con otros de mis compañeros y los técnicos de AGRO XXI en talleres aqui en Tarfja y otro en Cochabamba. A partir de estas capacitaciones que hemos recibido he visto que los técnicos más se esfuerzan para que nosotros entendamos lo que nos quieren enseñar, además también nos preguntan sobre lo que sabemos.Hay muchas cosas que nosotros sabemos hacer y que hemos aprendido de nuestros abuelos, pero como nadie nos pregunta tampoco les decimos. Antes los talleres eran bien aburridores. ahóra Los talleres que vienen a damos. esperamos todos impacientes. y el tiempo se nos va rápido, alfm.al parece que el taller Lo hemos dado nosotros Los productores. Quiero agradecer a estos técnicos que han hecho unas maquetas de los sistemas de conducción que se han quedado en la escuela de mi comunidad y mis compañeros que me han convencido de cambiar mi sistema de conducción. porque estaba perdiendo platita. Yo quiero pedirles a mis compañeros que sigamos asi compartiendo nuestras experiencias y vamos a crecer juntos. ya que uno piensa que callándonos vamos a ser los más benefiCiados, pero no nos damos cuenta que lo que ustedes saben, yo no Lo sé, pero hay cosas que yo sé y ustedes no Las saben y si juntamos todo eso, podemos mejorar nuestra producción y tener más platita. \".Interpretation by the evaluator: This fragment of a story shows how motivation has grown among partictpants in the workshops coordinated by the PITA executing organization. Motivation ts related to the importance given to parttctpation of fanners to share what they know about the production of grapes. Another tmportant aspect ts the fact that the fanner has cometo change hts traditional ways of managtng the cultivar to install a new conduction system. which is a technological component shared by the professtonal team. The fanner reveals that this change has been stgntficant for him.\"Mi nombre es Ricardo Paita. soy Ing. Agrónomo y tengo 1 O años de experiencia realizando asistencia técnica. Actualmente me desempeño cómo coordinador del PITA: Manejo agronómico de Los procesos productivos del cultivo de maní en La región indígena del Itika Guasú en La empresa CER-DET. con el apoyo de laFDTA-Chaco. Antes de recibir las capacitaciones en GC del proyecto FIT 8, yo desconocía totalmente el enfoque que se proponía. En todo caso, sí tenía algunos conocimientos sobre metodologías participativas. a partir de mifonnación académica en la universidad y de algunos cursos y seminarios. Casualmente en la empresa en la que trabqjo. el año pasado se contrataron algunas personas para que hicieran una sistematización y documentación sobre las metodologías que utilizamos los diferentes técnicos para homogenizar el uso de ellas y justo llega la propuesta del proyecto FIT 8 que encqjó como anillo al dedo para el desarrollo de este PITA. • Me siento profundamente agradecido por habemos tomado en cuenta para estas capacitaciones, ya que el erifoque aprendido no solo nos sirve para ejecutar mejor nuestro PITA. Para mi caso particular, estas enseñWlZas me han ayudado en mi vida personal, en mi forma de relacionarme con las personas, en mi forma de enfrentar la vida. Yo diría que es un erifoque de vida. Yo soy parte de un equipo de 4 personas que ejecutamos este PITA y a nombre de ellos puedo decir que el enfoque nos ha ayudado a replantearnos las actividades programadas y el tiempo que invertimos en las mismas. El enfoque nos ha permitido contar con la confiQTI.Za de los productores, la cual, ahora no estamos dispuestos a perder. Nos sentimos profundamente comprometidos a seguir adelante con esta nuevaforma de hacer asistencia técnica. Los resultados intermedios que se analizan en la ejecución del PITA han sobre pasado lo esperado. Conversando con mijefe acerca de las razones de este éxito, es que él ha llegado a la conclusión y determinación de institucionalizar el enfoque y que mi equipo sea el líder para difundir nuestros conocimientos y experiencias acerca del enfoque de Gestión de Conocimientos\"Interpretation by the evaluator: This brief recollection tells about the benefits perceived by an extensionist. Trust-building is identified as a key component of the approach employed. A reflection about the new role of the extensionist is also presented. Traditional education did not make a contribution to carry out clientcentered extension work. The KM project made a contribution that is recognized to have an impact beyond the working environment and enters the aisle of personallife. Another important issue is the perception of leaders in this organization (Agro XXI) to expand the use of the KM approach and institutionalize H.Two-way lrnowledge sharing and interchange does not belong to traditlonal technical assistance models. non-participatory and vertical. Nevertheless. it is evident that. once this interchange is successfully practlced it contributes to a change of attltude supported by the idea that the two faces of lrnowledge (explicit and tacit) when taken together are the bases for greater interest in technology and its adoption.Professionals from the technology service providing institutions express that the use of this approach is viable, simple and does not imply greater costs. It contributes to farrner motivation and greater appropriation of technology components by farrners.Scaling out and scaling up of the use of KM approach depends on the decisions made by technological service proViding organizations' leaders that gains are made in terrns of efficiency. adoption and satisfaction of farrners by using the KM approach. Larger validation efforts rnight be needed to convince the more skeptical about the benefits of this approach.Narratives and qualitative inforrnation regarding the use of the KM approach are valid means to demonstrate its usability in technology disserninatlon. Training of n ew lrnowledge managers will greatly benefit of these stories in terrns of motivation and interest to use the KM tools.New evidence and further analysis is required to have a better picture of the impact this approach is making at different levels of actors in the SIBTA system. New studies need to be undertaken to improve the quality of eVidences to be presented to authorities to influence their decisions regarding the use of new methodological approaches such as the KM methodological arrangements. Over the last twenty years, the speed of change in the global economy has accelerated dramatlcally. According toan ActlonAid-Uganda report ( 2003) on agrtculture and food securtty lnterventions. agrtculture ls an overwhelming sector of the Ugandan economy. It accounts for 43% of the gross domestlc product. 85% of the export earntngs. employs 80% of the population, provides most of the raw matertals that are used in the agro-based industrial sector. and 85% of the populatlon are rural based. where agrtculture can be best practlced (Elshüf 1998). Most people in Uganda are sttll engaged in direct consumptlon or subststence-local productlon for local consumptton, \"yo u eat what you grow\". The majortty of Ugandans ltve in absolute poverty wtth an average income of one dollar a day. Toward the end of the year 2000, the Government of Uganda launched a Plan for Modemizatlon of Agriculture (PMA) and Poverty Eradicatton Actlon Plan (PEAP) . The prtmary a1m is to transform subsistance agrtculture tnto commercial agrtculture and ensure sustained food securtty and household incomes.The raptd growth of the urban populatlon presents special challenges for small-scale farmers in developing countrtes. They are under tncreastng pressure to fulfill the new market requirements of powerful supermarket chains and agroindustry. whtch demand product quality, volume. and contlnuity of delivery. Most farmers in rural areas agr ee: 'The worst pest we face nowadays is low prtces, and researchers so far h ave not found adequate measures to help!\" (Bemet et al.). The farmers must first know what to produce, when to produce, how much and for whom. Thls ls where a partlclpatory market survey becomes very vital to farmers because, together wtth their support instltutlons, market informatton is collected and analyzed to gutde farmers' dectsion on the approprtate income-generatlng enterprtse (Lundy et al. 2002).  The study area: Hoima is one of the districts found in mid-westem Uganda. Like any other district in the Lake Albert crescent zone, it receives a bimodal rainfall pattem ranging frorn 800-1600 mm per annum, with peaks in May and September for the first and second rainy seasons. respectively. The majortty of the people in this District are peasant farmers. The two farmer groups ofTukolereharnu and Tweimukye, found in Busüsi and K.itoba subcounties, respectively, are the majar focus here.Group identification and selection: Befare any activity is started in a community, there is need to identify groups through which the activitles will be channeled to reach the rest of the community members. A search for groups that are strong and representatlve and with good networking systems are selected to begin a project's actlvities. Group identificatlon is important because innovations can be easily promoted in already-focused people who share sorne common objectlves. Two farmer groups were identified 1n Hoirna District: Tweimukye and Tukolerehamu youth groups. These groups were selected so as ata later stage they would be used to scale out the activities in which they are 1nvolved to the rest of the community by facilitating the formation of new groups and training them in all aspects in which they had been trained.The two groups did an exercise called participatory diagnosis. This consists of a combination and sequencing of participatory approaches and tools for enhancing a shared understanding and learning between the local communities and R&D tearn to enable the rural communities to identify opportunities and constraints in their community and plan for approprtate interventions to enable them to get out of poverty through their own innovations. This exercise is irnportant because it is the entry point to any community where researchers would otherwise be treated as strangers. Here a dialogue is established between the community and R&D workers: and at this point trust is built as the R&D tearn gets to understand the farmers and the community at large. It is the starting point for involving farmers 1n research as in this exercise farmers mention all the assets that they have in their community and their importance to them. These two groups of farmers drew the map of their village and identified 1nstitutlons, wooded areas, farms, majar crops. rnarkets, water sources, NGOs and CBOs and ranked them in arder of irnportance for thern. Constraints 1n the community that hinder the farmers frorn progressing in their struggle for food securtty and incorne generation were also identified. During this exercise, the farmers selected crops that they felt had the potential to generate incorne. Crops and üvestock selected by Tweimukye group for income generation durtng the community participatory diagnosis were nakaati. tomatoes cabbage, chickens, pigs and goats: while the Tukolereharnu youth group selected beans, bananas, groundnuts, chickens and pigs. The above items were, according to the farmers, very likely to brtng them income, but this is where farmers go wrong, thinking that whatever they want to grow or h ave grown has a market demand. It was against this background that it was brought to the farmer's attention that whatever they have selected as options for income generation rnay not necessarily be demanded in the markets and so there is need to go to the markets and flnd out what sells, who is currently supplying the market, what quantity is dernanded, quality issues. frequency of supply. terms and mode of payrnent and other questions related to marketing of agrtcultural products such as the level of damage by weather and pests and disease attacks.Selection of market committee: The farmers were convinced that 1t could be true that whatever they had selected for income generation mtght not be demanded in the market so they accepted that a market survey be done to either confinn these selected options or to find other better opporturúties. Prior to the market vtsit and because not all the group members could go for the activtty, a market commtttee was selected by the group members. The commtttee was selected based on ability to read and wrtte, speak confidently in public, ability to gtve correct feedback, good negotiatton skills with the potentlal buyer, actlveness in group activttles, gender concems and age were also constdered. Each group selected two men and two women to form the market committee, vtsit the market and brtng back correct feedback to the rest of the group members so a decision could be made on which option for tncome generatlon to go with. Before the market commtttee vtsits the market to collect informatlon, the core facilitator makes prtor arrangements with the market outlets to be vtsited to ask for permission from the management to bring the farmers. explain the objectives of the vtsit. and make an appointment as to when the farmers should go.To get the committee ready for the market vtstt, they were tratned on what information to collect about the product they are interested in. Durtng this tratntng, farmers also realtzed that information regarding transportation of the products to the market was worth ftnding out from the buyers. Their concem here was who would be responsible for the costs of transporting the products from their farms to the market.Basing on the information gathered durtng the participatory diagnosis about the income-generating options that the farmers were interested in, the guide to the PMR was developed together with farmers as to what information should be collected about the options they had already selected before the market vtsit and also to fmd out information about others. The information to be gathered was to inquire whether the products they had selected were demanded in the markets and whether they could meet the supply condltions. In addition, farmers were also to ask questions related to explortng new opportunities in the market that had the potential of generating more income for them than the options selected earlier durtng the participatory diagnosis.Other questions were about the most demanded products, the current suppliers, quantity of supply. quality, packagtng, mode of payment and whether there was a possibility for the farmers to supply the market with sorne products. The farmers were also tratned on how to ask questions, they were to be polite, start by greeting the buyer and ask questlons in a manner that does not make the buyer think that they are collecting market information to throw him out of his business, but rather to make the buyer appear important and helpful in gutding them on the Iight products to produce for the market.Sensitive questions such as, whow much profit do you make from these products\" were to be avoided unless the buyer was willtng to give the information on his own. The market outlets vtstted were in Hoima, Masindi and Kampala, and they include the Hoima central markets, and Kolping and Millennium hotels in Hoima. Lucky Seven supermarket, Masindi Hotel. Bijah Hotel. Masindi central market. Shoprtte supermarket. Uchumi supermarket.Nakasero market, AMFRI Farms and the NOGMU market. Befare the farmers went to the markets for the survey. they had to pretest frrst to see whether they were well versed with the questions and to see the flow of questions. The pretest was done with the outlets in Hoima. after which mistakes were corrected before proceeding to other rnarket outlets.Hoima market outlets: Four outlets were visited in Hoima District: the Hoirna central market, Lucky Seven supermarket. Millenniurn and Kolping hotels. In the Hoima central market. farmers found out that there were a variety of products being sold su eh as tomatoes, onions. cabbage, groundnuts, beans, nakaati, bananas, pineapples, green peppers and so many others that the farmers could not exhaust the list. However. despite all the products that were being sold in the market. the prices offered to the farmers were very low.The Kolping and Millenniurn hotels had similar dernands. The menu served in these hotels include chicken (both local and broilers). pork, beef, dodo (amaranthus), tomatoes. green beans, matoke, rice, cabbage lrish potatoes, onions and fresh peas. These markets were not promising to the farmers beca use the quantlty of the demand was too small, yet the supply had to be constant; e.g .. these hotels consume 3-4 chickens per week, 5 small bundles of dodo a day. and 30 kg of pork per week. These hotels have a demand for the products that farmers could supply, but they buy too little, which rnakes it a risky market to rely on.The Lucky Seven supermarket had a variety of products in stock. Sorne of the products the farmers were interested in from this market include watermelons, onions, bananas, pineapples, tomatoes and carrots. This supermarket was not. however, considered a potential market because the prices they pay were too low to sweat for.Masindi market outlets: Three outlets were visited: the Masindi and Bijah Victory hotels and the Masindi central market. Masíndi offered a lot to be supplied by the farmers, including spinach, garUe, carrots, tornatoes, Irish potatoes, pineapples and baby rnelons. However, the farmers could not ascertain conditions of supply (e.g., frequency of supply); yet the quantlty dernanded was srnall. One product did offer a better conditlon of supply and the cash return was quite encouraging: garUe. The farmers intend to supply this. In the Bijah Victory Hotel quite a few products were also demanded from the farmers. Sorne of the products demanded include tomatoes, watermelons, cabbage, onions, lettuce. pork, beef. young moringa leaves, nakaa.ti, cucurnbers. pineapples and chicken; but the conditions of supply also limited the farmers as very little is demanded but has to be supplied almost daily. Moreover, the prices offered are not encouraging. In the Masindi central market, watermelons, tomatoes and cabbage were the only products that attracted farmers' attention. However the market did not offer motivatlng prices to the farmers nor did the buyers show any interest in being supplied with their products.The market committee visited five places: Shoprite supermarket. Uchumi supermarket, AMFRI Farms, NOGAMU and Nakasero market. The supermarkets had alrnost the same products, but they were not very willing to give the prices at which they buy these products from the producers on the basis that this is an agreement between the buyer and the producer. The farmers were interested in the following products in the supermarkets: hot peppers, onions. cabbage, nakaati, lettuce. tomatoes, eggplants, gtnger, white onions, watermelons, spinach, pineapples and vegetables in general.The farrners also found it hard to produce and pack to meet the supermarkets' standards. Another challenge that the farmers faced from the supermarkets and the Nakasero market was the transportation cost since the suppliers themselves are the ones who transport their produce to the buyers.The supermarkets expressed little interest in being supplied by the farrners. arguing that it is hard to deal with farrners because they are not consistent in their supply and that they circum to natural occurrences such as bad weather. Nakasero market had so many variety of products that were of farmers' interest. These products include Danial, tomatoes. onions, hot peppers, lettuce, na.kaati. cabbage, white onions, garUe, carrots, sweet potatoes and many others that the farmers did not express interest in. This market hada lot to be supplied by the farrners, but the buyers never gave them straightforward buying prices. which discouraged the farmers to supply the market. On the other hand, the market is supplied early in the morning at around 6:00-8:00 a.m. This lim1ted the farmers as it is a competltlve market where sales are made based on how early one carne and the quality of the products being sold. To the farrners. it appeared very unprofitable to supply such a market sine e they ha ve no proper means of transport to rush and arrive in time for the sales in the market so it was ruled out although a few buyers were interested in being supplied.The farmers visited two promising markets in Kampala: NOGAMU and AMFRI farms. These markets deal in organic products, both for export and home markets; and they offered excitlng opportunities to the farrners including the supply of any of the following products: hot peppers, pineapples. ginger. bananas, avocados, passion fruits, papayas, mangoes, jackfruits, garlic, oranges, tomatoes, cabbage, sweet melons, green peppers. carrots and egg plants. However. these products have to be produced organically under strict supervision of the buyers. The advantage with the markets is that they offer transport to bring farmers• produce to their offices and also pay farmers a better price than the open markets throughout the year, even when there is a lot of supply. Another advantage of this market is that it buys all that the farmers have produced, irrespective of the size. as long as it is not affected by disease. To the farmers the organic markets were better than all the other markets and less exploitative.What the buyers lookfor: Befare farmers complain that there is no market for their produce, they should have reliable knowledge of what the buyer looks for befare they comrnit themselves to supplying the market. As noted during the market visit. buyers normaliy look at the following:Well-sorted produce Farmers willing to supply the needed quantlty of produce that the buyer wants at the time that he/she wants Produce packed in good-quality containers that will make the produce look attractive but not accelerate its perishability People who operate in a group because deáling with individuals will not let the buyer meet his/her target quantity Good quaHty of the produce; t. e .. size and shape  Evaluation of market iriformation and enterprise selection: Farmers need to be guided during the selectlon of the enterprises in which to invest. This is beca use farmers often get carried away by the operatlng market prices .lt is common for them to base their decision on the products offering the highest price in the market and forgettlng other factors that may affect the productlon and supply of such products. Before selectlng any enterprise, a thorough evaluatlon of all the optlons has to be done with the farmers so that they are in a positlon to determine which products can be reallstically produced without frustratlon in the long run.Following the retum from the market visit. the market committee presented their flndings to the rest of the group member s so that a decision could be made as a group conceming which products they could produce successfully as an income-generatlng optlon. Farmers also h ad to take into consideration market demand and s upply forces and other externa! factors that could affect the productlon of the product they select. The following criteria guided farmers in selectlng the enterprises that they Iater on chose and the markets to supply: Market demand Possibillty of the profitabillty of the product The market price of the commodity Cost of transportatlon for farmers The time frame before the farmer will start realizing benefits from the product Knowledge of productlon of the product Land size Produ ctlon costs Ability to supply the market constantly Knowledge of post harvest handling of a particular product Availability of technical expertlse Ecological factors llke the type of soi1s and weather conduciveness for the products PerishabilityBased on the above criteria for selecting income-generation enterprises. discussions centered on crops that had high demand, ready market and ease of production in relation to production costs such as transportation, labor and pest/ disease management. The Tukolerehamu youth group selected the following crops: Hot peppers, pineapples, gtnger and papayas. The 1\\veimukye group selected hot peppers, gtnger, garlic and passion fruits.It is important that market research be conducted before farmer groups or individuals embark on the production of a particular product.  (I-LIFE 2004). In addition, lack of the necessary infrastructure and dispersed production have led to high transactton costs and poor market access (Mwalukasa et al. 2001;Estrada et al. 2005;Mattee et al. 2005), and the farmers' failure to reap beneflts from participating in commercial farming.Women produce from 60-80 percent of the food in most developing countiies and are responsible for half the world's food production (FAO 2004). However, gender dispartties, which are very common and widespread in Afrtcan countrtes. undermine women's recognttion and their contributions in agrtcultural technologtcal innovations (Feldstein & Poats 1989: Rao et al. 1991: Barrett et al. 2002: Thangata et al. 2002: Gladwin 2003: Schmink 2003;Udry 2003;Pimbert 2004). Gender dispartttes affect Aftican women and poor farmers in tenns of access and control to livelihood resources (natural, human, social, flnancial and physical resources; agrtcultural inputs, food securtty, income, shelter and access to intemal and local markets. and other resources that enhance their ability to make chotees and infonned decisions), production and consumption benefits (Amoloza 1998: Reij & Waters-Bayer 2001). Despite their vital role in agrtcultural production. African women and poor fanners are less secure in tenns of these resources. and tend to be most vulnerable to impacts that undennine their economic resilience to shocks and their social support networks (Amo loza 1998; Niehof 2004). Lack of access to and control over productive resource limits women and poor fanners from participating in agrtcultural technologtcal innovations (de Haan 2001; Njuguna & Valdivia 2005), thereby reducing their productive role and independent income. With regard to gender, the last two decades have seen a growtng consensus on the need for more effective ways to work with local communities to improve agrtculture and food security (Schmink 2003;FAO 2004), with an emphasis on livellhoods and the involvement of women and poor farmers.On the other hand, recent studies have indicated the importance of reinforcing social capital (SC) in communittes for successful community development and empowennent (Rouse 1996;Johnson et al. 2002;Krishna 2003). SC refers to the degree to which a community or society collaborates and cooperates through such mechanisms as networks, shared trust. nonns and values to achieve mutual beneflts (Krishna, 2003). seis a resource, a propensity for mutually beneficia! collective action that communities possess to different extents. eommunities with high levels of se are able to act together collectively to achleve diverse common objectives such as accessing and shartng infonnation via networks of contacts, improving agricultura] production, redu cing transaction costs in contracting vía trust, and sustaining capacity for collective action (Rouse 1996;Johnson et al. 2002;IeRAF 2004;Mtenga et al. 2005;NASFAM 2005).The social networks, norms and trust that comprise se are potential determinants of R&D outcomes and posítive ímpacts for sustaínable NRM (Rouse, 1996;Johnson et al. 2002;World Bank 2004). These informal networks and social relatlonships are particularly important for women and poor farmers in many African societies (Rouse 1996). To date the majortty of farmers still rely on kin and social networks for access to livelihood resources such as knowledge/skills, land, labor, inputs and capital. However, different farmers in a community may belong to different social networks for different purposes. Hence the economic and social consequences of different development projects may impact farmers' se. their organizatlonal capabllities and empowerment in different ways.Sustaínable management of existing natural resources by rural communitles offers potential for new livelihood benefits. However, this requires the development and strengthening of social and instltutlonal capacity (Kaaria 2005). timely informatlon and communication, appropriate policies and advocacy that explicitly integrate gender dimensions and decentralization of decision-making and management actlons to local govemance (1-LIFE 2005;NASFAM 2005). Mainstreaming gender represents an opportunity for identifying and enhancing vulnerable people's livelihoods. Intensiflcation of marketabie enterprtses and products (e.g .. agroforestry and fruit tree products) can also increase smallscale farmers' income (IeRAF 2004). Access to potential markets may increase farmers' incentives to partlcipate in agricultura] intensiflcation through investment in better NRM (Boserup 1981 ;Ruttan & Hayami 1991;Barrett et al. 2002;Kaaria 2005). Small-scale farmers are likely to adopt and invest in NRM technologies that produce for the market; however, appropriate strategies and methods are required to ensure security of resource/assets (labor and capital, technology management and entrepreneurial skills, market access. etc.} for sustaínable rural livelihoods.In Malawi there are different organizations with strategies for implementing marketabie enterprtses for farmers' increased income and food security. This research aims to identify these strategies. summarize and analyze them to bring an understanding of sorne key lessons and potential experiences for strategies that directly beneftt rural people particularly women and the poor. The research is divided into three phases; hence. different methodologies are used. Phase 1 aimed to identify and compare different strategies for linking farmers to markets (Objective 1). Phase 2 will cover objectives 2-4, which involve collecting and analyzing information from farmers to determine the extent to which women farmers participate in the market, types of benefits that women farmers derive from participating in the markets, and NRM decision-making/tradeoffs between food securtty and market enterprises. Phase 3 will involve organtzing and analyzing data collected and dissertation write-up.Research Phase 1: Phase 1 research was conducted from September 2005-January 2006. The major objectives were to:Identlfy organtzatlons that link farmers to markets Compare and analyze strategies that these organizations have used to link farmers to markets Select a few strategtes based on the foregoing analyses for a detailed study of overall research objectives 2-4, using structured methods and questions.This -part of the research was built on the information obtained from a few strategies that were identified durtng the preliminary research work in June 2004, where such organizations as the Association of Smallholder Seed Multiplication Actlon Group {ASSMAG), National Smallholder Farmers' Association of Malawi (NASFAM). Intemational Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIA11 and lntemational Institute of Tropical Agrtculture/Southem African Root Crops Research Network OJTA/SARRNE11 were identified as havtng potential strategies for linking farmers to markets. However. at the begtnning of Phase l. it was noted that there were other organizations wtth potential strategies through which farmers have linked to markets. Based on this, formal intervtews were conducted with key informants to obtain information on different strategies they used and also served as a means of identifying other organtzations wtth strategtes for linking farmers to markets.After the intervtews. key informants were asked whether they knew any other organizations wtth strategtes for linking farmers to the market. Through this process, 14 organizations were identified. Their strategtes were compared and analyzed using the tnstitutional framework that was destgned using important crtteria such as the type of strategy used. integration of gender, community empowerment and NRM; scale of operation. type of support offered, and type of agroenterprtses supported (Appendix 1).Based on the analysis, six organizations were selected for further analyses: CIAT, ICRAF (World Agroforestry Center). NASFAM, World Vision. ASSMAG and RUMARK (Rural Market Development Trust) . Informal discussions were conducted wtth farmers working wtth CIAT, ICRAF, World Vision and ASSMAG as a follow-up to see whether each of the strategtes met the predetermined crtterta for compartson at farmers' levels. Informal discussions wtll be held wtth farmers working wtth NASFAM and RUMARK by the end of February.Two sets of checklists of questions were developed to collect informatlon from key informants and farmers. These were pre-tested wtth a key informant and farmers working with CIAT and later on modified to capture the necessary information required for Phase 1 of the research. A follow-up was done wtth key informants through emails. phone calls and/or settlng of additional appointment meetlngs wtth them to address specific questions that needed more informatlon and clartficatlon.The research identified the following organizations with strategies for linking farmers to markets: Most strategies used this linkage modeL This is a slightly different model from that identifted by FAO in Bangladesh andEl Salvador, where traders and farmers developed markets together (FAO 2005). In Malawi farmers were assisted by their organizations to conduct market research and/ or eventually develop potential agroenterprises to meet market demands. Most organizations that fall under this model facilitated farmers' linkage with traders; sorne assisted with contractual and price agreements for marketing crops and livestock products. Although the final decision for the actual price of the commodities was left to the farmers, this model brings an understanding of the role of these organizations in the whole marketing process. CIAT, CRS, IITA/SARRNET, ICRISAT-NASFAM. World Vision, CARE and ICRAF strategies have used this model to link farmers to the markets.Linkage through a lead.ingjarmer (farmer-to-lead.íngjarmer} This model was not extensively used in Malawi. IITA/SARRNET tested this model with a few farmers in Lilongwe district. In this model cassava production was organized through different small-scale farmers. These farmers sold cassava to one leading farmer-buyer, who in turn processed the raw cassava into chips and/or flour and sold these products to potential traders in Malawi.Only a few organizations su eh as NASF AM had strategies that fall under this model. Within NASFAM. farmers were organized to produce highly marketable crops for national and international markets. Farmers sold to NASFAM. which in turn. sold the commodities to national and internatlonal traders through its Commercial Center. Farmers who worked with Concern World Wide were also linked to NASFAM. ASSMAG and World Vision also used this model, where their fanners sold commodities through ASSMAG associations and the World Vision leaders Association clubs, respectively.Linkage through specialized communication and market informatíon centers IDEAA was the only organizatlon that used this model. Sellers and buyers of different commodities including agricultura! inputs were linked through specialized marketinformation centers. Using computer networking and cell phone text messages, sellers and buyers accessed potential market information available each season. In addition IDEAA facilitated meeting of sellers and buyers for contractual and price agreement. Special radio programs were destgned to reach majorities of farmers wtth potential production and marketing information to enable them to make informed dectsions on the price of the commodities they needed to sell/or buy.These strategies were analyzed using criteria such as type of strategy used, lntegration of gender, community empowerment and NRM; servtce providers' competence, capactty building of farmers to analyze thetr market, scale of operation (no. of farmers reached and geographic coverage), and level of support servtced offered. Appendix 1 summartzes the results from the comparative analyses of these strategies.It was found that each strategy varied from one another. but all illustrated the potential for improving farmers' market access. Each strategy falls under different models tdentifted by FAO (2005), by means of which farmers had Unked wtth markets. A detailed analysts of these strategies is being flnalized in a paper.Based on the pre-determtned criteria for comparing and analyzing these strategies, this research selected CIAT, ICRAF, NASFAM. World Vistan, ASSMAG and RUMARK as having potential strategtes for Unking farmers to markets. Phase 2 wtll analyze these strategies to determine the extent to which women farmers partictpate in the market. type of benefits they derive from participating in the markets, and NRM dectsion-making/tradeoffs between food security and market enterprises.Over the past decades. agricultura! research has contributed to significant increases in world food produ ction. Maintaining these productivity increases, as well as making progress on additional goals of alleviating poverty and protecting the environment, presents a major challenge to the agricultura! research system. In order to maintain and extend the benefits of agricultura! research, new ways of doing research may be necessary. One such method, participatory research (PR). seeks to involve the in tended beneficiarles of research in the research process itself. based on the idea that user partictpation wfll lead to more effictent and effective design and targeting of technologies, thereby reducing diffusion time and helping ensure that the intended beneficiarles are reached with technologtes suited to their needs.In principie, the concept of PR has been widely accepted. Few scientists would consider dotng adaptive research on agricultura! or natural resource management technology development without at least sorne input from users. There are many types and degrees of participation, however. with very different implications for the costs-benefits of research. For example, asklng farmers' opinions or inviting them to visit fteld trtals is a type of participation; however it is very different from letting farmers make decisions about what kinds of technologtes will be developed or traintng them to carry out research themselves. Because PR methods incorporate user perspectives in the research process. 1t is often claimed that they ortent research more towards the needs of the poor and thus result in a greater impact on poverty alleviation than conventlonal research. It cannot be said a priori that partlcipatory methods make research more pro-poor because this would depend on the extent to which the needs and prtortties of the poor differ from those of the non-poor. and whether or not the poor are specifically targeted in the research process.Whether PR makes research more pro-poor is essentially an empirical question. Therefore. in order to understand the relationship between PR and poverty alleviation better, empirical evidence is needed on what impacts participatory methods have had on poverty in the context of speciflc projects and partlcipatory methodologtes. This project seeks to begtn to fill this gap. The study builds on results from an earlier study (Hincapié. 2003) and a survey done by the IPRA Project in 1998 (Ashby and García, 2000) . The study built on results from an earlier study Hincapié (2003) and an irnpact assessment study conducted by the IPRA Project in 1998 (Ashby & García, 2000).l.The specific objectives of this study were: 2 .To identify characteristics necessary for a cornrnunity member to participate in the CIAL (including well-being and educationallevel, gender, innovators, unusual, etc) 3.To assess social and human irnpacts of the CIAL to its members as well as the members of the cornrnunity Research questions:(a} What are the characteristics necessary to become a CIAL member? (b) How is participation in CIAL membership distributed across the different gender and wealth groups? (e) Do ClALs irnprove the flow of information on technology demand between farrners/communities, to other communities and research and development organizations? (d) What are the benefits of being a CIAL member (human capital and social capital)? (e) What is the impact of the increased human and social capital arnong the members and communities?This study exarnined the irnpact of CIAL methodology. which incorporates farmer participation in the agricultura! research process, through the establishment of local agricultura! research committees (CIALs) in rural cornrnunities. This method was developed at CIAT in the 1990s and is currently used in approximately 250 cornmunities of several Latin American countries. The cornmunity establishes a research committee With elected members. Each CIAL is supported by an agronomist or extension agent who trains the committee members in the research design (controls, replicates, systematic evaluation of results) and who visits their trials regularly to provide technical support. Support for the agronomist comes from the institution supporting the CIAL. usually an NGO, the national research or extension service, or sorne other institution involved in technology development and transfer. Costs of experimentation are covered by outside funds; however farrners are not paid for their participation or time. Research problems and priorities are set at the level of the community (by vote). but the experimentation is done by the CIAL on behalf of the community. Community members are able to visit the trials all along. and results of experiments are disseminated at the level of the community. If a series of experiments identifies a promising technology or practice. the CIAL Will recornmend 1t officially. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual frarnework used to assess impacts. The study was made taking in count both levels: community with and without CIALs. and CIALs. Table 1 lists all CIALs included in the study. The sampling was done as follows:l. CIAL level: The sample was selected from all existing CIALs in Cauca department that have more than 5 years. To ensure a representative sample, CIALs were also stratlfied by age and gender of membership. Thirteen CIALs in 12 communities in were selected. At the CIAL level, individual household interviews were conducted, and focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted at the CIAL group leve!. All the CIALs included in the study and their description is included in Table l.In arder to understand the impact of CIALs on individual members as well as on other community members. individual household interviews were conducted in six CIAL communities and four communities without CIALs. In each of these communities both CIAL and non-CIAL members were interviewed. In addition, both the male and female h eads of household were interviewed. Fou r of communitles selected: El Jardín, San Bosco, Tres Cruces and Cinco Días, were selected beca use they formed part of the study documenting the tmpact of the CIAL methodology (Hincapié, 2003). while the other two (Crucero de Pescador and Carpintero) had been in the impact study conducted in 1998. The tnformation from these earlter studies fonned the basts for the design of the surveys for this study.In arder to control for changes in the communtties attrtbutable to the presence of CIALs. 4 counterfactual communittes were also selected on the basis of not being neighbors and similarity in various characteiistics. The objective of this characterization was to learn the differences between the CIAL members and non-members within the CIAL communities. and to assess whether CIAL members are representative of their community. The following socio-economic charactertstics of CIAL members and non-members were compared: Amount of own land, if they work off the farm or not. educationallevel. whether the person hires labor or is hired (work days hired during the year). yearly availabiUty of food and participation with community organizations. Tables of these results are found in Appendix l.The results show that there is no significant difference between CIAL members and non-members in terms of of-farm actiVities, land ownership, whether the farmer seeks offfarm employment or not, and land size. However, there were significant differences between CIAL and non-CIAL members in terms of level of education, participation in other organizations, yearly availability of food and whether household hires labor or no t.The results show that a larger number of CIAL members (75o/o) hired labor durtng sorne time of the year, which contrasts significantly with the non-members (47.5o/o) who hired labor during the same pertod of time. In comparing• the total months in which the household faced food scarcity in the year 2003 between the members and non-CIAL members. it was observed 30.6o/o of the CIAL members and 14.6o/o of the non-CIAL members, stated that there was no scarcity of food . This may imply that one benefit of the CIAL methodology is improved food situation, which is expected beca use a majority of the CIAL work focuses prtmarily on crops that are important for food security in the region, such as common beans and maize.The rest (85.4% of the non-CIAL members and 69.4% of the members) stated that durtng sorne time of the year, there was insufflcient food, which affected the quality of life of the community. although those belongtng to the CIAL indicated they were less affected. Other resuJts show that a higher percentage of CIAL members (30.6%) have had secondary educatlon as compared to non-CIAL members (8 .8%).Additionally, CIAL members partlcipate in many other organizations in the community. For example, compartng members and non-CIAL members in relatlon to their participation in community organizations, found that a majority of community members 86.1 %, partlcipate in at least one organization. On the other hand, of the nonmembers. 51.8% partlcipate in l-3 community organizations and 63.9% of the CIAL members participate in at least four organizations.(b} How do CIAL members Beniftt from Participation: This section analyzes the impacts resulting from participating in the CIAL. The CIAL methodology is based on the premise that participation will build human and social capital through the enhanced capacity to experiment with new agricultura! practices (Ashby 2003). Strengthening human capital, which involves enhancing farmer's knowledge and understanding processes is seen as an important compon ent for building rural people's capacities to innovate. and is probably more important than just involving them in developing the technology (Johnson, et al .. 2002). Various studies show that strengthening group working processes and enhancing social capital, is an important asset that can provide a vartety of supportive mechanisms for enhancing rural livelihoods. At the community leve!. strengthening the social capital of rural communities and their organizational capacity is critica! for horizontal and verticallinkages among communities. and between communities and rural service providers (Sangtnga. Kamuisha and Martín, 2005;Ashby et al. 2000).In this study, human capital was measured by assessing: leadership potential, enhanced capacity to experiment with new agricultura! practices. and the capacity to facilitate problem solving in the community. This study looked at the relationship between farmer expertments conducted outside the regular CIAL activities and new crops tested within the CIAL. The results showed that 23% CIAL members did not conduct trials outside of those done by the CIAL. Of the group that did conduct other experiments besides those of the CIAL. 92.3% experimented with new crop varteties. Ninety four percent of the CIAL members indicated that they had acquired new skills in: new technologies for crop management; doing research in agrtculture; organizing and administertng agriculture and Uvestock production; marketing; speaking in public; and organizing meetings with the community.Another indicator used to assess change in human capital was the number of positions a person holds in the vartous community organizations. The study found that within CIAL members the capacity to organize and lead community meetings increased with number of years the person had been aCIAL member. On the other hand, when CIAL and non-CIAL members were compared in terms of participation in community organizations. the study found that there was no significant difference in participatlon in community organizations. However. a large percentage CIAL members (85.4%) were in leadership positions in the vartous community organizations. as opposed to non-CIAL members (15%} . These results are supported by focus group discussions results, which found that leadership potential. responsibility and commitment to the community were part of the crtteria used to elect members.{e) Social and Human Capital Benfifjts at the level of the community: In the comparison between the CIAL members and the members of their community, this study found significant differences. in terms of new varieties tested, changes in the way of planting and in providing agricultura! advice to someone outside the family. during the last five years. With respect to new varieties of crops tested during the last five years. 59.2% of the members tested new varieties at least once in contrast with the 35.0% for non-members. The CIAL members had tested varieties of traditional crops (common beans and maize) and nontraditional ones (fruits, vegetables. wheat, rice and sugarcane). whereas the nonmembers had concentrated only on varieties of traditional crops (coffee. maize, common beans and cassava). With respect to the change in the way of planting during the last ftve years, it can be observed that around 55% of the members ha ve tried to change something with respect to the way of planting, whereas only 38.5% of the nonmembers have tried. In the variable \"providing agricultura! advice to someone outside the family, M results showed that CIAL members provided twice as much agricultura! advice as nonmembers (51 versus 25.9%).Nevertheless. we expected to find these results. These differences can be explained by the activities of the CIAL methodology, the training, study tours and exchanges that these committees do. For the members, experimenting is an activity of the committee. and they have access to new varieties through exchanges with other groups and their relations with institutions. It should be highlighted that the nonmembers have also had interest in experimenting with new varieties and farming techniques despite the fact that they have not received the same training as the CIAL members.In the analysis, we can see the existence of a group characterized by members that had conducted experiments beyond those that were part of the CIAL's normal activities, had also experimented with new crops, learned other skills, and had a higher level of participation in other community organizations. The foregoing is corroborated by the multiple correspondence analysis, which distinguishes the two groups: The ftrst is characterized by low community participation, which could be associated with their not changing their level of commitment to the community, their low interest in acquiring new skills or in testing new crops. In the second group are people with a high sense of belonging to the community, which is manifested by their high participation in organizations and their change in commitment with the community. They have also acquired new skills, whlch could be related to their interest in testing crops other than those that they generally plant. Using schooling as the explanatory variable, we can say that the higher level of education with the second group. Therefore we can assume that the benefits of being a CIAL member are. to a great extent, reflected in the members with a higher level of education.(d} Improvement of leadership skills in agriculture and recognition as leaders in agriculture: To analyze this indicator, the recognition of CIAL members by their communities as leaders, experts in agriculture, and as being capable of solving agricultura! problems in the communities were studied. Figure 2 shows that CIAL members are being recognized by their communities as being capable of attending to a group of visitors that would like to know about agricultura! matters in their communities. The foregoing indicates that their communlties recognize that CIAL members have extensive knowledge about farming in their communities. These findings are also be corroborated by further results indicating that CIAL members are the farmers most recognized by their communities as agricultura! experts. Figure 3 shows,that the CIAL is one of the organizations to which belongs farmers recognized by the community as knowledgeable of community-related agricultura! problems, and to whom a group of visitors could be taken. The results show that CIAL members are representative of their communities in various aspects: of-farm activities practiced, whether the farmer seeks off-farm ernployment or not, and land size. However, there were significant differences between CIAL and non-CIAL members in tenns of level of education, participation in other organizations. yearly availabillty of food and whether household hires labor or not. The study found CIAL members suffer less for shortages throughout the year as compared to non-CIAL members. This was an expected result because a majority of CIAL experiments focus primarily on crops that are important for food security in the regton. such as common beans and maize.The results also show that there are significant social and human capital benefits for CIAL members and their communities. CIAL members indicated that they had gained more knowledge about agriculture and were expertmenting with new technology and were seen as agricultura! experts and advisors in the community. Both results from the surveys and focus group discussions corroborate signiflcant improvements in CIAL members communication and leadership skills. CIAL members expertmented more with new crops. had learned other new skills. and had higher levels of commitment to their cornmunities, thereby leading to a higher level of cornmunity participation. Commun1ties acknowledged that CIAL members were experts in agriculture, were capable of attending to visitors and of solving agricultura! problems in the communities. The commun1ties indicated that they could consult CIAL rnembers when they had agricultura! problems.    Many practitioners recognize the irnportance of participatory initiatives in these marginal contexts for helptng to generate locally appropriate technologies and in helping farmers to adapt technologies to their farm-speciflc needs (Korten, 1980;Chambers, 1994;Selener, 1997: Berdegue and Escobar, 2002: Van de Fliert et al., 1999). In particular, participatory initlatives that incorporate more broadly-based efforts to enhance the natural asset base. build local instltutlons and strengthen networking are showing potentlal to instlgate longtenn and sustainable innovatlon (Berdegue and Escobar, 2002). However. an ongoing challenge for participatory projects is demonstratlng the value-added from local stakeholder partlcipatlon (Aycrigg, 1998). Many of the most irnportant impacts are related directly to the project process and are hard to anticípate at the project outset making them very difftcult to capture in impact assessments. Practltioners are searching for comparatlve frameworks for measurtng the impact and, more speciflcally, the 'sustainable' irnpact of rural development projects. However. it is an uphill climb when the primary common element among small farmers in developing world contexts is diversity.This paper seeks to add to the growtng body of literature on sustainability of agriculturallivelihoods for the rural very poor and, in particular, the role of participatory approaches for promotlng what Stockmann (1997) has referred toas innovation-oriented sustainability. It outlines the results of a recent multi-level impact assessment of the CIAL (Spanish acronym: Comite de Investlgacion Agrícola Local (CIAL) participatory agricultura! research project in North-Central Honduras and it explores the implicatlons of these results for comparatlve frameworks for measuring more social and participatory project outcomes. The paper examines the different context-oriented divisions of ruralllvelihoods used by Berdegue and Escobar (2002) . Speciflcally it discusses the implications of the highly dtverse livelihood contexts of asset poor farmers for developing reliable and comparable impact assessment {lA) frameworks for measurtng innovation-sustainability. The paper culminates in a list of principies for IA's of agricultura! research and tnnovation projects, which is meant as a launching pad for thinking about context-ortented approaches to s ustainability and comparative frameworks for participatory rural project evaluatlons. development goals and approaches for agrtcultural innovation initiatives. The three categories are: a) fanners in areas with a high asset position and with favorable production environments. b) fanners in a low asset position with favorable production environments and e) fanners in a low asset position with unfavorable production environments (Berdegue and Escobar 2002:8). They argue that strategtes to improve conditions of rural poverty must recognize these different rural contexts and customize their approaches approprtately.Farmers in the first two categortes have medtum to high agricultural potential and networks, and agrtcultural innovation is market-drtven or at least market ortented (Berdegue and Escobar, 2002). Poverty reduction strategtes may target these areas since improvements in agrtcultural production will have not only sorne direct effects but also a high potential for indirect effects on urban and rural poor who are the net buyers of surplus production (Berdegue and Escobar, 2002). In these contexts, where agrtcultural production is market-drtven. 'sustainable agrtculture' is often interchangeable with the concept of 'sustainable development'. Sustainable agrtculture occurs where ~farming seeks to make the best use of nature's goods and services whilst not damagtng the environment\" (Pretty. 2000: 7;and Pretty. 2001 : 4;also see Altiert, 1995;Thrupp. 1996;Pretty, 1995bPretty, , 1998)).However. the reality is that the majozity of the world's rural poor will derive only very limited direct or indirect benefits from conventional agrtcultural research. The Honduran fanners involved with the CIAL project fall into Berdegue and Escobar's (2002) third category, characterized by extremely marginal growing conditions and few assets aside from unskilled labor. They have very diversified Uvelihoods, often relying heavily on nonagrtcultural activities to support their families, rendertng much of the formal agrtcultural research of limited relevance to their needs. It is in these contexts that we see a break down of the more conventional model of agrtcultural research-innovation-extension-adoption. In this context approaches to 'sustainable' development and approprtate interventions become much more complex. Here, 'sustainable development' and 'sustainable agrtculture' cannot be used interchangeably. It is in this category that this paper will focus, where measuring impact for 'sustainable' development is the most complex.For fanners living in a precartous polltical, social, human and natural environment, livelihood diversity extsts not only across households, but also across time (reflecting changes both in the stage of growth of the household and environmental changes) for any given household. Shaxson. (2000: 1 O) recognizes that ~di serete impacts are not usual, and tmpact happens at different potnts in the process, and in different ways for different reasons.\" Farming is heavily reliant on nature as well as poli ti cal and market structures that are both equally unpredictable and unalterable by the rural poor. These fanners are obliged to adjust their livelihood strategtes to adapt to these changes.The appropriateness of new technologtes/solutions in this context is impermanent and context specific over space and time. The assumption of ~relative homogeneity and stasis\" in these contexts has led to the demise of innumerable development initiatives in the past (Mog, 2004(Mog, : 2142)). Berdegue and Escobar (2002: 10} argue that in these contexts program strategtes have to be broad-based, focusing on enhancing asset positions including education and access to credit and most importantly creating ~local networks of social capital /which) play important insurance and solidartty functions.\" Mog (2004) also asserts that ~to tackle adequately the full spectrum of challenges presented by sustainable development requires a great diversity and multitude of ideas that can be adapted locally\" (p. 2142). This context diversity therefore has important implications for defining 'sustainability'.Context: This study was conducted in conjunction with CIAL participants in the municipalities ofYorito and Sulaco in the department ofYoro in north-central Honduras. La Fundacion para la Investlgacion Participatlva con Agricultores de Honduras (FIPAH) supported 25 local agricultura! research committees (Comites de Investigacion Agricola Local: (CIALs)) in Y oro at the time of the study. Twenty of these were mixed, two were all male and three were all female. Average membership per CIAL in the area was 9, with a range of 6-23 members. The CIAL methodology was developed in the late eighties by the IPRA team, led by Jacqueline Ashby. CIAT {Ashby et al., 2000} The overriding objectlve was to provide an ongoing platform for integrating local needs assessments. local decisionmaking. and tnnovation for 'sustainable agriculture' among poor and marginalized farmers (Braun et al. , 2000). The approach enables community-based research teams to look for their own solutions to local agricultura! problems. CIALs test out new agricultura! technologies/techniques against local practlce(s) through the design and execution of simple experiments. These are evaluated and analyzed by the CIAL and. if successful, the technology is recommended to the community. Honduran agronomists were trained by CIAT in the CIAL methodology in 1996. There are five regional CIAL assoclatlons (ASOCIALs) in Honduras comprising around 900 farmers. FIPAH supports three of the regional CIAL associations. The largest concentration of CIALs is located in Y oro (ASOCIAL Yorito. Victoria and Sulaco. where the impact assessment was conducted.Through the CIAL project. farmers leam how to plan. manage, evaluate and analyze experiments. In each participating community, the CIAL hosts a community meeting to discuss local agricultura! needs and to prioritize research goals. Agricultura! priorities identlfted by communitles in Yorito and Sulaco have been largely oriented around the productlon of staple crops: maize and beans. reflecting the overriding concem with food security. Thus 79% al1 the agrtcultural experiments carried out by CIALs have involve vartetal testing or management techniques associated with maize and beans. However. most CIALs tend to carry out more than one experiment ata time and new crops such as soybean, wheat and rice or new inputs, such as organic fertilizers and pestlcides, are often tried out alongside research in baste staples. The CIAL groups in Honduras also provide a platform for requestlng information. assistance and micro-credit loans. CIAL members leam about managing budgets. sewing. new recipes. nutrition and health, amongst other things. They also administer loans provided via the Second Order Organization (ASOCIAL). These loans are sometlmes used by the CIALs to purchase materials for building grain silos, or committee meeting rooms but they also afford CIAL members the opportunity to take individualloans from their CIAL organization to buy seeds or agronomic inputs. to huy/produce extra grains to store against the hungry season orto help make ends meet when produce from the prior harvest season has diminished.The CIAL project in Honduras provided a rare opportunity to take the results of a long-term (with more than 10 years ofwork in the fleld) and on-going agrtculture project and employ participatory methods to understand the connection between the visible impacts and project methods. In this research we combined altemative and participatory tools with more conventional interview and survey methods in an effort to capture both process-oriented changes and product impacts -both anticipated and unanticipated. The livelihoods framework acted as a guide for ensuring attention was given to all five-asset categories, human, social, natural, financial and physical capital. Because of the important role of these more process-oriented 'enabling' factors for 'sustainability' specific attention was given to capturing the more social impacts in this research. The methodological process in this research was five-fold:(í) Thirty-one initial interviews helped to identify impact categories that were later used for probing during focus group activities. In these interviews participants were asked to describe 'changes' since joining the CIAL in each of the five capital asset categortes in the livelihoods framework. This information was used to guide focus groups with CIAL participants (Classen, 2003). (ii) In the second stage project staff and local participants facilitated focus groups in seven CIAL communitles. A number of active learning tools were employed durtng these groups that encouraged small-group brainstorming and discussion to encourage shy participants to provide input. 60 The information generated durtng these díscussions was abundant and identified a number of unexpected project effects and impacts. Local participants also identified a number of quantltative indicators that helped explain and justify more qualitative changes. In particular, changes in gender roles were made visible, something that had not been captured by prior CIAL assessments. (iü) Follow-up interviews were used to crosscheck the information gathered and were a good opportunity to further discuss points that were unclear during the group activitles. They also captured certain negative aspects that did not come up durtng the focus groups (Classen, 2003). (iv) In the fourth stage the changes and indicators of more social changes identified durtng the particípatory activities, as well as those of interest to the project staff and researchers were incorporated into a survey that was delivered to over 300 randomly selected project participants and non-participants in project communities. (v) Finally, the results of both the qualitative and quantitative analyses were brought back to the participants and more focus groups and small-group activities were employed to better understand the results and their implications for sustainability. These proved invaluable for explaining unexpected results of the survey. They also proved to b e extremely useful for motivating and encouraging the project participants themselves who often exclaimed \"this is the frrst of al! of surveys we've partlcipated in that has cared enough to brtng the information back to us\" and in many cases the partlcipants immediately organized small group activities to address sorne of the concerns and challenges identified in the study.The five areas of impact were defined: l) Producing sustained improvements in agricultura! production for food securtty. The other four are more social in nature and mtght be thought of as enabling factors for improving food securtty. These are: 2) Capactty building for ongotng innovation 3) Inclustveness 4) Social capital constructlon for mtnimizing risk, and 5) Social capital and networking for institutional sustainability. 60. The active learning too! \"think-pair-share\" was found to be the most successful of for engagtng all the participants In the dlscusslons. See Stalhelm-Smith, 1998 and Simons, 1997 for a dlscussion of active learnlng tools and their appllcations.Production and Food Security impacts for CIAL members: The results clearly indicate that the CIAL has hada significant and positive impact on food security for CIAL members. CIAL members had signiflcantly shorter hungry seasons than non-members. Whereas the average annual period of severe food shortages, referred to as the hungry season. was as high as 5.6 weeks for non-members in CIAL communities. the CIAL members in those same communities experienced an average of 1.6 weeks of hungry season last year and many of the respondents found that the hungry season had been eradicated altogether in the past few years. This is a result both of technological innovations made available to CIAL members and human and social capital development.CIAL members had significant increases in maize and bean ytelds compared to non-CIAL participants. Whereas maize yields increased for 61.2% of CIAL members and bean yields increased for 56.3% of CIAL members. only 29.4% and 32.4% of non-members expertenced an increase in maize and bean yields respectively over the past five years. Thus improved yields for CIALs, as demonstrated below, are generally a function of multiple factors. rather than the simple adoption of new seed. CIAL members equate improvements in maize produ ction to changes in farm management practices rather than new varieties. These activities include the better soil conservation techniques, better fertilization and planting techniques and. perhaps most importantly. better grain storage techniques. Many members explained that improved maize storage in gram silos introduced to the CIALs in 1998, along with plann ing for more effective estimation of food consumption, have been the most significant contrlbutors to food availability during the hungry season. CIAL members had significantly higher levels of familiarity and/or adoption of the following 13 of 17 new technologies or management techniques investigated by this study: identification of diseases in bean crops. fertilizer use, seeding density, planting distances, planting along the contour, organtc insecticides, selection of plants. seed selection, live barriers, incorporation of crop residues, live fences. in-row tillage, and food preparation techniques from soybeans.The extent of positive impact among CIAL members did not translate into widespread impact for non-CIAL members in CIAL communities. More complex techniques or complex combinations of management techniques and new crops h owever require much more learning and adaptation, effectively inhibiting adoption. The results show however. that that CIAL research is more relevant to their community needs than most other agrtcultural initiatives in their communities. When asked what kinds of things they would want an agrtcultural organization to do in their communities. 68% of non-participants in CIAL communities indicated that they liked the current work of the CIAL and would like to see the CIALs continue with many of the activities they are already engaged in. Eight-six% of the nonparticipating respondents find the activities and solutions presented by the CIAL so relevant to their needs that they would pay for their services, either through trade or cash.The CIAL members have a stgntftcantly higher capacity for problem identification, and appropriate solution development than non-members. which effectively enables them to find solutions to problems of food availability. When compartng participants and non-participants, the study found that CIAL members are doing more experiments on their own farms to look for solutions to agricultura! problems. As a result of their capacity for experimentation and enhanced agrtcultural skills. and extensive bank of solutions. CIAL members are recognized as agricultura! leaders in their communities. In CIAL communltles. 76.2 % of CIAL members and 60.2o/o of non-members recognized a CIAL member to be the 'agricultural experimenter' in their community. When farmers were asked where they seek agricultura! advice in their communities, 78.1 o/o of the CIAL members said that they can rely on the CIAL to find solutions to agricultura! problems and 31.0% of non-members said the same.A common criticism of 'participatory projects' is that they do not necessarily ensure equal opportunitles for the poor or minorities in the community. Poor, marginalized and illiterate people can often feel intimidated about joining local groups and decision-making wtthin the groups is often controlled by local elites (Humphries et al., 2000). This was the case with the CIALs in Honduras at the outset and in 1999 a project assessment found that illiterate farmers and women were underrepresented and rather more outspoken fanners and community leaders or joiners' tended to dominate the CIAL groups (Humphries et al, 2000). This has the potential to limit the relevance of CIAL recommendatlons, excluding those •most in need' in CIAL communities. Recognizing this, the CIAL project developed mechanisms to engage the poor and marginalized in the CIAL.The CIAL project found that with persistent encouragement of people to participate within communities through motivation by effective facilitation, the CIAL could appeal to the more marginalized groups in the communities. Thus, since 1999 the CIAL program in Honduras adapted the methodology from that of being elected to the CIAL by popular vote only, to including everyone interested in joining. In particular, women have been encouraged to join the CIALs. Durtng participatory research activities, many CIAL participants expressed the view that the CIAL offered the first and only opportunity for women to participate and gave them the first excuse to challenge gender roles in the household and begin to participate more actively in other activities, including agricultura! decisions and household spending. Project staff have found that once poorer, more marginalized persons do join the CIAL they tend to be more committed to the CIAL over the long term because they have benefited least from national extension services and hence have the highest propensity to benefit from the CIAL.Among the CIALs that had more than five years expertence at the time of this assessment. all were representative of their communitles in most measures of socioeconomic status. It remains in Honduras that agricultura! research is of limited appeal to the landless poor and this research showed that farmers with a basic leve! of literacy more readily joined the CIAL. However, no signiftcant differences were found in totalland area or cultlvated land area between member households and non-member households in CIAL communities. The overall average size of totalland owned is 3.1 manzanas (mz) or 2.17 ha and the cultivated land size is 2 mz or 1.4 ha. The median totalland size for both member and non-member families was 2.0 mz or 1.4 ha. The median cultivated land size for member families was 1 ha and for non-member families was 1.4 ha. As well, this research found no significant differences between member and non-member households in prtmary crops, in both cases they were maize and beans, nor in the average percentage of land dedicated to coffee. Finally, the same percentage of families in each of the two groups hire farm laborers each year and the average number of weeks of off-farm work per family last year in the two groups was not significantly different (overall average of 21 weeks). In all measures of land size and farming systems, CIAL members are representative of their communities.There are small but significant differences in animal ownership among CIAL member families and non-member families. The largest difference in the average number of animals owned was in the poultry category, with 14.32 for CIAL families and 8.79 for non-CIAL famtlies. There was also a small dtfference between the number of pack antmals and ptgs owned by member and non-member families. CI.AL famiites own an average of 1.46 pack animals whereas non-member familles own an average of 1.13. CI.AL members also explained that sorne have recently acquired a pack animal because they have begun to use live grass barrters in their fields as a soil conservation technique with the CIAL and this provides enough food to sustain one pack animal. Non-CIAL families have not adopted Uve barriers to any large extent and therefore do not access to have this food source. CI.AL member households also own 0.68 more pigs on average than non-member households. No significant dtfferences were found in animals that indica te more traditional forros of wealth su ch as cattle (mean number owned is 0.64) and other ruminants (mean number owned ts .20). Thus the small differences in poultry, pig and pack animals for CIAL members is a result of the recent acqutsttion of these animals rather than being an tndicator of an tnitial higher level of socio-economic well-betng.There are also small stgniflcant differences in educationallevels between CI.AL and non-CIAL members. In the CIALs. 46.8% of the CI.AL members have four to stx years of elementary education compared to 23.5% of non-members. Likewise, 80% of CIAL members are literate compared to 64.3 o/o of non-members. Literacy is certainly not a pre-requisite for membership but lt remalns a limiting factor for lnitial attraction to the CIAL. The CI.AL still appeals to individuals in local households wtth higher levels of education.The participatlon of women in the CIAL has a significant impact on household dynamics. changing the perceptlon of both men and women of men's and women's roles in society, often tmprovtng problem solving between women and men, and affordtng women more liberty to partictpate in the community and collaborate in household decision-making. As well. the participation of women played an important role in encouraging the adoptton of soy. a new crop in the communtty as well as diffusing informatlon leamed in the CIAL beyond the group to non-participating community members. These effects are most often the strongest in households where both husband and wtfe particlpate together in the CIAL and less stgnificant when only one of elther the husband or the wife is a member in a CI.AL.The perceptlon of both men and women of men's roles in the family and society changed signtficantly. partlcularly when both husbands and wtves were CIAL members together. Etghty-etght percent of the respondents of households when both the husband and wtfe were members felt that the husband had become more responsible wtth the farro and the family. The latter often lncluded a reduction of alcohollsm (a common problem throughout rural Honduras). more partlclpation in the community and, in a very small number of cases. becoming more helpful wtth children and household chores. When only one of either the htisband or wtfe was a member of the CIAL over 60% of respondents still felt that the man's role had changed. In households where n either husband nor wtfe was a CIAL member. 37% of the respondents recogntzed a change in the men of their household.Likewtse, the perceptlon of women's agency in the family and community changed in CI.AL households. When both the husband and the wtfe were CIAL m embers together. 91% of both male and female respondents recognized that such women play a bigger role in community activitles and organiZations and/or participate more directly in agricultura! actlvitles and when only the wtfe was a member 81% recognized a similar change. In this case there was no slgntficant dtfference between households where b oth the husband and wife are members and those where only the wtfe is a member. When only the husband was a member, significantly fewer (61 %} of the respondents recognized a similar change in women's actlvities or agency within the community and only 31% ofthe respondents recognized a change when no one in the family was aCIAL member.Problem solving tactlcs between men and women also improved more often for CIAL member households than non-member with results reflectlng those above. When both were members. 70% described changes in problem solving mechanisms between themselves and their partner that were more egalitarian than the situatlon five years previously. Whenjust the wife was a CJAL member 86% recognized similar changes and only 50% indicated that problem solving had become more egalitarian when only the husband was a member or when no one in the household belonged to the CIAL.Women's partlcipatlon with the CIAL also hada significant effect on their empowerment. A significantly higher percentage of women who are CIAL members play a role in decisions regarding what and where to plant on the farm, which farm products to sell and when and what food to purchase for the family, than non-CIAL member women, regardless of whether their husband was a CIAL member or not. These women also explained that this had changed signillcantly over the past five years. most often attributlng this to a change directly related to increases in decision-making and organizatlonal capacity resultlng from partlcipatlon with the CIAL or other local organizatlons.The third and arguably most important enabling factor that carne out of this research is the minimizatlon of risk. Poor farmers are constrained by livelihood and social risks. The functional relatlonships that evolved during the process of learning the intricacies of formal agrtcultural research as a group was one of the strongest factors enabling them to investigate new technologies as it minimizes the risks inherent in agrtcultural research.Experiments with new technologies have uncertain outcomes and thereby cany high levels of financial risk for the resource-poor. Dedicatlng even a small portlon of land to an experiment that fails could be detrimental to the food security of the family. In the same vein, where resources are scarce, time is also scarce and opportunity cost is a limitlng factor to farmer research. The results of the impact assessment show that the CIALs have overcome many of the 'risks' by developing high levels of social capital among members and between CIAL groups and other institutlons. In Honduras, conditions of social connectedness generally do not prevail. The development of civil society in Honduras has been impeded by extreme social inequality and represstve military regimes, which have acted to support the status quo during almost two decades ofviolent conflict throughout the region.The CIAL methodology uses a group approach and works to develop high levels of social capital among and across CIAL members. whtch has minimized the livelihood risks of experimentation in several different ways. Most importantly, the CIAL experiments are run on a 'common land' area,6 1 minimizing individual risk in the case of an expertment failure.61. In sorne of indigenous communities, the land is held in common by the community and the community generally perrnits the CIAL access to a plot of land for the experiments. In other cases, prívate land is rented by the ClALs. However, when the expertments are very small, as during an initial screentng trtal (140-300 m2). one of the members who has more land than others frequently lends it to the group.The opportunity costs of learning to and performing research are also offset by the productive benefits of high levels of social capital. Besides agricultura! experiments. the CIAL performs many income-generating activities. On land rented by the CIAL groups. the members plant \"proyectos productivosH or productive plots to produce seed or grain which is either stored for consumption by CIAL members or sold to non-members durtng seasons of food shortages (at a price below the market). As well. ClAL members group together to do a number of other micro-credit projects includtng, bake sales, sewtng of school uniforms for sale. The relationships people have formed allow for the exchange of goods, matertals, and labor among participating families that is less likely among non-participants.Saving through the ClAL enables the group to take out loans from the ASOCJAL.62 In the survey 72% of CIAL members have taken individualloans via their CIAL over the past 5 years. All but one of the CIAL loans borrowed prtor to 2003 have been repaid in full. While these loans may be used for diverse ends, they also help to offset the fmancial rtsks associated with experiments and allow CIAL members to undertake micro-level adaptations of new technologies on thelr own land.As well, common quotes from both men and women were: \"In the group we have the confidence and capacity to defend our rtghtsH \"We speak openly without problems in front of the CIAL group\" \"We have the confidence to work with other instltutionsH and \"the women ha ve confidence in thelr capacltles. ~ Participants explained that there is love among CIAL members. that they have become ajamüy and they now borrow and lend things when someone is in need; this is different from the past. prior to the organization of the CIAL, \"when no one trusted one another.\"CIAL members argue that maintaining the group promotes 'sustainabillty', not only by offsetting rtsks associated with expertmentation but also by creating an institution that will be capable of training new members and making the en tire process of learning to investiga te and innovate, a sustainable one. Evidence of networking and social capital for institutional sustainability is most apparent at the level of the second arder organizations or ASOCIAL. The overarching goal of the ASOCIAL as described by its members is: \"To encourage CIAL independence by supporting the CIALs and providing them with what they need to continue thelr investigatlons tnto the future, ridding them of thelr dependence on FIPAH.\" The group approach for the CIAL not only provides an envlronment for capacity building, and provides social and financial support offsetting the rtsks of formal agricultura! investigation and innovation. as we have seen above, but it also provides an institution for teaching the CIAL methodology to other people and thus sustaining the process of capacity building and social capital growth itself. The compositlon of CIAL may change as new members are encouraged to join and the participation of sorne permanent members waxes and wanes with •different 62. Each CIAL must accumulate savtngs before the ASOCIAL w1ll provtde tt wtth a loan. These savtngs are held by the ASOCIAL and help to offset the risk of lending. Savtngs must be equal to at least half the amount of the loan and al\\ preVious loans to the ClAL must be repaid before another can be lssued. Thus there ls considerable pressure on indiVidual CIAL members to pay back their portion of the group loan so that the group as a whole can access another one. The principie ts similar to that used by the Grameen Bank. As dtscussed , the default rate is very low and defaults only occur when the whole CIAL dtssolves and therefore the pressure on the group ts removed stnce further loans will not be forthcomtng. For this reason, loans are only ltkely to be made to CIALs that ha ve achteved sorne level of stability, evtden t through the leve\\ of prtor savtngs.seasons and obligations. Nevertheless. there is consistency in the membership of the ASOCIAL , which provides a backbone to the CIAL organizations.In a series of focus groups with the ASOCIAL de Yorito. the members described the ASOCIAL function to include a) providing workshops on facilitation skills. organization skills. capacity building for budgeting and flnancing and on machinecy and technology. b} training and employing the CIAL facilltators in the CIAL methodology e) acting as communication transmitters between CIALs. facilitators and local NGO staff. d) creating direct contacts and requesting help, information and funding from other local and national institutions. e) providing conflict resolution to CIAL members. between CIAL members and community members. and among CIALs and facilitators. and f) providing and managing loans for the CIALs. These are all essential to providing ongoing sources of information and new technologies as well as continuing to train and support agricultura! research by the local farmers in the future. The ASOCIAL has also recently implemented the following activities in arder to make the CIAL process more sustainable: a) familiarize CIAL members with the ASOCIAL activities so that there will be people to take over when the current ASOCIAL members no longer wants to participate. b) require written (rather than oral) requests from CIALs in an effort to begin to coach CIAL members in the process of directly approaching institutions and requesting information.Overall. the results of this study showed that the ASOCIAL has a direct relationship with three national organizations and limited relationships or contacts with 18 different national and intemational institutions. At the nationallevel. the Association of Honduran CIALs (ASOHCIAL). links the five regional groups in a national CIAL federation. The ASOHCIAL recently received international funding to test different methodologies for scalingup impact with a number of CIALs in each of the five regions.The paper discussed a multi-faceted approach to impact assessment involving the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data using both participatory. as well as formal survey techniques. It advocates a context-specific approach to 'sustainability' finding Stockmann's (1997) innovation-oriented sustainabillty the most appropriate to the rural poor living in extremely marginal agricultura! conditions. The research results showed a number of impacts that translated into improved food security for farmers partlcipating with the CIAL project in Honduras. However, the most important of the results was the complex network of more social and human impacts that enabled the adoption of new technologies to occurThe results from the CIAL project in Y oro, Honduras support the value of promoting innovation-oriented sustainability for improving the livelihoods of the rural poor in marginal areas. The indications are that the CIAL project methodology is achieving innovationoriented sustainability in rural Honduras. However. the complexity of these livelihoods combined with the nature of the technology produced to date also presents problems for scaling-out impacts of innovation-oriented approaches to non-project participants. As the results showed, non-CIAL members showed limited ability to readily adopt the solutions that CIAL members generated likely related to their limited capacity for technology adaptation. Much more research is necessary to understand how best to scale-out the impacts of participatory agricultura! research. However. it seems from this research that a stronger commitment to capacity building for local leve! adaptations beyond the CIAL will be an essential component of successful diffusion of CIAL technologies.Support provided to the Provincial Ministry of Agriculture in the Cauca Valley for the capacity building of the Municipal Councils for Rural Development in three municipalitiesThe Municipal Councils for Rural Development (CMDRs) are spaces for participation. created to reach agreement on pollcies and programs aimed at developing the rural tenitories in Colombia. The CMDRs facilita te the participation of the rural inhabitants in the decisionmaking that affects them; moreover it constitutes a space for exercising a committed citizenship in the management. execution, monttoring and control of rural development in thetr municipality (Ptedrahita et al. 2000).Nevertheless. although the CMDR and CONSEA (Sectional Council of Agricultura! and Ltvestock Development) were created in the Province. the changes have not been accompanied by efficient management due to a shortage of economtc resources. training on thetr role as instruments of development. and the absence of a culture of planning that governs the procedures and ensures the exercise of an efficient action based on an ample knowledge of reality as to what is involved. A USAID survey (USAID-Casals 200 1) revealed the scant knowledge of the citizens about control mechanisms,65 as well as the little knowledge of the rural people with respect to the CMDR.In the Cauca Valley Province. there are 42 CMDRs constituted. of which a very low percentage operates efficiently. In general they do not have sufficient information and tools for planning. monitoring and evaluation (M&E) that enhance their operativity and let them continue with the planned activities. even if there are changes in the government administrations.The Project. led by the Institute of Rural Innovation (IIR) at CIAT. has a double purpose:Promote favorable condttions so that the functioning of the CMDR is effective • Develop a methodology that makes it possible to consolldate a strategy for action, strengthening the CMDR's operativity through training and transfer of tools and methodologtes to support their decision-making. The IIR. Rural Planning, Participatory Research with Farrners (IPRA). and Information and Communication for Rural Communities (INFORCOM) projects have designed a strategy in which participatory methodologies are combined, such as vision-action-demands (VAD). participatory monitortng and evalu ation (PM&E) and social network analyses (SNA) . The purpose is for the CMDR to adopt these methodologies and become more efficient and effective in participatory processes.The intervention has consisted, in the first place, in conductin g training events. the objective of which is the collective construction of concepts and later the realization of days for accompanying the CMDR constitutive committees for the participatory construction of their operational plans through the utilization ofthe following methodologies: VAD, PM&E and ARS.Parallel to this, an information and communications system will be implemented in order to provide constant feedback between the community and the CMDR and between the CMDR and other participatory spaces at the provincial and nationallevels. This will be followed by a training phase and finally the phase of accompaniment and strengthening.The steps carried out this far are: l.Diagnostic survey of the current situation of CMDR 2.Application of the VAD methodology 3 .Socialization of the results of the diagnostic survey 4.Presentation of the legal framework of the CMDR 5.Exercise for conceptualizing ARS 6.Exercise for conceptualizing PM&E 7 .Exercise of analyzing current and future sttuations, taking into account the following aspects: Current problems and their consequences General objective Specific objectives Goals -Activities Indicators 8 .Election of the dtfferent CMDR constitutive commlttees (inspection, technical asslstance. infrastructure, health. education and environment, among others) 9 .Analysis of the problem areas of the dtfferent CMDR committees 10. Workshop: \"The Learning Organization: Teamwork and communications\"• A planning exercise does not end with the design of a concrete plan; rather it is a dynamic process. subject to continuou s readjustment and revision, with the purpose of adapttng it constantly to the circumstances. and evaluating the results at crucial moments. This generates learning in the organization, promoting an environment of continuous improvement.• The CMDR's principal role is to reaching agreements by means of which the different actors involved in the rural development of the municipality interact. manifest their diverse viewpoints. set common goals and assume commitments and responsibilities that pennit their fulfillment for the collective beneflt.Planning and M&E become altematives that pennit the local authorities and the rural population to define a shared future and maker a highly ratlonal use of the scarce resources available.The CMDRs in the muntctpallties of Argelia, Bugalagrande and Palmira are not complytng wtth the functions for which they were created. They operate as a source of infonnation but notas scenartos for planning. M&E and management.The channels of communications among the CMDR members are very weak and vulnerable gtven that they depend on actors that at the moment they leave the CMDR network seriously affect 1ts stability. This is the speciflc UMATAs case. which are in charge of communications channels. • Many of the CMDR members do not have knowledge of its functions and respons1b1lities.• In the process of accompanying and strengthening the CMDRs, three partictpatory workshops have been held thus far: diagnosis. legal framework and construction of concepts about planning. PM&E, the importance of leadershtp and teamwork.In the diagnostlc workshop. the structure of the networks of participation, trust and representativeness were detennined. The problema tic areas of the CMDRs were also identifted: the way in which they carry out the planning process and their management wtth respect to the rural development of the municipality. The degree of articulation among the different terrttorialinstruments was also detennined.Through the planning & PM&E workshop. the CMDR members were trained in the regulations of the CMDR's legal framework and its functions; and through practica! exercises, the concepts of planning and PM&E were conveyed.The leadership workshop identifled the elements for the effective development of the organization and the importance of teamwork in accompllshing goals.In the different CMDR committees, the process of constructlng the operating plan has begun, identifying mechanisms for implementing PM&E.Edson Gandarillas66 and Rolando Oros67• A participatory method was developed for analyzing instltutions (rules of the game) within the framework of SIBTA.The bottlenecks (high transactlon costs and risk) that inhibit or reduce the participatlon and competltiveness of the actors in the system were identified.The nature of the bottlenecks was identlfied in order to lay the foundatlons for núnimizing their incidence.The foundatlons have been laid so that decision-makers can generate institutional innovations that take into account the perspectives of the different actors in the system.SIBTA. which is an R&D system based on the competltive mechanism of the free market. is govemed by the Operatlng Regulations of the Competitlve Fund for Innovatlon (RO-FCO with respect to its Applied Technologicallnnovatlon Projects (PITA). In terms of the New Institutional Economy, this RO-FCI represents the rules of the game that govem the interactions among the different actors in SIBTA (FDTA, demanders and suppliers); in other words. they can inhibit. reduce or limit participation and competltlveness. The authors have called these factors, Mbottlenecks of the RO-FCI,\" which are explained by the presence of high transaction costs and risk. The document presents the process of identlfying the bottlenecks of the RO-FCI for the PITAs, facilitating the users' participatlon so that they can make known their perspective, in such a way that the emerging instltutional innovatlons can contribute to reaching SIBTA's objectives. The work was done with 80% of the suppliers and demanders, holding 1 O workshops with the participatlon of 170 representatives, selected on the basis of ftve different criterta. The results show that the bottlenecks are found throughout the RO-FCI process. The following steps stood out: selectlng the PITA proposals, implementing the PITAs. payment of the counterpart funds by the demanders, and the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system. The results varted according to the FDTAs (Valleys. Highlands, Chaco68 and Humid Tropics). Experience shows that the bottlenecks. expressed as high transaction costs and risks, can have different origins. Such is the case of the relatlonships of power among the actors (both at the staff and organizationallevels). the nature of the rtsks (e.g .. the degree of vulnerability in the working zones and the institutional arrangements of the RO-FCI as in the case of contracting services). and the level of organizatlonal development of the suppliers and demanders. Therefore, the perceptlons about the transaction costs and risks would vary according to speciftc contexts. The Bolivian Government created the Bolivian Agricultura! and Livestock Technology System (SIBTA) to promote and support modemization of technology and the sustainable development of the agricultura!, livestock. forestry and agroindusbial sectors, with an important prlvate-sector institutlonal participation. To this end, SIBTA flnances Applied Technological Innovation Projects (PITAs)69 through the Foundations for Agricultura!, Llvestock and Forestry Technology Development (FDTAsFO in the Highlands, Valleys. Humid Tropics and Chaco, as well as National Strategic Innovatlon Projects (PIENs) under the supervision of the Ministry of Small Farmers and Agriculture and Llvestock (MACA). SIBTA responds to the dernanders 71 and adrninlsters a cornpetitive process of awarding productive projects. Suppllers72 of technology that respond to the dernands of the beneficiarles participate in this cornpetltlve process through PITAs. By rneans of this strategy SIBTA seeks to rneet the following objectives:Reduce rural poverty, improving the producers incornes and the population's food security • Increase sectorial cornpetitiveness • Play a role in the use and sustainable rnanagement of natural resources • Con tribute to the rnodemity and instltutionallzation of rural producers' associatlons as baste authorlties in the process of demanding technological innovation Within the New Instltutlonal Econorny (NEI) the term \"institution\" refers to \"rules of the garne.\" these can be either formal or informal, \"deftning the incentives and sanctlons that affect the people's behavior and thelr interactions\" (Dorward et al. 2002, p. 5). Thus the organizations are the \"garne players.\" groups of individuals united by a purpose to accornpllsh cornrnon objectives. These organizations can be political, econornic and social (North 1990, Dorward et al. 1998). Another irnportant distinction within the NEI is between the institutional environrnent and its arrangernents (Da vis andNorth 1971: Stockbrtdge 2001). The former refers to the set of general rules with which the people and the organizations develop and work out specitlc instltutional arrangements in a soclety. The institutlonal arrangernents are forms of contract that were created for transactions arnong contracting parties that govem the way in whlch they cooperate or compete.69. Accordlng to the definltlon of SIBTA ( 2003), a PITA represents a set of activltles wlth a focus on agroproductlve chalns and a vlslon of programs that comprlses the validation, adaptation and transfer of technologies of process. product. management and technlcal asslstance for thelr adoption wtth the objective of promoting lntegrated changes In the chain. 70. The FDTAs are prlvate lnstitutlons of public lnterest, mJxed In nature, wlthout political party, religlous or profit-orlented purposes. created wlthln the framework of SIBTA. They enjoy autonomy of technical and admlnls trative management and are In charge of a dminlsterlng and managtng resources for financlng PITAs from dlfTerent sources, among whlch are those from the Boltvlan Govemment and organtsms of multilateral and bilateral cooperation. Thelr commltment ls to promote the dynamlc, competitive, efficlent and particlpative system of technology development In each macro ecoreglon, favorlng the demands of the actors In the agrofood chains , whlch define lntervention prloritles. 71. Any organized actor from any of the links In the agroproduction chain that can benefit from a PITA 72. An organization, lnstitutlon or business, alone or assoclated, with a techntcal and admlnlstrative capaclty for provlding Applled Technologlcal lnnovation servlces, that particlpates. In alllance wlth a demander, In the tender for the final deslgn and execution of PITAs.In the Solivian case, SIBTA is considered an R&D system based on the competitive mechanism of the free market. Therefore, in tenns of the NEI, SIBTA's rules of the game for its PITA component are govemed by the Operatlng Regulations of the Competitive Fund for Innovation (RO-FCD. The economic agents that make transactions are the fanners (associations and the Territorial Base Organization -OTB) also referred to as demanders: the providers of R&D services (suppliers): and the respective FDTA. In the context of the PITAs the institutional arrangements are the contracts that are stgned by the three agents when they reach an agreement to develop a PITA. Given that this system is novel. there is a need for periodic institutional adjustments in its implementation. tending toward the greater participation of the benefictaries. preventlng exclusion, promotlng equity and seeking greater efficiency and strength of the competitive market of suppliers in order to respond better to the demands of the small Solivian fanners.SIBTA has been functioning for five years: and its RO-FCI for the PITAs has been adjusted four times. Such adjustments are referred to as institutionalinnovations (Hall et al. 1998) that regulate the agents (FDTA, demanders and suppliers) so that the interactions among them are more efficient. However. the institutional innovations generated to date were developed within MACA so there was no participation of the other agents or actors wtthin SIBTA (suppliers, demanders, FDTA staff, etc.). In this context this document presents the experience of the projects Promoting Changes (FOCAM) 7 3 and FIT-97 4 in the development and tmplementation of a participatory method for diagnostng the current performance of RO-FCI.Identify the bottlenecks of the RO-FCI for the PITAs from the users' perspective in such a way that the emerging institutional innovations can support SIBTA's objectivesThe identiflcation of the bottlenecks in the rules of the game of the RO-FCI for the PITAs initially merits their detlnition within the context of SIBTA: the institutional arrangements perceived by their users as restrictors (presence of high transaction costs and risk) that reduce the competitiveness of the suppliers and the partictpation of the demanders.The sources of information for the analysis were the suppliers and the demanders of services. To identify the sample (80%) that would participate in the workshops for analysis. the followtng criteria were used: • Nature of the organizations. In the case of the demanders: associations. grassroots organtzations. cooperatives. etc.; for the suppliers: consultants. NGOs. businesses, etc. The diagnosis with the suppliers was done on the basis of the following steps:l.Convening the service providers to the workshops for analysis. The FDTAs from each macro ecoregion convened the suppliers of technology identlfled by means of the foregoing criteria.The workshops began with the explanation of the process that the RO-FCI follows and then responded to the participants' questions. The reason for this was to ensure that all participants hada minimum baste knowledge of the RO-FCI (minimize error of knowledge and pertinence) so as to relate their experience to the regulations.Through the technique of brainstorming. the participants wrote down the bottlenecks that they had experienced on separate cards. All participants were urged to write down their experiences, emphastzing that the suppliers should be exhaustive in identifying all the bottlenecks that they had had. 4.The cards were collected and then each was placed along the chain of the RO-FCI. The text was read aloud; then with the aid of the partictpating group. the card was placed under the pertinent link.When all the cards have been placed, there is an overall panorama of the chain; and it is a straightforward task to identify the links where the greatest denstty of cards is found. At these places the ideas are summarized. eliminating the repeated cards. Each idea is written on a different card. 6.Feedback was given for each card in the schema of the chain of the RO-FCI steps so that all participants understood the concepts. content and deftnition of the bottlenecks. 7.Finally, they proceeded to quantify the bottlenecks.The procedure for the diagnosis with the demanders was done the same way as in the case of the suppliers. with the following differences: l.The explanation of the RO-FCI was done through a sociodrama. where two neighbors from a community meet with an FDTA representative, who explains the development of the RO-FCI, using examples from the community. The partictpants do not write the cards ustng brainstorming; rather they express their opinions. which are written down by the facilttators. Wtth the help of the participating group. the card is placed in the corresponding link of the RO-FCI chain.Ten workshops were held with the partlcipatlon of 170 representatives of entities supplying services for four FDTAs. The workshops not only made it possible to locate the bottlenecks of the RO-FCI from the perspective of the suppliers. but also helped understand their nature. especially in terms of transaction costs and Iisks.Figure 1 shows that many of the bottlenecks are located in the process of selecting the PITA proposals (Section 3) and the actual implementatlon of the PITA (Section 4). The results valied according to the FDTAs (Valleys, Highlands, Chaco and Humid Tropics). Such vartation could be attrtbuted to the FDTA staff and the way they operate the RO-FCI. For example. the negotlation of the PITA (Step 3. 7 -this is code for the negotiation step in RO_FCI) in the FDTA-Chaco has a relatively high weight (24%) compared with the other FDTAs. According to the data obtained from the service providers. this could be caused by the person who is responsible for this process because this person Mlikes to exercise his/her power with the service providers' sta.ff.\" As a result, the negotiation takes more time and money, increasing the supplier's investment as well as the transactlon costs and Iisk, consequently turning into a bottleneck of the process.Similarly. the signing ofthe contract (Step 3 .9-this is code for the negotiation step in RO_FCI) in the FDTA-Highlands has a relatively high weight (27%) compared with the other FDTAs. According to the data collected from the service providers. this could be because the suppliers feel that the services contract represents a high level of legalinsecurtty for them.MThe contract strongly penalizes the failures in which the supplier could incur; in contras t. the contract does not penalize the failures of the FDTA or of the demanders.\" Therefore, the degree of uncertainty is increased, and the service providers think twice befare deciding to sign the contract. It is important to mentlon that the Highlands is a very high-Iisk zone dueto the prevalence of frosts, droughts, etc.; it is also considered the poorest zone in Bolivia because the farmers could not contlibute the 15o/o counterpart funds required by SIBTA. Moreover, there are small supplier organizations in the process of formation that do not usually have the logistical means and financia! stability that would pennit them to contlnue working when there are delays in the FDTA payments. A1l these factors make the transaction costs and Iisks high, increasing the uncertainty for the service providers.Other factors mentloned by the suppliers were plimartly the form of payments to the suppliers (apparently there are delays in the FDTA payments due not only to the bureaucracy of the State but prtmartly to the fact that the regulations link the payment of the services to the demanders' approval, the contract punishes the supplier for failures of the demander but does not punish the FDTA for delays) and the M&E systems for the PITAs (given that the beneficiartes of the PITA do not evaluate the actions of the suppliers directly and that the FDTA does not have consolidated M&E systems).Table 1 shows the results expressed as bottlenecks of the RO-FCI by the demanders of services. The demanders pointed out that gtven the short duration of the PITAs (18 months), the current RO-FCI does not take into account the PITA's actlvity in perennial crops such as fruit trees; thus technologicalinnovatlon is almost impossible in these crops. Another aspect mentioned is the low percentage of investment (5%): M The demanders' contribution is 1596, but the investment is so low that they do not recover what they invested.\" The amount requested by the FDTA as counterpart funds (15%) is apparently not in line wtth the demanders' financia! possibillties as in all cases this bottleneck, which limits their participa tion, was mentioned. Ftnally, the low or nonparticipation of the demanders in the M&E processes for the PITAs was mentioned frequently, namtng severa! dlfflculties (demanders' failure to pay, inconformities with respect to the suppliers' work, and prevalence of opportunism among both demanders and suppliers) as a r esult of this low participation. Bottlenecks Determintng the demand • The duratlon of the PITAs is too short; e.g., for fruit trees, forestry, for technologtcal innovatlon etc.• Lack of the demanders' organization makes lt difficult to express demands and negottate the PITAs.Evaluatlng the proposals • The demanders do not particlpate In the evaluation of the suppliers' personnel..• Insuffictent amounts for executing sorne PITAs .• The projects need greater levels of investrnent in the budget; 5% is too low.Negotlatlng the project • There are no methodologtcal tools for adjusting the PITA after lts approval. • The proposal cannot be negotlated wtth more than one supplier.• Negotlating with the FDTA is subjectlve, depending upon the person responsible for the process.• The demanders, espectally indtgenous groups and poor demander communitles, are not in a condition to contrtbute the 15o/o.Signtng of the contract • The issue of gender and indigenous groups disqualifles sorne projects where these groups cannot be included.• There is no coordination with the demander or with the PITA municlpality, which contributes the 15% for the M&E. • The demander does not partictpate in the monitortng of the PITA • There is a lack of soclalizatlon of the PITA among the project's benefictartes.Expertence shows that the bottlenecks, expressed as high transaction costs and rtsks, can have different ortgins. Such is the case of the relatlonships of power among the actors {both at the staff and organizatlonallevels). the nature of the rtsks (e.g .• the degree of vulnerability of the working zones, and the institutional arrangements of the RO-FCI. such as the case of contracting services) and the level of organizatlonal development of the suppliers and demanders. Therefore. the perceptlons about the transactlon costs and rtsks would vary according to specific contexts.Many of the bottlenecks make reference to the instltutional arrangements (contract for services among the FDTA. demanders and suppliers). Apparently there is an issue of legal insecurtty, which is heterogeneous for each of the signatory parties of the contract. This incomplete contract apparently causes high transactlon costs and rtsk for each actor. Thus the FDTA and suppliers should invest more resources in the monitortng systems so that rtsks can be reduced. In the case of the demanders, this can result in opportunism (free riding), which causes difficulties in the executlon of PITAs in the long term.The information gathered in this process w1ll be provlded qualitatively to the decisionmakers when they are adjusting the rules of the game for the PITAs and generating institutionalinnovations that are closer to the needs of the actors.Juan Femández R.75 and Edson Gandarülas76Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) has contributed to the empowerment of people and organizations because it has promoted active participatlon and has involved the organizatlons' members in all phases of the project and decision-making. • PM&E is also improving the organizations' capacity for (a) representatlveness and internal democracy. (b) participating effectively with proposals in strategic planning exercises, (e) negotlating with institutions and other actors. and (d) developing their sense of co-responsibility.The Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) system developed by CIAT was applied by the Promoting Changes project in the context of the Bolivian Agricultura! and Livestock Technology System (SIBTA), prior adaptation and adjustments of the methodology for the different rural areas. characterized by having one of the highest levels of poverty in Latin America. The principies of PM&E are oriented towards contributing to the empowerment of the people, organizatlons and institutlons. After analyzing the effects of applying PM&E in organizatlons, it was possible to determine that the methodology contributes to empowerment. primartly in the following aspects: Empowerment greater participatlon and levels of commitment of the beneficiarles in the projects: better performance of the serviceproviding entities as a result of the producers' evaluation: greater knowledge of the beneficiarles about the products. milestones and activities that the projects consider: and farmers' management and leadership capacity enhanced.Despite the fact that the Bolivian Agricultura! and Livestock Technology System (SIBTA) was created around an approach centered on demand , which places a high priority on the participation of agricultura! and livestock producers in the different phases of a project, the Operating Regulations of the Competitlve Fund for Innovation (RO-FCI). which regulates the process of the Applied Technological Innovation Projects (PITAs), does not contemplate mechanisms that permit the partlcipatlon of the beneficiarles during the process. The PITA's M&E system contlnues to follow a ~traditional\" approach, where project beneficiarles are limited to a passive role of providing information.As a way of supporting SIBTA and other R&D programs, while contributing to the empowerment of producers' organizations. the Promoting Changes Project (FOCAM17) has promoted the implementation of PM&E in demander organizations of the PITAs, using Maction training.\" 75. Ag. Eng .. MSc. Technlcal Researcher, CIAT-FOCAM, e-mail: J.femandez@cglar.org. 76 . FOCAM Project Coordlnator-Bolivia. E-matl: e.gandarlllas@cgtar. Empowennent is a process of self-detennination, whereby the people or communities gatn control over their own lives. It involves a process of conscientization (becomtng aware of all the factors that influence people's lives) and liberation (gaining power to decide about thetr own destiny) (WHO 1998).Studies carrted out by PADEM (2003) regarding the empowennent of small farmers' and indtgenous organizations (OC-O fonnulate a series of consideratlons. Sorne indicators of empowennent proposed by thts tnstitution are the capactty of the organizations for:Strengthening themselves. developing their representativeness and intemal democracy • Participating effectively and with proposals in strategtc planning exercises • Negotiating with other institutions and actors to make dectstons that favor not only their own sector but the others as well • Developing a sense of co-responsibllity and belongtng to the municipality. which is expressed in the real and constructive exercise of social control of municipal managementCapacity to develop proposals bascd oo aggregate demands, with a productive. future.Strong and democratic organiz.ation at bolh the co!IIITWlal and rmmicipallevels with equitable panicipatioo of women The concept of empowennent is directly related to that of participation. At higher levels of participation. there are greater levels of autonomy and empowennent (Fig. 2). According to the Govem ment of Bolivia (200 1). the coun try has one of the highest levels of poverty in Latín America. In 1992 data from the Population and Hou sing Censu s revealed that 70% of the population did not h ave their basic needs met; and at the end of the nineties. 63% of the population had farnily incomes u nder the poverty Unes (Table 1). Poverty in the rural area characterizes 82% of the popu lation; extreme poverty is 55%. In the rural area. poverty is explained in great part by the low produ ctivity of the agrtcu ltu ral and Uvestock sector and the low value of the products on the market.The social context of the demanders of projects where PM&E was implemented ts charactertzed by the following aspects:• The producers are small, their landholdings ranging from 2-8 ha.The principal activity is agrtcultural production.The level of formal education is low; the majority does not finish prtmary school.With respect to health, there are endemic problems such as Chagas' disease and malaria.The strongest organtzatton is the agrartan sindicato.To illustrate the foregoing, the socioeconomic stratification of a zone where PM&E tmplementation was facilitated , is provided: the munictpality of Padilla, Sta te of Chuquisaca. Bolivia (INE et al. 1999) (Table 2). Sorne 50% of the population in the municipality is found in Stratum C. the majority of whom are living in poverty. Stratum A corresponds to families that have more than 4 ha under production, more than 45 head of cattle, houstng that has more than four rooms. and higher levels of formal education. The majority know how to read and wrtte. Stratum B includes famllies that have the same assets as in Stratum A. but in smaller quantities and quality (Fig. 3).Families from Stratum C generally have a production area of 0.5-2.5 ha, very few sheep (no more than 20) and their houses do not have more than 2 rooms. They generally correspond to young famllies in the process of consolidation, the majority of whom do not know how to read or wrtte.Municipal Govemment: Given the level of poverty in the zone, the policles that form part of the Municipal Government of Padilla in the productlve envtronment are to:• Promote and drtve the process of productive transforrnatlon To accomplish part of its objectlves, the municipality of Padilla is linked with the followtng schemas of rural development policies at the natlonallevel:The Bolivian System of Agricultura! and Livestock Technology (SIBTA79): SIBTA is an interinstltutlonal system that seeks to optimize its technical, human and financia! capacitles around the planning, promotion and executlon of actlvitles of agrtcultural and livestock, forestry and agroindustrial technology innovatlon in the natlonal settlng and based on regional needs.The Foundatlons for Agricultura! and Livestock Technology Development (FDTAs):Through their Competltlve Fund for Technology Innovatlon (RO-FCI) , the FDTAs finance the executlon of Applied Technological Innovatlon Projects (PITAs) . In the Municipality of Padilla the FDTA-Valleys ( 2004)80 is financing two technological innovatlon projects in the chili peppers and peanuts agroproductlve chains, at the request of a Small Farmer Economic Organizatlon (OEC), the Associatlon of Producers of Chili Peppers and Peanuts from the Municipality of Padilla (APAJIMPA). with support from the Municipal Govemment of Padilla.PM&E and empowerment of the OECs: lt would be an overstatement to assert that the implementatlon of PM&E empowers the organtzatlons and the people; or said differently, that the people and organizatlons that use PM&E are empowered. PM&E is one element among many that contribute to empowerment.In the case of APAJIMPA, they underwent a process of about one-and-a-halfyears to adopt PM&E. In this process the Associatlon's leaders were committed to instltutlons and entltles such as the Municipal Govemment, which provides the services, and FDTA, as well as to fulfill the objectlves of both the PITA and the organizatlon. In the Chacosl region, different from APAJIMPA, which had a Kbottom-up\" process, the executlve bodies of the FDTA-Chaco, based on the successful application of PM&E in other settlngs, promoted the validatlon of the methodology in their context and contributed to generatlng mechanisms for its institutionalizatlon.Based on the informatlon of the experiences regarding the effects of PM&E in different contexts. it was concluded that overall, PM&E contributed to empowerment in the followtng aspects:The organizatlons have begun a process of appropriatlng PM&E, in which their leaders have played an important role in training and disseminatlng it among the farmers. • PM&E is permitting the supplier entltles to provide a better service.79. SIBTA was created in March 2000 as a model of interaction between the country's publ!c and prtvate sectors, constitutlng a network that links up with the need for technology innovation of the actors from the agroproductive chains. 80. This is the operational branch of SIBTA for the adequate executlon of the PITAS in the macroecoregion of the Valleys. 81. Hot, semiartd lowlands.• PM&E is contrtbuting to there being a better response and participation of the beneficiarles in the process.The producers in their different strata are informed about the characteristics and development of the projects of which they are beneficiarles. • PM&E is contrtbu ting to improve the management and leadership capacity of the producer organtzations' managers.• PM&E contributes to the empowerment of the producers' organizations, basically beca use it promotes the active participation and involvement of the members of the organtzation in all project phases and decision-ma.king related to their own development.The use of PM&E is contributing to a change from a passive (receptive) attitude to an active one (decision-ma.king) on the part of the farmers. Thus it is improvtng their capacity for (a) representativeness and internal democracy, (b) partlcipating effectively with proposals in the strategtc planning exercises, (e) n egotiating with other institutions and actors, and (d) developtng a sense of co-responsibility.V. Polar 32 , E. Gandarillas83, J. Femández84, J. Almanza85, and INNOVA Project 86• As a result of the process of implementing the methodology of participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) and other participatory methodsB 7 , gaps were perceived in the operating regulations that gutde the process of executing technological innovation projects in Bolivia. These gaps were identlfted and confinned through a process of dialogue and interaction with the different actors in the system. • New participatory methodologies were generated to fill these gaps and are currently betng implemented and adopted by the Bolivian institutions responsible for these processes.From 2003-2005 the FOCAM88 project began a series of experiences related to the strengthening of the Bolivian Agricultural and Livestock Technology System (SIBTA) through the incorporation of participatory methodologies in the framework of Applied Technological Innovation Projects (PITAs),B9 tendered by the Bolivian Government through SIBTA. The purpose of the FOCAM project was to adapt the PM&E system to Bolivian conditions in arder to brtng about its institutionalization at the level of SIBTA. together with the other participatory methods that had already been tested in arder to optimize the results generated by its projects.The PM&E methodology and other participatory methods that were to be institutionalized served at the same time as a framework for identifying a series of problems and shortcomings within the project cycle, giving rtse to the generation of several tools designed to promote participation and equity in the processes developed .SIBTA was created With an approach centered on demand, prtorttizing the participation of agrtcultural and livestock producers in the different project phases. based on two important assumptions:The producers are organized and have the capacity for participating actively-from the identification of their needs for technological tnnovation to the evaluation of project impact. • There is a system for supplying technologicalinnovation, capable of responding to the farmers' demands with efficiency and efficacy, using a participatory approach.In practice 1t was perceived that except for a few cases, these two hypotheses were not achieved. Based on what was seen, there was a need to develop and/ or strengthen the capacity of demanders, suppliers and administrative entities of funds in the use of participatory methodologies in order to make the full interaction among the different actors and their closer connection to the system viable.A PITA is established at the petition of a demander.oo There is a legal framework (Operating Regulations for the Competitive Fund for Innovation, RO-FCI) that should be clearly deftned to establish the Mrules of the game\" for executing projects before the PITA can begin its activtties.Based on prevtous work, the FOCAM Project proposed to insert the PM&E methodology and other partlcipatory methods in the SIBTA framework so that their processes would take into account the perception of the end beneficiartes. seeking their satisfaction With respect to the products generated. As this process advanced, bottlenecks were perceived in the RO-FCI.In order to learn the perception of aU the actors in the process With respect to the functioning of the RO-FCI and to identify the bottlenecks clearly, the FOCAM Project, in coordination with the FIT 99 1 project, has been carrytng on an open dialogue with the different actors. This analysis of the RO-FCI has resulted in the precise definition of gaps where there is a need to incorporate already tested participatory methodologies and generate other complementary ones that promote inclusion and equity, thereby contrtbuting to optimize the results of the ongoing projects. Analyze how the participatory methodologies adapted and generated for the national context contribute to filling the gaps identified in the functioning of SIBTA's RO-FCI.Preliminary analyses conducted by the FOCAM Project to evaluate the process of adapting the PM&E, CIAL (Local Agricultura! Research Committees), ECA and Participatory Evaluations ofTechnology methodologies resulted in the identiflcation of concrete aspects that limited their adaptation and adoption in the national context. Later observations made it posstble to relate these Umiting aspects to the RO-FCI.To counteract the problems identified and propase altemative solutions, strategic a111ances were establlshed. oriented toward making the generation, design and valldation of new methodologtes viable for their later dissemJnation and tnstitutionalization.Based on the underlying problems and with the purpose of strengthening SIBTA and the technology transfer processes being carried out. two strategic alllances were generated: one between the FOCAM and FIT 9 projects and the other between the FOCAM and INNOVA projects.The FOCAM-FIT 9 alllance permJtted an open dialogue with the different actors in the system. the purpose of which was to analyze the RO-FCI. tdentlfy bottlenecks or gaps. and then generate proposals for modifying these regulations in a way that would optirnJze the processes. A series of group analyses were carrted out that resulted in a proposal for modifying the RO-FCI. which was presented to SIBTA's decision-making bodies for their consideration.Parallel to the analyses of the RO-FCI facilitated by FOCAM-FIT 9, both the proposed modiflcation and the gaps identifted were analyzed within the FOCAM-INNOVA alliance in clase coordination with the FDTAs, in arder to generate a solution for the problems identified.The generation of the proposed methodologies began with the speciftc demands of the FDTAs. detailing the problems identifled and difficulties faced at the level of the PITAs. These demands were then analyzed from the standpotnt of partictpatory principies by the FOCAM-INNOVA alliance in arder to destgn methods of raptd and simple application.Desptte the fact that the legal requisites for an organization to be awarded a PITA are clearly establlshed. there are sorne gaps that destabiltze the process. These gaps begin with detecting the organtzations' demands. There is no adequate methodology for thts purpose, and it is not possible to determine how genuine these demands are. Although the operating regulations state that befare beginning the project. the organtzation's legal representative should sign off (attestation of having no objections), it is also clear that he/she is fully empowered to decide what the desired outcomes for the project should be. Moreover, there is no mechanism that transcends the legal stlpulatlons that would permit greater interactlon with the grassroots groups (Polar et al. 2004).In additlon to the foregotng, it is important to highlight that, as mentioned earlier, one of the assumptlons on which SIBTA is based is the existence of a competitive technology supply and demand market. This assumptlon is incorrect, given that the market is highly heterogeneous, with very few large suppliers and many small ones that are not in a positlon to respond to the needs of their region. The capacity for investment, especially among the small suppllers, is very limited, making it very difftcult for them to make the pre-investment disbursements required for looking into demand.As a result of the foregoing, a new method was designed that seeks to study demand in depth according to the speciftc conditlons of the demanders and considering the suppliers' limitatlons during the pre-investment phase. The \"In-Depth Study of Demands for Preparing PITA Proposals\" methodology facilitates formulating the bases of a project proposal, based on the identlftcatlon and in-depth study of demands broken down by farmer type, taking into account the local development aspiratlons that the farmers have, as well as promotlng a solid supplier-demander alliance.Adjusting the proposal: One of the critica! stages in generating a PITA is when a project is pre-selected in the classiftcatlon process, after which it enters the negotlatlon and adjustment stage before the awarding contract is signed. According to the RO-FCI, the suppliers should make the adjustment in their proposal in close interaction with the farmers-demanders, leading to the deftnition of a basellne for the project (INNOVA-FOCAM 2005).Nevertheless, despite the fact that the regulation identlfies the characteristlcs of the product to be obtained at this stage, there are no tools for facilitating this process. It was also observed that the suppllers do not have the instruments to identlfy the expectatlons of different types of farmers within the same group of the project's benefictaries, which would increase the possibilities of achteving the outcomes expected by each group. Consequently, the projects end up being implemented homogeneously with heterogeneous groups of farmers, resulting in the dtssatlsfaction of sorne of them. Moreover, this shortcoming in terms of instruments makes it dtfficult to formulate a baseline that reflects the producers' heterogeneous condttlons, once again generating homogeneous tnformatlon that does not necessarily reflect the project's initial conditions. These gaps with respect to instruments and methods are the origin of the \"Partictpatory Adjustment of Proposals\" methodology. This instrument ts used to explore the expectatlons of different farmers' groups within a group of beneficiarles in order to adjust, adapt and modify the project's products. actlvitles and indtcators before its final approval. Ltkewise, tt contributes to the strengthening of the supplier-demander alliance, increasing the commitment of the beneficiary group toward the project to be executed. Moreover, by identifying the different farmers' groups and differentlatlng among their expectatlons. it ts possible to define variables accordingly, oriented toward the constructlon of a focaltzed and relevant baseline.During the execution of the PITAs. the regulations stipulate that the correspondtng FDTA should evaluate the projects' partlal results. These evaluatlons are done based on the system for monitoring actlvities carried out and the milestones reached, based on the logframe of the proposal. The number of PITAs that are currently being executed has surpassed the capacity of available human resources and the time required for the FDTAs to implement this process with the desired levels of quality (INNOVA-FOCAM 2005).On the other hand, the monitoring systems do not include expllcit variables for detennining the demanders' degree of satisfaction with respect to the project. This makes it difficult to formulate adjustments that could be made to the project later in arder to satisfy the beneflctaries' demands.These considerations inspired the development of the ~Partlcipatory Mid-Term Evaluation of PITAs in Execution. Based on the Satisfaction of the Demanders' Expectations\" methodology. This method gathers information on the beneflciaries' satisfaction with respect toan ongoing project, using the ftnancers' planning tools (e.g .. logframe. milestones). The method also facilltates the identlfication of complementary actions required to achieve the project's results.As mentioned in the previous sectlon, the FDTAs' difficulties in terms of resources are a limiting factor in executing processes of ex-post quality control of the projects. Moreover. the existing systems do not include explicit variables for determining the satisfaction of the demanders and/ or informatlon about their future perspectives.The \"Final Evaluation ofTechnological Innovatlon Projects\" methodology is a tool that can be used to compile information on the demanders' satisfaction with respect to the projects of which they were beneflciaries. The method is based on the demanders' perceptlon regarding the project's execution. as well as the performance of the different actors involved, the results obtained and the new knowledge acquired. 1t also helps identify the future expectations of the groups to ensure the continuity of the processes undertaken.Dissemination: Once the methods had been designed and validated in different projects at the nationallevel. they were systematized and presented to different actors in the system.The new methodologies generated were well accepted both within and outside SIBTA. Sorne ofthe applications were implemented directly by the FOCAM-INNOVA team while others were being done directly by the actors tnvolved in the process. Table l presents details of the applications carried out by the team, which made it possible to validate and adjust the methodologies. It ts important to highlight that at this time sorne of these methodologies are being applled in different FDTAs. Sorne of them have already been institutionalized while others are still in the process of being evaluated and adapted. In-depth study of• Proposal presented for improving the quality of potato production in the • Improving the opportunities and competitiveness of beef commerciallzation of the members of the Federation of El Chaco Cattle Ranchers • Technology transfer for providing feed and forages for beef cattle in Villa Montes. Tartja Final evaluation• Improvtng the quality of \"Nuestra Tierra\" peaches from Vallegrande • Improving technology for producing chili peppers in the region ofThe new methodologies were dtsseminated through different tratning events sponsored by the 4 FDTAs. the Ministry of People's Participation. the \"Mayor de San Simón\" University and suppliers of technology. In these events representatives of the different sectors from the country's four macro ecoregions participated.As a tool for organizational strengthening, the methodology of Participatory Monitortng and Evaluation brtngs groups together around a common dream or objective. In the life cycle of the projects, the PM&E framework covers the initial exploration of the demand to the evaluation of outcomes and the exploration of new demands. However. all these efforts are in vain 1f there is no continuity in the principies of participation, equtty and inclusion. Sorne of the contributions of the new methods are described below.In-depth study of demands: Sorne of the project proposals that arase fro'm the application of the method are currently being executed. The real contribution of the method wUl be seen when the results and lmpacts of the PITAs are evaluated. Nevertheless. it can already be seen that the application of the method con tributes to the proposals being centered on the farmers' demands and inspired In their vision of development, thereby contrlbutlng to the strengthening of the supplier-demander alliance and to the empowerment of the projects. The level of investment that the application of the method requires corresponds to the level of risk that the suppliers of technology have to assume in the preinvestment stage (INNOVA-FOCAM 2005a).Project proposals adjusted using the M participatory adjustment of proposals\" methodology are currently betng executed. Preliminary observations show that the application of the method has already contributed to differentiating among the expected outcomes of the project by type of demander. The process has also contributed to strengthening the supplier-demander alliance and promoting the beneficiarles' empowerment with respect to the project. It has also been observed that the information reflected in the baseline is focalized. pertinent and relevant to the outcomes expected by the demanders.In the different PITAs where the method was applied, information was obtained on the degree of demander satisfaction with respect to the activities executed by the supplier, identifying causes and generating proposals based on the complementary actions required to achieve the expected project results. As in earlier cases. the method contributed to increasing the beneficiarles' commitment toward the project and strengthening the supplier-demander alliance.The methodology for the final evaluation provided detailed information on the actors' performance, the accomplishment of results, and the project beneficiarles' degree of satisfaction. It was also observed that the qualitative information generated complements quantitative evaluations implemented at a different level. There have been cases where the information obtained was used as the basls for expresslng demand in the formulation of subsequent projects within the framework of a program's vislon.Tools such as the stratification of beneficlarles92 in the methodology of participatory adjustment of proposals and the zonlng of the area of influence in the in-depth study of demands can be used to propase speciflc technologtcal supplies for the different strata and/or zones. thereby ensurtng the incluslon of less-favored groups in the benefits generated by the projects.The mid-term and final participatory evaluation methodologtes, in addition to constituting an easily applied tool for compillng information on demanders' satisfaction. generate opportunities to communicate with the demanders and get feedback from them. Although the methods were designed for being applied initially within the SIBTA framework. their dissemtnation has resulted in the possibility of their being adopted in other systems of technologicalinnovation at the nationallevel. among which stand out the health and education sectors. • It has generated a collective awareness that the system's raison d'etre is the productive organization: therefore the demanders now show their capacity and exercise their right to express their satisfaction for the service they recetve.• rt constitutes an instrument that genera tes information about the execution of the activtties: and based on thts information, actions are taken wtth respect to improvtng the quality of the service.• It is stren gthening social organtzations, permttting them to gtve their opinions and be part of the construction of their own development. (1) tmplementation of the methodology, (11) execu tlon of the methodology by the demanders, (iti) use of the information and (iv) dectston-maktng. Among the principal results at the level of the FDTA ts that PM&E has made an important contrtbutlon to the market for technological innovation. It has generated a collectlve awareness that the raison d'etre of the system is the productlve organtzatlon: therefore the demanders now show their capactty and exercise their rtght to express their satlsfactlon for the service they receive. At the supplier leve!, they are begtnning to use the information from the PM&E and apply correctlve measures in time: moreover. greater institutlonal commttment is being stimulated by the project's success. At the demander level. the PM&E instrument helps transmtt their 94. Ag. Eng., Researcher of the FOCAM/CIAT project. e-mail: walterfu_2000@yahoo.com: • Belong to the FOCAM project team: •• Belong to the FDTA-Chaco team: ••• Thesis student of the FOCAM project. 95. FOCAM Project Coordlnator-Bolivia. E-mail: e.gandarillas@cgtar.org 96. Ag. Eng., MSc, Technlcal Researcher, CIAT-FOCAM, e-mail: J.fernandez@cgiar.org 97. Ag. Eng., Researcher from the FOCAM Project, v.polar@cgiar.org 98. Desarrollo del Mercado de Innovación Tecnológica, Fundación para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Agropecuario del Chaco (FDTA-CHACO) maya.soruco@stbta.gov.bo maya.soruco@fdta-chaco.org.bo suggestions to the suppliers and financers in order to optimize the projected outcomes for the PITA. FDTA has evidence that the methodology works; therefore, there is a willingness to include it in the institutional POA so that it can be applied in all the PITAs they finance.The importance of implementing a PM&E system in the Applied Technological Innovation Projects (PITAs) of the Foundation for the Development of Agricultura!. Livestock and Forestry Technology for the Chaco (FDTA-Chaco) lies in the need for having a methodological tool that complements the FDTA's current M&E system.From the onset and up to 2004. the FDTA-Chaco's M&E process was carried out by permanent staff and sorne technicians on secondment. As of 2005, a team of six supervisors was formed, among whom the PITAs in execution were distributed, so that the work would be more efftcient. Nevertheless. the process ran into three main difflculties: (i) the insufftcient number of staff (supervisors), (ii) the lack of an appropriate methodoiogy for the monitoring and evaluation of projects, and (iii) lack of clarity in the staffs responsibilities.From there arase the need for implementing the PM&E system, which complements the current FDTA system and which provides information on the quality of execution of the programmed activities in the different PITAs from the demanders' standpoint, thereby contributing to the accomplishment of the objectives of the different projects.According to Aubel (2000), PM&E represents an opportunity for programs or projects to examine the quality of implementation of their activities, for measurtng the progress made toward obtaining results, and for formulating the lessons learned. In this respect Reuben (2003) mentions that PM&E provides more complete and in-depth information. increases transparency and strengthens the commltment to implement corrective changes. The shared learning improves the performance of the institutions that deliver services and the effects of the same; and increases the sense of ownership, autonomy and organization.Describe, learn about and analyze the contributions resulting from the use of PM&E in the PITAs and their effects on the different actors involved in the process-the FDTA-Chaco, service suppliers and demanders.The Chaco is one of the four macro ecoregtons of Bolivia, formed by parts of three states (Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca and Tarija), distributed in 17 municipalities.99 The region has a population of almost 300,000 inhabitants. an Amerindian population of almost 80,000 among the Guaraníes, Weenhayek and Tapiete, living on a surface of about 128,000 15m2 (20% of the South American Chaco). This hot, semiartd region is traditionally dedicated to beef cattle-raising and swine. The main crops are maize, peanuts and chili peppers. Hunting and fishing are means of subslstence. The Bolivian Agricultural and Livestock Technology System (SmTA) and the FDTA-Chaco: SIBTA is an instrurnent created with the purpose of developing and promoting agrtcultural, livestock, forestry and agroindustrial technology innovations in Bolivia. SIBTA conststs of four Foundations for Agricultural and Ltvestock Technology Development (FDTAslOO), defined accordtng to the four macro ecoregtons of the country: highlands, Chaco, humld troptcs and valleys.The FDTA-Chaco, through tts Competitive Fund for Technological Innovation, currently ftnances the execution of 51 PITAs throughout the macro ecoregton in the agroproductive chains of bovines, swine, apiculture, peanuts, maize, chill peppers and subtropical fruits, with different types of demanders (e.g., associations, agrartan sindicatos). As of February 2005, the FDTA-Chaco, in an interinstitutional agreement with the Promoting Changes project (FOCAMlOl), agreed to implement PM&E systems in their PITAs.The m ethodology u sed in implementing PM&E was that proposed by the Participatory Agricultural Research project (IPRA) of the International Center ofTropical Agriculture in Colombia (CIA11 (Ashby et al. 200 1), with adaptations to the social context and the PITAs by FOCAM in Bolivia.The process for using PM&E involved the following steps:Implementation. With the support of the PITA supervisor and a facilitator of the methodology, the PM&E system was implemented in a workshop that !asted about 4 hours. The partlcipants were representatives of beneftciary communities of PITAs. The steps that were followed were: (i) motivation, (ii) conceptualization of PM&E terms, (iii) constructlon of the dream or group objective, Figure 2. Supervisor of the FDTA, implementing PM&E. (iv) construction of local indicators. (v) socialization of PITA's actlvities. (vi) ftlling out and applying formats, vii) electlon of person responsible for conducting the PM&E in his/her group.Execution. The groups, with the support of their representatives who had been trained, ex:ecute PM&E for all the actlvitles in which the supplier is engaged. This step is supported by the FDTA supervisor. The suppliers' partlcipation in this step is vital; their role is basically centered on helping the demanders remember the realization of the PM&E after each actlvity has been ex:ecuted.Use oj the information. The PM&E reports from the different groups or communitles are comptled, systematized and inserted by the FDTA supervisor in the monthly informatlve formats for supervising the PITAs. These reports become the legal 'bearer' of the demanders' suggestlons or recommendations.Decision-making oj the FDTA. The information generated by the demanders is analyzed and discussed by the FDTA's executlve body. Based on that information, this body decides the monthly actions to be taken jointly by the supplier and demander. The methodology ts participatory; that is, there is active partlcipation of the demanders and/ or project beneficiarles in the M&E of its activities. Upon executing the PM&E parallel to the activity that ts being evaluated, tmmediate results are obtained. Thus the PM&E constttutes an early-warning system for taking corrective measures in the project so that it can reach its proposed Figure 3. PM&E meeting among suppliers and objectives. The informatton demanders. generated in the PM&E report constitutes an important input for the FDTA supervisors. The PM&E has made an important contiibutton to the market of technology innovation (suppliers and demanders). It has generated a collecttve awareness that the razon d'etre of the system is the productive organtzation; therefore the demanders are now showing their capacity and exercising their right to express their sattsfactton for the service they receive.The execution of the PM&E in the PITAs has generated changes in the service provided by the suppliers:The su ppliers are beginning to use the PM&E information and are applytng correcttve measures in time, resulting in greater institutional commitment given the project's success.Likewise. PM&E has become a tool for finding out the demander's degree of satisfaction with respect to the executton of the activities; and based on this information, take actions in order to improve the quality of services.According to the evalu attons of the beneficiarles, these actions include optimizing the training sessions, the use of simpler terms and more graphics, as well as including more practice.In this regard UNPFA (2004) mentions that PM&E is becoming a process that permits the different stakeholders to express their needs. interests and expectatlons. The process of dialogue and negotiation among the stakeholders that occurs in PM&E facilitates the conciliatton of the stakeholders' divergent viewpolnts.With respect to the demanders (e.g .. communittes. associattons. sindicatos, groups). using PM&E has shown that:The demanders feel committed to the project and have a positive attttude about contributing to it constructtvely.• PM&E has become an instrument that helps transmit the demanders' suggestions to the suppliers and financers to optimize the outcomes projected for the PITA. An example of the application of PM&E is that shortcomings were detected in the execution of activities by sorne PITAs such as the prolonged absence of the technicians from the project, inopportune delivery of materials, and unjustified delays in activities. PM&E enables the demanders to resolve these problems in the shortest time possible, through agreements with the supplier.Likewise. the demanders leam to evaluate the quality of the services provided by the supplier and request improvements in them, thereby strengthening their capacity for analysis, reflection and decision-making to ensure the success of their projects. This has enhanced the demanders' organizational and management capacity.In this respect UNPFA ( 2004) highlights the fact that in participatory evaluations, the stakeholders themselves identify and resolve project-related problems, which strengthens their capacity for participatlng actively in the fulfillment of the project's objectives instead of remaining passive beneficiaries of development assistance. Selfevaluation can help strengthen the associations among different stakeholders and increase their comprehension of the program's processes and end results.The FDTA executives reason that 1f they have had good results with the PM&E methodology, these are not the total expression of its potential; therefore much greater advantage should be taken of it. FDTA already has evidence that the methodology works; therefore there is a readiness to include it in the institutional POA so that it can be applied in all the PITAs whose degree of execution is below 50%.The following actions would have to be implemented prior to that:Contlnue the process of training farmer-leaders to disseminate the methodology among the project's demanders.Promote the organizational strengthening of the demander groups that will be implementing the PM&E.Disseminate the methodology among the suppliers of technology. emphasizing the fact that the results of the PM&E reports are inputs for improving their services.Principal düficulties: 1t is important to mention sorne difftculties that were encountertng durtng the process of implementlng PM&E so that they can be taken into account in future processes or interventions.The organizations lack the capacity to convene the meetings of the association and do not have sufficient leadership to motívate the beneficiaries to implement the methodology. The distan ce (in sorne cases it reaches 100 km) between the communities benefitlng from the PITAs causes delays of both of the implementation of the methodology by the technicians and of attending meetings of the association or training events on the part of the demanders. The transfer of knowledge of the methodology to the demanders requires time for their becoming familiar with the methodology and being motivated to implement it.The PM&E actlvitles overlap with the harvest period (2 months) and the full-time dedicatlon of the producer.At the leuel oj the supplier Sorne suppliers are not suffictently tnterested and willing to tmplement PM&E.It is important to instltutlonalize PM&E among all SIBTA actors. which means incorporating norms for their implementatlon in tts bylaws and regulatlons.The FDTA supervisors have appropriated the principie of partlcipatlon and acquired aptitudes for forming groups and mediatlon in order to establish an effectlve dialogue and discussion among suppliers and demanders, ortented toward accomplishing the objectlve.In the process of implementing the methodology, 1t is essentlal to coordinate actlvitles wtth the technical teams of the suppliers to join forces in the PM&E process. • PM&E strengthens the social organtzatlons (producers associatlons, communitles. capitanías and other groups) by letting them express their ideas and construct their own development processes.In many cases the PITAS cover severa! communitles; therefore, in order to establish PM&E systems, it is important to generate and adapt strategies to each context.Luis Alfredo Hemández Romenft 7Participatory Monitortng and Evaluation (PM&E), Most Signiflcant Change (MSC) , Social Network Analysis (SNA) and Appreciative Inquiry (Al) could tum on important tools for strengthening social capital among others assets. This hypothesis remarks social relations and possible ways for its transformation through SNA and PM&E expertences in Colombia and others contexts in Latin America. This brtef outlines five mechanisms through which social capital (SC) can potentially benefit livelihood outcomes.Regarding SC, the definitions vary according to the authors. As Chambers & Conway (1988) and Camey, (1998) put it, SC is a concept that tries to capture the essence of community life. They explain SC as one of the five capital assets (natural, financia!, physical, human and social) required for a means of living. Putnam (1993)  All social relations have a potential for se. but to be usable and to produce benefits they have to be transformed. Monitortng approaches such as PM&E, MSe. SNA and Al imply social relations or connections. These approaches can be used to study organizatlonal change and community systems because they make visible who interacts with whom in the exchange of agrtcultural information and knowledge. Thus communities identify connections to others, opening doors to ideas, opinions and resources: that is, people and their connections provide a conduit for information. For example, MSC could be considered a form of PM&E. It is participatory because stakeholders are involved both in deciding the sort of change to be recorded and in analyzing the data. MSC has been likened to Al, and sorne people describe the way Al can be used in the M&E process too. Al is considered as a package of approaches used to study organizational change and community development. SNA depicts relations among 'actors'; that is, people or groupings of people in weblike dtagrams comprtsed of points and lines (Singer 2002). Relations can be of any type: e.g., relations_in rural communities, like PM&E committees or information flow among stakeholders. People who are central in an advice network are actlvely engaged in both helping others and mutual problem-solving. According to the definition of PM&E (Patton, 1977). this tool offers a forum that allows different stakeholders to articulate their perspectives. to strengthen their organizatlons and promote instltutionalleaming (evaluating process). In this context, PM&E leads to better work, encouraging a culture of trust, participation and collectlve action, which are features of social organizations with a high leve! of se.According to Narayan and Ptitchettt (1999) . there are five entry points for interventlons: more efficacious govemment. solving common-pool problems. diffusion of innovations. lowertng transaction costs. and informal insurance (http:/ /www.caledonia.org. uk/ soc_cap.htm).(A CIAL can be defined as a ~farmers-run research service that is answerable to the local community, ... experimenting locally unknown and unproven farming methods. to compare them with established practlce\" ASHBY et al. (2000).At the beginning of the PM&E process. CIAL members construct the overall objective and the first specific objectlve is almost always to achieve strengthened CIAL groups. In sorne cases that means that they have to increase participatlon, levels of trust. motivation. etc. (Hemández 2003). There are with PM&E established to monitor CIAL objectlves and increase their cornmitment. sense of ownership and self-determination (e.g .. Fortaleza Carpintereña, El Progreso and Santa María CIALs). The majority of CIALs with PM&E procedures have also established crucial relationships and networks, organized around common interests (see Fig. l) . There are CIALs organized todo research on common beans. cassava, sugarcane for panela. potatoes. raising chickens and hens.Depending of their evolution, sorne CIALs begin interactlons with extemal agencies for resources. training. or to influence polices. This is a clear example of how PM&E motiva tes government services to revaluate their objectlves and attitudes through understanding and negotiating the perspectives of the CIALs (e.g .. PITA. Applied Technological Innovatlon Projects in Bolivia). The presence of relationships allows for better monitortng of government services and likely improved govemment delivery. A visible social network will help monitor and evaluate the tmpact of interventlons. These social networks can take on many forms: community-level and along market chains. SNA. an ongotng project in the Fortaleza and El Progreso groups, has generated maps that will facilitate designtng concrete interventions. Those maps showed the need to create new brtdgtng. bonding and linking ties. These groups will try to start a contact shartng and exchange effort with other CIALs in the area. Another result is the conceptualizing of roles: How can they go outstde to enrich their network: and how the weavers can transmit their knowledge to other members and in this manner share the weight of making ( and keeping) valuable connectlons (Álvarez. 2005).In summary, govemment officlals are immersed In clvtl soctety through these partictpatory approaches and thus become more responsive to the needs of society when relationships (brtdging and linking SC) are stronger and more numerous.As noted in the analysis, monitortng approaches build connections among people, which means conduits or channels for information. Flow maps, networks and discussion forums resulting from PM&E processes allow different stakeholders to strengthen organizations and promote institutional learning. With better information regarding innovation, stakeholders are able to obtain benefits of new technologies more quickly. My hypothesis is that the snapshots provided by the network maps across time show a picture of and explain ex:isting innovation technologies in each community, which will permit the group to identify systematic differences between innovators and less innovators (as baselines). For instance. ei.AlrLa. Union in Piendamó, eauca Province. has been testing maize and common bean varteties. In this way farmers increase and spread knowledge about new technology options inside and outside the community. In this case the flow of information also involves a scaling-up process.High transaction costs are often cited as a limiting factor in rural development. In the context of market chains, PM&E and SNA will be able to identify bottlen ecks in the flow of price information; distribution of profits within the different segments of value-chain information; and agricultura! commodities. which must comply with certain quality standards. Nowadays. sorne eiALs know price information regarding the market chain of sugarcane for panela and marketing sour starch from cassava. Both cases are related to networks constructed around a market chain. Scaling the n etworks would drive down transaction costs. which in turn drives scaling up of the network (my hypothesis).One important indicator of se is diversity of membership in community groups and local organizations. We found that sorne farmers belong to severa! groups. In Fortaleza earpintereña, we identified severa! groups and organizations comprising farming groups and mother groups. eiALs with bridging se. involving relationships. networks and adequate information abou t outcomes, are in a better position to pool risk and create informal insurance mechanisms. Such mechanisms may allow CIALs to invest in riskier activities. (It is important to remember that from the onset a eiAL fund is established to help absorb research risks.)PM&E offers a forum in which stakeholders can articulate their perspectives through collective action. This includes decisions about rotating exchange labor or group labor for a number of farm operations such as planting, weeding, harvesting, raising chickens and quails, etc. ei.AlrFortaleza shows a most significant ch ange in terms of the women's role in agricultura! activities. The women are working on different issues: medicinal plants, raising animals, diets for chickens, and care of older people, among other activities. The Fortaleza eiAL represents the community of earpinterefla with increasing levels of se. Communities with higher levels of se are more able to take actions that avoid exploitation or common-pool resources being taken advantage of. In this case, the visualization of links and people through social-n etwork maps helps identify positive roles for individuals and other actors  (Howes 1992). Outside the field of development. PM&E can also trace its beginnings in the prívate sector where there has been growing appreciation for individual and organlzational learning (Raynard 1998) .PM&E involves stakeholders including local people in deciding how progress should be measured, in defining criteria for success and in determining how results should be acted upon (Guijt & Gaventa, 1998). PME strives to be an intemal leaming process that enables people to reflect on past experience, examine present realities, revisit objectives and define futu1 •e strategies by recognlzing differential stakeholders' priorities and negotiating their diverse claims and interests (Estrella et al., 2000). In these processes the local people are involved in developing indicators to measure change, in collecting and analyzing the data. and making a decision asto how to adjust the activities. PM&E is not a tool but a diverse constellation of approaches, methodologies and techniques. PM&E is not just a matter of using participatory techniques within a conventional monitoring and evaluation setting. It is about radically rethinking who initiates and undertakes the process, and who learns or benefits from the findings (IDS, 1998). PM&E systems provide a framework for collaborative learning and for involving project clients, participants and partners in the M&E process. PM&E produces important beneflts including valid, timely and relevant information for management decision-making and project improvement within R&D institutions. It leads to improved accountability; examines assumptions on what is progress; can lead to contradictions and conflict; but can also be empowertng by putting local people in charge, it helps in developing skills, and showtng all stakeholders that their views count.Communi ty-Driven PM&E Systems: The CD-PM&E approach builds on the concepts artd ideas developed by the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex (Estrella et al., 2000;Guijt & Gaventa, 1998). the PIM concept developed by Germann et al. (1996), and more recently by Probst (2002). Probst's work focused on using PM&E asan instrument to support systematic reflection. learning, the generation of knowledge and process-oriented management at the community level. In community driven PM&E. communíty members themselves identify their own objectives and initiate activities to achieve these objectives. They develop their indicators for measuring progress towards achievement of the objectives; indicators to assess change. are in charge of the data collection and analysis, and finally use the PM&E results to adjust their activities. Community indicators are based on local experiences, perceptions and knowledge. The purpose of the community driven PM&E is to empower the local community to initiate control and take corrective action and to basically empower them to improve their social well-being. This type of PM&E approach is unique beca use of the emphasis on developing a system that is managed and supported by local communities, for their own purposes.Community driven helps capture differences and different viewpoints from different groups within a community who may have different perspectives. aims and objectives. These differences may be dueto their experiences, their social and cultural situations such as their wealth, gender among other things. By promoting participatory approaches, it gives the rural people a voice in their community. It is an important vehicle for increasing participation and improving accountabillty. Appropriate forms of PM&E help the local people manage their own affairs better. take more control of the projects and their aspirations and increase the likelihood that project-supported activities will continue after the project ends. Institutional level: At institutional level, different stakeholders involved in research and development projects including communities are involved in defining project objectives and activities. in deciding what should be monitored and evaluated. They contribute to the development of indicators to measure the achievement of objectives and the successful completion of activities. Roles for data collection and analysis are shared between the different stakeholders. Data and information collected is shared systematically by the stakeholders leading to learning and adjustment of activities and approaches and to the documentation of best practices. Within this institutional PM&E. communities or local stakeholders can be involved in various ways including during the planning stage. This paper analyses experience with establishing project/institutionallevel and community-based PM&E in three countries; Uganda, Malawi. and Kenya and gives the results and changes that have been achieved at institutional and community level as a result of these systems. The objectives of this work were:To strengthen PM&E systems Within R&D projects to critically analyze and understand the institutional learning and change process, to increase selflearning, cross learning, and to evaluate impacts;To establish an appropriate PM&E system at the community level that allows local people analyze and interpret change. to learn from their own experiences, to adjust strategies accordingly and to systematically evaluate progress and To develop strategies for the institutionalization of PM&E in R&D organizationsFigure 1 shows the steps that are involved in establishing PM&E both at community level and institutional level. The back and forward arrows between the two systems are steps were the two interface or feed into each other. Although the process is drawn as though it were linear, it is cyclical and the use of PM&E results lead into the planning process and into another cycle of monitoring. The reflection process occurs at most of the different stages of the PM&E process. As teams develop and agree on what to monitor, they are reflecting on past experiences and deciding wh at is achievable and what is not. Reflection at the end of the PM&E cycle enables the team to look at the key achievements and to plan a way forward. These steps are briefly described below. Stakeholder participation: Inclusion of dUferent stakeholder perspectives in monitoring and evaluation: Through a direct participation in the monitoring and evaluation process. the PM&E process has allowed the different stakeh olders involved in the projects project to better understand each other's views and values. and to design ways to resolve competing or conflicting views and interests. Scientists especially have benefited from getting community perspectives and contributions in terms of what their objectives and desired expectatlons are as well as providtng more qualitative indicators for measuring progress to supplement the usually very quantitative measures that they use for monitoring.Through this process, differences in indicators have emerged between the different stakeholders, between farmers and scientists and amongst farmers themselves especially between men and women (see Table 2). youth and the elderly, between different wealth levels and cultural backgrounds. For example, in Kitale, Kenya where communities are relatively well off with larger land sizes and large numbers of livestock, the indicators of improved food security are diversity of foods available for consumption and quantity food that households have in storage. On the other hand. in Mtwapa, Kenya where households are relatively poorer, the indicators for improved food security are increase in number of meals per day from one to three and availability of food throughout the year (no emphasis is made on quality) . Although these indicators are related, thetr expressions reflect differences in well betng of the different communities. • Income generating actMUes initiated• More children being sent to secondary school• Increased ceremonies in the village • Good food (breakfast. good quality tea) • Good clothing -Men wearing suits• Women going to market weekly• Good housing with !ron sheet roof• Better clothing -women wearing new khangas, kodokodo,• Increase in women membership in merry go-rounds (group savings and creditJ Sorne indicators are very specific to ethnic groups reflecting dtfferences in culture and beliefs. For example, increased ceremonies are a common indicator of increased food availability among the Kenya coastal communities where ceremonies are part and paree] of their culture while this does not come up as an indicator with other communities. There were however still a lot of similartties in community expectations and indicators across different communities which provides an opportunity for a comparison of indicators across different sites and communities. Sorne of the differences in indicators between scientists and communities are that communities tend to focus more on the outcomes versus the speciftc outputs. For example, community indicators for improved soil fertllity tend to differ signt.ficantly from scientists', whilst community indicators are more often related to increased yields rather than the nature of the soil itself. Community indicators combine both qualitative and quantitatlve measures while scientists' indicators are more quantitative and generic as the examples given in Table 3. Given all these differences in perspectives and expectations, one of the key roles of facilitation in the PM&E process has been to ensure that all these differences are not conflictlng and do not lead to parallel monitoring systems by ensurtng that they are negotiated , understood and integrated in the monitoring and evaluation process.The path from knowledge generation to knowledge utilizatlon is direct in CD-PM&E because the same actors are involved in all actlvitles. Once PM&E informatlon is collected and analyzed the next step is reflection process that enables the community to discuss and communicate their PME results: provide a forum for exchanging and evaluatlng information: allow community members to systematically review and look back to the start of their actlvities, comparing it with where they are currently and to understand what has changed: and to allow all members to reflect on the progress of the project and to adjust itas required . Different tools have been used in the data analysis and presentation. Simple graphs, tables, role plays help to enhance the community understanding of the progress made their achievements and what needs to be adjusted. This has enabled communities to e.g calculate profit and loss. improve participatlon, keep group members active. re-orient project implementation, recognize and acknowledge their achievements, and more importantly take action to improve their activitles.Institutional organization and learning: PM&E at the project and institutlonal level has led to increased learning and better organization in the way the institution manages the research-development process and in the monitoring and evaluation. Scientlsts identlfied severa! aspects in the way in which they are engaging with communities: (1) An important change noted was that befare the initiation of the PM&E system, scientists would develop a project and then take it to the farmers for implementatlon, however, now scientists are discussing and prioritizing issues with communities. The scientists feel they are now more practica! and realistic and are better addressing the needs of the farmers they work with. This is also reflected in the leve! of community understanding of what the scientists are doing with them. (2) Through the development of the 'impact chain' the projects have become more impact oriented especially within the adaptive research projects. Scientists are beginning to use questions such as 'so what?' as a strategy of orienting projects towards impacts. (3)The sharing of roles and responsibilities in the process is creating openness and reducing the suspicion that sometimes exists between scientists and communities. (4) A systematic process for generating. managing. collecting and analyzing data has led to a more robust PM&E system at the project leve!, which has improved project management. For example in KARI Mtwapa. a similar actiVity reporting format has been developed which is currently being applied across 5 projects. This format ensures that a comparative analysis can be conducted across projects and information on progress of actiVities can be collated and aggregated in a systematic manner.As a result of the reflectlon process and the use of PM&E information. project actiVitles and outputs are reViewed periodically and adjusted where and when necessary. Our results indicate that the PM&E systems have led to changes in the project implementation process. These changes vary from aspects such as better targeting of the beneflciaries or stakeholders, to more complex changes such as the addition of actlvitles, adjustment of methodologies, as well as revision of the project objectives. For example in a Soya bean project in Kitale, Kenya, an actiVity on community multiplication and bulking was included after the team including research, extension and the farmers realized that the activity was crucial to the achievement of the results (increased incomes from sale of soya beans and improved nutrition) during a reflection meeting. They realized that the activity was crucial to the achievement of results although it had not been planned for durtng the project development. As farmers define future objectives they are able to bring in new activities that help them achieve these expected results. They are able develop a strategy and a sequence of activities that are required to realize these objective.While it has been very easy and straightforward to develop indicators and measure benefits from technological options, the development of índícators for benefits of participatory approaches has not been always easy. One of the key results of participatory processes is empowerment. There ha ve been sorne attempts to measure empowerment especially in studies that want to demonstrate the impacts of an intervention on empowerment (Kabeer, 1999). Through the results from our work in Malawi and Uganda, communities have identified different indicators to measure empowerment from their own perspective: Empowerment entails a process of change from the inability to make a choice to a sítuation where persons can make choices. Different types of empowerment stand out: social and cultural empowerment. economic empowerment and política! empowerment. Another distlnction is between choices that have to do with allocation of resources (both physical and the rules and norms that govem the allocations), and choices to do with the freedom of action, bargaining, or negotiation and capacity to define their life chotees. These choices may be strategic choices or non strategic choices. The indicators vary across si tes and countries and depend largely on levels of poverty. cultural traditions. region and status of women in the community. Table 4 gives sorne indications of indicators from men and women for different types of empowerment. • Women have small business of their own from which they can use money to fulfil their own needs (basic necessities such as matchbox without having to borrow). Acquire personal bank accounts for their money in their names• Women can organise and establish revolving funds Socio-Political empowerment Intemal (household and community). Equal representation in committees-having women who are active and eiTective in major committees in the community• Women have the capacity to buy clothes or use their money without requesting for permission from their husbands• Women being able to contribute and say their ideas in community meetings• Women and the youth are involved in decision making processes at the household and in the community. Decisions are not only made by the elderly men and the vlllage authority Links with others• Capacity to approach the extension worker • Capacity to negotiate for higher prtces • Self reliance in looking for services that the community members require e.g finding seed, market. and services from other organization• Women and youth are to be found In key decision making bodies in the communities and outside Access to physical resources• Women to have their own plots which they can deicide how to and the rules and norms that use. govem them• Abtlity to use their own money Freedom of action. bargaining,• Girls will be going to school and not for early marrtages or negotiation and capacity to • Women to be self reliant define life choices• Women can go out to distance markets buy goods and cometo sell in the community without any restrictions (freedom of movement)The PM&E process has shown that when stakeholders such as farmers and the extension are involved in all stages including the development of the results and activities to be monitored, the indicators that will be monitored. the type of data to be collected and how it will be collected. it leads to a more robust monitoring and evaluation. The involvement of stakeholders in PM&E however requires a Iot of negotiation. prioritization of issu es and strategic collection of data for PM&E. More often the question has been to what extent or at what level different stakeholders should be involved. There is however sorne key issues that requires consideration to make the PM&E process more effective. These include but are not limited to:Promoting a culture of rejlection and leaming: One of the key objectives of PM&E is to promote learning and use of information for deciston making. Learning is however not an automatic process in organizations. People can feel threatened by the results PM&E. lt can affect power structures by givtng more decision making to more disadvantaged and less powerful people such as communities or the disadvantaged within communities. As a result of this, a change in attitude from one of being protective to one of being open to learning should be cultivated. The process should be glven time and should not be rushed. It also implies that PM&E should not be seen as a one off activity but as a culture and a way of doing things.How do we reach more communities and more projects with PM&E? One of the approaches and the easiest is to integrate PM&E into methodologies and approaches that projects are using in their implementation of activities, for example integrating PM&E into the FFS approach or the FRG approach . This means that as project teams implement the FFS curriculum, PM&E is part and paree! of the curriculum. This will of course imply refining the PM&E process so that it is shorter and easier to apply. A second approach is to apply the indicators from one community into communitles with similar charactertstic (cultural, socio-economic, ethnic, etc) or use results and indicators from other schools with s imilar technologies and geographical area to introduce new schools to PM&E. This however has its shortcomings as the communities may not have as much ownership to the results \"imported\" from other schools or communities compared to if they developed their results themselves.With partlcipatory research, gender and equity concems are central to the implementatlon process. More often than not, gender and equity has not been reflected in the PM&E performance frameworks. Gender and equity issues including participatlon, empowerment, changes in gender relations need to be negotiated by both the project t eams and the communities so that they become part of the PM&E process.Negotiation and sharing roles for PM&E: Data collection needs to be a shared responsibility between researchers, extension officers and farmers. Teams however need to be careful so that none of these become overwhelmed with the data collection. For example farmers should not collect data that is not of interest to them b ut only to scientists. Infonnation should also be shared across all stakeholders; for example scientists should share their information with farmers and vice versa. A common assumptlon with regards to data collectlon by fanners has been that once farmers know the indicators they should collect data on, they will get on with it. More often than not, the capacity of farmers to collect and analyze data has to be built. This should however not be taken to the extent that researchers give fanners long complicated fonns or data s heets in which to record data as this may deter them from collecting the data.Indicators and questions from PM&E will differ between projects if they are defined in a participatory way, which may make it difficult to compare outputs and outcomes of different participatory approaches between projects.There are many challenges in setting up and implementing PM&E systems. Ensurtng that PM&E does n ot just become a technical process-develop results, indicators, collect data and analyze. The learning aspect of PM&E needs very strong emphasis so that there is a balance between focus on the implementation and on the learning and the u se of PM&E data to take corrective measures and make decisions. Establishing and supporting PM&E systems is an expensive process. both in terms of time, human capital and material resources for initiating and sustaining M&E, and also because of the intensive facilitation required in the initial stages. In most cases, organizations will not have the skills that are required to support the process and these skills may need to be built befare the process can take off. Due to the tnvolvement of different stakeholders, strategies n eed to be developed to involve these different stakeholders. For example for CD-PM&E the use of graphics, identification of local vocabulary for sorne of the technical terms should be done.José L. GarcíaJoo and José l. Roa In the zone of Pescador. Northem Cauca Province (Colombia). there is a shortage of forage available in the dry season dueto mismanagement of hillside pastures by the cattle ranchers. The purpose of this research work is to take advantage of the surplus forage material in the rainy season and store it for the dry season. Through partlctpatory methods. the producers are involved in the planning, evaluatlon and deciston-making. The participatlng farmers were formed into three groups: (1) 6 producers that own cattle, (2) 6 farmers that only grow crops. and (3) 6 producers that are engaged in both actlvities. referred to as the \"combtned\" group. The partlal outcomes of these participatory evaluations of techniques for prepartng silage are being analyzed through logistlc regression. Thus far all three groups prefer using a cylindrtcal metal drum as a 'silo' (good to intermediate acceptance) because it gtves them more securtty (made from metal, easy to compact and store forage). The plastic bags had low-to-intermediate acceptance because they retained more air and were not sufficiently compact because the plastic material is too weak. The cowpeas have more uses so they were perceived as being more promising, while hyacinth beans were seen as being good as a cover crop.Keywords: Partlcipatory evaluatlon of technologies, silage making, promising legumes, in vitro digestlbilityDual-purpose cattle-raising for small and intermedia te producers forms part of the agricultura! and livestock system in tropical countrtes. This system is charactertzed by a shortage of forage during the year, one of the principal causes being poor management of the grasslands including overgrazing with too high a stocking density, which promotes erosion. This damage to the natural resources can be reduced. maintaining a balance between this and technologies employed in improving the biological and economic production of cattle with correct management of the environment in the interactlon (soil, animal, plant, producer) (Titterton, 1999): i.e., especially by using forage species (grasses and legumes) that tolerate soil acidity, well-adapted cattle, appropriate stocking density, grasses adapted for cuttlng and accompanying species (native shrubs). Consequently, during the rainy season the cattle reach their ideal weight: and during the dry season, they lose it again. Forage management and conservation are in the best interest of both the producer and the animal.There are difficulties in using surplus forages. especially in zones where the supply becomes scarce in dry periods. Taking into account the forage potential that species such as cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) and hyacinth beans (Lablab purpureus) have including very good agronomic characteristlcs such as high protein con ten t. production of biomass. precocity, adaptability to different soils and climates. the producer has sorne good options available.Determine through methods of participatory evaluation with producers from northem Cauca whether it is feasible to conserve forage (a) in the form of silage 1 0 2 and (b) as hayl03Use a participatory research methodology with groups of farmers. cattle ranchers anda combined group to produce and conserve forage in northem Cauca Assess the level of acceptance of the use of hay and silage making by the farmers Determine which silage-making technology is better for the producers Evaluate nutritional quality with respect to in vitro digestibility of dry matter 104 and crude protein. wsConceptualization: A literature review was done including searches in librarles. newspaper collections. degree theses. books, electronic publications, fora and workshops. available at the Intemational Tropical Agriculture Center (CIA11 and the National University of Colombia-Palmira campus, as well as electronic consultations made with zootechnicians and agrostologists (Agudelo 2005).102. It is a process for conserving forages based upon anaerobic fermentation (no air) of the biomass so that the original quality of the forage at the time of the cut can be kept for long periods of time. 103. It is the process resulting from dehydrating the forage. which is a feed that contains 15% moisture content. betng the most economlcal source for the animals, except for grazing. 104. Indicates lndirectly how much feed will be retained in the gastrointestinal tract for digestion (in the rumen and lntestines) and therefore do not appear in the feces. 105. AIJ the compounds that contain nitrogen. urea. amines. amlno aclds and protein.Contextualization: This work was done at the CIAT Quilichao Experiment Station located in the municipality of Santander de Quílichao, Cauca Province, Colombia (3°06' N, 76°31' W, at 990 m alt.). with an average temp of 24°C and 1800 mm bimodal rainfall yearly, distributed from September to December (Rosero 2005).The selection was done, taking into account the producers interested in using this type of technologies and that were currently working in agriculture and/or cattle raising. Three groups were formed that would contribute their diverse experiences, while we would learr1 from them and together form a work team (Producers-IPRA Project-Tropical Forages Project) to solve certain questions asto the different uses, forage conservation techniques and the evaluation of the same.In:field evaluations of materials and technologies: Openended evaluation formats were used with the producers initially to obtain basic information about utilization and management in forage conservation so that they can determine which of the techniques is favorable; silage making in different -sized cylindrical metal drums or in plastic bags, as well as the field performance of the two forages (cowpeas and hyacinth beans).The data obtained from the surveys were tabulated, systematized and then analyzed using logistic regression in Producers making the silage, CIAT-Santander de Quilichao.the analysis of preferences. an application for Excel v. 7 .O (Microsoft) developed by Hernandez (2000).Acceptance of the plastic bag technology was from intermediate to low, given that it is not very reliable (much air remains). and there is a perceived greater risk in the lower level of compactlon achieved. In the cylindrical metal drums, on the other hand, acceptance is from good to intermediate because the form of storing the material represents more security and the silage is perceived as being more compact. They recommend that the drum be fixed to the ground so that it does not lift up and there can be better compaction and uniformity. They also suggested using other materials such as polypropylene drums to obtain more volume. Another group suggested a larger size container and doing a cost/benefit analysis.In the field evaluation of materials, the farmers coincided with the cattle ranchers. Cowpeas were preferred for their diverse uses: the grains for human nutrition, animal nutrition, additional source of income, precocity (4 weeks), and the lower incidence of pests/diseases (\"resistance\"). The cattle ranchers were interested in the quality and quantity of the forage in order to improve their hillside conditions. In addition to the foregotng, the combined group was interested in learning about the potential market and its use asan economic altematlve. There were no differences for the hyacinth bean either; however the producers coincided in the fact that there was a high incidence of the leaf mlner. whtch affects lts productlon; thus lts development was more delayed. The cattle ranchers mentloned that palatability is important to consider when taking a decision, an aspect that the other two groups did not mentlon. All groups mentloned that the hyacinth beans have very important traits: their capacity for regrowth, potential use as a cover crop, resistance and the absence of tannins, which affect the nutritional quality of any promising legume.Both the cowpeas and the hyacinth bean were well accepted in work that results in the improved well-being of both people and animals. The technology of making silage in plastlc bags had the lowest acceptance in the three groups of producers because the silage was more difficult to compact. the plastic bags can break, and it is more difficult to remove the air during the process. The silage made in the cylindrical metal drums had the best acceptance in the three groups because the drums are more resistant. and the air can be removed more easily.For many years the waste products resulting from different production systems have been a life threat, due to the immense volume produced and the large pollutant load they generate as a result of the level of development that motivates consumerism. Thus the problem gets worse every day. To control and/or mitigate the increase in waste products, it is necessary to take urgent measures and thus prevent their negative impact (Bruzon 1996). Composting makes it possible to utilize organic waste products that would nonnally be taken toa garbage dump or, worse, in rivers. A substrate fertilizer known as compost is produced to improve the quality of the soils. The majority of organic wastes are generated in the rural zone. generally from agricultura! and livestock activities: coffee pulp. waste products of sugarcane processing. chicken manure and cassava solid wastes. among others. It is in this zone where this management practice should be used at the fann leve! and taken advantage of to mitiga te the impact caused by their incorrect disposal.Evaluate the management of orgaruc wastes used in composting by documenting the experiences in composting in the zone of influence of CIPASLA (lnterinstitutional Consortium for Agriculture Sustainable on Hillsides) in Pescador. Cauca.The work was implemented in the town of Pescador. Municipality of Caldono, Cauca Province, Iocated at 2° 50' 25.1 \"-2° 45' 0.9\" la t. N and 76° 32' 35.1 \"-76° 29' 44.9\" long. W and 1290-1970 m alt .. classifled as pre-Montane dry forest. a temperature under 24°C, rainfall from 800-2100 mm, andan uneven topography with very strong to moderate slopes. Producers that carry out composting and rural agroindustries that generate byproducts in each of their productive processes were identified in the zone. Two surveys were designed for the population in order to obtain a detailed record of the local knowledge:• Compile infonnation about the amount and availability of byproducts that could be composted and identify the producers that do composting • Record the details and document the experiences in composting. Georeferencing of the farms of each producer was done, using a GPS 1 10 Garmin Etrex. The population sample was selected at random. visiting three (3-5) farms per village in CIPASLA's area of influence.The procedure applied by three farmers for setting up their compost piles was monitored (Fig. 1).The samples were air dried, ground (< 2 mm) and then taken to the Analytical Services Lab at CIAT in order to determine the C, N, P, K, Ca and Mg contents.  Quanti.frcation oj waste products The producers smveyed produce waste products prtmarily from the kitchen (93%) and coffee pulp (89%) . From 64-68% generated waste products from the garden and bean pods, 54% from maize hulls, 36% from cattle manure and 21% from chicken manure.There are other byproducts generated by less than 10% of those surveyed in nontraditional systems in the zone; e.g., cassava starch impurtties containing protein, which are generated durtng the agroindustrtal processing of sour starch, which is common in this zone of the Cauca Province. About 90% of the farmers in this watershed grow cassava (Hernández, 1996).Cassava salid wastes, high in fiber content, are nota common waste product (only 7% ofthose surveyed produce it). but the amount produced yearly is high (average of 474 t/yrJ, which is also true for cattle manure (produced by 35% of those surveyed), with an average productlon of 7.9 t/yr. Although the waste products from the kitchen were the commonest (93%), the average volume generated by the producers surveyed was not high (1.4 t/yr). Most of the producers surveyed produced kitchen waste (93%) and coffee pulp (89%). From 64-68o/o of them generated waste products from the garden and bean pods, 54% maize hulls, 36% cattle manure and 21% chicken manure (Fig. 5).Other types of waste products that are also generated (others in Fig. 5) include cassava starch impurities and solid waste. plantain bagasse, suckers or pseudostems, pig manure, ashes, leaf mold from the forest, chicken feathers. horse manure and guinea pig manure; but only a few of those interviewed (< 10%) generated such products. The byproducts referred to in the previous paragraph are produced in nontraditional systems in the zone. The exception is the cassava starch impurities, which are generated durtng the processing of the same on an agroindustrial scale and are common (90% of the farmers in this watershed) in this zone of Cauca Province (Hernández 1996).The production of coffee pulp is frequent; and it is one of the waste products generated in the largest amounts in the zone. The two pertods of coffee production during the year are the main harvest from March-June anda second minor one from October-December. The maize hulls and bean pods are produced during the harvestlng periods for this type of crops. and the frequency varíes among producers, given the different periods selected for the planting. The periods of waste generation are probably concentrated in the rainy season when there is more agricultura! production with short-cycle crops like common beans and maize. Waste products from agroindustry and the kitchen are generated daily. Chicken manure (only from operations with 50-250 broiler chickens) is generally produced semesterly. quarterly or every four months. Differences in the periods of production or generation of waste products depend on the dynamics in the production systems. the climate, rainfall/dry season periodsCommonest waste products and substrates used in the compost by the producers surveyed Chicken manure is the waste product most used by those surveyed (93%). followed by coffee pulp and agrtculturallime (79%); however. blackstrap molasses. waste products from the kitchen. yeast, soil. cattle manure, bean pods, ashes. cassava solid wastes and waste products from the garden are also used by 25-68% of the producers. Other waste products such as leaf mold from the forest. maize hulls and cane bagasse are also used. but by only a few producers (9%). The chicken manure. agrtculturallime, blackstrap molasses and yeast are substrates purchased on the local market. These substrates are used to accelerate the decomposition and enrtch the final product.According to INTEC ( 1999) these substrates contain a combination of microorganisms and tmportant nutrients to initiate and accelerate the process.Based on the information supplied, chicken manure and coffee pulp generally account for 20-40% (in weight) of the compost piles of the producers surveyed. In general. the producers feel it is necessary to use agriculturallime and blackstrap molasses, but they represent less than the 5% of the pile. The waste products from the kitchen are used in a proportion (based on weight) that ranges from 0-10%. Cattle manure has the greatest variation in the proportions used (0-40%). Few producers use waste products from the garden or yeast (0-5%). The other waste products are not much used by the producers.Use and application rate of the compost in the dlffere nt crops The largest percent of producers surveyed use their compost on their coffee crop (22.2%); however it is also used frequently on common beans. plantain and maize crops (18.1 %, 15.3% and 9.7%, respectively. While it is applied in larger amounts to fruit. plantain and vegetable crops, approximately 3-5 kg compost/plant is applied to plantains; but a few producers use up to 50 kg/plant. which increases the variability in the data. The application rate in coffee ranges from 1-3 kg compost/plant. The average application rate for the other crops is low. without distinguishing b etween mínimum and maximum amounts (0.2-1.5 kg compost/plant on the average) . In the case of quarterly crops like common beans and maize and yearly crops like cassava, the amounts used are always constant (0 .2-0.5 kg/plant) . These three crops are planted in association. Costa et al. (1991) s uggest that a suitable application rate for compost is from 20-50 t/ha for crops with a large need for humus and from 25-40 t / ha for forage crops. The application rates used by the producers are similar to the recommendations found in the literature.Criteriajor evaluating the maturity and stability of the compost The producers that do composting have criteria for evalu ating the maturity of the compost, which determine when it is possible to use it. The ease of managing the compost with respect to its texture is the most frequently mentioned criterion among the producers surveyed. However, other criteria such as stable temperature of the compost (same as the environmental temperature). low level of unpleasant odors, low percentage of moisture (dry compost), and the change of color (dark) also serve, according to the producers. to determine when the compost can be used. The producers' criteria are consistent with the parameters indicated by various authors; e.g., Costa et al. (1991) and Labrador (2001) consider that one ofthe most useful methods for determining the maturity and stability of the compost is observing odor. stable temperature. color and specific weight.Advantages 1 disadvantages of using compost according to the producers Among the advantages. according to the producers. the effect of the compost on increasing production stands out, especially in coffee and common beans (32% of the responses). The producers also consider that the compost is an excellent fertilizer. This criterion was taken into account by 10 producers (21. 7% of the total criteria) and is consistent with what is stated Restrepo (1996). A few producers mention that the compost has sorne disadvantages. especially when there is inadequate management of the system. One important disadvantage is the low availability of the phosphorus in the compost obtained. The producers also assume that an important disadvantage is the low availability of phosphorus in the soils in the zone, which should be reflected in the compost. The lab analysis shows phosphorus levels within the range mentioned by Cubero (1994), from 0.1-1.6%.With the cost estimates of the three producers and using 1 ton as a basis for the calculation, the production costs were estimated, assuming 30% losses durtng the process, leaving 700 kg at the end. In fact, García (2000) mentioned that from 12-50% reduction in matertals can occur. depending on the materials used. With an estimated 30% losses. a value of $126.20 was reached, which is the cost for the producers surveyed to produce 1 kg of compost. The production costs of the compost are high. taking into account that this is close to the amount suggested by Gómez (2000) for cornmercial purposes ($150/kg). For organic fertilizers (products with an NPK content ± 4%) . (Restrepo 1996, Bongcam 2003) mention that the prices for the chemical fertilizers, as compared with those for the compost. are low (approx. ratio of 1: 1 OJ. For this study. however. the ratio was 1:7.5 (Le .. 7. 5 kg of compost per kg of chemical fertilizer).To establish a compost pile with the waste products. the three producers first clean the area where the pile is to be built. They prepare the waste products and substrates to be used in the system ahead of time. The coffee pul p. chtcken manure, dolomitic lime, blackstrap molasses and yeast are used by the three producers; while the cassava soltd wastes and Calfomag were used by only two of them. Other waste products and substrates such as agricultura! magnestum sulfate. buenazasi 11 Btosolnew. 1 1 2 rice husks, earthworm vermicompost. mature compost. bean pods and nacedero leaves were used by sorne tndtviduals. The waste products are placed in layers. Generally the waste products of greater abundance are placed first. The blackstrap molasses and the yeast are rntxed beforehand in a minimum of 10 1t ofwater. This mixture together wtth the lime is added as the layers are added.The proportions of coffee pulp used by the three producers ranged from 22-32% of the total wetght of the mixture. Chicken manure is used in proportions that go from 8-22o/o. To condition the moisture in the pile. the producers add water until the moisture is suitable. which they test with their clenched ftst. 11 3 The blackstrap molasses is used in proportions of 0.4-0.6%. The use of the cassava solid wastes vartes among the producers (23% of JB's pile versus 53.5% of CTs pile). However, both producers recognize the benefits of using the cassava solid wastes based on previous experiences, where they obtained the compost in less time (22-30 days) and better results in their crops. Other waste products and substrates also used include small percentages of nacedero leaves. bean pods. rice husks. buenazas, yeast. Biosolnew and agricultura! magnesium sulfate-all used separately. The coffee pulp has ideal characteristics for compost as it has a high sugar content (source of energy), a good C:N ratio (25:30) and a suitable particle size (Restrepo 1996, Soto and Muñoz, 2002).The analyses of vartance showed significant differences for carbon contents in the compost; however, the compost systems had suitable levels (from 23-29%, Table 1). In general all the compost systems, independent of the waste products used, had an abundance of this element; thus they are considered organic amendments (Costa et al. 1991). However. it is important to clarify that the chemical analyses for the three systems of compost were done at the tnitial stage of the process, given the tmpossibility of carrytng out a sampling at the end of the process. According to Gómez (2000) the amount of carbon is not constant in the compost process. varytng considerably over time, especially if 1t has not undergone a good period of maturity. The percentages are given on a dry basis with respect to the total nutrtent content.111. Mixture of plants that grow where they are not wanted, generally ha ve no econornic value and interfere with crop growth and harvesting, but are beneficia! for this type of practice after pruning. 112. Organlc soil amendment, ideal accompaniment for leaf and soil fertilization with both macro-and rnicronutrients. which helps assirnilate the same gtven their power of chelatlon and complejation. 113. Conslsts in taking a fistful of the mixture and squeezing !t; there should not be any drops ofwater between the fingers, but it should form a brittle lump (Restrepo 1996).is still maize stored from the previous harvest, which lasts depending on the amount planted and the consumption. \"lfwe eat it every day, it won't The functlons of the CIAL have been planning and coordinating the implementation of the trials on the farms of the local producers. They decide when, where and with whom to plant; the evaluations of the trials on the farms, the harvest and the analyses of the results. The Committee also organized a meeting after each harvest With members of the community to inform them about their activities and results. In meetings like those, it is when new ideas for conducting research With the CIAL arise; e.g., the trial With varieties of quinoa.In 2000 the CIAL was invited to participate in an international seminar about participatory breeding in Quito (Ecuador). together With two other CIALs from the Cauca Province. The young farmers did not have any knowledge of quinoa at that time. Therefore Esmeralda saw it for the first time on her trip to Ecuador in zones similar to Silvia. The CIAL obtained seed from Ecuador via collaboration between the agronomists that support the CIALs in Ecuador and Colombia: Fausto Merino from the National Research Institute (INIAP) of Ecuador, and José Ignacio Roa from the IPRA Project at CIAT. She explained: \"The idea of the quinoa was mine, after the trip to Ecuador, where we w ent to see their crops [visit to INIAP's Santa Catalina experiment station). We had already worked with amaranth, which is very similar to quinoa. 1 had also heard of quinoa, but 1 had not had the opportunity to get some seedfor planting. Then as a result ofthat trip, we had the opportunity and that was through you (José Ignacio Roa, IPRA Project, CIAT) who brought us the seed, which we planted here in Quisgo, The result has been really great. \"The IPRA Project saw the need to strengthen the local leadership in the communitles and that was how it began to develop partlcipatory methodologies through organized groups of farmers that like todo research (the CIALs). They investlgate the causes that give rtse to their problems and seek to solve them in order to improve their quality of llfe. They also seek to strengthen their degree of organizatlon. development and sustainability so that in the end. the communitles wil1 be self-reliant in their own development processes. At the same time it is tmportant that the communitles recover their natlve knowledge under the leadership of their Committees to use it along with the new technologies that are produced by the research centers and that they evaluate them to leam which will adapt better to their speciflc conditlons of soil, climate and cultural aspects.The main objectlve of the CIAL Tres Cruces was to recover the tradition of plantlng quinoa. a rnillenary crop of high nutrttional value, about 34% protein. and that the communities would begin to consume it again because it is a high-quality crop. Esmeralda commented that she has been looking for informatlon on quinoa in collaboratlon with the UMATA (Municipal Unit of Agrtcultural and Livestock Technical Assistance) in order to share it with the community. Sorne of the older people commented that they had grown and eaten quinoa and that it was a traditlonal crop that was lost in the last generation. Quinoa has been one of the oldest traditional crops since the time of the Incas. The members of the Indigenous Council and the community in general are aware of the value of this tnnovation.In Ecuador the CIAL Flor Naciente has tested 15 varteties of quinoa supplied by the Legume and Tuber Program at INIAP (National Agricultura! and Livestock Research Institute). Those varteties selected by the CIAL were then brought by the IPRA agronomist and delivered to the CIAL Tres Cruces. In 2000 the Committee planted a trial with the 6 vartetles. following the steps of the CIAL methodology, first planting small plots to observe whether the varietles were adapted to the local plantlng conditions. All six varieties were planted on several farms at the same time. with the local planting system and fertilization in order to compare them.The varieties rated as good by the CIAL were cooked and tested by the community in order to make the final selectlons and decide which would be replanted in larger plots called \"Confinnation Trials.\" In this second round of trials they identified two varieties as the best: Cochasqui and Priotal. Then in 2003 the CIAL organized a field day with 30 women from 1 O communitles. \"We mad.e cakes and salad.s, and se roed rejreshments, all oj them mad.e oj quirWa. What the people liked the most were the cakes,'' they said. There was not sufficient seed available in the region. In 2004, the CIAL decided to plant three large plots of each of the two varteties on 3 farms . They still conserve the six initlal varteties.Toward the end of 2004, four years after beginning the expertment. Esmeralda Solarte commented that almost 40% of the families in the Quisgo Reservation have planted at least one of the quinoa varteties selected by their Committee. \"The mqjority oj the jamilies in the Quisgo Reservation had a small piece of land planted, not with much quinoa; now at least 300 families haue planted quinoa\"* At present there are producers that have planted up to one-fourth of a plaza (1600 m 2 ) because they consider quinoa to be a new crop that still needs to be tested.Cochasqui has a low level of saponin (a tannin that gives a bitter taste), which is white, better for cooking. The cakes look pretty. and they have a better flavor. The seed ís being distributed in very small amounts among the producers.The level of interest has been increasing. Esmeralda says that people have gone to her house, asking her to give them a little seed that they want to plant, or they trade quinoa for maíze. \"I gaue her half a pound, and she gave me 20 ears oj maize. It takes only a little jora person to have enough to produce seed.. \" (the culture of bartering)The farmers are planting quinoa principally as a subsistence crop to increase their food, and sorne are beginning to sell small amounts of seed. For example Mercedes Hurtado, leader of the CIAL. recently sold about 60 kg of quinoa as seed at Col.Ps.$2500 (US$1 .00) to organizations and at $1500 (US$0.63) to the local farmers. The UMATA bought seed in míd-2004 to conduct an extension program with quinoa; by 2005 the farmers already had their seed.The most important result is described by a CIAL member as follows :\"The idea is that all the Jamilies that liue in the reservation plant it Like they do maize, that they leam to consume it, and that aboue all, they giue it to the chüdren because it is a better jood than maize.\"The idea is also to distribute the quinoa in the schools to replace the Bienestarina Bienestarina (made ofwheatflour, milk, soyjlour, uitamins and minerals} and giuen by the Family Wellbeing Institute (ICBF) because the quinoaflour is more nutritious and it is also medicinal.\"Mercedes Hurtado commented: \"We haue managed to decrease the incidence of tuberculosis quite a bit in older people and in children, thanks to the use of quinoa.\" At present they are not thinking about selling quinoa outside the region:\" First it has to be consumed in the reservation\"; in other words, they feel that after resolving their food security intemally, they will think about comercializing quinoa, seeking new markets outside the region.Quinoa is harvested manually. In order to cook ít, a cuticle, a thin husk that covers the grain, has to be removed. The traditional procedure is to rub the grains between the hands. \"This is uery hard work; many times my hands bled when there was quinoa in the regían,\" commented an old indigenous woman who collaborated with the Committee.The CIAL suggested getting sorne type of little \"machine\" todo this arduous work. The IPRA Project agronomist, José Ignacio Roa, and Mr. Humberto Muñoz, with extensive experience in building small machinery, created a prototype that was tested with very good results. The machine was tested on a field day attended by 30 producers, authorities of the Indígenous Council, UMATA technicians and CIAL members. They were impressed by the benefits that they could get from the thresher and are planning to plant the quinoa on a larger scale and begin to support the CIAL so that it plants and disseminates the quinoa varieties.Later, among the Municipality of Silvia, the Indigenous Council and CORFOCIAL (Corporation for Promoting the Local Agricultura! Research Committees). which groups the CIALs from Cauca Province, the CIAL obtained the resources to buy the quinoa thresher. The machine is kept in Esmeralda's house. and the producers borrow it, taking it to their homes to thresh their quinoa. The plans for 2006, commented Esmeralda, are \"to adapt a small motor to the machine because they get very tired and the amount of quinoa has increased.\" The Committee is aware that a very important goal is to socialize the values of self-reliance among young people. Mercedes commented: uour task is to teach the children so that they recover the custom of eating quinoa. given that the children, seeing and teaching it, can leam and get ahead.\"The leaders of the Indigenous Council have been somewhat skeptical of the CIAL's work beca use sorne of them do not understand why they are planting these new varteties on such small plots. Nevertheless, their way of thinking about the research on quinoa has changed over time. At the beginning they were distant from the process, considertng itas something small. \"agroup ofwomen doing something oflittle importance and with an unknown crop.\" Esmeralda's husband does not oppose her participation in the CIAL. If she has to go out for an all-day-long meeting, her family cooks for themselves. Mercedes, the other member, has to find someone to take care of her mother when she has to go out to attend the meettngs.The Committee has increased its petty cash fund with the product of the sale of the seed from their expertment. Thus far they have saved Col.Ps.$220,000 (US$100), which they use to pay for the costs of thetr trtals.The CIAL is also visited by the UMATA. which has its office in Silvia, the capital of the municipality, population 13,000 inhabitants. The UMATA provides the CIAL with chicken manure. which is the source of organic manure to fertilize their trtals. Their technicians observe the Committee's expertments. The UMATA is starting an extension program with quinoa in the five reservations of Silvia. It plans to give support to other producers for planttng 10-20 ha of quinoa on a comrnercial scale, and the CIAL will have to produce the seed for this project. The Office of the Mayor has ha d a very important function: give support to the UMATA in this process by monitortng the harvests, visittng the trtals and observtng how the CIAL does its research. CORFOCIAL's functions have been to facilitate the training in the CIAL methodology, provide access to the technical informatlon, contact the CIALs and give support to the CIAL in the forrn of money for their petty cash fund and 50% for machinery.The IPRA Project agronomist's functions are to monitor CORFOCIAL's progress. train or. if necessary. give support to the technicians in the research process and help CORFOCIAL to develop the CIALs in new ways. For example, the agronomist knew Don Humberto Muñoz, who designed and built the prototype of a thresher for quinoa, assuming the cost of constructing the first thresher. The agronomist brought quinoa from the CIAL so that they could test the thresher .(p. 2142). This context diversity therefore has important implications for defining 'sustainability'.Context: This study was conducted in conjunction with CIAL participants in the municipalities ofYorito and Sulaco in the department ofYoro in north-central Honduras. La Fundacion para la Investigacion Participativa con Agricultores de Honduras (FIPAH) supported 25local agrtcultural research committees (Comites de Investigacion Agrícola Local: [ClALs]) in Y oro at the time of the study. 1\\venty of these were mixed, two were all male and three were all female. Average membersWp per CIAL in the area was 9, with a range of 6-23 members. The CIAL methodology was developed in the late eightles by the IPRA team, led by Jacqueline Ashby, CIAT (Ashby et al .. 2000) The overriding objective was to provide an ongoing platform for integrating local needs assessments, local decisionmaking, and innovatlon for 'sustain.able agri.Culture' among poor and marginalized farmers (Braun et al .. 2000). The approach enables community-based r esearch teams to look for their own solutions to local agrtcultural problems. ClALs test out new agricultura! technologies/techniques against local practice(s) through the design and execution of simple experiments. These are evaluated and analyzed by the CIAL and, if successful, the technology is recommended to the community. Honduran agronomists were trained by CIAT in the CIAL methodology in 1996. There are five regional CIAL associations (ASOCIALs) in Honduras comprising around 900 farmers. FIPAH supports three of the regional CIAL associations. The Iargest concentration of CIALs is located in Y oro (ASOCIAL Yorito, Victoria and Sulaco. where the impact assessment was conducted.Through the CIAL project, farmers learn how to plan, manage, evaluate and analyze experiments. In each participating community, the CIAL hosts a community meeting to discuss local agricultura! needs and to prioritize research goals. Agricultura! priorities identified by communities in Yorito and Sulaco have been largely oriented around the production of staple crops: maize and beans, reflecting the overrtdlng concem with food security. Thus 79% all the agrtcultural experiments carried out by ClALs have involve varietal testing or management techniques associated with maize and beans. However, most CIALs tend to carry out more than one experiment ata time and new crops such as soybean. wheat and rice or new inputs, such as organic fertilizers and pestlcides, are often tried out alongside research in baste staples. The CIAL groups in Honduras also provide a platform for requesting information. assistance and micro-credit loans. CIAL members learn about managing budgets, sewing, n ew recipes. nutrition and health, amongst other things. They also administer loans provided via the Second Order Organtzation (ASOCIAL). These loans are sometlmes u sed by the ClALs to purchase materials for building grain silos. or committee meeting rooms but they also afford CIAL members the opportunity to take individualloans from their CIAL organization to buy seeds or agronomic inputs. to buy /produce extra grains to store against the hungry season or to help make ends meet when produce from the prior harvest season has diminished.The CIAL project in Honduras provided arare opportuntty to take the results of a long-term (with more than 10 years ofwork in the field) and on-going agrtculture proj ect and employ participatory methods to understand the connectlon between the visible tmpacts and project methods. In this research we combined altematlve and participatory tools with more","tokenCount":"48355"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"66909d8433f68664f9e0df3e009131f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fb3bd7c6-c2c0-4255-a5e1-ba59999659fd/retrieve","id":"578965450"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e50de46a-04da-4bb6-bada-c10eefb0e6a0","pagecount":"2","content":"New detailed studies to support national agricultural policy makers A CCAFS-supported project led by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), and undertaken in collaboration with African partners, is exploring the relationship between changing weather patterns and agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa. Published as a set of three books, this project's fi ndings will feed into the design of national and regional policies that support low-income farmers and others most at risk from climate change and variability.For policy makers deciding how to respond to climate change, the devil's in the detail. In agriculture, knowing what crops to promote and how to support farmers in a given area depends critically on an accurate prediction of how local temperature and rainfall conditions are likely to change.Whereas past studies have focused at the regional level, this project is unique in combining overviews at the continental and regional levels with detailed analysis of individual countries and even of key areas within countries. The researchers used climate and crop models to map the effects of climate change in each of 29 countries of East, West and Southern Africa -the fi rst time such a comprehensive analysis has been conducted at such a localized level of detail.The results have been published as the Climate Change in Africa series -three books covering each of the three regions, with individual chapters on each country (see box overleaf).By bringing together the impact that both climate change and economic and population growth will have on crop yields at national level, the Climate Change in Africa series provides policy makers with recommendations that are tailored to the social and environmental circumstances of their country.The study revealed sharp contrasts in the fate of different regions, environments and commodities. Southern Africa, for example, can expect higher temperature increases than other regions. Forested highlands were shown to be especially vulnerable as temperature rises, forcing cultivation further up the slope. The picture for maize is variable, with some areas showing increased yields, but wheat is highly sensitive to heat and likely to experience a steep fall in yields, while sorghum was also shown to be surprisingly sensitive. Policy makers will need to place special emphasis on defi ning appropriate responses for these and other elements likely to come under increasing pressure. Above all, measures will be needed to support and protect vulnerable people, many of whom may be forced to alter their production systems radically or even to migrate as agriculture becomes impossible.Protecting and restoring threatened or degraded environments will become particularly important as climate change adds to existing pressures on the natural resource base. Policy support for research and development should include the following priority themes:} The reclamation of degraded land, for example by planting trees to prevent soil erosion and improve the microclimate. } Agroforestry systems that combine trees and crops, and include species that are drought-tolerant. } Water harvesting and irrigation, especially in countries with large arid and semi-arid zones. } Secure land tenure, so that smallholders are confi dent that they can invest in their land. } Energy-saving stoves, to reduce the cutting of trees for fi rewood and charcoal (while other sources of energy such as wind and solar are investigated and developed).Institutional measures will be needed to support climate-resilient development. New research programs and development projects will need to be designed and funded, with the emphasis on new plant varieties as well as improved natural resource management.It will be vital to build the human, institutional, infrastructural and fi nancial capacity to design and implement policies, as well as to monitor their impact.The three reports had their origins in a global study led by Gerald Nelson, a former IFPRI Senior Research Fellow, which began in 2010. As the work unfolded it became clear that regional and individual country reports would be needed to produce the fi nescale, localized detail that would provide policy makers with the detailed guidance they needed in order to act. IFPRI researchers worked through the CCAFS network to identify regional partners and national authors to conduct further research and to secure the necessary funding. This partnership approach was adopted primarily to harness national knowledge, but also to ensure buyin from the policy community.To further cement the links between research and policy-making that will lead to action, the books are being launched at various global and regional events and promoted through the media.To fi nd out more about the African Agriculture and Climate Change books, please visit http://ccafs.cgiar.org/africanagriculture-climate-change-books or email us through ccafs@cgiar.orgThe What's in the books?In each book, policy makers will fi nd details of predicted changes in rainfall and temperatures at regional, national and local levels. The books go on to analyse the likely impact of these changes on crop yields, showing where these are expected to increase, decline or remain steady. Using the IMPACT model developed by IFPRI and its partners, this analysis is combined with the effects of technology improvement to give a range of possible outcomes. Acknowledging that farmers don't grow crops in a social and economic vacuum, the country chapters also predict how income and population growth will affect crop production -and how the resulting availability and price of food will affect consumption. These predictions are used in turn to paint future scenarios for commodity prices, agricultural trade patterns, food prices, calorie consumption and child malnutrition -the key indicators that policy makers need in order to make the right investment decisions.Many uncertainties surround such a complex analysis.The aim of the study was to circumscribe these, providing policy makers with the full range of scenarios for which their countries need to prepare. A useful outcome has been to point up areas and commodities on which there is broad consensus between different models on the direction and degree of probable change and those on which there is not.","tokenCount":"965"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6217a11f116bc97d33902c2dec8cbea4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/110d298c-efb4-420d-84cd-7287a1f06a98/content","id":"1198048583"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9356856e-36f4-46a7-b4d4-e030a019f30f","pagecount":"46","content":"This report contributes to Output 2.1. Baseline -current conditions of agricultural systems of smallholder farmers in each Agroecological Living Landscape (ALL) and provides context to their current state. For Zimbabwe, the ALLs are at the district level, with two sub-ALLs at the ward level. The current Context Assessment has been reported at the district level and, where information is available, the wards where the nuclei ALLs have been established were given. The purpose of this Context Assessment was threefold: first, to characterize the environmental, social, and economic context of the Mbire ALL; second, to understand the data and information currently available in the ALL; third, to characterize the extent to which agroecological principles are already being employed in the ALL. The Context Assessment is not meant to be a quantitative baseline or an exhaustive report but rather a broad overview of the situation in the ALL. The data collected during focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and meetings were also used to shape the Context Assessment and will inform the Impact Assessment.The CGIAR initiative Transformational Agroecology across Food, Land, and Water Systems develops and scales agroecological innovations with small-scale farmers and other food system actors in seven low-and middle-income countries. It is one of 32 initiatives of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis.This report contributes to Output 2.1. Baseline -current conditions of agricultural systems of smallholder farmers in each Agroecological Living Landscape (ALL) and provides context to their current state. Therefore, the document is a Context Assessment report developed and maintained to ensure a thorough understanding of the operational context and the stakeholders and communities. This document is a living document and will continuously evolve. For Zimbabwe, the ALLs are at the district level, with two sub-ALLs at the ward level. The current Context Assessment has been reported for Mbire, which is at the district level and, where information is available, the wards where the nuclei ALLs have been established were given. We used gray literature from published articles, reports, and web pages as the main source of information. This information was validated with data collected during focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs), and meetings. \"The key findings show that Mbire comprises mainly family farmers characterized as resource-poorThe key findings show that Mbire comprises mainly family farmers characterized as resource-poor. The community is largely patriarchal, with chiefs and herdmen managing natural resources. The main production constraints include, but are not limited to, weather risks (drought and floods), low access to improved technologies, low market access, and human-wildlife conflict. Sorghum, sesame, and cotton are the main field crops produced, while farmers keep goats, cattle, pigs, and poultry. Horticultural crops are also produced along riverbanks. The main environmental hazards are soil erosion, gullies, and deforestation.The communities in Mbire have good access to diverse foods across the different food groups, most of which are sourced from the natural forests that surround the communities. However, food availability is greater from March to August and the peak lean period is experienced from September to December.Findings from KIIs and FGDs across Mbire District revealed several farmer groups and committees. Farmer groups are small and formed on their own initiative or through development agencies with specific objectives, such as strengthening food security and improving the household income of group members. Many of the groups formed are not concerned about diversity but rather contributing to the group cause.Mbire District is located in the Zambezi Valley, approximately 200 km north of Harare, Zimbabwe's capital (Figure 1). The district borders Mozambique.Context Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 8 Mbire is part of the Mid-Zambezi Valley, formed by the former floodplains of the Zambezi River between Victoria Falls and Cabora Bassa Lake, at an average elevation of 400 m above sea level. Annual rainfall is low and ranges from 350 to 650 mm, whereas temperatures range from 10 to 38 °C, and can be as high as 45 °C (Mavhura et al., 2022). Based on Zimbabwe's agroecological zoning, Mbire is in region IV and has a low potential for agriculture. The region is suitable for livestock farming, resistant fodder crops, forestry, and wildlife tourism. Two seasons are clearly defined: a rainy season from December to March and a long dry season from April to November. In this area, potential evaporation exceeds precipitation. Figure 2 shows the two wards in which the Agroecology Initiative will be operating. The communities in Mbire face several hydrometeorological threats, which are influenced by place-based environmental, socioeconomic, political, and climatic conditions (Makuvaro, 2014). The most common hydrometeorological threats that affect the district are high rainfall variability, droughts, floods, and low soil moisture (Gumindoga et al., 2020;Mashingaidze et al., 2021).Temperature extremes: Mbire District is said to have high temperature variability (range 5.8 °C). The temperature increase has led to an outbreak of crop and livestock pests and diseases, and a scarcity of fodder has led to changes in livestock and crop production patterns (Gumindoga et al., 2020). On the other hand, for temperature, RCP scenarios (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5) showed slightly higher temperatures in the future (Kunedzimwe et al., 2021).Rainfall variability: Kupika et al. (2019) reported that farming communities in that region used to receive early rain such as gukurahundi and bumharutsva 1 before the onset of the rainy season in November. The authors indicated that these rainfall events seldom occur today, and the onset of the rainy season has shifted. Kupika et al. (2019) reported that the overall season is shorter than in previous years, while rainfall has declined. The focus group discussion also reported that \"Rains are no longer coming in November but mid-December and end in early March. In the past, we used to get rainfall from October/November until around March/April. The length of the rainy seasons has also decreased; we get rainfall only for just two months or even one month.\" According to Kunedzimwe et al. (2021), the average of models for both RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 for the immediate future period (2021)(2022)(2023)(2024)(2025)(2026)(2027)(2028)(2029)(2030)(2031)(2032)(2033)(2034)(2035)(2036)(2037)(2038)(2039)(2040) showed decreased rainfall for all the models (Figure 3).Drought: Local-level KIIs and FGDs stated that droughts have increased in frequency in recent years. Makuvaro et al. (2018) noted that droughts occurred every three years (unlike the five-year average usually experienced in the 1980s and 1990s). These droughts have led to total crop failure (especially in upland fields), drying up of rivers and boreholes, and livestock deaths. A historical timeline exercise identifying serious drought years that have occurred in the area since 1980 carried out with community members during community workshops showed the following years as having 1 Gukurahundi = the rain in August and bumharutsva = the rain in September. been affected : 1982-1983, 1991-1992, 1994-1995, 2001-2002, 2003-2004, 2006-2007, 2008-2009, and 2012-2013. The trend clearly showed an increased frequency in drought occurrence. According to Makuvaro (2014), droughts and prolonged dry spells in the region have resulted in the nonperennial flow of big rivers, lower yields, and dried-up wells. A total of 57% (n = 251) of the respondents from the ZRBF 2 survey mentioned drought as a major shock affecting their livelihood. The main reasons for this were the drying up of streams, boreholes, and wells owing to increasing drought cycles. \"These droughts have led to total crop failure (especially in upland fields), drying up of rivers and boreholes, and livestock deaths Floods: Despite the dry conditions, floods are a common feature in Mbire. The mountain range south of the district is the source of the flash floods and strong winds in the valley. This mountain separates the middle Zambezi Valley from the high-veld areas of Zimbabwe. The worst floods were recorded in 2000, 2008, 2011, 2015, and 2017(EM-DAT, 2019). Flood events resulted in significant social distress and suffering among many smallholder farmers (Manyangadze et al., 2022;Mavhura, 2019). Although the system of rivers increases vulnerability to floods, it provides fertile alluvium and residual moisture along riverbanks and floodplains (Manyangadze et al., 2022;Mavhura, 2019). Flood-based farming is one of the climate-sensitive livelihoods.Land use: Mbire is largely a wildlife-reliant area as it situated at the border of many conservatives. However, illegal alterations to land-use patterns have resulted in significant causes of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Human population growth is one of the significant causes of changes in landuse patterns in Mbire. In most cases, households have larger family sizes and smaller fields. The arid to semi-arid conditions that prevail in Mbire make it difficult to realize high crop yields from small pieces of land. Therefore, most households believe in extensification to compensate for the low yields. The customary laws in Zimbabwe's rural areas provide that, when a boy child has become of age (married), his father weans him off from the family by giving him his piece of land to till for his family. As such, the field owned by the father becomes smaller to apportion to his sons. Under such circumstances, a child is usually allocated land in the forested area. Because of the scarcity of arable land that is not forested, some children end up being given forested land as their fields. When this happens, the wildlife habitat will be destroyed. The destruction of the wildlife habitat will escalate HWC.In Ward 2, for instance, new households are settled right in the heart of wildlife corridors. Wildlife corridors are bridges, and they allow for the safe passage of wildlife from one area to another. Settling people in wildlife corridors is usually done by the village heads without consulting the relevant authority. When the new households clear their fields, they cut down trees and burn grasses. This decimates the wildlife habitat and increases pressure on the remaining forests and grasslands. Some wildlife may migrate, leading to ecological imbalances. Unfortunately, settling in a wildlife corridor exposes households' crops, property, and livestock to attacks by a host of animals, such as elephants. Elephants usually remember very well their paths or those used by their ancestors. Once a household settles in a wildlife corridor where there is an elephant path, that household will experience human-wildlife conflict.The communities in Mbire rely on a range of livelihood strategies for income. These include, but are not limited to, agriculture, fishing, hunting, mining, off-farm remittance, and casual labor. According to Baudron et al. (2022), livestock have become the main source of income for most farms surveyed (30.5%, n = 141 farms), followed by cotton (28.4%) and casual labor (22.0%). Within the context of agriculture, Baudron et al. (2022) noted that the main farming systems were maize, sorghum, cotton, sesame, groundnuts, cattle, small ruminants, and poultry. During the FGDs, stakeholders mentioned non-forest timber products (honey, wild fruits), harvesting firewood, collecting grass for thatching, and harvesting reeds for weaving baskets. \"These include, but are not limited to, agriculture, fishing, hunting, mining, off-farm remittance, and casual labor.According to Mudavanhu et al. (2020), family sizes range from 3 to 12. According to ZIMSTAT (2022), the average household size in either Ward 2 or Ward 3 in Mbire is four. Women outnumber men (Baudron et al., 2022;Mudavanhu et al., 2020;ZIMSTAT, 2022) owing to the men leaving the area to search for work in neighboring towns and cities. About 30% of the households are said to be taking care of orphans, 9% have chronically ill members, and 10% have people with disabilities, which also compounds the increasing household vulnerability to food insecurity. The level of education influences the nature of the occupation and the status of household livelihoods. About 90% of the household heads did not finish secondary education and were engaged in rainfed agriculture. The low level of education is a function of low income, high unemployment rates, high levels of poverty, and low agricultural productivity. According to Mudavanhu et al. (2020), household heads' lack of secondary and tertiary education decreased their capacity to respond to flooding. Baudron et al. (2022) classified the communities in Wards 2 and 3 into four types:Type 1: relatively small farms, main source of food other than own production, livestock as an important source of income, intermediate food security.Type 2: medium-sized farms, own production as the main source of food, livestock as an important source of income, intermediate food security.Type 3: smallest farms, casual labor as the main source of income, low food security.Type 4: largest farms, own production as the main source of food, cotton as the main source of income, relatively high food security.It was evident that the main livelihood strategies revolved around the intensity of agricultural activities; however, the defining features of the typologies were farm size (in terms of cultivated area and livestock), farm production levels, and livelihood strategies. These typologies imply the type of cropping systems and input use and management.In Zimbabwe, polarization of the national political landscape occurred following the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) formed in 1999. Local governance is along a party-political dimension, directly linking local resource management to national politics. Chiefs and headmen in local governance are important in the governance of resources. In addition to these local government structures, communities raise their concerns using the powerful idiom of mhondoro. 3 This idiom is said to build strongly on an insider-outsider divide, just like the political polarity at the national level. Well understood by those in power, people's use of the insider-outsider divide in the idiom of mhondoro contests political hierarchies and defines entitlements to local natural resources.The majority of households in Mbire can be considered family farmers. They are characterized as resource-poor and much of the food produced is consumed while a smaller fraction is sold or traded. Farmers in Mbire participate in a diverse range of agricultural activities. The farmers produce cereal staples (maize and sorghum), horticultural crops (carrots, tomatoes, onions, sweet potatoes, cabbages, and pumpkins), legumes, cotton, sesame seeds, and sweet potatoes. The livestock kept are cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, guinea fowl, and pigs. In the crop production sector, sorghum and cotton are the most cultivated, while maize, susceptible to drought and heat waves, is grown along floodplains where it uses residual moisture. During the rainy season, vegetable gardens can be found closer to homesteads; however, during the dry season, when the rainy season ends (around March-April), households make ridges on the stream bank to grow vegetables while there is still moisture before the river dries up. When the river does dry up, households dig wells in the riverbed to water vegetables. \"The farmers produce cereal staples (maize and sorghum), horticultural crops (carrots, tomatoes, onions, sweet potatoes, cabbages, and pumpkins), legumes, cotton, sesame seeds, and sweet potatoes Although uplands and wetlands were cultivated, the communities in Mbire (75.1%, n = 60) valued wetland fields for their higher productivity for crop production because of fertile soils and enhanced food security due to residual moisture that allowed continued cropping for up to 4 months after the end of the rainy season (Nyamwanza, 2018). Other reasons given were traditional practices (12.2%), lack of money to buy fertilizer if maize is grown in infertile uplands (6.7%), soils easily worked with hoes (3.3%), and shortage of land (1.7%). Most households (75.6%) grew maize in the wetlands because they considered it susceptible to drought.In contrast, cotton and sorghum are drought-tolerant (Nyamwanza, 2018). Not surprisingly, 79% (n = 60) of the households grew cotton in the drier uplands compared with 17.7% in the riverine wetlands, and 15.3% of the households grew sorghum in the uplands compared with 5.5% in wetlands. Other crops that were grown were vegetables (1.2%) in the wetlands and cowpea (1.9%) in the uplands. Riverbank crop production takes place in out-fields on the banks of major rivers, referred to as minda yekugova in the area, and averaging 0.5 to 2.0 ha per household (Nyamwanza, 2018). Riverbank fields form the most arable lands in the area as they are characterized by rich alluvial fertile soils, which store residual moisture from the rainy season into the dry season, thus enabling villagers to conduct farming there year-round. Kinship and lineage are important factors in the ownership of riverbank fields as the fields are inherited and passed on from generation to generation (Nyamwanza, 2018). Most owners of riverbank fields are autochthonous residents, with others gaining usufruct rights mainly based on close neighborhood, friendship, or kinship. All households interviewed by were involved in upland and riverbank crop production during the research Nyamwanza, 2018).Much of the seed for the main crops (cotton and sorghum) is obtained through government support (Cotton Company of Zimbabwe and Government of Zimbabwe support programs). For maize, a study conducted by Pindiriri et al. (2021) during the 2016-2017 cropping season revealed that 60% of the farmers used self-retained seed while 38.1% of the plots were under seed donated by the government or donor organizations. In contrast to this, ZimVac (2021) showed that 54% of the households used certified seeds.The use of fertilizer is dependent on farm type, crop systems, and source. Overall, fertilizer use is low. (Baudron et al., 2022) showed that, on average, farmers apply 99 kg/ha of fertilizer on cotton, 53 kg/ha on maize, 12 kg/ha on sorghum, 4 kg/ ha on sesame, and 2 kg/ha on groundnut (this includes basal compound and topdressing fertilizers). Farmers growing cotton reported obtaining fertilizer from CottCo and the Grain Marketing Board (GMB). From the FGD, attending farmers reported selling or using fertilizer in their maize fields or vegetable gardens. It was also reported that fertilizer support under cotton programs came late in the season when the rain had gone, and the amount of fertilizer supplied was never enough to meet the needs of the production systems. One farmer during the FGD stated that \"We receive one to two bags of urea, which we either sell to get money for food or use in our maize fields or vegetable gardens.\"In terms of crop management practices, Goredema et al. (2019) showed that 10.3% practiced mulching, 3.1% agroforestry, and 22.2% burned their crop residue. According to ZimVac (2021), 60% of the households were familiar with the use of compost or organic material, while 43% were using compost or organic material. According to the same database, 69% of the households were familiar with mulching; however, only 37% were using it. A major deterrent from using mulch was free grazing at the beginning of the dry season. Free grazing means that a lot of the residue left from the previous harvest is grazed, and little is retained for mulching. It was clear that few farmers pen-fed or used supplementary feeding for their livestock. According to the ZimVac (2021), 18% of the households were familiar with using locally available materials to make livestock feed; however, only 10% of the households made livestock feed from these materials. The ZimVac (2021) survey revealed that 4% of the households were familiar with drip irrigation; however, just 1% used it. Only 0.4% of the households owned a tractor and no farmer owned a two-wheel tractor.During the FGDs with the ALL, farmers pointed to the following constraints: { Limited access to improved seed varieties, thus affecting their yield as they rely on retained seeds.{ Their production costs are too high because of high input prices. Labor costs have increased due to low availability.{ Even though they have abundant natural resources such as cattle manure and leaf litter, they don't have ways to transport manure to their fields.{ Crops are being affected by pests, but communities don't have appropriate pesticides to apply, so they end up using harmful pesticides.{ Less fertile soils characterize the district and, because of numerous human activities, soil fertility is deteriorating, which affects yields.{ Poor local livestock breeds that don't fetch higher prices on the market.Recycling waste is seldom practiced in Mbire; however, Sustainable Agricultural Technology reports having constructed 20-m3 biogas digesters in and around the communities at hospitals and schools, which can use animal waste (cattle, chicken, and pig manure). Six-cubic-meter digesters have been designed at the household level but are yet to be installed (https://bit.ly/46QyDO). Participants confirmed the lack of household installation during the FGD.In terms of water saving, Nyamwanza (2019) and Baudron et al. (2022) pointed out that different forms of in situ rainwaterharvesting (RWH) methods are being employed. These methods are digging Zai pits (planting pits, planting basins, micro-pits, or small water-harvesting pits), mulching, and contouring. However, for household use, the FGD participants mentioned that they did not practice ex situ RWH. Concerning the recycling of biomass and nutrients, the FGD participants stated that most of the plant residue is often consumed by livestock during the dry season, although the use of mulch was reported. Postharvest crop residues (sometimes called stovers) are a secondary but important nutrition source for ruminants. The use of local renewable resources involves crop residues, mainly sorghum and maize, but biomass yields are usually too low to produce significant excess residue for feed and mulching. In some instances, these residues are spread within the kraals (enclosures) and farmers regard this as an important management practice that helps to keep kraals dry. The practice also increases the amount of manure and prevents excessive loss of nutrients such as nitrogen.For recycling of nutrients, most farmers use cattle, goat, chicken, or pig manure to fertilize their fields. Some also mentioned that the main challenges for the use of livestock manure as fertilizer were the transportation and spreading of the manure, and the spreading of weeds in the field:\"Fields are too far from the homestead and some of us need to hire ox-drawn carts when we need to apply manure. Also, the more we use manure, the more problems we have with weeds.\"In Mbire, where access to clean water is limited, ex situ rainwater harvesting can be an effective method for increasing the availability of water. Some innovative solutions for increasing ex situ rainwater harvesting in rural areas of Zimbabwe are the use of check dams. Check dams are small barriers built across gullies or other water channels to slow down the flow of water and allow it to be absorbed into the ground. This helps to recharge groundwater supplies and increase water availability. Water-harvesting ponds could also be a priority innovation to increase water saving. Waterharvesting ponds are large, shallow ponds designed to collect rainwater from surrounding areas. The water can be used for domestic purposes, irrigation, or livestock watering. Another strategy would be to prioritize or fast-track the building of biogas digesters in an effort to increase renewable energy use and production.Mbire has also decreased dependency on purchased inputs such as fertilizer since most farmers in Mbire use low rates (<50 kg/ha) of fertilizer in their fields or gardens. According to the farmers who participated in the FGD, \"We grow up being told that synthetic fertilizers are bad for our soils and the environment and that we should use animal manure and compost. Our fields are fertile; during good seasons we get good yields, but bad seasons yields are low. The main problem being the extreme heat that dries up all the rain quickly.\" To increase self-sufficiency, farmers suggested using irrigation and soil water conservation techniques. A baseline survey conducted in 2019 by Goredema et al. (2019) showed that 7.2% of the households used drip/basin irrigation, and, according to the ZimVAC database, none of the interviewed households used motorized water pumps and only 0.8% used mechanical water pumps (ZimVAC, 2021). It is not clear why uptake of irrigation in Mbire is low; however, farmer profiles would suggest that they cannot afford external inputs such as irrigation infrastructure and its maintenance.Regarding pest and disease management in Mbire, pesticides represent a potential public health hazard of note.Accumulating evidence indicates that some pesticides used in agriculture act as hormone disrupters, potentially resulting in chronic health effects (Zinyemba et al., 2018). Despite such a growing evidence base, pesticides remain the preferred method of pest control in Mbire. Farmers in Mbire have reported an increase in the use of pesticides, specifically insecticides, since the early 1980s (Zinyemba et al., 2018).An increase in pest populations was also reported. Factors that emerged to have collectively impacted the changes are climate variability, limited agency on the part of farmers, power dynamics involving the government and private cotton companies, and farmers' perceptions and practices. Farmers are aware of integrated pest management to facilitate the integration of chemical control with a broad range of other pest control tactics; however, few practice IPM principles.Priority innovations for input reduction in Mbire are the following:1. Integrated pest management: IPM involves the use of a range of practices to manage pests, such as using biological control agents, crop rotation, and resistant varieties. This can help to diminish the use of chemical pesticides while maintaining or improving crop yield.2. Precision agriculture: This involves the use of technology such as remote sensing, GPS, and variable rate application to optimize the use of inputs such as fertilizer and water. This can help to decrease input use while maintaining or improving crop yield. Because of declining soil fertility, there is an increase in land clearing in the area. A majority of the farmers interviewed (57%, n = 303) indicated that soil fertility is deteriorating.Table 1 shows the results of a survey on land management and soil health conducted in the area (see also Figure 4). Soils in Zimbabwe are generally infertile and deficient in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) (Thompson & Purves, 1978). About 70% of Zimbabwe is covered with sandy soils, mostly derived from coarse granite. Sandy soils in the south are derived from gneiss. The northwest of the country, where Mbire is situated, has Triassic and Kalahari sands. These sandy soils are low in N, P, and S and cation exchange capacity (CEC) owing to low clay and organic matter contents. In addition, the sandy soils are usually acidic. Total Cattle Management (ABS TCM). The project focused on building local expertise in livestock production methods such as pen fattening and artificial insemination. Cattle pen fattening involves the feeding of beef cattle with a proteinbalanced, high-energy diet for a period of 90 days under confinement to increase liveweight and improve quality and thus build resilience of the animals. Artificial insemination is a method of increasing animal resilience by selecting desirable characteristics such as drought tolerance and high milk production.Priority innovations in the Mbire area could focus on improving infrastructure such as roads to facilitate the transportation of livestock to external markets and building boreholes and dams to ensure that animals have access to water throughout the year. The Mbire area is dry and prone to droughts. Building of an abattoir and butcheries could also benefit local farmers as they would have a ready market for livestock in their area. The creation of a commercial abattoir in Mbire would help shift livestock farmers from selling live animals to generating processed meat products that can fetch higher prices in the market.Mbire has a rich biodiversity and has protected areas forming part of the mid-Zambezi biosphere and CAMPFIRE (Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources) buffer zone. Its economy depends greatly on the forest systems and their biodiversity. Mopane woodlands dominate much of Mbire. Deforestation and poaching, especially of large mammals such as elephants, are major threats to the economy and community livelihoods.The mammal diversity in Mbire has elephant, buffalo, zebra, greater kudu, sable antelope, waterbuck, impala, and warthog (Table 2). From the aerial census data presented by Baudron et al. (2022), the numbers of all wild ungulates appear to have decreased significantly from 2003 to 2014, with no buffalo, zebra, sable antelope, waterbuck, or impala being detected during the census of 2014. Most farmers (73.7%, n = 141) perceived elephant populations to have increased or remained stable over the years, and buffalo populations were perceived by most (80.1%) to have decreased. More than 50% also perceived the populations of lion and leopard (two other species, in addition to elephant and buffalo, of importance for revenue generation through CAMPFIRE) to have declined (Baudron et al., 2022).A study by Tambara et al. (2012) showed that Mbire had a total of 82 woody species from 32 families. More species were present on clayey soils (53 species, 63%) than on sandy soils (43 species, 52.4%). Tree diversity (Simpson's and Shannon-Weiner diversity indices) was usually higher on sandy soil than on clay soil. On clayey soil, the highest number of species was recorded on fallow land (45 species), followed by cultivated land (36 species) and natural woodland (27 species). Tree density was also lower within cultivated areas (673 trees/ha) than within fallow land (1,653 trees/ha) and woodland (1,242 trees/ha) (Tambara et al., 2012).A survey conducted by Utete et al. (2022) reported a total of 17 common fish species being identified by fishers. The most frequently occurring captured fish species within the river networks in Mbire were silver labeo (Labeo ruddi) and tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus) (Utete et al., 2022). Most respondents in the Utete et al. (2022) study believed that fish biodiversity and average body size had decreased drastically in the pools during the past 15-20 years. The frequency of occurrence of fish species, determined from what the interviewed fishers observed in their catches, comprised in descending order silver labeo, tigerfish, small-mouth bass, chubbyhead barb, red-breasted tilapia, eastern bottlenose, African sharptooth catfish, redeye labeo, African freshwater eel, snake catfish, chessa, Kariba tilapia, greenhead tilapia, Nile tilapia, Zambezi bream, black tilapia, and large-mouth bass (Utete et al., 2022). The threats facing fishery resources in Mbire are poor land-tilling practices and heavy application of pesticides, especially for cotton farming. Unsustainable harvesting techniques, for example, using mosquito nets, were also cited as a threat to fish biodiversity. Respondents indicated that mosquito nets do not select, but simply trap all sizes of fish, which decreases fish density and diversity in the pools.An essential habitat for the megafauna, which includes elephants, giraffes, buffaloes, hippos, lions, and zebras, is the Zambezian and mopane woods. Because of the area's abundant biodiversity, safaris such as Chewore, Doma, and Dande have been established. But conflicts between people and wildlife are frequent. Large elephant populations and lion attacks are said to be the blame for the region's human fatalities, injuries, livestock mortality, agricultural damage, and destruction of infrastructure and property. Wild pigs, baboons, and monkeys also raid crops (Jani et al., 2020).Promoting biodiversity in Zimbabwe's rural areas is critical for maintaining ecosystem health, supporting sustainable livelihoods, and promoting climate resilience. Priority innovations include ecological restoration and agroforestry. Ecological restoration involves the active restoration of degraded ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, and grasslands. This can help to promote biodiversity by restoring habitat and supporting the recovery of native species. Agroforestry involves the integration of trees into agricultural landscapes. This can help to promote biodiversity by providing habitat for wildlife, enhancing soil health, and decreasing erosion. The Pfumvudza Program supported by the presidential free-input scheme has helped in introducing and scaling conservation agriculture practices across Zimbabwe. Although there is strong integration of crop-livestock systems in two districts, manure use is gradually decreasing because farmers receive chemical fertilizer support from the Pfumvudza Program and applying manure to crop fields is labor-intensive.In Mbire, crops such as sorghum and cowpea are relevant crops in terms of creating synergies within farming systems. Sorghum is unique in its ability to grow under a wide array of harsh environmental conditions, making it a resilient crop widely used for food, feed, and beer brewing, especially in the hot and dry conditions of Mbire. Crop-livestock synergies involve the use of residues of sorghum as an important source of dry-season fodder for livestock. Sorghum can be fed to livestock as wilted green chop, silage, and grain. It is primarily a feed energy source, with an estimated 65% total digestible nutrients. Similarly, cowpea is an important source of food and income in Mbire. Cowpea leaves and haulms have a higher crude protein content than cereal residues and are a valuable source of supplementary feed during the dry season in mixed crop-livestock farming. Soil-plant system management involves the use of residues as soil amendments to improve soil fertility. Cowpea also contributes to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation.The Mbire area is dominated by mopane and acacia forests and woodlands. The mopane woodlands are a source of timber, fuelwood, and construction materials for gardens, livestock pens, and traditional huts (Mavhura, 2019). In many fields, communities did not always practice agroforestry. However, in situations in which crops and trees occupied the same land, Faidherbia albida was mostly found, which is used and grown by the farmers for soil nutrient improvement. Many institutes and projects are promoting agroforestry. During the FGD, Carbon Green Africa reported that it is promoting agroforestry and crop-tree systems. The organization has Faidherbia albida and moringa trees in stock that are given to farmers for free, although farmers prefer fruit trees only.Several stakeholders are or have been engaged in forestrelated management activities with communities in Mbire. Table 3 shows some of the stakeholders and their activities. Some priority innovations that could help to promote natural resource synergies in Zimbabwe's rural areas involve adopting an integrated natural resource management approach. This involves taking a holistic approach to the management of natural resources, with the aim of optimizing their use and minimizing negative impacts. This can include developing and implementing integrated land-use plans, promoting sustainable land management, and encouraging the different stakeholders and actors working in the district. Agroforestry can help to promote natural resource synergies by improving soil fertility, decreasing erosion, and enhancing biodiversity. Agroforestry can also provide a source of wood fuel, fodder, and other products for local communities.A diversity of activities is mostly centered around agriculture and livestock production. From the literature and FGDs, it was evident that communities diversified their sources of income.During the FGDs, participants mentioned that most Mbire inhabitants were involved in non-agricultural activities, such as fishing (for both household consumption and commercial purposes), trading in goods (in small shops and flea markets), and remittances for a few households. It was also mentioned that women sold pottery, baskets, and mats during the offseason to supplement household income. A survey by Utete et al. (2022) showed that almost all of the 60 households included in the study engaged in fishing and at times goldpanning activities to supplement food and income. Beaven found that 70% (n = 60) of the households stated that they received remittances irregularly. Households reported receiving remittances in both monetary and non-monetary forms. Respondents stated that the money earned through remittances was not sufficient, as many of their family members were employed in low-income activities. The issue of remittance was corroborated by stakeholders attending the FGDs. Although cattle sales between wards within the district are illegal because of red zoning, households sell livestock to traders. Livestock are sold at the onset of floods or drought. Households stated that the sale of livestock has the greatest impact on their food and income security because livestock are their \"life's bank\" and being forced to sell livestock because of drought or flood constitutes a real loss of valuable money and productive resources. Johnson Siamachira/CIMMYTFindings from FGDs carried out by WP 5 indicated that it is better to work with communities in farmer groups as these encourage each other to work hard. More so, members of the groups would be farmers willing to be part of the intervention; therefore, interested members are part of the groups.Another point that many key stakeholders mentioned was that, if farmers work in groups, they would be able to meet product demand for their markets; thus, farmer groups are viewed as strategic in that regard. \"Another point that many key stakeholders mentioned was that, if farmers work in groups, they would be able to meet product demand for their marketsIn some instances, farmers have come together through their own initiative and created farmer-to-farmer exchange platforms that then seek assistance from development partners on specific aspects of their food production system, including exchanging ideas and experiences. As in this case, farmer groups would be better positioned to obtain recognition and assistance from government departments and development in a group setting to address their needs and priorities. In support of this, one key informant indicated the following:\"People approached us, and it was by community demand because they wanted our market linkages, so we have addressed the needs and priorities of the communities.\"Additionally, WP 5 findings indicated that, if farmers worked in groups, they would have an opportunity to exchange ideas and even assist each other in various ways to achieve group objectives. Another key informant had this to say:\"The women pull each other up; some members know something about agriculture, some know how to do it, and others know but do not have the resources to start the projects. When they come in as a group, they help each other and work together in portions. Some of them have ideas and no resources; for them coming as a group, they exchange ideas, and that area is uplifted, and they find therapy through agriculture.\"Several stakeholders, including local government and NGOs, work in the Mbire area facilitating the horizontal creation and transfer of knowledge and good practices. Most program, farmer group, and committee objectives are to improve agriculture, natural resource management, climate change resilience, access to markets, and social issues (gender and empowerment), aligning themselves with the government.In most cases, these farmer groups and platforms work with several government departments and development partners, clearly illustrating the creation and transfer of knowledge from farmer to farmer and between farmers and other stakeholders such as the government and NGOs.Box 1: Mbire sorghum group This is a group of sorghum farmers who have partnered with processing companies (that provide them with contracts) to lower transaction costs and increase market visibility toward enhancing food and income security. The two key processors are into beer brewing and stockfeed processing. Increased production and marketing capacities are locally designed and appropriate in the context of the farmers. These farmers had remained marginalized from mainstream production and marketing space because of their being crowded out by other crop and livestock enterprises such as cotton, maize, cattle, and goat sales. Innovativeness has emerged in the communities since they have developed their own seed bank and longterm contracts with beer and stockfeed companies.In a household survey assessing nutritional vulnerability of pregnant women in Mbire District by Ncube et al. (2017), respondents (n = 100) indicated that they consumed eggs (5%), meat (13%), fish (7%), legumes or pulses (22%), milk and milk products (9%), sadza (mealie pap) (23%), roots and tubers (10%), vegetables (14%), and fruits (10%). These statistics indicated that the respondents relied mainly on the food basket provided because very few had other foodstuffs to eat. According to Baudron et al. (2022), food aid was the main source of food for 19% (n = 141) of the surveyed households and own production for 52%. \"These statistics indicated that the respondents relied mainly on the food basket provided because very few had other foodstuffs to eat.Table 4 summarizes discussion on the main foods found in Mbire and their availability across the month (0 = not available, 3 = readily available). In the early dry season, dietary diversity improves with increased accessibility to other foods such as vegetables, fruits, and rainfed food supplies such as pumpkins and groundnuts. The major source of protein is plant-based (mainly beans, cowpeas, bambara groundnuts, and groundnuts) and small livestock such as goats and sheep. The FGD highlighted that, although the availability of animalbased protein sources was constant, their consumption was quite low. Work Package 3 of this Agroecology Initiative has mapped value chain actors for 12 crop and livestock commodities: sorghum, cotton, sesame, maize, groundnut, sweet potato, vegetables (tomato and onion), cattle, goats, poultry, and honey. Most of these commodities are channelled to the main markets in Harare. Sesame is smuggled to Mozambique and the market mainly depends on middlemen. The Grain Marketing Board (GMB) is the major actor in sorghum and maize marketing in both wards. Groundnut is sold to rural and urban consumers after processing it into peanut butter locally within the production zones. Goats and cattle are mostly supplied to the Harare market by middlemen collecting these livestock from village markets and moving door-to-door to buy enough to transport to Harare. Honey production and marketing are still at their initial stage through the support of HELP from Germany and the Zimbabwe Apiculture Trust projects. The long dry season is a challenge in honey production. Below, we summarize the main attributes of the core value chains in Mbire.On average, farmers produce 3 tons of sorghum, selling about 1 t and consuming the rest. Farmers usually sell sorghum to local collectors both in cash and in kind. In most cases, three-fourths of the marketed surplus sorghum is sold using a barter trading system (where the 20-L bucket is a common measurement unit). The selling price of sorghum at the farm gate is USD 2 per 20-L bucket. Considering that a volume of 1 L could be equivalent to 1 kg of grain, the equivalent price for farm-gate sorghum would be USD 0.10/kg. According to the FGD participants in Mbire District, the decision to sell sorghum grain is a joint decision between the household head and spouse. However, the participants indicated that the household head is the one in charge of controlling the income realized from sales.After buying grain from farmers and local assemblers, the GMB sells sorghum grain to companies that process it for food and feed (Figure 5). It also gives some quantity of grain back to the community under the social welfare program. For instance, in 2021, 90% of the 5,000 tons of sorghum collected at Mushumbi depots was sold, while 10% was given back to the community. The Mushumbi GMB depot has a carrying capacity up to 8,000 tons, but it is not very secure; hence, the produce is transferred to other depots with silos. Grain buying prices were gazetted at the beginning and maintained throughout the season despite the inflation in the country.Grain suppliers to the GMB are mainly aggregators (local assemblers) and they hire their own transportation to get the collected quantity to the GMB depots. In addition to buying grain, the GMB supports the government initiatives of the free-input program as a distribution channel to reach farmers. Input suppliers (providers), presidential input schemes, ADRA Enabling environment: grain quality, policy on grain movement, banks, etc.Nearly all farmers produce maize (Figure 6). Production is supported though the presidential free-input initiative, but farmers supplement the 5 kg of seed and 50 kg each for basal and topdressing chemical fertilizer provided under the free-input program. Farmers buy additional seed, fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticide. Most farmers grow hybrid maize seed in the district. Both men and women in the household participate in the production of maize, and also have a stake in maize grain marketing. Similar to sorghum, farmers mainly sell their maize produce to the GMB directly or through middlemen. At the farm gate, maize fetches about USD 0.15/kg. Anne Wangalachi/CIMMYT The Cotton Company of Zimbabwe (CottCo) is a parastatal that provides inputs free of charge to viable and willing cotton farmers under the presidential free-input scheme. CottCo controls 99.5% of the cotton sub-sector in Mbire District. Other cotton companies also pre-finance at least cotton seed, but these account for only 0.5% of the market (Figure 7). All cotton companies pre-finance cotton production and companies other than CottCo recover their investments after sales.AGRITEX focuses mainly on extension provision while cotton companies provide a full range of agronomic advice, prefinancing, production support, and marketing. Services in cotton production are not demand driven and they are free of charge, at least from CottCo, the main player in Mbire District. Cotton fetches from USD 0.10 to 0.50/kg. Most cotton companies have ginneries that process cotton wool into lint and seed. The lint is sold to local textile factories that absorb about 40% of the annual production while the remainder is exported. Seed cotton is exclusively used in the local market to support cotton production as seed and to make other products such as livestock feed and oil.In Mbire, farmers mostly use recycled sesame seed. Other companies and organizations that provided production support in Mbire District were Olam Zimbabwe, ETG, Sidella, ActionAid, and the GMB (Figure 8). Other farmers use recycled seed brought from Mozambique. The presidential free-input initiative provided 2 kg of seed to a few households, which was the first time to use certified seed. No specific roles are assigned to men and women in sesame production. All participate in production and in some instances make joint decisions on production and marketing arrangements. Private buyers from Mozambique are the main buyers. The bulk of the produce is sold to private buyers who come from Mozambique. It is understood that Olam Zimbabwe in the past used to export sesame to India, China, and Myanmar. Sesame fetches about USD 0.80/kg.  According to the report made by Work Package 3, interested farmers can buy improved breeds from Chivhu at Zvikomborero farm and there is also an initiative to provide farmers with improved goats through the Zimbabwe Agricultural Growth Program's Value Chain Alliance for Livestock Upgrading and Empowerment (VALUE), in which they source their goats from Zvikomborero farm, which also supplies improved goat breeds to farmers. Zvikomborero farm also supplies Boer goats. In addition to conventional pen fattening that involves the use of inorganic supplementary feed purchased in shops, communities in Mbire use homemade pen fattening from organic crop residue. The improved goat breeds, especially the Boer goats, are not browsers. So, supplying them with purchased feed is important. Farmers obtain feed for goats from Superstore located in Mushumbi Town (Figure 9). Farmers barter goats for pesticide, herbicide, household supplies, or clothes. Goats are bought at USD 15-20 from Mbire. In terms of institutional arrangements, the Zimbabwe government implemented the Fast-Track Land Reform Program (FTLRP) formally beginning with the Land Acquisition Act of 2002 to redistribute land to the black majority. The program, which effectively co-opted the farm occupations since 1998, redistributed land from whiteowned farms and estates, as well as state lands, to more than 150,000 farmers under two models, A1 and A2. The A1 model allocated small plots for growing crops and grazing land to landless and poor farmers, while the A2 model allocated farms to new black commercial farmers who had the skills and resources to farm profitably, reinvest, and raise agricultural productivity. The FTLRP has resulted in a shift in land tenure systems from private landholdings to state land. Land redistribution also significantly changed land rights, access rights, and their administration. Uncertainty, however, exists surrounding the form and security of tenure in both A1 and A2 schemes. In the new resettlement areas, the tenure form provided to A1 farmers is akin to that in the communal areas being based upon \"customary\" forms of allocation, regulation, and adjudication. The issue of tenure insecurity has been identified as a strong disincentive in the current land reform program, especially for those on A2 plots.In managing natural resources, village heads (sabhukus) play an important role in the allocation and management of farming land, grazing areas, and other natural resources in Mbire. According to Matema et al. (2022), most wetland field owners reported being allocated land by the sabhuku and relatives. Matema et al. (2022) went on to report that communities within Mbire believe that \"The riverine zone is the real Mbire and moving communities away will be taking away their identity and source of livelihood.\" This statement was corroborated by AGRITEX officers, who have indicated difficulties in enforcing legislation. Productive farmland in Mbire is concentrated along the major rivers (Baudron et al., 2022;Matema et al., 2022).Grazing land, just like arable land, is governed by numerous localized laws and regulations. Shared grazing areas have the challenges of non-excludability and a lack of upper set limits for grazing land accessed by individual members. In addition, grazing areas are characterized by free-rider problems, especially in initiatives to improve pastures. Over the years, there have been shifts in area under grazing and agriculture.In Mbire, open vegetation expansion from 2006 to 2020 was mainly at the expense of scrub area, which decreased from 91,824 ha in 2006 to 85,756 ha in 2014 and 74,869 ha in 2020. By comparison, the woodland area remained relatively stable: 26,610 ha in 2006, 24,062 ha in 2014, and 26,755 ha in 2020. Although the net woodland area remained largely unchanged, a shift from east to west is noticeable, with woodland area continuously declining in the east study area (from 8,647 ha in 2006 to 6,854 ha in 2014 and 5,585 ha in 2020), while the west study area regained woodland (from 17,947 ha and 17,192 ha in 2006 and 2014 to 21,149 ha in 2020). At the ward level, sustainable forest management activities are undertaken by the Environmental Sub-Committee (ESC) members as their mandate involves all natural resources within the ward. According to Goredema et al. (2019), the councillor and village heads play an important role in raising awareness on protection of forests from fires and cutting of trees and mobilizing communities to fight fires in their locality. The Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Agricultural, Technical, and Extension Services (AGRITEX), and Forestry Commission District Officers play an important role in this awareness, although enforcement is limited because of a lack of adequate resources (transportation and human resources).Land tenure has been a critical issue in Zimbabwe, particularly in rural areas. Over the years, various innovations have been proposed and implemented to address the challenges associated with land tenure in the country, but problems still persist. Priority innovations could involve the following:1. Secure land tenure systems: Developing and implementing secure land tenure systems can help to meet the challenges associated with land tenure insecurity. This could include registering land titles and developing systems that ensure that land rights are respected and protected.2. Strengthening customary land tenure: Customary land tenure systems are prevalent in Zimbabwe's rural areas.Strengthening these systems can help to ensure that customary land rights are respected and protected.3. Land tenure regularization: This involves legalizing informal land rights and ensuring that they are recognized and protected by the law. This can help to address land tenure insecurity and provide access to credit and other services.The findings from KIIs and FGDs across Mbire District revealed that farmer groups are small and formed on their own initiative or through development agencies with specific objectives, such as strengthening food security and improving household income of group members. Many of the groups formed are not concerned about diversity but rather contributing to the group cause. Development committees are within government structures at the local level to support and strengthen development by the government and other stakeholders, and these are led by local leadership (e.g., village heads, councillors). Membership in these development committees is usually through position in the community or voting. Findings from WP 1 revealed that the multiple stakeholder platforms in Mbire were within government structures and at the district and ward levels. However, some of these committees might or might not be functional in some areas as they largely depend on the vibrancy of the local leadership. In Mbire, platforms involve the following:  Other establishments, as revealed by stakeholders during the KIIs and FGDs, are the various groups of farmers formed through their own initiative and agenda and/or farmer groups that the development partners have started to facilitate working with project beneficiaries. The findings revealed that farmer groups are not multiple stakeholders in nature -just farmers with a specific challenge to address (e.g., marketing for livestock and horticulture produce or addressing household income). The findings from WP 1 showed that development partners initiate the formation of groups for beneficiaries of their projects.Regarding power and influence, WP 5 showed that women within Mbire had limited power and freedom to make foodrelated decisions. During group discussions, the participating women told WP 5 that women are often oppressed, and they oppress each other, and, even when it comes to putting fellow women in power, they do not vote for each other. It was also mentioned that culture and religion had been used to keep the women submitted to the men.Mbire is a resource-constrained area with low potential for agriculture, yet most of its inhabitants depend on agriculture as a livelihood strategy. The following constraints have been noted.{ Farmers or communities have limited access to improved seed varieties, thus affecting their yield as they rely on retained seeds.{ Their production costs are too high because of high input prices.{ Even though they have abundant natural resources such as cattle manure and leaf litter, they don't have ways to transport manure to their fields.{ Less fertile soils characterize the district, and, because of numerous human activities, soil fertility is deteriorating, which is affecting their yields.{ Poor local livestock breeds that don't fetch higher prices in the market.{ There is an increasing number of elephants, and they are destroying crops in Mbire.{ High livestock predation by hyenas, crocodiles, wild dogs, and lions.{ Decrease in the amount of rainfall received, which affects the growth and maturity of crops.{ Prolonged dry spells and uneven distribution of rains also affect crop growth as communities depend on rainfed agriculture.{ Rivers dry up quickly because they aren't receiving sufficient water during the rainy season, and livestock must travel long distances for water, thus leading to livestock predation.{ Streambank cultivation is causing rivers to dry up fast, thus depriving livestock of their water sources.{ ALL members indicated that they lack knowledge or information on identified value chains, production, appropriate use of natural resources, and suitable seed varieties.{ Communities don't have access to a diversified input and output market for the targeted value chains.To address these challenges, the following interventions have been identified as entry points to test agroecological innovations of interest based on the knowledge gaps.The introduction of conservation agriculture helps infield water retention and improves soil fertility. CA has several economic and environmental benefits that help buffer farmers from the effects of climate change. The improved soil structure, mulching with crop residues, and the associated increase in soil organic matter improve rainwater infiltration and decrease evaporation from the soil. The higher waterholding capacity of the soil enables crops to reach maturity using residual soil moisture even if the rains cease before the crops have reached physiological maturity (Bedoussac et al., 2015). Zero-tillage farming with residue cover saves irrigation water, gradually increases soil organic matter, and suppresses weeds. Leaving the soil undisturbed increases water infiltration, holds soil moisture, and helps to prevent topsoil erosion. Conservation agriculture enhances water intake, allowing for more stable yields amid weather extremes exacerbated by climate change (https://www.cimmyt.org/ news/what-is-conservation-agriculture/).Over the last decades, a drive toward more sustainable agriculture has seen the increased advocacy and use of mechanized reduced-tillage systems in much of the developed world (Jaleta et al., 2019). Mechanization (especially power units, seeders, rippers, and sprayers) is a key input for CA and smallholder farmers (Mechanization of Conservation Agriculture for smallholders | FAO). Two-wheel tractors (single axle, a.k.a. power tillers) are small, versatile, mobile agricultural machines and are often heralded as appropriate mechanization for smallholder farmers, given their more appropriate size for operations in small fragmented plots, the less substantive investment needed, the lower operating costs, and the multiple uses (Jaleta et al., 2019). Over the previous decade, planter attachments to twowheel tractors have been developed, which permit seed and fertilizer placement with minimum to zero tillage in a single pass. Recent tests have demonstrated that these implements can produce crop yields equal to or better than those of conventional tillage involving hand broadcasting of seed and fertilizer (Johansen et al., 2012). Increasing the power supply to agriculture means that more tasks can be completed at the right time and larger areas can be farmed to produce larger quantities of crops while conserving natural resources (https://www.fao.org/sustainable-agricultural-mechanization/ overview/why-mechanization-is-important/en/).Push-pull involves intercropping cereal crops with insectrepellent legumes in the Desmodium genus and planting an attractive forage plant such as Napier grass as a border around this intercrop. Push-pull has recently been adapted to drier areas by incorporating drought-tolerant companion plants: greenleaf Desmodium as an intercrop and Brachiaria cv. Mulato as a border crop. Push-pull also controls maize earContext Document Report for Mbire, Zimbabwe 38 rots and mycotoxins, thus improving soil health and providing high-quality fodder since the companion crops are superior forages; therefore, the technology facilitates crop-livestock integration (http://www.icipe.org/news/icipe-push-pulltechnology-halts-fall-armyworm-rampage). According to Guera et al. ( 2021), in addition to controlling pests and weeds, push-pull improves the soil, allows the production of other resources (forage), and doubles maize yield. Additional uses of push-pull for another dimension makes it an attractive agroecological management method and not just one of pest control.Seed fairs are a special type of agricultural show whereby a temporary market is set up so that small-scale farmers can obtain good-quality seeds and seed companies can showcase their different varieties. They aim to promote the development of a seed market for stress-tolerant varieties by forming partnerships with primary seed suppliers, who can provide information on types of crop varieties, their management requirements, amount of yields, and associated risks (https://bit.ly/41hdyLR). Community seed fairs allow farmers to exchange knowledge and experiences on the old and new crops they grow and to generate information about local-level seed production capacity. The fairs also enable the trading, exchange, and sharing of propagation material among farmers and the creation of market linkages (http:// www.farmersrights.org/bestpractices/success_benefit-sharing_2.html). Seed fairs also create awareness, appreciate local crop diversity, exchange seed and related knowledge, and celebrate farmers' efforts to conserve agrobiodiversity (https://www.bioversityinternational.org/e-library/ publications/detail/the-joy-of-sharing-seeds-organizing-asuccessful-seed-fair/).In Zimbabwe, the feed-related factors that limit productivity vary at different times of the year. Early in the dry season, feed quality deteriorates, followed by a decrease in quantity due to high-density grazing. In the dry season, the grass in Zimbabwe deteriorates in quality to less than 3% crude protein. The severity of undernutrition worsens during drought, an integral part of southern African farming systems. Developments in feeding strategy are necessary to overcome this constraint (https://www.fao.org/3/AC152E/AC152E07. htm). Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens) is one of the herbaceous legumes that can be incorporated within the smallholder farming sector to improve ruminant animal production during the dry season (http://www.lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd14/4/ mupa144.htm). Mupangwa et al. (2006) assert that improved grasses show great potential to alleviate the problem of feed shortages during the dry season. Improved grasses are usually bulky and high-yielding crops with high residual soil fertility, use capacity, and broad environmental adaptation.Formulating diets with the appropriate contents of minerals and amino acids can help improve dietary protein and energy efficiency and decrease nutrient losses (https://academic. oup.com/jas/article/100/Supplement_3/124/6709425).Feed formulation is the tool to value any raw material or feed additive to support performance and to meet sustainability challenges (https://www.feedchannel.online/formulationsustainability-dr).","tokenCount":"9745"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"529482a43b6366a0264c9d2681f850d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f14f0b3e-eb63-4887-92a4-336c071f0bef/content","id":"-1364042789"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"09929dec-5a0f-493b-b54b-feb19836a77a","pagecount":"42","content":"is presented without a thorough peer review with the main purpose of making data and information rapidly available to research teams and partners in the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project and for use in developing future, peer-reviewed publications. Readers are invited to send comments directly to the corresponding author(s). The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect opinions of CIMMYT, other partners, or donors.The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, known by its Spanish acronym, CIMMYT, is the global leader on publicly funded maize and wheat research and related farming systems. Headquartered near Mexico City, Mexico, CIMMYT works with hundreds of partners throughout the developing world to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat cropping systems, thus improving global food security and reducing poverty. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR Consortium and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on MAIZE and WHEAT. The Center receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.The Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) Project is jointly being implemented by CIMMYT and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). It is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.. The project is part of a broad partnership also involving national agricultural research and extension systems, seed companies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based organizations (CBOs), and advanced research institutes, together known as the DTMA Project. Its activities build on longer-term support by other donors, including the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the Eiselen Foundation. The project aims to develop and disseminate drought tolerant, high-yielding, locally-adapted maize varieties to reach 30-40 million people in sub-Saharan Africa.Maize is a very important crop in Zimbabwe both for food and income. Even though Zimbabwe is one of the countries with highest adoption rates of hybrid varieties, threats from climate change and other stresses have been responsible for a reduction in maize productivity. Given the importance of maize not only in Zimbabwe but the whole sub-Saharan Africa, CIMMYT under the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project has been developing Drought tolerant (DT) maize varieties to reduce maize production vulnerability to climate change and improve food security. This study aims to assess the levels of adoption of the new DT maize varieties by smallholder farmers and draw lessons on the constraints that are affecting farmers to adopt these new maize varieties.This study was carried out in 6 of 60 districts in Zimbabwe. This covered five (out of eight) provinces namely Masvingo, Midlands, Matebeleland North ,Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central. The study has shown that maize productivity is low across all districts and there is limited irrigation in communal area. There is also limited fertilizer use across all districts except for Chivi and Umguza given the types of the soils that exist in these areas. In terms of food self-sufficiency, results show that households are not self-sufficient in maize and a high proportion of the households did not produce maize to last them at least 12 months.The study found out that 20.2% of sampled farmers had started growing DT maize varieties in 2010. It was interesting to note that there was a varied definition DT maize varieties. There was a high proportion of farmers who thought DT maize were varieties that were able to tolerate dry spells (39%) while others thought DT varieties tolerate dry spells and mature early (40%). Only 20% thought that they were varieties with early maturity period. Such diversity on knowledge of the DT maize varieties has implication on the adoption decision of the households. The importance of information on new maize seed was found to be positive and highly significant (p < 0.001) in influencing adoption. Other important factors affecting adoption of the new DT maize varieties were availability of the new varieties on the market and high cost of the seed that made the varieties unfordable.The key issue emerging from this study is that people are interested in using the DT maize but there seems to be a gap in knowledge on these varieties that are available on the market. There is need for increased information dissemination on the DT maize varieties that have been released to date. Price reduction could be addressed by increasing number of seed companies thereby increasing competition and efficiency of seed production. This is likely to lower the seed prices on the market.Agriculture plays a pivotal role in the economy of Zimbabwe. According to the Zimbabwe Comprehensive Agriculture Policy Framework 2012-32, agriculture contributes between 15% and 18% of the Gross Domestic Product, over 40% of nation export earnings and 60% of raw materials to agro-industries. In addition, about 70% of the population derives their livelihoods from agriculture.Even though a variety of crops are grown both by large commercial and smallholder farmers, maize is Zimbabwe's most widely grown cereal crop. Production of maize in Zimbabwe spread widely across the country in all the agroecological zones 1 . Apart from the crop being grown in all the regions and being a staple food, maize stood out among the different cereals as the easier-to-process and market crop (Smale and Jayne, 2011). In terms of consumption, maize constitutes 76% of the cereal diet and 46% of the whole diet (Grant et al., 2012).Maize covers about 80% to 90% of the total cereal area, with the area under the crop exceeding 1 million hectares annually over the last 13 years. However, with the current climate change threats, maize production is being hampered by the frequent dry spells and erratic rainfall, which is resulting in severe cases of food insecurity at household and national level. Given the importance of maize not only in Zimbabwe but the whole sub-Saharan Africa, CIMMYT under the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project developed 205 DT maize varieties between 2007 and 2014. Through national agricultural research systems and private seed companies, new DT varieties have been tested in experimental and farmers' fields in Zimbabwe and other countries in the region. Onfarm trials revealed that DT maize varieties yield much more than popular commercial checks by 83-137% (controlled drought), 26-47% (random drought), and 25-56% (optimal rainfall conditions) (CIMMYT 2013). Therefore by developing drought-tolerant and higher-yielding maize seed varieties presents a high potential to reduce vulnerability and improve food security. This can only be achieved by farmers adopting these new varieties currently available on the market. This study follows these DT maize varieties that are currently on the market and estimates how many smallholder farmers have adopted while understanding the constraints faced by the non-adopters.Zimbabwe's maize breeders were the first in the world to produce hybrids, which boasted high yield advantages and greater uniformity. Although hybrid maize seeds were intended for annual purchases-and non-recycle and demanded high levels of management skills, they still performed well under smallholder farmer management where recycling is a common practice. Using these hybrids, total smallholder maize production tripled between 1980and 1988(Smale and Jayne, 2011). This is supported by 1Zimbabwe is divided into five agro-ecological regions, known as natural regions, on the basis of the rainfall regime, soil quality and vegetation among other factors. These are a) zone 1-> 1 000mm. Rain in all months of the year, relatively low temperatures, b) zone 2-700-1 050mm. Rainfall confined to summer, c) zone 3-500-800. Relatively high temperatures and infrequent, heavy falls of rain, and subject to seasonal droughts and severe mid-season dry spells, d) zone 4-450-650mm. Rainfall subject to frequent seasonal droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season and e) zone 5-< 450. Very erratic rainfall. viii a study by Chikobvu et al (2010) that highlighted the increasing adoption of improved maize varieties is no longer a matter of concern as nearly all farmers are growing improved maize varieties (Chikobvu et al., 2010;Kassie et al., 2012). A large percentage of maize is produced for household consumption. However, there has been no net increase in maize productivity in the country. The report by the Government of Zimbabwe/United Nations Team (2010) shows that maize production and productivity has been declining since 2000 despite the efforts of the breeders. From a surplus producer of maize, Zimbabwe has become a net maize importer. Average maize yield has been fluctuating between 0.7 tonnes and 2 t/ha.The agricultural sector's reliance on seasonal, rain-fed cultivation makes the sector particularly vulnerable to climate variability and change (UNDP/ALM, 2011). According to IPCC (2001), climate change is expected to pose a particular challenge to food production. More frequent and prolonged droughts and increases in temperature can seriously reduce crop yield, especially maize, which is a staple crop in Zimbabwe, increasing incidences of food insecurity in the country. Vulnerable households making a living from maize in marginal areas, particularly smallholder farmers, who derive their livelihoods from smallholder agriculture and other rural activities, are most severely affected (Ericksen, 2008).With the evidence of climate change, the farmers have seen the need to grow DT varieties. Unlike in the early 1980s, when appropriateness of the technology led to adoption, coupled with state policies, the current economic conditions pose challenges to accessibility, affordability, and thus uptake of new technologies. The Food and Nutrition Implementation Matrix also highlighted the need for farmers to use drought tolerant crops and varieties to increase productivity and production hence household level food and nutrition security (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013).The need for farmers to access high quality, authentic seed, and complementary inputs has the potential to enhance and stabilize yields among smallholder farmers. In view of the aforementioned, there has been production, dissemination, and promotion of drought tolerant maize varieties by researchers, agricultural extension institutions, and seed companies. A household survey was undertaken in five provinces of Zimbabwe with the aim of assessing the levels of penetration of the DT maize varieties so far released in the country into smallholder farming systems.Specifically, the study was aimed at measuring the extent to which the DT maize varieties have disseminated in the farming systems and to describe key factors associated with farmer uptake of drought tolerant maize varieties.Chapter 2.0: Study area and methodsThe study was carried out in 6 of 60 districts in Zimbabwe. This covered five (out of eight) provinces namely Masvingo, Midlands, Matabeleland North, Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central. In terms of natural regions, the districts fell in Natural Region II to Natural Region V (Table 1). Maize is the staple food in all the districts. In terms of maize production, all the districts produce maize and all are drought prone. The multi-stage sampling approach was used. Sample selection combined purposive and random sampling. Purposive sampling was done in 6 districts namely Bikita, Chivi, Hwedza, Shamva, Umguza and Zvishavane (Figure 1) in consultation with seed companies, extension officers, DTMA scientists, and country team members.The next two sampling stages involved random sampling. Two wards in each district were randomly selected, and from each sampled ward, five villages were also randomly picked. Hence, 10 Villages were randomly selected in each sampled district, based on a complete list of villages in the district. A total of 50 households were randomly chosen and interviewed in each ward. Altogether 600 households were interviewed.A structured questionnaire was used to collect the data in the survey. SPSS and Stata software packages were used in the analysis. The survey ran from the 3 rd to the 16 th of June 2013. Below is a map of Zimbabwe and the different survey districts. Chapter 3.0: Descriptive resultsFrom the sampled households, 73% were male-headed household, while only 27% were female-headed households. Most of the respondents (68.8%) were household heads while the remaining were spouses of the household heads. Summary statistics of the districts reveal that the mean age of the respondents was around 53 years ranging from 51.5 years in Bikita to 56.9 years in Umguza. The mean household size was 5.65 with the lowest figures observed in Bikita and Hwedza. Shamva had the highest household size as well as the number of household members who are involved in agriculture. In terms of education, household heads in Hwedza had a higher average number of schooling years, whilst Shamva had the least. Table 2 below shows a summary of the household demographics of the sampled households. Mean cattle ownership for the sampled households was four. Umguza district had the largest cattle herd per household and Chivi district had the least mean cattle numbers per household (Table 3). An analysis of ownership of horses and donkeys among households revealed that Zvishavane, Umguza and Chivi had a mean of 1 donkey per household while the rest in other districts had none. This result was consistent with the 2013 Crop and Livestock Assessment (2013) that showed that there were more donkeys in the Masvingo, Midlands, and Matabeleland provinces than in any other district. On average a household had 3 sheep and goats except for Shamva, which had a mean of one sheep or goat per household. High poultry numbers were seen across all districts. Hwedza had the highest number of households with a member that had received information on new maize varieties from different sources of extension services. Shamva had the highest number of households that had not received advice on new varieties. However, overall, there seemed to be nearly the same number of households that had received information and those that had not received information on new maize varieties.This is a clear indication that information on new maize varieties is not well disseminated such that not all households have access to it. An analysis by gender of household head indicated that more male-headed households (54.6%) had received information on new maize varieties when this is compared to female headed households (43.2%). Figure 2 below shows the proportion of households that had received information on new maize varieties in the different districts. The study has also revealed that there are different sources of information for farmers with varying degrees of accessibility and relevance for farmers. Government agricultural extension topped the list with all districts having more than 50% of households pointing out extension as one of their major source. In Zimbabwe, governement extension is provided by AGRITEX, a department within Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation Development. Of late the department reduced extension to farmer ratio by employing more extension workers per ward. This information shows that there is an improvement in the farmer-extension officer contact hence the high frequency.Other important sources of agricultural extension services are private companies and NGOs. These players have geographical bias as they tend to concentrate in areas where they have interests. Results from the survey show that less than 5% of the sample households received information from private agricultural extension sources. Agricultural extension courses are ranked second in terms of providing information on new varieties. Each district had at least some households that had received information from agricultural extension course. Only two districts had households who had accessed information from NGO and lead farmers. Electronic media seems to be gaining in popularity as all districts had at least some households who had accessed information, although the numbers are still low in comparison to government based sources.An analysis by gender of household head shows that the three top sources of information on new maize varieties were the same namely governement extension services, agricultural extension courses and farmer field days respectively.  A look into the perceived likelihood of access to rural credit by sample households showed that 'extremely unlikely' was the most frequent response in all districts. Zvishavane had the highest proprtion of households (6%) that indicated that credit was extremely likely to be accessed. This information shows that in many communinties, rural credit is difficult to access thus this can compromise agriculture production as it is a very important component of agriculture production. Figure 3 below shows a diagrammatic representation of the responses of households concerning access to credit. An analysis by gender of household head reveals that slightly more male-headed households could easily access credit compared to female-headed households.  The mean frequency of drought occurance as reported by farming households across districts ranges from 2 to 5 years with a mean of 3.84 years. This is despite some households indicating that they had not experienced drought, whilst others were saying they had experienced it in all the 10 years. Table 6 below summarizes the mean drought frequency across the districts. Despite the aridity of the areas, almost every household in the survey districts had a plot of maize. From the household sample, total plot sizes ranged from 1.4 hectares in Hwedza to 2.3 hectares in Umguza. The mean plot size for the whole sample is 1.68 hectares. On land allocated to maize, plot size ranged from 0.66 hectares in Chivi to 1.16 hectares in Umguza. Shamva had the highest mean maize yield of 814.25 kg per hectare whilst Umguza had the least (82.43kg/ha) and was about ten times less of Shamva. In terms of irrigation and fertilizer usage across districts, very few people seem to have access to irrigation. Only 2.5% of the total sample indicated that they had irrigated their crop in 2012/13 season. However, none of the sampled household had irrigated their crop in Umguza and Chivi, the two driest districts among the six districts surveyed. An analysis by gender of household head only showed that 2.7% of the male-headed households had irrigated their maize crop, whilst only 1.9% of female-headed households had used irrigation.Fertilizer usage was high in Shamva where about 90% of the households reported to have applied chemical fertilizers in their maize crop. Fertilizer usage was low in Chivi and Umguza where only about 51% of the sampled households said they had used chemical fertilizer in the 2012/13 season. Results from Chivi and Umguza should be a cause for concern to all development partners in the maize subsector because a maize crop requires sufficient nutrients for maximum productivity. A gender based analysis on the household head showed that 48.8% of the female-headed households had applied fertilizers whilst 51.8% of the male-headed households had also used fertilizers. With regard to maize self-sufficiency, only about 15% of the households in Chivi, Umguza, and Zvishavane reported to have produced enough maize in 2011/12 season to feed their households until the next season. For Chivi and Umguza, lack of self-sufficiency may be linked to low usage of chemical fertilizers and the aridity of the areas. However, out of the whole sample only 34% of the households indicated that they had produced enough maize grain for their households in the 2011/12 season. There were more male-headed households (35.2%) than female-headed households (29.6%) who had produced enough maize grain for their households in the 2011/12 season. An analysis on the number of months a household ran short of maize after the 2011/12 season indicated that 25.1% (the highest frequency of houeholds) faced maize shortages for all the 12 months in a year. About 13% of the households reported running short of maize for 10 months. Only 0.8% of the housheolds indicated that they had enough maize for 11 months. Table 9 below presents the proportion of households that had run out of maize after the 2011/12 season. In terms of distance to the market households were asked the time they took to walk to the market. Umguza had the furthest distance in terms of minutes. On average, the walking distance in Umguza to the market was about 110 minutes. Majority of the households in this district also highlighted that their main mode of transport was the train (other -67%) that passed through the district from Bulawayo to Victoria falls and back on a daily basis.Bikita followed with an average of 76 minutes and the most common mode of transport was walking on foot (63%). This was the same case with Chivi which had an average 73 minutes. The districts which had the nearest market were Zvishavane (40 minutes) followed by Hwedza (44 minutes) and Shamva (55 minutes). The average distance for the whole sample was 66 minutes. Figure 4 below shows the different modes of transport for the districts. In terms of adoption of improved maize varieties, Zimbabwe as a country is far well off. Previous adoption studies reveal that adoption rates of Zimbabwe is over 80% and households in Zimbabwe mainly grow hybrid seed.Farmers were mainly growing hybrid maize seed varieties. According to the farmers they were growing mainly hybrids. Ninety one percent of the sample had used a hybrid maize variety, 2% local varieties, 2% OPV and 1% had recycled hybrid in the 2011/12 season. Only 4% did not know the type of maize variety they had grown. The results were similar across all districts. Local varieties were available but in small quantities.Across the districts, in Bikita 94% had used hybrids and Chivi, Umguza and Hwedza had the least number of household who had grown hybrid (88%). Hwedza and Umguza had the highest frequency of households that used local varieties and OPV. This is in line with results that were found on the level of recycling seed and the intensity, where Hwedza and Umguza were highest in terms of number of years the seed had been reused. Table 9 below shows a summary of the different types of maize varieties grown across the districts. The most commonly grown variety across all districts was SC513. PAN413 was also common among households. Table 10 below shows some of the mostly grown varieties across the districts. The main sources of improved maize seed for the whole sample were agro-dealers who supply seed to about 33.4% of the households. This was followed by governent programmes, which contributed about 26.7% of the crop, shops contributed 13.6% and local markets supplying 11.6%. Very little seed came from NGOs (1.7%), private traders (1.5%) and savings from last season (0.7%). The remainder of the seed came from neighbours, relatives and seed companies. This information shows that the agro-dealers are playing a significant role in bringing maize seed to communities hence the need for them to be strenghtened and capacitated for improved service delivery.Looking at the districts, the picture is basically the same for Bikita and Zvishavane although the rural shops were contributing signicantly as much as agro-dealers in Zvishavane. In Chivi, its the same, however, with neighbours and NGOs contributing signicantly.The situation in the four most dominating sources of seed was the same for Umguza, Hwedza and Shamva however, governement was dominating the seed provision. In Shamva savings from previous season were also important. This may be because most government input programmes come very late such that households tended to save that seed for the following season.Results from the analysis show that Umguza district used more maize seed than other districts. This is in line with the mean area that was put under maize, which was slightly above 1 hectare (Table 11). The seeding rate across all the districts is within the range of about 25 kg per hectare. The issue of maize seed recycling was not a major problem. This may be because majority of households are growing hybrids and they are aware of poor yields from recycling seed. An analysis of the number of years maize seed was recycled showed that Umguza had the highest number of years (4 years), although only five households indicated that they had recycled seed. This is in line with the field experience that revealed a popular local variety (bhabhadla). Chivi district had the highest number of farmers (seven) that were recycling maize seed . However, the mean number of years the seed was recycled was only 2 years. In Zvishavane only one household had recycled seed for 3 years. Bikita, Hwedza and Shamva districts had about four households that indicated recycling maize seed for about 2 years, 3 years, and 3 years, respectively. The most common recycled maize seed varieties were the local types such as bhabhahla in Umguza and hickory king. However, some hybrids such as PAN413, R201, R215 and SC513 were being recycled though at a small scale.Drought-tolerance, grain yield and early maturity are the leading positive traits farmers highlighted for the maize varieties they had grown. The other traits that were highlighted by a number of households included grain size and cob size. These results show that farmers indeed prefer varieties that are drought-tolerant, have high grain yield, bigger grain size and that mature early. Table 12 below gives a summary of the positive traits of maize varieties they that households had grown. Table 13 below highlights some of the negative traits that were exhibited by the varieties households had grown. A closer look at the results shows that the popular SC513 exhibited all the negative traits that were at the top of the list. This may be as a result of the different climatic condition that make the traits positive in one area become negative in the other area. In some areas it was pointed out to be drought-tolerance and very big grain size whilst in other areas it was not drought -tolerance and the grain size was small. Grain yield was ranked the most important trait overally that the farmers consider when selecting a variety followed by drought-tolerance and early maturity (Table 14). However in Chivi the majority of households (37%) pointed out they they consider the earliness to maturity and drought-tolerance (34%) of the variety. Umguza had only three most common traits among households,which were drought-tolerance (32.3%), grain yield (24.2%) and early maturity (21.2%). This was the same picture with the whole sample as these three traits dominated. Others include field pest-resistance, storage pest-resistance, sadza quality, fertilizer requirements, disease-resistance, grain price, cobs per plant, perfomance under low soil moisture, green maize quality and husk quality. These were traits that had a frequency of less than 2%. The second most important traits indicated by farmers were not very different from the first most important traits. Drought-tolerance, early maturity and grain yeild were the three most common for the entire sample as the second most important traits when choosing maize varieties. Table 15 below shows the second most important traits farmers consider when selecting maize varieties. The other trait in this case include marketability, cobs per plant, green maize quality, lodging resiatnce, grain price, husk cover, unoform maturity, stover yield, green maize taste, other and don't know. All these had mean frequency of less than 2%.On the analysis of the third most important trait when chosing maize varieties, grain yeild, drought tolerance and early maturity topped the list. These three tables show that most households consider grain yield, drought tolerance and earliness to maturity when choosing a maize variety for planting. However issues such as perfomance under low fertility and low soil moisture were also coming out yet mentioned by very few households. Table 16 below shows the third important trait that households considered when selecting maize varieties. The other traits mentioned included cobs per plant, husk cover, green maize quality, grain price, marketability, sadza taste, stover for livestock, grain colour, uniformity in maturity, lodging resistance, stover yield, green maize taste, flour to grain ratio and don't know.Chapter 5.0: Regression and resultsMaize self-sufficiency is an important livelihood objective of the farming communities in rural Zimbabwe. We estimated a two parts model to identify factors that influence the likelihood of a household running out of maize before the next harvest and the number of months the household runs out of maize from own production. The results of the models show that the number of times the household was affected by drought over the last ten years and lack of access of rural credit, increase the likelihood of maize shortage whereas cattle wealth, poultry wealth, irrigation use, and access to agricultural extension on improved maize seed were found to reduce the likelihood of maize self-insufficiency (Table 17).At the second stage of the model -regression of intensity of maize self-insufficiency on the selected covariates, age of household head was found to have a quadratic relationship with the number of months the household runs out of maize grain from own production. This shows that younger household heads have less intensity of maize food self-insufficiency, but when household heads are aged 70 years and above the intensity of the insufficiency increases.The proportion of land allocated to maize was also negatively related to the intensity of maize self-insufficiency. As the proportion of land allocated to maize increases the number of months of maize self-insufficiency decline. On the contrary, the number of years of drought that households have reported to have affected them over the last 10 years was positively related to the intensity of maize self-insufficiency of the households.The higher the number of drought years that affected the household, the higher the intensity of maize self-insufficiency (Table 17). More than 50% of the sampled households were aware of the existance of DT maize varieties. All districts had 50% or more households who knew of the existence of these varieties. Figure 7 below is a diagramatic presentation of districts showing the proportions of households who were aware of drought tolerant maize varieties. Different attributes were reported by farmers in describing the DT maize varieties, There was a high proportion of farmers who thought DT maize varieties were maize varieties that were able to tolerate dry spells (39%) and those who said the varieties were both able to tolerate dry spells and early maturing (40%). However, only 20% thought that they were varieties with short maturity period. The pattern is similar across all districts. This information reveals that households tend to think that short season varieties are drought-tolerant. Figure 8 below is a digramatic presentation of what households describe DT maize varieties.Results from this study and previous studies show (Chikobvu et al., 2010;Kassie et al., 2012) that adoption rates of improved maize varieties are very high in Zimbabwe. Since the 1980s, the majority of households in Zimbabwe have been using hybrids. OPVs were introduced by NGOs in the last decade. Although there is a growing literature on adoption of improved maize varieties in Zimbabwe, limited information is available on DT maize adoption. Based on farmers' classification of DT and non-DT, this study has analyzed the determinants of adoption of DT maize as perceived by farmers.The likelihood of adopting DT maize varieties given the measurements on different covariates expected to influence the decision to adopt/grow improved DT maize was modelled using four econometric models. Ordinary least square (OLS), logit and probit models along with the recently development complementary log-log regression model were estimated (Cameron and Trivedi, 2009). All estimations consistently showed that female headed households and households headed by people aged 30 years or above (using complementary log-log results) are less likely to adopt DT maize varieties. On the other hand, households headed by youngsters (<30 years), households with higher number of members engaged in agriculture, and those who accessed information on new maize seed were found to be highly likely to adopt DT maize varieties (Table 18).The signs of the statistically significant variables are as expected and yet the importance of information on new maize seed found to be positive and highly significant (p < 0.001) in influencing adoption. This above all justifies the effort put in by Agritex and other institutions in availing information on improved maize varieties. Given the high level of literacy in rural Zimbabwe, the potential role of timely and appropriate information in enhancing the diffusion of improved maize varieties cannot be overemphasized. The main source of information on DT maize varieties was the government agricultural extension system. This pattern is the same for all studied districts. Umguza showed a higher interaction with the electronic media. The electronic media included internet on the phones and the radio. The area is not readily accessible and communities are sparsely located. Farmer field d ays p layed a n i mportant r ole i n d isseminating i nformation on DT maize varieties in Chivi. Farmer field d ays w ere o rganised b y e xtension a s a way of trying to disseminate information. The method of lead farmers was pointed out in Zvishavane and Umguza. This is an extension method that has been promoted especially by NGOs who do not have wider geographical coverage. They try to tap on the expertise of the farmers whom they have trained and are competent to lead other farmers. Table 19 below shows the different sources of information on the drought tolerant maize varieties. Households were then asked whether they had grown DT maize varieties or not. More than 70% across all districts had either grown a DT maize variety (Figure 9) or have heard about it.An interesting point in this regard is the fact that some of the varieties farmers consider DT are not considered so by maize breeders and vice versa. Although the breeders and farmers can have different levels of perceptions about the attributes of the varieties, the decisions farmers make are based on what they think and hence matters most.Majority of farmers (20.2%) started growing DT maize, in 2010. However, some households in Shamva mentioned as far back as the 1970s but for all the districts, 2010 was the most common year households started growing DT maize. Figure 9 below shows the proportion of farmers who said they had experience growing DT maize varieties.  The other 1* included variety such as AC31 and SC411 with a frequency of 0.9% each, then PAN53, PAN6777, PGS61,PHB30G19, R200, SC521, SC627 and Hickory King each with a frequency of 0.6%. Finally those with a frequency of 0.3% which are CG4141, PAN6243, PGS53, PHB30B50, PHB30D79, R215, R502, SC501, SC506, SC637, ZM401, ZM421 and ZM521.The main reason that was highlighted by households for not growing DT maize varieties was that the farmers had no resources to access the expensive seed. This may be as a result of the introduction of the multi-currency system in Zimbabwe that has made it difficult for households especially the communal households to access financial resources. Three main reasons were given in Chivi: unavailable resources to purchase the seed, farmers trying other crops and farmers have a fear of trying new varieties. Table 21 below summaries the reasons highlighted by farmers for abandoning DT varieties. Two main reasons were given for not growing DT maize varieties. Majority of the households pointed out that the seed was not readily available on the market. However, only 0.2% of the households pointed out that the seed was not suitable in their areas. This was only pointed out in Zvishavane.Across all districts almost all household were willing to try the DT maize varieties. Bikita had the highest frequency (5%) of households who were not willing to try the DT maize varieties. Figure 10 below shows the proportions across districts of households who are willing to try the DT maize varieties. The main reason that was pointed out by household for the interest in DT maize varieties was that they had good characteristics (38.3%). Ability to tolerate dry spells featured the most. This could be because the frequency and duration of mid-season dry spells has been increasing and this has affected farmers greatly. Better yield was highlighted by about 12.8% of the households. Table 22 below gives a summary of reasons why farmers were willing to try the DT maize varieties. For those households that were not willing to try the DT maize varieties, the main reason cited was that they are -expensive. Households pointed out that they could not afford the high cost of the seed and hence continue growing what they are used to. Very few households pointed out fear of losing on yield-because trying new varieties is a risk, varieties available were unsuitable in their areas and farmers had an alternative to grow other crops e.g. small grains that are DT. Table 23 below summarizes the reasons pointed by households for the lack of interest in growing DT maize varieties. Households were asked how much they were willing to pay for a 10kg of DT hybrid and DT OPV maize seed. The willingness to pay for the hybrids was lower than that of the OPV across all districts. This could be attributed to the fact that for OPVs one can buy seed and recycle it for the coming 2 -3 seasons. All these prices farmers are willing to pay are far below the prevailing prices of improved maize seed in the country. This is supported by the previous comment households highlighted concerning high cost of improved maize seeds. Below is Table 24 summarizing the farmer's willingness to pay for the hybrid and OPV drought tolerant maize varieties. Results from the study show that maize productivity is low across all districts and there is limited irrigation in communal area. There is also limited fertilizer use across all districts except for Chivi and Umguza given the types of the soils that exist in these areas. In terms of food self-sufficiency, results show that households are not self sufficient and a high proportion of the households did not produce maize to last them one month in the 2011/12 season. Sales are very low across all districts and seed sources are very far. The main mode of transport for households to the seed source was mainly on foot. Results also indicate that extension is highly involved in disseminating information on new maize varieties.Many households indicated that they had expecience in growing DT maize varieties although many of them could not remember their names. However an analysis to assess the DT varieties they had grown revealed that many households classified short season varieties as DT maize varieties. This is because many of the short season varieties exibit the same characteristics as the DT varieties. Majority of households that grew DT varieties started growing them in 2010. For those that had abandoned the DT maize varieties cost of seed was pointed out as the main reason why the farmers chose to stop. Many were willing to try the varieties because of their characteristics that suited their areas. Unavailability of seed on the market was pointed out as another reason for not growing the varieties. Lack of interest in the varieties and resource constraints were pointed out as the main reasons behind farmer's low use of DT varieties.Results from the survey show that people are interested in using the DT maize varieties but there seems to be a gap in knowledge on the DT varieties available on the market.There is need for increased information dissemination on the DT maize varieties that have been released to date. There is also need for increased collaboration between breeders, seed houses and extension in the dissemination of the information on drought tolerant varieties. In addition, there is need for capacitating local agro-dealears to bring seed closer to comunities.","tokenCount":"6451"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6f75e0375768fb9836cef92b20fa7971","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0339c102-d87f-49b8-9f91-263a21250227/retrieve","id":"1233695864"},"keywords":["WHEAT, CCAFS, CSISA, ICAR-CSSRI Geographic scope:","National Country(ies):","India Comments: <Not Defined>"],"sieverID":"87c1ba6f-a95a-4f21-b235-0d2a5020deed","pagecount":"2","content":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:• Agricultural systems diversified and intensified in ways that protect soils and waterIs this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets:• # of more farm households have adopted improved varieties, breeds or trees • Increase in water and nutrient (inorganic, biological) use efficiency in agro-ecosystems, including through recycling and reuse Description of activity / study: Ex ante, 4-year on-station field study. By substituting Conservation Agriculturebased maize for rice, similar mean profitability gains were realized (16%) and transformative improvements in irrigation (− 84%), energy use efficiency (+ 231%), and global warming potential (− 95%) were observed, compared to farmers' practice (FP). Including mungbean in rotation further increased system productivity, profitability, and energy use efficiency; decreasing irrigation water use by 64% and global warming potential by 106%, compared to FP. Despite the described considerable benefits, adoption of maize is not widespread due to uneven market demand and assured price guarantees for rice.","tokenCount":"160"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7e781bea20177b09e82eba5950e46cac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06d764b2-6e78-494b-9eff-3eb6d9b3a69d/retrieve","id":"-1074771371"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"04cb2f22-d731-47bc-aab1-ad89dadb4563","pagecount":"66","content":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base.Agriculture in the 21st century faces multiple challenges: it has to produce more food and fibre to feed a growing population with a smaller rural labour force, more feedstocks for a potentially huge bioenergy market, contribute to overall development in the many agriculture-dependent developing countries, adopt more efficient and sustainable production methods and adapt to climate change (FAO, 2009b). As the world's human population of over 7.3 billion is expected to hit 9.1billion by 2050, food needs have also increased. Maintaining the momentum of growth in agricultural productivity will remain crucial in the coming decades as production of basic staple foods needs to increase by 60 percent if it is to meet expected demand growth (FAO, 2009a). With farming being the dominant land use in Ethiopia, options for increasing food security and improving livelihoods include agricultural land expansion which has led to deforestation and loss of important ecological goods and services; and intensified agricultural production., which has led to land degradation and exhaustion leading to a decline in land productivity (Bishaw, 2001)  (Oba & Kotile, 2001) Extensive agriculture involves expansion into new lands, but the competition for land from other human activities makes this an increasingly unlikely and costly solution, particularly if protecting biodiversity and the public goods provided by natural ecosystems is given higher priority (Millennium Ecosystem Assessmen, 2005). Therefore, intensive agriculture remains the most viable solution to increasing food production. Traditionally agricultural intensification has been defined in three different ways: increasing yields per hectare, increasing cropping intensity (i.e. two or more crops) per unit of land or other inputs (water), and changing land use from low-value crops or commodities to those that receive higher market prices. However, these approaches have negatively affected the environment, hence the need to undertake agricultural intensification sustainably (Pretty, Toulmin, & Williams, 2011). Sustainable agricultural intensification therefore is defined as producing more output from the same area of land while reducing the negative environmental impacts and at the same time increasing contributions to natural capital and the flow of environmental services.Ethiopia's economy and the wellbeing of its people are closely linked to agriculture and the use of natural resources, hence the Ethiopian Government launched innovative approaches that include a \"Climate Resilient Green Economy\" initiative which include implementation of agroforestry practices, conservation agriculture, reforestation of degraded lands and land affected by gullies and slopes including exclosures. In line with this initiative, the Africa RISING project focuses on sustainable intensification (SI) of mixed tree-crops-livestock systems in the Ethiopian highlands at the household scale, with impacts ultimately geared towards influencing change at the landscape scale in the long-run. Sustainable intensification will very often involve more complex mixes of domesticated plant and animal species and associated management techniques, requiring greater skills and knowledge by farmers. To increase production efficiently and sustainably, farmers therefore need to understand under what conditions agricultural inputs (seeds, fertilizers and pesticides) can either complement or contradict biological processes and ecosystem services that inherently support agriculture ( (Pretty, Toulmin, & Williams, 2011); Settle and Hama Garba, 2011). Therefore, in order to understand the complex interactions between all the main components of smallholder mixed farming systems, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has been undertaking local knowledge studies to elicit local knowledge of farmers regarding how they understand and interact with resources that their livelihoods depend on. This was done in the eight AfricaRISING (AR) sites in the Ethiopian highlands, with two sites being located in each of the four main regions of Ethiopia namely: Tigray, Amhara, Oromo and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Region (SNNPR). This report presents results from two of the AR sites located in Limo woreda (Jawe and Upper gana kebele) , located in the SNNPR region.Conducted under the Africa RISING project, the overall objective of the study was to characterize local knowledge of farmers about resources which their livelihood depends on. This research is one of the several studies that are geared towards contributing to the achievement of sustainable tree-croplivestock intensification as a pillar for the Ethiopian Climate Resilient Green Economy Initiative by providing opportunities for integrating early win tree species and management options in fields, farms and landscapes customized to local conditions and circumstances. Through identifying opportunities through which trees-crop-livestock mixed system can be sustainably intensified, this will contribute towards achieving whole System Level Outcomes (SLO's) namely: reducing rural poverty and promoting income diversification, improving food security, improving nutrition and health and ensuring sustainable management of natural resources. Sustainable intensification of these mixed farming systems will be achieved by expanding the scope of options promoted by the Africa RISING initiative, and by targeting species and management options appropriately to specific site conditions and farmer circumstances.1. To assess land use and livelihood strategies at the household level 2. To identify and map out community resources 3. To determine temporal variation in availability of provisioning resources (fodder, crops, fuel) 4. To characterize existing tree cover and assess the drivers of land use/ tree cover change 5. To identify existing challenges and assess opportunities for sustainable intensification1. What is the range of land use and livelihood systems in the Limo and Basona woreda? 2. What are the main resources farmers utilize and when in the year are they available? Basona woreda is one of the woredas in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Located at the eastern edge of the Ethiopian highlands in the Semien Shewa (North Shewa/ Shoa) zone (Figure 1), Basona woreda is bordered on the south by Angolalla Tera, on the southwest by the Oromia Region, on the west by Siyadebrina Wayu, on the northwest by Moretna Jiru, on the north by Mojana Wadera, on the northeast by Termaber, and on the east by Ankober. Amharic language is spoken in this woreda.  Source: Goshe bado and Gudo beret administration offices Kei for altitudes: -dega-2300-3200 masl, weyna dega-1500-2300/2400 masl., kola-500 -1500/1800maslThe Knowledge Based Systems (KBS) approach developed at Bangor University was used for collecting   (Sinclair & Walker, 1998;Walker & Sinclair, 1998) Scoping Stage: At this stage, activities included:• Transect walks were conducted at the initial stage for the team to familialize themselves with the landscapes and dominant landuses, which also helped to guide stratification (Figure 3a). Kei informant interviews were held with agricultural officers and development agents working with crop, livestock, and natural resource management departments. This exercise helped to characterize the landscape and predominant land use issues, and informed the stratification and sampling design for the major interviewing stage. This stage was undertaken to define knowledge boundaries, and the strata. During this stage, farmers were selected for focus group discussions and household interviews to characterize land use and livelihoods at the landscape level and individual farm level respectively. The 2 kebeles in each woreda had been pre-selected during project inception stage based on various criteria including farmers having at least 25% land under wheat production. Also, another criteria was previous or current engagement with National Agricultural Research System (NARS) and partner programmes in order to capitalize on potential synergies with existing activities; and previous and current engagements with Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) activities -USAID-supported initiatives. Also, the two kebeles selected were further differentiated in terms of market access because access to markets is one of the major drivers of intensification that is relatively easily and rapidly assessed.Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted whereby farmers participated in various activities such as: participatory village resource mapping, historical timelines, seasonal cropping calendars and land use and livelihood mapping (Figure 4). These activities helped to characterize farmers' access to resources and livelihood strategies. This stage was achieved through an iterative approach involving eliciting and recording knowledge from individual farmers, then evaluating the knowledge obtained, then going back to the same farmers to probe for more indepth information or clarifications until the desired information was obtained.Activities undertaken during household interviews included.• Farm characterization was done through drawing farm sketches with the farmers or generally identifying and describing resources found on the farm such as niches with trees on farm, soils, crops, livestock and other resources.• Also undertaken was landuse and livelihood analysis with the aim of synthesizing information about the use of land and other resources by the different groups of farmers within each kebele in order to understand the various dimensions of farmers' livelihood strategies and associated opportunities and constraints.• In order to assess the role of trees on farmers' livelihoods, tree species identification and assessment of utilities and services exercise was carried out.• Tree management and phenology-in order to assess farmers capacity to maintain trees onfarm and in landscapes;• Seasonal calendars of fodder, fuelwood, and other tree products were undertaken in order to assess the availability of these products throughout the year; and identify opportunities (gaps)for future interventionsLocal knowledge interviews should minimize farmers' disruption of their working schedule. Weather permitting, interviews were carried out outside the farmers' house and on the farmer's land so that it was easy for both the farmers and the interviewers to visualize resources being talked about and could refer to such resources explicitly (Figure 5). Villages on opposite directions from the kebele trading centre and along varying altitudes:Goshe bado kebele was characterized by mainly flat terrain, while Gudo beret is gently sloped. The kebeles were expansive on both sides of the market centres, with varying altitudes on either directions, hence it was hypothesized that farmers had different knowledge and experiences. Therefore, 2 sub-kebeles were selected from either side of the village market centres, one near the kebele centre and one further away. In Goshe bado, farmers were selected from Hudad Amba and Kirtie sub-kebele; while in Gudo beret, farmers were selected from Mushi and Gina beret sub-kebeles.Gender-Men and women played different roles within the farming system, and often had varying access to and control over resources. Hence it was hypothesized that they held varying knowledge on the same. Equal number of farmers were selected from each strata, with consideration being put on gender (Table 2)Age-It was hypothesized that knowledge differed with age; with older farmers having more elaborate knowledge especially with regards to the drivers of land use change; while younger farmers could hold more knowledge about agricultural technologies etc.Wealth status-Also, consideration was placed on wealth/ resource endowment variations among farmers (low, medium, high) mainly through selecting farmers with small, medium and large household land holding. It was hypothesized that access to land influenced farmers' landuses, production, income and livelihood strategies; and influenced the way they related to resources. Table 2 below shows the stratification criteria and number of interviewees involved in the exercise. This section presents findings from local knowledge elicited from farmers in Basona woreda in two kebeles namely Goshe bado and Gudo beret. Areas covered in this section are: participatory resource mapping, farm characterization, landuse and livelihood strategies, crop and livestock husbandry and interactions, drivers of landuse change, trees and associated management and challenges and opportunities to sustainable intensification.During FGDs, farmers engaged in drawing village resource maps. As mentioned earlier, farmers in each kebele were stratified into two groups (mixed gender) from sub-villages on either sides of the main kebele trading centre. The map below (Figure 6) shows how farmers visualized resources that their livelihoods depend on; mainly influenced by the level of interaction they have with the resources from the kebele.Social amenities: Gudo beret was located along a tarmac road. There was a kebele administrative office, a veterinary office. There was a market which serves all su-kebeles, situated just along the main road.There were also mosques, churches, kebele health centreGudo beret kebele had patches of government forest mainly comprising of Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Cupressus lusitanica. Initially, the government forest was called the 'firewood project', which was planted during Emperor Menelik II's rule -under a programme that aimed at improving household energy/ firewood. However, it is currently called the Amhara Region ForestEnterprise. The plantations serve the wood product processing firms in Debre Birhan and neighboring towns. Although the community was not allowed to cut trees from the government forest, they were allowed to collect firewood and eucalyptus leaves which they used and some sold the surplus for income.There was no natural forest within Gudo beret kebele. They plan to sell the trees once mature and share the benefits equally. Other forests existing in the kebele were mainly woodlots owned by individual farmers.Communal grassland: There was a grassland at the upper end of the kebele mainly containing 'gwassa' grass, whose main utility is for thatching houses. Occasionally the farmers sold the thatching grass to nearby towns. However, during periods of extreme drought, farmers fed the grass to livestock under 'cut and carry' system when there was no other source of fodder.Water resources: Farmers identified about 4 rivers traversing downwards along the kebele from the upper to lower catchment (Figure 6). However, farmers observed that due to the prolonged effects of having Eucalyptus plantations, rivers were drying up, and water flow leverls had reduced gradually.There were atleast five springs which provided clean drinking water to the farmers, but similar to rivers were also drying up. During extremely high rainfall, there were occasional landslides along Tach mush river.Irrigation schemes: Farmers in the lower catchment practiced irrigation, mainly of irish potatoes and vegetables for income and also to increase food available for home consumption. Irrigation opens up opportunities for crop diversification thereby improving household nutrition and increasing income.Tree Nurseries: There was a government tree nursery under the Bureau of Agriculture in Mushi subkebele which was started with support from SUNARMA (sustainable natural resource management). It lacked variety/ species diversity with only seedlings from afew species planted namely: Grevillea robusta, elephant grass, 'Yekeberit inchet', vertiver grass, Cupressus lusitanica, Arundo dona. It served the entire kebele, hence was not adequate for the entire population.Cooperatives: There was a potato cooperative located in Mushi sub-kebele. It was mainly utilized to market farmers potato produce collectively, and also farmers who wished to plant quality potatoes derived their potato seed here. Also, farmers utilized the membership to the cooperative to receive training.Farmer Training Centre: There was a kebele FTC for demonstrations on farming best-practices such as: row planting, and the function of various soil erosion control structures such as: soil bunds, stone bunds, micro-basins, trenches. However, the facility was not fully utilized. Social amenities: Goshe bado kebele was accessed located on a murram / dirt road, about 8km from Debre birhan town, it took farmers about 3-4hours to walk from Goshe bado to Debre birhan town. It was accessible by use of horse/ donkei carts, by foot, and few public transport vehicles that passed nearby on their way to other major towns. Due to the nature of the soil, the road were almost impassible at some points during heavy rains, due to the sticky soils and flooding/ poor drainage, making transportation of goods and services to and from the market very challenging. There was a health centre, kebele administration offices, FTC, cooperative, youth centre and school. However, there was no veterinary service, and could only be outsourced from Debre birhan town.Forest resources: There was no government forest in Goshe bado kebele. Farmers from Hudad Amba sub-kebele identified two community forests (Figure 8), which hosted rare species that were either or almost becoming extinct in the area. Churches also played a kei role in conserving tree species diversity, especially for unique native species namely: Rosa abyssinica, Erica arborea, Capparis tomentosa, Ekebergia capensis, Millettia ferruginea, Phoenix reclinata, Podocarpus falcatus, Salyx mucronata, Senna siamea, Syzygium guineense, Acacia melanoxylon and some unidentified species namely: 'umbus, 'keret', 'sheweshewe', 'belshe', 'weil', 'shinote', 'kase', and 'tomit'.Water resource: There was one main river 'chacha' passing across the lower part of the lower catchment, and was infact the border line of Goshe bado and other kebeles. There were two other small rivers (mostly seasonal passing on one side of the kebele. About 5 springs were identified scattered across te kebele, which provided water for home consumption.Irrigation schemes: Some farmers were harvesting water for irrigation. Crops grown included:vegetables such as onions, kales, cabbages and temperate fruits such as Malus domestica (apples),Grazing land: There was no communal grazing land. However, grazing was being done on open areas.Gullies: Several gullies were identified, which have led to decreased size of arable land due to loss of soil (Figure 9). Basona woreda was a highly intensified farming system within small private land holdings, with the average land holding of farmers interviewed in Goshe bado kebele being 1.5ha. (ranging from 0.5ha. to 3ha.), while that of Gudo beret was 0.9ha (ranging from 0.5ha to 1ha). Unlike Limo woreda, fields in Basona woreda were highly fragmented, with farmers holding an average of four fields per household. It took farmers between 5 to 30 minutes to reach their several fragmented cropfields. Figure 10 below shows one farmer who has four land parcels of land.Crop rotation was practiced, with farmers alternating legumes with cereals and other crops. Farmers planted as many crops as possible. In Goshebado, some farmers retained certain trees in the cropfields.However, in Gudo beret, trees were mainly retained around the homestead as live fence-alongside stone/brick fences, and in woodlots (Figure 10). There were no trees/ live fences along cropfield boundaries, but most farmers used dead fence from branches of thorny trees such as Acacia abyssinica.Kubet and livestock were enclosed within the homestead. As had been hypothesized, farmers in different strata held varying knowledge about the mixed farming system as highlighted below:Gudo beret farmers: Farmers noted that 'tukur afer' soil experienced water logging when there were heavy rains, leading to destruction of crops. Also, frost was a serious problem affecting crop productivity due to the high altitude of the area. There was also high prevalence of crop and livestock diseases. Soil erosion was also a serious, and the farmers understood how erosion control structures functioned, hence were adopting both physical structures and biological measures such as planting tree Lucerne (Chamaecytisus proliferus). Farmers in this kebele also highly engaged in income generating activities such as labour, selling livestock; especially due to the easy access to markets because of tarmac roads.They also experienced food scarcity from July to October, especially due to their small household land sizes. Also due to their small pieces of land, continuous cultivation of land had resulted into loss of soil fertility hence less crop productivity. Goshe bado farmers-Water logging of 'tukur afer' was high leading to loss of crops. Further, broadbed furrows when constructed along the slope were termed as an effective technology helping them to reduce the effects of flooding on crops, hence increasing productivity. Kei afer was termed as being more fertile than tukur afer, hence more productive. There were no significant difference in knowledge held by farmers between both sub-kebeles per kebele.Gender: Common knowledge held by men included: crop production challenges namely: high disease prevalence of crops and livestock, erosion, and continuous cropping leading to less production. Food was therefore scarce from July to October. To cope with food shortage, men engaged in selling livestock, and paid labour. Women on the other hand were more concerned with the water logging challenge of 'tukur afer' soil and its low productivity compared to 'kei afer'. They resulted to buying of food in times of food shortage.Land size: Farmers with small land holdings (< 0.5 ha.) held knowledge on: soil erosion was sever due to over cultivation and they were planting tree Lucerne along stone bunds to control erosion; local livestock breeds were less productive, food scarcity led to them buying food. In addition, farmers with <1ha. had knowledge about water logging, high crop and livestock disease prevalence, effects of frost on reducing crop productivity, and food scarcity. They engaged in paid labour and selling livestock. On the other hand, farmers with land >1.6 ha had soil as the main issue of concern, that is, its fertility, erosion and general management.Age: Farmers aged <40 years, farmers were more conservation conscious-soil erosion was their main concern and were employing mechanisms such as: planting tree Lucerne along stone bunds, vertiver grass along contour lines, establishing checkdams on gullies and cut-off drains across slopes, with the ultimate goal of reducing surface run-off and stabilizing and saving soil from erosion. Farmers aged between 41-50 years-were more knowledgeable with water logging challenge, soil erosion challenge, and loss of soil fertility due to continuous cropping. They were also engaging in paid labour in order to get income to buy food. Farmers aged >51 years-faced food scarcity and bought food, and were concerned about reduced crop productivity due to crop and livestock diseases and frost. They also benefited from broad-bed furrows on 'tukur afer' soil to control water logging and reported that tukur afer was also less fertile than 'kei afer'Soils are the natural resource that holds/ hosts crops from planting to maturity, hence influence crop growth. With sustainable intensification, soil is repeatedly and continuously put into use at an intensified basis. Therefore, understanding indicators of soil quality was an important step to addressing challenges that are soil-related; and in designing appropriate soil management options for Basona woreda such as: which soil was affected by water logging, which one was less fertile hence required more inputs/ fertilizer, which soil needed more erosion control measures to be put in place among others, and one that would require specific management actions such as drainage and aeration.Soils are locally known as 'afer' in Amharic language. Basona woreda had a dominance of poorly draining vertisols. Farmers classified soils into eight distinct textures, with Goshe bado soils being classified into only 2 main textures while in Gudo beret, a total of 7 soil textures. Table 3 below gives a description and characteristics of soil textures encountered in Basona woreda. Farms in Basona represent a highly intensified farming system. The main crops grown in Goshe bado were: fava bean, wheat, barley, field pea, chick pea, teff, vetch, and fenugreek. Income / cash crops were: fava bean, vetch, and fenugreek. In Gudo beret, the main crops grown were: wheat, fava bean, chick pea, teff, barley, irish potatoes, field pea, lentils, linseed, (garlic, cabbage, beet root, onions). Main income crops were: fava bean, irish potatoes, and barley. Irish potatoes, vegetables and fruits were normally grown under irrigation.Table 4 below shows the cropping calendar of the three main crops in each kebele. There was no difference in the cropping calendars in both kebeles.  Due to the dominance of vertisols in the kebeles, coupled with continuous cropping and the absence of adequate soil and water conservation measures, soil erosion was encountered across the farms and landscapes. For flat-lying areas such as Goshe bado, sheet and gully erosion were more common, while in Gudo beret, rills formed by fast flowing surface runoff resulted into gullies (Figure 15b). Not only did erosion lead to loss of soil nutrients, it also led to loss of cultivatable land/ soil (Figure 15a), thereby reducing land under crop cultivation.    2), in which case an increase in A causing a decrease in B also implies that a decrease in A would cause an increase B, or one-way (1), where this reversibility does not apply.Farming communities in Basona woreda were heavily dependent on cereal and pulse production.Although various technologies were being employed to improve productivity of these crops, low yields were reported by farmers in both kebeles. They attributed this to various drivers discussed below and illustrated in AKT causal diagram below (Figure 19).• The main challenge affecting crop productivity as reported by majority of farmers from both kebeles was crop diseases and pests. Crops most severely affected were fava bean, wheat and barley. Diseases named included: fava bean yellow rust, potato, onion and garlic root rot, potato light blight. Two categories of pests were reported, that is, those that affected crops while growing in the field, and post-harvest pests. Such pests included: arphids (all cereals and pulses), african ball worm (affecting crops in the lower catchment only) such as fava bean, lentils, chick peas, field pea.• Decreasing household land holding as a result of human population increase had led to reduced size of cropland; hence less volume of crops grown. Further, reduced household land holding had made farmers to cultivate crops continuously with no fallow periods leading to low soil fertility, which causes reduced crop yields.• Frost was also mentioned as adversely affecting the growth and productivity of crops. Frost was most severe in the uppermost areas of Goshe bado and Gudo beret including Gina beret subkebele (higher altitude)• In Goshe bado especially, the dominant tukur (black/vertisol) soil, resulted into water logging due to its high clay content and flat nature of the terrain. This led to flooding which caused rotting of crops while growing in the field resulting into poor growth and yield.• Farmers reported that rainfall had become unimodal since 1977 Ethiopian calendar when there was severe drought countrywide. Unimodal rainfall had resulted in one single planting season (meher) which led to low annual crop yields; and also erratic rainfall led to low crop productivity as crops lacked adequate moisture necessary for optimal growth.• As highlighted earlier, due to the dominant vertisols in these areas, high rainfall intensity, coupled with the sloped nature of terrain especially in Gudo beret, and low ground cover causesd soil erosion. Absence of adequate soil and water conservation measures further worsened the situation.• Also, due to absence or low tree density onfarm and on the periphery of farms, strong winds destroyed crops.• By some farmers not applying fertilizers as per the recommendations by DAs resulted into low crop yield.• DAs reported that due to limited labour availability, some farmers did not weed their crops, or ended up weeding late, which led to competition of nutrients by weeds leading to low crop yields.The AKT diagram (figure 19) below shows causal linkages of factors affecting crop productivity/ yields.Figure 19: AKT causal diagram on factors affecting crop production Source: basona_africarising.kb KEY: Nodes represent attributes of objects, processes or actions. Arrows connecting nodes show the direction of causal influence. The upper small arrow on a link indicates either an increase (↑) or decrease (↓) in the causal node, and the lower arrow refers to the effect node. Numbers between small arrows indicate whether the relationship is two-way (2), in which case an increase in A causing a decrease in B also implies that a decrease in A would cause an increase B, or one-way (1), where this reversibility does not apply.Farmers in Goshe bado and Gudo beret reported that they experienced food shortage mainly from July to October. During food scarcity periods, farmers used the food stored from the previous harvest, and to supplement this, they employed various coping mechanisms namely:1. Selling livestock, especially cows and sheep 2. Engaging in paid labour within or outside of their kebele 3. Selling eucalyptus timber and firewood; and also eucalyptus leaves collected from the government and community forests for use as fuel.4. Petty trade such as: selling beer made from gesho tree (Rhamnus prinoides) 5. Renting out land to other farmersThe main livestock reared in both Goshe bado and Gudo beret kebeles were: cows, oxen, sheep, donkey and chicken. Crop residues were the main source of fodder for livestock for majority of the farmers, being utilized for about six months annually (table 5). Majority of times, hay was mixed with crop residues and local beer products made from by-products of barley and Rhamnus prinoides tree leaves in order to improve the nutritional value of the feed (Figure 20). Other fodder sources included grasses, tree fodder and weeds from crop fields (Figure 21). There was low diversity of tree fodder, with mainly Chamaecytisus proliferus (tree lucerne) being the most commonly utilized fodder tree species (Figure 21b). • Diseases-especially affecting sheep, chicken and cows. Diseases resulted into loss of livestock through death, while some diseases reduced livestock productivity and quality of products.• Local livestock breeds, especially of sheep and chicken were also blamed for the low productivity • Shortage of water also led to less livestock productivity, and in some cased death due to prolonged drought. Furthermore, some farmers had resulted to reducing livestock to manageable numbers in order to cope with water shortage. Ultimately, decreased number or poor productivity of livestock adversely affected livelihood dynamics, since livestock was a source of food, manure and income• Model farmers: Nine model farmers were selected from each kebele to be the avenue through which new technology were introduced to the villages. Three farmers planted fava bean, three wheat and three planted irish potatoes. The concept of '1 into five farmer' concept meant that the other four farmers were required to follow the model farmer closely in order to learn the technology, which they then replicated on their individual farms. The experience seemed hopeful in scaling up ideas and approaches, though some farmers reported that some of their group members were not keen to learn and replicate the technologies.• Cooperatives: There were cooperatives in both kebeles, with the main ones focusing on distributing of fertilizers and improved seeds and herbicides to farmers. In Gudo beret kebele, there was an irish potato cooperative, which is actively involved in collective selling of potatoes and in preserving and selling potato seeds the following season.• Membership to various community groups: Just like in Limo woreda and indeed many parts of the country, farmers belong to various informal groups. Ikub-is a rotating credit association which helps to raise fund for farmers to engage themselves in small-scale businesses and agricultural development, house construction among others.In Goshe bado, tree cover and land use mainly changed during the transition from Haile selasie to Derg regime, due to factors discussed in kb diagram (table 6 and Figure 22). Farmers reported that during Haile selasie era, that is, before 1973, many native tree species existed. It is during the Derg regime (1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991) that native tree species were replaced by massive Eucalyptus plantations. Native trees (many of which were viewed as slow growing and with low income potential) were gradually replaced by plantations onfarm, especially E. globulus which were fast growing and had high income potential, introduced and promoted by an NGO called in 1973 ec.In contrast, farmers in Gudo beret reported that their landscape was bare, with very few tree species even during Haile selasie era. It is infact during the Derg era that tree density increased, mainly when Eucalyptus species were introduced by the government under the fuelwood project. The government established these Eucalyptus plantations on marginal/ uncultivable land such as in the very steep and rocky areas. This had a negative impact on the ground water sources, with river flow and number of springs reducing (Figure 22). Later, farmers began planting Eucalyptus on their farms, either in woodlots or along boundaries of home compounds for timber and firewood products. In the Derg era, cropland and grazing land were insignificantly transformed (table 6), major changes began occurring during the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) era (1991), mainly catalyzed by increased human population and change in policies. The table below shows a summary of changes in landuses.Gudo beret kebele Haile selasie era  Haile selasie era 1930-1974) Eucalyptus species had been earlier promoted by Emperor Menelik II -under a programme that aimed at improving household energy/ firewood. However, there were still many native tree species in Derg era, hence tree products and services were available.According to farmers, during Haile Selasie era, the only trees found onfarm in Gudo beret kebele were: Erica arborea (mainly for charcoal), Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera and Rosa abyssinica (fruit) -1974-1991 (1967-1983 e. calendar) Derg regime -1974-1991 (1967-1983 ec) Crops: Due to land availability during the Derg regime, farmers in Goshe bado kebele maintained soil fertility through practicing fallows. As such, there was no need to use chemical fertilizers as soil was fertile. -Also, there were less pests and diseases Crops: There was no soil erosion, land slides and flooding and land degradation, hence crop productivity was high. In the Haile selasie and Derg era, soil was fertile due to fallow periods due to land availability Livestock: There was high individual land holding hence farmers had set aside vast areas for grazing their livestock. As a result, there were more livestock owned per household. However, diseases were prevalent and there were no veterinary services-was only found in Debre birhan Livestock: Although there was no free grazing, farmers were allowed to cut and carry grass from communal grazing land. There was abundant fodder. Though livestock numbers were high, there was low productivity as the breeds were poor/ local. Forest/ tree cover: Tree cover began transforming during Haile selasie-Derg era transition period in Forest/ tree cover: before the Derg regime, there were few trees and larger croplands. However, early 1970s. Forests were converted to crop land due to increased population. Eucalyptus destabilized the area by depleting the soil of nutrients and water, and there was loss of diversity of tree products, due to loss of native species.during Derg regime, farmlands were lost to pave way for establishment of government forest under the firewood project. Massive Eucalyptus and Cupressus lusitanica plantations were established.Water resource: During the Haile selasie era, there were many springs and river flow volume was high and reliable. However, with the introduction of massive Eucalyptus plantations, springs decreased in numbers and discharge rate; while rivers dried up and water flow reduced at alarming rates There was high rainfall intensity due to presence of a stable climate. There was good distribution of the rainfall throughout the planting seasons. In this era, rainfall was bimodal, which enabled farmers to plant crops twice per year until 1977ec, when there was drought countrywide, and after which rainfall became unimodal. Crops: Continous cropping led to loss of soil fertility, resulting into reduced crop yields Also, loss of many tree species in the Derg era that were earlier used as mulch such as Croton macrostachyus, Cordia africana, and Erythrina abyssinica led to farmers relying more heavily on chemical fertilizers.Cropland was reduced by increased number of settlements due to population increase. There was soil infertility due to continous cropping with no fallows due to reduced household land holding and loss on fertile top soil to surface runoff, aggravated by the hilly/ sloped nature of the terrain.-Further, absence of grasslands/ grass fallows onfarm as a result of conversion into cropland led to increased flooding. Grasses played a role in intercepting water. -Crop yield also decreased due to pests and diseases Livestock: Due to decreased average land holding, livestock numbers drastically reduced due to scarcity of fodder Livestock: Onfarm grasslands were lost with the establishment of eucalyptus plantations, which led to farmers reducing livestock numbers. Also, eucalyptus suppressed growth of grasses under canopy. There were more improved livestock breeds. There was bee keeping in the natural forest neighboring the kebele. Forest/ tree cover and water: Fueled by the need for income, many farmers began establishing eucalyptus plantations on their farms. As a result of prolonged effects of vegetation change, rainfall patterns changed from bimodal to unimodal, which led to only one planting season Forests/ tree cover and water: On-farm tree planting -Eucalyptus globulus began, hence more cropland was lost leading to decrease in crop production. Eucalyptus species competition with crops led to drying up of springs and rivers. In 2008-in Gina beret-60 farmers planted an additional 20ha of eucalyptus for income Therefore, significant drivers (actions) highlighted in blue in the AKT diagram below represents the genesis of changes in tree cover and land use in Goshe bado and Gudo beret kebeles. As mentioned earlier, deforestation of native tree species in Goshe bado which was mainly linked to loss of products and ecological benefits of the trees; and introduction of massive eucalyptus plantations in Gudo beret which led to negative ecological changes; have shaped the history of landuse and livelihoods in these areas (Figure 22) Further, clearing of on-farm grasslands in Gudo beret resulted into decreased rain water interception and absorption in upper/raised areas, thereby resulting into flooding on the already water-logging-prone vertisols on the lowlands.  Basona woreda was characterized by low tree diversity per farm compared to Limo woreda; with Eucalyptus globulus being the dominant tree species while majority of the species were encountered in    Majority of fields in Gudo beret kebele had no trees retained on the cropland. In Goshe bado, tree species retained in the cropland were those compatible with crops and/ or had mulch that replenished soil fertility Though retained at low abundance, such species included: Acacia abyssinica, Croton macrostachyus, Hagenia abyssinica, Chamaecytisus proliferus, Cordia africana and Sesbania sesban (Figure 31). Similar to Limo woreda, farmers in Basona woreda also gave inconsistent information on tree phenology (flowering, fruiting, leaf fall). Unlike Limo woreda, the practice of pollarding and pruning trees in cropland was not widely practiced in Basona woreda. Tree density on cropland was low, and in other cases, farmers had low knowledge on the impact of tree management on crop growth (Figure 31a above). Trees were mainly managed on a product-need kind of basis. Eucalyptus species, which had a fast growth rate after coppicing, were widely coppiced for timber, poles and firewood purposes (Figure 32). Some farmers had set aside some land for Eucalyptus woodlots; and reported that due to the fast growth of the species, they were able to get products and income within a short period. After coppicing, poles and timber could be harvested four and eight years respectively after coppicing. choice of suitable tree species to grow, which must be adapted to the environmental conditions of a locality is one of the most important prerequisites for successful agroforestry (Gresbach, 2007). Hence the need to match species with sites local conditions and circumstances• There was no natural forest, only community forest at the upper end of the kebele in Gina subkebele. There was a government tree nursery with low tree diversity, were cooperatives, underutilized farmer training centres, water levels decreasing. Community exchange groups played a key role in information sharing within the kebeles.• Basona woreda was a highly intensified farming system within small private land holdings, with the average land holding of farmers interviewed in Goshe bado kebele being 1.5ha., while that of Gudo beret was 0.9ha. The fields were highly fragmented, with farmers holding an average of four fields per household• Landuse and livelihoods: men and women undertook varying roles in the system; but with each supporting the other gender on some of the roles.• There was varying knowledge about the mixed crops-livestock-tree mixed systems: between the two kebeles, between sub-kebeles within each kebele, between genders, across age, and different land sizes• Various measures, both physical and biological, were being employed to prevent soil erosion and to help conserve soil. Such as check-dams, cut off drains; soil bunds and stone bunds, biological measures suchas Aloe vera , tree Lucerne, Sesbania sesban; and grasses such as vetiver, phalaris and rhodes grasses• Main challenge affecting crop production:crop diseases and pests, continuous cropping, frost, water logging of the vertisols, water scarcity due to unimodal rainfall, low tree density onfarm and on the periphery of farms leading to strong winds destroying crops; and limited labour• Drivers of landuse/ tree cover change-In Goshe bado, tree cover and land use mainly changed during the transition from Haile selasie to Derg regime, where native tree species were replaced by massive Eucalyptus plantations. In contrast, farmers in Gudo beret reported that their landscape was bare, with very few tree species even during Haile selasie era. It is infact during the Derg era that tree density increased, mainly when Eucalyptus species were introduced by the government under the fuelwood project. Eucalyptus plantations had a negative impact on the ground water sources, with river flow and number of springs reducing.• Basona woreda was characterized by low tree diversity per farm; with Eucalyptus globulus being the dominant tree species while majority of the species were encountered in very low densities.A total of 55 species were encountered in both Goshe bado and Gudo beret kebeles, with only 35 of the species being encountered on farms (22 native, 13 exotic). Gudo beret kebele had extremely low tree species diversity, with only 13 tree species being encountered across all farms visited, with farms having an average of 3 species.• Tree diversity in Basona area was mostly driven by market/ income potential, with Eucalyptus species and Rhamnus prinoides (gesho-used for making local beer) being the main income generating tree species. Other products were: fruits, firewood and timber, tree fodder was utilized in a low rate. Fuelwood shortage reported that July to August were the most critical periods due to onset of heavy rains• Common tree niches were: trees found around the homesteads; live fence along boundaries of homesteads and dead fence along crop fields, woodlots, and minimal trees retained in cropfields in Goshe bado kebele, tree species retained in the cropland were those compatible with crops and/ or had mulch that replenished soil fertility• Unlike Limo woreda, the practice of pollarding and pruning trees in cropland was not widely practiced in Basona woreda. Tree density on cropland was low, and in other cases, farmers had low knowledge on the impact of tree management on crop growth. Trees were mainly managed on a product-need kind of basis.• Farmers who were interested in planting trees reported they would plant for various purposes namely: income, fruits, timber, and fodder• Challenges that hindered farmers from integrating trees on their farms were: limited household land holding discouraged farmers from planting more trees, lack of tree germplasm, low seedling survival due to browsing, especially tree Lucerne in Gudo beret, slow maturity of fruit trees and Juniperus procera and lack of water for irrigating seedlings and fruit trees • There is also need for effective livestock disease control or investing on improved breeds• Also, to ensure survival of tree seedlings planted on farm, livestock browsing should be controlled• For scaling up of interventions and best practices, there is need to strengthen and use existing groups such as saccos and potato irrigation cooperatives.• FTCs in both kebeles are not fully utilized, hence improvement is needed to maximize on demonstration types for farmers to benefit.• Need to diversity germplasm in tree nurseries• Awareness creation is required among farmers on the need to widely adopt furrows due to the water logging nature of the dominant soils• Absence of natural forests-creates a need to increase tree species diversity and density on farms in order for farmers to derive products• There is great potential of upscaling agricultural best practices through targeting community exchange groups that exist in each kebele• Market access plays a key role in catalyzing intensification; hence the kebele administration of Goshe bado should work with the community to improve the state of the roads to ensure easy transport of goods and services to and from the market• Fodder sources should be diversified in order to ensure fodder availability throughout the year.Fodder source diversification will also prevent over-reliance on crop residues which are very beneficial when left as mulch on the farm.• Some farmers did not rotate cereals with legumes but rather alternate between cereals, hence there is need for awareness on the importance of leguminous crops to the soil. Ned to also promote short rotation leguminous shrubs.• Farmers should be encouraged and guided on how to stop overreliance on monocultures and adopt diverse species diversity in order to increase resilience against uncertainities such as climate change and severe frost conditions; and ensure availability of multiple tree products throughout the year• Due to the extremely low density of native species (some are almost extinct), there is need for reintroduction of such trees on farm• There is also need for tree selection in order to establish tree nurseries for seedlings for framers to plant based on their needs and also based on ecological suitability of species• Due to the unimodal rainfall pattern and decreasing water levels in rivers and springs, water harvesting as witnessed in several households is key to crop diversification and livestock production improvement thereby achieving improved livelihoods and increased income• Need to increase tree planting onfarm through targeting potential niches-potential niches for tree planting in Goshe bado and Gudo beret kebeles could be in the home compounds, along soil conservation structures and along boundaries of homesteads and cropland.• Physical soil erosion structures should be reinforced with biological approaches in order to achieve sustainable and long lasting solutions• Need for increasing firewood trees and shrubs onfarms in order to reduce overreliance on 'kubet' livestock dung, which should be retained back on farms for manure to increase crop productivity","tokenCount":"7426"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3572979445.json b/data/part_1/3572979445.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..4577ed04f35253aca5689615443589c3bfa0fadd
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f9da4837c665cd4979497c872a1066da","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e5728fa-c948-4fb3-9f22-bbaa4cb95c96/retrieve","id":"-313701631"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ac27ce66-36d3-40e4-8c74-7cb4bb151b51","pagecount":"18","content":"• Viral disease (Paramyxovirus)• Highly virulent -disease either silent, or in deadly outbreaks (but often underreported)Why does disease matter?• In commercial production -hamper productivity and financial losses• In small-holder farming -severely affect the livelihood of families.• Produced for large scale production-many hundred doses per vial• Requires system for distributing to many farmers• LaSota strain vaccines-requires cold chain • Male-headed households (72.8%) had on average two more chickens than female-headed households (13.1 and 10.9 chickens respectively).• MORE CHICKENS! The average number of chickens per household was 13.9 in supported villages versus 11.1 in non-supported villages (p=0.003).• Households which had used the vaccine had on average 14.6 chickens, versus 11.4 in non vaccinated hhs (p=0.001). 72.9% of these hh continued to use it after the first month.• MORE KNOWLEDGE! In the villages that had not received support, 23.1% correctly answered the question about what a vaccine does (\"it protects against a specific disease\"), whereas in the supported villages, 48.8% knew this (p<0.001).• 73% of the households reported having lost chickens during the last year to what they believed was ND. ","tokenCount":"178"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3574808630.json b/data/part_1/3574808630.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..814a2e37abf7b3e497b97d9e88d910a5337f614b
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d970360e4b0d538db933703fa583aa6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/8f11ca7d-3ebf-4ee5-b12d-462b13e77360/content","id":"-2141298048"},"keywords":["Ajay, A.","Singh, M.","Patra, S.","Ranjan, H.","Pundir, A.","Poonia, S.","Kumar, A.","Singh, D.K.","Kumar, P.","Ignatius, M.","et al Creative Commons CC0 Public Domain Dedication wheat","sowing date","variety","India"],"sieverID":"5bae586c-9146-4e96-bf1d-c62225941bb2","pagecount":"7","content":"Sub-optimal wheat productivity in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plain of India can largely be attributed to delayed sowing and the use of short duration varieties. The second week of November is the ideal time for sowing wheat in eastern India, though farmers generally plant later. Late-sowing farmers tend to prefer short-duration varieties, leading to additional yield penalty. To validate the effect of timely sowing and the comparative performance of long-and short-duration varieties, multi-location on-farm trials were conducted continuously over five years starting from 2016-2017. Ten districts were selected to ensure that all the agro-climatic zones of the region were covered. There were five treatments of sowing windows: (T1) 1 to 10 November, (T2) 11-20 November, (T3) 21 to 30 November, (T4) 1-15 December, and (T5) 16-31 December. Varietal performance was compared in T3, T4, and T5, as short-duration varieties are normally sown after 20 November. There is asymmetry in the distribution of samples within treatments and over the years due to the allocation of fields by farmers. Altogether, the trial was conducted at 3735 sites and captured 61 variables, including yield and yield attributing traits. Findings suggested that grain yields of long-duration wheat varieties are better even under late sown scenarios.The eastern Indo-Gangetic plain is characterized by fertile alluvial soils [1] wherein rice and wheat are predominantly grown. This region has the potential to support high wheat yields if proper crop production practices are put into place [2]. There is a substantial yield gap in wheat mainly due to delayed sowing [3] and the use of late-sown varieties [4]. Over the past several years, farmers' awareness regarding the 'importance of time' in wheat sowing (sowing in the first fortnight of November) has substantially improved. Still, early sowing is the exception rather than the norm. Apart from awareness, there are other challenges [5,6] that restrict the farmers' ability to plant wheat on time, including, for example, the late establishment and harvesting of the preceding rice crop [7], the delayed clearing of rice plots due to poor farm mechanization, and the limited adoption of and/or access to zero-tillage wheat sowing equipment. Delay in wheat sowing after optimum time results in yield reduction by almost 1% per day [8].The research was conducted at the landscape level for five consecutive wheat seasons starting from 2016-2017 to 2020-2021 on farmers' fields. The objective of this study was to quantify yield loss trends along the typical sowing date gradient and evaluate if the rate of decline was constant for the whole wheat sowing window. Another purpose of this work was to generate evidence on the comparative performance of long-duration wheat varieties (LDVs) and short-duration wheat varieties (SDVs) for different planting dates-do SDVs really outperform under late-sown conditions? Farmers are generally inclined towards SDVs in late-sown scenarios. The trial had five treatments of sowing time-(T1) 1 to 10 November, (T2) 11-20 November, (T3) 21 to 30 November, (T4) 1-15 December, and (T5) 16-31 December. T3, T4, and T5 had two sub-plots each of LDVs and SDVs. T1 and T2 had only LDVs because SDVs are generally planted after 20 November in field situations.In the context of agronomic field research, the length and breadth of this dataset is quite large. The dataset can help agricultural researchers better understand the interannual variation of varietal yield response to planting date and the effect of seasonal weather conditions. Results of varietal performance can be re-validated by concerned institutions, as this has been a debated topic. Additional evidence for productivity gains from late-sown LDVs is needed before regional research and extension entities modify priorities to focus more on LDVs under late-sown conditions.The trial was conducted in two east Indian states-Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (UP). There were eight districts from Bihar and two from eastern UP, adjoining part of Bihar (Figure 1). Two types of wheat varieties were compared for yield performance based on time of sowing-LDVs and SDVs. Approximate maturing duration for LDVs and SDVs of wheat are 150 and 130 days, respectively. This is the world's most densely populated area where rice and wheat (the two major cereals) are grown in rotation. The region is characterized by fertile soils due to alluvium deposition by the river Ganges. Annual precipitation is around 1500 mm, and ground water sources are also very rich.The trial consisted of five treatments based on the time of wheat sowing. T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 denote wheat sowing from 1-10 November, 11-20 November, 21-30 November, 1-15 December, and 16-31 December, respectively. Varietal comparisons were done under T3, T4, and T5, as SDVs are mostly planted after 20 November. However, in some scenarios, they could be planted before, so they appeared in T2 at a few locations. The most commonly used wheat varieties by farmers were selected under both of the varietal classes. In the majority of cases, HD 2967 wheat variety was used for the LDV category, and PBW 373 was the predominant variety used in the SDV category. Out of 3735 sites, 2958 sites were located in eight districts of Bihar, whereas 777 sites were in two districts of UP (Table 1). Table 1 further segregates trial sites by treatment and variety class. Overall, the comparison of grain yields revealed that the yields of the LDVs were higher than the SDVs. The yield difference between them was around 1 ton ha −1 . The mean grain yield of LDVs in the top 10% cases was 5.95 ton ha −1 , whereas this value for the SDVs was 4.45 ton ha −1 . A similar comparison for the biomass yield of LDVs and SDVs highlighted a difference of slightly more than 2 ton ha −1 in favor of the LDVs. In the top 10% cases of LDVs and SDVs, the mean biomass yields were 14.16 and 10.81 ton ha −1 , respectively. These numbers very clearly indicate that LDVs have substantially higher potential (Figure 2). There was a continuous decline in grain yield as the sowing time progressed, starting from 1 November for both varietal classes. In the first two treatments (T1 and T2), the mean grain yields of the LDVs were close to 5 ton ha −1 -slightly more in T1 than T2. Yield losses were expected for the SDVs (N = 53) in T2, so pairwise varietal comparisons were limited to T3, T4, and T5. Contrary to farmers' general perception of SDVs being suitable in late-sown scenarios, the LDVs outperformed the SDVs for all sowing date windows. In T3 and T4, the grain yields of the LDVs were approximately 0.5 ton ha −1 higher, whereas in T5 they were 0.4 ton ha −1 higher compared to the SDVs (Figure 3). Grain yield comparisons were individually investigated by year for all the years in which this trial was conducted in order to evaluate if aggregate trends deviate from annual trends among years. We observed similar results-grain yields of the LDVs decreased with later planting for all years, and the LDVs consistently outperformed the SDVs for all but one year (Figure 4). During 2020-2021 under T5, the yields of both varietal groups showed no significant difference (t-test p-value of 0.1467). The mean yields of the LDVs (N = 74) and SDVs (N = 74) for T5 were 2.8 and 2.9 ton ha −1 , respectively. Error bars in Figures 3 and 4 represent the 95% confidence interval of the mean. Due to the experiment's large sample size, error bars tended to be short in length, except for the SDVs in T2, which had a comparatively small sample size.In the eastern Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP), wheat sowing is often delayed [9]. It can be characterized for the low yields of this area and reason for a high proportion of farmers using SDVs as compared to the western IGP. The eastern IGP was targeted for this study in order to address the dearth of reliable evidence based on actual field conditions regarding the performance of short-and long-duration varieties, and to generate new insights for informing policy decisions aimed at closing yield gaps in the region. Target districts were selected in such a way that the trials capture all four agro-climatic zones of this region [10] and reflect inconsistent wheat yields across these zones. Villages within a district were selected with the aim of maintaining sufficient spatial distance in order to represent typical district wise variation. For this study, sets of five treatments were applied at the village level on farmers' plots (Figure 5), with each roughly measuring 1 acre. Farmers' plots for treatments were different, as it was practically infeasible to plant wheat at five different times on single farmer's plot. Where possible, sub-plots (for LDVs and SDVs) were on the same field adhering to standard split-plot design [11]. Treatment details are as follows:T1 (sowing during 1-10 November)-only LDVs T2 (sowing during 11-20 November)-mostly LDVs T3 (sowing during 21-30 November)-LDVs and SDVs in sub-plots T4 (sowing during 1-15 December)-LDVs and SDVs in sub-plots","tokenCount":"1482"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3574842118.json b/data/part_1/3574842118.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..720735194eb6114f3efe0733c18958a58253fe4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/3574842118.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0062f9675369b3fa722eaa9f3a87b413","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3edea7f6-4239-4076-8e09-00b77cedf864/retrieve","id":"-292764107"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e3b516c0-16f4-4420-a023-b5c6226de9ed","pagecount":"5","content":"To model the underlying structure of the climate-socio-economic-conflict relationships, we use a regularized partial correlation networks (Epskamp & Fried, 2018), as part of the more general class of pairwise Markov random fields models (Koller & Friedman, 2009). It is a statistical modelling technique used to analyze the relationships between variables in a complex system that can be represented as an undirected network with nodes and edges. A network is a graphical representation of the relationships (edges) between different entities (nodes).The variables, represented by the nodes, are categorized as (a) climate variables, (b) conflict variables, and (c) socio-economic risk variables which are further sub-categorized as follows: inequality, low productivity, migration, resources scarcity and undernutrition. The edges between nodes, representing the partial correlation coefficients encode the remaining linear dependency between two variables after controlling for the effect of the rest of the variables in the network (conditional independence associations). The width of an edge reflects the strength of the corresponding partial correlation. The size of a node reflects the sum of the widths of all edges that are linked to that node, and reflects the importance of that node through its level of degree of connectivity, also termed as its weighted degree.To estimate the partial correlations, we first compute the direct correlations between all pairs of variables as a basis. After controlling for multicollinearity among the variables, the correlation coefficients were calculated from Spearman's rank correlations for continuous variables. Polychoric correlations were used for categorical variables, polyserial and biserial correlations used between variables of different types. The resulting correlation matrix is then used to estimate the inverse covariance matrix of which elements represent the partial correlations.  ","tokenCount":"274"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3608397911.json b/data/part_1/3608397911.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..ec46020a2fe672121c0f78fd139442ed87e482d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/3608397911.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ad3c624937b07aa08bc503d0089f5903","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/69e39f2c-27c2-407b-988c-b5c43d799f41/retrieve","id":"-976055866"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c8314e6b-8eed-475d-b86b-b5206eac9c8e","pagecount":"1","content":"• To provide alternative quality feed resources to reduce the heavy reliance on crop residues (traditional feed resources) • To increase productivity of livestock through better feeding so as to ensure household nutritional security especially women and children • To provide alternative income generation options to the crop-livestock farmers through direct fodder sales, livestock and livestock products marketingIn the mixed crop-livestock farming systems, crop residues have multiple competing uses, including animal feed, soil mulch, fuel, and construction. Due to ever shrinking grazing land, farmers have increasingly relied on crop residues for livestock feeding. This has an important negative implication on the sustainability of the system. Scaling improved forage technologies and feeding practices have the potential not only to provide alternative quality feed resources for the livestock but also to create market opportunities and provide nutritional security for small holders.• In Ethiopia, 288 direct and 1933 indirect beneficiaries participated in forage development on a total of about 37.5 hectares of land in 2016. The numbers are expected to be higher in 2017 crop season. • In Tanzania, a menu of forage options drawn from Africa RISING project is used for developing scenarios of feeding management decisions through a stakeholder-driven process • In collaboration with QAAFI, modelling approaches to elaborate the outcomes and trade-offs of different feed allocation and livestock management strategies have been developed• Engagement with local research and development partners• Diagnostic studies using quantitative surveys and community engagements • On-farm validation of promising forage varieties and feeding practices with interested and strategically selected farmers at ILRI-SIMLESA target sites and pre scaling to a wider context ","tokenCount":"265"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3645263377.json b/data/part_1/3645263377.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..017b369e21c8a0c46d12aca4bec8ce6bdfece60e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/3645263377.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e6ab788e904c556322d26a9cde878682","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45eb7bc9-d750-4475-bacd-cd9cc9f40ca9/retrieve","id":"8724534"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5d3914d0-9fb3-4df7-a3c5-2318febf3c69","pagecount":"22","content":"oodborne disease-that is, disease caused by consuming foods contaminated with biological or chemical hazards-is an important and often underrecognized public health concern in low-and middle-income countries around the world, including Kenya. While comprehensive national statistics on the foodborne disease burden are not available, the best available evidence from the region indicates that diseases transmitted via contaminated food have a greater impact on public health in Africa than either tuberculosis or diabetes (Havelaar et al. 2015;GBDCN 2016). Beyond its contribution to illness and death, foodborne disease also plays a role in child stunting, which remains a persistent problem in Kenya, affecting 16 percent of children (KNBS  and ICF 2023). One study based on 20 years of data from 5 countries attributed 25 percent of stunting to repeated diarrheal episodes (Checkley et al. 2008), many of which can be traced to microbial contamination of food.Kenya's food system is in the midst of various transitions, which imply both new challenges and opportunities to ensure the safety of the food supply. First, we are seeing a shift away from the dominance of starchy staples in diets, and toward more fruits, vegetables, animal-source foods, and ready-to-eat foods. Second, the scale at which food is produced, processed, and distributed is increasing, and the distances over which it is transported to rapidly urbanizing population centers are growing. As observed by Jaffee and colleagues (2018), both of these trends increase the probability that food is contaminated with microbial hazards. Further, the intensification of food production may lead to increased use of potentially hazardous chemicals such as pesticides and antibiotics. On the other hand, the growing importance of larger-scale food production and processing firms could enable better food safety monitoring and regulatory enforcement in some food value chains.Microbiological hazards, which include diarrheal and other disease agents as well as parasitic organisms, are by far the most important type of food safety hazard in terms of health impact, both at the global level and within Africa (Havelaar et al. 2015;GBD 2016). Perishable foods, including animal-source foods and fresh fruits and vegetables, are most prone to microbiological contamination.Since most microorganisms are inactivated by heat treatment, contamination of perishable foods consumed raw (for example, fruits and salads) constitutes the greatest risk to health. However, even cooked foods may not be heated to a sufficient temperature, or for a sufficient time, to render all pathogens harmless. Also, certain microorganisms, such as Staphylococcus aureus, produce toxins that resist heat treatment. Moreover, microbes present on these foods may be transferred to previously cooked foods, or to those eaten raw, during handling (Knechtges 2011).Many organisms carried in the feces of livestock (for example, Salmonella spp, Campylobacter spp, and shiga toxin producing E. coli), are important foodborne pathogens. These pathogens may lead to on-farm contamination of animal products-milk and meat-as well as crops via contaminated irrigation water or manure applied as fertilizer, if this is not well composted (Jiang, Chen, and Dharmasena 2015). We next turn to the evidence regarding microbial contamination in vegetable, meat, and milk value chains.Water used to irrigate vegetables on small-scale commercial farms near Nairobi and Machakos has been shown to exceed allowable standards for microbial contamination by several orders of magnitude (Kitulu et al. 2020;Kutto et al. 2011). Despite the illegality of using wastewater for irrigation in Kenya, this practice is common in and near urban centers as a result of water scarcity (Kaluli et al. 2011). Water used to wash vegetables in informal wet markets around Nairobi has been found to be similarly contaminated with high levels of bacteria, including Salmonella (Kutto et al. 2011). Many roadside vendors offer shredded kale and cabbage; cutting the vegetables in this way provides bacteria with additional surfaces on which to grow.Personal hygiene of food handlers is an important determinant of microbiological food safety throughout the value chain for any food product, in particular perishables such as fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods. While Kenyan Standard 1758-II (Sections 13.1.6A,13.12.5A,and 13.13.3) requires that all food business operators, from farm to retail, have a clean on-site toilet and handwashing facilities, a study of the tomato value chain in Laikipia found that in practice these were often absent (Gatere et al. 2020).The safety of animal-source foods likewise begins on the farm. A study of smallscale poultry producers (defined as those with a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 800 birds) in Dagoretti and Kibera detected the pathogen Campylobacter in 33-44 percent of indigenous and broiler chicken farms in these two communities. This pathogen is one of the most frequently isolated from children suffering from diarrhea in Kenya (Carron et al. 2018). Unrestricted access to the flock (allowed at 88 percent of these farms) was associated with a higher likelihood of Campylobacter detection, while disinfection of enclosures (practiced by only 15 percent of farmers) reduced this risk.Slaughter of animals is a particularly high-risk node for pathogen contamination of meat, primarily because of contact of meat with pathogens present in the digestive tract and feces of animals. Poor hygiene of personnel and the environment in abattoirs also facilitates the spread of pathogens between carcasses, amplifying the problem (Wambui et al. 2017). Data collected in 2012 by CGIAR researchers revealed that only 60 percent of slaughter facilities in western Kenya had a toilet, and 20 percent had handwashing facilities (Cook et al. 2017).Food hygiene and temperature control practices are critical to meat safety beyond the slaughterhouse. Practices associated with Campylobacter contamination at small-scale chicken retailers in Nairobi included display of meat on a difficult-to-clean surface such as wood or cardboard, and selling defrosted meat (Carron et al. 2018).Smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya often have low levels of knowledge about hygiene and biosecurity (Nyokabi et al. 2021a). Common practices among these producers, including unrestricted access to livestock, insufficient cleaning of enclosures, and unsanitary handling practices, lead to high levels of microbial contamination in milk (Nyokabi et al. 2021b).A recent paper showed that, of all the foods consumed by infants in lowincome neighborhoods of Kisumu, milk was the most likely to contain a pathogen (Tsai et al. 2019). This finding confirms analysis of nationally representative household data showing that children under 24 months who had consumed milk or fresh fruit were more likely to have suffered an episode of diarrhea within the previous two weeks, compared with those who had been exclusively breastfed (Hoffmann and Baral 2019). As these foods have high nutritional value for young children, it is critical that they are also safe, so that their benefits for child health can be fully harnessed and potential harms are minimized.A study of infant food safety conducted among households in low-income neighborhoods of Kisumu found that over 90 percent of caregivers used ultrahigh temperature (UHT) treated milk to feed their infants (Hoffmann et al. 2022). As contamination of UHT milk was low at point of purchase, most microbial contamination observed in infant food was introduced via household handling. However, contamination present at purchase also contributed to infants' exposure to diarrheal pathogens. This was especially true for milk that had been purchased raw, in which the rate of contamination with pathogens was high: 14 of 34 raw milk samples analyzed contained the pathogen Salmonella enterica, and 20 of 34 tested positive for Shigella sonnei. The same bacterial species present in a typical sample of raw milk at purchase were detected in 33 percent of infant food samples prepared with that milk, indicating that milk heating practices were not sufficient to eliminate microbiological risk.While formally packaged milk was far less likely to contain pathogens-2.2 percent of UHT pasteurized milk samples and 4.8 percent of conventionally pasteurized samples contained either S. enterica or S. sonnei-the probability of detecting the same organism in both these milk types at purchase and in the linked infant food sample was far higher (65 percent for UHT milk). This suggests that caregiver handling practices may differ by milk type, and raises the concern that, as food systems modernize, consumer expectations regarding the safety of food may shift, leading them to rely more on pre-market controls.Heavy metals, which can increase cancer risk and lead to lifelong cognitive impairment, are the most important class of chemical foodborne hazards, in terms of disability-adjusted life years lost (Havelaar et al. 2015;Gibb et al. 2019). Heavy metals may enter the environment through industrial effluent, disposal of household waste, disintegration of lead-based paint, and current or previous use of pesticides or fertilizer containing heavy metals in growing sites (ATSDR 2012;NASEM 2017). They then enter crops through irrigation water and agricultural soils (Makokha et al. 2008;Inoti et al. 2012). While regulations exist in Kenya limiting the use of lead (for example, in paint), there are concerns with compliance and enforcement (WHO 2018). A 2017 study found that 71 percent of paints sold in Kenya exceeded this standard, with 50 percent over 7 times above the limit, and 1 almost 18,000 times over the limit (CEJAD and IPEN 2017).While systematic data are lacking, the available evidence suggests that heavy metal contamination of vegetables in Kenya could be significant. For example, a CGIAR study of contamination in tomatoes grown in Laikipia county, in an area not known for high levels of pollution, found that 52 percent of samples exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) standard for lead, and 24 percent exceeded that for cadmium (Gatere et al. 2020). This is notable as the rate of uptake of heavy metals into tomato fruit is relatively low, and the sites from which samples were taken were not known to be high in risk. Other studies that have sampled crops from areas known to be heavily polluted have found average levels of heavy metals up to 125 times over the WHO standard (Makokha et al. 2008;Karanja et al. 2010;Gallaher et al. 2013).Kenya is a global hotspot for aflatoxin, a fungal toxin (mycotoxin) that is highly carcinogenic and associated with child stunting (Liu et al. 2012;Ismail et al. 2021). Aflatoxin contamination arises in crops, especially maize and groundnuts, as a result of the presence of molds that occur naturally in soils, and is exacerbated by poor postharvest practices.Fatal outbreaks of aflatoxin poisoning resulting from consumption of highly contaminated maize caused an average of nine deaths per year in Kenya during the period from 1981 to 2014, and over twice this rate from 2001 to 2014 (Hoffmann and Jones 2021, Table D1). In recent years, government food safety surveillance efforts, media attention, and international funding for both food safety research and capacity building in Kenya have been focused on this hazard (Mutua, Grace, and Watts 2021). While aflatoxin represents a relatively minor portion of the total regional food safety burden as quantified by WHO (Havelaar et al. 2015),1 much of the research on firm and consumer responses to food safety risk in Kenya relates to aflatoxin.Heavy reliance on maize, combined with low dietary diversity among low-income segments of the population, implies high levels of aflatoxin exposure among Kenyans (Leroy, Wang, and Jones 2015;Mutegi, Cotty, and Bandyopadhyay 2018). Indeed, a comparison of blood aflatoxin levels across six African countries showed that levels in Kenya during an outbreak year were an order of magnitude higher than those observed in any other country (Xu, Gong, and Routledge 2018). As the potential harms resulting from aflatoxin, in particular its suspected effect on children's development, are not fully understood, a cautious approach to control of this hazard is warranted.However, if we consider only the health consequences of aflatoxin exposure for which the scientific case is clear (that is, deaths as a result of cancer and acute aflatoxin poisoning), the impact of this contaminant is dwarfed by those of other, primarily biological, foodborne hazards. CGIAR researchers estimated, based on observed aflatoxin levels in food during a typical year, that the resulting level of exposure would lead to 67 liver cancer deaths annually in eastern Kenya, the region with the highest aflatoxin levels in crops and also the highest human exposure based on blood analysis (Hoffmann and Jones 2021).2 Scaling the cancer risk resulting from aflatoxin exposure using regionally representative data from the analysis of blood samples (Yard et al. 2013), and combining this with reported cases of fatal aflatoxin poisoning, the total number of deaths owing to this toxin nationally can be estimated at 155 per year, 146 from cancer and 9 from aflatoxicosis. To put this in context, the estimated number of child deaths as a result of foodborne diarrheal disease in Kenya is 8.5 times greater, at approximately 1,328 annually (Hoffmann and Baral 2020), than the number of deaths due to aflatoxin.Most of the available data on pesticide contamination are based on crops destined for export and thus of limited use for estimating risk in the domestic food supply. One study found that none of 61 samples of tomatoes grown in Laikipia in 2019 for the local market were found by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service to contain pesticides above levels allowed under EU law (Gatere et al. 2020). Negative health effects of pesticide exposure have, however, been documented among Kenyan vegetable farm workers (Macharia 2015).Kenya faces some of the same challenges to the effective control of food safety risks as governments all over the world, including regulatory fragmentation across line ministries and levels of government, and limited public resources. In addition, inappropriate regulatory standards and a large informal food sector are challenges that are common to Kenya and other low-and middleincome countries.Food safety governance in Kenya is highly fragmented, across levels of government (national versus county), commodities (horticulture, dairy, meat, fish, grains), and locations (environment, farm, factory, retail). Food safety policies and laws are generally enacted at the national level with participation of county governments but responsibility for enforcing laws and standards often falls to counties.Harmonization of food safety governance across these levels of government is achieved through alignment of county policies and laws with those adopted at the national level. For example, following the Kenya National Nutrition Action Plan, the Murang'a County Nutrition Action Plan includes several food safetyspecific actions (Murang'a, Department of Health Services 2020). However, during the years covered by the Murang'a Plan (2020/21-2024/25), none of these activities were allocated any budget. Budget constraints have generally been the bottleneck in implementing county functions across sectors, as services are devolved but the funds transferred by the national government are insufficient to implement them. Analysis conducted by CGIAR researchers based on budget tracking for Murang'a, Laikipia, Nakuru, Nyandarua, and Nairobi counties found that public spending on food safety at both the national and the county level was low compared with the estimated cost of foodborne illness (Hoffmann and Baral 2019;Guthiga, Kirui, and Karugia 2020).Beyond the challenges of implementing policies in a devolved governance structure, multiple line ministries and other public agencies share responsibility for food safety. Taking as an example the value chain for maize flour, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Cooperatives has jurisdiction over practices applied on farm, while the crop is grown and stored prior to sale. The Agriculture and Food Authority manages the system, allowing traceability from the miller back to the farm. The Kenya Bureau of Standards is responsible for the inspection and registration of the maize flour brand. And finally, the Ministry of Health monitors safety of this product once it is available for purchase. While the National Food Safety Coordinating Committee constitutes an important channel for communication across these bodies, the demarcation of specific responsibilities is often unclear, leading to overlap of mandates and wastage of resources. It is not uncommon to find several different agencies inspecting the same factory at different times.This patchwork of jurisdictions is not unique to Kenya. The multisectoral nature of this issue means that many countries have food safety responsibilities spread across disparate government agencies, a fact that has often been criticized as leading to inefficiencies and system failures (Heinzerling 2015). Other member states of the East African Community have created food and drug authorities but these have not always reduced overlaps and wastage as hoped, as the mandates of existing agencies involved in food safety have never been adjusted (Kang'ethe et al. 2021). Tanzania is a case in point: the functions of the Tanzanian Food and Drug Authority overlapped with those of the Tanzanian Bureau of Standards, leading to the former's disbandment and the redistribution of functions after several years. Kenya should take this as a cautionary tale when implementing any institutional solution to integrate food safety activities across agencies.Like many low-and middle-income countries, Kenya has to a large extent adopted food safety standards developed by high-income countries and adopted by international bodies (Sirma et al. 2018). While harmonization with such standards is critical for gaining access to export markets, compliance may be infeasible in the context of inadequate water, sanitation, and cold chain infrastructure.Significant rates of noncompliance with standards are observed in the formal and informal sectors alike, including in leafy greens (Kutto et al. 2011), milk (Wanjala et al. 2017), and maize flour (Hoffmann and Moser 2017;Hoffmann, Moser, and Herrman 2021). The development of locally appropriate standards, in line with Kenya's food safety priorities and current hazard prevalence, combined with investment in the food safety capacity of food business operators and the creation of incentives for compliance, may offer a way to progressively register and formalize informal businesses (Blackmore, Alonso, and Grace 2015).Heavy-handed enforcement of standards should be avoided as this can lead to tragic unintended consequences. For example, forcible relocation of butchers to an upgraded but inconveniently located market led to riots and deaths in Nigeria (Grace, Dipeolu, and Alonso 2019). CGIAR authors have also noted that destruction of foodstuffs that exceed Kenya's aflatoxin standards would have a devastating impact on food security, far worse than the public health benefit to be gained by such enforcement (Sirma et al. 2018).Although informal markets are critical to the supply of animal-source foods and fruits and vegetables in Kenya, this sector is not adequately addressed in current food safety policies or practice (Kang'ethe et al. 2021). This means that much of the Kenyan food supply is outside the reach of public systems and private incentive structures that could be used to improve its safety. Unless effort is directed to addressing the food safety challenges of informal food markets that supply most animal-source foods, fruits, and vegetables to the majority of Kenyans, the foodborne disease burden will remain high.Even in value chains where part of the food chain is formalized, typically from the point of processing, primary production is often still informal. This implies challenges to implementing the recommended farm-to-fork management approach of food safety. For example, the government regulates large-scale maize processors. Some of these pay a significant premium for maize that meets food safety and other quality standards in order to ensure their compliance with food safety regulations (Hoffmann and Moser 2017). However, as traders typically do not have traceability systems in place, and procure grain from a large number of small-scale farmers, this premium does not flow back to farmers, whose actions are critical to aflatoxin control. The logistical complexity and cost of testing farmers' grain prior to purchase, as well as the option to sell maize found to be noncompliant on the informal bulk grain market, means traders have little incentive to impose quality requirements on farmers.The coexistence of formal and informal food systems also poses regulatory challenges when the two operate in parallel. While more comprehensive surveillance and stringent application of standards in maize is likely to improve compliance within the formal sector, this would imply that a greater share of maize sold as whole grain, or processed by small-scale, informal hammer mills known locally as posho mills, would previously have been rejected by formal millers. Formally processed maize flour is already significantly less contaminated on average than the lower-cost flour processed by posho mills, which is primarily consumed by lower-income Kenyans (Kariuki and Hoffmann 2021). Stricter enforcement in the formal sector would be expected to widen this inequitable food safety gap. A more effective approach in this particular case would be to inform consumers of the relative safety of formally marketed grain.3To address the more general challenge of improving food safety in the informal market, we propose a progressive regulatory approach that combines training food business operators on practices to improve food safety, offering voluntary certification based on observed food safety practices and/or outcomes, and building consumer awareness of and demand for food safety. Such an approach meets vendors where they are and encourages incremental improvements in practices rather than expecting immediate compliance with standards that are often infeasible in the context of limited access to water and cold chain infrastructure. Thailand's Clean Food Good Taste project, jointly implemented by Thailand's Department of Health, the Tourism Authority, and local governments through the Ministry of the Interior since 1989, is a successful example of a voluntary public food safety certification program (Kongchuntuk 2002).Kenya's food inspectorate service lacks the budget and capacity to fully address the country's food safety problems. In addition to increasing the public resources available for this purpose, the capacity of private firms to monitor their own food safety outcomes could be leveraged. Since the early 1990s, food safety regulation in high-income countries has moved away from relying on command-and-control policies toward increased involvement of regulated firms in determining how they will meet standards (Henson and Caswell 1999;Rouvière and Caswell 2012). This approach, variously referred to as \"coregulation\" or \"enforced self-regulation, \" shifts responsibility for routine monitoring of food safety practices and outcomes to food businesses. An important distinction between coregulation and industry self-regulation is that the regulator provides oversight (for example, through duplicate testing of samples), and retains the right to sanction firms for noncompliance. The organization Aflatoxin Proficiency Testing and Control in Africa has worked with Kenyan maize milling firms and the Meru county government to promote a coregulatory approach to aflatoxin management.4This section outlines recommendations for specific public actions to improve the safety of foods in Kenya's markets and reduce the foodborne disease burden. We discuss these in sequence from production to consumption, beginning with the control of environmental contaminants that may become foodborne.Regulations that limit the use of lead and other harmful heavy metals in industrial and household products should be enforced, as these contaminants make their way into food supplies via contaminated irrigation water and soil. While the existing code of practice for production of fruits and vegetables, KS 1758-II, specifies that irrigation water should be tested annually, few farmers follow this guideline in practice (Gatere et al. 2020). Making information available on the microbiological and heavy metal contamination of water bodies, and on recommended mitigation strategies, would enable farmers to manage the risks these hazards pose. For example, crops with lower uptake of heavy metals could be grown in polluted areas, and preharvest watering intervals could be observed to reduce microbial contamination risk.Research by CGIAR and others shows that, across a wide range of contexts, both food safety practices and hazard prevalence can be significantly improved by building the capacity of farmers and food handlers through the provision of training and tools.In eastern Kenyan communities, where training and postharvest technologies including drying sheets, a mobile drying service, and hermetic storage bags were made available and partially subsidized, aflatoxin levels reduced by half (Pretari, Hoffmann, and Tian 2019).5 In Ghana, training on postharvest handling recommendations for aflatoxin control led to significant improvements in farmers' practices. Effects were stronger when tools to implement recommended practices were also provided (Magnan et al. 2021). Farmers' food safety capacity can be built by including this topic within agricultural extension programs and rural development projects that aim to boost smallholder productivity and incomes. An example of this approach is the East African Dairy Development Project, which includes training on milking hygiene and its benefits.6Improving firms' capacity for food safety testing can have impacts even among formal sector firms (Herrman et al. 2020). This can have significant effects on population health if the market share of these firms is large, as it is for large-scale maize processors in Kenya.Building the capacity of small-scale, often informal, retailers is relatively costly per unit of food affected, but reaching these vendors is critical, as most Kenyan consumers rely on such firms for fresh produce, meat, and milk-the riskiest foods in terms of microbial contamination. CGIAR has pioneered the \"three-legged stool\" approach to improving food safety in informal markets, which relies on three pillars that underlie food safety interventions: capacity building of business operators, incentives to support behavior change, and promotion of an enabling policy environment (Alonso Alvarez, Grace, and Nguyen-Viet 2021). Several intervention studies based on this model have shown that significant improvements in food safety practices and outcomes can be achieved by providing food vendors with training and simple materials 5 Many of the studies conducted in Kenya have focused on aflatoxin control, as detection of this contaminant is relatively easy and low in cost. High levels of public concern and regulatory attention to this hazard create the conditions for strong behavioral responses to information and the promotion of control technologies. This allows researchers to detect impacts of interventions on the responses of consumers and food business operators relatively easily. However, it is important to bear in mind that responses to similar interventions addressing other food safety hazards may vary. 6 www.heifer.org/our-work/flagship-projects/east-africa-dairy-development-project.html or equipment, such as easy-to-clean cutting boards (Lindahl et al. 2018;Chea et al. 2021).Two caveats are in order regarding the importance of capacity building. First, in the absence of access to appropriate infrastructure and equipment, training alone may be insufficient to change practices or improve food safety. This was the case for Kenyan abattoir workers, who failed to adopt the hygienic practices on which they were trained (Mwai 2011). Access to sufficient water and the means to heat it, as well as supplies such as disinfectants and soap, remained barriers. The fact that most workers were paid on a piece rate basis implied an incentive to work fast but not necessarily carefully (Mwai 2011). Second, as the effect of capacity building on food safety knowledge, practices, and outcomes can fade over time, repeated engagement with businesses is important to sustaining the impact of such interventions (Kinyua et al. 2021).Incentives for food business operators and food handlers to invest in food safety are critical. Potential motivators for the adoption of better food safety practices include reduced risk of spoilage, higher prices or sales volumes, and avoidance of regulatory enforcement action or a negative consumer response should a food safety problem become known.A study conducted in Meru and Tharaka-Nithi counties showed that maize growers producing solely for home consumption used better postharvest practices than did farmers who sold a portion of their maize. Providing incentive payments to farmers for maize that met aflatoxin standards narrowed this gap (Hoffmann and Jones 2021). A separate trial in the same region found that most farmers who had purchased the aflatoxin control product Aflasafe had done so to ensure the safety of their own food supply. Introducing a small market incentive for safe grain more than doubled the amount of the product purchased (Hoffmann et al. 2022).While this evidence points to the potential for market incentives to improve practices, the fragmented nature of Kenyan value chains can make this difficult. Examples of value chains in which requirements for farm-to-fork food safety practices have been successfully implemented include the horticultural export sector and a handful of fruit and vegetable distributors supplying premium markets.7There may be opportunities to incentivize better hygiene practices in milk value chains through quality-based payment systems. Lower microbial load is an important quality criterion used by cooling plants and dairy processors as it both reduces spoilage and allows for value addition and processing into dairy products, while also implying better food safety. Premium payments based on quality parameters including hygiene have therefore been adopted by milk processors in Indonesia, Brazil, and India, and piloted in Kenya (Ndambi, Dido, and Gülzari 2020;Treurniet 2021). Even outside of formalized quality payment systems, qualitative research shows that milk vendors perceive economic benefits to employing hygienic practices, through lower spoilage, the ability to charge higher prices, and customer retention (Alonso et al. 2018).Other incentives for participation in trainings and uptake of improved practices could include facilitation of a license to operate legally, improved business skills, and earning esteem within peer networks (Blackmore, Alonso, and Grace 2015).Invest in water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructure Public provision of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure and promotion of good hand and food hygiene practices at points through which large volumes of food pass could potentially be a cost-effective way to improve food safety. Such high-volume nodes include abattoirs, designated markets, and other areas where vendors congregate. Handwashing stations deployed to markets as part of the COVID-19 response are likely to reduce transmission of other infectious agents including foodborne diseases and should continue to be maintained.While provision of modern infrastructure alone is not sufficient to address food safety challenges in informal markets (Grace, Dipeolu, and Alonso 2018), without access to adequate infrastructure even well-trained and motivated business operators will struggle to maintain appropriate food and hand hygiene. As informal businesses often have limited access to appropriate equipment, such as regulation-compliant food containers, cutting boards, or fridges, facilitating access to credit, especially among women, and making basic equipment available can allow food business operators to overcome financial constraints to food safety upgrading.Pairing training and certification programs with interventions to build consumer demand for safer food could increase their effectiveness by strengthening market incentives. A recent experimental study found that communicating both risks and recommendations for less risky products had an impact on consumer food choices (Kariuki and Hoffmann 2021). Through this study, conducted in Meru town, some consumers were told which maize flour brands were most likely to comply with Kenya's aflatoxin regulation; others were given this information plus test results for the maize flour they were currently consuming. Nine weeks later, those given test results were more likely to be consuming one of the safer brands, whereas those given only the safer brands recommendation had not significantly changed their maize choices. The results were driven, unsurprisingly, by those whose maize had tested above the regulatory aflatoxin limit, indicating that change is much more likely for those made aware of a problem. While household-level testing for food safety hazards is not feasible, systematic surveillance of high-risk foods and provision of relative risk information by certification status, vendor, or product type could be used to steer consumers toward safer choices.As infants and young children face the greatest health risk from foodborne infectious disease, improving household handling of foods consumed by this group is critical. Despite the higher levels of contamination found in food relative to water (Lanata 2003;Kung'u et al. 2009), food safety has been a relatively neglected aspect of infant and young child health and feeding programming globally. High-quality evidence shows that training caregivers of young children on safe food handling practices can improve practices and reduce microbial contamination (Islam et al. 2013;Touré et al. 2013;Gautam et al. 2017).A study involving over 4,000 infants living in informal settlements within Nairobi found that only 2 percent were exclusively breastfed up to six months, and the mean age at which complementary foods were introduced was one month (Kimani-Murage 2011). Information on safe handling of infant food should thus be provided as part of standard postnatal care and support, while promotion of the WHO recommendation of exclusive breastfeeding up to six months should be continued.Conduct monitoring of water sources used for irrigation, and remediate problems. Compliance with the requirement for testing of irrigation water under the horticultural code of practice for fruits and vegetables is low. Public testing of commonly used water bodies could be used to identify where agricultural practices should be adapted to mitigate risks and inform efforts to address pollution sources.Provide WASH infrastructure at markets and abattoirs. Informal food markets and processing facilities often lack adequate infrastructure for WASH. Access to safe water, toilets, and handwashing facilities is a prerequisite for food handlers to maintain appropriate hand and food hygiene, and public provision of these necessities is likely to be a cost-effective way to reduce foodborne disease.Build capacity and incentivize food safety among small-scale, informal businesses. Small-scale businesses, from farm to fork, are critical to Kenya's food supply but often lack the capacity to adhere to food safety standards. Improving the capacity of food business operators, especially in the area of hand and food hygiene, and creating mechanisms to incentivize improvements in food safety can lead to meaningful gains in public health. In this context, rewarding improved food safety performance is likely to be more effective than enforcing compliance with standards that may not be attainable.Implement regular and comprehensive surveillance of high-risk foods. Surveillance of high-risk foods should include collection and analysis of a representative set of samples, including from small-scale, informal businesses. Information on the relative hazard rates observed across food and business types could be used to steer consumers toward safer choices.Leverage private sector capacity for self-monitoring under a coregulatory approach. Regular and representative food safety inspections require significant resources. Putting responsibility for routine monitoring of food safety compliance in the hands of businesses, with oversight provided by the regulator, can stretch budgets further and increase the efficiency of food safety surveillance.Include food safety in infant and young child feeding recommendations for caregivers. Information on child health and nutrition given to caregivers of infants and young children through perinatal and child health clinics and via community health volunteers should including recommendations on food hygiene and heat treatment, while continuing to promote exclusive breastfeeding up to six months of age.","tokenCount":"5589"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6d5ef6f69a04506b3dccb0d15b3f6e02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e8d93a93-8990-4169-916d-6c888ed3fbc1/retrieve","id":"-2118878502"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9fa862df-2e00-41d0-aac1-2719cd2dd96b","pagecount":"150","content":"I declare that this thesis is my own work and that all sources of materials used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillments of the requirements for an M.Sc degree at the Haramaya University and is deposited at University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. I solemnly declare that this thesis is not submitted to any other institution for the award of any academic degree, diploma, or certificate.Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extendedEthiopian agriculture is characterized by traditional and subsistence peasant farming whose access to modern technology and basic education is very limited. It is also noted that low investment in developing agriculture labor force are one of the problems that hinder the transformation of the sector. Agricultural change and development require the mobilization and development of human resource through such means as education and technical training. Realizing the importance of educating and training the rural community the government has formulated rural development policies and strategies. The cornerstone of the government's strategy is the establishment of FTCs in about 18, 000 kebeles and the recruitment, training and deployment of number of front line extension agents who teach farmers at FTCs. Starting 2004upto 2008, 59, 348 extension agents have been graduated and 8500 FTCs have been constructed. However, the status of FTCs and the constraints that hamper them in implementing their mandatory roles are not systematically assessed through empirical studies to take proper action. The objectives of the study were to assess the present status of FTCs, to identify opportunities and constraints of FTCs and to know the opinion of farmers towards the mandatory roles of FTCs in Ada'a woreda, East shewa zone, Oromia region. For this study 160 house hold heads from 16 FTCs were selected through simple random sampling technique and personal and group interviews. Fourty (40 )extension agents from 16 FTCs were also included as source of information for the study. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The method of data collection employed includes interview schedule, self-administered questionnaire, focus group discussions and personal observation. The data were analyzed by using simple descriptive statistics such as percentage, frequency, mean, standard deviation, rank correlation and z-test. Qualitative data were analyzed through interpretation and conceptual generalization. Moreover SWOT analysis was done to summarize the results of the research objectives. The findings revealed that the organizational and operational status of FTCs was poor. The woreda has ample opportunities and potential for the advancement of FTCs.The major constraints identified by the respondents were low community participation, high dropout rate, non-extension work load, lack of budget, lack of training materials and high expectations of benefit in the side of farmers. Therefore, the woreda should take into consideration the socio-cultural, institutional, economic, and  Ethiopia is one of the oldest nations; agriculture has been practiced here for some 11,000 years (FAO,2008). Ethiopia is endowed with natural resources, especially in agriculture, which sustained its inhabitants for thousands of years without receiving any technological support from outside (Habtemariam, 1997).Ethiopia has some 10 million small holder family farms that produce over 95% of agricultural output. Agriculture provides employment to 80% of the economically active population. On average the sector contributes nearly 50% of GDP. Within agriculture, about 64% of value added comes from crops, 23% from livestock and 13% from forestry. Agriculture constitutes mainly cereals (83%) pulses (12%) and oil seeds (5%).Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa. Crop and livestock management is dominated by traditional systems. Approximately, 37% of farmers are estimated to use inorganic fertilizer. Improved seeds (mainly wheat and maize) are used by approximately 13% of farmers. Cereal yields at around 1151kg on an average are reasonable but productivity per labor unit is very low. Poverty and hunger in Ethiopia are pervasive. Some 45% of the rural population is classified as poor. Nearly two-third of adult are illiterate, of which 68% of them are women. Women continue to suffer periodically from the disastrous consequences in almost all aspects of life. The spread of HIV/AIDS is counteracting gains in human development and has the potential for serious social dislocation especially in rural areas (World Bank, 2003as cited in Vince, 2005).In the history of Ethiopian agriculture, it is only recently that development interventionsbegan to penetrate into rural areas with the aim of improving the life of the people.Especially, after the second half of this century, various extension intervention programs have begun either in the form of fully fledged programs or as pilot projects.Unfortunately, the impacts of all of these development interventions were not given much significance in terms of improving the life of the rural population in general and the mode of farming and productivity in particular (Habtemariam, 1997).Ethiopian agriculture is characterized by traditional and subsistence peasants farming sub-sector whose access to modern technology and to that of basic education is very limited. It is also noted that low investment in developing agriculture labor force is one of the problems that hindered the transformation of the sector. Despite these desirable characteristics, however, the sub-sector generates the bulk of the total agricultural output of the country (MoA, 2000). The most important characteristics of the good multipurpose trainers are those of maturity and ability to inspire confidence (Assefa, 1991).There is no blue print as to how best to develop functional FTCs that are able to make a difference to productivity, profitability and sustainability in smallholder agriculture.Then, periodic systematic assessment and learning to make continuous improvement will be needed for human resource development for agricultural commercialization and rural transformation, particularly to enhance the knowledge, skills and attitude of producers through FTCs.Hence, to create relevant, responsive, practical and impact-oriented FTCs, any agricultural development activities that the government has to launch must be greatly considered from the farmers' point of view in terms of extension services and training activities (Terrefe, 1992).Even if, the history of agricultural extension in Ethiopia reviewed was limited to the last century, Ethiopia enjoys a rich experience of a large number and variety of agricultural and rural extension approaches tried by government agencies and civil society bodies during the last several decades. Some of them exhibited more visible positive impact than others, but all of them brought to attention some serious weaknesses and problems during the course of their implementation. These strengths and weaknesses of various approaches need to be kept in view while chalking out any extension strategy for the country (FAO, 2008).Agricultural sector must assume greater importance. People involved in agriculture need improved skills, information, and ideas in order to develop an agriculture that will meet complex demand patterns, reduce poverty, and preserve or enhance ecological resources. Extension has an important role to play.As the rural development policy and strategy document, one of the major ways of implementing modern farming methods through extensive utilization of human labor is by motivating the human labor in agriculture through agricultural education and training. Though there has been an increasing wide coverage of primary education in the rural areas still farmers have no access to use modern technologies, which would enable them to bring about the expected rural transformation.Realizing the situation the government designed to assist the agricultural technical vocational and educational training program since 2001/2. The objective of the program is to create and develop human resources and institutional capacity that would have a desirable precedence over medium and long term capacity building strategies of the country. Based on this, the program is aimed to produce middle level skilled competent and motivated agricultural practioners who would in turn be potential teachers and/or development agents at each farmers training center (MoA, 2000, MoARD, 2006). 60 farmers in one in-take. The duration of training also vary depending on the type of module, the maximum time limit would be 6 months. The training would be carried out in non-boarding basis and directed towards specific fields of agriculture. Farmers would be awarded a green certificate upon completion (MoARD, 2005). Under this program the syllabus is structured with over 80 percent practice and 20 percent theory. The syllabus would give more emphasis on practical where trainees would learn by doing rather than classroom learning. With regard to the extension service it is envisaged that all farmers will have access to agricultural extension services during the PASDEP period (MoARD, 2006).According to the proposal (MoA, 2000), the objective of every farmer training centers is to create farmers, who are business oriented, environmentally conscious, can make use of modern technologies and produce quality farm products. In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, the role of farmers training centers would be:• To give specialized training this enables the farmers to get \"Green certificate.\"• To provide agricultural extension services.• To provide computer and tele services.• To provide information on market price standards.• To provide advisory service on entrepreneurship.• To serve as permanent exhibition center.Based on the project proposal of farmers training centers and the PASDEP document, the establishment of FTCs in each peasant association, has been under way since, the last five years throughout the country, aiming at training of farmers in different agricultural disciplines. A large number of extension agents/trainers of farmers have been graduated from ATVET colleges and they were allocated in rural areas. A working guideline and curriculum has been sent to regions for its execution based on their contexts. Until 2000 E.C, more than 7000 FTCs have been constructed and out of these 3644 FTCs have started functioning in the country. In addition 360 FTCs are under construction (MoARD, 2008).Based on Agricultural Extension and TVET Directorate (MoARD, 2008)  Therefore, the present study is an attempt to assess the present status of farmers training centers (FTCs ), their opportunities and constraints including the operational difficulties faced by the farmers and the extension staff in effective functioning and to know trained and untrained farmers opinion towards the mandatory roles of FTCs in Ada'a woreda, East Shewa, Oromia region.As the main stay of the Ethiopian economy is agriculture, currently our government is following ADLI and rural centered development policies and strategies. To enhance agricultural transformation and rural development the strategy calls for human resource development to create modern farmers in rural areas. To realize the implementation the strategy, it was envisaged to establish 18,000 FTCs one in each PAs throughout the country and training of extension agents who teach farmers at FTCs. So far 8500 FTCs have been established throughout the country and some of them have started functioning, although their current status is not known. In spite of the presence of nearly 60,000 extension agents the level of their involvement in the training of farmers in the FTCs is not fully known. The favorable opportunities that are conducive for their implementation and the constraints that hindered the implementation of FTCs were not well assessed. In general in Ethiopia in particular in Oromia the performance of FTCs have not been studied empirically and assessed in depth for taking appropriate action on time.Concerning the drawbacks of FTCs (Kefyalew, 2006) in his report expressed on the need for further study of FTCs as \"at this juncture, thousands of FTCs were constructed and even the time they were supposed to start the intended activity has delayed. Hence, not to repeat the past problem, a nationwide evaluation of past and present training of farmers and its impact should be assessed and the centrally prepared curriculum of FTCs should be revised\".On the other hand, (Osman , 2007)in his report recommended gradual expansion of FTCs, by stating the problem in such away \" even though 1500 FTCs have been established in different woredas of the region (SNNPR) since the past three years, farmers trainings have not been started not only, because of lacking equipment and materials, but also from lack of clear idea on how to proceed the trainings .\"Therefore, in view of the above statements the researcher is motivated to focus his study on the assessment of the status and problems of FTCs that are influencing their training programs and mandatory roles in Ada'a woreda, East Shewa zone, Oromia region.The study will answer the following research questions• what is the present status of FTCs in relation to its structure and functioning ?• what are the opportunities and constraints of FTCs in the study woreda ?• what opinions farmers hold towards the mandatory services provided to them by the FTCs?The general objective of the study is to assess the status of FTCs in relation to its structure and function to see the translation of government FTC strategies, into practice.The specific objectives of the study are:1. to assess the present status of FTCs in the study area , 2. to identify opportunities and constraints in effective functioning of FTCs in the study area, and 3. to know farmers opinion towards the mandatory services provided by FTCs.The finding of this study will provide first hand information to government and non government organizations about the status of FTCs, existing gaps, and their major constraints which prevent them to operate effectively. These findings will be helpful especially for ministry of agriculture and rural development in planning and decision making concerning FTCs in the future. It also serves as a baseline for further study.So far, there is no research work done related to non-residential farmers training centers in the country. It may be difficult to support the work with empirical studies. The study had limitations of coverage of area and population, due to the obvious constraints of time and resource. The study was by no means exhaustive. This study is a piece of effort to identify realities regarding problems and prospects of farmers training centers. It is important to note that the country is diversified in agro-ecological, nation, nationalities, ethnicity, socio-economic, cultural and institutional environment and the study being location specific in nature, its results could not be generalized.The study is confined to one Ada'a woreda only. Moreover, the coverage is limited to 16FTCs and 160 farmers and 40 extension staff respondents. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalized for the entire zone. The results will be solely based on the responses of the extension staff, farmers and observation of studies. However, the recommendations and policy implications of the study can be used for other areas of similar contexts and as a basis for further studies. The research also faced a problem in getting extension agents of some FTCs and in filling questionnaires due to the tendency of expecting payment. Transportation was also another problem which limited the researcher to assess the status and to cover all FTCs on time.This thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter deals with the back ground, statement of the problem, objectives, significant of the study and scope and limitations of the study. Chapter two reviews literature related to the research topic.Methodological issues including description of the study area are presented in chapter three. The fourth chapter presented the results of the study and their interpretation. The final chapter summarizes, concludes and presents policy implication and recommendations.  krishiworld.com, 2008).Training farmers or education for development is one of the numerous activities that need to be carried out by development organizations. Though the significant role played by farmers in providing agricultural products is well understood by the developing countries, the problem of food self sufficiency is still a great challenge to many of them.To resolve such problems, some of the activities carried out by the developing countries are provision of agricultural inputs and training, especially transferring technological information to the farmers (Terrefe, 1992).Extension is an instrument that introduces improved cultural practices and new The strategy further states that, in parallel to the efforts to be made to fully utilize the capacity of the uneducated farmer. We have to work hard to substitute the present farming generation by an educated one. An educated farming generation is the one that will obtain general education and therefore, will be able to read written notes and understand and implement new agricultural technology in a scientific way. This requires accomplishing at least the present elementary school education. However, this is not enough. The farmer should obtain agricultural skill training both for their enhancement of knowledge and for improving their livelihood (MoI, 2001).In the document of a plan for accelerated and sustainable development to end poverty (MoARD, 2006) concerning FTC program it states that the core function of FTCs will be provision of extension services through training and demonstrations and also serve as information and exhibition centers.On the necessity of training and active participation for success in any rural development endeavor. Bari noted the following.\"For effective rural development, participation of rural people in the development process is essential. But people cannot participate unless they have been motivatedor made aware about the changes they need for their welfare. As such training and education is playing a vital role to make the rural people aware and act as subjects in the development process (Bari, 1987).\"Agricultural education and training constitute only one factor amongst many in agricultural development. The availability of trained farmers and trained advisory personnel will not in itself create or produce anything. In addition there must be land, with the security of tenure necessary for long term planning, there must be a system of marketing which ensures steady and favorable prices, there must be a continuous improvement of agricultural techniques, increasing the quality and quantity of yields, there must be social services available to the rural community. All these factors combine to form a suitable climate for development of agricultural production (Markham, 1965).Tito, 1997 as cited in Swanson (1997)noted that extension is a weak instrument when it stands alone, but that it becomes a powerful when combined with price incentives, input supply, credit, seed multiplication and so forth.Habtemariam ( 2007) also stressed on the importance of looking different factors in combination as:-In general it must be clear that extension alone cannot bring about the desired level of development in the agricultural transformation processes. Some of the salient issues determining the effectiveness of an extension system, that call for the attention of extension policy makers, researchers, practioners and producers among others include:-• Policy and legislative provision;• Conducive input-output marketing system;• Resource availability;• Conducive transport and communication system;• Management efficiency;• Recognition and ability to identify, characterize, map, strengthen, and use local innovations and indigenous knowledge; • Availability, access and usability of scientific knowledge or information and• Cultural and socio-economic factors including the ability of the farming community to change its attitude towards new practices and ways of doing things, about behavioral change and improve its situation (Habtemariam, 2007).According to (Arnon, 1981) if efforts to transform subsistence agriculture are to be successful, the following four related functions have to be simultaneously developed:(a) New technology has to be generated, implying an effective research organization;(b) The new technology has to be rapidly transferred to the farmers, requiring an efficient system of education;(c) The essential incentives and conditions have to be provided, in order to motivate the majority of the farmers to change their methods of production and to enable them to do so successfully; and (d) An appropriate strategy for promoting the entire process must be devised and implemented (Arnon, 1981).The main contribution of general education to increased agricultural productivity is summarized by Tang, 1961 as cited in Arnon (1981) as follows:1. It provides farmers with the basic skills.2. It improves rationality -making it easier to overcome traditional, social or cultural constraints which hinder progress. There had been a continuous debate about what the relationship between education and development and whether one is a prerequisite for the other. Coombs (1985) states that, education is one of the essential requisite for human beings continued advancement towards a more powerful and equitable world. However, he warns education is not a development objective in its own right, but a powerful and necessary means for achieving other development objectives when properly designed and implemented to develop confidence.There is a continuous evidence to show that there exists a relationship between human resources development and improved standard of education; and their relationship is so strong that illiteracy and insufficient education have hampered the development efforts of Third world countries (Sheffield, 1972;Fagerlind and Saha, 1989 ).The need for education therefore, emerges from the fact that through education constraints of development can be eliminated or at least be minimized.Education is a lifelong process and is not confined only to formal schooling. Coombs and Ahmed (1974)  If educational development is to be implemented in rural areas, emphasis needs to be given to non-formal education. Non-formal education, which is sometimes called 'out of school education 'is closer to the concept of training. There is an argument that nonformal education, because of its wider scope of programs, aim to serve people of any age and background and nature of being pragmatic, is advantageous as compared to formal education (Addis, 1991).Extension education is generally the main, if not the only agent for farmers' education in developing countries, and is a specialized form of the broader concept of adult education (Arnon, 1981).FAO defines agricultural extension as 'an informal out-of-school educational service for training and influencing farmers (their families ) to adopt improved practices in crop and livestock production and management, conservation and marketing , concern is not only with teaching and securing adoption of particular improved practice , but also with changing the outlook of farmers to the point where he will be receptive to, and on his own initiative continuously seek, means of improving his farm business and home (Chang, 1962).Adult education is one of the basics for farmers training. Like most terminologies in education, there are problems with defining adult education. Adult education usually refers to any form of learning under taken by or provided for mature men and women outside the formal schooling system. The main targets are specifically defined as youth (girls and boys over 15 years of age, but sometimes younger) as well as women and men, generally poor or socially disadvantaged. Although literacy continues to be at its peak, adult education also includes \"numeracy\", problem-solving and life skills and other knowledge. The notion of adult education is often used interchangeably with other notions such as literacy, adult basic education, lifelong learning, continuing education, adult non-formal education, recurrent education ( Seya, 2005).The role of adult education in development is multi dimensional. Indeed, as one of the building blocks of human development, and not just a basic right, education including adult education, is a foundation for progress in areas such as human capital, health, nutrition and the development of institutions and democracy. Adult education also plays a major role in social development. It is now widely admitted that growth will not reduce poverty unless poor people are able to actively participate in it. It is apparent from the foregoing statement that adult education is an indispensable vector for social, economic and political progress in any society, and in particular in Africa, the least developed part of the world.The developmental potential of adult education has been summarized by UNESCO as follows. \"Despites challenges and constraints (adult) basic education empowers individuals because it opens avenues of communication that would otherwise be closed, expands personal choice and controls over one's environment, and is necessary for the acquisition of many other skills. It gives people access to information through both print and electronic media, equips them to cope better with work and family responsibilities and changes the images they have of themselves. It strengthens their confidence to participate in community affairs and influence political issues. Basic education is the key with which individuals can unlock the full range of their talents and realize their creative potentials. It gives disadvantaged people the tools they need to move from exclusion to full participation in their society. Basic education also empowers entire nations because educated citizens and workers have the skills to make democratic institutions function effectively to meet the demands for a more sophisticated work force for a cleaner environment, and to meet their obligations as parents and citizens\"( UNESCO, 1997: as cited in Seya, 2005).From the above statement we can see the setting of education can be formal or nonformal while the whole aim being to bring a change in acquisition of knowledge and attitudes. It aims to make the masses better informed; thus to change their attitudes.Research has provided strong evidence that basic education makes a contribution to the reduction of poverty in rural areas. A minimum of four years of basic education, which addresses literacy and numeracy as well as science and possibly agricultural education, can lead to an increase in agricultural productivity by up to 8%( www. World agroforesty center.org , 2009).Adult learning has its own goals in relation to rural development. This is because in order to achieve the best results local people need to be aware of their real situation and be determined to change it by their own action by mobilizing all available resources.Another important point to consider in adult training is handling adults as groups.Reminding us that adult education carried out in a group can be a great help towards achieving learning or inhibit learning, Rogers(1988) states that 'the teacher of adults needs to balance the usefulness of the group against the growth of individualism, describing action and self reliance\".Bembridge also explained the importance and some characteristics of farmer discussion groups in this manner. \"Discussion involves the sharing of ideas and experiences.Opinions are expressed, alternatives, discussed and action is planned. In groups people can and will take risks that they would be unable to take alone. The focus should be on the performance of group members and not on individuals\". ( Bembridge, 1989).Concerning adult education, many scholars have expressed their views at different times.For example, Markham (1965) noted that, \"The learning should be informal, with numerous demonstrations and practice of the method taught. Visual aids are desirable.The best of which is good farming (both on the training center's farm and on neighboring farms) the very items themselves used in agriculture, flannel graphs, models, and specimens. The use of sophisticated aids in adult farmers' training should only be practiced by very experienced people and then on a limited scale\". Fay (1962) has also expressed his view as \" Adults learn most rapidly when they have a strong desire to learn. Adults learn best when they have a clear goals. Adults learn when they put forth an effort to learn. Adults learn best when they receive satisfaction from what they have taught\". Therefore, in extension education in a democratic system, participation of the people in extension programs is voluntary. The people have complete freedom whether or not to join an extension program. The behavior of the people has to be changed not by ordering or coercing, but by educating and motivating them. Unless the people are convinced, unless they get good results, unless they are satisfied, they should turn their faces away from extension (Singh, 2001).The basic philosophy of extension is directed towards changing the outlook of man by educating him. The only way to secure the intelligent and whole hearted cooperation of a person is to educate him. Education is not a mere transfer of information. It is more than that. Its primary aim is to transform the people by bringing about desire changes in their knowledge, attitude and skills. If this has not happened then the activities chosen for extension are not educational and its effects cannot be long lasting. The fundamental objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturally by means of education ( ibid ).It is well known that the ideas of farmer education and training are basic to the theory and practice of agricultural extension in most parts of the world. There are some who even think of extension solely in terms of education. There are differences and similarities between training and education. It seems hard, however, to find out significant differences between training and education in practice (Terrefe, 1992). Howe (1985)  Training is the process of providing knowledge and skills and bringing about desired changes in attitudes in order to improve the competence of people being trained .The goal of training is to improve performance. Education also provides knowledge and skills and brings about changes in attitudes. However, training differs from education in a number of ways. Training is short term, narrowly focused and specific, usually designed to meet a specific needs and has immediate application. Whereas education is long term, broadly focused, and usually aimed at preparing people for the future (Youdeowei and Kwarteng ,1995).Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training process affect the whole system and therefore, it is important for a trainer to have a clear understanding about all phases and steps of the training process; planning, implementation and evaluation.The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which-training needs assessment and curriculum developments are very important.Once the planning phase of training program is complete, then it is time to implement the course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, orit is the process of putting a training program into operation.Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness and impact of activities in light of their objectives. Raab et al (1987) define training evaluation as \" a systematic process of collecting information for and about a training activity, which can then be used for guiding decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components \". Lele (1975) classified training programs in rural areas into five broad Categories:• Functional literacy as to broaden the participation of local people,• Non-agricultural vocational skill including handicrafts, artisanship, and small business. the potentialities of people that we cannot find in formal schooling. Such learning situations help to build more stable attitude and improve the knowledge and skill of the members of society and make them fully participatory in the rural development process going on within their environment (Addis, 1991).Extension is an educational process for bringing about the maximum number of desirable changes among the people which involves both learning and teaching and needs some tools or methods commonly known as extension teaching methods.'Learning is the process by which an individual, through his own activity, attains a change in his behavior. It is an active process on the part of the learner. The essential role of an extension worker is to create effective learning situations.'An effective learning situation requires the following essential elements.1. An instructor (an extension officer or a village level worker).2. Learner (the farmers, the farm women and the youth). Teaching is the process of arranging situations in which the things to be learnt are brought to the notice of the learners, their interest is developed and desire aroused, that is, encouraging them to be stimulated for action ( www. krishi world. Com , 2008).Therefore, according to different literatures for an effective teaching-learning process inFTCs the following requirements have to be fulfilled as much as possible.One of the most inhibiting forces to successful development is lack of effective communication within and between different actors (Samson, 2007). Communication in extension organization takes place within the organization and outside the organization among different actors in order to achieve organizational goals. In general, communication in a reputable organization includes both formal and informal communication. Formal communication focuses on job related communication required by the organization, and follows the accepted hierarchical structure, while informal communication focuses on satisfying group members' social needs (Rogers andRogers, 2004 as cited in Samson, 2007).Extension organizations in developing countries face the major problems of professional incompetence and lack of motivation among their employees. Further, many of the agricultural extension departments of these countries do not have a well defined system of human resource management. Proper planning and management of human resources within extension organizations is essential to increase the capabilities, motivation, and overall effectiveness of extension personnel ( Vijayaragavan and singh, 1997 as cited in Swanson ,1997).A body or bodies need to create a small organization to mount a training program. The organization needs several characteristics to act effectively, that are clear authority, adequate resource, agreed aims and good leadership. One of the most potential weaknesses of an extension service is the lack of vertical communication between workers in the field and their chiefs at regional and national head quarters and vice versa. Supervision of field staff is often erratic, or may be almost non-existent or poor.Field visits may be rare and unpredictable; instructions may then be given based on inadequate and hasty appraisals. As a result national policies seldom reach the local extensionist, and feedback rarely reaches the top levels of administration whose decisions are then made without a full and up-to-date knowledge of the situation at the operational level (Rogers and Svenning, 1969).An efficient extension organization needs to develop the capability of responding to changes in relation to its environment. Extension organizations have to cope with changes within and outside the organization, such as changes in farm technology, communication methods, needs of farmers, rural situation, export and import of farm produce, and market economy. Organizational development allows for planned changes in the organization's tasks, techniques, structure, and people. Attitudes, values, and practices of the organization are changed so that it can cope with changing situation.The employees also gain greater skills to deal with new problems (Vijayaragavan and Singh , 1997as cited in Swanson , 1997).Lack of commitment by senior government officials has been cited as a factor adversely affecting implementation and funding support in nearly half of World bank-assisted free standing extension projects (Purcell andAnderson, 1997 as cited in Swanson, 1997).Government failure to allocate necessary funds to run extension systems is one key indication of such lack of commitment.Many successful training activities result from committed and skilled leadership. This role may be taken by an individual, a group, a department, an organization or an agency depending on the nature of objectives and, of course on who is committed to them. As it is impossible to expect success from rural development interventions formulated without the active participation of the target population, farmers should be empowered and encouraged to participate in the planning and execution of extension programs (Belay, 2002).To be more relevant to the needs of farmers and other clientele, extension policy should be reviewed and formulated through a participation approach. This process could be initiated by dedicated professionals from the public and private sectors, with the active participation of farmers themselves (Tito , 1997 as cited in Swanson , 1997).Inadequate numbers and qualifications of staff remain a difficult problem for public sector extension organizations. Salaries and benefits are rarely competitive with those of comparable private and public enterprises, resulting in low morale and high staffs turn over. Education levels may be quite low, especially for farmer contact staff. The ability to attract and retain qualified extension staff is limited in most countries by civil service salary scales established by other agencies of government (Warren, 1997 as cited in Swanson , 1997).The main actors in the teaching-learning process at FTCs are the extension agent's. The teachers at FTCs should be well experienced and competent enough with good personal qualities. On the importance of quality, many scholars have expressed their views at different times. Marshall (1920), mentioned that \"knowledge is our most powerful engine of production.\" Supporting the view, Roling(1988) said that \"working through people as an extension communicator requires professional skill and insight which must be underpinned with knowledge\". Spicer (1986) expressed that, \"changing peoples' customs is an even more delicate responsibility than surgery.\" Esman( 1980) noted that professionally qualified people, even when available, resist placement in rural areas; and when they are drafted into such assignments they often are so lineated from the majority of their rural publics and so ill-equipped to work in a resource poor situation that they are unable to provide effective or responsive services .White (1986) stated that \"we find many common deficiencies in knowledge and ability on the part of extension agents.\" In most developing countries college education had been confined largely to persons coming from urban families' .Men of such background who are employed as extension agents are largely a product of book learning.The short coming of many extension agents are reflected in the comments obtained in the course of interviews with 45 farm household heads chosen at random in five barrios (small villages) in the Philippines about the extension workers assign to each barrio (Byrnes, 1969  e) He cannot answer many of our questions.As Chaudhary and Al-Haj(1985) a common barrier to effective extension work is the extension worker's lack of competence in such important areas as technical knowledge, farming skills, economic analysis, research procedures and communication abilities. Also (Byrnes and Byrnes, 1971) have indicated areas of competence in the same way by adding the social aspect that is, extension worker must be familiar also with the customs, values and way of thinking of the farming population he serves.Though the number of DAs has increased substantially over time, especially during the last few years, field level observations could testify that the quality of DAs (in technical knowledge, in communication and practical skills, and their attitude to work with and for farmers) is disapprovingly low. Much needs to be done to build their confidence and capacity to diagnose farmers' problems, asses marketing opportunities and risks, identify appropriate information and feasible technologies for their localities and facilitate a colearning process both for themselves and for farmers (Habtemariam, 2005).In countries that are at the initial stages of their development the extension workers performance is more crucial. In other words in a developing country with the majority of farmers being not able to read and write, farmers will depend entirely on the extension worker.Teaching remember is that all training material should be as close to the needs, realities and level of the target(s) as possible (Zeitlyn, 1992).The extension-teaching methods are the tools and techniques used to create situations in which communication can take place between the rural people and the extension workers.They are the methods of extending new knowledge and skills to the rural people by drawing their attention towards them, arousing their interest and helping them to have a successful of the new practice. A proper understanding of these methods and their selection for a particular type of work are necessary ( www. kirishi world.com, 2009).A training program has a better chance of success when its training methods are carefully selected. A training method is a strategy or tactic that a trainer uses to deliver the content so that the trainees achieve the objective. Selecting an appropriate training method is perhaps the most important step in training activity once the training contents are identified. There are many training methods, but not all of these are equally suitable for all topics and in all situations. To achieve the training objective, a trainer should select the most appropriate training method for the content to involve the trainees in the learning process. Four major factors are considered when selecting a training method: the learning objective, the content, the trainees and the practical requirements (Abdul Halim and Md.Mozahar Ali, 1997 as cited in Swanson , 1997).The bureaucratic structure of extension administration, lack of rewards and incentives, poor facilities, poor promotional avenues, and the low esteem given to extension are the major causes of poor motivation and morale (Vijagaragavan and Singh, 1997 as cited in Swanson, 1997). An important aspect of human resource management which needs special attention in extension organizations in the development of reward system which will attract, retain and motivate extension personnel, as well as provide training and promotional opportunities .Extension organizations in Asia and Africa countries have a poor reward system ( Swanson, et al,1990 ). Among many of the government departments, the agricultural department and the extension service have a low public esteem and poor pay structure(Ibid). Incentive and motivation to extension personnel plays a great role in the efficiency and effectiveness of extension services (Bahal, 2004).The evaluation study of Bembridge (1989) confirmed that \"The extension officers self esteem, which is assumed to be a function of past success or failure is an important motivational factor. Many of the middle level and junior extension officers interviewed saw themselves as having low status in the community. For example, they saw school teachers as having higher status than themselves. Possibly this because they did not perceive their own role as adult educators. Reason given for the lower status held were inferior salaries, lack of recognition, inadequate training and lack of transportation.\"Along with other incentives, better housing and other facilities to be provided to the extension personnel posted in the rural areas.VonBlanckenburg (1984) mention that \"certainly the living conditions of field agents are often difficult. They stay in villages which may not have many of the facilities of modern civilization, such as electricity, running water, cultural events, or good schooling for their children. Many of them are separated from their families.\" Due to the poor pay structure and less promotion opportunities new and qualified extension personnel prefer to join other organizations having better opportunities.The village extension worker (VEW) is the only extension worker who teaches production recommendations to farmers. He is just as specialized and professional as other extension workers. The responsibility of all other extension staff is ultimately to make the VEW more effective in his work. The VEW should attend special short courses from time to time. These may include one or two day pre-seasonal and orientation workshops held by district staff on particular agricultural topics. As agriculture becomes more specialized and complex, there is a continual need for more highly trained and specialized VEWs. Village extension workers without university education should be sent for degree studies. In that VEWs will stay in the department of agriculture for thirty years or more (Bernor and Baxter, 1984).Terrefe(1992) also expressed his view on development agents as \"the development agents(DAs) are the link between the farmers and ministry of agriculture and rural development .That is to say DAs are the actual front line field staff of MoARD at grass roots level. They communicate with the farmers and convey any feedback to the staff of the ministry. However, there is a great concern whether we have really the right people trained as development agents who are well equipped with basic practical/technical skills, extension/communication techniques. Considering the majority of the DAs, many believe that we do not have the right people for the challenging task of assisting the farmer to identify his/her own problems and find solutions for. I also strongly share this view. Ames (1989) noted that \"if the investment in trained man power is limited or lacking, information may never be utilized\". Schultz (1981) reported that for developing highly productive economy only natural resources, physical capital and raw labor are not sufficient. Dynamics development requires a wide array of human skill. Clark (1987) mentioned that \"the effectiveness of the educational programs of extension depends on the abilities of its professional and volunteer staff. Continued professional development must become a priority of extension is to remain a viable source of information for changing world\".The efficiency of extension agents decline when they have to look after among educational & non educational activities. The task of teaching farmers suitable technical practices and convincing farmers to try them is not easy. Hence, the VEW must receive intense support and guidance, and must not be burdened with non-extension functions.Moreover, the nature of his work and his achievements must be recognized personally and in terms of opportunities for professional growth and technical upgrading (Bernor and Baxter, 1984).It is clear from the literature that non educational tasks are diverting considerably resources from extensions primarily role. Re allocating these resources to full time educational responsibilities would increase extensions effectiveness in transforming traditional agriculture (Bahal, 2004).Not all extension is directly related to agricultural knowledge transfer. FAO found that extension personnel in developing counties spend about one quarter of their time on noneducational activities representing \"about 140,000 full-time equivalent years of extension personnel time\". \"FAO regarded this as a \"major loss of educational resources, especially in developing countries where extension coverage is still grossly inadequate, both in a quantitative and qualitative terms\" (Swanson et al,1990).Under a favorable work environment, the Village Extension Worker (VEW) is expected to be a teacher, facilitator, organizer, coordinator, and catalyst and communication specialists. This is mainly true if and when extension organization sees extension as an educational process. In contrast, the role of VEW may be seen as enforcer or regulators, tax collector, politician and various other non educational roles. The implications of these two situations are very clear situation the extension worker may find it difficult to win the confidence and cooperation of the farming community, for they may be label him/ her as a government authority or bureaucrat, unconcerned, about their real needs. However, the agent may be very productive as inform, and advice rural people ( Bekele, 2004).Belay in his report mentioned that over the years, the involvement of extension agents in non-extension activities has played against their reputation as development workers, many people in rural areas continue looking the extension agents as government prolocutors rather than facilitators in the rural development endeavor. Therefore, if agents are to spear head rural transformation in the country, their duties should be clearly defined and they should not be made to handle other responsibilities that will compromise their real professional integrity (Belay, 2002).According to Von Blanckenburg (1984) \"government financial resources for rural development in poor countries are notoriously scarce. In the majority of countries the affect of this has not been so severe on the actual number of extension staff but rather on the level of salaries and on financial available for equipment and its maintenance\". In other words, Evengon 1988 as cited in Bahal, 2004) reported that; many low developed countries do not have the capacity to train agricultural scientists, and must incur high cost to train research workers and to purchase scientific equipments. These differences in cost, of course, reflect large differences in 'quality' of extension workers. In some low-income countries the available supply of extension workers with scientific training in agriculture is very limited. With programs to expand extension systems rapidly, administrators have devised ways to build extension systems that can utilize the relatively untrained and unskilled field worker' (Bahal, 2004).Many observers are concerned that public extension is not doing enough, not doing it well, and is not always relevant. In developing countries, bureaucratic inefficiency and poor program design and implementation have led to poor performance and incoherent links with client farmers and the research sector. Support for extension declined in the 1980s and donors were unwilling to fund large scale public sector recurrent expenditures, which led to further under financing, staffing shortages, and contraction of extension services (Amanor and Farrington,1991). Howell(1989) noted that \"it is now generally agreed that corrective action should consist of increased investment in extension (particularly in recurrent costs) linked to reforms in managements and training\".Adequate and availability of funds is important for the smooth running of agricultural extension services. Funds are required for training of Agricultural extension agents and farmers, to enhance communication, facilitate supervision, and supply of implements and equipments. Where allocation of funds for extension services has been minimal, effectiveness of FTCs and extension system as whole and AEAs in particular has been poor.National policies of agricultural research and extension play an important role in the development process. (Dutia, 1990 as cited in Swanson, 1990) mentioned that \"achieving the long run educational and development goals of extension requires continuity in political and financial support and the institutionalization of the extension function.Extension can perform its role in development only when a favorable environment for its operation is created\".Maalouf ,1990 as cited in Swanson(1990) notes that, \"An indispensable point for effective and efficient extension work is a national extension policy incorporated in legislation. Such a policy specifies the objectives, clientele, funding arrangements, place of the extension with in the government structure, its functions and linkages with other governmental and non-governmental services for agricultural and rural development.By realizing the contribution of agricultural sector for the country, the government has adopted agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) which is planned to play a greater role in the improvement of small holders and industrialization based on utilization of domestic raw materials with intensive labor. As agriculture is the back bone of the economy, it is being taken as the starting point of initiating the structural transformation of the economy (MoA, 2002).The PASDEP national five year plan, concerning FTC program it is stated that \" In the coming five years these FTCs will be equipped with all the necessary facilities such as  4) working in agriculture owing land. Each FTC will train 60 trainees in one round per year for a period of three months (two days in a week) and the total number of farmers trained over the planning period will be 2,952,540With regard to the extension service it is envisaged that all farmers will have access to agricultural extension services during the PASDEP period. The approach will be through organizing farmers into groups and the group leader will serve as a contact farmer. The pastoral mobile extension service will follow the seasonal movement the pastoral communities based on wet seasons, dry season grazing areas and base camps.All agricultural extension activities will give due emphasis to gender integration.Throughout the planning period all of the female headed households, estimated at 2.69 million will access extension services and an estimated 30% of the women in male headed households will also get access to training and extension services in the type of extension packages that will benefit them (MoARD, 2006).The Global consultation on Agricultural extension observed that monitoring and evaluation are important yet frequently neglected functions in most organization. In the worldwide survey of national extension systems, it was found that only about one half of all national extension systems have some type of monitoring and evaluation capacity. In many cases the monitoring and evaluation units is weak and is limited to ad hoc studies.In many organizations, monitoring and evaluation have a negative image because these units may concentrate on problems, exposing weaknesses and failures. Instead, monitoring and evaluation should be used in a positive manner to improve extension's performance and increase its efficiency (Misra, 1997 as cited in Swanson, 1997).Monitoring and evaluation is a management tool that can contribute significantly to effective extension. Monitoring keeps track of extension activities and progress in the implementation of the extension system. Evaluation determines the impact of extension activities, particularly on the production and income of farmers. Reporting of all monitoring and evaluation must be done concisely and quickly if it is to be of use to management.Monitoring and evaluation is a tool that helps ensure the extension service operates efficiently, enables management to take the necessary corrective action regarding shortcomings in extension operations, and provides policy makers with appropriate information on which to base decisions. Monitoring and evaluation is not a fault finding mechanism, but rather a positive means to suggest areas requiring attention that may not be readily apparent through the regular in-field review of extension activities. It can create an atmosphere of trust, honesty, and self-criticism upon which effective extension depends (Bernor and Baxter, 1984).In solving a problem or charting a course of action several sorts of information may be needed .These data may be gathered through assessment and evaluation methods (Best, John W,& James V. kahn,(1998 The first section of this chapter describes and illustrates some aspects of the study area.Then it presents the detail of methodology used to conduct the survey. These are sample and sampling techniques, method of data collection and data analysis.The study was conducted in Ada'a woreda. Ada'a woreda is one of the 11 woredas in East Shewa zone and is located about 45 KMs south east of the capital Addis Ababa. It is bounded by Lume woreda in the East, by Akaki woreda in the West, by Bora and Liben-Zukala Woreda in the south and by Ginbichu Woreda in the north. The total land area of the woreda is 96,680 hectares and out of this, 79,517.32 hectare of land was under cultivation.Based on the census carried out recently, the total population of the woreda is estimated at 231,385. The total number of the rural population is 131,273 and out of the total rural population 68,381 are male and 62,892 are female. The total number of rural house hold is 28,900(420 female and 28,480 male). The total number of urban population is 100,112 and out the total urban population 47,936 are male and 52,176 are female (AWARDO, 2009). The woreda is divided into three agro-ecology zones; that is, dega 3%, woina dega 94% and kola 3% respectively. The Woreda has the potential for both crop and livestock production, which is mainly undertaken by small holder farmers. There are also relatively growing number of commercial farms and agro-processing industries operating in the area. The agro-ecology in the woreda is best suited for diverse agricultural production.There are a number of rivers and creator lakes that are being used for irrigated agriculture, particularly for horticultural crop production. The woreda is nationally known for its best quality teff production, which dominates the agricultural production system. Teff is a dominant cereal crop which occupies about 45% of cultivated land. It is followed by wheat 43%, chickpea5% and others occupy 7 %( AWOARD as cited in Alemayehu, 2008). Other major crops produced in the woreda include lentil, horse bean and horticultural crops mainly vegetables. Livestock is an integral part of the production system. The livestock population of the woreda in 2007 was 291,539( AWOARD as cited in Eshetu,2008). Altitude of the woreda ranges from 1500 m to over2000m.a.s.l.The long term  average rainfall recorded by ILRI Debrezeit and EARO Debrezeit research stations was found to be 839mm.Mean minimum and maximum temperatures recorded for 27 years ranged from 7.9 to28 degree centigrade respectively (IPMS 2005). Infrastructures like telecommunication, electric power and schools are highly advancing in the district. Moreover, the national veterinary research institute, faculty of veterinary medicine, the agricultural research center, Ethiopian milk and meat technology institute (the previous ILRI) contributed a lot for the development of the rural poor, particularly for Ada'a farmers and the country as a whole. Rural roads that branched to different kebeles and villages have played significant role in the supply of inputs and output of agricultural products. The woreda agricultural potential, the infrastructure and institutional arrangements have encouraged the emergence of private service providers such as animal feed factory, agro-processors, and private modern farms (Eshetu, 2008).For this research, multi-stage sampling procedure was employed to select the sample.First Ada'a woreda was selected purposively from East shewa zone because, it is one of the IPMS pilot learning woreda (sponsor of the research) within the zone and in the Oromia region. At the second stage all 27 FTCs of the woreda were stratified into three categories i.e. functional, semi-functional and non functional FTCs. Thereafter, the whole 16 functional and semi-functional FTCs were selected for the study purpose by discussing with the woreda office of agriculture and rural development by rejecting the non-functional ones because they are not yet, fully completed as others.Consequently, in collaboration with extension agents of the respective FTCs/ PAs lists of trained and untrained farmers was prepared (those who have taken either modular or short term training and those who did not taken). Finally, based on the house hold number of the PAs 80 trained and 80 untrained farmers' altogether 160 respondents were selected by using probability proportional to size (PPS) random sampling method. To avoid gender bias 20% of the FHHs respondents, that is, one trained and one untrained female were selected purposively from each PA.All the extension agents working in the selected FTCs were included in the study which was 40 in number as a source of information. The distribution of selected households by kebele administration or FTCs is presented in appendix, table 2.Besides, the respondents of farmers and extension agents', formal focus group discussions were carried out with sixteen ( 16) trained farmers in two PAs (11 trained farmers from the most succeed FTC and 5 trained farmers which have ceased their training program after 10 days of training). In addition nine ( 9) untrained farmers from one FTC and with a key informant of one PA manager from semi-functional FTC. To avoid rural development tourism and bias the group were selected from the remotest FTCs. Formal and informal group discussions have been also carried out with supervisors, extension agents, experts and team leaders in the study area. An indicator is defined as quantitative measurement of an object to be achieved, a resource mobilized, an output accomplished, an effect obtained or a context variable (economic, social, or environmental) nature. Quantitative where we are counting the results in numbers, Qualitative, where we obtain information on people's views or opinion (EU, 2005).In assessment of FTCs in the study area the fulfillment of the pre-determined indicators setted by MoARD were used and the translation of these standards were compared with the ground reality.Based on the MoARD FTC standard and other observable realities the sixteen sampled FTCs were assessed and evaluated one by one through direct observation by the researcher himself and their present status, opportunities and their problems in organizing effective training program and in implementing the mandatory roles of FTC were identified. To find out farmers opinion towards the mandatory services provided by FTC were examined by constructing statements in a Likert type continuum scale.SWOT analysis and focus group discussions were also under taken.Both primary and secondary data were collected for the study. Primary data were collected using interview schedule for farmers and self administered questionnaire for extension personnel backed up by personal observation, focus group discussion and informal discussion. The relevant primary data were gathered from extension agents who are working in the functional and semi-functional FTCs on variables which have an association with the problems and prospects of FTCs. The self administered questionnaire used for extension personnel were closed and open ended questions. However, the interview schedule for trained and untrained farmers was constructed totally close ended dominated by standardized opinion likert type scales.Focus group discussion was also carried out with trained and untrained farmers. The researcher has assessed the current status of the sixteen FTCs with a check list through direct observation and by asking extension agents, supervisors, SMSs, team leader and key informants. Secondary data were also collected from different documents, government and non-government organizations working in the study area to complement primary data.The instruments used for data collection were the national standard/indicators for assessing the status of FTCs, self administered and semi-structured interview and opinionnaire schedule. The questionnaire have consisted different types which were related to the topic of the research and relevant variables that help for the study. After incorporating comments given from supervisors the final draft of the questionnaires were taken to the study area for pre-testing before using the actual data collection. Primary data collection was conducted from January 22 to February 10, 2009.Four ( 4) enumerators who have an educational background above twelve grade, who speak the language of the area (Afaan Oromo) fluently and who have an experience in data collection were employed on contractual basis. Before, they go to the field orientation was given about how to approach farmers, the ways how to conduct interviews, and so on. Pre-testing was also carried out on non sampled farmers. During the data collection period the researcher has made close supervision to each enumerator.To identify opportunities and constraints of FTCs in the study area, extension agents, supervisors, SMSs and team leader's suggestions were considered which were obtained during SWOT analysis, through discussions and by filling open ended questionnaires.The personal observation and the focus group discussion carried out with farmers and key informants were also considered in listing down the opportunities and constraints of FTCs.Respondents' opinion towards the mandatory roles of FTC in delivering agricultural extension services and training was determined using a likert type scale. The respondents were interviewed with the help of pre-tested interview schedule developed for the study.To measure each item likert scale was constructed with five response categories, that is, strongly disagreed (1), disagreed (2), undecided (3), agreed ( 4), and strongly agreed (5).Each response category of positive items was assigned with scores, 5,4,3,2, and 1, respectively. These scores were reversed for negative items. The respondents were asked to react to each of the statement of scale in terms of their own agreement or disagreement with the statement. Their reactions were marked by ticking on five point scale against the respective statement.The recorded responses were counted and converted into mean scores for each opinion statement and ranked accordingly. The rank correlation was calculated between the ranks accorded by the trained and untrained farmer respondents with respect to their opinion towards the mandatory roles of FTCs. Z-test was applied to see the significance of variation between the trained and untrained respondents.The researcher verified data to ensure that the interview schedule had been filled up properly and accurately after being completed by the enumerators. After the completion of data collection, the data were coded, entered and analyzed by using statistical package for social science (SPSS) 12.0 versions software computer program.Qualitative data were analyzed through interpretation and conceptual generalization.Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, frequency and rank were used. Z-Test was performed to investigate whether there are significant differences between trained and untrained farmers. The results of data analysis were categorized, summarized, discussed and presented accordingly. Moreover, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis were used to summarize the results of the research objectives.In this study, the dependent variables are problems and prospects of Farmers Training centers and they were operationally defined as follow.Problem;-a problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal, .The following variables were considered to have a close association or relations with problems and prospects of farmers training centers.Organizational communication: For the effective functioning of FTCs there should be clear authority, adequate resource, agreed aims and good leadership with effective vertical and horizontal communication system. If the organizational communication among the hierarchical structure is weak the success of FTCs will be low. It is measured in ordinal scale as poor, good, very good and excellent.This refers as the total number of the extension staff the woreda has, that is, officials, team leaders, SMSs, supervisors and extension agents.If the woreda offices of agriculture and FTCs have adequate number of staff the performance of FTCs will be high. This is measured in number, ratio as DA: farmers, DA: supervisor. properly be carried out (Bahal,2004). Therefore, an FTC which has a better status in budget allocation per year will have better status and good performance otherwise, it will be the reverse. The budget is measured in terms of Birr allocated for the FTCs per annum. and eventual impacts against those targeted during the planning of the project. This judgment should be made systematically and objectively, and for this it makes use of criteria or standards (EU, 2005). Therefore, FTCs which have a regular monitoring and evaluation system will have better status than those who do not have. This is measured by the amount of times the supervision is made as weekly, monthly, quarterly, six month, annually.Incentive to extension personnel plays great role in the efficiency and effectiveness of extension services. The effectiveness of an extension service depends to a noticeable degree also on the morale and motivation of its staff. In order to be efficient, the staffs need acceptable conditions, incentives, and promotion opportunities and good staff management (Von Blanckenburg, 1984).Therefore, the presence of incentive will increase the status of FTCs and absence of incentive will decrease their status. Incentive can be measured in ordinal level of measurement as poor, good, very good, excellent.Transportation facilities: Include horse or mule, bicycle, motor-bike and other means.For effective extension work, extension personnel require more mobility to contact clients. If they have no access of transportation it is difficult for them to cover a large area. It is measured in items and discrete number.Community participation: This reflects the involvement of the community from inception upto evaluation of FTCs. In an FTC where the community participation is high the status of FTCs will be high. In poor community participation the status of FTCs will be poor. The participation is measured in ordinal scale as poor, good, very good, excellent.Political commitment: If there are conducive conditions for development, that is, good governance, political commitment and support to strengthen FTCs by giving due attention, the status of FTCs will be high. Otherwise, the result will be the reverse. It is measured in ordinal scale as poor, good, very good, excellent.External support: Besides the public budget and community participation the financial and material assistance given by different external organization. If there is an external assistance, the status of FTCs will be high, otherwise low or medium. Semi-functional FTCs: are those which fulfilled the basic teaching materials, facilities, trainers partially and which have implemented partial mandatory roles of FTCs.This chapter comprises the study findings to be discussed under different sections, based on the objectives of the study. Accordingly, the personal demographic characteristics of respondents, the present status of FTCs, that is, their organizational and operational status, the identified opportunities for advancement of FTCs and constraints which hampered the FTCs in performing their mandatory roles, information obtained through focus group discussions and personal observations, the summary of SWOT analysis and farmer's opinion towards the mandatory services of FTCs shall be discussed and presented in detail successively. The data incorporated in Table 3 reveal that from the overall respondents, sixty six of them (41%) most of the farmers of the study area has big family size composed of 6-8 members. Concerning the type of cultivation (Table 4) show that among the total respondents majority of them 147(91.875%) produce with rainfall, one (0.625%) with irrigation and twelve of them (7.5%) produce by using both rainfall and irrigation. A fair majority of farmers rely on rain fed crop cultivation. Surprisingly the irrigation facilities are practically zero, which may be posing a challenge to FTC. An observation of the Table 5 reveals that, the distance of respondents' residence from FTC of the majority of them (50%) were 2 to 3 km; fifty seven of them (35.6%) were less than 1.5 km, and twenty three of them (14.4%) were more than 3 km far away. One of the constraints also expressed by extension agents was the distance of FTC from farmers' residence which causes an influence on implementing the mandatory roles of FTCs. This problem was also justified by the trained farmers and key informant at the time of group discussion.In this study status mean the current physical and operational relative position of FTCs; their present condition. Things to be fulfilled by FTC, that is, about the construction design, its organizational structure, management and requirements for the teachinglearning process a detailed guideline has been prepared and sent to every region by the federal MoARD as an indicator. Some of the indicators expressed in the guideline document are infrastructures to be fulfilled, number of extension agent needed, teaching materials required, number of seats, amount of demonstration area etc. Hence, the assessment was carried out by comparing the existing ground reality with these standardized indicators.Currently there are 27 FTCs in Ada'a woreda. From the total FTCs, sixteen ( 16 Even if, all of the FTCs did not have their own telephone, in some of the small rural town there is a wireless telephone service. All of the extension agents and farmers of the woreda are not isolated from information. However, to give a proper extension services those FTCs which do not have access to road need due attention to link them with the woreda town. The supervisors and extension agents have also to be provided with transportation facilities.Most of the FTCs have water problem, especially for watering nursery seedlings and to conduct demonstration throughout the year. Only Godino FTC has access to river water for conducting demonstration throughout the year. At present TuluDimtu and Kerfe FTCs were benefited from Gimbichu-Metehara water project and they have access to potable water. Recently, Denkaka FTC/PA has got a potable water supply too. Most of the peasant associations have common well water for drinking purpose. In some FTCs, for example in Deko FTC the extension agents have tried to water the seedlings that they have planted by fetching water with their own money in order to prevent from drying. To solve the water problem for demonstration Hidi, Dire, and Denkaka FTCs have dug a soil pond in their compound which has a plastic cover/Geo-membrane. To overcome water problem, extension agents at Ude FTC have also tried to dig water well. As observed by the researcher majority of the FTCs have water problems. Most of the tree and fruit seedlings planted in the compound have been dried. Therefore, water is a challenging problem of FTCs in conducting demonstration trials throughout the year to convince farmers.Some of the small town like, Dire, Godino, Hidi, Ude and Bekejo have source of an electric power. Among the FTCs for the time being Ude has got the main electric power supply and Dire FTC is waiting for the laying of the line by Ethiopian electric power corporation. The money is already paid by IPMS project. Godino and Hidi have generators and they have the chance in the future to get the main electric supply in the short period of time as the line already reached in their small town close to most of the FTCs there are also elementary schools and human health posts. Source of electric power is therefore, very important for FTCs for using audio-visual teaching aids to convince trainees, to connect with internet and even to teach farmers during the evening by the support of films.The  Currently 8 extension agents (20%) attend further education in the field of agriculture, management, economics and law. For the question asked why do you join agricultural extension organization, out of 40 extension agents 26 of them(65%) responded as they have high interest to serve rural people, 7(17.5%) of them due to lack of other job opportunity, and 4(10%) of them responded as their low grade did not allow them to attend other fields. All the extension agents working in the sixteen FTCs(100%) rated the incentive provision and promotion avenue of their organization as poor. Also among the forty extension agents thirty-five of. them (87.5%) rated their salary payment as poor and five of them (12.5%) rated as good. For the question asked is there training provision for extension staff working in FTC, thirty-seven of them (92.5%) responded as yes and 3 of them (7.5%) as no.Even if, most of the extension agents are youngsters they need the support of the woreda and zone to build their capacity because most of them lack practical skills and experience. The income of a worker may also have an impact on job performances. For example, with less income people tend to do other activities for the purpose of generating more earnings and consequently forget their core work responsibilities, hence lowering the quality and quantity of extension services delivery to small holder farmers at FTCs. Therefore, to overcome the turnover of extension agents and to make them stable at FTCs they have to be motivated and should be provided by the necessary incentives to keep their morale in order to make the training program at FTCs more effective.Teaching materials are teaching aids used during training to facilitate effective communication and learning. Training materials may be categorized into two main types i.e., printed and non printed materials. Some of the examples are blackboard, flipchart, leaflets, models, samples, slides, CD etc. Among the sixteen ( 16) FTCs seven of them (43.75%) have fulfilled sitting accommodations and facilities for the teaching learning process unsatisfactorily and five of them (31.25%) have fulfilled noting for the teachinglearning process. The four FTCs(25%) Ude, Godino, Hidi and Dire which are supported by IPMS project have a better teaching materials, equipment and facilities fulfillment than the others. The project has already bought computers with printers, televisions, DVD players, CD for these FTCs. Two of them have generators, one FTC has electric power from the main electric line source and to connect the fourth FTC with the main electric line the process was completed by the project. The project has also approved a budget to fulfill these four FTCs with internet and wireless telephone.There researcher asked with a pre-coded question all the extension agents working in the sixteen FTCs if they have enough training materials in their center and six of them(15%) responded as yes and thirty four of them(85%) as no. For the question if no how do you carry out training to farmers six of them(15%) responded by teaching only in theory under a tree, by taking to farmers field and by taking to the school nearby us. Nine of them(22.5%) responded as by coordinating the community and by using local materials, fourteen of them(35%) responded as by borrowing from the community and from own pocket, two of them(5%) responded by using what they have and three of them(7.5%) responded as the training is not started and the FTC is empty. Also they were asked from different teaching methods which ones were fruitful for teaching farmers and ten of them(25%) responded as group discussion, demonstration and field day, seven of them(17.5%) field day and demonstration, seven of them(17.5%) lecture, field day and demonstration, four of them(10%) demonstration and group discussion, eight of them (20%) meeting, field day and demonstration and four of them( 10%) responded as meeting, demonstration, field day, group discussion and study tour.The majority have started provision of training since2005. But the training program was not sustainable. Therefore, it is very difficult to consider lack of teaching materials as a major constraint because; Even, those who did not have any facilities, because of their effort and commitment they have tried their best to train farmers by using the facilities of primary school in their area until they fulfill these materials.Based on the woreda extension expert and the previous head of the office information, only the previously established six FTCs have curriculum and the others do not have because of budget constraints. It requires a lot of money for buying stationery and for duplicating the curriculum to give for the others. Most of the extension agents have a module/a guideline. They got these manuals which were prepared in Amharic and Afaan Oromo languages from Oromia and Federal MoARD while they were attending inservice training courses. Due to, the frequent turn over and transfer of extension agents, most of the newly assigned extension agents have very little or almost negligible information concerning curriculum and guidelines. Most of the DAs teach farmers by preparing their own outline as they told to the researcher. Hence, for conducting an effective training program each FTC has to be provided by the necessary curriculum and guidelines. The curriculums have also to be revised and prepared according to the context of the woreda.Most of the extension agents agree on the presence of an organized body (development committee) that runs the work activities of FTCs in every PA. The chairperson of the development committee is the chairman of the PA but, the researcher has observed that, most of the work burden was left for extension agents and supervisors. According to the information of DAs of the centers some kebele management committee collaborated to them to strengthen FTCs by mobilizing and creating the awareness of the community. On the other hand, in some PAs the kebele management bodies are not committed and did not give attention to FTCs as the DAs' expressed. The support given by woreda and kebele management bodies was also less. According to the information of extension agents, the linkage of their FTCs with other development institutions was poor. For the question asked how is the linkage of FTC with woreda office of agriculture, out of forty extension agents five of them(12.5%) responded as very good, twenty of them (50%) as good, six of them (15%) as fair and nine of them (22.5%) as poor. Also concerning the communication between FTC and woreda twenty of them (57.5%) rated as poor, fifteen of them(37.5%) as good, one(2.5%) rated as very good and one (2.5%) as excellent. The forms of communication between woreda and FTC as indicated by the extension agents are verbal (2.5), written(42.5%), verbal and written(15%), meeting (12.5%), group discussion (5%) and by all of them(22.%).Except eight FTCs, the other FTCs have less than one hectare of land for demonstration purpose. Only four FTCs have fulfilled the recommended area, which is 3-5 ha. The demonstration fields given for Hidi, Godino, Deko, Katila and Golo FTCs lack fertility, they are degraded, sloppy and rocky with a hard pan. Especially the land given for Deko FTCs is totally stony. They have faced a great problem in digging holes for a seedling and compost pits. The extension agents have expressed their fear for the researcher by saying that, 'how can we convince farmers by conducting demonstration on such type of land'?There are also disputes/disagreements which did not get solution on the demonstration area of Tulu Dimtu and Gobesaye FTCs among farmers and village communities.According to the information obtained from Hidi zone supervisor and extension agents, in order to get an income source Deko, Katila and Hidi FTCs have rented part of their demonstration area on contractual basis. In some FTCs the land was left idle without any utilization.Most of the FTCs are not fenced and even those which have a fence; it was not strong enough to protect the entrance of livestock in the FTCs compounds. Due to lack of fencing, different trials carried out and the seedling of trees, forage and fruits which were planted by DAs have been damaged and eaten by livestock. The researcher, himself have observed when cattle, sheep and horse were grazing in the compound of Dire, Ude, Deko and Kurkura FTCs. Out of the sixteen FTCs only seven (7) of them have guard and the rest do not have. In other case, the guideline recommends two guards for each FTC.As 'seeing is believing', demonstration is a powerful instrument to teach and convince farmers among the extension methods especially for illiterate farmers. Therefore, every extension agents who were assigned in FTC have to use the demonstration areas which they have got from the community effectively to teach farmers in practice. The woreda office has also to create a strong linkage with Debrezeit Agricultural Research Center in order to use the FTC compounds for technology development and to popularize new practices and innovations. They have to work together collaborately. Otherwise, keeping the demonstration areas idle without production is wastage of resource. Except Godino FTC none of them could offer the said courses. Even Godino has taken almost two years to complete a six months course and the participants were also only twenty five in number. All of the trainees were male. Whereas, the recommendation or standard given for one FTC is to train 60 farmers in one intake. The training was given by most FTCs for two days in a week and for 4 hours daily by deciding the appropriate time with the trainees. The courses commonly offered at the centers were crop production, horticulture, animal husbandry, crop protection, irrigation and natural resource. The Woreda criteria by which farmers are selected for attending training at FTC were:-• Those who can write and read Oromiffaa or Amharic language.• Those that live in that peasant association and• Those who have interest and can show what they have learnt to other followers.In other case, the criterion expressed by the region differs a little bit from the woreda. The criteria's are:-• Who read and write the local language.• Who attend the training twice in a week?• Must cover 75% of the courses given to hold training certificate.Based on the information given by the woreda and the regional office there is a gap All of the FTCs have no operational budget to carry out their mandatory roles. But this budget year, 500 birr was allocated for each FTC for stationery purpose only. The money is not given for the FTCs directly and the stationery is bought by the woreda office of • Different transplanted fruit, tree and coffee seedlings, forage crops .• Oil crops trials( Ground nut, safflower, sunflower, rapeseed, Niger seed, sesame, flax), Cereal crops(teff, barely, maize) pulses, vegetables. • A display of Drip irrigation method by using plastic bottles and plastic oil To identify list of opportunities extension agents, supervisors and experts' suggestions were considered which were obtained during formal and informal discussions and SWOT analysis was done. Initially, the list of opportunities was presented to the woreda subject matter specialists and extension team, natural resource team and input supply team leaders to add or to delete and to comment through discussion on the list of opportunities.Finally, the experts and team leaders were asked to put the list of opportunities in rank order according to their importance for promotion of FTCs.The list of opportunities comprises nine items. The rank to opportunities given by the respondents as first opportunity was given nine points and the second eight points, the third seven and like this the last opportunity had one point. After doing all these, by adding the scores given by each respondent the mean score value of each opportunity was identified and the opportunity with highest mean score value was taken as the most important opportunity for the advancement and progress of FTCs in the study Woreda.The major important opportunities which were identified, listed, and ranked by the Woreda extension personnel are presented in table as follows: Table 7. Rank order of opportunities given by SMS and team leaders (N = 7)Opportunities Mean score Rank 1.3.5.7.The presence of clear guideline, curriculum and teaching moduleThe availability of infrastructure throughout the woreda and access ti information to communicate with FTCsThe presence of high community participationThe presence of IPMS project in the woreda The presence of cooperatives, input supply and credit institutions in the Woreda An observation of table 7 reveals that the presence of agricultural and rural development policies and strategies was perceived as an opportunity with high mean score by SMSs and team leaders (7.14). The reason given was that, every civil servant who are working in the woreda office of Agriculture and Rural Development have discussed on the document and most of the extension personnel also have the document with them. The researcher himself has seen this document in one of the FTC. It was followed by the opportunity of the presence of clear guideline, curriculum and modules (6.28).But, based on the information obtained from the Woreda extension expert they have received the documents and dispatched only for the six (6) previously established FTCs and due to lack of budget for buying stationery they were not able to duplicate the curriculum for the rest FTCs.Both the opportunities, that is, the availability of enough extension personnel and transportation facilities in the Woreda and the presence of infrastructural facilities throughout the Woreda and access to information and to communicate with FTCs were accorded third and fourth ranks with a mean score of 6.14 and 5.71 respectively by the respondents. Relatively when compared with other Woredas' within East Shewa zone and the Region the indicated opportunities have been justified by Alemayehu ( 2008) and Eshetu (2008). The researcher has also confirmed these opportunities as they are real because, he has seen and gone through more than sixteen ( 16) FTCs or PAs in the Woreda during his study.The presence of Debre Zeit agricultural research center in the Woreda and Melkasa and Adamitulu agricultural research centers within the zone as an opportunity was ranked fifth with mean score of (4.85). Debre Zeit agriculture research center is found in the study area which was established long ago. With a pre-coded questionnaire the researcher has asked forty( 40) extension agents working in sixteen ( 16) FTCs, about the linkage of their FTCs with Debre Zeit agriculture research center and they responded, four(10%) as very good, ten(25%) as good, two(5%) as fair, sixteen(40%) as poor and eight(20%) of them as there is no linkage. It may be due to this fact, that the Woreda extension personnel ranked the research centers as a fifth opportunity. High community participation and political commitment were ranked as a sixth and seventh opportunities with a mean score of (4.57) and (4.42) respectively by the respondents.The presence of IPMS project in the Woreda was ranked as an eighth opportunity with a mean score of (3.42) by the respondents. IPMS is a project which is working in Ada'a Woreda in collaboration with the Woreda office of agriculture and rural development. Zones) throughout the country. The presence of co-operatives, input supply and credit institutions were ranked as a ninth opportunity with a mean score of (2.57) by the respondents.To identify the lists of constraints that impedes the effective functioning of FTCs extension agents', supervisors', experts' and team leaders' suggestions, formal and informal discussions with farmers and extension personnel and the SWOT analysis carried out were considered.The constraints list included fifteen items and among these, the constraint which is considered by the respondents as a first rank was given fifteen points, for the second fourteen points, for the third thirteen points and like this the last or the fifteenth rank will have one point. By doing all these, finally the score values given by each respondent for each constraint were added according to their score values and the mean score was calculated. The constraint that got the highest mean score value was taken as the most important constraints that impedes the effectiveness of FTCs and the least mean score as the least constraint that limits their effectiveness. For the sake of analysis the constraints were categorized as social, institutional, economic and general constraints.The major impediments which hamper the effective operation of FTCs to achieve their mandatory roles were found to be as follows:An observation of the table 8 reveals that low community participation in FTC programs was perceived as the most important constraints with a mean score of (13.14) among the whole constraints ranked by the respondents. Through triangulation to clear out this constraints the researcher has asked with a pre-code closed and open ended questionnaire both extension agents and farmers. Even if, the level of participation differs, among forty extension agents working at FTCs for the question asked 'Do the community participate in FTC programs, 39 of them (97.5%) responded as yes and one (2.5%) responded as no.Also for the question asked to farmers, have you ever participated in the construction of FTC? 152 respondents replied as yes and 8 respondents as no. For FTC construction they have contributed money and labor. The focus group discussion justified the same thing.For the question asked how was the community participation in guarding FTC, ten of the extension agents (25%) responded as very poor, nine of them (22.5%) as poor, ten of them(25%) as good, ten of them (25%) as very good and one(2.5%) as excellent. Also out of the forty extension agents eighteen of them (45%) respond the participation of the community in implementation of a plan as poor. The reasons given for poor participation were lack of commitment among kebele and woreda cabinet members, lack of awareness, due to closeness to town farmers work in private limited company, because the FTC was constructed by government budget and farmers have no good attitude for FTC.High dropout rate of trainees from FTCs and expecting some benefits in the side of farmers were perceived as the second and third constraints with a mean score of (9.97) and ( 8.85) respectively by the respondents. High dropout rate of trainees was confirmed by extension agents who are working in FTCs of the study area. Among forty extension agents who were asked with an open ended questionnaire to list the problems which they considered during the teaching-learning process twenty eight of them (70%) expressed high dropout rate of trainees as the major problem. The finding of expecting some benefit to attend the training program was confirmed by the researcher when he discussed with the key informant/ kebele manager of Tulu Dimtu PA. This also agrees with the finding of Mulugeta(2008) constraints and challenges of working through FRG was mentioned that farmers showed behavior of high expectation for material incentive and low participation in FRG activities.Shortage of demonstration area and provision of unsuitable land for FTC was ranked as the fourth constraint with a mean score of (7.42).Even if, the recommended size of demonstration area is 3-5 hectare, the land provided for most of the FTCs is less than one hectare and the land given for some FTCs was also sloppy, degraded, rocky and unfertile one. There is also a dispute in providing land for FTCs among the community in Tulu Dimtu and gobesaye FTC.Unavailability of educated farmers who read and write was ranked as the last or the fifth constraints perceived by the respondents with a mean score of (6.42). This problem was confirmed by the extension agents who are working in FTCs' of the study area. For the study purpose DAs were asked with an open ended questionnaire to list the problems they faced during the teaching-learning process and nine (9) of them (22.5%) expressed problem of reading and writing of 'Qubee' alphabets of 'Afaan Oromo'. In addition, while the researcher discussed with trained farmers group at Golbo FTC and with key informant at Tilu Dimtu FTC he confirmed that, the trainees who were attending the training program were both educated and uneducated farmers. According to the observation of table 9 among the institutional constraints, lack of teaching materials and equipments was perceived as a constraint with a mean score of (8.57) by respondent and accorded the first rank. This agrees with the findings of (Berhanu et al, 2006), which says, the constructed FTCs are expected to start operation in the 2005/06 cropping season. However, most of the FTCs have not been fully equipped yet. The researcher has confirmed this situation in the study area. The second constraint perceived by the respondent was lack of monitoring and evaluation system with a mean score of (7.57). Weak supervision may result in provision of poor quality services especially for AEAs who are normally the only agricultural professionals in villages, and commendable supervision may result in desired quality services. This is evidenced by Urio (1996), who found that effective supervision increased contacts between farmers and extension officers, helps to give quick feedback and give possible solution to problems. In addition, forty extension agents working in the sixteen FTCs were asked to rate the monitoring and evaluation system of their organization with a pre-coded question and five of them(12.5%) responded as excellent, six of them(15%) as very good, fourteen of them(35%) as good and fifteen of them(37.5%) as poor.Lack of transportation facilities and lack of clear guidelines, curriculum and modules, lack of incentive for extension agents were perceived as third, fourth and fifth constraints with a mean score of (6.00),( 5.71) and ( 5.57%) respectively by respondents. Concerning transportation facility forty of the DAs (100%)working in FTCs responded as they do not have any transportation facility. Even, supervisors and the woreda office do not have enough transportation facilities. The researcher has confirmed this by a pre-coded questionnaire and through personal observation. ). But the researcher has confirmed by asking forty (40) extension agents who are working in sixteen ( 16) FTCs with a precoded questionnaire and found that there was a great problem and dissatisfaction with the provision of incentives. All of the extension agents rated the provision of incentive as poor and the promotion avenue as poor. Concerning the salary payment of their organization 35(87.5%) of the extension agents rated as poor and (12.5%) of them rated as good. By supporting this finding Vijagaragavan and Singh (1997) also noted that bureaucratic structure of extension administration, lack of rewards and incentives, poor facilities, poor promotional avenues and the low esteem given to extension are the major causes of poor motivation and morale.The amazing thing is that, lack of political commitment was perceived as the least important constraint with a mean score of (5.00) by the respondent. An observation of table 10 reveals that lack of permanent budget was perceived as the first constraints by respondent with a mean score of (10.42). With a pre-coded questionnaire the researcher asked the extension agents if they have budget to implement FTC's mandatory roles and forty of them(100%) responded as they do not have. Also they were asked if no how do  An observation of the table 11 reveals that non-educational work load was identified as the major constraints with a mean score of (11.42%) by respondents. This finding agrees with the finding of FAO, which indicates that extension personnel in developing countries spend about quarter of their time on non-educational activities. FAO regarded this as a \"major loss of educational resources, especially in developing countries where extension coverage is still grossly inadequate, both in quantitative and qualitative terms\" (Swanson et al, 1990). The researcher himself has confirmed these constraints in the study area. In this context out of forty (40) extension agents thirty seven of them (92.5%) replied as they are performing non-extension work and three of them (7.5%) as no.Concerning the time they spend for non-educational activities, twelve of them (30%)replied quarter, twenty one of them(52.5%) half, four of them(10%) three-fourth and three of them (7.5%) replied as not at all. Lack of infrastructural facilities and proximity of FTCs from DAs and farmers residence were also perceived as a second and third rank constraint with a mean score of (8.28) and ( 5.85) respectively by the respondents. The observation of data in Table 12 shows that the social constraints (MS 39.97) was perceived as the major priority and accorded first rank by Woreda extension personnel.This was followed by institutional constraint (MS 38.42) and general constraints (MS 25.55) with second and third priority in the rank order. The data further indicate that the constraint perceived with least intensity by the extension personnel was economic constraints (MS 10.42) which were accorded as the fourth rank.During the study, the researcher has asked all the extension agents assigned at the FTCs with an open ended question to list the problems/constraints that they have faced during the teaching-learning process at their FTCs and most of them identified valuable constraints which need due attention. The summary of the constraints listed by extension agents was presented in frequency and percentage as follow.  An observation of data on Table 13 reveals that among the problems perceived by the front line extension agents during the teaching-learning process were drop out of trainees(70%), lack of teaching materials (55%), lack of support from the woreda and absence of linkage(27.5%), lack of budget (25%), lack of educated farmers who can read and write 'Afaan Oromo'(22.5%), lack of awareness, low community participation and expecting some benefits(20%), lack of skill and need of further training in the side of extension agents(12.5%)were the major ones. Even if they were cited by small number of respondents the remaining problems also could not be neglected and undermined, if our target is to solve the problems of FTCs. Based on the check list the forum was opened for discussion and everybody raised his hand to express his idea. The discussion was continued through the facilitation of the researcher accordingly. Every participants of the discussion group knows about the purpose of FTC. All of them responded that it was established for the benefit of the community, to educate farmers in order to increase production and productivity and to improve the living condition of the society. They have already got awareness about its purpose from the extension agents assigned in their PA.\"During the construction, hoping that we can get urgent solutions for our problems we have participated by digging the base and by carrying wood for construction. After its completion in 1996E.C the FTC stayed for a long time without functioning and giving services for the community. But, recently, in the compound of the FTC different types of demonstrations have been conducted and models were prepared by extension agents to teach farmers in practice. Even if, we have not taken training in the center, we have gained a lot of knowledge by seeing the trials carried out during the field day. We have benefited from the demonstration and also we became happy with the work done in the FTC. This is not false; it is a fact, which everybody can justify. The extension agents even who have done this good work were awarded. Outside our PA, many farmers, extension agents and high officials from different places have visited our FTC to share experiences.When they come to our village, the extension agents would give us advice. From time to time by going village to village they work with farmers to motivate them\".\"Our problem is the rising of the price of inorganic fertilizers from time to time. Our soil has already accustomed inorganic fertilizers as a bribe, without fertilizer the productivity is very low. Improved seeds alone without fertilizer will not give results. Then, what is the use of giving extension advices to farmers without inputs? If, the price of fertilizer become cheap the prices of grains also will decrease\". Finally as a conclusion, they have asked the researcher heartily and sincerely to forward this serious issue for the Government in order to solve their problem.Focus group discussion with trained farmers at 'Godino' FTC On January 28, 2009 the researcher went to 'Godino' FTC at 9:30 in the morning with public transport to discuss with trainees while they were learning in the class. Godino is12 km far away from Debrezeit town, the capital of the Woreda. When he reached there, he found the zonal supervisor and DAs at the center. He entered into the class room as a supervisor to observe the teaching-learning process. An extension agent of natural resource was teaching morally by writing some notes on the small piece of black board.The lecture was delivered with 'Afaan Oromo'. In between the lecture she asked them if they have questions. But, no one has asked her. They were eleven in number who were attending the class. Finally after she completed her daily session by greeting her and the trainees, the researcher introduced himself and told them about the purpose of his arrival in their FTC. As a start up, the questions raised for the focus group discussions were:- To avoid communication gap and to make all group members to be more participant, the discussion was carried out both in 'Afaan Oromo' and 'Amharic' languages. The discussion was held with eleven (11)  But, on some subjects (example, vegetable production) there is a problem, we learn only in theory, there was nothing that we have seen in practice\". \"In the future, pre-conditions have to be created for teaching farmers in practice from nursery up to post harvest handling. When they taught us, if it is not clear for us, we will ask them. They teach us the theory, by translating in 'Amharic language'. We have an experience in farming and vegetable production. We could not accept everything from them, we challenge them if it is not clear for us. Sometimes, by convincing each other they learn from us, by accepting our idea. Due to, shortage of land, totally we did not abandon our traditional practices. But, after she/ the trainer, taught us, we tried the practice and got good results, finally, we were convinced. The training given was suitable and applicable to our condition\".The problems, identified by the trainees during the focus group discussion were:-• Theoretical training.• The interruption of the training program.• Non-extension work assigned to DAs.• Lack of facilities and teaching materials.• Difficulty of reading and understanding the Oromiffaa alphabets/ Qubee.• Farness of FTC from farmer's residence.• The training program was too lengthy.• Due to time constraints, when the extension agents taught us, in a hurry, we missed some important points in between. • The training program was lagged behind both by the absence of trainees and trainers.• This situation will be a bad example, for the next batch, unless we learn properly and complete the courses offered in a short period of time.• Lack of improved seeds and other technologies.• Poor quality tomato seeds were supplied to us in the name of improved seeds.Based on the focus group discussion the trainees have also suggested what they felt. The suggestions given by them were summarized as follows.• As the training was prepared in 'Afaan Oromo' language, we have difficulty in reading, what we have written, therefore, if possible it is good if we could get the ''Amharic' version. • The exercise book on which we wrote the lecture might be torn or misplaced therefore, to avoid this problem and to get the information what we missed during the lecture, if we are provided with printed handout or manual.• Rather than theory, it is better if we learn more practically.• In order to make the trainees familiar with new modern technologies the FTC has to be fulfilled by different teaching materials, audio visuals, models, samples etc.• Until we complete the training program which already started, it is better not to assign the trainers for other tasks because, we came here to learn by abandoning our jobs.• We need to see in practice what we have learnt in theory in order to gain a better knowledge. If, a program is arranged for us to visit an area out side our site, to see practically. Even, we can cover the costs if it is necessary. • In the future, when we complete the training program, to be fruitful or to apply in practice what we have learnt in FTC a pre-condition have to be created for the trained farmers.• We need seasonal market information to sell our products at a reasonable price (vegetables).In general the focus group discussion held with trainee farmers was very interesting. In addition to cross check the problems of FTCs, the researcher has also conducted a focus group discussion with five(5) farmers, once who have taken training continuously for ten days at Golbo FTC. Golbo is one of the PA of Ada'a Woreda, which is 27 kms far away from Debrezeit town. The FTC has no access road and means of transportation. The researcher arrived there by the vehicle of his sponsors (IPMS).When he reached there; he met some farmers in the office of the 'Kebele' administration. After exchanging greetings, the researcher introduced himself and briefed them on his arrival to their PA.As a mark of respect, they brought a chair and asked him to sit on it. They called farmer who have attended the training program together in the office. The participants were five in numbers. Their age ranges from 26 to56 years.After creating a rapport and every participant was willing for the group discussion, for the start up or ignition, the researcher asked the group members to tell him about the historical events of the training program which have been ceased. One of the dominant group member and others expressed the event of the training as follows.\"First, for the training program 20 female and 40 male, altogether sixty(60) farmers were selected from different villages in the PA. The farmers selected for the training were both literate and illiterate. The training started in April, 2008. When we first began, we were thirty (30) in number. At that time there were three extension agents with different profession. The training was a three month program. The training was given weekly for two days on Monday and Friday daily for five hours. These two days were selected because, they are not market days. As, our FTC was not furnished by the necessary facilities for the training program we were attending the training in the primary school of our PA. In general, before we stopped the training program, within the ten days, we have learnt about improved seeds, fattening, modern animal husbandry, poultry production, compost preparation, soil and water conservation and natural resource management. We have learnt all the subjects in theory; we have not performed any practical session. The trainers told us that, in the future when every teaching material is fulfilled, you can learn in practice. The training was attended by those who are living near the FTC and no one came from the remotest villages. Last year there was drought, we got rain lately. Finally, when it started to rain in May, 2008 everybody who was attending the training program had stopped going for the training and turned his/her face for ploughing their plots.Although the extension agents said they had the instruction to continue the training program, we had to start our agricultural activities as there was rain. This, eventually, disturbed the training program. In the process, the earlier extension agents were transferred to other areas, and the training program, thus, got halted. Later on new extension agents arrived and we are ready to continue the training as we have realized its importance.Considering the researcher as a high official and he might solve our problems by discussing with the concerned bodies, they continued in expressing their problems as the following. \"We have acute water problem. Even if, there is a river around us, we are drinking the 'urine of donkeys'. Why the government didn't observe our problems by going until to the grass root level? We don't have road. During the rainy season, when the river-bank is flooded, we are unable even to burry, a dead person; we have difficulty in selling our farm products by transporting to the markets. We have contributed 39,800 birr, before, for the construction of road. But, it was damaged by flood as it was simply paved with a Grader. If we get an opportunity, we are ready to contribute money in the future.\"Finally, the researcher asked the group members about their participation in the construction of the FTC and they expressed their contribution as follow:-• Each house hold member of the PA has contributed 10 birr. The total HHs members are 495 and even the youth have contributed 5 birr per head.• The community have provided one hectare of land for demonstration.• We have fetched water during the construction time.• We have loaded sand and stone for construction of FTC on 10 trucks/Lorries.Every community member has awareness about FTC. Before the construction of FTC an awareness creation work has been carried out on a meeting and the people have also accepted the program.On February 03, 2009, the researcher arrived at Tulu Dimtu PA, which is 33 kms far away from the capital town in order to observe the status of the FTC. The researcher went to the center by the vehicle of IPMS, due to the problem of getting public transport.When he reached there the extension agents were not around and as an alternative to get information, he decided to talk with the kebele management committee. After a while, he got the PA manager/ Government representative at PA level/. By introducing himself the researcher told him about his arrival and went together to see the FTC. The researcher has observed in and out of the FTC and they sat together in the FTC office to discuss on FTC issues. The key of the office was with the manager. The researcher asked the manager, as a key informant, about the training program going on in the FTC. First, the manager showed the attendance of the trainees for the researcher, by saying that \"when we start the program, they were around sixty seven (67) farmers, who have registered for the training, but, due to drop out now remained only eleven.\" He also expressed the following points concerning their FTC.• Even if, they have interest/ the farmers/, in connection with work, there is a problem of drop out and not giving priority for the training.• The FTC is near for farmers of two villages but, it is far away for one village.• The FTC has no fencing and guarding and due to this, so far we are not able to conduct demonstration, but, in a short period of time to fence the FTC, we are on contributing money from the community.• We have lack of teaching materials, we teach farmers, even, by borrowing a black board from the primary school in our PA.• In provision of demonstration land for FTC , there was a disagreement among farmers of the three villages and the problem has not been solved.• One of the reasons for the drop out or stopping the training program was, once the extension agents have registered the trainees by promising to them that, they will get improved wheat seeds, but, due to shortage of input supply the trainees were not able to get any seed. Because of this discouragement and dissatisfaction, they stopped coming to the center by expressing their hate and by saying that 'if we came again here let our legs be broken'.• From remoteness or other reasons of motivation there is lack of support from the woreda.• The extension agents are highly committed to teach farmers but, our problem is lack of material.• The training was given both for educated and uneducated farmers.• We teach side by side, 'Afaan Oromo' or 'Qubee' to solve the problem of reading and writing of Oromiffaa''.During the group discussion with trained and untrained farmers and key informant a lot of valuable information was identified by the interaction of the group members which can be a lesson to correct the mistakes for the next batch. They were disappointed by the lengthy of the training program. As the training also focused on theory they did not acquired the appropriate skills. Due to the lengthy of the program and lack of sustainability most of the trainees have stopped coming to the center and this situatation creates a bad example for other farmers. As their livelihood is based on farming they don't want to waste their time due to opportunity cost. They have also expressed their dissatisfaction on the provision of improved seed technologies and on the promise given to them which was not translated indeed.SWOT is the acronym of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. It is a simple, popular technique which can be used in preparing or amending plans, in problem solving and decision making. Identification of SWOTs is essential because subsequent steps in the process of planning for achievement of the selected objective may be derived from the SWOTs. It is particularly helpful in identifying areas for development. The description of SWOT and its analysis carried out at FTC/ PA, Woreda and regional level was presented briefly as follows. • High interest and commitment among extension agents to teach farmers.• Fulfillment of the required extension agents in 8 FTCs.• Awareness creation to benefit community by services.• Starting of teaching Afaan Oromo language/Qube to solve the problem of reading and writing in some PAs.• In some PAs farmers have applied in practice what they have learnt at FTCs and became business oriented.• Fulfillment of the necessary facilities and materials in eleven FTCs for the teaching-learning process.• Inability to train farmers successfully according to the plan.• The delay of the training program even after the completion of FTCs.• Failure to achieve the FTCs goal.• Lack of quality in construction of some FTCs.• An uncomplishment of FTC buildings, the windows frame do not have glasses, some of them don't have toilet. No improved sanitation.• In most FTCs the land given for demonstration was very small.• The demonstration area of some FTCs is unfertile, rocky with hard pan, sloppy and degraded.• Most of the FTCs have no fence and because of this the seedlings of trees, forages and fruits planted in the compound were eaten and damaged by livestock.• The interruption of the training program in many FTCs.• Inability to restart the interrupted training program by convincing farmers.• Inability to provide the FTCs with the necessary facilities and materials for conducting the training program.• Lack of water to conduct demonstration throughout the year, except Godino FTC • Lack of electric power for using audio-visuals to teach farmers at FTCs.• Some of the FTCs are isolated.• Shortage of regular budget for the FTCs.• Less commitment among kebele and Woreda management bodies.• Weak monitoring and supervision.• FTCs locations are far away from the residence of farmers.• Drop out, inability to come on time for training and absenteeism.• Non-educational work load on extension agents.• Attitudinal and outlook problems.• Unavailability of educated farmers and problem of reading and writing of 'Qube'.Even though, most of the FTCs have counted many years since their establishment and eleven of them have been fulfilled by the necessary facilities and teaching materials but, due to different reasons they are not able to translate the government policies and strategies into practice. The program lack sustainability. There are a lot of weaknesses in all FTCs in different aspects which needs due attention. To overcome these problems by all stake holders some motivational steps are required immediately to witness drastic changes in the study area.• The presence of Agricultural Research Centers in the Woreda and in the zone.• The presence of IPMS project in the Woreda.• The presence of primary schools in the PAs.• Willingness of the community to support FTCs in every aspect.• Accessibility of FTCs to different infrastructures (road, electricity, water, school, health centers and telecommunication services).• The presence of different institutions such as cooperatives, union, NGOs, modern private farms, agro-processing industries and governmental organizations in the Woreda.• Opportunity to generate an income to cover the running costs of the centers by selling the results of the demonstrations conducted for teaching farmers.• The availability of river water in 'Godino' FTC to produce or teach farmers throughout the year.• Availability of electric power and Generators in three FTCs for teaching farmers by using audio-visual aids about new practices and technologies.• Opportunity of access to and utilization of information for rural development.• Difficulty or fear to convince farmers by conducting demonstration on the infertile and degraded land in some FTCs.• Due to lack of quality in construction, there is a fear that some of the FTCs might be destroyed without giving any services for the community. • Unless the FTCs are fulfilled by the necessary facilities and budget, the training program may cease and this may cause failure on the Government policies and strategies to achieve the planned goals.• Farmers who have taken training so far have to be provided with inputs in order to apply into practice what they have learnt. If they could not get the inputs the training program may not be sustainable or lose its continuity.• The compounds of FTCs have to be fenced properly and protected from the surrounding livestock in order to conduct a reliable demonstration that will attract the community.• The function of FTCs may be under a question, and may stand for ever without functioning, unless the concerned bodies give due attention for this issue.• Dispute on the demonstration area given to the FTC did not get solution by kebele and woreda(The case of Gobesaye and TuluDimtu FTCs).• The less payment of salary to extension agents in relation to the current living standard and lack of chance for further education may be a question of survival whether to continue or discontinue their duties in the future.• The creation of different untimely workloads on extension agents may interrupt the training program.• Due to, low water holding capacity of the soil, there is a fear that, the trials which are conducted on the demonstration field might be destroyed.• Farmers who are on training since the last three years, due to the lengthy duration of the program they might be fading up to finish the remaining courses and inability to graduate them immediately are their fears (Godino). • Fulfillment of different equipments, teaching materials and other necessary facilities for the teaching-learning process in some FTCs.• Fulfillment of the required trainers/ extension agents in eight ( 8) FTCs with different profession (plant science, animal husbandry and natural resource).• The presence of morale and interest in the side of extension agents to teach farmers.• Inability of some FTCs to carry out the training program.• Shortage of enough demonstration area.• Low linkage with other development institutions.• Shortage of regular budget for FTCs.• Quality problem in the construction of FTCs.• Unfulfillment of FTCs with the necessary facilities and materials.• Some FTCs do not have toilets.• The construction of some FTCs remained without completion.• Less attention for FTCs by Woreda and Kebele management bodies.• Low interest to learn in the side of farmers • High dropout rate, not coming on time and absenteeism.• Farness of FTCs from DAs and farmers residence.• Provision of unfertile and unsuitable land for demonstration.• The presence of Debrezeit agricultural research center in the Woreda.• Most FTCs have access to information.• Most of the FTCs have road and transportation access.• Availability of electricity and generators for using audio visual aids.• The presence of IPMS project in the Woreda.• Availability of water for irrigation in Godino FTC.• The constructed FTCs might be ruined without achieving their goal.• The interruption of the training program might continue, unless attention is given to the issue.• It created opportunity to train farmers within their locality.• The training was supported by demonstration to teach practically.• DAs have interest to teach farmers and the farmers have also interest to learn.• Most of the farmers have no awareness and their interest to learn is also poor.• Facilities problem.• It can serve as a center of excellence where research results are popularized.• The presence of political commitment to see the results of FTCs.• Lack of teaching materials that has not been fully allocated to FTCs properly.• With the existing condition training in FTC focus on farmers who relatively have better academic back ground, so there is a fear it might neglect those who are illiterate.• Starting to serve as a center of information and technology demonstration.• A lot of them are not in a position to give/ provide training.• Many farmers became aware of about the importance of technologies in increasing production and productivity.• Constructing FTC without furnishing and keeping them out of training will lead the community not to involve in rural development activities.Assuming that the above stated factors under each of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats have the same weight of one unit; the SWOT summary of FTCs which were identified by different extension personnel from the grass root up to the top management level was presented as follows. On the basis of the above data, the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats identified by development agents outweigh the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats identified by supervisors, woreda extension personnel and the region. Also the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats identified by supervisors outweigh the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats identified by the woreda and the region.The above table reveals that as we go from the top hierarchy to the grass root level the problems are too much. As the extension agents are the front line who implements the government policies and strategies they do not hesitate in expressing the problems they face. But, as we go up there was a tendency to hide problems which can be seen on the ground reality.Based on the SWOT analysis undertaken it is found out that most of the FTCs have fulfilled the necessary facilities and teaching materials. Some of them have computer, television and audio-visual aids. There is also a plan to connect these FTCs with internet net work in a short period of time. The study area is full of opportunities, because, there is a project which supports FTCs. There are agricultural research centers like Debre Zeit, Melkasa and Adami Tulu in the werda and within the zone. There are strong cooperatives and union. There are different governmental development institutions. There are modern dairy, poultry, horticultural farms and so on in the area to show farmers in practice what they have learnt in FTCs. There are also different agro-processing industries. There is also high expansion of investment in the area that helps for marketing. Comparatively;the study area has access to information and infrastructural facilities than other woreda's.Some of the activities which were carried out in the compound of some FTCs are also encouraging.The third objective of the study was to know farmers opinion towards the mandatory roles of FTCs. An opinion is a person's idea and thoughts towards something. One of the element or component that is required for the teaching-learning process is the availability of trainees/ clients (farmers, farm families and youth) who attend the training program and who are going to be benefited from the services of FTCs. If there is no client who uses the mandatory services of these institutions, it is a loss and wastage of scarce resources. Therefore, the study was conducted to know if there is favorable or unfavorable opinion among farmers towards the services of farmers training centers in the study area. Cronbach's alpha co-efficient was used to calculate the reliability which was 0.616. Among the total thirty two (32) statements eighteen (18) were found with alpha value greater than 0.616. Hence, these eighteen statements were dropped and the remaining fourteen ( 14) statements were used to analyze respondents' perception towards the mandatory services of FTCs. Content validity was examined by a panel of experts comprising three extensionists before data collection.In order to get an over view about the opinion of respondents towards the mandatory services of FTCs the trained and untrained farmer beneficiaries were grouped into three categories that is (a) less favorable(below 30), (b) favorable( 30 to 38) and (c) most favorable(above 38). The groups were formed on the basis of calculated mean scores and standard deviation of the overall opinion scores obtained by the respondents as a whole.The distribution of respondents in each group under both categories of respondents is given in table 15.  The respondents have also given their agreement on the statements extension agents in FTC do not want to learn from farmers and community and the service given by FTC are not need based. It is interesting to note that both trained and untrained farmer respondents more or less nearly in a similar way have shown strong disagreement with the statement that going to FTC is wastage of time and extension agents teach farmers on technologies which we cannot apply in practice. The rank correlation value between trained and untrained farmers was found to be -0.056, which is statistically highly significant at 1% level of significance. The data support the proportion that there is a negative association between the ranks accorded by trained and untrained farmers to the different statements reflecting their opinion towards the mandatory roles of FTCs in the study area. Conclusion therefore can be drawn that the opinion reflected by the two categories of farmers towards the mandatory services of FTCs was more or less similar. degraded and rocky with a hard pan. Three FTCs have rented part of their demonstration area in order to get income for running their FTCs.All of the FTCs do not have permanent budget for FTCs but, this year 500 birr was allocated for each FTC for stationery purpose only. Most of the FTCs are not fenced and even, those which were fenced; they are not strong enough to protect the entrance of livestock in their compounds. Out of the sixteen FTCs only seven of them have guard and the rest do not have. The monthly salary of the guards is covered by the community.Among the sixteen FTCs, eleven of them (64.25%) more or less have fulfilled teaching materials, equipments and sitting accommodation for the teaching-learning process.Four FTCs which are supported by IPMS have a better status among the others. These Therefore, it can be concluded from the study that out of the sixteen( 16) FTCs assessed four of them(25%) which are supported by IPMS project have fulfilled the basic teaching materials, equipment and facilities for the teaching-learning process in a better way than the others and their problems are less severe. From the sixteen FTCs also seven of them (43.75%) have fulfilled the basic teaching materials, facilities and equipment moderately for the teaching-learning process and their problem is severe. In other way, the five FTCs (31.25%) of them have not equipped with the necessary facilities for the teaching-learning process and the problem of these FTCs and their problems are more severe. Most of the FTCs were not able to realize the government's program in to practice. Although, the studied area has ample of opportunities to make FTC's more effective, however, the training program lacks sustainability. Even if, the level varies, all of the FTCs have a lot of constraints and weaknesses in implementing their tasks. Concerning farmers opinion towards the mandatory roles of FTCs, majority of the FTC's beneficiary respondents were from the category of favorable opinion. The perception reflected by trained and untrained farmers towards the mandatory services of FTC's was more or less similar. Hence, there was no significance difference between trained and untrained farmers regarding their opinion towards FTCs.Based on the findings of this study, the following issues are forwarded as recommendations that assist to improve the effectiveness of farmers training centers in implementing their mandatory roles.• One of the major constraints that has been identified and perceived by extension personnel was low community participation which has to be given a great attention among all constraints, because, even those FTCs which have fulfilled teaching materials did not become effective and fully operational. Most of the FTCs were established before four and five years. In relation to their age their performance was not satisfactory. In fact, changing the mind and behavior of human being is not an easy task. To bring about behavioral and attitudinal changes it needs patience. Therefore, before execution of any program, changing the attitude of people by educating and motivating them is very important. The fundamental objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturally by means of education. A continuous awareness creation work has to be done through the local leaders of the area.• One of the major constraints which were identified was non-extension work load.The end product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the farmer, his wife or youngsters as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or some other changes in behavior. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. Therefore, to attract the community members towards FTCs, assigning highly committed and well experienced extension agent is very crucial. The effectiveness of the work of farmers' training center is almost entirely dependent upon the quality, ability, competence and commitment of extension agents. They have to be provided by the necessary incentives (like salary payment, education, housing, transportation, promotion etc.) to keep their morale according the result they brought.• Another major constraint identified was that the training program was not to the interests and expectations of the farmers. Therefore farmer training courses must be need centered or courses must be offered after a training need is identified.These needs and interests differ from individual to individual, from village to village and from one agro-ecology to another agro-ecology. Therefore, to make the training program more effective and fruitful, the training must be designed according to farmers' needs and interests, by preparing a menu list of courses with their duration.• Another problem that came to surface in focus group discussion was that the training programs level of theoretical nature. Hence, the courses offered at FTCs must be more practical rather than theoretical in order to make both educated and uneducated farmers more skillful. Therefore, to give life for the learning at FTCs inexperienced extension agents have also to be supported by the woreda, zonal and regional experts to build their capacity.• Weak monitoring and supervision system was the other finding of the study.Hence, to make the roles of FTCs more effective, there must be a regular monitoring and evaluation system. Critical supervision, monitoring and evaluation should be thoroughly carried out in order to move FTCs on the right track.Monitoring and evaluation is essential so that all stake holders and the teaching staff at FTC are satisfied that the center is, at all times, catering for the needs of the farming community. The researcher has observed also the presence of communication gap between kebele and woreda and between woreda and region.This communication gap can also be solved or bridged by strengthening the monitoring and evaluation system.• Lack of educated farmers was one of the constraints of the finding. Currently This is really, a good example for others and can be appreciated. Hence, to solve the problem of illiteracy and to create educated farmers in rural areas the concerned governmental and nongovernmental organizations have to design a basic education program to eradicate illiteracy from the study area. Those who have started already to teach 'Afaan Oromo' have also to be supported morally and materially.• The other important constraint identified by extension agents, woreda extension personnel and key informants was the drop out of trainees from FTCs and expectation of some benefits in the side of farmers. Therefore, in order to solve these serious problems, beside the awareness creation work, the woreda cabinet has also the responsibility to search a solution by studying the issue thoroughly and to design a program for motivating trainees to attract farmers to participate in the training program.• Lack of permanent budget for the operation of FTCs is the other constraint.Hence, to solve the financial constraint, the woreda in collaboration with the respective kebeles have to allocate budget and they have to search other income options. For example, to create income generating agricultural activities in the FTC compounds which can be used at the same time for teaching farmers.•  Going to FTC is wastage of time 2.The services given by FTC are not need based 3.The information given at FTC did not consider our local situation 4.I have got a lot of information after the establishment of FTC 5.Due to lack of market information we are exploited by brokers and traders 6.Thanks to DAs in FTC we sell our product at a reasonable price 7.Extension agents in FTC do not want to learn from farmers and the community 8.I don't know for what purpose the FTC was established 9.The extension agents in FTC are highly motivated to serve us. 10.DAs in the FTC serve the community by going until remote areas 11.DAs in FTC do not like to go and serve the community in remote areas 12.The DAs in FTC are highly experienced in matters of farming 13.The  ","tokenCount":"21834"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4236933e56d06b9d054442366f09db6b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b0f5b4b-b001-4507-bf12-9868b97ccd6a/retrieve","id":"1484732088"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fdf4c64d-0ce7-4d0f-8bf5-a3cbfed21671","pagecount":"144","content":" We conducted 224 Key Informant Interviews (KII) and 350 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) in the 55 APART clusters spread over 13 districts of Assam.  There are almost one million pigs in APART districts which account for almost 64% of the pig popula on of Assam.  Nearly half of the pigs are in three districts; these districts are home to a high propor on of Scheduled Tribe (ST) members.  The pig popula on has been increasing over the last decade at 2.8% per year, less than the state average of 3.65%  Pork share has increased from 29% of meat in Assam in 1998 to 39% in 2016.We sincerely thank and acknowledge the guidance and support that we received from the Agriculture Produc on Commissioner (APC) to the Govt. of Assam; Commissioner and Secretary to the Govt. of Assam, Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Department (AHVD); State Proj ect Director, ARIAS Society; Director, Nodal Offi cer (APART) and other offi cials of AHVD and concerned offi cials of the ARIAS Society without which this mapping exercise would not have been possible to complete.Our sincere thanks also goes to all of the district veterinary offi cers (DVOs), block veterinary offi cers (BVOs)/veterinary offi cers (VOs), veterinary fi eld assistants (VFA), and other concerned offi cials and support staff s who accompanied us on our visits to the fi eld or provided us the necessary informa on and guidance.We express our sincere thanks to all those ILRI and partners colleagues based on whose comments and discussion at various stages the pork value chain mapping report was revised to bring to its present form.Last but by no means least we express our sincere gra tude to the pig producers, butchers and/ or pork retailers, pig and piglets traders and service providers in the pork value chain and all other pork value chain actors who whole helped us by supplying the necessary informa on during our fi eld visits.Page No Figure 1 : Schema c representa on of the value chain actors for all APART districts.                    iiiPar cular Page No Table 1.1: No. of FGD and KII conducted in the APART districts 4 Table 2.3: Distribu on of pig popula on by sex and breed in the APART districts of Assam 6 Table 2.4: Pig rearing HH and pig popula on with respect to total HH 7 Table 2.5: Growth rate of pig popula on in the APART districts of Assam 8 Table 3.1: Pork produc on as a part of total mean produc on in the APART districts by seasons 9  5.5.5: Women's par cipa on in pig and pork produc on and income control Table 5.5.6: Average herd size (adult pigs) of the farm HH and average no. of fa ened pigs sold Table 5.5.7: Percentage of fa ened pigs sold versus used for other purposes Table 5.5.8: Percentage of fa ened pig sales by sources and their respec ve farm gate prices Table 5.5.9: Percentage of breeding piglets sold (at weaning) per HH and price per piglet Table 5.5.10: Access to veterinary services at the selected APART clusters of the district Table 5.5.11: Access to input and breeding services at cluster level Table 5.5.12: Availability of input supplying ins tu ons at cluster level Table 5.5.13: No. of pork market actors at cluster level (based on KII and FGD)  5.9.5: Women's par cipa on in pig and pork produc on and income control Table 5.9.6: Average herd size (adult pigs) of the farm HH and average no. of fa ened pigs sold Table 5.9.7: Percentage of fa ened pigs sold versus used for other purposes Table 5.9.8: Percentage of fa ened pigs sale by sources and their respec ve farm gate prices Table 5.9.9: Percentage of breeding piglets sold (at weaning) per HH and price per piglet Table 5.9.10: Access to veterinary services at the selected APART cluster of the district Table 5.9.11: Access to input and breeding services at cluster level Table 5.9.12: Availability of input supplying ins tu ons at cluster level Table 5.9.13: No. of pork market actors at cluster level (based on KII and FGD) Table 5.9.14: Markets and other infrastructures at cluster level  5.12.4: Distribu on of farm HH by the purpose of pig rearing Table 5.12.5: Women's par cipa on in pig and pork produc on and income control Table 5.12.6: Average herd size (adult pigs) of the farm HH and average no. of fa ened pigs sold Table 5.12.7: Percentage of fa ened pigs sold versus used for other purposes Table 5.12.8: Percentage of fa ened pigs sale by sources and their respec ve farm gate prices Table 5.12.9: Percentage of breeding piglets sold (at weaning) per HH and price per piglet Table 5.12.10: Access to veterinary services at the selected APART clusters of the district Table 5.12.11: Access to input and breeding services at cluster level Table 5.12.12: No. of pork market actors at cluster level (based on KII and FGD) Table 5.12.13: Markets and other infrastructures at cluster level Table 5.12.14: Names and contacts of promising progressive entrepreneurs in pork value chain Table 5.13.1: Cluster villages iden fi ca on based on fi eld visit     Almost 78% of the pigrearing tasks on-farm are carried out by women and women hold 64% share of control over the income from pig rearing.  There are no female private or public local veterinarian's or VFAs in the APART clusters.  There are no female butchers cum pork retailers or pig and piglet traders. There are 68,143 pig producers in the APART districts of which 54,794 are fa eners, 6,925 breeders and 6,472 both breeders and fa eners.  There are 907 butchers cum pork retailers, 829 pig and piglet traders' and fi ve slaughter houses (in Sonitpur and Kamrup only). In Assam, the pig subsector makes important contribu ons to livelihoods, nutri on and the economy.Pig farming in Assam is a low-external input enterprise depending upon family labour-mainly women's-and HH feed resources. Tradi onal management prac ces con nue to dominate the produc on system. Most pigs are crossbred but these are the outcome of haphazard crossbreeding resul ng in poor produc ve and reproduc ve performance. Access to veterinary and extension services is poor, and vaccina on and deworming are not rou nely prac sed in many parts of the state. The dependence on locally available feed resources and tradi onal feeding prac ces further limits pig performance (Deka etal. 2008). Pig producers in Assam, despite good market demand and promising income poten al, are unable to increase the size of their herd under tradi onal systems because of the paucity of HH feed, labour and fi nancial resources, and lack of good housing systems. Well-targeted, aff ordable and accessible interven ons in the pig sector can improve pig produc vity and deliver signifi cant economic and employment benefi ts to the producers and other value chain actors.In Assam, although the live pig market runs effi ciently, the pork market does not (Deka et al. 2008). In the absence of processing fi rms and because of low demand for processed pork, more than 99% of pork is soldt hrough wet markets. The lack of func onal slaughter houses in the ci es/towns contributes to an almost non-func onal pork quality monitoring system. Although consumer demand for pork is increasing, so also are concerns about the quality and safety of pork. Therefore, to increase consumer sa sfac on and sustain demand in the long run, improvement of the pork market is essen al along with eff orts for increased compliance to food safety standards among market actors.Similar to the informal pig sector, bringing informal pork market actors under the Food Safety and Standard Act and municipal regula on will help ensure that their business meets prevailing food safety regula ons and that they become eligible to access services available to other businesses. To adhere to the rules and regula ons, market actors must adopt quality and safety norms which will further enhance demand for pork products. Be er hygiene and quality of pork will enhance its shelf life, reduce disease incidence in humans, reduce product wastage and increase market actors' profi ts. These market improvements can also further mi gate the adverse eff ects of climate change which would otherwise tend to increase animal and food-borne disease and increase spoilage (Grace et al. 2016). This report has the following broad objec ves  To provide background informa on about the piggery sector with focus on status and dynamics of pig popula on and pork produc on for both the state of Assam and the APART districts.  To iden fy and map market actors including input suppliers, producers, pig and piglet traders and butchers/pork retailers in the selected clusters of each APART district and establish linkage among the market actors.To give district-specifi c recommenda ons based on the fi ndings of the primary survey in the APART districts.As a star ng point, the study reviewed available literature on the value chain approach to piggery sector development in a small holder pig produc on system. The main actors in the informal pork value chain were iden fi ed by the ILRI team in the state of Assam context and we conducted KII to elicit informa on on the general profi le of the respondents, live pig and pork marke ng, produc on system, service provisioning and the role of enabling environment such as ins tu ons, knowledge etc. To provide more in-depth understanding of the pork produc on system and related issues, FGD were conducted in almost 90% of the selected cluster villages in each district. Informa on regarding the remaining 10% of villages was obtained through either KII or FGD by convergence. The ILRI fi eld study team visited the listed cluster villages in each project district of Assam, namely Golaghat, Jorhat, Barpeta, Lakhimpur, Morigaon, Darrang, Sonitpur, Goalpara, Nalbari, Karbi Anglong, Kokrajhar, Sivasagar and Kamrup. To begin with, the fi eld study team conducted KII with the district veterinary offi cer and/or veterinary offi cer (VO)/block veterinary offi cer (BVO) assigned as APART district coordinators. Following this, planning occurred for the visit to cluster villages and interviews of the market actors. In each cluster of the APART districts, eff orts were made to visit every village, as the pilot experiences (when we tried to do FGD by merging two or more villages) suggested that FGD par cipants of one village had limited knowledge about farming and marke ng status of the other villages. A er conduc ng KII with the concerned VOs/BVOs and VFAs, the listed cluster villages were fi rst visited to conduct FGD to gather informa on on produc on, marke ng, access to various inputs and veterinary services,and other aspects of the pork value chain. With an emphasis on as certaining the no. of pig producers, traders, butchers, pork retailers and processors in a par cular cluster, priority was given to the responses of KII conducted with similar actors.A total of 224 KII and 350 FGD were conducted in the APART districts of Assam (Table 1.1). The background informa on on the piggery sector was drawn from the literature review of primary and secondary sources. The analysis was quan ta ve and qualita ve. It presents cluster segregated maps of pork value chain actors in each APART district, descrip on of the pork produc on system (HH and villagelevel pig popula on and breeds, purpose of rearing,i.e. for breeding, fa ening or both), gendered aspects in pig rearing (performing of ac vi es and income control), pork and piglet marke ng (type of markets, selling behaviour and sources, prices fetched according to sources), access to services (veterinary, input, fi nancial and infrastructural), enabling environment, actor-specifi c informa on (e.g.sources of pigs/pork, volume of pork/no. of piglets sold monthly and average selling prices), physical environment (e.g. approachroad quality), and iden fi ca on of progressive farmers at cluster level.The report presents simple tabular quan ta ve analysis of the data using ra os, mean and variance. The qualita ve informa on is presented as text obtained through communica on with the value chain actors (KII) and FGD par cipants.In this sec on, we describe the pig popula on, pork produc on and pa ern of change over the years in the APART districts and the state as a whole. The analysis and presenta on of the data are made based on secondary data collected from the relevant published sources of the various government departments.Pork cons tutes an important source of protein and nutri on among rural HH as well as urban consumers, and an important source of livelihood, most importantly of the tribal popula on. The percentage share of the pig popula on in the APART districts of Assam is shown in Figure 2.1. As of 2012, the pig popula on of the state was 1.63 million.The total pig popula on across the APART districts is 1.04 million cons tu ng almost 64% of the total pig popula on in the state. The percent share of pigs among the APART districts is highest in the Karbi Anglong district (15.56%) followed by undivided Sonitpur district (15%). Districts such as Dhubri and Darrang have a much lower share of pig popula on with less than 1% each. The composi on of the pig popula on by breed and sex across the APART districts are shown in Table 2.1. Out of the total 0.96 million pigs across APART districts, 0.51 million are male (almost 52%).A similar composi on of male and female pigs in the state as a whole. According to the data of the 19 th Livestock Census, crossbreeding of pigs is not taking place at an impressive scale largely because of the high amount of inbreeding due to non systema c breeding and selec on. For the state as a whole, the total crossbred pigs comprise 37.5% of the pig popula on (0.61 million) compared to 62.5% (1.02 million) indigenous breeds. The average propor on of crossbred pigs is smaller in the APART districts (34%)) indica ng the need of pig crossbreeding through the APART schemes. However, Karbi Anglong, which has the highest share of pig popula on both across the APART districts and the state,has a much higher propor on of crossbred pigs (43.84%) compared to districts such as Sonitpur (20.33%) and Lakhimpur (19.84%) (with the second and third highest pig popula ons respec vely). The existence of crossbreeding programmes in Kokrajhar district (with the fourth highest pig popula on) is high with an almost 49% share. Goalpara, in the lower stratum of districts in terms of pig popula on, has the highest propor on-94%-of crossbred pigs (Table 2.1). To provide a more complete picture of pig produc on within the districts, the distribu on of HH rearing pigs and density of pig popula on according to the no. of HH are provided. Almost 8% of HH in the APART districts keep pigs; in the state as a whole, almost 9% of HH keep pigs (Table 2.2). Sonitpur, which is ed to second highest pig popula on across APART districts, has an almost equivalent percentage of HH rearing pigs to that of Goalpara, a district located at the lower rung (13.56% for Sonitpur versus 13.11% in Goalpara). However, Sonitpur district has more pigs per HH than that in Goalpara.Karbi Anglong district has signifi cance in the pork value chain policy front as almost 31% of HH rear pigs with 855 pigs per 1,000 HH. Among the APART districts, Dhurbi has the lowest propor on of HH rearing pigs followed by Barpeta.The distribu on of pig popula on and pig rearing HH across APART districts shows that in districts dominated by STs such as in Karbi Anglong, Lakhimpur and Kokrajhar. pig rearing is an important livelihood op on, where as in districts with a dominant Muslim popula on such as in Dhubri, Barpeta, Cachar and Darrang, pig rearing is not an important livelihood op on.This indicates that the project should keep districts with a signifi cant ST popula on at the fore front for intervening with eff orts to develop the piggery sector value chain of the state. Further more, crossbreeding of pigs in the APART districts has not taken place at scale and policy priority and should therefore be a focus of interven ons, including the introduc on of crossbreeding technology such as AI.. The pig popula on trend in the APART districts and the state as a whole is presented in Table 2.3. The pig popula on in the state has increased from 0.82 million in 1994 to 1.63 million in 2012 with an annual growth rate of 3.65%. The total pig popula on across APART districts of the state has grown at the rate of 2.77% during the same period, lower than the growth rate of the state total by 0.88 percentage point. However, the share of pig popula on in the APART districts declined from almost 69% in 1994 to 59% in 2012.Barpeta, Morigaon, Darrang and Nalbari districts all experienced a decline in pig popula on. Among the major pig producing districts of the project, Sonitpur records the highest annual growth rate (7.59%) from 1994 to 2012 followed by Lakhimpur (5.08%). Karbi Anglong, the highest pig producing district, records an annual growth rate of 2.02% from 1994 to 2012 showing a gradual decline in the share of pig popula on in the state total from 13.34% in 1994 to 9.92% (Table 2.3). The analyses point out that the status of pig produc on across districts is changing drama cally and to encourage steady growth, policies are required to address specifi c problems nega vely aff ec ng the growth of pig produc on. This may help in achieving the larger objec ve ofensuring adequate supply to keep pace with the rise in pork demand. The trend in the composi on of pig popula on by breed in the APART districts is shown in Figure 2.2.There has been a constant increase in the propor on of crossbred pigs from 13.11% in 1994 to 34.37% in 2012. However, to increase the overall pig popula on of the state, the propor on of crossbred pigs needs to be increased more from the current level. Source: Livestock Census of Assam (various issues)In 2015-16, total pork produc on in the state was almost 17.5 thousand tonnes (t). As the produc vity and average size of pig popula on is dependent on clima c condi ons, seasonality may aff ect produc vity and produc on. Season-wise pork produc on in the APART districts is presented in Table 3.1. Although across the state of Assam, almost an equal propor on of pork produc on occurs in all of the three seasons (summer, rainy and winter), the total pork produc on across APART districts is highest in the winter season (37% of overall produc on). According to APART districts, a marked varia on is observed across seasons for many of the districts. Table 3   2 present the percentage share of pork produc on across APART districts and the state as a whole. Combining all of the APART districts, the percentage share of total pork produc on cons tutes almost 74% of total pork produc on in the state during 2015-16. This indicates that the project under took districts of the state with rela vely higher pig produc vity. Karbi Anglong district is the highest pork producer in the state (15.2%) followed by the undivided Sonitpur district (8.9%) (Figure 3.2). Kamrup district was ranked eighth in pig popula on and third in pig produc on among the APART districts, indica ng the rela vely be er pork produc vity of the district. Lakhimpur's posi on in the share of pork produc on in the APART districts is fi h all though it is third with regards to pig popula on indica ng rela vely low pork produc on rela ve to popula on. Shi in the ranks of pork produc on compared to pig popula on is also witnessed in lower rung districts like Barpeta, Nalbari, Goalpara, Morigaon and Dhubri.   The assessment of the performance of the pig health delivery services is essen al in order to determine constraints and opportuni es for interven ons along the pork value chain (Dione et al. 2014). This requires an evalua on of the available infrastructure such as access to veterinary services ins tu ons. Table 4.1 shows, across APART districts,the distribu on of various ins tu ons such as veterinary hospitals, dispensaries, subcentres / fi rst-aid centres / stock centres, block veterinary dispensaries, key village centres, regional AI centres, rinder pest check posts and porcine contagious pleuropneumonia check posts. The total no. of veterinary services ins tu ons is 1,236 in Assam with one ins tu on providing services for 1,324 pigs. In the APART districts as a whole, 1,295 pigs are covered by one veterinary ins tute.The districts having a sizable pig popula on such as Karbi Anglong, Lakhimpur, Kokrajhar, Sivasagar and Golaghat have on average less veterinary services rela ve to the pig popula on. The remaining districts with a low pig popula on seem to have suffi cient infrastructures in terms of veterinary services ins tu ons poin ng towards a poten al for piggery sector development.     Considering the selected villages for the development of the pork value chain under APART, the iden fi ed clusters as a whole have 7,340 HH iden fi ed through FGD and KII, of which 4,373 HH (59.58%) are iden fi ed as having at least one.As the farmers point out, the no. of pure indigenous breeds is dras cally decreasing because of cross breeding of the local breed with exo c germ plasm (although with varying levels of inheritance). The percentage of farmers who have pure indigenous breeds is 8% across clusters while 81.6% of farmers have crossbreeds and the remaining 10.4% have both indigenous and crossbred pigs (Table 5.1.3). The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 71% of the total pig rearers), while only 9% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Dergaon (15%) and lowest in Gomariguri (3.33%). Almost 20% of farmers across the APART clusters are found to rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.1.4). Source: Field Survey, 2018Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by female members of the HH. Women's share in making spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 51.7%. This indicates that development of pigrearing ac vi es has implica ons for rural women empowerment with in the APART districts (Table 5.1.5). Farmers either sell live fa ened pigs to traders or in the market. In addi on to selling fa ened pigs, farmers also use adult pigs in the feasts organized as part of social ceremonies including marriage and Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders and in the market in the study villages cons tutes 79% of the total annual pigs produced while the remaining 21% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.1.7). Farmers also indicate that the price is not the same across seasons. During summers, the demand for pork is less and thus also fetches a lower price while during winter, the price rises with the rise in demand for pork. During the fes ve season such as in October/November/December, traders from neighbouring states (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) come and pick up fa ened pigs from the villages giving rela vely higher prices. The local pork price also rises during the marriage seasons (October-november). Among the farmers that rear pigs for breeding purposes (partly or fully) , the sale of breeding piglets is shown in Table 5.1.9. Across the APART clusters, an average of 13.7 piglets is sold by the breeding farm HH. Farmers sell the piglets to both neighbouring farmers and to piglet traders. In most of the cases, some neighboring farmers (rearing pigs for fa ening purpose) give advance to reserve one or two good quality piglets before weaning. The remaining piglets are then taken to market or sold to the visi ng traders.Across the APART clusters of Golaghat, almost 54% of the breeding piglets are sold to the neighbouring farmers and the remaining 46% is sold to the traders. In the Sarupather cluster, 92% of the piglets are sold to other farmers in the neighbourhood, while in the Dergaon cluster, only 12% is sold via this channel. The average piglet price at weaning when sold to neighbours is INR 2,925 per piglet and INR 3,043 per piglet when sold to traders (Table 5.1.9). Farmers in the selected clusters of Golaghat indicated that there is an average of 2.4 grocery shops across the APART clusters readily available for buying concentrate feeds with an average distance of 3.5 km from the sample villages. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops. The majority of farmers prefer feeding the pigs kitchen waste and brewery waste of country liquor. Farm HH keeping sows for breeding purpose are found to access boar services in the cluster villages. At cluster level, an average of four (in Marangi) to 23 (Dergaon) boars provide natural ma ng services to the other farmers with an average distance from the farm HH of 1.6 km from the boar owners (Table 5.1.11). Source: Field Survey, 2018There are no registered pig traders and pig producers organiza ons in any of the clusters of Golaghat. This indicates that pig rearing and trading are carried out in an informal se ng.There are no DDL or feed tes ng laboratory in any of the clusters of the district. However, there is one feed mill operated by ALPCo (Assam Livestock and Poultry Corpora on) in Golaghat (Annexe Table A3). Source: Field Survey, 2018In Table 5.1.13, the no. of pork market actors involved in the pig value chain of the selected APART clusters is presented. Farmers in and outside of the Golaghat district es mate that the no. of pig and piglet traders in the selected clusters ranges from 22 in Bokakhat cluster to 75 in Sarupathar cluster. Similarly, the no. of butcher cum pork retailers is in the range of 24 to 41. There is no slaughter house in any of the clusters of Golaghat. Source: Field Survey, 2018In Table 5.1.14, the major pig markets, banks for accessing credit by the farmers of the respec ve clusters, insurance services and the road quality of the farming HH are presented.   Three clusters in Jorhat district were iden fi ed for the implementa on of the ongoing project. These clusters are Ujani Majuli, Dekorgarha and Majuli. The list of villages incorporated in each cluster were fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario (Table 5.2.1).  Table 5.2.2 presents the no. of FGD par cipants and their social status. The average no.of FGD par cipants across the APART clusters are 5.6 (males 3.4, females 2.2). Pig rearing is conven onally popular among the tribal communi es throughout the state of Assam. Almost all par cipants-96.35% in the APART clusters of Jorhat are from the ST community, while only 3.65% are from the 'general' category (forward caste). As the table indicates, representa on of par cipants from the SC and OBC community is nil across the clusters. The Jorhat district is comprised of 8,019 HH enumerated through FGD and KII, of which 7,300 HH (90.68%) are found to be pig rearers, having atleast one pig during the me of the survey. As the farmers during the FGD pointed out, the no. of pure indigenous breeds has been dras cally reduced as a result of crossing the local breed with exo c germ plasm (although with varying levels of inheritance). The percentage of farmers who have pure indigenous breeds is only 5.43% across clusters while 91.20% of farmers have crossbreeds and the remaining 3.37% of farmers have both indigenous and crossbred pigs (Table 5.2.3). The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 59.2% of the total pig rearers), while 17.32% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Ujani Majuli (20%) and lowest in Dekorgarha. Almost 23.48% of farmers across the APART clusters are found to rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.2.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. The women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigrearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 74.76%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment. The average herd size of adult pigs and average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly by the farming HH in the APART clusters of Jorhat are shown in Table 5.2.6. Across the APART clusters, the average no. of adult pigs held by the farmers is three with the highest in Ujani Majuli cluster (3.54) and lowest in Dekorgarha (2.33). The average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly (HH keeping pigs for fa ening and both breeding and fa ening purpose) across the APART clusters is 2.49. The ra o of no. of pigs sold to no. of pigs held is highest in the Dekorgarha cluster (Table 5.2.6). Table 5.2.7 presents the marke ng behaviour of farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to traders or in the market. Farmers also use fa ened pigs in the feasts organized as part of social ceremonies like marriage and celebra ons such as Christmas and Bihu or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. Pigs sold to traders or in the market cons tute 73% of the total annual pigs produced while 27% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above.  There are not any registered pig traders organiza ons. However, there are some pig producer's organiza ons in the Ujani Majuli and Majuli clusters of Jorhat (Table 5.2.12).  One cluster, Bajali, in Barpeta district was iden fi ed for implementa on of the ongoing project. The list of villages incorporated in the cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario (Table 5.3.1).Table 5.3   The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 73% of the total pig rearers), while only 15% of farmers rear pigs for breeding purpose only in the selected APART cluster. Almost 12% of farmers in the APART clusterrear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.3.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that 78% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 45% (Table 5. 3.5). This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment. The average herd size of adult pigs and average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly by the farming HH in the APART cluster of Barpeta is shown in Table 5.3.6. The average no. of adult pigs held by the farmers is 2.50. The average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly (HH keeping pigs for fa ening and both breeding and fa ening purposes) across the APART cluster is 2.67. In Table 5.3.7, the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening purpose is shown. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. In addi on to selling fa ened pigs to traders and in the market, the farmers also use the pigs in the feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage, and Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to tradersor in the market in the study villages cons tutes 95% of the total annual pigs produced while 5% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.3.7).  Farmers in the selected cluster of Barpeta indicated that there are eight grocery shops in Bajali cluster with a distance of 1 km from the sample villages. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the cluster as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops only. The majority of the farmers prefer feeding the pigs kitchen waste and waste fromthe local alcohol dis llery. Farm HH keeping sows for breeding purpose access boar services in the cluster villages . At cluster level, Bajali has 13 boars providing natural ma ng services to farmers with a distance from the farm HHof approximately 1 km (Table 5.3.11). There are not any registered pig traders in Bajali cluster, but there are 18 pig producers' organiza ons (Ban Baraigi). This indicates that pig trading may be carried out through informal channels. There are no DDL or feed tes ng laboratory in the Bajali cluster. However, there is one feed mill established under coopera ves at Nityananda. In Table 5.3.14, the no. of pork market actors involved in the pig value chain of the selected APART cluster is presented. The no. of pig and piglet traders in the selected cluster of Bajali is eight. This number is a rough es mate by farmers of traders who visit the cluster villages from various places in and outside the Barpeta district. Similarly, the no. of butchers cum pork retailers is 10. There is no slaughter house in Barpeta.  Four clusters in Lakhimpur district were iden fi ed for the implementa on of the ongoing project. The selected clusters covering the poten al villages for interven on with the informal pork value chain actors are Narayanpur, Ghilamora, North Lakhimpur and Boginodi. The lists of villages incorporated in each cluster were fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.    The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 75.3% of the total pig rearers), while only 8.7% farmers rear pigs for breeding purpose only across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs for breeding purpose is the highest in Narayanpur (15%) and lowest in Boginodi (1.67). Almost 16% of farmers across the APART clusters are found to rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.4.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH.Women's share in making spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 66.7%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons for women's empowerment in the APART districts(Table 5.4.5). Table 5.4.7 indicates the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. In addi on to selling fa ened pigs to traders or in the market, farmers also use the pigs in the feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage and celebra ons such as Christmas and Bihu or off er to rela ves when they have celebra ons.The propor on of pigs sold to traders or in the marke s 78% of the total annual pigs produced while 22% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.4.7). Farmers in the selected clusters of Lakhimpur indicated that there is an average of 2.75 grocery shops across the APART clusters readily available for buying concentrate feeds with an average distance of 1.7 km from the sample villages. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops. The majority of farmers prefer feeding the pigs kitchen waste and waste from the local alcohol dis llery.Farm HH keeping sows for breeding purpose access boar services in the cluster villages. At cluster level, an average of two (in Boginodi) to fi ve (Narayanpur) boars provide natural ma ng services to the other farmers with an average distance to the farm HHof 1.6 km (Table 5.4.11). Note : If known, the market frequency is included in parenthesis (daily, weekly, or biweekly).'Progressive' farmers are defi ned as farmers who might consider AI for breeding and crossbreeding purposes. Progressive farmers were self-iden fi ed during FGD. Other par cipants also iden fi ed progressive farmers during FGD and KII (Table 5.4.15).  Two clusters in Morigaon district were iden fi ed for implementa on of the ongoing project. These two clusters are Bhurbandha and Kapili. The list of villages incorporated in each cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working consistently in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.  The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 86.4% of the total pig rearers), while only 8.96% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Kapili (11.67%) and lowest in Bhurbandha (6.25%). Almost 4.6% of farmers across the APART clusters are found to rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.5.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 70%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment. Source: Field Survey, 2018Table 5.5.7 indicates the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. The farmers also use the pigs in feasts organized as part of social ceremonies like marriage, Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders or in the market cons tutes 37% of the total annual pigs produced while 63% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5 Among the farms that rear pigs for breeding purposes (partly or fully) the sale pa ern of breeding piglets is shown in Table 5.5.9. Across the APART clusters,an average of 24 piglets are sold by the breeding farm HH. Farmers sell the piglets to both neighbouring farmers and to piglet traders. Almost 33% of the breeding piglets are sold to the neighbouring farmers and the remaining 67% are sold to the traders. The average piglet price at weaning when sold to neighbours and traders is the same (INR 2,775/piglet) (Table 5.5.9). Farmers in the selected clusters of Morigaon indicated that there is an average of 16 grocery shops across the APART clusters readily available for buying concentrate feeds with an average distance of 1 km from the sample villages. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops. The majority of farmers prefer feeding pigs kitchen waste and waste of local alcohol dis llery.Farm HH keeping sows for breeding purpose access boar services in the cluster villages. At cluster level, averages of two (in Kapili) to 12 (Bhurbandha) boars are available to provide natural ma ng services to farmers with an average distance from the farm HHof 0.8 km (Table 5.5.11). There are not any registered pig traders or pig producers organiza ons in any of the clusters of Morigaon. This indicates that pig rearing and trading are carried out in an informal se ng. There is one feed mill in Kapili cluster. Moriganon district lacks DDL and feed tes ng laboratory (Table 5.5.12). There are 15 pig and piglet traders in Bhurbandha cluster and 10 in Kapili. This no. are rough es mates by farmers based on recall of visi ng traders in the district. Similarly, the no. of butcher cum pork retailers in both the clusters is 20 to 30. There is no slaughter house in any of the clusters of Morigaon (Table 5.5.13). Three clusters in Darrang district were iden fi ed for the implementa on of the ongoing project. These three clusters are Kalaigaon, Pachim Mangaldoi and Sipajhar. The list of villages incorporated in each cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working consistently in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.  The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 79.6% of the total pig rearers), while only 15.8% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters (Table 5.6.4). At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs for breeding purpose only is the highest in Pachim Mangaldoi cluster (15%) while lowest in Kalaigaon cluster (6.67%). Only 4.6% of farmers across the APART clusters rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.6.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH.Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 58%. This indicates that development of pigrearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment. Table 5.6.7 indicates the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. Farmers also use the pigs in feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage, and Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders and in the market cons tutes almost 90% of the total pigs produced annually while 10% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.6.7). Farmers slaughter and sell the meat of 12.6% of their pigs while 87.4% are sold to traders/butchers. None of the farmers in any of the clusters in Darrang report the presence of slaughter houses in close proximity. The average fa ened pig price at live weight is INR 184.67/kg when slaughtered and sold by the farmer. The average live weight price when sold to traders/butchers is INR 188/kg. The average pork price in the markets of the APART clusters is INR 240. Farmers also indicate that the price is not the same across seasons. During summer the demand for pork is low and thus also fetches a lower price while during winter the price rises with the rise in demand for pork. During fes val season such as in October/November/ December traders from neighbouring states (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) come and pick up fa ened pigs from the villages giving rela vely higher prices. The local pork price also rises during the marriage seasons (Table 5.6.8). Among the farms that rear pigs for breeding purpose (partly or fully) the sale pa ern of breeding piglets is shown in Table 5.6.9. Across the APART clusters,an average of 15.5 piglets are sold by the breeding farm HH. Farmers sell the piglets to both the neighbouring farmers and to pigle raders. Almost 48% of the breeding piglets are sold to neighbouring farmers and the remaining 52% aresold to the traders. In Kalaigaon cluster, 83% of the piglets are sold to other farmers in the neighbourhood while in other clusters only about 30% aresold through this channel. The average piglet price at weaning when sold to neighbourhood farmers is INR 2,300/piglet and INR 2,287/piglet when sold to traders (Table 5.6.9). CAHWs providing piggery health care services to the farmers. Across clusters an average of 1.3 local veterinarians operates, while the average distance from the farm villages is almost 7.3 km. The distance between farmers and veterinarians in Kalaigaon and Pachim Mangaldoi clusters is approximately 9 km, while farmers of Sipajhar are rela vely closely located to a veterinarian's residence/duty sta on (3.3 km). VFAs are located 3.7 km from villages across clusters. There is not a CAHW to provide local treatment services in the clusters of Darrang district. (Table 5.6.10). Sipajhar has the only two grocery shops readily available for buying concentrate feeds across APART clusters, with a distance of 1.7 km from the sample villages. The majority of the farmers prefer feeding pig's kitchen waste and waste from the local alcohol dis llery. At cluster level, an average of one (in Sipajhar) to 25 (Pachim Mangaldoi) boars provide natural ma ng services to the other farmers with an average distance to the farm HH of 1.7 km (Table 5.6.11). There is one registered pig producers organiza on in the Darrang district. However, inspite of having a pig producer organiza on,pig rearing and pig trading arecarried out in an informal se ng. (Table 5.6.12). In Table 5.6.14, the no. of pork market actors involved in the pig value chain of the selected APART clusters is presented. The no. of pig and piglet traders in the selected clusters ranges from three in Kalaigaon cluster to 20 in Pachim Mangaldoi cluster. This no. are rough es mates by farmers of who visits the cluster villages from various places in and outside the Darrang district. Similarly, the no. of butcher cum pork retailers is in the range of four to 20. There is no slaughter house in any of the clusters of Darrang.  Nine clusters in Sonitpur district were iden fi ed for implementa on of the ongoing project. The selected clusters covering the poten al villages for interven ons with the informal pork value chain actors are Borsala, Dhekiajuli, Rangapara, Balipara, Na Duar, Sakomatha, Baghmara, Bihali and Chayduar. The list of villages incorporated in each cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working consistently in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.   The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 78.2% of the total pig rearers), while only 10.7% of farmers rear pigs for breeding purpose only across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs for breeding purpose is the highest in Dhekiajuli (20%) while lowest in Borsala (4%). Almost 11.1% of farmers across the project clusters rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.7.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 62.06%. This indicates that development of pigrearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment. The average herd size of adult pigs and average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly by the farming HH in the APART clusters of Sonitpur are shown in Table 5.7.6. Across the APART clusters, the average no. of adult pigs held by the farmers is 2.35 with the highest in Balipara (2.71) and lowest in Rangapara and Dhekiajuli (2). The average no. of fa ened pigs soldyearly (HH keeping pigs purely for fa ening and both breeding and fa ening purposes) across the APART clusters is 2.7. The ra o of fa ened pigs sold to no. of pigs kept is the highest in Rangapara cluster (1.75) (Table 5.7.6). Table 5.7.7 presents the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. Farmers also use the pigs in feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage and in Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders or in the market in the study villages cons tutes 79% of the total annual pigs produced while 21% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.7.7). Farmers also indicate that the price is not the same across seasons. During summer, the demand for pork is low and thus also fetches a lower price while during winter the price rises with the rise in demand for pork. During fes val season such as in October/November/ December traders from neighbouring states (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) come and pick up fa ened pigs from the villages giving rela vely higher prices. The local pork price also rises during the marriage seasons. Among the farms that rear pigs for breeding purpose (partly or fully),the sale pa ern of breeding piglets is sown in Table 5.7.9. Across the APART clusters, averages of 11.4 piglets are sold by the breeding farm HH. Farmers sell the piglets to both their neighbouring farmers' andto piglet traders. Almost 65% of the breeding piglets are sold to neighbouring farmers and the remaining 35% are sold to traders. In Borsala cluster, 100% of the piglets are sold to other farmers in the neighbourhood, while in Na Duar cluster only 42% is sold through this channel. The average piglet price at weaning when sold to neighbours is INR 2,380/ piglet while the price when sold to traders is INR 2,341/piglet (Table 5.7.9).  Farmers in the selected clusters of Sonitpur indicated that there is an average of 0.7 grocery shops across the APART clusters readily available for buying concentrate feeds with an average distance of 0.5 km from the sample villages. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops only. A majority of farmers prefer feeding pigs kitchen waste and waste from the local alcohol dis llery. At cluster level,a range of 1 (in Sakomatha) to 14 (Na Duar) boars provide natural ma ng services to sows within an average distance to the farm HH of 1km (Table 5.7.11). Across the APART clusters, there are no DDL, feed tes ng laboratory or feed mill. However, there is a feed mill called Sri Ram Feed producing mo dana and one feed mill under the government sector. The list of feed mills under various sectors is a ached in Annexe Table A3.In Table 5.7.13, the no. of pork market actors involved in the pig value chain of the selected APART clusters is presented. The no. of pig and piglet traders in the selected clusters ranges from three in Dhekiajuli cluster to 15 in Chayduar. This no. are a rough es mate by farmers of traders who visit the cluster villages.Similarly, the no. of butcher cum pork retailers is in the range of two to 15. Rangapara has the only slaughter houses across clusters. Source: Field Survey, 2018 Table 5.7.14 presents pig trading markets, banks and other fi nancing ins tu ons, livestock insurance providers, and the quality of village approach roads in the district. Of note, there is only one bank across clusters and no livestock insurance providers.  Table 5.8.2 shows the no. of FGD par cipants and their social status. The average no. of par cipants across APART clusters was 8.9 (male 4.8 and female 4.1). Pig rearing is conven onally popular among the tribal communi es throughout the state of Assam. Almost 83.8% of par cipants in the APART clusters of Goalpara are from the ST community followed by 12.3% from the OBC community. There were no par cipants from the SC community while only 3.9% of farmers par cipa ng in the FGD were from the 'general' category. The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 91% of the total pig rearers), while only 7.9% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Rongjuli (12.8%), while lowest in Balijana (3.64). Only 2% of farmers across the APART clusters rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.8.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 57.4%. This indicates that development of pigrearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment.   5.8.7 indicates the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. Farmers also use pigs in feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage, and Christmas Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders or in the market in the study villages cons tute 83% of the total annual pigs produced while 17% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.8.7). Farmers also indicate that the price is not the same across seasons. During summer, the demand for pork is low and thus also fetches a lower price while during winter, the price rises with the rise in demand for pork. During fes ve seasons such as in October/November/December, traders from neighbouring states (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) come and pick up fa ened pigs from the villages giving rela vely higher prices. The local pork price also rises during the marriage seasons. Among the farms that rear pigs for breeding purposes (partly or fully) the sale pa ern of breeding piglets is shown in Table 5.8.9. Across the APART clusters,an average of 16 piglets are sold by the breeding farm HH. Farmers sell the piglets to both their neighbouring farmers and to piglet traders. Almost 45% of the breeding piglets are sold to neighbouring farmers and the remaining 55% are sold to the traders. In Sarupather cluster, 54% of the piglets are sold to other farmers in the neighbourhood, while in Balijana cluster only 30% are sold through this channel. The average piglet price at weaning when sold to neighbours is INR 2,748/piglet and traders INR 2,791/piglet (Table 5.8.9).  There are fi ve pig traders organiza ons and six pig producers organiza ons across clusters of Goalpara.   5.9 Nalbari district 5.9.1 Cluster villages iden fi ca on based on fi eld visit One cluster in Nalbari district was iden fi ed for implementa on of the ongoing project-Borigog and Bongaon. The list of villages incorporated in the cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working consistently in and knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.  5.9.2 shows the no. of FGD par cipants and their social status. A total of 9 (5.2 males and 3.8 females) par cipated in FGD. Almost 43.67% of par cipants in the APART cluster of Nalbari are from the 'general' category followed by 38.31% from the ST community and 18% from the OBC community. There were no par cipants from the SC community. The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 86% of the total pig rearers), while only 9.63% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose in the APART cluster (Table 5.9.4). Approximately 4% of farmers in the APART cluster rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (5.9.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tute 60% . This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment.   In Table 5.9.13, the no. of pork market actors involved in the pig value chain of the selected APART cluster is presented. The no. of pig and piglet traders in the selected cluster of Borigog and Bongaon is 15. This number is a rough es mate by farmers of traders who visit the cluster villages from various places in and outside the Nalbari district. Similarly, the no. of butcher cum pork retailers is 50. There is no slaughter house in the cluster of Nalbari. Source: Field Survey, 2018The selected cluster of Nalbari does have a bank and insurance provider, as well as pig trading markets. However, two of the approach village roads are classifi ed as 'poor' (Table 5.9.14). Source: Field Survey, 2018 5.9.12 Progressive farmers at cluster level Two 'progressive' farmers were iden fi ed in Nalbari (Table 5.9.15).  Seven clusters in Karbi Anglong district were selected for the implementa on of the ongoing project. The selected clusters covering the poten al villages for interven on with the informal pork value chain actors are Bokajan, Lumbajong, Howraghat, Boithalanso, Ulunkuchi, Silonijan and Kheroni. The list of villages incorporated in each cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working consistently with and favorably knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.   The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 82% of the total pig rearers) while only 8.8% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Boithalanso (17.5%), while lowest in Howraghat (2.86). Almost 10.6% of farmers across the APART clusters rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.10.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 74.9%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment in the APART districts (Table 5.10.5).  There is an average of 3.29 grocery shops across the APART clusters readily available for buying concentrate feeds with an average distance of 0.5 km from the sample villages. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops. A majority of the farmers prefer feeding the pig's kitchen waste and waste from the local alcohol dis llery. At cluster level, arange of 2(Bokajan) to 28 (Howraghat) boars provide natural ma ng services to farmers within an average distance of almost 1 km (Table 5.10.11). There are not any registered pig traders or pig producers organiza ons in any of the clusters. This indicates that pig rearing and trading are carried out in an informal se ng.There is one DDL across clusters, in Lumbajong. There are no feed tes ng laboratories or feed mill in the district clusters. In Table 5.10.14, the no. of pork market actors involved in the pig value chain of the selected APART clusters is presented. The no. of pig and piglet traders in the selected clusters ranges from three in Kheroni to 20 in Howraghat. This no.are the rough es mates by the farmers of traders who visit the cluster villages from various places in and outside the Karbi Anglong district. Similarly, the no. of butcher cum pork retailers is in the range of one to 25. There is no slaughter house in any of the clusters of Karbi Anglong.  Four clusters in Kokrajhar district were iden fi ed for implementa on of the ongoing project. The selected clusters covering the poten al villages for interven on with the informal pork value chain actors are Kokrajhar, Dotoma, Gossaingaon and Debitola. The list of villages incorporated in each cluster was fi nalized a er consul ng with the local key persons working in and favorably knowledgeable about the pig produc on and marke ng scenario.   The majority of the farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 81% of the total pig rearers), while only 13% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters (Table 5.11.4). At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Dotoma (19.3%) while lowest in Kokrajhar (5.89%. Almost 6% of farmers across the project clusters rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.11.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 75.4%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment in the APART districts (Table 5.11.5).   5.11.7 indicates the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. Farmers also use pigs in feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage, and Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders and in the market cons tutes 91% of the total annual pigs produced while 9% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.11.7).  5.11.8). Farmers also indicate that the price is not the same across seasons. During summer, the demand for pork is low and thus fetches a lower price while during winter, the price rises with the rise in demand for pork. During fes ve seasons such as in October/November/December traders from neighbouring states (Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland) come and pick up fa ened pigs from the villages giving rela vely higher prices. The local pork price also rises during the marriage seasons. There are two grocery shops to buy feed in Gossiangaon cluster. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops only. The majority of farmers prefer feeding pigs kitchen waste and waste from the local alcohol dis llery. At cluster level, arange of 4 (in Kokrajhar) to 21 (Dotoma) boars provide natural ma ng services to the other farmers within an average distance of 1 km (Table 5 .11.11). Source: Field Survey, 2018Across the Kokrajhar district clusters, there is one DDL and one feed mill in Kokrajhar cluster (Table 5.11.13).breeding and fa ening (Table 5.12.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 84.7%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment in the APART districts (Table 5.12.5). The average herd size of adult pigs and average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly by the farming HH in the APART clusters of Sivasagar are shown in Table 5.12.6. The average no. of adult pigs held by the farmers is 2.27 with the highest in Gaurisagar cluster (2.7) and lowest in Sapekha (2). The average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly (HH keeping pigs purely for fa ening and both breeding and fa ening purposes) across the APART clusters is 2.6. The ra o of sale of fa ened pigs to no. of pigs held is the highest in Gaurisagar cluster (1.27) (Table 5.12.6).Table5.12.6: Average herd size (adult pigs) of the farm HH and average no.of fa ened pigs sold   5.13.2 shows the no. of FGD par cipants and their social status. The average no. of par cipants across clusters is 9.4 (4.5 male and 4.9 female).Pig rearing is conven onally popular among the tribal communi es throughout the state of Assam. Almost 74% of par cipants in the APART clusters of Kamrup are from the ST community, followed by 9.8% from the OBC community, 9% from the SC community and 7.2% fromthe 'general' category. The majority of farmers rear pigs for fa ening purpose (almost 81% of the total pig rearers), while 10% of farmers rear pigs purely for breeding purpose across the APART clusters. At cluster level, the propor on of farmers rearing pigs purely for breeding purpose is the highest in Boko (23.6%) and lowest in Chaygaon (5.38). Almost 9% of farmers across the project cluster rear pigs both for breeding and fa ening (Table 5.13.4). Pig rearing is a highly popular livelihood op on among tribal women. Women par cipants in the FGD reported that more than 50% of the pigs rearing tasks are performed by the female members of the HH. Women's share in making the spending decisions regarding the income earned through the sale of live pigs along with domes cally slaughtered pigs cons tutes 65.7%. This indicates that development of pig rearing ac vi es has implica ons on women's empowerment. The average herd size of adult pigs and average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearlyby the farming HH in the APART clusters of Kamrup are shown in Table 5.13.6. The average no. of adult pigs held by the farmers is 2.2 with the highest in Rangia cluster (2.57) and lowest in Chaygaon (1.87). The average no. of fa ened pigs sold yearly (HH keeping pigs purely for fa ening and both breeding and fa ening purposes) across the APART clusters is 2.7.The ra o of sale of fa ened pigs to no. of pigs kept is the highest in Rangia cluster (1.17) (Table 5.13.6).   5.13.7 indicates the marke ng behaviour of pig farmers who rear pigs for fa ening. These farmers either sell the live fa ened pigs to visi ng traders or in the market. Farmers also use pigs in feasts organized as part of some social ceremonies like marriage, and Christmas and Bihu celebra ons or off er to rela ves when they have such celebra ons. The propor on of pigs sold to traders and in the market cons tutes an average of 91.3% across clusters of the total annual pigs produced while 8.7% are used for non-marke ng purposes as men oned above (Table 5.13.7). Farmers of Kamrup report that there is an average of 6 grocery shops across the APART clusters readily available for buying concentrate feeds. Pure feed shops are almost nil in most of the clusters as feeds are primarily sold in the grocery shops. The majority of farmers prefer feeding pigs kitchen waste and residual waste of country liquor, and waste of hotel's, hostels' and educa onal ins tutes' kitchens. A range of 0 (Bangaon) to 24 (Dimoria) boars provide natural ma ng services to farmers within an average distance of 0.67 km (Table 5.13.11). *Guwaha city has 109 butchers cum pork retailers in diff erent loca ons and thus added into the total no. of butchers cum pork retailers. When performing APART interven ons (conduc ng training to value chain actors), con guous villages within a cluster should be priori zed at the beginning for the sake of resource op miza on.Interven ons in villages at a distance from the cluster of villages may be implemented at a later phase.  The clusters and villages within clusters having easy access to inputs, veterinary services, markets of live animals and pork may show rapid changes in terms of the outcome indicators (higher market-led produc on and produc vity, and adop on of clean and hygienic pork produc on) and thus should be priori zed. Far-fl ung villages with poten al constraints may be considered at a later stage.  There are varia ons among the villages within a cluster in terms of the no. of producers and other value chain actors. While intervening, these villages should be ranked in the order of presence of producers and market actors and priori zed accordingly.  Almost 80% of the farm HH in the APART districts rear pigs for fa ening purpose and the remainder rear partly or solely for breeding purpose. Among the farm HH rearing pigs for breeding purpose, the intensity diff ers from village to village. Those villages having the highest no.of breeding farms should be priori zed for organizing training to comply with APART objec ves.  Some villages have evidence of a growing no. of pig entrepreneurs compared to others. These entrepreneurs provide a win-win situa on within the project by supplying piglets and by availing of services under the project leverage growth momentum.  APART villages with a good no. of butchers and traders should be priori zed as they may have a strongly established marke ng network for the pigs and piglets. This will help achieve the training targets of all value chain actors.  Among the APART clusters, those clusters having conducive socio-poli cal situa ons should be priori zed over those that might have disturbed socio-poli cal situa ons.","tokenCount":"11863"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"056014245db57518937aa15d509a48ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dc0e1aa-4647-41ea-87bd-4e760b5248e8/retrieve","id":"-1915419442"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1bbe8a14-f7b0-4e0f-a020-dc657abeb813","pagecount":"34","content":"Développé par une équipe multidisciplinaire de chercheurs de l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI) et de l'Université Emory, le module WELI est un nouvel outil standardisé qui mesure l'autonomisation des femmes impliquées dans le secteur de l'élevage.Remarque aux concepteurs de l'enquête : Les informations du module G1 peuvent être saisies de différentes manières, mais il y a un moyen particulier de le faire. Il consiste à : (a) identifier l'individu approprié au sein du ménage en mesure de répondre à l'enquête, (b) relier cet individu du module au fichier du ménage, (c) coder le résultat de l'entretien, en particulier si ledit individu n'est pas disponible, pour le distinguer des données manquantes, et (d) enregistrer les personnes du ménage qui étaient présentes au cours de l'entretien. Cet outil doit être adapté au contexte du pays, notamment en ajoutant des exemples pertinents et des traductions dans les langues locales, le cas échéant.Remarque aux recenseurs : Ce questionnaire doit être administré séparément aux répondants primaires et secondaires identifiés dans la liste des ménages du questionnaire au niveau du ménage. Vous devez renseigner la page de couverture pour chaque individu identifié dans la « Section de sélection », même si l'individu n'est pas disponible pour être interviewé à des fins de déclaration. Pour certaines enquêtes (telles que celles axées sur les résultats nutritionnels), le répondant féminin peut être la femme bénéficiaire ou la mère, ou encore la personne qui s'occupe principalement de l'enfant index (également le répondant féminin pour le module de nutrition pro-WEAI). Veuillez-vous assurer qu'elle est également la personne interrogée pour ce questionnaire et que le répondant masculin est son époux/partenaire (le cas échéant). Veuillez vérifier à nouveau, pour vous en assurer, que :• Vous avez rempli la section de la liste du questionnaire ménage pour identifier la/les personne(s) interrogée(s) primaire(s) et/ou secondaire(s) correcte(s) ;• Vous avez correctement noté l'ID du ménage et l'ID de l'individu pour la personne que vous allez interroger ;• Vous avez obtenu le consentement éclairé de l'individu dans le questionnaire ménage ;• Vous avez cherché à interroger la personne en privé ou lorsque les autres membres du ménage ne peuvent pas influencer ses réponses.2 Préparation des dispositifs de collecte de données et réalisation de l'enquête sur les dispositifs numériques 3 Instructions générales relatives à toutes les sections• Ne lisez pas aux répondants la liste des modalités de réponses, à moins qu'on ne leur demande explicitement de « LIRE ». Laissez plutôt la personne interrogée vous donner sa réponse à la question et elle choisira la réponse la plus appropriée dans la liste des modalités de réponse. Si la réponse du répondant n'est pas claire, cela peut signifier qu'il/elle n'a pas compris la question. Dans ce cas, approfondissez et reformulez la question pour qu'elle soit correctement comprise.• Le mois doit toujours être écrit en chiffres, en utilisant des nombres de 1 à 12.• L'année doit toujours être écrite avec 4 chiffres.• Les dates complètes telles que les dates de naissance ou les dates d'interview doivent respecter le format suivant : JJ-MM-AAAA (c.-à-d. le jour à 2 chiffres, le mois à 2 chiffres, l'année à 4 chiffres).• Les pourcentages doivent toujours être écrits avec des chiffres compris entre 0 et 100.• Commencez par le questionnaire ménage, puis poursuivez avec les questionnaires individuels. Si possible, et si la composition de l'équipe de terrain le permet, les enquêteurs masculins doivent interroger le principal répondant masculin et les enquêteurs féminins, le principal répondant féminin.• Pour le questionnaire individuel, les répondants individuels doivent si possible être interrogés séparément, sans la présence d'autres membres du ménage ou de personnes extérieures. Il N'EST PAS conseillé que d'autres membres du ménage aident à se souvenir des questions du questionnaire individuel. Il est cependant acceptable que d'autres membres du ménage aident à se rappeler les questions posées au répondant dans le cadre des questions au niveau du ménage UNIQUEMENT.• Bien que la recherche repose sur différents indicateurs, le principal étant l'Indice d'autonomisation des femmes dans l'élevage (WELI), la mention de la recherche en cours doit porter sur le projet dans le cadre duquel les estimations du WELI sont nécessaires soit pour suivre l'avancement du projet, soit pour informer les activités du projet, et non pas nécessairement pour décrire les outils d'analyse (c'est-à-dire le WELI, etc.). Comme indiqué dans le formulaire de consentement à l'étude, les questions portent directement sur la prise de décision au sein du ménage. Afin de ne pas donner l'impression que nous voulons changer ou influencer les rôles de genre ou l'autonomisation des femmes en utilisant l'étude, ce qui pourrait biaiser ou fausser les résultats, il est préférable de présenter le projet en question et ce que l'outil couvre en termes de prise de décision au sein du ménage, et non pas l'analyse des données (autonomisation des femmes).4 Facteurs de conversion• 1 kilomètre = 0,6 mille• 1,67 kilomètre = 1 mille• 1 mile = 1 667 mètres• 1 pied = 0,30 mètre• 1 mètre = 0,91 mètre• 1 kilomètre = 0,62 mille• 1 acre = 100 décimales• 1 hectare = 2,47 acres• 10 000 mètres carrés = 1 hectare• 4 048 mètres carrés = 1 acre• 1 mètre carré = 0,000245 acresLes codes suivants peuvent être appropriés pour toute question de l'enquête sur les ménages. En aucun cas (à l'exception des invitations à passer à la question suivante), une question ne doit être laissée sans réponse. Si vous n'êtes pas sûr(e), prenez une note et demandez à votre superviseur à la fin du questionnaire de quelle manière renseigner la question particulière.Sans objet (SO)/Aucune décision prise 98Si autre, précisez 996 Instructions par section : Questionnaire pour les ménages Afin de faciliter les comparaisons entre pays, nous recommandons les définitions standard à utiliser pour identifier ce qui peut être qualifié de « ménage », et qui de sujet d'entretien ou de répondant « primaire » et « secondaire ».dent.Plusieurs enquêtes portant sur les ménages à buts multiples définissent un ménage comme étant un groupe de personnes vivant ensemble et prenant de la nourriture dans la « même marmite » (Ayad et. al., 1994 ;Glewwe, 2000). La partie importante de cette définition est que le groupe d'individus partage au moins certaines ressources communes et prend certaines décisions communes en matière de budget et de dépenses (partage de la même marmite). Un membre du ménage est une personne qui vit dans ledit ménage depuis au moins six (6) mois, et au moins la moitié de la semaine de chaque semaine au cours de ces mêmes mois. Même les personnes qui n'ont pas de liens de parenté (comme les domestiques, les locataires ou les travailleurs agricoles) sont des membres du ménage si elles remplissent ces conditions, et inversement, les individus qui dorment dans le ménage, mais qui ne supportent aucun coût relatif à la nourriture ou ne prennent pas de nourriture dans « la même marmite », ne sont pas considérés comme des membres du ménage. Cette définition, qui comprend des exemples et des directives plus spécifiques, est intégrée dans les questionnaires.Il convient de noter que, par exception aux règles susmentionnées, les personnes suivantes doivent être considérées comme membres du ménage:• Un nouveau-né de moins de 3 mois.• Une personne qui a rejoint le ménage par mariage il y a de cela moins de 3 mois.• Les serviteurs, les locataires et les travailleurs agricoles qui font actuellement partie du ménage et qui y resteront plus longtemps mais qui sont arrivés il y a moins de 3 mois.Ne pas considérer comme membre du ménage :• Une personne décédée très récemment mais qui est restée plus de 3 mois au cours des 6 derniers mois.• Une personne qui a quitté le ménage suite à un mariage moins de 3 mois auparavant.• Les serviteurs, les locataires et les travailleurs agricoles qui sont restés plus de 3 mois au cours des 6 derniers mois mais qui sont partis définitivement.• Si la définition standard du ménage n'a aucun sens dans le contexte où les enquêtes seront mises en oeuvre, le plus important est de s'assurer que les recenseurs ont la même compréhension des définitions afin que la mise en oeuvre soit cohérente pour l'ensemble des ménages. En cas de doute sur la personne à inclure ou exclure, veuillez en discuter avec votre superviseur.Les répondants primaires et secondaires sont ceux qui sont identifiés comme étant les principaux responsables de la prise de décision, tant sociale qu'économique, au sein du ménage. Ils sont généralement mari et femme ; ils peuvent cependant également correspondre à d'autres membres tant qu'il y a un homme et une femme âgés de 18 ans et plus. Par exemple, une mère veuve et son fils adulte peuvent être les principaux responsables de la prise de décision au sein du ménage. La femme index peut être soit la répondante principale, soit la répondante secondaire.Before beginning the interview, it is necessary to introduce the household to the survey and obtain their consent to participate. Make it clear to them that their participation in the survey is voluntary.After reading out the informed and seeking consent from the respondents, ensure that you sign the duplicate copies of the informed consent for each household and leave one copy with the household after the interview.La couverture : Veuillez-vous assurer que les informations recueillies sur la page de couverture du questionnaire individuel sont cohérentes avec les informations de la page de couverture du questionnaire ménage. Il est très important que l'ID du ménage et l'ID de l'individu soient corrects (obtenus à partir de la liste des ménages).G1.01. Identification du ménage -il s'agit d'un identifiant unique attribué à chaque ménage. Il peut être numérique ou alphanumérique. Avant de vous rendre dans un ménage, assurez-vous que votre superviseur a bien attribué l'ID du ménage que vous allez interroger. Notez l'ID du ménage assigné pour faciliter la référence une fois que vous commencez l'interview.• Conseil destinés aux superviseurs de l'enquête : Le meilleur identifiant de ménage à utiliser est l'« identifiant de ménage intelligent » qui donne plus d'informations qu'un simple numéro. Il est préférable de les donner sous forme alphanumérique où, par exemple, là où les premières lettres représentent le pays, là où les secondes lettres représentent le district/village, etc. et sont suivies d'un ou de plusieurs chiffres pour chaque ménage.Les ménages interrogés dans le comté de Nairobi (Kenya) pourraient par exemple se voir attribuer un numéro d'identification de ménage comme suit : KENAI001 ... KENAI300 (KE=Kenya, NAI=Nairobi, 001=premier ménage à être interrogé et 300=le 300ème ménage à être interrogé). • La période de référence pour cette question est toujours de 12 mois. Dans certains cas, pour les activités liées à la production de cultures, il sera utile de demander au répondant de penser aux deux dernières saisons de culture si la zone est soumise à une saison de culture biannuelle. Dans d'autres cas, la période de référence devrait correspondre à une seule saison de culture, selon le nombre de saisons de culture par année, l'intervention et le moment entre les enquêtes. Il convient d'en décider et de le normaliser au cours de la période de formation.• Dans certaines langues, il y a un « vous » au singulier (lorsqu'on s'adresse à une seule personne) et un « vous » au pluriel (si l'on s'adresse à plusieurs personnes). Cette question se réfère au « vous » singulier (la personne interrogée, et non elle et sa famille). Si la langue locale ne fait pas la distinction entre le singulier et le pluriel, assurez-vous que le répondant comprenne que cela s'applique uniquement à lui ou à elle (cela s'appliquera également chaque fois que nous posons des questions employant le « vous » dans le questionnaire individuel).• Si le répondant répond « non », cela signifie qu'il n'a pas participé à l'activité. Dans ce cas, passez à l'activité suivante.G2.02: Lorsque des décisions sont prises concernant [ACTIVITÉ], qui prend généralement la décision?• IMPORTANT: Lorsque vous demandez qui prend une décision, indiquez les codes d'identification des membres du ménage afin de relier les décisions aux répondants individuels. Vous pouvez entrer jusqu'à 3 codes d'identification de membre.• Si la personne interrogée mentionne des décideurs qui ne font pas partie du ménage, sélectionnez les options suivantes, selon ce qui est approprié, comme indiqué par le répondant :• NON-MEMBRE DU FOYER (HOMME)• NON-MEMBRE DU FOYER (FEMME)• Si aucune décision n'a été prise concernant l'[ACTIVITÉ], sélectionnez AUCUNE DÉCISION PRISE et passez à l'activité suivante.• S'il y a plus de 3 décideurs, demandez à la personne interrogée de mentionner les 3 plus importants.• Remarque : si le répondant répond « moi-même » seulement (c.-à-d., qu'il n'y a pas d'autres décideurs mentionnés à part le répondant lui-même), alors passez directement à la question G2.05. Les questions G2.03 et G2.04 portent sur le niveau de contribution et de contrôle que le répondant estime avoir sur l'activité, mais s'il indique qu'il/elle prend seul(e) la décision, alors on peut supposer sans risque qu'il/elle contribue grandement et a un grand contrôle sur la décision.• Il est facultatif d'ajouter ici une question demandant au répondant qui il/elle aimerait voir prendre la décision.G2.03: Quelle a été votre contribution (au singulier) à la prise de décisions concernant [ACTIVITÉ] ?• Inscrivez le code de réponse approprié parmi les codes énumérés au bas du module (en écrire un) :Little to no input in decisions• Faible à aucune pour les décisions 01• Totale pour certaines décisions 02• Totale pour la plupart ou toutes les décisions 03• Sans opinion/Aucune décision prise 98 ≥ Si ce code est sélectionné, alors passez à l'activité suivante.• Dans certains cas, dans la langue locale, la question G2.03 doit être posée en deux questions séparées (demandez d'abord si le répondant contribue à la prise de décision, puis demandez son niveau de contribution).G2.04: A quel niveau pensez-vous pouvoir participer aux décisions concernant cette [ACTIVITÉ] si vous le souhaitiez ?• Entourez une seule réponse parmi les catégories suivantes :• Aucunement 01• Faiblement 02• Moyennement 03• Grandement 04• Même si un répondant n'a pas pris part aux décisions, il peut le faire par choix, comme lorsqu'une décision est déléguée à d'autres, ou lorsque le répondant n'a aucun intérêt dans l'activité ou la décision particulière. Cette question vise à déterminer si le répondant peut participer au processus décisionnel s'il le désire.G2.05: A quel niveau pouvez-vous accéder à l'information que vous jugez importante pour prendre des décisions éclairées concernant [ACTIVITÉ] ?• Entourez une seule réponse parmi les catégories suivantes :• Aucunement 01• Faiblement 02• Moyennement 03• Grandement 04G2.06: Quel a été votre niveau de contribution à la prise de décisions prises concernant la quantité de produits de [ACTIVITÉ] à conserver pour la consommation du ménage ?• Entrez le code de réponse approprié parmi les codes énumérés au bas du module (en écrire un) :• Peu ou pas de contribution aux les décisions 01• Contribution à certaines décisions 02• Contribution à la plupart ou à toutes les décisions 03• Sans objet/Aucune décision prise 98 →• Activité suivante• G2.07: How much input did you have in decisions about how to use income generated from [ACTIVITY]?• Enter the appropriate response code from the codes listed at the bottom of the module (write one):• Little to no input in decisions 01• Input into some decisions 02• Input into most or all decisions 03En ce qui concerne G2.03, G2.06 et G2.07, veuillez noter ce qui suit :• Le code 98 (« sans objet ») doit être inscrit dans le cas où la décision n'est pas prise, par exemple, les cultures peuvent avoir été perdues et aucun revenu n'a par conséquent été généré, ou bien le bétail/les produits du bétail n'ont pas été vendus et aucun revenu n'a donc été généré. Dans tous les autres cas, cette catégorie ne doit pas être laissée vide. Si la réponse donnée à l'une des questions G2.02, G2.06 ou G2.07 est « sans objet ou aucune décision n'a été prise », passez à l'activité suivante.Pour les rangées G et H, les questions G2.07 ne doivent pas être posées, et passez à l'activité suivante.Pour les rangées I à K, les questions G2.07 et G2.08 ne doivent pas être posées, et passez à l'activité suivante.6.5.2 Éléments du TableauG2.01 -G2.07Dans certains cas, les répondants auront besoin de plus d'explications quant au contenu de certaines catégories. Dans ce cas, le recenseur peut utiliser des exemples simples en guise d'explication. Ces exemples peuvent être adaptés aux activités spécifiques entreprises par les ménages dans la zone d'enquête. Voici quelques exemples susceptibles d'être utilisés :• Culture de céréales de base et transformation de la récolte : Céréales qui sont principalement cultivées pour la consommation alimentaire : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant le type de céréales (riz, maïs, manioc, millet, blé) à planter cette année ou au sujet des parcelles dans lesquelles elles seraient plantées, ou encore en ce qui concerne les semences, les engrais (autres intrants) que votre famille achèterait ?• Horticulture (jardins) ou Maraîchage et traitement de la récolte : Comprend la production alimentaire à petite échelle dans le jardin pour la consommation personnelle et la vente, qu'elle soit génératrice de revenus ou destinée à la consommation domestique. Par exemple, avez-vous participé aux décisions concernant le type de cultures de rente ou de cultures vivrières (fruits, légumes et autres produits de base) à planter cette année ou dans quelles parcelles elles seraient plantées, ou encore les semences, l'engrais (autres intrants) que votre famille achèterait ?• L'élevage de gros bétail et la transformation du lait et/ou de la viande : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant l'achat, les soins ou la vente de gros bétail comme les bovins ou les chameaux ?• Petit élevage et transformation du lait et/ou de la viande : Par exemple, avez-vous participé aux décisions concernant l'achat, les soins ou la vente de petits animaux d'élevage comme les moutons, les chèvres ou les porcs ?• Élevage de volaille et d'autres petits animaux : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant l'achat, les soins ou la vente de poulets, de canards, de dindes, de pigeons, de cailles et la transformation des oeufs et/ou de la viande de ces animaux d'élevage ?• Activités économiques non agricoles : Petite entreprise, travail indépendant, achat et vente : Par exemple, avez-vous participé aux achats effectués pour une petite entreprise ou à la vente de biens ?• Emploi salarié : Travail en nature ou activité rémunérée, à la fois dans l'agriculture et dans d'autres domaines : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant votre travail ou celui d'autres membres du ménage à l'extérieur de la maison ?• Grands achats occasionnels du ménage : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part à l'achat d'appareils électroménagers coûteux pour la maison, comme un réfrigérateur ou des meubles ? Ou de biens de plus grande valeur comme un terrain ou une bicyclette ?• Achats courants des ménages : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part à des dépenses moins importantes du ménage, telles que celles liées aux besoins quotidiens, comme la consommation de nourriture ? Ces catégories d'achats sont axées sur la taille (faible valeur) et la fréquence des achats (achats de routine, achats quotidiens), contrairement aux catégories d'achats des ménages collectées dans le module sur la nutrition et la santé qui se concentrent sur les articles et qui ont une pertinence particulière pour les résultats en matière de santé et de nutrition.• Obtention d'intrants agricoles : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part à l'obtention d'intrants agricoles comme des engrais, des aliments pour animaux, et des services, tels que vétérinaires, conseils ?6.6 Module G2: Rôle dans la prise de décision du ménage concernant la production et le revenu GRAND RUMINANT (BOVINS OU RACES AMÉLIORÉES MIXTES …), 4 -il s'agit de races exotiques ou croisées de bovins exotiques élevés à la fois pour la production de lait et de viande bovine (double usage). C'est ce que l'on trouve surtout dans les ménages de petits exploitants agricoles qui élèvent des bovins. Remarque : Sélectionnez cette option lorsque le troupeau entier est composé de races améliorées et qu'il possède à la fois des bovins destinés à la production laitière et à la production de viande bovine.PETIT RUMINANT (OVINS, CHÈVRES LOCAUX …), 5 -il s'agit d'ovins et de caprins locaux/indigènes.PETITS RUMINANTS (OVINS, CHÈVRES, RACES AMÉLIORÉES …), 6 -il s'agit de races exotiques ou de croisements de moutons et de chèvres exotiques.VOLAILLE (LOCALE)…7 -il s'agit de races locales/indigènes de tout type de volaille domestique, telles que les poulets, les dindes, les canards, les oies, les cailles, etc.VOLAILLE (RACES AMÉLIORÉES …), 8 -il s'agit de races exotiques ou de croisements de races exotiques de tout type de volaille domestique, comme les poulets, les dindes, les canards, les oies, les cailles, etc.CHAMEAUX …, 9. Il s'agit de races locales et exotiques venues de la région de Louga ou de la Mauritanie.Posez les questions suivantes à la personne interrogée:G2.08 : Parmi les espèces de bétail suivantes, lesquelles sont élevées dans votre ménage -Sélectionnez toutes les espèces que le ménage garde, selon la personne interrogée. Remarque:• Pour les gros ruminants, si un ménage possède à la fois des animaux laitiers et des animaux de boucherie, sélectionnez seulement l'option GRAND RUMINANT (BOVIN ou MIXTE...) et non pas les deux options GRAND RUMINANT (LOCAL LAITIER) et GRAND RUMINANT (BOVIN OU MIXTE).• Si une espèce de bétail qui n'appartient à aucune des catégories énumérées est mentionnée par le répondant, sélectionnez l'option « Autre spécification » et procédez à l'inscription du nom de ladite espèce de bétail.G2.09: Veuillez sélectionner l'espèce et le type de race les plus importants pour les moyens de subsistance de votre ménage -sélectionnez une seule espèce de bétail dans la liste, celle que la personne interrogée identifie comme étant la plus importante pour les moyens de subsistance du ménage.G2.09a: Raison pour laquelle elle est la plus importante pour le bien-être/moyen de subsistance de votre ménage : -Il s'agit d'un champ de texte libre dans lequel vous devez saisir la raison citée par la personne interrogée qui explique pourquoi l'espèce de bétail sélectionnée est importante pour le ménage.G2.10: Veuillez sélectionner l'espèce et le type de race les plus importants pour votre propre moyen de subsistance -Sélectionnez une seule espèce de bétail dans la liste, celle que la personne interrogée identifie comme la plus importante pour son propre moyen de subsistance. 6.6.3 Liste des activités du Tableau G2.12 -G2.20• Alimentation des animaux -il s'agit de collecter, d'acheter, de préparer et/ou d'apporter des aliments aux animaux.• Abreuvement des animaux-il s'agit de recueillir ou d'apporter de l'eau à l'animal.• Pâturage des animaux -cela implique de sortir les animaux de la ferme pour les faire paître.• Vérification de la santé de l'animal -cela implique d'observer l'animal pour relever tout signe de problème de santé.• Application des mesures de prévention des maladies-cela comprend la pulvérisation, la désinfection ou le fait de laver les animaux.• Mise en oeuvre des mesures curatives -cela comprend l'administration de médicaments dans le but de guérir les animaux malades.• Traite des animaux -il s'agit de tirer le lait (d'une vache ou d'un autre animal), soit manuellement, soit mécaniquement.• Vente de lait/d'oeufs -il s'agit de parler du lait à un acheteur ou de le livrer à un centre de collecte afin de l'échanger contre de l'argent.• Nettoyage des animaux, des abris ou des outils-il s'agit d'enlever la saleté des abris pour animaux et de s'assurer que ces mêmes abris et les ustensiles utilisés pour la manipulation des animaux sont propres.• Abattage des animaux -il s'agit de tuer (les animaux) pour se nourrir.• Préparation de la viande, des oeufs et du lait des animaux pour en faire de la nourriture -cela implique la cuisson/le nettoyage et le service des produits du bétail comme nourriture.• Élevage des animaux dans son propre troupeau -cela implique de :• Choisir des animaux femelles et mâles pour organiser la reproduction ;• Prendre soin des parents sélectionnés en leur prodiguant les meilleurs soins ;• Séparer les mâles et les femelles géniteurs et organiser leur accouplement à des moments appropriés.Remarque : l'un ou l'autre ou les trois ci-dessus doivent être considérés comme des animaux reproducteurs• Organisation de l'insémination artificielle (IA) -cela implique de :• Contacter le fournisseur d'IA ;• Choisir les géniteurs pour la reproduction ;• Prendre des dispositions pour recevoir le service d'IA.Remarque : l'un ou l'autre ou les trois éléments ci-dessus doivent être considérés comme des dispositions prises pour l'insémination artificielle.• Recours à un service de reproduction-cela implique de :• Rechercher d'autres personnes pour fournir un animal géniteur pour la reproduction ;• Choisir les animaux qui seront les parents de la prochaine génération ;• Prendre des dispositions pour ledit service de reproduction.Remarque : l'un ou l'autre ou les trois ci-dessus doivent être considérés comme des services de taureaux receveurs.• Décision quant à la quantité de produits [ANIMAUX]à mettre de côté pour la consommation des ménagesquelle quantité consommer par rapport à quelle quantité vendre.• Commercialisation d'animaux vivants et de produits d'animaux vivants -cela implique la préparation et la livraison d'animaux (animaux vivants) et de produits d'animaux (par exemple, la viande d'abattage, les cuirs et les peaux, etc., à l'exception du lait et des oeufs) à un acheteur ou à un lieu de vente dans le but de les échanger contre de l'argent.• Choix des espèces et des races à élever.• Partage de la charge de travail du bétail entre les membres du ménage -cela implique de répartir les tâches liées au bétail entre les différents membres du ménage.• Fourniture du bétail en garantie pour accéder au crédit.• Utilisation du fumier du bétail ou utilisation du bétail même comme moyen de travail agricole -cela implique d'utiliser le purin pour produire du fumier et l'appliquer sur l'exploitation, et également d'utiliser le bétail pour le labour et le transport des marchandises.• Activités supplémentaires, qui peuvent être ajoutées si un projet se concentre sur les vaccins, par exemple pour les chèvres, la volaille :• Vaccination des chèvres contre la FVR -FVR est un acronyme pour la fièvre de la vallée du Rift. La FVR est une maladie virale aiguë et fébrile qui s'observe le plus souvent chez les animaux domestiques (tels que les bovins, les buffles, les moutons, les chèvres et les chameaux).• Vaccination des chèvres contre la PPCC -PPCC est l'acronyme de la Pleuropneumonie contagieuse caprine. La PPCC est une maladie hautement mortelle qui survient chez les chèvres, dont les signes cliniques comprennent la faiblesse, l'anorexie, la toux, l'hyperpnée et l'écoulement nasal accompagné de fièvre.• Vaccination des chèvres contre la PPR -PPR est l'acronyme de la Peste des petits ruminants, également connue sous le nom de « peste caprine ». Il s'agit d'une maladie virale chez les chèvres et les moutons, caractérisée par de la fièvre, des plaies dans la bouche, de la diarrhée, une pneumonie et parfois la mort.• Vaccination du poulet contre la MN -MN est un acronyme pour la maladie de Newcastle. La MN est une infection virale très contagieuse qui affecte à des degrés divers de nombreuses espèces d'oiseaux domestiques et sauvages.G2.12: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant s'il/si elle a participé à l'activité au cours des 12 derniers mois G2.13: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée à quelle fréquence elle participe à l'activité (intervalles prédéfinis, par exemple, tous les jours, deux fois par semaine, etc.).G2.13a: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant combien d'heures il consacre à l'activité (selon l'intervalle de fréquence choisi au point G2.13a).G2.14: Lorsque des décisions sont prises concernant [L'ACTIVITÉ], pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée qui prend généralement les décisions concernant l'activité. Remarque : Veuillez noter jusqu'à 3 membres. Si la réponse est MOI SEULEMENT (c.-à-d. le répondant seulement), passez à la question G2.16.Dans cette question, demandez si le répondant a lui-même participé à la prise de décision concernant chacune des activités.G2.15: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant de quelle façon il a pris part à la prise de décisions concernant l'activité.G2.16A: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant s'il a reçu ou acquis une formation, des informations ou des conseils (formels et informels) sur l'activité au cours des 12 derniers mois.G2.16: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée dans à quel niveau elle pense pouvoir participer aux décisions concernant l'activité si elle le veut.G2.17: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant qui il préfère pour prendre les décisions concernant l'activité. Remarque : Notez jusqu'à 3 membres.G2.18: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée dans quelle mesure elle peut accéder aux informations qu'elle juge importantes pour prendre des décisions éclairées concernant l'activité.G2.19: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée quel était son niveau de contribution aux décisions concernant la quantité de produits de l'activité à garder pour la consommation domestique plutôt que pour la vente.G2.20: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant quel a été son niveau de contribution aux décisions concernant l'utilisation du revenu généré par l'activité.Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que vous aimeriez parler des actifs de son ménage et de la façon dont les décisions concernant les actifs sont prises, afin de donner un aperçu de la façon dont les actifs sont utilisés pour autonomiser les membres du ménage. • Gros ruminants (laitiers) -il s'agit des bovins laitiers. Les bovins laitiers (aussi appelés vaches laitières) sont des bovins élevés pour leur capacité à produire de grandes quantités de lait. Les vaches laitières sont généralement des vaches élevées uniquement pour la production de lait.• Gros ruminants (bovins ou mixtes)-il s'agit de bovins élevés à la fois pour la production de lait et de viande (double usage). C'est ce que l'on trouve surtout dans les ménages de petits exploitants agricoles qui élèvent des bovins.• Petits ruminants (moutons, chèvres) -il s'agit des moutons et des chèvres.• Volaille -il s'agit de tous les types de volailles domestiques, telles que les poulets, les dindes, les canards, les oies, les cailles, etc.• Équipement agricole non mécanisé (outils à main, charrue à traction animale) -notamment charrette à bras/ boeuf/âne ; pelle ; hache ; houe à main ; charrue à boeuf, herse à boeuf, brouette à roue, pompe de pulvérisation à main, coupe-paillettes manuel, pulvérisateur manuel, bidons de traite, etc.• Équipement agricole mécanisé-il s'agit notamment des tracteurs charrues, tracteurs herses, motoculteurs et pompes à pédales, pompes à eau.• Matériel non agricole -ceci inclut les panneaux solaires, les machines à coudre, le matériel de brasserie, les friteuses.• Maison ou bâtiment (en dur) -il s'agit des locaux d'habitation du ménage et d'autres bâtiments appartenant au ménage.• Les biens de consommation durables de grande taille-les réfrigérateurs, les téléviseurs, les canapés, les cuisinières à gaz ou électriques, les réservoirs d'eau.• Petits biens de consommation durables -les radios, les ustensiles de cuisine.• Téléphone portable.• Autres terres non utilisées à des fins agricoles -il s'agit notamment de parcelles, de terrains résidentiels ou commerciaux.• Moyens de transport -ceux-ci comprennent les véhicules motorisés à deux roues, les bicyclettes, les motocyclettes, les pousses-pousses, les voitures. G3.07b: Nombre détenu en propriété exclusive : Sur le nombre total d'articles appartenant à la personne interrogée (G3.07a), demandez le nombre total d'[article] appartenant au répondant lui-même (individuellement).G3.07c: Nombre détenu en commun : Sur le nombre total d'articles appartenant au répondant (G3.07a), demandez le nombre total d'[article] appartenant conjointement au répondant et à toute autre personne.G3.08 : Dans le cas de biens appartenant uniquement au répondant, demandez-lui ce qu'il peut faire de ces biens par lui-même, sans consultation. Remarque : sélectionnez toutes les options possibles.G3.09 : Pour les avoirs détenus conjointement, demandez au répondant avec qui il est copropriétaire.G3.10 : Dans le cas de biens détenus conjointement avec une autre personne, demandez au répondant ce qu'il peut faire de ces biens par lui-même, sans consultation. Remarque : sélectionnez toutes les options possibles.G3.11 : Pour tous les biens appartenant au répondant (seul ou conjointement), demandez au répondant ce que son conjoint peut faire de ces biens par lui/elle-même, sans le consulter. Remarque : sélectionner toutes les options possibles.• Pour les éléments autres que le bétail, seule la question G3.07 est posée.Ce module contient des questions sur l'accès au crédit. Quelques éléments sont à considérer :• Les sources de crédit peuvent être adaptées au contexte du pays, mais il est important de les distinguer les unes des autres et de ne pas les comptabiliser deux fois. Si la langue locale ne fait pas de distinction entre les catégories, elles peuvent être combinées en une seule. Par exemple, si une organisation non gouvernementale et une microfinance ou un prêt de groupe sont les mêmes dans le contexte local (si toute la microfinance de groupe est gérée par des ONG), il est alors possible de combiner les catégories en une seule. Dans ce cas, il y aura cinq catégories au lieu de six sur lesquelles poser des questions à la personne interrogée. Il ne faut jamais compter la même source de prêt dans plusieurs catégories. Si vous pensez que ce que la personne interrogée décrit peut appartenir à deux catégories ou plus, faites preuve de jugement et optez pour la catégorie qui vous semble être la meilleure.• La période de rappel se situe dans la dernière année ; cependant, si une source de crédit est en cours depuis plus d'un an (c.-à-d. un prêt pluriannuel qui a commencé deux ans auparavant), elle doit être comptée.• « En nature » désigne le crédit accordé sous forme de biens, de marchandises ou de services, par opposition à l'argent comptant.• Les « prêteurs informels » sont ceux qui, comme les prêteurs d'argent ou autres, NE sont PAS inclus dans l'une des autres catégories de crédit.• Il est à noter que la question G3.08 n'est pas incluse dans le calcul de l'indice pro-WEAI. Toutefois, nous vous recommandons de la poser, car elle vous permet de déterminer si les particuliers sont en mesure d'emprunter auprès d'une source particulière, même s'ils n'ont pas essayé de le faire au cours de la dernière année. C'est important pour les programmes, car cela indique s'il y a une contrainte de crédit en termes de demande de crédit non satisfaite.• En ce qui concerne le G3.09, dans certains cas, l'individu peut ne pas savoir si d'autres membres du ménage ont accédé ou utilisé un type de crédit spécifique et, dans ce cas, la réponse 97 « Ne sait pas » peut être choisie.• Pour les G3.10, G3.11 et G3.12, entrez jusqu'à 3 ID de membres ; assurez-vous de sonder la personne interrogée et de lui demander « y a-t-il quelqu'un d'autre ?».G3.10, G3.11, G3.12 (dans la version FULLBARE) : Dans ces questions, demandez si le répondant a lui-même été impliqué• La question G3.15 porte sur les comptes bancaires individuels et les comptes bancaires conjoints. Toutefois, cela exclut les comptes bancaires détenus par des groupes (VSLA, SACCOS, etc.), même si un individu en est membre.• La question G3.14 porte sur les services financiers numériques (argent mobile). Toutefois, cela exclut les comptes bancaires détenus par des groupes (VSLA, SACCOS, etc.), même si un individu en est membre.Le but de ce module est de se faire une idée de la façon dont le temps des hommes et des femmes est réparti. Les types d'activités et leur durée peuvent être utilisés dans l'analyse économique aussi bien que sociale, par exemple la contribution des femmes aux activités économiques ; la valeur de la production domestique et du secteur informel ; la productivité ; la pauvreté et autres. Nous nous intéressons particulièrement aux activités agricoles telles que l'agriculture, le jardinage et l'élevage, que ce soit dans les champs ou au sein des fermes. Nous nous intéressons également au temps passé à s'occuper des enfants, surtout si cela se produit pendant que le répondant pratique d'autres activités .GG4.01 : Veuillez consigner un registre des activités de la personne au cours des dernières 24 heures complètes (commençant la veille au matin, à 4 h, et se terminant à 3 h 59 de la journée en cours). (Remarque : Si les dernières 24 heures ont été extrêmement inhabituelles, c'est-à-dire si elles ne peuvent être comparées à une journée typique, p. ex. un jour férié, un jour de mariage, un jour d'enterrement, etc., demandez au répondant de choisir le jour qu'il considère comme le plus typique).G4.02: Cochez cette case si la personne interrogée s'occupe aussi des enfants pendant qu'elle pratique une autre activité. Pour cette question, les soins aux enfants comprennent à la fois des soins dits « actifs » (comme par exemple : nourrir, baigner l'enfant) et des soins dits « passifs » (comme par exemple : recueillir de l'eau tout en portant un enfant). Remarque : Cette question doit être posée à partir du moment où les activités principales sont remplies..• La grille horaire commence à 4 heures du matin pour tenir compte des répondants qui se réveillent très tôt. Il est plus utile de remplir cette grille tout en engageant une conversation avec le répondant, plutôt que de lui demander ce qu'il faisait à 4 h 15, 4 h 30, 4 h 45 et ainsi de suite. D'abord, il est utile d'établir l'heure à laquelle le répondant s'est réveillé et s'est couché, de sorte qu'il ne reste plus que les heures au cours desquelles il était éveillé.• Le recenseur doit d'abord demander à la personne interrogée à quelle heure elle s'est réveillée le jour précédent, puis indiquer n'importe quelle heure avant cela comme « sommeil et repos ».• Ensuite, le recenseur peut demander au répondant à quelle heure il s'est endormi) la veille, puis indiquer n'importe quelle heure après cela comme « sommeil et repos ». En suivant cette procédure de deux premières étapes au début, on établit ainsi les limites de temps pour la journée qui doivent être prises en compte.• Après avoir établi les heures de réveil et de sommeil, le recenseur peut ensuite demander à la personne interrogée ce qu'elle a ensuite fait, et pendant combien de temps, et ainsi de suite jusqu'à ce que la journée entière soit remplie. Par exemple, demandez ce que cette personne a fait après s'être levée. Le répondant raconte alors ce qu'il a fait et pendant combien de temps. La tâche du recenseur est alors d'identifier le code correct associé à chaque activité et d'entrer la réponse dans l'intervalle de temps correct. Ensuite, le recenseur demande : « Avez-vous également pris soin des enfants pendant que vous pratiquiez cette activité ?» Le recenseur doit cocher la case si la personne interrogée s'occupait aussi d'un enfant pendant qu'elle faisait autre chose. Même si le répondant ne s'occupe pas activement de l'enfant ou n'interagit pas avec lui (par exemple, l'enfant dort ou fait autre chose), tant qu'il est responsable de l'enfant pendant ce temps, il faut considérer cela comme un « Oui » et cocher la case pour l'intervalle de temps approprié.• Selon le contexte, il peut également être utile d'utiliser des marqueurs temporels communs pour aider les répondants à se rappeler des activités en rapport avec d'autres événements qui se produisent de manière prévisible tout au long de la journée (à savoir le déjeuner à 13 heures, l'heure de la prière, le lever/coucher du soleil, etc.).• Les intervalles de temps sont marqués par périodes de 15 min et une activité peut être marquée pour chaque période de temps en inscrivant le code de l'activité dans la case. Ne laissez aucun des intervalles de temps en blanc. Si une activité est effectuée sur de longues périodes (plus de 15 minutes), le même code d'activité doit être répété pour la durée de l'activité. Par exemple, si l'activité « E » a été effectuée pendant 1 heure, alors « E » doit être indiqué dans quatre cases consécutives.• Assurez-vous que vos marques sont très claires. Vous ne devez jamais avoir plus d'une activité marquée pour une même période. Si la personne interrogée faisait plusieurs choses en même temps (par exemple, prendre son petit déjeuner et écouter la radio), demandez-lui quelle était l'activité principale et inscrivez le code de l'activité pour la période de temps appropriée. Si l'activité secondaire consiste à prendre soin d'un enfant, assurez-vous de cocher également la case du G4.02.• Si une activité est réalisée pendant la majeure partie des 15 minutes (jusqu'à 8 minutes), cochez alors la case entière pour cette activité. Cependant, si une activité n'est complétée que pour la partie mineure ou moindre de 15 minutes (moins de 8 minutes), alors ne comptez tout simplement pas l'activité dans le tableau. Par exemple, si la personne interrogée a mangé/bu pendant 20 minutes, une seule case doit être remplie (15 minutes sont comptées et les 5 minutes restantes sont perdues parce que les 8 minutes ne sont pas atteintes). Par contre, si la personne interrogée a mangé/bu pendant 25 minutes, alors deux cases doivent être remplies (15 minutes dans la première case et 10 minutes dans la seconde). Un intervalle ne peut jamais être divisé.• Lorsqu'une personne interrogée décrit de nombreuses activités sur une courte période, comme par exemple sa routine matinale, faites appel à votre meilleur jugement pour déterminer à quelles catégories appartiennent la majorité des activités et remplissez cette grille de temps pour la période concernée.• Ne laissez jamais un intervalle de 15 minutes en blanc. Il faut tenir compte de toutes les 24 heures.Exemple: Dans le diagramme ci-dessous, on peut voir que le répondant dormait ou se reposait jusqu'à 5 h 30. À partir de 5 h 30, il a écouté la radio pendant 30 min, puis a pris son petit déjeuner pendant 15 min et s'est lavé et habillé sur une durée de 15 min. À 6h30, il a commencé à travailler dans un magasin, ce qu'il a continué à faire pendant une heure et demie.Matin Jour 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00TLa liste des activités est assez générale. Il se peut donc que quelque chose que le répondant a fait ne soit pas décrit parmi les activités. Réfléchissez d'abord si l'activité s'inscrit dans l'une ou l'autre des activités précitées. Si ce n'est pas le cas, utilisez la catégorie « Autres, précisez». Essayez de la décrire de la façon la plus détaillée possible. Si plus d'une activité entre dans la catégorie « Autres », assurez-vous qu'une description distincte est disponible pour chaque activité.Le travail formel et l'école ont préséance sur les autres activités. Les soins personnels (ornements, maquillage), l'alimentation, la lecture, les voyages, etc. pendant les heures de travail et d'école sont toujours marqués comme travail/école. Toutefois, une pause officielle est enregistrée comme étant consacrée à l'alimentation, aux soins personnels, aux achats ou à tout ce qui a pu être fait. De nombreuses activités, comme les courses, sont liées aux voyages. Si ces déplacements constituent la partie la plus longue d'une période de 15 minutes, il faut le noter comme un déplacement. Les déplacements spécifiques pour se rendre au travail ou à l'école et en revenir doivent être enregistrés comme des déplacements quotidiens (ou déplacements pendulaires), (activité M), et non comme des voyages.Remarque : Les activités G-L couvrent TOUS les aspects de la catégorie. Par exemple, en ce qui concerne l'élevage de gros bétail (comme une vache), cela signifie le temps passé à nourrir la vache, à la traire, à traiter et à vendre son lait. • Si la personne interrogée est une femme, l'agent recenseur doit vérifier le fichier pour s'assurer qu'elle a un enfant de moins de 5 ans. Puisque cette information a déjà été recueillie dans le fichier, nous ne conseillons pas de lui poser cette question, ce afin de minimiser sa fatigue.G4.04a: Demandez à la personne interrogée si elle peut prendre un enfant avec elle si elle veut faire quelque chose qui est lié à la subsistance, à la formation ou aux soins personnels.G4.04b: Si vous vouliez faire quelque chose (lié à la subsistance, à la formation, aux soins personnels) et ne pouviez pas emmener votre enfant avec vous, quelqu'un qui pourrait s'occuper de lui en votre absence ?• Pour ces deux dernières questions, nous nous intéressons à l'accès de la répondante à la garde d'enfants. La participation à de nombreux types de projets de développement exige de consacrer du temps supplémentaire à la formation, aux réunions de groupe, etc. L'accès à d'autres prestataires de services de garde d'enfants peut donc déterminer la facilité avec laquelle les femmes peuvent participer à de tels projets.G4.05: Entrez jusqu'à trois identifiants de membres des personnes susceptibles de s'occuper de l'enfant ou des enfants de la personne interrogée, en son absence. Si la personne n'est pas un membre du ménage, veuillez sélectionner d'autres membres ne faisant pas partie intégrante du ménage, le cas échéant.6.10 Module G4 : Répartition du temps dans la version fullbare :• Dans cette version de l'outil, commencez par demander au répondant l'heure à laquelle il s'est réveillé la veille au matin. À partir de l'heure du réveil, notez les activités que le répondant a effectuées au cours des 24 heures suivant l'heure du réveil (un journal d'activités sur 24 heures) -un carnet de notes serait utile à cet effet. Regroupez les activités liées à chacune des 10 activités principales suivantes (en additionnant toutes les heures pour chacune d'entre elles) et notez-les pour chacune d'entre elles.• Travail agricole (culture, horticulture, élevage, volaille/petits animaux, pêche)• Travail salarié• Travail dans sa propre entreprise• Travail domestique (cuisine, nettoyage, textile, collecte d'eau, collecte de combustible)• Travail de soins (pour les enfants et les adultes)• Travail mobile (déplacements, achats, services (par exemple, services de santé animale, coiffure), vente de produits)• Activités scolaires (y compris formation / devoirs)• Alimentation et soins personnels (prendre un bain, s'habiller, se brosser les dents/les cheveux)• Loisirs, activités sociales et religieuses, voyages• Dormir / se reposer• Autres activités (préciser : _______________)• Sur le temps de travail total (exploitation agricole, emploi, entreprise personnelle, travail domestique, soins et travail mobile), demandez combien d'heures le répondant s'est AUSSI occupé de ses enfants pendant qu'il effectuait ces tâches.Quelques éléments à noter :• Notez que les groupes dans la communauté peuvent être soit formels, soit informels et coutumiers. • Notez que la définition de la notion de « collectivité » est laissée à la discrétion du répondant et qu'il peut s'agir de groupes dans son propre village ou d'un groupe plus vaste comprenant un village ou une ville à proximité.• Il est à noter que de nombreux groupes ont des activités multiples. Par exemple, un groupe agricole peut avoir une composante de microfinance. Lorsque c'est le cas, choisissez la catégorie de groupe qui représente l'activité principale. Si le groupe agricole fournit de nombreux services de vulgarisation, y compris la microfinance, alors le groupe agricole, et non le groupe de crédit ou de microfinance, doit être sélectionné. Demandez au répondant de décrire le groupe plus en détail si vous n'êtes pas clair.• Un « groupe religieux » peut inclure le fait d'aller à l'église, à la mosquée, etc. ou encore d'être membre d'un petit groupe de prière ou de discussion religieuse.• Si un certain groupe n'est pas approprié au contexte, il peut être remplacé par le groupe approprié dans la même catégorie ; si aucun remplacement n'est possible, il peut être omis du questionnaire. La décision d'omettre ou non un groupe doit être prise au cours de la formation ; un groupe ne doit jamais être omis lors de la conduite d'un questionnaire.6.12 Module G6: Mobilité physiqueLe but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations quant aux endroits où les hommes et les femmes se déplacent à l'extérieur de la maison. Les questions G6.01-G6.07 sont obligatoires.• Remarque : Un centre urbain est une grande région urbaine densément peuplée ; il peut comprendre la municipalité d'une ville. Veuillez considérer la définition officielle du recensement ou du gouvernement d'un centre urbain ou d'une municipalité qui est utilisée dans votre contexte particulier. Les questions G6.02-G6.07doivent être posées UNIQUEMENT SI LE RÉPONDANT EST UNEFEMME.• Cette partie du module est facultative (c.-à-d. G6.02, G6.05, G6.06 et G6.07).• Remarque : l'endroit « À l'extérieur de votre communauté ou de votre village » est une vaste catégorie d'endroits (peut inclure, sans s'y limiter, un centre urbain).• Remarque : Si la personne interrogée dit qu'elle ne veut pas aller à [LIEU], alors le responsable de la collecte des données doit lui demander : « Si vous vouliez y aller, qui déciderait habituellement si vous pouvez aller à [LIEU] ?» 6.13 Module G7: Relations au sein du ménageLe but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations sur le respect mutuel et les conflits entre mari et femme ou entre les deux décideurs du ménage.• Remarque : les rangées A et B sont OBLIGATOIRES ; les rangées C et D sont FACULTATIVES. Ajoutez des rangées pour poser des questions sur les personnes extérieures au ménage, comme une belle-mère qui vit en dehors du ménage et les autres épouses lorsqu'il s'agit de ménages polygames.• G7.01: IMPORTANT : entrez le numéro d'identification du membre du ménage qui correspond à la personne inscrite dans la rangée.• G7.06: NE LISEZ PAS À HAUTE VOIX AU RÉPONDANT. Le recenseur doit vérifier le fichier/la page de couverture pour voir si la personne à laquelle le répondant fait référence est aussi l'autre répondant. Le répondant ne connaît pas nécessairement cette information.• G7.07: il est GRANDEMENT RECOMMANDÉ de poser cette question aux RÉPONDANTS FÉMININS dans les contextes de polygamie.Le but de ce module est de comprendre les motivations à l'origine des actions des hommes et des femmes dans différentes activités.• Chaque situation (par exemple, A1, A2, A3, A4, A4, B1, B2, B3, B4, D1, D2, D3, D4) décrit un type de motivation différent. La motivation #1 est de faire quelque chose parce que vous n'avez pas le choix. La motivation #2 est de faire quelque chose parce que vous aurez des problèmes avec une personne en particulier si vous agissez différemment. La motivation #3 est de faire quelque chose pour que les autres ne pensent pas du mal de vous. La motivation #4 est de faire quelque chose parce que vous pensez personnellement que c'est la bonne chose à faire.• Les recenseurs doivent lire à haute voix chaque histoire, les questions qui suivent et les codes de réponse. Assurez-vous de changer les noms pour refléter les noms locaux masculins et féminins couramment utilisés. Les noms doivent être masculins/féminins selon le sexe du répondant, de sorte que les noms masculins soient dans les histoires lues au répondant masculin et les noms féminins dans les histoires lues au répondant féminin. L'ordre des sujets a-d doit être aléatoire, et dans chaque sujet, l'ordre des histoires 1-4 doit être aléatoire.• Nous recommandons de poser toutes les questions de cette section (G8.01, G8.02, G8.03) pour saisir un indicateur plus précis de l'autonomie. Cependant, certains utilisateurs peuvent choisir d'ignorer les questions G8.02 et G8.03 s'il y a un risque important de non-réponse, ou si ce n'est pas un indicateur prioritaire pour le projet. Dans ce cas, seul le G8.01 « Es-tu comme cette personne ? » sera collecté. Notez que l'abandon des questions de suivi (G8.02 et G8.03) est susceptible d'identifier plus de personnes comme étant dépourvues de pouvoir.Le but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations concernant la confiance en soi et la capacité des répondants à atteindre les objectifs qu'ils se sont fixés.• Pensez à la façon dont chaque énoncé se rapporte à votre vie, puis dites-moi dans quelle mesure vous êtes d'accord ou en désaccord avec l'énoncé sur une échelle de 1 à 5, où 1 signifie que vous êtes « Fortement en désaccord » et 5, que vous êtes « Fortement d'accord ».• Remarque : Il peut être utile de randomiser (confirmer) l'ordre des énoncés.6.16 Module G8(c): Satisfaction de la vie• tLes questions suivantes vous demandent dans quelle mesure vous êtes satisfait(e) de votre vie dans son ensemble, sur une échelle de 1 à 5, où 1 signifie que vous vous sentez « Très insatisfait(e) » et 5 que vous vous sentez «Très satisfait(e)».6.17 Module G9: Attitudes à l'égard de la violence familialeLe but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations sur les attitudes et les croyances concernant la tolérance de l'usage de la violence contre les femmes dans les relations intimes. Les questions de ce module ne portent pas sur l'expérience personnelle, mais plutôt sur les attitudes à l'égard de la violence familiale en général. Il est important que ce module soit placé à la fin de l'enquête pour des raisons de sensibilité.• IMPORTANT: Ces questions s'adressent aux hommes comme aux femmes.• Si vous interrogez une personne non mariée, posez la question de la même façon.","tokenCount":"8702"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2f4d4f518de57d107d8bcbd49154a27f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/15f4675f-1f4f-4ddc-b59e-11ef97ee766c/retrieve","id":"-1509089145"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d3239801-6115-4d3f-a8d1-f79f3444647a","pagecount":"194","content":"Efecto del germinado y extrusión sobre el contenido de aminoácidos de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen en la elaboración de donas .Bioversity International es una organización internacional independiente, de carácter científico, que busca contribuir al bienestar actual y futuro de la humanidad mejorando la conservación y el aprovechamiento de la agrobiodiversidad en fincas y bosques. Es uno de los 15 centros que auspicia el Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (GCIAI), una asociación de miembros del sector público y privado que apoya la ciencia para disminuir el hambre y la pobreza, mejorar la alimentación y la salud humana, y proteger el medio ambiente. Bioversity tiene su sede principal en Maccarese, cerca de Roma, Italia, y oficinas en más de 20 países. La organización opera a través de cuatro programas: Diversidad al Servicio de las Comunidades; Comprensión y Manejo de la Biodiversidad; Alianzas Colaborativas de Carácter Mundial; y Cultivos para Mejorar Medios de Vida.El carácter de organismo internacional de Bioversity lo confiere el Convenio de Creación de la organización, que a enero de 2010 había sido ratificado por los gobiernos de los siguientes países: Argelia, Australia, Bélgica, Benin, Bolivia, Brasil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Camerún, Chile, China, Chipre, Congo, Costa de Marfil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dinamarca, Ecuador, Egipto, Eslovaquia, Etiopía, Ghana, Grecia, Guinea, Hungría, India, Indonesia, Irán, Israel, Italia, Jordania, Kenia, Malasia, Malí, Marruecos, Mauricio, Mauritania, Noruega, Omán, Pakistán, Panamá, Perú, Polonia, Portugal, República Checa, Rumania, Rusia, Senegal, Siria, Sudán, Suiza, Túnez, Turquía, Ucrania y Uganda.Los programas de investigación de Bioversity reciben apoyo financiero de más de 150 donantes, incluyendo gobiernos, fundaciones privadas y organismos internacionales. Información adicional sobre los donantes y las actividades de investigación de Bioversity aparece en los Informes Anuales de la organización, disponibles en forma impresa en la dirección bioversity-publications@cgiar.org o en forma electrónica en la dirección www.bioversityinternational.org.El Centro de Investigación de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente CIRNMA, Perú, es una asociación civil sin fines de lucro creada en abril de 1992, inscrita en Registros Públicos con Partida No. 11001430 y reconocida por la Agencia Peruana de Cooperación Internacional mediante Resolución Gerencial No. 0172-2007 / APCI-GOC del 27 de abril del 2007. Su finalidad es promover el desarrollo económico y social del altiplano peruano con un enfoque sistémico, tomando en consideración el manejo de los recursos naturales, organizados en sistemas productivos para generar un desarrollo rural agropecuario que incluye la agroindustria y el mercado como elementos claves del desarrollo. En alianza con instituciones nacionales e internacionales, realiza estudios, investigaciones y proyectos en diversos campos productivos y socioeconómicos y que articulan los niveles de comunidad, microrregión y región. Su marco conceptual, organizado temáticamente incluye el manejo de la biodiversidad, los procesos agrícolas y ganaderos, la artesanía, modelos-simulación, post producción y desarrollo de mercados. La capacitación es considerada dentro de cada componente como parte de un proceso y no como un fin. ii La Fundación para la Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos -Fundación PROINPA de Bolivia, es una organización sin fines de lucro cuya misión es promover la conservación y uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos, la soberanía y seguridad alimentaria y la competitividad de rubros agropecuarios, en el beneficio de los productores, el sector agropecuario y la sociedad boliviana en su conjunto, a través de la investigación y la innovación tecnológica.Para el cumplimiento de su misión, PROINPA genera, recupera, valida, transfiere y difunde conocimientos, productos y servicios buscando la participación y/o financiamiento de organizaciones públicas y privadas tales como: Ministerios, Gobiernos Departamentales, Municipios, Agencias financieras, donantes, ONGs, empresas, profesionales, Fundaciones, Universidades, Centros Internacionales y asociaciones de productores. PROINPA tiene tres objetivos organizacionales: a) recuperar, desarrollar y promocionar tecnologías para la conservación y uso sostenible de los recursos genéticos; b) recuperar, desarrollar y promocionar tecnologías para contribuir a la soberanía y seguridad alimentaria y; c) recuperar, desarrollar y promocionar tecnologías para contribuir a la competitividad de los rubros de prioridad nacional. Trabaja a nivel nacional, en 7 departamentos de los 9 que tiene Bolivia, el personal técnico y administrativo está conformado por 220 personas entre Ph.D, M.Sc, Ing., Lic., y Téc. Superiores.La Universidad Mayor de San Andrés UMSA de Bolivia, fue fundada el 25 de octubre de 1830. Actualmente presenta 13 facultades, 53 carreras y diferentes programas de postgrado. Las carreras de Ingeniería Agronómica y la Técnica Agropecuaria contribuyen a la formación de profesionales de alto nivel académico, a través del mejoramiento continuo de conocimientos científicos y tecnológicos que promueven una educación superior de óptima calidad y competitividad comprometida al servicio del desarrollo del país. Frente a las tendencias de los diferentes escenarios, la visión del ámbito externo de las carreras se expresa en el crecimiento exponencial de conocimientos e información, la movilidad profesional acelerada y competitiva, y la conciencia universal sobre la conservación ecológica. En consideración a lo indicado, las carreras asumen su rol productivo y social participando en diferentes proyectos a través del apoyo y cooperación técnica, el asesoramiento de alto nivel a estudiantes y egresados que realizan tesis de grado en instituciones públicas y privadas, se promueve la investigación e interacción social, la promoción y el desarrollo productivo, también vincula activamente a los sectores productivos, sociedad y organismos públicos y privados. Su objetivo es impartir conocimientos teóricos-prácticos a fin de formar profesionales capaces de planificar, dirigir, administrar, ejecutar y evaluar todo lo relacionado con el uso racional de recursos naturales y la implementación de los factores del sistema de producción agrícola, la optimización del uso de tecnologías apropiadas, el mejoramiento de la productividad agrícola y pecuaria, la investigación de los factores de producción y de los aspectos socioeconómicos, para impulsar el desarrollo del sector productivo sostenible en beneficio de la población rural.iiiLa Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno de Perú es una institución pública de educación universitaria dedicada a formar profesionales y post graduados calificados con capacidad de gestión, compromiso social, premunidos de valores éticos y culturales, que realizan investigación para proponer alternativas integrales como soporte del desarrollo nacional y de la región andina. Inició sus actividades en 1858 hasta 1867 en que dejó de funcionar, y desde 1962 continua ininterrumpidamente sus actividades; actualmente funciona con 18 facultades, 33 carreras profesionales y la Escuela de Postgrado cuenta con 12 especialidades de Maestría y un Doctorado.La Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias FCA perteneciente a la UNA-Puno es la más antigua de las facultades, con 48 años de funcionamiento. Está en permanente renovación de sus estructuras curriculares, enseñanza académica e implementación de infraestructura en sus tres Escuelas Profesionales (Ingeniería Agronómica, Ingeniería Agroindustrial e Ingeniería Topográfica y Agrimensura), acorde con los requerimientos de la actualidad. Es pionera e impulsora del desarrollo agropecuario de la región y del país, con el desarrollo de trabajos de investigación, innovaciones tecnológicas y proyección social; además, es un medio para interactuar con sus egresados y mantener un vínculo permanente. Adicionalmente, esta facultad tiene adscrito al Centro de Investigación y Capacitación para el Desarrollo Regional CICADER, reconocido institucionalmente mediante Resolución Rectoral Nº 1576-2000-R-UNA, al cual pertenecen gran parte de docentes de la facultad con la finalidad de realizar investigaciones y proyección social a través de las publicaciones de sus trabajos o asesorando prácticas profesionales, tesis de grado y apoyo a instituciones, productores o agroindustriales.La Universidad Nacional de San Agustín UNSA de Arequipa Perú, es una institución dedicada a la formación integral de académicos y profesionales; con capacidad de investigar, crear y difundir conocimientos; para contribuir a la preservación del medio ambiente, al crecimiento y el desarrollo social, en condiciones de equidad, seguridad y justicia. Su visión es ser una universidad altamente creativa e innovadora, que practica la democracia y es participativa. Es de valoración y prestigio nacional e internacional, paradigma de difusión y creación de conocimientos. Estrechamente vinculada con su medio; forjadora de ciudadanos y profesionales de alta competencia; promotora de pensamiento crítico, generadora y plataforma de saber científico y tecnológico de la sociedad futura.La Universidad Técnica de Oruro, Bolivia, fue fundada por Ley del 15 de octubre de 1892 pero la actual denominación fue adoptada el 31 de marzo de 1941. Como institución académica su misión es contribuir, desde una perspectiva innovadora y creativa, a la satisfacción de las demandas de formación y actualización de profesionales, al desarrollo científico/tecnológico del país y al desarrollo de la cultura integral en la población.Para ello, forma profesionales integrales, con sentido crítico y creativos en los diferentes áreas de la ciencia, que sean capaces de interpretar con razonamiento iv científico las exigencias del entorno, convirtiéndose en actores de transformación cualitativa de la realidad social, económica, política, científica y cultural, buscando senderos que posibiliten nuestro desarrollo e integración nacional.A través de la Unidad de Postgrado, se contribuye a la superación continua y sistemática de los profesionales, elevando su nivel de calificación. Promueve la investigación científica y tecnológica orientada a la solución de problemas prioritarios del departamento de Oruro y del país en diversas áreas del conocimiento científico. Desarrolla las acciones de extensión universitaria y de interacción social orientadas hacia la solución de problemas de la comunidad. Se vincula con todos los sectores de la sociedad, orientando sus esfuerzos hacia la búsqueda de mayores niveles de calidad, pertinencia, cooperación, equidad y justicia social.El Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola FIDA (se conoce también como IFAD por sus siglas en inglés) es una institución financiera internacional y un organismo especializado de las Naciones Unidas consagrado a erradicar la pobreza y el hambre en las zonas rurales de los países en desarrollo (www.ifad.org).Las designaciones geográficas empleadas en esta publicación, al igual que la presentación del material, no expresan en modo alguno la opinión de Bioversity o del GCIAI sobre el estatus legal de ningún país, territorio, ciudad o región, ni acerca de sus autoridades o de la delimitación de sus fronteras. Asimismo, las opiniones expresadas son las de los autores y no necesariamente reflejan los puntos de vista de estas organizaciones.La mención de alguna marca registrada se suministra con fines informativos únicamente, no de apoyo al producto.Cita: Bravo R, Andrade K, Valdivia R, Soto JL, editores. 2010. Investigaciones sobre especies olvidadas y subutilizadas. Granos Andinos (Quinua, cañahua/cañihua y amaranto/kiwicha). Resúmenes de trabajos de grado y tesis de maestría realizadas en Bolivia y Perú (2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010). Bioversity International, Roma, Italia.En la actualidad existe la tendencia a reducir la base de la seguridad alimentaria global a solo unas pocas especies, reduciendo de esta forma el crecimiento económico, y por ende se está limitando los medios de vida de la población rural de escasos recursos, particularmente en áreas marginales. Esta disminución en la disponibilidad de especies usadas en la agricultura, reduce la capacidad de los agricultores y de los ecosistemas a adaptarse a los nuevos cambios, necesidades y oportunidades que se presenten.Para ayudar a resolver estas necesidades desde el punto de vista de la investigación y el desarrollo, se requiere que ampliemos nuestro enfoque e incluyamos un rango de especies mucho mayor que han sido utilizadas por comunidades y que no han sido tenidas en cuenta antes; muchas de estas especies ocupan nichos importantes, y están adaptadas a las condiciones en cierto grado extremas, riesgosas y frágiles que tienen las comunidades rurales. Sin embargo, al desarrollarse en estas áreas, tienen la ventaja comparativa de haber sido seleccionadas por los agricultores locales para resistir condiciones de estrés como una forma de co-evolución, y contribuyen a la producción sostenible por la baja cantidad de suministros que requieren, a la mayor diversidad-riqueza y por tanto a la estabilidad de los agroecosistemas.Debido a que estas especies de importancia local han sido frecuentemente olvidadas por los estudios de investigación y desarrollo, su valor potencial ha sido subexplotado. Esto las ha situado en una posición de peligro de erosión genética continua, restringiendo aún más las opciones de desarrollo para la población rural de escasos recursos. Existen además grandes vacíos de conocimiento sobre agronomía, transformación y capacidad de mejoramiento, y por tanto poca capacidad para conservarlas. También, poco se ha realizado para identificar marcos de comercialización, mercadeo y políticas efectivas para promover su uso y maximizar su valor económico. Todos estos factores representan los diferentes cuellos de botella que se encuentran a todos los niveles para la promoción exitosa de estas especies.Para estandarizar términos, llamaremos especies olvidadas a aquellas que han sido cultivadas principalmente en su centro de origen y domesticación, o en centros de diversidad por agricultores tradicionales, siendo dichos cultivos aún importantes para la subsistencia de la gente local. Algunas especies pueden estar distribuidas globalmente, pero tienden a ocupar nichos ecológicos especiales tanto en el ambiente local como en sistemas de producción y consumo. Las especies subutilizadas son aquellas cuyo potencial no ha sido descubierto en su totalidad. Los agricultores y consumidores están disminuyendo el uso de estos cultivos porque de alguna manera, no pueden competir con otras especies cultivadas en el mismo ambiente agrícola.Estas especies olvidadas y subutilizadas son consideradas generalmente \"menores\" en términos de comercio mundial y atención en relación a investigación. Sin embargo, generalmente juegan un papel importante no solo en la seguridad alimentaria y en la generación de ingresos para muchas comunidades de escasos recursos, sino también en la culinaria y culturas locales. Por lo anteriormente dicho, se pueden considerar como estratégicas en la búsqueda para ampliar el portafolio de cultivos que mejoren los medios de vida y la seguridad alimentaria para estas comunidades.El mejoramiento de los medios de vida sostenibles rurales es una tarea compleja, con la dificultad adicional de tener que lidiar con el cambio climático, la urbanización y la mayor competencia por los recursos naturales. Para lograr esto y evitar que tanto el conocimiento local de uso y las características propias de los cultivos desaparezcan, debe utilizarse un mayor número de cultivos que resistan las condiciones ambientales y de mercado cambiantes. Algunos de estos recursos claves ya están en las manos de los agricultores en forma de un amplio rango de especies de cultivos olvidados que deberían utilizarse más ampliamente para aumentar las opciones de medios de vida para las comunidades rurales de escasos recursos.Bioversity International (antes IPGRI) obtuvo financiación del Fondo Internacional para el Desarrollo Agrícola (IFAD 1 ) para implementar un proyecto global desarrollado en dos fases, en varias regiones y países del mundo, y con diferentes grupos de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas (NUS 2 por sus siglas en inglés) de cada región (plantas medicinales y aromáticas, granos andinos y cereales nutritivos menores).La primera fase denominada \"Fortalecimiento de las oportunidades de ingreso y la seguridad nutricional de los pobres rurales, a través del uso y mercadeo de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas\" (IFAD-NUS I, TAG 533) se desarrolló entre 2001-2005 en Bolivia, Ecuador, Perú, Egipto, Yemen, India, y Nepal.La segunda fase denominada \"Empoderando a los pobres rurales por medio del fortalecimiento de sus identidades, oportunidades de ingreso y seguridad alimentaria a través del mejoramiento del uso y mercadeo de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas\" (IFAD-NUS II, TAG 899), se ha venido desarrollando desde el 2007 y terminará a finales de 2010 en Bolivia, Perú, India, Italia y Yemen.Las instituciones ejecutoras y coordinadoras nacionales del proyecto para Bolivia son la Fundación para la Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos -Fundación PROINPA y Bioversity International.Para el componente de Perú, el Centro de Investigación de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente -CIRNMA actuó como entidad ejecutora y coordinadora nacional junto con Bioversity International.Bioversity International actuó adicionalmente como organización de coordinación general del proyecto global en sus dos fases, apoyando a todos los socios en la parte científica, técnica y en cualquier otro aspecto durante el desarrollo de este.Durante las dos fases del proyecto global se trabajó usando un enfoque holístico, participativo e interdisciplinario, donde instituciones de investigación, promoción y fomento, asociaciones de agricultores, comunidades rurales, programas nacionales, ONGs, universidades y diferentes empresas privadas unieron esfuerzos en torno a las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas.Las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas que son estratégicas por su rol en el fortalecimiento de la seguridad nutricional y la generación de ingresos para las poblaciones rurales de bajos ingresos en Bolivia y en Perú, y de las cuales trata este libro, son tres granos andinos con gran interés y potencial actuales: la quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd., la cañahua (Bolivia) o cañihua (Perú) Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen y el amaranto (Bolivia) o kiwicha (Perú) Amaranthus caudatus L.El propósito general del proyecto global es aumentar la contribución de estas tres especies olvidadas y subutilizadas en la seguridad alimentaria y los ingresos de las poblaciones rurales de escasos recursos.En la primera fase, esto se llevó a cabo a través de una gran diversidad de actividades en ocho áreas problema consideradas prioritarias que son:1) Falta de material genético de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas 2) Pérdida de germoplasma y conocimiento tradicional 3) Falta de conocimiento de sus usos, restricciones y oportunidades de estas especies 4) Generación limitada de ingresos 5) Comercialización en mercados y limitaciones de demanda 6) Falta de actividades de investigación y desarrollo, y escasas capacidades nacionales 7) Falta de vínculos a través de la conservación y producción hasta las cadenas de consumo 8) Marcos políticos y legales inapropiados o inadecuados En la segunda fase del proyecto, las ocho áreas prioritarias de importancia con sus múltiples actividades se desarrollaron a otros niveles para poderle prestar mayor atención a mujeres y otros grupos marginales de la sociedad de la siguiente manera:1) Generación limitada de ingresos basados en especies olvidadas y subutilizadas. 2) Desconocimiento de los valores nutritivos de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas y falta de estrategias para su mayor uso en programas de nutrición.3) Limitado capital humano y social de actores interesados para manejar las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas y obtener beneficios de su uso, combinado con el fortalecimiento de la identidad local 4) Poca experiencia en el conocimiento del rol del turismo rural en la promoción de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas. 5) Limitada disponibilidad, conocimiento y mantenimiento de la base del recurso genético 6) Insuficiente promoción de mejores políticas y marcos legales para el uso sostenible y equitativo de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas 7) Falta de cooperación en el manejo de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas y en la conciencia pública de la importancia de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas en los medios de vida de la población 8) Falta de movilización de apoyo y obtención de fondos para actividades con especies olvidadas y subutilizadas. A partir de las diferentes actividades realizadas en las dos fases para solucionar los problemas anteriormente mencionados se obtuvieron muchos resultados esperados los cuales están siendo documentados en variadas publicaciones.Una de las publicaciones generada a partir del proyecto es la revista \"Neglected no more\" publicada por Bioversity, en la cual se muestran los resultados e impacto del proyecto global en la primera fase estableciendo la base para la segunda fase. Esta se puede descargar de manera gratuita en formato PDF de la siguiente dirección URL: http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publications/publication/issue/neglecte d_no_more.html.Más aún, se han generado dos publicaciones con los resultados generales obtenidos en las dos fases del proyecto con granos andinos tanto para Bolivia como para Perú en versiones separadas para cada uno de estos países.Adicionalmente se lanzó una plataforma de múltiples actores interesados y socios de la cadena de valor. Uno de los retos más grandes que enfrentan los pequeños agricultores y especialmente aquellos que utilizan especies olvidadas y subutilizadas son los altos costos de transacción en la comercialización de sus productos.Una de las formas para ayudarlos es crear oportunidades de vinculación directa de los pequeños agricultores con compradores de mercados de alto valor. El enfoque utilizando plataformas hace exactamente esto por medio de la movilización de apoyo a pequeños agricultores a partir de un rango de instituciones nacionales (e internacionales) a través de la construcción de un capital social fuerte. Esto último juega el papel importante de conector entre grupos y entre individuos, facilitando la cooperación y el establecimiento de relaciones de apoyo mutuo para reducir efectivamente los costos de transacción.Al unir a todos los actores interesados en una sola plataforma, se facilitarán y se mejorarán enormemente las interacciones entre productores de granos 4 Introducción andinos, autoridades locales, ONGs, extensionistas, proveedores de servicios, investigadores y compradores. En este contexto, cada actor interesado trae consigo su experticia a la mesa, y al mismo tiempo, enriquece la implementación de la cadena de valor con diferentes perspectivas y/o visión. Al final, esta acción colectiva debería mejorar las posibilidades de los pequeños agricultores en los mercados agrícolas. La plataforma debe ser parte de un programa amplio que involucra intervenciones prácticas centrándose en el mejoramiento de la participación de los agricultores de bajos ingresos en cadenas de producción de alto valor, dándoles nuevas tecnologías, promoviendo su organización y acumulación de capital social, e involucrándolos en la \"visión de la cadena de valor\" de la producción y comercialización que los une directamente al mercado. Todas estas acciones facilitan el intercambio de conocimiento, aprendizaje social y desarrollo de capacidades que conducen al mejoramiento de la productividad de los pequeños agricultores, y en últimas, a la calidad del producto que se le suministra al mercado.Los resultados del proyecto en diferentes áreas con granos andinos obtenidos a través de diferentes trabajos de pregrado para Bolivia y trabajos de pregrado y tesis de posgrado para Perú son presentados a continuación en forma de resúmenes cortos de estos.La competitividad del mercado, las condiciones de calidad y los bajos rendimientos son, entre otros, los factores responsables de la disminución en el uso y de la desaparición de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas. La reducción de su uso viene acompañada por la erosión de su conocimiento asociado, indispensable para el reconocimiento, mantenimiento y utilización de estos recursos.Es estratégico mejorar el uso de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas para apoyar las opciones de subsistencia de la población rural y urbana pobre, y al mismo tiempo para continuar con el mantenimiento de tales activos de la biodiversidad. En vista de su adaptación a las condiciones locales, sus contribuciones nutricionales, su elasticidad a situaciones climáticas adversas y a otros factores, estas especies mantienen ventajas relativas por encima de los cultivos comerciales.El creciente interés del turismo es visto por varios socios como una oportunidad para fortalecer los ingresos de los miembros de las comunidades con escasos recursos en áreas objetivo, y al mismo tiempo crear maneras para levantar la autoestima e identidad cultural a través del reconocimiento y apreciación de recursos de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas protegidas por estas comunidades.La naturaleza de estos tópicos involucrados en la promoción de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas convoca a intervenciones participativas, multidisciplinarias y con múltiples interesados. Específicamente para Bolivia, la Fundación PROINPA está a cargo de la coordinación del proyecto \"Fortalecimiento de las oportunidades de ingreso y la seguridad nutricional de los pobres rurales, a través del uso y mercadeo de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas\" (IFAD-NUS) tanto en la primera como en la segunda fase. El trabajo está centrado en facilitar el desarrollo de actividades en beneficio de los cultivos de quinua, cañahua y amaranto.Los objetivos de esta sección son los siguientes:• Incrementar las contribuciones de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas para mejorar la subsistencia a través de capacidades mejoradas por parte de los interesados sobre las tecnologías de valor agregado y mejores prácticas para la promoción de la biodiversidad local, junto con un mejor mercado efectivo de especies y productos elegidos. • Identificar la contribución que las especies claves puedan realizar en la diversidad dietética para mejorar la nutrición, particularmente en niños y mujeres embarazadas. • Fortalecer la contribución de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas en la producción agrícola sostenible a través de su integración dentro de un rango incrementado de sistemas de producción, asegurando un mejor uso y mantenimiento de la diversidad en estos sistemas.• Desarrollar metodologías y enfoques para el manejo de las actividades turísticas realizadas por las comunidades locales con un enfoque de protección de su propia identidad cultural y de sus activos de recursos genéticos a través de las especies olvidadas y subutilizadas. • Apoyar el desarrollo de las políticas multisectoriales habilitadas a nivel nacional e internacional, incluyendo el suministro de datos relevantes para los hacedores de políticas y fortalecer la colaboración entre las instituciones que trabajan en especies olvidadas y subutilizadas.Durante la primera fase del proyecto en Bolivia se realizaron en total diez trabajos de tesis de pregrado realizadas en la Universidad Técnica de Oruro (UTO) y en la Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), los cuales reflejan diferentes experiencias y situaciones importantes estudiadas de los cultivos de quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd., cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen y amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L. El objetivo de este trabajo es recopilar y sistematizar la información sobre los trabajos de investigación que diferentes estudiantes realizaron a través de trabajos de tesis de pregrado para su respectiva publicación impresa y en forma digital (CD interactivo). En esta primera parte presentamos un total de 10 tesis aprobadas, cuatro en quinua, cuatro en cañahua, una en amaranto y una última en granos andinos en general.El equipo sistematizador asume las correcciones de los resúmenes y artículos que fueron necesarios para una mayor homogeneidad y comprensión de las investigaciones. La versión completa de estos (tanto la versión impresa como la versión en CD), se encuentran en las bibliotecas de la Facultad de Ingeniería y Procesos Químicos de la UTO, y en la Facultad de Agronomía de la UMSA.Expresamos nuestro reconocimiento y agradecimiento al Fondo Internacional para el Desarrollo de la Agricultura (IFAD) y Bioversity International, cuyo apoyo financiero y coordinación hicieron posible la publicación del presente documento. Asimismo, agradecemos a José Luis Marconi y a Wilfredo Rojas, que junto con el editor José Luis Soto, realizaron la sistematización de la información. Igualmente le agradecemos a Digi Facil (midigifacil@gmail.com) y a las personas que de una u otra forma colaboraron en la elaboración de CD.La quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. en Bolivia es uno de los principales cultivos de importancia en la seguridad familiar y en la nutrición de los pobladores locales por su adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas y variabilidad genética. Se encuentra cultivada en el altiplano de La Paz, Oruro y Potosí, y en los valles interandinos de Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Potosí y Tarija, pero su mayor diversidad y variación genética se encuentran en las orillas del Lago Titicaca. Sin embargo, se encuentra cultivada en una gran extensión de la región andina desde el sur de Colombia hasta Chile, y desde el nivel del mar hasta los 4000 m.s.n.m.prácticas mejoradas de corte y trilla para reducir pérdidas y contaminación del grano. Se estableció un ensayo bajo el diseño de bloques al azar con tres repeticiones, donde se evaluaron: métodos de cosecha, de trilla y el tiempo de emparve. La contaminación del grano con tierra y piedrecillas fue mayor cuando se realizó el arrancado de las plantas (0.45%) y menor en el corte con hoz (0.05%). La pérdida de grano fue de 0.63% para el arrancado y 0.22% para el corte con hoz. El tiempo empleado para la cosecha arrancando las plantas fue mayor (2.6 jornales/ha), comparado con el corte con hoz (1.7 jornales). El tiempo de emparve es proporcional al incremento de la contaminación del grano; a dos y cuatro semanas la contaminación se incrementó de 0.05 a 0.06%, siendo la mayor contaminación causada por heces de ratones y pájaros. Las pérdidas de grano en el emparve son mayores a medida que las parvas permanecen mayor tiempo en el campo, registrándose pérdidas de 0.65 a 0.72% a dos y cuatro semanas de emparve, respectivamente. La pérdida de grano en la trilla tradicional fue menor (0.71%) comparado con la trilla mecanizada (1.85%). El mayor rendimiento de trilla corresponde a la trilla mecanizada (177.9 kg/hora), comparado con la trilla tradicional (27.2 kg/hora).In this study, quinoa harvesting methods were evaluated to determine grain losses and contamination in the community of Sangramaya, Ingavi province, department of La Paz. The study aimed to improve quality of the commercial quinoa grain by using enhanced cutting and threshing techniques to reduce grain loss and contamination. A randomized block design trial with three replicates was conducted where harvesting and threshing methods and stacking time were evaluated. Grain contamination with soil and stones was higher when plants were pulled out (0.45%), and it was lower when they were cut with a sickle (0.05%). Grain loss was 0.63% for pulled-out plants and 0.22% for the plants cut with a sickle. During the harvest, the time spent pulling out plants was higher (2.6 wage/day) than if they were cut with a sickle (1.7 wage/day). Stacking time is proportional to the increase in grain contamination; at the second and fourth weeks, contamination increased from 0.05 to 0.06%, being the highest percentage of contamination due to mice and bird faeces. During stacking, the longer stacks remain in the field, the higher the grain loss, with losses ranging between 0.65 and 0.72% at the second and fourth weeks of stacking, respectively. Grain loss during traditional threshing was lower (0.71%) compared to the mechanized method (1.85%). The highest threshing yield corresponds to the mechanized threshing (177.9 kg/hour), compared to the traditional technique (27.2 kg/hour).La quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. es uno de los cultivos mas importantes del altiplano boliviano, su tolerancia a heladas, sequía y salinidad hacen de esta especie la mas apta para su cultivo en condiciones medioambientales adversas. Su reconocido valor nutritivo se destacó por su contenido proteico y la convierte en un producto importante para la alimentación humana y la generación de ingresos económicos principalmente para los pobladores de la región Andina.Las labores tradicionales de cosecha practicadas por los agricultores como el arrancado de plantas de quinua desde la raíz, exposición prolongada de las plantas cosechadas a la intemperie y la trilla mediante el golpeo con palos, son las principales fuentes de contaminación y producen perdidas de grano hasta en un 16% (Nieto 2006).Para contribuir a solucionar estos problemas, las instituciones y organizaciones de productores han estado promocionando y difundiendo técnicas mejoradas de cosecha y postcosecha para reducir los índices de contaminación y pérdida de grano durante la cosecha con el fin de obtener un producto de mejor calidad comercial (Tapia 2000).Sin embargo, si bien se han generado alternativas tecnológicas para reducir estas perdidas, no ha existido una adopción masiva de esta tecnología por parte de los agricultores, debido principalmente a su escasa difusión, y al hecho de que el agricultor no participa en la evaluación de las mismas. Por lo mencionado en el presente estudio, se plantearon los siguientes objetivos:• Contribuir al mejoramiento de la calidad de grano comercial de quinua mediante prácticas mejoradas de corte y trilla para reducir perdidas y grado de contaminación del grano. • Evaluar el grado de contaminación y cuantificar las perdidas de grano en la fase de cosecha y post cosecha de quinuaEl presente trabajo fue realizado en el periodo agrícola 2003-2004 en la comunidad de Sangramaya, ubicada en la subcentral Irpa Chico del municipio de Viacha, provincia Ingavi del departamento de La Paz. Geográficamente está situada entre los paralelos 16º42'44'' Latitud Sur y 68º13'00'' Longitud Oeste, a una altitud de 3860 m.s.n.m.Con el propósito de garantizar el buen desarrollo del cultivo, se realizaron labores oportunas propias del cultivo: preparación del suelo, siembra, deshierbe, control de plagas y enfermedades, cosecha, emparve y trilla.Para rescatar los criterios de los agricultores respecto a la tecnología ofertada, se realizaron evaluaciones con la participación de quince agricultores seleccionados de acuerdo a los siguientes criterios: que tengan experiencia en el manejo del cultivo, que sean innovadores y que tengan habilidad para comunicarse. También se consideró la voluntad de participar, el interés, la edad y el sexo. Se utilizaron las técnicas de evaluación abierta y la evaluación absoluta.Se empleó el diseño de bloques completos al azar con dos tratamientos y tres repeticiones.• Tratamientos para los métodos de cosecha:-Arrancado -Corte con hoz • Tratamientos para el tiempo de emparve:-Sin emparve -Emparvado por 2 semanas -Emparvado por 4 semanasContaminación y pérdida de grano por efecto de los métodos de cosecha La mayor contaminación del grano con piedrecillas y arena se registró en el método de arrancado de plantas (0.45%), debido al arrastre de arena y piedrecillas en las raíces. En cambio el método de corte con hoz registró valores de contaminación menores (0.05%), debido a que en el proceso no se incorpora raíces; una ventaja adicional del corte con hoz es la incorporación de raíces y partes de tallo al suelo que mejora la fertilidad y el contenido de materia orgánica.Las pérdidas de grano registraron los siguientes valores: el corte con hoz ocasiona menor perdida de grano (0.22 %) comparado con el arrancado tradicional (0.63 %). La practica de arrancar las plantas de quinua ocasiona mayores pérdidas, debido a que el agricultor al realizar el arrancado sacude las plantas de quinua para desprender la tierra de las raíces provocando perdidas por desgrane.El corte con hoz requiere de 27.75 horas para cosechar una hectárea (3.5 jornales/ha), mientras que el método de arrancado requiere de 39.56 horas para 12 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.cosechar una hectárea de quinua (4.9 jornales/ha). Estos resultados muestran que el corte con hoz es una práctica factible para el agricultor, permite reducir el tiempo empleado en la cosecha, así mismo se reduce la contaminación del grano con arena y piedrecillas mejorando la calidad del grano que repercute en un mayor precio de venta en el mercado.A continuación se presentan los resultados de la evaluación participativa de los métodos de cosecha, donde los agricultores destacaron criterios favorables y desfavorables según el orden de importancia.• Criterios favorables -El tiempo de cosecha: mencionado por el 93% de los agricultores, señalando que se reduce el tiempo cuando se corta con hoz, fue una práctica novedosa y fácil de adoptar por el bajo costo.-La contaminación del grano: fue mencionado por 87% de los agricultores, manifestando que es menor cuando la cosecha se realiza con hoz.-La menor pérdida de grano: mencionado por el 60% de los agricultores, destacando que el uso de hoces permite reducir la pérdida de grano.-Mayor ingreso económico: mencionado por el 47% de los agricultores, se refiere al mayor precio de venta de quinua, cuando el grano esta limpio y libre de impurezas debido al método de corte.• Criterios desfavorables -Mayor tiempo empleado en la cosecha: mencionado por el 73% de los agricultores, con 4.9 jornales/ha para el método de arrancado y 3.5 jornales/ha para el corte con hoz.-Mayor pérdida de grano: mencionado por el 67% de los agricultores, se produce mayor pérdida cuando se arrancan las plantas (0.63%), comparado con el corte con hoz (0.22%).-La baja humedad del suelo: mencionado por el 47% de los agricultores, que dificulta el arrancado de las plantas.-La mayor contaminación del grano: mencionado por el 33% de los agricultores a causa del arrancado de plantas en la cosecha.El tiempo de emparve tiene un efecto proporcional a la contaminación de grano, es decir, a mayor tiempo de emparve mayor será la contaminación del grano. El coeficiente de regresión lineal indica que por cada semana de incremento en el tiempo de emparve, se producirá un incremento de 0.077 kg/ha en la contaminación del grano. 13 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.La mayor contaminación del grano con heces de ratones, pájaros y larvas muertas resulta cuando el tiempo de emparvado es de cuatro semanas (0.06%), mientras que a las dos semanas de emparvado, la contaminación es de 0.05 %. La perdida de grano tiene un efecto proporcional con el tiempo de emparve, es decir que a mayor tiempo de emparve, mayor será la perdida de grano. La mayor perdida de grano se registra en las parvas dejadas por cuatro semanas en el campo (0.72%), mientras que el emparvado por dos semanas registra una perdida de 0.65%.La mayor perdida se produce en la trilla mecánica con un valor de 1.85%, mientras que en la trilla tradicional se registra una perdida de 0.71%. En este estudio se observó que para evitar pérdidas, la quinua debe estar con un porcentaje de humedad del 12% y la velocidad de rotación del cilindro trillador regulado perfectamente; en el caso contrario se obtiene grano con muchas impurezas y se elimina grano juntamente con la broza y el jipi.El mayor rendimiento de trilla corresponde al sistema mecanizado con un rendimiento de 177.9 kg/hora, mientras que en la trilla tradicional el rendimiento es de 27.17 kg/hora. Cuadro 1. Eficiencia y capacidad dos los sistemas de trilla tradicional y mecanizado. Según los criterios de los agricultores, el 93% destacan criterios positivos relacionados a la menor pérdida de grano y a la menor contaminación del grano cuando la trilla se realiza en forma mecanizada. La razón principal es que la trilladora se puede transportar fácilmente hasta la parcela evitando de esta manera la perdida de grano por el manipuleo de las plantas. Para el criterio de contaminación del grano, los agricultores mencionan que al trillar con la maquina, se reduce la contaminación debido a que la quinua no toca el suelo realizándose esta labor sobre lonas.Un criterio negativo mencionado por el 87% de los agricultores se refiere al costo de la trilladora; las razones son que el costo de la trilladora es demasiado 14 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.alto para que la adquiera un solo agricultor. Sin embargo, una solución posible a este problema es adquirir la trilladora en forma asociada para reducir los costos. El cuarto criterio mencionado por el 80% de los agricultores, se refiere al tiempo que se emplea en la trilla mecanizada, que es menor comprado con la trilla tradicional.La reducción de jornales en la trilla mecanizada fue mencionada por el 67% de los agricultores, es decir, que se requiere de un menor número de personas para realizar la trilla; además, consideran aspectos relacionados al desgaste físico del agricultor.La contaminación del grano con tierra y piedrecillas es mayor (0.45%) cuando esta labor se realiza arrancando las plantas. Por el contrario, la contaminación del grano es menor (0.05%) cuando el corte se realiza con hoz, demostrando ser una alternativa para reducir la contaminación del grano, que se traduce en una mejora en la calidad del grano comercial de quinua.En cuanto al tiempo de realización de la cosecha, se comprobó que el tiempo empleado arrancado las plantas es mayor (2.6 jornales/ha), comparado con el corte con hoz (1.7 jornales/ha); esto se traduce para el agricultor en un ahorro de tiempo que puede destinar a otras labores, y es una practica factible. Además, se deja en el suelo las raíces y partes de tallo que se incorporan como materia orgánica al suelo, evitando de alguna manera la erosión y la perdida de la fertilidad de los suelos.El mayor rendimiento de trilla corresponde a la trilla mecanizada (177.9 kg/hora), comparado con la trilla tradicional (27.2 kg/hora). Sin embargo, la trilla mecanizada ocasiona mayor porcentaje de grano partido debido a la fricción e impacto al que son sometidos los granos.Involucrar a los agricultores como participantes activos en las evaluaciones de tecnología para la cosecha de quinua ofreció una oportunidad para intercambiar ideas acerca de las alternativas tecnológicas. Los agricultores volcaron toda su experiencia y su conocimiento tecnológico local para establecer la utilidad de la nueva tecnología, proporcionando al estudio una comprensión directa de las prioridades de los agricultores y sobre como escogen las alternativas tecnológicas, llegando a ser el punto de partida para determinar con ellos si la tecnología les será de utilidad o no.Las alternativas tecnológicas para la cosecha y trilla ofertadas en el presente estudio resultan convenientes según el criterio de los agricultores desde el punto de vista técnico, social y económico. Esto permite establecer un nuevo piso tecnológico más rentable y de mejor calidad con los consiguientes beneficios para el agricultor, los procesadores y las exportaciones. wholesalers; b) grain transformation performed by processing companies; and c) distribution, carried out by retailers. During this process, the product reaches maximum concentration in the wholesaler sector and processing plants. Transformation is the most important commercialization form. Two commercialization channels are identified: a) flake and flour production; and b) pasankalla production.La producción de quinua en comunidades del altiplano norte se caracteriza por ser cultivada en superficies reducidas, además de que los agricultores tienen que afrontar riesgos en la producción como heladas, granizadas y sequías. Sin embargo, en estas condiciones este cultivo recobra su importancia para la seguridad alimentaría de la familia campesina y es considerada como una alternativa para generar ingresos adicionales en la economía familiar por la venta de excedentes de la producción que generalmente se comercializa en ferias rurales.En la actualidad la quinua adquiere su importancia comercial a partir de la revalorización de su calidad nutritiva, pues es un insumo altamente demandado por las agroindustrias tanto para el mercado nacional como internacional. La comercialización tradicional de productos agropecuarios a nivel rural pasa por una larga cadena generalmente de intermediarios quienes son los que mas se benefician económicamente en comparación a los productores primarios.En este contexto el estudio involucra a productores de quinua de cuatro comunidades que comercializan su producto en torno a las ferias rurales de Palcoco y Chachacomani, provincia Los Andes, asimismo incluye a los actores encargados de la comercialización (productores, acopiadores, transformadores). En tal sentido se planteó el siguiente objetivo.Caracterizar las estrategias económicas de la comercialización de quinua en torno a las ferias rurales de Palcoco y Chachacomani, provincia Los Andes, desde un enfoque institucional como una cadena interrelacionada de agentes intermediarios. m.s.n.m. El trabajo se realizo por fases donde se emplearon variadas metodologías para la recopilación de información: Fase 1. Recopilación de información secundaria La misma que se obtuvo de trabajos de investigación, estadísticas, aspectos climáticos y socioeconómicos de la región (datos del Instituto Nacional de Estadística INE, folletos y publicaciones de ONGs, cartografías, Plan de Desarrollo Municipal del municipio).• Etapa de producción a) Reconocimiento de las zonas productoras de quinua b) Observación directa c) Entrevistas a informantes clave d) Contacto con autoridades sindicales e) Cálculo del tamaño de la muestra f) Encuestas • Etapa de comercialización. La información recopilada permitió realizar una descripción de las funciones y los canales de comercialización, asimismo como calcular los costos, beneficios y márgenes en el proceso de comercialización de la quinua. Para ello se empleo las siguientes técnicas: a) Observación del movimiento de los intermediarios y el flujo del producto b) Seguimiento de cantidades y precios de comercialización en ferias rurales seleccionadas c) Seguimiento del producto, desde la feria rural a la ciudad d) Entrevistas a los actores del mercadeo y de la transformación de quinua e) Seguimiento a la transformación de quinua (pérdidas, costos e ingresos)Fase 3. Ordenamiento y procesamiento de la información obtenida • Procesamiento de la información de producción • Procesamiento de la información de feriasDescripción de la producción de quinua en el área de estudio En la zona del estudio los rendimientos de grano varían en un rango de 2408 a Los costos de producción para el cultivo de una hectárea de quinua ascienden en promedio a Bs. 2522 desde la presiembra, cosecha y poscosecha. En todo el ciclo productivo se utilizan en promedio 60 jornales/ha, donde predomina el uso de la mano de obra familiar. Según podemos observar en el Cuadro 1, en las comunidades de Mucuña y Coruyo se registran valores de rentabilidad de 5.19% y 14.10%, respectivamente, los cuales reflejan que la actividad no es rentable bajo esas condiciones de producción.Cuadro 1. Beneficios y costos de la producción de 1 hectárea de quinua. Las ferias rurales de Palcoco y Chachacomani son un nexo importante entre productores e intermediarios, haciendo posible la comercialización de sus productos. Es la feria de Palcoco se comercializan en promedio entre 120 a 460 quintales (qq) de quinua a un precio entre 17 a 23 Bs/@. En Chachacomani se comercializan en promedio entre 25 a 69 qq a un precio de 15 a 18 Bs/@. Sin embargo, estos volúmenes pueden variar dependiendo de la época. Al momento de la comercialización el producto se distribuye en las siguientes proporciones: Intermediaria mayorista 64%, rescatista local 14%, y rescatista peruano 7%. Para la transformación de harinas se destina el 56%, mientras que para el procesado de Pasankallas 21%.El productor es el primer agente e inicia el proceso de comercialización. Su participación es limitada en los mercados porque carece de organización y contacto con procesadores.Los rescatistas son agentes que intervienen en el acopio de la producción y demandan quinua todo el año. En la feria de Chachacomani, normalmente participan del acopio siete señoras que tienen sus domicilios en la comunidad, y las rescatistas se agrupan en dos grupos bien diferenciados: 19 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.• Grupo 1: Rescatistas locales que compran el producto y lo revenden o comercializan sin modificación alguna a mayoristas, con ganancias mínimas por quintal vendido. • Grupo 2: Rescatistas locales que otorgan 'utilidad de forma' y 'utilidad de lugar' al producto. Realizan un procesamiento primario, lavan el producto y lo venden a las empresas transformadoras que elaboran pasankalla de quinua. El 16% de la quinua que se acopia en Chachacomani es lavada.Los intermediarios mayoristas son comerciantes que frecuentan las ferias rurales grandes (Batallas, Palcoco, Achacachi). Existen 6 a 8 mayoristas que asisten en forma regular a la feria de Palcoco para acopiar quinua y son los nexos entre los centros de producción y las procesadoras. Se han dividido en dos grupos:• Grupo 1: Acopian y comercializan el producto tal como lo compran, sin agregar 'utilidad de forma'. El destino de este producto acopiado sin procesar son las procesadoras para la elaboración de hojuelas (69%). • Grupo 2: Acopian y lavan el producto para agregar 'utilidad de forma', y cuyo destino son las procesadoras que elaboran pasankalla (31%) del producto acopiado.Los intermediarios truequistas son compradores que no intervienen en forma activa en la formación de los canales de comercialización de quinua, pero sí en el acopio de pequeñas cantidades de quinua. Su centro de acción se limita a la feria rural donde el destino de su producto es la intermediaria mayorista. El aporte de la intermediaria truequista en el acopio de quinua es significativo en Batallas (23%), y en la feria de Achacachi (31%). En la feria de Palcoco participan regularmente 7 a 14 intermediarias truequistas de mayor peso.Los procesadores son pequeñas o medianas empresas que son las encargadas de la transformación. Sus contactos para adquirir materia prima son las intermediarias que le aprovisionan semanalmente del producto acopiado. Las procesadoras son los únicos ofertantes de productos transformados (hojuela, harina, pasankalla) al mercado detallista. De acuerdo al tipo de producto final que se obtiene, se las ha dividido en dos: procesadora de hojuelas y procesadora de pasankallas.Los detallistas son personas que están encargadas de la distribución del producto al consumidor final. Se localizan en los centros de consumo (mercados de la ciudad). Se identifican dos tipos de detallistas: detallista tradicional y detallista familiar.Se describe tres etapas en el proceso de comercialización: 1) La concentración del producto en las ferias rurales realizada por acopiadores, 2) La etapa de nivelación o preparación realizada por los procesadores que de paso transforman la quinua en sus derivados, y 3) La distribución o dispersión del producto transformado, realizada por detallistas en el mercado urbano hacia el consumidor.Canal 2 Figura 1. Canales 1 y 2 de comercialización para la producción de hojuela.Canal 4 Figura 2. Canales 3 y 4 de comercialización para la producción de pasankalla. En el proceso productivo La mano de obra familiar es el principal factor de producción de quinua la cual representa el 64% de los costos totales, empleándose en promedio 60 jornales/ha, concentrándose en las labores de cosecha y post cosecha. La producción de quinua genera ingresos netos positivos de 330 Bs/ha en la comunidad de Coruyo, y 155 Bs/ha en la comunidad de Mucuña.Por los valores hallados en la evaluación de la rentabilidad, esta actividad no es rentable, y en consecuencia lo recomendable seria dedicarse a otra actividad agropecuaria, o mejorar los índices productivos para obtener una rentabilidad superior al 20%.Existen dos instancias durante el proceso de mercadeo en las que la producción alcanza su máxima concentración en pocas manos: a) el sector mayorista que concentra el 76% en forma de grano, y b) las procesadoras que concentran el 74%. En estas se efectúan la función formadora del precio, una para el grano y otra para el producto transformado.El análisis de margen bruto de mercadeo registra una baja participación del productor, pero por otro lado se tiene que en el canal de producción de hojuela, el margen bruto de mercado representa entre el 30 a 34%, mientras que en el caso del canal de producción de pasankalla, el margen bruto de mercado es entre 24 a 27%.Los precios finales para el consumidor de hojuela es en promedio 200 Bs/qq, y para el caso de pasankalla es de 250 Bs/qq. El presente estudio da a conocer los usos, oportunidades y restricciones del cultivo de quinua, tomando en cuenta tres componentes de la cadena agroalimentaria (productores, transformadores y consumidores). El estudio se realizó en las comunidades de Huayna Potosí de Palcoco, Iquiaca Baja y Hospital, provincia Los Andes, Municipio de Pucarani del departamento de La Paz. Se tomó información aplicando encuestas, desarrollando talleres comunales y entrevistas acerca del proceso de producción, consumo y transformación. Según los resultados encontrados, tenemos que la quinua en el área rural tiene una mayor diversidad de preparados tradicionales en comparación al área urbana, y se destaca su calidad nutricional. En el proceso productivo, se identificaron problemas bióticos y abióticos para la producción de quinua, considerándose éstos como las principales restricciones. A nivel de la agroindustria y transformadores locales, se identificaron mejores oportunidades de mercado en la transformación del producto para ofertar al mercado, como grano lavado, harinas, hojuelas e insuflados. Los problemas identificados en este componente están relacionados a la calidad del producto que compran, por el alto contenido de impurezas orgánicas e inorgánicas.The current study shows the uses, opportunities and constraints in quinoa cultivation, taking into account three components of the agri-food chain (producers, processors and consumers). The study was carried out in the communities of Huayna Potosí de Palcoco, Iquiaca Baja and Hospital of Los Andes province, Pucarani municipality, department of La Paz. Data was collected through surveys, community workshops and interviews regarding the production, consumption and transformation processes. The results show that quinoa in rural areas has a wider diversity of traditional dishes than those found 23 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.in urban areas, and its nutritional quality is remarkable. In quinoa production, both biotic and abiotic problems were found, and the same were identified as the main constraints to the process. At the agri-industrial and local processors level, better market opportunities in product processing were identified to be offered in markets such as washed grain, flour, flakes and expanded products. The problems identified in this component relate to the quality of the product they buy, mostly due to the high content of organic and inorganic impurities.La quinua del altiplano norte presenta ciertas características que la diferencian de otras zonas de producción, una de ellas es su amplia variabilidad (mezcla de granos) y el tamaño de grano que es pequeño a mediano. Sin embargo, por su plasticidad y consistencia le permite mantenerse compacta después del proceso de transformación a hojuelas e insuflados, harina, y sémola, diversidad que le da oportunidad de ser un producto con valor agregado.Sin embargo, en la actualidad no se conoce con exactitud los criterios referidos a usos, oportunidades y restricciones en los diferentes actores de la cadena, como para las familias productoras, trasformadores y consumidores de la ciudad. Por ello se plantea realizar la presente investigación con la finalidad de tener mayores elementos y conocer las características del proceso productivo, los usos y preferencias para el consumo, la transformación y comercialización de este producto.Determinar el uso de la quinua, identificar sus oportunidades y restricciones a nivel de la familia campesina, de los consumidores y de los transformadores, con una visión participativa y social.La investigación se desarrolló en el periodo agrícola 2003 en el departamento de La Paz, y en comunidades productoras de quinua que pertenecen a la provincia Los Andes, municipio de Pucarani, cuya ubicación geográfica es 16º 04'20'' Latitud Sur, y 68º08'20'' Longitud Oeste, a una altitud promedio de 3850 m.s.n.m.Para este estudio se tomó en cuenta a productores primarios, transformadores y consumidores, empleando diferentes herramientas para la revelación de la información, como:• Recopilación de información secundaria Se recabó información del Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), de Planes de Desarrollo Municipal (PDM's) de los municipios de Achacachi, Pucarani, Batallas y Tiahuanacu.• Fase de campo -recolección información primaria -Visitas a comunidades productoras de quinua.-Talleres comunales participativos, encuestas, diagnostico FODA con familias productoras. -Entrevistas a gerentes o propietarios de plantas transformadoras.-Encuestas estáticas a consumidores.• Áreas de intervención -Provincia Los Andes, Municipio de Pucarani, en las comunidades de Huayna Potosí de Palcoco, Iquiaca Baja y Hospital, y lugares donde se encuentran transformadores y consumidores en las ciudades de La Paz y El Alto.• Diseño Muestral -Se empleó un diseño probabilístico: Se realizaron 88 encuestas a productores en el municipio de Pucarani. -Cálculos de muestra en los consumidores de la ciudad de La Paz y El Alto: Afiliación proporcional al número de hogares de cada ciudad. -Tamaño de muestra de las ciudades de La Paz y El Alto: 381 encuestas divididas de acuerdo a la ubicación geográfica (ciudades y zonas).En las comunidades de estudio, el 96% de las familias producen quinua en una superficie promedio de 1200 m 2 , con un rendimiento promedio de 973 kg/ha. Las variedades empleadas para la siembra en orden de importancia son: janqojupha, churijupa, witulla, qoito y choquecito, aqujupa, quellujupa, entre otros. Se tiene preferencia por el ecotipo janko jupha por el grano de color blanco y es empleado por las agroindustrias para la elaboración de hojuelas, harina e insuflados.Las formas de comercialización de la quinua son: en grano como materia prima (40%) y transformado en alimentos como pesque y kispiña (2%). Las familias campesinas consumen la quinua principalmente en forma de pesque, kispiña y sopa, eventualmente como ch'iwa y k'usa.Cuadro 1. Destino de la producción de quinua (%) por comunidades en el periodo 2003. En las ciudades de La Paz y El Alto el 92% consumen quinua; de estos el 53% consumen en forma ocasional, 40% de forma habitual y 9% no la consumen. El 57% adquiere el producto en el mercado, el 5.5% en la feria zonal, el 9.6% se autoabastece, y el resto compra el producto en supermercados, tiendas y puestos en la calle.El 42% compra quinua una vez al mes, el 14% cada semana, el 12% dos veces al mes y el resto cada seis meses o tres a cuatro veces al año, 34% compra 2 a 3 kilos al mes, 23% medio kilo al mes, y 16% un kilo al mes. El 43% prefiere la variedad de quinua real de grano grande, y el 18% prefiere quinua de grano pequeño.Las agroindustrias procesan el 86% de la quinua para hojuelas y el 14% para insuflados; los transformadores locales emplean la quinua para preparar pesque (43%) y kispiña (57%). Finalmente los transformadores de la ciudad preparan pesque y refresco de quinua en igual proporción (50%).Cuadro 3. Desglose de agroindustrias de la ciudad de El Alto. Según el orden de importancia, las restricciones identificadas en la transformación de la quinua son: el secado, la limpieza del grano, los excrementos de ratones, el escarificado del grano y el financiamiento. Entre las 27 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.oportunidades identificadas en el proceso de transformación se tiene: el valor nutricional de la quinua, mayor aceptación por las personas y la diversidad de usos.La principal ventaja de la quinua es su valor nutritivo, cualidad que la diferencia de otros alimentos por la variabilidad de platos que se puede realiza con ella, por la plasticidad, y la firmeza que tiene el grano después de ser procesado. La plasticidad es la principal oportunidad que tiene este grano de ser procesado en diferentes formas, característica que la hace un producto de exportación final y no solo en forma de materia prima.En el Municipio de Pucarani se tiene problemas de minifundio que repercuten en la producción de quinua, siendo la superficie promedio de 1203 m 2 , y el rendimiento promedio alcanza 973 kg/ha.Los pequeños productores destinan más de la mitad de su producción al autoconsumo con un promedio de 91.78 kg/año; los excedentes son vendidos teniendo una media de 44.27 kg/año ó cambiados por medio del trueque con un promedio de 326.83 kg/año. Estos volúmenes de quinua son acopiados por rescatistas a lo largo del año.Los costos de producción de quinua son bajos y no requieren de infraestructura compleja para los procesos de trilla, cosecha y almacenamiento, y necesita relativamente poca mano de obras.Los usos que le dan los productores es en la preparación de platos tradicional como pesq'e, quispiña, y sopa de quinua (35, 30, 19 % respectivamente).Una ventaja para las familias productoras, consumidores y transformadores, son las cualidades nutritivas de la quinua más el hecho de que se puede elaborar en diferentes platos, además de la plasticidad y firmeza que tiene este grano que la hacen óptima para la elaboración de hojuelas, sémola, insuflados y harinas.Un motivo de rechazo al producto se debe a la existencia de prejuicios socioculturales de índole étnico, y van asociados con la lamentable falta de información. Por ello es que en muchas familias indican no consumir la quinua por no gustarles a los hijos o que éste es un producto que no tiene la calidad de los productos importados en el país.Evaluación participativa con enfoque de género sobre los usos, restricciones y oportunidades de la quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. en seis comunidades del municipio de Sica Sica Autor:Silvia Etelvina Aliaga Zeballos Año:2007 Institución:Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Facultad de AgronomíaEl presente trabajo de investigación consistió en una evaluación participativa con enfoque de género sobre usos, restricciones y oportunidades de la quinua. Para ello se plantearon los siguientes objetivos: evaluar la producción de quinua en las condiciones actuales con enfoque de género, y analizar la oferta y demanda del producto en las principales ferias y empresas agroindustriales. El trabajo de campo se realizó en seis comunidades del municipio de Sica Sica, provincia Aroma, departamento de La Paz. Para la recolección de información, se realizaron sondeos, encuestas y evaluaciones participativas a agricultores, intermediarios y propietarios de empresas procesadoras de quinua. Los resultados nos muestran que existe una amplia variabilidad de cultivares de quinua (ecotipos locales y variedades comerciales liberadas por el Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología Agropecuaria IBTA), el rendimiento promedio es de 265 kg/ha para la campaña agrícola 2004-2005, y la relación beneficio costo hallada es de 0,67; lo que significa que la actividad en esas condiciones no es rentable. En las actividades productivas, tanto el hombre como la mujer tienen un importante aporte; sin embargo, cabe destacar que la mujer es generalmente la responsable de la comercialización. El precio de la quinua en la feria de Lahuachaca y Patacamaya donde acopian los intermediarios, varía entre 35 a 65 Bs/@. Las empresas procesadoras tienen una alta demanda hasta de 600 toneladas/año, y el precio que pagan por quintal oscila entre 125 a 250 Bs., exigiendo producto uniforme y libre de impurezas. El análisis de márgenes de comercialización muestra que el empresario transformador logra un 24% de ganancia en comparación al intermediario y detallista.This research consisted in a gender-sensitive participatory evaluation of quinoa uses, constraints and opportunities. The objectives were to evaluate quinoa production in current conditions in a gender-sensitive way, and to analyse the product supply/demand in the main fairs and agri-industrial companies. The field work took place in six communities of the Sica Sica municipality, Aroma province, department of La Paz. Data was gathered through surveys, questionnaires and participatory evaluations with quinoa farmers, middlemen and owners of processing companies. The results show that there is a wide range on variability of quinoa cultivars (local ecotypes and commercial varieties released by the Instituto Boliviano de Tecnología Agropecuaria IBTA), the average yield is 265 kg/ha for the 2004-2005 agricultural campaign, and the benefit-cost ratio is 0.67, which means that under these conditions this activity is not profitable. Both men and women play an important role in production activities; however, it is worth noting that usually women are responsible for commercializing the produce. Quinoa price in Lahuachanca and Patacamaya fairs, where middlemen carry out production gathering, ranges between 35 and 65 Bs/@. Processing companies show a high demand of up to 600 tons/year, and the price they pay per quintal (100 pounds) ranges from 35 to 65 Bs, demanding a uniform product free of impurities. The analysis of trade margins shows that the processing businessmen's profit reaches 24% in comparison to middlemen and retailers'.Por sus ventajas productivas y valores nutricionales, desde épocas ancestrales la quinua fue utilizada por los pobladores de la zona andina como parte de la seguridad alimentaría. Sin embargo, con la introducción de especies como el trigo, arroz y otras, la quinua ha sido desplazada hasta la década de los 90s con un bajo consumo causando prejuicios sociales y perjuicios económicos. El municipio de Sica Sica es un sector con una diversidad de productos agrícolas, donde uno de los mas importantes es la quinua bajo el sistema de producción tradicional y que en estos últimos años se ha visto en franco proceso de reducción de áreas de cultivo debido a efectos de los factores climáticos. Sin embargo, la producción de la quinua en la zona contribuye a ampliar diferentes opciones al ingreso económico para las familias campesinas. En la actualidad, por las características del la zona, el cultivo de la quinua es importante en comparación a otros productos agrícolas, existiendo en la región las condiciones favorables que permiten el buen desarrollo del cultivo y la comercialización del producto.La investigación planteada en el marco de producción y usos de la quinua corresponde a un análisis en forma conjunta con la participación y percepción de género, además de visualizar las dificultades y oportunidades que inciden 30 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.positiva o negativamente respecto a la producción, usos y comercialización de la quinua. Se consideran igualmente tres componentes de la cadena productiva: productores, intermediarios y transformadores.• Evaluar la situación actual de la producción y comercialización de quinua sobre los usos, restricciones y oportunidades en la agroindustria con enfoque de género en el municipio de Sica Sica, provincia Aroma. • Identificar los canales de comercialización de quinua, e igualmente analizar la oferta y demanda del producto en las principales ferias y empresas agroindustriales.El área de estudio es el municipio de Sica Sica, primera sección de la provincia Aroma del departamento de La Paz, geográficamente ubicado entre los paralelos 17º07' a 17º35' Latitud Sur, y 67º52' a 65º 02' Longitud Oeste y una altitud promedio 3830 m.s.n.m. Las comunidades seleccionadas fueron: Capunuta, Cala Cala y Surcavito (serranía), Maca, Ayamaya y Antipampa (pampa). Las ferias seleccionadas fueron Lahuachaca, Paracamaya y Caracollo, donde existe un importante flujo comercial del producto. En tanto que la elección de empresas procesadoras fueron elegidas por el vínculo comercial existente entre los productores de la región y las empresas ubicadas en Lahuachaca y el Alto.La metodología utilizada en la investigación se dividió en tres fases: a) Primera fase: recopilación de información secundaria por medio del acopio de información exploratoria mediante entrevistas a autoridades sindicales, políticas y agricultores. b) Segunda fase: recopilación de información primaria aplicando encuestas estáticas y dinámicas sobre producción, usos y agentes de comercialización. Para la recolección de datos se utilizaron muestras representativas de la población, aplicando herramientas como cuestionarios estructurados, entrevistas semi estructuradas, talleres y diálogos informales con enfoque de género. Mediante evaluaciones participativas se obtuvo información referida a los conocimientos de los agricultores, complementando con observación directa de las diferentes actividades agrícolas y sociales de las familias. c) Tercera fase: los datos recopilados fueron tabulados y procesados en el paquete estadístico SPSS y posteriormente se realizaron los análisis e interpretación de los resultados.En la zona se han podido identificar tres sistemas organizacionales: a) Autoridades sindicales: en comunidades que fueron ex haciendas, la conformación del sindicato es por una subcentral que representa al cantón, siendo su máxima autoridad el Secretario General, elegido en asamblea general anual, nominado por voto directo y mayoritario. b) Autoridades originarias: en pueblos originarios el representante del cantón es el Jacha Mallku y al interior de la comunidad la máxima autoridad es el Jilakata, designación que se realiza en forma rotativa. c) Cooperativas: conformados por grupos de familias afiliadas a la organización y que poseen áreas de terreno en la comunidad, su trabajo es tipo grupal con la finalidad de mejorar y ampliar sus ingresos mediante agro-negocios adaptados a las condiciones de la zona.Llega a constituirse en uno de los sustentos de las familias de la zona, y en orden de importancia la crianza de las especies es como sigue: ganado bovino, ovino, camélido, porcino y animales menores.Las familias de las comunidades encuestadas tienen diversidad de cultivos, siendo consideradas importantes en el área de estudio la papa, seguido de quinua y especies forrajeras (cebada), además de otros cultivos de menor importancia como la oca, isaño, cañahua, avena, haba, entre otros.La siembra de quinua en la zona generalmente se realiza a finales de agosto, todo septiembre y primera quincena de octubre; el sistema de siembra es en surcos al boleo, con una densidad promedio de 11 kg/ha, utilizando semilla de diferentes variedades. La mayoría de los agricultores utilizan suelos llamados \"callpares o khanonas\". El 94% de los encuestados indican que no realizan labores de deshierbe porque sus parcelas se encuentran alejadas de sus viviendas, por lo que solo llegan a esa parcelas en época de cosecha.En promedio el 70% indican conocer las plagas que atacan el cultivo, mencionando la presencia de la Kona kona, ticona y pulgones. Generalmente los agricultores utilizan químicos como Tamarón y Folidol que son adquiridos en las ferias zonales.Las variedades criollas sembradas en la zona son: Waca Miso, Isi, Isla, Roja, Amarilla, Koito, sin embargo, en la actualidad resaltan en su preferencia variedades como la Real, Sajama, Chucapaca, Sayaña, y Surumi.32 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Cuadro 1. Análisis de oportunidades y limitaciones en la producción de quinua en comunidades del municipio de Sica Sica.Oportunidades Limitaciones • La quinua ocupa un sitio importante en la producción agrícola en las comunidades.• Variabilidad genética adaptada en la región. • Amplias extensiones de tierra para cultivar quinua. • Facilidad de acceso de carreteras para el transporte de productos. • Calidad de grano (tamaño, bajo contenido de saponina).• Disponibilidad de mano de obra.• Facilidad del manejo de cultivo en comparación con otros. • Diversificación de usos (kispiña, pesq'e y otros).• Variaciones climáticas como heladas, sequías y granizadas.• Falta de recursos hídricos.• Plagas identificadas que generan perdida de producción de grano. • Uso inapropiado de plaguicidas.• Suelos que empiezan a erosionarse.• Mezcla de variedades en el momento de la cosecha. • Perdida de variedades criollas.• No se realizan labores culturales como raleo y deshierbe.• Falta de maquinarias (cosecha y post cosecha). • Baja disponibilidad de semillas de calidad.Aproximadamente el 40% de la familias encuestadas utilizan los granos de quinua para el autoconsumo, empleando en promedio 4 kg/mes para la elaboración de diferentes preparaciones (pesq'e, lahua, kispiña, pito y otros). Cerca de 20% de los encuestados mencionan que el producto se comercializa en las ferias comunales, ofertando en promedio 50 kg, y siendo la mujer la responsable directa de ejecutar estas actividades. El restante 40% indica que en promedio 13 kg se guardan como semilla para el próximo año agrícola.La frecuencia de consumo de quinua es relativamente baja, pues el 50% indica que consume una vez al mes, y el 32% una vez a la semana. Entre las razones expuestas para este bajo consumo, es la introducción y sustitución por productos como fideos, arroz, los cuales son más accesibles en el mercado, en tanto que la quinua para ser consumida, requiere mayor elaboración como ser prelavada y secada. 33 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Cuadro 2. Labores productivas realizadas por género en la producción de quinua. En el Cuadro 5 se pueden ver las oportunidades y limitaciones que inciden en la comercialización de quinua en las comunidades estudiadas.Este margen de comercialización es calculado mediante el precio final de producción por parte del agricultor, menos la diferencia del costo de producción y costos de procesamiento en porcentaje. La participación del productor por medio de este canal es de 55% y el margen bruto de comercialización es 46%, correspondiendo al intermediario el 10%, al agroindustrial el 24%, y finalmente al detallista le corresponde el 11%.Los márgenes de comercialización de los agentes de mercadeo tienen beneficios positivos, mientras que el productor sufre perdidas en virtud a que el comprador \"intermediario\" es quien define el precio de la quinua. 35 BOLIVIA -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Cuadro 5. Oportunidades y limitaciones que inciden en la comercialización de quinua.Limitaciones • Incremento de la demanda por productos orgánicos. • Precios mayores de productos orgánicos respecto a los convencionales.• Variedades con aceptación en el mercado local (empresas y consumidores locales). • Demanda y preferencia por productos transformados (hojuelas). • Diversidad de productos para realizar diferentes preparaciones.• Oferta limitadas por falta de organización de productores. • Difícil acceso a créditos agrícolas.• Poca seriedad en el cumplimiento de contratos (agricultorempresa). • La participación del intermediario en los canales de comercialización.• Limitada difusión de las cualidades de la quinua. • Limitada diversificación en la industrialización de la quinua.En el enfoque de género los roles tanto del hombre como de la mujer en las actividades de producción son diferenciadas destacándose el rol de la mujer en labores domesticas. Asimismo es ella quien asume el papel de su compañero cuando este se ausenta de la comunidad. Los agricultores desconocen las técnicas para el manejo del cultivo de quinua, por lo que sus rendimientos obtenidos son bajos y consecuentemente obtienen bajos ingresos por dedicarse a la siembra de quinua. Por otra parte, se limitan a la siembra de superficies que por lo general oscilan entre 2500 a 5000 m 2 . Los rendimientos promedio son de 265 kg/ha para La cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen en Bolivia es un grano andino importante para los pobladores locales debido a su variabilidad genética, adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas, calidad nutritiva y diversidad de usos culinarios. El centro de origen de esta especie se encuentra en el área circunlacustre del Lago Titicaca. Se cultiva desde los 3200-4200 m.s.n.m. en las regiones de La Paz, Potosí, Oruro y Cochabamba, y no teniendo gran difusión más allá de las fronteras del altiplano de Perú.alimento, tiene propiedades curativas, y las técnicas de producción son similares pero basadas en técnicas ancestrales. En el rol y responsabilidades en la producción del cultivo, la mujer asume la mayor carga de trabajo respecto al hombre. Entre los usos locales que se dan a la cañahua está el autoconsumo, la elaboración de pito, pesque y tayacha, para la alimentación animal y para la venta. Los factores que limitan la transformación por parte de la agroindustria están asociados a las impurezas de la materia prima, a la falta de materia prima, a la falta de maquinaria apropiada, a la poca difusión para su comercialización, y no existen zonas proveedoras potenciales. Los factores que limitan el consumo en El Alto son el aspecto y sabor del producto, el producto no está promocionado y el precio es elevado; en La Paz son el desconocimiento de sus propiedades alimenticias, no se encuentra fácil en el mercado, no les gusta el sabor y aspecto, la desconfianza por su origen y el precio elevado.In 2002-2003, in the communities of Coromata Media, Omasuyos province, and Koroyo, Kilhuani and Purapurani, Los Andes province, department of La Paz, the cañahua uses, constraints and opportunities were characterized in a participatory way at the production, processing and consumption levels in the cities of El Alto and La Paz. The results showed that cañahua is considered from little to quite important. The communities consider this crop as a family tradition, a good food source, with healing properties, and its production techniques are similar but based on ancestral methodologies. Women's role and responsibilities in crop production are higher, as her working load is bigger when compared to men's. Local uses of cañahua include self-consumption, preparation of pito, pesque and tayacha, animal fodder, and the remaining is for sale. The factors constraining processing by the agri-industry are associated with impurities in the raw material, lack of raw material, lack of suitable equipment, little market diffusion and the fact that there are no potential supplying areas. The factors constraining consumption in El Alto are product appearance and taste, lack of promotion, and its high price. In La Paz, the factors are unawareness of its nutritious properties, difficulty to find in the market, product taste and appearance are not appealing, distrust raised by its origin, and high price.En el altiplano norte de La Paz, la actividad agropecuaria se constituye en un componente preponderante dentro de cada unidad productiva familiar, que hace posible la sobrevivencia de los integrantes de la misma a través de los ingresos económicos generados. En esta región los subsistemas de producción agrícola y pecuaria se ven afectados por factores climáticos adversos (heladas, granizos y 38 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen sequías), ocasionando pérdidas en la producción y por lo tanto menores ingresos para las familias productoras. Estas limitaciones en parte ocasionan procesos de migración hacia los centros urbanos, ya sea en forma temporal o definitiva. La situación de la cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen en el altiplano norte no es alentadora pues este cultivo esta siendo olvidado, lo cual se refleja en la falta de datos estadísticos para la especie debido a que el cultivo no es extensivo y no se conoce a gran escala por el consumidor final. El cultivo tiene importancia en el ámbito local, pero su escasa producción refleja el proceso de erosión en el que se encuentra.En las comunidades del área de estudio no se conocen estudios socioeconómicos que caractericen las potencialidades, oportunidades, y restricciones del sistema de cultivo de cañahua con la participación de agricultores, para emprender soluciones reales basándose en estas y promover la producción, usos, comercialización, procesamiento y consumo el cultivo.El estudio también toma en cuenta el enfoque de género, una de las temáticas transversales de actualidad muy importante para comprender en su magnitud real la lógica del proceso. Se consideran por tanto las tareas, los aportes, la presencia y sobre todo el punto de vista de quienes son protagonistas (hombres y mujeres) de la actividad socioeconómica en el área de estudio.Realizar la caracterización participativa sobre usos, restricciones, y oportunidades en cañahua a nivel de productores en cuatro comunidades del altiplano norte, y a otros niveles de la cadena en las ciudades de El Alto y La Paz, con enfoque de género.• Identificar los ecotipos de cañahua que se cultivan en la zona de estudio.• Caracterizar la producción de cañahua de la zona de estudio.• Verificar los usos locales, tradicionales e industriales del cultivo de cañahua.• Identificar los factores que restringen la producción, procesamiento y consumo de la cañahua. • Analizar los procesos de la unidad de producción familiar en la toma de decisiones y los roles intrafamiliares asumidos durante el proceso de producción y transformación de cañahua.El trabajo de investigación se realizó en el año 2002-2003 a tres niveles: 1) a nivel de productores se ejecutó en la comunidad Coromata Media de la Provincia Omasuyos y en las comunidades Koroyo, Kilhuani y Purapurani de la Provincia Los Andes de La Paz. Geográficamente están ubicadas entre los 16º08'49\" y 16º08'94\" de Latitud Sur y entre los 68º32'87\" y 68º32'87\" de Longitud Oeste a una altitud entre los 3957 a 4210 m.s.n.m.; 2) a nivel de transformación; y 3) a nivel consumidores se ejecutó en las ciudades de El Alto y La Paz.El estudio se realizó con un proceso metodológico distribuido en tres etapas, en las cuales se utilizaron diferentes técnicas y herramientas para la recopilación de información referente a productores, transformadores y consumidores: a) etapa A -nivel productores, que consistió en los siguientes elementos: preparación y organización del estudio, diagnóstico participativo con productores y la validación participativa de la información recopilada; b) Etapa B -nivel transformadores, se realizaron visitas a plantas procesadoras de las ciudades de El Alto y La Paz, donde se aplicaron entrevistas a informantes claves; y c) Etapa C -nivel consumidores, se consideró zonas representativas de las ciudades de El Alto y La Paz donde se aplicó la técnica de encuesta estática a muestras estratificadas en 3 zonas.Para el análisis de la información se utilizó estadística descriptiva (promedio, moda, mediana, varianza y desviación estándar), y estadística multivariada (análisis de componentes principales ACP).En la comunidad de Coromata Media, el 86.8% de los agricultores indican que la papa es muy importante; sin embargo, también fueron calificados como bastante importantes los cultivos de quinua, cañahua y forrajes con un 53.8, 59.2 y 60.5%, respectivamente. En las comunidades de Koroyo, Kilhuani y Purapurani, el 66.7% de los agricultores indicaron que la papa es muy importante, el 83.3% indicaron que la quinua es bastante importante y el 50% indicaron que la cañahua es poco importante.En cuanto al tamaño y uso de la tierra, en las comunidades objeto de estudio se destina en promedio el 3.6% a la siembra en 'sayañas', 5.9% a la siembra en 'aynocas', el 55.8% son tierras de pastoreo y el 34.7% corresponde a serranías y montañas. Con relación a la tenencia de tierra, el 27.8% de las familias tiene menos de una hectárea de terreno, el 32.9% tiene entre una a tres hectáreas, el 9.3% tiene entre tres y cinco hectáreas, el 8.8% tiene entre cinco y siete hectáreas, y el 21.2% tiene más de siete hectáreas.Con el objeto de obtener la percepción de los motivos por los que opta el agricultor para cultivar cañahua se realizó un ACP. En la comunidad de 40 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule AellenCoromata Media por orden de importancia indicaron: tradición familiar, buen alimento y propiedades curativas. En las comunidades de Koroyo, Kilhuani y Purapurani por orden de importancia indicaron: tradición familiar, se vende bien, buen alimento y propiedades curativas. En Coromata Media el 71.1% de las parcelas son sembradas con ecotipos de hábito de crecimiento 'lasta', el restante 28.9% corresponde a parcelas mezclas entre 'lasta' y 'saihua', y los colores de plantas que se observaron fueron rojoanaranjadas y amarillas. En las comunidades de Koroyo, Kilhuani y Purapurani el 76.7% de las parcelas son sembradas con ecotipos de hábito de crecimiento 'lasta', el restante 23.3% corresponde a parcelas mezclas entre 'lasta' y 'saihua', y los colores de plantas que se observaron fueron rojo-anaranjadas, púrpuras y amarillas.En las cuatro comunidades de estudio, las técnicas de producción de cañahua son similares, utilizando el sistema tradicional. La preparación del terreno se realiza en agosto y la siembra se realiza entre octubre y noviembre, con la ayuda de yuntas de palo, y entre el 86 y 89% de las familias usan su propia semilla. En general, no acostumbran realizar labores culturales, utilizar fertilizantes y controlar las plagas. Entre abril y mayo se cosecha, que consiste en arrancar la planta desde la raíz que desprenden con mucha facilidad, amontonándolas para el secado en un lugar preparado para la trilla. Posteriormente se procede con la trilla y venteo, y el producto obtenido se almacena en bolas de yute en el interior de sus viviendas siendo luego utilizada para el autoconsumo, transformación y/o venta.La producción de cañahua para el año de estudio fluctuó entre 1 a 8 arrobas por familia, con una media de 3.2 arrobas para Coromata Media y una media de 2.1 arrobas para Koroyo, Kilhuani y Purapurani. Entre los factores de mayor incidencia en la producción son: el granizo en las fases de cosecha y crecimiento, la sequía en las fases de siembra y crecimiento, y la excesiva precipitación pluvial en las fases de siembra y cosecha.Finalmente, se identificaron los roles familiares en la producción de cañahua, es decir, \"quien hace qué\", mediante la percepción comunal y la práctica familiar que se realizar en las comunidades de estudio (Figura 1).Con el objeto de obtener las percepciones en cuanto al uso de la cañahua, se realizó un ACP. En las cuatro comunidades objeto de estudio y por orden de importancia se indicó: autoconsumo, transformación y alimentación animal. Esto significa que el primer componente principal distinguió a aquellos productores que usan el cultivo como fuente de alimentación de sus familias, para la trasformación y para la alimentación animal, donde se proporciona los rastrojos que quedan después de la trilla.En cuanto a los subproductos que los agricultores acostumbran transformar a partir del grano de cañahua, se puede indicar que en Coromata Media el 100% de 41 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen los agricultores califican como el de mayor preferencia a la elaboración del 'pito', siguiéndole en importancia el 'pesque' con el 73%. En las comunidades de Koroyo, Kilhuani y Purapurani de igual manera indicaron el 100% de agricultores al 'pito' de cañahua como el de mayor preferencia, le siguen en importancia el 'pesque' y la 'quispiña' con el 53.3 y 30%, respectivamente. * TRANS.: Transformación Figura 1. Flujograma de roles y responsabilidades para la producción de cañahua en las comunidades de estudio Los roles y responsabilidades que asumen los componentes de la familia para la elaboración del 'pito' de cañahua se indica en la Figura 2. Se puede apreciar la exclusividad de la mujer para elaborar este producto tradicional, en donde el hombre ayuda en la limpieza del molino, el molido manual ó en el traslado cuando se utiliza un molino mecánico, y en el transporte para el almacenamiento. Se advierte un rol importante de los hijos en el secado de los granos, traslado de leña y agua, además de costurar los costales.Figura 2. Flujograma de roles y responsabilidades para la elaboración de 'pito' de cañahua.Se entrevistaron a tres microempresas (Cereales Andina, Productos Naturales Pukara, y Molinera de Cereales Santa Ana), y a la empresa Industrias Alimenticias Irupana. Las microempresas elaboran pito, harina, hojuelas, pan y problemas con las impurezas, falta de materia prima, falta de maquinaria apropiada, falta de infraestructura adecuada y poca difusión de la comercialización del grano. Entre las potencialidades indicaron: los productos elaborados facilitan el consumo, tiene una estrategia de mercado y clientes establecidos, además que los costos para transformar en pito son adecuados. La empresa Industrias Alimenticias Irupana elabora pito, pan integral, pan de molde, turrón, galletas y palitos de cañahua. Entre las restricciones para el procesamiento indicaron: falta de materia prima, mal manejo de la materia prima y la falta de zonas identificadas para la compra de cañahua. Entre las potencialidades indicaron: cuentan con una buena estrategia de mercado, buena difusión de productos transformados, cuentan con maquinaria de acuerdo al requerimiento y los productos elaborados son conocidos.Con el objeto de recabar la preferencia de consumo de la cañahua en 6 barrios de la ciudad de El Alto, se puede indicar que entre los barrios que más consumen cañahua se encuentra Río Seco, quienes indicaron un 55.6% por 'más preferencia' y 44.4% por 'bastante preferencia'; le sigue en importancia Villa Adela quienes revelaron 44.4% por 'más preferencia', 44.4% por 'bastante preferencia' y 11.1% por 'poco preferido'; le sigue Alto Lima, quienes revelaron 10.7% por 'más preferencia', 67.9% por 'bastante preferencia', 17.9% por 'poco preferido' y 3.6% que 'no prefieren'; le sigue Villa Dolores, quienes revelaron 6.7% por 'más preferencia', 33.3% por 'bastante preferencia', 33.3% por 'poco preferido' y 26.7% que 'no prefieren'; le sigue La Ceja, quienes revelaron 50% por 'bastante preferencia', 35% por 'poco preferido' y 15% que 'no prefieren,' y; finalmente se encuentra Ciudad Satélite, quienes revelaron 5% por 'más preferencia', 40% por 'bastante preferencia', 25% por 'poco preferido' y 30% que 'no prefieren'.La misma entrevista aplicada a 7 barrios de la ciudad de La Paz, indica que el barrio del Gran Poder consume más cañahua, indicando que un 20% tiene 'bastante preferencia', 60% 'poco preferido y 20% 'no preferido'; le siguen Cementerio, Cota Cota y Achumani, quienes revelaron 28.6% por 'bastante preferencia', 28.8% por 'poco preferido' y 42.9% por 'no preferencia'; le sigue Obrajes, quienes revelaron 25% por 'bastante preferencia', 16.7% por 'poco preferido' y 58.3% que 'no prefieren'; le sigue Garita de Lima, quienes revelaron 16.7% por 'bastante preferencia', 16.7% por 'poco preferido' y 66.7% que 'no prefieren'; y finalmente se encuentra Los Pinos, quienes revelaron 40% por 'poco preferido' y 60% que 'no prefieren'.En cuanto a la preferencia de productos para el consumo de cañahua, un 70.7% de la población de los barrios encuestados en El Alto indicaron que prefieren el 'pito' de cañahua, un 20% prefieren otros productos transformados, y un 11.4% no prefieren ninguno. Los barrios encuestados en La Paz indicaron 44 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen un 36.1% que prefieren el 'pito' de cañahua, un 31.5% prefieren otros productos transformados, y un 32.4% no prefieren ninguno. Los lugares de compra de cañahua en El Alto por orden de importancia son: los puestos en la calle, mercado y ferias; en La Paz por orden de importancia son: mercado y supermercado. Para analizar los motivos porqué no consumen la cañahua, se realizó un ACP que indicó que en la ciudad de El Alto por orden de importancia están: 'no les gusta su sabor', 'no les gusta su aspecto' y 'no conocen las propiedades alimenticias'; mientras que en la ciudad de La Paz mencionaron: 'no conocen las propiedades alimenticias', 'no se encuentra fácil en el lugar de compra', 'no está promocionado' y 'no les gusta su sabor'.Autor:Carolina Alanoca Quispe Año:2006 Institución:Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Facultad de AgronomíaLa zona de estudio está comprendida por las comunidades de Coromata Media y Coruyo del altiplano norte. El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo determinar los costos de la producción de la cañahua, aplicando indicadores financieros económicos e identificar los principales canales de comercialización del producto. La recolección de la información se realizó mediante entrevistas a informantes clave, encuestas y talleres de evaluación participativa. Los resultados muestran que el 80% de las familias mantiene la producción de cañahua en sistemas tradicionales de cultivo. El grano se comercializa en ferias rurales cercanas a estas comunidades, y los costos y beneficios de producción de cañahua para ambas comunidades son altos. Las formas comunes de consumo y comercialización son: grano, pito, thayacha y pesq´e. Se identificaron cuatro canales de comercialización del grano y sus derivados. Los precios que ofertan los intermediarios son relativamente bajos. Uno de los factores limitantes al momento de comercializar el producto es el alto contenido de impurezas (tierra y piedra) y el tamaño de grano no uniforme. El mayor volumen de comercialización de grano de cañahua se realiza en la feria de Chachacomani. La comercialización de la cañahua en áreas urbanas se realiza en la feria del 16 de julio (El Alto) y en la calle Santa Cruz (La Paz). El margen bruto de comercialización para intermediarios es del 70% y para los productores es del 30 % en el canal productor -intermediario -consumidor.The study area comprises the northern altiplano communities of Coromata Media and Coruyo. This work aimed to determine the production costs of cañahua, applying financial -economic indicators, and to identify the main 46 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen commercialization channels of this product. Information was gathered through interviews to key informants, surveys and participatory evaluation workshops.The findings show that 80% of the households maintain cañahua through traditional production systems. The grain is traded in rural fairs nearby these communities, and the production costs and benefits of cultivating cañahua are high in both communities. The most common forms of consumption and commercialization are: grain, pito, thayacha and pesq'e. Four commercialization channels for grain and its derived products were identified. The prices offered by middlemen are relatively low. One of the factors hindering the product commercialization is the high content of impurities (soil and stones) and the irregular grain size. The highest commercialized volume of grain is achieved in the Chachacomani fair. The commercialization of cañahua in urban areas takes place at the 16 of July fair in El Alto, and on Santa Cruz Street in La Paz. The gross margin of commercialization for middlemen is 70% and 30% for producers in the producer-middleman-consumer channel.En el altiplano norte del departamento de La Paz exactamente en las comunidades de Coromata Media y Coruyo de las provincias Omasuyo y Los Andes respectivamente, la actividad económica principal es la agricultura, con la producción de papa, cañahua, quinua y cebada; seguida de la ganadería y finalmente el comercio de sus productos en las principales ferias rurales y urbanas de la región. Estas actividades permiten generar ingresos económicos para los productores, aun cuando estos productos mantengan un sistema tradicional de producción, como en el caso del cultivo de cañahua.Por las bondades que presenta este diminuto grano andino es necesario promoverla y potencializarla dentro la economía familiar local en sectores donde los factores climáticos (helada y granizo) son adversos. Cabe recalcar que la producción de cañahua es considerada importante en la dieta alimentaría en comparación a otros cultivos.Teniendo en cuenta que la actividad productiva está relacionada con los beneficios y costos que genera la producción del cultivo, se debe tomar en cuenta que el agricultor recibe poca atención por parte del sector agrícola en su conjunto, ya que dicho proceso se mantiene siempre y cuando se supere y se acceda a mejores oportunidades de mercado.El trabajo de investigación también tiene el propósito de evitar la pérdida y extinción del cultivo de la cañahua, que aparte de ofrecer ventajas nutricionales, puede generar ingresos económicos en forma continua. Al mismo tiempo, que el productor pueda ocupar la cadena para la generación de mayores ingresos, siempre y cuando pueda acceder a mejores oportunidades dentro del proceso de la cadena agroalimentaria.• Análisis de costos y beneficios en el proceso de comercialización del productor y del intermediario de la cañahua, en tres comunidades del altiplano norte realizando una evaluación económica. • Determinar los costos de producción aplicando indicadores económicos financieros y finalmente identificar los canales de comercialización del producto.El presente trabajo de investigación se realizó en el altiplano norte del departamento de La Paz, en las provincias Omasuyos y Los Andes realizándose el estudio en tres comunidades: Coromata Media, Pajchani Molino y Coruyo.El estudio se centró en la obtención y recopilación de información primaria y secundaria sobre los costos y beneficios en el proceso de comercialización de la cañahua, acompañados de la identificación de canales o circuitos de comercialización del producto.Información primaria: Se obtuvo a través de contactos directos con agentes de desarrollo: Instituciones, técnicos agropecuarios, funcionarios municipales, autoridades locales, profesores y agricultores de las comunidades. Para la recopilación de información se emplearon herramientas como entrevistas a informantes clave, encuestas, talleres de diagnostico y visitas a familias y otros actores.Información secundaria: Se obtuvo a partir de fuentes documentales como: Planes de Desarrollo Municipal, bibliotecas, informes de instituciones (PROINPA-Bioversity International-IFAD), y Agencia de Cooperación Internacional del Japón (JICA). El trabajo fue dividido en cuatro fases: a) Fase de planificación -Revisión de información secundaria, recorrido y delimitación del área de trabajo (con base en centros de origen de la cañahua), visita a comunidades (con explicación del trabajo), y selección de las comunidades de estudio. b) Fase de formulación y diseño de las encuestas -En esta fase se hizo la delimitación de la población, tamaño de muestra a nivel de productores e intermediarios, identificación de las principales ferias y los canales de comercialización. Se hizo un muestreo aleatorio estratificado determinando el tamaño de la muestra en función al número total de familias que habitan la comunidad y el número de productores de cañahua en la zona. c) Fase de trabajo en campo -Recopilación de información disponible de los productores, informantes clave, intermediarios, agentes de desarrollo, autoridades locales y otros. Se usó técnicas de diagnóstico participativo 48 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen entre las que destacan: entrevista a informantes clave, encuestas estáticas, talleres de validación y observación directa e indirecta. d) Fase de análisis de datos -Sistematización y tabulación de la información con el respectivo ordenamiento y clasificación de la información. Análisis cualitativo y cuantitativo de la información obtenida en los grupos focales, entrevistas, procesamiento de costos de producción (ingreso bruto y neto), cálculo de márgenes de comercialización (márgenes brutos y netos), y participación del productor (PDP). Para el análisis de la información se utilizaron los paquetes estadísticos: SPSS versión 11.5 y aplicaciones de hojas de cálculo de Microsoft Excel.El 34.78% de familias poseen propiedades iguales o menores a 1 ha., y solamente 1.5% de las familias poseen superficies comprendidas entre 50 a 200 ha. En promedio el 29% de las parcelas son cultivadas con cañahua en superficies que varían entre 80 a 664 m 2 . Los ecotipos que mas se siembran son: choquechiliwa, umacutama y chhuqu (45, 35 y 20% respectivamente). El 80% de las familias productoras acostumbran sembrar varios ecotipos (mezcla) en una parcela, en tanto que el 20% utiliza los ecotipos de forma diferenciada.El 100% de las familias productoras no realizan labores culturales. En cuanto a la presencia de plagas y enfermedades el 55% de la familias no tienen problemas, en tanto el 45% si aseguran la presencia de estos agentes.En Coromata Media los rendimientos promedio de cañahua alcanzan 1195 kg/ha, mientras que en Curuyo el rendimiento promedio es 820 kg/ha.El almacenamiento del grano en pirhuas de totora es realizada por el 8.7% de las familias; cada pirhua tiene una capacidad de cinco quintales de grano, y el tiempo de almacenamiento en este sistema puede ser hasta de siete años. Por otra parte el 91.3% de los agricultores acostumbran a almacenar el grano en sacañas (sacos de yute trenzado). Según los datos que se muestran en el Cuadro 1, el mayor porcentaje de la producción de cañahua (más del 70%) se destina para la venta, utilizando solamente un promedio de 25% para el autoconsumo y el restante se utiliza como semilla.El costo de semilla de cañahua en la comunidad de Coromata Media es de 27 Bs./ha, en la comunidad Coruyo este costo asciende a 32 Bs./ha. Los costos de mano de obra para el proceso productivo (surcado, siembra, cosecha y post cosecha) asciende a 823 y 587 Bs./ha en Coromata Media y Coruyo, respectivamente. El total de ingreso obtenido en la comunidad de Coromata Media fue de 2805 Bs./ha, mientras que para la comunidad de Coruyo el ingreso total fue de 1925 Bs./ha; estos valores se hallaron con base en el rendimiento y el precio del producto (grano). Los valores tanto para la utilidad y el beneficio/costo para una hectárea de producción en la comunidad de Coromata Media alcanza un valor de Bs. 1687,26 es decir, que por cada boliviano que invierte el agricultor, este recibe 2,51 por la producción de cañahua. Para Coruyo el agricultor recibe 2,03 por cada boliviano invertido, teniendo en consecuencia una utilidad de Bs. 978,59.22 Bs/@ en el mes de abril. Sin embargo, entre julio y agosto los precios tuvieron una subida de hasta 30 Bs/@.En el proceso de comercialización los agentes que intervinieron en cada uno de los cuatro canales de comercialización identificados en el estudio se detallan a continuación:- • Agentes de comercialización En la Figura 1 podemos observar los principales agentes de comercialización del grano: Figura 1. Agentes identificados en la cadena agroproductiva de la cañahua.El proceso de transformación de la cañahua a pito o thayacha es realizado por los intermediarios (comercializadores) de la comunidad de Pajchani Molino. Se analizaron los costos de transformación de pito de cañahua en las comunidades productoras (Coromata Media y Coruyo) como también en las comunidades comercializadoras (Pajchani Molino), con la debida identificación de tres procesos comunes.-Proceso 1, que consiste en el venteo, lavado, secado, tostado en recipiente de barro, y molino tradicional en K´ona. El costo de este proceso asciende a 88.20 Bs./qq. -Proceso 2, consiste en el venteo, lavado, secado, tostado en recipiente metálico (50x30 cm) y molino tradicional de piedra de forma circular.El costo total de inversión es de 44 Bs./qq. -Proceso 3, que consiste en el venteo, lavado, secado, tostado en recipiente metálico y molino eléctrico. El costo de inversión es de 50 Bs./qq. Los costos de mano de obra para la elaboración de la thayacha asciende a Bs. 54 donde el mayor tiempo invertido lo ocupa el aplanado o amoldado de las tayachas (10 horas).Para el canal de comercialización 1, por cada boliviano que paga el consumidor, el 30% le corresponde al productor y el 70% al intermediario. En los márgenes brutos el detallista urbano recibe mayor beneficio (31.4%), seguido por el transformador rural (28.6%). El acopiador rural (10%), el detallista urbano (29.4%) y el acopiador rural (9.1%) son los que obtienen una mayor utilidad.En el canal 2 la participación del productor corresponde al 26%, es decir, por cada boliviano que el consumidor urbano o rural paga, el 26% le corresponde al productor y el 74% al intermediario. Para los márgenes brutos, el detallista percibe 50% del beneficio, mientras que en los márgenes netos el transformador rural no recibe ningún beneficio (-9%); los márgenes netos totales son del 30,4%.En el canal de comercialización 3 la participación del productor es mucho menor (8.2%) con relación a la participación de los intermediarios (91.8%). Con respecto a los márgenes netos, el mayor beneficio corresponde a las procesadoras de cereales con el 37, 8%, utilidad que supera a los demás agentes. Es decir, que por cada libra de pito comercializado se recibe del consumidor Bs. 4,16.En el canal 4 la comercialización y la transformación de la cañahua la realiza el productor, alcanzando a obtener un margen bruto de 90.7% y una utilidad de Bs.7.55 por cada libra transformada; además, los márgenes netos llegan al 70% en el caso de que el productor comercialice el cultivo.Para las Comunidades de Coromata Media y Coruyo, con base en los rendimientos promedios y superficies cultivadas, se encontraron márgenes en la relación beneficio-costo igual a 2,5 y 2.03 respectivamente. Esto demuestra que pese a producir cañahua en superficies pequeñas, la comercialización es altamente rentable, incluso bajo un sistema de manejo tradicional.Las épocas de mayor venta de cañahua en forma de grano corresponde a los meses de junio, julio y agosto, donde los precios varían entre 22 a 30 Bs./@.Se determinó de acuerdo a los comercializadores de cañahua, que los problemas referidos mas frecuentes durante el proceso de comercialización es la presencia de impurezas, y el tamaño y color del grano.Se identificaron cuatro tipos de canales, el canal principal de comercialización corresponde a la siguiente cadena: productores -acopiadorprocesador -detallista (rural y urbano) -consumidores (rural y urbano). Se observó que el 80% del volumen total de la producción corresponde a este canal.Autor:Rubén Flores Año:2006 Institución:Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Facultad de AgronomíaEn el año 2003-2004 en la Estación Experimental Belén de la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), se realizó la evaluación preliminar de 116 accesiones de cañahua. Las accesiones fueron sembradas en parcelas de 4 surcos de 5 m de longitud, para el registro de variables considerando la lista de descriptores para cañahua. De acuerdo al análisis de la información generada, se determinó que el germoplasma de cañahua presenta una amplia variabilidad genética en cuanto al ciclo fenológico y arquitectura de planta. Las variables fenológicas se encuentran muy asociadas entre sí, y éstas en forma negativa con el índice de cosecha y el rendimiento. Las variables de arquitectura de la planta se encuentran asociadas entre sí y tienen influencia directa con el rendimiento de grano. Con el análisis de componentes principales, se seleccionaron tres componentes significativos que aportaron más del 75% de la varianza total. El análisis de conglomerados clasificó seis grupos de accesiones de cañahua.In 2003-2004 at Belen Experimental Station of the Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), 116 cañahua accessions were subjected to a preliminary evaluation. The accessions were cultivated in plots of four beds (5 m long each) to register variables taking into account the descriptors list for cañahua. According to the analysis of the resulting information, cañahua germplasm showed wide genetic variability in terms of phenological cycle and plant architecture. Phenological variables are strongly associated to each other and associated in a negative way with the harvest and yield indexes. The variables of plant architecture are associated to each other and directly impact grain yield. With the Principal Component Analysis, three significant 54 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen components that explained 75% of the total variance were selected. The analysis of conglomerates classified six groups of cañahua accessions.La actividad agrícola en Bolivia constituye un sector importante en la producción de diferentes cultivos, entre ellos los tubérculos y granos andinos, que significan para el agricultor y su familia la base de su dieta alimenticia, pese a que sus rendimientos son cada vez más bajos, debido principalmente a condiciones climáticas adversas (Bazan y Pino 1992).Las posibilidades de incrementar la producción agrícola en el altiplano boliviano son cada vez más limitadas. El actual sistema de tenencia de tierra y el crecimiento demográfico en el altiplano norte del país, está llevando a producir los cultivos en parcelas pequeñas, particularmente la cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen con rendimientos bajos. La poca importancia de este cultivo se manifiesta en la falta de información sobre la capacidad genética, cultivo, adaptabilidad, estabilidad fenotípica, y caracteres de importancia agronómica de la cañahua.En el marco de las consideraciones expuestas se realizó la evaluación preliminar del germoplasma de cañahua que conserva la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad Mayor de San Andrés -UMSA en la Estación Experimental Belén.Evaluar en forma preliminar la colección de germoplasma de cañahua en la Estación Experimental Belén.• Describir los caracteres agronómicos y morfológicos de 120 accesiones de cañahua. • Analizar el grado de correlación entre los caracteres agronómicos y morfológicos registrados en la colección de germoplasma. • Identificar grupos diferenciados en el conjunto de accesiones a través de técnicas multivariadas.El trabajo de investigación se realizó en el año 2003-2004 en la Estación Experimental Belén, dependiente de la Facultad de Agronomía de la UMSA. La Estación se encuentra localizada en la comunidad Belén de la provincia 55 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen Omasuyos de La Paz. Geográficamente se encuentra a 16°01°12\" Latitud Sur, a 68°42°02\" Longitud Oeste, y a una altitud de 3816 m.s.n.m.El material genético estuvo conformado por 120 accesiones de la colección de germoplasma de cañahua que se conserva en el Banco de Germoplasma de la Estación Experimental Belén de la Facultad de Agronomía de la UMSA. La siembra se llevó a cabo el 21 de noviembre de 2003, cada una sembrada en cuatro surcos de 5 m de longitud, espaciados a 0.4 m. Se establecieron cuatro bloques de 30 accesiones y separados por pasillos de 1 m. La distribución de la semilla fue manual para garantizar la emergencia de un número adecuado de plantas por accesión.Durante el desarrollo del cultivo, se realizaron dos deshierbes, el primero a fines de enero y el segundo a fines de febrero de 2004 con el fin de favorecer el crecimiento de las plantas de cañahua.La cosecha se realizó entre el 3 y el 24 de mayo conforme las accesiones fueron alcanzando la madurez fisiológica. El corte de las plantas se realizó con la ayuda de una hoz y el material cosechado fue colocado en sobres de papel para evitar la pérdida del grano. Posteriormente se realizo la trilla en forma manual con el objeto de separar los granos de la broza (tallos y hojas), luego las semillas fueron venteadas para obtener los granos limpios.Con el propósito de evaluar las características agromorfológicas se registraron un total de 30 variables: emergencia, vigor a la emergencia, inicio de floración, fin de floración, madurez fisiológica, longitud y ancho de lámina, longitud de peciolo, número de dientes en la lámina, altura de planta, cobertura foliar, ramas primarias, rendimiento de grano, diámetro de tallo, índice de cosecha, hábito de crecimiento, forma del tallo, presencia y color de estrías, presencia de axilas, forma y perfil de la lámina, borde de lámina, tipo de nervadura, color del peciolo, color de lámina, caedicidad del grano, color del tallo a la madurez, color de la planta a la madurez y color del pericarpio.Para describir las características, determinar el grado de asociación e identificar grupos disímiles, se aplicaron los siguientes análisis estadísticos: 1) Parámetros descriptivos; 2) Coeficientes de correlación; 3) Análisis de componentes Principales; y 4) Análisis de conglomerados (Steel y Torrie 1988; Little y Hills 1991; Ferran 2001).Los resultados de parámetros descriptivos se realizaron sobre 116 accesiones, puesto que no germinaron cuatro accesiones las cuales probablemente no lo hicieron debido al prolongado almacenamiento que tuvo la semilla de cañahua (Cuadro 1). En general, se observa una amplia variación para la mayoría de los caracteres cuantitativos.Entre las variables fenológicas se puede observar que el ciclo de cultivo fluctuó entre 103 a 173 días; el primer caso corresponde a la accesión silvestre cuyo ciclo es precoz, mientras que el resto del rango de variación corresponde a la diversidad cultivable. En cuanto a la altura de planta, esta fluctuó entre 9,75 a 42,05 cm, el rango inferior corresponde a la accesión silvestre cuyo hábito de crecimiento es 'pampalasta' y se caracteriza por ser rastrera, mientras que el rango superior corresponde a una accesión de hábito de crecimiento 'saihua'. La cobertura foliar varió entre 5,14 a 39,02 cm, rango que corresponde a las plantas de hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' y 'lasta', respectivamente. El rendimiento de grano por planta varió entre 1,68 a 41 gramos, entre las accesiones que producen menor y mayor cantidad de grano, respectivamente. El índice de cosecha fluctuó entre 18,35 y 79,37%, lo cual representa la proporción de producción de grano respecto al peso total de la planta.En el Cuadro 2, se presenta la matriz de correlación entre cada par de características cuantitativas, donde la mayoría de las correlaciones fueron altamente significativos (P ≤ 0.001). Se consideró que los valores del coeficiente de correlación > 0.239 corresponden a correlacionados entre cada par de características y que presentan una asociación altamente significativa (Little y Hills 1991). De ellas sobresalieron las variables fenológicas con relación a las características agronómicas y morfológicas de la hoja.Entre las variables fenológicas, se destaca la asociación conformada entre días al final de la floración (DFF) y días a la madurez fisiológica (DMF) con un r = 1.00, entre días al inicio de floración (DIF) con días al final de la floración (DFF) y madurez fisiológica (DMF) con un r = 0.97. Asimismo, la asociación entre la emergencia (DE) y los días al inicio de floración (DIF) con un r = 0.82. Esto significa que cuanto más días tarda una accesión en la emergencia, de la misma forma demorará en iniciar y finalizar la floración y alcanzar la madurez fisiológica. Estas variables fenológicas se asocian en forma negativa al índice de cosecha (IC) y rendimiento de grano por planta (RGP), indicando que estas características tienden a ser menores mientras más tardías son las fases fenológicas (Cuadro 2).El número de ramas primarias (NRP) se correlaciona con la cobertura foliar (CF) con un r = 0.88, asimismo, éstas dos variables se correlacionan con la altura de planta (AP) con un r = 0.52 y r = 0.41, respectivamente. La altura de planta se correlaciona con el diámetro de tallo principal (DTP) con un r = 0.74, mientras que el rendimiento de grano por planta (RGP) se asoció positivamente al número de ramas primarias (NRP) con un r = 0.69. Estas asociaciones indican que las plantas que desarrollan mayor tamaño, mayor número de ramificaciones, tallos gruesos y mayor cobertura foliar corresponden a plantas con rendimientos altos.Cuadro 2. Matriz de correlación de 14 características cuantitativas.1,00 DIF 0,82 1,00 DFF 0,75 0,97 1,00 DMF 0,75 0,97 1,00 1,00 LL 0,01 0,00 -0,04 -0,04 1,00 AL -0,12 -0,15 -0,20 -0,20 0,91 1,00 LP -0,35 -0,36 -0,37 -0,37 0,67 0,80 1,00 ND 0,12 0,20 0,18 0,18 0,42 0,40 0,22 1,00 AP -0,08 -0,02 0,05 0,05 0,47 0,46 0,47 0,25 1,00 CF -0,06 -0,10 -0,09 -0,09 0,45 0,44 0,31 0,13 0,41 1,00 NRP -0,06 -0,14 -0,13 -0,13 0,49 0,46 0,34 0,10 0,52 0,88 1,00 DT -0,03 0,02 0,03 0,03 0,54 0,55 0,50 0,24 0,74 0,54 0,60 1,00 RGP -0,29 -0,26 -0,21 -0,21 0,48 0,52 0,54 0,08 0,64 0,63 0,69 0,59 1,00 IC -0,22 -0,25 -0,24 -0,24 0,07 0,11 0,11 -0,04 0,17 0,23 0,30 0,06 0,57 1,00Var.: Variables Se puede observar una alta correlación entre la longitud de lámina (LL) y el ancho de lámina (AL) con un r = 0.91 y con la longitud de pecíolo (LP) con un r = 0.80. Asimismo, la longitud de lámina (LL) se asocia con el número de dientes en la lámina (ND) con un r = 0.42. Estas asociaciones indican que las plantas grandes con tallos gruesos desarrollan hojas grandes y con mayor número de dientes en las láminas.Para la selección de los componentes se empleó el criterio de la raíz latente, el cual retiene aquellos componentes con valores propios mayores a 1. De acuerdo a éste criterio se seleccionaron los tres primeros componentes principales como significativos que explican más del 75.368% (Cuadro 3). Dentro de este análisis, a mayor valor de los coeficientes, mayor será su contribución en la discriminación de las accesiones, asimismo, dentro de cada componente, las variables están correlacionadas entre si.El primer componente principal aportó con el 28.063% de la varianza total, donde las variables con los coeficientes más altos fueron: días al inicio de floración (DIF), días a la emergencia (DE), días al final de la floración (DFF) y días a la madurez fisiológica (DMF). También fueron importantes aunque en forma secundaria: longitud de pecíolo (LP), número de dientes en la lámina (ND), índice de cosecha (IC) y rendimiento de grano por planta (RGP); éstas dos ultimas variables contribuyeron en forma negativa (Cuadro 3).Por tanto, este componente distingue a aquellas accesiones que emergen y maduran más tardíamente, y que a su vez registran índice de cosecha y 59 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen rendimientos más bajos, asimismo, éstas plantas se caracterizan por presentar mayor número de dientes en sus hojas y menor longitud de pecíolo.El segundo componente principal contribuyó con un 24.910% de la varianza total, sobresaliendo las variables: números de ramas primarias (NRP), rendimiento de grano por planta (RGP), cobertura foliar (CF), altura de planta (AP), diámetro de tallo principal (DTP) e índice de cosecha (IC), los cuales aportaron en forma secundaria las variables morfológicas de hoja (Cuadro 3).Este componente caracterizó a aquellas accesiones que presentan mayor número de ramas primarias, plantas grandes con tallos gruesos y mayor cobertura foliar, lo cual contribuye al rendimiento de grano por planta, y que a su vez presentan hojas grandes. El tercer componente aportó con el 22.395% de la varianza total, identificando a las variables de hoja: ancho de lámina (AL), longitud de lámina (LL), longitud de pecíolo (LP) y número de dientes en la lámina (ND), como los de mayor contribución en la conformación de este componente; por su parte, las 60 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen variables agronómicas contribuyeron en forma secundaria (Cuadro 3). Este componente distinguió a aquellas accesiones que desarrollan hojas grandes y mayor cantidad de dientes en la lámina; asimismo, estas accesiones presentan características agronómicas intermedias.Con la aplicación de la Distancia Euclidiana al Cuadrado y el método de aglomeración de Ward sobre las 116 accesiones, se obtuvo un dendrograma con 6 grupos claramente definidos. Una vez identificados los grupos en estudio, y con el fin de diferenciar las características sobresalientes de las accesiones con relación a las 14 variables caracterizadas y evaluadas en el germoplasma, se realizó el perfil de cada grupo de cañahua (Cuadro 4).Cuadro 4. Perfil de seis grupos de accesiones de cañahua. En el grupo 1 clasificaron 10 accesiones, de las cuales 9 son 'lasta' y una accesión es 'saihua'. El grupo reúne a las accesiones con plantas grandes: altura de planta (37.06 cm), cobertura foliar (31.51 cm), número de ramas primarias (11 ramas), diámetro de tallo principal (4.60 mm), y rendimiento de grano por planta (31.30 g).En el grupo 2 clasificaron 9 accesiones, de las cuales 5 son 'lasta' y 4 son 'saihua'. Las accesiones se caracterizan por tener: ciclo fenológico relativamente tardío con un inicio de la floración (97 días) y madurez fisiológica (146 días). Las plantas a su vez son relativamente grandes con una altura promedio de 23.51 cm, con 8 ramas primarias, hojas grandes (longitud de lámina = 2.29 cm, ancho de lámina = 1.99 cm, número de dientes en la lámina = 4 dientes), y la cobertura foliar es relativamente grande (14.07 cm). Por el contrario, el rendimiento de grano por planta (7.44 g) y el índice de cosecha (38.78%) presentaron valores bajos.En el grupo 3 clasificaron 21 accesiones, las cuales se caracterizan por albergar plantas precoces con un inicio de floración de 71 días y madurez fisiológica de 124 días. Asimismo, el grupo se caracteriza por desarrollar plantas con hojas de 2.07 cm de longitud por 1.76 cm de ancho, un diámetro de tallo principal de 3.24 mm y un rendimiento promedio de grano de 9.04 g/planta. El índice de cosecha promedio fue de 37.92%.En el grupo 4 clasificaron 34 accesiones, las cuales se caracterizan por presentar las plantas más precoces de toda la colección de germoplasma, con un inicio de la floración de 67 días y una madurez fisiológica de 122 días. Las plantas son de porte pequeño con una altura promedio de 20.91 cm, con un promedio de 7 ramas por planta y una cobertura foliar promedio de 13.18 cm. El rendimiento de grano promedio fue de 9.71g/planta, y el índice de cosecha fue de 49.48%.En el grupo 5 clasificaron 24 accesiones, de las cuales 8 son 'lasta' y 16 son 'saihua'; el grupo se caracteriza por albergar accesiones tardías con una madurez fisiológica de 158 días. El grupo presenta plantas de porte relativamente pequeño con una altura promedio de 22.75 cm, con un promedio de 7 ramas, hojas pequeñas con una longitud de 1.85 cm por un ancho de 1.47 cm, desarrollan una cobertura foliar promedio de 11.38 cm, el rendimiento de grano promedio es de 6.76 g/planta, y presentan un índice de cosecha promedio de 40.80%.En el grupo 6 clasificaron 18 accesiones, de las cuales 17 son 'lasta' y una accesión es 'saihua'; el grupo se caracteriza por presentar plantas con una altura promedio de 23.08 cm, hojas pequeñas con 1.70 cm de longitud y 1.31 cm de ancho. Este grupo albergó a las accesiones con un rendimiento promedio de grano de 10.80 g/planta, una cobertura foliar promedio de 17.81 cm, son relativamente tardías con 156 días, y presentan un índice de cosecha promedio de 44.52%.Existe una amplia variabilidad genética tanto en el ciclo fenológico de las accesiones, como en las características de las plantas; por tanto, se ha obtenido rendimientos e índices de cosecha en un amplio rango de variación.Las variables fenológicas se encuentran muy asociadas entre sí, sin embargo, estas variables se asocian en forma negativa al índice de cosecha y al rendimiento de grano por planta. Las variables de arquitectura de planta como el número de ramas primarias, cobertura foliar, altura de planta, diámetro de tallo principal se encuentran asociadas entre sí y tienen influencia directa con el rendimiento de grano e índice de cosecha.Con el análisis de componentes principales se seleccionaron tres componentes significativos que aportaron con más del 75% de la varianza total. El primer componente se caracterizó por las variables fenológicas y en forma secundaria por el rendimiento de grano e índice de cosecha. El segundo componente distinguió a las variables agronómicas y morfológicas. El tercer componente distinguió a las variables de hoja y agronómicas.La técnica de agrupamiento jerárquico, permitió clasificar a las accesiones de cañahua en seis grupos; esta agrupación proporcionó una descripción útil y permitió visualizar caracteres particulares (fenológicos, agronómicos y morfológicos de la hoja) en cada grupo.Continuar con trabajos de evaluación dentro de cada grupo identificado, considerando diferentes ambientes geográficos y temporales.Se sugiere utilizar las accesiones precoces en trabajos de mejoramiento genético para acortar el ciclo fenológico de las accesiones tardías, especialmente algunas de las que muestran buenos rendimientos.Autor:Rosa Flores Condori Año:2007 Institución:Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Facultad de AgronomíaEn el año 2003-2004, en la comunidad Purapurani de la Provincia Los Andes de La Paz, se realizó la evaluación agromorfológica y participativa de cinco líneas de cañahua. Según las características agromorfológicas, el hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' desarrolla mayor altura que el hábito 'lasta'; sin embargo, este último desarrolla una mayor cobertura foliar, lo cual favorece un mayor rendimiento de grano. Los agricultores seleccionaron la línea L-01 en la madurez fisiológica por las características de grano, mientras que para la elaboración del pito de cañahua seleccionaron a la línea L-qsm por el buen sabor, su dulzura y semejanza al chocolate.In 2003-2004, a participatory agro-morphological evaluation of five cañahua lines was conducted in the Purapurani community, Los Andes province of La Paz. According to the agro-morphological characteristics, the 'saihua' growth habit develops a higher height than the 'lasta' growth habit; however, the latter develops wider foliage cover favouring a higher grain yield. Farmers selected the L-01 line at physiological maturity due to grain characteristics, whereas line Lqsm was selected for pito making, due to its good taste, sweetness and resemblance to chocolate.La investigación participativa juega un rol muy importante con la participación de agricultores a fin de conocer la valoración y aceptación, revalorizando la tecnología nativa como resultado del proceso de generación de tecnología e identificando alternativas de solución con la decisión de que una nueva 64 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen tecnología nueva proporcione un desarrollo sostenible acorde con las necesidades en el contexto de sus propias comunidades. Dentro de la diversidad de los recursos alimenticios de origen andino, reconocidos con buenas características nutritivas se encuentra la cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen. Es una planta de alto valor nutritivo, su contenido de proteína fluctúa entre 14 a 19%, posee aminoácidos que el cuerpo no puede restituir o generarse por si mismo. Otra ventaja de la cañahua, es que sus granos no tienen saponina, lo cual facilita su preparación para el consumo.Desde hace muchos años atrás, ésta planta tuvo relevancia para la cultura de los Andes, que se ha constituido de forma especial en la base de la seguridad alimentaria de sus familias. Se conoce la utilidad de la planta en el uso de los granos, hojas y tallos por los productores y consumidores de la zona andina. Asimismo, son plantas adaptables contra las rigurosas condiciones de clima de las tierras altas, de acuerdo a estas características se constituye en un cultivo estratégico para la seguridad alimentaria, cultural, económica y tradicional.Sin embargo, el cultivo de cañahua se encuentra en un proceso de erosión en el país, existe una disminución del rendimiento de grano debido a factores, como el deterioro de la semilla, falta de tecnologías para el manejo del cultivo, particularmente para la cosecha y poscosecha. En este contexto el presente trabajo proporciona información sobre la evaluación de líneas y accesiones de cañahua con un de investigación participativa, a fin de conocer los criterios y razones de selección por parte de los agricultores de las comunidades objeto de estudio.Identificar las características agromorfológicas de líneas y accesiones de cañahua para la producción de grano en el cantón Chachacomani, con la participación de los agricultores.• Evaluar y seleccionar líneas y accesiones de cañahua con base en características agromorfológicas en dos comunidades del cantón Chachacomani. • Evaluar y seleccionar líneas y accesiones de cañahua por medio de evaluaciones participativas en dos comunidades del cantón Chachacomani.El trabajo de investigación se realizó en el año 2003-2004 en las comunidades de Koroyo y Purapurani del cantón Chachacomani de la provincia Los Andes de La Paz. Geográficamente se ubican entre los 16º05'46\" y 16º07'16\" Latitud Sur y entre los 68º27'50\" y 68º31'35\" Longitud Oeste, a una altitud de 4164 a 4268 m.s.n.m. El material genético de cañahua se dividió en dos grupos que fueron sembrados en las comunidades objeto de estudio: a) comunidad Purapurani, líneas: L-01, L-02, L-qsm, L-05 y L-06, facilitadas por el Programa Granos Andinos de la Faculta de Agronomía de la Universidad Mayor de San Andrés; y b) comunidad Koruyo: las accesiones 081, 166, 300, 472, 476, 479 y 568, que fueron facilitadas por la Fundación PROINPA.La siembra en la comunidad de Purapurani se realizó el 19 de noviembre de 2003 donde participaron 16 agricultores, mientras que la siembra en la comunidad de Koroyo se realizó el 26 de noviembre y participaron 8 agricultores. En ambas comunidades se empleó el método tradicional utilizando la fuerza animal de una yunta y un arado de palo a una profundidad de 20-25 cm; la distancia entre surcos fue de 40 cm, asignándose 4 surcos por línea de cañahua.La cosecha en la comunidad de Purapurani se realizó cuando las plantas llegaron a la madurez fisiológica, es decir, cuando estas cambiaron de color de tallo, follaje y hubo derrame de granos al ser frotados entre los dedos. Las plantas seleccionadas de cada línea de cañahua se cosecharon un día antes con el propósito de registrar los parámetros técnicos considerados para el estudio. El resto de las plantas fueron cosechadas conjuntamente con la participación de los agricultores, previa evaluación participativa efectuada el 12 de mayo de 2004. Después de tres semanas de secado de las plantas, se realizo la trilla en forma manual golpeando las plantas sobre una lona para separar los granos de la broza (tallos y hojas), y luego las semillas fueron venteadas para obtener los granos limpios.Con el propósito de evaluar el comportamiento agromorfológico de las líneas de cañahua, se registraron las siguientes variables: altura de planta, cobertura vegetativa, peso de grano y broza, diámetro de grano, índice de cosecha y rendimiento del grano.La apreciación de los agricultores fue realizada mediante evaluaciones participativas aplicando la 'evaluación de preguntas abiertas' en la fase de floración del cultivo, 'evaluación absoluta' para la evaluación del grano, y 'orden de preferencia' para la evaluación de usos culinarios.La parcela de evaluación implementada en la comunidad de Koroyo con las accesiones de la Fundación PROINPA, si bien las plantas llegaron a emerger, la 66 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen excesiva precipitación entre enero-febrero y el factor granizo que cayó en tres ocasiones llegó a afectar el 78% de las plantas de las parcelas. Los agricultores manifestaron que en la comunidad de Koroyo se presenta con frecuencia estos factores que ponen en riesgo constante la producción de cañahua. Por tanto los resultados que se presentan corresponden únicamente a la comunidad de Purapurani.Los resultados promedios del comportamiento agromorfológico de cada una de las líneas de cañahua se presenta en el Cuadro 1. En cuanto al hábito de planta, las líneas L-01, L-02, L-05 y L-06 desarrollan un crecimiento 'lasta', que se caracteriza por sus ramas numerosas que se inician desde el cuello de la planta dando la apariencia frondosa y con mayor cobertura foliar, mientras que la línea L-qsm desarrolla un crecimiento 'saihua', que se caracteriza por presentar pocas ramificaciones y dan la apariencia de ser más erectas. La altura de planta varió entre 18,9 a 27,8 cm que corresponde a las líneas L-06 y L-qsm, respectivamente; estas diferencias se atribuyen a las características genotípicas de cada línea y al ambiente, ya que todos los materiales se encontraban en las mismas condiciones climáticas durante el desarrollo vegetativo del cultivo. El hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' desarrolla mayor altura de planta que el hábito de crecimiento 'lasta'.La variable cobertura vegetativa varió entre 65.7 a 99.8 cm 2 , en el primer caso como era de esperar la línea L-qsm de hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' desarrolló la menor cobertura vegetativa, mientras que la línea L-05 desarrolló la mayor cobertura vegetativa.Cuadro 1. Características agromorfológicas de cinco líneas de cañahua en Purapurani. El peso de grano por planta varió de 0.81 a 3.71 gramos, que corresponden a las líneas L-05 y L-qsm, determinándose la superioridad del hábito 'saihua' sobre el hábito 'lasta'. Mientras que el peso de broza varío entre 3.50 a 6.55 gramos por plantas, que corresponden a las líneas L-06 y L-qsm, respectivamente, se vuelve a advertir la superioridad del hábito 'saihua' sobre el hábito 'lasta'.El índice de cosecha fluctuó de 0.17 para la línea L-05 hasta 0.36 para las líneas L-qsm y L-01, como era de esperar la línea L-05 alcanzó el menor índice de cosecha por la menor cantidad de grano formado por planta, mientras que la línea L-01 alcanzó el mismo índice que la línea L-qsm, con hábitos de crecimiento 'saihua' y 'lasta', respectivamente.El rendimiento fluctuó entre 13.68 a 50.41 gramos/m 2 , que corresponden a las líneas L-06 y L-05, respectivamente, ambas líneas de hábito de crecimiento 'lasta'. La línea L-01 ocupó el segundo lugar y la línea L-qsm de hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' ocupó el tercer lugar.Finalmente el diámetro de grano varió entre 1,112 a 1,114 mm, donde la línea L-qsm de hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' desarrolla los granos más pequeños, mientras que las líneas L-05 y L-06 forman los granos más grandes de cañahua dentro del material estudiado.En esta evaluación se aplicó la técnica de 'preguntas abiertas' y participaron 14 agricultores (Cuadro 2). En la línea L-01, entre los aspectos favorables presenta 'flores notorias' recibiendo una frecuencia de apreciación del 92.8%, le siguieron 'semilla buena' con 57.14% y 'muchas ramas' con 50%, mientras que mencionados como criterios desfavorables tenemos la 'siembra tardía' con 64.3%.En la línea L-02 en los aspectos favorables se destaco las 'plantas grandes' con una frecuencia de apreciación del 100%, le siguieron 'flores notorias' con 57.1% y 'altura homogénea' con 50%, mientras como criterio desfavorable mencionaron 'difícil de cosechar' con 42,8%. En la línea L-qsm en los aspectos favorables se destacó que 'crece en surco' con una frecuencia de apreciación del 71.4%, le siguieron 'variedad bonita' con 64.3% y 'buena semilla' con 50%, mientras que como criterio desfavorable mencionaron 'pocas ramas' con 50% y 'floración tardía' con 42.8%.La línea L-05 recibió dos aspectos favorables: 'florece antes' con una frecuencia de apreciación del 52.8% y 'bien formado' con 50%, mientras que como criterio desfavorable mencionaron que 'tarda en crecer' con 57%. Finalmente, la línea L-06 recibió dos aspectos favorables: 'florece antes' con una frecuencia de apreciación del 35.7% y 'plantas gruesas' con 28.6%, mientras que como criterio desfavorable mencionaron que 'tarda en crecer' con 64.5% y 'pocas ramas' con 7% (Cuadro 2).68 En esta evaluación participaron 16 agricultores (ocho hombres y dos mujeres), a los cuales se les mostraron las seis accesiones y la variedad local, y de estas, prefirieron las accesiones 300, 081 y 472, sobre las cuales se realizó la evaluación (Cuadro 3).Cuadro 3. Puntaje de 'evaluación absoluta' de cinco líneas de cañahua por agricultores de Purapurani.Línea 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Total Orden L-01De acuerdo a los resultados del Cuadro 3, la línea L-01 alcanzó el primer lugar con puntaje de 45, donde consideraron el rendimiento, madurez del grano y el follaje abundante, a pesar de ser de siembra tardía. El segundo lugar lo ocupó la línea L-qsm con puntaje de 36 por la altura de planta y hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' que facilita la cosecha. En tercer lugar calificó la línea L-02 con un puntaje de 33, por la cantidad de follaje. En cuarto lugar calificó la línea L-06 con puntaje de 25, por el tamaño de grano y precocidad a la madurez. El quinto lugar ocupó la línea L-05 por el tamaño de grano.Se aplicó la técnica de 'orden de preferencia' para recoger la apreciación de 16 agricultores sobre el grano de cinco líneas de cañahua según sus conocimientos tradicionales, consumo familiar y mercado.De acuerdo a la escala de preferencia, el primer lugar lo ocupó la línea L-01 como el mejor grano por su tamaño mediano y mayor rendimiento en comparación con las demás líneas que no consideraron el color de grano.El segundo lugar lo ocupó la línea L-06 por su grano grande y de color crema claro, aunque su rendimiento fue bajo. El tercer lugar ocupó la línea L-05 por el tamaño grande de sus granos, aunque presentó poca producción, fue considerado apto para la producción en la comunidad. El cuarto lugar ocupó la línea L-02 por el tamaño mediano y poca cantidad de grano. En quinto lugar ocupó la línea L-qsm por el tamaño pequeño y grano vació (phusu) y color café anaranjado que no fue de agrado para algunos agricultores respecto a la demanda de mercado (Cuadro 4).70 BOLIVIA -cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen Cuadro 4. Orden de Preferencia del grano de cinco líneas de cañahua por agricultores de Purapurani. El segundo lugar lo ocupó la línea L-06 por su buen sabor y porque se parece al pito que se elabora en la comunidad. El tercer lugar lo ocuparon las línea L-05, L-02 y L-01 por su buen sabor. Según los conocimientos de los agricultores consultados, las plantas rojas son más dulces en 'pito' y mantienen su aroma por largo tiempo.El hábito de crecimiento 'saihua' (L-qsm) desarrolla mayor altura que el hábito Resumen de la tesis de grado desarrollada en el cultivo del amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L.Autor:Sdenka Alandia Ramírez Año:2006 Universidad: Universidad Técnica de Oruro, Facultad de Ingeniería, Procesos QuímicosLa investigación se realizó durante la campaña agrícola 2004-2005 en poblaciones del área rural y urbana del departamento de Cochabamba. Se hizo una caracterización participativa del amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L. sobre usos, restricciones y oportunidades en comunidades y otros niveles de la cadena con enfoque de género. Asimismo, se obtuvo escualeno a partir de los granos de amaranto, estableciendo un método de obtención a escala piloto (laboratorio) para luego identificar y cuantificar el escualeno obtenido. La investigación se 73 BOLIVIA -Amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L.El amaranto, millmi o coimi Amaranthus caudatus L. es un grano andino de importancia para las comunidades locales por su adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas, variabilidad genética, calidad nutritiva y diversidad de usos. Se encuentra cultivado en los departamentos de Cochabamba, Chuquisaca y Tarija desde los 1866-3050 m.s.n.m. pero tiene actualmente una distribución cosmopolita.hizo en dos etapas: para la caracterización participativa, en el relevamiento de información se aplicaron encuestas a productores primarios y consumidores, asimismo se realizaron entrevistas a los propietarios de las microempresas seleccionadas. Para la obtención de escualeno, se trabajó a nivel piloto en el laboratorio de análisis de alimentos LAYSAA-Cochabamba. Los resultados de la caracterización participativa muestran que la variedad más sembrada es la Oscar Blanco, y los volúmenes de producción son bajos pudiendo variar de 1 a 8 arrobas. El 65% de los productores comercializan el grano directamente en las ferias y sólo el 10% vende directamente a los procesadores. La forma de consumo más común es el grano tostado (pops), pero los transformadores generalmente tropiezan con problemas de calidad del producto (alto contenido de impurezas); estos productos procesados son consumidos por el conjunto de miembros de las familias. La separación de escualeno a partir del grano reportó valores a destacar como el rendimiento en la extracción del aceite que se mejoró a 39%, llegando a obtener 5.5% (en peso) de aceite de todo el grano y obteniendo escualeno con una pureza del 97.5%. El rendimiento alcanzado fue de 4.54 granos de escualeno por kilogramo de grano de amaranto.The research took place during the 2004-2005 agricultural campaign in communities of both rural and urban areas of the department of Cochabamba. A gender-sensitive participatory characterization of the uses, constraints and opportunities of amaranth Amaranthus caudatus L. was conducted in the communities and among other stakeholders. Moreover, squalene was obtained from amaranth grains, establishing an obtention method at a pilot scale (laboratory) to further identify and quantify the obtained squalene. The research comprised two stages: for the participatory characterization, information was gathered through surveys targeted at primary producers and consumers, as well as interviews with owners of selected microenterprises. To obtain squalene, a protocol was followed at a pilot level at the laboratory of food analysis LAYSAA-Cochabamba. The results from the participatory characterization show that the most cultivated variety is Oscar Blanco, and production volumes are low ranging from 1 to 8 arrobas (ca. 25 pounds). Also, 65% of the producers commercialize the grain directly in fairs and only 10% sell directly to processors. The most common form of consumption is as toasted grain (pops), but processors usually run into quality problems with the product (high content of impurities); these processed products are consumed by the household members. Segregating squalene from the grain showed values worth highlighting as the improvement to 39% in oil extraction yield, being able to obtain 5.5% (in weight) of oil from the whole grain, and obtaining squalene with 97.5% purity. The yield obtained was 4.54 squalene grains per kilogram of amaranth grain.El amaranto Amarantus caudatus L. es conocido con diferentes nombres comunes como millmi, cuymi, kiwicha, illamcuma, achis, coyo y otros. Se caracteriza por su alto valor nutritivo que va desde 14 a 17% de proteína de calidad ya que presenta un excelente balance de aminoácidos. El contenido de lípidos varía entre 6 a 8 %, y estudios recientes han encontrado un contenido relativamente alto de escualeno (aproximadamente 8% del aceite de la semilla). Además, el amaranto puede aprovecharse de múltiples formas: como grano, verdura y forraje; en su conjunto, la planta presenta una gran versatilidad pudiendo utilizarse en la preparación de diversos alimentos preparados, además de tener un potencial prometedor en la industria de alimentos, elaboración de cosméticos, colorantes y hasta plásticos biodegradables.El revalorizar nuestros granos andinos como el amaranto tienen un valor real, no solamente por las potencialidades nutritivas que posee, sino para tratar de darle mayor diversidad de usos, ya sea en el campo de las aplicaciones industriales mediante la obtención de escualeno que tiene bastante demanda en el mercado internacional (EEUU, Japón).Igualmente, también desde el punto de vista nutricional el fomentar su consumo permitirá mitigar los serios problemas de desnutrición proteico-calórica de muchas comunidades, en tanto que desde el enfoque social el aumento de la producción permite a los productores contar con producto tanto para el consumo de las familias como para la venta generando ingresos excedentes para el hogar.• Caracterizar los usos, restricciones y oportunidades del cultivo de amaranto con enfoque de género a lo largo de la cadena productiva. • Obtener escualeno a partir de los granos de amaranto, estableciendo un método de obtención a escala piloto (laboratorio) para luego identificar y cuantificar el escualeno obtenido.El presente trabajo se realizo en dos etapas: a) Caracterización participativa con la intervención de productores, trasformadores y consumidores; y b) a nivel de laboratorio para la obtención y purificación del escualeno.Los pasos para realizar la caracterización participativa fueron los siguientes: • Selección de las zonas de estudio (rural y urbana).• Selección de entrevistados: productores, transformadores y consumidores (edad, género, tamaño de la empresa, estrato social). • Diseño y aplicación de encuesta base.• Análisis de los resultados de las entrevistas y/o encuestas. 75 BOLIVIA -Amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L.Se aplicaron 14 encuestas a \"productores primarios\" en la primera sección de la provincia Mizque-Cochabamba (área rural, clasificados por edad y sexo); 12 entrevistas a microempresas \"transformadoras\" las mismas que se realizaron en las provincias de Cercado, Vinto, Quillacollo y Mizque-Cochabamba; 80 encuestas a \"consumidores\" en ferias, mercados y supermercados de la ciudad de Cochabamba, los mismos que fueron clasificados según estrato económico.Los pasos a seguir para la obtención y purificación del escualeno fueron los siguientes:• Análisis bromatológico de cinco variedades (proximal).• Tratamiento del grano (hidratación) bajo diseño experimental haciendo variar el pH y tiempo de hidratación. • Extracción del aceite, bajo diseño experimental por solvente.• Extracción del escualeno, separación de la base saponificable e insaponificable. • Para la extracción del aceite se realizó empleando un equipo Soxhlet.• Purificación mediante cromatografía de columna • Finalmente se realizó la identificación comparando con un patrón mediante cromatografía de capa fina y cromatografía de gases; también se cuantificó la cantidad de escualeno que se encuentra en el grano de amaranto.La variedad mas sembrada es Oscar Blanco, seguida de Semicristalina, Blanquita, Rosada y Negra; la preferencia se expresa por la demanda en el mercado y la calidad comercial. Un 60% de los productores producen en promedio entre 1 a 4 @/año, por otro lado el 20% producen en promedio entre 4 a 8 @/año.Cerca del 65% de los productores venden directamente en el mercado (feria local o ciudad), un 20% vende al intermediario, y menos del 10% venden a los procesadores.Los productores afirman que la mano de obra es familiar, pues todos los miembros participan en las diferentes fases del proceso productivo; la mujer tiene una mayor participación en la siembra (distribución de la semilla), y post cosecha (limpieza del producto), además de la comercialización y transformación primaria (elaboración de pops, pito).La forma de consumo más común es el grano tostado (tipo pops), seguido del pito (grano tostado y molido), y finalmente en forma de verdura (hojas tiernas para la preparación de sopas o ensaladas).76 BOLIVIA -Amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L.Cerca del 60% de los transformadores mencionan que le compran al productor, y el restante 40% indica adquirir la materia prima de los intermediarios; sin embargo, la mayoría (75%) de los transformadores señalan que tienen problemas de calidad, cantidad, y constancia, para conseguir la materia prima. Para el 65% de los transformadores la variedad Oscar Blanco es la de mayor preferencia debido a que los granos de esta variedad revientan mejor (en el popeado).Los productos que la agroindustria elabora del grano de amaranto son: tostado, turrones, y pito (90, 44, 37% respectivamente); otros productos procesados son refresco instantáneo, harina, galletas y granolas).La mayoría de los transformadores entrevistados coinciden en mencionar que una de las características que adolecen sus productos es la presentación, seguida de la falta de difusión; por otro lado, señalan deficiencias en la falta de registro sanitario y calidad del producto.El requerimiento de materia prima por los transformadores es variable, desde 2@/mes para microempresas familiares, hasta más de 20 quintales/mes para las empresas grandes.Según el estrato económico, el lugar de adquisición de productos a base de amaranto se destacan los supermercados, mercados de la zona y ferias semanales (67, 47 y 35%, respectivamente).La forma mas difundida de consumo es el tostado (popeado) ya sea saborizado (con miel o endulzado con azúcar), consumiendo este producto mayoritariamente en el desayuno, y acompañado con leche o yogurt; otras formas de consumo son las harinas para repostería, y recientemente las hojuelas.La frecuencia de compra también es variable según estrato, para el periodo una semana en los estratos alto, medio y bajo se encuentran los siguientes valores 44, 34 y 31%, respectivamente.Según los encuestados, todos los miembros de la familia (mayores y niños) consumen amaranto, mayormente por su valor nutritivo, seguido de su agradable sabor y fácil preparación; entre otras razones se mencionan la costumbre de consumir el producto y finalmente el precio del producto (barato).Las variedades sometidas a análisis de bromatológico fueron: Morada, Oscar Blanco, Blanquita, Semicristalina, y Cristalina. Los resultados hallados nos muestran que las variedades que tienen mayor cantidad de grasa (aceite) son: Morada, Oscar Blanco y Semicristalina con 4.8, 3.4 y 3,4% respectivamente. Respecto a el parámetro proteínas, se tiene que la variedad Semicristalina contiene 13.2%, seguida de las variedades Morada, Cristalina, Oscar Blanco y Blanquita con valores que varían entre 13.1 a 12.21%.78 BOLIVIA -Amaranto Amaranthus caudatus L.Para obtener el mayor rendimiento en la extracción de aceite, las variables pH, humedad y tiempo de hinchamiento fueron establecidas en valores superiores al rango de trabajo donde: pH=6, humedad=30% y 12 horas de hinchamiento.Para obtener un mejor rendimiento en la extracción de aceite, las variables tiempo de extracción es 6 horas, el tamaño de grano es 500 (mm) y el tipo del solvente es hexano purificado, siendo la relación soluto/solvente 1:18, a una temperatura de 70ºC.En la fase de cuantificación del escualeno se obtuvo los siguientes resultados: 5.50% de aceite en peso del grano de amaranto (análisis realizado con base en granos molidos), el material insaponificable presente en el aceite utilizado alcanzo un valor de 9.40% del material insaponificable en peso del total del aceite. Según el análisis cromatográfico existe un 88% de escualeno en la fase insaponificable.Los usos del amaranto son diversos: alimentación humana, animal, medicinal y ornamental. En la actualidad la producción es reducida y se encuentra en descenso en razón a que los productores no cuentan con un mercado seguro.Área urbana • Se aprovecha la planta completa • El grano para la alimentación humana (principalmente en forma de tostado, pito y api) • Las hojas tiernas se utilizan como verdura (en sopas y ensaladas) • Los restos de cosecha (hojas, tallos) se destinan como forraje para la alimentación de los animales de la finca• Se utiliza solamente el grano de amaranto, dándole mayor diversidad de usos en productos procesados como harinas (para repostería en general, elaboración de galletas, panes, tortas) • Adicionalmente se pueden elaborar, pipocas, grageas, granolas, hojuelas, tostado, refrescos instantáneos, barras energéticas, turrones, tablillas, entre otros La variedad más cultivada y demandada es la Oscar Blanco, la misma que se caracteriza por el tamaño de grano, y tener buen comportamiento para el popeado.La participación de la familia (hombres, mujeres e inclusive niños) es de vital importancia en los eslabones de la producción, comercialización y transformación donde cada uno de los integrantes desempeña un rol definido.Las variables tiempo de extracción, tamaño de grano y tipo de solvente, son las variables que más influyen en el proceso de extracción; sin embargo, es necesario considerar la variable tamaño de grano porque es la que mas influye en el proceso.Se logró extraer escualeno a partir del aceite del grano de amaranto, y según el análisis cromatográfico, se llega a obtener un 87,79% de escualeno en la fase insaponificable La separación y purificación del escualeno mediante una cromatografía en columna flash permitió obtener una pureza del 97,52% de escualeno.Otros valores a destacar son la cuantificación del aceite en los granos de amaranto que alcanza 5.50% en peso. La cuantificación del material insaponificable del aceite es de 9.40% en peso.En resumen, según los datos hallados, se tiene que existe un rendimiento aproximado de 4.54 gramos de escualeno por kilogramo de grano de amaranto.Resumen de la tesis de grado desarrollada con varios granos andinos Dinámica socioeconómica y agrotécnica de las unidades familiares en los subsistemas de cultivo quinua y cañahua. Caso: subcentral Tupaj Katari Autor:Álvaro Amurrio Villca Año:2005 Institución:Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, Facultad de AgronomíaEn el año 2002-2003, en las comunidades de Pajchani Grande y Pajchani Molino de la Provincia Omasuyos de La Paz, se realizó un estudio sobre las dinámicas socioeconómicas y agrotécnicas asociadas a la producción de quinua y cañahua. Según los resultados, se puede indicar que el 76.6% de las familias cultivan quinua y el 21.3% cultivan cañahua; ambos cultivos ocupan el 14.85% del área cultivada. En las comunidades, se practican cinco sistemas de producción, donde el manejo de la quinua y cañahua sigue un mismo itinerario técnico. La producción de quinua y cañahua gira en torno al trabajo de la mujer, ya que es ella la que aporta mayor fuerza de trabajo (55.2 %). Las comunidades se ubican en un espacio mercantil importante; sin embargo, el grado de articulación es incipiente en lo que respecta a la comercialización de quinua y cañahua. La toma de decisiones en el núcleo familiar sobre la producción y destino de la quinua y cañahua está asociado al tamaño y ciclo de vida de la familia. Los agentes 81 BOLIVIA -Granos andinos Los granos andinos considerados en este estudio en Bolivia son la quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. y la cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen ya que son importantes para las comunidades locales por su diversidad de usos, adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas, por su variabilidad genética y calidad nutritiva.técnicos, productivos y económicos que limitan la evolución de ambos cultivos al interior de la unidad de producción son: a) quinua-superficie de cultivo, precio de comercialización, semilla, asistencia técnica, insumos químicos, crédito, conocimiento del mercado, factores bióticos y manejo del cultivo; y b) cañahua-superficie de cultivo, precio de comercialización, conocimiento del mercado, semilla certificada, asistencia técnica, crédito y manejo del cultivo.In 2002-2003 a study on the socioeconomic and agri-technical dynamics associated with quinoa and cañahua production was conducted in the communities of Pajchani Grande and Pajchani Molino of the Omasuyos province, La Paz. The results show that 76.6% of the households cultivate quinoa and 21.3% cultivate cañahua. Both crops together account for 14.85% of the cultivated area. In the communities there are five production systems in place, where quinoa and cañahua management follows the same technical protocol. Quinoa and cañahua production are centered on women's work, as they provide most of the workforce (55.2%). The communities are located in an important trade area; however, the degree of articulation is incipient regarding quinoa and cañahua commercialization. Decision making at the household level with regards to quinoa and cañahua production and destination is associated to the family size and life cycle. The technical, production and economic agents hindering the evolution of both crops inside the production unit are: a) quinoa -cultivation surface, market price, seed, technical assistance, chemical inputs, credit, market knowledge, biotic factors and crop management; and b) cañahua -cultivation surface, market price, market knowledge, certified seed, technical assistance, credit and crop management.El estudio de los cultivos andinos, durante los últimos años ha cobrado bastante interés por el rol que juegan estos en la seguridad alimentaría de las unidades familiares del área rural. Dentro de estos cultivos se destacan la quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. y la cañahua Chenopodium pallidicaule,Aellen por su elevado valor nutritivo y resistencia a factores ambientales adversos como heladas y sequías, lo cual genera el potencial de producir estos granos de forma comercial.Pese a las ventajas competitivas y comparativas ya señaladas, estos cultivos están siendo subutilizados y en muchos casos olvidados, situación que se agudiza en la zona norte del altiplano boliviano. La falta de importancia hacia estos rubros se manifiesta en la poca o casi nula disponibilidad de información sobre producción, rendimiento y superficie cultivada sobretodo de cañahua, así como también en el decremento de la superficie cultivada de quinua.El altiplano norte presenta un potencial de tierra cultivable, esta cualidad se ha traducido en la diversificación y adopción de diferentes actividades agrícolas por parte de la familia campesina. Hasta la fecha son muchos los trabajos de investigación orientados a fomentar la producción de la quinua y cañahua. No obstante, muchas de estas investigaciones, en especial aquellas que se reducen a la difusión de alternativas tecnológicas, han demostrado sus limitaciones y lograron poco impacto por no existir las condiciones que permitan a los productores aplicar o utilizar la tecnología generada.Bajo este contexto, el presente trabajo de investigación está orientado a desarrollar información que de a conocer la dinámica de funcionamiento actual de las unidades familiares en los subsistemas de cultivo quinua y cañahua, así como también identificar y jerarquizar los agentes técnico productivos y económicos que condicionan el funcionamiento actual y la evolución de estos cultivo. Esto permitirá generar una estructura de apoyo del problema sobre la cual se trace una línea base para desarrollar estrategias de intervención orientadas a expandir la frontera agrícola de estos rubros.Conocer la dinámica de gestión social, económica y agrotécnica de las unidades de producción familiar en los subsistemas quinua y cañahua, como estrategia integral de intervención que permita alcanzar el desarrollo productivo de estos rubros en la estructura interna del sistema predial.• Analizar la coherencia agrotécnica de las unidades familiares en los subsistemas de cultivo quinua y cañahua, frente a otros subsistemas presentes en la estructura interna del sistema predial. • Describir y caracterizar los niveles de organización en la toma de decisiones y distribución del trabajo al interior de la unidad familiar, con relación al funcionamiento de los subsistemas quinua y cañahua.• Identificar y jerarquizar los agentes técnico productivos y económicos intra y extra familiares que condicionan el funcionamiento actual y evolución de los subsistemas quinua y cañahua en las unidades de producción campesina.El trabajo de investigación se realizó en el año 2002-2003 en las comunidades de Pajchani Grande y Pajchani Molino de la Provincia Omasuyos de La Paz. Geográficamente están ubicadas entre los 16º05'59\" y 16º06'51\" de Latitud Sur y entre los 68º37'41\" y 68º39'12\" de Longitud Oeste y a una altitud 83 BOLIVIA -Granos andinos entre los 3883 a 3906 m.s.n.m. Ambas comunidades forman parte de la subcentral agrícola Tupaj Katari.El estudio se desarrollo bajo los lineamientos de una investigación de tipo descriptivo -participativo, con enfoque sistémico, empleando como marco referencial el Sistema Predial Campesino (SPC) el cual es: a) descriptivo -se realizó mediante encuestas y estudios de caso; b) participativo -incorporó al sujeto de investigación en la identificación de sus problemas y actitudes sobre elementos conocidos del sistema predial; y c) sistémico -considera en su análisis los elementos que conforman el SPC, el cual identifica al predio como una estructura socioeconómica que jerarquiza el nivel de decisiones sobre los otros niveles del sistema (ecológico, biológico y físico).El estudio se realizó en tres etapas: 1) preparación y planificación -que consistió en la recolección de información secundaria, definición del área de intervención, contacto con las comunidades, selección de técnicas de recolección de datos y el diseño muestral; 2) experimentación -que consistió en la aplicación de encuestas a productores, estudios de caso y la encuesta de actitud Likert; y 3) análisis de la información -que consistió en la evaluación económica, análisis estadístico y análisis de la escala de actitud. ultimo mucho mas en PM, fuera de estos existen animales menores tales como aves, cuyes y conejos. Entre los bienes duraderos, disponen en promedio general por familia de 3,59 chontas, 3,59 oses y 1,24 arados. En cuanto a las infraestructuras de producción a nivel general, se tiene que los pozos y corrales son los que se presentan con más frecuencia en la unidad de producción (UP).Con relación a la superficie destinada a la siembra de los diferentes cultivos (Cuadro 1), se puede ver que la quinua y cañahua en conjunto ocupan el 14,85% del área total sembrada, siendo entre las dos la mas importante la quinua con 11,57 %. En cuanto a la producción y productividad de la quinua y cañahua, se registró que en PG son mayores a los de PM. Se determinó que en ambas comunidades existen cinco grandes sistemas de producción: ganadero extensivo (PG-PM), mediano productor extensivo (PG-PM), migrante definitivo con producción permanente (PG), pequeño productor con trabajo no agrícola (PG), y acopiador y transformador de granos (PM).Dentro del sistema de rotación cultivos, a la producción de la quinua y cañahua le precede el cultivo de papa, luego se cultiva avena ó cebada, para luego entrar en descanso. En el Cuadro 2 se presenta el calendario agrícola para la quinua y cañahua que se utiliza en las comunidades de estudio.Cuadro 2. Calendario agrícola para la producción de quinua y cañahua.Jl La estructura de género sobre la cual se desenvuelve el proceso productivo de quinua y cañahua se sustentan en gran medida en el trabajo desarrollado por la mujer. Estos resultados no son de extrañarse, debido a que la importancia de ambos cultivos es menor en comparación a actividades como la producción de papa u oca, donde el hombre dispone gran parte de su fuerza de trabajo.En líneas generales, del 100% de la mano de obra invertida en el proceso productivo, solo el 44,8 % corresponde al trabajo del hombre, y el restante al de la mujer (55,2 %). La proporción específica a cada actividad se precisa en la Figura 1, corroborando una vez más el aporte significativo de la mujer en la producción de quinua y cañahua. H M Figura 1. Distribución de la fuerza de trabajo del hombre y la mujer en la producción de quinua y cañahua.Con el objeto de relacionar el ciclo de vida familiar con la producción de quinua y cañahua, se aplicó el análisis de correspondencia múltiple (ACM), y de acuerdo a la Figura 2, se puede apreciar que los ancianos están asociados a la producción de ambos cultivos, los adultos están asociados a la producción de quinua, y los jóvenes se muestran distantes a la producción tanto de quinua como de cañahua.El centro de comercialización donde convergen con mayor periodicidad los productores de PG y PM es la feria de Achacachi, cuya ciudad a la vez se constituye en el eje regional, donde se aglutinan otras comunidades. Sin embargo, otra feria de menor afluencia es la de Morocollo. A estas dos ferias se incorporan los centros de La Paz y El Alto, sobre los cuales se estructuran las interdependencias (Figura 3).Dimensión 1Producción Ciclo de Vida Figura 2. Relación del ciclo de vida familiar con la producción de quinua y cañahua.Se aplicó la escala de Likert que fue desarrollada con los actores locales, la cual centró su atención en 14 variables divididas en cuatro grupos para los cultivos de quinua y cañahua. En el Cuadro 3 se resumen los patrones de actitud de los agricultores de PG y PM para las 14 variables por cultivo estudiado. Para la superficie de cultivo, la tendencia asumida en ambos cultivos es positiva; en la variable disponibilidad de mano de obra, los agricultores asumen una actitud negativa para la quinua y positiva para cañahua; en infraestructura productiva, los agricultores muestran una actitud neutra, aunque los de PG muestran una actitud negativa para la cañahua; en las restantes variables hay una actitud positiva para la mayoría de ellas, aunque para las variables aptitud del suelo, factores abióticos y riego la actitud es negativa.Una vez priorizados los agentes que limitan la evolución de los cultivos de en las comunidades, se profundizó el análisis, estableciendo interrelaciones entre las mismas, las cuales proporcionaron una estructura inicial del problema sirviendo como línea base para desarrollar estrategias de intervención orientadas a incrementar las superficies de cultivo de estos rubros. El establecimiento de interrelaciones entre agentes técnico-productivos y económicos se desarrolló a partir del análisis factorial de componentes principales. Si bien las comunidades se ubican en un espacio con flujo comercial, estas presentan un grado de articulación insipiente en lo que respecta a la comercialización de quinua y Joven Cañahua Quinua Adulta Anciana Ninguno cañahua debido principalmente al proceso productivo desarrollado en estos rubros. La toma de decisiones en el núcleo familiar sobre la producción y destino de la quinua y cañahua responde a criterios de tamaño de la familia y ciclo de vida de esta. Los agentes técnico-productivos y económicos que limitan la evolución de ambos cultivos al interior de la unidad de producción son: a) quinua -superficie de cultivo, precio de comercialización, semilla, asistencia técnica, insumos químicos, crédito, conocimiento del mercado, factores bióticos y manejo del cultivo y b) cañahua -superficie de cultivo, precio de comercialización, conocimiento del mercado, semilla certificada, asistencia técnica, crédito y manejo del cultivo. Figura 3. Modelo de interacción entre familias de PG y PM con el mercado.Del total de las familias estudiadas el 76.6% cultivan quinua y el 21.3% cañahua, y estos al interior de la unidad de producción ocupan el 14.85% del área cultivada (quinua 11.57% y cañahua 3.28%). En ambas comunidades se practican cinco sistemas de producción, donde el manejo técnico productivo de la quinua y cañahua mantienen un mismo itinerario técnico, diferenciándose solo por el espacio temporal de sus actividades. La estructura de genero en la familia, en cuanto a la producción de quinua y cañahua gira en torno al trabajo de la mujer, ya que es ella la que aporta mayor fuerza de trabajo (55.2 %) en el proceso productivo de estos rubros.• Pajchani Grande (PG) 2,4 b La tendencia, esta determinada por la ubicación del valor S i el los intervalos mínimo permisible -punto de equilibrio -máximo posible. Valores (S i ) comprendidos entre el mínimo permisible y punto de equilibrio denotan tendencia negativa (-), valores S i ubicados entre el punto de equilibrio y máximo posible expresan tendencia positiva (+). Para PG los intervalos están dados por 27 -81 -130 y 23 -69 -115 para la comunidad PM.El Proyecto \"Fortalecimiento de las oportunidades de ingreso y la seguridad nutricional de los pobres rurales, a través del uso y mercadeo de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas\" (IFAD-NUS), desde el año 2001, en Perú, apoya acciones de investigación y transferencia de tecnología, con la finalidad de revalorar los cultivos y los productos transformados de granos andinos (quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd., cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen, y amaranto o kiwicha Amaranthus caudatus L.). El proyecto se ha desarrollado en dos fases: la primera del 2001-2004 y la segunda del 2007-2010.Bioversity International es la responsable global del proyecto y tiene el soporte financiero de IFAD. En Perú, CIRNMA es la Institución coordinadora del Proyecto y trabaja en alianzas estratégicas con la Universidad Nacional del Altiplano de Puno UNA-Puno, el Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria INIA (Puno y Cusco), Dirección Regional Agraria Puno, y con participación activa de ocho comunidades campesinas de Puno y Cusco.Dentro del marco de trabajo del proyecto, se conceptualizó el desarrollo de trabajos de investigación que respondieran a las principales restricciones por las cuales los granos andinos no lograban pasar la barrera de ofertarse localmente como materia prima. La mejor vía para ello era a través de tesis universitarias (pregrado y postgrado). De esta manera fue posible contribuir con la formación de nuevos profesionales con la visión de despertar interés por la potencialidad de los granos andinos. Adicionalmente, también para aunar esfuerzos para que la comunidad científica, empresarial, los productores y el público en general vean en estas especies una oportunidad de generar condiciones para su propio desarrollo y contribuir a revalorarlas. En el contexto mencionado fue clave la alianza con las universidades Nacional del Altiplano de Puno (UNA-Puno: primera y segunda fase), y San Agustín de Arequipa (UNSA: primera fase). En el caso de la UNA-Puno, los trabajos se realizaron a través del Centro de Investigación y Capacitación para el Desarrollo Regional CICADER como entidad adscrita a la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de la UNA-Puno, y con la Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa UNSA, mediante la Escuela Profesional de Industrias Alimentarias.El presente documento, contiene los resúmenes de 18 tesis de la primera y dos de la segunda fase del proyecto. Todas ellas debidamente defendidas y publicadas. Por ello, es sumamente grato presentar estos resúmenes que serán de mucha utilidad para los interesados en promocionar las cualidades de los granos andinos, así como generar nuevos productos a base de ellos. En cada resumen se señala al autor o autores, de tal manera que es posible contactarse con el o ellos para cualquier ampliación.De los veintidós trabajos de investigación, 35% son tesis realizadas en la Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Agroindustrial (Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias); 30% en la Maestría de Marketing y Post-Cosecha (Escuela de Post-Grado UNA-Puno); 15% en la Escuela de Nutrición Humana (Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud UNA-Puno); 10% de la Escuela Profesional de Industrias Alimentarias de la UNSA; 5% en la Maestría de Ciencia y Tecnología de la UNAS, y finalmente otro 5% de la Escuela Profesional de Ingeniería Química de la UNA-Puno. Aproximadamente 50% de los trabajos han sido hechos con quinua y el otro 50% en cañihua, aunque en algunos casos se ha trabajado con ambos productos.Los editores desean expresar un agradecimiento especial al Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola FIDA por haber financiado, en su primera y segunda fase, la implementación del proyecto global \"Fortalecimiento de las oportunidades de ingreso y la seguridad nutricional de los pobres rurales, a través del uso y mercadeo de especies olvidadas y subutilizadas\" (IFAD-NUS II), que permitió la realización, entre otras acciones, de trabajos de investigación, tesis de grado y de postgrado cuyos resúmenes se presentan en la presente publicación.En los resúmenes que ponemos a disposición de la comunidad científica y público en general, se debe reconocer en primera instancia a los autores de cada uno de los trabajos presentados y, a la institución en la que el trabajo fue debidamente defendido. En este contexto es importante resaltar y agradecer el apoyo institucional de la Universidad Nacional del Altiplano de Puno y Universidad Nacional San Agustín de Arequipa, instituciones que ofrecieron, como socias del Proyecto IFAD-NUS, el soporte académico y científico necesario.Resúmenes de tesis y trabajos de investigación desarrollados en la transformación y mercadeo de quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Percy Fermín Velásquez Ccosi Año:2003 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialLa investigación se basa en el estudio de cuatro cultivares de quinua (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): Chullpi blanca, Salcedo INIA, Pasankalla y Blanca de Juli, como una alternativa para la obtención de malta. El objetivo de la investigación fue determinar tres parámetros de malteo: tiempos de remojo, germinado y temperaturas de secado. Los tiempos de remojo fueron evaluados bajo condiciones ambientales a 14°C y 50% de humedad relativa; el germinado en cámaras a 20°C, 86% de humedad relativa y en oscuridad. Para el secado, se emplearon secadores con termostatos calentadores. Los resultados de los análisis químicos de los granos malteados muestran el incremento de proteínas en comparación con la composición de granos crudos. 94 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.La quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. en Perú es utilizado, cultivado y conservado por las comunidades locales de la zona por su adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas y variabilidad genética. Se encuentra sin embargo cultivada en todos los Andes americanos.This research is based on the study of four quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. cultivars: Chullpi blanca, Salcedo INIA, Pasankalla and Blanca de Juli, as an alternative to obtain malt. The objective is to determine three malting parameters: soaking time, germination time and drying temperatures. Soaking times were evaluated under environmental conditions at 14°C and 50% relative humidity; germination times were obtained in chambers at 20°C, 86% relative humidity and in darkness. To obtain drying temperatures, dryers were used with heating thermostats. Results from the chemical analyses on malted grains show an increase in protein compared with the composition of raw grains.En la actualidad, el desarrollo de alimentos está generando nuevas exigencias de vanguardia, lo que ha llevado a los agroindustriales a desarrollar investigaciones en sistemas de procesamiento; por ello esta investigación se orienta a obtener parámetros óptimos en un proceso de malteado, entendiendo que el grano malteado no es un producto de consumo directo ya que es mayormente utilizado para poder desarrollar el sabor deseado en bebidas fermentadas.• Determinar tres parámetros de malteo en cultivares de quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. en Puno, Perú. • Obtener los tiempos óptimos de remojo, germinado y temperatura de secado.Para el malteo, se utilizó las metodologías desarrolladas por Nieto (1984) y Repo-Carrasco (1992) adecuadas (materia prima, limpieza, clasificación, lavado, secado, remojo, germinación, secado y molienda). Para la determinación de azúcares reductores, se utilizó el método volumétrico de Lane y Eynon.Para la determinación de parámetros físico-químicos en quinua, se utilizaron los siguientes métodos: Método manual del curso de semillas de propagación de plantas, análisis de pureza física el cual es un método optado por el manual de control de calidad en semillas (Beingolea 1988)Norma técnica nacional 205.018(1980) referente a cereales y menestrasLos resultados obtenidos en la optimización de los tres parámetros de malteo estudiados (tiempo de remojo, tiempo de germinado y temperatura de secado), se encuentran resumidos en el Cuadro 1 para las cuatro variedades probadas.Cuadro 1. Parámetros óptimos en el proceso de malteo por variedad de quinua. El mayor contenido de azúcares reductores alcanzado después del proceso de malteado fue de 10.54% en el cultivar Chullpi Blanco con 14 horas de remojo, 72 horas de germinado y 80°C de secado. Los parámetros óptimos maximizaron con 14% de azucares reductores en el cultivar Chullpi Blanca, 13% en Blanca de Juli, 8.2% en Pasankalla y 7.5% en Salcedo INIA.La composición química proximal de los granos malteados especialmente en cuanto a proteínas, es relativamente mayor que en grano crudo debido al proceso de germinación.Autor:Ronald Enrique Talavera Apaza Año:2003 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialLa investigación se planteó con la finalidad de diversificar los niveles de consumo y difusión de quinua, siendo el objetivo principal el determinar la mejor variedad de quinua, que expandida sirva para la elaboración de barras de chocolate; esto implica transformaciones y combinaciones con otros productos, en este caso, con chocolate. Se experimentó con cuatro variedades de quinua: Salcedo INIA, Blanca de Juli, Sajama y Kancolla, a las cuales se les realizaron análisis físico-químicos. Los resultados muestran que la variedad Sajama tiene mayores cualidades nutritivas seguida por Kancolla. En quinua expandida, la variedad Salcedo INIA presenta un mejor rendimiento (83%) e índice de expansión (6.20); por lo tanto, mayor volumen y mayor aceptabilidad como producto final.The purpose of this research was to diversify the levels of consumption and promotion of quinoa, and the main objective was to determine the best quinoa variety that, processed into an expanded product, can be used in making chocolate bars. This implies transformations and combinations with other products, that in this case is chocolate. Four quinoa varieties were studied: Salcedo INIA, Blanca de Juli, Sajama and Kancolla, and subjected to physicalchemical analyses. Results show that the Sajama variety has higher nutritional qualities followed by Kancolla. For expanded quinoa, the Salcedo INIA variety has better performance (83%) and expansion index (6.20); therefore, higher volume and better acceptance as final product.Mediante una adecuada difusión de las principales bondades de la quinua, se podrá diversificar los niveles de consumo y aceptación de este grano andino, 98 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.para lo cual se podría sugerir la estrategia de combinarlo y transformarlo con otros productos de aceptación masiva como el chocolate. Solucionando los problemas sensoriales y nutritivos de este grano andino, se podrá contribuir a la mejor aceptación del consumidor y por ende su desarrollo comercial.• Determinación de la variedad de quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. y proporción de las mezclas de expandido para la elaboración de barras de chocolate.• Evaluar las características físico-químicas, sensoriales y microbiológicas en la mezcla de chocolate con quinua expandida.• Análisis físico-químico para materia prima: Método de la A.O.A.C. (1991), determinación de humedad, cenizas, proteína total, grasa, fibra bruta y carbohidratos. • Primera fase experimental para la obtención de quinua expandida: se determinó los siguientes pasos (seleccionado, acondicionado de la materia prima, precalentado del cañón expansor, pesado y alimentado, calentado del grano, expansión por explosión, recepción, tamizado y seleccionado).• Análisis físico, físico-químico y sensorial para la quinua expandida.• Segunda fase experimental para la obtención de barras de chocolate: se siguió los siguientes procedimientos (fundido, mezclado, templado y llenado, vibrado, enfriado, desmoldado, envasado y almacenado).• Método de análisis sensorial, físico químico y microbiológico para la barra de chocolate.Los resultados del análisis del índice de expansión de quinua expandida (Cuadro 1) muestra que la variedad Salcedo INIA presenta un mejor rendimiento, al rededor del 83.8 %, que le confiere mayor volumen, alcanzando un índice de expansión de 6.20, con 16% de humedad; además es esta variedad la de mejores cualidades nutritivas.Cuadro 1. Análisis del índice de expansión de las cuatro variedades de quinua expandida.Índice Como materia prima, la variedad Sajama presenta mejores cualidades nutritivas. El mejor índice de expansión y rendimiento en el expandido lo tuvo la variedad Salcedo INIA, trabajada a 16% de humedad y a una presión de 165 lb/pulg².El análisis sensorial de chocolate con quinua expandida determina que las mejores características (apariencia general, color, olor, sabor y textura) las presenta la mezcla de 80% de chocolate y 20% de quinua expandida variedad Salcedo INIA.Juan Carlos Mamani Apaza Año:2004 Institución:Universidad Nacional de San Agustín UNSA-Arequipa, Ingeniería de Industrias AlimentariasEn el presente trabajo de investigación, se evaluó la posibilidad de carbonatar la quinua, previa hidrólisis de proteínas y almidón. Para ello se obtuvieron cuatro patrones de quinua hidrolizada, los mismos que fueron caracterizados en sus propiedades físicas y funcionales. Luego se carbonató el patrón hidrolizado con las mejores características físicas y funcionales y se evaluaron los efectos causados por la carbonatación. Para la obtención de los patrones de quinua hidrolizada, se trabajó con los siguientes niveles de proteasa: 0.01, 0.08, 0.64 y 1%, respecto a la proteína. Sin embargo, se mantuvo constante la concentración de amilasa en 0.01% para la hidrólisis de almidón. De la misma forma, el nivel de pectinasa fue solamente de 0.01% referido para los sólidos totales, a fin de eliminar restos de fibra existente. Finalmente se obtuvo un hidrolizado carbonatado, que con la adición de colorante y saborizante, ofreció mejores resultados en la evaluación organoléptica.This research focused on evaluating the possibility to carbonate quinoa with previous protein and starch hydrolysis. For this, four hydrolyzed quinoa patterns were obtained, and their physical and functional properties were characterized.Afterwards the hydrolyzed pattern with the best physical and functional properties was carbonated, and the effects of carbonatation were evaluated. To obtain the hydrolyzed quinoa patterns, the following protease levels were used: 0.01, 0.08, 0.64 and 1% with respect to the protein. However, the amylase concentration was maintained constant at 0.01% for starch hydrolysis. Similarly, the pectinase level was only 0.01% referred to total solids in order to eliminate existing fibre remnants. Finally a carbonated hydrolysate was obtained that, together with dyeing and flavouring agents, rendered better results in the organoleptic evaluation. 101 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.La quinua es un cultivo andino de alto valor nutricional indicado por muchos autores, y remarcando la importancia de tales beneficios. Por ello una alternativa de consumo masificado puede ser una bebida carbonatada, lo que justifica la realización de esta investigación para obtener patrones de quinua hidrolizada y evaluar los efectos de la carbonatación sobre sus propiedades y tener la posibilidad de generar valor agregado.• Caracterización de patrones de quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.hidrolizada (solubilidad, viscosidad, turbidez, capacidad de emulsificación, capacidad de formación de espuma). • Evaluar los efectos de la carbonatación sobre las propiedades funcionales de quinua hidrolizada. • Obtener una bebida carbonatada a partir de quinua hidrolizada.Para la obtención de los patrones de quinua hidrolizada, se procede al tamizado, suspensión de harina, acondicionamiento de pH, cocción e hidrólisis.Análisis químico proximal de la materia prima: humedad, ceniza, proteína, grasa, fibra, carbohidratos, almidón, y pH.Determinación de peso del hidrolizado, proteína, ácido glutamínico, equivalente de dextrosa, sólidos totales, sólidos solubles, viscosidad, capacidad de emulsificación, capacidad de formación de espuma, turbidez, y evaluación organoléptica.En la bebida carbonatada: Proteína con el método Hach A.O.A.C., grados Brix con un refractómetro A.O.A.C., pH con un potenciómetro A.O.A.C., volumen de CO 2 , propiedades funcionales, y evaluación organoléptica (Cornejo, 1999).Los mejores patrones hidrolizados se obtuvieron con los niveles 0.64 y 1% de proteasa, tal como se constata en el Cuadro 1. Los efectos de la carbonatación de quinua hidrolizada, se muestran en el Cuadro 2.102 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Cuadro 1. Características de patrones hidrolizados de quinua a dos niveles de Proteasa. Los valores en los patrones de quinua hidrolizada se encuentran dentro de los parámetros para bebidas carbonatadas. El material hidrolizado carbonatado, comparado con bebidas carbonatadas existentes, tuvo una baja apariencia general, un efecto refrescante aceptable, el ardor ofrecido al paladar fue bajo y el adormecimiento causado fue regular.El hidrolizado carbonatado con la adición de colorantes y saborizantes finalmente dio mejores resultados en la evaluación organoléptica.Elizabeth Mamani Machaca Año:2006 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialEn el presente trabajo de investigación, se estudió el efecto de niveles de goma xantana, tiempo de remojo y ajuste de rodillos para lograr un producto laminado estandarizado de quinua. Entre los cultivos andinos, la quinua es la de mayor versatilidad para el consumo e industrialización; de sus granos, se obtiene harina cruda o tostada, hojuelas, sémola y polvo instantáneo. En este caso, el proceso de laminado implica someter los granos a fuerzas de compresión con determinada humedad, obteniéndose hojuelas vulnerables a ruptura y desmoronamiento durante la manipulación, envasado, y transporte. El acondicionamiento se hizo con cinco niveles de goma xantana a una temperatura de 80ºC por 16 y 18.4 minutos. El proceso de laminado se realizó ajustando los rodillos de la laminadora a cinco niveles de presión (16.6, 20, 25, 30 y 33.4 lb/pulg), trabajadas en condiciones ambientales a 13ºC y humedad relativa de 65%.This research studied the effect of various levels of xanthan gum, soaking time and roller adjustment to obtain a standardized laminated quinoa product. Among the Andean crops, quinoa is the most versatile for consumption and industrialization; its grains are source of raw or toasted flour, flakes, semolina and instant powder. In this case, laminating involves exposing the grains to compression forces with certain humidity, obtaining flakes vulnerable to rupture and crumbling during handling, packaging and transportation. The conditioning with five levels of xanthan gum at a temperature of 80ºC for 16 and 18.4 minutes was carried out. The lamination process was performed adjusting the rollers of the laminating machine at five levels of pressure (16.6, 20, 25, 30 and 33.4 pounds/inch) operated under environmental conditions at 13ºC and 65% of relative humidity. 104 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.La quinua es el cultivo andino de mayor versatilidad para la industrialización (harina, hojuelas, sémola, polvo instantáneo) y posterior comercialización. Un cuello de botella en la industrialización y posterior comercialización de estos granos es la estandarización de sus productos. Por lo que se pretende obtener información en la aplicación del aditivo goma xantana (cuya función es de espesante y estabilizante) para mejorar la uniformidad en el procesamiento de las hojuelas de quinua en Puno.• Determinar los niveles óptimos de goma xantana y el tiempo de remojo en tres variedades de quinua para mejorar la textura. • Determinar el laminado adecuado para la estandarización del espesor de hojuelas en tres variedades de quinua. • Evaluar las características físico-químicas, microbiológicas y organolépticas en tres variedades estudiados como hojuelas.• Análisis físico-químico de la materia prima y del producto: Determinación del contenido de humedad, ceniza, proteína total, fibra cruda, grasa total, extracto libre de nitrógeno e índice de peróxidos. • Análisis Microbiológico (Laura 2000): Determinación de bacterias aeróbicas, mesófilas, coliformes, prueba de Escherichia coli, detección de Salmonellas, y enumeración de mohos y levaduras.• Pruebas experimentales para la obtención de hojuelas acondicionadas con goma xantana: recepción de la materia prima, limpieza y seleccionado, pesado y dosificado, preparado de solución, acondicionamiento, laminado, secado y tamizado, envasado, almacenamiento (los análisis cuantitativos se realizaron con el Diseño Central Compuesto Rotable).Los resultados estadísticos muestran que se consiguió mejorar la textura y consistencia usando goma xantana; siendo dominante la variedad Salcedo INIA que requiere 2,08 g/L de solución de goma xantana en 9.91 minutos de remojo, con lo cual se obtiene 1.02 newton de dureza, que demanda un ajuste de rodillos de 26,27 lb/pulg para obtener 0,16 mm de espesor. El Cuadro 1 muestra la composición físico-química de la materia prima, y el Cuadro 2 la composición de hojuelas con goma xantana. 105 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Cuadro 1. Composición físico-química de la materia prima en porcentaje. El análisis microbiológico de hojuelas por variedades, muestra que no presenta cargas microbianas; resultó agradable la variedad Salcedo INIA para los panelistas en las pruebas sensoriales debido a sus atributos.Al comparar con los resultados de las hojuelas de quinua que reporta Collazos et al. (1975): Energía (Kcal) 374, Proteína 8.5 g, grasa 3.7 g, carbohidratos 78.6 g, fibra 3.8 mg, ceniza 2.2 mg, y humedad 7.0%, encontramos que la diferencia no es significativa salvo en proteína y humedad en que las diferencias son notables. Por tal motivo podemos afirmar que la hojuela acondicionada con goma xantana si es apta para laminar y tiene las características adecuadas para la comercialización.La goma xantana brinda mejor textura y consistencia a las hojuelas de quinua de las variedades Salcedo INIA, Blanca de Juli y Pasankalla Ploma.La estandarización para el laminado por variedades respecto al ajuste de rodillos son: para Salcedo INIA 26.27 lb/pulg, Blanca de Juli 27.36 lb/pulg, y Pasankalla Ploma 27.50 lb/pulg.Comparando los resultados con las proporciones químicas de hojuelas de avena en cuanto a humedad y proteína, podemos concluir que la quinua 106 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.acondicionada con goma xantana está dentro del rango de máximos y mínimos.Por lo tanto, pueden sustituir a las hojuelas de avena aunque en los demás componentes existe variación; esto se debe a que la avena contiene mayor cantidad de grasa y fibra. El análisis microbiológico de las hojuelas por variedades, muestra que no existen cargas microbianas; resultando agradable los atributos de la variedad Salcedo INIA para los panelistas a través de pruebas sensoriales.Eleodoro Chahuares, Wilber Chaucha Jove Año:2003 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialLa quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. es un producto originario de los países andinos, la cual tiene importancia actual debido a la calidad de su proteína. La parte comercial es el grano y desde que se produce hasta llegar a los diferentes tipos de consumidores, pasa por diferentes agentes. El objetivo del trabajo es identificar los agentes de la cadena comercial, determinar los márgenes de utilidad brutos y netos, y conocer las condiciones en que se realiza la transacción. En ese espacio se presentan una gran gama de mercados; primero conforman un mercado tradicional llamado k´atos, luego se integra a mercados extrazonales e incluso el internacional. Se identificaron hasta 21 canales de comercialización por los cuales la quinua de Puno llega al consumidor final. El canal de mayor importancia es: Productor -Acopiador minorista -Acopiador mayorista -Mayorista distribuidor de Lima -Detallista -Consumidor final. El margen bruto es de 70% para la intermediación; en términos brutos es el acopiador mayorista el que gana más pero en términos netos es el distribuidor de Lima quien obtiene mejor utilidad. En todos los casos el productor casi siempre participa o recibe por su producto una mínima parte del precio final; en el mejor de los casos, es la tercera parte del precio del consumidor. A pesar de ello, el intermediario es necesario debido a la producción atomizada y por la comercialización en numerosas ferias.Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Willd. is a crop native to the Andean countries, currently important due to its quality protein. The plant part that is commercialized is the grain, and from this stage until it reaches the different consumers, the grain is handled by diverse agents. The objective of the study is to identify the agents participating in the commercialization chain, to determine the gross and net profit margins, and to know the conditions in which the transactions take place. In this context, a wide range of markets is present. First, 108 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.there are traditional markets called k'atos that articulate to extrazonal markets and even to international markets. Up to 21 commercialization channels were identified in delivering quinoa from Puno to its final consumer. The most important channel is: Producer -Retail stock dealer -Wholesale stock dealer -Wholesaler in Lima -Retailer -Final consumer. The gross margin is 70% for middlemen; in terms of gross profit, the Wholesale stock dealer makes more earnings, but in terms of net profit, the wholesaler in Lima is the one who obtains better earnings. In all cases, producers almost always receive a minimum share of the final price for their products; in the best case scenario, it is the third part of the price paid by the consumer. Despite this fact, middlemen are necessary due to the atomized production and to commercialization in multiple fairs.La intermediación en algunos casos es innecesaria, pues ocasiona distorsión en los precios del productor y consumidor, siendo los intermediarios los más beneficiados en perjuicio de los productores que reciben precios bajos por el producto, e influyendo negativamente en la demanda del producto por el incremento del precio de venta al consumidor. Con la finalidad de incrementar la producción y potencializar su comercialización y consumo, se hace necesaria una racional y equilibrada distribución de ingresos que se generan en el sistema de la cadena agroalimentaria de la quinua.• Identificar los agentes que participan en la cadena de comercialización de la quinua.• Determinar los márgenes de utilidad brutos y netos de los participantes de la cadena de comercialización, desde la producción hasta el consumidor final. • Conocer las condiciones de compra, presentación y la calidad de quinua en el mercado.No existe una metodología específica para el estudio de la comercialización de productos agrícolas. Scott y Herrera (1991) presentan un listado de varios métodos y mencionan que se pueden escoger entre diversos procedimientos: una encuesta formal, el análisis de los datos secundarios, técnicas informales, y otros. Para este estudio, se procedió a revisar el escaso material de información existente generada sobre la base de estudios anteriores como la producida por CIRNMA, FAO, ADEX y otros sobre comercialización e industrialización de la 109 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. quinua, incluyendo información sobre experiencias similares en países vecinos al Perú, principalmente Bolivia y Ecuador.Debido a lo escaso de la información, se estimó conveniente diseñar cuestionarios dirigidos a productores, intermediarios, transformadores y consumidores de quinua, identificando la situación actual de cada lugar o espacio de mercadeo, llamado en algunos casos \"katos\" o ferias locales, ferias semanales, ferias regionales, ferias del altiplano, mercado de mayoristas, mercados de abastos, y súper e hipermercados, lugares donde concurren tanto vendedores como compradores.En la intermediación de la quinua sin procesar y perlada, se identificaron los siguientes agentes de comercialización:• Productor -Acopiador minorista -Acopiador mayorista.• Agroindustrias -Mayorista distribuidor de Lima (Mercados Parada, Caquetá, Santa Anita y otros) -Detallista -Súper e hipermercados -Broker -Consumidor final -PRONAA.Figura 1. Canales de comercialización de quinua, precios y costos de intermediación (Nuevos Soles S/.) 110 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Dentro de los márgenes de utilidad de comercialización, el canal de mayor importancia por el volumen de las transacciones es: Productor -Acopiador minorista -Acopiador mayorista -Mayorista distribuidor de Lima -Detallista de Lima -Consumidor final. No menos del 65% del volumen acopiado por los mayoristas del altiplano transita en esta forma.Los márgenes brutos y netos de comercialización de quinua alcanzados en esta cadena son como se presentan en el Cuadro 1. El margen bruto de comercialización, para el total de intermediarios alcanza el 70% del precio que paga el consumidor final (S/. 3.20), siendo el acopiador mayorista el que recibe mayor cantidad por su participación (36.50%); pero en términos netos, luego de restar los costos, son el distribuidor mayorista de Lima y el detallista, quienes obtienen una mayor y mejor utilidad (7.8 % y 12.5%, respectivamente).Margen Neto=[(Precio de venta-Costo total)/Precio de consumidor]x100En el Caso 2 (Cuadro 2), el canal de comercialización: Productor -Acopiador mayorista -Agroindustria de Puno -Consumidor local, accede a la población de clase media de la ciudad de Puno, vendiéndose en una presentación de envases simples. El consumidor local en la cadena observada paga un precio promedio de S/. 3.0. En esta intermediación corresponde el mayor margen bruto a la agroindustria (56.6%), pero en términos netos, le corresponde solo el 2.13% del precio del consumidor, en razón de que los costos de transformación son mayores a los costos que recibe el acopiador mayorista. Al igual que el caso anterior, el productor casi siempre participa o recibe por su producto, por su trabajo y por su tiempo solamente una tercera parte (34 %) del precio final. Finalmente en el caso de que la quinua con destino al comercio internacional donde se obtienen precios hasta de US$ 12 por kilogramo, el canal de comercialización es el siguiente: Productor -Acopiador minorista -Acopiador mayorista -Agroindustria -Brokers -Consumidor final, donde el mayor margen bruto corresponde al Broker y a los procesos posteriores (89%). El productor solo es partícipe en un 2.3% de este precio; la agroindustria y el acopiador mayorista participan con el 5.4 y 3% respectivamente.Condiciones de compra, presentación y calidad de la quinua. En los mercados llamados K´atos las actividades de compra y venta se realizan con quinua sin procesar, intervienen los acopiadores minoristas y mayoristas, los precios que pagan cada agente al productor son diferentes, en razón de que los acopiadores minoristas son los que más engañan al productor en el peso real, por arroba acopiada incluyen entre uno a dos kilogramos de más. Otra modalidad es el trueque donde el acopiador intercambia productos de procedencia urbana con 112 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.menor valor comercial. El producto acopiado en los \"k´atos\", son una mezcla de variedades, la modalidad de pago se hace al contado. En los mercados de Lima el consumidor doméstico observa dos calidades, y lo diferencia por tamaño del grano en grandes y pequeños. Los granos grandes alcanzan un precio mayor, de S/.3.20 nuevos soles por kilogramo como promedio y los pequeños un promedio de S/.2.80 nuevos soles por kilogramos.Las ferias llamadas K´atos en el Altiplano son muy numerosas y tienen lugar en días fijos en cada localidad, entre ellas destacan las de Ilave, Juli, Juliaca, Azángaro y Cabana.Se han identificado como agentes que participan en la comercialización de quinua: Productor, Acopiador minorista y mayoristas, agroindustria, mayorista distribuidor de Lima, detallistas, súper e híper mercados, broker y consumidores, quienes actúan en espacios diferentes: como K´atos, Mercados nacionales e internacionales.El producto que se destina al mercado de consumo local es por lo general una mezcla de variedades: los mercados de Lima, supermercados y brokers demandan un producto homogéneo y con determinada calidad.La quinua sin procesar solo llega al mercado local de Puno y a la agroindustria, más allá de esta cadena la transacción se realiza sobre la base de quinua perlada.El canal más importante que moviliza mayor volumen es: Productor -Acopiador minorista -Acopiador mayorista -Mayorista distribuidor de Lima -Detallista -Consumidor final. En esta cadena quienes obtienen mejores beneficios netos son el Distribuidor de Lima y el Detallista. En general son los últimos agentes de la cadena quienes obtienen las mejores utilidades.El productor es el eslabón de la cadena que participa muy poco del precio final que se genera.Los intermediarios son necesarios debido a la producción atomizada y por la comercialización en numerosas ferias como inicio de la cadena.Autor:Percy Fermín Velásquez Ccosi Año:2004 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Maestría en Poscosecha y MarketingEl trabajo trata sobre la presentación y aplicación de criterios de índole experimental destinados a seleccionar el proceso industrial para obtener una bebida tipo cerveza, usando quinua como materia prima principal. Se ha logrado definir algunas precisiones y avances sobre sus alternativas de procesamiento y optimización, considerando que los granos de cebada son los que generalmente presentan menos problemas técnicos. El maíz se maltea muy raras veces por su contenido en grasa que tiende a ranciar el producto. El trigo se maltea a escala comercial para la elaboración de ciertos tipos de pan, pero el desarrollo de microorganismos durante la germinación en la superficie del grano crea ciertos problemas. Para la producción de cervezas nativas africanas, se maltean diversos cereales, especialmente sorgo.This work focuses on the presentation and application of experimental criteria to identify the industrial process to obtain a beer-type beverage using quinoa as main raw material. Some refinement and progress have been made on the processing and optimization alternatives, considering that barley grains usually pose less technical problems. Maize malting is rarely achieved due to its fat content which tends to make the product rancid. Wheat is malted at a commercial scale to elaborate certain types of bread, but microorganisms developing on the grain surface during the germination process generate some problems. In producing native African beers, different cereals are malted, especially sorghum.La quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. es un grano alimenticio domesticado, que se distingue por su alto valor nutritivo, dado por el balance adecuado de 114 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.aminoácidos esenciales, buen contenido de vitaminas, y alto contenido de calcio y hierro. Por esta razón, es importante promover su mayor demanda en variedades especificas para procesos normalizados en la aplicación de criterios de índole experimental, destinados a seleccionar el proceso industrial para obtener una bebida tipo cerveza, usando quinua como materia prima principal. A partir de esto, también se podrá definir algunas conclusiones y avances sobre sus alternativas de procesamiento y optimización, considerando que los granos de cebada son los que generalmente presentan menos problemas técnicos.Seleccionar el proceso industrial para obtener una bebida tipo cerveza usando quinua como materia prima principal.• Proceso para obtener malta de quinua: clasificación de materia prima, remojo, germinación, secado y tostado, reposo y almacenamiento. • Procedimiento para la elaboración de cerveza de quinua: maceración, primera filtración, cocimiento y enfriamiento, adición de levadura, fermentación, segunda filtración, clarificación/maduración, filtración final/carbonatado, y envasado/almacenamiento.Los resultados del análisis químico proximal del cultivar de quinua Chullpi blanco (materia prima), indican que es un excelente grano para maltear. Los valores obtenidos son comparables con la composición química de la cebada (Cuadro 1), pero los resultados la quinua muestran específicamente mejores valores en cuanto al contenido de proteínas y carbohidratos. Respecto a la proteína, se observa un incremento de 0.60%, sin embargo, se trata solamente de un incremento en composición porcentual ya que la cantidad absoluta de proteínas en realidad decrece ligeramente como consecuencia de la lixiviación inevitable producida durante el remojo.Con la adición de una pequeña dosis de azúcar, el nivel de sólidos incrementó al 10%, porcentaje que fue el más aceptado en la evaluación sensorial. La bebida presenta buena apariencia por tener cierta brillantez y transparencia, es un líquido similar al agua, no presenta sólidos en la base, solo una cierta coloración que es característica del color de la malta caramelo; es también considerada aceptable como producto con calificación promedio \"muy bueno\". 115 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Cuadro 1. Análisis químico proximal comparativo entre quinua, cebada, quinua malteada y bebida tipo cerveza de quinua. Se obtuvo una bebida fermentada tipo cerveza libre de saponina, con contenido de proteínas en base seca de 0.17%. Las características organolépticas de la bebida de quinua permiten tener una calificación de \"muy buena\", pudiendo ser incorporada en el consumo de las personas.Los valores obtenidos en cuanto a pH, sólidos totales y acidez, condicionan el proceso de obtención de la bebida de quinua y tienen similitud a los requeridos por la Norma Técnica Nacional No. 213.014 (1978) actualmente vigente, referentes a cervezas nacionales e importadas.Autor:Jhonny Mayta Hancco Año:2009 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Maestría en Poscosecha y MarketingSe determinó el contenido de plomo en cereales y en alimentos expandidos y se rediseñó y construyó un prototipo de expansor tipo Batch, y también se analizaron los costos de una planta de procesamiento de productos expandidos. Los análisis de cereales indican que contienen valores menores de 0.1 mg/kg de plomo total; en cambio los alimentos expandidos procedentes de seis provincia de Puno y de Cusco, contienen 2.59 mg/kg en expandido de quinua, 3.07 mg/kg en maíz, 6.02 mg/kg en arroz y 2.82 mg/kg en trigo. Los alimentos expandidos con el prototipo rediseñado contienen promedios de 0.15 mg/kg en el de quinua, 0.48 mg/kg en maíz, menos de 0.10 mg/kg en expandido de arroz y 0.23 mg/kg en el de trigo. El prototipo rediseñado tiene la tapa de teflón y acero inoxidable calidad 304-2b en la cámara, que son las partes en contacto con los cereales, lo cual ha reducido el contenido de plomo total en los alimentos expandidos. Los indicadores de rentabilidad para una planta de procesamiento de productos expandidos ratifican su rentabilidad, con TIR 20.27%, VAN 19.718, B/C 1.04 y un periodo medio de la recuperación de inversiones (PM RI) de 8.5 años.The lead metal content in cereals and expanded food was determined, a Batchtype prototype expander equipment was redesigned and constructed, and the costs of a processing plant for expanded products were analysed. The analyses show that cereals contain less that 0.1 mg/kg of total lead; whereas expanded products from six provinces of Puno and Cusco contain 2.59 mg/kg of total lead in expanded quinoa, 3.07 mg/kg in maize, 6.02 mg/kg in rice and 2.82 mg/kg in wheat. Products expanded with the redesigned prototype contain in average 0.15 mg/kg in quinoa, 0.48 mg/kg in maize, 0.10 mg/kg in rice and 0.23 mg/kg in wheat. The redesigned prototype has a Teflon lid and a 304-2b stainless steel chamber, and both parts of the equipment are in direct contact with the cereal; 117 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.this fact has reduced the total lead content in the expanded products. The costeffectiveness indicators for a processing plant of expanded products ratify its profitability, with an IRR of 20.27%; NPV 19.718, B/C 1.04 and a medium period of investment recovery (MP IR) of 8.5 yearsSe encontró que los expandidos de granos andinos y de otros alimentos procesados en expansores tipo Batch tienen concentraciones de plomo; sin embargo, estos se comercializan sin ningún control y son de amplia aceptación sobre todo por la población infantil. El plomo puede ocasionar serios daños a concentraciones bajas, siendo los niños mucho más sensibles que los adultos a sus efectos, reflejados en su desempeño neuro-conductual, en su sensibilidad auditiva, y en su equilibrio y habilidad motora.Se encontró que partes del expansor tipo Batch son fabricados con fierro fundido (bola) y plomo (tapa), y estos elementos tienen contacto con los alimentos a expandir; por tanto, estas partes deben ser cambiadas por otros materiales con el fin de bajar el nivel de contaminación de los alimentos.• Cuantificar y evaluar el contenido de plomo total en cereales (quinua, maíz, trigo y arroz) y alimentos expandidos. • Rediseñar y construir un prototipo de expansor tipo Batch sin materiales de plomo.• Analizar costos para una planta de procesamiento de productos expandidos.Se trabajó con muestras representativas de 50 gramos selladas herméticamente en bolsas de polietileno de baja densidad (PEBD).El contenido de plomo total se determinó por el método de espectrofotometría por absorción atómica, método CEM BI-8/EPA 239.2 y Microwave Reaction System / EPA 239.2.El prototipo rediseñado fue probado en función del cierre hermético, la cantidad de carga adecuada por Batch, la presión de retiro de la fuente de calor y la presión de descarga del producto.Se realizó un análisis de costos para una planta de producción de alimentos expandidos con el prototipo rediseñado con y sin financiamiento.El contenido de plomo total encontrado luego de los análisis en las muestras se presenta en el Cuadro 1 y en la Figura 1. Se observa que el contenido de plomo total en cereales crudos es menor a 0.1 mg/kg, estando por debajo del nivel máximo del Codex alimentarius (0.2 mg/kg). Comparando el contenido de plomo total de los alimentos expandidos procedentes de las provincias con las normas del Codex alimentarius y las de la Unión Europea para alimentos infantiles (0.02 mg/kg), estos sobrepasaron los niveles máximos. Se constata que esto se debe principalmente al uso del equipo con partes de plomo que entra en contacto directo con los alimentos.Cuadro 1. Contenido de plomo total en cereales, alimentos expandidos en provincias con la maquinaria tradicional, y alimentos expandidos con el prototipo rediseñado.  Se observa mayor contenido de plomo en el expandido de arroz, probablemente debido al mayor contenido de carbohidratos y el índice de expansión, ya que según Chávez (1990), el almidón de los granos influye en el 119 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. proceso de expansión por explosión, y tras romper los puentes de hidrógeno, se aumenta la penetración de agua en los intersticios.El contenido de plomo total de los alimentos expandidos con el prototipo rediseñado en algunos casos (excepto en el expandido de arroz) sobrepasaron las normas del Codex alimentarius y la Unión Europea para alimentos infantiles (0.02 mg/kg). Este incremento se atribuye al derretimiento de la pintura de la superficie del equipo por la acción del calor suministrado en la operación de calentamiento del expansor, considerando como lo señala Romieu ( 2003), que la pintura, soldaduras y el barniz también son fuente de contaminación por plomo en alimentos.El prototipo rediseñado es de hierro fundido en las partes que no tienen contacto con los alimentos, como son los soportes; en cambio presenta acero inoxidable en las partes que entran en contacto con los alimentos como es la cámara receptora, el eje central, y el eje lateral, incorporando teflón en la tapa que soporta más de 300ºC. Además, tiene mejoras adicionales como un manómetro de glicerina y un sistema a gas licuado como alimentador de calor.El resultado del análisis de costos para una planta de producción de productos expandidos con características propias se presenta de manera resumida en el Cuadro 2, donde se muestran los indicadores de rentabilidad.Cuadro 2. Indicadores de rentabilidad. Figura 1. Contenido promedio de plomo total (mg/kg) en cereales y valores establecidos por las normas internacionales para el contenido de plomo total.El contenido de plomo total promedio en cereales de quinua, maíz, arroz y trigo son menores a 0.1 mg/kg. Los alimentos expandidos de quinua, maíz, arroz y trigo que se expenden en mercados de provincias contienen en promedio 2.91; 3.07; 6.02 y 2.82 mg/kg. Los expandidos de los mismos cereales procesados en el prototipo rediseñado contienen 0.15; 0.48; menos de 0.10 y 0.23 mg/kg de plomo total respectivamente. El material de construcción del prototipo rediseñado redujo el contenido de plomo total en alimentos expandidos.Resulta mucho más factible realizar el proyecto puro (TIR 20.27%; VAN 19.718; B/C 1.04). 121 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.Willd. cruda y procesada Autora:Dhaly F. de La Riva Tapia Año: 2010 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialSe determinó el contenido de polifenoles, fitatos y capacidad antioxidante del grano de quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. var. salcedo INIA crudo y sometido a tratamientos térmicos de cocción húmeda y tostado-cocción. El primero se realizó a 86°C a presión atmosférica durante 45 minutos; el de tostado-cocción se realizó a 120ºC a presión atmosférica durante 2 minutos, y luego se sometió a cocción húmeda igual que para el primer proceso. En los tres casos se realizaron los análisis de capacidad antioxidante, contenido de polifenoles y fitatos. Se obtuvo como resultado que los polifenoles se reducen después del proceso de cocción húmeda a 67% y por el proceso tostado-cocción a 76%; la reducción es ocasionada por la dilución de los polifenoles en el agua de cocción. Sin embargo, el tostado favorece la conservación de los polifenoles debido a la reacción de Maillard. La capacidad antioxidante disminuyó a un 75% por el proceso de cocción húmeda y a 81% por el proceso tostado-cocción respecto al contenido inicial. La mayor conservación de la capacidad antioxidante y los polifenoles se da por el proceso de tostado-cocción y adicionalmente se encontró que la capacidad antioxidante estuvo altamente correlacionada con el contenido de polifenoles de la quinua.The study determined the polyphenols and phytates content and the antioxidant capacity of raw quinoa grain Chenopodium quinoa Willd. var. Salcedo INIA subjected to thermal treatment and wet-and toast-cooking. The first was carried out at 86°C at atmospheric pressure during 45 minutes; the toast-cooking was done at 120°C at atmospheric pressure during 2 minutes, and later it was subjected to wet-cooking just the same as the first process. For the three cases, analyses were conducted to find the antioxidant capacity and polyphenols and phytates contents. The results show that polyphenols decreased to 67% after the wet-cooking process and to 76% after the toast-cooking process. The decrease is 122 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.caused by diluting the polyphenols in cooking water. However, the toasting favours the conservation of polyphenols due to the Maillard reaction. The antioxidant capacity decreased to 75% as a result of the wet-cooking process and to 81% due to the toast-cooking process with respect to the initial content. The highest conservation level of antioxidant capacity and polyphenols is obtained by the toast-cooking process. Additionally, findings reflect that the antioxidant capacity was highly correlated with the polyphenols content in quinoa.Actualmente es importante conocer el contenido de compuestos bioactivos como son el contenido de fitatos, polifenoles y la capacidad antioxidante de los alimentos ya que estos juegan un papel importante en la prevención y tratamiento de varias enfermedades entre ellas el cáncer. Además, es necesario comparar la conservación de éstos componentes en la quinua antes y después de su procesamiento para evidenciar la mejor forma de tratamiento al que debe ser sometida, y así aprovechar mejor sus componentes bioactivos.Determinar el contenido de polifenoles, fitatos y la capacidad antioxidante del grano de quinua de la variedad Salcedo INIA en estado crudo, y sometido a cocción húmeda y a tostado-cocción.• Determinación de polifenoles: esto se realizó por el método de Swain y Hillis (1959) mediante una extracción con etanol, separación por centrifugación, se llevó posteriormente al espectrofotómetro a una lectura de 725 nm; se guardaron las lecturas de las absorbancias cada 30 minutos hasta que no existieron cambios significativos en la absorbancia observada. • Determinación de la capacidad antioxidante: por el método de Brand-Williams et al. (1995) donde los compuestos con actividad antioxidante reaccionan con el radical estable 2,2-difenil-1-picrylhidrazil (DPPH*) en una solución de metanol. Se llevó al espectrofotómetro a cero con metanol; aseguramos una absorbancia inicial a 515 nm de la solución diluida de DPPH alrededor de 1,1 ± 0,02. • Determinación de fitatos: Se determinó por el método de complexometría indirecta con Fe (III), reportado por García-Villanova et al. (1982) citado por Schmidt-Hebbel (1986) en la que el ácido fitico es extraído de la muestra de harina de cereal con una solución de HCL y N. 123 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.• Diseño experimental y análisis estadístico: Diseño Completo al Azar (DCA), pruebas estadística Duncan a un nivel de significancia del 95%, y la prueba de Contrastes Ortogonales a un nivel de significancia del 95%. Los datos fueron procesados por las diferencias en p < 0.05. Además, se realizó el análisis de correlación entre la capacidad antioxidante y el contenido de polifenoles de todas las muestras de quinua a un nivel de significancia del 99%. El programa empleado fue SAS System V9.Los resultados del contenido de polifenoles para la quinua variedad Salcedo INIA se presentan en la Figura 1, donde se observa que la cantidad de polifenoles de quinua es afecta en mayor grado por el proceso de cocción húmeda que por el de tostado-cocción. Sin embargo, ambos procesos son menores que el contenido en quinua cruda. Se asume que la reducción es debida a la solubilización de los polifenoles en el agua de cocción. Figura 1. Contenido de polifenoles de quinua con diferentes procesos.La capacidad antioxidante de la variedad de quinua Salcedo INIA (Figura 2) es de 5,991 mMoles. Trolox eq./g ms, es comparable con la capacidad antioxidante hallada para residuos de naranja 5,00 expresada en mMoles. Trolox eq./g con la cáscara de camote 5,12 mMoles. Trolox eq./g y superior al del salvado de cebada 2.61 mMoles. Trolox eq./g (Aguilar 2002). Cabe resaltar que la capacidad antioxidante obtenida, sólo representa a los compuestos hidrofílicos como son los compuestos fenólicos contenidos en la quinua, y no los lipofílicos 124 PERÚ -Quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd.(como los carotenoides y tocoferoles), ya que el solvente de extracción fue el metanol, reactivo polar que no disuelve los compuestos lipofílicos. El contenido de fitatos de la variedad de quinua Salcedo INIA puede verse en la Figura 3. El ácido fítico es una sustancia natural que el organismo humano obtiene de la ingesta de legumbres, semillas, frutos secos y cereales (especialmente integrales). Se observa que su contenido disminuye por cualquiera de los dos procesos de cocción. Sin embargo este disminuyó con mayor intensidad en el tostado-cocción, posiblemente debido a que la fitasa presente se activa a un pH entre 4 a 7.5 y entre 45 y 60ºC de temperatura.El tostado favorece la conservación de los polifenoles, reduciéndolos en menor medida después de la cocción.La capacidad antioxidante es influenciada significativamente por este mismo proceso. Existe adicionalmente una alta correlación (0.99) entre el contenido de polifenoles y la capacidad antioxidante.Resúmenes de tesis y trabajos de investigación desarrollados en nutrición y transformación de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen.Determinación de humedad adecuada en proporciones de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen y maíz Zea mays L.Braulio Ernesto Sota Gonzáles Año:2003 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialSe estudió el comportamiento de la cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen como materia prima, y los niveles de sustitución con maíz Zea mays L. para la determinación de niveles adecuados de mezcla y humedad, con el objetivo de lograr un producto expandido por extrusión. En las pruebas experimentales se utilizó maíz amarillo duro y las variedades Cupi y Ramis de cañihua. Se probó la siguientes relaciones porcentuales de mezcla de cañihua y maíz: 100:0; 75:25; 50:50; 25:75 y 15:85, y con niveles de humedad de 12, 15 y 18% cada una. LosLa cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen en Perú es un cultivo importante para las comunidades locales debido a su adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas, a su diversidad genética, calidad nutritiva y diversidad de usos. Las áreas cultivadas de mayor concentración se sitúan en el noroeste del altiplano alrededor los poblados de Llalli, Macarí, Ayaviri, Nuñoa, Huancané y Lampa en el departamento de Puno.resultados muestran que la mejor mezcla se obtuvo con la variedad Cupi de cañihua y la relación 15% de cañihua con 85% de maíz a una humedad de 18%.The performance of cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen as raw material and the levels of replacement with maize Zea mays L. were studied to determine the adequate mixture and humidity level with the objective of obtaining an expanded product by extrusion. In experimental trials hard yellow maize and the Cupi and Ramis varieties of cañihua were used. The following ratios of cañihua and maize were tested in mixtures: 100:0; 75:25; 50:50; 25:75 and 15:85, and with humidity of 12, 15 and 18% for each. Results show that the best mixture was obtained with the Cupi variety of cañihua and the ratio of 15% cañihua with 85% maize with a humidity of 18%.En el altiplano peruano aún no se trabaja la cañihua en procesos de extrusión. Sin embargo, dados sus contenidos nutricionales, existe el interés de hacerlo y para ello, es necesario saber de qué manera influye la humedad presente en las proporciones de mezclas de cañihua con maíz para la elaboración de cereales expandidos.• Determinar las proporciones de mezcla y humedad adecuadas en el proceso de extrusión para obtener aceptabilidad a través de una evaluación sensorial en cereales expandidos de cañihua con maíz. • Determinar la variedad de cañihua más adecuada para la elaboración de cereales expandidos por el método de extrusión según el índice de expansión.• Evaluar las características físico-químicas y el grado de digestibilidad de nitrógeno en la mezcla más adecuada de cañihua y maíz, como expandidos por extrusión respecto a la composición inicial de la cañihua como materia prima.Análisis químicos de la materia prima y el producto final: para el efecto se tomó una muestra de 200 g de materia prima, la cual fue convertida en harina para tener la muestra base en todas las pruebas químicas a realizar. El proceso para el análisis de cañihua tiene los siguientes pasos: Determinación de la humedad: 128 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen ceniza, proteína total, grasa total, fibra cruda, extracto libre de nitrógeno, digestibilidad de la proteína in vitro.Pruebas experimentales para la obtención de productos expandidos por extrusión en mezcla de maíz y cañihua: Recepción de la materia prima -limpieza y selección -pesado y mezclado, acondicionamiento, extrusión recepciónenfriado y fritado o bañado -pesado o dosificado -envasado y almacenamiento.Análisis del producto final: se realizaron análisis físico-químicos, la prueba de aceptabilidad y el análisis de la prueba biológica (Max Becker 1961AOAC 7.060.1990).Se obtuvo los mejores resultados con las mezclas cuyas proporciones son 15% de cañihua y 85% de maíz, a un nivel de humedad de 18% y a una temperatura de extrusión de 120°C. En esas condiciones se obtuvo una mejor apariencia física, y mayor resistencia a la manipulación, atributo que no se encontró en las otras mezclas, logrando una aceptación del 75% en el análisis sensorial. La variedad de cañihua Cupi, permitió obtener los resultados más óptimos, por su mayor estabilidad alcanzando un índice de expansión de 3.08 (Cuadro 1). Los resultados del análisis proximal de la materia prima y de la mejor proporción de mezcla se muestran en los Cuadros 2 y 3, respectivamente. Se realizó el análisis de costos y beneficios de la incorporación de harina de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen, en la elaboración de panes fortificados. Se inició el proceso con la obtención de harina de cañihua, en la que se logró un rendimiento de 94.6% del peso inicial de cañihua en grano. Se probaron 4 niveles de mezclas entre harina de trigo y de cañihua respectivamente: 100-0; 90-10; 85-15 y 80-20. Los costos de cada una de las mezclas en la producción de un pan de 40 g respectivamente fue: para harina de trigo sin sustitución (100-0) S/.0.1168, para la mezcla 90 trigo-10 cañihua S/. 0.1172, mezcla (85-15) S/. 0.1183 y para la mezcla (80-20) S/.0.1188. Es evidente que entre ellos no existe diferencia significativa, asumiendo entonces que estadísticamente tienen el mismo valor monetario; sin embargo, la diferencia está en que las mezclas tienen mayor valor proteico.The study conducted a cost-benefit analysis of using cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen in making fortified bread. The process began by obtaining cañihua flour, with a performance of 94.6% of the initial weight of cañihua in grain form. Four mixtures of wheat and cañihua flours were tested for the production of a 40g bread loaf: 100-0; 90-10; 85-15 and 80-20. The costs of each mixture were calculated: for the pure wheat version (100-0) S/.0.1168, for the 90 wheat-10 cañihua mix S/. 0.1172, for the 85-15 mix S/. 0.1183, and for the 80-20 mix is S/.0.1188. There is no significant difference in cost between mixtures, indicating these have the same monetary value; however, a key difference is in the fact that the cañihua-based mixtures have higher protein content than pure wheat bread. 131 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule AellenLa cañihua es importante porque sus granos poseen un alto contenido de proteínas, fundamentalmente aminoácidos esenciales. Una alimentación deficiente en calidad y cantidad provoca desnutrición, que es un problema que afecta principalmente a los pobladores de los países en desarrollo, incidiendo con más fuerza en niños de edad preescolar, escolar y madres gestantes. Una solución que podría contribuir en la disminución de este problema, sería el uso de este producto en las dietas alimenticias de los pobladores; sin embargo, nos planteamos las siguientes interrogantes. ¿Puede ser que no les gusta los panes con incorporación de la harina de cañihua?, ¿Son demasiado caros los procesos de sustitución de la harina de trigo por la de cañihua?, o es que ¿no existe demanda suficiente como para una producción sostenida de panes de cañihua?, como sí ocurre con panes sustituido con otros productos como camote.Estimar los costos y beneficios al producir panes fortificados y encontrar un nivel de sustitución de harina de trigo Triticum aestivum, por harina de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen con características físico-químicas y sensoriales aceptadas por el consumidor.Estimación de costos: Los procesos de producción en los diferentes niveles de sustitución han sido valorados a los precios del mercado para una producción por lote de 10 kilogramos de materia prima. Evaluación sensorial: El grado de aceptación o rechazo se valora a través de la escala hedónica.Cuadro 1. Costos de producción para diferentes niveles de mezcla (con base en 10 kg). La producción de pan con mayor proporción de harina de cañihua se realiza a mayor costo que la de pan producido con harina de trigo. Sin embargo, los beneficios nutricionales de usar harina de cañihua marcan la diferencia, resultando tener mayor rentabilidad el utilizar harina de cañihua en mezcla por sus altos valores nutricionales. Las proteínas contenidas en la cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen son fuente muy rica de aminoácidos esenciales que ayudan en la digestión y mejoran la calidad alimenticia. Lamentablemente estos atributos no son aprovechados, tal vez porque no son atractivos a los ojos del consumidor o porque hay desconocimiento de su valor. A fin de encontrar o percibir las necesidades y preferencias, se hicieron encuestas entre consumidores potenciales de las ciudades de Arequipa, Tacna y Puno, encontrando que reconocen el valor nutritivo de los alimentos, pero tienen sus propias exigencias. Entre éstas se encontró que desean que se les presente en buenos envases, que el producto sea de calidad con etiquetas que sean atractivas al consumidor, recomiendan utilizar los colores amarillo, azul, café y verde con motivos del cultivo mismo o de un niño fuerte consumiendo el producto, y que esté necesariamente acompañado con programas de promoción en radio y televisión. El otro objetivo fue el de determinar los valores añadidos en el proceso agroalimentario, encontrando que tanto el agricultor como el transformador artesanal obtienen beneficios positivos. El agricultor obtiene hasta un 60% de su inversión y el agroindustrial hasta un 20%.Proteins contained in cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen are a rich source of essential amino acids which in particular aid digestive processes; unfortunately these qualities are not taken advantage of, perhaps because they are not attractive to consumers or because there is limited awareness of their value.In order to evaluate consumers' needs and preferences, surveys were conducted among potential consumers in the cities of Arequipa, Tacna and Puno. Results show that consumers recognize the nutritional value of foods, but they have additional requirements. Among these, they desire attractive packaging and labelling, for which they recommend the use of colours as yellow, blue, brown 134 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen and green and images of the crop or picturing healthy-looking children consuming the product. The delivery of these messages should also be done through promotional radio or TV programmes. The other objective was to determine the added value in the agro-food process, finding that both producers as well as local processors obtain positive benefits. Farmers obtain up to 60% of their investment and the agro industry up to a 20%.Las proteínas contenidas en la cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen, son fuente muy rica de aminoácidos esenciales y en la actualidad nuevas tecnologías han demostrado que a partir de la cañihua se pueden obtener muchos productos procesados como extruidos, postres, mazamorras, turrones, panes, y otros. Sin embargo, al no haber demanda a pesar de su valor, la producción agrícola estará estancada a nivel de autoconsumo. En ese contexto, esta investigación presenta las exigencias del consumidor y demuestra los valores añadidos en el sistema agroalimentario de la cañihua, desde la producción hasta el consumo, en tres de sus formas: mezclas, mazamorras y harina precocida (cañihuaco).Demostrar la viabilidad comercial y económica de la mazamorra, mezclas y harina precocida en el entorno regional.Para percibir las necesidades y deseos sobre los productos, se ha utilizado el enfoque de marketing (producto, precio, distribución y promoción) y cuestionarios con preguntas estructuradas a fin de recoger la información, y recurriendo igualmente a fuentes secundarias.El diseño de muestra se estructuró después de haber identificado el mercado objetivo, que fue constituido por consumidores urbanos de las ciudades de Arequipa, Tacna y Puno. El tamaño de muestra (73), fue, calculado con base en una proporcionalidad de característica deseada (95%) y no deseada (5%), siendo el error permitido de 5%.Para el análisis de los valores añadidos, igualmente se estructuró encuestas a productores y a agroindustriales que intervienen en el sistema agroalimentario de la cañihua, fundamentalmente para conocer los costos de producción así como los ingresos que perciben. Luego se calculan los valores añadidos en cada caso. La aplicación del cuestionario a los productores se realizó entre agricultores de la provincia de Lampa y del distrito de Kelluyo. 135 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen En el caso de los costos y beneficios en el proceso de la transformación, se recurrió a la información de tres agroindustriales de Puno.Sobre el conocimiento de los productos de cañihua, las respuestas varían según las proporciones que se muestran en el Cuadro 1.Cuadro 1. Nivel de conocimiento y consumo de productos por localidades. El 50% de los encuestados en los tres lugares, respondieron que consumen cañihua al menos una vez por semana; de ellos 22.58% la consumen como \"cañihuaco\".En resumen los resultados de la degustación son: • El 42.7% de los consumidores consideran la cañihua agradable en forma de mazamorra. • El 53.3% la consideran agradable en harina precocida y mezcla.• El 4.0 % son indiferentes al olor y al sabor.Los consumidores potenciales indican que estarían dispuestos a pagar entre S/.1 y S/.1.50 por harina precocida y mezclas en presentación de 250 gramos, y S/. 0.50 por mazamorras en presentación de 100 g.Los lugares donde prefieren comprar son los supermercados, mercados y tiendas comerciales, y cabe resaltar que particularmente en Puno debe presentarse en todos los lugares de expendio de productos alimenticios.La mayor preferencia es por mezclas y harina precocida antes que por mazamorra.Autor:Giovanna Gutiérrez Sila Año:2003 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Nutrición HumanaEl objetivo fue realizar la evaluación sensorial, nutricional y de los costos de preparación con variedades de cañihua producidas en Puno. Para el estudio se desarrolló el muestreo por conveniencia seleccionando seis preparaciones a base de harina de cañihua. Para el análisis de la información se utilizó la prueba estadística de Friedman en una categorización cualitativa permitiendo explicar los resultados obtenidos. El análisis sensorial muestra que las características sensoriales (aspecto, color, olor, sabor y textura) evaluadas son diferentes en función a la variedad de cañihua, siendo la variedad Cupi la de mejor aceptación en preparación de postres (gelatina, flan y batido de leche); las preparaciones en mazamorras tienen mayor puntaje con la variedad Ramis y finalmente para cañihuaco con Maizena, la variedad Ramis y Cupi presentan puntaje similar y mejores características sensoriales.The objective was to carry out a sensorial, nutritional and preparation costs evaluation of flour from cañihua varieties produced in Puno. The study conducted convenience sampling selecting six preparations based on cañihua flour. The analysis used Friedman's statistical test in a qualitative categorization. Sensorial characteristics (appearance, colour, smell, taste and texture) are different depending on the cañihua variety; the Cupi variety was the one that had the highest acceptance in desserts preparations (gelatine, flan and milk shake); the preparations as mazamorras have the highest score with the Ramis variety, and finally the cañihuaco preparation with Maizena (maize starch) had similar scores and better sensorial characteristics with Ramis and Cupi varieties.La evaluación sensorial para preparaciones con cañihua arrojaron los siguientes resultados:• El cañihuaco gelatina variedad Cupi presenta mayor aceptabilidad.• El cañihuaco flan presenta mayor aceptación con la variedad Cupi.• La mazamorra de cañihuaco con manzana tiene mayor aceptación con variedad Ramis. • Mazamorra de Cañihuaco con gelatina con ambas variedades mostraron la misma aceptación.• El aporte nutricional de las preparaciones a base de cañihuaco en comparación con la mazamorra comercial (mazamorra morada), se presenta en el Cuadro 1.Cuadro 1. Análisis químico de preparaciones (en porcentaje) a base de cañihuaco con dos variedades de cañihua. Las proporciones y costos de las preparaciones con cañihua (en 100 g de producto) en forma de postres utilizan en promedio 17% de harina de cañihua con un costo de S/. 0.34; para mazamorras se usa 33% de harina de cañihua y tiene un costo de S/. 0.29; comparado con el producto comercial (mazamorra morada), que representa un costo por ración de 100 g por S/. 0.52, esto es 140 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen económicamente mayor a las preparaciones con cañihua, y sin embargo menor en proteína.La variedad Cupi presenta mejores cualidades en cuanto a aspecto, color, olor, sabor y textura, al ser preparada en forma de postre como gelatina.El aporte nutricional de las preparaciones a base de cañihua permite cubrir 10 a 20% de los requerimientos diarios siendo consideradas como una alternativa de consumo para el mejoramiento de la calidad de la dieta de la población en general.Los productos y preparaciones a base de cañihuaco son económicos, están al alcance de la mayoría de la población y son nutricionalmente de mejor calidad que un producto comercial.Obtención de aislado proteico de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen mediante proceso químico y evaluación de sus propiedades funcionales Autora:María Ángela Ramírez Yupanqui Año:2004 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería QuímicaEl objetivo fue obtener la proteína pura de cañihua, optimizando los parámetros del proceso de extracción y precipitación de la proteína. Se utilizó como materia prima cañihua de la variedad Cupi procedente de INIA Puno, la que se procesó como harina en la planta agroindustrial TIC PAC. Con ello se estableció la calidad de dicha harina, utilizando los métodos de análisis de la A.O.A.C. Association of Official Analytical Chemists (1984). En el análisis físico-químico del aislado obtenido, se determinó 73,85% de proteína, 1,23% de grasa, 1,15% de fibra, 2,67% de ceniza, y 17,47% de carbohidratos. Se obtuvo un aislado proteico de cañihua en polvo con características deseables de color pálido pardo real según las tablas de Munsell, y sin sabor ni olor.The objective was to obtain pure protein from cañihua optimizing the extraction and protein precipitation processes' parameters. The cañihua Cupi variety from INIA Puno, processed as flour in the agro industrial plant TIC PAC, was used as raw material. The quality of the flour was evaluated using the analysis method of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists A.O. A.C. (1984). In the physical-chemical analysis of the isolate, 73.85% protein, 1.23% fat, 1.15% fibre, 2.67% ash and 17.47% carbohydrate were determined. The powder protein isolate possessed the desirable characteristics defined by the Munsell tables, such as \"royal pale brown\" colour and did not have any taste or smell.¿En qué medida el proceso químico permitirá obtener un aislado proteico de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen sin alterar su valor proteico? 142 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen• Obtener aislado proteico de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen mediante proceso químico, y evaluar su valor proteico. • Determinar el valor óptimo de los parámetros de operación en las etapas de extracción y precipitación del aislado proteico de cañihua. • Evaluar las propiedades funcionales del aislado proteico de cañihua.• Determinar las propiedades físico-químicas y nutricionales de la cañihua antes y después del proceso de obtención del aislado proteico.• Obtención de a harina de cañihua: limpieza, escarificado, lavado, secado, molienda y tamizado. • Obtención del aislado proteico a partir de harina de cañihua: solubilización de la proteína, separación del extracto de cañihua solubilizado, precipitación de la proteína solubilizada, separación, lavado y neutralización del aislado, precipitado, secado del aislado neutralizado.La optimización en la etapa de extracción de proteína soluble se obtuvo con una malla No. 50 a pH 10, como se muestra en el Cuadro 1. En cambio en la etapa de precipitación en la que se estandarizó el tiempo de 40 minutos y la agitación a 25 rpm, el mayor porcentaje de proteína precipitada se obtuvo con la experiencia 7 que se muestra en el Cuadro 2. Una vez obtenido el aislado proteico, este fue sometido a análisis para conocer sus propiedades funcionales, las mismas que se muestran en el Cuadro 3. Sin embargo, también se presenta los resultados de un análisis de aminoácidos en los diferentes momentos del proceso (Cuadro 4).Se observa que no hay diferencia significativa en la composición de aminoácidos esenciales del aislado proteico respecto al grano y la harina de cañihua. Esto significa que no se pierde aminoácidos en el proceso.Respecto al contenido de proteína en el aislado proteico, es evidente su amplio incremento en comparación con la cantidad de proteína en grano y harina respectivamente (Cuadro 5). El presente trabajo de investigación estudia los componentes almidón y fibra de la cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen y el tratamiento de ellos con distintas enzimas, generando la obtención de un jarabe rico en fibra; la cañihua utilizada es de la variedad Ramis por su alto contenido de almidón y fibra. Se aisló el almidón obteniendo un concentrado con 87% de pureza y concentrado de fibra con 47.99% de pureza aproximadamente.The present research work studies the starch and fibre components of cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen and the treatments these require with different enzymes to obtain fibre rich syrup; the cañihua used is of the Ramis variety due to its high starch and fibre content. The starch was isolated obtaining a concentrate with ca. 87% purity and a fibre concentrate with 47.99% purity.En la actualidad, la aplicación de enzimas en el desarrollo de nuevos productos o algunos ya existentes viene siendo una alternativa, al obtenerlos con menor tratamiento químico. En este caso la materia prima es la cañihua variedad Ramis, que cuenta con mayor grado de almidón y fibra, y que al mezclarla con distintas enzimas se obtendrá un jarabe rico en fibra; Sin embargo, es necesario obtener los parámetros óptimos como tiempo, temperatura y velocidad de agitación; para ello se ha diseñado la construcción de un equipo biocontactor enzimático automatizado que permitirá el control adecuado de los parámetros esperados. 147 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen• Determinación de parámetros óptimos: tiempo, temperatura y velocidad de agitación. • Determinar las condiciones óptimas para la hidrólisis de almidón y fibra.• Determinación de la actividad enzimática:-Actividad de amilasa -se utilizó el método de Shmidt Hebbel y Pennacchiotti (1982), que consiste en cuantificar los grupos de reductores liberados haciendo uso del método de DNS (Millar, 1959). -Actividad de aminoglucosidasa: método \"Clinical Thecnology\" para la glucosa enzimática. Los tiempos de hidrólisis probados fueron de: 0.5, 1, 2, 5 y 8 horas, lo cual permitió determinar que el equivalente de dextrosa o azucares reductores se incrementa hasta las 5 horas, y a partir de este tiempo, se mantiene constante. En cuanto a las velocidades estudiadas de 10, 100 y 200 rpm, se determinó que el equivalente de dextrosa, aumenta con la velocidad de agitación, registrándose ya el mayor valor de E.D. a una velocidad de 100 rpm.Los mejores tiempos y temperatura de hidrólisis para el concentrado de almidón en la obtención de un jarabe rico en fibra, se muestra en el Cuadro 1.Cuadro 1. Mejores tiempos y temperatura de hidrólisis para concentrado de almidón usando dos enzimas. El tiempo y velocidad de agitación influyen considerablemente en el rendimiento de azucares reductores y en el trabajo de las enzimas para la hidrólisis del almidón ya que genera una mejor mezcla.La cañihua contiene un porcentaje alto de fibra soluble, y por tanto no se puede cuantificar con precisión con respecto a la hidrólisis con celulosas.Efecto del germinado y extrusión sobre el contenido de aminoácidos de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen en la elaboración de donas Autora:Elizabeth Huanatico Suárez Año:2005 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Maestría en Poscosecha y MarketingSe utilizó como materia prima cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen de la variedad Cupi, sometida a 14 horas de remojo previo al germinado. Se plantearon tres tratamientos para la germinación: 48, 72 y 96 horas a 20ºC. El tiempo óptimo fue el de 96 horas por su mejor concentración de proteínas, aminoácidos y azúcares reductores. Para el proceso de cocción-extrusión, se trabajó con los tratamientos anteriormente citados, ello con la finalidad de estudiar el efecto de esta operación en la calidad proteica de la cañihua germinada. Los resultados mostraron que el tratamiento de 72 horas de germinación fue el más resistente a altas temperaturas por su mejor concentración de proteínas y aminoácidos, obteniéndose un producto intermedio para la elaboración de donas. Para ello se formularon cinco mezclas sustituyendo parcialmente la harina de trigo por harina de cañihua germinada y extruida, resultando como la mejor mezcla la de 30% de sustitución de harina de cañihua germinada-extruida, por presentar mejores características químicas y sensoriales.The study used Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen of the Cupi variety as raw material subjected to a soaking period of 14 hours previous to germination. Three germination treatments were carried out: 48, 72 and 96 hours at 20ºC. The optimal time was 96 hours which yielded more protein, amino acids and reducing sugars .For the cooking-extrusion process, the above-mentioned treatments were applied with the purpose of studying the effect of cooking on protein quality of germinated cañihua. Results showed that the 72-hour germination treatment allowed greatest resistance to high temperatures due to the improved protein and amino acid concentration, allowing to obtain a good intermediate product for doughnut elaboration; for this, five mixtures that replaced wheat flour with germinated and extruded cañihua flour were 150 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen formulated, finding that the best mixture was the replacement with 30% germinated-extruded cañihua flour as it showed the best chemical and sensorial characteristics.En el mercado local y nacional no se encuentran productos a base de cañihua, mucho menos de cañihua germinada, ello por la ausencia de oportunidades de posicionamiento y diversificación de productos.• Determinar el tiempo óptimo de germinación y su efecto sobre el contenido de aminoácidos de la cañihua variedad Cupi. • Determinar el efecto de la extrusión sobre la composición de aminoácidos de la cañihua variedad Cupi previamente germinada.• Determinar la proporción óptima de cañihua germinada-extruida y harina de trigo para la elaboración de donas mediante la evaluación del contenido proteico y organoléptico del producto final.Como materia prima se utilizó cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen variedad Cupi adquirida del Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agraria (INIA)-Puno.En la primera etapa se obtuvo harina de cañihua germinada y extruida; posteriormente se efectuaron las siguientes operaciones: limpieza y selección, lavado y desinfección, remojo, germinado, secado, revegetado, extruido y por último la molienda.En la segunda etapa, para la obtención de las donas crocantes, el proceso fue el siguiente: formulación de las mezclas, mezclado, amasado, laminado, cortado, fermentado, horneado, enfriado, bañado con chocolate, enfriado y envasado. Los análisis efectuados fueron los siguientes: El tiempo óptimo para el germinado de la cañihua fue de 96 horas: se deduce que el contenido de proteínas se incrementa a medida que aumenta el tiempo de germinación. Asimismo, los aminoácidos esenciales como Tirosina, Valina + Metionina, Leucina, Fenilalanina y Lisina se incrementan, pero disminuyeron la Treonina + Alanina y la Isoleucina. En cuanto a los azúcares reductores, se incrementan considerablemente conforme transcurre la germinación.En cañihua germinada y extruida, el tratamiento con mejores resultados fue la cañihua germinada por 72 horas por ser más tolerante al calor, encontrándose que conforme se incrementa el tiempo de germinación, el contenido de proteínas aumenta y el contenido de humedad disminuye por el proceso de cocciónextrusión. Respecto al tiempo de germinación, a las 48 y 72 horas se incrementan los aminoácidos esenciales para luego disminuir a las 96 horas de germinación.En las donas, la mezcla con un 30% de sustitución de harina de cañihua germinada-extruida es la que presenta mejores características químicoproximales y sensoriales.Comparativamente en los Cuadro 1 se muestran los resultados de la composición químico-proximal y de aminoácidos de los productos óptimos en cada fase de estudio.Cuadro 1. Composición químico-proximal de la cañihua y de los diversos productos obtenidos. El tiempo óptimo para el germinado de la cañihua fue de 96 horas. En cambio, el tratamiento de cañihua germinada y extruida tuvo mejores resultados con un tiempo de germinación de 72 horas.En las donas, la mezcla con un 30% de sustitución de harina de cañihua germinada extruida es la que presenta mejores características químicoproximales y sensoriales.Autor:Alejandro Coloma Paxi Año:2005 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Maestría en Poscosecha y MarketingSe estudió la cinética de deterioro y estabilidad de productos como expandido, harina instantánea y aislado proteico de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen en tres localidades: Puno a 3827 m.s.n.m., Arequipa, 2335 m.s.n.m. y Tacna a 569 m.s.n.m., utilizando tres tipos de envases: polietileno, polipropileno y aluminio plastificado. Los controles que se realizaron durante el almacenamiento fueron: humedad, pH, acidez titulable e índice de peróxido, en períodos de 0, 15, 45 y 75 días. Los datos experimentales fueron analizados usando la ecuación cinética básica, luego se estimó la vida útil de los productos elaborados a base de cañihua. El deterioro de la calidad basada en el desarrollo de la rancidez de las grasas tuvo una tendencia similar al orden de reacción cero en los tres tipos de productos estudiados. La vida útil de los productos resultó ser mayor en Puno que en Arequipa y Tacna, con 280, 223 y 189 días respectivamente. El mejor envase para expandido y harina instantánea de cañihua fue polietileno; en cambio polipropileno fue mejor para aislado proteico. La humedad de los tres productos se incrementa a mayor tiempo de almacenamiento, siendo superior en la ciudad de Tacna, seguido por Puno y Arequipa; además, la ganancia de humedad es mayor en polietileno, seguido por polipropileno y aluminio plastificado. La acidez se incrementa y el pH disminuye con el tiempo de almacenamiento en los tres tipos de productos estudiados.Product deterioration kinetics and stability of expanded products, instant flour and protein isolates of cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen were studied in three sites: Puno at 3827 m.a.s.l., Arequipa at 2335 m.a.s.l. and Tacna at 569 m.a.s.l. Three types of storage containers were tested: polyethylene, polypropylene and plastified aluminium. The controls carried out during the storage were: humidity, pH, titratable acidity and peroxide index after 0, 15, 45 154 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen and 75 days. The experimental data were analysed using basic kinetic equations and the products' lifespan was estimated. Deterioration due to fat rancidity had a similar tendency to the zero reaction level in the three types of studied products. The products lifespan was higher in Puno than in Arequipa and Tacna, with 280, 223 and 189 days respectively. The best container for expanded products and instant cañihua flour was polyethylene; on the other hand polypropylene was the best one for protein isolates. The humidity of the three products increases with longer storage time, being superior in Tacna, followed by Puno and Arequipa; moreover, humidity increase is higher in polyethylene, followed by polypropylene and plastified aluminium. Acidity increases and pH decreases with longer storage time in the three types of studied products.¿Cómo influyen las condiciones medioambientales en la estabilidad de los productos elaborados a base de cañihua (aislado proteico, expandido y harina instantánea) durante el almacenamiento en diferentes localidades? ¿De qué manera afecta el tipo de envase (polipropileno, polietileno y aluminio plastificado) en la vida útil y en la calidad de los productos elaborados a base de cañihua (aislado proteico, expandido y harina instantánea)?• Determinar las isotermas de adsorción de aislado proteico, expandido y harina instantánea de cañihua a temperaturas de 20, 25 y 30 ºC. • Determinar el tiempo de vida útil basada en el desarrollo de la rancidez de las grasas en los tres productos elaborados a base de cañihua durante su almacenamiento en condiciones ambientales de las ciudades de Puno, Arequipa y Tacna. • Determinar la variación de contenido de humedad, acidez y pH de los productos elaborados a base de cañihua durante el almacenamiento, y envasadas en polietileno, polipropileno y aluminio plastificado.Elaboración de expandidos de cañihua: lavado, secado, acondicionamiento, 16% humedad, hidratación, expandido y tamizado. Elaboración de harina instantánea a base de extruidos de cañihua y trigo: molienda, mezclado, extrusión y molienda. Elaboración de aislado proteico: molienda, tamizado, suspensión, agitación, filtración, centrifugación, lavado, centrifugación y secado al vació.Almacenamiento de productos elaborados y control físico de productos: pH, humedad, isotermas de adsorción (método isopiestico recomendado por Labuza et al. (1985) y Fennema (2000).Control químico: análisis proximal, índice de peróxido y acidez titulable. Control microbiológico: recuento total de mesófilos aerobios viables, recuento de mohos y levaduras, numeración de Escherichia coli, detección de Salmonella sp.Determinación de la vida útil y humedad de equilibrio.Los datos de adsorción de humedad de acuerdo al análisis proximal (estructura química) no mostraron resultados específicos para cada muestra en particular. Los expandidos y el aislado proteico de cañihua no presentan muchas variaciones en sus propiedades de adsorción de agua evidenciando que para productos de menor contenido de almidón, no llegará a existir influencia alguna en la construcción de sus isotermas; sin embargo, a mayor temperatura se produjo mayor adsorción de agua para los tres productos, provocando cambios irreversibles en el alimento y haciendo que sus isotermas se alteraran. El deterioro de la calidad de expandidos, harina instantánea y aislado proteico elaborados a base de cañihua, tuvieron una tendencia al orden de reacción cero, resultando variable la vida útil de estos productos por efecto del tipo de envase y del lugar de almacenamiento. El mayor tiempo de vida útil (280 días), lo tuvo el expandido de cañihua, que fue envasado en polietileno y almacenado en la ciudad de Puno. Por su parte, la harina instantánea con mayor vida útil (223 días), también fue envasada en polietileno y almacenada en la ciudad de Tacna. El aislado proteico envasado en polipropileno y almacenado en la ciudad de Arequipa tuvo el menor tiempo de vida útil (75 días).El análisis microbiológico de los productos realizado al final del estudio, permite señalar que se encuentran dentro de los límites permisibles establecidos por el Ministerio de Salud en cuanto a mohos y levaduras (10 ufc/g), aerobios mesófilos (10 ufc/g) y Escherichia coli (10 ufc/g). Para el aislado proteico no hay norma establecida en el Perú, dando como resultado 10 ufc/g de mohos y levaduras, ausencia de Salmonella en 25 g y de Escherichia coli 10 ufc/g. En relación al contenido de humedad, en términos generales se observa su incremento para los tres productos, en los tres tipos de envase que fueron probados y en las tres condiciones ambientales; también se observa un incremento de la acidez en función al tiempo de almacenamiento, con la consecuente disminución en el pH en los tres productos.La actividad acuosa de los expandidos, harina instantánea y aislado proteico de cañihua disminuye con el incremento de la temperatura El deterioro de la calidad basado en el desarrollo de la rancidez de las grasas, manifestó una tendencia al orden de reacción cero en los tres productos estudiados. La vida útil de cada uno de ellos resultó variable por efecto del tipo de envase y del lugar de almacenamiento, encontrándose que en la ciudad de Puno, los productos presentaron mayor tiempo de vida útil que en Arequipa y Tacna. El polietileno demostró ser el mejor envase para expandido y harina instantánea de cañihua; en cambio el polipropileno, para aislado proteico.La humedad de expandido, harina instantánea y aislado proteico de cañihua se incrementa a medida que aumenta el tiempo de almacenamiento. La ganancia de humedad es mayor en la ciudad de Tacna, seguido por Puno y Arequipa, y en cuanto al tipo de envase, la ganancia de humedad es mayor en polietileno, seguido por polipropileno y aluminio plastificado.Tatiana Valdivia Barra Año:2005 Institución:Universidad Nacional de San Agustín UNSA-Arequipa, Maestría en Ciencia y Tecnología de los AlimentosEl objetivo de esta investigación es la obtención de harinas instantáneas a base de extruidos de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen y Trigo Triticum vulgare. Para el efecto, se evaluó el proceso de obtención del instantáneo a partir del extruido de la materia prima, usando para ello un extrusor de tornillo simple a 140ºC de temperatura y una presión de 44 atm. Para la ejecución de las pruebas experimentales, se utilizó harina de cañihua de la variedad Cupi, trigo de la zona y azúcar refinada, insumos con los que se plantearon tratamientos con distintos porcentajes de mezcla de cañihua, trigo y azúcar refinada. Se encontró que la mayor aceptabilidad la tuvo el tratamiento con 45% de cañihua, 45% de trigo y 10 % de azúcar.The objective of this research was to obtain instant flour from cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen and wheat Triticum vulgare extruded products. The use of a simple screw extruder at 140 ºC and under 44 atmospheres pressure was the method evaluated to obtain instant flour from extruded products.Treatments employing different mixtures of cañihua (Cupi variety), wheat flour and refined sugar were used. The results show that the treatment with 45% cañihua, 45% wheat and 10% sugar had the best acceptabilityEn América Latina aproximadamente el 65% de los niños menores de 6 años presentan restricciones variables en su crecimiento. En las áreas rurales de la sierra del Perú, se presentan elevados porcentajes de desnutrición infantil especialmente en los grupos etáreos de 6 a 23 meses, que muestran 88% de 158 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen desnutrición crónica. Los porcentajes son similares para el departamento de Cusco, donde 77% de niños menores de dos años padecen desnutrición crónica. Una de las principales determinantes de este deterioro nutricional es la dieta de la población que es de baja calidad nutricional. La cañihua según Camborda (2001), es un grano andino que posee un alto valor nutritivo. Este cereal puede contribuir significativamente a combatir los altos valores de desnutrición en América Latina mediante la transformación de estos granos en productos de fácil comercialización. Por tanto la investigación buscará obtener harinas instantáneas de alto valor nutricional, caracterizar las propiedades físicas, funcionales, químicas, y microbiológicas de las harinas instantáneas y evaluar su nivel de aceptabilidad.• Obtener harinas instantáneas de alto valor nutritivo a partir de la mezcla previamente extruida de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen y trigo Triticum vulgare. • Caracterizar las propiedades físicas, funcionales, químicas, y microbiológicas de las harinas instantáneas obtenidas en las diferentes mezclas. • Evaluar la aceptabilidad de las harinas instantáneas.Para la obtención de harina instantánea de cañihua, se realizó el siguiente proceso: materia prima, mezclado, extrusión, cocción y molienda.Se realizó el análisis de las características físico-químicas funcionales de los componentes de las mezclas: índice de expansión, índice de gelatinización y viscosidad, y análisis químico y microbiológico.En el producto final se realizaron análisis de las características físicas: granulometría, colorimetría, índice de expansión.Análisis de las características funcionales: isoterma de adsorción y actividad de agua, índice de solubilidad en agua, índice de gelatinización, densidad energética, viscosidad.Análisis de las características químicas: humedad, ceniza, proteínas, grasa, fibra cruda, carbohidratos, energía, pH, acidez titulable, cómputo aminoacídico teórico, y aminograma.Análisis de las características microbiológicas: permitió evaluar la calidad higiénico-sanitaria por medio del conteo de mesófilos aerobios, hongos y levaduras, Staphylococcus aureus, coliformes totales, Bacillus cereus y Salmonella. 159 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule AellenRespecto a la caracterización de las propiedades químicas, resulta que la harina de cañihua 100 % pura, tiene un alto valor nutritivo, mientras que el tratamiento con 45% de cañihua, 45% de trigo y 10% de azúcar presenta nutrientes en menor proporción; sin embargo, se le considera como buena fuente de carbohidratos por la característica propia de la formulación. Por su parte, las propiedades funcionales de la mezcla con 50% cañihua, 50% trigo presenta un mayor porcentaje en índice de expansión y grado de gelatinización respecto a los demás tratamientos.Los resultados microbiológicos indican que los tratamientos se encuentran dentro de los límites permisibles para productos procesados, es decir, son aptos para el consumo humano. Finalmente el análisis sensorial permitió determinar que las propiedades de sabor, textura y color presentes en el tratamiento, que corresponde a la mezcla 45-45-10% de cañihua, trigo y azúcar respectivamente, es la harina instantánea de mejor aceptabilidad.Según sus propiedades químicas, la harina 100% de cañihua presenta el mayor porcentaje de proteínas (14,99%), por lo que tiene alto valor nutritivo. Sin embargo, el tratamiento 45-45-10 (cañihua, trigo y azúcar) presenta mejores propiedades energéticas (421,39%) en su composición química. En las características funcionales, el tratamiento 50-50% presenta mayor índice de expansión (3,13%) y gelatinización (85,31%). En cuanto a viscosidad, los tratamientos 45-45-10 y 50-50 respectivamente presentan los valores más altos.Los análisis microbiológicos en los tratamientos del instantáneo, reportan valores dentro de los límites permisibles para productos procesados, siendo aptos para el consumo humano.Al evaluar la aceptabilidad de las harinas instantáneas, llegamos a la conclusión de que el tratamiento 45-45-10 de extruido de cañihua, trigo y azúcar es el más aceptable por los consumidores, dadas las propiedades de olor, sabor, textura y fundamentalmente por su color (blanco), que resulta muy favorable. Todas estas características pueden ser mejoradas por la aplicación de diferentes aditivos buscando un producto comercialmente aceptable.Autor:Robinson Leoncio Tacora Cauna Año: 2010 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Ingeniería AgroindustrialSe evaluó el efecto que ejerce el proceso de expansión por explosión a presiones de 120, 140 y 160 lb/pulg² y el proceso de tostado a temperaturas de 130, 160 y 190ºC sobre las siguientes características funcionales: contenido de polifenoles totales, capacidad antioxidante, y fitatos, así como en sus características fisicoquímicas: grado de gelatinización, índice de absorción e índice de expansión de las variedades de cañihua Cupi e Illpa INIA 406. Resultó que el proceso de expansión por explosión incrementó más el contenido de polifenoles totales y la capacidad antioxidante en la variedad Cupi en comparación a la Illpa INIA 406 a medida que las presiones aumentaron. En cambio el contenido de fitatos no varió significativamente. Por su parte, las tres características fisicoquímicas aumentaron en las dos variedades. Por efecto del proceso de tostado, se incrementó progresivamente el contenido de polifenoles totales, y la capacidad antioxidante mostró una ligera disminución inicial, para luego incrementar progresivamente a temperaturas mayores, no existiendo una variación considerable del contenido de fitatos. Las tres características fisicoquímicas fueron similares en ambas variedades, con un incremento inicial hasta 160ºC, disminuyendo luego a 190ºC. En conclusión, el proceso de expandido genera mejores características funcionales en comparación con el tostado.The effect of expansion by explosion at pressures of 120, 140 and 160 pounds/inch 2 and of toasting at temperatures of 130, 160 and 190ºC on various functional and physical-chemical characteristics of the Cupi and Illpa INIA 406 cañihua varieties were evaluated. The functional characteristics considered were total polyphenols and phytates content and antioxidant capacity, and the 161 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen physical-chemical characteristics are gelatinization degree, absorption and expansion indexes. The results showed that as the pressures increased, expansion by explosion increased the total polyphenols content and the antioxidant capacity in the Cupi variety more than in the Illpa INIA 406. On the other hand, the phytates content did not vary significantly. The physical-chemical characteristics increased in the two varieties. In the toasting process, the total polyphenols content increased progressively at higher temperatures without significant variation on the phytates content. The three physical-chemical characteristics were similar in both varieties with an initial increase until 160ºC and then decreasing at 190ºC. In conclusion, the expansion process generates better functional characteristics compared to the toasting process.Es importante evaluar los cambios fisicoquímicos que sufran los componentes funcionales como la capacidad antioxidante, el contenido de fitatos y polifenoles totales por efecto de los procesos de expansión por explosión y tostado, en la búsqueda de mayores beneficios nutricionales del grano de cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen.• Evaluar la influencia de la presión del proceso de expansión por explosión en el grado de gelatinización, índice de expansión, capacidad de absorción de agua (características fisicoquímicas) y sobre la capacidad antioxidante, contenido de fitatos y polifenoles totales (características funcionales) de dos variedades de cañihua. • Evaluar la influencia de la temperatura del proceso de tostado en las mismas características fisicoquímicas y funcionales de dos variedades de cañihua. • Evaluar el efecto de ambos procesos de transformación (expansión por explosión y tostado) conjuntamente en las características funcionales y fisicoquímicas de las dos variedades de cañihua.Se trabajó con cañihua de las variedades Illpa INIA 406 y Cupi. Los análisis y evaluaciones se desarrollaron en el Laboratorio Central de Investigación de la Universidad Nacional del Altiplano, Puno entre agosto 2009 y febrero 2010. El procedimiento experimental tuvo la siguiente secuencia: • Determinación de las características fisicoquímicas de la materia prima.• Expansión por explosión bajo tres temperaturas de proceso.• Tostado bajo tres temperaturas de proceso.162 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen• Evaluación de la capacidad antioxidante, contenido de fitatos y polifenoles totales de dos variedades de cañihua procesadas por expansión por explosión. • Evaluación del grado de gelatinización, índice de expansión y capacidad de absorción de agua de dos variedades de cañihua al ser sometidas al proceso de expansión por explosión. • Evaluación de la capacidad antioxidante, contenido de fitatos y polifenoles totales de dos variedades de cañihua al ser sometidas al proceso de tostado. • Evaluación del grado de gelatinización, índice de expansión y capacidad de adsorción de agua de dos variedades de cañihua al ser sometidas al proceso de tostado. • Análisis proximal de la cañihua al ser sometida a los dos procesos de transformación.Efectos en el proceso de expansión por explosión La capacidad antioxidante de la cañihua, sometida a proceso de expansión por explosión en las dos variedades, varía ligeramente al ser sometidas a diferentes presiones, incrementándose los valores a mayores presiones (Cuadro 1). Sin embargo la variedad Cupi mostró mejor capacidad antioxidante. Ambas variedades muestran un contenido de fitatos similar, presentando un ligero 163 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen incremento la variedad Illpa INIA 406. Este proceso de expansión influye positivamente en el contenido de polifenoles totales, siendo igualmente mayor en la variedad Cupi. Las tres capacidades funcionales se muestran mayores que en otros productos como kiwicha (amaranto), e incluso la misma cañihua en procesos de expansión por extrusión (Luna 2005).Efectos en el proceso de tostado La capacidad antioxidante de la cañihua tostada es menor a la menor temperatura probada (130ºC), e incluso menor al valor de la muestra cruda, incrementándose en cambio a temperaturas mayores (160 y 190ºC), comportamiento que se repite en ambas variedades y similar a lo que sucede con la kiwicha (Cuadro 2).Respecto al contenido de fitatos, se notan leves cambios respecto a la muestra cruda y entre los valores a diferentes temperaturas. Los polifenoles totales tienen la misma tendencia que en cañihua sometida a expansión por explosión, lo que equivale decir que incrementa su contenido a mayores temperaturas de tostado, mostrando la variedad Cupi mayores niveles.Cuadro 2. Efectos de la temperatura de tostado en las características funcionales de dos variedades de cañihua. El proceso de expansión por explosión a diferentes presiones (120, 140 y 160 lb/pulg²) en las variedades Illpa INIA 406 y Cupi, incrementa el contenido de polifenoles totales y la capacidad antioxidante a medida que las presiones aumentan, mientras que el contenido de fitatos se mantiene. El proceso de tostado incrementa sustancialmente el porcentaje de polifenoles totales en la cañihua a medida que la temperatura de tostado aumenta (130, 160 y 190ºC), mientras la capacidad antioxidante experimenta una leve 164 PERÚ -Cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen disminución a una temperatura de 130ºC e incrementando su valor progresivamente al ser sometido a 160ºC y 190ºC en ambas variedades. Al mismo tiempo la variación del contenido de fitatos no fue significativa en este proceso.El proceso de expandido genera un mayor contenido de polifenoles totales, y por lo tanto, una mayor capacidad antioxidante en comparación con el tostado, mientras que el contenido de fitatos es similar en ambos procesos.Resúmenes de tesis y trabajos de investigación desarrollados con varios granos andinos Efecto de lonchera escolar con alimentos de la región como alternativa en escolares con riesgo nutricional de centros educativos privados de la ciudad de Puno Autora:Gisela Hilari Olaguivel Año:2004 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Nutrición HumanaEl objetivo fue evaluar el estado nutricional de escolares de primer y segundo grados de primaria, e identificar las características nutricionales de la lonchera usual; analizar la composición química de las loncheras propuestas en base a alimentos de la región y revaluar el estado nutricional para establecer el efecto de las loncheras propuestas. Se trabajó con un diseño cuasi experimental de serie cronológica de un solo grupo, sobre la base de 30 alumnos de centros educativos primarios no estatales de la ciudad de Puno. Tales grupos presentaban riesgo nutricional de obesidad o desnutrición, y al constatar que las características de la lonchera usual eran inadecuadas para su necesidades nutricionales, se les brindó Los granos andinos considerados en este estudio en Perú son la quinua Chenopodium quinoa Willd. y la cañihua Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen debido a su importancia para las comunidades locales ya que poseen una gran diversidad de usos, adaptabilidad a condiciones adversas, variabilidad genética y calidad nutritiva.166 PERÚ -Granos andinos por el lapso de 21 días hábiles loncheras conteniendo alimentos de la región tales como quinua, cañihua, yacón y carne de alpaca, por su buen aporte nutricional. Al final se observó la aceptabilidad de las loncheras propuestas en 95%, se apreció que los escolares con riesgo nutricional relacionado a la desnutrición presentaron incremento de peso, mientras que los escolares con riesgo nutricional de obesidad no incrementaron de peso, pero ganar una talla normal contribuyó a lograr que los escolares salieran del riesgo nutricional; el resultado estadístico confirmó que existe cambio significativo en el estado nutricional de los escolares en estudio.The objective was to evaluate the nutritional state of first and second grade elementary school children and identify the nutritional characteristics of a standard lunch pack; to analyse the chemical composition of lunch packs based on local foods and re-evaluate the nutritional state of the children to which such lunch packs had been given, in order to establish their nutritional effects. A semiexperimental design of chronological series was used with a group of 30 children from non governmental primary educational centres in Puno; these groups present nutritional risks as obesity or malnutrition, and when it was confirmed that the lunch pack's regular characteristics were inadequate for the nutritional need, a nutritionally improved lunch pack with food from the region as cañihua, yacon and alpaca meat was given to the group for 21 working days. Finally, the proposed lunch boxes' acceptability was of 95%, children with nutritional risks related to malnutrition increased their weight, while children with nutritional risk of obesity did not increase in weight, but gaining a normal size contributed to prevent nutritional risks in children; the statistical results confirmed that there was a significant change in the nutritional status of the sample population of school children.• Reconocer cuál es el efecto de la lonchera escolar con alimentos como quinua, cañihua, carne de alpaca y yacón, como alternativa alimentaria en escolares con riesgo nutricional en los CEP no estatales de la ciudad de Puno. • Evaluar el estado nutricional de escolares de primero y segundo grados de primaria de centros educativos no estatales de la ciudad de Puno.• Identificar características nutricionales de loncheras usuales de los escolares en estudio. • Analizar la composición química de loncheras propuestas a base de alimentos de la región. 167 PERÚ -Granos andinos• Reevaluar el estado nutricional y establecer el efecto de las loncheras propuestas en escolares del primero y segundo grados del nivel primario que presentaron riesgo nutricional.El presente estudio es cuasi experimental, de corte longitudinal, de serie cronológica de un solo grupo. Diseño de investigación -ámbito de estudio población muestra -operacionalización de variables:Técnicas de recolección de datos: para evaluar el estado nutricional (determinando peso, talla y edad), técnicas para determinación de características nutricionales de la lonchera usual de los escolares, técnicas para determinar la composición química de la lonchera propuesta y técnicas para reevaluación del estado nutricional y el efecto de la lonchera propuesta.Procesamiento de datos: evaluación nutricional, características nutricionales de la lonchera usual, análisis de la composición química de la lonchera propuesta, reevaluación nutricional de los niños de la muestra y su efecto con la lonchera escolar.Tratamiento estadístico: evaluación nutricional, características nutricionales de la lonchera usual para el análisis de la composición química de la lonchera propuesta, para la reevaluación nutricional de los niños de la muestra (para establecer diferencias en peso (kg.) y diferencias en el estado nutricional se utilizó la prueba no paramétrica del signo, prueba de McNemar.La evaluación del estado nutricional inicial de niños en estudio se observa en la Figura 1, sobre una muestra total de 30 estudiantes. La evaluación nutricional de las loncheras propuestas en el presente trabajo, se muestran en el Cuadro 2, allí podemos ver claramente que las diferentes mezclas propuestas son mejores en calidad nutricional, que las que cotidianamente preparan los padres de familia y que por lo menos tres de ellas superan en requerimientos de proteínas al ideal; sin embargo en promedio cubren completamente los requerimientos de los niños a las edades estudiadas.En respuesta al segundo objetivo y como paso inicial, se comparó la composición química entre el promedio de grupos de loncheras preparadas por los padres de familia con los requerimientos nutricionales de un patrón ideal (ver Cuadro 1).168 PERÚ -Granos andinos Figura 1. Riesgo nutricional de niños en edad escolar.Cuadro 1. Composición química comparada entre contenidos de loncheras usuales preparadas por padres de familia y contenido de la lonchera propuesta. • De los 90 escolares evaluados en los CEPs no estatales de la ciudad de Puno, 30 mostraron riesgo nutricional. Ocho de ellos presentaron obesidad y 22 presentaron desnutrición. La diferencia de sexo no es representativo. • De los tipos de loncheras usuales que brindaban los padres de familia a los escolares con riesgo nutricional, se encontró que sólo dos cumplen con los requerimientos establecidos. El 16% de estas loncheras están constituidas por sólo frutas y el 47% con frutas más dinero o sólo dinero; por lo que podemos concluir que la población en estudio tenía loncheras inadecuadas con exceso de grasa y carbohidratos. La moda alimentaria es el factor que influenció el uso de estas loncheras inadecuadas. • Las loncheras propuestas con alimentos a base de quinua, cañihua, carne alpaca y yacón, cubrieron los niveles del requerimiento energético, por lo que son propuestas de loncheras adecuadas para la población escolar. Las loncheras más aceptadas (95%) fueron las galletas de hojuela de quinua y la hamburguesa de carne de alpaca. La investigación se desarrolló en las ciudades de Arequipa, Cusco y Juliaca, realizando un estudio de mercado para galletas suplementadas en 40% con harina de cañihua germinada de la variedad Cupi y bañadas con chocolate, y en bombones con 15% de quinua expandida de la variedad Salcedo INIA. Paralelamente al estudio, se ha desarrollado la degustación de ambos productos con la finalidad de determinar su aceptabilidad. En el caso de las galletas, se manifiesta la intención de compra con una frecuencia semanal, observando el mismo comportamiento para bombones o chocolates. Respecto a la aceptabilidad de galletas y chocolates, el 32% califica con la expresión \"Me gusta mucho\", el 65% \"Me gusta\" y sólo el 3% manifiesta \"indiferencia\". La demanda mensual de galletas con cañihua es de 5165 paquetes en Cusco, 3751 en Juliaca y 3560 en Arequipa. Por su parte la demanda mensual de chocolates con quinua es de 5427 unidades en Cusco, 4614 en Arequipa y 4213 en Juliaca. Se ha calculado y proyectado la demanda potencial, considerando el 3% de la población total, la tasa de crecimiento por ciudad y no se considera la población menor a 5 años. Esta demanda potencial valorizada permitiría una participación en el mercado nacional de 0.25 para chocolates y 0.03% para galletas.A market study for cookies supplemented with 40% germinated cañihua flour of the Cupi variety bathed in chocolate and for candies with 15% of expanded quinoa of the Salcedo INIA variety was carried out in the cities of Arequipa, Cusco and Juliaca. Parallel to this research, tastings of both products to determine their acceptability was developed. The intention of buying each product (cookies, candies and chocolates) was stated as being of a once weekly frequency. Regarding the acceptability of cookies and chocolates, 32% responded with \"I like it a lot\", 65% with \"I like it\" and only 3% with 171 PERÚ -Granos andinos 'Indifferent\". The monthly demand for cookies with cañihua is of 5165 packets in Cusco, 3751 in Juliaca and 3560 in Arequipa. On the other side, the monthly demand for chocolate with quinoa is of 5427 units in Cusco, 4614 in Arequipa and 4213 in Juliaca. The potential demand considering 3% of the total population, the growth rate per city and not considering the population under 5 years old was calculated and projected. The potential demand suggests a national market participation of 0.25 for chocolates and 0.03% for cookies.Esta investigación permitirá determinar el mercado para galletas con harina de cañihua germinada y chocolates con 15% de quinua expandida en la ciudades de Arequipa, Cuzco y Juliaca, basándose en las alta tasa de migración de la población de Puno a dichas ciudades. Por tanto es necesario identificar mercados para productos que luego de un periodo de investigación puedan salir al mercado consumidor.• Cuantificar la demanda para galletas con cañihua germinada y chocolates con quinua expandida en las ciudades de Arequipa, Cuzco y Juliaca. • Determinar la aceptabilidad de los productos en estudio en las ciudades de Arequipa, Cuzco y Juliaca. • Identificar la demanda potencial para galletas con cañihua germinada y chocolates con quinua expandida en las ciudades en estudio.• Tipo de estudio: explorativo.• Método de recopilación de la información: interrogatorio mediante encuestas con preguntas cerradas y abiertas, y de respuesta estructurada.Consumo de galletas y chocolates: como se observa en el Cuadro 1, el consumo de galletas con cañihua y de chocolates con quinua son mayormente preferidas por personas de más de 36 años de edad, manteniendo la misma tendencia en las tres ciudades, siendo Cuzco la ciudad de mayor consumo mensual de ambos productos. Aceptabilidad de los productos: del análisis estadístico al nivel de (=0.05) y de acuerdo a la escala hedónica de 5 puntos, donde 5 equivale a \"me gusta mucho, y 1 \"me disgusta mucho\", se reporta que los dos productos degustados 172 PERÚ -Granos andinos han obtenido una alta aceptabilidad en las tres ciudades. El 97% de los interrogados, califican entre 4.16 a 4.52, y solo 3% califican como \"indiferente\", lo cual demuestra que los productos tienen alto nivel de aceptación. La razón para esto es que los productos contienen granos andinos, pero también debido a la migración considerable de la población de Puno hacia las ciudades de Arequipa y Cuzco, tal como lo publica el INEI (2002).Cuadro 1. Consumo mensual de galletas de cañihua (paquetes x 6) y chocolate con quinua (unidades) por edades y localidades. Demanda potencial de los productos: considerando solo el 3% de la población total para los tres primeros años en las tres ciudades en estudio sin contar niños menores de 5 años, y teniendo en cuenta una tasa de crecimiento anual de la población de 1.7 para Arequipa, 1.4 para Cuzco y 1.5 para Juliaca, la demanda potencial de galletas en Cuzco y Arequipa es de 43% y 40% respectivamente, mientras que en Juliaca es solo del 17%. Para chocolates, Arequipa demanda el 45%, Cuzco 39% y Juliaca 16%, tal como se observa en el Cuadro 2. Las diferencias porcentuales en la demanda entre las ciudades se deben a la cantidad de población y los ingresos económicos.El consumo de galletas es de 3560 paquetes/mes en Arequipa, 5165 en Cuzco y 3751 en Juliaca, mientras que para los chocolates la demanda es 4614 unidades en Arequipa, 5427 en Cuzco y 4213 en Juliaca.La aceptabilidad de los productos es alta de acuerdo a la escala hedónica, calificando el 32% como \"Me gusta mucho\", el 65% \"Me gusta\", el 3% le es indiferente, y no se encontró rechazo alguno a los productos. La demanda potencial, calculada a partir de la tasa de crecimiento poblacional, consumo per capita y considerando el 3% de la población total, señala que existirá un mayor potencial de demanda en los siguientes tres años para galletas con cañihua en la ciudad de Cuzco. En cambio para chocolates con quinua, la mejor demanda potencial en los primeros tres años se tiene en la ciudad de Arequipa.taking into account consumer's preferences on product presentation and packaging.¿De qué manera influye el establecimiento de un programa de mezcla de 'marketing' en las micro y pequeñas empresas (MIPES) pertenecientes a la Asociación de Agroindustriales de Granos Andinos de la región de Puno respecto al comportamiento del volumen de venta de sus productos? y ¿Qué factores externos influyen en el comportamiento del volumen de venta de sus productos?• Analizar el comportamiento de los volúmenes de ventas respecto al establecimiento de un programa de mezcla de marketing en las MIPES pertenecientes a la Asociación de Agroindustriales de Granos Andinos en el periodo comprendido entre julio-diciembre del 2003. • Identificar los factores del entorno que influyen en el comportamiento de los volúmenes de venta de las MIPES agroindustriales de ASAIGA.Análisis de la situación: Investigación preliminar y determinación de objetivos. Investigación de mercado (Unidades de análisis y observación, y técnicas e instrumentos de recolección de datos).Se ha podido identificar que el 60% de las empresas carecen del requerimiento principal para la implementación del Mix de Marketing, que es el registro de ventas de sus productos en los últimos tres años en el que vienen operando las empresas. Solamente el 40% de estas cuentan con una información semidetallada de los registros de venta, por lo que se está en proceso de evaluación para la implementación del documento indicado en las diferentes microempresas seleccionadas.En lo que se refiere al análisis y la distribución geográfica del mercado, 50% de las microempresas participan solamente en el mercado local, y el otro 50% participa esporádicamente en algunas ferias extra regionales, a las cuales son invitados por la calidad y las características de origen de los productos que ofertan. Sin embargo, es conveniente hacer notar que algunas de ellas desconocen completamente la importancia del marketing en la comercialización de sus productos. También se ha podido apreciar que ciertas 176 PERÚ -Granos andinos MIPES tienen maquinaria no operativa debido a la falta de recursos financieros para su renovación. Respecto a la organización comercial, el 20% de las microempresas tienen distribuidores conocidos a los cuales abastecen con sus productos en forma periódica; el resto de los microempresarios prefieren realizar sus ventas de manera directa al consumidor en condiciones poco recomendables, resultando la presentación de los productos no del agrado de los consumidores. Muchos de estos no tienen etiquetas, no han seleccionado el envase adecuado o simplemente realizan sus ventas \"a granel\" en malas condiciones de conservación. Muy pocos son los microempresarios que tienen bastante cuidado en la presentación, referido al envasado y empacado de sus productos como \"Fortigrano\", \"Molifort\" y \"Andina\", quienes tienen definida la presentación de sus productos en diferentes formas lo que hace que sus clientes puedan escoger, elegir y adquirir determinado producto en el volumen preferido.Es determinante la aplicación de las estrategias de mezcla de marketing en el incremento de los volúmenes de comercialización de una microempresa, siempre y cuando existan las condiciones sociales, técnicas y económicas para su implementación. Esto se debe a que implica la participación de un especialista al que la microempresa no está en condiciones de soportar económicamente.El conocimiento del mercado al que abastecen los propietarios de las microempresas permite el mejoramiento de los productos en cuanto se refiere a estrategias de promoción, precio y plaza o distribución acorde a las exigencias de los consumidores.Algunos factores externos como la tecnología, política económica, productos suplementarios, contrabando y la competencia, influyen negativamente en la comercialización de los productos elaborados a partir de quinua y cañihua, haciendo que estos disminuyan debido a la economía de escala que ellos utilizan.Autora:María Giovana Villegas Quispe Año:2008 Institución:Universidad Nacional del Altiplano UNA-Puno, Nutrición HumanaSe realizaron cuatro elaboraciones nutricionales de quinua y cañihua previo análisis de los granos y posterior evaluación sensorial en dos hogares de menores del INABIF-Puno. Se propuso trabajar con las variedades de quinua Blanca de Juli, Pasankalla roja y Salcedo INIA, y con las variedades de cañihua Cupi y Ramis. De acuerdo a los resultados analíticos, se determinó que las variedades de quinua Pasankalla Roja y Blanca de Juli, así como la variedad Cupi de cañihua son las mejores en cuanto a contenido nutricional, por lo que finalmente se utilizaron estas variedades en la preparación de bombones y mousse de cañihua, quinua chaufa y quinua a la Huancaína. Los resultados del test hedónico muestran que sí existe diferencia estadística entre las cuatro preparaciones, encontrándose que los bombones de cañihua tienen el mayor nivel de aceptación, seguidos por el mousse, la quinua a la Huancaína y la quinua chaufa.After careful analysis of the grains, four recipes of quinoa and cañihua were tested, and sensorial analysis were carried out in two children homes in INABIF-Puno. Tests were carried out with the quinoa varieties Blanca de Juli, Pasankalla roja and Salcedo INIA, and with the cañihua varieties Cupi and Ramis. In accordance with the analytical results, the quinoa varieties Pasankalla Roja and Blanca de Juli, as well as the cañihua variety Cupi were the best in terms of nutritional content; therefore, these varieties were used in the preparation of cañihua candies and mousse, quinoa chaufa and Huancaínastyle quinoa. The results of the tastings show that there are significant differences between the four preparations, finding that cañihua candies have the highest level of acceptance followed by the mousse, Huancaína-style quinoa and quinoa chaufa.En el Perú los problemas nutricionales son graves, pues la mitad de la población infantil sufre de algún tipo de desnutrición, haciéndolos más propensos a enfermedades y menos resistentes a ellas. Esto es aún más agudo en el altiplano rural, donde cerca del 50% de la población se encuentra por debajo del umbral de pobreza. Los cultivos andinos subutilizados como granos, tubérculos, raíces y frutales andinos en muchos casos han sido dejados de lado a pesar de que son cultivados y forman parte de los hábitos alimenticios de las familias campesinas, y están siendo desplazados por otros alimentos foráneos que se cultivan de manera comercial. La reincorporación de la quinua y la cañihua a la dieta de estas familias podría ayudar a mejorar la situación nutricional de la población infantil, además de contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria.• Evaluar los resultados del análisis químico de tres variedades de quinua y dos de cañihua. • Realizar dos elaboraciones nutricionales (platos salados) con dos variedades de quinua y dos (dulces) con una variedad de cañihua. • Realizar la evaluación sensorial de las elaboraciones nutricionales de quinua y cañihua con niños de los hogares de menores del INABIF-Puno.Las muestras de las variedades en estudio fueron adquiridas en la estación Experimental Salcedo INIA-Puno, las cuales fueron enviadas adecuadamente acondicionadas de acuerdo a los requerimientos del Laboratorio de la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima. De acuerdo a los resultados del análisis, se escogieron dos de las tres variedades de quinua y una variedad de cañihua con mejores condiciones nutricionales para ser utilizadas como materia prima para la preparación de las siguientes elaboraciones nutricionales: chocolates de cañihua, mousse de cañihua y chaufa de quinua con quinua a la Huancaína.Se coordinó con responsables de los Hogares de Chejoña y Yanamayo la realización de las pruebas hedónicas de las preparaciones, y luego se realizó el análisis de todos los resultados obtenidos.Los análisis químico-nutricionales realizados en los laboratorios de Calidad Total en la UNA. La Molina, Lima, se muestran en el Cuadro 1. Se observa 179 PERÚ -Granos andinos con claridad las ventajas comparativas nutricionales de las variedades de quinua Blanca de Juli y Pasankalla Roja, y se encontró que entre las dos variedades de cañihua es notoria la mayor concentración de proteínas en la variedad Cupi.Cuadro 1. Resultados comparativos de nutrientes en quinua y cañihua.Variedades El análisis nutricional de cada una de las elaboraciones se muestra en el Cuadro 2. Aquí se puede observar que de las tres elaboraciones ofrecidas, la ración de quinua chaufa es la que brinda más calorías, carbohidratos, proteínas, hierro, fósforo, calcio, y vitamina C. No obstante, vemos que el chocolate de cañihua y el mousse tienen un aporte por ración que no esta muy alejada del alto aporte nutricional de la quinua chaufa.El resultado de la evaluación sensorial aplicada en dos hogares de menores del INABIF-Puno mediante un test hedónico dividido en cinco ítems 180 PERÚ -Granos andinos (forma, color, olor, sabor y textura), muestra que en las tres elaboraciones nutricionales, existe diferencia significativa en cuanto a forma, color y sabor; en cambio, no se encuentra diferencia entre olor y textura. El chocolate de cañihua, resultó ser la elaboración con mayor grado de aceptabilidad entre la muestra de niños de dos hogares de INABIF-Puno.Cuadro 2. Requerimientos y aportes de elaboraciones nutricionales. De acuerdo al análisis químico-nutricional, en cuanto a proteínas y calorías la variedad de quinua Pasankalla Roja es la más relevante, seguida de la variedad Blanca de Juli. En cañihua, la variedad Cupi resalta en casi todos sus nutrientes.Se concluyó que la quinua variedad Pasankalla Roja es la más adecuada para la elaboración de quinua chaufa, y la variedad Blanca de Juli para quinua a la huancaína. Para cañihua, la variedad Cupi es la más adecuada para la elaboración de chocolates y mousse.Sensorialmente, el chocolate de cañihua presentó el mayor grado de aceptabilidad; sin embargo, el mayor nivel nutricional lo presentó el plato de quinua chaufa con quinua a la Huancaína. ","tokenCount":"45021"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6b5adaf6d72192cf835780588e76f82a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/de7e7d9c-f874-4b17-b8a1-bc80d57e4196/content","id":"1300603736"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"74f9022f-03e8-4d26-a395-c00836acdf40","pagecount":"7","content":"The last irrigation policy of Nepal (2003) acknowledged that the traditional focus of irrigation development in Nepal has been on run-off river-based surface water irrigation. To counter the problems of seasonal low flows of rivers, groundwater resources were regarded mostly as a supplementary or conjunctive irrigation source that could extend irrigation yearround. However, there have been several new developments in the irrigation sector and water systems of Nepal that now call for a new focus and approach to groundwater irrigation.Climate change led uncertainties have created new barriers to surface water irrigation with recorded greater fluctuations expected in surface water flows and growing insecurity in availability of and access to surface water irrigation (Dahal et.al 2020, Maharjan et.al 2021, Risal et.al 2022, Prajapati et.al 2023) Additionally, migration, urbanization, and emergence of new markets have shifted the focus from farming to nonfarm activities, resulting in a decline in collective action within farmer managed irrigation systems (FMIS). This has led to barriers in operation and the upkeep of community-managed surface water irrigation systems (Khadka et.al 2021).At the same time as the government has undertaken community tubewell projects to provide supplementary or conjunctive irrigation within several surface water irrigation projects, little focus has been given to the private development of groundwater irrigation. Recent data from the National Agriculture Census of Nepal 2021 shows a significant increase in the area under groundwater irrigation and much of this comes from sole use of groundwater irrigation sources and not as mixed/ conjunctive irrigation.While much of this development has come from diesel pumps (Foster et.al 2021), the recent expansion of grid coverage in Nepal is leading to increased role of electricity in agriculture (from providing 6.15% of all agricultural energy use in 2019 to 14.37% in 2022) giving rise to an energy-irrigation nexus in rural areas with higher role of electricity subsidy, pricing and metering, as well as farmer's private investments and access to credits. The potential implication is that this could open up a new cross-sectoral dynamic between food-water-energy in irrigation policy and implementation. As Nepal recently approved its new irrigation policy, the time is ripe to discuss a greater focus on groundwater irrigation with regard to its monitoring systems, institutions, deeper understanding of its access and socioeconomic dynamics, and implications for equity, resource sustainability and commercialization of agriculture.Photo Credit: Abdul MominIn comparing the 2011 and 2021 National Agriculture census data, the percentage of irrigated area under land parcels reporting groundwater (GW) use for irrigation has increased substantially in a decade (Figure 1) from 29.8% to 41.7%, while for surface water (SW) use it has fallen from 63.6% to 48.6% of total irrigated area. At the same time, despite its predominance in (existing) policy narratives, mixed source irrigation (conjunctive irrigation land area), covers just 3.4% of the total irrigated area in 2021. Not only has groundwater irrigation become substantially more significant, clearly the policy environment needs to go beyond its currently limited policy recognition of groundwater as merely a supplementary conjunctive resource.   (2011 and 2021) This indicates the intensification of groundwater extraction in Nepal and increasing deepening of tubewells (providing some indications towards potentially precarious groundwater levels although there is no systematic long-term groundwater monitoring data yet capturing decline in groundwater levels in Nepal). And/or it could mean a greater access to cheap energy. Even in terms of actual number of STWs and DTWs, we find a 178% increase in the number of DTWs between 2011 and 2021 compared to only a 59.9% increase in number of STWs.A regional picture is emerging. Much of this rise and intensification in groundwater use has come from the provinces comprising the Terai of Nepal, which is also closer to major markets in India. The increase in area under groundwater irrigation (Figure 3) is highest in the western region in Sudhurpaschim province (28% to 57.5% of total irrigated area under GW irrigation). But the highest increase in use of DTWs (Figure 4), is seen in the extreme eastern province of Koshi (2% to 48.1% of GW irrigating households), which imply an intensification of groundwater use. It may also possibly indicate declining groundwater levels, although more long-term data on water levels would be needed to confirm this trend. A new irrigation policy is an opportunity for change A new irrigation policy provides an opportunity to call for stronger focus on groundwater irrigation, beyond its current limited role as a supplementary source. This would entail recognition and dedicated efforts towards groundwater resource monitoring, data availability, aquifer mapping, groundwater use, access to tubewells and pumps, source of energy, pricing and affordability, and resource sustainability. Furthermore, it is an opportunity for provisioning closer collaboration of the water sector policy with agriculture to maximize water use efficiency and increasing production in a sustainable and equitable manner thus promoting an integrated approach to food security, water access, and groundwater sustainability. It is also an opportunity for promoting multiple uses of water for drinking, aquaculture-fish ponds, and irrigation to incorporate the essential linkages between different water uses and encourage their integrated management. At the same time, an integrated approach would also enable balancing the needs of different competing water uses to ensure groundwater resources are not depleted while fulfilling multiple water demands. For instance, urban water demand have significant impacts on groundwater levels (Lamichhane and Shakya, 2020, Shrestha et.al., 2018), and compete with agricultural water uses particularly in periurban areas, which would require not only an integrated approach across sectors but also between rural and urban governance.The current institutional system for groundwater development was partially centralised within the Groundwater Resources Development Board (GWRDB), which is now in the process of dissolution with its key mandates on groundwater research and implementation will be redistributed hereafter among the Water and Energy Commission (WEC) and Department of Water Resources and Irrigation respectively. This institutional change creates an approach to groundwater resource development and management that can span the irrigation-energy nexus, rather than a more siloed approach.However, since groundwater irrigation is dependent on smaller and more atomised privatized pumping locations and individual service providers, its monitoring, regulation and support for access would likely benefit from an accompanying more decentralised institutional structure. The new federal governance system in Nepal offers an opportunity for this decentralisation to province levels.Moreover, the FMIS has long existed as an institutionalized community-based irrigation management approach (Water User Associations) for surface water irrigation canals. Expanding the scope of these community-based institutions to include groundwater irrigation management could provide pathways for more decentralised management of groundwater in the future.Since privately developed groundwater infrastructure tends to be capital intensive for farmers, there may be unequal capacity for different categories of farmers to invest in such systems. This often leads to the development of informal water markets. These marketbased institutions also play a significant role in shaping how irrigation supply and access help determine profits from agriculture by different groups. Direct or indirect regulation of these markets to ensure that they do not lead to concentration of resources and power in the hands of larger farmers, requires strong local governance at the village and province levels. Community-based governance can also prove potent in regulation of such markets.While there has been limited policy focus on groundwater, there has been growing interest among civil society organisations and networks for this resource as climate variability may affect access to household water and urban water supplies traditionally sourced from groundwater. This interest and growing capacity in studying groundwater availability, quality and access can be leveraged for research and monitoring in the groundwater irrigation sector. Civil society engagement and integration can also offer significant buttressing of local groundwater governance. Engaging civil society in the design of policy could therefore be a key to future resource sustainability -and policy impact..To strengthen policy and institutions for groundwater irrigation there is a need to first develop a firm foundation of evidence and knowledge about the status and dynamics of the resource in the country. To learn more about TAFSSA, please contact: t.krupnik@cgiar.org; p.menon@cgiar.org","tokenCount":"1323"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"95a49b7af61b608e5e1b2e80f7d48b64","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fde5d8d4-78f9-4f3c-a173-cd5432aef7a0/retrieve","id":"-749310168"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b7a52531-591c-447a-a4c6-55689dcc4a54","pagecount":"1","content":"Throughout history the movement of people has brought with it the movement of food crops, which has influenced the evolution of farming and food systems. This in turn shapes and is shaped by social relations characterised by colonial histories, patriarchal power hierarchies and prevailing political and economic policy. This study explores these themes in a historical and gendered perspective to sweetpotato (SP) innovation processes in Mozambique. SP is widely considered to have been introduced to Africa through Mozambique during the colonial era in the 16 th century. This period was characterised by contradictory colonial agricultural policies, including forced labour and cultivation (chibalo), violence and resistance by communities. Forced cultivation included staple foods such as SP, with the aim to feed officials, combatants, rulers and communities. The colonial era officially ended in 1975 and was followed by 16 year civil war. The ramifications of Mozambique's colonial past remain with high levels of poverty, hunger and malnutrition today. SP production and consumption are interwoven in this history and contemporary development efforts in the country and offer important learning.Encounters with travellers, agricultural extension and development projects (~1975-1999): Following independence, communities were exposed to new varieties through 'travellers' from outside communities, or community farmers who travelled elsewhere. New varieties were named after these individuals, who were men. In the early 1990s the encounters shifted to interaction with development organisations with new propositions of high yielding and nutritious varieties, creating new social and power dynamics with western scientists and extension agents, and different modalities for engagement (e.g., on farm trials). Encounters started to include women influencing gender dynamics and the social division of work. Farmers described these events with respect and as increasing their exposure to outside knowledge. The SP varieties were highly valued and still grown. However, the encounters and propositions often revealed one-way knowledge transfers and limited engagement with local knowledge.The contemporary period shows a marked change in in the way SP varieties are used and valued, relating to SP commercialisation and climate change. While the actors were similar, the propositions changed toward the potential of farmers to earn income, including from SP seed (vine) and roots. These activities are widely thought to have increase income for communities. Men and women farmers responded by accommodating new varieties alongside landraces. Typically, varieties with commercial value were grown by \"most\" farmers in large quantities, while varieties that were high in nutrition were grown in smaller amounts by \"fewer\" farmers. Older landrace varieties were grown less but mainly maintained by older women continuing cultural food traditions. The propositions also included outreach to men and women -and along with commercialisation -influenced the social division of work overtime: men were increasingly involved in SP production and sale. For this reason, women in several focus groups were resisting male 'encroachment' on SP production by acquiring separate plots for greater decision-making control, including what varieties of SP were planted and how much.Commercialisation further challenged reciprocal seed systems as farmers were now selling varieties as opposed to giving, challenging accessibility. \"This situation is leading people to conserve vines instead of share or sell when they would have shared at no cost. Because of market demand, they produce for themselves\" (elder FDG 7).SP is increasingly valued due to climate change, as it is considered less vulnerable compared to other crops. However, the increasingly heavy and unpredictable rains and cyclones were presenting different challenges for farmers. As a coping mechanism, farmers were increasing movement of vines from lowlands during rains to highlands and back during drought. This requires access to land to flexibly respond but it is a significant constraint for women and refugees/migrants to access the areas.\"The arrival of the Portuguese annoyed the community because they transformed the Txacimba region into a source of labour workforce. They took men for forced work in large field plantations …without remuneration. Outside the community, they used to stay far from their families … fed by sweet potatoes\" (female FDG 4).","tokenCount":"655"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3cc80f64f2feb6b9adfa8fd6a6cbe10a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3912d59f-39a2-4037-b025-14814618b2a4/content","id":"-752303834"},"keywords":["CIMMYT","repositorio","DSpace","Dataverse"],"sieverID":"a4990bac-0551-41b8-8e1a-6a7d1b025c21","pagecount":"11","content":"llevó a cabo un proyecto de mejora de sus repositorios institucionales como acreedor de financiamiento de una subvención pública, otorgada por el Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de México y obtenida en proceso competitivo. En el desarrollo del proyecto se destacan dos innovaciones por una parte, su conexión con el Repositorio Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de México en simultaneidad, mediante un middleware que hace las veces de repositorio único a nivel lógico, haciendo transparente la existencia de dos repositorios físicos tras él. Por otra parte, la normalización de ORCID como identificador de autor persistente institucionalmente, junto con la adquisición y registro de más de dos mil de ellos.ware that operates as a unique repository at the logical level, making the two physical repositories behind it transparent. On the other hand, the normalization of ORCID as the institutional author persistent identifier, together with the compilation and recording of more than two thousands of them.Key words: CIMMYT, repository, DSpace, DataverseEl Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) ha habilitado históricamente mecanismos para preservar y dar difusión a su más valioso producto: la información creada por su personal científico, transmitida en diversidad de formatos. En 2011 se creó el primer repositorio digital del organismo, con diversidad de materiales bajo el sello institucional como artículos, actas de conferencias y libros de los cuales el CIMMYT es poseedor de los derechos correspondientes para poder licenciar su uso no comercial como bienes públicos globales.Este repositorio, realizado con tecnología DSpace, se ha dedicado a publicaciones multimedio, mientras que para poner a disposición del público general tanto los conjuntos de datos como el software de investigación producidos en el centro se creó otro repositorio, esta vez usando tecnología Dataverse, en el año 2014. Ambos repositorios están siendo cosechados por el Repositorio Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de México (RN) desde el año 2018, gracias a la ejecución de un proyecto de mejora de la instalación institucional de repositorios, financiado en su mayor parte por el Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de México (Conacyt), como resultado de un proceso competitivo de adjudicación de recursos económicosEl fuerte incremento de documentos digitales de investigación en los últimos años, junto con la aparición de movimientos y políticas de Ciencia Abierta, ha propiciado la aparición y adopción de múltiples tecnologías de repositorio digital, como DSpace, CKAN, Figshare, Zenodo, ePrints o EUDAT (Amorim et al., 2017). Las entidades interesadas en ellos, además de considerar su instalación y puesta en marcha, han de considerar cuestiones como sus funcionalidades, características, sostenibilidad y compatibilidad (Hakopov, 2016). Es fundamental, además de la elección de las herramientas tecnológicas, la planificación para el desarrollo de los repositorios, teniendo en cuenta las pautas de gestión del conocimiento tanto generales como institucionales, la estructura de la información a resguardar dentro del repositorio, así como las materias o temáticas albergadas. Esto facilita que los usuarios puedan acceder a la información de manera rápida y de diferentes formas. Intrínseco a cualquier repositorio digital es que debe tener la característica de preservar la información (Hakopov, 2016).En la actualidad, la preservación de la información y su difusión se consideran un importante proceso informativo, en donde las tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones, así como los principios de acceso abierto (OA, open access), han sido fundamentales. Es de esta manera como los repositorios temáticos o institucionales han sido piedras angulares para el establecimiento del OA alrededor del mundo. Los repositorios digitales han devenido no solo en instrumentos para la preservación y gestión de la información (Borges, 2015), sino, además, en herramientas para la conservación de la memoria histórica; un ejemplo de lo anterior es la Biblioteca Virtual de Yucatán (2019), la cual alberga información de alrededor de 20.000 documentos. Con estos sistemas las instituciones han preservado y dado difusión a sus acervos, en especial las instituciones académicas y centros de investigación en diferentes países, como ejemplifican los casos de International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (Hakopov, 2016) o el de Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (Yabowork, 2017).De igual manera que en los ejemplos mencionados, el CIMMYT creó su primer repositorio institucional en 2011, con el sistema DSpace v1.7, donde se consideraría la iniciativa de acceso abierto, la cual se podría definir como acceso libre de forma gratuita, permanente y en línea, además de ser un medio que apoya a la visibilidad, para favorecer el acceso a la información (Piñeiro Molina, 2015). Con ello, CIMMYT daba acceso a la información de su acervo institucional, integrado por numerosos documentos propios de investigación y de memoria histórica.El repositorio se conformó, en sus inicios, por cinco colecciones públicas, que se encontraban abiertas a todos los interesados por la información del CIMMYT, además de contar con cinco colecciones privadas, relacionadas con información exclusiva para el personal del centro, las colecciones y la información fue organizada conforme a los programas de investigación de la institución, en donde solo se resguardaban documentos de literatura científica. Sin embargo, con el tiempo el repositorio evolucionó, no solo en tecnología, alcanzando la versión 5.4 de DSpace, que actualmente es utilizado, sino también en organización y contenidos, eliminando todos los materiales que no fuesen de acceso abierto y añadiendo documentos multimedia como fotografías y vídeos.Para 2014 se crearía el segundo repositorio institucional, utilizando el sistema Dataverse, versión 3.0, el cual se define como una aplicación web de código abierto, donde se conservan las premisas relacionadas con los sistemas de repositorios, como son: compartir, preservar y analizar los datos adquiridos de las investigaciones creadas por los científicos (Harvard University, Institute for Quantitative Social Science, 2020). En el caso específico de CIMMYT, para el resguardo de los conjuntos de datos generados dentro del centro.Teniendo en cuenta que Dataverse se considera, más que un repositorio, una red de repositorios, el CIMMYT cuenta actualmente con siete repositorios dentro de su red, siendo algunos de acceso abierto e incorporando otros con algunas restricciones motivadas por los acuerdos con los donantes del centro con cuyos fondos se realizan determinadas investigaciones (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, 2020).Para el CIMMYT, en su Plan Estratégico 2017-2022, dada la importancia que el CGIAR (consorcio del que CIMMYT es miembro) daría a los acervos digitales, se planteó lo siguiente:El CIMMYT ha asumido el compromiso de administrar de manera eficaz y eficiente los Bienes Intelectuales para que los resultados de la investigación sean diseminados a gran escala y se produzcan mayores impactos. Apoyamos cabalmente los Principios de Administración de los Bienes Intelectuales y la Política de Acceso Abierto y Administración de Datos del CGIAR, que son esenciales para diseminar los bienes públicos internacionales, resguardar y pro-mover el uso de los recursos genéticos y reforzar la capacidad de investigación.Utilizamos la Administración de Bienes Intelectuales como herramienta de diseminación de los resultados de la investigación como bienes públicos internacionales mediante diferentes esquemas de licenciamiento, repositorios de acceso abierto, canales de información específicos, capacitación, alianzas público/privadas e investigación participativa. Alentamos y trabajamos con nuestros colaboradores para que implementen los principios de acceso abierto y datos abiertos. (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo, 2017, p. 28) La estandarización de los repositorios en el CIMMYT ha crecido paulatinamente, incorporándose diferentes elementos a lo largo del tiempo, como el lenguaje controlado de la Organización de la Naciones Unidad para la Alimentación y Agricultura (FAO), AGROVOC, que es un tesauro multilingüe, centrado en la alimentación, la nutrición, la agricultura, la pesca, las ciencias forestales y el medio ambiente (Agricultural Information Management Standards -AIMS-, 2018). Este cuenta con alrededor de 8 millones de referencias bibliográficas referentes a las ciencias agronómicas (Celli y Keizer, 2016).Por otra parte, en México se publicaría la Convocatoria 2016 para Desarrollar los Repositorios Institucionales de Acceso Abierto a la Información Científica, Tecnológica y de Innovación, al amparo de la legislación nacional relacionada con la ciencia y la tecnología, además de la educación, cuyos objetivos eran el desarrollo, la vinculación y la diseminación de los productos científicos, tecnológicos y de innovación en territorio mexicano, donde el principal soporte serían las plataformas de acceso abierto. El Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología asumió esta tarea, teniendo como uno de sus resultados la creación del RN, el cual busca permitir el acceso y la disponibilidad de información en texto completo en formatos digitales para la consulta de la población en general (Tena Espinoza, 2018).El CIMMYT fue una de las instituciones dotadas con fondos en la mencionada convocatoria (Conacyt, 2017), desarrollando un proyecto de mejora de acuerdo a sus lineamientos. Entre las actividades ejecutadas, no solo se estableció la conexión de dos repositorios institucionales en simultaneidad al RN, por primera vez en México, sino que también se inició la utilización sistemática de ORCID, ya que funge como un identificador que ayuda a distinguir a los investigadores, además de garantizar el crédito por sus investigaciones (Taylor & Francis, 2020); esto fue realizado de forma simultánea con un análisis sobre posibilidades de conectividad entre ORCID y DSpace, buscando la estandarización de autores (Fernández, 2016). Aun no siendo las únicas actividades desarrolladas, estas constituyen las principales innovaciones del proyecto, que se revisarán a continuación.La principal innovación conseguida fue la conexión con el RN de los dos repositorios físicos del CIMMYT como si fuera un único repositorio lógico. Este proyecto fue el primero en México en llevar a cabo la conexión simultánea de más de un repositorio institucional al RN para su cosecha. Como innovación de carácter secundario y ámbito local, se estableció ORCID como el identificador de autor oficial de CIMMYT para sus repositorios. Previamente a este proyecto se disponía de solo unos pocos ORCID de científicos institucionales registrados y muchos de ellos no disponían de uno.Para conseguir la innovación principal se produjo un middleware que, simultáneamente, unificaba la conexión a ambos repositorios y adaptaba sus metadatos al formato requerido por el RN sin modificarlos en origen, lo que permite conservar las políticas de catalogación del CIMMYT, aunque no sean totalmente coincidentes con las del RN (por ejemplo, en la manera de registrar los nombres de autor). De esta manera, el middleware se conecta a los repositorios de publicaciones y datos mediante sus interfaces API-SOLR, extrae los metadatos requeridos, los transforma al formato apropiado para su consumo por el RN, compone el XML en formato OpenAIRE con los metadatos transformados y lo expone a través de una conexión OAI-PMH que es explotada por el RN para la cosecha.El plan inicialmente proyectado, ejecutado en la primera implementación del middleware, preveía la exposición de los meta-datos de ambos repositorios de manera combinada a través de una única conexión OAI-PMH. Sin embargo, en las pruebas de cosecha el Conacyt informó que el RN todavía no estaba preparado para diferenciar elementos de literatura o datos que vinieran combinados en un único XML Open-Aire. Esto motivó una modificación al proyecto en tiempo de ejecución, de manera que el middleware pasó a exponer por separado los metadatos de los repositorios de publicaciones y datos, ello a través de dos conexiones OAI-PMH.La innovación secundaria se consiguió gracias a la promoción del identificador ORCID entre los científicos del centro, colaborando con la organización a cargo de este identificador, que se prestó a enviar representantes al CIMMYT para llevar a cabo presentaciones y registros de nuevos autores. Por otra parte, el uso de ORCID favorece la visibilidad y el impacto de las publicaciones, debido a su amplia aceptación mundial, que lo ha llevado a ser un elemento vinculante entre producción científica y autores. Durante 2018, parte de los investigadores del CIMMYT crearon su identificador ORCID, por ser uno de los requisitos solicitados por parte de las editoriales en las cuales publicaban. Esto ocurrió en paralelo a las labores de promoción interna en las que se les dieron a conocer los beneficios de dicho identificador.Asimismo, también se llevaron a cabo tareas de obtención de identificadores ORCID cruzando información existente en diversos sistemas y publicaciones sobre artículos publicados que lo incluyesen, junto con la corroboración de las afiliaciones de los investigadores para asegurar la correcta asignación de identificadores para los autores.En el caso de la innovación principal, el resultado de las acciones ejecutadas fue la conexión de ambos repositorios institucionales al RN. Una vez superadas las pruebas de cosecha, el CIMMYT emitió al Conacyt un oficio explicitando que sus repositorios institucionales cumplen con los lineamientos técnicos y jurídicos requeridos, junto con los puntos de acceso OAI-PMH para su cosecha ininterrumpida. Este oficio se puede considerar la prueba del éxito de la innovación aplicada. Por otra parte, el hecho de que el RN ha estado cosechando de manera continua cifras incrementales de elementos de ambos repositorios, como se ejemplifica en la tabla 1 con los datos correspondientes al segundo semestre de 2019, da fe práctica de la funcionalidad desarrollada. Otro indicativo del éxito de la innovación incorporada es el reconocimiento por parte de la comunidad, constatado por la invitación hecha por el Conacyt a CIMMYT para que presentase el proyecto desarrollado en el seminario Entre Pares, en su edición de 2018 (Herrera de la Cruz, 2018). En cuanto a la innovación secundaria, en DSpace y a comienzos de 2018, solo se encontraban dos identificadores ORCID integrados en el RN. Para inicios de 2019, tras realizar la primera promoción del identificador y tener alrededor de 169 ORCID ingresados de manera manual, se consideró hacer una segunda promoción, esta vez implementando el programa Collect & Connect de ORCID (2020). Mediante este proceso y de la mano del envío de correos electrónicos al personal de la institución, se confirmaron 123 identificadores más.Por otra parte, se integraron de manera manual los ORCID de investigadores y colaboradores no pertenecientes a CIMMYT, los cuales fueron obtenidos mediante el cruce de información entre las diversas publicaciones y las bases de datos. Para finales de abril de 2019 se conseguirían 2096 identificadores. La evolución numérica mencionada certifica claramente el éxito de esta innovación.Como resultado de la ejecución de un proyecto de mejoras de sus repositorios institucionales, y como acreedor de financiación pública obtenida en proceso competitivo, el CIMMYT pudo llevar a cabo dos notorias innovaciones entre la diversidad de acciones planeadas en él. La principal innovación, consistente en la conexión en simultaneidad de los dos repositorios del centro al RN mediante un middleware que actúa como repositorio lógico único, tuvo como resultado la conexión efectiva, cuyo éxito se comprueba con la continua cosecha de nuevos elementos relativos tanto a publicaciones como a conjuntos de datos, por parte del RN.La innovación de carácter secundario aquí tratada, logró su objetivo de instaurar ORCID como el identificador de autor persistente institucional, llegando a conseguir y registrar más de dos mil de ellos hasta la fecha, lo que permite aprovechar los beneficios intrínsecos de un identificador con aceptación mundial, toda vez que ayuda a evitar problemas de otros identificadores aceptados por el Conacyt, en su mayor parte locales al entorno de la Administración Pública mexicana pero desconocidos por entidades fuera del país. Ambas innovaciones pueden servir de modelo para otras instituciones, de cualquier país, que dispongan de varios repositorios cuya cosecha conjunta sea un objetivo deseable.Agricultural Information Management Standards (AIMS) (2018).AGROVOC tesauro multilingüe de agricultura. http://aims.fao.org/es/ agrovoc. Amorim, R. C., Castro, J. A., Rocha da Silva, J. y Ribeiro, C. (2017). A comparison of research data management platforms: Architecture, flexible metadata and interoperability. Universal Access in the Information Society, 16(4), 851-862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-016-0475-y.","tokenCount":"2539"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54cbc3f8947e96b866bc51d66c56ec16","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4922df0d-a83f-49c0-b56b-9e341c14ef81/retrieve","id":"-598855713"},"keywords":["• P658 -1","2","1 Seeds Systems and Markets OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"0d7dac9e-3db0-4bb6-ba29-2fa7a65b8157","pagecount":"5","content":"With PIM support, Bioversity International and partners provided technical and policy support for the registration process for local varieties in Nepal and assisted farmers' associations in submitting registration proposals, leading to registration of eleven varieties of rice and beans. 3,000 farmers and eight farmers' cooperatives are already engaged in the distribution of these varieties, generating enhanced benefits for farming communities and increased crop diversity.The Nepalese farming system relies heavily on traditional crops for food security. The majority of farmers use their own saved seeds or seeds exchanged with other farmers, and the informal seed sector represents 90% of the national seed demand [1]. Conversely, less than 10% of the registered varieties are of local origin.After working for several years on participatory evaluations for selection of local crop varieties that have favorable characteristics, such as high yields and resistance to pests, diseases or drought, Bioversity International, in collaboration with Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) and Nepal's Seed Quality Control Center (SQCC), took on another task: facilitating the process of registering these varieties for improved income and resilience for farmers.Since 2013, Nepal's seed legislation already included registration provisions for local varieties to facilitate farmers' access to and marketing of high-quality local varieties. However, due to a lack of clear requirements and a cumbersome and lengthy registration process, many farmers and communities were still not able to register their varieties, leading to a risk of extinction of these varieties and loss of crop diversity [2].Bioversity and partners developed a straightforward and user-friendly registration template which they tested with farmers for five rice varieties. The template contains information about the history of the variety, its distinct characteristics (resistance to drought and/or disease, medicinal value, nutritional properties…) and phenotypic characters, seed availability, etc. Farmers can attach photos and videos. The template was endorsed by the SQCC in 2020 and uploaded to the SQCC website [3] for easy access by farmers.Farmers' organizations were then trained in identifying promising varieties, documenting their agronomic data and developing registration proposals. A consultation workshop on farmers' variety registration and commercialization was organized in December 2019 [4] and a national workshop on seed systems took place in February 2020; both events included farmers, representatives of community seed banks, researchers, development professionals, representatives of the private sector and policy makers.As a result of these efforts, 11 local varieties [2] (see [5]  [6] for examples) have been registered under Schedule D and are now available for scaling up, with 3,000 farmers and eight farmers' cooperatives already engaged in their distribution for enhanced benefit sharing to farming communities.• https://tinyurl.com/yzect4wv The Nepalese farming system relies heavily on traditional crops for food security. The majority of farmers use their own saved seeds or seeds exchanged with other farmers, and the informal seed sector represents 90% of the national seed demand [1]. Conversely, less than 10% of the registered varieties are of local origin.After working for several years on participatory evaluations for selection of local crop varieties that have favorable characteristics, such as high yields and resistance to pests, diseases, extreme cold or heat, drought or water logging, Bioversity International, in collaboration with Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) and Nepal's Seed Quality Control Center (SQCC), took on another task: facilitating the process of registering these varieties for improved income and resilience for farmers.Since 2013, Nepal's seed legislation already included registration provisions for local varieties (the so-called « Schedule D ») to facilitate farmers' access to and marketing of high-quality local varieties. However, due to a lack of clear requirements and a cumbersome and lengthy registration process, many farmers and communities were still not able to register their varieties, leading to a risk of extinction of these varieties and loss of crop diversity [2].Bioversity and partners developed a straightforward and user-friendly registration template which they tested with farmers for five rice varieties. The template contains information about the history of the variety, its distinct characteristics (resistance to drought and/or disease, medicinal value, nutritional properties…) and phenotypic characters, seed availability, etc. Farmers can attach photos and videos. The template was endorsed by the SQCC in 2020 and uploaded to the SQCC website [3] for easy access by farmers.Farmers' organizations were then trained in identifying promising varieties, documenting their agronomic data and developing registration proposals. A consultation workshop on farmers' variety registration and commercialization was organized in December 2019 [4] and a national workshop on seed systems took place in February 2020; both events included farmers, representatives of community seed banks, researchers, development professionals, representatives of the private sector and policy makers.As a result of these efforts, 11 local varieties [2] (see [5] [6] for examples) have been registered under Schedule D and are now available for scaling up, with 3,000 farmers and eight farmers' cooperatives already engaged in their distribution for enhanced benefit sharing to farming communities.","tokenCount":"804"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3783070763.json b/data/part_1/3783070763.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c7674ee7edabd3798412f494e61f6edde2812da5
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ea57ded0791f72f46466a8d6f4aeb92f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/af51e173-2ac6-45b1-9d24-35ac5e817c21/retrieve","id":"-2040853635"},"keywords":["• P662 -5","2","1 Governing Shared Landscapes OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"f86b3050-c0f3-4314-8815-2b71d9e4e06b","pagecount":"5","content":"Collaborating for Resilience(CoRe) approach is used to build effective coalitions of civil society and government agencies for pro-poor land governance.Multi-stakeholder platforms are increasingly recognized as important vehicles to build sustained dialogue among actors aiming to improve policy design and implementation. In the field of land and natural resource rights, the International Land Coalition has made a broad global investment in such platforms, designed to promote people-centered land governance through national engagement strategies (NES) in 22 countries. A key challenge concerns how to effectively engage government in the dialogue process to achieve maximum influence. ILC is partnering with Collaborating for Resilience to increase the capacity of national facilitators and ILC member organizations to convene and sustain high-performing multi-stakeholder platforms that accelerate progress in reforming and implementing policies and practices for people-centered land governance.The Collaborating for Resilience (CoRe) approach, developed by Worldfish in PIM phase 1 (Ratner and Smith 2014), provides a structured framework for understanding stakeholder interactions and organizing for social and institutional change.Applying this to the NES strategies has helped in designing an effective strategy, which requires a solid understanding of the national context, a well-developed vision of the appropriate role of the platform within this context, and a willingness to jointly evaluate and adapt approaches based on experience.Collaboration with CoRE has provided guidance on how to 1. Undertake a joint situation analysis of the scope for policy influence and associated policy implementation to bring about the desired change.2. Define the focus, role and composition of the NES platform appropriate to the national context. 3. Plan stages of NES development, evaluate progress, and adapt to changing conditions. (Ratner et al. 2018) At present 22 countries have invested in these platforms as part of their national engagement strategies, with that number expected to increase to 35 over the next few years.","tokenCount":"300"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3786411443.json b/data/part_1/3786411443.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9bfc94303c448b566918df21545442a76a5a1eac
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f31e307a705f1e44553dd0df10e7596","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9049112-cf64-4da6-a6fc-b45a2380c26c/retrieve","id":"705784648"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"292391ed-ee58-47de-b99e-c60b529961cc","pagecount":"2","content":"Follow Table 1 to make your information products open access in a timely basis.Peer-reviewed versions of journal articles Ideally, at the time of publication Latest: 6 months from publication.As soon as possible Latest: within 3 months of completion.As soon as possible Latest: within 6 months of completion.Self-published journals, books, reports, etc. Immediately.As soon as possible Latest: within 12 months of completion of data collection or appropriate project milestone, or within 6 months of publication of the information products underpinned by such data.As soon as possible Latest: within 3 months of completion.As soon as possible Latest: within 3 months of completion or publication.Computer software/applications/code Upon completion of software development.As soon as possible Latest: before or on publication of the information product.As per \"reports\" category of information product (core/corporate governance documents not currently addressed separately in the policy).Information products include, but are not limited to, peer-reviewed journal articles, books, book chapters, datasets, databases, policy briefs, conference papers, conference and workshop proceedings, posters, infographics, reports, working papers, video, audio, images, computer software, analysis tools. and toolkits.• Final information products released before October 2013• Limitations due to intellectual property rights-related considerations such as third party rights, intellectual property, farmers' rights, and traditional knowledge.• Limitations due to privacy, confidentiality, and security considerations.• Limitations due to the information content such as instability of product that will change, or sensibility and quality of the information. ","tokenCount":"228"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3787733701.json b/data/part_1/3787733701.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6e8f11e5c0c6f19542b7012d981ac5f92755b8f2
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3e45e670ac57b099bde57cfe680c6261","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c37a186-cf7e-422d-9065-58276ba03832/retrieve","id":"-1667927245"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b7c57abb-bb0d-4bc9-9618-5c7a979cc2aa","pagecount":"34","content":"Protocol for the determination of carotenoids, iron, and zinc in cassava leaves and products Determination of iron and zinc content of cassava roots, cassava leaves, and products made from cassava using the ICP-MS.• Weigh about 5-10 mg of sample into 2 mL Eppendorf tubes• Add 1 mL of a 1:1 mixture of 100% HNO 3 and 30% H 2 O 2 to the sample and vortex to mix thoroughly.• Heat the solution at 65 °C in a rotary evaporator for 30 min, and increase the temperature to 95 °C overnight.• After wet ashing add 1 mL of a solution of 5% HNO 3 and 1.0 µg/L Rhodium (Rh) to the contents of the Eppendorf tubes.• Shake the tubes in a rotary device for 3 hours to ensure sample has dissolved in the solution.• After 3 hours transfer 900 µL of a solution of 5% HNO 3 and 1.0 µg/L Rhodium (Rh) into a 15 mL Corning tubes.• Add 100 µL of the concentrated sample to the solution in the Corning tubes.• Insert the tubes in the auto-sampler of the ICP-MS and run the experiment.   Sample preparation using the Microwave Ashing Method• Weigh 50 mg of the samples into microwave tubes.• Add a mixture of 1 mL 100% HNO 3 , 200 µL Rhodium, and 800 µL distilled or bottled water to the mixture. (NB:Always add the water first to the sample before adding the acid).• Cap the tube very well to prevent escape of solutions during ashing. • Heat the sample in a microwave oven to a temperature of 200 °C for 15 min and allow the tubes to stay at 200 °C for 20 min.• Allow the microwave oven to cool, remove the samples, and transfer the into 15 mL Corning tubes.• Add 1800 µL of distilled water into different sets of Corning tubes and transfer 200 µL of the ashed sample into the tube. This is a dilution step.• Add 2 mL of 20% HNO 3 cleaning reagent to the empty microwave tubes, cap them very well, and ash at 200 °C for 15 min, and allow tubes to stay at that temperature for 20 min. This step cleans the microwave tubes.• Discard the acid in the tubes in a fume chamber and wash the tubes with distilled water.• Insert the tubes in the auto-sampler of the ICP-MS and run the experiment. Preparation of standards for calibration curve:Prepare concentrations of 5 µg/L, 10 µg/L, 50 µg/L, 100 µg/L, 150 µg/L, 200 µg/L, and 500 µg/L from a standard of a mix of common elements, using 5% HNO 3 + 1 µg/L Rhodium as diluent. Total volume of the standards should be 2 mL.Preparing 5 µg/L standard solution:• Using a micropipette, transfer 10 µL of the mix of common elements into a 10 mL Corning tube• Mix with 1990 µL of the diluent• Vortex to mix the solution well Determination of the iron content using iCheck Iron• Weigh approximately 10 g of the sample (i.e., wheat flour) into a 200 mL reagent bottle and add 90 mL distilled water to make a dilution factor of 10. Shake vigorously until the mixture is homogenous.• Inject 3.3 mL of distilled water into a dry additive vial that comes with the iCheck Iron test kit to solubilize it.• Inject 0.2 mL of the solubilized additive into the iCheck Iron reagent vial to activate it. A weak yellow color is observed in the vial after activation. Let the vial stand for about 5 minutes.• Inject 0.4 mL of the sample solution into the activated vial. If iron is present a red color will develop. This results from the reaction between iron in the sample and bathophenaltropin in the reagent vial.• Shake the vial with sample vigorously for 10 seconds every 15 minutes.• After one hour, centrifuge the vial for 1-2 minutes using manual centrifuge for complete separation of the organic and water phases inside the vial.• Make sure the vial is clean and that there is a clear upper phase visible inside the vial. Place the vial into the iCheck Iron device for the measurement of the iron content in the diluted sample.• The reading was multiplied by the dilution factor to obtain the iron concentration in the samples in mg/kg.• NB: Linear range of measurement of iCheck Iron = 1.5-12.0 mg/L• For detailed instructions see iCheck Iron User Manual and Measurement Step-by-step presentation Determination of the zinc content using iCheck Zinc• Pour into a 100 mL volumetric flask the zinc standard sample provided with iCheck Zinc case and top up to the 100 mL mark with distilled water. Shake until completely dissolved.• Transfer the standard solution into a 250 mL reagent bottle.• Add 2.4 g of preparation agent A (which comes with the iCheck Zinc Test Kit) to the standard solution and shake the bottle for about 10 seconds.• Incubate the sample with preparation agent A for 30 minutes with vigorous shaking of the bottle and its contents every 10 minutes. • Add 2.2 g of preparation agent B to the solution and swirl gently until completely dissolved. The solution is allowed to stand for 15 minutes. The cap of the bottle should be opened for 30 seconds to prevent the formation of foam.• Switch on iCheck Zinc device and set it to \"Standard Sample\" mode.• NB: The iCheck Zinc vials must be stored at 4 °C.Bring the vials out to room temperature at least 30 minutes before the analysis.• Insert new vial without the sample (blank vial) into iCheck Zinc device and press the measurement key. This is the blank.• Remove the vial and inject 0.5 mL of the sample solution treated with preparation agents A and B. Shake for 10 seconds.• Allow the vial to stand for 5 minutes after which it is inserted into the device and the reading for zinc determined.• iCheck reading was multiplied by the dilution factor to obtain the Zinc concentration in mg/kg.• NB: Linear range of measurement of iCheck Zinc = 0.5-3.0 mg/L• For detailed instructions see iCheck Zinc User ManualIn order for the ashed samples to be tested with iCheck Iron and Zinc the expected concentration with ashed cassava leaves solutions must be in the iCheck measurement range. The initial procedure with 10 mg of the dry cassava leaves for the wet ashing method yields an expected iron concentration of < 1 mg/L. Therefore a bigger sample was tested:First trial:• Weigh 200 mg of sample into 2 ml Eppendorf tubes• Add 1 ml of 1:1 mixture of 100% HNO 3 and 30% H 2 O 2 to the sample and vortex (Rhodium was not added to prevent any potential interference with colorimetric reaction in the iron reagent vial).• Heat the solution to 40 °C in a rotary evaporator• Note: Samples absorb the solution so that no liquid is in the tube = > no ashing possible.Second trial:• Weigh 200 mg of sample into 15 ml Falcon tubes.• Add 10 ml of 1:1 mixture of 100% HNO 3 and 30% H 2 O 2 to the sample and vortex.• Heat the solution to 40 °C in a rotary evaporator = > mixture foams strongly.• Slowly increasing the temperature prevents foaming, but condensation is observed on the tip of the falcon tube = > no ashing possible/ashing-process needs a very long period of time.Third trial:• Weigh 50 mg of sample into 2 ml Eppendorf tubes.• Add 1 ml of 1:1 mixture of 100% HNO 3 and 30% H 2 O 2 to the sample and vortex.• Heat the solution at first at 40 °C in a rotary evaporator = > mixture begins to foam strongly = > it's necessary to supervise the samples permanently (take out samples, shake down, slowly increase the temperature).• Increase the temperature to 95 °C overnight.• After wet ashing add 1 ml of a solution of 5% HNO 3 to the content of the Eppendorf tubes.• Shake the tubes in a rotary device for 3 hours to ensure dissolution of the sample in solution.• Note: The mixture with the cassava leaves turns greenbrown, the mixtures with cassava products turn light yellow.• For ICP-MS: transfer 890 µl of 5% HNO 3 + 10µl Rhodium (1 µg/l Rh) and 100 µl of the concentrated sample into a 15 ml Falcon tubes. Insert the tubes in the auto-sampler of the ICP-MS and run the experiment. Determination of iron content of cassava leaves, products, and the spinach standard from cassava using iCheck Iron• Dilute the ashed concentrated sample solution (see Third Trial in the previous section) 1:1 with distilled water (i.e., 800 µl of the concentrated sample + 800 µl distilled water).• Inject 0.4 ml of the diluted sample into the activated iCheck Iron vial, shake it for 10 sec and incubate for 5 min = > measure. Determination of zinc content of cassava leaves, products, and the spinach standard using iCheck ZincIn order to adjust the preparation agents amounts to the low sample amounts that result from cassava leaves ashing of 1-2 mL; the agents were prediluted. (NB: the standard recommended sample volume used for iCheck Zinc is 100 mL).• Prepare a solution of the Preparation Agents A+B:• Take 0.5 ml of the diluted sample (see the section above for iCheck Iron) and add 0.25 ml of the Preparation A solution = > shake for 10 sec = > incubate for 30 min (shake every 10 min).• Add 0.25 ml of the preparation agent B solution = > gentle swirl the sample tube (Caution: it will foam!) = > incubate for 15 min (repeat swirling until no new foam is formed).• Inject 0.5 ml of the sample-additive-solution into the vial = > invert = > incubate for 5 min = > measure.• The vial was measured after 5, 10, 15, 25, 30, 45 and 60 min of incubation. The red color is fully developed after 5 min and a background reaction is increasing with time leading to brown coloration. It is recommended to measure iron after 5 min.Determination of carotenoids in cassava leaves using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)• Weigh approximately 0.1-0.4 g of ground sample into 10 mL propylene tubes and solubilize the cells of the sample in distilled water overnight under refrigerated conditions.• Add 5 mL of a 3/2 v/v solution of n-hexane/ isopropanol to the samples in solution.• NB: The n-hexane contains 0.05% Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), an antioxidant to enhance extraction of the carotenoids.• Shake the tubes and the contents head-over-bottom in a rotary device for 15 min.• Centrifuge the tubes at a speed of 3800 rpm for 5 minutes.• After centrifuging use a dropping pipette to transfer the upper dark green organic layer (n-hexane) into new 20 mL extraction tubes ('A').• Add 5 mL of n-hexane/isopropanol to the tubes containing the more hydrophilic phase in the propylene tubes and repeat earlier steps.• Add 5 mL of 0.1M NaCl to the organic phase in the extraction tubes ('A').• Shake the tubes vigorously for 2 min and cover the tubes with a thick towel or put in the dark for 30 min.• After 30 minutes transfer the organic upper layer with a dropping pipette into new 20 mL extraction tubes ('B') and add 7.5 mL of n-hexane (containing 0.05% BHT) to the hydrophilic phase in the other extraction tubes ('A')• Shake the tubes (A) vigorously and put the tubes in the dark for 30 minutes.• After 30 minutes transfer the upper hexane/organic layer into extraction tubes \"B\".• Add 5 mL of n-hexane to extraction tube \"A\", shake the tubes very well, and put the tubes in a dark environment for 30 minutes.• After 30 minutes, transfer the upper organic phase to extraction tube \"B\". At this point the volume of the n-hexane organic phase is approximately 17 mL.• Top up the volume in the tube to the 20 mL mark with n-hexane containing 0.05% BHT; shake the tubes very well. Figure 12. Cassava leaves (in n-hexane/isopropanol) in rotary device.• Transfer 200 µL aliquots of the extracted sample in the organic phase into 5 mL propylene tubes.• Concentrate the samples in a sample concentrator by drying with nitrogen gas for about 10 min. A dry colored substance is obtained at the bottom of the tubes, with all the n-hexane gas evaporated.• Add 200 µL of isopropanol to the dry concentrated samples and vortex. Put the tubes in a sonicator bath for 5 minutes to further ensure that the contents in the tube are mixed thoroughly.• Centrifuge the tubes at 5000 rpm for 5 minutes.• After centrifuging transfer the aliquots using a dropping pipette into the injection vials of the HPLC.• NB: Care must be taken during the transfer so that air bubbles are not trapped in the cone of the vial. If air bubbles appear, tap the bottom of the vials gently to enable them escape.• Put injection vials into the autosampler of the HPLC and the analysis of carotenoids are run. The results and chromatogram are displayed on the screen of the computer connected to the HPLC.      Air bubble trapped at the bottom of vial.Determination of carotenoids in products (e.g., gari, dry cassava roots) made from cassava• Weigh approximately 1.0-1.5g of ground sample into 10 mL propylene tubes and solubilize the cells of the sample in distilled water overnight under refrigerated conditions.• Add 5 mL of a 3/2 v/v solution of n-hexane/ isopropanol to the samples in solution.• NB: The n-hexane contains 0.05% Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), an antioxidant to enhance extraction of the carotenoids.• Shake the tubes and the contents head-over-bottom in a rotary device for 15 minutes.• Centrifuge the tubes at a speed of 3800 rpm for 5 min.• After centrifuging use a dropping pipette to transfer the upper organic layer (n-hexane) into new 20 mL extraction tubes ('A').• Add 5 mL of n-hexane/isopropanol to the tubes containing the more hydrophilic phase in the propylene tubes and repeat earlier steps.• Add 5 mL of 0.1M NaCl to the organic phase in the extraction tubes ('A').• Shake the tubes vigorously for 2 min and cover the tubes with a thick towel or put in the dark for 30 min.• After 30 min transfer the organic upper layer with a dropping pipette into new 20 mL extraction tubes ('B') and add 7.5 mL of n-hexane (containing 0.05% BHT) to the hydrophilic phase in the other extraction tubes ('A').• Shake the tubes (A) vigorously and put the tubes in the dark for 30 min.• After 30 min transfer the upper hexane/organic layer into extraction tubes \"B\".• Add 5 mL of n-hexane to extraction tube \"A\", shake the tubes very well, and put the tubes in a dark environment for 30 min.• After 30 mins, transfer the upper organic phase to extraction tube \"B\". At this point the volume of the n-hexane organic phase is approximately 17 mL.• Top up the volume in the tube to the 20 mL mark with n-hexane containing 0.05% BHT; shake the tubes very well.• Transfer 1000 µL or 1 mL aliquots of the extracted sample in the organic phase into 5 mL propylene tubes.• Concentrate the samples in a sample concentrator by drying with nitrogen gas for about 10 min. A dry colored substance is obtained at the bottom of the tubes, with all the n-hexane gas evaporated.• Add 200 µL of n-hexane with 0.05% BHT to the dry concentrated samples and vortex. This makes a concentration factor of 5.• Put the tubes in a sonicator bath for 5 min to further ensure that the contents of the tubes are thoroughly mixed.• Centrifuge the tubes at 5000 rpm for 5 min.• After centrifuging transfer the aliquots using a dropping pipette into the injection vials of the HPLC.• NB: Care must be taken during the transfer so that air bubbles are not trapped in the cone of the vial. If air bubbles appear, tap the bottom of the vials gently to enable them escape.• Put injection vials into the auto-sampler of the HPLC and the analysis of carotenoids are run. The results and chromatogram are displayed on the screen of the computer connected to the HPLC.Determination of the total carotenoids content using iCheck Carotene• Weigh approximately 5 g of the sample (i.e., mashed cassava root) into a 50 mL falcon tube and add distilled water to 20 mL to make a dilution factor of 5. Shake vigorously until the mixture is homogenous.• Inject 0.5 mL of the sample solution into the new iCheck Carotene reagent vial.• Shake the vial with sample vigorously for 10 seconds and let it stand for at least 5 min.• If necessary centrifuge the vial for 1-2 minutes using manual centrifuge for complete separation of the organic and water phases inside the vial. • Make sure the vial is clean and that there is a clear upper phase visible inside the vial. Place the vial into the iCheck Carotene device for the measurement of the carotenoids content in the diluted sample.• The reading was multiplied by the dilution factor to obtain the iron concentration in the samples in mg/kg.• NB: Linear range of measurement of iCheck Carotene = 0.25-25.0 mg/L• For detailed instructions see iCheck Carotene User Manual and Measurement Step-by-step presentation• ICP-MS results with either wet or microwave ashing did not yield the concentrations expected in the reference material of spinach: wet weight Fe 12-5 mg/kg and dry weight 200-800 mg/kg. It is assumed that there is 94% water in the wet spinach sample.• Repeating wet ashing with higher sample amount (increase from 8 mg to 50 mg) improved recovery to 11.5-12.8 mg/kg in wet spinach samples and 192-207 mg/kg in dry samples.• iCheck Iron measurements of the ashed samples after 5 min on average measured 150% more than ICP-MS.Which bring the values closer to the expected. This shows potential for using iCheck Iron to quantify iron in cassava leaves upon digesting the organic matter with wet ashing.• The reference sample of spinach expected TC content of 43-62 mg/kg of wet weight (717-1033 mg/kg dry weight) while mixed vegetables reference sample has expected TC content of 98-110 mg/kg in dry weight.• HPLC showed low recovery for both reference samples: mixed vegetables: 42 mg/kg and wet spinach: 14-20 mg/kg.• There is significant interference of chlorophylls with iCheck Carotene measurements in leaves leading to overestimated results.• However iCheck Carotene measured results for reference samples are higher than for HPLC and come closer to the expected values.• HPLC also has very low recovery of TC in cassava roots and products (ground and dry cassava): < 0.1-8 mg/kg. iCheck Carotene shows 3-12 mg/kg with same samples.• Cassava is grown in areas where mineral and vitamin deficiencies are widespread, especially in Africa. A marginal nutrient status increases the risk of morbidity and mortality.• In sub-Saharan Africa, three million children under the age of five suffer total or partial blindness caused by vitamin A deficiency. In Nigeria, a nationwide food consumption and nutrition survey revealed that 29.5% of children under 5 years of age were vitamin A deficient. Vitamin A deficiency is a major public problem in over 75 countries in the developing world. Vitamin A deficiency in the early stage leads to night blindness and xeropthamia which may ultimately progress to blindness. Beta-carotene, the most potent and widespread form of pro-vitamin A, is the predominant carotenoid in cassava, occurring as a mixture of trans-and cis-forms. Trans-β-carotene acts as antioxidant that helps prevent heart attacks and cancer, lower cataract risks and muscular disorders and enhance the immune system.• Breeding for high levels of beta carotene, require the use of methods for carotenoid quantification that require highly skilled and specialized personnel and expensive lab equipment with specific chemicals. Besides the qualitative screening method using the color chart, HarvestPlus has recommended HPLC as reference method and the spectrophotometer reading for Total Carotene Content (TCC). A cost-effective, simple, user-friendly, inexpensive, and rapid screening method introduced as BioAnalyt iCheck portable spectrophotometer iCheck has been used to effectively screen large sample sizes.","tokenCount":"3316"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e7157e015b25b0cfb19895c2236809ca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0de7ee94-5715-4e44-9025-b30a0d1cc7ed/retrieve","id":"158586162"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5872a163-f044-4029-bd82-f3898c8352ba","pagecount":"37","content":"Pakistan is rich in Farm Animal Genetic Resources (FAnGR). The FAnGR inventory of Pakistan includes (in millions) cattle ( 23), dairy buffaloes (25), sheep (25), goats (53), chicken (346), equines (5) and camels (1). There is a small population of yaks, too in Northern Areas of Pakistan. Animals are generally raised for subsistence in small sized mixed farming system. About 100 breeds of these FAnGR have been identified but most of the population is still described as non-descript. These genetic resources are very important for food and agriculture in the country. Livestock sector being an important subsector of Agriculture contributes 39% to GDP in agricultural value added but more importantly 30-35 million rural population is engaged in livestock raising.Buffalo is the preferred dairy animal with Nili-Ravi and Kundhi being the main breeds. Nili-Ravi from Punjab is also raised in buffalo colonies around the country. Nili, Ravi and Azi-Kheli are the other buffalo breeds with negative population trend. Cattle have traditionally been raised for producing bulls for draught purpose and population of many breeds is reducing due mainly to mechanization. Of the fifteen cattle breeds, the two famous dairy breeds (Sahiwal and Red Sindhi) are under a pressure of crossbreeding for dairy purpose. Holstein is the most commonly used exotic breed for producing dairy crossbreds. There are limited attempts to produce beef crossbreds/synthetics because present beef prices do not support these strategies. Production system is smallholder subsistence with the exception of crossbreds, which are used for commercial purpose to fill the fluctuating seasonal demand of milk. Milk and meat availability per capita is 160 litres and 12 kg, per annum, respectively.Sheep are raised for mutton and wool. Population growth is very slow due to preference of goat meat over sheep and reduction in demand of wool due to availability of artificial fibre. Of the 33 breeds documented, population trend of most sheep breeds is not available. However, generally it is believed that purebreds are decreasing due to nonexistence of any breed society/association promoting or developing any of the sheep breeds. Attempts to produce synthetics in the past did not succeed. Goats are mainly raised for meat. Goat meat is the most preferred meat and so the population trend of the species is very high. There are 36 documented breeds of goat.Camel is animal of people of deserts, coastal areas and mountains. Population is almost static (may be slightly negative trend). With the exception of few animals of Bactrian type, all the other population (20 breeds) belong to Dromedary category. Camel milk and meat is eaten in the country but general acceptance is low. Horses have traditionally been symbol of pride and main utility is sport (trend pegging, racing, dance etc). Horse driven tongas are reducing in number and so the population of the species. Population estimates on the strains are not available. Both mules and donkeys are used for draught. Donkeys need characterization. Population has a positive trend.Indigenous chicken have Aseel, Naked Neck and Desi as the known breeds along with a synthetic Lyallpur Silver Balck. Aseel is mainly used for cockfighting while others are used for eggs and meat. Commercial chicken industry has flourished at a very fast pace but still 40% of eggs and 25% of chicken meat is produced by scavenging chicken under subsistence system of production.Among the wild relatives of FAnGR, yak has a feral population in Northern Areas. There are no wild relatives of chicken. Pheasants, quails and peacocks are present under wild conditions. At least half a dozen varieties, each of sandgrouses, pigeons and doves have also been documented. For ducks, at least a dozen species migrate to Pakistan for spending milder winter. Urial (Afghan, Punjab and Ladakh) and Marco Polo sheep are the two wild relatives of domestic sheep while Markhor (Kashmir, Astor, Suleiman, Chitral and Kabul) and Ibex (Siberian and Sindh) are the two wild relatives of domestic goats. Two more species of family Caprinae present in Pakistan are the Blue Sheep (Bharal) and Goral, which are neither true sheep nor true goat and are found mainly in sanctuaries. Of these caprines, Punjab Urial, Sindh Ibex, Chiltan Markhor and Suleman Markhor are considered endemic to the country. There are 14 national Parks and 99 wildlife sanctuaries apart from other protected areas but population of wild relatives in many instances has not improved to expectations due some extant to Afghan war in the recent past and more extent to deterioration of ranges and habitats and also to poaching. Trophy hunting is being adopted successfully as a resource generation and capacity building strategy for conserving some of these wild relatives but many of them are still in the category of endangered or at least, vulnerable.Breed characterization and economic valuation, almost in all the species is needed. Complete inventory of AnGR is needed to prioritize breeds for conservation. Costeffective performance recording schemes involving farmers are required to help improve utilization. Farmers' demand for superior germplasm can only be met if recording and genetic evaluation infrastructure gets priority both at public and private level. This would also require capacity building to remodel the government livestock farms to include more breeds for conservation and development. International support is needed for higher education in molecular genetics & computational breeding. Poverty alleviation through livestock & poultry raising in rural areas needs attention in development programs. Development of disease free farms/zones will help improve sustainable utilization of indigenous AnGR for future.Farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) of Pakistan are composed of eight main species i.e., cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, camels, horses, donkeys (& mules) and chicken. Other species of poultry such as ducks/geese, pigeons, peacocks, partridges etc, although less well documents, are also used for food. A small population of yaks is also found in the Northern Areas. Wild relatives of sheep and goats are also present in the country. Population estimates from the last two census and recent estimates are presented in Table 1.There are 24.8 million buffaloes in Pakistan. They belong to river type buffaloes. There are five established breeds (Table 2). Nili-Ravi and Kundhi are the two main breeds. Nili-Ravi being buffalo breed of riverine Punjab while Kundhi being the main breed of irrigated Sindh province (Figure 1). Nili and Ravi were distinguished as separate breeds until 1963 when their mixing was acknowledged officially. Nili and Ravi, however, still exist as separate breeds, also. The fifth breed is Azi-Kheli, which is mainly localized in the Swat valley in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP). Population estimates for this breed are based on the interviews with farmers and livestock professionals of the area. It may also be mentioned that a large segment of buffalo population (about 45%) in the country is described as non-descript because animals do not fulfil the precise phenotypic characters of any specific breed. These breeds are endemic to the country with the exception of Nili, which has been reported in India as well.Cattle population of Pakistan is estimated at 23.3 millions (Table 1). There are 15 breeds of cattle in the country (Table 3). Out of these breeds, Red Sindh and Sahiwal are well known internationally as tropical dairy cattle breeds. A small population of Sahiwal is also known to be present in Kenya, India, Bangladesh and Australia where it was exported for keeping as purebred and for the production of crossbreds/synthetics. Cholistani and Tharparkar are other two important breeds with dairy production potential. The Lohani, Achai and Gibrali are small sized breeds that can produce adequately under sub-hilly, subsistence production setups. Non-descripts are generally grouped as Desi. Draft cattle breeds include Bhagnari, Dajal, Dhanni, Kankraj and Rojhan (Table 3). Hissar and Hariana have a very limited population. They are sometimes grouped as Hissar-Hariana and are still used for Ox races. Gibrali shares hometract with Afghanistan (Figure 2).Population estimates for sheep in Pakistan are 24.6 millions. Thirty-three breeds of sheep are presented in Table 4. Different reports do not agree on the number of breeds. Hasnain (1985), for example, reported 25 breeds while Isani and Baloch (1996) have presented information on 31 breeds. Disagreement may be in the nomenclature as well as in the phenotypic similarities. Distribution of sheep breeds across provinces and agroecological zones is quite heterogenous (Figure 3). Breeds can be grouped into thin-tailed (Baltistani, Buchi, Cholistani, Damani, Hissardale, Kaghani, Kail, Kajli, Kali, Kooka, Lohi, Pahari, Poonchi, Sipli and Thalli) or fat-tailed (Balkhi, Balochi, Bibrik, Dumbi, Gojal, Harnai, Hashtnagri, Khijloo, Kohai Ghizar, Latti, Michni, Rakhshani, Tirahi and Waziri).Synthetics developed in the last 40 years include thin-tailed Baghdale and Ramghani and fat-tailed Pak-Awassi and Pak-Karakul breeds. Some public institutions still keep some of these breeds. Rambouillet crossbreds continue to breed and rebreed in northern Punjab and eastern part of NWFP but population estimates are not available. Also, a flock of Hissardale, received as a share at the partition in 1947 is being maintained at a Government farm. There may still be other breeds/strains available in the country but not yet documented. About 1/3 rd of these breeds (Balkhi, Balochi, Bivarikh, Buchi, Hernai, Kachhi, Kaghani, Kajli, Karakul, Lohi, Salt Range, Sipli and Thalli) are found on government owned livestock farms, while others are not. Among the exotic breeds having been reported on Government stations are Afghani, Awassi, Karakul and Rambouillet.There are 52.8 million goats in Pakistan (Table 1). Status of goat breeds is not different from that of sheep. Consensus on the number of goat breeds is yet to be reached. Table 5 enlists 36 breeds reported by different workers. Home-tracts are presented in Figure 4. Population estimates are not available for all the breeds. Estimates from the livestock census of 1996 are also presented along with the information from DAD-IS when such estimates were not available. Population trend is difficult to present but general believe is that number of purebreds is reducing due to lack of any pure-breeding program. Comparison of census from 1986 and 1996 could provide population trend for at least some of the breeds but such information is not available for all the breeds. There are no imported breeds of goats in Pakistan except Angora breed that is kept as a pet by rich people. Breeds developed by crossing with exotics are not many. Pak-Angora (Angora x Hairy) was developed in the 60's in Punjab and is limited to a research station in few hundreds. Major breeding objective for almost all breeds is goat-meat (locally categorized as mutton). Milk is secondary objective in breeds such as Beetal, Dera Din Panah and Nachi of Punjab and Kamori of Sindh province. Average milk production is 2-3 litres daily. Many of the goat breeds have long hair, especially those residing in milder habitats. Teddy and Barbari are most prolific with number of kids as high as six per kidding. Out of these breeds only Beetal, Dera Din Pannah, Hairy, Kamori, Nachi and Teddy have been reported to have a flock or two on Governmental research stations.Camel population in Pakistan is 0.74 million with slightly negative trend in population number in the last decade (Table 1). With the exception of few heads in the Northern Areas where two humped camels have been reported, all the breeds and strains belong to one humped (dromedary) type (Table 6). Previously only four breeds (Bikanari/Mahra/Merecha, Sindhi, Bagri/Booja and Mountain camel) of dromedary camel were reported in Pakistan. However, in a recent report (Isani and Baloch, 2000), 20 breeds of dromedary camel have been reported. Seven breeds (Brahvi, Kachhi, Kharani, Lassi, Makrani, Pishin, and Rodbari) are found in Balochistan four (Gaddi, Ghulmani, Khader and Maya) in NWFP, five (Bagri, Brela/Thaloch, Cambelpuri, Kala-chitta and Marecha) in Punjab and four (Dhatti, Kharai, Larri/Sindhi and Sakrai) in Sindh province (Figure 5). Phenotypic characters of these breeds have been described but ambiguity still exists as if they were really breeds or variants of few breeds separated by areas/tribes.Horse population is estimated as 0.32 million (Table 1) and has been decreasing over the years. Breeds such as Balochi, Heerzai, Makra, Pak-thoroughbred and Waziri have been reported. Yet, many other varieties such as Kakka, Kajlan, Morna and Shien, are raised by various families (Table 7). In many such cases relationship to a male or a female is kept close (linebreeding). Army stud farms raise draught horses such as Suffolk, Perchiran etc for the production of mules. Arab breeds are also raised here for producing racehorses. Most common horse, however, is Desi (local). Specimens of Anmol have also been reported but such claims need conformation. Near the Afghan border in NWFP and Balochistan, Afghan horses are also seen.Estimated population of donkeys is 4.13 million (Table 1) with a positive trend. There are no defined breeds, but by stature, two may be easily distinguishable; the black large sized donkey and small light grey (the most common one). Mules also have a positive population trend. Their estimated population is 2.34 million.Commercial chicken have many strains of layers and broilers imported as parent and grandparent flocks. Indigenous chicken is predominantly Desi (local) mainly as a village scavenging bird. Aseel breed is locally available as fighting chicken while Ring-neck (naked neck) breed is also common Table 8). Breeds such as Fayoumi and Rhode Island Red are imported for crossing and raising as purebreds for semi-commercial setups or for raising under rural subsistence set up. The Lyallpur Silver Black breed developed few decades ago is confined to a research station only with very limited distribution. Domestic ducks (Mallard and Pekin breeds) are found in every town of the country. They are raised for subsistence. The breed wise population estimates of ducks are not available. FAO (2002) reported that population of ducks is 4 millions in Pakistan. Similarly, guinea fowls (locally called 'titri') are common in villages and towns but population estimates are not available for the species. Peacocks (Indian blue peafowl) are found mainly in Sindh and AJK along with few spots in Punjab as wild birds. They are, however, kept as pet all over Pakistan. Quails (little bustard quail and yellow-legged button quail) are common especially in the rice growing areas of Punjab and Sindh. Five varieties of pheasants have also been documented (Roberts, 1991) in Pakistan. Nineteen wild ducks have been documented in Pakistan (Table 10). Many of them are migratory. Similarly, many of the pigeons, doves and snadgrouses (Roberts, 1991) are endemic to Pakistan (Table 11).Yak (Bos grunniens or Poephagus grunniens) is mainly found in the Northern Areas of Pakistan at an altitude of 3000 to 7000 m asl. Official statistics (GOP, 1996) reported a population of 17,000 distributed in five districts of Northern Areas with Skardu being most populated (7045 animals). Kreutzmann (2003) summarized situation for year 2000 and presented higher estimates. Just for Baltistan, estimate were about 20,000 purebreds and 5500 hybrids. These reports indicate that probably a feral yak population is also available in the Northern Areas.Among the wild relatives of FAnGR, two major kinds of relatives, apart from the Yak and some poultry species discussed above, are those of sheep and goat.Taxonomic classification puts these relatives under subfamily caprinae of bovidae family (Table 12 &13). The Argali (Ovis ammon) and Urial (Ovis vignei) are the two wild relatives of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) found in Pakistan while markhor (Capra falconeri) and Ibex (Capra ibex) are the two wild relatives of domestic goats (Capra hircus). Apart from these four wild relatives, Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), the blue sheep and Goral (Naemorhedus goral) are the fifth and sixth relatives (Figure 6, 7). For taxonomy of some species of wild sheep, Hiendleder et al. (2002) have provided evidence based on mitochondrial DNA analyses. Species in Caprinae subfamily are enlisted in Table 12. It may be worth mentioning that Bharal is called blue sheep because its head and upper parts of body are brownish grey with tinge of slaty blue (underside and inside legs are whitish).It has previously been categorized as Ovis nayaur (http://www.nmnh.si.edu/gopher-text/vert/mammals.txt) but now it is considered more closer to goat than sheep. Roberts (1997) described the similarities to and differences from sheep and goats. Animals resemble true sheep with horns sweeping out and back, but do not have a beard nor a potent body odor as in goats. They have goat-like characteristics as well, with a broad flat tail, black and white markings on their forelegs, and have some skull features typical of the goat. True sheep have preorbital and interdigital glands on all feet, whereas goats lack preorbital glands and have interdigital glands only on their forefeet, if they have them at all. Blue sheep either have rudimentary preorbital and interdigital glands or none at all (Grizimek, 1972). Goral (Naemorhedus goral) is a goatelope. These relatives are listed in Table 13 along with their population estimates.The Marco Polo sheep is restricted to Hunza valley and is endemic to the country (Figure 6). Estimates vary between 45 and 300 animals. Khunjerab National Park in the Northern Areas has these animals. Margalla hills national park, near Islamabad has about 100 animals of Goral sheep. NWFP also inhabits some population. Bharal is found in the Baltistan area of Northern Areas and is also found in the Khunjerab National Park. Population estimates are few hundreds. Pakistan inhabit three kinds of Urial (Figure 6). Afghan Urial is found in Balochistan and NWFP. Punjab Urial is found in Salt Range area of Punjab province (and is endemic to the country) while Ladakh Urial is the third kind and is found in Northern Areas. Total Urial population in Pakistan is estimated at 10-12 thousands.There are five kinds of markhor named after the places they are found in Pakistan viz. Kashmir (or Pir Panjal markhor or Chitral markhor), Astor (or Gilgit), Suleiman, Kabul and Chiltan (Figure 7). Total population is estimated at 2500-3000. Kashmir markhor is found in Chitral and AJK with main concentration in the sanctuary called Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP). Astor subspecies is found in Gilgit region on both sides of Astor river up to south-western Baltistan. The Suleiman type is mainly restricted to mountain ranges immediately to the north and east of Quetta in Balochistan province and Toba Kakar range, north of Hindu Bagh near Afghan border (Roberts, 1997). The Chiltan markhor is restricted to Balochistan while Kabul is near Afghan border in NWFP. The Siberian Ibex is restricted to colder climate of Northern Areas especially the northern Hunza and Khunjerab valleys. The Sindh Ibex on the other hand is found in mountain ranges of southern Balochistan from Makran coastal range at Pasni right across to Sindh Kohistan and Kirthar Range in the east. Kirthar National Park in Sindh province inhabits few hundreds of these (GOP, 1999). Of the five kinds of markhor, Suleman and Chiltan are considered endemic or near-endemic (http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/MammalsofPakistan/mammalsofPakistanmain.htm).Buffalo is the main dairy species of Pakistan. About 65% of milk produced in the country comes from buffaloes. Their estimated share in the red meat supply is 32% and in draught power about 2%. Distribution of buffaloes across provinces is not uniform. About 59% of them are found in Punjab while Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan share 34, 6 and 1% population, respectably. Milk and meat produced by buffaloes amount to 18,617 and 565 thousand tones, respectively (Table 14). General production system is small farming subsistence system. It is, however, changing gradually towards semi-commercial and commercial setup. Buffalo colonies have developed and expanded around big cities. Many have kept pace with the expanding human population. Colonies such as Landhi around Karachi inhabit quarter of a million buffaloes. Buffalo milk is preferred over cow milk due to its high fat contents. Per capita availability of milk is 160 liters (Table 15).Most of the buffaloes in buffalo colonies around the country belong to Nili-Ravi breed (Nili and Ravi as separate breeds as well) with the exception of colonies in Sindh province where local Kundhi has about one third of the share. Kundhi is also raised in adjoining Balochistan but number of Kundhi buffaloes compared to Nili-Ravi in buffalo colonies is very small. Buffaloes (in their 2 nd to 5 th lactation) are purchased from central and southern Punjab and taken to the colonies around the country including AJK but are rarely bred for next lactation. This is because feeding for the dry period is uneconomical. Most of the buffaloes taken to Sindh get slaughtered after completion of lactation. However, local Kundhi buffaloes go back to interior of the province for recycling i.e. getting pregnant again to produce next lactation. Calves from the freshly calved buffaloes taken from Punjab are either left with the producers or get slaughtered in the first week of their age at the destinations. In the Punjab, situation is different in buffalo colonies. Only male calves get slaughtered after first few weeks of their age while female calves are retained as replacements. Similarly, dry buffaloes are slaughtered only if they were poor producer or if they had reproductive or other problems.As farm size is very low (80% of buffaloes are raised in herd size of less than 10) and most common system is subsistence system of production (FAO, 1987), organized recording and genetic evaluation program are not in place. A limited progeny-testing program in Nili-Ravi buffaloes at field level was started in 1985 in the central Punjab. So far more than 300 bulls have been tested (Chaudhry, 2002a). Although accuracy of these evaluations has been low and evaluations have been delayed, however, such institutionalized efforts can be initiated in other breeds if technical and other capacity building assistance is provided.Government farms and experiment stations have few hundred breeding buffaloes (along with their calves and young stocks) intended for experimentation and production of males for Artificial Insemination. At present AI is available to about 5% of buffalo population in Punjab and to a lesser percentage in Sindh province. Semen production units of Qadirabad and Kalurkot collect Nili-Ravi semen and SPU at Karachi collects Kundhi buffalo semen. None of the Government farms, however, has Nili, Ravi or Azi-Kheli breeds. As such, there in no conservation program for any of the breeds. Although such efforts might be needed for Azi-Kheli, Ravi and Nili breeds in the given order of priority.Cattle have traditionally been bred to produce bullocks for ploughing and other on-farm operations. Fifteen breeds of cattle (generally) have specific hometracts with some overlapping in some cases. Males of all the breeds are used for draught purpose (including ploughing). Exception may be less-thrifty Sahiwal males. Dhanni is considered best of all the draught breeds as it is taken away from its hometract for raising as purebred and even for crossing. Role of cattle to produce bullocks for work has been decreasing over the years (Table 16). Cattle share 1/4 th of the milk produced in the country and almost 28% of the red meat produced in the country. Total milk supplied by cattle is 8,511 thousand tones while estimated meat production is 495 thousand tones (Table 14).Of the total cattle in Pakistan 42% are present in Punjab while Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan share 30, 22 and 6% of the population, respectively. Herd size in cattle is small as 76% of cattle are raised in herd size of less than 10; only 2.5% are raised in herd size of greater than 50. Most common production system is raising for subsistence in rural irrigated areas (FAO, 1987). Dairy cattle crossbreds of Friesian and Jersey have a significant population (15%) in the country. Breeding policy allows crossbreeding of nondescript cattle with Friesian in irrigated and with Jersey in rain-fed areas. Yet, mainly Sahiwal breed has been under pressure for the production of such crossbreds. Breeds other than Holstein and Jersey have been used but general preference is for Friesian. Productivity of these crossbreds is double than the local Sahiwal with reduced age at first calving and better calving interval but productivity is quite variable to managemental conditions such as feed/fodder availability and health cover. Their general role, however, has been to compensate seasonal fluctuation of milk availability in the buffaloes dairying under intensive production setups. Semen for the crossbreeding program has been both imported and locally produced in the Governmental farms of exotic cattle. Three of the four provinces (except Sindh province) have nucleus herds for exotic Friesian. Attempts have also been made to distribute purebred Friesian bulls to the farmers but mortality in such cases has been high due to poor adaptability.Cattle crossbreeding for beef have also been attempted. Semen of Charolais and Simmental has been used for experimental purposes but to a very limited scale. The attempt to produce a local beef breed resulted in Narimaster (37.5% Bhagnari and 62.5% Australian Droughtmaster) but population of the new breed has not exceeded few hundreds animals and its adoption by the farmers is yet to be tested. Growth rate in the synthetic has been reported to be much lower than the standards of beef breed (Khan and Khan, 1999). Recently, interest in producing beef crossbreds for special sacrificial occasions has risen. Semen of Charolais, Simmental, Angus and Brown Swiss breeds is being used for this purpose. Yet, low prices for beef in the local market discourages such adventures.Government owned livestock farms inhabit Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Bhagnari and Thari breeds. Few animals of Dhanni and Lohani breeds are available at one of the research facilities. Sahiwal is the most common among all the cattle breeds at the Government Farms but breedable cows are less than 5000 animals at these farms. Breed improvement programs for local cattle have almost been absent in the past few decades. Earlier attempts to record and improve cattle include a herdbook scheme in Dhanni cattle breed and later to a limited extent in Sahiwal breed. Institutional recording and genetic selection is attempted for Sahiwal breed and efforts are underway to expand such a program at farmer level. About 100 bulls have been tested so far on the basis of first lactation milk yield of their daughters (Chaudhry, 2002a). Semen availability at farmer level has been possible mainly for Sahiwal breed and to a very limited extent for Red Sindhi. All other breeds are bred naturally. AI has been available to about 10% of cattle population but mainly it is directed to crossbreeding instead of pure breeding. Technologies such as ET are at experimental level only.There is no formal attempt to conserve any of the local cattle breeds. The importance of indigenous breeds for ploughing and load-carrying reducing due to mechanization (Table 16). Unless breed-wise statistics are collected and then monitored periodically, it might be too late to have any in situ conservation attempt. For Sahiwal breed, Punjab Government is initiating a conservation program in few districts of southern Punjab. Institutional herds do provide an opportunity for in situ conservation. Yet, more breeds needs to be included at these facilities with adequate population size. Farmers' preference for Friesian cattle crossbreds is generally recognized but any sustainable program for the production of desirable crossbreds (with respect to level of exotic inheritance) is lacking. Even supply of semen for artificial insemination from genetically superior bulls is very limited for breeds like Sahiwal as more than 90% of cows are bred naturally.About 43% of sheep reside in Balochistan. All sheep breeds produce coarse wool and are used for mutton. They are raised in mixed flocks with goats. Separate sheep flocks are also raised. Milk is important in breeds such as Damani and Kachhi yet, quantity is about 1 litre daily for a lactation period of 4-6 months (Wahid, 1982). Wool from breeds such as Kaghani and Kari is finer than the others but still not fine enough to meet the domestic needs of fine wool. Sheep population has not shown growth rate similar to that of goats. Droughts in sheep raising areas such as those in Balochistan along with the preference for goat meat may be two major reasons for a slow growth of sheep population. Attempts to improve wool quality towards fine include production of a Baghdale (Hissardale x Damani x Rambouillet) and Ramghani (Kaghani x Rambouillte). Kachhi and Awassi were crossed to produce Pak-Awassi and Kachhi and Karakul were crossed to produce Pak-Karakul breeds but these synthetics could not gain importance with farmers and are now restricted to few research stations. Crossbreeding between Afghani (brought by Afghan refugees) and Salt Range has also been reported.Experiment stations with the Government inhabit few breeds from where rams are distributed to interested farmers to a very limited extent. Experimental AI has been reported for few breeds such as Lohi only at research stations. Recording is also nonexisting at farmer level. There is no breed improvement program for any sheep breed except upgradation of Kaghani with Rambouillet in NWFP. Breed associations/societies do not exist.Goat population is more evenly distributed among provinces than other species. Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and NWFP have 37, 24, 21 and 18% population, respectively. Goat meat is the most preferred meat in the country as it fetches the highest price. Goat hair is also used for preparing hand woven rugs by poor communities. Annual rate of increase in goat population is highest among all the ruminant species. Only fresh meat is sold. Hundred of thousand goats are sacrificed on religious occasions, especially on Eid. Breeds such as Beetal and Kamori are preferred for sacrificial purposes. Teddy, the most prolific and one of the smallest breeds is most common as well. Grazing alone and grazing with provision of some fodder is the most common system of feeding. Concentrate feeding does not exist. The only synthetic breed, Pak-Angora (Angora x Hairy) developed in the 60's did not get popularity at farmer level and is restricted to a research station. There is no conservation program for any of the goat breeds in any of the four provinces. Government farms inhabit breeds such as Beetal, Dera Din Pannah, Hairy, Kamori, Nachi and Teddy. Beauty competition in animal shows does include goat. Goat milk competitions are also included at these shows where Beetal is the usual winner. Breeding is natural. Semen is not produced for any of the goat breeds for AI or any other purpose. Farmers preference for superior germplasm varies across different agroecological zones. Government livestock farms are source of superior males but their contribution in the development of breeds is negligible.Camel raising is part of socio-economic culture in coastal areas, arid deserts and mountainous regions. Most of the population (44%) reside in Balochistan. Camel meat and milk are not preferred products in general but communities raising them relish these products adequately. A wide variation exits in the productivity of camels (Khan and Nizamani, 2004). The nomads and people residing in remote desert areas consume fresh raw or soured camel milk. Camel meat is also consumed on religious ceremonies such as Eid. Camel is also used as a pack animal. It is used not only to carry loads but also water on its back. Wells in deserts are very deep and camels draw drinking water from these wells. Heavy loaded cart pulling by camel is commonly seen in cities. Agricultural commodities, fuel wood and other commodities are often carried to city markets by camel-driven carts. It is used for driving Persian wheels in irrigated areas and for ploughing. Edible oil extraction using camel power is also common. Hide is used for making special ornaments such as table lamps. Hair is used for making mats and clothes.Camel racing and camel dancing is part of agricultural shows. Potential to export camel to gulf countries is great.Tradition of raising and riding horses is much older than the history of Pakistan. The horse has always been a symbol of power, integrity and honour. While the tradition of Yakka (Tonga) or two-wheel carriage is on the decline, horse drawn carts are still seen all over. There are people who keep horses as a pastime or for renting them for marriage ceremonies, for religious processions, or riding them or playing polo or getting pleasure from their dance. Horses are used for individual or family ride in villages. Areas where transportation facilities are not adequate, people travel far-flung areas on the back of the horse or camel. Tent pegging or horse-dancing is an essential event in shows/Melas. Horsemeat is not eaten in Pakistan. Crossbreeding with exotic thoroughbreds is common in polo and racing horses. Horses used for tent pegging and for even for dance are mostly crossbred with imported thoroughbreds. Stud farms with armed forces have variety of horses (such as Percheron and Suffolk etc.) for the production of mules.Donkeys are very important pack animals in Pakistan. They are often seen to carry concrete bricks from brick kilns to places of construction. Donkey carts are a common mean for transporting goods. Female ass, on the other hand, is used for ploughing (along with a bullock) in sub-hilly/barani areas. As livestock and agricultural farming go together, hauling (with female donkey), of fodder for the bullocks/cows/buffaloes, other agricultural produce or household articles is very common in villages. Their distribution across various agro ecological zones, however, varies widely. Donkeys have a very low status in the society. All the donkeys in the country are not the same but there is no characterization of donkeys in Pakistan for identification of breeds. Two major kinds may be large blackish donkey and small light grey variety, which is most common. A recent report has shed some light on the origin of the species and relationship among Asian and other populations of asses (Beja-Pereira et al., 2003). About 54% of mules are present in NWFP while Punjab ranks second (36%) in number. They are frequently used to drive carts that carry loads in almost all cities. They are rarely used for riding or ploughing. They are also used by the military as pack animals because they can endure more hardship as compared to horses.Although, poultry industry of Pakistan has developed at a reasonable pace in the last few decades, rural chicken still contribute 40% of eggs and 25% of poultry meat produced in the country. Under rural poultry improvement projects, Fayoumi and Rhode Island Red (RIR) breeds have been continuously imported. Crossbreeding of Fayoumi and RIR has also been conducted for small-scale commercial set-ups. The Lyallpur Silver Black breed of poultry, developed in the 60's for rural set-ups is restricted to a research station (Poultry Research Centre, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad) even after 30 or so generations and does need conservation and development. Recent studies indicate that it has potential to produce good number of eggs (more than 70% production) and is more resistant to diseases as compared to RIR, (Ashraf et al., 2003). Aseel, a local breed, is found in almost every village and town. Its main utility is production of cocks for cockfighting competitions. Commercial farmers use modern breeds for egg and meat production. Parent and grandparent flocks are being raised for this purpose by at least a dozen enterprises.There are no conservation efforts for any chicken breed in the country. It is generally agreed that population of naked-neck breed has decreased over the years mainly because eggs produced by commercial layers are more easily available and broiler meat is available in all major towns. Aseel cocks are high priced and breed is being raised by those who love their fight. For species other than chicken, authentic population estimates are not available. Domestic ducks are used for egg and meat under subsistence production setup along with their utility as pets. Pekins are considered good for watch and ward. Generally, duck meat and eggs are not commercial products due to less acceptability at consumer level. Pigeons, partridges and quails are also found all over the country both for hobby and delicacy. Flight competitions in pigeons are common. Partridges are mainly kept as pets; singing competitions are also held occasionally. Quail farming is not common, however, these are kept as pets in villages and their meat is eaten as a specialty. This is especially true in the rice growing areas of Punjab and Sindh provinces where they can be hunted. Guinea fowls have more role as pet than their utility as meat or egg laying poultry. Eating peacocks is less common except for some areas in Sindh province where wild peacock is eaten as a specialty. Partridges are more used as pets and for sport and rarely. Wild pigeons and doves are also hunted. Few kinds are also kept for sport and eaten as medicinal meat.Yak is a multi-purpose animal providing milk, meat, leather, hair and manure. It also adds to the aesthetic value of the Himalayas. Without it, survival of humans is difficult in this beautiful but hostile region. It is the main source of livelihood for people inhabiting this rugged region. The domestic yak is often white or piebald and much more docile than the wild yak. Animals are kept for subsistence. As a pack animal it can transport heavy load besides providing rich milk, meat and soft hair. Saddles, whips, boots and other articles are made from its hide. The daily production of milk by female yak is 2-5 kg per day. The lactation period is 90-120 days. Milk fat percentage is about 7.5%. Its meat has a red colour with good tenderness quality. Its hair are useful for making various things like carpets and ropes etc. Puberty starts around at the age of 3 years with most of the sexual activity occurring in mild season (July-August). Crossbreeding with cattle has been reported but information on the extent and direction is lacking. To appreciate the efficacy of traditional pastoral systems, role of yak needs attention.Many of the migratory/wintering species of birds have been reported to visit Pakistan from central Asian states. Their population has, however, been reduced over the years due mainly to drought in the recent past and indiscriminate hunting due to weakly enforced legislations. An example in this regard would be decreased population of white-headed duck population, which may now be considered as threatened bird species (Chaudhry, 2002). Similarly, many of the pigeons, doves and snadgrouses (Roberts, 1991) are endemic to Pakistan (Table 11). Few positive conservation efforts include a pheasantry at Dhodial in NWFP (near Shinkiari). It has Peafowl, Kalij, Koklass, Cheer, and Western Tragopan pheasants for breeding and propagation. Other important wild relatives are those of sheep and goat.There are 225 protected areas (wildlife sanctuaries, game reserves, national parks and other protected areas) that constitute 10.4% of the total land area (Table 17) of Pakistan (GOP, 2000). Many of these protected areas are located in the northern areas and serve as a protected habitat for wildlife of Pakistan. Yet, ungulates are still illegally hunted both for the 'fun' of hunting, for food and for decoration.Various relatives of sheep and goat do play important role in enhancing the tourism of the areas they are found in and do enhance the landscape beauty as well. Their direct contribution to food and agriculture is difficult to quantify because none of them crossbreed or are used for crossbreeding with domestic sheep or goat. Exception may me be a picture where an animal has been shown to be hybrid between domestic sheep and Punjab Urial [www.callisto.si.usherb.ca:8080/caprinae/ photos.htm]. It is difficult to justify these claims. However, attempts to have it happen do exist.Urial in Pakistan are protected for hunting or for trade. Trophy hunting is the exception. They are widespread from around Skardu in the north, southwards to the west of Jehlum river, throughout Balochistan and southwestern Sindh and the Salt Range area of Punjab. The status of species in Pakistan is, however, endangered (IUCN, 2002) which may be more true for Ladakh and Punjab urial. Urial sheep generally likes gentle slopes at lower elevations in open areas of arid habitats often close to human habitations, which exposes it to many threats like poaching and competition with domestic livestock, especially sheep and goats. Ladakh urial is confined to northern Pakistan and Ladakh area in Indian-held Kashmir. Total population is estimated between 500 and 750 animals. Roberts (1977) estimated 500-600 urial for Baltistan and 700-800 urial for Gilgit region. In Chitral District it inhabits the west bank of Kunar river. Some locations of east bank has also been reported to have Ladakh urial. Attempts to protect Ladakh urial include Bunji Community Conservation Area (BCCA) which is situated in District Diamer about 70 km in the southeast of cold desert mountainous region Gilgit on the left side of Karakorum Highway across the Indus, on the Astore road. The altitude is 1372 m asl. The summer is quite harsh as compared to other places of Northern areas. There is ban on hunting wild animals in the area but occasional poaching is still reported. Also, heavy grazing pressure from domestic livestock that directly compete with urial is another threat for the species.Most of the world's remaining population of Markhor is considered living in Pakistan, where two subspecies of this animal are recognized: flare-horned markhor (Capra falconeri falconeri) which includes the Kashmir and Astore forms and straight-horned markhor (C. f. megaceros) which includes the Kabul and Suleiman forms (Roberts, (1997). The species is currently listed as \"endangered\" on the 1996 IUCN Red List and on the Appendix-I of CITES. The species is associated with dry, steep slopes at lower elevations that provide adequate escape terrain and shallow snow cover in winter. The distribution of this animal may range from an altitude as low as 700m to 1,000m in some of the hills bordering the Indus basin to as high as 4,000m during summer in Chitral and Gilgit regions where its distribution may seasonally overlap that of the Asiatic ibex. Flarehorned markhor is mainly confined to small, scattered populations along the Indus River and its tributaries in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Northern Areas, as well as along the Kunar (Chitral) River and its tributaries in NWFP. Population estimates vary widely.Ibex (wild goat) is an animal of higher elevations. It is believed to be the most abundant Caprinae in Pakistan in terms of its relative numbers. Ibex inhabits most of the higher mountain ranges of Chitral, Ghizar, Gilgit, Diamer, Skardu and Ghanche Districts. Total population size in northern Pakistan is believed to range between 2-5 thousand animals. The BCCA inhabits this species of ungulates alongwith the Urials. The Sindh Ibex are found in all the higher and more extensive mountain ranges of southern Baluchistan from the Mekran coastal range at Pasni right across Sindh Kohistan and the Kirthar Range in the east. They are also found in Kalat. There is a game reserve for ibex in the Hingol Range in central Mekran. The biggest population of this wild goat is in Kirthar National Park in southern Sind. There are many estimates but recent helicopter survey conducted in November 2000 by the Sindh Wildlife Department, Zoological Survey Department and the University of Melbourne yielded estimates of the total populations of the Sindh ibex at 13,155 ± 2,460, concentrated mainly in the Kirthar Range in the Sindh province of Pakistan [http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/mammals.html#wildsheepandgoats.htm].     • Current status of FAnGR based on the review and analysis of available data. It will include the list of all species/breeds present in the country, the breed origin, the synonym of the breed name, the breed geographic, distribution (including map distribution), its past and present population size, the breeds found in each production system and agro-ecological zone, the future expected trend in population size (increasing, stable, decreasing), the risk status of the breed1, whether or not the breed is endemic to the country or present in neighbouring countries. • Current status of wild relatives of FAnGR based on the review and analysis of available data. It will include the list of species/subspecies present in the country, their geographic distribution (including map distribution), their past and present population size. The future expected trends in population size (increasing, stable, decreasing), the risk status of the wild relatives2. Whether or not the wild relatives is present only in the country or also present in neighbouring countries. • Description whether or not the wild relatives contribute to breeding programme of domestic species and to what extent, as well as the degree to which they contribute economically to food and agricultural production in the country. • Description of the past and present utilization and performance of FAnGR in the country in relation to the production system and the agro-ecological zone context in which they are found. • Description of the farmer preferences and perceptions regarding indigenous FAnGR and wild relatives. • Assisting the National Consultant in identifying constraints (including priority areas for capacity building) relating to breed surveys methodologies, phenotypic and molecular characterization, economic valuation, design of breeding programs. _________________________ 1. Following FAO DAD-IS the risk status of the breeds will be classified as extinct, critical, critical-maintained, endangered, endangered-maintained, not at risk, unknown. Full description of these criteria are provided in the 'World Watch List for domestic diversity 3 rd edition' see http://dad.fao.org/en/Home.htm 2. The risk status of the wild relatives will follow the IUCN threatened species categories http://www.IUCN.org/ as described in http://dad.fao.org/en/Home.htm , (extinct, endangered, vulnerable, rare, indeterminate, sufficiently known, threatened, commercially threatened).","tokenCount":"7474"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ec6dd99b32bad1ba86d7b196ddda214f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fa95e033-5622-4dd0-89ef-6948809447b1/retrieve","id":"28602712"},"keywords":["parent material","pedological","in-situ Water harvesting","slope","soil texture"],"sieverID":"8cffd2e6-81a3-4bfd-8a15-35e611c23fa1","pagecount":"16","content":"In-situ water harvesting technologies (WHTs) using structures such as dead level contours reinforced with infiltration pits, have featured prominently among others as a strategy for mitigating water shortages associated with droughts in rainfed cropping systems in the last two decades. Unfortunately little is known about the biophysical conditions necessary for these structures to effectively harvest water.This study explored the importance of biophysical factors on the performance of these structures. The methodology employed involved a two pronged approach, one using a questionnaire survey of 55 practising farmer respondents identified following community meetings and 14 key informant interviews. The other approach involved detailed pedological investigations of soils in fields of 14 randomly selected farmers who were a subset of the respondent farmers. Data analysis involved compilations of responses on roles of soil properties such as soil texture, depth and slope which were juxtaposed to corresponding pedological soil investigations data.The results show that medium to heavy textured soils were considered more effective for water harvesting by farmers compared to the lighter textured soils. Gently sloping areas (slopes 2-3%) were also considered prime conditions for optimum performance. The majority of the farmers (83%) felt deep soils (>70 cm) were more effective and pedological investigations augmented much of the farmer perceptions. Deeper soils (>70cm) with a slightly indurated 'spongy' parent material overlying impermeable indurated bedrock were more conducive as this characteristic dominated sites of farmers who were classified as very successful with these water harvesting structures. Shallower soils (35-60 cm), with well indurated impermeable parent materials constituted soils of less successful farmers. Conclusions drawn suggest that maximum benefits from use of in-situ water harvesting technologies can be derived from conditions with gentle slopes, medium to heavy textured soils and the existence of an impermeable bed rock at soil depths greater than 70 cm. Farmers with fields characterized by such conditions in arid environments are thus recommended to invest in these water harvesting structures. Soils with impermeable materials at shallower depths expose the retained water to evaporative losses in such semiarid environments and are therefore not ideal for efficient water harvesting.Zimbabwe's semi arid regions suffer from periodic droughts and dry spells often causing complete crop failure, water scarcity, livestock deaths and leading to difficulties in sustaining livelihoods. The rainfall distribution is affected by altitude and is highly variable in space and time, with a country annual mean of 675 mm. Areas receiving the lowest rainfall also have the least reliable distribution ranging from 20 % variability in the north to 45 % variability in the south (Department of Meterological Services, 1981;Bratton, 1987). Analysis of long term rainfall data indicates that droughts are an inherent characteristic of the climate in Southern Africa (Unganai, 1993) and often occur at least once in every 4 years in the semi-arid areas. High intensity storms generally fall at the onset of the rainy season, often causing high levels of sheet erosion.Analysis of maize crop yield patterns since the 1970s shows that crop yields are mainly dependent on season quality (rainfall quantity and distribution) thereby making rainfall the most important crop yield determinant (MLARR, 2001) Crop yield depression and crop failure due to moisture stress is thus a common phenomena in the semi-arid areas.To mitigate the effects of these droughts there is therefore need for farmers to use water conserving technologies so as to increase the time period required for crop moisture stress to set in. Studies in the region have also shown that improved crop productivity can only be achieved in the region if policies and strategies are adopted by regional governments to improve agricultural water management (IMAWESA, 2007). Similar studies for Zimbabwe have also shown the need for implementation of policies for improved agricultural water management (AWM) that enhance 'green water' productivity particularly in rainfed systems (Nyagumbo and Rurinda, 2007). Such strategies include the use of improved water management technologies in both irrigated and dryland systems as summarized by IMAWESA in 2007 (Mati, 2007).Unfortunately for smallholder farmers most of the options for improved agricultural water management tend to require investments beyond the reach of smallholder farmers. Figure 1 shows a hypothetical hierarchy of options for improving agricultural water management and shows that the cheapest options for improved AWM start from using improved seed or germplasm, use of fertility ameliorants and then use of water harvesting (WHTs) and conservation technology options. Beyond these the scope for improved AWM is seriously constrained by costs associated with water delivery infrastructure. It follows therefore that the most immediate and rapid returns to investments can be derived from technologies that efficiently utilize natural rainfall.In Zimbabwe, efforts to manage water in rainfed systems using water conservation technologies in the past 20 years have mainly focused on in-situ water harvesting techniques such as tied ridging, tied furrows and conservation tillage techniques (Nyamudeza and Jones, 1993;Nyagumbo, 1997Nyagumbo, , 1998)). However despite their effectiveness such techniques have been poorly adopted by farmers. Instead farmers in semi-arid areas have tended to show more interest in large water harvesting mechanical structures that can work in place of the conventional standard contour ridge structures (Hagmann, 1994;Hagmann and Murwira, 1996a). By design standard contour ridges are pegged to dispose of excess run-off rather than retain it (Elwell, 1981). Contour ridges were introduced indiscriminately for use in smallholder farming areas in the 1930s without considering rainfall conditions to combat accelerated erosion that had become rampant after the introduction of the plough in the 1930s (Aylen, 1941b, a;Alvord, 1958) The use of mechanical contour ridges was thus resisted by farmers and was seen as a tool of oppression due to their enforcement, high labour demand, 15 % land taken out of production and irrelevance to drought prone regions where water is scarce. In recent years increased attention has been focused on introducing other options for water harvesting as alternatives to the standard contour ridges. These options include modifications of the standard contour ridges such as the use of infiltration pits (Maseko, 1995), cross tied graded contours, deepened contours and fanya juus (Hagmann, 1994).Contour ridges pegged at zero-grade or dead level contours reinforced with infiltration pits (rectangular trenches 1-2 m long, 1m wide and 0.5-0.7 m deep placed at intervals of 10 to 20 m along the contour channel) have received considerable attention from NGOs in semi arid areas of southern Zimbabwe in the last 15 to 20 years and have gained popularity in Gwanda, Zvishavane, Chivi and Buhera districts. Although considerable progress has been made with respect to their adoption by farmers (Hagmann and Murwira, 1996b;Gumbo, 2004), little is known about the technical merits of such techniques save for a few studies for example, (Mugabe, 2004) What is the optimum spacing for these water harvesting structures?Does the existence of an impermeable bed rock enhance the performance of infiltration pits and fanya juus in comparison to standard contour ridges?It is clear therefore that there is need for investigations to explore these issues so as to provide adequate technical support to farmers and to justify investing scarce labour resources in these water harvesting structures. Thus both extension staff and development agents are poorly informed to tackle the above questions when posed to them by farmers, a situation that often results in technically inappropriate recommendations being forwarded to farmers. At the same time farmers need to invest their scarce labour resources on technologies likely to benefit them in the long run.This study sought to make a first step towards exploring these issues and explored the importance of biophysical factors on the performance of these dead level contours. The study therefore sought to explore biophysical conditions (soil type, depth, slope and topographic conditions) that characterize successful in-situ water harvesting using dead level contours based on the experiences of practicing farmers in Gwanda district.The study was undertaken in wards 17 and 18 of Gwanda district, Matabeland South province, Zimbabwe between October 2008 and March 2009. The area is part of the Mzingwane Catchment forming part of the Limpopo river basin. The area falls under agro-ecological region V and receives annual rainfall of between 450-600 mm (Vincent and Thomas, 1960). Farming systems are characterized by livestock ranching and subsistence cropping. Livestock is the main source of income from agriculture while cropping is targeted mainly at ensuring household food security through small grains such as sorghum, pearl millet and rapoko. Although maize is not recommended for the area farmers often grow it due to its palatability. Due to the high frequency of droughts in the area, rainfed cropping is often risky as mid-season dry spells often lead to complete crop failure. As a result survival without food aid is not easily achievable and so a number of NGOs eg Practical Action, ORAP and World Vision, have been promotingin-situ water harvesting technologies (WHTs) as a means of reducing food insecurity.The study deliberately targeted farmers who were already practicing in-situ water harvesting using dead level contours as these were perceived to have the most valuable experience that the study could learn from. Two types of questionnaires were developed prior to the field work i.e. one for the key informants and the other formal questionnaire for the main respondents.The key informant questionnaire addressed general constraints and factors of WHTs as well as information about the characteristics of farmers who use WHT technologies identified as respondents. The formal questionnaire captured detailed socio-economic information and details about the WHTs in use by the household.In each of the two wards, a community meeting was held at the ward centre. Key informants were identified through these meetings by deliberately asking for the names of village heads, extension workers, traditional leadership and farmer leaders. With respect to water harvesting using dead level contours and through facilitated plenary discussions, farmers from each village were asked to identify and name their own peers who could be classified as (i) Very successful (those achieving high crop yields through water harvesting)(ii) Medium performers (those implementing water harvesting but not so successful)(iii)Poor performers (those that have implemented but have failed to derive any benefits).Each village was asked to identify 3 farmers in each category which resulted in a total of 55 respondents being interviewed in the two wards. A total 14 respondents also answered the key informant questionnaire in the two wards.From each category of farmers in each village, the WHT fields of one farmer was selected for in-depth soil investigations so as to assess factors governing their performance. This was achieved by assessing the site and pedological soil characteristics in the field. Site characteristics that were assessed included landform type and shape; slope, size and aspect; vegetation and surface features such as stones, boulders and rock outcrops. Soil characteristics that were assessed included soil depth and nature of material limiting depth; texture; structure; colour; consistence; drainage, permeability and voids.The soil depth limiting parent material was classified as well indurated, moderately indurated and slightly indurated. Well indurated parent materials were those with particles in the rock that are strongly bound together such that rock surface can only be broken with great difficulty using a standard rock hammer (< 1kg mass). Moderately indurated parent materials require multiple blows with standard rock hammer (< 1kg) to break rock while slightly indurated parent rock can be broken with single blow from standard rock hammer (< 1 kg mass). Due to resource and time limitations a total of only 14 farm sites were investigatedKey informant data was compiled in an EXCEL spreadsheet with responses to each question put together in consecutive rows. Similar responses were then mathematically compiled through additions and summarized into tables or figures. Data from the main questionnaire, due to its extensive nature, was captured in an MS-ACCESS database.Farmers were grouped into three resource classes namely wealthy, medium rich and resource constrained based on resource ownership mainly livestock ownership as detailed in Part II of this paper. Summary outputs from the database were then fed into a statistical package Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) for statistical analysis.Categorical data were analyzed using non-parametric tests while quantitative data were analyzed using analysis of variance tools for comparisons between farmer resource and success classes.  Most of the water harvesting fields were found to be located in out-or far-fields compared to homesteads (Table 1). Only 4 fields were located on wetlands probably due to their scarcity in the area. However an insignificant Pearson's Chi-square correlation (p=0,221) between success and field location, was obtained suggesting that field location did not necessarily influence success with water harvesting technologies. Key informants generally felt that location of WHT fields was not an important factor for success (43%) while 36 % felt fields located near homesteads were more successful compared to 21 % who felt far-fields had more successful water harvesting. The statistical analysis thus supported the key informant perceptions that field location was not an important success factor. Some perceptions were however raised that because of their proximity, homestead fields were easier to manage than outfields. Nonetheless, field location was thus not considered an important attribute for success in water harvesting. discussions with a group of men (>10) in ward 18 also suggested moderate slopes were prime to induce some lateral flow of water from the pits into the fields. Because of the limited range of slopes studied and prevalent in the area the effect of slope was not made apparent from the study.A significant linear relationship (r=0.84, p =0.000) was obtained between area under WHTs and total arable area (Figure 3). Farmers with large arable areas also tended to put bigger proportions of their land to water harvesting thereby suggesting that farmers were now considering this technology an important component of their farming system.One-way analysis of variance also showed a significant difference between resource status and area under water harvesting (p=0.001) with well resourced farmers also putting more land to water harvesting (Figure 4). The most successful farmers with WHTs had fields with medium to heavier textured soils that included sandy loam to sandy clays (Table 2). Sixty percent of the sites analyzed in this category had heavy textured soils. Subsoils were generally heavier textured sandy clays. The soils on these sites of successful farmers were also generally characterized by mafic gneiss and dolerite parent materials. These soils hold about 12 to 14 % available water. Apart from their good water retention capacity, they have high nutrient retention which together with retained water synergistically supports better plant growth. Soil depths generally exceeded 70 cm in this category while the soil depth limiting parent material constituted slightly indurated and moderately indurated in some cases. This limiting material was obtained at depths greater than 70 cm with indurated and well indurated materials being obtained at greater depths underlying the permeable material.The slightly indurated material contributes to water holding capacity of the soils and capillarity. This provides a positive 'damming' effect and supports plants for their water needs. The water harvested is retained and is far from the evaporative effects but within reach of plant roots. The average or medium farmers had predominantly sandy loam textures, although in some cases sandy clay loam soils were encountered. 100 % of the sites in this category qualified as being medium textured or better. The soils are derived from mafic and siliceous gneiss. Attributes for plant support by these soils are intermediate with water holding capacity of 10 to 12%. Soil depth in this class was generally shallower than 60 cm while the soil depth limiting parent materials constituted slightly to moderately well indurated parent materials at lower depths that contributed to a 'damming effect' at shallower depths than the successful class. The poor performers class farmers' fields on the other hand were characterized by light textured loamy sand upper horizons with heavier textures on lower subsoils. Lighter textures hold less water with available water capacities as low as 7% and nutrient retention is very poor. Soil depths in this category were less than 60 cm on all sites investigated. The water impervious well indurated parent material was also obtained at shallower depths (<60 cm). Because the material is impervious, the water so captured is easily lost through evaporation under the prevailing arid environment. Because the soils are shallower and the well indurated material cannot aid water retention, less water is stored and plants are subject to water stress under these dry environments. The majority of the key informants generally perceived dead level contours with infiltration pits as being most effective of all the water harvesting technologies being tested. Although the communities mentioned the use of other techniques such as conservation farming basins and ripping technologies these were perceived to be playing a less significant role compared to dead level contours. Although the widespread use of the dead level contours can be attributed to mobilization by NGOs such as Practical Action, their activities in the area were terminated in 2004 yet farmers were still practicing this water harvesting technology 4 years later. Moving around the two wards provided evidence of freshly prepared dead level contours thereby suggesting that farmers were seeing value in their use. Dead level contours have also been used extensively in other parts of the country such as Chivi, Zvishavane and Buhera (Hagmann and Murwira, 1996b).Unfortunately the study could not quantify the percentage of farmers using this technology in the area.The lack of significant correlation between success and location of WHT fields suggested that this was not an important factor although 63 % of the farmers had installed the WHTs in their outfields. Studies in other parts of the country have suggested that in most cases homstead fields are generally better managed and in a better fertility status than out fields (Mutambanengwe, 2006).In Shurugwi similar studies on water harvesting technologies by the authors showed that water harvesting techniques were allocated more to outfields while fertility resources such as manure were more concentrated in homestead fields thereby resulting in lack of synergy between water harvesting and fertility amelioration. The same problem could also be in existence here although the study did not corroborate this. Thus while this could be an important issue it did not emerge here as a key factor for success.The lack of significant slope effects was attributed to the narrow range of slopes in the area studied which ranged between 2 and 5%. In theory one would expect that steeper slopes would help to enhance lateral flow thereby feeding the crop on the downslope side with water, a point also raised by some farmers during discussions. Therefore there is need for further work to explore the importance of this factor.The importance of this WHT to farmers is also evidenced by the fact that farmers with larger arable areas were also putting bigger proportions of their areas to water harvesting although other constraining factors prevented them from fully installing these on all their arable lands. If farmers were installing these structures just to please NGOs then this relationship between arable area and area under WHT would not have been significant. Access to resources however emerged as a significant factor promoting the farmers capacity to implement these WHTs, a fact also established in other studies elsewhere (Mutambanengwe, 2006). Labour issues explored in part II of this paper could be important factors contributing to the size of land under WHTs. The majority of the key informants (93 %) generally perceived labour resources as a key factor for success.Although part II of this paper did not confirm any relationship between success and labour resources, studies in many communal areas of Zimbabwe show labour as an important factor in farmers capacity to adopt technologies (Hagmann, 1999) The fact that the most successful farmers had deeper soils of a heavier texture and semipervious parent materials with impervious materials at greater depths, makes an important finding for this study. While it is generally known that fine textured soils hold more water, the mechanism through which the dead level contours function to be so convincing to farmers remains poorly understood by science. For any dry soil water flow would naturally be driven by gravity and soil suction which points to a predominantly downward flow. Lateral flow through which water harvested in the contour channels could benefit crops can only take place theoretically in the presence of a flow impeding layer at depth. The well indurated or cemented material at depths greater than 70 cm in in successful farmer categories could be providing this function which could be described as the 'bucket effect'. This means water harvested in the channels feeds the soil until it reaches the impervious layer and starts flowing laterally or rising, thereby providing a reservoir of water to the crop at depth which on clays or heavy textured soils, rises by capillarity during dry spells and ensure the crop benefits. On the contrary the shallow light textured soils with the cemented material occurring at shallow depths on poor performing farmers, tend to cause waterlogging of the crop in wet spells and at the same time lose the harvested water through soil evaporation during periods of prolonged dryspells, hence leading to reduced benefits from water harvesting investments. This explains why studies on a few locations in the same area found no significant moisture and crop yield benefits from the use of dead level contours (Mupangwa, 2008), thereby placing more emphasis on the need to fine tune recommendations for such investments by farmers. As a result of some of these limitations, farmers were found to make various modifications to reduce evaporation such as covering the pits and altering the depth of the pits to shallow ones with the hope of enhancing lateral flow.Lack of reliable data on crop yields which relied on farmers memory, unfortunately resulted in failure to show the differences in yields between the three different farmer success categories. Nevertheless, this study suggests that it is worthwhile investing in dead level contours for water harvesting purposes if there is an underlying bed rock at depths greater than 70 cm or at about 1m depth and that such benefits may be enhanced on heavy textured soils. On the other hand farmers should give lowest priority to dead level contour investments on shallow and light textured soils as returns to investments are generally poor.","tokenCount":"3684"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c2aad2534897ded421de4c2f40deca81","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5672b03e-0351-4aef-9ec0-dfbc39795dbe/retrieve","id":"-507781552"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2d952a16-ad07-4fc3-abbb-42dcbd520289","pagecount":"11","content":"UNDER ALLEY cropping leguminous trees or shrubs are grown between alleys of field crops. In some areas it can replace fallow for soil fertility restoration. Alley farming allows the choice between leaving the tree foliage on the soil as mulch, or of feeding it to animals. Economic models of alley farming, alley cropping and fallow use experimental and field data from southwest Nigeria. Principal conclusions are that alley cropping is superior to fallow systems, that alley farming in which leaves are fed to sheep or goats is inferior to basic alley cropping, and that sheep or goat supplementation with leucaena or gliricidia needs to achieve a 30 to 40% increase in net productivity per dam to be competitive with leaving foliage for maize production.Alley cropping is an agricultural innovation in which crops are grown between rows of densely planted trees. This technique, also known as 'hedgerow intercropping' and 'avenue cropping', is of interest to restore soil fertility in areas where land pressure makes fallow systems increasingly unworkable. The nitrogen-and mineral-rich tree foliage is pruned during the cropping season and applied to the soil as mulch. The trees in an alley farm recycle nutrients from the lower soil profile and produce significant quantities of organic matter, thus playing the same role as the trees, bush and grasses in fallow systems.The major difference between alley cropping and bush fallow is that soil fertility restoration is concurrent with cropping, thus allowing continuous cultivation. In southwest Nigeria where fallowing is usually practiced, alley cropping based on the leguminous tree Leucaena leucocephala has sustained moderate crop yields over 7 years on a sandy soil with low fertilizer inputs (Kang et al, 1981;Kang et al, 1985).There have been several evaluations of the economics of alley cropping (Raintree and Turay, 1980;Hoekstra, 1982;Verinumbe et al, 1984). None of these analyses have considered livestock. While alley cropping was conceived primarily for crop production, it offers considerable potential for integrating crop and livestock production by supplying mulch for crops and high-quality fodder for animals.In humid West Africa, sheep and goat production is generally a minor enterprise using few inputs. Production is limited by a viral disease, peste des petits ruminants (PPR); control of PPR, especially in goats, can significantly reduce mortality and increase flock growth (Opasina, 1984;Adeoye, 1984;Sumberg and Cassaday, 1985). However, realisation of the potential of small ruminants, following PPR control, may eventually be constrained by feed resources. Alley farming, which is the addition of animals to an alley cropping system, offers the opportunity to realise this potential by producing high-quality feed year round. It would do so without the major new investments sometimes required by specialised fodder production, and without reducing staple crop production.In this paper, we evaluate alley farming models with small ruminants, based on held and experimental data from southwest Nigeria, and compare them with basic alley cropping and with fallow systems. The analysis is then used to define key management areas within alley farming, as well as areas where further information is needed.There has been considerable work on alley cropping for humid areas at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria (IITA, 1978-84;Kang et al, 1981;Kang et al, 1985). This work has focused on soil fertility, alley width, tree pruning, tree species, weed control, mulch decomposition, water relations and labour use. The results, confirmed in other parts of the tropics (Rachie, 1983;Narkhede et al, 1984), generally indicate that the trees can produce sufficient foliage to maintain, and even to increase, crop yields over conventional plots.Alley widths of 1.5 to 5.0 m have been used experimentally. While narrower alleys of crops permit higher tree populations and increased foliage, they also demand more pruning labour, are more likely to shade the crop, and, at some point, must reduce crop density. Torres (1982) studied the relationship between alley width and crop density. Assuming a maize density of 53 000 plants/ha and the substitution of 1 row of maize by each row of trees, he found a plot with 4.5-m alleys had only 84% of the maize population of a farming plot without trees. Similar assumptions of reduced maize populations were made in the economic analyses of Hoekstra (1982) and Verinumbe et al (1984). Raintree and Turay (1980) and Verinumbe et al (1984) used linear programming models to evaluate alley farming. The former evaluated trees as a nitrogen source for rice production in Sierra Leone. The latter compared alley cropping with five alternate 'zero-tillage' farming systems in southern Nigeria. Both studies concluded that alley farming could be economically attractive. Hoekstra (1982) showed that alley farming could be superior to the traditional system in semi-arid Kenya. Using experimental data, Ngambeki and Wilson (undated) concluded that in spite of a 52% increase in labour use per hectare, the increased maize yield from the alley plots made the system economically attractive.The models are based on experimental and on-farm research of the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) and IITA. They represent conditions in humid West Africa (1500 to 2000 mm annual rainfall with a 6-to 8-month growing season). Parameters for crop and tree production are from IITA Annual Reports (IITA, 1978(IITA, -1984)), Kang et al (1981) and ILCA (unpublished data). Animal production parameters are from ILCA's village studies in southwest Nigeria (Mack, 1983;Sumberg and Mack, 1985;Upton, 1985). Daily wages are valued at the minimum wage in Nigeria, maize is valued at the estimated producer price for southern Nigeria, and small ruminant prices are taken from ILCA's market surveys near Ibadan (Okali and Upton, 1985). The exchange rate is 4 per US$ 1.The fallow model (Table 1) is of a 1-ha plot, cleared and planted to maize for 3 years before it is fallowed. The maize yield is 1000 kg/ha in year 1. This yield declines by 10% in year 2 and by 10% again in year 3 because soil fertility declines. One crop of maize is grown per year without chemical fertilizer. The annual gross value of maize production is calculated over 9 years (three fallow cycles) by multiplying the annual maize yield by the maize price. The incremental cost of producing maize in a fallow system, relative to that in alley cropping is the labour cost of clearing land. Because clearing costs are incurred in year 1 in both the fallow and in the alley cropping system, they are not counted in that year. In the basic fallow model clearing costs are counted in years 4 and 7, that is in the years when a new plot is brought under cultivation. Clearing costs are adapted from Ruthenberg (1976), and are valued at the labour wage and subtracted from the annual gross value of maize production to obtain an annual net value.The alley cropping model allows planting leguminous trees to maintain soil fertility with continuous cropping. In the first year, alternate rows of the leguminous trees Leucaena leucocephala andGliricidia sepium are direct seeded at 4-m intervals 1 within a recently cleared, newly planted 1-ha maize field. Maize is planted at 1 m x 1 m with 3 plants/hill, for a density of 30 000 plants/ha. This is the traditional planting arrangement and density in the area. Trees are seeded every 25 cm within the rows to give a tree density of 10 000 trees/ha. During the establishment year, tree rows are weeded when the crop is weeded; in most cases, the trees are not pruned during the first 12 months and do not affect crop yield. During subsequent years, the trees are pruned at 0.5 m above the ground at maize planting time, and once or twice during the cropping season.1The experimental and on-farm research upon which the present economic analysis is based used only 4-m alleys. Under conditions in humid West Africa, this alley was considered appropriate for the following reasons: less pruning labour, greater ease of tree pruning and cropping activities, less crop shading and, consequently, more flexible tree management, ability to maintain traditional crop populations, and ability to utilise tractors (which is common in parts of Nigeria). Under experimental conditions foliage yields as high as 6000 kg/ha/year have been obtained.As in the fallow model, the base maize yield is 1000 kg/ha. The trees produce no usable foliage in the first year of the model; beginning in the second year, they produce 3000 kg/ha of foliage dry matter annually. At a nitrogen content of 3.5%, this foliage contains 105 kg N/ha/year.If foliage is applied to the soil surface, its marginal physical product (MPP) is 5 kg of maize per kg of mulch-N, and its marginal value product (MVP) is US$ 0.63. If it is incorporated into the soil, its MPP is 10 kg of maize and its MVP is US$ 1.25. Therefore, at a base maize yield of 1000 kg/ha, an annual yield decline of 10%, and with surface application, 20 kg of mulch-N are needed to maintain maize yields at the base level. In this model, all available tree foliage is returned to the soil. After sufficient foliage is returned to maintain maize yields at the base level, the remaining foliage increases crop yield above the base.The incremental labour cost of alley cropping is for tree pruning, and is estimated at 18 mandays/ha/year. Because the first tree foliage is available in year 2, labour for pruning begins in that year. It is assumed that the trees do not affect labour for weeding or land preparation (Atta-Krah, 1985). It is recognised that there will be incremental labour costs in harvesting the increased maize yield, but these are not modelled.This model is identical to the basic alley cropping model except that after sufficient tree foliage has been applied to the soil to maintain base maize yields, the farmer can choose between returning the remaining foliage to the soil, or feeding it to 17-kg breeding does. Daily feed intake is equal to 5% of the animal's liveweight. Tree foliage intake is set equal to 25% or 50% (the 'supplementation rate') of the total daily intake. A 17-kg doe supplemented at 25% would, therefore, eat 213 g of tree fodder per day.The effect of the tree fodder on animal productivity is expressed as a percentage of the animal's net monetary output (Upton, 1985). Because this percentage is uncertain, a range from 10 to 40% is modelled. At a 10% productivity increase, the MVP of tree foliage-N fed to goats is US$0.17. The annual value of the increased goat output is added to the value of maize production to arrive at the total annual value of alley farming. The labour costs of maintaining the trees are then subtracted from the total annual value, as in the fallow model, to calculate the net annual profits of the system. No additional labour for feeding or for animal care is considered.This fourth model is identical to the third, except that 25-kg breeding ewes are modelled.Because the body weight and market price of sheep are higher than those of goats, there may be substantial differences in results between these two models. At a 10% productivity increase, the MVP of tree foliage-N fed to sheep is US$ 0.27.The models are used to answer six questions: What is the profitability of alley cropping without animals compared to that of fallow?  What is the effect of changing the mulching method on the profitability of an alley cropping system?  What is the profitability of an alley farming system with goats or with sheep compared to alley cropping without animals?  What are the effects of changing supplementation rates on relative profitabilities of alley farming systems with animals?  What increases in animal output are necessary to make alley farming competitive with alley cropping?  What is the effect of PPR control in goats on the competitiveness of alley farming?The alley cropping model with surface mulching is compared with the fallow model at three base maize yields and five levels of annual maize yield decline (Table 2). The net present value (NPV) of alley cropping is 14 to 59% greater than that of the fallow model. Alley cropping is relatively more profitable at lower base yields and with greater annual yield declines. This trend is similar to that described by Torres (1982). In the present analysis, however, alley farming is profitable at base yields much higher than the 500 kg/ha estimated by Torres. Results from alley cropping with mulch incorporation show that incorporation substantially increases alley farming profitability (Table 3). Even if the incremental labour of alley farming is increased by 50% to account for mulch incorporation and labour is decreased by 100% in fallow, alley cropping with mulch incorporation is still 65% more profitable than the basic fallow model. Alley farming with goats or sheep is compared with the basic alley cropping model (Tables 4  and 5). In the absence of PPR control and over a range of livestock and maize prices, the NPV of alley farming with goats or sheep is 80 to 96% and 87 to 111% respectively of the NPV of alley cropping without livestock. This comparison is slightly more sensitive to changes in livestock prices than to changes in maize prices. Sheep contribute more to alley farming than do goats, largely due to higher goat mortality caused by PPR, and to higher prices per kg liveweight. The effects of supplementary feeding of leucaena and gliricidia on animal productivity under village conditions are not well documented. Therefore, the NPVs of alley farming are compared to those of alley cropping over a range of increases in net output due to feeding (Table 6). With 50% supplementary feeding, increases in net output of 40% per dam are needed to make alley farming competitive with alley cropping. At the 25% supplementation rate, which allows for the feeding of twice as many animals, increases in net output of 36.8% for goats and of 23% for sheep make feeding competitive with maize production. After control of PPR, the necessary increase in net goat output is reduced to 23%. These models indicate that under conditions found in southwest Nigeria maize production with alley cropping is more profitable than with a 3-year fallow system. Alley cropping is less profitable with higher base maize yields. While alley cropping requires more labour than the fallow system, this is more than offset by the increased maize yields, and relative profitability of alley cropping is insensitive to changes in labour requirements.The amount of tree foliage and the method of mulching affect alley cropping profitability. The models assume a low tree foliage yield of 3000 kg/ha/year based on difficulties of obtaining good tree stands in village conditions. Low foliage yields reflect farmers' hesitancy to plant densely to obtain high populations. Better methods of tree establishment (or better instructional methods) that assure good stands would therefore add to the overall attractiveness of alley cropping. Mulch incorporation, particularly if done at tillage or weeding times and thus not requiring additional labour, can increase the profitability of alley cropping.With PPR control, particularly for goats, increases in net output of 20 to 30% per dam from 25% supplementary feeding are needed to make small ruminant feeding competitive with maize production. The reproductive potential of West African Dwarf goats and sheep has been well documented; the principal goal of future research must be to demonstrate that supplementary feeding of high-quality fodder species such as leucaena and gliricidia is effective in realising this potential.It is interesting to speculate on the potential of alley farming in other tropical areas, particularly those where fallow has been replaced by continuous cropping. Table 3 indicates that with a 100%decrease in clearing labour in the fallow system (continuous cropping) and a 100% increase in pruning labour, alley cropping with mulch incorporation is still 55% more profitable. In areas where production is constrained more by land than by labour, alley farming appears to be a technology which should be vigorously investigated.","tokenCount":"2633"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9b28409f0bf39c7391cb0d13211ba292","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c8b9a44-c4fc-4ca3-b87e-e5771586885a/retrieve","id":"1177807408"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"050f9e41-9081-40da-8190-aefe6e268181","pagecount":"8","content":"Livestock contributes significantly to livelihoods of rural populations in west Africa. A significant area of the region (humid and subhumid zones) however is highly infected by tsetse flies, a vector of trypanosomiasis, which affects both livestock and livelihoods. The use of endemic ruminant livestock (ERL), such as N'Dama cattle, Djallonké sheep and West African Dwarf goats, is seen as a better option to overcome the trypanosomiasis problem. In fact, these livestock breeds are well adapted and productive in tsetse infested areas. They also have low nutritional and husbandry requirements which, along with their disease resistance, can be seen as pro-poor options.The Gambia has one of the highest livestock densities. Livestock ownership for the average rural farmer in the Gambia is a store of wealth, provides a buffer stock, and an effective hedge against income fluctuations (Fafchamps et al. 1995). Profits from agricultural or non-farm activities are used to purchase livestock. Women play a major role in small ruminant production, representing 52% and 67% of the owners of sheep and goats, respectively, and 43% in the ownership of both small ruminants (Itty et al. 1997).Although the numbers of N'Dama cattle, Djallonké sheep and West African Dwarf goats are still high, their future is uncertain. The threats to these populations include i) destruction and degradation of endemic ruminant livestock habitat, ii) crossbreeding between endemic ruminant livestock and Sahelian breeds, and iii) abandonment of these breeds due to production and market constraints.This study has been conducted in the context of implementing the sustainable management of globally significant endemic ruminant livestock in west Africa. The project aims to remove existing barriers to the in situ conservation of these breeds. It supports development and implementation of community based models for conservation and management of critical habitats, so as to demonstrate strategies for preserving the unique genetic trait-habitat complexes that are of global significance. The project is funded by two major financiers, the Global Environment Fund (GEF), and the African Development Bank (AfDB) and is implemented by the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS) with UNDP for facilitation and operational procedures.Sustainable management of globally significant endemic ruminant livestock in west Africa (PROGEBE) Summary for decision making-the GambiaThe results of the surveys are presented in the following sections based on key findings from socio-economic characteristics and livelihoods, status and management of natural resources, breeding management and herd dynamics, livestock markets and information systems. The implications for project interventions and the way forward are outlined in the last two sections. The results are summarized into 25 key messages. Each section has a key message and a summary of the key findings of the section. The section on implications for project interventions is based on community and national feedback workshops.The population in the three sites are characterized by high illiteracy rate and high disparities in land and livestock ownership.A key distinction between poor and rich is the education level of their children. Children from poor families drop out at lower grades due to low financial capacity and living standards whereas the children from rich families proceed to university. It is found that 70% of the children between the ages of 13 and 19 (assuming at the age 19 pupils have completed primary education and eventually secondary education) dropped out before completing their primary school education. The high illiteracy rate will have implications for the design of project interventions, especially extension and dissemination of information tailored to the specific needs of targeted groups.Land ownership show high disparity patterns. Seventy-five per cent of farmers have less than 10 ha of land with an average farm size of 4.7 ha. The remaining 25% own farms of more than 10 ha. Cropping systems are diversified. More than 80% of total agricultural land is cropped; 20% is used for fallow and grazing for livestock. Crops include rice (80%), followed by groundnuts, millet and maize. Farming is predominantly extensive, where less than 10% of households use pesticides, 32% use fertilizers and 6% use irrigation. About 50% of the households use hand for cultivation, 38% use animal traction, and 5% use mechanized traction.In addition to land, livestock ownership, ownership of farm implements, and off-farm income were used by communities as main criteria for wealth ranking. On the basis of these criteria, four wealth categories were identified, namely, the very poor, the moderately poor, the moderately rich and the rich (Figure 2). In Kiang West and in Niamina East, 75% of the population was classified as poor or very poor. In Nianija, 80% were said to be poor or very poor. The very poor do not own cattle; the moderately poor own goats and sheep while the poor have between 1 and 2 heads of cattle. Land access was reported to be determined by the ability to cultivate the land. For the poor and very poor categories, land use was restricted and/or constrained by limited farm implements for adequate production.The project specifically centres its activities around the following outcomes: (i) conservation and increase in productivity of ERL; (ii) promotion of market development and incentives; (iii) promotion of greater sustainable management of their ecosystem (iv) facilitation of the implementation of policies, legal and institutional frameworks favourable to their development, (v) improving cooperation, knowledge management and information sharing at the national and international levels.At the beginning of the project implementation period, a baseline survey was done in each of the three project sites in the Gambia. The purpose of the surveys was to benchmark key indicators relative to ERL population, productivity, marketing and livelihood, and to identify constraints faced by ERL producers and market agents, as well as opportunities that the project could take advantage of.The report provides a summary of the findings of the baseline surveys with a focus on key recommendations regarding project implementation.Villages in the three primary project sites; Kiang West, Niamina East and Nianija were selected (more details about methodology are found in ILRI Research Report 28). Four interlinked surveys were carried out as part of the baseline studies.First, a participatory rural appraisal/community survey were organized in the selected villages to characterize the context, and community perspectives of the current situation with respect to natural resource management and livestock production.Second, the community surveys were complemented by household surveys to obtain quantitative household level data on livelihood strategies, livestock production and marketing and other variables of interest related to ERL.The third one was a market agent survey with the objectives of identifying the market actors (both input and output) in the project sites and identify their capacity and reach in providing services to livestock keepers.Finally, herd and flock surveys were conducted to carry out a cross-sectional retrospective and estimation of livestock demographic parameters.  Livelihoods sources are diverse; they were grouped into six categories: farming, livestock rearing, commerce, fishing, collecting forest products, vegetable gardening and other off-farm activities. In Kiang West, farming is an important source of livelihood, followed by livestock rearing, vegetable gardening and collection and sale of forest products which are equally important. In Niamina East the most important source of livelihood is farming, followed by commerce and livestock rearing. In Nianija, farming was the most important livelihood strategy, followed by both fishing and commerce which were given equal weight. Livestock rearing was fourth in importance as a source of livelihood for the community. Key message 4: Farming is the most important source of livelihood followed by livestock rearing, vegetable gardening and collection and sale of forest products. For the poor categories, given limited access/ownership to resources (land and livestock) livelihoods may depend more on forest products which is not sustainable.In the Gambia, most of livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) are ERL; there are currently no exotic or crosbred animals in these sites. Livestock ownership patterns differ by social group and gender. Although the contribution of ERL to income is not significant, there is a trend of a growing importance in all sites.According to the last livestock census carried out by the Department of Livestock Services and the International Trypanotolerance Centre of 1993, cattle population was 278,538 head with 0.4% non N'Dama; sheep was 155,132 head with 0.6% non-Djallonké; while the goat population was estimated at 213,871 head, with only 0.1% non-west African Dwarf. PROGEBE estimation of ERL populations (Herd and flock survey, ILRI) and livestock census (National coordination unit, Gambia) also show predominance of ERL breeds (Figure 4). Cattle are the main criteria of wealth. The poor categories do not own cattle. Overall, 51% of households reported owning cattle, 47% own sheep and 67% own goats. There are significant differences in terms of average number of animals per household. Nianija have the highest cattle numbers at 18.6, followed by Kiang West with an average of 12.9 and Niamina East had the lowest with an average herd size of 6.8. The goat numbers were less variable with an average herd size of 5.9, 6.1 and 7.9 in Kiang West, Niamina East and Nianija respectively.Women owned cattle in less than 40% of the households. However, in over 80% of the households, women owned goats, and in a slightly lower percentage of households women own poultry and sheep. In Niamina East women have the lowest percentage of households with women owning cattle, while in Kiang West there were more households with women owning poultry than goats but in Niamina East and Nianija, the opposite was true.Looking at livestock numbers owned by men and women in households where women owned livestock, men owned an average of 10.8 head of cattle compared to women who own 2.4 head on average in Kiang West. In Niamina East, men owned 3.0 head of cattle and women owned 1.28 head (see Table 19). A similar trend was observed in Nianija where men owned on average 11.54 head of cattle compared to women's 4.9 head. Women owned more goats in all three sites, owning significantly more than men in Niamina East and Nianija. Women also owned more poultry than men in all three sites.In all the three sites, ERL cattle contributed 9.7% to total farm income and 6.5% of total household income (including off-farm income The returns to ERL and their contribution to income depend on current production and management practices as well as marketing orientation and constraints.Animal breeding aims to improve the genetic merit of animals over each generation. This is achieved by selecting the 'best' animals to be the parents of the next generation. To identify the 'best' animals, the production objectives of the livestock keepers must be known, so animals can be selected in line with these objectives. The most noticeable result is the objective of savings and insurance that scored the highest for all species. For cattle the next highest scoring objectives were draught and manure, followed by (for cows) domestic milk consumption and milk sale, and then ceremonial/dowry. The other remaining traits (including income and domestic meat consumption) received relatively low ratings. For sheep and goats the next highest scoring objectives were income and ceremonial/dowry, followed by manure. The ratings were relatively low for traits such as domestic meat and milk consumption, and milk sale.Many farmers indicated use of modern methods for disease management but housing animals is not a major concern. About 48% of households indicated they had used some form of treatment for cattle, 44% for goats and 49% for sheep. Most of them used modern methods of disease management and prevention. The vast majority of cattle are housed in open kraals or pens both during the dry and rainy seasons. A limited number of households (8%) use kraals or pens with roofs.Goats benefit from better housing conditions, especially during the rainy season when 67% of households use kraals or pens with roof or stable with roofs to accommodate their goats.Almost all households make use of natural pastures to graze their cattle, sheep and goats. Groundnut hay is the second most important feed resources. The most widely used feed concentrate is cereal bran given to cattle, sheep and goats. The use of cakes and other concentrate feeds is not common which reflects a feed regime essentially based on roughages. The other common source of feed for cattle, sheep and goats is fodder from trees and rice stover.Key message 8: The most important objective for keeping most livestock species is 'savings and insurance' . This means the breeding program should place emphasis on reproductive and survival traits.Key message 9: Many farmers indicated use of modern methods for disease management but housing animals is not yet a major concern. On market orientation, it is found that cattle are not kept for milk production and that milk sales are important for only few households. Looking at sale of cattle (live animals), it is found that a total of 41 heads of cattle were sold during the 12 months preceding the survey, which corresponds to 2.7% of the total herd size. These animals were sold by 21 households or 16% of cattle keepers. Among these households, cattle sold represent on average 17% of the herd. These results show that very few households sell animals on a regular basis, but for those who do, sale of animals is an important activity.Key message 11: Generally, cattle are not kept for milk production, but milk sales are important for a few households.Key message 12: Very few households sell animals on a regular basis, but for those who do, sale of animals is an important activity. While at farm gate farmers indicated that they keep endemic breeds, livestock traders indicated that they also trade in non-endemic breeds. From the surveyed market agents in local markets, the total value of livestock they sold, and the proportion of sales of ERL to total sales were calculated. Of all total value of cattle sales handled by the agents, 64% was from N'Dama cattle while 36% was from exotic and other crosses. This was in contrast to the sales at household level where most of the sales were N'Dama. A similar trend was observed in goats and sheep where 53.7% and 56.7% of the total sheep and goat sales were from Djallonké and WAD.The apparent discrepancies between breeds held by farmers (mostly ERL) and breeds sold by traders raise a question regarding the origin of these non-endemic animals.An important aspect of production management and marketing is information use and sharing. The main sources of information on livestock related issues are extension and other government offices, but livestock issues are not discussed in community groups. With regard to ERL conservation, it is found that 90% of the households participate in community groups but topics related to conservation of endemic livestock, and livestock in general, are not discussed. On the other hand, most farmers seeking information on livestock practices receive it. The majority of households focus their requests on health issues, followed by breeding and feeding.Sustainable management of the endemic ruminant livestock breeds in the project sites is inseparable from sustainable management of the natural resources (land, vegetation, water and forestry). Natural resource management includes not only sustainable models for rangeland conservation, feed and water resources management, but also broader habitat protection. Key message 14: Cropland and rangeland are in abundance and fallowing is common in Kiang West. In Niamina East degraded land is on the rise as indicated by the presence of invasive species and disappearance of certain plant species. In Nianija the land area cropped has increased significantly at the expense of natural vegetation, and rice field has expanded to almost all the available wetlands.Key message 15: Uncontrolled bush fire is increasing and constitutes a threat to sustainable management of natural resources and the habitat of endemic ruminants.On land use and trends, it is found that cropland and rangeland are in abundance in Kiang West compared to the other two sites (Niamina East and Nianija). The practice of land fallowing is quite low in Niamina East and Nianija compared to Kiang West. In Kiang West, fallow period was reported to be about 10 years. Demographic pressure and the associated continuous cultivation of land were cited as the major cause of shortening of fallow period in Niamina East and Nianija. It is then not surprising that significant fraction of the land in Niamina East and Nianija was reported to be degraded.The land cover maps for 1984 and 2009 show that in 1984 the dominant land cover was natural vegetation, covering about 63% of the land surface. In 2009 this had reduced to 52%. Agriculture in 2009 covered 41.3% of the land surface from 30.3% as mapped in 1984. The main land cover in 2009 is rainfed agriculture (29%) and there has been a major increase in rice fields. In Nianija the comparison of land use patterns showed cropped area increased by 11% from 30.3% between 1984 and 2009 while natural vegetation declined by 11% from 63%. There has been a general decline in tsetse population though there has not been any significant clearing of forest. However, there has been expansion of crop field into rangelands.A major challenge is the management of bush fires. The frequency of bush fire was reported to have increased in Kiang West and Niamina East with the incidence of fires in 2008 observed to have reached 186 and 80, respectively. The incidence of uncontrolled bush fire in 2008 was eight bush fires according to MODIS (remote-sensed data). Such uncontrolled bush fire has been increasing according to remote sensing data (MODIS) and constitutes a threat to sustainable management of natural resources in the community and the habitat of endemic ruminants.Local conventions and norms governing natural resource use exist but the degree of enforcement varies with different issues. Local conventions/norms governing access to land bush fire control, livestock mobility, grazing/use of crop residues by livestock, farmer-herder conflict and protected forest reportedly exist in all sites. Enforcement of these local norms was reportedly strong except for bush fire control. Long-term investment on acquired land like tree planting is not allowed. Village head and development committees were mentioned as the institutions responsible for the enforcement of the local norms in Nianija. In Nianija absence of well demarcated corridors for livestock passage was reported.An increasing trend of farmer-herder conflict was reported in the site due to poor herd management, management of village herds by hired pastoralists, increasing ownership of livestock by farmers who have no experience of livestock management, increasing proximity of crop and livestock, and absence of well demarcated corridors.Key message 16: Local conventions and norms governing natural resource use exist but the degree of enforcement varies with different issues.Key message 17: The lack of enforcement of local conventions and norms may lead to conflicts over resources. The practice of transhumance by the livestock owners in the project sites is not the classic type by the pastoralists in the Sahelian zone who could be away from their homesteads for three or four months with their animals in search of pasture and water. The practice of transhumance by livestock keepers in the subhumid zone where the project sites are located only involves a short distance (often less than 30 km) and few days. Transhumance only involved a short-distance movement and it was reported to have increased in recent years.It is driven more by protection of crops from damage by livestock than search for pasture and water Niamina East.Key constraints to ERL in the Gambia:The production and management of ERL systems in the Gambia are faced with a number of constraints:High mortality rates: Mortality rates of animals indicate the level of natural death (as opposed to slaughter). Mortality was listed as one of the key constraints to breeding. For cattle the mortality rate was around 20% for animals ≤2 months old, and lower at 5-7% for animals >12 months old. Mortality rates for the small ruminants were significantly greater than that for cattle at 33-45% for animals ≤12 months old, and 25-54% for animals >12 months old.The high mortality rate of cattle ≤12 months old, and small ruminants at all ages, requires addressing.Lack of knowledge: In addition to mortality, key constraints to improvement of animals through breeding were 'lack of capital to purchase good breeding animals' , 'lack of knowledge of breeding practices in general' , and 'lack of knowledge of how to identify good breeding animals from own herd' . Feedback workshops were held in all three sites in the Gambia to understand the findings of the baseline study. This understanding would increase the utility of the findings in the project design and implementation and improve the consistency of the country report findings with respect to stakeholders' values and views: On livelihoods, the communities recommended that the project should invest more on small ruminants due to their shorter production cycle and quicker incomes.The community confirmed the high dependence on forest products particularly in Kiang West site. The community participants recommended making more sustainable by greater emphasis in forestation, bush fire control and investment in community forest systems.Livestock are predominantly ERL and kept for saving and insurance purposes. Therefore the development of formal savings and insurance services could allow for greater marketed off take of livestock.Livestock diseases, water shortage and lack of feeds, need to be combated by accelerating the establishment of paravets and veterinary drug depots in the districts, implement herd health care program, provide watering facilities for livestock, protection of rangelands, collection and use of crop residues and agro-industrial by-products.Uncontrolled bush fires increasing and need to be investigated. Although the quantity and quality of water for human and animal consumption has increased, salt intrusion into the wetlands is growing. There is a need to learn from earlier interventions.The market cattle are not kept for milk production, therefore, the establishment of the dairy plant should be delayed until information of the functioning of the dairy plant is established.Implications for partners (1): All species were kept as 'savings and insurance' hence the incorporation of survival and reproductive traits in the current ITC small ruminant breeding program should be accompanied by adequate health care and management.Implications for partners (2): The Gambia Livestock Marketing Agency should be strengthened and expanded to the project sites while ITC should distribute selected bulls from their ITC herds to overcome the constraint of access to improved bulls.Implications for partners (3): Suggested measures against transhumance include taxes on transhumance herds and strengthening conventions on transhumance.Implications for partners (4): Few livestock keepers sell animals, but for those who do, they sell a non-negligible proportion of their herd/flock, therefore, there is a need to sign a memorandum of understanding with GLMA. ","tokenCount":"3732"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6b6addc79efea9687a9a09ba78e5c52b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bbae6339-be32-43dc-86b6-dc6ca571885c/retrieve","id":"829358822"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e3cabf74-4d92-42b5-a7cb-7ab867f1c558","pagecount":"2","content":"❑Common bean contributes towards a balanced diet because of its high protein content ❑It serves as source of cash to farmers and export commodity to earn foreign currency for Ethiopia ❑Common bean is grown both as sole crop and in association with other cropsN2Africa approaches to deliver & disseminate the best fit practices Why N2Africa focus on the common bean?• Common bean is potential for food and nutrition security.• Common bean is the main source of foreign currency for Ethiopia.• Improve soil fertility and productivity • It is a climate smart crop • It is potential source of animal feeds as the residue has high crude protein contentAchievements Productivity • N2Africa's package (I+P) in common bean can boost at least by 29% (2200 kg ha -1 ) yield compared to the national average (1.7 t ha -1 ) • The best bet package (I+P) can increase the grain yield up to 2.6 t ha -1 • Despite the best bet practice (I+P) increased the yield (2.3-2.9 t ha -1 ), there were significant yield variability across the farms • Farmers' preferred of high yielding and marketable varieties were identified and recommended. Preferences • At evaluation of the demonstrated technologies, groups of farmers disaggregated by gender preferred improved common bean varieties and P+I package as the best practice. They also witnessed that the best bet practice can also improve soil fertility due to nitrogen fixing capacity and defoliated leaves decomposition which enhanced the soil organic matter. ","tokenCount":"245"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6fb7367ae2f9c61f6428c52928af840b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/bacf40bf-8606-46a3-97cb-989da8538810/content","id":"-1572896620"},"keywords":["GWAS","Linkage mapping","Observed heterozygosity","Ho-LAMap","OsLG3","Grain length","Rice domestication","Artificial selection","Genetic interaction"],"sieverID":"8f7be5bb-8492-41f6-9cbf-48f88e05b62c","pagecount":"18","content":"Background: Most agronomic traits in rice are complex and polygenic. The identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) for grain length is an important objective of rice genetic research and breeding programs.Results: Herein, we identified 99 QTL for grain length by GWAS based on approximately 10 million single nucleotide polymorphisms from 504 cultivated rice accessions (Oryza sativa L.), 13 of which were validated by four linkage populations and 92 were new loci for grain length. We scanned the Ho (observed heterozygosity per locus) index of coupled-parents of crosses mapping the same QTL, based on linkage and association mapping, and identified two new genes for grain length. We named this approach as Ho-LAMap. A simulation study of six known genes showed that Ho-LAMap could mine genes rapidly across a wide range of experimental variables using deep-sequencing data. We used Ho-LAMap to clone a new gene, OsLG3, as a positive regulator of grain length, which could improve rice yield without influencing grain quality. Sequencing of the promoter region in 283 rice accessions from a wide geographic range identified four haplotypes that seem to be associated with grain length. Further analysis showed that OsLG3 alleles in the indica and japonica evolved independently from distinct ancestors and low nucleotide diversity of OsLG3 in indica indicated artificial selection. Phylogenetic analysis showed that OsLG3 might have much potential value for improvement of grain length in japonica breeding.Rice (O. sativa L.) is a staple food and the world's most important cereal crop. Grain yield is determined by three component traits, namely grain weight, number of grains per panicle, and number of panicles per plant. Grain size is a prime breeding target, as it affects both yield and quality. Therefore, the study of grain size is highly important for the improvement of rice yield and quality as well as for the understanding of the rice domestication process [1]. Grain size is specified by its three dimensions (length, width, and thickness). Recently, although a number of quantitative trait loci (QTL) conferring grain length [2] have been isolated, and among them several QTL, such as GS3, GW2, GL3.1, TGW6, qSW5, and GW8, have been well studied [1,[3][4][5][6][7], molecular characterization of these and many more unknown genes is still largely unclear. Thus, it is of great significance to understand the underlying genetic and molecular bases of grain length [3].Recent studies isolated and characterized genes involved in QTL using map-based cloning techniques based on linkage mapping [2,6,[8][9][10][11]. However, for fine mapping, very large sample sizes are required; typically, thousands of individuals are needed and the fieldwork involved is extremely laborious, usually involving measurement of multiple traits at several time points across diverse environments. Genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) is generally considered an effective tool to infer causative links between genomic markers and phenotype in many crops [12][13][14][15][16]. However, in previous studies, the causal polymorphisms showed a weaker association than the peak single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in Arabidopsis thaliana and rice [12,17]. Extensive computer simulations have shown that the power of GWAS is low for polygenic traits and that spurious associations can be expected [18]. Linkage mapping was shown to be a valuable complementary approach to address these situations in maize and Arabidopsis [14,16,19]. Recently, there have been attempts to combine the vigor of linkage mapping with GWAS in rice [20][21][22]. GWAS should be performed in conjunction with genetic linkage analysis to detect relevant loci [17].It is generally agreed that GWAS in rice cannot resolve a single gene due to the low rate of linkage disequilibrium decay. With the development of next generation sequencing technology, DNA sequencing has become easier and cheaper. A core collection of 3000 rice accessions from 89 countries were deep resequenced [23,24], providing an unprecedented resource for genomic research. Herein, we propose a unified approach for gene discovery in rice from candidate region association mapping combing linkage mapping that limits the major problem caused by false positives. We not only describe a new strategy to identify previously unknown but agronomically important alleles based on deepsequencing technology, but also report on the cloning and characterization of a dominant QTL, OsLG3, as a positive regulator of grain length. Natural variations in the OsLG3 promoter region confer grain length and weight and its favorable allele represents a valuable genetic resource for rice cultivar improvement.Ninety-nine QTL for grain length were detected by GWAS based on high-density SNPsWe investigated grain length in a diverse panel of 504 cultivated rice varieties from worldwide sources (Additional file 1: Figure S1 and Additional file 32: Table S1, Additional file 33: Table S2) grown in five environments at two different latitudes (Additional file 33: Table S3). The panel consisted of the mini core collection [25] and varieties in the International Rice Molecular Breeding Network [26] and have, as part of the rice 3000 genome project, been sequenced with an average sequencing depth of 14.9× (Data access). After aligning the reads against the rice reference genome of the temperate japonica variety, Nipponbare, we identified a total of 10 million SNPs (1 SNP per 40 bp on average) from these accessions and 3,585,229 SNPs with missing rates of less than 30% and a 0.05 minor allele frequency (MAF). GWAS was performed on different populations using the naïve model (LM), general linear model (GLM) with population structure (Q matrix), and compressed mixed linear model (CMLM) by controlling population structure and kinship, denoted by the Q + K model according to Yu et al. [27,28] (Additional file 3: Figure S3a-c, Additional file 34: Table S5, Additional file 35: Table S6, Additional file 36: Table S7, Additional file 37: Table S8, and Methods). LM not only detected all the cloned genes and published QTL related to rice grain length, but also indicated a whole genome association signal in all types of populations, and thus included a very high number of false positive associations (Additional file 3: Figure S3a). When using CMLM and setting -log 10 (P) = 7.9 (P = 0.05/n, n denotes the number of all SNPs), we detected only two, two, and four QTL in the full, indica, and japonica populations, respectively, of which one is the cloned gene GS3, one is a published QTL in both full and indica populations, and one is a published QTL in japonica (Additional file 3: Figure S3b and Additional file 34: Table S5). When using GLM and the same -log 10 (P), we detected 65, 30, and 53 QTL in the full, indica, and japonica populations, respectively, and these QTL hit seven (GW2, GS3, GW5, GW6a, TGW6, GL7, and GLW7), two (GS3 and GW5), and three (GW2, GL7, and GLW7) cloned genes, respectively, and about 65%, 53%, and 57% of the published QTL (Fig. 1a, b and Additional file 35: Table S6, Additional file 36: Table S7, Additional file 37: Table S8). However, four genes from map-based cloning (GS2, GL3.1, GS5, and GW8) were not identified by the model because of the rarity of causal variants, or strong correlation between causal variation and population structure. Most of the genes being separated by map-based cloning involve rare causal variations and cannot be identified by GWAS, such as GS2 and GL3.1 (Additional file 33: Table S9). Some other genes cannot be detected by GLM because the frequency of their causal variation confound with population structure (Additional file 4: Figure S4). For example, even though GW8 and GS5 displayed the high association signals in LM (-log 10 (P) = 19.0 and 17.8), their signal in GLM decreased to 1.2 and 4.9, and GW8 indicated no significance by simple t-test when removing effect of Q structure from their original phenotypes (Additional file 5: Figure S5). Taken together, these results suggested that there were still many valuable genes for grain length that remained to be cloned.We used four segregating populations from cross involving six varieties to identify QTL for grain size and grain weight, including SLG-1 (SLG, with the largest grain), Chuanqi (CQ, with the smallest grain), Nipponbare (NIP, medium grain), Haobuka (HBK, large grain), IRAT109 (large grain), and Yuefu (YF, medium grain), which were selected from the MCC1 panel and showed high genetic differentiation from each other (Additional file 7: Figure S7 and Additional file 33: Table S10). The four segregating populations included BILs (backcross inbred lines) from Nipponbare and SLG-1, CSSLs (chromosome segregation substitution lines) from YF and IRAT109, BC 1 F 2 lines from Chuanqi and SLG-1, and BC 1 F 2 lines from Nipponbare and Haobuka. Substantial variation in grain size traits was observed among these populations (for example, 07DH010-14, Additional file 8: Figure S8). Thirty-four QTL for grain shape and weight were detected among the four groups (Additional file 9: Figure S9 and Additional file 33: Table S11). Among them, 13 QTL for grain length co-localized with QTL mapped by our GWAS (Fig. 1a, c). Of 34 QTL, 22 were detected in at Manhattan plot for candidate region association mapping for qGL3-1 (top) and Ho index plots of qGL3-1 (middle). Red regression lines were obtained by averaging SNP indices from a moving window of two consecutive SNPs, and shifting the window one SNP at a time. The bottom part corresponds to annotated genes in this region, with the purple arrow representing GS3. e Minor allele frequency influence on effectiveness of Ho-LAMap least two combinations. Moreover, three QTL (qGL3-1, qGL3-2, and qGL3-3) for grain length were detected in four crosses (Fig. 1c).The efficiency of Ho-LAMap for detection of causal genes and simulation studies Similar to other reports of GWAS in rice [12,13,29], the peak SNPs were not part of the causal genes except for GS3, even though we narrowed the QTL regions of several hundred kilobases (Additional file 6: Figure S6). However, analysis of the causal alleles of some cloned genes indicated that most of the varieties shared the same causal variations [5][6][7], although the varieties did not uniformly share the same non-causal variations. Based on this, we propose a strategy -Ho-LAMap that joins GWAS and multiple biparental linkage analysisto distinguish the causal gene from other genes confounded with population structure. The principles of Ho-LAMap are depicted in Additional file 12: Figure S12 and Additional file 33: Notes S3. Firstly, we cross diverse founder varieties (i.e., varieties that are significantly different from reference parent for grain traits) with a reference parent (usually a small grain variety). After backcrossing or several self-pollinated generations, advanced populations are prepared for QTL mapping and these serve to identify the regions in the genome that are most likely to carry the causal genes. Primary fine mapping will help to ensure the boundary of the QTL. Association mapping using the GLM (Q) model in the QTL interval will identify almost all SNPs that correlate significantly with the target trait. In crosses that have detected the targeted QTL, the majority of SNPs within the QTL interval will segregate in a 1:1 founder varieties:reference parent ratio. However, the SNP responsible for the change of phenotype will be the same in all founder parents detecting the targeted QTL. If we define the Ho (observed heterozygosity per locus) index as the ratio between the number of heterozygous crosses corresponding to each SNP locus and the total number of crosses which have the targeted QTL, we expect this index to equal 1 near the causal SNP and 0.5 for the unlinked loci. Ho indices can be scanned across the genome to find the region with a Ho index of 1, and presumably harboring the gene responsible for the change of phenotype. In this method, we just need to sequence several parents and do SNP mapping. Our proposed name for this approach is Ho index unified linkage and association mapping (Ho-LAMap) as applied to rice.Among three co-localized QTL, qGL3-1 encompassed the cloned gene GS3 [3] and thus was used to validate the efficiency of Ho-LAMap. In the mapping region of qGL3-1 overlapping between GWAS and multiple biparental linkage analysis, we detected 1763 SNPs with significant association signals. For each identified locus, we obtained the Ho index between each pair of parents for the four combinations, and plotted the Ho indices in the overlapping mapped region (Fig. 1d). The Ho index of GS3 was 1 and those for almost all other loci were below 0.5, and even 0. The results confirmed that this approach allowed us to rapidly identify the causal gene according to GWAS combined with primarily mapped QTL common among multiple biparental crosses.Given the success Ho-LAMap in identifying genes controlling quantitative traits based on common QTL and GWAS, we are more generally interested in the possible factors affecting the efficiency of Ho-LAMap in detecting causal genes. Simulation studies (see Methods) on several known genes, such as GS3, TGW6, etc., were carried out to estimate (1) the number of crosses required (N), (2) the minor allele frequency of the targeted gene, and (3) the subgroup that selected parents were from. Our results suggest that the minor allele frequency is perhaps the most important factor for effectiveness of Ho-LAMap and that parents selected from an appropriate subgroup would increase the efficiency (Fig. 1e and Additional file 13: Figure S13). Whereas the resolving power increased with the number of crosses we concluded that, in application of Ho-LAMap to complex quantitative traits in rice, N ≥ 4 should be required for genes such as TGW6 (Additional file 14: Figure S14 and Additional file 33: Table S12).We further applied Ho-LAMap to qGL3-2 and qGL3-3 and successfully identified two new genes for grain length (Fig. 2a, Additional file 15: Figure S15 and Additional file 33: Notes S1, S2). Herein, we focused on qGL3-3 and identified a small genomic region harboring a cluster of SNPs with a Ho index of 1 (Fig. 2a): qGL3-3 showed a cluster of five SNPs with a Ho index of 1. Then, we examined the SNPs with Ho indices of 1 in detail. All five SNPs were localized to the promoter of gene Os03g0183000 (OsLG3) (Additional file 33: Table S13), which encodes an APETALA2/ethylene-responsive element binding protein 125. We compared genomic sequences corresponding to the ORF and the promoter regions of OsLG3 between varieties with short and long grain and found that the promoter region had high nucleotide diversity (Additional file 16: Figure S16). Significantly, three varieties with long grains (IRAT109, SLG-1, and Haobuka) had the same promoter sequences that were different from those of all short-grain varieties (Additional file 33: Table S14). We assayed the temporal and spatial expression patterns of OsLG3 in NIL(SLG) and NIL(NIP) using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) with total RNA from 13 tissues. The transcript was much more abundant in NIL(SLG) than in NIL(NIP) in young panicles and developing rice endosperms (Fig. 2b and Additional file 17: Figure S17). Such expression differences corresponded well with the critical stages for determination of grain length and grain weight [30]. Therefore, we hypothesized that differences in expression levels of OsLG3, attributable to polymorphisms in the promoter rather than the coding variation, were key determinants of variation in grain length.Two transformation constructs were prepared to test this hypothesis. The first, OE, contained the cDNA of OsLG3 from Nipponbare (short grain) driven by the 35S promoter; the second, contained RNAi-OsLG3, the fragment of OsLG3 coming from Nipponbare. All of the transgenic lines that overexpressed the Nipponbare OsLG3 allele showed increased grain length and grain weight, compared to transgene-negative plants (Fig. 2c and Additional file 18: Figure S18a-c). All transgenic RNAi-OsLG3 plants formed grains that were substantially shorter and lighter than those from transgene-negative plants (Fig. 2c and Additional file 18: Figure S18d, e). Thus, a longer grain could be caused by the variations in the promoter region.Although most of the morphological characteristics of NIL(SLG) were similar to those of Nipponbare (Additional file 19: Figure S19), the spikelet hulls of NIL(SLG) plants before fertilization were longer than those of Nipponbare plants. We conducted scanning electron microscopy study of outer and inner surfaces of glumes from NIL(SLG) and NIP (Additional file 20: Figure S20). There was little, if any, difference in cell length in either the palea or lemma, but total cell numbers of outer and inner epidermal cells in the longitudinal direction in NIL(SLG) were more than their equivalents in Nipponbare. We also investigated the expression of the key genes determining cell cycle time [7,31] such as CDKA1, CYCD3, MCM3, CYCA2.1, CYCA2.2, CYCA2.3, CAK1, and H1. The transcript levels of most of these genes were considerably higher in NIL(SLG) plants relative to Nipponbare plants (Additional file 21: Figure S21), suggesting that the increase in cell number in NIL(SLG) might result from elevated expression of genes promoting cell proliferation. In addition, compared with Nipponbare, NIL(SLG) had a 4.2% higher grain length to width ratio, but had the same grain chalkiness level and the same starch granule appearance in transverse sections of grains (Additional file 22: Figure S22). These observations suggest that OsLG3 might promote longitudinal growth by increasing cell proliferation while not influencing grain quality (Fig. 2d-f and Additional file 23: Figure S23 and Additional file 24: Figure S24).As mentioned above, OsLG3 transcripts were detected in various tissues by qRT-PCR analysis (Fig. 2b and Additional file 17: Figure S17). To determine the spatial expression pattern of OsLG3 in detail, we generated transgenic plants containing OsLG3 promoter::GUS fusions (ProOsLG3::GUS). We observed GUS activity in all of the analyzed tissues/organs (roots, stems, sheaths, leaves and panicles) (Additional file 25: Figure S25). Higher GUS activity was detected in developing panicles, spikelet hulls during spikelet development and roots (Additional file 25: Figure S25). These results indicate that OsLG3 is a temporally and spatially expressed gene.As OsLG3 encodes an AP2 domain class transcription factor, we speculated that OsLG3 is localized in the nucleus. To determine subcellular localization of OsLG3, we expressed an OsLG3-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein under the control of the 35S promoter in onion epidermal cells. As shown in Fig. 3a, GFP fluorescence in 35S: OsLG3-GFP transgenic epidermal cells was observed exclusively in nuclei. Thus, this result suggests that OsLG3 is a nuclear-localized protein, consistent with its proposed function as a transcription regulator.We further tested the activity of a set of truncations and deletions of OsLG3/OsAP2-125. It showed that the C-terminal 168-334 aa region is sufficient to activate the reporter, whereas the N-terminal truncated OsLG3/ OsAP2-125 proteins are not (Fig. 3b). These results show that transcription activation activity of OsLG3/OsAP2-125 resides in its C-terminal regions and that DNA-binding activity resides in its N-terminal regions containing the AP2 domain [32,33].We next sequenced the OsLG3 promoter regions and measured grain length in 283 rice accessions, including 247 cultivated, worldwide varieties of O. sativa in MCC1, and 36 wild accessions originating from a wide geographic range across Asia (Additional file 32: Table S1). On the basis of the nucleotide polymorphisms identified by Ho-LAMap, we could divide the sequences of the cultivated varieties into four haplotypes that were placed into two classes by phylogenetic analysis: haplotypes 1 and 3 in class A and haplotypes 2 and 4 in class B (Fig. 4a, b). Cultivars having class A haplotypes showed significantly higher OsLG3 expression levels and a longer grain phenotype than those with class B haplotypes by qRT-PCR analysis (Fig. 4c, d). Furthermore, transient assays indicated that the four consensus SNPs, rather than indel1, played a significant role in regulating OsLG3 expression differences between genotypes, resulting in diversity on grain length (Fig. 4a, e).Geographically, 32 temperate japonica cultivars with Hap4 were from northern China, Russia, Korea, and Japan, or higher elevation zones (Fig. 4f). In contrast, samples with Hap1, including 133 indica and 10 javanica cultivars, were from South China, Southeast Asia, East Africa and South America. This group also included 19 glutinous temperate japonica from the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau or mixtures. The 26 O. rufipogon samples with Hap1 were from Southeast Asia and south China, whereas the 8 Hap4 O. rufipogon samples originated from Guangxi province in China (Additional file 32: Table S1). These observations indicate that a north-south differentiation in OsLG3 occurred between indica and japonica during rice domestication.We analyzed the genetic diversity [34] in OsLG3 and its flanking regions (~400 kb) to determine whether OsLG3 had undergone artificial selection during domestication of indica. Clearly decreased nucleotide diversity was observed at the OsLG3 locus in indica, but not in temperate or tropical japonica accessions (Fig. 4g). The overall average nucleotide diversity of the 20 kb OsLG3 flanking regions was higher than that of OsLG3 in indica, but also significantly lower than in wild rice (Fig. 4h). The diversity in an approximately 100-kb region around OsLG3 in indica was lower than that in japonica and wild rice. These results suggest that the decreased diversity in indica resulted from selection.To gain deeper insights into the evolution of OsLG3, we analyzed all polymorphic sites in the entire gene region of a larger population. We identified 7 haplotypes in 504 diverse cultivars (3 indica and 4 japonica haplotypes) and 13 haplotypes in 15 wild accessions. A  small grain haplotypes, which might have been inherited to ancient japonica. All indica haplotypes had large grain OsLG3 haplotypes and one haplotype was present in two wild accessions, indicating the large grain haplotypes in indica might be derived from an O. rufipogon accession with a large grain haplotype. The large grain allele of OsLG3 in javanica and some glutinous template japonica from the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau or admixed accessions may be derived from indica sources (Fig. 4f, i). Our results implied that OsLG3 alleles in indica and japonica independently originated from distinct ancestors, consistent with previous conclusions that the two subspecies were domesticated from distinct ancestral gene pools [35].To dissect the genetic interaction between OsLG3 and other genes controlling grain length, we analyzed the promoter sequences of OsLG3 and various haplotypes of GS3, GW8, TGW6, GW2, and GL3.1 in 498 accessions (Additional file 32: Table S1, Additional file 33: Table S2). By re-sequencing our germplasm resources, we found that the alleles of GW2 and GL3.1 responsible for longer grains were quite rare. We then investigated OsLG3, GS3, GW8, and TGW6 and analyzed the association between their grain length and allelic variants. All varieties were categorized by allelic variations in the functional nucleotide polymorphisms (FNPs) of OsLG3, GS3, GW8, and TGW6. The beneficial allele of OsLG3 had an epistatic effect on grain length for GW8 and TGW6; however, the beneficial allele of GS3 had a recessive epistatic effect on grain length for OsLG3 (Fig. 5a-c and Additional file 26: Figure S26). Our results suggest these loci cooperatively regulate grain length in rice, as accessions with the same haplotype for a given gene exhibited grain length diversity, and that variations at OsLG3 and GS3 are major factors affecting grain length diversity on a wide range of genetic backgrounds (Fig. 6a). Phylogenetic analysis showed that landrace varieties and improved varieties in the indica group were distinguished remarkably on account of improvement of grain length, although it fitted well within the japonica group. This indicated that grain length in indica rice has been widely improved by the presence of beneficial alleles of GS3 and OsLG3, whereas there remains room for improvement for grain length in japonica (Fig. 6a, c and Additional file 27: Figure S27). In the japonica group, grain of some improved varieties was significantly longer because of introgression of the beneficial allele of OsLG3 (Fig. 6a, b). Our results suggest that OsLG3 has potential for improvement of grain length in japonica.Grain size traits of rice are complex and generally controlled by multiple genes. Genetic control of these characteristics has been investigated over the last decade. To date, a total of 11 QTL for grain size (including GS3, GL3.1, GW6a, TGW6, GL7, GLW7, GS5, GW5, GW8, GS2, and GW2) have been cloned from natural rice varieties by a classic map-based approach. Despite these efforts, the mechanisms that establish the final size of grain remain poorly understood. In this research, we conducted GWAS for rice grain length based on high density SNPs (an average of 1 SNP per 40 bp) from 504 accessions and identified 99 QTL for grain length. This provides important information for cloning novel grain length genes in the future. Our findings confirmed that Ho-LAMap was able to mine genes rapidly over a wide range of experimental variables using deep-sequence Fig. 5 The genetic interactions between OsLG3 and other grain length-related genes based on diverse germplasm. A box plot and a kernel density plot were generated as violin plots for different groups. a-c Relationship between OsLG3 and other grain size-related genes, including GS3 (a), GW8 (b), and TGW6 (c). The violin map was constructed in R. Different letters above columns indicate statistically significant differences between groups (Tukey's honestly significant difference test, P < 0.05). Landraces, genotypes, and phenotypes are listed in Additional file 32: Table S1 data and that natural variations in the OsLG3 promoter region conferred grain length and weight.In rice, GS3, GL3.1, GW2, GW5, and GW6a controlled grain size by regulating cell proliferation, whereas GLW7 did so by regulating cell expansion. GS2, GS5, GL7/ GW7, and GW8 influenced both cell division and cell expansion [36]. In this study, we reported a novel transcriptional regulatory factor that controlled grain length by influencing cell proliferation. Expression analysis showed that elevated expression levels of OsLG3 increased the expression levels of many key genes involved in the cell cycle. The glumes from NIL(SLG) had the same cell length with NIP, but cell numbers of epidermal cells in the longitudinal direction in NIL(SLG) were more than those in Nipponbare. Thus, these findings indicate that OsLG3 contributes to grain length by promoting cell division.Many QTL related to rice grain size or weight were reported to enhance the grain yield. Among them, GW2, GS2, and GW5 increased grain size and yield to a large extent; however, they caused a sudden increase in the percentage and degree of chalkiness, resulting in a sharp decrease in grain quality. Our results revealed that the introduction of SLG allele of OsLG3 into existing elite japonica varieties might increase the grain length, weight and yield without disturbing the grain quality. According to the pedigree records, Yunguang8 is one of the first two-line hybrid rice most widely grown in Yunnan province of China because of its particularly high yield and good appearance quality. Its parents are the Yunhui11 and Nongken58S, a formerly widely used good-quality PTGMS line in China. A resequencing study showed that Yunguang8 carried the beneficial allele of OsLG3 deriving from Yunhui11 and the gw8 Basmati allele deriving from Nongken58S, respectively (Additional file 32: Table S1). Thus, the combination of the OsLG3 SLG and gw8 Basmati alleles provides a good example, which could have been employed by breeders, for simultaneously improving rice yield and grain quality over what is currently achievable.Rice is a major cereal and a model system for plant biology, however, the origin of cultivated rice and its domestication history have long been debated. During the past decades, several models were proposed for rice domestication. Asian cultivated rice contains five genetically distinct ecotype groups, namely indica, aus, temperate japonica, tropical japonica, and aromatic. A simple single origin of cultivated rice suggested that the cultivated rice was primarily domesticated from the annual genotypes, and the two subspecies indica and japonica were regarded to be molded after domestication [37,38]. Londo et al. [39] reported that indica and japonica were domesticated independently. Another hypothesis indicated that japonica rice was first domesticated and indica rice was subsequently developed from crosses between japonica rice and another clade of O. rufipogon [40]. Recently, Civáň et al. [41] suggested that there were three geographically separate domestications of Asian rice and concluded that rice domestication was a multiregional process separately producing the indica, japonica, and aus types of rice. Some well-characterized domestication genes (Sh4, Prog1, Bh4, and qSH1) in rice were found to be fixed in both subspecies with the same alleles, thus supporting the hypothesis of a single domestication origin [42][43][44][45]. However, our findings revealed that OsLG3 alleles in indica and japonica independently originated from distinct ancestors (Fig. 4i). In view of the fact that grain size is a target trait for both domestication and artificial breeding, this conclusion was consistent with the hypothesis that indica and japonica were domesticated independently. Although rice is a self-crossing species, in this study, gene flow was detected from domesticated to two (out of the total 15) wild accessions (Fig. 4i). This is in agreement with a previous report of gene flow from domesticated to wild crop in another self-crossing species [46]. As demonstrated by our study, grain length is a complex trait associated with population structure in rice (Additional file 4: Figure S4a and Additional file 5: Figure S5). Although we detected two major QTL using the CMLM model (Additional file 34: Table S5), a large amount of middle effect and minor effect QTL, even many other major QTL for grain length (e.g., GW2, OsLG3, TGW6, gw8), could not be identified (Additional file 3: Figure S3). This indicates that not all associations that are eliminated in the CMLM model are false. GWAS incorporating Q and K in a CMLM controls P value inflation well, but leads to false negatives, missing some potentially important true associations. It is possibly due to the confounding between the covariates and test marker weakening the signals of Quantitative Trait Nucleotides (QTNs), resulting in false negatives in CMLM [47]. Recently, Liu et al. [47] proposed a new method, FarmCPU (Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification), to control false positives as well as CMLM with reduction in false negatives. FarmCPU iteratively performs marker tests with pseudo QTNs as covariates in a fixed effect model and optimization on pseudo QTNs in a random effect model. To some extent, this process removes the confounding between testing markers and kinship, prevents model over-fitting, and controls false positives simultaneously. We reanalyzed our data using FarmCPU. Seven, four, and two QTL were identified by FarmCPU, including the first three PCs, two PCs, and one PC as covariates, respectively; further, these QTL hit two (GS3 and SSG6), two (GS3 and GW6a), and one (GS3) known genes, respectively (Additional file 28: Figure S28), and overlapped with five, three, and one published QTL (Additional file 38: Table S15). When using FarmCPU including the first three PCs, we detected five and five QTL in the indica and japonica subpopulations, respectively, and these QTL hit two (GS3 and GW5) and one (TGW6) cloned genes, respectively (Additional file 29: Figure S29), overlapping with four and two of the published QTL (Additional file 38: Table S15). FarmCPU outperformed CMLM with respect to controlling inflation of P values (Additional file 28: Figure S28e-h), identifying new QTL for rice grain length, and overlapping with known loci (Additional file 28: Figure S28a-d and Additional file 34: Table S5 and Additional file 38: Table S15). Unlike the FarmCPU, our association analysis for the rice grain size traits in Ho-LAMap employed GLM (Q) to try to avoid false negatives. There is no doubt that FarmCPU also could be integrated with Ho-LAMap in identifying new QTL because of its improved statistical power.The era of deep-sequencing of vast arrays of germplasm has arrived and DNA sequencing has become quicker and cheaper. Thousands of rice accessions have been deepsequenced [23] and thousands of QTL on grain size (also other agronomic traits) have been mapped in rice (http:// archive.gramene.org/db/qtl/qtl_display?trait_category=Yield). However, how to rapidly identify the genes associated with agronomic traits utilizing these large amounts of sequence data and the linkage mapped QTL information in rice remains a challenge.Ho-LAMap is an attractive method for rapid, costeffective identification of natural variations underlying QTL based on co-localization in multiple populations (Additional file 30: Figure S30 and Additional file 33: Notes S3). Coupled parents of populations having different genetic backgrounds can be divided into two classes similar to generating contrasting genetic pools for analysis of individual traits. Using the Ho index, we effectively distinguish a large number of background interference signals (i.e., false positives) from all (Additional file 12: Figure S12). Furthermore, candidate region association mapping conducted on SNPs located in the overlapping intervals of targeted QTL avoids false-positive loci located outside the critical region.Deep sequencing of more than 3000 core rice collections with very broad genetic diversity and collected worldwide has been accomplished and our team has completed construction of approximately 100 recombinant inbred line populations based on accessions from our MCC panel. We expect that Ho-LAMap will facilitate gene isolation and rice breeding through molecular design by reducing the time for the of large NIL-F 2 populations and fine mapping of QTL thus avoiding extremely laborious, time-consuming, and expensive fieldwork required for identification and cloning of agronomically important genes (Additional file 31: Figure S31) such as those for stress resistance.Field planting and measurement of grain and yield traits Rice plants were examined under natural field conditions at the two Experimental Stations of China Agricultural University, Beijing and Hainan, China. The planting density was 13.3 cm between plants in rows that were 23.3 cm apart. Field management, including irrigation, fertilizer application, and pest control, followed normal agricultural practices. Harvested rice grains were air-dried and stored at room temperature for at least 3 months before testing. Fully filled grains were used for measuring grain width, length, and weight. Ten randomly chosen grains from each plant were lined up width-wise along a Vernier caliper to measure grain width and then arranged length-wise to measure grain length. Grain weight was based on 200 grains and converted to 1000-grain weight.The extra large-grain rice accession SLG-1 (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica) and another two large-grain varieties, Haobuka and IRAT109, were selected from more than 7000 germplasm and used as desirable donor parents. The smallest grain accession, Chuanqi (ssp. indica), and two medium grain accessions, Nipponbare and Yuefu (ssp. japonica), were selected as recurrent parents. Four hybrid combinations (BILs from Nipponbare and SLG-1; CSSLs from Yuefu and IRAT109; BC 1 F 2 from Chuanqi and SLG-1; and BC 1 F 2 from Nippobare and Haobuka) were created by the six varieties.The Nipponbare x SLG-1 cross: Four BC 4 F 2 populations for primary QTL mapping was constructed through selective backcrossing of lines which had large grain at each backcross generation. Three BC 4 F 3 populations for further QTL mapping were derived from some BC 4 F 2 plants without the known large-effect QTL (gs3 and GW2). Using a similar strategy, we developed another two BC 1 F 2 populations: one from SLG-1 crossed with Chuanqi, the other one from the cross between Nipponbare and Haobuka.The Yuefu x IRAT109 cross: Yuefu was crossed with IRAT109 and backcrossed with Yuefu for five generations, before selfing to produce BC 5 F 3 plants that were genotyped using 176 simple sequence repeat markers evenly distributed across all 12 rice chromosomes. Finally, we generated a fixed population of 271 CSSLs, with each containing an average three chromosome segments from the donor in the Yuefu genetic background.The 506 worldwide accessions (Additional file 32: Table S1) contributed by the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences included a mini-core collection of 248 accessions selected from a core collection of 932 accessions established from 61,470 O. sativa accessions preserved in the China National Crop Gene Bank [25], and 256 accessions selected based on isozyme diversity [48], used as parental lines in the international rice molecular breeding network, plus two accessions with the largest and smallest grains, respectively.Genomic DNA was prepared from bulk-harvested leaves of a single young plant for each sampled accession by a modified CTAB method either at the International Rice Research Institute or at the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Genomic DNA samples were then shipped to BGI-Shenzhen and were used to construct Illumina index libraries following the manufacturer's protocol. Following quality control, at least 3 μg of genomic DNA of each sample was randomly fragmented by sonication and size-fractionated by electrophoresis. DNA fragments of approximately 500 bp were purified from each of 24 accessions and were labeled independently using distinct 6 bp nucleotide multiplex identifiers, followed by pooling prior to library construction for next generation sequencing. Each sequencing library was sequenced in six or more lanes on the HiSeq2000 platform and 90-bp paired-end reads were generated. Subsequently, the reads from each sample were extracted based on their unique nucleotide multiplex identifiers as 83 bp reads (90 -6 -1, where 1 is the ligation base \"T\"). To ensure high quality, raw data were filtered by deleting reads having adapter contamination or containing more than 50% low quality bases (quality value ≤ 5).The SNP data utilized for GWAS were generated as described in 'The 3000 rice genomes project' [23], and the SNP identification process was as follows:SNP calling for each sample were performed independently using the UnifiedGenotyper package in GATK with a minimum phred-scaled confidence threshold of 50, and a minimum phred-scaled confidence threshold for emitting variants at 10. To ensure the quality of variant calling, the conditions for every site in a genome were set at > 20 for mapping quality, > 50 for variant quality, and > 2 for the number of supporting reads for every base. Using IRGSP-1.0 as the reference, the 3000 sequenced genomes had an average depth of approximately 14×, ranging from approximately 4× to greater than 60×, and yielded a combined total of approximately 17 TB of high quality sequence data. Of the 3000 entries, 504 accessions used in this study had an average sequence depth of 14.9×. Burrow-Wheeler alignment followed by variant calling GATK identified approximately 10 million SNPs. The SNPs finally identified in this study were 3,585,228 controlled by MAF ≥ 5% and missing rates ≤ 30%.GWAS studies and candidate-region association mapping GWAS of indica, japonica, and the full population were conducted using their corresponding genotype datasets. In each panel, only the SNPs with MAF > 5% were used for association analyses. Three modelsthe naive model, GLM (Q), and CMLMwere used for association analysis [17]. The Q matrix and K matrix were estimated by STRUCTURE 2.0 and GAPIT function in R [49], respectively, and the R version relies on the version of EMMA.A genetic map was constructed using MapMaker3.0/ EXP version 3.0 [50]. QTL analysis was performed by IciMapping3.1 [51] along with the composite interval mapping method, and the threshold was obtained by 1000 permutations. The substitution mapping strategy was used for fine mapping [52].The significant SNPs within the QTL regions on both sides of physical position of each of seven wellcharacterized genes (i.e., GS3, GS5, GW5, GW8, OsLG3, GL7, and TGW6) and phenotypes of grain length, grain width, and grain weight were used in our simulation studies. The parents of biparental populations used for QTL mapping were randomly selected from the two tails of the population by extreme trait performance. Since there are two alleles for each SNP, say A and a, let p H denote the allele frequency of A in one tail of the population with high trait performance, and p L denote the allele frequency of A in the other tail with low trait performance. That is to say, the allele frequency of A for one parent was p H , and that for the other parent was p L . If the SNP locus is polymorphic between two parents, it could be significantly associated with the trait of interest. The power of Ho-LAMP method can be estimated as p H (1p L ) + (1p H ) p L . To evaluate the effect of population structure on the power of Ho-LAMP method, we conducted simulation experiments for all 504 rice cultivars, Japonica cultivars, and Indica cultivars as groups. We also tried percentages of 0.05, 0.10, and 0.15 to select sub-populations with extreme phenotypic performance on both sides. Results were largely similar; therefore, 0.05 was used as the percentage cut-off to determine the size of the two tails of the population.Simulation of cross number also used significant SNPs of some of these well-characterized genes (i.e., GW8, GS3, and TGW6). Firstly, 504 accessions were divided into two parts by functional alleles of each gene, called A and a. Randomly selected similar numbers of varieties from each part were used to calculate the Ho-index for functional alleles in the candidate region. We simulated 1000 repeats and counted the times when only the functional allele had the maximum Ho-index, denoted as one time and three replicates for each gene. We evaluated the power as the proportion of detecting the target gene successfully in 1000 replications of simulation. Finally, we set different cross numbers  to carry out the simulation and defined the ideal number of crosses for each gene.\" Because the numbers are not citations. The same process was applied to the indica and japonica populations, respectively.Full-length cDNA of OsLG3 was amplified from the first-strand cDNA of IRAT109 with specific primers to generate the overexpression construct (Additional file 33: Table S17) using PrimeSTAR HS DNA Polymerase (TaKaRa). The sequence-confirmed PCR fragment was digested with Kpn I and Pac I, and inserted into the vector pMDC32 under the control of the Cauliflower Mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter.To generate the RNA interference (RNAi) construct, a fragment targeting the 294 bp coding region of OsLG3 was amplified with specific primers P3 and P4, digested with Kpn I and BamH I and then Spe I and Sac I sites, and subsequently inserted into the pTCK303 vector as previously described [53]. Primers used in these experiments are listed in Additional file 33: Table S17. To generate transgenic plants, the constructs were transformed into Nipponbare by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation [54]. Positive transgenic plants were selected by germinating transgenic seeds on 1/2 MS medium containing 50 mg/L hygromycin (Roche, Germany).For expression analysis, rice leaves were flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen, total RNAs were extracted using RNAiso Plus (TaKaRa) according to the manufacturer's instructions; 4 μg of the DNase-treated RNA were reverse transcribed using M-MLV reverse transcriptase (TaKaRa). The resulting cDNA samples were diluted five times and used as templates for PCR.qRT-PCR was performed in an Applied Biosystems 7500 Real Time PCR system (ABI, USA) using SYBR Premix Ex Taq™ II (TaKaRa) as previously described [55,56]. The gene-specific primers used for real-time PCR are listed in Additional file 33: Table S16. qRT-PCR was performed in triplicate for each sample, and the Actin1 gene was used as the internal reference for data normalization using the 2 -ΔΔt method [57].To generate the 35S::OsLG3-GFP construct, the full-length ORF of OsLG3 without the terminal codon was amplified with the corresponding primers (Additional file 33: Table S17). The amplified fragments were digested with Kpn I and Pac I, and then cloned into the pMDC83 vector and fused with the GFP reporter gene driven by the CaMV 35S promoter. The recombinant constructs of the 35S:OsLG3-GFP fusion and GFP alone were transiently transfected into onion epidermal cells, using a PDS-1000/ He system (Bio-Rad, USA) at 1100 psi. After incubation at 25 °C for 24 h, the fluorescence signal was examined through a confocal laser scanning microscope FV1000 (Olympus, USA) with excitation at 488 nm and emission at 525 nm.For the transactivation assay, plasmids pGBKT7-OsLG3 (full length coding region of OsLG3), pGBKT7-OsLG3-N (N-terminal of OsLG3, amino acids 1-108), pGBKT7-OsLG3-C (C-terminal of OsLG3, amino acids 109-209) were constructed. The pGBKT7 vector was used as a negative control and pGBKT7-53 was used as a positive control. These constructs were introduced into yeast strain AH109 by LiAc-mediated yeast transformations, and screened on selective medium plates without tryptophan (SD/-Trp). The PCR-verified transformants were transferred to SD medium without tryptophan/histidine/ adenine (SD/-Trp/-His/-Ade) for 3 days. Transactivation activities were performed according to the in vivo agar plate assay (x-α-gal in medium).Milled rice grains for scanning electron microscopy were transversely cut in the middle with a knife and coated with gold under vacuum conditions. The morphology of starch granules in the belly part of the endosperm was examined with a scanning electron microscope (Hitachi, S-570, China Atomic Energy Research Institute) at an accelerating voltage of 12 kV. The analysis was based on at least three biological replications of mounted specimens. All procedures were carried out according to the manufacturer's protocol.","tokenCount":"7295"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"37dc6309917ff69b4cc094f9991b4aae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4434e53b-5f28-4ba2-91cd-6265a19781b3/retrieve","id":"-2003452707"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"504401c3-3ebc-4478-a272-a76bd78c1731","pagecount":"11","content":"Soybean is a leguminous crop known for its multiple utilizations both as food and feed for humans and livestock. The objectives of the study were to identify high dry matter yielder and stable genotypes across environments in southwestern Ethiopia. The effect of genotype environment (G x E) interaction on dry matter yield of soybean genotypes were evaluated in two cropping seasons (2019-2020) under rain fed condition. Eight pre tested soybean genotypes with two checks were used as treatment in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Collected data were recorded and analyzed using GGE biplot models using R software. The combined analysis of variance showed that dry matter yield of soybean genotypes was significantly affected by genotype, environment and genotype-environment (G x E) interaction. The genotype, environment, and genotype-environment interaction, respectively, accounted for 11.4%, 49.5%, and 38.8% of the observed variation to the dry mater yield. This indicates that dry matter yield was significantly more affected by environments and G × E interaction than genotypes. The GGE biplot analysis revealed that six environments used in the current study were grouped into four megaenvironments. The mega-environments were identified for genotype evaluation. The biplot showed that the vertex genotypes were G4, G10, and G9 and considered as optimum performance in their respective mega-environments and more responsive to environmental changes. The biplot also showed that ENV5 (Kersa 2020) was an ideal and the most discriminating and representative environment. Genotype G4 (TGX1990-114FN) was the ideal genotype and overall winner in dry matter yield and stability in the findings. Therefore, genotype G4 (TGX-1990-114FN) is the better option to be used as forage soybean in Ethiopia. Further demonstration of the feeding values of high yielders and stable genotypes on animal performances should be done.The major constraints to livestock productivity are shortage of feed in quantity and quality particularly in dry season [37]. This situation prone animal's poor performance, low growth rates, reduced reproductive efficiency and high mortality [4]. The source of livestock feed in Ethiopia are mainly natural pasture and crop residues. The natural pastures decline from time to time because of the increase in the size of croplands [5]. However, the contribution of these feed depends on the agro-ecology, the type of crop produced, accessibility and production systems [8]. Production of adequate and quality forage to supplement crop residues and pasture roughages is the way to economically mitigate the dry season shortage affecting livestock production in Ethiopia. Almost all small scale farmers' livestock are highly dependent on grazing lands and crop residues for few period of times [16]. However, most of the areas have no communal grazing lands and no forage conservation management practices [5]. The livestock productivity under such type of production system will not maximize unless quantitative and quality feed supplied even if the maintenance requirement fulfill. Supplying balanced nutrition to livestock improves animal productivity as well as reduces production costs and decrease emission of greenhouse gases per unit of animal product [22]. Therefore, evaluating nutrient enriches forage genotypes to supplement crop residues and pasture feeding practice is the best options to mitigate feed shortage and climate change impacts [4,23,24].Soybean is a leguminous crop known for its multiple utilizations both as food and feed for humans and livestock [25]. Literature indicates that soybean grain, steam, and leaf have a tremendous advantage in supplementing livestock for their maximum production, unlike most legume crops [33]. When soybean forages are alternated with corn (Zea mays L.) or other non-legume crops, benefits are gained in the form of lingering nitrogen in the soil. Furthermore, because land is not committed for many years, forage soybeans are preferred in crop rotations over perennial legumes [36]. Soybean forages are either grazed or harvested from the flowering stage to near maturity for use as high-quality forage [25]. It can also be grown as silage in pure culture or intercropped with corn or sorghum [18]. The performance of soybean genotypes differ over environments and their dry matter yield performance is determined by genotype, environment and genotype x environment (G x E) interaction. The soil types, temperature and amount of rainfall distribution in different environments also determine dry matter yield performance of forage soybean genotypes.Testing the most adaptable and high-yielding potential of different forage crops in different environments and growing seasons are important to identify the best-bet genotypes for utilization. The G × E interaction is significant in plant breeding programs since the G × E interaction impairs efforts in the selection of genotypes [49]. In multi-environmental experiments, G × E interactions develops as a result of unpredictable macro-and micro-environmental effects such as temperature, rainfall, and humidity [45]. Understanding the nature of G × E interaction is used to determine whether to develop genotypes for all locations or to develop specific genotypes for specific target locations [19]. There are several approaches for determining G × E interactions and identifying stable genotypes, including parametric, non-parametric, and graphical estimates Graphical estimation methods, such as additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) and genotype and genotype by environment interaction (GGE), are used to measure and interpret G × E interactions for multi-environmental trials for the investigation of yield stability [26]. The GGE biplot analysis is used to identify ideal genotypes for specific environments, the stability of the genotypes, potential mega-environments (which-won-where), and cross-over and non-cross-over genotype by environment interactions [7]. The GGE biplot is superior to the AMMI model in mega-environment analysis and genotype evaluation because it explains more genotype and GxE interactions and has the inner-product property of the biplot. The discriminating power versus representativeness view of the GGE biplot is effective in evaluating test environments, which is not possible in AMMI analysis [48]. Therefore, GGE model was used to evaluate and identify soybean genotypes in order to study genotype-environment interaction effects and to select high-yielding and stable genotypes across environments. Therefore, the study's aims were to evaluate soybean genotypes for dry matter production, and to identify stable genotypes Fig. 1. Study area map.T. Mossie et al. across environments in southwestern part of Ethiopia. The nutritional quality of forage soybeans was also determined.The study was conducted in 2019-2020 at three locations in southwest Ethiopia: Jimma (Melko), Bedele (Banchure kebele), and Kersa (Kitble kebele) during two consecutive cropping seasons (Fig. 1, Table 1). The soil type of Jimma (Melko), Kersa and Bedele are Nitosol with a pH of 5.1, 5.38 and 5.48, respectively. The study sites were selected purposively to evaluate forage soybean genotypes across different agro-ecologies and climatic zone. The study area practices mixed farming system.The introduced soybean genotypes were collected based on secondary information from the records of the last two (2017-2018) cropping seasons undertaken at the nursery and field conditions of the Jimma Agriculture Research Center. Genotypes were evaluated via split lattice design. The selected soybean genotypes were planted in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Eight soybean accessions with two checks (lablab and Afgat) were used for the experiment. The planting materials of soybean genotypes were obtained from (pulse, oil and fiber crops case team working at Jimma Agriculture Research Center.Before planting, the experimental land was first cleared from weeds and ploughed three times, and then 2.16 kg of soybean seeds were sowed at the beginning of the main rain season in June 2019. The seeding rate of soybean genotypes was 60 kg/ha [6]. The experimental plot size was 12 m 2 (4 × 3 m) for each treatments. The spacing between rows, plots and blocks were 0.6 m, 1 m, and 1.5 m, respectively. The spacing between plants was 5 cm, and the number of rows per plot was six. Nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur (NPS) fertilizer was uniformly applied to all treatments at the rate of 100 kg/ha. Then all agronomic practices such as weeding and tinning were done as required. Harvesting for forage green yield was made manually by sickle at 50% flowering stage of the forage. All the field and agronomic data and samples required were collected from planting to harvesting date.The green herbage yield and dry matter yield of forage soybean genotypes were collected during 50 % flowering stage of the forage. A 500-g fresh representative sample was taken from each plot using paper bags and placed in an oven at 65 • C for 72 h. The dried sample was measured in each plot and converted to hectares to calculate dry matter yield.Nutritional compositions were determined at the Holeta Agricultural Research Center (HARC) in the Animal Nutrition Laboratory. To determine the chemical constituents, 500 g of fresh samples were taken, stored in an airtight bag, and subjected to a forced air draft oven at 650 • C for 72 h [29]. Then the dried samples were then ground and passed through a 1 mm-wide sieve. All samples were subjected to chemical analysis for the determination of organic matter following the methods of [9]. Crude protein (CP) (Kjeldhal method), acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL) were analyzed using the procedure of the Van Soest method. Ash was determined by igniting at 550 • C overnight [9]. [41] Tilley and Terry's procedure was used to determine in vitro dry matter digestibility.The collected data were subjected to combined analysis of variance using R software after testing the ANOVA assumption to examine the main effect of environment and genotype. Least significant difference (LSD) at 5% level of probability was used for comparison of means among treatments. Genotype main effect and genotype × environment interaction effect (GGE) biplot analysis were used to determine the effects of G × E interaction on dry matter yields [46]. The GGE model used was: Where Yij is measured mean of genotype i(=1,2, ….,n) in environment j(=1,2 …,m), μ is the grand mean, βj is the main effect of environment j, μ + βj being the mean yield across all genotypes in environment j, λ1 and λ2 are the singular values (SV) for the first and second principal component (PC1 and PC2), respectively, ξi1 and ξi2 are eigenvectors of genotype I for PC1 and PC2, respectively, ŋ1j and ŋ2j are eigenvectors of environment j for PC1 and PC2, respectively, εij is the residual associated with genotype i in environment j.The combined mean square values of soybean genotypes for dry matter yield were presented in Table 2. The result indicated that dry matter yield was significantly affected (P < 0.05) by genotypes, environments and genotype x environment (G x E) interaction. The considerable variation between tested genotypes demonstrates that genetic variability exists among soybean genotypes. The analysis result also showed that principal component 1 (PC1) and principal component 2 (PC2) had significant differences. This showed that strong genotype-environment interactions caused considerable differences in dry matter yield among soybean genotypes across the investigated environments. The significant differences in G × E interaction for the DM yield of genotypes are an indication of different performances of genotypes across environments. This necessitates the investigation of the nature of the different responses of the genotypes to environments. The genotype, environment, and genotype-environment interaction, respectively, accounted for 11.4%, 49.5%, and 38.8% of the observed variation to the dry mater yield. The PC 1 and PC2 principal components were explained by 48.9 % and 32.8 % of the G × E interaction (Table 2). The degree of variation of environment had greater influence on soybean dry matter yield performances. This finding is in line with previous studies reported by Refs. [7,17,20,27]. The interplay between genotype and environment is significant for plant breeding because it has an impact on genetic gain and the selection of cultivars with a wide range of adaptation [39]. The interaction is a result of variations in cultivar performance in various environments brought on by genotype-specific responses to biotic, edaphic, and climate-related factors [21]. For optimum management and exploitation, it is crucial to assess the yield performance and adaption patterns of different soybean genotypes across location.The highest mean dry matter yield of soybean genotypes (t/ha) was recorded from G3 (9.7) and G4 (9.4), with a grand mean of 8.1 (Table 3). Genotype six (G6), on the other hand, gave the lowest dry matter yield (6.9 t/ha) compared to others. Checks G2 (lablab) and G 10 (Afgat) were given relatively lower dry matter yields compared to the tested genotypes, particularly G3 and G4. The current study found a slightly similar dry matter yield (t/ha) to the findings of [25,35,36] conducted in different parts of the world. The current studies' mean dry matter yield (8.1 t/ha) was lower than that reported by Ref. [2] (15.1 t/ha) [3], (18.6 t/ha), and [1] (11.0 t/ha). On the other hand, a higher dry matter yield of soybean was found in the current finding than in the study reported by Ref. [31],who reported a low dry matter yield of lablab genotypes. This discrepancy is caused by differences in testing fodder soybean genotypes, soil type, sowing rate, row spacing, harvesting stage, agro-ecology differences, and other associated factors. The higher mean dry matter yields were found at ENV2 (Kersa 2019) and ENV5 (Kersa 2020) experimental sites (Table 3). Soybean genotypes G4 and G3 showed better performance in DM yields in all locations compared to checks (Lablab and Afgat). Genotype G9, G3, G4, and G7 gave a higher dry matter yield at ENV2 (Kersa 2019), while G3, G7, and G5 recorded a better dry matter yield at ENV5 (Kersa 2020). Genotype G7, G4, G3, and G10 genotypes had significantly high dry matter yields at ENV1 (Melko2019) and ENV4 (Melko 2020). These different dry matter yields across tested environments showed the existence of cross-over GEI.The first two principal components (PC), the biplot explained 66.41% of the total variation observed. The first and second interaction principal components (axis 1 and 2) explained 40.98% and 25.43% variation, respectively.The genotypes located within the polygon and close to the center of axis are least responsive to the stimuli of the environment (Fig. 2). Genotypes including G1, G8, G3, and G6 were found within the polygon and showed less response to environmental changes. Genotype G1 was close to the center of the axis, indicating genotype stability under different environmental conditions. The genotypes had small G × E interactions. This finding is consistent with the study carried out by Refs. [34,45] using GGE biplot. A genotype that is connected to a vertex of a polygon when no environmental indicator is present in the sector may not be operating as well as it could [48]. Therefore, four mega-environments were identified. ENV1, ENV3, ENV5 with G4 vertex genotypes are categorized as one environment, whereas ENV2, ENV4, and ENV6 are grouped as second, third, and fourth mega-environments, respectively. The genotypes located at the sector apex had the optimum performance in their respective mega-environments. The environment group within each sector and the genotypes at the polygon's extremity characterized the mega environment [49]. Apex genotypes, which are found on the edge, were the most yielding in the given environment [32]. The apex of the polygon is formed by the genotypes G4, G9, and G10. These genotypes are classified as the most responsive, showing better or worse performance in environments. Genotypes G9 and G10 were higher dry matter yielders at ENV2 and ENV6, respectively. Whereas G4 was the top dry matter yielder at ENV1, ENV3, and ENV5, with G1 and G7 performing well in these environments as well. The genotypes within the polygon perform better in their respective environments [7]. Therefore, G8 and G4 had better performance in ENV2. Genotypes G5, G2, and G6 had no environmental indicator; this indicates that those genotypes in the vertex and sector without environment performed poorly in all test environments [45] conducted a similar study, finding that vertex genotypes in the sector without environment performed poorly in all test environments. Genotypes including G1, G8, G3, G7, and G6 were found within the polygon and showed less response to environmental  changes. Distinct genotypes perform better in various environments if the environments are classified into distinct sectors [31].The ideal environment is located in or near the concentric circle. Fig. 3 indicates the ideal environment is ENV5 (Kersa 2020). Therefore, this environment is most powerful for discriminate widely adapted genotypes. ENV3 and ENV1 were close to the ideal environment, and this environment has been identified as a representative and the most powerful environment to discriminate genotypes. In general, environments were ranked in the following order relative to the ideal environment: ENV3>ENV1>ENV2>ENV4>ENV6 (Fig. 3). GGE biplot analysis is used to evaluate genotypes and environments relative to an ideal genotype and environment.The ideal genotype is always located in the innermost circle and near the head of the arrow at the center of the circular ring (Fig. 3). As a result, G4 is the ideal genotype. The genotypes G7, G1, G8, and G3 were closer to the ideal genotypes and performs better in terms of dry matter yield. Genotypes should be high-yielding and stable for efficient selection. While genotypes (G9 and G10) were unfavorable since they are too far from the ideal genotype. The ideal genotype has high mean yields across test settings and consistent performance [49]. The ideal genotype is characterized as having the longest vector length among the high-yielding genotypes with low GEI [48].The ability to discriminate and the representativeness of tested environments are important features of GGE biplot [46]. An ideal environment should be highly distinguishing for the genotypes being tested and typical of the intended location [49]. An environment that has a smaller angle with AEA is more representative than other environments [49]. Thus, ENV5 and ENV6 had a lesser angle with AEA in this regard, but ENV2 and ENV1 had a larger angle (Fig. 4). Additionally, a significant level of genotype discrimination is conferred by vector length [48]. Environments with longer vectors are more discriminating against genotypes, whereas environment indicators with short vectors give little or no information about genotype variations [48]. The current findings, ENV2 and ENV5, had longer vector lengths from the origin and provided the most discriminating or holding more information about the genotypes. ENV1 and ENV6, on the other hand, had medium discriminating ability among the genotypes (Fig. 4). Non-discriminating test environments provide little information regarding genotypes and should not be used for testing. Having short vectors and being close to the origin, Fig. 3. Ranking of genotypes and environments relative to ideal genotype and environment.T. Mossie et al. ENV3 and ENV4 offered less distinct information on the genotypes. As a result, ENV5 had a longer vector and a smaller angle with AEA, which was an ideal environment that allowed for the selection of superior genotypes in the most accurate and discriminating manner. These findings are congruent with the study conducted by Ref. [34], who used the GGE biplot to identify represented environments.  Mean performance and stability of genotypes assessed under a wide range of environments in GGE biplot model using AEC (Fig. 5) [17]. The AEC is defined by the average PC1 and PC2 scores for all the environments [47]. The mean vs stability pattern of the GGE biplot showed that 66.41% of dry matter yield per hectare of G + G x E variation (Fig. 4). The AEC X-axis (PC1) line passes through the biplot origin with an arrow pointing the positive end of the axis or the arrow and shows the mean yield performance of genotypes. The line that passes through the origin and perpendicular to the AEC, on the other hand, measures the stability of genotypes (PC2) in either direction. Stable genotypes close to AEC (PC1) with PC2 scores of almost zero. On the contrary, any direction on the axis away from the biplot origin suggests increased GE interaction and decreased stability. The best genotypes for selection criteria are those with high yield and high stability. The arrow sign on the AEC line directed the ranking of genotypes in the increasing order of mean dry matter yield. Genotypes with above average dry matter yield in increasing order are G4, G7, G8 and G1. Therefore, genotype four (G4) is the highest yielding genotype on average while G10 (check) was lowest yielding genotype. Genotypes, including G1, G4, G6 and G10 showed shorter projections were more stable across environments whereas G2, G5, and G9, were highly unstable genotypes since they had longer projection from AEA (Fig. 5). The genotypes that combined good performance with stability was G4 because it had higher mean dry matter yield and short projection of the genotype marker lines. The current finding is in line with the study reported by Refs. [13,31,49]. Based on average performance and stability across conditions, they ranked genotypes.The combined analysis of variance revealed that absolute dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and in vitro-dry matter digestibility (Invitro) traits have significant differences (P < 0.05) among genotypes (Table 4). However, acid detergent fiber (ADF) and lignin parameters showed non-significant differences among soybean genotypes. Only ash and lignin traits showed significant differences across locations. The overall mean values of DM, ash, CP, NDF, ADF, Lignin, and Invitro were 90. 4, 10.3, 15.7, 45.4, 31.9, 7.8, and 59.98, respectively. The highest and lowest DM values were recorded from genotypes TGX1990-114FN (94.6%) and PI567069A (87.8%), respectively, with a mean of 90.4% as compared to the rest of the genotypes.The genotypes TGX1990-114FN (21.56%) and TGX1990-111FN (17.5%) gave the highest CP content among testing genotypes. The lowest (14%) CP content recorded from PI567056A soybean genotypes. The current findings' mean value of CP content was similar to the findings of [1], who reported a mean value of 15.1% CP content. The CP content values found in the current study is satisfactorily supply CP acquirement of ruminant animals. Forage soybean has a high CP value, which can supplement low-quality roughages that attain the CP requirement of ruminant livestock like natural pasture (5.5%), Napier grass (6.12%) [11], Desho grass (8.4%) [12], and Bracharia grass (6.7%) [44], respectively. The CP yield of forage soybean showed non-significant differences among genotypes but significant differences among locations. The present findings of CP yield higher than findings of [2], who founds less than 1 t/ha. The higher CP yield was found at Kersa experimental site compared to Melko and Bedele. The CP content is not the only trait to be considered when evaluating forage crops since the CP yield and content describe the overall and actual productivity of quality forage. The nutritional quality of soybean forage is significantly affected by harvesting stages. The CP content decreased significantly with advancing maturity stages [2,35,40].The ash content of soybean genotypes showed differences both at locations and among genotypes. The ash content was highest in TGX1987-62F1, followed by TGX1990-5757F and TGX1990-110, and lowest in TGX1989-FN soybean genotypes. The high ash content in forage is an indication of high mineral concentration. The ash content of most herbaceous plants was reduced with increased stage of maturity [14]. According to studies, the concentration of ash in fodder varies based on plant developmental stage, morphology fractions, meteorological circumstances, and soil factors.In-vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) revealed significant differences among genotypes. TGX1990-114FN soybean genotypes had the highest IVDMD (90.4%), followed by TGX1990-111FN (79.15%) and TGX1990-110FN (73.1%), and AFGAT (59.9%) genotypes gave the lowest IVDMD. The current findings of IVDMD percentage were significantly higher than the studies reported by Ref. [1]. Chemical composition and digestibility of soybean forages are significantly affected by climate, soil fertility, harvesting stage, and other management practices. IVDMD decreased with advancing maturity of plants [1].The nutritional value of forages is primarily determined by voluntary consumption, crude protein, and structural carbohydrates. Forage consumption is influenced by digestible DM and CP content [30]. Ruminant maintenance necessitates a dry matter digestibility of around 550 g/kg DM [38]. For dairy cows, 600-700 g/kg DM are necessary for moderate milk production (10-15 kg/cow/day) [10].Neutral and acid detergent fiber: The result showed that measurements of ADF and NDF are inversely associated with CP content (Table 4). The NDF content of soybean legumes showed significant differences among genotypes, whereas the ADF content showed non-significant differences in both location and genotype. AFGAT (check) had the highest NDF (51.1%), followed by PI567056A (50.5%) and PI567069A (49.0%), whereas TGX1990-114FN (34.8%) gave the lowest NDF content. The current result showed that the mean NDF (45%) and ADF (31.9%) content of the soybean genotypes were higher than that reported by Refs. [2,42]. On the contrary, the current finding revealed that the mean of NDF and ADF content were lower than that reported by Ref. [43]. This suggests that the soybeans used in this study were high in fiber fractions (NDF and ADF). The fiber content of a feed is particularly important for determining quality in terms of digestion. NDF content represents most of the cell wall/fiber of soybeans seeds [42], while ADF content consists of primary lignocellulose structure and is resistant to microbial fermentation in the rumen [28]. NDF levels have a negative correlation with feed intake, while ADF has a negative correlation with digestibility values of feedstuffs [43]. Harvest stage affected ADF and NDF traits [2]. Soybean forage quality differs by genotypes, harvesting stage and environmental factors [3]. Progress of plants to maturity accumulating indigestible lignin and decrease CP content in plants [15]. Therefore, soybean genotypes that maximize seed yield may not be suitable for forage use regardless of plant height, which does not correlate with DM yield [3].The current findings demonstrated that the dry matter yield of soybean genotypes was significantly affected by the environment, followed by genotype-environment interaction and genotype effects due to the differential responses of genotypes to environmental and climatic factors. The degree of variation in the environment had a greater influence on soybean dry matter yield performances. The GGE biplot model was a good tool for visual multi-environment trail data analysis and allowed the estimation of the interaction effect of genotype and environment. Four mega-environments were identified for genotype evaluation and productivity breeding. ENV5 (Kersa 20120) was the ideal and most representative environment-based GGE biplot analysis. Genotype G4 was the ideal genotype and overall winner in dry matter yield and stability, depending on different stability parameters and models. The findings also showed that genotype G4 (TGX-1990-114FN) had higher crude protein content, in vitro dry matter digestibility, and relatively lower NDF and ADF concentrations. This attracts genotype-potential adaptors and improves the quality of forage for livestock. Therefore, genotype G4 (TGX-1990-114FN) is the better option to be used as forage soybean in Ethiopia. Further demonstration of the feeding values of highyielders and stable genotypes on animal performances should be done. ","tokenCount":"4393"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3e673cba0a5730e7b3137cf467ea0e62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/87da8a6e-3016-4768-9431-f2d802c993ae/content","id":"810613845"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c53ce3e5-580b-4457-8467-75985624a97e","pagecount":"5","content":"The study was conducted to determine the present status of producer and consumer of fast food restaurant as well as hygienic condition of different types of Fast food items in Barisal city. Total 150 food samples of 10 items were collected from 24 restaurants and 60 consumers were selected for data collection. Different types of socio economic data collected to assume the present status and perception towards fast food and fast food vendors. The microbiological analysis of fast foods sample was performed by the Plant Pathology Laboratory, BARI regional office, Barisal.18.33% customer was consumed Fast food as singara and 15% Burger. About 30% consumers had knowledge about nutrition and 33.78% in hygiene and only 13.33% had ideas in food borne pathogen. Among them 30% consumed Fast food for Easy access. 26.67% E. coli were found in Burger than 20% in vegetable roll, Among Salmonella spp. 26.67% found in Sandwich but in Fried chicken, Samosa and Singara items were not contaminated by E. coli and Salmonella spp. It is necessary to investigate the physical and chemical contamination of the Fast food samples and there is need to develop awareness to consumption knowledge both of the producer and consumer on health, hygiene and safety aspects of preparation, handling and consumption of Fast foods at Barisal city in Bangladesh.Junk food or fast food is the term given to nourishment that can be arranged and served rapidly. While any dinner with low planning time can be thought to be junk food, ordinarily the term alludes to nourishment sold in an eatery or store with preheated or precooked fixings and served to the in a bundled shape for take-out or take-away. The expression \"junk food\" was perceived in a lexicon by Merriam-Webster in 1951. Outlets might be stands or booths, which may give no safe house or seating or drive-thru food eateries (otherwise called snappy administration eateries) [1]. Establishment tasks which are a piece of eatery networks have institutionalized foodstuffs sent to every eatery from focal areas [2]. A few studies are available on the consumer preferences of fast food products in Bangladesh, convenience, accessibility, and the demand for fast food, promotions of hospitality service; but studies are rarely found on the factors affecting customer hospitality of the fast food industry in Bangladesh. Under this context the present study takes an initiative to conduct an empirical study on this particular issue. This study revealed that the most significant factors affecting the customer hospitality of fast food industry in Bangladesh are greetings, sitting arrangement and speed of service. Pattern of food consumption may vary due to the differences in culture, climate, socioeconomic status, etc. In fact, the habit of taking food among the inhabitants of a country may change due to several factors. Thus globalization, economic and income growth has led to increased amount of fast food consumption in Bangladesh like any other Asian country. Today fast food restaurant industry is a highly growing sector in Bangladesh [3]. The fast food restaurants are now dominating the world which originates in 1916. With an introduction in Bangladesh at early nineties, several international fast food brands are operating in Bangladesh beside the local fast food restaurants [3]. As the industry is growing, the question of consumer attitude towards the fast food restaurants has become a significant aspect of research. Very often the fast food restaurants and the habit of fast food consumption are becoming the issue of criticism in the local media of Bangladesh due to the adulteration of food items with food colours and other hazardous chemicals, and microbial safety and hygiene of the restaurants. At recent times, the mobile court raided many fast food restaurants at Barisal city in Bangladesh. That's why consumers become suspicious regarding the quality and environment of the fast food restaurants. Thus, it is a necessity to identify the attitude of the fast food consumers towards the restaurants.Attitudes are evaluative statements, which can be either favourable or unfavourable concerning any object, people, or events [4].The attitude towards a product or service can be a vital influencer in buying behaviour. In fact, favourable attitude can cause favourable buying decisions [5]. Based on this background, the current study aims to explore the consumer attitude towards the fast food restaurants at Barisal city in Bangladesh. The primary characteristic of fast food is that it is ready made in nature and easy to eat. Fast foods are mostly designed for ready availability, use and consumption. According to Bender and Bender as a \"general term used for a limited menu of foods that lend themselves to production-line techniques; suppliers tend to specialize in products such as hamburgers, pizzas, chicken, or sandwiches\" [6]. The fast food products are distinguished from others in function of the following characteristics: being low priced, served quickly, usually eaten with the hands, easily packaged, and having a short shelf life. The major reasons of differences between fast food and other foods are (i) the standardized menu and consistent quality minimizes time need to be spent obtaining product information and (ii) usually consumers can combine meal-time with time engaged in other activities such as shopping, work, or traveling [7,8].Consuming fast foods has become a recent trend among upper society, teenagers and youth have also increased and the fast food has won the palate of those groups in Barisal city. These are also served as helpful purpose in official and private meeting, working people at lunch time and also Tiffin of students [9]. Thus, eating at fast food restaurants not only gives consumers to satisfy their hunger, need for convenience, pleasure, entertainment, time saving, social interaction and the mood transformation but also consumers experience excitement, pleasure and a sense of personal well-being [10]. Examples of the most prominent fast food items include burger, pizza, fried chicken, hamburger and sandwich [3]. Most of the local fast food restaurants are also serving several local, semi-local cuisines, i.e. singara, somucha, chicken or vegetable roll, meat bun, meat or vegetable patties, noodles, etc. along with tea, coffee, juices, and different beverages. Different other food items also can be included according to Akku Choudhury, Executive Director of Transcom Foods Limited. As he told, \"fast food as the term for fastest life style of modern society, we have general idea that fast food means MacDonald or Italian Dishes, but it can be local dishes and menus even Biryani/ Chicken Curry can be regarded as fast food, if it is served quickly and saved time for taking\" [11].Thus, it can be concluded that fast food restaurants should be quick service provider with readymade food items. That's why fast food restaurants are also known as Quick Service Restaurants (QSR\"s) and fast foods are often termed as Food Away from Home (FAFH) [3]. To fulfil its objective the study includes Twenty-four leading and popular fast food restaurants at Barisal city in Bangladesh to identify the consumer preferences about the restaurants. Specific objectives of the research are: 1.To provide an overall idea of Fast food and the fast food restaurants at Barisal city in Bangladesh.To determine and describe the existing socio-economic, demographic profile food producer and consumer of Fast at Barisal city in Bangladesh.To assessment the knowledge of both of the producer and consumer on health, hygiene and safety aspects of preparation, handling and consumption of Fast foods.Collection and microbial analysis of different Fast food items.The experiment was conducted in the area of Barisal City Corporation (BCC) in Bangladesh. The Geographical location of the Experimental area was at 22° 48' 0\" North, Latitude to 90° 30' 0\" East Longitude and Altitude 4.0 m above the sea level. The microbiological analysis of fast foods sample was performed by the Plant Pathology Laboratory, BARI regional office, Barisal. The total study was conducted in 30 Ward areas of Barisal City Corporation (BCC) from 1st January 2014 to 10th May 2014.To determine and assume the present status of producers and consumers of fast food; sampling procedure adopted by selecting 24 fast food restaurants and 60 consumers for the baseline survey and the methodology used to collect the required information and food samples for microbial analysis. 24 fast food restaurants, 150 samples were collected randomly for 10 food items and 60 consumers included in the present survey were therefore a purposive sample chosen primarily to represent some of the key characteristics of different aspects associated with them. The sample size is determined by the area wise population and area wise food restaurants; samples are collected randomly.The status of vendors and consumers of fast food and microbial quality of selected common fast food items of fast food restaurants were used as the sampling frame. The interview schedule was developed for collecting socioeconomic information, health aspects of fast foods, and environmental aspects of fast food restaurants. After developing the interview schedule, it was pre-tested among five sellers and five consumers and necessary correction were made for the final interview schedules. All the data was collected during January to May 2014 at the 24 fast food restaurants of the producers of whole BCC and usually the respondents are the head of restaurants. I have been directed to stay at the respective region ie. 30 different wards of BCC during the period of data collection so that I can extensively supervise data collection task and address instantly any unwanted problem arising during data collection. Survey results have been analysed in tabular form. Major variable is explained vertically (columns) and cross tabulation by another related variable(s) horizontally. In the analysis, it has been described the variation of the magnitude of the major variables by division.The final report has been disseminated in a hard copy as book. For microbiological analysis available food samples from the interviewed producer's shops were collected. Meshed food samples were inserted aseptically into sterile cotton plugged conical flask containing .9% sterile sodium chloride solution by using sterile forceps. Three different types of media, which were recommended for the growth of Salmonella and E. coli. The colonies developed on the plates were compared and counted after incubation for 24-48 hours at 37˚c. pH of the media was adjusted to 7.2 prior to sterilization. Inoculated plates were incubated at 37˚c for 24-48 hours to facilitate viable bacterial growth. PDA media was used for culture of E coli. Salmonella and Shigella agar (SS agar) were used for culture of Salmonella. Clear discrete bacterial colonies were picked up by inoculating on fresh and dried agar plates for pure culture. After 24 hours bacterial growth was observed for their purity. Total aerobic plate count was determined according to the AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists; now AOAC International) procedure. Duplicate pour plates of four successive decimal dilution were prepared, counted and calculated. Average counts were expressed as colony forming units per g or ml of sample.All of the fast food producers who work to make fast food were male (100%). Nearly 49% of them were aged between 26-35 years (mean about 30.5 years) while 33.78% were aged between 21-25 years. About 44.62% Producer who had HSC and 3.03% were completed J.S.C. No students, private service holder and Public Service Holder were involved in fast food producer. In the Ward number 1-10 only 20% producer was joined with other professions and Ward number 11-30 100% producer was continued as main business. Half of the fast food producers per month income were 10001-20000 taka. There was no any fast food producer in the Barisal city that the income range was above 40000 taka. 25.22% of the fast food producers per month income were 10000 or less. In survey it was revealed that 58.49% fast food producer leased restaurant from others householder to operate their business. In Ward 11-20 18.18% fast food producer performed by their owned restaurant. 35.6% fast food producer operated their business as partnership. 62.5% fast food shops were located near the educational institutions like school and college and no fast food restaurant located at the side of stationary market and 9.1% of fast food restaurant were located near the private company. Most of the producers (69.30%) was run their business as principal business.One third of fast food producer was engaged in other food vending business as their extra business. No fast food producers was engaged in business as part time. About 73.41% fast food restaurant business was built in developed area of Barisal city. In the fast food restaurant food business it was revealed that 87% served their business for 7 days in a week at residential areas in Barisal city. About 8% fast food restaurant operated their food business for 6 days in a week. Only 5% fast food restaurant operated their food business for 5 days in a week. Most of the restaurant (83.10%) served food to the consumers by some hand equipment's. About 90% of the producer disposed their garbage on the roadside city garbage box and 10% threw them in the others. They used of pacca toilets inside their restaurant. Almost all vendors use toilets tissue and washed their hands using soap water after using the toilet.The personal hygiene of fast food producers in fast food restaurants was comparatively good in Barisal city. About 69.24% producers in fast food restaurants was vaccinated and 68.71% used head cover and hand gloves at servicing their food items and 83.10% producers in fast food restaurants were cut their nail regularly about 60% respondents of fast food consumer were male and 40% were female. Most of the fast food consumers were aged between 16-25 years (mean about 20.5 years) while 30% were aged between 26-35 years and only 1.6% was aged above 46 years. About 35% were married, 46.67% of them were unmarried. 31.67% participants who had passed S.S.C., 30% HSC, 18.33% participants had degree education. Only 10% respondents in Ward 21-30 had MS/MBA Degree education while 0% in Ward 1-10 in this area comprising the lowest percentage in higher education profile among the other three survey areas. In the Barisal city area of Bangladesh 18.33% customer was consumed Fast food as singara and Burger hold the 2 nd position (15%). In the Ward 11-20Burger hold first position than others. Knowledge regarding food nutrition of the consumer was comparatively satisfactory. About 80% consumer had well knowledge about nutrition and 85% in hygiene. Food safety, food serving, and other knowledge was good. Through 18.33% and 25% school campaign people said that media and internet was the best way to learn more. 86.67% consumers had no idea about food borne pathogen and 15% told this pathogen sometimes caused disease.Fast food consumers of Barisal city were student, businessman, govt. officer and general people also. Among them student was maximum (60%) in the Ward 11-20. Businessman hold the second position (40%) in the Ward 01-10. There was no labor and tourist type of fast food consumer in Barisal city. Most of the fast food consumer of Barisal city consumed fast food for easy access (35%) but not as a cheaper. (Figure 3). In an average customer had no good knowledge regarding food nutrition aspect. Only 30% consumers had well knowledge regarding food nutrition aspect. The knowledge on fast food as hygiene aspect to consumer was comparatively good. Prepared fast food samples collected from Fast food restaurant of Barisal city. Some samples showed the presence of E. coli. 26.67% E. coli were found in Vegetable roll than in 20.33% in Burger, 13.33% in chicken sandwich, 6,67% in Meat kebab and in Singara, Fried chicken and Samosa. According to work on \"The Case of Fast Food Industry in Bangladesh\" [12].The study was conducted with some basic information of the respondents (vendors and stake holders). The respondents were asked about their gender, age, education levels, occupation and income to assume the socioeconomic status. For proper investigation of respondents' as the profile at first they are equally divided into male and female. Most of them (33%) are between 16-25 years, most of them (30%) have completed S.S.C., most of them (40%) are students and most of their (28%) average monthly household income is between BDT 20,001-30,000. In this experiment, the Producers who were joined in fast food Industry in Barisal city all of were male (100%). In this area Women participation in every field of business was limited generally. In this area Women participation in textile type business yet only. Most of them (48.18%) are between 26-35 years. About 44.62% Producer who had HSC was maximum and 3.03% were completed J.S.C. is minimum. As developing country employment opportunity is limited so many educated person involve in Fast Food Industry at Barisal city in Bangladesh.In microbial analysis it was observed that,87% of the food samples were found to be satisfactory and 13% of the food samples were found to unsafe and may be harmful for human consumption in Barisal city. Total coliform and Salmonella spp, count in 18%, 8% samples respectively have crossed the recommended limits and were unsafe and detrimental for human consumption and which is not edible. It was similar that, 84% percent of the samples were found to be passable and 16% of the samples were found to be unsafe for human consumption in Barisal city. Total coliform, and Salmonella spp, count in 12% and 16% samples respectively have crossed the recommended limits and were unsafe for human human consumption [13]. In the present study the following points were noted which could be served as the source and cause of microbiological contamination like bare-handed handling of food items, use of unsafe water by food handlers to wash their hands that had been used over and over again. This water could have been a source of coliform and faecal coliform.Cross contamination may be a cause which is take place by the action between half-cooked and raw meat kept side by side in the same refrigerator may also play role in microbiological contamination. This could have been a possible source of contamination by Salmonella also. Keeping food for display in glass boxes for a long time at towering temperatures without refrigeration accredit the bacteria to proliferate to progeny. It is the common and traditional practice of Southeast Asian people to handle food items with bare hands; vendors do not use any cover or pack or tissue paper to handle the food in most cases. Those above factors may be source of common pathogens which may transmitted through bare-handed handling of food are Salmonella spp. if food items are contaminated with this organism and the food is kept for a long time in optimum growth temperature. For Salmonella species, raw egg is one of the commonest sources of contamination. The pathogen may be introduced from raw materials to final products if the eggs used for the sandwiches are not cooked thoroughly.Fast food has increasingly become popular at Barisal city in Bangladesh because of the effect of globalization. A lot of people, specifically the younger generation and juveniles are consuming various types of fast foods everyday as these are convenient, time saving and tasty. Consumers' choice of a particular restaurant depends on many factors, i.e. quality, variation, location, price, environment, and many more aspects of that specific fast food restaurant. Thus, the consumer attitude evaluation is important to explore why a consumer visits a particular restaurant and in this way vendors can easily change the environment and food quality according to the client's demand. The present study is an attempt to find out the differences in consumers' attitude towards selective fast food restaurants of Barisal city in Bangladesh. To fulfil this objective, the study explores the most frequent salient beliefs of consumers regarding the fast food restaurants in Bangladesh, which are quality, price, quick service, and environment of the restaurants among those the service and behaviour of the restaurant employees is a vital fact.Based on the salient beliefs, a multi attribute attitude model has been developed and tested in twenty-four restaurants in different Wards Barisal city, which are found as most visited fast food restaurants according to the consumer's opinion. Structured questionnaire survey is conducted on 60 consumers to obtain consumer opinion regarding the strengths and evaluation of salient beliefs. Most consumers showed the most favourable attitude towards Singra than Burger and the least favourable attitude towards Patties, Sandwich, and Hot dog etc according to the study; significant differences are found among these twenty-four restaurants in terms of belief evaluations about quality, price, quick service, and environment. It is also found that consumers have most favorable evaluation about fast food quality and environment, and food price and prompt services. At the end of the paper, some recommendations are made based on the study results.This was a qualitative study of bacterial contamination for E. coli and Salmonella. The study was conducted to determine the Fast food restaurant producer and consumer status as well as hygienic condition of different types of Fast food items at Barisal city. A total of 24 shops were selected for data collection 150 food samples of 10 items food were collected. Fast food has increasingly become popular at Barisal city in Bangladesh with the effect of globalization. All of the producers of fast food restaurants were male (100%). 48.18% of them were aged between 26-35 years. About 44.62% completed H.S.C. and their income per month range was (10001-20000) in taka is maximum (51.8%). In an average most of the Fast food restaurant (59%) were located adjacent to educational institutions like schools and colleges. About 90% of the producers disposed their garbage on the roadside city garbage box.All (100%) of them cut their nail and washed hand regularly before food preparation. About 60% respondents of fast food consumer were Male and 40% were female. Most of the fast food consumers were aged between 16-25 years. The half of the total fast food consumers of Barisal city was student (50%). In the Barisal city area of Bangladesh maximum customers (18.33%) consumed fast food items were Singara and Burger which was hold the 2 nd position. About 30% clients had knowledge about nutrition and 33.78% had ideas of hygiene and only 13.33% had ideas about food borne pathogens. Among them 30% was given opinion to consume fast food for easy access. The microbiological status of 50 fast food samples collected from middle class and higher-class retail outlets of fast food shops and restaurants at (Ward no.1-30) of Barisal city were assessed.The E. coli was found (26.67%) in Burger was maximum than in Vegetable roll (20%), among them the type Salmonella spp. was maximum in Sandwich (26.67%) but in Fried chicken, Samosa and Singara type fast food items had no contamination by E. coliand Salmonella spp. It is necessary to scrutinize the physical and chemical adulteration of the fast food samples and there is need to develop awareness to consumption knowledge both of the producer and consumer on health, hygiene and safety aspects of preparation, handling and consumption of fast foods at Barisal city in Bangladesh which should be done in supreme priority.","tokenCount":"3806"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be9efeeb85cf73d9107161c01ff2433e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7cdd738-7cbe-476e-a3e1-36306c8ef557/retrieve","id":"-695584512"},"keywords":["Gender","participation","agency","rangelands","institutions"],"sieverID":"56b52604-4519-4285-a246-f78929691386","pagecount":"30","content":"Gender roles in pastoral systems across East Africa are changing. Our purpose is to better understand women's engagement in participatory rangeland management (PRM) processes and implications for broader social change, that refers to changes in women's agency in rangeland institutions and the wider community. We drew upon qualitative data collected through key informant interviews, focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews, in Baringo County, Kenya. We adapted and used a participation framework to analyze women's participation in rangeland activities, institutions and the household, to better understand implications for transformative agency. Overall, we found that women meaningfully participated in different aspects of PRM processes while changes in intra-household decisionmaking were fewer. PRM has increased women's voice and agency in governance of rangeland resources and potential to benefit from rangeland resources. Participation in multiple PRM activities reinforced women's agency in pastoral rangeland institutions in diverse contexts. Women's inclusion in rangeland management institutions has the potential for strategic and measurable impacts upon women's time and labor allocation. Multiple challenges however persist and include social norms and practices that hinder women's opportunities to leave their homes. Intersectional analyses into understanding adaptation to climate change and opportunities for socially inclusive efforts to enhance resilience are recommended.Pastoralism is an important livelihood for over nine million people in rangelands that occupy nearly 80% of Kenya's land area (Amwata & Nyariki, 2015;Waweru, et al., 2021;Mugonya & Hauser, 2021). Approximately 75% of Kenya's cattle are kept by pastoral communities in rangelands (Wakhungu et al., 2014;Nyariki, 2017). Gender-based roles and practices in social, economic, and political spheres often highlight gender-based inequalities in access to, and control over resources in East African societies, pastoral and agricultural alike (Vincent 2013). In pastoral systems livestock play an important role and women, alongside men, are livestock keepers and managers of rangeland resources, however gender norms, values, and relations often prohibit women's access and ownership of resources such as livestock (Eneyew & Mengistu, 2013). Men often own and control more productive assets compared to women (Radel and Coppock, 2013). Women may not necessarily have 'rights' to or 'ownership' over livestock thus not be able to make decisions about use and sale, for example (Flintan, 2008). Men may own larger livestock such as cattle and camels, while both men and women own smaller livestock like sheep, goats and chicken (Fernandez-Gimenez et al., 2021). Women may be responsible for selling small livestock products such as milk or chickens (Jode & Flintan, 2020). Women's limited decision making power within households is sometimes compounded by their limited access to education (Eneyew & Mengistu, 2013). Women in pastoral systems often shoulder a disproportionate burden in taking care of their families and raising children, coupled with laborious tasks like collecting firewood, fetching water, feeding livestock, and within the homestead, milking (Herrero et al., 2013).Pastoral livelihoods and ways of life are changing in response to events that include climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic. Diversification of livestock types has increased in recent years in response to multiple factors that include greater variability in rangeland quality and quantity (Catley et al., 2013). Such changes signify the importance of updating empirical findings on social change in East African pastoral systems, especially related to understanding women's agency in rangeland resource management. Customs surrounding women's and men's roles, practices, and gender relations are changing. Livelihood strategies to adapt to environmental and economic uncertainties include increased rates of migration to urban areas. Such gendered migration patterns: \"make herd management more complex and will likely mean a greater role for women and children to share responsibilities with men: high levels of livestock diversification require flexible arrangements in family and homestead composition, and spatially extensive social networks to accommodate the different grazing needs at different times of the year (IFAD, 2018). Women will usually have responsibility for small stock (sheep/goats) and/or the larger livestock that is kept around the household e.g., milking, sick or young animals, particularly if men are migrating. Across pastoral areas more men now migrate for non-pastoralist related work, meaning many women are taking over traditional 'men's tasks' and often becoming the de facto heads of their households i.e., there can be a feminization of livestock keeping. Normally this means that women will also have decision making authority, though this may not always be the case with men maintaining authority over decisions such as sale of livestock despite living at a distance\" (IFAD, 2020: 4) Such shifts require more attention to understanding emerging opportunities for women to engage in rangeland governance institutions. Where women's participation has been encouraged and given longterm support to take up new roles in communal activities and decision-making processes around natural resources, they have slowly taken up the challenge and in some instances, performed at par with men (Flintan, 2008). Working with women's user groups in conservation and use of rangeland resources has alleviated some of the social constraints that inhibit women's participation, for instance (Lendelvo et al., 2012;Verma & Khadka, 2016).Gender mainstreaming in development is the norm and efforts to increase women's participation in public decision-making processes are popular aims of interventions. However, the extent to which women's participation leads to sustainable change, or goes beyond committee membership or attending meetings, can be challenging because of restrictive gender norms and practices surrounding women's roles in the household and community. Social and cultural barriers to women's full participation are often complex and, to garner changes in gender relations requires a long-term perspective, often beyond the project duration (Flintan, 2008).The overarching aim of this paper is to better understand women's engagement in participatory rangeland management (PRM) processes and implications for broader social change. We first describe the context of the communities in which PRM was carried out, namely gender practices surrounding livestock and women's engagement in leadership in their communities. To assess social change, it is important to understand where communities are. Contextual analyses inform our understanding of changes that may, or may not have occurred, and the influence of an intervention in a specific geography. We then focus upon understanding women's engagement in PRM. We ask 3 research questions:Participatory rangeland management (PRM) is a means for policymakers and change agents from governmental and nongovernmental organizations to support communities to manage their rangelands (ILRI, 2020). PRM, like traditional pastoralist governance systems, involves planning and decision making at different levels, typically working through a community organization made up of representatives of all the people within a specified geographic area-that is referred to as a rangeland unit. At the rangeland unit level, a rangeland management institution (RMI) represents the community and works on behalf of that community to manage resources within the whole rangeland unit.PRM recognizes the interlinked ecological and social values of rangelands and the importance of engaging different users to support socially inclusive sustainable management outcomes. Participation is a key principle of PRM and \"implies that the process is owned and controlled by the participants [while] the role of external agencies is to support and facilitate (ILRI, 2020;11). That being said, social inclusivity is a principle of PRM and, by virtue, women's inclusion is bolstered by Kenyan law. PRM \"observe(s) the one third gender rule 1 in all committees to ensure inclusivity in decision making; ensure employment opportunities for all the stakeholders and community members at large\" (RECONCILE, 2019;20).Learning and ongoing capacity building are common features of PRM and a core principle of rangeland governance. The first stage in PRM is the gathering of information about the different resources found in the rangelands, their uses (including at different times of the year), and the users and other stakeholders (including their institutions and groups that have a role in rangeland use and management of the resource). This is achieved through the use of different tools including resource mapping and stakeholder analysis. This mapping activity forms the basis for negotiating and deciding on the rangeland management unit-the area that the institution will be responsible for.Reaching agreement may require involving neighbours and other stakeholders and interested parties as well as discussion on implications for community land designation. Defining the rangeland management unit is followed by a detailed participatory rangeland resource assessment which considers the use and status of different rangeland resources as a baseline for developing a rangeland management plan. The community should lead and ultimately own this process. In some cases, the best course of action may be to treat a community as constituted under the Community Land Act of 2016 as the rangeland unit. In other cases, neighbouring communities may decide to work together, and in these situations the rangeland unit is made up of this cluster of communities. The outcome of the negotiation should be a consensus between all parties as to how to access resources, how the resources should be managed and by whom.Roles and responsibilities of women and men are often guided by socio-cultural norms and traditions that are closely linked with the different types of resources that they use (Lendelvo et al., 2012). Resource management, whether customary or formalized, is a gendered space that requires negotiation of rules regarding access and use of resources. Such domains are often occupied by men, who in many communities in SSA contexts, exercise authority in community level decision-making processes.Development interventions have emphasized the importance of participation to support sustainable outcomes. Increasingly, these include measurable change towards gender equality that are typically achieved through targeting and engaging women in stakeholder processes and various activities. Ensuring that women's participation is meaningful, or provides opportunities for women's increased agency to negotiate access, control, and gain benefits from interventions is often difficult because of power dynamics in communities and households, e.g., local norms and women's low levels of confidence or fears of speaking up in public (Cornwall, 2008). Gender, age and other factors create and sustain power relations and marginalize social groups, that can hinder the potential for women's active participation and negotiation of rights to important rangeland resources.A key aim of this paper is to understand women's engagement in participatory rangeland management (PRM) processes, or changes in women's participation in natural resource management institutions. In addition, we look at implications for broader social change, such as changes in women's participation in decision-making processes in intra-household level decision-making. This is based on the premise that participation in PRM processes may enhance women's transformative agency, that Kabeer (1999) refers to as agency that challenges prevailing inequalities in resources and agency rather than leaving them unchallenged. Whether or not such changes can be attributed to any one intervention, as opposed to multiple, simultaneous push and pull factors, such as climate change and migration in pastoral contexts, is notably difficult to discern through a cross-sectional case study. However, through a contextual analysis and key research questions that explore whether change has occurred in household or community relations, we assess PRM's potential for transformative change beyond PRM in Baringo County.We adapt a participation framework that draws upon several works (e.g., Lendelvo, et al., 2012;Flintan, 2008;Agarwal, 2010;and Pretty, 1995) (Table 1). The table identifies 6 levels of participation, their characteristics (adapted from previous works) and a column entitled \"PRM Application\" that explains the characteristics of women's engagement in PRM that will later be used to describe women's levels of participation. The domains in which we consider agency are rangeland institutions and communities households. The first 3 levels of participation are considered less \"active\" forms of participation, while the last 3 types of participation are often termed as being more 'genuine\" or meaningful: active, interactive and mobilizing forms of participation. The framework, to some extent, facilitates deeper insights into evaluating how participation in decision-making processes may support increases in women's agency, that is the ability to define one's goals and act upon them (Kabeer, 1999). Agency \"encompasses the meaning, motivation and purpose which individuals bring to their activity, their sense of agency, or `the power 5 within' and 'may take the form of bargaining and negotiation, deception and manipulation, subversion and resistance as well as more intangible, cognitive processes of reflection and analysis' (Kabeer, 1999;438).Agency, used here, draws on Kabeer's definition (1999) and refers to women's participation in NRM institutions and beyond, e.g., household gender relations, that change or challenge existing power relations and expand abilities and opportunities for women. Women's agency in rangeland institutions is understood by focusing on participation levels 1-5, that focus on aspects of women's engagement in PRM, e.g., voice, collective action. Beyond PRM, agency in intrahousehold relations is understood through level 6, self and/or collective action. Less \"active\" forms of participation include 'nominal', 'passive', and 'activity-specific' types of participation. 'Nominal' participation refers to the simplest form of participation, such as membership in a group or committee. In PRM this refers to membership in the committee and/or holding a position in the executive committee. 'Passive' participation refers to receiving information. In PRM, meetings and capacity building trainings are common. The meetings may not necessarily be decision-making spaces about rangeland management. 'Activity specific' participation may be voluntary or paid and is context or conservancy specific depending on prioritized restoration activities e.g., reseeding, bush clearing and removal of invasive species.More \"active\" forms of participation are consultative/active interactive, interactive, and self or collective self-mobilization. 'Consultative' and 'active' forms of participation have been combined in the above framework and, used here, refer to women's contributions of information, opinions, and perspectives during stakeholder meetings or during the negotiation of the rangeland unit and conservation tasks.'Interactive', participation may be empowering, or participation in which individuals expand opportunities and abilities to make choices (Kabeer, 1999) that in PRM could potentially improve women's access to and protection of the resources they value and/or support women's abilities through collective agency, e.g., expanding their economic opportunities. This form of participation is characterized here in three ways. First, women's voice and influence in decision-making processes, such as women's priorities being incorporated in the management plans. A second dimension of interactive participation refers to women's uptake of leadership roles and the third dimension refers to strengthening or creation of collectives.Groups may be spaces that women create for themselves that \"consist of people who come together because they have something in common, rather than because they represent different stakeholders or different points of view. These kinds of spaces can be essential for groups with little power or voice in society, as sites in which they can gain confidence and skills, develop their arguments and gain from the solidarity and support that being part of a group can offer\" (Cornwall, 2008;275).'Self-mobilization and/or collective mobilization' has been adapted from previous participation frameworks to incorporate influences beyond the intervention and, used here, refers to initiatives that challenge existing power relations in households and communities such as women's increased roles in intrahousehold decision-making, and, at the level of the community, women's increased leadership roles.Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) was piloted in Baringo county in four subcounties, Koitegan, Paka Hills, Kaborian, and Irong. The non-governmental organization (NGO) RECONCILE (https://reconcileea.org/) facilitated PRM processes in all 4 locations. This study was conducted in the 4 sub-counties of Baringo county (See Figure 1).  The study used a mixed-methods approach that included focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs) and semi-structured interviews (SSIs). A summary table of the methods is presented in Table 2. Gaining information about PRM processes was an explicit research aim. Thus, we purposively sought research participants engaged in, or familiar with PRM. As a result, the sampling approach presents limitations in understanding processes of exclusion and marginalization of social groups in PRM, for example. Furthermore, our analysis of semi-structured interviews in this paper is limited to PRM members.Next steps in our analyses will be to understand PRM spouse's experiences, who may or may not be involved in PRM. A field team of 2 women and 2 men participated in a 3-day training. The training program consisted of translation of instruments from English to Swahili, revisions and review of the instruments to ensure clarity followed by practice sessions.A total of 34 KIIs were performed across the four conservancies and included conservancy field officers, PRM executive committee members, committee members, elders, women's group leaders and local administrative staff across the four conservancies. Field officers are hired by RECONCILE and reside in each conservancy. Their main roles are to support implementation of the project and to mobilize participants for committee meetings, community meetings, capacity building and workshop meetings; prepare quarterly reports about the progress of the conservancy activities; report minutes of meetings and; support planning and implementation of PRM activities. The key informant guide captured information about the conservancies, including agro-ecological characteristics, PRM processes and activities, and community wide characteristics such as market access and climatic events. Each interview lasted approximately one hour.Sixteen FGDs (8 with women and 8 with men) were conducted to understand rangeland livelihoods, women and men's use of resources, climate change and participatory rangeland management. In each of the four conservancies, 4 disaggregated FGDs by sex and age were carried out in each sub-county with 7-9 members per group discussion. Each FGD took about two hours. Participant selection criteria included knowledge of the area on issues around climate, natural resource management, livelihoods, and social and gender issues in the community. To include perspectives of community members who are not directly engaged with PRM, we asked that the composition of FGDs be mixed. Half of the participants of each FGD were engaged with PRM, while half were less familiar, or not directly engaged with PRM.A total of 56 semi structured interviews (SSIs) were conducted with PRM executive committee members, committee members and their spouses (not yet analyzed), totaling 29 men and 27 women. Respondents were purposively selected to capture intra-household level details about PRM engagement (from both women and men's perspectives) and to identify any potential impacts that engagement has on household gender relations. Topics included and analyzed here include close and open-ended response format questions about PRM participation, satisfaction and changes in time, labor and participation in household decision-making. The interview took about 1.5 hours.Data analysis consisted of four sequenced steps. First, data from all sources, the FGDs, SSIs and KIIs were transcribed from Swahili into English. Transcripts were imported into NVivo and a systematic content analysis was performed. A codebook that detailed deductive and inductive coding approaches guided the analysis. Next, key themes within select codes of interest were identified based on a reading of the content. In other words, inductive analyses were conducted to extract key themes related to women's engagement in PRM, leadership in the community, gender norms, roles and relations. Observations were made for each location and compared to develop a better understanding of similarities and differences across the 4 sites.Table 3 provides an explanation of the coding, that is based on how each source was coded in NVivo. Each source was anonymized to protect the privacy of the research participant. The same codes accompany each of the cited text passages in this paper. The first 2 letters indicate the location where the data was collected, those being Koitegan, Kaborian, Paka Hills and Irong. The third and fourth letters refer to the different instruments, that were key informants, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions.The last letter differentiates from whom the data was collected, that included field officers and spouses of PRM committee members, for example. The results are composed of two overarching sections, context and PRM processes. The first section, community contexts, highlights salient similarities and differences between the 4 sites, that includes descriptions of livelihoods, major events and insecurity. Next, gender roles and practices in livestock are described, followed by a section that focuses on women in leadership. In the second main section we describe PRM processes, beginning with descriptions of the institutions that managed rangelands before PRM. We then incorporate the participation framework to structure results about women's engagement in various stages of PRM. At times this was admittedly difficult since PRM processes are complex and participation may be ambiguous in real contexts (Cornwall, 2008). Reflections on the use of the framework are reserved for the Discussion.Ethnic Livestock keeping and, to a lesser extent crop farming, are important livelihood activities in all areas. Typically, households keep indigenous breeds of goats, sheep, cattle, and chickens. Donkeys and camels are also kept in Paka Hills. Livestock are generally fed through extensive feeding in pasture or in communal grazing areas. More people are keeping chickens, that women generally manage and control.\"The major livestock kept in the area is chicken, goats, sheep and cattle. The livestock are left to graze on open grounds throughout the day. In the evening the livestock are brought home and put in livestock sheds. For chicken they are normally kept in some structures (hen house) within the homestead\" (KOKIA_F1).Drought tolerant crops that are grown include millet, sorghum, and, in Irong, horticultural crops such as tomatoes and kale. Beekeeping is an important income generating activity in all locations.In Koitegan, women and men may work as casuals in the neighbouring sisal plantations. In Paka Hills employment opportunities are available at the Geothermal Development Company. Small kiosks are operated by women and men in all locations. Women may sell chicken and eggs, vegetables, hay or grass.Women and young men fetch and sell water. Women and men burn and sell charcoal while women may sell firewood, men may sell timber. Men provide motorcycle transport services, security and protection for animals at night, and make ballast. Casual labor on farms is also carried out by women and men in all locations.When asked about changes in prosperity responses were mixed. Factors that support prosperity include overall higher incomes and diversification, increased opportunities for capacity development, such as collectives, and increased access to technology and social media. In addition, references to religion and changes in traditional practices were made. Multiple references were made to increased school enrolment rates and education over the last 10 years. Education is especially valued for expanding the possibility of securing employment. Female genital mutilation (FGM) was mentioned as having decreased in all locations, and, in Paka Hills, appears to still be practiced at low levels.Episodes of food scarcity affect the communities and coping strategies include rationing food, selling livestock, honey, seeking casual work, producing and selling charcoal, sourcing wild fruits, and joining groups such as merry go rounds. Women and men may use different, complementary strategies. Women may sell chicken and eggs, while men may sell larger livestock and migrate in search of work or pasture.\"Men sell some livestock so that they can buy food, migrate to other areas where there is no drought, seek support from friends and relatives, burning and selling of charcoal while others seeks casual work so that they can get some money to purchase food\" (IRKIA_M2).Male temporary outmigration in response to hardship is common. An estimated 40% of men in Irong and 50% of men in Koitegan migrate. Estimates were higher elsewhere do to insecurity and displacement, 75% in Kaborian, while all men were said to migrate, at least temporarily, in Paka Hills. Youth in particular leave Paka Hills because of harsh living conditions.All sites are affected by climate change that has led to significant losses of livestock. Climatic shocks that are common among the study sites are prolonged drought, drying of rivers and pan dams, changes in rainfall, and in Paka Hills and Irong, flooding. Lake Baringo has risen remarkably in recent years. Adaptation strategies in response to climatic shocks include migration in search of pasture, livelihood diversification strategies that include charcoal production and sale, working as casual labor, selling grass seeds and local brew. Also, new water related business opportunities have developed, such as fetching and selling water.The COVID-19 pandemic has had mixed impacts on livelihoods. The pandemic resulted in government mandated market closures, restrictions on mobility and decreases in livestock market prices. COVID-19 effects also led to job and income losses. Those who previously migrated for work returned to the village, which, in Kaborian, was perceived to have somewhat increased local economic activity.\"COVID -19 has brought a lot of challenges. It has infected people in the community and resulted in death of the elderly. It has contributed to early pregnancies among teenage girls and led to job losses. On the other hand, we have experienced positive effects of COVID -19, the people who came back in the village due to disruption of their livelihoods helped spur economic activities in the community, for example working in communal activities such as flattening of roads and financial contributions when we have fund raisers'' (KAKIA_M2).COVID-19 and effects on school closure were key drivers of school dropouts, early marriage and pregnancy among school going children in all sites.\"COVID -19 led to increased incidences of school drop due to teenage pregnancies and early marriages after closure of schools. On the other hand, life has improved especially due to formation of women groups such as merry go round and reduction of female genital mutilation practices (FGM)\" (PAKIA_F2).The contexts of the four locations differ in terms of security. Koitegan and Irong are relatively secure locations in contrast to Kaborian and Paka Hills, where there are high rates of insecurity due to cattle raiding and contestation over land, communal or otherwise. Conflicts are exacerbated during times of drought and water scarcity.Insecurity and conflict are frequently associated with displacement, migration and increased levels of poverty. In Kaborian there are conflicts with the neighboring communities, between Tugen and Pokot ethnic groups over resources such as pasture, water and land. Impacts of conflict have included the death of people and livestock, closure of school and displacement of people. Loss of livestock has reduced income and abilities to pay school fees and purchase food. The inter-related impacts of conflict, forced displacement, shifts in population and rangeland resource quality and scarcity were described by a key informant in Kaborian.\"Kesumet sub location boarders East Pokot sub county, where there are escalating security issues. This led to displacement of people who migrated to the highland areas. Currently, we have a lot of congestion on the highland areas. The economic livelihood of the community members was shattered due to destruction of property and loss of life. Over congestion of people has resulted in over cultivation of land, clearing of bushes and vegetation. On the positive side, where people migrated from, there has been regeneration of vegetation and general improvement of the vegetation cover\" (KAKIA_M3).In Paka Hills conflicts over resources commonly occur around livestock watering points during the dry season or droughts. Also, people from other communities graze livestock on the hills while the community members are grazing on the lowlands, which also creates conflicts. Through PRM, agreements to reduce conflicts over resources were made to conserve pasture on the hill during the rainy season so that when the dry season arrives, livestock can graze there rather than migrating to the neighboring communities.Migration and precarity threaten both PRM social and ecological objectives. In Paka Hills and Kabarion, insecurity and tensions with neighbouring communities are key drivers of displacement and livelihood precarity. Migrants, notably in-migrants, often have fewer resources and limited access to grazing areas.A young man from Kabarion describes the ways that migration, motivated and exacerbated by insecurity and climate change, have led to income losses.\"In the past we were living in regions that had plenty of resources, unfortunately after being displaced due to insecurity/fights we came to this region that has scarce resources… In the process of migration due to banditry, we lost our tracks of land hence grazing land… Migration made people lose their livelihood; they had beehives in their previous area, they could harvest and sell the honey and get money to educate their children. For a long period of time, our major source of income has been livestock keeping such as sheep, goats, cows, bee keeping, and millet growing; migration due to insecurity made people lose these assets and their fortunes and became poor. We also have no freedom to freely coexist and graze our livestock freely as we used to\" (KAFGE_M).Conflicts occur in Irong less frequently, and are similarly related to resource scarcity and contestations over access and use. People migrate in search of pasture to other areas within Irong, for example people from Kapkuikui have migrated to Kamar. Conflicts are often addressed by elders, chiefs and the the grazing subcommittee. More common are human wildlife conflicts. Greater Kudu and antelopes invade crops such as green grams, beans and sorghum. Community members are encouraged to register cases of human-wildlife conflicts so that they can be compensated.In many married households' livestock ownership and related tasks are gender specific. Men typically own and purchase livestock, especially cattle. They often make decisions about selecting breeds.\"Goats and cows belong to men. Women and children have the responsibility of milking the cows, selling milk. Men are the ones who sell livestock, look for pasture for the animals and make decisions about treatment of animals. Women and children also take the animals for grazing. Men are the ones who mostly take livestock for grazing especially because of insecurity. Women take care of calves and goat kids.\" (KAFGF_F).Men select animals for sale, take livestock to the market, and transport milk to collection centers. In fact, men assume responsibility in many of the marketing activities, including transport. Widows were reported to hire men to sell livestock. However, not all livestock sales were reported to be managed by men. A man in Kaborian reflected on how livestock roles and practices have shifted livestock towards more joint decision-making processes in married households.\"In the past women had to ask for permission from their husbands to sell livestock but now things have changed, they have to both agree. They both have a say in it. In the past if a woman sold livestock without her husband's permission then she would have been summoned to appear in front of council of elders, reprimanded and asked to pay a fine\" (KAFGE_M).Women may manage small livestock, e.g., goats, sheep, chicken, care for young and lactating livestock, and identify sick animals and inform their husbands. Women's autonomy in decision-making about livestock purchase and sale is often limited, rather decisions about purchase and sales are made in consultation with husbands, or alone if her husband has travelled. Given that outmigration has become more common, women also have to take up more roles in livestock keeping such as taking care of the livestock and buying and selling livestock. Women assume many livestock tasks when husbands aren't around, such as caring for goats that remain behind at the homestead when men migrate in search of pasture. Women milk animals and clean sheds and may also take animals to cattle dips. Women play key roles in identifying sick animals and men are often responsible for seeking medical treatment.\"Diagnosing if an animal is sick can be done by both men and women. But the women are most of the times first to notice sickness in animals since in the morning they are the ones who do the milking, it is hard to find a man milking. They will spot the ailment and inform the man as soon as possible. Then the man will come to treat the animal. Again, when the man takes the animals for grazing he can notice if there is a sick animal. Women clean the livestock sheds or their daughters may help them. The women also look after the young animals. The women are also responsible for counting the animals when they get back to the homestead after grazing the whole day since they are first to get home and the men might still be in the market center\" (IRSSID_M4_3).Wives' and husbands' efforts are often complementary in sustaining herd health and rangeland quality.Men's tasks include management and planning of grazing, that includes scheduling migration in search of pasture and purchasing land for pasture. Both women and men graze and take animals to water sources and collect water when animals are kept in the homestead. Women seldom slaughter animals but clean intestines following slaughter and distribute meat. Men slaughter animals and manage medical treatments such as spraying and vaccination and cattle dips. Men often construct sheds, purchase animal feeds and, when women are not around, care for lactating animals.Women hold leadership positions in all 4 communities and are active in school, health, and religious committees. Women hold positions in community level governing institutions, such as Nyumba Kumi and Council of Village Elders. Women's leadership varies by type of group and, in many cases, women lead women's groups. Women's leadership in mixed groups is less common. Women tend to occupy specific positions, namely those of secretary and treasurer, owing to perceptions that women are trustworthy and honest.\"In Kalenjin culture, women are not allowed to take up leadership roles; they cannot have power over men, they can only give views but men are the leaders…In the committees, women can get positions such as secretary but they cannot chair the committee. Women mostly lead in the women groups merry-go-rounds\" (KOFGE_F).Women's entry into leadership positions is recent and our data indicate that those women leaders have had to \"prove\" that they are able to lead. A woman holding the position of assistant chief in Koitegan described her experience and how her visibility has influenced men's perception of women holding leadership positions ''Women are currently holding leadership positions unlike in the past. When I was elected as an assistant chief, men questioned my capability to successfully hold the position but now they have seen that me and other women have done it. Men are now seeing the importance of having women in leadership'' (KOSSIC_F6_56).Furthermore, education is an important metric and requirement for women to enter leadership positions.In Paka Hills, a woman explained.\"Most women are not educated and cannot get chances to engage in any leadership positions\" (PAFGE_F). In an FGD in Irong, a woman further explained that: \"Women are less active because they still perceive themselves incapable of leadership (IRFGE_F).Education levels vary across generations and by socioeconomic status. While access to higher levels of education is more common among younger than older generations, challenges of school quality and gender still influence young boys' and girls' potential to achieve a good education. References to the importance given to educating children are common in the dataset and signify an important change in the last decade. For older women, however, education may not have been possible. Furthermore, poorer households seldom can afford to attend or complete primary school. Since education underpins women's qualifications to enter leadership positions, the potential for less educated, older women to lead is lower in Paka Hills and Kaborian.While women leaders are present in Koitegan, the possibility to lead is more limited in the communities of Paka Hills and Kaborian, where leadership is sometimes explicitly challenged at both community and household contexts. Women's voices are restricted, for instance, in Kaborian.\"Leadership positions are mostly held by men because women are mostly not allowed to talk or address men but in the committee we have some women leaders. No major changes because men have not embraced women leadership. Very few women are coming out to take leadership positions. They leave it to the men\" (KASSID_F2_38).At the household level, women's exposure to information, through travel and interactions with people outside the home, is a source of concern, even fear, among some men, who worry their wives will acquire \"bad behavior\". In Paka Hills, one woman explained:\"There are no women in leadership in this area; the only woman leader is the area MCA… Women are afraid to take up leadership roles because they are afraid of their husbands; men do not want their wives to be leaders because they feel they will acquire bad behaviour and habits e.g., prostitution\" (F1_20, PA).Increases in women's agency in livestock decision-making and community leadership are more prevalent in Koitegan and Irong than the other communities. Paka Hills and Kabarian differ in significant ways from Koitegan and Irong. The nexus of conflict, migration, and climate change are particularly acute in the latter. Gender roles and practices, such as leadership, are more restrictive in these locations. Context specific details explain, to some extent, women's participation in PRM and challenges to increase their agency in RMIs, communities and households.The PRM intervention, over the course of 3 years working with women and men, has strengthened rangeland institutions, supported women's leadership in rangeland governing institutions, facilitated gender sensitization and capacity building activities, and created and supported collective action initiatives. The following sections are structured using the participation framework described in the Conceptual Framework.PRM worked with and strengthened existing institutions in all 4 locations. However, communities' acceptance of PRM varied due to mismatches in project expectations and fear of privatization and loss of land. In this section, we draw primarily upon key informant interviews with field officers in each location to describe the rangeland management institutions (RMIs) that existed prior to PRM and some of the early challenges in the establishment of PRM.Koitegan had created a community forest association (CFA) prior to PRM. A self-help group was started by a small group of university students who approached the county government concerning the conservation of the forest and secured funding to initiate fencing of the forest. Eventually the self-help group became an association that included various stakeholders in the community. PRM helped to strengthen the internal structures of the CFA. An early challenge was the prioritization of activities whereby RECONCILE outlined some of the activities such as conservation of natural resources and improvement of pasture while the community had different expectations. For example, the community wanted all available funds to be used to construct pan dams. The funds were also viewed as being inadequate to successfully complete all activities.In Paka Hills the Council of Elders had created a management plan that was later formalized in PRM.Prior to PRM the rangelands were protected by the local community and included youths who monitored the resources. During the rainy season, they advised that livestock not be grazed on the hills but in the lowlands so that during the dry season the pasture on the hill could be used as a reserve. Although community members generally accepted PRM, there were fears that the creation of a conservancy would lead to losses of land due to privatization. The community gave a local name \"Karantili\" to the rangeland unit, which means reserved land for grazing. There were challenges in the disbursement of funds and surrounding insecurity. Government coordinated efforts were made to flush out bandits, that led to road closures and limitations on movement.Irong created a conservancy committee and RECONCILE worked closely with those who were in the committee. Additional activities supported by RECONCILE included the buying and issuance of beehives, removal of invasive species and rehabilitation of the borehole. The community did not readily accept the project at first because there were expectations of the construction of roads and dams. Over time the community understood and accepted PRM activities.Kaborian created a committee, largely in response to insecurity due to cattle rustling and fighting over resources such as pasture and water, that led to the displacement of people and prompted elders to form an interim committee to address the challenges, which then led to the idea of establishing a conservancy. The interim committee that was formed by elders was not very active prior to PRM. PRM helped to strengthen and formalize the plans. The community was fearful of losing land, because of the perception that land can be taken away from the community since it is not registered. There was fear that, although they may implement PRM activities, the land could be taken.Women hold positions in executive committees, that represented a change in women's inclusion in rangeland management institutions. Women's level of education was said to be an important qualification of holding a position in the committee.The gendered composition of PRM Executive Committees is an indication of nominal participation, or women's representation in PRM committees. Women's engagement beyond Executive Committee membership, e.g., common membership, while important, was not explored here. RECONCILE, the NGO that implemented PRM, ensured that committee compositions were lawful, or aligned with the commonly referred to 2/3 gender rule in the Constitution of Kenya, that states that not more than two-thirds of the members in any elective or appointive positions such shall be of the same gender.Committee membership in each location ranges from 13-17 members. At the time this study was conducted committee membership ranged from 13-17 and 27-46% of the committee were women (Table 4). Kaborian has the lowest proportion of women in the committee. Women hold positions that include vice-chair, and more commonly secretary, treasurer, but not chairperson. Committee executive members, such as secretaries or treasurers, are not necessarily limited to their roles or tasks in the committee. For example, treasurers may engage in PRM activities, such as bush clearing and planting. Women's participation in committees often represented a change and created opportunities for women to participate in the management of natural resources. In Irong, a 29-year-old widowed committee member explained:\"When RECONCILE came in with the idea of PRM they changed things up. In the past it was only men allowed to be in the committees, they were opposed to women holding any leadership positions, but RECONCILE changed this completely. Women were encouraged to be part of leadership so that both genders were represented. Both genders had to be represented and that made us women happy. So I became part of the committee\" (IRSSIC_F3_1).The importance of education levels of PRM women executive committee members was emphasized.\"Some committees like the conservancy committee, members are elected by the community while members of other committees are just appointed. For one to be elected or appointed in the committee, the level of education is a major consideration\" (IRKIA_F2).Education was described, at times, as being more important than gender and age considerations of committee membership.\"We cannot say there are specific roles for women in committees because you know nowadays people are educated and in issues to do with groups people look at education a lot. So you cannot say there is a seat set aside specifically for women or men or youths. You will not pick people for the committees just randomly, it is a must for them to be picked according to their level of education. Nowadays you cannot just put anyone there, a lot of things will become hard. We have to pick people who can at least read and write. (KOFGE_M).Women and men participated in gender sensitization and capacity building activities. Gender sensitization was important to emphasize why women should be in included in resource management processes. For some, sensitization and training convinced men to 'allow' women to attend meetings and to engage in income generating activities previously reserved for men.In most of the locations, there was initial resistance from men to include women in resource management institutions. Men hold authority in community and natural resource forums. To include women, and gain men's support of women's inclusion, sensitization efforts were needed. Women and men frequently referred to the importance of sensitization about gender equality and positive effects upon women's opportunities.\"Before PRM, men dominated in all activities in the community. Sensitization about the importance of women was done, and they were included in various activities like issuance of beehives. During meetings women were given chance to give their suggestions and currently the vice chair of the committee is a woman. During preparation of pasture farm, women supervised those who were broadcasting seeds. Women were majority in some of the activities such reseeding\" (PAKIB_M).In Irong, a woman who first explained that 'women are viewed like children' in her culture, went on to elaborate:\"When PRM sensitized the community and women, the women began to appear in leadership, for example we have assistant chiefs who are women\" (IRSSIC_F4_15).Sensitization led to increases in men's support for women to attend trainings, form groups, and engage in income generating activities, for example. A Pokot woman living in Paka Hills explained the importance of sensitization:\"Initially, men resisted women to be involved in any activity within the community. We had to do sensitization meetings with men, -with time they agreed women could be included on the committees and they could even allow them to attend to meetings in Kabarnet\" (PAKIA_F3).RECONCILE facilitated multiple capacity building activities for women and men that included technical skills in beekeeping, financial and business management, wildlife conservation and restoration activities such as managing pastures and planting grass. Capacity building opportunities have been valued, especially for those who are less educated, who are able to gain access to knowledge and ideas through exposure. Capacity building has supported livelihood changes.\"When PRM came and trained us I saw a lot of changes. Like now I know how to manage growing grass and even in business they trained us that we can do some small activity and make some profit to educate our children. They gave us knowledge in growing tomatoes, growing vegetables and even growing, harvesting and selling grass to people\" (IRSSIC_F4_15)Gender relations also have changed as a result of women's access to trainings, that, as a woman Koitegan explained, expands possibilities of earning income.\"Women have been able to gain skills from trainings that has so far improved their livelihoods. Before women were not involved in decision making process or leadership but they now are. In the past men used to undermine ladies and think that they cannot take up leadership positions; men were the only participants in Baraza; but things have changed now…Women in PRM receive varied trainings on different subjects and this helps to open up their mind and identify opportunities, like building a school or borehole, which in turn creates employment\" (KOSSIC_F6_55).Among the many activities, women's uptake of beekeeping is especially notable. Beekeeping is an important adaptation activity in drylands contexts, and, prior to PRM was reserved for men due to cultural norms that prohibited women from owning and managing beehives. In Irong, for example, women could not own beehives and through PRM, bought 31 beehives that were issued to 6 women's groups.In Koitegan, Kalenjin traditions were cited as the main reason why women could not previously own beehives.\"PRM enabled us to get knowledge on beehives. In the past our men did not want us to have anything to do with beehives, they used to view it as their own but when PRM came in they gave us beehives and we hang them and we harvest honey now and we get money. Before we did not have them, men were the ones who used to harvest\" (IRSSIC_F4_15).Similarly, in Paka Hills a 46-year-old married woman who did not complete primary school explained how beekeeping has become a source of income that is used in the household.\"I am happy with the things that we have been able to do such as the grass that we have planted and the beehive project. We eat some of the honey and sell the surplus; this gives us an income that we use to buy household consumables such as sugar and tea leaves. All genders can own beehives\" (PASSIC_F1_20).Various activities are identified by the community members based on restoration needs, that may include grass planting, tree planting, removal of invasive species and fencing around water points. Committee members and community members, women and men alike, participate in these activities and these activities supported community cohesion efforts.\"When I recall us doing the tree and grass planting, we were all together, there was equality.If we planted five they would also plant five, so there was equality. In giving opinions we are together; we all contribute to helping each other, we cannot discriminate. Things have changed nowadays. Education has changed almost everything\" (KOFGE_M).Gendered division of labor in certain tasks was evident. In some cases, including Kaborian, there are perceptions that women are better at some tasks than men.\"The tasks have been accomplished in a satisfactory manner; for example, in grass growing, women are the ones who know how to do it well, they do it better than men. Ladies have better ideas and are more organized than men. Women plant grass better and faster because they have experienced in doing farm work. The teamwork in management of the rangeland between men and women is good; it creates synergy and makes the process more efficient\"(KASSIC_F2_40).In Irong, and similarly in other locations, activities were carried out by PRM members and community members from different locations that supported community cohesion in rangeland management.\"We wanted to grow grass at the conservancy but we first cleared the invasive bushes growing there that do not allow grass to grow, and then we planted indigenous trees that will allow us to grow grass later. We got people from every sub location to help. We have also participated in preservation of springs like Sukta and Lorwai by fencing them off so that livestock do not drink directly from there\" (IRSSIC_F1_5).These 3, more empowering forms of participation are considered together and specifically describe women's contributions in management planning, leadership in rangeland forums, and collective action initiatives. In many cases women actively contributed to resource management and planning by identifying resources they value and advocating for protection of those resources. Support for existing groups and the creation of new collective groups were instrumental for women to take up new income generating activities.Women participated in meetings during PRM processes that included resource mapping and stakeholder analysis and meetings to negotiate bylaws and details of the management plan. PRM committee meetings were important spaces in which women advocated and influenced resource conservation and management. Women access and use certain rangeland resources more often than men, and the use of these resources is often linked to gender norms and practices that shape who does what in the household. Labor and time implications of these tasks, specifically the distances travelled to fetch water, are significant.Women generally fetch water and wash clothes, and their frequent visits to water resources increases their knowledge about the quality of the resource, for example. Since they visit these areas they also can simultaneously monitor changes in the conditions of the resources. In Koitegan, the field officer explained that women committee members shared views about specific resources and often represented women's interests to conserve and prioritize certain resources in the wider community.\"When we involved women in discussions around management of resources, they presented their views on fetching water, firewood and herbs. They ensure that their interests are considered. Women pass their views and opinions concerning usage of resources through the women who are in the committee\".Across the datasets, women's concerns about water were repeated. In Paka Hills, water use and protection was prioritized.\"We also manage the water usage. We supervise how the livestock will get into the watering point in an orderly manner to ensure all get water. We arrange that people bring their cows and goats to drink water in turns; they queue. We also protect the water point and prevent people from taking a bath in there (in the dam). We have also set aside land which we cleared and planted grass; we use this grass to feed our livestock during dry season. We ensure that people do not cut down trees\" (PASSIC_F1_20).A male committee member explained that:\"Women advocate for preservation of springs within the conservancy because looking for water consumes most of their time. Some women go as far as 15 kilometres in search of water\" (PASSIC_M3_24).In Koitegan a key informant explained the changes she has seen in women's behavior, specifically women's contributions in the identification of important resources that reflects gendered knowledge about specific rangeland resources.\"There are changes, lately women have a voice in the community and participate in conservation efforts. Women have been included in the CFA committee where they can make suggestions concerning usage of the communal resources. Before, women could not speak in front of men. I am familiar with the plan, it has a viewing point in the conservancy, different types of soil that women use to decorate their houses, indigenous trees that are used as herbs, wilds fruits and locations of springs. Various groups were included in the activities. Women identified the locations of the colored soils, location of springs and herbs because they are more knowledgeable in this area compared to men\" (KOKIA_F1).In Irong, however, a committee member expressed discontent with PRM processes. She explained:\"…when I voice my opinion in the meetings I am told that the committee will look into that but that is never the case and my concerns are ignored. My opinions and views are usually downplayed\" (IRSSIC_F1_5).She continued to explain how resource restrictions exacerbate poverty of already marginalized community members and women.\"When they restrict access to the conservancy by livestock the people without their own pasture will suffer and maybe they will have to sell their livestock to survive. Also, when they restrict us women from collecting the materials we use to make mats I am not happy with that since the small crafts enable us to feed the children and pay fees but that becomes hard\" (IRSSIC_F1_5).Uses of specific rangeland resources are negotiated through PRM processes, however, restrictions that are made in efforts to restore rangelands are occasionally contested because of the importance of those same resources in sustaining livelihoods.PRM has supported women's visibility in leadership roles in PRM and rangeland forums, however, challenges to women's leadership persist. Women's leadership in public institutions and in PRM committees has increased the visibility of women in spaces where men often dominated. Women leaders are important and inspiring role models to other women.\"The women included in the PRM committee have really helped the other women in the community because after they receive training they call us to a women's meeting and share the information that has been given to them. There is information they share with us specifically for women's progress and we take this information and apply it so that we can change our way of life for the better…Women are benefiting through gaining knowledge from the women in PRM leadership; when a female leader comes to talk to us at least by the end of the day they would have heard different ideas. We have also seen that by doing this we have direction now. In leadership we have found out that women have the capability to lead, they can lead if given the chance\" (IRSSID_F2_4).In Kaborian a woman described changes in the village and influences upon women in neighboring villages and among men in the community.\"RECONCILE project has brought about gender equality; we are now somehow balanced, say about a quarter of the women in leadership are women. Other women in villages are now seeing that they can also take up leadership positions after seeing women leaders in the PRM committee. Men have also started respecting the fact that women can lead and give ideas\" (KASSIC_F2_40).Nevertheless, women may not lead certain committees in some communities and, furthermore, their household tasks preclude them from having time to engage in such activities.\"Women decline leadership positions in some of the committees such as road and water committee. Women have a lot of chores at home so they decline positions that are demanding. Some work is very tedious for women such as being a leader in the roads committee. Men take the most demanding positions in the committee\"(KAKIA_F1).RECONCILE encouraged group creation and in other cases, women came forward with ideas to create women's groups. Women's involvement in collective action has not always been accepted by men. Women's access to trainings and knowledge and, in some cases, material support from RECONCILE, generated women's interest in creating women's groups and taking up new income generating activities.Women in some locations initiated requests to start groups.\"… when we had the meeting recently in Koitegan, you know the women are quicker than men, so they had organized themselves and decided that they wanted to set apart an area to put beehives for themselves as women since they had asked for some land. They did this so that as we harvested and sold our honey, they would also do the same. There's was just a request out of their own thinking and they got what they wanted. It was just a proposal, once they saw the community beehives set up, they also wanted their own specifically for women and Koitegan is big enough for this. In the past we had set apart the hills of Koitegan as reserved pasture but when the government took over there is no more area of reserved pasture\"(KOFGE_M).Women created collectives, or groups, before women's participation in groups was widely accepted all the locations. Many women depend on women's groups for multiple types of support.\"We have resorted to joining and forming groups. In the past the men did not allow their wives to join the groups but after we got some training and sensitization, we decided to join the groups\" (IRSSID_F1_14).\"Women within the community have really been empowered and they can easily organize and lead themselves through forming various women groups\" (KASSID_F3_35).Groups took up various activities and enabled women to diversify income earning activities, through keeping chickens and activities that culturally reserved for men, such as previously mentioned beekeeping.While PRM did not make explicit goals to change gender norms and practices, the study explored impacts beyond PRM. This section draws primarily on PRM women's semi-structured interviews. Specifically, we explored household and community level changes in gender relations and changes in women's participation in decision-making in time, income and livestock assets. Household changes in gender relations were described, however significant challenges exist and are often related to women's household labor and time allocation.Women are responsible for many household chores. Women's time spent out of the homestead, engaging in community and public meetings, even joining groups, has not always been accepted by husbands in married households. Women's attendance in meetings is restricted, or at the very least, must often be negotiated or discussed with husbands because of concerns about labor.\"I am not able to attend all meetings or participate in all activities because sometimes goats get lost and I have to go looking for them, or the child is sick and I have to take him to the hospital. Household responsibilities prevents me from participating fully in the activities\" (PASSIC_F1_20).In Kaborian, the field officer explained that women often face challenges leaving their home to engage in PRM and other activities. Attending seminars that are far or require travel for multiple days is very difficult for women because of their household responsibilities.'Women must seek permission from men to attend meetings and seminars. Majority of men deny women permission to attend seminars and meetings, only a few men who have understood the project activities well allow women to participate'. The field officer continued: 'Women's responsibilities made it difficult to attend in the PRM activities. Most men don't do house chores. Therefore, women cannot leave their house and attend the meetings. Married women spend most of their time at home doing house chores.\" Some husbands, however, were described as open-minded and appreciative of women's contributions to both household and community development gained through their engagement in PRM. In prior times, there were low levels of men's acceptance of women leaving the household, but NGOs and community sensitization, inclusive of RECONCILE and in combination with changes in wider contexts, have ushered in some changes in household gender relations.\"When PRM came and trained us I saw a lot of changes…in the past my husband did not want to know what was going on and even when I approached him to tell him what we had learnt... He did not even want me to attend meetings but when I got into the project I am in now he allowed me to attend the meetings since he saw that they were changing our way of thinking and even how we are living at home, there are a lot of changes\" (IRSSIC_F4_15).Since women are responsible for household chores they must find ways to cover their labor. Chores and responsibilities may be taken up by men (Kabarian), or women may hire labor, often using income from their PRM activities (Irong, Koitegan) or shift responsibilities to children (Irong). In Kaborian, that is generally more restrictive, women reported that men have stepped in to support household tasks. In Paka Hills a woman described increased support from her husband in childcare,\"My husband has changed. He is now helping in taking care of the sick children and goes with me to the hospital to take the child to get treatment. He is also helping in doing household responsibility. He helps us fetch water for household use using his motorbike.He is working hard and actively taking up casual jobs and bringing the income home to buy flour and sugar... In the past, women were not allowed to go out and participate in such activities… Husbands are now involving their wives in decision making at household level\" (PASSID_F2_18).Opportunities to earn income, that include PRM activity specific forms of participation mentioned earlier and sitting allowances, bolster men's support of women leaving their households and were shown to increase women's participation in decision-making about how to spend.Women often make decisions with men concerning expenditure, even when men travel out of households.Widows and single women have greater autonomy in making decisions than married women in most cases. Changes in decision-making in married households were reported in 3 locations, that may be due to the low number of women respondents from Paka Hills. An important trend in these locations was the role and influence of women's income in creating new opportunities in household decision making.Earning income enables women to support themselves, reduce reliance upon husbands, and even lend to husbands in times of need. Women earn income from PRM through sitting allowances and casual labor payments for activities like planting pasture and removing invasive species and their earnings increase men's support of their time spent out of household. Multiple women in Kaborian explained how earning income influences spending decisions husbands' behavior.\"My husband allows me to go for PRM activities and meetings and is left at home managing the children and ensuring all household activities are carried out well. He appreciates that at the end of the day I come home with some income or new skills that we can implement at our home\" (KASSIC_F2_40). Another woman in Kaborian explained: \"Men are more open on decision making on expenditure, because the wife comes home with some income. Women leaders in PRM earn an allowance that complements his income\" (KASSIC_F3_33).When women earn income they often acquire independence in making decisions about what to buy, such as livestock and other agricultural assets. They contribute to the purchase of household needs. In Irong, one woman reported multiple changes in the household that are due, in part to her opportunities to earn income, but also built upon her participation in capacity building activities.\"I have gotten the chance to plan my own things first before I can discuss and convince my husband. For example, in making decisions about selling cattle or goats or if I want to look for farmland to hire and grow crops. Also, he now informs me when he wants to sell any livestock. In the past it was hard and he could not let me suggest selling even one goat…I did not have a voice and I had very small say in such matters, and I had to be very humble but now I have a little more power in these conversations. These days he sees me selling my own cow and he can see the development I am bringing to the household. Now he also understands my involvement in groups and merry-go-rounds and I tell him the money I have put in the merry-go-round and when it is my turn to receive the funds he can see the good things the ladies bring to me in the meeting and he accepts that such an activity is good. This is what I have seen has changed… When we are making decisions, we do them together and I am the one who plans until he agrees to my planning\" (IRSSIC_F1_5).The aim of this paper was to better understand women's engagement in participatory rangeland management (PRM) processes and implications for broader social change. We drew upon qualitative data collected through key informant interviews, focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews. We adapted and used a participation framework to analyze women's participation in rangeland activities and institutions and beyond, specifically the household, to better understand implications for social change or women's transformative agency. We first described the context of the communities in which PRM was carried out, namely gender practices surrounding livestock and women's engagement in leadership in their communities. We then focused upon understanding women's engagement in PRM. How do women participate in decision-making processes in PRM, e.g., stakeholder meetings, development of the management plan and committee meetings? We then ask what changes, if any, has women's engagement in PRM brought about in gender relations in households and communities? We draw upon the results from these questions to respond to our final question. How does participation in PRM support, or not, social change, that refers to changes in women's agency in rangeland institutions and the wider community?The Discussion is composed of 3 sections, the first summarizing key findings about the context, followed by elaboration of key findings using the participation framework. We finalize with limitations and suggestions for future research.The 4 study sites share similar features such as the effects of extreme climate change. Important differences exist in Kaborian and Paka Hills, where insecurity is a frequent threat. Our data show that women's and men's roles in livestock practices and changes in uptake of leadership positions have occurred over the last decade. Changing gender roles in response to hardship such as climate change and resource availability and migration are indeed, pushing women into more decision-making domains in the household. Exposure to information through new technologies, NGO sensitization efforts, and awareness of Kenyan gender laws, namely '2/3 gender rule', are generating more demand from women and men in communities to support women's opportunities in leadership and collectives, for example.The contextual analysis indicated that women's agency is increasing at different rates and in different domains across the contexts and may explain, to some extent, challenges to increasing women's agency in rangeland institutions. Broadly speaking, cultural contexts in Kaborian and Paka Hills reflect more restrictive customs surrounding gender roles, however analyses of changes in households reflects diverse trends in intra-household labor sharing and decision-making, that suggests that changes are occurring unevenly across community and household contexts.We used and adapted a participation framework to describe the different ways that women participate in decision making processes about rangelands. Participation has important implications for enhancing women's transformative agency, that Kabeer (1995) refers to as agency that challenges prevailing inequalities in resources and agency rather than leaving them unchallenged. Overall, we found that women meaningfully participated in different aspects of PRM processes. PRM has increased women's voice and agency in governance of rangeland resources and potential to benefit from rangeland resources. Similar findings were reported in Waweru, et al., (2021).Each type of participation is first considered separately to structure key findings, however, in reality women participated in PRM in different ways that, taken together, reinforced women's agency in rangeland management and, to a lesser extent, household contexts. Furthermore, PRM steps and processes are not linear, rather they are iterative. For example, capacity building activities are a frequent and ongoing set of activities, not necessarily only in the early stages of PRM.The first 3 levels of participation, considered 'less active', were in fact, extremely important to supporting women's active participation in subsequent PRM processes. We will discuss each of these in turn. Nominal levels of participation were assessed by looking at executive committee composition in the respective conservancy, association or rangeland. In all cases, women's participation, at least 30%, in rangeland management institutions were novel, because these forums were reserved for men prior to PRM. Women's entry challenged beliefs that women should not, or are incapable of, making decisions about resources.Passive participation considered women's participation in two different, complementary, types of meetings, gender sensitization and capacity building. Frequent references to gender sensitization were made by women and men and it was cited as being critical to supporting men's acceptance of women's engagement in PRM. Capacity building provided access to important skills that underpin livelihood improvements. Knowledge sharing and enhancing technical skills were essential to support women's entry into domains that were previously reserved for men, such as beekeeping. Women and men participated in PRM activities, that were also important for community cohesion and building support for rangeland management. These were also an important means through which women earned and controlled income.The 3 'active', more empowering forms of participation, consultative, active and interactive, are considered together and referred to women's contributions in management planning, leadership in rangeland forums, and collective action initiatives. In many cases women actively contributed to resource management and planning by identifying resources they value and advocating for protection of those resources. Support for existing groups and the creation of new collective groups were instrumental in enabling women to take up new income generating activities, such as previously mentioned beekeeping.Beyond PRM: Women's participation in household decision-makingBeyond PRM, we asked what changes, if any, has PRM brought about in gender relations in households and communities? Women interview respondents indicated that were some changes, however persistent challenges exist and continue to prevent women from leaving the house and participating in PRM and other activities in the community.Some changes in gender relations were evident in at least 2 domains, time and labor, and decision-making.Changes in men's behavior, such as increased support of women's time spent outside of the household, is an important and influential factor that influences women's mobility and potential to benefit from PRM activities. Women expanded their agency through knowledge acquisition, income earning opportunities, and participating in collective action initiatives. Women's earning opportunities bolstered men's support of women attending and participating in meetings.Women's time investments in PRM activities remain a challenge in the communities because of expectations of women to manage household duties. However, in a few instances women reported changes in their husband's behavior, specifically husbands taking up household chores and helping around the house. Furthermore, women reported changes in decision-making about income, especially when they earn the income. Women may also allocate funds to hire labor for household chores, which deserves further attention to better understand how income impacts household budgeting.Our broader aim was to understand how participation in PRM supports, or not, social change, that refers to changes in women's agency in rangeland institutions and the wider community. We summarize three main observations and their implications for development below.analyses revealed some changes in women's agency in livestock decision making and leadership in pastoral systems in Baringo County. PRM built upon these efforts to expand social change to rangeland resource management institutions. Some changes, in part, are motivated and enforced through laws such as gender quotas, that, while well intended to ensure women's representation, are not a guarantee of women's meaningful participation in rangeland institutions. Given the more restrictive normative contexts in Paka Hills or Kaborian, in fact, we assume that a quota as a standalone intervention would do little to ensure that women advocate for conservation of resources they use, as we found in our dataset. Gender sensitization in PRM was essential to gain more support from communities to support women's entry into resource management decision-making spaces and their voices in these spaces, that emphasizes the importance socio-technical bundling, or \"bundles of mutually reinforcing technologies, policies, knowledge, social institutions and cultural norms\" (Barrett et. al., 2021: 974). Without due attention given to social norms and relations in a community, it would be relatively easy for a technically oriented solution to replicate and reinforce power relations, while simultaneously meeting gender quotas that suggest otherwise, for example.Participation in multiple PRM activities reinforced women's agency in pastoral rangeland institutions in different and diverse contexts. Participation can be both a means and an end to a continuing dynamic (Cornwall, 2008). Gender sensitization, capacity building activities and income earning opportunities were important in changing men's behavior that, in turn, influenced women's agency. \"Participation through receiving information, a feature of passive participation… opens up the possibility of collective action... rather than being simply a 'lesser' form of participation (Cornwall, 2008;272).\" In PRM such 'passive' forms of participation were critical to enhance knowledge and skills to start new activities in collectives, for example. Women's entry into beekeeping was prefaced by a complementary set of activities that included gender sensitization, capacity building, and material support provided for collectives. In addition, through activity specific types of participation that increase women (and men's) access to income, women often gained more support from their spouses to leave the house. In some cases, men assumed responsibility of household chores. Projects that aim to holistically address challenges in pastoral systems, that include opportunities to increase income, capacity and collectives can, overall, support increased resilience in the face of climate change.Women's agency in rangeland governance institutions can lead to tangible and measurable reductions in time and labor sourcing rangeland resources. Women's meaningful participation in RMIs ensures that gender specific knowledge, where it exists, informs stakeholder processes and prioritization in management plans, that has meaningful impacts on rangeland livelihoods and resource conditions. In our study, water scarcity is common. Women are, by and large, responsible for fetching water across many contexts in East Africa. Protection of springs, regulation of access, and protected user rights may conserve resources used by women and potentially reduce women's travel time in search of water resources that is often exacerbated during drought. Rangeland restoration efforts that aim to improve rangeland conditions and livelihoods must consider the value of gender-specific knowledge to overall rangeland health.Recognizing the limitations of frameworks and the need to embed frameworks in temporal, often rapid and unanticipated change, is essential to understand social processes in pastoral systems. Pastoral contexts are dynamic and marked by uncertainty such as the effects of climate change, new forms of pastoral mobility and livelihoods, and increasing patterns of commoditisation and social differentiation (Scoones, 2020). Intra and intercommunity level relationships are important spaces for empowerment, and disempowerment, especially when considering conflict and migration, displacement, and negotiation of contested rangeland resources. In addition, women's levels of participation in PRM activities are likely to vary across time and space. Relationships among different social groups in meetings and activities, for example, will vary because of power dynamics within communities. So, while a woman may be active in one meeting, in another meeting, due to social relations and dynamics, the same woman may be a more passive participant.Decisions about access and use of resources are spaces of contestation and efforts to include groups that may be marginalized from decision-making forums will be important. A limitation of our study is that we primarily focused on understanding the experiences and perspectives of PRM members, whereas the perspectives and experiences of those not included in the PRM processes was not a focus of this paper. Further analysis of our data sources will be performed to better understand social inclusion and exclusion dimensions of PRM. Additional and further research into understanding the ways in which education, in-migrant status and socioeconomic status influence who participates in PRM is recommended. Furthermore, given that climate change is a key driver of changes in this context and other rangelands contexts, we also recommend an intersectional analysis to better understand how different individuals and groups may relate, manage and cope differently in response to climate change (Kaijser & Kronsell, 2014;Van Aelst & Holvoet, 2016).We sought to better understand women's engagement in participatory rangeland management (PRM) processes and implications for broader social change. Overall, we found that women often actively engage in PRM and that PRM largely builds upon and strengthens women's agency in communities. However, there are important exceptions and challenges to women's agency in these contexts. We articulate 3 key findings and recommendations for development interventions to better support transformative shifts in women's agency and broader social change. First, contexts influence the potential for social change and socio-technical bundling is essential in gender normative restrictive contexts. Second, multiple, complementary forms of participation reinforce agency and potential for social change. Lastly, women's inclusion in rangeland management institutions has potential for strategic and measurable impacts upon women's time and labor allocation. Further intersectional analyses into understanding adaptation to climate change and opportunities for socially inclusive efforts to enhance resilience are briefly elaborated.","tokenCount":"12702"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b39789df3d62c112aa3ef14ac4c3f54e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25489c61-3f61-4ebb-829c-2382026b0382/retrieve","id":"-1396713810"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"64056544-3b2c-4408-9eea-d7eb3e260df6","pagecount":"70","content":"Фисташки (Pistacia vera L.) iv Дескрипторы для Фисташки Международный институт по генетическим ресурсам растений (IPGRI) является независимой международной научной организацией, поддерживаемой Консультативной группой по международным сельскохозяйственным исследованиям (CGIAR). Мандатом IPGRI является оказание поддержки сохранению и использованию генетического разнообразия на благо нынешнего и будущих поколений человечества. Головной офис IPGRI находится в Маккаризе, пригороде Рима, Италия. Кроме того, офисы IPGRI имеются в 19 различных странах мира. Институт работает по трем программам: (1) Программа по генетическим ресурсам растений, (2) Программа CGIAR по поддержке генетических ресурсов и (3) Международная сеть по улучшению генетических ресурсов банана текстильного и банана съедобного (INIBAP).IPGRI в настоящее время использует следующие определения в документировании генетических ресурсов Паспортные дескрипторы предоставляют основную информацию по общему управлению образцом (включая регистрацию в генбанке и другую идентификационную информацию) и описывают признаки, за которыми должно вестись наблюдение, когда образец впервые поступил в коллекцию Дескрипторы Управления обеспечивают основу управления образцами в генбанке и содействуют проведению работ по их размножению и восстановлению.Дескрипторы Окружающей Среды и Местоположения описывают условия окружающей среды и особенности местоположения участка, которые необходимы при проведении характеристики и оценки. Они также важны для объяснения полученных данных. Сюда также входит описание места сбора гермоплазмы.Дескрипторы Характеристики предоставляют возможность легко и быстро различить фенотипы. Они, как правило, высоко наследуемы, легко видны невооружённым глазом и в равной степени выражены во всех природных зонах. Кроме того, они включают в себя некоторые дополнительные признаки, единодушно считающиеся необходимыми при использовании данной сельскохозяйственной культуры Дескрипторы Оценки: многие дескрипторы этой категории зависят от условий окружающей среды, и они важны при улучшении сельскохозяйственных культур. Они также могут включать в себя комплекс биохимической и молекулярной характеристик. Данные дескрипторы охватывают урожайность, агротехнику, подверженность стрессам, а также биохимические и цитологические признаки Проведение характеристики является, как правило, обязанностью кураторов генбанков, в то время как оценка, обычно, проводится где-либо в другом месте (возможно междисциплинарной группой ученых). Данные оценки должны быть возвращены в генбанк, где будут храниться файлы данных.Наиболее специфичные дескрипторы в данном перечне отмечены звездочкой ( ).Международно-принятые нормы для оценки, кодирования и записи данных по дескриптору должны быть следующими:используется Международная Система Единиц (СИ);(б) единицы, которые должны быть использованы, даны в квадратных скобках, следующих за названием дескриптора   (см. рис. 5)Измеряется по самой широкой части листовой пластинки (см. рис. 5)   Определяется, когда расцветут последние цветыОпределяется, когда оболочка легко отделяется от скорлупы 6.5.5.  ","tokenCount":"369"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7c23bd40e3b2d2ceaf6b95ba0fe329f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/edad56b4-e6ce-4c1e-9328-8eb4f0fe1d33/retrieve","id":"-720044481"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"194d4620-96f6-42cc-a86a-d1ceb14a2269","pagecount":"228","content":"The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an independent international scientific organization that seeks to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. It is one of 15 Future Harvest Centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association of public and private members who support efforts to mobilize cutting-edge science to reduce hunger and poverty, improve human nutrition and health, and protect the environment. IPGRI has its headquarters in Maccarese, near Rome, Italy, with offices in more than 20 other countries worldwide.Inventory and documentation of medicinal plants in 14  Medicinal plants research in the Asia Pacific region was initiated with the signing of a research collaboration on the \"Inventory and documentation of medicinal plants in the Asia Pacific Region\" between the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the Rural Development Administration (RDA) of the Republic of Korea on 5 December 2001. With this agreement, RDA provided IPGRI with the initial funding to implement the project in 14 countries over a period of four years, starting in 2002.The original invited participants of the project include Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Nepal in South Asia; Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam in Southeast Asia; China, South Korea and Mongolia in East Asia; and Fiji and Papua New Guinea in the South Pacific. After visits and consultations with relevant institutions by the IPGRI Project Coordinator, Fiji and Papua New Guinea were deemed not ready to participate in the project. Thus, Laos and Myanmar were invited to participate instead.Due to the need to consult with the implementing institutions and policy makers in each of the participating countries, project implementation actually started in 2002.The following countries started the work in 2002: China, Malaysia, South Korea and the Philippines; the following in 2003: Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Vietnam, Mongolia; and Laos in 2004. Discussions are still underway for the participation of Myanmar and Thailand.This publication, entitled \"Medicinal Plants Research in Asia, Volume I: The Framework and Project Workplans\", documents the results of the first meeting of the project's stakeholders entitled \"Asia-Pacific Medicinal Plants Research Meeting\" which was held from 7 to 9 April 2003 as part of the Malaysian Governmentsponsored Natural Products Exhibition and Conference (NATPRO) 2003 at the Putra World Trade Centre in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Chapter 1 of this publication includes the background papers of the project describing the framework of the project, and the needed fundamentals and sustaining elements for a medicinal plants research. Chapter 2 includes the project proposals of each of the 12 participating countries based on the framework. Participants developed project proposals which are appropriate to their local situations and consistent with the status of medicinal plant research, and research gaps in their respective countries. Chapter 3 contains the progress reports of India, Malaysia, Korea and Philippines which started their projects before the meeting date, and the work plans of the other participating countries which have yet to initiate project-related activities. Finally, Chapter 4 gives the report containing the results and recommendations of the said project meeting as submitted by IPGRI to RDA.It is hoped that the reader would find the information provided in this publication useful.For most of the developing world, the main issue of public health is still the acute need for basic health care, which is sadly lacking even at the most elementary level. This is true in both the rapidly growing cities and in the rural areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) indicates that more than half of the world's population does not have access to adequate health care services. This is due to the fact that poor people neither have access to nor could afford the present health care services. Therefore, innovative alternative approaches are needed to address this problem.Medicinal plants offer alternative remedies with tremendous opportunities. They not only provide access and affordable medicine to poor people; they can also generate income, employment and foreign exchange for developing countries. Many traditional healing herbs and plant parts have been shown to have medicinal value, especially in the rural areas and that these can be used to prevent, alleviate or cure several human diseases. The WHO estimates that more than 80% of the world's population rely either solely or largely on traditional remedies for health care. Rural communities continue to rely on locally produced, plant-based remedies, some from home gardens, but many from forests, alpine pastures and other multiple-use habitats. Women and elders are the principal harvesters, marketers and healers. Recently, interest has been raised in many countries on the commercial extraction of medicine from plants that contribute to cures for major diseases such as cancer and AIDS.Harvesting of medicinal plants by cash-needy collectors to supply the growing urban and international markets has increasingly intensified since these materials are cheaper and more accessible. These medicinal plants continue to supplement limited public health facilities, and the consequent expanding demand due to increasing population has put tremendous pressure on the natural supply. Several of these medicinal plants have also been over-exploited to provide substantial incomes to growers and processors. Hence, supplies of wild plants are constantly being threatened, resulting in serious erosion of genetic diversity.The WHO estimates that a minimum of 20 000 plant taxa has recorded medicinal uses. It is estimated that up to 70 000 plant species are used in folk medicine and a majority of these species are found in the Asia-Pacific region. However, the use of medicinal plants is faced with many constraints. Some of these constraints include: plants with medicinal values not fully identified, inventoried and characterized, information and knowledge not being adequately documented and disseminated, many issues are not addressed and resolved (i.e. equity and sustainability), and the alarming commercial over-exploitation and consequent genetic erosion of medicinal plants.As an initial step towards resolving these constraints, there is a need to develop a sound research strategy and programme for medicinal plants conservation, utilization and documentation, including their location, existing population, place(s) of conservation, and known traditional uses. When this documentation is achieved, it would be necessary to identify priority species for further work on characterization and data sharing through national, regional and international collaboration. Subsequently, additional collecting, conservation and characterization of other medicinal plant species can augment these conserved species.Recognizing these opportunities and constraints, the Rural Development Administration (RDA) of the Government of the Republic of Korea and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) agreed that currently there is inadequate information on medicinal plants in the Asia-Pacific region and that there is a need to maximize their use in a sustainable way. The two organizations thus decided to collaborate in implementing a project to inventory and document medicinal plants in the region and to promote research collaboration among countries. It was also agreed that this research collaboration would avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, promote complementation, synergy and sharing of resources to generate more outputs and achieve greater development impact. The project was designed to initially involve 14 countries in the Asia-Pacific region, namely: Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka in South Asia; Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam in Southeast Asia; China, Mongolia and South Korea in East Asia; and Fiji and Papua New Guinea in the South Pacific.The first Asia-Pacific Medicinal Plants Research meeting was held as part of the initial activities of this collaborative research project and was conducted as a satellite meeting to the Natural Products Exhibition and Conference (NATPRO) 2003 of the Malaysian Industry-Government High Technology Agency (MIGHT) sponsored by the Prime Minister's Office of the Government of Malaysia. The following were the general objectives of the meeting: 1. To discuss issues and agree on how participants can work together; 2. To develop a strategy to accelerate medicinal plants research; and 3. To develop a suitable research direction to maximize opportunities for all.The more specific objectives of the meeting were: 1. To provide opportunities for medicinal plants researchers to share information on the status of medicinal plants in respective countries; 2. To update work plans of participants in the IPGRI-RDA project; and 3. To identify priority research areas and mechanisms for project implementation and fund generation.Medicinal plants are one of the most sensitive commodity areas of research in the world today. Many countries would like to keep their information and knowledge about medicinal plants to themselves for fear of being marginalized in the race to exploit the commercial values of medicinal plants. However, through the proposed collaborative project, the region can collectively address the constraints and opportunities to make medicinal plants a progressive and sustainable industry that would benefit all participating countries. More important, the project and the designated country project leaders can do a lot to bring access and affordability of medicinal plants to poor people. Specifically, the project aims to: The Korean Government, through the RDA, agreed to fund the project for a period of four years.On the first year (2002) of the project, seven countries (China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Korea, Philippines and Vietnam) carried out the following activities:1) Documentation of published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants; On the second year (2003) of the project, an additional seven countries undertook the same work as the first seven. These include Bangladesh, Mongolia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Fiji and Papua New Guinea.On the third and fourth year (2004)(2005) of the project, 14 countries (China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, South Korea, Bangladesh, Mongolia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Fiji and Papua New Guinea) will:1. Develop descriptors for medicinal plants in collaboration with the other countries; 2. Develop a database on medicinal plants containing passport and characterization data and use; 3. Develop a Catalogue of Medicinal Plants containing pictures, uses and general morphological characters and cultivation methods; and 4. Develop mechanisms to enhance research collaboration among participating countries.Due to the time needed to identify suitable research collaborating institutions and researchers and the need to clear this project with appropriate policy making bodies of proposed participating countries, the schedule was revised so that China, Malaysia, the Philippines and South Korea started their work in 2002; while Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Mongolia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Fiji and Papua New Guinea will start work in 2003. Expansion of the project will depend on the common interest of the participating countries. For example, on the second to third year, a research network on medicinal plants research may be established to provide a means for the participating countries to effectively carry out the mandates and objectives of the project and ensure the sustainability of the activities already initiated. It is envisioned that the project will catalyze collaboration in medicinal plants research among participating countries to promote the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants to benefit resourcepoor producers and consumers.The project will document and inventory conserved medicinal plants, identify uses, research status and gaps, priority species and priority research projects in 14 participating countries. It will also develop descriptors for medicinal plants and characterize conserved germplasm and generate information on cultivation methods.It is envisioned that the project will catalyze collaboration in medicinal plants research among participating countries to promote the sound conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants. It is expected that this project will help national governments and development organizations provide access and affordable medicine to poor people and provide development opportunities to help generate income, employment and foreign exchange for the participating countries.Interest in the exploitation of medicinal and aromatic plants as pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, flavourings, perfumes and cosmetics, and other natural products has greatly increased in the recent years (Anon 1994;Ayensu 1996;Salleh et al. 1997;Kumar et al. 2000). As with many other economic plants that are still being collected from the wild and exploited by humans unsustainably, threats to genetic diversity and species survival have also increased in the case of medicinal plants as a result of habitat destruction, over-exploitation, land use changes and other pressures (Arora and Engels 1993). In India alone, less than 10 % of the medicinal plants traded in the country are cultivated, about 90% are collected from the wild, very often in a destructive and unsustainable manner (Natesh 2000).The number of organizations conducting research and other activities related to the use of medicinal and aromatic plants is large and increasing (Ayensu 1996;Sharma et al. 2002). Botanic gardens are particularly well distributed network of institutions with experience and expertise in this area. Work on conservation of this resource, particularly at the level of intra-specific genetic diversity, has not kept pace with advances in other areas, such as pharmacognosy and documentation of indigenous knowledge (Leaman et al. 1999;Kshirsagar and Singh 2001).The medicinal plants have been used by humans from the pre-historical times. Studies have pointed out that many drugs that are used in commerce have come from folk-use and use of plants by indigenous cultures (Anon 1994). About 50 drugs have been discovered from ethnobotanical leads by translating folk knowledge into new pharmaceuticals (Attachment Table 1; Cox 1994). Some examples of medicinal plant from the Asia-Pacific region are of species such as Rauvolfia, Hyoscyamus, Cassia, Atropa, Podophyllum, Psoralea, Catharanthus, and Papaver. However, relatively few medicinal and aromatic plant species have been brought into cultivation worldwide and most of these species continue to be harvested from their native habitats (Gupta and Chadha 1995;Salleh et al. 1997;Gautam et al. 1998). Very little work has been undertaken on their selection and improvement, for developing suitable varieties. Much of the existing work on ex situ conservation of medicinal plants has been undertaken by botanic gardens, focusing more on interspecific diversity and less on intra-specific diversity. Little genetic material for research and conservation is held in genebanks, except for a handful of species that have entered into commercial products. Most of such collections are with the private sector, and the genetic diversity status of such collections is largely unknown. Although in recent years the attention given to development of propagation methods for threatened species has increased, most of such efforts proceed with little understanding of how these methods and collections can support conservation objectives overall (Natesh 2000;Tandon et al. 2001;Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). The current focus of attention on intellectual property and benefit sharing is not sufficiently broad to include the more significant threats to conservation of these important genetic resources, which is further confounded with issues related to indigenous/ traditional knowledge and knowledge sharing (Anon 1994;Kumar et al. 2000).It has been well recognized that human health and well-being are directly dependent on biodiversity. For example, 10 of the world's 25 top-selling drugs in 1997 were derived from natural sources. The global market value of pharmaceuticals derived from genetic resources is estimated at US$ 75 000-150 000 million annually. Some 75% of the world's population rely for health care on traditional medicines, which are derived directly from natural sources (UNDP, UNEP, World Bank and WRI 2000).IPGRI has been working on medicinal and aromatic plants throughout the Institution's history, but there has been no strategic effort. A strong justification for increasing attention to medicinal and aromatic plants within IPGRI's activities is their relevance to IPGRI's mission. Medicinal plants contribute substantially to health, cultural integrity and local economies, particularly among the poor, and particularly for women, children and the elderly (Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1998;Leaman et al. 1999).People who live in rural areas of the Asia-Pacific are familiar with the medicinal properties of plants, growing close to their homes, in the open fields, water margins, waste lands, both inside and outside the nearby forest areas and under different growth conditions. Most of the plant materials collected is used fresh either to obtain the extract from the whole plant or parts there of, whether they be leaves, roots, flowers or fruits. In case of woody forms, mostly the bark, roots and other parts are used. Carminatives like ginger, cloves and coriander are also usually added as fresh or dried materials. Though dried plant parts are frequently used, often the easy availability of fresh material is a critical point and the herbal doctor in the village is well familiar with various plants he/she needs, their growth patterns, seasonality, habitat and other details. Such details were usually passed on in the past from parent to offspring in the family and uses of plants and the various combinations or mixes made were kept as a family secret. Along with the development of knowledge at family level, tremendous progress has been made at using the plant products at professional level in different societies, which have grown into branches of science in their own right. Most of the methods and uses were taught orally and through demonstration, and very few records or writings were maintained. Such professional practices are continuing even today. As villagers migrated to city, losing touch with past practices or when there was no heir apparent to the village doctor, the precious knowledge was usually lost, although there are a number of treatises that exist in different countries (Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1998).Refinement of such practices lead to the well established Asian systems of medicines including Ayurveda and Siddha of India, Unani system of middle and Far East Asia, Ying and Yan principles of Chinese herbal medicines, Jamu of Indonesia and others (Sharma et al. 1998;Natesh 2000). About 400 plant species are used in regular production of Ayurvedic, Unani, Sidhha and tribal medicine (Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). Recently, a regional inventory of medicinal and aromatic plants and polyherbal formulations dealing with 65 Indian medicinal plants; 10 important Indonesian and 25 medicinal plants of Malaysia, along with important traditional and polyherbal formulations used in these countries has been brought out by CIMAP and supported by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India (Anon. 1999). It is only in the last 40 to 50 years that many of the medicines were produced industrially and sold in shops and markets with trade names. The practice of various indigenous medicinal systems is flourishing in different countries even today, with nearly 80% of the rural population still dependent on plant-based medicines for primary health care (Sasson 1996;Natesh 2000).It is said that US$ 1 per day is enough to provide the basic nutritional needs of an individual. About 1.3 billion people in the world earn less than this and it would not require much imagination to realize that such people can hardly afford to spend any money on modern medicines or avail of modern medical services. This stresses the importance of turning to local plants which are useful medicinally and obtained almost free of cost. Thus, the utilization of medicinal plants in traditional remedies is very important to the people in developing countries particularly the rural population.Though much information exists on the species diversity in medicinal plants in the Asia-Pacific region, relatively very little is known about the distribution, abundance, ecology and genetic diversity of the great majority of medicinal and aromatic plants, although some efforts have started in recent years (Chadha and Gupta 1995;Chandel et al. 1996;Kumar et al. 2000;Paisooksantivatana et al. 2001), including the use of molecular markers (Sharma et al 2000;Natesh 2000). Identifying priority species for conservation and understanding the management requirements for most of these plants are constrained by the limited capacity for and attention to basic field research. The few thorough investigations of sustainable harvest conducted to date indicate that a combination of in situ protection of core populations, and controls on sustainable harvest involving local management regimes, must be combined with ex situ cultivation and conservation of rare and endangered, popular, and economically important species (Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1998).Out of the 350 000 plant species identified so far, about 35 000 (some estimate up to 70 000) are used worldwide for medicinal purposes and less than about 0.5% of these have been chemically investigated. The figures published vary in different reports. About 100 plant species are involved in 25% of all drugs prescribed in advanced countries (Comer and Debus 1996) and the annual market value of herbal drugs used worldwide was estimated to be US$ 45 billion in 1996 (Sasson 1996) and it must be much more by now. The global market for the medicinal plants and herbal medicine is estimated to be worth US$800 billion a year (Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). More than 8000 plant species are known for their medicinal properties in the Asia-Pacific and about 10% of them are used regularly, mostly collected from wild. For example, it has been estimated that not less than 7500 species of medicinal plants exist in the Indonesian archipelago, of which only about 187 species are used as basic materials in traditional medicines industries (Hamid 1990). In China, over 4000 species of medicinal plants have been reported (Ayensu 1996). In India, about 2500 species are used for medicinal purposes, and about 90% of the medicinal plants provide raw materials for the herbal pharmaceuticals, which are collected from the wild habitats (Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). About 2000 medicinal plants species are reported from Malaysia (Latif 1997), while in an another account 1200 species have been reported to have potential pharmaceutical value, some of which are being used as herbal medicines (Kadir 1997).For the Indian Himalayan Region, a total of 1748 species of medicinal plants -1020 herbs, 338 shrubs, 339 trees, apart from 51 pteridophytes -have been listed (Samant et al. 1998). These include several of the endangered medicinal plant species, using current IUCN, Red Data criteria under the Biodiversity Conservation Prioritization Project (BCPP), by Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP) workshop organized by WWF at Lucknow from 21-25 January 1997 (Samant et al. 1998). Some examples of the endangered Himalayan medicinal plant species include: Aconitum balfourii, A. deinorrhizum, Acorus calamus, Angelica glauca, Atropa belladonna, Berberis kashmiriana, Coptis teeta, Dioscorea deltoidea, Gentiana kurrooa, Nardostachys grandiflora, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Podophyllum hexandrum, Saussurea costus, Sweria chirayita and Taxus baccata subsp.wallichiana; and the sub-tropical/sub-There have been a few efforts to collect and conserve medicinal plant species. Botanic gardens are one of the main repositories of medicinal plants and good examples are set by the world renowned gardens at Kew, New York Botanic Garden, Missouri Botanic Garden, Calcutta Botanic Garden, Bogor Botanic Garden, Hangzhou Botanic Garden and others. Most of them are more than 100 years old and there are other Botanic Gardens recently established/are focusing on medicinal plant maintenance and conservation in various countries such as in Thailand (Swangpol 1995) and in India (Natesh 1997(Natesh , 2000;;Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). Due to constraint of space, very few plants of any given species are cultivated in such gardens either on ground or in pots. The objective of such collections is to establish species diversity with short notes on medicinal value. A few of the forest research institutes also cultivate medicinal plants derived both from inside and outside the forests. A number of indigenous medical colleges/schools in Asia have their own medicinal plant gardens and maintain most commonly used medicinal plants under varied conditions of culture. Such collections in the developing countries mostly include the indigenous species. The genetic diversity of the useful species needs to be well studied to select superior plants for sustainable conservation, or cultivation and use. Most of the basic research on medicinal plants in the Asian developing countries is done in the universities and in some specific medicinal plant institutions in countries like India and China (Ayensu 1996;Natesh 2000;Krishnamoorthy et al. 2001). Interest of non-government organizations is also catching up, such as the good work on medicinal plants being done by the FRHLT, Bangalore, India (Anon 1997).A few of the big pharmaceutical companies of international standing have been conducting research and development activities, although their efforts focus more on primary screening of medicinal plant materials. Thousands of tonnes of dried plant materials are sent every year to the developed countries for this purpose (Adjanohoun 1996). International export trade in medicinal plants has been dominated by China which exported 121 900 tonnes a year and India which exported 32 600 tonnes a year (Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). More number of researchers and institutions need to be seriously involved in medicinal plants research and development, not only for the intellectual challenges involved but also the huge possible profits obtainable over a period of time (Latif 1984;Osman 1995;Rates 2000).Medicinal plants exhibit diverse life forms and occur under varied ecologies practically occupying all floristic regions of the world. A systematic database needs to be established for each country, mapping the ecogeographic distribution of medicinal plant biodiversity. Geographic, ecological and taxonomic notes should be included. Presently, good database is available at the Plant Resources of South East Asia (PROSEA) at Bogor, Indonesia; National Institute of Science Communication (NISCOM), New Delhi, India; Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow; IDRC/Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Programme in Asia (MAPPA), New Delhi, India, and the Asia-Pacific Information Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (APINMAP) operated from Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Very few studies have been made on understanding intraspecific variation (Chadha and Gupta 1995;Kumar et al. 2000;Prajapati et al. 2000) and such studies are needed urgently. Also, it is well known now that biochemical pathway as well as production and storage of substances in certain herb and tree species are different when they grow in different types of soils and conditions (Adjanohoun 1996). Periwinkle, pepper, gingers, tea, betel leaf, sandalwood tree are some of the well known examples where the required, alkaloid, oil or other components are very much varied or almost absent in plants of the same species growing under different conditions or even at adjacent locations. Existence of distinct ecotypes has been reported for such as in Rauvolfia serpentina (Gupta and Chadha 1995;Ayensu 1996). How far such variations are induced or influenced by genetic or ecological conditions are yet to be scientifically clarified. The traditional practice is to select best plants from wellknown localities and use them. Generally, the criteria followed while selecting the plants include: the commercial value of the species, varieties/types available, degree of domestication, whether wild or cultivated, quantity of plant materials required, the end product used and others. The species of medicinal plants used in any one country are probably prioritised intrinsically, but priorities need to be established on agreed criteria and after documenting available information on them. Nevertheless, more attention needs to be paid to species that are more commonly used by the rural poor and also those that are commercially valuable. Comparative data can be established between different communities within or between the countries to assess the total value of the resource base (Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1998). IPGRI's efforts in documenting the conserved medicinal plant species in 14 selected Asian countries covering East, South-East, South Asia and the Pacific Islands with financial support from the Republic of Korea is expected to contribute greatly to assess what is available in different national organizations that are involved in the conservation and use of medicinal plants.Exploration, collecting, assessing diversity and conservation collectively focus on the rationale for conservation of medicinal plants vis-à-vis management of these genetic resources for their utilization (Natesh 1997(Natesh , 2000)). In this context, the conservation and management of wild germplasm diversity in medicinal plants also needs special emphasis (Subramanian andSasidharan 1997a, 1997b). Some of these aspects are dealt with below.As noted earlier, the distribution and diversity of medicinal plants is not well documented and many of the collectors/botanists paid more attention to the description of the species and less attention to population parameters and intraspecific diversity. The biodiversity of medicinal plants is yet to be well studied in many Asian countries and assumes priority, in view of the extensive destruction of plant rich habitats in tropical conditions. The habit, growth form, phenology and other characteristics of medicinal plants need to be well documented. Substantial body of information has been generated in recent years through many publications such as proceedings of international meetings highlighting the importance of screening, bioprospecting and cultivation of medicinal plants (Farnsworth 1988;Akerle et al. 1991, Anon 1994;Sassoon 1996;Comer and Debus 1996;Adjanohoun 1996Salleh et al. 1997;Gautam et al. 1998). Many of the Asian plant species listed that yield high value products include Catharanthus (Vinca), Rauvolfia, Cephaelis, Coptis, Papaver, Dioscorea, Panax, Podophyllum and others i.e. Aloe, Commiphora, Mentha, Ocimum, Cymbopogon, Psyllium, Azadirachta, Artemisia, Cassia, Psoralea, Chlorophytum, Pogostemon, Piper, Vetiveria (Gupta and Chadha 1995;Ayensu 1996). However, these species have to be critically studied to identify varietal differences, conserve the variation and use the superior plants or clones for sustainable use. Rehabilitation and management of natural resources with due regard for saving biodiversity are the important issues of resource management. Conserving the different but interacting ecosystems in the adjacent areas is also important to conserve medicinal plants (Natesh 2000).Thus, exploration, collecting and conservation provide us with an opportunity to understand the plant species better and device mechanisms to sustainable exploitation of these invaluable resources.Since the collecting and study of medicinal plant species focused mostly on the exploitation of the plant and its product, little attention has been paid to classification and grouping of the available species in relation to other species that could be genetically close. Due to this, the focus has been one or two species or types, which could be exploited to extinction. However, the plant species used medicinally are very variable in habit and their taxonomic ranks (Anon 1998). It should be possible to look into the related species for the active ingredients, so that the options available for exploitation are enhanced. In addition, taxonomic research, including the use of molecular tools, is essential to be able to exploit the medicinal plant species diversity. Plant parts used medicinally will govern the method of harvesting of medicinal plants. Plants used for bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc., would be damaged, partially, and their survival potential may not be affected greatly. Collecting of roots or whole plants would result in destructive harvesting. Hence, alternative ways of exploiting the resources will be needed such as, bringing the species into cultivation or better management of the recruitment in nature. Whole plant used is confined mostly to herbs. Such details should be enumerated for each country so that good directions can be worked both for cultivation and use of medicinal plants. The arboreta of research institutes should include species of medicinal trees as part of ex situ conservation programme.But in countries rich with tropical flora, like Indonesia, Malaysia and India, there would be large number of tree species that require a place in the arboreta. Habitat variations of tree species would be a constraint to include different species in one location. Small and selected type of conservatoires located in different parts of the country would meet different needs.Thus, collecting and conservation of medicinal plant species would allow the identification of a greater number of species for utilization and on a sustainable basis. It will also help in studying them at close quarters and speeding up their domestication process, so that such useful species are available to more people and in larger quantities.Medicinal plants in any country form a very heterogeneous group in growth habit, distribution, reproduction, phenology and their ecological requirements. Many of them grow in open starting from wetlands to dry, arid conditions. They also extend from sea level to higher altitudes. The medicinal value of such plants also might vary; some important ones are mountainous forms, others bordering the desert or semi-desert areas. The quality and quantity of products they produce also vary depending on the habitat. The conservation methods that are followed need to be equally divergent. Collecting and conserving these varied forms and species will help in studying them to determine the most optimum conditions for growth, as well as extending their area of growth in suitable ecological niches.To expand the limits of utilization, it is necessary to collect, conserve, evaluate and make available the product to people in other parts of the world. In India, the FRLHT for the past several years has been engaged in a project for the conservation and sustainable use of the medicinal plant diversity in South India, and has carried out studies through the establishment of a network of 30 Medicinal Plants Conservation Areas (MPCAs) in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Degraded land has been taken up for cultivation of medicinal plants (Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). These are called Medicinal Plants Development Areas (MPDRs) and six such areas have been set up within these states. Thus, collecting and conservation will become the basis for expanded utilization to benefit a larger number of people.Medicinal plant species show diverse forms and some of them also occur as weeds thriving under varied conditions. Much of this type of information arises from their study in nature as well as in captivity. However, current conservation efforts are limited in terms of providing optimum conditions for their continued survival. In order to conserve species that grow in the open or at the fringes of wooded areas or farms, in situ conservation methods should be supplemented with land use policies that would permit existence of such spots in either conservation areas or agricultural landscapes so that such specific species are conserved. Therefore, a series of interconnected conservation areas, rich in the particular species should be demarcated and if possible left undisturbed. How big the area, or how many areas within the country or even in the region to save or conserve the designated species depends on not only the genetic diversity present in the species, but also on the economic value of the species. Protecting such species in biosphere reserves and sacred grooves has been advocated (Natesh 2000;Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). Also some analytical studies need to be conducted to identify the most valuable populations within the community because the quality of products produced by different populations may vary and there can be close link established between the genotypes and ecological variables under which they grow such as in Rauvolfia, Heracleum, Cymbopogon and Vetiveria (Chadha and Gupta 1995;Ayensu 1996;Gautam et al. 1998;Kumar et al. 2000). Agricultural landscapes, within which a number of herbaceous medicinal plants survive/thrive as weeds or edge/fence plants, could also be included in the strategy. Thus, the small-scale conservation of medicinal plants can lead to improved conservation strategies in the long run.The ex situ conservation methods may include growing the whole plants in field genebanks or by seed storage to conserve diversity. Appropriate seed storage technologies for different species have to be worked out and, at the same time, it should be made sure that the seeds planted produce plants of good quality comparable well with mother stock from which they were collected. Most of the medicinal plants that are selected and cultivated represent ex situ collections. While large numbers of plants are cultivated in a given area and the biomass used, it is necessary to compare once in a while, the quality of cultivated plants with those that were collected from nature. Passport details and reproductive behaviour of cultivated plants need to be properly recorded. It is well known that big pharmaceutical companies have well-established laboratories and nurseries to grow and study the economically important medicinal plants and to select the best varieties. Both physiological and ecological requirements of such plants will have been well identified before they are brought under cultivation (Chadha and Gupta 1995;Gupta and Chadha 1995). Many of the technical details may not have been made known because of economic and commercial implications. Efforts to propagate either by vegetative means or by using tissue culture which is becoming quite popular with many species (Gau et al. 1993), particularly those propagated vegetatively and are designated as endangered (Natesh 2000;Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002), requires testing of them on larger number of types of medicinal plants (or as accessions as we call them) as differences in genotypic responses exists and ex situ collections would be greatly useful in such situations. The development of propagation techniques (in addition to seed conservation, in cases where the seed produced is orthodox in nature and can be conserved under dry and cool conditions) such as tissue culture etc., can open doors for modern technologies for conservation such as in vitro conservation and cryopreservation (Natesh 1997(Natesh 2000)). In vitro conservation protocols for about 30 species have been established (Chandel et al. 1996;Natesh 1997Natesh , 2000;;Rajasekharan and Ganeshan 2002). These mainly include endangered species mentioned earlier and high priority species particularly from the Himalayan region. Such technologies not only increase the range of diversity that could be conserved, but also make the conservation efforts cost-effective and promote the utilization of the resources through safe exchange and propagation. The strategies available for the conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants using both in situ and ex situ approaches, and making use of biotechnology tools are shown in Figure 1  (Natesh 1997(Natesh , 2000)). It need to be emphasized that biotechnology has opened new vista in the conservation of medicinal plants by way of: (i) rapid multiplication and reintroduction to nature of endangered species, (ii) assessment and monitoring of biodiversity as a source of new tools for conservation, and (iii) identification of new gene product potential use. Thus, conservation of medicinal plant genetic resources will lead to better conservation and utilization of these important resources for better human well being and health.   Natesh 1997Natesh , 2000) ) Promoting sustainable conservation and utilization Many of the medicinal plants in developing countries are extracted from the wild or from fields on a contract basis and required plants are grown in their home countries. The dried materials are exported to the pharmaceutical companies in the developed countries. The quantity of materials annually exported is enormous, for e.g. Madagascar periwinkle (400 t of dried roots), Rauvolfia vomitoria (500 t of dried root bark), Pygeum africanum (300 t of dried stem bark), 900 t of Voacanga africana seeds, Carica papaya (300 t of latex produced by 600 million unripe fruits) and seeds or dried plant materials of various species. Regulated and extensive cultivation of different species are significant (Adjanohoun 1996). Selection of best plants for cultivation is the main point of the whole exercise and one wrong step would incur a loss of millions of dollars. Bringing into cultivation, provided the active chemicals continued to be produced by plants under cultivation, is an excellent method of reducing extraction from natural habitat and thus helps in the overall conservation effort (Rao and Ramanatha Rao 1998;Natesh 2000).The general concern is with the conservation of germplasm and exchange of the medicinal plant material in the region for the economic benefit of the people. To accomplish this, a complementary conservation strategy that encompasses both in situ and ex situ conservation approaches is required (Natesh 2000). Useful suggestions and technical guidelines have been published referring to crop plants to asses the threat of genetic erosion, sampling strategies, strategies for collecting wild species, mapping the ecogeographic distribution of biodiversity, collecting the herbaceous and woody perennials, recording the data and other details (Ramanatha Rao and Riley 1994;Guarino et al. 1995). Same or similar details are equally well applicable to medicinal plants and these methods can be followed wherever appropriate. Relatively less emphasis has been given to such strategies specifically in case of medicinal plants (Salleh et al. 1997;Natesh 2000).Conservation and exchange will result in increased evaluation of a larger number of species, genotypes of the same species for useful/desirable chemical or metabolite. Bioprospecting could be a joint venture benefiting different stakeholders and at the same time making the resource sustainable (Jenta et al. 2000;Natesh 2000). The experience gained during the exploration and collecting (habitat and growth conditions) combined with the efforts to grow them in ex situ conservation facilities can provide the cultivation details of the different species and also their genotypes. This will assist in developing cultivation techniques and practices (either in vivo in the field or in vitro in the laboratory).Thus, an increased availability of medicinal plant products is expected to reduce the burden on the naturally occurring medicinal plants and will help in sustainable conservation of these important natural resources.The above account amply points out that research and development emphasis on medicinal plants has gained momentum over the past few decades. Thus, collection and conservation of their diversity has also assumed greater importance. As envisaged above, conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants are multidimensional problems and require urgent attention of all the stakeholders including native communities. From the different studies and observations, it is clear that there is over-exploitation of these plants in nature and relatively less effort have been made to conserve this valuable natural resource for its sustainable use. Habitat destruction is the major threat for the survival of medicinal plants. Proper documentation of indigenous and ethnobotanical knowledge in each country will help to establish the base line data and to plan for conservation programmes (Jain 1991;Anon 1994). As such, there is strong rationale for conservation of medicinal plants and these efforts will lead to an understanding of the plant species better and device mechanisms to sustainable exploitation of these invaluable resources; identification of greater number of species for utilization to speed up their domestication process; expansion of utilization and benefits to larger number of people and improvement of conservation strategies. The increased availability of medicinal plant products is expected to reduce the burden on the naturally occurring medicinal plants and will help in sustainable conservation of these important natural resources.Better rationale on conservation would mean better management of medicinal plant resources, and this would enhance the availability of these resources to more people and in larger quantities. Considerable knowledge gained and methodologies established for crop plants conservation can be used beneficially after making some fine adjustments in the programme suitable for medicinal plants. Research emphasis on such strategies is evident in some countries in the Asia-Pacific such as India, China, Malaysia, and the Philippines, but lack in medicinal plants rich countries such as Indonesia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Also coordinated efforts have been initiated such as for the G-15 genebanks on medicinal and aromatic plants -GEBMAP project in India under the Department of Biotechnology involving CIMAP, Lucknow, NBPGR, New Delhi, Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI), Thiruvananthapuram and Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu; for conservation of medicinal plants using diverse measures (Natesh 1997(Natesh , 2000)). The national programmes need to promote and strengthen such conservation initiatives for better management and utilization of their medicinal plant resources for healthcare, income generation and environmental sustainability.  This paper discusses issues in database development for the project and at the same time suggests methodologies for simplifying the process.The bibliographic database will be developed from articles that are published and unpublished, both in English and those in the national languages or dialects of each country.The suggested fields for the bibliographic database will follow closely those used for the PlantGene CD published by the Centre for Applied Biosciences International (CABI). The suggested descriptors are shown in the table below: The information that is already present in bibliographic databases such as PlantGeneCD and AGRIS will be made available. Participants will have to pay more attention to compiling \"grey\" literature from unpublished reports and institutional reports. Compiling bibliography of traditional knowledge (TK) on medicinal plants requires that TK documentation be well organized. TK documentation methodology will also be discussed in this paper.The database to be developed will initially look at medicinal plants that are conserved by various organizations in the participating countries. The data under the categories GENEBANK / ORGANIZATION, CONSERVATION STATUS and PLANT DATA will be the first information to be documented. The list of genebanks will expand to include all organizations working in medicinal plants.The outcome is the development of catalogues for medicinal plants conserved in each country and organizations involved. This information will form the basis of networking for medicinal plants and development of priority species for each country and in the region. Uses and characterization data will be compiled next.The development of project databases requires data to be provided by participating countries. A concern that participants will raise is the amount of work needed for providing data in format that differs from their original databases. This can be a discouraging factor for information providers. Such valuable time is seen to be better spent on updating and acquiring new data rather than just reformatting data. With this in mind, the authors are proposing that the database be developed using minimal effort. The data exchange format is therefore very important both for information providers as well as information compilers and users. Data interchanges between genebanks have to overcome various obstacles such as the differences in languages, incompatibility of computer hardware and software systems and various data compilation standards (Cao et al. 1995).The data interchange protocol (DIP) was introduced to facilitate the development of interfaces to link different documentation systems, to enable information and data exchange, and to facilitate the re-used of data. The DIP format is described in a separate DIP manual. Assistance will be provided by IPGRI to participating organization on the development of the interface for export to DIP format if needed. The format was included for data sharing from the Coconut Genetic Resources Database and data exchange by the Taro Genetic Resources Network (TAROGEN) in the Pacific. Using the DIP format allows organizations to produce electronic catalogues without much effort by importing DIP formatted files into the DIPVIEW software or a customized interface. DIPVIEW and DIP manual can be down loaded from the Internet at http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/regions/apo/dip.html.It is important that data is provided in data format and not in a report format except in cases where a format is predefined, e.g. the DIP format. Data in a report format is information and requires considerable work and time to convert the information into data again. To avoid having to spend time initially in compiling the database, the participating genebanks and organizations should export the requested data from their documentation system and bibliographic database in DIP in any of these formats:• Access database tables The catalogue represents a report and to re-extract data from such a report is time consuming. In the case of the table format, the data remains as data and hence can be re-used easily with minimal effort. The DIP format looks like a report but in essence it is a fixed length text file that has the data dictionary and data included in a single file. The format is also well suited for electronic catalogues development and for data exchange. It is also suited for migration to XML format in the future. So, data if correctly stored in databases or as tables or in formatted ASCII text files such as the DIP format can be re-used to generate reports but data already stored in a report format as information is difficult to access electronically for re-use. Another issue in providing data is data representation of descriptor states for similar descriptors in different databases hosted by different genebanks. Example, the descriptor states for flower colour can be very different in different genebanks' documentation systems as shown in the table below. Information providers will face difficulties when they are required to comply with a standard. If the descriptor states from Genebank A are regarded as the standard, then Genebank B will have to convert its data and this requires time, effort and increases the chances of introducing errors into the database in the conversion process. The suggestion is to retain each genebanks descriptor states as it is, so that data can be exported from them without change and with minimal effort. If every genebank exports data in their own standard then how do we develop a central database?In the proposed database we will only combine what is common, examples are the descriptors mentioned in the FAO and IPGRI list of multi-crop passport descriptors (MCPD).The MCPD can be found at http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pubfile+.asp?ID.PUB+124 which provides international standards to facilitate germplasm passport information exchange. These descriptors aim to be compatible with IPGRI crop descriptor lists and with the descriptors used for the FAO World Information and Early Warning System (WIEWS) on plant genetic resources (PGR). In most instances, these basic passport data would be available in genebank documentation system.The first output we mentioned to achieve is a list of medicinal plants conserved in each country and the organizations involved. These cover mainly passport data that are common. After developing the list of medicinal plant accessions held by each genebank we would have a good idea on each participant's capacity and can further fine-tune the data exchange process. This is important when we look at characterization data in the second phase. Training and capacity building will be developed in collaboration with information officers from participating organizations.Catalogues are a means to exchange data. For electronic catalogues, we would like to suggest using the method developed for DIP and the DIPVIEW software. The DIP format allows the individual organization databases to retain their own data. It allows for data to be sent directly from the genebank documentation system without the need for changes in the descriptor states. Only common descriptors as listed in the MCPD will be combined. All other data will be kept as data from different genebanks documentation system. The argument for a common information system implemented in all genebanks for easy information exchange can only be made if all genebanks are starting a new database. Forcing a new database into genebanks especially multi-crop genebanks will result in genebanks having to maintain different databases for different crops or projects. This will require the information staffs to learn how to operate the different database software. Where staff mobility is high or staff time is limited then the databases will not be maintained and hence the activity not sustainable. For medicinal plants, the number of accessions is large and requiring that all genebanks use the same descriptor states is like asking the genebank to redo their documentation system. If every project does that, then genebank staff will waste a lot of time moving one database format to another instead of spending time to capture information to improve the databases.Surfing the internet reveals a number of sites where medicinal plant information could be gathered. Information for medicinal plants is available from the GRIN database in US (http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs), the Multiscript Plant Name Database in Australia (http://www.grm.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/plantnames) and Vedic Life Sciences Herbal Consultancy and Research (http://www.ayuherbal.com). An analysis of the medicinal plant data available on the GRIN database for seven participating countries showed 723 species of medicinal plant from 441 genus and 125 families with information for scientific name, family name, common name, local name and distribution. The table below shows the breakdown of the GRIN database information by country: In compiling the uses of medicinal plants, genebanks and conservation organizations would eventually need to document TK. In this regard, concerned genebank information staff should be well-informed on the documentation methods that are community-friendly. A method being used to assist communities to document their knowledge and to provide recognition for TK in terms of citation rather than just acknowledgement is the \"IK Journal\" concept (Quek and Zhang 1997;Padulosi et al. 2002) (Indigenous knowledge, or IK, is used to include TK). When the TK documented is citable then compilation of TK in bibliographic databases will be possible providing for recognition and ownership by the information provider.The concept of IK Journal (Attachment 3) is to provide a mirrored process as in scientific journals so that the TK papers can be cited. TK papers can be in any media such as audio tapes, videos, written articles and other forms or presentations that are in the community's own language. By assisting the community to document their knowledge on medicinal plants and registering the TK paper with the institute or a national register for TK, scientists can make citations to the TK paper in their own scientific paper. The scientific paper provides an interpretation of the TK rather than the source of TK. The TK papers provide the possibility of compiling the TK documented in bibliographic databases. IPGRI information staff can assist participating countries to develop the TK documentation activities if needed.Compilation of information is a priority activity in the project to provide an overall view of the current status on medicinal plant research. The bibliographic database especially of unpublished or \"grey\" literature is an important resource that will assist the project participants to identify common and priority research areas among the network members. The medicinal plant databases will cover materials conserved in the genebanks and with organizations within participating countries. In developing the databases, there is a need to take into account the work of various regional networks such as APINMAP (Asian Pacific Information Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) and PROSEA Foundation (Plant Resources of South-East Asia) to avoid duplication and to re-use available data. The following fields from PlantGeneCD are suggested:The AD field primarily contains the organization and address where the work was done, not the author's present address if he or she has moved. If more than one organization were involved in the work, the first named author will be given. The basic form is Name of Institution, Town and then Country. Abbreviations and acronyms are often used in this field, so allow for all variations.The Accession Number is an identifying number for each record within the database. The AN field can be used as a quick way to retrieve a particular record.The name(s) of all personal authors of the paper appear in the AU field.Editors are also included and will be followed by \"(ed)\". Names appear last name first and given names are reduced to initials.The PB field contains the name, country and location of the publisher.The PT field contains the description of the type of publication. All records are assigned to one or more of the following categories: Book; Book-chapter; Journal-issue; Journal-article; Conference-proceedings; Conference-paper; Annual-report; Annual-report-section; Thesis; Patent; Standard; Bulletin; Abstract-only; Correspondence; Editorial; Bulletin-article; Miscellaneous.The PY field contains the four-digit year in which the original document was published. Some records may contain \"unda\" in the PY field. This indicates that the original document is undated.The SO field may contain any of the following: document title; conference title, date and location; date of publication; volume, issue, and page numbers; and any other applicable bibliographic information.)The TI field contains, in English, the title of the original item being abstracted. The item may be a complete book, a specific chapter from a book, an individual research paper from a scientific journal, etc.Language of publicationSuggested list of information for the catalogue  as a mirror to the scientific journal promotes ease of merging both systems.Medicinal plants (MPs) played a significant role in various ancient traditional systems of medication such as Ayurvedic and Unanic in India, Chinese traditional medicine and their derivatives. Today, MPs still plays an important role in developing countries in Asia, both in preventive and curative treatments, despite advances in modern western medicine. People of many Asian countries earn a living from selling collected materials from the forest, or from cultivation on their lands.The development of modern medicine with the introduction of modern drugs produced by pharmaceutical companies, has dealt harshly with traditional medicine which was accused of being inefficient, laborious in preparation and unavailable due to scarcity of raw material. This is exacerbated by the lack of traditional doctors who cannot earn a living without basic material (MPs) and demand (customers).The high cost of modern medicines (mostly imported), their unavailability in remote areas and, most importantly, the serious side effects of certain drugs, have resulted in a significant return to traditional medicine. The importance and value of traditional and indigenous herbal medicine were the subject of the World Health Organization's (WHO) campaign in the '70s for all its member countries to preserve their national heritage of ethno-medicine and ethno-pharmacology and to re-include the use of known and tested MPs and derivatives into their primary health care system in rural areas and as an alternative when modern medicine is not readily available. Since large portions of pharmaceutical drugs are derived from MPs, the demand for these raw materials is steadily rising. Such demand is met by either obtaining MPs from their natural habitats, albeit indiscriminately, or by cultivating them.The vast number of species known to Asians makes listing all MPs found in Asia difficult and impracticable. Thus, in order to provide a meaningful list of MPs, we have categorized promising species in the following groups:1.   (Arambewela 1996); and (iii) All wild MPs have been banned for export from India since 1993 (Uniyal 1993). 4. International regulations. It is a common practice of international conferences to come up with a \"Declaration\" or \"Resolution\", within which measures to conserve MPs are included. Examples can be seen in: (i) the \"Washington Convention of 1973\" which includes a statement \"The trade and use of some of the MPs collected from wild sources are restricted\" (Hussain 1996); and (ii) the \"Chiang Mai Declaration\" exhorted governments and the public to pay attention to the potential inherent in MPs (Henle 1996). MPs yield high incomes to the growers, costly inputs can be used for their cultivation. 6. Continuity of supply is assured. Cultivation is less risky for supply of raw material allowing manufacturers to set production targets well in advance.Compared to other economic crops, MPs receive much less attention in their genetic improvement -evident in the low number of named cultivars used in commercial cultivation. This is due to the lack of germplasm conservation, facilities, breeders and demand for large-scale cultivation.Cultural improvement contributes significantly to the success of commercial cultivation of any economic crops including MPs. High yield and desirable quality of the products can be achieved by good agricultural practices such as: proper soil preparation and fertilizer application; the use of good planting material; correct plant spacing; control of weeds, insects and diseases; timing and correct techniques of harvesting and post-harvest treatment.Medicinal plants have played a significant role in many ancient traditional systems of medication and still do today in both developed and developing countries in Asia. They generate incomes via sale of collected, wild products or cultivated products. Collection of naturally occurring MPs has been practiced in Asia since prehistoric time for use in traditional medicine or for processing into pharmaceutical products. Cultivation of MPs in Asia is characterized by subsistence cropping systems, scattered farming areas, poor quality and lack of integration. Compared to other economic crops, MPs received much less attention in their genetic and cultural improvement. Cultivation techniques are quite primitive, resulting in poor yield and quality of the materials. Due to higher demand of raw material for industrial processing, coupled with the loss of natural habitats of most MPs, large-scale cultivation of promising species has recently been attempted in several countries.MPs are man's best friend in time of need. As technology and development advance, the need for them is much greater and the chance to collect them from the forest is receding. Rural property and constant demand for cultivated land are threatening the forests homes of uncountable numbers of species of valuable MPs. The only solution to save this inheritance is to cultivate them systematically providing socioeconomic benefits to rural people and satisfying the need of urban people who want to go 'back-to-nature' with the use of MPs as raw material for pharmaceutical manufacture.MPs continue to play a significant role in the peoples' welfare as they have been for several millennia. Collecting in the wild will cease due to over-exploitation, unless the campaign to conserve biodiversity is successful. MPs have not been subjected to intensive breeding programmes so yield and quality are quite low. To start any breeding programme, germplasm collecting and conservation are most essential. As most natural habitats are on the verge of being destroyed, there is an urgent need to collect and conserve valuable germplasm of MPs before they become extinct, and initiate breeding programmes. They should be supplemented with research and development on agrotechnology to obtain optimum yield and quality source of raw materials for pharmaceutical products. COUNTRY PROJECT PROPOSALSWhen a plant is designated as 'medicinal' it is implied that it is useful as a therapeutic agent or an active ingredient for a medicinal preparation. Medicinal plants are rich sources of bioactive compounds and thus serve as important raw materials for drug production. They constitute a precious natural wealth of a country. Judicious and scientific exploitation of this wealth can significantly improve the general health of the people. And being a valuable commercial item, a country can also earn a good amount of foreign exchange by exporting this natural wealth to other countries. Bangladesh is a country considered to be rich in medicinal plants genetic resources. By virtue of its favourable agroclimatic condition, it has a large genetic resources base of agri-horticultural crops as well as medicinal plants. About 5000 species of phanerogams and pteridophytes grow in the country's forests, wetlands, farms and even roadsides as indigenous, naturally-occurring or cultivated plants. Of these, more than a thousand have been claimed to possess medicinal or curative properties. Recently, 546 species have been identified as having medicinal properties and therapeutic use, 257 of which are effective remedies for diarrhoea and 47 for diabetes.Although a good number of medicinal plants are indigenous to Bangladesh, the country imports a large amount of pharmaceutical raw materials including medicinal plants and semi-processed plant products almost annually to supply its various drug manufacturing industries. The government spends a significant amount of foreign exchange for importing chemicals, raw materials and semi-processed drugs of plant origin, the import value of which is ever increasing. Serious efforts should be made to derive maximum economic benefit and save much needed foreign exchange from indigenous medicinal plants by using them as raw materials for the drug manufacturing industries. In order to achieve these goals, it is necessary to make an inventory of existing medicinal plants in the country, which includes data on species, family, morphological description and photographs. This could be done by carrying out a systematic nationwide survey to collect available published and unpublished literature, listing institutions/agencies that deal with medicinal plants and reviewing their activities.Globally, medicinal plant genetic resources are in danger of being lost due to loss of habitat, deforestation, natural calamities, over extraction, etc. There is overwhelming documented evidence indicating that plant genetic diversity, including medicinal plants, is drastically being eroded in many parts of the world. This situation is aggravated in areas where high human population density, unplanned urbanization and massive deforestation are common, which is especially true in the South and Southeast Asian regions. Countries which hold native medicinal plant genetic resources should take efforts to collect and maintain these existing available genetic resources and conserve them for research and eventual use.1. To survey and prepare an inventory of medicinal plants found in Bangladesh including species, family, morphological description and photographs; 2. To document available published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants; 3. To make a list of the addresses of agencies / institutions, NGOs or individuals working on medicinal plants; 4. To prioritize medicinal plants and related research areas; 5. To document the current research status and conservation situation of medicinal plants; 6. To document available information on the medicinal value and uses of medicinal plants; and 7. To document national policies on the conservation and use of medicinal plants.Phase-wise, the entire country would be surveyed and explored to conduct an inventory and collection of all available information on medicinal plants. An interview questionnaire shall be prepared for the respondents. Interviewees would be mainly the rural Kabiraj Hekim (those who use plants to treat rural people). Ethnic peoples are usually very reluctant to go to doctors for treatment, preferring instead to use the plants in their immediate environments and consult the community's elders. These ethnic people are a rich source of relevant and useful information (i.e., local name of medicinal plants, parts used, usages, etc.) as they have been using medicinal plants for a long time. Contact will also be made with pharmaceutical companies, herbal physicians and policy makers to collect additional relevant information on medicinal plants.A survey would be conducted with the public and private sector institutions/agencies where medicinal plants are conserved to make an inventory, including species, family, morphological description, photographs, etc. A survey would also be conducted to come up with a list of available published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants in the country.1. An inventory of medicinal plants including data on species, family, morphological description, photographs and number of plants conserved for each species/family; 2. A bibliographic report of published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants; 3. Names and addresses of public and private sector agencies/institutions, NGOs and individuals working on medicinal plants; 4. Report on status of research on medicinal plants including results, gaps, national policies and uses; and 5. Relevant data on conserved medicinal plants in Bangladesh.Develop a list of the addresses of public and private sector agencies/institutions, NGOs and individuals working on the conservation and use of medicinal plantsCollect published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants July Document national policies and uses of medicinal plantsDocument current research and conservation status of medicinal plants in the country Make an inventory of medicinal plants in Bangladesh, including data on species, family, morphological description, photographs, etc.Prepare and submit final country project report 1. A list of published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants; 2. A summary status of research on major medicinal plants in China; 3. A list of conserved medicinal plant species in China, including information on where these are conserved, how they are managed and their known uses; 4. A priority listing of medicinal plant species based on economic value and priority research needs at national levels; 5. National policies affecting the conservation and use of medicinal plants; and 6. List of agencies/ institutions working on conservation and use of medicinal plants.1. To document published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants; 2. To document 150 species of medicinal plants in China, including information on:• Common name and scientific name Medicinal plants, as a group, comprise approximately 8000 species and account for about 50% of all the higher flowering plant species in India. A large number of the country's rural population depend on medicinal plants for treating various illnesses. About 1.5 million practitioners of the Indian Systems of Medicine and Homeopathy (ISM&H) use medicinal plants for preventive, promotive and curative applications. Furthermore, there are 7843 registered ISM pharmacies and 851 of homoeopathy as well as a number of unlicensed small-scale units. Besides meeting national demands, India caters to 12% of the global herbal trade. In recent years, trade in herbal-based products has quantum leaped, particularly in the volume of plant material traded within and outside the country. Estimates by the EXIM Bank put medicinal plantsrelated international trade at US$ 60 billion per year and still growing at a rate of 7% annually.India is blessed with two mega centres of biodiversity: the Hindustan Centre of Origin and the Central Asia Centre of Origin. This biodiversity is mainly distributed in Western Ghat, North Eastern India and the Himalayan Region. Floristically rich, India has about 141 endemic genera of 5150 species belonging to 47 families of higher plants. Among the different endemic species, 2532 species are distributed in Himalayas, 1788 species in the peninsular region and 185 species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About 43 000 plant species are said to exist in India, of which 7500 plant species are referred to in Indian folklore but only about 1700 plant species have actually been documented in old literature.The vast degree of diversity present in this country is directly related to the highly divergent ecosystem and altitudinal variations. The agro-biodiversity in India is distributed in eight very diverse phytogeographical and 15 agroecological regions. The range of distribution of these plants varies from the wet evergreen forests in the Western Ghats to the Alpine scrubs of the Himalayas; from the arid deserts of Rajastan to the mangroves along the east coast; from the vast deciduous forests of the Decan to the Shoals of the high ranges; from the swamps of the Ganges to the moss laden tree trunks of the Silent Valley. The indigenous diversity of plant species of medicinal and aromatic value in the region is also unique. This is reflected from the Arogyapacha (Trichopus zeylanicus) of the Agastiar Hills to the Saalam Panja of the Himalayas; from the tiny Drosera of the Sholas to the huge Dipterocarps of the Western Ghats; from the xerophytic Aloes to the marshy land Brahmis; from the wild turmeric to the cultivated peppers. Over 7000 species belonging mainly to the families Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Apiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae have been used from ancient times by various indigenous peoples in the country. This number corresponds to more than 25% of the world's known medicinal plants, estimated to be at around 30 000 species. Analyses of these plants show that they include all the major life forms (i.e., trees, shrubs, climbers and herbs), with the proportion of ferns and lichens being much smaller compared to flowering plants.Although India has rich biodiversity and one among the 12 mega diversity centres, the growing demand for medicinal plants is putting a heavy strain on the existing resources, causing a number of species to be either threatened or endangered. The 2000 report of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) revealed that India ranked fifth in the case of threatened plant species and birds. Recently, some rapid assessment of the threat status of medicinal plants using the IUCN-designed CAMP methodology revealed that about 112 species in Southern India, 74 species in Northern and Central India and 42 species in the high altitudes of the Himalayas are threatened in the wild.However, these materials have not been fully identified, inventoried and characterized. To develop a sound research strategy and programme for medicinal plant conservation and utilization, there is a need to fully document the medicinal plant species, where they are located, their existing population, place(s) of conservation and their known traditional uses. When this documentation is achieved, it would be necessary to identify priority species for further work on characterization and data sharing through national, regional and international collaboration. Subsequently, these conserved species can be augmented by additional collecting, conservation and characterization. At the end of the project's first year, a report containing the following information would be made available: 1. A bibliographic database of published work on medicinal plants; 2. A summary status of research on major medicinal plants in India; 3. A list of conserved medicinal plant species in India, including information on where these are conserved and how they are managed as well as their known uses; and 4. A priority listing of medicinal plant species based on economic value and priority research needs at the national level. Indonesia is ranked as the second largest in terms of biodiversity, with 30 000 flowering plant species (Bappenas 1993). About 7000 of these species are recognized as medicinal plants (Eisai 1986), with 950 known to have medicinal properties; 283 species are registered, being cultivated and used by traditional medicinal industries (Sampoerno 1999) and another 250 species directly harvested from forests as raw material by these industries (Zuhud et al. 2001).The use of medicinal plants in Indonesia has always been a part of culture that has been passed down from generation to generation. By trial-and-error, the country's early inhabitants learned how to distinguish useful plants with beneficial effects from those that were either toxic or non-active. They picked, kept and used medicinal plants to satisfy their basic needs and even experimented on combinations of plants or processing methods to gain optimal results. Throughout the centuries, Indonesia's indigenous people developed traditional medicines from plants identified by their forefathers for curing illnesses and keeping their health. This empirical knowledge may have contributed substantially to the development of traditional medicines in the country.The global trend towards the use of herbal and natural medicines has been increasing in recent years. More attention from the world community has been given to the tropical rainforest, which is believed to contain 50% of the world's biodiversity. Farnsworth et al. (1985) indicated that 74% of the 121 active compounds used for the development of important modern medicines in the United States, such as digitoxin, reserpin, tubocucorin and ephendrin, are derived from medicinal plants growing in and gathered from tropical forests.Medicinal plants in Indonesia have high economic and health values in both indigenous and modern communities. The number of industries dependent on it have increased in recent years, with the market value of traditional medicine industries jumping from US$ 12.4 million in 1996 to US$ 130 million in 2002 (Sampoerno 2002). The number of traditional medicine manufacturers has also increased -from 578 in 1996 to 810 in 2000, with 87 manufacturers considered as large-scale industries (Pramono 2002).Research activities geared towards the development of traditional medicines like \"Jamu\" as standardized extracts, phytopharmaca, etc. have been initiated and some of these products have been marketed. There is also great public interest for finding herbal medicinal plant species to cure major diseases such as cancer, hepatitis and heart disease. Other researches such as medicinal plant-based cure for diabetes and hyperlipidemie, as well as for food supplement and aphrodisiac, have also been initiated.Despite their recognized importance, the existence of medicinal plants in their natural habitats is threatened by the destruction of natural ecosystems. The condition continues to worsen with the opening of large forest areas for transmigration and farming (Bapedal 2001). A large number of medicinal plant species have been depleted from their natural habitats (Rifai et al. 1992;Zuhud et al. 2001). Most novel species' identities and potential benefits would remain unknown as these have been lost due to genetic erosion without being properly documented.To protect and sustain the development of herbal medicinal plants and its industries, there is a need to inventory, conserve and document Indonesian medicinal plants and their ethno-pharmacological and ethno-medicinal data. 1. A bibliographic database of published and unpublished information on medicinal plants in Indonesia; 2. A summary status of research on major medicinal plants in Indonesia; 3. A list of conserved medicinal plants species in Indonesia, giving information on where these are conserved and how they are managed, and their known uses; 4. A priority listing of medicinal plants species based on economic value and priority research needs at the national level; and 5. List of agencies, organizations and institutions working on medicinal plants in Indonesia.1. Documentation of published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants in Indonesia. This will be done by collecting reports from published journals, bulletins, seminar and workshops that were held in the country; 2. Documentation of conserved medicinal plants in Indonesia, indicating the following:• Common name and scientific name Korea is known for its long history of medicinal plants' use. Based on literature and traditional knowledge, oriental medicine is not only used as a cure for diseases and ailments but also for maintaining good health. However, the genetic diversity of medicinal plants is being threatened with the over-harvesting of medicinal plant materials/species from their natural habitats, especially from the forests. The effective management of these resources and their corresponding habitats, therefore, are deemed important and necessary to meet the rising demand for its use by an equally increasing population. As an initial step towards the sustainable use and management of medicinal plants, it is imperative to undertake inventory and documentation of these valuable resources. The proposed conduct of the project \"Inventory and Documentation of Medicinal Plants of Korea\" is a case in point.Through the collection of information from both published and unpublished literature regarding medicinal plants, various species could be protected and preserved through the establishment of an exhaustive database or a repository of information accessible to both targeted and other interested users.Objectives 1. To document published literature and unpublished knowledge on medicinal plants; 2. To document conserved medicinal plants and generate information on the following:• Scientific, common, and local names 1. Bibliographic search and documentation of published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants to include those in English and in the national language or dialect; 2. Documentation of conserved medicinal plants to include information on genus, family, common and scientific names, genebank/ conservation site(s), general morphological description as well as photographs of the plants; 3. Documentation of current national conservation efforts for medicinal plants; 4. Documentation of the status of research on medicinal plants in Korea, research results and gaps, priority research areas and priority medicinal plants; and 5. Documentation of national policies affecting the conservation and use of medicinal plants in the country.Budgetary Requirement: US$ 3000Accomplishment and submission of a country project report containing: 1. Bibliographic database of published and unpublished literature on medicinal plants in Korea; 2. Summary of the status of research on major medicinal plants in Korea; 3. List of conserved medicinal plants in Korea, including information on where these are conserved and how they are managed as well as their known uses; 4. Priority listing of medicinal plants based on economic and medicinal values; and 5. List of priority research areas related to the conservation and effective use of medicinal plants in Korea.Lao PDR is a landlocked country located in the heart of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia. The country has an abundance of natural resources that include plants and other forest resources. It has a total land area of 236 800 sq km, 47% of which is covered by forests.The Laotian government supports the use of medicinal plants and traditional medicine, particularly in rural areas where modern treatment is not affordable and regularly accessible. The World Health Organization estimated that approximately 80% of the world's inhabitants rely on traditional medicines (derived largely from plants) for their primary health care. Plant products play an important role in the health care systems of the remaining 20% of the population, mainly in developed countries.Though the country's early inhabitants have been known to have used medicinal plants to prevent and treat various illnesses for a very long time, only few data concerning medicinal plants in the country have actually been documented and made available. Silavanh (1993) indicated that there are more than 10 000 species of plants and animals found in Lao PDR, of which 1400 are medicinal plants.Herbs have been widely used for their medical properties in the country since time immemorial, but no comprehensive record was available on the medicinal plants of Laos until Alfred Petelot compiled and published his work entitled \"Archives des Recherches Agronomiques au Cambodge, au Lao et au Vietnam\" between 1952to 1954. However, the data in these archives may not be suitable to the present situation because ecological patterns in many provinces have changed due to slash and burn cultivation by farmers living in mountainous areas. This is the main reason why Laos' government launched a campaign to completely stop slash and burn cultivation by 2010, parallel to the government's effort of alleviating poverty by that time. Pottier (1971) stated that Lao' people have sufficient knowledge of about 4000 medicinal plants, while the Lao Pharmacopeia contains information on about 3000 plants. The best traditional healers in the rural countryside know more than 1000 plants but commonly use less than 500. The current project provides a good opportunity to know what kind of plants can be found and used in the concerned locations, particularly in the Xaythani District of Vientiane Municipality. The inventory of medicinal plants in this district is just the initial step in establishing new and updated inventory of medicinal plants in the country.1. To survey and inventory the economically valuable and commonly used medicinal plants in Xaythani District of Vientiane Municipality; 2. To collect herbarium specimens of medicinal plants to enhance the number of Herbaria in the Traditional Medicine Research Centre (TMRC); and 3. To create a database of medicinal plants found in the Xaythani District of Vientiane Municipality, which will be part of the database of medicinal plants of Lao PDR in the near future.The main objective of the project is to investigate what medicinal plants can be found and used by the local people in Xaythani district of Vientiane Municipality. Since the local name of the plants may differ from village to village, concerned field staff has to interview the villagers, especially the healers, in order to get the accurate local name of the plants from each village. At the beginning of each field work at the village, small community meetings will be held between the concerned authorities and the local people to explain the objectives of the survey and to get the necessary information regarding their use of medicinal plants and the status of the forest around the village from where most of the medicinal plants come from. The project team would also orient the community members regarding the preservation of medicinal plants. This community education is very important and necessary for such activity, which requires active participation of the people living in the concerned areas.During the field trips, herbarium specimens will also be collected as standard vouchers of the ethnomedical finding. These will be labeled in the local language and all relevant collection data and medicinal use data will be recorded for eventual entry in the Natural Product Information System (NAPIS) database.For each plant species, three herbarium specimens will be pressed. Alcohol will be used for the preservation of the herbaria at the end of each collecting day.No plant samples will be collected during the field trips because chemical identification would not be conducted in this project.The herbarium specimens, macerated in alcohol in plastic bags, will be processed at the TMRC. Each herbarium specimen will be labeled in collection number.Identification of herbaria at TMRC would be carried out. Vidal's book (1962) and relevant literatures will be used as references for identifying scientific names and families of the collected plants. The NAPIS database system will be computerized.All dried herbaria will be properly grouped according to their genus and families, and then stored in suitable herbarium cases at TMRC. The proposed schedule of activities is shown in the following timetable:  Droughts during the last several years and illegal mass harvesting of medicinal plants in the wild caused a drastic decline in major medicinal plant resources. Recent studies indicated that about 45% of total pasture was seriously affected by drought, grass yield decreased by 5-10 times and desertification expanded by 20 000-30 000 ha. Harvesting of medicinal plants by cash-needy collectors is increasingly intensified since these materials have high economic value in both the domestic and foreign markets. An average of 2000 tonnes of medicinal plant materials belonging to 100 species are being harvested illegally every year. Hence, the genetic base of wild medicinal plants in Mongolia is being eroded at an alarming rate, leading to loss of genetic diversity and ecological instability. To address this situation, the government launched a programme on the \"Conservation and Sustainable Use of Rare Plants of Mongolia\" in 2002 to rehabilitate major medicinal plant resources through sustainable use.Although a lot of separate activities were carried out on existing populations, locations, chemical composition and traditional uses of major medicinal plants by Mongolian researchers, there is no adequate system to link and integrate the information on these medicinal plants to make them available for other communities and policy makers.Thus, there is an urgent need to inventory and document the existing medicinal plant species in the country to include all information on their location, populations, places of conservation and their known traditional uses. This documentation would be necessary to identify priority medicinal plant species and to set up priority activities and policies on conservation, characterization and data sharing through national, regional and international collaboration. A country project report containing the following information would be developed:1. A bibliographic database of published and unpublished information on medicinal plants in Mongolia; 2. A summary of the status of research on major medicinal plants in Mongolia; 3. A list of conserved medicinal plant species in the country giving information on location, management of conservation and their known uses; and 4. A priority listing of medicinal plant species based on economic value and priority research needs at the national level. The project cooperators will submit the report containing information on bibliographic information, research and conservation activities on medicinal plants to the Country Project Leader. The Country Project Leader, in turn, will synthesize the data as indicated by the expected outputs of the project and submit a final report to IPGRI.The Country Project Leader will coordinate and participate in all project activities and will be in charge of managing the project funds necessary for implementing the project. Medicinal plants are important natural resources for primary health care as well as commercial commodities for income generation activities for a vast majority of the rural people in Nepal. It is estimated that only 15-20% of the population living in and around the urban areas has access to modern medical facilities, the majority (80-85%) depend on traditional medicine. The use of these medicinal plants in traditional medical care in the rural areas of the country is an age-old practice, with many of the ethnic groups having their own system of traditional and indigenous healing methods. Though modern medical science is making its way to the grassroots, a vast majority of the rural people of Nepal are still dependent on traditional healers and medicinal plants for their primary health care.Nepal is rich in plant genetic diversity. Of the estimated 7000 vascular plants naturally occurring in the country, about 700 are considered as medicinal plants. The continuous over-exploitation of these resources has accelerated its depletion in the wild. Population growth and expanding trade practices locally and internationally have further deteriorated the natural condition of these important natural resources. For this reason, conservation and rational utilization of medicinal plants are considered to be current national key issues.The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) of Nepal has endorsed the development and the management of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) as one of its six primary programmes under its Forestry Sector Master Plan which was prepared in 1988. The MFSC aims to increase the supply of medicinal and aromatic plants and other minor forest products, facilitate their conservation and sustainable use, convert them into useful commodities and promote their distribution to local and foreign markets. The 10  th Five Year Plan (2003-2008) of the Government of Nepal greatly emphasizes the development of MAPs as a programme for poverty reduction. Rare and high-priced medicinal herbs are top priority for domestication, cultivation, processing and marketing. It has also called for the amendment of existing rules, laws and by-laws that are creating uncertainties and obstructions for the development of this sector. Despite all these, medicinal plants in Nepal have not been fully identified, documented and conserved. Therefore, a project to document and identify Nepal's medicinal plants would be highly beneficial to effectively manage these natural resources. To meet the above objectives, the following activities will be undertaken: 1. Survey and listing of all published and unpublished articles, reports and books in the research and management of medicinal plants in the country; 2. Survey institutions, which have been involved in the research, development and management of medicinal plants; and 3. Survey localities where medicinal plants are being conserved and study the details of the conservation status and efforts.At the end of year one, a report containing the following information will be accomplished:1. A list of published and unpublished articles, reports and books on medicinal plants of Nepal; 2. A list of conserved medicinal plants in the country with their corresponding relevant information and known uses; 3. Present status of research on medicinal plants in the country; and 4. A priority listing of medicinal plant species based on economic value and priority research needs at the national level. Majority of the rural people in the tropical countries depend on around 20 000 plant species for their medicines (Philippine National Museum 1999). Some of these have been proven to have immense value to the advancement of health care. In the USA, about 25% of prescriptions dispensed by pharmacies contain a drug that is derived mainly from plants, or with at least one or two main ingredients derived from plants (Fernando 2001). The World Health Organization (WHO) listed about 20 000 plants that can be used for medicinal purposes.In the Philippines, proponents of alternative medicine have been creating greater awareness on the use of herbs to treat various ailments. Republic Act 8423 or the Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act (TAMA) of 1997 made local herbal medicine part of the country's health care delivery system. However, research and development as well as funding have been limited. In 1977, the National Integrated Research Programme on Medicinal Plants (NIRPROMP) was formulated. NIRPROMP is a multidisciplinary programme participated in by researchers from the University of the Philippines' College of Medicine and College of Agriculture. Other institutions such as Ateneo University-Philippine Institute of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Santo Tomas, Central Luzon State University and Jose Reyes Memorial Medical Center were involved in the past. NIRPROMP has the following R&D components: pharmacologic/toxicologic studies; mutagenicity and clastogenecity potential of drug preparations; establishment of quality control bioassay standard procedures; dosage forms from Philippine medicinal plants constituents; clinical screening and validation studies of traditional folk medicine; and development of appropriate cultural management practices to improve yield and quality of selected medicinal plant species. Some studies outside NIRPROMP are also conducted by other institutions and cater to the needs of their localities.The drug development process takes an average of 12 years (Pecson 2001). Thus, getting a new drug to the market is a long process, costly and demanding. It involves seven major stages that include pre-clinical testing, investigational new drug application, three-phase clinical trials, new drug application and approval.Developing new drugs derived from plants, as well as conserving and managing the country's plant genetic resources, would require solid scientific data, such as proper documentation, identification and understanding of the plant species found in the diverse ecosystems. The information generated will be packaged into a country report. Visits to major genebanks/germplasm collections in situ will be conducted.On the third year of the project, researchers and scientists active in medicinal plants R&D will be convened in a workshop concerning development of a database. A smaller group will be created to develop the descriptors for medicinal plants.In the last year of project implementation, the results of the workshop and group discussions will be documented and packaged in a pictorial catalogue, identifying the plants, their uses and characters. A research network on medicinal plants will also be created to foster collaborative undertakings.1. Bibliographic database of published and unpublished information on medicinal plants in the Philippines; 2. Summary status of research on major medicinal plants in the Philippines; 3. List of conserved medicinal plant species in the Philippines, with information on where these are conserved and how they are managed, and their known uses; and 4. Priority listing of medicinal plant species based on economic value and priority research needs at the national level. Sri Lanka has the highest plant diversity per unit area than any other country in Asia, with over 3 700 species of flowering plants and over 350 species of ferns. Over 28% of this flora is endemic, as much as 28.5% are flowering plants, 18% are ferns, and 16% are terrestrial vertebrates that are endemic to the country. Medicinal plants are important part of the plant resources of Sri Lanka. This island is well-endowed with many species of medicinal plants. Among the native flora of Sri Lanka, there are well over 500 species that have been and are still being used in traditional medicine. Apart from that, there are over 900 non-indigenous medicinal plants used in native medicine. Over 10% of all the medicinal plants used in Sri Lanka are endemic to the island and of these, 79 species are threatened. These 79 species are either endemic to the island or have a limited distribution over the Indian sub-continent. Conservation of these plants will secure the continued existence of these rare and endemic species of plants. The populations of medicinal plants are adversely affected by over harvesting and lack of care to their habitat when collecting plants from the wild. Over harvesting of plants is mainly due to the high demand for Ayurvedic medicines. Currently, 60% of the demand for medicinal plants is supplied through imports. Since most of the domestic supply for plants is from the wild, this has led to over harvesting of wild populations of species. In addition, increased demand for agricultural land and unsustainable cultivation practices such as shifting cultivation and \"Chena\" or slash and burn cultivation destroy habitats of medicinal plants.Scarcity of comprehensive and authoritative information on medicinal plants hinders an assessment of their status, implementation of activities necessary for preserving their habitat and monitoring the effect of rehabilitative efforts. At present, either the sources of knowledge are contradictory (e.g. several plants are identified under different names and uses by practitioners of traditional medicine) or are scattered and fragmentary. Dearth of skills on ethnobotany has also hindered effective conservation strategies. Sri Lanka is fortunate to have a rich reserve of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants due to a large number of practitioners of traditional medicine. However, this important source of knowledge is currently under threat as little effort has been made to understand and document their knowledge. As a result, the death of a practitioner signifies a net loss to the pool of this important source of information. Unless a concerted effort is made to record the knowledge of plants used by practitioners of indigenous medicine, it is very likely that vital information on plant uses, their characteristics and habitats will be lost.One of the main contributions of the project will be the preservation of knowledge on medicinal plants. The preservation of traditional knowledge on medicinal plants will ensure that practitioner's knowledge of plants and their uses are globally recognized and that the source of this knowledge is easily identifiable. Laboratory research on plants and their uses will also augment existing information on this subject. Research on identification of methods and levels of sustainable extraction will help to improve global knowledge on medicinal plants. The inventory of medicinal plants used in Sri Lanka will be prepared by using the published literature, and a questionnaire distributed among the practitioners of indigenous medicine. The authenticity of botanical names will be verified by referring to botanical literature at the National Herbarium of Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. Field trips will be made to the different parts of the country to visit medicinal plant gardens, nurseries and other sites to record the medicinal plant species and their numbers in cultivation.Literature on medicinal plants will be collected using library listings and personal contacts/ interviews with government officials, medical practitioners and others who are actively involved in research, cultivation, trade or use of medicinal plants. This information will be stored in a computer database.The project will produce authentic information base on medicinal plants and their exsitu conservation in Sri Lanka. The following are the project's expected outputs:1. An inventory of medicinal plants existing and used in Sri Lanka. This inventory will be in the form of an annotated checklist giving authentic botanical information, uses and ecology of the species in an abbreviated form; 2. A list of conserved medicinal plant species in Sri Lanka, giving information on where these are conserved, how they are managed and their known uses; 3. A bibliographic database of published and unpublished information on medicinal plants in Sri Lanka; 4. A summary status of research on major medicinal plants in Sri Lanka; and 5. A priority listing of medicinal plant species based on economic value and priority research needs at the national level.During the first year of the project, the following activities will be undertaken: The documentation process will involve extensive internal travel to medicinal plant nurseries and other ex situ conservation sites. A digital camera will be used to take photographs of identified medicinal plants. Funds will be necessary to purchase stationery and other materials for communication. Existing office and computer facilities will be used for these purposes. Vietnam is a tropical country rich in plant genetic resources, with more than 3300 plant species classified as medicinal plants. Throughout its history, Vietnamese traditional healers have used medicinal plants to prevent and cure certain types of diseases through indigenous medical procedures.In 1987, the Government of Vietnam approved a national programme entitled \"Conservation of Medicinal Plant Genetic Resources\". After 15 years of implementation, the programme is largely considered to be a success, although it had many difficulties with funding, international collaboration and information sharing. In order to continue with the achievements of this programme as well as to develop and preserve the country's abundant experiences in traditional medicine, the project entitled \"Inventory and Documentation of Medicinal Plants in Vietnam\" will be implemented in coordination with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). With this undertaking, it is envisioned that medicinal plants in the country that are in danger of disappearing due to over-exploitation and commercialization would be inventoried and conserved for the future generations. Estimates by the EXIM Bank put medicinal plants-related international trade at US$ 60 billion per year and still growing at a rate of 7% annually. India is blessed with two mega centres of biodiversity: the Hindustan Centre of Origin and the Central Asia Centre of Origin. This biodiversity is mainly distributed in Western Ghat, North Eastern India and the Himalayan Region. Floristically rich, India has about 141 endemic genera of 5150 species belonging to 47 families of higher plants. Among the different endemic species, 2532 species are distributed in Himalayas, 1788 species in the peninsular region and 185 species in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About 43 000 plant species are said to exist in India, of which 7500 plant species are referred to in Indian folklore but only about 1700 plant species have actually been documented in old literature.The vast degree of diversity present in this country is directly related to the highly divergent ecosystem and altitudinal variations. The agro-biodiversity in India is distributed in eight very diverse phytogeographical and 15 agroecological regions. The range of distribution of these plants varies from the wet evergreen forests in the Western Ghats to the Alpine scrubs of the Himalayas; from the arid deserts of Rajastan to the mangroves along the east coast; from the vast deciduous forests of the Decan to the Shoals of the high ranges; from the swamps of the Ganghes to the moss laden tree trunks of the Silent Valley. The indigenous diversity of plant species of medicinal and aromatic value in the region is also unique. This is reflected from the Arogyapacha (Trichopus zeylanicus) of the Agastiar Hills to the Saalam Panja of the Himalayas; from the tiny Drosera of the Sholas to the huge Dipterocarps of the Western Ghats; from the xerophytic Aloes to the marshy land Brahmis; from the wild turmeric to the cultivated peppers. Over 7000 species belonging mainly to the families Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Apiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae and Solanaceae have been used from ancient times by various indigenous peoples in the country. This number corresponds to more than 25% of the world's known medicinal plants, estimated to be at around 30 000 species. Analyses of these plants show that they include all the major forms (i.e., trees, shrubs, climbers and herbs), with the proportion of ferns and lichens being much smaller compared to flowering plants.Although India has rich biodiversity and is one of the 12 mega diversity centres, the growing demand for medicinal plants is putting a heavy strain on the existing resources, causing a number of species to be either threatened or endangered (Attachment 2). The 2000 report of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) revealed that India ranked fifth highest in the number of threatened plant species and birds globally. Recently, some rapid assessment of the threat status of medicinal plants using the IUCN-designed CAMP methodology revealed that about 112 species in Southern India, 74 species in Northern and Central India and 42 species in the high altitudes of the Himalayas are threatened in the wild.Macro analysis of the distribution of medicinal plants showed that they are distributed across diverse habitats and landscapes. Around 70% of India's medicinal plants are found in tropical areas mostly in the various forest types spread across the Western and Eastern ghats, the Vindhyas, Chotta Nagpur plateu, Aravalis and Himalayas. Although less than 30% of the medicinal plants are found in the temperate and alpine areas and higher altitudes, they include species of high medicinal value. The studies also showed that a larger percentage of the known medicinal plants could be found in the dry and moist deciduous vegetation as compared to the evergreen or temperate habitats.Analysis of medicinal plant types indicated the about 34% are trees, another 34% are shrubs and the remaining 32% are composed of herbs, grasses and climbers. A very small portion of medicinal plants belong to lower plants like lichens, ferns algae, etc. while majority are classified as higher flowering plants.Of the 386 families and 2200 genera of medicinal plants recorded in India, the families Asteraceae, Euphorbiacae, Laminaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae, Poaceae, Acanthaceae, Rosaceae and Apiaceae comprise the largest proportion of medicinal plant species, with the highest number of species (419) falling under Asteraceae.About 90% of medicinal plants used by related industries are collected from the wild. While over 800 species are used in industries, less than 20 species of plants are under commercial cultivation. Over 70% of the plant collections involve destructive harvesting practices as virtually all parts of the plants like the roots, bark, wood, stem and the whole plant (in the case of herbs) have known uses. This poses a definite threat to the genetic stocks and to the diversity of medicinal plants if they are not sustainably harvested and used.Medicinal plants are living resources, exhaustible if overused but sustainable if used with care and wisdom. At present, 95% of medicinal plants collected are from the wild. Current practices of harvesting are unsustainable and many studies have highlighted depletion of resource base. Many medicinal plants-based industries are still being managed using traditional methods and practices. A number of studies have confirmed that pharmaceuticals companies are also responsible for inefficient and opportunistic marketing of medicinal plants. As a result, the raw-material supply situation is shaky, unsustainable and exploitative. There is a vast, secretive and largely unregulated trade in mainly wild medicinal plants which continues to grow dramatically in the absence of a national policy addressing environmental planning. Confusion also exists in the identification of plant materials where the origin of a particular drug is assigned to more than one plant, sometimes having vastly different morphological and taxonomic characters. There are few others where the identity of plant sources is doubtful or still unknown; therefore, in such cases, adulteration is very common.The other main source of medicinal plant materials is from cultivation. Cultivated materials (Attachment 3) are definitely more appropriate to produce plant raw materials for drugs. Indeed, standardization, whether for pure products or extracts, are critical and becoming increasingly so as quality requirements continue to become more stringent.Given the higher cost of cultivated material, cultivation is often done under contract. In majority of cases, companies would cultivate only those plant species which they use in large quantity or in the production of derivatives and isolates, for which standardization is essential and quality is critical. More recently, growers have set up cooperatives or collaborative ventures in an attempt to improve their negotiating power and get higher prices.Collection of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP), which includes most of the medicinal plants, is associated with the livelihood of tribal and rural communities in and around the forest in India. Since the prices paid to collectors are usually low, they often over extract to generate more income.Several medicinal plants have been assessed as endangered, vulnerable and threatened due to indiscriminate harvesting and habitat destruction due to deforestation. To address this situation, the Government of India has identified and banned the export of 29 species of medicinal plants which are believed to be threatened in the wild (Attachment 4).The implementation of Joint Forest Management Scheme in the areas could be a logical approach, given the viability of medicinal plants for generating income as well as rehabilitating degraded lands.Efforts have been made to consolidate and link up the existing herbal gardens and genebanks as well as reference specimens in herbaria to ensure that the 540 important species in the major classical systems of medicine, as well as those supplied to the international market, are protected in ex situ reserves. This requires strategic planning since the range of germplasm obtained for each species must be representative. Plant collections need to evolve from being species reference collections to being genetic resources collections.The Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute at Thiruvananthapuram is one of the first such garden established in 1979. It has a genepool of more than 850 species in the garden spread over 20 hectares. About 350 species are maintained in the Medicinal Plants Garden and Herbarium of the Central Council of Research in Ayurveda and Siddha located at Pune. High priority has also been given to Botanical gardens maintained by the Botanical Survey of India.Several herbal gardens have been established and several others are in the process of development. These include those that are maintained by the following organizations/ institutions:1  Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.). The crop requires cool and dry climate during the growing season. Sowing of seeds at 4.0-7.5 kg/ha at 0.25-0.50 cm depth between November 20 and December 20 was recommended. Broadcasting of seeds followed by light sweeping with broom gave uniform germination. Response of chemical fertilizers was found low. However, a fertilizer dose of 25 kg/ha each of N and P 2 O 5 as basal dose and 25 kg/ha N as top dressing at 40 days after sowing (DAS) was recommended for commercial cultivation in Gujarat. Three irrigations viz. first at the time of sowing and subsequently at 30 and 70 DAS proved to be beneficial. Chemical weed control was found to be economical and a pre-sowing or pre-emergence application of Isoproturone (0.5 kg ai/ha) was recommended for weed control.Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum Linn.). The optimum time for sowing is the first fortnight of November. Delay in sowing causes poor growth. A seed rate of 6-7 kg /ha is recommended in case of broadcasting and 5-6 kg /ha for line sowing. Seed inoculation with Azotobacter culture (M-4/W-5) reduces the nitrogen requirement up to 40 kg /ha. A fertilizer dose of 90 kg/ha N, 50 kg /ha P 2 O 5 and 40 kg /ha K 2 O was reported to maximize the latex and seed yield. Weed is one of the important problems in opium poppy cultivation. An integrated approach with Isoproturone (0.37 kg ai/kg + hand weeding at 30 DAS) showed very good control without any phyto-toxic effects. Ten to fourteen light irrigations are required in sandy soils at an interval of 10 days. Lancing is usually started on developing capsules about 15 days after flowering. Each capsule produces a maximum yield of latex in first lancing which decreases at subsequent lancings. Early morning is the best time for collection of latex. Latex yield ranges between 35 and 55 kg/ha and seed yield between 8 and 12 q/ha (q stands for quintal, which is equivalent to 100 kg). Crop rotations such as maize-opium poppy; urd-opium poppy and groundnut-opium poppy are profitable.Intercropping with garlic gave higher profit compared to sole crop without affecting the latex yield in Mandsur area.The crop prefers sandy loam to laterite soils. However, it is grown in marginal and sub marginal lands with 7.0-8.5 pH. It is sensitive to water logging and therefore requires well-drained soil. The sowing time recommended for rainfed crop in Western India is June-July. Whereas, third week of June was reported to be the most suitable time for sowing irrigated crop in Delhi. Line sowing at 30 cm x 30 cm or 45cm x 30 cm gives higher yield. However, 70 000 -75 000 per ha plant populations are recommended for optimum yield. Application of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) at 10 t/ha and 60 kg/ha N in split doses, at sowing, 30 days after sowing (thinning), after first and second pickings of leaves are recommended for better yield. Watering the plants seven days after sowing is very crucial. Two hand weedings followed by hoeing at 25-30 and 50 DAS are essential.Harvesting is recommended in dry season to avoid leaf fall due to fungal infection during storage. A well-managed irrigated Senna crop yielded about 15-20 q/ha dry leaves and 7-10 q/ha dry pods. On the other hand, rainfed crops recorded an average about 10 q/ha of dry leaves and 4-5 q /ha dry pods. Sun drying of leaves and pods is advisable. Crop rotations such as Senna-mustard and Senna-coriander were found profitable in All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) experiments.Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don.). Tropical and subtropical climates are found most suitable for its cultivation. However, waterlogged or highly alkaline soils may be avoided. A plant population of 75 000/ha is recommended to get higher yield. Fertilizers rationed 15t/ha FYM + 80 kg N/ha under irrigated and 15t/ha FYM + 40 kg N/ha under rainfed conditions are recommended. Detopping of plants by 2 cm at 50% flowering improves the root yield and alkaloid content. Fluchoraline 0.75 kg ai/ha as pre-emergence application was found to be very effective as weed control. The crop requires 4-5 irrigations. Intercropping with groundnut in 1:1 ratio was found to give highest monetary benefit. This crop is not suitable as inter-crop under shade condition, since plant growth, root and alkaloid contents are observed to develop poorly under such condition. On the average, 1.8 t/ha dried leaves and 0.8 t/ha dried roots are harvested.Safed musli (Chlorophytum spp Ker.). The crop is grown in Kharif season in places with warm and humid climate and adequate soil moisture throughout the crop growth. Optimum time for planting is middle of June under irrigated conditions and onset of monsoon for rainfed condition. Fleshy roots of 2.5 -3.0 q /ha are planted in ridges at 30 cm row to row and 15 cm plant to plant distance. Application of FYM at 20 t/ha is recommended for good root formation. Ten q/ha fresh root yield was recorded in the experimental field at Udaipur.Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.). Liquorice grows well in rich, fertile sandy loam soil with pH 5.5-8.2. The best time for planting is in mid-November and following a spacing of 90 cm x 45 cm. Underground stem cuttings of 15-25 cm having 2-3 buds are most suitable for planting. However, root-cutting treatment with Seradix-B enhances sprouting. At the time of soil preparation, 10 t/ha FYM and 40 kg/ha each of N and P 2 O 5 as basal dose and 20 kg/ha N as top dressing are recommended application for every year. The crop is harvested after two to three years. Root yield of 70-80 q/ha was recorded at Hissar. However, under Anand condition crop of 18-20 months produced an average yield of 20-25 q/ha.Frost-free tropical to subtropical humid climate with irrigation facilities are found to be the most suitable for its cultivation. Root and stem cuttings have been recommended for vegetative propagation. Transplanting should be done towards the end of April. A fertilizer dose of 30 kg/ha N and 60 kg /ha P 2 O 5 was found to increase the total alkaloid yield.Water requirement is very high in this crop, about 15-16 irrigations are required to get good crop. Intercropping of soybean (1:1) in kharif and garlic (1:3) in rabi were reported to be most suitable crop combinations.Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea Linn. and D. lanta Ehrh). The crop requires 20-30 0 C temperature for seed germination and subsequent plant growth. Well-drained loams to clay loam soils rich in organic matter are suitable for the crop. However, the optimum soil pH for higher yield of glycoside differs from species to species. It was reported that Digitalis purpurea thrives well in acid soil whereas D. lanta in neutral soil. Transplanting of seedlings at 45x30 cm is recommended. The most suitable time for transplanting of seedling is in April. Nitrogen requirement of foxglove is high. A fertilizer dose of 100 kg /ha N, 50 kg/ha P 2 O 5 and 25 kg/ha K 2 O along with 30-40 t/ha FYM was found to be optimum for good crop. Five to six weedings followed by hoeings increased the foliage yield. Three to four irrigations are needed during April to June. One harvesting in first year at rosette stage and three harvestings in second year starting from August are recommended. However, harvesting in the month of February-March contains almost double the glycoside than in August cutting. About 28-Q/ha dry leaf yield is harvested. Sun drying of leaves at 30-40 0 C is recommended to maintain quality.The plant grows well in well-drained sandy-loam to red soil having pH 7.5-8.0. The crop is sown in late kharif in 2 nd or 3 rd week of August. On an average, 60 to 75 cm rainfall is best suited for rainfed crop. Line sowing at 25 cm in rows facilitates better cultural practices. One weeding and thinning at 25-30 days after sowing are sufficient in sub-marginal lands. Raised bed condition has been reported to yield higher quantity of root. Crop is harvested for roots at 150-170 DAS. The whole plant is uprooted and roots are separated. About 3-4 Q/ha dry root and 50-75 kg /ha seeds are harvested.The crop is grown in various agroclimatic and soil types in India. Seeds are sown in nursery bed for raising seedlings for transplanting.Forty-five-day old seedlings, with 4-6 leaves, give the highest survival rate after transplanting. Although higher yield of dry berries and solasodine per hectare were obtained in close spacing (45x60 cm), 90x150 cm spacing is recommended to avoid difficulties in inter-culture and harvesting operations due to spiny stems. However, a less spiny variety, Arka Sanjeevini recorded higher berry yield per hectare under high density planting (10 989 -13 889/ha). The variety showed about three-fold increase in dry berry and solasodine yield. Top dressing of N delayed flowering whereas combination of N and CCC induced early flowering. Application of 250 ppm GA 3 increases solasodine content in diploid and 250 and 1000 ppm in tetraploid. Further, foliar spraying with CCC at 1600 ppm was reported to increase solasodine content significantly. Turning yellow stage was found to be the most ideal for berry harvesting. Berry yield varies from 3.0-14.0 t/ha depending on the variety and soil status.Long pepper (Piper longum Linn.). Hot humid climate with 20-25% partial shade is ideal for its cultivation. Well-drained and nutrient rich soil is recommended. Threeto five-node rooted vine cuttings are best planting materials for establishment. The best time for raising nursery is during March to April. Light irrigation, once in a week is needed, starting from January till onset of monsoon. Harvesting is done eight months after planting and 3-4 pickings are usually done in a year. About 400 kg/ha dried spikes in first year and 1000 kg/ha in second and third years are harvested. Harvested spikes are dried under the sun for 4-5 days. Dried spikes are stored in moist proof containers. Besides spike, thicker stem and roots are cut and dried and used in Ayurvedic drug preparations. About 500 kg/ha roots are harvested.Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger Linn.). Northwestern hilly tracts are most suitable for this crop. About 2-3 kg/ha seeds are recommended for direct seeding. In the first week of October, 4 to 5-week old seedlings are transplanted in a spacing of 35 x 15 cm. A fertilizer dose of 80 kg/ha N, 40 kg/ha K 2 O and 15-20 t/ha FYM is recommended for optimum crop yield. Two-three weedings and 5-7 irrigations are needed. Crop rotations such as Senna -Henbane and Basil -Henbane were reported to be most profitable. The crop is harvested after 125 to 145 DAS. The older leaves at the base of the plant touching the ground are picked up first which is followed by picking of leaves from the upper portion, twigs and branches at 50% flowering. The biomass is thereafter thoroughly sun dried. This procedure of harvesting is quite economical and fetches higher market rate.Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii var. Motia). Sowing time for raising nursery is from end of April to mid of May. Transplanting is done in the last week of June to mid August with a spacing 45x30 cm or 60x60 cm depending on soil fertility and climatic conditions. Optimum dose of fertilizers was 75 kg/ha and 40 kg each of P 2 O 5 and K 2 O to get higher herbage and oil yield. Recently, an integrated nutrient management -trial was conducted in Palmarosa. It was found that FYM at 10 t/ha, nitrogen and phosporus at 20 kg each/ha and Azospirillum or Azotobacter favoured higher productivity and oil yield. Frequent light irrigations are required during rain free period. Harvesting inflorescence is done at 7-10 days after opening of flowers. Crop is harvested 10-15 cm above the ground level. During the first year, 2-3 harvests and in subsequent years 3-4 harvests are taken. On an average, 80 kg/ha oil yield from rainfed crop and up to 220 -250 kg/ha oil yield from irrigated crop are achieved in the second year and onwards.Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (l.) Nash). As a commercial crop, vetiver flourishes over rich sandy -loam soils having 6-8 pH under warm and humid weather conditions. Earthing up operation increases the root yield. Irrigation at 0.4 IW/CPE ratio showed maximum root yield (14.2 q/ha). However, eight irrigations are required within 15 months. A fertilizer dose of 80 kg N and 30 kg each of P 2 O 5 and K 2 O increases the root yield without affecting the oil quality. Cowpea, cluster bean and black gram as intercrops generate additional income. The best time for harvesting of roots is 15 months after planting.The crop prefers well-drained soil rich in organic matter having 6-7.5 soil pH. This group of plants needs very high amount of nutrients particularly nitrogen. Optimum response in terms of yield is recorded with application of 120 kg N/ha, 40-60 kg/ha each of P 2 O 5 and K 2 O as basal dose. Zinc deficiency is observed very common in Indo-Gangetic plains. The crop responses best at 20 kg /ha Zn applied at the time of planting. Iron and Boron deficiencies are also reported. Two to three weedings and hoeings are essential in mint farming. Preemergence application of Terbacil (2.0 kg ai/ha) is effective in controlling weeds. Six to nine irrigations are required during dry seasons. The first crop is harvested at 105-110 DAS and subsequent harvest takes about 90 days. On an average, 30 t/ha of herbage yield in Japanese mint and 20-25 t/ha of Bergamot mint herbage are harvested, which yield about 150 and 100 kg/ha of oil, respectively.Limited work on disease and insect pest management was taken up in the project. Initially, recommendations for management of important diseases and insect pests are as follows:Crop Known Disease(s)Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)Seed treatment with metalaxyl and four sprays of metalaxyl @ 0.2% at 35, 55, 75   The use of medicinal plants in Indonesia has always been a part of culture that has been passed down from generation to generation. By trial-and-error, the country's early inhabitants learned how to distinguish useful plants with beneficial effects from those that were either toxic or non-active. They picked, kept and used medicinal plants to satisfy their basic needs and even experimented on combinations of plants or processing methods to gain optimal results. Throughout the centuries, Indonesia's indigenous people developed traditional medicines from plants identified by their forefathers for curing illnesses and keeping their health. This empirical knowledge may have contributed substantially to the development of traditional medicines in the country. Indonesia is ranked as the second largest in terms of biodiversity, with 30 000 flowering plant species (Bappenas 1993). About 7000 of these species are recognized as medicinal plants (Eisai 1986), with 950 known to have medicinal properties; 283 species are registered, being cultivated and used by traditional medicinal industries (Sampoerno 1999) and another 250 species directly harvested from forests as raw material by these industries (Zuhud et al. 2001).The global trend towards the use of herbal and natural medicines has been increasing in recent years. More attention from the world community has been given to the tropical rainforest, which is believed to contain 50% of the world's biodiversity. Farnsworth et al. (1985) indicated that 74% of the 121 active compounds used for the development of important modern medicines in the United States, such as digitoxin, reserpin, tubocucorin and ephendrin, are derived from medicinal plants growing in and gathered from tropical forests.Medicinal plants in Indonesia have high economic and health values in both indigenous and modern communities. The number of industries dependent on it have increased in recent years, with the market value of traditional medicine industries jumping from US$ 12.4 million in 1996 to US$ 130 million in 2002 (Sampoerno 2002). The number of traditional medicine manufacturers has also increased -from 578 in 1996 to 810 in 2000, with 87 manufacturers considered as large-scale industries (Pramono 2002).Research activities geared towards the development of traditional medicines like \"Jamu\" as standardized extracts, phytopharmaca, etc. have been initiated and some of these products have been marketed. There is also currently great public interest for finding herbal medicinal plant species to cure major diseases such as cancer, hepatitis and heart disease. Other researches such as medicinal plant-based cure for diabetes and hyperlipidemie, as well as for food supplement and aphrodisiac have also been initiated.Despite their recognized importance, the existence of medicinal plants in their natural habitats is threatened by the destruction of natural ecosystems. The condition continues to worsen with the opening of large forest areas for transmigration and farming (Bapedal 2001). A large number of medicinal plant species have been depleted from their natural habitats (Rifai et al. 1992;Zuhud et al. 2001). Most novel species' identities and potential benefits would remain unknown as these have been lost due to genetic erosion without being properly documented.The use of plant remedies in the treatment of ailments and diseases have been practiced by indigenous peoples for generations. A number of plants commonly used as folk medicine in Indonesia are shown in Table 1. Medicinal plants are very valuable for economic and health reasons both for indigenous and modern communities in Indonesia. Therefore, its sustainability, especially in their natural habitat must be protected. Realizing the importance of medicinal plants, conservation has been ongoing for ages by the indigenous communities.To protect and sustain the development of herbal medicinal plants and its industries, the government has made attempts to encourage cultivations and public awareness for conservation of medicinal plants. A national programme called TOGA (Tanaman Obat Keluarga) or \"Medicinal Plants for Family\", was implemented with the two-pronged vision of (1) providing cheap, alternative \"medicines\" to keep the family healthy by planting medicinal plants in home gardens; and (2) protect and conserve these medicinal plants in their natural habitats. This programme, besides reducing family spending on medicines, also serves as sources of medicinal plants supply for traditional industries and a means to increase people's income (Departemen Kesehatan 1995). The choice of medicinal plants for propagation are those already grown in the surrounding area, easy to cultivate, do not need much care and attention, can be utilized for other purposes such as spices and can easily be processed. There are 106 species of recommended medicinal plants mostly used as preventive and curative for common ailments and diseases such as cough, skin disease, headache, diarrhoea, toothache, influenza, post maternity treatments, fever, etc.Many institutions in Indonesia also make deliberate efforts to collect and maintain herbal and medicinal plants germplasm as part of their research and development programmes. The Indonesian Spices and Medicinal Crops Research Institute (ISMECRI) and several other government research institutions such as Balai Penelitian Tanaman Obat (BPTO), Badan Pengkajian dan Penerapan Teknologi (BPPT), Balai Pengkajian Teknologi Pertanian (BPTP), universities and private sectors are involved in the conservation of medicinal plants. At present, ISMECRI maintains 300 medicinal plants species in five conservation sites from lowland to highland composed of indigenous, introduced and elite materials from selected species (Bermawie et al. 2003).From 1995 to 1997, ISMECRI collected a number of medicinal plants from several localities in Java and more than 20 accessions of temoelawak, 50 accessions of turmeric, 50 accessions of Indian galangal and 18 accessions of ginger. Inventory of ethnomedicines in National Parks recorded 40 medicinal plants used by the local people in Halimun, 126 species used by people in Salak and 79 species in the Gede-Pangrango National Park (Rosita et al. 2001). Collecting missions have been planned for 2003 for javanony, bitter leaves, tailed pepper and other similar crops.Research and development activities on Indonesian traditional medicines have been undertaken by researchers from the Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture and from the universities and traditional medicine industries. All aspects of research have been conducted -from cultivation, ethno-pharmacology, utilization, isolation and identification of active constituents to efficacy evaluation, pharmacology, safety, standardization, formulation and clinical evaluation. Several policies and strategies have also been set up to develop Indonesian traditional medicines for commercialization and mainstreaming.To facilitate research on medicinal plants, a multisectoral group of researchers on medicinal plants organized themselves into a working group in 1990, called \"POKJANASTOI\" (National Working Group on Indonesian Medicinal Plants), with the aim of systematizing the study of medicinal plants, identify priority needs and direct their efforts and attention. Since then, there have been 23 group meetings conducted where research results of more than 40 medicinal plant species recommended by the national working group were presented.To provide scientific evidence and clinical proofs for Indonesian traditional medicines, the National Agency for Food and Drug Control (NAFDC) has set up the priorities for medicinal plants research. NAFDC determined nine medicinal plants as priority crops, with the objectives of: (1) obtaining traditional medicines to cure degenerative diseases such as hyperlipidemia, hyperuricemia, diabetes, hypertension, and rheumatism; (2) obtaining medicines to stimulate the human immune system; and (3) providing traditional medicines to be used in formal health care system (Table 2). Research • Conducted acute toxicity tests using leaf extract on mice-practically nontoxic; sub-chronic test did not show any abnormality on hematological parameters, biochemical blood, liver and kidney (macro and microscopically). • Conducted mutagenic test -did not cause mutation on Salmonella typhium TA 100.• Conducted anti-hepatotoxicity test -showed reduced SGPT and SGOT levels in male white mice • Conducted efficacy test -showed reduced total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol, SGPT, SGOT, blood glucose content and increased HDLcholesterol in white mice treated with the extract• Identified and selected high-yielding cultivar with high curcumin content The Korea is famous for its long history of medicinal plants use and the extensive documentation of their effectiveness. Oriental medicines value in Korea is not only in its curative effect on diseases but also in its contribution in the restoration of the country. These facts were not only known from books but also from local or traditional knowledge. Considering the imbalance of the present diet system, the optimal use of medicinal plants, which contain multi-functional chemicals, makes body nutritionally balanced. But until now, the huge amounts of medicinal plant material, which cover many species, are harvested from forests, alpine and other multiple-use habitats. This leads to diminishing diversity. To sufficiently supply the needs of the increasing population, proper management based on the ecological habitat of the medicinal plant is necessary. For the sustainable use and to facilitate access to medicinal plants, efforts should be concentrated on its inventory and documentation. In this regard, the project on \"Inventory and Documentation of Medicinal Plants in 14 Asia Pacific Countries\", involving Korea is essential. The successful integration of information including published and unpublished literatures on conserved medicinal plants in Korea would contribute towards improving the balance of health not only for the nation's people but also for the other peoples of the world. Areas dedicated to medicinal plants and its production in Korea has been increasing significantly. In 1980, only 3966 ha were planted with a total production of 8380 tonnes (Table 1). These figures peaked in 1995 when total area planted reached 13 741 ha while production exceeded 42 769 tonnes. Towards the year 2000, areas planted and production dropped to 9936 ha and 30 141 tonnes, respectively.    Major medicinal plants imported from China in 1999 and 2000 were concentrated more on food articles than medical supplies (Table 5). Angelica gigas Nakai, Astragalus membranaceus Bunge and Paeonia albitiflora var. were not registered as medical supplies. The most prioritized crop was Astragalus membranaceus Bunge, which increased two-fold to 1550 t in 2000. The most prominent crop for medical supply was Rehmannia glutinosa Liboschitz.  Actual exports of ginseng from Korea showed a declining trend, with an actual difference of negative US$ 65.1 million between 1995 and 2001 (Table 8). The steady decline of root, manufactured goods, and other export articles are evident, with deficits of US$ 34.7 million, US$ 29.0 million and US$ 1.4 million, respectively. In 1997, Lycium chinese Mill or the fruit of boxthorn was improved for better yield, insect-resistance and saponin content (Table 11). The improved varieties include Cheongyang kugija and Bulro kugi-a, with yields of 2.9 and 2.4 t/ha, respectively. Bulro kugija bears large fruits and matures early with good branch type. Another variety, Cheongdae kugija, developed in 2000 recorded an average yield of 2.2 t/ha. It is also disease-resistant but is late maturing. In Korea, there were 345 research papers on medicinal plants published since 1964 dealing with various disciplines. Most of the published research papers were on cultivation physiology ( 116), analyses of ingredients ( 82) and tissue culture (64).Topics on the processing and use of medicinal plants are the least published with 40 papers, followed by breeding (43).  The characterization of the above collections will be done as part of the project's work plan and shared with other country participants to enhance cooperation and development.Malaysia, being one of the 12 mega-diversity centres of the world, is rich in plant genetic diversity, with many of these plants used for medicinal purposes. Out of the 12 000 species of vascular plants, 10%, or approximately 1200 species, are reported to have medicinal properties. The three major races (Malays, Chinese and Indians) and the various tribes of 'Orang Asli' or indigenous people use these medicinal plants. Medicinal plants are the basis of health care for the 'Orang Asli' and rural populations.Over the years, there is an increasing popularity of and demand for medicinal plants within and outside Malaysia. The market for herbs and plant-based medicine in Malaysia was worth about US$ 527 million in 2000 and this figure is expected to increase to US$ 1. 37 billion in 2010(Mohamad Setefarzi 2001). Ng and Mohd. Azmi (1997) predicted an enormous potential for the plant species traditionally used as health food and tonics to be developed into large-scale production of functional foods. Herbal drug industry in Malaysia is a growing industry with much potential in the regional and global markets. Ng and Mohd Azmi (1997) reported an approximately 206% increase in import value of medicinal and aromatic plants from 1986 (US$ 37 million) to 1996 (US$ 113 million) with a corresponding 91% increase in export value over the same period (i.e. US $ 1.5 million in 1986 to US $ 16 million in 1996). The raw plant materials imported were mainly in the form of powder, pellets and plants coming largely from China, India, Indonesia, Hong Kong, Taiwan and the United States. Another parallel study by Kanta et al. (1998) had slightly lower figures for the period of 1992-1997 (Table 1). Both studies reveal that there is a steady increase in herbal product market value since 1986, with more notable growth observed in the 1990's. The national herbal market value is estimated at US$ 600-800 million annually. However, the local herbal industry only captures 5-10% of the national market (Anon. 2001).Table 1. Import and export trends of medicinal plants in Malaysia (1992Malaysia ( -1997 Many medicinal resources currently used by the industry are imported, mainly from countries like India, Indonesia and China. Most of the local species used by the herbal industry are largely collected from the forests. Of these, only a small percentage is cultivated, with some still on a trial basis.There is a need to reduce the dependence on imports for the supply of quality raw There are many species of medicinal plants used in folk remedies by various indigenous peoples in Malaysia. The following table is a truncated summary of some of the medicinal plants used by the Malays in the northern parts of Peninsular Malaysia. A more complete list will be included in the final report. To prevent pregnancy (family planning) Globba pendulaHalia burung Rhizome To quicken the absorption of oil through skinThere are various repositories for medicinal plants in the country. Two are highlighted here for their consistent efforts in conserving medicinal plants: FRIM Ethnobotanic Garden and Rimba Ilmu in University Malaya are two such repositories where medicinal plants are constantly added to the existing living collections. Other conservation efforts are in the form of small herbal gardens in colleges, secondary schools and private companies. FRIM has a long-term plan to collect medicinal plants annually for conservation and research. Wherever possible, the same species from different localities will be collected, particularly for species with commercial potential.In collaboration with other government agencies, yearly expeditions are conducted to collect plant materials, with medicinal plants being one of the larger groups for such collection. The agencies participating in these expeditions include the Forestry Department, National University of Malaysia (UKM), University Malaya (UM), FRIM and NGOs such as the Malaysian Nature Society (MNS).Mongolia occupies an ecological transition zone in Central Asia where the Siberian Taiga forest, Central Asian Steppe, the Altai Mountains and the Gobi Desert meet together. These different ecosystems provide specific habitat for a variety of plant species, some of which are globally endangered. Although Mongolia has a low population density, its renewable natural resources are limited and the climate is harsh with great extremes of temperature, low precipitation and severe storm. Ecosystems are fragile and extremely vulnerable to many forms of economic exploitation. Thus, unsustainable use of crop and wild plant genetic resources and overgrazing occur in some parts of the country. There are signs that the pressure on the environment has exceeded permissible limits causing the degradation of plant germplasm diversity.Mongolians have ancient practices utilizing various medicinal plant species for their every day life to prevent and cure various human and animal diseases. Ancient famous travelers Marko Polo, Plano Karpini and a famous writer from Iran, Rashid Ad Din, collected a lot of evidences about the political and economic situation of Mongolia as well as how Mongolians cure different diseases and wounds from the war. Medicinal plants are also widely utilized for improving animal productivity and fertility. Medicinal plants contain biologically active components that allow full recovery from various ailments.Ancient literatures indicated that Mongolians used more than 200 traditional medicines derived from plants, animal organs and minerals. At present, more than 3000 plant species known for Eastern traditional medicine is under the focus of modern medical practices.According to the statistics, about 72% of Mongolian traditional medicines were developed from medicinal plants and plant parts, and other 28% are from animal and mineral sources. This figure shows an importance of medicinal plant species in Mongolian traditional medical practices. In Mongolian traditional medicines, diseases were divided into 16 categories and each category used certain number of different medicinal plants.A lot of literatures were written about Mongolian traditional medicine and medicinal plants but very few of them remained in our days. Most of the ancient literatures were published in Tibetan and traditional Mongolian script. The procedures of preparation for the different traditional medicines were developed mostly by the famous monks at that time.Between the 18th and 19th century, Russian researcher-botanists NS Turchaninov, A Bunge, EN Klements and famous traveler NM Prjevalskii started to study Mongolian flora, with some of their collected herbarium materials still existing up to the present.The systematic study on exploration including medicinal plant resources started since 1940s when the government of Mongolia invited Russian scientists led by Dr IATsatsenkin, AAUnatov and BIGrubov. AAUnatov focused on rare and useful plant species giving emphasis on plant species of medicinal value. The first time he identified most of the plant species with medicinal value in Mongolia was in his book \"Research on Mongolian flora in 25 years\".Since then a lot of research activities on Mongolian flora were successfully carried out identifying existing plant diversity, natural resources, population structure of useful and medicinal plants, their distribution and chemical composition as well as medicinal value, etc. Among them, the most productive event was a Joint Russian-Mongolian Complex Biological Expedition conducted since 1970. Over 30 years, large-scale integrated study on ecosystem has been performed involving highly qualified researchers of Russia and Mongolia. This expedition developed the first synthetic map of Mongolian flora and ecosystem which became the basis of further set of measures to establish the protected areas of Mongolia.As a result of research activity on Mongolian useful plant species, a significant amount of information has been gathered. However, there is still an urgent need to document the medicinal plant species location, existing population, places of conservation and their known traditional uses. This documentation would be necessary to identify priority medicinal plant species and setting up priority activities and policies on conservation, characterization and data sharing through national, regional and international collaboration.This report presents some of the efforts and perspectives of exploration and conservation of medicinal plant species in Mongolia.It is estimated that about 3000 species of vascular plants exist in Mongolia. Since 1950s, the country's researchers were actively involved in the research on determining the structure and diversity of Mongolian flora. The research topic mainly covered the systematics, development dynamics of plant flora, biological effects of useful plants, as well as cultivation practices of useful plants. Based on the floristic study entitled \"The Key to the Vascular Plants of Mongolia\" developed in 1955 by VI Grubov, Mongolian vascular plant flora consisted of 1876 species belonging to 552 genera and 97 families. Later studies (as of 1996) conducted by other Mongolian researchers put the latest figures at 2823 species, 662 genera and 128 families of vascular plants.In addition, the list included 150 vitamin-rich species, 200 with essential oils, 250 tanning matter, more than 200 with dye, 231 with flavanoid, 280 with alkaloid, 65 with cumarin and 68 species for sand movement control.There are still largely unexplored areas existing in the country, such as Khentii, Khubsugul and Altai Mountain, immediate areas of Onon, Ulz River and the Gobi Desert areas of Zuungar and Borzon. Therefore, the number of vascular plant species could increase to more than 3000 species.The largest known families within the vascular plant species include Clynelymus Newski (85 species), Oxytropis DC. (82 species), Astragalus L (80 species), Artemisia L(78 species), Saussurea DC. (44 species), Potentilla L (43 species), Salix L (41 species), Pedicularis L (33 species) and Allium L (32 species). Among the plant species with orthodox seeds, 348 are woody plants and 2095 are grasses of which 1765 are perennial and 330 are annual and biannual species (Figure 1).   species are being used for medical treatment, with 92 of them in high demand and used regularly (Attachment 1.)Among the medicinal plant species in the country, Glycyrhiza uralensis Fisch., Paeonia anomala L., Paeonia lactiflora, Rosa acicularis Lindl., Sophora alopecuroides L., Thermopsis lancelota L. and Thymus gobicum Tschern currently have high market value. These species have different medicinal effects and resource bases. Among them, Glycyrhiza uralensis Fisch., or Mongolian licorice, has been studied much more than any other medicinal plant as it has a comparatively wide distribution and production resources. Since 1974, Mongolian scientists determined 158 distribution sites of Glycyrhiza uralensis Fisch and identified eight sites with rich production resources. Mongolia has the potential to produce from 500 to 2000 tonnes of dry licorice roots annually. In fact, from 1970 to 1985, Mongolia has been exporting between 10-100 tonnes of the produce to China and Korea. From 1986 onwards, approximately 50 to 150 tonnes of root has been exported to Japan, Korea and China. The root of licorice contains substances like glycyrrhizin, flavonoid, saponin, vitamins, kamid, pectin, various minerals and tanning matter. These substances are known to prolong life expectancy and hasten the recovery from diseases of the liver, bile, stomach, pulmonary, heart, kidney and blood pressure. From licorice root extracts injection, glycyrrhizin can be obtained, which commands a very high price in the global market. On the other hand, the leaf, stalk and flower of licorice could be used as fodder for livestock. A kilogram of licorice leaves contains 0.52 feeding unit -a valuable source of protein. Also, it plays an important part in promoting cattle breeding, offspring twinning, and production of milk and wool products. Among the medicinal plants, the following species of licorice are in great demand but are also in grave danger of being lost in the wild: Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bge., Astragalus mongolicus Bge., Saposhnikovia divaricata (Tursz.) Schischk. Aconicum kusheroffii Reich., Acorus calamus L., Saussurea involucrata (kar.et Kir.) Sch.Bip., Dactylorihisa., Orchis militaris L., Sophora flavescens Soland., Lilium pimilum Delibe., Cistanche deserticola., Artemisia caespitosa Ldb., Zygophyllum Potaninii Maxim., Adonis mongolica Sim., Paeonia lactiplora Pall., Rhodiola quadrifida (Pall.) Fisch.et Mey., Cynomoriun soongaricum Rupr., Gentaina algida Pall. These plants are widely used by local people for food, traditional medicine and livestock fodder and are usually harvested without any official permission and control.There are a number of medicinal plant species in Mongolia that are becoming very rare and in imminent danger of genetic erosion due to environmental degradation, drastic changes in climatic conditions and intensified human activity, especially the uncontrolled and illegal mass harvesting of wild medicinal plants.Recent studies indicated that about 45% of the total pasture area in the country was seriously affected by drought resulting in 5-10 times reduction in productivity. From 1970 to 2000, the number of pasture plant species existing in the semi desert slopes was halved while desertification expanded by 20 000 to 30 000 ha. Harvesting of medicinal plants by cash-needy collector is increasingly intensified since the value of these materials are recognized as cheaper, and more accessible for domestic and foreign markets. In 2000, 2000 tonnes of medicinal plant materials belonging to 100 species were harvested illegally and sold outside of the country. On the other hand, during the last 10-15 years, activities on conservation and rehabilitation of medicinal plant genetic resources weakened. Thus, resources of wild medicinal plant species are being threatened, resulting in serious erosion of genetic diversity and ecological instability.In the second edition of the Mongolian Red Book released in 1997, the number of registered threatened plant species was placed at 128, up from 86 species registered as endangered in 1987. Threatened are 75 medicinal plant species (with 20 species facing serious threat of loss), 11 natural food (6 seriously threatened), 16 industrial (4 seriously threatened), 55 ornamental (10 seriously threatened) and 15 species for sand movement control (5 seriously threatened).To address this problem, the Mongolian government issued Protocol No. 105 on 29 May 2002, launching the national programme on the \"Conservation and sustainable use of rare plant species of Mongolia\", with the aim of rehabilitating the country's dwindling wild medicinal plants genetic resources and promoting the sustainable extraction and use of rare plant species.Exploration and introduction activities of medicinal plant genetic resources were always conducted within the framework of studies of rare and useful plant genetic resources in Mongolia, which began in the 1920s.Several Mongolian-Russian joint expeditions played important roles in the study of rare and useful plant genetic resources, including plants of medicinal value, in Mongolia. Some of the most significant expeditions conducted include:• The Russian Geographical Association Expedition (1923Expedition ( -1935));• The Russian-Mongolian Agricultural Expedition (1940)(1941)(1942)(1943)(1944)(1945)(1946)(1947)(1948)(1949)(1950);• Expedition on assessing virgin land resources (1960)(1961);• Expedition on hydrology assessment (1959)(1960)(1961)(1962);• Russian Expedition on Forest Management (1958Management ( , 1970));• Mongolian-German biological joint expedition (1963)(1964)(1965); and• The Joint Russian-Mongolian Complex Biological Expedition , considered to be the biggest undertaken ever.The Flavonoids have been found for the first time in 25 species of Mongolian flora, such as Brachanthemum mongolicum, Ajania trifida, Potaninia mongolica, Cariopteris mongolica and Ammoppiptanthus mongolicus. The composition of flavonoids has been studied in 80 species while the composition of coumarins has been analyzed in more than 10 species. These include Angelica dahurica, A.decurrens and Haplophyllium dahuricum. The quantitative content of arbiutin in the leaves of Bergania crassifolia and Vaccinum vitis-idea has also been studied.High contents of essential oil have been found in some species of Artemisia, Cnidium multicale (Turcz) Ledeb., Ferula bungeana Kitag., Sphallerocarpus gracilis (Bess.ex Trev) K.Pol., Hissopus cuspidatus Boiss., and Schizonepeta annua (Pall) Schischk. Tanning substances with good tanning quality have been found in the bark of Larix sibirica, of some species of Salix, and in the rhizome of Bergenia crassifolia. Some species with high dye-stuff quality were found in the families of Fabaceae Lindl, Ranunculaceae Juss and Plumbaginaceae Juss.From 1970 to 1999, the distribution of over 200 useful plant species were determined and the production resources of over 30 useful and medicinal plants as well as cultivation technologies of 10 species including medicinal plants like Adonis mongolica Sim, Glysyrrhiza uralensis Fisgz, Hippophae rhamnoides L. and Thlaspi arvense L. were developed. During the same period, the distribution of medicinal plant genetic resources in the country, as well as productivity, biomorphology and issues of introduction and cultivation practices, were studied. Future research on medicinal and other useful natural plants would focus more on determining ways to introduce and cultivate medicinal and other useful plants as well as on the establishment of ecological and economical criteria for new introductions.Medicinal plant germplasm conservation and the study on introduction of new species, populations and cultivars of medicinal plants in Mongolian condition as well as research on cultivation practices of wild medicinal plant species were mainly carried out by the Institute of Botany of Mongolian Academy of Science and partly by the Plant Science and Agricultural Research Training Institute (PSARTI).Since 1972, 29 cultivars and 539 species belonging to 116 families of different useful plants, both from local and foreign sources, have been studied in the Institute of Botany, from which a total of 443 species have been identified as promising. At the moment, 9250 plants consisting of various grasses, medicinal, food, fodder and other useful plants are planted in 126 plots at the State Botanical garden and are being used for introduction studies.Under the National Plant Genetic Resources Project, PSARTI was able to organize a small collection of traditional medicinal plants consisting of more than 192 accessions belonging to 113 species and 52 genera.At present, the only possible way of effective conservation of wild medicinal plant species is in the protected areas of Mongolia. Only few major medicinal plant species like Glysyrrhiza uralensis Fisgz, Allium species, Rhosa asicularis Lindl, Rhodiola quadrifida Pall, Paeonia lactiflora Pall, Papaver nudcaule L, Lonicera altaica Pall, etc are conserved in some designated institutions. A network of protected areas should be managed according to the sound principles of ecology and conservation biology. Apart from this, legal policies must be drafted and enforced to protect species and habitats outside the protected areas. Mongolia has taken substantial steps towards achieving these requirements. At present, there are a total of 38 protected areas all over the country, covering some 17.4 million hectares, or about 11.1% of Mongolia's total land area. It has also passed several laws on plant protection and conservation. Such legislation has led to the establishment of 12 strictly prohibited areas, 7 national conservation parks, 13 nature reserves and 6 natural and historical monuments (Table 1).More than 20 projects are currently being implemented in Mongolia dealing with plant structure, life forms, their distribution, abundance, breeding, anatomy, physiology, embryology, paleontology, ecology and biology. The use of about 133 threatened plant species were legally prohibited, 128 species registered in the Red Book and about 40% of the total distribution area of threatened and rare plant species were included in the special protected areas.The findings of 30 years of studies on medicinal plants are contained in about 4000 scientific publications, including 40 volumes of the series on \"Biological Resources and Natural Conditions of Mongolia\". The published materials of previous expeditions served as basic references for 30 post-doctorate and over 60 PhD theses.On the basis of the investigations on rare and useful plants including medicinal plants, PhD theses on the following topics have been completed:• The biologo-ecological peculiarities of sexual forests and their significance;• The biologo-ecological peculiarities of genus Thermopsis;• The biology, ecology and morphology of Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch and its introduction, acclimatization techniques; and • The dynamics of accumulation of chemical substances of plants of dry steppes and desert of Mongolia.At present, over 60 ancient literatures developed by Mongolian monks and doctors (maaramba) about the principles, secrets of Mongolian traditional medicine and medicinal plants used in traditional medicine are kept in the State Central Library. Most of these literatures mainly described the use of medicinal plants for making traditional medicines. There are about 19 major books published since the 1960s on rare and useful plants, including medicinal ones (Attachment 2). There are also quite a number of research materials on medicinal plants published in different periodicals, research journals and conference proceedings. A number of related unpublished materials have also been produced through the years.The very first acknowledged book on useful plants in Mongolian flora was written by AA Unatov in 1949-1950 entitled \"Mongolian Useful Plants\". Although this book was not published and widely disseminated, it was nevertheless stored in the State Library and is still considered as the foremost reference material for medicinal plants researchers.There are also several research institutions, universities, government agencies, private companies involved in the research, protection, conservation and commercial utilization of major medicinal plants species in the country. However, at the moment, there is no designated research organization devoted solely on medicinal plants research.The departments of chemistry and biology of major universities such as the Mongolian State University, Mongolian State University of Agriculture, University of Medical Sciences, University of Science and Technology and Pedagogical University, and Institute of Veterinary Science are mainly involved in the theoretical and fundamental studies of medicinal plants. Their research topics mainly focused on identifying biological active substances and medicinal value.Research organizations like PSARTI and the Institute of Botany focus on collecting and conserving medicinal plant species. Researchers are oriented towards systematic, diversity study; distribution and resources in nature; and on elaborating ways for introduction and cultivation of medicinal and other useful plants.The Ministry of Nature and Environment implements government's policy on natural protection through two agencies: the Department of Environmental Control and the Department of Nature, Forest and Water Resources.Activities and approaches 1. The Mongolian State University of Agriculture will implement the project, through collaboration with the Plant Science and Agricultural Research Training Institute (PSARTI), the Institute of Botany and other research institutions, government and private agencies 2. Information to be generated would be categorized and three groups would be formed according to the following:• Exploration and resource identification of medicinal plants Nepal is a country rich in biodiversity. The country's estimated 7000 vascular plants include more than 700 plants of medicinal value, with several of these having economic, cultural, aesthetic and religious significance. The age-old practice of using these plant resources in traditional medicines is still prevalent in the rural areas of the country. Medicinal and aromatic plants also serve as a source of livelihood to the majority of the rural people in the countryside. The collection, transportation and general trade in medicinal plants are important sources of revenue and foreign exchange to the government, as well as provide off-farm employment for people in remote rural areas. But the continuous over exploitation of these resources, without consideration for their optimum regeneration and productivity, has led to the deterioration of the condition of these important natural resources, especially in the wild. For this reason, conservation and rational utilization of medicinal plants are considered as key issues in the national forestry sector, with significant amounts of financial resources earmarked for natural resource management. However, unless the socioeconomic condition of poor people who are dependent on these resources is improved, the genetic erosion of these precious materials would continue due to over extraction and destruction of habitats. Historically, the exploitation of plant genetic resources has never ensured benefit sharing among the people dependent on them. Hence, it is essential to introduce a sustainable use concept as per the objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which has three objectives: (a) the conservation of biological diversity; (b) sustainable use of its components; and (c) fair and equitable sharing of the benefit arising out of the utilization of the genetic resources.The important role of medicinal and aromatic plants in improving the plight of the rural poor is recognized by His Majesty's Government, which is reflected in the various plans and strategies developed through the years. Economic development plans started in the mid-1950s, focusing on developing policies for conservation and utilization of forests and its components. From the mid-1960s, policies emphasized the need for survey, exploration, production and/or commercial farming and processing of herbs.The Forestry Sector Master Plan (1989) endorsed the development and management of medicinal plants as one of its six primary programmes. The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992) focused on two areas with regards to medicinal plants and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), specifically income and employment generation for rural marginalized people; and ecosystem and biodiversity conservation.The 9th Five-Year Plan (1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002) recognized the role of medicinal plants in alleviating poverty of the rural people. The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) greatly emphasizes the development of medicinal plants as a platform for poverty reduction. Rare and high-priced medicinal herbs are top priorities for domestication, processing and marketing. The plan also emphasizes the amendment of existing rules, laws, and by-laws that are creating uncertainties and obstacles for the development of this sector. The National Conservation Strategy (NCS) of 1988 also emphasized the importance of conservation and management of medicinal plants, not only for alleviating poverty of the rural people but also to help safeguard the economic health of the country. The 1993 Nepal Environment Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP) recommended reorienting forestry research to include underutilized or lesser-known forest species for specific user groups, industries and private individuals. The Forest Act of 1993 and the Forest Rules of 1995 were enacted to ensure the development, conservation and proper utilization of forest resources and contain provisions for the protection of 18 species of plants (Attachment 1). The Nepal Biodiversity Strategy of 2002, published recently by His Majesty's Government and the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, has also recognized NTFPs, which includes medicinal plants, as \"national treasures\". The main components of the NTFP programme include:1. Immediate measures to solve problem regarding collecting, marketing and related concern; 2. Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants; and 3. Development of industries based on medicinal and aromatic plants and other NTFPs.The major forums held in connection with developing the country's medicinal plants and NTFPs generally recommended that concerned government agencies and stakeholders collaborate to achieve greater impact. To address this, His Majesty's Government formed a 13-member Herb and NTFP Coordination Committee, chaired by the Minister of Forests and Soil Conservation, for inter-sectoral coordination. The committee is comprised of representatives from the National Planning Commission (NPC), related government agencies, the Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST) and Asia Network for Small-Scale Bioresources (ANSAB). The committee is mandated to: 1. Formulate national policies and relevant laws for sustainable development and proper utilization of herbs and NTFPs; 2. Finalize strategic activities and maintain inter-agency coordination; and 3. Coordinate conservation, research, technology development, market management, training and publicity.The second meeting of the committee was held on 14 March 2003, during which 30 highly important medicinal plants were identified for priority conservation, domestication and processing.Since its inception in 1960, the Department of Plant Resources (DPR) under the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation has been undertaking activities to promote the conservation and efficient utilization of medicinal plants. DPR has been engaged in surveying and identifying the medicinal plants resources of the country, developing agrotechnologies for medicinal plants, providing basic information on medicinal plants to related industries, developing protocol on tissue culture propagation, conducting phyto-chemical analyses, improving quality control, developing standards, issuing certifications and developing processing technologies for medicinal plants. The department has been able to develop agrotechnology for 11 medicinal and aromatic plants both indigenous and exotic species (Attachment 2). Protocols to propagate 12 important medicinal and aromatic plants (Attachment 3) through tissue culture have been developed. This may prove useful in the mass propagation of seedlings of economically valuable medicinal plants. DPR has also identified the essential oil content of 219 species of aromatic and medicinal plants belonging to 60 plant families by hydro-distillation. At present, the DPR is running a separate government-funded \"Herbs Promotion Project\" for germplasm collecting, conservation, cultivation, technology development, training and information dissemination focusing primarily on selfemployment generation (entrepreneurship) to reduce poverty, especially among the country's rural population.Nepal understands the role and importance of all life forms in effective environmental management and the socioeconomic development of the country. Sustainable use of natural resources is instrumental in improving the living standard of the people. Recognizing this, Nepal agreed to be a signatory to various legally binding international instruments such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on Climate Change, Desertification and Biological Diversity. The conservation of biological diversity in Nepal is not only a national priority but also a global commitment. However, there is a need for developing a mechanism for sustainable use of biological resources so that the country could be in a position to contribute to global biodiversity protection and be able to attain the goal of sustainable development.Biodiversity conservation policy has been deeply linked with the forest and agricultural policies. Policy focus on forest management has been redirected towards community participation, where people are considered as guardians, decision makers and ultimate beneficiaries of conservation measures. About 61% of the government-owned forestlands have been identified for potential turnover to local communities, with 20%, or about 0.85 million ha already handed over to some 11 000 communities. An equally large number of forest areas are already being managed by communities, albeit informally, hoping that the government will someday formally recognize their efforts and hand over to them the management of these forest areas.At the community level, local people are the true resource managers with a vested mandate of maintaining the resources on which they depend. Awareness creation, coupled with training, capacity building and technical inputs, are essential in managing medicinal plant resources for sustainable economic development and biodiversity conservation.National parks and equivalent reserves (collectively called protected areas) of Nepal cover about 18.3% of the country's total land area and are considered as major conservation sites of wildlife habitats and ecosystems. These 2.7 million ha of conservation areas are also the in-situ sites for medicinal plants, which are restricted to harvesting, utilization and other forms of commercial extraction.DPR, as mentioned, has long been engaged in the study and management of medicinal plants. It has already developed expertise in various fields such as identification, conservation, propagation, cultivation, management, processing and marketing. Recently, a training model to promote medicinal plants is being implemented in the Daman area with the support from the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). It is hoped that the training will provide not only the technical know-how for the cultivation of potential medicinal plants but also provide sufficient skills for processing and marketing. The cultivation of medicinal plants in the community-managed forests will help ensure that medicinal plant species would grow and naturally evolve, providing sufficient plant materials for export and industrial purposes. At least for now, this seems to be the only feasible way to ensure the continuous supply of quality plant materials without further endangering their survival.Before the CBD came into existence in 1992, there was no legal basis for traditional communities and countries to claim rights for sharing benefits from products developed using their resources and traditional knowledge. The CBD has recognized the sovereign right of the state over their biological resources (Article 15(1)) and also advocated to respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities and encourage the equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of their resources (Article 8(j)). The convention also encourages the parties for sharing benefit by formulating legislative, administrative, or policy measures arising from the use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge. In order to meet Nepal's obligation under the provision of the CBD and to protect the country's rights as per the above provision, a draft bill on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing has been forwarded to parliament for approval. The draft bill proposes a modality to protect indigenous knowledge and practices of the local community with respect to the utilization and conservation of the biological and genetic resources. It also proposes the establishment of an autonomous body, to be called the National Biodiversity Authority of Nepal (NBAN), to act as facilitator between access seekers and genetic resources and traditional knowledge providers. The draft bill is formulated with the following guiding principles:1. Nepal has the sovereign right over her in-situ and ex-situ biological resources; 2. Ownership rights over genetic resources is based on the location of such resources, whether they are on government-owned land, in local communities or in private landholdings; 3. Formation of community register to protect the rights of the local communities, indigenous knowledge and practices associated with the biological and genetic resources from being patented, subjected to the Intellectual Property Rights or other forms of monopoly rights; and 4. Prior informed consent of the holder of the genetic resources is mandatory before NBAN can enter into any form of contract or agreement with a third party applicant.NBAN would act in a transparent manner and would involve all concerned government line agencies and other stakeholders by seeking their comments in any proposal requesting export of genetic resources for commercial purposes.Negotiating committees, comprising of genetic resources experts, high-level government officials, owners and representatives of local communities, would draft the agreements to be entered into by the NBAN.In order to protect the country's traditional knowledge on medicinal plants from being illegally patented, Nepal is currently engaged in the registration of knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities to promote their wider applications in conservation. A pilot project has been launched in Kaski and the adjoining areas of Western Nepal. The results are very encouraging. The registration will also help in developing new methodologies for the sustainable use of biodiversity for providing alternative means of livelihood to rural people. There is now a growing interest from pharmaceutical and biotechnical industries of many countries to conduct a systematic research on wild medicinal plants for new products such as medicines, agrochemicals (pesticides and herbicides), flavors, fragrances and industrial enzymes. Biodiversity prospecting is an emerging field for testing biological materials for economically valuable biochemical purposes, which could bring potential benefits to Nepal. The DPR, in this respect, is planning to conduct bioprospecting of plant resources based on ethnobotanical information of the biodiversity register. In addition to biodiversity registration and bioprospecting, the following would be done to achieve the goal of conservation and sustainable use: 1. Explore possible options and measures to mitigate overexploitation of medicinal plants from the wild, thereby increasing their production potential in their natural habitats; 2. Develop and improve present collection and harvesting technologies; 3. Undertake inventory of wild medicinal plants to assess their yields from the natural habitats; 4. Develop domestication and cultivation methodologies on commercially important as well as threatened, vulnerable and endangered medicinal plants species; 5. Promote a participatory approach to the management of medicinal plants; 6. Develop mechanisms to ensure equitable distribution of benefits from collectors to users; and 7. Provide technical training to collectors to improve their skills and efficiency in collecting, cultivating, harvesting, processing and marketing of medicinal plants.The The Philippines is endowed with rich and varied flora, which are known to have medicinal properties since ancient times. The native herb doctor or herbolario or arbularyo of olden times were skilled in the use of local plants to cure varied illnesses.Most arbularyos learned the secret of herbal doctoring from their fathers; their knowledge on folk medicine handed down from one generation to another. It is also speculated that Chinese traders, who came before the Spaniards, introduced their herbal medicines. When the Spanish priests and missionaries first arrived in the Philippines during the early 16 th century, they brought with them their experience on the use of herbs as medicine but they also relied on arbularyos in the use of local plants with therapeutic values. These priests authored treatises and manuscripts, which are considered to be the earliest published records on medicinal plants in the Philippines.Arbularyos still practice herbal healing in the countryside. There are hilots or midwives who also practice traditional healing but they mostly assist in childbirth. While they cannot really compare with the skills of a trained doctor of medicine, the important role that they play in delivering primary health care in rural areas is acknowledged.The practice of traditional medicine and use of medicinal plants flourished because of prohibitive cost of medicines and health care and the problem of their inaccessibility. Medicinal plants are easily available because they grow everywhere and can be easily propagated. The right use of such plants lessens dependence on costly and imported western drugs.The utilization of medicinal plants evolved from the concoction of herbs mixed by the arbularyos to medicinal plants sold and used nowadays as home remedies, over the counter drugs, and raw materials for the pharmaceutical industry in the Philippines. Most of these plant drugs are sold in powder form as herbal teas, capsules, sachets and other nutritional supplements. The market demand for raw materials of popular medicinal plants such as lagundi (Vitex negundo L.), akapulko (Cassia alata L.), tsaang gubat (Ehretia microphylla Lam.), ampalaya (Momordica charantia L.) and sambong (Blumea balsamifera L. DC.) for the production of drugs and other health care products far exceeds that of production. Professor E Quintana of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) estimated that a net profit of Php 268 000/year (US$ 5000) could be generated from a one hectare production of lagundi. So, venturing on this activity can be a worthwhile enterprise and could be a potential source of income.Health care and cosmetic products from plants such as avocado, papaya, and cucumber are becoming popular among consumers and their production can be profitable businesses. Some plants such as ilang-ilang and patchouli contain essential oils, which are essential components of fragrances and perfumes.Medicinal plants also contain chemical compounds, which have been developed into important drugs. An estimated 119 pure chemical substances from less than 90 plant species are used as medicines worldwide. In the Philippines, 200 medicinal plants have identified phytochemical content but there could be more plant species that are sources of pharmaceutical or drug products. They are potential nontraditional export products because of the increasing demands of the international pharmaceutical industry. The use of a new range of products is becoming a trend internationally and locally. These products or \"pharmafoods\" provide both pharmaceutical and nutritional benefits because they contain saponins, flavonoids, anthocyanin and a number of micro-and macronutrients. They may enhance the body's biological defense mechanism, can be eaten as part of the daily diet and are naturally occurring.Some medicinal plants can also provide flavors and spices (black pepper and ginger) while several species are good sources of bio-pesticides.The Philippines is estimated to have more than 1500 plant species that have known medicinal value. In a survey conducted by UPLB in 766 barangays or villages in 12 regions of the country, 1687 plants (based on common names) were found being used by local traditional healers or arbularyos. The results of this research are available in a CD entitled \"Folk Uses of Potential Medicinal Plants: A Survey\". Researchers found that about 130 plants were in common use in the three or four provinces surveyed. Most plants have more than one purported medicinal use. Leaves are the most commonly used part and most healers use them as decoction. It is highly possible that there are more plant species that can be classified medicinal given the Philippines' rich and diverse flora.Only 120 medicinal plants have been scientifically validated for safety and efficacy. The National Integrated Research Programme on Medicinal Plants (NIRPROMP) of the Philippine Council for Health Research and Development (PCHRD) of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) studied 10 priority medicinal plants. As a result of this programmeme, the Department of Health (DOH) recommends the use of these plants to the public. A series of recommendations on how to grow and process these medicinal plants have been prepared and disseminated to the public. This could be the reason why they are now becoming popular among people in urban areas when their application used to be limited to the countryside. These plants and their uses are: The projects on medicinal plants, including the agricultural component of NIRPROMP, that were monitored by PCARRD focused on plant production, propagation and post-harvest handling and storage of plant parts for medicinal purposes. The following are some of the important projects and summary of their coverage and results:•Fifty-five provinces involving 807 barangays in 416 municipalities and 1264 healers were surveyed. More than 1000 plants were found as being used by local traditional healers, mostly as decoction. Leaves are the most commonly used parts.Indigenous herbal plants (133) were collected in four areas in the Ifugao Province in the highlands of northern Philippines. The medicinal plants were inventoried and their uses documented. Organoleptic evaluation showed some changes occur during drying. The colour of most drugs changed to brown, blackish-green and gray. There was also reduction of aroma in the case of aromatic drugs. Microscopic evaluation of the powders showed fragments of the lamina, with sections of the veins and mesophyll layers and very numerous parenchyma cells. Prismatic to cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, when present, are distributed in isolated groups of parenchyma cells.Insecticidal Activity in Shrubs (UPLB). Results showed that ethanolic extracts of of lagundi, timbangan, tsaang-gubat, makabuhay and niyogniyogan caused 20% mortality at concentration of 0.1 or 0.2 g/ml on R. dominica, S. zeamais, T. castaneum, and cutworm. The feeding tests showed that the first three plants were growth inhibitors while the last two plants were antifeedants. A minimum concentration of 0.01 g/ml of oregano, lagundi, and sambong volatile oil extracts applied topically had toxic effect on D. cingulatus, M. domestica, R. dominica and S. zeamais.Highlights (CavSU). This research documented the production and postproduction practices, production areas and local practices in growing herbs and spices in Cavite. Growth and yield of selected herbs were evaluated using commercial and self-prepared potting mixes. Processing techniques were tested and two herbal products were processed: herbal tea of four plant species and herb-flavored honey using eight plant species.Center). Extracts of plants with medicinal values were subjected to bioassay test and observed for any root inhibition effect. Initial screening showed that Cinnamomum mercadoi, Coccinia grandis, and Tinospora rumphii contained active compounds that inhibited root growth and consequently caused weeds to die.The project was undertaken to identify and develop botanical pesticides for use by small-scale farmers within the context of integrated pest management programmemes. A survey and documentation of farmers' use of indigenous pesticidal plants were done as well as collecting and identification of these plants. The safety of selected botanical pesticides, namely, \"makabuhay\", \"luyang dilaw\", \"tubli/derris\", was evaluated in terms of their toxicity to laboratory rats and aquatic organisms such as fish, snails and tadpoles.There are many research projects on medicinal plants that were or are being monitored by PCHRD. As these are mostly on pharmacologic/toxicologic studies and other related research, they will not be tackled in this paper. Interested researchers can see the list of these projects and their abstracts in the Health Research and Development Information Network (HERDIN) in the PCHRD Web page (http://pchrd.dost.gov.ph).The  The project on \"Documentation of Conserved Medicinal Plants of Philippines\" formally started last February 2003. Some of the reports have been incorporated in this country paper, particularly in the topic \"Medicinal Plants Collection and Conservation\". The search on published and unpublished work is already ongoing. Inquiries along this line have been sent to the 14 Regional Consortia of PCARRD. The member agencies of the different consortia are now working on the databases of their agricultural R and D programmes to classify the institutions with research work on medicinal plants. Detailed information will be retrieved during the second quarter of 2003. As an offshoot also of the IPGRI-PCARRD consultative meeting, the three sectoral councils of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), namely PCHRD, PCIERD and PCARRD met and discussed the recent developments in medicinal plants R&D framework. One of the components to be initiated is the compilation of research on conserved medicinal plants.Partial list of Philippine medicinal plants and their known uses (Source: De Padua et al. 1999;PCHRD 1999)  Sri Lanka has the highest plant diversity per unit area than any other country in Asia, containing over 3700 species of flowering plants and over 350 species of ferns. Over 28% of the flowering plants and 18% of the ferns are endemic to the island. Among the native flora of Sri Lanka, there are well over 500 species that have been and are still being used in traditional medicine, with 10% of these endemic to the country. Apart from that, there are over 900 non-indigenous medicinal plants used in folk medicine. Of all the medicinal plants used in Sri Lanka, 79 species are considered as threatened. These 79 species are either endemic to the island or have a limited distribution over the Indian sub-continent. The populations of medicinal plants are adversely affected by over harvesting and lack of care to their habitat when collecting plants from the wild. Over harvesting of plants is mainly due to the high demand for Ayurvedic medicines. Currently, 60% of the demand for medicinal plants is supplied through imports. Authentic information on medicinal plants is not readily available. Usually, the sources of knowledge are contradictory (e.g. several plants are identified under different names and uses by practitioners of traditional medicine) or are scattered and fragmentary. Shortage of skills on ethnobotany has also hindered effective conservation strategies. However, Sri Lanka is fortunate to have a rich reserve of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants due to a large number of practitioners of traditional medicine. This important source of knowledge is currently under threat as little effort has been made to understand and document their knowledge. Unless a concerted effort is made to record the knowledge of plants used by practitioners of indigenous medicine, it is very likely that vital information on plant uses, their characteristics and habitats will be lost.Over 1400 plants are used in indigenous medicine in Sri Lanka. Although western medicine is the predominant system of health care in the island, many people still use indigenous medicines for some illnesses such as common cold, body aches, minor fractures, etc. Many of these plants are common trees and shrubs (Attachment 1).Over 80% of the medicinal plants used locally in Sri Lanka are harvested from the wild. It is only recently that people are turning to the commercial cultivation of medicinal plants. Since most of the domestic supply of plants come from the wild, this has led to over harvesting of populations from their natural habitats, with some plants (e.g. Munronia pinnata) becoming endangered due to indiscriminate collecting. In addition, increased demand for agricultural land and unsustainable cultivation practices such as shifting cultivation and slash and burn cultivation destroy the natural habitats of medicinal plants.Through the World Bank-funded Sri Lanka Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants Project, five Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs) were established at Ritigala, Naula, Rajawaka, Kanneliya and Bibile. The villagers in and around these conservation areas have been trained in cultivation and enrichment of medicinal plants in the wild and extension services to promote the sustainable harvesting of plants. This has resulted to increased nursery capacity and cultivation of plants in home gardens and farms in those areas. The medicinal plant garden at Ganewatte also serves as an ex-situ conservation centre for medicinal trees, shrubs and herbs.The Ministry of Indigenous Medicine supports 34 Ayurvedic hospitals including a teaching hospital in Colombo and a research hospital at Navinna. There is an estimated 10 000 certified Ayurvedic practitioners in Sri Lanka.The ministry has also established five medicinal plant gardens: Navinna (6.5 ha); Kotte (1.5 ha); Bathgoda (30 ha); Girandurukotte (68 ha); and Pattipola (11.5 ha).The Sri Lanka Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plant Project have also established several medicinal plant nurseries and conservation sites.Several universities like those located in Peradeniya, Colombo and Ruhuna are currently working on the chemistry, medical properties and cultivation of medicinal plants.The national botanic gardens of the Department of Agriculture have a 21-ha medicinal plant garden and small medicinal plant collections in three main botanic gardens in Peradeniya, Gampaha and Hakgala.Common trees and shrubs used in traditional medicine in Sri Lanka (Source: Ashton et al. 1997)  Vietnam is a tropical country rich in plant genetic resources, with more than 3300 plant species classified as medicinal plants. Throughout its history, Vietnamese traditional healers have used medicinal plants to prevent and cure certain types of diseases through indigenous medical procedures.In 1987, the Government of Vietnam started to implement a national programme entitled \"Conservation of Medicinal Plant Genetic Resources\". After 15 years, the programme has been largely considered a success, although it had many difficulties with funding, international collaboration and information sharing.Vietnamese traditional medicine holds an important position within the health care system of the country, especially among the rural population. Many of the medicinal plants used have both dietary and medicinal uses. Very little is known about the health benefits of regularly consuming small quantities of medicinal plants, moreso their curative properties. Medicinal plants are used as direct traditional therapeutic agents or as raw material for pharmaceutical products. Furthermore, chemical structures derived from plants can be used as models for synthetic compounds.Studies show that there are about 10 500 vascular plant species in Vietnam, some even put the figure at around 12 000 species, out of which more than 4000 are considered as medicinal plants. Medicinal plants play an important role in the natural biodiversity of the country as more than 80% are found in the wild and only 20% are being cultivated. Conservation of medicinal plants in the country, therefore, is a national priority.During the 1970's, North Vietnam produced thousands of tons of herbal medicines from at least 350 plant species for both export and local markets. Since 1975, over extraction of wild medicinal plants led to the near disappearance of some valuable and rare species such as Coscinium fenestratum, Fibraurea spp., Staphania brachyandra, Cibotium barometz, Homalonea occulta, Panax vietnamensis, Coptis chinensis, Stephania tetrandra, Morinda officinalis and others. In 1988, the Ministry of Science and Technology approved a national programme entitled, \"Conservation of Medicinal Plants Genetic Resourses\", with the Institute of Materia Medica (IMM) as the lead implementing agency. The main objective of this national programme is to stem the tide of overexploitation and eventual destruction and disappearance of rare medicinal plants species from their natural habitats.To date, a network for conserving medicinal plants endemic to Vietnam has been formed, which consists of 14 units from Sapa (>1500m ; 22ºN), Tam Dao (>800m ; 20ºN), Van Dien (50m ;20ºN), Thanh Hoa (80m ;19ºN), Bach Ma (1000m ;17ºN) and Moc Hoa (5 -10m ; 15ºN). The network categorized medicinal plants into five groups:(1) endangered varieties; (2) commonly used varieties; (3) newly introduced varieties; (4) traditional varieties; and (5) under \"experiment.\" Many approaches have been used to conserve these medicinal plants, including:1. Ex situ conservation through 15 ecological gardens in the country; 1. To provide opportunities for medicinal plants researchers to share information on the status of medicinal plants research in their respective countries; 2. To update the work plans of participating countries in the IPGRI-RDA medicinal plants project; and 3. To identify priority areas for research and mechanisms for collaboration in project implementation and fund generation.The meeting was opened with welcome remarks (Annexes 3, 4 and 5) by Dr Oh Dae-Geun, Director, IICC, RDA, Dr Percy Sajise, Regional Director of IPGRI-APO, and Dr Syed Kamaruddin, Chief Executive Officer of MHC. Dr Pons Batugal, project coordinator, presented a brief background and summary of the IPGRI-RDA medicinal plants project at the beginning of the meeting. The project coordinator also delivered a paper by Dr Keith Chapman of FAO on the status of medicinal plants in the Asia Pacific region. The participants then presented papers on the status of medicinal plants research in their respective countries and the progress of work being carried out under the project. Important areas of concern in project implementation were also discussed and recommendations were proposed.1. Nine participating countries shared information on the status of medicinal plants research in their respective countries through presentation of papers and discussions. 2. Workplans of each participating country were updated and schedules for report submission were agreed on (Table 1). 3. Priority research areas for future collaborative research were identified by representatives of the nine participating countries. Tables 1 and 2 will be sent to Bangladesh, China, Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Thailand to be accomplished and sent back to IPGRI. It was also agreed that the project coordinator will visit Fiji, PNG and Thailand to discuss the project with project leaders in June 2003. 4. The status of project implementation was assessed. 5. The nine participating countries drafted recommendations for the meeting for consideration by IPGRI and RDA. 6. In the visit to the IPGRI-APO office, the project participants and IPGRI staff discussed concerns and issues of participating countries related to the project and project implementation. This discussion clarified many of the issues and allayed many of the doubts of project participants who, thereafter, committed to collaborate fully in the project. 7. The nine participating countries agreed to establish a Medicinal Plants Research Network as a high-priority collaborative activity. 8. The participants agreed that IPGRI should develop other related project proposals to implement agreed priority collaborative research.Each country should endeavour to undertake or promote the following: 1. Conduct an economic analysis on at least one species of medicinal plant per country. This study will demonstrate the importance of medicinal plants and will seek to generate research support from national governments; 2. Promote and develop a systematic approach for in situ conservation of medicinal plants. This will standardize the approach, enhance in situ conservation effectiveness and generate comparable data that can be shared; 3. Promote ex situ conservation of rare and endangered popular species by protecting the germplasm and making them available for commercial and educational purposes; 4. Promote the cultivation of commercially important medicinal plants.Preference for rare/endangered species and species that are unique to the country should be selected if these are marketable; 5. Classify medicinal plants according to uses as human medicine, veterinary medicine, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, tonics and aromatherapy; 6. Identify and promote medicinal plants for maintaining and improving health; 7. Augment collection of medicinal plant species from high-elevation areas; 8. Exert a special effort to get forestry research agencies to include medicinal plants in their forest ecosystem survey and documentation; 9. Improve the quality of products derived from medicinal plants; 10. Promote the establishment of herbal gardens in institutions, which could commit resources for maintenance, as well as in individual farmers' homes; 11. Participating countries such as Vietnam, India, Indonesia and Malaysia, which have successfully piloted these initiatives, are requested to document their respective \"success stories\" in 1-3 page write-ups and share this information. These will be disseminated to the other participating countries to serve as models for their own initiatives; 12. Formulate methods and criteria for choosing priority medicinal plants according to use. These protocols and information will be shared with participating countries; 13. Establish and formalize a National Committee and a network for medicinal plants research in each participating country. This will enhance collaboration and generate support from national and external funding agencies; 14. Conduct discussions, through e-mail, on how this project would benefit poor people. Examples from participating countries could be disseminated to share practical experiences; 15. Conduct consultation meetings with concerned researchers, non-government organizations, government agencies, development organizations, health agencies and private sector entities to identify priority research and development projects in medicinal plants. IPGRI will help as needed; 16. Develop, test and pilot models for an effective benefits sharing scheme on medicinal plants based on the principles of the CBD and WTO, where consistent and applicable; and 17. It was also suggested that Malaysia include Sabah and Sarawak in this project since these two states are rich in medicinal plants genetic diversity.1. Share publications and other public awareness materials on medicinal plants with other countries. 2. Develop a medicinal plants descriptors list (to be included in Phase 2 of the project). 3. Design and develop a medicinal plants database and identify those who can access this database (to be included in Phase 2 of this project). 4. Develop an herbal homepage to disseminate research results, current and future events and activities on medicinal plants. A task force was formed to make a recommendation on this item consisting of representatives from South Korea, India and the Philippines.5. Establish one regional reference library on medicinal plants in one of the partner institutes of the region, which will be tasked to collect and disseminate related publications and information on medicinal plants. 6. Environmental parameters (meteorological data) of field genebanks should be generated and made available to the project by partner institution. 7. Establish a world-class exhibition, training and information center for medicinal plants in each participating country. 8. Include complete contact information of directors/heads of medicinal plant genebanks and collections in each country report to be submitted. 9. Include the address and complete contact information of concerned agencies working on medicinal plants in each country report to be submitted.  This research meeting is based on the agreement between the RDA and IPGRI on 5th December 2001, and the main purpose of the agreement is to carry out the inventory, documentation, characterization, research for medicinal plants, and to develop a network among the Asia-Pacific countries. I am convinced that this IPGRI project on medicinal plants will provide mutual benefits to all the participating countries.This meeting aims to provide opportunities for medicinal plants researchers to share information on the status of medicinal plants research in their respective countries. It is hoped that through our collective and conscious efforts, we could contribute significantly to achieve this objective. I also hope these collaborative endeavors may be sustained in the future.I should like to express our deep appreciation to Dr Percy Sajise, Regional Director of IPGRI-APO and Dr Pons Batugal, the coordinator of this project. Let me also thank the invited participants who, despite the long journey and the threat of SARS, have gladly attended here today, to share with us their valuable experience and expertise.Considering the warm hospitality and the excellent preparations offered to us by the competent staff members of IPGRI-APO, there seems every reason to believe that this will be a very successful meeting. I would like to extend my sincere thanks and congratulations to the organizers of this meeting for a job well done.I wish you all a pleasant stay in this beautiful city, Kuala Lumpur, and a fruitful attendance to NATPRO 2003.Thank you and good morning.Welcome remarks by Dr Percy E Sajise, Regional Director, IPGRI-APO At the outset, and in behalf of International Plant Genetic Resource Institute, I would like to thank Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea represented this morning by Dr Oh for the valuable help in providing the funds and technical assistance in the implementation of this Medicinal Plants Project which is participated in by 14 countries in the Asia Pacific. I would also like to express our appreciation for the willingness of the 10 national coordinators of this project from 10 participating countries to come and participate in this meeting in spite of the threat and risks with this SARS problem. However, it is also an opportunity to point out the importance of medicinal plants in relation to this problem. For example, in our recent trip to China, we were provided with some herbal tea medicine by our colleagues, which are known to improve the body's immune system against the cold virus which may have been responsible for our escaping the experience of having to cope with SARS. But that will be another story. Unfortunately, four country coordinators could not participate in this meeting for various personal and official reasons although they have indicated officially their intention to participate in the project.As you may already know, medicinal plants from the commercial point of view, is a source of very big revenue involving pharmaceutical products. To small and poor households in many parts of the Asia, Pacific region who have problems of access to medicine, medicinal plants, which are part of their homegarden, forms an integral and valuable part of their repertoire of biodiversity. My son, who is a medical doctor, attests to this during their experience in conducting rural medical service as part of their medical training. He was assigned to a remote village in the Philippines and he observed that poor village households is almost fully dependent on these medicinal plants for coping with ordinary health problems as it is difficult and expensive to go to the town pharmacies to gain access to these medicines. I am sure this same scenario is repeated many times in remote and marginal households of many Asia-Pacific villages. However, much of this knowledge are indigenous or traditional knowledge handed down from one generation to another and the commercialization of medicinal plant materials are in fact initially dependent on these kinds of knowledge system which has been formalized in many other parts of the world such as China, India, and in many of the countries involved in this joint medicinal plant project of IPGRI and RDA.For a long time, because of the sensitivity of Intellectual Property Rights issues attached to the commercial value of medicinal plants, IPGRI did not venture to promote collaborative PGR research in this area. However, realizing that this is a very important component of plant genetic resources for national and global development, we finally initiated a project which was fortunately taken up for funding by RDA. The beginnings of our effort in medicinal plants is premised on the fact that there are areas of importance which countries can collaborate and which can only enhance its conservation and use without dwelling on the issue of IPR. One is the development of a common data and information base which will allow countries to know what they have in common or what they have which is distinct without removing the materials from where it is-this is this project. What will come out of the knowledge of what you have and what you are interested in will hopefully become the basis for future collaboration and spin off activities which are acceptable and of mutual benefit. Another one is this concern for the rapid dwindling of medicinal plants collected from the wild, i.e. tongkat ali, in Malaysia. IPGRI would like to look at this problem and get engaged in a collaborative research with interested countries on sustainable use and regeneration of these materials. We will be able to do this kind of research consistent with the provisions of Convention on Biological Diversity and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture as medicinal plants are excluded from the list of crop species in the IT and will still follow the arrangements under CBD which emphasizes national sovereignity as the jurisdiction for medicinal plants.I am very happy that RDA and IPGRI can jointly conduct this meeting with our partner countries and wish you all a successful meeting. This meeting is also being held back to back with the Natural Products Exposition 2003 which will provide you with more important insights on the role of plant genetic resources in natural products and agroindustry for economic development.Please enjoy your stay in this beautiful country and may I reiterate a wish that we will all have a successful meeting.Thank you and good day.","tokenCount":"32041"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ebe391d968b6aa849a48a84e923fc0e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7386f37d-488b-49e1-8c91-ab681b06f29d/retrieve","id":"-105030630"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2ff8a942-d43f-4b7d-8b01-4901611ee916","pagecount":"2","content":"• Different techniques are available to deal with the heterogeneity of farmers; we compared a quantitative statistical typology based on a survey dataset and multivariate analysis, and a qualitative participatory typology based on informal group sessions and interviews with local stakeholders. • Both statistical and participatory typology approaches identified farm types based on farm size and endowment, but overlap was limited due to differences in set-up, sampling and data collection methods. • The participatory typology included additional groups of female and \"farmless\" farmers, who are important in the communities, but were not included in the survey for the statistical typology. • Both typology approaches face biases related to sociocultural issues that distorted information collection, including gender, power and status differences. • The two typology approaches analyzed here were complementary in their results. Both are useful to handle farm heterogeneity and are relevant and effective in research-for-development (R4D) projects.The dynamic nature of farms and households should be addressed more explicitly.A practical way of dealing with smallholder heterogeneity is to stratify farming systems into subsets or groups according to specific criteria. Farm typologies attempt to perform such groupings. The purposes can be: to analyze agricultural trajectories in selection farms, to target and scale-out innovations, and to scale-up impact assessment of projects. Statistical methods are based on quantitative data, according to standard scientific protocols with the choice of variables usually determined by the researcher who attempts to make the results \"objective\" and reproducible and transferable.Participatory typologies incorporate the qualitative/ subjective processes (motivations, meaning-making etc.) behind the patterns of behavior, relationships and strategies of the participants into the typology. The participants usually determine the criteria for grouping and the attention paid to the local context and it is rooted in local reality.The challenge is to find an effective and efficient method of grouping of farms to contribute to the selected typology purpose. Therefore, we compared a survey-based, statistical typology and a participatory typology method in the Northern Region of Ghana.The statistical typology resulted in six clusters, with farmers categorized on the basis of resource endowment, production orientation, and land-use among other factors. The participatory typology identified five main farmer types, of which three were based on farm size and endowment, while the two other types comprised female and \"farmless\" farmers, who are important in the communities, but not included in the statistical typology.The overlap between the two typologies was limited due to differences in the grouping approach and units of analysis, inaccuracies in the data, changes that occurred between the two data collection efforts, misidentification of survey farm households for classification in the participatory typology, and deletion of farms as outliers during statistical analysis. The underlying causes of these shortcomings were mostly related to socio-cultural issues that distorted information collection; including gender, power and status difference.  We conclude that although statistical techniques warrant objectivity and reproducibility in the analysis, the complexity of data collection and representation of the local reality might limit their effectiveness in selection of farms and of innovation targeting and out-scaling in R4D projects. In addition, while participatory typologies offer a more contextualized representation of heterogeneity, their accuracy can still be compromised by socio-cultural constraints.For both statistical and participatory typology approaches, the dynamic nature of farms and households, with changes that can occur either gradually or as discrete events, should be addressed more explicitly to remain relevant and effective in research-for-development projects.• Application of a combination of quantitative statistical qualitative participatory methods are recommended for farm and household grouping and clustering to reach a systematic, contextual and locally grounded differentiation in farm and household types.• Ample attention for the local socio-cultural patterns and constraints is needed to create awareness of the influence on the results of typologies. This concerns both quantitative and qualitative methods. • More research and application of type-related dynamics of farms and households in needed. This can contribute to understanding of technology adoption and likely development pathways.The Africa RISING survey for the Northern Region captured information from 80 farm households across the three case study communities. Although the sample size was rather small, it revealed the diversity in local farming systems. From the pool of farm household-level information, twelve variables describing household, labor, land use, livestock, food security and income dimensions were used. Two multivariate statistical techniques were employed sequentially: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to reduce the dataset into non-correlated principal components and two-step cluster analysis for partitioning the PCA output into clusters (hierarchical, agglomerative clustering followed by non-hierarchical, partitioning). ","tokenCount":"742"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3072c68a5410805800df8e96529e1757","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e90869cd-549d-47d8-8d5b-a21fb416448c/retrieve","id":"-931981501"},"keywords":["requerida , .:",",S.':: 0.,:.:. '-'\\ <\\-,'.'.\"",". .~,\\:\",\\. V,'",".... . .' .' ~\"., ,,''''' \"'>,,' , .,\\. ~,\\ ~\"<t----:------\",\"',' capa .} ---\"-_.:'-::,-=.,\"?,","~\" A,"],"sieverID":"f4edceb3-fa13-466f-9e3a-97a1da9cb937","pagecount":"15","content":"El fangueo es un sistema de preparación de la tierra en el fango, es decir en el agua. Ha sido usado desde hace muchos siglos en el oriente donde se usaron búfalos de agua y también hombres para hacer el trabajo.El empleo de maquinaria agrícola comenzó en Japón después de la II Guerra Mundial con tractores pequefios. Los tractores grandes fueron usados al principio en Italia y España y esta práctica llegó a Cuba pocos años después.En la nivelación en seco, los caballones son construidos después de la nivelación, pero con la nivelación bajo agua es necesario construírlos antes de que se pueda comenzar la nivelación.Las etapas a seguir son las siguientes:• 1. La construcción de los caballones en los lugares apropiados y la inundación de la tierra.2. Roturar la superficie de la tierra 3. Mover la tierra suelta de los altos a los bajos. Suelos en donde se puede empicar el fangueoNo todos los suelos son aptos para la utilización del sistema de fangueo, especialmente si se hace con tractores grandes. Si hay demasiada pendiente, los caballones estarán 'muy juntos y no quedará suficiente espacio\"para trabajar entre ellos. Para hacerlos más separados, hay que mover mucha más tierra y no va a quedar nada de la capa superior de la tierra sobre un gran porcentaje del arca. Las tierras más satisfactorias para el fangueo deben tener las siguientes características:1. Topografía bastante plana (menos de 0.7\"/0). Si los caballones están muy junios, los tractores no ti'enen suficiente espacio para dar vueltas.• 2. Capa superior de suficiente profundidad (más de 20 cm. ).• Normalmente no se recomienda quitar más de 7 a 8 cm de la capa supe .. riol' ó se puede causar mermas en la producción, deficiencias de mícronutrientes ó puede exponer subsuelos mucho más permeahles.,3. Textura arcillosa. Se req\\lieren texturas pesadas para soportar los tractores e implementos durante la preparación y las cosechadoras mc-e&nkas durante la l'ecolccción.En la Tabla 1 y Tabla 2 se indica el efecto del declive sobre la distancia horizontal entre lor; caballones. En estos cálculos el intervalo vertical usado es de 10 cm entre caballones.•,. , 5. Tractores grandes con roiotillers y rastra de púas o rastras niveladoras ele agua, de alce hidráulico G, Combinaciones, de preparación en seco con implementos convencionales y nivelación en el agua con rastras de púas En suelos, muy arcillosos y compactos, hay que inundar el campo de 6.1 a 2 selnanas antes de comenzar las labores y usar equipo J11Uy pesado para , í'Obtener suficiente penetrad ón de la superficie para aflojar la tierra. Con 7.el sistema de fangueo en estos campos, solamente se necesita destruír cada segundo caballón y prepara y nivela entre los caballones restantes.(Ver Fig. 2). Con este sistema se puede reducir el area de los caballones aproximadamente un 50\"! •• Si se eliminan todos los caballones, se pueden reconstruÍr en líneas rectas o casi rectas que Sean más o menos paralelas a algunos de los caballones viejos (Ver Fig. 3). Puesto que se va a nivelar entre caballones no es necesario preocuparse por las pequeñas diferencias de nivel. Para usar este método, es necesario tener un buen mapa topográfico, que pueda brindar la orientación técnica necesaria.En la Fig. 4, se puede observar uno de los sistemas usados en la finca del ClAT.En este sistema no Se necesita un mapa topográfico y cualquier agricultor puede adoptarlo. La única desventaja es que se construyen normalmente más caballones de los que se necesitan y el trabajo de los tractores es menos eficiente por razón del tiempo perdido dando vueltas. El manejo del agua en el sistema de fangueo es diferente al sistema tradicional solamente en el hecho de que el agua se usa para hacer la preparación del suelo 'en el primer método y en el segundo método se prepara en seco. La preparación dcbajo del agua se hace con poca lámina para obtener i una mejor incorporación dc las malezas y la nivelación sc hace con más agua puesto que las olas de agua creadas por los implementos trabajando dentro del agua, ayudan en la nivelación y el transportc de la tierra suclta.En suelos alcalinos y sal inos la preinundación por un períodO de 3 a 4 semanas antes de la siembra puede evitar la deficiencia de hierro y lavar las sales, si se drena antes de hacer la siembra. En los suelos fuertemente ácidos. la preinundación también es importante, porque se climina el problema de toxicidad de aluminio y se reduce el peligro de toxicidad de hierro pero nó Se puede dejar Secar el suelo mucho antes de la siembra, porque vuelve a surgir el problema.En suelos muy densos, la preinundación es necesaria para ablandar la tierra y permitir una mejor penetración de los implementos. En suelos livianos, hay que comenzar a trabajar muy pronto después de la inundación y a hacer la preparación en pocos pases o los tractores se hunden.Tan pronto como el suelo esté preparado, hay que hacer la siembra , ya que se puede enmalezar otra vez y se requiere más trabajo. En la siembra es preferible usar semilla pregerminada puesto que se establece más pronto y se puede inundar mas ó menos una semana antes que las siembras hechas con semilla seca. La siembra se hace dentro del agua y el agua se retira del campo de12 a 24 horas después. Es necesario drenar todas las depresiones para evitar fallos de germinación en el campo. Si estos no se drenan, las temperaturas altas pueden matar las plántulas o después de 5 a 6 días dc desarrollo, las plántulas pueden flot,ar sobre la superficie del agua y el viento las lleva a los bordes de los caballones.Cuando las plántulas tienen de 8 a 9 cm de altura pueden tolerar una inundación de 1 a 2 dÍás si es necesario un control de malezas. Después de que las malezas han sido controladas con inundaciones Ó con herbicidas, a los 25 días de edad más o menos se hace la primera aplicación de nitrógeno y en seguida la primera inundación permanente. Si no es posible inundarlo cn seguida, es recomendable inundar el campo y después aplicar el nitrógeno dentro del agua. En la Tabla 3 se encuentra el efecío sobre los rendimientos causados por la demora en la inundadón, después de aplicar el nitrógeno.  11.  O?J-\\2\\1V\\nEn elA T ha sido posible producir buenos rendimientos de yuca, frijol, soya, sorgo y maíz después de algunos cultivos de arroz por el método de fangueo.• \" -.,,,• • \" .. . Algunas de estas areas se consideran entre las más fértiles de la finca.BIBLIOGRAFIA ","tokenCount":"1098"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3928925925.json b/data/part_1/3928925925.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d9b0e1e25f278340f22d314326f4b12c0f59a9e9
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5245d0213df2b7a0ae76fbcfa6278d01","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8828878e-82d5-4c3c-822a-9d3586f912f4/retrieve","id":"296669045"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3a244fec-d71f-48e1-b101-8cf615206a84","pagecount":"1","content":"El Banco de Germoplasma del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) a cargo del Programa de Recursos Genéticos (PRG), tiene la responsabilidad de salvaguardar la biodiversidad de especies alimentarias de cultivares modernos y sus parientes silvestres, para el estudio de los mismos ya que su variabilidad genética representada como una biblioteca de genes son indispensables para adaptarse a las nuevas y cambiantes condiciones medioambientales. Actualmente el banco del CIAT posee las colecciones más grandes a nivel mundial de cultivos de importancia económica en los sistemas alimentarios tropicales: Fríjol (37.938 accesiones de Phaseolus spp) y Forrajes tropicales (22.694 accesiones de leguminosas y gramíneas) almacenadas en forma de semilla y Yuca (6.155 accesiones de Manihot spp) conservadas in vitro.Anualmente se distribuye un promedio de entre 5.000 y 6.000 muestras a nivel nacional e internacional. Esta distribución se realiza de acuerdo a un conjunto de reglas y marcos legales definidos dentro del Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (TIRFAA) y las normas fitosanitarias establecidas por el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA).El PRG-CIAT tiene como premisa que todo material distribuido debe estar libre de patógenos de tipo cuarentenario y es responsabilidad del Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma (LSG) informar sobre el estado fitosanitario de las accesiones conservadas así como de los materiales sembrados en los diferentes lotes de regeneración de semilla. • Muestras de campo e invernadero.Finalizado el diagnóstico para los tres grupos de patógenos, los resultados son registrados mediante el uso de un dispositivo móvil tipo Tablet. La infomación registrada migra a la base de datos del PRG mediante conexión WiFi donde queda disponible para su consulta.• Certificación fitosanitaria del germoplasma de Yuca.Los resultados obtenidos en el diagnóstico son registrados en la base de datos Grin Global, y seguidamente envíados por el coordinador del LSG al área de conservación in vitro.Con base a los resultados de diagnóstico, el PRG ha logrado en los últimos cinco años un promedio de distribución de 2.816 accesiones de fríjol , 425 accesiones de forrajes tropicales y 718 de yuca. Todas las accesiones disponibles fitosanitariamente, han sido el resultado de la investigación continúa realizada por el LSG en la implementación de nuevas metodologías de diagnóstico altamente sensibles, que permiten una identificación rápida y eficiente de los agentes patógenos cuarentenarios. Adicional a esto, el laboratorio cuenta con un sistema de gestión de calidad basado en la norma ISO/IEC 17025 y hace parte de la Red Nacional de Laboratorios de Diagnóstico y Ensayo registrados ante el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA), ente gubernamental nacional, con el fin de garantizar los resultados obtenidos durante el proceso de diagnóstico.Cuervo, M., Gutiérrez A., Ramírez J.C., Martínez A.M., Niño D.P., (2019). Manual de procedimientos del laboratorio sanidad de germoplasma Gestión de Calidad. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Cali-Colombia. Cuervo, M., Martínez A.M., Niño D.P., Ramírez J.C., Gutiérrez A., Dorado E.F. (2017b). Manual de procedimientos del laboratorio sanidad de germoplasma certificación sanitaria del germoplasma de yuca. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Cali-Colombia. Cuervo, M., Martínez, A.M., Niño, D.P., Ramírez, J.C., Gutiérrez, A., Dorado, E.F., Muñoz, L., (2017a). Manual de procedimientos del laboratorio sanidad de germoplasma Certificación Sanitaria del Germoplasma de Frijol y Forrajes Tropicales. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Cali-Colombia. FAO, (2009). Tratado internacional sobre los Recursos Fitogenéticos para la alimentación y la agricultura. Roma, Italia. FAO, (2014). Normas para bancos de germoplasma de Recursos Fitogenéticos para la alimentación y la agricultura. Edición revisada. Roma, Italia.1. Coordinadora Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma, CIAT. E-mail: m.cuervo@cgiar.org 2. Asistente de Investigación Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma, CIAT. E-mail: j.c.ramirez@cgiar.org 3. Asistente de Investigación Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma, CIAT. E-mail: a.m.martinez@cgiar.org 4. Asistente de Investigación Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma, CIAT. E-mail: d.nino@cgiar.org 5. Técnico de Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma, CIAT. E-mail: l.m.mallarino@cgiar.org 6. Técnico de Laboratorio de Sanidad de Germoplasma, CIAT. E-mail: a.gutierrez@cgiar.orgPoster presentado en PCCMCA -64 Reunión Anual PCCMCA, Tela Atlántida, Honduras, C.A., 29 de abril -3 de mayo de 2019.","tokenCount":"654"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3936837871.json b/data/part_1/3936837871.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b456104d105cca9eae00423fbe3e563e6ac2205a
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7c14fe9ac88e024913d74b5b998b60c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d8c7f9b4-9bf5-4c2d-98e7-6e7aeed4d2c4/retrieve","id":"-282049710"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ad59845a-50ff-4793-96ac-29b2654f1585","pagecount":"22","content":"Le projet Accélérer les impacts de la recherche climatique du CGIAR pour l'Afrique (AICCRA) est un projet qui contribue à créer un avenir africain adapté face au climat, axé sur la science et l'innovation dans l'agriculture. Il est dirigé par l'Alliance of Bioversity International et le CIAT et soutenu par une subvention de l'Association internationale de développement (IDA) de la Banque mondiale.Worou O. N., konte O., Ndiaye O., Niang M., Yessoufou N., 2023. Segments de prises de décisions des politiques sectorielles suite aux prévisions saisonnières de l'ANACIM en 2023. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA). En termes d'évaluation, il a été décider de mener une étude dont l'objet est d'élucider 1) dans un contexte plus large, la contribution potentielle des prévisions saisonnières dans la nécessité de gérer les risques climatiques dans les secteurs phares de développement ; 2) les prises de décisions placées dans un continuum de réception des prévisions aux processus de décision pertinents.L'étude vise à analyser les prises de décisions dans lesquelles l'information climatique a été prise en compte, en retraçant les processus de prise de décision et la communication décisionnelle au niveau de différents secteurs de développement notamment i) la sécurité alimentaire, ii) l'hydrologie et la gestion des ressources en eau, la prévision et la prévention des catastrophes et, iii) la santé. Ceci dans le but de : a-Identifier l'importance des prévisions saisonnières dans les secteurs clés du développement ainsi que les utilisateurs et les usages ;b-Identifier des études de cas concrets dans les institutions ciblées où les prévisions saisonnières constituent l'information pouvant éclairer une nouvelle décision, confirmer la validité d'une décision déjà prise ou bien amener ces institutions à ajuster une décision antérieure ; c-Définir les modalités de prise de décisions basées la gamme de flux d'informations disponibles dans la communication des prévisions et prenant compte de la nature probabiliste de l'information climatique ;Pour faire face à ces phénomènes et permettre aux services météorologiques de bien jouer leur rôle, le Cadre National pour les Services climatiques (CNSC) a été mis en place dans le but aussi de contribuer à la réduction des pertes des biens et des personnes dues à ces aléas. Pour un pays comme le Sénégal, la majeure partie des activités économiques tourne autour de l'agriculture et de l'élevage qui sont tributaires de la variabilité pluviométrique. Ainsi, la mise à disposition de l'information sur le climat pourrait les aider à mieux se préparer et à mieux réagir. En 1998, sous l'impulsion de l'ACMAD, le Forum Régional sur les Perspectives Climatiques en Afrique de l'Ouest est mis en place. Ce Forum, regroupant les différents centres au niveau mondial et sous régional et qui se tient avant le début de chaque saison des pluies, a pour objectif de dégager les perspectives (en termes de tendance) de la saison à venir afin de fournir aux décideurs, aux producteurs des outils d'aide à la prise de décisions stratégiques. Cette année, le forum régional s'est tenu du 24 au 28 avril 2023 à Niamey (Niger). Il s'agissait de donner les tendances sur le cumul de la saison Juillet-Août-Septembre, des différents paramètres caractéristiques de la saison des pluies et les tendances sur les régimes hydrologiques des différents bassins fluviaux.A la fin du forum, il est recommandé aux pays participants d'organiser à l'échelle nationale un atelier de partage des résultats issus de ce forum.La liste de présence de l'atelier de diffusion des prévisions saisonnières soutenu par AICCRA et organisé par l'ANACIM à la date du mardi 9 Mai 2023 a été l'une des sources utilisées pour identifier les cibles de l'étude. Cette source a été complétée par des personnes ressources pour identifier d'autres acteurs potentiels utilisateurs des informations climatiques.L'outil de travail principal a été le guide d'entretien élaboré de manière à permettre de collecter toutes les informations pertinentes auprès des différentes acteurs. Le guide a été administré principalement à des personnes ressources occupant les postes stratégiques. Ainsi au niveau des acteurs étatiques, nous avons eu à interroger des responsables de la Direction de l'agriculture, la Direction de l'élevage, de la Direction de la gestion des ressources en eau. Au niveau des acteurs des organismes de la société civile et des acteurs non étatiques, nous avons pu échanger avec des responsables du CNCR, de l'ASPRODEB, un responsable des assurances agricoles (CNAAS).Les entretiens ont été combinés avec une large revue documentaire à travers des articles scientifiques, des études, des blogs et par les différents supports trouvables au niveau de site internet au niveau national, régional et international en lien avec la problématique de l'information climatique.Les résultats sont présentés à travers trois grands volets à savoir i) la sécurité alimentaire, ii) l'hydrologie, la gestion des ressources en eau, la prévision et la prévention des catastrophes et, iii) la santé.Le Sénégal a une agriculture dépendant essentiellement des précipitations. De ce fait, les changements climatiques induisent des risques notamment liés à la disponibilité en eau dans le temps et dans l'espace. La dégradation des conditions climatiques et les épisodes répétés des extrêmes climatiques (sécheresse, inondation, vagues de chaleur, etc.) ont souvent des conséquences néfastes sur les populations, la flore (productions végétales) et la faune (animaux d'élevage en particulier). Cette situation a poussé l'État du Sénégal à s'inscrire dans une dynamique d'adaptation au changement climatique. A travers les documents définissant les stratégies de politique agricole notamment le PRACAS1 (volet agricole du Plan Sénégal Émergent 2014-2035) et la LSPDA2 du MAERSA (Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Équipement Rural et de la Souveraineté alimentaire), nous pouvons situer l'utilisation des informations climatiques dans les rubriques relatifs aux services agricoles pour l'amélioration des productions au niveau i) du paragraphe relatifs à la prise en charge des risques liés aux aléas et aux changement climatiques du PRACAS II et, ii) au niveau l'Objectif Spécifique (OS3) de la Lettre Sectorielle de Politique de Développement de l'Agriculture (LSPDA) du Ministère de l'agriculture.Le PRACAS intègre fortement l'utilisation de l'information climatique dans son dispositif de mis en oeuvre. Le    La  En outre, à travers leur adhésion au GTP et leur participation dans la production des bulletins, les différents membres révèlent leurs besoins de prise de décision basées sur des informations fiables et éclairées. Cela se traduit par la large diffusion du bulletin souvent sous un format adapté suivant les zones par les différents acteurs surtout au niveau des départements où on a des GPT départementaux qui fonctionnent.Les différentes informations collectées révèlent les services de l'agricultures à travers surtout les Services Départemental de Développement Rural (SDDR), les services de l'élevage au niveau départemental, ainsi que les ONGs avec des projets en cours, ont massivement partagé les informations climatiques auprès des différentes Organisations de producteurs (CNCR, ASPRODEB, FONGS, RESOPP, etc.) dont les membres intègrent largement ces informations reçues dans leurs prises de décision dans la production agricole et la gestion des animaux.Pour faciliter l'accès aux informations relatives aux services d'informations climatiques une application Web d'aide à la prise de décision dénommé « AgdataHub » (amélioration du site web du GTP) a été mis en place en collaboration avec l'institut international sur l'élevage ILRI. Cette plateforme qui est une digitalisation du bulletin du GTP contient des informations climatiques, agronomiques, hydrologiques, pastorale, prix des produits dans les marchés ruraux etc. Les différents composants de Agdatahub (http://65.0.242.164/gtp/), à savoir les bulletins consultatifs sont en cours de numérisation pour soutenir l'intégration de toutes les composantes de génération d'informations et actions proposées liées à ces informations.    ","tokenCount":"1225"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3953260060.json b/data/part_1/3953260060.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..2f6f7b06f1dd6550aeb2b68120878e5b241f2fd7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/3953260060.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9001264e4c82bf63381736c7d476878e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4349f242-d34d-4895-be33-76e5fd63cf63/retrieve","id":"908184489"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"14bf0262-b3e1-4199-b9cb-bdc4e4b02f63","pagecount":"1","content":"The IBLI color legend describes the state of the index in a simple and easy to understand format Index announcements will be presented in the format shown below The actual index percentage will only be presented when the index is above 10% (Red or Black color) as this is where the index number signifying the increasing loss of livestock becomes important for insurance payouts Insurance payouts are made if the index is above 15% at the end of dry seasons in March and October Index Based Livestock Insurance Color Legend Green Good Regime Stable: Here, the division in question is within a good regime and is characterized as stable. This means that the forage conditions are above normal and are either improving or at least have not worsened over two consecutive months. Index readings do not relate to livestock mortality due to forage scarcity.Good Regime Worsening: While the division in question is characterized by better than average forage cover over the past year, the situation has been consistently worsening within the past two months (that is to say that the past two months the forage situation has been lower than the long run average). Index readings do not relate to livestock mortality due to forage scarcity.Bad Regime Moderate: The sum of forage available over the past year has dropped below the long-run average. However, while the division in question is under considerable stress, the model predicts less than 10% average livestock mortality. At these levels the model is not as accurate in predicting losses as they are not yet widespread.Bad Regime Accute: Average livestock deaths predicted to be between 10 and 15%. At this level, model predictions become more precise. The situation is quite serious but not yet classified as severe. Indemnity payout will not be triggered and individuals are expected to cater to this level of losses.Bad Regime Severe: The drought is now severe. Forage scarcity has been pronounced over a long period and greater than 15% of livestock in the area are predicted to have died. Indemnity payout will be triggered if conditions persist throughout the season up to the potential payout period.","tokenCount":"355"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/3955416933.json b/data/part_1/3955416933.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f993d82a062a111a354a9cf6268b768709f77414
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+++ b/data/part_1/3955416933.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"997b416f80fee5fa5f1c7491ee26859a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b4ca612b-14a2-47ea-93cb-a1747b485d2a/retrieve","id":"1017988376"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f9e9397b-a4d3-4e4e-ac23-8e52380bb022","pagecount":"62","content":"Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT)For the years ended as of December 31, 2011 and 2010Under an agreement with CIAT, signed on 5 May 1987 and ratified by Law 29 of 18 March 1988, the Colombian Government recognizes CIAT as a not-for-profit international organization and grants the Center certain prerogatives, including exemption from Colombian taxes.(expressed in thousands of U.S. dollars)The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), working in collaboration with hundreds of partners across the developing world, is dedicated to developing technologies, innovative methods, and new knowledge that better enable farmers, mainly smallholders, to improve their crop production, incomes, and management of natural resources.CIAT is a CGIAR Consortium Research Center. CGIAR is a global research partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for sustainable development. CGIAR research is dedicated to reducing rural poverty, increasing food security, improving human health and nutrition, and ensuring more sustainable management of natural resources.It is carried out by the 15 centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in close collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, and the private sector.Note 2: Summary of major accounting policies a.The Center prepares its financial statements, except for cash flow information, under the accrual basis of accounting.Beginning February 2006, the Center prepares its financial statements in accordance with the new accounting policies and reporting practices prescribed by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for international agricultural research centers. These policies were established for Centers to fully adopt and comply with all relevant IFRS. The major accounting policies followed at CIAT are summarized below:Under the accrual basis of accounting, transactions and events are recognized when they occur (and not when cash or its cash equivalent is received or paid) and they are recorded in the accounting books and reported in the financial statements of the periods to which they relate. Expenses are recognized in the Statement of Activities on the basis of a direct association between the costs incurred and the earnings of specific items of revenue.CIAT's financial statements are stated in U.S. dollars. Those assets and liabilities (but not including supplies, spare parts, property, and plant and equipment) denominated in other currencies are translated at the exchange rate in effect at the end of each financial period. Grants received in currencies other than U.S. dollars are recorded at market exchange rates in effect at the time the grant is received or, if outstanding at 31 December, at the market rate of exchange in effect at the year's end.c.Inventories of materials and supplies are stated at cost, using the moving average price method. Cost represents the purchase price of supplies and spare parts, plus freight and handling charges. Materials in transit are statedInvestments acquired with the purpose of disposing from them within one year or less after their acquisition date are to be classified as current investments. Furthermore, investments classified as current, as distinguished from cash equivalents, are those that are acquired with original maturities of more than three months but not exceeding one year.Investments acquired with the purpose of keeping them for more than one (1) year as from their acquisition date are to be classified as long-term investments.Incomes and expenses in currency other than U.S. dollars, as well as those related to properties, spare parts, plants, and equipment, are initially recorded at the official exchange rate on the dates of the transactions. Profits and losses arising on exchange are included in the results of operations .Interest, dividends, losses, and gains relating to financial instruments are reported in the Statement of Activities as expense or revenue.Cash comprises cash on hand, petty cash funds, currencies awaiting deposit and local or foreign currency deposits in banks which can be added to or withdrawn without limitation and are immediately available for use in the current operations.Cash equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that are both: i) readily convertible to known amounts of cash; and ii) so near their maturity date that the risk of changes in value due to changes in interest rates are insignificant.The CIAT investment policy is established by the Finance Team, approved the the Mangement Team and the CIAT Board of Trustees. Investments are initially recorded at their acquisition cost (including brokerage and other transaction costs) if they were purchased, and fair value if they were received as a grant. Investments in equity securities with readily determinable fair values and all investments in debt securities shall be measured at fair value as of the date of the Statement of Financial Position. Investments received as grants from donors are to be recorded at their fair market value.\"Accounts receivable -donors\" are classified as follows:Grants in the form of inventories are measured at fair value at the time of receipt.These are claims held against donors for the future receipt of money, goods, or services. Receivables due from donors can arise from: Unrestricted grants which are due as a receivable by the Center and amounts due from restricted grants that have been negotiated between a donor and the Center. p p p p p p p g g g at invoice cost.Inventories held at the end of the financial period are stated at cost or net realization value, whichever is lower. Sugar cane inventory is quantified according to the real costs invested and the average age of each of the cultivated hectares.Property, plant and equipment acquired through the use of restricted grants are recorded as assets and fully (100%) depreciated, and the depreciation expense is charged directly to the appropriate restricted project in the same year of acquisition.Unrestricted Grants: Receivables from unrestricted grants are recognized in full in the period specified by the donor.Restricted Grants: Receivables from restricted grants are recognized in accordance with the terms of the underlying contract. Restricted Grants include restricted projects, Intercenter Activities, Challenge Programs, and CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs). The following table indicates the useful lives and estimated salvage percentages of the Center's fixed assets:The in trust contract signed with the Colombian Government for the land on which CIAT has its Headquarters was renewed until July 2015. This contract may be extended thereafter by mutual consent. At the end of the contract, CIAT is to return the land with its improvements, buildings, and installations, free of any kind of judicial actions or embargoes and without receiving any compensation. This land is not considered a contribution to \"property, plant and equipment\".All new facilities provided by host countries to the Center or constructed for the use of the Center, which will revert to the host country in the event the Center ceases to operate, are recognized as assets.Subsequent expenditures relating to property, plant and equipment that has already been recognized are added to the carrying amount of the asset only if the expenditure improves the condition of the asset beyond its originally assessed standard of performance. All other subsequent expenditures are recognized as expenses of the period where incurred.Depreciation of assets owned by the Center is computed by the straight-line method over the asset's estimated useful life, except assets acquired with restricted grants. The basis for computing depreciation is the asset's acquisition cost, less its estimated salvage value.Acquisitions of property, plant and equipment costing less than US$1,000 are expensed, excluding purchases of computers and Information technology equipments. Computers and IT equipments costing above US$500 are capitalized.Property, plant and equipment acquired through non-monetary grants are recognized at fair value at the date of the grant. Such grants are presented in the Statement of Financial Position as Deferred Revenue and are taken to account as revenue on a systematic and rational basis over the life of the asset.Furniture and equipment:   The liability is recognized based on the results of the actuarial evaluation report. Actuarial calculations involve inheriting risk and are based on various assumptions which may differ from the actual circumstances in the future.Undesignated net assets, the use of which is not designated by CIAT Management for special purposes.Temporary net assets are those that are the result of hedging operations accrued but not realized with the objective to protect the budgeted exchange rate.Unrestricted grants in currencies other than U.S. dollars are recorded at exchange rates in effect at the time of receipt or, if outstanding at December 31, at the exchange rate in effect at the year's end.The grants, whether restricted or unrestricted, are recognized until there is reasonable assurance that the Center will comply with the conditions attach to the grant.Restricted grants are those received from a transfer of resources to the Center in return for past or future compliance to the operating activities of the Center.Net assets comprise the residual interest in an entity's assets after liabilities are deducted. They are classified as either undesignated or designated and temporary:These funds have been provided by donors and are managed by CIAT for an ultimate beneficiary other than the Center.Restricted grants in currencies other than U.S. dollars with specific request to be paid in that currency as partner Designated net assets are those that have been restricted by CIAT Management as reserve for replacing property and equipment, retirement of national staff, and other activities or purposes.Unrestricted grants are those received from the unconditional transfer of cash or other assets to the Center. In 2011 the Consortium allocated to the Centers as Stability Funding the resources to cover the operations of the CRPs not started during 2011.According Grants are recognized as revenue to the extent of expenses incurred. Funds for research partners of the HarvestPlus Challenge Program are managed as funds in trust.Challenge Programs are the means for the CGIAR system as a whole to take on global challenges in cooperation with a wide range of research partners. g p q p y p funds, are recorded as income and expenses at exchange rate in effect at the time of the payment.Institutional costs are recovered based on the Activity Base Cost (ABC) methodology and the Financial Guideline No. 5 issued by the CGIAR. According to the CIAT policy, direct costs are recovered on the basis of cost drivers and indirect cost or overhead is recovered on the basis of the rate calculated annually or as agreed in the grant agreements. Using the ABC methodology, the institutional costs are also charged to unrestricted grants.For transactions where hedge accounting is not applied, CIAT accounts for such instruments using the fair value method by initially recording an asset or liability, and recognizing changes in the fair value of the instruments in the statement of activities as unrealized gains or losses on derivative contracts.Any realized gains or losses are recognized in net income as realized gains or losses on derivatives contracts in the period they occur.CIAT may utilize derivative financial instruments in its management of exposures to fluctuations in foreign exchange rates. CIAT does not enter into derivative financial instruments for trading or speculative purposes. For transactions where hedge accounting is applied, CIAT formally documents relationships between hedging instruments and hedged items, as well as its risk management objective and strategy for undertaking various hedge transactions. This process includes linking all derivatives to specific assets and liabilities on the balance sheet or to specific firm commitments or forecasted transactions. CIAT also formally assesses, both at inception and on an ongoing basis, whether the derivatives that are used in hedging transactions are highly effective in offsetting changes in fair values or cash flows of hedged items. Gains and losses on contracts that constitute effective cash flow hedges to the extent of the effective portion are deferred in net assets and recognized in the statement of activity when the related transactions occur. The ineffective portion of a hedge is recognized in the statement of activities in the period it occurs.Some figures of the financial statements as of December 31, 2010 have been reclassified to conform to the 2011 presentation. These reclassifications do not have any impact on the result and working capital of the Center. (1) Provision to cover Bonus at retirement corresponds to defined benefits to be paid to the CIAT employees at Headquarter upon the employees retire from CIAT once they get their pension. According to the CIAT benefits policy the retirement bonus for each employee ranges from 1 to 1.4 months of the base salary for each 3 continuous years depending of the type of contract and the time worked at CIAT.Based on the actuarial computation prepared in November 2011 by an independent actuary this benefit has an actuarial liability of US$2.8 millions at the end of 2011 (Col$5.4 thousand of millions). CIAT has accrued US$1.7 million corresponding to sixty percent (60%) of the total cost. The remaining US$1.1 million will be recognized over the short to mid term. The accrued value covers the estimated amounts to be paid during the following 6 years (2012 to 2017) to the employees entitled to the benefit, according to the actuarial valuation results. In line with the projected cash flow of the computation, estimated funds to be paid during 2012 are classified as short term provision; the remaining amount is classified as long term provision.Until 2010 the provision was recognized based on the estimated payments for the next 12 months.(2) (2)The international staff reserves correspond to the estimated costs of repatriating members of the senior staff and their family to their home countries, as specified in their appointment letters.Net assets as of December 31 are available for the following purposes:According to IAS 39 and due to the effectiveness of these operations, the estimated gain or loss is reported directly in net assets. Once the hedg matures, the result goes to profit and loss. As of December 31, 2010 there are no hedging operations.Reserve for future local staff indemnity payments in case of unilateral termination of long-term contracts according to the Colombian labor law and CIAT's policy. Welfare Fund while CIAT continues to manage the social welfare activities which are supported by surpluses generated from the financial management of these resources. CRECIAT also assumed the responsibility of settlement of any balances due to or from employees with regard to the Sponsorship Contract on termination of employment with CIAT. The funds transferred to CRECIAT include the principles and earned interests of the participants as well as the reserves which were generated from loan interests to the CIAT employees and other operations, since the inception of the Social Welfare Fund in 1975. According to the Sponsorship Contract, these reserves and any earned interest are to be used for social activities in benefit of CIAT employees. In the event that CRECIAT ceases to exist or in the event that CIAT decides to cancel the Sponsorship Contract and such reserves might be left over at that time, they will be returned to CIAT for distribution as agreed in the constitution of the previous Social Welfare Fund and as reconfirmed in the Sponsorship Contract. The accumulated balance of the reserves as of December 31, 2011 is $2.906 million (2010 $2.843 million). As the probability of CRECIAT ceasing its operation is remote, which would require that left over reserves would be returned to CIAT, no accounting for this contingent asset has been recorded in the financial statement of CIAT.CIAT is exposed to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates relative to US dollars as donor funds are agreed and paid mostly in US dollars while projects and operating expenditures in Colombia are paid almost 60% in Colombian pesos (COP). CIAT manages these risks through periodic use of foreign exchange derivative instruments. The Board periodically reviews the results of all risk management activities and all outstanding positions.To reduce its foreign currency exposure associated with operating expense incurred in COP, CIAT entered into currency risk management contracts such as foreign exchange forwards and designated them as cash flow hedge.CIAT has several currency risk management contracts outstanding as at December 31, 2011. The year ended December 31, 2011 valuation of the outstanding contracts represents an unrealized gain amounting US$20k recorded in net assets ( 2010 $ Nil). Contracts are subsequently recorded at the maturity date against other revenues and gains when the gains or losses became realized (see Note 19). During the year ended December 31, 2011, a net loss of $0.053 million was recorded as realized variance in hedging operations (2010 $1.525 million gain).In April 2010, the Consortium of CGIAR Centers approved the establishment of an autonomous international organization under international law \"Consortium\" with the purpose of providing leadership to the CGIAR System and coordinate activities between member Centers (including CIAT) and other partners using the Strategic and Results Framework (SRF). It is anticipated that future CGIAR research will be conducted through the newly established CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs). As a result, the Consortium and a newly created Fund and Fund Council are introducing changes on new funding allocations to Centers aligned with approved CRP budgets. This arrangement began in January 2011 with further adjustments to Center financial management and reporting procedures anticipated over the next 24 months. The consortium office in its advisory note, at the end of 2011, provided guidance for centers and their auditors in regard to the 2011 Financial Statements. During the year 2012 a comprehensive review of CGIAR Financial Guideline No. 2 is planned. This revision might have an effect on the 2012 Financial Statements.As of December 2011 CIAT is involved in a legal process. Management considers that the risk of this processes is not material, however based on the advice of the lawyer a provision amounting to $52k was accrued. This provision is included under others provisions in Note 17.Exhibit I ","tokenCount":"2910"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8c08fe090ed9d57ddbb7dbe3c157c1f8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.mel.cgiar.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:20.500.11766.1/FK2/UH36MD/VNIFJW","id":"-757965534"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17c1ac24-31df-4898-8587-9c5f2914597e","pagecount":"15","content":"Circumference of the thoracic cavity immediately behind the forelimbs and behind the shoulders of the animals. Two measurements (one at the start and one at the end of survey) should be averaged to obtain girth length.The distance between the pin bones to the point of the shoulder. Two measurements (one at the start and one at the end of survey) should be averaged to obtain body length.The distance from the base of the hoof to the high point of the back at the base of the neck between the shoulder blades. Two measurements (one at the start and one at the end of survey) should be averaged to obtain wither length.Use pictures: Take 3 photosrear view, top rear view and side view of the cow ","tokenCount":"125"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9483a1716398df69f8b5c33e6271f85f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e49f645a-4c4a-4782-a978-9ed18066501f/retrieve","id":"1551724112"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"41f8489a-e132-4a7e-87b3-aafd78cde758","pagecount":"127","content":"for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food and nutritional security, increase prosperity and encourage sound natural resource management in ACP countries. It provides access to information and knowledge, facilitates policy dialogue and strengthens the capacity of agricultural and rural development institutions and communities. CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU.As more of Africa's smallholder famers become active players in value chains, one needs to develop the institutions that enable farmers, traders, warehouse managers and processors to produce, trade and market products efficiently and cost-effectively. Sophisticated trading systems already exist for export commodities such as coffee and cut flowers. But for staple commodities , such systems are still in their infancy in most African countries.Hence the need for this manual. It describes how structured trading systems work for grains such as maize, sorghum and millet, as well as commodities such as groundnuts and soybeans, Africa's most important staples. Structured trading is a way of organising, regulating and financing trade in a commodity.The grain is graded according to a set of agreed standards, and it is stored safely in a trusted warehouse. These two things make it possible for the owner to use the grain as collateral for a loan before it is sold. Moreover, the grain can be sold without having to move it out of the warehouse. And it can be traded on a commodity exchange, where buyers and sellers can agree on a deal without having to physically inspect the grain.This has huge advantages for everyone involved. Farmers have a more assured market, and can sell the grain when the price is right. For traders, buying and selling is easier, less risky, and more efficient. Buyers have a more reliable supply, assured quality, and a broader range of potential suppliers.Costs and wastage are lower; income for everyone involved can be higher.To succeed, structured grain trading needs a conducive policy environment that levels the playing field and allows the market forces of supply and demand to support a transparent process of price determination. That means halting bans on exports and imports, and avoiding interventions in prices, procurement and distribution. By explaining how structured trade works in a clear manner, this manual should help those involved in setting policies to avoid unpredictable interventions that disrupt the smooth and efficient working of markets. It will also support them to put in place a policy framework that is conducive to developing the institutions needed for structured trade.Structured trading is how most grain is traded in the developed world, and is now expanding in Africa. This manual explains how the system works, from postharvest handling and warehousing to trading on a commodity exchange. It describes the mysteries of standards, explains how market information is used, and explores the details of trade contracts and dispute resolution.vThe manual was developed through a participatory \"writeshop\" in July 2012 in Arusha, Tanzania. The 17 contributors, all specialists in various aspects of grain handling and structured trading in Africa and elsewhere, presented and discussed manuscripts on each aspect of this complex subject. The editors then helped small teams of contributors to revise the manuscripts into the various chapters. After the writeshop, the draft was further refined to ensure it reflects recommended practices and needs.The manual is an output of CTA's new \"Value Chains\" programme, which is designed to support the development of more efficient chains for priority commodities in African, Caribbean and Pacific regions. It should be a valuable guide for all those involved in creating and running the elements that make up structured trading systems, such as managers of farmers' associations, warehouse operators, grain traders, banks, market information services, students and educators, as well as the policymakers who aim to modernise grain trading in Africa. It will also form an important component of courses offered by EAGC's Eastern Africa Grain Institute.1 1 Introduction to structured trading systemsYou are a grain trader in an African country. A milling company calls: it wants to buy 200 tons of Grade 1 maize to turn into flour to sell in the capital city.The company needs the grain next week.You put the phone down. It's a good business opportunity, you think. But first you have to find the grain.And that's where your problems begin. How can you find 200 tons of maize so quickly? Farmers tend to store their grain at home, rather than in commercial warehouses. The quality of their grain is dodgy. Sometimes it has not been dried properly, so can get mouldy. Some bags contain a lot of sticks and stones -bad news for the miller's equipment. And if you manage to find enough grain of the right quality, you will need to arrange transport to deliver it to the mill.And what price should you pay? You know the price has been going up and down over the last few weeks, so you are unsure of the current price. Where can you get the money to finance the purchase? And the government keeps on changing the rules: has the tax it announced last week come into force yet? Will there be checkpoints along the road that can delay transport and add costs? * * * Such problems are called transaction costs: they raise the cost of buying and selling grain and other commodities.It is problems like these that hamper agricultural development and economic growth in much of Africa. They affect everyone in the chain (Figure 1).Farmers, traders, transporters, processors, wholesalers, retailers and, ultimately, consumers all suffer. It is as if there is a brake on the arrows in Figure 1. High costs at each stage in the chain mean lower profits for everyone, so less of the product flows along the chain, and the product that reaches the consumer is more expensive than it should be.Here are some of the problems that affect farmers and traders early in the chain:• Poor postharvest handling and management, leading to big losses and poor quality of grain • Pressure for farmers to sell to meet urgent financial needs • The need for traders to source grain from a large number of scattered farmers • Big seasonal variations in the availability of grain, leading to wild changes in the price • Lack of up-to-date, accurate information on prices and standards • Lack of suitable storage facilities • Poorly developed financial mechanisms, making it hard to get loans • Unpredictable government policies.Solve these problems, and agricultural commodity markets have huge potential for spurring economic development and ensuring food security. Trade in grain, as well as commodities such as coffee, is the mainstay of most rural economies in Africa, and contributes significantly to national, regional and international trade. A well-organized trading system enables food to be moved from place to place, so ensuring people do not go hungry. It ensures that the food complies with standards for quality and food safety. It saves money and reduces risks for everyone in the chain. It absorbs the surpluses that occur at harvest time, and evens out spikes and slumps in prices. And it makes it possible for farmers to get loans, which they can invest in their farms, so spurring production and boosting their income. That is good for farmers and other rural people, good for national food security, and good for the economy as a whole.This book is about how to organize such a commodity market. It focuses on the structured trading system for one group of commodities -grains such as maize, sorghum and millet, as well as pulses such as soybeans. It looks at the components of such a system, and how it could work in Africa.Until the early 1990s, the grain trade in many African countries was controlled by the government. Most development efforts in food crops focused on helping smallholder farmers increase their productivity to meet the growing demand for food. Governments intervened in the market, controlling distribution and the price of grains. That left farmers with few marketing decisions to make: they did not have to worry about where to sell as the government would always buy most of their surplus. At the same time, there were few incentives for the private sector to trade large volumes of grain. Often its activities were technically illegal. That limited the development of commodity trading, in which prices and distribution depend on supply and demand. Indeed, government involvement often led to gluts at harvest time due to the provision of subsidized inputs and cheap credit. Marketing-board buying prices were often either too high or too low. Shortages and long queues for consumers to get basic supplies were a result.In the mid-1990s, structural adjustment programmes led to market liberalization throughout Africa. Farmers were left on their own to make business decisions. But they knew little about how to manage their farms as an enterprise. Today many farmers, especially smallholders, still struggle to market their output.Governments, development agencies and the private sector in Africa are trying to deal with this problem. They are promoting the creation of dependable marketplaces where producers and consumers can meet and exchange their grain, as well as other goods and services. That means establishing structured trading systems involving improved warehouses, warehouse receipts and commodity exchanges. It also means setting up the rules that buyers and sellers follow -rules that are enshrined in trade contracts and require a clear agreement on quality grades. A structured trading system is one where farmers, traders, processors, millers, banks and others enter organized, regulated trading and financing arrangements. Such systems are not new in Africa: they are used for export commodities such as coffee. But they are still not common for staple grains. Some structured trading systems are simple; others are more sophisticated. But all have the same core components:• Good postharvest management (Chapter 2) • Reliable commercial storage and warehousing (Chapter 4) • Efficient trade financing through warehouse receipt systems or collateral management (Chapter 6) • Effective commodity exchanges (Chapter 7).Such systems also rely on several cross-cutting elements:• Grades and standards (Chapter 3) • Market information (Chapter 5) • Contracts (Chapter 8).Structured trading starts with good postharvest management. That means making sure that the grain is harvested properly, threshed (or dehusked and shelled), dried to the recommended moisture level, sorted and cleaned to remove all foreign matter. It is then usually put into bags, though there are moves to increase the amount of bulk handling.The bags are then taken to a certified warehouse where the crop is graded accordingly to specific quality and safety standards. The depositor (the farmer or trader) is given a warehouse receipt stating how much grain of what type he or she has deposited in the warehouse. The warehouse operator guarantees the safety, quality and quantity of the grain and is legally bound to provide it to the depositor in the future.The depositor can then take the warehouse receipt to a bank or other financial institution and use it as collateral for a short-term loan. By doing this a farmer can get money to pay expenses, and can buy inputs for the next season. A trader can get money to buy more of the crop from farmers. The grain stays in the warehouse until the depositor wants to sell it, hopefully because market prices have risen. The depositor uses a market information system to check on the prices, and when they are right, he or she decides to sell. The grain may be sold on the open spot market or through a commodity exchange.When the grain is sold, the warehouse delivers the grain to the buyer. If applicable, the bank is repaid the loan plus interest, and the warehouse operator is paid for the costs of storage. Even after these deductions, the depositor should normally get a better price than if he or she had sold the grain immediately at harvest time.This system ensures that the commodity being traded is of known quality. For the warehouse to accept it, it must be graded against agreed standards. That makes trade easy: both sellers and buyers know about the quality, quantity and location of the grain. The buyer does not have to inspect the grain before buying it, reducing his or her costs. The transaction is formalized through a trade contract which clearly spells out the terms and conditions of the sale and the obligations of both parties. If they disagree, a disputeresolution mechanism can resolve the problem without their having to go into long litigation.Structured trading is an orderly, organized, trading process where all the players understand the rules and stick to them. It provides transparency, improves efficiency, and reduces transaction costs for all actors in the chain.Structured trading reduces the risk and costs of all those in the chain:• Farmers want access to a market that will give them the best prices at least cost. Structured trading helps them by giving them control over when they sell their output. That means they can sell when the price is right, rather than immediately after harvest when it is usually lowest. That evens out fluctuations in supplies and prices. It also makes it possible for farmers to get loans using their grain as collateral and for them to obtain higher prices as a result of being able to store their grain in good-quality warehouses.• Traders want to buy at a low price and sell at a high price. But, more importantly, they also want a reliable supply of grain of the right quality that they can sell to their clients. Structured trading helps them do this by ensuring that the grain conforms to certain standards and is available in large quantities in convenient locations. When traders deposit grain in a warehouse, they can use it as collateral for loans to buy more.• Processors want a continuous and reliable supply of raw materials of the right quality and at low cost. Structured trading helps ensure this through its system of grades and standards, and because trade is channelled through reliable warehouses and suppliers that ensure grain quality is maintained, rather than through a haphazard network.• Consumers, at the apex of the chain, want safe and nutritious food of good quality at affordable prices. Structured trading enables them to get this because it ensures quality but reduces costs along the value chain.Once a structured trading system is properly developed, it is much easier to use than a traditional trading system. A warehouse receipt makes it easy to buy and sell grain. Instead of moving around lots of grain, the depositor can just sell the warehouse receipt. The grain stays where it is, safely stored, while its ownership changes. Everyone gets more assurance: that the grain exists, it is stored safely, it will actually be delivered, and payments will be made.Box 1. Boosting production next season: how a warehouse receipt system helpsIn February 2011, the Witima Chicofar Farmer Group in Kenya deposited 173 bags of maize at Lesiolo Grain Handlers, a warehouse operator that runs a certified warehouse receipt system. The grain had a market value of KSh 398,000.The farmer group presented their warehouse receipt to Equity Bank in Nakuru, and used it as collateral for a loan of KSh 265,000. They used this money to buy seed, fertilizers and other inputs for the next planting season.Getting sufficient inputs on time enabled them to plant on time, which boosted their next season's yield.The group watched the price of maize. In June 2011, they sold their grain for KSh 570,000. The transport, warehousing and financing cost totalled KSh 40,000. This enabled the group to make a margin of KSh 132,000 -an amount they would have missed had they sold in February.I n t r o d u c t I o n t o s t r u c t u r e d t r a d I n g s y s t e m s what does a str uctured trading system need?Various things are needed for a structured trading system to work:A suitable business, policy and regulatory environment that supports trade and removes political interference in the market. This permits transparency and free market operations under contractual arrangements between a willing buyer and a willing seller. Political interference and its impact on structured trade may include:• Export and import bans and changes in export or import tariffs. These can seriously disrupt trade and affect domestic prices. A ban on exports (or an increase in export tariffs) may push the local price of grain down. People who have stored grain in the expectation of a price rise may lose out.Similarly, an import ban (or higher import tariffs) is likely to push prices up. This may encourage some grain owners to not honour their contracts as they can get higher prices elsewhere. Lots of grain on the market means that prices generally fall. Wait a few months, though, until everyone has sold their grain, and the price usually (but not always!) starts to go up again. The price is generally highest just before the next harvest, when stocks are lowest.Structured trading evens out these fluctuations by enabling farmers and traders to store grain, to raise finance on that stored grain, and to buy and sell when prices are higher.Note: many other things can affect the price of maize, including imports of grain from elsewhere. So the pattern may vary from year to year. In the illustration below, using prices from Kenya, farmers and traders who had stored grain in 2010-11 and 2011-12 would have made money. However, that would not have been the case in 2009-10, when there was a record harvest.• Price controls and price setting. Arbitrary price-setting by governments rarely, if ever, works. Nor does the establishment of minimum or maximum prices. They can lead to gluts, shortages and corruption. Markets and commodity exchanges function on the basis of a realistic assessment of likely future prices by those people doing the trading. They cannot function in an environment where, say, Ms A has a contract to sell to Ms B at $400 a ton, only for the government to impose a maximum selling price of $350 a ton. They also cannot function when the government instructs a marketing board or food agency to buy grain at a very high price. In that case the private sector will not be able to compete, companies will go bankrupt, and no one will want to use the commodity exchange.Secure storage facilities. Professionally managed, secure warehouses are central to the system. This is what guarantees delivery and provides credibility to the entire system. Infrastructure. Adequate transport and reliable roads make it possible to move the grain efficiently to the warehouses and from there to the buyer's premises.Support from financial institutions. Banks and other financial institutions are vital links. Their willingness to accept and finance warehouse receipts is a key requirement in structured trade.A structured trading system is well-suited for grain because it is relatively nonperishable (compared to, say, fruit and vegetables). With proper drying and warehousing, grain can be stored for up to two years and still be safe to use as food. Grain is harvested once (or maybe twice) a year, but it is consumed all year round -hence the need for storage. Smallholder producers are the main grain producers in most of Africa and many other countries. Structured trading enables them to get together to bulk their grain and deposit it in a warehouse.A structured trading system enables smallholders to access better markets, get better prices, obtain credit, and reduce postharvest losses. That means they can increase their incomes and improve their livelihoods and living standards. Traders, millers and other processors, on the other hand, get better quality, and consistent and reliable supplies of grains at a lower cost and effort. That increases their earnings and return on investment, and means they are in a position to provide a better service to farmers and consumers.Members of the Iganga Adult Literacy Group in eastern Uganda used to shell their maize by beating the cobs with sticks. This was hard work and took a long time, so the group had to delay it while they planted the next crop. The sticks also broke plenty of kernels, which buyers did not like: they offered a low price for the group's output.Then the group had the opportunity to rent a motorized thresher. This let them shell their maize much faster, resulted in fewer broken grains, and made it possible for them to sort the grain. They moved the grain to a warehouse and got a receipt for it. The group presented this to the bank, which accepted it as collateral for a loan to buy the inputs they needed for the next season.At the warehouse, the manager found that the grain from the Iganga group was of excellent quality.   why produce good-quality grain?Producing good-quality grain brings many benefits:• Farmers can sell their grain to different buyers and get a higher price for it.• Traders, transporters and others in the grain trade can handle more grain and sell it to new markets, such as regional and international buyers. This leads to better business for all.Traders may buy poor-quality grain from farmers at a low price, and then dry it and sieve it to remove broken grain and foreign matter so it conforms to grade requirements. But this reconditioning costs money and leads to substantial losses of grain. The result: less grain on the market, at a higher price.Instead, it is better for farmers to produce good-quality grain that does not need reconditioning. This benefits everyone: no reconditioning costs and lower losses mean more grain on the market and lower prices for consumers.Even if postharvest management is done well, grain will not remain at the same quality indefinitely. Its quality will decline naturally, even if there is no damage from pests or it is stored at the right moisture level. A particular quality of grain has a shelf-life, during which it will probably retain its grade (see Chapter 3). But after this period, it is likely to drop a grade.People experienced in grain storage usually know the expected shelf-life of each grain type, depending on its starting grade and the conditions under which it is stored. For example, in the warehouse receipt system in Uganda, Grade-1 maize is given a shelf-life of one year in a bag store, or four months in a bulk store.The first step is to ensure a good harvest. This is not strictly part of the postharvest chain, but the choice of crop variety and how it is grown affect the quality after harvest. Farmers should plant certified seed varieties that are best suited to the agro-ecological zone, and they should take into account the local conditions (climate, soil, irrigation, fertilizer). They should also bear in mind what varieties buyers prefer.Some varieties experience bigger problems after harvest than others. For example, highyielding hybrids are often more susceptible to insect storage pests.It is important to keep the crop healthy while it is growing by providing fertilizer and irrigation, and controlling weeds, pests and diseases. A healthy crop produces good-quality grain.Farmers may apply various pesticides to control pests, diseases and weeds in their crops. Pesticides may also be used after the harvest: during storage, transport, distribution and processing of grains and grain products.Pesticide residues in the grain may damage consumers' health.Safe levels of pesticides residues, also called maximum residue limits, are set by national food safety authorities. For the East African Community, they are based on the limits for different food products set by the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). These are posted on the Codex Pesticides Residues in Food Online Database, www.codexalimentarius.net/ pestres/data/index.html?lang=en.To keep residues to acceptable levels, farmers and grain storers should use only the pesticides approved for a given crop by the national authorities. It is 14important to follow the manufacturers' instructions on applying the pesticides, including the stage and time of application on the crop, and the time between application and harvest.Harvesting either too early or too late can result in poor-quality grain and losses. Harvesting too early means the grain will be immature and underweight. Harvest too late, and pests may attack it, or it may be stolen.The right time to harvest is when the growing process has finished, i.e., when the grain has reached physiological maturity.• The plant will change colour from green to light brown or yellowish, and the grain will have a moisture content of 20-30%. • Cereals like maize, sorghum and millet have a black layer just below the tip of the grain (Figure 5). This can be seen if the tip is removed. • Maize cobs start to droop downwards (though not in all varieties). • Bean pods turn from green to yellowish.Grain should be harvested when the weather is warm and sunny (Figure 6). Otherwise it may be difficult to dry the grain fully. If maize is ready for harvest but the weather is wet, farmers can twist the stems to turn the cobs downward. This stops water from accumulating in the cobs.The cobs, seed heads, pods, etc. must be kept off the ground to avoid contamination with soil. It is best to put the crop in sacks or clean containers.In some places, harvesting starts with cutting the stems and stacking them into piles called \"stooks\". These are left to dry further before the grain is removed. This is generally not recommended: it may lead to more grain losses, and the grain may get wet if it rains. This shows that the grain is ready for harvest.The harvest should be taken out of the field as soon as possible, using clean, dry containers that do not let it spill out. It should be kept out of the rain and away from dirt and pests until it can be dried.Threshing frees the grain from the cob, seed head or pod. For smallholders who must do it by hand, this job takes time and is hard work. For maize, threshing is sometimes called \"shelling\".The most common method of threshing by hand is to beat the crop with sticks. But this breaks a lot of the grain and so lowers the quality.For maize, the husk has to be removed before threshing. When doing this farmers should separate out any cobs that are damaged or infested by insects, and make sure they are consumed or destroyed quickly. If they do not do this, the bad grain will be mixed with good, and the overall quality will be lower. Figure 7. Some manual maize shellers.Instead of beating the cobs, it is better to shell them by hand or use a simple manual sheller (Figure 7).Machine threshing is much quicker and produces better-quality grain with fewer broken grains than threshing by beating with sticks. Because the threshing is done sooner, the grain has less chance to deteriorate. Threshing machines are expensive, so farmers often either rent one or get together as a group to buy one.The grain may be dried in the sun, in racks or cribs, or using a mechanical dryer.• Sun-drying. This is the cheapest way to dry grain. The most common method for smallholders is to spread it out on a plastic sheet or tarpaulin, in a layer no more than 3 cm deep, and leave it exposed to the sun. It should be turned with a rake every hour. Every two hours, all the grain should be moved to one side of the sheet to allow any moisture on the sheet to evaporate. After 5 minutes, the process is repeated for the other half of the sheet, after which the grain is spread out again across the whole sheet. Chickens and others animals must be kept away to stop them from eating the grain or making it dirty. The grain should be covered at night and when it rains.• Drying on racks or in cribs. Grain can also be dried on racks or in a crib. A crib is a long, thin structure (Figure 8) that air can pass through easily. It should be positioned at right angles to the prevailing wind to improve the ventilation. Cribs are usually used for unthreshed grain such as maize cobs (with or without the husk), sorghum or millet heads.They may be kept in the crib for some months. If the sides of the cribs are covered to prevent rain from getting in, they can also be used to store sacks of grain.  The grain must be dried quickly to a safe moisture level, below which mould cannot grow (Box 4).It is possible to check the moisture content in various ways (Box 5).Good drying reduces microbial activity, especially of moulds that may produce mycotoxins (such as aflatoxin). It also hardens the grains, making it more difficult for insects and other pests to damage them.Before storing the grain, farmers should clean it to remove as much foreign matter as possible. They can do this by winnowing it (letting it drop from a height and allowing the wind to blow away lighter impurities such as chaff or leaves), or by using a sieve (or handpicking) to remove heavier impurities such as stones.Some threshing machines clean the grain at the same time as threshing it. Box 5. checking the moisture content oF threshed grainExperienced farmers use several ways to check whether it is fully dried:• Bite it to check how hard it is.• Take a handful and listen as the grains drop (Figure 9).• For beans that are dried in the pod, shake the pod and listen to the sound.Dry salt will absorb moisture from grain. This principle can be used to determine whether a cereal grain sample has a moisture content of above or below 15%.The method uses the following:• A clean, dry glass bottle of about 750 ml capacity, with a cap that makes it airtight • A cup of common salt.• 250-350 g of the grain to be testedThe salt must first be dried by spreading it out on some plastic sheeting in the hot sun and leaving it for at least 3-4 hours until it is hard. It should be turned at intervals during this time. It can also be dried in an oven. The dry salt should be placed in a sealed container until it is ready for use.The grain is tested by putting it into the bottle (which should be about onethird full) and adding 2-3 tablespoons (20-30g) of dry salt. The bottle should be closed tightly with the cap, shaken vigorously for 1 minute to mix the salt and grain, then left for 15 minutes.If the salt sticks to the side of the bottle, the moisture content of the grain is above about 15% and is not safe for storage.If the salt does not stick to the bottle, the moisture content is below 15% and the grain is safe for storage.Moisture meters (Figure 10) are quick, portable, simple to use and fairly accurate. They may be used routinely, for example, when grain is delivered to a grain store. They cost several hundred dollars, so would normally be used only at warehouses and by farmers' groups that handle a lot of grain.For structured grain trading, the grain must be well stored, probably in commercial facilities, fairly soon after harvest. However, this will not always be possible, and farmers may keep grain for many months before moving it into a commercial facility or releasing it onto the market. In addition, many farmers also wish to store some of their output for their own use. So good farm storage is important to maintain grain quality for the market and for home consumption. Farmers should be reliably informed about how to store their produce well. See the list of Resources at the end of this publication for information on how they can do this.For grain that will be marketed, the most common choice for storage is an openweave sack made of jute, sisal or polypropylene. Open-weave bags should be put on pallets to lift them up off the floor, and the pallets should be kept away from the walls (Figure 11). Insects can get into open-weave bags easily, so the grain inside will become infested after about 3 months unless properly treated. Moisture meters must be calibrated before use to make sure they are accurate.Most modern meters allow calibration data to be programmed into them so they read moisture content directly. Many automatically adjust the reading to take into account the temperature of the sample (which can affect the reading).The manufacturer may calibrate the meter, but such meters should be checked regularly to make sure they are still accurate. After calibration, a meter may be accurate to within ± 0.2% of the actual moisture content. Generally speaking, meters are accurate to within ± 0.5% in the middle of the moisture range (12% to 17% moisture content for cereals). Outside this range they are less accurate.20If the grain has to be stored for longer periods (especially for home consumption), other types of store such as bins, silos(Figure 12), drums and fully sealed bags may be more suitable.The farmer may sell the grain to a trader, take it to a cooperative or community warehouse, or deliver it to a commercial warehouse.On its journey, the grain may be moved by truck several times. In doing this, these precautions should be followed:• The vehicle should be clean and dry and have no sharp edges that might tear the sacks. • The sacks should be loaded carefully into the vehicle and counted. If they are taken out of a warehouse the storekeeper should sign a release form for this number of sacks. • The weight capacity of the vehicle should not be exceeded. • There must be a tarpaulin to cover the sacks in case it rains.Farmers have to use the right postharvest methods for the grain to be at a grade needed by a structured grain market. But these methods cannot be considered in isolation from the farmers' situation.  Postharvest practices must be sustainable. The costs must be justified by higher prices and lower losses. Warehouse operators and traders can recommend sustainable, cost-effective ways to reduce postharvest losses that give farmers an incentive to improve their practices. APHLIS also has a downloadable calculator that enables practitioners to make their own estimates of postharvest losses.When people buy grain, they need to know exactly what is in the bag or silo. Is it high-quality grain, free of contaminants, and suitable to be ground into flour or meal for human consumption? If it is not suitable for human food, can it still be used as animal feed?Grain standards help buyers know such things. They specify the characteristics for the grain and set the requirements for three things: safety, quality, and sampling and test methods.• Safety requirements cover things that may harm the consumer: the presence of mycotoxins and other poisonous substances, pesticide residues and physical materials (like stones or pieces of metal) that can get into the grain. • Quality requirements cover other things that processors or consumers may be concerned with, such as moisture content, broken grains, diseased grains and foreign matter. • Sampling and test methods cover the procedures to be used in taking representative samples for analysis, as well as the procedures to follow in carrying out the analysis to confirm whether the grain meets the safety and quality requirements.Grain safety is not negotiable and should not be compromised. If the grain is not safe for human consumption it must not be traded unless it has been treated to eliminate the hazard. For example, stones can be removed mechanically; metal can be removed using magnets. If that is not possible, the grain will have to be disposed of in an appropriate way (for example, by incinerating it).Grain quality, on the other hand, depends on people's preferences. Many industrial processors require certain types of grain. A miller who grinds flour, c h a p t e r 3for example, needs food-quality grain with very low levels of impurities and contamination. He or she is prepared to pay a high price for such grain. A producer of animal feed, on the other hand, is likely to accept lower-quality, cheaper grain. A brewer may want broken grains, which the miller may reject.Each type of grain has its own standards: the standard for maize is different from that for sorghum or soybeans, for example.Standards classify grain into several grades to make it easy for people in the grain business to know what they are dealing with. Grade 1 is the best grade.It has the highest quality and is likely to fetch the highest price. Grades 2, 3 and so on are lower quality: they may contain higher amounts of foreign matter, damaged grain, etc.Grading has many advantages for buyers and sellers.• A farmer can get a higher price for a bag of Grade 1 grain than if the grain has not been graded. • A buyer is confident that the grain is of a particular quality, so is willing to pay a higher price. • A warehouse operator can check the grain when it arrives, and make sure its quality is maintained while it is in the warehouse. • A trader can announce she wants to buy Grade 2 grain, and everyone knows exactly the quality of grain she is interested in. Where everyone is confident about the reliability of grades, it is not necessary to inspect the grain visually. That makes it possible to buy and sell the grain without having to go to check it, and without having to transport it. The grain can stay in the warehouse while its ownership changes. That saves enormously on costs.To know what grade a bag of grain is, it has to be measured. Various tests and types of equipment may be needed: such as a sampler to take a sample to measure, a moisture meter to measure moisture content, and a sieve to check for broken grain and foreign matter. The person who runs the collection point where farmers deliver their grain, or the manager of a cooperative warehouse, The grade of a grain may change over time -for example, if it is attacked by mould or insects, and as the grain ages. That means it may be necessary to check a consignment periodically to assign it to the correct grade. It is the warehouse's responsibility to store the grain correctly so it does not deteriorate (see Chapter 4).Grades cover many, but not all, of the characteristics of grain. For example, they do not necessarily include protein content, hardness or place of origin, even though buyers may be interested in such characteristics. A buyer may want to buy \"flint\" rather than \"dent\" maize. But this is not a characteristic that affects the grade: Grade 1 dent is exactly the same as Grade 1 flint.Grain standards are vital in structured trading systems:• They specify the grain characteristics, the limits that are acceptable for each characteristic, and how to measure them. That facilitates production, processing and inspection of the grain. • They identify economic factors that are important to end-users.• They establish a common language and set of rules between trading partners. If everyone knows what is meant by \"moisture content\" or \"aflatoxin\", and knows how to measure it, they can be confident they are talking about the same thing when they buy or sell grain. • They ensure food safety because they cover some of the main factors that can reduce food quality and harm consumers. • The reflect storability: poor-quality grain can be stored only for a short time.• They facilitate trade: grain products can be readily accepted in other parts of the country, in other countries or regions. The common language makes domestic, regional and international trade easier and prevents technical barriers to trade. • They support food security by making it easier to import and export grain and transport it to where it is needed. • They promote quality by providing incentives to grain producers and handlers for ensuring that grain is good quality, and by setting requirements for packaging and transport. • They form a basis for pricing. Because people know what grade the grain is, they can decide how much to buy and sell it for.Standards for grain in Africa are set by national governments. Regional organizations attempt to harmonize these, and it is up to each government to implement them in their national standards.The relevant regional organizations are: Efforts are also taken to review standards published by the major trading partners like the European Union, the United States, and Japan.It is not possible to impose a common standard for all regions because the appropriate levels depend on factors such as the climate, which differs from place to place. Temperate countries, for example, all store and trade in grain at up to 15% moisture content; such a high level is not suitable for the tropics, where ambient temperatures are higher.International standards are recognized under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement as the benchmarks for food trade. That allows them to form the basis for negotiations and for resolving disputes between buyers and sellers at national, regional or international levels.Normally warehouses apply standards as required by the buyers. Some buyers use national standards while others use their own specific standards, for example to ensure they get a specific type of grain suitable to make specialized products like infant foods. Grain graded using different standards is stored separately. Where the buyers have not specified otherwise, the national standard is followed.Mycotoxins Myco = fungus, toxin = poisonous substance Mycotoxins are substances produced by fungi (moulds) and are harmful to consumer health. They include aflatoxins and fumonisins.The fungi may infect the crop in the field or in the store. Uninfected grain can be contaminated without the fungi being visible.Mycotoxins are more likely to be a problem if the weather is hot before the harvest, if the crop suffers from drought, if the weather is wet at harvest time or afterwards, or if the crop is attacked by insects. They may also be a problem if the grain is mechanically damaged or is not dried to the correct moisture level in good time.Aflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin produced by many species of aspergillus fungus, the most important being Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These moulds occur widely on inadequately dried food and feed grains in subtropical and tropical climates. Maize and groundnuts can be particularly affected.In the field, aspergillus is a cause of ear rot of maize. This appears as an olivegreen powdery mould when the husks on the ears (Figure 14) are peeled back. On maize grain, it appears as an olive green or grey-green colour on the kernels. However, it is not possible to visually identify aflatoxin-infected grain: tests are necessary to detect it. Not all mouldy grain has aflatoxins, but the risk of aflatoxin contamination is greater in damaged, mouldy grain than in grain with little mould.Aflatoxins are dangerous poisons, and high levels can be lethal (Box 8). Animals fed with contaminated grain do not grow well, and their embryos may be affected. Box 8. aFlatoxin: a serious threat to Food saFetyIn April 2004, 317 people in rural Kenya fell ill, and 125 died of aflatoxin poisoning. The source of the outbreak was contaminated maize that was grown locally.A survey found that aflatoxin was common in maize grown in the area. The researchers tested maize from vendors and markets, and found that 55% of the maize products had higher aflatoxin levels than the official limit of 20 parts per billion (this limit has since been lowered to 10 parts per billion). One-third of the products had more than 100 parts per billion, and 7% had levels over 1,000 parts per billion.The maize had been harvested during unseasonable, early rains. It had been stored while it was still damp. Those are ideal conditions for the fungi that produce the toxins.Farmers had then sold the tainted maize, and it got into the distribution system, contaminating much of the grain in the market and exposing consumers to the toxin. Aflatoxin contamination can be prevented by stopping the aspergillus fungus from attacking the crop when it is in the field, after harvest and in storage:• In the field. Farmers should control insects that damage the ears and that allow them to be infected by mould. They should check the ears for aspergillus ear rot from the \"dent\" stage in maize (when the maturing grains start to harden, about a month after silking) up to harvest-time. They should check 5 to 10 locations in a field. This is done by peeling back the husks of 10 ears and inspecting them for olive-green powdery mould. If more than 10% of the ears show signs of aspergillus ear rot, the grain should be harvested early. • Harvesting. Farmers should avoid damage to the kernels during harvesting.Before storing the grain they should clean the bins and grain-handling equipment, and remove broken kernels from the grain. • Storage. The moisture content should be at or below 13.5% to prevent the development of moulds and toxins. Storage insects should be controlled.The stored grain should be checked every 2 weeks for temperature changes, crusting, hot spots, moisture and mould. If any of these conditions are found, the temperature must be reduced by aerating the storage bin, breaking up hot spots, or removing spoiled grain.The East African Community has set a maximum acceptable level of 5 parts per billion for aflatoxin B1, and a limit of 10 parts per billion for total aflatoxins.Grain that is contaminated at levels greater than 10 parts per billion may not be traded. Blending aflatoxin-contaminated grain with clean grain is not allowed, and blended grain may not be traded.Fumonisins are another type of mycotoxins, produced by a fungus called Fusarium. They cause diseases of the alimentary canal -the mouth, gullet, stomach and intestines.The East African Community sets a limit of 2 parts per million for fumonisins.The procedures used to control aflatoxins also control the growth of Fusarium.Some physical materials may harm consumers' health: they include pieces of glass, metal and sand. They may also damage milling equipment. They should not be present in the grain.toxic and noxious seeds Some weeds and plants that grow in cereal fields, like Datura, have poisonous seeds. Their seeds may get into the grain, especially if it is machine-harvested.A healthy grain has certain characteristics: its shape, size, structure, natural colour, flavour and smell. These characteristics determine the type and description of the grain. They make it possible to identify it and check it for purity.Different varieties of the same crop have different features. For example:• Maize varieties may be flint (with hard grains) or dent (soft and floury grains, with a dent in the surface when they are dried). The grain may be yellow, white or red (though this is rare). • Rice may be one of several varieties, each of which has different cooking and eating characteristics.Such physical characteristics are very important. They determine the use of the grain, consumer preferences, and prices. They must also be taken into account when designing grain-handling equipment, storage management and quality analysis systems.These are characteristics of the grain that are caused by outside factors. They may have positive or negative effects. They affect the grading of the grain (Table 2).When it is harvested, grain contains a certain amount of water. It can also absorb liquid water (if it is left out in the rain) or water vapour from the air. When it does this, its weight increases.Grain can also release water into the air (when it is dried or aerated). When this happens, its weight goes down. So the weight of a bag of grain depends partly on how much water it contains. Understanding this is important because most commercial transactions are made on the basis of weight. If the moisture content is too high, the grain may be damaged by mould or attacked by insects. Millers will get less flour per unit weight of grain.Drier grain will last longer in the store. The moisture content of dry grain ranges from 6% to 15%, depending on the type of grain and the climate conditions where the grain is stored. In cool, temperate areas, maize can be stored at 15% moisture. As noted, this is not possible in the tropics where the temperature and humidity are high: here the grain must be drier. Regulatory authorities have standardized the moisture content of the major grain products traded (see Box 4 in the previous chapter). Dry grain absorbs moisture from the air easily, so its moisture content may drift upwards over time. That would push it into a lower grade (or, in the East African standard for maize in Table 2, out of the grading scheme altogether), even though it fulfils all the other criteria for a particular grade.This is any inedible material in the grain. It may include:• Earth, sand, soil, dust, stones, metal and glass.• Organic matter from plants: seed coats, parts of stem, seed husks, pods, leaves and weed seeds. • Organic matter from animals, alive or dead: insects, mites, rodent and bird droppings, insect excretions. This material is often called filth (see below).Foreign matter is not just a quality issue. It is also a safety concern because it may be harmful to health (see Grain safety requirements above).These are other edible grains, whole or broken, that are not of the crop in question. For example, a bag of maize may contain some grains of sorghum or soybeans, particularly if it is machine-harvested.filth This is impurities of animal origin, such as animal waste, dead worms, insects, insect wings, animal hair or fur and skins.contaminants These are any substances not intentionally added to the grain. They may have got into the grain as a result of the production, processing, packaging, transport and storage of the grain, or they may be the result of environmental contamination. They do not include insect parts or rodent hairs (\"filth\") or other extraneous matter (\"foreign matter\").This refers to the physical damage to the grain, such as breaking, splitting or cracking. It may lead to changes in the composition of the grain and expose it to attacks by fungi or insects.These are fragments of grain below a certain size. They can lead to the grain quality declining more quickly than if the grains are whole. They are caused mostly by poor handling -such as using a poorly adjusted sheller or threshing the grain by beating it with a stick. There are tests to measure the amount of broken grains. For example, according to the ISO 5223 standard, which specifies test sieves for cereals, broken grains of maize are those that pass through a 4.50 mm round metal sieve.These are grains that are damaged by pests, discoloured, diseased, germinated, mouldy, immature or shrivelled, or otherwise materially damaged (see the items below). They do not include broken grains.These are grains that are damaged by insects or vermin, stained, diseased, discoloured, germinated, frost-damaged, or otherwise materially damaged.These are grains whose natural colour has been altered by external factors such as the soil or weather. These factors can cause dark stains or discolorations and a rough appearance.These are grains that are discoloured by heat but are not obviously damaged by mould. They may be darkened, wrinkled, blistered, puffed or swollen, and often have discoloured, damaged germs. The seed coat may be peeling or may have peeled off completely, giving kernels a checked appearance. This colour change may happen in unfavourable storage conditions.These are grains that are bleached or blistered. The seed coat may be peeling. The germs may appear dead or discoloured.These are grains made unsafe for human consumption due to decay, mould, bacterial decomposition, or other causes. It is possible to see the damage without cutting the grains.These are kernels and pieces of kernels that are:• Visibly infected by fungi and have black, blue, green, yellow or white fungal growth anywhere on the kernel, or have fungal growth under the bran layer of the kernel. • Infected by ear-rot and have red, pink or brown discolourations. The kernels are partially to completely infected.Mould may produce aflatoxins and make the grain unsafe for consumption (see Grain safety requirements above).These are grains with obvious holes or tunnels made by insects, insect webbing or refuse. The germ or part of the kernel may be missing or chewed.The damage may occur before or after the harvest.If the grain meets the safety requirements, it can be graded using specialized equipment that checks the specific quality attributes described above.The grader checks a sample of the grain according to the various criteria and puts it into a grade. If it exceeds the limit on one of the characteristics in a grade, it must be classified in a higher grade. Table 2 gives an example of the maximum permitted levels for grading maize.Standards specify requirements for the packaging that must be used for grain:• Grain and grain products must be packaged using food-grade materials to safeguard the safety, quality and nutritional characteristics of the product. • The packaging should withstand the conditions in storage, transportation and distribution. For local trade, the buyer can inspect the grain directly, so it is not necessary for grain to comply with the standards described above.For structured grain trading, however, it is necessary to comply with the standards. That takes expertise and money. Everyone in the chain must be aware of the standards and what they mean.Adopting standards in a country takes time and effort. It requires the cooperation of and close coordination with the private sector, which is the main user of standards. It also involves many government agencies that regulate agricultural trade and food safety, including national standards organizations and nutrition authorities, plant-protection organizations, weights and measures agencies, customs authorities, and public health and food and drug authorities.A bag of maize has 12% moisture, 0.4% foreign matter, 0.1% inorganic matter, 2.5% broken kernels, and a total of 3% defective grains. What grade is it, according to the East African standards?Check Table 2 for the grade limits.Answer: Grade 2. It has too many broken kernels to qualify for Grade 1 (limit = 2%).Lesiolo Grain Handlers Limited (LGHL) is a grain handling and storage firm in Kenya that handles maize, wheat, barley and sorghum. The company has its own storage facility with a capacity of 30,000 tonnes and has leased another 50,000-tonne facility from the National Cereals and Produce Board.LGHL intends to expand its capacity by 60,000 tonnes by constructing facilities in Nakuru and Kitale.LGHL handles over 100,000 tonnes of grain a year. Its services include grain grading, weighing, cleaning, drying, seed-dressing, fumigation and storage.LGHL was the pilot certified-warehouse operator under the Eastern Africa Grain Council's warehouse receipting system, launched in 2008. Since then, over 3,000 tonnes of grain have been handled under this system. By storing their grain until the market price is high enough for sale, farmers have benefited from commodity financing and higher margins.LGHL intends to expand its services across East Africa.This chapter covers the commercial storage and warehousing of grain. It describes the advantages of commercial warehouses, how they operate, the types of grain losses that may occur while the grain is in storage, how the warehouse operator deals with risks, and how warehouses fit in the structured grain trading system.Commercial grain handling, storage and warehousing companies are businesses that offer their services to grain depositors (farmers, traders, co-operatives, nongovernmental organizations, etc. who place their grain in the warehouse for a fee). These handling and warehousing companies aim to make a profit. They are answerable to the depositors for the grain left in their custody.Warehouse operators do not own the grain that they store; they earn their money from the handling and warehousing fees they charge. This means, for example, that if they go bankrupt, the grain cannot be sold off to pay their debts.Commercial warehouses have to meet certain minimum standards. They need to have:• Professional workers trained in grain handling and safety.• Equipment for weighing, grain analysis and storage.• Procedures to ensure that the grain is safely handled and stored.• Security to ensure the safety of the grain, equipment, employees and the public.why use commercial storage ser vices?After harvest, farmers are faced with a choice: sell the grain immediately, or store it? If they store it, they have to decide whether to put it in their own or a cooperative store, or in commercial storage.Traders face a similar choice: they can immediately sell the grain they have bought, or keep it until they find a purchaser who is ready to pay the right price.Commercial storage services offer farmers and traders a number of advantages:• Lower costs. The farmer or trader does not have to invest in his or her own storage facilities and equipment, or in the staff to manage the grain. • Storage space. Farmers or traders often have little storage space, or it may be unsuitable for storing grain for long periods. They may have more grain than they can safely store themselves. • Grain-handling equipment. Individual farmers and traders cannot afford grain-handling equipment such as dryers, cleaners and fans. Commercial grain handlers have such facilities. • Convenience. When the farmer or trader deposits the grain in a commercial warehouse, the warehouse operator takes over responsibility for handling and storing it, in return for a fee. This leaves the depositor free to do other things. • Quality management and pest control. Grain storage is one of the major challenges farmers and traders must deal with. Some lack the skills and experience in managing grain on-farm or in cooperative stores, so their grain deteriorates quickly. They may not be allowed to use restricted pesticides (such as phosphine) for fumigation. Commercial grain handlers offer such services at an affordable fee. • Security. Individual farmers or cooperatives may be unable to protect the grain from thieves, leaky roofs or fire. They may find it difficult to get insurance for a crop in their own store. Commercial grain handlers are normally insured, and are obliged to compensate depositors if the grain is stolen or spoiled. They must be insured if they are to issue warehouse receipts. • Professional services. Commercial grain handlers provide professional services so they can attract repeat customers, compete with other handlers, and avoid having to compensate depositors for spoilt grain. • Transfer of ownership. If the grain is in commercial storage, the grain depositor can sell it to a buyer without having to move it somewhere else. This reduces losses and costs due to bagging or re-bagging, spillage, theft, etc. • Linkage to markets and structured trade. Some commercial storage providers link farmers and traders to opportunities for structured trade and commodity financing, by issuing warehouse receipts and facilitating commodity financing (see Chapter 6). Some commercial warehouses also have a network with buyers and can link farmers to better markets (or actually arrange buyers) for the stored grain. Because commercial storage firms store grain from many producers, larger buyers can come there to purchase large quantities of grain. That saves such buyers money: they do not have to go around many places to buy small amounts at each location.Normally, when a farmer or trader delivers grain to a commercial grain handler, he or she is given a contract to sign. This is an agreement between the depositor and the warehouse operator to provide certain particular services (such as drying and storage), in exchange for payment in cash or grain (valued at the market price). Box 10 lists the items covered by a typical contract.Grain warehousing involves various operations to ensure that grain is in good condition when it is received, and stays in good condition until it leaves the warehouse. The grain from a warehouse should meet certain market standards, depending on its intended use (see Chapter 3).The warehouse has the duty to care for the grain in its custody. The grain depositors pay for its services, and they expect to get value for their money.The warehouse operator keeps track of the services it provides and charges the clients accordingly.To maintain grain quality, the warehouse has to control various factors that can affect that quality. These include:Box 10. what a warehouse contract coversThe • Biotic factors: rodents, birds, insects and moulds.• Abiotic factors: grain rubbish, broken kernels, temperature, humidity and moisture content.Warehousing operations can be divided into:• Primary services. These deal with the grain directly and generate revenue for the warehousing company. They include such services as receipt of the grain, grading, weighing, drying, cleaning, storage, bagging and dispatching. These operations ensure that the grain is put into a suitable condition to be stored for a long time at good quality. • Supporting processes. These make the primary operations efficient and effective. They include quality management, human resource management, inventory management, equipment maintenance, health and safety, and procurement (Figure 17).Below is a description of the typical commercial grain storage and warehousing processes.grain sampling, grading and quality management When a depositor delivers grain to the warehouse, it is first graded. A warehouse staff member takes a sample of the grain for analysis, and checks it against the standards that the warehouse uses (see Chapter 3). The results of the analysis allow a warehouse operator to accept or reject the grain, and to classify it for storage or marketing.Grading is part of quality management. This is something that warehouse operators do to monitor and keep the grain at an optimum state throughout the entire handling and storage process. That, in turn, is important because it determines how long the grain can be stored, and how successful the warehousing firm is.Quality management aims to ensure that:• The grain received meets some minimum quality standards.• The moisture content is measured correctly when the grain is received, and it is monitored after drying and during storage. • The grain is stored only for as long as it is safe, at the right temperature and relative humidity, and these factors are monitored at appropriate intervals. • Records of operations on the grain are kept.• Pest management is carried out appropriately and at the required time, and its effectiveness and efficacy are monitored.Some countries require that only certified graders are allowed to grade grain.The graders are normally certified by the national standards body. Grain graders and inspectors need a minimum set of equipment to do their job.weighing and receipt of the grain After grading, the next step is to weigh the consignment of grain, using scales, a portable platform or a weighbridge. Knowing the weight provides the basis for storage, handling and trade. It also determines how much the warehouse will charge the depositor. The weighing must be done accurately, and the warehouse must have a certificate showing that the scales have been inspected and calibrated. The depositor may ask to see this certificate.The warehouse informs the depositor how much he or she has delivered. After weighing, grading and receiving the grain, the warehouse operator is able to calculate how much grain the depositor is entitled to get back. The grain entitlement is the amount that was received, less the amount of foreign matter as analysed during grading, and less the amount of moisture that will be lost during drying.The warehouse operator usually gives the depositor the following documents:• A weight certificate (e.g., the weighbridge ticket) showing how many kilograms of grain have been delivered).• A grading certificate showing the results of the grain analysis.• A goods-received note indicating the ownership of the grain that has been deposited. (In some cases, a weight certificate may act as a goodsreceived note.)If the warehouse operates a warehouse receipt system, the warehouse operator may give the depositor a warehouse receipt (see Chapter 6). The weight on the warehouse receipt is the weight the depositor is entitled to after accounting for moisture loss and removal of foreign matter.The grain has to be cleaned to remove dirt, sticks, stones, metal and other foreign matter. Warehouses have equipment to do this.Cleaning the grain is important for several reasons:• It reduces the energy required to dry the grain.• It allows more grain to be stored.• It helps maintain quality by removing materials that could cause it to deteriorate during storage. • It removes objects that might damage grain-handling equipment.• It improves the effectiveness of fumigation.• It increases the market value of the grain. drying If the grain contains too much moisture, the warehouse operator will have to dry it so it can be stored for a long time without deteriorating too quickly. Drying improves storability because it reduces the respiration of the grain, and makes it harder for insect pests and fungi to survive.Drying may be done by sun drying or using mechanical dryers (see Chapter 2). Commercial grain storage firms normally use mechanical dryers that blow hot air through the grain to remove the moisture.If the grain cannot be dried straight away, it heats up because of respiration. That can reduce the viability of grain that is to be used for seed or for brewing, and may encourage heat damage, fungi and eventually pests. To prevent it from deteriorating, the warehouse operator may spread it on a tarpaulin or plastic sheet, or blow cool air through a silo to remove the excess heat.How long grain can be stored depends on a number of things. Considering just moisture content and temperature:• At a temperature of 25°C, grain with a moisture content of 22% will keep for only 3-5 days without drying.• If dried to 13% moisture, the same grain can be stored at the same temperature safely for 160-240 days (Figure 18).Lower climatic temperatures make it possible to store grain for longer. But the warehouse cannot control climatic temperatures, so must keep the grain well aerated to keep its temperature as low as possible. This makes drying to the right moisture level all the more important.Inventory control means recording and accounting for the grain the warehouse receives, stores and dispatches. The warehouse makes adjustments on the quantity delivered to reflect the rubbish and any moisture content removed, along with any allowable handling loss. This is a very important part of warehousing and may determine the success of the entire business.A good inventory management system involves monitoring a number of activities, including identifying and minimizing handling losses, accounting for moisture losses during drying and aeration, accurately determining weights and quality parameters during receipt and delivery of the grain, monitoring quality degradation during storage, mitigating theft, and minimizing grain spillage. It also includes physically verifying the grain in stock. This is done to check that the actual stock in the warehouse is the same as the records indicate. Some firms, banks, collateral managers etc. (Chapter 6) may require verifications to determine physical quantities.storage Grain is easier to store than many other products. If it is kept free of insects, at a low moisture content and at the right temperature and relative humidity, it will keep for some years with minimal loss of quality. Warehouse operators fumigate the grain at regular intervals to control pests (see below). In humid areas, the grain may gradually pick up moisture from the air, so the operators may need to dry it again to bring it below the required moisture content. However, mostly they control this by aerating the grain when the relative humidity is below 65%. The operator needs to check the grain regularly for temperature, moisture content and insect infestation (usually every 2 weeks).Commercial warehouses maintain a laboratory to conduct these checks.Pest management is vital to maintain the quality of grain. It starts when the depositor delivers a consignment of grain. At this time the warehouse operator eradicates any pests (or makes sure they are below an acceptable threshold) by physical treatment (e.g., drying the grain) or chemical means (e.g., fumigation). To choose the best method, the warehouse operator must identify the pests in the grain. Afterwards, the operator must monitor the grain to make sure the control has been effective. Some warehouse operators may require the depositor to deliver grain free from pest infestation, and may reject any grain that is infested.Most commercial warehouses use mixed pest management. This involves using several methods (both physical and chemical) to keep pests at acceptable levels. The choice of methods depends on how long the grain will remain in storage. Some of the methods used merely reduce the incidence of pest infestation. These include good sanitation (hygiene) and grain-receiving procedures and processes. The warehouse operator samples the grain periodically to decide when and how to treat it. The idea is to keep the cost of managing pests lower than the loss of market value they cause.Most facilities aim at reducing the reliance on chemical interventions: these are used as a last resort.Grain can be stored in bags or in bulk. Bag storage is more common in smalland medium-capacity commercial warehouses. Commercial operators stack bags on wooden or plastic pallets to prevent the grain from getting damp and to make it easier to manage pests. Bag storage requires the bags to be stacked, restacked, loaded and unloaded for operations such as drying and pest control. Fumigation also tends to be more difficult in bag storage than in bulk facilities. These things tend to make bag storage more expensive and labour-intensive than bulk storage.Piling the bags properly in stacks makes it possible to easily:• Count the bags when verifying the physical stocks.• Control pests by covering the stacks with a tarpaulin after applying a fumigant. • Aerate the grain by leaving gaps between the stacks. • Receive and dispatch grain.• Store the maximum amount of grain while leaving gangways between and around the stacks to allow the warehouse to be cleaned and the stock to be inspected.The stacks must not be too high: they must allow workers to move about on top of them, and be stable so they do not fall over and injure someone or spill the grain.Bulk storage involves keeping grain without packaging in a storage structure such as a silo, underground storage or flat store. Bulk storage is more common in large warehouses. It normally involves mixing grain of the same grade and variety (or some other categorization) from several different depositors.Identity-preserved storage means keeping the grain of each depositor or of a certain type (such as grain from a non-genetically modified variety) separate from the other grain in the warehouse. For example, a cooperative may deliver grain to a warehouse and ask that its identity be preserved. The grain is put in its own silo (or is stacked in bags separately from consignments from other depositors). If the grain does not fill the silo or the number of bags does not permit a stack up to the maximum permitted height, the extra capacity goes to waste. That is why warehouse operators usually charge more to preserve the identity of grain.Why should depositors want the identity of their grain preserved? After all, one bag of Grade 1 yellow dent maize is the same as any other. But in practice, depositors may want the identity preserved for various reasons:• It may be required by their contract.• They may want to use their own grain for seed.• They may have grain of a particular quality (such as organic) that they do not want mixed with grain from other sources.Commingled storage involves putting grain with similar characteristics into the same silo or storage structure. Grade 1 grain from various farmers all goes into the Grade 1 silo or stack, while Grade 2 grain goes into another silo or stack.This means that the individual depositor's grain loses its identity. When the depositor withdraws the grain, he or she gets the quantity, grade and variety he or she brought in, but not the exact same grain.The warehouse may require the grain owners to give prior notice of when they want to collect the grain. This is because the warehouse deals with a number of customers and has to plan how to serve them. For security reasons, the warehouse may also need to know the quantity of grain, who is authorized to pick it up, and the vehicle they will use.The grain dispatched should meet the specifications in the warehouse contract that the depositor and warehouse operator signed. For example, if the contract says \"1,000 kg of Grade 1 yellow dent maize\", the warehouse operator must provide exactly this to the depositor, minus any allowable deductions due to moisture changes, allowable losses, etc. (see below).If the warehouse operator returns too little grain, or the wrong quality, the depositor may make a complaint, requiring the operator to correct the mistake or compensate for the loss.Commercial warehouses have to take care of the grain in their custody.Losing or spoiling a customer's grain is a big problem. Many things can go wrong even with the most diligent warehouse operator. The warehouse may be flooded or catch fire. It may be damaged in a storm and the grain may get wet. Thieves may break in, or employees may fiddle the records or try to benefit some dubious customers.Various losses may occur during storage in a warehouse. Some are avoidable; others are unavoidable:• Avoidable losses result from improper handling of the grain. Examples are over-drying, pest damage, loss in viability, theft, spillages, flooding, contamination, and using un-calibrated equipment. Warehouse operators should compensate depositors for any avoidable losses. • Unavoidable losses result from making the grain ready for safe storage.Examples are moisture loss due to drying, and the removal of foreign matter and broken grains. Warehouse operators do not have to compensate depositors for unavoidable losses.Normally, commercial storage service providers are allowed a further 0.5% to 2% handling losses. These are to be expected since machines are not 100% efficient. They should be stated clearly on the handling contract, and the depositor must be made aware of them.We can also categorize losses into four types: physical, quality, biological and nutritional (Table 3). These are losses in the weight of the grain. They may be avoidable or unavoidable:• Moisture loss due to drying, and the removal of dust and broken grains through cleaning and conveying operations are unavoidable losses. • Weight loss due to insect infestation and theft is avoidable. Some types of losses are apparent rather than real. The most common causes are improper weighing of the grain, or inaccurate determination of moisture or rubbish content. These may be caused by defective or inaccurate equipment, or by human error. Fraudulent employees may record the wrong weight and collude with grain depositors. All these things cause the warehouse records to be wrong. Such problems are common in the grain industry, and warehouse operators must guard against them.These are mostly avoidable losses.They are generally caused by grain respiration, moulds and insects. They can result in high protein and uric acid content, toxins, off-flavours, insect excrement, and fragments in the grain (and the end product). Drying may also cause a loss in the milling quality of the grain. If a warehouse operator does his or her work well, these problems will not occur.It is important for warehouse operators to educate farmers about the likelihood of losses during storage.The most frequent complaint is that farmers deposit a certain weight of grain (say, 1,000 kg), and are angry when the warehouse operator returns less than this (say, 950 kg). The warehouse operator must be able to explain the reason for the difference: moisture loss, removal of dirt, handling losses, etc.In addition, the contract must specify the allowable amount of handling losses.When they understand these issues, most farmers readily accept the explanation.Grain inspectors may downgrade grain damaged by mould and insects, and may classify it as unfit for food or feed. Millers may pay less for grain that has heat damage.Quality losses are, however, unavoidable when grain is stored for a long time.For this reason, some commercial warehouses downgrade grain by one grade for every year the grain remains in storage.These are mostly avoidable.An example is the loss in the viability or germinating capacity of grain meant for seed or beer brewing. This is normally caused by heating the grain above 43°C during drying. It may also occur if the grain is harvested with a high moisture content and is not dried promptly: respiration may heat up the grain and damage the germ.Grains may also lose their viability due to insect and mould attacks. Some fumigants, such as methyl bromide, destroy the viability of seeds.These are avoidable losses.In commercial storage, nutritional loss is normally caused by pest damage. Grain that is damaged by insects is less nutritious than whole grain because the pests feed on the germ and endosperm, the most nutritious parts of the grain.Warehouse operators also have to deal with various other types of risks:• Disputes arising from non-delivery of grain, non-payment for grain delivered, errors and omissions, and disagreements over ownership of the grain. • Market-related risks, such as uncertainty about access to the market, including inability to find a buyer and lack of market information, and price risk (such as prices falling instead of rising as expected). • Policy-related risks, such as import and export bans and subsidies that disrupt normal prices.These risks, and the costs of running the warehouse, push up the costs of warehousing. Warehouse operators must try to avoid all these problems but still reduce costs where possible. They should analyse the risks and decide how to manage them. Here are some ways they can do this.The warehouse operator takes normal precautions to reduce the risks. Some examples:• Use properly calibrated equipment.• Have storage facilities inspected and approved.• Hire competent, well-trained and motivated staff.• Have robust internal control and monitoring procedures, such as unannounced physical stock audits.This contains all possible scenarios that might compromise the firm's operation, and describes how to avoid them. One possible risk at times of food shortage is that national or local government bodies may decide to seize stocks of grain for \"food security\" reasons, or to control its price. When prices rise, traders and millers are often, misguidedly, accused of \"hoarding\".If stocks are seized, the allocation of loss is important. Does it represent \"force majeure\" with no blame attached to the warehouse company? Should the loss be shared? Who takes responsibility for legal action for the return of the grain?Warehouse operators should have insurance to cover them in the event of a problem, and potential depositors should confirm the warehouse has such insurance. Common forms of insurance cover the operator against:• Fire, flood, etc.• Theft. This covers theft of grain from the warehouse by other parties than the employees. • Misperformance, whether due to incompetence or fraud, of the warehouse operator's staff. It should also cover fraud by the top management. • Political risk and terrorism. Standard insurance excludes risks arising from politics, sabotage and terrorism. Separate cover is needed for these risks.The other parties (depositors, banks, buyers and sellers) in grain transactions want to be confident that the warehouse is trustworthy, professionally managed and financially secure. Some countries have a certification scheme, where a government or independent agency inspects warehouses and gives them a certificate.Certification is usually a requirement for a warehouse to participate in a warehouse receipt scheme (see Chapter 6).Commercial storage providers have to operate in a safe environment. In addition to the normal workplace hazards, they also face special types of risks. A dust explosion or fire, for example, can cause injuries and deaths, and can render a company bankrupt very quickly.Injuries in the workplace may result in the company being held liable for huge sums in compensation, and the firm may be shut down if it has a poor safety record. Warehouses and grain-handling facilities must maintain safe working procedures to reduce such hazards.Commercial storage is an important part of structured trade. Unlike onfarm, village or cooperative stores where farmers store grains for themselves, commercial storage providers have no direct interest in the grain other than the handling and storage charges. This puts them in a position where they can act as collateral managers (see Chapter 6). In this position, they can guarantee the quality and quantity of the grain in the store and can hold grain on behalf of a financier or buyer. Plus, they offer professional services.Keeping grain in a commercial warehouse minimizes the risk for commodity financiers and buyers, and puts warehouse operators in a unique position in structured trade systems. Such warehouses make it possible for farmers, traders and buyers to transfer ownership of the grain without having to move it. This makes warehouse receipt systems (Chapter 6) and commodity exchanges (Chapter 7) possible.Warehouses used in warehouse receipt systems may be private or public.A private warehouse is controlled privately by:• A trader to store goods for its trading activities • A group of farmers to store their goods prior to sale • A processor to store raw materials or finished goods, or • A wholesaler to manage inventory.The main business of the controlling company is not warehousing but production, manufacturing, wholesaling or retailing.From a bank's point of view, the big disadvantage of private warehouses is security. The bank has no way of knowing that the grain is in fact in the warehouse. The warehouse owner may take the grain away without asking or even informing the bank. Plus, the bank cannot be sure of getting the grain if the borrower defaults on a loan. That makes the bank reluctant to lend money to the owner of grain in a private warehouse.The solution? Convert the private warehouse into a public warehouse, by putting it under the control of a collateral management company (see Chapter 6).The title \"public warehouse\" does not mean that the warehouse is managed by the government. Rather, it is a warehouse that is open to the public: anyone can deposit grain there. It is operated by a warehousing company which does not own the grain stored in it. The warehousing company provides a service for a set fee.It is much easier to establish that bailment (Box 14, Chapter 6) exists in a public warehouse than in a private warehouse.There are two types of public warehouses: terminal warehouse and field warehouse.• Terminal warehouse. A terminal warehouse, or commercial warehouse, is physically separate from the company that owns the grain stored in it. Most terminal warehouses store grain from many different depositors. • Field warehouse. A field warehouse is a private warehouse that is under collateral management. It is located at or near the company that owns the grain stored in it. The collateral manager takes control of the warehouse and its contents, so creating a legally independent facility.Structured trading requires a wide range of information.A system that provides this information in a convenient way is a key part of structured trading: it gives the actors in the chain the information they need to buy and sell the right crops at the right time and at the right price.This chapter describes the different types of market information, explains the information used in structured trading, and lists the elements that users should pay attention to. It ends with a description of a few examples of how private and public market information systems are used in structured grain trading in Africa.The simplest form of market information is word of mouth. When a farmer negotiates with a trader, he or she finds out what price the trader is willing to offer. The farmer tells his or her friends and neighbours. They can decide whether to sell their grain to that trader, or whether to wait for a better offer from someone else.Similarly, traders also talk to each other and their agents. They watch what their competitors are doing. So, too, do all the other actors in the chain.Such traditional systems may be good enough for local markets. But they are not enough for a structured trading system. Those working in more formal trading systems need information that is better organized, more reliable, and more transparent:• Farmers need information to decide when and where to sell their grain, whether to first store it in a warehouse, whom to sell it to, and what crop to plant next season. • Traders need to decide whether to buy a commodity, whether to store it or sell it immediately, and who to buy from or sell to. • Buyers and sellers need information on prices and the stocks of each product and grade in the various markets and warehouses. They also need a good understanding of market trends and dynamics. Is the price going up or down? What will it be in three or six months' time?• Bankers need information so they can decide how much they can lend against the collateral of stock in a warehouse. If they lend too much and market prices collapse, they run the risk that they will not be fully repaid for the value of the loan.what is a mar ket infor mation system?A market information system collects, analyses, packages, stores and disseminates prices and other information relevant to farmers, traders, processors and others involved in handling agricultural commodities. It may also be called a market intelligence system, market information service or, in short, an MIS.In Africa, market information systems usually focus on prices (farm gate, wholesale, retail) for each commodity, grade and market, and on the stocks or quantities of these commodities. Some systems also cover transport costs, imports and exports, cross-border trade, parity prices, national and regional food-balance sheets, etc. The MIS may offer market reports and charts. Some may be available for free, on payment of a fee for a specific piece of information, or on subscription.Some systems also maintain electronic trading platforms where buyers and sellers can place bids and offers.There are many types of market information system in Africa. Some of these are described in Table 4.Some market information systems serve several countries or a whole region: they include RESIMAO, Esoko and EAGC RATIN.Most MIS serve a single country. Some small ones are run just in local markets or in one province. They vary considerably from country to country. Some are run by public agencies or NGOs, but an increasing number are now managed by farmers' organizations and private businesses. Examples are those run by Infotrade Uganda, the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange, and the Zambia National Farmers Union.In a few countries where commodity exchanges operate, a market information system is a vital part of the exchange. Its information is generated as a result of trades conducted on the exchange as well as the prices that are bid and offered on the trading platform. It provides real-time price information (see Chapter 7).For a more complete list of market information systems in Africa, see www.sim2g.org/mis_network/mis_s_list.Over time, farmers, traders, processors and others develop both informal and formal sources of market information. We have already mentioned one: talking to friends, neighbours, trading partners and competitors. Other informal and formal methods include notice boards in markets, newspapers, radio, television and the internet (Table 5, Figure 19). Mobile phones are an increasingly important distribution method for MIS (Box 12).Some types of information are part of organized market information systems; others are more haphazard. The new delivery models complement the traditional systems, and many actors combine information from various sources. In some cases users can also cross-check the information from different MIS.Other information sources include government bureaux of statistics, customs agencies, national statistics bodies, and international business information sources such as Reuters. However, most government sources tend to provide information that is rather out of date, while subscriptions to international services can be very expensive, particularly for farmers and small traders.  what mar ket infor mation can be used in str uctured trading?Market information systems provide a wide range of information that can be used at every stage of the chain (Figure 20).Structured trading systems need market information once the grain has been harvested, cleaned, graded and stored in a warehouse. That is when trading decisions have to be made. However, farmers also need information to decide whether to store or sell their grains, as well as to make longer-term decisions on what to grow and when to grow it.Being able to monitor market prices is a key aspect of the warehouse receipt system, a central component of structured trading (Chapter 6). If the information is not there, or if it is not reliable, the whole operation will fail. The depositors could lose money.Box 12. using moBile phones to get market inFormationIn many countries, people increasingly use their mobile phones to get the latest information. There are two main types of scheme:• \"Push\" systems. This is when someone subscribes to a service, and it will automatically send the subscriber information in the form of short messages (SMS). This is called a \"push\" system because it \"pushes\" information out to the subscriber without him or her having to do anything.• \"Pull\" systems. A user can send an SMS to a particular number, and the service will reply with the information wanted. The user can use a smartphone to visit a website to get the information. This is called a \"pull\" system because the user has to do something (send an SMS, visit the website) to \"pull\" the information to his or her device.Of course, mobile phones also let people call their traders, millers, friends and other contacts in different towns to ask about local prices and market trends.Such personal networks are a vital part of an informal market information system.In addition to mobile phones, farmers and traders also can use call-back centres or toll-free lines to verify or ask for market information from providers.Table 6 shows the information that users such as farmers, traders and financial institutions need in a structured trading system. Market information systems provide some of this information. The rest may come from other sources. Market information services must provide information that is up-to-date, reliable, comprehensive and neutral. Farmers or traders want information that will help them to make the right decision at the right moment. So, timely, frequent updates are very important.How is the information gathered? Most market information systems have various ways to collect data. Some are reliable and accurate; others less so.The systems also need to check and analyse the data in a consistent way. The information must be neutral. Information can be easily manipulated, and grain prices in some countries can be very political. The provider of the information must be able to guarantee its neutrality, and it must be presented in a way that is clear for all to understand.Users of information are at liberty to compare different sources of information. If there is more than one information provider, users often check different sources. Some national and regional information providers are trying to harmonize the collection, analysis and packaging of information in a bid to standardize how market information is provided.sAgis: south African grain information service, south Africa www.sagis.org.za SAGIS was founded in November 1997, after the deregulation of agriculture in South Africa.It covers four groups of commodities:• Maize (white and yellow separately)• Oilseeds (sunflower, soybeans, canola and groundnuts)• Winter cereals (wheat, barley and oats) • Sorghum.SAGIS gathers, processes, analyses and distributes information on these commodities to interested parties. It ensures that the information is reliable and timely. Market participants (such as warehouse operators, traders with their own premises, processors, importers and exporters) are legally required to register with SAGIS and to provide it with information.SAGIS releases the following information:• Monthly supply and demand tables: One page per commodity, with stocks, producer deliveries, imports, exports and consumption. • Weekly bulletins: A collection of local and international information such as prices, stocks, import parity prices, economic indicators, food prices and weather conditions. • Weekly imports and exports for maize and wheat.• Weekly producer deliveries for maize and wheat.The monthly and weekly bulletins are sent to a distribution list and published on the SAGIS website. People on the distribution list get the bulletins by email, fax or ordinary post. SAGIS is funded by trusts set up by the four commodity sectors. It provides information free of charge. SAGIS also provides training for other countries seeking to set up similar operations, particularly in the Southern African Development Community region. RATIN is a regional market information system developed and hosted by the Eastern Africa Grain Council (EAGC). It is a one-stop-shop for timely, accurate, and relevant market information for grain stakeholders in East Africa. Its services include daily market prices, daily cross-border trade flows, real-time warehouse stocks, regional food-balance sheets, parity prices, grain trade news updates, weekly market analysis reports, monthly cross-border reports, daily news updates, interactive maps and historical datasets.RATIN's information is collected by enumerators based at the main markets, border points, warehouses, and at food balance sheet committees. They use smartphones to collect and transmit the data. The information is relayed to a central database where it is processed, analysed and disseminated through the RATIN web portal, SMS services, email and newspapers.RATIN delivers market information to end users via three types of channels: people-based, electronic, and print media (Table 6). Users can choose the channel they prefer, depending on convenience and cost. The most important channels are radio, mobile phones and the internet. The XYZ farmers' group has harvested 100 tons of maize and dried it in the sun. They know that the price immediately after harvest is low. They realize that if they wait a few months before selling, it is likely to be much higher.They bring their grain to the ABC warehouse. They want to store it there for a few months in the hope that the price will go up. The warehouse operator runs a warehouse receipt system. When the farmers deposit their grain, he will give them a warehouse receipt. The farmers can then take that receipt to a bank and use it to get a loan, which they can use to buy the inputs they need and pay for other expenses. The bank will lend them this money because it knows that the grain exists, and that the warehouse is holding it securely. If the farmers do not repay the loan, the bank can go to the warehouse with the receipt and ask the warehouse operator to sell the grain and pay the bank.The farmer group watches the market price carefully and decides when to sell the grain. They make sure the price is high enough to cover the cost of storage, the interest on the loan, as well as some profit.The warehouse receipt has another advantage. Once they have paid off the loan, the farmers can sell the receipt to a trader, who can go to the warehouse to claim the grain. Because the receipt shows the amount of grain and its grade, the trader knows how much the grain is worth. The farmers and trader can buy and sell the grain without having to pay for transporting it. That makes trading a lot easier for everyone. * * * Sounds simple? The devil is in the details. This chapter explains how warehouse receipt systems work.A warehouse receipt (Figure 13) is a document that proves that someone has deposited a certain amount of grain (or some other commodity) in a specific warehouse. The person who deposits the grain is called the depositor. This may be a farmer or group of farmers or, more usually, a processor or trader. The receipt may be single sheet of paper, or it may be in electronic form.A warehouse receipt system involves various parties: the depositor of the grain, the warehouse operator, the bank (if a loan is required), and a buyer.Figure 24 shows how a simple warehouse receipt system works.  orThe depositor can take the warehouse receipt to a bank and use it as collateral for a loan.Or, if the warehouse receipt is negotiable or transferrable, the depositor can sell it to a buyer.When the depositor has repaid the loan, the bank returns the warehouse receipt.The buyer can then take the receipt to the warehouse, pay the storage fee, and pick up the grain.The depositor returns the receipt to the warehouse, pays for the storage fee, and picks up the grain. who owns the grain?The depositor owns the grain listed on the warehouse receipt -unless he or she sells the receipt to someone else. The warehouse operator is not allowed to move the grain or dispose of it without the receipt holder's permission. Even if the warehouse goes bankrupt, the grain is safe because the legal title to the grain remains with the holder of the receipt.When the depositor brings the receipt back to the warehouse, the operator must allow him or her to take the grain. If the warehouse agreement specifies it must be \"identity preserved\" (Chapter 4), it must be exactly the same grain.Otherwise, it may be other grain of the same grade and quality. If for any reason the grain has been spoiled or stolen, the warehouse operator has to reimburse the depositor.A depositor can use a warehouse receipt to get a loan from a bank in two ways:• The depositor takes the receipt to the bank. The bank takes the receipt as collateral, and gives the depositor a loan. Once the loan has been repaid, the bank returns the receipt. • The warehouse operator has an agency arrangement with the bank, and the depositor can ask him to arrange for a bank loan against the security of the receipt.If the depositor does not repay the loan, the bank can sell the grain and get its money back. For this system to work, the bank has to recognize that the receipts are valid as collateral, and it has to trust the warehouse receipt system and accept the risks involved. Some banks are willing to do this; others are not.The receipt holder can decide to sell the grain he or she has stored in a warehouse. For the receipt holder to make a profit, the selling price must be high enough to:• Cover the storage costs charged by the warehouse operator, plus the loss of weight caused by drying and cleaning and while in storage. • Cover the interest rate charged by the bank for their loan, plus the cost of making arrangements for the loan. • Provide some profit for the depositor.The bank may be the central point for settling the financial transactions. In that case there is a four-way relationship between the depositor, the bank, the warehouse operator and the buyer (Figure 26). The price of grain does not always rise in the months after harvest. In some years it stays the same, or it may even fall. What if this happens, and the grain does not fetch as much as expected when it is sold? Here are some ways that depositors and lenders can reduce the risk of a loss:• Banks and other lenders do not lend the full value of the warehouse receipt. Usually, a loan covers about 60% of the value of the grain at the time it is deposited in a warehouse. • Banks and collateral managers monitor the market prices of grain carefully using available market information (see Chapter 5). • Lending contracts permit lenders to vary the amount they lend depending on the price. They may require more collateral if the market price falls. • Forward contracts (contracts to buy a certain amount of grain at some time in the future) may specify a minimum acceptable purchase price.There are lots of different types of warehouse receipts. Some are transferrable, meaning they can be transferred for one person or company to another. Depositors need to make sure they know what type of receipt they are getting:• Non-negotiable receipts. Some types of warehouse receipts are \"nonnegotiable\". This means the depositor him-or herself (or someone they authorize) has to go to the warehouse to pick up the grain. • Negotiable receipts. Other warehouse receipts are \"negotiable\". The receipt document itself conveys the rights to the grain. That means the depositor can sell it to a buyer, who can then go to the warehouse to collect the grain. This is risky because someone may steal or forge a paper receipt and go to pick up the grain or take out a loan. (This problem may soon be a thing of the past as records become electronic, which allows extra safeguards to be built in.) • Transferrable receipts. Other types of receipts are \"transferrable\". They are more restricted than the fully negotiable type above. The depositor is required to countersign it before giving it to someone else, who can then go to the warehouse to pick up the grain. The new owner must return the countersigned receipt to the warehouse operator, who cancels the original receipt and issues a new receipt in the name of the new owner.Ideally, a country will have laws (see below) that recognize a warehouse receipt as a legal document of ownership. That gives the buyer, and the bank, confidence that the receipt represents real grain in a real warehouse.There is no need to go and check that it actually exists.The warehouse operator has to keep the grain in a safe place, clean, dry and free of pests. He or she must return the grain to the depositor, of the same type and quality, as specified on the warehouse receipt. If the operator fails to do this, he or she has to compensate the depositor for the grain.The depositor will get 95-98% of the weight of the grain back, depending on the length of storage and the moisture levels at time of deposit and collection. Details should be specified on the warehouse receipt. Where grain is stored in bulk, then the owner of the receipt will receive a guaranteed amount. If it is stored in bags, the same number of bags are returned but they may weigh slightly less (or more, depending on the commodity and humidity).Why not 100%? Because every time the grain is handled (for example if it goes through cleaning equipment), some is lost. If it is dried, it loses weight. It can also lose weight over the storage period. With storage in tropical zones, however, it might actually increase in weight slightly. See Chapter 4 for details.The depositor has to pay for the costs of storing, cleaning and drying the grain, and any other services. If the depositor does not pay, the warehouse operator can keep the grain until payment is received.If the depositor does not pick up the grain within a reasonable period, the warehouse operator can sell the grain to pay for the unpaid expenses. The operator will then pay the remainder of the proceeds to the depositor.Collateral management puts the grain under the control of a trusted, independent third party -the collateral manager. The grain stays in the owner's own warehouse. But the collateral manager takes control of the warehouse and prevents the owner from disposing of the grain without permission. This is also known as \"field\" warehousing and storage services (see Chapter 4).The collateral manager checks the grain, makes sure that it matches the records, then takes control of it on behalf of the owner and the lender.There are specific requirements for this:• The manager inspects the warehouse and makes sure it fits the requirements. • The manager signs a lease agreement for the warehouse, taking legal control of it.• The collateral manager puts locks and seals on the warehouse to prevent anyone (including the owner) from taking grain out. • The manager puts up notices saying who now controls the warehouse and its contents.Warehouse receipts are fairly new in Africa, so some countries do not yet have the necessary legislation in place (though countries with ports invariably have bonded warehouses, and the stock they contain can be used as collateral). Three-way agreements between the lender, borrower and collateral manager make collateral management possible even if there is no legislation in place. The owner stores the grain in his or her own warehouse..  The owner gets back control over the grain. He or she can then sell it.Under these agreements, the lender and borrower both agree that the collateral manager is a suitable organization to provide the service. Some countries have enacted warehousing laws, but collateral management through such threeway agreements still dominates the markets. This is because lenders in such countries are not yet confident enough in the licensed warehouse operators and regulators of the receipt systems.Joint key holding Some banks are prepared to lend money to longstanding, trusted customers if the grain used as collateral is stored in a warehouse belonging to the borrower. The borrower gives a key to the bank so it can check the grain at any time. This practice is used in some countries, but is rare in Africa.Warehouse receipt finance, including collateral management, depends on the legal concept of bailment.• Bailment: Where one person owns the property (in this case, the grain), but someone has it in his or her possession.• Bailer: The person who owns the grain: the depositor.• Bailee: The person who stores the grain: the collateral managerTwo conditions are necessary for bailment to exist.• The depositor relinquishes possession of the grain.• The collateral manager assumes \"exclusive, continuous and notorious possession\" of the grain.Sounds complicated? That is because it is not possible to do warehouse receipt finance in an amateurish or haphazard manner. These are highly structured processes and depend on the right legal conditions. They have to be handled professionally -otherwise they will not work! In Asia, some banks will even give short-term operating credit to trusted rice traders that declare their own collateral, without any inspection.This is where an organization (such as a farmers' group or cooperative) puts its grain in a warehouse which it manages itself. Some communities do this just so they can store their grain safely. Others do it so they can then go to a bank or microfinance institution to ask for a loan, using the grain (the inventory) as collateral. In French this is often called \"warrantage\".Cereal banks were widely promoted in the Sahel in the 1970s and 1980s. They were nearly always sponsored by an outside agency, such as an NGO, which helped finance the construction of a small warehouse, often meeting material costs while villagers provided the labour. The NGO would then provide funds to the village to purchase grain after harvest when prices were low, with the plan that the grain would be sold in the village when prices increased during the lean season. The returns from these sales were intended to be used for new purchases in the following year. An estimated 4,000 such cereal banks were constructed in the Sahel, and the idea spread to countries outside that region and even outside Africa. Unfortunately, the majority failed.This failure was because of various false assumptions and management and financial problems:• The cereal banks were based on the assumption that farmers were forced to sell their entire crop immediately after harvest and buy back grain later in the season. Subsequent research questioned this. • Projects to build cereal banks assumed that they would protect farmers from exploitation by traders. But in fact, it seems that grain trade in the region was very competitive, and profit margins were relatively small. • The assumption was made that on-farm storage losses were very high.Research has also challenged this.• The cereal banks could not earn enough profit to cover their costs.• Collective decision-making proved slow and cumbersome.• There were few incentives for management to perform.• Banks tended to insist on a credit guarantee to cover the whole amount of the loan, because they had no guarantee that if the loan were not repaid the grain serving as the collateral would still be in the store. This guarantee was usually provided by an NGO. That meant the banks took on little or no WAREHOUSE BANK 20 10 financing risk. But credit guarantees are hard to get, so such programmes tended to be small-scale. Plus, banks were not encouraged to find new ways of making money by lending money. The NGO provides a guarantee to the bank. The bank gives the organization a loan.The farmers repay the loan, and the bank terminates the guarantee.The NGO reimburses the bank. warehouse receipts and the law Many countries have legislation that governs warehouse receipt systems. This legislation defines the rules and regulations that such systems have to follow. It protects the interests of depositors, lenders and buyers by making sure that only registered operators are allowed to issue warehouse receipts.Effective regulations build everyone's confidence that the receipt system will work. Farmers trust that their grain is safe in the warehouse. Lenders become more willing to lend money. Buyers are happy that the grain will be handed over after they have paid for it.• Warehouse certification. Certifying or licensing has to cover the warehouses, the warehouse operators and their personnel. This makes sure they meet certain requirements: they must have enough capital, they must have insurance cover for fire and other risks, and they must have a guarantee in case they fail to perform. • Enforcement. A regulatory agency makes regular, unannounced inspections of the warehouse and checks that the grain is properly graded and stored. • Reliable receipts. Systems and procedures ensure that receipts can be issued only by bona fide warehouse operators. • Compliance with standards. The warehouse operator must make sure that the grain conforms to accepted standards. That makes buying and selling easier. • Central registry. A central registry system, preferably electronic, cuts the risk of forgery, prevents duplicate receipts being issued and being \"double-pledged\" (the same receipt being used as collateral with two different banks).Model warehouse legislation exists, in particular in the United States. This has guided the development of legislation in Tanzania, Uganda and other countries.Having an official warehousing agency to certify warehouses is not essential as long as the warehouse complies with certain requirements and is fully trusted by those using its services. In the initial years of structured trade, having a certification agency may prove rather costly if only a few warehouses are seeking certification. Under these circumstances it may make sense for a country to have an agency with just one or two staff that uses the services of international inspection firms (Box 15).The warehouse regulatory agency must have a set of rules and regulations to use for certifying and inspecting warehouses.When a warehouse is certified:• The warehouse operator applies to join the warehouse receipt system and pays for the inspection costs up front. • The regulator commissions a firm to inspect the warehouse operator.• The inspection firm does the initial inspection. It checks the warehouse buildings and equipment, staff skills, lease, records and insurance. It sends a report to the regulator. • The regulator presents the inspection report to the warehouse operator. If the operator fails the certification, it can try to fix the deficiencies. • A follow-up inspection is carried out to check they have been fixed. • If the warehouse operator meets all the standards, the regulator issues a license to the warehouse operator. The warehouse is certified.Box 15. selected international Firms that provide warehouseinspection servicesAll collateral management companies provide warehouse-inspection services. Here are some international companies that offer these services. \"Back in the 1990s I used to buy and sell fish in the markets where I lived in Midisi, Malawi. I made good money. I invested the profits in some land, but wanted to find a way to get better prices for my other commodities, especially maize.\"I did not have any storage facilities at all, and if I had ten bags of maize I would keep them in the house, which was not a good idea because of pests. I could not find a good price for my maize anywhere. Then I looked in the telephone directory and I found the number for the Agricultural Commodity Exchange for Africa, based in Lilongwe. I spoke to them and became the first small-scale farmer to use the commodity exchange.\"I registered with ACE as a trader and put 5 tonnes of maize to sell on the exchange. Within three weeks they found me a buyer from the southern region of the country. I have now supplied the World Food Programme and used the profits to invest in a shop in Midisi. As an ACE-registered trader, I get market information through my mobile phone and it much easier for me because now I know what the market price is as well as where the maize is needed. Before, I used to sell it even if the price was low because I had to. I am very happy that I have found this system.\"-Bester Mora, small-scale farmer and trader, Midisi, Malawi * * * Commodities stored under a warehouse receipt can easily be traded at a commodity exchange because those buying produce at an exchange can be confident that the produce exists, that it meets a specified standard, and that it belongs to the person selling it.what is an agr icultural commodity exchange?A commodity exchange is an open and organized market place where commodities are traded. Trading is done in an organized way through a system of bids (to buy) and offers (to sell), governed by a set of rules.A commodity exchange brings together many buyers and sellers for a given product. They make it easier for buyers and sellers to find each other and agree on prices. Because the trades are made public, they also reveal what the current market price is. This is called price discovery.Agricultural commodity exchanges are the pinnacle of structured grain trading systems. They are nothing new: they have been in operation in one form or another for almost 200 years. One of the best-known exchanges is the Chicago Board of Trade, which has been functioning since 1848.Before this, huge quantities of wheat and maize arrived in Chicago at harvest time -far more than current demand. There was not enough space to store it, and no way to stop it from deteriorating. So farmers were forced to accept whatever prices they could get before their grain spoiled and was dumped in Lake Michigan. Ironically, a few months later, the demand for grain would rise and millers would pay a premium for any grain that was still available.As a result, both the sellers (farmers and traders) and buyers (millers) looked for a way out of the dilemma of alternating oversupply and undersupply and wide price fluctuations. This led to the creation of contracts for future delivery.A contract would specify the firm sale of a designated amount of grain \"to arrive\" 20, 30, or 60 days later. The farmer would harvest the grain, confident that it was already sold. The miller would be sure of having a supply of grain available throughout most of the year.1. Alois has 100 tonnes of maize under a warehouse receipt. He wants to sell the grain at $300 per tonne. He contacts Benjamin, a broker on the exchange, with the details. 2. Benjamin registers an offer on the exchange. This specifies the quantity, grade, location and desired price of the maize. 3. Meanwhile Carol, a miller, wants to buy 150 tonnes of maize at $280 per tonne. She contacts Deidre, another broker, and asks her to arrange a purchase on the exchange. 4. Deidre looks at the various offers on the exchange, and sees the one from Benjamin. It is priced a bit higher than Carol wants to pay, and it is only 100 tonnes. But it is the right grade and the warehouse is close to Carol's mill. So Deidre places a bid for the maize at $280 a tonne. 5. Benjamin sees the bid, and calls Alois to discuss it. Alois tells Benjamin to negotiate a price between the bid and the offer. 6. Benjamin calls Deidre and says that he would accept $290 per tonne.Deidre checks with Carol, who agrees. 7. Benjamin and Deidre agree on the deal. The exchange automatically generates a contract. 8. Carol pays the agreed price to the exchange. The exchange deducts the fees for Benjamin and Deidre, as well as a handling charge. It instructs the warehouse to transfer the ownership of the grain to Carol. It then pays Alois. 9. The exchange announces the quantity and type of grain traded, and the price agreed. That lets other buyers and sellers know what they can expect to pay or get for a similar consignment of grain.Trading on commodity exchanges can be very technical (though many exchanges operate websites that make it easy for newcomers). Here are some of the terms you need to know.Only members of the exchange are allowed to trade on it. They must be a reputable individual or company, and pay an annual fee. They may also have to deposit a performance bond. There are two types of members: brokers and traders. These terms are often confused, but they have a special meaning in commodity exchanges.• A trader is someone who buys and sells on his or her own behalf. Traders try to make a profit by buying cheap and selling at a higher price. The traders do not have to say how much profit they are making. They may never take physical delivery of any of the products traded as they can \"offset\" purchases with sales. • A broker is someone who conducts business on the exchange on behalf of a client (a buyer or seller). Brokers act only on the client's behalf, and have no direct interest in the deal. They charge an agreed level of commission for the services they provide to the client in finalizing the contract.Many people want to buy or sell grain but are not members of the exchange.A broker can offer such clients various advantages:• Credibility with buyers or sellers. The client might otherwise find it difficult to do business with them.• Specialized advice on how and when to approach the market.• Increased market opportunities, often in areas not otherwise open to the client. • Price and other market information from a range of sources and places. • Market analysis.• Bid = I want to buy. A bid placed on an exchange indicates an intention to buy. It usually indicates both the price and the quantity the buyer would like to purchase. • Offer = I want to sell. An offer indicates an intention to sell. It usually indicates both the price and the quantity the seller would like to sell.Commodity exchanges trade a variety of different contracts. The three main types in Africa are:• Spot contracts = we agree to buy/sell now. These are contracts where the ownership of the grain changes hands immediately. Spot trades make it possible for a brewer, for example, to buy grain that he or she needs to start turning into beer tomorrow. • Forward contracts = we agree to buy/sell in the future. These are contracts for grain to be delivered on a specified date in the future. They make it possible for a brewery, for example, to plan ahead: it knows it will need grain next September and wants to make sure it will be available. A forward contract also locks in the price to be paid. That means that both the brewer and the seller know exactly how much the grain will cost. Forward contracts allow farmers or traders to guarantee that they will get a certain price for their grain, regardless of what the actual market price is at the time. • Futures contracts. These are like forward contracts, but are standardized (for 50 or 100 tonnes, for example), and for delivery in specific months. Such contracts can be traded many times without physical delivery ever actually taking place.See Chapter 8 for more on contracts.On some exchanges it is also possible to buy and sell options: the right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell grain at a certain date in the future.• Call option = I have the right to buy from you. A call option is the right to buy a certain amount of grain from the seller on a particular date in the future, at a particular price (Box 16).• Put option = I have the right to sell to you. A put option is the opposite of a call option: it is the right to sell the grain to the buyer of the option on a particular date, at a particular price (Box 17). Box 16. example oF a call option 12 July I purchase a call option from you to buy 100 tonnes of sorghum from you on 3 December at $300/tonne.The spot price for sorghum on this day is $350/tonne. I decide to exercise the option and actually buy the grain from you at $300/tonne. you are contractually obliged to sell it to me at this price. I make a profit of $50/tonne.If the spot price is lower, say only $250/tonne, I am not obliged to exercise the option. I do not have to buy the grain at $300. I will lose only the cost of organizing the option on the exchange.1 August I purchase a put option from you to sell you 50 tonnes of soybeans on 12 February at $500/tonne.12 FebruaryThe spot price for soybean on this day is only $480/tonne. I decide to exercise the option and sell you the soybean at $500/tonne. you are contractually obliged to buy from me at this price. I make a profit of $20/tonne.If the spot price is higher, say $550/tonne, I am not obliged to exercise the option. I do not have to sell you the grain at $500. I will lose only the cost of the option.There are many benefits to be gained from trading through an agricultural commodity exchange. Here are some of them:• Lower risk. Exchanges reduce the risks for all parties. The buyers are confident that the grain actually exists and is what the seller says it is. The sellers are confident that they will get paid. • Integrity. The rules and regulations of the exchange govern how deals are transacted. This makes it possible to monitor the integrity of both the traders and brokers. The exchange ensures that quality standards are maintained for both the commodities and the trading practices. • Transparency. All the deals are transparent. Prices are announced on the exchange's website and in the news media, and the transaction costs are transparent to both the buyer and seller. Where large quantities are traded on the exchange, this ensures that both sellers and buyers know they are getting the best price available at the time. However, if the exchange handles only small quantities, this cannot be guaranteed. On some exchanges these are indicated as \"special trades\" and are not necessarily indicative of the prevailing market prices. • Price discovery. Grain prices go up and down from season to season, from day to day, and even from minute to minute, reflecting supply and demand for the grain. Exchanges make it easy to keep track of these movements because they publish the prices that buyers and sellers agree on. Prices on the exchange are the most reliable because this is where the most trading takes place. • Standardized products. Trading on an exchange requires that the grain be graded. It is possible to trade \"Grade 1 white dent maize\" on an exchange. It is not usually possible to trade grain without having it graded, although in some cases an exchange may accept ungraded grain for offer on an \"as per sample\" or \"f.a.q.\" (fair average quality) basis. If the buyer accepts, it can be contracted on that basis. • Dispute resolution. If a dispute arises that the parties cannot resolve between them, the exchange's arbitration rules will come into effect. The parties can agree to the appointment of an arbitrator from a list provided by the exchange. If they cannot agree on an arbitrator, the exchange's arbitration board will appoint an arbitrator to review the disagreement. That saves time and money and avoids the need for legal action (see Chapter 8). • Cost-effectiveness. An agricultural commodity exchange provides a very cost-effective marketing system. It brings together many potential buyers and sellers, and transactions are conducted quickly and efficiently. • Empowerment. Because the information on an exchange is transparent, it opens up choices. Smallholder farmers or small-scale traders can know what the price for their grain should be, so can negotiate accordingly.However, this does require that they fully understand the arrangements relating to warehouse receipts and exchange trading. For example, they must understand that if they deposit 1,000 kg of grain they will receive less than that back because of unavoidable losses (see Chapter 4).An exchange cannot do certain things.• An exchange does not set the price of grain. Instead, the prices depend on dozens, hundreds or thousands of individual agreements between buyers and sellers. They depend on the supply and demand for the grain at a particular time and place. • An exchange cannot advise participants when to buy or sell. That is the job of a broker. • An exchange cannot advise what is likely to happen in the future. That is also the job of the broker. The exchange provides information on current and past trades. It is up to the brokers (and other parties to the transaction) to interpret this and other information and make decisions accordingly. • An exchange does not guarantee contracts or performance in spot or forward markets. It does offer arbitration to help resolve disputes.The idea of commodity exchanges in Africa has long had top-level political support. The 1991 Abuja Treaty (which created the African Economic Community) first introduced the idea of an African commodity exchange and the use of warehouse receipts. In its 2005 Arusha Declaration on African Commodities, the African Union recognized the important role that exchanges have in the agricultural sector, and called on the international community to support commodity exchange initiatives in Africa and the introduction of warehouse receipts. The Agricultural Commodity Exchange for Africa in Malawi started trading on 26 October 2006 using an internet-based system. It is designed to be a regional trading platform. An additional trading system was designed specifically for the World Food Programme's \"Purchase for Progress\" initiative. The first ACE warehouse receipt is issued.The first warehouse receipt is sold to a large South African trader.It has been widely used by both small and large market participants. ACE also runs a warehouse receipt programme and has agreements with storage companies, farmers' associations and government agencies to provide approved storage facilities for this purpose.In 2012, ACE is testing and introducing new trading software. This will make it even easier for smaller operators to access the trading facility. ACE currently has members in seven countries in Africa.Bid-volume-only. ACE hosts an auction platform known as ACEBVO (Bid-Volume-Only), where a potential buyer can bid for a certain amount of grain at a particular grade and delivery location, but without specifying the price. ACE notifies registered suppliers and invites them to offer to sell grain, and to name the price they want. The system works like a reverse auction (also known as a \"Dutch auction\"): the suppliers tend to start out asking for a high price, but drop their prices during the trading session because they want to sell their grain.At the end of the session, the buyer can select the most competitive offers. ACE generates the contracts and settles the trades.Contracts are necessary to specify the terms under which two parties agree to do business. They can be used for trading in grains even where commodity exchanges are not used. All it takes for a contract is a willing buyer and a willing seller who are both ready to honour an agreement. It is important that those involved are aware of the obligations that contracts imply.A contract is an agreement between two or more persons, which is legally enforceable.Contracts are important for grain trading because:• They specify the full details of the trade (the quantity, price, etc.) as well as the buyer and seller (and their representatives where applicable). • They specify the responsibilities and obligations of both the seller and the buyer. • They make buyers confident that they will actually get the grain they pay for, where and when they want it, and of the right type and quality. • They make sellers confident that the buyer will actually pay for the grain.• They can be used to reduce risks such as price risk (the risk of prices going up or down) and performance risk (the danger that either the buyer or seller does not fulfil his or her obligations). • They specify what must be done in case there is a disagreement.From a commercial perspective, a contract is a useful marketing tool that can be used to minimize the risk of price fluctuations.From a legal perspective, a contract is a legally binding document that must be fulfilled.Trade contracts and dispute resolution the contracting process Contracts are negotiated. During the negotiations, the parties must make clear that they agree to the same terms. This is normally done by an offer and an acceptance. One party makes an offer, which the other party either accepts or rejects.Before the parties start, they must understand the process of negotiating a contract.• They should be confident with the party they intend to have dealings with.• They should record the details of the contract, preferably in a book or diary. • They must understand their role and obligations. They should be careful if they commit to supplying grain, because if they fail to fulfil the contract, there are likely to be financial consequences.The person negotiating the contract should record the time, name and title of the person they are speaking to in their book or diary. He or she should discuss the items in Table 7, noting the details of the negotiations so there is a record of what was agreed.The negotiator should read and check the contract details against the notes they recorded during the conversation with the buyer or seller. He or she should ensure the contract and the diary notes agree. It is important to check the fine print to avoid any unpleasant surprises.If there are any discrepancies, the negotiator should contact the buyer immediately to resolve these. If there is uncertainty about a term or condition, he or she should contact the buyer and have it explained. If still unsure, the negotiator should seek advice.After receiving and confirming the contract, the negotiator should document any changes made in subsequent conversations with the buyer. These, too, should be confirmed in writing as soon as possible.When the negotiator is confident that everything is correct, he or she should sign and date the contract. The grain type and quality (grade) required, the variety, protein and moisture content, screenings, and any premiums or discounts applicable.(Screenings are small grains that pass through a certain sieve size.If the percentage of full grains is high, it may be possible to sell at a premium.)date by which delivery is to be completed.The delivery date or period.Where the delivery point is.Price (or the formula to be used in determining the price, including the interest rates)The price and whether it includes or excludes taxes and duties.Who has to pay any fees or charges that apply (such as taxes or local government levies).Price adjustment if it is not possible to meet the specified grade Quantity being contracted and the acceptable weight toleranceThe quantity required, and any tolerances (amounts over or under that amount).Full details of both buyer and seller signatures of both parties and the date of signingWhich country's legal mechanisms will be used to settle any disputes.What happens if the seller is unable to deliver the grain as specified in the contract; the mechanisms to deal with any disputes.Trades made on a commodity exchange may include a requirement to refer disputes to arbitration (see below).force majeure What happens to the contract if an extraordinary event (such as a war or earthquake) occurs (see below).The price may be ex-warehouse (delivered at the local depot or silo), or ex-farm. This indicates whether the buyer or seller is responsible for the transport, storage and handling charges. See the section on Incoterms below.When the payment is due and how it will be made.The documents that must be presented when the grain is handed over.What happens if the loading or unloading is faster than expected. This is normally used for sea consignments.demurrage What happens if transport is delayed (see below).weighing Whether the weight of the load is measured at the loading time or at the destination.The type of packaging (bags, bulk) that should be used.The methods used to test for moisture, etc.If the contract is negotiated by a broker.Standard contracts make trading easier because it is not necessary for the buyer and seller to negotiate lots of fine print. That makes trading faster and cheaper.Standard grain contracts can be downloaded from: EAGC: eagc.org/index.php/contacts/training/viewcategory/7-list-of-eagccontracts GAFTA: www.gafta.com/contracts Sample contracts for local and international trade are given at the end of this chapter.Contracts can be full of legalese. Here are some terms that everyone involved in structured trade needs to know.A contract of agency is a written agreement between the buyer (or seller) and the broker to conduct business on his or her behalf. It lists the agreed terms and conditions, including the price.Delivery period. This is the period in which delivery must be made or the contract executed. (i.e., delivered to or transferred from the warehouse).Force majeure. Force majeure is an extraordinary event or circumstance beyond the control of the parties that prevents one or both parties from fulfilling their obligations under the contract. Examples include a war, strike, riot, crime, or an \"act of God\" (hurricane, flooding, earthquake, volcanic eruption, etc.). In such situations, both parties are normally freed from their contract obligations. Events that are considered force majeure often have to be negotiated among the parties. For example, the possibility of a government ban on exports may need to be considered. Is that force majeure, or is the seller required to buy the required quantity from another country in order to comply with the contract?Demurrage. Demurrage is the extra cost incurred if the loading or unloading of the grain on transport is delayed -for example if a ship or lorry arrives late. Compensation is usually paid for such delays. This compensation should normally be reclaimed by the seller under the contract he or she has with the shipper.Incoterms: International commerce terms. These are an internationally recognized standard trade terms that set out buyer and seller responsibilities. They are used to develop trade contracts. Disputes may arise over grain contracts, even between two parties who are both honest and respected. Some causes can be: • Poorly or hastily drafted contracts that do not foresee questions that may reasonably arise, such as when each party has to do something. • When important terms of the contract are unclear, causing misunderstanding. For example:-The grain seller may not understand the obligation to deliver the contracted quantity of grain. -The buyer may not understand the obligation to pay for the grain at the contracted price. The seller must pay the costs, insurance and freight to bring the goods to the port of destination. However, risk is transferred to the buyer once the goods are loaded on the vessel. Used in maritime transport only.Delivered Duty Paid (at a particular place)The seller has to bear all the costs (including duties, taxes, and other official charges payable) and risks needed to bring goods to a specified point of destination.dAP Delivered at Place (at a particular destination)The seller pays for carriage to the named place, except for costs and taxes related to import clearance, and assumes all risks up to when the grain is ready for unloading by the buyer.• The grain supplier fails to deliver the contracted quantity of grain to the buyer if another buyer offers a better price. This is known as side-selling. It is a common problem among small-scale farmers who need cash urgently and are tempted by the higher prices offered by other buyers.Disputes can be resolved in various ways:• Negotiation. Here, the parties negotiate directly with one another.• Mediation. This is where a neutral, independent person (the mediator) helps the parties reach their own agreement to settle the dispute. • Arbitration. This is where the parties refer the dispute to a neutral, independent arbitrator, and agree to be bound by the decision he or she reaches. The decision is legally binding and enforceable for both parties. • Litigation. Where the parties cannot settle the dispute using the above techniques, claims are taken to court. Judgments are binding on the parties, subject to the right of appeal.Commodity exchanges usually require the parties to resolve their disputes through the exchange's own arbitration mechanism.Box 20. trade dispute arBitration committee compels south sudan to pay $41m to ugandan traders \"South Sudan to pay $41m in compensation to Ugandan traders who were not paid for goods and services supplied. Among the firms compensated were Aponye Uganda Limited ($8m), Afro Kai Limited ($2.58m), Sunrise and other single claimants who have sought compensation. Handling costsSeller to notify the buyer in writing when the commodity is ready for uplift from the warehouse.Weight to be confirmed during loading.Buyer to provide appropriate packing material and equipment.Buyer responsible for the cost of loading the goods from the warehouse.This contract is subject to the provisions of the terms and conditions of the EAGC contract No 2 which are deemed incorporated herein and made part of this contract which the Buyer and the Seller hereby acknowledge, accept and agree to be bound by.EAGC shall arbitrate in case of any disputes.Kenyan Law shall apply.This document constitutes the whole agreement between the parties and no term, condition, warranty or representation shall be of any force and effect unless recorded herein.Any amendment to this agreement shall only be binding if such amendment is in writing and signed by both parties. Weight certificate issued at load by an independent surveyor of Seller's choice and expense 6.Quality certificate issued at load by an independent surveyor of Seller's choice and expenseSeller will be responsible for PVOC inspections in South Africa. PVOC inspection costs will be for account of the Buyer. A copy of the Certificate of conformity will be provided to the Buyer for clearance purposes.The goods will only be released for discharge by the Buyer upon receipt of funds.Any costs and consequences resulting from standing time or loss of berthing slot resulting from late payment by the Buyer, will be for Buyer's account and responsibility.Transshipment allowed.Partial shipment allowed.All lighterage and/or port dues, risks and time at disport for Buyer's account.Geared/Gearless vessel acceptable.Vessel up to 25 years of age acceptable. Overage premium for Seller's accountCustomary Quick Dispatch Buyer to guarantee 10.50 meter Salt Water Draft and LOA of 185 m at discharge port including all channel access thereto.Lighterage/lightening, if any, to be for Buyer's account.As per GAFTA 59/60. Force Majeure clause as per GAFTA 100 and Arbitration rules of GAFTA 125, in force at the date of contract of which parties admit that they have knowledge and notice, and details above given shall be taken as having been written into such contract form in the appropriate place.Title of the goods shall remain with the Seller until the goods are paid in full, regardless of whether the commodity has been sold on credit or not.Risk of the goods shall transfer to the Buyer when the goods pass the ship's rail at the port of loading.No amendments or variation of this agreement or any of the documents referred to in it shall be valid unless it is in writing and signed by or on behalf of each of the parties.Neither party shall not without the prior knowledge of the other party (such consent not to be unreasonably withheld or delayed) assign, transfer or delegate any of its rights or duties under this contract. However, the Seller may assign this contract, with prior notice to (but without consent of) the Buyer, to any company within the Seller's Group.No term of this contract shall be enforceable by a third party (being any parties: person other than the parties and their permitted successors and assignees).If any provision of this agreement shall be found by any court or administrative body of competent jurisdiction to be invalid or unenforceable, such invalidity or unenforceability shall not affect other provisions of this agreement which shall remain in full force and effect.The Buyer and the Seller, by mutual agreement, may delete, substitute or otherwise modify such provision as to correct such invalidity or unenforceability.This contract shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of England.Thank you very much for this business. Please sign, stamp and return a copy of this contract. Janet is a socio-economist and a specialist in agricultural communications and marketing information systems. She currently works as the regional marketing information and communications manager at the Eastern Africa Grain Council, serving Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Malawi, Zambia, South Sudan, Ethiopia and Burundi. She manages the Regional Agricultural Trade Intelligence Network (RATIN), a leading agricultural market information system, and the regional food balance sheet system in the eastern Africa. She has over 10 years' experience in agricultural trade, communications, regional integration and market information systems. She holds a master's degree in sociology, focusing on entrepreneurship development from the University of Nairobi, a bachelor's in community development from Daystar University, and a postgraduate degree in business administration from the Kenya Institute of Management.Formerly, Senior Programme Officer for Market Access, Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)Stephen sadly passed away on 22 August 2013.He was a Kenyan national with a master's in agricultural economics, specializing in international trade and finance from Texas Tech University, USA, where he also obtained his bachelor's in agricultural economics. His assignment with AGRA focused on linking smallholder farmers to markets. After joining AGRA in August 2008, he designed and managed project grants targeting smallholder farmers and small and medium enterprises in six countries.Stephen had extensive experience in business management and development, as well as in the trading of various commodities and their derivatives. Prior to joining AGRA, he had worked at Chemonics Kenya as a commodity marketing specialist with the Regional Agricultural Trade Expansion Support Programme, a USAID-funded project that promoted regional agricultural trade in 10 countries in eastern and southern Africa. He also promoted and chaired the steering committee that designed the Eastern Africa Grain Council. He previously worked with Cargill Inc., as a commodity trader in Europe and Africa. Isaac holds a postgraduate diploma in marketing from the Chartered Institute of Marketing, UK and a bachelor's degree in commerce from the University of Nairobi. He is a commodity markets and trade specialist with more than 18 years of experience in developing marketing and trading approaches and interventions in east and central Africa. His work has aimed to enhance the competitiveness of a dozen staple food value chains, including maize, rice, wheat, and millet through improved business and marketing planning, and facilitating collaboration between the public and private sectors. He has experience in negotiating contracts between buyers and suppliers. He has worked closely with regional value chain actors to develop staple food competitiveness strategies to improve access to markets and reducing trade barriers for regional grain traders and processors. He has linked smallholder suppliers to large private exporters, establishing new markets for the East African agricultural industry in India, China and Japan. He is familiar with assessing profitability, growth potential, and risk management in creating new business opportunities for large private corporations. An active member in several regional agricultural trade policy initiatives, he was awarded the Global Leadership Certificate in 2008 in Tokyo as part of the Global Scholarship ProgrammeProject manager, Eastern Africa Grain Council PO Box 218, 00606 Nairobi, Kenya fax +254 20 3745841, email jwanza@eagc.org, website www.eagc.orgJane is an agribusiness specialist with over 10 years of experience in marketing, sales and distribution management and project management. She has worked for some of the most reputable companies in eastern Africa including AAR Health Services, East Africa Breweries and Smart Logistics Solutions, where she managed several donor-funded agribusiness projects. She holds a master's in business administration specializing in strategic management, from Kenyatta University, and a bachelor of science in agriculture and home economics from Egerton University. She also has numerous certificates in marketing, market research and microfinance, giving her a combination of credentials in both business and agriculture. She is currently a project manager at the Eastern Africa Grain Council in charge of the AGRA-funded project on strengthening the warehouse receipt system in Kenya.Small capitalS indicate other entries in the Glossary. means \"see also\".Abiotic factors affecting grain quality. Grain rubbish, broken kernels, temperature, humidity and moisture content.Aflatoxins. A type of mycotoxin produced by many species of aspergillus fungus, the most important being Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.Arbitration. A diSpute reSolution method where the parties refer the dispute to a neutral, independent arbitrator, and agree to be bound by the decision he or she reaches. The decision is legally binding and enforceable for both parties.Bag storage. Storage of grain in bags.Bailee: The person who stores the grain: the collateral manager.Bailer. The owner of grain under Bailment: the depoSitor.Bailment. The situation where one person (the Bailer or depoSitor) owns grain, but someone else (the collateral manager) has it in his or her possession.Bid. An intention to buy on a commodity exchange. It usually indicates both the price and the quantity the buyer would like to purchase. offer.Biological losses. Loss in viability or germinating capacity of grain.Biotic factors affecting grain quality. Rodents, birds, insects and moulds. aBiotic factorS Broken grains. Fragments of grain below a certain size.Broker. Someone who conducts business on a commodity exchange on behalf of a client. trader (1).Bulk storage. Storage of grain without packaging in a silo, underground storage or flat store. Bag Storage call option. The right to buy a certain amount of grain from the seller on a particular date in the future, at a particular price. The opposite of a put option.cif. Cost, insurance and freight. The seller must pay the costs, insurance and freight to bring the goods to the port of destination. The risk is transferred to the buyer once the goods are loaded on the vessel. incotermS.collateral management. A form of warehousing where a grain warehouse is controlled by a trusted, independent third party, the collateral manager, who prevents the grain owner from disposing of the grain without permission. field warehouSe.collateral manager. Someone who takes control of a warehouse, usually on behalf of a bank or other lender, and manages the contents on its behalf.commercial grain storage. Storage of grain where the warehouse is managed by a professional warehouse manager who charges a fee for this service. Trading is done through a system of BidS (to buy) and offerS (to sell), governed by a set of rules. A commodity exchange brings together many buyers and sellers, usually electronically, for a given product. This makes it easier for buyers and sellers to find each other and agree on prices.A warehouse managed by a farmers' group or cooperative where members' grain is stored.contaminants. Any substances not intentionally added to the grain.A written agreement between the buyer (or seller) and the Broker to conduct business on his or her behalf. It lists the agreed terms and conditions, including the price.contract. An agreement between two or more persons, which is legally enforceable.dAP. Delivered at place. The seller pays for carriage to the named place, except for costs and taxes related to import clearance, and assumes all risks up to when the grain is ready for unloading by the buyer. incotermS.ddP. Delivered duty paid. The seller has to bear all the costs (including duties, taxes, and other official charges payable) and risks needed to bring goods to a specified point of destination. incotermS.defective grains. Grains that are damaged by pests, discoloured, diseased, germinated, mouldy, immature or shrivelled, or otherwise materially damaged.delivery period. The period in which delivery must be made or the contract executed.demurrage. The extra cost incurred if the loading or unloading of the grain on transport is delayed -for example if a ship or lorry arrives late.Compensation is usually paid for such delays.depositor. An individual or organization that deposits grain in a warehouse.discharge rate. The number of tons a ship can unload in a day. exwarehouse. The seller makes the goods available to the buyer at a particular warehouse. incotermS.fcA. Free carrier. The seller delivers the grain to a carrier (transporter) named by the buyer. incotermS.field warehouse. A private warehouSe that is under collateral management. It is located at or near the company that owns the grain stored in it.filth. Impurities of animal origin, such as animal waste, dead worms, insects, insect wings, animal hair or fur and skins.foB. Free on board. The seller must load the grain on board a vessel named by the buyer at a particular port. The seller must clear the grain for export. => incotermS.force majeure. An extraordinary event or circumstance beyond the control of the parties that prevents one or both parties from fulfilling their obligations under a contract. Examples include a war, strike, riot, crime, or an \"act of God\" (hurricane, flooding, earthquake, volcanic eruption, etc.).foreign matter. Any inedible material in the grain.forward contract. A contract on a commodity exchange for grain to be delivered on a specified date in the future. Spot contract, futureS contract.fumonisins. A type of mycotoxin produced by a fungus called Fusarium.futures contract. A type of forward contract that is standardized (for 50 or 100 tonnes, for example), and for delivery in specified months.goods-received note. A document indicating the ownership of the grain that has been deposited at a warehouse. inventory control. Recording and accounting for the grain the warehouse receives, stores and dispatches.Joint key holding. A system where a bank or other lender holds duplicate keys to a warehouse and can check the contents at any time.Jurisdiction. The country whose legal mechanisms will be used to settle any disputes arising from a contract.A diSpute reSolution method where the claims are taken to court. Judgments are binding on the parties, subject to the right of appeal.A system that collects, analyses, stores and disseminates information on agricultural prices, production, availability, demand, etc. to people involved in grain production and trade. Also be called a market intelligence system, market information service or MIS.A diSpute reSolution method where a neutral, independent person (the mediator) helps the parties reach their own agreement.Moisture content. The amount of moisture in the grain. It is measured with a moisture meter.Mycotoxins. Substances produced by fungi (moulds) that are harmful to consumer health. They include aflatoxinS and fumoniSinS.negotiable receipt. A type of warehouSe receipt that conveys the rights to the grain. The depositor can sell the receipt to a buyer, who can collect the grain from the warehouse.negotiation. Discussions over the terms of a contract or dispute where the parties negotiate directly with one another. diSpute reSolution.non-negotiable receipt. A restrictive type of warehouSe receipt. The grain can be handed over only to the depoSitor or someone they authorize.nutritional losses. Loss in nutritional value of grain.offer. An intention to sell on a commodity exchange. warehouse receipt. A document that shows a depoSitor has deposited a certain amount of grain in a specific warehouse.A scheme where grain is stored in a community cereal Bank managed by a community organization. The organization can use the grain as collateral for a loan.weight certificate. A document showing the weight of grain that has been delivered.","tokenCount":"25238"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9216f3581afc903aa48f931c0ac7758d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3bf45b06-a9cb-4366-a704-afa9fc7e8bcd/retrieve","id":"-776442482"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d6230309-5b5a-4cba-beec-89ac1a8b0f53","pagecount":"7","content":"En Colombia y en el tr6pico americano, el añublo causado por el hongo Pyricularia oryzae Cav., constituye el problema fitosanitario más importante del cultivo del arroz (Oryza ~tiva L.). La enfermedad afecta tanto al estado de plántula como al estado de panícula, siendo éste particularmente más susceptible después de la época del embuchamiento.Las aplicaciones excesivas de fertilizantes nitrogenados, las altas densidades de siembra, la alta humedad relativa, el uso de ariedades susceptibles y la siembra en secano, son algunos de los ¡factores determinantes de la incidencia en la enfermedad. En los tr6picos se pueden señalar dos zopas con respecto a la frecuencia de las lluvias: una con vias continuas y otra con lluvias intermitentes durante el ciclo vegetativo del arroz.En ausencia de variedades resistentes al pat6geno, el control del mismo se hace a base de productos quimoterapéuticos. En 1949, Yoshii, citado por Huang & Misato (6), contro16 el añublo del arroz mediante el uso de antibi6ticos. Ese investigador encontr6 que Cephalotecin inhibía el crecimiento del hongo sobre hojas de arroz.A partir de esa fecha, se inici6 la búsqueda y elaboraci6n de otros antibi6ticos que fueran promisorios para el control de P. oryzae.Sin embargo, la mayoría de los nuevos productos no ofrecían ningún uso práctico debido a su inestabilidad química y alta toxicidad.El control qufmico de la enfermedad no fue comprobado sino hasta el ~I Asistente de Investigaci6n, y Fitopat61ogo Asociado, respectivamente, del Centro Internacional de AgrrF!U ~Plca,\\ fIiT, Apartado Aéreo 6713, Cali, C~~~i'o ~,'(1/,JJ!/año 1953, con base en algunos productos mercuriales. Estos se han ido reemplazando gradualmente por otros con diferente composición química a causa de los residuos tóxicos que dejan en el arroz.Como resultado de intensas investigaciones se descubrió el antibiótico Blasticidina, siendo el primer producto de uso pr&ctico en la agricultura. En los ftltimos años se han descubierto algunos productos antibióticos, órgano-fosf6ricos y clorinados específicos para el control del añublo del arroz (8). Recientemente, un carbamato (Benomyll, ha mostrado efectividad en el control del añublo y otras enfermedades en tratamientos foliares (1, 2, 3, 4, S, 7, 9, 12). Otros investigadores informan de la efecti-(~~ vidad de control de Dithane M-45 (10,11). En la presente investiga-ci6n se presentan algunos resultados de control químico del añublo del arroz mediante tratamientos al follaje.El presente trabajo se realiz6 en una zona caracterizada por la presencia de 'lluvias intermitentes. Se utilizó la variedad Bluebonnet 50, que es susceptible al ataque del hongo. Se usó una densidad de siembra de 150 kg/ha. dose con este tratamiento el mejor control de la enfermedad en el cuello de la panícula. Como se aprecia en la Gr~fica 1, existe una relaci6n directa entre la efectivi.dad de control del añublo en el cuello de la panícula y el incremento de la producci6n. Aunque en las zonas tropicales el control químico de la enfermedad se dificulta a causa de la frecuencia e intensidad de las lluvias, es posible obtener diferencias significativas, tal como se deduce de la presente investigaci6n en aquellas zonas en las cuales la frecuencia de las lluvias permite hacer aplicaciones oportunas. La clase de producto usado, la época de pplicaci6n y las condiciones bajo las cuales el producto ha sido empleado, son los factores determinantes del buen control químico de la enfermedad.\" ","tokenCount":"537"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"607db89702c0963f718027606e0ae60e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/7989a4bb-f524-4b71-8900-ea50156fa635/content","id":"763664431"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"901f386d-0d27-455e-8cf5-03839936e7c1","pagecount":"22","content":"Identification of environment-specific QTL and stable QTL having consistent genetic effects across a wide range of environments is of great importance in plant breeding. Inclusive Composite Interval Mapping (ICIM) has been proposed for additive, dominant and epistatic QTL mapping in biparental populations for single environment. In this study, ICIM was extended to QTL by environment interaction (QEI) mapping for multi-environmental trials, where the QTL average effect and QEI effects could be properly estimated. Stepwise regression was firstly applied in each environment to identify the most significant marker variables which were then used to adjust the phenotypic values. One-dimensional scanning was then conducted on the adjusted phenotypic values across the environments in order to detect QTL with either average effect or QEI effects, or both average effect and QEI effects. In this way, the genetic background could be well controlled while the conventional interval mapping was applied. An empirical method to determine the threshold of logarithm of odds was developed, and the efficiency of the ICIM QEI mapping was demonstrated in simulated populations under different genetic models. One actual recombinant inbred line population was used to compare mapping results between QEI mapping and single-environment analysis.QTL by environment interaction (QEI) widely exists in crops and other organisms. Studies on QEI contribute to the efficient use of marker-assisted selection (MAS) in breeding, and better understanding of genetic architecture of important quantitative traits and genotype by environment interactions [1,2,3]. As a consequence, many theoretical and applied studies have been conducted on QEI analysis in multi-environmental trials.Analysis of variance (ANOVA), the simplest method, tested one marker at a time and had no background control, which gave rise to many false positive QTL [4]. Composite interval mapping was applied to detect QEI when multiple environments were regarded as multiple traits [5,6], but the effect of QTL at the current interval may be absorbed by the background variables, which resulted in biased estimation [7]. Tinker and Mather [8] proposed the simplified composite interval mapping suitable for large dataset. Approximate analysis of QEI was proposed with no limits on the number of environments [9]. Hackett et al. [10] proposed a multi-trait QTL mapping method for QTL position estimation based on the regression mapping approach of Haley and Knot [11].Mixed model approaches have also been used in QEI detection. Wang et al. [12] developed a methodology using mixed linear models, but the results may be susceptible to the specified models [13]. Piepho [13] showed how random QEI effects and genetic correlation could be straightforwardly handled in the mixed model framework. Malosetti et al. [14] presented a strategy combining mixed model with factorial regression. A method using factorial regression and partial least squares [15] was an extension of the statistical approaches developed by Crossa et al. [16] and van Eeuwijk et al. [17]. A strategy combining mixed model, simple and composite interval mapping, and introducing environmental co-variables was developed by Boer et al. [1]. However, inconsistent mapping results were observed owing to different fixed and random effect assumptions and variance-covariance matrix choices, for example, identical genetic variation, compound symmetry, first-order analytic model, uniform covariance and heterogeneous variance and so on [1]. Further studies are needed so as to validate the efficiency of the mixed-model based methods. In addition, mixed models have high computational complexity and are much time consuming, which is less suitable for large data sets.Recently, the method based on Bayesian model [18,19] was proposed for QEI analysis, using Markov Chain Monte Carlo. In this method, estimation of QEI was simplified by treating each marker as a putative QTL. Strategies combining composite interval mapping with additive main effects and multiplicative interaction model were proposed to decrease the noise of phenotypic values especially when the GEI noise is large [20]. Generally speaking, Bayesian model is hard to be implemented because of its computation burden and difficulty in choosing appropriate prior distributions [18,19].Inclusive Composite Interval Mapping (ICIM) was proposed for additive, dominant and epistatic QTL mapping in biparental populations [7,[21][22][23][24]. ICIM applies a two-step mapping strategy. Firstly, stepwise regression is conducted to select the significant markers for additive QTL mapping or marker-pairs for epistatic QTL mapping considering all marker information simultaneously. Secondly, the phenotypic values are adjusted by the marker variables retained in the regression equation except the two markers flanking the current scanning position(s) for background control. The adjusted phenotypic values are subsequently used in interval mapping. This strategy effectively separates the cofactor selection from the interval mapping using Maximum Likelihood (ML) method. Genetic background control decreases variance of the estimated genetic parameter, and therefore increases accuracy of estimates and the detection power [5,7,21,25]. Extensive simulations have illustrated that ICIM is an efficient mapping method with higher detection power, lower false discovery rate (FDR) and less biased estimates of QTL effect and position [7,[22][23][24]26,27]. With the user-friendly software of QTL IciMapping (freely available from www.isbreeding.net), ICIM has been widely applied in QTL mapping researches (for examples, see [28][29][30][31]).In this study, we focused on the additive QEI analysis. Our objectives were: (1) to propose an inclusive linear model capable of absorbing all genetic effects in QEI mapping; (2) to extend ICIM to additive QTL by environment interactions, and estimate the average effect, QEI effects and the phenotypic variance explained (PVE); (3) to propose an empirical method to determine the LOD threshold in QEI mapping; (4) to validate the proposed QEI mapping methods in simulated and an actual maize recombinant inbred lines (RIL) populations.DH population was used to illustrate the ICIM QEI mapping. For simplicity, it is supposed that two inbred lines P 1 and P 2 differ at m QTL, being located in m intervals defined by m+1 markers on one chromosome. If no QTL is located in a marker interval, the average and interaction effects of the QTL are treated as zero. QTL genotypes of P 1 and P 2 are assumed to be. .Q m Q m and q 1 q 1 q 2 q 2 . . .q m q m , respectively. Suppose that a DH population is derived from the F 1 hybrids of P 1 and P 2 and phenotyped in e environments. For each individual, X = (x 1 , x 2 ,. . ., x m , x m+1 ) represents the marker variables equal to 1 or -1, standing for two marker types (i.e. P 1 marker type and P 2 marker type). G = (g 1 , g 2 ,. . ., g m ) represents QTL variables equal to 1 or -1, standing for two QTL genotypes (i.e. P 1 QTL type and P 2 QTL type). Let a 1h , a 2h ,. . ., a mh represent the additive effects of the m QTL in the h th environment, respectively. Under the assumption of additivity of QTL effects, G h , the genotypic value of an individual in the h th environment under the additive genetic model, can be written in Eq (1).The expected frequency of the j th QTL genotype depends on its position at the chromosomal interval flanked by the j th and (j+1) th markers and the length of this interval [7,23,32,33,], i.e.,where λ j and ρ j are functions of the three recombination fractions between the j th marker and j th QTL, between the j th QTL and (j+1) th marker, and between the j th and (j+1) th markers. The expectation of genotypic value G h conditional on marker type X can be denoted as,where b 0h = μ h , b 1h = λ 1 a 1h , and b jh = ρ j-1 a (j-1)h +λ j a jh (j = 2,. . .,m). The coefficient of the j th marker in the h th environment, i.e. b jh , is only affected by QTL in the (j-1) th and j th marker intervals. Therefore, when QTL are isolated by at least one blank interval, b jh and b (j+1)h contain all the position and additive effect information of QTL in the j th interval. These statistical properties provide the theoretical basis of QEI mapping. Suppose a DH mapping population has observations on a quantitative trait of interest and genotyping information on m+1 ordered markers. The following linear regression model can be used in the additive QEI mapping, i.e.,where y ih is the phenotypic value of the i th individual in the h th environment; b 0h is the overall mean of linear model in the h th environment; x ij is the indicating variable for the j th marker's genotype of the i th individual, which is equal to 1 or -1 standing for P 1 type or P 2 type respectively; b jh is the partial regression coefficient of phenotype on the j th marker in the h th environment; and ε ih is the residual random error in the h th environment that is assumed to be normally distributed. Stepwise regression can be therefore conducted for phenotypic value in each environment to select significant markers, similar to additive mapping in single environment [7].For a testing position in the k th marker interval, the phenotypic value of the i th individual in the h th environment was adjusted bywhere bjh is the estimate of b jh of significant markers selected by stepwise regression in model (4). The phenotypic value Δy ih contains QTL information in the current interval and does not change until the testing position moves to the next interval. Traditional interval mapping was conducted on the adjusted phenotypic values given by Eq (5).For a testing position in an interval, individuals of DH population can be classified into four groups based on the types of the two flanking markers. If there is one QTL (with the two alleles denoted as Q and q) at the current testing position, each marker group has both QTL genotypes QQ and qq, and hence follows a mixture distribution of two components Nðm 1h ; s 2 εh Þ and Nðm 2h ; s 2 εh Þ. In each marker group, frequencies of the two QTL genotypes depend on the recombination fractions between the putative QTL and two flanking markers, and they are different for the four marker groups. Existence of QTL at the current scanning position can be tested by the following hypotheses: and ae h ¼ a h À a is the QEI effect in the h th environment. In H 1 , a 6 ¼ 0, or ae h 6 ¼ 0 for at least one environment. Therefore, the likelihood ratio of hypotheses H 1 versus H 0 can be used to test all effects, i.e. both the average effect and QEI effects. In H 2 , a ¼ 0, but ae h 6 ¼ 0 for at least one environment. Therefore, H 2 is nested into H 1 by adding the condition a ¼ 0. Size of the average effect makes the difference between H 1 and H 2 . The likelihood ratio of hypotheses H 1 versus H 2 can test the significance of average effects. Difference between likelihood functions of H 2 and H 0 came from the QEI effects, as both of them have the restriction a ¼ 0. Therefore, the likelihood ratio of hypotheses H 2 versus H 0 can test the significance of QEI effects.The log-likelihood function under the alternative hypothesis H 1 is,where S l (l = 1, 2, 3, and 4) denotes the l th marker type group; π l1 and π l2 are the proportions of two QTL genotypes QQ and qq in the l th group, respectively; f ðÁ ; m kh ; s 2 εh Þ represents the density of the k th normal distribution in the h th environment.The expectation and conditional maximization (ECM) algorithm [34] was used to estimate the two means and one variance in the h th environment in Eq (6). Their initial values can be determined by:Dy ih ; andwhere n 1:3 is the summation of n 1 to n 3 . In the E-step, the posterior probability of the i th individual (i = 1, . . ., n h ; h = 1, . . ., e) belonging to the k th QTL genotype (k = 1, 2) was calculated as, ,The EM algorithm continued until the difference in the likelihood between two consecutive iterations reached a pre-assigned precision, say 10 −6 . The ML estimates thus obtained were represented by m1h , m2h and ŝ2 εh . Then the additive effect under the h th environment was calculated as a h ¼ 1 2 ðm 1h À m2h Þ. The log-likelihood function under the alternative hypothesis H 2 is,where λ is the Lagrange multiplier.In the EM algorithm for L 2 , the calculation of posterior probability was the same as previous one. In the M-step, the three parameters were updated as follows,i2 and ,where l ¼ 2e Under the null hypothesis H 0 , the Δy ih follow the normal distribution of Nðm 0h ; s 2 0h Þ. The mean and variance of this distribution can be estimated as,Dy ih ; and ŝ2 0h ¼The log-likelihood function under the null hypothesis H 0 is,The LOD score (denoted by LOD A ) calculated by L 1 -L 2 indicates whether there is significant average effect at the testing position. The LOD score (denoted by LOD AE ) calculated by L 2 -L 0 indicates whether there are significant QEI effects. Sum of LOD A and LOD AE (denoted by LOD) gives the overall test statistic indicating the significance of both average effect and QEI effects.In the QTL IciMapping software, PVE of additive and QEI effects at each scanning position were estimated by posterior probability w ik and two QTL genotypic means mkh ðk ¼ 1; and 2Þ, which have been estimated by EM algorithm previously. For illustration, we assume there is one QTL at the current scanning position, and the expected frequency of the k th QTL genotype (QQ or qq) in the h th environment is f kh , (k = 1 and 2, and h = 1,. . ., e). The marginal frequency of QTL genotype is defined as the sum of QTL genotype frequencies in all environments, i.e.,f kh , which can be estimated by f kÁ ¼ The deviation between QTL genotypic mean and the grand mean can be decomposed into three components, i.e.,The three components stood for QTL average effect, environmental effect and QEI effect, respectively. In statistics, it can be proved the decomposition is orthogonal. In DH population, genetic variance is equal to the additive variance, which can be calculated as,QEI effect and variance can be calculated as,Then, PVE A and PVE AE can be calculated from PVE A ¼ V A V P and PVE AE ¼ V AE V P , respectively, where V P was the average of phenotypic variances in the e environments. Take DH population and four environments as an example. Assume the expected marginal frequencies of QTL genotypes QQ and qq are 0.4 and 0.6, which indicated the frequencies of the two genotypes in each environment were 0.1 and 0.15, respectively. Phenotypic variances in the four environments were set at 30, 20, 10 and 40 respectively, and the values of mkh were given in Table 2. PVE A and PVE AE can be calculated as follows,In single-environment analysis, when the null hypothesis is true, likelihood ratio test (LRT) at each scanning position follows the χ 2 distribution with the degree of freedom (df) equal to the number of genetic parameters be estimated in the genetic population [32,35]. Sun et al. [36] found that the number of independent tests (denoted as M eff ) was proportional to the genome length in one-dimensional QTL scanning, and the proportion varied with marker density and population type. So M eff can be estimated as the product of proportion efficient and the genome length. Let α g be the genome-wide type-I error, the type-I error at each testing position should be a p ¼ a g M eff based on the Bonferroni correction. Therefore, the empirical LOD threshold can be determined by formula LOD ¼ w 2 a p ðlÞ=2lnð10Þ, where w 2 a p ðlÞ is the inverse χ 2 distribution that returns the critical value of a right-tailed probability α p for the degree of freedom λ. In QTL mapping, λ is equal to the number of genetic parameters to be estimated [36].This formula can also be used to determine the LOD threshold in QEI mapping by considering the difference in degree of freedom. In QEI mapping, each QTL genotype has its own distribution in each environment, and the number of independent genetic parameters to be estimated is the sum of parameters in each environment. In other words, λ is equal to e for BC 1 (or DH and RIL) population and 2e for F 2 population. For validation, LOD threshold was determined in simulated BC 1 and F 2 populations under null genetic model (S1 and S2 Files). The genomic information and mapping parameters were the same as unlinked and linked QTL models (to be described in the next section), except that there was no QTL located on the genome. LOD thresholds for α g = 0.05 and α g = 0.01 were estimated at the 95 th and 99 th percentiles of the 1000 maximum LOD scores out of 1000 runs.QTL IciMapping is integrated software for linkage map construction and QTL detection. QEI mapping has been implemented in version 4.0 of the software as the MET functionality [37]. In this study, unlinked and linked QTL models were both considered to evaluate the efficiency of QEI mapping. The genome consisted of six chromosomes, each of 150 cM in length with 16 evenly distributed markers. Two environments were considered with equal heritability in the broad sense in both models. In the unlinked QTL model, five QTL were located on five chromosomes, and the broad sense heritability was 0.5 for both environments. QTL additive effects in the two environments were given in Table 3, representing three QEI levels, i.e., strong interaction (Q2), environment-specific interaction (Q3 and Q4) and no interaction (Q1 and Q5).Eight QTL effect scenarios were considered for two linked QTL (Table 4), i.e., Q1 and Q2, located at 25 and 55 cM on chromosome 1. These scenarios represented different QEI levels and linkage phases (coupling or repulsion phases). For example, Q1 and Q2 had strong QEI, and they were linked in the coupling phase in model L3, and in the repulsion phase in model L7. Three levels of heritability were considered, i.e., H 2 = 0.1, H 2 = 0.5 and H 2 = 0.8. One thousand DH populations, each of a size of 200, were generated for unlinked model (S3 File) and for each effect scenario of the two linked QTL under each heritability level (S4-S6 Files). The LOD threshold was set at 3.11 by empirical formula to ensure the genome-wide Type-I error rate (α g ) to be less than 0.05. The scanning step was set at 1 cM. The two probabilities for entering and removing variables in stepwise regression were set at 0.001 and 0.002.Detection power and FDR were used to evaluate the efficiency of QEI mapping. Each predefined QTL was assigned to a support interval of 10 cM centered at the predefined location. Power of each QTL was calculated as the percentage of the simulation runs having significant peaks higher than the LOD threshold in its support interval. QTL identified but out of this interval were treated as false positives. FDR was calculated as the ratio of the number of false positives to the total number of significant discovery [26,38]. For each genetic model, estimated positions and effects were calculated as the average values of all detected QTL.The actual maize population used in this study was derived from a cross between inbred parents CML444 and SC-Malawi, consisting of 236 RILs [39]. A subset of 160 markers with an average missing rate of 5.12% was used to build the linkage map. Total genome length was 2105.6 cM by Haldane mapping function, and the average marker density was 13.16 cM. Days of male flowering (MFLW) were investigated in seven environments, i.e., water-stress conditions in Mexico (WSM, in 2003 and 2004) and Zimbabwe (WSZ, in 2003 and 2004), and wellwatered conditions in Mexico (WWM, in 2003 and 2004) and Zimbabwe (WWZ, in 2004), which were named as WSM1, WSM2, WSZ1, WSZ2, WWM1, WWM2, and WWZ2, respectively. The average MFLW (d) in environments WSM, WSZ, WWM and WWZ were 104.2, 121.1, 65.4 and 75.6 for parental line CML444, 101.1, 114.1, 64.5 and 74.9 for parental line SC-Malawi, and 101.1, 117.3, 64.1 and 75.5 for the RIL population. Single-environment analysis and QEI mapping were conducted by QTL IciMapping 4.0 [37] (S7 File). LOD thresholds were set at 3.0 and 5.67 for single-environment analysis and QEI mapping, respectively, same as Messmer et al. [39]. To compare with the empirical LOD threshold values, permutation tests were conducted on the maize population for 1000 times [40].  Effect in E 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 -0.5 0.5 0Effect in E 2 -0.5 0 -0.5 0.5 -0.5 -0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 -0.5 0.5 -0.5 0.5 populations (i.e. BC 1 and F 2 populations). Thus, the empirical formula from individual environments [36] is also suitable for QEI mapping in multi-environments, considering the change in degree of freedom. As for the RIL population, accumulated recombination frequency (represented by R) is much larger than the one-meiosis recombination frequency (represented by r) due to the continuous self-pollinations. Their relationship is well known as R ¼ 2r1þ2r , indicating R is approximately two times of r, when r is small. The larger recombination frequency estimated in RIL population is equivalent to a longer genome. When map distance is 1 cM in DH population, r and R are equal to 0.0099 and 0.0194 under the Haldane mapping function. The corresponding map distance is 1.98 cM for the accumulated recombination frequency in RIL population. Therefore 1 cM in DH population is expanded by 1.98 times in RIL population. Similarly, 5 cM and 10 cM are expanded by 1.91 and 1.83 times. In most genetic populations, marker density is around 5 to 10 cM, and the genome size is expanded by about 1.9 times. Therefore, the genome length should be multiplied by 1.9 before applying the LOD threshold empirical formula to RIL population.When marker density is 10 cM, the number of independent tests is about 0.072 (α g = 0.05) or 0.084 (α g = 0.01) times the genome size [36]. Empirical LOD thresholds for common genome lengths were given in Table 5, by which empirical LOD thresholds can be found and applied. For example, one population is planted in four environments, the genome length is 1000 cM, and the average marker density is 10 cM. So df is equal to 4 for BC 1 , DH or RIL populations, and 8 for F 2 population. According to Table 5, LOD threshold should be 4.19 for BC 1 and DH populations, 5.87 for F 2 population, and around 4.50 for RIL population (referring to length of 1900 cM which is between 1800 cM and 2000 cM) and α g = 0.05. For the actual maize population, \"a QTL was considered to be significant (comparison-wise Type-I error rate α c = 0.001, experiment-wise error rate α e = 0.02) when the LOD exceeded the appropriate threshold 5.67 (joint QTL, seven experiments)\" in Messmer et al. [39]. LOD thresholds 6.08 and 6.89 were achieved under α g = 0.05 and α g = 0.01 by 1000 permutation tests. According to the empirical formula, the LOD threshold were 6.20 and 6.05 for marker densities of 10 and 20 cM under α g = 0.05, and 7.11 and 7.09 under α g = 0.01 for marker density of 10 and 20 cM respectively. The marker density of this population was about 13.6 cM, and the empirical LOD threshold should be around 6.1 under α g = 0.05 and 7.1 under α g = 0.01, close to that by permutation tests and Messmer et al. [39].  Detection powers of the predefined QTL were higher than 80%, and FDR was 14.11% (Table 6). The larger PVE was, the higher detection power would be. Q1, Q2 and Q5 had the same PVE = 12.5%, and their detection powers were 91.2, 98.3 and 89.5% respectively; the detection powers were 85.4 and 80.7% for Q3 and Q4, respectively, having the same PVE of 6.25%.When detection powers were calculated by marker intervals along the six chromosomes, it can be seen that most detected QTL were distributed around the marker intervals where the QTL were located (Fig 3). In other words, the ICIM QEI mapping was less likely to locate a QTL in chromosome regions far from the predefined QTL or in other chromosomes where no QTL were located. For example, Q1 was located at 16 cM on chromosome 1. Power at the marker interval where Q1 was located was 83.4%, and powers at its nearest left and right intervals were 5.1% and 14.0%, respectively. Powers at other intervals on chromosome 1 were close to 0.Estimated QTL positions and effects from the 1000 simulated populations given in Table 6 showed their unbiasedness. Estimated positions of Q1 to Q5 were 16.21, 2.83, 32.59, 26.16 and 34.92 cM, corresponding to the true values 16, 3, 33, 26 and 35 cM on chromosomes 1 to 5. Estimated average additive effects of Q1 to Q5 were 0.47, 0.00, 0.24, 0.24 and 0.46, corresponding to the true values 0.5, 0, 0.25, 0.25 and 0.5 respectively. Estimated QEI effects in E 1 were 0.00, 0.47, -0.24, 0.24 and 0.00, corresponding to the true values 0, 0.5, -0.25, 0.25 and 0 respectively. Estimated QEI effects in E 2 were 0.00, -0.47, 0.24, -0.24 and 0.00, corresponding to the true effects 0, -0.5, 0.25, -0.25 and 0 respectively. The standard errors of the estimated positions and effects across 1000 simulations ranged from 2.01 to 2.62 and from 0.05 to 0.08, respectively.  Power analysis for the linked QTL model For the same QTL effect model, higher heritability results in larger PVE and consequently increases the LOD score. Compared with H 2 = 0.1, LOD scores at QTL peaks of H 2 = 0.5 were larger for all effect models. LOD scores at QTL peaks of H 2 = 0.8 were the largest for the three heritability levels (Fig 4). For instance, LOD scores at peaks around Q1 and Q2 in model L8 were 5.20 and 1.67 for H 2 = 0.1, 48.99 and 22.01 for H 2 = 0.5, and 117.96 and 51.75 for H 2 = 0.8. Linked QTL with larger PVE were also easier to be separated. For example for H 2 = 0.1, PVE of Q1 and Q2 in model L1 were 4.88 and 2.44%, and only one peak appeared in the average LOD profile (Fig 4A). PVE of Q1 and Q2 in model L7 were both 11.08% for H 2 = 0.1, and two clear peaks appeared around the two predefined QTL positions.Fig 5 displayed the detection power and FDR for the two linked QTL in QEI mapping. Detection power increased with the increase of heritability and PVE of QTL. For example in model L1 under H 2 = 0.1, 0.5 and 0.8, PVE of Q1 were 4.88, 24.40 and 39.05%, and PVE of Q2 were 2.44, 12.20 and 19.52%, respectively. Their detection powers were 60.4 and 19.4% for H 2 = 0.1, 98.1 and 81.3% for H 2 = 0.5, and 100 and 98.2% for H 2 = 0.8. FDR decreased by the increase of heritability. Taking model L1 as an example, FDR were 41.7, 14.7 and 8.8% for H 2 = 0.1, 0.5 and 0.8, respectively. Powers of all QTL in all effect models increased to about 80% for H 2 = 0.5 and nearly 100% for H 2 = 0.8. Meanwhile, FDR of all effect models was less than 22% for H 2 = 0.5 and less than 16% for H 2 = 0.8. When detection powers were calculated by marker intervals along chromosome 1, most detected QTL were distributed around the marker intervals where the two QTL were located especially for H 2 = 0.5 and H 2 = 0.8 (Fig 6). For example, Q1 and Q2 in model L3 were located at 25 and 55 cM on chromosome 1. Powers at their two marker intervals were 96.4 and 96.9%, respectively for H 2 = 0.5. Powers were 3.8 and 3.7% at the nearest left and right intervals of Q1, and 4.4 and 4.1% at the nearest left and right intervals of Q2. Powers were rather low at other intervals. It could be found that even for the linked QTL, ICIM QEI mapping was less likely to locate a QTL in chromosome regions far away from the predefined QTL or in other chromosomes where no QTL were located.Through stepwise regression, 4, 5, 2, 3, 4, 2 and 4 markers were selected for environments WSM1, WSM2, WSZ1, WSZ2, WWM1, WWM2 and WWZ2 respectively. In QEI mapping, profiles of LOD, LOD A and LOD AE along the maize genome were shown in Fig 7A . Under the LOD threshold 5.67, a total of 13 QTL affecting MFLW were identified across the seven environments: one each on chromosomes 8 and 10, two each on chromosomes 2, 3, 4, and 6, and three on chromosome 1 (Table 7). Although QEI was observed in some chromosomal regions, e.g., chromosomes 2, 3 and 10 (Fig 7A ), most identified QTL were relatively stable with large LOD A and small LOD AE (Table 7). Five QTL had positive average effects (Table 7). qMFLW-2-2 had the highest LOD = 24.45, LOD A = 18.45 and LOD AE = 5.99, and had the largest average and QEI effects as well. Average additive effect was -0.43, indicating the allele from CML444 at this locus would reduce MFLW by 0.43 days on the basis of population mean. qMFLW-1-1 was     LOD profiles along the maize genome by single-environment analysis were shown in Fig 7B . Under the LOD threshold 3.0, a total of 19 QTL were identified, four of which were coincident in more than two environments. Respectively, 2, 5, 2, 3, 4, 1 and 2 QTL were identified in environments WSM1, WSM2, WSZ1, WSZ2, WWM1, WWM2 and WWZ2 (Table 8). Ten QTL detected by QEI mapping, i.e., qMFLW-1-2, qMFLW-2-1, qMFLW-2-2, qMFLW-3-1, qMFLW-3-2, qMFLW-4-1, qMFLW-4-2, qMFLW-6-1, qMFLW-6-2 and qMFLW-10, were also detected by single-environment analysis, while other QTL were detected only by single-environment analysis (Tables 7 and 8). Take a common QTL around 220 cM on chromosome 1 as an example, the estimated positions were 217 and 220 cM by single-environment analysis in WSM1 and WSZ1 respectively, which was close to qMFLW-1-2 detected by QEI mapping. Compared with single-environment analysis, QEI mapping has the following properties. 1. Both QTL stability and QEI effect can be analyzed. For example, major effect of qMFLW-1-1 was -0.22 and additive by environment effects in the seven environments were 0.16, -0.04, -0.10, 0.00, -0.04, -0.09, and 0.11 respectively. It could be considered to be stable, as the absolute value of major effect was much larger than the interactions. In contrary, major effect of qMFLW-2-1 was -0.06, but additive by environment effects in the seven environments were -0.28, 0.68, -0.26, 0.27, -0.19, -0.12 and -0.09 respectively. The much larger interactions showed the higher level of QEI, and the less stability.2. Most QTL identified by single-environment analysis can also be detected by QEI mapping, especially for QTL detected in more than one environment. QEI mapping can detect some QTL which were not identified by single-environment analysis. In this study, qMFLW-1-1, qMFLW-1-3 and qMFLW-8 were detected only by QEI mapping (Tables 7 and 8). Small peaks with LOD scores lower than threshold 3.0 were observed around these QTL positions on LOD profiles in several environments. Therefore, it is not strange that they were detected in QEI mapping ( Fig 7). For example, qMFLW-8 identified by QEI mapping located at 133 cM on chromosome 8. Peaks of LOD scores were also observed around this position in environments WSM1 and WSZ2 by single-environment analysis.3. For some common QTL, positions estimated by single-environment analysis fluctuated around the positions estimated by QEI mapping. For example, qMFLW-3-1 was located at 55 cM on chromosome 3 in QEI mapping, but was located at 56, 54 and 53 cM on chromosome 3 in WSM2, WSZ1 and WSZ2, respectively, by single-environment analysis (Tables 7  and 8). QEI mapping used multi-environment phenotypic data simultaneously and therefore may result in more precise and reliable estimation of QTL position.4. The estimated effects by QEI mapping and single-environment analysis were similar, although minor differences were observed. Taking qMFLW-4-2 as an example, the estimated effects were 0.50 and 0.61 in WSM2 and WWM1 by single-environment analysis, corresponding to 0.45 and 0.54 estimated by QEI mapping (Tables 7 and 8).Compared with the mapping results in Messmer et al. [39], the ICIM QEI mapping detect more QTL. Four QTL reported by the joint analysis for seven environments in Messmer et al. [39] were all identified in this study, i.e., qMFLW-1-2, qMFLW-3-1, qMFLW-4-2 and qMFLW-6-1. However, nine more QTL were detected by QEI mapping in this study, and many of which can also be detected in single-environment analysis. For example, LOD score of qMFLW-2-2 was 24.45 by QEI mapping. It was identified in environments WSM2 and WSZ2 with LOD scores 13.17 and 3.46 by single-environment analysis. In addition, there were peaks at LOD profiles in environments WSZ1, WWM2 and WWZ2 lower than LOD threshold in singleenvironment analysis. Similar were qMFLW-2-1, qMFLW-4-1 and qMFLW-10. The truth of these QTL was validated by the single-environment analysis.QEI can be investigated when genetic populations are planted in multiple locations and/or years. QEI information thus obtained is of great value for breeders and genetic researchers. According to the QTL mapping results, breeders can design ideal genotype of favorable alleles and more efficiently perform marker-assisted selection. Stable QTL of agronomic traits is useful to a wide range of environments, while environment-favorable QTL can be used within specific target environments. However, the detection of QEI is not easy.\"Results of separate analysis by environment is hard to interpret, and cannot take advantage of built-in replication provided by multiple environments\", pointed by Tinker and Mather [8].Single-environment analysis is subject to the errors from different environments probably resulting in different positions and effects of the same QTL. It is not inconvenient to evaluate QTL stability and QEI effect by directly comparing the effects estimated by single-environment analysis. Some studies conduct QTL mapping using the mean phenotypic value across multienvironments or the genotypic value predicted by best linear unbiased prediction [41,42]. But this approach can only detect QTL with significant major effects. When dealing with multienvironment phenotypic data, the estimated positions and effects by QEI mapping are more reliable than single-environment analysis as the data across all environments are used simultaneously.The two-step strategy used in ICIM simplifies the mapping procedure by separating the cofactor selection from interval mapping [7]. This study demonstrated that the superiority of ICIM has been maintained when extended to QEI mapping. Stepwise regression was conducted only once, based on which the phenotype was adjusted during the interval mapping. This strategy avoids the repeated interval mapping in Boer et al. [1], and requires much less computing time. Another feature distinguishing ICIM from other methods is that major effect and QEI effect of QTL are estimated based on genotypic value of two QTL genotypes, QQ and qq, across multi-environments through the orthogonal decomposition. QTL stability and QEI level can be directly evaluated from the mapping results, including three LODs, three PVEs, major effects and QEI effects.Using similar algorithms described in this study, ICIM has been extended to dominant QEI mapping, and epistatic QEI mapping as well. In the case of epistatic QEI mapping, the first step was to use stepwise regression to select significant markers and significant marker pairs in each environment. The second step was to apply the two-dimensional interval mapping on the adjusted phenotypic values. Both major epistasis effect and epistasis by environment interaction effect can be estimated. QEI mapping of additive, additive and dominant, and epistatic effects in most biparental populations have been well implemented in the QTL IciMapping software [37].LOD threshold is used to control false positive in QTL mapping. Use of a suitable threshold is an important issue, as it determines the number of identified QTL and control the genomewide error rate. For convenience, we used an empirical formula to select the LOD threshold in this study. The LOD threshold to define a stable QTL can also be obtained from the empirical formula. For LOD A , df is equal to 1 for DH, BC 1 and RIL populations, and 2 for F 2 population when one-dimension scanning is conducted. Similarly for LOD AE , df is equal to e-1 for DH, BC 1 and RIL populations, and 2(e-1) for F 2 populations to obtain LOD threshold for significant QEI.LOD threshold in QEI mapping is much higher than that in single-environment analysis, due to the increased degree of freedom. Some QTL detected in single environment may result in peaks lower than the threshold, which will not be reported in QEI mapping. But, most QTL detected in more than one environment and QTL with higher LOD score in single-environment analysis are more likely to be detected in QEI mapping. In the maize RIL population, most QTL detected in WS condition had higher LOD than that in WW condition. For example, 12 QTL were detected in WS, 8 of which had LOD scores over 4. In WW condition, 7 QTL were detected, 3 of which had LOD scores over 4. In addition, more QTL in WS were detected in more than one environment. For example, QTL around 217 cM on chromosome 1 was detected in WSM1 and WSZ1; QTL around 120 cM on chromosome 2 was detected in WSM2 and WSZ2. In comparison, more QTL in WW were detected in only one environment, especially those not identified by QEI mapping.Genetic architecture of quantitative traits could be more complicated than additive, dominance and digenic epsitatsis discussed in this study. The environments where the traits are phenotyped can be equally complicated. Though we see benefits to apply QEI analysis for multienvironmental trials, we cannot exclude the use of QTL mapping by each environment, and then summarize the mapping results across the environments. Neither can we exclude the use of the estimated breeding values in QTL mapping where the target is to locate the highlyadapted and stable genes.","tokenCount":"6459"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a7236bc0c75f5408f17319be1b085471","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d1b24ed0-7b58-4e6d-98f9-a1937cefc7e7/retrieve","id":"34747753"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ced4e69f-e484-4742-9eb9-d3925a1235c6","pagecount":"39","content":"This review has been undertaken in the context of preparation of a concept note for the Kenya dairy NAMA. Biogas promotion is one of the project components. Mitigation actions should aim to achieve greater, more effective, sustainable, and equitable climate change results, outcomes and impacts; ensure that women and men have equal opportunity to contribute to, and benefit from supported activities; and mitigate against potential project risks for women and men arising from the supported activities. 1 In order to ensure that the Kenya dairy NAMA is designed to address these objectives, with support from CCAFS, a process of inquiry has been launched involving stakeholders in the dairy and biogas sectors. This review contributes to that process by summarizing existing knowledge on gender issues in biogas promotion and use, and existing experience with addressing gender issues in biogas promotion initiatives. The focus is on household (domestic) biogas.1 GCF (2016)   2 Gender Issues in the adoption and use of biogasAn assessment of the number of households with sufficient available livestock waste and water estimated a technical potential for biogas adoption at 1.26 million households, 2 but a subsequent study with more detailed cattle population data suggested a technical potential of 320 000 households. 3 By comparison, actual numbers of installed biogas units are much smaller. Table 1 shows published estimates of installed biogas units in Kenya from different sources in different years. Most household digesters are between 4 to 16m 3 in size, with a few larger institutional or community units. Some recent reports of high numbers of installed biogas units appear to be inflated, possible because of the incentives to report high numbers related to subsidies that have been available until recently in one programme. The Kenya National Domestic Biogas Programme (KENDBIP), Africa Biogas Partnership Programme (ABPP) and a project under consideration by the World Bank's ClimDev Special Fund propose objectives of installing between 10 000 and 30 000 units in the coming 5 year period.Overall, progress has been slow until very recently, and there is a large theoretical potential for further adoption. Units Installed 1100 500 1884 4000-16 000 2 Assuming 0.8-1 m 3 , per day per household, requiring 20-30 kg fresh dung daily, i.e. 3-4 stall-raised cattle, using information on 'access to safe water' as a proxy for water availability 3 Heegde and Sonder (2007) 4 Practical Action (2010) 5 Cited in Karekezi et al. (n.d.)   6 Cited in Rajendran et al. (2012)   7 SNV (2014) Biogas users survey 2014Several overviews of the sector have reported barriers to upscaling biogas adoption in Kenya (table 2). In general, these factors relate to constraints affecting potential customers (e.g. lack of information, high investment costs), constraints affected biogas service providers, and regulatory issues (e.g. lack of standards) that affect the sector as a whole. to the plastic sheeting is the main risk. One study found that fixed dome units were more likely to be in operation and have fewer repairs than floating drum units or flexible bag units, and were more likely to be perceived as reliably providing sufficient volume of gas. 8However, an evaluation of 500 flexible bags improved and promoted by IFAD showed that the vast majority are still working and that development benefits have been significant. 9Table 3 summarizes some of the characteristics of three common biogas types.The fixed dome model has a main digester made of brick and cement in which the organic inputs are collected and anaerobically converted into methane. Connected to the digester there is an inlet tank in which the inputs get mixed with water prior to feeding into the digester; and a compensation tank where the by-product (bio-slurry), gradually accumulates until it overflows to a composting pit.The floating drum model has an underground well-shaped digester with inlet and outlet connections through pipes at its bottom on either side of a partition wall. An inverted drum (gas holder) is placed in the digester, and rests on the wedge shaped support and guide frame at the level of a partition wall. This drum can move up and down along a guide pipe with the accumulation and disposal of gas. The weight of the drum applies pressure on the gas to make it flow through the pipeline to the point of use.Prefabricated plastic tube models have also recently begun to be used. The tube is constructed of inter-locking segments that allows a modular design such that digesters can be anywhere from 2 m3 to 20 m3 in size.In the flexible bag model, the substrate flows through a tubular polyethylene or PVC bag (the reactor) from the inlet to the outlet. The gas is collected by means of a gas pipe connected to a reservoir. Some reports also suggest rates of disuse as high as 30%, 10 while others report low rates of disuse (5%). 11 Causes are attributed to poor design and construction, low end-user awareness on system management and lack of standards to govern the sector; low gas production;vandal-ism (e.g. of plastic tube technology), gas leaks and pipe blockages, lack of spare parts and technical support services. Furthermore, although biogas may replace other fuels, low gas production in the wet and cold months between April and July may force users to revert to their previous conventional fuel sources for some months of the year. Some studies report that biogas adopters continue to list wood as their main fuel source, suggesting that biogas may complement or partially reduce conventional fuel use, rather than fully replace conventional fuels. 12 10 Muchiri (2008); Wachera (2009); Kwamboka (2015)   11 Wamuyu (2009)   the household head and the number of cows owned are significantly related to adoption. Barriers to adoption include high installation costs (45%), requires large amounts of manure (18%), too labour intensive (14%), not aware (6.6%), do not understand how it works (5.6%).Men and women have different roles in the energy system. Women (including girls) bear the main labour burden of fuel provisioning, but often have less access to credit or income for investment in new energy technologies. As the main users of energy (e.g. for cooking) women also bear the main health burden related to energy use. Energy provisioning and poverty are closely related, as are poverty and gender, with disproportionate impact on women and girls. 21 The existing literature on gender issues in biogas in Kenya treats five questions:(1) What are the gender issues in energy access?(2) What are the benefits of biogas for women?(3) How do gender issues affect adoption of biogas?(4) How has gender been addressed in biogas dissemination initiatives?(5) How is gender addressed in related policies?Overall, the literature is sparse on each of these questions.Cooking, lighting and heating are the most common energy needs of rural households, although some households also use energy for farm or household appliances. 22 Fuel wood is by far the most common energy source, followed by charcoal and electricity. Fuel wood (and to some extent charcoal) is the main source of energy used for cooking. Electricity and/or LPG/kerosene are commonly used for lighting. About 75% of households report that fuel wood is their main energy source. About 75% of households also report that the cost of energy is the main barrier to energy access, followed by constraints on the accessibility of energy.A baseline survey for the national biogas programme found that men (including male spouse and young men) are more likely to be involved in purchasing or making decisions to purchase LPG, electricity and solar energy, while women (including female spouse and young women) are more involved in fuel wood, charcoal and kerosene procurement (table 5).Fuel wood resources are becoming increasingly scarce. This increases the time, labour and health burden of fuel collection, a burden mainly borne by women and girls. Dairy households consume about 11 kg of fuel wood per day, and spend about 166 hours per week on fuel wood collection and 384 Ksh. per week. 23 Reports of back pain are common (71%), as are reported health effects of exposure to wood smoke. 24 One study reported that female heads of households are much more likely than male heads of households to cite health effects of energy use as a concern. 25 Reported benefits of biogas adoption include: (i) reduced wood demand, 26 (ii) climate change mitigation, (iii) reduced energy costs, (iv) reduced exposure to indoor smoke, (v) reduced time, labour and health effects of fuel wood collection, (vi) agricultural benefits of biogas slurry use, and (vii) change in men's involvement in cooking. Several of these benefits have gendered dimensions.Reduced health effects of indoor air pollution: Replacement of wood fuel reduces exposure to indoor smoke. 27 Women using biogas spend significantly less time (509 min/week) ex-posed to wood smoke compared with non-adopters (mean=1122 min/week). 28 One study in Kenya quantified that female biogas adopters reported less breathing problems compared to nonadopters (43% vs. 71%), less shortness of breath, less difficulty in breathing and less chest pain while breathing. 29 In addition, children born in households using high wood or charcoal as their main source of cooking fuel have higher mortality rates than those using low polluting fuels (including biogas). 30 Reduced time, labour and health burden of energy provisioning: Women are often the main provisioners of fuel wood. Biogas users consume about 60-70% less wood fuel than non-adopters; biogas users spend about 65% less time (57 minutes per week) than nonadopters (166 minutes per week) on fuel wood collection; and fewer biogas user women report back pain (34%) than non-adopters (71%). 31 Reduced energy costs: Biogas adoption significantly reduces cash expenditures on energy. A baseline survey for the national biogas programme reported that 88% of households re-ported a reduction in expenditures after biogas adoption. Of these, about 40% reported a decrease of 25% or more, and 55% reported a decrease of 50% or more. 32 Other studies also report savings of 60-75%. 33 Biogas use mostly replaces fuel wood in cooking, but may also be associated with increased use of electricity and kerosene. 34 Women are often mostly responsible for wood and kerosene procurement, while men may be mostly responsible for electricity procurement, although there are likely to be significant differences among house-holds in this regard. Fuel wood is often procured through labour, but may also sometimes be purchased. The net effects on women's use of cash resources for energy procurement are therefore not clear from the available data.Biogas-slurry as fertilizer: Compared to animal manure, biogas slurry can make more nutrients available to crops if applied in doses. 35 Studies suggest that the potential yield increases could raise the financial profitability of investment in biogas. 36 Greater benefits may accrue if fertilizer is replaced or if bio-slurry is sold. 37 A baseline survey for the national biogas programme suggests that 78% of biogas users make use of slurry, mainly for composting (64%) and application on fodder crops (32%). 38 However, individuals involved in biogas promotion report that slurry often goes unused, and this represents a significant waste of opportunity to realise the full benefits of biogas adoption. 39 The gender-related aspects of slurry use and of its benefits have not been explored.Although not reported in the literature, several individuals involved in biogas promotion reported that after biogas has been adopted for household cooking, men are more likely to spend time in the kitchen and to use the biogas for minor cooking tasks, such as making tea. No study was identified that specifically addressed gender aspects of biogas adoption processes in Kenya. 41 Among the household adoption studies listed in table 4, some studies find that the gender of the household head is a significant determinant of biogas adoption, but not all studies confirm this. On the one hand there may be definitional issues around femaleheadship. For example, it is not clear whether a widow, divorced woman or women with a husband temporarily migrating elsewhere are affected by the same issues. Estimates of female-headship vary considerably. The baseline survey for the national biogas programme found that 13% of households were female-headed, 42 while other surveys report 20% 43 and a national survey reports a figure of 32%, with considerable regional variation. 44 On the other hand, the gender of the household head is often taken as an indicator for examining gender differences in survey responses, but there have been very few attempts to understand gender issues within households with both a male and female spouse present. Beyond the gender of the household head, gender is most likely a significant issue in adoption decisions for the reasons outlined below.(i) Although women may be the main provisioner and user of energy (especially fuel wood and fuel for cooking), women are not necessarily the main decision maker in a household. For example, the national biogas programme baseline survey reported that of 150 biogas users, 57% of respondents indicated that the male made decision to adopt alone, while in 33% of cases, women were also involved in the decision. 45 However, one study in Kilifi estimated that less than 3% of adoption decisions were made jointly. (ii) Male household heads may not consider the benefits of biogas adoption, particularly the benefits for women, or may have different considerations and prioritization of concerns. For example, the national biogas programme baseline survey reported gendered differences in individuals' concerns around energy use. Specifically, while men and women had similar concerns about the reliability, efficiency and cost of fuel wood use, women were much more likely to be concerned about the health effects of fuel wood use.(iii) Men often control the resources required for biogas adoption. In particular, land that would be occupied by biogas installations is most often owned by men. Land titles are also the main form of collateral used to obtain credit loans for biogas installation. Surveys of credit access generally report lower use of credit by women than men, particularly from credit sources that are able to give higher volume loans. 47 Even in female headed households, the household head must sometimes have to consult the sons or other male family member on major decisions.(iv) Access to information is also a pre-requisite for informed decisions on adoption. Most studies find that friends, family and neighbours are the main source of information about biogas. Gender disparities in access to information may impact on adoption decisions. There is also no information on the impact of the gender of biogas company sales staff on adoption decisions, or of membership in women's groups on adoption decisions.These situations may result in non-adoption of biogas even if women in the household are willing to adopt. A related conclusion has been reached for market-based extension of water pumps in Kenya. 48 Overall, there is a very little information on gender dynamics affecting biogas adoption decisions. However, the points raised above suggest that gender dynamics are likely to affect adoption decisions.47 Mburu et al. (2012); Rambo (2012)  Similarly, gender dynamics are likely to affect continuing use and operation of biogas. The base-line survey for the national biogas programme reported that male and female spouses were responsible for operation and maintenance of biogas units in about one quarter of households with biogas, while in half of households with biogas, operation and maintenance were done by the farm hand (table 6). However, individuals involved in biogas promotion stated that while men are commonly involved in the decision to adopt biogas, once units had been installed, men were much less involved in their operation.This may cause problems when, for example, biogas units fail, women reportedly ask their husbands to contact the company for repairs, but the men may not always do this, resulting in higher rates of abandonment. 49 Intra-household gender relations are therefore relevant both to sustained use of biogas and to the promotion of biogas, since perceptions of failure rates and risks are commonly reported as a reason for households not to intend to adopt. The main documentation about addressing gender issues in biogas promotion initiatives in Kenya has been produced by the ABPP. In 2010, Energia produced a manual on gender mainstreaming. 50 Subsequently, at a workshop in 2011, an action plan for gender mainstreaming in the ABPP Kenya programme was produced. 51 A study on gender issues in biogas entrepreneur-ship was undertaken in 2013. 52 There is no publication or report on how the gender action plan was implemented, but lessons were shared at the workshop convened as part of this project. Potential gender issues listed in the gender mainstreaming guide for the ABPP are shown in Figure 1. 54 That document also suggested a range of potential gender-related objectives in bio-gas promotion programmes (table 7), which could be addressed through actions across a range of functions in a biogas promotion programme (table 8).  The gender action plan for Kenya proposed a number of activities (see appendix 1) and attention to gender issues was reportedly instrumental in reorienting the programme objective in the second phase of ABPP in Kenya to deliver benefits for both men and women. 55 Lessons from programme implementation are summarized in Text Box 2.Lessons at programme level:• Policies and guidelines to guide mainstreaming need to be in place • There must be budgetary allocations to gender • Limited availability of gender disaggregated data needs to be addressed through baseline surveys • National and programme level-baselines • Targeted vocational courses are needed to address the lack of women employed in the biogas sector • Affirmative action and introduction of flexible working hours can be effective in involving women in biogas service employment Lessons regarding low adoption at household level:• Women do not often make the investment decisions, and their needs and priorities rank lower than men's • Financing options need to consider investment costs and credit affordability, considering that women have access to smaller volumes of credit • Awareness and information need to be addressed, especially cultural norms and preferences around cooking, low awareness of the harmful effects of exposure to smoke and access to information on biogas Source: Judith Libaisi, 2016. Mainstreaming gender issues in biogas programmes. Presentation at dairy NAMA gender workshop, May 5 th 2016.The need for upfront investment is widely cited as the main obstacle to biogas promotion in Kenya. Women typically have access to small volumes of credit, e.g. through merry-gorounds, SACCOs or other micro-credit institutions. They also often lack land title deeds or other forms of collateral. Grameen-bank style group lending models have been identified as one way of over-coming these barriers (see Text Box 3).5 Summary: Improving opportunities for women to benefit from biogas promotion in the dairy NAMA Mitigation actions should aim to achieve greater, more effective, sustainable, and equitable cli-mate change results, outcomes and impacts; ensure that women and men have equal opportunity to contribute to, and benefit from supported activities; and mitigate against potential project risks for women and men arising from the supported activities. This final section summarizes constraints and opportunities for these objectives to be met through the biogas component of the dairy NAMA.The development case for biogas to promote gender-inclusive outcomes appears to be clear.Significant benefits are widely reported for reduced labour and health burdens for women adopting biogas. Significant reductions in energy expenditures are also reported, which most likely also translate into benefits for women's ability to deploy cash resources on other household expenditures.Although there is a limited basis of good quality documentation on gender issues in biogas promotion and use, there appear to be several good reasons for those involved in biogas promotion to devote resources to understanding and addressing gender issues. Table 9 summarizes some potential justifications for biogas firms to address gender issues.Possible gender issues Possible actions and benefits for biogas companies Male control of land and credit for Developing financing models not dependent investment and role of men in decision-on collateral could increase demand for making may limit ability of interested biogas women to install biogas Different perception and prioritization of Raising awareness among both men and energy issues in the household may lead to women of the benefits of biogas adoption low adoption of biogas even where women could increase demand for biogas recognize its benefitsTargeting marketing information to women companies' services may limit adoption and men and making access to company's services available to women and men could increase demand for biogas Men may not have incentives to report and Training in biogas maintenance for women, address technical faults and making post-sales services easily accessible, especially to women, could reduce post-installation failures and abandonment and protect reputation of biogas companiesGender roles in bio-slurry utilization are not Understanding gender roles in bio-slurry use well understood and targeting of information and advisory support could increase the benefits achieved by users and increase demand for biogas Few women are employed in biogas service Affirmative action in employment, and companies training for women as sales people or technicians could provide women with employment and increase access to markets Source: this studyIn particular, the high cost of biogas units and lack of finance for upfront investment is widely cited as the most common barrier to biogas adoption. Women typically have access to credit sources that provide smaller volumes of credit, but are excluded from access to formal institutions offering larger sources of credit, mainly due to lack of collateral. Credit delivery models based on group lending have been shown to be one effective way of increasing women's access to credit. Lowering the cost of biogas units and further innovation in finance (e.g. lease-to-own models with regular payments over a longer period) would be relevant to increasing women's ability to invest in biogas.At the level of a biogas promotion programme, numerous potential entry points have been identified for gender-related interventions (see tables 7 and 8). In general, these entry points may help to:• Address gender-related constraints to adoption:o Ensuring awareness of benefits from biogas adoption to women;o Addressing household decision-making processes (and control of assets such as land or capital) that may prevent adoption even when women are inter-ested o Targeting of access to information for women and men may need to be im-proved o Access to credit and structuring of financial flows can be adjusted to support adoption by men and women o The roles that women's groups and female sales staff or extension workers could play in supporting adoption. Any climate finance supported biogas promotion programme would be expected to screen project for social and environmental risks and to develop systems for mitigating these risks.Safe-guards relevant to gender aspects of biogas programmes relate in particular to labour and working conditions and environmental impacts. 61 Safeguards for labour and working conditions refers specifically to requirements that biogas companies must adopt and implement human resources policies and procedures that are consistent with the relevant guidance and national law, put in place an employee grievance mechanism, have procedures to ensure occupational health and safety, and must take measures to avoid child and forced labour. Safeguards for prevention of pollution are relevant to ensuring that biogas slurry does not become an environmental pollutant, such as through providing adequate information, training and post-sales support in bio-slurry use and disposal. Plans should be made to ensure that women receive training in the proper management of biogas units and management of bio-slurry. Where biogas units are in-stalled with support of financial institutions, these institutions may be expected to operate an environmental and social risk management system that ensures the relevant risks are mitigated. In addition, women must be included in consultations on the biogas promotion initiative.The Green Climate Fund gender policy 62 sets out mandatory requirements for projects.This includes collection of baseline data to:i. Determine how the project can respond to the needs of women and men;ii. Identify the drivers of change and the gender dynamics in order to achieve the project mitigation goals;iii. Identify and design the specific gender elements to be included in the project activities;iv. Estimate the implementation budgets; ","tokenCount":"3967"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0bdc2dd06d8d11ce131b86c5e116555f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6cce8aa7-d6d3-49ef-a802-48909c995a56/retrieve","id":"-1672301901"},"keywords":["Green Growth","national policy","climate change","agriculture"],"sieverID":"b44b213b-6d3e-405c-9fa1-3a364f96a5be","pagecount":"40","content":"As a national development model that simultaneously pursues socio-economic progress and environmental conservation, the Green Growth concept is being tested in countries around the world through context-specific policies and projects. This report reviews Green Growth policy actions related to agriculture and climate change by eight countries -Mexico,Christine Negra produced this working paper as an independent consultant based in New York, NY, USA, +1 202.631.9016, christine@ideapaths.orgThe term Green Growth signifies an alternative development path that simultaneously pursues socio-economic progress and environmental conservation. The conceptual foundation for Green Growth has been evolving on the world stage through major international meetings in the 1970s and 1980s, the Brundtland Commission report (1987) and the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. Following the global financial crisis of 2007-2008, enthusiasm has grown among national and global leaders for Green Growth as a route to economic recovery and advancement through sustainable, low-carbon development (Runnalls, 2011).In 2010, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) published an interim report on Green Growth strategy (OECD, 2010) and in 2011 the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) produced its Towards a Green Economy Report (UNEP, 2011). In its 2012 report, the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change recommended making sustainable, climate-friendly agriculture central to Green Growth and the Rio+20 Earth Summit (Beddington et al., 2012). In Rio, policy makers agreed on Green Growth guidelines rather than concrete policy commitments (UNDESA, 2012b).While a global framework is still evolving (UNCSD, 2012b), innovative action around the world is testing the Green Growth concept through context-specific policies and projects.Critics have questioned the degree to which early efforts to implement Green Growth are sustainable (Hoffmann, 2011). This report reviews the degree to which sustainable, climatefriendly agriculture is included in the national Green Growth strategies of eight nations: Mexico, Vietnam, Rwanda, India, South Korea, China, France and Australia. 1  In The Future We Want, the outcome document adopted at the Rio+20 Earth Summit, signatory governments stated:\"We view the implementation of green economy policies by countries that seek to apply them for the transition towards sustainable development as a common undertaking, and we recognize that each country can choose an appropriate approach in accordance with national sustainable development plans, strategies and priorities… We also invite business and industry as appropriate and in accordance with national legislation to contribute to sustainable development and to develop sustainability strategies that integrate, inter alia, green economy policies.\" (UNCSD, 2012a) A growing number of countries are developing national Green Growth strategies. They range from scoping studies to policy documents to prioritized action plans and have diverse institutional arrangements for inter-ministerial engagement and stakeholder consultation (e.g. lead agencies; new coordinating bodies) (UNDESA, 2012a). Only a few OECD countries have national Green Growth strategies, although concepts are being applied in agriculture through a variety of mostly pre-existing policy instruments (Andrew, 2012).Climate change and social and environmental sustainability were central elements of With agricultural households operating on less than 0.5 hectares on average, expanding demands on the land base, and perceptions of widespread 'land grabbing', demand for secure land rights has intensified pressure for reform of Vietnam's 2003 Land Law (Gillespie, 2013).National food safety standards have been developed in Vietnam, which may assist agricultural producers in meeting sustainability certification requirements (UNEP, 2013a  India has documented its GHG emissions through two National Communications submitted to the UNFCCCthe most recent one included a vulnerability assessmentand there are nearly 900 registered CDM projects in India (GLOBE, 2013). In Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, two research centers are developing and piloting a protocol, SMART-CDM, for aggregating diverse farm activities by smallholder farmers across agro-ecological zones and increasing benefit to farmers from international carbon markets (Pye-Smith, 2012).With assistance from the Asian Development Bank, the National Water Mission of India's National Action Plan on Climate Change is assessing priority adaptation strategies through pilot studies in three sub-basins that are experiencing major water challenges (ADB, 2013).Index micro-insurance targeted to 'uninsurable' farmers has been piloted using outcome monitoring of different delivery models (UNESCAP, 2012).The 2006 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) operates in every district in India. In 2010-2011, MGNREGA provided jobs for over 50 million rural households (at least one-third of workers must be women) at a cost of US$9.1 billion. Over 80% of work projects have contributed to natural resource rehabilitation (Mahapatra, 2010). In Andhra Pradesh, MGNREGA was instrumental in bringing millions of acres of fallow land in small and fragmented parcels into productive use (Vakatti, 2013). The National Food Security Bill, if enacted by Parliament, will entitle some 800 million people to purchase staple food at subsidized prices (HLPE, 2012).Small-scale farming, animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries are the primary livelihoods of 480 million Indians (UNESCAP, 2012). India accounts for 16% of agricultural GDP and 20% of the agricultural work force in the developing world. Of total global public agricultural research expenditures, India represented 6.7% in 2008 having increased its research and development (R&D) spending by more than 40% since 2000 (Beintema et al., 2012). India is a major global player in production, export and use of biodiesel (UNEP, 2013a).The National Land Records Modernization Program is working to develop an effective, publicly accessible information system to improve on the overburdened manual land records system (Singh, 2013). To assist informal tenant farmers in accessing bank loans, input subsidies and crop insurance, the Andhra Pradesh Licensed Cultivators' Act enabled loan The 2012 Act on the Allocation and Trade of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Rights establishes a national emissions trading scheme to be mobilized toward meeting mid-and long-term emissions reduction targets, beginning in 2015. Sectoral scope, operational structure and permit allocations will be clarified through presidential decree (GLOBE, 2013).The Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries conducts regular policy reviews (e.g. the 3 rd Five Year Plan on Environment-Friendly Agricultural Industry in 2010) and operates 27 regional environmentally-friendly agricultural enterprises. Policies in the food and agriculture sector have led to reductions in fertilizer (8.8% between 2009 and 2010) and energy use, and investment in green technology and organic production methods (US$ ~1 billion) (OECD, 2011). Agricultural subsidies are among the highest of the OECD countries and are heavily linked to production, which can obscure market signals (OECD, 2010).Pressure is increasing for an improved land information system and a Virtual Spatial Information System to support agricultural productivity is in development (Kwak, 2013). indicators for environment and resources reflecting carrying capacity, the influence of economic growth, and support by government policy (Xiaoxi, 2012). Scientific development, mainstreaming ecological concerns and evolving a China-specific approach have been central during the gradual formulation of China's green economy strategy and, going forward, there will be emphasis on resource saving, indicators and optimizing land use (Hai, 2012). As part of China's green economy path, the Genuine Progress Index (GPI), which includes economic, environmental and social accounting, will complement GDP and will be a new standard for political performance of regional officers (Jin, 2012). In response to the financial crisis, China's major stimulus package (US$586 billion) was ~40% 'green' (OECD, 2010).Home to almost one-quarter of the developing world's agricultural GDP and 40% of its agricultural work force, China represented 13% of total global public agricultural research expenditures in 2008 having more than doubled its R&D spending since 2000 (Beintema et al., 2012).In pursuit of improved agricultural productivity, China plans to increase water conservation investments to a total of US$ 630 billion over the next 10 years. China is a leader in payments for watershed services, accounting for 61 initiatives and 91% of payments globally in 2011.These payments provide both environmental and economic benefits in rural regions (Bennett et al., 2013). China has conducted a TEEB (the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) study for Water and Wetlands and has signaled support for a national TEEB study to inform its environmental management strategies.Through the Priority Forestry Program, China has combined rural poverty reduction with environmental protection through production of forest-based cash crops by rural households.Expertise in afforestation and forest product markets has been a positive ancillary benefit (Putzel, 2013). A major importer and exporter of forest products, China is experiencing growing demand for certified wood products and the area of certified forests is rising (UNDESA, 2013a).  France operates within the context of the EU, whose agricultural policies are generally structured to allocate funds to farmers and regions, while environmental policies take a regulatory approach. For example, under the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), investments in water management at the farm or regional level can be compensated, but flood and drought risk management are handled through separate policy mechanisms (Berkhout et al., 2013).Together with Brazil, Denmark, Norway and South Africa, France is one of the 'Group of As countries move from concept to action on Green Growth, they follow a cycle that encompasses designing policies (including engaging major stakeholders and ministries 4 ), making policies official (e.g. enactment by legislatures and heads of state), creating institutional and financial implementation mechanisms, monitoring results on the ground (e.g. using a results framework), evaluating policy effectiveness (e.g. achieving targets) and assessing and adjusting policy mechanisms. Table 1 provides a coarse assessment of how far each of the eight profiled countries has moved along this policy progression. Following the Rio+20 Earth Summit, the United Nations is convening a major multi-lateral policy process focused on the post-2015 development agenda. However, this process is hampered by the same core challenge that affects many other global policy platforms: As national Green Growth strategies evolve into on-the-ground practice, robust investment in climate-smart agriculture will be essential to achieving real sustainability.","tokenCount":"1575"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15ce6e5fbdc517d8987ad75253de0b76","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4d9647c1-483d-4946-87b4-785dd01005d0/retrieve","id":"-1420161228"},"keywords":["Melinda Gates Foundation","Germany's Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)","UK Foreign","Commonwealth & Development O ce","CGIAR Trust Fund Partners Funders"],"sieverID":"6c1634d1-82a6-4ae2-850a-7310dd801779","pagecount":"1","content":"The burden of foodborne diseases in Africa is huge due to systemic gaps in food safety standards. A 'Pull-Push Project' was conducted by ILRI and partners to explore the safety of vegetables, particularly tomatoes, which are widely eaten, including uncooked ones in salads. The project also assessed if consumer demand could improve food safety in informal urban food markets. Just three key foodborne pathogens were found to produce a 1% loss in Ethiopia's gross national income. Levels of food contamination were found to be high and poor food hygiene practices as well as food wastage widespread. The Pull-Push Project ran multimedia consumer awareness campaigns promoting food safety and reached millions of consumers and improved food safety knowledge, purchasing behaviour and hygiene preparation practices by 1.5 to 2 times. Door-to-door visits by health extension workers and humorous social-media messages from a famous influencer were particularly effective. An experiment replacing wooden with plastic crates for transporting tomatoes reduced wastage and improved safety in a profitable way.","tokenCount":"164"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"897c518204e4bc243d5d46ce2859219e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd66e76b-4c2d-41d4-8260-2797ed9b51da/retrieve","id":"-537174587"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"534784e9-d6a2-4de0-8d54-7240f8534c71","pagecount":"15","content":"Allopolyploidy greatly expands the range of possible regulatory interactions among functionally redundant homoeologous genes. However, connection between the emerging regulatory complexity and expression and phenotypic diversity in polyploid crops remains elusive. Here, we use diverse wheat accessions to map expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) and evaluate their effects on the population-scale variation in homoeolog expression dosage. The relative contribution of cis-and trans-eQTL to homoeolog expression variation is strongly affected by both selection and demographic events. Though trans-acting effects play major role in expression regulation, the expression dosage of homoeologs is largely influenced by cis-acting variants, which appear to be subjected to selection. The frequency and expression of homoeologous gene alleles showing strong expression dosage bias are predictive of variation in yield-related traits, and have likely been impacted by breeding for increased productivity. Our study highlights the importance of genomic variants affecting homoeolog expression dosage in shaping agronomic phenotypes and points at their potential utility for improving yield in polyploid crops.hole-genome duplications (WGD) can provide shortterm evolutionary advantages 1,2 and likely played an important role in the origin of most crops 3,4 . Wheat experienced more than one round of WGD 5 . Compared to their diploid relatives, polyploids have broader geographic distribution 6 . This suggests the importance of WGD for improving the crops' fitness in new environments, a factor that was critical for the spread of agriculture around the world 1,6 . The success of polyploid crops can potentially be attributed to the adaptive genetic diversity contributed by ancestral species or generated de novo after WGD 2,[6][7][8][9] . The redundant genetic nature of polyploid genomes could promote the accumulation of novel variants without detrimental effects on fitness, consistent with the observed mutational robustness of polyploids 1,2,8,[10][11][12] .Regulatory variants affecting gene expression levels play an important role in adaptive evolution and variation in complex traits 13,14 . WGD greatly expands the range of possible transinteractions for regulatory variants controlling the expression of redundant homoeologous genes from different genomes 15,16 . This contributes to substantial changes in the expression patterns of polyploids relative to their diploid ancestors 4,[17][18][19][20] . The genomic distribution of these trans-acting variants and their role in the regulation of homoeologous (duplicates from distinct subgenomes) genes in polyploid crops is not well understood, though a transcriptomic study of polyploid cotton has highlighted the importance of trans-regulatory evolution for domestication 4 . An aspect of regulation unique to WGD is that homoeologous regulatory proteins can now interact with the redundant regulatory elements in the duplicated genomes creating a more complex regulatory network. In addition, many regulatory variants linked with one of the homoeologs have the potential to alter a gene's expression and change its dosage relative to other homoeologs (Fig. 1a). While previous genetic mapping studies in allopolyploid wheat identified several genes where regulatory variants associated with adaptive and domestication traits [21][22][23][24] also change the relative levels of homoeolog expression, the overall impact of genomic variants on the population-scale variation in the relative expression of homoeologs and their role in shaping adaptive traits in polyploid crops remains poorly understood.Here, we perform expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) analysis using geographically and genetically diverse allohexaploid wheat (genome formula AABBDD) accessions. The study use association mapping to identify cis-and trans-acting variants that explain the variance in homoeologous gene expression, with gene expression treated as a phenotype. We partition the genetic variation of gene expression traits using the approach of Yang et al. 25 . This approach can separate the genetic effects of portions of the genome on gene expression variance, and we use it to explore the relative contribution of variants from the three wheat genomes to population-scale transcript abundance variation from homoeologous genes. We show that the relative contribution of cis-and trans-acting variants to expression of homoeologous genes is affected by demographic events and selection. The relative expression dosage of homoeologous genes is primarily defined by the frequency of rare and common cis-regulatory variants whose accumulation is associated with biased homoeolog expression. The analyses of frequency, effect sizes, and levels of linkage disequilibrium between the cis-variants of homoeologous genes suggest that the relative homoeolog expression dosage is under selection. By investigating the distribution of cis-and transacting eQTL across genomic regions showing distinct epigenetic marks and chromatin architecture [26][27][28] , we demonstrate that Fig. 1 Relative expression of homoeologous genes in the diverse panel of wheat lines. a Homoeologous gene pairs with matching and biased expression abundance of homoeolog A relative to homoeolog B. Red and green colors show low-expressing homoeologs in the A and B genomes, respectively. Increase in the frequency of accessions with a biased homoeolog is expected to reduce correlation between the levels of homoeolog expression measured in the panel. b Distribution of Spearman correlation coefficients (SCC) calculated between the AB, BD, AD gene pairs within the same homoeologous gene triplets (red) and random (black) pairs of genes using gene expression values from the 198 accessions. c The mean of the sum of the total triplet expression (A + B + D) in groups of accessions with (y-axis) and without (x-axis) one of the gene copies downregulated. The red and blue dotted lines show the 1:1 and 2:3 combined expression ratios, respectively. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.eQTL are enriched in the regions of active chromatin. Finally, summary-level eQTL and GWAS mapping data 29 , and gene coexpression networks (GCN) are analyzed jointly to study the role of variants linked with homoeologous gene regulation in shaping variation in major agronomic traits in wheat. We show that the frequency of genomic variants associated the relative expression dosage of homoeologous genes is predictive of variation in productivity traits in allopolyploid wheat and appear to be targeted by improvement selection. Thus, our study highlights the importance of WGD and emerging regulatory complexity in the evolution of phenotypic diversity that serves as a basis for the development of adapted crop varieties.Population-scale homoeologous gene expression variation. We collected RNA-seq data from total RNA isolated from 2-week-old seedlings of 198 diverse accessions (Supplementary Data 1) selected to represent the broad geographic and genetic diversity of bread wheat. An average of 65.7 million paired-end Illumina reads (2 × 100 bp) were collected for each sample, and after quality trimming mapped to the reference genome RefSeq v.1.0 5 . The proportion of reads unambiguously mapped to the individual wheat genomes was 81% (Supplementary Data 1). A simulationbased estimate suggested that the alignment settings used in our study provide 98% correct read mapping to the polyploid wheat genome (see \"Methods\"). Expression levels measured as Transcripts Per Million (TPM) were estimated for high-confidence (HC) genes in RefSeq v.1.0, with 52,511 transcripts (47,274 genes)  showing TPM > 0.5 in at least three wheat lines (PRJNA670223) (Supplementary Data 2). In addition, we have analyzed RNA-seq previously generated for 90 wheat lines from spikes at the doubleridge development stage 30 .In allohexaploid wheat, genes appear as homoeologs present in three ('triplets') or two copies or as singletons 18 . Compared to singletons, on average, homoeologs in triplets showed higher expression levels (ANOVA F-test = 87, df = 1, p = 2.2 × 10 −16 ), but lower expression variance (Supplementary Fig. 1a). The intergenomic comparison of the population means of homoeolog expression in seedlings showed a positive correlation (Supplementary Fig. 1b), indicating that the relative expression levels of the most of homoeologs in our wheat panel tend to match. As a measure of the relative expression of homoeologs at the population level, we used Spearman Correlation Coefficient (SCC), which was calculated for each pair of homoeologs using their expression values in the panel of 198 accessions. While a strong positive correlation would be indicative of matching homoeolog expression levels (Fig. 1a) in most accessions in the panel, an increase in the proportion of accessions with biased homoeologs would decrease SCC (Fig. 1a). Compared to random pairs of genes selected from the distinct wheat genomes, the SCC distribution for the pairs of homoeologs was strongly shifted towards positive values (Fig. 1b, c), suggesting that the majority of accessions in the panel carry homoeologs with the matching levels of expression. The SCCs calculated for the same sets of homoeologs using RNA-seq data from both the seedlings and spike tissues 30 collected from a distinct set of accessions were generally similar, suggesting that tissue-specific factors do not substantially affect co-expression of the majority of homoeologs at the population scale (Supplementary Fig. 1c).In polyploids, the relative dosage of duplicated genes tends to be balanced 18,31,32 . To investigate whether the downregulation of one of the homeologs in the population is compensated by increased expression of other homoeologs, we selected a set of 1443 gene triplets that met two criteria: (1) one out of three homoeologs was downregulated (TPM < 0.1) in at least two wheat lines, and (2) at least two wheat lines have all three homoeologs expressed (TPM > 2). We applied these criteria to each triplet to split 198 accessions into two groups, one group composed of accessions with one of the homoeologs downregulated and another group including accessions with all three homoeologs expressed. The sum of expression values from all three homoeologs (A + B + D) was calculated for each accession and used to derive the mean of total homoeologs' expression for each group. In most cases, the mean expression ratio between these two groups across gene triplets (Fig. 1c) was below 1:1 but above 2:3, suggesting that decreased combined expression associated with homoeolog downregulation is not fully compensated by increase in the expression of other homoeologs.Partitioning genetic variance for gene expression traits onto different wheat genomes. The genetic architecture of gene expression could be complex and driven by multiple cis-and trans-acting variants with a broad range of effect sizes. To account for the cumulative effect of all SNPs from the distinct wheat genomes on the expression of individual homeologs, we performed partitioning of genetic variation (Fig. 2a) 25 . For this purpose, 2,021,936 SNPs with MAF > 0.05 identified in our panel were grouped into three genome-specific sets from the A, B, and D genomes. These sets were used to build genetic relationship matrices and estimate the genetic variance 25 for the expression of each gene (Supplementary Data 3). SNPs located within the same genome as a gene of interest were referred to as cis-genomic SNPs, whereas SNPs located in other genomes were referred to as trans-genomic SNPs (Fig. 2a). For the 10,000 most highly expressed genes, the mean of gene expression variance explained by the entire SNP set from all three wheat genomes was 40.4% (Supplementary Fig. 2a and 2b). The D genome explained a lower proportion of variance (7.7%) in gene expression than either the A (19.1%) or B (13.6%) genomes (Mann-Whitney test W A/D = 23,172,000, p-value < 2.2 ×;10 −16 ; W B/D = 41,122,000, p-value < 2.2 × 10 −16 ) (Supplementary Figs. 2a and 2b).We found that, on average, cis-genomic SNPs from the A or B genomes explained a higher proportion of gene expression variance (21.7% and 28.7%, respectively) than trans-genomic SNPs (5-17%) from other genomes (Fig. 2a). However, in the evolutionarily younger D genome 33 , the proportion of variance explained by the cis-genomic SNPs (12%) was only slightly higher than that explained by the trans-genomic SNPs from the A (11%) and B (9%) genomes (Fig. 2a). The results of variance partitioning in the developing spikes 30 were consistent with the results obtained in seedlings (Fig. 2a).The expression variance of a number of genes was largely explained by the trans-genomic SNPs (Supplementary Data 3). Among 34,691 genes with at least 20% of the total variance in gene expression explained jointly by SNPs from all three genomes, 6173 genes (17.8%) had <1% of variance explained by the cis-genomic SNPs, with the remaining variance explained by the trans-genomic SNPs. While this group of genes showed significantly reduced cisregulatory diversity compared to trans-regulated genes (Fig. 2b), no significant reduction of diversity between cis-and trans-only regulated genes (Wilcoxon rank sum test p-value = 0.1) was found in wild emmer using data from the previously published study 8 , indicating that shift towards trans-regulation in these genes from the A and B genomes is likely associated with diversity loss during wheat improvement. Of these 6173 genes, 47.8% were located in the D genome, which shows reduced diversity (π D = 0.0003) relative to the A and B genomes (π A = 0.0007 and π B = 0.0010) 34 . This result also indicates that polyploidization bottleneck, which disproportionately affected the D genome, explains most of the cis-regulatory diversity loss in wheat.We further split all SNPs into cis-genic (SNPs within ±1 Mb region around genes) and trans-genic (SNPs outside of ±5 Mb region around genes and SNPs located on other wheat chromosomes) subsets. The partitioning of variance for gene expression showed that the average variance explained by transacting variants (19.3%) is substantially higher (Wilcoxon test, W = 3,228,268, p-value < 2.2e−16) than that explained by cisacting variants (12.3%). We also compared the means of total variance explained for two groups of genes: (1) genes with variance explained only by cis-genic SNP, where trans-genic SNPs contribute <1% to variance, and (2) genes with variance explained only trans-genic SNPs, where cis-genic SNPs contribute <1% to variance. The means of variance in these two groups of genes were similar (47.0% vs. 46.4%), suggesting that in the cases of cisregulatory diversity loss in the allopolyploid genome, the contribution of trans-genic variants to expression variance is similar to the contribution of cis-genic variants.The effects of cisand trans-acting variants on expression correlation between homoeologs. The accumulation of rare and common mutations in gene promoters leads to dysregulation of gene expression in diploid genomes 35 . Even though polyploidy was expected to increase the mutation load in wheat 8,18 and result in expression dosage bias, the majority of homoeolog pairs in our study showed matching levels of expression. To better understand the genetic basis of homoeolog co-expression, we compared the proportions of expression variance in individual homoeologs explained by cis-and trans-genic SNPs among pairs showing the distinct levels of expression correlation (SCC) (Fig. 2c). An increase in SCC was accompanied by a decrease in the total variance explained, with the largest proportion of explained variance observed for homoeologs with SCC < 0 (Fig. 2c). While SCC increase was accompanied by threefold decrease in variance explained by trans-genic SNPs, more substantial 11-fold decrease in variance explained was observed for cis-genic SNPs, reaching only 1.6% for homoeologs showing high correlation in the expression levels (SCC > 0.90) (Fig. 2c). These results suggest that discordant expression of homoeologs in the panel is likely associated with the accumulation of cis-rather than trans-regulatory diversity affecting the homoeologous genes. This conclusion is consistent with a decrease in the number of common (MAF ≥ 0.05) and rare (MAF < 0.05) SNPs around the homoeologs with an increase in levels of their expression correlation (Fig. 2d). These trends were consistent across all three wheat genomes (Supplementary Fig. 3a and 3b), indicating that negative relationship between cis-genic diversity and SCC is independent of the levels of genetic diversity in individual genomes. The lack of strong relationship between the inter-genomic sequence divergence and SCC suggests that divergence in the regulatory regions inherited from diploid ancestors unlikely has substantial global impact on the relative levels of homoeolog expression (Supplementary Fig. 3c).To assess the impact of rare cis-variants (MAF < 0.05) on the homoeolog expression levels, we investigated the relationship between the expression ranks of each homoeolog in the population, ordered from lowest to highest expression levels across wheat accessions, and the rare allele load in the upstream Fig. 2 Partitioning variance in homoeolog expression using SNPs from different parts of the wheat genomes. a An example of genetic variance partitioning for a gene located in the A genome using SNPs from the same genome (cis-genomic SNPs) or other homoeologous genomes (trans-genomic SNPs). As shown in the seedling panel, for genes in the A genome, variance explained by cis-genomic SNPs was 3.1 and 5.7 times higher than that explained by the B and D genomes' trans-genomic SNPs, respectively. Expression variance in the B genome was better explained by the B genome SNPs, which explained 1.3 and 3.4 times more variance than the SNPs from the A and D genomes, respectively. The variance explained by the cis-genomic SNPs from the D genome was comparable to that explained by the trans-genomic SNPs from the A and B genomes. Top 10,000 genes showing the highest expression variance were used in the analyses. b A 52.2% reduction in the mean SNP diversity (two-sided Mann-Whitney test W = 142,90,644, p-value < 2.2 × 10 −16 ) was observed near 6173 genes with the expression variance mostly explained by trans-genomic SNPs, compared to 2852 genes with the expression variance explained predominantly by the cis-genomic SNPs. In (a) and (b), box shows the median and interquartile ranges (IQR). The end of the top line is the maximum or the third quartile (Q) + 1.5 × IQR. The end of the bottom line denotes either the minimum or the first Q − 1.5 × IQR. The dots are more or less than Q ± 1.5 × IQR. c The relationship between the proportion of genetic variance explained by cis-and trans-genic SNPs calculated for individual homoeologs and the levels of expression correlation (SCC) between the pairs of homoeologs in the wheat panel. The mean of genetic variance was calculated for data binned based on the SCC values. d The counts of rare and common SNPs in the genic regions of the 21,809 pair-wise combinations of homoeologs (gene body ± 10 kb) showing different levels of expression correlation. The mean and standard error of SNP counts were calculated for data binned based on the ranked SCC values. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.5-kb regulatory regions. In humans and maize 35,36 , the total number of rare alleles in the regulatory regions coincides with the extremely low or high levels of expression in the population. We observed a similar trend using the entire set of homoeologous genes (Supplementary Fig. 2c). However, a subset of homoeologs showing high levels of expression correlation (SCC > 0.8) showed no enrichment for down-or upregulating rare alleles (Supplementary Fig. 2d). Combined together, our results suggest that the biased expression of homoeologs in the panel is primarily associated with the accumulation of both common and rare cisacting variants.Mapping and functional annotation of variants affecting gene expression variation. We conducted genetic mapping of cis-and trans-acting variants (eQTL) associated with the expression variation of individual genes among 191 wheat lines (Supplementary Data 1). After LD-based merging (r 2 ≥ 0.2), we identified 36,898 and 15,238 significant SNPs (FDR < 10 −5 ) in the RNA-seq datasets from wheat seedlings and spikes, respectively (Supplementary Data 4 and 5; Supplementary Figs. 4 and 5). A conservative criterion was applied to define trans-eQTL as eQTL located in different genomes or chromosomes relative to the target gene, and cis-eQTL as eQTL located ±1 Mb around a target gene. According to these criteria, in the seedlings, 8568 cis-eQTL and 14,645 trans-eQTL were associated with the expression of 8315 (8837 transcripts) and 8255 (8500 transcripts) genes, respectively. Out of these cis-and trans-eQTL in the seedlings, 247 eQTL affecting the expression of 1,469 genes (1500 transcripts) overlapped. In the RNA-seq data from spikes 30 , we identified 3172 cis-eQTL for 3476 transcripts, and 9891 trans-eQTL for 7250 transcripts. The location of a cis-eQTL density peak averaged across all target genes relative to the coding sequence start site was similar between the A and B genomes but was ~200 bp more distant for the D genome (Supplementary Figs. 6a, 6b) and likely to be a consequence of lower diversity and more extended LD in the D genome 34 .The functional properties of identified eQTL were evaluated by calculating their enrichment within the specific regions of the genome tentatively affecting the coding potential of a gene or its regulation. The effects of SNPs on coding sequences were assessed using SNPeffect 37 . SNPs resulting in splice-site disruption and premature termination codons were considered as putatively deleterious. The regulatory regions were previously defined based on distinct epigenetic marks and open chromatin using a combination of MNase digest 26 , DNaseI digest, and combined analyses of epigenetic variation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and DNase-seq data 27 . The greatest levels of cis-and trans-eQTL enrichment relative to all variants in the genome were found for putatively deleterious variants, followed by missense and synonymous variants (Fig. 3a). Both cis-and trans-eQTL were found enriched in the regulatory regions (Fig. 3b, c) and depleted in the regions of closed chromatin hyper-resistant to MNase treatment (Fig. 3b). The cis-and trans-eQTL showed similar levels of enrichment across the various epigenetic marks, with both types of eQTL enriched for epigenetic modifications associated with gene body (H3K4me1), transcription (H3K36me3), and active expression (H3K27ac, H3K4me3) (Fig. 3e, f) 27,38,39 . Simultaneously, we observed a depletion of both cis-and trans-eQTL within epigenetic marks often associated with the repression of gene expression (H3K27me3) or transposable elements (H3K9me2) (Fig. 3c) 40,41 .Recent studies indicate that interaction between distant regulatory elements and their target genes could be facilitated by 3D chromatin contacts 42 , which is consistent with the enrichment of cis-eQTL within regions involved in the formation of chromatin loops in humans and maize 42,43 . To investigate the potential involvement of chromatin loops in gene expression regulation in wheat, we compared the distribution of eQTL-target gene pairs across the interacting regions identified by Hi-C 28 in cultivar Chinese Spring, which was not part of our diversity panel. Although, the low resolution of wheat Hi-C data does not allow us to map precisely regulatory regions involved in interaction, it could be used to assess the enrichment of eQTL-target gene pairs within chromatin loops relative to randomized data. First, we found that both cis-and trans-eQTL p-values positively correlate with the frequency of Hi-C contacts. This suggests that regions harboring eQTL-gene pairs showing stronger association are also more likely to have a higher frequency of chromatin contacts than regions harboring eQTL-gene pairs showing weaker associations (Fig. 3d, e, Supplementary Data 6). Second, the regions harboring trans-eQTL between both homoeologous and non-homoeologous chromosomes showed elevated Hi-C contacts (log10[Hi-C] = 1.24) compared to a distribution based on the 100 randomized samples (mean log10[Hi-C] = 0.92) (Fig. 3g). This result indicates that the probability of trans-eQTL-target gene pair occurrence within the chromatin loops is substantially higher than within the randomly selected regions. Among trans-eQTLtarget gene pairs with a Hi-C contact frequency >50, 15% were located with the homoeologous chromosome regions, which are involved in chromatin interaction more frequently than nonsyntenic regions (Fig. 3f, Supplementary Data 6) 28 .Genetic architecture of homoeologous gene expression regulation. To better understand the role of polyploidy in the regulation of homoeologous gene expression, we analyzed the genomic distribution of trans-eQTL and their gene targets. The total number of trans-eQTL in the A and B genomes for target genes in the same genomes was similar (Fig. 4a). However, the total number of trans-eQTL in the A and B genomes targeting genes in the D genome was 4.0 and 3.6 times higher than the total number of trans-eQTL in the D genome targeting genes in the A and B genomes, respectively (Fig. 4a). These results are consistent with the differences in the levels of genetic diversity between the wheat genomes 34 that also contributed to differences in the proportions of genetic variance for gene expression explained by SNPs from different genomes (Fig. 2a). Also, we observed a tendency for the co-localization of trans-eQTL and target genes in the syntenic regions of homoeologous chromosomes (Fig. 4b, Supplementary Figs. 4 and 5). These patterns of trans-eQTL-target gene distribution are likely associated with the presence of shared regulatory elements in homoeologous genes that influence their co-regulation by regulatory feedback loops conserved among homeologs, as was demonstrated for the three homoeologs of the Vrn-1 gene 44 . This hypothesis is supported the finding that, in a set of the 6,371 homoeologous gene triplets, 23% of homoeologs shared at least one eQTL, and that correlation in expression levels between the homoeologs increased with an increase in the proportion of shared eQTL (Fig. 4c).Prior studies showed that gene expression is under purifying selection 45,46 . However, it remains unclear how genetic redundancy provided by polyploidy would affect selection on the expression of homoeologs. To answer this question, we compared the relationship between the minor allele frequency and the effect size of cis-eQTL for two groups of genes, homoeologs and singletons. Purifying selection acting against cis-eQTL with strong effects on gene expression results in negative correlation between cis-eQTL minor allele frequency and effect size 45 . We argue that if genetic redundancy influences the strength of purifying selection on the expression of duplicated genes, we expect to see the reduced or lack of correlation between the allele frequency and effect size in homoeologs compared to singletons. However, we found that both groups of genes showed significant negative correlations (homoeologs: SCC = −0.23, p < 2.2e-16; singletons: SCC = −0.20, p = 0.002) between the cis-eQTL minor allele frequency and effect size (Fig. 4d). There was no significant difference between the two correlation coefficients (Fisher's z-test: z = 0.53, p-value = 0.60). The negative relationship between frequency and effect size was observed in homoeologs even for the subset of cis-eQTL whose effects are detectable at all frequencies (Supplementary Fig. 7). These results indicate that the expression levels of both homoeologs and single-copy genes are likely under purifying selection. Compared to homoeologs, the single-copy genes had cis-eQTL effect sizes higher across all MAF classes, likely due to the increased contribution of trans-acting variants to the expression variation of homoeologs compared to that of the single-copy genes.To understand the effects of cis-and trans-eQTL on the relative levels of homoeolog expression in our panel, we investigated the distribution of expression correlation values between the pairs of homoeologs (SCC) for the sets of homoeologs grouped based on the following eQTL-target gene configurations: (1) a homoeolog pair has no eQTL, (2) a homoeolog pair is regulated by shared trans-eQTL and has no cis-eQTL, (3) each gene within a homoeolog pair is regulated only by cis-eQTL, and (4) one of the genes within a homoeolog pair has cis-eQTL that also acts as a trans-eQTL for another homoeolog (Fig. 4e, Supplementary Data 7). We found that homoeolog pairs with no eQTL associated with their expression showed high levels of expression correlation (mean SCC = 0.57), consistent with the observed decrease in both SNP diversity (Fig. 2d) and expression variance explained by SNPs (Fig. 2c) with an increase in the homoeolog expression correlation. The expression correlation between homoeologs regulated only by shared trans-eQTL without effects detected from cis-eQTL showed bi-modal distribution with most homoeologs having a strong positive correlation (mean SCC = 0.59) (Fig. 4e); the subgroup with a higher correlation showed less diversity in the cis-regions than the subgroup with the lower correlations. These findings were consistent with the observation that the expression variance of the highly correlated homoeologs is defined largely by the trans-genic variants (Fig. 2c). Compared to these two eQTLtarget gene configurations (1 and 2), more than a threefold reduction in the level of expression correlation between the homoeologs (SCC = 0.17) was associated with the presence of cis-eQTL, which appear to change the relative expression dosage of homoeologs in the panel. The set of homoeologs having variants acting as cis-eQTL for one homoeolog and trans-eQTL for another homoeolog showed a negative expression correlation (SCC = −0.26) (Fig. 4e). These cases represent an extreme form of homoeolog expression bias, where a high-expressing homoeolog in one genome is often associated with a low-expressing homoeolog on another genome (Fig. 1a).Joint eQTL and GWAS analyses of agronomic traits. Recent studies have demonstrated the utility of gene expression data for interpreting GWAS results and identifying candidate causal genes by jointly analyzing eQTL and SNPs linked with trait variation 29,43,[47][48][49] . Consistent with these findings, we found a significant enrichment of cis-eQTL among SNPs associated with variation in yield component and development traits in a diverse set of wheat lines (Supplementary Fig. 8, Supplementary Data 8-9). In addition, we used the results of QTL mapping in biparental populations and diversity panels to assess the overlap of eQTL detected in our study with significant marker-trait associations (MTAs) for a number of agronomic traits identified in WheatCAP (www.triticeaecap.org) and IWYP (iwyp.org) projects (Supplementary Note 1, Supplementary Data 10). Using strict criteria for overlap (±1 kb), out of 1,112 non-redundant MTAs, 70 and 36 MTAs had cis-eQTL and trans-eQTL located within ±1 kb, respectively. While for trans-eQTL, this overlap was not substantially different from the randomized control, for cis-eQTL, this overlap was nearly two times higher than the maximum overlap of 33 eQTL obtained in the randomized control (Supplementary Fig. 8d and 8e). Consistent with an earlier study, these results suggest that the trait-associated SNPs are more likely to be cis-regulatory rather than trans-regulatory variants 50 .Further, we used GWAS and eQTL summary-level Mendelian Randomization (SMR) data analysis 29 to detect candidate genes whose expression levels co-vary with phenotypes due to pleiotropy or causal association (Fig. 5a). We obtained the SNP effects by performing GWAS for 14 productivity traits evaluated in two wheat populations, one characterized in this current study (see \"Methods\") and another characterized in the 1000 wheat exomes project 8 . By applying SMR to test for association between gene expression and productivity traits, we detected 971 and 424 genes (p-value < 10 −4 ) using eQTL from the seedlings and spikes, respectively (Supplementary Data 11). Since the association of variants with gene expression and traits could be due to either pleiotropy or linkage, a HEIDI method was applied to distinguish between these two scenarios 29 . A total of 329 and 95 genes identified using the seedling and spike eQTL, respectively, passed the HEIDI test (p-value ≥ 0.05) (Supplementary Data 11). Among these genes we had homologs that showed association with productivity and development traits in wheat and other plants, supporting the utility of SMR for investigating genetic mechanisms underlying trait variation in wheat. To connect the SMR candidate genes and biological pathways, we built an eQTL-based GCN (Fig. 5a), which includes genes co-expressed with the SMR candidate genes, as well as genes identified as regulators and regulatory targets in the wheat eQTL map (see \"Methods\", Supplementary Figs. 9 and 10, Supplementary Data 12-14).In rice, SPL14 was linked with increased panicle branching and yield 51 , but no TaSPL14 alleles positively affecting productivity traits in wheat were reported. Here, we show that the TaSPL14 transcription factor (TraesCS5B01G512800) is associated with variation in spike compactness, grain length, and harvest weight (Fig. 5b, Supplementary Data 11), consistent with the decreased spikelet number and thousand-grain weight observed in wheat mutants with the TaSPL14 gene knocked-out 52 . Among genes identified by SMR and connected with the TaSPL14 in the eQTL network (Fig. 5a, b) was the homolog of the FAR1 gene, responsible for phytochome A-mediated far-red response, associated with flowering time regulation in Arabidopsis and wheat 53,54 . The wheat homologs of FAR1 were also differentially expressed in wheat lines with the knocked-out homolog of SPL14 52 , suggesting that FAR1 is likely one of the downstream TaSPL14 regulation targets in wheat.The SMR analysis linked the Early Flowering 3 (TaElf3) gene in the genome (TaElf3-B1) with heading date (HD) and spikelet number per spike (SPN) in our population (Fig. 5b). A subtelomeric deletion polymorphism, including the TaElf3-D1 gene, also detected in our population (Supplementary Fig. 11a), was previously associated with the heading date variation in wheat 55 . We showed that TaElf3-B1 expression is associated with a trans-eQTL on chromosome 1D (pos. 493,768,787 bp), which is in strong LD (r 2 > 0.8) with variants that act as a cis-eQTL for TaElf3-D1 (Fig. 5c), and likely linked with the presence/absence variation (PAV) affecting TaElf3-D1.The lack of the TaElf3-D1 transcripts in accessions with the terminal deletion leads to biased expression of the TaElf3-D1 and TaElf3-B1 homoeologs, and negative correlation between the expression levels of these homoeologs in the panel (SCC = −0.18, p-value = 0.01) (Fig. 5c). The higher expression of TaElf3-B1 in lines with the TaElf3-D1 deletion than in the lines without the deletion (t-test p-value = 2 × 10 −4 ) (Supplementary Fig. 11b) Fig. 5 Joint eQTL and GWAS analysis of agronomic traits in wheat. a Outline of the strategy used to integrate eQTL and GWAS data to investigate the genetic basis of yield component and development trait variation in wheat (see \"Methods\"). We used field-based phenotyping data collected for a diverse panel of ~800 wheat accessions from the 1000 wheat exomes project 8 including grain filling period (GFP), harvest weight (HW), drought susceptibility index for harvest weight (HWS), heading date (HD) and plant height (PHT) traits. A set of phenotypic traits was collected for a diverse panel of 400 wheat accessions: grain length (GL), grain width (GW), thousand-grain weight (TGW), grain area (GRA), spike compactness (SPC), spikelet number per spike (SPN), awnedness (AWN), and height (PHT) (Supplementary Data 10). b Gene co-expression network (GCN) modules, including TaSPL14 and Elf3 genes, are enriched for genes associated with agronomic traits in SMR analyses. c eQTL located on chr. 1D acts as a cis-variant for Elf3-D1:TraesCS1D01G451200 (GWAS FDR-corrected p-value = 4e−54) and is tightly linked (r 2 > 0.8) with variants acting as trans-variants for Elf3-B1:TraesCS1B01G477400 (GWAS FDR-corrected p-value = 9e−10). A deletion of Elf3-D1 (Elf3-D1Δ locus) in wheat affects both HD and SPN traits. d. Distribution of LD between negatively correlated homoeologs compared to LD between the random set of homoeolog pairs. LD was measured between the cis/trans-eQTL in one homoeologue and SNPs within a 2-Mb window, including another homoeologue. Only LD values above r 2 > 0.2 were plotted. The right y-axis shows the ratio of SNP pairs within different LD ranges (the dotted line shows a ratio of 1.0) estimated for the negatively correlated and random pairs of homoeologs. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.suggests that the level of TaElf3-B1 expression could be conditioned by the allelic state of the TaElf3-D1 homoeolog. This result combined with the presence of 30 SNPs near TaElf3-B1 showing high LD (r 2 > 0.4) with the trans-eQTL on 1D indicates that the combinations of the TaElf3-D1 and TaElf3-B1 alleles in our panel could be non-random.Allelic combinations of homoeologs showing negative expression correlation in the panel is not random. Previous studies indicate that the non-random combinations of alleles showing elevated inter-locus LD could arise due to population structure, selection, or epistasis [56][57][58][59] . In our study, we identified a number of homoeologous gene pairs whose expression levels, similar to the TaElf3-D1 and TaElf3-B1 homoeologs, show a negative correlation in our panel, which results from the presence of accessions carrying homoeologs showing both matching and biased expression levels in the panel (Fig. 1a). To test whether negative expression correlation between homoeologs is associated with the non-random combinations of homoeologous alleles, we estimated inter-chromosomal LD between SNPs located near the pairs of negatively correlated homoeologs showing SCC < −0.4 (59 homoeologs in total). LD was calculated between the cis-eQTL associated with variation in the expression of one of the homoeologs and SNPs located within a 2-Mb region around another homoeolog (Fig. 5d). To take into account the effects of population structure, which could also lead to elevated inter-locus LD 57 , we calculated LD between SNPs from the randomly selected pairs of homoeologs (Fig. 5d). Compared to this random set of SNPs, the regions harboring the negatively correlated homoeologs still showed nearly a two-fold increase in the proportion of high-LD SNPs (r 2 > 0.4) (Fig. 5d), suggesting that the allelic combinations of negatively correlated homoeologs in the panel could result from selection.Accumulation of homoeologs with biased expression affects agronomic traits. Prior studies suggest that some adaptive traits in wheat could be impacted by the relative expression of the homoeologous copies of causal genes [21][22][23][24] . To better understand the overall impact of the biased homoeolog expression on phenotype, we investigated the relationship between productivity traits and the number of homoeologous alleles resulting in biased expression in the set of 59 negatively correlated homoeologs (SCC < −0.4), which were identified in the RNA-seq data from the seedlings (Supplementary Data 15). In the RNA-seq data from spikes, these homoeologs also showed the lack of coordinated expression (mean SCC = 0.03 ± 0.05), although not as substantial as in the seedlings. The majority of these homoeologs had low-expressing alleles in at least two wheat lines. On average, for this set of homoeologs, we detected eight low-expressing alleles per line, ranging from 1 to 31 per line in the panel (Fig. 6a-c, Supplementary Data 15). The minor allele frequency (MAF) of cis-eQTL associated with these negatively correlated homoeologs was shifted towards common variants, with the mean MAF of 0.30 ± 0.01 (Supplementary Fig. 12), indicating that the homeologous alleles contributing to biased expression are present at high frequency in our panel. To assess whether the lowexpressing alleles of homoeologs are associated with gene deletions, similar to the deletion of the TaElf3-D1 homoeolog (Fig. 5c), we compared the sequences of homoeologs with the wheat PanGenome 60 . This analysis showed that the lack of transcripts from only two of 59 homoeologs could be linked with the presence/absence variation (Supplementary Data 16).The majority of analyzed traits showed a significant positive or negative correlation with the total number of low-expressing alleles of homoeologs per line (Supplementary Fig. 13a), with the absolute correlation coefficients being higher than those obtained using the random control (Supplementary Fig. 13b). The accumulation of the low-expressing alleles of these homoeologs was associated with an increase in grain length (SCC = 0.26), width (SCC = 0.41) and weight (SCC = 0.39), and a decrease in heading date (SCC = −0.29), number of spikelets per spike (SCC = −0.35), spike length (SCC = −0.19), and plant height (SCC = −0.18) (Supplementary Fig. 13a). A similar analysis performed using the negatively correlated homoeologs detected in the spikes and the number of grains and the number of spikelets per spike also revealed negative correlation between the lowexpressing homoeologous alleles and traits (SCC = −0.25 and SCC = −0.16, respectively).We also tested for association between the negatively correlated homoeologs and phenotypes (Fig. 6a-c) by predicting productivity traits using the expression values of homoeologous alleles and ridge regression modeling 35 . Except for spike length, spike compactness, and awnlessness traits, the correlation between predicted and observed trait values for major productivity traits ranged from 0.25 to 0.37 (Fig. 6d, Supplementary Table 1). For many traits, including spikelet number per spike and grain length, the correlation between the true traits and traits predicted using the expression levels of negatively correlated homoeologs was in the 99th percentile of distribution generated using expression data from the random sets of genes (Fig. 6e, Supplementary Table 1). This further confirms that the negatively correlated homoeologs are predictive of variation in productivity traits. These results combined with the observed correlation between the number of low-expressing alleles and the grain size/grain number traits (Supplementary Fig. 13b) suggest that the negatively correlated homoeologs could be connected with processes affecting variation in and trade-off between the productivity traits.Association between the negatively correlated homoeologs and phenotype was independently validated using a panel of lines from the 1000 wheat exomes project 8 . By correlating the number of cis-eQTL alleles associated with the low-expressing alleles in the set of 59 negatively correlated homoeologs and traits we showed that an increase in the number of these alleles is linked with an increase in grain yield and decrease in heading date (Supplementary Fig. 14). Combined together, our results indicate that the accumulation of eQTL variants linked with the relative changes in the homoeolog expression dosage have potential to affect traits of agronomic importance in polyploid wheat.We characterized the genetic variants associated with variation in homoeologous gene expression measured in a panel of diverse allopolyploid wheat lines. The enrichment of detected variants in the regions of active chromatin 26,27 suggests we uncovered many SNPs involved in regulatory function in the wheat genome. We used the developed eQTL resource to interpret GWAS results for complex productivity traits, which are subjected to human-driven selection during wheat improvement. Using extensive trait mapping data from the WheatCAP (www.triticeaecap.org) and IWYP (iwyp.org) projects, we showed significant enrichment of cis-eQTL around the top marker-trait associations. Applying a transcriptome-wide SMR analysis 29 , we identified a number of candidate genes whose expression is linked with variation in these traits. We showed that TaSPL14, the rice ortholog of transcription factor SPL14 (IPA1) controlling plant architecture 51 , is associated with natural variation in spike and spikelet development traits in wheat 51,52 . Our results suggest that joint modeling of GWAS and eQTL data using summary-level statistics has the potential to identify causal genes associated with trait variation in wheat or to prioritize candidate genes for further functional validation.The relative contribution of cis-and trans-acting variants to population-scale variation in homoeologous gene expression and relative expression dosage appears to be strongly influenced by the demographic events accompanying wheat origin (polyploidization and gene flow) and human-mediated selection for domestication and improvement traits 8,33,34,61 . The A and B genomes of hexaploid wheat are more genetically diverse than the D genome because of the post-polyploidization gene flow from tetraploid (AB genome) into hexaploid wheat 8,[62][63][64] . This factor contributed to a higher number of trans-acting variants in the A and B genomes compared to that in the D genome and likely accounts for the similar proportion of expression variance explained by cis-and trans-genomic variants for genes in the D genome. The latter is in contrast to the higher proportions of gene expression variance explained by cis-rather than trans-genomic variants in the genetically more diverse A and B genomes.Our study highlights in importance of inter-genomic transeffects in the regulation of genes that lost their cis-regulatory diversity in polyploid wheat due to either selection or polyploidization bottleneck 8,60,63,[65][66][67] . Among genes whose expression is largely explained by trans-genomic effects and that show the evidence of reduced genetic diversity, half were located in the D genome indicating that the loss of cis-acting diversity in these genes occurred during hybridization between the tetraploid wheat and the D genome ancestor 8 . The loss of cis-acting variants in the A and B genomes is likely associated with domestication and improvement selective sweeps, which affected a significant portion of the wheat genome 8,60,65,66 . The cumulative effect of trans-acting variants on the expression variance of genes that lost cis-regulatory diversity was comparable to the effects cis-acting variants on genes showing no evidence of trans-regulation, indicating that inter-genomic interactions should play significant role in regulating genes controlling domestication and improvement traits in wheat.We showed that in allopolyploid wheat, the relative levels of homoeolog expression are defined by the combination of cis-and trans-acting variants from all three genomes. On average, expression variance explained by trans-acting variants for all analyzed genes was 57% higher than variance explained by cisacting variants. For homoeologous genes, the relative contribution of cis-and trans-acting variants for negatively correlated homoeologs (SCC < 0) was also comparable. However, with increase in the levels of homoeolog expression correlation contribution of cis-acting variants to expression variance significantly declined, indicating that these variants play more prominent role in creating expression dosage imbalance than trans-acting variants. The functional importance of cis-regulatory variants leading to homoeolog expression bias was confirmed by earlier studies, which showed that causal variants underlying several adaptive and domestication traits [21][22][23][24] also lead to changes in the homoeolog expression dosage.Previous study in maize 35 linked the loss of fitness with gene expression dysregulation caused by rare mutations in the promoters of thousands of non-redundant genes. One of the expected consequences of functional redundancy provided by polyploidy is increase in the mutation load in wheat 8,18 that could disrupt the co-expression of homoeologous genes by creating low-or high-expressing alleles. The prevalence of homoeologs with the matching levels of expression in our study could be explained by the recent origin of allopolyploid wheat 33 , which provided less time for the accumulation of dysregulating mutations. However, our results also suggest that the expression levels of homoeologous genes could be under purifying selection, consistent with the results previously reported for diploid organisms 45,46 . The high levels of LD between the combinations of the high-and low-expressing homoeologous alleles showing negative expression correlation in our wheat panel, among others including the Elf3 homoeologs, provides additional support for selection acting to maintain certain levels of homoeolog expression dosage. The trans-acting variants appear could provide some level of robustness against the dysregulating effects of cis-acting variants, as evidenced by the proportional increase in the homoeolog expression levels with an increase in the number of shared trans-eQTL. Nevertheless, this mutational robustness provided by the recent WGD in wheat 8,10 is not sufficient to fully compensate homoeolog expression bias by increasing the expression levels of corresponding homoeologs from other genomes. If this expression imbalance affects the regulatory pathways controlling adaptive traits, the homeolog expression dosage could be targeted by selection. This is in agreement with the previously reported evidence of deleterious variant removal from homoeologous genes in wheat 8 .Our study uncovered an association between the number of the common low-expressing alleles from homoeologs showing negative expression correlation and variation in productivity traits exhibiting trade-offs in wheat. A decrease in the total number of low-expressing alleles per line was accompanied by an increase in spikelet number per spike and a decrease in grain size and weight. Compared to a randomized control, the total number of low-expressing homoeologous alleles was more predictive of productivity trait variation, likely due to some connection of these homoeologs with trait-associated biological pathways. Recent yield increases in elite winter wheat cultivars were mostly linked with an increase in the number of spikelets and grains per spike 68,69 , whereas in some cultivars from Asia, yield increase was mostly associated with an increase in grain size and weight 70 . These trends are in agreement with studies suggesting that the contribution of different productivity traits to increased yield potential is environment-specific 71 . Based on our results, we hypothesize that the low-expressing alleles of homoeologs creating dosage imbalance within the homoeologous gene sets, due to their impact on productivity traits in wheat, were targeted by improvement selection. Depending on which productivity trait was chosen as a breeding target, these homoeologous alleles were likely either purged (increases the number of spikelets/grains per spike) or accumulated (increases grain size/weight) in wheat lines. Identification of these homoeologous genes with imbalanced expression and associated pathways provides opportunities for targeted breeding or genome-editing strategies aimed at adjusting proportions of these alleles in the genome to maximize crop productivity.Plant material. A panel of 400 diverse wheat lines (Supplementary Data 1) was selected from a larger worldwide sample of 2259 Triticum aestivum accessions that were previously genotyped using the 9 K iSelect SNP array 72 . The seeds could be requested from the USDA National Small Grains Collection. Our panel was assembled to maximize: (1) genetic diversity, (2) representation of diverse geographic regions, and (3) representation of phenotypic response to the strains of fungal pathogen Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt). The panel of 2259 lines was previously evaluated in the Wheat CAP project by infecting plants at the seedling stage using Pgt races TTKSK (Ug99), TRTTF, TTTTF, BCCBC, and a bulk of six races (TPMKC, RKRQC, RCRSC, QTHJC, QFCSC, and MCCFC). The phenotyping data is available from the Wheat CAP T3 database (https:// triticeaetoolbox.org). The Stakman infection types recorded on a 0-4 scale were converted to A through F grades where A corresponded to infection types '0' to ';1'; B to ';13' to '31;' mesothetic infection types; C to '2-' to '2'; D to '2+' to '32+'; and F to '3' to '4'. We selected 50 wheat lines that showed an 'F' grade to all five Pgt races. We also selected 350 additional lines that showed variable, race-specific responses to the Pgt races. When possible, 10 lines for a given pattern of infection type grades were selected. No lines possessed an A grade in response to all five races. During the selection of the lines within a given pattern of infection type grades, both geographic origin and PCs were used to maximize the diversity of the panel. A subset of 204 wheat lines representing geographic and phenotypic diversity of this diversity panel was subjected to RNA-seq analysis and used for the genetic dissection of gene expression variation traits. The genetic relatedness analysis of this subset of lines was performed using an algorithm implemented in PLINK v.1.9. For this purpose, have used genome-wide SNPs generated by the regulatory sequence capture and sequence-based genotyping approaches. This analysis shows that our panel does not contain highly related accessions, which otherwise might increase the chances of detecting spurious associations in GWAS (Supplementary Fig. 15).RNA-seq data analysis. Total RNA was isolated from 2-week-old seedlings of 204 lines, with each line grown in three biological replicates. Ground tissues from three biological replicates were combined in equal amounts before RNA isolation using the RNeasy Plant mini kit. RNA-seq libraries were prepared with TruSeq™ RNA Sample Prep Kit (Illumina) using the Beckman's Biomek® FXP Laboratory Automation Workstation. Up to eight barcoded RNA-seq libraries were pooled per lane of NextSeq2000 flow cell to generate 2 × 100 bp reads.A total of 13,415,679,980 paired-end 2 × 100 bp reads were generated for 204 wheat accessions from the wheat diversity panel, with a mean of 65,763,137 reads per accession (GSE167479). The reads were mapped to the wheat RefSeq v.1.0 using HISAT2 (ver. 2.1.0) with the following parameters: --max-intronlen 70000, --dta. On average, 81% of all reads were mapped to the genome uniquely, with an average of 7% reads failing to map (Supplementary Data 1).In addition, we have analyzed previously published RNA-seq data generated for 90 wheat lines from spikes at the double-ridge development stage 30 . Fastq files were downloaded from NCBI BioProject PRJNA348655 using 'fastq-dump' from the SRA Toolkit (v. 2.9.6). The spike RNA-seq dataset contained 46,394,170 paired-end 2 × 125 bp reads, of which 86% reads could be mapped to the reference genome uniquely, and 5% of reads failed to map.We generated RNA-seq data for 2-week-old seedlings from 204 wheat lines. We removed samples with a substantial amount of rRNA contamination and samples with <40% uniquely mapped reads. The resulting set of 198 RNA-seq samples was used for further analysis (Supplementary Data 1). We used the Kallisto program that uses pseudoalignment of RNA-seq reads to reference gene models to assess the transcript abundance 73 . Its performance has previously been evaluated in the polyploid wheat genome 18 .All high confidence (HC) and low confidence (LC) gene models from the IWGSC RefSeq v. 1.0 5 were combined for estimating the TPM values using Kallisto (v. 0.4.6.0) 73 . Transcripts with expression standard deviation >0.5 and expressed (TPM > 0.5) in at least three samples have been used in our analyses. This set of included 52,511 transcripts from the HC gene models and 29,226 transcripts from the LC gene models. Only HC gene expression data were used for further analyses. The expression data were log2-transformed followed by robust quantile normalization in R. The probabilistic estimation of expression residuals (PEER) was used to remove hidden confounding factors in the expression data 74 , and residuals were used for studying the genetic effects on expression levels in the population.To assess the accuracy of transcript abundance estimation by mapping RNAseq reads to the polyploid wheat genome, we have applied several approaches. The RNA-seq data was simulated using gene models of cultivar Chinese Spring using Flux Simulator (http://confluence.sammeth.net/display/SIM/Home). Comparison of transcript abundance estimated for simulated data using Kallisto with actual transcript abundance levels showed a high level of correlation (SCC = 0.98).We also evaluated the accuracy of Kallisto-based transcript abundance estimates for duplicated homoeologous genes. For this purpose, we simulated RNA-seq datasets using gene models only from one of the wheat genomes (for example, the A genome) and then used all gene models from the wheat reference genome to calculate TPM values. Simulation performed for the A genome showed a high level of correlation (SCC = 0.92, N = 91,437) between the real values and those estimated using Kallisto. Only 0.1% of reads simulated using the A genome gene models were mapped to the B and D genomes, indicating high accuracy of transcript abundance estimates for the homeologous gene sets.The same RNA-seq simulated dataset was used to estimate the accuracy of read mapping to the correct location in the wheat reference genome using HISAT2 75 . We found that 98% of simulated reads could be unambiguously mapped by HISAT2 to the correct location in the wheat genome.SNP genotyping of diverse wheat accessions used for eQTL mapping. We used a combination of different approaches to obtain genotyping data for the wheat diversity panel: (1) targeted re-sequencing of the regulatory regions of the wheat genome using a Nimblegen capture assay 76 , (2) wheat 90 K SNP iSelect assay 77 , (3) complexity-reduced genome sequencing 78 , and (4) RNA-seq transcriptome dataset. SNPs discovered using the RNA-seq and regulatory sequence capture datasets for 203 wheat accessions were combined, and missing genotype calls were imputed using Beagle 79 . This dataset was combined with the SNPs identified in the entire panel of 400 wheat accessions using the 90 K iSelect assay 77 and complexityreduced genome sequencing 78 . Further, a common set of SNPs shared between our panel of 400 wheat accessions and 1000 wheat exome dataset 8 , were used for genotype imputation (see details below).Flanking sequences of a genetically mapped set of 46,977 SNPs from the 90 K SNP iSelect assay 77 were aligned to the IWGSC RefSeq v.1.0 using the BLAT program followed by filtering alignments using the following parameters: alignment coverage > 95%, sequence identity >97%, e-value < 1e−10. We identified genomic coordinates for 23,577 uniquely aligned SNPs, which also showed consistency with the marker order in the previously created genetic maps 77 . For these SNP sites, we identified 16,037 SNPs segregating in our wheat panel of 400 wheat accessions.We have used the wheat regulatory capture assay 76 to re-sequence 203 wheat accessions used for the transcriptome analysis in our study. Up to eight Illumina genomic libraries produced for each sample were pooled together to perform enrichment using the regulatory capture assay. A total of 9,418,016,463 paired-end 2 × 150 bp reads were generated for 203 accessions, with the mean of 46,394,170 reads per accession. Reads were aligned using HISAT2 (v. 2.1.0) with the following parameters: --max-intronlen 70000, --no-spliced-alignment. On average, 87% of all reads were mapped to the genome uniquely, with an average of 8% reads failed to map. The recommended best practices were followed to call SNPs using GATK 80 . Base quality recalibration was performed using genotyping data generated for the same set of lines using the 90 K iSelect assay 77 . The genotype calls for sites with <3 reads depth of coverage were set as missing data. SNPs were filtered to remove sites with more than two alleles, MAF < 0.05, more than 50% genotype calls missing, and more than 3% heterozygote genotypes. In total, we have identified 3,320,006 SNPs segregating in the putative regulatory regions.For SNP calling, the raw RNA-seq fastq files were processed using the NGSQC Toolkit (v2.3.3) with default parameters. We used HISAT2 (v. 2.1.0) to align reads to the IWGSC RefSeq v.1.0 with the default parameters, except for parameter --max-intronlen set to 70,000. We filtered out reads that are not uniquely mapped to avoid detecting variable sites due to misalignment to the homoeologous genomes. The GATK's'HaplotypeCaller' was used to generate a gvcf file for each sample with the following parameters, '-dontUseSoftClippedBases -stand_call_conf 20.0 '. 'GenotypeGVCFs' was used to generate a multiple-sample VCF file for all variants. Only biallelic sites were used in our analysis. Genotype calls generated for sites with the depth of read coverage less than three or more than 50% genotype missing were set as missing data. Sites with more than 3% heterozygote genotype calls were removed. A total of 2.4 million SNPs were detected in the dataset, of which 138,481 SNPs with MAF > 0.05 were used for analyses.Construction of complexity-reduced genomic libraries for genotyping the panel of 400 wheat accessions was performed using the complexity reduction protocol, which is based on the digestion of genomic DNA with MseI and PstI restriction nucleases with the follow up ligation of barcoded Illumina sequencing adaptors 78 . The pools of barcoded libraries included up to 96 samples were sequenced on a single lane of HiSeq2500, 1 × 100 bp run. Variant calling was accomplished using Tassel 5 GBS pipeline 81 . A total of 49,150 SNPs with MAF > 0.01 were identified in the panel.Genotype imputation. Genotype data from the 1000 wheat exome project 8 was used as a reference panel for imputation. An integrated VCF file was created, including all samples from 90 K iSelect, complexity-reduced sequencing, RNA-seq, and 1000 exome capture panel. Beagle v. 4.1 79 (beagle.21Jan17.6cc.jar) was then used to impute missing genotype calls with the following settings: 'overlap=500 window=5000 ne=12000'. The genotype calls with probability (GP) <0.8 were considered as missing. Sites with >3% heterozygous genotype calls or >75% missing data were removed, resulting in a set of about 195,000 SNPs.The VCF files from RNA-seq and regulatory sequence capture datasets were combined into a single VCF file. Imputation was used to fill in missing genotype calls using the same Beagle settings. After imputation, we set genotype calls with GP < 0.8 as missing data. All SNP sites with missing rate >75% or heterozygosity rate >3% were removed, resulting in a set of 4,453,487 SNPs. These SNPs were then merged with the variants identified using the 90 K iSelect array and complexityreduced sequencing, resulting in a set of 4,449,989 SNPs. A total of 2,021,936 SNPs with MAF > 0.05 in a panel of 198 wheat lines were used for eQTL mapping.To assess the accuracy of genotype calling, we used genotyping data obtained for our panel using 90 K iSelect array 77 . The genotype concordance rate for different SNP datasets was ~0.98 before imputation and 0.93 after imputation.For SNP calling using RNA-seq from wheat spikes, fastq files of the previously published 90 RNA-seq samples were downloaded from NCBI (BioProject PRJNA348655: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA348655) using the 'fastq-dump' tool from SRA Toolkit (version 2.9.6). A total of 1.7 million SNPs were identified using the GATK pipeline. The same settings used for calling variants in the RNA-seq data generated for wheat seedlings were applied to RNAseq from wheat spikes, except that (1) no imputation was performed, and (2) genotype calls supported by <2 reads were set as missing. After filtering sites with more than 75% missing, 227,922 SNPs with MAF > 0.05 were used for eQTL mapping. The PEER residuals 74 were calculated using the same method used for the seedling RNA-seq dataset. A total of 50,367 HC gene models from the IWGSC RefSeq v.1 were used for eQTL analysis.Partitioning genetic variance of gene expression. To estimate the variance in gene expression explained by different genomes, a set of 2,021,936 SNPs from our panel of 198 wheat lines (GF25, GF32, GF37, GF73, GF270, GF41 lines were removed due to the low proportion of mapped RNA-seq reads to the reference genome; Supplementary Data 1) and 227,922 SNPs from a set of 90 lines were grouped into three genome-specific sets (A, B, D genomes). Each set was used to build genetic relationship matrices using '--autosome-num 30 --make-grm-inbred' in GCTA 25 . The genetic variance of expression traits was then calculated for three subsets jointly using '--mgrm --reml'. Out of the top 10,000 genes showing the highest levels of expression variance, 8698 gene expression traits in seedlings and 7090 gene expression traits in spikes were successfully processed (log-likelihood converged.) To remove the confounding effect of SNP density in different genomes, we used 1 SNP per 100 kb genomic window for the calculation of the genetic relationship matrix.Detection of eQTL. The association between SNPs and gene expression PEER residuals was performed by Matrix eQTL (v. 2.1.0) 82 with the setting 'useModel = modelLINEAR'. The set of 191 accessions having matching RNA-seq and SNP genotyping data was used for final eQTL mapping (Supplementary Data 1). In addition to 6 lines removed due to low RNA-seq mapping quality (see above), we also removed 7 lines (GF294, GF342, GF366, GF380, GF381, GF383, GF387) that showed lack of good genotyping data concordance in the panel. The first three principal components (PCs) of the SNP matrix were used as covariates. Based on the estimates of genomic inflation factor (GIF), this approach was effective in controlling population structure for nearly 61% of genes, which showed no evidence of inflation of test statistics (61% of genes had GIF < 1.1) (Supplementary Fig. 16). While the remaining genes showed some effect of population structure on test statistic, these effects did not substantially inflate false discovery rate assessed by permutation of phenotypic data relative to genotypes. The expression values of each of the 52,060 genes in our seedling dataset were permuted relative to genotyping data (includes 2,021,937 SNPs) to generate 1000 randomized datasets. The SNP-gene expression association test statistic was calculated using Matrix eQTL. By applying p-value threshold corresponding to FDR ≤10 −5 , on average, we detected 3,595 associations in the randomized datasets. In the real-life dataset, we have identified 11,421,859 associations (before LD merging) passing this significance threshold indicating that only 3.2 × 10 −4 associations passing our threshold are false positives. A similar permutation approach was applied for assessing the proportion of false positives among detected eQTL in the spikes. While in the original non-permuted dataset, 1,336,626 SNPs pass this p-value threshold (before LD merging), in the permuted datasets, on average we had only 10,858 SNPs passing threshold, suggesting that in spike eQTL the actual false discovery rate is around 0.8 × 10 −3 .All associations with FDR < 1e−5 were considered as significant. For each transcript, significantly associated SNPs were merged based on LD (r 2 > 0.2) and distance (<100 kbp) into genomic intervals. SNP with the strongest association signal within an interval was defined as an eQTL of the transcript. If an eQTL was located within ±1 Mb around the target gene, it was defined as cis-eQTL. In our analyses we used a conservative definition of trans-eQTL, which was an eQTL significantly associated with the target gene located on a different chromosome. The eQTL effect size estimated by Matrix eQTL is based on the linear regression slope.Analysis of eQTL and Hi-C data. Hi-C data for the hexaploid bread wheat cultivar Chinese Spring was downloaded from the NCBI database 28 . The Juicer Tools (v1.21.01) was used to process all valid read pairs downloaded from NCBI GEO (GSM3929163_Wheat.shoot.hicpro.allValidPairs.txt.gz). We first generated a.hic file using the 'pre' command, then the observed contact frequency map was calculated at 1 Mbp resolution using the 'dump' command without normalization. The 3D chromatin contacts between a pair of eQTL-eGene was estimated based on the contact frequency between the two 1 Mbp genomic intervals. For example, if eQTL is located at position chr7A_20102690 and its eGene TraesC-S1A01G002200.1 is located at a position chr1A_1188779, their Hi-C contact frequency was estimated between the genomic intervals 20-21 Mbp on chromosome 7A and 1-2 Mbp on chromosome 1A. We did not analyze the 3D chromatin contact between cis-eQTL and its eGene directly due to the relatively low depth of read coverage in the downloaded data. In order to evaluate the significance of the observed Hi-C contacts between trans-eQTL and eGene, we generated randomized distribution of Hi-C contact frequency between randomly selected pairs of genomic intervals.","tokenCount":"10640"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"47c833c494b09f719810775825ce8277","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d4fea182-a40c-4129-9ccd-2995251899f3/content","id":"1734592455"},"keywords":["genetic diversity","DArT SNP markers","maize","early maturity","heat and drought tolerance"],"sieverID":"4b2d57d3-3af6-46cb-8cc5-302e05b78e73","pagecount":"19","content":"Adequate knowledge and understanding of the genetic diversity and inter-trait relationships among elite maize inbred lines are crucial for determining breeding strategies and predicting hybrid performance. The objectives of this study were to investigate the genetic diversity of 162 early maturing white and yellow tropical maize inbred lines, and to determine the population structure, heterotic groups and inter-trait relationships among the lines. Using 9684 DArT single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, a gene diversity (GD) of 0.30 was recorded for the inbred lines with polymorphic information content (PIC) ranging from 0.08 to 0.38. The genetic relatedness among the inbred lines evaluated revealed six different groups based on the history of selection, colour of endosperm and pedigree. The genotype-by-trait (GT) biplot analysis identified inbred 1 (TZEI 935) as outstanding in terms of combined heat and drought (HD) tolerance with the base index analysis identifying 15 superior inbreds in the HD environment. A wide range of genetic variability was observed among the inbred lines, indicating that they are an invaluable resource for breeding for HD tolerance in maize breeding programmes, especially in West and Central Africa.Molecular analyses in combination with morphological and agronomic evaluation of germplasm are useful for providing complementary information on the genetic diversity in a breeding programme [1]. Thus, monitoring of genetic diversity in the base material helps breeders to formulate breeding strategies by selecting parental combinations for advance selection [2], determining the level of genetic variability whilst identifying the main clusters selected for specific traits [3]. Information on genetic diversity is also useful in classifying inbred lines into heterotic groups [4,5], and predicting hybrid performance [6]. By definition, a heterotic group encompasses a set of directly related inbred lines which produce high yielding and vigorous hybrids when crossed to inbred lines from different heterotic groups, but not when crossed to inbred lines from the same heterotic group [7].Additionally, the availability of information on the genetic diversity and population structure facilitates the assessment of the likelihood of loss in genetic diversity during preservation or selection [8],as well as assessment of the relative strengths of evolutionary forces [9,10]. Molecular marker technology has been a resourceful technique for assessing genetic diversity and delimiting heterotic groups [11].Previous studies have reported a strong association between molecular marker-based genetic distance and hybrid performance in maize [11,12]. However, these findings should be used with caution as it is not always that these findings can predict hybrid performance, heterosis and specific combining ability (SCA) of single cross hybrids [13,14]. Recent studies involving early (90-95 days to physiological maturity) and extra early (80-85 days to physiological maturity) maize inbred lines have convincingly shown that genetic variability is of utmost significance in demonstrating heterosis [15,16]. Primarily, inbred lines are developed by crossing the best lines from the same heterotic group followed by inbreeding and selection, whereas hybrids are developed by crossing lines from dissimilar heterotic groups [17]. When lines lose vigour over time as a result of inbreeding depression, there is the need to bulk-sib within them to regain an acceptable level of vigour to ensure survival. The concept of heterosis is very important in the development of climate-smart maize inbred lines and hybrids [18]. Climate-smart inbred lines are able to tolerate the major stresses (for example, drought, heat and low soil fertility) that limit their growth. Identification of stress-tolerant lines and their utilization in the development of productive hybrids has been found to be a sustainable means of developing climate-resilient maize varieties.During the past decade, molecular markers, especially simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, have been widely used to study the correlations among hybrid performance and genetic distance [15,19]. Recently, Richard et al. [20] successfully used single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers to classify 45 maize inbred lines of temperate and tropical origin into four heterotic groups corresponding to the Salisbury white (N), Southern cross (SC), Iowa stalk synthetic (BSS) and the Lancaster heterotic groups. Based on the results, it was possible to demonstrate that the genetic divergence of the temperate inbreds was greater than that of the tropical inbreds. Similarly, the SNP marker method used for grouping inbred lines into heterotic groups has been shown to be more efficient than the SCA and general combining ability (GCA) methods, as well as the heterotic grouping based on GCA of multiple traits (HGCAMT) [21].During the past two decades, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) early and extra-early maturing maize breeding programme (IITA-MBP) has focused on developing germplasm with improved resistance/tolerance to multiple stresses, including drought, and combined HD stress tolerance [22]. This strategy has resulted in the development of broad-based normal endosperm maize populations including TZE-W Pop DT STR and TZE-Y Pop DT STR in the early maturity group and TZEE-Y Pop DT STR and TZEE-W Pop DT STR within the extra-early maturity group [23,24]. The National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and farmers in different agro-ecological zones of West and Central Africa (WCA) have widely adopted outstanding maize hybrids and synthetic varieties developed from inbred lines with desirable agronomic characteristics that have adapted to multiple-stress environments [15]. The current resurgence of climate variability especially in WCA has made the development of drought and combined HD-tolerant maize varieties in the sub-region very critical [22]. It is anticipated that this would lead to accelerated achievement of food security and improved livelihood of resource poor farmers in WCA.Another important focus of this study was to understand which traits have the maximum likelihood of complementing grain yield of the inbred lines. This information was necessary because high grain yield of inbred per se [25], coupled with other desirable agronomic characteristics, are major criteria for selecting an inbred line as a suitable seed parent. This trait could be transferred to their hybrids and such information could facilitate prediction of superior hybrid performance, including excellent plant and ear aspects which are highly heritable, and delayed stay-green characteristic under combined heat and drought stress. Therefore, analysis of inter-relationships among traits of maize genotypes is crucial to maize improvement programmes involved in genetic enhancement of grain yield under combined HD stress. This is because most economic traits of interest in maize including grain yield have low heritability because the inheritance is quantitative. In view of this, gains from direct selection for such traits are very low. However, this problem could be mitigated through indirect selection of secondary traits that have high genetic correlations with grain yield coupled with high heritability and that are easily measured. Yan and Kang [26] proposed genotype-by-trait (GT) analysis for multiple trait-based assessment of genotypes. Such statistical tools aid in the identification of genotypes with specific desirable traits that could be employed as a genetic resource in a breeding programme or released for commercialization while also presenting a graphical display of the genetic correlations among traits [27,28]. Thus, the objectives of this study were (1) to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of selected heat-and drought-tolerant early maturing white and yellow maize inbreds using DArT SNP markers and (2) examine the interrelationships among traits of the early maturing inbreds in an effort to identify those strongly associated with grain yield in maize under combined HD stress.A total of 162 early maturing maize inbred lines developed in the IITA-MBP, Ibadan, Nigeria, with tolerance to drought and combined heat and drought stress were used in the present study (Table 1). The IITA inbred lines were extracted from the broad-based populations (TZE Comp5-Y C 6 , TZE-W P OP STR 104 C 0 , TZE-W P OP STR 107 C 0 , TZE-Y P OP STR 106 C 0 , TZE-W P OP STR 108 C 0 , TZE-W Pop STR C 0, TZE-W Pop × LD C 0 and TZE-Y Pop STR C 0 ) developed from exotic and local germplasm identified as a result of many years of extensive testing for broad adaptation to dry and hot climates of the savannas of WCA. Furthermore, some of the inbred lines were derived from crosses between the broad-based drought-tolerant population, TZE COMP 3 DT C 2 F 2 , and elite Striga resistant inbred lines, TZEI 18, TZEI 4, TZEI 60 and TZEI 98, as well as crosses between the broad-based Striga resistant but drought-susceptible population, TZE COMP 5-W DT C 7 , and the drought tolerant inbred lines TZEI 2, TZEI 18, TZEI 31, TZEI 56 and TZEI 65. In addition to the 34 lines derived from two IITA bi-parental populations [(TZEI 11 × TZEI 8) and (TZEI 7 × TZEI 3)], the genetic materials for this study also included three inbred lines derived from two CIMMYT broad-based populations (M37W/ZM607 and Cuba/Guad C 3 ).  The 162 early maturing inbred lines were planted at the IITA research field, Ibadan, Nigeria under optimal growing conditions in 2018. At two weeks after planting, leaf samples were collected from each of the inbred lines, dried in a Labconco Freezone 2.5 L System lycophilizer (Marshall Scientific, Hampton, NH, USA) and ground using a Spex™ Sample Prep 2010 Geno/Grinder (Thomas Scientific, Swedesboro, NJ, USA).Genomic DNA samples were extracted from freeze-dried leaf tissues of each inbred line using the DArT protocol (www.diversityarrys.com/files/DArTDNAisolation.pdf) as previously reported [18]. The quality of the DNA sample was determined using a 1% agarose gel test whilst the quantity was measured using the Nanodrop system (Thermo Scientific, Swedesboro, NJ, USA). Genotyping was performed at the IGSS-BecA-ILRI Platform, Nairobi, Kenya.Following the methodology previously described [15,29], the DArT-SNP markers with missing data above 5% and 20% heterozygosity and minor allele frequency of below 0.05 were removed. From the initial DArTseq markers obtained from sequencing, a total of 9684 SNP markers distributed across the 10 maize chromosomes were retained for all subsequent analyses. The major allele frequency, polymorphic information content (PIC), number of alleles, heterozygosity and the gene diversity were calculated using Power Marker software V3.2.5 [30]. Analysis of the population structure was done by employing the admixture model using the STRUCTURE 2.3.4 software package [31]. The results from the model were achieved by changing the number of clusters (K) from one to twenty with ten to twenty adjustments for each K and subjecting the data to 10,000 Markov Chain Monte Carlo and 10,000 burn-in as described previously [15,25,29]. The most appropriate K value was identified by running the data obtained into the STRUCTURE HARVESTER using the Evanno method [32,33]. Each inbred was allocated to a group using a cut off threshold of 70%, while inbreds showing less than the designated threshold value were assigned to an additional group described as the mixed group.Subsequent to verification of the number of sub-populations using the STRUCTURE, the phylogenetic relationship among the inbred lines was accessed using the neighbor-joining (NJ) method under 30,000 bootstraps in the DARwin software [34]. The genetic distance matrix was obtained using the Jaccard similarity test [35] using the formula dij = (a + b)/ (a + (a + c)), where dij is the dissimilarity between units i and j, a is the number of variables where Xi and Xj are present, b is the number of variables where Xi is present and Xj is absent, c is the number of variables where Xi is absent and Xj is present.The set of 162 inbred lines were planted at Manga (11 • 3 N, 0 • 14 W, altitude 252 m, 800 mm and 1,100 mm annual rainfall) in the Upper East Region of Ghana and Kadawa (11 • 45 N, 8 • 45 E, altitude 468.5 m, 884 mm annual rainfall) in the Kano state of Nigeria during the dry seasons (February to May) of 2018 and 2019. The maize plants were exposed to intense DH stress for 2-3 weeks in April at Kadawa and Manga, with the day temperatures of 36 to 41.2 • C and night temperatures of 18 to 27.4 • C for Kadawa (Figure 1), while at Manga the day and night temperatures were 31.6 to 42.8 • C and 22.0 to 29 • C, respectively (Figure 2). A 9 × 18 alpha lattice design with two replications was used for the inbred experiments. Single row plots each 4 m long, with a spacing of 0.75 m between rows and 0.40 m within rows, constituted an experimental unit. Three seeds were planted per hill and later thinned to two plants per stand to obtain a population density of about 66 666 per ha. No rainfall was recorded at Kadawa during the grain filling period of April 2018 and 2019, resulting in the highest day temperature throughout the growth cycle of the plants (Table 2). Similarly, at Manga, although some amount of rainfall was recorded in the month of April during 2018 and 2019, the highest day and night temperatures recorded during the growth cycle of the plants were obtained in April (Table 2). The maize plants were irrigated twice a week using a drip irrigation system that supplied 17 mm of water per irrigation from planting to 2-3 weeks before anthesis at Manga, while at Kadawa, a furrow irrigation system supplied the same amount of water from planting to 2-3 weeks before anthesis when the irrigation water was withdrawn at each test location. A follow-up rescue irrigation was employed 2 weeks after the withdrawal of irrigation water at both test locations and resumed 10-12 days after the \"rescue irrigation\" until physiological maturity. The rescue irrigation was applied based on the assessment of some physiological stress indicator traits such as severe leaf rolling during the early mornings, leaf senescence, tassel blasting and leaf wilting. Basal fertilizer rate of 60 kg each of N, P 2 O 5 and K 2 O ha −1 of N, P, K (15:15:15) was applied followed by top dressing 2 weeks after planting (WAP) using 60 kg ha −1 of urea. Weed management was carried out using the post emergence herbicide (Roundup) and the pre-emergence herbicides (Caliherb 720 SL and Atrazine) in Ghana, while atrazine and gramozone were applied in Nigeria at 5 l ha -1 followed by manual weeding to ensure weed-free trials.   Agronomic data recorded under combined heat and drought stress at both Kadawa and Manga testing sites were similar to that described by Nelimor et al. [16]. We measured days to anthesis (AD) as the number of days from planting to when 50% of the plants in a plot had extruded pollen, and days to silking (SD) as when 50% of the plants had produced silks. The anthesis-silking interval (ASI) was recorded as the difference between SD and AD. Plant and ear heights were measured at about three weeks after flowering. Leaf death (LD) was determined by estimating the percentage of leaves dead from the base of the plant to the flag leaf using a scale of 1-9 where 1 = 1% to 10% of leaves dead and 9 = 81% to 100% of leaves dead at 70 days after planting (DAP). At about three weeks post-flowering, data were collected on husk cover (HUSKC), plant aspect (PLASP), plant height (PLTH), ear height (EHT), leaf firing and tassel blasting (TB), as described by Badu-Apraku and Fakorede [22]. A few days prior to harvesting, data were recorded on root and stalk lodging and number of plants per plot. At harvesting, records were taken on ear aspect and number of ears per plant (EPP). EPP was obtained by dividing the total number of ears per plot by the number of plants per plot. For the experiments conducted under optimal environments, the moisture content of the grains at harvest was recorded for the shelled grains of five randomly selected ears per plot using a moisture meter. Grain yield (kg ha −1 ) was estimated from field weight of ears per plot, assuming a shelling percentage of 80, adjusted to moisture content of 15%. For the trials conducted under combined HD stress, grain weight on plot basis was obtained by shelling all harvested ears of each plot.The data were subjected to analysis of variance employing PROCGLM of SAS as well as the RANDOM statement with a TEST option [36] for grain yield and other measured traits. In the statistical model, environments, replicates within environments and incomplete blocks within replicates × environment interaction were considered as random factors, while the inbred lines were regarded as a fixed factor. Block effects on genotype means were adjusted using the lattice design proposed by Cochran and Cox [37]. Mean values of measured characters were separated using the standard error of difference (SED). The multiple trait selection index was adopted for the identification of inbred lines combining tolerance to drought and heat stress environments. The base index was computed using Yield, EPP, ASI, PLASP, EASP and LD [38] as follows:Mean values of the six measured traits were standardized prior to calculation of the MI as the traits were measured in different units. Furthermore, estimated means of the different traits of 15 best and 10 worst inbred lines were adopted for the Genotype × Trait (GT) biplot analysis [39,40] to obtain information on the secondary traits which could be relied on for indirect selection for combined HD stress. The polygon and the vector views of the GT biplot were constructed using the measured characters and the genotype-focused singular value partition ('SVP = 2 ), rendering the polygon view suitable for visualizing the relationship between traits.The summary statistics from the 9684 DArT SNP markers is presented in Table 3. Heterozygosity values were in the range of 0.00 to 0.20 with a mean value of 0.08. The 9684 DArT SNP markers had a major allele frequency ranging from 0.50 to 0.95 with an average value of 0.79. Gene diversity (GD) values varied from 0.09 to 0.50 with a mean of 0.30. For this set of inbred lines, the polymorphic information content (PIC) varied from 0.08 to 0.38 with a mean value of 0.25 (Table 3). The minor allele frequencies were (MAF) 0.05 for minimum and 0.50 for maximum, with an average of 0.21. From the pairwise comparisons of the inbred lines, the genetic distance for the lines was in the range of 0.02 to 0.48, with a mean value of 0.42. About 70.32% of the genetic distance among the inbred lines fell within 0.416 and 0.461 (Figure 3). Lines TZdEI 134 and TZdEI 198 recorded the least genetic distance (Supplementary Table S1), consistent with their genetic background as they shared similar ancestry and history of selection (Supplementary Table S2). Inbred lines TZEI 500 and TZEI 7 recorded the highest (0.48) genetic distance, indicating that the two inbred lines diverged significantly. TZEI 500 was developed from the bi-parental cross involving TZEI 11 × TZEI 8 through repeated selfing up to the 8th generation of inbreeding, while TZEI 7 was developed from repeated self-pollination of WEC STR up to the 8th generation . Moreover, TZEI 500 is characterized by yellow endosperm while TZEI 7 has white endosperm (Supplementary Table S2). The population structure analysis of the 162 early white and yellow tropical maize inbred lines using the selected 9684 SNPs revealed an optimal k of six sub-populations (Figure 4A). Sub-population 1 comprised 8.02% (13 of the inbred lines), 16.67% (27 of the inbred lines in sub-population 2) and 8.64% (14 of the inbred lines in sub-population 3), while sub-populations 4, 5 and 6 contained 3.09% (5 lines), 6.17% (10 lines) and 4.32% (7 inbred lines), respectively (Supplementary Table S2). About 53.09% (86 of the inbreds) with the probability of association of less than 70% were grouped as mixed individuals (Supplementary Table S2). These six sub-populations were separated based largely on the pedigrees and endosperm colours. Sub-populations 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 consisted of white endosperm maize inbred lines while sub-population 3 comprised yellow endosperm lines, with about 53% consisting of a mixture of white and yellow endosperm colour (Supplementary Table S2). The results showed that subpopulations 2,  Within the six sub-populations, the expected heterozygosity amongst the inbred lines ranged from 0.10 for sub-population 4 to 0.43 for sub-population 6 with a mean of 0.25 (Supplementary Table S3a). Overall, sub-populations 4 and 6 recorded the highest allele frequency (0.23), while sub-populations 1 and 5 recorded the least allele frequency (0.09) (Supplementary Table S3b). For each of the sub-populations, the STRUCTURE analysis estimated the fixation index (F ST ) and indicated significant divergence within the six sub-populations. Estimated F ST values of 0.34, 0.49, 0.47, 0.81, 0.45 and 0.28 were recorded for sub-populations 1-6, respectively (Supplementary Table S3c).The neighbour joining (NJ) phylogenetic tree constructed assigned the 162 inbred lines into three main clusters followed by several sub-clusters (Figure 5). In conformity with the biplot output of the STRUCTURE analysis (Figure 4A,B), the six clusters could be clearly depicted in the phylogenetic tree (Figure 5). Unique colours were used to represent each sub-population with red, green, blue, yellow, pink and teal denoting 1-6, respectively, and the black colour represented the mixed population when 70% probability threshold was considered.  S2). The third cluster consisted of 16 inbred lines with 14 being similar to those generated from the population structure analysis (sub-population 3; blue bars). All the inbred lines from this cluster were derived from one white kernel source population (TZE COMP 5-W DT C 7 X TZEI 65) S 8 . Cluster 4 had 23 inbred lines out of which 5 were derived from the white endosperm population, (TZE COMP 3 DT C 2 F 2 × TZEI 98) S 8 , and were similar to those generated from the population structure (sub-population 4; orange bars). The fifth cluster obtained from the phylogenetic analysis comprised a total of 18 inbred lines, with 10 out of these belonging to the white endosperm maize population, TZE-W Pop STR 104 S 5 (sub-population 5; pink colour). The results of the grouping of the 10 inbreds lines into sub-population 5 was consistent with the results obtained from the population structure analysis. The remaining eight inbred lines of the fifth cluster were derived from the source population, TZE-W Pop STR 108, and were also characterized by white endosperm kernels. The sixth cluster consisted of 12 inbred lines, with seven of them similar to those generated from the population structure analysis (indicated with teal colour lines) and represented by sub-population 6. Inbred lines placed in this cluster were derived from six different source populations with each inbred line extracted from a different source population, with the exception of the inbred lines TZdEI 47 and TZdEI 52 derived from the same source population, TZE-Y Pop STR 106 (Supplementary Table S2).To understand and confirm the dynamics of the inbred population structure, we also adopted the principal coordinate analysis (PCoA). Based on the pairwise genetic distance matrix among the 162 inbred lines, a clear distinction among the six groups of inbred lines could be visualized, and this was in concordance with the results of the population STRUCTURE biplot (Figure 6). The GT biplot analysis is one of the most reliable statistical tools available for selecting inbred lines for hybrid development using secondary traits. This analysis can identify secondary traits which are directly or indirectly related to traits of major breeding interest such as grain yield and ears per plant. The inbred lines were evaluated under combined heat and drought stress in this study to select desirable seed parents that could be used in productive hybrid combinations. Moreover, the evaluation aimed to examine the inter-relationships among traits measured for the inbreds as a way of predicting outstanding hybrid performance. The present study identified 15 inbred lines with outstanding performance as well as those with poorest performance (worst 10 lines) under combined heat and drought environments using the GT biplot (Figure 7). The inbred lines were selected based on the premise that the best selected lines should not record 50% or more percentage count for leaf firing and tassel blasting under combined HD stress. Approximately 52.56% of the total variation among the measured traits of the inbred lines was accounted for by the principal component axes PCI and PC2. In the biplot view, high values of grain yield and EPP for inbreds were considered as desirable while high values for the secondary traits such as LF, TB, EASP, PLASP, LD, ASI, HUSKC, AD, SD, and SL of inbreds were considered undesirable. The inbred(s) at each vertex of the polygon (vertex inbred) had the highest values for the traits within its sector. The results revealed that the sector with inbreds 21 and 8 as the vertex inbreds contained the traits LD, TB, LF, ASI, HUSKC, SL, EASP and PLASP, indicating that these inbreds had high values for these traits and that they were the low-yielding inbreds based on the high values of these traits. Inbred lines 25 and 20 were positioned at the vertex that contained the RL traits, signifying that these inbreds recorded high values for root lodging. In contrast, inbred 1 (the best performing inbred line) was the vertex inbred in the segment containing EPP and grain yield, suggesting the superiority of the inbred line in terms of grain yield and EPP. Inbred line 7 was the vertex inbred that recorded no trait within its sector, implying that it was not outstanding in any of the measured traits. Fifteen inbred lines were identified as outstanding in performance based on the measured traits. TZEI 935 was identified as the best performing inbred line with a yield of 3461 kg/ha. Contrarily, 10 inbred lines were identified as the worst in performance based on the measured traits, with TZdEI 109 as the worst performing inbred line with a yield of 424 kg/ha (Table 4).   Molecular markers have proven to be among the most reliable tools for identifying the genetic components of inbred lines [15,29]. In the present study, 9684 DArT-based SNP markers were used to assess the genetic diversity of 162 early maturing yellow and white endosperm tropical maize inbreds possessing varying degrees of tolerance to drought and/or combined HD stress. Moreover, the population structure, heterotic groups and inter-trait relationships were also examined in the studied materials.Generally, high PIC values indicate the effectiveness of markers for linkage analysis when estimating the inheritance between parental lines and the derived hybrids [41], whereas the GD or expected heterozygosity (He) reveals gene diversity for haploid markers and gives information on the proportion of the genetic distance and average heterozygosity within a given population [41,42]. In the present study, an average PIC of 0.25 was obtained, which is comparable to that reported earlier by Dao et al. [27] and Zhang et al. [28], as well as the 0.24 of Yu et al. [43] and 0.29 of Wu et al. [44], but higher compared with the results of Adu-Boakyewaa et al. [15] and Silva et al. [45] who reported average PIC values of 0.19 and 0.17, respectively. The high mean PIC value observed implied that majority of the selected SNPs were informative and polymorphic enough to bring out the differences among the 162 inbred lines studied. The average GD of 0.30 obtained in this study is also comparable to 0.32 previously reported in maize [46,47], but higher than the value (0.22) reported by other researchers [15,44,48,49]. These results indicated a broad genetic variability among the inbred lines and the relatively lower number of pairwise individuals with low genetic distance.Of the 9684 SNPs deployed across the 162 lines, approximately 65% had MAF of between 0.05 and 0.25 (Supplementary Table S2), which is lower compared to the range reported by Semagn et al. [17] involving 450 CIMMYT lines studied using 1065 SNPs. Nevertheless, it is comparable to the values obtained by Adewale et al. [19] in early maturing white tropical maize. Consistent with the results of Adu-Boakyewaa et al. [15] and Adewale et al. [29], the average heterozygosity of 0.08 obtained in the present study is close to zero as expected for inbred lines, thus making them a useful genetic resource for association mapping and genetic studies in maize in which uniformity of the genetic materials is invaluable.A higher F ST value for the sub-populations was reported in the present study. Together with the relatively moderate allele frequency divergence among sub-populations, the results indicated that the alleles of the inbred lines were fixed and could be categorized into groups with distinct characteristics, and this finding is in conformity with previous results [15]. The six clusters observed in this study indicated that individuals from the different groups were therefore expected to harbour different favourable alleles that could be exploited for breeding for combined HD-tolerant hybrids and synthetics. The results also demonstrated that the DArT-based SNP-derived markers were informative in providing genome profiles which were very useful for the identification of unique characteristics among the inbred lines [17,50,51].Population structure analysis provides a guide for assigning a set of inbred lines into heterotic groups based on genotypic information of individual ancestry of the lines [52]. In this study, six sub-populations (K = 6) were established among the 162 inbred lines. The inbred lines were placed in distinct groups based on their relatedness in terms of pedigree records and selection history, such as endosperm colour, tolerance or susceptibility to drought and combined HD. This finding was affirmed by the high F ST values ranging from 0.28 to 0.81 for the six sub-populations and that inbred lines from the different groups could harbour unique favourable alleles for development of productive hybrids for population improvement programmes in the tropics. The high F ST values obtained for the sub-populations in the present study were comparable to the results of other researchers. For example, Kashiani et al. [53], Aci et al. [54] and Adu-Boakyewaa et al. [15] indicated F ST values of as high as 0.94, 0.33 and 0.83, respectively, for the sub-populations obtained in their genetic diversity studies for different sets of tropical maize lines. In the present study, cluster 1 contained all the inbred lines with white endosperm and were generally tolerant to drought, cluster 2 had inbred lines with yellow endosperm as well as tolerance to drought, while cluster 3 had highly drought-tolerant white endosperm lines. However, all the inbred lines within these three sub-groups showed moderate tolerance to combined HD stress. This observation is not surprising because the inbred lines have long been selected under drought conditions compared to the results of the more recent evaluations under combined HD conditions.The multivariate clustering methods showed high consistency regarding the number of groups and individuals assigned to each group, indicating the existence of six genetically distinct groups. This result corroborated the findings of Adu-Boakyewaa et al. [15] and Obeng-Bio et al. [51] who reported a high consistency among the model-based structure analysis, PCoA and the Neighbour-Joining phylogeny using the Roger's and Euclidian genetic distance methods, respectively. However, this result disagreed with the reports of Dao et al. [27] and Semagn et al. [17] who found a high consistency between the model-based structure and the PCoA but very low concordance with the Neighbour-Joining phylogeny generated using the Roger's genetic distance method. The differences in the results could be due to the variation in the inbred lines used in the different studies, the method used in deriving the genetic distances between the inbreds, as well as the different clustering algorithms used. In concordance with earlier researchers, it was evident that the clustering of tropical maize populations is largely consistent with the pedigree information [15,21,27,48,55].Generally, it is advocated that source genotypes with favourable alleles for combined heat and drought tolerance should possess good agronomic characteristics necessary for combined HD-tolerant hybrid development without placing too much emphasis on the per se grain yield. The GT analysis identified ASI, EASP, PLASP, LF, TB and EPP as important secondary traits that could be utilized to accelerate genetic gains from selection for enhanced grain yield under combined HD conditions. Nelimor et al. [16] suggested that lines that scored 50% or more for LF and TB under combined HD conditions should be rejected, implying the importance of the information on inter-relationships among secondary traits. From the GT biplot view, the best 15 performing lines were placed in five different heterotic groups. As a guide, crosses among the lines from different heterotic groups should be given priority in terms of hybrid combinations towards maximization of heterosis. For example, the best performing inbred line (TZEI 935) placed in the mixed group could be crossed to inbred lines TdZEI 311 and TZEI 1228 which belonged to groups six and three, respectively, to increase the chances of developing productive hybrids. The significant and positive association observed between PLASP and EASP implied that there was a close relationship among these traits and that either of them could be eliminated from the base index without sacrificing the precision in selecting for combined HD-tolerant genotypes. Badu-Apraku et al. [38] also found a positive correlation between these traits and advocated that either PLASP or EASP could be discarded in the base index in selecting for drought-and low-N-tolerant genotypes. Similarly, there was high positive correlation between AD, SD, and ASI, but none of them were found to be redundant as the ASI is dependent on the SD and AD [38]. These three traits were very important in selecting stress-tolerant maize genotypes [56,57], as a relatively constant value (lower ASI) is desirable in selection of early maturing maize [38].To ensure the selection of appropriate parental lines for crossing and devising strategies for significant gains from selection, adequate knowledge and understanding of the genetic diversity of available inbred lines in a breeding programme is essential. The population structure analysis, PCoA and phylogenetic clustering methods confirmed the existence of six different groups for the panel of 162 maize inbred lines studied. The lines were grouped largely based on the pedigree information, endosperm colour, selection history and similarity of ancestry. There were high genetic distances between the paired inbred lines, demonstrating the distinctiveness of the inbred lines and the presence of high genetic variability which could be exploited in tropical maize breeding programmes for hybrid development. The low heterozygosity as well as relatively low divergence among the sub-populations indicated that the present set of inbred lines had great potential for genetic studies and could serve as future sources of promising inbred lines by contributing new and favourable alleles. The GT biplot analysis revealed that EPP, PLASP, EASP, LF and TB were the most reliable traits for selecting genotypes for tolerance to combined HD stress. Inbred 1 (TZEI 935) was identified as the ideal under combined HD stress environments. Using the base index, the 15 top-yielding inbred lines were identified for use in the maize breeding programmes of SSA for the development of productive hybrids and synthetics with combined HD tolerance. Among the inbred lines studied, inbred TZEI 935 was identified as one of the ideal lines under combined HD stress environments and should be further explored. Finally, the results of the present study will serve as an important guide for appropriate decision-making for future development of productive hybrids, particularly for SSA.","tokenCount":"5788"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"290b349eb9ad37250bcb336d9e5458a6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8fa60a36-c715-413b-afc7-e09908bd66ef/retrieve","id":"1795135159"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a37600ec-fd71-4548-8c8f-2717217023d2","pagecount":"20","content":"Build farmer autonomy Earn trust Promote social inclusion Viamo's Interactive Voice Response• 4,000 SH farmers (50% women) can call into a toll-free hotline and navigate menu options:• Get advice • GeoFarmer app for content library and registering beneficiary farmers.• Roles of community facilitators (50% women):• Share GeoFarmer content library.• Digital champions and resource persons.• Listen to and synthesize feedback.• Offer advice.Community engagement• Activities:• Community sensitization.• Democratic selection of community facilitators.• Capacity building of facilitators. • What key factors build or erode a farmer's trust in their agricultural extension agent or BACKFEED facilitator? How, if at all, do the factors that build or erode trust differ by farmer gender and other social markers (age and socioeconomic status)?• To what extent does a farmer's trust in their agricultural extension agent or facilitator influence participation in digital farmer feedback systems? How does the association between trust and participation differ by gender, age, and socioeconomic status?• How does participation in farmer feedback systems influence awareness and knowledge of new agricultural practices?Research/Learning Questions ","tokenCount":"168"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2ae787c1906c554f58f5f3b382fdabb2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b68c9b50-24f6-49ce-8033-00bdcc519be0/content","id":"539941971"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"380c4b7e-fcd3-4b9f-976f-8a2a78697609","pagecount":"4","content":"Maize and wheat together represent about 94% of the total cereal area and about 95% of total cereal production in South Africa. CIMMYT has been a research partner with South Africa since the mid-1970s, dedicated to improving the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat crapping systems, with a focus on serving resource-poor farmers. In the past few years, as a member of the Consultative Graup on International Agricultural Research, South Africa has contributed about US$ 100,000 each year to CIMMYTs maize and wheat research agenda.Maize and wheat together represent about 94% of the total cereal area and about 95% of total cereal production in South Africa. CIMMYT has been aresearch partner with South Africa since the mid-1970s, dedicated to improving the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat cropping systems, with a focus on serving resource-poor farmers. In the past few years, as a member of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, South Africa has contributed about US$ 100,000 each year to CIMMYTs maize and wheat research agenda.  security in isolated areas where one failed harvest means hunger. The new maize also yields on a par with commercial maize under favorable treatment (i.e., adequate water and fertilizer). This maize is more efficient at using available nitrogen and thus performs better when grown in infertile soils. CIMMYT's conventional breeding and biotechnology programs also focus on increasing host-plant resistance to maize insect pests.Maize that incorporates greater resistance to drought, to low soil fertility, and to insects increases both total production and yield stability in the face of these crop stresses. South African research institutes have been testing insectresistant maize varieties from CIMMYT for more than ten years, and they began testing droughtand low-nitrogen-tolerant varieties in the mid-1990s. One of the new maize varieties being released in South Africa in 2001 is noted for its tolerance of drought and low-nitrogen conditions.Through CIMMYT-Ied regional projects, such as the Southern African Drought and Low Soil Fertility (SADLF) Project,* farmers obtain new technologies that help them produce a better maize crop even in challenging marginal conditions. Under farmer-managed conditions where grain yields typically average only 1.3 tons per hectare, outstanding new maize from CIMMYT gives farmers 30-50% more grain per hectare than the best commercially available maize (see photo). For a resourcepoor farmer who may sow only two hectares of maize, the new maize could add over half a ton to household grain stores each year-a significant contribution to food  Over the last three years, more than 60 South African scientists from the public and private sector have visited CIMMYT's research station in Harare, Zimbabwe (the Center's largest regional office, focusing on Eastern and Southern Africa and on maize research in particular).These visits have led to requests and shipments of several hundred maize breeding stocks from CIMMYT to South African research centers.security in isolated areas where one failed harvest means hunger. The new maize also yields on a par with commercial maize under favorable treatment (i.e., adequate water and fertilizer). This maize is more efficient at using available nitrogen and thus performs better when grown in infertile soils. CIMMYT's conventional breeding and biotechnology programs also focus on increasing host-plant resistance to maize insect pests.Maize that incorporates greater resistance to drought, to low soil fertility, and to insects increases both total production and yield stability in the face of these crop stresses. South African research institutes have been testing insectresistant maize varieties from CIMMYT for more than ten years, and they began testing droughtand low-nitrogen-tolerant varieties in the mid-1990s. One of the new maize varieties being released in South Africa in 2001 is noted for its tolerance of drought and low-nitrogen conditions.Through CIMMYT-Ied regional projects, such as the Southern African Drought and Low Soil Fertility (SADLF) Project,* farmers obtain new technologies that help them produce a better maize crop even in challenging marginal conditions. Under farmer-managed conditions where grain yields typically average only 1.3 tons per hectare, outstanding new maize from CIMMYT gives farmers 30-50% more grain per hectare than the best commercially available maize (see photo). For a resourcepoor farmer who may sow only two hectares of maize, the new maize could add over half a ton to household grain stores each year-a significant contribution to food In 1997, just over 70% of South Africa's wheat area was sown to spring bread wheats derived from CIMMYT varieties. About 46% of the spring wheat cultivars released in South Africa between 1980 and 1997 had at least one CIMMYT parent. Some of the winter and facultative wheats grown in South Africa are also related to CIMMYT wheats: about 11 % of the wheat area is planted to these CIMMYT-related winter and facultative wheats.CIMMYT wheat varieties provide Significant sources of resistance to stem and leaf rust-two of the most devastating wheat diseases. A related disease, yellow (stripe) rust was first reported in South Africa in the late 1990s. Less than one week after the disease was identified in South Africa, complete wheat variety pedigrees and yellow rust resistance scores were received from CIMMYT, which helped researchers to identify potential sources of resistance from South African breeding programs and abroad. Fortunately, CIMMYT wheats offered outstanding sources of genetic resistance to the disease. South African breeders report that they have now controlled yellow rust }n spring wheats and are improving yellow rust resistance in their winter wheats.Under the auspices of the European Union, CIMMYT has coordinated the Maize and Wheat Improvement Research Network of SADC\"\" (MWIRNET) since 1994. South Africa is a member of MWIRNET, and is represented on the Network Steering Committee. Through MWIRNET, South African researchers are integrated into SADC regional activities which include screening and exchange of improved varieties, along with participation in regional traveling workshops, consultancies, and conferences.A special collaborative effort between MWIRNET and South Africa focused on improving local researchers' understanding of the production constraints and socioeconomic circumstances of poor, small-scale farmers.\"\"\" Participatory methods for working with farmers were emphasized, and research and training undertaken as part of the MWIRNET collaboration has enabled the needs of resourcepoor farmers to be articulated more forcefully within South Africa's research and development agenda.  ","tokenCount":"1018"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3ddf3ec63ae15447710ba36b252e1e16","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a548c567-a1b1-4e1a-b0fe-e9c4cf196a60/retrieve","id":"187783434"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4143880c-11da-4bd7-8823-6058d8069962","pagecount":"19","content":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base.Livestock production is an integral part of the mixed crop-livestock farming system of Bale highlands. Livestock ensures the availability of quality nutrition and income for the farming community throughout the year. Besides, livestock are sources of agricultural inputs such as draught power and manure as a source of organic fertilizer and useful for transportation purpose. Hence, livestock and crop production are interdependent in Bale highland where livestock holding was observed to have significant effect on crop cultivation (Solomon et al., 2009). Dominant livestock species of Sinana district are cattle, sheep, goats, horses, donkeys, mules and poultry (Dawit Abate et al, 2012 unpublished data). Most farmers in Sinana district rear sheep due to suitability of environmental condition for sheep production and presence of the locally adapted Arsi-Bale breed of sheep and multiple uses of sheep. Sheep production is important for the livelihood of the farmers as a source of income, meat, skin and manure as well as a means of risk avoidance during crop failure and their cultural function during festivals. Low income farmers rear sheep due to ease of production and high production efficiency that enabled them to generate immediate cash for different payments like tax, school fee, and purchase of agricultural inputs like fertilizer, improved seed and herbicides.Assessments conducted in Bale highlands in general (Solomon, 2004;Worku et al., 2008) and Sinana district in particular (Dawit et al., 2012 unpublished data) showed that feed shortage, lack of knowledge on feeding and management of sheep, water shortage and disease problems are the major constraints affecting sheep production in the district. All the above feed resources assessment reports showed that the overall shortage of feed and the seasonal fluctuation in the quantity and quality of feed are the main challenges facing livestock production in the area. In the mixed crop-livestock farming system of Sinana district, livestock are predominantly fed crop residues and crop aftermath especially during the dry period when feed shortage is a critical problem (Solomon et al., 2008;Dawit et al., 2012). Thus, improvement of livestock production in general and sheep production in particular in Sinana district requires enhancing availability and quality of feed resources throughout the year using suitable feed technology interventions.In Ethiopia, different useful feed technologies have been identified by research and recommended to mitigate the feed shortage problems. However, the results achieved so far are not satisfactory mainly due to poor adoption rate of identified and recommended feed technologies because of lack of systematic approach for prioritizing available feed technologies for a particular location. This results in unnecessary wastage of resources and efforts without any remarkable impacts on the farming community. Moreover, Sinana district in particular and Bale zone in general have less exposure to feed intervention technologies to improve sheep and other livestock production. Hence, identifying appropriate technologies and promotion of these technologies for the area is imperative.Techfit is a tool developed to prioritize and select best fit technologies from wide range of options potentially available for farmers. The tool is used for scoring and ranking of different feed technologies taking into consideration the existing situation of the farming system of the area. It enables to identify and recommend appropriate technologies for a given situation within a short period of time. Therefore, the objective of this work is to rank and prioritize best fit feed technologies for Sinana district of Bale highlands with special emphasis on intervention for improvement of feed problems for sheep production.The study was conducted in Sinana district of Bale highland. Sinana is located at about 430 km southeast of Addis Ababa. The land coverage of the district is approximately 163,854 ha. The altitude of the area ranges from 2200 to 2600 m.a.s.l. The average annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 21 0 c and 9 0 c, respectively. The rainfall pattern is bimodal with annual precipitation ranging from 750-1000 mm. Two cropping seasons are known in the study area and these are locally known as Bona (from August to December) and Ganna (from March to July). Livelihood of the farming community of the area is based on mixed crop-livestock production, where cereal crop faming is dominant. Livestock population of the districts is estimated to be 210,445 head of cattle, 25,850 sheep, 15,780 goats, 20,943 donkeys, 5,788 horses, 3,001 mule and 50,320 poultry (Sinana District Office of Livestock Development and Health, 2012)Before actual site selection, representatives of the research team from Sinana Agricultural Research Center (SARC), International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) held detailed discussions with the Woreda and Zonal Offices of Livestock Development and Health about the project including its objectives and considerations for selection of Kebeles and focus group discussant farmers. Accordingly, out of 18 kebeles found in the district, three were selected purposively for the application of the TechFit tool. Selection of the kebeles was based on their farming system i.e. mixed crop-livestock production (high sheep population), dominant crop production (lower sheep population) and mixed croplivestock production (intermediate sheep population). In addition, accessibility of the kebeles to infrastructure, especially road, was also considered for selection. Accordingly Selka kebele for mixed crop-livestock production (high sheep population), Sambitu kebele for dominant crop farming (lower sheep population) and Walta'i Barisa kebele as an intermediate were selected. Those selected sites were visited by researchers and experts prior to farmer selection and data collection. Geographical descriptions and number of participant from each selected kebeles were indicated in Table 1. For the selection of participant farmers, researchers from SARC travelled to the area and discussed in detail with development agents of respective kebeles on the work of the project and how to select farmers who would participate in group discussion to assess availability of attributes such as land, labour, cash/credit, inputs and knowledge and to give context attribute scores for the area.Participant farmers were selected based on their land holding categories by development agent of respective kebeles. Accordingly17, 12 and 14 farmers from Selka, Sambitu and Walta'i Barisa kebeles were selected respectively. In addition, age and gender were considered during participant farmer's selection.Checklist was used to collect information about the context attributes of farmers. Farmers gave values from 1 to 5 for availability of or access to land, labour, credit/cash, input delivery and farmer's knowledge and skill. Highest availability of attribute scored a value of 5 whereas lowest availability scored 1. They were encouraged to discuss and debate on the score they gave for each attribute and they gave score for availability of each attributes with justification. This context score was also made by the experts and the results conformed to that of the farmers. Different issues farmers raised during discussions was recorded and used as input for the scoring made by the researchers on context relevance and scope for improvement. In addition, information generated on cost of land lease, input cost (forage seed and fertilizer price), sale price of straws and green grass, labour cost and price of agro-industrial by product were used in cost benefit analysis.Context relevance scoring of technologies were done with the value of 1-6 (1 for lowest and 6 for highest relevance). Using combined result of context relevance of the technology to the area and score of impact potential of this technology in addressing feed problem issues on a scale of 1-6 (1 for lowest impact and 6 highest impacts), technologies were pre filtered. Those technologies with high total score for context relevance and impact potential were carried forward to the main filter. Scores given by the farmers on context attribute (availability of land, labour, cash/credit, material input and knowledge) and the scores given by experts on technology attributes (requirement of each feed technology for land, labour, cash/credit, inputs and knowledge) were fitted to the TechFit template prepared for prioritization of feed technologies.Total scores were calculated by adding the products of technology attribute and context attribute scores for each of the five attributes plus the score for scope for improvement of the attributes (or the technologies given the attributes). Scoring scale of scope for improvement range from 1 to 5 (1 for lowest and 5 for highest). Total scores recorded from combination of technology attribute, farmer's context attribute and scope for improvement were used for ranking and prioritizing of the technologies at main filter, where technology with high total score got top rank. Context attribute scores were made depending on availability of major technology limiting attributes such as land, labour, credit/cash, input delivery and farmer's knowledge and skill.Cost-benefit analysis of top ranking technologies was carried out by taking into account the input costs of the technology and the value of the outputs expected from application of the technology. Total cost expended and benefits accrued from implementation of the technology was estimated (Annex 2). Finally benefit to cost ratio (BCR) was computed to arrive at overall decision whether a given technology is economical or not. A given feed technology declared economical if the quotient of benefit to cost ratio is greater than or equal to one (BCR≥1 and it is considered uneconomical if the BCR is less than one (BCR<1).Farmers gave scores for availability of land, labour, cash/credit, inputs and knowledge as indicated in Table 2. Availability of land is different among the kebeles. It was highest in Selka followed by Sambitu and lowest in Walta'i Barisa. Farmer's accessibility to labour, material input and knowledge were similar for all the three kebeles. Availability of labour is fluctuating in the area with high labour requirement during peak cropping activities, particularly harvesting. Daily payment for labour was estimated to be 25, 24 and 26 ETB at Selka, Sambitu and Walta'i Barisa kebeles respectively. Farmers of Sambitu kebele have better access to credit/cash than the others. Among all attributes input delivery was identified to be the main problem of the study area, which might be related with unaffordable price, inconsistency of supply and unavailability of some inputs like improved breeds of animals. A total of 38 feed technologies categorized under different groups (Annex 1) were screened based on their context relevance and impact potential for the area at pre-filtering stage. Technologies with lower relevance and impact potential for the area to address issues of feed problems were dropped (Table 3), whereas 18 technologies that got higher total scores were carried forward for further evaluation at main filtering stage using scores for technology attributes, farmers' context attributes and scope for improvement. Out of eighteen (18) technologies carried forward and evaluated at main filtering stage, ten to twelve top ranking technologies were selected for each kebele based on context attribute, technology attribute and scope for improvement (Tables 4, 5 and 6 for Selka, Sambitu and Walta'i Barisa kebeles respectively). Overall results showed that the prioritized technologies were almost similar across all locations which might be due to similarity of the context attributes of the farmers (i.e. farmers' access particularly to labour, cash and knowledge). Technologies with lower requirement for land, labour, cash/credit, input and knowledge had higher probability of being selected. Hence, most prioritized technologies as a remedy to the problems of feeds in quality, quantity and seasonality for the study area were those which demand less land, labour, cash, input and knowledge.The selected technologies for Seleka and Sambitu kebeles include crop residues improvement (6), improved forages (2), supplementation (2), feeds from cropping system (1) and balanced feeds (1) categories, while technologies selected for Walta'i Barisa kebele include crop residues improvement (5), improved forages (1), supplementation (2), feeds from cropping system (1) and balanced feeds (1) categories. 'Feeding of home grown legume residues' got highest total score at all locations followed by 'use of weeds, cut grass, tree leaves', 're-threshing and mixing of crop residues before storage and feeding' and 'hand chopping of crop residues' at Selka and Sambitu kebeles, whereas it was followed by 're-threshing and mixing of crop residues before storage and feeding', 'use of weeds, cut grass, tree leaves' and 'hand chopping of crop residues' at Walta'i Barisa kebele. The ranking of the remaining selected technologies were slightly differing among kebeles. 'Use of improved annual grass-legume mixtures' and 'treatment of crop residue' were not among the top ranking categories at Walta'i Barisa kebele. In addition, scores made on scope for improvement also have great impact on the technologies being selected since combined result of technology attribute, farmer's context of attribute and scope for improvement for technologies were used in the ranking process.Technologies with higher requirement for land, labour, cash/credit, inputs and knowledge got the lowest rank. For instance 'use of improved annual grass-legume mixtures', 'treatment of crop residue' and 'supplement with UMMB got relatively lower ranks among the top ten technologies because they are dependent on availability of either land, labour, cash, material input or knowledge. There are some technologies such as use of 'improved annual grass-legume mixtures' with high context relevance to the area but got very low scores due to their high requirements for most attributes. Use of such technologies might be feasible in the study area because of relatively better availability of land and inputs (forage seeds) in the area, as compared as places in the country, and considering their potential to address biomass and quality issues of available feed resources. This shows the need to be more specific when giving scores for availability of inputs to the particular inputs needed by each feed technology instead of giving just one score for different types of inputs.  Farmers in the study area use weeds (wild oats) from their farmland and cut grasses on the edges of their farm. Thus it can be more easily adopted.Re-threshing and mixing of crop residues before storage and feeding 67 3  Most farmers commonly collect straw at harvesting time and re-thresh and mix before storage and feeding to make more suitable for storage and feeding the animals  of residues have value of BCR below unity (Table 7). Higher total cost needed for the implementation of these technologies due to additional expenses leads to lower benefit cost ratio (Annex 2). Use of improved annual grass-legume mixture (e.g. oat-vetch forage or hay) scored highest BCR value 1.74 and 1.71 at Selka and Sambitu kebele, where 'fodder trees (Sesbania, Tagasaste, Gliricidia)' scored highest BCR of 1.25 at Walta'i Barisa kebele. However, the current results need to be interpreted with caution as most of the values used in the cost-benefit analysis were based on assumptions. Contribution of the livestock sector to livelihood of farming community of Sinana district is high. However, production and productivity of livestock is hindered by problems of feed shortage (both in quality and availability). Shrinkage of grazing land due to expansion of crop land put heavy pressure on the livestock sector. The dominantly used feed resources are mainly crop residues, which are derived from the cropping systems. In order to alleviate feed shortage problems and enhance the contribution of livestock to the livelihood of the farming community, different technologies were generated by the research system. However, the adoption rate of these technologies has been disappointingly very low due to lack of systematic approach for prioritizing the recommended technologies for specific locations. TechFit has been developed to alleviate this problem in prioritizing suitable feed technologies for specific locations as reported here. It has helped us to identify and prioritize feed technologies that are applicable and suitable to the different kebeles in Sinana district. In general, it is a robust tool for screening and excluding feed technologies that are not relevant in a particular context and for prioritizing those technologies that are relevant and potentially applicable in a given area. Most of prioritized feed technologies cannot be used as sole diets and this created some difficulties on estimation of total costs incurred and benefits obtained due to use of a given technology.  Cost benefit analysis was done based on assumption. Based on the degree of deviation of the assumption from the true value, there could be a risk of rejecting technologies that might be of high potential value in addressing the feed problem or accepting one that might of marginal importance. TechFit tool helps to identify and prioritize appropriate feed technologies for a particular location with realization of the existing situation of the area within a short period of time.  The tool is very important to identify and exclude non relevant technologies for a given area before making any intervention. Provision of training for farmers to strengthen their knowledge and skill for efficient utilization of prioritized technologies is needed.  Improvement of input supply system through cooperative and organizing farmers could be useful to address the problem of input supply.  Improvement of farmers' access to credit/cash through development of well refined system of credit service is crucial.  Awareness creation on saving culture and appropriate utilization of credit/cash for the farmers is important.  Developing well refined methodology for cost benefit analysis is very important to recommend prioritized technologies based on their economic advantages. ","tokenCount":"2854"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bae9b0fa26920c98206f62b6d1444f77","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a1356cc4-1339-497e-b992-9a03c0e3688b/retrieve","id":"1510003938"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ed671810-c218-42bb-b81b-056cace0b200","pagecount":"10","content":"HarvestPlus is implemented by teams across the CGIAR and their partners. Over 70 million people in farm households, and millions more in the marketplace, are benefitting from biofortification delivery programs. In our experience, it takes a full range of support to bring biofortified seeds, grains, and foods to farmers and consumers. Digital technologies allow us to take this approach even further.Developing economies increasingly have strong mobile networks, and more people are starting to use smart-or mobile-phones each day. The environment is primed to implement technologies that increase productivity, food safety, and value for farmers and commercial value chain actors in all countries HarvestPlus operates in.HarvestPlus is committed to the investigation, adoption, and research of new technology including digital tools to scale out nutrient-enriched crops. Our work in this area began in 2017 and was rapidly accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Digital technologies proved essential to continue implementation activities in a non-contact environment, such as agricultural extension services and linking farmers to seed and grain markets. HarvestPlus discovered that they are more cost-effective and efficient to reach new people and our beneficiaries, stakeholders, and value chain actors in all countries are highly receptive and willing to work with new tools and technologies.In this approach, digital tools are implemented at each point of commercial supply chains. This is done to enable stakeholders to build sustainable, commercially independent food supply chains that bring healthier foods to beneficiaries on the farm and in both formal and informal markets, and connect these users with policymakers, investors, and institutions. This paper explains the need for digital tools and how they enable commercialization and scale, the impact on users, and the risks and benefits with examples of projects and partners along the value chain. This approach is being applied across all HarvestPlus activities and digital projects are researched and reported as part of the CGIAR Digital Innovation Initiative.• Provide tailored training and support for male and female farmers to make use of digital technologies, especially low-income and vulnerable groups • Improve farmers' access to markets for biofortified foods • Create future-proofed, sustainable, and independent biofortified food supply chains • Attract youth to biofortified farming • Build an array of tech services providers • Bring in new investors, sponsors, and donors • Deliver certified, traceable healthy foods to consumers If digitization is a conversion of data and processes, digitalization is a transformation. More than just making existing data digital, digitalization embraces the ability of digital technology to collect data, establish trends, and make better business decisions.HarvestPlus has initiated digital platforms for farmers in seven countries, with four different private sector service providers.Paper-based processes and services can be made electronic. For example, biofortified seed production and sales in Nigeria can be more efficiently managed in spreadsheets and stored in cloud services.New services can be created and existing ones can be transformed by technology. For example, in Pakistan there is little traceability in food supply chains, which would be transformed by implementing a digital system. When paper-based systems are digitized, finding new uses for this data is considered digitalization.New tools, machines, or objects both tangible or intangible (e.g., software) can be introduced to improve existing processes or procedures. An example in biofortification is the use of drones or satellite images to monitor crop growth rates and yields. Another is using a new food processing process to protect the beta-carotene content of a food.Digital technologies can be used to follow and document the journey of a seed or ingredient along the supply chain, and this traceability is increasingly a legal requirement. Digitalization of the supply chain reduces food safety incidents and fraud while opening up more sustainable, commercial markets. It also makes it possible to trace nutritional value from seed to food, or other aspects such as carbon footprint.In the case of biofortified crops, this is proving or certifying to each value chain member that the seed, grain, or food is derived from a genuine biofortified source which conforms to a particular standard, in most case this standard is the Publicly Available Specification. Certification is easier when a supply chain is monitored and controlled with digital processes. Digital databases of suppliers and users allow for faster connectivity to audit, manage, document, and then provide certification. Using QR codes on packaging buyers, customers and consumers can view the supply chain and certification process themselves.Also known as Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), this provides a decentralized record stored in the cloud. As blockchain does not require a central authority to manage, own or collate the data, blockchain can be a low-cost solution even where institutional support for traceability is limited. Read more: www.harvestplus.org/can-blockchain-bolsterbiofortification-value-chains/AI can provide timely predictions from large amounts of digitized data. This can be used to monitor changes in food systems due to the introduction of biofortification and other nutritional interventions and map out the associated benefits on health, disease outcomes and DALYs (disability adjusted life years), for example.Digitalization has generalized benefits for food systems, creating efficiencies between producers, processors, and markets, enabling traceability and access to markets. Biofortification is largely \"hidden\" trait in food crops: customers must be able to trust food systems and be aware of the benefits of more nutritional food for the market to exist.Digitalization of the biofortified supply chain creates visibility and traceability from seed to food, and provides information for policymakers, institutions, and enterprise to invest in the health benefits and value of biofortification. Introducing these technologies in parallel will increase the impact of biofortification efforts.Data sharing between stakeholders will catalyze change and accelerate the transformation of the agriculture sector, serving low-income farming families and women farmers while informing policy design and delivery at the local, regional, and national levels. At food production level, businesses adopting digital tools can become more efficient, producing safer foods making them more competitive and attractive businesses to customers and consumers.Digital projects are required at each step of the value chain, building connections throughout and collecting digitized data for reporting, publications and future modeling.HarvestPlus has developed the Biofortification Priority Index (BPI), which is a digital tool that ranks 128 low-and middle-income countries according to their impact potential for investment in each of the 13 biofortified staple food crops. The tool enables stakeholders and investors to identify needs and opportunities to benefit the local population. The BPI is being improved to include predictive modelling of impact and interactions with other nutritional interventions. • Seed, grain and food market analysis. Baseline assessment of markets, critical entry points to promote biofortified foods to businesses and consumers, consumer purchasing behavior, and future trends.A tool to understand the nutrition quality of staple food systems and predict the impact of nutrient fortification and biofortification, as well as on gender in the workforce, social inclusion, market access, livelihoods, climate, conflict, and disease outcomes. Examples include the BPI and planned work to build a predictive model.• Seed system digitization. Includes QA/QC, traceability, and digital sales management.HarvestPlus works with several service providers to establish routes to digitize seed sales, monitor purchases using QR codes, and link buyers of biofortified seeds to digital extension services. An additional benefit of digital technology is that it creates data that can revolutionize current methodologies for monitoring, evaluation, and learning (MEL). Automated and live data collection through cloud based and integrated information systems creates a more cost-effective means for earlier reporting, communication, and donor reporting. This data can also be used for predictive impact assessment of food systems and the outcome of nutrition interventions.Digital divide: The risk of excluding lowincome consumers and businesses who already are disadvantaged by poor access to education and services.• Target beneficiaries of the HarvestPlus program are those most at risk of digital exclusion. HarvestPlus is in a unique position to take technology to low-income consumers and small businesses. • As part of One CGIAR, we can simultaneously research target beneficiary needs and barriers to adoption, and provide sustainable solutions.Sustainability: How will new technologies and services survive beyond the lifespan of donor supported projects?• Ensure there is a demonstrable return on investment that the user sees so they will make their own digital investments in the future. The majority of biofortified supply chains already exist in a commercial, demand-driven ecosystem that incentivizes partners to provide high quality products and services to the customers reached through the HarvestPlus program. • Early calculations predict increases in production, yields and revenue from the use of technology. Users that benefit from technologies will continue to pay for services from increased revenue. Data governance: How to ensure user data is protected, users can opt out, personal data is not shared and international laws and regulations are followed?• Establish in-house expertise on data governance and legislation. Work with service providers to ensure clear divisions of data ownership and protection. • Work with the beneficiaries and recipients of the tools to ensure they understand and are aware of their individual rights and control of their own data. • Provide recipients with the ability to opt out whenever they wish.• Never share datasets or personal information with anyone -without explilcit and informed consent. Competition: How to can we avoid HarvestPlus partners developing monopolies?• Operate through open, competitive procurement.• Ensure the best prices from our partners, work with multiple partners and ensure the users know their options. • Working with multiple partners even in the same country and project fosters competition and drives prices down. • Establish long-term arrangements and business plans with partners. Gender: Women are at greater risk of exclusion from technology and digital tools due to less access to mobile phones and the internet.• Understand current barriers for women and establish ways to break them down.• Use non-digital tools to initially reach women.• Make women the primary target of projects.• Establish targets and indicators at the project outset to disaggregate all data collection by gender and equal or proportionate reach of women. • Train men on the importance of inclusion.HarvestPlus is working with the CGIAR Digital Innovation Initiative, contributing to the evidence base for how digital technologies can contribute to agricultural transformation, and benefiting from the community of expertise and collaboration across CGIAR.Our Vision for the Future HarvestPlus will implement technologies and digitalbased solutions at each step of the value chain in all supply chains supported with delivery and scaling in the countries where we work. Digitalization is both a key to scale but also imperative for sustainability of biofortified food supply chains which should be both nutritionally superior to standard crops and certified higher quality. We can support our beneficiaries with nutritionally enhanced foods and new skills that enable their business to grow, from the smallholder farmer to the retailer. With the expertise and current reach of the HarvestPlus team at each step of the value chain, HarvestPlus is uniquely positioned to improve food supply chains through nutrition and technology. All delivery, scaling, and commercialization projects going forward will be designed with digitization and technology as key tools for implementation.The HarvestPlus objective in technology and digitization is to kick-start or initiate projects by linking farmers and value chain players with service providers. Through donor or sponsor investment HarvestPlus can reduce the risk of investment in technology by supporting the initial fees for software or other investments. The longer-term sustainability of projects depends on the impact and benefits that the technology provides the user -before starting a project, cost benefit, and risk analysis is carried out to ensure that the user will see a benefit through regulatory compliance, efficiencies, cost savings or increased profits; this additional income for the user will be used to sustain the investment and continue progress. It is essential to foster commercial and private sector involvement as service providersthis ensures a competitive and open marketplace for users to have choice, keeps running costs low, and avoids monopolies.For each digital investment, a return-on-investment calculation is developed. For example, the average rice farmer in Indonesia can produce two tons paddy per harvest (based on the average of 0.3 ha per individual farmer). The average price of paddy is Rp 5,000/kg, so each farmer will get Rp 10,000,000/ harvest or Rp 20,000,000/year. If a farmer is required to pay a license fee for software of USD $10 (approx. RP 150,000/farmer/ two planting seasons or two harvests per year, so the license fee will be about 0.75% of the farmer income. This can be paid by the farmer group and/or by other stakeholders such as input companies, insurance companies, aggregators, or rice traders. In Pakistan, farmers who received digital extension services saw up to 30% increase in yield and or profits, part of which can fund extension services in future. Discussions are underway with several government extension services on methods to provide revenue generation through advertising and promotion from the private sector, if moderated and regulated properly this would be a much more sustainable way to service farmers.Digital technologies have proven potential to empower poor populations with new communication tools, to facilitate connectivity along the value chain and to equip farmers with knowledge on key challenges and opportunities.Get in touch! For more information please contact us. | facebook | linkedin | harvestplus.orgHarvestPlus works with multiple service providers including academic organizations and partners within One CGIAR, as well as with private sector service partners who provide commercial products and services. It is essential to partner with commercial organizations who will maintain digital services after the initial catalyzation and establishment phase with HarvestPlus.While HarvestPlus has built implementation intelligence with trusted partners, we will always operate though a system of fair competitive procurement. Please visit our website for existing opportunities to partner with us: ifpri.org/workwithus.For more information on scaling, commercialization, and digital implementation at HarvestPlus please contact harvestplus@cgiar.org or watch our webinar, \"Harnessing Tech in Nutrition-Smart Agriculture\".The CGIAR Digital Innovation Initiative accelerates the transformation towards sustainable and inclusive agrifood systems by generating research-based evidence and innovative digital solutions. It is one of 32 initiatives of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis.We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/.  ","tokenCount":"2345"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e06419b0ec0fbb8c74cf5505ab4c59e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2fde6b8e-4e4c-438a-a0ce-f48eb5070ee2/retrieve","id":"-1011387069"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0df3d53b-20a2-42ca-8985-4c175e99b001","pagecount":"68","content":"List of Figures    Table 1: Adaptation responses to climate change across regions Case Study 1: CBA on the use of water-saving technologies by tomato farmers in IndiaCase Study 2: CBA on the application of good management practices and minimum tillage for groundnut production in ZambiaCase Study 3: CBA on the use of an improved rice variety in Burkina FasoThe agricultural sector in most developing countries is highly climate sensitive. Changing climatic conditions are projected to pose profound challenges to the sector (Hallegatte et al., 2020). The complexity of the agricultural systems impacted by climate change is often assessed according to resilience or adaptability (Callo-Concha & Ewert, 2014). As such, the concept of resilience has become a way to understand and respond to climatic and environmental changes (Reyers & Lee Moore, 2017).Smallholder farmers are major contributors to global agricultural production, with those in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Asia producing more than 80% of the food consumed in those areas (Silici et al., 2021). However, smallholder farmers in these regions are the most vulnerable to and limited capacity to cope with climate change (Awazi et al., 2021). Most smallholder farming systems are characterized by labor-intensive farming, conventional production techniques, and inadequate institutional capacity (Myeki & Bahta, 2021). Additionally, smallholder farmers occupy some of the most vulnerable marginal landscapes, such as hillsides, deserts, and flood plains, which puts them at increased risk of experiencing a variety of climate hazards. Most smallholders in developing countries also lack secure land tenure and water rights, which increases their vulnerability and exposure to climate change (Silici et al., 2021). Given the significant role played by smallholder farmers in food production, there is an urgent need to improve their resilience to climate change (Awazi et al., 2021).This report aims to create a broader understanding of climate resilience among smallholder farming systems. The report underscores the importance of enhancing farmers' adaptive capacity and climate resiliency. It assesses the current adaptation practices among smallholder farming systems in Africa and Asia, their trade-offs, and potential adaptation practices that could be implemented or upscaled to enhance smallholders' resilience. It also identifies key socio-economic, environmental, and institutional challenges that impede farmers' ability to cope with climate shocks. The report also provides critical lessons and recommendations that could enhance the resilience of smallholder farming systems, identifies roadmaps for implementation, and highlights high-priority interventions.This report is an initiative of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). The report was developed by the Alliance ofBioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (ABC). The report builds on climate risk profiling work across 15 countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, India, Cote d'Ivôire, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Togo, Tunisia, Vietnam, Zambia) on value chain adaptation potential under the Green Innovation Centres (GIC). Climate risk profiles were developed through a literature review, stakeholder engagement, expert interviews, and modeling of the major climatic hazards affecting country-specific value chains.The report includes four main chapters. The first chapter describes the main climate hazards and their impacts, defines climate change and resilience, and documents adaptation responses. The second chapter covers evidence-based adaptation measures in Africa and Asia, their trade-offs, and the potential of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and bundling services to enhance resilience. The third chapter highlights the enabling environment for adaptation and the challenges and opportunities for upscaling adaptation to climate change. The last chapter provides recommendations for building short-and long-term resilience among smallholder farmers.Extreme weather events are becoming more common. Extreme weather events increase the frequency, intensity, spatial extent, and duration of weather and climate-related hazards. According to the latest World Meteorological Organization (WMO) report, the number of climate-related hazardsdroughts, floods, heat, erratic rainfall, landslides, and others-has increased five-fold over the past 50 years (WMO, 2021). Drought was the deadliest hazard during this period, causing 650,000 deaths globally, followed by storms (577,232 deaths), floods (58,700 deaths), and extreme temperature events (55,736 deaths). The sixth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment report showed that climate-related hazards (Figure 1) have caused widespread deterioration of ecosystem structure and function, loss of resilience and natural adaptive capacity, and shifts in seasonal weather timing (Portner et al., 2022). These hazards impact water supply, food production, coastal infrastructure, human health, farmer livelihoods, and more.The severity of climate change impacts and the number of people exposed to these impacts is increasing in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, small islands, and Arctic countries.Countries facing multiple natural and socioeconomic stresses are particularly vulnerable to climate-related hazards. For instance, between Observed impacts of climate change on human systems (Portner et al., 2022) Figure 1 2. Introduction 2010 and 2020, human mortality from floods, droughts, and storms was 15 times higher in highly vulnerable countries compared to regions with very low vulnerability. Climate change and climate variability will likely severely compromise agricultural production, food security, and water availability in highly vulnerable countries (Hallegatte et al., 2020) I.Up to 118 million extremely poor people on the African continent are expected to be exposed to drought, floods, and extreme heat due to climate change. The State of the Climate in Africa 2020 report (WMO, 2021) indicates that if adequate climate response measures are not implemented by 2030, food insecurity will increase by 5-20 percentage points in many Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. Major climate risks in SSA include flood, drought, and desert locust invasion. In West Africa, the major climate risk is increased desertification, resulting in declines in agricultural yield.Extreme events are amplified by climate change; at the same time, population growth, urbanization, and the development of economic assets increase exposure to climate risks. The result is increased costs on various development indicators, which can be aggregated in terms of impact on economic growth and influence on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).Recognizing climate risks can strengthen adaptation and mitigation actions and encourage governments to support transitions that reduce risks. Successful action on climate change requires many factors: governance, finance, knowledge, investments in capacity building, technology, and an enabling environment. In order to develop climateresilient economies and societies, policymakers must have a good understanding of climate-related risks and long-term climate impacts.Crops' exposure to climatic hazards in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) and Western and Central Africa (WCA) regions 1 Figure 2 1 Rainfall Variability (V), Floods (F), Drought (D), Temperatures (T), Growing season reductions (R). One square represents 500km 2 . This is analysis is derived from the intersection of a composite climate hazard map (see Annex 1 for methods) and MapSPAM crop physical area maps. The top 10 crops by area exposed to one or more climate hazards are shown for each region (for more explanation on Figure 2, see Annex 2).Climate risks such as drought, flood, and heat stress threaten crop production throughout Africa (Figure 2). In West and Central Africa (WCA), increased growing season temperatures negatively affect maize, cassava, rice, yam, and cocoa production, while increased climate variability is detrimental to sorghum, pearl millet, cowpea, and groundnut. In Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), maize is one of the main staple crops, but multiple climate risks are reducing yields.Resilience in the context of climate change is broadly defined. Resilience has been \"the ability to anticipate, prepare for, and respond to hazardous events, trends, or disturbances related to climate\" (C2ES, 2019). It can also be defined as \"The ability to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change\" (Clarke, 2022). The formal IPCC definition is \"The ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or recover from the effects of a hazardous event in a timely and efficient manner, including through ensuring the preservation, restoration, or improvement of its essential basic structures and functions\" (IPCC, 2012) for adaptive planning. However, no single framework is suitable for all environmental, social, economic, and policy contexts (Boylan et al., 2018). The authors' conceptual framework (Figure 3) contextualizes climate resilience within smallholder farming systems in selected developing countries in North, East, West and Southern Africa, and Southern Asia.The research-oriented framework adopts the widely conceptualized interrelation between resilience, vulnerability, and adaptive capacity (Fellmann, 2012).  et al., 2012;Belay et al., 2017). Identifying strategies that increase smallholder adaptive capacity can potentially enhance productivity and income (Cacho et al., 2020). CSA can help farmers, service providers, and institutions respond effectively to climate change impacts (Mottram et al., 2017).Resilience is difficult to measure; therefore, it is most often disaggregated into proxy outcomes. The commonly indicators used in measuring resilience include using certain farm management practices and their impact on agricultural productivity, social resilience indicators, e.g., impacts on women' s labor, nutrition, and livelihoods, and mitigation practices, e.g., soil carbon sequestration (Bell et al., 2018). and social safety net programs, e.g., cash transfers, are also increasingly used to build resilience to climate shocks (Jayne et al., 2018;Asfaw & Davis, 2018). However, both farm and nationallevel adaptation practices are context-specific, with adoption responses varying under different environmental, economic, and social conditions (Bayala et al., 2012).Adaptation strategies depend on the climate change effects a region or country faces and the country's macroeconomic, institutional, and structural policies (IMF, 2020). Most climate change adaptation measures require advanced planning and large investments, and the need for planned capitalintensive adaptation is greater in regions that are highly vulnerable to climate change effects. Thus, adaptation practices vary between regions in terms of scope, scale, investment, and human resource requirements. Moreover, most currently available adaptation strategies are aimed at immediate, short-term adaptations. These practices will not necessarily be able to help farmers cope with the impacts of increased and more severe shocks. There is a dire need to strengthen farmers coping capacity for long-term climate change (Orindi & Murray, 2016).Adaptation responses vary regionally but commonly require substantial resources. The ideal adaptation responses offer both short-term and long-term benefits. Adaptation responses (Table 1) considerably vary across regions based on regional agro-ecological, climatic, economic, social, and political structures. However, one common characteristic across Africa and Asia is the allocation of substantial resources for adaptation practices in the agriculture, energy, forests, transport, and water sectors. Regardless of nationally specific factors, the most useful adaptation responses offer both fairly short-term development benefits and reduce longer-term vulnerabilities (Mimura et al., 2015). For this reason, multi-sectoral adaptation strategies, such as bundling adaptation practices with natural resource management or agricultural risk mitigation tools, are ideal for addressing multifaceted climate risks. For example, climate information services can be integrated with water resource management tools (such as the Water and Climate Information System (WCIS)) to provide timely information on seasonal risks to agricultural production. This section synthesizes and analyzes climaterisk profiles of 15 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, India, Cote d'Ivôire, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Togo, Tunisia, Vietnam, and Zambia. These countries were selected for a study of value chain adaptation potential by the Green Innovation Centres (GIC).A synthesis of adaptation practices across regions shows similarities and differences in farm-level measures taken to increase resilience and maximize productivity along priority value chains. This is attributable to the nature of agricultural value chains, interventions and innovations from institutions, and farming households' socio-economic and environmental characteristics. Our synthesis categorizes the current adaptation measures (Table 2): soil and water management, water harvesting and conservation, disease and pest management, genetic improvement, post-harvest management, agronomic management, and improved animal husbandry.Adaptation strategies are used in root and tuber production in all regions of focus: South and South East Asia and throughout Africa. Genetic improvement of crops, particularly the use of improved cassava, sweet potato, and potato (Irish and English) varieties that are tolerant to drought and heat, is common in all regions. Farmers in all regions also use soil and nutrient management practices to help their root and tuber production adapt to  Each observation must have one or more improved management practices in the ET that are not present in the CT. An improved practice may be compared to an equivalent unimproved practice in the CT, e.g., reduced tillage in the ET and conventional tillage in the CT. An improved practice can also be an addition, where an equivalent practice is absent from the control, e.g., organic fertilizer added to the ET only. Improved management practices shared between the ET and the CT must be identical, and the CT cannot have an improved practice that is not in the ET. However, there are some pragmatic exceptions allowed. For example, weed management can differ in comparisons of tillage methods (herbicide use in conservation agriculture, mechanical weed clearance by tillage in conventional practice). Shared improved practices are called 'base practices'. For example, if the ET and the CT have the same amount of manure added, using organic fertilizer is a shared base practice.ERA uses a hierarchical system to structure and describe agriculture management practices (three tiers), experimental outcomes (four tiers), and crop or animal products (three tiers). The analyses conducted in this paper use an intermediate level of practice description. For example, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and urea-based inorganic fertilization practices are combined into a single inorganic fertilizer practice, and plant product descriptions are aggregated into categories like cereals or legumes. The most detailed description Distribution of unique locations with crop yield data in ERA. Figure 4 is used for experimental outcomes, i.e., the subindicator tier. As there are insufficient data in the literature to explore individual crops, specific locations, and base practices, when possible, they are treated as random effects in the analysis.We subdivide ERA data into rainfed crop yield observations with spatial uncertainty of less than 10km (Figure 4). Planting dates and spatial location were used to link ERA observations to daily climate information from CHIRPS v2.0 and NASA POWER. Seasonal time series of daily weather data were then used to derive climate statistics, such as total rainfall, dry spell duration, and growing degree days for the entire growing season or a 30-day window post-planting. If planting dates in ERA had an uncertainty of between 7-90 days, a threshold of 30mm of rain falling over two days was used to estimate the planting date from daily rainfall data. Where sufficient data existed in ERA, the median observed growing season length across all unique crop data was used to define the end of the season. Where ERA lacked data, growing season length was substituted from the ECOCROP dataset. ECOCROP also provided the thermal optima and absolute thresholds used to determine growing degree days within a growing season. An interactive R-markdown script was developed to explore how agronomic practices (ET vs. CT) interact with climate hazards to impact crop yields. The relative change in crop yields (Y) is calculated from a ratio YR = Y adoption / Y non-adoption . Whereas the change under hazard conditions is the difference in relative performance between hazard and non-hazard conditions (YR hazard -YR normal ). Note that we use response ratios in our statistical models-the natural log of the yield ratio-and then back-transform these for classification purposes.The analysis explores the relative change in crop yield due to adopting a management practice under normal conditions (see Tables 3-6) and in the presence of climate hazards. The climate hazards included in the analysis are low rainfall, dry spells during the growing season, post-planting dry spells, and heat. The summary of the individual crops is in Annex 3, Table 1. A comparison of the impact or effect of adaptation practices was made for cereals and legumes in Annex 3, Table 2. The impact on yield for selected adaptation practices is described below.The application of inorganic fertilizer produces a strong yield benefit under normal conditions. The impact is, however, higher for cereals than for legumes. For instance, the use of inorganic fertilizer can increase cereal yields by more than 33%, compared to legumes under typical conditions (Table 3). However, under climate change conditions (low rainfall, dry spells, and heat), inorganic fertilizer has a stronger yield impact on legumes than on cereals. Dry spells have a significant impact, with a moderate effect of a 10-33% yield increase, though the other climate change conditions have a nonsubstantial change. For cereals, this represents a -10% to +10% difference compared to non-hazard conditions, meaning inorganic fertilizer does not improve yields, on average, when a climate hazard is present. Therefore, the cereal yields of adopters and non-adopters are likely to be similar in the face of climate hazards. If inorganic fertilizer adoption conferred resistance to a climate hazard, we would expect yields of non-adopters to decline more than the yields of adopters, therefore increasing the difference between the yield ratios. Mulching positively affects cereal and legume yields under normal conditions, although the effect is more significant for cereals (Table 4). However, the yield benefits of mulching change under hazard conditions for cereals. While mulching confers a modest yield bonus for cereals under normal conditions, it provides a significant yield benefit when dry spells or low rainfall hazards are present. Mulch does not appear to impact legume yields under low rainfall conditions significantly. For cereal production under climate change conditions, farmers who adopt mulch use will likely have more stable yields, i.e., less significant yield declines, than non-adopters. In summary, mulch alone does not greatly improve cereal productivity under normal conditions, but if cereal farmers face drought or dry spell hazards, then there is good evidence that the adoption of mulching will help reduce yield losses. Water harvesting has a moderate effect on cereal production under normal conditions. Water harvesting, or collecting rainwater or run-off, can help farmers withstand dry spells and heat hazards while modestly improving cereal yields under normal conditions (Table 5). Under climate change risk conditions, however, the effects of water harvesting are mixed. For cereal production, water harvesting is correlated with yield declines under low rainfall conditions. This may be because there is less water to harvest under low rainfall, so the practice becomes difficult to implement. On the other hand, water harvesting is correlated with yield increases under heat conditions. The reverse is true for legume production. Water harvesting increases legume yields by 33% under low rainfall conditions but is correlated with legume yield declines under heat hazard conditions. Multiple studies have confirmed these results. While water harvesting increases cereal production during the dry planting season, its effect on legumes cannot be quantified. While the use of yield ratios allows us to combine data and conduct synthetic research, we must remember that changes in yield ratio can be due to changes in either one or both of the denominator and numerator, so care is needed in their interpretation. In some, but not all, cases, bundling adaptation practices provides greater productivity and climate hazard resistance benefits than using the component practices alone. The impacts of bundled practices on cereal yields are shown in Table 6. The impact of bundled practices is mixed in cereal production. For example, when used alone, inorganic fertilizer boosts cereal yields under normal conditions but offers minimal benefit under changing climatic conditions. Similarly, applying organic fertilizer alone increases yields (Annex 3 -Table 2) under normal conditions but does not improve yields during low rainfall and dry spells. However, bundling inorganic fertilizer with organic fertilizer appears to confer resistance to heat stress, which may be via an indirect mechanism such as improved crop health and vigor. Bundling of inorganic fertilizer with crop residue offers cereals more resilience to climate hazards apart from heat. Bundling inorganic fertilizer with mulch provides resilience to dry spells.Nonetheless, the evidence base for bundled practices compared to their components is relatively small in most cases. The previous findings may be due to the signal of an impact being lost in noise due to insufficient statistical power. Numerous other practices that benefit cereal productivity under normal conditions show little or non-significant evidence for resistance to climate hazards. This could either mean that the practice does not help the crop be resilient in the face of a climate hazard or that the practice has a variable response that depends on the context. Adopting these practices will still boost yields over non-adopters if a hazard is present, but there is no strong evidence that these practices maintain yields at normal levels under hazard conditions. While our analysis is cuttingedge and offers new evidence-based insights from rigorous studies, it is limited by the amount of data in available in ERA. In particular, the data science and analytical frameworks developed for ERA should be applied to investigate the potential of switching crop varieties to adapt to drought and heat stresses.Compared to cereals, little data are available for legume-based systems exposed to climate hazards, reflecting a major gap in African agronomic research that may bias the results. The NPV measures the incremental flow of net benefits from the practice over its lifecycle, while the IRR is the discount rate that equates NPV to zero. A higher IRR indicates a high profitability potential. The payback period is the number of years it takes to recoup the initial investment. The probability (in terms of percentage) of net loss was computed to assess the risk of investing in a given adaptation practice. Based on the availability of data from experts and farmers, CBA was computed across countries for three main adaptation practices that were ranked as having the greatest potential for climate change adaptation. These practices, discussed in chapter 3.1, are agronomic management, e.g., GAPs, which includes minimum tillage and SRI, water harvesting and irrigation, e.g., solar-powered and drip irrigation, and genetic improvement, i.e., improved varieties of heat-and drought-tolerant crops. Annex 4, Table 1 summarizes the results for each indicator.A comparison between the use of solar pumps for irrigation in Mali and drip irrigation for tomato and potato production in Tunisia and India shows cost variation (Annex 4, Table 1). The payback period for using solar irrigation is six years, compared to three or four years for drip irrigation. This might be explained by the higher installation and implementation costs required for solar pumps. For instance, the cost of installing a solar pump in Mali is US$22,781 per ha, but the cost of a drip irrigation system in India and Tunisia is US$4,570 and US$7,606 per ha, respectively. The cost of maintaining the solar pumps is much higher than drip irrigation' s maintenance costs. However, the operation costs are higher for drip than for solar irrigation. As indicated by the positive NPV (Figure 5), farmers are assured of making profitable returns and higher yields from the production of potatoes and tomatoes, but at different scales. Using solar irrigation can be termed a low-risk investment as there is only a 20% probability of incurring losses; however, drip irrigation is a low-moderate risk investment at 37-57% risk. Nonetheless, drip irrigation is profitable and has a high IRR and short payback period. As such, it may be preferred by some farmers (See Case Study 1).The investment in improved drought-and heattolerant varieties of legumes and pulses has a short payback period of 1 year. The investments are also low risk, as the probability of unprofitable returns is between 9-25%. This explains why the practice has been widely adopted in smallholder farming systems. However, there is national variation in costs. For example, the implementation costs of growing improved soybeans in Zambia are very high compared to Malawi. This could be because of the varieties available in each country. However, the profitability is also slightly higher in Zambia. Fava bean is the most affordable legume to produce, as the costs are lower and profitability higher compared to soybean. This explains its dominance in countries like Ethiopia. Similarly, minimum tillage as a practice for improved management of soil nutrients has high maintenance costs, but typically results in higher profits (see Case Study 2 and Figure 6).Drip irrigation has the potential of conserving water particularly during dry seasons Farmers who use drip irrigation realize 52% more yield per unit/ha compared to conventional irrigation practicesCBA of business-as-usual vs. drip irrigation in tomato production, IndiaThe implementation, operation, and maintenance of the drip irrigation system require a little over 30% more capital than business-as-usualThe NPV is positive at USD 4474/ha thus it can be termed as a profitable venture The payback period for investing in the variety is about 2.5 years It is a low to moderate risk investment with a 37% probability of making losses Investments in the production of roots and tubers have minimal risks. For example, the production of potatoes in Cameroon carries a 2% risk of making losses, and the risk associated with using improved cassava varieties in Cote d'Ivôire is 0%. Local potato varieties in Mali have a less than 3% risk of being unprofitable, although farmers must wait for five years to benefit from the production. Most farmers prefer to produce improved tubers with a shorter payback period of one year. Across all the production regions, roots and tubers have both the highest maintenance costs but also the greatest benefits compared to legumes, cereals, and vegetables such as tomatoes.SRI is more profitable than GAPs for rice production in Africa. As observed from the CBA results for SRI in Mali and GAPs in Nigeria, the risks between the two practices have a negligible difference. Overall, the production costs for GAPs in rice production are lower, and so are the returns. Although farmers have to incur extra costs to implement of SRI, results show that it can help build resilience among rice farmers amidst the changing climatic conditions. The use of improved rice varieties, though expensive, also can potentially improve yields (see Case Study 3 and Figure 7).In the groundnut chain in Zambia, combining good management practices and minimum tillage can conserve water and provide superior yields, boosting yields by up to 80%.CBA on business-as-usual vs. minimum tillage and good management practice, Zambia The implementation and maintenance require 4% more capital than business-as-usual The NPV is positive at USD 2738/ha thus it can be termed as a profitable venture The payback period for investment is about a year thus its appealing to smallholder farmers The investment has a 25% probability of making losses A new rice variety called orylux was introduced recently in Burkina Faso The variety is suitable across all regions in the country due to its tolerance to water stress, thus it helps farmers cope with production during the dry spell The yields are higher per unit/ha compared to the local varietiesThe implementation and maintenance require 21% more capital, thus its capital intensive The NPV is positive at USD 2448/ha thus it can be termed as a profitable venture The payback period for investing in the variety is about a year with a 3% probability of making losses CBA of business-as-usual vs. the use of improved rice variety, Burkina FasoYield (kg/ha) Climate services help farmers make informed decisions and plan their farming activities based on the best available information (Vaughan et al., 2018).However, access to climate information alone does not drive the adoption of new practices: farmers must trust the information. Trust is most likely when the information comes from the farmers' existing knowledge network or from a source or product they already use, such as advisory services or insurance. These services can therefore support the scaling up of CSA practices by increasing farmers' likelihood of adopting adaptive practices (Born, 2021). Farmers' use of climate services has been linked to increased adoption and use of CSA practices like water management and multiple cropping (Djido et al., 2021).Agro-advisory and climate services help build climate resilience among farmers (Figure 8) and should be scaled up. Despite the existence of a strong enabling environment for climate change adaptation and resilience, institutional gaps remain.Institutional arrangements play a critical role in moving adaptation strategies from planning to implementation (Mimura et al., 2015). This involves establishing structures, approaches, regulations, frameworks, or standards at the national, regional, and local levels to steer adaptation action and plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate adaptation practices. The major challenges undermining the implementation of climate change initiatives include weak institutional networks and a lack of institutional capacity. Weak institutional capacity can prevent or slow the implementation of national adaptation policies, strategies, and plans. Other barriers include the absence of an integrated approach to adaptation, lack of clear roles and responsibilities for monitoring and evaluation, and inadequate supporting legislation (Azhoni et al., 2017;Robinson, 2018;Pardoe et al., 2018;Orru et al., 2018;Ranabhat et al., 2018). Robust collaboration among key stakeholders at all levels can help strengthen institutional capacity by opening up additional funding, achieving economies of scale, enabling stakeholders to share knowledge and expertise, and facilitating partnerships in implementing, monitoring, and evaluating adaptation initiatives (Burton, 2016). Rural smallholder farmers' inadequate access to financial services also limits their adaptation potential. This is exacerbated by the high poverty rates, which limits farmers' ability to invest in sustainable land practices. Farmers with access to capital or finance can purchase quality inputs, equipment, and machinery, enabling them to improve their adaptive capacity. Despite private sector efforts to make credit and financial services accessible to rural farmers, most rural smallholders in the 15 focus countries still lack access to finance. For example, banks in India are reluctant to give credit to farmers due to policies affecting loan waivers and write-offs. These policies primarily affect rural credit institutions.Cultural norms also have a direct impact on the resilience of production systems. Women play a key role in agricultural production worldwide. However, in many societies, women are primarily considered to be caregivers, and in most instances, they are left out of farm management decisions. Failure to involve women and youth in agriculture contributes to low resilience. For example, despite women' s role in Vietnam' s agricultural sector, they have limited access to resources, limiting their capacity to adopt new production technologies (Gallina & Farnworth, 2016). In Mozambique, most women are involved in agriculture primarily as laborers, but the gender inequalities limits their inclusion in decision-making particularly on land use (ADECRU et al., 2018). The full inclusion of women in agriculture should be promoted as part of climate change adaptation policy. the linkages between stakeholders so that smallholders can realize their adaptation potential.Our recommendations, which are informed by our analysis findings, are synthesized in this section.Adaptation to climate change and variability has great potential to increase long-term resilience, and a long list of adaptation practices already exists. These adaptation practices are, however, contextspecific. The best practices for a given area depend on the magnitude of the hazards, the value chain in question, and the capacity of farmers to implement practices at scale. Nevertheless, despite regional differences, the trends in adaptation practices across Africa and Asia bear some similarities. This could signal that even though climatic hazards affect different regions with different frequencies and intensities, all these regions are affected similarly by climatic shocks. For instance, droughts, floods, high temperatures, and variations in the length and intensity of rainfall have been mapped as frequent hazards across these regions. Farmers should thus prioritize practices that can help them be resilient in the face of these likely hazards both before and during the production season. Currently, widespread adaptation strategies to help farmers face these hazards include using irrigation, improved crop varieties and livestock breeds that can tolerate harsh conditions, and GAPs. Policymakers and practitioners should focus on ensuring the timely and appropriate implementation of these practices, so farmers maximize potential benefits.More research is needed on additional adaptation approaches to building long-term resilience. Current approaches to long-term agricultural resilience include the Resilience Design approach, the Adaptive Management approach, and the Robust Decision-Making Approach. The Resilience Design (RD) approach is a suite of adaptation strategies and practices that can help farmers strengthen their resilience and improve their farm design (Mottram et al., 2017). The Adaptive Management approach is a selection of strategies that can be modified for improved farm performance (Mereu et al., 2018). Finally, the Robust Decision-Making Approach (RDMA) is at times preferred to the adaptive management approach in cases where incremental adaptation is impossible to achieve (Adger et al., 2007). However, most of these approaches are still nascent, requiring research to validate their applicability and impact at scale.  (Hadgu et al., 2019). Farmers often rely primarily on traditional medication in managing crop and livestock diseases. Scientifically, it has been proven that traditional herbs and plants like aloe vera are significant in treating poultry diseases and are less harmful to the environment. It may be worth investing in producing pesticides using traditional herbs or training farmers on the best methods of using traditional and modern medication in a complementary way.Poor access to timely climate information needed for decision-making is another barrier to increased climate change adaptation. As adverse effects of climate change are predicted to become more severe, countries in Africa need to generate, disseminate and effectively use climate information and other services. Successful adaptation to the impacts of climate change depends on establishing well-functioning and robust CIS (Ozor et al., 2021). These systems draw on information from a wide range of national, regional, and global sources. The delivery of financial services provides climate change solutions through strategic funding for implementing adaptation measures (Finley & Schuchard, 2011). Our economic analysis using the CBA shows that farmers are likely to bear the costs associated with implementing, maintaining, and operating climate change adaptation practices. Some of these practices are capital-intensive, which makes them inaccessible to resource-constrained farmers. Therefore, it is important to prioritize costeffective practices, innovations, and technologies that farmers are more likely to be able to adopt. In addition, governments and organizations should prioritize providing external financial and technical support to enable farmers to adopt good practices they cannot afford to implement on their own. Financial support is particularly important during the implementation phase of technology adoption, as this is the most expensive phase for most practices.Developing countries need about $70 billion annually to adapt to climate change. This cost is expected to increase to $140-300 billion/year by 2030 and $280-500 billion/year by 2050 (UNEP, 2021). The African continent alone requires $7-15 billion per year (ADB, 2021), while the Asian continent needs $40 billion annually for climate risk adaptation through 2030 (ADB, 2021). However, funding for adaptation remains very low at global, regional, and national levels.Currently, funding falls short of what is needed to avoid costly and catastrophic future impacts (CPI, 2018).National government institutions and private sector agencies must build the capacity to access multilateral climate funds and attract private investment through blended financing (SAIIA, 2021). In addition, governments could attract finance by introducing public finance instruments. These include blended finance, making soft loans to infrastructure projects that add resilience to their designs at an additional cost, supporting other mechanisms to reduce uncertainty and cost for early-stage funding of new climate-smart technologies, and making direct investments into adaptation projects (CPI, 2018;Tall et al., 2021).Annex 1:An interactive R-markdown script was developed to explore how agronomic practice (ET vs CT) interacts with climate hazards to impact crop yields. The major steps in the process are:1. Set minimum data requirements (each practice x crop investigated required at least 3 studies contributing 10 seasonal observations in total with at least 3 of these observations containing hazard conditions).2. Choose focal crop (or crop group), temporal window (seasonal or post-planting) and management practices (we selected all with sufficient data).3. Check for yield outliers and remove as necessary.4. Check for rainfall outliers and remove as necessary.5. Define climate hazards by choosing a precalculated climate statistic and splitting it into categories. For the growing season and post-planting period we calculated following hazards: 1) low rainfall (drought); 2) high rainfall (waterlogging); 3) dry spells; 4) hot spells. Hazards are described in Table 1 and the crop specific climate hazards used with data sources are described in Annex Table 1 .6. Subset practices x crop x management to those studies with sufficient data to explore the interaction of climate hazard x management (i.e., climate hazard needs to be present).7. Analyse each subset of crop x management data using a simple linear mixed effects model of the form:The dependent variables in the analysis were the response ratio of crop yieldsand the difference in crops yieldResponse ratios show the relative change in yields between ET and CT, because they are a relative measure we can compare across different crops. Yield difference is a measure of the absolute difference in yields between ET and CT, and this cannot be used to compare across different crops. As agricultural publications rarely present errors, meta-analysis (Pittelkow et al., 2015) requiring a measure of sample variance was not possible. Therefore, we weighted observations based on the replications as follows:Repc.ijkl × Rept.ijkl Repc.ijkl + Rept.ijkl n jkl i ƩWhere Repc and Rept are the number of replicates for the control and experimental treatments, respectively; i is the observation; j is the publication, i.e., the experiment; k is the management practice; and l is the outcome sub-indicator. 8,23 The contributions of individual data points are down-weighted (penalised) by the total number of observations contributed by a study respective to each subset of data analysed.The results of the markdown analyses were exported, combined and then summarized and subset to results with at least 3 studies providing observations under hazard conditions. The raw data tables can be found in Annex Table 2 and Annex Table 3 and complete summaries in Annex Table 4 and Annex Table 5. Annex 2: Climate hazards exposure • Areas where the coefficient of variation of annual rainfall (the standard deviation divided by the mean, expressed as a percentage) is currently greater than the median value for the global tropics (24%). In lower latitudes, climate change is projected to increase this variability, making both cropping and rangeland production more risky. Because we have little information on the nature of this variability change, we used current variability as a proxy for future variability.• For relative flood risk, grid cells in the top two deciles (most risky) of the data set of Dilley et al. (2005) were defined as high-risk flooding areas.• For relative drought risk, grid cells in the top two deciles (most risky) of the data set of Dilley et al. (2005) were defined as high-risk drought areas.For future climate hazards, we used downscaled climate projections from 17 CMIP5 global climate models using the methods in Jones and Thornton (2009;2013;2015) and climatologies for the 2050s as projected in response to RCP 8.5. Two climate hazard thresholds were defined in relation to climate and how changes to the 2050s might affect different facets of agriculture and food security:• Reduction in the number of reliable crop growing days per year below 90, a critical threshold (Nachtergaele et al., 2002), mostly due to changes in rainfall distributions and amounts;• Areas in which the average maximum daily temperature during the primary growing season moves above 30˚C by the 2050s, a critical threshold for several major crops (Boote et al., 1998;Prasad et al., 2008).Table 1: Crop suitability thresholds used to inform climate hazard classification by crop. Topt = thermal optima, Tabs = thermal maxima. Rain Min/Max are the minimum/maximum amounts of rainfall required for optimal crop growth.Table 2: Practice x Crop x Climate Hazard results. The ClimVar column shows the specific climate variable used: Rain.L0.1.Max.Seq = the maximum sequence length of consecutive days where rainfall is less than 0.1mm, Rain.sum = the sum of rainfall for the period specified, Tmax.TG30.Max.RSeq or Tmax.TG35.Max.Rseq = the maximum sequence length of consequence days where maximum temperatures exceed 30˚ or 35˚C. The Hazard column shows the threshold value used to classify the climate variable in to hazard vs non-hazard: GT = greater than, LT = less than (for example Rain.sum and LT.400 means when the sum of rainfall is less than 400mm then a climate hazard is present. The Hazard Class column is a high level description of the climate hazard into one of drought, heat or waterlogging type hazards. The Period column shows the time period being considered, either the whole growing season or a 30 day post planting period (30 DAS). Data availability for an analysis is indicated by the Min Studies and Min Obs columns, these values are based on the climate hazard only (which invariably has less data available than non-hazard conditions). The Diff and Diff Sig columns show the mean yield difference (t ha -1 ) and if this is significantly different from zero between adoption and non-adoption of the practice under non-hazard conditions. The Diff Delta and Diff Delta Sig columns show the change in the mean yield difference when a hazard is present (e.g. if no-hazard is 1 t ha -1 and hazard is 0.75 t ha -1 then Diff Delta = -0.25 t ha -1 ) and whether the interaction term of management x climate hazard in the linear mixed effect model is significant. The RR columns follow the same logic as the Diff columns but describe the response ratio (i.e., ln (yield adopted /yield not adopted )) rather than the yield difference. Yield difference is an absolute measure of change under hazard and response ratio a relative measure. Symbols in the Sig column are * P<=0.05, ** P<=0.01, and *** P<=0.001. ","tokenCount":"6800"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f751d8aa91a529e6a8c3a1246ca0709d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4224cf0a-915e-47db-8aa1-cda96e733202/retrieve","id":"1358424070"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1be68da1-6299-4d13-920d-52a9dbb1be32","pagecount":"16","content":"CIP) contribuyen con información importante sobre el desarrollo para el dominio público. Los lectores están autorizados a citar o reproducir este material en sus propias publicaciones. Se solicita respetar los derechos de autor del IIN, AP y CIP y enviar una copia de la publicación donde se realizó la cita o publicó el material al Departamento de Comunicaciones, a la dirección que se indica abajo.Una adecuada nutrición en la primera etapa de la vida es esencial para consolidar un adecuado crecimiento y desarrollo.La anemia y el retardo de crecimiento son los principales problemas de salud en la población infantil. En los últimos años, también el sobrepeso y la obesidad se presentan como amenazas a una buena nutrición infantil con consecuencias negativas a lo largo de la vida adulta.A continuación, se presentan los mensajes más importantes para mejorar la alimentación durante la primera infancia, prevenir la malnutrición y evitar la anemia.Estos mensajes fueron seleccionados de la \"Guías alimentarias para niñas y niños menores de 2 años de edad del Instituto Nacional de Salud, Ministerio de Salud, Perú, 2021\", y son explicados de forma sencilla y corta, con ejemplos de alimentos y preparaciones de la zona, para contribuir al buen desarrollo de las sesiones de consejería nutricional impartidas por el personal de salud en los distritos de Julcán y Sanchez Carrión, región La Libertad.Este material es desarrollado en el contexto del Proyecto Anemia Cero implementado por el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Asociación Pataz (AP) e Instituto de Investigación Nutricional (IIN) en la región de la Libertad y no pretende reemplazar las guías alimentarias oficiales para niñas y niños menores de 2 años de edad.que necesita para crecer sano.1. \"Hasta que cumpla 6 meses, tu bebé sólo necesita leche materna, cuando la pida, a libre demanda, para que crezca sano e inteligente\"La leche materna le brinda a tu bebé todos los nutrientes necesarios para conseguir un buen crecimiento y el fortalecimiento de su sistema inmunológico en estos primeros seis meses de su vida.La leche materna tiene toda el agua que el bebé necesita para estar bien hidratado, por lo tanto, no necesita darle agua ni matecitos para calmar la sed.2. \"Suplementa con hierro a tu bebé a partir de los 4 meses de edad\"Necesitamos prevenir la anemia en todos los bebés.Por ello, desde los 4 meses de edad deben recibir Sulfato Ferroso o Complejo Polimaltosado Férrico (hierro) en gotas, con el propósito de cubrir sus necesidades de este mineral.El hierro es un mineral que ayuda a tu bebé con su desarrollo cognitivo, es decir el aumento de su capacidad de pensar y razonar, y lo protege de las enfermedades. Las gotitas de hierro que recibirá serán de acuerdo a las indicaciones dadas por el personal de salud.El consumo de hierro será una vez al día y por lo menos una hora antes de la leche materna. 3. \"Después de los 6 meses de edad continúa dándole leche materna a tu bebé hasta los 2 años de edad\"La leche materna sigue siendo muy importante para tu bebé después de los 6 meses de edad pues le aporta gran parte de la energía que necesita para crecer sano e inteligente. Es recomendable dársela hasta los 2 años de edad y posteriormente, si es que la madre y el bebé así lo desean, de esta manera estarán más protegidos frente a muchas enfermedades.4. \"A partir de los 6 meses de edad tu bebé ya debe empezar a comer otros alimentos diferentes a la leche materna, para que siga creciendo sano y fuerte\"La introducción de alimentos diferentes a la leche materna a partir de los 6 meses de edad permite que esté expuesto a una variedad de texturas y consistencias, contribuyendo así al desarrollo de sus habilidades motoras como la masticación.Una introducción tardía de alimentos adecuados en consistencia y variedad contribuye a la presencia de problemas de salud como el retardo del crecimiento y la anemia, lo cual afecta el desarrollo físico, neurológico y el sistema inmunológico del niño.Hay que tener en cuenta que las madres de la zona consideran que los mejores alimentos para empezar a dar de comer a esta edad son los alimentos \"suaves\" como el arroz, la papa, la zanahoria, el zapallo. También el huevo, el hígado de pollo, la3 4 5. \"Poco a poco vas a ir aumentando la cantidad de alimentos que le das a tu niño y niña en cada comida, conforme crece y se desarrolla según su edad\"Los niños y niñas regulan la cantidad de energía que ingieren de acuerdo a la densidad de las preparaciones (calorías que va a proporcionar la preparación en relación a la cantidad) y a la frecuencia de la alimentación.Se recomienda empezar a los 6 meses de edad con cantidades pequeñas de alimentos e ir aumentando la cantidad conforme crece el niño mientras se mantiene la lactancia materna. carne de pollo. Los fideos son considerados suaves, pero no tan nutritivos, y pueden empezar a darse desde los 6 meses, por lo que podemos aprovechar de esta percepción para la consejería nutricional y recomendar su consumo.También es una muy buena oportunidad para fomentar el uso de las \"papas puño de hierro\", que son un grupo de papas con mayor contenido de nutrientes como la vitamina C, el zinc y el hierro que otras papas. Además, tienen un buen rendimiento en el campo y es resistente a plagas, lo que las hace muy atractivas para ser sembradas en los campos. Este grupo de papas, acompañadas de otros alimentos como la sangrecita, el hígado, bazo u otra carne, contribuyen a darles una buena nutrición a los niños y niñas, y a disminuir la anemia.Al igual que otras papas, las papas puño de hierro también son \"chapito\" (suavecito).Es importante que no se ofrezcan alimentos como infusiones, té, café a los niños conjuntamente con alimentos que tengan hierro para evitar la disminución del aprovechamiento de este nutriente. 6. \"Dale cada día a tu niño y niña un alimento de origen animal como bazo, sangrecita, hígado, carnes, pescado o huevo\"A partir de los 6 meses de edad es muy importante incluir alimentos de origen animal en su alimentación. El consumo de carne, hígado, cerdo y aves de corral contribuyen a un buen crecimiento, a un buen desarrollo psicomotor y a un buen estado de hierro en la sangre previniendo de esta manera la anemia. Si bien algunos bebés todavía no tienen dientes a esta edad, podemos empezar a darle estos alimentos aplastados, luego picados y luego, cuando este más grande y pueda masticar mejor, darle los alimentos enteros.En la zona podemos encontrar alimentos de este tipo como: huevo de gallina, pescado, cuy, hígado de res, pollo, bofe, carnero entre otros. Con estos alimentos se pueden hacer preparaciones como: saltado de hígado de pollo, saltado de bofe, estofado de pollo, ensalada de atún, etc.Todos los alimentos de origen animal son considerados buenos por las madres de la zona, sin embargo, los alimentos como el huevo, el hígado de pollo, el cuy, son más apreciados por ser suaves y que pueden consumirse desde temprana edad por lo que podemos iniciar las recomendaciones con estos alimentos y poco a poco ir introduciendo los demás.Pollo Huevos 6 7. \"Continúa dándole su suplementación de hierro, además de sus alimentos para evitar la anemia\"A partir de los 6 meses debes continuar dando a tu bebé un suplemento de hierro, ya sea como gotas, jarabe o polvo, de acuerdo a las indicaciones del personal de salud.Además, a esta edad debes introducir alimentos ricos en hierro para evitar la anemia, porque la leche materna ya no le brinda la cantidad suficiente de este nutriente que el niño necesita.Acompaña los suplementos de hierro con una bebida natural cítrica, como limonada, naranjada, etc. y evita darle alimentos como bebidas gaseosas, té, chocolate, etc. porque disminuyen la absorción del hierro.Sulfato ferroso en diferentes presentaciones © andina.pe 7 8. \"Cada día ofrece a tu niño frutas y verduras de tu chacra o de la temporada para que crezca sano y no se enferme seguido\"Es muy importante el consumo de frutas y verduras desde los primeros años de edad ya que son alimentos naturales que aportan vitaminas, minerales y fibra, ayudando a fortalecer el sistema inmune y evitando el estreñimiento. Además, así fomentamos su gusto y consumo de estos alimentos desde pequeñitos.Las verduras y las frutas pueden formar parte de las comidas o pueden ser dadas como refrigerios.Algunas formas de dar estos alimentos en la zona son triturados o enteros, y son incluidos en preparaciones como ensaladas de verduras, tortillas, guisos, sopas espesas. Ejemplos: tortilla de espinaca con quinua, quinua con manzana, sopa espesita de habas con verduras, ensalada de verdura con atún, sopa espesita de trigo con verduras, frutas enteras.Entre las frutas y las verduras más consumidas en la zona y que se pueden encontrar sin dificultad tenemos: plátano, mandarina, naranja, hojas verdes de espinaca, tomate, zanahoria, zapallo, brócoli, entre otras.Es importante lavar bien los alimentos antes de dárselos a los niños y niñas, así como lavarles bien las manos antes de comer.papa puño de hierro sancochada. Y está sano y fuerte.• Un atado de hojas tiernas de quinua • 4 cabezas de cebolla china • Una cucharada de ajo molido • 1/8 de aceite • 1kg de papa puño de hierro sancochada • SalLavar y picar las hojas de quinua. En una olla freír el ajo, la cebolla china picada y las hojas de quinua, agregar sal, dejar cocer por 15 minutos, servir con papa sancochada. En una fuente colocar una capa de papa, luego agregar la ensalada de zanahoria y beterraga, colocar otra capa de papa, luego colocar la ensalada de atún, colocamos una capa más de papa y luego colocamos la sangrecita, por último, una capa de papa, luego servir con arroz blanco.Autora: Paulina Alfaro Neira• 1 hígado de pollo • Dos huevos • 100 gr de zapallo rayado • 3 ramitas de cebolla china • \"Arroz de trigo\" (arroz graneado)• Sal • PimientaSancochar el hígado de pollo con sal y cortar en trozos pequeños, batir los dos huevos, agregar el hígado de pollo picado, el zapallo rayado y cebolla china picada, mezclar todo y en una sartén con aceite caliente freír. Servir con \"arroz de trigo\".Autora: Paulina Alfaro Neira. Sancochar la quinua, lavar la sangre de pollo, luego sancocharla con ajo y hierbabuena, cortarla en trozos pequeños y aderezarla con sal y sillao; batir los huevos, freír por ambos lados y picar la tortilla resultante Reservar en un plato, agregar el kion molido, la cebolla china picada, la sangre de pollo aderezada, el pimiento picado en cuadraditos y la sal, mezclar e ir incorporando poco a poco la quinua sancochada, sillao, y la tortilla de huevos picada. Servir.","tokenCount":"1782"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"525ebe4cac8103d9a50206e74e672a66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/64817494-c098-4437-8b2b-9f5449b04550/retrieve","id":"1375813463"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"581d62eb-3f28-4b60-9057-daabef65eaee","pagecount":"1","content":"The livelihood of approximately 37 million people of the East African (EA) region is highly dependent on livestock. As the pressure for livestock products heightens with growing populations, already harsh environmental conditions are predicted only to worsen (Fisher et al. 2005; Thornton et al.  2007). In Cali, Colombia, the International Center of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is leading a cutting edge new breeding programme by developing improved forage varieties specially designed to succeed in the East AfricanHannah Oliphant 1 ; Brayan Mora 1 ; Julián Ramírez-Villegas 2 ; Valheria Castiblanco 1 . Here, we have presented a highly valuable method for measuring site similarity for future trials that will provide vital information for targeting genotypes to environments. We have successfully selected possible sites in Colombia for the initial testing and first culling of improved forages, which are representative in climate and soil conditions of the four East African clusters. The outcome of this analysis of environments will be compared against analysis of genotype by environment interaction from phenotypic data from each of the identified clusters. Using the entirely free R software, the method can be performed remotely and is easily replicable for other breeding programs and other regions. This method deviates slightly away from the traditional sense of looking to match genotypes to their most appropriate environmental niches (Hyman et al. 2013;Alabi et al. 2019) and propose instead to develop genotypes adapted to the target environmental conditions. Future analyses will include different climate change scenarios. From there, we can determine sites, which are similar to those of East Africa in 50 years from now, and use them to identify resilient hybrids under future climate predictions. This opens the door for plant breeders to choose testing sites in the present that are representative for target populations of future environments.  Table 1: Cluster comparision of the environmental zones of East Africa. † Cluster 1: Environment \"Medium -Bad\", places with a regular total rainfall but with a bad distribution of rainfall throughout the year. Cluster 2: Environment \"Good\", places with good total precipitation and with good distribution throughout the year. Cluster 3: \"Hostile\" environment, places with low total precipitation and poor distribution of rainfall throughout the year. Cluster 4: Environment \"Medium -Good\", places with regular total rainfall and good distribution of this throughout the year. ","tokenCount":"381"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c070c6512cea58568fc0f930fb921780","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/db6e15af-7cb7-424a-8caf-439482d65795/retrieve","id":"-1223859221"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b4a21210-5cea-4063-ad26-b98953e81e81","pagecount":"19","content":"• Promote local seed potato production through ARC technology.• Develop the seed potato sector in Karnataka through public-private partnerships.• Strengthen the capacity of farmers and Department of Horticulture (DoH) staff on ARC technology and seed business models.The project is being implemented in Hasan and Chickmagalur districts of Karnataka, India. CIP is closely working with the Green Innovation Centre (GIC) project, University of Horticultural Sciences (UHS) Bagalkot, and other relevant stakeholders in the area.This half-year report captures the project's progress from August 2020 to January 2021.ARC technology involves three major steps: tissue culture (TC), production of cuttings, and production of seeds.TC is the first step in ARC technology. The standard potato TC procedure is followed to produce disease-free TC plantlets. Mother culture is obtained from the Central Potato Research Institute and is used for further multiplication (Photo 1).Nodal segment culture, in which the axillary and apical buds grow into new plants, is used for initial shoot multiplication. The buds from these nodal segments grow into full plants within about three weeks. These plants are further subcultured on fresh medium. Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium is used in potato micropropagation, and agar is used as gelling agent.Plant tissue culture media is prepared mainly using different stock solutions. Table 1 shows the protocol followed for the preparation of nutrient stock solution based on MS medium. • To a small quantity of Millipore water, desired quantities of all the four stock solutions were integrated and dissolved properly using a hot plate cum magnetic stirrer with the avail of a magnetic flea. The quantity of each stock solutions, the amount of carbon source (sucrose), and different additives to be integrated to prepare 1 L of full-strength MS media is shown to the right. Also, pH is maintained at 5.7.• This media is poured into autoclaved glass bottles (300-ml capacity) at the rate of 30 ml/bottle. After autoclaving, the bottles with media are used for subculturing after three or four days.• Culturing: Disease-free stock plants obtained through meristem culture are used to multiply cuttings; one or two nodes each are cultured in bottles on semisolid propagation medium.• Incubation: Incubate the cultures at 22-25°C under a 16-h photoperiod using cool white fluorescent lights (56-60µE/m 2 s light intensity).• Subculture plants after every 20-25 days depending on growth response. Large number of in vitro plants produced by this method are used for ARC production or for further in vitro multiplication. Table 2 shows the progress of TC multiplication of three potato varieties. We standardized the ARC nursery techniques based on the field experience with various nurseries (see Photo 2, the three text boxes).Production of ARC involves two important stages: (1) multiplication of mother plants and (2) production of ARCs for planting.• Use of sugar instead of sucrose. Sucrose is one of the costliest carbon sources used in TC. A study was conducted wherein sugar is used instead of sucrose. We found no difference in the growth of TC plants.• Normally in TC labs, double distilled water is used for media preparation. Double distilled water contains no salts, and the TDS (total dissolved solids) of that water is 0. However, we successfully tried reverse osmosis (RO)-purified water instead of double distilled water. TDS of the RO water ranges between 30 and 40. Though double distilled water is preferred, RO water with low TDS can also be used (also reducing the cost).• Commercial-grade agar also gave similar results as those of lab grade, which is expensive.• Instead of test tubes, glass bottles/jars are preferred as they are more economical.• Some 15-20 nodal cuttings per each bottle/jar is more optimal than 10-25. With 10 nodal cuttings we are wasting media, and 25 cuttings are too crowded.• Standardized quantity of media to be used in each bottle/jar. Different trials were conducted to optimize the quantity of medium to be used per bottle. The results showed 30-35 ml/per bottle is optimum.• The standard practice has been to place the nodal cuttings vertically for culturing in the container. However, trials indicated that horizontal placing of nodal cuttings can also give similar results. Horizontal placement is preferred as it takes less time.• There is a varietal response for TC multiplication. Observed varieties 'K. Himalini' and 'K. Chipsona-4' have more vigorous growth than 'K. Jyoti'. On average, four or five nodal cuttings are possible in three weeks in 'K. Himalini' and 'K. Chipsona-4', whereas it is three or four nodes in 'K. Jyoti'. Also, more branching is seen 'K. Himalini'. General suggestions for good nursery management • Polyhouse is more suitable than a net house.• Use 40 mesh insect-proof net. Make sure it is not damaged (if damaged it should be repaired).• Use double-door system in nursery; both the doors should be closed always • Surrounding areas of the nursery should be clean. No plants related to potato family (e.g., tomato, brinjal, chili, tobacco and other weed plants) should be in and around the nursery. • Use white net to control light intensity, if its more useful than green net.• Do not enter the nursery after visiting farms. This may allow various pests and diseases to enter from the clothes and footwear. • Persons who work in the nursery should be clean, and entry to the nursery should be restricted.• Nurseries should be water/leak proof.• Use anti-weed mat to control the weeds in the nurseries.• Mother bed structures are formed by using bricks or nylon rope and 1-ft iron rods. The bed should be 4 ft wide of the bed, which helps make access easy from both the sides. The bed should be 4 in. high, which enables better root growth; bed length can be decided based on requirements.• After the basic structure is ready (Photo 3), place antiweed mat on the bed to hold the coir pith.• Use good quality, well decomposed enriched coir pith as the medium. Check the quality of the coir pith for pH (ideally, 6.5-7) and electrical conductivity (EC) before using. The EC should be less than 1.• Evenly water the bed before planting. Quality of irrigation water is important; check the quality annually.• After preparing the bed, make holes 4 in. apart and 2 in. deep.• Carefully remove the TC plantlets from the TC bottle without damaging the root, and wash it carefully to remove the excess media. TC plantlets 20-25 days old are more ideal for planting, as we observed better establishment compared with old plantlets.• Carefully place a single TC plantlet-two in case of small plantlets-in each hole and gently press the coir pith to cover the hole.• Do not water immediately after planting as it may damage the tender TC plants.• As a general practice, irrigate the bed one or two times based on the weather conditions. A rule of thumb rule is to not allow the bed to dry. Excess watering also affects the growth and establishment of plants.• In two or three weeks, these plantlets will establish well and be ready for their first cutting. Normally, cold climate in winter requires more time for cuttings compared with warm temperatures in summer.• Cut the apical portion of these mother plants at about 2 in. high, having two nodes and about four leaves.• Dip these apical cuttings in water for a second, and then plant in the bed (4 in. apart) following same procedure.• These newly planted cuttings start rooting in five or six days and will be ready for next cutting in about 12-15 days.• This cycle continues. By cutting the apical portion and planting in bed according to this process, we can increase the mother plant population. Each plantlet has a potential to multiply 250 plants in four months.• Mother beds produce small tubers (Photo 4), which can also be used for planting. On average, we get about two or three tubers from each mother plant.Photo 3. ARC mother bed.Photo 4. Tubers from mother bed.General pest and disease management in nurseries• It is expected that there should be no pests inside the nurseries; however, as a precaution, use yellow and blue sticky traps to control for sucking-pest damage in nurseries.• As a precautionary measure to control pest incidence, spray neem oil 3 ml/l or Sperotetramat (Ex: Movento OD) 1ml/l or Safidopyropen (Ex:Sefina) 2ml/l or Spinosad (Tracer/Spintor) 0.3 ml/l of water.• To control blight, spray Mancozeb 3g/l; if disease appears spray cymoxanil + Mancozeb 3 g/l, and if there is more incidence o disease, spray Dimethomorph 1g/l + Mancozeb 3g/l of water.• For root wilt, drench Fosytyl AI (Ex-aliette) 2g/l of water.• Once enough mother plants are produced and the season is favorable for field planting, the ARCs from the mother beds are planted in Protrays (98-cavity).• In 15-20 days, these cuttings will be ready for field transplantation, either in a net house or in open field.• Three or four days before field transplantation, reduce the quantity of water and increase the light intensity by managing shade. This ensures better hardening of plants.• On the day of transplanting, these well-rooted cuttings are transported to the main field by using crates or by carefully folding the trays and arranging in a vehicle.• These ARCs can also be transported long distances by air cargo using Thermocol boxes (Photo 5).Table 3 shows the private nurseries involved in ARC production. These nurseries are owned mostly by farmers. Photo 6 shows ARCs at various stages ready for transport and planting.General nutrient management practices in ARC nurseries• For better root growth and healthy plantlets production in nurseries, use 1g of humic acid and 5 g of Trichoderma per kg of coir pith used.• Spray water soluble NPK (19:19:19) 3 g/l and water soluble micronutrients 3 ml/l at 10 days' interval.• At 15 days' interval, spray 5 g/l of potassium Schoenite and 5 g/l of calcium nitrate.Photo 5. Packing in Thermocol boxes for longdistance transport of ARCs. Various capacity-building programs (both online and offline) on ARCs are being organized to train farmers, nursery personnel, farmer producer organizations (FPOs), development professionals of the Department of Horticulture, private organizations, and scientists from research stations. Though most of the participants were from the project area, many other online training programs are organized for persons outside the project area, both inside and outside of Karnataka. Sixteen events were organized; about 900 people were trained on the ARC technology (Table 6). Mass awareness programs. In collaboration with various stakeholders, awareness programs like field days are used to create awareness of ARCs. All India Radio broadcast these programs to reach a wider audience (Table 7). 2.7 Developing seed system for decentralized seed production CIP has introduced ARC technology for the first time in India to promote local seed production. CIP is closely working with existing farmer producer companies (FPCs), promoted by GIZ. As a sustainable strategy CIP is involving private nurseries for the production of cuttings and encouraging them to have a direct working relationship with the FPCs. The following system is developing:• As of now, TC multiplication is being done at university research stations with project support. However, Hoysala FPC is interested in having its own TC lab with technical guidance from CIP. This reduces the dependency, and ensures the timely availability of plantlets and for multiplying private varieties (e.g., FL-1533). GIZ is also encouraging this idea.• For ARC production, FPCs will have an agreement with private nurseries, depending on the demand from their members. For now, nurseries are getting TC plantlets from the project free of charge. However, to make it sustainable, they will be charged in coming seasons.• FPCs procure the cuttings for its members at an agreed price with the nurseries. These private nurseries will also sell cuttings to other farmers. Fresh cuttings are sold to other nurseries for further multiplication by them.• Encouraging farmers to plant ARCs in small areas, to begin with. Once they become confident, they can increase the area. We are targeting at least five farmers (G1 seed growers) from each village and have plans to reach about 50 villages. Later, for the second round of multiplication, these five farmers are expected to share the G1 seed with at least 10 farmers in the same village.We believe these 10-15 seed growers should be sufficient to produce quality seeds for the entire village.• Various field visits will be organized to the neighboring farmers to these seed production plots at various stages. This helps to build the farmers' confidence about the quality of the seed to be produced, while building rapport between seed growers and farmers. We expect that farmers would book the seeds with the seed growers while the crop is still in the field. (Indeed, we have already witnessed this, though in small numbers.) Fortunately, we have two potato seasons, unlike in most parts of India where there is only one season. Because of two seasons, seed multiplication happens very fast. Also, nurseries get the business for the most part of the year. Seed storage is a challenging task. Though Hassan has nine private cold storage facilities, local traders store the seeds procured from Punjab in these cold stores. We expect some challenges that these cold stores may not allow the farmers to use them, as there is a strong lobby between local traders and the cold stores. We have been discussing this with the local administration, who have assured farmers that they will convince them to use the stores. And although cold stores are best for seed storage, we are also exploring the possibility of low-cost storage structures to be established at the village level. State-level Technical Committee (SLTC) meetingGIZ organized an SLTC meeting on 3 November 2020, under the chairmanship of Mr. B. Venkatesh, director, DoH, Karnataka. Mr. Dhananjaya BN (GIZ) and Mr. Ravindranath Reddy (CIP) updated the committee about ARC's progress and future plans.2.10 Plan for next six months.• ARC data collection and analysis• International webinar on ARC technology• ARC multistakeholders workshop• Field days• Launching of seed production App• Setting up of loop mediated isothermal amplification system for disease diagnosis• ARC nurseries capacity building• Production of ARC cuttings (25 lakhs)• ARC kharif planting for G0 seed production (25 ha)• ARC G1 and G2 seed production After seeing the success, this rabi season with 100 tissue bottles (about 2,000 plants), I was able to multiply 2 lakh plants, with repeated apical cuttings. I have given these plants to many farmers, and they are growing potatoes successfully. I also request all the nursery owners to take this nursery activity and help the farmers. I plan to produce 10 lakh cuttings for kharif season.Last kharif season I had grown 500 'K. Himalini' ARC plants in my polyhouse and got 75-80 kg (about 6 tons/acre). Now, again I have planted these ARC seed tubers in about 16 rows. The crop is very good. Compared with other seeds, here there are fewer diseases and I am expecting double the yield. Normally, in Punjab seeds we get about four or five tubers, but here we are getting 8-12. We can multiply and use the same seeds for a couple of seasons, and there is no need to depend on the Punjab seeds. Initially, people were laughing at me when I planted cuttings. But now after seeing the success, they are also asking for cuttings.Manje Gowda, ARC farmer, Kodihalli village.I am Devaraj from Tejur village, Hassan. We have been growing potatoes for a long time, but we are not getting quality seeds now-a-days. Earlier, we used to get seeds from Chikkaballapur and later from Punjab. Initially, we were getting good seeds from Punjab, but now the quality is not good. We thought of quitting potato production itself.In the last season CIP introduced local seed production and had given me cuttings of 'K. Himalini\" variety for trials. I had a good crop. I had stored tubers in cold storage, and I have planted those tubers now. Here there is good demand for 'K. Himalini' variety.This season again I had planted 5,000 cuttings of 'K. Jyoti' variety, and received 14-15 bags of G1 seed. Many farmers have visited and appreciated my farm. We discussed the idea of producing our own seeds. About 10 farmers have asked me to give seeds. Once we are self-sufficient, we plan to sell seeds even to other states.My name is Lavanya, I am from Tejur village, Hassan district, Karnataka. We have been growing potatoes for the past 15-20 years. I am a member in women farmers' potato group which was formed three years ago. The GIC project is building our capacities in potato farming. We have been facing problems in sourcing and procuring quality potato seeds. Now we have another project in which CIP has introduced ARC technology and we have learned how to grow potatoes from plantlets. This is unique. From this technology we are learning how to produce potato seeds on our own, store it, and use it for next season. When we have excess, we would like to also sell it to neighboring farmers.We have over 40 years of experience in nursery activity. In our nursery we produce chili, cabbage, tomato, brinjal, and other seedlings. I had never heard about potato seedlings. When I was asked to produce potato cuttings, I was very doubtful about the technology. But now we have succeeded in producing the cuttings. So far I have produced about 35,000-40,000 cuttings in two months. In cabbage nursery I used to earn about 10,000-12,000 rupees, but with a potato nursery I am earning more. My name is Raghu and I am from Seege village, Hassan district. For the last 6 years, I am involved in producing vegetable seedlings like tomato, chili, and cabbage. For the past 4 months I am also doing potato cuttings for seed production. So far I have sold about 35,000 cuttings at 1 rupee per cutting. I have plan to produce about 5-6 lakh cuttings in this season.My name is Rangaswamy from Kattihalli village, Hassan. Last time I bought 350 ARC 'K. Himalini' plants from a nursery and planted them in my field. I got one bag of potatoes out of that, which I stored in cold storage as a seed for this year. Now I have planted this season; within 30 days of planting I am surprised to see 8-10 tubers per plant. There is very little incidence of diseases as well. I expect a yield of six to eight bags this time, which will be further multiplied next season. I am sure to get about 100 bags-enough for me as well as neighboring farmers next year. We can save lots of money on seeds. Also, there is no need to depend on Punjab every year for seeds. I hope we will be self-sustained in seed in near future. I am Manjegowda, director of Hoysala FPC. The GIC project is helping the farming community in Hassan district by forming farmers' groups in about 60 villages and building our capacities in sustainable potato farming.Through the support of the GIC project, we have formed Hoysal FPC, with a mission to serve farming community. Through our company we are selling various quality agro-inputs to farmers. This season, we procured 30 truckloads of potato seed directly from Punjab to give to our members. We have spent about Rs.38 lakhs toward transportation cost alone, which comes to about Rs.6-7/kg of seed. Though so far we have succeeded in getting quality seed, it is always risky as we can't ensure quality all the time. Prices, too, are dictated by the seed growers in Punjab.CIP has introduced ARC technology, which is helping us produce seed locally. In small areas, we are able to produce quality seed that we can use for further multiplication after storing in cold stores.Our FPC would like to take ARC as a business activity to produce quality seed, not only for our members but also for other farmers in the district. We plan to set up our own tissue culture lab and construct nurseries in the near future. ","tokenCount":"3313"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c37914dc12e953ff3e516fb04de43bce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/38c87ecc-456f-4722-9015-f2d74c7a6e40/retrieve","id":"-1074761027"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"88ce71e5-cd89-485b-a3c8-701a7634459b","pagecount":"7","content":"Maize is a well-known crop in Hawassa Zuria Woreda. Most farmers in the area produce and use it for different purposes. However, intercropping maize with other crops, especially forage legumes, was not practiced at the expect level in the area.At the beginning of 2024, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and Sidama Regional Agricultural Research Institute researchers observed the area's potential for Maize Forage Legumes Intercropping to enhance feed quality and quantity and improve soil fertility. Based on this observation, they started experimenting with 100 voluntary farmers in three kebeles of Hawassa Zuria Woreda.Farmers received trainings at different times on forage cultivation, harvesting, postharvest handling and feeding to animals during the cropping season. Each farmer had allocated 500 square meters of land for the on-farm demonstration and planted two kinds of cultivated forage, Cowpea and Lablab. Throughout the whole process, project experts provided technical support for farmers. After months of on-farm maize-forage legume demonstration, farmers in the three Kebeles started harvesting the biomass and feeding the mix of maize stover and forage legumes to their animals. Research Institute (ILRI), with its partner Sidama Regional Agricultural Research Institute, is implementing the Maize-Forage Legumes Intercropping using two forage legumes, Cowpea and Lablab. ILRI and SIDARI organized the field day event to discuss the success and challenges, how to address the challenges, and identify potential solutions for wider scaling of the maize-forage legume intercropping innovation.Kebede Burseya is one of the farmers who participated in the on-farm maizeforage legume intercropping demonstration. He mentioned that initially people in his area thought Maize Forage Legumes Intercropping would negatively affect maize growth and yield. However, the innovation has proven to be compatible within the farming system, and suitable to improve soil fertility, Kebede noted.Another farmer from the same kebele who participated in the on-farm demonstration was Mara Dingama. He explained that feeding cattle with a mixture of 3/4 maize stover and 1/3 forage legumes (Cowpea and Lablab) help to increase the body weight of cattle and its milk production. He also observed positive impacts of the technology in improving soil fertility. He added that many farmers in his kebele showed interest to practice Maize-Forage Legumes Intercropping after watching his success.Mara Dingama, a farmer participated in the on-farm maize forage legume intercropping demonstration in Hawassa Zuria Woreda (Photo credit Hailemariam Mesfin, ILRI, 2024) Discussion Insights• Maize-Forage Legumes Intercropping on-farm demonstration could serve as a knowledge hub.• Linking the forage production with livestock• New government initiative \"Yelemat Tirufat'' is an excellent opportunity to strengthen such initiative.• Consider how farmers could effectively utilize their produce. For instance, during the dry season there will be shortage of forage, which makes proper usage crucial.• The need to produce perennial forages like desho and elephant grass in the area.• Farmers to consider the timing of maize harvest to avoid decreased productivity and plan for proper forage storage.• Scaling up the technology to other areas.• Importance of soil conservation.• Making seeds accessible for scaling and advising farmers to share seeds with those who did not participate in this initiative.• Creating demand for forage, especially with increased livestock production and the introduction of crossbreed animals.• Documenting key activities.• Establishing a platform for partners and other stakeholders.• Strengthening the link between research and extension service.","tokenCount":"539"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7fe6e1b86e9e33ddd4034a8f22b93ca5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e4db81e0-7c10-41d1-ac9a-6e889bdbd566/retrieve","id":"1691559570"},"keywords":["soil properties dynamics","soil evolution","modeling soil dynamics","shifting agriculture","tropical rain forest","Southern Cameroon"],"sieverID":"03f525a5-e8b7-4a42-a50c-386e7ed76ba5","pagecount":"10","content":"In the tropical rain forest zone of Southern Cameroon, shifting cultivation and perennial plantations of cocoa are the main farming systems practiced by small-scale farmers to ensure subsistence food crop production and a small income. This research used scientific modeling tools to produce quantitative information on the evolution of soils under this shifting agricultural system. An analysis of farming system led to the development of a conceptual model of the spatio-temporal dynamics of shifting agriculture, including transition matrices of rotational cycles that guided the sampling strategy for the study of soil evolution under the system. The study of soil variability showed that 30-35% of the total variance of some topsoil (0-20 cm) properties was due to the influence of land use practices. Five soil properties (pH, calcium, available phosphorus, bulk density and organic carbon) that are the most sensitive to these agricultural practices were empirically modeled and linear/quadratic fractional rational functions were successfully fitted to time series soil variables to derive quantitative measures on temporal changes in soil with land use. Data and methods produced are useful for soil quality assessment and spatio-temporal dynamic simulation in order to guide decision-making for sustainable land-use planning and soil resources management.The imbalance between the luxurious forest stands and the low agricultural production of soils of the tropical rain forest region raises several questions about their capability to sustain intensive agriculture. This has forced small-scale farmers in this area to adopt shifting agricultural systems to ensure subsistence food crop production and a small income. This shifting agriculture is considered as a strategy of resources management in which fields are shifted in order to exploit the energy and nutrient capital of natural vegetation-soil complex of the future land portion to be used (Warner, 1991). Because this strategy is flexible in response to changes in the environment, it is a dynamic system shifting in space and time. According to several authors (Sanchez, 1977;Tulaphitak et al., 1985;Bewket and Stroosnijder, 2003), many soil characteristics under such systems vary over time from forest land clearing to the end of food cropping phase and during the fallow period or subsequent perennial plantations.In such a context, there is a need to promote, on the basis of the soil evolution and soil attributes dynamics, better land management practices that can ensure efficient use of energy and nutrient capital from soil-vegetation complex. Indeed, the characterization of the spatial variability of these soil attributes is essential to achieve a better understanding of complex relations between soil properties and environmental factors (Goovaerts, 1998), and to determine appropriate management practices for soil resources use (Bouma et al., 1999). Changes in soil attributes can thus be modeled and used to quantify soil behavior under various scenarios (Jørgensen, 1994;Hoosbeek et al., 2000). Models here, are simplified representations of a soil system, designed to facilitate the understanding of processes and to predict the behavior of the system. This is what motivated the research reported in this paper.The main objective was to provide quantitative information, developed through modeling processes, on short and longterm effects of shifting agriculture on soil properties. Various scientific techniques have been applied to simplify and model information extracted from a comprehensive dataset of soil properties collected under various land use/land cover (LULC) types, in order to provide answers to the following questions: what are land-uses and their transitions within the agricultural landscape? How dynamic is this land use system? At what scales do what factors influence chiefly on soil data variability or consistency? What are the most affected soil parameters? What are the extent and rates of changes in time?The study area (Figure 1) is located between 2 • 47 ′ -3 • 14 ′ N and 10 • 24 ′ -10 • 51 ′ E in the Tropenbos Cameroon Programme (TCP). The climate is characterized by four seasons: two rainy seasons (March-June and September-November) and two dry seasons. The bi-modal rainfall pattern thus defines two growing seasons. The average annual rainfall is between 1,600 and 2,000 mm, with annual average temperature between 24 and 25 • C (Waterloo et al., 2000). The TCP research area of was selected according to Foahom and Jonkers (1992) as representative of the mid-altitude dense moist evergreen Biafran forest of southern Cameroon (Gartlan, 1989).The area is undulating and rises gradually to the southeast. The north-western part is underlain by the Precambrian Basement Complex and the south-eastern part by the Ntem Metamorphic Complex (Champetier de Ribes and Reyre, 1959). Most of the upland soils (about 95%) are Ferralsols and Acrisols according to the World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources (FAO-ISRIC, 2006). These soils groups differ primarily by the presence of a strong textural contrast between topsoil and subsoil horizons in Acrisols and the dominance by sesquioxide clays in Ferralsols. Less developed poorly drained soils (about 5%) occupy the swampy drainage ways (Van Gemerden and Hazeu, 1999).The area is sparsely populated, with <10 inhabitants per km² in general, but about 20 inhabitants per km 2 within villages, all located along the roads. Selective industrial logging and extensive shifting agriculture are the most important land use activities.Most agricultural farms are smallholdings but there are some larger plantations owned by local elites who are natives of a village, but who live in the cities.Analysis of farming systems (Nounamo and Yemefack, 2001;Yemefack, 2005, Chapter 2) established that shifting agriculture in the rain forest area of Cameroon is based on five main components: household, cropping, animal husbandry, soil system, and non-agricultural activities. These sub-systems are interrelated and under the influence of exogenous biophysical and socio-economic factors such as climate, roads and market infrastructures, prices, land tenure, and availability of credit. The household component plays a central role in the functioning of the whole system because, farmers are the locus of decisionmaking as well as source of labor and consumption. In the cropping system, the cultivation of food crop fields shifts every season from one place to another by clearing a parcel of fallow land or a portion of primary forest in order to exploit the energy potentials of soil-vegetation complex of the new plot. However, with increasing urbanization, the resulting demand for food may provide new income opportunities and promote diversification.Four representative village areas (Ebimimbang, Ebom, Mvie, and Nyangong) were selected (Figure 1) to represent the distinct physiographic zones of the study area based on the landscape ecological survey by Van Gemerden and Hazeu (1999). Surface areas of 293 crop fields opened within 3 years by 35 households were measured. Thirty three plots were monitored from the first year of cropping to 7 years. Large plantations by local elites were visually identified on a geo-referenced false color composite (bands 4, 5, 3) of the Landsat-7 ETM + imageries and their boundaries digitized in the ILWIS GIS (ITC, 2001) for evaluating their surface area. These elites are natives of the village who live and work in towns and have by custom, the right to clear forest land, which no one else is using. These rights were established to allow growing families to expand their subsistence production but are now applied by the local elites for a completely different purpose.A Synchronic approach for soil data collection was combined with diachronic monitoring of plots during the 2-year cropping period and after 5 subsequent years. Land Use/Land cover (LULC) treatments (9 in total) were chosen based on actual agricultural production cycles (Figure 2) at smallholder scale described in Yemefack (2005, Chapter 2). Samples were taken with three or four different fields as replications in each village. These treatments comprised three fallow types with increasing duration [CF, (Chromolaena Fallow of 3-5 year-old), BF (Bush Fallow of 7-9 year-old), and FF (Forest Fallow of >15 year-old)], one CL (Crop Land) monitored from the beginning to the end of the cropping phase (coded: CL1 = at the beginning and CL2 = at the end of cropping 2 years after), one FCF (Forest Crop Field of 1-2 year-old), two PP (Perennial plantation) types (PPm = less than 7-year-old and PPo = more than 30 year-old), and one PF In order to well-integrated the effect of land use on soils at the whole plot level, composite soil samples were bulked from five augerings along diagonals across each selected LULC patch and along a 100-200 m transect in forests, at three depths (0-10, 10-20, and 30-50 cm). CL plots were sampled two times (at the beginning of cropping, CL1 and 2 years after, CL2). These soil samples were analyzed in the IRAD soil laboratory at Nkolbisson (Yaoundé) for pH water (1:2.5 ratio), organic matter (Walker and Black method), available phosphorus (Bray II method), exchangeable bases (extraction with 1M ammonium acetate solution); exchange acidity (leaching with 1M KCl and titration by 1M NaOH), particle size distribution (Robinson pipette method) and bulk density (cylinder and oven dry at 105 • C), using procedures described in Van Reeuwijk (1993).A conceptual framework of shifting cultivation and rotational fallow cultivation systems (Figure 2) was developed (Yemefack, 2005; Chapter 2) which served as the reference for all the data collection and analyses.Following a preview study on these data (Yemefack et al., 2006b), a multi-criteria quantitative selection procedure was developed and applied to a set of 13 soil variables collected within a chrono-sequence of shifting cultivation system. Five soil properties [pH, exchangeable calcium (Ca), available phosphorus (P.av), bulk density (Bd), and organic carbon (OC)] selected as the most affected by the shifting agricultural practices were used in this study. The five soil properties indicators could be easily interpreted in terms of their relation to land management practices and land use changes. The five selected soil properties all contribute to one or more soil functions proposed by Doran and Parkin (1996) as indicators of soil quality. Soil pH stands for soil reaction and contributes to the definition of soil biological and chemical thresholds essential to process modeling. Calcium represents the status of soil exchangeable bases and contributes to the ability of soil to supply nutrients. Available phosphorus is important in supplying N and P to plants. Bulk density influences soil porosity and water infiltration, and contributes to the potential for leaching and erodibility. Finally, organic carbon affects the ability of soil to accept, hold, and release nutrients, water and other chemical constituents as well as to the physical soil structure. They can thus be used individually or in combination to assess the effect of this practice on soil condition (Yemefack et al., 2006b).Various statistical techniques [descriptive statistics, analysis of variance, and means separations (Tukey's method), Curve fitting, etc.] were applied to the dataset for each specific objective. The analyses were carried out in R environment (Ihaka and Gentleman, 1996). Spatial analysis and remote sensing processing were done using ILWIS (ITC, 2001). Functions of soil properties evolution with time were determined using CurveExpertProfessional 2.0.4 software (Hyams, 2014a). The goodness-of-fit of the parameterized function to the data was assessed with the coefficient of determination (R 2 ). The GraphExpertProfessional 1.1.3 software (Hyams, 2014b) was used to plot these functions.The five most sensitive soil properties were used individually to model the behavior of soil over time, the time being represented by a land use chronosequence (Yemefack et al., 2006a). Models are here considered as simplified representations of a system, which are designated to facilitate the understanding of processes and to predict the behavior of the system under various scenarios (Hoosbeek et al., 2000). Within the longest cycles of shifting cultivation (SC) and agroforest cocoa plantations (PP) (Figure 3), each soil property changes as a function of time t, withwhere P(t) is the value of the soil property P at time t, P 0 is the value of soil property P at time t = 0 (under the PF cover), and f(t) is the change function of time. Since our interest for this study was to model the changes, not the absolute values, we converted each variable to a proportional deviation (Pd) from the reference sites PF as follows: If P i is the value of a soil property from treatment i and P 0 the non-zero value of the same property from the corresponding PF on the same soil type, the Proportional deviation Pd i is computed as:Pd values were plotted against time to determine the form of f(t) and attempts were made to fit suitable functional forms, of which low-order fractional rational functions proved to be most appropriate. In this case, proper linear/quadratic fractional rational functions,showed a reasonable shape to model changing soil properties in response to events such as land clearing, burning, cropping, fallowing and PP. The shape of this function curve is controlled by parameters a (equal zero in this case of Pd), b, c, and d that were all computed using non-linear least squares in the R environment (Ihaka and Gentleman, 1996). The fitted functions were used to evaluate metrics describing soil behavior over time: maximum proportional deviation from the base state (y m ), time to reach this maximum (t m ), and relaxation time toward the original value (t p = time after t m at which the curve reaches some predefined proportion of recovery).The cultivation of food crop fields (FCF and CL) shifts every season from one place to another by clearing a parcel of fallow land (FF, BF, or CF) or a portion of primary forest (PF). The resulting spatial pattern is a landscape composed of patches of primary forest, fallows, crop fields, perennial plantations, and settlements with their associated home gardens. Figure 2 shows the observed transitions between land uses within this system; considered as the conceptual basis for analysis of land use dynamics within the area. Table 1 shows the observed transition proportions for each year and over the 6-year study period, thus estimating transition probabilities for some of the arcs in   Land uses given in the rows (previous year) were converted to land uses in columns; cells are proportions of the changes between two consecutive years and between the first and last year. CF, Chromolaena Fallow of 3-5 year-old; BF, Bush Fallow of 7-9 year-old; FF, Forest Fallow of >15 year-old; CL, Crop Land, coded: CL1 = at the beginning and CL2 = at the end of cropping 2 years after; FCF, Forest Crop Field of 1-2 year-old; PP, Perennial plantation, PPm = <7-year-old and PPo = more than 30 year-old; PF, Primary Forest.shifting cultivation in which short-term cropping alternates with secondary forest on a plot. This has shown (Figure 4) that about 19% of food crop field plots were based on short rotational fallow cycles (RSFS), about 52% on long rotational fallow cycles (RLFS), about 17% on very long fallow cycles (RVFS), and about 12% on forest conversion (FCS). These proportions were similar to figures reported by Fujisaka et al. (1996) in their review of shifting cultivation systems at sites located in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. If the shorter fallow cycles are sustainable, this would be ecologically (minimizing deforestation) profitable as well as for the household (less labor). This may require intensification: tighter integration into the market economy and some purchased inputs, with special attention to nutrient cycling and soil management. In this study, 88% of the area cleared for crop fields came from fallow lands and only 12% from primary forest (Figure 4). If the proportion of the food crop fields that are abandoned to secondary forest could also be close to 12%, the food crop production system does not require net conversion of forest under the present situation of slow population growth and weakly developed infrastructure and markets, provided that secondary forest is ecologically valuable like the primary forest.However, with the involvement of local elites in agricultural plantations, net deforestation is probably occurring, because these plantations are only developed within the primary forest to avoid land-use conflicts. In addition, plantation plot sizes are far larger than those of small farmers. In this study, 35 households cleared 95 ha in 3 years, of which only 12% was from PF. By contrast, only six elite's plantations (at Mvie area) converted 425  ha, all from PF, during the same period. This brings the total proportion of PF in the cleared area to about 40% when including elite plantations.Table 2 shows average soil properties change from fallow to food crop fields after burning within the 0-10 cm of soil depth and Table 3 summarizes the statistics of the five soil variables studied here. They all showed a positive skewness at all depths with coefficients varying between 0.08 and 2.2. So that the mean of each variable is slightly greater than the median. However, no transformation was done on the original dataset since ANOVAs are rather insensitive to slight departures from normality Webster (2000). The statistics of these soil variables showed a much higher variation at the shallowest depth than in the subsoil as shown by the coefficient of variation (CV%) of each variable, confirming the common observation that soil management such as burning and tillage in shifting cultivation systems affects primarily the topsoil.Based on a preview study by Yemefack et al. (2005) carried out in the same area to characterize the sources of soil variability at four scales (regional, village, plot, and laboratory), a metaanalysis was done for a better understanding of complex relations between soil properties, environmental factors and land use systems. The analysis showed that this four-scales study was able to explain for five variables, up to 80% (for less sensitive soil variables) to 95% (most sensitive ones) of the overall soil variation (Figure 5); with 25-35% by local factors and 5-10% by withinplot factors, which are mainly influenced by land use practices. However, 5-20% of the total variance remained unexplained and is perhaps due to statistical or other interactions between levels for which we had no experimental design.Land use practices significantly (p < 0.05) influenced topsoil variation at village level (i.e., between plots) and accounted for 30-35% of topsoil (0-20 cm depth) variation. But, because regional factors of soil variability are more stable over time, research for a better understanding of the relations between soil properties and appropriate management practices for soil resource use, should focus chiefly on processes and factors occurring at local-scale level (village) because they are influenced by a dynamical land use system.Many soil properties were significantly sensitive to land use effect within the first 20 cm of soil depth (but not for deeper layers); with the same trend but different rates of changes for some soil characteristics. Soil behavior under the shifting agriculture was here quantified for the most sensitive soil properties by their mathematical model as a function of time.The five soil properties (pH water, exchangeable calcium, available phosphorus, bulk density, and organic carbon) selected as the most affected by the shifting agricultural practices (Yemefack et al., 2006b) were considered to be used individually or in combination to assess the effect of this practice on soil condition.  In modeling the evolution of these parameters, proportional deviation (Pd) for the control (Virgin Forest) of soil properties was plotted against time to determine the form of the time functions f (t) and attempts were made to fit suitable functional forms, of which low-order fractional rational functions proved to be most appropriate on our dataset.Based on these functions, the long-term response of the soils to land use/land cover types along the chrono-sequence was found to have two phases in both shifting cultivation (SC) and perennial cocoa plantation (PP) (Figure 6): an initial change with land clearing, which continues into the initial cropping phase, and a reversal of this change during the fallow period or PP. The first phase responds to the effects of heat and liming ashes from burning and corresponds to an increase of pH water, Calcium, Available P, and bulk density. For organic carbon, there was an initial decrease, probably due to the rapid mineralization of organic matter caused by heat and tillage. The reversal trends confirmed the effect of fallow; tending toward the initial values of soil properties.The fitted function explained 50-80% of soil dynamics for the first four variables in the 0-20 cm layer but only 25% for organic carbon. These functions showed a very quick reaction to forest conversion for calcium, available P and organic carbon with maxima reached at the end of the first year. Soil reaction and bulk density showed significant changes a bit later (2.5-3.5 years). The general trend of organic carbon dynamics showing a significant decrease during the short cultivation period and an increase during the period of fallow or PP corroborated with the results of Van Noordwijk et al. (1997) on soils in a similar eco-zone of Sumatra. The low contribution (only 25%) of organic carbon to the models could be explained by the strong fluctuations of data during the years in this humid tropical environment where hot and wet conditions directly impact soil organic matter during yearly seasons.• The conceptual model of land use dynamics and their transitions showed that the short rotational fallow cycle (RSFS) is increasingly being used due to the farmers' desire to replace cash income from cocoa with cash food crops. This may require intensification; with tighter integration into the market economy and some purchased inputs (with special attention to nutrient cycling and soil management) in order to enjoy the benefits of the shorter fallow cycles in minimizing both deforestation and labor demand. • Land use practices significantly influence topsoil variation at village level (i.e., between plots) and accounted for 30-35% of the total variance of the top 20 cm of soil. • Five soil properties (pH, exchangeable calcium, available phosphorus, bulk density, and organic carbon) that are the most affected by the shifting agricultural practices in topsoil, showed an empirical trend of soil behavior under shifting agriculture which is well-described by linear/quadratic fractional rational functions of time. Interpretation metrics derived from these functions are useful for supporting decision in defining and timing any intervention action. For example, the short-lived effect of burning on available P suggests that the external input of phosphorous fertilizer would be required in a prolonged cropping system. • The research has provided a set of results on land use that are useful for soil quality assessment in relation to land use practices, and for spatio-temporal simulation modeling of FIGURE 6 | Linear/quadratic fractional rational functions fitted to soil properties (0-10 cm) dynamics under two land use chrono-sequences (food cropping-fallow system and perennial plantation) as shown by proportional deviations from the reference under primary forest over time.shifting agricultural landscape dynamics in order to guide decision-making on sustainable soil management in the area.","tokenCount":"3741"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd1a8f63de8a51a0ff7d9657176d6eba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e5e37f1-314a-4d8b-a30e-57a3dd0c5fb5/retrieve","id":"-1769918790"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0600131f-bdd4-4c6c-8da2-aa9ae2cf5e7f","pagecount":"15","content":"In 2021, 12 CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs) and four CGIAR Platforms came to a close. This summary report presents an overview of the work of the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) between 2017 and 2021 and highlights its key achievements over this five-year period.More than 300 million people below the poverty line in low-and middle-income countries depend on root, tuber, and banana crops for food and income, particularly in africa, asia, and the americas. rTB worked globally to harness the untapped potential of these crops to improve food security, nutrition, income, and climate change resilience for smallholders, especially women and youth. rTB crops, which are often rich in such key nutrients as provitamin A, significantly improve nutrition, food security, and livelihood protection. Many rTB crops are grown with few inputs, often under harsh conditions, and respond well to intensification. These crops are also high yielders in terms of calories produced per hectare. as important cash crops, they can help boost family incomes and are frequently grown or marketed by women.However, rTB crops present several common challenges. They are propagated clonally, rather than with seeds. Because of this situation, yield-reducing pathogens can build up over time, which calls for a strong design of private-public seed systems. The crops' bulk and perishability put pressure on postharvest innovation, and their high genetic complexity means breeding is especially difficult.   3). • Cassava: in 2017, rTB reported that gains in cassava productivity in Nigeria were associated with reduced poverty and that improved varieties were associated with an 82% increase in cassava yields in farmers' fields. A 2018 study demonstrated that two-thirds of cassava growers in Nigeria were using improved cassava varieties. also in 2018, rTB reported that in nine countries in South and Southeast asia, RTBrelated varieties were being used on 2.7 million hectares (65% of the total area used for cassava production).• Sweet potato: in 2018, rTB reported that in Bangladesh, china, india, indonesia, Nepal, Papua New guinea, the Philippines, and Vietnam, about 88% of the 3.6-millionhectare area had been planted with sweet potato improved varieties. in 2021, sweet potato varieties with high vitamin A were adopted by 66% of farmers directly participating in interventions and 31% in non-in tervention areas in Malawi.• Potato: 2020 reporting indicated that 20,500 farmers had increased potato yields by 49% by applying rTB technologies in Kenya.Estimates indicate that 27,500 to 87,100 households in Uganda were cultivating \"Victoria,\" the country's main potato variety.From 1991 to 2016, the estimated value of gross benefits from Victoria adoption was US$1.04 billion.GendeR 2rTB led the cgiar gender and Breeding initiative, which brought together plant and animal breeders and social scientists to develop a strategy for gender-responsive breeding. in collaboration with the gender researchers Equipped for agricultural Transformation, a strategic partnership was established with the cgiar Excellence in Breeding Platform (EiB) to include the gender-responsive tools in the EiB product profile development process.In 2018, RTB participated in the synthesis and publication of findings from the global comparative research initiative, GENNOVATE, and a summary of findings from RTB cases in GENNOVATE was shared with partners, stakeholders, and practitioners.In 2020, to contribute to breeding efforts, G+ Tools for gender-responsive breeding were successfully piloted with multidisciplinary breeding teams working with cassava in Nigeria and sweet potato in Uganda. These tools were expanded in 2021, and were used in a series of expert consultation workshops with the potato and sweet potato breeding programs in Uganda and the cassava breeding team in Nigeria.gender was also integrated in the toolbox for rTB seed systems. in 2020, a multistakeholder framework tool was tested in Uganda and georgia to identify gendered constraints and to develop context-specific approaches toward equitable seed systems. Research tools were also developed to assess gender inequalities in access to and benefits derived from the cassava seed system in Tanzania. a special issue in Outlook in Agriculture explores how the different needs of end-users can inform seed system interventions.The team also updated the tools, methods, publications, and stories of implementation published in the Gender R4D Portal.Throughout the course of the program, RTB reassessed its priorities and focus as a result of changing circumstances, opportunities, and challenges. Notable adjustments and pivots included the following::• Expanding work on adaption and implementation of methods and tools for gender-sensitive product profile design.• Allocating new funds for the completion of the Seed Systems Toolkit, together with communication and capacity development activities, to extend its community of users beyond the original 30 developers. • The One CGIAR Transition represented an opportunity for important themes promoted and managed under RTB to expand and for RTB to show their relevance to the future research agenda. However, it also generated a level of uncertainty. To mitigate this risk, RTB promoted an internal exercise to identify and nurture collaborative assets called \"golden eggs.\"• A sudden reduction of Window 3 funds allocated to breeding programs required RTB to create a dedicated breeding support fund to ensure long-term continuity.• COVID-19 pandemic risks required flagships to adjust their work plans and reprioritize their activities, with some activities and interactions moved to online modalities.The CCAFS annual reports included in the Resource section of this Summary Report contain the complete list of challenges.  in terms of area, rTB-related varieties had been planted on approximately 1.43 million hectares by 2015, which was about 19% of the total area. This represented a large increase when compared with 2007, when 7% of the total area was under rTB-related material.in Uganda, a 2019 study indicated that 600,000 households had adopted technologies developed by rTB to manage banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW). This disease threatens bananas in East and central africa, and the adoption of control methods led to greater productivity and economic benefits. The complete list of reported rTB impacts can be found on the CGIAR Results Dashboard.  4).The crP's top funder (Figure 5) was the Bill & Melinda gates Foundation, followed by the cgiar Trust Fund for Windows 1&2, the United States of america, and the United Kingdom. rTB was primarily implemented by ciP and iiTa, with participation from ciaT and Bioversity (Figure 6). rTB partners contributed a wide range of disciplinary skills, which were adequate for delivery of outputs and outcomes, created opportunities for cross-fertilization of ideas and learning, and facilitated coherence, integration, and enhanced ability to take advantage of synergies and complementarities.By 2019, more than half of rTB's publications (57%) were high quality and demonstrated recognition of co-authors (author collaboration index was 5.28) and international collaboration (89% were multi-country publications). good progress had been made in modernizing breeding programs. Eighty-seven varieties of rTB crops had been released.Notable advances had been made in developing the Seed Systems Toolbox, information and communication technology solutions for pest and disease management, methods for assessing quality traits, and ongoing advocacy to increase adoption of biofortified foods and cassava peel animal feed. Scaling approaches demonstrated sustainable intensification of rTB agrifood systems. The quantum of outputs was impressive (110 physical outputs and services).Significant and measurable progress was made by rTB during 2017-2019. golden eggs positioned rTB work to play an important role in contributing to the SDgs over the next 10 years. rTB had a unique structure with crosscutting clusters featured in all flagships. This enabled cross-crop and cross-center collaborative research and facilitated cross-fertilization, spillovers, and learning. integration of gender with biophysical research added value to research outputs for end-users, especially women. The caS evaluation made the following recommendations to cgiar:• Retain clonally propagated crops together as a group within key research areas to further enhance synergies and achievements. • Consider broader use of the concept of \"golden eggs\" for future initiatives and projects.• Opportunities for integration between initiatives and projects in One cgiar must be better supported if cross-cgiar contributions to cgiar's intermediate Development Outcomes and SDgs are to be fully captured.• One CGIAR should recognize capacity development as a core part of its role and apply sufficient resources to achieve results.• One CGIAR should recognize the key role of partnerships in its design of future initiatives to ensure that relationships (corporate, technical, and personal) built up by rTB and other crPs are not lost.","tokenCount":"1347"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7daac64a048635d47f40f8f406c2d4e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/Digital/SB327.B76_Broadening_the_genetic_base_of_common_bean,_Phaseolus_vulgaris,_and_exploitation.pdf","id":"-1735151282"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3658e0ea-2bc9-4857-9933-ceb0bcc3621b","pagecount":"84","content":".            The general objeetive of the project is to improve the productivity and adaptation of cornmon bean in Latín Ameriea and Africa through the incorporation of resislanee genes to Ascoehyta blight, bean golden mosaie virus (BGMV), and Bean Fly, which are lúghly expressed in sorne P.coccineus and P. polyan/hus accessions and nOI in P. vulgaris. Another objectíve is lo preserve and rationally manage the germplasm collections ofthese secondary gene pools.Therefore, investigations of the project are aimed :to understand the genetic organization, the phyletic relationships and Ihe genetic components of the botanic group;10 refine the in vi/ro embryoculture techniques needed to create new interspecific hybrids with interesting donor genotypes;to conduct an intensi ve breeding program and a molecular-marker assisted selection process among the interspecific hybrids.The project started in October 1996, with the first disbursernent of funds from AGCD .In CIAT, an agronomist with ample experience in the Bean Team, Ing. Agr. provide guidelines to develop an intensive breeding program, using the most appropriate parental genotypes, interspecific combinations and selection schernes.complement investigations conducted at C1A T, particularly providing data on the genetic organization of the Phaseolus gene pool, the molecular characterization of P. coccíneus and P. polyanthus genomes, the genetic boundary between taxa of primary and alíen gene pools of P. vulgaris and the combining ability among and within taxa.Activity report will be presented In a sequential methodology, covering a series of activities being tackled sirnultaneously.2.1. Core colIectioos of P. coccineus aod P. polyanthus are developed, based 00 available passport data, morphoagrooomic traits, and molecular characterizations Previously we reported;• Seed of about 80% of accessioos has beeo obtained In sufficieot quantities to initiate pheootypic evaluatioos.• A pattern has emerged that indicates that accessions from Chiapas in southem Mexico and other sites further south have lower seed production than accessions to the north of Mexico.• A nursery for vegetative propagation of accessions has be en established to make most efficient use of scarce seed.In 1998-99 we can report the following highlights:• The pro ces s of seed production is finally oearing completion. ¡ntransigent accessions were delivered to the Genetic Resources Unit for planting in Tenerife.• Seed was shared with national programs in Kenya and in Brazi!.• Vegetatively propagated cuttings served to economize on seed use for disease nurseries.While seed production was much more laborious than originally anticipated, it lS finally nearing completion, with the result that quite sizable seed stock s are available for these accessions, from 400-1000 or more seed in almost all cases (Table 1). This is more seed than is cornrnonly stored for these species. We have set ourselves the goal of having 1,000 seed of each core accession, in the expectation that the core collection could become a tool for scientists with interest in these species. For example, a seed request was received from Kenya for accessioos of P. coccineus, and it was possible to respond using the core colJection. Another set was dispatched to the Brazilian national bean program for evaluation for resistance to white mold (Table 11). Thus, the core is becoming a useful tool for supplying a rational subset of germplasm of these species to bean researchers. This is especially pertinent to the sustained research effort on these species, since they are of very difficult managemenl agronomically, and a core collection pennits studying broad genetic diversity with a modest number of accessions.However, about 19 accessions remained essentíalIy intransigent and have produced less than 400 seed in almost three years. lndeed, seven accessions have produced less than 100 seed in that periodo These are obviously very ill-adapted to the Popayán environment, therefore cunings of these accessions were delivered to the GRU for planting in lhe Tenerife site, to seek better seed production there.Thirty aeeessions that had been tentatively eliminated from lhe original seleetion of lhe core due to laek of seed were finally planted in July, 1999. These inelude 18 aecessions of P.coccineus (PC) and 12 of P. polyanthus (PP).The system that was developed for vegetative propagation was used suecessfully to economize on seed use during lhe evaluations of lhe core, but now lhat seed is more available, this activity has been scaled down.    In 1998-9 we can report the following highlights:• The core has been evaluated for anthracnose-ANT (Mesoamerican and Andean races); angular leaf spot-ALS (Mesoamerican and Andean races); and Ascochyta blight-ASe.• Accessions ofboth wild and cultivated P. po/yanthus were universally and highly resistant to ASe, thus the resistance is an ancestral traít.• 80th wild and cultivated P. coccineus present a range of reactions to ASC, with si milar values. Thus, the reaction of PC 10 ASe has nOI changed subslantially with domestication.• However, wilhin P. coccineus there is certain geographical stratification, such thal Mexican and European accessions ofien present inlermediate to susceptible reactions to ASe, while accessions lo the south of Mexico tend to be more resistan!.• Reaction to cornmon bean ALS is variable but generally low, and do es not appear to follow gene pool lines of the pathogen c1osely, although susceptibility to Mesoamerican iso lates is slightly greater.• Reaction lo cornmon bean ANT is almost universally resistanl in both species.The core has been evalualed for reaclion 10 common bean anthracnose-ANT (Mesoamerican and Andean races); angular leaf spot-ALS (Mesoamerican and Andean races);and Ascochyta blight-ASC (Table 111). Mean-AOTM coee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0-2,0 1.31.2 3.0 -5.0 3.2OTM cace e 1.0 1.0MEX cace e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -4.0 1.9 lA 3.0 -4.0 3.8MEX coee e 1,0 -3,0 1.3 1,0 -6.0 2.1 1.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 6.0 -7.0 6.8MEX eoee eMEX PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0-6,0 2.3 1,0 -3,0 1.5 1.9 1.0-2 .0 1.5MEX cace e 1,0 -4,0 1.6 1,0 -3,0 1.9 1.8 6.0•7.0 6.8GTM cocc e 1,0 -2,0 1.3 1.0 1.0JJ 2.5 6.0 -8.0 6.8RWA cocc e 1.0 -2,0 1.5 GTM PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -5,0 2,9 3,0 -7,0 4.9 3.9 1.0 -2.0 1.5MEX PLAN e 1,0,2,0 1.1MEX cace e 1,0,5,0 3.0 1,0 -6,0 4.1 3.6 1.0 1.0 1,0 -7,0 l .8 2.4 4.0 -6.0 5.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1,0-6,0 2.8 1.9 0.0 1.5 GTM coee e 0.0 MEX caee e 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.11,0 -4,0 iJ \\,0 -5,0 1.9 1.6 4.0 -6.0 5.2GTM PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.1 1,0 -4,0 1.5 1.3 1.0 -2.0 1.5MEX eaee e 1,0 -3,0 \\A 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 -lO 23• 3,0 -6,0 4.1 3.5 1.0 -2.0 1.3YUG eaee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0MEX eaee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 5.0 5.0MEX eaee e 1,0 -2,0 1.1GTM caee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 3.0 -5.0 4.0GTM eaee e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.\\ 1.0 1.0 1.1 2.0 -3.0 2.8GTM PLAN e 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 -2,0 1.3 4,0 -6,0 4.5 2.91.0 1.0Idenl. 80th wild and cultivated P. polyanthus were universally and highly resistant 10 ASe.Although only two wild accessions of PP were evaluated, results with wild were nonetheless consistent with results with the cultivated. Thus it appears that the resistance may be an ancestral trait derived from the wild polyanthus and has not been subslantially altered during domestication. On the other hand, both wild and cultivated P. coccineus present a range of reaclions to ASC. The wild presented values from 1.0 to 5.5, and the cultivated from 1.3 to 7.0. Thus, the reaction of coccineus to ASC has not changed substantially with domestication either. However, within P. coccineus there is certain geographical stratificalion, such that Mexican and European accessions ofien presenl intermediate to susceptible reactions 10 ASC, while accessions to the soulh of Mexico tend to be more resistan!. This could feasibly reflect the lateness of these latter accessions, as noted in last year's reportoThe contrast between polyanlhus and coccineus presents an interesting evolutionary question. [t has been shown that the nuclear DNA of these two species presents greater similarity than either do with vulgaris, while the non-nuclear DNA of polyanlhus is more c10sely relaled 10 vulgaris. This suggests thal the nucleus of polyanlhus was heavily introgressed by coccineus al sorne point in ils evolution. Wild P. polyanthus is known to exist only in Guatemala to date, and two of these aeeessions presented ASC readings of 1.0.Wild Guatemalan coccineus presents ASC reactions from 1.3 to 4.8. If polyanlhus has been heavily introgressed from coccineus, why does it present such a narrow range of ASC values? Does the uniformly high reaetion ofboth the wild and cultivatedpolyanthus suggests thal this introgression was limited lO certain populalions of wild coccineus, even among the several populations in Guatemala? Again, lhis should be laken within the context of the limited sample size ofwild PP, and should be interpreted as a topie of future study and not as a conclusion.Reaction of PP and PC to cornmon bean ALS is variable but generally low. One migbt have speculated that Mesoamerican isolates of the pathogen could ha ve attained greater adaptation to the PPIPC hosts than Andean isolates, since PP and PC are believed to have evolved essentially in Middle America. [n fact, the Mesoamerican iso lates were slightly more viru[ent on about 25% of the accessions , although disease reaction did not follow gene pool Iines of the pathogen c1osely. The reaction of a given accession with the two types of isolates was similar in more cases than it was distinct. Curiously, in the few cases in which the Andean isolates gave a more virulent reaction, this was observed only with polyanlhus.This suggests sorne subtle differences in the evolution of the two species in relation 10 the ALS pathogen. Could PP have experienced sorne slage of its evolution in contact with 80th wild and cultivated P. polyamhus were universally and highly resistant to Ase.Although only two wild accessions of PP were evaluated, results with wild were nonetheless consistent with results with the cultivated . Thus it appears that the resistance may be an ancestral trait derived from the wild polyanthus and has not been substantially altered during domestication. On the other hand, both wild and cultivated P. coccineus present a range of reactions to ASe. The wild presented values from 1.0 tO 5.5, and the cultivated from 1.3 to 7.0. Thus, the reaction of coccineus to Ase has not changed substantially with domestication either. However, within P. coccineus there is certain geographical stratification, su eh that Mexican and European accessions often present interrnediate to susceptible reactions to ASe, while accessions to the south of Mexico tend to be more resistant. This could feasibly reflect the lateness of these latter accessions, as noted in last year's reportoThe contrast between polyamhus and coccineus presents an interesting evolutionary question. lt has been shown that Ihe nuclear DNA of these two species presents greater similarity Ihan either do with vulgaris, while the non-nuclear DNA of polyanthus ís more closely related to vulgaris. This suggests Ihat the nucleus of polyanthus was heavíly introgressed by coccineus at sorne point in its evolution. Wild P. polyanthus is known to One accession of P. costaricensis was also included in the evaluations, and Ihis accession was resistant to aJl three pathogens.The core was dispatched to Puerto IUco in an atternpt to evaluate resistance to BGMV, but disease pressure was unusuaJly light and did not pennit discrimination of differences among accessions.    To study the inheritance of resistance to ASC, a rughly susceptible interspecific progeny with PC phenotype, 3S6-IA, was identified in the field in 1997. Experience has borne out the initial observation regarding the extreme susceptibility of trus line. This line was crossed to resistant PC accessions including 035369. The F 2 populations has been planted in plastic bags and will soon be transplanted to Ihe field for inoculation. One of the populations will be al so be planted in the screenhouse for F 3 seed production.In the course of the evaluations of Ihe core collection, we realized Ihat Ihe acceSSlOn 035172, which figures as a resistant parent for Ihe study of BOMV resistance, is also highly susceptible to ASC (rating of 6.8). In Ihe study of BOMV inheritance, 035172 is crossed to a P. polyanthus accession (035337) that is resistant to ASC (rating of 1.5). Therefore, we have  Lecomte (1997) between these two species but, although fertilized ovules were obtained, up to 60 % of globular embryos failed to develop due to undefined ineompatibility barriers between embryo and mother plant. Only 7 % of these globular embryos could reach the cotyledonar stage when cultivated in vi/ro before dying (Lecomte 1997). Success in Phaseolus embryo reseue aetually has been limited to embryos more Ihan 8 days old that had reached at least the late heart-shaped stage (Table VII) .Table VII. Regeneration of interspecific hybrids within Phaseolus using embryoculture.Crosses (female x male)P. vulgaris L. x P. ritensis Jones P. vulgaris L. x P. luna/us L.Stage Reference(1), ( 14) (2), ( 16), ( 18) P. vulgaris L. x P. acutifolius A. Gray 16-23 12-24 14-28(3), ( 6) ,( 7), ( 8), ( 9), ( 12), (1 S), ( 16), ( 19), ( 20) In vilro rescue of very immature embryos requires a culture medium that can support their growth and development. The use of inadequate media results in embryo necrosis, callus formation or premature germination, which leads in tum to weak and unbalanced seedlings.For early heart-shaped embryos (6 days old), Mergeai el al. (1997)  Results obtained with globular embryos are relatively poor (Smith 1971). Lecomte (1997) underlined the benefits of an osmotic gradient in the culture medium. In particular, the use of a doubIe-layer medium as described by Liu el al. (1993)  This result suggested lhat it could be possible to regenerate at least 12 % o f globular embryos.Pod culture is lherefore a mean to avoid problems occurring during embryo extraction.In lhe work reported here, rather than using embryo rese ue or in ovulo culture, we assessed the interest of a pod culture technique adapted from Lazaridou el al. (1993) taking into account the in vivo evolution of osmolality within pods during the early development (2-40 days after pollination).During lhe first two years of our research, we optimized a protocol for histological studies. In the present report, we have reviewed embryogenesis in Phaseolus from ovule to seed and we have made sorne preliminary observations related to the abortion of embryos in P. vulgaris (~) x P. polyanlhus erosses.Several experiments were carried out during lhe first two years of the project. The main results were as foJlow :   Petri dish by dripping, permitting a constant evolution of tbe medium. To avoid losses by evaporation during tbe dripping of Po 1 medium, a special design was investigated (Figure 1). A one liter bottle decanter with an inferior tap directly connected to tbe top of a Petri dish was set up. Petri dish was completely sealed but two small apertures were made : one on tbe top-center permitting tbe entry of liquid PoI mediurn and a lateral one permitting to maintain a 100 mI volume of medium in tbe Petri dish by tbe discharge of tbe excess of liquid (Figure 1). Everyday during pod culture, 1 mI of tbe medium in the Petri dish was sampled to control tbe evolution of osmolality by osmolaJity measurements.(2)(1)Figure 1. The design used for liquid media experiments\" A one liter decanter (photo 1) with an inferior tap, is connected to • Petri dish (<1> = 15 cm, photo 2) completely sealed but with two small apertures : one on the tapeenter permitting the entry of liquid medium from the bottle decanter (photo 2) and a lateral one permitting ta discharge the exeess ofliquid (photo 3).  Three experiments were conducted (Table X). For each experiment, two culture conditions were compared using a different sterilizing method.  For histological studies, ovary tissues and pods were harvested at different stages of maturity (from 1 day before the opening of the flower, D-l, to 15 days after the opening of the flower, D+ 15) !Tom plants growing in a growth chamber. At least one seed per maturity stage was collected. Protocol can be surnmarized as follows : plant material lS freshly harvested and eventually nicked with a scalpel to facilitate penetration by fixing and embedding solutions.Objects were fixed in 1.2 % glutaraldehyde in 0.3 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) for 24 h at 4°C, rinsed in phosphate buffer (pH 6.6), dehydrated in a graded ethanol series and preembedded for I h in a mixed solution (SO/50) of absolute ethanol and TMTechnovit 7100 resino Objects were then embedded in pure TMTechnovit 7100 resin for four days at 4°C. Seeds were coated in special mould (TMHistoform S, Kulzer).Sections were cut, 2 ~m thick, with a Zeiss microtome (microm HM 360) fined with a tungsten knife. They were stained with an adapted Toluidine blue O procedure !Tom Gutrnann (1995 -general structure) or with fluorescent auramine-O (for cutic1e identification) and viewed with a Nicon Eclipse E800 light and fluorescent microscope. Pictures were taken with a NC 3-CCD color video camera and images were treated with image Archive Plus program ofSony.3.1 .5 .1. Embryoculture : technique adapted for globular embryos During the experiment 1, more than 50 % Petri dishes were lost due to the media contamination. These dishes were not considered in the data analysis but led us to try to improve the sterilizing method used in the experiments 2 and 3.The statistical analysis shows no interactions between the culture conditions and the sterilizing methods (data not shown). Therefore, the experiments I and 2 are studied in a single analysis, considering two factors : the culture conditions and the sterilizing method. Indeed, culture conditions were the same in these experiments.Experiment 3 is studied separately consideting one factor : the culture conditions. Finally, we al so discuss the interest to diminish drastically the PPM concentrations in media regarding the results obtained with IPO-I conditions, used in all experiments.Table XI shows the results obtained for the pad grawth between sterilizing methods (St lar St2) and culture canditians (IG6 ar IPO-I). Standard error 3,0 4,0 5,3 3,2An average pod growth of 97 % was obtained. No statistical difference was observed between culture conditions (P = 0,874). However, the pod growth under IPO-I conditions was more regular. Table XI shows that the standard error was lower under IPO-I conditions. A Statistical difference in pod growth was observed between sterilizing methods (P = 0,047).The pod growth decreased when using St2 method (Table Xl). However, using PPM during the pod culture, perrnitted to reduce the contamination rate by 100 %, so that the number of replicates considered during eKperiment 2 could be increased markedly, from 18 in experiment I to 38 in experiment 2 (Table XI).Table XII shows the results obtained for ovule mean lengths between sterilizing methods (St I or St2) and culture conditions (IG6 or IPO-I). Figure 2 shows the frequencies of extracted ovules by length c1asses between culture conditions while Figure 3 shows the frequencies of pod in relation with the number of ovules reaching at leasl 2 mm long within the pod after one week culture. Finally, Figures 4 and S illustrate respectively the growth of ovules within the pod under lG6 or IPO-I conditions.  Table XII shows no statislical difference in ovule mean length between sterilizing methods (P = 0,785) bul a highly significanl slatistical difference between culture conditions (P = 0,000).The growlh of the ovules increased markedly under [PO-I conditions. More precisely, Figure 2 shows thal Ihe percenlage of ovule reaching 2 mm after one week of culture was higher under IPO-l Ihan under IG6 conditions. [n facl, Figure 3 shows that a higher number of ovules per pod evolved under [PO-I conditions : I 104 ovules evolved under [G6 conditions while 4 lO 6 under IPO-I condilions. lt is worth nOling Ihal under [POol condilions, 6 ovules evolved within the pod for about 15 % cultivaled pods while such a number was nOI observed under IG6 conditions (Figure 3). This difference is illustrated by the Figures 4 and 5 showing also that the stage of embryo developroent after one week culture depends on culture conditions.(1)(2) (2)(3) (2) Median longitudinal section of a pod cultivated under IPO-I conditions during 5 days (magnification 20 x).showing 2 evolved ovules and a early heart-sbaped embryo (asterisk).(3) early heart-sbaped embryo al bigber magnification (IOOx).Table XIII and XIV surnmarize !he data obtained during experiment l. IPO-l conditions. Moreover, only embryos growing under IPO-l conditions evolved (Table XIV). Fínally, on Ihe 45,5 % germinated embryos cultivated under ¡POol conditions, only 3 % give rise to plantlets that survived !he first 50 days of culture (Table XIV).During the experiment 2, no embryo development was observed when adding 1 mlJl PPM in the germination medium Po l. Only one embryo, grown under IG6 conditions, could evolve but no plantlet survival was observed.During the experiment 1, a high leve! of pods were infected by different fungi and bacterial agents. More lhan 50 % of replicates (Petri dishes) were lost. The normal sterilizing method was not efficient enough for pods. Therefore, we proposed, in experiment 2, to use a novel product, lhe PPM, lhat acts as a general decontaminating agent. However, the level of PPM added to media is very critica!. In our experiment 2, we used lhe highest level proposed in the literature as welI for pod as for embryo development. Using this PPM level in lhe media alIowed to prevent media completely against contamination.Our results showed lhat pod growth was slightly affected by lhe presence of PPM in lhe medium but also lhat the PPM level was low enough, permitting a nonnal ovule growth wilhout any significant differences between the two sterilizing melhods (P = 0,785). At pod level , lhe use of a high PPM content was thus very interesting when contamination could not be controJled by lhe use of sodium hypochlorite as the single sterilizing method.On lhe contrary, when cultivating embryos, the use of I ml!1 of PPM in the maturation mediwn was totally inefficient. Indeed, no germination could be observed during experiment 2. It was supposed that the leve! of PPM was too high and affected the first steps of embryo development. Therefore, in experiment 3, we diminished drasticalIy PPM from the media on which pods and extracted embryos were cultivated.The results obtained in comparing culture conditions showed lhe imponance to adapt media to lhe in vivo conditions. In particular, our results demonstrated the imponance to adjust the osmolality level of lhe maturation media (in our experiment with sucrose) to lhe one observed in vivo. The ovule development wilhin a pod was more regular, suggesting a better distribution of nutrient suppl y from lhe medium. Moreover, lhe embryo development was much better : more than 60 % embryos were extracted with an osmotically adjusted medium. However, it remains to clarify whether this result is due to osmolÍc adjustment or is also related to lhe higher sucrose leve!.Finally, lhe number of plantlets obtained during our two first experiments was relative!y low. Only, an adjusted medium wilhout PPM enabled to obtain a plantlet sUrv1val rate of 3 %, i.e. plantlets surviving the first 50 days of culture. Due 10 contamination problems, we could no! rescue a normal plantlet : only one plantlet reached more lhan 3 cm long (Figure 6) .However, this result is promisi ng. Indeed , the plantlet survival is higher than in any olher techniques used before. For example, with 4 days old ovules, Derthe (I996) obtained only I plant from 300 cultivated embryos while Ridolfo (1998) with similar ovules obtained good results on germination rates but poor results in plantJet survival rates.Figure 6. Plantlel rescued froro a two days old pod using IPO-l conditions. Initiation of rools are visible (black poinlS) and leafapex is presenl (scale : 0,5 =).3.1.5.1.2. Experiment 3.During experiment 3, it was important to follow fue osmolality of fue medium in order to evaluate the good function of OUT designo Results are given in Figure 7. During fue first days of culture, medium osmolality decreased as regularLy as in in vivo conditions (P = 0,974). However, after 4 days, the osmolality of lhe medium increased significantly. This osmolality increase was due to fue difficulties encountered to protect pods from external contamination and results could lherefore only be partially exploited.--+-In vitro Table XV shows lhe means of pod growth and ovule length between IPO culture conditions. Figure 8 shows lhe pod frequencies in relation wilh lhe number of ovules reaching at least 2 mm within !he pod after one week culture between IPO (1 and 2) culture conditions.TabIe XV. Mean pod growths (in %) and mean ovule lengths (in mm) between IPO culture conditions. N = number of replica tes . A mean pod growth of 107 ,65 % was obtained while a mean length of 2,59 mm was attained for ovules. These results were slightly better than those obtained in experiments I and 2. Moreover, Table XV shows that no statistical differen ces were observed for pod growths and ovule lengths between IPO conditions. However, !he variability in !he results was higher under IPO-2 conditions. This variability could be attributed to the effect of contamination occurring after 4 days in most of !he Petri dishes . Despite this high variability, Figure 8 shows !he interest to use IPO-2 conditions. Indeed, in 18 % of!he pods cultivated under IPO-2 conditions, 6 ovules reached more lhan 2 mm while such evolution was observed in only 13 % of!he pods when cultivated under IPO-I conditions. This difference suggests a better distributi on ofthe nutrient supply under IPO-2 conditions than under IPO•I conditions.TabIe XVI compares lhe number of extracted embryos per cultivated ovules, lhe embryo growth, and the germination rate between IPO techniques. Figure 9 iIlusfrates a germinated embryo cultivated under ¡PO-2 conditions. In eomparison to tbe experiment 2 where no germination was observed, tbe germination rate under IPO-l conditions was 5,8 % witb a high variability. Thís result suggests tha! PPM remained toxic for tbe extracted embryo at a level of 0,1 mVI.The success of !P0-2 conditions on embryo growth was very 1.imited. Embryo growth was probably affected by tbe pod contamination. Only in tbree replicates, no contamination oceurred. In tbese replieates, 7 embryos (on 24 cultivated pods) germinaled well (Figure 9).Results obtained for tbe tbree experiments show tbe interest to adapt media lo tbe in vivo eonditions (Geerts et al. 1999b). Espeeially, during experirnent 1 using a medium (poO) adapted for very young pods (2 days old), the germination rate reached 50 %. Moreover, preliminary resuIts show an interesting potential to use a design in whieh a constant evolution of osmolality in tbe medium is obtained. Indeed, the ovule development within a pod was more regular suggesting a better distribution of nutrient supply from the medium. AIso, when no eontamination is ob5erved, cotyledonar embryos ean easily be obtained and germinated well. However, tbe plantlet survival remains very low (3 %) and, tberefore, tbe teehnique of plantlel regeneration obtained from two days old embryos has lo be improved.It is al50 important, in a latter study, to compare adjusted media using different osmotieum : ¡.e. polyetbylen glycol (pEG) as proposed by Ridolfo (1998) and mannitol (Emons el al. 1993). Results will show the importance of high sucrose levels and the interes! to use media osmotically adjusted to the in vivo conditions.During the experiments, a high level of contamination was observed. The use of a new technique of decontamination was thus necessary. We investígated the potential of the combinatíon ofTween 20 and PPM at different concentrations as proposed by Randall (1998).[t appears lhat during pod culture, I mV1 of PPM gave lhe best results while a drastic decrease of concentration was necessary when cultivating extracted embryos. More investígations are needed to precise the best levels to use.3.1.5.2. Histological studies : Interspecific crosses using P. polyanthus as patemal parentThe main objective of histological studies is to understand better the process that leads to embryo abortion by studying the nutrient transport of occurring at this time within immature seeds. In particular, we compared embryo development in selfpollinated and hybrid seeds.In thi s report we present in a first part (Par! l) a review of histological studies made on Phaseo/us species from pollination to cotyledonar stage of embryo development and illustrate them with our own observations. In a second part (Par! 11), we present preliminary observations made on interspecific hybrids obtained between P. vu/garis (G 21245, used as female) x P. polyanthus (NI 1015). Phaseolus vulgaris ovules (megagametophyte) are borne alternately as slight protuberances by perielinal divisions of cells lying below the epidermal layer on the two margins of the placenta, which is located on the inner dorsal surface of the laterall y flattened ovary (Weinstein 1926) . Later, nucellus is formed by anticlinal and periclinal divisions, as an undistinguished mass of cells. At the same time, two integument primordia are formed On each side of the nucellus (Sterling 1954), the outer and the inner integument, leaving a small opening at the free end, termed micropyle (Figure 10). At the other end , or chalazal end, ovule is raised on a stalk known as the funiculus (Figure 11). The outer integument grows much faster than the inner one and envelops it progressively. Therefore, ovule is tumed at right angles to the funiculus and the micropyle reaches a position parallel to the funiculus while nucellus is then at right angles to the lalter (Figure 12) . The outer integument is initially five cells thick (Figure 10) but reaches at maturity a massive structure. Cells are rich in fatty acids and starch corpus eles with dense cytoplasm and small vacuoles. The inner integument is only two cells in thickness, except near its upper margin where it reaches four or five cells thick (Figure 10). At anthesis, these cells have also dense cytoplasm with numerous small vacuoles and scattered starch grains. This starch is gradually depleted when cells divide. At the micropylar end of the ovule, a large hypodermal mother cell (megasporocyte or archesporial cell) of the nucellus become differentiated before the integument primordia.Ovule is crassinucellated with a zigzag micropyle : the mother cell is separated from the inner integument by a range of ce lis : the nucellar cap (Figure 10). At the time of fertilisation, cells of the inner integument are in direct contact with the embryo sac and elongate to give a characteristic layer of tissue called Ihe integumentary tapetum. The great majority of the pollen tubes, wilh their two male nuclei, do not penetra te the stigma (Weinstein 1926). The pollination takes place usually within 8 or 9 hours afier pollination (Tan & Jackson 1988), a single pollen tube enters through each micropyle to reach directly the each embryo saco Just afier anlhesis, ovules fill the ovarian cavity and curves toward the stylar end to a campylotrope position (Bocquet 1959). Pollen tube reaches the embryo sac at the micropylar end, penetrates one of the synergids, accelerating its destruction in Ihe process (Figure 18). Growth of pollen tube could be stopped by osmotic pressure conditions, causing ruprure of the rube at its weakest point (Russell 1982), or by changes in oxygen tension (Stanley & Linskens 1967). The role of synergids in fertilization (processes that leads to prior degeneration of one of the two synergid; predisposition of one of the synergid to prior degeneration; role of Ihe postdegenerating synergid) remains points of discussion. Also, Ihe remaining filiform apparatus, observed between Ihe synergids (Figure 14 and 16), could point out a role in Ihe nutrition of the zygote. Indeed, in Ihese transfer cells, nutrient could transient preferentially from the inner integument to the zygote. However it is not clear if this appararus is from embryo sac or synergid origin or is controlled by the embryo himself. After Ihe passage through Ihe cytoplasm of Ihe degenerating synergid, the cytoplasm and Ihe two mal e nucleus of Ihe poli en grain are discharged and fusion between the egg and a mal e nucleus occurs just after Ihe fusion between polar cells (Figure 19) and Ihe second male nucleus. The triple fusion between one mal e nucleus and Ihe two priorly fused polar nuclei of the embryo sac gives rise to Ihe primary endosperm nucleus. At Ihat time, two cells are thus formed : Ihe diploid zygote and the primary endosperm nucleus (Figure 14). The zygote is sharply pointed at Ihe micropylar end and its nucleus is located at the chalazal end (Figure 19).Zygote displays a mitotic activity to develop into the embryo, whereas the primary endosperm nucleus differentiates into a nutritive tissue know as the endosperm (Figure 20).Embryo and endosperm are enclosed in an ovule transformed into a seed wilhin the ovary.After fertilization, Ihe egg is transformed into lhe zygote, product of lhe fusion of two gametes (Figure 19), the sperm contributing the paternal genome and Ihe egg providing lhe maternal counterpart. The zygotic phase of embryo formation is known as zygotic embryogenesis.The egg enlarges after fertilization as it is transformed into a zygote. into polysomes and increased dictyosome activity. These last changes are consistent wilh a higher level of mRNAs content in lhe zygote. Raghavan (1990) shows not only an increase of RNA content but al so a gradient in its accumulation, with a high concentration in lhe chalazal parto AIl these changes during lhe formation of the zygote and his polarity reflect lhe capture of information necessary for his subsequent division to form lhe embryo.One of lhe important concepts to emerge from Iight microscopic analysis of embryo development in plants is that early division sequen ces of lhe zygote are canied forward according to a blueprint characteristic of each species. In Phaseolus vulgaris, as in most of angiosperm species, the first division of lhe zygote is asymmetric and perielinal, cuning off a large vacuo late basal cel! attached to the embryo sac wall (micropylar end) and a small, densely cytoplasmic organelle-rich terminal cel! toward lhe embryo sac cavity (chalazal end).The egg has a Iimited amount of cytoplasm, which is spread in a lhin layer surrounding the coccineus L. embryo and its replacement by specific hormones, as gibberellin. In particular, Ihey note that the suspensor also exerts its influence when placed next Ihe embryo-proper, suggesting Ihat it acts either by synthesizing andlor secreting substances or is more efficient in digesting Ihe sUITounding medium so !hat !he embryo can readily absorb substances necessary for its growth. In particular, Cluuer et al. (1977) note a high amylase activity in !he suspensor of P. vulgaris whereas it is not detected in the embryo-proper. In conclusion, these early observations are coherent with the hypothesis that suspensor may synthesize substances not produced by the embryo-proper and may also be the site of hormone syn!hesis. Later, Xuhan  (1993) show that no wall ingrowths are seen between the cell of the embryo head and the endosperm still at the globular stage (Figure 24). Therefore, suspensor may have not only a mechanical and physiological function but is also probably an organ for apoplasmic and  (1980) and Lecomte (1997) in P. vulgaris, Chamberlin el al. (1993) in soybean or Szczuka & (1996) in several other species.In describing embryogenesis, Ihe term \"proembryo\" is used to designate the early stages of development of Ihe embryo; initiation of cotyledons is considered as a good cut-off point for the end of the proembryo stage. Multiplication of the suspensor cells ceases at about Ihe time Ihat Ihe dermatogen begins to differentiate. The embryo is then at globular stage (Brown   1917). In Phaseolus vulgaris, cotyledons are initiated 4-5 days after anthesis at Ihe chalazal si de of the embryo (Figure 24). At !hat time, !he embryo is at heart shaped stage. Eleven days after anthesis, at cotyledonar stage, the cotyledons grow rapidly, and fill onJy in four days Ihe entire space of the integuments (Figure 25). By this time, endosperm has been almost entirely digested, and Ihe little that remains of it is to be found near the chalazal end of the seed cavity (Figure 26). The increase of weight and nitrogen content of the cotyledons is maximum between 22 and 34 days after anthesis (Ópik 1966). The cotyledon parenchyrna cells first beco me very highly vacuo late, but soon the large vacuo les are divided up and converted to reserve protein bodies, while expansion continues until senescence after germination. Starch grains grow within plastids to reach diameters of 50 microm.At Ihe end of embryogenesis, !he mature embryo has attained a basi c organization consisting of a bipolar axis wilh two cotyledons and, at each pole, an apical meristem. The point of attachment of !he cotyledons separates the embryonic axis into a hypocotyl-root region and an epicotyl-plumule region. The primordial root (radicle) is situated at !he lower end of hypocotyl, whereas Ihe primordial shoot (plumule) is attached to Ihe stem part called epicotyl.After fertilization, divisions of!he primary endosperm nucleus begin much earlier !han those of!he zygote nucleus (Brown 1917). Figure 19 shows !hat !he fusion between female and male nucleoli occurs afier complete fusion in endosperm nuclei. In Triticum aestivum, trus prior division of endosperm is particularly revealed . Bennett el al. (1973) show that afier 24 h afier pollination, 16 free nuclei are observed while only a two-celled pro-embryo is developed. The cell divisions of primary endosperm con forms to nuclear-type in which division is not accompanied by cytokinesis resulting in the formation of free nucJei in the central cel!. Cellularization occurs later (Figure 27), to form a partially cellularized endosperm with a multinucleate mass of protoplasm and populated by numerous small vacuoles called the liquid endosperm. The development of these structures before the division of the zygote can be considered as an adaptive value in ensuring the availability of an adequate food supply to the deve loping embryo. In contrast to embryo, where only cotyledons are accumulating reserve, all endosperm cells dedicate their synlhetic machinery to Ihe production and accumulation of food reserves.Divisions of the coenocytic endosperm are more irregular than those of Ihe zygote and not simultaneous (Figure 21). Moreover, these divisions occur only in Ihe portion directly in contact with the embryo and gradually progress toward the chalazal as the embryo increases in size (Figure 28). At the heart stage of embryo development, cell division is gradually confined to the region adjacent to the tips of the enlarging cotyledons, near the seed coat Up to the early cotyledon stage of embryo development, Ihe cellular endosperm completely encloses the embryo and thus may playa role in regulating nutrient flow to Ihe developing embryo (Figure 24). Indeed, any material entering the developing embryo must cross thi s layer of cells. AIso, following Ihe initial phase of cellularization, invaginations of the plasma membrane similar to transfer cells are seen on the wall of the endosperm cells surrounding the embryo in several legume species such as in Vigna sinensis (Hu el al. 1983) and Vicia faba (Johansson & Walles 1994). Later, these cells separate readily from one another, indicating that Ihe bond between endosperm and seed coat is stronger than between individual endosperm cells.At the same time, cuboidal cellular endosperm cells are developed from free cell wall formations (Yeung & Cavey 1988). Later, these endosperm cells, formed by freely growing walls, stretch to fonn a membranous sheet over Ihe embryo (Figure 27). This outennost layer of Ihe cellular endospenn incorporated into the seed as a single layer of cells around Ihe embryo is also described in soybean (Yaklich & Hennan 1995-Figure 26). Two methods of wall fonnation are described (Yeung & Cavey 1988) : freely growing walls are initiated directly from the central cell wall or later al so from Ihe walls of the newly fonned endospenn cells. Moreover, Ihe cellular endosperrn is initially loosely attached to the developing embryo while it finnly adheres to the inner surface of the seed coat at maturity when sandwiched between embryo and seed coa!. Cellular endospenn never appears in the region of degenerating nucellus (chalazal end) which is covered only by the walI of Ihe liquid endosperm (Figure 27).Cellularization of Ihe endosperrn is associated with a particular cycle of DNA synlhesis and mitosis. Endoreduplication and polyploidy are two conventional routes folIowed by endospenn cells (Raghavan 1997). This DNA amplification during Ihe early stages of endospenn development may be important for the synthesis and accumulation of storage products.Liquid endosperm, fonned by numerous small vacuo les of the embryo sac, surrounds Ihe embryo during early embryogenesis (Figures 11, 14, 17 and 18). Moreover, the embryo is enclosed in Ihe seed coal and the seed is in tum enclosed within the podo Therefore, a point of discussions from these observations concems Ihe imponance of anaerobic conditions for Ihe development of globular embryo. Indeed, Boyle & Yeung (1983) show the presence of a high specific activity of alcohol dehydrogenase involved in anaerobiosis during early embryo development followed by a continuous and gradual decline.A fter 5 days after anlhesis, Ihe liquid endosperrn is reabsorbed (Figure 28). 3.1.5.2.1.5. Funiculus and vascular tissuesThe developing seed is attached to the maternal tissue of the fruit by an organ called funiculus (Figure 11). Pod nutrients must traverse the funiculus to reach Ihe seed coa!. A characteristic sol id core of vascular tissue originates from the differentiation of the procambium and is present near the main vasculature of the pod (Figure 30). The amount of vascular tissue diminishes progressively to become a small strand prior to enter into the seed, phloem elements being located at chalazal end while xylem elements being located towards Ihe micropylar end of the seed (Figure 11 and 28). Thus, the vascular tissue within the funiculus appears as a conical structure with an interrwining network of vascular tissue : sieve and vessel mature elements can be found to lie side by side. It is thus a single primary vascular trace comprising xylem and phloem that enters the placenta into lhe funicular regio n and this toward the chalazal end of the embryo sac (Brady & Combs 1989 -Figure 30). At anthesis, xylem and phloem are made up of continuous files of mature and inunature vessel and sieve elements, companion cells, elongated procambial cells, and associated parenchyma.One day after anthesis, two recurrent branches develop from the procambial strands of the central regio n and run on either si de of the embryo sac of the seed from the primary chalazal trace parallel to the placenta loward the area of the micropyle where the embryo is developing. There is al so sorne limited tertiary procambial activity perpendicular to Ihe lateral traces. At coryledon stage, funiculus increases in size by mitotic activiry within the procambium and the surrounding parenchyma. A fter coryledon stage, the enlargement of funiculus is due to cell expansion, intercellular spaces, and maturation of vascular elements. In this chapter, we review the different incompatibility barriers, appearing as well in self fertilization as in wide crosses.To preserve their identity and stability, species have developed genetic mechanisms involved in the control of pre-and post-pollination and fertilization, known as incompatibility barriers. This incompatibility defines lhe inabiJity of lhe functional gametes to affect sexual recombination and eventual seed set in a particular combination. Self-incompatibility describes intraspecific reproductive barriers, between gametes from the same individual or from individuals of the same species. Cross-incompatibility is used in the olher cases. While self-incompatibility has been largely srudied , much less is known about cross-incompatibility (Raghavan 1997).Briefly, two type of self-incompatibility are recognized heterotrophic and homomorphic types.  (1973) posrulate that a deviant ratio in the chromosome number between embryo and endospenn causes abnonnalities in the endospenn and, as a consequence, embryo abortion. Thus, deleterious genes may exert their primary effect on the endospenn rather than on the embryo. This is pointed out by success obtained with sorne embryo culrure methods : these provide an artificial medium supplied with nutrient substances that are nonnally identified in the endospenn and used to obtain transplantable seedlings from aborted seeds of interspecific crosses. Therefore, the early disintegration of the endospenn, beginning soon after fertilization, is commonly cited as the most important factor in embryo abortion. Indeed, endosperm is an irnmediate so urce of food for the embryo that is deprived by this disintegration.[n general, the initial rate of development of the endosperm in nonviable crosses does not differ from Ihat observed in successful crosses, but afterward, it decreases slightJy. The strucrural changes are more dramatic than the decrease in cell number. [n particular, cells of the endospenn become vacuolated at the chalazal end and less dense than those at the micropylar end. Moreover, cell walls are dissol ved leading lO the fusion of the protoplasm and the nuclei as observed in aborting selfpollinated Phaseolus seeds (Figure 31).In Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium the endospenn is then reduced to a single or a few giant cells surrounding the embryo (Cooper & Brink 1945).Poor endospenn development and embryo abortion have also been associated in Oenolhera lamarckiana with Ihe proliferati ve growth of a tissue from the nucellus (Renner 1914). This hyperplastic growth of the nucellus, causing somatoplastic sterility, is a[so associated with a deficiency in the development of conducting elemenls within the seed, foreshadowing a suppression of nutrient transport to the endosperm. In other cases, infertile crosses show a proliferation of the integument (endothelium). This tissue proliferation begins to grow without restriction and extends into the embryo sac as a burgeoning mass of cells.This endothelium burgeoning is observed in aborting selfpollinated Phaseolus seeds (Figure 32). In any case, the hyperplastic growth of the nucellus or the proliferated tissue of the endothelium cause under-nutrition ofthe embryo.Figure 10. A median longitudinal seetion sb.owing a mother eeU (areb.esporial eeU) and its env1ronmenl al 0-1 (P. vulgaris G21245). Ovule is erassinueeUaled: the mother ceU is separaled from the inner inleguroenl by a range of ceU : Ihe endothelium.            embryos are easler to obtain and can develop into mature seed. The differences in the express ion of incompatibility barners between the two reciprocal crosses (P. po/yanlhus used as female or male), will enable us to identify more precisely the most important changes related to abortion in P. po/yanlhus (~) x P. vlI/garis crosses.On 104 crosses made between the wild genotype of P. vlI/garis (G 21245) and P. po/yanlhus (NI 1015), 47 pods were collected for histological studies at different stages of maturity. Pods were taken before any sign of abortion. On the 57 remaining crosses, 14 pods evolved to maturity and provide hybrid seeds (Figure 33 and 32). Germination of one seed gave an hybrid plant. The other hybrid seeds were dried and preserved for furtber studies. The hybrid plant was evaluated for morphological traits (Figure 35) and isozyme markers (using starch gel electrophoresis -Figure 36).  P. VUl. ~arlS ('i') aod P. polyanthus has an inlermediate size.- Results pointed out the relative easiness to abotain hybrids between G 21245 (as female parent) and NIlO 15 : success rate was more than 10%.The hybrid plant we obtained is currently evaluated for its potential to be crossed with P. polyanthus (used as female parent). One day after pollination, the development of the different structures in the hybrid appears normal. Only a vacuole separating the first two endosperm cells is observed (Figure 37). Sorne hypertrophy of the vascular elements is also observed (Figure 38). However, the nucellus shows normal cells.Two days after pollination, we can point out the weak development of the coenocytic endosperm (Figure 39). lndeed, only four nuclei are observed in comparison to 20 to 30 in normal developing seeds. Besides this di fference, another discriminating factor is the low development of the zygote which is still one or two-celled while zygotes in selfpollinated seeds are 16 to 24-celled at this stage (Figure 39) . lts division has not yet started. 2. Coenocytic endosperm is vacuolated and slight cellularization could be observed (Figure 40). We al so observe a delay in endosperm development. The nutritive function of the endosperm could therefore be greatly affected.3. Xylem elements and their parenchyma are hypertrophied at the chalazal side while phloem elements are well developed (Figure 41). This hypertrophy limits nutrient exchange between nucellus, outer integument and placental region. Procambial branches into the nucellus are al so hypertrophied. 4. A proliferation of endothelium tissue of the inner integument is observed (Figure 42). This tissue grows into the embryo sac at the expense of nutritive elements.After three days of development, most of the embryos aborted. However, in sorne cases, one or two seeds continue to develop within a podo In these cases, the development of the embryo was three to four days slower than in P. vulgaris seeds (Figure 42 and 41). We observed also that the proliferating tissue from the endothelium was limited in size (Figure 43). Finally, it was noted Ihat Ihe cell divisions of the embryo-proper were more irregular Ihan in selfpollinated seeds of P. vulgaris. More precisely, vertical divisions were more abundant, leading to Ihe growth of the embryo into Ihe inner integument, cutting off Ihe cellular endospenn which usually completely surrounds the non hybrid embryos (Figure 44).In concJusion, in hybrid seeds obtained between P. vulgaris (Cjl) x P polyanthus, embryos generally begin to grow in a relatively healthy way. Only the presence of a vacuole between developing coenocytic cells and sorne hypertrophy of the xylem elements are noted. This early disintegration of the endosperrn, beginning soon after fertilization, is commonly cited as Ihe most important factor in embryo abortion. In general, the initial rate of developrnent of Ihe endospenn in hybrid crosses did not differ from that observed tn selfpollinated seeds, but afterward, decreases in cell number. Structural changes are also observed. In particular, endospenn ce lis become vacuolated and cellularization is delayed.Embryo abortion is al so associated with the proliferative growth of a tissue frorn the endothelium. This tissue proliferation begins to grow without restriction and extends into the embryo sac as a burgeoning mass of cells. lt is supposed Ihat Ihe proli ferated tissue causes under-nutrition of Ihe embryo.In parallel to the development of a weak endosperrn, we note an hypertrophy of xylem elements and their parenchyma at Ihe chalazal end of Ihe seed while sieve elements develop nonnally. Later, hyperplastic growth of the nucellus is also assocíated with a deficiency in the developrnent of conductor elements within the seed.We suppose that Ihe hypertrophy of xylem elernents could be due to the export via the nucellus of substances (that could be honnone growth substances) produced in me embryo sac by the hybrid endospenn cells aml/or by the proliferating tíssue of Ihe endolhelium. In other word, deleterious genes of Ihe hybrid endospenn could lead to the production of substances mat induces the division of me endothelium and the hyperplastic growth of xylem elements and nucellus. The proliferating tissue, as the hyperpIastic growth of vascular elements, foreshadow a suppression of nutrient transport to the endosperrn and as a consequence leads to a weak development of the embryo. We note Ihat me development of the hybrid embryo was three to four days slower than in selfpollinated seeds.seeds obtained between :P. vulgaris (G 21245) x P. polyanthus (NII01S)Figure 37. Section a! D+ 1 showing !he fus! divisions of lhe primary eodosperm oucleus : a vacuole separates !he two first ceUs fonned (red asterisk). Median longitudinal sections in normal seeds oC P. vu/garis (G 21245).Al O 1, no vacuo le appears between cells of coenoc}1ic endosperm.Al 02, embryo is 16 to 24 celled and coenocytic endosperm nuclei are abundant. Cellularization is airead y in process.case study is the introgression of Ascochyta blighl resistance from Phaseo/us po/yanthus into Ihe common bean (Baudoin 1992). Sorne interspecific crosses have been attempted by Lecomte (1997)  Hislology of early embryogenesis within Phaseolus was reviewed using a histological method for small and relatively soft plant material (lOto 30 mm> depending on the shape) that has been improved in our laboratory during the first two years of the project. Emphasis was placed on the functions played by the different parts of the developing embryo and of their interactions with the surrounding cell s and tissues.From this base work, we investigated Ihe developmenl of hybrid embryos in order lo identify the incompalibility barriers between P polyanthus (<¡J) x P. vulgaris. Genotypes were selected according to results obtained during the second year of investigations. In particular, the wild genotype G 21245 was considered for P. vu/garis while two genotypes (NIlO 15 and G 35348) were identified ror P. polyanthus.We studied first Ihe problems of abortion in the reciprocal cross using P. vulgaris as female. Indeed, developing hybrid seeds when using G 21245 as female were more easily obtained. Moreover, the differences in the expression of incompalibility barriers in hybrids belween the two reciprocal crosses (P. polyanthus used as female or male), enable us lO identify more precisely the most important changes rel ated to abortion in P. polyanthus (<¡J) x P. vulgaris crosses. The study of P. polyanthus (<¡J) x P. vulgaris crosses is on progress.Our study on reciprocal cross using P. vulgaris as female shows that, soon after fertilization , endosperrn cells disintegrate and a tissue from the endothelium proliferate into the embryo saco In parallel to these changes, xylem elements and, later, also the nucellus, show hypertrophied cells. We suppose that cell hypertrophy of the vascular elements, causing a deficiency in nutrient transport, could be due to the export of substances produced by the degenerating endosperrn and/or by the proliferating tissue of the endothelium, and, as a consequence, leads to a weak development of the embryo. Sorne hybrid embryos evolved to maturity and provide hybrid seeds. Germination of one seed has given an hybrid planto The other hybrid seeds were dried and preserved for later studies.3.2. Interspecific hybridizatioo aod selectioo methodologies, combining classical aod molecular techniques, are developed to successfully transfer resistance traits into common beaoPreviously we reported:• Crosses wilh eommon bean were ereated uSlOg sourees of resistanee identified 10 the prevlOus year.• Interspeeifie progeny were distributed to Afriea for Bean Fly evaluation.For 1998•99 we report the following:• Populations among interspeeifie pro gen y and P. vuigaris (PV) were sereened for resistanee.• More lhan 90 seleetions were obtained in segregating F 2 populations and will soon be planted for evaluation as farnilies.• Additional populations for bolh snap and dry bean types are in F I and F 2 generations, for advance and subsequent field screening. Thirty-two F 2 populations are ready for planting in the second semester of 1999.• Segregating populations involving a local Guatemalan cultivar were shared with the Guatemalan national program for selection in the highlands.The crosses that were obtained among resistant interspeeific progeny, and between these and PV, were advanced to lhe F 2 generation and were evaluated under extremely severe disease pressure in lhe April planting season in Popayán. Sueh was lhe disease pressure in trus season that several neighboring trials of common bean were lost. Witrun lhe segregating populations, resistant plants were observed in a small minority of lhe population, thus tending to confirm that lhe resistance is probably recessive in its expression, or multigenic.Nonetheless, more lhan 90 individual selections were obtained and will soon be planted for evaluation as families (Table XVII). The most promising populations were lhose lhat combined the Guatemalan variety, JCT A Hunapú, with the interspecific lines. Hunapú is bred variety that was developed under natural attack of ASC and expresses and intermediate resistance. It is hoped lha! ¡he progeny will combine genes from Hunapú and lhe interspecific lines, to anain superior levels. However, it was noted that lhe most resistant selections were normally quite late lO mature, Ihus plant maturity may still be contributing to the apparenl resistance of selections. lt will be necessary to consciously seek plants that mature with.in an acceptabJe period, and express the maximaJ resi stance possible wilhin that maturity range, although th.is may not be Ihe best resistance observed.Segregating populations involving Hunapú were shared with Ihe Guatemalan national program for selection in Ihe highlands of !hat country (Table 11). This a region in which resistance to ASe would be a welcome contribution to small farmer agriculture. Additional populations for both snap and dry bean types are in F t generation and will be advanced to F2 and screened for ASC in Ihe present year (Table XVIII) . These involve the same hybrids of Hunapú and the interspecifi cs crossed to susceptible parents. Time will lell if this strategy pennits the transfer of adequate resistance.  Additional crosses with PC and PP for BGMY and BSM were also obtained (Table XIX). These crosses will be advanced, while those for BSM will be held as F 1 populations, still pending information from Tanzania. Crosses for BGMY will be gi ven a treatment of congruity backeross for one more complete cycle (crossing to the PC parent and then again to Ihe PY parent), lo inerease genetic recombination. Progress has been substantial toward understanding Ihe underlying causes of hybrid infertility in crosses between P. vulgaris and P polyanthus. We expect Ihat Ihese problems can be addressed effectively through the studies on embryo culture, which are a breakthrough in embryo rescue at the earliest stages of development. These results will have impact when they are deployed in breeding programs. lf the methods are as promising as Ihey appear, they could feasibly be applied on populations of several hundred progeny, permining Iheir ample use in breeding of common bean. Thus, the new methodologies are very timely, since they are becoming available through the University of Gembloux as the breeding program in CIAT is focussing more on transfer of traits to Ihe cornmon bean. The formation of a core collection in CIA T using agroecological data to select accessions from a broad range of environments has created a useful research tool to explore the potential of Ihese two species. Data obtained wilh Ihe core colIection are beginning to shed more Iight on Ihe value of Ihese genetic resources.Results in CIA T suggest that P. coccineus and P. polyanthus may have more disease resistance Ihan previously recognized, and if genes can be transferred more readily among Ihese species, cornmon bean could benefit significantly. We look forward to employing lhe melhodologies developed in Gembloux when Ihey are fully refined , on a broader scale in Ihe furure, to fulfill the objectives of the project and overcome production constraints of small farmers.","tokenCount":"9691"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"58023c2992d6b69ca932d95c7488d07b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ab848ee2-d789-4a2d-a91f-8eb3ba6a5ceb/retrieve","id":"1827509431"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"86ca6770-19fa-465a-9e91-6acdf2e07a04","pagecount":"18","content":"Amjath-Babu, T.S., Khanam, F., Krupnik, T.J. ( 2023) User Manual: How to use Agvisely to generate climate service advisories for livestock in Bangladesh. International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Dhaka.We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders.To learn more about Initiative Asian Mega-Deltas (AMD), please visit: https://www. cgiar.org/initiative/asian-mega-deltas/ For the Initiative Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSA), please visit: https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/asian-mega-deltas/ For Cereal Systems Initiative in South Asia (CSISA), please visit: https://csisa.org/ This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence (CC BY-NC 4.0).Articles appearing in this publication may be freely quoted and reproduced provided the source is acknowledged. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purposes.This publication has been prepared under the Initiatives AMD, TAFSSA and CSISA project, and has not been peer reviewed. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of AMD, donor agencies, or partners.All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission of the source.Step 01: After typing Agvisely.com on the Google Chrome browser, the registration form will appear.Step 03: Please write your name.Step 04: Please select your district.Step 02: Please choose your preferred language (English or Bangla).Step 09: Four digits of the OTP code for verification will be sent to your mobile number as an SMS.Step 11: Please type the OTP code number (4 digits) in the \"verification code\" section.Step 10: Please check your message inbox for the OTP code number (4 digits) for verification.Step 12: Please press the \"Continue\" button.Step 17: Please click the \"Give Permission\" button so that you will receive weather advisory alerts and notifications.Step 19: Please select the \"Allow\" option on the notification.Step 18: The \"notification\" page will appear.Step 20: AGvisely app has been installed on your smartphone and you will find the app on the phone's screen.How to use Agvisely on your smartphone to generate climate service advisories for livestock'Step 01: Please click Agvisely App from your smartphone.Step 03: Please select \"Livestock\" to see the livestock advice.Step 04: Please click \"Select Livestock\" to view the list of livestock.Step 02: The Agvisely page will appear where you will see 5 days' weather forecasts at your Upzila level (sub-district) for agriculture, Aquaculture, and livestock.Step 05: Please choose livestock from the list of livestock options.Step 07: The Livestock Advice will appear on the screen where the detailed advisory for the exotic calf is given.Step 06: Please select the potential stage of the livestock from the list of \"Potential stage(s)\". Here, as an example, the calf under Cox Exotic has been selected.Step 05: Please choose the division from the map. Here, as an example, the Khulna division has been selected.Step 07: Please choose the upazila /sub-district under the district from the map. Here, as an example, Batiaghata Upazila of the Khulna district has been selected.Step 06: Then, please choose the district under the division from the map. Here, as an example, the Khulna district has been selected.Step 08: Five days' weather forecasts for Batiaghata Upazila Khulna district will be shown on the app.","tokenCount":"533"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"72e7e41bed033cf5759b4bf62e8d9ae3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a6cd34c2-0ddd-4003-91b1-8bcf4a752094/retrieve","id":"1356372132"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c09dd9e7-9a05-4871-94a2-1502ea47d604","pagecount":"2","content":"The Africa RISING program framework (URL) outlines the underlying principles of and implementation plan for the research that will be undertaken by the three Africa RISING projects in West Africa, Eastern and Southern Africa and the Ethiopian highlands.It identifies approaches that will deliver against its purpose of providing pathways out of hunger and poverty through sustainable intensification (SI).The farm household scale is the focal domain for Africa RISING's investments and activities. This is the scale at which household production decisions, gender and nutrition issues, and household welfare as well as soil health and productivity issues operate. Research activities at this scale focus on understanding household needs and incentives to support effective evaluation, adoption and adaptation of the most relevant interventions.'Sustainable intensification' (SI) has been defined as 'producing more output from the same area of land while reducing the negative environmental impacts and at the same time increasing contributions to natural capital and the flow of environmental services' (Pretty et al, 2011).Stepwise progress towards SI Ultimate intensification requires the adoption of various SI innovation components, each with their own challenges, towards large-scale uptake. Africa RISING acknowledges that farmers hardly ever take on simultaneously a suite of alternative or improved practices. It will evaluate the 'robustness' and 'riskiness' of specific interventions and then develop pathways to integrate more components as households move up the intensification ladder. Africa RISING also acknowledges that some components are required before other components can be promoted.Overall environmental conditions and varying socioeconomic circumstances influence the options and pathways available to smallholder farmers. Important divers towards intensification include high population densities, good access to markets, and appropriate agro-ecological conditions. Within the Africa RISING sites, it is important to understand the current status of each of those drivers and construct development domains that encompass areas with similar conditions in order to ensure that scaling up processes and approaches integrate this crucial information.Within rural communities, access to farming resources for households is variable and determines, to a great extent, the options that these households have to intensify production and take risk. The program considers farming systems in the light of five possible broad rural household livelihoods strategies from poverty and hunger: (i) intensification of production; (ii) diversification of agricultural productivities for increased output value; (iii) increased farm size; (iv) expansion in off-farm income; (v) and complete step out of agriculture. Targeting specific households having a specific set of resources and livelihood objectives is a crucial strategy of Africa RISING.Since system interventions require the engagement of various research and development partners, R4D platforms will be constituted to facilitate meaningful and effective interactions that prioritize, guide, and evaluate the various research and development processes. The platforms will help connect farmers to profitable and efficient value chains. They will design, implement, evaluate project activities and disseminate and communicate research findings.Demand-driven entry points towards sustainable intensification will result from the situation analysis, the exante potential of certain interventions and technologies, and agreement among partners in the R4D platforms. Such entry points could consist of technologies or technology components aiming at productivity enhancement, natural resource management, income generation or knowledge management; most likely in combination. They can also include innovations related to social and institutional arrangements.Since many activities involve the direct engagement of farming families and collection of private information, guidelines on good practice while working with farming families will be adopted.","tokenCount":"556"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e298b0dae968c3ab9a17a11aa4ce6a58","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef72d8bc-b565-4e1e-a240-bb45ee4151c1/retrieve","id":"1341145440"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ee7f982a-0355-47b8-9926-49db6fcee010","pagecount":"2","content":"Agrobacterium deltaense strain CNPSo 3391 was isolated from a soybean nodule in Mozambique. Its genome size was estimated at 4,926,588 bp. This isolate carries several coding sequences for stress tolerance, but no identifiable nodulation or virulence genes. Possible ecological roles of bacteria isolated from legume nodules and closely related to Agrobacterium are discussed.F or 2 decades our group has reported the isolation of agrobacteria from root nodules of soybean (Glycine max) (1-3), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) (4)(5)(6), and other legumes (7)(8)(9). However, the ability to reestablish nodulation with the host legume is usually not confirmed. Another example is the Agrobacterium deltaense type strain YIC4121, isolated from a root nodule of Sesbania cannabina in China; the ability to nodulate seven legumes was not confirmed (10). Here, we report the draft genome sequence of strain CNPSo 3391 (ϭ Moz59, ϭ 9 J1), isolated from a plant grown in Mutequelesse, Gurué District, Zambézia Province, Mozambique, showing no symptoms of N deficiency. Preliminary genetic characterization based on the 16S rRNA and three housekeeping genes positioned the strain in a Rhizobium (Agrobacterium) clade (3).Growth conditions for CNPSo 3391 were the same as those reported for its isolation (3), and DNA extraction and paired-end sequencing on the MiSeq platform (Illumina) were performed as described before (11), resulting in 630,975,648 bp. Shotgun sequences were assembled with the A5-MiSeq pipeline (de novo) v.20140604 with 128-fold genome coverage assembled in 50 contigs with an N 50 of 177,127 bp. The genome was estimated at 4,926,588 bp, with GϩC content of 59.9 mol%, confirmed with RAST v.2.0 (12) and QUAST v.2.0 (13), using default parameters. Average nucleotide identity (ANI) (ANI calculator [14]) indicated highest similarity (97.68%) with Agrobacterium deltaense YIC4121 T . Compared to the genomes of A. deltaense at the NCBI (strains NCPPB 1641, RV3, Zutra 3-1, and YIC4121 T ), CNPSo 3391 is slightly smaller than YIC4121 T (5.02 Mb), but within the same GϩC range of all strains.A total of 4,765 DNA coding sequences (CDSs) were identified in RAST (12), with 49% classified in 475 subsystems; this annotation is the public version available at GenBank. Similarly to A. deltaense YIC4121 T , CNPSo 3391 carries no nodulation genes or nif and fix operons. However, CNPSo 3391 also carries no genes related to virulence, and we were not able to find sequences coding for telA, related to the speciation of some Agrobacterium (15). The environmental adaptability of CNPSo 3391 might be explained by genes such as 63 CDSs related to resistance to antibiotic and toxic compounds, 51 to iron acquisition and metabolism, 104 to motility and chemotaxis, and 162 to stress response.Isolation of agrobacteria from legume root nodules seems to occur worldwide, with reports in Brazil (2,4,(6)(7)(8)(9), China (10), Ecuador (5), Mozambique (3), and Paraguay (1), among other countries. As these bacteria apparently do not carry nodulation genes, Yan et al. (10) suggested that they might be endophytes, but we cannot discard the hypothesis of a temporary acquisition of a symbiotic plasmid from another rhizobia. However, the role of agrobacteria in symbiosis deserves further investigation; interestingly, 3 decades ago in vivo results suggested that Agrobacterium spp. might produce extracellular \"signals\" that would supplement the ability of rhizobia to induce root nodulation in the host legume (16).","tokenCount":"538"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4258673977.json b/data/part_1/4258673977.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..111e75c7e556853f9ec60c6c3bea0f7d77550788
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4258673977.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9f4ed1816a8e8ba98b40daa23ec85d46","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cda13ebf-8cf5-4ea5-89b1-e42469d62075/retrieve","id":"1236358075"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bc8fbecc-228a-4d34-b6f9-509b0d70a29f","pagecount":"4","content":"Better incomes and improved nutrition start with high-quality certified seeds for farmersSmall scale farmers and families in Uganda could benefit greatly from higher yields and more nutritious potato. However, the availability of certified seed potato of better-performing varieties is limited. The limitation is not only due to a lack of seed; there are capacity concerns as well. The National Seed Certification Service (NSCS) in Uganda, which bears responsibility for seed certification, has lacked adequate funds, facilities, and skilled personnel to perform its role. For this reason, the International Potato Center has been focusing on developing a seed certification system for the country, with support from the GIZ-funded project \"Technical Backstopping within the Potato Working Group in Seven SEWOH Countries. \" Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a major food and cash crop, grown primarily by small-scale farmers in the highland regions in the eastern, southwestern and northwestern Uganda (Figure 1). The Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) in Uganda has declared potato a key commodity for improving household food security, income and livelihood.Currently, Uganda produces about 162,151 tonnes of potato annually on approximately 37,745 hectares (FAOSTAT, 2018) for an average yield of 4.3 tonnes per hectare (t/ha), well below the 30-60 t/ha achieved elsewhere in the world (Figure 2). While availability of certified and quality assured potato seed is a primary inhibiting factor, farmers are also hampered by low knowledge of optimal farming practices, low potato processing capacity in country, and inadequate facilities for potato storage.Uganda has recently approved and published regulatory reforms in the potato seed industry that align with regional regulations to promote seed trade and access to quality seed by farmers. Upon request from MAAIF, CIP supported a consultative process --initiated by GIZ --to develop a seed potato certification protocol for the country for piloting in early 2021 and full implementation by year's end.Uganda's National Seed Certification Service (NSCS) under MAAIF has a mandate to ensure seed quality control in the country. NSCS's work has benefited from recent policy and legislative instruments that have enabled greater harmonization among government agencies and nongovernment farmer-oriented groups to improve seed quality and formal seed production systems.Under the \"Technical Backstopping within the Potato Working Group in Seven SEWOH Countries\" project to support early generation seed production, CIP has been assisting countries in East Africa to improve their diagnostic capabilities and seed production. In Uganda, MAAIF elected to promote commodity approaches to certain crops to improve household food security, incomes and livelihood. The potato is one such commodity and grows well in the highland regions of eastern, southwestern and northwestern Uganda. MAAIF requested CIP to provide technical support to the development of a seed certification protocol, which was urgently needed to bridge shortfalls in certified seed potato availability.In February 2020, MAAIF requested CIP to support Uganda's progress toward the following objectives: 1. To streamline seed potato certification schemes (i.e., formal seed certification); 2. To finalize and integrate apical rooted cuttings protocols into the national seed certification regulations; 3. To map important actors of potato value chain (seed, ware, processors etc.) to develop a sustainable seed business model; and 4. To produce standalone seed certification guidelines and procedure for different seed categories.To achieve these objectives, MAAIF created a taskforce that included CIP, Uganda's Integrated Seed Systems Development (ISSD) program, the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC), the Uganda Potato Platform (UPP) and the National Seed Certification Service (NSCS) to further develop the seed potato certification protocol.The protocol would cover all steps of the process (Figure 3), from tissue culture plantlet production to mother plant multiplication, early generation seed production, field seed crop inspection, field multiplication, laboratory indexing of seed, and certification and labelling of seed potato in storage.  MAAIF presented an early draft to the taskforce in June 2020, which they reviewed over the course of two months to ensure that all subtopics were clearly and comprehensively included. The reviewed draft was shared with the NSCS for comments and revisions in August and September 2020. The revised version was then again shared with the larger taskforce in September 2020 after which the taskforce presented the protocol to various stakeholders along the potato value chain for their inputs and approval: extension services, seed and ware potato producers, researchers, development partners, the including Uganda Potato Platform, GIZ, IFDC, ISSD and MAAIF.Due to mobility restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, the initial plan to hold two in-person meetings to finalize the review and validate the protocol was revised to have one large virtual meeting in November 2020. The agenda included sessions by NSCS on seed certification, policy and legislation, while CIP presented key elements of the seed potato certification protocol. A later session provided opportunity for discussion on three key topics: 1) access to potato variety and early generation seed production; 2) seed field inspection, and 3) diagnostics and testing in potato to secure stakeholders' endorsement and buy-in to the key elements of the protocol.The final draft protocol has been presented to MAAIF, who is taking responsibility for incorporating the remaining comments and revisions, which will be published later on MAAIF website.From this point, the seed certification protocol will be processed and ratified within MAAIF. The protocol will be piloted in early 2021 under the supervision of the taskforce and invited stakeholders to evaluate the protocol's effectiveness. Pending the successful trial of the protocol, the document will be fully operationalized and trainings will be provided to all seed inspectors in Uganda. The inspectorate will need facilities and equipment to affect the requirements under the protocols particularly in the diagnostics of the pests and diseases.The results of this work will 1) enable greater availability and access to quality seed potato; 2) allow more widespread use of healthy seed potatoes for higher yields, 3) create greater reliability of stable yields to strengthen farmer income streams, and 4) promote improved nutrition and incomes for small farmers in Uganda, while also creating value for many stakeholders along the potato value chain.The preparation of the protocols was inclusive, where almost all key stakeholders in the potato value chain were involved. This included the Ministry of Agriculture with the relevant implementing institutions as the custodian of the regulations, private sector players, farmers (seed and ware potato) and development partners. This enhances the ownership and faster adoption and implementation of the protocols.The task force reviewed regional protocols that had already been implemented in some East African communities (e.g., Kenya), and international best practices from countries (e.g., the Netherlands, andScientist, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Potato Program kalpana.sharma@cgiar.orgSenior consultant advisor, SSA Potato Program evanssikinyi@gmail.com USA) who are trading partners in potato. They also examined seed schemes approved by the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Harmonized protocols will enhance the trust and confidence of the various national certification agencies in the quality of seed used in other countries, which will help accelerate seed trade and movement across borders.Credit CIP/ S. Quinn","tokenCount":"1152"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4275175289.json b/data/part_1/4275175289.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6c6d6a2bc970c6aa2c7ac04e46a7a54304128794
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4275175289.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e1b3956ea7f1e8375eb5697d111f1da","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4fb03f8b-1e25-492f-822f-e6113f17f660/retrieve","id":"-460884454"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d029a94-b305-48b7-b1a4-6dd58e6fd79e","pagecount":"25","content":"African Swine Fever in Africa • ASFV present in about 26 African countries.• All 24 genotypes are present in Africa.• There is a wildlife reservoir: warthogs and bush pigs.• Wild boars are susceptible.• Soft ticks of the genus Ornithodores are involved in transmission of ASFV.From \"Encyclopedia of Virology\" Chap.: African swine fever\" by L.Dixon and D. Chapman. 2008  • Kenya 1033 (genotype IX) isolated by ILRI and DVS Kenya.• Genotype IX and X are especially circulation in Eastern Africa.• Isolated from a zone with outbreaks.• Used as the challenging virus in the animal model• Used as backbone for deletion of genes to generate attenuated viruses. • WSL (from FLI) is a fetal wild boar lung cell line, not immortalized.• ASFV Kenya 1033 was adapted to WSL (20+ passages) Immunomodulatory molecule promoting apoptosis of lymphocytes.Mimic NFκB subunit, inhibits NFκB activity, which is crucial in the pro-inflammatory response. • ∆CD2v is more efficient than the double knockout but less attenuated.87.5% protection versus 50%.• ∆A238L seems to add to the attenuation, but with a loss in ability to protect. ","tokenCount":"176"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4293706492.json b/data/part_1/4293706492.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..126955a7c2895d67c916c5792a4db0e7314fed57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4293706492.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d1034f85b73edd244019c68211032c82","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a04e44d1-f653-47cb-8e67-86782a040666/retrieve","id":"564644788"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bcb39731-ccb2-4163-a6e8-629a8e7a5cbe","pagecount":"2","content":"Six months after the end of the project Decentralised Vine Multipliers (DVMs) continue e orts to respond to the need for quality vines in their communities and see opportunities for additional income from vine and root sales.2013 AUG Partners include: • Catholic Relief Services (CRS) • Kituo cha Mafunzo ya Kuboresha Mazingira na Kilimo Adilifu (KIMKUMAKA) • Rulenge Diocesan Development Department (RUDDO)• Mogabiri Farm Extension Centre (MFEC)• Misungwi Rural Housing Project (MRHP)• Diocese of Shinyanga (DOS)• Tanzania Home Economics Association (TAHEA)• Buhemba Rural Agricultural Center (BRAC)What was achieved?Access to timely, quality sweetpotato planting vines in the Lake Zone of Tanzania can improve food security and nutrition, especially during times of drought, crop disease, and hunger. The Marando Bora project was operational between October 2009 and September 2012. The project established and trained 88 decentralized vine multipliers (DVMs) and an estimated 110,000 farmers received quality vines, the majority of who were women.A survey of DVMs was conducted as part of the end line survey. This brief provides preliminary ndings on whether the DVMs were continuing after the end of the project, reasons for continuing or not continuing vine multiplication, use of di erent technologies which had been promoted by the project; feedback on varieties preferred by the DVMs and their clients; and feedback on participation in the pilot quality declared planting material (QDPM) inspection scheme.The project worked in twelve districts in Mwanza, Mara, Kagera and Shinyanga Regions of Lake Zone, Tanzania. Catholic Relief Services (CRS) was the in-country lead, working with BRAC, KIMKUMAKA, RUDDO, TAHEA and research and local government extension services to support the training and establishment of DVMs.Ensuring women participate as DVMs A total of 88 DVMs were established under the project -72% DVMs were working as a group and 28% were individual DVMs. After the rst year of project operation, implementing partners had made e orts to include additional group DVMs as a strategy to ensure that more women farmers were involved in vine multiplication enterprises.The study found that a total of 940 farmers were members of the group DVMs, of which 51% were female farmers, 39% were male and 10% were youth (under 30 years old). 68% of the groups had 50% or more women. Thirty per cent of the group DVMs were o cially registered with the government. Among the individual DVMs 28% were women and 72% men.It may be easier for women farmers to engage in vine multiplication as an enterprise through group activities; however it is also recognised that internal group dynamics will in uence how sustainable the vine enterprise will be in the future.The intervention ended in June 2012. Of the 61 DVMs who were multiplying as of March 2013, 34% were using the rapid multiplication technology (RMT); 61% were using conventional spacing to obtain roots and vines and 5% were using both technologies.It appears that a higher percentage of female group DVMs 1 compared to male group DVMs were using the RMT of close spaced planting in beds. The practice of using conventional spacing to produce both roots and vines is a strategy which spreads the risk for the multiplier, especially where the market demand for vines is unpredictable.m.mcewan@cgiar.org Vines = Money. DVM price board includes the price of marando bora (7,000 Tsh /sack $4.5 for 1,000 vines) Tunyenye Village, Sengerema, Tanzania (credit: Margaret McEwan).Visit the Sweetpotato Knowledge Portal www.sweetpotatoknowledge.org 97% of DVMs irrigated their plots with the majority using watering cans and buckets. 23% used motorised pumps and 12% used treadle pumps. 87% used fertiliser (organic and inorganic) during the project period with 26% continued to fertilize after the project nished. It also appears that a higher proportion of the female group DVMs compared to the male group DVMs used fertiliser during the project and continued to do so afterwards.44% of all the DVMs considered \"Polista\", a popular local variety that was cleaned up, to be the most productive variety, followed by Kabode (17%), a new orange-eshed variety, and Ukerewe (15%), another popular cleaned-up local variety. A minority of DVMs considered Jewel and Ejumula, both orange-eshed, as the most productive.During 2012, DVMs reported that they had been visited by an extension agent four or ve times on average. The most useful advice received related to weeding to keep multiplication beds clean, followed by guidance on bed preparation, and rouging to remove diseased plants. The Buselemi Group, in Geita District explained: \"we didn't know that even sweetpotato have diseases; we learned about planting spacing and to cut short vines for planting\".A community-based, quality declared planting material (QPDM) inspection scheme for sweetpotato was piloted with a sub sample (12%) of DVMs who reported the following advantages: production of healthier planting materials, production of vines free from pests and disease, identi cation of pests and disease, production of marketable vines and guing of diseased plants. No disadvantages were reported in relation to inspections and all DVMs were interested in continuing the inspections.DVMs were key actors in the voucher system, whereby vulnerable farmers received vouchers which they could exchange for vines at a subsidised price. 60% of the DVMs reported that there were no disadvantages to the voucher system. The Nyakiumwa Group, in Geita District stated: \"For the group the system was good because every member was aware of the number of vouchers used so there was no cheating for members\". The main disadvantages reported were that farmers were \"not used to buying vines\", late payment or reimbursement for the vouchers, lack of sensitisation on the voucher system and inconsistent voucher availability.84% of all DVMs stated their intention to continue. The survey data were analysed to con rm whether intention to continue multiplication was actually followed through in practice. This variable identi ed those DVMs who stated that they planned to continue and how many actually had multiplication beds in the season immediately after the project intervention had nished (i.e. July-December 2012). In practice in the July -December 2012 period 46% of the group DVMs and 42% of the individual DVMs had actually multiplied and overall, 44% of DVMs were multiplying for sale. Interestingly a higher proportion of DVMs (69%) were multiplying while the survey was being conducted (March 2013) i.e. nine months after the project intervention nished. This highlights di erent intentions depending on the season (short or long rains); and practices i.e. for vines only or for root and vine production.There were 19 cases where the DVMs had temporarily stopped due to various reasons but were intending to restart either for their own use or for sale. Their reasons included the need to identify a di erent site for multiplication, group dynamics and family circumstances or that group members were multiplying individually for their own use.The reasons for completely abandoning multiplication were as follows: wild-life damage; ooding or lack of a good source of water; group dynamics causing the group to disband; voucher reimbursement issues; local tradition and culture is not conducive to vine sales; the community thinking that the cost of vines should continue to be subsidized or that there is no market for vine sales without vouchers.The main reasons noted for continuing multiplication were that the need for \"marando bora\" in the community was high, and that there could be income generation from roots and vines. Mr. Kibipi, Chair of Tunyenye Group reported: \"Through the inspection I rejected the diseased plants and distributed only the healthier ones; sweetpotato vine selling is like an employment, we can't leave it, it pays!","tokenCount":"1239"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4299256246.json b/data/part_1/4299256246.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..64000e5230072c4f73e95f60dc24f12a6d355491
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4299256246.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d20f32dcb874db0dc208547be2942321","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc70da3b-1b47-459b-8b6e-9ef425a2d05e/retrieve","id":"-157823693"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dce23aff-aac6-4814-8bef-d023a1a7b75e","pagecount":"53","content":"7 Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 8 Niger River Basin Agency (ABFN) 9 National Directorate of Agriculture, Government of Mali (DNA/GIPD) 10 Centre d'Études pour le Développement en Afrique (CEDA_MALI) 11 West Africa Network for Peacebuilding (WANEP) 12 International Organization for Migration (IOM) 13 United Nations Office for West Africa and the Sahel (UNOWAS)Climate change remains at the forefront of major concerns for public authorities and technical and financial partners. It destabilizes the global economic, social, security, and demographic landscape, with particularly severe impacts in the Sahel. Mali is experiencing increasingly intense drought cycles, extreme temperatures, and irregular rainfall, threatening its economy, which is dependent on agriculture, livestock, fishing, and forestry. These climatic events also exacerbate food insecurity, resource-related tensions, and political and economic instability. Climate-and security-related factors intertwine and mutually reinforce each other in Mali.In response to these climate security implications, Mali and other Sahelian countries adopted a landmark declaration at the first Sahel Forum on Climate, Peace and Security held in Bamako, Mali, in November 2023. The Bamako declaration reflects the commitment of Sahelian countries to strengthening climate security in the region and serves as a catalyst for action at national, regional, and international levels in terms of development and financing. The Bamako forum critically assessed the quality of responses in the Sahel region to date and encouraged the development and implementation of innovative solutions that simultaneously address conflict prevention and management, sustainable natural resources management, climate change adaptation, and peacebuilding. In line with these objectives, Mali has since embarked on developing a national climate security strategy aimed at achieving the goals of the declaration.As part of the CGIAR's Fragility, Conflict and Migration Initiative, the Climate Security team at the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, in partnership with the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the Malian Agency for the Environmental and Sustainable Development (AEDD) and the Liptako-Gourma Authority (ALG) co-hosted the first-national level workshop on climate, peace and security on 11-12 June 2024. This workshop, held within the context of the Bamako Declaration, addressed the complex and interconnected issues surrounding climate, peace, and security in Mali and gathered insights to guide the Malian technical committee in developing the national climate security strategy. Specifically, the workshop aimed to:• Validate the main pathways from climate to insecurity dynamics, using existing research and participants' expertise to identify potential research gaps.• Define action points for greater sensitivity to climate security in policies, programs, and investments.• Provide recommendations for developing the national climate security strategy, informing the technical committee with guidelines and scientific tools.Over the two days, the workshop gathered fifty experts and government representatives, members of civil society, academia, and regional and international organizations. Reflecting the multidisciplinary nature of the workshop theme, participants were selected from several disciplines and fields of expertise, including climate change, food and agriculture, humanitarian assistance, mobility and displacement and gender minorities. The presence of the Minister of Environment, Sanitation, and Sustainable Development, as well as representatives from public and private media, illustrated the relevance of the event. To elicit stakeholders' perspectives and experiences, the workshop employed a range of participatory methodologies, including group discussions, panel discussions, and brainstorming sessions.This report provides an overview of the climate security nexus in Mali and documents the workshop's findings and recommendations for developing a national strategy for climate security. The first section outlines Mali's climate, socioeconomic, and security challenges. The second section introduces complex climate security pathways in Mali across different forms of conflict, integrating insights from workshop participants and existing literature. The third section reviews ongoing policy and institutional strategies to foster climate security cooperation in Mali, highlighting relevant actors and processes. Lastly, the report concludes with policy, programming, research and finance recommendations derived from the workshop, along with potential risks opposing these recommendations and their mitigating factors. The recommendations provided at the end of this report are designed to offer actionable insights and guidance for policymakers working on the national strategy, helping to inform and shape effective climate security interventions.PHOTO:Climate security refers to the impacts of the climate crisis on peace and security, particularly in fragile and conflict-affected settings (UNDP, 2023). It encompasses the compound risks arising from both direct and indirect effects of climate change on human security -including freedom from fear and want, the security of the State, and the maintenance of international peace and security, under the United Nations Charter (PBSO, 2020; Gaston et al., 2023). The International Organization for Migration (IOM) defines climate security as both direct impacts and the role of climate change as a threat multiplier, exacerbating vulnerabilities and compounding existing grievances (IOM, 2024).Climate variability and extreme weather events can undermine multiple dimensions of human security, manifesting through failures of food, land, and water systems (Delgado et al., 2021;Liebig et al.,2021).Climate-related security risks arise when climate impacts exacerbate factors of insecurity through indirect pathways, aggravating existing vulnerabilities and lack of capacities, as well as root causes of conflict such as poverty, food insecurity, unemployment, inequalities, and marginalization (United Nations, 2022;von Uexkull & Buhaug, 2021). The consequences of climate change span all dimensions of human security -economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political -disproportionately affecting vulnerable communities such as migrants, women, children, youth, older persons, persons with disabilities and indigenous peoples (OIM, 2024). Climate-induced food, water, and livelihood insecurities increase competition over natural resources, disrupt societies, and displace populations (Mosello et al., 2021).While climate change is rarely the leading cause of conflict, it can act as a \"threat multiplier\", meaning it has the potential to amplify tensions, conflicts, and instability already existing in Mali. The country faces a multitude of challenges related to climate, peace and security. Recurrent drought cycles, demographic pressures, and socio-political crises require an integrated approach to build resilience and prevent climate change-related conflicts. Rising poverty and unemployment, along with a lack of viable livelihoods and income-generating activities, can increase the likelihood of people engaging in criminal activities such as banditry, robbery, illegal logging, illicit crops and non-state armed groups recruitment, which increase state fragility and insecurity. Failure to recognize the role of climate change as a \"threat multiplier\" undermines the effectiveness of national efforts to improve resilience capacities, as maladaptive strategies can reinforce existing grievances and, conversely, existing conflicts can significantly hinder effective adaptation.Like other landlocked countries in the Sahel region, Mali is experiencing more intense and variable drought cycles and growing insecurity. Extreme temperatures and episodic rainfall are not new to Mali, where temperatures have risen by 1.2°C since the 1960s and rainfall patterns have fluctuated (USAID, 2018).However, these conditions are expected to become even more variable and intense as the climate continues to change (USAID, 2018). The arid north is experiencing increased desertification, while the south faces more frequent floods and heavy rainfall (USAID, 2018). Projections indicate a temperature rise to 3.6°C by 2060, which will lengthen heatwaves and shorten cold spells, particularly affecting agriculture and water resources (USAID, 2018). These climatic shifts exert serious threats on the national economy, which is mainly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, livestock breeding, fishing and forestry (USAID, 2018).SECTION 1:The agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors employ nearly three-quarters of the workforce and contribute 36.4% to the GDP (USAID, 2018), whilst representing approximately 75% of exports (Ministre de l'Environnement, de l'Assanissement et du Développement Durable, 2017). Pastoralism dominates in northern Mali, while the central and southern regions focus on mixed crop and livestock production, including subsistence crops like millet and sorghum, and export crops such as cotton and groundnuts (USAID, 2018;CIAT, 2020). Droughts particularly affect Mali's production systems by reducing yields and pasturelands, causing crop failures and cattle mortality (Berger, 2023;Nagarajan, 2020). Such impacts worsen poverty and food insecurity, which are already critical in Mali, where 46.8% of the population lives in poverty, 3.6 million people face high food insecurity annually, and 600,000 face severe food insecurity (INSTAT, 2017;WFP, 2023). In the Liptako-Gourma region, both climate factors (droughts and floods) and human factors (changing land ownership and escalating violent conflict) have undermined farming and herding, affecting local peace and security (Cabot, 2017;WFP, 2020). The country's rapidly growing population, projected to reach 44 million by 2050, will intensify pressure on natural resources and environmental degradation, with per capita water availability expected to decline by 77% by 2080 (Nagarajan, 2020;Tomalka et al., 2020).Additionally, Mali faces ongoing political instability and security problems linked to terrorism and insurgency.Mali's instability is rooted in historical, geographical, and governance-related factors. Up until 2012, violence levels were relatively low, but the 2012 Tuareg rebellion escalated into armed conflicts involving various non-state armed groups (NSAGs), including secessionists, jihadists, ethnic self-defense groups, and criminal networks, primarily in the north and central regions (Ba & Bøås, 2017;Targba, 2022). Despite efforts, including a 2015 peace agreement and several (foreign) military missions and the deployment of the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA, insecurity persists, spreading jihadist violence into central Mali and causing significant displacement and casualties (Hoogeveen et al., 2018;USAID, 2018). Political tensions remain high, as evidenced by the 2020 and 2021 coups d'état, which undermined relations with regional organizations. MINUSMA, established in 2013, and France's military mission Barkhane made stabilization efforts but, from February to August 2022, they have been withdrawingat the request of Mali's military government, leading to a reescalation of hostilities and territorial rivalries in the north (Gyllensporre, 2022;Jeune Afrique, 2023).Figure 1 shows the complex linkages between climate and conflicts in Mali, highlighting climate security hotspots. The most severe hotspots, characterized by high levels of violent conflicts and climate impacts, are concentrated in the subregions of Tombouctou, Tessalit, Kidal, Menaka, and Gao. Meanwhile, less severe climate security hotspots can be observed in the subregions of Bourem, Bandiagara, Macina and Niono.While the south and west of Mali are comparatively more stable, these regions face challenges such as land grabbing, conflicts among farmers over land boundaries and conflicts between farmers and herders, often leading to theft and violence (Sarzana et al., 2023).Climate change and conflict disproportionately affect certain groups, with women facing barriers to adaptation. While men often worry about being targeted by armed groups, women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual violence (Nagarajan et al., 2022). Physical violence and theft are also prevalent. Lower socio-economic groups face significant obstacles to adaptation, including limited access to resources and information. Women, especially female farmers, encounter additional challenges due to restricted access to agricultural tools and machinery (Spencer, 2020). The absence or incapacitation of men due to conflict (whether through death, recruitment by armed groups, migration, or detention) increases women's vulnerability (UNSC, 2020). Despite these challenges, women have greater agency, albeit with increased risk. In areas controlled by jihadi armed groups, women endure even greater restrictions, limiting their livelihoods and access to resources (Spencer, 2020). The interaction between climate insecurity, conflict, and socio-economic inequality creates a vicious cycle, with grievances growing and fueling further conflict and exacerbating climate change challenges (Nagarajan et al., 2022). In conflict areas, youth have been targeted by armed groups and conflict parties. They have also been recruited by armed forces in the Sahel as fighters (ICRC, 2022). This puts children at risk of being killed, wounded, and detained in armed conflicts (Dieng, 2022).The intersection of climate impacts, conflicts and instability in Mali has led to widespread internal displacement and altered migration patterns, with over 1.5 million people displaced since 2008 due to both ongoing violence and extreme weather events (IOM, 2023). Changes in mobility have increased tensions, particularly between farmers and pastoralists, as shifting transhumance routes and agricultural expansion drive conflicts over land and water (Dieng, 2022). Over the past decade, farmer-herder conflicts have resulted in over 15,000 fatalities, with half occurring in the last years (Brottem, 2021). Political instability since the 2020 and 2021 coups has further strained governance, weakening international partnerships and limiting the state's ability to maintain effective security in some areas, leaving certain regions underserved by both state authorities and essential services or effective conflict management, further complicating efforts to address climate security (Stiftung, 2024;Nagarajan et al., 2022). The changing climate, characterized by more frequent extreme weather events such as droughts and floods, intensifies competition over access to and use of natural resources, leading to increased tensions and conflicts among different livelihood groups (Nagarajan, 2020;Raineri, 2018;Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, 2018;Tarif and Grand, 2021;Ursu, 2018), including farmer-herder disputes and cattle rustling (Berger, 2023;Nagarajan, 2020).Environmental changes in Mali, combined with stressors such as population growth, migration, environmental degradation, inadequate resource management, may exacerbate disputes over land and water resources. These initial disputes are often linked to uneven access to natural resources amongst different livelihood groups and can stem from corruption at the heart of the poor management of resources (Benjaminsen & Ba, 2009;Benjaminsen et al., 2012;Ursu, 2018). Furthermore, issues such as land-grabbing, rent-seeking behavior, and power dynamics further complicate access to natural resources (Nagarajan, 2020), and provide fertile ground for increasing tensions with the advent of climate-induced pressure on resources.Intercommunal clan and identity-based conflicts often stem from underlying tensions related to identity, social group affiliation, and the pursuit of cultural recognition. Discrimination and marginalization based on identity can precipitate violent clashes between communities. These conflicts are not merely a matter of differences but are deeply influenced by issues such as unequal access to resources, discrimination, and social exclusion (Nafissa, 2019). Competition for land, natural resources, and historical or cultural   ongoing conflicts, as former landowners were unable to continue farming their ancestral lands (IMRAP et al., 2022). Another significant cause of conflict is the non-respect of legislation related to land boundaries.The demographic pressure followed by the increased demand for land have exacerbated tensions between families and villages. Traditional land boundaries, once respected and well-known within communities, are increasingly contested as families encroach upon each other's lands, leading to frequent disputes.Furthermore, inheritance issues significantly contribute to land conflicts, as the shift from collective ownership to individual claims has heightened tensions within families. These tensions often escalate when the family head, traditionally responsible for land management, passes away, prompting disputes over the division of land as collectivism gives way to individualism. Disputes also arise between descendants of different families, with both sides claiming land supposedly owned by their ancestors. Historically, land was often lent by one family to another, who then cultivated it for generations. As demographic and environmental pressures mount, original families may attempt to reclaim the land, leading to conflicts when the cultivating families, citing long-term use, refuse to return it. Inheritance issues thus spark conflicts both within and between families (Marquette, 2020;Nagarajan, 2020;IMRAP et al., 2022).Competition over, and conflict around, natural resources such as land affect various livelihood groups in Mali. In regions like the Inner Niger Delta, tensions are rising among pastoralists, farmers, and fisherfolk over access to water and grazing lands. In the Mopti region, degraded fields and shrinking grazing lands have intensified conflicts between pastoralists over the control of pasture and water resources (Nagarajan, 2020).The reduction in positive interactions, such as the exchange of goods between livelihood groups, due to the decreased availability of resources, has further increased competition over resources and reduced social cohesion between different livelihood groups (Nagarajan, 2020).The position of women in these conflicts is another critical issue. Even though under Malian law women have the right to own and inherit land, in most parts of the country traditional customs and gender norms restrict women's access to land, as well as their participation in conflict resolution. Despite being the primary cultivators of the land, women are frequently sidelined in discussions and decisions related to land disputes.This exclusion not only affects their livelihoods but also exacerbates social tensions within communities (IMRAP et al., 2022).Conflict resolution in these regions typically follows a hierarchical approach. Initially, disputes are addressed at the community level by customary authorities. If the parties are not satisfied, the conflict is escalated to political authorities, such as mayors, and administrative authorities, such as prefects. In cases where no resolution is found, the matter may be taken to the judicial level (IMRAP et al., 2022)  those linked to transhumance, rural-to-urban shifts, and migration to other countries. Seasonal and circular migration is a resilience strategy that has historically helped communities to cope with the changing effects of climate (Mitra, 2017;Nagarajan, 2020). During seasonal floods and droughts, people move southwards and return when environmental conditions have improved (Hegazi et al., 2021). For instance, one-third of the rural workforce in the delta region seasonally migrates to urban centers, including those in the South, in search of jobs (UNEP, 2011).However, this trend is evolving towards more permanent migration to southern regions due to growing insecurity, as well as socio-economic and climatic vulnerabilities that affect livelihoods and drive populations to migrate (Nagarajan, 2020;Kurath et al., 2022;IOM, 2023;IOM, 2024). According to several studies conducted by IOM in 2023, the impacts of climate change, such as drought and flooding, are directly influencing migration in Mali (IOM, 2023;IOM, 2024). A survey reveals that 93% of households surveyed in the Koulikoro, Ségou and Sikasso regions feel affected by climate change, with major effects on soil degradation, loss of fertility and species extinction. As a result, 62% of people surveyed in these regions have considered a migration project, with 31% opting for short-term seasonal migration and 69% for long-term or even permanent migration. The study also shows that the effects of climate change contributed to the departure of 36% of those surveyed (IOM, 2023). Another study revealed that 31% of migrants surveyed had noticed environmental changes in their region of origin in Mali, and 77% of them stated that these changes had influenced their decision to migrate (IOM, 2024).In addition, insecurity in neighboring countries led to the reception of around 64,000 refugees in Mali in July 2023, mainly in the regions of Kayes, Ménaka, Gao and Mopti (UNHCR, 2023b).Land, water, and food systems are profoundly impacted by the escalating effects of climate change, leading to diminished production and productivity, which in turn hampers the livelihoods of various groups, including farmers, herders, and fishermen (Nagarajan, 2020). In 2020, flooding in Mali affected over 80,000 people and damaged around 6,000 homes (Hegazi et al., 2021). These conditions, compounded by regional instability, disrupt traditional migration flows and threaten human security by impacting access to essential resources such as food, water and health services (Williams, 2019;UNHCR, 2023a;NRC, 2023). According to the UNHCR, in 2021, Mali had more than 370,000 internally displaced people (UNHCR, 2021). Current data show a similar trend, as indicated by the IOM representative, the Direction Nationale du Développement Social estimated, as of September 30, 2024, the number of displaced people at 378,363, spread across 105,185 households.Additionally, the new cycle of violence experienced since 2018 contributed to increment displacement (IOM 2017). Resulting insecurity and violence in the central and northern regions strongly undermine the capacity of communities and individuals as well as the state to adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change and variability (Ndaruzaniye et al., 2010;Stewart & Fitzgerald, 2001;Adger et al., 2014).The influx of permanent migrants from climate-sensitive areas such as the Inner Niger Delta increases the pressure on land and resources in the Sikasso region (Marquette, 2020;Nagarajan et al., 2020;Ursu, 2018).Sikasso, despite its relative stability compared to central and northern Mali, experiences land conflicts, often between different socio-economic and ethnic groups. The region has a long history of internal migration, as well as attracting migrants from other regions of Mali and from abroad. For example, Sikasso has received migrants from neighboring countries like Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso, whilst the southward movement of the Minianka during the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s illustrates the intraregional migration towards Sikasso (Marquette, 2020). Amid local resource scarcity, permanent migration intensifies competition for resources in Sikasso, further straining land availability and exacerbating existing conflicts (Hegazi et al., 2021; Nagarajan 2020; Ursu 2018). Migrants, who are structurally excluded from owning land and can only borrow it, often face entrenched grievances and resentment from host communities. Conflicts over land ownership, particularly regarding inheritance and the conditions of land lease agreements (as described in the section above), have the potential to escalate as these pressures intensify (Marquette 2020; Nagarajan 2020).Increased climate variability and more extreme weather events, including droughts and floods, can not only exacerbate and alter migration patterns, but also frustrate migration projects and prevent people from migrating as an adaptation strategy (Minister of Environment, Sanitation and Sustainable Development, 2017; Nagarajan, 2020).Several factors, such as insecurity, changing environmental conditions, increasing restrictions on crossborder movements, as well as changes in agricultural policies, have profoundly transformed transhumance mobility patterns, making them more unpredictable and irregular (IOM, 2023b).Pastoral communities are particularly vulnerable to increasing climate variability, as they face reduced access to pasture and water, increased mortality and disease among livestock, and reduced productivity (USAID, 2018; Nagarajan 2020; Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2018, IOM, 2023b). These changes are forcing herders to modify their traditional grazing routes in search of scarce resources, while farmers are often expanding farmland into areas previously used for grazing, as in the southern regions of Mali (Dieng, 2022, IOM, 2023b). According to an IOM study conducted in 2023, 65% of herders surveyed indicated that they had had to change their itinerary, while 53% reported a change in their transhumance schedule due to the impact of climate change (IOM, 2023b). These developments frequently lead to conflict, particularly in regions like Mopti, where dried-up wetlands and degraded fertile soils increase tensions between farmers and herders (Nagarajan 2020;Ibrahim & Zapata, 2018, Dieng, 2022, IOM, 2023b).Historically, pastoralists have migrated seasonally, moving from the northern regions during the rainy season to the Inner Niger Delta during the dry season. However, over the past few decades, the expansion of rice paddy fields into areas where the valuable bourgou grass once thrived has diminished the availability of fodder, exacerbating tensions between farmers and herders (Benjaminsen & Ba, 2009;Benjaminsen et al., 2012). The construction of the Sélingué Dam and recurring droughts in the 1970s and 1980s further reduced the water volume in the delta, accelerating this trend (Benjaminsen et al., 2012). The 2012 crisis in northern Mali displaced pastoralists from Timbuktu and Gao regions into central Mali, straining resources and fueling conflicts with local farmers (UNOWAS, 2018). The encroachment of farming into livestock corridors and the altered timing of seasonal transitions due to climate variability have led to frequent clashes, especially in regions like Mopti. Herders, in their search for water, sometimes lead their livestock through farms before harvest, causing crop damage and sparking conflicts (Ibrahim and Zapata, 2018;Benjaminsen andBa, 2009, Dieng, 2022). The central and northern regions, particularly around Timbuktu and Gao, have also seen an influx of herders fleeing insecurity and violence, putting additional pressure on resources and increasing tensions with farming communities (NUPI & SIPRI, 2021). Given the difficulties encountered by herders in planning and maintaining a planned itinerary, the practice of transhumance is becoming more complex. As a result, some herders prefer to settle down (IOM, 2023b).For example, in areas like Bandiagara in the Mopti region, tensions between herders, often being suspected of affiliation with armed groups, and farmers further aggravate these conflicts, particularly when jihadist groups disrupt traditional transhumance routes and besiege villages, hindering both farming and herding activities (Nagarajan, 2020;Benjaminsen & Ba, 2009;Hegazi et al., 2021). These dynamics are a major catalyst for conflict in Mali, where violence between farmers and herders has escalated in lethality, leading to over 15,000 fatalities between 2011 and 2021, with half of these deaths occurring between 2018 and 2021 (Brottem, 2021). Of concern, and as reported by the workshop participants, is 'the erosion of the power of traditional authorities, whether customary or religious, and the unsealing of community pacts, i.e. the authorities that manage natural resources, which are in a state of flux'. Indeed, with the norms and customs, that exist parallel to national laws, that have traditionally served as powerful tools to regulate socio-economic activities, losing their regulatory power, conflicts can erupt between groups involved in these disputes, often linked to land management and the legitimacy of historical agreements governing land use.Escalating conflict in the Liptako-Gourma region has further affected pastoralist mobility options (Lyammouri, 2020)  & Boas, 2019). Some armed groups have attempted to assert themselves as social and political actors, having initially played a security role for the population. They have developed normative discourses and practices, thereby altering both the role and the perception of the state within communities. This influence is not one-sided; in some places, communities have negotiated modes of interaction with these jihadist groups, collaboratively defining the terms of their presence in the territory they occupy (Tobie et al., 2019).Factors encouraging their insurrection include the frustration born of poverty and the sense of injustice felt by marginalized communities left to fend for themselves, with no public services to protect individuals and property and no basic socio-economic infrastructure. The Gao, Kidal and Timbuktu regions have long suffered from economic underdevelopment due to this absence of the state. On the community side, the emergence of local or ethnic self-defense militias is exacerbating conflicts (Maletta & Robin, 2021). These developments make local resource disputes more complex and difficult to resolve, linking them to broader national and regional conflict dynamics (Mbaye, 2020; Benjaminsen & Ba, 2021).Women and girls are especially vulnerable during conflicts, which often stems from societal norms and pre-existing gender inequality. This extends to situations where armed groups or local ethnic militias use violence to assert control. Indeed, according to the workshop participants, 'rounding up women is also a significant source of tension in areas such as Yorosso, Kourouma, Gongasso, Koutiala, Dieli, San, Kimparana, etc'. This act of violence is aimed at spreading terror among the population and the state, with women often being used as leverage to obtain ransoms.  One of the major challenges in Mali's gold sector is its informal and largely unregulated nature, particularly in artisanal mining. Ineffective state regulation, combined with the variety of actors involved, has led to social tensions and provided opportunities for armed extremist groups to extend their influence. Armed groups exploit artisanal gold mining to fund their activities and recruit new members. These groups often tax miners and traders, creating an alternative source of revenue that undermines the state's authority (UNODC, 2023).The influx of workers and migrants to mining areas, as well as the involvement of armed groups, has made the situation in these regions more precarious, heightening insecurity and exacerbating conflict.The environmental degradation caused by gold mining, particularly in the form of deforestation, mercury contamination, and soil depletion, exacerbates climate vulnerabilities in Mali. Mining operations often involve the use of toxic chemicals like mercury, which not only pollutes water and air but also severely impacts human health (UNEP, 2022). The destruction of land and deforestation also contribute to the degradation of agricultural land, making it less suitable for farming. As a result, resource competition has intensified, with communities surrounding mining areas facing greater challenges in accessing land and water.The environmental impact of gold mining is deeply intertwined with agricultural livelihoods. The encroachment of mining activities on arable land, coupled with pollution from chemicals like mercury and cyanide, has made farming more difficult in surrounding areas (UNEP, 2022). In many regions, particularly where rainfall patterns have already been altered by climate change, this land degradation limits the ability of communities to sustain themselves through traditional agriculture. As agricultural productivity declines, rural populations increasingly abandon their farms to seek opportunities in the mining sector, further exacerbating the cycle of land degradation and environmental strain (UNODC, 2023).Climate-driven abandonment of agricultural livelihoods is increasingly linked to the expansion of artisanal mining. As changing weather patterns reduce the viability of farming, especially in the Sahel, more people are driven to gold mines in search of alternative livelihoods. This shift not only worsens environmental degradation but also leads to overcrowded mining areas, where competition for resources such as land and water becomes fierce. Over a million people are estimated to be involved in artisanal gold mining in Mali, creating a crowded and often volatile environment (UNODC, 2023). This influx of migrants seeking mining opportunities can strain local resources and further undermine agricultural practices, as more land is dedicated to mining rather than food production.The intersection of climate stress, environmental degradation, and rising insecurity underscores the critical challenges Mali faces in balancing its economic reliance on gold mining with the need for sustainable agricultural livelihoods and environmental protection.According to workshop participants, the increasing poverty, despite existing mining resources, contributes to conflict. The growing pressure on natural resources fuels social tensions, particularly among ethnic groups who are often marginalized or excluded from the benefits of the gold sector. The frustrations and sense of injustice felt by marginalized communities further fuel competition and conflict.Despite the adoption of a new constitution in July 2023, which in Article 1 states that \"All Malians are born and remain free and equal in rights and duties\", deep-rooted ethnic power structures continue to dominate access to resources. While the legacy of descent-based slavery historically marginalized certain groups, today's power dynamics are more closely tied to inequalities around land ownership and resource control.In regions such as Kayes, Timbuktu, Gao, and Kidal, ethnic hierarchies persist, shaping who holds influence over critical resources such as land and water, especially for groups like the Soninké, Touareg, and Fulani (Kane, 2021;Dembele, 2014).Ambiguous resource access laws combined with customary practices often favor more powerful ethnic groups, leading to further marginalization of those without formal resource rights. This exacerbates frustrations among voiceless groups, intensifying feelings of injustice and increasing the likelihood of conflict (Diabate, 2023). Climate change worsen such conditions by reducing resource availability, particularly in areas like the Inner Niger Delta, where unsustainable land use and extreme weather events contribute to further environmental degradation (Toure et al., 2022). As resources become scarcer, vulnerable groups -already excluded from land access due to ethnic and social hierarchies -are pushed into even more precarious conditions in artisanal mining sites (UNODC, 2023;SIPRI, 2023). The poorly regulated mining sector exposes such communities, including women and children, to trafficking, human rights abuses, poor working conditions and exploitation (UNODC, 2023).The gold rush phenomenon involves both migrant communities moving to resource-rich sites and the populations already residing there, who benefit very little from the revenues generated by the extraction activities. Moreover, the informality of the gold sector entails that these activities often remain untaxed, therefore not benefitting local development, and occur against a backdrop of increasing insecurity, illicit financial flows, human rights abuses, and corruption (Sollazzo, 2018; The International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2022;OECD, 2022).This cycle of land degradation, resource competition, exploitation, marginalization and social inequality perpetuates instability, eroding social cohesion and exacerbating tensions between different ethnic groups.The worsening environmental conditions, combined with growing inequalities, fuel grievances that make conflicts over land and resources more likely, further deepening divisions within communities (Toure et al., 2022).A. MAMO / CIFOR-ICRAF SECTION 3:TheA number of international texts and conventions, as well as regional and sub-regional initiatives exist to face either climate-and security-related challenges in Mali. However, there is no single text that explicitly governs all aspects of the nexus between climate change, the security and displacement of populations and the management of natural resources. The implementation of a national and regional climate security strategy is therefore essential to respond effectively to these compounded challenges. The process used to develop Mali's national climate security strategy and its action plan followed a multidimensional approach, leveraging the expertise and commitment of stakeholders such as the ALG and the UNDP, and ensuring strategic coordination to address climate and security risks. Key stages in the development of the plan include:• Appointment of the Environment and Sustainable Development Agency (AEDD) as National Authority to steer the development of the national strategy.• Drawing up terms of reference (ToR) for the recruitment of a consultant to draw up the national strategy and its action plan.• The establishment of a technical committee to oversee the development of the national strategy.Once developed, this strategy will become an essential mechanism for managing the challenges posed by climate change and climate insecurity in Mali. It will make it possible to strengthen the resilience of populations, prevent climate-related conflicts, and promote sustainable management of natural resources while consolidating peace.Mali is actively engaged in the fight against climate change, and environmental protection through various international, regional, and national legal and policy frameworks. At the international level, Mali is a signatory to several major conventions, which form the basis of its overall environmental commitment.  when local populations may favor them. It has been suggested that parallel norms are now losing their effectiveness in managing disputes as their legitimacy is being challenged (Tobie, 2017). Indeed, while formal justice may be perceived as costly, inefficient, and corrupt, customary justice imparted by local authorities such as the jowros and village chiefs lacks enforcement capacity partly because of insufficient public support and lacking integration into national laws (Ursu 2018; Benjaminsen et al. 2012). Furthermore, conflict between parallel systems of governance may serve to diminish the powers of both, as highlighted in Brown et al. (2022), which examines the links between water and conflict in the Inner Niger Delta. In this scenario, competition for validity between the two parallel structures has led to the reduced legitimacy, and ability to resolve conflict, of traditional systems, whilst the alternative state representatives and policies may be viewed as corrupt or inappropriate to govern local matters (Brown et al., 2022).In Mali, a diverse array of organizations is actively engaged in addressing the interconnected issues of climate, peace, and security. These entities operate across various scales and with distinct areas of focus, including policy, program implementation, funding allocation, and research, as outlined in Annex 1.In addition to Malian governmental institutions, such as ministries in the respective fields, a range of key actors has been identified across the development, migration, environment, and conflict sectors, all of whom are engaged in addressing climate security.In There are a number of projects that already account for the importance of climate security, addressing These existing processes and collaborations represent a starting point for putting into practice a national climate security strategy. Capitalizing on these efforts will be crucial for smoothly integrating climate security workstreams from the policy domain to the programmatic one, mainstreaming this agenda.A. MAMO / CIFOR-ICRAF SECTION 4:The way forward for Mali's National Climate Security StrategyDuring the workshop, the four working groups developed the following vision for Mali in 2034:Mali is a country characterized by enhanced climate resilience, consolidated peace, and sustainable development. The country is capable of avoiding increased natural disasters, massive population displacements, and shortages of vital resources that would increase insecurity. The complete restoration of natural ecosystems, supported by the \"Great Green Wall\" initiative, ensures lasting peace and strong social cohesion. Mali achieves equality in resource distribution and the strengthening of livelihoods.Additionally, the country is free from food, nutritional, and environmental insecurity by adopting production and consumption practices based on an effective agroecological approach adapted to climate change.Through the three-horizon framework (Sharpe et al., 2016) the four working groups developed concrete strategic objectives to reach the vision, covering the areas of policy, programs, research, and finance.The implementation of the national climate security strategy is of paramount importance. To strengthen Mali's climate resilience, it is essential to achieve several strategic objectives, such as developing climatesmart production capacities and systematically integrating environmental considerations into the Economic,Public policies must incorporate the vision of climate security, and the link between security, climate, governance, and peace must be effectively implemented. Policies in different fields should be harmonized and complementary to customs. The formalization of artisanal gold mining activities, with clearly defined roles to prevent chaos, is essential, as is the protection of non-degraded rivers and lands. A law protecting women and youth from climate risks is necessary, as well as an adapted agricultural policy.It is also vital to improve the budget allocated to nexus initiatives and community resilience, with a strengthening of conflict prevention and management mechanisms, while utilizing research findings on the nexus for program development.Finally, degraded lands must be restored, the intensification of droughts must be limited, access to natural resources must be improved, and biodiversity must be protected. The restoration of peace, along with these objectives, is key to achieving sustainable and resilient development.The mobilization of internal funding for climate security is crucial. After formulating strategic objectives, workshop participants defined actions to scale-up needed to achieve these objectives.Workshop participants emphasized the importance of adopting a co-developed, multi-level governance approach to address the growing challenges related to climate and security in Mali, involving national and local stakeholders. It was recommended to draw inspiration from the progress made by Burkina Faso in developing its national strategy and to encourage increased regional cooperation between Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger.Given the current security situation and climate vulnerability in Mali, it is crucial to strengthen and expand existing initiatives. The discussions identified specific actions to improve the policy framework around the climate, peace, and security nexus in Mali, including:• Strengthening the integration of climate considerations into national policies: It is essential to incorporate climate issues into all sectoral policies and harmonize different policies to make them complementary and to ensure a coherent and effective response to environmental challenges.• Ensuring policies related to the nexus are complementary to customs and conflict-sensitive in their implementation.• Ensuring effective coordination between different ministries and stakeholders: intersectoral collaboration is necessary for the harmonious implementation of climate and security policies.For instance, stronger engagement between ministries of environment and interior could ensure intersectoral climate security responses.• Increasing investments for policy implementation: Policies such as the National Multisectoral Food and • Disseminating legislative texts related to land tenure, natural resource management, and climate change adaptation: The dissemination and enforcement of these texts are crucial for improving resource management and enhancing resilience to climate impacts. However, texts should be cognizant of customary systems, and shaped and implemented in a complementary fashion to avoid clashes and contestation and maximize efficacy.• Incorporating a gender dimension into all strategies, ensuring that women and other vulnerable groups are included in politics and decision-making processes and that their specific needs are mainstreamed in relevant policies related to the nexus.• Improving water governance: This involves adopting a vertically integrated approach to water management and landscape restoration while supporting small-scale irrigation.Participants emphasized the need to design programs that can strengthen community capacities to better cope with climate impacts, while also incorporating resilience to insecurity. To do so, it will be essential to inform locally-and internationally-led program designs through diagnostic research on contextual climate security drivers and risk factors. For instance, implementing climate action programs without localized climate-conflict assessments risks exacerbating root causes of conflict and insecurity. Also, it is essential to incorporate a gender perspective into climate risk management strategies. Many current programs lack a localized, gender-sensitive climate security analysis, which is crucial for identifying gender-specific vulnerabilities to both climate change and conflict dynamics. This analysis would enable the development of targeted, gender-responsive interventions that effectively address and mitigate these risks. Overall, it was noted that international support must be enhanced to improve the impact and sustainability of interventions,with close coordination at all levels. It will be necessary to incorporate a gender dimension into all strategies and interventions, ensuring that women are included in decision-making processes and that their specific needs are addressed in strategies and programs. These discussions led to the identification of actions to be scaled up to improve climate security-sensitive programming in Mali, including:• Strengthening existing regional and national projects, such as:1. The Regional Support Project for Pastoralism in the Sahel (PRAPS2) and the Livestock Development Support Project in Mali (PADEL-M).2. Great Green Wall Initiative (IDMV): This initiative aims to combat desertification and restore degraded ecosystems in the Sahel-Saharan region with the support of organizations such as ALG, APGMV, ANGMV, the AU, MEADD, KFW, CIFOR-ICRAF, GIZ, and others. • Promoting best practices previously implemented by projects like GDTE, GIDT, PAESOL, and PARIIS.• Including peace initiatives in climate resilience efforts, such as those led by Think Peace, Interpeace, ALG, AMJ and design long-term action programming (including action research), taking into account the diverse needs of the target beneficiaries.• Encouraging collaboration between public institutions responsible for security and those responsible for climate and sustainable development, including the Ministry of Security, CRSS, ERAR, and IMRAP.• Strengthening projects related to mobility (IOM, UNHCR).• Enhancing agricultural development projects (FAO, UNDP).• Fostering collaboration among institutions operating at different levels to operationalize climate security programs (FONGIM, United Nations, ministries, research institutions).• Informing programs with existing data on migration, security, and conflicts, such as that collected by IOM and the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).• Involving communities in programs by establishing citizen watchdog committees.• Strengthening local capacities and community resilience initiatives: Participants emphasized the importance of building local capacities and promoting initiatives that enable communities to better cope with the impacts of climate change.• Program on the sensibilization regarding cultural blockages and gender-based violenceThe workshop emphasized the importance of promoting public-private partnerships to mobilize funding for climate actions. It is crucial to enhance contributions and improve the management of the Mali Climate Fund to effectively support climate security projects. Additionally, it is critical to facilitate access for local structures to international funding by strengthening their capacities, while simplifying access conditions to encourage more projects. Advocacy efforts with donors to secure additional funding, as well as the establishment of a dedicated platform for equitable advocacy, are necessary steps. Furthermore, the rapid accreditation of the Environmental and Sustainable Development Agency (AEDD) and other similar structures is paramount, as is the strengthening of skills in fundraising, managing the Green Climate Fund, and carbon credit mechanisms. Easing the conditions of current financing mechanisms is essential to stimulate the initiation and implementation of innovative and impactful climate projects.Workshop participants emphasized the need for continuous, long-term studies on climate threats to better monitor extreme weather events such as floods and droughts, which have severe consequences for natural resource availability and environmental sustainability. These studies are critical, as competition for resources fueled by environmental degradation is a known driver of conflict. By improving meteorological research and agro-advisories, preventative actions can be taken well in advance to mitigate potential climate crises.In addition, there is a pressing need for strategic research that integrates climate and security issues to The successful implementation of the recommended actions to enhance climate security in Mali faces several risks that could hinder their scalability. Foremost among these challenges is political and institutional instability. A prolonged political crisis or geopolitical turmoil could lead to the withdrawal of Technical and Financial Partners (TFPs) and donors, which would severely compromise ongoing projects. In addition, corruption and pervasive insecurity, exacerbated by recurring security and global financial crises, threaten to further destabilize the fragile situation. The influence of certain foreign political powers may also disrupt decision-making processes and impede the implementation of strategic initiatives.In terms of research and programming, donor withdrawal due to security concerns makes planning and evaluating climate initiatives more complex. Low engagement from key stakeholders, alongside gaps in human resources-such as a lack of trained researchers in climate security-and limitations in financial and technical support, pose significant barriers. The absence of reliable data, coupled with inadequate analysis of community needs and insufficient beneficiary involvement, further weakens the effectiveness of these projects.Environmental risks are also a critical concern. Natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and pest invasions like locusts can devastate livelihoods and infrastructure, significantly increasing the costs of adaptation and jeopardizing projects aimed at promoting sustainable, peaceful development in Mali.Additional challenges could stem from delays in revising the Agricultural Orientation Law (LOA) to address new climate and security concerns. Health crises like the COVID-19 pandemic or emerging epidemics such as dengue could further divert attention and resources away from climate security efforts. Without proper management, these risks could severely obstruct progress toward greater climate resilience and security in the country.After identifying these risks posed to scaling-up actions, participants emphasized the importance of mitigation measures. These measures span policy, programmatic planning, finance, and research, all framed within a multi-level governance approach.To mitigate the risks associated with political and institutional instability, integrating climate security into the national budget law by 2026 is a critical step. This would institutionalize climate security, ensuring long-term financial and political commitment even during times of crisis. In response to the risk of donor withdrawal and limited financial resources, the development of diversified funding mechanisms -including collaboration with regional bodies and private sector involvement -can provide more stability and reduce dependence on foreign donors.In addition, to address gaps in stakeholder engagement and lack of trained personnel, strengthening capacity-building initiatives across all governance levels (regional, national, and communal) is crucial. This would ensure that local actors are better equipped to implement and sustain climate security measures, particularly in areas prone to conflict.The engagement of local communities and traditional authorities will also be essential for ensuring that climate security initiatives are well-received and supported, directly tackling the risk of insufficient beneficiary involvement and poor project outcomes. Enhanced coordination among stakeholders will ensure that decision-making processes are more inclusive, thereby reducing the influence of external political forces and improving the sustainability of strategies aimed at strengthening climate resilience.Conducting regular security assessments before launching activities is crucial to ensuring that interventions are safe and context-appropriate, especially given the risks of political instability, insecurity, and donor withdrawal. This analysis would help anticipate threats and allow for timely adjustments to programming, ensuring that projects remain flexible and responsive to emerging challenges.To address the financial constraints and donor disengagement risks, increasing investments in climate- To mitigate financial risks and ensure sustained financial support, engaging donors and fostering partnerships is essential, particularly in the face of donor withdrawal due to security and political instability.Advocacy campaigns should focus on securing long-term financial commitments from both international donors and Technical and Financial Partners (TFPs) by emphasizing the urgent need to address climatesecurity links in Mali. These efforts will require coordinated diplomatic and policy actions to reassure potential investors and stakeholders of the strategic importance of climate security, even in politically volatile contexts.Recognizing the risk of geopolitical crises or donor withdrawal, it is critical to focus on mobilizing internal funds to reduce over-reliance on external actors. This can be achieved by strengthening national climate funds, such as the Mali Climate Fund, and accelerating the accreditation process for key national agencies to better manage international climate finance. By boosting internal resource management capabilities, Mali can enhance resilience to financial shocks that could otherwise jeopardize climate security initiatives.Given the uncertainty posed by corruption, improving financial accountability and transparency is crucial.Regular security risk assessments before project implementation will help to ensure that financial resources are allocated to areas with the least exposure to conflict, thereby maximizing the impact of available funds.These risk assessments can also support more informed budget allocation decisions and help anticipate future funding gaps caused by security crises.To address the gaps in local-level engagement and ensure that finance reaches the communities most affected by climate risks, there must be increased availability of finance for locally-led programs. This can be supported through small-scale grants and capacity-building initiatives funded by international donors, with a focus on climate-smart and adaptive techniques. These programs would not only enhance local community resilience but also align financial strategies with ground-level realities, avoiding the risks of maladaptation that arise from top-down program design.Finally, diversifying funding sources by engaging the private sector and exploring innovative financing mechanisms, such as blended finance, will further reduce dependency on increasingly over-stretched international funding sources.To strengthen Mali's climate security and achieve the vision of enhanced resilience, consolidated peace, and Mainstream gender considerations into all climate and security policies to ensure the needs and perspectives of women, youth, and other vulnerable groups are addressed. Inclusive policies are more likely to succeed in building resilience.Risks: Potential cultural reluctance and social norms could undermine effectiveness.Mitigation strategies: Conduct gender analyses to identify specific needs and barriers for women in relation to climate change and security and raise awareness of these issues. Engage women, youth, and other vulnerable groups in decision-making processes to ensure their voices are heard and integrated into policy development.Ensure widespread dissemination and enforcement of laws related to land tenure, natural resource management, and climate adaptation, in a manner that is cognizant and compatible with traditional laws and governance.Risks: Inadequate dissemination and enforcement of laws may undermine their effectiveness.Mitigation strategies: Implement awareness campaigns and strengthen law enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance.Design programs that enhance the ability of local communities to cope with climate impacts and security threats. This includes resilience-building initiatives tailored to the specific needs and contexts of communities.Risks: Lack of engagement from communities and insufficient understanding of local contexts may result in ineffective programs that do not address real vulnerabilities.Mitigation strategies: Allocate sufficient resources and support for community-driven initiatives. Conduct participatory assessments to identify local needs and ensure community involvement throughout program design and implementation. Training local leaders can also enhance program acceptance and effectiveness.Incorporate gender-sensitive analyses into climate risk management strategies to identify vulnerabilities specific to women and other marginalized groups. This will enable the development of targeted interventions that effectively address these risks. Produce data on the migration and immobility of women and girls, for example, to inform resilience strategies for them.Risks: Social norms, gender biases and inadequate representation could prevent women and other marginalized groups from participating, inadvertently exacerbating existing inequalities.Mitigation strategies: Identify gender-specific social norms to ensure that programs are implemented in culturally sensitive manners.Expand projects such as the Regional Support Project for Pastoralism in the Sahel (PRAPS) and the Water, Peace, and Security (WPS) Initiative in the Inner Niger Delta and leverage successful methodologies from existing regional and national projects to improve climate security programming.Risks: Scaling up may face logistical and financial challenges. Encourage collaboration between public institutions and environmental organizations to enhance program effectiveness. Cross-sectoral collaboration should also be promoted, such as between ministries of security, agriculture, and the environment, and with environmental organizations and peacebuilding organizations.Risks: Existing lack of coordination among stakeholders may hinder program implementation.Mitigation strategies: Establish clear roles and responsibilities. Establish inter-institutional working groups and regular coordination meetings to align objectives and strategies. Joint training sessions can also enhance mutual understanding and collaboration among different sectors.Encourage the implementation of projects that respond to or prevent the effects of climate change, while being conflict-sensitive, minimizing the impact of project implementation on the contexts of intervention, and deliberately contributing to the strengthening of social cohesion.. Risks: Actors tackling climate challenges may not be accustomed to implementing conflict-sensitive projects.Moreover, there may be a reluctance to adapt conventional approaches to ensure that interventions contribute fully to peace dynamics.Mitigation strategies: Train actors in conflict-sensitive programming and develop and disseminate tools for implementing different programmatic strategies.Foster collaborations between public and private sectors to secure funding for climate actions and projects.Leveraging private investment can diversify funding sources and enhance financial sustainability.Risks: Complexities in partnership agreements and funding conditions may pose challenges.Mitigation strategies: Develop a robust advocacy strategy to engage private sector stakeholders and emphasize the mutual benefits of investing in climate security initiatives. Simplify access conditions and build strong relationships with private sector partners to facilitate funding.Include Climate Security in the 2026 finance law. Enhance the management and contributions to the Mali Climate Fund to effectively support climate security projects. This fund should serve as a dedicated resource for financing initiatives that promote resilience and adaptation.Risks: Limited internal resources and competing budgetary demands could constrain funding.Mitigation strategies: Advocate for increased budget allocations and explore alternative financing mechanisms such as climate bonds and green loans. Establish transparent governance structures for the fund that involve multiple stakeholders, including local communities and civil society organizations, to ensure accountability and effective resource use.Streamline processes to enable local structures to access international funding for climate projects. This includes simplifying accreditation of national agencies and institutions and enhancing their skills for application processes, management of climate funds and carbon credit mechanisms. Diversify funding sources by exploring innovative financing mechanisms, such as blended finance and carbon credit markets, to support climate security projects.Risks: Barriers at the fund level due to convoluted application process and risk-averse approaches to fund distribution.Mitigation strategies: Conduct training sessions for local organizations on funding application processes and financial management. Establish partnerships with international donors to facilitate smoother access to funding.Advocate for increased financial resources to support the full operationalization of key policies, such as the National Multisectoral Food and Nutrition Security Policy and National Climate Change Policy. Sustainable financing is crucial for effective implementation and monitoring.Risks: Underfunding of critical policies may hinder their execution, resulting in unmet objectives and lost opportunities for climate resilience.Mitigation strategies: Develop a multi-source funding strategy that includes public-private partnerships, international funding, and domestic resources. Establishing a dedicated climate fund could provide a stable financial base for policy implementation. and political factors that may act as root causes of vulnerability towards climate hazards; and iii) the primary manifestations of conflict and societal instability throughout the country. Second, the group focused on identifying the links between the most relevant components defined for each of the three categories, as perceived by each participant in their context of work. The outputs from this first session were used to create a schematic representation of the climate security nexus as perceived by participating stakeholders.The main goal of this session was to identify the stakeholders acting at the intersection between climate change impacts and social insecurity, along with the means through which they currently engage with one another. The discussion focused predominantly on examining whether participating organizations -at the sub-national, national, and regional levels -have a mandate relevant to mitigating climate-related security links as identified in session 1, and the way they act upon these. Following the identification of the actors and entities operating within the governance system in question, the group focused on proposing spaces for engagement and coordination, such as multi-stakeholder platforms, that may serve as an institutional base to foster a climate security agenda in Mali. Once the suitable stakeholders and existing processes and collaborations were identified, participants examined how they could be capitalized on for the development of Mali's National Climate Security Strategy.This session aimed to envision the path towards the National Climate Security Strategy by preparing for the barriers and setbacks that may occur. The three-horizon approach is a methodology conceptualizing the transformative change across time through three horizons (Sharpe et al., 2016): (1) the first horizon describes the current system with unsustainable elements, (2) the second horizon shows the shift between the old and new system, and (3) the third horizon displays the future we want to envision. During the workshop, participants first worked on defining a 2034 vision and strategic objectives in terms of climate security, and then worked on defining the actions needed to reach this goal. They listed the current ongoing actions that must be scaled-up, and defined the different risks that may threatened this process. Finally, participants defined mitigating strategies that will be crucial to prevent such threats.","tokenCount":"9126"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"188ed4e45f7a51f77e29496cd815088f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/ed33b90f-31a5-4f70-8acb-c83dd6c55229/content","id":"142394412"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7405772b-6691-4547-bd64-7db770deb036","pagecount":"24","content":"Intensive cropping systems that include rice, wheat and/or maize are widespread throughout South Asia. These systems constitute the main economic activity in many rural areas and provide staple food for millions of people. Therefore, enhancing the yield and productivity of cereal production in South Asia is therefore of great concern. Simultaneously, issues of resource degradation, declining labor availability and climate variability pose steep challenges for achieving the goals of improving food security and rural livelihoods.The Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA) was established in 2009 with a goal of benefiting more than 8 million farmers by the end of 2023. The project is an exemplar exampleof One CGIAR in action, and is led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and implemented jointly with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the Inernational Water Mangement Institute (IWMI) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Operating in rural 'innovation hubs' in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, CSISA works to increase the adoption of various resource-conserving and climate-resilient technologies, and improve farmers' access to market information and enterprise development. CSISA supports women farmers by improving their access and exposure to modern and improved technological innovations, knowledge and entrepreneurial skills. CSISA works in synergy with regional and national efforts, collaborating with myriad public, civil society and private-sector partners.• Facilitate the widespread adoption of resource-conserving practices, technologies and services that increase yields with lower water, labor and input costs.• Support mainstreaming innovations in national-, state-and district-level government programs to improve long-term impacts achieved through investments in the agricultural sector.• Generate and disseminate new knowledge on cropping system management practices that can withstand the impacts of climate change in South Asia.• Improve the policy environment to facilitate the adoption of sustainable intensification technologies.• Build strategic partnerships that can sustain and enhance the scale of benefits accrued through improving cereal system productivity.With a new investment in the CSISA program, the USAID Mission in Nepal is supporting CSISA to rapidly and effectively respond to the threats posed by the COVID-19 crisis that undermine the recovery and sustained resilience of farmers in the FtF Zone of Nepal. This Activity includes Texas A&M University, Cornell University, and International Development Enterprises (iDE) as core partners. Activities involve two inter-linked Objectives that address CSISA's strengths in core areas needed to assist in COVID-19 response and recovery over an18 month period (From July 2020-December 2021). The ultimate goal of the CSISA COVID-19Resilience Activity is to develop mechanisms to support longer-term resilience among smallholder farmers and the private sector -with emphasis empowering youth and overcoming challenges faced by women headed farm households. At the same time, the Activity is assisting in efforts to increase smallholder farmers' understanding of, and capacity to protect themselves, from COVID-19. This is achieved through the dissemination of awareness raising messages on public health and by increasing economic opportunities for return migrants, smallholder farmers, and by encouraging resilience-enhancing irrigation.Ashta Prajapati.  Agricultural mechanization involves the use of powered machinery and tools that substitute human labor and improve production efficiency.It increases productivity and reduces the cost of production and optimizes product quality, provides timely inputs, and improves farmers' livelihoods.However, not all farmers can afford to purchase high-end agricultural machines and equipment.Even those who can afford to purchase might not utilize machinery efficiently if they use it only on their land, given the small land sizes in Nepal. Hence, establishing a hire service for such agricultural machinery could be an alternative and beneficial practice to increase farm mechanization.Renting some of the more popular machinery types (e.g., power tiller, reaper, thresher) is being practiced in the Terai region but is not run as a full-fledged business. 'Custom hiring services' established with support from the Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization Project (PMAMP) have been providing such agricultural machinery services as a complete business, but this is not sufficient to meet the needs of farmers in all areas. Most of these custom hiring services are being operated through cooperatives.Agricultural machinery service provision businesses at the individual level, providing services for crop production, harvesting, post-harvest operations, processing, and transportation, is a somewhat new concept in the context of Nepal. Most of these service provision businesses are owned and managed by the same person. Managing a service provision business means overseeing a hire service with a primary business orientation, unlike, for example, a farmer with a machine who additionally provides services to neighbors. This orientation helps to ensure that activities and tasks are completed effectively and efficiently.Most new machinery buyers purchase either a tractor, power tiller, or mini-tiller as their first machine, only after which attachments can be bought for tillage (plow), harvesting (reaper), and threshing (thresher). There are few common types of machinery like pump sets, rice mills, and selfpropelled reapers, which do not need any of the three above types of machinery.All eleven machinery types listed here are the most common in the Western Terai; hence these are considered priorities under this Activity.Mini-tillers and electric pump sets are machines that do not earn a significant amount of money but are essential for commercial farming and could be a very good start in service provision enterprise. These are, therefore, included in the list of priority machinery types.Those priority machinery have been grouped into five key combinations, based on engine and its attachment. These combinations are essential to make the business more feasible and viable. Financial analysis of multiple combination options has been done for the machinery type with multiple attachment options to figure out the best combinations.Priority There are four key areas to understand while designing a business model for any business type:1) Value Proposition: The products and services that a business offers to meet the needs of its customers. These are the value proposition of a business and what distinguishes the business from its competitors.2) Customers: The different customer segments that a business tries to serve with its offering. The channels through which the business delivers value to the different customer segments and the relationships a business creates with its customer segments.3) Value Chain: The key activities that the business performs to execute its value proposition. The key resources needed to create value (can be human, financial, physical or intellectual) and the partners needed to complement a business can focus on its core activities.The costs of doing business (including fixed costs, variable costs, economies of scale, etc.) and the income that comes from each customer segment. Income must be greater than costs for a business to be profitable. A value proposition is an answer to why customers should use the service of agriculture machinery service provider enterprise. It should also answer what distinguishes the business from its competitors, in this context, manual labors.• Address the issue of labor scarcity• Quality of work• Increase productivity• Cost-efficient compared to manual work using labor• Saves time / timely service• Makes farmers life easier (less tedious)• Appealing compared to the traditional method using labor and animal• Increase in social status (somewhat)Segments:Key customer segments for this business are the smallholder farmers having small cultivated land sizes. Many of these farms are women-headed households, as primary male household members are working aboard. However, based on the machinery types, these enterprises may also cater to large farmers.This business model mainly relies on personal assistance and long-term relationship with its customers. In most cases, both the service providers and their customers are from the same communitywithin the same Rural Municipality/Municipality. So these businesses should emphasize personal relations and referrals, regular follow-up (for sales and aftersales service), focusing on building links beyond business.Interpersonal communications, i.e., village events, door-to-door sales, etc., are usually most effective for this business model. Key channels of interaction with customers for an agricultural service provision business model should be:• Personnel contact/relationship• Mostly Referral (word of mouth)• Cooperatives/Custom Hiring Centers• village events, door-to-door salesKey Partners:Major partners and stakeholders in this business model includes:• Machinery Dealers• Bank/Financial Institution Following are the key resources that are needed to create value (or delivery of the service it aims to) for an agricultural service provision business:• Physical Resource: Machines and their attachments are critical for this business. Also, there should be a proper space where those machines can be safely stored/parked when not used. It's crucial as most of the machines are used on a seasonal basis. Various tools for simple repair and maintenance are other key resources required for this business. Similarly, various promotional materials are required for the promotion of this business.• Human Resources: Operators and assistants are the critical human resource required for this business. In most cases, entrepreneurs themselves will be working as operators, and some of their family members serve as assistants/helpers.• The operation should have a very good skill of machine operation as efficiency and durability of the machine heavily relies on it. They should also have skills for basic repair and maintenance.Hiring service of agricultural machinery is the prime activity of this business model. To perform this objective effectively, these business needs to do following key activities:• Operation Management-To manage the operation of this business, one should know the machine's capacity, i.e., how many hectares could be served per hour or per day. It will be easier to plan for the total customers (or area of land) that could be served in a season. Entrepreneurs should collect the demand/order in advance and track it. Keeping track of the machine operated and repair/maintenance done is another crucial task for effective operational management.• Marketing/promotion-This is a small business scale, mostly operated within a specific territory municipality/rural municipality. The promotion of this business is mainly relationship-based and direct. A few of the activities appropriate for the marketing/promotion of this business are listed below:-Use of print materials such as visiting cards, board, flex danglers, etc. -Miking at market (haat bajar) -Group sales meeting (utilize cooperatives and other farmers groups meeting as a platform to promote business) -Linkage with Custom Hiring Centers (to tap the customers they are unable to serve)Revenue streams:The revenue source of this business is the service fee for the uses of various agricultural machinery. Most of those machines are already available in the market, and pricing is determined based on the market price. The rate of the machines varies as per the location and is mainly offered as per land size ('Bigha' is the commonly used unit; 1 ha=1.4765 'Bigha'), per hour or day.Below are the rates based for the financial analysis of those machines and combinations:Besides, depreciation is the other non-cash expense associated. For this analysis, the straightline depreciation method has been used. For the four-wheel tractor, registration with the Department of Transport Management (DoTM) is compulsory. So there will be an additional cost associated with the registration and annual renewal. Similarly, registration is also required for the power tiller to be used for transporting goods, mainly in the towns and highways.• Insurance: machinery insurance is another additional variable cost associated, though it's optional for machinery other than tractors. The most common insurance policies available for tractors are:(a) comprehensive insurance policy indemnifies the insured for any physical damage of the vehicle caused by an accident, including compensation to be paid to the third party for death, bodily injuries, or loss or damage of property.(b) Third Party Liability Insurance Policy covers the compensation to be paid to the third party for loss of life or property due to the accident. This third-party liability insurance is compulsory for the registration and renewal of vehicles registered with DoTM.• Variable Cost: Fuel, operator cost, operating cost (communication/lunch) are key variable costs for this business. Besides repair and maintenance cost also occurs, which will be low starting and increasing as the machine gets older. However, a flat 3% (annual) of the machine cost has been based for the analysis of this report.• There are three ranges of investment as per machine types/combinations • For the power tiller, a combination of reaper and trailer will be the most profitable (payback period of 1.29 years) and best utilization of the engine as it will be engaged for the whole year. Payback period of other combinations-Power Tiller + Reaper and Power tiller+Trailer are 1.88 and 1.49 years.• For 4WT and combination, a trailer is a must to utilize best the tractor, which is a considerable investment itself.• Trailer + Rotavator+Rice Thresher + Wheat Thresher is the best combination of 4WT for the rice/wheat crop system. Payback period of 3.16 years.• Trailer + Rotavator+Rice Thresher+Maize Sheller+Maize Planter is the best combination of 4WT for the rice/maize crop system. Payback period of 3.02 years.• Combine mill requires the lowest investment and has a payback period of 1.05 years.• Mini Tiller has the shortest payback period, 0.86 years. However, it might not be commercially viable in the plain area (land plot above half hector) while competing with a power tiller.A strong presence of all the various actors and stakeholders directly related to agricultural service provider enterprise is essential to make this business model feasible and viable. A flow chart involving and facilitating interaction amongst various actors in the value chain of agricultural machinery service provision business model is appended below:• Machinery Dealers: One of the key actors of this value chain, machinery dealers, play a pivotal role in making the machines available, including its spare parts and after-sales repair and maintenance services.• Bank/Financial Institution: Banks and financial institutions provide loans for purchasing the machinery, enabling interested return migrant workers without the financial capacity to get into the business.• Insurance Companies: Machinery insurance coverage for theft, earthquake, fire, flood, or landslides; and personal insurance covering inability to work due to injury or illness are some best options for agriculture machinery service provision business.• Local Cooperatives: There could be two different relationships with the local cooperatives. Migrant workers could also take loans from those cooperatives to purchase the machinery to become a service providers. Service provision entrepreneurs could also utilize local cooperatives to reach out the potential customers. Some special discounts could be offered to the local cooperatives and their members.• Custom Hiring Centers (CHC): Custom Hiring Centers are the other actor to reach out to agriculture service provision entrepreneurs to explore potential customers. Most of the CHC focuses on larger farm machinery, so one with a power tiller and combination could reach CHC and reference their clientele whom they don't serve, for example.• Repair Workshops/Mobile Mechanics: Repair workshops and mechanics are among the major actors of this business model. Most dealers provide a warranty for 1-2 years, covering minor breakdowns and repairs and having a limited workforce. So easy availability of repair workshops is critical. In many cases, those machines might not be feasible to bring to the workshops and need to be repaired as it is. In such cases, the availability of mobile mechanics will ease the life of service provision entrepreneurs.• CSISA/Other Projects: Various projects working in the farm mechanization and agriculture value chain sector are the other stakeholder of this business model. Though they don't have a direct role in the value chain, they could play a pivotal role in facilitating this business. Agricultural machinery service provision entrepreneurs could receive various training and technical support from those projects, which will help them on their way to success.• Local/Provincial/State Government and its program: The Government of Nepal considers farm mechanization a vital tool for development in the agricultural sector and supports it through various programs. Whether it be direct subsidy on machinery purchase or tax discount on import of farm machinery/equipment or interest rebate for loan (through Central Banks), agricultural service provision entrepreneurs should always be proactive to take benefit from it.Based on the machinery type and combinations, the investment required for an agricultural machinery business provision enterprise may range from Rs. 50,000 to Rs. 2,500,000. However, most machinery service enterprises (except for type 2, i.e., 4WT and combinations) could be started with investment below Rs. 400,000.Similar to any other business, investment for these businesses could also be made through:• Self-investment Eligibility:• Migrant returnee who have worked in foreign country for at least 6 months.• Nepali citizens (individuals), age completing 18 years to 65 years. The age limit of the borrower shall not exceed 65 years at the time of loan disbursement.Features of Subsidized loan:• Loan ceiling: Rs. 1,000,000• Period: 5 years• Interest rate: Base rate+2 % (a rebate of 5% will be provided during processing / disbursement of the loan)• Service fee: None• Loan could be provided both without and with collateral, based on the final assessment and decision of the competent authority of the Bank within the Credit Policy Guidelines.Requirements for a loan with collateral• Individuals must obtain a PAN Certificate.• Brief proposal regarding the project.• Income document certifying from an authorized body.• Any documents such as Visa, working permit, passport, etc. that could be used as a reference of migrant workers eligibility ","tokenCount":"2788"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4b90193bcb6731d0c18c533f9e00a2c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://scielo.sld.cu/pdf/fit/v14n1/fit02110.pdf","id":"222518332"},"keywords":["begomovirus","BGYMV","common bean","characterization"],"sieverID":"fa824251-782c-4bad-b1da-e44c54760935","pagecount":"7","content":"El frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) es originario de América, donde se considera un alimento básico. Desde la década de los setenta del pasado siglo la emergencia del mosaico dorado del frijol (BGYMV) en plantaciones de frijol común en Cuba está asociada con altas poblaciones de Bemisia tabaci. De acuerdo con estas infecciones persistentes y las pérdidas causadas por el virus, los objetivos de este trabajo se encaminaron a la caracterización biológica, serológica y molecular de los aislados cubanos de BGYMV procedentes de varias provincias del país. Para la caracterización se usaron métodos biológicos, inmunoenzimáticos y moleculares. Las secuencias totales y parciales obtenidas se compararon con los aislados de BGYMV informados en la región y disponibles en el banco de genes. Los síntomas de amarillamiento característicos fueron reproducidos por inoculación mecánica. Los aislados cubanos, cuando se usó el método ELISA, reaccionaron eficientemente con el anticuerpo monoclonal 3F7, pero no con 2G5. El análisis por RFLP de los fragmentos clonados de 1,2 y 1,4 kb reveló patrones de restricción similares para los aislados de diez provincias, pero diferentes a los patrones de aislados de la región. Las secuencias nucleotídicas y aminoacídicas del aislado cubano de BGYMV mostró los mejores porcentajes de identidad al compararlo con el aislado de la Florida de este virus. En la región común de los aislados cubanos se identificó la secuencia iterativa ATGGAG. La caracterización biológica, serológica y molecular del geminivirus reveló que el aislado cubano del BGYMV es miembro del grupo mesoamericano del BGYMV.The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) has its origin in America, where it is consider as one of the basic foods. In Cuba, the emergence of bean golden mosaic was associated with high populations of Bemisia tabaci in common bean plantings in the 1970s. Persistent infections and crop losses caused by the virus have been reported. With these considerations, the objectives of this work were dedicated to the biological, serological and molecular characterization of the Cuban isolates of BGYMV. Biological, inmunoenzimatic and molecular methods were used for the characterization. Characteristic yellowing symptoms were reproduced using manual inoculation and in ELISA test, Cuban isolates of BGYMV reacted efficiently with 3F7 monoclonal antibody but not with 2G5. Fragment length polymorphism analysis of 1.2 and 1.4 kb cloned fragments revealed similar patterns for isolates from ten provinces. However, they differ from other isolates of the region. The nucleotide and amino acid sequence from Cuban isolates shared the best percentage of identity with the Florida isolate. The iterative sequence ATGGAG was identified in the common region of the Cuban BGYMV isolates. Furthermore, the biological, serological and molecular characterization showed that isolate of BGYMV is a member of the Mesoamerican BGYMV group.El frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) es originario de América, donde se considera uno de los alimentos básicos, ya que representa un aporte proteico y calórico del 15-30% y 340 cal/100 g, respectivamente. En Cuba se cultivan aproximadamente 52 000 ha de frijol, sin incluir las áreas dedicadas al autoabastecimiento. La producción estatal solamente cubre el 5% de la demanda, lo que exige la importación de 120 000 t anuales de este grano, equivalente a 40 millones de dólares. En la re-gión, la baja productividad del frijol se debe a diversos factores, entre los que se encuentran la falta de asistencia técnica, el bajo uso de insumos dedicados a la atención del cultivo y los problemas fitosanitarios. Entre estos últimos los que más se destacan son las enfermedades virales transmitidas por moscas blancas [Morales, 2000].La enfermedad viral de mayor importancia causada por begomovirus que afecta al frijol en América Latina es el mosaico dorado del frijol (BGYMV), señalado por primera vez en Brasil [Costa, 1965], el que se diseminó a regiones productoras de Argentina y Bolivia, donde alcanzó valores de incidencia del 80% y pérdidas entre el 40-100%, y se convirtió en la década de los ochenta en la enfermedad más devastadora del cultivo de todos los tiempos [Morales, 2000].Desde inicios de la década de los setenta del pasado siglo fueron señalados en Cuba los síntomas de amarillamiento en el frijol como causados por el mosaico dorado del frijol [Blanco y Bencomo, 1978], asociado a poblaciones de moscas blancas. Este virus provocó, en las campañas de los años 1989-1990 y 1990-1991, porcentajes máximos de infección en las varias provincias, lo que conllevó la destrucción de más de 1000 ha del cultivo. Posteriormente, con la presencia del biotipo B de Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), a finales de la década de los noventa, la enfermedad alcanzó afectaciones del 90% y se convirtió en el principal patógeno viral del frijol común en el país [Blanco y Faure, 1994;Vázquez, 1999].Los estudios hasta la actualidad en Cuba y relacionados con este virus se basaron en aspectos epidemiológicos [Blanco y Bencomo, 1978;Blanco et al., 1984], sin existir referencias sobre caracterización y métodos de diagnóstico para su detección. Por otra parte, las medidas que se han implementado en la región para proteger al cultivo de enfermedades virales se han basado en la utilización de variedades mejoradas genéticamente con resistencia a mosaico dorado, la aplicación de plaguicidas para reducir los niveles del insecto vector y la implantación de los manejos integrales [Morales y Singh, 1993;Beebe et al., 1995;Murguido, 2000].De acuerdo con lo antes expuesto, los objetivos del trabajo se encaminaron a caracterizar la especie de begomovirus que produce síntomas de mosaico dorado en el cultivo del frijol, y aplicar métodos para su diagnóstico mediante técnicas biológicas, serológicas y moleculares.La colecta de las plantas con síntomas se realizó en cuatro campañas del cultivo (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004) y abarcó diferentes municipios de las provincias de Pinar del Río, Ciudad de La Habana, La Habana, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Villa Clara, Holguín, Granma, Santiago de Cuba y Guantánamo. Se analizó un total de 398 plantas de frijol, las que manifestaban síntomas similares a los causa-dos por begomovirus, que fueron debidamente registradas y conservadas a -20°C hasta su posterior análisis.Se realizaron inoculaciones mecánicas por maceración de tejidos a diferentes variedades de frijol, se utilizó como inóculos la savia de hojas de frijol con síntomas similares a begomovirus y colectadas en diferentes provincias. Cada aislado se inoculó a 15 plantas de P. vulgaris variedad Delicias 364. Los fragmentos de hojas de frijol se maceraron con tampón fosfato 0,1 M pH 7,5 [Schwartz y Gálvez, 1990]. Las plantas permanecieron en condiciones controladas de temperatura a 28-30°C y se observaron durante 30 días.Como técnica inmunoenzimática se desarrolló el método ELISA-DAS, para lo que se emplearon los anticuerpos 2G5 y 3F7, según lo recomendado por Cancino et al. (1995).La extracción de ADN viral de plantas se llevó a cabo por el método Dellaporta et al. (1983). La amplificación se realizó con los pares de oligonucleótidos degenerados PAL1v1978-PAR1c715 y PAL1c1960-PAR1v722, y las condiciones empleadas se adecuaron a las informadas por Rojas et al. (1993). Los fragmentos amplificados se visualizaron en geles de agarosa al 0,8% teñidos con bromuro de etidio a 0,5 mg/mL [Sambrook et al., 1989].Los fragmentos amplificados por PCR se aislaron por electroforesis en geles de agarosa al 0,8%. Los fragmentos amplificados se clonaron en el vector pZero TM -2.1 en el sitio de corte único PstI, y las técnicas de ADN recombinante se efectuaron según Sambrook et al. (1989). El análisis de restricción se realizó con diferentes enzimas, y se tuvieron en cuenta las secuencias disponibles en el banco de genes y el fragmento amplificado.Para determinar la secuencia parcial de cada aislado se seleccionaron al menos dos clones por muestra de las provincias de Pinar del Río, Ciudad de La Habana, La Habana, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Villa Clara, Holguín, Granma y Santiago de Cuba, y además se obtuvo la secuenciación completa del componente A del aislado de Holguín. Los clones seleccionados fueron los amplificados con el par de oligonucleótidos PAL1v1978-PAR1c715. La secuenciación del ADN se realizó por el método de terminación de cadenas por dideoxinucleótidos por medio de un secuenciador automático ALFwin Sequense Analiser 2.00.Las secuencias totales y parciales obtenidas se compararon con los aislados de BGYMV informados en la región y disponibles en el banco de genes. Para los análisis de secuencia se utilizaron los paquetes de software Gene Runner versión 3.02 (1994). La búsqueda de secuencias relacionadas se realizó con el programa BLAST (NCBI), y los alineamientos múltiples de secuencias por el Clustal W (EMBL) [Thompson et al., 1994]. Las secuencias informadas se adquirieron de la base de datos EMBL y GenBank.Todas las pruebas de transmisión mecánica a P. vulgaris realizadas a partir de muestras de frijol colectadas en las diferentes localidades del país resultaron positivas, y se observaron inicialmente síntomas de encrespamiento foliar y un posterior desarrollo de un mosaico amarillo intenso muy similar al producido por el virus del mosaico dorado del frijol (Bean golden yellow mosaic virus (BGYMV)). En los resultados preliminares se asumió que la sintomatología objeto de análisis es causada por el BGYMV, especie mesoamericana, debido a que en el cultivo se distinguen dos especies del virus que causan el síntoma de mosaico dorado: la suramericana, denominada Bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV), y la mesoamericana, nombrada Bean golden yellow mosaic virus. La primera se transmite solo por moscas blancas y está distribuida en los países de Brasil, Argentina y Bolivia, mientras que la mesoamericana por moscas blancas y por vía mecánica, y se encuentra en República Dominicana, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Haití y México [Morales, 2000;Morales et al., 2005].Los aislados colectados de las muestras de frijol resultaron positivos al enfrentarse al anticuerpo 3F7 de amplio espectro de acción; sin embargo, el anticuerpo específico 2G5 para identificar los aislados de BGYMV no reconoció a los posibles aislamientos cubanos de BGYMV. Cancino et al. (1995) refirieron que el anticuerpo monoclonal 3F7 reconoció a diferentes begomovirus transmitidos por moscas blancas, como los aislamientos de BGYMV de Puerto Rico, Florida, Guatemala y República Dominicana, y otros no relacionados como el Euphorbia mosaic virus (EMV) y el Tomato mottle virus (TMoV), mientras que 2G5 reaccionó solamente con los aislados de BGYMV de Guatemala, República Dominicana y Puerto Rico. La diferente reactividad de este anticuerpo condujo a los autores a analizar algunos cambios que observaron en la secuencia aminoacídica del gen de la proteína de la capsida (CP), al compararla con aislados de otros begomovirus. Al mismo tiempo señalan que diferencias en la estructura primaria de la CP pueden tener importancia para identificar los epitopes responsables de la especificidad de este anticuerpo. Al hacer la comparación de la secuencia aa de la CP del aislado cubano con los restantes aislados de este virus en la región, reveló dos cambios en los residuos aa en las posiciones 10 (glutamina) y 27 (serina) con respecto a los aislados, lo que pudiera explicar la diferente reactividad del anticuerpo 2G5 con el aislado cubano de BGYMV.Los resultados en este estudio corroboraron la utilidad del anticuerpo 3F7, al reaccionar con todas las muestras analizadas, lo que permite asumir que se está en presencia de un begomovirus bipartito transmitido por moscas blancas, mientras que los resultados con 2G5 demuestran que los posibles aislamientos de Cuba del BGYMV no son reconocidos por este, y que coincide con lo señalado para los aislados de este virus presentes en la Florida y en otras localidades de Cuba [Blair et al., 1995;Morales et al., 2005].Mediante la técnica de PCR, en la que se emplearon oligonucleótidos degenerados PAL1v1978-PAR1c715 y PAL1c1960-PAR1v722, se amplificaron fragmentos de 1,4 y 1,2 kb, respectivamente, que corresponden al componente ADN-A del BGYMV [Rojas et al., 1993] a partir de las muestras de frijol analizadas.Para cada una de las muestras de frijol de las diferentes localidades en estudio se lograron seis clones recombinantes que se utilizaron para los posteriores análisis por RFLP y su secuenciación. La amplificación de ADN por PCR y el análisis de restricción por RFLP están descritos para la identificación y diferenciación de especies de begomovirus [Rojas et al., 1993]. Los resultados indican que al comparar los patrones de restricción para los fragmentos amplificados con los oligonuleótidos PAL1v1978-PAR1c715 de los aislados de BGYMV de la región, con los presentes en Cuba, no se observaron diferencias al digerir con las enzimas SalI y BglII, y se obtuvieron dos fragmentos: uno de 1,1 kb y otro de 0,3 kb (Fig. 1).Para el resto de las enzimas (HindIII, NdeI, HincII, EcoRV) el patrón de restricción fue diferente al compararlo con los aislados de BGYMV, de manera que se encontró que el sitio HindIII, conservado en todos los aislados de BGYMV de la región no estaba en ninguno de los clones de las diferentes localidades estudiadas. Estos clones tampoco presentaron el sitio EcoRV similar a lo comprobado para el aislado de BGYMV-GA, mientras que para la enzima NdeI los aislados cubanos solo poseían un sitio en vez de dos, y para HincII cuatro sitios en vez de tres, al compararlos con lo señalado para los aislados mesoamericanos; sin embargo, para los fragmen- tos amplificados con los oligonuleótidos PAL1c1960-PAR1v722 no se observaron diferencias entre los aislados cubanos del BGYMV y los de la región, al digerir con las enzimas de restricción HincII, SalI y KpnI, que mostraron un sitio único para cada caso, mientras que para el resto de las enzimas probadas (ClaI, NdeI, HindIII, EcoRI, y ScaI) el patrón fue distinto. Con la enzima HindIII se observaron dos patrones de restricción: uno con un sitio único y otro de dos sitios. Se encontraron además poblaciones de BGYMV en algunas localidades donde los individuos con diferentes patrones de restricción estaban mezclados (Tablas 1 y 2).Tabla 1. Análisis de restricción realizado a los fragmentos amplificados por PCR con el par de oligonucleótidos PAL1v1978-PAR1c715 de los aislados de BGYMV. Los números muestran el número de sitios de restricción encontrados para cada enzima * Indican patrones diferentes en caso de números iguales.El análisis de los patrones de restricción para los fragmentos amplificados con los oligonuleótidos PAL1v1978-PAR1c715 de los aislados de BGYMV en Cuba mostró homología en todos los clones analizados. Resultados divergentes se encontraron cuando se ensayó el RFLP con los oligonucleótidos PAL1c1960-PAR1v722. Se encontró una población de virus con cambios en el patrón de restricción para la enzima HindIII. Los estudios han mostrado que la mayoría de los cambios en el patrón de restricción de los posibles aislados cubanos se corresponden con el extremo 5' del gen de la CP, lo que coincide con lo expresado por considerar el extremo más variable del gen que codifica para esta proteína [Padidam et al., 1995]. Estos estudios permitieron realizar por primera vez en el país la caracterización biológica y serológica del aislado cubano del BGYMV en diferentes provincias [Echemendía et al., 2001;Echemendía, 2004].Al comparar las secuencias de nucleótidos y aminoácidos entre el aislado cubano procedente de plantas de frijol de la provincia de Holguín con los del BGYMV de otros países y otros begomovirus, los mayores porcentajes de identidad se observaron con el aislado del BGYMV de México y la Florida.Mediante el alineamiento múltiple de la secuencia nucleotídica del componente A, de los fragmentos am-plificados con el par de oligonucleótido PAL1v1978-PAR1c715, de los aislados del BGYMV cubanos y de la región, se observó la alta similitud existente entre ellos (Tabla 3). Además, al alinear las secuencias de la región común (CR) del aislado de BGYMV CU con los de la región, se reveló la similitud de los iterones (TGGAG) y la alta identidad entre las secuencias. Por otra parte, los porcentajes de identidad obtenidos al comparar los aislados de BGYMV de Pinar del Río, Matanzas, Villa Clara, Holguín y Santiago de Cuba con los aislados de la región, están en un rango del 94,7 y 97,0%, y los valores más altos correspondieron con el aislado de Estados Unidos BGYMV-[US:Hom:05], descrito inicialmente en la Florida, lo que muestra que el aislado de BGYMV cubano es una raza del grupo mesoamericano de este virus [Echemendía et al., 2001]. Al comparar los aislados cubanos entre ellos, el rango de identidad osciló entre el 97,2 y 99,2%, lo que indica que la población de este virus en las localidades en estudio es muy homogénea, y existe poca diversidad genética del BGYMV en Cuba, al considerar lo establecido por el séptimo reporte del ICTV (Comité Internacional de Taxonomía de Virus) [Fauquet et al., 2003;2005;2006;Stanley et al., 2005]. Otros autores han desarrollado estudios para analizar la diversidad genética, y han recurrido al RFLP y la secuenciación parcial de especies de un mismo género [García-Arenal et al., 2001;Willment et al., 2001]. Los resultados permitieron secuenciar y caracterizar molecularmente por primera vez los aislados de BGYMV de Cuba, el que se denominó por el Comité Internacional de Taxonomía (ICTV) como BGYMV-[CU] [Fauquet et al., 2006;2008]. La secuencia completa del componente A del BGYMV de 2,644 pb se introdujo en el banco de genes de la base de datos EMBL, con el número de accesión AJ544531 [Echemendía et al., 2001;Fauquet et al., 2005]. Estos estudios aportaron nuevos conocimientos para incluirlos en la metodología de detección de begomovirus en el sistema nacional de sanidad vegetal y en el manual de manejo integrado de plagas del cultivo en Cuba.• La caracterización serológica y molecular demostraron que el aislado cubano es una raza del BGYMV, por lo que se considera miembro del grupo mesoamericano de este virus, y se denominó BGYMV-[CU]. • La secuencia de nucleótidos de BGYMV- [CU] mostró los mejores valores de identidad con el aislado de Estados Unidos de este virus BGYMV-[US:Hom:05].","tokenCount":"2874"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4e4f341d4ba5b86ecd6984dc9fa4f7ae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a66c18ff-8778-4b1a-953e-54e4f37a3cbc/retrieve","id":"-1553997360"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"36897563-32bd-4999-ab12-b8e826727449","pagecount":"4","content":"In the coming decades, the international community will face the challenges of reining in global climate change, ensuring food security for a growing population, and promoting sustainable development. Meeting these multiple challenges requires changes in the agricultural sector. Farmer-driven adaptation in Kenya and elsewhere in East Africa must include sustainable agricultural management practices. Many of these management practices also directly contribute to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing agricultural productivity and net revenues. This note is based on a report on the synergies and tradeoffs of agricultural management strategies used by farmers in seven districts in Kenya, spanning the country's arid, semi-arid, temperate, and humid agroecological zones (AEZs). The note identifies win-win-win strategies among agricultural adaptation, mitigation, and profitability based on analyses using household survey data and crop and livestock simulation modeling.based on crop residues and the opportunistic use of feed resources like roadside weeds.Farmers have also begun to shift agricultural management strategies due to perceived climate change. Common adaptations in the surveyed sites include changing crop variety (33 percent); changing planting dates (20 percent); and changing crop type (18 percent); planting trees (9 percent); decreasing the number of livestock (7 percent); diversifying, changing, or supplementing livestock feeds (7 percent); changing fertilizer application (7 percent); and using soil and water conservation (SWC) (5 percent).Agricultural management strategies have implications for climate change mitigation, yet few farmers and pastoralists fully understand the links between agriculture and climate change. Sixty-seven percent of farmers surveyed stated that they believe agricultural practices contribute to climate change. Most of these farmers reported that afforestation and agroforestry would help mitigate climate change; only a few mentioned other agricultural management strategies. Though farmers clearly perceive a link between deforestation and climate change, their survey responses reveal that farmers in rural Kenya know very little about the link between sustainable management practices and climate change mitigation.Soil carbon stocks and maize yields were simulated over a 40-year period for combinations of key crop management practices identified in the survey under a wet and a dry climate change scenario. The results show that many of the management practices already used by farmers in the study area have positive effects for soil carbon sequestration, crop yields, and net profits. Table 1 shows the profitability of selected \"packages\" of management practices.The results highlight nutrient management (i.e., combinations of inorganic fertilizer, mulching, and manure) as a particularly promising strategy. This strategy increases soil carbon sequestration and boosts yields, thereby increasing farm revenues and providing a buffer against the negative impacts of climate change. The yield improvement benefits far outweigh the costs of purchasing and applying fertilizer and manure. However, inorganic fertilizer application alone does not increase soil carbon sequestration across all soil types and AEZs. Instead, inorganic fertilizer needs to be combined with other soil fertility management practices, such as manure, mulch, crop residues, or a combination of these in order to achieve maximum benefits.Leaving crop residues on the field has a high potential to increase yields, net profits, and soil carbon sequestration. Applying residues is also associated with lower labor costs as it reduces the time needed for weeding and removing residues from the field.Combining crop residues with fertilizer and manure significantly increases the benefits.However, in the rangeland-based systems, where farmers use residues as a feed supplement during the dry season, they may not always choose to leave residues in the field because the cost of purchasing feed replacement reduces net profits in these areas. Generally, the optimal allocation of residues-balancing benefits from crop and livestock production-depends on the chosen combination of management practices, as well as the agro-climatic and soil conditions. In more than half of the scenarios examined, farmers profited more from leaving only 50 percent of crop residues in the field. In the remaining scenarios, it was more profitable to leave 75 percent of residues in the field and purchase replacement feed (napier grass).Other results differ significantly by AEZ. In the arid site, the maximization of soil carbon and agricultural profits requires irrigation and SWC. Humid sites generally have ample water but limited nitrogen. As a result, SWC structures have limited benefits and irrigation lowers average yield (and net profits) across various combinations of management practices, possibly due to increased nitrogen leaching from the soil. In the semi-arid sites, where water supply is somewhat limited, SWC practices and irrigation increase overall yield levels and net profits. However, integrated soil nutrient management maximizes soil carbon sequestration. Similarly, in the temperate sites, SWC and irrigation improve yields, but not as significantly as nutrient inputs; and soil carbon sequestration is highest with soil nutrient management.While farmers mentioned changing crop variety as a key adaptation strategy and other studies have touted the benefits of this practice, the crop simulation results show that the hybrid maize variety did not generally improve soil carbon sequestration, even with nutrient management practices. Determining whether hybrid varieties specifically calibrated to local conditions are more effective at increasing soil carbon requires further research. The rotation of maize and beans, a key management practice used in much of Kenya, has only limited benefits compared to more explicit nitrogen input measures, such as the application of inorganic fertilizer or manure or both. While soil fertility improves, the low biomass contributed by beans does not make a significant contribution to soil carbon stocks, making the difference in yields minimal.A governmental push toward market-oriented production is driving production systems in the study areas toward increased use of improved livestock feeding practices. These practices can help farmers adapt to and, at the same time, mitigate climate change's adverse impacts. Modeling results show significant opportunity exists to produce milk at lower methane emissions per liter in the seven districts under study through improved feeding practices. Large differences exist between the regions under study, with the greatest potential improvements evident in the arid pastoralist zone.On average, the tested supplementation strategies increased milk production by 36 percent, while also increasing total manure and overall methane production by 6 and 4 percent respectively. Despite a slight overall increase in methane production, methane production per liter of milk produced decreased by 20 percent, on average. In cases where overall emissions increase, households would have to also engage in destocking to receive benefits from carbon markets. A number of agencies and NGOs operating in Kenya advocate maintaining a smaller number of better-quality, more productive animals, and many households are already adopting this strategy in response to climate change.Improved feeding practices also increase net profits from the sale of milk in most cases (Table 2) and enable households to apply additional residues to cropland, increasing productivity and income from crop production. One exception is in the arid site where farmers graze livestock and do not generally purchase feed; the cost of purchasing improved feeds reduces net profits per liter of milk. These households, therefore, will require additional incentives to adopt improved feeding practices.","tokenCount":"1142"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"361a6c1e1aa2b9fa0b64e4c47f4ab028","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4f8586f4-37a1-4168-953d-bdc179355346/retrieve","id":"2034784338"},"keywords":["InovAgro","market system development","impact evaluation","value chain","Mozambique"],"sieverID":"cc777c76-e52b-409c-8b87-1f3dfa81c0f3","pagecount":"48","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.Data from the nationally representative Household Budget Surveys, referred to as IOF, 2008 and2015 show that poverty incidence in Mozambique declined by 5.6 percent, dropping from 51.7 percent in 2008 to 46.1 percent in 2015 (INE, 2008;INE, 2015). Poverty incidence remains widespread, however, with a considerably higher incidence in rural areas (50.1 percent) than in urban areas (37.4 percent). The same data reveal that over the same period, poverty prevalence declined considerably more in urban areas (decreasing by 9.4 percent, from 46.8 percent to 37.4 percent) than in rural areas (where there was a decrease of only 3.7 percent, from 53.8 percent to 50.1 percent). This difference, combined with the fact that 66.6 percent of the population lives in rural areas, makes poverty a predominantly rural phenomenon. Poverty incidence is also more pronounced in northern (55.1 percent) and central Mozambique (46.2 percent) than in southern Mozambique (32.8 percent) (INE, 2015).Data from IOF 2020 reveal that agriculture ranks first in terms of the proportion of smallholder farmers who generate income from it: 65.9 percent of the household heads have agriculture as their main income-generating activity with substantially higher proportion in rural than urban areas (82.5 percent versus 31.6 percent) (INE, 2020). Agriculture, however, is characterized by production systems that are based predominantly on rainfed conditions and on low use of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs. According to data from the nationally representative Integrated Agricultural Survey, referred to as IAI, 2020, 10.9 percent of smallholder farmers used improved seed in any grown crop, 5.1 percent used fertilizer, 3.5 percent used irrigation, 1.4 percent used pesticide, and 0.5 percent used herbicide (MADER, 2020). This low usage of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs leads to low agricultural production and productivity. Dorosh and Thurlow (2018), on the other hand, reveal that among the economic sectors, agriculture has the largest poverty elasticity estimated at -2.6 percent, which is more than triple of that of the other sectors. This suggests that agriculture has the largest potential for reducing poverty.Against this backdrop, the Innovation for Agribusiness (InovAgro) interventions were designed to increase incomes for poor smallholder farmers in northern Mozambique. The InovAgro value chain interventions (VCIs) were designed to primarily promote the development of inclusive and sustainable market systems such that their impacts are felt long beyond the project's lifespan. (Altenburg, 2007;Donovan et al., 2015;Weyori et al., 2018). This is known as the market systems development (MSD) approach (Osorio-Cortes and Lundy, 2018).In terms of coverage of the InovAgro interventions, this study encompassed four dimensions. First, InovAgro had four phased interventions areas: (1) access to agricultural inputs specifically certified seeds, (2) output marketing mainly through commodity aggregator traders (CATs), (3) smallholder farmers' access to finance and (4) smallholder farmers' land tenure and economic security. However, this study evaluated only one of the InovAgro's intervention areas: access to agricultural inputs (certified seed). Moreover, the study did not cover all InovAgro's interventions in the access-to-agricultural-inputs intervention area but focused on agricultural Several studies have employed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to examine the causal relationship between information and communication, extension services and technology adoption in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (see Van Campenhout, 2017;Kondylis et al., 2017;Benyishay and Mobarak, 2019;Van Campenhout et al., 2020;Yitayew et al., 2021). In Ethiopia, for example, Yitayew et al. (2021) found that introducing demonstration trials and field days at the same time as improving development agents' facilitation and communication capacity significantly increased the adoption of improved wheat varieties. Van Campenhout et al. (2020) similarly found that improved information and communication technologies increased maize yield by about 10.5 percent relative to a control group that did not receive audiovisual messages conveying agricultural information.We followed a similar approach, but a modified RCT was conducted using a spatial identification strategy to classify beneficiary and nonbeneficiary households to evaluate the impact of the InovAgro VCIs. This study investigated the household-level impacts of one intervention (certified seed supply) and the three modalities used to reach smallholder farmers (agrodealers, lead farmers, and demonstration plots) using a fixed effects (FEs) technique on a matched sample.The impact evaluation study employed three waves of household-level panel data (wave one:InovAgro Impact Evaluation Survey [IIES] conducted in 2015 [baseline study], hereafter referred to as IIES 2015; wave two: IIES 2017 conducted in 2017 [midline survey]; and wave three: IIES 2019 conducted in 2019 [endline survey]). All three waves of the IIES covered two districts (Alto Molocue and Molumbo). We also evaluated the impact of InvoAgro VCIs on market systems (macro-level) effects, namely: systemic (long-term), sustainability, large-scale (spillover or multiplier), and unintended (positive or negative) effects.By examining the impact of InovAgro VCIs, which applied a MSD approach, our study contributes a new empirical evidence on the causal effects of the InovAgro VCIs, for which there is an abundance of opinion pieces but still relatively scant empirical evidence on actual impacts of MSD VCIs. The findings from our study provide useful insights to policymakers and donors for the development of better policies for addressing agricultural productivity challenges confronting smallholder farmers in the developing world. Our results show that the InovAgro VCIs had an overall positive and significant impact on farmers' use of yield-enhancing farming practices, access to information on agricultural input and output markets whether they were exposed to a single VCI or all three VCIs (the \"complete package\"). Our analysis also showed that the InovAgro VCIs boosted maize productivity, increased their likelihood of selling maize produce in an agricultural output market, and led to an increased marketable surplus. The InovAgro VCIs were also found to have unintended negative effects on access to, and control over, land by women and youth in the short term; in the longer term, however, these adverse effects were seen to have been reversed and to become positive and significant. With regard to overall household welfare, we found that exposure to the complete package of VCIs had a positive effect. On the market systems (macro-level) effects, we found evidence in support of the InovAgro VCIs having a systemic market effect and producing more sustainable long-term usage of yield-boosting agricultural practices than non-InvoAgro VCIs. Our results provide evidence that InovAgro VCIs benefited large numbers of smallholder farmers beyond the project's direct sphere of influence and targeted beneficiaries.The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides brief background information on the InovAgro interventions and describes the project's theory of change. Section 3 lays out the impact evaluation research design; it outlines the challenges in evaluating the impacts of MSD programs, presents the data used, and gives a brief description of the sampled households.Section 4 presents the empirical and identification strategies, Section 5 presents key results, and the final section presents a summary and offers conclusions.The overall objective of the InovAgro project was to increase income and improve economic security for poor male and female smallholder farmers in northern Mozambique. 1 It aimed to do so through improving agricultural productivity and developing high-potential value chains. InovAgro applied a MSD intervention approach by implementing VCIs to stimulate the inclusion of the economically active poor farmers in productive agricultural value chains.According to Tschumi and Hagan (2008), the MSD approach examines both input and output market systems to see what is working and what is not. It then identifies the constraints to well-functioning market systems, which can include, for example, inadequacies in infrastructure or deficiencies in the rules -both formal and informal -that regulate the market system. Value proposition -proving the net benefits of a product -leads naturally to enhanced private investment in smallholder farmers' upgrades. Small-scale farmers can use such profit-seeking investments to generate more product sales, increase their client base, and build their market participation. In the process, private actors become more willing to collaborate in programs to scale up outreach and sustainability. Increasing the effectiveness of market systems can in this way lead to greater outreach and a more sustainable impact.The InovAgro project had a carefully articulated theory of change, which is illustrated in (2) increased direct transactions between private sector companies and smallholder farmers; and(3) increased commercial transactions, market-oriented relationships, and effective supply coordination in the seed industry. These outcomes were to be achieved through the implementation of several InovAgro activities, primarily field days, extension services, and capacity building of local agrodealers. These activities served as a foundation for stimulating a crowding-in of other market actors, leading to the gradual build-up of local market system to provide the full range of services needed. The project's private-sector-led extension intervention strategy and organized field days was the main vehicles for improving farmers' production capacity. To provide greater extension service delivery to smallholder farmers, at district level, InovAgro partnered primarily with the local government entities referred to as District Services for Economic Activities (SDAE).Providing digital scales, brand and price posters, and record-keeping training to agricultural output buyers was another area where the InovAgro interventions to promote agricultural output purchases from smallholder farmers. The InovAgro interventions also sought to help community aggregators to properly package their agricultural output as per the seed company brand, thus allowing the end-buyer to trace the source of the crop and its wholesale buyer. Finally, in addition to the above strategies, the InovAgro interventions also added an access-to-finance \"economic security strategy\" component to enable farmers to achieve access to the financial resources needed for inputs and services procurement (Cole and Fernando, 2016;Tomich et al., 2019). This strategy has involved commercial bank linkages and savings groups (Karlan et al., 2014;Bold et al., 2017;Westermann et al., 2018). Increasing the number of companies selling inputs directly to smallholder farmers was one of the interventions' primary strategies for creating market linkages between agricultural output buyers, input suppliers, and smallholder farmers. Another aspect of InovAgro's seed market strategy was facilitating market access for a growing number of private sector seed suppliers through the establishment of a commercial distribution network. In the project areas, InovAgro trained seed suppliers to work with agrodealers in retailing certified seeds to local smallholder farmers. Technicians from seed companies worked to create demand among smallholder farmers for certified seeds. They did so by introducing, marketing, and promoting an assortment of seed products and by developing a commercial seed distribution network such that smallholder farmers have better access to certified seeds (Vanloqueren and Baret, 2009;Cole and Fernando, 2016;Tomich et al., 2019).In the two studied districts (Alto Molocue and Molumbo), eight communities were randomly selected to be the focus areas (treatment communities) for interventions implementation (four from each district); eight other communities (also four from each district) were identified as interventions nonbeneficiaries (control communities). Randomly assigning households to various treatment arms (treatment communities) was not possible in the context of the InovAgro VCIs. This was due to three main challenges: (1) ethical issues involved with the exclusion of households allocated to a control group; (2) the MSD (systemic) approach adopted by the InovAgro VCIs was one that supported private companies in adopting new approaches to reach more clients; the intervention modality itself thus made it impossible to have strict exclusion criteria to avoid contamination; in other words, it was extremely hard to isolate treatment activities such that they did not also affect the control groups; and (3) the adaptive nature of the MSD approach, which is highly responsive to supply and demand forces, made it difficult to randomize treatment exposure to the interventions; this was evident during the interventions monitoring phase, two years after the InovAgro II launch in 2014, in that certain of the units selected for treatment failed to receive the treatment or did not receive it in the fashion that was originally intended by the intervention.The implementing agency instead selected four communities in each studied district for InovAgro VCIs. All selected treatment communities were located within a single administrative area within each district. To limit spillover effects, the control communities were selected from comparable localities -as defined by the implementing agency -in a different administrative area from where the treatment communities were located. The household listing exercise in both treatment and control areas secured information regarding age and gender of household head and about the household's soya beans and/or pigeon peas production. This listing information was used to select the final set of control communities, based on the extent of soya beans and/or pigeon peas cultivation. The communities and the corresponding sample distribution are summarized in Table 1 below. Power calculations during the planning stage of the research design -which were based on the more demanding methodology of an RCT rather than on the quasi-experimental approach ultimately pursued -indicated that about 2,000 households were needed, which is the approximate number generated when adjusting for design effect and attrition rate. As evidenced from the sample size in Table 1, a total of 1,886 households were interviewed during the IIES 2015 (baseline survey); of these, 937 were from treatment communities and 949 were from control communities.Due to attrition, during the IIES 2017 (midline survey) the number of interviewed households dropped to 1,749 (889 from treatment communities and 860 from control communities); during the IIES 2019 (endline survey), the sample size dropped further to 1,733 (880 from treatment communities and 853 from control communities). Attrition rates stood at 8.1 percent between IIES 2015 and IIES 2019, which is a quite small loss for a four-year period. We also examined this attrition and found no differences between treatment and control groups.In this study, following Maestre et al (2017) We encountered a major methodological challenge with using a geographic boundary (community boundary) to define treatment. One of the possible limitations, even in \"gold-standard\" randomized designs, is that the units selected for treatment may not, in fact, receive the treatment, or may not receive it in the fashion that was intended by the intervention.Conducting standard analysis without accounting for this potential discrepancy between 3 Lead farmers are influential local farmers who can promote changes in not only farming practices but also social and cultural norms. They are also referred to as \"trend setters\".intention-to-treat and actual treatment could lead to underestimation of the impact of the intervention. This was also the case in our context, given that a household that was presumably residing in a control community (hence considered to be a control household) could be located in close proximity to an InovAgro-facilitated intervention in one of the designated treatment communities; the presumed control household would thus be fairly exposed to the intervention.Such scenarios became more apparent during the scoping field visits that were conducted after the baseline survey to monitor the compliance of the interventions' implementation with the agreed study design of randomization at community level. Hence, we employed methods from the body of quasi-experimental approaches. This was mainly to account for any potential discrepancies in observable and unobservable characteristics between treatment and control groups, each of which addresses selection bias in different ways and has different strengths and limitations, with none being unambiguously superior in all circumstances (Ravallion, 2007;Angrist and Pischke, 2008).We conducted careful discussions with the implementing agency about the importance of adhering to a predetermined study design. Even with these measures in place, however, it appeared to be impossible to completely rule out all potential discrepancies between the treatment that was specified in the study's design and actual treatment because in some cases it was hard to obtain full field information about the actual features of the treatment. To account for such discrepancies and potential bias, we supplemented the three-wave household-level panel dataset of intended beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries with \"intention-to-treat\" data as an instrument for treatment (Abadie et al., 2002;Ashraf et al., 2009;Ravallion, 2009;Duflo et al., 2011;Bulte et al., 2014).Hence, for IIES 2017 and IIES 2019, we conducted a unique georeferenced census of every VCI that was operational in the 16 studied communities; we also set a median terrain adjusted distance to these VCIs (60 minutes) as a cutoff for defining the catchment area of the treatment.The resulting spatial database on the location of these VCIs also included further data on type of VCIs (MSD approach versus direct service delivery approach); years of establishment; and type of service provision (namely agrodealers, lead farmers, and/or demonstration plots). As shown in Table 2, the spatial data collection covered the Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates of 185 operational VCIs in Molumbo ( 72) and Alto Molocue (113). These data enabled us to use \"physical accessibility\" as an identification strategy for defining comparable treatment and control households. To quantitatively measure the level of physical accessibility, various studies employ distance and time-model approaches (Cairns, 2012;Schmidt et al., 2020). It is well argued that in a diverse geographic situation, traditional straight-line distance measures tend to overlook local topographic variations and impedances (Kosmidou-Bradley and Blankespoor, 2019;Banick and Kawasoe, 2019). Accessibility measures that employ travel-time-based models built in Geographic Information System (GIS) environments integrate on-road and off-road geospatial layers that include roads, land cover, rivers, and digital elevation grids (Uchida and Nelson, 2010;Chamberlin et al., 2014;Weiss et al., 2018); such models allow for more accurate accessibility computation than do straight-line distance measures. Figure 2 below shows the locations, using GPS coordinates, of all VCIs as well as of our sampled households.Unlike other comprehensive market accessibility models, however, this study estimates merely on-foot travel to the nearest VCIs; topographic factors are thus considered as the main impediment to movement, given that the study area is dominated by agricultural land where walking speed is likely most affected by down and upward slopes. 4 The accessibility model was constructed and computed in an ArcGIS environment using ArcPy Python script. Travel time was calculated from the sampled households to each of the value chain actor types; the travel time of other attribute-based scenarios was also calculated.To define beneficiary and nonbeneficiary groups in the context of the spatial identification strategy and using the intention-to-treat definition for treatment (exposure to intervention), we used terrain adjusted walking distance, measured in time, to classify households. Using a cutoff point of 60 minutes median walking time to the nearest VCI, households within this distance are classified as treatment households, and those with a longer walking time are classified as control households. We further divided treatment households into those exposed to an MSD approach and those not exposed. Among MSD exposed households, we distinguish those exposed to an InovAgro-facilitated MSD approach and those exposed to a non-InovAgro-facilitated MSD approach. Among the control households, we used a cutoff point of 60 minutes median walking time to the nearest treatment household. Control households with walking times less than the cutoff are classified as indirect control households and those with longer walking times are classified as pure control households. We further divided indirect control households into those exposed to an MSD approach and those not exposed. Even after applying this approach for defining the treatment group, however, major challenges such as natural learning, self-selection, interventions targeting, and the adaptive nature of MSD projects like InovAgro remain as causes for concern in making causal inferences.Following Ravallion (2007) and Angrist and Pischke (2008), we thus employed a Fixed Effects (FEs) method on a matched sample. We used the three-wave panel data (IIES 2015, IIES 2017, and IIES 2019) to isolate InovAgro effects and to account for the possible influence of external factors such as government policy, improved infrastructure, natural disasters, natural learning, and/or adaptation. The double-difference analysis compares the change in outcomes before and after the InovAgro VCIs among intended beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries. The FEs method also helps account for any pre-treatment differences among beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries (Angrist and Pischke, 2008). The advantage of the FEs method is that it nets out the effects of additive factors that have fixed (time-invariant) impacts on outcome indicators or that reflect common trends affecting treatment and non-treatment households equally, such as changes in prices, devaluation, flood, or drought (Ravallion, 2007;Angrist and Pischke, 2008).We employed a FEs estimation technique to assess the impact of exposure to InovAgro interventions on selected household-level outcomes. We used the following specification:where and \uD835\uDF00\uD835\uDF00 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 is an error term that absorbs any remaining unobservable factors that may generate variations in outcome variables. The interaction term and associated coefficient capture potential differential trends and give the average impact of the exposure to the InovAgro VCIs on a given outcome variable (the average difference between treatment and control groups).One of the key assumptions behind the Fes approach is that covariates other than the InovAgro VCIs do not change between the baseline, midline, and endline years. In our case, this is violated; following literature (e.g., Fischer and Qaim, 2012;Amare et al., 2012;Amare and Asfaw, 2012;Platteau et al.,2017), we controlled for household-level characteristics that could affect the difference in trends between treatment and control groups by modifying the above specification as follows:where \uD835\uDC4B\uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 represents a set of household-level characteristics. We were interested in estimating the effects of intention-to-treat (ITT) on the treated with regard to a range of outcomes of InovAgro VCIs, rather than actual treatment effects on the treated (ATT), that is, the impact on actual beneficiaries of InovAgro VCIs. Put differently, we were interested in assessing whether the InovAgro VCIs were generating the intended effects among beneficiaries. In our study context, however, where most farming households are small scale, ITT and ATT estimates are not expected to differ substantially. In the worst case, our ITT estimates should be interpreted as lower bounds of the actual impact of InovAgro VCIs on beneficiaries.If we attempt, however, to use nonbeneficiary households to estimate the average outcome variable among beneficiary household that did not benefit from the InovAgro VCIs, we would be faced with a selection bias problem. Households may also self-select themselves into treatment in InovAgro-facilitated activities (MSD approaches) depending on their characteristics; for example, households that are less able (having poorer labor endowments) or households with liquidity constraints may decide not to take part in InovAgro-facilitated activities because they are not able to engage in intensive market-oriented agriculture and/or are not able to afford yield-enhancing agricultural inputs. The study thus also adopted a matching approach which enabled us to produce a subsample of beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries with comparable household-and parcel-level characteristics at the baseline year. Matching -the probability of being assigned to the InovAgro VCIs conditional on the basis of before-intervention characteristics -is specified as follows:where \uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC39{⋅} can be a normal or logistic cumulative distribution. Matching controls for selection bias by constructing a counterfactual for households that benefited from the InovAgro VCIs by matching every household from the treatment communities with one from the control communities with similar characteristics. Once the matching is estimated, the ITT can be calculated as follows:where \uD835\uDC4C\uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC47 and \uD835\uDC4C\uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDC36\uD835\uDC36 denote the outcome variable if household \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC56 benefited (treatment communities) and did not benefit (control communities), respectively, from InovAgro VCIs.We defined the treatment and control groups using a spatial identification strategy that enabled us to conduct a modified RCT to evaluate the impact of InovAgro VCIs on market systems (that is, the systemic, sustainability, large-scale and unintended [positive or negative] effects). We investigated the market system impacts of one intervention (certified seed supply   To claim a sustainability effect of InovAgro VCIs, we compared the four scenarios in the quadrants shown in Table 3. We expected that we had a sustainability effect if the proportion of MSD exposed households under quadrant I (\"continue usage\") is significantly larger than the proportion of non-MSD exposed households. Stated differently, if the InovAgro MSD VCIs was indeed more sustainable than non-MSD VCIs, we expected the proportion of households that abandoned usage of yield-boosting farming practices (quadrant III) to be significantly larger among non-MSD exposed households (exposure to direct service delivery) than among MSD exposed households.Spillover effects: again, comparing the four scenarios (quadrants) shown in Table 3, we investigated the possible spillover effects of the InovAgro MSD VCIs by focusing on nonbeneficiary households (households not exposed to any MSD or non-MSD VCIs). We compared usage of yield-enhancing farming practices among indirect control households (those with terrain adjusted walking distance less than 60 minutes to the nearest MSD exposed households) versus pure control households (those with walking distance longer than 60 minutes to the nearest MSD exposed households). 5   To claim spillover or multiplier effects of the InovAgro (MSD) VCIs, the proportion of households under quadrant II (\"become new users\") must be significantly larger for indirect control households than for pure control households. This is because we also expect a higher likelihood of peer-to-peer social learning for indirect control households compared to pure control households. Similar to the sustainability effects, we used 10 alternative definitions of yield-boosting farming practice use disaggregated by 3 types of VCIs and ran 30 tests of the spillover hypotheses by combining the 10 yield-enhancing input use definitions.Unintended effects: we evaluated if InovAgro VCIs had unintended effects using data from the 3 rounds of IIES (2015, 2017 and 2019). We hypothesized that InovAgro VCIs could be prone to unintended effects (positive or negative) on both intended beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries. We assessed potential unintended effects of InovAgro VCIs on crop diversification, household income diversification, intrahousehold bargaining power as well as women and youth land use rights.Following the project's theory of change, our analysis focuses on investigating the effects of exposure to the InovAgro VCIs on selected outcome variables; these include the impact on use of yield-boosting farming practices, access to information on agricultural input and output markets, maize productivity, overall household welfare, and any other unintended positive or negative effects. Table 4 outlines   (such as access to information on agricultural input and output markets, agricultural production and productivity, income, and crop diversification). On the other hand, and with particular relevance to our concern regarding selection or endogeneity bias, nonbeneficiaries started from a more favorable baseline condition in all of the core outcome variables except for three use-related variables, namely use of fertilizers and agrochemicals (which showed no significant difference) and use of certified seeds (which favored the treatment group). Such stark differences in the key variables of interest at baseline -with control nonbeneficiaries starting out in a favorable condition compared to beneficiaries -reinforces the validity of the endogeneity concern about a potential downward bias affecting our estimates. We thus accounted for such potential selection bias (either due to self-selection or interventions targeting) using a propensity score matching (PSM) method. Table 6 presents the descriptive results from the reduced sample, with treatment and control households that are comparable based on observable household and parcel characteristics at baseline. Between 2015 (baseline) and 2019 (endline), usage of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs among treatment households increased substantially compared to control households. In the treatment group, the share of households that used agrochemicals (insecticide or herbicide) increased from 0.0 percent at the baseline to 13.8 percent at the endline, and in the control group it increased from 0.0 percent to 3.9 percent. Similar patterns were registered for fertilizer use (increasing from 0.0 percent to 20.8 percent among treatment households and from 0.0 percent to 8.2 percent among control households), and for use of certified seeds (jumping from 4.9 percent to 27.0 percent among treatment households and from 0.0 percent to 13.6 percent among control households). Between 2015 and 2019, perceptions of household demand for certified seeds (expressed willingness to use in future) declined in both the treatment and the control groups; however, the reduction was considerably higher in the control group (a decline of 37.6 percent, from 52.6 percent to 15.0 percent) than in the treatment group (a decline of 7.9 percent, from 36.2 percent to 28.3 percent). 6   Between baseline and endline surveys, access to information on agricultural output markets in the treatment group jumped from 17.3 percent to 70.1 percent, a much higher increase than in the control group, which increased from 33.7 percent to 61.9 percent. A similar pattern was registered in access to information on agricultural input markets, which went from 32.5 percent to 65.7 percent in the treatment group and from 42.4 percent to 60.2 percent in the control group.During the same period, increases in the value of production per hectare for maize were consistently higher in the treatment group than in the control group; in the treatment group, the value increased from MZN 10,962 to MZN 11,481, while the control group experienced an increase from MZN 5,449 to MZN 8,885. Over the same period, the increase in the proportion of households that sold maize was higher in the treatment group (35.9 percent, from 27.1 percent to 63.0 percent) than in the control group (32.7 percent, from 13.6 percent to 46.3 percent). It is worth noting that in the baseline, maize sales as a share of production were slightly higher in the control group (55.1 percent) than in the treatment group (48.0 percent); this was potentially because members of the control group were better informed. By the endline, however, maize sales as a share of production were comparable in the treatment and control groups (46.8 percent and 42.9 percent).For both treatment and control groups, crop diversification remained largely unchanged between 2015 and 2019. In both years, however, crop diversification was slightly lower in the treatment than in the control group (2.2 versus 2.7 in 2015 and 2.3 versus 2.5 in 2019). Exposure to MSD appeared to have increased participation in the nonagricultural sector and in temporary migration. The share of household members that were engaged in the nonagricultural sector increased considerably in the treatment group, moving from 36.6 percent in 2015 to 57.9 percent in 2019; in the control group it increased only slightly, from 61.3 percent in 2015 to 62.9 percent in 2019. The proportion of household members in the treatment group who engaged in temporary migration jumped from 11.1 percent in 2015 to 20.6 percent in 2019; in the control group, by contrast, it dropped from 16.3 percent to 10.4 percent. Treatment households were worse off (as measured by wealth index) than control households during the baseline, but by the endline the situation was reversed, with treatment households becoming better off than control households.We estimated the effects of intention-to-treat (ITT) on treatment groups with regard to the impact of a range of InovAgro VCIs; the outcomes of interest included: farmers' use of yield-boosting agricultural inputs, access to information on agricultural input and output markets, maize productivity, women and youth empowerment effects, and household welfare. We sought to assess whether the channel of InovAgro VCI had an impact on the outcome variables; these channels included exposure to an agrodealer (Model T1), to a lead farmer (Model T2), to a demonstration plot (Model T3), and to all three interventions simultaneously, that is, to a \"complete package\" (Model T4). For this, we compared independent regression estimates by defining treatment based on exposure to each of the three VCIs and to a complete package, and then compared the magnitude of impact. We also differentiated short-and long-term impacts of VCIs. We used a two-year gap between the IIES 2015 and IIES 2017 to evaluate the short-term impact of the interventions, and a four-year gap between the IIES 2015 and IIES 2019 to identify a long-term impact of the interventions. Such disaggregation informs the design and implementation of future MSD impact evaluations and the determination of the time period needed to capture respective impacts on outcome variables.To investigate the InovAgro VCI impacts on farmers' use of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs, we used three proxy outcome variables. These are defined in Table 4 above and include: use of agrochemicals, use of fertilizer, and use of certified seeds. Table 7 shows the impacts of the InovAgro VCIs on household use of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs.The results show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant impact on smallholder farmers' use of fertilizer in both the short and long term. The result remained robust regardless of whether the households were exposed to a single VCI or to all three VCIs; however, the interventions had a stronger impact on farmers' use of fertilizer in the long term than in the short term. A complete package of InovAgro VCIs (agrodealers, lead farmer and demonstration plots), for example, increased a farmer's likelihood of using fertilizer by 15 percent in the long term compared to 5 percent in the short term. Intensity of treatment seemed to matter little when it came to the long-term effects of farmers' use of fertilizer. Our results are consistent with several studies that demonstrate that improving market efficiencies affects technology adoption, including input and output market efficiencies (for example, Zeller et al., 1998), missing credit markets (Gine and Yang, 2009), and information market efficiencies (Cole and Fernando, 2016). Similar to its effect on farmers' use of fertilizer, the results show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant impact on a household's likelihood of using agrochemicals. This positive impact on the use of agrochemicals remained robust whether households were exposed to a single VCI or to the complete package. It also remained robust across the short term and the long term, with a stronger impact in the long term. A complete package of InovAgro VCIs, for example, increased a farmer's likelihood of using agrochemicals by 15 percent in the long term but by only 6 percent in the short term. The results also show that the impact of InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant impact on farmers' use of certified seeds in the short term but not in the long term.The short-term impacts of the interventions on farmers' use of certified seeds seems to depend less on the type or intensity of treatment (exposure); this is indicative of the potential long-term spillover benefits of the interventions, as nonbeneficiaries may catch up on the use of certified seeds by learning from interventions beneficiaries.According to Kijima et al. (2012) and Latynskiy and Berger (2016), a project's impact on the productivity, income, and overall welfare of smallholder farmers depends on the quality and timely information farmers get regarding information on agricultural input and output markets.This can include, for example, where they can buy yield-enhancing agricultural inputs, how to differentiate various qualities and prices, and where they can sell their produce. We thus investigated smallholder farmers' access to information on agricultural input and output markets as potential intermediary outcomes of the interventions. Table 8 below presents detailed econometric results for the two project outcomes, with a disaggregated analytical approach to project outcomes that is similar for type and intensity of exposure. The results show positive and significant impacts of InovAgro VCIs on beneficiary smallholder farmers' access to information on agricultural input and output markets, whether they are exposed to a single VCI or to the complete package. This positive impact remained robust both in the short and long term. A complete package of InovAgro VCIs, for example, increased a farmer's long-term likelihood of accessing information on agricultural output and input markets by 34 percent and 30 percent, respectively. This is consistent with evolving evidence that shows that an extension project that features agrodealers, demonstration plots, and lead farmers contributes to statistically significant increases in farmers' access to information on both agricultural input and output markets (Kijima et al., 2012;Latynskiy and Berger, 2016). Our findings also suggest that strengthening farmers organizations and associations is critical to increasing access to yield-enhancing agricultural inputs and to increasing access to output markets.Stronger farmers organizations are shown to result in improved quality of produce and better access to information and knowledge; they also facilitate engagement with policymakers (Zeller et al., 1998;Gine and Yang, 2009;Cole and Fernando, 2016).This section focuses on maize. According to data from IIES 2015, 2017, and 2019, maize is grown by 82 percent of interviewed households, making it one of the most-cultivated crops in terms of number of farmers; it is also one of the value chains targeted by the InovAgro interventions. The fact that we did not collect input and output production data during the baseline survey constrains the productivity analysis in its investigation of the long-term benefits of the interventions in terms of maize productivity. As a result, this section only focuses on short-term interventions effects, comparing production data from the 2016/2017 agricultural season (IIES 2017) with that from the 2018/2019 agricultural season (IIES 2019). Table 9 shows the positive and significant impacts of InovAgro VCIs on not only boosting the maize productivity of beneficiaries but also increasing their likelihood of market participation (that is, their likelihood of selling maize) as well as the volume of marketable maize surplus. This positive impact on productivity and on agricultural market participation remains robust whether households are exposed to a single VCI or to the complete package. Maize productivity is 6.7% higher in the short term among beneficiaries exposed to the complete package than among those who were not exposed. This section discusses the potential unintended impacts of the InovAgro VCIs on land rights, nonagricultural income generation, and temporary migration of vulnerable members of households, that is to say on women and on youths (between 25 and 34 years of age).Table 10 shows the unintended negative effects of the InovAgro VCIs on access to, and control over, land by women and youth in the short term -an adverse interventions effect on youth land rights that was wiped out in the longer term. Short-term adverse effects of the interventions could be associated with the fact that a more commercialized agricultural practice may not always guarantee a desirable outcome for the land tenure security of vulnerable groups, since more profitability in agriculture could increase competition for land and could lead to the exclusive control of such resources by the (usually male) household head. 7 Hence, unless deliberate measures are taken to mainstream gender and youth issues into the designing and implementation of MSD interventions like InovAgro, such negative effects on the land rights of these groups may undermine the full potential of MSD interventions to generate outcomes that are uniformly desirable. The results also show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive impact on nonagricultural income-generating activities for beneficiary women and youth in the short term, whether they were exposed to a single VCI or to the complete package. In the long term, however, beneficiary women and youth who were exposed to agrodealers and demonstration plots, or to the complete package, experienced a negative impact on nonagricultural employment; for women, however, this adverse impact vanished in the longer term. With regard to migration, the results show that the InovAgro VCIs had a negative impact on both women and youth in the short term, regardless of the VCI; in the longer term, however, the interventions had no impact on the migration of women and youth.Following the project's theory of change, the study also investigates the potential effects of the InovAgro VCIs on household income diversification and overall welfare. The results are reported in Table 11. We employ two indicators as proxies for household income diversification:(1) if a household had at least one member who was absent for at least one month preceding the interview (temporary migrant); and (2) if a household had at least one member who was involved in the nonagricultural sector. Results show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant impact on temporary migration at the household level in the short term while there was no evidence of such an effect in the long term. The impact of InovAgro VCIs on the likelihood of generating income from nonagricultural employment, on the other hand, was positive in the long term regardless of the channel of VCIs, while there was no evidence of such an effect in the short term.This finding is consistent with the notion that entry into employment in the nonagricultural sector is both financially and socially costly and that it must be financed by up-front cash (Carrington et al., 1996). The results also show no evidence of a welfare impact of InovAgro VCIs when beneficiaries were exposed to any one of the three types of VCIs; this absence of an effect remains in both the short-and long-term scenarios. When beneficiaries were exposed to the complete package treatment, however, a 0.2 standard deviation increase in a household's welfare index was seen in both the short and long term. This suggests that the design and implementation of future similar MSD projects like InovAgro should package interventions such that they complement each other and thus ensure forward and backward linkages.In the previous section, we assessed the InovAgro VCI impact on several outcome variables at household level. We now evaluate the extent to which InovAgro VCIs resulted in market changes by focusing on four result pathway parameters: i) long-term systemic effects;ii) sustainability effects; iii) large-scale (spillover) effects; and iv) potential unintended effects.As part of the facilitative role InovAgro VCIs set out to achieve, one of major activity of the interventions was focused on understanding where market systems fail to serve the needs of the poor farmers and take action to correct those failings. For this purpose, a systemic change is hereby defined as \"transformations in the structure or dynamics of a system that lead to impacts on the material conditions or behaviors of large numbers of people,\" either through crowding in or by copying other VCIs due to the InovAgro effect on improving the business environment (Ruffer and Wach, 2013).Table 12 shows the results of both parameters, disaggregated by district. Overall,  Note: *** stands for hypothesis supported with at least 1% level of significance.As shown in Table 13, the results support our hypothesis that the InovAgro MSD VCIs are more sustainable than non-MSD VCIs. Of the 30 tested hypotheses, 21 cases show that the proportion of households that continue to use yield-boosting agricultural inputs is significantly (at least at the 10 percent significance level) larger among InovAgro MSD exposed households compared to non-MSD exposed households. More interestingly, the result is more robust and consistent for two value chain crops selected by InovAgro. The proportion of households that continued to use improved soya beans and pigeon peas seeds is significantly larger for households exposed to InovAgro MSD VCIs compared to those exposed to non-MSD VCIs (such as direct service delivery or subsidy programs). The result remains robust regardless of the type of VCI.These findings are consistent with empirical evidence which show that the sustainable effects of using innovations at scale depend significantly on long-term engagement with local value chain actors equipped with sufficient capacity and resources to inform the objectives and vision (Cole and Fernando 2021;Hartmann and Linn 2008;Tomich et al. 2019;Vanloqueren and Baret 2009).Furthermore, our findings reinforce the skepticism around non-MSD VCIs that focus on free or subsidized delivery of services, which are prone to dropout as soon as such support is withdrawn.  Regardless of the proxy variables used to capture usage of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs, the spillover effects are more robust and consistent for indirect control households with access to a lead farmer compared to those with access to agrodealers and demonstration plots. This is perhaps not surprising given the role social capital can play in magnifying the potential spillover benefits where lead farmers have better comparative advantages compared to beneficiaries who interact with agrodealers or who only have access to a demonstration plot. Such empirical evidence exemplifies the need for future design and implementation of similar programs to integrate a proper focus on the \"lead farmer modality of MSD service provision\" and to ensure that program outcomes remain desirable not only for intended beneficiaries but also as they benefit those beyond the program's direct sphere of influence. By unintended effects we mean any VCI effect (positive or negative) not identified by the project's theory of change. For this purpose, we used the potential unintended effects of InovAgro VCIs on crop diversification, household income diversification, intrahousehold bargaining power and land use rights of vulnerable groups (such as women and youth). Table 15 summarizes the unintended effects of InovAgro VCIs. Overall, this table shows that both MSD and non-MSD VCIs had unintended effects on household crop diversification. This is expected since these VCIs encouraged smallholder farmers to specialize rather than diversify. We considered this a potential unintended effect of the InovAgro VCIs, since smallholder farmers often use crop diversification as a risk-coping or mitigation strategy to deal with potential crop failure. Results also show a potential negative effect of InovAgro VCIs on youth access to or control over land, while the opposite is true for non-MSD VCIs. Other results show contrasting evidence on household income diversification and migration. The unintended effect is positive for InovAgro MSD exposed households while a negative effect is found for non-MSD exposed households. However, it is worth noting that such results have caveats since they take no account of other factors that might have affected such outcomes. Future studies will need to, (i) control for potential selection bias (due to self-selection or program targeting) and other factors that might influence the outcome variables of interest; and (ii) use regression analysis to obtain econometric estimates in a further investigation of the direct benefits of MSD VCIs on beneficiary households and their potential unintended effects.This study evaluated the impact of InovAgro VCIs on a range of outcomes; the outcomes were related to farmers' use of yield-enhancing agricultural inputs, access to information on agricultural input and output markets, maize productivity, income diversification, welfare, and effects on women and youth empowerment. The InovAgro interventions applied a MSD approach to stimulate the inclusion of the economically active poor farmers in productive agricultural value chains in northern Mozambique. This study faced numerous empirical challenges including, but not limited to, the need to adequately mitigate and address ethical issues; it also faced challenges associated with the implementation of the interventions and with assessing its scope of impact.Ultimately, we employed a modified RCT approach that used spatial identification strategy for classifying beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries. We conducted a four-year longitudinal impact assessment that included surveys of beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries. We employed an approach that used a FEs estimation technique on a matched sample and examined temporal trends in the outcome variables of the impacts of InovAgro VCIs.The results show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant impact on households' likelihood of using agrochemicals such as pesticides and herbicides and on farmers' use of fertilizer. This positive impact on farmers' use of agrochemicals and fertilizers remains robust whether households were exposed to a single VCI or to the complete package. Our results are consistent with several studies that demonstrate that improving market efficiencies affects technology adoption, including input and output market efficiencies (for example, Zeller et al., 1998), missing credit markets (Gine and Yang, 2009), and information market efficiencies (Cole and Fernando, 2016).Our results also reveal that the impact of the InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant impact on farmers' use of certified seeds in the short term; this short-term impact seems to depend only minimally on the type or intensity of treatment (exposure). Interestingly, however, this significant InovAgro VCI impact is wiped out in the long term, with the estimated impact remaining positive but not significant. Our analysis also demonstrates that InovAgro VCIs boosted the agricultural productivity of beneficiaries, increased the likelihood of their output market participation (that is, their likelihood of selling maize produce), and increased the ratio of marketable surplus to total production.Similarly, the results show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive and significant effect on beneficiary households' access to information on agricultural input and output markets, whether they are exposed to a single VCI or to the complete package. This evidence is consistent with evolving evidence that shows that an extension intervention featuring agrodealers, demonstration plots, and lead farmers contributes to statistically significant increases in access to information on both agricultural input and output markets (Kijima et al., 2012;Latynskiy and Berger, 2016). The results show that InovAgro VCIs had an unintended effect on access to, and control over, land by women and youth in the short term, while this unintended effect on women's land rights was wiped out in the longer term. As documented by Holden and Ghebru (2016), such short-term unintended effect of the InovAgro VCIs on land rights of youth could be associated with the fact that a more commercialized agricultural practice may not always guarantee a desirable/favorable outcome for the land tenure security of vulnerable groups, since greater profitability in agriculture could mean more competition for land and exclusive control of such resources by the (usually male) household head. Moreover, the results show that InovAgro VCIs had a positive impact on nonagricultural income-generating activities for women and youth in the short term.The potentially negative long-term effect of the interventions on nonagricultural employment-generating activity is evident in the more positive and statistically significant impact on interventions beneficiaries than on nonbeneficiaries in the long term. This is evidence of the greater challenges for rural household members in transitioning to non-farm employment. Results regarding the unintended effect on temporary migration by women or youth are consistent with the overall short-term negative effect. There was no evidence of a welfare impact of InovAgro VCIs when beneficiaries were exposed to only one of the three types of VCIs; this remains consistent in both the short-and long-term scenarios. In both scenarios, however, a positive and statistically significant effect on household welfare (wealth) was shown when beneficiaries were exposed to the most intense (complete package) treatment. This suggests that the design and implementation of future MSD VCIs like InovAgro should take an integrated approach whereby VCIs are packaged together and complement each other, ensuring forward and backward linkages. Hence, we recommend that future MSD VCIs like InovAgro mitigate the negative effects on land rights of vulnerable groups such as youth, by taking deliberate measures to mainstream youth issues into their design and implementation. Unless this happens, the negative effects on land rights of youth may undermine the full potential of MSD VCIs in generating desirable outcomes for all. Overall, the study provides evidence in support of the InovAgro VCIs' systemic market-level effect, benefitting larger numbers of smallholder farmers beyond the project's direct sphere of influence than non-MSD VCIs.InovAgro VCIs helped private sectors to lead initiatives and transform the way that agricultural market systems operate in northern Mozambique. InovAgro VCIs also created good competition between private seed companies and built stronger relationships along the value chains.However, working with different private partners, private seed companies and donors that provide large subsidies are required move away from VCIs that distort markets and threaten the viability of agrodealers by bypassing the country's agricultural distribution networks.","tokenCount":"8460"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d17601a0535c558ebff8b21d7fd92697","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2417a17f-8698-43ee-a9e7-0143134f93c8/retrieve","id":"-1417335715"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b2bce75a-32b2-4398-88b6-85fe8022f9fa","pagecount":"3","content":"PART 1: Description and all information of the outcome/impact reported TYPE OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report OUTCOME STORY/IMPACT STATEMENT Gold mining in Peru has caused the loss of more than 96,000 hectares of primary forest in the last 30 years. In February 2019, the Peruvian government started an unprecedented mega-operation aimed at eradicating illegal gold mining in La Pampa by using a near real-time information system called RAMI (Radar Mining Monitoring) to detect gold mining and related deforestation in the Amazonian region faster and all year long. This is enabling them to target interventions to stop illegal practices. A joint initiative of NASA, USAID, and leading geospatial organizations in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, SERVIR partners with countries in these regions to address critical challenges in climate change, food security, water and related disasters, land use, and air quality. Using satellite data and geospatial technology, SERVIR co-develops innovative solutions through a network of regional hubs to improve resilience and sustainable resource management at local, national and regional scales.One innovation lies in the institutional arrangements that form the basis of SERVIR collaborations. The Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT is the leading institution of a Consortium that creates user networks to address critical challenges in climate change, water and related disasters, and land use. In this case, its partners ACCA and SIG with the support of NASA addressed the need expressed by Peruvian governmental institutions. The innovation in this service uses an approach with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data that was developed by our partners at ACCA to detect unique patterns of deforestation associated with gold mining and applying it in the Colombian Amazon. This approach overcomes the limits of optical data and provides mining-related deforestation alerts in near real time (1).The use of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) in a near-real time detection system in the Amazon makes possible to generate and obtain consistent and frequent information on gold mining areas year-round because it penetrates clouds and can monitor the Amazon Forest (1,2). Before, monitoring processes were time-consuming due to a constantly download of optical images and data were only displayed in dry seasons. The Ministry was involved in the development process of the tool. Its technicians can now indicate areas where gold mining may be happening (new illegal mining sites and persistent activity in degraded areas) and provide the data to the authorities. The precision, accuracy, costs and efficiency of deforestation detection due to mining activities has been improved (3). Some of the milestones that led to the institutionalization of the service were: In February 2019, the Peruvian government started an unprecedented mega-operation aimed at eradicating illegal gold mining in La Pampa, the most impacted area of the country, located in the buffer zone of the Tambopata reserve. In a needs assessment process with stakeholders, the gold mining monitoring was prioritized. A multi-institutional team worked in 2020 and 2021 in the technical development of the tool which was launched formally in 2021 (3). In parallel, more than 40 participants of other Peruvian user organizations and ministries were trained in the use of geospatial technologies and solutions, including the indigenous peoples' organization of Madre de Dios FENAMAD. Based on user feedback, the user interface and design has been improved. A newsletter informs users of the latest available information (4). The expected impact of the outcome is a significant reduction of illegal mining activities which will contribute to reducing deforestation, an increased monitoring of their territories by indigenous communities, and a reduction in violence against women and the substance abuse that is common in mining sites. Finally, this service will impact the Peruvian population (including fishermen, tourists, and urban populations) by reducing mercury contamination from mining in their food sources.Gender relevance: 1 -Significant. Analysis of the potential for geospatial technologies to tackle gender inequities in the Amazon (5) CapDev relevance: 2 -Principal. The Program develops capacity of national partners in the technology and its use to develop the gold mining monitoring service (4). Climate Change relevance: 1 -Significant. Climate Change is at the very center of SERVIR-Amazonia and the gold mining monitoring service in Peru. Less illegal mining means less deforestation and therefore a positive climate change impact (1,2, 6).Ministerio del Ambiente / Ministry of Environment (Peru) SIG -Spatial Informatics Group ACCA -sociación para la conservación de la Cuenca AmazónicaSimone Staiger MEL coordinator, SERVIR-Amazonia, Alliance Bioversity-CIAT s.staiger@cgiar.org The Alliance is part of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future.(FS5959) Bilateral -SERVIR AmazoniaLever 2 -Multifunctional Landscapes © 2023. This work is openly licensed via CC BY NC","tokenCount":"756"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b83e8dc4d28603d3d132ff74989471b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/infobrief/8824-Infobrief.pdf","id":"169719513"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f452fa94-4399-45b7-9b77-2d6966d89076","pagecount":"8","content":"Natural ecosystems offer a variety of goods and services to humankind. Human populations have depended on natural ecosystems for their survival, especially in the tropical regions where poverty and its consequences remain pervasive. Apart from the provisioning of ecoservices (Arnold et al. 2011;Nasi et al. 2011;Sunderland 2011), natural forests have also proved to be vital in maintaining and regulating climate and weather patterns at local, national, regional and global scales (Philippon et al. 2019;Ebodé et al. 2020;Artaxo et al. 2022). However, despite their crucial importance for both our planet and our human species, natural forests are being lost and impacted worldwide, through deforestation and degradation mainly due to anthropogenic causes, with agriculture being the top driver. Scientific evidence shows that the pace is much more alarming in the tropics (Laurance 1999; Hansen et al. 2013;Jaboury et al. 2015;Murrins et al. 2021).Known to harbour the second largest bloc of tropical rainforest in the world, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is estimated to have lost half a million hectares of its natural forests in 2021 (World Resources Institute n.d.). However, in an area as large as Western Europe and therefore offering interesting variations, both in its forest coverage and in anthropogenic impacts on natural forest ecosystems, a clear understanding of the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, taking into account these regional realities, is paramount to helping national policymakers devise adaptive strategies.The eastern part of the DRC (particularly in the Kivu region) has been marked by massive deforestation and forest degradation for years (Zhuravleva et al. 2013;Nackoney et al. 2014; Teso and Karume 2019) and forest loss seems to have accelerated, due to a number of factors, including: (1) wars and political turmoil in neighbouring countries (e.g. waves of Rwandan refugees in the 1990s) and in the DRC itself (Simpson and Geenen 2021);(2) human demography; (3) energy consumption needs (most of the population relies heavily on charcoal and firewood for cooking, etc.); (4) mining (Redmond 2001;Nelleman et al. 2010); and (5) agriculture (Ickowitz et al. 2015).In many rural areas, even the once available small patches of natural vegetation have been wiped out, either replaced by farmland, plantations (mainly eucalyptus trees) and other anthropogenic signatures (village extensions, infrastructure, etc.). As a consequence, natural vegetation sensu stricto only exists in protected areas. Because effective protection is a huge challenge, the evidence points to many cases of human encroachments at the boundaries of protected areas and various anthropogenic activities (mining, forest logging, poaching, etc.).The region hosts the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (KBNP), one of five protected areas in the DRC listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites. The KBNP covers 600,000 hectares and comprises two clearly distinguishable entities that form its highland and lowland sectors. The park is almost entirely located in South Kivu Province, a region known to possess one of the highest human population densities in Central Africa with more than 300 individuals/km².Changes in the landscape, marked by deforestation and forest degradation, are likely to affect the local climate. Given the current land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) trends in the KBNP landscape, we decided to focus on LULUCF factors and try to uncover any potential disruption of the local weather patterns.We assembled a 60-year archive of climate data (from 1960 to 2020) and analysed the main trends in temperature and rainfall parameters. Data are stored at the Lwiro research centre (\"Centre de recherche en sciences naturelles de Lwiro\"), a centre dating back to the Belgian colonial era and located just 5 km from the KBNP.To assess the potential impacts of deforestation on the local climate patterns, we complemented the climate data with those of the Global Forest Watch (n.d.) for the 2001-2021 period. These data gave information on tree cover loss and emission factors (CO 2 e loss per hectare) at both the national and subnational levels.All analyses (basic statistics and time series modelling) were performed using R software version 4.2.1 (R Core Team 2022). We divided the available climate data into six separate decades to display the current temperature and rainfall trends in relatively short time periods, and used the available data on deforestation to understand how forest loss was likely to impact the local climate.Results show that there have been significant changes in temperature over the last six decades (Kruskal-Wallis chisquared = 327.13; df = 5; p-value < 0.001). Temperatures appear to be increasing, as shown by the distribution means (Figure 1a) and medians (Figure 1b). Figure 2 shows that there is a constant positive trend that started during the decade 1981-1990 and which remains significant across the time period.  When rainfall data are taken into consideration, no significant difference exists (Kruskal-Wallis chi-squared = 0.60763; df = 5; p-value = 0.9877). However, there seems to be a decrease in precipitation values (Figures 3 and 4). Over the last two decades (2001-2020), South Kivu Province is estimated to have lost 642,539 hectares of its forests. As Figure 5 shows, there is a positive deforestation trend. However, when deforestation is considered at the territorial level, the eight territories of South Kivu appear to be affected differently (Kruskal--Wallis chi-squared = 135.08; df = 5; p-value < 0.001). As Table 1 shows, Shabunda is the territory that lost most of its forests in the last two decades.During the same period, and as a direct consequence of deforestation, a total of 381,380,375 megagrams of carbon dioxide equivalents (Mg CO 2 e) were emitted into the atmosphere, with an annual average of 190,690,019 Mg CO 2 e. Results show a significant perfect positive correlation (r = 0.99; t = 92.537; p-value = 0.001) between deforestation and CO 2 emissions (Figure 6). There is a positive correlation between deforestation and the temperature increase (r = 0.605; t = 3.2267; p-value = 0.005) and a negative correlation when deforestation and rainfall are taken into account (r = -0.172; t = -0.741; p-value = 0.468).    March 2023Plants, and more particularly trees, are renowned for their cooling capacity of the land, given their capacities to draw massive quantities of water from the soil and release it into the atmosphere (as moisture) through their leaves, a natural process known as 'evapotranspiration'. Therefore, cutting down trees and any other de-vegetation activities suppress this cooling effect of plants and trees and reduce rainfall patterns.The consequences of deforestation on local temperatures and rainfall have been confirmed by many studies (O'Brien 1996; D 'Almeida et al. 2007;Abiodun et al. 2008;Lee et al. 2011;Salih et al. 2012;Amjad et al. 2019;Lawrence et al. 2022). Duku and Hein (2021) have also shown the strong impact of deforestation on rainfall in Africa.As our results have shown, losing forests is likely to cause disruptions in the local weather patterns. Mubalama et al. (2020), who also analysed the weather data (for the 1980-2019 period) and farmers' perceptions regarding potential climate change in the KBNP landscape, came to the same conclusions.Deforestation and its consequences on disrupted climate and weather patterns can also impact local communities' livelihoods as well as biodiversity. A study by Leite-Filho et al. (2021) concluded that agricultural revenues were diminished in the Brazilian Amazon, following reduced rainfall due to deforestation. In the same vein, Lawrence and Vandercar (2015) warned of the consequences of continuing deforestation trends on agricultural productivity in the tropics, because of the induced increase in mean temperature and rainfall disruptions. In our study area, Batumike et al. (2021) have shown that local people have been aware of reduced rainfall and fog, and increased temperatures, resulting in reduced crop yields and the rarity of some forest products such as caterpillars, mushrooms and honey. This concurs with the findings of Mubalama et al. (2020) who reported that, apart from recognizing increased temperatures and reduced rainfall, local people were progressively devising new strategies (early planting, improved varieties and crop rotation, etc.) to cope with the current weather patterns. Adaptation of forest management and local livelihoods to climate change requires an understanding of the effects of climate on forests, prediction of how these effects might change over time and incorporation of this knowledge into management decisions (Keenan 2015).Other worrying signs that might be related to the ongoing deforestation and subsequent weather disruptions as regards the local biodiversity can also be seen in this region, known to be one of the world biodiversity hotspots. For instance, Berzaghi et al. (2018) have found that current land cover changes in the KBNP landscape affect the ecological niches required for the survival of species such as two Albertine Rift bush-shrikes (Laniarius). Some local native plant species also appear to be affected. This is the case for Erythrina abyssinica. This multi-usage Fabaceae tree species, locally known as 'cigohwa', seems to be expressing variations into some of its traits. E. abyssinica 'traditionally' shed its leaves in July and August (also its flowering period), as part of its natural adaptive strategies to the dry season. Direct personal observations have shown that this phenomenon appears to be taking place much earlier or irregularly.Our brief indicates a potential disruption of weather patterns in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park landscape.Our findings also show an increase in temperatures that is positively correlated with deforestation and reduced rainfall. These changes in local weather patterns are likely to impact agriculture, biodiversity and the well-being of local communities.While global communities focus on the role of forests in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration services, our findings highlight the need for policymakers to fully recognize the important role of forests in regulating viable climate and rainfall patterns which are critical for crop production, biodiversity conservation, food security and human health. Ignoring these facts can lead to policy failure in anticipating the climate risks entailed by deforestation, and prevent the design and implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation approaches. Such a failure can ultimately make living conditions difficult for local communities.Further research is required to fully understand the environmental, social and economic benefits of protecting forests in order to stabilize the climate, beyond reducing carbon emissions. The fact that temperatures appear to be lower during the last decade while deforestation remains high calls for a thorough investigation into explanatory factors (e.g. impact of global temperature increase due to fossil fuel burning, continental temperature increase, etc.).","tokenCount":"1690"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a78bb68bca9bb7df988490639fa40ee1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d093ae64-669c-407a-bf68-2eb048fb27c5/retrieve","id":"-58543639"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ced943c8-408d-4cec-a704-a7274de32a9c","pagecount":"16","content":"hildren begin learning the essentials of farming by following their parents to the fields. This learning system is a well-established and effective means of transferring knowledge and skills, and is still the way most farmers are trained in ACP countries. Until recently, the system operated in a context where social and economic changes were slow and people had time to adapt to them. But the rate of change today is much more rapid.Farmers in most ACP countries are now facing tremendous changes and challenges. How can they feed the rapidly growing populations, especially in the urban areas? How can they conserve the soils and natural resources while boosting crop yields? How can they gain access to global economic markets? The knowledge usually shared among Agricultural training Farmers in the front line Long overlooked, farmer training is now seen as crucial to rural development. It should be tailored to farmers' specific needs, and be part of broader training programmes aimed at all rural occupations. A few attempts are being made to launch such programmes. Information for agricultural development in ACP countries Number 113family members and neighbours can no longer provide answers to these questions. With AIDS wreaking havoc among the adults, the young can no longer tap the experience of their elders. In areas where conflicts have forced farmers to leave their villages and the land is no longer being farmed, learning from the elders is also no longer an option. Answers to all these challenges are needed quickly. There is no time for experiments.External assistance is urgently needed to support farmer training programmes in ACP countries. Experts agree that within the next 30 years a new generation of farmers who are well trained in modern agricultural technologies needs to emerge -like the farmers across Europe in the aftermath of the Second World War -to spearhead a real agriculturalThe training of farmers is at the heart of this issue of Spore. Neglected by both governments and aid agencies for many years, farmer training programmes are needed now more than ever before. Indeed, producers in ACP countries can no longer rely solely on their farming skills. In order to export and to bring a value-added component to their operations, they need to diversify and find new uses for their products, know the tastes and habits of consumers, invest in attractive packaging, and much more. Farmers need to understand and respect the requirements of the European market in terms of quality and health standards and to be scrupulous in recording what they do in their fields. As farming becomes increasingly technical, farmers need to learn more varied and complex skills. From basic training to continuing education for farmers in ACP countries, there is still a lot of work to be done in this field.revolution. Despite the rhetoric, however, there is very little training actually taking place and most farmer training systems in ACP countries need to be completely revamped.Many of the agricultural extension systems set up after countries had gained their independence began to fail during the 1980s, and State withdrawal from public sector services exacerbated the problem. The private sector was unprepared to fill the gap and donor support for development agencies working in extension began to fade. Some efforts were made to fill the gap, such as the well-known Training-and-Visit (T&V) system promoted by the World Bank and backed by field workers and intermediary farmers. This system was closer to the grassroots level than some earlier schemes, but it did not sufficiently take into account the broad range of rural activities. There are currently very few national farmertraining systems, with most funding being spent instead on training scientists and senior personnel in research institutions, government ministries and other bodies.There has been a significant increase recently in participatory initiatives led by NGOs and farmers' organisations. These focus on enabling farmer groups to participate in determining their own needs, rather than having new technologies imposed on them, but they require a lot of time and resources. After realising that local farmers were adopting very few of their technologies, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) decided to address some of the farmers' technology and information needs by launching the Agricultural Technology and Information Response Initiative (ATIRI) in 2000. This project is geared towards helping rural communities formulate requests to public and private agricultural service providers, in an effort to ensure that the services provided are better suited to farmers' needs and thus used more effectively. To date, some 15,000 farmers from several areas in Kenya have benefited from the ATIRI project and dozens of innovations have been launched.In Côte d'Ivoire, the Centre des métiers ruraux (CMR) -launched 10 years ago and deemed a model in the region prior to the civil war-was based on the same concept: long discussions with farmers to determine their specific training needs and to identify candidates.Farmers are now seeking more than just access to new technologies that will increase their crop yields. They want information on markets and prices, skills in negotiating, support in setting up cooperatives, and so on. Many new agricultural service providers have appeared on the scene, in sub-sectors such as input supply, storage, processing and credit management. Educated young people tend to be more attracted to these agricultural sector activities than they are to farming and supporting such activities will provide an incentive for them to remain in rural areas rather than migrate to urban centres. In Senegal, the Centre interprofessionnel de formation aux métiers d'agriculteurs (CIFA) provides training in a range of rural occupations through farmers' organisations, private agencies, public bodies, and input and equipment supply companies; the training is aimed at addressing the needs of all stakeholders in the agricultural sector. Founded in 1995, CIFA has made an important contribution to the increased productivity and improved management of rice and tomato cultivation in the Senegal River valley.It is no longer appropriate to see farmers as rural people requiring instruction on how to produce crops, but rather as men and women working to enhance their socio-economic situation by developing their professional capacities. Similarly, the leaders of farmers' organisations who interact with governmental and donor agencies also need to be trained. In response to this, approximately 25 leaders of farmers organisations in West Africa participated in six modules in agricultural policy-making at the African Farmers' Academy (UPFA). The UPFA provides work-based training for representatives from local, national and regional professional associations (in rice, cotton, coffee, cocoa, market gardening, animal husbandry, etc.) or from multi-sectoral organisations from various countries. The training for the modules was provided by the Agriculture paysannes et modernisation (APM Afrique) network and the Centre de recherche en agronomie pour le développement (CIRAD), the agricultural development centre based in France.Farmer-to-farmer training approaches are also attracting interest. Like most people, farmers remember and make effective use only of information that is beneficial to them. Training that does not deal with their problems nor provides guidance on how they could improve their livelihoods, is training wasted. The best way to convince farmers -who are traditionally cautious about change -to adopt new concepts and technologies is to let other farmers explain the new ideas to them. This approach lies behind the success of the 'peer-topeer' training programmes being set up for farmers in Cameroon. Based on farmer exchange visits, these programmes enable close links to be established between the visiting farmers and their farmer hosts, and often result in the technologies demonstrated being implemented soon after the training. In a recent report, Interréseaux, a rural information network, notes that such an approach provides an opportunity to 'unleash knowledge' and 'foster mixing'. Other initiatives focusing on conducting training onfarm rather than at research stations and demonstration plots include the Farmer Field Schools (FFS) promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), where farmers conduct and assess the trials themselves.While such initiatives address farmers' specific concerns and may be successful when implemented on a small scale, they are more difficult to apply on a national scale if there is a lack of resources or political will. Some of the major donor agencies have recognised this and are stepping up their investment in, and promotion of, rural sector training programmes. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in collaboration with FAO, is coordinating a programme entitled 'Education for Rural People', aimed mainly at women and young people in the rural sector and focusing to a large extent on primary school education. A recent World Bank study noted that providing basic education for rural women in developing countries could increase agricultural production by as much as 24%. A good place to start if an agricultural revolution in ACP countries is to become a reality.ane Nawuliro used to eke out a meagre living working long hours with a sewing machine in the corner of a rented room. Today she runs a thriving business, drying papaya, pineapple and banana and selling it to a Ugandan venture, Fruits of the Nile, which is linked to a UK health food company. Nawuliro is not alone in grasping the opportunities offered by what marketing experts call the 'value-added factor'. There are now some 60 such solar drier sites in Uganda, half of them run by rural dwellers.In a growing number of ACP countries, producers are diversifying into more profitable value-added markets. New enterprises, producing everything from spices to cosmetics, are boosting rural economies where traditional agriculture is no longer paying off. In theory, this approach is ideal for small-scale rural producers, offering good prospects for returns and for local jobs. Many of Uganda's solar drying ventures have expanded to take on staff -Nawuliro herself now employs several women.In the value-added business, small-scale producers maximise their role in the supply chain, and hence increase their profit share. If certain conditions are met, globalisation and trade liberalisation can offer ACP producers the chance to access international markets. In Grenada, a pain-relieving spray made from nutmeg, Nut-Med, sells on the Internet to more than 500,000 users in the United Kingdom and the United States of America.According to the FAO, trade in non-traditional agricultural exports (NTAEs) is now worth at least US$30 billion annually, and growing. Developing countries account for about 50% of the trade in selected processed (and partly processed) NTAEs, and the potential for further growth is considerable. \"The rewards are there,\" said David Hallam, Head of FAO's Tropical Products Service, in an interview with Spore. \"Simple processing, such as drying, washing and packaging for retail can produce an enormous amount of value added.\" Dressed or marinated meat fetches far more than the raw product.Graded, washed and trimmed vegetables command a significant premium, and there is strong market potential for hot chilli peppers and local herbs and spices when processed into such products as sauces and relishes. In Fiji, the viability of producing value-added fish products such as fish fingers and fish paste is being investigated.The flourishing natural remedy and cosmetic market offers wide scope for valueadded products. As well as making honey, beekeepers can use beeswax to make creams and hair conditioners. In Mali and Nigeria, rural people are earning an income from the essential oils extracted from vetiver grass. Adding value to a product can cushion the blow of falling prices. Producers in Grenada were threatened by a sharp drop in the price of nutmegs before the Grenada Cooperative Nutmeg Association (GCNA) began diversifying into value-added products. A distillery to produce essential nutmeg oil now generates annual sales of US$300,000. GCNA is also developing nutmeg butter, a by-product of distillation. \"It has enormous potential for the production of tertiary products such as soaps, shampoos, body creams, gels, cleaning agents and perfumes,\" said Reginald Andall, of the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI).But moving into the value-added sector is not without difficulties. ACP producers exporting to Northern markets face stringent product quality requirements and tariff escalation problems. Fresh pineapples exported to the EU attract a tariff of 5.4%, for example, but when shipped as juice this soars to 15.2%.Producers also need to be wary of overloading markets. \"The problem is that if everyone has the same idea, that market will quickly become saturated and prices will fall through the floor,\" warned Hallam.Marketing and packaging are very important, and small-scale producers need help in developing these skills. Guyana is keen to enter the value-added sector by exporting processed mangoes and pineapples and the bark of the locust tree (Hymenaea courbaril), also called jatoba and known for its medicinal properties. But while surveys of overseas markets reveal good opportunities for these products, poor product image and packaging have meant negligible market penetration to date.By contrast, Jamaica's Scientific Research Council (SRC) has successfully developed a range of products from local crops, including plantain and breadfruit chips and liqueurs, jams and jellies based on sorrel, guava and mango. Key factors in this success have been technical help with processing and marketing help with brand names and packaging. 'Hope Gardens Sorrel Chutney' is just one of the sorrel products now selling like hot cakes in North America.See Links, page 10Food processingDiversification into high-value markets can reduce the vulnerability of ACP producers. But although value-added products may point the way towards a brighter future, producers will need more help with marketing before they can cash in on this trend.or ACP producers, there can be no further dallying -the axe is about to fall: in January 2005, traceability will become mandatory for all foodstuffs entering the European Union (EU). That will mean identifying the origin of all products sold in the EU, and logging each phase in the supply chain. From the field to the fork, from the producer to the consumer, the path of each fruit, vegetable and fish will be tracked. Thus, if a food product turns out to be contaminated, it will be possible to find out at which stage the problem arose and which producer was at fault, as well as pinpointing the date of production and the particular batch affected. From here, it will be but a short step to tracking down products from the same source sold by various distributors, and quickly withdrawing them from sale.The increasingly cautious Europeans have set the parameters wide. Not only food products will be covered by the traceability requirements; it will also be obligatory to track the path of animal feed and any other substance which may find its way into food consumed by animals -a requirement that will be mandatory at all stages of production, processing and distribution.This requirement -a demanding one for ACP producers -comes in addition to existing sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards and maximum residue limits (MRLs) that have to be respected by exporters to the EU. Failure to comply means being barred from the market. These regulations, laid down by the EU (specifically, by the Health and Consumer Directorate-General), have been introduced to satisfy the growing demands of European consumers when it comes to food safety. The mad cow disease scandal, amongst others, has fuelled mistrust among consumers. Worried about their health, they want every possible guarantee as to the safety of the foods they eat.Complaining of the difficulties of putting these measures into practice, the ACP countries have tried to convince the EU to change its mind, or at least to delay the application of the new rules. All in vain. Many of the standards, especially those relating to pesticide residues, are already in force and have obliged producers to change their techniques, to reduce or alter the treatments they use, to overhaul or rebuild storage facilities for fish products, and to introduce monitoring mechanisms. Unless they do all this, exporters will not get accreditation to sell to the EU. Countries which have not moved quickly enough have already faced penalties. Fish and crayfish from Cape Verde were embargoed for three years when they failed to meet SPS standards, and prawns from Benin have recently been rejected by the EU.Traceability is yet another requirement. In a few months, every agricultural product, be it horticultural, livestock or fisheries-based, will have to be carefully labelled and accompanied by special documents supplying copious amounts of information on the product, with particular emphasis on any phytosanitary treatments which may have been applied in the case of plants, or medicines administered in the case of animals.Within the EU, adhering to the law even in such matters as storage and packaging is already hard enough to do, and is a costly business for small-scale farmers. For farmers and exporters in the South, it is a real headache -for they are being asked to undergo what amounts to a cultural revolution. For a start, they need to be familiar with the EU directives and to know their way around them. For those who can neither read nor write, it is a huge undertaking to painstakingly record everything they do in their fields. What seeds were used? When were they sown? What fertilizer and pesticides were applied? And even, when was the harvest? It is tantamount to making farmers keep a log book for their land.But without such records these farmers' green beans, bananas, peanuts or pineapples will never reach the European consumer. Not least because distributors face stiff fines for selling products that fail to respect the norms and are therefore keen to see that all the guarantees are in place.From January 2005, exporters wanting to sell plant and animal products to the European market will have to account for the path of each product from the field to the fork. It is likely to prove a complex and costly process for ACP producers as they struggle to comply with the new rules.In order to carry on selling products to a Europe which now comprises 25 countries and which currently buys agricultural produce worth €7 billion, annually, from ACP countries, producers have no choice but to adapt, even though this means making significant investments. For some, such as exporters of fruit, vegetables and fish products in Namibia and Senegal, the EU market is crucial to their survival.To ensure traceability, the supply chain needs to be reorganised and farmers need to be trained. Some exporters have already taken this step, especially the larger companies where cultivation is carefully structured. One example is the Société d'exploitation de produits agricoles et maraîchers (SEPAM), a horticultural company based in Keur Ndiaye Lô, near Dakar in Senegal. At its large depot, thousands of boxes of cherry tomatoes are waiting to leave for France and Italy. The details on the packaging are very precise. \"The number on each carton makes it possible to track its path from the plot where it was harvested right through to Europe,\" explains production director Jean-René Terrasse. \"Each plot has an identification code, which makes it possible to analyse everything,\" adds Malick Mbengue, SEPAM's traceability expert.Others are rushing to be ready in time for the fateful deadline. Various bodies, including some financed by the EU, are helping producers to meet the new requirements. A notable example is the Europe-Africa-Caribbean-Pacific Liaison Committee (COLEACP), whose Pesticides Initiative Programme (PIP) (see Spore 107) helps private exporters overcome this daunting hurdle. Since the end of 2003, PIP consultants have been working with Jamaican exporters' associations, as well as with companies from the Dominican Republic, the third largest ACP exporter of fruits and vegetables to the EU. In Central Province in Kenya, farmers attended an intensive course on traceability between May and September 2004. According to David King'ori, Director of Agriculture for the province, this should enable them to adhere to the cut-off date of January 2005. But not everyone will make it, and especially not the small-scale local producers, for whom the investments required are too high and the time available to supply all the information required too short. As if all this were not enough, importers in Europe are imposing their own rules on suppliers. Take the case of the Global Partnership for Healthy and Sustainable Agriculture (EUREPGAP), which groups together producers and European wholesalers. It has laid down a framework of good agriculture practice and defined the minimum acceptable standards for Europe's major supermarket chainswhich account for 80% of all sales of fresh fruit and vegetables in the EU. To satisfy consumer demand, these retail outlets want guarantees that the food products they are offering to their customers are fresh and healthy. As a result, they impose strict criteria on their suppliers when it comes to such issues as traceability, record-keeping, soil management, pesticides, and post-harvest treatments.Indeed, the EUREPGAP website stipulates that during all treatments \"growers must follow label instructions with regard to protective clothing and equipment\" and that \"all farms must have adequate records to establish a complete and workable audit trail for all crops.\" Such stipulations mean that, in ACP countries, only the larger companies are able to sell to Europe's major retail chains. Most producers in these countries, who are far removed from the safety concerns of European consumers, have trouble to understand the importance and the rigour of such standards and many of them have to be prodded into making all the necessary changes. Now, time is running out, and they have no choice but to comply if they want to retain their slice of the market. To paraphrase the words of David Byrne, the EU commissioner in charge of consumer health and protection: by helping developing countries to respect community food safety requirements, the EU is also helping them to produce products that are safer for their own people. And thereby hangs another tale.Alizèta, the elderly leader of a women's group in Sourgou, Burkina Faso, has her own way of explaining traceability. \"This haricot bean has a mother. We know how many times she has breastfed it, how she has fed it and cared for it. To be honest, we probably know more about this bean than we do about the children in the village.\"When Seydou Zongo, the agent for the Union des coopératives agricoles et maraîchères du Burkina (UCOBAM), a farmers' organisation in Burkina Faso, came to explain the new rules to them, most women thought it was a joke. But they soon realised it was serious and knuckled down to putting the agent's instructions into practice. \"Since our European clients demand these changes, we must follow suit,\" concedes Alizèta. Helped by four French-speaking secretaries from the group, Zongo labels each plot, adding an identification number for each woman, and details of the variety planted, the fertilizer and pesticides used, the date and size of the harvest, and so on.\"Each batch of beans that we export to Europe is numbered. One can trace the plot where they were grown, who tended them, in what conditions, what products were used, etc.,\" says Rodolphe Djiguemdé, head of UCOBAM's quality and traceability department, with a hint of pride. Half of the 600 hectares of haricot beans exported by Burkina Faso will be ready for the January 2005 deadline. But, as Djiguemdé explains, the extra effort that went into producing them has no obvious pay-off: \"Beans which have been followed step-by-step cost no more than others on the European market. Our efforts are not reflected in the price.\" What their efforts do offer is, quite simply, the chance to stay in the market.■ In February this year, the European Commission (EC) published two papers on a proposed EU action plan concerning agricultural commodity chains, dependence and poverty, focusing specifically on an EU-Africa partnership in support of cotton sector development. The papers were adopted in April by the EU General Affairs and External Relations Council.As part of the implementation of the proposed partnership, the EC, the Government of France and CTA, with support from ACP countries, organised an EU-Africa Cotton Forum on 5-6 July in Paris. This brought together more than 250 participants from both the public and private sectors. Although intense trade discussions were in progress, the forum was the logical place in which to develop a network and support for developing and funding African national and regional strategies. Technical innovation, the environment, quality standards, risk, financial needs and management are just some of the areas where strong collaboration is needed to strengthen Africa's cotton sector.At the Forum, Pascal Lamy, the European Commissioner for International Trade, reaffirmed the EU's commitment to Africa's cotton producers. On top of cutting 65% of the support provided to cotton producers in Europe, already adopted by the Council, the EU is proposing to eliminate all support to producers in developed countries and to cotton exporters, as well as to completely open up EU markets to cotton produced in developing countries. All such measures need to be implemented immediately to respond to the urgency of the situation, which affects more than 6 million small-scale farmers in Africa.The Forum participants approved the idea of an EU-Africa partnership for developing the cotton sector and increasing its competitiveness over the longterm. They adopted an action plan covering the short-, mediumand long-term implementation of the partnership. The first activities will focus on helping the sector to formulate well-defined national and regional strategies that reinforce cooperation between public and private entities, and on research and improved regional cooperation, especially with regard to value-added cotton processing.documents may be accessed on www.cotton-forum.org; contributions to the website are welcomed.In brief Another threat looms for Madagascar's 70,000 small-scale vanilla farmers. The surge in prices could lead to even more synthetic vanilla on the market, which is already 10 times greater than the amount of natural vanilla available.A fair exchange ■ Discriminatory inheritance practices are adding to the problems of AIDS widows, who often lose land and homes to relatives of the dead spouse, a UNAIDS study shows. In Namibia, 44% of AIDS widows were robbed of their cattle, 28% lost small livestock and a further 41% had farm equipment taken away in disputes with in-laws after the death of a husband. In Uganda, out of 29 AIDS widows involved in the study, 90% had had property wrangles with in-laws, and 88% of those in rural areas were unable to meet their household needs. compelled the EU to modify its preferential system relating to banana imports from ACP countries in response to complaints by the United States of America and some Latin American countries, it seemed that there was no more to be said about the matter. But new tensions are emerging as exporters wait for the EU to announce the details of its new banana import arrangements, specifically the level of customs duties to take effect on 1 January 2006 -currently the subject of much discussion.At present, ACP countries benefit from substantial preferential treatment -no import duty on their bananas compared with €75/tonne for 'dollar' bananas. But the forthcoming removal of quotas and the move towards a system based exclusively on customs duties threatens the competitiveness of ACP countries, increasing competition not only with Latin American countries but also within the ACP Group itself. While the Latin Americans are asking the EC to retain the current €75/tonne import duty on their bananas, the ACP countries want this tariff increased to protect, in the medium to long term, their banana exports -particularly those from the Caribbean, which are far less competitive in price than those from Africa.The final decision from Brussels depends on the lobbying skills of the two groups of exporting countries and on agreement among the EU Member States. Some EU countries support the complete liberalisation of the system and therefore lower prices for bananas (notably, the new EU Member States, whose purchasing power is weaker), while others want to retain the ACP preferential system.  Also pictured is Dr Dixon's wife, Dr Busie Maziya-Dixon, an IITA food technologist who has developed a range of cassava recipes. She was given the title of Iyalaje -'Woman of Substance'for her work.Making the awards was His Royal Highness, Oba Yisau Oyetunji Otunla Kodaolu (right), the head of the community honouring Dr Dixon and his wife.■ Efforts to control the diamond-back moth (DBM) using biological methods have proved successful in Papua New Guinea (PNG). The moth, Plutella xylostella, is the most serious pest of brassica plants -including cabbages, cauliflower and broccoli -and has spread as the cultivation of these vegetables has intensified in PNG, particularly in the highlands (see Spore 109). Insecticides are commonly used, but in recent years the moth has begun to develop resistance to many chemicals. Efforts to develop a non-toxic and less costly alternative identified some of the moth's natural enemies. The most successful to emerge was the parasitic wasp, Diadegma semiclausum, which was released in major cabbage growing areas in the uplands of PNG. Research by the National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) has established that D. semiclausum is doing its job and that this larval parasite is the most effective natural predator. The wasp is now well established in many parts of the PNG highlands and there is a marked reduction in the presence of the brassica pest.Surveys in major cabbage growing areas confirm an average parasitism rate of between 60 and 100% in DBM larvae -an indication that the moth is being effectively controlled by the wasp and that chemical sprays are unnecessary. But while D. semiclausum generally provides good control of DBM, it may be necessary to spray to control other pests, warns NARI. Scientists point out that it is important to use selective insecticides in order to avoid killing the precious wasp as well.Website: www.nari.org.pgGhana's water champion wins award ■ A Ghanaian lawyer has won recognition for his work on stopping water services being privatised. Rudolf Amenga-Etego has received one of the six US$125,000 Goldman environmental prizes to be awarded in 2004. Mr Amenga-Etego founded Ghana's National Coalition Against the Privatisation of Water in a bid to halt a US$400 million project which would have meant water being sold at full market rates. In a country where 70% of the people have no access to clean water, he said, this would be disastrous for the poor. Angola refuses GM maize food aid ■ Angola has refused to accept 19,000 tonnes of non-milled, genetically modified (GM) maize offered as food aid by the United States of America. In April, it justified this decision -criticised by some donors -by stressing that it wanted to protect the exceptional genetic diversity of its own maize plants. According to Elizabeth Matos, president of Angola's plant genetic resources centre in Luanda, the Angolan genebank contains about 800 varieties and local ecotypes of maize collected from all over the country.This amazing diversity is accounted for by Angola's 20-year civil war. During those long years of conflict, when the members of the national movement for independence, UNITA, fought government troops, they occupied some of the best agricultural land in the country, land with good soil and regular rainfall. Because of the conflict and the extensive planting of anti-personnel mines, farmers in those regions had almost no access to seeds produced by the agricultural research institute at Huambo and distributed by the Ministry of Agriculture, or to the seeds imported by the State-owned company, Angosementes.So they resorted, instead, to gathering seeds from local varieties, thus helping to preserve and multiply them. Hence the diversity not only of the maize now grown in Angola, but also of the country's sorghum, millet, groundnut and cowpea varieties. But, for all this diversity, the country is still faced with a major problem -how to feed its people.■ While the expansion of the EU to 25 countries should, in theory, mean new commercial opportunities for ACP exporters of agricultural products, a recent analysis commissioned by CTA shows that, in practice, this will not necessarily be the case.If the addition of the 10 new countries leads to a drop in import duties in their markets, especially in products of interest to ACP exporters -such as tobacco, peanuts, grapefruit juice, dried fruit, dried beans, maize, and wood products -the positive effect of this could be diluted by the limited commercial capacity of ACP exporters. This will be particularly evident as countries try to adhere to the health and phytosanitary regulations now in force in the EU.The banana sector illustrates the complexity of the situation. The expansion of the EU has led the EC to propose importing additional quantities of bananas to guarantee adequate supplies for the 10 new Member States. Through joining the EU, however, these countries are facing an increase in the price they pay for bananas. Given their weak purchasing power, there is a risk that unsold bananas will be returned to the markets in the 15 original EU Member States. This, in turn, could result in a lowering of prices in the EU, which would have grave consequences for ACP banana exporters, particularly in the Caribbean.The expansion will also affect the export of EU products to ACP markets. For example, the possible increase in wheat production as a result of EU expansion could cause a substantial drop in the wheat price. This will increase the competitiveness of wheat products destined for export -already boosted by the Common Agricultural Policyand see an increase their availability in ACP markets.EU expansion or not, the principal challenge for ACP countries is to increase their production capacities and overcome the numerous non-tariff barriers, particularly by improving their ability to meet international health and phytosanitary standards. he best way to be informed is to go directly to the source. For information on product traceability, a good place to start would be the food safety section of the European Union (EU) website. Here you will find details of all EU legislation relating to food products. Essential reading, to be sure, albeit a little indigestible. If you just want an overview of the subject, click on the summary of 'General and institutional provisions'. Another useful page on the EU site is that of the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, where you can read files on food safety and consumer health. Once you are familiar with this key site, you will be well placed to trace further sources of information.The Global Partnership for Healthy and Sustainable Agriculture (EUREPGAP), subscribed to by major European retail chains, gives details of the EUREPGAP certification requirements for fresh fruit and vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. The Codex Alimentarius, run by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), is yet another regulatory body that defines international food standards (see Spore 105).Reading about traceability rules and norms can sometimes be confusing, daunting and even disheartening. Luckily, various bodies exist to help ACP countries decipher them and put them into practice. If you are involved in horticulture, the Pesticides Initiative Programme (PIP), run by COLEACP (see Spore 107), will be of interest to you. PIP provides companies or groups of small-scale producers of fresh fruit and vegetables with training on how to comply with EU requirements. Its website contains a lot of useful information, and visitors can put their queries to experts on-line via PIP's electronic Question-and-Answer service. The Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF) has a wider remit. Its goal is to strengthen the export capacities of developing countries by helping them conform to standards governing market access for food products, fish-based products, fibres and forest products. The World Bank, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), WHO and FAO are all partners in this initiative. Funds are available for capacity-building projects in both the public and private sectors. The STDF website outlines the criteria for obtaining these grants.Finally, if you want to find out more about the implications of EU's traceability and SPS regulations for ACP countries, take a look at two studies prepared by CTA and available on the Agritrade website.■ A trio of papers from the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) homes in on three very different aspects of the African agriculture picture.Transformations in West African agriculture and the role of family farms looks at the challenges faced by smallholder production systems against a backdrop of the sweeping changes that have affected West Africa's agricultural sector in recent years. Family farms continue to be the most common model in the region, and many have proved remarkably successful in producing more food for both domestic and foreign markets. The authors stress the need for more help with marketing opportunities, which would make a major contribution to the livelihoods of millions of people.The second paper turns the spotlight on land access arrangements in three villages in Burkina Faso, where 80-90% of the plots surveyed were passed on via inheritance or gifts. Since only men can inherit land, women are mostly excluded. Where they do have access, it is usually via gifts or social relationships; in the case of the latter, they sometimes acquire fairly large areas to farm.In the third paper the focus is on the increasingly frequent and often violent conflicts between farmers and herders in southwestern Burkina Faso over the dwindling natural resources, and how to manage this problem. In many cases, say the authors, the answer lies in integrating various land-use systems and arranging access to strategic resources at specific times of the year. Turning the spotlight on African agricultureThe precursor to this book, Agricultural extension, became a classic when it was first published in 1988, going on to sell 35,000 copies in 10 languages.Communication for rural innovation takes on board some of the many changes in the practice and theory of extension and development communication that have occurred since the 1980s. Much of what was considered valid the first time around is still there. This includes a detailed analysis of the concept and role of agricultural extension, as well as the main challenges facing agriculture and the implications this has for communicative intervention. But this book also incorporates new ideas and approaches to agricultural extension, including current channels of communication, most notably the Internet. The audience is slightly broader too. For while Agricultural extension was aimed at practitioners in agricultural extension units, the new book is also geared towards communication professionals who, in the words of the author, \"would never think of themselves as 'extensionists' \". Potential readers include knowledge management specialists, training officers, policy managers, communications staff and -last but not leastextension managers! The catchy title of this paper belies the serious message it contains. Rum production was one of the first ACP industries to be swept along the rocky path from preferential access to Europe towards market liberalisation. To offset some of the inevitable damage to the industry, the EU eventually agreed to set up what became known as the 'rum programme'. But the big question is, when the time comes, will the EU be able and willing to offer other ACP industries similar transitional support?A strong cocktail or a weak punch:A tories to the open letter called the document a \"disgraceful public relations tool for the genetic engineering industry\", maintaining that it failed to take account of evidence of the adverse effects of GM agriculture. FAO was quick to rebut the accusations, asserting that the report had been misinterpreted. We at Spore will not be entering the fray, but invite readers to make up their own minds. The report explores the potential of agricultural biotechnologyespecially with regard to transgenic crops -to meet the needs of the poor. It supports the notion that agricultural biotechnology could help developing countries by reducing reliance on toxic agricultural chemicals, lowering production costs for farmers, enhancing the nutritional content of food and improving plant and animal disease control. All of this, it says, should boost agricultural productivity and reduce food prices, but more needs be done to ensure that these benefits reach people in developing countries. Controversy aside, one of the most interesting facts to emerge is the lack of investment by either the private or public sector in new genetic technologies for the socalled orphan crops such as cowpea, millet, sorghum and tef, all of them crucial to the livelihoods of the world's poorest people. The top 10 transnational bioscience corporations spend nearly $3 billion a year on agricultural biotechnology research and development, but the lion's share of this investment focuses on just four crops: cotton, maize, soybean and the oilseed crop, canola.  Report of the FAO/SPC regional expert consultation on sea safety in small fishing vessels. Suva, Fiji, 9-13 February 2004FAO Fisheries Report No. 737 FAO, 2004. 58  ■ The stunning photographs in this beautifully presented book would be worth the cover price alone. Photographer Mario Marzot has captured the lives of the inhabitants of the Lake Chad Basin, depicting them as they go about their daily tasks in one of the world's most ancient dwelling places. But this is no coffee table book. The well-written text describes a territory that is home to 11 million people who depend on the lake and its hinterland for their survival. Central to the story is the importance of the traditional crop and livestock production systems, which have served local communities here for centuries, and which are now being abandoned in favour of more intensive systems. Yet many of the traditional skills and knowledge could make an important contribution to the future, claim the authors. Kreb, the name given to the grains of wild grasses that grow in much of sub-Saharan Africa, has long been used by local people as a valuable source of food for humans and animals. Likewise, the alga Spirulina, traditionally gathered from the wadis of the north-eastern Lake Chad Basin, has extraordinary nutritional powers and is an important cash earner for women. If the decline of traditional knowledge is not halted soon, it could be lost forever, since most of it is passed on orally and has not been recorded for posterity.The future is an ancient lake. In some cases, the scientists made suggestions for improvements.In others, they singled out the most successful techniques and encouraged the farmers using these techniques to pass their know-how on to other producers. Farmer-to-farmer training has proved one of the most successful aspects of the information swapping process, a key component of the programme. The text revolves around case studies drawn from the UNU project, including examples from Ghana, Guinea, Jamaica, Kenya, Papua New Guinea, Tanzania and Uganda.or almost two years Anna Sherwood has been part of the 'backroom' team at CTA that has ensured that Spore continues to be excellent, attractive and top quality in both content and format. As coordinator of the institutional publications programme in CTA's Information Products and Services Department, her infectious and cheerful dynamism stimulated not only the Spore editorial team, but also her colleagues in the department and in the rest of CTA, as well as all those with whom she worked on the Centre's annual report and website. Thoroughly professional, always reliable and apparently unflappable -that was Anna during her stint at CTA.Apart from her interests in publishing and development, Anna is something of a film buff and adores travel -and she has finally given in to the latter passion. In July she embarked on a trip to Asia, Australia and New Zealand that will take several months. A postcard from China in August said she had climbed the Great Wall, was exploring Beijing and was off to Thailand. Anna's background reflects her taste for change. British by birth, she lived in Canada for many years. In 1993, after completing her BA and MA at the University of Toronto, she returned to the Old World to work with the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) in Rome. There, she took charge of the Community Forestry Unit's publications, which included those produced under the international Forests, Trees and People (FTP) programme. Italy kept her for 8 years, and she then headed north for The Netherlands and CTA in Wageningen. Wherever she's heading for after her current travels, we wish her the best of luck.SPORE 113 • PAGE 15The development community is full of experts who have valuable knowledge to share. But some of them seem unable to get their ideas across simply and effectively. And that is a great pity, as good communication can contribute so much to improved productivity and food security.Shoeshoe Kholopo, an assistant librarian at an agricultural information service in Maseru, Lesotho, puts in a plea for technical experts to express themselves in language that everyone can understand. \"Most of the African countries are overshadowed by poverty, yet there is enough soil to be utilised. The reason being, lack of knowledge,\" she writes. \"So, may I appeal to those who have technical know-how to break it into layman's language and part with it by putting it down on paper for others to read and practice?\"As if on cue, we were delighted to receive two letters in our postbag describing clever innovations in crystal-clear language. Pramod Kupar, of Bako Agricultural College in West Shoa, Ethiopia, writes to tell readers of his success in using the neem tree as a natural pesticide. \"When applied at the time of sowing along rows of maize, dried (neem) seed and leaf powder have been found to be extremely good in controlling termites,\" he says. Mr Kupar has also tried mixing neem seed and leaf extract in water and applying it as a spray, a treatment which, he says, has proved successful in reducing stalk borer infestations.Meanwhile, in Nigeria, Ajayi Olarewaju is keen to share details of an ingenious contraption developed locally for siphoning waste matter from the breeding tanks used in aquaculture. Mr Olarewaju, a fisheries technologist at the National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research in New Bussa, Niger State, explains that the device replaces the traditional method, a rubber hose; the hose is sucked by mouth to induce the flow, a technique that is both unhygienic and laborious. The new device is simplicity itself: a metal tube with a funnel and a rubber tube attached to one end. \"The metabolic waste siphon is placed vertically into culture vessels. Water is poured in through the funnel, which mounts pressure on the water within it, causing a flow of water through the external rubber hose outlet,\" he explains. \"As the water flows, you lift up the metabolic waste siphon and move it around, and it picks up the meta bolic waste.\"We've said it before and we'll say it again: Sometimes, the simplest ideas are the best ones.  G enetic engineering has made a rapid entry into agriculture in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United States of America and South Africa, with these countries accounting for 99% of the genetically modified (GM) crops grown globally. These countries grow GM crops that are mainly resistant to certain herbicides or insects. Future transgenic plants may offer a much wider array of products, including applications in rangelands, forests, landscaping, nutrition, pharmacology, biological control, production of industrial chemicals and bioremediation.Proponents claim that by transferring genes from one organism to another, genetic engineering can overcome the productivity constraints of conventional breeding. They claim that transgenic crops will reduce pesticide use and increase food security in developing countries. GM crops are thus often promoted as a response to the needs of millions of people who don't have enough food.Amidst this enthusiasm for genetic engineering, there has been little space for critical reflection. Leaping into genetic engineering brings with it a wide range of biosafety issues including health and environmental risks, and broader socio-economic impacts. It requires the acceptance of intellectual property rights on living organisms, the privatisation of public research, and expensive research and development at the expense of farmer-based innovation.Instead, what we are witnessing are aggressive attempts, especially by certain countries and the genetic engineering industry, to impose GM crops on Africa under the guise of fighting poverty. The potential for agribusinesses to profit from hunger in Africa, ostensibly through the provision of food aid, technical assistance, capital investment in agricultural research, capacity building and the funding of biosafety initiatives, is enormous.The most frequent criticism of food aid is that it impacts on local food security. Food aid acts as a disincentive to local production by driving down domestic prices. Local farmers may withdraw from producing a surplus, forcing governments to import the growing deficit. Alternatively, it may lead a government to neglect its own agricultural sector, relying on aid or imports rather than facilitating local agricultural development. It may also introduce a taste for a particular food, which is not produced locally, therefore undermining the long-term potential for self-sufficiency. Crucially, the provision of food aid is intimately tied to the disposal of highly subsidised surplus food on the planet's poorest and most vulnerable people.The use of GM food aid has added a new dimension to the debate. GM food aid is seen as providing an important back-door entry point for the introduction of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) into developing countries, especially Africa. The risks posed by GM food are extremely contentious, primarily because the GM industry has failed, to date, to provide conclusive evidence that GM foods are safe.Already, controversy over the shipment of GM food aid has erupted twice in Africa. During the Southern African food crisis in 2001/2002, Zambia imposed a ban on the acceptance of GM food aid, and several other Southern African countries imposed various restrictions. Earlier this year, Angola and Sudan introduced restrictions on GM food aid. These countries are almost always presented with a false choice between accepting GM food or facing dire consequences, whereas non-GM alternatives almost always exist at the national, regional and international levels.There are several major initiatives underway in the continent, funded by development agencies such as the US Agency for International Development (USAID), that aim to help developing countries access and manage the tools of modern biotechnology, particularly genetic engineering. These are often carried out in partnership with the companies who are developing and producing GM crops. Thus, critics charge that these initiatives might serve the purpose of promoting GM crops in Africa, without the due biosafety oversight or public input that such technologies need.All too often, the decision to introduce GM technologies into Africa is made with little or no debate or consultation with the people who will bear the consequences -Africa's farmers and consumers. The provision of GM food aid and the explosion of initiatives that promote GM crops in Africa will have serious consequences for the future of food and agriculture, and millions of farmers, on the continent. GM crops pose risks to health, environment and livelihoods, while enabling corporate control of agriculture. Yet, GM crops are not even needed, as the wealth and knowledge of African farmers are immense.As participants at the Southern African Bishops Conference said: \"The assumption that we need to create new crop varieties through the use of genetic engineering technologies overlooks the fact that there is untapped potential within the wealth of existing [seed] varieties. In Africa, for instance, more than two thousand native grains, roots, fruits and other food plants are found. These have been feeding people for thousands of years, but most are receiving no scientific attention today.\" \" The industry has failed to prove that GM foods are safe \"","tokenCount":"8482"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3cdc11876ef420d51c312272849f41ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/158dada7-ae86-48f3-a777-099a5d360d94/retrieve","id":"505335243"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a633efaa-de4e-42cf-84cc-6dd1e4b128d7","pagecount":"29","content":"Bananas and plantains are vital for food security and smallholder livelihoods in Africa, but diseases pose a significant threat. Traditional disease surveillance methods, like field visits, lack accuracy, especially for specific diseases like Xanthomonas wilt of banana (BXW). To address this, the present study develops a Deep-Learning system to detect BXWaffected stems in mixed-complex landscapes within the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. RGB (Red, Green, Blue) and multispectral (MS) images from unmanned aerial vehicles UAVs were utilized using pansharpening algorithms for improved data fusion. Using transfer learning, two deep-learning model architectures were used and compared in our study to determine which offers better detection capabilities. A single-stage model, Yolo-V8, and the second, a two-stage model, Faster R-CNN, were both employed. The developed system achieves remarkable precision, recall, and F1 scores ranging between 75 and 99% for detecting healthy and BXW-infected stems. Notably, the RGB and PAN UAV images perform exceptionally well, while MS images suffer due to the lower spatial resolution. Nevertheless, specific vegetation indexes showed promising performance detecting healthy banana stems across larger areas. This research underscores the potential of UAV images and Deep Learning models for crop health assessment, specifically for BXW in complex African systems. This cutting-edge deep-learning approach can revolutionize agricultural practices, bolster African food security, and help farmers with early disease management. The study's novelty lies in its Deep-Learning algorithm development, approach with recent architectures (Yolo-V8, 2023), and assessment using real-world data, further advancing crop-health assessment through UAV imagery and deep-learning techniques.Bananas and plantains are essential staple food crops in sub-Saharan Africa, making significant contributions to household food and nutrition security and the income of rural populations. Sub-Saharan Africa alone accounts for approximately one-third of global banana production, and these crops fulfill over 25% of the food energy requirements for more than 100 million people [1]. Within Africa, East and Central Africa (ECA) stands out as the largest region for both banana production and consumption. Around 20 million people in East Africa and 70 million in West and Central Africa rely on bananas, emphasizing the critical role of these crops as primary food sources [2]. In addition, bananas and plantains play a crucial role in smallholder communities' economic stability and employment opportunities, contributing to their sustainable livelihoods and rural development.Regrettably, banana production systems in the region face significant challenges posed by various biotic stresses, including bacterial, viral, and fungal diseases and pests. These factors often lead to substantial crop losses, causing severe impacts on the livelihoods of small-scale farmers [3]. Xanthomonas wilt of banana (BXW) is one of the most devastating diseases affecting bananas. It emerged as a major threat in 2001 and has since spread to most banana production zones in East and Central Africa. This disease has had a detrimental effect on the livelihoods of smallholder communities. BXW primarily spreads through contaminated garden tools, insect vectors, and infected planting materials; if uncontrolled, it can result in complete crop losses. Common symptoms of BXW include yellowing and wilting leaves, premature bunch ripening, fruit pulp discoloration, and yellow ooze in pseudostems and leaf vascular tissues [4,5].Early detection of crop diseases is crucial for timely intervention and minimizing potential yield losses, leading to maximum benefits. Unfortunately, traditional approaches in disease surveillance, such as scouting and monitoring for crop diseases, have been reliant on visual inspection during fieldwork visits, which is tedious, subjective, and often results in erroneous observations [6]. In Africa, disease surveillance for BXW commonly combines field campaigns and laboratory analysis employing diagnostic tools like growth media and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) [7,8]. Nevertheless, this conventional approach lacks the ability to provide precise distribution data on BXW infections, which hinders effective disease management strategies in the complex landscapes where bananas are grown. To address these challenges and improve disease surveillance, innovative and technology-driven solutions are necessary to safeguard the region's banana production and the well-being of its farmers. Nevertheless, the conventional approach of assessing Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW) through visual observation is characterized by its consumption of time and potential ineffectiveness, particularly when confronted with expansive areas necessitating vigilant oversight [9]. The incorporation of cutting-edge methodologies like remote sensing, digital imaging, and data analytics exhibits significant potential to fundamentally transform the landscape of disease identification and monitoring within the realm of agriculture [9].Agricultural drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have emerged as an ideal technology for evaluating crop yields, assessing the health status of crops, and conducting economic evaluations [10]. The rapid advancement of UAV systems, along with the availability of affordable UAVs equipped with visible (RGB) and multispectral (MS) sensors, has unlocked new possibilities for capturing high-resolution spatiotemporal data, enabling the early identification of disease symptoms, even before they become visible to human eye [11,12]. Based on their captured bands, UAV images can be categorized into RGB and multispectral (MS) images. While RGB cameras have been successful in identifying crop diseases [9,13,14], they only measure three bands of the electromagnetic spectrum (red, green, and blue) [15]. In contrast, multispectral images, captured using dedicated sensors, record energy reflected in multiple specific electromagnetic spectrum bands (475-717 nm) [16]. These images provide additional information and enable the calculation of vegetation indices (VIs), which are crucial for the early identification of crop diseases [17]. Consequently, not all wavelengths are suitable for accurate crop disease detection [15]. Therefore, vegetation indexes and the integration of pansharpening methods have enhanced the utility of UAV images by combining RGB and MS images, enabling higher spatial and spectral resolution and overcoming the limitations of each individual image type or multispectral image [18].Data analytics in disease surveillance empowers farmers with timely and accurate information, enabling them to make informed decisions and safeguard their crops and livelihoods. The images analyzed using deep learning (DL) have revolutionized crop disease classification, achieving remarkable accuracy in image processing and object detection [19]. Two-stage and one-stage DL networks, such as Faster R-CNN and Yolo-V8, respectively, have been developed for image detection, where two-stage models have been found to offer higher accuracy by first identifying the region of interest and then performing classification and bounding box regression. In contrast, one-stage models directly predict the class and bounding boxes of objects in one single pass [9,[20][21][22]. Faster R-CNN architecture has been applied in several other agricultural artificial-intelligence (AI) projects, detecting diseases and pests in crops like rice, roses, sweet peppers, and bananas [20,[23][24][25][26]. On the other hand, Yolo-V8, while being a recently released architecture, has been used for phenotype calculation of rapeseed pods based and small object identification in unmanned aerial vehicle images [26,27]. The practical application of DL in agriculture, particularly for crop disease detection, has highlighted promising research value and market prospects [28].Additional studies have focused on various deep learning methods for detecting and classifying foliar diseases in different crops. Mishra et al. [29] discuss the identification of weed density in soya bean fields using the Inception V4 deep convolutional neural network architecture. By employing RGB images and advanced vegetation segmentation techniques, the study achieved precision, recall, and F1 scores of 97, 99, and 98%, respectively. Similarly, Nagaraju et al. [30] address the challenge of overfitting in deep learning models used for agricultural image classification by introducing two novel algorithms: IPTA (an adaptive supervised learning approach for image transformation) and IMHSA (an unsupervised RGB image segmentation method), significantly improving the model's validation accuracy from 65 to 73%. Subsequently, Kaur et al. [31] focus on plant disease identification in grapevines, utilizing transfer learning with EfficientNet B7 and logistic regression to detect four types of diseases. The proposed method achieved a constant accuracy of 98.7% after 92 epochs, showcasing its effectiveness in comprehensive disease detection. Although DL-based instance segmentation for field-based disease classification using UAVs has seen advancements [12,19,32,33]; however, efforts specifically targeting banana diseases have been limited. Neupane et al. [34] proposed a machine-learning-based approach for banana disease classification and height estimation in well-planned commercial/mono-cropped banana fields using UAV-RGB images. However, implementing these models in African agricultural systems, characterized by mixed-complex landscapes, presents challenges [9]. While previous studies highlight the use of deep learning and convolutional neural networks for disease detection at the leaf level, as well as image segmentation and data augmentation, this paper distinguishes itself by employing aerial imagery, incorporating multiple sensors for image input, and utilizing vegetation index manipulation and pansharpening strategies. It is important to highlight the pansharpening process because, in the case of satellite remote sensing, we have advantages compared to using only RGB or MS bands for object detection. Additionally, it establishes comparisons between one-stage and two-stage models, emphasizing its unique approach in leveraging UAV imagery and deep learning techniques for crop health assessment. This paper addresses the urgent need for a robust deep learningbased disease detection model to accurately identify healthy and diseased plants in mixed-complex, banana-based landscapes in real-life scenarios.Validation of unseen data is essential for assessing the effectiveness of deep learning models and bolstering their resilience and precision in real-world scenarios [35]. Nevertheless, many studies in deep learning tend to underestimate the significance of appraising models using new and unfamiliar data, underscoring the necessity to employ this methodology [36]. Through iterative refinement based on unseen data analysis, models can improve their performance and instill greater confidence in their practical use [35].Accurate disease classification is pursued by examining individual stems, each consisting of a single pseudostem and associated leaves. This approach is pertinent as banana plants typically comprise a corm mat with multiple stems. An object-based Deep Learning (DL) pipeline is developed, utilizing RGB, multispectral, and pansharpened images to classify BXW (Banana Xanthomonas Wilt) and healthy stems. The model is subsequently evaluated using unseen ground-truth data. This proposed research will address a significant research gap by offering a comprehensive approach to disease classification in the mixed-complex agricultural landscapes of Africa using advanced DL techniques.The contributions of this work is to:1. Curate a dataset of expert-annotated aerial images depicting banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW) from an African hotspot d. This dataset is valuable for training and testing DL models, benefiting researchers working on similar problems. 2. Overcome the limitation of insufficient samples, data augmentation techniques were employed to enhance the network's detection and identification capabilities. By increasing the number of training images through augmentation, the robustness of the DL model is improved. 3. Developed an enhanced object detection model that accurately detects and identifies BXW diseases in complex African landscapes using low-cost UAV imagery (RGB, MS, and pansharpening). The model combines the Faster R-CNN algorithm with a transfer learning ResNet-50 DL architecture, ensuring reliable performance. Parallel to this, Yolo-V8 also provides adequate performance under specific scenarios. 4. The performance of the Faster R-CNN and Yolo-V8 model was validated using images collected from two types of sensors (RGB and multispectral) and at two different heights (100 and 60 m). This validation study represents a pioneering effort to assess disease detection accuracy in African mixed complex systems using previously unseen data. 5. The proposed methodology lays the foundation for an early warning system and an automated disease management system for BXW. This approach facilitates the implementation of the Tumaini AI-powered mobile app database, enabling proactive measures for disease control and management.In conclusion, this research aims to develop a BXW disease detection system that enhances efficient and effective disease management at the farm level.BXW-affected landscapes were selected based on visible symptoms such as yellowing and wilting leaves, premature bunch ripening, and yellow ooze in pseudostems and leaf petioles. To obtain ground-truth data (GTD) on the disease, field surveys were conducted across the 21 banana fields (2019-2022). The presence and incidence of the disease were assessed, as shown in Fig. 2, focusing on a single unhealthy stem at each sample point. Based on their external characteristics and symptoms, the stems were categorized as healthy or diseased (with BXW presence). These annotations were represented in a point shapefile using QGIS software.As shown in Fig. 3, a MicaSense-RedEdge MS camera and a DJI-FC6310 RGB camera attached to a DJI Phantom 4 Pro (P4P) drone were used to capture the necessary field images. The drone flights were planned through the Pix4Dcapture app for automatic flight planning, ensuring smooth and efficient flights. This app plans the flight in the area based on coordinates. The application is free to use and designed for Pix4D (https:// www. pix4d. com/ es/ produ cto/ pix4d captu re/). A constant speed of 2.5 m/s was maintained for all the different flight conditions, and the height above ground level was adjusted to 60 m and 100 m. For more information about each camera and the flight characteristics, please refer to Table 1.  The image collection process faced various challenges due to the low drone flight altitude, undulating terrain, and tall trees like Ficus and Eucalyptus. These factors made it more difficult to accurately capture the images of banana stems. For a comprehensive understanding of the image locations and the capture dates, please see Supplementary Table 1.The construction of RGB and MS orthomosaics for each flight is performed using Agisoft Professional Metashape software [37]. This involves converting numerous individual images into a unified georeferenced stitched image. For the PAN image, the software ArcGIS Pro was utilized. The process began with an initial georeferencing stage, where RGB and MS images were aligned using the same ground control points. This was followed by a fusion step utilizing the Hue-Intensity-Saturation (HIS) pansharpening method [38]. The objective of the PAN image was to blend the strengths of RGB and MS images, resulting in a fused image with enhanced spatial and spectral resolution (Fig. 4).  Green-Red Vegetation Index GRVIGreen Normalized Difference Vegetation Index GNDVIBlue Normalized Difference Vegetation Index BNDVI NIR−BLUE NIR+BLUETo compare the accuracy of DL models in identifying the presence of BXW, an input dataset (DT) consisting of 3-bandbased images was used. These images contain three bands of information, such as Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) or similar multi-band representations. For RGB orthomosaics, the visible bands of dataset 1 (DT1) were used. For MS images, seven vegetation indices (VIs) were computed using the Pheno-I protocol [10,39] to enhance vegetation health (See Table 2). To create the 3-band images as an input, the VIs bands from DT2 to DT7 were combined, as detailed in Table 3. The last input dataset (DT8) is the PAN orthomosaic, which uses the 3-band combination NIR, R, and G. Next, the orthomosaics were split into smaller images using the GTD point shapefile. Finally, a polygon shapefile was created using a Python script to identify a boundary box of the healthy or unhealthy stem, converting them to XML files suitable for DL training (Fig. 5).A challenge arises in multiple agricultural deep-learning projects due to the limited instances representing the minor class, resulting in unbalanced datasets [40]. This imbalance implies an unequal data distribution across different classes when training the DL model. Specifically, most training data for infected crops contain more healthy crop instances than unhealthy ones, making it difficult to accurately identify the minority class using DL techniques [41].In this context, the project employed data augmentation (DA) as an artificial alternative to increase elements in the minority class [42]. The project used six DA techniques that were combined and applied randomly to create more images of the minority class. The techniques used were:  Faster R-CNN is an object-detection system that combines two modules to achieve accurate and efficient detection [43]. The first module is a deep convolutional network, acting as a region proposal network (RPN). In the Region Proposal Network, anchors characterized by predetermined ratios and scales are produced through a sliding window mechanism applied to the upper feature maps of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) [44]. This network learns anchor coordinate offsets and objectness scores (distinguishing foreground from background) directly from these feature maps. Subsequently, proposals are formulated by modifying these anchors with the learned coordinate offsets [44]. These proposals are then ranked based on foreground scores and subjected to a selection process through non-maximum suppression. This method effectively filters out redundant proposals, ensuring that only the most relevant proposals are retained for further processing [43].The second module is the Fast R-CNN detector, which uses the proposed regions and their associated features for precise object classification and bounding box regression. Both modules share convolutional layers, reducing redundant computations and improving computational efficiency. The unified network is trained using alternating training or approximate joint-training approaches, where the RPN is initially trained, and its proposals are used to train the Fast R-CNN. Figure 6 displays a general overview of the architecture.Joseph Redmon introduced the YOLO (You Only Look Once) architecture [45,46] in 2016, gaining prominence for its efficient feature fusion and high-accuracy detection capabilities. The latest iteration, YOLOv8, was unveiled in 2023. This architecture is structurally composed of three primary segments: the backbone, neck, and head, as seen in Fig. 7  [47].The backbone of YOLOv8 resembles that of its predecessor, YOLOv5, employing a modified CSPDarknet53 backbone. However, it introduces the C2f module as a replacement for the CSPLayer used in YOLOv5 [46,47]. YOLOv8 integrates a Spatial Pyramid Pooling Fast (SPPF) layer to enhance computational efficiency. This layer consolidates features into a uniform map, effectively circumventing issues like image distortion from scaling image regions and cropping. This improvement also notably augments the model's generalization capacity [48].The neck component of YOLOv8 adopts the combined feature fusion approach of the Path Aggregation Network [46,49] and the principles of the Feature Pyramid Network (FPN) [46,50]. In a significant design evolution, the head module of YOLOv8 incorporates a mainstream Decoupled Head structure. This structure distinctly separates tasks related to target detection, splitting the classification and detection heads to independently extract target location and category information. By conducting fusion post-learning through different network branches, the model mitigates the additional latency typically associated with convolution in the decoupled head. This strategic design choice not only enhances the generalization capability but also bolsters the robustness of the model [46,47]. For model training, a transfer-learning approach was used, utilizing pre-trained models from the COCO (Common Objects in Context) dataset [51] through TensorFlow object-detection API zoo models with Falcon CV 2.0 [52] for the Faster R-CNN model and directly using Python and the ultralytics library for the Yolo-V8 model.The model development process was executed on a remote server with the following specifications: NVIDIA Tesla M60 graphics card, Linux Ubuntu operative system, and Python 3.7 (see Table 4 for more details).The evaluation of the DL models involved assessing various performance metrics, including precision, recall, loss function, F1 score, and MissedGTError. The Intersection over Union (IoU) method was used to determine the accuracy of the model's predictions. The IoU measures the overlap between the predicted bounding box (B2) and the Fig. 7 Yolo-V8 architecture overview ground-truth bounding box (B1) using Eq. 1. For this evaluation, a threshold of 0.5 was set. The prediction is correct if the IoU is greater than 0.5 and the predicted label matches the ground-truth label.In detection models, precision and recall are two important metrics used to evaluate model performance in identifying positive and negative instances (Healthy and BXW in this case).Precision refers to the ratio between true-positive instances and the total number of instances the model identifies as positive. In other words, precision measures the model's accuracy in identifying positive instances [53]. Conversely, Recall measures the fraction of true-positive detections among all actual positive instances in the dataset [53]. The F1 score combines precision and recall and provides a more general metric of the model performance. A high F1 score indicates that a model has both high precision and high recall and, therefore, is a good overall performer [53].The loss function serves as a statistical representation of the training process and helps diagnose how well the model fits the data. We extracted the loss function data using [54,55] and the TensorFlow's visualization toolkit (TensorBoard) to track and visualize metrics such as loss during the DL training process.MissedGTError (MGTE) is a performance metric used to evaluate the accuracy of object detection models. It calculates the ratio of ground-truth images that were not detected and the total number of ground-truth images in the dataset [56]. While other metrics such as the confusion matrix, precision, and recall provide information on the accuracy of correctly detected ground-truth labels per class, MGTE focuses on the number of ground-truth instances that the model missed detecting. This metric helps distinguish between two types of errors: misclassifications and missed detections. Misclassifications occur when an object is detected but assigned to the wrong class (e.g., identifying a healthy stem infected with BXW). On the other hand, missed detections happen when ground-truth objects are not detected at all, regardless of their class (healthy or infected). A 0% score indicates that all ground-truth objects were detected, while a score of 100% indicates that none were detected, representing the worst-case scenario.A workflow shows the methodology pipeline as a summary in Fig. 8.Collecting reliable and accurate images from disease hotspots and precise data annotation is crucial in developing any DL detection model. This project created MS and RGB image datasets using UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) images collected in Eastern Congo. The RGB dataset comprises approximately 16,195 annotations, with 86% healthy stem annotations and 14% sick annotations. The MS distribution is roughly 75% healthy and 25% sick stems. Both datasets are imbalanced, which is common in agriculture due to the smaller number of BXW-infected stems (minority class) compared to healthy stems in the field. This imbalance can sometimes lead to difficulties in identifying the minority class in DL models [41]. Data augmentation techniques are employed to address this and improve model performance to increase the number of instances in the minority class [42]. Among the available six augmentation techniques, two were randomly selected and applied to each annotation of BXW-infected stems as seen in Fig. 9. This procedure generated 2281, 2804, and 1809 new annotations for sick stems in the RGB, MS, and PAN datasets, respectively. As a result, the distribution of healthy to sick stem annotations in the RGB dataset changed from 86% healthy and 14% sick to 75% healthy and 25% sick. In contrast, both the MS and PAN datasets witnessed an increase in BXW-infected stem annotations from 25 to 35% of the entire dataset. The distributions of the original and new datasets are presented in Table 5 for visual comparison.The transfer learning model training was conducted over 100,000 steps for the Faster R-CNN model and 200 steps for the Yolo-V8 model. The data was divided into an 80% training and 20% training validation split. Table 5 provides the exact number of annotations for each dataset.An additional dataset of unseen stem annotations was used to evaluate the model's performance. This dataset included annotations from images taken at 100 m and 60 m heights. For the 100 m height images, there were 2026 RGB annotations (1546 Healthy-480 BXW), 3,310 MS annotations (2485 Healthy-825 BXW), and 890 PAN annotations (581 Healthy-309 BXW). Similarly, for the 60 m height images, there were 1,581 annotations (1084 Healthy-497 BXW) for both RGB and MS. Additionally, for 60 m PAN, 1179 annotations (815 Healthy-364 BXW) were considered. These unseen annotations provided a comprehensive test dataset to evaluate the model's performance.Eight distinct models were created using the Faster R-CNN ResNet-50 architecture and another eight using the Yolo-V8 architecture, all aimed at distinguishing between healthy and BXW-infected banana stems within complex mixed systems. These models include one RGB model (DT1), one PAN model (DT8), and six MS models (DT2 to DT7). During the training phase, a portion of the data, specifically 20%, was used for validation to enable the model to assess its learning progress. This validation process involves various loss functions to evaluate the model's performance. These functions include classification loss and localization loss, which measure the model's confidence in making accurate predictions and its ability to accurately determine object positions within the input data [57]. A comprehensive total loss function was derived by After developing and validating the DL models with suitable datasets, the models were tested using real-world images. These images were selected carefully to ensure they differed from those used in training, effectively representing unfamiliar or \"unseen\" data for the models. This testing phase allowed us to assess how well the models perform and generalize under real-world conditions, providing valuable insights beyond the training context.Tables 6 and 7 detail the MissedGTError (MGTE), precision, recall, and F1 score values for the 100 m data for the Faster R-CNN and Yolo-V8 architectures, respectively. Among the various models for Faster R-CNN seen in Table 6, the RGB model showcases the best performance, with an MGTE of 11.2%, followed by PAN with 18.7% and DT3 with 20.33%. However, DT7 and DT5 exhibited higher MGTE rates at 33 and 29%, respectively. These rates imply that, on average, approximately 1 out of every 10 annotations in the RGB model goes undetected, while DT5 and DT7 fail to detect approximately 1 out of every 3 detections. Additionally, the PAN model fails to detect 1 out of every 5 annotations. Figure 11 illustrates the confusion matrix for the unseen data. It reveals a significant count of false positives for the MS models, indicating that they identify many healthy stems as having BXW symptoms. This suboptimal performance of the MS models is also reflected in the metrics shown in Table 6. For instance, F1 scores for DT5 and DT7 vary from 0.40 to 0.31 for healthy stems and 0.04 to 0.06 for BXW-infected stems. Similar patterns emerge for the other MS models. On the other hand, the RGB and PAN models (DT1 and DT8) demonstrated good performance in detecting healthy and BXW-infected stems. Their F1 scores are 0.88 and 0.91 for healthy detections and 0.74 and 0.82 for BXW annotations, respectively. This indicates that, overall, these models successfully detect each stem corresponding to its ground truth annotation.For the Yolo-V8 models shown in Table 7, the MGTE of DT1 and DT8 present lower values than the Faster R-CNN model, with values of 7.8% and 9.8%, respectively, while all the other MS models present values from 49 to 79% showcasing difficulties to identify both healthy and sick stems for the MS images. Regarding precision, recall, and F1-Score, most metrics present high values, mostly over 0.9, except for the DT6 recall. These results confirm Yolo-V8 as the best-performing model for the 100 m RGB and PAN datasets.       The images collected by drone at 60 m altitude were used to validate the models previously trained and assess the impact of the newly attained resolution. Figure 12 and Table 8 present this scenario's confusion matrix and performance metrics. When considering precision, recall, and F1 score, the models exhibit improved performance for the 60 m images compared with the 100 m images for Faster R-CNN. This improvement applies to the MS and RGB models, while the PAN metrics slightly decrease. In the case of DT1, the F1 score experiences a slight boost for healthy stem detection and witnesses an increase of nearly 10% for sick stem F1 score. The MS models show significant improvement in F1 score for detecting healthy stems, where recall and precision values range from 0.5 to 0.8. PAN achieves an F1 score between 0.78 and 0.88 for BXW and healthy stems, respectively.When assessing undetected instances for the Faster R-CNN models in the 60 m images, as shown in Table 8, the RGB and PAN models exhibit similar MGTE values for 100 and 60 m data. In the case of the MS models, there is an improvement in MGTE, particularly noticeable for DT5 and DT7, where the non-detection rate decreased by around 12% each. Similarly, DT2, DT3, and DT4 demonstrate lower MGTE, indicating that these models successfully detect more MS images.Contrary to the improvement from Faster-RCNN, Yolo-V8 models perform poorly with all the 60 m images. As seen in Table 9, the lowest MGTE is DT1, which has increased from 7.8 to 52.2%; the other MGTE values for the rest of the models are between 89 and 99%, showing that the model is not detecting most images. The rest of the metrics present high values, especially the precision, recall, and f1 score for the sick stems, which are all perfect. On the other hand, the Healthy stem F1 score ranges from 0.5 to 1, depending on the model. However, due to the high number of missed detections for models DT2 to DT7, the detection metrics are irrelevant since these models cannot detect the vast majority of the ground truth images.Banana cultivation, particularly in Africa, confronts significant challenges due to pests and diseases, notably the destructive Xanthomonas Wilt of bananas (BXW). Timely and accurate disease detection is crucial for minimizing crop losses. Traditional methods relying on visual evaluations and manual indicators lack consistency and rigor. This study captures images of banana stems affected by BXW using UAV-mounted RGB and MS cameras within mixed-complex production landscapes.As a result, models based on Faster R-CNN and YOLO-V8 were trained to distinguish between healthy and infected stems using the collected UAV images. Testing these models with real-world unseen data yielded promising results. Notably, for detecting healthy stem at 60 m height, specific multispectral VI combinations, such as DT3 (NDRE, NDVI, NPCI), DT4 (GRVI, NDVI, GNDVI), and DT5 (NPCI, BNDVI, GRVI), showed better performance. These combinations focus on chlorophyll content and its variations, important indicators of stem health [58][59][60]. However, the MS models exhibited limited effectiveness in detecting BXW-infected stems, attributed to inadequate spatial resolution. Conversely, RGB and PAN models better identified healthy and BXW-infected stems. The RGB model detected annotated stems at a rate of 86.5%, while PAN achieved 84.3%. The challenges of incomplete field labeling (Fig. 13) and stem density variations in mixed complex landscapes (Fig. 14) impacted model training and detection accuracy.Various DL models have encountered challenges with partially labeled images, especially when dealing with images that contain multiple objects, making annotation a difficult and time-consuming task. This challenge is particularly prominent in microscopical and pathological datasets [61,62]. Nonetheless, model calibration techniques like positiveunlabeled learning [62] and probability-based image similarity methods [63], have shown promising results in improving DL-model performance. Additionally, adopting strategies like complete labeling and considering the characteristics of complex landscapes can further enhance model performance in such scenarios.The performance of Faster R-CNN models in this project, utilizing PAN and RGB, has demonstrated accurate detection of both healthy and diseased stems (Fig. 15). This observation aligns with previous studies that have highlighted the effectiveness of Faster R-CNN in accurately detecting diseases across various crops. For example, in a study by Zhang et al. [64], a similar approach addressed the challenge of limited datasets for soybean leaf-disease detection by creating synthetic-image datasets, achieving an average mean accuracy of 83.34% through a fusion of multiple Faster R-CNN  functions. In another study by Parvathi and Selvi [65], proposed an improved Faster R-CNN algorithm with the ResNet-50 network for detecting maturity stages in coconuts, outperforming other detection methods. The diagnosis of rice leaf diseases has also been accomplished using the Faster R-CNN framework, showcasing high accuracy (ranging from 98 to 99%) in identifying common rice leaf diseases and healthy leaves [66]. Furthermore, Ghoury utilized transfer learning with two pre-trained DL models, namely Single Shot MultiBox Detector (SSD) with MobileNet v1 and Faster R-CNN with Inception v2, to differentiate between healthy and diseased grapes and grape leaves [67]. The Faster R-CNN Inception  Faster R-CNN, adopts a distinct two-step approach as a two-stage detection algorithm, compared to the one-stage detectors. Regions of interest (ROIs) are first identified in the two-stage framework using selective search algorithms. These regions are then processed by a DL model to generate bounding box predictions for objects. In contrast, onestage detectors predict bounding boxes directly in a single pass of the DL model. Recent studies in remote sensing have primarily focused on using one-stage detectors, such as YOLO, RetinaNet, and CenterNet [19]. Nonetheless, there are still instances where two-stage detectors, such as Faster R-CNN, still have their applications [43,68]. The choice between detectors depends on the specific needs of the task and the desired balance between accuracy and efficiency. It is crucial to recognize that both two-stage and one-stage detectors possess unique strengths and limitations.The results obtained in this research exhibit both scenarios in which Faster R-CNN and Yolo-V8 perform well. Yolo-V8 tends to detect healthy and sick stems better than Faster R-CNN in scenarios with high spatial resolution, and the images are very similar to those used for training (100 m height). On the other hand, Faster R-CNN tends to perform better with MS images and is more robust when facing RGB and PAN images at different heights. This differential performance between the two models can be attributed to the inherent design and processing characteristics of one-stage and twostage detectors.Although one-stage detectors like Yolo-V8 are known for their efficient design, faster speeds, and reasonably good accuracy [69], they have faced accuracy challenges compared to two-stage detectors like Faster R-CNN. Two-stage detectors, by design, operate on a smaller number of proposals, allowing for a larger head network dedicated to proposal classification and regression. This setup facilitates more comprehensive feature extraction. Moreover, two-stage detectors utilize the RoIAlign operation to ensure high-quality feature extraction for each proposal and maintain location consistency [70]. In contrast, one-stage detectors may encounter feature misalignment issues when different region proposals share the same feature or high feature variations due to their coarse and spatially implicit representation of proposals [70]. Additionally, two-stage detectors perform object location regression twice, once in each stage, leading to refined bounding boxes and improved precision in object localization [70]. As observed in our study, these advantages collectively contribute to the superior accuracy of two-stage detectors across various object detection tasks.The detection of healthy and BXW-infected banana stems in this project benefits from the accuracy provided by a two-stage model such as Faster R-CNN and the performance of a one-stage model under specific conditions. Nevertheless, differentiating BXW from other banana diseases or biotic stresses with similar symptoms remains challenging for model-based identification. Enhancements in MS models can aid in identifying spectral differences between BXW and other conditions. Additionally, MS models can help distinguish BXW from yellowing caused by abiotic stresses like heat, drought, and nutrition disorders. Addressing these challenges requires advancements in data collection, annotation techniques, and spectral analysis. Overcoming these obstacles will improve model performance, enable effective disease management strategies, and boost banana production in mixed-complex African systems. To ensure greater accuracy in specific disease detection, such as BXW, models should be validated using more targeted diagnostic methods [69,70].The performance of the MS models in detecting healthy and infected stems is less effective when using images captured at 100 m altitude for the Faster R-CNN model. This could be attributed to the limited spatial resolution of the images resulting from high-altitude flights and the specific sensor used [71]. A combination of physical adjustments and post-processing techniques can be employed to improve detection performance. Lowering the flight altitude is an effective way to enhance spatial resolution. Operating the flights at lower altitudes allow for closer proximity to the target, resulting in clearer and more detailed images [72]. In this study, flights were conducted at 60 m altitude, and the resulting higher-resolution images showed improved performance metrics for the MS Faster R-CNN models compared to the 100 m images.Furthermore, panchromatic fusion techniques by integrating RGB and MS sensor data can provide an additional boost to spatial resolution. Panchromatic fusion combines high-resolution panchromatic imagery from the RGB sensor with multispectral data from the MS sensor, resulting in improved spatial details and overall image resolution. The incorporation of PAN images in training a new model (DT8) demonstrated good detection performance for both healthy and BXW-infected stems, surpassing the performance of RGB model at 100 m and maintaining good metrics at 60 m for the two-stage model. PAN sharpening techniques contribute to the improved detection of both healthy and diseased stems in image analysis and DL applications, offering more accurate insights for informed decision-making in agriculture.While higher-resolution images offer advantages in BXW detection, there are associated tradeoffs to carefully consider. Lower altitude flights, although improving spatial resolution, may result in longer flight times and increased processing duration due to the larger number of data points collected [72]. Additionally, post-processing techniques like PAN sharpening require higher computational power. Therefore, the optimal orthomosaic resolution should be determined by a balanced consideration of flight and processing costs. Our study underscores that improving spatial resolution through strategies like lower altitude flights and panchromatic fusion techniques significantly enhances the performance of DL models in detecting healthy and infected stems. These advancements directly contribute to more precise identification and classification of various land-cover types, vegetation indices, and specific stem traits, ultimately supporting more effective decision-making in agricultural practices.Developing UAV-based DL models to detect BXW in Central Africa can potentially bring about significant positive changes in BXW management and prevention within the region. Utilizing cost-effective UAV-RGB/MS tools and DL models, this detection system offers effective and practical support for monitoring BXW across diverse landscapes.The impact of this technology manifests in several notable ways. Firstly, the developed DL models exhibit remarkable proficiency in accurately detecting healthy and BXW-infected banana stems. This proficiency facilitates early detection of BXW outbreaks, enabling swift intervention and targeted management strategies to curtail the disease's propagation. This approach minimizes crop losses and plays a crucial role in safeguarding food security in the region.Secondly, using UAV-RGB/MS tools enables the acquisition of high-resolution aerial images, facilitating comprehensive monitoring of banana plantations across extensive areas. This technique provides a holistic understanding of BXW's distribution and severity, facilitating the identification of hotspots and areas that require immediate attention. Moreover, the developed airborne platform can be complemented with in-field scouting, sampling, and PCR testing [68,73], as well as integration with other technological resources like the AI-driven banana app, Tumaini, [20] and GPS mapping of healthy and diseased banana crops (Fig. 16). These additional tools further contribute to establishing robust early warning alert systems across African banana production landscapes. Overall, integrating UAV-based DL models and related technologies holds immense potential for improving BXW management and prevention efforts. This approach can enhance disease control, minimize crop losses, and promote sustainable banana production in Central Africa by enabling early detection, precise monitoring, and complementary tools.Regarding our objectives, our study achieved a professional annotation dataset from BXW at UAV images in Africa, the first time this kind of dataset has been obtained for future training or studies in the region. Secondly, this dataset uses different combinations of vegetation indices, bands, and fusion data (pansharpening) to allow us to understand the importance of spatial and spectral resolution to object detection, focusing on banana diseases. For example, an important characteristic to enhance is the flight height to get data because we obtain a better spatial resolution at a lower flight height. The influence of the deep learning model is not the most important in most cases; an important part involves the analysis of input data, in this case, images with their characteristics. Our study involves the analysis of input data to continue with DL modeling using advanced techniques (Faster R-CNN and Yolo-V8); they were compared with the same dataset, having better results with Yolo-V8 in some cases.In summary, the Faster-RCNN models performed better with the 60 m height images, demonstrating improved precision, recall, and F1 score for both MS and RGB models. Notably, the MS models significantly improve the detection of healthy stems, while the PAN model maintains relatively stable performance. These findings suggest that two-stage models capitalize on the improved resolution provided by the 60 m images, leading to enhanced disease-detection capabilities. However, Yolo-V8 models present top performance for detecting healthy and infected stems for RGB and PAN images at 100 m heights. However, images at lower altitudes confuse the model, drastically affecting the model's detecting capabilities. Additionally, this model presents difficulties detecting stems for all MS images regardless of the height.The technical analysis is one of the significant steps in our project; however, our best contribution is to have a methodological section for an early warning system and an automated disease management system for BXW in DR Congo and other African countries with similar conditions and limitations. It will give us a background to facilitate the implementation of the Tumaini AI-powered mobile app database, enabling proactive measures for disease control and management.In summary, this research has greatly improved the detection of banana diseases, specifically BXW in diverse African systems. A precise model for symptomatic stem detection was developed, and expert-annotated datasets were compiled for future studies. Advanced DL algorithms have increased detection accuracy, equipping farmers with efficient tools for early disease identification and management.Despite the promising outcomes, numerous domains stand to gain from additional in-depth investigation and refinement. Collecting images at lower altitudes or utilizing equipment with resolutions capable of achieving similar resolutions to RGB is crucial to improving the performance of MS-DL models or using pansharpening techniques. Additionally, further research should focus on expanding dataset expansion and comprehensive field annotations to enhance the accuracy of diseased stem identification.By integrating the UAV-RGB pipeline with other digital tools, such as satellite imagery, AI-powered smartphone apps like Tumaini (https:// play. google. com/ store/ apps/ detai ls? id= ciat. cgiar. org. tumai ni& hl=e), along with linked disease mapping databases, advanced early warning systems can continue to be further developed across banana production landscapes.This research sets the stage for future crop-disease detection and management advancements within mixed-complex African systems. By leveraging UAV remote sensing, DL models, and digital tools, agricultural practices can be further enhanced, and food security in Africa and beyond can be strengthened.","tokenCount":"6892"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f569178f76d6a94f299da024d20ad55d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9a9a6148-a401-448c-baf0-441f0a877f21/retrieve","id":"352588399"},"keywords":["parentage assignment","DNA markers","pedigree","breeding efficiency","roots and tubers"],"sieverID":"8f187656-e442-44fd-9c28-cab8171d0479","pagecount":"24","content":"Controlled pollination in root and tuber crops is challenging. Complex ploidy, cross-incompatibility, erratic flowering patterns, outcrossing, etc., limit the efficiency of breeding progress in these crops. Half-sib breeding that involves random pollination among parents is a viable method to harness genetic gain in outcrossing crops that are problematic for performing planned and controlled pollination. The authenticity of resulting progenies from the half-sib breeding is essential to monitor the selection gain in the breeding program. Parentage analysis facilitated by molecular markers is among the available handy tools for crop breeders to maximize genetic gain in a breeding program. It can help to resolve the identity of half-sib progenies and reconstruct the pedigree in the outcrossing crops. This paper reviews the potential benefits of parentage analysis in breeding selected outcrossing root and tuber crops. It assesses how paternity analysis facilitates breeding activities and the ways it improves genetic gain in the root and tuber breeding programs. Conscious use of complementary techniques in the root and tuber breeding programs can increase the selection gain by reducing the long breeding cycle and cost, as well as reliable exploitation of the heritable variation in the desired direction.Root and tuber crops are important crops with increasing food, feed and industrial applications in Sub-Saharan Africa and many other regions of the world [1][2][3]. Root and tuber crops have tremendous potential to contribute to food, nutrition and income security of many families around the globe, but this has not yet been fully exploited. Variety development through breeding is among the action steps to unlock the potential of these crops for food, feed and industrial applications. Breeding root and tuber crops, however, presents special challenges and heavily relies on the traditional techniques of exploiting the existing variation. Irregularity in flowering time and flowering intensity, cross incompatibility, polyploidy and fertility are among the factors that add challenges to genetic improvement through breeding in these crops [4,5].Traditional breeding in root and tuber crops often utilizes open pollination by wind or insects to generate sufficient families with unstructured pedigree and subsequent selection of progeny. This method is not efficient for high quality true seed production, identification of parents that contributed to the progenies developed and estimation of reliable genetic parameters to harness diversity in the desired direction. Many root and tuber breeding programs have generated a significant number of varieties; but these varieties lack reliable and complete pedigree information to monitor the progress [5]. For instance, in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), despite the availability of a fairly large amount of pedigree information on the web database, pedigree data of some genotypes are missing [5]. A similar situation also exists for cassava, yam and sweet potatoes. The lack of structured and complete pedigree information in root and tuber crops hinders development and efficient management of databases of crops. The lack of structured pedigree data also suggests that parental control is less exploited to harness selection gain in these crops.The efficiency of breeders, geneticists, botanists and other specialties in plant science is enhanced through their ability to identify, distinguish and estimate the extent of genetic diversity and relatedness in breeding populations and the extent of parental control to guide the breeding progress. In traditional breeding using phenotypic traits alone, efficiency is diminished due to variations in environment and genotype, inadequate data collection and subjective treatment(s). The advent of molecular marker technology has complemented the traditional breeding technique in adequately identifying genotypes and estimating genetic parameters [6].A record of reliable pedigrees and parental profiles is useful in modern plant breeding. Reliable pedigree information guides breeders in making prudent decisions on existing divergence in progeny, hybrid vigor and effects of inbreeding depression [7,8]. Parental profile information is useful to classify recombinant and parental genotypes for linkage analysis [9]. Such information is widely applicable for various studies including multiple quantitative traits loci (QTL) mapping [10], association mapping [11,12], resistance inheritance [13] and determination of genetic estimates, breeding values and relationships [14][15][16]. Demeke et al. [17] and Isenegger et al. [18] noted that clustering in full-sibs and half-sibs is an indication of a link between estimated relationships and known pedigrees.Information on the application of parentage analysis in major root and tuber crops such as yam, cassava, sweet potato and potatoes has not been well reported. Moreover, unlike potatoes, which have the highest application of the technique, yam is among the crops with the lowest application (Table 1). In yams, parentage analysis has not been done on progenies derived from open pollination and polycross blocks. It was, therefore, imperative to catalogue existing literature on parentage analysis on the root and tuber crops to serve as a basis to improve the breeding strategy of the crops. Pedigree reconstruction is necessary for enhanced breeding and genetic studies. Such information will help with the estimation of reliable heritability and genetic correlation parameters in open pollinated plants to maximize genetic gain and design efficient breeding program. It also ascertains the genetic identity of mislabeled genotypes used in breeding programs. Thus, a good understanding of life history traits and pedigree reconstruction is necessary for the formulation of effective strategies for genetic conservation, management and utilization of genotypes in breeding and genetics programs. In this paper, we review the application and potential of parentage analysis to facilitate breeding activities in selected root and tuber crops.Parentage analysis was historically determined using the traditional morphological analysis technique [19]. This technique is limited and cumbersome, especially when candidate parents exhibit similar phenotypes and progenies are generated by open pollination or polycross [19,20]. Moreover, phenotypic parentage analysis is complicated where species used in crosses possess similar traits within each subgenus. These limitations of the phenotypic parentage analysis led to the advent of improved parentage analysis techniques to augment the traditional one.Parentage analysis in natural populations started with chromosomal polymorphisms [21], followed by allozyme electrophoresis [22] and DNA molecular technology [20]. The DNA fingerprinting technology was originally developed to identify human remains in forensic research [23], but was later utilized for resolution of immigration [24] and paternity conflicts [25]. The technique has also been useful to accurately resolve genetic relationships in plants [20], as well as other organisms. The efficiency of DNA fingerprinting-led parentage analysis was first discovered in birds in the 1980s, which led to a great paradigm shift in behavioral ecology [26]. Statistical techniques were simultaneously developed for parentage analysis using single-locus polymorphisms such as allozymes [27]. This simple statistical analysis was ineffective at determining parentage using multi-loci polymorphisms [28]. The limitations of the earlier parentage analysis techniques led to the discovery and development of microsatellites and other advanced molecular markers, as well as robust statistical packages [29]. These advances have made determination of genetic polymorphisms in populations and parentage analysis easier in the fields of breeding, genetics, evolution, behavioral ecology and molecular ecology [29,30]. Patterns of pollination may influence reproductive capacity of plants, hybridization within and among populations and habitat fragmentation [92]. Pollen dispersal determines the extent of gene flow between cultivated and wild crop species and contaminated seeds. In the past, several indirect techniques were used to trace the physical movement of pollen, including traps [93,94], dyes [95] and the paths of pollinators [92,96,97]. These techniques are limited regarding the actual patterns of fertilization and gene flow. The path of a pollen-forming seed in an open-pollinated environment may be successfully tracked using a direct technique like parentage analysis. Parentage analysis involves DNA profiling of progeny and potential candidate parents, comparing their alleles for identification and confirmation of existing relationships. In this technique, the DNA profiles of progeny and maternal and paternal parents are verified by assigning each allele of tested progeny to its parents. The maternal parent is known, because seeds are harvested from it. If the assigned alleles of progeny align more with a putative male parent than the remaining candidates, it implies a high probability of being the true pollen parent. Where alleles fail to be assigned to one of the putative parents, the relationship between progeny and parents is excluded [30]. The choice of any parentage analysis technique depends on adequate answers that address their corresponding empirical questions. Some of these questions include: (i) Which parentage analysis technique has a higher probability of success regarding the research objective of the study? (ii) Which sampling design is appropriate for a typical parentage analysis experiment? (iii) How are samples collected to ensure desired results from data subjected to an appropriate statistical method? (iv) Which molecular markers provide high levels of polymorphism per locus? The general roadmap on the application of the parentage analysis in natural and artificial population of organisms is elaborately illustrated in Jones et al. [29]. According to these authors, the type of parentage analysis to employ depends on the sampling techniques applied. When putative parents are mated to produce progenies in a breeding population, all parentage analysis techniques are possible. However, the absence of one or more putative parents in the mating population limits the number of applicable parentage analysis options. For instance, parental reconstruction becomes the only applicable technique where several half-or full-sib groups are identifiable and sampled. For small family groups, parental reconstruction, or sibship reconstruction, or assessment for multiple mating within family groups is applicable. Multiple mating (mixed parentage) occurs where more than one putative male parent contributes pollen to fertilize the female stigmatic organ leading to fruit and seed development. Its influence on sample size depends on ploidy complexity, cross compatibility, pollen viability, flowering intensity and synchronization, as well as biotic and abiotic factors. In breeding programs where progenies are not collected in family groups, only the sibship reconstruction technique is applicable. Successful utilization of parental reconstruction or sibship reconstruction technique allows comparison among reconstructed parental genotypes for their mating patterns.Spanoghe et al. [8] successfully applied parentage analysis in European potato cultivars for pedigree validation, as well as potential parental assignment. Accordingly, a root or tuber breeding program can make informed decision with the application of parentage analysis in instances where the pedigree is either in doubt or incomplete for the materials in the breeding program.Parentage analysis is widely applicable in assessing reproductive success, mating patterns, kinship, fitness in natural populations and in developing highly polymorphic molecular markers of multilocus genotypes [98,99]. Parentage analysis is useful in multiple mating breeding systems where individuals of one sex mate with two or more partners of the opposite sex. It enhances investigation of the genetic mating system of organisms by evaluating the actual reproductive success of paternity and construction of pedigrees [99,100]. Further, it is used to confirm monogamy in some species [101] and also those that exhibit extra pair copulation [102]. Parentage analysis resolves difficulties in direct mating systems [103]. It also enhances heritability and genetic correlation estimates in open pollinated plants needed for evaluation of expected genetic gains and designing of breeding programs. The parentage analysis technique is a useful tool in the protection pf Plant Breeders' Rights (PBR). The PBR comprise a globally-accredited system that gives breeders intellectual property rights for unique technology such as a new variety or varieties developed or adapted for commercial or various end uses [104]. The PBR accord breeders with end point royalties (EPR) utilized to support and sustain breeding activities. The use of DNA profiling resolves issues of genetic mixtures, mislabeling, mutations and outcrossing in natural populations that often confound efficient selection in breeding programs. The use of markers that are highly informative, high-throughput and reliably reproducible clearly and robustly determine genetic identity based on morphological attributes, aiding in the protection of PBR [104].Despite its relevance and wide application, the success of parentage analysis depends on the sampling design used, choice of molecular markers, family structure species, pollen and seed dispersal [29,30,92,105]. Additionally, various unfavorable biological attributes of organisms and use of inadequate markers may also limit the potential of parentage analysis.Parentage analysis is often used in systems that allow the collection of candidate parents with the assumption of the presence of a sample of adult genotypes. An ideal parentage study involves large family sets of progeny obtained from the maternal parent and a complete set of potential candidate paternal parents in the breeding population [106]. This permits application of all parentage analysis methods with a high probability of success. However, the ideal situation is very difficult in natural populations. An excessively large number of genotyping tests for assaying many progenies per family may be needed depending on the goals of the study. Nonetheless, parentage inference has good prospects with exclusion and assignment techniques remaining useful options if candidate parents are present. Sampling of specimens is the hardest aspect of parentage analysis; however, it is also the most important criterion required for good analysis. Care must be taken to maintain complete samples from the field. Knowledge of one of the parents of the offspring makes parentage analysis easier and more powerful than when both parents are unknown. Thus, use of adequate sampling design and collection of offspring from a known parent facilitates parentage analysis targeted at answering various questions of interest to the researcher.Generally, molecular markers that identify heritable variations among genotypes are useful in parentage analysis. The identification of appropriate markers determines their successful application in parentage analysis [105]. A reasonable number of highly polymorphic molecular markers or a large number of the low to moderate polymorphic types is needed for successful parentage analysis [29].Despite the various markers utilized in parentage studies, few useful ones have been earmarked such as microsatellites, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). Of these, microsatellites are often utilized in parentage analysis due to their repeatability, high polymorphism, co-dominance and PCR-based attributes [105]. The hyper-variability and codominant inheritance attributes of microsatellite alleles aid molecular identification of organisms utilized in mating system experiments including parentage analysis [92]. Microsatellites are DNA repeats with 2-6 base pair sequences recurring at least 12 times. They are also referred to as short tandem repeats (STRs) [107] or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) [108]. Most microsatellites utilized in parentage analysis are di-, tri-or tetra-nucleotide repeats, with repeated motifs of two, three or four base pairs, respectively. Of the three, tetra-nucleotide microsatellites are preferred since different alleles are easily separated on a gel, compared to di-nucleotides, which exhibit less 'stuttering' with slightly larger or smaller bands than the true allele on the gel [29,109]. Stuttering is a process whereby stutter bands with different sizes from normal PCR products are produced in multiples of the short repeat unit (1-2 bp) [110,111]. Stuttering is caused by strand slippage, replication slippage and the structure of short tandem repeats (STRs) during polymerase chain reactions producing a highly polymorphic stutter product with the wrong number of repeats. The presence of stutter bands in SSRs makes scoring cumbersome, producing quasi-scoring in ladders lacking prominent bands [111]. Moreover, although multiplexing permits moderate-level throughput in microsatellites, these markers are poorly transferable across species, necessitating their investigation and optimization prior to use for parentage analysis in a new species [112].A typical paternity analysis using microsatellites involves, firstly, sampling and genotyping parents to obtain microsatellite loci. Progeny obtained from known maternal parents are genotyped at these loci. A diploid progeny exhibits two alleles; of which, one allele is contributed by the seed parent and the other by the pollen parent. The maternal allele at each locus of the genotyped progeny is identifiable. The progenies are tested against a pool of pollen parents to determine their paternity. The exclusion probability of 97-99% determines paternity with a high degree of confidence. The exclusion probability is the probability of excluding a misrelated pollen parent as the father of a progeny, where knowledge of maternity exists. Allelic mismatch of pollen parents implies that pollens that formed the progeny were obtained outside the studied area. Genotyping of progeny families provides a good understanding of the distribution of pollination distances, directions and the emergence of successful reproductive paternity. In root and tuber crops, microsatellites have been utilized to determine the progeny-paternity relationship (Table 1). Microsatellites have been used for parentage analysis in yams [32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39], potatoes [44][45][46][48][49][50]52,53,55], cassava [63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73] and sweet potato [76][77][78][79][80][81][82]84,85].Besides microsatellites, other useful markers for parentage analysis are SNPs, AFLPs [113,114] and diversity array technology (DArT) markers [6]. The AFLPs and SNPs have many loci, with each locus exhibiting two alleles per locus and low polymorphism. The alleles of SNPs are codominant, whilst those of AFLPs are dominant, implying that AFLPs disallow the separation of the heterozygote from one of the homozygous groups. The application of AFLP markers in parentage analysis has only been reported in plants [6]. One of the merits of AFLP markers is the flexible use of its commercial kit for parentage analysis of many organisms with little need to develop new ones [29]. This contrasts SNP markers that are dependent on known DNA sequences with polymorphic nucleotide positions. The accessibility of SNP markers and the availability of hundreds of loci of model organisms are more easily obtainable compared to other marker systems. Moreover, SNPs are more easily assayed per locus compared to microsatellites, leading to the futuristic prediction of their preferential use for parentage analysis [115]. However, the low per-locus polymorphism of SNPs limits some data analysis techniques such as Sanger's method [116] and in silico SNP discovery using mining of SNPs within expressed sequence tag (EST) databases followed by PCR-based validation [117]. Single nucleotide polymorphism discovery is more difficult in crops with complex genomes than those with simple genomes due to their highly repetitive nature [118]. Despite the gene discovery technique, the low per-locus polymorphism in conserved genic regions, low-copy noncoding regions and intergenic spaces are independent of the detection of gene-based SNPs [119].As molecular paternity research progressed, it became imperative to develop markers with wider genome coverage and higher level throughput for the increased resolution and speed required for various applications. Jaccoud et al. [120] suggested DArT as a promising alternative that satisfies the throughput, genome coverage and transferability criteria. DArT is a high-throughput complexity reduction technique involved in the hybridization of fluorescent DNA probes to targeted DNAs spotted on a microarray [121]. The DArT assays produce whole genome fingerprints used for scoring the presence or absence of DNA fragments in genomic sequences generated from genomic DNA samples through complexity reduction. The DArT genome profiles enable fast mapping of QTLs, accelerate the introgression of a selected genomic region into an elite genetic background and guide the assembly of many different genomic regions into improved varieties. The number of markers detectable by DArT depends mainly on the level of DNA sequence variability in analyzed samples and the complexity reduction technique used [122]. The merits of DArT include a high multiplexing level, simultaneous genotyping of several thousand loci per assay and its simultaneous screening of thousands of polymorphic loci lacking prior genome sequence information; additionally, DArT provides hundreds to tens of thousands of highly reliable markers [120], as well as good genome coverage information [123]. Moreover, sequences of DArT markers are easily accessible compared to AFLPs, making them a preferred technique for non-model species [124]. However, DArT is limited in some applications due to high technicality in preparing genomic representation for the target species, cloning, data management and analysis. Other demerits include its requirement of robust software (DArTsoft and DArTdb) for analysis and the dominance of DArT markers (present or absent) or differential intensity [125].Prediction and selection of improved plants on a genome-wide scale requires large populations with dense molecular markers across the genome [126]. This is achieved through a technique known as genotype-by-sequencing (GBS). GBS is an enzyme-based complexity reduction technique that utilizes restriction endonucleases targeted at a small portion of the genome and DNA barcoded adapters for the production of multiplex libraries of samples used in next-generation sequencing (NGS). The GBS technique is noted for its robustness across many plant species and capability to produce 10,000s-100,000s of molecular markers [126,127]. It is flexible regarding species, populations and research objectives, indicating its suitability for plant genetics studies. Another merit of this technique is that both marker discovery and genotyping are completed at the same time. Moreover, GBS aids the exploration of new germplasm or species without prior discovery and characterization of polymorphisms. Reanalysis of raw sequences from GBS uncovers new polymorphisms, annotated genes, etc. [126].Based on the above facts, it is clear that DArT and microsatellites are useful and preferred for parentage studies. This partly corroborates earlier prediction of the continued usefulness and preference of microsatellites for parentage analysis [29,128]. The AFLPs may be less popular and less utilized for parentage determination, except for species lacking justification to develop microsatellites. With increasing availability of genomic data, the potential use of SNPs for exclusion or parentage assignment in model systems is increasing, though they might not be applicable in some molecular work. It is also probable that the use of tightly-linked loci in experiments with the linkage phase will increase the applicability of SNPs in parentage analysis [129]. The linked SNPs are dubbed super-loci, with the potential of many alleles under a sufficiently low rate of recombination that permits stable inheritance of haplotypes [29]. Similarly, it is also probable to increase the use of microsatellites in species with low polymorphism [29]. Besides the super-locus scenario, one should avoid loci that are in linkage disequilibrium to adhere to the independence among the loci statistical assumption of parentage analysis [30].Various analysis methods are available for the implementation of the parentage analysis in the breeding of crops whenever applicable for the program. However, which method is more appropriate to maximize the genetic gain in a breeding program is most important when it comes to the crop improvement. Jones et al. [9] provided the pros and cons of each of the techniques for parentage analysis. We briefly summarize the methods here with respect to their possible application in facilitating root and tuber crop breeding.This technique involves comparison of the alleles of progenies with their putative parents followed by elimination of parents lacking matching alleles at all loci with tested progenies. The exclusion technique leverages the Mendelian inheritance principle that is typical in sexual diploid plants, as the individual progeny has at least one allele per locus the same as each of its parents. This technique is more feasible to dissect the parentage issues in a population with fewer progenies and candidate parents. It requires highly polymorphic genetic markers. Larger population size, genotyping error, mutation in progenies and complex ploidy are among the factors affecting its successful implementation.Categorical allocation involves assigning of progenies to putative non-excluded parent with the highest likelihood or posterior probability of consideration as the true parent. This technique is applicable for assignment of non-excluded putative parents that lack assignment by the complete parental exclusion technique. The technique is also useful in resolving scoring errors or mutations, as well as in estimating confidence.Categorical allocation measures the logarithm of likelihood ratio (LOD score). It is the quotient of the likelihood of the putative parent(s) of a given progeny and the likelihood of unrelated individuals. The progenies are unassigned when the LOD score is negative or zero.This technique involves assigning a fraction or proportion of progenies to non-excluded putative parents based on their likelihoods of parentage. The fraction of progenies assigned to a putative parent is proportional to the likelihood of parenting them compared with non-excluded putative parents. This works on the assumption that the genotypes of all parents in the population, as well as one parent of the specified progeny are known.The fractional allocation is estimated as the proportion of progeny (O = k) assigned to putative male j (MP = j) conditional on female i (FP = i). This is summarized in the equation below.where X ik is the proportion of non-excluded female parents (i) and progenies (k); P indicates proportion; MP and FP represent male parent and female parent, respectively.The full probability technique involves simultaneous estimation of patterns of parentage and other desired population level variables using models. The technique offers better data mining through incorporation of available uncertainties in determining desired variables. The full probability models are suggested for the estimation of population-level variables of interest, particularly where parentage analysis methods show <95-100% confidence in assigning progeny to parents [29].In this technique, the genotype of each progeny in full-or half-sib families is used for parental reconstruction. The parental reconstruction is applicable where at least one parent is shared among the full-or half-sib progeny arrays. Genotypes of unknown parents are determined using parental reconstruction, by matching alleles of progeny to a set of candidate parents and verifying those using assignment or exclusion techniques [130]. However, the parental reconstruction technique is not applicable in situations lacking large sets of related progeny. This technique often works on the assumption of a minimum number of parents, maximum likelihood or Bayesian approaches.This analysis technique involves the collection of large groups of full-or half-sib progenies that lack putative parents. The algorithms of this technique group progenies into unique clusters of full-sibs, half-sibs and unrelated progenies using patterns of relatedness or maximum likelihood techniques. Successful reconstruction of progenies is contingent upon adequate identification of clusters of half-sib or full-sib progenies.All techniques of parentage analysis are possible where candidates are identifiable. In the absence of candidate parents, the options are fairly limited. For instance, for a breeding program in root and tuber crops employing a half-sib breeding method with an identifiable and comparatively large family size, the parental reconstruction technique is useful to establish the relationship. Several authors have also reported various techniques used to investigate proof of multiple mating in small family sets [131][132][133][134]. Sibship reconstruction is the only appropriate technique applicable where offspring are not collected per family.The occurrence of genotyping errors, mutations and null alleles negatively affects parentage analysis even where appropriate sampling design and molecular markers are used. Genotyping errors and mutations are particularly the most critical problems that account for inconsistent results in parentage analysis. Genotyping errors arise from genotypic misreads, amplification failure or spurious production of false results. Mutations are allelic alterations in the progeny compared to those inherited from their parents. The existence of both genotyping errors and mutations produces incompatibilities between true candidate parents and their progeny. This necessitates use of good quality control measures that facilitate successful parentage analysis [135,136]. For instance, in the exclusion or parental reconstruction technique, parents are excluded or an additional parent is invoked provided the result is verifiable by one or more additional loci. This technique is probably excessively conservative, consequently producing several incorrect inclusions. It requires care for the assurance of sufficiently adequate power. Unlike the conservative technique, full probability models and sibship reconstruction methods of the categorical or fractional assignment build a model of error into likelihood estimates or posterior probabilities [137,138].Lack of allelic amplification, or \"null alleles,\" is a problem in parentage analyses [139]. Null alleles account for mismatches between parents and progenies by presenting truly heterozygous genotypes for the null allele as homozygous. These alleles are mostly improperly handled by parentage analysis programs. The detection of null alleles is often evident as a deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at the null-bearing locus or as a non-Mendelian pattern of segregation in known sets of families [29,140]. Since null allelic loci are often detectable, they are apparently not a major threat to parentage analysis. A well-articulated study on the validity of null alleles is reported by Jones and Ardren [30].This notwithstanding, Wang has developed a model to resolve issues of allelic dropouts, stochastic errors, genotyping error, mutations and null alleles [137]. Wang's model works on a similar principle as the Kalinowski et al. model by fitting systematic allelic dropouts (null alleles) and microsatellite mutations and scoring errors (stochastic error category) [141,142]. The technique allows variation among loci for the rate of error. Wang's model has been utilized for sibship reconstruction [137] and full probability parentage analysis [143]. The model is, however, still under examination to determine incremental accuracy in handling errors and null alleles for parentage analysis.The family structure sometimes constitutes candidate parents, their relatives or desired progeny. Besides parent-offspring relationships, most inference methods work on the assumption that candidate parents and progeny are unrelated, presenting difficulty for breeding populations with an existing family structure [144,145]. Several authors have noted the effects of the family structure of candidate parents in parentage analysis [29,146,147]. Parentage analysis often only produces the desired impact where very close relatives of progeny are added to candidate parents. In reality, non-exclusion of full progeny siblings exhibits higher likelihoods of parentage than the true parents [148]. The addition of many close progeny relatives to candidate parents necessitates the use of complete exclusion or parental reconstruction methods, due to their comparative insensitivity to family structure and reliable diagnosis of true patterns of parentage [30].Paternity assignment is also influenced by the ploidy level of the studied crop species. Paternity assignment or exclusion is more direct and simpler in diploids than polyploids since the developed progeny inherits one paternal allele from the putative male plant [92]. Genotypic scoring is also simpler in diploids than polyploids since each individual candidate exhibits one allele (homozygote type) or two alleles (heterozygote type) at each locus. Generally, about 30-50% of plant species are polyploids [143,149]. This presents an acute paternity assignment limitation especially in highly polyploidized genomes with complicated inheritance. However, the genomes of some polyploids are highly diploidized due to ancient polyploidy events, resulting in the formation of bivalent chromosomes at meiosis. This is typical of octoploid strawberry [150], as well as some genotypes of polyploid yams, cassava, potato, sweet potato, etc. [4]. In polyploids with polyploidized genomes, parentage assignment is complicated due to cumbersome scoring of alleles and inference of their polysomic nature of inheritance [151,152]. The parentage assignment complications in polyploids are nowadays resolved by the transformation of polyploid codominant genotypes into pseudodiploid-dominant genotypes [153].Pollen-and seed-mediated gene flows are the two major determinants of genetic structure and diversity in plants [154]. Pollen-mediated gene flow contributes to plant genetic structure and diversity through immigration, hybridization and introgression, whereas seed-mediated gene flow functions in the colonization of new habitats. Determination of the extent of pollen-and seed-mediated gene flow is imperative for the prediction of its effects on the genetic structure of progenies generated in mating designs [155]. Gene flow by pollen in open pollination and polycross mating schemes has been studied in various plant species using molecular markers and paternity analysis [4,81,156]. These studies describe the pathway of effective gene flow between the pollen donor and the pollen recipient plants, leading to botanic seed development. In root and tuber crops, however, a dearth of well-articulated information on the extent of pollen-mediated gene flow exists especially for the polycross or open pollination mating design. This information is vital since it represents the realized gene flows by pollen and seed [157]. Studies on open-pollinated or polycross-derived seeds permit determination of the rate of pollen immigration, the pattern and distance of pollen dispersal, paternal and maternal fertility levels and the relationship with the plant phenotype and genotype.Dispersal of seeds results in seed or seedling mixtures where both parents are unknown. Such a situation makes parentage analysis difficult. Seeds or seedlings may be obtained under different scenarios such as from one parent known as a pollen or seed parent; two parents, known as pollen and seed parents; or no parents, known as immigrant seeds [92]. Most plant species are cosexual with either separate, monoecious male and female flowers or hermaphrodite flowers (i.e., possessing both male and female organs). Assignment of parentage of cosexual plants to either the seed-or pollen-parent using nuclear microsatellites is impossible. Dioecious plants lack such a problem since one of the parents is known [158][159][160].Yam is a typical tuber crop that is mostly dioecious, with the staminate (androecious) and pistillate (gynoecious) organs borne on separate plants [161]. A few monoecious and trimonoecious types also exist [162]. Yams have varying flower, fruit and seed attributes depending on species. Detailed distinctions of these attributes have been reported by various authors [4,[162][163][164]. The sticky nature of pollen promotes its pollination by insects [4]. Yam fruits are dry dehiscent trilocular capsules, each containing 2-6 seeds per capsule and measuring about 1-3 cm. Seeds of most species are winged to facilitate wind dispersal [4]. Seeds of some species such as Dioscorea rotundata are small, flat, light, lenticular and consist of a small embryo surrounded by a relatively large endosperm. At dehiscence, seeds are dispersed from dry locules. The shape and wing patterns of seeds depend on the species [163]. For instance, in D. rotundata, the botanic seed is completely encircled by the wing, whereas in D. bulbifera or other species, the wing is found on one or both sides of the seeds, respectively [163].Cassava is a protogynous monoecious root crop with male and female flowers borne on the same plant. Cassava pollen is small and sticky, which favors pollination by insects such as wasps (mainly Polistes spp.) and honeybees (Apis mellifera). A comprehensive review of the reproductive biology of cassava has been reported [165].Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) is an annual, autogamous and outcrossing root crop with both male and female organs borne in the same flower [85]. The pollen grains are spherical and mainly dispersed by bees for pollination. A comprehensive description of the floral biology of the crop is found at [166].Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a monoecious tuber crop with both male and female organs borne in the same flower. Natural pollen-mediated gene flow in potatoes is mainly by insects including bumblebees (Bombus impatiens Cresson and B. terrestris L.) [167] and pollen beetle species Meligethes aeneus Fabricius [168] with small pollen flow by wind [169]. Seed-mediated gene flow is noted to be facilitated by birds [170] and small mammals [171]. A comprehensive description of the floral biology of the crop is reported by Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) [170]. The flowers, fruits and seeds of yam and cassava are shown in Figures 1 and 2  bumblebees (Bombus impatiens Cresson and B. terrestris L.) [167] and pollen beetle species Meligethes aeneus Fabricius [168] with small pollen flow by wind [169]. Seed-mediated gene flow is noted to be facilitated by birds [170] and small mammals [171]. A comprehensive description of the floral biology of the crop is reported by Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) [170]. The flowers, fruits and seeds of yam and cassava are shown in Figures 1 and 2 (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)/Prince E. Norman).   Mitochondria or chloroplast organelle DNA has been used to distinguish the maternity and paternity of organism with uniparental inheritance [172,173]. However, both mtDNA and cpDNA lack sufficient variability to identify individuals. An improved technique utilized for identification of seed parents is seed tissue obtained by maternal inheritance such as endocarp [174,175], pericarp [176] and seed wing [177] tissue or megagametophyte tissue of conifers [178]. However, this method is limited to intact seeds, since seedlings generally lack maternal tissues.Parentage analysis may exhibit any of the three outcomes including identification of (i) none of the parents, (ii) one of the parents or (iii) both male and female parents of the progenies [179]. The first scenario is typical of seed immigration, whereas the second represents pollen immigration. However, assuming that the closest parent in the second and third scenarios is the maternal parent, a conservative distance of seed dispersal occurs [179].Based on the above information, it can be deduced that a good understanding of the dynamics of natural populations is obtained using seedling plants, since they give additional information such as the rate of seed immigration, the distance of seed dispersal and the pattern of seed dispersal. The determination of gene flow in seedlings also permits comparisons between the dispersal distances and patterns of pollen and seeds. The effects of biotic and abiotic factors on pollen and seed dispersal, as well as genetic factors on pollen and seed development may also limit the extent of variability expected in parentage analysis.Population improvement is an important breeding strategy to harness genetic gain in root and tuber crops [4]. As breeding populations increase, issues of genealogy overlaps arise. Sometimes, when breeders release varieties, farmers give the varieties local names. Tracking of these varieties with time becomes difficult using phenotypic markers alone. Breeders often use routine molecular parentage analysis to resolve these issues and maintain useful allelic and gene diversity in their breeding populations. Maintenance of high genetic variability from generation to generation facilitates long-term sustainability of root and tuber breeding programs. Moreover, parentage analysis ascertains existing changes in allelic frequency of genotypes and how much is maintained in progenies.Tracking pedigrees is crucial in root and tuber breeding programs. It provides the building blocks upon which heterotic groups are formed. Pedigrees are tracked by the name of the original development cross from which selection is made. Parentage analysis enhances root and tuber breeding activities through establishment of these heterotic patterns, which contribute to improving Mitochondria or chloroplast organelle DNA has been used to distinguish the maternity and paternity of organism with uniparental inheritance [172,173]. However, both mtDNA and cpDNA lack sufficient variability to identify individuals. An improved technique utilized for identification of seed parents is seed tissue obtained by maternal inheritance such as endocarp [174,175], pericarp [176] and seed wing [177] tissue or megagametophyte tissue of conifers [178]. However, this method is limited to intact seeds, since seedlings generally lack maternal tissues.Parentage analysis may exhibit any of the three outcomes including identification of (i) none of the parents, (ii) one of the parents or (iii) both male and female parents of the progenies [179]. The first scenario is typical of seed immigration, whereas the second represents pollen immigration. However, assuming that the closest parent in the second and third scenarios is the maternal parent, a conservative distance of seed dispersal occurs [179].Based on the above information, it can be deduced that a good understanding of the dynamics of natural populations is obtained using seedling plants, since they give additional information such as the rate of seed immigration, the distance of seed dispersal and the pattern of seed dispersal. The determination of gene flow in seedlings also permits comparisons between the dispersal distances and patterns of pollen and seeds. The effects of biotic and abiotic factors on pollen and seed dispersal, as well as genetic factors on pollen and seed development may also limit the extent of variability expected in parentage analysis.Population improvement is an important breeding strategy to harness genetic gain in root and tuber crops [4]. As breeding populations increase, issues of genealogy overlaps arise. Sometimes, when breeders release varieties, farmers give the varieties local names. Tracking of these varieties with time becomes difficult using phenotypic markers alone. Breeders often use routine molecular parentage analysis to resolve these issues and maintain useful allelic and gene diversity in their breeding populations. Maintenance of high genetic variability from generation to generation facilitates long-term sustainability of root and tuber breeding programs. Moreover, parentage analysis ascertains existing changes in allelic frequency of genotypes and how much is maintained in progenies.Tracking pedigrees is crucial in root and tuber breeding programs. It provides the building blocks upon which heterotic groups are formed. Pedigrees are tracked by the name of the original development cross from which selection is made. Parentage analysis enhances root and tuber breeding activities through establishment of these heterotic patterns, which contribute to improving the heterosis in the new hybrids developed. This improvement leads to a gain in the selection of parents with desired complementary alleles for improvement of target traits.The knowledge of the ploidy level of the parent, fertility-regulating mechanism of putative parents, genes controlling traits of interest, etc., also guides the breeder in planning cross combinations and the choice of breeding strategy to maximize genetic gain. Molecular parentage analysis could help breeders to make informed decisions in a more efficient, accurate, creative and rapid manner [85][86][87].Parentage analysis has many potential applications in root and tuber breeding programs. Some of the applications include: (i) Increased parental control in the breeding program: Adequate identification of parents contributing alleles to the next generation improves the breeding efficiency. (ii) Reduced cost and time of maintaining parents in the breeding program: Adequate genetic profiling of parents and progenies guide the selection of genotypes with desired traits at an early stage of breeding, thereby saving time, cost and labor. (iii) Reliable estimation of paternal breeding values in the half-sib family: Adequate molecular analysis complements conventional breeding values in the half-sib family, especially where the expression of alleles is masked by epistatic, dominance and other genetic and environmental factors. (iv) Parentage analysis minimizes pollination and labeling errors in breeding program; the effects of pollination and mislabeling errors are so costly in a breeding program, reducing the validity of progeny developed. Parentage analysis reduces these effects by adequately tracing the identities of progenies to their parents. (v) Assess pollen donor rate and pollen movement in breeding blocks: Pollen movement and amount of pollen load on the female stigmatic surface are influenced by several factors, including spatial arrangement and distance between male and female plants, genetic, biotic and abiotic factors. Successful parentage analysis helps to ascertain pollen donor rate and dispersal. (vi) Estimate the level of inbreeding in the breeding programs: In monoecious and perfect flower genotypes of roots and tubers, parentage analysis helps to determine the extent of inbreeding in the progeny developed. (vii) Assess incompatibility in breeding programs: Good knowledge of ploidy status and other fertility-regulating mechanisms in parents guides parental selection. Thus, parentage analysis helps to uncover any genetic aberrations limiting breeding progress. (viii) Estimate of the genetic effects including general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) in the breeding program: In half-sib breeding, genetic estimates are done by assumption. Such assumptions are less accurate and therefore misleading. However, parentage analysis contributes to generating reliable pedigree and progeny genetic data, which invariably aid reliable estimation of genetic effects. (ix) Assess the rate of pollen contamination in breeding blocks: Pollen contamination may occur in both controlled and artificial mating schemes through insects, wind, human and other agents of pollination. Routine parentage analysis helps to assess whether pollen used is pure and the progeny developed is true to type. (x) Identify parents that produce superior progenies for selection and high quality seed production.Complete parentage assignment has higher prospects where maternity is known, progeny samples are collected in family groups and complete samples of putative male parents are represented. The probability of adequate parentage assignment decreases with decreasing completeness of the dataset. The use of higher resolving power molecular markers counterbalances reconstruction of less ideal samples. The number of loci and the locus heterozygosity determine the maximum number of samples needed for parentage assignment. A priori knowledge of kinship relations is, therefore, needed to guide the type of parentage assignment technique to implement in root and tuber population development.Root and tuber improvement for desired traits is crucial to societies in Africa and elsewhere making their livelihoods directly or indirectly from these crops. The future prospects of genetic improvement of long-duration root and tuber crops should target a good understanding of SWOT analysis of progeny and parent analyses using genomic markers, the development of a robust schematic pathway of parentage analysis in root and tuber crops as typified in aquatic animals [180], the reduction of the long breeding cycle for desired consumer and market traits and improved collaboration with relevant stakeholders in the crops' product value chains. Another prospect of enhancing parentage analysis relates to improvement in translational genetics, routine optimization of DNA sequencing protocols of recalcitrant root and tuber species, effective and efficient quality control and development of more user-friendly, but highly efficient parentage analysis software packages. Despite these prospects, more efforts are needed in root and tuber crops regarding the contribution of parentage analysis to improve estimates of genetic parameters, the extent of pollen and seed gene flows, the determination of the paternity of progenies harvested from known parents in random open pollination or polycross blocks especially in neglected root and tuber crops and the determination of the gap between the actual population and the expected population sizes.Efficient reconstruction of genealogies of root and tuber crops also requires more efforts. Genealogy reconstruction may be limited by parent-offspring marker genotype data incompatibility using the paternity exclusion technique. Buteler [83] noted two limitations of paternity assignment in root and tuber crops using Mendelian segregation probabilities: ambiguous progeny genotypic profiles and statistical bias in favor of homozygotes. The ambiguity favors homozygous individuals with higher likelihood for the particular allele. However, the bias can be reduced by increasing the number of genetic markers.Molecular parentage analysis has been extensively utilized for the discovery of pedigree errors in breeding populations developed using natural and artificial mating schemes [30,59,181,182]. In potatoes, many researchers have noted conflicting level of accuracies in pedigree assignment. For instance, Douches et al. [183] discovered mismatches in parental assignment in their isozyme-based marker pedigree investigation. Similarly, using 17 SSR markers, [8] reported some discrepancies in the pedigree records of 577 potato varieties. The quest to resolve the discrepancies in pedigree data and understand the level of accuracy led to the development and utilization of other marker types. The development of an Infinium SNP array from sequence data of six potato varieties including Bintje, Kennebec, Premier Russet, Shepody, Snowden and Atlantic [184,185] has facilitated the genotyping of several elite North American potato germplasm. However, pedigree errors or mismatches were also observed in the SNP-based markers [59].Parent-progeny trios' relationships, as well as the paternity of some varieties generated with bulk pollen were determined in a genome-wide SNP analysis in potato [59]. A trio consists of two parents and one progeny assessed at a time during parentage analysis. A total of 719 tetraploid potatoes were genotyped with the Infinium SNP array to produce 5063 high-quality markers. The curated information was used to verify pedigree records and establish parent-progeny relationships. Findings revealed pedigree errors in some trios. Of the 198 parent-progeny trios studied, 182 trios had accurate pedigree match (mean 0.02%, range 0-0.73%), while 16 trios exhibited pedigree error or mismatch (mean 16.4%, range 7-30%). Besides the 719 curated potato dataset, 24 genotypes were utilized to establish an alternative parentage hypothesis. Of the 24 genotypes, 17 pedigree modifications were suggested to have occurred. Of the 17 pedigree modifications, four were not due to pedigree error, but an unknown male, since the female parent was either open-pollinated by All Red or hybridized with bulked pollen of genotypes Allegany, AmaRosa and Purple Pelisse.The exclusion analytical technique has been used to exclude candidates with a higher fraction of segregation mismatches at homozygous loci [30]. The same technique has been utilized in root and tuber crops. In potato, for instance, [8] identified segregation mismatches in the pedigree information using 17 SSR markers and the analytical exclusion technique. However, they noted that the markers used were unreliable. The segregation mismatch identified using at least 5000 SNP markers was very informative with unambiguous determination of the pedigree and level of accuracy [59]. Furthermore, the authors remarked that as the inbreeding coefficient increases, the use of homozygous loci alone to check segregation mismatch becomes less effective [59]. In yams, little is known with regards to segregation mismatches in the pedigree information of existing germplasm. Currently, studies on parentage analysis in controlled (North Carolina 1) and polycross-derived progeny using DArT seq are being conducted at IITA. The findings of this study will be published as soon as the analysis and reports are completed.Based on the above information, it is clear that parentage analysis is possible in roots and tuber crops. However, the existence of genetic bottlenecks with regards variable ploidy may contribute to segregation mismatches in pedigree records of genotypes of these crops.The flowchart in Figure 3 shows the experimental procedure of parentage analysis for a typical root or tuber crop. Accordingly, from many germplasm accessions in a root or tuber breeding program, molecular markers can be used to confirm phenotypic variations observed in-field. The database of the core collections of fingerprinted genotypes is useful in breeding. At this preliminary assessment stage, informative markers that contribute to most of the variability are identified and the genetic relationships or similarities of clones determined using various coefficients such as Jaccard, Dice, etc., and their rankings are based on their genetic distances. Putative parental candidates with desired complementary traits used in population development are subjected to parentage analysis to determine the paternity or maternity, or both, for the tested progenies. The choice of the type of parentage analysis depends on the sampling technique and other factors previously discussed. The pedigree information obtained could be subjected to inferential analysis using threshold levels for the genetic distance ranking (GDR) or logarithm of odds score (LOD); and simple exclusion for the kinship testing option.Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22 database of the core collections of fingerprinted genotypes is useful in breeding. At this preliminary assessment stage, informative markers that contribute to most of the variability are identified and the genetic relationships or similarities of clones determined using various coefficients such as Jaccard, Dice, etc., and their rankings are based on their genetic distances. Putative parental candidates with desired complementary traits used in population development are subjected to parentage analysis to determine the paternity or maternity, or both, for the tested progenies. The choice of the type of parentage analysis depends on the sampling technique and other factors previously discussed. The pedigree information obtained could be subjected to inferential analysis using threshold levels for the genetic distance ranking (GDR) or logarithm of odds score (LOD); and simple exclusion for the kinship testing option. Successful application of DNA-informed breeding techniques in root and tuber crops in complementarity with conventional population development techniques, and other recent advances in genomics and phenomics tools can accelerate the genetic gain compared to using the conventional breeding technique alone. Utilization of molecular technique in parentage analysis and realization of its merits have contributed to a greater impact on root and tuber breeding programs. The effectiveness of the molecular techniques in parentage assignment contributes to resolving many genetic bottle necks associated with half-sib breeding using polycross and open pollination mating designs compared to the full-sib breeding using controlled pairwise mattings. Moreover, successful use of parentage analysis improves half-sib breeding efficiency by increasing selection gain or accuracy, leading to higher selection pressure (<3%), more accurate estimation of genetic parameters, sib screening, the protection of breeders' rights, the utilization of new mating designs, the selection of new traits, the identification of the genetic identity of candidate genotypes and the reduction of time and costs. Efficient parentage assignment also establishes the extent of pollen and seed gene flow necessary for prediction of its effects on the genetic structure of progenies. These merits make Successful application of DNA-informed breeding techniques in root and tuber crops in complementarity with conventional population development techniques, and other recent advances in genomics and phenomics tools can accelerate the genetic gain compared to using the conventional breeding technique alone. Utilization of molecular technique in parentage analysis and realization of its merits have contributed to a greater impact on root and tuber breeding programs. The effectiveness of the molecular techniques in parentage assignment contributes to resolving many genetic bottle necks associated with half-sib breeding using polycross and open pollination mating designs compared to the full-sib breeding using controlled pairwise mattings. Moreover, successful use of parentage analysis improves half-sib breeding efficiency by increasing selection gain or accuracy, leading to higher selection pressure (<3%), more accurate estimation of genetic parameters, sib screening, the protection of breeders' rights, the utilization of new mating designs, the selection of new traits, the identification of the genetic identity of candidate genotypes and the reduction of time and costs. Efficient parentage assignment also establishes the extent of pollen and seed gene flow necessary for prediction of its effects on the genetic structure of progenies. These merits make population improvement of organisms, including niche and neglected species, simple and flexible.","tokenCount":"8620"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"09d869cfa6f7b1c0d43e06bb18f02c27","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4ee46e7c-011b-454c-a3da-a5faad8d6505/retrieve","id":"874948915"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0cb567ec-b627-47b6-842c-11640acbbab4","pagecount":"10","content":"March 2007 start, duration 1 year Background/Justification (Max.300 words) a) State the reasons that justify the conduct of the proposed research and the current state of knowledge and gaps.There is very little current or past research on feed/fodder markets, especially those serving smallholders, in the developing countries. Recent work in India (Blümmel and Rao, 2006) has suggested that fodder market research can aid in understanding key problems of feed availability and shortages for example by identifying suppliers, following supply routes, kind and availability of feed and feed price: quality relationships and their seasonal variations. Smallholders may face different nature of feed market constraints compared to large scale producers. National and international research agencies including the International Livestock Research Institute have developed several feed production and utilization technologies and strategies to address the problems of inadequacy and poor quality of feeds but adoption of these technologies have been so far slow and poor. Among other reasons, lack of suitable and adequate seeds and planting materials is often mentioned as a reason for poor diffusion and adoption of feed/fodder technologies. But unlike crop seeds, markets for forage seeds and planting materials for fodders have been rarely explored.Fodder and feed markets will be increasingly important as smallholder systems intensify to capture an increasing share of the expanding livestock product market. Understanding the dynamics of these markets under different production systems, market development levels, policy and institutional environments will be helpful for improving feed technology research, feed/fodder market organisation and efficiency. (workshop, interviews, surveys, etc)  that show that the proposed work responds to a demand by beneficiaries and users of project outputs. If evidence of the demand for the project is not available indicate what activities will be undertaken to ensure that the proposed work is demand-led.No specific pre-existing demand for this specific project proposal exists. However, collaborative work on feed technologies with other CG centres and national partners through SLP funded projects reveal that feed is a major constraint for smallholder commercialization of livestock and that feed technology research on its own is unlikely to ensure adoption and innovations in diffusion process without adequate knowledge about characteristics and performance of feed markets. The proposed partnership between ILRI, ICRISAT and IFPRI for conducting this background study towards development of a full proposal is a response tot hat realization. Moreover, as proposed 5-6 case study contributors from national institutions will be identified to derive perspectives of the feed market issues from a wide range environments and situations. Positive response to this call by national institutions will constitute a form of demand from users and potential beneficiaries. Further, the proposed workshop for sharing the results of the case studies and using the results for full proposal development jointly will also be a manifestation of demand for this kind of study.State project purpose simply and directly.The main purpose is to understand the dynamics of feed/fodder markets and explore how smallholder livestock keepers may benefit from these markets as producers of feeds/fodder and/or as buyers of feeds/fodder. The specific objectives are to identify actors who participate in traditional fodder markets; the structure, organization and performance of these markets under different production systems, market development levels, policy and institutional environments; specific constraints and opportunities for smallholders to benefit from these markets, and identify the key interventions that can improve sustainable smallholder access to high quality fodders and feed, and also that raise smallholder benefits from production of high quality fodders.a) List the outputs that will be delivered by the project.The principal output will be a set of preliminary results and evidence on feed market characteristics and performance in a set of diverse situations, which will allow development more precise questions and hypotheses for development of a full proposal to undertake a study on feed markets in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The specific outputs from the seed grant activities will be : The activities to be undertaken for development of a full proposal will include the following steps:1) Literature review of feed/ fodder markets studies in target developing countries (SSA, South Asia) -months 1-32.) Identification of potential contributors to case study/proposal development workshop, as well as potential donors -months 1-3Conduct the identified case/scoping studies in Ethiopia (see Appendix A for details) and another in India.-2 -6 months 4.)In month 8 conduct a 4 day workshop in (Addis Ababa or Nairobi) with following objectives:• presentation of 5-6 case studies on fodder/feed markets, including the Ethiopia scoping study • use the findings from the case studies and the discussions to identify major researchable issues and draft a full proposal for submission to an identified donorComplete new proposal development and submit proposal month 10Project users and beneficiaries:The principal users and beneficiaries of this research will be smallholder livestock producers, smallholder crop and fodder producers, and small scale market agents as well as feed manufacturers, livestock policy makers, and researchers.The project will be implemented in consultation with various stakeholders related to the livestock sector in general and feed production and marketing in particular. In each case study country, key informants will be consulted to identify major feed production areas, feed market chains and market actors, and their views on key issues related to feed production and marketing will be solicited, which will be used, in combination with any knowledge from literature review to design specific field studies. Stakeholders in selected study communities will be consulted for further probing the macro or meso level information. The study results will be shared with the stakeholders.a) Indicate the countries and agro-ecological zones in which the proposed project will be implemented.Four-six case studies on feed market will be conducted in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. At least one case each will be conducted in Ethiopia and India in collaboration with on-going project activities of the principal and a partner institutes.Other case studies and country locations will be chosen on the basis of a search of potential contributors from places where commercialization of livestock is a rising trend and feed constraint is an apparent constraint based on secondary information.b) Explain the criteria to select countries and project sites.The proposed case studies will be conducted in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Both the regions have high incidence of poverty and livestock, have high potential for poverty reduction through livestock activities, and feed is a major constraint for increasing market oriented livestock productionOf the proposed case studies on feed markets, one will be conducted in Ethiopia where a large multi-institutional multidisciplinary research-for-development project is on-going. ILRI is coordinating this project on behalf of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the project is being implemented in 10 Pilot Learning Sites in 10 woredas in four regions of Ethiopia. Apart from those four regions, Addis Ababa will be studied because of the presence of urban/peri-urban dairy as major activity facing severe feed problem. Similarly, the case study in India will be conducted within an on-going project being implemented by ILRI and ICRISAT in collaboration with national partners in Andhra Pradesh, where dairy is major commercial activity among smallholders in rural areas as well as in urban areas and feed is a major constraint.The location of the other case studies will be chosen on the basis of a search of potential contributors from places where commercialization of livestock is a rising trend and feed constraint is an apparent constraint based on secondary information.These case study countries or sites will be considered for final selection of study sites for the full proposal but other sites may also be considered from these two regions.The activities to be undertaken for development of a full proposal will include the following steps :1.) Literature review of feed/ fodder markets studies in target developing countries (SSA, South Asia) (months 1-3) 2.)Identification of potential contributors to case study/proposal development workshop, as well as potential donors. Among the case studies one will be conducted in Ethiopia (see appendix A for details) and another in India. In both countries ILRI, IPMS and ICRISAT have established diverse contacts and networks that will contribute to this study (months 1-3)Conduct the case studies including the scoping study in Ethiopia and India. These studies will be written up either based on an earlier or on-going work. Mostly participatory rapid appraisal approach will be used for data collection but where feasible small detailed surveys will also be conducted. Generally, locations with intensifying market oriented smallholder systems will be targeted with a view to assess the feed supply chains connecting rural and urban/peri-urban production environments and markets. Both tradition feeds like crop residues, tree fodder and meals as well as produced forage and manufactured concentrates will be covered so long as they are used in the chosen systems and environments. The competition and complementarity between fed types will be explored along with other questions on market characteristics and performance (months 1-6) 4.) Conduct a 4 day workshop in Addis Ababa or Nairobi (month 8)Feeds typically constitute 50-70 percent of cost of production of livestock enterprises. The ratio varies according to species and generally increases as more intensive production system is adopted. Therefore, overcoming constraints in the production and marketing of feeds to ensure supply of quality feeds year round at least cost has a great potential to impact on the livelihood of smallholder livestock producers. Understanding feed/fodder market dynamics under different production systems, market development levels, policy and institutional environments will generate a set of knowledge that will expected to have wider application beyond the case study countries and sites. Experiences from different situations will allow cross learning and adaptation.a) State, preferably in quantitative terms, what development impact might be achieved in the short or medium term.Knowledge about feed market performance will allow better targeting by extension agencies of feed technologies for diffusion, by feed producers/manufacturers for better targeting of feeds for marketing. These are expected to enhance feed availability, increase productivity of animals and lower cost for livestock producers making them profitable and competitive in the market. Impact can be demonstrated by looking at adoption rate of feed technologies, differences in feed prices across markets based on quality, productivity improvement of animals.a) Describe the strategy, processes and institutional alliances that can or will be used to upscale findings.Several stepwise and/or overlapping steps will be taken as follows:a) Policy dialogue/workshop will be held with top policy makers, researchers, extension experts/agents, NGOs, private entrepreneurs in the feed industry and market, bankers, donors to share findings and their implications; publications of project report and policy brief setting out options and issues for smallholder market participation through better access to feed markets.b) The results of multi sites studies will be synthesised and published in various forms including policy briefs; researchers and other stakeholders in each country will be invited to other country's workshop for cross learning; a final workshop with selected key stakeholders from the participating countries and policy makers will be held for wider sharing of findings.Publications will be disseminated through SLP and others' websites and other electronic networks.a) State why this is a systemwide activity and why the SLP is the appropriate mechanism for collaboration and fundingFeed is problems across countries and regions and production systems. That is why several CG centres are collaborating on feed technology and policy research addressing problems and opportunities related to both the specific mandate commodity (commodities) and geographical region as well as more generic issues that have cross-cutting or wider applications. This study intends cover a selection of those diverse commodity and production systems and policy environments to document both specific and generic knowledge about feed markets.Three CG centre and several NARS participating in case study contributions will build a synergy of inter-regional and local knowledge about emerging issues and problems that need to be addressed. Among the CG centre, ILRI's Livestock Market Opportunities theme jointly managed with IFPRI address market constraints and potentials for smallholders. Input market is a major focus of research under this theme as it is a major constraint limiting smallholder participation in markets. ICRISAT is conducting food-feed research under semi-arid environments in collaboration other CG centres and national partners and have in the past undertaken exploratory studies on feed markets in India, which will be very useful for this study. ILRI and Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian farmers (IPMS project) will conduct a scoping study on feed markets in Ethiopia to contribute as a case study at the proposed workshop for full proposal development. Cost of this scoping study estimated at US$10,000 will be borne by IPMS and ILRI (see Appendix A). Matching fund for the full proposal will be decided at the proposal development workshop.a) Indicate which major funding agency is being targeted by the seed money period and the amount of funds sought per source.We have BMZ in mind targeting joint proposal submission of ILRI, ICRISAT and IFPRI.b) Indicate if official contact with these agencies has been initiated and the outcome of this contact, if any.Discussion about funding strategy is at this stage between the participating institutes c) Explain why this proposed Concept Note has a good chance of success in being turned into a major project proposal.  and Adudgna, 2006). Underdeveloped feed markets exacerbate the problem. Data and information is required to guide the development of policies and strategies to improve the feed markets. However, there is scarcity of information on the operation of these markets in Ethiopia. This scoping study is aimed at contributing to the alleviation of the dearth of data and information on feed markets.The overall objective of the study is to understanding the structure and operation of the feed markets. More specifically, the study aims at :1.) identifying the actors in the feed market and their roles, including intermediaries and regulatory bodies, in rural and peri-urban production systems 2.) assessing the functioning of these market 3.) identifying the constraints limiting the development of the market, and opportunities to improve it.","tokenCount":"2303"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1c5e2a721cb37c4b735620154b5423f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7173c27a-986b-48fd-a8ea-b3120d63bd75/retrieve","id":"663587977"},"keywords":["Division of labour","gender","improved crop varieties","seed systems","Malawi"],"sieverID":"52c98ac7-c009-478d-9048-c259726d9b21","pagecount":"13","content":"This study asks whether there is utility in knowing who sources soybean seed within the household and why when explaining variation in seed obtained from the formal versus informal sector. Survey data collected in Malawi in 2018 were used to explore the question. Results suggest that the identity of the person who sources seed has little to do with whether the seed was obtained from the formal sector. Instead, why the person sources soybean seed is the better predictor. As formal seed system actors mobilize to persuade more smallholder farmers to adopt improved varieties, understanding why people source seed may be key for targeting and when designing agricultural development interventions.Over the past decades, a wide range of gender analyses of rural agricultural contexts have examined the division of labour within and outside the household (e.g., Iradukunda et al., 2019;Nakhone and Kabutha, 1998;Rajaratnam et al., 2015;Tangka et al., 2000). With these kinds of information at hand, development organizations and other actors can tailor their programmes to meet the needs or perceived interests of women and men at household and community levels.While knowing 'who does what' may improve programme targeting, it may be equally important to know the rationale behind why individuals carry out certain tasks within the household and whether the reasons indicated explain any more of the variation in household outcomes than that which is explained by who does what.As one example. Given that male smallholder farmers are predominantly responsible for sourcing soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr) seed in Malawi (Cook et al., 2014), actors operating in the formal sector could use this information to inform their marketing or outreach strategies. Likewise, development actors could modify their programmes to help increase women's participation in sourcing improved soybean varieties from the formal seed sector. 1 Through these efforts, there is an increased likelihood that quality seed of improved varieties will be used by more smallholder farmers for enhanced productivity, profitability, and food and nutrition security. However, households might resemble each other on who carries out a specific task or who makes a specific decision but may differ on why they perform the task or make the decision (Bernard et al., 2020). In certain households, an individual may secure soybean seed because they are the head of household and in charge of purchasing key inputs, while in other households it is because they are more knowledgeable about seed quality. Thus, there may be utility in collecting this additional information on 'why' to inform the ways relevant actors, operating in or supporting the formal seed sector, refine their targeting of or engagement with smallholder households to help increase the uptake of improved seed.Quantitative studies that inquire about who does or decides what and why, while also determining how these variables explain variation in household outcomes, are rare in the literature. Some studies in the women's empowerment literature ask who makes a certain decision and to what extent they are involved in making the decision (e.g., studies using the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) or a derivative thereof -see Alkire et al., 2013;Cole et al., 2020;Colverson et al., 2020), but do not extend the inquiry to ask why a person makes the decision and relate this to household outcomes.A recent study by Bernard et al. (2020) explored who within the household makes certain agricultural production and consumption decisions and, using vignettes, determined the rationale people use to decide why decisions are made by certain individuals. Each vignette (via a story) described a different logic to help study respondents pinpoint why specific production or consumption decisions get made by individuals within their households, either by using a 'unitary' model (whereby an individual or a couple together makes the decision), a 'contribution' model (the decision is made by the person who contributes the most resources to the job), a 'separate spheres' model (specialized decision-making by a person in charge of a specific domain), a 'norms' model (decisions made based on social norms), or by using a 'most informed' model (decision made by the individual who has the most information). Once the vignettes were read aloud, spouses were asked to indicate which one illustrated their decision-making process. These data on 'who' and 'why' were used to explain production (e.g., average milk output per cow) and consumption (e.g., average hemoglobin level for young children) outcomes in their econometric models.This study aims to provide one testing ground for Bernard et al.'s (2020) overall methodology and analytical framework using a relatively unique dataset from Malawi. The dataset contains information on individual (or joint) roles within the household performing soybean production and post-harvest tasks and on why certain individuals perform said tasks. We specifically focus our analysis in this study on who sources soybean seed within the household and why and relate these to whether the household sourced their soybean seed from the formal versus informal sector (the outcome variable). The study's research questions are:(1) Who sources soybean seed within the household;(2) What is the rationale (or explanatory model) used for determining who sources soybean seed; and (3) Does who sources soybean seed and why help explain whether the household sourced seed from the formal sector?The paper is structured as follows. In the next part of the introduction, we present a description of the study area. The methods and data are described thereafter along with the analysis strategy the study used, followed by the results section. The paper then discusses the utility of collecting and analysing the data with regard to assisting formal seed system actors with an understanding of how to better reach and benefit women and men smallholder farmers in Malawi, as well as for improving our understanding of the gender division of labour and its influence in shaping agricultural development outcomes. The paper ends with a brief conclusion.Malawi is a predominantly rural country with an agriculture-based economy. Close to 83% of the total population of Malawi lives in rural areas where people are mostly engaged in small-scale, rain-fed agriculture (Bezner Kerr, 2012;World Bank, 2020). The agriculture sector accounts for close to 28% of the Gross Domestic Product (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development, 2017). The sector creates jobs for nearly 90% of the employed working age population (15-64 years) in Malawi (Baulch et al., 2019). The farming system is dominated by maize (Zea mays L.), which according to some sources, is grown by 97% of farming households on at least 60-80% of the total cultivated land (Bezner Kerr, 2012;Gumma et al., 2019;White, 2019). The lack of crop diversification in the country's farming system is evident in the estimated agricultural production figures produced by the Government each year (see Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development, 2017).There has been decline or stagnation in crop productivity in Malawi over the years, especially in crops like maize due in part to soil fertility depletion and changes in intraseasonal weather shocks (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development, 2017;Stevens and Madani, 2016). A well-known benefit of including grain legumes such as soybean in farming systems in Africa is that the crop fixes atmospheric nitrogen, thereby improving soil fertility (Giller et al., 1998;Ojiewo et al., 2020;Sanginga, 2003;Van Vugt et al., 2018). Soybean is grown in almost all the districts of Malawi, although the major producing areas are Kasungu, Mchinji, Lilongwe, Ntchisi, Mzimba and Dedza. These districts account for 80% of the total soybean production in the country (Tufa et al., 2019).Soybean is becoming an important and popular cash crop to cultivate by many smallholders in Malawi (Bezner Kerr et al., 2007;Ecker and Qaim, 2011;Tufa et al., 2019). Most soybean produced in Malawi (95%) is cultivated by smallholder farmers (Opperman and Varia, 2011). The area under soybean cultivation has more than doubled since 2011 and there was a 57% increase in soybean production in Malawi from 132,417 t in 2016 to 208,556 t in 2017 (FAOSTAT, 2017). According to Meyer et al. (2018), this increase is the result of smallholder farmers switching cash crops from tobacco to soybean given the latter requires less labour to grow and yields a greater return on investment than tobacco. Soybean produced in Malawi attracts a premium price because of its GMO-free status, and therefore, Malawi has been a net exporter of soybean since 2008 (Meyer et al., 2018). Nonetheless, a considerable amount of soybean produced in Malawi is consumed within the country. The feed sector (especially poultry feeds) by far drives the current demand for soybean in Malawi, thus creating an important source of income for smallholder soybean farmers (Meyer et al., 2018;Opperman and Varia, 2011;Tinsley, 2009). Importantly, soybean is not a 'traditional' food consumed as a relish alongside the main maize-based staple food (nsima) but is used as an ingredient to make a porridge for children (known as likuni phala). Soybean is more oftentimes cultivated and sold by smallholders for processing by the industry into oil and more recently milled into flour and combined with other ingredients to produce 'instant soya pieces' 2 or used in largescale public health interventions as supplementary food to prevent and treat moderate acute malnutrition in children (e.g., see Rogers et al., 2017).The availability of improved soybean varieties from both the formal and informal sectors has increased over the past years to support the growing demand for soybean in Malawi (Tufa et al., 2019). Improved soybean varieties have productivity-enhancing and other benefits when combined with the use of good crop management practices (Van Vugt et al., 2017). Tufa et al. (2019) used nationally representative data from Malawi to investigate the productivity and income effects of adopting improved soybean varieties. They found that only 30% of their sample adopted improved varieties, with adopters having higher yields (by 61%) and net crop incomes (by 53%) compared to non-adopters. Their study results suggest there is some justification for investigating who within the household sources soybean seed and why to better inform how formal seed system actors could intervene to help increase smallholder adoption rates of quality seed of improved varieties, thereby helping women and men farmers achieve greater agronomic and economic gains.The data used for this study were collected in July and August 2018 from three districts (Lilongwe, Mchinji and Dedza) located in central Malawi. A two-stage process was used to identify respondents to participate in the study. In the first stage, the three districts and six Extension Planning Areas (EPAs) were purposively selected because of their high soybean production potential. In the second stage, random sampling was used to select 24 sections within the six EPAs and 457 smallholder households in the 24 sections who met the criterion of having cultivated soybean during the agricultural season before the survey was conducted. Respondents who were interviewed were selected because of their involvement in carrying out soybean production and other related tasks within their households. Only one person who met this selection criterion was interviewed per household. Given the study's main research questions, we only analysed the data from those respondents who indicated they were in a marital relationshipeither in a monogamous or polygynous marriage (N ¼ 399, 44% female and 56% male).The survey instrument used to collect the data was designed to ask a range of questions on who carries out soybean production and post-harvest tasks (self, spouse, or jointly together) and ascertain why the person(s) perform said tasks. For the first questions asking about who carries out a particular task, responses were coded as 'wife without husband', 'husband without wife', or 'wife and husband together'. These three variables are all binary. The responses to the questions on why spouses carry out a particular task on their own or together were free listed by study respondents and recorded during interviews and later coded before the data were entered into Stata 16.0 (Stata-Corp, College Station, TX, USA). Once in Stata, the 'why' responses were categorized according to the explanatory process they typified -either unitary, norms, contribution, most informed, or separate spheres model -per Bernard et al. (2020). For example, a response by a study respondent who indicated that a person in their household sources soybean seed because they own the land or manage soybean production was categorized as contribution model. If a respondent indicated a person in their household sources soybean seed because they are more knowledgeable or skilled at carrying out the task, the response was categorized as most informed model. A response by a study respondent who indicated someone in their household sources soybean seed because they are the head of the household was categorized as norms model. All the explanatory model variables are binary. While the focus of this study is on who sources soybean seed and why, the categorization process just described was applied to all soybean production and post-harvest tasks using a relatively wide range of responses (see Table 1).Respondents were also asked to indicate the source of the soybean seed they used in the prior agricultural season. This information was used to generate the main outcome variable employed in the analysis. The variable equals one (1) if the respondent indicated they sourced their seed from the formal sector, and zero (0) if they sourced from the informal sector. For this study sample, seed sourced from the formal sector was exclusively improved varieties (either Tikolore, Makwacha, Seranade, or Nasoko) from reputable suppliers, for example, private companies and agro-dealers, public initiatives, or non-government organizations (see Zidana et al., 2012). Such seed is certified, packaged, and labelled for smallholder farmers to purchase at retail outlets and/or from a source at a subsidized price (e.g., seed from the Government's Farmer Input Subsidy Program). There are seven officially released soybean varieties in Malawi, and Tikolore, Makwacha, Seranade, and Nasoko have certain traits that smallholder farmers prefer, such as earlier maturity, more pods per plant, disease tolerance, enhanced performance under less and inconsistent rainfall, and increased lodging resistance (Kananji et al., 2013;Tufa et al., 2019). Seed sourced from the informal sector was a combination of improved and local varieties, often referred to as 'farmer-saved' seed (Zidana et al., 2012), obtained from neighbours, relatives, open markets or recycled own seed. As is well known, improved or local varieties sourced from the informal sector are incredibly important in smallholder farming systems, supplying an affordable product (usually at scale) for especially those who cannot access seed from the formal sector (Almekinders and Louwaars, 2002;Almekinders et al., 1994;Louwaars and de Boef, 2012). Seed from the informal sector may be comparable to the improved varieties sourced from the formal sector in term of its tolerance to biotic stresses, for instance, although may not be of the same quality due to factors such as poor processing and storage of the seed and seed degeneration (Louwaars and de Boef, 2012).Informed consent was obtained from all study respondents prior to administering the survey questionnaire.We model a household's decision to use the formal seed sector under the general framework of utility maximization given that soybean is primarily grown as a cash crop in Malawi. Within this framework, a household weighs the costs of using seed from the formal sector (e.g., higher prices) against the potential benefits (e.g., assurance that the seed purchased is certified and has high potential to germinate compared to seed from open markets or other informal sources). They decide to use the formal sector if the perceived utility from using the sector is significantly greater than that of the informal sector. If they decide not to use the formal sector, they may save costs. However, they may incur a loss in revenue from not having used certified seed.Following Greene (2003), we model the household's decision to use the formal sector as a discrete choice problem involving two distinct alternatives (e.g., acquire seed from the formal sector or the informal sector). The household's decision to access seed from the formal or informal sector can be represented as a binary variable as:where Y Ã i represents the perceived benefit of accessing seed from the formal sector; X i is a vector of covariates that are expected to influence the decision to access seed from the formal sector; B j represents a vector of parameters to be estimated; and u i is the error term.In equation ( 1), Y i has a discrete distribution at each covariate pattern, (i.e., it is a binary indicator variable that equals one (1) if a household sourced their soybean seed from the formal sector and zero (0) otherwise) with mean ¼ p i and varianceThe specification of this discrete distribution entails assuming the functional form that the relationship between p i and the covariates must take on.Given the main dependent (or outcome) variable is binary, we can assume either logistic or standard normal distribution. These two distributions will give rise to logit and probit specifications, respectively. We can choose to use either of these specifications as there are no theoretical grounds to favour one over the other (Greene, 2003). Both specifications yield similar parameter estimates that are difficult to distinguish statistically (Amemiya, 1981). In this study, we chose the logit model as the parameter estimates are amenable to easy interpretation.Therefore, following Greene (2003), we can specify the conditional probability of using the formal sector p i as:where the right-hand expression is the logistic distribution function; and p i is the conditional odds of using the formal sector.Rearranging Equation (2) the log odds of using the formal sector can be given as:where Ln is natural log; B j is a vector of parameters representing the change in the log-odds due to a unit increment in the values of the predictors; and X i that is defined above. Two variants of the logistic regression model (Equation (3)) are used to help explore the research questions. The main independent variables that were included in the models are who sources soybean seed and why (the explanatory models). Model 1 includes only who sources soybean seed along with control variables to determine if there is an association between who sources and whether the household obtained their soybean seed from the formal versus informal sector. Model 2 includes the explanatory model variables to determine if there is (added) value to asking why along with who when predicting whether households obtained soybean seed from formal versus informal sources.The control variables included in the two models are sex and age (years) of the household head, household size, land area devoted to soybean production (in hectares), marital type (monogamous versus polygynous), land ownership (female-owned versus male-owned versus joint ownership of land), and dummy variables indicating the districts where respondents reside. Descriptive statistics of the control variables are presented in the results section. Mean differences between those who indicated they source their seed from the formal versus the informal sector were evaluated using a t-test to determine if they were significant at or below the 5% confidence level. Correlations were also run to explore the similarities and differences between the explanatory model variables.Diagnostic tests were run on the logistic regression models, including a goodness-of-fit test and tests for specification error and multicollinearity. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was also carried out to investigate the tradeoff between the sensitivity of the positive cases (those who source soybean seed from the formal sector) and the specificity of the negative cases (those who source soybean seed from the informal sector) and whether it is acceptable. A Wald test was used to determine whether the coefficients of the explanatory model variables are both simultaneously and separately equal to zero as one means of establishing the added value of including these variables in the model to predict whether households sourced their soybean seed from the formal sector.Finally, Bernard et al. (2020) highlighted the need to establish whether certain respondent characteristics affect the answers they provided when administering the survey.To determine this, a respondent reliability test was carried out by estimating ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions of who sources soybean seed on the sex and on the age of the respondent separately. If the coefficient estimates of these variables are found to be significantly associated with who sources soybean seed, it is necessary to control for these key respondent characteristics in the models.The distributions of respondent answers to who sources soybean seed within the household based on whether the household sourced from the formal versus the informal sector are presented in Figure 1. Very similar responses were recorded for both groups, with 71% of respondents indicating that husbands (without their wives) perform this task when accessing soybean seed from the formal sector and 67% when accessing from the informal sector.Very few respondents indicated that sourcing soybean seed was an activity carried out by wife and husband together. This contrasts with other soybean production and post-harvest tasks carried out in the household (Table 2). Most respondents indicated that wife and husband carry out the other soybean related tasks together except for when managing soybean against disease and pests, transporting soybean to market, and when marketing (or selling) their soybean. Regarding the latter, only 11% of respondents indicated that wife and husband together market their soybean.Correlations between the explanatory model variables were all negative, reflecting their dissimilarities when explaining why people within the household source soybean seed. The largest correlations were between norms and most informed models (r ¼ À0.55) and contribution and most informed models (r ¼ À0.34), while the smallest correlations were between unitary and contribution models (r ¼ À0.10) and unitary and separate sphere models (r ¼ À0.07).Figures 2 to 4 present the explanatory model results based on who does what. Each figure presents the distribution of the models used to explain who sources soybean seed within the household at the aggregate level (Figure 2) and by whether they sourced seed from the formal (Figure 3) versus informal (Figure 4) sector. When women source seed on their own, the majority of respondents indicated that their household employs a most informed model (63%) followed by a separate spheres model (24%). Using the response information from Table 1, women primarily source soybean seed because they are either more knowledgeable about sourcing seed or have more time to source seed. 3 When men source seed on their own, the majority of respondents indicated that their household employs a norms (43%) or most informed (34%) model when determining who should source soybean seed. Men primarily source seed because they are the heads of households, responsible for sourcing seed given strong normative views that shape their involvement, or are more knowledgeable about sourcing seed. All respondents who replied that wife and husband jointly carry out the task, while few, indicated their household uses a unitary model. Similar trends were noticed when the data were disaggregated by sector type.There is evidence that female respondents indicated they source soybean seed on their own (Table 3) and less so by their husbands without them, thus suggesting some level of respondent bias. The age of the respondent appears to have no effect on how respondents answered the questions on who sources soybean seed within their households. The results indicate there is a need to control for sex of the respondent in the logistic regressions.Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics for the control variables included in the two different models by sector type. Mean differences of several variables were found to be statistically significant at or below the 5% confidence level, including joint ownership of land, household size, land area (size in hectares), one of the district dummy variables (Lilongwe), and sex of the respondent.Table 5 presents the results from running the two logistic regression models without controlling for the variable sex of the respondent. Neither who sources soybean seed or why was significantly associated with whether the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. Table 6 presents the results from the two models that controlled for the sex of the respondent variable. In Model 1, there were     no significant associations between who sources soybean seed and whether the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. When adding the explanatory model variables in Model 2, there were no changes to the relationships between who sources soybean seed and the outcome variable. However, the contribution model and the norms model were associated with a higher probability that the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector compared to the reference (or omitted) variable, unitary model. The responses that were considered as being characteristic of households using a contribution model (see Table 1) included: the person is the one managing soybean production; sourcing soybean seed requires more energy (physical strength); or the person has better transportation to source soybean seed. For those who indicated using a norms model, responses included: as head of household she/he has the capacity to source soybean seed; or it is the person's job in Malawi to source soybean seed. While not a primary focus in this study, the significant association found between women's ownership of land and whether the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector is important to highlight. The diagnostic tests run on the logistic regression models indicated that the models fit the data well (Model 1:  w 2 ¼ 12.48, p ¼ 0.13; Model 2: w 2 ¼ 9.22, p ¼ 0.32) and were correctly specified (Model 1: z ¼ À0.12, p ¼ 0.91; Model 2: z ¼ 0.11, p ¼ 0.91). The test for multicollinearity indicated that the independent variables are not linear combinations of each other in Model 1 as all VIF values were below 10, while in Model 2 only the variable most informed model had a value of >10 (11.10). We do not consider this to be well above the threshold to warrant cause for concern.The value of the area under the ROC curve for Model 1 was 0.68 and for Model 2 was 0.69, indicating that the tradeoff of sensitivity and specificity in both models are roughly acceptable.Finally, using the Wald test, we failed to reject the null hypothesis that the coefficients of the explanatory model variables were simultaneously equal to zero (w 2 ¼ 5.02, p ¼ 0.28) and that the coefficients of the most informed model (w 2 ¼ 3.10, p ¼ 0.08) and separate sphere model (w 2 ¼ 1.20, p ¼ 0.27) were equal to zero, yet rejected the null hypothesis that the coefficients of the contribution model (w 2 ¼ 3.93, p ¼ 0.05) and norms model (w 2 ¼ 3.89, p ¼ 0.05) were equal to zero. Therefore, we can conclude that these latter explanatory model variables are adding considerable value in helping predict whether a household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector.Using a dataset from Malawi, containing information on who sources soybean seed within the household and the rationale households use to explain why specific individuals carry out the task, this study explored whether who sources soybean seed and why are important predictors of whether the household sourced the seed from the formal sector. Based on the descriptive statistics presented above, we showed that men overwhelmingly source soybean seed on their own, be it seed from the formal or the informal sector. The result is consistent with that found by Cook et al. (2014) from their qualitative study on gender roles in the soybean value chain in Malawi. They found that men are primarily responsible for sourcing soybean seed within the household along with preparing the land for planting and transporting and marketing soybean once harvested, while women make significant labour contributions performing many of these production and post-harvest tasks (see also Ussar, 2017). Our study supports this latter result as well, as it was found that a large percentage of respondents indicated that wife and husband carry out most of these tasks together.Our study also found gender differences in the model types that households use to explain why specific individuals source soybean seed. For women who source soybean seed on their own, the majority of households use either a most informed or separate spheres model to explain women's roles in carrying out the task. On the other hand, most households use either a norms or most informed model to explain men's roles in sourcing soybean seed on their own. This latter result in some ways is also supported by Cook et al. (2014). In their study, male soybean farmers described themselves as primary decision makers within their households, including making decisions on which crops to grow. Chirwa et al. (2011) and Fisher and Kandiwa (2014) also highlighted the strong gender norms in rural Malawi that shape intra-household roles and decisionmaking powers. As such, Ussar (2017) found that men have control over soybean sales given their role as household heads in Malawi. For seed sourced jointly by women and men, it was found that households in this sample only use a unitary model. This result comes with little surprise given that when spouses source seed jointly they are assumed to be doing so because of their common preferences for carrying out the task together. Similar descriptive statistics were found when these data were disaggregated according to whether the seed was sourced from the formal versus informal sector. When using the regression models to examine the relationship between who sources soybean seed and why and whether the household sourced seed from the formal sector, the analysis yielded more nuanced results. First, the study found evidence of respondent bias, and specifically that female respondents were more likely to report 'wife without husband' regarding who sources soybean seed. While possibly similar across the many studies that have investigated the gender division of labour and decision-making within the household (Bernard et al., 2020), the result required that this study control for the sex of the respondent variable in the regression models.After controlling for the variable sex of the respondent, the study found that who sources soybean seed is not an important predictor of whether the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. So, while men tend to be primarily responsible for sourcing soybean seed within their households, their role in sourcing the seed does not influence whether they source from the formal versus the informal sector. In contrast, why a specific person sources soybean seed seems to be an important factor explaining whether the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. Compared to using a unitary model, when a contribution or a norms model is used, there is a greater likelihood the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. These results suggest that rural smallholders in Malawi use non-cooperative logics, shaped by social norms or based on who contributes more, when determining who should source soybean seed -with increased probability of them sourcing seed from the formal sector when using a contribution or norms model. The results are not entirely surprising given that sourcing soybean seed from the formal sector likely requires more capital, which for smallholder farmers in Malawi is often controlled by heads of households or those who oversee production. Similarly, if someone owns the means to travel to purchase seed or is considered to be endowed with more physical strength to carry out the task, households believe this justifies them leaving their homestead to travel and source quality seed of improved varieties from agricultural input suppliers or through government or non-government supported initiatives, which are often located in urban areas in Malawi (Chirwa and Dorward, 2013).While not a focus of the study, we also found a significant association between women's ownership of land and whether the household sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. This result held even after controlling for who sourced seed and the sex of the household head and respondent and implies that when women control the land they cultivate, their households are more likely to obtain seed that is certified and from a reputable source. Similarly, Benjamin (2020) found that matrilocal residence practices in Malawi, that entail a couple cultivates the land that belongs to the family of the wife, increases agricultural investment.In summary, while the descriptive statistics depict men as the dominant group who sources soybean seed in rural Malawi and suggest that certain models to explain why households source soybean seed are more commonly used than others, regression results showed that the identity of the person who sources seed has little to do with whether the seed sourced comes from the formal sector. Rather, why certain individuals within the household source soybean seed is the better predictor, with non-cooperative models being more significant than the cooperative (unitary) model in explaining the positive relationship between why and where the seed is sourced. As formal seed system actors mobilize to persuade more smallholder farmers to adopt improved soybean and other crop varieties, understanding why potential 'clients' source seed may be key for targeting and when designing agricultural development interventions.So, how can these results help inform future efforts by seed system actors who endeavour working with smallholder farmers to increase the prospects that they will source seed from the formal sector? And methodologically, how can this study's application of Bernard et al.'s (2020) approach help future studies design and carry out their research? We believe that characterizing households based on the rationale their members use to explain who does what instead of only highlighting who performs a particular task could add considerable weight to analyses of intrahousehold roles and responsibilities. A focus on 'who' and 'why' could strengthen future gender analyses that would otherwise only quantify who does or decides what. Such analyses would seemingly improve marketing efforts and programme targeting for private seed companies and development actors wishing to get quality seed of improved varieties in the hands of a greater number of rural smallholders, thereby informing their 'seed delivery pathways' to farmers (see McEwan et al., 2021: 8). For example, instead of inviting only male farmers or random groups of smallholder farmers to promotion or knowledge sharing events to demonstrate how the latest improved soybean varieties perform against landrace varieties, private seed companies and extension officers could instead invite those farmers who manage plots of land for soybean production. While seemingly obvious, field days or other like events held in rural areas in Malawi often aim to attract a larger number of smallholder farmers rather than targeting specific groups.Along with the programmatic implications of the research, this study also acts as the first case example of how future studies can use the methodology developed by Bernard et al. (2020) to pursue similar research questions. Our study piloted their methodology by exploring who does what and why and their explanatory power predicting whether households sourced soybean seed from the formal sector. Bernard et al. (2020) instead looked at who makes decisions and why and whether this matters regarding certain household production and consumption outcomes.From our experience using the methodology, it is quite useful when exploring who does what and why. Our study did not use vignettes but rather asked study respondents to free list why said person(s) source soybean seed or carry out other soybean production and post-harvest tasks. These responses were eventually coded using the models described by Bernard et al. (2020). Our study showed this option, arguably requiring less time and effort to implement, yielded acceptable results given the breadth of responses recorded that were later coded using all five explanatory model types.Finally, there are a couple limitations of this study that future research on gender division of agricultural labour and decision-making within the household could overcome to strengthen their designs and analyses. First, we used cross-sectional data to explore our research questions, which do not appreciate that rural farmers may source different varieties from different sectors from one season to the next. Future research should attempt to collect panel data to evaluate whether farmers are more likely to change or remain dependent on one sector from season to season. Second, this study did not inquire about where specifically seed from the formal or the informal sector was sourced. Future research could ask farmers to specify the agrodealer or open market where they sourced the seed as well as to provide other details about the source of the seed including how far they travelled to obtain the seed. With this level of specificity, studies could determine with more precision the types of formal or informal actors who women and men farmers source their seed from and explore whether other factors (e.g., distance to seed source) explain why these farmers source seed from the formal versus informal sector.This study asked whether there is utility in knowing who sources soybean seed within the household and why when explaining variation in seed obtained from the formal versus informal sector in Malawi. The study used survey data collected in three major soybean growing districts in Malawi, which were analysed using a modified framework employed by Bernard et al. (2020) in their study that explored who makes certain intra-household decisions on agricultural production and consumption matters and why. Results suggest that, holding everything else constant, who sources soybean seed within smallholder farming households included in this sample is not a predictor of whether the household sourced seed from the formal versus informal sector. Instead, the rationales behind why specific individuals within the household source soybean seed appear to be the more important factors. Specifically, rural smallholders use non-cooperative logics when determining who should source soybean seed from the formal sector using a contribution or norms model. Given the relatively suboptimal adoption rates of improved soybean varieties in Malawi, this paper concludes that there likely is value in examining who within the household sources soybean seed and why to better inform the seed delivery strategies that private and development actors use to increase uptake of improved varieties by women and men smallholder farmers for enhanced productivity, profitability, and food and nutrition security.","tokenCount":"6265"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"857494c19e44c2a3699076355ccccebd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ea0d033c-dde0-43db-bcf8-5ef1a0cfd748/retrieve","id":"1714518201"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"20812f2c-ca9c-4008-988d-425c28399996","pagecount":"12","content":"It is important to establish a strategy to take the key products of research to a greater scale if a significant contribution is to be made to increased and sustainable agricultural productivity, leading to enhanced food security and reduced poverty. This chapter presents a definition of 'scaling' and outlines the key elements for success based on the experiences gained from Africa RISING research and dissemination in East and Southern Africa (ESA). Three examples are presented: a) research and development partnerships; b) communitybased scaling through seed systems; and c) outdoor advertising for orange-fleshed sweetpotato.Key terms such as invention, technology, and innovation are often used interchangeably in development narratives. The following definitions are adopted largely from Ajayi et al. (2018):• Invention: the act of creating, designing, or discovering a device, method, or process that has not existed before. In finer terms, it is a novel scientific idea conceived through research and experimentation that turns into a tangible object.• Innovation: a new idea, product, service, and/or solution capable of facilitating impact through innovation systems involving multiple partners and enablers.• Technology: a new product; an intervention or approach that has been tried and tested elsewhere, either within a country or in other countries, and that can be built upon and/ or adapted (e.g., improved agricultural practices, crop varieties, inputs, and associated products such as crop insurance).Scaling has multiple definitions, with some consensus on the three main dimensions, referred to as scaling out, scaling up, and scaling deep. Scaling out is horizontal, focusing on the geographical spread of successful technologies and knowledge to additional people and communities, with the same stakeholder group. It is associated with quantitative processes like replication, expansion, extension, adoption, dissemination, transfer of technology, mainstreaming, rollout, and multiplication (Wigboldus and Leeuwis, 2013). Scaling up adds a vertical dimension, whereby the successful technologies and knowledge are disseminated beyond the original intervention area with the involvement of additional stakeholders and institutions at different levels (e.g., from village to county, district, region, and national levels). Thus, scaling up is associated with qualitative processes like transition, institutionalization, transformation, integration, incorporation, and development (Wigboldus and Leeuwis, 2013). The third dimension of scaling deep deals with the notion that durable change is achieved only \"when peoples' hearts and minds, their values and cultural practices and the quality of relationships they have are transformed\" (Moore et al., 2015).In practice, scaling out, up, and deep go together, and there is a tendency among the research and development community to use the term scaling in a generic context. The definition of scaling adopted for this handbook is as suggested by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD, 2012) and endorsed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in relation to its Feed the Future initiative (USAID, 2012). One important observation in this definition is that technologies and knowledge should be proven successfully on a small and controlled scale (pilot project) before being taken to scale, to maximize the chances of success.The scaling process model proposed by Linn et al. (2010) is highly relevant to Africa RISING research since it emphasizes learning as well as organizational and institutional aspects of scaling. The model has three non-linear, dynamic, and interactive phases: innovation, learning, and actual scaling (Figure 11.1). During the innovation phase, a new technology is embedded in a pilot intervention or project, which by itself has limited impact and reach. The purpose of this phase is to test if it is worthwhile supporting at a larger scale, whether it works or not, and to test the context (e.g., collaborations and partnerships, and finance and market models required to scale the innovation beyond the pilot). During the learning phase, experience gained during the design and implementation of the technology is monitored and evaluated to provide information and lessons for subsequent scaling. In the actual scaling phase, the original technology is brought to scale, drawing on the internal and external knowledge base generated by the pilot, and on external knowledge, where appropriate. Scaling efforts should focus on all three phases.Research organizations generally lack sufficient local contacts to support successful scaling, and therefore need to build suitable partnerships for sustainable implementation. Partnerships can be formal or informal, but involve an agreement between partners to work together toward achieving a common goal, and with each partner mobilizing and contributing complementary resources.In Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia, Africa RISING initiated research to validate technologies developed for sustainable intensification (innovation phase) and then packaged them for scaling through partnerships with development actors such as USAID-funded projects, national government institutions, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Africa RISING scientists provided technical backstopping and other forms of support to their development partners through a strategy incorporating innovation, learning, and scaling components. In Tanzania, both Africa RISING and NAFAKA worked toward a common goal: reducing poverty and hunger through improved productivity and competitiveness of maize and rice value chains. Partnership activities focusing on scaling the technologies across these value chains started in 2014, with a focus on: a) improved crop varieties; b) good agricultural practices; c) household nutrition; and d) post-harvest management (IITA, 2014). Before establishing the partnership, Africa RISING research was reaching less than 1,000 smallholder farmers through hosting validation trials. The partnership with NAFAKA enabled the technologies to reach many more, by including a diverse development consortium (Figure 11.3) the International Fertilizer Development Center, local NGOs (including a national farmers' apex organization and a regional extension organization), Farm Input Promotions (FIPs)-Africa, private sector institutions (agro-input companies, grain processors, buyers of agricultural produce, and a credit provider), and government institutions (the Ministry of Agriculture research and development department, a seed certification institute, and district local governments).In Malawi and Zambia, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) joined the Africa RISING research consortium in 2013. This enabled the team to build on prior work by CIMMYT and TLC, which commenced in 2005. The collaboration was based on a common vision to expand sustainable agriculture systems with a long-term commitment. Working with farmers in selected target communities, the team identified the main challenges and constraints to the current farming system, selecting conservation agriculture ─ based on minimum soil disturbance, crop residue retention, and diversification ─ as the priority technological intervention.The scaling approach involved setting up experimental plots in the form of six on-farm trial replicates per community, with different conservation agriculture technologies on display. In Malawi, CIMMYT and TLC used these experimental plots as reference points, and demonstration and learning sites. Over the years, the trials evolved from simply displaying the three main components of conservation agriculture (2005─ 2011) to adding a full maize-legume rotation (2011─2014), stress-tolerant maize varieties (2014─2017), and introducing an agroforestry component with doubled-up legumes (2017─ 2020). In 2011, the initiative was expanded to eastern Zambia.The high standards of scientific excellence and increased yields (among other things) attracted additional communities and farmers, who were brought to the original trial sites for exchange visits and learning days. TLC also used the trial sites in their lead farmer approach to extension, in which one lead farmer per community is trained and supported with inputs for establishing the trial site, and 20 other farmers in the community follow and learn from the lead farmer. Later, TLC adjusted their extension approach to include farmer field schools. The partnership has reached about 140,000 beneficiaries and brought over 45,000 ha of land under conservation agriculture in Malawi and Zambia (Figure 11.4).  Despite being only an 18-month activity, the achievements were noteworthy, due largely to the soundness of the technologies and the presence of a functional partnership. The average yields of project beneficiaries were reported to be 1.34 tons/ha for soybean and 1.0 ton/ha for groundnuts in 2016/17, compared with 0.67 ton/ha for soybean and 0.58 ton/ha for groundnut for the same farmers the previous year. The project also aimed to increase household incomes and assets for smallholder farmers by increasing access to market information and financial services; enhancing commercial linkages in the soybean and groundnut value chains, including vertical coordination of smallholders through producers' groups and small and medium enterprises; and developing marketing opportunities for soybean and groundnuts through better market competitiveness and increased transparency. As a result of group marketing efforts, the average sale price achieved was US$ 0.23/kg for soybean and US$ 0.41/kg for groundnuts, compared with US$ 0.19/kg for soybean and US$ 0.3/kg for groundnuts offered to selling individually (IITA, 2018).• The partnerships included actors with complementary strengths. Africa RISING research contributed new technologies, management practices, and capacity-building ability, with NAFAKA, INVC, and TLC providing expertise in community empowerment and policy engagement. Additional partners, including government institutions and seed suppliers, enabled long-term sustainability by providing human resources to reach smallholder farmers, multiply the technologies, provide policy support, and facilitate market linkages.• Continuous open dialogue clarifed the roles and responsibilities of each partner and minimized the potential for confict.• Joint planning enabled equitable apportioning of fnancial resources, with joint mobilization of additional resources to facilitate continued scaling activities.• It was important to continually adapt scaling activities to existing conditions and needs, with changing roles for the partners. For instance, Africa RISING researchers were responsible for introducing improved varieties and new agricultural machinery. Over time, as the new varieties and machinery became popular, the private sector took a more prominent role and the Africa RISING research team was concerned mostly with technical backstopping. Similarly, with TLC, demonstrations were modifed over time to cater for evolving stakeholder needs.• Innovation support tools were useful to ensure the technologies were targeted to suitable agroecosystems and the socioeconomic conditions of the beneficiaries (see Box 11.1).In Tanzania and Malawi, community-based seed systems have proven vital in ensuring farmers have access to quality seeds of new crop varieties, especially legumes and rice. Private sector seed companies have yet to make substantial investments in these commodities, due partly to limited demand. Africa RISING and partners selected experienced farmers and, working with the national seed certification institutions, provided them with basic seed for planting and trained them how to produce certified seed. District seed certification staff supervised the fields throughout the cropping season to ensure the seed would meet the required standards.After harvest, the producers sold the certified seed to fellow farmers as quality declared seed (QDS). Some of the producers also signed up to seed production contracts.The community-based seed system model could enhance access to quality legume and rice seed across many African countries. The model is most successful with self-pollinated crops (e.g., soybean, Figure 11.6), since cross-pollinated crops like maize are subject to good levels of private sector investment. In Tanzania, 223 community-based producers of QDS for rice and legumes were supported by the national seed certification institution, producing over 400 tons of seed (362 tons for rice variety SARO5, and 41 tons for common bean varieties Jesca, Njano, and Uyole) for planting in the 2020 cropping season (IITA, 2019). For every ton of quality seed produced, about 300 farmers benefited, each accessing about 3 kg. In Malawi, 300 producers harvested about 66 tons of QDS for soybean and groundnuts in 2019.• Farmers growing new varieties through planting quality seed also need to apply good agronomic practices to obtain maximum yields and benefits. Training in agronomy should therefore be offered as part of the strategy to scale up sustainable intensification.• Producers of QDS will also need capacitybuilding to improve their skills in post-harvest management (sorting, drying, storage), record keeping, and marketing to ensure the sustainability of community-based seed systems.• QDS producers should be organized into groups, and existing groups should be strengthened, to ensure continued access to such services as certifed seed, inspection, and post-harvest management technologies after individual projects (e.g., Africa RISING) end. Savings and credit cooperatives can mobilize resources for external services, including buying certifed seed from approved sources.Box 11.1. Geospatial tools for increasing the scale of adoption Africa RISING used geospatial tools to generate recommendation domains largely from climatic and topographic data obtained through remote sensing. Using these domains helps reduce the risk of failure, focuses limited resources, maximizes potential impact, and increases the probability of adoption. The team developed two complementary spatial indices to guide technology targeting and applied them in the USAID Zone of Influence for Tanzania (Muthoni et al., 2017a and b). YaraMila CEREAL fertilizer contains 23% nitrogen, 20% phosphate, 5% potassium, 3% magnesium oxide, 3% sulfur, and 0.3% zinc. YaraBela SULFAN fertilizer contains 24% nitrogen and 6% sulfur.In Zambia, the Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia Agricultural Research Institute, and International Potato Centre (CIP), developed and released four improved varieties of orange-fleshed sweetpotato in 2014. In addition to providing high yields, these varieties have been proved in trials to Subject to the CABI Digital Library Terms & Conditions, available at https://cabidigitallibrary.org/terms-and-conditions provide beneficial (they are rich in vitamin A) as well as meeting consumer preferences and farmers' preferred agronomic characteristics. The varieties were not validated by Africa RISING but were taken to scale by the project to promote increased food security and nutrition. The research and scaling teams developed an accelerated, systematic, and sustainable delivery system for sweetpotato planting materials (vines), which involved participatory multiplication and deployment of disease-free vines of the high-yielding, nutritious varieties. The initiative strengthened the capacities of the participating communities in vine multiplication (increased and timely availability, and ease of access to high quality and disease-free planting material), thereby enhancing the adoption of the new varieties. Outdoor advertising provided a useful tool to increase awareness and adoption of the new varieties (Figure 11.7), with 42 billboards erected at key points along the main road (Great East Road) and village feeder roads in eastern Zambia. Billboards promoting the nutritional benefits and where to obtain planting materials were also located strategically at a large market. In addition, local volunteer farmers selected from among the beneficiary communities received training in orange-fleshed sweetpotato production and were linked with sources of vines. These farmers played an important role in dissemination among their peers as well as ensuring sustainability of the production system. Although the effectiveness of the approach was not formally assessed, anecdotal evidence reported an increased demand for the vines.• Novel approaches to marketing can complement traditional tools to provide Downloaded from https://cabidigitallibrary.org by 154.113.73.30, on 11/14/22. Subject to the CABI Digital Library Terms & Conditions, available at https://cabidigitallibrary.org/terms-and-conditions information to beneficiaries and enhance the scale of adoption of new technologies.• It is important to build the capacity and involve local technology adoption champions. Monitoring, evaluation, and learning are necessary for successful scaling and require systematic use of evidence to guide the process and incorporate new learning. A system must be in place to collect and process information on the various aspects of the sustainable intensification domains that affect scaling. Using the innovation platform or any other multi-stakeholder approach, actors need to meet periodically to review progress and address emerging issues (e.g., new pests and diseases, input markets, research results, and progress toward set goals), as well as generating new research.To assess the efficacy of the scaling process, Africa RISING compiled data on the number of project beneficiaries, smallholder farmers reached, area planted with improved varieties, number of farmers adopting, and productivity. These data are processed and shared in different ways, including reports sent to donors and other stakeholders, professional meetings, and stakeholder review and planning meetings. Regular feedback to beneficiaries (farmers' meetings) and partners (stakeholders' review and planning meetings held at least once a year) has been a cornerstone of the Africa RIS-ING activities.Capacity-building for stakeholders is important for success. Stakeholders include farmers and farmers' organizations, researchers, development agencies, policymakers, and the private sector (input dealers, credit institutions, and buyers). Government institutions, and the staff who take a leading role after projects end, are of particular importance to ensure scaling efforts are sustainable.Conducting capacity assessments for the selected institutions and individuals is critical to ensure capacity-building activities are targeted. To reach more beneficiaries, scaling efforts need to be responsive to the needs, capacities, and interests of all farmers, both women and men. It is important to pay attention to the specific constraints faced by women, such as lack of access to inputs or socio-cultural barriers to full participation in agriculture. Needs assessments should also assess the demand for capacity development in gender-accommodating or gender-transformative approaches to extension. See Chapter 1 of this book; see ILRI (2017) for methods that can be used to conduct the assessments, and FAO (2015) for capacitybuilding guidelines relevant to agricultural interventions.Participating farmers need to be well organized, mostly through groups and associations (Tsusaka et al., 2017). Emphasis should be put on promoting the participation of women and youth, as well as ensuring that they also play a role in leadership. Lead farmers can act as 'champions' for scaling interventions. In addition to ensuring equitable involvement of the various community members, capacity-building activities should focus on bookkeeping and accounting, marketing (negotiation and lobbying skills, vertical linkages to prime markets), and continued support from other actors in the scaling system (research, extension, policy, private sector).Efforts to promote buy-in by beneficiary institutions and partners are critical for sustained implementation of the activities resulting from capacity-building efforts. In addition, regular monitoring to provide for feedback, learning, and adaptation is important for successful capacity-building.A good scaling strategy should abide by the scaling principles cited in the literature (Simmons et al., 2007;World Bank, 2012); such a strategy should exhibit the characteristics listed in Table 11.1. The table also shows the successes and challenges resulting from the experience of Africa RISING scaling activities.Africa RISING's experience of successful scaling highlights the importance of partnerships, joint review, learning, and adaptation. In Tanzania, scaling efforts among Africa RISING, NAFAKA, the private sector, and public institutions reached 62,000 smallholder farmers in 2017, compared with fewer than 2,000 in the pilot stages in 2014. Yields of maize increased from an average of 1 t/ha to 2.1 t/ha and rice from 2 t/ha to 3.3 t/ha by 2017. Agro-input suppliers reported increased sales of improved seeds and fertilizers, from about 150 t/year to about 600 t/year for seed, and from about 500 t/year to 7,000 t/year for fertilizers. In Malawi, the INVC bridging project helped increase yields of legumes (soybean and groundnuts) by over 40%, benefiting about 33,000 smallholder farmers. In Malawi and Zambia, the conservation agriculture scaling partnership benefited about 140,000 smallholder farmers in 2016 compared with about 20,000 in 2013. Enhanced capacities for extension staff, seed producers, and local institutions supported continued scaling after the project closed. Monitoring, evaluation, and learning sessions ensured that timely actions and adaptations were implemented in such a way that the scaling efforts stayed on track.However, these achievements were not devoid of challenges, especially with respect to maintaining the relevance of the partnerships, meeting the capacity needs of partners (since both the needs and partners are diverse), and being able to address new challenges as they emerged (flexibility and adaptability); for example, the need to address the credit and market demands of increased agricultural productivity. In most cases, the new challenges meant bringing new partners on board or dedicating extra effort to new activities. ","tokenCount":"3159"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd3f92d513894dc6cea923b87e93dcb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d3a0fcbd-f430-435d-adc7-7c50d9b30155/retrieve","id":"1942360072"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"662cb8f0-4d31-42f2-ac9a-125468941ea6","pagecount":"24","content":"VSS can further gender equality: both through standards, as well as through specific programmes and interventions.• VSSs have thusfar failed to address the structural causes of gender equity in global value chains.• Need to take a strategic approach: analyze root causes, commit at the highest levels and resource it.To understand how ISEAL members integrate gender equality and women's empowerment in standards, programmes and initiatives, with an emphasis on the agri-food sector (Scoping study, Aug-Nov 2022) To explore ways in which sustainability systems contribute to increasing women's full and effective participation and leadership in decision-making (SDG5.5)To improve how ISEAL members monitor and assess impact on gender equality and women's empowerment through standards and programmes (Pilot research with 1 ISEAL member, forthcoming 2023)The CGIAR-ISEAL Scoping Study built on an end-line evaluation on mainstreaming gender equality conducted with ISEAL members in 2020 (part of the ISEAL-BSR project 'Improving data and impact measurement for women in supply chains').The purpose of the 2020 evaluation was to provide a state-of-play of where sustainability standards, specifically ISEAL members, stood on the topic of mainstreaming gender equality within their systems and to provide insights into ways forward.From secondary literature:• 50% of ISEAL member standards did not have any gender focus.• 3 ISEAL members had published gender strategies or policies • 2 had signed the UNECE 'Gender Responsive Standards Declaration'Gender was not a focus for most voluntary sustainability standards reviewed.But that was changing. Most members had increased their efforts on gender equality.• The majority did so by recognising ILO core conventions around non-discrimination and some around equal pay for equal work. • Some standards made more purposive references to gender equality.• 1 member had a more 'gender transformative' approach: gender equality as a strategic priority, a published gender strategy and awareness on gender issues within leadership and staff teams.For standards that did reference gender / women:This project aimed to:• Explore how ISEAL members seek to enhance gender equality and women's empowerment, with a focus on schemes in the agri-food sector• Identify enabling factors and challenges for enhancing gender equality and promoting women's rights and empowerment through ISEAL members' systems• Consider opportunities for learning and collaboration to advance gender equality through VSSThis will be achieved through:• Conducting semi-structured interviews with 14 ISEAL members, with a focus on the agri-food sector 'Do no harm' (in the standard)Supporting GE and women's rights (in the standard)Promoting GE and women's rights (beyond the standard)1. 'Do no harm' (in standards)• Non-discrimination / equality of treatment• In the workplace (hiring, wages, promotion, access to training)• For small producers (prices, membership, access to producer organization services)• Protections specific to women• Working conditions while pregnant, maternity leave and protections, breastfeeding breaks, separate accommodation and sanitation facilities• No harassment or violence• No sexual harassment and other forms of violence against women and girls, abuse and forced pregnancy testing or contraception• Grievance systems and policies that are trusted and accessible to women, and where reported incidents and concerns are reviewed and responded• Promoting social dialogue generally Most standards have basic requirements to protect women from harm. But they are missing the proactive side of encouraging women's participation and transforming the enabling environment for gender equality.Examples of approaches that go beyond 'Do no harm' in standards:Gender policy Gender committeeGrievance committee that is 'gender sensitive'Operator conducts community-based women's empowerment trainingRecruitment increases women's presence in management and skilled positions (not less than 15%)Consultation processes that are representative and inclusive of needs/interests 'vulnerable groups' (in the workplace, in communities)Examples of programmes / initiatives:• Gender strategies that include strategic aims, activities and extensive monitoring and evaluation for gender equality (and involve components below)• Support, training, guidance, tools to complement / support compliance with Gender Equality expectations in standards• Includes supporting audit competence on identifying gender issues • Providing more targeted support to women producers• Research projects and pilots focused on deepending understanding of gender and social inclusion issues in the sector• Networks and partnerships to build on existing efforts on gender equality and support additional gender expertise/representation in decision-making• Advocacy campaigns / systems change supporting gender equality • Developing internal gender policies to increase diversity and inclusion and awareness building 'in here'Examples of some innovative approaches on Gender Equality:• Programming that supports building women's leadership and entrepreneurial skills, and involving men (and masculinities)• Benefit sharing (from profits) that target women's needs, interests, businesses, etc ","tokenCount":"719"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6a3bf7ba4a5942f69a03d26949063c37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.iita.org/dataset/cce63609-be7b-4580-816f-e1d93849a7e8/resource/195e64cd-4293-4941-94bb-a94d432da7fb/download/htp-nematode-070524.doc.pdf","id":"-1004866819"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cf2f1985-4ed6-412b-9b2f-bc8eb3c918fb","pagecount":"9","content":"Parasitic nematodes (PPNs) mainly Radopholus spp. also known as burrowing nematodes are a major biotic threat to banana production in most African banana-growing regions (Keshari, and Mallikarjun, 2022). They cause plant toppling because root damage weakens soil anchorage and disrupts mineral and water uptake from the soil resulting in poor yields (Avhad, 2023). Despite the adoption of various management options to avert the effects of nematode damage, cultivation of resistant genotypes developed through breeding, is the most effective and economical sustainable way (Menon, 2016).Hybrids produced in the breeding program require evaluation for their response to nematode infection and the most used technique was to evaluate the genotypes in a controlled environment within the screenhouse (in vivo). The in vivo technique requires a considerable amount of space, time, and materials, hence is very costly and time-consuming. We have developed a high throughput (HTP) technique for rapid in vitro evaluation of large numbers of genotypesThis SOP provides an alternative method to the in vivo system to screen banana for nematode resistance against R. similis. It is an in vitro high throughput technique which is faster and cheaper.A comprehensive step-by-step guide for assessing the resistance of banana genotypes to R. similis using in vitro as well as for data collection and analysis. • Hybrids: Genotypes of banana generated after crossing two different banana genotypes.• Checks: Genotypes with known resistance to nematode infestation used as resistant controls in experimental trials.• Parental genotypes: Genotypes of banana commonly used in Mchare, Matooke and Plantain breeding.• Landraces: Genotypes commonly cultivated and known to be susceptible to the target biotic constraints.Below is a list of individuals responsible for each activity when screening banana germplasm for resistance to R. similis:Research Technicians: Multiplication of plants in TC (tissue culture or in vitro culture), inoculum preparation, inoculation, data collection and preliminary data analysis.Generate experimental design using cycDesign (https://vsni.co.uk/software/cycdesign), data analysis and overall supervision.Procedure/ProtocolsAll materials are generated in TC and are used when a rooting stage     NB: p-rep designs are adopted when experimental materials/space are limiting, therefore allowing repeated trials at different times. They form designs and layouts with an average efficiency of 0.99.• Nematodes already characterized as R. similis, are multiplied on carrot discs to the required numbers (Annexes 2, 3 and 4). • The nematodes are washed off the carrot discs and Petri-dish inner surfaces using sterile distilled water and introduced in a sterile 50 ml falcon tube to form a stock suspension. Ensure the carrot discs used are free from any contamination. • Nematode concentration in the stock suspension is determined by getting the average of three counts of nematodes in 2 mL aliquots using a nematode counting slide under an X4 compound microscope objective. • Working suspension is prepared by diluting the stock suspension to a known volume that is enough for a given number of plants within the experiment. • Each plant receives approximately 50 nematodes per ml dispensed using a pipette calibrated to draw this concentration per inoculation aliquot. • The inoculum is carefully introduced into the sand-MS media near the plant roots.• The jars are sealed and arranged according to the p-rep layout developed using CycDesign above and left for 4 weeks under similar TC growth conditions (25 o C with 16 and 8 hours of dark and light cycles respectively). • The data obtained is cleaned in Excel and analyzed using an updated GenStat Software and checked for normal distribution and if required transformed to normal distribution. • Residual Variance is calculated to determine the outliers and then data re-organized. • The analysis is performed using a mixed model residual maximum likelihood (REML) model, under multiple experiments using a linear mixed model fitted as response = µ + genotype + trial + trial.batch.block + error• The significance of the difference between Controls and Genotypes is calculated using Fisher`s Protected LSD at a 5% level of significance.Avhad • The picked nematodes are then sterilized using streptomycin sulfate and transferred to readily prepared carrot discs in Petri dishes under a lamina flow cabinet.• The nematodes are then left to multiply in an incubator with the temperature set at 28 o C.Annex 3: Preparation of carrot discs for nematode culturing • Select clean, undamaged carrots from the market. (Carrots with a considerable biomass) • Wash the carrot with tape water and rinse with distilled water.• Dry the carrots by wiping them with tissue paper.• Under the aseptic laminar flow cabinet, hold the carrot with a pair of forceps.• Spray the carrot with 96 % ethanol and flame until it is dry.• Peel the carrot lightly with a potato peeler.• Again spray ethanol on the peeled carrot and flame until it is dry.• Cut the carrot into sizeable transverse discs.• Introduce each disc into a separate sterile Petri dish.• Using a microscope, observe and select Petri dishes with carrot discs that contain live nematodes. • Using sterile distilled water, wash off nematodes from the Petri dish walls (2 ml suspension) into a sterile test tube. • Each Petri dish should be washed into a separate test tube and left to stand for 1 hour.• Prepare an anti-biotic solution by dissolving 0.06-0.1g of streptomycin sulfate into 10 ml of sterile and distilled water. • Using a syringe, suck in the antibiotic solution.• Filter sterilize the antibiotic solution by fitting a 2 µm pore size micro filter onto the syringe • Release the solution through the microfilter into a sterile test tube.• Pipette off 3 ml from the nematode solution prepared in each test tube earlier.• Add 3 ml of the filter-sterilized antibiotic solution to each test tube.• Leave the samples to stand for about 2 hours.• Reduce the volume again by pipetting off 3 ml from the solution and replenishing with sterile distilled water • Leave the sample to stand for 1 hour. ","tokenCount":"964"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7251acc0e693f38f94534fbc96d444bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9d20272c-9140-47d8-99be-f62fa81ea375/retrieve","id":"1576966785"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"011d93ab-0eea-4a03-a41b-5d3917da5a0c","pagecount":"19","content":"Le programme de Recherche sur l'Intensification Durable pour la Génération Future de l'Afrique (Africa RISING) comprend trois projets de recherche en développement soutenus par L'Agence des États-Unis pour le développement international (USAID) dans le cadre de l'initiative 'Feed the Future' du gouvernement américain.A travers la recherche-action et les partenariats de développement, l'Africa RISING crée des opportunités pour les ménages de petits agriculteurs de sortir de la faim et de la pauvreté grâce à des systèmes agricoles intensifiés de manière durable et qui améliorent les sécurités alimentaire, nutritionnelle et des revenus, en particulier pour les femmes et les enfants, tout en conservant ou améliorant les ressources naturelles. Les trois projets régionaux sont dirigés par Institut International d'Agriculture Tropicale (en Afrique de l'Ouest, de l'Est et Australe) et Institut International de Recherche sur l'Elevage (dans la zone des hauts-plateaux en Ethiopie). L'Institut International de Recherche sur les Politiques Alimentaires (IFPRI) dirige le suivi, l'évaluation et l'évaluation d'impact du programme.L'Africa RISING apprécie le soutien du peuple américain grâce à l'initiative 'Feed the Future' de l'USAID. Nous remercions également les paysans et les partenaires locaux de tous les sites pour leurs contributions au programme.Les systèmes d'alimentation des ruminants des petits exploitants agricoles dans les systèmes de culture et d'élevage mixtes de la zone soudano-sahélienne d'Afrique de l'Ouest est souvent caractérisé par des pertes alimentaires dans la mesure où les animaux ne consomment qu'une partie des aliments et piétinent ou urinent sur le reste. Compte tenu du manque d'aliments pour bétail, surtout pendant la saison sèche, il est essentiel d'utiliser efficacement les ressources alimentaires disponibles pour réduire au minimum les pertes dans le but de nourrir davantage d'animaux et de réduire les pertes en nutriments. Afin de vulgariser une méthode d'utilisation efficace des aliments pour bétail, l'utilisation des mangeoires améliorées a été testée dans trois communautés d'intervention du projet Africa RISING à Sirakele, à Zanzoni et M'Pessoba dans le district de Koutiala au sud du Mali à la saison sèche chaude fin (mars/avril 2019) et la saison sèche froide (février 2020).Quarante-cinq agriculteurs ont été sélectionnés aléatoirement dans les trois communautés. Ils ont été sensibilisés à l'utilisation de mangeoires améliorées fabriquées avec des matériaux commerciaux (planche et tôle ondulée) pour les petits ruminants. Chaque agriculteur a reçu une mangeoire améliorée qui a ensuite été comparée à la mangeoire traditionnelle. La quantité d'aliments offerts (le matin et le soir) et celle qui était gaspillée pendant l'alimentation ont été mesurées pendant six jours consécutifs, tant pour les mangeoires traditionnelles que pour les mangeoires améliorées dans les trois sites d'étude pendant les différentes saisons. Un questionnaire a été administré à tous les participants pour recueillir leur opinion sur les avantages de la technologie des systèmes d'alimentation efficaces.Les résultats du suivi des six jours de l'utilisation des mangeoires traditionnelles et améliorées ont révélé que les mangeoires améliorées ont réduit de manière significative le gaspillage d'aliments dans les trois communautés au cours des différentes saisons. Le pourcentage des pertes des résidus de cultures donnés aux animaux dans les mangeoires traditionnelles était de 7, 73±0,92, 26,13±3,30 et 13,32±1. 39 respectivement à Sirakele, Zanzoni et M'Pessoba, à la saison sèche chaude, contre moins de 1 % avec les mangeoires améliorées au cours de la même saison à Sirakele et M'Pessoba, et de 3,33 % à Zanzoni. Ce qui implique une économie d'aliments d'environ 7 %, 23 % et 12 % respectivement à Sirakele, Zanzoni et M'Pessoba. Des tendances similaires ont été observées dans la saison sèche froide. Les agriculteurs ont passé un peu moins de temps à nourrir les animaux avec les mangeoires améliorées qu'avec les mangeoires traditionnelles, mais les différences n'étaient pas significatives entre les communautés pour les deux saisons. Les hommes étaient largement responsables de l'alimentation des animaux dans les trois communautés étudiées pendant toutes les saisons (saison sèche chaude et saison sèche froide), bien que les femmes et les garçons aient également été impliqués. Les agriculteurs participants confirment les avantages des mangeoires améliorées, qui sont conformes à nos résultats. Ces résultats montrent que les aliments pour bétail peuvent être mieux utilisés grâce aux mangeoires améliorées.Le manque d'aliments pour bétail selon les saisons, surtout pendant la saison sèche, est une réalité dans la zone soudano-sahélienne de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. La méthode ad hoc avec laquelle les petits exploitants agricoles nourrissent leurs bétails avec les ressources alimentaires disponibles en utilisant les mangeoires traditionnelles est souvent caractérisés par des pertes d'aliments, car les animaux ne consomment qu'une partie et ils marchent ou urinent sur le reste. L'ampleur du gaspillage peut varier selon les saisons, le type d'aliments, le nombre d'animaux nourris et le type de mangeoires utilisées. Étant donné le manque d'aliments pour bétail surtout pendant la saison sèche, il est essentiel d'utiliser efficacement les ressources alimentaires disponibles pour réduire au minimum les pertes alimentaires, en vue de nourrir davantage d'animaux et de réduire les pertes en nutriments. L'utilisation efficace est également essentielle pour que les systèmes de production animale de la région soient rentables.Dans le cadre du projet Africa RISING en Éthiopie, des mangeoires améliorées ont été fabriquées, testées et évaluées pour l'alimentation des ruminants (bovins, ovins et caprins) par l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI). Les résultats du suivi de l'utilisation des mangeoires améliorées dans quatre sites en Éthiopie ont montré que leur utilisation permettait d'économiser 27 % des résidus de céréales et de légumineuses donnés aux animaux par rapport aux mangeoires traditionnelles. En outre, les mangeoires améliorées ont conduit à une augmentation considérable de la quantité de fumier collectée, d'après les réponses des participants dans les sites d'étude du projet Africa RISING en Éthiopie. Les résultats prometteurs obtenus en Éthiopie par cette technologie simple ont conduit à une enquête sur la faisabilité de l'adoption de cette même technologie en Afrique de l'Ouest. Cette étude visait donc à tester, valider et démontrer l'effet des mangeoires améliorées dans l'alimentation du bétail et des petits ruminants dans le Cercle de Koutiala, au sud du Mali. Les objectifs de cette étude étaient les suivants : (i) Tester, valider et démontrer l'effet des mangeoires améliorées dans l'alimentation des petits ruminants à Koutiala au sud du Mali. (ii) évaluer l'effet de la saison sur l'utilisation des aliments pour bétail par les éleveurs utilisant les mangeoires améliorées dans les trois communautés d'intervention. (ii) Renforcer les capacités des petits éleveurs dans les systèmes d'alimentation améliorés afin de réduire les pertes alimentaires et d'améliorer la productivité des animaux.Quarante-cinq éleveurs ont été sélectionnés aléatoirement dans trois communautés d'intervention de projet Africa RISING à Koutiala au sud du Mali, à savoir Sirakele, Zanzoni et M'Pessoba. Ces éleveurs ont été formés à l'utilisation de mangeoires améliorées fabriquées avec des matériaux commerciaux (planche et tôle ondulée) pour les petits ruminants. La répartition des participants en février 2019 était la suivante: 20 éleveurs à Sirakele, 15 éleveurs à Zanzoni et 10 éleveurs à M'Pessoba. Les 45 éleveurs ont participé à la collecte de données à la fois à la saison sèche chaude (mars/avril 2019) et à la saison sèche froide (février 2020). Chaque éleveur a reçu une mangeoire améliorée qui a ensuite été comparée aux mangeoires traditionnelles. La conception des mangeoires améliorées avec des matériaux commerciaux a été réalisée par un artisan local sur la base des spécifications fournies par ILRI Ethiopie. Le modèle et les photos des mangeoires améliorées ont été présentés aux participants dans les communautés sélectionnées pour qu'ils donnent leur avis sur la conception.La plupart des participants à l'étude ont préféré la construction de ces mangeoires pour leurs petits ruminants, car beaucoup d'entre eux ne possédaient que quelques têtes de bétail. Chaque mangeoire améliorée avec des matériaux commerciaux pour les ovins et les caprins a été construite pour un coût d'environ 100 000 FCFA (169 USD). Les mangeoires améliorées sont à deux faces et peuvent être utilisées par un maximum de 12 moutons et chèvres. La quantité d'aliments offerts (le matin et le soir) et celle qui a été gaspillée pendant l'alimentation ont été mesurées pendant six jours consécutifs, tant pour les mangeoires traditionnelles (étalage des aliments sur sol, utilisation de bols ou d'auges en bois, etc.) que pour les mangeoires améliorées dans les trois communautés d'intervention à la saison sèche chaude et à la saison sèche froide. Les aliments proposés étaient principalement des résidus de cultures tels que le fane d'arachides, le fane de niébé et les feuilles d'arbustes. Le temps passé à nourrir les animaux (ramener les aliments dispersés, garder les animaux pour qu'ils se nourrissent confortablement) a été enregistré. Un questionnaire a également été administré à tous les participants afin de recueillir leurs opinions sur les avantages de cette technologie pour l'efficacité des systèmes d'alimentation.Dans la saison sèche froide (février 2020), cinq éleveurs additionnels ont été sélectionnés aléatoirement dans chaque communauté d'intervention pour construire des mangeoires entièrement avec des matériaux locaux (bois et toit de chaume). L'utilisation des matériaux de construction disponibles localement visait à réduire les coûts de fabrication afin de faciliter l'adoption des mangeoires améliorées par les éleveurs. L'utilisation des matériaux localement disponibles pour la fabrication des mangeoires améliorées a permis de ramener les coûts de fabrication à environ 15 000 FCFA (environ 25 USD).Les données ont été analysées avec le logiciel SAS à travers la méthode des Procédures de moyens pour la statique descriptive et les procédures de GLM ont été utilisées pour évaluer l'effet des types de mangeoires, de la saison et de la communauté sur l'alimentation offerte, le temps passé à nourrir les animaux et le pourcentage d'aliment gaspillé. Un modèle à effet mixte a été utilisé avec la saison et la communauté comme variables aléatoires, tandis que le type de mangeoire était la variable fixe. Sauf indication contraire, le niveau de signification a été fixé à P < 0,05.Après la construction des mangeoires améliorées, 45 participants, dont 12 femmes, ont été sensibilisé à l'utilisation des mangeoires améliorées dans les trois communautés d'intervention en février 2019. L'objectif de la sensibilisation était de renforcer leur capacité à nourrir efficacement les animaux avec les mangeoires améliorées ; la sensibilisation a porté principalement sur une démonstration de l'utilisation des mangeoires.              M'Pessoba (Mode) 1. Il y a moins de gaspillages d'aliments avec les mangeoires améliorées par rapport aux mangeoires traditionnelles 5 5 52. La mangeoire améliorée réduit la contamination des aliments par le sable, les excréments, l'urine, etc. ","tokenCount":"1702"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"91dcd1927948b477dcd377ce4f753f40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45bc6703-824c-41ac-b7f9-42a421a2df11/retrieve","id":"-15021944"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3f7bf753-ab82-4bce-a795-4c8dc5a0d4ba","pagecount":"3","content":"The Chair and Committee welcomed the new member to the Organizing Committee, Dr Shadrack Moephuli, as the representative from South Africa, which will be the host country for the GCARD3 Global Event.No points were raised and so the minutes were accepted as written.The Committee was advised that the Minister had been informed on the success of the South Africa bid although formal approval is still going through Cabinet processes. There was a request from ARC for more information on VIPs that might be expected to attend as this will have an effect on security arrangements and will influence the choice of venue. The Chair and Vice--Chair of ARC have requested further information from the Organizing Committee on the expected number of participants and if additional sponsors will be sought (e.g. possibility of raising funds through selling space and/or side events). The Organizing Committee Co--Chair noted that, although it is a bit early to know which Ministers and how many of them will attend; it can be safely presumed that there will be some attending the GCARD3 global event. The GCARD3 global event is part of the overall GCARD process, so it can be expected that a number of participants of national and regional consultations will be attending the global event. The original estimate (November 2014) was for 350 participants, but this was largely based on the available budget at that time. It might be expected that with increased funding and good national/regional consultations the number of participants could rise. This falls in line with the expectations of South Africa (300--500). South Africa is in the process of setting up a local organizing committee and will keep the Organizing Committee advised on the progress.After discussion on the various meetings/conference being held during the first quarter of 2016, and noting that Easter in 2016 falls on 27 March, the Committee decided that an appropriate date should be found in the first or second week of April 2016. This date seems appropriate for the CRPs as they will have finished their final proposal submission. It was advised that this is also a comparatively good time in the South African calendar (beginning of the financial year and a relatively low season for international events) The Committee agreed that live streaming of the event would be important and that a venue should be identified that can facilitate the required technology. Discussions on expanding to include an exhibition will be dependent on the venue identified. Johannesburg may be the more appropriate city to find a venue as the facilities for technologies (live streaming) are more readily available and it has direct international flights (reducing any required domestic travel within South Africa).The Committee agreed that the GCARD3 Global event would total about 4 days. There should be two full days for GCARD core deliberations with an additional day for ARC celebrations and another day for the GFAR Partner Assembly.The Committee discussed and agreed that the GCARD3 Global event should showcase the significance of agriculture research that leads to development impacts. Taking advantage of the GCARD3 national and regional consultations towards site integration and the strengthening of national research and innovation systems, the GCARD3 Global event should emphasize innovation and partnerships on a bigger scale, with the CGIAR and other research actors as part of that bigger picture. For the CGIAR, the GCARD Global event will not focus specifically on CRPs, nor be for the purpose of informing decision on the final CRP proposals (as these will have already been submitted), but will lead towards the integration of these with other actors and actions towards impact in each area. As the CGIAR is in the middle of its strategic renewal, and there are other large processes going on (e.g. CAADP, NEPAD) the Committee felt that the focus should be on the contribution of agri--food systems research and innovation to development (as done by different stakeholders (e.g. ARC, CGIAR, other research for development institutions and systems) working together). The outcomes of the GCARD3 Global event should provide give an injection to larger processes and articulate clearly and boldly how agricultural research and innovation respond to the Sustainable Development Goals. ACTION: the GCARD3 support team should take note of the discussions of the meeting and build a draft program for discussion at the next Organizing Committee meeting ACTION: All Committee members are to revert to their constituencies to see how the proposed dates work and what other meetings might be included in the GCARD3 Global event. The results of these discussions should be shared with the GCARD3 Support Team as soon as possible.1 ACTION: A public announcement on the host country will be made once there is firmer confirmation on the venue and date (resulting from the discussions OC members have with their constituencies and from ARC on venue). This can be done prior to the next meeting if information is at hand.","tokenCount":"813"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4523924868.json b/data/part_1/4523924868.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..36866c7e926f482701214277e661994aa45810cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4523924868.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"af24bed48ac84b3335a1e28c583a800a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e48bd0f-85e1-483c-a34e-6a31e4612708/retrieve","id":"-1780870449"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4bce76d6-5fbb-4858-b226-260d31c40751","pagecount":"1","content":"o Assessment of different types of existing natural resource institutions in the study sites o Level of participation in the development of the local natural resource institutions. o Analysis of strengths and weaknesses of existing local natural resource institutions.o Local conventions governing natural resources management exist in all study sites mainly in an informal (oral) form. They govern natural resources use (land access and acquisition by foreigners, harvesting wild fruits, fishing, grazing, forest, water management). o Men had a higher knowledge of local natural resource institutions compared to women (Figure 1) o Participation of community members in elaboration of natural resources institutions was very low, and age, gender, and ethnicity appeared to influence the level of participation of the community (Table 1). o Weakness of existing local natural resource institutions : Lack of formalization of most of the existing rules and norms governing NRM; lack of effective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for the local rules governing NRM; poor participation of community members in the elaboration of local conventionsTable 1: Results of the regression analysis of the level of participation of community members in the elaboration of rules and norms governing natural resources use By assessing impact of natural resource policy instruments in the farming system through a comparative case study with communities having these policies developed and the communities without natural resource policy instruments.The Current partnerships and future engagements for out scaling ","tokenCount":"232"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4533221894.json b/data/part_1/4533221894.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f7ab63cf5f5b83cab9ccd66f1cc41f7bf50e9fae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4533221894.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6052083131373fc036a1e3af8c3bc29b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fe4d1ba5-a94f-45b1-b211-c18b1d93e474/retrieve","id":"-1266043260"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"59569e75-3251-4eb5-82bf-e1c61bff406a","pagecount":"2","content":"saisonnier selon le genre -un outil d'analyse des sexospécificitéss'avèrent efficace pour rendre ces variations saisonnières évidentes.Les femmes tendent à s'occuper de la production de nombreuses cultures en petites quantités qui sont néanmoins importantes pour leurs moyens de subsistance et leur famille. Elles sont localisées non seulement dans les champs relevant de la compétence de la femme, mais souvent également aux bords des cultures masculines et dans les jardins potagers familiaux.Les femmes et les hommes utilisent différentes ressources forestières allant au-delà du simple bois, généralement contrôlé par des hommes ou des organisations locales. Les PFNL peuvent être employés aussi bien pour la consommation que pour la vente, et les périodes où ils sont disponibles peuvent coïncider avec les périodes difficiles (avant la récolte, quand l'approvisionnement en nourriture est insuffisant), les rendant particulièrement importants pour la sécurité alimentaire. L'habileté féminine à accéder à de nombreux PFNL et les revenus en découlant rendent ces produits fortement appréciés par les femmes.Les femmes rurales sont souvent impliquées dans la collecte de PFNL et la production agricole pour la consommation du ménage, plutôt que pour leur vente. Cette importante contribution à la sécurité alimentaire des ménages est négligée lorsque les études se concentrent exclusivement sur les activités génératrices de revenus.L'élevage d'animaux n'est pas exclusivement réservé aux hommes. En fait, dans certaines régions, ce sont principalement les femmes qui gèrent les animaux. Elles s'occupent habituellement moins du gros bétail que les hommes etUne focalisation sur la production agricole tend à donner priorité aux activités sur le terrain concernant les cultures de base et commercialisables, obscurcissant les travaux multiples, basés sur de solides connaissances, menés à bien par des femmes et/ou des hommes dans les forêts et les jardins potagers familiaux, la sélection et la conservation, la commercialisation, les soins et la transformation des produits alimentaires, etc.La sphère reproductive fait référence à toutes les activités nécessaires pour maintenir le ménage et ses membres, telles que la cuisine, le nettoyage, l'élevage des enfants, etc. En plus de contribuer à la production agricole et à la gestion des ressource naturelles, les femmes ont des responsabilités particulièrement lourdes dans la sphère reproductive qui limitent leurs possibilités de s'adonner à d'autres activités.Il est possible que les femmes et les hommes cultivent différents produits agricoles ou assument des tâches différentes dans la culture des mêmes variétés végétales. Il se peut, par exemple, que les hommes préparent la terre pour la culture, alors que les femmes sèment et désherbent et qu'ils moissonnent ensemble les récoltes, tout en menant à bien des tâches distinctes dans le processus. Les femmes apportent parfois une contribution importante en termes de travail aux cultures dites 'masculines' (contrôlées par les hommes). Cette contribution n'est néanmoins pas reconnue.Les activités des femmes et des hommes varient tout au long de l'année et aucun cliché instantané ne peut capturer l'éventail des activités exercées annuellement. Il est important d'étudier ces variations saisonnières pour comprendre les contraintes de travail auxquelles femmes et hommes sont confrontés pendant certaines périodes de l'année, parmi d'autres considérations. Le calendrier Conseils pour poser des questions sexospécifiques 1 L'analyse comparative entre les genres examine comment les rôles, les droits et les responsabilités respectifs des femmes et des hommes interagissent et ont de l'influence sur les résultats de l'étude, concernant notamment les procédés de gestion des ressources agroécologiques et forestières.Tenir compte des responsabilités et des rôles différents des femmes et des hommes au sein des petites exploitations agricoles familiales et forestières aura une incidence sur le type de questions posées pour obtenir des informations sur les réalités des hommes comme des femmes. Pour mener à bien des analyses sexospécifiques, il faudra élargir les domaines de recherche et aller au-delà des activités visibles qui sont souvent contrôlées par les hommes afin de mettre en lumière les activités 'invisibles' des femmes. Pour y parvenir, il faut en prendre conscience et poser des questions explicites sur des sujets tels que: se concentrent plutôt sur l'élevage de la volaille et du petit bétail. Il se peut également que les femmes soient entièrement responsables des animaux gardés auprès de la propriété familiale, leur procurant du fourrage et assurant la transformation et la commercialisation des produits animaux. Pourtant, leur contribution à ces activités est souvent ignorée.Il est judicieux de considérer non seulement le régime foncier, souvent précaire pour les femmes, mais également d'autres formes importantes d'accès aux ressources, telles que les droits d'accès aux arbres et à leurs produits qui peuvent différer des droits sur les terres où poussent les arbres.Les femmes et les hommes exploitent souvent des lieux différents. Les femmes, par exemple, tendent à recueillir des produits des terres communes et non cultivées, telles que la brousse et les interstices entre parcelles. Ces lieux, qui sont fondamentaux pour la subsistance des femmes, sont souvent ignorés dans les analyses qui se focalisent sur les 'terres productives'.Bien que les femmes aient éventuellement accès à certaines ressources, il se peut qu'elles n'aient pas la faculté de décider de leur sort (comment les employer, disposer de leurs produits, les transférer, etc.). Il est essentiel de savoir qui contrôle les ressources pour comprendre les processus de gestion de ces dernières.Alors que les hommes peuvent ou sont officiellement sensés prendre de nombreuses décisions liées à la gestion des ressources (entre autres), ceci ne devrait pas être tenu pour acquis. En outre, même lorsque les hommes sont reconnus en tant que décideurs, les femmes apportent le plus souvent des connaissances et une contribution précieuses au processus décisionnel. Identifier comment les décisions sont prises et négociées est la clé pour comprendre les relations entre les genres et les stratégies de gestion des ressources domestiques.La participation aux groupes de la communauté peut être mixte ou limitée aux hommes ou aux femmes. Les collectivités qui contrôlent les ressources clés, comme les comités forestiers des communautés, ont souvent une prévalence masculine. Bien que des femmes puissent être représentées au sein d'associations mixtes, de comités et de structures décisionnelles, leur capacité réelle d'influencer des décisions prises dans ces organisations est loin d'être gagnée.Hormis le genre, d'autres critères comme l'âge, le niveau d'éducation, la situation économique et autres caractéristiques identitaires affectent les activités de subsistance tout comme l'utilisation et la gestion des ressources. Il faut se demander comment ces facteurs, combinés avec la dimension de genre, engendrent différentes opportunités et contraintes pour les hommes et les femmes. Posez des questions précises: Étant donné que le savoir et le travail des femmes sont souvent sous-évalués par les communautés locales, compris par les femmes elles-mêmes, il est utile de travailler avec des groupes et de faire suivre aux questions générales des questions plus précises, ce afin d'encourager les femmes à parler de thèmes qu'elles pourraient considérer comme inutiles. Par exemple, quand on leur demande quels produits elles cultivent, elles pourraient omettre de citer les variétés végétales qu'elles font pousser en très petites quantités pour l'usage domestique, ces dernières pouvant être considérées de faible valeur pour la société. L'obtention de réponses plus complètes peut être facilitée en posant des questions spécifiques, telles que: \"Y a-t-il des plantes que vous cultivez en petites quantités pour l'assaisonnement, à des fins médicales ou culturelles?\" ","tokenCount":"1179"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4544511514.json b/data/part_1/4544511514.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..52aeb0740cf09c4fc7c3ca2d9401d11f43546248
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4544511514.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4088c894213942f0c56cef51edf34c90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a997b140-c585-4b24-a35a-c3944d15a346/retrieve","id":"-1326616792"},"keywords":["cis-1","4-polyisoprene Familias de plantas con latex (40 familias; 20","000 sp.) Asteraceae Chrysotamnus nauseosus","Parthenium argentatum","Solidago rigida","Taraxacum kok-saghyz Cnidoscolus elasticus","Hevea brasiliensis","Manihot glaziovii","Micrandra siphonoides"],"sieverID":"5c13a3c6-0598-4d75-afa0-79a68d5e6be3","pagecount":"22","content":"Plantas clave en la alimentación y desarrollo económico de los trópicos Comentarios 6. Los cultivos 'industriales' se dan mejor afuera de la zona de origen Haga una inversión segura . . . conserve ! D.G. Debouck Palmira, 21 de mayo de 2010 en esto no hay elasticidad ! 300 años a.C.Africa sub-Sahara Asia tropical    Consumo de Caucho naturalA manera de conclusión . . .•el caucho muestra una vez más lo impredecible de los RFGAA•la introducción cautelosa de un RFGAA permite desarrollos espectaculares•Amazonía puede 'exportar' RFG de caucho con éxito•este éxito está condicionado al progreso en:\"But the relationship between these species and the identity of all the others is a complete fog\" , R E Schultes, 1943. in Davis 1996 \"One River\". ","tokenCount":"121"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4551431356.json b/data/part_1/4551431356.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9d15b45e56e1bdcb102658450eaedaf6498aacd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4551431356.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"443caea11f6b4fed5a0bf0e48c9fb8ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1cd256fc-9ea1-4843-970d-236dab871bf2/retrieve","id":"1418905184"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5cce290-a48e-4d8a-a332-fc1815ed40e2","pagecount":"5","content":"In 2018, CCAFS and partners provided technical and policy recommendations on Land Productivity and Agricultural Performance for the Colombian Green Growth Policy. The government allocated US $74.5 million to implement actions that help to improve the agricultural sector's performance aiming for increasing by 3%, the agricultural production under green-growth criteria. The current National Development Plan focuses on sustainable agricultural activities that include climate-smart innovation options in line with green growth standards.Green growth policy in Colombia is advancing its implementation.As part of the international commitments, the National Planning Department (DNP) led the formulation of the Green Growth Policy in Colombia with the support of the Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI). Several key technical organizations were commissioned to support the Green Growth Mission, from which CCAFS consortium was selected to lead the study on Land Productivity and Agricultural Performance in the framework of green growth.CCAFS conducted diagnoses and analyses to improve agricultural productivity while guaranteeing its environmental sustainability in five prioritized crops (coffee, cocoa, hass avocado, livestock, and potato). Promising technologies that could be key to increase land productivity and agricultural performance under green growth in Colombian were assessed in prioritized crops. Promising technologies included coffee renovation with adequate variety based on climate and soil, medium and high-intensity silvopastoral systems, climate-smart practices in cocoa, conservation agriculture in potato crop and integrated management of pest and diseases in hass avocado. According to our analysis, the implementation of such practices has a positive effect on OECD green growth indicators. The National Government used these results during the Green Growth Policy formulation process.In 2020, the Colombian Government allocated US$654 million (12) for policy implementation, of which US$74.5 million will be used to implement the strategy to improve the performance of the Colombian agricultural sector (6). This was approved by the National Council of Economic and Social Policy (CONPES) 3934. This ambitious plan launched by the Colombian Government includes 155 actions to be carried out by 2030. These actions will contribute to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of the Paris Agreement through an economic development that considers the protection of natural resources.• https://tinyurl.com/ybntmn8w  Promising technologies that could increase land productivity and agricultural performance under green growth in Colombian were assessed in five prioritized crops (coffee, cocoa, hass avocado, livestock, and potato). According to our analysis, implementing such practices has a positive effect on OECD green growth indicators. The National Government used these results during the Green Growth Policy formulation process. Research outputs are listed below (1)(2)(3)(4). Policy recommendations made by CCAFS are also reflected in the component to improve the performance of the agricultural sector of the policy(5, pg. 77).Colombian Government launched the policy in July 2018 and acknowledged CCAFS and CIAT consortium's technical contribution in this policy formulation process (7). Since August 2018, the current government prioritized in its 2018-2022 Development Plan the implementation of the Green Growth Policy. Led by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADR), agricultural sector actions should focus on instruments towards sustainable agricultural activities that include climate-smart innovation processes and technologies aligned to the green growth policy (8). The goal established an increase of at least 3% of the agricultural production following green growth guidelines (9). The research and engagement process were systematized (10).To progress towards the implementation of the policy, Colombian government allocated US73.23 million to implement 12 out 20 recommended actions for promoting green growth in the agricultural sector (6). Between 2018-2020, US16.8 million were allocated to implement 10 of those actions (6). A preliminary research results done by CCAFS, indicated that the green growth policy activities are being implemented according to the plan. This was stated by experts from the MADR and the National Planning Department. Interviewees also mentioned that the green growth policy triggered the formulation of related policies such Food Loss and Waste and Deforestation Control policies. Moreover, it also demonstrated the importance of incorporating science in formulation processes that address long-term sustainability.CCAFS continues to be part of the Advisory Committee supporting the government in designing relevant indicators to measure the progress of the Green Growth Policy (10). Specifically, CCAFS has provided technical inputs for the indicator on \"Participation in Agricultural Production in compliance with Green Growth Criteria\" (10).","tokenCount":"703"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4551983725.json b/data/part_1/4551983725.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b083f0049a0a411f437e88da52510dbd34cb8158
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4551983725.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"46914c8419dad8e1999ea319a90dc071","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1d9ad7d0-3a05-4c7e-a9b8-4fd44a535dba/retrieve","id":"-2113529938"},"keywords":["1 -Very good","2 -Good","3-Average","4 -Bad","5 -Very bad"],"sieverID":"f5c53f4c-cfa1-4275-94a0-9d57489c7e27","pagecount":"11","content":"Participatory variety selection on capsicum was done on all three experimental sites, the selection involved different participants including Extension officers, farmers, processors researchers and village executives. Two selection methods were used in identifying the best candidate lines that are suitable for registration as new variety, that is Matrix and pairwise ranking approaches.Key: 1 -Very good, 2 -Good, 3-Average, 4 -Bad, 5 -Very badA pairwise ranking approach complimented the matrix ranking whereby the same genotypes were selected as the best candidate lines. Table 2 shows that the same AVPP 2021 and AVPP 2027 scored higher compared to others, yolo wonder ranked the least followed by AVPP 2029 which is the same as in matrix ranking approach. For habanero, candidate line AVPP1929 was ranked as the best line (Table 3), followed by AVPP1930. AVPP1503 were ranked the third followed by AVPP1925. Local check, AVPP1240 and AVPP 1927 scored the least based on the selection criteria used. Pairwise ranking revealed that the same candidate line AVPP1929 is the best genotype for registration followed by AVPP 1503and AVPP 1930. Local check, AVPP 1240and AVPP 1927 scored least as it was mentioned earlier in matrix approach.    Participatory variety selection in Kimashuku showed that line AVPP 2029 performed better than others and ranked the first followed by AVPP 2030 and then local check (Yolo wonder) (Table 7) the genotype AVPP 1516 was selected and ranked third in pairwise ranking approach (table 8).     1925,1927,1930 and check scored high compared to others in pairwise ranking (Table 14) Pair wise ranking approach revealed that Imara F1 was the best followed by AVTO 0301, TANYA, AVTO 2121, AVTO 9708 and AVTO 2122 (Table 16) ","tokenCount":"274"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4560177011.json b/data/part_1/4560177011.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..84191e15a0a173d5f9e19b5b6362dbde1dec0d52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/4560177011.json
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c3f1e615826bfda55277b5cb850d931c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0764623e-cba7-4120-ae4e-7bdf915506c2/content","id":"1287264287"},"keywords":["aggressiveness","chickpea","cold","Didymella rabiei","pre-disposition","resistance"],"sieverID":"be3529bf-76a2-45ae-a94d-8dcc8eb161e3","pagecount":"11","content":"Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important food and rotation crop in many parts of the world. Cold (freezing and chilling temperatures) and Ascochyta blight (Didymella rabiei) are the major constraints in chickpea production. The effects of temperature stresses on chickpea susceptibility and pathogen aggressiveness are not well documented in the Cicer-Didymella pathosystem. Two experiments were conducted under controlled conditions using chickpea genotypes and pathogen isolates in 2011 and 2012. In Experiment 1, four isolates of D. rabiei (AR-01, AR-02, AR-03 and AR-04), six chickpea genotypes (Ghab-1, Ghab-2, Ghab-3, Ghab-4, Ghab-5 and ICC-12004) and four temperature regimes (10, 15, 20, and 25 • C) were studied using 10 day-old seedlings. In Experiment 2, three chickpea genotypes (Ghab-1, Ghab-2, and ICC-12004) were exposed to 5 and 10 days of chilling temperature exposure at 5 • C and non-exposed seedlings were used as controls. Seedlings of the three chickpea genotypes were inoculated with the four pathogen isolates used in Experiment 1. Three disease parameters (incubation period, latent period and disease severity) were measured to evaluate treatment effects. In Experiment 1, highly significant interactions between genotypes and isolates; genotypes and temperature; and isolate and temperature were observed for incubation and latent periods. Genotype x isolate and temperature x isolate interactions also significantly affected disease severity. The resistant genotype ICC-12004 showed long incubation and latent periods and low disease severity at all temperatures. The highly aggressive isolate AR-04 caused symptoms, produced pycnidia in short duration as well as high disease severity across temperature regimes, which indicated it is adapted to a wide range of temperatures. Short incubation and latent periods and high disease severity were observed on genotypes exposed to chilling temperature. Our findings showed that the significant interactions of genotypes and isolates with temperature did not cause changes in the rank orders of the resistance Kemal et al.Temperature Stresses on Resistance and Aggressiveness of chickpea genotypes and aggressiveness of pathogen isolates. Moreover, chilling temperature predisposed chickpea genotypes to D. rabiei infection; developing multiple stress resistance is thus a pre-requisite for the expansion of winter-sown chickpea in West Asia and North Africa.Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important cool-season food legume crop grown in many parts of the world. The crop is produced for local consumption, to generate export earnings and act as a break crop to improve soil fertility and health. Chickpea is mainly grown in spring in many parts of the world where drought, heat, wilt/root rots, Ascochyta blight and insect pests limit crop productivity and production (Singh et al., 1989;Jha et al., 2014;Li et al., 2015). Chickpea yield can be substantially increased by adopting early winter sowing at low to medium altitudes in the West Asia and North African (WANA) region (Hawtin and Singh, 1984;Singh et al., 1989;Mazid et al., 2013). However, sowing chickpea in winter can increase the risk of exposing the crop to subzero temperatures as low as −10 • C for up to 60 days and to chilling temperature and Ascochyta blight epidemics during the cropping season (Malhotra and Singh, 1991;Singh et al., 1993;Croser et al., 2003;Nezami et al., 2012).To tap the potential of winter chickpea sowing in low to medium altitude areas, the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) has initiated a chickpea breeding program targeting winter sowing since the 1974/75 cropping season. The two key traits for the success of winter sown chickpea are cold (freezing) tolerance at the seedling and vegetative stages and resistance to Ascochyta blight (Didymella rabiei). ICARDA develops cold tolerant chickpea germplasm in key cold testing sites in Syria (Tel Hadya Research Station), Turkey (Eskishehr Research Station), Lebanon (Terbol Research Station) and Iran (Maraghahe Research Station). Breeding lines and germplasm accessions (cultivated and wild relatives) are exposed to freezing temperatures ranging from −5 • C in Lebanon and Syria to −20 • C in Turkey and Iran. The first cultivars released for winter sowing with cold tolerance and Ascochyta blight resistance were ILC-482 and ILC-3279 (Malhotra and Singh, 1991;Singh et al., 1992a,b). The cultivar ILC-482 has moderate levels of Ascochyta blight resistance and tolerance to freezing temperatures as low as −10 • C and can yield up to 4 t/ha (Hawtin and Singh, 1984). Besides high productivity, wintersown chickpea cultivars are taller than spring sown chickpea and allows mechanical harvesting that solves labor shortages during harvesting and threshing (Singh et al., 1997). Moreover, wilt/root rots and leaf miner are less problematic in winter-sown than in spring-sown chickpea crops.Ascochyta blight is a major biotic factor contributing to high yield gaps in chickpea in many countries (Pande et al., 2005;Singh et al., 2007). The pathogen is heterothallic and requires the pairing of two compatible mating types (MAT1-1 and MAT1-2) for sexual reproduction. In the presence of the two mating types, fertile pseudothecia can develop on overwintering chickpea straw; ascospores act as primary inoculum sources to initiate disease foci that can lead to epidemics under favorable environmental conditions. Many races and pathotypes of D. rabiei have been reported in the WANA region (Udupa et al., 1998;Nourollahi et al., 2011;Atik et al., 2013). Different approaches are available to manage Ascochyta blight in chickpea crops with varying levels of effectiveness. These include foliar fungicide applications, seed treatment, agronomic practices, growing resistant cultivars and integration of two or more control options (Gan et al., 2006;Chang et al., 2007a;Dusunceli et al., 2007;Lobna et al., 2010). Although different Ascochyta blight management options are available for growers, breeding for host plant resistance is given the highest priority by national and international chickpea breeding programs (Singh and Reddy, 1996;Muehlbauer and Chen, 2007;Rubiales and Fondevilla, 2012;Sharma and Ghosh, 2016). The resistance of cultivars released in many countries is controlled by both major and minor genes (Lichtenzveig et al., 2002;Muehlbauer and Chen, 2007;Rubiales and Fondevilla, 2012;Labdi et al., 2013;Sharma and Ghosh, 2016). For example, the first two cultivars (genotypes ILC-482 and ILC-3279) released for winter sowing in many countries in WANA region have rate reducing resistance to the D. rabiei population existing in the early 1980s in Syria (Reddy and Singh, 1993) but this resistance was eroded through the appearance of more aggressive pathogen populations (Imtiaz et al., 2011;Atik et al., 2013;Hamwieh et al., 2013).Interactions between biotic and abiotic stresses have been reported in many host-pathogen pathosystems where plants exposed to abiotic stresses showed either increased or decreased resistance/tolerance to subsequent infections by pathogens (Atkinson and Urwin, 2012;Bostock et al., 2014;Suzuki et al., 2014;Moyer et al., 2015). Temperature has a significant effect on host plant resistance genes and pathogen virulence and aggressiveness in many pathosystems. For example, in lupin, resistant cv. Wonga became susceptible to anthracnose when the temperature increased from 12-18 • to 26 • C (Thomas et al., 2008). When infected with different Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris races, chickpea cv. Ayala was moderately resistant at 24/21 • C but susceptible at 27/25 • C (Landa et al., 2006). In wheat, some isolates of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici showed increased aggressiveness at high temperature (Milus et al., 2009). In sunflower, resistance to Orobanche aegyptiaca was found to be temperature dependent (Eizenberg et al., 2003). Studies on biotic-abiotic interactions in Ascochyta-legume pathosystem have mainly focused on the role temperature and wetness period play in inoculum production and disease development (Trapero-Casas andKaiser, 1992, 2007;Pedersen and Morrall, 1994;Roger et al., 1999;Tivoli and Banniza, 2007;Golani et al., 2016), but studies on the role temperature stress plays in host resistance, pathogen aggressiveness and predisposing chickpea to pathogen infection are lacking. Therefore, this study was designed to assess: (1) the effect of different temperature ranges on host resistance and pathogen aggressiveness in Cicer-Didymella pathosystem; and (2) how chilling temperature predisposes chickpea genotypes to D. rabiei infections.Two independent experiments were conducted in 2011 and 2012 at ICARDA Tel Hadya Research Station, Syria. Experiment 1 was conducted in two controlled environment growth cabinets (Conviron Model E15, Winnipeg, Canada), adjusted to a 16h photoperiod of approximately 450 mmol m −2 s −1 light intensity provided by fluorescent light (Jhorar et al., 1998;Udupa et al., 1998); Experiment 2 was conducted under plastic house conditions. In both experiments, four D. rabiei isolates, namely, AR-01 (Pathotype-1, weakly aggressive), AR-02 (Pathotype-2 moderately aggressive), AR-03 (Pathotype-3, aggressive) and AR-04 (Pathotype-4, highly aggressive), were used (Udupa et al., 1998;Imtiaz et al., 2011). The four isolates are routinely used to screen ICARDA chickpea breeding lines for Ascochyta blight resistance under field and controlled conditions (Hamwieh et al., 2013).Four temperature regimes (10, 15, 20, and 25 • C) and five released Kabuli chickpea genotypes for winter sowing, namely Ghab-1 (ILC-482), Ghab-2 (ILC-3279), Ghab-3 (FLIP-150-82), Ghab-4 (FLIP-85-122), , and one desi chickpea genotype (ICC-12004) were used in this experiment. All released cultivars in this study were resistant to pathogen populations existing during the year of their release. Seedlings (five seeds per 10-cm diameter pot) of each genotype planted in a sterilized soil-peat moss mixture in plastic house at 20 ± 2 • C for 10 days were used for this experiment. The experiment was laid out in a split-split plot design (main plot: temperature; sub-plot: genotypes and sub-sub plots: isolates) with three replications and performed four times. The four D. rabiei isolates were grown on chickpea dextrose agar (4% chickpea flour; 2% dextrose and 2% agar in 1 l of distilled water) for 7-10 days inside a culture room at 21-23 • C under 16/8 h light and darkness cycles. Spore suspensions were prepared the day of seedling inoculations by flooding the surface of the culture in Petri dishes with distilled water and then scraping the surface of the culture with a glass rod to release spores from pycnidia. Spore concentrations were determined using a Neubauer hemacytometer and adjusted to the desired concentration by diluting with distilled water. Ten-day old chickpea raised in the plastic house were inoculated with a spore suspension (5 × 10 5 spores m −l ) of each isolate using hand sprayers until runoff for each temperature regime. Inoculated seedlings were covered with transparent polyethylene sheets for 72 h. After removing the plastic covers, seedlings were misted 3-4 times daily with distilled water to maintain favorable conditions (leaf wetness and 70% or more relative humidity in the growth cabinets) and favor disease development.Three chickpea genotypes (Ghab-1, Ghab-3, and ICC-12004) were used in this experiment. Cultivars Ghab-1 and Ghab-3 are tolerant to cold but the reaction of genotype ICC-12004 is not documented. The isolates, number of seedlings per pot, experimental design, number of replications, spore concentrations and inoculation and incubation methods were similar to those described under Experiment 1. Seedlings (10 day-old) were raised in a plastic house at 20 ± 2 • C and 16/8 h light/dark cycles and exposed to chilling temperature (5 • C) in a cold chamber (16/8 h light/ dark and light cycles) for 5 and 10 days before inoculation. After chilling exposure, seedlings were returned to the plastic house for inoculation with pathogen isolates. Sets of seedlings of each genotype not exposed to chilling temperature and raised at 20 ± 2 • C in a plastic house were used as controls. High humidity (>75%) was kept in the plastic house by misting water for 30 s at 2-3-h intervals. The chilling temperature (5 • C) was selected because the cold chamber cannot be adjusted at a lower temperature; the temperature closer to the low temperatures prevailing during the seedling and vegetative stages of winter-sown chickpea at ICARDA, Tel Hadya Research Station, Syria (Figure 1) and based on published works on cold tolerance research on chickpea (Nayyara et al., 2005;Bakht et al., 2006). The Tel Hadya Research Station experiences 17-56 days of freezing temperature (Malhotra and Singh, 1991;Singh et al., 1993).Three disease parameters, incubation period (IP) as the interval between inoculation and the first appearance of symptoms; latent period (LP) as the interval between inoculation and the first appearance of pycnidia on infected seedlings; and disease severity were recorded for seedlings in each pot in both experiments. Disease severity was recorded using a 1-9 rating scale where 1 = healthy plant, no disease; 2 = lesions present, but small and inconspicuous; 3 = lesions easily seen, but plants are mostly green; 4 = severe lesions clearly visible, stem infection is clear; 5 = lesions girdle stems, most leaves show lesions; 6 = plants collapsing, tips die back; 7 = plants dying, but at least three green leaves present; 8 = nearly all plants dead but still have a green stem; and 9 = dead plants (Chen et al., 2004). Final disease severity (the average of the scores in 5 plants per pot) was scored approximately 20 days after inoculation in Experiment-1 and 15 days after inoculation in Experiment-2 after one disease cycle was completed. All data for the three disease parameters were analyzed using the residual (restricted) maximum likelihood (REML) method in a generalized linear mixed model (Garrett et al., 2004;Onofri et al., 2010) using Genstat Software (16th edition). In the model, temperature, duration of chilling temperature exposure, genotypes and isolates were assigned as fixed effects and number  of times the experiments were repeated and replications as random effects. Least square differences were calculated from the standard errors of the differences for mean comparisons. Correlation analyses were made between disease parameters.The variance component analyses for fixed effects of the three disease parameters are presented in Table 1. Interactions between genotypes and isolates; genotypes and temperature, and isolates and temperature were highly significant for IP and LP. Highly significant interactions were observed for genotype and isolate and isolate and temperature interactions for disease severity. No significant differences were observed between genotypes and temperature for disease severity.The IP among chickpea genotypes ranged from 7 to 9 days and LP ranged from 10 to 12 days (Table 2). Across all chickpea  and 20 • C. The shortest LP was observed at 20 • C on Ghab-1.In the isolate × temperature interaction (P < 0.001), all isolates took a long time to cause symptoms and produce pycnidia on chickpea genotypes incubated at 10 • C (Figures 3A,B). Short IP was observed at 15-25 • C for all isolates. However, except AR-04, the other isolates showed long IP at 25 • C incubation temperature. Isolate AR-04 caused symptoms and produced pycnidia within a short period of time under all temperature regimes.Overall there were differences among isolates in their aggressiveness that caused disease severity ranging from 3 to 7, while the susceptibility of genotypes was narrower, and across all isolates ranged from 5 to 6. In genotype × isolate interactions, isolates AR-04 and AR-03 caused high disease severity across all chickpea genotypes (Table 3). Isolate AR-01 showed low levels of disease severity (<4) on all genotypes. Isolate AR-03 caused high disease severity on Ghab-1 compared to its aggressiveness on the other genotypes. In isolate by temperature interactions, isolate AR-04 caused high disease severity at 10-15 • C and the lowest severity at 25 • C (Table 4). Isolate AR-01 caused high disease severity at 10-15 • C than at the other two temperature regimes. The highly aggressive isolate AR-04 caused high disease severity at 25 • C compared to the other isolates.Non-significant interactions were observed between chilling duration × genotypes for LP and disease severity. Moreover, genotype × isolate interactions were not significant for IP and LP (Table 5). Highly significant interactions were observed between chilling duration and genotypes for IP; between chilling duration and isolate for the three disease parameters; and between genotype and isolates for disease severity.The mean IP for chickpea genotypes ranged from 7 to 9 days, while for LP it ranged from 10 to 12 days. Shorter IP and LP were observed on chickpea genotypes infected with the four isolates and exposed to chilling temperature than on the controls. The 5-day chilling period shortened the duration of pycnidia formation on the chickpea genotypes infected with across all isolates. In chilling duration x isolate interactions, all pathogen isolates caused symptoms within a shorter period on all chickpea genotypes exposed to chilling temperature than on the controls (Figures 4A,B). Isolates AR-01 and AR-02 caused disease symptoms within a significantly shorter period on chickpea genotypes exposed to chilling temperature than on the controls. The pycnidia formation period was shorter under chilling temperature for isolates AR-01 and AR-03, while the highly aggressive isolate AR-04 produced symptoms and pycnidia within a short period under all treatments (Table 6).The genotype × chilling exposure interaction did not show significant differences but genotypes Ghab-1 and ICC-12004 showed increased disease severity under chilling temperature (data not shown). In the genotype x isolate interaction (P < 0.003), isolate AR-04 caused high disease severity on all chickpea genotypes, while genotype ICC-12004 showed low levels of susceptibility to all pathogen isolates (Figure 5). The genotype did not show changes in rank order due to infection by D. rabiei isolates with varying levels of aggressiveness as affected by chilling temperature.In the chilling duration × isolate interactions, isolate AR-04 caused high disease severity on chickpea genotypes in all treatments (Figure 6). The weakly aggressive isolate AR-01 caused more disease on chickpea exposed to chilling temperature than on the controls. Isolate AR-02 caused more disease on seedlings exposed to chilling temperature. However, isolate AR-3 caused more disease on seedling exposed to 5 days chilling temperature that 10 days exposure.All correlations between two disease parameters were highly significant (P < 0.001) in both experiments. In Experiment 1, the correlation between IP and LP was positive and high (r = 0.71), while the correlation between LP and disease severity was intermediate and negative (r = −0.55). The correlation between IP and disease severity was low and negative (r = −0.30). In Experiment 2, the correlation between IP and LP was positive (r = 0.73), while the correlations between IP and disease severity (r = −0.63) and LP and disease severity (r = −0.73) were high and negative.Ascochyta blight and low temperature (cold and frost) will remain key production constraints to both winter and spring sown chickpea crops in many countries in the world. Ascochyta blight epidemics depend on weather conditions (moisture and temperature), level of variety resistance and aggressiveness of the pathogen population. The effect of biotic-abiotic interactions on pre-disposing hosts and the effectiveness of resistance genes is becoming an important issue since it affects disease management practices and breeding strategies (Bostock et al.,TABLE 3 | Mean disease severity on chickpea genotypes inoculated with four isolates of Didymella rabiei.Ghab-1 3.5 6.1 6.5 7.5 5.9Ghab-2 3.0 4.9 5.8 ). Hence, knowledge on abiotic and biotic interactions on winter-sown chickpea is important in developing appropriate disease management practices to reduce the impact of Ascochyta blight and expand winter chickpea technology in WANA.In Experiment 1, significant genotype x isolate interactions did not show changes in resistance of chickpea genotypes to the four isolates measured based on the three disease parameters indicating that reactions of the chickpea genotypes were temperature independent. Although resistance reactions of the chickpea genotypes are based on disease severity rating, they showed differences in IP and LP that could be used as selection criteria for partial resistance in chickpea resistance breeding.  Temperature also did not affect the level of aggressiveness of the isolates where the highly aggressive isolate AR-04 showed short IP, LP and high disease severity across all temperature ranges. Isolate AR-04 is highly aggressive to all available chickpea genotypes developed at ICARDA, indicating more attention in developing resistant genotypes from cultivated and wild relatives to manage highly aggressive pathogen population like isolate AR-04 in the future since many isolates with similar aggressiveness with AR-04 are reported in Syria (Atik et al., 2013). High temperature prevails during podding stage of chickpea and if supplementary irrigation is given, it provides long wetness period and isolates adapted to high temperature range can cause heavy pod and seed infections that affect seed quality and increased the chance of pathogen spread to new areas through germplasm exchanges. Under controlled conditions, Frenkel et al. (2010) found that D. rabiei isolates collected from cultivated chickpea showed high temperature adaptation than those isolates from wild chickpea.In Experiment 2, chickpea genotypes showed short IP and LP and high disease severity when exposed to chilling temperature. Cold exposure can pre-dispose resistant chickpea genotypes to both weakly and highly aggressive pathogen populations and can cause disease epidemics under field conditions if conditions are favorable for disease development. The roles of abiotic stress in affecting resistance genes, increasing pathogen virulence and pre-disposing crops to subsequent pathogen attacks have been reported by many researchers (Landa et al., 2006;Thomas et al., 2008;Bostock et al., 2014). The effects of cold in pre-disposing crops to pathogen infections are reported in rice to blast (Koga et al., 2004) and cotton to Alternaria blight (Zhao et al., 2012). Our findings showed that chilling temperature can pre-dispose chickpea genotypes to D. rabiei infection and that could lead to blight epidemics in winter-sown crops in WANA.The negative high and significant correlation between LP and disease severity in both experiments is an indication that isolates that produce pycnidia within a short period can cause many disease cycles compared with isolates with a long pycnidia formation period. Moreover, LP could be an important fitness component in dominating the population of D. rabiei during epidemics. This study showed no significant tradeoff between IP, LP and disease severity under controlled conditions. Incubation period was found to differentiate field pea genotypes to Mycosphaerella pinodes and correlated with final disease severity, area under the disease progress curve and rate of disease development under controlled condition (Prioul et al., 2003).The chilling duration did not show a clear trend on the aggressiveness of isolates inoculated on chickpea genotypes. Some isolates showed increased aggressiveness over others and this could lead different isolates to dominate the pathogen population during the epidemic period. In wheat-Zymoseptoria tritici pathosystem, variations in aggressiveness were observed between initial pathogen isolates in winter and final population in spring (Suffert et al., 2015).The expansion of winter-sown chickpea in WANA requires germplasm that tolerates freezing and chilling and has high levels of Ascochyta blight resistance. At ICARDA, separate  screening germplasm and breeding lines are developed for freezing tolerance and Ascochyta blight resistance. However, Ascochyta blight screening is done by planting chickpea in December, which exposes the crop to chilling temperatures that could predispose the crop to D. rabiei infections when temperature increases in February-April at Tel Hadya and Terbol Research Stations. During some growing seasons, chickpea breeding lines planted for Ascochyta blight screening are hit by freezing temperature; some genotypes regenerate from cold damage but show high susceptibility to Ascochyta blight (Ahmed, personal observation). Regeneration ability could be a trait of interest for cold tolerance; thus there is a need to look for genotypes that have the ability to regenerate as well as good levels of Ascochyta blight resistance.Pre-disposing effects of chilling temperature on partially resistant winter-sown chickpea cultivars could lead to severe Ascochyta blight epidemics that may require more fungicide spraying to manage the disease. Repeated fungicide applications will increase farmers' production costs and could create D. rabiei populations that are insensitive to the available fungicides. In addition to insensitivity to the fungicides most widely used in WANA, there are reports of fungicide tolerance in D. rabiei populations from chickpea fields in USA and Canada (Chang et al., 2007b;Wise et al., 2008). In order to mitigate climate change and variability, conservation cropping is being adopted in WANA where chickpea is a key rotation crop in cereal cropping system where infected chickpea straws are left in the farm. Hence, chilling temperature favors sexual reproduction (Navas-Corte 's et al., 1998) where the two mating types of D. rabiei are existing.The discharge of ascospores usually coincides with the onset of the vegetative growth of the chickpea crop and infection and subsequent disease epidemics will be high on chickpea crops predisposed by chilling temperature during this crop stage of the crop. To improve selection for cold tolerance combined with Ascochyta blight resistance, conventional screening methods should be supported by marker-assisted selection.This study was limited to a few temperature regimes and pathogen isolates to study the impact of temperature on host plant resistance and pathogen aggressiveness. Moreover, chilling temperature, duration of chilling exposure and crop growth stages were very limited due to shortage of space. Changing the physiological and other tolerance mechanisms to chilling temperature of the studied chickpea genotypes was not attempted. Studies showed that the natural plant growth regulators Abscisic acid (ABA) plays a role in cold tolerance in chickpea (Bakht et al., 2006;Kumar et al., 2008). However, ABA produced during chilling temperature is reported to expose crops to pathogen infections (Mauch-Mani and Mauch, 2005) but the role of ABA in pre-disposing chickpea to D. rabiei infection in winter planted chickpea is not known and future investigation is required.In conclusion, our study showed that Ascochyta blight resistance in the studied chickpea genotypes and the aggressiveness of pathogen isolates are not temperature dependent. Hence, resistance screening and genetic studies can be done in temperature ranging from 15 to 20 • C since resistance and aggressiveness are temperature independent. Chilling temperature pre-disposes chickpea genotypes to D. rabiei infections and increased disease severity. As a result, emphasis should be given to developing germplasm with high levels of cold tolerance and Ascochyta blight resistance. Our study clearly showed the existence of D. rabiei isolates that can cause high disease severity under wide ranges of temperature.SAK, SK and MI planned the idea and did preliminary controlled experiments in 2011 at ICARDA Tel Hadya Research Station, Syria and later SAK modified the original experiments and implemented 2011 and 2012 at the same place. Data analyses and first draft and revisions of the manuscript were done by SAK, AH, MI, and SK and agreed before submissions.","tokenCount":"4265"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"146eaca74e531b1560491c2b8ed1d4d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/db2ab613-2aab-4c87-9f19-2f2447244f3d/retrieve","id":"-1520046539"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3359f5d1-a158-44eb-9619-db40381ec728","pagecount":"36","content":"Sam is a pig farmer because pigs offer 'job security'. Started with local pigs but market drove him to exotic breeds, due to size and growth. In 6 months his exotic breeds will grow to 90-100kg, whereas local only 40-50kg.Where do you want to be in 5 years time?Wants to change his family life, build on selected breeds with the support of breeding centres. And to migrate his family from his rural household into town.What are the barriers or challenges that you face in achieving that goal?• Feed preservation and storage is a big issue -high quality feeds are not easily accessible so it is important to store them well.• There is no mechanism to attract premium prices -farmers are not rewarded for high quality animals.• Lack of equipment and infrastructure, his farm doesn't have weighing scales so health monitoring, medicine dosages and sale weights are inaccurate.• Accessibility of loans -banks and financial institutions don't see livestock as a source of security.• Muslims in Uganda don't engage with pigs, so it affects their marketing -it can be difficult to display pig carcase for sale in public markets because it drives away Muslim shoppers.• African Swine Fever is an overarching problem for swine in Africa -medications are not available, but he luckily hasn't been affected yet. Farm cleanliness, good biosecurity and quarantine practices are the preventative measures.After a history in cattle production, pigs were a commodity that Iliya \"could retire to\" for many reasons, in part due to their ability to eat scrapsso they have a positive on both his immediate and broader community. There was also a strong market for pork. Everyone else was growing traditional domestic pigs, but he chose exotics, despite their higher feed requirements.What are the barriers or challenges that you face in achieving that goal?• First challenge of exotic breeds was sourcing them, outside the government there are very few private farms that provide exotic wieners -inbreeding became an issue due to this low supply, which led to mortality. He used AI to improve the genetic variability of his animals.• In Nigeria, things are sold not by weight but by ability to sell at the lowest price. Negotiation is very very important, no objective measures.• A company has a monopoly on quality feed supply so they are bullies on prices.• Food safety in processing a massive issue.• Access to finance for smallholders is very difficult, there have been promises by governments to implement supporting policy, however this has not yet been delivered on.• Farmer quality certification programs are a way that banks are reducing their risk of investment.• Human competition with pigs for food sources (both protein and grains) create high price variability, however there are some animal by-products meals not fit for human consumption that can be used by pigs. • Specify to deliver products that meet challengesMore info:• Female, self employedStrengths:• ExpertiseChallenges:• Not enough reliable business • Kampala and surrounds• Peri-urban/urban• Negotiating• Economies of scale/aggregating power Challenges:• Irregular supply, thus price fluctuations • Growing demand due to increased income• In some countries there is low product differentiation• Food safety By 2030 success will mean… Efficient, quality inputs and end products are available everywhere on demand.• Fast growing demand for pork across Africa and Asia • High processing / value adding potential • Traders have negotiation skills• Prices are based on marketing negotiation, not quality (or even quantity if no weighing) • Great need for improved feed • High variability of feed and input prices • Market prices are seasonal and unpredictable • Food safety is a big issue in processingWithin 6 months in Lira, Uganda, create an information exchange platform for all stakeholders -\"Pigbook\".Mobile phone and internet technology.To scale up! African Swine Fever as a use case of how digital can power the prevention and management of the diseaseOur path to 100X would then be… Fund a scalable platform plan with public and private funding, and convene a team towards project development.  ","tokenCount":"658"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"586fe5200eff909f147ac41d7fc43950","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/25a33f55-2b58-4f8f-8960-81be2abe18ee/content","id":"-907166096"},"keywords":["Standard heterosis","drought","waterlogging","soil moisture","Zea mays L"],"sieverID":"59ed0520-fe89-474d-9bdc-4a1554475ab3","pagecount":"13","content":"The present experiment was conducted to understand the effect of soil moisture status on the economic or standard heterosis in fifty maize hybrids for grain yield and flowering traits. The trials were planted at Agricultural Research Farm, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi in alpha-lattice design with two replications. The analysis of variance revealed the significant differences for grain yield and flowering related traits such as days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% silking and anthesissilking interval under all the moisture conditions including optimal, managed drought and managed waterlogging conditions. Significant amount of heterosis was observed over the selected check P3502 for all the traits under study; however, the magnitude and direction varied with traits and with soil moisture level. For days to 50% anthesis, hybrids ZH17192, VH112926, VH123021, ZH114250, ZH16929 and ZH16930 were showed significant negative heterosis under all the moistureMaize (Zea mays L.) is a versatile crop with a greater genetic variability and capable to grow successfully across the globe covering tropical, subtropical and temperate agro-climatic zones. Its production is limited by many climatic and agronomic factors including soil moisture status, low soil fertility, nitrogen availability, pests and diseases and use of traditional varieties [1]. Among all, lack of required soil moisture level influences more on induced yield losses made 'the maize is sensitive to soil moisture' [2]. Occasional or temporarily drought situations and unexpected flooding or waterlogged soil conditions during the crop growing period causing major yield losses. Consistently, it is becoming a persistent problem in India especially North East Plain Zone (NEPZ) of maize growing area. This reason could be substantial and maize breeders have been attempting to improve the tolerance towards limiting supplies and waterlogging situations for decades. Their efforts from previous reports have resulted in increased knowledge of moisture-stress tolerance and genetic enhancement for stress tolerance. The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) focused on extensive research by screening and developing maize hybrids for soil moisture stress including drought and waterlogging tolerance through conventional and molecular methods from past few decades.Low soil moisture and excess soil moisture are two important climatic factors affecting maize crop distribution and production [3]. Both moisture-stresses causes delayed in flowering with its effect being constantly severe on the interdependent and sequential flowering stages such as initiation of tasseling, anthesis or pollenshed and emergence of silking. Maize silk has relatively high water content and depend highly on a favorable water status in the field to emerge and emerge out from the husk [4]. Anthesissilking interval also very sensitive trait towards the water-stress which results in large gap between anthesis and silking results in poor fertilization [5] consequently results in poor seed set. On other hand, moisture stress reduces biomass accumulation and photosynthetic rate, eventually shortens the life cycle of crops causing in a shorter kernel filling period and the production of lighter, shriveled and smaller grains, culminating in lower grain yields and poor grain quality [6][7][8][9][10][11]. Ultimately, the grain yield was the major criterion for selecting best hybrids under the drought and waterlogging conditions. Although, a vast literature is available on standard or economic heterosis estimation for the flowering traits, yield and several yield related traits but heterosis assessment for a specific set of hybrids under different soil moisture conditions are very less. Ulaganathan et al. [12] made an attempt for estimation of standard heterosis for yield and its attributing characters in few crosses of quality protein maize inbred lines under both normal and moisture-stress condition. Kumawat [13] estimated the standard heterosis for several yield and its related traits under waterlogged condition whereas Gebre, Nedi and Mesenbet [14,15,16] explained heterosis over standard check in maize under optimal irrigated condition.Production and productivity of maize can be increased by use of an appropriate agronomic practices and use of improved hybrid maize cultivars. Understanding of gene action and heterosis or hybrid vigor also helps in identification of superior F 1 hybrids in order to use further in future breeding programs. The success of any plant breeding programme depends on the availability of genetic variability in germplasm available. Utilization of more diverse parents in hybridization programmes has been resulted in better hybrids with great yield potential. Understanding and exploitation of heterosis is another possibility for enhancing grain yield potential. The term heterosis was used by Shull [8] and conceptualized it as increased in vigor, size, development and fruitfulness, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses manifested by cross pollinated species as compared with corresponding progeny. The extent of heterosis has been estimated as the superiority of hybrid over their mid parent (midparent heterosis), superiority of hybrid over the better parent (Heterobeltiosis) and superiority over standard check (standard/economic heterosis). The concept of heterosis and its exploitation was first initiated in the 1930s for large-scale production of hybrid maize. Practically, standard heterosis is more important for the exploitation of heterotic vigour among the three types of heterosis particularly in a commercial point of view [17]. The concept of heterosis has been widely used in crosspollinated crops such as maize and other allied species by several workers [18][19][20][21]. With the criteria of influence of flowering traits and differential expression of grain yield potential of hybrids on soil water status, we carried out the experiment to estimate the magnitude and direction of standard heterosis under different soil moisture regimes. It could assist the maize breeders to develop climate resilient maize hybrids that best suited to any soil moisture conditions.The experiment was carried out at the Agricultural Research Farm, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India that geographically located at 25.26' N, 82.99' E, and at an altitude of 82 m above mean sea level. The experimental station is one of the major centers of All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Maize situated in North East Plane Zone (NEPZ) of maize growing area in India. The soil type of experimental site is sandy loam with pH of 7.4 and average annual rainfall of 1110 mm. Study was conducted in Rabi 2017-18 season and subsequent Kharif 2018 season. The metrological data during the both the crop seasons were depicted in a standard week wise in Fig. 1.The plant material comprised of forty-five newly developed medium duration (95-100 days) normal maize hybrids procured from CIMMYT, Hyderabad and planted along with five commercial checks viz, CAH 153, DKC9144, 900MG, P3502 and Hytech5106 (Table 1). The evaluated hybrids obtained from a pool of F 1 hybrids developed through biparental crosses made between 600 lines of CIMMYT Maize germplasm and two testers viz, CML451 and CL02450. Among all the checks, P3502 was considered for the estimation of magnitude of heterosis as it offers an excellent abiotic stress tolerance across different soil moisture conditions because of its deep root characteristics and also has outstanding ear and grain attributes along with biotic stress tolerance. The selected standard check, P3502 was notified in the year 2012.Each hybrid was planted manually in alpha lattice design [22] in two replications with 4 m row length and planting spacing of 0.75 m inter-row and 0.25 m within-row. The material was evaluated across different soil moisture conditions including drought (DT), optimal (OPT) and waterlogging (WL) conditions. Irrigation was given based on recommended critical stages of growth stages of maize i.e. knee height (30-35 DAS) stage, flowering and followed by grain filling stages for optimal soil moisture trial. Whereas, the moisture stresses at specific growth stage of crop were precisely maintained by altering irrigation patterns that ensures that targeted crop stage must exposed to the moisture stress period. In case of manage drought trial, water deficit or drought period at flowering stage was imposed in the field by suspending irrigation for a period of 550 cumulative growing degree days (GDD) to 1000 GDD [23]. Waterlogging stress given continuously for seven days at 'Knee high' (V 6 -V 7 ) stage of crop growth, and draining of excess water in the experimental plots was done from the seventh day [24].Data on flowering trait such as days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% silking and anthesissilking interval, and grain yield for all the entries evaluated were collected on plot basis in each individual experimental trial including three soil moisture environments. Days to 50% anthesis (DA) refers to the number of days taken from planting to the date when half of the plants in a plot started pollen shedding. Whereas, days to 50% silking (DS) is the number of days taken from the planting date to the date when 50% of the plants showed silk emergence. Anthesissilking interval (ASI) was recorded as the difference between number of days to 50% anthesis and number of days to 50% silking. Fresh weight per plot was recorded for all the entries along with shelling percentage and standardized moisture content 12.5% and further grain yield per hectare (GY) was calculated as follows [25]:Where, MC is moisture content, SH is shelling percentage and adjusted MC is required standardized moisture percentage (12.5%). The data collected on above traits were subjected to simple analysis of variance (ANOVA) to reveal the presence of genetic variability among the tested genotypes under individual environments using ADEL-R software [26] before estimating standard heterosis. Standard / Economic heterosis of the studied F 1 hybrids was estimated in percentage with respect to standard check P3502 for four traits that showed significant variations through the method suggested by Falconer [27]:Where, =mean performance of standard check and =mean performance of hybrid The variations in the magnitude of heterosis of each entry were tested by the procedure of Panse and Sukhatme [28]. Standard error ( ( ) ) and critical difference ( ) were also estimated as:Where, SE(d) is standard error of the difference, MSe is mean square of error from ANOVA, r is number of replications, CD is critical difference and t is the value of t at error degree of freedom.The test of significance of heterosis with respect to standard check was computed by 't-test' as reported by Snedecor [29] as follows:The t-values computed were compared with the t-value at error degree of freedom corresponding to 5% or 1% level of significance.The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of each individual trial under different soil moisture levels revealed that the fifty maize hybrids along with five commercial checks showed significant differences for grain yield (GY) and flowering related traits such as days to 50% anthesis (DA), days to 50% silking (DS) and anthesis-silking interval (ASI). The presence of ample amount of variation among the hybrids evaluated under each moisture regime represented the presence of inherent variation (genetic) among the material and also under different moisture level which allows selection possible for further breeding program. The existent sufficient genetic variability among the genotypes under each test environment ensures the plant breeder to conduct a pertinent selection of the most desirable hybrids those suitable across the moisture conditions of the field. According to mean sum squares of each traits, the genotypes evaluated showed highly significant (p<0.01) variation for GY, DA and DS whereas a little low significant (p<0.05) difference for ASI than DA, DS and GY (Table 2). Similar results were reported by Gebre and Mogesse et al., [5,30] by evaluating maize hybrids.The hybrid maize breeding programme is a major breakthrough in improvement of grain yield and quality since few decades. In the present study, the performance of experimental maize hybrids compared with P3502, a standard check in order to high yield and earliness to estimate the magnitude of standard heterosis. Although five commercial checks were used for evaluation of test material, among all, P3502 was selected as standard check for estimating heterosis. It showed relatively high mean performance for grain yield and earliness in flowering along with lower ASI values. These characters have prime concern in developing of suitable maize hybrids for moisture stress conditions. Comparatively a good plant stand across the three test environments with desired phenotypical characteristics like well foliage, deep rooting system with more surface and brace roots, low senescence and stay green behavior were also taken under consideration in selecting P3502 as standard check. Significant amount of heterosis was observed for all the traits under study; however, the magnitude and range varied with traits and with soil moisture level (Table 3 and  Table 4). A negative significant heterosis is desirable in case of flowering traits such as DA, DS and ASI. Negative heterosis for DA and DS represents the earliness in flowering, whereas for ASI represents lower gap between the anthesis and silk emergence which is the major factor of adequate seed set.According to the results, DA for studied hybrids showed standard heterosis (%) ranged from -4.48 to 9.45 under drought, -9.82 to 7.48 under optimal and -10.26 to 7.69. Under water deficit condition, hybrids viz, T16, T34 and T1 were recorded with maximum negative significant standard heterosis (-4.48%) followed by T9 (-3.48%) and T30 (-2.89%); whereas hybrids viz, T21 (-9.82%) followed by T3 (-8.04%) and T1, T16, and T31 recorded with -2.89%. Similarly, under waterlogging condition, T13 showed highest negative heterosis with -10.26% followed by T14 (-9.40%) and T21, T33, T40 with -8.55%. Overall, six hybrids showed negative significant standard heterosis for DA under well-water condition while 9 and 11 hybrids under water deficit and waterlogging conditions respectively (Table 4). For this trait, hybrids T13 (ZH17192), T14 (VH112926), T16 (VH123021), T21 (ZH114250), T31 (ZH16929) and T33 (ZH16930) were showed significant negative standard heterosis under all the three moisture conditions which explained the earliness of the hybrids under moisture-stress as well as normal condition. Hybrids T16 (ZH16929) and T31 (ZH16930) recorded with significant negative standard heterosis under both drought and optimal conditions for DA. However, many hybrids showed negative heterosis for DS under flooding condition which could be desirable for increased yields, but only one hybrid T40 (VH112888) showed significantly negative heterosis. Our results are in line of conformity with the previous reports in maize by Gebre, Shushay and Mahantesh [14,31,32] under normal irrigated condition whereas with Kumawat et al. [13] under waterlogging condition.Among all the tested hybrids, 19 hybrids showed negative significant heterosis for DS under optimal soil moisture condition, whereas three hybrids under drought and only one under waterlogging condition. Hybrids viz, T34, T2 and T16 recorded negative significant heterosis for DS under managed drought field with -6.60%, -4.71% and -4.15%, respectively. Whereas T21 (-10.17%) followed by T13 (-9.32%), T33 (-8.47%), T14 (-8.47%) and T31 (-7.63%) recorded significant negative heterosis under optimum moisture condition. Only one hybrid T40 found with negative significant heterosis (-7.38%) for DS under waterlogging condition.Anthesis-silking interval (ASI) is the most important character in determining soil moisture drought tolerance. Hybrids viz, T16 (-52.38%) followed T34 (-28.57%), T31 (-28.57%), T13 (-28.57%) and T2 (-16.67%) under low water stress condition and hybrids viz, T5 (-55.5%) followed by T45 (-44.4%), T32 (-44.4%), T49 (44.4%) and T39 (-33.3%) under waterlogging stress condition showed negative standard heterosis for ASI but not significant. Five hybrids viz, T5 (-55.5%) followed by T45 (-44.4%), T32 (-44.4%) and T49 (-44.4%) recorded significant negative heterosis under optimal irrigation condition. The hybrids which exhibited low anthesis-silking interval T28 (VH12132), T13 (ZH17192), T31, (ZH16929), T5 (ZH17191), T16 (VH123021) and T44 (ZH161529) under moisture stress-free condition indicates that the hybrids had less gaps between days to anthesis and silking, which was desirable character for good seed setting. Moreover, there was no single hybrid significantly showed negative heterosis under stress condition but T31 (ZH16929), T34 (ZH137998) and T13 (ZH17192) under drought and T5 (ZH17191), T45 (ZH161035), T32 (ZH161035) and T39 (ZH116105) under waterlogged condition showed negative heterosis which could select for earliness for respective environments. On the other hand, if the interval between days to anthesis and silking is more, the grain yield would be reduced due to loss of pollen viability and consequently abnormal fertilization might take place or fertilization may not happen. The results were in accordance with the reports of Mogesse and Bolafios [30,33].     and T35 (ZH161034) were showed positive significant heterosis over standard check under both drought and normal condition whereas hybrids T8 (ZH114233), T26 (VH12263) and T39 (VH12186) had negative significant heterosis under all the three soil moisture conditions. Our results revealed that, heterosis was more affected because of excess soil moisture than drought stress as most of the hybrids showed negative heterosis. Among all, 33 hybrids had negative significant heterosis over standard check under the waterlogging condition. Among all the tested hybrids, VH123021 and ZH16929 were recorded significant standard heterosis in terms of magnitude with acceptable direction for studied flowering traits and mean grain yield under almost all the three moisture conditions (negative heterosis for ASI but not significant under both moisture stress conditions). Few previously reported works pertaining to standard heterosis in maize hybrids [13,15,16,31,34,35,36]. Considerable amount of positive and negative significant standard heterosis for DA, DS and GY along with other agronomic traits of maize was reported by Gebre [14] at Southeastern Ethiopia. Legesse et al. [37] also reported positive and negative standard heterosis over checks for mid altitude maize growing areas of Ethiopia. Significant variation among genotypes for grain yield and yield related traits in maize at eastern Ethiopia was reported by Mogesse [30]. Along with these, the findings of present study are also in accordance with results reported by Bullo, Matin and Shrestha [38,39,40]. However, further evaluation of hybrids with desired standard heterosis along with other hybrids used at multi-locations and multi-seasons is advisable to confirm the promising findings observed in our study. In general, present study may be concluded that the results could be valuable for maize workers who aimed to develop climate resilient maize cultivars.The results revealed significant variation for grain yield and flowering related traits such as days to 50% anthesis, days to 50% silking and ASI under all the moisture conditions including optimal, managed drought and managed waterlogging conditions. Significant amount of heterosis was observed over the selected check P3502 for the traits under study; however, the magnitude and direction varied with traits and with soil moisture level. Hybrids VIZ., ZH17192, VH112926, VH123021, ZH114250, ZH16929 and ZH16930 were showed significant negative heterosis for days to 50% anthesis under all the moisture conditions that explained earliness under both moisture-stress and normal conditions. Among the tested hybrids, VH123021 and ZH16929 were showed significant negative standard heterosis for flowering traits; and significant positive heterosis for grain yield across all the three moisture conditions. Six hybrids under drought, seven hybrids under optimal and two hybrids under waterlogged condition showed positive standard heterosis for grain yield.","tokenCount":"3055"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dc7558ade859bab3d67c1f78f729a521","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f80e4f05-6d9e-42cc-a8de-adcbfb3ab289/retrieve","id":"-273969736"},"keywords":["Planning","analysis","knowledge management"],"sieverID":"962bb685-d4dd-4dae-ab2d-ac68d011029f","pagecount":"4","content":"T he methodology has an enormous potential to adapt and upscale interesting practices -that much was clear to me from the beginning. I discussed this with the project coordinator, and also asked the opinion of some of the extension workers in my team, thinking that we had to make sure that an experience worth sharing would be selected and then used as part of this process. Unanimously, we decided to look very closely at the work done by a very innovative producer. We all thought this was a case worth telling, but which for different reasons had not been written yet. The capitalization process gave us a nice opportunity.ProAQUA gives all the fish farmers with whom we work the same starters' toolkit, and the same basic information on how to open a pond to start producing. But once in the field, you encounter many different topographies, and farmers find it difficult to adopt our recommendations. Our basic advice is to dig part of a slope, and then place the soil which has been removed on the other side, creating a tank. While moving the soil, farmers are to add a water inlet on the top, and an outlet pipe on the other extreme. Later, whenever you want to drain the pond, you just have to open the outlet pipe.But when you go to Gondola, in the province of Manica in western Mozambique, you find it to be a valley: the water seeps from the ground, and streams by. If you want to dig a pond, you have to be creative. Our man was, and his approach was simple. \"You need to make three sections, whereby you start digging inside and then keep moving to the right and to the left\". I thought that if we could share his ideas with the other farmers living in very similar areas, they would also find out that digging a pond is not such a difficult task. Actually, I thought we also had to share this knowledge with our extension workers, which is why we chose this case for our capitalization process. But in our region men do not easily share their knowledge and ideas with others. Our man was different, as he was willing to do it. Besides, he has already involved his wife and his family, and showed that he is very innovative. To me, he was already busy with experience capitalization! I was one of the participants who joined the experience capitalization workshops in Maputo in 2017. I was chosen to join because, as the only M&E officer in the ProAQUA project being implemented in Mozambique, I am also responsible for knowledge management. It was good to get an invitation, but before I went I had to do an Internet search. To be frank, I did not know what \"experience capitalization\" was all about, and I thought it was necessary to get a clearer idea if I was to make the best of these meetings.If you do not include the capitalization process in the planning process for a whole year, you are bound to misuse the resources and the time that you have.M&E officers are the ones who should know when to run the activities which make up a project. But how to make an experience capitalization process fit with all the activities that are already planned and in process of being implemented? You know beforehand that it will not just be those eight days attending a workshop. One needs at least a few days before the workshop, some days in between, and at least four days to get the article written, edited and reviewed. If you do not include the capitalization process in the planning process for a whole year, you are bound to misuse the resources and the time that you have. Or that you do not have, actually. This is crucial, especially in my situation. I am a project employee and not a civil servant; and besides, there are only a few staff members in ProAQUA. The knowledge I am helping to manage has to remain here, because might I go.I thought that completing a capitalization process was just writing about the good things that are happening in the field, or about the reasons behind our success. I guess that this is because we are used to work towards achieving the goals of the project, which are measured by its indicators -and report this success. In this way, choosing the right parameters and their indicators for a more detailed analysis has been an enormous challenge to me. Unfortunately, due to a lack of time, I had to complete the analysis on my own. M&E officers are at the heart of every project, know all its indicators and assume that things will improve when we reach them -not realising that all those factors which prevent us from reaching our goals are also useful, and can help others not to repeat the same mistakes. As a fish farmer told me recently, \"one learns the most from the challenges we face; struggle is part of success. The first fish pound is small, the banks are not well balanced, but the second, the third start looking like the model we get from the project\". We know that the difficulties that farmers faced in Sussundenga when digging their ponds have to be shared. Once they are written, they can be shared with many people, and help them replicate what others have already done. Here, at the district capital, we are aware of the importance of upscaling fish culture. But for people in remote areas, where the tractors cannot come, or they cannot afford it… this approach has many benefits. Sharing the lessons of this innovative method of digging might also be the way to convince policymakers, and ensure that they provide their support.At this moment I am working on a new capitalization process, focusing on the distribution of starters' packages, and proposed colleagues from the Planning departments in the provinces of Sofala and Manica to join us. These packages are important for the farmers to start digging their pounds as fast as possible. Equally interesting is the acquisition of the fingerlings to stock these ponds. So I have to allocate time and people for this capitalization: to analyse the good and the bad things around it. Furthermore: to show my organisation how important it is to share lessons. This is going to be useful, because our experience of sharing with local people and with the policymakers in Maputo has not been easy. For example, ProAQUA distributes fry only once, but the projects which worked before in the same region did this on a continuous basis. If the project distributes only males and we expect the fish stock to grow, it is clear that we need to do things differently -especially if working with innovative farmers. At the moment, the extension workers have difficulties explaining what we do to the producers, and we have the problem when explaining it to the policymakers.The experience capitalization process has shown that we are not used to look at what went wrong, or to learn from mistakes. It is our task to share what we learnt from it. A complete knowledge management approach can help us, but we have to realise that if you only look at what can be called \"success\", then it will be very difficult to draw lessons and to improve what we are doing.Messias A. Macuiane works as M&E officer for the PROAQUA project; Instituto Nacional de Desenvolvimento de Pesca e Aquacultura, Mozambique. His article, written together with Candido Afonso Cumbane, was published in 2018 (\"A placa e o peixecultor: O caso de im piscicultor exemplar que cmprou a identidade da família con pexe\"). E-mail: mmacuiane@yahoo.co.uk","tokenCount":"1292"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac9a1c5c606f89cdc71c47d4c3015ddd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3af6f931-c908-4a40-8990-ea0bebc44ca7/retrieve","id":"921606556"},"keywords":["Capacity building","sustainable agriculture","erosion","rural livelihoods Above Mr Rono facilitating training on sustainable land management and agriculture production"],"sieverID":"e3776662-0624-463e-884a-86e0fa847722","pagecount":"5","content":"In Tanzania's Ludewa district, poor agricultural practices have damaged the environment, leading to low agricultural productivity and food insecurity. To reverse this damage, training was provided to 120 groups of farmers across the district, enabling farmers to triple their yields, increase their incomes, and restore their environments.S oil erosion resulting from farming on sloping terrain, mining of soil fertility due to continuous cultivation with limited application of inorganic or organic sources of soil nutrients, or the deforestation and the overgrazing of rangelands, has caused low agricultural productivity, widespread poverty and food insecurity in the Ludewa district of southern Tanzania.To find ways of achieving more sustainable and productive land management in Ludewa, Mtandao wa Vikundi vya Wakulima Tanzania (MVIWATA), an organisation that represents Tanzania's smallholders and whose objective is to improve their livelihoods, established the Lake Nyasa Ecosystems and Livelihood Project. MVIWATA's approach has been to encourage the development of a supportive policy and institutional environment, as well as to introduce technological strategies that can be adapted to the heterogeneous landscapes and diverse biophysical and socioeconomic conditions that characterise the area. The project began in 2011 and is still being implemented.The district of Ludewa is in the Njombe region of the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The project's objective was to stimulate agricultural production by introducing improved and appropriate land management practices, increasing farmers' access to remunerative markets and financial services, and create an awareness of the effects of climate change and how climate-smart farming strategies could help mitigate the most serious effects.Twelve Ludewa villages (120 groups with 1,332 members; 552 men and 780 women) were selected because of their geographical location and environment, and because they were among the areas most affected by soil erosion caused by human activity. The local government (12 local government representatives) are participating in project implementation.Left A farmer developing a terrace on his farm to decrease the rate of soil erosion Farmers were given 45 kg of pine tree seeds and the tools and inputs needed to establish nurseries. As a result, 15 tree seedling nurseries were established by 15 groups from the 12 villages involved. The use of improved cooking stoves that use less firewood and charcoal was also promoted because this would reduce the number of trees being destroyed. Many households were quick to adopt the new stove.Among the main achievements of the project was the fact that out of 16 villages initially targeted, 12 villages -Itundu, Kiyombo, Ligumbiro, Lufumbu, Lupanga, Lusala, Mapogoro, Mavala, Milo, Mkiu, Mlangali and Utiriri -with a total of 120 groups, agreed to participated in the project and became members of MVIWATA.After training, the farmers involved started to develop their own rules and guidelines to protect their environment and water sources, and these were also adopted by the local government. One of the decisions made was to plant trees in water source areas and as a result five water sources started to rejuvenate after having been dry for a long time.In 2011, when the project was launched, MVIWATA was not established in the district so the local government was initially the link between MVIWATA and the farmers. It also helped MVIWATA identify and select the villages that would be targeted by the project.MVIWATA mobilised farmers into groups and arranged training sessions and field demonstrations. It also linked the farmers to the NGO, We Effect, which was funding the project and whose environmental specialist was responsible for organising the training. The first stage in project implementation was the signing of a contract with We Effect. Working in partnership with the local government, MVIWATA gradually established itself in the district and farmers from the selected villages were mobilised into groups and sensitised to the project's objectives after a needs assessment had been carried out.Training sessions, which were carried out four times in each of the 12 villages, were based on the We Effect \"Sustainable Agriculture Land Management\" training manual. Farmers learned about environmentallyfriendly practices, including the use of terraces on steep slopes and the conservation of water catchment areas and water sources.Farmers are now able to take their children to school because they have more produce to sell.Another unexpected but promising result was that farmers were quick to notice that the impact climate change was having on their farms had been reduced since they began following climate-smart agriculture practices.The project has also contributed to improving the livelihoods of small-scale farmers by increasing their income. Farmers are now able to take their children to school because they have more produce to sell. Previously this was not the case because the amounts produced were low and were used mainly for household consumption.Farmers are now able to build good houses with the income they earn from marketing their products. There are, however, some farmers who use the household income on things like alcohol and this can give rise to a certain amount of misunderstanding in their households.As a result of training and sensitisation, more than 3 million pine trees have been planted since the project started. The pine was chosen because it is the species best suited to the local climate. The rate of soil erosion has now been reduced and, apart from protecting the environment, after 10-15 years the trees can be harvested, and one tree is worth around TZS 30,000 (€11.50). Farmers have also started to adopt some of the suggested environmental practices in their agriculture activities. Terracing, the use of natural fertilisers and covering land with grasses are now everyday activities.Still, inaccessible roads proved a major challenge and during the rainy season most of the roads to and in villages were impassable. This created problems when organising training sessions. In addition, organisation was made more difficult by the fact that the villages had limited mobile communication services. Most of the farmers thought they would receive money during the sensitisation meetings and because this was not the case there were farmers who refused to take part in the project. And funds were also limited, and this meant that it was not possible to cover a larger number of villages. Another challenge was finding enough funds to cover the high cost of some of the inputs needed, such as trees and fertilisers to support the establishment of tree nurseries.During the training there were farmers from villages that had not been selected when the project was launched who nevertheless wanted to be involved. This had not been planned for. During the training sessions it also became clear that in some cases the level of farmers' understanding was rather low and, therefore, the number of days scheduled for training had to be extended.\"The years before 2011 most of the water sources in our villages were drained as a result of our activities, but after the launching of the project in 2011, water sources in our villages started to rejuvenate as result of changes in human activities and the planting of trees. There was a time when we failed to get water for domestic use but now at least we are getting enough water for that.\" (Mr Jacob Haule) \"Before I was getting 625 kg/ha, but now after putting more effort into conserving the environment I managed to increase the production of maize to 2,500 kg/ha on the same plot and this has helped me to get a surplus that I can sell\" (Mrs Frida Mgaya) ","tokenCount":"1219"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bd1414bd45f6d3c4dd553aaa06768262","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3739f862-156d-404f-a8c8-e635cd612b1a/retrieve","id":"-799736888"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d75654c2-58a6-4f38-aa8c-14f7d692215c","pagecount":"1","content":"El cambio climático y el calentamiento global son situaciones que colocan en riesgo la seguridad alimentaria 1 . El desafío es producir bajo condiciones adversas lo que hace necesario la búsqueda y aprovechamiento de especies con características de tolerancia a estreses abióticos. Phaseolus acutifolius Gray. (Frijol tépari) es una especie de frijol reconocida por su alto grado de tolerancia a estrés hídrico y altas temperaturas 2-3 sin embargo es subutilizada o poco cultivada en comparación con otras especies de su género, a pesar de poseer características únicas que hace de esta especie un objetivo para iniciar procesos de mejoramiento genético 4-5 .Por esta razón los esfuerzos se han focalizado en aumentar la diversidad en el germoplasma del frijol tépari por inducción de mutagénesis con Metasulfonato de etilo (EMS), en dos poblaciones de los genotipos G40068 y G40159 para posteriormente obtener líneas promisorias con características de agronómicas superiores asociadas a la simbiosis con cepas de bacterias fijadoras de nitrógeno atmosférico de Rhizobium tropici y Bradyrhizobium sp., como complemento evaluación agronómica como un atributo deseable al igual que el rendimiento, producción de semillas y mecanismos fisiológicos que la planta desarrolla naturalmente frente a condiciones adversas de estrés generado por sequía y altas temperaturas.Establecer el efecto de la inoculación con bacterias fijadores de nitrógeno (Rhizobium sp., y Bradyrhizobium sp.) en líneas mutantes M 5 de Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray. (frijol tépari ) bajo condiciones de estrés abiótico (altas temperaturas y sequía) como parámetro para determinación de variabilidad generada. Las mutaciones inducidas por EMS en las líneas evaluadas no afectó genes involucrados en la nodulación, ninguno de los genotipos presento fenotipo no-nodulante, por el contrario se evidencia en algunos genotipos superioridad en condiciones de estrés abiótico. La inducción de mutaciones en el fríjol tépari, es un método eficiente para ampliar la variabilidad del fríjol tépari lo cual contribuye significativamente al mejoramiento genético de la especie.  Tabla1. Correlaciones (Pearson) entre el peso de 100 semillas, peso de vainas por línea, número de nódulos por línea, la temperatura de las hojas, tamaño de las vainas, y otros rasgos morfofisiológico en condiciones de riego y sequía. Se observaron correlaciones significativas y positivas (Tabla 1) entre el peso de las vainas y a) el peso de 100 semillas (p = 0.05) y b) el número de nódulos (p ≤ 0,001) , bajo condiciones de riego y sequía, respectivamente.Figura 1. Comportamiento de las líneas evaluadas bajo condiciones de riego y sequía en interacción con cepas de rizobios, nótese las diferencias en cuanto a producción de biomasa. El número de vainas por línea se correlacionó con 0.83 b) el número de nódulos (P≤ 0,05) y P ≤0.001) (0,27 y 0,50) en condiciones de riego y sequía, respectivamente, y este valor fue mayor en condiciones de sequía  Se presentó correlación negativa y significativa para b) la temperatura de las hojas (P≤ 0,05) (-0,33) sólo bajo condiciones de sequía. El peso de las raíces también correlacionó con el número de nódulos (P ≤ 0,001 (0,40 y 0,39), en las dos condiciones de humedad de suelo.  En relación con el efecto de la cepa se observó una reducción del 31,5% con Bradyrhizobium sp., CIAT 461, mientras que con el Rhizobium tropici, CIAT 899 cepa, no se observó ninguna diferencia entre las condiciones de riego y sequía en condiciones de altas temperaturas.Grafica1. Producción de nódulos medidos en biomasa (mg/pl) de la cepa con respuesta superior CIAT 899 por cada genotipo evaluado, bajo condiciones de riego y sequía, sobresaliendo los genotipos mutantes M159 en sequía y M164 en riego.Grafica 2. Producción semilla medidos en biomasa (g/pl) de la cepa con respuesta superior CIAT 899 por cada genotipo evaluado, bajo condiciones de riego y sequía, con respuesta superior para los genotipos mutantes M187 en sequía y M164 en riego. En sequía se evidencia mediante los parámetros fisiológicos la capacidad de adaptación de los genotipos al encontrase correlaciones negativas significativas en el caso de temperatura de la hoja, adicionalmente bajo esta condición se logró valorar las cualidades de las líneas mutantes M159 superior en producción de biomasa de nódulos (Gráfica 1) y M187 que supera en productividad bajo dicha condición de estrés (Gráfica 2).Respuesta a la inoculación con rizobio de líneas mutantes de fríjol tépari bajo condiciones de sequía y alta temperaturaRosero Deisy 1 , Rivera Mariela 2 , Muñoz Florez Jaime E. 1 , ,Rao Idupulapati 2 , Muñoz Florez L. Carmenza 1,21 Universidad Nacional, sede Palmira; 2 Centro internacional de agricultura tropical -CIAT. Correos electrónicos: daroseroa@unal.edu.co, m.rivera@cgiar.org, jemunozf@unal.edu.co, i.rao@cgiar.org, carmenza.munoz@hotmail.comA la Agencia Internacional de Energía Atómica IAEA (Austria) Por la financiación del proyecto.A todo el equipo científico y técnico del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIAT .A los docentes de la Universidad Nacional por sus constantes aportes durante el proceso de desarrollo esta fase del proyecto. El análisis de varianza mostró para la condición de humedad de suelo (Riego y sequía) un efecto significativo en parámetros asociados a rendimiento y en fisiológicos solo para temperatura de las hojas. Se obtuvo un efecto significativo para cepa, genotipo e interacciones en casi todas las variables evaluadas, exceptuando algunos rasgos fisiológicos: la conductancia estomática y la temperatura de las hojas. Las interacciones entre condición de humedad de suelo x genotipo fue significativa para número semillas y peso de la vaina. Se evidenció efectos de la condición del suelo con reducciones significativa en sequía y temperaturas altas para: biomasa (Figura 1), número de vainas por línea de 36,9%, en peso de las vainas de 41,5%, el número de semillas de 39,1%. En cuanto a nodulación se presentó una reducción superior para número de nódulos con un (67,2%) en comparación con el peso de los nódulos (10,4%).","tokenCount":"939"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ab4111f5d564b286f2deb5ad5267d139","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a06ebaa9-b378-4ba9-b07a-fcf33fa59e9f/retrieve","id":"2010356580"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a322e3e9-4f0a-41ce-9022-d6072d614309","pagecount":"3","content":"Groundwater is an especially challenging resource to govern because it is mobile and difficult to observe. Imposing external rules often fails to work and community-led approaches to groundwater governance are scarce. This NEXUS Gains groundwater governance toolbox provides examples of innovative procedures, policy instruments, and institutional tools for those involved in improving groundwater governance. It aims to help stakeholders to understand problems and opportunities, consider and potentially agree on norms or rules to prevent aquifer depletion, and promote more productive use of water. These institutional tools for groundwater governance can address complex nexus linkages, such as transitioning to solar-powered pumping, aquifer recharging, and storage for drought resilience and ecosystem restoration. This toolbox provides government agencies and communities with resources to consider, combine, and adapt available instruments, creating tailored governance solutions for a specific context.The nature of this innovation isInnovations that already exist and undergo constant, steady progress and improvement.CGIAR Innovation Packages and Scaling Readiness (IPSR)This innovation is characterized asInnovations that create enabling conditions, including policy, legal, and regulatory frameworks; business models; finance mechanisms; partnership models; public/private delivery strategies.CGIAR Impact Areas and Collective Global Targets SDGs and SDG TargetsThis innovation is developed, tested and/or scaled globally The innovation is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled conditionsThe innovation is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled conditionsThe innovation is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled conditionsThe innovation's key concepts have been validated for their ability to achieve a specific impactThe innovation is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled conditionsThe innovation's key concepts are being formulated or designedThe innovation is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled conditionsThe innovation's basic principles are being researched for their ability to achieve a specific impactThe innovation is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled conditionsThe innovation is at idea stage  For more information on this innovation please contact Ruth Meinzen-Dick (r.meinzen-dick@cgiar.org)","tokenCount":"335"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4b4ab3a090b7f7effa710e6eeaf9932","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/388df942-5800-41da-88aa-f046bb1c2cd4/content","id":"-1151359143"},"keywords":["GSS, Global Surveillance System","LD, linkage disequilibrium","ML, maximum likelihood","PCA, principal component analysis","SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism","QD, Qualityby-Depth"],"sieverID":"0381e81b-9c0e-4299-bdb4-87d795fbe5ac","pagecount":"21","content":"Wheat, one of the most important food crops, is threatened by a blast disease pandemic. Here, we show that a clonal lineage of the wheat blast fungus recently spread to Asia and Africa following two independent introductions from South America. Through a combination of genome analyses and laboratory experiments, we show that the decade-old blast pandemic lineage can be controlled by the Rmg8 disease resistance gene and is sensitive to strobilurin fungicides. However, we also highlight the potential of the pandemic clone to evolve fungicideinsensitive variants and sexually recombine with African lineages. This underscores the urgent need for genomic surveillance to track and mitigate the spread of wheat blast outside of South America and to guide preemptive wheat breeding for blast resistance.Plant disease outbreaks threaten the world's food security at alarming levels [1,2]. Understanding pathogen evolution during epidemics is essential for developing a knowledge-based disease management response. Genomic surveillance allows for rapid and precise pathogen identification, tracing of outbreak origin and can guide preventive measures. It therefore adds a unique dimension to coordinated responses to infectious disease outbreaks and is central to the Global Surveillance System (GSS) recently proposed to increase global preparedness to plant health emergencies [3].In wheat, yield losses caused by pests and diseases average over 20% [4]. Wheat is currently threatened by the expanding blast pandemic caused by the ascomycete fungus Magnaporthe oryzae (Syn. Pyricularia oryzae), a formidable and persistent menace to major grain cereals that could contribute to total crop failure [5]. The disease first appeared in 1985 in Brazil but has been reported in Bangladesh and Zambia over the last years, causing, for example, an average yield loss of 51% in the Bangladesh outbreak in 2016 [6]. The occurrence of wheat blast on three continents with climatic conditions highly conducive to its spread, is unprecedented and represents a very significant threat to global food security which is exacerbated by the unprecedented twin challenge of climate change [7] and armed conflicts [8] in major agricultural regions.Wheat blast emerged in Brazil in 1985 following the wide-spread deployment of wheat genotypes carrying the RWT4 resistance gene but lacking RWT3 (RWT4+/RWT3-). These two resistance genes recognize the blast effectors PWT3 and PWT4, respectively. Thus, the deployment of RWT4+/RWT3-varieties facilitated host jumps of M. oryzae isolates carrying PWT3, but not PWT4 effectors from ryegrass (Lolium spp.) to wheat, which was followed by loss of function mutations in the PWT3 effector and subsequent spread to common wheat varieties [9]. An aggressive lineage of the wheat blast fungus that first emerged in Bangladesh in 2016 was previously traced to the genetically diverse South American population [10]. However, the genetic identity and origin of the causal agent of an African outbreak, first detected in Zambia in 2018, remains unknown [11].Here, we show that the recent emergence of wheat blast in Asia and Africa was caused by a single clonal lineage of the wheat blast fungus closely related to South American isolates and that the outbreaks in Zambia and Bangladesh originated by independent introductions. Through rapid genome analyses, we revealed that the disease resistance gene Rmg8 as well as strobilurin fungicides are effective against isolates of the pandemic clonal lineage and confirmed our predictions in laboratory experiments. However, the pandemic lineage has the capacity to develop fungicide resistance and can mate with local finger millet (Eleusine coracana) blast fungus, highlighting the evolutionary potential of the African outbreak to cause further damage to wheat production across the continent. Our results demonstrate that genomics can rapidly identify emerging pathogen genotypes to guide disease management and counteract emerging pathogen lineages. These findings will inform management strategies for this devastating wheat disease and warrant further genomic surveillance to prevent and manage future outbreaks.To determine the relationship between African wheat blast isolates from Zambia with populations from South America and Bangladesh, we selected 84 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) mined from the sequence data of Islam and colleagues [10] to discriminate between the Bangladesh lineage from other M. oryzae genotypes. We genotyped 537 M. oryzae samples from different geographical regions and hosts based on multiplex amplicon sequencing (Mon-sterPlex; see Material and methods) (N = 237) and publicly available genomes (N = 351) (Figs 1 and S1 and S1 Table). Using the set of isolates from which we genotyped the 84 SNPs and also sequence their whole genomes, we showed that the set of 84 Monsterplex SNPs accurately reflects the patterns of genome-wide diversity and host specificity of the blast fungus (S2 Fig) . The Zambian isolates (N = 13, 2018 to 2020) are identical for the 84 SNPs to wheat blast isolates from Bangladesh (N = 71, 2016 to 2020) and one genotype B71 from South America (Bolivia, N = 1, 2012). We conclude that this \"B71 lineage,\" which emerged in Asia in 2016 and traces its origins to South America, is now established in Zambia.We prioritized samples for whole-genome sequencing based on our genotyping analyses and combined the samples with existing datasets to generate a set of 71 whole-genome sequences of M. oryzae wheat isolates (Triticum lineage) from South America (N = 37), Asia We decided to test the hypothesis that the B71 cluster is a clonal lineage and challenged it by measuring pairwise linkage disequilibrium (LD) (Figs 2B and S4). Unlike the South American population, the B71 cluster displays no patterns of LD decay, which is consistent with clonality [12,13] (Figs 2B and S4-S6).We performed phylogenetic analyses to further define the genetic structure of the B71 clonal lineage. Owing to the much finer resolution obtained with genome-wide variation, we found that the Zambian and Bangladesh isolates clustered in separate well-supported clades with distinct phylogenetic affinities to South American isolates (Fig 2C). We conclude that the clonal lineage has spread to Asia and Africa through at least two independent introductions, most probably from South America, although we cannot totally rule out that the source population was located in an unsampled location outside of South America. These findings are consistent with the conclusions of a recent independent study [14].We leveraged the collection dates of M. oryzae clonal isolates to estimate their evolutionary rate. Before performing the tip-calibration analyses [15], we removed regions that disrupt the clonal pattern of inheritance (S7-S9 Figs) [16] and tested for a correlation between genetic distances and collection years (S10 Fig) . We obtained rates ranging from 2.74 × 10 −7 to 7.59 × 10 −7 substitutions/site/year (S3 Table ), which were robust to the choice of both The B71 lineage shows reduced genetic diversity in comparison with South American wheat-infecting isolates. PCA was performed based on genome-wide pairwise Hamming distances of 71 isolates from South America, Asia, and Africa. The colors of the points indicate the provenance of each isolate (see inset). The circular shaded area indicates isolates from the Brazilian cluster (PY0925) that is the closest to the B71 cluster. Axes labels indicate the percentage of total variation explained by each PC. The magnified area shows isolates that are part of the B71 lineage. (B) The B71 cluster is a clonal lineage. The scatter plots show pairwise LD (measured as r 2 ) between SNPs that are at most two megabases apart. The red solid line in the South American cluster represents a fitted exponential decay model using nonlinear least squares. The histograms display LD expressed as D' for genome-wide SNPs. The points and bars are colored as indicated in the inset. (C) The B71 clonal lineage has recently expanded with independent introductions in Zambia and Bangladesh. The scatter plot shows the linear regression (dotted line) of root-to-tip patristic distances (y-axis) versus collection dates (x-axis) for the isolates of the B71 clonal lineage. Maximum likelihood tip-calibrated time tree of the B71 cluster isolates (the PY0925 cluster was used as an outgroup). The horizontal gray and green bars indicate 95% CI for divergence dates (in calendar years) calculated using BacDating and BEAST2, respectively. The points and isolate names are colored as indicated in the inset. The data underlying this figure can be found in https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7590238. CI, confidence interval; LD, linkage disequilibrium; PCA, principal component analysis; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002052.g002 substitution and clock models (S4 Table ). Although these rates are approximately 9 times faster than previously calculated rates for the rice blast fungus [17][18][19], it is expected that evolutionary rates calculated from disease outbreaks, such as the cases in Bangladesh and Zambia, are likely faster due to incomplete purifying selection [20,21], and rates might vary in different blast fungus host-specific lineages. Using these rates, we dated the emergence of the Asian and African sub-lineage to similar periods (2009 to 2012 and 2010 to 2015, respectively) (Figs 2C and S11). The B71 clonal lineage itself dates back to a few years earlier and probably emerged in South America around 2002 to 2011, before spreading to other continents (Figs 2C and  S11).Can rapid genomic analyses inform practical disease management strategies of the wheat blast pandemic? Plant pathogens use secreted effector proteins to infect their hosts, but these effectors can also trigger plant immunity through an \"avirulence\" activity. The genome sequences of pandemic B71 lineage isolates offer the opportunity to identify effectors that can be targeted by the plant immune system. To date, the most predictive avirulence effector to confer wheat blast resistance is AVR-Rmg8 [22,23] that triggers an immune response in wheat carrying the resistance gene Rmg8. We scanned the available genomes and found that AVR-Rmg8 is conserved in all 36 isolates of the B71 clonal lineage even though the other 35 isolates of the Triticum lineage carry four diverse AVR-Rmg8 virulent alleles (eII, eII', eII\", and eII\"') that fully or partially evade immunity (Figs 3A and S12) [24]. B71 lineage isolates also lack the PWT4 effector, which is known to suppress AVR-Rmg8-elicited resistance [25].These genome analyses predict that the B71 lineage isolates (AVR-Rmg8 positive, PWT4 negative) cannot infect wheat plants with the matching disease resistance gene Rmg8. To test this, we inoculated 14 B71 lineage isolates from Zambia and Bangladesh on wheat lines with and without the Rmg8 resistance gene (Figs 3B and S13). Unlike a distinct South American isolate, none of these pandemic isolates could infect Rmg8 wheat plants. We conclude that Rmg8 is an effective resistance gene against the pandemic wheat blast lineage and has the potential to mitigate the spread of the disease.Strobilurin fungicides are commonly used against the blast disease, but resistance is frequent in the South American population of the wheat blast fungus [26]. Genome analyses revealed that of the 71 wheat isolate genomes we examined, 13 carry the strobilurin resistance SNP (G1243C; Glycine to Alanine) in the mitochondrially encoded Cytochrome B (CYTB) gene (Fig 4A). Remarkably, all but one Brazilian isolate (12.1.181) of the 36 B71 lineage genomes carry the G1243C allele and are predicted to be strobilurin sensitive. We tested this by assaying B71 lineage isolates and found that all tested 30 isolates are strobilurin sensitive (Figs 4B and 4C and S14).What is the evolutionary potential of the pandemic lineage of the wheat blast fungus? In laboratory experiments, we could readily recover spontaneous strobilurin (azoxystrobin)-resistant mutants of African isolate ZMW20-14 (Fig 4B and 4C) consistent with a high potential for emergence of fungicide resistance in the pandemic clonal lineage.Multiple genetic lineages of the blast fungus are endemic to Africa causing destructive diseases on finger millet, rice, and other grasses [27,28]. The spread of the B71 clonal lineage to Africa raises the specter of sexual reproduction with endemic blast populations, which would further drive the evolutionary potential of the pandemic fungus. We determined that the pandemic B71 lineage belongs to the MAT1-2 mating type based on the genome sequences (S15 Fig) [29], and therefore, is predicted to mate with MAT1-1 isolates of M. oryzae. We tested and confirmed this prediction by showing that Zambian isolates from the pandemic lineage are fertile with MAT1-1 African finger millet isolates (Fig 4D and 4E and S5 Table).The decade-old B71 clonal lineage of the wheat blast fungus, which spread twice from genetically diverse South American populations, happens to be avirulent on Rmg8 wheat and sensitive to strobilurin fungicides. However, the emergence of variants that are more damaging than the current genotypes is probable within short timescales. This could happen either through mutations or sexual recombination with endemic blast fungus populations. Such variants could have increased virulence and fungicide tolerance, thus adding to the difficulty in managing the wheat blast disease. These findings underscore the need for genomic surveillance to improve tracking and monitoring of the wheat blast fungus on a global scale and identifying variants of concern as soon as they emerge [3].Deployment of Rmg8 wheat varieties on their own in affected areas is unlikely to provide sustained wheat blast management given that the fungus will probably evolve virulent races through AVR-Rmg8 loss of function mutations or gain of PWT4, an effector that suppresses the resistance conferred by Rmg8 [25]. Rmg8 should therefore be combined with other sources of resistance as previously shown [24,30] to be fully useful in areas with high fungal load and spores of the Zambian strain ZMW20-14 were exposed to 100 μg ml 1 azoxystrobin to obtain an azoxystrobin-resistant strain with the G143A mutation (SR1). This strain, the rice infecting strain Guy11 (G11), and the wheat-infecting strains numbered 1-31, respectively, BTBa-B1, BTBA-B2, BTGS6e, BTGS6f, BTGS6g, BTGS6h, BTGP1-b, BTMP-S13-1, PY6047, BTJP4-1, BTJP4-2, BTJP4-3, BTJP4-5, BTJP4-6, BTJP4-9, BTJP4-11, BTJP4-12, BTJP4-15, BTJP4-16, BTJP4-18, ZMW18-06, ZMW20-07, ZMW18-08, ZMW19-09, ZMW18-10, ZMW18-11, ZMW19-13, ZMW20-14, ZMW20-15, ZMW20-16, and ZMW19-17 were grown for 4 days at 25˚C on CM in the absence (A) and presence (B) of azoxystrobin indicating that all the Zambian and Bangladeshi isolates have the \"strobilurin susceptible\" genotype as anticipated by their CYTB sequences. (D) Zambian isolate ZMW20-7 (MAT-1-2) successfully produced perithecia when crossed with a finger millet blast isolate K1 (MAT-1-1) but (E) ZMW20-7 was unable to produce perithecia when crossed with a finger millet blast isolate T26 of the same mating type (MAT-1-2). Photos taken by the authors. The data underlying this figure can be found in https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7590238. SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002052.g004 disease pressure. However, it might be judicious in the short term to breed and deploy Rmg8 varieties in high-risk areas such as regions neighboring affected countries. This could serve as a firebreak to alleviate the need for wheat cultivation holidays as implemented in the Indian province of West Bengal, particularly in the face of likely wheat shortages and disruptions to global wheat trade [8,31].To identify the SNPs that could be used for genotyping of M. oryzae from Bangladesh by multiplex amplicon sequencing (Floodlight Genomics, https://floodlightgenomics.com), we filtered 15,871 SNPs identified in Islam and colleagues (2016) [10] using the following criteria: (i) they had to be polymorphic among wheat blast strains alone to make the markers useful for diagnostics; (ii) the minor allele was >30%; (iii) SNPs were located on long exonic sequences (>1,500 bp without interrupting intron); and (iv) long exons to contain only 2 to 4 SNPs. The last two criteria were to make sure that the assay will focus on SNPs surrounded by well-conserved stretches among wheat blast strains with an aim to reduce amplification failures due to polymorphism in the primer binding sites. The above criteria reduced the available genomic regions to 102 loci. We designed 102 PCR primer pairs to amplify approximately 200 bp amplicon for each gene containing 100 bp flanking regions on each side of the SNP locus for multiplex amplicon sequencing. Trial sequencing runs with these primer pairs resulted in 84 primer pairs that consistently produced amplicons that can be sequenced to identify the correct nucleotides in those SNP loci in Bangladeshi wheat blast isolates [32]. We used these as a panel of 84 SNPs to discriminate between the wheat blast clonal lineage of M. oryzae in Bangladesh from other genotypes. Initial analyses and the use of the 84 SNP panel was reported in [32], and the details of 84 SNPs including gene names and primer sequences along with the dataset for benchmarking are available in Tembo and colleagues (2021) [33].To establish the genetic makeup and the phylogenetic placement of the wheat-infecting lineage that caused a wheat blast outbreak in Zambia (2018 to 2020), we analyzed a set of 84 SNPs, which were designed to distinguish between the pandemic clonal lineage of the wheat blast fungus (Magnaporthe oryzae) that reached Southeast Asia in 2016 from other M. oryzae genotypes [10]. The dataset included 237 M. oryzae isolates from 13 different grasses that were genotyped using multiplex amplicon sequencing (\"MonsterPlex\") [33,34]. MonsterPlex is a highly accurate and cost-effective genotyping method to rapidly genotype field isolates [32,33]. The Monsterplex genotypes were extracted from the genotyping matrices [33,34] as previously described [35]. To complement the MonsterPlex dataset and increase the geographic breadth of M. oryzae isolates, we extracted the 84 SNPs from 351 publicly available M. oryzae genomes. The joint dataset consisted of 537 worldwide distributed M. oryzae isolates (Figs 1 and S1 and S1 Table ).After removing adapters with AdapterRemoval v2 [36], we mapped the Illumina-derived short reads to the M. oryzae B71 reference genome [37] using BWA mem [38]. To identify the genomic location of the 84 diagnostic SNPs in the M. oryzae B71 reference genome, we aligned each diagnostic SNP surrounded by 100 bp surrounding regions to the B71 reference genome using blastn [39]. Afterwards, for each of the per isolate mapped BAM files, we retrieved the genotypes at each of the 84 genomic locations using samtools mpileup [40]. We concatenated all SNPs in a multi-fasta-like file that was used as input for phylogenetic analyses.We built a Neighbor-Joining tree that includes a total of 537 M. oryzae isolates using the R package phangorn [41]. We displayed a tree topology that corresponds to the optimal tree drawn from 1,000 bootstrap replicates (Figs 1 and S1).We further estimated the accuracy of the genotyping method by comparing SNP data acquired from 51 isolates using MonsterPlex to the SNPs extracted from matching genome sequences. We found that SNPs from both acquisition methods were identical whenever a SNP call was made (100%, 4,251/4,251 sites). In total, only 33 sites had gaps with missing data from MonsterPlex (0.77%, 33/4,284 sites) (S1 Table ).To show that the set of 84 SNPs are informative, we compared the genetic (Hamming) distances between each pair of blast isolates using the set of 84 SNPs and the genome-wide SNPs. Our analysis revealed a correlation coefficient of 0.82 between the two sets of pairwise distances (S2C Fig) . To show that this correlation is robust and much higher than expected by chance, we repeated the calculation of pairwise distances for both datasets (84 SNPs and genome-wide SNPs) randomly subsampling a subset of the isolates (10%) with and without isolate names permutation with 100 repetitions. This analysis revealed a median correlation of pairwise distances of 0.82 and 0.001 for the resampling with permuted distances and sample pairs (S2C Fig) . We repeated the analysis using only pairwise distances among wheat-infecting isolates and obtained a correlation coefficient of 0.9 (S2D Fig), which shows that the set of 84 SNPs accurately reflect the genetic diversity of the wheat blast fungus.Our phylogenetic analyses based on 84 SNPs (Figs 1 and S1) confirmed our previous analyses, which showed that the emergence of wheat blast in Zambia and Bangladesh was caused by the same pandemic lineage of M. oryzae that traces its origin in South America [32,35,42]. Consequently, from here on, we analyzed a set of 71 wheat-infecting M. oryzae genomes that belong to the wheat-infecting genetic lineage. This set included isolates from South America (N = 37), the outbreak in Bangladesh (2016 to 2018) (N = 21), and isolates from the outbreak in Zambia (2018 to 2020) (N = 13) that were exclusively sequenced for this study [43,44] (S2 Table ).We removed adapters from the short reads from the set of 71 M. oryzae genomes using AdapterRemoval v2 [36]. To avoid reference bias, a common problem in population genetic analysis when comparing genetically similar populations, we mapped the short reads to the rice-infecting 70-15 reference genome [45] using BWA mem2 [46,47] (S2 Table ). We used samtools [40] to discard non-mapped reads and sambamba [48] to sort and mark PCR optical duplicates.As a first step to call variants, we used HaplotypeCaller from GATK [49,50] to generate genomic haplotype calls per individual using the duplicate-marked BAM files as input. Subsequently, we used CombineGVCFs, GenotypeGVCFs, and SelectVariants from GATK [49] to combine the individual genomic VCFs, call genotypes, and filter SNPs, respectively. In order to select high-quality SNPs to be included in our phylogenetic and population genetic analyses, we filtered SNPs using Quality-by-Depth (QD), which is one of the per-SNP summary statistics generated by GATK. Using M. oryzae genomes sequenced by two different sequencing technologies, we have previously shown that QD is the summary statistic that generates the best true positive and true negative rates [19]. Following this approach, using GATK VariantFiltration [49], we kept SNPs with QD values no further away than one standard deviation unit away from the median of the distribution of QD values [19]. Finally, we created a new VCF file keeping only non-missing positions using bcftools [40].To assess the population structure of the 71 M. oryzae isolates, we used genetic distances coupled with dimensionality reduction methods. First, we calculated pairwise Hamming distances using Plink V.1.9 [51]. These distances were used as input for PCA using the function prcomp from the R package stats [52] (Fig 3A). Additionally, we used f3-outgroup statistics [53] to establish the pairwise relatedness between M. oryzae samples (X and Y) after divergence from an outgroup: f3(X, Y; outgroup). We used the rice-infecting M. oryzae 70-15 as an outgroup [45]. We calculated z-scores for every possible pairwise sample comparison included in the f3-statistics test (N = 2,485). Subsequently, we carried out hierarchical clustering using the function hclust from the R package stats [52]. As input, we used a distance matrix generated from the f3-statistics-derived f3 values (S3 Fig).To distinguish clonality from outcrossing in the B71 pandemic lineage and other genetic groups identified in our population structure analyses, we used patterns of LD decay. While sexual reproduction (outcrossing) will generate patterns of LD decay that are driven by meiotic recombination, LD is not expected to decay in asexual non-recombining populations, i.e., the whole genome will be in LD. We analyzed LD decay patterns in the B71 lineage, the PY0925 lineage and treated the rest of Brazilians M. oryzae isolates as one group. To compute standard measures of LD, we used VCFtools [54]. Since VCFtools is designed to handle diploid organisms, we transformed the haploid VCF files into \"phased double haploid\" VCF files. Afterwards, we computed pairwise LD as r 2 and Lewontin's D and D'. To evaluate LD decay, for each of the genetic groups, we calculated the average of each LD measure (r 2 , Lewontin's D and D') in bins of physical genomic distance (Figs 2B and S4). To quantify the significance of LD decay, we fitted an exponential decay model using nonlinear least squares. In order to compare the patterns of LD decay between the clonal lineages and the Brazilian group, we downsample the number of SNPs in the Brazilian group to the number of SNPs segregating in the B71 clonal lineage.To perform a qualitative comparison between the observed patterns of LD decay with the expectations of LD decay in idealized populations, we performed forward simulations using FFPopSim [55]. We simulated genomes that consisted of 300 equidistant SNPs. We first sought to ascertain the effect of the probability of sexual reproduction per generation on the patterns of linkage disequilibrium decay. Each simulation was carried out for 100 generations keeping the population size, the crossover probability, and the mutation rate constant, but changing the probability of sexual reproduction per generation (0, 10 −3 , 10 −2 , 10 −1 , and 1) (S5 Fig) . Additionally, we investigated the effect of the population size on the patterns of LD decay. To this purpose, we simulated genomes that consisted of 200 equidistant SNPs. Each simulation was carried out for 100 generations keeping the crossover probability, the mutation rate, and the probability of sexual reproduction per generation constant, but changing the population size parameter (10 2 , 10 3 , 10 4 , 10 5 ) (S6 Fig) . Finally, to detect recombination events in each of the genetic groups, we performed the four-gamete test [56] using RminCutter [57]. To be able to compare the number of violations of the four-gamete test among genetic groups, we normalized the number of violations of the four-gamete test by the number of segregating SNPs per genetic group (S7 Fig).To carry out phylogenetic analyses, we used only the non-recombining genetic groups (clonal lineages) B71 and PY0925 (the latter was used as an outgroup) and included exclusively positions with no-missing data (full information). First, we generated a maximum likelihood (ML) phylogeny using RAxML-NG with a GTR+G substitution model and 1,000 bootstrap replicates [58]. Then, we used the best ML tree as input for ClonalFrameML [16], a software that detects putative recombination events and takes those into account in subsequent phylogenetic-based inferences. For every isolate, we calculate the percentage of total SNPs masked by ClonalFra-meML (S8 Fig) . Additionally, we used pairwise Hamming distances to evaluate the levels of intra-and inter-outbreak genetic variation before and after ClonalFrameML filtering (S9 Fig) . Since the LD decay analyses revealed that the B71 pandemic lineage is a non-recombining clonal lineage, we hypothesized that the SNPs marked as putatively affected by recombination are preferentially located in genomic regions affected by structural variants, e.g., presence/ absence variants. Such variants will generate phylogenetic discordances due to differential reference bias among the B71 isolates. To test this hypothesis, we created full-genome alignments of the B71 and the 70-15 reference genomes using Minimap2 [59] and visualized the output with AliTV [60]. Then, we overlapped the visual output with the SNPs putatively affected by recombination that were previously identified by ClonalFrameML (S10 Fig).To test for the existence of a phylogenetic temporal signal (i.e., a positive correlation between sampling dates and genetic divergence), we used the recombination-corrected tree generated by ClonalFrameML (Fig 2C). Using this tree, and without constraining the terminal branch lengths to their sampling times, we measured tip-to-root patristic distances between all isolates of the B71 clonal lineage and the outgroup clonal lineage PY0925 with the R package ape [61]. We calculated the Pearson's correlation coefficient between root-to-tip distances and sampling dates, and fitted a linear model using them as response and linear predictor, respectively (distances ~sampling dates) (Fig 2C). We calculated 95% confidence intervals of the correlation signal between root-to-tip distance and collection dates by sampling with replacement and recalculating the correlation coefficient 1,000 times (Figs 2C and S11). Additionally, to demonstrate that the obtained correlation coefficient was higher than expected by chance, we performed 1,000 permutation tests, where the collection dates were randomly assigned to the wheat blast isolates (S11 Fig) . To estimate the evolutionary rate and generate a dated phylogeny, where the divergence dates of all common ancestors are estimated, we used two different approaches. First, we used BactDating, a Bayesian framework that estimates evolutionary rates and divergence times using as an input a precomputed phylogenetic reconstruction [62]. As input for BactDating, we used the recombination-corrected tree generated by ClonalFrameML. The tree was loaded into BactDating using the function loadCFML, which permits the direct use of the output of ClonalFrameML as input for BactDating without the need of correcting for invariant sites (Fig 2C). In our second approach, we used BEAST2, a Bayesian approach, which in contrast to BactDating, co-estimates the evolutionary rate and the phylogenetic reconstruction [63]. From the alignment of the concatenated SNPs, we masked those that ClonalFramML marked as putatively recombining and used the masked alignment as input for the BEAST2 analyses. We carried out a Bayesian tip-dated phylogenetic analyses using the isolates' collection dates as calibration points. Since, for low sequence divergence (<10%), different substitution models tend to generate very similar sequence distance estimates [64], to simplify the calculation of parameters, we used the HKY substitution model instead of more complex models such as GTR. To reduce the effect of demographic history assumptions, and to calculate the dynamics of the population size through time, we selected a Coalescent Extended Bayesian Skyline approach [65]. The evolutionary rate was co-estimated using a strict clock model and a wide uniform distribution as prior (1E-10 -1E-3 substitutions/site/year), which permits a broad exploration of the MCMC chains. To test the robustness of our evolutionary rate estimation to changes in substitution and clock models, we repeated the analysis using GTR in combination with a strict clock model and HYK in combination with a random local clock model [66]. To have genome-scaled results, the invariant sites were explicitly consider in the model by adding a \"constantSiteWeigths\" tag in the XML configuration file. Using the CIPRES Science Gateway [67], we ran four independent MCMC chains, each of which had a length of 20,000,000 with logs every 1,000 iterations. We combined the outputs with the LogCombiner and used TreeAnotator [63,68] to calculate the Maximum Credibility Tree as well as dating and support values for each node (Figs 2C and S12 and S3 and S4 Tables).To assign the mating type for each isolate, we used two approaches. First, we created a fasta file containing the nucleotides codifying for the two mating type loci: MAT1-1-1 (GenBank: BAC65091.1) and MAT1-2-1 (GenBank: BAC65094.1) and used it as a reference genome. Using bwa-mem2 [46,47], we mapped each isolate and used samtools depth [40] to calculate the breadth of coverage for each locus as a proxy for the mating type assignment.We used a mapping approach to identify Avr-Rmg8 family members in all 71 wheat blast lineage genomes. We mapped short reads sequencing data of each isolate to the B71 reference genome assembly [37] using BWA mem2 [38] and extracted the consensus sequence of the AVR-Rmg8 locus from the output alignment files using SAMtools v.1.9 and BCFtools v.1.9 [40] for each isolate. This led to the identification of five AVR-Rmg8 variants in 71 sequences.To infer the AVR-Rmg8 family tree, we generated a multiple sequence alignment of 108 amino acid sequences of all identified variants using MUSCLE [69]. We then removed pseudogenes and duplicated sequences to generate a nonredundant dataset and generated a maximum-likelihood tree with 1,000 bootstrap replications in MEGA7 [70].To evaluate the response of Rmg8 against wheat blast isolates from Zambia, we carried out leaf drop and spray inoculations. An Oryza-infecting isolate from French Guyana, Guy11 was used as a negative control as this isolate does not infect wheat, while a Triticum-infecting isolate PY6047 from Brazil was used as a positive control it lacks the virulent allele of AVR-Rmg8 [71]. Another Triticum-infecting Bangladesh isolate BTJP4-16 that carries an avirulent allele of AVR-Rmg8 was also included. Wheat cultivars, S-615 (+Rmg8) and fielder (-Rmg8) were grown for 14 days in 9-cm diameter plastic plant pots or seed trays. Detached leaves from two weeks old seedlings were inoculated with fungal conidial suspension diluted to a final concentration of 1 × 10 5 conidia mL-1 using drop inoculation method. The inoculated detached leaves were incubated in a growth room at 24˚C with a 12 h light period. Alternatively, plants were inoculated by spray infection using an artist's airbrush (Badger, United States of America) as previously described in [72]. After spray inoculation, the plants were covered in polythene bags and incubated in a negative pressure glasshouse with a 12 h light and dark cycle. Disease severity was scored after 5 to 6 days by evaluating lesion color and count or color and size for spray infection or drop inoculation, respectively. Lesions were classified as small black/ brown non-spreading spots for resistant and large gray-spreading for susceptible. Each infection experiment was carried out three times.Generation of genetic crosses was carried as previously described in [73]. A subset of Zambian isolates ZMW20_04, ZMW18_06, ZMW20_07, ZMW18_10, ZMW20_15, and ZMW20_16 (MAT-1-2) were tested against two finger millet tester isolates from Tanzania, T15 (MAT-1-1) or T26 (MAT-1-2), one from Kenya K1(MAT-1-1), and one from Ethiopia E12 (MAT-1-1). Two isolates were cultured opposite each other on oatmeal agar plate and incubated at 24˚C for 7 to 10 days. The cultures were then transferred to a 20˚C incubator until flask-shaped perithecia appeared at the crossing point. A Leica DFC360 FX microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany) was used to visualize and image the formation of perithecia.Isolation of azoxystrobin-resistant Magnaporthe strains was carried out by exposure of spores of the fungus to azoxystrobin at 100 g ml -1 . Four million conidia of the Zambian wheat-infecting isolate ZMW20-14 were recovered from CM grown agar cultures and plated on the surface of six 12 cm 2 square Minimal medium agar plates (MM; [74]) with azoxystrobin at 100 g ml -1 . Plates were incubated for 2 weeks and then overlaid with MM plus 100 μg ml -1 azoxystrobin and grown for a further week. Five colonies were isolated from these plates and colonies were purified by subculture to MM with 100 μg ml -1 azoxystrobin for a further week before genotyping. PCR competent genomic DNA was isolated from a 4 mm 2 plug of mycelium from the purified azoxystrobin-resistant colonies (named AZ1-AZ5) with disruption using an automated tissue homogenizer and cell lyser. To extract the mycelial plug, it was placed in 400 l of extraction buffer (1 M KCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 5 mM EDTA (pH 8) together with a 5 mm stainless steel bead (Qiagen)) and macerated at 1,200 rpm for 2 min in the Geno/grinder followed by a 10-min centrifugation (17,000 x g) in a bench top centrifuge at room temperature, and 300 l of the supernatant was transferred to a new tube and nucleic acids were precipitated with 300 l of isopropanol followed by a 10-min centrifugation at room temperature at 17,000 x g. Nucleic acid pellets were air dried for 10 min and then resuspended in 50 μl of TE with 50 μg ml -1 RNAse by vortexing and then incubated for 10 min at 37˚C, and 1 l of the DNA was used in a 50 l PCR reaction with the enzyme Q5 polymerase (New England Biolabs) and the primers Cytb-f AGTCCTAGTGTAATGGAAGC and Cytb-r ATCTTCAACGTGTT TAGCACC (annealing temperature 61.5˚C). Amplicons were sequenced following gel purification in both directions using the same primers used to generate them to score for the presence or absence of the strobilurin resistance conferring mutation [26].SNPs. The boxplots show the correlations of genetic distances between each pair of isolates using the set of 84 SNPs and the genome-wide SNPs. The distributions were generated by randomly subsampling a subset of the isolates (10%) with and without isolate names permutation 100 times. (D) The scatter plot shows pairwise genetic distances including only the wheatinfecting blast isolates for the set of 84 SNPs and the genome-wide SNPs. The data underlying this figure can be found in https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7590238. ","tokenCount":"5803"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"750840d56680148d7e56c229e7b0077a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/69849181-ee90-478b-95c9-0b11c18d14e3/retrieve","id":"1269793838"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9f313b70-0458-4398-aff7-a09f2d901a7d","pagecount":"78","content":"Paso 5Plan de formación para la gestión socio-organizativa Herramienta 5Evaluación del desempeño socio-organizativo Indicadores de desempeño de los procesos organizativos Indicadores de desempeño en equidad de género Herramienta 6Referencias Bibliográficas 77 Presentación La Alianza de Aprendizaje, desde el año 2003, facilita el intercambio de conocimiento entre diferentes actores que promueven el desarrollo rural sostenible e inclusivo en Centroamérica. Para esto, la Alianza identifica y prioriza, desde la práctica, temas de aprendizaje que son críticos para mejorar la efectividad de las acciones que adelantan quienes promueven el desarrollo sostenible en Centroamérica.Una vez priorizadas estas temáticas, se diseñan e implementan ciclos de aprendizaje con las organizaciones socias de la Alianza que tienen interés en ellas. Estos ciclos de aprendizaje se desarrollan directamente vinculados a iniciativas, proyectos y/o programas de desarrollo ejecutados por las organizaciones socias; y contemplan desde una revisión del conocimiento existente, hasta el diseño de estrategias, su implementación y la sistematización de experiencias, con el fin de generar lecciones aprendidas y difundirlas ampliamente.A partir de estos procesos de aprendizaje colectivo, la Alianza de Aprendizaje busca: Mejorar la efectividad de las diferentes acciones que desarrollan diversos actores de investigación y desarrollo. Brindar información que oriente el diseño de marcos regulatorios y políticas de fomento, contribuyendo así al desarrollo rural sostenible e inclusivo.La Alianza de Aprendizaje es un espacio abierto (tanto a nivel local y nacional como internacional) a otras organizaciones del sector público y privado con interés en participar en procesos de aprendizaje para el desarrollo, que contribuyan al fortalecimiento de los medios de vida de las poblaciones rurales. Asimismo, busca articularse a otras iniciativas en Centroamérica y otras regiones, con el fin de ampliar conocimientos y emprender acciones efectivas a favor de procesos de desarrollo rural sostenibles e incluyentes.A comienzos del año 2007 las organizaciones que integran la Alianza de Aprendizaje en Nicaragua se reunieron para compartir las iniciativas, proyectos y programas con enfoque de cadena de valor que estaban desarrollando en este País con el financiamiento de diversas organizaciones de la cooperación. A partir de estas discusiones se concluyó que una condición esencial para que estas iniciativas fueran exitosas, sostenibles e incluyentes era el fortalecimiento de las capacidades organizativas y empresariales de las diferentes cooperativas y asociaciones de productores, de manera que los productores y productoras de pequeña escala se vincularan efectivamente a cadenas de valor.A partir de esto, las organizaciones socias de la Alianza de Aprendizaje en Nicaragua diseñaron un Ciclo de Aprendizaje para el fortalecimiento de organizaciones de productores y productoras, que duró dos años (2008)(2009)(2010). Cada una de las organizaciones de productores y productoras participantes en este ciclo estuvo acompañada por un proveedor de servicios de desarrollo empresarial. Entre estos proveedores se incluyeron uniones de cooperativas, organizaciones gremiales, ONG o fundaciones locales, así como técnicos locales que participaron como proveedores independientes. A su vez, los miembros de la alianza desempeñaron un rol de seguimiento y asesoría en el terreno a las organizaciones participantes en el desarrollo de los diferentes módulos.Para el desarrollo del ciclo se diseñó una serie de cuatro guías metodológicas 1 , a partir de metodologías y herramientas desarrolladas por las organizaciones socias de la Alianza de Aprendizaje. De esta manera, se inició con una revisión y re-combinación del conocimiento existente para ajustarlo a las necesidades de este proceso de fortalecimiento de capacidades y aprendizaje.Posteriormente, se inició la publicación de una nueva serie de guías, la cual pretende apoyar la implementación de un nuevo ciclo de aprendizaje en Nicaragua, así como procesos similares en otros países de la región, y se está desarrollando para formar al personal directivo y operativo de las organizaciones de productores y productoras, así como a sus proveedores de servicios empresariales; de manera que puedan liderar procesos de fortalecimiento en sus empresas asociativas rurales. La guía metodológica que se presenta a continuación es la segunda de esta serie.Esta guía metodológica no formó parte de las guías desarrolladas e implementadas en el primer ciclo de aprendizaje. Sin embargo, fue a partir de la sistematización de las lecciones aprendidas de éste ciclo que se concluyó que era esencial complementar esta serie de guías metodológicas con una que se enfocara en el fortalecimiento de la gestión socio-organizativa 2 de las empresas asociativas rurales. Esto parte de la premisa de que el balance entre la gestión socio-organizativa y la gestión empresarial 3 en este tipo de organizaciones es clave para generar procesos de cambio organizacional que verdaderamente contribuyan al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias.De esta manera la propuesta metodológica incluida en esta guía busca contribuir al fortalecimiento de los procesos organizativos basados en la gestión socio-organizativa de las empresas asociativas rurales, que dan soporte y sentido a la gestión empresarial de éstas, entendiendo como procesos organizativos aquellos procesos sociales que involucran la agrupación de personas que buscan transformar su realidad. Los objetivos que estos procesos organizativos persiguen están encaminados a promover el desarrollo integral de las personas, reducir las desigualdades económicas, sociales y de género, construir una sociedad incluyente y responsable con el medio ambiente, así como lograr la participación plena de los individuos en los procesos de toma de decisión (ISD, 2007).Si bien existe una amplia literatura sobre cómo fortalecer los procesos organizativos, el valor agregado de esta guía es que hace una apuesta para que los socios, socias y colaboradores de las empresas asociativas rurales, reflexionen colectivamente sobre el modelo de gestión organizativa que han construido. Esto es, su visión socio-organizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias, sus principios y sus prácticas organizativas 4 . A partir de esta reflexión, se busca que de manera concertada, los socios y socias de las organizaciones diseñen un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo.Esta apuesta metodológica implica estar dispuestos a romper con los paradigmas organizacionales que actualmente encontramos en una gran mayoría de empresas asociativas rurales, muchas de las cuales nacieron por proyectos que las establecen a partir de procesos preconcebidos, y que posteriormente, se convierten en empresas donde el rol del productor se limita al de proveedor de materia prima. Aún más, se crean fuertes estructuras operativas con alto poder de decisión y control, y se pone en un segundo plano la formación y el fortalecimiento de las capacidades de los socios y socias para participar, tomar decisiones, liderar sus procesos, controlar el cumplimiento de los acuerdos, normas y reglamentos, así como desarrollar procesos efectivos de comunicación.El propósito de esta guía es apoyar a las empresas asociativas rurales para desarrollar procesos de fortalecimiento de la gestión socio-organizativa [que sustenta su desarrollo] mediante una propuesta metodológica que permita la reflexión colectiva sobre el desempeño de este proceso de gestión, y a partir de esto, facilite el diseño y la implementación de acciones estratégicas para su fortalecimiento y mejora continua, las cuales se plasmen en un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo.Para esto, los objetivos específicos de esta guía metodológica son:1. Reflexionar sobre los dos niveles de gestión de las empresas asociativas rurales [la gestión socioorganizativa y la gestión empresarial], y sobre la importancia de encontrar un balance adecuado entre éstos; para a partir de esto, concertar la visión socio-organizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias, así como los principios que le dan cimiento a la organización.2. Definir conceptos clave relacionados con los procesos organizativos, su génesis, las razones para organizarse, las implicaciones de estar organizados, así como los factores que facilitan o limitan los procesos de cambio e innovación organizativa; y con base en esto, proponer procesos de cambio organizacional.3. Ofrecer herramientas para facilitar la reflexión colectiva sobre las prácticas organizativas actuales, poniendo énfasis en: Mecanismos de motivación y convocatoria de socios y socias  Mecanismos de elección de los órganos directivos y de selección del personal operativo  Mecanismos de participación y representación de los socios y socias  Procesos de formación de los socios, socias y colaboradores  Procesos de toma de decisión estratégica y operativa  Procesos de gestión e implementación  Procesos de control, rendición de cuentas y evaluación  Procesos de comunicación interna y externa  Procesos de inclusión y equidad social, étnica y de género Y a partir de esto concertar cambios en estas prácticas y en la forma en que se realizan, que permitan fortalecer la gestión socio-organizativa de la empresa asociativa rural.4. Identificar y priorizar las áreas de fortalecimiento de capacidades que requieren la implementación efectiva de las nuevas prácticas organizativas concertadas, y con base en esto, diseñar un plan de formación de socios, socias y colaboradores para la participación y la toma de decisiones, así como para el fortalecimiento de su liderazgo y sus capacidades de control y comunicación.5. Con base en todo lo anterior, preparar un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo que: Establezca la visión socio-organizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias de la organización. Enumere los principios que conforman los cimientos de la organización. Dé una descripción detallada de las prácticas organizativas que norman el comportamiento de los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización. Proponga un plan de formación para socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado].6. Proponer un grupo de indicadores básicos para evaluar periódicamente el desempeño de los procesos organizativos y los avances de la organización hacia la equidad social, étnica y de género.Esta guía metodológica busca fortalecer las capacidades de las personas que conforman las estructuras directivas y operativas de empresas asociativas rurales, y de sus proveedores de servicios empresariales para: Reflexionar sobre la gestión socio-organizativa y empresarial de las empresas asociativas rurales y sobre la importancia de trabajar con las organizaciones para alcanzar un balance adecuado entre estos dos niveles de gestión, a las vez que se apropien de conceptos básicos sobre organización, empresas asociativas rurales, procesos organizativos, prácticas organizativas y modelos de gestión organizativa. Facilitar procesos de concertación colectiva sobre la visión socio-organizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias, así como de los principios que le dan cimiento a la organización. Manejar herramientas que les permitan facilitar procesos de reflexión sobre la génesis de los procesos organizativos y el análisis de las prácticas organizativas actuales, y con base en esto, proponer procesos de mejora para fortalecer la gestión social de las empresas asociativas rurales. Facilitar procesos de evaluación colectiva de los conocimientos, capacidades, habilidades y actitudes de los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] para la participación y la toma de decisiones, así como para el liderazgo, el control y la comunicación. Concertar, a partir de los procesos de evaluación colectiva que se acaban de mencionar, un plan de formación para los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización, el cual permita capitalizar sus capacidades en función de las necesidades de la organización. Facilitar y apoyar la preparación de un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo a partir de todo lo anterior. Contar con un grupo básico de indicadores de desempeño de los procesos organizativos, y recolectar la información necesaria para monitorearlos, analizarlos e interpretarlos periódicamente, así como para promover procesos colectivos de evaluación con socios, socias y colaboradores.Los principios en que se basa la aplicación de la metodología son los siguientes:El cambio organizacional [definido como cualquier alteración ocurrida en el modelo de gestión organizativa 5  o en las prácticas organizativas en las que se plasma este modelo], debe ser un proceso de mejoramiento continuo en la búsqueda de la eficacia y la eficiencia, lo cual es esencial para su sostenibilidad. Para esto es importante generar conciencia entre los socios y socias de la organización sobre la importancia de renovar permanentemente las prácticas organizativas. Por lo tanto, promover el cambio organizacional como una acción única en un momento dado no es suficiente, y en lo posible, él debe también darse para aprovechar oportunidades, y no sólo como respuesta a situaciones de crisis en las que se presenta un problema que no se logra manejar o controlar. Por lo tanto, los procesos de cambio se deben planificar para que se den con regularidad y en forma armoniosa.Los agentes de cambio [es decir las personas responsables de iniciar, facilitar y materializar cambios a nivel individual y colectivo], son esenciales para promover procesos de cambio organizacional. Para esto los agentes de cambio requieren de un liderazgo legítimo que les permita establecer un ambiente [interno y en el entorno] favorable al cambio, con el cual logren que las personas involucradas se sientan no sólo incluidas, sino también protagonistas del proceso de cambio, para que se comprometan con él.Además, los agentes de cambio deben tener las capacidades, habilidades y actitudes para planificar el cambio organizacional, gestionar información y facilitar los procesos de toma de decisión, así como asegurar la implementación y evaluación de las acciones acordadas para el cambio organizacional.Idealmente, los agentes de cambio deben tener las siguientes características: Autoconocimiento: estar conscientes de su personalidad y actitudes, sus puntos fuertes y capacidades, sus limitaciones, sus motivaciones y necesidades personales, así como de sus principios. Comprensión de la organización: conocer a fondo la organización y entenderla. 5 El modelo de gestión organizativa se refiere a la forma como se dirige y administra una organización. Competencias para establecer buenas relaciones interpersonales: tener la capacidad de relacionarse en forma efectiva con los socios y socias, así como con los colaboradores de la organización, creando un clima de confianza, apertura, respeto y colaboración entre éstos. Flexibilidad: tener la capacidad de proponer y argumentar diferentes alternativas de acción para el cambio, así como la apertura para aceptar e implementar las decisiones del colectivo. Credibilidad: es indispensable que los agentes de cambio tengan legitimidad no sólo por la autoridad que les confiere la organización, sino también por su conocimiento y experiencia, su carisma, su asertividad y su colaboración.Para lograr el cambio organizacional es importante que los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización cuenten con capacidades mínimas para la participación efectiva y consciente en la toma de decisiones, así como capacidades de liderazgo, control y comunicación básicas, y un conocimiento uniforme de la organización. Por lo tanto, para iniciar un proceso de cambio organizacional es importante partir de la nivelación de capacidades de los miembros de la organización y del conocimiento de la organización y su génesis.Aun cuando el cambio sea bien recibido, éste altera la estabilidad y crea cierto grado de resistencia en las personas, ya que genera sentimientos de inseguridad, pérdida de control y temor ante lo desconocido. Por ello, para promover el cambio organizacional es importante identificar, entender y manejar las fuentes de resistencia al cambio. Estas fuentes de resistencia incluyen la cultura organizacional [las personas se identifican con la cultura organizacional actual y perciben las ganancias y pérdidas como una cuestión personal]; los intereses propios [las personas pueden percibir que sus intereses propios se pueden ver amenazados con el cambio organizacional]; la percepción de las metas y estrategias de la organización [las personas se sienten cómodas con las metas y estrategias actuales y por lo tanto no están dispuestas a cambiarlas]; información insuficiente o inapropiada sobre el proceso de cambio [no existe una gestión amplia y transparente de información que motive a los personas para participar y aportar al proceso de cambio].Las empresas asociativas rurales, a diferencia de otros tipos de empresas o modelos de negocio, tienen como fin último el desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias, sus colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] y sus respectivas familias.El concepto de desarrollo humano ha venido evolucionando desde una concepción puramente económica que lo relacionaba con los ingresos económicos, hacia una concepción más integral que tiene al menos cuatro dimensiones: Satisfacción de las necesidades básicas: alimentación, vestido, salud, vivienda y seguridad. Capacidades humanas: educación formal, capacitación, acceso a recursos, entre otros. Socio-política: las relaciones interpersonales y la participación activa y consciente en la sociedad. Ética: la integridad personal, el carácter, el sentido de valoración personal y de contribución a la sociedad.A partir de la concepción del desarrollo como la libertad de actuar y decidir, de Amartya Sen (1993), el desarrollo humano puede definirse como un proceso de expansión de las libertades reales de que disfrutan las personas, el cual les permite acceder a recursos y oportunidades para desarrollarse libremente en sus roles reproductivos, productivos, sociales y políticos; y así alcanzar una vida digna y saludable, generar al menos un nivel mínimo de bienestar, y participar en la toma de decisiones y en la sociedad en general.De esta manera, si el fin último de las empresas asociativas rurales es el desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias, éste debe apuntar hacia que los socios y socias puedan: Satisfacer sus necesidades básicas. Tener acceso a procesos de formación que pongan énfasis en fortalecer sus capacidades socioorganizativas y empresariales. Participar activa y conscientemente, y tomar decisiones, de manera que puedan desarrollar procesos de participación autónomos, donde el colectivo define la agenda y los fines de esta participación, y donde la toma de decisiones [estratégicas y operativas] sea el resultado del consenso de las aspiraciones de cada uno. Realizarse plenamente y valorarse como personas, reconociendo y practicando su libertad de pensamiento, su capacidad creativa, su libertad de opinar, el respeto por la vida y los derechos de los demás; y buscando el bien común.De acuerdo con este planteamiento, las empresas asociativas rurales se diferencian de otros tipos de empresas porque tienen dos dimensiones de gestión: la gestión socio-organizativa y la gestión empresarial, las cuales se muestran visualmente en la siguiente Figura, y les confieren características particulares y específicas.La gestión empresarial es aquella que le permite a estas organizaciones desarrollar los negocios, que buscan generar utilidades a partir de una actividad comercial formal, y beneficios económicos para sus socios y socias.La gestión socio-organizativa es aquella que le permite a los socios y socias [mayoritariamente productores y productoras de pequeña escala, quienes consciente y voluntariamente deciden unir esfuerzos y asociarse formalmente, y que por tanto, son los propietarios y propietarias pero también son solidariamente responsables ante la sociedad por el comportamiento y la actuación de la organización] lograr sus objetivos de desarrollo humano. Por lo tanto, esta dimensión de la gestión de empresas asociativas rurales sustenta, da sentido y fortalece la gestión empresarial de la organización.Por lo tanto, el éxito y la sostenibilidad de este tipo de organizaciones dependen de que se logre un balance adecuado entre el desarrollo humano de los socios y socias que la conforman y los resultados económicos.Tradicionalmente, la forma como se han desarrollado estas empresas asociativas rurales ha reforzado la idea de que si la gestión empresarial no se desarrolla exitosamente, lo más común es que se genere desmotivación en los socios y socias, ya que la organización no les genera resultados económicos tangibles o no les ofrece servicios efectivos para apoyar sus actividades productivas. Por lo tanto, el proceso organizativo no contribuye [de manera tangible] a que las familias socias accedan a una vida digna y saludable.Por otro lado, si la gestión empresarial toma un rol preponderante en la organización y relega la gestión socio-organizativa a un segundo plano, existe una alta probabilidad de generar poca pertenencia y compromiso por parte de los socios y socias de la organización, ya que éstos pueden sentirse excluidos de los procesos de toma de decisión, a la vez de que no se fortalecen sus capacidades para participar y tomar decisiones, y mucho menos, sus capacidades de liderazgo, gestión, control y comunicación.En la Guía Metodológica 1 se define el concepto de organización como un proceso de agrupación de personas que trabajan de forma coordinada y concertada para lograr una visión, unas metas y unos objetivos comunes, los cuales son definidos por el colectivo (Gottret et al., 2011). A partir de esto, los procesos organizativos son procesos de asociación de individuos que comparten un interés común para desarrollar actividades de diverso tipo y con diversos fines (Bombarolo, 2008).Los procesos organizativos les permiten a las personas alcanzar metas y objetivos que de forma individual no son posibles de lograr o que tomaría más tiempo alcanzar, así como hacer un uso más efectivo de los recursos con que cuentan (Gottret et al., 2011). Por lo tanto, estos procesos han sido a través del tiempo, y siguen siendo, esenciales para el desarrollo de las sociedades, ya que se desarrollan en torno a la capacidad de las personas de asociarse para dar solución a sus necesidades, aprovechar oportunidades y relacionarse con otros grupos de la sociedad.Los procesos organizativos pueden dar origen a organizaciones asociativas formales y no formales. Un ejemplo de organizaciones asociativas formales son las empresas asociativas rurales legalmente constituidas, las cuales están conformadas por productores y productoras que consciente y voluntariamente se unen para desarrollar acciones conjuntas con el fin de mejorar su acceso a servicios y desarrollar conjuntamente una o más funciones en una cadena de valor 6 . Un ejemplo de organizaciones asociativas no formales son los grupos de personas que se organizan para desarrollar parcelas experimentales con el fin de evaluar una nueva tecnología de producción.La génesis de los procesos organizativos no es más que el conjunto de hechos sucedidos en el tiempo que le dieron paso a la constitución, desarrollo, formalización y consolidación de una organización asociativa. Esto es importante ya que muchos estudios muestran que la génesis de los procesos organizativos tienen una influencia profunda sobre la forma como se dirige y administra una organización [o gobernanza de la organización], y por lo tanto, influye directamente en sus resultados económicos y en su contribución a mejorar los ingresos de las familias socias, pero aún más importante, en su sostenibilidad social y ambiental, y el desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias.Terra (1984) propone cuatro diferentes génesis de los procesos organizativos que dieron lugar a cooperativas y asociaciones de productores y productoras en América Latina.A. Organizaciones que nacieron por el traspaso de empresas públicas y privadas, en muchos casos deficitarias, a los trabajadores.B. Organizaciones que nacen de un impulso autónomo de los propios socios y socias en busca de superar los modelos de producción existentes para alcanzar una nueva forma de relación social y productiva que contribuya a su desarrollo económico y social.C. Organizaciones promovidas y creadas por una organización externa (ej. ONG, universidades), no cooperativa ella misma, motivada por cumplir las metas de un proyecto o programa de desarrollo, y que obedecen a la lógica de incubación de empresas.D. Organizaciones promovidas y creadas por la acción estatal para cumplir con objetivos y metas de política pública. Camilletti et al. (2003) a partir de un estudio comparativo de organizaciones cooperativas, concluyen que en aquellas organizaciones que surgieron de un impulso autónomo de los socios y socias [tipo B], es evidente un claro funcionamiento de las instancias y órganos internos de administración y decisión en el que los socios y socias participan activamente. Por otro lado, aquellas organizaciones que surgen por iniciativa externa privada [tipo C] responden a los objetivos o necesidades de la organización que las crea. Sin embargo, en los tres casos en que surgen por iniciativa externa [tipos A, C y D] la estructura formal institucional cumple con el marco reglamentario y legal.Los modelos de desarrollo establecidos a lo largo del siglo XX, si bien han generado crecimiento económico y un desarrollo tecnológico que sin duda mejora las condiciones de vida y la conectividad entre los seres humanos, también han aumentado las brechas económicas, sociales y culturales entre los individuos de las sociedades, propiciando la marginalización y la desigualdad, así como el deterioro de los recursos naturales. Esto está poniendo en riesgo la sostenibilidad social y ambiental de las sociedades, lo cual a su vez está directamente relacionado con su sostenibilidad económica.Los procesos organizativos pueden considerarse como un modelo de desarrollo alternativo, ya que representan un modelo de co-gestión basado en principios, los cuales se desarrollan como una opción para satisfacer las necesidades comunes de los socios y socias, a través del esfuerzo propio y la ayuda mutua (Camisassa y Romero, 2004, citado por Rojas, 2009).Cuando estos procesos incluyen la agrupación de personas que buscan transformar su realidad y están basados en la participación plena y consciente de todos y todas sus integrantes a través de procesos democráticos legítimos, pueden reducir las brechas económicas y sociales y promover el desarrollo integral de las personas, contribuyendo así a la construcción de una sociedad incluyente y responsable con el medio ambiente (ISD, 2007).Los procesos organizativos se vuelven operativos a partir de un conjunto de prácticas organizativas, las cuales en el caso específico de las empresas asociativas rurales, determinan la dimensión social de la organización y dan soporte a la dimensión empresarial.Por prácticas organizativas nos referimos al conjunto de prácticas que caracterizan a las organizaciones y definen la forma en que sus miembros interactúan y se relacionan, y que están directamente relacionadas con los procesos de toma de decisiones [estratégicas y operativas], gestión, implementación, control, evaluación, comunicación e inclusión, entre otros.Estas prácticas organizativas son definidas por el colectivo pero no son estáticas, ya que cambian y se redefinen constantemente para responder a cambios en el contexto y en el nivel de desarrollo de las organizaciones, ya sea gradualmente, o a partir de un proceso de planificación desarrollado en un momento específico.Las prácticas organizativas deben estar basadas, y ser coherentes, con la visión socio-organizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias, así como con los principios de la organización. Por otro lado, la aplicación de estas prácticas está basada en los estatutos, normas y reglas definidas por el colectivo, las cuales garantizan su cumplimiento.El modelo de gestión organizativa se refiere a la forma como se dirige y administra una organización [o gobernanza de la organización], lo cual se refleja en sus prácticas organizativas. El carácter único del modelo de gestión organizativa de las empresas asociativas rurales y que lo hace diferente del resto de organizaciones económicas, son sus prácticas organizativas, las cuales [como se dijo anteriormente] definen la forma en que los socios y socias interactúan y se relacionan, y están directamente relacionadas con la manera en que se toman las decisiones estratégicas y operativas, se gestiona la organización y se establecen mecanismos de control y evaluación.La gobernanza de las empresas asociativas rurales está influenciada por la legislación existente en cada país para este tipo de organizaciones [cooperativas, asociaciones, entre otros], así como por la filosofía, los principios de cada uno de estos modelos de gestión organizativa; y también por los valores propios de los actores sociales que los conforman, quienes definen y redefinen constantemente las normas y reglas que determinan cómo los socios y socias se relacionan entre sí y con su entorno, así como sus prácticas organizativas. Esto es, principalmente, quiénes y cómo toman las decisiones, cómo se asignan y administran los recursos, cómo se determina quién accede y de qué manera a los servicios que la organización les ofrece a sus socios y socias, y uno de los puntos más sensibles, cómo se utilizan y distribuyen los excedentes económicos generados por la organización.Las empresas asociativas rurales representan una alternativa viable para responder al desafío de mejorar los ingresos de sus socios y socias, pero su valor no sólo radica en esto, sino también en el hecho de que les permiten a las personas salir del aislamiento al compartir intereses , objetivos comunes y principios, y desarrollar acciones colectivas (Camilletti et al. 2003), lo cual les da la oportunidad a los socios y socias de fortalecer sus capacidades de gestión socio-organizativa y empresarial, pero sobretodo, promueve el desarrollo humano.Sin embargo, la posibilidad de avanzar hacia el fin de estos procesos organizativos radica justamente en el modelo de gestión organizativa establecido y en las prácticas organizativas que definen la gestión socioorganizativa de la organización, principalmente en aquellas relacionadas con la inclusión de los socios y socias en los procesos clave de la organización.La gestión socio-organizativa y la gestión empresarial de las empresas asociativas rurales se desarrollan de acuerdo con su modelo de gestión organizativa. Ahora bien, las empresas asociativas rurales pueden estar sustentadas en diferentes modelos de gestión organizativa. Como se presenta en el Cuadro 1, estos modelos pueden caracterizarse, según el tipo de participación, el tipo de liderazgo y las capacidades socioorganizativas, en cuatro: pasivo, consultivo e informativo, activo, e incluyente y legítimo.Las organizaciones pueden en un momento dado ubicarse en uno de estos modelos, lo cual no debe verse como bueno o malo, simplemente como una evaluación de la situación actual. Sin embargo, si las organizaciones quieren avanzar hacia su sostenibilidad social y económica, y contribuir al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias, es importante que se planteen acciones concretas para avanzar hacia un modelo incluyente y legítimo de gestión organizativa. A continuación se explica a qué nos referimos con estos diferentes tipos de participación y liderazgo, así como cuáles se considera que deberían ser las capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios y socias de una organización para avanzar hacia un modelo incluyente y legítimo de gestión organizativa.En el caso específico de las empresas asociativas rurales, se entiende como participación el proceso por el cual los socios y socias de una organización influyen y toman parte en definir las prioridades, las políticas, la forma como se reparten los excedentes, el acceso a los bienes y servicios comunes, y el establecimiento de alianzas; y se apropian de las decisiones tomadas.A partir del documento de la FAO (2002), a su vez basado en Pretty (1995), podemos considerar cinco niveles de participación en una empresa asociativa rural.Participación pasiva: los colaboradores de la organización [las estructuras operativas], los miembros de los consejos de administración [las estructuras directivas] o los miembros de los diferentes comités, se limitan a informar unilateralmente sobre las decisiones tomadas, la gestión desarrollada y los resultados logrados, sin esperar ni solicitar las opiniones de los socios y socias, ni interactuar con ellos y ellas. Esto normalmente se realiza una vez al año en la Asamblea ordinaria de socios y socias [o de delegados y delegadas, cuando las organizaciones tienen más de 100 socios y socias], y cuando se considera necesario durante las asambleas extraordinarias.Participación consultiva: los colaboradores de la organización [las estructuras operativas], los miembros de los consejos de administración [las estructuras directivas] o los miembros de los diferentes comités, informan sobre los resultados logrados y consultan las opiniones de los socios y socias, y con base en estos insumos, toman decisiones y gestionan la organización, pero no interactúan más allá de esto con los socios y socias. Al igual que en el caso anterior, esto normalmente se realiza una vez al año en la Asamblea ordinaria de socios y socias [o de delegados y delegadas, cuando las organizaciones tienen más de 100 socios y socias], y cuando se considera necesario durante las asambleas extraordinarias.Participación funcional: los socios y socias participan no sólo en espacios informativos y consultivos, sino también en diferentes comités y grupos para realizar actividades definidas y priorizadas por los colaboradores de la organización [las estructuras operativas], los miembros de los consejos de administración [las estructuras directivas] o los miembros de los diferentes comités. Es decir que los socios y socias participan cuando ya se han tomado las principales decisiones y se han planificado las actividades.Para lograr el compromiso de los socios y socias con este tipo de participación, muchas veces se utilizan incentivos materiales [alimentos, materiales, equipos, insumos, créditos, entre otros].Participación activa: los socios y socias participan en el análisis conjunto de la situación actual, la problemática que enfrentan, así como las oportunidades que se presentan tanto a nivel de las familias socias, como de la organización; lo cual resulta en el diseño de planes de acción y procesos de aprendizaje interactivo. A partir de esto, los colaboradores de la organización [las estructuras operativas], los miembros de los consejos de administración [las estructuras directivas] y los miembros de los diferentes comités, facilitan la toma de decisión estratégica, y los socios y socias definen, diseñan y acuerdan las prácticas organizativas, e idealmente, se comprometen con su implementación.La mayoría de las personas conciben el liderazgo como una posición, y en consecuencia, no se ven a sí mismas como líderes cuando no ejercen un cargo en la organización; sin embargo, el liderazgo es una elección personal que se desarrolla y ejerce independientemente de la posición que se ocupa en una organización. Por lo tanto, los líderes no nacen, sino que se hacen a sí mismos: el liderazgo es la consecuencia de una elección personal y consciente.Un buen líder no busca ser irremplazable, todo lo contrario, es un agente de cambio que busca incorporar principios de liderazgo duradero en la cultura organizacional, y por lo tanto, se asegura de que sus sucesores o sucesoras tengan más éxito del que tiene él o ella. Para esto, se esfuerza por institucionalizar estos principios de liderazgo en las estructuras, los sistemas y los procesos de su organización, de manera que se aumente la probabilidad de que su legado de liderazgo pase a las siguientes generaciones. Por lo tanto, los verdaderos líderes promueven y facilitan el relevo generacional del liderazgo.A partir de la propuesta para el liderazgo efectivo de Covey ( 2005), podemos considerar cinco niveles de liderazgo en una empresa asociativa rural: el liderazgo pasivo, el liderazgo negociador, el liderazgo funcional, el liderazgo motivador y el liderazgo transformador. Como se muestra en la Figura 2, para generar una profunda influencia transformadora en una empresa asociativa rural, de manera que ésta contribuya verdaderamente al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias, es fundamental contar con líderes que desarrollen sus cuatro inteligencias o capacidades humanas innatas [mental, física, emocional y espiritual]. Las manifestaciones más elevadas de estas cuatro inteligencias son: para la mental, la visión; para la física, la disciplina; para la emocional, la pasión; y para la espiritual, la ética.Visión es ver con el ojo de la mente lo que es posible en las personas, en los proyectos, en las causas y en las empresas. La visión se produce cuando la mente relaciona posibilidad y necesidad, y por lo tanto, todo lo que ahora se puede demostrar que funciona, en el pasado fue sólo imaginado por personas que tuvieron visión. Los líderes efectivos ayudan a los socios, socias y colaboradores de su organización a encontrar caminos y determinar la dirección y el rumbo de las acciones.Disciplina es el esfuerzo que requiere alcanzar esa visión. Esto requiere abordar los hechos prácticos de la realidad y hacer lo que haga falta para que ocurran las cosas. La disciplina surge cuando la visión se une al compromiso. Los líderes efectivos facilitan y potencian la capacidad organizativa de los socios, socias y colaboradores de su organización y administran los procesos de cambio.Pasión es la fuerza de convicción y el impulso que sostiene la disciplina para alcanzar la visión. La pasión surge cuando la convicción de servir a grandes propósitos se superpone a los intereses y necesidades personales. Los líderes efectivos involucran y facultan a los socios, socias y colaboradores de su organización, comparten poder con éstos y movilizan su compromiso.Ética es el sentido moral interior de lo que es bueno y lo que es malo, el impulso hacia el sentido y la aportación. Es la fuerza que guía a la visión, la disciplina y la pasión. Por lo tanto, el liderazgo transformador se da cuando la ética gobierna la visión, la disciplina y la pasión, y se pone al servicio de la causa y de la gente. Un líder transformador tiene carácter y lo demuestra mediante sus hábitos y su integridad personal.A partir de esta discusión, a continuación se describen brevemente los diferentes tipos de liderazgo:Liderazgo pasivo: éste es el tipo de liderazgo tradicional, donde el liderazgo está dado por la posición que ejerce la persona en la organización [miembro del Consejo de Dirección, gerente, coordinador, entre otros], y por lo tanto, le confiere la responsabilidad y el poder de establecer las reglas, asegurar que éstas se cumplan y que se implementen las acciones planificadas en tiempo y forma, haciendo un uso eficiente de los recursos.Liderazgo negociador: este tipo de liderazgo también está dado por la posición que ejerce la persona en la organización [miembro del Consejo de Dirección, gerente, coordinador, entre otros], y por lo tanto, le confiere el poder de tomar decisión. Por eso las personas que ejercen estas posiciones normalmente establecen las reglas, toman las decisiones y planifican. Sin embargo, cuando este tipo de líder encuentra dificultades en su implementación y ejecución por falta de compromiso y pertenencia de las demás personas que conforman la organización [lo cual es una situación que comúnmente ocurre], entran a negociar con ellas. Esto normalmente se convierte en una transacción de recursos, prestigio, estatus, tiempo y compromisos, entre otros.Liderazgo funcional: este tipo de liderazgo también está dado por la posición que ejerce la persona en la organización [miembro del Consejo de Dirección, gerente, coordinador, entre otros), y por lo tanto, le confiere el poder de tomar decisión, pero se logra un nivel de interacción funcional entre dirigentes fuertes e independientes, y socios, socias y colaboradores seguidores, obedientes y dependientes. Por lo tanto, la organización alcanza un nivel de gestión organizativa funcional. Sin embargo, éste no es un liderazgo que perdura, y tampoco logra el nivel de pertenencia y compromiso por parte de los socios y socias que requiere una organización para avanzar hacia su sostenibilidad social y económica, y contribuir al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias.Liderazgo motivador: el liderazgo motivador, contrario a los anteriores, no está dado por la posición o cargo que asumen las personas, sino por la cultura organizacional en la cual actúan quienes ejercen el liderazgo, con la intencionalidad proactiva de afirmar el valor y el potencial de los socios y socias, así como de los colaboradores [personal gerencial y operativo contratado]. Esto permite conformar equipos de trabajo complementarios para lograr los objetivos y fines de la empresa asociativa rural, donde las capacidades y habilidades fuertes individuales se potencian, y las debilidades no resultan relevantes porque quedan compensadas por las capacidades y habilidades fuertes de los demás. El liderazgo motivador requiere de los tres atributos discutidos anteriormente: visión, disciplina y pasión.Liderazgo transformador: como su nombre lo dice, este tipo de liderazgo no sólo motiva y estimula el trabajo en equipo por parte de los socios, socias y colaboradores para avanzar hacia la sostenibilidad social y económica de las empresas asociativas rurales. Además de esto, genera una profunda influencia transformadora en ellos para lograr su total compromiso y pertenencia a la organización, de tal manera que ésta puede contribuir verdaderamente al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias. El liderazgo transformador se da cuando la ética gobierna la visión, la disciplina y la pasión, y se pone al servicio de la causa y de la gente. Por lo tanto, éste es el tipo de liderazgo que contribuye a cambiar su entorno y que cambia a partir su entorno, ya que genera una mutua satisfacción de necesidades y, como resultado de esa interacción, el líder compromete a las personas con la acción, convirtiéndolos de seguidores, a líderes y agentes de cambio.Por capacidades socio-organizativas nos referimos al conjunto de recursos y aptitudes que tienen los socios, socias y colaboradores, que los facultan y les permiten desempeñar acciones para la gestión socioorganizativa de sus empresas asociativas rurales. Entre estas capacidades, las siguientes se consideran esenciales para que los socios, socias y colaboradores puedan participar de manera activa y consciente, independientemente de la posición que ejerzan en la organización:1. Apropiar y poner en práctica los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos.2. Cumplir con normas, reglamentos y estatutos.3. Acceder, procesar y analizar información.4. Evaluar posibles alternativas y tomar decisiones.5. Escuchar y comunicar efectivamente las opiniones, sugerencias y propuestas, internamente y con actores externos a la organización.6. Ejercer un liderazgo transformador.7. Solicitar y rendir cuentas sobre el uso y manejo de los recursos de la organización con transparencia.8. Fiscalizar todas las acciones de la organización, y de ser necesario, proponer mejoras y participar en su implementación.9. Evaluar la gestión socio-organizativa y empresarial de la organización, su desempeño, y los avances hacia el logro de los objetivos comunes y la realización de la visión socio-organizativa.A partir de esto podríamos definir diferentes niveles en las capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios, socias y colaboradores de una organización, lo cual será importante cuando se diseñen e implementen planes de formación que permitan avanzar hacia un modelo incluyente y sostenible de gestión organizativa.Para esto se propone categorizar las capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios, socias y colaboradores en cinco niveles: capacidades socio-organizativas limitadas, básicas, funcionales, adecuadas y avanzadas. La caracterización de estos niveles se presenta en el Cuadro 2.Capacidades socio-organizativas limitadas: en este nivel las personas involucradas en el proceso organizativo desconocen los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos, así como las normas, reglamentos y estatutos de su organización. Esta situación puede originarse cuando los procesos organizativos son promovidos por un actor externo que no participa directamente de ellos [una ONG o el mismo Estado], el cual generalmente tiene como requisito organizar a grupos de productores para implementar una iniciativa de desarrollo específica [programas y proyectos de cooperación o desarrollo].Como resultado de esto, la visión estratégica y los principios organizativos están marcados por la agenda del agente externo y la participación está motivada principalmente por la posibilidad de recibir beneficios de cualquier tipo [generalmente materiales]. Por lo tanto, las capacidades de comunicación están limitadas a expresar las necesidades materiales de los participantes.En estos casos, lo más común es que se genera un bajo sentido de pertenencia y compromiso con el proceso organizativo, se espera que el liderazgo lo asuman los agentes externos, y los participantes que asumen algún nivel de liderazgo lo hacen principalmente por su interés de acceder a los beneficios que puede traer el proyecto o programa. Este tipo de procesos organizativos muchas veces muere antes de llegar a su constitución en organizaciones formales reconocidas por la ley [cooperativas o asociaciones], o se constituyen formalmente sólo para cumplir con los requisitos de los proyectos o programas que los promueven, y por lo tanto, su existencia está limitada a la duración de la intervención externa.Capacidades socio-organizativas básicas: en este nivel sólo los directivos conocen los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos, así como las normas, reglamentos y estatutos de su organización, y por lo tanto, la elección de los órganos directivos se realiza conforme a lo establecido en estas normativas. Por otro lado, el liderazgo es ejercido de acuerdo con la posición que ocupan los socios y socias en los cargos de dirección y por lo tanto, se espera que el liderazgo lo asuman los directivos que fueron elegidos.Ahora bien, dado que los socios y las socias no conocen ni han recibido formación sobre los principios y la filosofía organizativa, son los líderes y colaboradores [si es el caso] quienes participan de los procesos de definición estratégica de la organización [visión, misión y objetivo], mientras que los socios y socias tienen dificultades para comunicarse, ya que sus capacidades están limitadas a expresar las necesidades que tienen. Todo esto resulta en la limitada participación de los individuos en las actividades que promueve la organización.Por su parte, los líderes electos y el personal se limitan a informar unilateralmente sobre las decisiones tomadas, la gestión desarrollada y los resultados logrados. Es así como los espacios de participación se limitan a los establecidos en las normativas: Asamblea ordinaria de socios y socias [o de delegadas y delegados] y asambleas extraordinarias.Capacidades socio-organizativas funcionales: en este nivel los socios y socias conocen los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos, así como las normas, reglamentos y estatutos de su organización, pero sólo los directivos han apropiado estos principios y filosofía y cumplen con las normativas. La capacidad de los socios y socias de reflexionar sobre los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos es aún limitada, pero ya existe una mayor consciencia sobre el proceso organizativo, por lo tanto, los directivos son electos considerando su nivel de participación en los diferentes espacios de la organización y su formación.Por otro lado, los socios y socias han tenido la oportunidad de participar en procesos de formación básica, por lo que ya están en capacidad de escuchar activamente, procesar información e identificar diferentes alternativas para solucionar una situación problemática. Esta formación básica los motiva a trabajar en el desarrollo de su liderazgo, solicitar la rendición de cuentas, fiscalizar las acciones de la organización y evaluar su gestión. Por lo tanto, los socios y socias participan en la definición colectiva de la visión, misión y objetivos de la organización; no obstante, los directivos son los que definen, a partir de su influencia en el colectivo, los elementos principales de la visión, misión y objetivos organizativos.Cuando las capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios están en este nivel, la organización funciona bien y existen las estructuras directivas definidas en las normas, sin embargo, los procesos de información y participación son aún deficientes y limitados, pero los procesos de formación empiezan a ampliarse a un mayor número de socios y socias en respuesta a las inquietudes que nacen del colectivo.Capacidades socio-organizativas adecuadas: en este nivel los directivos [electos por el colectivo] han propiciado espacios de formación amplia y de reflexión para el resto de los socios y socias. Por tanto, éstos se han apropiado y ponen en práctica los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos, y conocen y cumplen con las normas, reglamentos y estatutos establecidos por el colectivo.Los socios y socias han tenido la oportunidad de participar en procesos de formación, por lo que ya están en capacidad de escuchar activamente y comunicar claramente sus ideas; recibir, procesar y analizar información; e identificar y evaluar diferentes alternativas para solucionar una situación problemática. Esta formación les permite ejercer un liderazgo motivador, solicitar y rendir cuentas, fiscalizar las acciones de la organización y proponer mejoras, y evaluar su gestión y desempeño. Esto permite que exista motivación para participar e incidir en la organización, y por lo tanto, los objetivos, la visión y la misión han sido definidos con la participación de una gran mayoría de socios y socias, y son representativos.A partir de esto, los socios y socias conforman estructuras de dirección y trabajo a nivel territorial que sirven para garantizar la formación incluyente de la mayoría de los socios y socias, e ir desarrollando las capacidades para garantizar el relevo de los liderazgos. En este nivel de capacidades empiezan a definirse estructuras de trabajo territoriales que son cada vez más funcionales, y los espacios de participación son incluyentes y motivados por los líderes.Capacidades socio-organizativas avanzadas: en este nivel los socios y socias cuentan con gran motivación, sentido de pertenencia y compromiso con su organización, ya que están apropiados y ponen en práctica los principios y la filosofía de los procesos organizativos; además, conocen y cumplen con las normas, reglamentos y estatutos establecidos por el colectivo.Los socios, socias y colaboradores ejercen un liderazgo transformador que es ejercido desde la base, por eso el nivel de compromiso con el colectivo es alto. Periódicamente los socios y socias participan en procesos de formación, por lo que han desarrollado sus capacidades para buscar, acceder, procesar y analizar información, así como para identificar, proponer y evaluar diferentes alternativas de solución, y con base en esto, tomar decisiones. Por lo tanto, participan en la definición de los aspectos estratégicos para la gestión socio-organizativa y empresarial de su organización.Los socios y socias también han desarrollado sus capacidades y habilidades para escuchar activamente, así como para comunicar y aportar ideas de manera efectiva; rendir cuentas de manera precisa, oportuna y clara; fiscalizar, proponer e implementar mejoras en las acciones que desarrolla su organización; y evaluar la gestión y desempeño de ésta, así como los resultados que ha logrado. Todo esto le permite a la organización avanzar hacia un modelo incluyente y sostenible de gestión organizativa, y generar un compromiso colectivo con el desarrollo humano de cada socio y socia, de los colaboradores y sus respectivas familias.En la Unidad 1 se trabajaron los conceptos básicos sobre los procesos organizativos como un modelo alternativo de desarrollo, incluyendo los diferentes modelos de gestión organizativa, que están dados por:(1) el tipo de participación, (2) el tipo de liderazgo, y (3) el nivel de fortalecimiento de las capacidades socioorganizativas de los socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico], los cuales se plasman en un conjunto de prácticas organizativas.A partir de este entendimiento, el siguiente paso consiste en facilitar un proceso de reflexión con los socios y socias de la organización [incluyendo a los miembros del Consejo Administrativo y a los diferentes comités], y con los colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnicos contratados] sobre la génesis y el desarrollo de su proceso organizativo, y cómo esto influyó en el modelo actual de gestión de la organización. Con base en esto, será posible diseñar un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo apropiado al nivel de desarrollo de la empresa asociativa rural, y establecer un sistema de monitoreo y evaluación de su desempeño socio-organizativo.Este plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo debe, al menos: Establecer la visión socio-organizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias de la organización. Enumerar los principios que conforman los cimientos de la organización. Incluir un listado detallado de las prácticas organizativas que norman el comportamiento de los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización, y la descripción de los procedimientos para la implementación de estas prácticas. Proponer un plan de formación para socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] para el fortalecimiento de sus capacidades socio-organizativas. Definir un grupo de indicadores básicos para evaluar periódicamente el desempeño de los procesos organizativos y los avances de la organización hacia la equidad social, étnica, y de género.A continuación, en la Figura 2 se visualiza el proceso metodológico para el diseño de planes de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo para empresas asociativas rurales, el cual consta de seis pasos clave [cada uno de ellos acompañado de una herramienta de aplicación]:Figura 2. Proceso metodológico para el diseño de planes de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo para empresas asociativas rurales 1. El análisis de la génesis del proceso organizativo que llevó al surgimiento y desarrollo de la empresa asociativa rural.2. Una evaluación del modelo de gestión organizativa actual, basada en el análisis del tipo de participación y el tipo de liderazgo que mejor describe a la empresa asociativa rural, así como en el nivel actual de las capacidades socio-organizativas de sus socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado]. En esta evaluación también se analiza la relación que existe entre el modelo de gestión y la génesis del proceso organizativo.3. La construcción colectiva de la visión de desarrollo humano que desean alcanzar los socios y las socias, junto con los principios que cimientan su proceso organizativo y su empresa asociativa rural.4. Una revisión profunda de las prácticas organizativas actuales, las razones que llevaron a ellas, así como los efectos que éstas tienen en el desempeño socio-organizativo y empresarial de la organización; y a partir de esto, proponer mejoras en estas prácticas organizativas y en los procedimientos utilizados para su implementación.5. Con base en las prácticas organizativas hacia las cuales quiere avanzar la organización, determinar las capacidades socio-organizativas que requieren los socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] para implementarlas, contrastarlas con las prácticas actuales y, con base en las brechas encontradas, diseñar un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo.6. El establecimiento de la línea base para evaluar periódicamente el desempeño de la gestión socioorganizativa de la empresa asociativa rural.Es importante tener en cuenta que el proceso que se desarrolla para el diseño de los planes de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo es igual o más importante que las herramientas que se utilizan y el documento de planificación que resulta de su aplicación, ya que la implementación de este plan dependerá de la pertenencia y el compromiso que se logren con él durante su diseño. Por esta razón, se dan las siguientes recomendaciones para su aplicación:Estas herramientas deben ser aplicadas con un grupo representativo de socios y socias de la organización, sus órganos directivos y operativos completos, y si cuentan con colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado], también es importante que éstos participen.La convocatoria debe procurar ser lo más incluyente y representativa posible, y deben hacerse todos los esfuerzos necesarios para asegurar la participación de las mujeres, las personas jóvenes y los hombres, así como de representantes de los grupos étnicos, si éstos participan en la organización. Esto puede implicar realizar esfuerzos adicionales en cuanto a la hora y el lugar de la convocatoria.Es importante que la o las personas que faciliten el proceso de construcción del plan de fortalecimiento organizativo, tengan claridad y dominio sobre los conceptos y la metodología, ya que la efectividad de las seis herramientas propuestas en esta guía metodológica, dependerá en gran medida de la manera en que éstas se utilicen.El facilitador o la facilitadora, como el término lo indica, juega un rol muy importante: acompañar el proceso de diseño del plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo de la empresa asociativa rural, orientando a los participantes en el uso de las metodologías, garantizando el cumplimiento de los principios metodológicos y aclarando los conceptos siempre que sea necesario.Para asegurar que el proceso genera los resultados esperados a la vez que fortalece a la organización y a sus socios y socias, es esencial que el acompañamiento que da el facilitador o la facilitadora esté basado en el respeto y la comprensión de los procesos internos de la organización. Por otro lado, la posición del facilitador o la facilitadora debe ser imparcial, y por lo tanto, no debe influenciar las discusiones ni los resultados de éstas.Si bien es importante aplicar las herramientas grupalmente, con la representación de los diferentes grupos de interés dentro de la organización, se recomienda inicialmente conformar grupos o tener sesiones separadas con los órganos directivos, los órganos operativos [gerenciales, administrativos y técnicos] y con un grupo representativo de socios y socias.El grupo representativo de asociados se debe separar en mujeres y hombres, y si se considera necesario, conformar un grupo adicional de jóvenes socios y socias. Esto es importante para que las mujeres y las personas jóvenes puedan tener una participación libre y más activa durante el proceso de evaluación. De igual manera, se considera óptimo trabajar de forma separada con los órganos directivos y operativos [si la organización cuenta con ellos].Una vez realizado el trabajo en los diferentes grupos conformados, es esencial realizar sesiones donde estos grupos estén apropiadamente representados, compartan sus resultados, y se vayan construyendo por consenso las diferentes partes que componen el plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo de la empresa asociativa rural.Como se discutió en la Unidad 1, existen evidencias de que la génesis de los procesos organizativos tiene una alta influencia en el modelo de gestión organizativa que gobierna a la empresa asociativa rural, y la forma en que éste se plasma en un grupo de prácticas organizativas que, a la vez, determinan su gestión socio-organizativa.Adicionalmente, los eventos que se dieron a partir de esta génesis también tienen una influencia profunda en el modelo actual de gestión organizativa y en la definición y redefinición de las prácticas organizativas.Por esto, es importante que el diseño de un plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo parta del análisis de la génesis del proceso organizativo que llevó al surgimiento y desarrollo de la empresa asociativa rural, así como de la reflexión sobre las lecciones aprendidas. A partir de este análisis colectivo se busca generar conciencia entre los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización sobre cómo surgió su organización y cuáles eventos, a lo largo de su historia, definieron su modelo actual de gestión organizativa.Objetivo: Que los socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] de las empresas asociativas rurales identifiquen la serie de situaciones que dieron origen a su proceso organizativo y a su desarrollo a través del tiempo, y reflexionen sobre la manera en que surgió y se desarrolló su proceso organizativo. A partir de esto se buscan identificar aspectos positivos, aspectos negativos y lecciones aprendidas.Utilidad: -Permite reflexionar sobre la manera en que surgió el proceso organizativo e identificar las situaciones posteriores que fueron dándole forma a este proceso.-Contribuye a explicar las fortalezas del proceso organizativo que fueron claves para darle continuidad a este proceso, así como para fortalecerlo, de manera que en el diseño de los planes de fortalecimiento organizativo se las tenga en cuenta para potenciarlas.-Contribuye a explicar las debilidades del proceso organizativo que pusieron en riesgo la continuidad del proceso y que limitaron su desarrollo, de manera que en el diseño de los planes de fortalecimiento organizativo se las tenga en cuenta para identificar acciones concretas para corregir estas debilidades.1. Antes de comenzar con el trabajo se escriben las preguntas de la siguiente matriz en tarjetas, las cuales se deben pegar sobre una pared, pizarra o papel kraft. También se puede preparar la matriz directamente sobre la pizarra o sobre un caballete.2. Se solicita a los participantes que vayan respondiendo una a una las preguntas anteriores. El facilitador o la facilitadora debe ayudar al grupo a retroceder en el tiempo lo más atrás posible. Es importante que todos y todas los que participen aporten con sus reflexiones.3. Será de gran importancia que el grupo pueda relacionar su modelo de génesis con la situación actual de la organización en términos de participación, liderazgo y capacidades socio-organizativas de socios y socias.-Los facilitadores no deben influir o decidir sobre los eventos más importantes. Deben dejar que sean los participantes quienes los identifiquen, ya que ellos recordarán los que más los afectaron o influenciaron, ya sea positiva o negativamente.Como dijimos anteriormente, el modelo actual de gestión organizativa de una empresa asociativa rural está determinado, en gran medida, por la génesis del proceso organizativo, así como por los eventos que se dieron a lo largo de la historia de la organización. Una vez que se analizó en profundidad la génesis y la historia de la organización, el siguiente paso es evaluar el modelo actual de gestión organizativa de la empresa asociativa rural.Para esto, como se discutió en la Unidad 1 [ver el Cuadro 1], es importante analizar el tipo de participación y el tipo de liderazgo que mejor describe a la organización, así como el nivel actual de las capacidades socioorganizativas de los socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] de la empresa asociativa rural. Esto puede hacerse [idealmente] a partir del proceso de autoevaluación facilitada, desarrollado por la organización mediante la aplicación de la metodología propuesta en la Guía 1 de esta serie (Gottret et al., 2011), particularmente del área de evaluación 4 que está enfocada en la fortaleza de los procesos organizativos.Objetivo: Evaluar el modelo de gestión organizativa actual con base en el análisis del tipo de participación y del tipo de liderazgo que mejor describe a la organización, así como del nivel actual de las capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios, socias y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] de la empresa asociativa rural.Utilidad: -Permite analizar el tipo de participación que predomina en la organización e identificar alternativas de acción para avanzar hacia una participación activa y consciente.-Permite analizar el tipo de liderazgo que predomina en la organización e identificar alternativas de acción para avanzar hacia un liderazgo transformador.-Facilita la evaluación del nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios, socias, y colaboradores [personal gerencial, administrativo y técnico contratado] de la empresa asociativa rural, para crecer hacia un nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas avanzadas.-A partir de lo anterior, ayuda a determinar el modelo actual de gestión organizativa que sustenta la gestión socio-organizativa y empresarial de la empresa asociativa rural y plantear alternativas de acción para avanzar hacia un modelo incluyente y legítimo de gestión organizativa.Análisis en profundidad de la participación y representatividad 2. Se discuten cada una de estas razones hasta llegar a un consenso sobre cuál de ellas es la razón central para que la organización se encuentre en el nivel de participación y representatividad identificado. Esta razón se define en forma clara y concertada como el problema central, se escribe en una tarjeta de color amarillo, y se coloca en el tronco de un árbol que se puede dibujar en una pizarra, como se muestra en la siguiente figura:3. Luego se pasa a la identificación de las causas por las que se enfrenta este problema. Para esto se le pregunta a los participantes por las causas del problema, es decir, qué lo origina. Las ideas que aportan los participantes se apuntan en tarjetas de color rosado y se pegan, sin ningún orden específico, debajo del problema central, hasta que se agoten las sugerencias. Al llegar a este punto se trabaja en relacionar las causas entre sí para determinar la causa principal y las causas secundarias por las que se da el problema central, como se muestra en la siguiente figura:4. Luego se pasa a la identificación de los efectos de este problema central de participación y representatividad. Para esto se le pregunta a los participantes sobre las consecuencias que le trae este problema a la organización. Las ideas aportadas por los participantes se apuntan en tarjetas de color azul y se pegan, sin ningún orden específico, encima del problema central, hasta que se agoten las sugerencias. Al llegar a este punto se trabaja en relacionar los efectos entre sí para determinar los efectos directos que trae el problema central y su resultado actual, como se muestra en la siguiente figura:5. Al finalizar el análisis en profundidad sobre los problemas de participación y representatividad que está enfrentando la organización y los efectos que esto tiene, se retoman las descripciones de los diferentes tipos de participación [pasiva, consultiva, funcional, activa, y activa y consciente] que se encuentran en la Unidad 1 de esta guía metodológica [ver páginas 21-24], y se elige el que más se acerca a la situación actual de la organización.Análisis en profundidad del liderazgo y la transparencia 6. Retomar los resultados de la Autoevaluación Facilitada en la sub-área 4.2 sobre Liderazgo y Transparencia, realizada como aplicación de la Guía 1 (Gottret et al., 2011), y hacer una lluvia de ideas sobre las razones por las que la organización no tiene un puntaje de 5 [el puntaje máximo] en esta subárea. Cada una de estas razones se pone en una tarjeta verde, teniendo cuidado de escribir sólo una razón por tarjeta. Otra alternativa es que el cofacilitador o la cofacilitadora vaya escribiendo estas razones en una pizarra.7. Se discuten cada una de estas razones hasta llegar a un consenso sobre cuál de ellas es la razón central para que la organización se encuentre en el nivel de liderazgo y transparencia identificado. Esta razón se define en forma clara y concertada como el problema central, se escribe en una tarjeta de color amarillo, y se coloca en el tronco de un árbol que se puede dibujar en una pizarra. Después se sigue el mismo procedimiento para determinar la causa principal y las causas secundarias, así como los efectos directos y el resultado actual de este problema central de liderazgo y transparencia.8. Al finalizar el análisis en profundidad sobre los problemas de liderazgo y transparencia que está enfrentando la organización y los efectos que esto tiene, se retoman las descripciones de los diferentes tipos de liderazgo [pasivo, negociador, funcional, motivador, y transformador] que se encuentran en la Unidad 1 de esta guía metodológica [ver páginas 24-28], y se elige el que más se acerca a la situación actual de la organización.Definición del modelo de gestión organizativa actual 9. Una vez concertados los tipos de participación y liderazgo que en la actualidad describen mejor a la organización, se pasa a determinar el modelo de gestión organizativa actual de ésta, utilizando el Cuadro 1 que se encuentran en la Unidad 1 de esta guía metodológica [ver página 21]. Si el tipo de participación y el tipo de liderazgo actuales, concertados por los participantes, no corresponden al mismo modelo de gestión organizativa, se toma el del nivel más bajo.10. De acuerdo con el modelo de gestión organizativa que gobierna actualmente a la organización, podemos inferir, a partir del Cuadro 1 [ver página 21], el nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas [limitadas, básicas, funcionales, adecuadas, y avanzadas] de los socios, socias y colaboradores de la empresa asociativa rural.11. De acuerdo con el nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas en las que se encuentra la organización, se les explica a los participantes lo que implica este nivel de capacidades, con base en el Cuadro 2 de laUnidad 1 [ver página 29] y su respectiva descripción. Los participantes analizan la situación actual y llegan a un consenso sobre la descripción correcta para la organización del nivel en el que se encuentra.12. Con base en el resultado anterior, se realiza una lluvia de ideas sobre las razones por las que las capacidades socio-organizativas se encuentran en este nivel. Cada una de estas ideas se pone en una tarjeta verde, teniendo cuidado de escribir sólo una razón por tarjeta. Una alternativa, si no hay tarjetas, es que el cofacilitador o la cofacilitadora vaya escribiendo estas razones en una pizarra.13. Se discuten cada una de estas razones hasta llegar a un consenso sobre cuál de ellas es la razón central para que la organización se encuentre en el nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas identificado. Esta razón se define en forma clara y concertada como el problema central, se escribe en una tarjeta de color amarillo, y se coloca en el tronco de un árbol que se puede dibujar en una pizarra. Después se sigue el mismo procedimiento para determinar las causas primarias y secundarias, así como los efectos primarios y secundarios que nos traen el nivel actual de capacidades socio-organizativas con que cuentan los socios, socias y colaboradores.-Se debe asegurar tener cortadas suficientes tarjetas en forma rectangular, y de los colores especificados en el ejercicio [verde, amarillo, rosado y azul], con anticipación. De igual manera, asegurar que se cuenta con suficientes marcadores para que los participantes escriban sus ideas, y con dos pizarras o caballetes donde se hayan dibujado los árboles de análisis.-Muchas veces determinar qué es causa de qué, cuál es el problema central y cuál es el efecto de este problema, puede ser confuso para los participantes, ya que este análisis requiere de lógica. Por lo tanto, es muy importante que el facilitador o la facilitadora entienda muy bien esta lógica, explique la metodología con paciencia antes y durante el ejercicio, y siempre esté ayudando a buscar claridad sobre qué es una causa de qué, cual es el problema central, y qué es un efecto de esto.-El cofacilitador o la cofacilitadora debe asegurar que todos y todas los y las participantes entiendan y participen en el ejercicio, y debe tomar notas para luego documentar los resultados. Definir y concertar la visión socio-organizativa, de manera que los socios, socias y colaboradores de la organización clarifiquen el propósito de ésta para luego encontrar caminos y determinar la dirección y el rumbo de sus acciones. Revisar las prácticas organizativas y proponer mejoras en éstas, de manera que permitan generar la pertenencia y el compromiso por parte de los socios, socias y colaboradores para llevar esta visión socio-organizativa a la realidad. Diseñar un plan de formación de capacidades socio-organizativas en socios, socias y colaboradores, el cual permita liberar su talento de manera que se genere en ellos la fuerza de convicción y el impulso, junto con la disciplina, que se requieren para alcanzar la visión. Establecer un conjunto de principios que sustenten el accionar de la organización, de manera que la ética en los socios, socias y colaboradores, gobierne y guíe su visión, disciplina y pasión, y los ponga al servicio de la causa y de la gente.El termino visión surge en el marco de la planificación empresarial y se define como la idealización del futuro de la empresa. La visión es importante en una empresa porque clarifica su propósito. Cuando las personas que la conforman tienen claridad sobre lo que se quiere construir a futuro, es posible enfocar su trabajo, así como su capacidad de dirección y ejecución hacia el logro de la visión, de manera constante (Siliceo y González, 1994). Este concepto está delimitado al ámbito empresarial, y usualmente los procesos de planificación estratégica emprendidos por una gran mayoría de las empresas asociativas rurales han estado influenciados por este tipo de conceptos con sesgo empresarial.Sin embargo, como se mencionó en la Unidad 1, una empresa asociativa rural posee dos dimensiones: una relacionada con su gestión socio-organizativa, y otra relacionada con su gestión empresarial. Esto implica que es indispensable que los socios, socias y colaboradores tengan claridad sobre su visión en términos socio-organizativos y en términos empresariales.Por tanto, la visión socio-organizativa de una empresa asociativa rural debe ser construida colectivamente y expresar en forma corta y clara cómo los socios y socias se ven, en un futuro próximo, en términos de su desarrollo humano, en el cumplimiento de los principios socio-organizativos para alcanzar el nivel de desarrollo esperado, así como en el tipo de participación y liderazgo hacia el cual desean avanzar, y el nivel de fortalecimiento de capacidades socio-organizativas que quieren alcanzar.En las empresas asociativas rurales los principios organizativos son el conjunto de normas básicas que han sido adoptadas [de otras ya existentes] o definidas por todos los socios y socias para guiar su comportamiento individual y el comportamiento del colectivo. Estos principios están presentes de forma permanente inspirando y motivando el desempeño y propiciando la pertenencia y el compromiso de los socios, socias y colaboradores con los objetivos y metas de la organización.Los principios organizativos se retoman en las normas, reglamentos y estatutos internos de las empresas asociativas rurales. Idealmente, su cumplimiento debe estar basado en la motivación que genera la búsqueda del bienestar y el desarrollo del colectivo, y no en el temor a las sanciones que puedan originarse por su incumplimiento.Dado que los principios socio-organizativos sustentan el accionar de la organización, y por lo tanto, de sus socios, socias y colaboradores, éstos se establecen para ser cumplidos. Para lograrlo es importante que cada socio, socia y colaborador se identifique y comprometa con estos principios, de manera que todos y todas se sientan responsables por su cumplimiento. Con el tiempo, estos principios pueden irse redefiniendo en la medida en que la organización avanza en el logro de sus objetivos y metas y se platea nuevos y más ambiciosos retos relacionados con el desarrollo del colectivo.En el caso de las cooperativas [una de las formas jurídicas que pueden tomar las empresas asociativas rurales], se ha definido un conjunto de siete principios de carácter universal, los cuales se listan a continuación:Las cooperativas son organizaciones voluntarias, abiertas a todas las personas capaces de utilizar sus servicios y dispuestas a aceptar las responsabilidades de ser socias, sin discriminación social, política, religiosa, étnica o de género.Las cooperativas son organizaciones democráticas controladas por sus socios y socias, los cuales participan activamente en la definición de sus políticas y en la toma de decisiones. Los hombres y mujeres seleccionados para representar y administrar las cooperativas son responsables ante los socios y socias, quienes tienen igual derecho al voto (un socio/un voto), en las cooperativas de primer grado. Las cooperativas de otros grados se organizan también mediante procedimientos democráticos.Los socios y socias contribuyen equitativamente al capital de sus cooperativas y administran dicho capital en forma democrática. Por lo menos una parte de dicho capital es propiedad común de la cooperativa. Normalmente, los socios y socias reciben una retribución limitada, si es que la hay, sobre el capital aportado. Por otro lado, los socios y socias asignan los excedentes a todos o alguno de los siguientes fines:1. Su beneficio, en proporción a sus operaciones con la cooperativa 2. El apoyo a otras actividades aprobadas por ellos mismos 3. El desarrollo de su cooperativa mediante la posible creación de reservas, las cuales podrían ser, en su totalidad o en parte, indivisibles.Las cooperativas son organizaciones autónomas de ayuda mutua, controladas por sus socios y socias. Si entran en acuerdos con otras organizaciones, incluidos los gobiernos, o si obtienen capital de fuentes externas, lo hacen de forma que aseguren el control democrático por parte de los socios y socias y mantengan la autonomía de la cooperativa.Las cooperativas brindan educación y capacitación a sus socios y socias, a sus dirigentes electos, a sus gerentes y a sus empleados y empleadas, para que puedan contribuir eficazmente al desarrollo de su organización. Por otro lado, informan al público en general, especialmente a los jóvenes, a los líderes de la comunidad y a los medios de opinión, en torno a la naturaleza y a los beneficios del cooperativismo.Las cooperativas les sirven a sus socios y socias en forma más eficaz y fortalecen el movimiento cooperativo, al trabajar de forma integrada mediante estructuras locales, nacionales, regionales e internacionales.Las cooperativas trabajan para lograr el desarrollo sostenible de sus comunidades mediante políticas aprobadas por sus socios y socias.Objetivo: Apoyar a los socios, socias y colaboradores de las empresas asociativas rurales a definir de manera participativa sus principios y su visión socio-organizativa, a partir del análisis y la reflexión sobre el balance entre la gestión socio-organizativa y la gestión empresarial.Utilidad: -Propicia un espacio de reflexión sobre las dos dimensiones de gestión de una empresa asociativa rural: la gestión socio-organizativa y la gestión empresarial; al igual que sobre los principios socio-organizativos, la visión y su fin último de contribuir al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias.-Apoya a los socios, socias y colaboradores de las empresas asociativas rurales a definir [o redefinir] y concertar los principios de la organización.-Apoya a los socios, socias y colaboradores de empresas asociativas rurales a construir [o revisar y ajustar] su visión socio-organizativa.Reflexión sobre el tipo de gestión que predomina en la organización: socio-organizativa vs. empresarial cooperativismo [ver páginas 46 -48], procurando dejar por cada principio un tiempo prudencial para que los socios y las socias pregunten o aporten.8. Si se trata de una empresa asociativa rural que está constituida como cooperativa, se les deberá preguntar: ¿Todos los socios y socias conocemos y estamos apropiados de estos principios universales del movimiento cooperativista? y ¿Por qué? ¿Qué otros principios que estén orientados a fortalecer la gestión socio-organizativa de nuestra empresa deberíamos agregar a éstos? y ¿Por qué?9. Si por el contrario, se trata de una empresa asociativa rural que no está constituida como cooperativa, sino como asociación de productores bajo otras formas jurídicas, se les deberá preguntar: ¿Es válido que retomemos todos o algunos de estos principios para nuestra organización? ¿Por qué? ¿Cuáles? ¿Qué otros principios que estén orientados a fortalecer la gestión socio-organizativa de nuestra empresa deberíamos agregar a éstos? y ¿Por qué?10. Todos los principios deberán anotarse en una pizarra y se dejarán frente al grupo para que éste los tenga en cuenta. El facilitador cerrará este paso leyendo la propuesta de principios socio-organizativos elaborados por el colectivo.11. Se continúa reflexionando sobre la finalidad y los objetivos del proceso organizativo, utilizando la siguiente pregunta orientadora:¿Qué nos motivó a organizarnos y qué nos motiva ahora a seguir organizados?12. Una vez los participantes hayan discutido, reflexionado y respondido a la pregunta anterior, el facilitador o la facilitadora resume los resultados más importantes y realiza las siguientes preguntas para guiar el proceso de definición y concertación de la visión socio-organizativa[ tomando en cuenta la descripción de los tipos de participación y liderazgo] ¿Qué tipo de participación quisiéramos haber logrado?  ¿Qué tipo de liderazgo queremos tener en nuestra organización?  ¿Qué nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas deseamos que tengan los socios, socias y colaboradores de nuestra organización? ¿Cómo nos gustaría que fuese nuestra organización en cuanto a sus dos dimensiones de gestión: la socio-organizativa y la empresarial? ¿De qué manera, organizados, podemos contribuir al desarrollo humano de nuestros socios y socias?13. Retomando los aportes de los participantes durante todos los ejercicios anteriores, el facilitador o la facilitadora elaborará con ellos y ellas una propuesta de visión socio-organizativa. La propuesta de visión debe escribirse sobre un pliego de papel o una pizarra y presentarse a los participantes para que éstos la revisen y, si es necesario, hagan nuevos aportes. La versión final de la propuesta debe dejarse escrita en un pliego grande de papel para que todo el grupo la pueda leer.A la hora de redactar la visión socio-organizativa, hay algunos elementos clave que se deben tener en cuenta: Definir qué se va a estar haciendo; es decir, cuál será la razón de ser de la empresa asociativa rural en el futuro. ¿Qué se quiere realizar en el futuro en términos socioorganizativos? [teniendo en cuenta las conductas, los actos, y las acciones a realizar]. Determinar para quién. En este punto se debe definir para quiénes estará trabajando la organización [socios, socias, colaboradores y sus respectivas familias]. Especificar para qué se quiere hacer. Esto debe indicar el fin último que se debe lograr con lo que se hace. Este para qué indica el resultado más importante que se debe lograr con la Visión. Establecer cómo se va a realizar; es decir, qué mecanismos y recursos [materiales, equipos, herramientas, tecnologías, metodologías, etc.] se van a utilizar para lograrlo. En lo que respecta al cuándo, una visión debe ser definida a largo plazo y proyectar a la organización en un futuro [5 años en el futuro, como mínimo]. Incluir los principios socio-organizativos es clave a la hora de redactar la Visión y son elementos que deben resaltarse. Estos principios involucran la fuerza interna de dicha organización en términos de la gente. La Visión debe ser hilada en un solo párrafo. Debe incluir un verdadero reto y alentar así a los socios y a las socias a realizarla y a correr riesgos, de ser necesario, para conseguir lo soñado. Debe generar el compromiso de los socios y las socias, quienes deben sentirse identificados y parte de ella. Debe ser trascendente, debe permitirle a los socios y a las socias sentirse parte de un gran proceso y, finalmente, debe comenzar con la frase: \"Deseamos ser\".-A partir de la discusión conceptual, se debe propiciar con los socios y socias un espacio de reflexión en profundidad sobre la gestión socio-organizativa y la gestión empresarial de la organización, el cual les debe permitir a los socios y socias identificar con claridad las diferencias entre ambas y la importancia de alcanzar un balance entre ellas.-Si la organización ya cuenta con un plan estratégico o ya desarrolló su visión, es importante que tengan este documento a mano como referencia. El facilitador o la facilitadora puede preparar, previamente al taller, un pliego de papel con esta visión, o pedirle a los participantes que ellos lo elaboren antes del taller.En la Unidad 1 [página 19] se definieron las prácticas organizativas como el conjunto de prácticas que caracterizan a las organizaciones y definen la forma en que sus miembros interactúan y se relacionan, razón por la cual están directamente relacionadas con los procesos de toma de decisión [estratégicos y operativos], gestión, implementación, control, evaluación, comunicación e inclusión, entre otros.Las prácticas organizativas caracterizan y diferencian a las empresas asociativas rurales de otro tipo de empresas de capital privado, y por lo tanto, deben estar basadas y ser coherentes con la visión socioorganizativa y de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias; pero sobre todo, son las que facultan a las personas para garantizar el cumplimiento de los principios, objetivos y metas de la organización para llevar la visión socio-organizativa a la realidad.Las prácticas organizativas definen la manera en que los socios y socias se relacionan entre sí y con su entorno, y configuran sus estructuras directivas y operativas. Estas prácticas deben ser incluyentes y deben facilitar la comunicación adecuada entre los socios y las socias. Además, se pueden agrupar de la siguiente manera:Estas prácticas tienen como objetivo transmitir información, propiciar la reflexión profunda de ésta, elaborar y planificar propuestas y tomar las decisiones [estratégicas] que determinarán el objetivo y las metas de gestión de la empresa asociativa rural durante un determinado periodo. Se incluyen en este grupo de prácticas: las asambleas generales y extraordinarias, las asambleas territoriales, y demás espacios que se promueven para que los socios y las socias conozcan, analicen y propongan políticas, reglamentos, estatutos y planes de la organización, entre otros. En este grupo de prácticas la participación de los miembros de la organización puede ser directa [cada socio y socia], o por representación [delegados y delegadas].Estas prácticas tienen como objetivo volver operativas las decisiones estratégicas, dar seguimiento a su cumplimiento, tomar y planificar decisiones operativas, y controlar la gestión de la empresa asociativa. Pertenecen a este grupo de prácticas las reuniones, tanto ordinarias como extraordinarias, de las estructuras de dirección de la empresa asociativa rural. En el caso específico de las cooperativas, a este tipo de prácticas corresponden las reuniones periódicas del Consejo de Administración y los diferentes comités de trabajo conformados. En este grupo de prácticas, la participación de los miembros del colectivo es directa y no por representación, y participan los socios y las socias con cargos en las estructuras de dirección.Estos cuatro grupos de prácticas organizativas incluyen uno o más de los siguientes procesos: Procesos de participación y representatividad  Procesos de toma de decisión estratégica y operativa  Procesos de planificación  Procesos de control, rendición de cuentas y evaluación  Procesos de comunicación interna y externa  Procesos de inclusión y equidad social, étnica y de género A continuación se discuten brevemente estos seis procesos y se hacen recomendaciones concretas de mejora con base en lecciones aprendidas de experiencias previas.Se entiende por mecanismos de participación y representatividad de socios y socias a aquellos cuyo fin primordial es abrir espacios de interacción entre los socios y las socias, sus órganos directivos, y sus colaboradores [órganos operativos], para garantizar la inclusión permanente y activa de los intereses de todos los involucrados [mujeres, jóvenes y hombres].La activa participación de los socios y las socias es una práctica muy valiosa para las organizaciones, pues no sólo le da validez a sus procesos democráticos, sino que permite contar con el aporte de las capacidades y habilidades de sus miembros, así como asegurar su compromiso con las decisiones tomadas.Para motivar y facilitar la participación de los diferentes socios y socias, sin exclusión social, étnica o de género, y la representatividad de los diferentes grupos de interés que conforman la organización, se pueden tener en cuenta las siguientes recomendaciones:1. Establecer canales de comunicación entre los socios y las socias, sus órganos directivos, y sus colaboradores [órganos operativos] alternativos y complementarios a la Asamblea General de Asociados que se realiza una vez al año.2. Organizar reuniones periódicas o espacios de discusión pre-asamblearios, de modo que no sólo se informe unilateralmente sobre las actividades o resultados de la cooperativa, sino que también se establezca un ambiente favorable de interacción entre los socios y las socias, sus órganos directivos, y sus colaboradores [órganos operativos], el cual permita aclarar y comprender mejor la información entregada así como obtener retroalimentación.A manera de reflexión se puede decir que toda decisión debe tener un plazo límite para ser tomada y un plazo definido para obtener sus resultados.Con el fin de que las organizaciones puedan mejorar su desempeño en este rubro, se han identificado las siguientes buenas prácticas: Contar con información suficiente en cantidad y calidad sobre la decisión que se va a tomar.  Abrir espacios de discusión donde se puedan compartir y confrontar de manera armoniosa y respetuosa los diferentes puntos de vista sobre la situación, asegurando que todos los intereses de los diferentes grupos [mujeres, hombres, jóvenes, familias con diferente nivel de bienestar, familias de diferentes grupos étnicos, si es el caso] estén representados. Plantear diferentes escenarios a partir de las alternativas sobre las cuales se debe decidir.  Considerar los potenciales impactos de la decisión. Contemplar medidas y acciones para reducir los impactos adversos de la decisión sobre la organización, así como sobre sus socios y socias. Documentar los aspectos considerados a la hora de tomar la decisión y formalizarlos en actas de la organización. Informar a los socios y socias sobre la decisión tomada, valorando el uso de distintos medios acorde con el tipo de decisión: murales, boletines, informes, reuniones, talleres, mensajes de texto, entre otros. Establecer y utilizar un mecanismo para monitorear y evaluar el impacto de la decisión.Se entiende como planificación el proceso de definir el curso de acción y los procedimientos requeridos para alcanzar los objetivos y metas de la organización. El plan establece lo que hay que hacer, quién lo debe hacer y cuándo lo debe hacer para llegar al objetivo deseado. Sin embargo, carece de efectividad cuando los mecanismos de monitoreo sobre el avance y el replanteamiento de metas cumplidas no son eficientes y constantes.En las empresas asociativas rurales se recomienda que los procesos de planificación se realicen de manera participativa, con la mayor representación de las partes involucradas, ya que esto:-Da mayor validez y sustento al trabajo realizado.-Permite avanzar en la socialización de los planes de la organización.-Ayuda a identificar los problemas y necesidades que existen.-Facilita la discusión sobre las acciones y actividades que ayudarán a solucionar esos problemas, y los pasos a seguir.-Permite determinar quiénes asumirán las distintas tareas necesarias para la ejecución del plan, las actividades que se realizarán y la evaluación de los resultados.Al igual que en la toma de decisiones, existen dos tipos principales de procesos de planeación: la planificación estratégica y la planificación operativa. La planificación estratégica es aquella de largo plazo que define la visión de la organización, así como los objetivos de mediano plazo y las estrategias que la organización desarrollará a futuro. Este tipo de planificación requiere el análisis de las cosas que en ese futuro pueden cambiar y afectarles positiva o negativamente de no enfrentarlas oportunamente.La planificación operativa puede ser de mediano o corto plazo, para varios objetivos o para una sola actividad, y establece claramente el resultado que se quiere lograr, las actividades que se realizarán para obtener ese resultado, el orden en que se realizarán las actividades, las responsabilidades que asumirá cada uno de los miembros de la organización, los recursos requeridos y el tiempo en que se deben cumplir los compromisos.Para poder llevar a cabo procesos eficientes de planificación, se recomienda que los miembros de la organización fortalezcan sus capacidades de:-Formular objetivos y metas de trabajo -Hacer análisis de la realidad para que éstos sean el punto de partida de la planificación De igual forma, se ha identificado una serie de buenas prácticas que pueden ayudar a que la organización mejore el desempeño de sus procesos de planificación: Se deben priorizar las metas de mayor impacto para la organización antes de iniciar el ejercicio de planificación, ya que por lo general en las organizaciones hay muchas metas que se desean alcanzar y no siempre se cuenta con los recursos, capacidades y tiempo para alcanzarlas todas. Los participantes en la planificación deben ser realistas al momento de establecer sus objetivos y plazos. El ejercicio de planificación debe partir de un inventario de los recursos con los que se cuenta (humanos, físicos, productivos, económicos y naturales), de manera que esté acorde con las posibilidades reales de la organización. La planificación en el seno de la organización debe ser un hábito permanente y constante, que le permita a los órganos directivos y operativas, así como a los socios y socias, mantener un monitoreo sobre el avance de las metas establecidas.Son procesos de control aquellos que la organización establece para monitorear el avance de sus distintas áreas, a partir de los cuales se generan informes que permiten la rendición de cuentas sobre el manejo de los recursos de la organización y la evaluación de los resultados alcanzados.Las actividades básicas que comprende el proceso de control son: Establecer indicadores y metas para monitorear y evaluar avances y resultados.  Evaluar lo avanzado de acuerdo con las metas propuestas para identificar posibles atrasos con respecto a lo planeado. Analizar lo logrado, así como las causas por las que se dieron atrasos en la ejecución, o por las que no se están alcanzando las metas propuestas. Proponer medidas correctivas para resolver los problemas que limitan el logro de las metas propuestas, o ajustar la planificación de acuerdo con las posibilidades.Una vez establecidos los mecanismos de control, el siguiente paso es la rendición de cuentas. Todas las personas que tengan a su cargo el manejo de los recursos de la organización, deben rendir cuentas a sus superiores, pero en el caso particular de las empresas asociativas rurales, los órganos directivos y operativos deben rendir cuentas de manera transparente y periódica a los socios y socias.Entre los principales objetivos de la rendición de cuentas están: Generar responsabilidades entre quienes tienen a su cargo el manejo de los recursos de la organización. Facilitar el acceso a información relevante por parte de los socios y socias, de manera que éstos sientan pertenencia por su organización, y se comprometan con ella. Promover una gestión transparente que genera un ambiente de confianza en la organización.  Provee información pertinente e importante para los procesos de toma de decisión estratégica y operativa.La rendición de cuentas puede realizarse mediante el uso de informes orales y escritos, según sea el medio más apropiado, y de acuerdo con las capacidades de los diferentes grupos de interés. Esto requiere tener cuidado de priorizar la información que es más pertinente para cada uno de estos grupos, pero sobretodo, de presentarla de forma clara, precisa, amigable y entendible.La rendición de cuentas debe incluir resultados relacionados tanto con la gestión socio-organizativa como con la gestión empresarial, es decir que debe hacerse sobre las acciones realizadas para contribuir al logro de los objetivos de desarrollo humano de los socios y socias, así como sobre aquellas realizadas para generar excedentes económicos y beneficios tangibles para los socios y socias.Los procesos de comunicación y difusión son aquellos a través de los cuales la organización interactúa internamente: entre los órganos directivos y operativos y con los socios y socias; y externamente: con proveedores, aliados comerciales, compradores, oferentes de servicios, organizaciones de apoyo, y organizaciones reguladoras y certificadoras, entre otros. La comunicación efectiva [tanto interna como externa] juega un papel de alta importancia en las organizaciones para asegurar que la información que realmente necesita cada uno de los grupos de interés -tanto dentro de la organización, como con los aliados externos-llegue a ellos de manera oportuna; sobre todo, para apoyar e informar el proceso de toma de decisiones, la gestión y la implementación de las acciones.Existen al menos cuatro tipos de comunicación organizacional:Es aquella donde los mensajes siguen los caminos oficiales dictados por la jerarquía y especificados en el organigrama de la organización. Por regla general, estos mensajes fluyen de manera descendente, ascendente u horizontal. Comunicación descendente: sirve para enviar los mensajes de los superiores a los subordinados; uno de los propósitos más comunes de estos mensajes es proporcionar las instrucciones suficientes y específicas de trabajo. Comunicación ascendente: es la que va de los socios y socias hacia los directivos, o desde los colaboradores hacia las instancias superiores (gerencia, Consejo de Administración). El principal beneficio de esta comunicación es ser el canal por el cual los órganos directivos y operativos reciben retroalimentación desde las bases de la organización, lo cual permite tener información sobre el clima organizacional en esos ámbitos, pero también información clave para el funcionamiento del negocio. Comunicación horizontal: Es aquella que se desarrolla entre pares, y la mayor parte de este tipo de comunicación tienen como objetivo la integración y la coordinación del personal de un mismo nivel.La comunicación informal fluye dentro de la organización sin canales preestablecidos y surge de manera espontánea entre sus miembros. Estos canales de comunicación informal no están planificados sino que surgen a partir de las relaciones sociales que se desarrollan entre los miembros de la organización y representan una parte importante de toda la comunicación que se da en las organizaciones. Este tipo de comunicación se caracteriza porque no está controlada por los órganos directivos ni operativos.En términos generales, la comunicación informal se da como consecuencia de la falta de efectividad de los canales establecidos formalmente o por la falta de información acerca de un tema ávidamente esperado.Otras veces surge porque las personas manejan diferentes pedazos de información, tienen diferentes opiniones sobre temas estratégicos para la organización, o tienen un interés personal que desean comunicar.Entre las ventajas de la comunicación informal se puede citar que ayuda a la cohesión del grupo y a generar procesos de retroalimentación sobre diferentes aspectos del trabajo realizado. Este tipo de comunicación aporta incuestionables beneficios a las personas y es útil a la organización en la medida que refuerce la cohesión del grupo, genere y fortalezca la cultura de la organización o funcione como medio para aclarar comunicaciones formales ambiguas o deficientes.Sin embargo, este tipo de comunicación puede tener efectos negativos en la organización si no se maneja adecuadamente, ya que la principal forma de comunicación informal es el rumor, lo cual puede traer consigo una baja en la productividad, demorando los procesos, desmotivando a los involucrados o generando conflictos internos de coordinación. Los rumores normalmente transportan contenidos que son de interés para los que los reciben, pero pueden no ser precisos debido a los procesos de distorsión a que están expuestos y a la rapidez con que circulan (Lucas Martín, 1997).A continuación se detallan algunas buenas prácticas recomendadas para mejorar los procesos de comunicación interna y externa en una organización: Los miembros de los órganos directivos y operativos deben tener conciencia sobre la importancia de mantener una comunicación permanente y fluida con los socios y socias, así como entre ellos, ya que esto es esencial para el logro de las metas de la organización. La comunicación efectiva requiere que los contenidos que se comunican sean pertinentes, esto es, que respondan a demandas concretas de quienes reciben los mensajes; que lo medios y canales que se utilicen para difundir el mensaje sean adecuados para la persona que los reciben, y que la información llegue de manera oportuna. En cuanto a los contenidos, es importante asegurarse de que la información que se difunde es precisa, completa, clara, y está escrita acorde al lenguaje y las capacidades de quien la recibe, de manera que le sirva como insumo para la toma de decisiones. Los medios escritos no necesariamente garantizan que el mensaje llegue de manera efectiva a la población objetivo, sobre todo en culturas donde no existe el hábito de la lectura o donde existe un número importante de personas que no sabe leer y escribir. Por lo tanto, se recomienda que los directivos o el personal de la organización acompañen la entrega de estos materiales con una explicación verbal de su contenido y le ofrezcan a quien la recibe, la posibilidad de compartir sus dudas con respecto al contenido de la misma. Con el fin de fomentar la transparencia dentro de la organización, es importante que los socios y socias se mantengan bien informados sobre los cambios y decisiones de mayor relevancia dentro de la organización, conforme van ocurriendo, y no esperen hasta el día de la Asamblea de Socios y Socias para comunicar lo sucedido. La transmisión de la información en pequeñas dosis ayuda a la retención, y los efectos acumulativos de estas pequeñas unidades superan el efecto de la misma información emitida una sola vez.Éstos son los procesos orientados a incluir de manera real y equitativa en la toma de decisión, planificación y control, a los diferentes grupos sociales [las mujeres, las personas jóvenes y los hombres] y a los grupos étnicos [donde es relevante] representados en la organización. Esto es de gran importancia para avanzar hacia un modelo incluyente y sostenible de gestión organizativa que contribuya al desarrollo humano de los socios, socias y colaboradores. Adicionalmente, la diversidad en las organizaciones es un factor positivo que las fortalece.Promover la equidad social, étnica y de género significa generar acciones que favorezcan el acceso de todas las personas al desarrollo de sus capacidades, con equidad en términos de oportunidades, derechos, alternativas, y responsabilidades. Así los hombres y mujeres de todas las edades, etnias y clases sociales pueden beneficiarse de las acciones que desarrolla la organización a través de sus diferentes iniciativas.A continuación se listan algunas acciones que se pueden implementar para promover, incentivar y mantener a través del tiempo, la equidad social, étnica y de género en las empresas asociativas rurales: Revisar y ajustar las normas, reglas y estatutos para reducir las barreras de acceso para las mujeres, los jóvenes, los grupos étnicos y las familias con menos recursos a los diferentes servicios y beneficios que ofrece la organización. Capacitar a los socios, socias y colaboradores para la inclusión social, étnica y de género, y fortalecer las capacidades socio-organizativas y empresariales de las mujeres, los jóvenes, los grupos étnicos y las familias con menos recursos. Promover la atención diferenciada a las mujeres y jóvenes, así como a los socios y socias con menos recursos y capacidades, a través del uso de herramientas y metodologías de asistencia técnica y asesoría diferenciadas. Desarrollar productos financieros acordes con las necesidades y condiciones particulares de las mujeres, los jóvenes, los grupos étnicos y las familias socias con menos recursos. Promover el desarrollo de iniciativas socio-productivas que les permitan a las mujeres, los jóvenes, los grupos étnicos y las familias con menos recursos, generar ingresos adicionales y diversificados para sus familias. Incorporar el enfoque de género y étnico en la estrategia de promoción y ventas de la organización, rescatando el impacto socio-cultural positivo que representa este enfoque. Incorporar el enfoque de género y étnico, asignando un porcentaje de los cargos en los órganos directivos y operativos a las mujeres, los jóvenes y los miembros de grupos étnicos, así como promover y facilitar la incorporación de estos en la membrecía de la organización.A partir de la evaluación del modelo de gestión organizativa, y el análisis y la reflexión colectiva alrededor de los problemas relacionados con la participación y representatividad, el liderazgo y la transparencia, y las capacidades socio-organizativas, se pasa a establecer la relación entre estos problemas, sus causas y las prácticas organizativas actuales. De esta manera, el problema central estará directamente relacionado con la práctica organizativa que requiere de mejora, y las causas del problema central tendrán una relación directa con las limitaciones en estas prácticas organizativas. Una vez realizado este análisis, se pasa a proponer acciones concretas para su mejora.Objetivo: Construir con los participantes una propuesta de acciones que les permitan avanzar en el modelo de gestión organizativa de su empresa asociativa rural, a partir del fortalecimiento de sus prácticas organizativas vinculadas principalmente a la participación y el liderazgo.Utilidad: -Permite a los socios y socias reconocer y reflexionar sobre la relación existente entre sus problemas socio-organizativos [participación y representatividad, liderazgo y transparencia], y sus prácticas organizativas.-Apoya a los socios, socias y colaboradores de empresas asociativas rurales a construir, a partir de una reflexión profunda, una propuesta de acciones para mejorar sus prácticas organizativas, con el fin de fortalecer su gestión socio-organizativa, y avanzar con respecto a su modelo actual de gestión.Establecimiento de la relación entre el problema central y el conjunto de prácticas organizativas 1. Para la aplicación de esta herramienta se retoman los resultados del árbol de problemas que se construyó mediante la aplicación de la Herramienta 2 para analizar los problemas en la Participación y Representatividad, y en el Liderazgo y Transparencia, los cuales se trabajarán inicialmente por separado. A partir de este árbol de problemas se definen el grupo de prácticas organizativas que requiere ser mejorado, el objetivo de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas, y las acciones de fortalecimiento que se requieren implementar, como se muestra en la siguiente figura:2. Para cada tema, se retoma el problema central [del árbol de problemas]. Los participantes deberán vincular el problema central con el grupo de prácticas organizativas con las cuales éste tiene una relación más directa. La pregunta guía a partir de la cual se puede establecer esta relación es:El facilitador podrá auxiliarse en el siguiente ejemplo para este ejercicio:En la Cooperativa Multisectorial El Esfuerzo, el problema central identificado, para el tema de participación y representatividad, es que los socios y socias están desmotivados para participar en las diferentes actividades de su cooperativa. Cuando se pregunta a los participantes ¿Con que grupo de prácticas organizativas está relacionado el problema central identificado para cada tema?, ellos responden que este problema está vinculado con el grupo de prácticas organizativas que establecen espacios para que los socios participen, se informen, analicen las situaciones, elaboren propuestas y tomen decisiones sobre la gestión de la empresa asociativa rural, por lo tanto, si se fortalecen estos espacios, es posible dar solución a este problema.El resultado se escribe en la siguiente matriz, que se debe preparar con anterioridad:Definición del objetivo de fortalecimiento específico a partir de la causa principal 3. En este paso retomamos la causa principal del problema central trabajado en los pasos anteriores. Esta causa principal se escribe en una pizarra o un pliego de papel y se pone frente a los participantes. El facilitador deberá propiciar una discusión y reflexión alrededor de esta causa, a partir de la cual se formula un objetivo específico de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas, teniendo en cuenta el grupo de prácticas organizativas que se requiere fortalecer.Para este paso el facilitador utiliza la siguiente pregunta guía:El facilitador deberá escribir el objetivo formulado por los participantes en la siguiente matriz, preparada con anterioridad:Definición de las acciones específicas de fortalecimiento a partir de las causas secundarias del problema 4. Una vez definido el objetivo de fortalecimiento, los participantes, con el apoyo del facilitador, deberán definir las acciones específicas de fortalecimiento vinculadas a este objetivo y relacionadas con cada una de las causas secundarias del problema [retomadas de la herramienta 2].Al final de este paso, el grupo, con el apoyo del facilitador, deberá haber completado la siguiente matriz, preparada con anterioridad:Acciones específicas de fortalecimiento 1.3.1.3.El nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas en el que se encuentran los socios, socias y colaboradores de las empresa asociativas rurales en un momento dado [analizado en la Unidad 1] es el resultado de varios factores interrelacionados: la manera en que se aplican las políticas públicas y privadas existentes, la génesis de los procesos organizativos, la serie de eventos que marcaron su historia y su desarrollo, las oportunidades que tuvieron, la forma en que las aprovecharon, y el tipo de liderazgo que desarrollaron.Para fortalecer el nivel de capacidades socio-organizativas con las que cuentan las empresas asociativas rurales, los socios, socias y colaboradores deben pasar por un proceso de formación que les permita adquirir el conocimiento, las habilidades y las actitudes para liberar su talento y utilizarlo en el fortalecimiento de su gestión socio-organizativa. Esto es importante para enfrentar los nuevos retos, desafíos y oportunidades que van surgiendo, de manera que las empresas asociativas rurales contribuyan al desarrollo humano de sus socios y socias.Al llegar a esta herramienta, los participantes habrán desarrollado una serie de discusiones conceptuales alrededor de las capacidades socio-organizativas y sus niveles de desarrollo, esto les permitirá dimensionar la importancia que tiene el fortalecimiento de estas capacidades si se quiere avanzar hacia un modelo de gestión organizativa incluyente y sostenible. Fortalecer las capacidades requiere de un plan de formación dirigido a los socios, socias y colaboradores, que sea formulado teniendo en cuenta el nivel actual de las capacidades socio-organizativas.Para implementar esta herramienta se retomarán los resultados del árbol de problemas sobre las capacidades socio-organizativas actuales, elaborado en la herramienta 2, y se procede a establecer la relación entre estos problemas, sus causas y el nivel de desarrollo actual de las capacidades socioorganizativas. De esta manera, el problema central estará directamente relacionado al nivel de desarrollo actual de las capacidades socio-organizativas, y la causa principal de este problema tendrá una relación directa con el objetivo de formación de capacidades. Una vez realizado este análisis, se pasa a proponer acciones concretas de formación para el fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas de los socios, socias y colaboradores.Objetivo: Construir con los socios y las socias de las empresas asociativas una propuesta de formación para el fortalecimiento de sus capacidades socio-organizativas, considerando su nivel de desarrollo actual y sus causas.Utilidad: -Permite a los socios y las socias reflexionar sobre el nivel de desarrollo de sus capacidades socio-organizativas.-Apoya a los socios y las socias de las empresas asociativas rurales para que construyan, a partir de una reflexión profunda, una propuesta de formación para el fortalecimiento de sus capacidades socio-organizativas.Establecimiento de la relación entre el problema central y el nivel de desarrollo actual de las capacidades socio-organizativas 1. Para la aplicación de esta herramienta se retoman los resultados del árbol de problemas que se construyó mediante la aplicación de la Herramienta 2 para el problema de Fortalecimiento de Capacidades Socio-organizativas. A partir de este árbol de problemas se definen: el nivel de formación de las capacidades socio-organizativas en que se encuentra la organización [ver Cuadro 2 en la Unidad 1] y que requiere ser mejorado, el objetivo de fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas, y las acciones de fortalecimiento que se requieren implementar, como se muestra en la siguiente Figura: Definición del objetivo de formación para el fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas a partir de la causa principal 3. En este paso retomamos la causa principal del problema central trabajado en los pasos anteriores. Esta causa principal se escribe en una pizarra o pliego de papel y se pone frente a los participantes. El facilitador o la facilitadora deberá propiciar una discusión y reflexión participativa alrededor de esta causa; a partir de esta discusión, los participantes deben formular un objetivo de formación para el fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas.Para este paso el facilitador utiliza la siguiente pregunta guía:El facilitador deberá escribir el objetivo formulado por los participantes en la siguiente matriz, preparada con anterioridad:Objetivo de formación para el fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas organización, los avances que está logrando la empresa asociativa rural hacia el mejoramiento de su gestión socio-organizativa [indicadores de gestión], pero también hacia el logro de los objetivos de la organización en sus dos dimensiones [socio-organizativa y empresarial], para lo cual es necesario definir indicadores de desempeño.Para esto es importante retomar los árboles de problemas construidos a partir de la aplicación de la Herramienta 2, y las propuestas de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas y de las capacidades socioorganizativas, construidas mediante la aplicación de las herramientas 4 y 5, respectivamente. A partir de esto, se definen los indicadores de gestión y los indicadores de desempeño como se muestra en las figuras 5 y 6, para los procesos de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas y para los de fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas, respectivamente.Figura 5. Esquema del procedimiento para diseñar un plan de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas a partir del análisis de problemas Figura 6. Esquema del procedimiento para diseñar un plan de fortalecimiento de capacidades socioorganizativas a partir del análisis de problemas La Guía Metodológica 1 (Gottret et al., 2011) ofrece una serie de indicadores de gestión socio-organizativa, específicamente aquellos contenidos en las áreas de evaluación 4 [fortaleza de los procesos organizativos] y 6 [equidad social y de género], los cuales pueden ser utilizados para evaluar los avances en la gestión socioorganizativa de la empresa asociativa rural. Sin embargo, los socios, socias y colaboradores pueden agregar otros indicadores que consideren pertinentes y a la medida de los procesos de fortalecimiento que están desarrollando.De igual manera, en la misma guía se plantean tres indicadores de desempeño de los procesos organizativos y dos indicadores de desempeño con respecto a la equidad de género, los cuales se retoman y listan a continuación:Indicadores de desempeño de los procesos organizativos 1. Membrecía y diferenciación por género: evolución en el número total de socios y socias, evolución de la distribución de la membrecía por género [hombres y mujeres], y evolución en la distribución de la membrecía por edad [número de socios menores de 30 años y número de socios mayores de 30 años]Morosidad de la cartera = (Cartera vencida / Cartera total) * 1003. Cumplimiento de las metas de entrega para procesos de comercialización colectiva Nivel de cumplimiento de la meta de comercialización = (Volumen total de la producción de los socios comercializada por la organización / Meta de comercialización de la organización) * 100Indicadores de desempeño en equidad de género Para implementar esta herramienta se retomarán los objetivos de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas y de formación de capacidades socio-organizativas, formulados como resultado de la aplicación de las herramientas 4 y 5.Objetivo: Construir indicadores para evaluar periódicamente, de manera cualitativa y cuantitativa, la gestión y el desempeño socio-organizativo de la empresa asociativa rural.Utilidad: -Permite a los socios, socias y colaboradores de las empresas asociativas rurales establecer la línea base de su nivel de gestión y desempeño socio-organizativo para evaluar sus avances periódicamente.-A partir de esta evaluación periódica, les permite a los socios, socias y colaboradores revisar y ajustar su plan de fortalecimiento socio-organizativo para que éste se vaya actualizando, de acuerdo con el nivel de desarrollo alcanzado por la organización.1. Escribir el objetivo de fortalecimiento de las prácticas socio-organizativas en una pizarra o pliego de papel y ponerlo en frente de los participantes.2. Se retoman los efectos del problema central de participación y representatividad, así como los efectos del problema central de liderazgo y transparencia. Para cada uno de estos efectos, el facilitador o la facilitadora realiza la siguiente pregunta a los y las participantes:¿Si logramos este objetivo de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas, cómo se revertiría este efecto en una mejora de la gestión de nuestra empresa asociativa rural?3. Cada una de las ideas se escriben en tarjetas [una idea por tarjeta] y se ubican encima del objetivo de fortalecimiento de las prácticas organizativas.4. De igual manera, se escribe el objetivo de formación para el fortalecimiento de las capacidades socioorganizativas en otro pliego de papel y se pone en frente de los participantes.5. Se retoman los efectos del problema central de capacidades socio-organizativas y para cada uno de estos efectos, el facilitador o la facilitadora realiza la siguiente pregunta a los y las participantes:¿Si logramos este objetivo de fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas, cómo se revertiría este efecto en una mejora de la gestión de nuestra empresa asociativa rural?6. Cada una de las ideas se escriben en tarjetas [una idea por tarjeta] y se ubican encima del objetivo de fortalecimiento de las capacidades socio-organizativas. Se revisa si hay tarjetas repetidas con las que se formularon en los pasos 2 y 3, y se combinan o eliminan, si es el caso.7. El facilitador o la facilitadora pega dos pliegos de papel en la pared. En uno pone como título \"indicadores de gestión\" y en el otro \"indicadores de desempeño\". Luego toma cada una de las tarjetas y pregunta si éstas expresan una mejora en la gestión de la organización, o en su desempeño, y las va colocando en el pliego de papel correspondiente.8. Se revisan los indicadores de gestión y desempeño propuestos en la Guía 1 (Gottret et al., 2011) y se determina cuáles de estos permiten evaluar las mejoras planteadas en cada una de las tarjetas.","tokenCount":"18416"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c523a29a6cd60ef6afd171414c6f9559","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b21759b-ee51-4a6d-a65c-f916b312e3a9/retrieve","id":"1316313469"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"50b3da8e-9d19-48e3-b6ef-fb93671f96ba","pagecount":"4","content":"A steady supply of quality stress-tolerant seed is necessary, but not sufficient to achieve higher varietal turnover rates. The key to transformation lies in addressing distribution challenges. Research confirmed agro-dealers' and seed companies' overarching supply-push orientation, characterized by limited innovation and risk taking, pointing to the major opportunity of ender-user-driven marketing. The agro-dealer's role in facilitating varietal turnover could be much greater and beneficial to the farmer. This multi-year research generated growing donor and investor interest in seed marketing research.While landraces in Eastern Africa have been replaced by modern varieties for several crops, the slow speed of varietal turnover remains a topic of concern and discussion. The agro-dealer space is where farmers obtain access to various inputs for maize production. Their current and potential role of agro-dealers in facilitating varietal turnover has so far been neglected. A better understanding was needed of the underlying factors that influence interactions between seed companies, seed retailers, and farmers.CGIAR and NARS partner scientists (2020) looked at interactions between farmers and agro-dealers and their impact on seed choices: If agro-dealers engaged in influencing farmer seed choices, they did so successfully. Researchers (2021) also focused on the challenges faced by retailers, seed companies to expand the sale of next maize hybrids. Research results confirmed the overarching supply-push orientation of the industry. Scientists (2021) then looked at the geographical distribution of input markets and the effects of remoteness and competition on seed prices and choice.A steady supply of quality stress-tolerant seed is necessary, but not sufficient to foster greater varietal turnover. The distribution side needs to be adequately addressed. This multi-year research has generated growing donor interest in formal seed systems development and potential investments in seed marketing and distribution research, which may contribute to innovation in seed systems and value chains.• https://www.cimmyt.org/tag/agrodealers/ • https://doi.org/0.1007/s12571-021-01181-9• https://doi.org/10. ","tokenCount":"299"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4634308682.json b/data/part_1/4634308682.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7e2953163f5ad9fa1449e4c3abc2c49f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96bc7736-0017-480e-a327-f508213ce249/retrieve","id":"-398056566"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2ec8fc47-fe1c-4e23-a80e-c1ca8fc212ed","pagecount":"2","content":"Feijão verde como fonte de receita de pequenos agricultores na África oriental O feijão verde é uma variedade do feijão comum Phaseolus vulgaris L. que é cultivado como cultura de rendimento por agricultores de grande e de pequena escala. Mais de 90 por cento desta cultura produzida na África Oriental é exportada para mercados regionais e internacionais. O feijão verde é uma cultura de exportação muito importante no Quénia, Tanzânia, Uganda, Zâmbia, Zimbabué e Norte de África. Está a ter cada vez mais importância em outros países tais como Camarões, Etiópia, Ruanda e Sudão. Na África Oriental, Central e Setentrional predomina mais o tipo rasteiro. Os feijões de trepar são geralmente mais produtivos e têm um período de colheita mais longo quando comparados com os feijões rasteiros, esperando-se que sejam de particular interesse para os produtores de pequena escala que pretendem intensificar os retornos resultantes do uso de mão-de-obra familiar. No entanto, ainda não se desenvolveram variedades adequadas para a África Oriental.As preferências do mercado pelas vagens do feijão verde diferem de região para região. A maioria do feijão verde produzido na África Oriental é redondo e fino e mais adequado para os mercados europeus. Por outro lado, os de vagens achatadas são populares em alguns mercados da América do Norte. A melhoria do feijão verde na África Oriental está focalizada no desenvolvimento e produção das variedades rasteira e de trepar, com uma alta proporção da produção de cada planta do tipo extra fino e fino, que são remunerados a preços mais altos.O feijão verde é uma importante fonte de rendimento para os pequenos agricultores especialmente no Quénia, Uganda, Sudão e Tanzânia. O feijão verde também é produzido por grandes empresas comerciais para exportação para supermercados internacionais e para as indústrias de enlatados. Devido à grande exigência requerida na exportação em termos de qualidade da vagem, empacotamento e cuidados pós-colheita, os pequenos agricultores estão organizados em grupos (tais como a FPEAK, Associação de Exportadores de Produtos Frescos do Quénia), ou são contratados por empresas e organizações semi-governamentais (tais como a Autoridade de Desenvolvimento de Culturas Hortícolas (HCDA) no Quénia).Actualmente, o feijão verde é o principal contribuinte para o crescimento rápido e o grande sucesso do sector de exportação hortícola no Quénia. Nos últimos cinco anos o Quénia exportou anualmente 25.000 toneladas métricas de feijão verde equivalentes a mais de 60 milhões de dólares norte-americanos. As estimativas indicam que, no Quénia, mais de 1 milhão de pessoas beneficiam do subsector de feijão verde. 1 Porém, recentemente, o sector dos pequenos agricultores, que era a espinha dorsal desta indústria, está a ser marginalizado pela preferência das cadeias de supermercados europeus (para os quais os requisitos da UE exigem a monitorização da qualidade a nível da pequena propriedade agrícola) por contratarem directamente um pequeno número de grandes produtores.O rendimento agrícola do feijão verde entre os pequenos agricultores varia de 2-8 toneladas por hectare, comparado com mais de 14 toneladas por hectare entre os produtores de grande escala. A produção dos pequenos agricultores é prejudicada por pragas (tais como a larva do caule do feijão) e doenças (tais como a ferrugem). A natureza intensiva do cultivo desta cultura leva a uma grande incidência de doenças e insectos e, consequentemente, ao uso excessivo de pesticidas. A produção dos pequenos agricultores é ainda prejudicada pelo alto custo da semente. As poucas variedades desenvolvidas pelas instituições públicas são frequentemente susceptíveis a doenças e pragas. Muito pouco foi feito para desenvolver variedades de feijão verde melhorado e torná-las acessíveis aos pequenos agricultores e aos produtores de semente informais (que fornecem mais de 90 por cento da semente seca do feijão cultivado) na região. Devido à exigência de alta qualidade, os pequenos agricultores contam com fungicidas e insecticidas para reduzirem as perdas de produção e pós-colheita associadas as doenças e pragas. Esta já não é uma opção viável devido aos níveis máximos de resíduos permitidos recentemente estabelecidos. A preferência dos grandes supermercados europeus em simplificarem as suas fontes de fornecimento e comprarem a produtores de grande escala constitui uma ameaça que pode resultar no abandono do negócio por parte dos pequenos agricultores. As grandes associações de pequenos agricultores, tais como a FPEAK, ajudam os importadores a satisfazerem a necessidade de poderem seguir a cadeia de fornecimento até às propriedades individuais para garantir a qualidade. O programa na Universidade de Moi, Quénia, tem como meta desenvolver variedades de feijão verde localmente adaptadas com melhor rendimento da vagem, resistência à antracnose e à ferrugem e qualidades comercializáveis das vagens. Depois de seis gerações de selecção foram identificadas 12 linhas as quais foram avaliadas em ensaios de desempenho nacionais em seis locais, em parceria com a Inspecção de Sanidade Vegetal do Quénia (KEPHIS). O rendimento médio por local variou de 3,1 toneladas por hectare em Thika a 19,7 toneladas por hectare em Marigat. Estas linhas mostraram grande adaptação e alto potencial de rendimento em vários ambientes. Baseando-se na posição na escala de classificação de doenças em Marigat, Lanet e Njoro, que apresentavam a maior incidência de doenças, quatro linhas foram classificadas como resistentes à ferrugem. Estas linhas também tinham vagem de boa qualidade, comparável à das cultivares comerciais. As quatro linhas tinham rendimentos médios de 10 a 13 toneladas por hectare nos seis locais. As actividades em KARI-Thika focalizam-se no desenvolvimento de uma colecção de trabalho de variedades de feijão verde e feijão de trepar e no desenvolvimento de populações segregadas. Foram coleccionados em KARI-Thika quinze tipos de feijão verde e cinco de feijão de trepar. Foram feitas vinte selecções de F4 de um cruzamento entre uma variedade comercial e uma variedade resistente à ferrugem localmente melhorada (\"Kutuless\"). Duas linhas promissoras de F4 mostraram um hábito de crescimento do Tipo 1, bom afastamento das vagens do solo, alta densidade de vagem (30-40 vagens/planta), características da vagem aceitáveis e boa aptidão para quebrar a vagem. Estas foram utilizadas para a geração F6.Na universidade de Nairobi foram feitos cruzamentos para transferir a resistência à ferrugem para três variedades de feijão verde susceptíveis à ferrugem. Foram desenvolvidas populações segregadas a partir de cruzamentos de três cultivares comerciais de feijão verde susceptíveis à ferrugem e duas linhas resistentes à ferrugem. As sementes das linhas identificadas nas quatro instituições estão a ser multiplicadas para avaliação regional com agricultores e exportadores. Por exemplo, foi organizado um dia de campo dos agricultores em parceria com uma empresa de exportação em Naivasha, Quénia. Os exportadores proporcionam uma ligação importante com os supermercados e outros pontos de venda nos destinos de exportação.O futuro da produção do feijão verde parece promissor, em parte devido ao aumento do consumo nos mercados urbanos nacionais, incluindo o comércio com a hotelaria. A disponibilidade das variedades comerciais públicas vai permitir aumentar o acesso à semente pelos pequenos agricultores. As novas variedades provavelmente baixarão os custos de produção devido à melhoria do acesso à semente e à reduzida dependência de fungicidas e pesticidas. Mais importante ainda, a redução da dependência de pesticidas vai ajudar os agricultores a cumprirem os rigorosos requisitos de exportação relativamente aos níveis de resíduos, o que é essencial se se pretende que esta cultura continue a proporcionar receitas e emprego nas áreas rurais.Reconhecemos e estamos gratos pela ajuda financeira da CIDA, SDC e USAID através da PABRA.","tokenCount":"1204"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4635007156.json b/data/part_1/4635007156.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"82195952ebc858cd0aa02ca1ade68f19","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ffa8966c-7ac7-47d3-929a-eb30d5829ec2/retrieve","id":"283235787"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f638e457-94ef-4001-b701-a7f4202384a7","pagecount":"12","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-Small ruminants are important source of livelihood for livestock farmers in Ethiopia. They are raised under traditional husbandry practices characterized by frequent mixing of different flocks resulting in the spread of many transmissible diseases. Economic losses because of lamb and kid mortality in Ethiopia are huge. Improving the survival of lambs/kids is essential for the economic viability of a flock and for its long-term genetic improvement.Improving the knowledge of farmers concerning small ruminant diseases is important to take appropriate prevention and control measures. Improving animal health by minimizing the impact of diseases through improved animal health and husbandry practices will assist farmers in maximizing productivity, minimizing treatment costs and drug resistance, improving enterprise profitability, and improving animal welfare.The overall objective of the training is to increase awareness and knowledge of female and male farmers about small ruminant flock health and welfare management so that they can take appropriate measures to improve the health and welfare of their animals. Specifically, the training aimed to:• Undertake the importance of strategic deworming and vaccination.• Identify biosecurity measures for small ruminant disease prevention and control.• Engage farmers in a discussion about newborn lamb management and husbandry practices. • Explain the importance of good feeding and sanitation in the health and welfare of animals • Explore perceptions and practices of farmers about antimicrobial use and resistance.Collaborative and experiential training approach was implemented to explore existing knowledge, attitudes, and practices of farmers and injection of new ideas to set up action points. During the training, farmers reflected from time to time on what they had learned, related it to their experience, and thought about how they could apply it. Exploring farmers' views and experiences helped identify knowledge gaps and introduce new knowledge to address these gaps. Training started with an exploration of what the participants already knew or experienced. These encouraged farmers to learn from one another, explore and analyze the problem, and seek solutions (new knowledge).The training was conducted from 11-14 July 2023 at Hawora village. A total of 71 participants (17 female and 54 male farmers), 1 woreda animal health coordinator, and 2 kebele development agents were involved in the training session.1. The health and well-being of small ruminants are protected through maintaining health care, providing a safe environment, and fulfilling nutritional needs. 2. Comfortable and clean shelter is required. Besides, isolated mothering pens are a plus. 3. Providing adequate feed and water improves the body conditions of SR and leads to higher market prices.Action points agreed upon by participants to implement 1. To protect the health and well-being of SR through health care, providing a safe environment, and fulfilling nutritional needs. 2. To provide comfortable and clean shelter. Isolated mothering pens are a plus. 3. To provide adequate feed and water requirements Topic 5: Antimicrobial resistance Key points that emerged from the exploratory discussion 1. Most of the participants were accustomed to purchasing Vaseline (as they said)/Procaine penicillin from the market for treatments (when there is a shortage of drugs on hand for health assistance). 2. They do not know whether drugs have expired or not. But simply purchase it. 3. After treating lactating cows with Vaseline, calves were not allowed to take milk immediately. However, we consume it. We do not keep a withdrawal period. 4. Is discarding milk after treatment with different drugs economically feasible? 5. Most of the participants do not know about AMR and residues. A single antibiotic does not cure every disease 2. Consult veterinarians whenever a suspected case occurred 3. Small ruminants treated without proper diagnosis could develop resistance 4. Misuse of drugs is a major source of AMR. 5. Antimicrobials leave drug residues in food of animal origin and can affect human health. 6. Alternatives (biosecurity measures, vaccination, and nutrition) are primary measures to mitigate the use of conventionally formulated Antimicrobials and the spread of AMR.Action points agreed upon by participants to implement 1. To be advised by veterinarians for the treatment of animals in case diseased. 2. To keep the withdrawal period of drugs as much as possible.3. Do not consume raw milk and meat. Hence, to avoid AMR and residue effects on public and environmental health. 4. Use of alternative approaches to reduce intake of antibiotics and AMR spread.Animal health team leader and development agents showed great commitment and planned to:• integrate the action points of each session into regular extension activities.• provide monitoring and mentoring support to the farmers in implementing community action plans.Observations, reflections, and lessons learned Lessons learned• The community conversation training approach greatly enhanced the capacity of participants to see issues in detail. • They learned a lot from one another.• It is better if we give the same training to whole community villages.The training was conducted at Cheki Kebele, Mangudo village. The number of participants was 55 (6 female and 45 male smallholder farmers who have at least one small ruminant in their household and volunteer to participate in the future research and development activities that the project proposed. In addition, 2 veterinarians (1 private and 1 village-level government veterinary service provider, and 3 trainers (2 veterinarians and 1 animal feed and nutrition professional) participated in the training. The training was given in two days: 12 and 16 July 2023. The main points, agreements, and actions under each topic were as follows.Key issues from the exploratory discussion:• During discussions, farmers mentioned that the rangeland was infested with liver fluke parasite locally called \"wodoma\", they frequently (2-3 months intervals) treat their animals. • Liver fluke is a main threat for them even some farmers lose their whole flock because of this parasite • Knowledge gap exists regarding parasite ecology, liver fluke, and snail intermediate host interaction • Farmers thought that liver fluke arises from a special leafy weed found around marshy areas • Farmers usually find the typical liver fluke live parasite in the liver, which results in the disposal of the liver.Key learning points and messages:• Awareness was given about small ruminant endoparasite lifecycle and how to minimize their impact on sheep morbidity and mortality • Given the most emphasis that all parasites reproduce like other animals /with examples like a chicken, snake, flies, and other egg laying, heating, and hatching processes/ and they need important suitable environmental conditions for that • Their villages as compared to other areas of the country most suitable for small ruminant endoparasites/farmers also raised in the explorative discussion • The importance of breaking the life cycle of the parasite to minimize next season's high parasitic burden in the village communal grazing land • Individual farmers separate grazing practice, cut and carry, forage production /oat and vetch/ are less risky for endoparasite and too more nutritiousAgreements and action points:• The farmers are willing to deworm strategically and they will also practice minimizing liver fluke infection rate by avoiding grazing sheep on the riskiest marshy areas • They acknowledge village-based veterinary services, and they will engage more with them in the future.Key themes that emerge from the exploratory discussions:• Farmers knew important diseases in the area like sheep pox, foot and mouth disease, anthrax, foot rot, orf and others • They know most transmission pathways of the diseases • They do not usually have prevention and control strategies • They were willing to participate in vaccination campaigns if there is vaccination access for • There are limited veterinary drugs in Ethiopia. We must use them properly to slow antibiotic and anthelmintic resistance. • Antibiotic resistance bacteria and parasites are a challenge for veterinary and public health • Antibiotic-resistant bacteria, if zoonotic, will also be resistant in humans since most antibiotic drug groups for humans and animals are the same.Agreements and action points:• Farmers will not use veterinary drugs improperly for their animals In Angollelana Tara District, knowledge assessment on flock health and welfare was done before and after the training on a sample of 10 trainees using 20 questions that cover five knowledge areas namely: helminth diseases and anthelmintic, infectious diseases and vaccination, newborn care, animal welfare, and antimicrobial resistance. On average, 80% of the trainees correctly answered the knowledge questions before the training and 90% after the training. This difference was statistically significant (P = 0.006). This indicates the trainees already have a good level of knowledge even before the training and this was further improved significantly by the training. When the different areas of knowledge are seen, relatively more knowledge gaps were observed about helminths and anthelmintics, and antimicrobial resistance (Figure 1). Specifically, there was a knowledge gap in understanding the seasonality of helminth parasites. There was also a misconception that anthelmintics have nutritional benefits for animals and one vaccination can prevent many diseases. Most farmers did not know that insufficient antimicrobial dosage could lead to drug resistance. These knowledge gaps were improved after the training.In Doyogena District, knowledge assessment on flock health and welfare was done before and after the training on sample 36 trainees using the same 20 questions that were used in Angollelana Tera District. On average, about 54% of the trainees correctly answered the knowledge questions before the training and 80% after the training. This difference was statistically significant (P < 0.001).The training significantly improved the knowledge of the farmers. But there are still remaining knowledge gaps after the training. In terms of different areas of knowledge, a relatively more pretraining knowledge gap was observed in infectious disease and antimicrobial resistance areas (Figure 2). Specifically, trainees showed poor knowledge about vaccines before the training. For example, most farmers think vaccines can be used for the treatment of sick animals, and better given when disease outbreak occurs. Most farmers also believe one vaccine can treat or prevent many diseases.In terms of newborn care, about 75% of farmers believe that newborns should not take colostrum. Most farmers did not associate insufficient dosages of antimicrobials with the development of antimicrobial resistance. Generally, although there has been significant knowledge improvement in flock health and welfare management, there are still areas that need further improvement, and follow-up training should target these areas.","tokenCount":"1712"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4651810977.json b/data/part_1/4651810977.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f7d6f775801e1fc99b4e9a8ad13c1f063978a6f0
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c909ba81c6742db2d9ca5b3caf45ede6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dbf5841-9710-441e-821f-5bf78e73783a/retrieve","id":"-1042699538"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aefd78eb-7507-4f57-8562-e678a29ae58c","pagecount":"1","content":"The genebank of CIAT, now operated by the Genetic Resources Program, was established as such in late 1978, and inherited the bean collections from the breeders. With a world mandate for Phaseolus beans, the GRP conserves 35,980 accessions of this crop mostly as seed collections (CIAT,  2009). Because germplasm activities -namely distribution -have been on since 1973 to date, some analysis of trends is possible.The signing of an agreement in October 1994 between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and CIAT confirms further the curatorship role of GRP. Since 1995, distribution of germplasm to external users has been systematically done under the acceptance of a Material Transfer Agreement (MTA). In 1995In -1996 the first designation to FAO (i.e. the sending of an electronic file about all accessions maintained in-trust by CIAT) took place, with subsequent updates every two years since.As per the last update in 2009, GRP has received bean accessions from 109 countries and has distributed to 103 countries. A total of 76 countries has provided and received bean accessions (Figure 1). As an example, three cases studies are worth mentioning.. These distribution and related research activities have been supported by grants of CIAT core budget (with contributions of, namely, USAID and the EU), the World Bank, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, the System-wide Programme on Information for Plant Genetic Resources and the Global Crop Diversity Trust. Review Week, CIAT -Palmira, Colombia, 6-8 May 2010. A world that benefits from distribution of beans: three case studies Case 1: Mexico. GRP maintains the largest collection of this country which is represented by 6,059 accessions. Mexico has received a total of 5,046 accessions, 1,163 accessions with origin Mexico and 3,883 accessions from other 81 countries (Table 1).Case 2: Colombia. This collection are made of 3,430 accessions and 7,039 accessions have been shipped with origin from 86 countries, including Colombia. This country is the second receptor that received more bean materials after United States (Table 2).Case 3: Peru. It is another example that benefits from the distribution of bean germplasm. In this case, GRP has conserved 3,678 accessions from Peru and has distributed 2,023 accessions with 58 different countries of origin (Table 3). In Figure 3 we can see the five major countries that we have sent bean germplasm to. They represent 45.6% of the total of samples that GRP has delivered to external users. Our main customer is USA (17.1%), where 153 cooperators have benefited from the seed bank for researching on this crop in 26 of its universities and 35 different organizations or just for conserving and expanding the diversity of its collection. ","tokenCount":"439"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4652859228.json b/data/part_1/4652859228.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..edc955dfb4342530b2f39453ad12751b3e95f30a
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3353933e71b6f9eeefb8d90271085618","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aafac16e-3236-428a-9c17-805253e20e9b/retrieve","id":"-1312895372"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"78342ba9-04c5-4fd8-a224-f63f8f14e49f","pagecount":"142","content":"Improving the market mechanisms, processing and marketing efficiency and reducing the public health risks in developing peri-urban smallholder dairy systems.This publication is an output from a research and development project funded by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed here are not necessarily those of DFID.After an initial Background Chapter (1), this report is comprised of three main chapters, each dealing with one of the major research components of the project. Chapter Two addresses Market Mechanisms and Efficiency, and contains the results of the economic and structural analysis of the markets. Chapter Three deals with the Milk Borne Public Health Risks, and focuses on the results of laboratory testing of milk and dairy product samples, but also uses some of the economic results in its analysis.Chapter Four addresses Processing of Traditional Dairy Products, with focus on the traditional fresh cheese wagashi in Ghana.      Inefficient milk market mechanisms constrain the development of market-oriented smallholder dairying, which has been shown to be a promising avenue for alleviating rural poverty. This report is aimed at improving the welfare of smallholder dairy producers, small-scale processors and market agents and consumers by strategically identifying efficient and viable market mechanisms and processes which deliver safe, consumer-preferred dairy products at low cost, and which provide higher and more reliable returns to resource-poor smallholder dairy producers. This was done through the quantification of actual public health risks and economic performance in indigenous dairy product markets, and identification of relationships with those and market agent practices and government policies. Indigenous dairy markets have not previously been examined in this manner. The technology developed and promoted worked towards the project goal by improving dairy product quality for consumers, and increasing opportunities for livelihoods for small-scale market agents. It addresses the DFID-LPP purpose of \"Energy-efficient and socio-economically acceptable handling, processing and distribution technologies identified and promoted.\"The project investigated three major areas of indigenous milk and dairy markets in the target countries (Ghana and Tanzania): a) marketing, profits and economic efficiency, b) threats to public health from milk products, and c) processing of indigenous milk products.In both countries, several hundred milk/dairy market agents were surveyed in key urban areas and their peri-urban milk sheds. In Ghana this included the Accra and Kumasi areas, while in Tanzania this comprised Dar es Salaam, including a wide area of the coast, and Mwanza. In both countries, the survey respondents represented a wide variety of milk market agents including small local vendors, wholesalers or milk assemblers, milk hawkers, retailers with fixed premises, commercial cheese makers, local indigenous cheese (wagashi) makers (Ghana), cooperatives, and dairy farmers themselves. In both countries, the large majority of these were women, and about ¾ were either proprietors or family members of proprietors. Many were very small-scale operators, handling less than 30 litres of milk per day. Raw milk is the primary product sold in most areas, although in some parts of Tanzania (Mwanza) cultured milk is important, and wagashi is important for some communities in Ghana. The markets studied displayed a wide variety of interactions between market agents and market channels. In the simplest example, milk producers sold raw milk directly to consumers, with no other intermediaries. At the other extreme, three intermediaries could play a role between farmer and consumer, including rural assembler, larger urban assembler, and small fixed retailer or hawker. This was particularly true when market chains were long, bringing milk from distant areas. The market agents were studied for profitability, market margins, policy-related constraints, and handling/hygiene practices. Quality control measures were very rarely used, although in Mwanza there was significant use of lactometers. Milk preservation was found mainly in Tanzania, with refrigeration used by many viii retailers, and boiling employed by some other market agents. A key finding was the recognition that proper metal milk containers were rarely used, with plastic buckets and jerry cans being preferred, except among retailers in some cases.Returns were highest to farmers who sold their milk directly to consumers. For those who had no such opportunities, returns were split by about half with intermediaries. As the number of intermediaries increased, the price received by farmers generally declined; although in Ghana this effect was very small. In many cases, the market margins were shared among intermediaries. An important result was that there was no systematic difference in profitability between large and small market agents. Instead, unit returns differed according to volume handled, and the value added in terms of labour. For example, large wholesalers showed low unit profits, while retailers exhibited the highest unit profits in both countries, reflecting the market service and provision of refrigeration or premises at the retail level. Assemblers who travelled longer distances to collect milk also showed higher returns. Statistical analysis comparing volume of milk with profitability showed very little effect, suggesting that there are few economies of scale in milk marketing. This finding points towards strong continued viability of small markets agents, and the consequent creation of employment opportunities in both rural and urban areas. In both countries, the policy environment was conducive, in that small milk agents were not required to be licensed, and experience few regulatory constraints. However, another key finding, although expected, was the universal lack of any formal training in milk handling, except for some cooperatives. This often resulted, as shown below, in low quality milk.Uniquely in such milk market studies, the project also gathered information on the quality of milk, using milk samples taken from the respondents interviewed above. Samples were taken in both dry and wet seasons, to capture seasonal variability in quality. The samples were tested for bacterial counts, both coliform and total counts, for anti-microbial drug-residue such as anti-biotics, for adulteration, and for the zoonitic diseases Brucella abortus and M. bovis (the latter in Tanzania only).Overall, milk quality was often found to be quite low. Adulteration with water was found to have occurred in some 20% to 60% of samples in Tanzania (highest in Mwanza), and some 30% to 45% of samples in Ghana, varying particularly by season and site of sampling. Adulteration was highest during the dry season, when milk prices were highest and the economic incentives to add volume also highest. Bacterial counts were similarly high. In Tanzania, some 67% had unacceptable levels of coliform counts in Mwanza, compared to about 50% in Dar es Salaam. These figures are closely related to the high rate of adulteration in Mwanza seen above, since coliform counts reflect both adulteration and poor hygiene. Total bacterial counts, reflective mainly of time since milking, were also poor, with over 60% showing unacceptably high levels, and did not significantly differ between the urban areas. In Ghana, bacterial counts were somewhat lower, with only some 25% of milk with unacceptable levels of either coliforms or total counts, although this differed by season. This likely reflects the lack of intermediaries in most milk market pathways in Ghana, where the majority were producer-sellers. The key finding from these milk quality tests was that small milk ix market agents, often targeted by the public as being the greatest threat to public health, did not show significantly worse milk quality than other market agents. Indeed, in some cases such as wholesalers in Ghana, the worst milk quality was found among larger market agents. Again the issue of lack of training in hygiene became evident, as coliform counts were seen to generally increase as one moved down the chain to retailers, and milk was repeatedly handled. The use of inappropriate plastic containers was also found to contribute to low milk quality.Antimicrobial drug residues were found in a significant number of samples, some 35-40% of samples in Tanzania, and also 35% of samples in Ghana. These residues are likely to arise mainly at the farm level from farmer use of antimicrobials to treat cattle, but may also occur as result of the addition by market agents as milk preservative. It should be noted that such residues are not degraded by milk pasteurisation, so exist even in processed milk. Although the long term health consequences of human consumption of these residues are not clear, because these residues cannot be removed, they may pose a long-term public health threat, and one which policy-makers are scarcely aware of nor equipped to avoid.Antibodies for Brucella were found in some 15% to 35% of samples in both countries, depending on which test procedures were used. This suggests potential health threats from milk consumption unless milk is boiled, in which case the pathogens are destroyed.The common practice by consumers of boiling milk before consumption shields them from most of these health hazards. However, the observed lack of training, coupled with the lack of policy support in terms of regulation, is clearly contributing to low milk quality. Training modules were developed and implemented to address the milk quality issues.In Ghana, considerable attention was given to the processing of a traditional fresh cheese product, know locally as wagashi. It is produces as a cottage industry product, made in homes by individual processors, nearly all women. It is generally made when there is surplus milk for which no market is available. The plant Calatropis procera, which grows naturally in the area, is universally used as a coagulant for wagashi production. Initial investigation found shelf life constraints to the cheese, which had to reboiled and dried daily if it could not be sold, with consequent costs in terms of firewood/fuel. The wagashi makers were found to handle less than 15 lt of milk per day, and had no formal training -the technique was learned from family members. Another constraint was found to be a lack of clear knowledge on the amount of coagulant to use, which varied widely between different cheese makers. Inefficient use would further exacerbate the problem of increasing scarcity of Calatropis in some areas.Experiments were thus conducted to identify the optimum quantity used, and relative proportions of stem and leaf. These trials showed that 20grams of C. procera stem or 30grams of leaves are sufficient to coagulate two litres of milk. These quantities were then converted into typical local measures. Several means of increasing shelf-life were explored. Trials were conducted on the use of Xylopia aethiopica, a local plant x thought to have anti-microbial properties. However, no preservative effect on the wagashi was observed. Brining trails found that soaking in brine concentrations over 10% overnight led to significant reduction in bacterial growth. After conducting consumer taste tests, a 10% brine level was selected as effective and acceptable to consumers.These refined techniques, designed to be easily adopted by the cheese makers and to be acceptable to consumers, were then incorporated into a training module and dissemination leaflet. Basic economic analysis showed that reasonable returns were available to these household cheese makers, and that improved shelf life would reduce their costs and increase their market opportunities.This research project, one of the first to systematically address economic and public heath issues in indigenous dairy markets in Africa, has found that important opportunities for livelihoods continue to be created in such markets. Further, the small market agents that are often regarding as posing public health threats were not found to offer significantly lower quality products than other larger market agents, some of whom work within the regulated environment. Lack of training was found to be a systematic contributing factor to both low quality milk, and to variability in economic returns. The training materials and modules developed by the project address these problems. Policy recommendations from the project are aimed at bridging the gap between the regulated and unregulated dairy markets, and so reducing public health risks, through targeted training of market agents coupled with licensing where appropriate.The importance of market-oriented smallholder dairying for income generation has been well documented (Okantah et al., 1995, Haile 1995, van Schaik, 1995, Staal et al., 1997; MOAC/SUA/ILRI, 1998;). Market-oriented smallholder dairying has higher returns than many traditional agricultural activities and thus offers important income opportunities for resource-poor producer households and for rural and urban poor through their participation in processing and marketing. Importantly, the keeping of cattle for milk production and sale has been demonstrated to be adoptable by even the most resource-poor households (Nicholson et al., 1998).The contribution of the dairy industry to the Tanzania economy is also well documented. The potential for considerable growth in demand constitutes an important element to income-generation prospects in dairy. The potential demand stems from the persistently notable gap between the supply of dairy products and the human population increases in urban areas. Population growth, urbanisation, and income growth greatly influence the demand for milk. Studies (MOAC/SUA/ILRI, 1998; Staal and Mullins 1996) have shown that, urban consumers consume more dairy products than rural consumers in the same income group. Tanzania has an estimated population of 34.4 million people, increasing at a rate of 2.1%, out of which the urban population was estimated to be 15%, growing at a rate of about 5% (World Bank, 2001), while Ghana has a population of 19.7 million growing at 1.8% annually. Rural-urban migration has disproportionately increased the population in urban areas such as Kumasi and Accra. A substantial growth in domestic dairy demand can be expected as cities grow. The incomes in both the rural and urban areas are also expected to grow. The available reports show that, the average income growth rate in Tanzania was 4.0 percent between 1995 and 1999. Per capita income grew from $210 in 1997 to $270 in 2001. Ghana's economy grew similarly but per capita income dropped from $390 to $290 over the same period partly as a result of relatively high population growth. Since dairy products have a high income-elasticity of demand. As income grows, demand for milk/dairy products can be expected to grow. It is thus critical that domestic markets develop the mechanisms necessary to efficiently supply larger quantities of milk with greater levels of safety.While the growing demand represents new market opportunities for smallholder producers, there are some serious constraints, which limit the farmers from taking the advantage of these opportunities. Dairy marketing and processing problems constitute the major constraints to capturing the available opportunities to dairying. Marketing problems must be addressed if dairying is to realise its full potential to provide food and stimulate broad based agricultural and economic development (Brokken, 1990). The most important critical constraints include restricted smallholder access to markets due to market inefficiency and unreliability caused by the small quantities of milk they market and consumer reluctance to pay for the costs of industrial processing. Collection and transportation of such small quantities of milk using expensive equipment is generally non-economic. Direct sales to neighbours is an important outlet for this kind of milk. This outlet is however restricted to a locality and may be unavailable in milk-surplus areas. For sustainable dairying the dairy products must be sold to deficit areas (usually urban areas). This requiring bulking, longer market chains and more intermediaries (small traders, dairy co-operatives, or dairy processors and retailers). Market channels serving smallholders are thus often complex and are associated with high transaction costs (Staal et al., 1997).Development of an effective milk-processing sector is important for sustainable development of the dairy industry. Milk is one of the most perishable food products. Unless refrigerated, raw milk can only be kept for a few hours before bacterial action takes hold, changing not only its taste but also reducing its usefulness. As temperature increase this process accelerates. The timing of milk collection, delivery and processing are therefore crucial. Consumer reluctance to pay for pasteurisation causes formal milk processing systems to play a small role in SSA and other developing countries. In Kenya, Uganda, and  , 1998). In Tanzania, related work by Sumberg (1996) showed similar price variation spatially, and highlighted some of the difficulties confronted by markets in Dar es Salaam and Mwanza including fluctuations in milk supply, unmet demand and concerns over milk quality. Efforts to increase marketing and supply of milk in both urban areas from traditional extensively kept zebu cattle are being facilitated by an NGO -the Austro Project Association. Women play a crucial role in the production and marketing of milk from these herds (Austroproject Association, 1997).Since formal processing channels have failed consistently in many parts of Africa, attention must be given to improving these existing and important market mechanisms. Due to systematic inattention, however, ways of improving the efficiency of informal market mechanisms are generally unknown. Policies typically discourage informal marketing, forcing marketers to operate on a small scale, reducing efficiency and increasing unreliability. Partly as a result, in both Tanzania and Ghana, raw bulk milk prices in urban areas are substantially higher than global norms, at over $0.6/l in Dar es Salaam (MOAC/SUA/ILRI, 1998), and over $0.8/l in Kumasi (observed during recent consultation). At the same time, only some tens of kilometres distant, farm-gate prices were about half. In comparison to areas where markets are better developed, such as Kenya, these margins point to opportunities for improvement in milk market mechanisms (MOA/KARI/ILRI, 1998).Further, there are justifiable public health concerns regarding milk-borne diseases and hygiene in raw milk and traditional products. Greater concerns are associated with milk from extensive production systems due to ease of milk-borne zoonotic disease transmission. Though some preliminary studies (e.g., Msanga et al., 1986;Daborn et al., 1997;Swai, 1997) have reported prevalence's of up to 15% for bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis in some areas in Tanzania, little accurate information is available regarding these risks in most dairy producing areas. The risks from bacterial contamination have been reported to originate at farm level (Mathias, 1998) and increases with milk bulking and number of agents handling milk before it reaches the consumer (Ombui et al., 1994) and there are also justifiable public health concerns over chemical contamination mainly from drug residues and disease vector control practices. Informed policy-making regarding informal milk markets cannot occur without quantitative information on these milkborne public health hazards.Poor infrastructure, in particular poor communication including transport, limit the distance that fresh produce destined for markets can go, and low-cost technologies to prolong the shelf life of dairy products are necessary. Research in West Africa on Wara (soft, wet unripened cheese) identified hygiene and use of local coagulants (Calotropis procera or Sodom's Apple) as aspects of dairy processing requiring further research (Awor and Nakai, 1986). Other species with rennet type properties (e.g., Prososis africana) as well as the disinfecting characteristics of plants such as Moringa olifera, Xylopia aethiopica and Monodora myris and other appropriate species identified by indigenous technical knowledge require investigation to determine what impact they can make in prolonging shelf life of milk and reducing milk-borne public health hazards.Inefficient milk market mechanisms constrain the development of market-oriented smallholder dairying, which has been shown to be a promising avenue for alleviating rural poverty. Smallholder access to markets is restricted by market inefficiency and unreliability due to the small quantities of milk they market. The small quantities ensure that the collection using expensive equipment is generally not economic and so rely on markets that are largely unorganised using inexperienced and inexpensive labour. An important outlet in such undeveloped markets is direct sales to neighbours, which are restricted to a locality and are usually unavailable in milk-surplus areas. Milk products must then be sold to deficit areas, requiring bulking, longer market chains and more intermediaries, including a combination of small traders, private/parastatal dairy processors. Market channels serving smallholders are thus complex and could vary widely even within a given peri-urban area. In such situations there is likely to be wide differences in producer prices and market margins.Due to systematic inattention, however, ways of improving the efficiency of informal market mechanisms are generally unknown. There has been little research on ways to improve the efficiency of fresh milk marketing in developing countries in general. Development programmes and policies in the past have typically neglected or discouraged informal marketing, forcing marketers to operate on a small scale, reducing efficiency and increasing unreliability.Although some market studies have identified general market failures (Staal 1995, MOAC/SUA/ILRI, 1998, Sumberg 1996), none have attempted to differentiate individual markets mechanisms by level of performance and safety. The methodologies for doing so are being currently refined in the DFID bilaterally funded Kenya studies being conducted by the Smallholder Dairy Project.Comparative analysis across Tanzania, Kenya and Ghana was considered to be an important output leading to specific and widely-applicable recommendations for the development of viable dairy markets serving resource-poor producers and alleviation of public health risks without impeding the efficient marketing of milk.In Tanzania, the study was conducted among dairy product producer-sellers and market agents in and around the cities of Dar es Salaam (abbreviated \"Dar\") and Mwanza; while in Ghana, respondents of similar cadres were drawn from urban and peri-urban areas of Kumasi and Accra.Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the survey areas in both Ghana and Tanzania. The sites were chosen to be able to relate findings to variation in dairy product supply, market access and consumer demand.  In the project log-frame, the purpose was defined as: \"Energy-efficient and socioeconomically acceptable handling, processing and distribution technologies identified and promoted.\" This did not change during the course of the project. Inefficient milk market mechanisms constrain the development of market-oriented smallholder dairying, which has been shown to be a promising avenue for alleviating rural poverty. This project aimed at improving the welfare of smallholder dairy producers, small-scale processors and market agents and consumers by strategically identifying efficient and viable market mechanisms and processes which deliver safe, consumer-preferred dairy products at low cost, and which provide higher and more reliable returns to resource-poor smallholder dairy producers. This was done through the quantification of actual public health risks and economic performance in indigenous dairy product markets, and identification of relationships with those and market agent practices and government policies. This is new knowledge, in that indigenous dairy markets have not previously been examined in this manner. The technologies and knowledge developed contribute towards the project goal of improving dairy product quality for consumers, and increasing opportunities for livelihoods for small-scale market agents. Regionally, these technologies and strategies will offer possibilities for direct adoption or adaptation in other similar production and market systems.This section addresses market mechanisms and efficiency, and contains the results of the economic and structural analysis of the markets.The research focus was on markets for raw milk and indigenous products under the following objectives:• Identify and study the marketing channels for indigenous and raw milk products. • Determine the ways in which marketing activities (procurement and sale) are conducted.• Determine the costs and benefits involved in the milk business.• Identify factors that affect profits in milk marketing.• Identify problems affecting the different market participants.• Suggest policy remedies to improve the milk marketing system.The approach combined Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods with structured interviews. The PRA's were used to identify market channels and contractual arrangements, and market agents' perceptions of primary constraints. The targeted market agents included a wide variety of intermediaries, including small scale milk product traders, wholesalers, assemblers of milk from rural areas, retailers, group collection centres, processors and sellers of traditional products, and milk producers/farmers themselves. The information from the PRA's and previous analyses (e.g., Mdoe 1993;Mdoe et al., 2000) were used to develop sample frames and structured questionnaires of the next phase. Every attempt was made to obtain information from representative actors in the market. The details of these activities are described below.The approaches to marketing analysis fall under two main categories namely the industrial organisational approach (Bain, 1959) and the historical, institutional and descriptive approach (McCalla and Schmitz, 1979). Whereas the industrial organisational approach emphasises the structure and conduct of the firms in the marketing system as the determinants of the marketing performance, the historical, institutional and descriptive approaches involve the examination of trends in output, prices and institutional factors in the marketing system.The available literature shows that researchers have usually employed one or a combination of the above approaches in studying different marketing systems. Mdoe (1993) used two sets of indicators i.e. effective and efficiency indicators in assessing the performance of the marketing system for dairy products in Hai district in Tanzania and nearby areas. The effective indicators included the level and stability in volume of marketed dairy products, level and stability of producer and consumer prices and timeliness of effecting payments to producers, while efficiency indicators included the marketing costs and market margins. A similar approach was earlier used by McCalla and Schmitz (1979) who used the level and stability of producer and consumer prices in comparing performance of the Canadian and U.S. grain marketing systems over time.For this study, the Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) approach, in combination with GIS, was used to analyse the milk market. The major proponents of the SCP model are Brain (1968), Shaffer (1983), Marion (1986) and Reid (1987). The basic tenet of this approach is that, given certain conditions, the structure of an industry or market determines the conduct of its participants (sellers and buyers), which in turn influence its performance (Scarborough andKydd, 1992, Jabbal et al, 1997). Market structure is the environment in which the market agents operate; while market conduct refers to the patterns of commercial behaviour (Pomeroy, et al., 1995). Market performance refers to the impact of structure and conduct as measured in terms of variables such as prices, costs and volume of output (Bressler et al., 1970quoted by Pomeroy, et al., 1995).Thus, the economic analysis for this research focuses on structure, conduct and performance analysis as a general approach. Important topics within the SCP analysis are to assess variation in risk due to seasonality, unreliable contractual arrangements, and access to capital, and identifying the effects either via either price or non-price factors of government policies. Within this framework various tools: descriptive statistics, budgets, geo-referenced information system (GIS) based tools, correlation and regression were applied to determine the nature of structure, conduct and performance factors within alternative market channels. Descriptive statistics are used to quantify various variables in terms of averages, distribution and percentages, while budgets are used to assess the market performance factors in various market channels. GIS-based tools are used to better quantify the spatial factors influencing marketing behaviour and performance. Regression tools are used to identify critical factors influencing milk market performance. Details on how these tools are applied are presented below under respective components of the SCP model.Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) exercises were conducted at each study site at the beginning of the research to identify the nature of dairy products consumption and marketing channels, including documenting marketing points and processing techniques. The PRA was designed to focus on three groups: consumers, producers and marketing agents (including processors of wagashi, traditional soft cheese, in the case of Ghana). Consumers were asked to describe seasonal patterns of consumption, prices, preferences, main market sources and reasons for their use, constraints to availability, and un-met demand. Producers were asked to describe the seasonality and level of milk marketed milk production, their main outlets, with associated information on products, prices transaction costs, reliability, contractual arrangements, and main constraints. Market agents and processors were asked to describe the seasonality of dairy product procurement and sales, prices, main sources and buyers, transaction costs, marketing techniques, sources of variation in milk quality, handling techniques and equipment and main constraints. The primary objective of the PRA was to describe in detail all the main dairy marketing channels and associated processing and handling techniques. The results of the PRA were used to design the main market study, using a structured questionnaire.The PRA was followed by a more formal survey using a standardized questionnaire during two contrasting seasons representing periods of high and low milk production, and thus variation in milk market volumes and prices, associated with the dry and wet seasons experienced in both countries. The questionnaire sought information on the background of the agent, their milk procurement activities, milk handling before sale, milk sales as well as all costs and revenues. Questions on milk hygiene and milk quality were also asked in the questionnaire. Simultaneously, milk and milk products samples were collected from the survey respondents for use in the public health assessment. GPS units were used to geo-reference all points where the interviews were held.A stratified random sampling procedure was used, targeting all the market agents identified in the PRAs, described above. Given the difficulty in locating for enumeration the small milk traders and processors, they were sampled by geographical sampling methods and based on prior knowledge gathered through the PRA results.In Tanzania, the study was conducted in the areas within and around Dar es Salaam (including outlying areas of Chalinze, Kibaha, Tanga and Morogoro) and Mwanza. In Ghana, the study was conducted in two broad zones, the areas comprising the two main cities of Kumasi and Accra. These sites, which include villages, towns and cities, were chosen to represent variation in consumer concentration, market access and dairy production intensity within each zone.The sampling of market agents varied by their location and type. All bulking centres (large cooperative societies and assemblers and wholesalers) were sampled. Smaller scale market agents producer-sellers, vendors, retailers) were identified through local informants and sampled at in a selected area (or along a route in the case of Mwanza) up to 30. For areas/routes with more than 30 milk traders, selection was made to cover all major urban/retail sites in the area. In Greater Dar, marker agents were sampled in 8 areas (including Tanga and Morogoro), 5 in Mwanza, 5 in Accra and 7 in Kumasi.The distribution and number of respondents is shown in Table 1. In Ghana, 229 respondents were interviewed, 94 in the Accra zone and 135 in the Kumasi zone. Of this total, 106 were males (46%) and 123 were females (54%). In Tanzania, 439 respondents were interviewed in the Dar es Salaam area, and 319 in and around Mwanza, for a total of 758. In Tanzania, males formed a larger proportion of the respondents with 556 (73%), compared to 202 females (27%). Structure of an industry or market is defined as characteristics of the organisation of the market that seem to exercise strategic influence on the nature of competition and pricing within the market (Bain, 1968). The characteristics most stressed (Jabbar et al, 1997;Koch, 1980) Marketing channels; Market concentration; Product differentiation; Degree of vertical integration; Ratio of fixed to total costs; and Conditions for entry.These elements measure the extent of deviation from a perfectly competitive market. The milk shed market structures in the four main study sites were assessed in terms of marketing channels, buyers' concentration, product differentiation and entry barriers. These aspects have an influence on the nature of competition, buying practices and pricing behaviour of the market agents.Milk marketing systems consist of different marketing chains and channels. Marketing channels are alternative routes of product flows from producers to consumers (Kohls and Uhl, 1990). Thus milk-marketing channels are different passages or outlets through which milk is distributed to consumers. In the milk marketing system milk products flow from the producer to the consumer. On the way to the consumer, the products change ownership from time to time among the milk-marketing participants. In each case marketing costs are incurred. The more hands it involves the higher the costs are likely to be. This would imply that in analysing marketing costs and margins an attention has to be focused on the nature and types of marketing channels involved.Concentration accounts for a large part in determining market behaviour, as it tends to affect interdependences among market agents and bargaining power to influence prices and transactions. Non-competitive behaviour such as collusion is normally a result of high market concentration. High levels of market concentration are often found in food processing, wholesaling and retailing. Concentration ratios (ratio of buyers and market share ratio) are employed in examining the market concentration. The estimation of market shares is based on the amount of milk procured from producers by different categories of market agents. This is given as follows:(1)V is amount of milk procured by agent i;and ∑ i V is the total amount of milk handled.A product is differentiated if there exists significant basis for distinguishing the product of one seller from those of another. Food market agents generally operate under conditions that are neither competitive nor completely monopolistic.The marketing strategies are designed to gain them some special advantages over rivals. Sellers differentiate their products in order to increase their appeal to buyers, to reduce the substitutability for their products and increase the latitude in pricing. Typical product differentiation factors include products typology, product handling and preservation and advertisement. Successful competitors through product differentiation eliminate their rivals or discourage market agents' entry.The focus of this research with respect to product differentiation is on product types, handling and preservation.Barriers to new market agents' entry exist in food markets and may encourage imperfections in the market. Conventional barriers to market entry usually revolve around institutional, technological and financial factors. Where any of these exists; it deters potential entrants thus impeding competition and market efficiency.Existing agents usually enjoy a cost advantage over potential competitors through command over financial resources, access to raw materials, technical know how, or the existence of economies of scale. In this study legal and institutional factors, capital requirements, scale economies, infrastructure, location and distance were assessed to determine the level of market barriers in the informal milk markets of the selected sites in Ghana and Tanzania.Legal and institutional factors with regard to milk quality and business establishment may retard or promote entrance of new market agents. A qualitative description of the legal and institutional factors is presented to reflect their potential effects on informal milk market performance.Capital requirements serve as an entry barrier because only those who can afford such a monetary outlay can enter the market (Pomeroy et. al., 1995). In this study capital costs and operating capital are computed and compared for different marketing agents to reflect market entry conditions.Scale economies are a useful parameter for explaining market entry conditions and market concentration. Scale economies are said to exist when the average marketing costs are inversely related to the volume of products handled. These scale economies encourage the growth of large and specialised market intermediaries.The state of roads influences the farmer's ability and willingness to participate in marketing milk. As opposed to good roads and short distances, poor roads and long distances entail high transport costs, unreliable markets and prices. Remote areas face spatial problems in marketing their milk. Types of roads distances and location factors are assessed using descriptive statistics to assess the magnitude and importance of these factors for various market agents.There are no agreed upon procedures for analysing the elements of market conduct. Previous research (Bain, 1968;Smith, 1981;Ishak, 1988;Pomoroy, 1989) give some guidelines to illustrate conduct assessment. Conduct refers to the behaviour and action programmes by market agents given the structure within which they operate. The salient features of conduct can be grouped into two: Buying and selling behaviour: Source of products; no-price competition; selling/procurement modes; market channels; moral hazards; and terms of payment.Buying behaviour: Price formation; collusion; price setting; price differentiation; price movement; and location effects on prices.Descriptive assessment is used to study the milk market conduct factors. Buying and selling practices as well as pricing strategies used by different intermediaries are analysed to determine the nature and implication of the market conduct on informal milk market performance.Economists have had great difficulty in defining an aggregate norm for evaluating the performance of marketing systems (Mdoe, 1993). There are several approaches used in marketing system studies. Normally a combination of approaches is used to evaluate different aspects of marketing systems. No single criterion of performance seems to exist (Mdoe, 1993). A single measure seems to be inadequate in assessing the overall performance of a marketing system especially when the marketing participants have some choice of operating in different channels and where the structure of the channels varies (Patnaik, 1985).Market performance is largely the outcome of market structure and conduct, but all are affected by policy and other factors. Basic performance variables include prices, costs and volume of outputs (Bessler and King, 1970). These variables are the building blocks for market margins and net returns. By analysing the level of market margins, net returns and their cost components, it is possible to evaluate the impact of structure and conduct characteristics on market performance (Bain 1968). Estimates of market margins and net returns provide indications of the nature of market agents' competitiveness.Selling and purchase prices, market margins, marketing costs and net returns are assessed to examine the market performance in the milk sheds using trading budgets. Factors affecting milk marketing performance are also assessed.Regression is used to determine the nature, direction and magnitude of the factors influencing the performance.The magnitude of relative spatial and temporal price variation is an important market performance factor. This carries the implication that the pricing system in the market does or does not perform its functions effectively. To assess this, one has to establish how the two prices closely move together. In efficient markets, change in prices in one location or level of marketing system should be followed by an adjustment in another location or level of the marketing system to ensure the market margins are fairly close to marketing costs. Correlation analysis and ttest are used to determine whether the estimates of prices, marketing and profit margins are move together while t-test determines whether the estimates are different across seasons or market levels.Market margins are calculated as the difference between buying prices and selling prices for intermediaries. High market margins may imply above average returns, differences in marketing costs, or implicit selling or buying prices that are either higher or lower than competitive market prices, respectively.(3)Where M = Marketing margin; PS= Sale price; PB = Buy price; and n = Number of market agents.Marketing costs involve fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed Costs were calculated as annual equivalent value for fixed assets (CRC) using:where: A = Capital Recovery Cost of item; Z = Replacement cost of the item = Initial cost -Salvage value (includes zeros); i = Real rate of return on capital invested elsewhere; n = Useful life of the item (Excludes zeros).Variable costs were calculated on annual basis while the total cost was calculated as follows: Net returns are generated from trading budgets. Net returns are calculated by subtracting fixed and variable costs from gross returns. The trading budgets were constructed using the calculated revenues, fixed costs; intermediate costs statutory fees, labor costs and contingency fees as follows.Total revenues and net returns for various market agents were computed as follows:Where: TR= Total revenue; MV = Volume of milk sold; P = Selling price; PM= Profit margin Analysis of net returns aims to assess the profitability of marketing businesses while market margins signify the capacity of intermediaries to cover the cost of providing marketing services.This is analysis to determine the nature, direction and magnitude of the factors influencing the market performance, measured particularly in profit margins. These determinants include spatial factors, non-spatial factors and seasonality factors. Spatial factors include those related to location of the market agents' collection and supply points, and the infrastructure and transport services connecting them. Some cost variables such as inputs and wages may also vary spatially. Non-spatial factors include those that vary with individual market agents, such as management skills, level of education and training. Seasonality affects both supply and demand of milk and dairy products, and thus influences quantities and prices faced by the market agents. Typically, the buying price, sales price and profit margin per litre of milk are modelled as an independent variable using a linear function form equation:Where PM* is selling price, buying price or profit margin realized by a market agent from milk marketing business; X is a set of variables influencing the selling price, buying price or marketing profits.However, rather than using the method above, another approach was employed. The stochastic frontier analysis, describes below, goes beyond comparison of absolute values of profit. It further allows a comparison between market agents of their relative ability to achieve hypothetical profit maximums, and thus the degree of efficiency of maximizing profit.A milk market agent's efficiency in profitability may be looked at as his/her ability to achieve maximum possible profits given the specific set of prices and technology s/he faces. While there are other methods that are used to estimate efficiency, the use of a normalized profit frontier model is more attractive in cases where the aim is to generate individual profit efficiencies for a cross-section of firms which face differing prices and factor endowments and thus have different practices that could be termed as most efficient (Ali and Flin, 1995). The normalized profit model is an adaptation of the stochastic production frontier model, which was first proposed by Aigner et al (1977) and Meeusen and van den Broeck (1977). The adaptation simply involves expressing the dependent variable as normalized profits and including prices and levels of fixed factors (in addition to levels of variable inputs) as possible determinants of profitability. In this case the form of stochastic frontier model proposed by Battese and Coelli (1995) was used to evaluate factors that influence profitability and efficiency among the various sets of market agents in both Tanzania and Ghana the normalized profits model was specified as:Where: Lnπ is the natural log of the normalized profits; β is a vector of unknown parameters; X k is a k x 1 matrix of explanatory variables; v is a measure of the usual idiosyncratic effects and is independent and normally distributed with mean=0 and variance=б 2 v ; u is the inefficiency term which is a non-negative, random variable with mean=m i and variance=б 2 u ; m i =z i δ, where: z i is a vector of variables which may influence the efficiency. Estimation of the parameters β and z i is done using the maximum likelihood technique. The variance parameters are estimated as б2 = б 2 v + б 2 u and γ= б 2 u / (б 2 v + б 2 u ). Normalized profits (N_PROFIT) were computed using the formula:Where: R is the total revenue per annum (annualised revenue), VC represents variable costs per annum and NPr is the normalizing price. The annualised revenue (R) was computed as:Where normalized prices (NPr) is multiplied by the adjusted quantity of milk (Q adj ) and 365 days.Adjusting the quantity of milk (Q adj ) was necessitated by the observation that quantities recorded as \"purchased\" and \"sold\" differed. The difference in the two quantities was perhaps because \"quantity sold\" was recorded as previous day sale and \"quantity purchased\" as the quantity purchased at the day of the interview. Although the variable \"quantity of milk left over\" was available, it could not be used to explain the difference because it was recorded for the previous day. The adjusted quantity was calculated as the mean of the quantities purchased and sold.The normalizing price is agent specific and was computed using the formula:Where: Q i is quantity sold to consumer type i while P i is the selling price to consumer type i in US$ per litre of milk. The normalizing price was also the weighted sale price.Variable costs (VC) were calculated as the annual sum of the cost of milk purchase, transport, labour, intermediate costs processing costs e.g. inoculants, sugar, food colouring, flavouring etc. vehicle expenses, water cost, stationary, fuel and electricity, sanitation, repairs and maintenance.The factors included as determinants of profitability in model (8) included natural logarithms of normalized input prices (wage rates and transport cost per litre of milk), natural logarithms of factor inputs (capital recovery cost of capital stock, numbers of family and also hired workers), and dummies of shift factors (type of milk cans used-metallic or otherwise, and whether or not there is piped water in the business premises). The determinants of inefficiency included dummies on trader type (processor, vendor/hawker or wholesaler), location of the business (urban, peri-urban or municipal location) GIS distances from the premises to the capital city on tarmac, murram and earth roads, type of source for the milk traded (own milk, other traders, or processors) and the specific characteristics of the milk market agent (age, years of experience, gender, source of funds to start the business, and quantity of milk handled per day). The stochastic frontier model was estimated using the FRONTIER 4.1 computer package developed by Battese and Coelli (1995).Traditional milk markets are observed to be characterised by an enormous variety of market intermediaries, playing slightly different but often overlapping roles, which often are distinguished by scale of operation, and buyer/seller clients they serve. They exhibit different degrees of vertical integration, with some serving the same functions that two or more other intermediaries may be simultaneously performing. Fresh milk is sold through almost any combination of market types and seller types. A significant proportion of the milk collected is sold at the farm gate (referred to as kraals in Ghana) directly to individual consumers, milk vendors, assemblers, wholesalers or processors. The main types of milk market agents found in the two countries are presented in Table 2. Producers who also sell their milk. In Ghana, herdsmen or their wives who sell their own milk at the farm/kraal or in the in the village, rural town or road-side. These are differentiated from processor-sellers, who sell home manufactured soft cheese, and are included among processors below.These procure milk to process into other products like yoghurt, ice cream, soft cheese (wagashi) and hard cheese. In Ghana, these include home processors of wagashi, generally wives of stockmen/producers. Private Wholesalers/ Assemblers Wholesalers buy milk in bulk from producers or from rural assemblers and sell it to retailers. Assemblers sell generally to other wholesalers. In Tanzania, some wholesalers operate milk collection/cooling centres, while in Ghana no chilling is generally used. They therefore play the role of bulkers in the marketing system. Collection centres/ dairy cooperatives Dairy co-operatives facilitate milk collection and marketing, which activity is located around collection centres. Most dairy cooperatives have cooling facilities and collect milk from their members and vendors. They resell the milk to wholesale processors, vendors and household consumers.In this study vendors are referred to as the traders who collect milk from producers and/or milk collectors and sell directly to consumers and other market agents. In Ghana, they may also be the wives of stockmen/producers. Vendors play an important role in collecting milk and delivering it to other market participants, consumers and/or retail outlets such as milk bars, kiosks and hotels.Vendors normally trade on fresh milk unless there is unsold milk, which can be fermented and sold as mtindi (soured milk) in the following day in the case of Tanzania. Vendors have more or less permanent customers and may some times deliver milk on credit, while hawkers refer to those vendors that hawk milk to whatever customers they may find, often using small volume selling units such as a cup. In Tanzania, hawkers may sell mtindi, particularly during the dry season when hot weather creates demand for this beverage.Retailers present milk to the consumer in the smallest desirable quantity, and in a convenient form and location. In Ghana these are largely open-air roadside sellers, while in Tanzania (Dar only), they comprise mainly specialized milk bars selling a variety of milk products to consumers and particularly consumers away from home. Fura seller (Ghana only)These are individual food-drink sellers mainly in urban centres of Ghana. They buy milk from the kraal, assembly market or from the sedentary wholesalers and retail it with combined with balls of cooked cereal, the fura, as a snack or meal.Source: Field SurveysThe most important participants identified in Tanzania are dairy co-operatives, private wholesalers, vendors, hawkers and retailers (Figure 3). These traders play the role of middlemen, who play a more important role in the Dar es Salaam milkshed than in Mwanza. Other intermediaries such as cooperatives and wholesalers were not found in the Mwanza milk shed during the study.Dairy farmer co-operatives operate in Tanga and Coast regions. Most dairy cooperatives have cooling facilities and collect milk from their members and vendors. They resell the milk to wholesale processors, vendors and household consumers.Private wholesalers collect or buy milk in bulk and sell it to retailers. Most wholesalers operate milk collection/cooling centres. Almost all the wholesalers are involved in processing, wholesale and retail business.Those who collect milk from producers and milk collection and sell directly to consumers and other market agents are referred to as vendors in Tanzania. They play an important role in collecting milk and delivering it to other market participants. In some areas, vendors collect milk from hinterland producers and deliver it to consumers and/or retail outlets such as milk bars, kiosks and hotels. Vendors normally trade in fresh milk unless there is unsold milk, which is often fermented and sold as mtindi. Vendors have more or less permanent customers and may some times deliver milk on credit. The major means of transport is bicycles. Carrier equipments for the milk are normally plastic and aluminum containers.Hawkers are involved in selling small quantities of milk (fresh, mtindi) to consumers in the street). Hawkers in Dar es Salaam sell fresh and packaged milk while hawkers in Mwanza largely trade on mtindi and fresh boiled milk. These hawkers sell mtindi in recycled plastic containers (formally containing cooking fat) of 250 ml each. The amount of mtindi traded by the hawkers daily varies with season. They sell 15-18 units per hawker daily during wet season and 25-30 units per hawker daily in the dry season when demand for mtindi is high, mainly due to the hot weather. When the weather is hot, mtindi is taken as a beverage.The group of traders retailing milk directly to consumers are known as retailers. These include those selling milk only such as milk bars, and others who also sell other foods such as kiosks, shops, restaurants and hotels. The major route of milk and milk products retailed in Dar es Salaam is specialized milk bars selling a number of milk products to consumers and particularly consumers away from home. While there are known to be more than 100 milk bars in Dar es Salaam city, milk bars in Mwanza were virtually non-existent during the surveys. A number of the milk bars in Dar es Salaam are owned by wholesalers.In both Dar Salaam and Mwanza milksheds, selling directly to consumers is the oldest of all channels in the milk marketing system. This channel involves milk selling by producers to household consumers at the farm gate or at the local market in the producing areas. The farmers themselves and their relatives in their homesteads may consume part of the milk produced. The popularity of the direct sales channel is however apparently dwindling, owing to the increasing number of households keeping dairy cattle in the producing areas and the growing number of alternative market channels and intermediaries.Currently most of the producers dispose of their milk through intermediaries. Different types of traders are involved in collection of milk from the hinterlands and peri-urban areas of Dar es Salaam and Mwanza milksheds and deliver the milk directly or indirectly to consumers in the cities. However, there are fewer market channels in Mwanza than in Dar es Salaam as cooperatives and milk wholesalers are virtually non-existent.The overall picture that one gets from the description of milk market channels in Tanzania is that the milk marketing system is characterised by a multitude of milk Consumers market channels and relatively long market chains, which tend to increase in complexity in larger urban areas where demand may be more differentiated.The marketing channels in Ghana are illustrated in Figure 4. In Ghana, milk is often taken to other sale points when customers do not buy all the milk at the farm-gate. House delivery of milk is done mainly to local processors (referring to makers of traditional wagashi cheese, who operate from their own residences), milk assemblers or consumers who have a supply contract with the milk seller. Some business people are becoming interested in the establishment of milk bars, as are found in Tanzania. Two such bars are being operated in the Accra area where consumers sit to drink fresh milk. Stockmen deliver fresh milk daily to these bars.Producers and a cadre of individual market agents (hawkers) often carry milk from house to house or from street to street to retail in small quantities to consumers.Wagashi processors who for one reason or the other are not able to process all their fresh milk may engage the services of milk hawkers, usually their own children.Some consumers prefer fresh milk mixed with millet or maize meal called fura and lekri respectively. Sellers of fura who hawk milk and fura will carry fresh milk along with them to use in preparing the fura for people to drink. A few fura and lekri sellers are sedentary with recognized sale points particularly in the cities of Kumasi, Accra and Tema. Consumers usually determine how much fresh milk they want added to the fura or lekri and are charged a price accordingly. The quantity of milk sold through this channel is small since people require small quantities to accompany the cereal (usually between 0.1 litres and 0.5 litres).In areas where there is high demand for fresh milk and where cattle kraals are located further away from the town centre, many consumers are reluctant to spend time, energy and transport cost just to buy one bottle of milk. Under such situations, stockmen 1 and their wives may decide to transport milk to their customers in the town or city centre. For those stockmen who do not have established customers or who cannot hawk their milk, a place is chosen usually in the centre of town where milk sellers assemble to sell their milk. Such assembly markets have developed in Kumasi, Kintampo, Nima and Ashiaman. However, when milk sellers fail to sell all their milk by afternoon, they are compelled to hawk their leftover-milk.The amount of milk collected varied according to the number of cows being milked, the breed of the cows being milked, the location of production and the season when milk is collected. Milk collection was higher in the wet season when more feed/forage was more available than in the dry season.The average amounts procured were also generally higher in Tanzania than Ghana irrespective of season, which is associated with higher levels of consumption. The mean daily collections per producer (farmer, herdsman or stockman) for the various sites are given in Table 3 . In Ghana, the quantity of milk collected in the wet season (March -November) is usually higher than the collection in the dry season (December -February), but only moderately so. Mean daily collections are lower in the Kumasi zone, varying from 10 litres in the dry season to 12 litres in the wet season. In the Accra area daily collections are quite high, averaging 24 litres and 20 litres respectively for the wet and dry seasons as shown in .In Tanzania, the seasonal differences between the quantities of milk collected per producer are larger than that seen in Ghana. Mean daily collections during the wet season are 24 litres and 5 litres in Dar es Salaam and Mwanza respectivelyrising to 54 litres and 12 litres respectively. Per farm collections in the Dar area are much higher than those seen in Mwanza, most likely due to increased intensification and use of higher yielding cross-bred cattle.The quantities of milk handled by the different type of market agents varies considerably (Table 4), with those performing bulking or processing roles handling the most milk. In Ghana, milk assemblers and wagashi processors are the most important in the procurement activity. The assembler and processor travel furthest and procure the greatest quantity of milk. Processors and assemblers procure daily on the average 109 litres and 82 litres respectively in the Accra zone and 47 litres and 82 litres respectively in the Kumasi zone. Milk retailers including vendors and fura sellers procure small quantities of between seven and ten litres (7-10 litres) of milk daily for sale in the urban areas of the Kumasi zone. Retailers in Accra procure larger quantities (on average about 82 litres daily) than their counterparts in Accra.As shown in (Table 4), cooperatives and collection centres play the largest role in procurement in Dar es Salaam, with monthly averages totalling 23,205 litres or 774 litres daily. Wholesalers and assemblers also procure significant amounts (733 litres daily). The contrast with Mwanza is stark, where only producers, retailers and vendors conduct procurement from producers. This difference is closely linked to the much larger and more complex market in Dar es Salaam. The average volume of milk handled (estimated quantities procured and sold) by different market agents is presented in Table 5. The volume of milk handled varies between milk market agents and by site. In Tanzania, the dairy business is more developed in Dar es Salaam with significantly larger volumes of dairy products being traded in Dar es Salaam than in Mwanza. The same pattern is observed in Ghana with larger volumes of dairy products traded in Accra than in Kumasi.In Dar es Salaam, cooperatives and wholesalers were found to be handling larger volumes of milk compared to other market agents. In Mwanza, vendors who are the majority (85% of respondents) handle most of the milk (81%) while in Dar es Salaam, wholesalers and cooperatives, which form only 7% of the intermediaries, handle about 43% of the traded milk. These data verify the PRA findings, which show that most of the milk procured from farmers in the Dar es Salaam milkshed passes through wholesalers and cooperatives while in Mwanza the milk passes through vendors. The procurement of milk from producers in Dar es Salaam takes place at homesteads and milk collection centres owned by co-operatives and private wholesalers. Some other milk is delivered directly to retailers' trading premises and household consumers mainly in the urban areas. Vendors were found to play a significant role in collecting milk from farmers' homesteads both in Mwanza and Dar es Salaam. Vendors usually transported milk to the collection centres, trading premises and household consumers on bicycles or public transport and in some cases by head carrying. Transportation of milk from the collection centres, in the case of Dar es Salaam, to the urban areas is mainly done using hired or own private vehicles. From these results, it appears that there may be oligopolistic conditions in the Dar es Salaam market than in Mwanza market at procurement level as only 7% of the intermediaries are handling more than 40% of the milk procured from farmers.In Ghana, no specific market agent type dominates the dairy products in Accra, with cooperatives, wagashi processors, wholesalers and retailers handling on average the same volumes of milk. In Kumasi on the other hand, wholesalers followed by wagashi processors, are the larger players. Due to the perishable nature of fresh milk, the success of dairy businesses often hinges on the efficiency of transportation. Information on transportation was collected during the PRA in order to illustrate the role played by transport in dairy market access.It was found that most Ghanaian herdsmen-producers normally sell milk at the kraal (farm-gate) or in their homes, buyers coming to make purchases in both cases. The majority (85%) of these producers therefore needed no transport from the procurement point to the sale point. Only 12% of the herdsmen transported their milk by foot to a sale point other than the kraal or home. This is a remarkable finding, suggesting that in a large majority of cases, marketing of milk is not a constraint -demand outstrips supply to the extent that buyers are willing to seek out sellers and incur the transport costs and time. Of those who did transport, the majority of market agents in Ghana (72%) also transported their milk on foot from the procurement point. The rest (28%) of the market agents used varied means of transport to convey milk from the procurement point. Twenty-one percent (21%) used public transport, 6% used bicycle, 1% used their own vehicles, and only 1% of market agents hired vehicles to transport their milk. The percentage use of modes of transport for procurement is given in .In Tanzania, 56% and 47% of the market agents rely mostly on bicycles to procure and to deliver milk to sales points, respectively (Table 6). 30% of Tanzanian market agents used vehicles to procure milk while 30% of the sales deliveries were done on foot -usually by hawkers. Producers and vendors in Tanzania usually transport milk to selling points on bicycles or public transport and in some cases by head carrying. Transportation of milk from the collection centres to the urban areas is mainly done using hired or own private vehicles. Higher frequency of vehicle use in Tanzania is likely to be related to larger average volumes, and to much more spatial dispersion between supply and demand areas. Supply close to urban demand areas is not enough to meet demand, requiring procurement from more distant areas. The importance of bicycles for transportation especially among small-scale traders and vendors has been highlighted in both countries. It is clear however that with increasing number and complexity in the channels used, the need for mechanised transport increases. From the simplest form in Ghana where herdsmen sell directly to buyers at the point of production and no movement is necessary to the more complex situations in Dar es Salaam where milk moves from producers through wholesalers and retailers in different places and requiring different quantities and greater reliance on vehicles.Milk is marketed by most market agents in raw fresh form. In Ghana, herdsmen market their milk as raw fresh milk, though some process it into soft cheese (wagashi) when they are unable to sell the raw fresh milk. Most of the traders who procure milk from the herdsmen also sell this further in the fresh form even though a small proportion (14.4%) of them will boil milk before selling. Others (3.5%) will ferment milk before selling. Some milk is also processed into yoghurt and hard cheese. A range of milk products can therefore be found on the Ghanaian markets. These include raw fresh milk, boiled fresh milk, fermented milk, yoghurt, soft cheese, hard cheese and ghee. This relatively high degree of product differentiation in Ghana is a key difference in the Ghana and Tanzania comparison.All cooperatives in Ghana handle raw milk, while 79%, 74%, 22%, 19% and 13% of producers, wholesalers, retailers, hawkers and processors handle raw milk respectively (Table 7). This makes raw milk the most popular product among traders in Ghana. Some of this milk is converted into wagashi -fresh and friedmarketed by 25% of the hawkers and 19% of retailers. Ghanaian retailers also sell fresh boiled milk (30%) and natural fermented milk (24%) similar to hawkers who also sell 25% and 31% of these products respectively. Cultured milk is a preserve of processors in Ghana and a few retailers with the skills. A very small proportion of the traders in Ghana market ghee, with hardly 3% of the retailers reporting its sale.In Tanzania, while the types of milk products traded vary somewhat between trader types, products are general common for particular trader types in both the Mwanza and Dar es Salaam milksheds. Most of the milk marketed in the Dar es Salaam milk shed is either unprocessed or informally processed liquid milk. Raw fresh milk constitutes the most traded item followed by fresh boiled warm and cool. Table 7 shows the types of milk products traded by various market agents.From the table it is indicated that along the marketing chain in the Dar es Salaam milkshed, raw milk is mostly traded by cooperatives producers, wholesalers, vendors and hawkers. More than 90% of these traders cited raw milk as the major sale product. At the retail level in Tanzania a mix of products is found with fresh boiled milk being the most importantly retailed commodity. About 57% of the retailers who cited various product types indicated either fresh boiled cool or warm milk as their main products they sell. Other products cited by retailers are raw milk (8%); naturally fermented milk (19%); fermented milk cultured (8%); packaged pasteurised milk (4%) and packaged fermented milk (3%) (Table 8). There was no reported sale of ghee by any market agent type.In Mwanza, a slightly different picture is found compared to Dar es Salaam; while producers and vendors trade mainly in raw milk, hawkers and retailers do not deal with raw milk at all. Hawkers sell fresh boiled, warm and naturally fermented milk -in Dar es Salaam hawkers sell raw milk. Similar to Dar es Salaam, more than 50% of the retailers in Mwanza sell fresh milk either boiled warm or cool. Only 19% of the retailers sell naturally fermented milk and only 7% sell fermented cultured milk.What emerges from the analysis of product differentiation is that most market agents trade in similar products although some variations exist between tradertypes. The second observation is that most of the milk traded is unprocessed (raw) or informally processed. This confirms that the industry is characterised by low levels of processing in both Ghana and Tanzania, although less so in Ghana.Traditional products (wagashi, fura and lekri) seem to play a bigger role in Ghana especially amongst the vendors while in both countries, retailers appear to have the largest variation in products sold. Liquid milk, however, remains the most important product in both countries.Most contracting intermediaries used informal unwritten contractual arrangements stipulating time of delivery, price and timing of payment to attract supplies. Formal contracts, those defined as 'lawyer assisted' were not found except for one case below in Ghana. Some instances of informal written contracts were also found. The distribution of supply contracts according to their nature and the trader involved is presented in . In Ghana, only the government-assisted Milk Collection Centre located in Sege in the Dangbe East District conducted milk procurement under a written contract with suppliers. Where contractual arrangements between buyers and sellers exist, they have often included arrangements on the mode of payment and the time of supply. In Ghana, the study revealed that eighty percent (80%) of procurement transactions were made without any form of business contract, even informal. Out of the 272 transactions studied, 217 were made without business contracts, 54 (20%) were made under unwritten informal contracts and only one procurement transaction was made under a written informal contract. Producer herdsmen do not normally transact their sales business under any contract arrangement except in a few cases where sales of significant volumes of milk is to be made on regular basis to an assembler or processor. Unwritten informal contracts were made mainly between milk processors and/or milk assemblers and herdsmen.In Tanzania, most of the interviewed respondents during the survey had not entered any formal contractual arrangements with their suppliers. Out of the 1,181 respondents interviewed in Tanzania, 479 (41%) indicated to not have been practising any form of contractual arrangements with their suppliers. However, a number of respondents reported the use of at least one or more informal contracts with their suppliers. About 682 respondents (58%%) indicated use of informal unwritten contracts and only 20 (2%) respondents indicated the use written but informal contracts. The informal verbal contractual arrangements were based on payment modes, price and time of delivery and time of payment. There were more informal written contracts in Tanzania compared to Ghana, which may reflect the generally more development nature of the dairy industry in Tanzania. The absence of formal contractual arrangements implies that informal milk marketing may be prone to business risks and uncertainties, particularly in Ghana. The distribution of types of contractual arrangements with suppliers by site is given in . While in Tanzania 60% of the traders had contracts of one form or another, only 20% of the Ghanaian traders used such contracts. The traders in Ghana who had contractual arrangements were either concerned about the time of supply (6%), mode of payment (6%) or guaranteed purchase of all milk supplied (5%). This contrasts with Tanzania where the contracts dealt mainly with fixing quantities for daily supply (28%) and mode of payment (13%).Handling vessels used in milk procurement included plastic buckets, gallons and jerry cans; milk cans/churns, aluminium bowls and calabashes. Others include glasses and clay cups. shows different handling vessels used by various market agents. The table shows that in both countries, milk is most often handled using plastic containers, which are prone to bacterial contamination. In Tanzania, 41%, 12% and 8% of the respondents who cited various handling materials used plastic buckets, plastic gallon and plastic jerry cans respectively. The remaining respondents (39%) used non-plastic vessels such as metal cans, aluminium basins and others. Glasses and clay cups (the \"Other\" in ) were mostly used by retailers. Milk handling problems coupled with the lack of quality assurance of milk delivered to most of the retailers and household consumers, pose as potential sources of public health risks to consumers, and may contribute to low consumption of milk.In Ghana, although herdsmen sometimes use calabashes or aluminium bowls to collect milk during milking the most commonly used vessels are the plastic buckets, plastic gallons and plastic jerry cans (). Plastic buckets are the most common in all areas visited, accounting for 58% of the total in Ghana and are used mostly by the herdsmen to keep milk before sale. The aluminium bowl is used also by most rural consumers in Ghana to purchase milk from the kraals. The plastic bucket is also used for milk that is to be transported for short distances for sale in Ghana while the plastic jerry can (21 -40l) is used to transport milk over longer distances. Its use is restricted to the Accra zone by itinerant assemblers who handle bigger volumes of milk. Plastic jerry cans are seldom used in the Kumasi zone and it is only the few assemblers and processors in this zone that transport milk in plastic jerry cans. Milk churns and cans are used mainly by well-organized milk firms like the Ministry of Food and Agriculture dairy farm at Amrahia near Accra and the Milk Collection Centre at Sege in the Dangbe East District to transport milk. These milk firms also use a bulk tank to store milk.The use of plastic containers is popular in both countries with the usage more entrenched in Ghana (81%) compared to Tanzania (61%). In both countries the handling vessels are important for both storage and transportation and a high degree of innovation is seen depending on cost considerations as well as what is readily available. The use of the recommended aluminium milk cans/churns is rare with Ghanaian traders with less than 1% using compared to about 23% of the traders in Tanzania. A way to encourage the use of the recommended aluminium cans/chuns in Ghana may be to draw the attention of local aluminium manufacturing companies to fabricate such cans/churns.Economic analysis of the market agent enterprises is closely tied to quantities of milk handled. The average quantities of milk handled by various market agents were discussed in Section 2.2.2.1 and illustrated in Table 5. These are the quantities used in calculating revenues, costs and margins for the market agents in the analysis that follows. In Ghana, quantities sold per day varied from as low as 1 litre by a fura seller in the Buipe area to a high of 400 litres by an itinerant assembler and some 1005 litres by retailers in the Accra zone. In Tanzania, where the dairy industry plays much larger role and consumption is higher, wholesalers handle quantities up to 60,000 litres monthly (2,000 litres daily) while retailers handle maximum quantities of 460 litres daily during peak seasons.Herdsmen and other small-scale milk producers will usually reserve between 1 and 5 litres (8 -17% of milk collected) for the use by the household depending on the number of family members consuming milk and the amount of milk collected. Less milk is reserved for family consumption when the quantities collected are small. Marketing agents (traders) however sell most of the milk they procure daily.Losses suffered usually result from spillage and spoilage.Price variability among market agents is one indicator of market efficiency, although transport and transactions costs will create price differences spatially. Further, output product differentiation, particularly in terms of value added, create differences in margins, which no not reflect costs. Market margins are not by themselves a measure of profitability of a marketing business. Conspicuously high market margins may imply high marketing costs and/or profits. In this example, in order to compare the margins observed among agents selling different products, all products such as wagashi were converted into liquid milk equivalents (LME's). Table 6 and 7 show the variation in prices received by various market agents in districts in Ghana and Tanzania. The exchange rates used in these price analyses, and in the rest of economic analysis are 1 US$ equals 800 Tanzania Shillings, and is also equal to 4050 Ghana cedis. Generally, there are significant variations in the producer and retail price of milk among districts and among the different trader groups within each zone. For all districts, the average prices received were generally higher for mobile traders and retailers suggesting either more value addition (and costs) or higher margins.In Ghana, producers in the Kumasi zone receive higher prices for milk than producers in Accra. This is somewhat surprising, in that Accra is a larger consumer demand area, and suggests that supply is also proportionately large, most likely from the nearby Accra plains. Producers received on average $0.3 per litre in Kumasi compared to $0.17 in Accra. This is due to general milk scarcity in Kumasi, a forested area, which forces producer prices up.Wholesalers in Kumasi receive on average $0.37 per litre against $0.29 in Accra. However, the consumers in Accra pay more as retailers there receive $ 0.46 against $0.44 per litre -likely the result of higher incomes and greater urbanisation in Accra. Those handling the smallest quantities, but offering a specialized service, milk retailers and especially the fura sellers receive the highest milk price in both Kumasi and Accra. Milk sellers who retail milk with fura or lekri earn higher prices than traders who retail solely fresh milk. This is because the fura seller sell their milk in very small sale-units (at times less the 100ml) and thus earn more per litre of fresh milk sold than other retailers who sell using larger measures like the litre cup, soda or beer bottle and also because these products have some value-added.Wagashi and other product processors in Accra and Kumasi receive the highest prices of all market agents. This is because these processors deal in value added products such as wagashi, lekri and fura, which fetch higher prices. Processors in Accra receive the highest margins, apparently due to limited supply of the wagashi, which is generally produced only by members of the Fulani ethnic, who are a small minority in the Accra area. Producer market margin should be understood in that context.Further regional analysis in Ghana shows that average milk prices are generally lower in the rural districts like Ejura, Kintampo, North Tongu and Ewutu-Efutu than in peri-urban districts like Ejisu Juaben or urban and municipal districts like Sekyere West, Amansie-East, Kumasi, Tema and Accra municipalities. The producer price for milk is lowest in the Juapong area of the North Tongu district ($0.12/ litre) and in the Ewutu Efutu district ($0.16). Again, this is due to relative supply and demand. There are a significant number of cattle in these areas and good quantities of milk is collected, yet there is little demand for fresh milk in these areas. Apart from the stockmen and their families who consume small quantities of the milk collected, the population in the North Tongu and Ewutu-Efutu districts do not consume fresh milk. Most milk produced in the two districts is thus sold to visiting itinerant assemblers from the Tema and Accra municipalities, or is made into wagashi for transport and sale. The producer price for fresh milk is also low ($0.19/litre) in the Ejura-Sekyedumasi District in the Kumasi zone where milk production is also high and demand is low.The average prices received by various market agents in Dar es Salaam as shown in Table 12 were $0.62, $0.31, $0.38, and $0.28 for retailers, mobile traders, wholesalers and co-operatives respectively. In Mwanza the prices were $0.43, and $0.26 for retailers and mobile traders respectively. On the other hand, prices received by producers also varied with districts. The prices received by milk producers varied from $0.29 to $0.23 in Tanzania. The results in the table show that generally market margins in Dar es Salaam may be slightly higher than those in Mwanza, although this is not tested statistically. For example, retailers in Dar display a margin of $0.25 vs. $0.20 in Mwanza. This may be related to higher labour costs in Dar, typical of larger urban areas. However, margins remain remarkably similar. Hawkers, with almost no input costs except labour, show the lowest market margins. *Costs of milk production are not known, so that milk producer \"purchase price\" is not applicable. Producer \"market margin\" should be understood in that context.Table 12 reveals substantial differences in the retail and producer prices among districts in Tanzania. Generally, the average producer sale price ($0.29) and average retail sale price ($0.62) are higher in Dar than in the Mwanza milk shed (i.e. $0.23 and $0.43 respectively). The difference between producer prices and retail prices is also higher in the Dar es Salaam milk shed than in the Mwanza milk shed ($0.33 and $0.20) suggesting that marketing costs are lower in the Mwanza milk.In both regions in Tanzania, milk prices are generally higher closer to the urban centres, reflecting centres of demand and the costs associated with moving milk to those centres. Within the Dar es Salaam milk shed, producer and retail prices are higher in Dar es Salaam district than other areas such as Tanga, Coast and Morogoro. The producer prices are lowest in the Coast ($0.20) while retail prices are lowest in Tanga ($0.17). The difference between producer price and retail price is lowest in Dar es Salaam district implying lower marketing costs, possibly due to close proximity of production and consumption compared to other areas of the milk shed. Similarly producer prices in the Mwanza milk shed are highest in Mwanza urban and peri urban and lowest in distant places of Sengerema.In Dar es Salaam, retailers display the largest market margins ($0.25), as would be expected given their higher costs, while collection centres were observed to have the lowest margins ($0.06), contributing to their lack of profitability. Hawkers in both Dar and Mwanza accept comparatively low margins ($0.09 and $0.08 respectively) due to the low capital and variable costs.The distribution of market margins among the market participants in various sites in the two study countries is shown in Table 14. The distinction between the channels is based on the type and/or number of market intermediaries. The primary channel is that which is most prevalent in the given zone, the second is the next most important, and so on. Because they are calculated separately for each zone, the primary channel in one may not be the same in the others. In Dar es Salaam four channels are identified, while in the other zones two or three channels are described. It is seen that the involvement of more intermediaries in a chain causes the rest to give up a portion of their margins. Thus the longer the chain the smaller the proportion enjoyed by a market agent. It appears, therefore, that producers receive higher market margins in shorter milk marketing channels.A common channel is one in which the producer sells directly to the consumers and therefore takes 100% of the consumer price. This channel type was evident in all sites and was the primary channel in the less urban Mwanza (Tanzania) and in Kumasi (Ghana), and was the second channel in Dar es Salaam. Where this channel predominates, demand is typically strong enough so that no intermediaries are required to move milk to more distant deficit areas.Another important type of channel is that in which one intermediary is involved; either wholesaler, trader, retailer or processor. Through wholesalers, these form the primary channel in Accra, suggesting (as does the low price) that supply is significant, and so needs assembling to move to urban markets. In Accra this imposes a significant cost: the producer gets only 58% of the consumer price, with the wholesaler absorbing 42% of the price margin. Where wholesalers then sell to retailers in Accra, they give up some of their margin, while the producer retains the same price. Traders also take a large share of the margin (52%) in Dar es Salaam (fourth channel), but a smaller share in Mwanza (20%) where distances may be shorter along the channel.Retailers in both Ghana and Tanzania usually receive the smallest portion of the margins: 3.2% in Dar, 18.8% in Accra and 10.22% in Kumasi, while producers get the biggest share -almost always bigger than 50%. As evident from the figures Tanzanian traders in Dar accept very small margins due to high competition.It is also observed that producers in the Kumasi zone get a greater portion of the market margin than do producers in the Accra zone. This is because the producer price of milk in the Kumasi zone is quite high relative to the retail price for milk. Milk agents in the Accra zone however receive higher market margins than their counterpart in the Kumasi zone except for the processor who deals in value added products and receives 35% in Kumasi. Only channels involving at least 10 agents were usually considered. The first column by channel gives the margins (difference between sale price and purchasing price), in US$. For producers, margins equal sale price.Summarised trader budgets for Tanzania and Ghana are presented in and . These budgets show the costs, revenues and profits (losses) by marketing agent and by site.The figures in show that in Dar es Salaam cooperatives and wholesalers have the highest total revenue per enterprise, followed by mobile traders. Producers have the lowest revenue owing to low volumes. The revenues for various market agents are closely tied to volumes of milk sold, since revenue is a function of volume of milk sold and average selling prices received by the agents.In both sites in Ghana, wagashi processors collect the highest revenues, which is likely to be tied to the volume of milk equivalent in processing cheese.Wholesalers also generate significant revenues in both zones due to volume.Monthly costs are summarised in and for Ghana and Tanzania respectively. Total monthly costs for various market agents were found to vary substantially, in the fixed costs as well as variable costs. Major variable cost items for milk traders include the milk cost and transport charges. The transport costs incurred by market agents are of two kinds. These include procurement transport costs, and sales transport costs.It should be noted that traders who were also milk producers, dealing in own produced milk, made profits both as producers and market agents. To enable inclusion of only that part of profits made through milk marketing, means of prices paid out to milk producers by other traders who procured milk from them were used as estimates of milk costs for the traders dealing in own produced milk.For the procurement of milk, marketing agents using public transport have to pay a personal transport fare to and from the procurement point. In addition the agent also pays a charge for the empty handling vessels and the procured milk to and from the procurement point respectively. A single transaction may also involve the travelling of the market agent by a combination of different means of transport.Other variable costs including intermediate sales costs, labour and vehicle repair costs were relatively low.In Tanzania, the cooperatives and wholesalers were found to incur higher fixed and variable costs than other market agents while retailers, hawkers and vendors incurred the lowest levels of fixed costs. The high levels of fixed costs for cooperatives and wholesalers are attributed to the initial costs for purchasing cooling tanks. Co-operatives and wholesalers have large cooling facilities at their collection centres, which form a significant component of the fixed costs. Cooperatives and wholesalers were not found in Mwanza during the study, and retailers were found to have higher variable costs compared to hawkers and vendors. High heating and cooling costs amongst the retailers may be attributed to boiling and cooling practices commonly used with a dual purpose of preserving and improving quality of milk.In Ghana costs varied similarly with volumes handled. The fixed cost incurred by all categories of traders in Ghana was very low and has an insignificant influence on the profits made. Generally, the profit results suggest that milk marketing is capable of yielding substantial income to many entrepreneurs in the study areas The profit margins for vendors and retailers, most of whom are sole-proprietors, is significantly higher than the country's per capita income (Tanzania -$270 and Ghana -$290 according to World Bank figures). Returns to working capital among market agents are higher than the interest rates offered by the local banks in the country.Generally the recorded returns to working capital for cooperatives, wholesalers and vendors are adequate to allow them to accumulate and re-investIn Ghana, among the various groups of milk sellers, the wagashi processors makes the highest profit in Accra while the producer makes the highest profits in Kumasi for each litre of milk sold. Wagashi is more widely produced product in the Kumasi zone, where many ethnic Fulani live, resulting in a lower price compared to Accra. As noted above, producer profits are revenues less estimated cost of milk production based on mean prices paid to producers by traders. In Kumasi this is the result of milk shortages allowing producers to charge higher prices. The sale of value added products such as wagashi, lekri and burkina allows processors to make bigger profits. Retailers, who may sell other goods as well, make lower nevertheless significant profits in Ghana. Retailers in Accra make a net profit of $0.12 for a litre of milk sold and retailers in Kumasi make a net profit of $0.08 from the litre of milk (). Monthly profits in Accra are higher for processors, wholesalers and retailers, the result of bigger volumes handled as discussed in section 2.2.5.Itinerant assemblers (wholesalers) in the Kumasi zone earn a net profit of $0.11 from every litre of milk sold and the assemblers operating in the Accra zone earn a net profit of $0.07 from the litre of milk sold. Milk assembling is most profitable when procurement is done in very remote areas and sale takes place in the urban centres where high prices prevail. Where milk assembling and resale takes place within the same district, profits are quite low. In extreme cases where assemblage and resale takes place in the same village, profits are near zero as seen in the case of the assembler in the North Tongu district where the assembler earns only $0.02 from every litre of milk sold.The average monthly and unit profits for Tanzanian milk sellers are similarly presented in for various market agents in both Dar es Salaam and Mwanza milksheds. Producers show the highest profits per litre of milk ($0.22) in both Dar and Mwanza. They are followed by mobile agents ($0.05), wholesalers ($0.02) and retailers ($0.01) in Dar. Mobile agents have lower unit costs while wholesalers, whose monthly profits are highest at $198.53 reap benefits of bigger scale. In general unit profits are much lower in Tanzania, where the milk market is much larger, with a greater range and number of market agents, and so where competitive forces may be stronger.Cooperatives and collection centres recorded losses in Dar es Salaam. This is explained by the high set-up and fixed costs incurred by these traders, and may point to low sustainability in collective marketing arrangements.Overall, reasonable profits are observed in nearly all market channels and market enterprises. Excluding processors, who are engaged in significant product transformation and value addition, profits per unit LME range from a low $0.01/0.03 in the case of Tanzanian wholesalers and retailers, to relatively high returns of over $0.10 per unit in case of several groups of Ghanaian traders. In general, profits both per unit and per enterprise were found to be higher in Ghana than in Tanzania, possibly linked to the higher level of competitiveness in the latter market. With the exception of a few cases, such as hawkers in Mwanza, reasonable profits were observed for these small scale market agents, pointing at the important role of these markets in providing non-farm rural and urban incomes and employment.This section looks at the determinants of profitability and of efficiency in profitability among milk market agents in Ghana and Tanzania. This was estimated using the stochastic profit frontier model (see section 2.1.6.1) The model is estimated in a two step process, first by estimating the level of profitability, then by estimating the determinants of variation in that profitability from a hypothetical optimal profit level. The latter step forms an estimate of efficiency and its determinants. Efficiency was found to be an important source of variation in profitability amongst the market agents in both countries, a conclusion that is shown by the significance of the parameter gamma. A significant gamma also justifies the use the stochastic profit frontier model in analysing the determinants of profitability among the market agents.The are two components in the results of this analysis: -Determinants of profitability -Determinants of inefficiency in profitabilityIn Table 17 below, positive coefficients indicate a positive correlation between the determinant and profitability while in Table 18 positive coefficients indicate higher inefficiency while negative coefficients mean lower inefficiency.Table 19 shows the frontier model results for the first step, the determinants of profitability among Ghanaian and Tanzanian milk market agents. The profitability was positively related to value of capital depreciation (P=1%). This suggests that investment in capital equipment such as cooling tanks and processing facilities yields higher profits in both countries.Use of metal cans by the milk agents also enhanced profitability in Ghana (P=1%) perhaps due to reduced milk spillage and spoilage. Experience from an on-going milk handling technology project in Kenya also shows that use of metal cans by informal milk agents is associated with increased milk sales because the cans are perceived by customers as neat and attractive.Milk agents with piped water in their premises realised higher profitability (P=5%), (in Ghana) presumably due to improved cleanliness and hygiene. Hired labour was associated with increasing profitability (Ghana: P=5% and Tanzania P=1%). This shows that the marginal product of hired labour was positive for the market agents. Surprisingly, profitability increased significantly with transport cost (P=5%) in Ghana perhaps because the higher transport costs were offset by lower milk procurement prices. All of the above results show a link between higher use of inputs with higher profitability may point to higher levels of management expertise as well.  19 show the results of the determinants of inefficiency among the milk agents in Ghana and Tanzania, respectively. The results show that on average milk agents in Ghana were relatively more efficient (73%) than their counterparts in Tanzania (52%) given the set of technologies and prices prevailing in each of the respective two countries. By the same token, an inspection of the distribution of efficiency among the milk market agents in the two countries shows that the distribution was more skewed towards higher efficiency in Ghana than in Tanzania ( Figure 5).  Volumes handled: In both countries, inefficiency increased with volumes of milk handled suggesting that small-scale traders were more competent in realising higher profitability. As latter shown by results of cluster analyses (section 3.2.2.5), low milk quality was a significant problem among the large-scale milk agents in Ghana perhaps predisposing them to losses through spoilage. This is a significant finding, in that it points towards technical barriers to increased economies of scale in marketing.Trader type and milk source: In Ghana, milk retailers and hawkers were significantly less inefficient 2 (P=5%) compared to traders selling own produced milk. This may be due to the method used to cost own-produced milk in this analysis. The traders dealing in own produced milk made profits both as producers and market agents. To enable inclusion of only that part of profits made through milk marketing, means of prices paid out to milk producers by other traders who procured milk from them were used as estimates of milk costs for the traders dealing in own produced milk.In Tanzania, market agents who sourced their milk from wholesalers tended to be more efficient (P=10%) compared to those selling own-produced milk while those procuring from vendors were more inefficient (P=5%). Most of the traders who sourced milk from vendors were themselves also vendors, which often left very small market margins for them. The implication is that vendors who attempt to perform the role of additional intermediary in a channel where intermediaries already exist, face difficulty in managing a viable enterprise.Age of trader: Age of the trader was found to be highly significant as a determinant of efficiency in Ghana. Older traders are more efficient, a factor attributable to the social networks created over time.2 'Less inefficient' means 'more efficient' and is used despite being a little confusing because the econometric method analysed sources of inefficiency in profitability The effects of credit use on inefficiency are mixed. In Ghana, traders who used personal savings to start their business were less inefficient (more efficient) than those who sought credit facilities. Since loans are informal and obtained through social networks, the cost of credit was not obtained. Traders who use informal credit may simply be poorer managers. Also, credit facilities sometimes present unique problems: timing of fund disbursement and repayments may interfere with business cash flows. Tanzanian market agents who used their own savings to start their business tended to be more inefficient (P=1%) compared to their compatriots who used credit, the reverse of the case in Ghana. It could be that own savings alone were not sufficient for optimal investments in the milk business in Tanzania, which we have seen to be more complex. In general, it may not be possible to explain the credit results, which are based on a relatively small proportion of credit users (some 10% of market agents), and are likely to be associated with other management factors.Location and distance from urban centre: As expected, the milk agents in Tanzania were more inefficient with increasing distances from urban centres (Dar es Salaam and Mwanza towns) (P=1%). Recall that demand and consumption of milk tend to be highest in urban centres. Increasing distances from the urban centres implies reduced access to major markets, and potentially higher transactions costs as well as simply higher transport costs.Agents in Mwanza were more inefficient than their counterparts in Dar es Salaam. Essentially, the demand, consumption and prices of milk are expected to be lower in Mwanza than in Dar es Salaam because Mwanza is a relatively smaller town. In addition the higher competition in Dar is likely to drive the least efficient agents out of the business.In Ghana it was also evident that traders in urban and peri-urban areas were significantly less inefficient (P=5%) compared to their counterparts in the rural areas. Increased competitiveness, bigger volumes and higher prices in the urban areas are some of the possible reasons for this. There is also increased availability of nutritional, hygiene and market information in urban areas. Training: Training in milk quality control and testing had no significant effect on inefficiency. Since none of the reported training was formal, it is likely that the trainings were inappropriate or ineffective in imparting the intended skills on the market agents. Loose enforcement of standards by government monitoring agencies may also dampen the motivation to apply strict quality control by the market agents.In summary the results of determinants of profitability and efficiency among the milk market agents in Ghana and Tanzania show that levels of efficiency in profitability may differ across countries together with the factors determining profitability and efficiency. The role of credit seems to vary considerably, but these results are likely to be confounded with other factors such as level of management expertise. Some consistent results are nevertheless available: trader efficiency is impeded by infrastructure and distance to markets, and by increased scale. Trader efficiency is increased by age and experience, but is not apparently affected by level of training.Smallholder producers and consumers have relied mainly on informal markets for raw or traditional products, and on a variety of small traders/vendors. This study further reinforces that knowledge, and clarifies the level of variability in operation and in efficiency between different types of market agents. Much of the variability can be linked to differences in supply and demand levels in particular locales, and to characteristics of different product types.An important outlet in most cases is direct sales to neighbours, which are restricted to a locality and is usually not available in milk-surplus areas, which require that milk be moved be moved further afield to demand centres. Nevertheless, where this outlet is available, such as in Kumasi zone in Ghana and around Dar es Salaam, it provides reliable incomes and markets opportunities. Such channels may require little in the way of intervention, and are typically not included in policy measures.Where milk is in surplus and must be moved to demand centres, the role of the traders is crucial in providing market access to small producers. The small quantities of milk they typically market daily requires the labour-intensive services of small traders, and ensures that collection using expensive transport and equipment is generally non-economic, so result in markets that rely principally on inexpensive transport, equipment and labour. Some key findings related to these traders, and policy and development implications:-Tanzania has generally a much more complex and developed informal milk market, which is characterised by a) a greater degree of market concentration than in Ghana (at least in the case of Dar), b) more use of mechanised transport, c) longer distances for liquid milk delivery (although wagashi in Ghana also travels long distances), d) greater use of contracts.a large proportion of milk is not handled by intermediaries, but is sold directly from producer to consumer (particularly in Kumasi and Dar es Salaam), suggesting that in many cases market intermediaries are not needed.a great deal of transportation is by either foot or bicycle, in many market channels, demonstrating sustainable low reliance of mechanisation.while product differentiation is particularly important in Ghana (driven by need to convert milk to form with longer shelf life, or to add value), liquid milk remains the most important product in both countries.-Value addition, in the form of wagashi making, is demonstrated to be a means of generating higher profits. The opportunities for value addition are however limited by demand for differentiated products. In Tanzania for example, where demand is currently almost all for liquid milk, shifts in demand to other products would be needed to create such opportunities.-Written contracts between market agents are relatively rare. Tanzania, with it's more developed markets, displays greater use of informal unwritten or written contracts. In Ghana, only 20% of agents had any sort of contract, even informal, while in Tanzania some 60% of agents had some sort of agreement on transactions.-Use of both plastic and metal containers is common in both countries. Use of better quality metal containers is however more common in Tanzania.There are clear opportunities to raise quality and food safety by increased use of metal containers.-Milk prices are not necessarily higher in and around urban demand areas.Relatively low prices in Accra compared to Kumasi demonstrates that local supply conditions will partially determine prices, and that opportunities for producers and traders can occur even in the hinterland, where markets may not be anticipated.-Conversely, on average more remote rural areas generally display lower prices at all levels of the market, reflecting supply/demand and transport costs in reaching demand centres.-Cooperatives (in Tanzania) are seen to operate at a loss. This apparent lack of sustainability of operation would seem to confirm the common experiences of dairy cooperatives in many settings in Africa and South Asia. Where they suffer from un-professional management, cooperatives have been observed to be an unsustainable market mechanism. A large number of successes remain, however, and policy and development agencies should continue to search for successful collection marketing solutions as an alternative for small farmers.-Good profits are available to market agents at several levels of the milk channels, from producer-sellers, traders and wholesalers, and retailers, most at small scale of operation. This provides a powerful argument for informal milk markets as one mechanisms for rural and urban income generation.-There do not seem to be many instances of market agent \"exploitation\" of farmers and/or consumers, demonstrated by excessive profits (not market margins, which do include costs). In a few cases, such as wholesalers in Ghana, profit margins per liter of over $0.10 suggest that there may be some undue market power. Greater participation in the market would reduce that, as demonstrated by the Tanzanian examples.-Profitability is shown to be associated with higher use of capital and hired labour, and in Ghana with use of metal cans and with greater transport costs. Overall, these suggest that increased profitability can be achieved with investment in more intensive, sophisticated enterprises, pointing at opportunities for those agents who are particularly entrepreneurial.-Conversely, inefficiency is increased with an increase in scale of operation, which suggests that the opportunities in more intensive enterprises are limited by scale. Increased scale may require greater procurement and distribution costs per unit due to large numbers of both small producers and small consumers. Removing obstacles to increased scale of operation may be one policy goal with the aim of improving efficiency in the system overall. Currently however, these results mean that small scale operators still retain an advantage, securing income and employment opportunities for the poor.-Training is not shown to be a significant determinant of improved efficiency. However, age of trader, reflecting experience, is shown to be very significantly associated with greater efficiency. This suggests that existing training, which is informal, does not impart the knowledge needed, which only comes with experience. This clearly points towards opportunities for improved training of market agents, which is likely to improve both efficiency and food safety.Since formal processing of all the milk produced may not be achieved in the near future, the best option may be to improve milk-handling (milk preservation, hygiene, quality control and sanitation) techniques so as to minimise public health risks associated with informally processed. The results above point to some ways to do this: through improved training in hygiene and management, improved infrastructure to reduce transactions costs, and measures to reduce barriers to participation and increase competitiveness. More research may be needed to better understand the apparent lack of economies of scale in milk marketing using traditional technologies.This section deals with the milk borne public health risks, and focuses on the results of laboratory testing of milk and dairy product samples, but also uses some of the economic results from Section Two in its analysis.The approach taken to analyse milk-borne public health risks conformed to the model that became widely accepted in analysing food safety and setting standards (also applied in animal, plant and environmental health) in the early 1990s and adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission since 1995 (FAO/WHO, 1995). The three stages implied in this approach are: (1) risk assessment, (2) risk management and (3) risk communication. These steps emphasise the need to use appropriate measures to arrive at the overall goal of attaining optimal food safety as perceived by informed stakeholders and consumers.To assess risk, the study quantified major milk-borne public health hazards associated with traditional/informal dairy product marketing pathways and quantified the probability and magnitude of the health risks associated with specific hazards. In addition, exposure to the hazards was assessed and the likelihood of adverse health effects estimated. The principles of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) 3 system were used as a tool and guideline. Arising from this evaluation, recommendations were made on how to manage the risks and protect human health in light of the economic trade-offs that should be considered. Stakeholder workshops were held before, during and at the end of the studies to obtain stakeholder inputs and to initiate the process of communicating the risk information. In addition, representatives of market agents and extension workers were trained at the end of the study to equip them with the new knowledge gained.Information from PRAs was used to select areas considered by key informants to have dairy marketing as an important activity within each site. Data were collected seasonally by questionnaire from randomly selected traders during wet and dry seasons in these areas in both countries. The sampling of market agents varied by their location and type. All bulking centres (large cooperative societies and 3 HACCP is a systematic approach to ensuring food safety that has become widely adopted in formal food processing in the last decade. Its origins date back to the early 1960's when it was first coined to ensure safe foods for astronauts. It involves five main steps to identify and assess severity of risk and control of biological, chemical and physical hazards as follows: 1) assessment of risks in the food chain, 2) determination of the critical control points (CCPs) and 3) critical limits (CL) for ensuring food safety, 4) development of monitoring systems, and 5) implementation of procedures for verification.assemblers and wholesalers) were sampled. Smaller scale market agents producer-sellers, vendors, retailers) were identified through local informants and sampled at in a selected area (or along a route in the case of Mwanza) up to 30. For areas/routes with more than 30 milk traders, selection was made to cover all major urban/retail sites in the area. In Greater Dar, marker agents were sampled in 8 areas (including Tanga and Morogoro), 5 in Mwanza, 5 in Accra and 7 in Kumasi.Milk and dairy product random samples were obtained from the market agents in two different seasons and a 50 ml milk sample collected each time. In Ghana, 230 and 189 samples were collected in the dry and wet seasons, respectively, and in Tanzania, 561 and 715 samples were collected in the dry and wet seasons, respectively (Table 20). An attempt was made to sample respondent in the second season. When this was not possible, an alternate was chosen. Attempts were made to collect more than one sample per respondent where product differences warranted it. A set of two sterile and non-sterile dairy product samples were collected for each product from each respondent and immediately kept in a cold box with ice for laboratory analyses. Tests requiring immediate analyses (bacterial counting, specific gravity, Brucella Milk Ring Test and peroxidase boiling test) were done in either of two sites in each country depending on proximity of the site of sampling. In Tanzania, the tests were done at either the Department of Animal Science, Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in Morogoro or the Veterinary Investigation Centre (VIC) in Mwanza. In Ghana, the tests were done at either the Department of Animal Science, Kwame Nkurumah University of Science & Technology in Kumasi or at the Animal Research Institute in Achimota, Accra. Following coliform bacterial counting, samples of growing colonies were inoculated into a nutrient medium for later sub-culture in selective media and biochemical tests to identify general E. coli and type 0157:H7. Milk samples for use in other tests (butterfat determination, Brucella enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Mycobacterium speciation, antibiotic and antibacterial microbial residues) were frozen and tested later. Details of laboratory analyses and flow chart are presented in Annex 1.All inputs required for the milk-borne health risk investigations were achieved as intended except for a belated realization that a functional Mycobacterium laboratory was lacking in Ghana. This meant that the BTB study could not be conducted in that country as originally planned. A minor change also occurred in the conduct of the BTB study in Tanzania. The study was sub-contracted to investigators of a DFID-AHP sponsored project (Ref. R7357) who were already planning to do a larger investigation of the prevalence and transmission dynamics of BTB in Tanzania.Laboratory hazard analysis results and data collected by questionnaire were entered into MS-ACCESS and MS-EXCEL and analysed in STATA. Analyses were conducted to describe sources and pathways of marketed milk and milk products; assess milk bacteriological quality; quantify the prevalence of zoonoses (Brucella abortus, E. coli 0157:H7 and Mycobacterium bovis); assess presence of potentially harmful levels of antimicrobial residues in marketed milk; assess milk handling practises by market agents; assess the influence of market factors (e.g., pathways, market concentration and profit margins) on milk quality; and, quantify the risks of milk-borne public health hazards. Dar es Salaam and Accra were considered to be high market access (HMA) areas while Mwanza and Kumasi were considered to be relatively lower market access (LMA) areas. National standards set by the Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) were used to evaluate the quality of the milk samples as no such standards were identified in Ghana.Following the descriptive analyses including comparisons with set standards, multiple regressions were conducted on each hazard response with significant observations for the analysis. Appropriate regressions were also conducted separately for each type of dairy product if the number of observations allowed it. Ordinary least squares (OLS) were conducted on total bacteria counts, coliform bacteria counts and SNF responses while maximum likelihood logistic regression models were used to obtain odds ratios (OR) and estimate relative risks (RR) for drug residues above EU maximum residue limits (MRLs) and positive Brucella abortus test results. For each hazard response, tests of significance (significant p-values, OR or RR) were used to identify significant associations with site, area within site, trader type, sources and pathways of marketed milk, time, distance, milk temperature, period in business and milk handling practices. Only factors considered to be potentially important in explaining variations in each response were included as explanatory variables. Significant (p<0.10) risk factors were considered potential critical control points (CCPs).In addition, multivariate analyses in SAS were conducted to identify associations among principal components and clusters of market agents, their efficiency 4 and milk quality indicators. These analyses were used to refine the CCPs along various market pathways. Only milk-handling risk factors that had significant associations with any of the milk quality indicators (total bacteria counts, coliform bacteria counts and SNF) were included in this analysis.Commonly applied indices for assessing adulteration of milk are specific gravity (SG) and butterfat content (BF). SG is the measure of choice that can easily be applied in the field to assess adulteration with added water. It is however significantly influenced by BF because the more BF in milk, the lower the SG as BF has SG<1 kg/litre. Normal ranges for SG and BF% of whole bovine milk are 1.026-1.032kg/litre at 20 o C, 3.25-6%, respectively. A standardized index that combines the two indices, solids-not-fat (SNF), can be derived using the Richmond Formula as follows: SNF=(0.22xBF+(0.25xSG 5 )+0.72. The above ranges for SG and BF give an SNF range of 8.5-9.4%. The lower ranges of these figures were used as benchmarks for determining milk that is likely to be adulterated with added water or removal of butterfat.The overall means of adulteration indices are given in Table 21. All the means fell within normal ranges for bovine milk though it is notable that mean BF in milk samples from Ghana was relatively lower and SNF relatively higher compared to milk samples from Tanzania. This may indicate removal of butterfat (cream) by traders because milk from zebu cows often has higher BF than milk from other bovine breeds. Addition of water varied widely by site and season (Table 22). There was no apparent variation in the proportion of adulterated samples between types of market agent. Overall, 31% and 17% of fresh milk samples collected in Tanzania and Ghana, respectively, were adulterated with added water (SG<1.026kg/litre).Corresponding proportions of adulterated samples as determined by the standardised measure of SNF<8.5% were higher (49% and 37% in Tanzania and Ghana, respectively) but with less variation within the same site. Adulteration was particularly common in Mwanza where about two-thirds of market agents adulterated their milk (SNF<8.5%). Various bacteria are ordinarily found in milk, as shown in Table 23. These bacteria easily multiply under favourable temperatures to cause spoilage and/or pose health risks through bacterial infection. Some bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus, if allowed to multiply (normally after milk becomes sour) may produce heat labile toxins that cause illness. Time elapsed since milking and temperature at which milk is stored are the main factors that influence bacterial counts in milk. Even with very minimal contamination, bacteria in milk can multiply beyond prescribed standards within only a few hours if the milk is kept above 10 o C. The major milk-borne pathogens of concern are the zoonoses and environmental coliforms of faecal origin. The latter commonly get introduced in milk from poor handling at the farm and along the market pathway. Common sources of fecal bacteria are use of contaminated water and containers that have not been cleaned properly. Some are zoonotic and pathogenic (e.g., E. coli 0157:H7) Source: Adapted from O'Connor (1995) Bacterial counts were high and variable without a clear trend in the descriptive measures as milk moved along the market chain in both countries, and in relation to different seasons, market access and trader type (Error! Reference source not found.). Whereas milk quality in the dry season was worse in Tanzania, the reverse was true in Ghana. However the wet season seemed to have negative effects by increasing coliform counts in both countries. While lower TPC was associated with lower market access (Mwanza and Kumasi), the reverse was true for CPC. Producer-sellers had better quality milk as determined by TPC than other traders in Tanzania, but this did not apply in Ghana. Bacterial counts and proportions not meeting set standards in Ghana were generally lower but the reasons are not clear. One possible reason may be the relative proportions of the types of traders and where they were sampled: the majority of samples collected in Ghana (78%) were from producer-sellers and the samples were collected at or near their kraals; while in Tanzania, producer-sellers were only 20% of traders and these were mainly sampled at collection points that were some distance from the points of milking. Of major significance is the fact that a high proportion of samples did not meet set standards for coliform counts for ready to consume milk products (heat-treated and fermented/processed) in both countries. This implies lack of good hygiene and brings into question the appropriateness of such standards.Brucellosis is endemic in pastoral areas of Africa with herd prevalence proportions of 20-30% (Seifert et al., 1996). The major reason for concern over Brucellosis is the debilitating flu-like illness that it causes. Brucella abortus, the main pathogen of concern, was tested using two surrogate tests for antibodies to Br. abortus, Milk Ring Test and ELISA. The latter is more accurate with higher sensitivity and specificity.High prevalence proportions of Brucellosis ranging from 13% to 39% were recorded in various sites by the two tests (). Both tests had moderate agreement in Tanzania (kappa=0.38) to high agreement in Ghana (kappa=0.84). In Tanzania, higher prevalence was recorded in milk procured from farmers keeping extensively grazed zebu animals that crossbred dairy cattle that are usually kept in smaller herds and sometimes stall-fed. Also in Tanzania, samples obtained from traders who bulked milk such as cooperatives and wholesalers had higher prevalence. However, in Ghana, there was no discernible pattern in prevalence proportions in milk sampled from various cadres of traders. These results show that on average, a consumer who does not boil milk before consumption is at risk of exposure and contracting Br. abortus infection every fourth time such milk is consumed. E. coli 157:H7 is a causative agent for haemorrhagic diarrhoea and kidney damage, especially in young and old individuals with weak immune systems. The strain is highly acknowledged as an important animal origin food-borne zoonosis.In both countries, less than 1% of samples yielded E. coli 157:H7 (Table 27). This prevalence proportion would imply that a consumer of marketed milk on a daily basis is at risk of exposure to E. coli 0157:H7 bacteria at least three times each year. Fortunately this exposure would not translate into an infection if the milk were boiled before consumption, a common practice amongst consumers in both countries. The reason for concerns over drug residues in foods has to do with the development of drug resistance and allergies. By killing all but the most potent bacteria strains, antimicrobial abuse promotes drug resistance by putting selective pressure on microbial evolution and helps create 'superbugs' that are immune to attack by common, less expensive antibiotics. Besides adverse health effects, such abuse has long-term implications for health budgets of nations, especially poor countries such as Ghana and Tanzania. Antibiotics and antibacterials in milk also inhibit organisms required in the processing of cultured milk products.Between 33% and 42 % of the milk collected from various sites in Tanzania and Ghana were positive on Charm AIM test. Though no major overall seasonal variation was observed in samples testing positive for drug residues within each site, seasonal variation was observed among traders in Dar es Salaam milk shed area and a higher proportion of samples (40-60%) testing positive were from those who bulk milk (coops, wholesalers and vendors/hawkers) especially in the dry season. To explain the difference, it was observed that most milk traded by vendors and collection centres is procured from the pastoralists who in most cases do not adhere to withdrawal period for therapeutic drugs, and bulking of these samples does not dilute the concentration of the residues to below acceptable limits. This indicates that the levels of the residues may be quite high. This observation was supported by the higher proportion of samples (40%) from pastoralist producer-sellers in Tanzania that had residues compared to individual dairy farmers with crossbred cattle (33%). Part of the reason for the difference was also considered to be the greater access to information and awareness by keepers of dairy cattle about veterinary requirements of milk withdrawal periods as compared to pastoralists.There was no significant variation in milk samples with drug residues between the two seasons in Mwanza but a relatively large proportion of samples (42%) collected from producers had drug residues. In Ghana, the proportions of samples from various cadres of traders with drug residues also varied widely from 20% in samples from wholesalers to 48% in samples from wagashi sellers. The most common milk market pathway (31% of traded milk) in Tanzania was milk sales from dairy cattle owners to retailers (Table 29) Nearly all sales along this pathway (77%) were in Dar where intra-urban dairying with crossbred cattle is common. The next most common pathway was from zebu cattle farmers to vendors/hawkers that accounted for 27% of all sales. Most sales along this pathway (69%) were made in Mwanza. In Ghana, most sales (68%) were by producer-sellers who were distantly followed by herdsmen (22%) who mostly sold their milk to wholesalers or assemblers, as they are commonly known in Ghana ().All pathways with 10 or more observations were considered important and included in subsequent regression analyses. Non-metal (mainly plastic) containers were the most common in Tanzania where 83% of market agents used them. The rest used aluminium cans. A much higher proportion (56%) of traders in Mwanza used the cans compared to Dar where only 6% of respondents used them. Nearly all the aluminium cans in were manually fabricated from disused vehicles body parts and they had several joints that may not be easy to clean. It is therefore not surprising that the average total bacterial quality of milk associated with them was only marginally better (coliform bacterial quality was actually worse). Handling containers used in Ghana were also predominantly plastic with virtually all respondents (99%) using them.The high perishability of milk requires that some measures be taken to prevent it from souring. In Tanzania, the majority of respondents (76%) did not take any of the common measures to preserve milk between procurement and resale. Those who preserved milk mainly refrigerated it. Similarly, most traders in Ghana (77%) did not preserve milk in any way. Those who preserved milk mainly boiled it.Training in quality control and milk testing is critical to ensuring good milk quality.In Tanzania, only 5% of respondents had received any training, mostly for less than one month.In Ghana, none of the respondents had received any training. None of the marketing agents interviewed in Ghana had received formal training in milk handling and processing. All respondents interviewed said they had inherited the art from other family members or from friends. Majority of the traders were found lacking in knowledge on hygienic milk handling and basic business management principles.The regressions (Table 31 and Table 32) show some similarities and differences between each country, market access and production systems for each of the milk quality responses. These associations together with the following results of the principal component and clustering analysis were used to identify critical control points.       The variables in and were included in principal component analysis following the method described by Gockowski and Baker (1996) by selecting those eigenvalues with principal components greater than one. The eigenvalues correspond to each of the principal components and represent a partitioning of the total variation in the sample of market agents. Since the associated eigenvectors are orthogonal, the principal components represent jointly perpendicular directions through the space of the original variables and are uncorrelated with each other. The selected principal components were rotated through varimax rotation option to improve interpretability. 9 The selected principal components (PC) with eigenvalues greater than one together explain 69%, 74% and of total variation for market selling raw and heated milk in Tanzania, respectively, and 58% for market agents selling raw milk in Ghana. In all three cases, the strongest principal component explains between 15% and 17% of total variation. The low proportional values illustrate the lack of close association between the individual variables or sets of variables.The orthogonal rotated correlation coefficients of the original variables are shown in Table 38. The coefficients with weights >0.5 were used to define the axes extracted.The first axis extracted in the PC analysis of raw milk samples in Tanzania (Table 39) is abbreviated EFFIC because it is highly correlated with efficiency, high market access (sales in Dar), SNF, non vendor-to-vendor milk sales and moderately high volumes of milk sales. The second axis (LMQ) is highly correlated with both high total bacterial and coliform counts, indicating general poor quality of the milk, and high sales volumes. The remaining axes mainly define specific pathways and the use of a quality control test (smell). The vendorretailer was moderately associated with long duration since milk collection.chosen to differentiate the observations along the various axes selected for the different product types (Table 41). The variables have mean 0 and variance 1.Positive means indicate levels higher than the overall sample means and vice versa for negative means. Two clusters were identified among market agents selling raw milk in Tanzania (Table 41). The first cluster comprises 95% (329/346) of market agents who sell small quantities of milk averaging 32 litres/day and is neutral with regard to milk quality, efficiency and other axes extracted in the principal component analysis. This group is abbreviated here as small-scale neutral quality (SSNQ). The other group comprises only 5% (17/346) of milk market agents, mainly wholesalers selling larger volumes of milk (683 litres/day) who are also more efficient. This group however suffers from lower quality of milk and is abbreviated as large-scale efficient poor quality (LSEFFPQ). It therefore seems that traders who expand their businesses to sell more milk risk more losses through milk spoilage due to bacterial growth and this may be a hindrance to the expansion of the businesses and may partly explain why the majority continue to be small scale. Three clusters were identified among market agents selling heated milk in Tanzania (Table 42). In contrast to raw milk traders, the clusters identified are more sharply divided by levels of milk quality sold and less so on the basis of scale of business (range = 38 -60 litres/day) and efficiency. The group that sells the worst quality milk comprised 35% (79/226) of milk market agents that sell about 40 litres/day on average (abbreviated small scale poor quality (SSPQ)) and the group selling relatively better quality milk comprised 16% (37/226) of traders selling little more milk (60 litres/day). The cluster is abbreviated here large-scale good quality (LSGQ). A larger group of smaller traders comprising 49% of the agents is largely neutral with regard to all factors considered. It is abbreviated here small-scale neutral quality (SSNQ). In Ghana, all the three factors of efficiency, market access and milk quality (coliform counts) are important in differentiating the three clusters identified among market agents selling raw milk (Table 44). The first cluster comprising 17% (43/246) of traders is associated with relatively higher volumes of milk sales (45 litres/day) higher efficiency, high market access (Accra) and low milk quality and is abbreviated as LSEFFPQ. The second cluster comprises 27% of traders (67/246) that sell only 16 litres/day on average. The cluster is also negatively associated with high market access and mainly comprises milk sales on a particular pathway from herdsmen to processors and high solids in milk (non-adulteration). It is abbreviated here small-scale neutral quality (SSNQ). The last group comprises the remaining 55% of traders that also sell small quantities (20 litres/day) but have relatively better quality milk. It is abbreviated here as LSGQ.Table 44 and Table 45 give the means and proportions of milk quality and market variables for each of the five clusters identified. Some large differences with regard to the factors used to isolate the clusters are evident; particularly differences (within and between product types) in milk quality, volumes traded and market access.Overall trends between the product types indicate that poorer quality raw milk was associated with high market access (Dar and Accra), higher volumes of sales and high efficiency. This indicates some trade-off between market access, scale of business and efficiency on one hand and efficiency on the other hand. This was however not the case with heated milk (only analyzed for Tanzania). It is also noteworthy that the groups associated with poor quality milk in Tanzania (both raw and heated milk) were also associated with a high proportion of adulterated milk. Since the relationships with time since collection were not clearly established, the relatively poor quality milk among some clusters most likely relates to poor handling practices, which however cannot be easily specified because of generally similar practices among the traders. Though bacterial counts were significantly lower among heated milk samples, it does seem that marked recontamination does occur. Those who heated their milk were generally more efficient than the majority of traders who sell raw milk. The results of the regression and multivariate analyses and the descriptive analyses in the preceding sections were used to identify critical control points (CCPs) associated with specific risk factors of handling and market channels. These may be taken as indicative of areas where interventions to improve milk quality may be targeted. Plausible explanations for the CCPs are given where possible.The regression analysis shows that the study sites (and the difference in market access and production systems that they represent) did not significantly influence total bacterial counts in raw milk. The only pathway associated with significantly higher total bacteria (compared to dairy cattle-to-retailer pathway) was from dairy cattle-to-producers sellers in Tanzania. In Ghana the only pathway associated with significantly higher total bacteria (compared to sales of own milk) was the herdsman-to-processor pathway.The specific milk handing practices that significantly raised total bacteria in raw milk were a) in Tanzania: quality control by smell (probably because the milk was already suspect); female gender, longer hours since milking and higher quantities of milk sold; and b) in Ghana: non use of sponge for cleaning utensils, use of water from community dam and tanks.A significant proportion of milk sold in Tanzania was heated/boiled and could be subjected to regression analysis of milk quality indicators. There was some seasonal effect with the dry season being significantly associated with higher total bacteria than the wet season. Two pathways were associated with significantly higher total bacteria compared to dairy cattle to retailer pathway: the zebu cattle to producer sellers and wholesaler-to-retailer pathways. Handling methods that had significant raised total bacteria in heated milk compared to various alternative handling methods were plastic containers, container storage on shelves/table, hot and dry weather, lack of training, male gender, and lower age.The clustering analysis and means for each cluster reveal that larger scale market agents in both Tanzania and Ghana sold raw milk with higher average total bacterial counts (hence poorest quality) and proportion of 'bad milk' than other clusters of smaller scale market agents.As was evident in the descriptive statistics, raw milk from Mwanza had significantly higher coliform counts compared to Dar. This reflects poor hygiene standards. Higher SNF (indicating non-adulteration) lowered coliform counts in samples from Tanzania whereas the opposite effect was observed in Ghana. This difference cannot be easily explained but is probably related to the quality of the water being used by traders to adulterate milk. Milk passing through the dairy cattle-to-retailer pathway had significantly more coliform counts than milk passing through dairy cattle-to-producer pathway in Tanzania, while in Ghana, the two pathway with significantly higher coliforms compared to own milk sales was the herdsman-to-wholesaler pathway. The positive association between refrigeration of milk and higher coliform counts in Tanzania (practice not recorded in Ghana) is contrary to expectation, but may reflect the storage of milk that has already been handled un-hygienically. The association that is easier to explain is that between non-use of alcohol test to check milk quality before reception and higher coliform counts. The alcohol test is simple and reliable and allows one to avoid buying suspect milk that can get spoilt quickly. This practice was also not recorded in Ghana.The effect of season was similar for total bacteria and for coliforms in heated milk. Dry season was significantly associated with higher coliform counts compared to the wet season. One pathway, the zebu cattle-to-producer sellers had milk with significantly higher coliform counts compared to dairy cattle-to-retailer pathway, which in turn had significantly higher coliform counts than milk passing through the vendor-to-retailer pathway. Handling methods that had significant raised coliform counts in heated milk compared to various alternative handling methods were storage place of containers on the shelf/table versus floor; cold/dry versus hot/dry weather; and, quality control by smell versus no quality control.In contrast with Ghana where there were no significant differences in coliform counts between clusters of raw milk traders, in Tanzania, the larger scale market agents sold raw milk with significantly higher average coliform counts and higher proportion of 'bad milk' than other clusters of smaller scale market agents.There were strong associations between adulteration of milk and site and season, especially in Tanzania. Milk samples from Mwanza were strongly associated with lower SNF (indicating adulteration with added water), especially in the dry season. This may indicate the tendency to add water to milk during periods of low milk supply and probably higher prices. In Ghana, Accra was associated with milk with lower SNF. The association between bacterial counts and SNF in milk were mixed: whereas higher total bacteria counts were not significantly associated with SNF in Tanzania, there was a strong positive association in Ghana. And whereas higher coliform counts were negatively associated with SNF in Tanzania, the reverse was true in Ghana. There were few associations between SNF and the various pathways in both countries. In Tanzania, only milk ferried through the vendor-to-vendor pathway had significantly lower SNF compared to the dairy cattle-to-retailer pathway for sales of raw milk; and only the zebu cattle-toproducer sellers pathway significantly lower SNF compared to the dairy cattle to retailer pathway for sales of heated milk. In Ghana, only the herdsman-toprocessor pathway had milk with significantly lower SNF than own milk sales. The clustering analysis shows that nearly all the milk sold by larger scale traders in Tanzania was adulterated.As already noted in the descriptive statistics above, the prevalence proportions of antibiotic and antibacterial residues were very high in both countries. The overall drug residue prevalence proportions of over 30% indicate that that a consumer of locally produced milk will be exposed to the residues every third time he /she consumes milk. Table A1 shows it would be very easy to go beyond the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for the various drugs. There were only minor but significant differences in the prevalence of samples with drug residues between sites and seasons in Tanzania. In Ghana, the herdsman-to-processor pathway had significantly proportion of samples with residues compared to own milk sales and the lower the number of bulked samples, the higher the prevalence of drug residues. The critical control point for beginning to tackle this problem is to raise awareness amongst policy makers besides conducting farm-level studies to define causal relationships as a basis for designing targeted extension materials.Likewise, the prevalence of Br. abortus antibodies as detected by the ELISA test was quite high and evenly distributed among most risk factors. There were some differences by site and season in Tanzania with Mwanza having significantly more milk samples with the antibodies compared to samples from Dar, especially in the dry season. Emphasis for control for Brucellosis should be in raising consumer awareness to boil milk before consumption.These recommendations are made based on both the health risk assessments described here and the recommendations of stakeholders gathered in both countries in March 2002 to discuss the research results and recommendations for interventions.1. The overall bacterial quality of marketed milk was quite low irrespective of the scale of business. Poorer quality milk was found to be associated with unhygienic handling practices that do not promote good milk quality such as adulteration and non-use of milk quality control tests, indicating that there is big room for improvement. The overall poor quality of milk may be partly explained by the near absence of trained milk handlers in both countries (only 5% were trained in Tanzania and none in Ghana). The lack of training may therefore be considered the most critical control point. There is therefore the urgent need to institute a) simple and practical training courses in quality control and the hygienic handling of milk for milk handlers and b) set up institutions for longer term training to act as a back-up for extension services. Stakeholders mentioned community development centers such as \"Folk Centres\" in Tanzania as ideal for institutionalizing the simple training programmes.2. The high prevalence of samples with antimicrobial drug residues that imply every third cup of milk consumed (whether raw or heat pasteurised) has unacceptable levels of the residues is a major cause for concern. The longterm implications for widespread development of drug resistance among the poor populations in both countries (and other countries in similar circumstances) may be grave. Two recommendations to begin to address this problem are: a) creation of more awareness among policy makers and b) further research to more clearly define the problem and how it can be addressed, especially at the farm level where non-compliance regarding withdrawal times following drug therapy is likely to be a major cause.3. Antibodies to Brucellosis were also common, especially in bulked milk samples originating from extensive cattle systems. Since milk-borne zoonotic pathogens are easily destroyed by heat, the common consumer practice of boiling of milk before consumption should be reinforced through public education and media campaigns. In addition, market agents and consumers should be educated to ensure that any milk product offered for direct consumption has been heated before hand. The latter especially applies to consumption of fermented milk products since fermentation alone does not destroy the pathogens.4. The enforcement of health regulations to improve the quality of marketed milk such as those mounted in Mwanza by municipal authorities is clearly not working. It is therefore clear that such efforts should be complemented or replaced by alternative methods of ensuring good milk quality.It is recommended that an approach that would encourage compliance is for market agents to be trained as recommended in 1) above, coupled with public intervention with incentives to promote self-regulation.5. The use of cooling facilities to reduce bacterial growth and spoilage was uncommon. There is need therefore to identify alternative practical and affordable technologies to reduce bacterial growth, such as the Lactoperoxidase Milk Preservation system, and to promote such technologies in areas where they can make a difference.This section covers the analysis of processing of the traditional fresh cheese, wagashi, in Ghana.Three complementary methods were used for gathering the data needed to conduct the analysis. These included a rapid appraisal of cheese processors, a structured survey of cheese processors, and laboratory experiments and analysis of alternative wagashi processing strategies.A rapid appraisal was undertaken in the peri-urban areas of Kumasi and Accra during April-June 1999 to examine the constraints to dairy product marketing and processing.The objectives of this appraisal were to: Characterise dairy production and marketing systems • To examine the constraints to dairy product marketing and processing • To provide baseline information for the design and conduct of a formal marketing survey Participatory Rapid Appraisals (PRAs) were conducted with cattle owners, herdsmen and other people representing producers, dairy products marketing agents (including processors) and consumers. Non-standardised interviews, group discussions and field observations were combined to in order to obtain information in two peri-urban zones (Kumasi and Accra). There were 12 and 7 study sites in the Kumasi and Accra peri-urban areas respectively. Other interviews were undertaken with key informants who were considered to be knowledgeable about dairy products marketing and processing. Not all of these respondents were living in Kumasi or Accra peri-urban locations. Itinerant traders for example, cover large distances carrying diary products (mostly cheese) to markets. For the study, purposive sampling (as opposed to probability sampling) was used to facilitate the inclusion of important milk producing and consuming areas.Dairy processors were asked to describe the seasonality of their activities, the level of dairy product procurement and sales, prices, main sources, distances to sources, outlet markets, transaction costs, processing techniques and equipment and main constraints. The results of the PRA (processing) are summarised in section 4.1.To complement the rapid appraisal, a questionnaire survey was designed to generate further information about production processes and constraints prior to laboratory tests to establish the efficacy of local production techniques for wagashi. Thirty-three cheese processors, all female, were interviewed in five locations in the Ashanti Region, the majority of respondents were located in the peri-urban areas of Kumasi. The results can be found in section 4.2.Following the PRA and survey of processors, laboratory evaluation of wagashi processing was undertaken to examine:• the optimum quantities of coagulant (rennet) required • ways of increasing the yield of cheese • methods for extending shelf-life.The sap extracted from Calatropis Procera (also known as Sodom's Apple) contains a coagulant with an action similar to rennet and is the preferred coagulating agent used by wagashi producers in Ghana.Scientists are aware of the many uses of this extract of C. procera. In addition to its rennet properties it has medicinal uses as an antiseptic, an aphrodisiac and as a poison to kill animals. During this research it became apparent that Ghanaian processors use different quantities of coagulant. Laboratory experiments were therefore designed to investigate the optimum quantity for maximum yields of wagashi production.A simple experiment was designed to examine the effect of introducing cheesecloth to the production process during the separation of curds and whey. Traditional processors use perforated calabashes for this separation and it was observed in the field that small fragments of curd passed through the calabash and were wasted.During the course of this research it became evident that the main constraint to marketing wagashi was the short-shelf-life (high perishability) of the product. Due to the lack of any simple and appropriate technology processors resort to daily boiling.Laboratory research examined the efficacy of extending the shelf-life of wagashi by immersing newly made cheese in brine. Brining is known and practised by wara processors in Benin and Nigeria, but hardly known by processors in Ghana, though about 20% of the processors use small quantities of salt during frying of wagashi.A laboratory experiment was undertaken on the use of brine at three levels of concentration (5%, 10% and 15%). Wagashi was prepared in the normal way and one kilogram of cheese was soaked in these concentrations overnight (approximately 12hours). The cheese were removed from the brine and pressed for about 20 minutes and stored at room temperature for 12-14 days. Immersion in brine was repeated on the third day.A second experiment compared the effect of boiling and brining (10%). Wagashi was prepared in the normal way and one sample subjected to daily boiling, the second sample to brining (overnight or 12 hours) on days 1, 3, 6, and 9. The third sample was a control and not subjected to any preservation. Each sample was stored at room temperature for a period of 10 days. Physical changes in the appearance, odour and texture were recorded.Laboratory experiments determined that brined wagashi had a longer shelf-life to other forms of preservation. Consumer acceptance of the brined product was therefore essential before this procedure could be extended to processors. Wagashi was prepared in the normal way and stored in different levels of brine concentrations at 5%, 10% and 15% overnight. The product was then removed and stored at room temperature for three days.Wagashi samples at each brine concentrations were cut into small pieces and fried using fresh cooking oil following normal practice observed in Kumasi market. Each fried piece of wagashi was wrapped in aluminium foil and labelled A [5%], B [10%], and C [15%] brine).A total of 102 panelists were presented with the three samples and they were invited to choose one at random (blind tasting) in Kumasi, Ejura and Mampong districts in locations where wagashi is commonly sold. After tasting, the panelists was offered a piece of bread to clear the palate before tasting another sample. They were then asked to rank the products in terms of which wagashi was preferred for taste, texture etc. Panelists were also asked to comment on the freshness of the product. The responses were recorded and entered into a database.Following the results obtained from the consumer acceptance study, one-day training sessions were organised in four locations for the wagashi processors. A total of 51 wagashi processors, market agents and retailers in Ejura, Nsuta, Mampong and Kumasi peri-urban areas participated in the training sessions along with 2 representatives of the agricultural extension service.Demonstrations were made of the various steps in processing including:-the correct quantity of Calotropis procera (coagulant) to use -how to improve yield of cheese by using cheesecloth (muslin) -producing cheese in a hygienic environment -prolonging the shelf life of cheese using a 10% brine solution -increasing returns to wagashi production.An ex ante analysis following training was undertaken (after 6 months) to assess the adoption rate of recommended practices.4.1.6.2. Assessing profitability and cost of production Making use of the data generated by the dry and wet season economic and public health surveys the costs of production for wagashi were calculated.4.1.6.3The drafting and production of extension literature Following all research and training activities a simple extension leaflet was drafted and printed.The project log frame stipulated 2 outputs for the research related to processing. Those included:• Output 5.Consumer preferences for dairy products identified • Output 6. Simple, cost-effective and energy efficient technologies for processing and prolonging shelf-life of dairy products devised and adapted.The appraisal concluded that:• Most herdsmen prefer to sell fresh milk direct to consumers or market agents at the kraal • Kraal sales do not require any investment in marketing (transport, containers etc) • Farmgate milk prices are relatively high ($0.3/litre compared with $0.2 in East Africa) • During periods of oversupply milk is converted to wagashi • Wagashi is marketed exclusively by women, often the wives of herdsmen • There is both a national and international trade in wagashi, although the majority of consumers are northern Ghanaians located in Kumasi and Accra.Wagashi also moves from the Accra zone to the neighbouring Republic of Togo. • There are no formal contractual arrangements between suppliers, market agents or consumers of dairy products.Major marketing constraints identified include:• The short shelf life of fresh milk and wagashi • Some transport owners refuse to carry wagashi (odour and wet product)• Poor access to capital and credit by wagashi processors and high costs of production • The seasonal nature of wagashi processing • Variability in the quality of wagashi (KNUST, 1999)Thirty-three cheese processors, all female, were interviewed in five locations in the Ashanti Region, the majority of respondents were located in the peri-urban areas of Kumasi.Approximately half (48%) of processors interviewed were small-scale producers, using less than fifteen litres of milk per day. The majority had no formal training in milk processing and had learnt their trade from family members. All processors use the locally available Calatropis procera as a coagulant for wagashi production. The older leaves are preferred to young leaves or bark as the best source of active ingredient. The actual quantity of coagulant used per litre of milk varies enormously between processors. The optimum amount was not known and was therefore considered worthy of further laboratory investigation.Some processors use certain additives for both aesthetic reasons and to improve preservation/shelf-life. A dye is used to colour the cheese once the curds have formed (Table 49). A red dye is extracted from sorghum sheath by boiling with the cheese. Some processors believe that sorghum sheath has both aesthetic and preservative qualities. Salt is used as an additive by 45% of processors. In more than 90% of cases this is added during the production of curds, during coagulation of the milk. It is not clear what the purpose of this additive is but given the low concentrations it is likely to have an impact on the taste of the cheese rather than preservation. The highest concentration used was 5g/litre of milk ().Only 4 out of 30 processors reported pressing curds, adding weights to the curds to expel moisture (excess whey). Most processors simply allow the curds to drain under their own weight in calabash moulds. Pressing is limited to 4 hours only, to ensure that the cheese retains the desired characteristics, which the market demands (i.e. soft cheese).Less than 10% of processors report regular failure of their milk to coagulate Most failures are preventable as they are associated with over heating (boiling over) of Most processors (66%) store their cheese before sale in covered (with a cloth or plastic) aluminium bowls or basins. Plastic bags are used in a small number of cases, mostly as a means of storage rather than as packaging. These methods of storage are used to minimise contamination and for their ease of use. Containers and packages used are all locally available. The majority of processors (66%) report that their customers, both wholesalers and consumers, prefer the fresh undyed wagashi. About one quarter of the sample (27%) produce a fresh, dyed product. The survey confirmed that the production methods used by small-scale processors in the Kumasi peri-urban zone are similar to those reported in the literature available on wagashi production in West Africa (Kees, 1995). Discussions with processors following the completion of the questionnaire and subsequently (informal discussions were held with processors on several occasions during the year 2000) established that their major constraints were associated with:• Shortages of milk during the dry season • The time required and cost (firewood and labour) for preservation (daily boiling) • Low prices and poor returns (profits)Poor demand was not reported as a constraint, suggesting that there is a market for most of the cheese that is produced, in fact some processors pointed out that more could be sold during the dry season if more milk were available at this time. Some processors have herdsmen as husbands and reported that they prefer to market fresh milk, as the returns are higher. Processing is therefore used as a method of preserving excess milk by these households rather than as a means of adding value. The processor who purchases milk on a daily basis is however a specialist cheesemaker providing cheese for the peri-urban consumer in both Kumasi and Accra.The survey confirmed the need to investigate an optimum processing procedure, in particular the amount of coagulant required. Another issue that arose was the importance of devising methods of improving shelf-life and reducing spoilage to improve the quality of the product that processors and wholesalers deliver to the market and to ensure the delivery of a safe, fresh product for consumers. The leaves and stems of the shrub Calotropis procera, also called 'Apple of Sodom' (Figure 6), traditionally used by wagashi processors were used as the coagulant. The tender leaves and stems of the plant were washed and ground.Ten grams (10g) of the ground plant was added to 50ml of strained milk. The mixture was stirred and allowed to stand for 5 to 10 minutes. The plant material was then removed using a cheesecloth. The extract obtained was referred to as the stock solution.Several concentrations of the stock solution were prepared. The process was repeated using 15g into 75ml of milk, 30g into 150ml of milk and 45g into 225ml of milk for both leaves and stems. L1, L2, L3, and L4 represented 10g/50ml, 15g/75ml, 30g/150ml and 45g/225ml of the leaves portion whiles T1, T2, T3 and T4 represented 10g/50ml, 15g/75ml, 30g/150ml and 45g/225ml of the stem portion. A summary of the cheese production process is illustrated in . In all, there were eight treatments and three replicates resulting in 24 experimental units. The pH of the fresh milk, the temperature at which the stock was added, the time taken to coagulate and the final temperature at which coagulation occurred were measured. Yield of wagashi was measured as the weight of curd obtained in grams per litre of milk used for the coagulation. Cheese samples were taken for dry matter and crude protein determination.  There were no significant differences between the pH of milk used for all treatments. The pH ranged from 6.30 to 6.32. Low pH is to some degree responsible for the coagulation of milk at room temperature. Bank (1998) reported that casein protein precipitates at a pH of 4.6. Acidity is normally caused by the action of lactic acid producing bacteria or the presence of colostrums (Adda et al., 1988).A comparison of the pH of cheese formed from extracts of the leaves and stem of the plant indicated significant differences between the two. The leaves produced cheese with higher pH values. The lowest pH was 5.77 and the highest 6.43 suggesting the presence of a proteasnase type enzyme in the extracts. The pH of cheese like any other organic substrate has an effect on bacterial growth. Low pH as well as high pH is known to inhibit bacterial growth. The pH of the cheese formed from the stem portion of the coagulant could therefore have an influence on shelf life since bacteria are normally responsible for the deterioration of cheese in storage.Temperature and time at coagulation (curd formation) decreased with increasing quantities of both leaves and stem (Table 55). As indicated earlier treatments L 1 (9.5g/l) and L 2 (14g/l) did not coagulate. L 3 (26g/l) coagulated at the highest temperature of 84.3 o C and took 22.8 minutes. The longest time taken was 26.7 minutes by T 1 . The leaves portion had higher rates of temperature increase. The differences in the rate of temperature increase, coupled with the differences in the pH of the cheese formed may explain the non-coagulation of cheese sometimes experienced by Fulani women when processing cheese under village conditions. Heat hastens coagulation and high temperature of up to 95 o C is reported to liberate the toxic substances in Calotropis procera (O'Connor, 1993).The DM values ranged from 44.11% to 49.04%. There were no significant differences between the DM of T 2 , T 3 , and T 4 . However, significant differences were observed between T 4 and L 3 . The dry matter increased with increasing levels of stem and leaves.There were significant differences between the crude protein of T 4 and T 1 and between T 4 and L 3 and L 4 . The highest crude protein value obtained was 40.1% (T 4 ) and the lowest 36.85 (L 3 ). Crude protein values rose with increasing amount of both stem and leaves. These increases can be attributed to the fact that more casein is coagulated per litre of milk in these treatments. There was more efficient coagulation with increasing concentration of the coagulants, with the stem extracts being more efficient than the leaves for the same concentrations of extract. The crude protein values obtained were similar to the mean protein value (40.76%) obtained by Padmore (2001) but were much higher than the value (24%) obtained by Mathias et al. (1998). The crude protein values indicate that 'wagashi' is a highly nutritive food. No yield was obtained for L 1 and L 2 as coagulation did not occur. This could be attributed to a possible low concentration of vegetable rennet in L 1 and L 2. The yields obtained for other treatments are comparable to the yields (0.22kg/l) reported by Sunu-Attah (2001). There were no significant differences between the yield obtained for all treatments. However, yields increased with increasing amounts of both stems and leaves.Results from the experiment indicate that the use stems of Calotropis procera for coaguation is likely to be more efficient than the use of leaves. Leaves may also result in the wagashi taking a greenish colour, which might not be desirable to the consumer. Stems should therefore be recommended as the best parts of the plant for wagashi production. Where stems are in short supply 26g/l of leaves can be used to coagulate a litre of milk. Amounts above this will result in the wagashi taking a greenish colour. Further work is required to establish a means of extracting the plant sap and preserving it for use over a long period.The traditional wagashi production technique uses perforated calabashes to separate the curds from the whey. This process results in the loss of some of the curds through the perforations. Reducing these losses will improve the yield of cheese. The objective of this experiment was therefore to investigate the effect of using cheesecloth to separate curd and whey.Five litres of fresh milk was purchased from local herdsmen and wagashi produced in the normal way (see Figure 7). After the visible separation of the curds and whey, the curds were scooped into a perforated calabash and pressed in a locally fabricated press (Table 57) for about fifteen minutes to remove excess whey. Following pressing, the curd was weighed. This procedure was repeated with the perforated calabash lined with cheesecloth. Yield Displays the yields of cheese (wagashi) obtained from the cheese produced in the traditional manner (perforated calabash) and cheese produced in perforated calabash lined with a cheesecloth. The results demonstrate that lining the calabash with cheesecloth resulted in a 4.01% increase in yield of wagashi. This difference was statistically significant (p<0.05). This increase can be attributed to the smaller pore size of the cheesecloth, which improves the efficiency of curd collection with little curd loss compared to the traditional method. The mean yield of 264.5g/l/milk obtained was higher than 220g/l milk obtained by Sunu-Atta ( 2001) and 200g/l milk reported by Otchun et el. (1991) and Eguonlety et al. (1994).As outlined in section 4.2.5 shelf-life of wagashi is a major concern for producers and retailers who resort to placing the cheese in boiling water (on a daily basis) to ensure the product remains saleable for as long as possible. It is difficult to extend the shelf-life of the product using this method beyond one week. The objective of this experiment was to examine the effect of various brine concentrations on the preservation of 'wagashi'. Brine is known to have preservative effects and is commonly used to preserve cheese in southern Europe and parts of north Africa (O'Connor, 1993).Wagashi was produced in the normal way (). Common salt (NaCl) at the rate of 5g, 10g and 15g was dissolved in 100ml of fresh, clean water to produce 5, 10 and 15% brine solutions. 200g of wagashi was immersed in the three brine solutions overnight (12 hours) and removed and stored on shelves at room temperature. Samples were then taken for the chemical and microbial analyses. Brine treatment was carried out every 3 days for 12 hours. The samples were stored as described above. Further samples were taken for analysis on days seven and fourteen respectively.Plates were prepared by dissolving 1g of peptone in100ml of distilled water. 90ml dilutions were placed in bottles which were capped and autoclaved at1.05kg/cm2 and 121 0 C for10 to 30 minutes. The dilutions were cooled at 40 0 C. 10g 'wagashi' samples were mashed and transferred into the dilutent. The bottles were capped and placed on a mechanical shaker (vortex mixer) and shaken for 10 minutes. 10ml of each sample was immediately taken from the centre of the suspension and moved to a fresh 90ml blank solution of the dilutent with sterile pipette. This established the 1/10 -3 dilution. The bottles were capped, vigorously shaken and 10ml of the suspension was removed as described above. The sequence was continued until the dilution of 10 -8 was reached.1ml of the freshly mixed suspension was pipetted onto the media (standard plate agar) for total viable count and violet red bile agar for total coliform count.Beginning with the most dilute bottle the process was repeated for all dilutions.Immediately after pouring the plates were carefully swirled to thoroughly mix their contents. The media was allowed to solidify. After which it was inverted and placed in an incubator.The samples were incubated for 24 hours at 26 0 C. After which the plates were removed and the colonies were counted:Number of colony forming units/g sample= (mean plate count X dilution factor)There were no significant differences between the dry matter contents of the different brine treatments (Table 58). This may be caused by the repeated submersion of the samples in brine on days 3, 6, 9 and 12. The dry matter value of 44.6% obtained put wagashi in the range of soft cheese as reported by De (1980) and Sunu-Atta (2001). There were no significant differences in the crude protein levels for the three brine treatments. There were however significant differences in the level of bacterial growth between 5% brine treatment and 10% and also between 5% and 15% but there was no significant difference between the 10% and 15% brine treatments.The 5% brine treatment recorded the highest count for TVC and TCC (9.9x10 4 and 2.33x10 3 ) followed by the 10% treatment (3.56x10 4 and 6.77x10 2 ). The 15% treatment recorded the lowest count for both TVC and TCC, 6.51x10 3 and 86 respectively. The low bacterial count can be attributed to the preserving property of salt. Salt inhibits the uptake of water for growth by micro-organisms (Prescott et al., 1996).Traditional wagashi processors, wholesalers and retailers often resort to boiling their cheese to increase its shelf-life. This experiment was designed to compare this traditional method with that of brining over a period of 10 days. 'Wagashi' was produced in the normal way (Figure 7). One sample was subjected to a 10% brine treatment (see section 4.3.3), one sample to daily boiling and a third sample was the control (no treatment).The parameters observed included:For days 1-3 there was no observed differences in the colour of the wagashi of the three treatments. By day 4 the control had begun to deteriorate and thereafter displayed a rapid decline in appearance.The boiled sample maintained a reasonable appearance for about one week and then began to deteriorate more rapidly. The brine treated cheese maintained a fresh appearance for the duration of the experiment despite being stored at room temperature (i.e. under similar conditions to the local small-scale processor).The odour produced by all three samples was similar (fresh cheese smell characteristic of wagashi) for the first 2 days of the experiment. A bad odour was detected from the control on day 3 while the boiled sample and the brine treated sample still smelt fresh. By day 4, there was a diminished intensity in the smell of the boiled sample. This continued throughout the period of observation and the sample produced almost no odour by day 10. The brine treated sample maintained the normal cheese odour throughout the period of the experiment although there was a slight reduction in the intensity of the odour by day 10. The loss in odour of the boiled sample might be due to the loss of fat as a result of continuous heating on days 3, 6 and 9. The preservative nature of salt accounts for the fresh consistency of the brine treated sample (Prescott, et al,.1996).Similar textures were observed for the three samples on days 1 and 2. By day 3 the control was slimy and soft compared to the other samples. By day 4 the boiled sample had developed a fibrous nature, which continued in intensity throughout the 10-day period. The brine treated sample maintained its consistency throughout the experimental period. The fibrous nature of the boiled sample may be attributed to the repeated heating caused by dipping in boiling water (Gilmore et al., 1997).A total of 102 panelists were presented with the three wagashi samples (produced with 3 different concentrations of brine). They were invited to choose one at random (blind tasting) in Kumasi, Ejura and Mampong districts in locations where wagashi is commonly sold. After tasting, the panelist was offered a piece of bread to clear the palate before tasting another sample. The panelists were then asked to rank the products in terms of which wagashi was preferred for taste, texture etc. Panelists were also asked to comment on the freshness of the product. The responses were recorded and entered into a database. Following data entry frequencies of responses were extracted and analysed. The samples were ranked according to the following criteria, most preferred, second or least preferred.It was observed that about 52% of the Panelists ranked product \"A\" [5% brine] as the most preferred followed by product \"B\" [10%] with 44% ranking it the most preferred and lastly 4% opted for product \"C\" [15% brine]. Around 85% of panelists commented that all the three levels of brined wagashi were of high quality in terms of texture, freshness (rancidity) and taste (with the exception of the 15% brined sample, which was considered too salty).Following the results obtained from the consumer acceptance study, one-day training sessions were organised in several locations for wagashi processors. A total of 51 wagashi processors, market agents and retailers in Ejura, Nsuta, Mampong and Kumasi peri-urban areas participated in the training sessions along with 2 representatives of the agricultural extension service.Demonstrations were made of the various steps in processing including:• the correct quantity of Calotropis procera (coagulant) to use,• improving yields with the use of cheesecloth (muslin),• producing cheese in a hygienic environment.• prolonging the shelf life of cheese using a 10% brine solution • increasing returns to wagashi production.The weekly market survey collected information from a range of different individuals involved in the dairy production and marketing chain. The objective of this survey was to identify marketing constraints and opportunities, market margins etc. and data was collected on the fixed and variable costs of wagashi production as well as data on the fresh milk marketing chain. Thus it was possible to extract relevant information from the available data on the production costs and margins of wagashi producers.Production and sales data from 23 processors (wet and dry seasons combined) is Table 59. Sale prices of wagashi were also very variable depending upon whether the processor sold to market agents (wholesalers), directly to retailers or sold their produce directly to consumers. Not surprisingly direct sales realised the highest prices. Sale prices varied between 3,000 to 20,000 per kg.Average daily variable costs (wet and dry season data combined) are shown in Table 60. Variable production and marketing costs are dominated by transport, fuel and coagulant costs. Other minor costs are associated with dye (sorghum sheath), soap and water. Total variable costs per kg of wagashi produced were 841cedis.Annual fixed costs (see Table 60) are accounted for by the equipment (utensils) required for wagashi production. These include:• Buckets or jerry cans for collecting milk  Annual variable costs using the CRF (capital recovery factor) were calculated using the following formulaWhere i is the interest rate (8%) and n is the number of years, in this case the lifetime of the capital item.Average annual fixed costs (23 processors) were calculated to be 94,795cedis. Average annual profits were calculated to be 6 million cedis (US$857) and average profits per kg of wagashi produced 3,203 cedis (US$0.46).Following research and training activities a simple extension leaflet was designed. A total of 1,000 copies were printed and distributed to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.This research has established that wagashi production is primarily a means of preserving surplus milk production. However, it is an important source of animal protein for poor urban families in the Kumasi and Accra metropolitan areas. It is consumed mostly by those members of the population who have their origins in northern Ghana and Burkina Faso.• the use of stems of Calotropis procera for coagulation is more efficient than the use of leaves • the optimum quantity of stem is 25g per litre of milk • cheese yields can be improved by 4 % with the use of a cheesecloth during the production process • placing a cheese in a 10 to 15% brine concentration for 12 hours significantly improves shelf-life from 3 to 14 days Consumer acceptance surveys have confirmed that a 10% brine solution produces wagashi of acceptable texture and flavour for consumers. The use of brine as a means of preservation also reduces the need for daily boiling of wagashi, which reduces the resources, expended by processors on labour and fuel.Many processors have a direct (family) connection with the producers of milk (husbands who work as herdsmen) and often therefore are not required to outlay cash to acquire milk for processing. The larger processors tend to operate as commercial businesses and purchase larger quantities of milk for which they are able to negotiate a favourable price.Wagashi processing business are generally small operations with a limited turnover and with a limited amount of capital invested in production. The introduction or promotion of simple innovations such as brining and sieving (using muslin cheese-cloths) will reduce the costs of production, increase yields while producing a safer product for the consumer with a longer shelf-life. A total of 51 processors were trained to brine their cheese during August 2001. Early indications are that most trainees have adopted these simple technologies.Consumer acceptance studies have demonstrated that 15% brine wagashi was the least preferred, while laboratory studies showed this level of brine provided the best level of preservation. Further research is required to examine the potential for de-brining to make this brined product more acceptable to consumers while maintaining good preservation characteristics.Although this may not pose a health threat due to consumer boiling/heating of products before consumption, it nevertheless is a main cause of spoilage and losses. There is need therefore to identify alternative practical and affordable technologies to reduce bacterial growth, such as the Lactoperoxidase Milk Preservation System (LPS), and to promote such technologies in areas where they can make a difference. Although LPS has been tested and proven technically, the economics remain uncertain, as well the viability of the institutional and organisational arrangements needed to employ it in a sustainable manner among small farmers. Some research along these lines is currently being conducted by ILRI and partners in Kenya.A primary constraint to use of brining to extend the shelf-life of wagashi was consumer acceptability of the resulting product. Further research is required to examine the potential for de-brining to make this brined product more acceptable to consumers while maintaining good preservation characteristics.At a general level, the project was one of the first anywhere to closely examine the functioning of informal/traditional milk markets in developing countries. At the same time, these markets remain by far the largest sector of the dairy industries in developing countries not just in SSA, but also in South Asia and in Latin America. A great deal more research is needed to understand these markets in all their diversity, and to understand how the formal-informal gap can be bridged in such a way as to retain small agent participation while at the same time improving product quality and safety. This project has provided a very sound starting point to addressing these issues, but further research is needed to look at similar markets in other countries. One indirect project outcome is a new project in India, applying the same methods. More on that below.In Ghana, the project findings and materials have been directly taken up by new FAO project begun in 2002, entitled the \"The Training Programme for the Small-scale Dairy Sector.\" The managers of that project attended and addressed the final stakeholder workshop, and confirmed those linkages. Also in Ghana, as a result of one of national project leaders role as a senior economic advisor to the new government, the policy information developed has received high level visibility, as evidenced by the address made by the Minister of Food and Agriculture at the final stakeholder meeting, and his mention of use of project findings in the new livestock sector development efforts being funded by the African Development Bank.In Tanzania, close linkage has existed since the project initiation with the Austoproject dairy development activities, who work to train farmers and market agents, and who will be able to take up the training materials. Further, the national project leader in Tanzania sits on the official Dairy Policy Task Force, insuring that the project's policy implications will have direct impact on the continuing development of Tanzania's dairy policy. As an example of these high level linkages, some project results were reported at a dairy stakeholder gathering chaired by the Tanzanian President, Mr. Mkapa. At the Jan 2004 LPP workshop on dissemination proposals, further publication of project dissemination materials are were planned, as well as new dissemination activities in the form of serialised radio dramas.Several new initiatives are helping to disseminate project outcomes. ILRI is participating in an FAO project entitled the \"FAO Action Programme For The Prevention of Food Losses Levels and Causes of Post-Harvest Milk and Dairy Losses In Sub-Saharan Africa And The Near East.\" This development project addresses losses due to poor milk hygiene in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia and Syria and through ILRI's participation, uses the LPP project's findings and methodology for addressing the informal and traditional markets where most of these losses occur. As part of that project, ILRI will manage a web and CD-based information platform to make available materials to support national players in milk markets. Some of this information will include the LPP project material. This FAO information platform will eventually be linked to a new LPP Dairy Toolbox being developed by ILRI and partners. It is intended that eventually this will lead to a comprehensive FAO-led DairyNet, an electronic network to provide information to support small dairy farmers and small market agents in developing countries. Project findings will play a key role in informing these stakeholders and policy makers about issues facing indigenous dairy markets, and in providing materials to help address them.The project developed a great deal of information as to how best to design training for small scale market agents, and developed some of those training materials for the project countries. However, more generic materials would allow these to be used in other countries across Africa in particular. Towards this end, the project country manager in Tanzania, Prof L Kurwijilla, during a sabbatical at ILRI during 2004, will help develop a generic training manual. It is hoped that this will be supported by an LPP dissemination grant.One indirect project follow up activity is the participation of several project partners (Dr Omore and Prof Kurwijilla) in a regional activity led by ECAPAPA the policy branch of ASARECA , the Assoc. of Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa. This aims to harmonize dairy policies between countries in the region, focusing particularly on markets a trade, including major emphasis on addressing informal markets. The project has played a considerable role in providing information to this process.The project has helped to highlight the role of informal and traditional markets in developing countries, developed methods to study them , and also showed that there are means to address them constructively. Partly as a result, ILRI was approached by development agencies in India to lead a new study to look at informal and traditional milk markets there. That project, working with Swiss SDC funded CALPI livestock development project, is now being developed. It should be noted that in terms of volume India's informal milk market, which has never been systematically studied, is approximately the same scale as total North American milk production, and is greater in volume than total global trade in dairy products in terms of liquid milk equivalents. This new study thus has the potential to have significant impact through informing policies and development interventions in the large Indian market. The role of the LPP project in contributing to this new study can be seen the fact that the quantitative methods and questionnaires developed in the LPP project will be directly used in the new study.Through its Market-Oriented Smallholder Dairy Project, and its Livestock Policy Analysis Programme, both of which contributed to this project, ILRI will build on the project outcomes to develop similar research in other countries. Having already completed similar studies in Kenya, research is being developed for South Asia, and well as potentially at sites in Central America. The aim is to provide a strategic overview of issues and potential solutions for the huge indigenous dairy markets that dominate the dairy sectors in developing countries, and which to date have not been systematically studied. The frequent failure of dairy development efforts that assume a Western, pasteurised milk model is one consequence of this lack of strategic knowledge.List of publications and dissemination materials Addition of water or solids was tested by specific gravity (SG) using a lactometer with or without a thermometer. SG readings 500 ml measuring cylinders were either done at a standardised milk temperature of 20 o C or a temperature correction factor applied later 11 . The standard of 3.25% butterfat was used to classify proportions of milk samples below acceptable limits.Butterfat content was determined using the Gerber method. Briefly, 10 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid (specific gravity = 1.820 kg/litre), was first pipetted into a Gerber butryometer followed by addition of 11ml milk and 1ml amyl alcohol. The mixture in the butyrometer was tightly closed, contents thoroughly mixed, centrifuged at 1200rpm for 5 minutes after which the butyrometer was placed in a water bath at 60-63 o C for at least 3 minutes before reading the butterfat percentage.The results of the above two tests were applied to calculate solids-not-fat (SNF) and total solids (TS) using the Richmond formulae 12 as follows: %SNF= (0.22 x BF + (0.25 x SG)+ 0.72) and TS = SNF+BF.Samples were assessed for total viable bacterial counts (TPC) and coliform plate counts (CPC) using direct culture methods described by Marshall (1992) and Speck (1984). Serial dilutions of each sample from 10 -1 to 10 -8 were prepared in peptone water or phosphated sterile water diluent (0.0425g of KH 2 PO 4 per litre and standard pH 7.2).Various ranges of dilutions (depending on expected variation in counts) for culture of total plate counts ranged from 10 -3 to 10 -7 and 10 -4 to 10 -8 in Tanzania and Ghana, respectively. From each dilution, 1 ml was transferred using a sterile pipette into a 90-mm diameter disposable petri dish. This was mixed thoroughly with 15 -20 ml of sterilized (autoclaved at 121 o C for 15 minutes) and cooled to 45 -47 o C molten standard plate count agar (APHA-Oxoid) and left to cool down and solidify. Thereafter, plates were incubated in inverted positions at 32 o C for 48 hrs. Following this period, plates with colonies ranging from 25 -250 colony forming units (cfu) were selected, counted using a colony counter and computed following guidelines by Speck, (1984) and TBS.Various ranges of dilutions for counting coliforms were also applied depending on expected variation in counts. Dilutions ranging from 10 -3 to 10 -5 and 10 -4 to 10 -8 121 were used in Tanzania and Ghana, respectively, and cultured in molten violet red bile (VRB) agar using the same volumes and procedure as for TPC. After cooling and solidification of the medium, the plates were over-layed with a thin layer of the same VRB medium and incubated at 37 o C for 24hrs. Plates showing typical red coliform colonies in the countable range of 15 -150 cfu per plate were chosen, counted and computed following guidelines by Speck, (1984). The lower range of countable colonies for coliforms (compared to total counts) is advised by KEBS (1976) and was applied to enable comparisons with similar data from Kenya.One of the tests applied to test for antibodies to Brucella abortus was the Brucella Milk Ring Test (MRT). The test, which was done with positive and negative controls, works on the principle that antibodies to Br. abortus present in milk agglutinate with haematoxylin stained Br. abortus antigen and rise to the top layer with the fat globules to form a deep blue ring in the cream top layer (Sutra et al., 1990). If no antibodies are present, the cream that separates out is white and the skim milk below is blue. The test often detects a high proportion of false positives (low sensitivity) due to positive reactions from samples taken shortly after parturition, near the end of lactation period, or from mastitic quarters (MacMillan, 1990). The MRT was conducted by pipetting 1 ml of milk into each 1.2ml tubes with fresh milk followed by adding and mixing one drop of stained Br. abortus antigen. The tubes were thereafter incubated at 37 0 C for 1hr.The method described by Neilsen et al., (1996) (sensitivity = 95% and specificity = 99%) was adopted. Briefly, polystyrene 96-well flat bottomed plates were coated with 100µl of 0.5mg/well of Br. abortus smooth lipopolysacccharide antigen in coating buffer (0.06 M carbonate buffer pH 9.6) and kept overnight in a humid box. The plates were thereafter washed five times with phosphate buffer (0.01M phosphate buffer of pH 7.2 containing 0.05% Tween-20 and 0.15M NaCl), dried and blocked using 200ul/well of 0.1% gelatin and incubated at 25 0 C for 30 mins. The plates were washed again, dried and milk samples added at 100 µl/well diluted 1:2 in milk diluent (0.01M phosphate buffer, pH 6.3, containing 0.15M NaCl, 0.05% Tween-20, 15 mM EDTA and 15 mM EGTA). The plates were shaken for 2 minutes in an orbital shaker and incubated for 30 mins at 25 0 C. The plates were then washed and 100µl/well of monoclonal antibody conjugated (dilution 1:1600) to horse radish peroxidase added and incubated for 1hr at 25 0 C. The plates were washed again, dried and the substrate (0.05M Citrate buffer pH 4.5 containing 1mM hydrogen peroxide and 4mM ABTS) added at 100 µl/well. The plates were incubated for a maximum of 15 mins and the absorbance read at 414 nm. Brucella positive and negative serum and milk controls were included. The control serum samples were diluted 1:50, while milk samples were diluted 1:2 in the milk diluent. Each milk sample was tested in duplicate. The modification in this procedure was that the cut-off value was determined by using twice the mean of the negative control samples (Savingy and Voller,1980).After counting the coliform forming units on the VRB agar medium, emerging coliform colonies were, examined further for E. coli and subsequently 0157:H7 strain. Up to six coliform colonies per plate were purified on MacConkey agar and tryptose agar (Oxoid), and differentiated for E. coli by culturing on eosin methylene blue agar (Oxoid) and testing for indole, methyl red, vogues proskaeuer and citrate (IMViC) reactions. Confirmed E. coli isolates (IMViC++--) and suspicious weak positives were further cultured on selective indicator Biosynth medium (BCM TM 0157:H7(+); Biosynth Biochemica, Biosynth International Inc., USA) and incubated at 35oC for 24h to observe any development of blue black colonies of E. coli 0157:H7. The BCM TM 0157:H7(+) medium was prepared according to the manufacturers instructions. Briefly, 80g of the powder was dissolved completely in 1liltre of distilled water containing 5ml N, N-dimethylformammide (Sigma). After cooling to 50 o C in a water bath, 5 ml of 0.2% (w/v) Sodium novobiocin (Sigma) and 0.2 ml of 0.1% (w/v) potassium tellurite Sigma), both filtered and sterilised, were added to the medium, mixed and then poured into petri dishes. It then allowed to solidify and dry at room temperature.Two approaches were used to isolate Mycobacteriaceae and M. bovis in particular. The first approach was through direct isolation the milk samples collected following the method described by Kazwala et al., (1998). Briefly, 10 ml of milk sample was transferred into another sterile universal container for decontamination using 4% sodium hydroxide and then neutralised using concentrated hydrochloric acid. Suspensions were then centrifuged at 13,000g and the supernatant discarded to leave at least 2ml of the sediment to be used as inoculum for the cultivation of Mycobacteria species. This was then followed by primary isolation of the mycobacterium on egg media and Loewenstein-Jenses with added pyruvate. The cultivation and incubation was for a period of 6 weeks with weekly observations of signs of growth. Positive cultures were sub-cultured into another set of media and incubated for another 3-4 weeks for further identification. Identification was by observation of growth and staining to examine acid-fast bacilli (AFB). The presence of AFB was indicative of Mycobacteria. Further characterisation was by biochemical tests. The suspected Mycobacteria was subjected to molecular analysis using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to speciate M. bovis.The second approach was sampling and laboratory processing of sputum and sub-mandibular lymph node aspirates from of patients suspected to be suffering from BTB. The samples were opportunistically collected from patients in hospitals in Mwanza and processed in the laboratory as described above.Determination of drug residues was done using the Charm AIM-96 anti-microbial inhibition assay screening kit (Charm Sciences Inc., USA) according to manufacturer's recommendations. The test kit detects β-lactams, tetracyclines, 123 aminoglycosides, macrolides and sulphonamides at levels above maximum residue limits (MRLs) recommended by the EU (Table A2 ) Briefly, 50µl of each sample was added in duplicate to the supplied microtitre plate followed by 200µl of a mixture of Bacullis stearothemophilus spore tablet and lyophilised medium dissolved in 22ml of deionized water. The plate was then sealed and tightly secured by screws and incubated for 3-4 hours. Positive and negative controls were also included in the assay. The positive milk control consisted of antibiotic free milk determined using Micrococcus lutea inhibition assay mixed with penicillin G or sulfamethazine standard. 200µl of bacterial spores suspension and lyophilised medium in de-ionized water were added to 50µl of the positive control milk. The negative control consisted of 50µl of negative control tablet dissolved in distilled water and 200ul of the test bacteria and media dissolved in deionized water. Test results were read using colour contrasts and scored from 1-5 (negative = 1-3 and positive = 4-5).Annex 2: Milk Handling Practices Nearly all the market agents interviewed in the indicative survey said that they have achieved significant improvement in their business performance in various areas including processing, milk handling/quality control and in customer care. A subjective assessment ranked personal, equipment and premises hygiene of all trainees as being 'fair' or 'good'. In addition, a few traders had replaced their plastic containers with metallic ones that are easier to clean and nearly all traders who did not have lactometers had purchased one. Whereas only 6% of milk traders were found to keep records during the main market surveys, virtually all of the trained traders kept records in the follow-up survey. Most kept records related to expenditure, but also sales, volumes handled and salaries.The high variability in the quality indicators, particularly bacterial counts, did not allow meaningful comparisons to be made between the findings in the main survey and indicative sampling considering the small number of respondents in the indicative sampling. However it was observed that in reaction to findings from the main survey that indicated a high prevalence of adulteration in Mwanza with as many as two-thirds of milk samples with SNF<8.5%. Municipal health officials became stricter in enforcing tests for adulteration, and a case of an offender being ordered to pour out adulterated milk was observed. But addition of water still occurred after traders passed checkpoints mounted by health officials. This practice was more common among employed traders.Mary sells about 5 litres of raw milk daily. She narrated changes in her practices as follows: \"For me, the most important things I learnt in the training are: a) the need for a good environment for my cows, b) hygienic milking, c) hygienic storage and how I could improve milk sales. Since attending the training I have strived to improve the cow shed by putting up a better roof and drainage for the effluents. My milker is now provided with gumboots and overcoat and detergents for cleaning of milk vessels. I have also instructed the milker on proper milking procedure. d) My cows used to suffer a lot of mastitis but I now I use a teat dip and the disease has reduced significantly. I now use aluminium cans and any milk not sold immediately is kept in a refrigerator. e) I no longer receive complaints from my customers regarding spoilage of milk when it is heated. I used to sell only raw milk. After the training I am now selling part of my milk after fermenting it properly\".The training was carried out in three districts in Accra, namely Accra Metropolitan Area, Tema Metropolitan Area and Kasoa. The training focussed on educating market agents about hygienic ways of milk handling to improve its safety and shelf life. After the training, 35-40 market agents who had received the training were sampled in the three districts. One or more milk samples were collected from each market agent for laboratory examination of total viable bacteria count (TPC) and coliform bacteria count (CPC). These bacterial counts were then compared with the corresponding results before the training to evaluate the probable impact of the training on milk handling by market agents. The findings are summarised in the table below.Proportions of milk samples with unacceptable CPC (>50,000 cfu/ml) and unacceptable TPC (>2,000,000 cfu/ml) before and after the training. Total bacteria population in milk mainly reflects time elapsed since milking and ambient temperature (if milk is not chilled), while coliform bacteria are especially associated with level of hygiene since they are mainly of faecal origin. From the table above, apart from Producers, in all cases, the proportion of milk with unacceptable CPC was lower after the training than before the training. This clearly indicates an improvement in the hygienic handling of milk after the training. TPC appeared to be higher after the training. However, this only reflects the lack of refrigeration facilities and probably the long time lapse between milking and sampling.","tokenCount":"31340"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b6efc46c195248bdccabe9a8cd9cb556","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a93e03e6-1f5a-4507-9360-7400e539960a/retrieve","id":"-1679656147"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"516fb228-0e07-4c96-a0a2-0dfc642df712","pagecount":"64","content":"The mission of the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain is to sustainably increase the productivity of banana and plantain grown on smallholdings for domestic consumption and for local and export markets. The Programme has four specific objectives: • To organize and coordinate a global research effort on banana and plantain, aimed at the development, evaluation and dissemination of improved cultivars and at the conservation and use of Musa diversity • To promote and strengthen collaboration and partnerships in banana-related research activities at the national, regional and global levels • To strengthen the ability of NARS to conduct research and development activities on bananas and plantains • To coordinate, facilitate and support the production, collection and exchange of information and documentation related to banana and plantain. INIBAP is a programme of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), a Future Harvest Centre.A major collaborative effort has borne significant results in 1999. The second phase of IMTP, involving 19 countries, has been completed and a detailed analysis is now available of the performance of several promising new hybrids with tolerance to black Sigatoka and Fusarium wilt, the major banana diseases. These varieties will be disseminated to farmers through various mechanisms and their impact on crop yields will be closely followed. The improved varieties examined in Phase I continue to find acceptance in the major banana-producing countries of the world and their contribution to increased yields in Tanzania, Nicaragua and Cuba have been particularly evident.During 1999, a sharp increase in germplasm distribution has been experienced, highlighting the important function of the INIBAP genebank. Fortunately, the capacity of the genebank to deal with such demand is continually expanding, as procedures to deal with bacterial contamination, identify viral infection, and to provide comprehensive characterization of varieties are improved. The virus-indexing centre in South Africa is now fully operational and allows for an increase in the volume of accessions being checked yearly. In line with CGIAR recommendations, material acquisition and transfer agreements, have been introduced to ensure that improved varieties may be made available to farmers, whilst safeguarding the interests of breeding programmes.The feasibility of organic banana production as a sustainable and economically profitable crop continues to be examined. Following the technical workshop in 1998, a meeting was organized in the Dominican Republic, bringing together all stakeholders in the production and marketing of organic bananas. Discussions focussed on organic bananas as a smallholder crop with special emphasis on the Caribbean. Evidence so far provides promise that production at this level can lead to increased revenues.Despite the increased support for Musa research over the last few years, levels of funding still do not reflect the importance of the crop as a means of food security and poverty alleviation in developing countries. Within the CGIAR, the Technical Advisory Committee has identified Musa research as an area which is funded below recommended levels. It is, therefore, urgent that we strengthen the effort to raise public awareness and emphasize the importance of the crop. In collaboration with its partners, INIBAP will make special efforts to achieve this goal.Many challenges remain to be addressed, which demand the strong support of donors. INIBAP will continue to foster partnerships with National Agricultural Research Systems in producing countries, the Advanced Research Institutes in industrialised countries, NGOs working with farmers and with the private sector in order to meet these challenges.The means of achieving quality assurance in the germplasm collection are continuously scrutinised. A new protocol is now established to ensure the elimination of bacterial contamination in germplasm material. It involves the use of three procedures to eradicate infections with Bacillus and Mycobacterium according to their severity. In total, 88% of the collection has been screened and 4% has required cleaning.Banana dieback virus (BDBV) was first reported in 1998 and is, so far, known only from Nigeria. Collaborative work is under way to develop an assay for virus-indexing so that the virus can be easily detected in germplasm. An antiserum has been produced and serological characteristics indicate that the virus is related to several nepoviruses.A material transfer agreement has been developed to allow INIBAP to make improved varieties available for small-scale farmers, whilst allowing breeding programmes to benefit from commercial use of germplasm.O bjectives: to conserve germplasm representative of Musa diversity, including farmers' varieties and wild species, as well as improved material from breeding programmes and to distribute this germplasm and related information for research and development throughout the world. The international Musa germplasm collection maintained by INIBAP, with the financial support of the Directorate General for International Cooperation (DGIC), consisted of 1136 accessions at the end of 1999. During the year, 24 new accessions were added to the collection and 6654 germplasm samples were distributed. The new material consisted of 15 accessions collected in Vietnam during recent prospecting missions and nine improved varieties acquired from breeding programmes at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Centre de recherches régionales sur bananiers et plantains (CRBP) and Fundación Hondureña de Investigacíon Agrícola (FHIA).Efforts to fill in gaps in the germplasm collection continue with ongoing collecting expeditions in India, financially supported by INIBAP. A total of 32 new accessions were gathered in 1999 in three northeast Indian states by the National Board for Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) and National Research Centre on Banana (NRCB), both agencies of the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR). These are in the process of being characterized. Next year the collection of Indian germplasm will be complete and the focus will shift to a new geographical area.As part of the ongoing maintenance of germplasm accessions, systematic screening for bacterial contamination continued in 1999. In total, 1002 accessions (88% of the collection) have been screened for the presence of bacteria and 46 accessions have been found to be contaminated. A routine procedure for elimination of these bacteria has been established (see box).Networking banana and plantain  Culturing small explants has proved to be a simple and good method to eliminate bacteria from tissue cultures. Obtaining 82-100% clean material may be achieved by simply culturing 1 mm-sized meristems from Bacilluscontaminated in vitro plants. However, clean material from Mycobaterium infected plants is more difficult to acquire. The lower success rate (0-55%) might be explained by the smaller size of Mycobacterium cells, allowing them to penetrate deeper into the intercellular spaces of the meristem tip. Elimination of Mycobacterium was more effective when explants (1-3 mm) were taken from plants grown in the greenhouse for up to six months, rather than from in vitro plants. It is likely that, ex vitro, the growth rate of the plant material exceeds the proliferation rate of contaminating microorganisms and thus results in a relatively greater part of the apical zone remaining free from bacteria.To formulate the most appropriate use of antibiotics, firstly the sensitivity of bacteria to different antibiotics was assessed to determine the minimum concentration at which antibiotic agents have an effect, known as the minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC). Then the effect of these antibiotics, usually in a more concentrated form, was tested on the plant.Results of tests of the antibiotic sensitivity of Bacillus circulans showed that rifampicin is the most effective bactericidal agent, working at doses of 50 mg/l or lower. In the case of Mycobacterium, rifampicin was lethal to M. avium-intracellulare at concentrations lower than 25 mg/l. A number of antibiotics also worked at higher dosages (see Table 1).When shoot tips contaminated with B. circulans were exposed to rifampicin at a concentration of at least twice the MBC, all plants were found to be free of contaminants after 30 days. Antibiotic treatment caused a slight reduction in the growth rate of the shoots, but after subculture on rifampicin-free medium plants recovered completely. The treated explants were regularly screened on enriched nutrient agar and remained clean during a testing period of at least one year.A dose of 100 mg/l of rifampicin applied on shoot tips contaminated with Mycobacterium resulted in 100% bacteria-free plants after 10 days of exposure. Other antibiotics tested were found to be too harmful to plant tissue to be of therapeutic use.The number of accessions distributed doubled in 1999 compared to 1998 (Figure 1). This was largely due to the high demand for materials for germplasm characterization work being carried out by Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD) and the Institute of Experimental Botany (IEB).A total of 854 accessions (75.1%) have now completed virus-indexing. Of these, viruses have not been found in 643 accessions (75.3% of those tested) and these are therefore available for distribution. Details of the health status of the accessions in the INIBAP genebank are provided in Figure 2. The INIBAP virus-indexing centre at the Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI) in South Africa became fully operational, contributing to the capacity to distribute germplasm safely.In 1999, in line with CGIAR policy, a new material transfer agreement was introduced by INIBAP covering the distribution of INIBAP's 'in trust' germplasm collection designated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). At the same time, INIBAP also introduced a germplasm acquisition agreement and a material transfer agreement for improved varieties acquired from breeding programmes. These agreements provide a framework within which improved germplasm can be distributed by INIBAP without restriction, whilst binding recipients to negotiate commercial use with germplasm suppliers.Ongoing research on cryopreservation at KUL, funded by DGIC, contributes to the efforts to attain higher standards of conservation of the INIBAP germplasm collection. Progress has been made to improve post-thaw survival of cryopreserved material using proliferating meristems as the starting material. Details of these cryopreservation methods (simple freezing and vitrification of proliferating meristems) are provided in the INIBAP Annual Report 1998 (p. 9-11).Experiments carried out during 1999 examined the following variables and their effects on viability rates of post-thaw material:• size of meristematic scalp introduced onto the preculture medium, • concentration of BA (benzyladenine) in preculture medium, • absence of light during the preculture period, • the consistency of the regeneration medium, • duration of the subculture period before preculture, • duration of the exposure to the vitrification solution, • composition of the vitrification solution.Reduction in the size of the scalp (from 4 mm to 2 mm) and increasing BA concentration in the preculture medium (from 10 µM to 100 µM) tended to have a detrimental effect on the survival of the meristem clumps during the preculture period. Therefore 4 mm scalps and 10 µM BA concentration medium remain the optimal measures.The presence or absence of light during the preculture period appeared to have no discernible influence on the post-thaw survival of the culture. The use of a liquid instead of solid medium, although effective in improving viability after simple freezing, has a lethal effect for most meristem clumps after vitrification. However, following a two-day post-thawing recovery on solid medium, it was observed that most cultivars showed a slight increase in regeneration frequency if they were transferred to liquid regeneration medium (Figure 3).The most significant findings, perhaps, are the effects of varying the duration of the subculture on high cytokinin medium before the meristem clumps are precultured, and those of changing the exposure time to the vitrification solution. which have spent less time on the subculture medium respond better after thawing. On the other hand, an increase in the time of exposure to the vitrification solution from 30 minutes to two hours brought about a better response (Figure 4). Further experiments are now required to confirm both these observations. The application of alternative, and possibly less toxic vitrification solutions was not successful in improving postthaw viability.The influence of preculturing on 0.4 M sucrose on levels of free amino acids, sugars, membrane fatty acids and polyamines in different cultivars was investigated. The aim of the study was to determine the cryoprotective role of sucrose, since preculture of meristem clumps on 0.4 M sucrose solution for two weeks is essential to obtain postthaw regeneration. A better knowledge of its mode of action will lead to a more efficient optimisation of existing cryopreservation techniques and the development of new protocols.A correlation was found between sucrose preculture and amino acid concentrations. All meristem clumps (precultured or not) contained high levels of free amino acids accounting for up to 20% of the dry weight. Sucrose preculture always resulted in an increase in alanine and tryptophan. The latter was particularly high in cultivars which exhibit blackening and are difficult to cryopreserve. Preculture caused a reduction in serine content in those cultivars which survive cryopreservation well. When looking at absolute values, conclusions can be drawn that high postthaw regeneration frequencies were associated with a low serine content and high content of glutamine, glutamic acid, isoleucine and total amino acids.No correlation between fatty acid composition and viability rates was observed. For all cultivars, the sucrose preculture resulted in an increase in C18:1 at the expense of C18:2 and C18:3. This higher degree of saturation would indicate that the membranes become more rigid after preculture. A considerable change in polyamine content was also observed after sucrose preculture. Four compounds are detected: spermine, spermidine, putrescine and tyramine. Post-thaw viability could be correlated with an increase in spermine.Research on banana streak virus (BSV) at the University of Minnesota and at CIRAD's Département des productions fruitières et horticoles (CIRAD-FLHOR) is supported by INIBAP. The results so far have proved that viral particles are integrated into the Musa genome and that some apparently virus-free plants develop infections of BSV following propagation by tissue culture. In contrast to the virion DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) recovered from natural infections, which is highly variable, the virion DNA from tissue-culture-associated infections has been found to be highly similar, if not identical.Two types of integrated badnavirus sequences have been identified. While one integration consisted of a partial BSV genome, the other contained more than one complete genome and was almost identical to BSV recovered from tissue culture-derived plants. The arrangement of this integrated BSV DNA (BSV-Onne) suggests that it can yield an infectious episomal genome via homologous recombination.Further research has led to the conclusion that the activatable BSV integrant is associated with the Musa balbisiana genome, while the nonactivatable or 'dead' integrant, which has been identified in Calcutta 4, is associated with the Musa acuminata genome. Research at CIRAD is continuing to investigate the hypothesis that the M. balbisiana genome contains an allelic system which involves a 'releasing factor'. When crossing M. balbisiana with M. acuminata, only those hybrids inheriting the releasing factor develop the disease.Upon INIBAP's instigation, the University of Minnesota has devoted much effort in 1999 to investigating the occurrence of BSV-Onne and closely related virus isolates in Grande Naine in Costa Rica, and in Grande Naine and Williams in Ecuador. It was discovered that the intergenic region of the genomic DNA of the BSV isolates from these AAA genotypes is identical to that of the BSV integrant present in Obino L'Ewai. In contrast, BSV-Onne (i.e. the episomal form) The virus is associated with a dieback disease of bananas, in which the leaves of the plant progressively turn necrotic and die, from the oldest to the youngest. After the death of the main plant, the suckers become progressively shorter and die back in a similar fashion. The vector of the disease is presently not known. A crude antiserum has been developed and the virus has been shown to be serologically related to several nepoviruses. To date, the virus is known only from Nigeria.During the first phase of this project, BDBV was successfully purified. A mouse polyclonal antiserum has been obtained and a monoclonal antibody is also planned. Further research is required in order to fully characterise the virus, validate an efficient detection system and collect further information on the world-wide distribution and impact of this virus.The identification of a new potex virus was reported in the INIBAP Annual Report 1998 (p. 14). This virus has subsequently been named banana mild mosaic virus (BanMMV) and it has been shown to be widely distributed in banana germplasm. Possibly because it is frequently found in mixed infections, little information is so far available concerning its symptomatology and effect on yield.Research on the eradication of viruses from infected banana plants is being carried out at the University of Gembloux, with funding through INIBAP from DGIC. During 1999, eradication experiments involving the excision of meristems were carried out on the cultivar Williams BSJ. The plants were either inoculated with cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) by mechanical transmission, or with banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) transmitted by aphids. For research on banana streak virus (BSV), a naturally infected plant was used.Meristems were excised from plants grown in different conditions: from in vivo plants maintained in the greenhouse, from in vitro plants maintained in rooting medium and from highly proliferating meristems. A treatment of thermotherapy (a progressive increase in temperature from 28 to 40°C applied to plants either in vivo or in vitro over five days followed by 4 weeks of alternating day and night temperatures of 40 and 28°C) in combination with meristem culture was also studied.Eradication rates of 100% were obtained for BBTV, using meristems from in vitro plants without the need for thermotherapy. For CMV, an eradication rate of 10% was obtained when meristems were excised from highly proliferating meristematic tissue. Thermotherapy followed by excision of meristems from in vivo plants resulted in 38% virus eradication. However the heat treatment had a negative effect on the survival rate of meristems. Preliminary results for the elimination of BSV indicate that meristem cultures offer strong possibilities of the eradication of the episomal form of this virus.New research on BanMMV eradication was initiated in 1999. A chemotherapy approach is being evaluated, based on the use of the anti-viral agents dihydroxypropyladenine (RS)-DPA and the guanosine analogue ribavirine (Virazole®).INIBAP commissions studies on the characterization of germplasm as part of its efforts to insure the material distributed and conserved by the INIBAP genebank is well documented and correctly classified. Molecular techniques introduce a new level of confidence in existing classifications and help to identify discrepancies, and the Musa Germplasm Information System (MGIS) provides a sound mechanism for the collection and maintenance of morphological data.The 1998 Annual Report described the successful characterization of Musa balbisiana and Australimusa clones as a result of work carried out by CIRAD-FLHOR using ten sequence-tagged microsatellite markers (STMS). In 1999 a further 214 clones were classified using seven STMS markers. The assay was carried out by nonradioactive urea-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). A gel of 38 cm, three times the size of that used in 1998, provided an even finer separation of alleles and provided means of identification of almost all clones, except those in the most uniform groups such as Cavendish.A large part of the accessions leaving the INIBAP genebank in 1999 was destined for research on their characterization. As well as techniques using STMS (see above), assessments of ploidy levels were carried out by IEB using flow cytometry, which measures the quantity of DNA in cell nuclei. In total 461 accessions were analysed, of which 8% showed evidence of deviation from the expected ploidy levels.The present procedure is calibrated to analyse M. acuminata, M. balbisiana and their hybrids. The DNA content of other Musa species is quite different, and the procedure will require specific tailoring to cater for additional species. Nevertheless, this year's work provides confirmation of the value of flow cytometry as a technique to screen germplasm on a large scale. Results obtained from flow cytometry generally confirmed the ploidy levels suggested by molecular characterization, demonstrating the benefits of using complementary techniques for characterising germplasm, especially where discrepancies occur.MGIS provides a powerful tool to support genetic resources management. The results of characterization research from 11 national, regional and international collections are collated in a single database which is administered by INIBAP. The database and its contents are available on CD-ROM and in various published forms, such as Musalogue. International Development Research Centre (IDRC) provided part of the funding for activities in 1999.A second version of MGIS (MGIS 2.0), incorporating improvements suggested by users, is now available, together with an updated User's guide. At the end of 1999, 3662 records of accessions were held, including 977 taxonomic descriptions, 1177 agronomic evaluations, 300 evaluations to stress and 490 photos. Table 2 provides a list of the countries which sent information in 1999. Further developments to ensure access to MGIS via the Internet and to streamline data flow between MGIS and the SINGER database are planned for 2000.A total of 33 scientists have been trained to use MGIS through a series of workshops. A workshop took place in the Philippines in 1999 with the aim of resolving some of the taxonomic problems with Musa names within the region. As a result, a list of South East Asian cultivar names and synonyms is now available for reference (see Asia/Pacific news). The Musa root system (Figure 1) is a complex structure that supports multiple plant functions. For example, it ensures the optimal uptake of water and nutrients, provides anchorage to the plant and supposedly produces plant growth regulators (De Langhe et al. 1983, Swennen et al. 1984, Stover and Simmonds 1987, Price 1995). Although research on Musa roots started some 70 years ago (Skutch 1932), this focussed predominantly on the high value export dessert bananas, such as the variety 'Gros Michel' (Moreau and Le Bourdelles 1963) and later on the 'Cavendish' varieties (Beugnon and Champion 1966, Lassoudière 1978, Avilan et al. 1982).While extensive breeding efforts have been devoted to improve shoot traits of Musa, comparatively little has been done for roots, despite the interdependence of shoot growth and root development. For example, nematodes reduce root growth, which often results in yield decline in Musa (Swennen et al. 1988, Gowen andQuénéhervé 1990). While the nematode pest has been considered an important priority in breeding programmes at International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA 1997(IITA , 1998)), CRBP and FHIA, no systematic effort has been devoted to develop root systems that are less prone to nematode damage, thereby relying on detailed knowledge of the root system size and development.A comprehensive study of the root system of the entire genepool is required to complete the ideotype of a Musa plant and to support the genetic improvement of plantains and bananas. Such studies have been carried out at the IITA and at the Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL). Experiments conducted at IITA focussed on elucidating relationships between root and shoot traits, assessing variability in root system size, assessing the biophysical effects on root development and devising alternative methods for root evaluation (Blomme 2000). At UCL, research has been carried out primarily on lateral root initiation, aluminium toxicity effects on roots, cation exchange capacity of roots and interaction with mycorrhizae. In addition, the effects and interactions of nematodes and endomychorrizae on root growth are currently being assessed at K.U.Leuven.The number of cord roots (i.e. adventitious roots) varies considerably depending upon the health status of the plant. A healthy corm (i.e. the true stem) can bear 200 to 400 primary cord roots with a total length of 230 m (Summerville 1944, Robin and Champion 1962, Beugnon and Champion 1966). Fawcett (1913) noted that growth rates of the tips may reach 60 cm per month, which is in agreement with later studies of the AAA variety 'Poyo' in Côte d'Ivoire where growth rates of 2 to 3.5 cm a day were recorded (Lassoudière 1978). Roots generally spread over 2 to 3 m and may extend up to 5 m from the plant, but most of the root system occurs within a 60 cm radius from the stem (Avilán et al. 1982, Gousseland 1983). Root distribution down the soil profile is mainly limited to the upper 40 cm but is, however, strongly influenced by soil type (Irizarry et al. 1981)    prevent or reduce root growth (Beugnon and Champion 1966, Champion and Sioussaram 1970, Godefroy 1969, Lassoudière 1971).Studies on the effects of soil and climate on root growth conducted at IITA stations in Nigeria revealed significant influences of substrate type and climate on root growth (Blomme, 2000). Also, field-grown plants had a relatively larger root system (i.e. lower shoot-root ratio) under low nutrient conditions. These plants might have invested more dry matter in the root system in order to explore a larger soil volume to produce a vigorous shoot. In addition, a reduction in soil bulk density (during the first months after ploughing and harrowing) significantly enhanced root and shoot growth.Due to their considerable surface in contact with the soil, lateral roots are often thought to be responsible for the major part of nutrient and water uptake. Lateral root growth, however, is highly influenced by micro-environmental conditions (Blomme, 2000) and genotype (Swennen et al. 1986). As a rule, lateral roots are generally abundant on cord roots growing in organic layers in the topsoil, and absent from cord roots growing deeper in the soil.An in-depth study of lateral root development and growth is greatly facilitated under controlled conditions. Young plants were grown in hydroponics using a flowing standard nutrient solution, or in large tanks filled with sand supplied with the same flowing nutrient solution. All watergrown cord roots produce laterals while many of the sand-grown cord roots are devoid of laterals, suggesting a possible role of mechanical impedance in the presence/absence of laterals. The few sand-grown cord roots which carry lateral roots, show lateral root densities and lateral root lengths that are very similar to those of watergrown plants. Hence, at least a few root growth parameters might be estimated legitimately on plants grown under controlled conditions, despite many controversial aspects of nutrient solution experiments.Lateral root initiation has been further investigated under the microscope (Draye et al. 1999) on field-grown cord roots. Neither the environment, nor the genotype affected the initiation of laterals: the production of lateral root primordia appeared to be constitutive and followed a rigid pattern of differentiation and cell division in the root tip. Under certain circumstances, however, those primordia entered a dormant phase, giving rise to bare cord roots. Discovering the conditions prevailing in the rhizosphere that lead, directly or indirectly, to the developmental arrest of lateral root growth in the soil constitutes the challenge for future research conducted at UCL.The percentage dry matter allocated to the shoot and the root portion of a Musa plant depends on the developmental stage and planting material (Figure 2). For example, juvenile in vitro-derived 'Calcutta 4' (AA genome group) and 'FHIA-03' (AAAB genome group) plants allocated up to 45% of dry matter to the root system just after field establishment. Subsequently, the percentage root dry matter declined during the further growth stages to about 10-15% at flowering. In contrast, less than 20% of plant dry matter was allocated to the roots of juvenile sucker-derived 'Mbi Egome' (AAB genome group) plants, while the corm contained up to 70% of the plant dry matter (Figure 2).Percentage dry matter invested in the mat root system decreased gradually towards flower emergence (Figure 2). For example, there was a clear increase in the shoot-root ratio with increasing age for the in vitro-derived 'FHIA-03' mat. The shoot-root ratio of juvenile suckerderived 'Mbi Egome' plants was relatively high, compared to the in vitro-derived plants and was caused by the large corm size of the planting material. As for the in vitro-derived plants, the highest shoot-root ratio was observed during the late vegetative phase.Strong positive correlations between shoot and root development of a mat (i.e. mother plant and lateral shoots) are observed during the vegetative and reproductive phase. For example, the vigorous shoot growth of most plantains and cooking bananas is associated with a large root system growth. In contrast, the semi-dwarf dessert banana variety 'Valery' (AAA genome group) has a small root system. Despite the observed variability in root system size between genotypes, shoot-root dry weight ratios are similar for mats of a wide variety of genotypes (Figure 3). These results indicate that breeding for an increased root system size, in addition to being cumbersome, goes along with breeding for a larger aerial part. The study of segregating populations should however be considered as different shoot-root relationships may be observed at the withinpopulation level.Strong positive relationships between shoot and root traits are also observed for the lateral shoots (i.e. suckers) (IITA 1999, Blomme 2000). Therefore, breeding for a regulated suckering (2 to 3 well-developed lateral shoots present during the reproductive phase) may prove to be more beneficial for plant anchorage and productivity of the crop than breeding for a modified shoot-root ratio or root system size of the main plant. Under regulated suckering, lateral shoots will have a vigorous shoot as well as root development. In addition, their large corm size will give stability to the mat. For example, plantain hybrids with a regulated suckering will be less susceptible to toppling compared to plantain landraces, which predominantly exhibit an inhibited suckering.Two man-days are needed to excavate, wash and assess the root system of one mature Musa plant. Also, attempts to correlate root growth of juvenile plants with that of adult plants have been inconclusive, indicating that an early assessment of root system growth of juvenile plants may not give sufficient information about the root system size and development of mature plants (Blomme 2000). Therefore, methodologies for fast and nondestructive root system assessment have been developed (IITA 1999, Blomme 2000).Due to the strong relationships between shoot and root traits, regression models were obtained to estimate root traits from easily measurable shoot traits (Table 1). More than 90% of the variability in root traits could be explained by the variability observed in shoot traits. However, as the shootroot ratio is dependent on the developmental stage of a plant and on environmental conditions (Blomme, 2000), fine-tuning of these models is still needed for assessing plants grown under different environments.Core root samples taken around a plant can also provide adequate information on the variability in mat root system size (Blomme 2000).  This method only takes about 5% of the time needed to excavate and assess the root system of a mature plant.These alternative methods may provide breeders and especially nematologists with adequate information on the roots of a Musa plant.An increase in soil acidity may enhance the content of exchangeable aluminium (Al) in the soil Research at UCL is focusing on Al toxicity in relation to cation exchange capacity of the roots. Plant roots have cation exchange sites resulting from dissociated free carboxyl groups of organic components in the root cell wall. In bananas, the cation exchange capacity of roots (CECR), as measured in nutrient solution and in soil, can largely vary between cultivars but also between types of roots (Table 2) (Rufyikiri 2000). The values of CECR reported here range between 19 and 48 cmol c kg -1 . These values are much larger than the ones reported by Bhattacharyya and Madhava Rao (1988), which ranged from 6.8 to 13.5 cmol c kg -1 in 'Robusta' (AAA genome group) banana roots. Significant differences are related to the root order (Table 2): firstly the CECR values are larger for the lateral roots than for the cord roots. Secondly, the CECR of 'Kayinja' (Pisang Awak, ABB genome group) cultivar is larger than any other cultivar. All cultivars show a positive correlation between the Al concentration in the roots and the CECR (Figure 4), resulting from the high affinity of carboxyl groups of root cell walls for aluminium. The preference for Al is further shown in Table 2: the fixation of Al on root exchange sites occurred at the expense of other cations, especially Mg which leads to Mg-deficiency symptoms and a reduced plant biomass (Rufyikiri 2000).The proportion of Mg in the sum of exchangeable Al, Ca and Mg dropped from 40% to 6% with increasing Al saturation on roots. Therefore cation absorption may be inhibited by Al competition on root exchange sites and this is considered as one of the numerous mechanisms involved in Al toxicity. The cultivar Kayinja with a large CECR has the largest Al concentration in its roots and is the most sensitive to Al toxicity (Rufyikiri 2000). The presence of Al strongly reduced the dry matter of lateral roots, because these roots have relatively large CECR.In acid soils depleted of nutrients, the interaction between plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi can alleviate Al-toxicity. At UCL, this interaction was studied in banana, using 'Grande Naine' (AAA genome group) and Glomus intraradices as the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus. The uptake rates of water and most nutrients (Ca, Mg, K, NO 3 -N, NH 4 -N, and P) were enhanced by the mycorrhizal   The mycorrhizal plants produced more shoot dry matter than the non-mycorrhizal plants grown in the same conditions with Al (Table 3). Mycorrhization also caused a delay of appearance of Mg-deficiency symptoms, the increase of the concentration of most mineral elements in plant tissues and the decrease of the Al concentration in roots (Rufyikiri 2000). Since no differences were observed between mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal bananas grown in the absence of Al stress, it appears that the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi could be effective in alleviating Al toxicity for banana plants.As there is a functional equilibrium in plant growth, the high reduction in root growth, due to nematode infection, is accompanied by a moderate reduction of above ground growth characteristics. A study conducted by Blomme (2000) showed that the host plant response to a nematode infection depended on the type of planting material (Figure 5). Sucker-derived plants were observed to be less sensitive to nematode infestation compared to in vitroderived plants, confirming observations made by De Waele et al. (1998). For example, the root system of the sucker-derived dessert bananas tolerated higher nematode population densities than the in vitro-derived propagules. The plantains were observed to be highly sensitive to nematodes since moderate population densities caused a severe reduction in root system size.In vitro-derived plants of the plantains 'Obino l'Ewai' and 'Agbagba' (both AAB genome group) were highly susceptible to nematode infection and died during the late vegetative development. This is in accordance with reports by Swennen and Vuylsteke (1988), Price (1994), Binks and Gowen (1996) and Fogain et al. (1996). The fragile roots produced by the juvenile in vitroderived plants may be less resistant to nematodes compared to the more robust and thicker roots produced by young sucker-derived plants.In field experiments in Costa Rica, De Waele et al. (1998) have shown that at least during the first 12 weeks, in vitro-derived banana plants can be severely damaged by Radopholus similis and Helicotylenchus multicinctus even at relatively low nematode densities and that the adverse effects were so great that the damaging symptoms can be expected to continue indefinitely.The effect of endomycorrhizae on Radopholus similis population densities in banana plants was studied under greenhouse conditions by Umesh et al. (1988). They observed a reduction of the nematode population in both the roots and the soil. Moreover, nematode damage to the roots (necrotic lesions in the cortex) was reduced in the presence of endomycorrhizae. For Meloidogyne spp. and Pratylenchus goodeyi, also important banana nematodes, similar results were obtained (Jaizme-Vega and Pinochet 1997, Jaizme-Vega et al. 1997, Pinochet et al. 1997). The suppressive effect of endomycorrhizae (Glomus intraradices) on R. similis was also demonstrated under in vitro conditions using Ri-DNA transformed carrot roots as host tissue (Elsen et al. 2000).In Uganda, differences in nematode population densities and root damage (number of functional roots, percentage of dead roots and necrosis) were observed between 2-to-3-month-old plants grown from sword suckers and the sword suckers of established mats. This suggests a different host plant response to nematode attack by young root systems compared to older root systems (Speijer et al. 1999).   'km5' and 'Gros Michel' are AAA dessert bananas;'Agbagba' and 'Obino l'Ewai' are AAB plantains;   Now in its third phase, the IMTP is set up to test varieties in a wide range of environments. A catalogue of 43 varieties involved in evaluation trials is available from the IMTP database.A comprehensive analysis of Phase II has revealed the excellent performance of three FHIA varieties, FHIA-17, FHIA-23 and SH-3436-9. The full results will be published early in 2000.IMTP trial sites and improved bananas.O bjectives: to make available to National To date, under the partnership of NARS, INIBAP and breeding programmes and researchers, 13 improved varieties and nine landraces have been evaluated in multiple sites. Seven varieties have performed exceptionally well. Three improved varieties (FHIA-01, FHIA-02 and FHIA-03), identified in Phase I, have been distributed to more than 50 countries and are already contributing to better food security for small-scale producers, notably in Cuba, Nicaragua and Tanzania (see regional news).The data from Phase II experiments have been analysed in detail and the results will be available as an INIBAP publication early in 2000. The individual performance and characteristics of candidate and reference varieties in a wide range of environmental conditions are recorded in the IMTP database, which will soon be accessible via the Web and on CD-ROM.For breeding programmes to achieve real improvement in varieties, disease-resistance must be accompanied with high productivity. Diseasetolerance and yields varied widely from site to site according to different levels of management and environmental factors. The FHIA hybrids, however, consistently produced high yields and responded well to improved management (Figure 1). According to their bunch weight averaged across all trial sites FHIA-23 and SH-3436-9 performed best against black Sigatoka (Figure 2), and FHIA-17 and FHIA-23 performed best against Fusarium wilt (Figure 3). The variety GCTCV 119 is also worth noting for its resistance to both races of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). It attained the lowest score for internal discoloration of the rhizome, and also produced good yields under good management.The degree of resistance exhibited by different varieties may be illustrated by appropriate indicators. For black Sigatoka the infection index is a measure of the amount of leaf area that is affected by the pathogen.  bunch emergence (Figure 4). For Fusarium wilt, internal discoloration of the rhizome provided a score of resistance to the disease (Figures 5 and  6). As a means to simplify the evaluation procedure and cut down on the amount of labour involved, these key performance indicators can usefully act as minimum data points. For instance in trials against black Sigatoka the disease development time (DDT) did not provide a reliable parameter for resistance levels, and therefore may be eliminated from trials for the purposes of basic evaluation. On the other hand, the infection index at bunch emergence and the average finger weight both give a consistent measure of degrees of resistance. Now that the IMTP has entered its third phase, changes have been incorporated into the structure of the work programme. The aim is to allow more flexibility for a wider range of national programmes of varying capabilities to participate. Evaluation trials may involve in-depth studies of the performance of varieties against disease and pests, including epidemiological and ecological research, or they may carry out a more simple evaluation of the stability and adaptation of the varieties against local conditions and diseases. Both types of study provide important feedback to breeders, but the latter has a distinct application to extension agents and farmers.New hybrids for inclusion in Phase III are in the process of being virus-indexed (Table 1). Of the three hybrids from FHIA (FHIA-18, FHIA-25 and FHIA-26), the most promising, FHIA-25, and also FHIA-18 are available now for distribution. A further nine hybrids have been supplied by CRBP, IITA and CIRAD. A catalogue of 43 available varieties, an output of the IMTP database, is available and has been sent to 25 potential evaluation sites, along with evaluation guidelines. The regional distribution centres have been equipped with proliferating tissues in order to streamline the distribution of plant material.  A number of members of the Genetic improvement working group met at the \"International Symposium on the Molecular and Cellular Biology of Bananas\" at Cornell University in March. The participation of researchers from private companies provided an opportunity to investigate the scope for developing partnerships between public and private sectors. INIBAP will follow up by examining how the private sector might contribute to the aims and objectives of PROMUSA.The Symposium at Cornell University and the discussions afterwards, heightened the awareness of the rapid progress being achieved in genome research. As a result it was agreed that a Musa genomics initiative should be launched in order to bring together researchers in this field. Its focus will be on all forms of genetic mapping and tools to further the understanding of Musa genomes. The first meeting is planned for early 2000 in Montpellier.A collaborative project on the leaf spot disease caused by Mycosphaerella eumusae is being proposed by the Sigatoka working group. This follows the identification of the causal agent of a Sigatoka-like disease in India as M. eumusae. The extent of the spread of the disease in India and other Asian countries is now under investigation by researchers in the region (see Asia/Pacific news).The third meeting of the Fusarium working group took place at the \"Seminar on Banana and Fusarium Wilt Management: Towards Sustainable Cultivation\", organized by the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) and INIBAP in Malaysia in October. Presentations were made to all seminar participants by working group members.A number of issues regarding Fusarium wilt management were discussed. The needs for training in genetic analysis techniques and the development of a database on Foc diversity were recognized. Such a database could be linked to MGIS to complement information on the response of varieties to Foc.A close link should be established with the Genetic improvement working group in order to collaborate on developing Fusarium resistant varieties. Input was made to the report of the Genetic Improvement working group. Priority areas for research were identified as follows: 1. Development of a plantlet screening test. 2. Collection and evaluation of local germplasm for reaction to Foc.Recommendations were also made with the aim of encouraging participation in IMTP III and ensuring that the results of IMTP phases I and II are put to good use. Training in evaluation protocols is a priority, and the use of varieties with established disease-tolerance by farmers should be promoted.Musa acuminata in India. (Photo: S. Uma, NRCB)Results from research carried out by the Département Amélioration des méthodes pour l'innovation scientifique at CIRAD (CIRAD-AMIS) in 1999 confirm that Radopholus similis may be divided into two genetically distinct groups. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers were used to analyse genetic diversity of nematode populations in India, Zanzibar, Uganda, Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Martinique and Costa Rica. A genetic closeness was evident between populations in India, Zanzibar and Ghana, when compared to populations from the Americas, Nigeria and Cameroon. Furthermore there is evidence from multiple samples taken from Cameroon, that the genetic diversity between populations is very low, suggesting that the introduction of nematodes into the country may have been a single event occurring in the relatively distant past.The results of the genetic analysis using AFLP markers support previous findings using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) or enzyme (e.g. phosphoglucose isomerase) markers. Although more reliable, the technique employing AFLP markers is somewhat labour-intensive. For simple analyses of genetic diversity, RAPD and enzyme markers may be used with confidence.A large part of the present focus on improving Musa varieties through genetic transformation is devoted to the establishment of target materials, namely embryogenic cell suspensions (ECS). At present two methods are being explored at KUL with financial support from DGIC. The first method involves the use of a shoot-tip culture, where the embryogenic potential originates from highly proliferating meristematic tissue. The second method derives material capable of embryogenesis in the form of immature male flowers straight from flower buds. Both types of explant are then induced to form an embryogenic callus, from which somatic embryos may develop.The prolonged use of high doses of benzyladenine (BA), required for adequate proliferation of meristem shoots at the first stage of ECS preparation, can bring about an undesirable decrease in somatic embryogenesis at later stages in the procedure. Alternative media, including elevated sugar level, Paclobutrazol (naphtaleneacetic acid ethyl ester) and shock treatment with BA, have not proved viable. However, higher proliferation rates have been obtained from meristems isolated from in vitro plants rather than from long term meristem cultures.Six new varieties have been introduced to the research programme. The results of the introduction of nearly 9000 scalps on embryogenesis induction medium during the course of 1998 and 1999 are shown in Table 2.The frequency of embyogenesis is low (0.4-2%). Grande Naine and Williams JD presented the highest success rates. En masse inductions of 250 to 1000 scalps provided better chances of obtaining good cell suspensions. Several ECS have been obtained from Grande Naine and Williams JD, one with very good regeneration potential will be cryopreserved. The ITC Burro CEMSA clone has not produced an embryogenic response since the early 1990s. However, researchers at INIVIT have succeeded in producing embryogenic complexes from male flowers. Future attempts will, therefore, focus on male flowers in the first place and on newly established meristem cultures in the second place. Likewise, little success has been achieved with Calcutta 4 and highland bananas. The only highland banana variety to have produced an embryogenic response is Nakitengwa. The cultures produced are vulnerable to a lethal tissue blackening either at meristem proliferation or scalp induction stages. However, the performance of highland bananas and plantains was better than previous years. Orishele scalps produced embryogenic complexes for the first time.Despite the low success rate, a number of ECS were successfully developed in 1999. Agbagba scalps from April 1998 resulted in an ECS in February 1999. The suspension proved highly regenerative until July 1999, when mitotic activity suddenly ceased. New suspensions have been established from back-ups. An Obino l'Ewai scalp from June 1998 developed distinct embryos, some at a point of producing cotyledons, in January 1999. However, the embryos proved too well developed to establish an ECS. Two ECS have been established from scalps of Orishele after five months on induction medium. Regeneration trials are now in process.Previous trials on male flower buds of Grande Naine and Mbwazirume used material which had travelled for at least three days from the field and failed to provide good quality suspensions. The suspensions from Grande Naine material consisted almost entirely of somatic embryos with few embryogenic clusters. Almost all Mbwazirume cultures succumbed to blackening.Further work was carried out in 1999 by KUL researchers, using fresh flower buds harvested straight from the field. From the 210 Grande Naine male flower buds harvested at Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA) in Tenerife, 6% of the hands became embryogenic. Amongst these seven hands produced suitable material for establishing an ECS. Work is also under way to establish ECS from Mbwazirume at the East and Southern Africa Regional Center of IITA (IITA-ESARC) in Uganda.A number of parameters were investigated, including position of the hand, temperature at which the excised explants were incubated, size of male flower buds and their freshness up to two days old, growth of mother plant in open-air, greenhouse or under cloth. Hands in the position nine to eleven appeared to be the most responsive. Few other trends were obvious. There is a suggestion that open air plants generated more heterogeneous complexes, compared to those protected under greenhouses or cloth.Proliferating meristem cultures have been photographed weekly with the aim of capturing the morphological development of different varieties in order to gain a better insight into the proliferation process and to investigate whether these cultures can be homogenized. The development of meristem cultures of Cachaco, and Williams showed clear differences, which may be explained by the proportions of meristem, corm and leaf tissue present (Figure 7).However, heterogeneneity can also be experienced within one explant. The Cachaco culture in figure 7 shows bulbous structures containing tiny, yellow-white meristems, groups of compact white meristems, and meristems with a glassy appearance all developing next to each other. The major increase in tissue volume occurs when the culture is three or four weeks old. Although the relative growth of meristematic, corm and leaf tissue, may be partly determined by the cultivar type, it seems that it is not solely predictable from the morphological nature of the initial explant.Fortnightly photographs of Brasilero scalps on embryogenesis induction medium have revealed three main patterns of development. A watery callus develops in the first few weeks, where leaf primordia were present. Yellow and white meristematic globules appear at the surface of the scalp between the first and second month. A secondary callus develops on the globules in the following months. Where a successful embryogenic response was achieved, the secondary callus was initially watery, rather than opaque yellow or white, but resulted in a complex of embryogenic cells and small transparent somatic embryos. Over 90% of the scalps showed no embryogenic response and only two (0.5%) explants successfully developed an embryogenic callus. Such a low embryogenic response rate, therefore, precludes any conclusions from being drawn on the relationship between morphological characteristics of scalps on embryogenesis induction medium and their embryogenic capacity. On reflection, it has been decided that the considerable effort to run the time-evolution studies would be better invested elsewhere. No conclusive patterns of morphological change were obtained, neither during embryogenesis induction in scalps nor in proliferating meristem cultures. It may be the case that attempts to ensure homogeneity of proliferating meristem cultures are misdirected. Certainly preliminary findings suggest that heterogeneity in explants is unavoidable, and that patterns in the development of morphologically similar explants can be very different and completely unpredictable.The value of the technique of regenerating plants through ECS is dependent on the stability and behaviour of derived plant material. The frequency of somaclonal variation in ECS-derived plants is one of the factors under examination. KUL is supplying ECS-derived plants for evaluation at different field-testing stations. As there is a link between somaclonal variation and genotype, a selection of varieties: Three Hand Planty and Bise Egome-1 (AAB), Nakitengwa (AAA), Williams (AAA), and Kamaramasenge (AB), are in the process of being tested. ECS-derived plants, along with controls, have been sent to the field sites where they are usually cultivated; Kamaramasenge in South Africa (Institute of Tropical and Subtropical Crops), Three Hand Planty and Bise Egome-1 in Nigeria (IITA), Williams in Israel (Rahan Meristem) and Nakitengwa in Uganda (IITA-ESARC). Results are in the process of being gathered. Factors affecting trueness to type will be investigated in the future.The procedure of genetically transforming plants by Agrobacterium introduction has proved relatively efficient compared to particle-bombardment. The elaboration of an efficient protocol has been the focus of work in 1999.Transgenic plants have been obtained through the introduction of gusA reporter gene into embryonic cell suspensions (ECS) of the Three Hand Planty variety. The average frequency of transformation of cells in four independent experiments was close to 18 plants per cocultivated plate, approximately ten times the rate obtained by particle bombardment (Figure 8). Furthermore, analysis by Southern hybridization, picking up the correct integration of t-DNA, suggests that methods involving Agrobacterium achieved 100% levels of transformation with low (one or two) numbers of insertion sites. Multiple insertions of introduced genes are undesirable, as they can have a gene silencing effect on transformed plants. Further confirmation of these results was provided by a novel anchored PCRscreening method, which revealed 16 out of 20 plants contained only one or two insertions, and also by the observed expression of introduced genes in individual plants. A second gene, gfp, which encodes the green fluorescent protein (GFP) in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria, has been introduced into the plantain. GFP expression in resulting transgenic plants is somewhat simpler to measure and appears to be at a similarly high (97%) level as that of gusA.One of the main objectives for future work is to establish a means to transform banana plants through introducing foreign genes into tissue cultures, rather than cell suspensions, which tend to involve a relatively lengthy preparation with a low rate of output. Observations of plant regeneration in scalps indicate that it may be possible to sidestep embryogenesis and transform scalps directly. Preliminary results are encouraging, with high levels of transient gusA expression apparent in transformed scalps. Selection and regeneration of plants from transgenic scalps will now be attempted. Bananas and plantains are one of the world's most important food crops. Plantains and a wide range of other cooking and dessert banana varieties provide a staple food for millions of people in the developing countries of the tropics, while exported bananas are ranked as the world's most valuable fruit crop. This article examines the nutritional value of this popular, multi-purpose crop, providing information on the chemical composition of the fruit and comparing its nutritional value with other starchy staples and fruits.The nutritional value of any food depends on a wide range of variables, such as its ripeness, the climatic conditions under which it is grown, the quality of the soil, and of particular importance here -the variety. In addition, important differences result from the method of preparation -frying in contrast to boiling for example. Further variation can be introduced according to the techniques used for analysing the exact nutrient content of the food. Given these possible sources of error and variation, the data provided in this paper should be taken as 'best estimates' based on a range of data sources. The pulp of a ripe banana is essentially a sugarrich, easily-digested food. The cooked banana is nutritionally similar to the potato. It contains about 70% water; solid material is mostly carbohydrate (27%); fat (0.3%) and protein (1.2%) contents are generally low. In energy terms, each gram provides one calorie. Eleven vitamins have been recorded and the fruit is considered a good source of vitamins A, B1, B2 and C (Table 1).The main difference between a banana and a plantain is moisture content. The plantain averages about 65% moisture and the banana about 83%. Since hydrolysis, the process by which starches are converted to sugars, acts fastest in fruit of high moisture content, starches are converted to sugars faster in bananas than in plantains. Many cooking bananas have moisture contents that fall in between plantains and dessert bananas. These varieties can be cooked when not completely ripe, but will also ripen sufficiently to be eaten raw.The energy value of a food derives from the sum of its carbohydrate, fat and protein content. In the case of banana and plantain, the carbohydrate fraction is by far the most important. The sugars and starches that make up this fraction are present in varying concentrations according to the state of the fruit's ripeness. The major change during the ripening process in both bananas and plantains is the conversion of starch to sugar.In unripe plantains, starch comprises over 80% of the dry weight of the pulp. The two main components of this starch are amylose and amylopectin, present in a ratio of around 1:5. Sugars comprise only about 1.3% of total dry matter in unripe plantains, but this rises to around 17% in the ripe fruit (Ogazi, 1995). In bananas, starch levels in the unripe fruit are around 20%, and this declines to 1-2% in fully ripe fruit, while at the same time the soluble sugar increases from less than 1% to 20%. During ripening, the sugars are in the approximate ratio of glucose 20 : fructose 15 : sucrose 65. Only traces of other sugars are found (Simmonds, 1966). As there is a close correlation between the starch-sugar ratio and peel colour, the ripening process is marked by the peel turning yellow.The high sugar content in a ripe banana is unusual in a fresh fruit. It supplies almost double the energy of an apple and nearly three times that of citrus fruits (Table 1).Non-starch polysaccharides (collectively known as fibres) include crude fibre, cellulose, pectic substances, hemicellulose and other polysaccharides. Unripe plantain pulp has a total of 3.5% dry matter as cellulose and hemicellulose and therefore constitutes a good source of dietary fibre.In relation to dry weight, total protein value of plantains is around 3.5% in ripe pulp, slightly less in unripe fruit and in bananas. As a starchy staple food, plantains supply about 1 g protein/100g edible portion (Table 1). As a healthy adult requires about 0.75 g protein/kg/day, plantains alone cannot meet adult protein needs. The amino acids with the highest concentrations in plantains are arginine, aspartate and glutamine. The most limiting amino acid is methionine, and since soybean is relatively rich in this, plantain and soybeans make a good nutritious combination.The fat content of plantains and bananas is very low, less than 0.5%, and so fats do not contribute much to the energy content. Although the total lipid content remains essentially unchanged during ripening, the composition of fatty acids, especially within the phospholipid fractions has been observed to change, with a decrease in their saturation (Ogazi, 1996).Bananas and plantains are a good source of vitamins A (carotene), B (thiamin, niacin and riboflavin and B6) and C (ascorbic acid) (Table 2). Processing and cooking will affect the vitamin content, thus bananas eaten ripe provide a better source of vitamins than cooked bananas and Although bananas and plantains do not provide a particularly good source of several important minerals in human nutrition, such as calcium, iron and iodine, they are notably high in potassium and low in sodium.Ripe bananas are one of the most rapidly digested foods (Table 3). Eating several ripe bananas provides a readily available supply of hundreds of calories. For this reason, bananas are recommended to people who need large amounts of glucose in their blood to maintain adequate levels of muscle action. This includes particularly sports players and manual labourers.A sedentary adult has an energy requirement of around 2,400 calories per day. If this is all to be supplied from bananas or plantains, it would mean eating about 24 fruit per day. Such a diet would by itself be unsatisfactory, being deficient in fat and protein, but it would be balanced by the addition of abundant milk.The energy density of bananas and plantains is, in fact, fairly typical of other starchy staples, but in comparison with cereals they do badly. In their dry state, rice, wheat flour and maize all have nearly triple the energy value of plantains. However, the amount of water absorbed during preparation has a major impact on energy density. Plantains are considered palatable at a lower water content than maize, thus boiled and mashed banana or plantain may prove to be a higher energy staple than maize porridge (Chandler, 1995). Similarly, the calorie value of rice drops by almost two thirds when boiled, to only 123 kcal/100g. If plantain is prepared by frying, the oil used will considerable boost its energy value. As mentioned above, plantains are low in protein content. Such deficiency is likely to be most significant for growing children. Small children have a proportionally higher energy and protein need than do adults and yet they have a lower capacity to take in foods. For example, a boy of 2-3 years needs an estimated daily average energy intake of around 1,350 kcal. In plantain terms, this means, 1 kg of food, but this will only provide 10 g of the 15 g of protein recommended. Therefore a child living on an unsupplemented plantain diet must accommodate over a kilogram of the fruit per day. This may be difficult for a three-year-old stomach. For children, therefore, it is especially important that a plantain diet is complemented by other foods of greater energy and protein density, beans or meat for example. This is normally the case. Where starchy bananas provide the staple food, it is customary for them to be prepared with another food or with a sauce (Chandler, 1995).Ripe bananas, being one of the most easily digested foods (Table 3), are widely used in the nutrition of infants and of people suffering from various intestinal disorders. Bananas also have a special place in diets low in fats, cholesterol and salt. Sodium is present in trace amounts while the potassium level is around 400 mg/100g pulp. Because of the low lipid and high energy value, bananas are recommended for obese and geriatric patients. Bananas are useful for the treatment of peptic ulcers, infant diarrhoea, in coeliac disease (sufferers of this disease normally have a marked intolerance to carbohydrates, but are able to digest bananas readily) and in colitis.The high carbohydrate and low fat content of the banana makes it suitable for low fat diets.Certain compounds in banana behave like angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors.ACEs govern the release of angiotensin-2, a substance which has the effect of causing a rise in blood pressure through the constriction of blood vessels. Indian researchers report the ACEinhibiting properties in six varieties of bananas. This finding confirms earlier studies in USA suggesting that potassium-rich foods such as banana help reduce blood pressure. In tests in India, two bananas a day resulted in 10% drop in blood pressure within a week (Anon, 1999).Many starchy staples contain small amounts of potentially toxic substances and anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors. For example, cassava contains toxic cyanogenic glycosides and the potato, glycoalkaloids. In contrast, bananas and plantains do not contain significant levels of any toxic compounds. They do however contain high levels of serotonin, dopamine and other biogenic amines. Dopamine is responsible for the enzymic browning of sliced bananas.Reports that serotonin intake at high levels from plantain is implicated in the aetiology of endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF), a thickening of the heart wall (Foy and Parratt, 1960), have now been largely discounted (FAO, 1990).Humans have been gaining nutrients from bananas for several thousand years. For the last hundred years it has been one of the few food crops to be enjoyed on a truly worldwide scale, on the tables of families, from the highest-income to the lowest in all parts of the world. Its texture, taste, its convenience, ease to eat, and low cost to grow, as well as its nutritional value, have all contributed to this success. Whether sweet or savoury the banana has a considerable, if frequently undervalued, role to play in global human nutrition.   A new project has commenced in the Great Lakes region, aiming to analyse the factors affecting banana diversity maintained in farmer's fields and to encourage the conservation of these resources through their utilization.Plantains are also city-dwellers Banana and plantain are commonly found growing in cities. They are easy to manage and fruit all year round. Improved varieties and multiplication technologies are being introduced into three West African cities in order to boost the yields of urban banana agriculture. LACNET becomes MUSALACThe Regional Network for Latin America and the Caribbean (LACNET) is to be re-launched in June 2000 as the Plantain and Banana Research and Development Network for Latin America and the Caribbean (MUSALAC). The change of name reflects a recent move to establish the regional network within the framework of an appropriate body in the region. Foro Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe (FORAGRO) will duly form the platform for MUSALAC.The agreement of cooperation, upon which the MUSALAC network will be operating, was formulated at the annual Steering Committee meeting in Havana, Cuba, attended by 35 scientists from 14 countries. INIBAP will continue to support the network by providing a secretariat.A new Musa network was launched in Venezuela, created under the auspices of the Fondo Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias -Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (FONAIAP-CENIAP). This represents a significant step towards strengthening coordination at a national level. The first meeting of network members has already taken place, with financial support from INIBAP.Seven agreements were put in place in 1999 between INIBAP and network partners to conduct various activities with the support of the UK Department for International Development (DFID) (Table 1).Several training events took place in the region with the involvement or sponsorship of INIBAP. Courses on various aspects of plantain production were organized in Panama, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Dominican Republic, and were attended by 240 participants in all. One of the chief aims of these courses was to transfer technology developed at CORPOICA in Colombia to other countries in the region.The cooperation between the Peruvian government and INIBAP enters its second year. Close to 1000 ha of bananas are being rehabilitated using organic farming techniques. The first batch of bananas are expected to be ready for export in the beginning of 2000. INIBAP continues to coordinate training and provide technical advice. Two courses on \"Organic Banana Production\" took place in June and were attended by nearly 200 farmers and technicians. The experience attained from the project will provide a sure foundation for organic banana production elsewhere in the region.A meeting was organized by INIBAP, in partnership with the CAB-International (CABI), Centro para el Desarrollo Agropecuario y Forestal, Inc. (CEDAF), and Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), for all parties involved in the production and marketing of bananas in the Caribbean. The aim was to focus on the potential of organic bananas as an alternative product for small-scale farmers, in the light of World Trade Organization rules regarding preferential banana trade with European countries. Experience in the Dominican Republic has shown that organic production can result in increased revenues for small-and medium-scale farmers.Various activities, supported by Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas (INIA), took place under the agreement of joint research and reciprocal scientific exchange between ICIA, in Tenerife, and INIBAP. Six LACNET scientists visited ICIA. Information was shared on irrigation and drainage, agricultural extension, nematodes, white fly and industrial utilization of banana and plantain by-products. A workshop was also organized with the help of the regional coordinator for LACNET on the \"Potential of Cooking Bananas for the Subtropics\". Experts from all four regions shared their experiences.Since 1996 Universidad de León (UNAN-León) and Vlaamse Vereniging voor Ontwikkelingsamenwerking en Technische Bijstand (VVOB) have been running a project in 34 Networking banana and plantain Nicaragua with the technical assistance of KUL and contributions of germplasm from the INIBAP genebank. The project's main aim is to see through the introduction of new banana varieties, from validating and distributing new material to teaching cultivation and multiplication techniques to farmers in the field.Technicians at the UNAN tissue culture laboratory have benefited from training and experience. Eventually, part of the annual plant production will be sold in order to sustain the running of the laboratory. In 1999, 6000 plants were produced ready for planting in the rainy season. Farmers are provided the plants for free in exchange for a single sucker one year later. In preparation for 2000, 16 varieties are being multiplied to produce at least 15 000 plants.Workshops are being organized, in collaboration with the extension unit at Centro de Enseñanza Técnica Agropecuaria (CETA-Chinandega), to train farmers in Musa production and pest management. More than 200 people attended the workshops in 1999. Follow-up visits and impact assessment studies are under way.INIBAP currently sponsors, in conjunction with VVOB, the position of an associate scientist at CORBANA. Since 1998, a number of studies on nematode populations have been initiated with the ultimate aim of achieving sustainability and high productivity in banana production with minimal use of nematicides.In 1999, populations of Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus sp. were isolated from bananagrowing areas in Costa Rica, and multiplied in vitro in order to compare their pathogenicity and growth. The results suggest that by inoculating plants with R. similis at a density of 500 nematodes per 1.8 l of soil substrate, the highest rates of nematode reproduction may be attained. Further work is under way to assess the correlation between nematode numbers, root damage and yield decreases. Experiments have also begun to identify the relationship between contact time of parasite and host with degree of infestation.The INIBAP-CORBANA segregating population project has moved into full swing with the arrival of the first seeds, resulting from a cross between Calcutta 4 and Pisang Berlin, from EMBRAPA. Of the 150 seeds received, 130 successfully grew in vitro. From these, plantlets were selected for multiplication and will serve as future female and male plants for characterization and crossing.An INIBAP intern at CORBANA began work in the Biotechnology Laboratory in 1999. One of the main activities has been to micropropagate plants to support various experiments, including those on nematode growth described above. The effects of different sterilization techniques on the pH of tissue culture medium are also being investigated.To assess the prospects for organic banana production and marketing, specific points for immediate action were identified during the meeting, which are summarized as follows: The international status of the INIBAP regional office in the Philippines was formally recognized in an agreement between the Government of the Philippines and IPGRI. At a workshop in Thailand, funding from Taiwan allowed the national coordinators of INIBAP's Regional Information System for Banana and Plantain in Asia and the Pacific (RISBAP) to be trained on the newly improved MUSALIT and BRIS database package. Discussions focused on how different countries might improve information gathering and submission to centralized data holdings. One obstacle seems to be the translation of non-English literature from vernacular languages, especially in China, Vietnam and Thailand. Bangladesh and Sri Lanka suffer from a lack of computer facilities.The aims of setting up regional capacity to multiply and distribute improved Musa varieties are being gradually fulfilled. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) is funded through ASPNET with support from DFID, to produce tissue culture plantlets of improved varieties to be distributed, field-tested and eventually adopted by farmers in the region.The two hybrids, FHIA-01 and FHIA-03, which showed high performance in the IMTP Phase I trials, have now been given the official go ahead for commercial planting in Malaysia. The Minister of Agriculture for Malaysia, Dr Sulaiman bin Haji Daud, and the Director General of Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Dr Sharif Ahmad, launched the varieties in front of the international press during the opening of the \"International Seminar and Workshop on Banana Fusarium Wilt Diseases\". The resistance of these varieties to Fusarium wilt and black Sigatoka allows them to be grown in disease-prone areas, which up until now have been left abandoned. The intention is to add to the diversity of bananas grown in the region, rather than replace either local or Cavendish varieties. If the new varieties are accepted by farmers, it is hoped that they will bring about an upturn in the local banana industry.  8(2):37-39) and a full report of the workshop results will be published in 2000.The system of nomenclature followed was that of Cheesman and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, which uses a three-tier system of species names, genome group and variety name. Tidying up the catalogue of banana names has very positive repercussions for breeders and the keepers of germplasm collections, who may now filter out duplicate accessions more efficiently.Malaysia hosted an \"International Seminar and Workshop on Banana Fusarium Wilt Diseases\", which was co-organized by INIBAP and MARDI. The effects of Fusarium on production were particularly noted in the Asian and Pacific region, where a very virulent strain of Foc, known as Tropical Race 4, has appeared in Australia and devastated new commercial plantings of Cavendish in Malaysia and Indonesia.As part of the battle against the disease, new techniques are being developed to establish the genetic diversity of the fungus and provide a picture of the distribution of virulent strains. A technique using DNA amplification fingerprinting has been found to be speedy and reliable. In Taiwan new resistant varieties have been developed, through the selection of somaclonal variants, and planted on a commercial level. Their success, accompanied by a strict regime of using disease-free planting material, is believed to have steered the national banana industry away from disaster. The same approach is being tested in Malaysia and South Africa.Within the framework of an agreement between IPGRI and ICAR in India dating to 1996, INIBAP has been collaborating with NRCB and NBPGR. Since their workplan on banana research and development was put into operation, a number of activities have taken place to forward their aims of ensuring the conservation and safe movement of banana germplasm.Of the 30 accessions collected during the exploration of Assam, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, 20 are now successfully established in the field. They have been characterized and evaluated, and half of them are duplicated in vitro at the genebank at NBPGR. The plants from higher altitude sites have not established so successfully in the field. An effort will be made to recollect fresh material.As part of the general workplan, INIBAP has supplied NBPGR with some of the more popular banana accessions, 114 to date, for mass multiplication and distribution in India. NBPGR will provide plants to researchers on request. A number of these accessions have been passed on to NRCB for characterization, in order to confirm their identity and to filter out duplicates. They are at various stages of establishment and characterization. The details of those accessions which are fully characterized have been provided to INIBAP using MGIS.INIBAP is funding RIF, through support from DFID to evaluate a management strategy to combat blood disease in Lampung in Sumatra. The strategy is currently in use against Bugtok, a bacterial fruit rot disease, in the Philippines. Sanitising tools and early removal of the male flower bud has helped to bring down the incidence of infection quite dramatically, and the practises have been accepted by Philippine farmers. There is hope that they may also be useful in Indonesia, where blood disease, a similar disease to Bugtok, is spreading and causing serious damage to crops of cooking bananas. The outcome of the first year of trials is promising. The measures have proved effective against blood disease and farmers appear to be satisfied with the results. The aim now will be to expand the programme to other parts of Indonesia and assess the overall effectiveness of the strategy in managing the disease.Researchers from Asian countries are working together to gain an understanding of leaf spot diseases in the region. INIBAP will collaborate with national research organizations to investigate the source and distribution of leaf spot diseases in India, China, Malaysia and the Philippines. The prevalence of black Sigatoka, Mycosphaerella fijiensis, in the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and South Pacific Islands is well known. Recently, however, Sigatoka-like symptoms have been observed in countries, where, so far, the disease has not been recorded. The pathogen causing these symptoms has been isolated and identified from samples taken from India, China, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Thailand. Its scientific name is Mycosphaerella eumusae. There are serious concerns over the disease, given the virulence of its cousin, black Sigatoka.Within the PROMUSA framework, INIBAP has initiated a collaborative project, with funding from DFID, to evaluate transgenic bananas from Queensland University of Technology (QUT) at the University of the Philippines at Los Baños (UPLB). The screenhouse at the Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB/UPLB) has been specially improved to meet biosafety standards. The transgenic varieties will be tested for their resistance to banana bract mosaic virus and banana bunchy top virus.The relationship between bananas and nematodes in Vietnam is being investigated at the Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute (VASI)  The exploration team in India.(Photo: S. Uma, NRCB)• establishing an in vitro culture of Pratylenchus coffeae, • field and greenhouse experiments to screen Vietnamese varieties for resistance or tolerance to nematodes.Collecting missions in Vietnam in 1994 and 1995 have provided more than 80 varieties and wild species, which may harbour forms of resistance or tolerance. Preliminary screening indicates that none of the 17 genotypes tested showed significant resistance to Meloidogyne spp., but that the varieties Tieu Xahn (ITC1406; AAA), Tay But (ITC1367; AA) and Tien (ITC1368; AA) showed signs of resistance to P. coffeae. Experiments in the greenhouse suggested that infection with P. coffeae had no significant effect on the performance of plants, whilst Meloidogyne resulted in an increase in the weight of the root system. The effects of these nematode infestations on yield from economically important plantations are in the process of being assessed.Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp., lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus coffeae, and spiral nematodes, Helicotylenchus multicinctus, were found during the survey of banana plantations. Up to the present, Radopholus similis, the most serious nematode pest, has only been found on coffee or durian plants in Vietnam. As part of the future workplan, further surveys will check any possible occurrence of Radopholus on bananas.Efforts of raising the public profile of ASPNET and RISBAP, through publications and public awareness, brought about considerable successes in 1999. The number of issues of the RISBAP bulletin have doubled since last year, with publications coming out in March, May, August, October, November and December. A total of 411 publications, including 17 additional titles relating to research in the region and INIBAP publications, were distributed in 1999. ASPNET have received 495 contributions of bibliographic information from six different member countries. The data have been imported into the RISBAP database and will be submitted to INIBAP for incorporation into MUSALIT.Finally the local media were attracted to the meetings on Fusarium wilt in Malaysia and Virus management and training in Sri Lanka. The workshop in the Philippines on Banana Cultivar Names and Synonyms brought about a wider international interest. United Press International journalists covered the event and the ASPNET coordinator was interviewed live on British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) radio. The main cause of curiosity to the outside world was the fact that so many banana varieties existed.Representatives of Banana Research Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (BARNESA) Steering Committee convened at the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) for their fifth annual meeting. It was recommended that the network should adopt a more market-orientated approach. A change in the composition of the Steering Committee, at present being almost exclusively researchers, will be addressed. The contents of the strategic plan also will be reassessed.Taking advantage of the presence of committee members, a training course took place on the use of logical frameworks as a tool for project development and management. As one of the exercises, participants drafted a logical framework for a proposed integrated pest management (IPM) project, which has since been accepted for funding.A proposal submitted to the European Union has resulted in BARNESA being classified as an emerging network within the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA) portfolio. This will qualify the network for funding to develop linkages and partnerships between NARS.A project which aims to encourage in situ conservation of banana genetic resources through sustainable utilization was initiated in the Great Lakes region with funds from the IDRC. Researchers will try and uncover the factors influencing farmers' decisions to conserve or discard diversity and find ways of addressing the causes behind genetic erosion. • support farmers and scientists in the evaluation and conservation of banana varieties, • support research and conservation activities at all levels.Planning meetings have been held in both countries and a workplan developed. Teams have been established in two sites in both Uganda and Tanzania, and a genetic resources specialist and a socioeconomist have been brought into the study.The successes of the Kagera Community Development Programme (KCDP), a Belgium-40 Networking banana and plantainThere are growing pressures on smallholder farmers who maintain genetic diversity in the form of local cultivars. Increased human population numbers, poverty, land degradation, environmental change and the introduction of modern crop varieties have contributed to the erosion of genetic resources in crops. The only way of conserving the dynamic processes of crop evolution and the knowledge surrounding it, is through in situ conservation and utilization of local varieties.its conservation by farming communities and other groups. Data are being collected and analysed on a range of variables concerning farmers and their crops. The project is participatory and parties at all levels are represented in its development. More information may be obtained from the web site at http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org Tanzanian bilateral programme, have been reported in the past two Annual Reports. In 1997, 15 improved banana varieties, supplied by the INIBAP genebank, were introduced into Kagera, a region which had been experiencing declining banana production during a critical period of population boom. In 1999 a further five new varieties were made available in the form of 25 000 plants obtained through tissue culture at KUL. Collaboration with NGOs, schools, district extension services, Ministry of Agriculture and farmers has allowed the KCDP to carry out programme activities in all five districts in the region. This involves setting up means for multiplication, demonstration fields and test plots.Open days have been organized at which farmers and extension workers are able to become familiar with and taste samples of the improved varieties. They can also receive training on good husbandry. Planting of the new varieties started on a large scale towards the end of 1999. More than 20 000 suckers have been distributed through extension services and weekly markets. The performance of FHIA-17, FHIA-23 and SH3436-9 has been impressive, generating high demand for planting material. Yangambi Km5, FHIA-01, Pelipita and FHIA-03 also were very popular. According to local taste the improved varieties do not quite match traditional types, but they are still better appreciated than other staple foods.People farming all types of agricultural land, from areas which have suffered high pest and disease infestations to those experiencing overproduction, are eager to plant the new varieties: the input of new genotypes increasing biodiversity as well as yields. The impact of the introduction of the new varieties is being monitored by the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI-Maruku) and KCDP. They will focus on the number and yield of local and improved varieties in farmer's fields. The diffusion of new material indirectly into farmer's fields from demonstration fields and test plots is also being monitored.Elsewhere in Tanzania KUL is supporting a project to supply one of the NGOs collaborating with KCDP called Action by Churches Together (ACT) in Arusha with new banana germplasm from the INIBAP genebank. ACT is responsible for multiplying the material and distributing suckers to farmers. A total of 17 varieties have been supplied. Nearly 1500 plants are now growing at two different farms. Trials on the fruit have taken place, and their uses as a dessert banana, for frying and cooking and for making beer have been assessed by the local population (Table 2).The third steering committee meeting took place in Côte d'Ivoire. Recommendations were made that: 1.the diversity of Musa in the region be collected, characterized and documented 2.technologies available in the sub-region be recorded and distributed through fact sheets or other publications 3.a special meeting take place in 2000 to report on the collection of baseline data and to discuss the development of a regional research programme with a bottom-up approach.The demand for training in characterization methods, scientific writing, development of logical frameworks and IPM was also expressed. In an attempt to keep a record of research activities, each country has been given the task of preparing a monograph on current Musa research and development. Each will also contribute through a questionnaire to a central database.One of the priority activities identified at the creation of MUSACO was the establishment of baseline information on plantain and banana production. For data to serve their purpose, they should be standardized and comparable across different geographical areas. As a first step to achieving this goal a six-day course, financed by the African Development Bank (AfDB) and organized by INIBAP, IITA and CRBP, took place to train NARS representatives from different member countries in data collection methods. Statistical sampling, accessing secondary information and criteria for planning surveys were covered. The next step is to seek funding to carry out national surveys.INIBAP has signed letters of agreement with seven national institutes in the region to carry out evaluations of improved varieties. CRBP is providing tissue culture plantlets of 11 varieties. Trials will take place, firstly, in Nigeria, the largest producer in the region, and Gabon, where bananas are actually imported to help supply the highest per capita consumption of bananas in the region.The Tissue Culture Laboratory at CRBP holds 66 accessions originating from the INIBAP genebank; these are maintained for multiplication and distribution within the region. Varieties are distributed for evaluation, for use by farmers and research programmes and for projects, such as the periurban project described below. In 1999, 3370 plantlets were requested (See map).CRBP is host to an INIBAP intern who is involved in attempts to carry out somatic embryogenesis from male flower buds of Galéo, Grande Naine and French Sombre. The experiments resulted in limited success. The percentage production of embryogenic calluses was low in some cases, possibly because of nonoptimum conditions in the culture room. The construction of a new cold room will help improve conditions for future tests.The INIBAP/VVOB Associate Scientist seconded to CRBP has been managing a programme since last year to develop an integrated pest management strategy against the banana weevil borer (Table 3). Four species of weevil are present in smallholders' fields in southwest Cameroon: Cosmopolites sordidus, Metamasius hemipterus, M. sericeus and Pollytus melleborgi. Weevil larvae bore into the corm and weaken the plant, resulting in high plant mortality, reduced bunch weight and reduced hand number. The most severe infestations are caused by C. sordidus. Plantains appear to be most susceptible.In the laboratory, young plantain suckers, dipped in 20% neem solution have been found resistant to weevil attack for up to three months. Exposure to neem brings about a decrease in the fecundity of female weevils, rates of oviposition and hatching of eggs, resulting in a reduction in sucker mortality by 25-30% (Figures 1-2). However the toxicity of neem on adult weevils is low compared to other insecticides, which helps to explain why crushed neem seeds applied to the crown of the plant has no effect.Wood ashes, which are regularly used by 30% of households in Cameroon, have proved a moderate repellent but do not decrease oviposition, hatching or adult survival. Coffee husks had no effect whatsoever, but hot pepper blocked the hatching of eggs and had a moderate repellent effect on adults (Figure 3). A combination of neem and household ash, perhaps with a conventional insecticide or biological agent to control adults, may prove a useful combination.Tests are in the process of examining the effectiveness of other forms of control, such as pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi and baited traps, and also the population dynamics of the pest, and the presence of resistance in 60 banana varieties. Until now, none of the breeding programmes has been selecting for weevil resistant genotypes, despite their potential Regional distribution of plantlets from CRBP economic value, particularly to smallholders. CRBP, with its strong bias on plantains, is now targeting weevil resistance in its breeding programme.The continuing population rise in urban areas in developing countries, has resulted in a flourish of agricultural planting in every available space. Bananas suit the city life by being easy to manage and fruiting year-round.  The main activities of the year have been focused on the development of electronic communication tools and on increasing the flow of information from regional networks.The end of the year was marked by the launch of the new INIBAP Web site in English. Its development was a tightly coordinated effort, with collaboration from IPGRI for layout and design, and from CIRAD for technical input. French and Spanish versions of the site will be available in 2000.For the first time, versions of MUSALIT and BRIS are available on-line and will be regularly updated. The full text of a wide selection of publications, including the annual report, INFOMUSA, fact sheets, technical guidelines, meeting proceedings etc., may be downloaded. A list of accessions at the INIBAP genebank is also accessible. A number of products are still to be added, including MGIS and the Musa thesaurus.A Web site, whilst providing an important tool for public awareness, also keeps track of the numbers and duration of visits. This provides an automatic indication of the popularity and uses of the site amongst different visitors, and will contribute to the ongoing evaluation of the impact of INIBAP programmes and products.For the first time, most of the publications from 1998 and 1999, and all of the technical guidelines, fact sheets, the latest proceedings and the databases MUSALIT and BRIS will be available electronically in the form of a CD-ROM. This represents a particular effort to reach users of INIBAP information who do not have access to the Web. The production was financially supported by CTA and technical assistance was provided by CIRAD. New publications and versions of the databases will be published in this form every year from now on.By the end of 1999, MUSALIT, a bibliographic database concerned with all aspects of research into banana and plantain, contained a total of 5367 abstracts. Over 500 new records originated from the regional networks, Servicio de Información y Documentación Sobre Banano y Plátano (SIDBAP) in Latin America and RISBAP in Asia. A special effort also was made to add new researcher profiles to BRIS, the database of Musa researchers. As the result of a survey carried out in 1999, more than 150 researchers' details were added or updated. BRIS now holds 824 records of researchers.Both The existence of INIBAP services appears to be appreciated by a wider audience than ever before. Queries to the information answering service reached an all-time high, with a total of 513 requests being dealt with in the year. The effects of the launch of the Web site and MUSADOC on the popularity of the service will be monitored with interest over the course of 2000.F.E. Rosales, S.C. Tripon and J. Cerna (eds). Proceedings to the meeting on the production of organic banana, held in Costa Rica in July 1998 (in English and Spanish). Orjeda, G. 2000 (compil.). Evaluating bananas: a global partnership. Results of IMTP Phase II.Increasing subscribers also suggest that INIBAP continues to achieve significant public outreach through its printed publications. Musarama is now distributed to 1752 subscribers, and INFOMUSA is sent to 1965 subscribers. An additional 1580 publications were sent upon request.A new pest fact sheet on nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica was printed. Two sets of proceedings were published. These were on the \"Mobilizing IPM for sustainable banana production in Africa\" seminar held in South Africa, and the \"Bananas and food security\" symposium, the first meeting to address socioeconomic aspects of non-commercial banana production, held in Cameroon.A number of unique works also came out in print for the first time. In collaboration with FHIA, the banana score cards of Dr Paul H. Allen have been brought out in a 364-page book, as a tribute to his life's work.Financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation allowed the Ph.D. thesis of Dr D.A. Karamura, \"Numerical taxonomic studies of the East African Highland Banana (Musa AAA-East Africa) in Uganda\", submitted to the University of Reading in January 1998, to be published. The study examines the genetic variation existing in the East African Highland banana and attempts to establish a classification and identification system. Finally another life's work is published in the form of Dr Ken Shepherd's book on \"Cytogenetics of the genus Musa\". This provides a welcome source of information on an area of research which has been, up until now, much neglected. However, with the recent resurgence of interest and the establishment of new methodologies to study Musa karyology this production is very timely.Members of RISBAP met for a training workshop in Thailand in September. During the workshop the new versions of MUSALIT and BRIS were introduced, and the system whereby data are managed was revised and standardized. Each member was given the responsibility of ensuring the establishment of the new approach at a national level. The constraints in setting up information management and gathering systems at a national level provided a stimulating topic for discussion. Evidently the scope for attracting media attention is wide and varied. Significant public interest was generated in this year's workshop on banana taxonomy in the Philippines. The large number of banana varieties existing in the region drew widespread curiosity from the international press, resulting in the regional coordinator being interviewed live on BBC radio.Paul Allen, along with J.J. Ochse, under the sponsorship of the United Fruit Company, assembled the world's largest collection of bananas, nearly 800 accessions of wild species and varieties, for a major banana breeding programme in Honduras. The collection was recognized by Wilson Popenoe as \"one of the grandest and most successful in the history of plant introduction\". Much of success of the banana breeding programme, now known as FHIA, can be attributed to this collection and Paul Allen's dedicated research on Musa. Paul Allen's untimely death in the Philippines in 1965 prevented him from completing his studies, but by storing information from his score cards electronically and through publishing them, his contribution to the banana research community will continue to reap benefits. Musarama Vol. 12, No. 1 & 2 (English, French and Spanish).Musarama Annual Indexes Vol. 12 (English, French and Spanish). INIBAP web page.Arnaud E.  Avec l'acquisition de 24 nouvelles accessions venant pour la plupart des missions de prospection du Viêt-nam, la collection de matériel génétique de l'INIBAP a atteint 1136 accessions en 1999. La quantité de matériel expédiée dans les différentes régions du monde a doublé : au total, 6654 échantillons ont été distribués. Une demande importante de matériel a été enregistrée pour le travail de caractérisation effectué en France par le CIRAD et en République tchèque par l'Institute of Experimental Botany (IEB).Afin de faciliter la distribution des variétés développées par les programmes d'amélioration, l'INIBAP a élaboré de nouveaux accords pour l'acquisition et pour le transfert du matériel génétique. Ces accords autorisent l'INIBAP à distribuer ces variétés sans restriction, tout en obligeant les bénéficiaires à négocier leur utilisation commerciale directement avec le fournisseur d'origine. Un accord standard de transfert de matériel génétique est également applicable pour la distribution du matériel « désigné » que l'INIBAP détient pour le compte de la communauté internationale.Des progrès important ont été réalisés dans l'évaluation de l'état sanitaire de la collection de matériel génétique. Les trois quarts de cette collection ont été soumis à l'indexation et75 % des accessions indexées sont indemnes de virus et peuvent être distribuées. Les tests de dépistage des contaminants bactériens pratiqués sur 1002 accessions ont donné moins de 5 % de résultats positifs.La banque de matériel génétique de l'INIBAP utilise trois méthodes pour débarrasser les cultures de tissus des contaminants endogènes Bacillus et Mycobacterium. Pour éliminer une infection par Bacillus, il suffit d'isoler et de cultiver des méristèmes d'une dimension de 1 mm. Mycobacterium, qui semble pénétrer plus profondément dans les tissus méristématiques, est plus difficile à supprimer. Néanmoins, en cultivant des plantules en serre pendant six mois, on obtient des explants sains dont la culture fournit du matériel indemne de bactéries.Pour éliminer une forte contamination, on applique des antibiotiques aux cultures de tissus avant d'isoler des explants ou de tenter toute régénération. Sur 10 antibiotiques testés, la rifampicine s'est montrée la plus efficace contre Bacillus circulans et Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare.La Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL) effectue des recherches en vue d'améliorer la survie du matériel génétique après la décongélation. En 1999, les variables suivantes ont été étudiées : • dimension du massif méristématique placé dans le milieu de préculture ; • concentration de BA (benzyladénine) dans le milieu de préculture ; • absence de lumière durant la période de préculture ; • consistance du milieu de régénération ; • durée de la subculture précédant la préculture ; • durée de l'exposition à la solution de vitrification ; • composition de la solution de vitrification.Il s'est avéré que la durée de la subculture sur un milieu à forte teneur en cytokinines avant la préculture des massifs méristématiques exerçait une influence significative sur la survie après décongélation. En portant le temps d'exposition à la solution de vitrification de 30 minutes à deux heures, on a également obtenu une amélioration significative de la viabilité. Ces observations devront être confirmées par de nouveaux essais.On a examiné les effets d'une préculture dans un milieu contenant du saccharose à 0,4 M sur la teneur en acides aminés libres, sucres, acides gras membranaires et polyamines chez différents cultivars. Il en est résulté invariablement une augmentation de la teneur en alanine et tryptophane. On a trouvé une forte teneur en tryptophane chez les cultivars qui sont sensibles au noircissement et se prêtent mal à la cryoconservation. D'après les conclusions préliminaires de cette étude, la fréquence de régénération après décongélation est plus élevée avec une faible teneur en sérine et une forte teneur en glutamine, acide glutamique, isoleucine et acides aminés totaux. Des changements importants ont été enregistrés dans la teneur en polyamines, spermine, spermidine, putrescine et tyramine après la préculture. L'accroissement de la teneur en spermine était en corrélation positive avec le taux de survie après décongélation.Deux types de séquences génomiques intégrées du badnavirus ont été identifiés. L'INIBAP appuie des recherches du CIRAD qui ont permis d'établir qu'un intégrant activable est associé à Musa balbisiana, tandis qu'une autre séquence, partielle et inactivable, est associée à Musa acuminata. Selon une hypothèse qui est à l'étude, le génome de M. balbisiana pourrait contenir un « facteur de déclenchement » responsable du développement du virus de la mosaïque en tirets chez les croisements M. acuminata x M. balbisiana.Les chercheurs de l'université du Minnesota ont découvert des différences fondamentales entre les séquences génomiques des intégrants du BSV présents chez les variétés de génotype AAA comme Grande Naine et Williams, et celles des intégrants présents chez Obino L'Ewai. Leur conclusion préliminaire est que le BSV n'a pas été transféré des hybrides AAAB aux variétés de génotype AAA. La question de l'origine de l'infection de Grande Naine par le BSV à Onne demeure donc irrésolue.Les recherches se poursuivent sur la maladie découverte en 1998 au Nigeria, qui cause un dépérissement partant des parties les plus anciennes des plants de bananiers pour s'étendre progressivement aux parties les plus jeunes. Un antisérum brut a été mis au point. Le virus semble apparenté aux népovirus sur le plan sérologique. L'IITA et les centres d'indexation de l'INIBAP en Australie et en Afrique du Sud ont entrepris de développer une méthode d'indexation sérologique ou basée sur la PCR.Un nouveau potexvirus, détecté en 1998, a reçu l'appellation de virus de la mosaïque légère du bananier (BanMMV). Il est largement répandu, souvent en infection mixte, chez le matériel génétique de bananier. L'INIBAP et la faculté des sciences agronomiques de Gembloux en Belgique sont en train d'évaluer une procédure d'éradication à l'aide d'agents antiviraux, la dihydroxypropyladénine (RS)-DPA et la ribavirine (Virazole®).Le CIRAD-FLHOR a mis au point une technique pour identifier à un niveau fin les clones de M. balbisiana et Australimusa à l'aide de marqueurs microsatellites à séquence ciblée, par électrophorèse non radioactive sur gel d'urée-polyacrylamide (PAGE). Un gel de 38 cm a permis une séparation plus fine des allèles que le gel plus petit utilisé les années précédentes. Seuls les clones des groupes les plus uniformes risquent d'être difficiles à évaluer. On a détecté un petit nombre de divergences entre la classification dérivée de cette méthode et celle qui était attendue d'après les informations publiées.En analysant 461 accessions de l'INIBAP à l'aide de la cytométrie en flux, on a trouvé chez 8 % de ces accessions un degré de ploïdie différent de celui attendu. L'intérêt de cette technique pour cribler de grandes quantités de matériel génétique est évident. On est en train d'affiner la procédure pour M. acuminata et M. balbisiana, et il faudra ensuite faire de même pour les autres espèces.Le MGIS est maintenant disponible dans une nouvelle version plus conviviale (MGIS 2.0). À la fin de 1999, il contenait des données sur 3618 accessions. Le nouveau cédérom a été distribué aux partenaires contribuant au MGIS et lors de l'atelier sur les noms des bananiers tenu aux Philippines.L'INIBAP a analysé les résultats des essais de la phase II de l'IMTP, qui feront l'objet d'une publication au début de 2000. Les données sur la performance et les caractéristiques de chacune des variétés candidates et variétés de référence dans des environnements divers doivent être publiées sous forme de catalogue et enregistrées dans la base de données de l'IMTP, qui seront l'un et l'autre accessibles sur le site Web en 2000.L'indice d'infection au moment de l'émergence du régime et le poids moyen des doigts permettent de mesurer la résistance à la cercosporiose noire de manière cohérente. Ces paramètres peuvent servir d'indicateurs minimaux pour une évaluation simple. Trois hybrides de la FHIA ont invariablement donné des rendements élevés et répondu positivement aux méthodes de gestion améliorées dans l'ensemble des sites expérimentaux.La plupart des nouveaux hybrides qui doivent être inclus dans la phase III ont été soumis à l'indexation pour les virus. La nouvelle variété la plus prometteuse de la FHIA, FHIA 25, est prête à être distribuée. En plus des trois hybrides provenant de la FHIA, neuf autres ont été fournis par le CRBP, l'IITA et le CIRAD. On a approvisionné les centres de distribution régionaux en tissus proliférants et pris toutes les mesures requises pour organiser la distribution du matériel à évaluer.En 1999, des efforts ont été faits pour améliorer les échanges d'informations au sein de PROMUSA. Chacun des cinq groupes de travail a maintenant un groupe restreint et un président afin de faciliter la communication et le fonctionnement du programme. Un projet visant à renforcer le partenariat entre l'INIBAP, l'EMBRAPA et le CIRAD a été soumis au Gouvernement français, qui l'a accepté.Un sous-groupe du groupe de travail sur l'amélioration génétique s'est réuni à l'occasion du « symposium international sur la biologie moléculaire et cellulaire des bananiers » à l'université Cornell. La présence de plusieurs chercheurs de firmes privées a permis de discuter sur le partenariat entre les secteurs public et privé. Il a été décidé de lancer une « initiative sur la génomique du bananier » afin de conjuguer les expertises dans un domaine de recherche qui est en plein essor. La première réunion sur ce thème aura lieu au début de 2000.Le groupe de travail sur la fusariose s'est réuni pour la troisième fois lors du séminaire sur « la fusariose des bananiers : vers une culture durable ». Les participants ont jugé nécessaire de développer la formation à l'utilisation des techniques d'analyse génétique et de créer une base de données sur la diversité de Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). Ils ont reconnu l'intérêt de travailler en liaison avec le groupe de travail sur l'amélioration génétique afin d'identifier des variétés résistantes à Foc et ont apporté des compléments au rapport sur les possibilités de recherche initialement élaboré par ce groupe. Les domaines de recherche prioritaires suivants ont été identifiés : • mise au point d'un test pour cribler les plantules ; • collecte de matériel génétique local et évaluation de sa réaction à Foc ; • recherches sur la fausse maladie de Panama.Dans le cadre du groupe de travail sur la nématologie, le CIRAD-AMIS a mené des recherches à l'aide de marqueurs AFLP (polymorphisme de longueur des fragments de restriction) qui ont confirmé les schémas de diversité génétique de Radopholus similis précédemment mis en évidence à l'aide de marqueurs RAPD ou enzymatiques. Ces résultats montrent qu'on peut se servir avec confiance des marqueurs RAPD et enzymatiques pour des analyses simples. Tandis que la technique utilisant des marqueurs AFLP, qui est relativement laborieuse, peut être réservée aux analyses plus compliquées.Les chercheurs de la KUL étudient différentes techniques pour obtenir du matériel pouvant faire l'objet d'une transformation génétique, à savoir des suspensions cellulaires embryogènes. Pour établir celles-ci à partir de cultures méristématiques hautement proliférantes, il faut utiliser de la 6-benzyladénine pendant un temps prolongé, ce qui peut entraîner une diminution indésirable du taux d'embryogenèse somatique. Les autres milieux ou méthodes testés n'ont pas donné de résultats probants, mais les recherches menées en 1999 montrent qu'on peut améliorer la procédure en veillant à la fraîcheur du matériel végétal utilisé comme source de méristèmes.On a procédé à l'inoculation de près de 9000 massifs méristématiques sur un milieu induisant l'embryogenèse. La fréquence de l'embryogenèse s'est révélée faible (de 0,4 à 2 %). Les meilleurs taux ont été obtenus chez Grande Naine et Williams JD. La KUL a aussi réalisé des essais, en collaboration avec l'ICIA de Ténérife et l'IITA/ESARC d'Ouganda, en utilisant comme source de matériel embryogène des fleurs mâles fraîches (bourgeons tout juste récoltés). Sur 210 bourgeons de Grande Naine testés, 6 % des mains sont devenues embryogènes et sept ont produit du matériel adéquat pour établir une suspension cellulaire embryogène. Afin d'évaluer la variation somaclonale, on a envoyé des plants dérivés de suspensions cellulaires embryogènes de plusieurs variétés dans des sites expérimentaux.Les photos prises dans le cadre d'études sur l'évolution dans le temps de cultures méristématiques proliférantes et de massifs méristématiques sur un milieu induisant l'embryogenèse sont extrêmement instructives, sans toutefois fournir de schémas probants du développement morphologique. L'hétérogénéité des explants méristématiques semble être endogène et l'on constate que les schémas de développement d'explants morphologiquement similaires peuvent être différents et très imprévisibles. Étant donné la faiblesse de la réponse des massifs méristématiques sur milieu induisant l'embryogenèse, il n'a été possible d'établir aucune corrélation entre leurs caractères morphologiques et leur capacité embryogène.La transformation génétique par introduction d'Agrobacterium donne de bons résultats. On atteint des taux de transformation allant jusqu'à 100 % avec un faible nombre de sites d'insertion. Des tentatives préliminaires d'introduction de gènes dans des cultures de tissus au lieu de cultures de suspensions cellulaires ont également donné des résultats prometteurs. Le bureau de l'INIBAP basé aux Philippines a été officiellement doté d'un statut international aux termes d'un accord conclu entre l'IPGRI et le Gouvernement des Philippines.Plus de 60 chercheurs et décideurs se sont réunis au Sri Lanka pour faire le point sur les affections virales des bananiers. Le virus de la mosaïque des bractées et le virus du bunchy top prédominent dans ce pays, où environ 80 % des bananiers sont infectés. Des recommandations ont été formulées à l'issue de cette réunion. Des virologistes de l'université nationale de Taiwan et de l'Horticultural Crop Research and Development Institute (HORDI) ont ensuite conduit un stage de trois jours qui a permis de former 22 chercheurs aux techniques d'indexation basées sur le test ELISA et la PCR.Les coordinateurs nationaux du RISBAP ont suivi une formation en Thaïlande pour se familiariser avec les versions récemment actualisées des bases de données MUSALIT et BRIS. Un atelier sur les « noms et synonymes des variétés de bananiers en Asie du Sud-Est » s'est tenu aux Philippines. Il a eu des échos dans les médias d'autres régions du monde, où la riche diversité des bananiers de la région a suscité un intérêt considérable. Sur une liste de 296 noms de cultivars, 164 ont été retenus comme uniques, dont 102 correspondant à des cultivars endémiques d'un seul pays.Une évaluation est en cours pour déterminer si la stratégie de gestion appliquée pour lutter contre la pourriture bactérienne des fruits aux Philippines peut être reprise contre la maladie du sang à Sumatra. Consistant à désinfecter les outils et à éliminer précocement les bourgeons mâles, elle a donné de bons résultats aux Philippines et a fait preuve de la même efficacité contre la maladie du sang dans la première année d'expérimentation. Les producteurs semblent satisfaits de cette méthode, qu'ils ont commencé à adopter. Les recherches se poursuivent pour évaluer son impact sur la diffusion de la maladie.Au Viêt-nam, un expert associé de l'INIBAP effectue une étude sur les relations entre les bananiers et les nématodes grâce à un cofinancement de l'ACIAR et du VLIR. En collaboration avec l'Institut national des sciences agronomiques (INSA/VASI), il s'agit de cribler les variétés collectées durant les missions de prospection de 1994 et 1995. Les variétés Tieu Xahn (ITC1406), Tay But (ITC1367) et Tien (ITC1368) semblent faire preuve d'une certaine résistance à Pratylenchus coffeae. D'autres activités sont en cours : enquête sur les nématodes dans les plantations commerciales de bananiers, en vue notamment de détecter la présence éventuelle de Radopholus similis, l'un des principaux parasites des bananiers, qui n'a encore jamais été trouvé au Viêt-nam ; établissement de cultures in vitro de Pratylenchus coffeae ; et évaluation des pertes de rendement causées par P. coffeae et Meloidogyne spp.La cinquième réunion du comité de pilotage du réseau BARNESA, tenue au Kenya, a débouché sur la recommandation d'adopter une approche qui soit davantage orientée vers le marché. Dans le cadre de cette réunion, les participants ont suivi un cours qui leur a permis de s'initier à l'utilisation du cadre logique comme outil pour la formulation et la gestion des projets. À titre d'exercice pratique, ils ont élaboré un projet de lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs qui a, depuis lors, obtenu un financement.Le Centre de recherches pour le développement international (CRDI) finance un projet de conservation des bananiers et des bananiers plantain dans la région des Grands Lacs. Il s'agit de favoriser la conservation in situ de la diversité génétique au travers d'une utilisation durable des ressources.Les objectifs spécifiques de ce projet consistent à : • inventorier la diversité génétique des variétés traditionnelles ; • établir des indicateurs pour évaluer l'utilisation des variétés et les pratiques agronomiques des producteurs ; • aider les producteurs et les chercheurs à évaluer et conserver les variétés de bananiers ; • appuyer des activités de recherche et de conservation à tous les niveaux. Le projet opérera en liaison avec le programme mondial de l'IPGRI visant à renforcer les bases scientifiques pour la conservation in situ de la biodiversité agricole.Dans le cadre de deux projets financés par le Gouvernement belge, des variétés améliorées de la banque de matériel génétique de l'INIBAP sont distribuées à des producteurs tanzaniens. Le Programme de développement communautaire de la région de Kagera a ainsi distribué localement plus de 20 000 rejets de 20 variétés améliorées. Une forte demande est enregistrée pour les variétés FHIA-17, FHIA-23 et SH3436-9. L'une des ONG participant à ce programme, l'Action by Churches Together (ACT), multiplie le matériel avec l'appui financier de la KUL pour le distribuer aux producteurs de la région d'Arusha. Près de 1500 rejets ont été plantés dans deux exploitations. Les qualités organoleptiques et l'utilisation des fruits font l'objet d'une évaluation.Des représentants des SNRA de la région ont participé à un cours de six jours sur la collecte de données de référence organisé par l'INIBAP, l'IITA et le CRBP. Ils se sont familiarisés avec l'échantillonnage statistique, l'obtention d'informations secondaires et les critères à utiliser pour planifier les enquêtes. La collecte de données proprement dite constituera la prochaine étape.Quatre espèces de charançons ont été collectées dans des plantations du sud-ouest du Cameroun : Cosmopolites sordidus, Metamasius hemipterus, M. sericeus et Pollytus melleborgi. Parmi ces espèces, C. sordidus est celle qui cause le plus de dégâts. Les bananiers plantain y sont particulièrement sensibles. Un chercheur associé INIBAP/VVOB basé au CRBP mène des recherches en laboratoire et sur le terrain sur les différentes formes de lutte contre ces ravageurs dans le cadre de l'élaboration d'un système de lutte intégrée. Les essais réalisés en 1999 ont permis d'établir que l'application d'une solution de neem aux jeunes rejets les aide à résister aux attaques des charançons pendant une période allant jusqu'à trois mois. Le neem agit sur le système reproducteur des charançons en réduisant les taux de fécondité des femelles, de ponte et d'éclosion des oeufs. D'autres biopesticides, comme les cendres de bois et le piment, ont un effet répulsif modéré sur les charançons adultes. Les recherches se poursuivent pour étudier l'efficacité d'autres méthodes de lutte et la dynamique de population de ces ravageurs. Le CRBP, dont le travail est en grande partie axé sur les bananiers plantain, va lancer un programme d'amélioration sur la résistance des variétés de Musa aux charançons.Du fait de la migration massive des populations rurales vers les villes, l'agriculture urbaine est en pleine expansion et les bananiers deviennent un élément familier dans le paysage urbain. Relativement faciles à cultiver, ils produisent des fruits tout au long de l'année. Dans le cadre du projet d'amélioration de la culture périurbaine de la banane, l'INIBAP, avec l'aide du Gouvernement français, introduit les variétés à haut rendement FHIA-18, FHIA-23, CRBP 39 et Orishele dans les villes de Kumasi et de Sekondi-Takoradi au Ghana, ainsi qu'à Cotonou au Bénin. Dans le même temps, des techniques de multiplication simples sont enseignées aux producteurs.La station de recherche agricole de l'université du Ghana a mis au point, avec l'aide de l'INIBAP, une technique permettant de produire jusqu'à 1000 rejets par an à partir d'un seul rejet de bananier plantain, en utilisant uniquement de l'eau de noix de coco. Cette méthode consiste à injecter 6 à 8 ml d'eau de coco dans la base du rejet tous les deux ou trois jours. Cela a pour effet de ralentir la croissance du méristème apical et de favoriser la croissance radiale, ce qui stimule la formation de plantules par les bourgeons axillaires. Après avoir enlevé les nouveaux rejets, on fend leur bulbe et on les fait germer dans de la sciure humide. On a ainsi réussi à multiplier les variétés de plantains Apem, Apantu et Asamienu. Des essais sont en cours sur d'autres cultivars. Les actes de deux réunions sur la lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs des bananiers en Afrique et sur le rôle des productions bananières dans la sécurité alimentaire ont été publiés. Cette dernière réunion traitait pour la première fois, des aspects socio-économiques de la production de bananes de consommation locale. Plusieurs ouvrages marquants sont également parus cette année. Les fiches signalétiques de Paul H. Allen ont été rassemblées dans un livre de 364 pages, coédité avec la FHIA, qui rend hommage au travail de toute une vie et à la contribution de ce chercheur à l'établissement de la collection de matériel génétique de la FHIA. Un autre livre, de Ken Shepherd, présente les résultats d'un vaste travail de recherche sur la cytogénétique du genre Musa. L'INIBAP a aussi publié, avec l'aide de la fondation Rockefeller, la thèse de PhD de D.A. Karamura sur l'application de la taxinomie numérique à l'étude des bananiers d'altitude d'Afrique de l'Est (Musa AAA) cultivés en Ouganda.Les aspects communication/relations publiques ont été plus amplement développé au cours de l'année. Le personnel de l'INIBAP a reçu une formation dans ce domaine, ce qui a contribué à la multiplication des articles, lettres et communiqués sur la banane et la production bananière dans les médias internationaux.Durante 1999, las actividades de INIBAP en las cuatro principales regiones bananeras se expandieron considerablemente con un total de 30 proyectos de investigación apoyados por INIBAP e implementados por programas nacionales que son sus socios en estos proyectos. Entre estos se encuentran 6 proyectos en Asia, 10 en América Latina y el Caribe y 14 en Africa. En adición, en Africa se iniciaron dos proyectos subregionales, uno de los cuales se enfoca en la conservación de la diversidad de Musa en las fincas en Africa Oriental, y el otro se concentra en el mejoramiento de la producción periurbana de plátanos en Africa Occidental.Los niveles de distribución de germoplasma del banco genético de INIBAP, que aumentó hasta alcanzar 6654 muestras en el transcurso del 1999, refleja la intensidad de las actividades en curso para suministrar germoplasma a los agricultores (por ejemplo, el proyecto periurbano en Africa Occidental, la iniciativa de introducir nuevas variedades en Nicaragua, el Programa de Desarrollo Comunitario de Kagera en Tanzania, etc.) y para realizar evaluación e investigación varietal.Como resultado del funcionamiento de las redes regionales, alrededor de 440 personas fueron capacitadas con respecto a la producción de plátanos y técnicas de cultivo orgánico en América Latina, 22 técnicos en Sri Lanka fueron capacitados por virólogos de Taiwan en la indización de los virus, los miembros del Comité Guía de BARNESA fueron capacitados en el uso de los marcos lógicos, lo que ha traído logros en forma de financiamiento de una propuesta para el manejo integrado de plagas, y la capacitación que han recibido los representantes de los Sistemas Nacionales de Investigación Agrícola (SNIA) en Africa Occidental y Central, en la recolección de información crítica, lo que les ha permitido empezar a recolectar extensos volúmenes de datos. También se realizaron talleres para discutir el cultivo orgánico de bananos en el Caribe, el potencial de los bananos de cocción para los subtrópicos y la consolidación de los nombres y sinónimos de bananos en el Sudeste de Asia. El número total de accesiones en el banco genético de INIBAP ha alcanzado 1136, con 24 nuevas accesiones en 1999, la mayoría de las cuales provenientes de las misiones de recolección en Vietnam. La cantidad del material que sale del banco genético con rumbo a varias partes del mundo se ha duplicado. Se distribuyó un total de 6654 muestras. Hubo una gran demanda del material para el trabajo de caracterización que está realizando CIRAD en Francia y el Institute of Experimental Botany (IEB) en la República Checa. Dos nuevos acuerdos sobre la adquisición de germoplasma y sobre la transferencia de material fueron introducidos por INIBAP para el movimiento de variedadesmejoradas provenientes de los programas de mejoramiento. Los acuerdos permiten a INIBAP distribuir el germoplasma sin restricciones, aunque obliga a los destinatarios a negociar cualquier uso comercial directamente con los proveedores de germoplasma. También se emplea un acuerdo de transferencia de material del CGIAR, para la distribución del material de la colección, bajo responsabilidad de INIBAP.Se hizo un buen progreso en la evaluación de la salud de la colección de germoplasma. Tres cuartos de la colección han sido indizados con respecto a la presencia de virus, y se confirmó que el 75 % de estos está libre de virus y disponible para la distribución. Menos del 5 % de 1002 accesiones cribadas con respecto a la contaminación bacteriana, resultó ser positivo.En el banco de datos de INIBAP se establecieron tres procedimientos para tratar con la contaminación endógena de los cultivos de tejidos con Bacillus o Mycobacterium. La erradicación exitosa de la infección con Bacillus puede ser lograda simplemente aislando y cultivando meristemas de 1 mm de tamaño. Parece que el Mycobacterium penetra más profundo en el tejido meristemático y es más difícil de erradicar. Sin embargo, las plántulas cultivadas en el invernadero hasta que tengan seis meses de edad son una buena fuente de explantes sanos, que luego podrían representar un nuevo material libre de bacterias.Para combatir una fuerte contaminación, los cultivos de tejidos se tratan con antibióticos antes de intentar el aislamiento o la regeneración de explantes. De una muestra de diez diferentes antibióticos, la rifampicina superó a todos los demás contra el Bacillus circulans y el Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare.Los esfuerzos que se realizan en la Universidad Católica de Lovaina (KUL) han sido enfocados en el mejoramiento de la supervivencia del material crioconservado después de descongelación. Durante 1999, se examinaron las siguientes variables : • tamaño del corte meristemático introducido en el medio de precultivo • concentración de BA (benzyladenina) en el medio de precultivo • ausencia de luz durante el período de precultivo • consistencia del medio de regeneración • duración del período de subcultivo antes del precultivo • duración de la exposición en la solución de vitrificación • composición de la solución de vitrificación.La variación de la duración del subcultivo en un medio con alto contenido de citoquinina antes de cultivar previamente los grupos de meristemas, resultó en una influencia significativa sobre la viabilidad después de la descongelación. Aumentar el tiempo de exposición a la solución de vitrificación de 30 minutos a dos horas, también trajo un mejoramiento significativo a la viabilidad después de la descongelación. Se necesita realizar más experimentos para confirmar estas observaciones.Entretanto, se examinaron los efectos del material de precultivo en 0.4 M de sucrosa en diferentes cultivares sobre los niveles de aminoácidos libres, azúcares, ácidos grasos de la membrana y poliaminas. El precultivo con sucrosa siempre resultó en un aumento de alanina y triptofano. Se encontraron altos niveles de triptofano en los cultivares susceptibles al ennegrecimiento y difíciles para la crioconservación. Se hace necesario concluir, que las frecuencias de regeneración después de la descongelación están asociadas con un bajo contenido de serina y altos contenidos de glutamina, ácido glutámico, isoleucina y aminoácidos totales.Se identificaron dos tipos de secuencias integradas de ADN de badnavirus. INIBAP está apoyando la investigación que está llevando a cabo CIRAD y la cual indica que un integrante activable es asociado con Musa balbisiana y otra secuencia parcial y no activable es asociada con Musa acuminata. La hipótesis que se investiga consiste en que M. balbisiana contiene un 'factor de liberación' dentro de su genoma, que es responsable por el desarrollo de la enfermedad del virus del rayado del banano en los cruzamientos M. acuminata, M. balbisiana.Los investigadores de la Universidad de Minnesota han descubierto diferencias fundamentales entre la secuencia de ADN de los integrantes del BSV presentes en las variedades con genotipos AAA, por ejemplo, el Grande Naine y Williams, y aquellos presentes en el Obino L'Ewai. Su conclusión preliminar consiste en que el BSV no fue transferido de los híbridos AAAB a los genotipos AAA. Por lo tanto, la pregunta sobre el BSV -Onne como fuente de infección del Grande Naine, permanece sin explicación.Continúa la investigación sobre esta enfermedad que fue reportada por primera vez en 1998, y que causa la muerte gradual de las plantas empezando por las más viejas y terminando con las más jóvenes. Hasta la fecha, los casos reportados están confinados a Nigeria. Se desarrolló un antisuero crudo. Parece que el virus está relacionado serológicamente con los nepovirus. El IITA, en colaboración con los centros de indización de virus de INIBAP en Australia y Sudáfrica están desarrollando un nuevo ensayo serológico o basado en la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) para la indización del virus.Un nuevo potex virus, reportado en 1998, fue denominado virus ligero del mosaico del banano (BanMMV). Este virus está ampliamente propagado en el germoplasma de banano, con frecuencia en infecciones mixtas. INIBAP y la Universidad de Gembloux en Bélgica están evaluando un procedimiento para su erradicación basada en los agentes antivirales, dihidroxipropiladenina (RS)-DPA y ribavirina (Virazole®).El Département des productions fruitières et horticoles de CIRAD (FLHOR) ha desarrollado una técnica exitosa y muy refinada para identificar los clones de M. balbisiana y Australimusa, utilizando los marcadores de microsatélites marcados con secuencias mediante una electroforesis en gel de urea y poliacrilamida no radiactivo (PAGE). Un gel de 38 cm permitió una separación más fina de los alelos, en comparación con el gel de tamaño más pequeño utilizado en años anteriores. Sólo los clones de los grupos más uniformes pueden ser difíciles de analizar.La citometría de flujo se realizó en 461 accesiones de INIBAP, de las cuales el 8 % mostró una divergencia en los niveles de ploidia del nivel esperado. El valor de esta técnica para el cribado a gran escala de germoplasma es evidente. El procedimiento está siendo personalizado para examinar M. acuminata y M. balbisiana y se requiere de una posterior personalización para poder trabajar con otras especies.Actualmente, el MGIS está disponible en una nueva versión más amigable con el usuario (MGIS 2.0). A finales de 1999, se mantenían los datos de 3618 accesiones. La nueva versión de la base de datos fue distribuida a los participantes del taller sobre los nombres de los bananos en Filipinas y a otros socios que contribuyen con el MGIS.Los datos de la Fase II de los ensayos en el marco del IMTP han sido analizados detalladamente y los resultados estarán disponibles en forma de una publicación de INIBAP a principios de 2000. El desempeño individual y las características de las variedades candidatos y de referencia en un amplio rango de condiciones ambientales, están publicados como un catálogo y registrados en la base de datos del IMTP, que será accesible vía Internet en 2000.El índice de infección durante la emergencia del racimo y el peso promedio del dedo proporcionan medidas consistentes de resistencia a la Sigatoka negra. Estos parámetros pueden ser utilizados como puntos mínimos de datos para propósitos de una evaluación simple. Tres híbridos de la FHIA produjeron consistentemente altos rendimientos y respondieron bien al manejo mejorado a través de los sitios de ensayos.La mayoría de los nuevos híbridos para su inclusión en la Fase III ya están indizados con respecto a la presencia de los virus. La variedad más prometedora de la FHIA, el FHIA-25, está disponible para su distribución. Nueve híbridos han sido suministrados por CRBP, IITA y CIRAD, en adición a los tres proporcionados por la FHIA. Los centros de distribución regional han sido equipados con tejidos en proliferación y también se implementaron otras medidas para racionalizar la distribución del material vegetal en la etapa de preparación para los ensayos de evaluación.El principal enfoque de las actividades en 1999 fue asegurar un eficaz flujo de información dentro del programa. Actualmente, los cinco grupos de trabajo tienen un grupo central de miembros y un presidente para facilitar la comunicación y ejecución de PROMUSA. Una propuesta de proyecto presentada al Gobierno francés fue aceptada, lo que fortalecerá la asociación entre INIBAP, la Empresa Brasiliera de Pesquisa Agropecuaria (EMBRAPA) y CIRAD.Los miembros del grupo de trabajo en Mejoramiento genético se reunieron en el \"Simposio internacional sobre biología molecular y celular de los bananos\" (International Symposium on the Molecular and Cellular Biology of Bananas) en la Universidad de Cornell. Varios investigadores de compañías privadas asistieron a la reunión y brindaron una oportunidad para discutir las asociaciones entre los sectores público y privado. Se acordó que la iniciativa de la genómica de Musa debería ser lanzada para aprovechar el rápido progreso en la investigación del genoma. El grupo se reunirá por primera vez a principios de 2000.El grupo de trabajo sobre el Fusarium se reunió por tercera vez en el \"Seminario sobre el banano y el manejo del marchitamiento por Fusarium : Hacia un cultivo sostenible\" (Seminar on Banana and Fusarium Wilt Management : Towards Sustainable Cultivation). Se reconocieron la necesidad de capacitación en las técnicas de análisis genético y el desarrollo de una base de datos sobre la diversidad de Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc). También se destacó que los esfuerzos de enlace con el grupo de trabajo en Mejoramiento genético, con el fin de identificar variedades resistentes al Foc, fueron beneficiosos y se hizo un aporte al informe sobre las acciones y oportunidades de investigación producidas originariamente por el Ggrupo de trabajo en Mejoramiento genético. Se identificaron las siguientes áreas prioritarias de investigación : • Desarrollo de una prueba para el cribado de plántulas • Recolección y evaluación de germoplasma local con respecto a su reacción al Foc • Investigación del Desorden del Falso Mal de Panamá.La investigación, utilizando los marcadores de AFLP (Polimorfismo de longitud de fragmentos amplificados, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) realizada por el Département Amélioration des méthodes pour l'innovation scientifique de CIRAD (CIRAD-AMIS) en el marco del grupo de trabajo en Nematología, confirma los patrones de la diversidad genética del Radopholus similis que previamente fue ilustrada utilizando el ADN polimorfo amplificado al azar (RAPD) o marcadores enzimáticos. Estos resultados sugieren que el RAPD y los marcadores enzimáticos pueden ser utilizados con confianza en los análisis sencillos. La técnica que emplea los marcadores AFLP es relativamente difícil y sería mejor reservarla para los análisis más complicados.Diversas técnicas para establecer materiales para la transformación genética, a decir, suspensiones de células embriogénicas (ECS), están siendo exploradas en la KUL. Los ECS derivados a partir de los cultivos de meristemas en proliferación envuelve un prolongado uso de 6-benzaladenina, lo que puede causar una disminución indeseable de la embriogénesis somática. Medios o métodos alternativos no son viables, pero una investigación realizada en 1999, sugiere que al asegurar que el material vegetal del cual se obtienen los meristemas sea muy fresco, se mejora el procedimiento.En un gran ensayo sobre la inducción de la embriogénesis, que incluyó más de 9000 cortes, la frecuencia de embriogénesis fue baja (0.4-2 %). El Grande Naine y Williams JD mostraron las tasas más altas de éxito. La KUL colaboró con el Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA) en Tenerife y con el Centro Regional de Africa Oriental y del Sur de IITA (IITA/ESARC) en Uganda, para realizar ensayos en los brotes florales masculinos frescos cosechados directamente en el campo, como una fuente de material embriogénico. Entre 210 brotes florales examinados de Grande Naine, el 6 % de las manos se convirtieron en embriogénicas y siete en total produjeron material adecuado para establecer las suspensiones de células embriogénicas. Las plantas derivadas de las suspensiones de células embriogénicas de una selección de variedades también han sido enviadas a los sitios en el campo con el fin de cribar con respecto a la variación somaclonal.Los registros fotográficos de la evolución de los cultivos de meristemas en proliferación y de los cortes en un medio de inducción de embriogénesis han sido altamente ilustrativos, pero no proporcionaron patrones concluyentes del desarrollo morfológico. La heterogeneidad en los explantes de meristema parece ser endógena, y los patrones de desarrollo de los explantes similares morfológicamente pueden ser diferentes y muy impredecibles. Bajas respuestas embriogénicas en los cortes en el medio de inducción embriogénica impiden hacer cualquier correlación entre las características morfológicas del corte y su capacidad embriogénica.La transformación genética a través de la introducción de Agrobacterium ha dado buenas tasas de éxito. Los niveles de transformación de hasta 100 % se lograron con cantidades bajas de sitios de inserción. Los intentos preliminares de introducir genes más bien en los cultivos de tejidos que en los cultivos de suspensiones celulares, también dieron resultados promisorios.Se formuló un acuerdo sobre la transición de la Red Regional de INIBAP para América Latina y el Caribe (LACNET) en la Red de Investigación y Desarrollo de Bananos y Plátanos para América Latina y el Caribe, MUSALAC), que estará trabajando bajo los auspicios del Foro Regional de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe (FORAGRO). Este movimiento concluye la iniciativa de INIBAP de reunir todas las redes regionales dentro del marco de los cuerpos apropiados en cada región.Siete nuevos proyectos fueron financiados a través de INIBAP, con el apoyo del Department for International Development (DFID, UK). En la región se realizaron cuatro cursos de capacitación sobre la producción de plátanos. Asistió un total de 240 participantes de Nicaragua, Panamá, Venezuela y República Dominicana. Dos cursos sobre la \"Producción de Banano Orgánico\" se realizaron en Perú, a los cuales asistieron más de 200 agricultores y técnicos, contribuyendo a los esfuerzos de rehabilitar 1000 ha de plantaciones bananeras con cultivos orgánicos. En la República Dominicana se llevó a cabo un taller sobre la producción y comercialización de bananos orgánicos en el Caribe. La experiencia del país anfitrión, uno de los principales productores de bananos orgánicos, proporcionó un contexto útil a la reunión. Se hicieron varios intercambios entre el ICIA en Tenerife y LACNET, incluyendo un taller sobre el \"Potencial de los Bananos de Cocción para los Subtrópicos\". Los expertos de todas las regiones del mundo intercambiaron sus conocimientos sobre la materia.La investigación sobre nematodos está siendo llevada a cabo por un Científico Asociado de INIBAP/VVOB (Vlaamse Vereniging voor Ontwikkelingsamenwerking en Technische Bijstand) en la Corporación Bananera Nacional (CORBANA, Costa Rica). El propósito del trabajo consiste en evaluar la correlación entre las cantidades de nematodos, daños producidos a las raíces y disminución de rendimientos. Las poblaciones de Radopholus similis y Pratylenchus sp., procedentes de las áreas productoras de banano en Costa Rica, han sido aisladas y multiplicadas in vitro. Los experimentos se realizaron en las plantas de banano con el objeto de identificar la cantidad óptima de nematodos que podría ser inyectada para obtener los niveles máximos de infestación. Un miembro de INIBAP también empezó a trabajar en CORBANA para investigar las relaciones entre las técnicas de esterilización y el pH del medio de cultivo de tejidos.La situación internacional de la oficina de INIBAP en Filipinas ha sido reconocida oficialmente en un acuerdo entre IPGRI y el Gobierno Filipino.Más de 60 científicos y políticos se reunieron en Sri Lanka para revisar la situación de las enfermedades virales de banano. El virus de las brácteas del banano (BBrMV) y el virus bunchy top del banano (BBTV) son los que prevalecen en el país. Cerca del 80 % de los cultivos están infectados. Se hicieron varias recomendaciones y se celebro un curso de tres días sobre la indización con respecto a la presencia de virus. Los virólogos de la Universidad Nacional de Taiwan y del Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrícolas de Taiwan (HORDI) capacitaron a 22 investigadores en las técnicas de indización basadas en inmunoabsorción con enzimas ligadas (ELISA) y PCR.Los coordinadores nacionales del Sistema Regional de Información para el Banano y el Plátano para Asia y el Pacífico (RISBAP), fueron capacitados sobre las versiones recientemente actualizadas de las bases de datos MUSALIT y BRIS en Tailandia. Se celebró un taller sobre los \"Nombres y Sinónimos de los cultivares de banano en el Sudeste asiático\" en Filipinas. Este taller atrajo un considerable interés de los medios de comunicación fuera de la región asiática, al conocer el público sobre la vasta diversidad de bananos en la región. De una lista de 296 nombres de cultivares, se estableció que 149 representaban cultivares distintos, de los cuales 81 son endémicos de países individuales.Una estrategia que se utiliza para combatir el Bugtok, una enfermedad bacteriana de podredumbre de la fruta, se encuentra bajo evaluación en Filipinas con el fin de utilizarla contra esta enfermedad sanguínea en Sumatra. La práctica de medios de sanidad y la remoción temprana de los brotes de flores masculinas, que ha ayudado a mejorar el manejo de Bugtok, demostraron ser igualmente eficaces contra la enfermedad sanguínea en el primer año de ensayos. Asimismo, los agricultores parecen estar satisfechos con los resultados y están adoptando estas medidas. Actualmente se realiza el monitoreo posterior de la estrategia y de sus efectos, sobre la propagación de la enfermedad.Las relaciones entre los bananos y los nematodos en Vietnam están siendo investigados en el Instituto de Ciencias Agrícolas de Vietnam (VASI), con el apoyo financiero del Centro Australiano para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (ACIAR) y el Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR). Un científico asociado de INIBAP/VVOB está cribando las variedades recolectadas durante las misiones en 1994 y 1995 para detectar la resistencia. Las variedades Tieu Xahn (ITC1406), Tay But (ITC1367) y Tien (ITC1368) mostraron algunos signos de resistencia al Pratylenchus coffeae. Se realizan otras actividades para llevar a cabo una encuesta sobre los nematodos en las plantaciones bananeras comerciales, con un enfoque particular sobre la detección de la presencia del Radopholus similis, una de las plagas de nematodos más seria, que todavía no se había encontrado en Vietnam. Se está estableciendo un cultivo in vitro de Pratylenchus coffeae. También se están evaluando las pérdidas de rendimiento causadas por P. coffeae y Meloidogyne spp.La quinta reunión del Comité Guía de la Red de Investigación Bananera para Africa Oriental y del Sur (BARNESA) tuvo lugar en Kenia, durante la cual se recomendó que la red debiera adoptar un enfoque más orientado al mercado. Los participantes también asistieron a un curso de capacitación sobre el uso de los marcos lógicos en el desarrollo y manejo de proyectos. Se desarrolló una propuesta sobre el Manejo Integrado de Plagas como uno de los ejercicios, la cual ha sido exitosa en atraer financiamientos.El Centro Internacional de Investigación y Desarrollo de Canadá (CIID) está financiando un proyecto de Conservación a través de la Utilización de Bananos y Plátanos en la región de Grandes Lagos. Los objetivos específicos son los siguientes :• Documentar la diversidad genética de las variedades tradicionales • Crear indicadores eficaces para caracterizar los factores que afectan el uso de las variedades y las prácticas agronómicas de los agricultores • Apoyar a los agricultores y científicos en la evaluación y conservación de las variedades de banano • Apoyar las actividades de investigación y conservación en todos los niveles.El proyecto se unirá al Proyecto Global del IPGRI para el Fortalecimiento de la Base Científica de la Conservación In Situ de la Biodiversidad Agrícola.Las variedades mejoradas, provenientes de germoplasma depositado en el banco genético de INIBAP, están siendo distribuidas a los agricultores en Tanzania a través de dos proyectos apoyados por el Gobierno Belga. El Programa de Desarrollo de la Comunidad de Kagera (KCDP) distribuyó más de 20,000 retoños de 20 variedades mejoradas en la región de Kagera. Se generó una alta demanda con respecto a las variedades FHIA-17, FHIA-23 y SH3436-9. Mientras tanto, una de las ONG involucradas en el KCDP, Acción Conjunta de las Iglesias (Action by Churches Together, ACT), está llevando a cabo la multiplicación y distribución del material a los agricultores en Arusha con el apoyo financiero del KUL. Alrededor de 1500 plantas se están cultivando en dos fincas y las frutas están siendo evaluadas con respecto a su sabor y uso.Los representantes de los SNIA en la región han participado en un curso de seis días sobre la recolección de información base, organizado por INIBAP, IITA y CRBP. Se desarrollaron tópicos sobre el muestreo estadístico, evaluación de la información secundaria y criterios para la planeación de las encuestas. El siguiente paso será el comienzo de la recolección de información.Cuatro especies de picudos negros de banano han sido recolectadas en campos en el sudoeste de Camerún : Cosmopolites sordidus, Metamasius hemipterus, M. sericeus y Pollytus melleborgi. De estas, el C. sordidus representa la plaga más seria. Los plátanos son los más susceptibles. El científico asociado de INIBAP/VVOB basado en el CRBP ha estado investigando diferentes formas de control de plagas, tanto en el laboratorio, como en el campo, como parte del desarrollo de un paquete de manejo integrado. Los resultados del trabajo realizado en 1999 han puesto de manifiesto, que la solución de neem aplicada a los retoños jóvenes puede ayudarles a resistir los ataques de los picudos negros por un período de hasta tres meses. El neem afecta el sistema reproductor de los nematodos reduciendo las tasas de la fecundidad femenina, oviposición y eclosión de los huevos. Otros plaguicidas biológicos, como las cenizas de madera y pimienta, tienen un efecto repelente moderado sobre los adultos. Las investigaciones continúan examinando la eficacia de otras formas de control y las dinámicas de las poblaciones de la plaga. El CRBP, con su fuerte interés en los plátanos, está por iniciar el primer programa de mejoramiento para investigar la resistencia a los picudos negros.La agricultura urbana floreciente como resultado de la creciente migración humana a las ciudades, produjo un interés común sobre las plantas de banano cultivadas en el entorno de las ciudades. Los bananos son relativamente fáciles de manejar y fructifican durante todo el año. En el proyecto de la producción bananera en el perímetro urbano, INIBAP, con la asistencia del Gobierno Francés, está introduciendo las variedades FHIA-18, FHIA-23, CRBP 39 y Orishele de alto rendimiento en las ciudades de Kumasi y Sekondi-Takoradi en Ghana y de Cotonou en Benin. Los agricultores también están siendo capacitados en técnicas de multiplicación sencillas.INIBAP está apoyando el trabajo de la Estación de Investigación Agropecuaria de la Universidad de Ghana, que dio como resultado el desarrollo de una técnica para generar más de 1000 retoños por año a partir de un retoño del plátano Apantu, utilizando sólo el agua de coco. La técnica involucra la inyección de 6 a 8 ml de agua de coco en la base de un retoño cada dos o tres días. El crecimiento del meristema apical se vuelve más lento, mientras se promueve el crecimiento radial, lo que da como resultado la estimulación de los brotes axilares de los cuales se forman las plántulas. Los nuevos retoños pueden ser removidos, sus cormos divididos y germinados en aserrín húmedo. Las variedades Apem, Apantu y Asamienu de plátano, han sido multiplicadas con éxito utilizando esta técnica. Se están examinando otros cultivares.Las principales actividades del año han sido enfocadas sobre el desarrollo de las herramientas electrónicas de comunicación y el aumento del flujo de información de las redes regionales. Un nuevo sitio Web en el idioma inglés fue lanzado a finales del año. Las versiones en francés y español estarán disponibles en 2000. Este desarrollo ha permitido la presentación en Internet de la información, publicaciones y eventos de INIBAP y de la investigación en Musa, de una forma mucho más amplia de lo que había sido posible anteriormente. Las bases de datos MUSALIT, la base de datos bibliográfica y BRIS, la base datos sobre los investigadores de Musa, están accesibles en línea y serán actualizadas regularmente. Otros productos, como el MGIS y el Tesauro del banano serán adicionados con el tiempo. Para aquellos quienes no tienen acceso a Internet, se ha desarrollado el CD-ROM MUSADOC, que contiene la mayoría de las publicaciones de 1998 y 1999, todas las guías técnicas, hojas divulgativas, las memorias más recientes y las bases de datos MUSALIT y BRIS.El contenido de ambas bases de datos, MUSALIT y BRIS, fueron expandidas en el transcurso de 1999. Actualmente, MUSALIT contiene un total de 5367 resúmenes y BRIS mantiene información detallada sobre 824 investigadores. Ambas bases de datos fueron actualizadas para la versión de Windows del programa CDS/ISIS, llamado Winisis. Se suministraron copias de las bases de datos a los principales socios, quienes podrán ingresar sus propios datos y enviar a INIBAP nuevos registros en formato electrónico. Los miembros de RISBAP fueron capacitados en el uso de las nuevas versiones de MUSALIT y BRIS en Tailandia. Se revisó el proceso de manejo de datos a escala nacional y a cada participante se le dio la responsabilidad de establecer el nuevo enfoque normalizado en su país.La suscripciones al servicio de información y a las publicaciones regulares Musarama e INFOMUSA están en aumento. Se publicó una nueva hoja divulgativa sobre Meloidogyne incognita y M. javanica. Se publicaron las memorias de las reuniones sobre \"La movilización de IPM para la producción bananera sostenible en Africa\" y \"Bananos y seguridad alimentaria\", donde la primera reunión se refiere a los aspectos socioeconómicos de la producción bananera no comercial. Este año también se publicaron varios trabajos únicos. Las fichas de Paul H. Allen sobre el banano fueron reproducidas en un libro de 364 páginas, en colaboración con la FHIA, como un tributo al trabajo de toda su vida y el papel que desempeñó en el establecimiento de la colección de germoplasma en la FHIA. Se publicó una monografía sobre \"la citogenética del genero Musa\", de Ken Shepherd, una síntesis oportuna de su investigación de toda la vida de la citología de Musa. Finalmente, con el apoyo financiero de la Fundación Rockefeller, INIBAP ha publicado la tesis de Doctorado (Ph.D.) de D.A. Karamura sobre \"Estudios de taxonomía numérica de los bananos de altiplano de Africa del Este (Musa AAA -Africa del Este) en Uganda\". La concienciación pública recibió una intensa atención en 1999. El personal de INIBAP recibió capacitación sobre la concienciación pública, hecho que podría ser responsable del brote de noticias, cartas y artículos sobre bananos en los medios internacionales.","tokenCount":"23735"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d1639f53eb34acb3963e0908e599145e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d6cd68c-ff35-47c2-91bf-119ed334c7e0/retrieve","id":"-765211406"},"keywords":["diamondback moth","integrated pest management","chemical insecticide","resistance"],"sieverID":"f7d7454d-fde3-4d1e-b6e3-f00b33d27637","pagecount":"7","content":"The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) is the major insect pest of cabbage crops in Togo and Benin. For control, farmers very often resort to spraying chemical insecticides at high dosages with frequent applications. Bioassays were carried out on three populations of P. xylostella, two from Togo (Kara and Dapaong) and one from Benin (Cotonou), to assess their level of susceptibility to currently used insecticides. A reference strain of P. xylostella from Matuu in Kenya was used as a control. In the laboratory, three insecticide representatives of different chemical families (deltamethrin, chlorpyrifos ethyl and spinosad) were assayed against third instar larvae of P. xylostella. Results revealed that P. xylostella populations from Dapaong, Kara and Cotonou were more resistant to deltamethrin (13 to 59-fold at LC 50 level, 149 to 1772-fold at LC 90 level) and chlorpyrifos ethyl (5 to 15-fold at LC 50 level, 9 to 885-fold at LC 90 level) than the reference strain. Spinosad was more toxic to P. xylostella populations than the other insecticides with LC 50 and LC 90 values less than 1 µg/ml and 15 µg/ml, respectively. However, the population from Cotonou appeared significantly more resistant to spinosad compared to the reference strain. These results are discussed in the light of developing an integrated pest management strategy for reducing the selection pressure of spinosad.In urban, peri-urban and rural areas of Togo and Benin, production of cabbage, Brassica oleracea L. (var. capitata) (Brassicaceae), is an important incomegenerating activity for smallholder farmers that provides quick cash income over short periods, and also contributes to food security in West * E-mail: m.tamo@cgiar.org Africa (James et al., 2010). However, production is constrained by the damage caused by a range of insect pests, particularly the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), a cosmopolitan insect considered the most important pest of brassica crops worldwide (Sarfraz et al., 2005;Zhou et al., 2011). Severe attacks have been reported in Africa (Kahuthia-Gathu, 2011;Legwaila et al., 2014). Application of synthetic insecticides remains the most common control strategy (Grzywacz et al., 2010). In Togo and Benin, cabbage yield losses have been reported to exceed 30% despite frequent applications of synthetic insecticides (Martin et al., 2006;Agboyi et al., 2013), predominantly organophosphates and pyrethroids (Ahouangninou et al., 2012;Agboyi et al., 2015).As reported from several tropical countries (Talekar and Shelton, 1993;Baek et al., 2005;Nyambo and Löhr, 2005;Ayalew, 2006;Odhiambo et al., 2010;Santos et al., 2011;Zhou et al., 2011;Legwaila et al, 2014), P. xylostella populations from Togo and Benin also appear to be resistant to a number of insecticides commonly used in different agroecosystems (Goudegnon et al., 2000;Martin et al., 2006;Godonou et al., 2009;Agboyi et al., 2013). As a reaction to this phenomenon, cabbage producers have entered the vicious circle of increasing both insecticide dosage rates and spraying frequencies (Ahouangninou et al., 2012), which can lead to environmental and health hazards (Pimentel et al., 1997;Gallivan et al., 2001). The intensification of pesticide applications leads to a faster selection of pesticide-resistant populations, and negatively impacts on potential natural enemies that can provide substantial control, e.g. in Kenya (Nyambo et al., 2011). Under this scenario, the bioinsecticide spinosad, which is not commonly used against vegetable pests in Togo and Benin, could be an important new compound for P. xylostella management. Spinosad is a metabolite obtained from the soil actinomycete Saccharopolyspora spinosa Mertz & Yao, and consists of two major components: the macrocyclic lactones spinosyn A (primary) and spinosyn D (secondary). It is active by contact and/or ingestion, and causes paralysis through the activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and GABA receptor (Thompson et al., 2000). In recent years, spinosad has gained considerable interest in agriculture because of its high activity against insect pests and little ill-effects on beneficial insect species, especially predatory insects (Thompson et al., 2000).The present study investigated the susceptibility of three P. xylostella populations from Togo and Benin to two synthetic insecticides commonly used in cabbage production for the control of P. xylostella, as well as the toxicity of spinosad to the same populations.Larvae of P. xylostella were collected in major cabbage production areas in the districts of Kara and Dapaong in Togo and Cotonou in Benin between September 2012 and January 2013. A population of P. xylostella obtained from Matuu in Kenya was used as a reference strain. This reference strain was collected from a cabbage growing area where the diamondback moth is under biological control by its parasitoid Cotesia vestalis (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) (Nyambo et al., 2011). Each population of P. xylostella was mass reared separately on 4-to 5week-old cabbage plants (var. kk-cross) in ventilated cages at 27 ± 2 °C, 75 ± 3% RH and 12:12 (L:D) at the Institut Togolais de Recherche Agronomique (ITRA) station in Dapaong, Togo. Adult moths were fed with a 10% saccharose in water solution. All insecticide toxicity tests were carried out using third instar (L3) larvae.Insecticide susceptibility was evaluated using a leaf dip bioassay method (Sayyed et al., 2008) with Deltacal 25 EC (deltamethrin 25 g/l) provided by Arysta Life Science (France), and Dursban 480 EC (chlorpyrifos ethyl 480 g/l) and Success Appat 0.24 SC (spinosad 0.24 g/l) provided by Dow AgroSciences (UK). The recommended doses are 1.59 ml/l water for Deltacal 25 EC, 3.17 ml/l water for Dursban 480 EC, and 0.32 ml/l water for Success Appat 0.24 SC. Insecticide solutions were prepared with distilled water to obtain various concentrations. Six concentrations of deltamethrin (0.01, 5, 100, 500, 2000 and 10,000 mg/l water corresponding to 0.00004, 0.02, 0.4, 2, 8 and 40 ml per 100 ml water, respectively), chlorpyrifos ethyl (0.02, 5, 50, 500, 5000 and 50,000 mg/l water corresponding to 0.000004, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1.04 and 10.42 ml per 100 ml water, respectively) and spinosad (0.0001, 0.001, 0.5, 2, 6 and 18 mg/l water corresponding to 0.00004, 0.0004, 0.21, 0.83, 2.5 and 7.5 ml per 100 ml water, respectively) were tested in three replications. Cabbage leaf discs (88 mm diameter) were dipped in the test solution for 20 s and then dried at ambient temperature. Control leaf discs were dipped in distilled water to check the natural mortality (Abbott, 1925). Each dried leaf disc was transferred to plastic Petri dishes (90 mm) containing a single moistened Whatman Grade 1 filter paper. Ten L3 larvae were released in each Petri dish and mortality was observed after 48 h for synthetic insecticides. For spinosad, the assessment of mortality was delayed until 72 h because of its slower activity compared to pyrethroids and organophosphates, which have higher initial rates of penetration through the insect cuticle than spinosad, due to its higher molecular weight (Sayyed et al., 2008;Salgado and Sparks, 2005;Legwaila et al., 2014). Larvae that did not move after prodding with a fine brush were counted as dead. Surviving larvae were reared in their Petri dishes until formation of pupae, and kept until adult emergence.Mortality data were corrected using Abbott's formula (Abbott, 1925) before submitting to probit analysis (Finney, 1971) using PoloPlus 1.0 (LeOra Software, 2003) for estimating the lethal concentration (LC) values (LC 10 , LC 50 and LC 90 ) of each insecticide. The LC values were considered significantly different when their confidence interval (95%) did not overlap. The LCs of the reference population was used for estimating the resistance ratios (RR) of P. xylostella populations from Togo and Benin. The RR was considered significant (P < 0.05) when the confidence interval did not include the value 1.0 (Robertson et al., 2007).The three populations of P. xylostella showed differences in RRs to deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl (Table 1). For deltamethrin, the LC 10 values recorded for P. xylostella field populations from Togo and Benin were similar to the reference strain from Kenya. From LC 10 to LC 50 , the concentration of deltamethrin increased by 14 times for the reference population, while it increased by 63-407 times for the three other populations (Table 1). The deltamethrin LC 50 and LC 90 values for P. xylostella populations from Kara, Dapaong and Cotonou were significantly higher as compared to the reference strain. The RR of the three populations at LC 50 and LC 90 levels was also significantly higher as compared to the reference strain (Table 1). However, the RR of the Dapaong population was lower than Cotonou population at the LC 50 level.For chlorpyrifos ethyl, the LC 10 values of P. xylostella populations from Kara, Dapaong and Cotonou were similar to the reference strain (Table 1). LC 50 and LC 90 values of Kara, Dapaong and Cotonou populations and their RRs were significantly higher than for the reference strain. The Cotonou population showed the highest LC 50 and LC 90 values for chlorpyrifos ethyl with a RR of 15 and 835, respectively.Spinosad showed a higher degree of toxicity to P. xylostella populations as compared to the two synthetic insecticides (Table 1). When compared to spinosad, the LC 50 of the Dapaong population was 675 and 8720 times higher for deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl, respectively; the LC 50 of Kara population was 7240 and 28,960 times higher for deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl, respectively; and the LC 50 of Cotonou population was 2029 and 5353 times higher for deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl, respectively. There were no significant differences between the spinosad LCs of the Kara and Dapaong populations and the reference strain (Table 1). However, the spinosad LCs of the Cotonou population were significantly higher than for the reference strain. Compared to the reference, the RRs (24-to 27-fold for LC 10s and LC 50s , respectively) were significantly higher for Cotonou populations.A higher degree of resistance to deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl was demonstrated for P. xylostella populations from Cotonou, Kara and Dapaong, as compared to the reference strain from Matuu, Kenya. The relatively low RRs for the reference strain from Kenya can possibly be explained by the fact that it had been exposed to heavy insecticide regimes for a long time before biological control was introduced, and so still possesses some residual resistance levels (Williamson et al., 2003). In this area, Nyambo et al. (2011) carried out releases of the parasitoid C. vestalis which resulted in successful establishment, with a 50% reduction in P. xylostella damage due to the action of this biological control agent, resulting in more than 75% decrease in the use of synthetic chemicals for diamondback moth control. The population from Cotonou appeared more resistant than either population from Togo, suggesting a higher selection pressure with deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl currently used by smallholder growers (Ahouangninou et al., 2012). Cotonou is a coastal city with easy access to cheap pesticides imported from neighbouring countries compared to Kara and Dapaong in Northern Togo where insecticides are less accessible. Martin et al. (2006) had reported pyrethroid resistance in field populations of P. xylostella in Cotonou, but without carrying out any toxicological studies to confirm the resistance. In urban and peri-urban vegetable cultivation areas around Cotonou, cabbage producers apply insecticides, especially pyrethroids and organophosphates, every 3 to 4 days within a 3month period before harvesting (James et al., 2010), thereby inducing a high selection pressure. The low susceptibility of field populations of P. xylostella with regard to chemical insecticides was observed in Ghana (West Africa) where Odhiambo et al. (2010) showed high LC 50 of 386-802 mg/l and 74,617-170,573 mg/l for deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl, respectively.The non-significant difference of susceptibility to deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl at LC 10 level between populations could be an indication that a small proportion of P. xylostella populations from Kara, Dapaong and Cotonou were still susceptible to the two compounds. Field populations might gradually become more susceptible to deltamethrin and chlorpyrifos ethyl if the selection pressure is suppressed, as described by Ninsin et al. (2000), where subsequent generations of P. xylostella without exposure to acetamiprid decreased their resistance levels. The relatively higher concentration of chlorpyrifos ethyl required to achieve LC 10 compared to deltamethrin could be explained by the different modes of action of the two compounds, as described by Tuzmen et al. (2008), indicating that, compared to chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin increasingly affects the antioxidant balance as well as the lipid peroxidation level. Spinosad had a much higher toxicity to P. xylostella as compared to the two other chemical pesticides, even at low concentrations. The greater effectiveness of spinosad can be explained by its mode of action, targeting different sites such as nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and GABA receptor (Thompson et al., 2000). Our results suggest the absence of cross resistance with pyrethroid and organophosphate as observed by Oliveira et al. (2011) for P. xylostella populations, while Sparks et al. (1995) showed that spinosad was effective against a Heliothis virescens population resistant to cypermethrin (pyrethroid) and profenofos (organophosphate). Legwaila et al. (2014) also demonstrated that spinosad can achieve effective control of resistant P. xylostella population in Botswana.Compared to the reference strain, the initial signs of resistance to spinosad in field populations of P. xylostella from Cotonou could result from increasing and inappropriate use of this new insecticide since it was first registered in Benin in 2008 and 2009 for cotton and vegetable crops protection, respectively (CNAC, 2012). The discovery of low levels of spinosad resistance in P. xylostella populations from Cotonou should be a cause for concern for the use of this recent and still promising biopesticide, as resistance levels will increase if indiscriminate use is unaddressed. Spinosad can be considered as a solution for the control of pesticide-resistant populations of P. xylostella in Togo and Benin, but its exclusive and intensive use could lead to resistance in P. xylostella, as reported from Pakistan by Sayyed et al. (2008).To maintain effectiveness of spinosad against P. xylostella, Zhao et al. (2006) developed a proactive management strategy based on rotation between spinosad and other new insecticides, such as indoxacarb or emamectin benzoate in the US and Mexico. In this strategy, a product was withdrawn from the market when resistance was observed, to suppress the selection pressure, and subsequently reintroduced when the susceptibility had recovered. Spinosad is compatible with beneficial insects, including C. vestalis, an effective parasitoid against P. xylostella in lowlands of East Africa (Nyambo and Löhr, 2005;Kahuthia-Gathu, 2011), South Africa (Kfir, 2005;Manyangarirwa et al., 2009) and West Africa (Goudegnon et al., 2000;Arvanitakis et al., 2014). As described by Rowell et al. (2005), the main constraint to the efficacy of this parasitoid in controlling P. xylostella in many areas, including Togo and Benin, is the excessive use of broadspectrum synthetic pesticides. In contrast, it was demonstrated by Liu et al. (2007) that C. vestalis could develop resistance to spinosad, indicating that this parasitoid could be promoted for wide use in combination with spinosad use without affecting its capacity to control the pest.Our observations call for a three-way IPM approach based on (i) avoiding the use of pyrethroids and organophosphates, which would otherwise interfere with the activity of C. vestalis (Nyambo et al. 2011;Sow et al., 2013a); (ii) using insect net covers, a promising technology to reduce pest damage as demonstrated in Benin (Martin et al., 2006;Martin et al., 2015); and (iii) using biopesticides such as neem extracts and the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Sarfraz et al., 2005;Agboyi et al., 2013;Sow et al., 2013b).","tokenCount":"2512"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/4665813029.json b/data/part_1/4665813029.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7f2da4d877c4216aea82594e67a8c710f3fe6505
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5a4c9edda3e32e4b3419b3715700e325","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9dfe71ab-ba0c-4f8d-903d-145fdb0e2953/retrieve","id":"-715322518"},"keywords":["Abiotic stress","Abscisic acid","ASR","Musa","Osmotic stress"],"sieverID":"774b76f4-9898-4e6d-8982-8f6b461db250","pagecount":"14","content":"Abscisic acid, stress, ripening proteins (ASR) are a family of plant-specific small hydrophilic proteins. Studies in various plant species have highlighted their role in increased resistance to abiotic stress, including drought, but their specific function remains unknown. As a first step toward their potential use in crop improvement, we investigated the structure and regulation of the Asr gene family in Musa species (bananas and plantains). We determined that the Musa Asr gene family contained at least four members, all of which exhibited the typical two exons, one intron structure of Asr genes and the ''ABA/WDS'' (abscisic acid/ water deficit stress) domain characteristic of Asr genes.Phylogenetic analyses determined that the Musa Asr genes were closely related to each other, probably as the product of recent duplication events. For two of the four members, two versions corresponding to the two sub-genomes of Musa, acuminata and balbisiana were identified. Gene expression and protein analyses were performed and Asr expression could be detected in meristem cultures, root, pseudostem, leaf and cormus. In meristem cultures, mAsr1 and mAsr3 were induced by osmotic stress and wounding, while mAsr3 and mAsr4 were induced by exposure to ABA. mASR3 exhibited the most variation both in terms of amino acid sequence and expression pattern, making it the most promising candidate for further functional study and use in crop improvement.Drought, high salinity and freezing all impose osmotic stress on plants and negatively affect their growth, development and/or productivity. The ability of each species to tolerate water deficit plays a critical role in determining its productivity and its natural geographical distribution. The effects of water deficit both on plant physiology and at the cellular level are highly complex (Ingram and Bartels 1996). Yet, transcriptome and proteome analyses using various model organisms have revealed some of the underlying molecular processes related to water stress (Seki et al. 2001;Rajjou et al. 2006;Shinozaki and Yamaguchi-Shinozaki 2007). Many of the genes involved in this response have been identified (Xiong and Zhu 2002), some of which respond to osmotic stress through abscisic acid (ABA) signaling. Among these, the abscisic acid, stress, ripening (ASR) protein has fostered growing interest as a potential key regulator of plant response to a variety of stresses, including osmotic stress (Cakir et al. 2003;Carrari et al. 2004;Frankel et al. 2007;Konrad and Bar-Zvi 2008;Carpentier et al. 2010a).The first ASR protein was identified as a water/ABA stress-induced protein in tomato (Iusem et al. 1993). Other members were later identified in tomato, revealing the existence of a gene family (Rossi et al. 1996). ASR proteins are specific to plants and the number of documented members in the Asr gene family differs among plant species. For example, there are six known members in rice (Philippe et al. 2010), four in tomato (Frankel et al. 2006), four in pine (Chang et al. 1996) and as many as nine in maize (highest number of members described so far; Zivy and Coursol, INRA, France, personal communication), but none in A. thaliana (Carrari et al. 2004;Yang et al. 2005). Comparison of sequences from different species suggests that family members from a single species are more closely related to each other than to Asr members from other species (Carrari et al. 2004;Philippe et al. 2010), suggesting that they originate from late duplication events and that the sub-function of each of the family members might be species specific (Philippe et al. 2010).ASR proteins have been repeatedly identified as involved in the response to different abiotic stresses, such as water deficit, salt stress, and cold or osmotic stress in many plants such as tomato, potato, maize or rice (Amitai-Zeigerson et al. 1995;Gilad et al. 1997;Riccardi et al. 1998;Vaidyanathan et al. 1999;Maskin et al. 2001). Moreover, over-expression of the lily ASR in A. thaliana resulted in enhanced drought and salt resistance, confirming its role in stress response even in a system where it is not endogenously present (Yang et al. 2005).ASR proteins are small hydrophilic proteins, the exact function of which remains unclear. They are characterized by the presence of the ABA/WDS (abscisic acid/water deficit stress) amino acid domain (PF02496) (Canel et al. 1995;Padmanabhan et al. 1997). Some ASR proteins also contain a zinc-dependent DNA-binding domain (Kalifa et al. 2004) and have been demonstrated to bind DNA both in a monomeric and a homodimeric form (Maskin et al. 2007). ASR proteins have been found in the cytosol, where they have been shown to exhibit chaperone-like activity, possibly stabilizing other cytosolic proteins against denaturation (Konrad and Bar-Zvi 2008). ASR proteins have also been reported to be localized in the nucleus in different cell types (Kalifa et al. 2004;Wang et al. 2005;Konrad and Bar-Zvi 2008), where they might play a regulatory role, possibly as transcription factors or as chaperones (Wang et al. 2005;Frankel et al. 2006;Konrad and Bar-Zvi 2008). Finally, the fact that the expression of most Asr genes is induced both by sugars and ABA has led to the hypothesis that it might serve as a link between sugar and ABA signaling, possibly through the regulation of hexose uptake (Cakir et al. 2003;Carrari et al. 2004;Frankel et al. 2007).In the present report, we investigated the structure, diversity and regulation of the Asr gene family in Musa species (banana and plantains). As an important food crop, the yield of banana and plantains is economically important worldwide and crucial for the livelihood of many small farmers. Banana varieties differ widely in their ability to tolerate abiotic stresses, including drought. Most of the cultivated varieties are diploid or triploid and contain various relative proportions of the genomes of Musa acuminata (A genome) and Musa balbisiana (B genome). It is believed that varieties with a high proportion of the B genome are generally more resistant to abiotic stress (Thomas et al. 1998). This is supported by the fact that those varieties cover more northern and drier geographical regions (De Langhe and de Maret 1999; Perrier et al. 2009).ASR proteins represent a promising candidate for Musa improvement. An ASR protein was initially identified in a proteomics screen of two varieties exhibiting contrasting tolerance to osmotic stress (Carpentier et al. 2007) and where a unique isoform was detected in a tolerant ABB variety. Asr sequences were also identified in a screen of DATAMUSA, an ensemble of Musa EST sequences, suggesting that ASR proteins can be expressed in all tissues tested (roots, peel green, male flowers and roots) (Santos et al. 2009). We recently discovered that the mASR1 protein was significantly up-regulated by osmotic stress (Carpentier et al. 2010a). Furthermore, an Asr gene (Asr1 according to our classification of the Musa Asr family members) was recently identified from a Musa sp. (the exact genomic group of the variety described as ''Musa paradisiaca L. ABB group'' is unclear to us, Liu et al. 2010). These authors argued that overexpression of MpASR resulted in increased drought tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana. Although only two transgenic lines were characterized in this study, and no correlation between increased drought tolerance and level of mASR expression in their transgenic A. thaliana lines was presented (Liu et al. 2010), these results together with the aforementioned findings suggest that ASR proteins play an important role in banana stress response as well. Here, we report on the structure, phylogenetic position and regulation of the Asr genes of various Musa cultivars and wild accessions.Various Musa spp. (Musaceae, Musa) were used in conducting this study. They correspond to wild varieties and cultivated varieties (cultivars), and each contain a specific combinations of the genomes of the two main species of Musa: Musa acuminata L. A. Colla and Musa balbisiana L. A. Colla. All plant materials were originally obtained from the International Transit Center (ITC), Kasteelpark Arenberg 13 bus 2455, 3001 Leuven, Belgium and each Musa sp. can be uniquely identified by its ITC number.Multiple shoot meristem cultures of 'Cachaco' (ITC.0643), 'Mbwazirume' (ITC.0084), balbisiana (ITC.0545), 'Populu' (ITC.0335), banksii (ITC.0466) and 'Williams' (ITC.0365) were initiated and maintained on P4 medium (MS medium supplemented with 100 lM 6-benzylaminopurine and 1 lM indole acetic acid) as previously described (Strosse et al. 2006).For the experiment investigating natural variation in Asr expression in different cultivars (Fig. 4) and the experiment investigating tissue-specific expression of Asr in 'Williams' (Fig. 5a), meristems were harvested 6 days after the last subculture and flash frozen in liquid nitrogen. For the other experiments, only meristems from 'Cachaco' were used.For the experiment investigating the effect of sucrose and wounding by cutting (Fig. 6a, b), meristems were divided into three groups. Following 1 week of growth on standard P4 medium, all groups were subcultured (i.e., differentiated tissue was cut and removed) on day 0 and placed back on their respective growth medium (not fresh). The cutting control group was harvested 24 h later. The ''control'' and ''sucrose'' groups were transferred to fresh standard P4 medium (0.09 M sucrose) or fresh P4 medium containing 0.4 M sucrose, respectively, on day 4 and meristems were harvested 2 days later (day 6) and flash frozen in liquid nitrogen.For the experiment investigating the effect of ABA (Fig. 6a, c), meristems were divided into two groups. Both groups were subcultured and transferred to fresh P4 medium on day 1. On day 4, the ''control'' group was transferred to fresh P4 medium again, while the ''ABA'' group was transferred to fresh P4 medium containing 100 lM ABA. On day 7, all meristems were harvested and flash frozen in liquid nitrogen.For the experiment investigating tissue-specific expression of Asr (Fig. 5), plants were grown in pots in a greenhouse in which the photoperiod was extended to 12 h by artificial light when needed. The temperature reached 26 and 18°C in the day and night, respectively, while the relative humidity ranged between 70 and 90%. For the experiment comparing mAsr expression in leaves and meristem cultures from cultivar 'Williams' (Fig. 5a), leaf tissue was harvested from the fifth leaf of plants that were at least 6 months old. For the experiment investigating mAsr expression in the first and second leaf of 'Cachaco' plants and in the roots (Fig. 5b), ''Leaf 1'' corresponds to the youngest leaf (cigar leaf), ''Leaf 2'' corresponds to the second youngest leaf and ''Root'' material was collected by pooling five of the widest primary roots. Plants had produced at least 7 leaves (*2.5-3 months old) at the time of harvest. All tissue was flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after harvest.Screen of genomic DNA using degenerate primers: genomic DNA from 'Cachaco' (ABB) was used for the initial gene discovery. Primers were designed based on Musa sequences from EST libraries and publicly available databases (see Table 1 for primer sequences). Using these primers, the complete sequence of mAsr4 was obtained as well as fragments from the three other mAsr sequences ranging between 100 and 400 bp.Screening of BAC libraries: BAC libraries were obtained from the Musa Genomics Resource Center (MGRC, http:// lmcc.ieb.cz/dna-libraries/bananas) and screened to obtain the full-length genomic sequence of mAsr1, 2 and 3. Genomic BAC libraries from 'Pisang Klutuk Wulung' (BB cultivar, MBP library) and 'Calcutta4' (AA cultivar, MA4 library) were screened for the presence of the desired Asr sequence. Briefly, 18 or 12 ''superpools'', for the MA4 and MBP libraries, respectively, were screened by PCR using degenerate primers designed from Asr sequences available in GenBank from Musa and other species. Positive superpools were screened further for identification of the positive BAC clone using the same PCR primers and conditions. Three positive clones, each harboring one of the mAsr1, mAsr2 and mAsr3 genes, were identified. Each of these three BACs was used as template to obtain fulllength genomic sequences of mAsr1 (from 'Calcutta4'), mAsr2 (from 'Pisang Klutuk Wulung') and mAsr3 (from 'Calcutta4').Once full-length genomic sequences had been obtained from all four mAsr genes, sequences from other cultivars and wild accessions of Musa were obtained by PCR amplification using primers specific to each mAsr gene (see Table 1). Amplification was performed on genomic DNA either obtained from the Global Musa Genomics Consortium (GMGC, http://www.musagenomics.org) for 'Tani' (ITC. 1120) and 'Pisang Jari Buaya' (ITC.0312) or from newly extracted genomic DNA from 'Cachaco' (ITC.0643), 'Mbwazirume' (ITC.0084), 'Williams' (ITC.0365), 'Butuhan' (ITC.0565), banksii (ITC.0466), balbisiana (ITC.0545), 'Bluggoe' (ITC.1404), 'Pome' (ITC.0125), 'Pisang Awak (ITC.0339) and 'Orishele' (ITC.0517). PCR fragments were cloned and sequenced in both directions. The sequences obtained were cleaned of vector and primer sequences. Multiple sequences from the same cultivar or wild accession originate from independent cloning events. More clones per cultivar or wild accession were sequenced for the mAsr3 gene than for the other three mAsr genes, since it exhibited more variation within and between cultivars than the other three genes (see ''Results''). Protein sequences were derived from genomic sequences after alignment of genomic sequences with cDNA sequence from at least one cultivar, removal of intron sequence and in silico translation. All mAsr1, mAsr2, partial mAsr3 and mAsr4 sequences obtained in the context of this study were deposited in Genbank under the following accession numbers: GU134740 to GU134760 for mAsr1, GU134761 to GU134775 for mAsr2, GU134776 to GU134782 for mAsr3 and GU134735 to GU134739 for mAsr4. Full-length mAsr3 sequences can be found in Online Resource 4. Multiple alignments of DNA or protein sequences were created using the ClustalX freeware, version 2.1.12 (Larkin et al. 2007). ClustalX 2.1.12 was also used to construct phylogenetic trees, using the neighbor-joining algorithm, with 1,000 replicate bootstrap tests. Trees were visualized using the njplot freeware (http://pbil.univ-lyon1.fr/ software/njplot.html). Sequences used for phylogenetic analysis either originated from this work or from publicly available databases (National Center for Biotechnology Information, http://www.ncbi.nih.gov). For the alignment depicted in Fig. 2, different sequences of the same gene and from the same cultivar or wild accession were kept separate if the nucleotide sequences differed by more than 1%. If the nucleotide sequences differed by less than 1%, only one sequence was retained (in the case of only two sequences) or a consensus sequence was derived (if there were three or more sequences). For mAsr1 to mAsr4, a 1% error rate corresponds to a maximum of 4, 5, 5 and 4 bp, respectively. A detailed description of the origin of each of the sequences used for this phylogenetic analysis can be found in Online Resource 1.Sample material was harvested as described above and stored at -80°C until it was ground in liquid nitrogen for RNA extraction. Total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy plus mini kit (Qiagen Sciences), according to manufacturer's recommendations except for the addition of PVP40000 to the lysis buffer to a final concentration of 5 mg/ml. Next, RNA was treated with DNaseI (Applied Biosystems/Ambion) for 45 min at 37°C. Last, RNA was purified through a phenol-chloroform/IAA precipitation purification step. To verify the absence of residual genomic DNA, a real-time PCR was performed using DNase-treated RNA as template (see below). Only samples for which no amplification products could be detected after 40 cycles of PCR amplification were further processed. cDNA synthesis was performed on a known amount of RNA (1,000-3,000 ng, depending on the experiment) using the RevertAid TM H Minus First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Fermentas) and olido(dT) 18 primers, as recommended by the manufacturer.Real-time RT-PCR was performed in a Corbett Rotor-Gene 3000 (Qiagen). Reactions included: 12.5 ll 29 Absolute SYBR Ò Green I master mix (Thermo Scientific, Epsom, United Kingdom), 150 nM of reverse and forward primers (see Table 1 for sequences), 2 ll of template (cDNA or gDNA or water) and water to reach a final volume of 25 ll. Each experiment included four to six biological replicates of each sample type and two technical replicates of all samples. For each independent experiment, all samples were run simultaneously. A set of six reference genes (actin, actin-11, 25S r-DNA, tubulin, elongation factor-1a (EF1a) and ribosomal protein L2 (L2); see Table 1 for primer sequences) were run in addition to the four mAsr genes. The most appropriate pair of reference genes was identified using geNorm v3.4, as previously described (Vandesompele et al. 2002) and used for normalization purposes. For comparison of cultivars (Fig. 4a), the two reference genes used for normalization were actin11 and tubulin. For comparison of tissue types in 'Williams' (Fig. 5a), the two reference genes used for normalization were EF1a and 25S r-DNA. For comparison of tissue types in 'Cachaco' (Fig. 5b), the two reference genes used for normalization were EF1a and L2. For investigating the effect of exposure to high concentration of sucrose (Fig. 6b), the two reference genes used for normalization were EF1a and actin11. For investigating the effect of exposure to ABA (Fig. 6c), the two reference genes used for normalization were actin11 and L2. Finally, relative mRNA concentrations were averaged over all biological replicates. After checking for normality and homogeneity of variance, means were compared on a pairwise basis using Student's t tests and considered significantly different when the obtained P value was\\0.05.For investigating the effect of high concentration of sucrose, the phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) encoding gene was used as a positive control since it had been previously demonstrated that the protein was more abundant in meristem cultures after induction with high concentrations of sucrose (Carpentier et al. 2007;Carpentier et al. 2010b). For investigating the effect of exposure to ABA, the mARP (ABA-responsive protein) gene was used as a positive control based on its homology to the A. thaliana ''ABAresponsive protein-like'' gene (At5g13200), known to be up-regulated by ABA exposure (Yazaki et al. 2004).2D-Gel electrophoresis (2DE) was performed via phenol extraction as previously described (Carpentier et al. 2005). For Western blots, small immobilized pH gradient (IPG) strips were used (7 cm pI 3_10 (GE Healthcare)). After 2DE, proteins were blotted to a nitrocellulose membrane (GE Healthcare) via semi-dry transfer (Owl HEP-3 Semi Dry, Thermo Scientific) at 1 mA/cm 2 for 60 min (cathode buffer: 0.04 M e-aminocaproic acid, 10% SDS, 20% methanol; protein transfer buffer: 48 mM Tris, 39 mM glycine, 0.037% SDS, 20% methanol, MQ H 2 O; anode buffer I: 0.3 M Tris, 20% methanol; anode buffer II: 0.025 M Tris, 20% methanol). Membranes were blocked with 5% skimmed milk powder in PBST (20 mM potassium phosphate, 150 mM NaCl, 0.5% (w/v) Tween-20, pH 7.2) for 60 min. After three washes in PBST, the membranes were incubated with primary antibody (1/2,000 in PBST) [rabbit anti-ASR polyclonal antibody was raised against a custom peptide matching the sequence ETA-YSGGGDYASGYT (Eurogentec, Belgium)] overnight at 4°C. After washing in PBST, the membranes were incubated with secondary antibody goat anti-rabbit (GE Healthcare) (1/2,500 in PBST) for 60 min. Visualization of the proteins was realized with AEC (3-amino-9-ethylcarbazole), according to the manufacturer's recommendations (Sigma, Belgium).What is the structure of the mAsr gene family? Through a combination of degenerate PCR, EST library screening and BAC sequencing, we discovered four Asr genes in banana. These genes have been named mAsr1 through mAsr4 (musa Asr). A total of more than 20,000 expressed sequence tags (EST) from cDNA libraries constructed from different tissue types or from samples subjected to various stresses (Santos et al. 2005;Roux et al. 2008;Carpentier et al. 2010a) were screened for additional banana Asr sequences.All four genes contain two exons separated by a single intron, as do other Asr sequences from other species (Fig. 1). In banana, the mASR4 protein is shorter than the other three members of the family (103 vs. 144-146 amino acids, respectively). All four mASR proteins also contain the ABA/WDS domain, characteristic of the ASR family (PFAM domain PF02496).What is the phylogenetic relationship between the four mASR proteins? Once all four members of the mASR family were identified, each member was sequenced from different cultivars and wild varieties of Musa. Cultivars and wild varieties were chosen such that both diploid and triploid cultivars as well as most possible combinations of A and B genomes were represented. In total, we analyzed 18 mAsr1 sequences from 13 cultivars, 11 mAsr2 sequences from 7 cultivars, 9 mAsr3 sequences from 5 cultivars and 4 mAsr4 sequences from 4 cultivars. All genomic sequences were aligned (see ''Materials and methods'' for details) and a phylogenetic tree was constructed (Fig. 2). As expected from their size, mAsr4 sequences were most divergent, while the other three members of the family were relatively close to each other.We originally focused on mASR1 because it was one of the most highly expressed proteins in our meristem cultures (Carpentier et al. 2007). The mAsr1 sequences obtained clearly clustered into two groups. The sequences present in each group and the genotype of the cultivars from which they originated was consistent with one cluster containing alleles from the A genome and the other containing alleles from the B genome (Fig. 2, gray box). Amino acid sequences from 13 Musa varieties (wild varieties and cultivated varieties) were aligned, and sequences in the A and B groups consistently differed by only two amino acids (Online Resource 3). Yet, on a 2DE gel, the A and the B isoforms were clearly separated (Carpentier et al. 2010b) (Fig. 4b).Fewer sequences were obtained from mAsr2. Alignment of the genomic sequences, including the intron, allowed for the identification of two clusters, potentially corresponding to the A and B genomes (data not shown). Translation analysis of these sequences revealed no difference specific to the A and B version at the amino acid level. The cluster of mAsr3 genomic sequences also contained a sub-cluster (Fig. 2, in gray) that could correspond to the B version of this gene. Sequence variability in the mAsr3 genes and mASR3 proteins was much more pronounced than in the other members of the mASR family (Online Resource 4 and Table 2). Finally, the number of different genomic sequences obtained from mAsr4 was too limited (4, Table 2) to be conclusive as to the difference between the A and B versions of this gene.Next, we investigated the position of the mASRs with respect to ASR sequences from other species. We included sequences from both the A and the B genomes of Musa: The length of the first exon in mAsr3 varies between 255 and 270 bp depending on the sequence from 'Williams' (AAA), 'Tani' (BB) and/or balbisiana (wild BB) from the four mASR proteins and aligned them to previously identified ASR sequences from other species (Fig. 3). All four mASRs protein clustered together rather than with ASR proteins from other species, suggesting that they were the product of recent duplication events rather than orthologs of Asr genes found in other species. Interestingly, the relationship between mASR1, mASR2 and mASR3 was different when using protein sequences rather than genomic sequences (Figs. 2, 3). Specifically, the protein sequences of mAsr1 clustered with those of mAsr3, while genomic sequences of mAsr1 and mAsr2 clustered together. This relationship held true and was well supported when all mASR protein sequences obtained in the context of this study were aligned (data not shown).Why did we not obtain an A version of mAsr1 from Cachaco? Surprisingly, the cultivar from which ASR was originally identified, 'Cachaco', is of the ABB genomic composition, but no A version of mAsr1 could be found in the proteomics study (Fig. 4b), in the Musa cDNA libraries pentier et al. 2010a) or when using PCR primers specific for the A version of mAsr1 at the gDNA level. Additionally, sequencing fragments that were amplified using primers that match perfectly to both the A and B version of Asr1 resulted in no ambiguous base at the positions where mAsr1A and B differ, while ambiguity was readily apparently in similar sequences obtained from other hybrid cultivars (data not shown). These results suggest that the mAsr1A transcript as well as its encoding gene are lacking in 'Cachaco'. Further proteome analysis (2DE separation and de novo sequencing (Carpentier et al. 2010b) has revealed that 'Cachaco' does contain typical A genotype isoforms of other proteins. These data demonstrate that 'Cachaco' does indeed carry an A genome and that the A version of Asr was lost. A similar situation has been observed for other proteins in various cultivars (De Langhe et al. 2010). In the case of mAsr1, whether or not this is the result of positive selection for the B isoform remains to be determined.Is there natural variation for mASR expression?In the abovementioned proteomics screen investigating the effect of osmotic stress on gene regulation in banana meristems (Carpentier et al. 2007), ASR1 was identified as one of the most abundant proteins in meristem cultures of 'Cachaco' (ABB), a cultivar exhibiting enhanced resistance to osmotic stress in meristem cultures. In 'Cachaco', ASR4 protein could be detected as well, but weakly. Furthermore, the screening of an EST library containing over 10,000 transcripts from banana meristems grown under osmotic stress (Carpentier et al. 2010a) suggested also that mAsr1  was also one of the most abundant transcripts (73 hits), while mAsr2, 3 and 4 were either not present or only rarely found (1 hit, no hit and 3 hits, respectively).To further document mAsr regulation, primers specific to each family member, but amplifying both the A and B version of each gene, were designed for expression analysis using quantitative real-time PCR (q-RT-PCR). Gene expression could be detected from all four mAsr genes in non-stressed meristem cultures of 'Cachaco' (ABB cultivar), demonstrating that at least one allele per mAsr gene is functional (Fig. 4).Next, the expression level of the mAsr genes was investigated in other cultivars. mRNA abundance was compared between meristem cultures of 'Cachaco' and two AAA cultivars, 'Williams' and 'Mbwazirume' (Fig. 4a). All four mAsr genes were expressed in all three cultivars, but variation in relative expression levels could be identified. Specifically, the expression of all mAsr genes was significantly higher in 'Mbwazirume' than in 'Cachaco', especially for mAsr2 ([90-fold increase) and mAsr3 (*eightfold increase). mAsr expression was not significantly different in 'Williams' than in 'Cachaco' except for mAsr1, which exhibited slightly lower expression in 'Williams' than in 'Cachaco' (\\twofold).Finally, ASR1 protein could be detected in all cultivars tested using two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis as well (Fig. 4b). The A and B versions of the proteins were located in different spots, because two amino acids are consistently different between the A and B versions of the protein (Online Resource 3), resulting in a significant shift in isoelectric point. This is illustrated by the position of the mASR1 spot in various cultivars and the presence of two distinct spots in the AAB cultivar 'Populu' (Fig. 4b). As discussed above, only one spot could be detected in the 'Cachaco' (ABB) cultivar, due to the absence of the mAsr1A gene in the 'Cachaco' genome. The position of the ASR proteins identified on the 2D gels was verified by Western blotting using an anti-ASR1 peptide polyclonal antibody (data not shown).Taken together, these results demonstrate that all four mAsr genes are active and that mAsr1 and mAsr4 are the most abundantly expressed, but the level of expression of mAsr2 and mAsr3 exhibited wide variations depending on the cultivar.To compare relative mRNA abundance in different tissues, q-RT-PCR was performed simultaneously on different tissues from the same cultivar (Fig. 5). First, mRNA Fig. 3 Neighbor-joining tree of ASR protein sequences from various plants species. Full-length protein sequences were aligned using ClustalX and an unrooted neighbor-joining tree was constructed (bootstrap of 1,000). The distance between sequences is indicated by branch length. The four members of the mAsr family are enclosed in the gray box and represented by sequences from 'Williams' (AAA, mASR1_clone173, mASR2_clone193, mASR3_clone_a and mASR4_clone170), 'Tani' (BB, mASR1_clone140, mASR2_ clone197) and balbisiana (BB, mASR3_clone1). Sequences from other plant species are available in NCBI: NP_001152333.1 (Maize B), XP_002447825.1 (Sorghum B), XP_002457802.1 (Sorghum A), AAT57940.1 (Sugarcane), CAA72998.1 (Maize A), ACZ50736 (mASR4), ACZ60133.1 (mASR1), ACZ60138.1 (mASR1), ACZ 50744.1 (mASR2), ACZ50739.1 (mASR2), EEC72202 (Rice ASR2), NP_001045487 (Rice ASR6), BAD28236 (Rice ASR3), NP_ 001173936 (Rice ASR4), NP_001065841 (Rice ASR5), NP_ 001045459 (Rice ASR1), 2282019 (Tomato ASR1), 584787 (Tomato ASR2), 400471 (Tomato ASR3), AAY98032 (Tomato ASR4), 4098248 (Potato CI21A), 4098250 (Potato ci21B), 23095773 (Potato DS2), 6525055 (Lily) and 38532363 (Gingko). The nomenclature of the Rice ASR proteins comes from (Philippe et al. 2010) abundance was compared between meristem cultures and greenhouse leaves of 'Williams' (Fig. 5a). The relative mRNA abundance of the mAsr genes was tissue specific. All mAsr genes exhibited high expression in leaves, except for mAsr4, which exhibited higher expression levels in meristems (Fig. 5a). The difference was particularly noticeable for mAsr2 and mAsr3 (*tenfold higher expression levels in leaves than in meristems). Similarly, mRNA abundance was compared in tissues from the first leaf (cigar leaf or last unrolled leaf), second leaf and roots of the 'Cachaco' cultivar (Fig. 5b). Again, all mAsr members were expressed in all tissue types tested, but at different levels and each gene exhibited a specific pattern of expression (Fig. 5b). The level of expression was significantly different in roots compared to the second leaf (all four mAsr members) and first leaf (mAsr4). Specifically, mAsr1 and mAsr2 expression was lower in roots than in the second leaf, whereas the opposite was observed for mAsr3 and mAsr4.Finally, 2DE Western-blot analysis of ASR proteins was performed on tissue from roots, leaves, pseudostem and corm tissue from 'Cachaco' and confirmed that the ASR1 protein was present in all of these tissues (Online Resource 2).Are the mAsr genes regulated by sugar and ABA?Asr genes from various species have been demonstrated to be regulated by sugar and/or ABA (Rossi et al. 1998;Vaidyanathan et al. 1999). We tested whether this was true of the mAsr genes as well. mAsr expression was compared in 'Cachaco' meristems cultured on regular medium or on growth medium supplemented with 0.4 M sucrose. Additionally, the effect of the wounding stress associated with subculturing was also assessed (see ''Materials and methods'' for details). Relative mRNA abundance was compared between the three experimental treatments (Fig. 6a). As expected, the positive control (PGK) exhibited increased expression in sucrose-treated samples, while cutting did not affect its expression. We could show that the expression levels of both mAsr1 and mAsr3 were significantly increased by both high sucrose concentration and wounding by cutting (Fig. 6b).Finally, a similar experiment was conducted comparing relative mRNA abundance in 'Cachaco' meristems grown on regular medium and samples grown for 3 days on medium supplemented with 100 lM ABA. As expected, expression of the positive control (mARP) was significantly induced by ABA exposure (Fig. 6c). We could show that the expression of mAsr3 and mAsr4 increased significantly in the presence of ABA (*4-fold and *2-fold, respectively), but to lower extents than that of mARP (*12-fold).Asr genes encode small proteins with potentially important functions in response to a variety of stresses. This study ). These positions are indicated by circles around the protein spots where the protein is present and empty circles where the protein is not detectable. A full gel image for 'Cachaco' meristems can be found at http://www.pdata.ua.ac.be/musa aimed at characterizing the Asr gene family in Musa and to potentially identify promising candidates for crop improvement. We have identified 4 Asr genes from Musa, which all carry the ABA/WDS motif and the gene structure characteristic of Asr genes (Fig. 1). Through detailed analysis of the sequences of the mAsr genes (Figs. 2, 3) and documentation of their expression patterns (Figs. 4,5,6), we now have a detailed view of the specificities of each member of the family.Banana is a monocotyledon, but only distantly related to the more well-studied model system of rice (Aert et al. 2004;Cheung and Town 2007), providing a different angle to investigate the evolution of the Asr gene family. Indeed, the four mAsr genes are phylogenetically close to each other, with respect to other Asr genes from other species including those of other monocots. This situation is similar to that observed in some species or group of species. For example, the four known Asr genes from pine all cluster together and away from Asr genes from other species, while Asr genes from tomato and potato all cluster together with an internal pair-wise organization of potato and tomato orthologs (Frankel et al. 2006). Interestingly, in tomato, all four Asr genes are located next to each other on chromosome IV (Frankel et al. 2006), suggestive of tandem duplications specific to Asr or a small portion of the genome containing Asr. In rice, on the other hand, the six Asr genes are located on four different chromosomes (Philippe et al. 2010). The mechanisms leading to the appearance of the different members of Asr families might thus be species dependent as well.In banana, three of the four members cluster very closely together, while the fourth (mAsr4) clusters more distantly (Figs. 2, 3; Table 2). Possibly, one or several of the mAsr homologs originated from whole-genome duplication events. Indeed, a recent study of Musa BAC sequences suggested a whole genome duplication event specific to Musa species and estimated to have happened approximately 61 million years ago (Lescot et al. 2008). Assuredly, the sequence of the Musa genome (currently underway) will help shed light on the mechanisms underlying the evolution of the mAsr family in this genus. For example, it will indicate whether some of the mAsr genes are located on the same chromosome, suggestive of tandem duplication or whether another large-scale duplication event can be detected in the genome.mAsr genes are ubiquitously expressedWe have demonstrated that at least one allele of each of the mAsr genes was expressed in all tissues sampled (roots, leaves, meristems, pseudostem, corm). Moreover, the expression level of the different members varied depending on the cultivar, the developmental stage (for example, young versus older leaves) or the tissue sampled. However, we cannot rule out the possibility that the observed variation is due to preferential or exclusive PCR amplification from a subset of the alleles in certain cultivars, since we used only one primer set per gene. This type of observation could be consistent with subfunctionalization and has also been observed in other species. For example, in tomato, Asr1's expression pattern exhibits very little variation, while the other members exhibit much more variable expression levels (Frankel Standard errors are represented. Comparisons that were significant are indicated by one, two or three asterisks depending on whether the P value was \\0.05, \\0.01 or \\0.001, respectively. a Schematic view of the treatments applied to each of the sample types. For the ''sucrose experiment'', samples were cut on day 0 and put back on their respective standard growth media. The ''cut'' samples were harvested the next day. The other two types of samples were transferred to fresh medium (either standard growth medium or standard growth medium supplemented with 0.4 M sucrose) on day 4 and harvested 2 days later. For the ''ABA experiment'', samples were cut on day 0 and placed on fresh growth media. On day 4, they were placed on either fresh standard growth medium or fresh standard growth medium supplemented with 100 lM ABA. Samples were harvested 3 days later. b Comparison of mRNA abundance in the different sample types illustrated in a: control (white bars), cut (light gray bars) and high sucrose samples (dark gray bars). The two reference genes used for normalization were EF1a and actin11. The expression of phosphoglycerate kinase (mPGK) was used as a positive control c Comparison of mRNA abundance in meristems grown on standard growth medium (white bars) or grown on standard growth medium supplemented with 100 lM ABA (black bars) for 3 days before harvest. The two reference genes used for normalization were actin11 and L2. The expression of an ABA-responsive protein (mARP) was used a positive control et al. 2006): they exhibit variable responses to water-deficit stress and variable expression levels in different tissues (Maskin et al. 2008). Similarly, in banana meristems, mAsr1 was one of the most abundant proteins detected by 2D gel electrophoresis, while mAsr4 was detected at a much lower level (Carpentier et al. 2007) and mAsr2 and mAsr3 were undetected at the protein level.Both the hypothesized role of ASR as a protein chaperone in the cytoplasm (Wang et al. 2005;Frankel et al. 2006;Konrad and Bar-Zvi 2008) or DNA chaperone in the nucleus could be consistent with our findings. The sequence of mASR4 is most different from that of the three other mASRs. Most strikingly, it is much shorter (103 vs. 144-150 for the other three mASR proteins). A similar situation has been observed in tomato, where ASR1, ASR2 and ASR3 are shorter (between 108 and 114 AAs), while ASR4 is much longer (297 AAs). Frankel et al. (2006) hypothesized that the extra domain encodes an additional biochemical function. Finally, ASR proteins have also been categorized as class seven of the late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins and five domains were identified within ASR sequences from various species (Battaglia et al. 2008). Domains 1, 2 and 3 are highly conserved, while domains 4 and 5 are only found in a subset of ASR proteins. Interestingly, all five domains are also found in mASR1, mASR2 and mASR3, while mASR4 lacks domain 5 and carries a heavily modified version of the middle domain (domain 1). It is thus possible that mASR4 performs a different or a subset of the function(s) performed by the other three members of the mAsr gene family.In our survey of the response of mAsr to abiotic stress, we have observed that mAsr3 expression was low in control samples, but most induced by high sucrose, wounding stress or ABA treatment. An in-depth analysis of the promoter sequence of mAsr3 would be instrumental to obtain more information about its potential role in stress response.mAsr3 also exhibited the most sequence variation among the cultivars tested. Specifically, the sequences that formed the putative ''B'' cluster exhibited the highest variation of all sequences identified within the context of this work. Similar sequence variation has been observed for some members of Asr families from other species. In tomatoes, phylogenetic analysis of Asr2 genomic sequences from different varieties demonstrated accelerated positive selection correlated with colonization of dry environments (Frankel et al. 2003;Giombini et al. 2009). Similarly, an in-depth study of the rice Asr genes determined that OsAsr3 was the most divergent of the rice Asr genes and exhibited overall neutral selection at the species level, but directional selection in the sub-group of japonica found in tropical regions (Philippe et al. 2010). Musa balbisiana varieties are thought to be more drought tolerant than cultivars containing only A (from Musa acuminata) genomes (Nelson et al. 2006). Obtaining more sequences from mAsr3, especially from selected drought-tolerant and drought-sensitive varieties, will be instrumental in determining whether such a situation also occurs in Musa.","tokenCount":"6367"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"99cbb0e94ed57db79d7b46501eb40d83","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/580e67d4-94f8-4c58-a267-3632f6437afa/retrieve","id":"449542605"},"keywords":["OICR","Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms","• WLE -Water, Land and Ecosystems Contributing Flagships","<Not Defined> Contributing Regional programs","<Not Defined> Contributing external partners","<Not Defined>"],"sieverID":"0af6dedc-9e7b-466d-88b2-9dc67e8e18ca","pagecount":"4","content":"A series of outcome case studies are documented in three volumes covering individual stories and community outcomes. The innovataive combination of farmer group collectives with social and techical interventions led to the impacts. The primary beneficiaries are tenent and landless farmers participating in the project. The project interventions have resulted in a veriety of positive social and eocnomic impacts on partic;ipating marginal farmers indivually and in groups. This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:01 (GMT+0) Country(ies): • Nepal Comments: This project covers two villages in Saptari district of Southern Nepal.Household case study of Pramila Devi Mandal: Is empowerment a process or an end in itself? Parmila Devi Mandal is the Chairperson of farmer group # 2. While the group was formed, Pramila, 50 years old from an eight-member household, was elected as Chair. She owns 2 khatta of land and rents 1 bigga from the landlord. Prior to the project intervention, Pramila cultivated paddy and wheat. After the project intervention, Pramila started cultivating some vegetables in continuation with paddy and wheat. the Access to irrigation facility and agronomic skill transfer prompted her to be part of the group. Pramila felt that her point of view was not taken seriously in a number of instances by group members during their monthly meetings. She thinks this has to do with the fact that she is a women. A couple of months back, there were delays on collecting fund by the group. She told the fellow members to collect the fund in a number of occasion. However not much was done on this regard. In order to be an effective leader the Chairperson of the group feels the group members should take her call for meetings seriously. There have been capacity building activities about group management. However, given the period of engagement of three years, there has not been a significant behavioural change. The fact that activities such as irrigation equipment operation and mobility for procuring inputs are still largely domain of men, perceiving women in the roles of chairperson is difficult for the members to comprehend. Although there have been occasion when members have turned up in meeting, there have also been events when members have not attended. Investigating the reasons to why people behave the way they do requires deeper assessments. Although the observation and discussions show that the decisions taken by women farmers are less likely accepted in comparison to male counterparts, there have also been events when the collection of fees for land preparation from tractor was difficult when regulated by the secretary of the group who is a man. The hesitation of women farmers to operate irrigation equipment and take up external roles highlights the societal gendered division of labour. Such entrenched divisions tend to affect the way agricultural groups function. In this case, the mixed experience of Pramila of taking up position of chairperson and powerlessness to reinforce the responsibilities depicts the same.• https://tinyurl.com/tm6hg8sPart II: CGIAR system level reporting The project identified significant socio-economic, structural and institutional constraints to agricultural production by marginal farmers, including access to land and capital, inequitable landlord-tenant relations, migration and feminization of agriculture, which has affected labour availability. Innovative social interventions, through the formation of farmer collectives, proved beneficial to marginal farmers who could enhance their bargaining power and more efficiently use labour, while addressing the challenge of small scattered plots, to make the piloted irrigation technologies more feasible. While four different models of cooperative farming were successfully demonstrated, further institutional strengthening is required for longer term social sustainability. The government has a key role in creating the conditions for out-scaling collective farming approaches. While policies exist to support agriculture and water management, marginal farmers are not well equipped to follow procedures and access subsidies and support services.It is clear that the project region for DSI4MTF is diverse and complex in terms of the patterns of agriculture and social structures. There are however, striking similarities between the Mithila region which includes the Nepal villages (Saptari) and the Bihar site (Madhubani). Both these regions are characterized by high levels of land inequality, dominance of a small class of landlords, and heavy concentration in the ownership of irrigation equipment which is a constraint for agricultural intensification. The baseline analysis therefore demonstrated strong potential in the region for interventions which can encourage lower cost and more efficient pumping technologies and group ownership of equipment, while also addressing land inequality and fragmentation through farmer collectives on collectively leased land.In West Bengal by contrast, a very different series of challenges are present. This is a higher rainfall region, and rainfed dry season agriculture has more potential in villages such as Dholaguri and Uttar Chakoakheti. However, there is a limited big farmer class or even landlord class. The lack of a progressive large farmer class at all in villages such as Uttar Chakoakheti mean that there is very limited exposure to new irrigation systems, and even the use of pump sets is rare, with most farmers cultivating a single paddy crop. Even the water market for pumps is limited. In these villages, improving all around access to irrigation was found to be a priority, particularly given that the groundwater is plentiful -not to mention the need to look into cropping patterns which can utilize the residual post monsoon soil water in this high rainfall region. The feasible model of collectivization was however found to be very different, and for this reason the project experimented with the voluntary consolidation of land amongst small holders, rather than collective leasing.","tokenCount":"920"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aad2a967c6ad078de4fcb4ce3b130f08","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d89d435f-8dd0-4db9-9bd7-cafd76df4d9e/retrieve","id":"783515620"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"899b9ae3-f8d2-4a21-8a7e-2e4570e66958","pagecount":"1","content":"Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future.www.cgiar.org Bioversity Headquarters ViadeiTre Denari472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino)In Turkana, Northern Kenya, insufficient access to nutritious diets is a major challenge 1 . Women of reproductive age facing this challenge transit into pregnancy and lactating periods malnourished which in turn affect their children as well 2 . Through modeling diets for different target groups (children: 6-8 months, 9-11 months and 12-23 months, and women (15-49years): non pregnant/non lactating, pregnant, and lactating), this study sought to achieve the following objectives:  To assess the minimum cost of nutritious diets for the target groups.  To identify the ability of wild plant foods to reduce the cost of diets and close the nutrient gap if any.  To study the contribution of local foods to the cost as well as energy and nutrient content of the diets.  To predict the ability of households to afford the least cost of diet. Three pastoralists and three agro-pastoralist villages were randomly selected from a list, and market surveys were conducted in both plenty and lean seasons.  Focus group discussions were held with ten women in each village, to determine the culturally accepted dietary habits, and information was verified with the 25 th and 75 th percentile of dietary intakes collected from 180 households using quantitative 24h dietary intake recalls in the same villages.  Three wild vegetables and three wild fruits were selected from a list of wild plant foods for modelling (Figure 2).  Data were entered in the Cost of Diet linear programming tool developed by \"Save the Children\"-UK to model a Locally Adapted Cost Optimized Nutritious (LACON) diet.  Affordability was measured using the 2016 Household Economic Approach from \"Save the Children\".• Daily LACON diet without wild foods for children costs between $0.5-$1 and $0.6-$1.2 in the plenty and lean seasons respectively. For women, it costs between $1.7-$2.4 in the plenty season and $2.2-$2.9 in the lean season (Figure 1). • Adding the 3 wild vegetables in the model, showed the highest cost reduction for all categories (women and children). • For children, 12-23months, all combinations of wild foods, fruits or vegetables significantly reduced cost by 34%-66%. • The single food Solanum americanum reduced diet cost for reproductive women, especially pregnant women up to 47%.• Diets modelled with wild vegetables provide the cheapest LACON diet of $2,660 annually for an average family of 9. • Households irrespective of their wealth level are unable to afford the least cost LACON diet taking into account their food expenditure budget (figure 5).• Cow milk and peas contribute most to diet cost for children, but also provide much energy and nutrients. Breastmilk, considered as \"free\", provides high levels of energy and nutrients (Figure 4(I)). • Maize was the single food contributing highly to cost, energy and nutrient content in women's diet. Egg and cow milk contribute highly to diet cost and nutrients content (Figure 4(II))• Wild plant foods provide a huge potential of reducing diet costs as well as fulfilling nutrient requirements but their potential must be assessed on individual and location specific basis . • Affordability of a nutritious diet in Turkana is still a big challenge (economic constraints) despite wild foods reducing the cost significantly when in season. • Therefore, in addition, food subsidy on cow milk, maize and peas especially or cash transfer schemes can be introduced for households to be able to access a nutritious diet and meet daily nutrient requirements  • Iron and zinc deficiencies were found in diets without wild foods for all groups except lactating women throughout the year. • Diet modelled with wild vegetables or all wild foods were able to make up fully for the nutrient deficiencies(Figure 3). • Single wild foods or all wild fruits alone were unable to fully fill the nutrient gapsCost  All wild foods % Nutrient met without wild foods % Nutrient met with addition of wild foods  ","tokenCount":"662"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d29d2247e3e3e4ddb9232976f7dac1e0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f633f55c-a956-46fe-9009-395549b364f0/retrieve","id":"-1499035866"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5dfa609a-db49-41d3-a8b2-72bb419ff893","pagecount":"28","content":"With support from IDRC and CGIAR global research program Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS), IIRR and its local NGO partners is implementing climate smart villages (CSV) to demonstrate community-based adaptation in agriculture in different agroecological zones in Myanmar. This primer is based on IIRR baseline studies as well as desk research that IIRR commissioned to develop profiles of each CSV in the project. The purpose of this primer is to provide the reader background information as to the agriculture, livelihoods, nutrition, gender and climate change context of each CSV. Hakha is the capital city of Chin State and it is located in the north-east in Chin State above more than 1,800 meters (6,000 feet) above sea level, set on a small highland plateau. Although it is a relatively small inland area, it is the largest city of the whole State and its plateau is significantly larger than that of other towns in Chin State. Chin is one of the least developed areas of Myanmar. It has the highest poverty rate in all of the States and Regions.","tokenCount":"179"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1164388baa5c1014b885a0f82416a35b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6723efca-d9fe-4482-98c7-424645b9574e/content","id":"739329888"},"keywords":["Sustainable agriculture","Climate-resilient agroecosystems","Eastern Gangetic Plains","Mixed methods","Rice-wheat system","Machine learning","Groundwater","Monsoon onset","Sowing date","Landscape level"],"sieverID":"25133b36-7c7c-40c3-8a5f-f796569b8f5e","pagecount":"15","content":"Timely crop planting is a foundation for climate-resilient rice-wheat systems of the Eastern Gangetic Plains-a global food insecurity and poverty hotspot. We hypothesize that the capacity of individual farmers to plant on time varies considerably, shaped by multifaceted enabling factors and constraints that are poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, two complementary datasets were used to characterize drivers and decision processes that govern the timing of rice planting in this region. The first dataset was a large agricultural management survey (rice-wheat: n = 15,245; of which rice: n = 7597) from a broad geographic region that was analyzed by machine learning methods. The second dataset was a discussion-based survey (n = 112) from a more limited geography that we analyzed with graph theory tools to elicit nuanced information on planting decisions. By combining insights from these methods, we show for the first time that differences in rice planting times are primarily shaped by ecosystem and climate factors while social factors play a prominent secondary role. Monsoon onset, surface and groundwater availability, and land type determine village-scale mean planting times whereas, for resource-constrained farmers who tend to plant later ceteris paribus, planting is further influenced by access to farm machinery, seed, fertilizer, and labor. Also, a critical threshold for economically efficient pumping appears at a groundwater depth of around 4.5 m; below this depth, farmers do not irrigate and delay planting. Without collective action to spread risk through synchronous timely planting, ecosystem factors such as threats posed by pests and wild animals may further deter early planting by individual farmers. Accordingly, we propose a three-pronged strategy that combines targeted strengthening of agricultural input chains, agroadvisory development, and coordinated rice planting and wildlife conservation to support climate-resilient agricultural development in the Eastern Gangetic Plains.Attaining food security in the densely populated Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains-a global poverty hotspot-requires the negotiation of trade-offs between productivity, risk, and the ecological footprint of agriculture, a challenge further compounded by the impacts of climate change (Park et al. 2018;Struik and Kuyper 2017;Ortiz et al. 2008). Building agroecosystem resilience-i.e., the capacity to maintain core functions in the light of environmental and market shocks (Nystrom et al. 2019)-and thus maintaining high levels of crop productivity are often predicated on timely crop planting and harvesting (Singh et al. 2019).Timely planting aligns crop cycles with favorable climate conditions resulting in higher and generally more stable yields. Specifically, timely crop planting raises system productivity by (a) mitigating risks of yield losses caused by pushing crop growth into periods of sub-optimal or extreme weather conditions such as cold and heat waves, drought, or flooding; (b) increasing resource use efficiencies; and (c) allowing for more crops to be grown per year on the same land (Acharjee et al. 2019). While several studies have analyzed optimal time windows for planting, agroecosystem characteristics and farmers' decision processes that enhance or limit the potential to plant crops during optimal time windows have received less attention (Acharjee et al. 2019;Singh et al. 2019;Mingxia et al. 2020).With approximately 400 million people and a population density of more than 1000 people per km 2 , the Eastern Gangetic Plains encompass parts of Northeastern India, eastern Nepal, and Bangladesh. High incidence of poverty and food insecurity, as well as a primary dependence on agriculture, make it a priority location for achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 1: No Poverty, and Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger (Jat et al. 2020). In this region, farmers predominantly grow rice during the summer monsoon, often followed by a wheat crop in the dry winter season. But, erratic monsoon patterns increasingly cause both floods and droughts in close spatio-temporal proximity, threatening farmers' productivity. Research over the last decades has shown that timely planting of both rice and wheat is one of the most important response options that farmers in the region have to build resilient agroecosystems amidst changing climate regimes (Keil et al. 2019;Ortiz et al. 2008;Singh et al. 2019). At the system level of rice-wheat cropping patterns in South Asia, timely planting of rice facilitates the efficient use of monsoon season rainfall and, just as importantly, planting of wheat within the first 3 weeks of November. The latter assures higher yield potential by avoiding both season-long and terminal heat stress during grain filling (Singh et al. 2019). Due to the cascading influence of rice management on subsequent crops like wheat in the annual rotation, our study focuses on rice planting.Rice planting is typically a two-step process as nurseries are first planted to raise seedlings that are then uprooted and transplanted into main fields (see Fig. 1). For simplicity, and because the timing of the two activities is highly correlated, we refer to the process of nursery establishment and subsequent transplanting as \"planting.\" Conversely, wheat tends to be broadcast sown after rice harvest following tillage to prepare fields. But, a delayed rice crop can push back the timely planting of wheat and other dry season crops. As the planting time of rice is a keystone to the productivity of this cropping sequence, the lack of knowledge of the factors that increase the ability of farmers to adopt timely planting hinders effective and targeted agricultural development programming in the region, particularly in light of the high levels of social and agroecological diversity. We therefore hypothesize that farmers' capacity to plant on time is unequal and shaped by a host of binding constraints and enabling factors that are, at present, insufficiently understood.1.2 Farmers' capacity to adjust planting dates: a systems' perspectiveIn this study, we draw on social-ecological systems research as it pertains to resilience theory. We considered the work of Lescourret et al. (2015) and distinguished two different types of factors: (a) ecosystem factors that operate largely at the landscape level but exert influence on individual farmers' ability to plant on time and (b) social system factors (henceforth \"social factors\") that operate at the village and household scales and affect farmers' decisions regarding planting times.Ecosystem factors include dynamic factors that change from year to year such as the onset of the monsoon, and pest and disease pressures, but also static factors that remain relatively constant over time such as pre-monsoon ground and surface water availability, and land types (e.g., the position of a plot within the drainage system where water tends to accumulate in lowlands or to runoff in upland areas).Social factors are mainly associated with input and resource availability. Timely planting requires readily available seed and fertilizer, tractors for land preparation, and irrigation (e.g., mostly with groundwater, but sometimes also in the form of canal water), in addition to labor and capital to pay for crucial operations. These factors are influenced by household resource endowment, availability of farm machinery, market access, and many others. Since ecosystem factors operate largely at the landscape level, they can be regarded as boundary conditions for individual villages and households. Social factors at village and household levels then shape responses therein.This study identifies and characterizes the main factors and decision processes that influence capacity to achieve timely rice planting in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. We deployed a mixed-methods approach to understand factors associated with the timely planting of rice-a key indicator of agroecosystems' resilience in the Eastern Gangetic Plains, particularly in the light of progressive climatic change. Specifically, we studied how social-ecological characteristics differ across early, medium, and late rice planters. We worked on the assumption that timely planting means early planting in most cases, as indicated by overall yield benefits to the ricewheat system (Ortiz et al. 2008;Singh et al. 2019). We present an approach in which we combine insights from two unique datasets, a detailed discussion-based dataset and a big picture survey. We analyzed each dataset through novel methods and used the results from the detailed dataset to complement and inform interpretation of results from modern data-mining techniques that we used to analyze the big picture dataset. In Section 2, we sketch out the broad research design and theoretical considerations and delineate how we addressed these considerations. This section is designed to allow a better understanding of our contributions to developing an innovative mixed-methods approach for gaining insights for resilience in social-ecological system from cross-sectional case studies (Bodin et al. 2019). In Section 3, we present the results and (a) discuss the social-ecological factors that the study revealed as most important for timely planting, (b) assess the value of our mixed-methods approach to study complex social-ecological systems at regional scale, and (c) propose a practical strategy for building resilient rice-wheat systems in the Eastern Gangetic Plains through timely planting.We used two complementary datasets in this study that we call \"big picture\" dataset and \"detailed\" dataset. The big picture dataset is a farmer survey developed for crop diagnostics at the regional scale (rice-wheat: n = 15,245, out of which rice: n = 7597) for the 2017-2018 rice-wheat season in the state of Bihar and neighboring parts of Uttar Pradesh. It was collected in 2017-2018 through a collaborative effort between the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia (CSISA; www. csisa.org) and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research and their network of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) offices that bring scientific expertise to the district level. We first selected 39 districts with 30 districts in Bihar State and nine in adjacent areas of Uttar Pradesh State. In each district, we randomly selected 30 villages. Next, a random draw from voter rolls was used to identify seven farm households to survey within each village. This produced a total of 210 household samples in each district (Fig. 2) and a total of 8190 target sampling households for each crop. Some data points had to be discarded during data cleaning, producing the total survey size of 15,245. Survey responses were elicited for the largest rice field managed by each household. The survey was designed to elucidate patterns of production practices and yield outcomes across the region. Following geo-tagging of farmers' largest field, we elicited data describing crop management practices, bio-physical site characteristics, and causes of crop stress. Farmers were also queried regarding their level of market integration and orientation and social and household characteristics.The detailed dataset is a survey based on focus group discussions with farmers in Bihar that characterizes farmers' perceptions of factors affecting the timing of rice establishment in their villages, with associated scoring of how much each identified factor affects the timing of planting and productivity on their own farms (n = 112 farmers in 22 focus groups with, on average, 5 farmers per focus group). For the detailed dataset, we subsampled-out of the big picture sample frame-five randomly chosen households in five villages in three study areas that represent different key agroecological zones (Fig. 2). This relatively small subsample was chosen to provide a more qualitative in-depth perspective across socialecological gradients in the region to help explain and inform results of the quantitative analysis of the big picture survey. The three study areas represent the two biggest agroecological zones of Bihar, as well as one drought-prone area with less reliable access to irrigation: (1) Muzaffarpur/Samastipur (good rainfall and aquifers, partial canal irrigation), (2) Bhojpur/Buxar (located at the tail end of a canal irrigation scheme with good aquifers and heavy soils), and (3) Nalanda/Jehanabad (a small canal irrigation scheme with poorer and more heterogeneous aquifers, lighter soils, and hence, more drought prone). The villages were chosen by local agricultural experts who were asked to select villages that represent the variation in social-ecological conditions within the study areas to ensure that inter-village variability is controlled for. The households within each village were chosen at random to control for intra-village diversity, and participation of different socio-economic groups was observed in the focus group discussions.The goal of the detailed survey was to elucidate a system description of planting date decisions based on the logic and language of the farmers (i.e., an emic perspective). To achieve this, we facilitated the group of the selected survey respondents to construct a causal diagram in each village (Dorward et al. 2007). Often, several other interested individuals joined the discussions which we allowed to source information from the largest possible group. We then placed a flipchart on the ground and wrote down the two items: (a) nursery establishment and (b) transplanting in Hindi and English in the middle of the flipchart. We then told the participants that we sought to understand the factors that govern the timing of the two activities and asked them to complete the flipchart by brainstorming all possible factors that could drive the timing of rice planting. Arrows were then placed between factors indicating cause and effect. This process was facilitated by local staff in Hindi and other local languages as required. After this exercise, we asked the previously randomly selected 5 households in each focus group (these all participated in the big picture survey and were randomly chosen from voting lists) in each village to individually score each cause and effect relationship from 0 to 10 depending on the degree that, on average across households, it mattered for their own management of planting dates over the last 5 years (Dorward et al. 2007).2.2 Methodological approach: mixed-methods analysis of complex agroecological systems at the regional scaleThe advantage of a mixed-methods approach is that they allow researchers to complement quantitative datasets with rich and contextual data (Bodin et al. 2019). We achieve this by combining the big picture and detailed dataset.The big picture dataset adds quantitative and spatial dimensions that could not be achieved with detailed surveys. But, quantitative modeling to identify factors influencing rice establishment with the larger dataset presents its own challenges. Classical regression models require a priori selection of model form (linear, cubic, etc.) that is generally established through specific and extensive testing to check whether the data meets the assumptions and requirements of the statistical model. For our purposes, we required an analytical approach that (a) is capable of handling both numerical and categorical variables, (b) includes mechanisms for variable selection/importance rankings, (c) can handle non-linear relationships, and (d) produces interpretable results. Based on these criteria, we selected the random forest method for our analysis (Breiman 2001). Random forest builds an ensemble of classification and regression trees to make predictions. The algorithm constructs several hundred decision trees that each predicts the outcome based on a set of randomly confined observations and predictors. It then predicts the outcome by calculating the mean of the predictions of all individual decision trees. Several freely available software packages have been developed to aid the interpretation of random forests, and we used the forestFloor package as it has been previously deployed for similar purposes and provides good documentations (Welling et al. 2016).For the analysis of the big picture data, we focused on the timing of nursery establishment as the very first activity that also strongly correlates with transplanting time and provides a good predictor of rice harvest, wheat planting, and wheat harvest (not shown). We further checked for variables that had a correlation factor of higher than 0.7 or lower than − 0.7 as they are known to decrease the accuracy of importance scores in random forest models. The only two highly correlated variables were cropped land and total landholding. We discarded the former but retained the latter, which thus represents both factors in the analysis.In addition to the big picture survey variables, we estimated the monsoon onset for each survey point from Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station Data (CHIRPS) 2.0 calculated based on agronomically relevant criteria: (a) the first day of two consecutive wet days cumulating in at least 35 mm rainfall and (b) no dry spell with a cumulative rainfall less than 5 mm within the 10 following days (Marteau et al. 2009). We also added pre-monsoon groundwater level from the Central Groundwater Resources Board from the year 2017 as a model predictor which was extrapolated through ordinary kriging to 0.05-degree resolution (Ministry of Water Resources 2016).Next, for the factor importance ranking, we sought to identify the importance and relationship of each variable for shaping planting date (i.e., nursery establishment). For this purpose, we deployed the random forest model as implemented in the R package randomForest and plotted the variable importance score that is produced (Breiman 2001).For the partial dependency plots, as to permit the inference of interactions between predictors and outcome, we used the forestFloor package (Welling et al. 2016). Partial dependency plots show the functional relationship between model input variables and model predictions with all other variables held constant. These plots show how the model predictions partially depend on the value of the input variable.Representative trees are another helpful visualization. While the power of random forests comes from being able to generate numerous trees, they may not differ significantly from each other if sample sizes are large enough. Also, randomForest does not offer a simple way to visualize interactions between predictors. By choosing a tree that is statistically closest to all other trees, one can elucidate interactions among independent variables. This has, for instance, been suggested as a mechanism to deduce decision heuristics for medical practitioners (Banerjee et al. 2019). As such, we present a pruned version of a representative tree of our random forest model to provide a visualization of the main interactions among predictors as well as a sense of the factor hierarchy that governs planting dates.The detailed dataset adds a qualitative dimension, and its results were used (a) to select variables that we subsequently included in the analysis of the big picture dataset, (b) to provide insights that bolster the interpretation of the results obtained from analysis of the big picture dataset, and (c) to identify missing or latent variables that were not directly captured in the big picture survey data, but which likely play a crucial role in explaining the reasons for untimely rice crop establishment. The detailed dataset is vital for developing conceptual models of systems because it is comprehensive, open-ended, and fully participatory. While results from the detailed dataset cannot be generalized to the regional scale because of its relatively small sample size, it does provide insights into the underlying factors associated with diverse establishment date outcomes. Building on this advantage, we relied on local agricultural experts to guide the village sampling strategy for stratification across precipitation, hydrology, and wealth gradients to capture a wide variety of possible cases. We used digital graph theory tools (igraph, GraphViz) to analyze scored causal diagrams created by the participants of each focus group discussion (Csardi and Nepusz 2006;Ellson et al. 2001).These scored causal diagrams were digitized manually as a network graph through the GraphViz software package and exported for analysis with the igraph package in R (Csardi and Nepusz 2006;Ellson et al. 2001). For factor importance ranking, we calculated the weighted out-degree (sum of all outgoing arrows) for each factor of each individual farmer that scored the diagram. In the region, three different 2-week periods that are specified in the local calendar denote planting time: early (local calendar period called Rohini: 25th of May-7th of June, day of year 146-159), medium (local calendar period called Mirgishra: 8th of June-21st of June, day of year 160-173), and late (local calendar period called Adra: 22nd of June-5th of July, day of year 174-187). We recorded whether the farmers that scored the causal diagrams planted in each of the three periods. We then averaged the weighted out-degree scores of all farmers that planted rice nurseries in each 2-week period. Some farmers planted in multiple periods, mostly because they had plots on different land types and their scores were therefore counted in more than one period.For 2017, a normal monsoon year with onset around day of year 181, our data suggests that early planters (early period or before) are a distinctive minority (27%), while those falling into the medium category are the vast majority (50%), with late planters (late period or thereafter) in the minority (23%) (see Fig. 3). Our data shows three distinctive peaks in both the nursery establishment and transplanting distributions. For nursery establishment, the medium peak is likely related to the arrival of monsoon showers in the medium period. The early and late peaks likely relate to traditional farming calendars as they coincide with their starting day (see Section 2.2). Transplanting likely mirrors the pattern of nursery establishment through seedling age and monsoon arrival as a trigger for transplanting.Some key numeric variables in our dataset have rather large outliers but are generally evenly distributed (not shown). Considering categorical variables, almost all farmers have access to irrigation, mostly from diesel-powered shallow groundwater wells, and grow wheat after their rice crop. The production in 2017 was widely perceived to be in line with the 5-year average. Surveyed farmers in the big picture survey reported to use the following heuristic for determining the timing for nursery establishment: calendar dates, premonsoon showers, and irrigation water availability, and, to a lesser extent, neighbors' practices, seed availability, and weather forecasts. For transplanting, dominant self-reported heuristics were seedling age, calendar dates, irrigation water availability, rain arrival, and, to a lesser extent, labor availability. The influences on planting time distribution of the different self-reported heuristics can be seen in the different shapes of the distribution curves for nursery planting and transplanting (Fig. 3).Monsoon onset date, results from both datasets suggest, plays a primary role in shaping the timing of rice planting (Figs. 4  and 5)-ostensibly to avoid costly groundwater irrigation as most farmers rely on costly and inefficient diesel-powered groundwater irrigation (Shah et al. 2018). This means that farmers who are socially constrained to access reliable and affordable irrigation face a trade-off between increasing their system resilience through early planting and increasing risks posed by potentially high irrigation expenses in the case of late monsoon onsets. Social factors, in general, act as secondary drivers of planting outcomes at the village and household levels, as farmers differ in access levels to agricultural inputs and services and investment capacity. For example, some villages reported that only one tractor is shared for plowing at transplanting so it requires ca. 30 days for the entire village to transplant. Likewise, labor for transplanting is often scarce as groups of migratory agricultural laborers are only available in each location at a given time so farmers need to pay a premium, wait, or actively import labor for transplanting. Similarly, farmers in remote villages require costly transportation to the nearest market to purchase quality seed and fertilizer. But, they may not have the capacity to mobilize the community and organize collective transportations for accessing inputs from market towns and thus rely on village-level shops that offer goods with varying quantities, qualities, and prices. In this way, secondary factors may cause rice planting delays even when water-related factors do not limit early planting.Non-water-related ecosystem factors such as wild grazing animals (e.g. blue bulls [Boselaphus tragocamelus]; locally called nilgai) and pest and disease pressures play another important role. Pests, wild animals, and disease pressure did not emerge as a critical factor for contemporary decision-making in the big picture dataset. But, these factors were mentioned in the detailed survey in almost all villages as a barrier to early planting, especially if neighboring farmers were not planting in synchrony. Village-level commonalities in management also hint at the existence of \"village tales\" that shape a common understanding of optimal management that influences planting date decisions beyond variables that are collected in the big picture survey.Our datasets demonstrate, for the first time, that waterrelated ecosystem factors play a primary role, but access to inputs and socio-economic stratification act as critical secondary factors, especially for resource-poor households. The big picture dataset also shows the limitation of small, detailed surveys that do not fully capture ecological regional variations such as variations in groundwater levels. To summarize the findings, Table 1 provides an overview of the characteristics that increase the probability of a farmer to plant early, medium, or late.The water-related factors monsoon onset and irrigation availability appeared as critical factors in both the detailed dataset and the big picture dataset. In the detailed dataset, monsoon onset was rated as the most important factor in determining the date of rice planting for early, medium, and late planters. Monsoon onset was evaluated as the third most important variable in the random forest model which likely underestimates its importance as the big picture survey, on which the random forest was built, and only contains data from the year 2017. Monsoon onset is likely more important when explaining inter-annual variability, given that intra-annual variability in monsoon onset was limited in 2017 (data not shown).Groundwater depth scored second highest among the detailed dataset factor rankings and was the most important factor in the random forest model. The random forest results suggest that, at the regional scale, irrigation availability is primarily a function of shallow pre-monsoon groundwater levels, rather than machinery availability. The representative tree uses the groundwater depth variable as the first split and then further narrows down the predictions by splitting for different social variables as well as groundwater depth and monsoon onset at subsequent splits (Fig. 6). This splitting pattern further indicates that water-related variables are of primary importance, and other variables provide context on the degree to which early planting is (socially) constrained. The partial dependency plots further show that farmers tend to plant later if pre-monsoon groundwater levels pass a threshold of ca. 4.5 m (Fig. 7). This is likely explained by technical characteristics of centrifugal pumps that predominate the landscape. Centrifugal pumps, in theory, cannot lift water from more than 9.81 m below them, and in practice, friction losses commonly decrease this threshold even more (Kahnert 1993). In addition, the operation cost of centrifugal pumps increases sharply with deeper groundwater levels, which further amplifies the already high irrigation cost of diesel pumpset irrigation. At the village level, irrigation water in the region is generally made accessible by pump owners to other farmers on a pay-per-hour basis, so that variability in prices and availability can further constrain timely planting even where groundwater levels are in operable levels (Shah et al. 2018).Access to canal infrastructure also emerged as an important factor. In canal areas, rice planting is often delayed. Farmers reported that they do not align rice planting with the monsoon onset, but with the opening of the canal system, which takes place after monsoon onset as monsoon rains are required to fill the canals. Farmers reported that farming in canal areas comes with the drawback that, in most regions, more water is released into canals than they can carry. Widespread flooding is the result, and farmers reported that fields are often submerged for several weeks at the start of the monsoon period. Farmers accordingly tend to raise submergence-tolerant seedlings and transplant them before flooding. The factors of flooding in the area are complex and, for instance, discussed in the study of Muthuwatta et al. (2017). Importantly, and mentioned by farmers during the focus group discussions, lack of transboundary cooperation between different states and countries plays a key role in causing the uncontrolled flooding.The study revealed two further, non-water-related, ecosystem factors that feature a collective action component and appear to constrain timely planting in some places: wild animal grazing and pest and disease pressures. Wild animal grazing specifically refers to blue bulls, the largest Asian antelope which is widespread in the region. Farmers reported that they frequently destroyed crops as they graze in large herds. While the government allowed farmers to cull blue bulls in 2015, their status as a holy animal adds a layer of complexity to Fig. 6 Representative tree (pruned) of the random forest model. This tree is closest in Euclidean space to most other trees and helps to derive heuristics from the model. Groundwater depth is a key separator for predicting planting time the issue. To defend against them, farmers install whistling tapes, scarecrows, and fences, but these methods are not always effective, and herds of blue bulls can still trample or graze on nurseries and young rice plants. While not directly affecting planting dates, the problems caused by blue bulls do increase the level of risk faced by rice farmers. Those that plant earlier than others are more at risk of damage as their nurseries and fields are more prominent and attractive for grazing.The same logic applies to pest and disease pressures as has been observed in other locations (Tscharntke et al. 2012). Farmers reported that they cannot plant much earlier than neighboring farmers as their crops would otherwise succumb to heightened pest and disease pressures with pressure concentrating on the plots of early planters rather than being diluted across the landscape. Thus, early planting in a village is not only determined by access to resources, inputs, and technologies managed by single farmers. Rather, timely planting also depends on the ability and desire for synchronous early planting of neighboring farmers-a challenge further complicated by high and increasing levels of land fragmentation in the region (Keil et al. 2019).At the village level, timely availability of cash, labor, machinery for land preparation and irrigation, seed, and fertilizer at adequate qualities and prices constitute additional factors that influence planting dates. In contrast to water availability, these social factors tend to have only a few high scorings per village and different factors appear to be more relevant depending on the village in question, resulting in lower scores of the factor importance ranking across locations from the detailed dataset (Fig. 4). Social factors were also attributed less importance by the random forest model, which may be because there were fewer social factor variables in the big picture survey and post-sampling social stratification was not feasible due to the large sample size and random household selection in each village. The factor rankings suggest that, at the regional scale, social variation at the village level (e.g., market distance, machinery availability) is more important than household-level differences within a village. Nevertheless, farmers did report that households with a low socio-economic standing generally face more hardship for accessing inputs. Altogether, it seems that not only availability of a given input is important; rather, farmers' capacity to purchase and use the input effectively is also crucial. This metric, however, was not captured in the big picture survey and therefore also not reflected in the random forest model.Similarly, farmers reported that labor constraints are increasing and especially impactful for households with larger landholding who tend to rely on hired labor that is difficult to find after the onset of the monsoon when most labor is then engaged in transplanting rice on their own plots. Larger landholders with cash available thus tend to plant rice earlier than their neighbors to avoid labor shortages. Farmers in remote villages also noted that, in addition to machinery inputs and labor, quality seed and fertilizer at subsidized rates are not always available on time. For timely supplies, remote farmers would have to travel to distant market towns which is costly. And, the lack of collective action models complicates the mobilization of collective transportation, which would reduce individual costs.In addition, finance to purchase inputs and labor scores highest among the social factors as a constraint to timely planting in the detailed survey. This is likely to reflect the difficulty to avail cash when needed. Some farmers reported that they use a credit card that is provided and subsidized by government initiatives, but most farmers borrowed cash from relatives or local moneylenders. Although credit sources were not explicitly recorded in the big picture survey, metrics for market integration such as distance to market and fertilizer sources may be good proxies. However, moneylenders and microfinance alone cannot provide a solution to these constraints. We therefore focus our subsequent discussions on increasing profitability, resource use efficiency, and business models for input and service provisioning that cater to different farmers' needs.Soil and crop variety types also emerged as variables affecting timely planting in the detailed survey. Farmers indicated that different drainage classes (land types) tend to prompt different planting dates and variety choices. Differences in soil moisture retention lead to a shorter growing season on land with faster drainage and thus shorter-duration rice varieties and later planting. If irrigation was available, however, farmers reported that, on preference, they made use of the early drainage of upland areas to plant vegetables after short-duration rice varieties. Many lower lying lands, on the other hand, were also prone to waterlogging and thus required earlier planting of longer-duration varieties so that transplanting and harvesting could both take place at desired soil moisture levels.Our results suggest that water-related factors most strongly shape rice planting date patterns in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. Research suggests that improving unreliable and expensive irrigation infrastructure is a pre-requisite for sustainable agricultural development in the Eastern Gangetic Plains (Shah et al. 2018). Two major initiatives are currently being promoted by governments and development organizations in the Eastern Gangetic Plains: (i) a centrally led initiative to electrify the countryside and (ii) a subsidized effort to scaleout solar irrigation. Both are promising initiatives that may significantly reduce the operational costs of pumping. The risk of depleting groundwater in the Eastern Gangetic Plains-that generally accompanies groundwater development-has been largely dispelled by previous studies (Muthuwatta et al. 2017;Shah et al. 2018). If successful, many more farmers could gain pre-monsoon irrigation access because of these initiatives. They could be empowered to plant their crops in a timelier manner and reduce the level of climatic risks associated with delayed monsoon onset.Spatial targeting in conjunction with supplementary investments in existing technologies could potentially enhance the effect of the regional initiatives to scale out low-carbon and affordable irrigation technologies. Our results suggest that areas with pre-monsoon groundwater tables below 4 m require alternatives to centrifugal pumps, such as electrically or solarpowered submersible pumps to provide affordable premonsoonal irrigation (Shah et al. 2018). But, in areas with pre-monsoonal water tables at depths less than 4 m, increasing access to efficient diesel pumpsets may prove a more cost-effective approach in the near term (Urfels et al. 2020). For solar, the current subsidy schemes substantially reduce the capital investment costs for solarpowered irrigation systems. Its manufacturing costs are also decreasing and may enhance economic viability for future deployment, potentially superseding diesel pumpsets in the Eastern Gangetic Plains over the next decades (Shah et al. 2018). Although several studies have been conducted on sustainable groundwater use in the area, including managed aquifer recharge systems, specific recharge processes and detailed aquifer maps remain a knowledge gap that needs to be filled to confidently design sustainable groundwater use scenarios (Reddy et al. 2020).Wild grazing animals and pest and disease pressures further shape farmers' capacity for timely planting as individual early planted plots are more likely to face concentrated biotic pressures. These dynamics, although crucial for agricultural practices and critical for ungulate conservation, are not easily quantified (Tscharntke et al. 2012;Prestele and Verburg 2019). Development of new survey instruments and use of new analytical methods are likely required to capture them. These shortfalls highlight remaining challenges in ecosystem services research and the design of agricultural development pathways that align with broader conservation targets. In addition, our findings highlight that building agroecosystem resilience involves developing solutions to collective action problems which need to be addressed at larger spatial scales than the plot or household level (Prestele and Verburg 2019).A strong agricultural goods and service economy (i.e., market integration) appears to contribute to farmers' ability to plant early. Specifically, our data corroborate evidence that access to labor, tillage, and subsidized seed and fertilizer markets frequently prevents timely planting and requires innovative solutions (Keil et al. 2019;Shah et al. 2018). Strategies to strengthen land preparation machinery service markets could consider the spatial gradients of commercial orientation and mechanization both at the community level and at the household level. Subsequently, it is not necessarily large-scale infrastructure projects, but locally targeted investments that are tailored to farmers' needs, that may allow farmers to better tackle specific bottlenecks and increase their flexibility in making decisions.Innovating agricultural input markets to support timely planting will inevitably reveal synergies and trade-offs with other sustainability targets. These should be considered by policy makers to increase investment effectiveness, as has been recently shown in other places. For example, zerotillage wheat, which is mainly provided on a pay-per-hour/ ha service by private machinery owners, has been shown to provide \"win-win\" scenarios for farmers, but adoption is largely inhibited by a lack of awareness among poorer farmers. The possibility to use tractors for both zero-tillage wheat and direct seeded rice planting may further enhance attractiveness to farmers and service providers. But while mechanical rice planting continues to face problems, improvements in custom hiring of tillage services may provide welcome synergies for timely planting until more effective models of mechanized rice planting that are also attractive to poorer farmers are positioned for large-scale adoption. In the meantime, tillage service providers may play a crucial role in coordinating synchronous planting, hence saving fuel by reducing travel between villages and assisting farmers to overcome landscape-level ecological pressures. Highlighting the labor-saving benefits of mechanical planting is another consideration. But, just as with irrigation, investing in human capital and strengthening the supporting industry of mechanics, vendors, and other private sector actors along the value chain are required to leverage cross-sectoral benefits and provide potential employment options for agricultural laborers that, in some areas, may be put out of business.Our results further highlight the value of developing spatial datasets of social variables to build resilient agroecosystems. Spatial variation of agroecosystems matters for sustainable agricultural development pathways because nuanced differences in the social-ecological setup produce different decision-making patterns. For example, investments in irrigation should be guided by differentiations between upstream/ downstream and flooded/non-flooded canal areas, submersible pumps, and centrifugal pumps with pre-monsoon groundwater levels below or above 4.5 m. Furthermore, data on access to inputs and the quality and timeliness of service provision can be collected at the household or village level. The number of tractors per capita at the village level might, for instance, be a useful overall measure, but ideally, data on all key inputs should be collected.Embellishing climate services and dynamic planting date advisories constitutes another channel through which farmers' capacity for timely planting can be enhanced. Both farmers and agronomists use cropping calendars to characterize planting and harvesting times of crops in different agroecological zones. Streamlining activities such as application of irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides into these calendaroriented formats that align with the phenological development of crops can consolidate research findings for effective communication with end-users (Subash and Gangwar 2014). Our study showed that farmers in the region use a local calendar of 2-week periods for temporal orientation. We therefore recommend that farmers' temporal heuristics could be integrated and consolidated in extension efforts to ease communication barriers and enhance the potential for farmers' adoption of resilience enhancing practices.Building sustainable and resilient agroecosystems constitutes a major global policy target, but understanding regionally specific incentive structures, factors, and barriers to catalyze transformative changes remains a crucial challenge. Our findings provide new methodological and practical insights on agroecosystems as social-ecological systems with special regard for climate change and food security. Integrated research frameworks in the field of food security and climate change have been continuously refined for more than two decades. Digitalization and ongoing advances on spatial and detailed data collection, analytics, and decision support systems can and must be leveraged for fine-tuning the evidence base by crystallizing regionally specific elements that influence behavior and outcomes. Critical future steps include (a) producing and comparing results to other regions and socialecological systems to better understand their differences, (b) including the factors and processes that our analysis unveiled in regional modeling and integrated ex-ante assessments, (c) leveraging synergies and trade-offs with other sustainable agricultural technologies, (d) increasing the availability of highresolution spatial data, and (e) developing targeted and evidence-based programs with a spatially specific and holistic theory of change (Van Noordwijk 2019).In addition to the research needs outlined above, policy makers in the Eastern Gangetic Plains can support farmers through multifaceted efforts to improve access to irrigation, labor, tractors, and seed and fertilizer, as well as conserving wild animals in ways that reduce risk of crop damage. Specifically, metered electricity connections and submersible pumps should primarily be encouraged in areas with pre-monsoonal groundwater tables below 4 m. Solar irrigation systems should be targeted for centrifugal pumps in areas with shallower groundwater tables. Similarly, scale-appropriate agricultural mechanization with propoor models of service provision to facilitate smallholder access to machinery requires acceleration in areas of low technology penetration (Paudel et al. 2019). Furthermore, seed and fertilizer markets as well as other inputs should be made more easily available to remote villages, e.g., through stimulating private sector extensions of agricultural input providers. And, conversely, policy should also focus on encouraging improved resource use efficiencies to reduce input needs. Collective action models for achieving more synchronous planting as well as early warning systems should be established to avoid damages from wild animals, pests, and diseases with information disseminated through existing extension networks and the private sector.3.5 Studying agroecosystem at the regional scale through a mixed-methods social-ecological approach: challenges and opportunities Our mixed-methods approach identified key issues and dynamics for timely rice planting in the Eastern Gangetic Plains. Using machine learning tools to analyze a combination of big picture and detailed survey datasets assisted in (i) uncovering diverse pathways through which different variables shape farmers' planting behavior, (ii) highlighting non-linear critical thresholds of important variables (e.g., groundwater level) and interaction effects between variables (e.g., where certain social conditions reduced or amplified the effect of groundwater level), and (iii) identifying factors that the big picture surveys do not reveal, such as grazing wild animals and unwillingness to plant early due to heightened pest and disease pressure-both of which contain properties of classical collective action problems. Our approach can be used for future studies to build systematic evidence for key sustainability challenges in complex social-ecological systems amidst increasingly rapid global environmental change. The approach offers a balance of analytical depth and size of the inference space. Ideally, big picture surveys should follow and be informed by the detailed surveys, which should be taken into consideration for future study designs. We found that potentially valuable variables, especially social variables, that measure the timeliness of village-level service provision were not included in the big picture survey. We can only recommend for these to be included in future data collection efforts and act as a tool to stratify the sampling. We aimed to show that such an approach can effectively complement the shortcomings of the two types of datasets and methods of inference each one makes possible, and thus contribute to spanning the gap between regional programming and context-specific interventions. These will be increasingly important to ensure a sustainable transition of the food system in the future.Major challenges also pertain to the conceptual development of agroecosystems as social-ecological systems and resilience in agricultural development. While several authors have developed social-ecological systems frameworks for sustainable agricultural development and pointed at required modifications, few examples of their operationalization exist (Lescourret et al. 2015). From a user-centered perspective, farmers' capacity to adapt to the environmental change and build resilience against environmental shocks such as late monsoon onsets depends on their levels of access to resources (e.g., water) and markets (e.g., labor, fertilizer) and is partially mediated through technology (e.g., pumps, tractors). The system boundaries can be scaled from the farm to the community and to the landscape level-with important interactions between the scales and different possibilities for interventions at each scale. From this perspective, timely planting requires flexibility regarding the use of water and other agricultural inputs. At the landscape level, this means that farmers' resilience hinges on the response of the resource base (e.g., water resources) and input markets in the face of external shocks (e.g., multiseason drought effect on groundwater or oil market price fluctuation for tractor service provisions). Enhancing farmers' timely access to inputs, while coupling these efforts with management practices to improve resource use efficiency, enables them to raise profits and yields amidst progressive global change, while enabling access to water resources beyond critical technological thresholds buffers farmers against moderate environmental shocks. But, our research cannot immediately be extended to drastic disturbances in the climate system as the effects on input markets and the resource base might differ and invoke other tipping points. Achieving agroecosystem resilience beyond the level discussed in this study requires further research to reveal the effects of more complex and more drastic global change processes and find entry points to increase farmers' resilience against such disturbances (Schipanski et al. 2016).Smallholders in the Eastern Gangetic Plains rely on timely rice planting for building resilient agroecosystems amidst progressive environmental change. In this study, we used a novel, social-ecological systems informed, mixed-methods approach. This approach revealed for the first time that farmers' capacity for timely planting is primarily predicated on the timely availability of pre-monsoonal irrigation, while social factors such as timely access to farm inputs and machinery act as secondary constraints for timely planting for many farmers in the region. In addition, absence of collective action in the form of synchronous rice planting to reduce pressure from pests, diseases, and grazing animals on individual plots emerged as an additional, but not quantified constraint.Based on these finding, we argue for advanced research to support spatial targeting of pro-poor investments to overcome spatially explicit barriers to timely use of irrigation, machinery, and farm inputs. Doing so will require new data collection efforts that quantify the spatial structure of these barriers. In addition, finding models that can solve collective action problems, at times perhaps through creation of new service models in the private sector, and improving resource use efficiencies to make farmers less reliant on external resources will also enhance farmers' capacity for timely planting and thus agroecosystem resilience. Lastly, the sustainability of some of these interventions also depends on the resilience and sustainability of the resource base as well as input, machinery, and labor markets. Understanding these will require research beyond the agroecosystem, e.g., on the food system, on how these system components behave amidst global environmental change.","tokenCount":"7659"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"68765f4ede6f5841253982f6b58b7a71","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a45221c-92c4-4e1c-a80f-b149302336a3/retrieve","id":"-625191990"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f299242c-0696-43e1-9ec1-a2afe96d8dc3","pagecount":"16","content":"Harnessing the power of sun, wind, water and waste uField report from Zambia FoCUs ,11 Pineapple A fruit full of surprises viEwPoiNt ,16 Biofortification By Anna-Marie Ball iN BRiEF ,3 PUBLiCAtioNs ,12 BEtwEEN Us ,15 the food and energy crisis is prompting growing numbers of major agroindustrial groups to set up operations in ACP countries, exacerbating the problem of insecure land tenure for small-scale farmers. Registering local land titles, long-term leases, women's rights -there are many different solutions available, but no quick fixes.At a time of widespread consensus on the vital role that smallscale agriculture plays in ensuring food security, many ACP countries are witnessing the arrival of major groups looking for land to plant industrial crops, mainly destined for the production of biofuels. In recent years, thousands of hectares have changed hands due to the global food and energy crises.In an attempt to appear forward-thinking, many governments tend to support agribusiness and foreign investors at the expense of family farming, which is held to be outdated and unproductive. In southern Mozambique, a British firm plans to produce 120 million l of ethanol per year from 30,000 ha of sugarcane. A Chinese company based in Macau is investing in green fuel in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. A Malaysian-South African group aims to produce biodiesel from palm oil using 300 to 400,000 ha of land in southern Benin. Egypt is planning to grow maize and wheat for domestic consumption on 800,000 ha in Uganda and plant a similar area in Ethiopia; thousands of families unable to enforce their rights, especially those relying on pastoral lands, will be forced off with little in the way of compensation. In Cameroon, China is preparing to cultivate 10,000 ha of rice to satisfy demand from its own population.The sheer scale of these projects highlights the fragile position of smallholder farmers, who are often powerless to push their land claims. Lack of secure land tenure, a problem affecting most ACP producers, threatens to plunge many of them into even deeper poverty, marginalising the most vulnerable groups (women, indigenous peoples…). It is also a potential source of conflict in areas where land is increasingly scarce. In Africa, examples abound of deadly clashes between herders and farmers.For producers, the knowledge that they can peacefully tend their fields or plots and have access to grazing for their animals is an essential prerequisite for agricultural development. In the absence of safe land tenure, producers are understandably reluctant to invest labour and money in improving plots which may be taken away from them at any time.The overlap between oral customary systems and 'modern' written land laws introduced in colonial times has led to a judicial muddle that has continued to plague many countries in spite of independence. An early solution was held to be the granting of land titles by the State, which remained the legal owner of the land as a whole. Slow and costly to administer, this bureaucratic system has proved ineffective wherever it has been practised and has produced a number of negative spin-offs. Since most farmers are uninformed and do not have the means to register their land by enforcing their ancestral rights, they have found themselves in an even more precarious situation, their plight compounded by the corruption of some land administration agents. Urban elites (civil servants or military officials), with the advantage of power and a knowledge of the law, have managed to accumulate huge swathes of land in this way, evicting the producers who had farmed them for generations.The law, especially in French-speaking countries, interprets land privatisation according to the model of individual property. This model, with all the rights that it entails, including those of bequeathing and selling one's land, has proved ill-suited to the context of ACP countries. When coupled with strong population growth, privatisation can lead to farmers being left with excessively small plots, as has happened in Burundi, Ghana, southern Niger and Rwanda. Failure to observe the community-based local land tenure system, which is often more flexible, has frequently led to an impasse.Most recent land tenure studies reveal that any top-down initiative is doomed to failure, since authorities rarely have the resources to monitor how land tenure rules that have been carefully worked out in theory are actually applied in the field.Judicial recognition of local customary practices and decentralisation of land management seem to be the most promising approaches. Some countries such as Benin and Madagascar have already explored these. Registering of land and rights at village level is under way in Ethiopia and Mozambique. Land offices have been set up in Botswana.The task of evaluating tenure rights and establishing physical boundaries is certainly simpler and less costly if local knowledge can be used to help. In Madagascar, a network of land kiosks is enabling farmers to obtain certificates quickly, efficiently and cheaply without having to travel long distances. Hearings regarding alleged instances of land occupation are held at local public meetings, with communities given advance warning. In the Cook Islands, Fiji and Papua New Guinea, land register offices have long enshrined the main principles of the customary system.The collective participation of rural dwellers is a useful gauge for determining legitimacy and respect, over and above tenure rights themselves. Traditional conflict resolution methods can also prove valuable in cases of litigation. New technologies -among them global positioning systems and geographic information systems (GIS) -make it easy to identify plots of land whose boundaries can be discussed at local level in front of a satellite photograph or a relief map. An extra plus is that transmission of data collected in the field is virtually instantaneous.Proof of rightful land occupation can also be established through regular payments of property tax: in Ethiopia, this enables farmers to substantiate their legitimate usage of land.However, simple recognition of ancestral rights is not the ideal solution, since it can prevent situations from evolving and hamper some minorities and groups from gaining access to land, especially women and indigenous peoples. In ACP countries, the law generally grants women the right to own land. But in practice, women are often only allowed to work the land of their husbands -frequently plots of inferior quality -and run the risk of being evicted if they are widowed. Informing women of their rights is the best strategy for addressing this issue, but communication campaigns also need to target men.Registering land is just one way of improving tenure security. Longer contracts and leases can also help family farms produce and invest with greater safety. In the Pacific region, far less importance is attached to property rights than to the security of leases that confer rights of use for very long periods.Securing local land rights does not just depend on the way in which they are defined and afforded formal protection by the law, but also on access to information. Rural communities need to be informed of their rights and of ways in which they can enforce these if a project is threatening them. In this regard, civil society and individual producers' organisations (POs) have an important role to play in providing a force for opposition. In Burkina Faso, the land tenure action group GRAF became closely involved in the definition of the country's national land tenure policy, which was adopted in 2007, and is monitoring its implementation in pilot areas. The Network of Farmers' and Agricultural Producers' Organisations of West Africa (ROPPA) was recently tasked with launching a regional project to secure land tenure for family farms in 12 West African countries.POs are now firmly committed to using their advocacy skills to foster good governance in land tenure, for without transparency, the field is wide open to all sorts of abuse.More than 120,000 farmers in five Zambian provinces are benefiting from the Conservation Farming Initiative coordinated by the Golden Valley Agriculture Research Trust (GART). Funded by the Norwegian cooperation agency NORAD, the programme has introduced small-scale farmers to sustainable agricultural practices including crop rotation and soil fertility preservation. The farmers are encouraged to intercrop with Faidherbia albida, a tree rich in nitrogen, eliminating the need for fertiliser. Cassava and jatropha are grown for fencing purposes. \"These plants protect crops from animals that usually encroach on the tilled land, and when the bio-diesel industry is fully operational, cassava and jatropha can be used in ethanol and biodiesel production,\" said Michaela Durrant, assistant programme manager at the Conservation Farming Unit (CFU), which is corunning the project.Madagascar has signed a deal with France, cancelling US$20 million (€12.6 million) of debt in exchange for a commitment to ramp up environmental protection. The money has been placed in the Foundation for Protected Areas and Biodiversity (FPAB). It will be used to protect Madagascar's forests. Almost all the island's land mammals, over 90% of its reptiles and 80% of its plants are unique to Madagascar.Cassava is becoming increasingly popular with producers in southeast Burkina Faso. Some are giving up cotton production in favour of this tuber, which needs little maintenance or fertiliser. Since the introduction in 2003 of a high-yield variety (70 t/ha), the total area sown with cassava has expanded from 3 ha to more than 760 ha in the Cascades and Hauts-Bassins regions. Processing units run by womens' groups have started to appear. Attiéké (cassava couscous) produced locally rather than imported from Côte d'Ivoire is proving a big success.No ACP region is immune to climate change and no one is spared its effects, least of all farmers. Concrete proof of this emerged from the rich accounts of 225 participants who gathered in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, last October for the CTA seminar on the implications of climate change for sustainable production systems. An electronic forum held prior to the event set the tone, with 800 people taking part. An important lesson learned from this exercise was the need to make scientific knowledge on the opportunities for limiting damage more widely available to producers in a manner better suited to their needs.The seminar offered a chance for each ACP region to present examples of how climate change is eroding the socio-economic conditions of agricultural producers and to suggest strategies for coping with the problem. In the Caribbean, the Hazard Analysis and Critical Mitigation Point (HACMP) is helping farmers to predict climate risk at an earlier stage. The Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) gave a presentation on risk prevention whose key points included collecting precise and real-time information, investment in human resources and the creation of infrastructures for ICTs.An example from Burkina Faso showed that irrigation and information dissemination can make a real contribution to climate change adaptation for agriculture. In Benin, the PARBCC climate change project shared its experience in helping communities to identify and analyse endogenous adaptation strategies. The initiative has succeeded in rescheduling the planting calendar using daily weather records kept by farmers.In Ghana, a study revealed the perhaps surprising conclusion that male producers are likely to prove more vulnerable than women, who are more flexible and can, for example, diversify more easily into other sectors such as trade. In Malawi, it emerged that stress caused by the effects of climate change is resulting in the dispersal of rural families. Lastly, a case from Zimbabwe highlighted the inadequate nature of the agrometeorological broadcasts available from radio and television. The content is not developed with producers in mind, most of whom turn to other farmers or extension agents for information.A number of other initiatives were described, many of them in a valuable poster session. You can find out more about these on the seminar website.\"Simple deeds and changes in behaviour and mindset can make all the difference\", remarked CTA Director Dr Neun, who wound up the seminar with a call to take action and not give in to despair: \"The struggle against climate change is an opportunity for sustainable development in ACP countries since it offers the chance to assure better management of natural resources.\" http://ctaseminar2008.cta.int/ index.html iN BRiEFGrefoRec is a scientific information portal on the management of forage resources in hot climates. Here, researchers, development agents and producers will find documents produced by the GREFO network, comprised of partners from the South and Europe. The material covers three major themes: plants and plots, soil and environment, region and agropastoral spaces.http://greforec.cirad.fr/en/homeFAO member States have pledged to 'rigorously manage' deep sea fishing. Countries with fleets operating outside their territorial waters will have to follow guidelines aimed at reducing the impact of this type of fishing on deep sea species and their fragile ecosystems. Stocks of deep sea fish are extremely slow to replenish themselves.Tanzania has banned prawn trawlers from the coast of the Indian Ocean in a bid to halt a dramatic fall in fish stocks. Government officials claim big fishing companies are poaching from Tanzanian waters. Coastal patrols have been launched to stop them. Prawn catches fell from 1,320 t in 2003 to just 202.5 t in 2007. Similar declines were seen for lobster, squid, octopus and sea cucumbers. Small-scale fishermen are still allowed to fish for prawns, provided they use approved fishing equipment.Dakar-based environmental association Oceanium has succeeded in replanting the mangrove in Casamance, southern Senegal. The 11,000 villagers mobilised by this NGO, which was behind the launch of the country's first marine protected (MPA) in the Saloum delta, set themselves the goal of planting 5 million mangrove trees in 2008. The community has managed to beat that target, reforesting 1,200 ha with more than 6 million plantlets. For 2009, the objective has been set at 6 million new mangrove plants.www.oceanium.orgSmallholder tea farmers in Zimbabwe have technology to thank for their continued survival. Since 2006, when diamond deposits were discovered in the eastern highlands -the country's only teagrowing area -farmers have been grappling with severe labour shortages. Lured by the chance to get rich quick, workers have left tea plantations in droves to join the diamond rush. Farmers, who had always relied heavily on casual labour for the picking and selecting of tea leaves, were left stranded. Tea bushes grow close together, making the use of heavy machinery such as tractors impractical, especially on small plots of land. Leaves must be plucked within a short time and delivered to the processor before they wilt.An ox-drawn leaf-plucking machine has come to the rescue. Sitting high on a frame with two small wheels at the rear, the machine plucks leaves and feeds them into a large bag. Using this technology, a farmer now needs just four or five people to pluck an entire field, compared with several dozen when picking was done by hand. Said Sam Magombedze of the Zimbabwe Tea Growers' Association, \"We have been forced to mechanise because of labour shortages, but things are working pretty well now.\"Labour shortages have not just affected small-scale farmers. Major tea-grower Ariston Holdings has also announced plans to mechanise tea picking at its Manicaland estates, after losing more than 2,000 workers to the diamond rush in the past 2 years.The world's first multi-nation catastrophe risk fund, the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CCRIF) launched in 2007, was named Re/Insurance Initiative of the Year in September 2008. Less than a week later, the facility pledged US$6.3 million (€4.3 million) to Grand Turk and South Caicos to repair massive damage caused by Hurricane Ike. The CCRIF, an innovative example of the benefits of pooling risks (see Spore 137, p. 11), offers rapid financial liquidity to limit the financial impact of hurricanes and earthquakes in the Caribbean. It estimates that by spreading the risk, its 16 member countries save 40% in individual premiums.In 2007, the CCRIF paid out US$1 million (€745,000) to Dominica and St Lucia in the aftermath of the November earthquake that shook the Eastern Caribbean. In rural ACP regions, telecentres, or Community Multimedia Centres (CMC), offer a wide range of services, including email, money transfer, Internet access and telemedicine. By improving access to information, they have emerged as important tools for promoting development and tackling poverty. But CMCs could do even more in this regard if certain hurdles were to be overcome. The challenges they face vary widely from one CMC to another, depending on the circumstances.CTA is committed to supporting these centres by strengthening local capacity and staff training and encouraging the private sector to invest more. In order to define its support to African CMCs more clearly, the Centre jointly organised a workshop in June 2008 in Lusaka, Zambia. A series of e-forums paved the way for the meeting, which was also timed to coincide with three reports (on Mali, Mozambique and Senegal), all available online on CTA's Anancy website. Participants included telecentre and community radio managers together with government and civil society representatives from about 20 African, Asian and European countries. As well as discussing specific local cases, they argued that for telecentres to be sustainable they should improve power supplies, connections, material (more reliable and more suitable) and training for managers. Users also need to learn how to use these tools and be given access to content that is suited to their needs.A web portal, Telecentres Africa, was launched during the workshop. It provides access to more than 300 resources including videos, and will be a platform for sharing the experiences of CMCs supported by CTA. The Although the banana is the world's best-selling fruit, earning around US$5 billion (€3.9 billion) each year, it is poorly marketed. An international banana conference held from 5-9 October 2008 in Mombasa, Kenya decided to launch a 10-year strategy to address this issue. It will include introducing innovative ways to turn the crop into a driver of economic development through market development, research, value addition, improved production methods, better disease and pest management and capacity-building for farmers.www.banana2008.com trapped flies Farmers from Mauritius have managed to improve the quality of their products and boost yields thanks to integrated pest management. Previously, harvests were constantly threatened by eight fruit flies, four of which also attacked vegetable crops. Bactrocera cucurbitae, in particular, caused serious damage to marrows, cucumbers and other plants from the gourd family whose annual domestic output is nearly 20,000 t. Heavy use of pesticides failed to stop the insects from proliferating and destroying between 30 and 50% of cucurbit harvests, depending on estimates.An integrated pest management project has successfully used several methods to tackle the flies. The first involves attracting and killing the insects, both male and female, by applying a bait made of a protein (GF 120) and an insecticide under the leaves of certain plants and fruit trees (maize, papaya, mango) situated about 20 m from the crops needing protection. Another strategy involves trapping the male insects by placing pieces of wood impregnated with insecticide close to the vegetable crops. It is important to remove the damaged vegetables, for these become an infestation source in the next crop season. The spoilt vegetables are placed in finely meshed cages: the flies that hatch out remain trapped and die of starvation.This integrated pest management project was launched by the Ministry for Agro-Industry in 2007 in the island's central region, with support from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).Agricultural Services Ministry of Agro-Industry Réduit Mauritius Fax: (230) 466.6434 psookur@mail.gov.muScientists have succeeded in transferring genes that confer resistance to Striga hermonthica in sorghum. Striga, also known as witchweed, can destroy 40 to 100% of harvests; damage across Africa is estimated at an annual US$7 billion (€5.2 billion). Pulling up the weed is ineffective since by the time the crop plants have sprouted, the weed has long since attached itself to their roots. Striga is a prolific seed producer, whose seeds lie dormant in the soil for up to two decades.The new technique is based on marker-assisted selection, which uses genetic landmarks to tag and transfer genes that control characteristics such as crop productivity or resistance to diseases or pests. \"Through marker-assisted selection, we have determined the precise segments of the sorghum genome known to confer Striga-resistance and have transferred them to farmer-preferred varieties through conventional breeding with very promising results,\" said Dr Dionysious Kiambi of the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), which led the research.Scientists created five Strigaresistant sorghum varieties that proved able to ward off attacks by the weed. These are now being tested in fields in Kenya, Mali and Sudan.Nairobi, Kenya Fax: +254 20 7224001 ICRISAT-Nairobi@cgiar.orgThe high cost of fertiliser is prompting small-scale farmers to find other solutions to enrich their soils, with varying degrees of success. In Congo, young people are collecting bat droppings and selling them for FCFA500 (€0.76) a kilo to fertiliser and seed merchants, who sell it on for between FCFA1,500 and 2,000 (€2.28 to €3) to producers in Brazzaville's horticulture belt. The bats sleep hanging from the ceilings of private houses, so the youngsters have to negotiate or use cunning to obtain the droppings.Producers who lack the money to buy imported fertiliser sold in stores find this manure useful. They place it in the furrows before planting, adding a few pinches of urea and ashes from burnt weeds.The poor soils around the capital of Congo are in serious need of enrichment if they are to continue producing vegetables. A set of organic standards for agricultural produce has been developed for the Pacific region, to help farmers meet international requirements and gain access to export markets. They were drawn up by experts from the Regional Organic Task Force (ROTF) with support from the Secretariat for the Pacific Community (SPC), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). The Pacific standards are the third regional organics standards, following similar initiatives in the European Union and East Africa. Cyanobacteria are reported to have produced toxins that are as dangerous as those secreted by microalgae and eaten by fish. Each year, 100,000 people, most of them from fishing communities, suffer from serious poisoning (known as ciguatera) after having eaten reef fish. Ocean warming is increasing the danger, threatening the livelihoods of communities who rely on seafood products. Arabuko-Sokoke forest in Kenya is one of East Africa's most precious natural assets and the largest remnant of the great coastal forest that once stretched from southern Somalia to Mozambique. But earning a living here has always been difficult. Many farmers wanted to clear the forest for cultivation while others battled with frequent attacks on their crops by elephants and baboons. Now, with assistance from the National Museum of Kenya and a US$50,000 grant (€31,500) from the Global Environment Facility, local communities have turned to butterfly farming.Farmers living near the forest collect tiny butterfly larvae and raise them on leaves. When the caterpillars turn into pupae (the resting stage), the farmers sell them to Kipepeo (Swahili for butterfly), a community-based enterprise which ships them to live butterfly displays in Europe and USA.To ensure the sustainability of butterfly harvesting, farmers are only allowed to harvest 20 km into the forest area. This measure allows butterfly populations to regenerate. Species farmed include Amauris tartarea and Leptosia alcesta inalcesta.\"After the larvae hatch in a cage, the caterpillars become the farmer's livestock, and he fattens them with leaves from the forest,\" said butterfly farmer John Kiti. \"Within 4 weeks, they have turned into chrysalises.\" A Kipepeo representative stops at his smallholding twice a week to collect chrysalises, which range in colours from mottled brown to lime green with flecks of metallic gold.Some 600 butterfly farmers now have a reason to protect rather than destroy the forest. In 2007, the Kipepeo project exported more than 36,000 pupae to display houses abroad. Coordinator of the Eastern Caribbean Trading Agriculture and Development Organisation (ECTAD) Jethro Greene said some farmers were making a good living, and lessons should be learned from them. \"We need to look at our success stories,\" he told the audience at ART, which was jointly organised by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA), the Caribbean Agriculture Research Development Institute (CARDI) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and funded by CTA. \"Farmers are doing amazing things and making money from agriculture. Amazing things can be done if we allow people into the process,\" he added.Trinidadian horticulturalist Wendy Lee Yeun insisted that the Caribbean must start paying more attention to sustainability. \"Manufacturers must recognise that to be competitive in the global environment they must get raw materials from their own backyards, and we need to be more creative about how we use our waste -organic waste and waste water,\" she said.Other topics high on the agenda during the week included global and regional development agendas, the regional common agriculture policy, food prices and the nutrition crisis. With revenue from these crops they can also pay back some of the loans taken out with PRAHN.The Producers are now able to sell their cowpeas direct to OPVN at a price of FCFA25,000 (€38) per 100 kg sack compared with FCFA12,000 (€18) when they sold to traders.A campaign to tackle malaria in São Tomé and Príncipe reduced incidences of the disease by 80% between 2004 and 2006, according to the World Health Organization. The strategy involved widespread distribution of impregnated mosquito nets to protect beds (more than 79,000), spraying insecticide around 16,600 houses and strengthening other preventive measures. Since 2006, there has been additional progress towards eradicating this disease, say local sources town-country solidarity Rural and city dwellers have joined forces to beat higher prices. In Lomé, restaurant owners making dishes with maize, Togo's most widely consumed cereal, have reached an agreement with producers on fixed quantities and prices. Launched in April 2008, the town-country programme, run by the Echoppe Association and the AVE/RAFP rural community organisation, commits producers to supplying maize to processors over a period of one year in small quantities and at regular intervals. Everyone benefits from the arrangement: the producers are guaranteed a regular outlet and a better price and the restaurant owners pay about FCFA50 (€0.20) a kilo for the maize, instead of 250 if they buy it from middlemen. Consumers are also happy. \"The crisis has reduced our buying power to such an extent that we can't afford enough to eat\", said Magloire Mawuvi.\"The price of akoumé 'balls' (ed: maize paste) will stay the same, but they will be much bigger,\" promised Koffi Agossi, restaurant owner and president of the women maize processors association GFTM. \"If prices change significantly, we will favour dialogue to define new prices that are advantageous to both parties\", she added.Since May, more than 200 members of the farmers' organisation AVEC have benefited from supplies of seed and fertiliser as well as technical training. In 2009, head of AVE/RAFP Julien Nyuiadzi hopes to extend the project to 300 producers and 60 restaurant owners in Togo.what's the rush?Nafissatou Nignan, a shea butter producer from Ziro in southwest Burkina Faso, has just earned FCFA90,000 (€137), a personal record. Nafissatou owes this increased revenue to warrantage (Spore 124) introduced by the women shea butter producers' association UGPPK. This warehouse receipt system regulates the market so that women producers do not have to sell their shea nuts cheaply straight after harvest, when prices fall and money is needed urgently to pay for ceremonies and school fees. Two years ago, faced with school bills for her three children, Nafissatou sold her shea nuts to a wholesaler for FCFA10 (€0.015) a kilo, an eighth of the price they would have fetched at other times when there was less supply. But waiting for prices to rise can pose problems unless you have somewhere to store your output.This year, Nafissatou obtained an advance of FCFA32,000 (€48) for 400 kg of nuts that she placed in a warehouse. With revenue from her butter she subsequently paid back this sum, together with the FCFA4,000 (€6) storage charge. Like her, 600 of the UGPPK's 1,600 butter producers have used the warrantage system for a total value of FCFA6 million (€137,000). Despite dangers on the roads and delays in cash payments, the system is proving increasingly popular in the region, so much so that the people behind it fear they may not be able to satisfy all the requests. \"Warrantage is a victim of its own success and I am worried about disappointing the women next year, for we don't have sufficient cash resources\", said UGPPK manager Abou Napon. In an effort to solve the problem, two American researchers in oyster ecology and aquaculture are helping producers to protect their oysters, which are vulnerable to rising ocean temperatures. One way of making oysters more resilient is to remove them from the water from time to time, so that they can adapt to surviving with little oxygen. Lack of oxygen is what killed most of them during the red tide. Ideas developed by local farmers include suspending oysters from rotating metal cylinders to lift batches out of the water and building oyster rafts that can be hoisted in and out of the water at intervals. Researchers say the methods are unlikely to affect the quality of the Walvis Bay oysters, which are renowned for their size and flavour. In northern Tanzania's Meatu District, another NGO, AHEAD, is distributing solar cookers to help villagers pasteurise water and make it safe for drinking. In Fiji, the Colo-i-Suva Pig Farm is producing biogas from slurry to supply its energy needs. At a time of volatile oil prices and growing concerns about the impact of fossil fuels on climate change, access to renewable energy sources is an imperative rather than a luxury. Recent oil price hikes have had devastating effects on many developing countries, some of which spend six times as much on fuel as they do on health. Power for household use but also for crop growing, irrigation, refrigeration and ICTs is a major challenge in many ACP countries whose large rural populations are excluded from traditional grid systems. Yet access to energy is essential for economic growth. Reliable supplies of clean, low-cost energy can improve the quality of life through better lighting and heating, giving children and adults more time for study and other activities. It also drives productivity, adding value to agricultural produce and boosting income.Renewable energy investments in developing countries are increasing. A report by the UK-based New Energy Finance for the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) shows that over US$148 billion (€79 billion) was spent on the sustainable energy sector in 2007 -a 60% increase from 2006. Solar, wind, biomass and waste are the most promising sources of renewable energy, providing power through off-grid systems. Devices designed for households or communities can be used in food production, processing and storage, irrigation, grain mills and small-scale enterprises such as machinery workshops. Renewable energy can also improve communication, providing ICT access and charging mobile phones, so that rural dwellers can tap into markets and earn revenue, though the difficulty of storing energy remains a serious hurdle.Advances in technology include wafer-thin PV materials and nano-sized metal particles that can be printed onto a roll of metal foil. Some companies are looking into how to integrate PV cells straight into building materials. Micro-hydropower systems are an increasingly viable option for communities with water resources. They work by diverting water from a stream or river, channelling it into a valley and dropping it into a turbine.The use of agricultural and forestry waste holds out significant potential. In Madagascar and Mauritius, clean power is generated by bagasse, the waste product in sugar production. A World Bank project is helping the Guyana Sugar Corporation launch a cogeneration system using bagasse. The recent Sustainable Bioenergy Report in UEMOA Member Countries urges more use of agricultural residues to replace fossil fuels. It cites the case of Guinea Bissau, where biomass residues represent 65% of the cashew tree, providing a potential equivalent to 12,000 t of charcoal. Wind power has yet to be developed to any significant degree in ACP regions. However, advancing technology makes micro-wind systems a possibility, with small turbines producing enough power to meet the needs of several households.Research and development organisations are devising a wide range of small-scale applications for remote communities. In Tanzania, local NGO, the Kisangani Smith Group, has developed a stove that uses sawdust or agricultural waste instead of charcoal. In many cases, renewable energy systems are helping communities to earn income or increase it through improved production or better market access. In southern Uganda, about 800 smallholder farmers supplying local firm Fruits of the Nile use simple solar driers to process banana and pineapple for export. Zambian farmers can now use solar-powered computers and mobile phones at the Chinyunyu Community Multi-Purpose Tele-Centre to market their crops. In Mali, where less than 1% of the rural population has access to mains electricity, a generator powered by jatropha oil provides power in a village 100 km south of Bamako.Since all clean energy systems involve start-up costs, most rely on public-sector support, but private investment is growing. In March 2008, the EC launched the Global Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund (GEEREF) providing new risk-sharing and co-financing options to attract international and domestic investors. In a separate initiative, private investors are funding a wind power project in northern Senegal and a project to produce energy from Typha latifolia plants. In the Caribbean, Grenadian energy provider GRENLEC is investing in research into wind and solar power and introducing technology that allows individuals to sell electricity back to the national grid.Costs are prohibitive for most individuals and some of the most successful initiatives involve a microcredit component. A programme in the Pacific aims to increase smallscale systems -biomass gasification, coconut oil as biofuel and small-scale wind power -supported with one-year microloans. Managed by the Regional Secretariat of the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), it is first being developed in Fiji and Papua New Guinea before being rolled out to 21 other countries. In some ACP countries, theft of PV panels and poor quality equipment remain serious problems. In parts of Africa, small electrical businesses offer cheap, low-quality PV modules which are made to look like well-known brands, but fail after a short time.More partnerships between government, private sector, nongovernmental and community groups are needed in order to give the poor greater access to renewable energy. And experts warn that the sector urgently needs sound policy frameworks to support further expansion. The UNEP report found that research and development spending on clean energy and energy efficiency was US$16.9 billion (€13.3 billion) -a trifling sum given that the energy industry is the largest in the world.Biomass (organic matter) can be converted directly into liquid or gaseous fuels for transportation needs. The two most common biofuels are ethanol and biodiesel. Many ACP countries are well placed to take advantage of plentiful supplies of low-cost biofuel crops such as sugarcane and oil palm. As the debate over dedicated biofuel crops hots up, there is growing evidence of the scope for making green fuels from biomass without compromising food security. Mali launched the country's first biodiesel factory in February 2008, producing pollutionfree fuel for transport from Jatropha curcas, a shrub generally used for fencing. The unit has a capacity of 2,000 litres per day. In some Pacific islands, vehicles are powered by fuel from coconut fibre. The Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica recently launched a major project to make biodiesel from castor beans. The Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and environment Organization (TaTEDO) has calculated that if all the C-molasses from the country's sugar industry were used for ethanol production, it would supply 7.9% of domestic transport fuel based on 2006/7 figures.Scientists at the National University of Science and Technology in Zimbabwe have designed a windpowered pump that can draw water even at times of low wind speed. The design has lighter wheel blades than normal. These turn a simple gearbox which drives a pump that draws water into a tank. \"We based our design on low wind speed because we realised that could be the time when farmers need water most,\" said team leader William Goriwondo. The system is easy to maintain and costs US$15,000 (€11,500), so is aimed at communities rather than individual households. It underwent successful trials earlier this year with farmers who used it to irrigate horticultural crops. The team is now investigating how to adapt the device for electricity generation. wgoriwondo@nust.ac.zw Photo: @ A Khalif Photo: @ www.alizes-eole.comPower cuts are a way of life in rural Zambia, especially in the wake of recent flooding. Many communities do not have access to electricity at all. Exasperated by the erratic service and high costs, farmer Charles Mubanga Mumba decided to take things into his own hands and built a mini-hydropower station in his backyard. \"For 6 years now, ever since I made this innovation, I have had no power cuts. I also don't have to worry about spending money on monthly bills,\" he said, as he surveyed his small power station on Kapumo Falls, 5 km from Mporokoso in Northern Province.Mumba has always been good at making and fixing things and says he would do more if he had some training. \"I am just a form 4 (ed.: 11 th grade) who is applying everything I learned in my physics. At school I was a member of the Junior Engineers, Technicians and Scientists (JETS) club where I used to come number one whenever I presented my projects,\" said the 40-year-old farmer turned inventor. \"People from all over Mporokoso including the government know that I repair vehicles, laptops and ultrasound machines for the Mporokoso District Hospital.\"Mumba's first task in making the hydropower station was to divert water from the falls, which are located on his property. He tried using a hammer to break the rock bed, but that did not work. Nothing daunted, he heaped firewood on the dry falls and left it to burn for several days. The heat weakened the rock, enabling him to break it and create a steep flow of water, whose power he intensified by lining six large oil drums end to end so that it would be channelled through them before gushing onto the turbines. Mumba created the turbines from an old tractor wheel rim and other scrap metal. The most costly outlay for his power plant was a US$12,000 (€9,500) generator that converts the mechanical energy into electricity.Mumba's wife Mary recalls that her husband woke up every morning at 4 a.m. to work on his project. Although it was a sacrifice at the time, she is now delighted to have a regular power supply in her home. She has set up a small business, charging car batteries for her rural community at US$1 (€0.79) a time.At first, Mumba's mini-power plant attracted hostile comments from neighbours and threats from some staff at the Zambia Electricity Supply Company (ZESCO). But attitudes changed when he received recognition last year from the late President Levy Mwanawasa. \"Since then, I have received a lot of offers from my neighbours and other farmers to electrify their houses,\" he said.Mumba says there is plenty of water in the Mporokoso district for rural electrification. Keen to help other people secure access to electricity, he has now invented a portable hydropower station, so small it fits inside an oil drum. He exhibited it at last year's local agricultural show where he was presented with a Ministers Award. He says the device would cost about US$4,000 (€3,160), but though he has patented the design he has yet to put it into production due to lack of funds.The same lack of funds prevents him from harnessing his electric power to boost output at his 250-ha farm, where he grows maize. \"I have been planning to use electricity for winter ploughing, but I have no money to purchase the necessary equipment,\" he explained.Brenda ZuluThe pineapple is going from strength to strength. People everywhere are growing it, eating it and selling it. In the past 20 years, production has almost doubled. FAO calculated output at 19 million t in 2007, a figure that outstrips the most optimistic forecasts for as far ahead as 2014.The bulk of global production is accounted for by Asia, which dominates the tinned pineapple and juice sectors, and Central America, which does little in the way of processing but exports massive quantities of fresh pineapple by boat to the EU and the USA. Out of every 100 pineapples produced, only 17 are grown in Africa, less than 2 in the Caribbean and just 1.5 in the Pacific. Africa cultivates nearly 50% more than it did 20 years ago and includes major producer countries such as Nigeria (almost 900,000 t in 2007) and Kenya (about 600,000 t). Over the past decade, however, its share of the EU export market, its major outlet, has been badly eroded by competition from Latin America.Part of pineapple's success in the North is due to its reputation as a healthy and dietetic fruit. Originally reserved for special occasions, it has become much more widely consumed since the 1990s when US firm Del Monte launched a new variety, MD-2, also known as Sweet or Extra Sweet, grown on vast plantations in Costa Rica. With the back up of powerful transport and marketing facilities, Sweet has ousted the Smooth Cayenne which traditionally dominated exports from Africa to Europe.The massive influx of these mass-produced pineapples has had devastating effects on many small and medium-scale African planters. The Cayenne, which had a virtual monopoly in Europe in the late 1980s, has been outranked by the Sweet from Central America. Exports from Côte d'Ivoire to the EU fell to under 60,000 t in 2007, three times less than in 1997. Del Monte's supremacy remained unchallenged until the patent on the MD-2 expired. At that point, producers from some ACP countries such as Côte d'Ivoire, the Dominican Republic and Ghana switched to the new variety, which is quicker to bear fruit than the Cayenne and is also less prone to flesh discolouring and more resilient for transport purposes. But the recent emergence of powerful competition from pineapple producers in Brazil, Ecuador, Honduras and Panama leaves scant prospects for Africa to win back the EU market. However, demand cannot grow indefinitely. An over-supply of MD-2 combined with erratic quality could cause prices to fall to such a degree that Central American producers might be tempted to abandon pineapple in favour of more profitable crops.The salvation of small-scale ACP producers is therefore more likely to lie in tapping lucrative niche markets. Ironically, now that the Sweet variety is so common, a good Smooth Cayenne has a better chance than before of finding a buyer. The air-freighted pineapple is a high-value product so long as the fruit is top quality. Benin's exports, though modest (around 2,000 t), are rising steadily, and the country has targeted the burgeoning market for the well-flavoured Sugarloaf variety. Labels open up other possibilities. Cameroon, Ghana, Guinea and Togo cultivate and export organic pineapple. Ghana recently obtained fair trade certification to sell to European supermarkets.EU standards aimed at protecting consumer health pose another obstacle for ACP countries. A key requirement is a sharp drop in the use of pesticides. The challenge for researchers is to develop new production systems as well as varieties with greater resistance to soil parasites and bruising caused by transport. The stakes could be radically changed by a proposal to introduce a new maximum residue limit for ethephon, reducing it from 2 mg/kg to 0.5 mg/kg. This substance produces a more uniform colour in fruits a few days before harvest. Without it, producers would have to stagger the harvest, picking the fruit as it ripens, a process which would complicate arrangements for transport and marketing.The difficulties facing exports of fresh African pineapple may however open up new opportunities for developing local and regional markets. The DR Congo, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa mainly produce pineapples for domestic consumption. Although figures are hard to come by, there is a lively informal trade between the countries of the same region. Senegal, for example, buys pineapples from Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia and Guinea. Small-scale processing enterprises are starting to develop. In Uganda, Britannia Allied Industries is urging farmers to grow Cayenne and Sweet varieties for juice to be sold in Kenya, Rwanda and the EU. Kenya and South Africa export juice and tinned pineapple to a number of markets, including the EU.Pineapple is also taking hold in new countries. One of them is Burundi, where the fruit is proving popular with farmers, who like the regular income it produces. Thanks to flower induction, pineapples can be grown all year-round.Quality pays the past decade has seen radical changes in export markets for pineapple. Central America has taken over from Africa as Europe's major supplier. the EU is constantly tightening restrictions on maximum residue limits for pesticides. For small-scale producers from ACP countries, quality and originality hold the key to good profits.The low cost, accessibility and adaptability of rural radio make it a valuable communication tool for rural areas. But many rural radio stations operate without adequate production equipment or training facilities for producers, technicians and management. CTA, which is working to strengthen rural radio networks in ACP countries, has teamed up with FAO to produce a survey aimed at identifying the needs for the training of trainers. The study examines the challenges facing rural radio stations in 21 African countries. Its findings will be integrated into future CTA and FAO projects and programmes for rural radio. The Eldis website, run by the UK's Institute of Development Studies, offers 24,000 full-text documents, ranging from policy briefs to manuals and toolkits, all available for free downloading. You can search by theme for dossiers, organisations, discussions or other resources, and sign up for regular e-bulletins which can be tailored to your special area of interest.The pace of change in the food sector -how it is produced, processed and distributed -can be bewildering, especially to people in developing countries, who have little control over new trends and requirements. This guide provides ideas and tools for working with all stakeholders in the value chain, with the aim of enabling smallscale producers and entrepreneurs to play a more active role in today's markets. It also offers practical ideas for organising workshops and policy dialogues Available free as hard copy or CD by emailing: regoverning.markets@iied.org Downloadable as PDF file from: www.regoverningmarkets.org/en/ filemanager/active?fid=995 strategic alliances Access to a wide range of financial services can have a significant impact on rural communities' ability to weather economic shocks, make investments and build up assets. But supplying those services remains a formidable challenge. High costs, remote locations and the risks of doing business in harsh economic and physical environments deter many financial institutions from entering rural markets. In their absence, informal financial institutions emerge, but by definition they are restricted in the scope and range of the services they can supply. One promising avenue appears to be a strategic partnership between formal and informal financial service providers.This book explains the concept of such partnerships before examining 11 case studies where linkages have been established, with varying degrees of success. One chapter analyses attempts to extend the outreach of Rwandan People's Banks to the rural poor through village savings and credit associations. Another looks at efforts made by savings and credit cooperatives to expand financial access in rural areas of Tanzania. A chapter focusing on Mali explores a strategy to wean rural dwellers off dependence on donors by forging an alliance between banks and microfinance institutions.The message that emerges is that pairing formal and informal institutions is a worthwhile exercise which generally offers tangible benefits. But it also becomes clear that this option is not always an easy one, and that there is no simple silver bullet to solving the challenge of providing rural finances. Running a small-scale fruit or vegetable processing business can be a good income earner, especially in rural areas where supplies of raw materials are abundant and have a low price at harvest. But if enterprises are to prove viable in the long term, they need careful planning, not least because fruit and vegetables are highly perishable items.This practical guide, part of the Opportunities in Food Processing series, offers sound advice on just about every aspect of the fruit and vegetable sector. Written by food technologists with input from ACP owners of successful food processing businesses, it is packed with useful information, presented in a clear and easy-to-follow style.An early chapter examines markets for processed fruit and vegetables, with sections on selecting suitable products and how to find and keep customers. The guide goes on to outline the steps involved in setting up a business, before explaining quality assurance and legislation and offering advice on planning and managing production and finances. For busy entrepreneurs with little time to read from start to finish, there are useful tools including short tips for success, check-lists and highlighted text for points of prime importance. Their remote location brings with it higher costs for energy, transport and communications, while extreme weather events can sometimes wipe out a country's gross domestic product overnight.Because of their size, SIDS cannot benefit from economies of scale, so an integrated approach is most likely to help address the special challenges they face. Ocean and coastal zones are crucial to the livelihoods of producers, making the sustainable development of these environments critical.Contributors to this volume review the steps that SIDS have taken in formulating national sustainable development strategies and explore some of the problems that have yet to be resolved. One case study explores the approach taken by Papua New Guinea and assesses some of its achievements and shortcomings. Another chapter reviews the significance of ocean and marine resource management to small States in the Pacific Ocean and highlights the need for co-ordination among regional organisations. Other topics include renewable energy, energy efficiency and conservation technologies, and regional approaches taken by small States to address the threat of climate change.  Activities that result in changes to a coastal environment can affect the long-term well-being of fisheries. By the same token, fisheries may have an impact on other coastal interests and activities, such as agriculture and tourism. This booklet uses a clear style to explain some of the important aspects of FAO guidelines for integrating fisheries into coastal area management, designed to help countries with coastal planning.Integrating fisheries into coastal area management FAO, 2008. 14   Nowhere is this more keenly felt than in the rural communities of the developing countries. Most of the world's food is grown, collected and harvested by more than 2.5 billion small-scale farmers, pastoralists, forest dwellers and artisanal fisherfolk, with many people earning their livelihood at different points along the food chain.This online book, which includes video and audio clips of producers and consumers, explores the role of localised food systems in the newly emerging food sovereignty policy framework. Such framework, in the words of the author, seeks to \"guarantee and protect people's space, ability and right to define their own models of production, food distribution and consumption patterns\".As globalised agrifood systems threaten to engulf smaller indigenous ones, the book examines the impact from a social and ecological, as well as from a purely economic and nutritional standpoint.It offers examples of the many practical ways in which local autonomous communities, including those in ACP countries, manage and oversee different links in the food chain, sustaining traditional knowledge and producing innovations. And it identifies the transformations needed to regenerate a network of diverse local food systems based on democratic control, equity, social justice and ecological sustainability.By M Pimbert IIED, 2008 Downloadable as PDF file (4.19 MB) from:.www.iied.org/pubs/display. php?o=G02268Globalisation, improved technology and more efficient transport links have brought new opportunities for producers to improve their incomes through export. But more and more, purchasing companies in the South are looking for a complex mix from their suppliers. As well as cost and quality, requirements include traceability and, increasingly, assurances about social and environmental issues. When all these requirements have been satisfied, the result is sustainable procurement, a term coined to describe a buyer-seller relationship that benefits both parties.A new book, based on a study into sustainable procurement from developing countries, explores some of the challenges involved on both sides of the equation. It asks how sustainable procurement by companies in the North can be developed in such a way that all actors in the supply chain benefit, including the producers. And it presents detailed studies of three European businesses that source supplies in a sustainable manner from African countries -ginger from Sierra Leone, mangoes from Mali and citrus fruit from South Africa. This well-illustrated handbook offers clear information about the main pests and diseases affecting potatoes. It includes advice on how to identify symptoms of the most common pathogens, their cycles, distribution and economic impact, and advice on how to control them. A list of pest profiles, accompanied by colour photographs, will help potato farmers identify the culprits and find the best remedy. 2008 saw a number of structural changes at CTA. These included revising our annual staff evaluation system to reward performance, motivating those who had given that little bit extra and encouraging those who have the potential to deliver more.As part of our drive for improvement, we also decided to review our main products in 10 ACP countries. This Information Impact Review involved all CTA programme officers and helped the institutions visited to have a better understanding of what they can expect from the Centre. As a follow-up, CTA established a direct link with Uganda's agricultural extension service, which has some 1,000 officers who ask for topical agricultural information on a regular basis. Spore is responding to this need, and as the extension service guarantees distribution of CTA publications to its agents, the Centre will also benefit from bulk shipment. Just think how much more we could do if we were to work in such a way with all our partners across ACP regions. That single change alone would streamline our distribution and dramatically help to quench the thirst for practical agricultural publications.Being ready for change also means being open to critical feedback. One of our weak points is our responsiveness to subscriptions and requests for CTA publications.The new Content Management System (CMS) that we started in 2008 will enable us to organise our data more efficiently, facilitating access and sharing it with our many partner institutions. Some of you may be frustrated from time to time by certain aspects of CTA's website. Our CMS will be the underlying system that should solve these problems.We recently welcomed our new Executive Board, with six members from ACP and EU countries together with the ACP secretariat, the EU Council and the EC as observers. They had their first meeting at CTA headquarters in October.2008 saw an increase of 37% in our operational budget. In any given year, we handle about 100 projects and activities. This year, with the extra funds we were easily able to surpass this figure.One of the projects that marked a milestone for CTA in 2008 was CTA's first comprehensive study on telecentres in Africa, followed by a seminar held in June, aimed at identifying the most promising concept for facilitating greater access to agricultural information in rural areas.Another highlight was our annual seminar on climate change and sustainable agriculture held in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (see page 3). 'We change the climate' and that is a fact -beyond the rather abstract use of the term climate change. Human beings are mainly responsible for climate change and therefore need to be actively involved in mitigation measures. CTA pays for carbon offsetting for the participants of its seminars and has established a 'green group' contributing to reducing CO 2 emissions through our activities.Finally, let me mention CTA's Brussels Briefings which are going from strength to strength. The magic formula that draws both ACP and EU embassy officials from their busy agendas seems to be the winning mix of the half-day format, prominent and experienced experts and concise information. Whenever I see a malnourished child in an African village, questions flood my mind: Why is there not enough food? What can we do to help? But hunger is not only about not having enough to eat; it is also about what you eat. 'Hidden hunger' occurs when people suffer from micronutrient malnutrition -when they lack vitamin A, iron and zinc, which are essential for good health. Millions of Africans, typically living in rural areas, eat staple foods such as maize, cassava and sweet potato. While these fill their stomachs, they do not provide micronutrients. More nutritious foods such as vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products, are not eaten in large enough quantities.Using a process called biofortification, some scientists have started to breed crops that have more micronutrients in them. Put simply, plant breeders search gene banks for crop varieties that have naturally higher levels of the nutrient being targeted. These varieties are then crossed to existing high-yielding varieties. After years of cross-breeding and testing, not to mention a little luck, scientists can breed new biofortified varieties with more nutrients.For example, many poor people do not get enough vitamin A, with deficiencies causing blindness and death, especially in children. In parts of Uganda, nearly a third of young children suffer from this deficiency and in areas of Mozambique, more than 70% of children aged 6 months to 5 years are affected.In both countries, scientists have succeeded in breeding several new sweet potato varieties biofortified with vitamin A. A recent study in Mozambique showed that a programme to introduce biofortified orange sweet potato resulted in improved vitamin A status among young children. This is important, because in regions of Mozambique and Uganda where vitamin A deficiency is widespread, people eat sweet potato just about every day. Capitalising on a familiar food is an ideal way to add extra nutrients to a diet.Like most Africans, Ugandans eat white sweet potato. However, biofortified sweet potato -as foods rich in vitamin A tend to be -is orange. It is also sweeter and has a softer consistency. People tend to gravitate toward familiar foods, so introducing new ones can be a challenge. We have had to convince farmers and consumers that eating a nutritionally improved sweet potato that has a different colour, taste and consistency is better for them.Many people are concerned that biofortified sweet potato is transgenic, which it is not. Beyond that, they have got to be persuaded that eating biofortified foods will improve their health. While many mothers have heard about vitamin A through health centres, they often do not understand why it is necessary. When we explain that orange sweet potato is a healthy choice for the family because of the vitamin A that it provides, there is a positive shift in attitude. People may be poor, but they still want to be healthy.Of course, in rural Africa, as anywhere else, health claims alone will not 'sell' new varieties to farmers and consumers. Farmers ask me: Will it require a different way of cultivation? Will it bring me more income? How good will it taste? In both Uganda and Mozambique, we have learned that any new sweet potato variety needs to be highyielding and at least as drought-resistant as traditional ones. Ugandan farmers also want an early maturing variety that they can sell before the white sweet potatoes become available. So, not only can farmers benefit from increased demand for a biofortified crop, but the crop may also have other traits that provide some advantage.Plant breeders responded to farmers in both countries by developing orange varieties to fit their requirements. They also adapted these new varieties to suit consumer tastes. As a result, biofortified sweet potato is being accepted more easily than we expected. Working with NGOs, village leaders, farmers, grandmothers and mothers, I have seen first hand that most farmers are willing to plant the sweet potato vines after learning about the health benefits.Once we have a better understanding of how to disseminate biofortified sweet potato, we shall be able to scale up these activities and breed other biofortified crops. For example, scientists are developing high-zinc maize and high-iron beans for African countries, and high-zinc rice for South Asia. For other ACP countries, it is possible that alternative crops could be biofortified, if those crops are eaten in large enough quantities to have an impact on nutrition.For me, perhaps the best news is that the biggest fans of biofortified orange sweet potato are children, who suffer most from vitamin A deficiency. Kids love its sweeter taste and softer consistency -and who can resist reaching for the bright orange sweet potato in the cooking pot? Hunger is not only about not having enough to eat","tokenCount":"10071"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4c1a5d763098fa133a6819963c3dbb3c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/40a26a23-5501-4d17-9ed1-81b91cf12779/retrieve","id":"-457721802"},"keywords":["Musa acuminata","Genome assembly","Bioinformatics tool","Paired-end sequences","GBS","Genome map"],"sieverID":"f5969616-2330-4c33-8058-82bddcb31158","pagecount":"12","content":"Background: Recent advances in genomics indicate functional significance of a majority of genome sequences and their long range interactions. As a detailed examination of genome organization and function requires very high quality genome sequence, the objective of this study was to improve reference genome assembly of banana (Musa acuminata). Results: We have developed a modular bioinformatics pipeline to improve genome sequence assemblies, which can handle various types of data. The pipeline comprises several semi-automated tools. However, unlike classical automated tools that are based on global parameters, the semi-automated tools proposed an expert mode for a user who can decide on suggested improvements through local compromises. The pipeline was used to improve the draft genome sequence of Musa acuminata. Genotyping by sequencing (GBS) of a segregating population and paired-end sequencing were used to detect and correct scaffold misassemblies. Long insert size paired-end reads identified scaffold junctions and fusions missed by automated assembly methods. GBS markers were used to anchor scaffolds to pseudo-molecules with a new bioinformatics approach that avoids the tedious step of marker ordering during genetic map construction. Furthermore, a genome map was constructed and used to assemble scaffolds into super scaffolds. Finally, a consensus gene annotation was projected on the new assembly from two pre-existing annotations. This approach reduced the total Musa scaffold number from 7513 to 1532 (i.e. by 80 %), with an N50 that increased from 1.3 Mb (65 scaffolds) to 3.0 Mb (26 scaffolds). 89.5 % of the assembly was anchored to the 11 Musa chromosomes compared to the previous 70 %. Unknown sites (N) were reduced from 17.3 to 10.0 %.The first two plant genomes to be sequenced were Arabidopsis and rice. Their sequences were obtained by sequencing a minimum tiling path of bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones selected from physical maps. Since then, the number of sequenced plant genomes has increased steadily each year, thanks to considerable decrease in costs and increase in throughput of sequencing technologies [1][2][3]. Nowadays, most genome assemblies are produced after whole genome shotgun sequencing (WGS) using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). WGS is based on three main steps: i) assembling raw sequence reads into larger sequences called contigs; ii) building bridges between contigs using end-sequenced DNA fragments of various lengths (e.g BACs, fosmids, plasmids, large insert size libraries) to generate scaffolds; iii) anchoring scaffolds to chromosomes using genetic mapping data to produce pseudo-molecules.A major challenge is to generate highly contiguous sequence assemblies from short reads in genomes characterized by sequence redundancy, which is a typical situation for plants. The main source of redundancy is transposable elements (TE) that represent a large part of plant genomes (from 14 % in Arabidopsis to 80 % in wheat) (reviewed in [4]). Another source of difficulties are paralogous genes [5] resulting from various types of duplications processes including whole genome duplication (WGD) that occurred frequently during the evolution of plants [6] or segmental duplication of various sizes. Repeated sequences are often assembled into a single collapsed region during the assembly steps [7]. Once created, a collapsed region is linked to multiple other genomic regions leading to conflicts. Automatic assemblers then face two problematic options, either to assemble anyway with a risk to misassemble noncontiguous regions or to prematurely stop the sequence assembly process. These constraints are exacerbated with short insert-size paired reads since the insert size will not span repeat elements. Conversely, scaffolding with only very large insert size libraries (i.e. BAC-end sequences) limits the integration of small scaffolds in the final assembly.New approaches are continuously being developed to improve genome sequence assemblies. They include longer read sequencing, high coverage medium and large insert size libraries [8,9], optical maps [10][11][12], which improve contigs assembly into scaffolds, and genotyping by sequencing (GBS), which has been used to assemble scaffolds into pseudo-molecules [13,14]. In contrast to tremendous advances in high-throughput sequencing, assembling sequences remains a substantial endeavor [15]. Several automated programs have been developed to improve draft genome sequence assemblies such as Bambus [16], SOPRA [17], MIP [18], SSPACE [19], Opera [20], GRASS [21], SCARPA [22], SSPACE-LongRead [23], SOAP-de-novo2 [24], GapFiller [25] and PAGIT [26]. However, these programs were designed for assembling contigs into scaffolds and/or filling unknown regions, and are running under a compromise between the quantity and quality of the assembly. This compromise results in a significant proportion of misassembled, un-scaffolded and un-filled regions.A draft genome sequence assembly of banana (Musa acuminata, 2n = 22, 1C = 523 Mbp), was produced recently using the WGS strategy [27]. The sequence was obtained from a doubled-haploid plant of cv. Pahang and represented a major step forward in understanding the structure and evolution of the banana genome [27,28]. Specific ancestral whole genome duplications were identified within the Musa lineage and their impact on gene fractionation and expression patterns was characterized [29]. Being the first monocotyledon genome sequence outside the Poales, the sequence provided an essential bridge for comparative genome analysis in plants e.g. [27,28,[30][31][32][33][34].According to criteria outlined by [35], this genome sequence can be classified as high quality draft. However, there has been an obvious room for improvement, including the reduction of the number of scaffolds (7573) and the number of scaffolds not anchored to one of the eleven chromosomes (30 % of the draft assembly).Here we describe a significant improvement of the first Musa acuminata draft reference genome sequence and the bioinformatics tools that we developed and used in this work. The work comprised: i) detection and correction of sequence misassemblies, ii) merging scaffolds, and iii) integration of many previously un-anchored scaffolds to the 11 pseudo-molecules. In addition, conciliation between existing genome annotations was made.The first draft reference sequence of banana (Musa acuminata) [27] was produced from DNA of a doubledhaploid plant of cv. 'Pahang' (DH-Pahang) using reads obtained by 454 sequencing (ERX166948 to ERX167027), Sanger 10 kb fosmid paired-reads (available on the Banana Genome Hub, http://banana-genome.cirad.fr/download), Sanger BAC-end reads (available on the Banana Genome Hub, http://banana-genome.cirad.fr/download) and 330 bp pair-end illumina sequences (ERX179491 to ERX179503). In the present work a 5 kb mate-pair library of DH-Pahang was created and sequenced using illumina HiSeq 2000 to 40x genome coverage. The reads obtained were trimmed and filtered following three criteria: (1) trimming of both read ends until base quality is higher or equal to 20;(2) read trimming at the second unknown base in the sequence; and (3) read larger or equal to 30 bases were conserved.Genome map of DH-Pahang genome was constructed using BioNano Irys System (BioNano Genomics, San Diego, USA). High molecular weight (HMW) DNA was prepared according to [36]. Briefly, a liquid suspension of intact cell nuclei was prepared by mechanical homogenization of formaldehyde-fixed tissues of unopened (cigar) leaves. The nuclei in the homogenate were stained by DAPI (4′,6-diamidino-2′-phenylindole), the nuclei in G 1 phase of cell cycle were purified by flow cytometric sorting and embedded in agarose miniplugs. HMW DNA was then purified and labeled using IrysPrep Reagent Kit (BioNano Genomics). The labelling was done with fluorescent nucleotide analogs at all Nt.BspQI nicking endonuclease sites. Single molecules were linearized in nanochannel arrays, imaged. A total of 426,846 molecules, with a N50 of 153 kb, representing a cumulated length of 65,719 Mb with an average label density of 9.4 labels/100 kb were generated and de novo assembled using a layoutoverlap-consensus method. The de novo map assembly yielded 464 Mb with a map N50 of 715 kb.A total of 180 individuals among the 268 individuals of a self-progeny of the 'Pahang' accession (PT-BA-00267) obtained at the CIRAD research station in Guadeloupe were genotyped using the DArTseq technology [37]. A total of 9,968 co-dominant (SNP) and 16,233 dominant markers were generated using a PstI-MseI enzyme combination. These markers were used in addition to the 768 SSR and 497 DArT markers previously used to anchor the Musa acuminata genome assembly. Out of the 268 individuals in the mapping population, 91 individuals were genotyped with all types of markers, 178 individuals with both DArT and DArTseq markers, 91 individuals with both DArTseq and SSR markers and 176 individuals with both DArT and SSR markers. The markers were filtered independently for each marker type on the basis of the following criteria: no more than 20 % missing data, no less than 10 % heterozygous or dominant and no less than 1.5 % homozygous for at least one homozygous state, resulting in 23,430 markers. The choice of these relatively non-stringent parameters was motivated by large segregation distortions that were previously observed in chromosome 1 and chromosome 4 in the segregating population [27].Two gene annotations of the Musa acuminata draft genome sequence were available for the initial assembly. The first corresponded to the annotation published by [27], in addition to approximately 1000 genes curated by human expertise before 08 December 2014 (http:// banana-genome.cirad.fr/). The second one was the NCBI RefSeq genome annotation released the 7 October 2014 (ftp://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/refseq/plant/Musa_ acuminata/) and generated with the NCBI Eukaryotic Genome Annotation Pipeline.An overview of the pipeline used to improve the banana draft genome assembly is shown in Fig. 1. It is divided into 8 distinct modules corresponding to different and optional operations. This pipeline exploited several tools that we have developed and which are available under Scaffhunter and Scaffremodler toolboxes. The first one exploits genetic mapping data and the second one Large insert size Paired Reads (LPR). They are described in details in the Additional file 1.This module used SSPACE [23] and exploited large insert size paired reads (LPR) to perform a new scaffolding of the existing contigs. The scaffolding process was divided into as many steps as the number of sequenced libraries with distinct inserts sizes. The libraries were used by increasing insert size order; scaffolding parameters were optimized for each step. To prevent accumulation of scaffolding errors, the first library was used with more stringent parameters (-a 0.5, -k 20) than the second and third ones (-a 0.7, -k 1). For Sanger sequence libraries (i.e. BAC-end and fosmids-end sequences) reads were mapped as single end-reads using BWA [38]. Single location reads were used to reconstruct read-pairs that were stored in a tabulated file used by SSPACE.This module identified and split misassembled contigs/ scaffolds using a combination of GBS genetic mapping data and LPR data. Genetic markers were grouped into linkage groups using JoinMap4.1 software [39]. No marker ordering was performed at this stage. In parallel, marker sequences were aligned to scaffolds using a consensus of BWA, bowtie2 [40] and BLAST [41] and only single hits markers were conserved. Scaffolds harboring markers attributed to more than one linkage group were identified. LPR aligning (using bowtie2 in -very-sensitive mode) in these scaffolds were inspected to precisely locate the misassembly boundaries. The misassembled boundaries were identified based on the absence of overlap of read-pairs in the area and an increased proportion of discordant reads. Misassembled scaffolds were then split. The complete process and tools used for this module are described in Additional file 1.This module used LPR to identify scaffolds that should be inserted into larger ones (hereafter referred to as fusion) and scaffolds that should be end-joined (hereafter referred to as junction). LPR were aligned to the scaffolds using bowtie2 in -very-sensitive mode. Only single hit LPR were conserved. Redundant LPR were filtered out using MarkDuplicates tool of Picard (http:// broadinstitute.github.io/picard/). Filtered LPR were then used to identify discordant read clusters, which were used to identify potential scaffold fusions and scaffold junctions. Potential scaffold fusions and junctions were then manually validated by inspecting circos [42] picture showing paired reads position in these regions. Fusion and junction performed were validated by aligning LPR along the corrected scaffolds using bowtie2 (in -verysensitive mode) and mapped reads were inspected to ensure that the newly created junctions are spanned with reads mapped in the correct orientation. The complete process and tools used for this module are described in Additional file 1.In this module, the size of all remaining gaps (region composed of N) were re-estimated using all paired-reads (i.e. LPR, BAC-ends sequences and fosmid paired reads). Paired reads were aligned against scaffolds using bowtie2 in -very-sensitive mode for illumina reads and BWA with mem algorithm for Sanger reads. For each paired read library, gaps were re-estimated so that correctly orientated paired read overlapping a gap have an insert size corresponding to the expected median insert size of the library. For the 5 kb mate-pair library (illumina), at least 30 pairs were required to re-estimate a gap while for the 10 kb and BAC-end Sanger reads at least 2 and 1 pairs were required respectively. The complete process and tools used for this module are described in Additional file 1.This module exploits genome map to arrange scaffolds into super scaffolds. First, the sequence assembly fasta file was converted into the BioNano Irys map format by running an \"in silico digest with the Nt.BspQI nicking endonuclease\" of the sequence assembly using Knickers (http://www.bnxinstall.com/knickers/Knickers.htm). Only scaffolds larger than 20 kb with more than five sites were used, representing 613 scaffolds for a cumulative size of 437 Mb. Then, using BioNano's proprietary alignment tool RefAligner [43,44], the sequence maps were compared with Irys genome maps to find their best alignments; here only sequence maps with more than 5 labels (i.e. Nt.BspQI nicking endonuclease site) were used for comparison. The sequence-Irys map pairs with significant discordance were flagged and removed, with discordance defined as more than 5 consecutive labels not unaligned on both the sequence map and the Irys map. These pairs may represent chimeric assemblies due to sequencing errors or allelic differences. Then, the filtered sequence maps and filtered Irys maps were merged with RefAligner using a p-value of 10 −10 based on [45] to create super scaffolds. This merging process was iterative, and the merge order was based on map similarity. The iterations stopped when all possible pairs were merged. A tabulated file locating scaffold sequence into the merged maps was then used to group scaffolds into super scaffolds. Original scaffolds were separated by Ns corresponding to their expected distance in the physical map.This module exploited paired short insert size reads (330 b pair-end illumina) to close gaps in scaffold using GapCloser v1.12 program [24]. At the end of this module, all scaffolds were renamed according to their length.This module used genetic markers obtained from a genetic mapping population to group, order and assemble scaffolds into pseudo-molecules. Our approach avoided the step of genetic map construction and a subsequent conciliation between genetic map and scaffolds. We used blocks of already ordered markers based on their position on scaffolds and first ordered them relative to each other, using UPGMA-like based approach. Then this first order was improved with permutation testing. The process can be decomposed into 4 steps:1) Marker location on scaffolds using a consensus of BWA, bowtie2 and BLAST, 2) Pairwise linkage LOD calculation between markers using JoinMap4.1, 3) Calculation of a first order using an UPGMA like approach on mean pairwise linkage LOD calculated between scaffolds, 4) Scaffold ordering and orientation optimization by performing scaffold permutations and re-orientations leading to maximization of a score calculated as follows:with n the number of markers in the LG to order, x i and x j are the position of markers i and j in the tested order, and LOD ij the LOD score between markers i and j. To optimize computation time and as order is not tested within scaffolds, i and j are markers from different scaffolds. Scaffold sequences were then assembled into pseudo-molecules. In addition to a fasta file containing ordered scaffold sequences separated by 100 N, an AGP file locating scaffolds into pseudo-molecules was generated. The complete process and tools used for this module are described in Additional file 1.This module consisted of transposing annotations from the first draft genome sequence to the new assembly. Gene annotations (consisting in fasta putative transcripts) were transferred to the new assembly using Exonerate software [46] with the cdna2genome model and a maximum allowed intron size of 30 kb. Exonerate performed genomic searches and spliced alignments in a single run. Using a custom Perl script, based on the exonerate output, we transferred the annotation on a new GFF3 files, and generated a file of sequence identifier equivalence between the two releases. The script performed some quality checks by comparing protein-coding sequences before and after the transfer as some discrepancies may occur. In such case, the script used Blastp to align genes exons by exons. Since two annotations were available (the annotation performed by [27] and the one performed by NCBI) both annotations were transposed. An additional consensus annotation was generated using a custom script that selected between the two annotations version genes spanning the same genomic coordinates based on tags enclosed in the GFF3 files using the intersect function of BEDTools [47].The original banana, Musa acuminata, draft reference genome assembly [27] was improved using the approach, tools and datasets as summarized in Fig. 1. The improvement was made in 8 successive steps.The original 24,425 contigs published in the first version of the Musa acuminata reference genome [27] were re-assembled into scaffolds exploiting paired end data, which were used for original version of the assembly (Sanger 10 kb fosmid paired-reads, Sanger BAC-end reads), and new 5 kb mate-pair illumina sequences (40x coverage). Contigs were assembled into 2,267 scaffolds for a cumulated size of 439 Mb representing 84 % of the estimated size (523 Mb) of the DH-Pahang genome (Table 1). Ninety percent of the assembly was in 416 scaffolds and the N50 was 1.55 Mb. Gaps (region composed of at least one N) in scaffold represent 48.3 Mb accounting for 11 % of the assembly.First, we looked for misassembled scaffolds. A total of 33 scaffolds were identified as containing markers from different linkage groups and thus as potentially containing misassembled regions. The misassembled regions were confirmed by the presence of discordant 5 kb LPR in the region. The 36 misassembled regions identified in these 33 scaffolds were then split, resulting in a total of 2,303 scaffolds. Figure 2 shows an example of a misassembled scaffold. Most of the misassembled regions (24/36) resulted from scaffolding errors, potentially due to chimeric paired reads or read misalignment. The remaining misassembled regions (12/36) resulted from contig assembly errors.Second, we looked for potential scaffold fusions and junctions. Based on the analysis of discordant pairedreads from the 5 kb LPR with our semi-automated tools, we could perform a total of 438 scaffold fusions and 293 scaffold junctions, resulting in reduction of scaffold number from 2,303 to 1,572. Figure 3 shows an example of clue leading to scaffold1112 fusion into scaffold24. Additional file 1: Figure S1 shows the mapping of reads on the two borders of scaffold1112 after fusion into scaffold24. Both right and left borders displayed overlapping reads in the correct orientation (Additional file 1: Figure S1, A and B).At this stage the size of gaps (region composed of Ns) within the new 1,572 scaffolds was re-estimated using the paired reads libraries sequentially resulting in 53 Mb for 12.3 % of the assembly (Table 1). The cumulative size of the new 1,572 scaffolds after gap re-estimation was of 444 Mb. Ninety percent of the assembly was in 305 scaffolds and the N50 was 2.9 Mb.Finally, BioNano Irys genome map of DH-Pahang was used to order and orient scaffolds into super scaffolds. This step allowed merging of 72 scaffolds into 40 super-   1). Finally, 90 % of the assembly was in 268 scaffolds and the N50 was 3.0 Mb with 26 scaffolds. Gaps in scaffolds represented 60.5 Mb for 13.4 % of the assembly.Gaps within the 1,532 scaffolds were then tentatively filled with the GapCloser program using the 330 bp pair-end illumina sequencing libraries (50x), generated to correct the first version of the banana Musa acuminata reference genome. Of the total of 27,691 gap regions, 9,838 were closed.The final assembly (Table 1) consisted of 1,532 scaffolds and showed a cumulative size of 450.7 Mb corresponding to 86 % of the estimated size of the DH-Pahang genome. Ninety percent of the assembly was in 267 scaffolds and the N50 was 3.0 Mb. Gaps in scaffolds represent only 45.2 Mb (10.0 % of the assembly). Twelve of these scaffolds were identified as mitochondrial DNA (cumulative size of 7.2 Mb) using BLAST (blastn, e-value 10 −100 ) of mitochondrial coding sequences of Phoenix dactylifera (NC_016740). The twelve mitochondrial scaffolds were removed from the final nuclear assembly.In order to validate the improvements made, the proportion of mapped 5 kb mate pair discordant reads (i.e. wrong insert size and/or orientation) for each scaffold assembly versions was calculated. Over the 82.9 million non-redundant and single mapped pairs, 16.3 million (19.7 %) mapped discordantly on the first version. Over the 82.9 million non-redundant and single mapped pairs 12.3 million (14.8 %) mapped discordantly for the new assembly before gap closure. Over the 80.8 million non-redundant and single mapped pairs 9.6 million (11.9 %) mapped discordantly for the new assembly after gap closure.Genetic markers were then used to assemble scaffolds into pseudo-molecules. Of the 23,430 selected genetic markers, 21,851 that mapped to a unique position were grouped into 11 linkage groups. A total of 248 markers were discarded since they created local discrepancies in scaffolds, clearly attributed to a linkage group based on the majority of the markers. Markers located on small scaffolds for which no linkage group majority could be found were also discarded. The remaining 21,603 markers allowed to order and orient 376 scaffolds into the 11 pseudo-molecules (Fig. 4), with an average of 5.44 markers per 100 kb (Table 2).Finally, a total of 397 Mb of genome sequence was anchored, representing 89.5 % of the nuclear genome assembly (versus 70 % in version 1) and including all scaffolds larger than 1 Mb. Each pseudo-molecule comprised from 16 to 57 scaffolds and N50 in pseudomolecules varied between 1.4 Mb to 9.9 Mb. The mean a bFig. 3 Example of a clue leading to scaffold fusion. a Graphical representation of paired read leading to the identification of fusion of scaffold1112 into scaffold24. This representation is drawn using Scaffremodler's tools. In the inner circle, links between read pairs are drawn with the color code described in Fig. 2: grey for concordant pairs; red and orange for discordant in size; purple, green and blue for orientation discordant pairs. The circle represents scaffold in blue with gaps as black regions. The next represents the proportion of discordant reads and the last circle represents read coverage as in Fig. 2. Red and beams linking scaffold1112 and allowed identifying scaffold fusion schematized in Inserting scaffold1112 into scaffold24 will correct the discordant red links and correct the orientation of discordant blue links N (gap) proportion varied from 5.6 to 12.9 % in pseudomolecules and was of 25.1 % in unanchored scaffolds (Table 3). Marker linkage in ordered scaffolds can be visualized for each chromosome in Additional file 1: Figure S2.In comparison to the first pseudo-molecule assembly version, we corrected the position of only a few large regions from one pseudo-molecule to another (Fig. 5, Additional file 1: Figure S3). One major change concerned a region that was previously anchored to chromosome 1 and that is now assigned to chromosome 4. These regions of chromosomes 1 and 4 displayed marked segregation distortions that created pseudo-linkages [27] and hampered the anchoring of the first draft assembly that was based on much lower number of genetic markers. Apart from this large change in the assembly, many small modifications were made, representing either anchoring small scaffolds previously unanchored, or small scaffolds reordering. Most of these changes concerned peri-centromeric regions.Two independent annotations of the initial version of the banana genome assembly were available and both were transferred to the new assembly. The M. acuminata transcripts from the first annotation published [27] in addition to several manually curated gene annotation were transferred to the new assembly version. Of the 36,550 predicted genes, 36,154 (98.9 %) genes were transferred to the new assembly version (Table 4). Of the total number of transferred genes, 540 (1.5 %) were located in unanchored scaffolds compared to 2,927 genes (8 %) in the first version. Ninety-six genes were transferred onto the mitochondrial scaffolds. The same transfer was performed for the NCBI Refseq genome annotation. A total of 30,674 (99.9 %) genes of the 30,716 predicted  genes were transferred to the new assembly version (Table 4).Based on the analysis of several manually curated genes, the NCBI RefSeq genome annotation proved to be generally of better quality than the first published annotation in particular because the first annotation over predicted introns. In addition, the NCBI RefSeq genome annotation integrated RNAseq data and predicted alternative transcripts. We thus created a consensus annotation that combined all the manually curated   of the assembly support the quality of the changes that were made. The addition of the 5 kb mate-pair illumina library in the scaffolding process decreased scaffold number by 70 % (7,513 to 2,267) and raised N50 from 1.3 Mb to 1.5 Mb. These results highlighted the importance of medium insert size library during the scaffolding process. Interestingly, the scaffold fusion/junction that we performed decreased further the scaffold number by 30 % (2,267 to 1,572) and significantly impacted the N50 value which nearly doubled. These results highlight the utility and power of the semi-automated tools we have developed. Apart from verifying the newly established scaffolds, the use of BioNano Irys genome maps permitted a few additional scaffold junctions. These maps would have had a bigger impact if they were available earlier during the process [48]. The gap filling step allowed an important reduction of gap regions in the final assembly (17.3 % to 10.0 % between the first and the new assembly versions). The reduction of discordant 5 kb read pairs proportion between the assembly before and after gap filling highlighted the quality of gap closure step performed.The cumulative size of the new assembly is reduced by 21.5 Mb in comparison with the first genome assembly [27]. This reduction is mainly due to the insertion of small scaffolds into previous gaps of larger scaffolds. The total size of the assembly, lower than expected, can be explained at least in part by difficulties in correctly Banana Genome Hub (BGH) annotation performed by [27], in addition to manually curated genes performed before 08 December 2014 available in the Banana Genome Hub c Including 'N' separating scaffolds assembling the repeated fraction of the genome (45S and 5S ribosomal DNA, transposons, retro-transposons and tandem repeats). These repeat-rich sequences are often collapsed into single regions, resulting in a reduced size for the total assembly [5]. For example, 10.6 Mb rDNA have been found in the unassembled reads of DH-Pahang [27]. Saturation of genetic map with DArTseq markers increased the proportion of anchored assembly from 70 to 89.5 % and anchored genes from 92 to 98.2 %. For scaffold anchoring, the classical approach is to construct a genetic map and to anchor the scaffold assembly onto this genetic map to construct a pseudo-molecule. Genotyping errors that are frequent in GBS data can lead to marker miss-ordering in genetic map and to conflict between markers order in genetic map and in scaffolds, when performing the scaffold anchoring. To avoid the tedious step of conciliation between genetic map and scaffolds, we developed a method that takes the advantage of markers already ordered into blocks corresponding to scaffolds. In this context, genotyping error impact is lowered as markers are already partially ordered. The newly anchored regions belong essentially to pericentromeric regions. However because the proportion of repeated sequence is high in these regions, the marker density is lower (Fig. 4) and the recombination rate is generally very low (or even suppressed) [49][50][51][52]. Consequently the scaffold order and orientation in these regions remains tentative.The significant improvements made on the banana reference genome sequence will have important impact on the quality of future genetic and comparative genomic analysis. The bioinformatics methods and tools described in this work can be useful to improve draft genome assemblies in other plant species. The pipeline comprises independent modules adaptable to various datatypes. It can be used to improve existing assemblies or in combination with existing automated programs during de novo assembly. The improved version of the Musa acuminata genome assembly is accessible and can be downloaded in the new version of the Banana Genome Hub at http:// banana-genome.cirad.fr/ [53]. Tools are available in command line version on GitHub (https://github.com/ SouthGreenPlatform). Most of the options (Modules 2, 3, 4 and 7) are also available on the South Green Galaxy platform under Scaffhunter and Scaffremodler toolboxes (http://galaxy.southgreen.fr/galaxy/).","tokenCount":"4737"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c93462f1d67650eacdbe0a2811280e7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a2befd8-b7ba-456d-9305-948594e15b49/retrieve","id":"-1074959460"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fecd48b4-3d70-46df-b42e-74ab3314b763","pagecount":"13","content":"ILRI recently launched an initiative to provide partner organizations with more robust training offerings for the FEAST tool and methodology. In addition to revised classroom materials, we are also creating online and blended versions of the course. Thus far we have created a large amount of online content (videos, interactive e-Learning activities, quizzes, etc.) and now require an \"LMS\" (Learning Management System) capable of hosting the course and tracking learners' progress and performance. In addition, we anticipated the need for other ILRI projects to invest more in online and blended learning solutions, so needed to find a LMS that could be used across many projects and content areas ILRI is involved with.The market for LMS applications is extremely fragmented, with nearly a hundred commercial and open-source solutions offering different sets of features at different price points. Most of these solutions are tailored for a specific niche (K-12 schools, universities, corporate training -there are even LMS solutions designed specifically for training electrical engineers and airline pilots).After an exhaustive review of available solutions, ILRI decided to partner with Sonata Learning (www.sonatalearning.com) and use Sonata's proprietary solutions for both an LMS and an offline player, which together meet all of ILRI's needs at very competitive rates. The following document will provide an analysis of available LMS solutions, step through how we arrived at this solution and provide an overview of the main functionalities of the Sonata LMS and offline player.If we simply wanted to make our learning content available online, and did not care about tracking learners' progress/performance or controlling their access to materials (e.g., not allowing a user to access a course or lesson until they completed its prerequisites), then we could simply embed the videos, activities and quizzes in a conventional website.However, if we want to track learners' progress and manage their access to courses, then we need a specialized web application known as a \"Learning Management System\" or LMS.An LMS serves four main functions: Different LMS solutions have different approaches and capabilities in each of these areas.Collecting user information, assigning users to groups, registering users / groups for courses, etc.Generating reports on user progress and performance.Hosting videos, quizzes, interactive activities and other types of content.Tracking whether users completed a given unit and making other content available based on completion of prerequisites.The original ILRI FEAST RFP/ToR simply called for a learning development contractor to \"define technology requirements and process standards\" without specifically outlining requirements for an LMS platform. As we subsequently worked together, we identified the following needs:  Launch interactive eLearning activities and track user progress / results  Modern, attractive, easy-to-navigate user interface  Ability to deliver eLearning in classrooms without an Internet connection and report results to a common gradebook for reporting  Track performance in several key objectives and relate to results of performance review surveys sent to class participants' supervisors 3-12 months after the course  Cost less than USD$5,000/year for 500 registered users ($10/user/year) While we were unable to find a single off-the-shelf solution that addressed all of the above requirements, the requirements provided a framework for evaluating the trade-offs of one LMS solution versus another.The market for LMS systems is extremely fragmented, with over 100 commercial and open source solutions available. During the early phase of the project, we conducted an extensive review of these solutions, ranging from \"free\" solutions such as Moodle and eFront Open Source Edition to top-of-the-line solutions aimed at major corporations such as Absorb and Cornerstone. \"Free\" Open Source Solutions (e.g., Moodle, eFront Open Source Edition)There are a few popular open source solutions available for no licensing fee, most notably Moodle. However, in all cases they had an inelegant UI that might pose a problem for ILRI's class participants and proved quite difficult to customize. The fact that ILRI would have to assume responsibility for hosting these solutions was another drawback. WordPress-Based Solutions (e.g., LearnDash, WP Courseware, Namaste!, Sensei) Several companies offer solutions based on the WordPress framework. While they all allow for a high degree of customization of the user experience, each had major limitations when it came to authoring courses and none of them natively support the SCORM standard for eLearning, meaning they would not be able to track learner progress/performance in activities or quizzes created with other applications. Low-Cost \"Light\" Commercial Solutions (e.g., TalentLMS, EZLMS, Totara, Litmos, Docebo) There were several products in the \"Light\" LMS category that came close to meeting ILRI's needs, though each had a major drawback that made the solution unattractive.Even with an \"NGO discount\", Litmos and Docebo were above ILRI's price range and did not offer features commensurate with the cost. EZLMS was by far the most full-featured in terms of user management and reporting, but had an extremely dated and difficult-tonavigate user interface. Totara, a commercial adaptation of Moodle, also had a robust feature set but still had all of Moodle's user interface issues (difficult to navigate, etc.).TalentLMS seemed promising at first, especially with its API for WordPress integration, but while building a proof of concept lesson in the platform we encountered many frustrating limitations that reduced its appeal. Enterprise-Class Solutions (Blackboard, Absorb, Skillsoft, Cornerstone) While many of these solutions offered both robust reporting and user management and a modern, elegant user interface, given that they started around USD$6,000 per year for 500 learners and went as high as $40,000 per year, ILRI deemed them too expensive. Attempts to negotiate a discount from the vendors went nowhere.Rationale to select Sonata Learning LMSILRI and Sonata approached several of the \"LMS Lite\" vendors (TalentLMS, EZLMS), asking if they could implement a few customizations to better meet the organization's unique requirements.While in several cases the companies' sales staff agreed, as we worked with their developers it became clear that, given how ILRI was not looking to pay a premium, the vendors were (understandably) uninterested in customizing their product for what would be, by their standards, a small account.Overall, the situation with ILRI's search for an LMS had become quite frustrating. While ILRI wanted to provide a high-quality user experience, it was difficult to justify the cost of an enterprise-class system, especially since most of ILRI's constituents lacked the bandwidth to directly access the LMS without the intermediary of an offline player.Even prior to partnering with ILRI, Sonata Learning had been developing its own proprietary LMS solution. ILRI's frustrations with the LMS market were not unique, and Sonata Learning hoped that, by offering a solution with \"Enterprise\" features and a modern user interface at an \"LMS Lite\" price, they could make online learning programs more accessible for small and mid-size organizations (this being \"small\" and \"mid-size\" compared to large government agencies and multinational corporations).Around the beginning of 2015, sufficient progress had been made on development of Sonata's proprietary LMS that it became a qualitatively superior alternative to other solutions in its price range. After reviewing the product's features, ILRI offered to serve as Sonata Learning's partner for the software's \"Beta\" release.Major points include: Simple, clean, intuitive user interface -The Sonata LMS offers a clean, elegant user interface and intuitive user experience inspired by modern web and mobile applications. It presents users with only the most important options at any given point, giving administrators the option to show or hide additional options as the courses require. By contrast, most of the lower-cost LMS platforms have outdated design reminiscent of the cluttered menus from the \"Yahoo!\" era of the Internet or late-90s desktop applications. These tended to be difficult to navigate, especially for novice users, and had a dated feel. \"Blended first\" approach to delivery -Where most inexpensive LMS platforms focus on the self-guided, online-only experience, the Sonata LMS is designed to let self-guided content complement classroom sessions or live instructor-led webinars. Among other features, it allows instructors to grant or restrict access to lessons in the LMS during a classroom training session and give scores for attendance and participation. Integration of social learning -The Sonata LMS integrates discussion forums into course content, to spark interaction between learners. It can require that users post to discussions in order to proceed with a course, then notifies them of responses. Branding and sub-portals -The Sonata LMS allows for the creation of \"departments\" and \"program\", allowing for different units within organizations or different initiatives to have their own branded portals, with options to share or separate content for different audiences and set different preferences for each. Ability to scale with the growth of ILRI programs -The default configuration of the Sonata LMS allows for the quick setup and easy administration of basic online courses, but can allow for more advanced course design and management as the need arises (e.g., defining multi-course sequences, awarding credits for classes based on a common set of learning objectives / standards, certificates, etc.). A unique approach to grading -Graded interactions can be grouped into categories for reporting and weighting purposes. For instance, pre-assessment and post-assessment tests can be identified and reports generated to compare performance between the two. Different types of assignments can be scored as a group (e.g., all quizzes might be worth a combined total of 500 points, with score based on an average) or individually. Reporting features -With its well-organized database, the Sonata LMS can produce any report an organization may require and display them as attractive HTML5 graphs. As a beta partner, ILRI will have a hand in defining the standard reports and dashboards to suit its requirements.A comparison of features between LMS systems somewhat misses the point, as so much comes down to execution, but to establish the Sonata LMS' competitiveness: Need for an offline player solutionThe lack of wired broadband and 3G/4G Internet infrastructure in the countries where ILRI operates makes conventional, Internet-based methods for distributing media-rich e-Learning content infeasible. For instance, YouTube is generally recognized as the most efficient media streaming platform in the world, yet even YouTube requires a steady 300kbps connection to ensure a reliable low-quality stream. At present, the average connection in developing countries is much, much slower than that.ILRI's partner organizations typically operate in regions with little or no broadband Internet connectivity. When ILRI partnered with Sonata Learning to create e-Learning materials to complement its classroom instruction, we searched for an application that would allow learners in these regions to play the sort of multimedia and interactive content typically delivered on a webbased Learning Management System. In the end, we couldn't find a solution that met ILRI's requirements at an acceptable price point, so Sonata developed a custom solution.The offline player module for the Sonata Learning Management System: Runs on a USB drive without the need to install any software on the learner's hard drive  Plays any type of content in its own self-contained browser, avoiding any complications that might arise with the computer's default browser  Saves assessment and progress data to the USB drive, then exports results to a .csv file  Provides an administrator app to automatically install the player to multiple USB drivesGiven how \"e-Learning\" has become synonymous with \"online learning\" in recent years, it's easy to forget that computer-based training predates the ubiquity of the Internet Incorporating e-Learning into classroom training benefits learners and organizations by:","tokenCount":"1858"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ecf023c247b305cd0af84e5f7a2f4b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/055f2e13-cf61-44c1-80e1-c8027130dc60/retrieve","id":"1586913057"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e3578ec5-644e-4642-a262-a315f4f26720","pagecount":"3","content":"Livestock make an important contribution to the livelihood of Sahelian farmers and herders, and are a source of insurance against income shocks brought about by weather and economic disruptions. By allocating livestock more efficiently over space, spatial market integration should favour a sustainable use of scarce pasture resources. The geographical integration of markets is also critical for the prevention of entitlement failures and the insurance value of livestock. To be effective, strategies providing protection against local weather shocks require livestock prices to be relatively stable so that risk is shared over space and idiosyncratic price variations are smoothed.Studying the spatial integration of livestock markets in the Sahel is thus important for optimal and sustainable natural resource use, early warning, market and trade policies. This study sheds some light on the integration of livestock markets in a representative Sahelian country, Niger.Quantitative evidence on livestock marketing in Niger is rare, partly due to government efforts to tax livestock imports and exports, and the ensuing secrecy that surrounds livestock transactions. It is nevertheless possible to piece together a picture of livestock trade in Niger by drawing from existing studies and descriptive evidence.Livestock is Niger's second largest source of export earnings after uranium. According to some sources, 64-82% of animal sales by producers take place in local markets. Nigerien urban centres and towns attract livestock for local consumption, but most livestock are destined for export, mainly to Nigeria. The principal entry points into Nigeria seem to follow major roads and rivers, even though animals are typically trekked across the border to avoid detection by customs agents.Livestock trade is organised through strong traditional networks linking producers, intermediaries, and traders. Traders organise and finance the transport of animals across the border. Animals destined for export are bundled in groups and shipped directly across the border. To minimise transaction costs, traders concentrate on active markets where large groups of livestock can be assembled for immediate shipment. Neighbouring markets serve as collection points. The location of assembly markets may shift over time as parties try to avoid detection by tax collectors.Little information is available on livestock marketing costs in Niger. Previous analyses of market integration have concluded that long distance trade is important and that markets are not well integrated. For example, previous studies report persistent price differences between two neighbouring Nigerien districts equal to five times the estimated cost of transporting an animal to southern Nigeria.These previous studies, however, have been limited in time and in geographical coverage. This study makes up for these shortcomings by analysing in detail monthly livestock price data on 15 animal categories collected in 35 districts and 3 urban centres of Niger over a period of 21 years. The questionable quality of the data and the high proportion of missing observations are somewhat compensated by the sheer number of data points, i.e. 87,000 observations in total.The spatial integration of Nigerien livestock markets is first tested by examining whether prices across districts tend to move together. Computed correlation coefficients for each pair of the 38 districts and each of the 15 animal categories lie between 0.3 and 0.6. The correlation coefficients are higher for cattle than for small ruminants, and are lowest between two remote districts lying deep in the Sahara desert and the rest of Niger. In all cases, distance has a negative effect on price correlation and for 13 out of 15 animal categories, the effect is significant.Cointegration tests conducted on all pairs of regional price series for each of the 15 animal categories mostly confirm the above findings. The tests suggest that Niger does not operate as a unified livestock market and that over extended periods of time, prices in any given district can drift apart from prices in most other districts. Overall, the results suggest that while livestock markets are integrated along long distance trade routes, districts removed from these routes are only loosely connected to the system.To ascertain whether prices responded primarily to supply or demand shocks, the test for Grangercausality was conducted and geographic patterns in the results were examined. If districts located 'upstream', i.e. close to livestock production areas, tended to Grangercause prices in 'downstream' districts, this was taken as evidence that price movements are primarily driven by supply shocks. If, however, urban and border districts tended to Grangecause others, this was taken as evidence that price movements are caused by demand shocks.The Grangercausality test results showed no clear pattern and yielded largely inconclusive evidence. Although distance has the correct sign in 11 of the 15 regressions, it is significant at the 5% level for only 5 animal categories. Markets located closeby are thus more likely to Grangercause each other, but the evidence is weak. Similarly, a handful of key markets appear more likely to Grangercause prices in other districts than be Grangercaused by them, suggesting that they may be originating points for price shocks.Overall, the evidence presented shows that livestock markets in Niger appear loosely integrated. Although prices in different districts rarely move in total isolation from price movements elsewhere, the forces that prevent prices from drifting apart arbitrarily appear surprisingly weak.If markets are efficient and spatially integrated, price differentials across districts should reflect trade patterns: prices should be lower in distant production areas and higher close to urban centres and export points, and they should fall as one moves away from consumption and export centres. To check whether this is the case in Niger, livestock price differentials were computed across regions. Since using sample averages of districtlevel prices would produce biased estimates, a more accurate measure of regional price differences was derived which controlled for other factors affecting prices (e.g. cyclical and seasonal forces) and isolated the independent effect of location.Resulting price differentials between districts estimated using this measure do not fully conform to expectations of market efficiency. The prices of both cattle and small ruminants are consistently higher in local consumption centres and at export points. But prices do not fall smoothly as one moves away from high to low price areas. The presence of market flow reversals may explain this. Indeed, as has often been noted in the literature, patterns of price comovements are a good indicator of market efficiency only if goods always flow in the same direction Even allowing for flow reversals, the analysis of Nigerien livestock markets provides fairly conclusive evidence of the presence of market inefficiencies in livestock trade. Large arbitrage costs and variations in animal quality explain most of the observed pattern of price differentials. What remains a mystery and deserves further research, however, is why market operators do not take advantage of returns to scale in livestock transportation to capture gains from spatial arbitrage.A wide variety of market efficiency measures were used in this study to estimate the extent of livestock market integration in Niger. The results of the analyses show that Nigerien livestock markets are related but not closely integrated.This lack of market integration can partly be attributed to the trekking of animals over long distances without adequate water and pasture. Price fluctuations are further compounded by heterogeneity in animal quality.Long distance trade, as opposed to local arbitrage, appears to be what guarantees a modicum of market efficiency. Major longdistance markets appear to be playing a key role in spreading price movements spatially. The critical role of long distance trade is confirmed by the finding that when it is disorganised by aggregate supply and demand shocks, price volatility increases between districts. These results suggest that there is room for improvement in the functioning of livestock markets in Niger which would favour a more efficient use of pasture resources. It would also promote a better sharing of risk across space, not only for pastoralists but also for farmers who use livestock as a form of precautionary savings.The improvement of market efficiency cannot be assessed on the basis of price series alone. Although Nigerien government efforts to tax and regulate livestock imports and exports are said to have been weakly enforced, clandestine operations to avoid taxation have probably been detrimental to livestock trade, particularly at local level. It is possible that livestock traders neglect domestic arbitrage to avoid attracting the attention of customs officers to their more lucrative export and import business. Additional research is needed on these issues, but a more positive attitude by government, coupled with investments in trekking routes, rail and road transport could significantly improve the efficiency of livestock markets in Niger. For more information on this issue see: Fafchamps M. and Gavian S. 1996. The spatial integration of livestock markets in Niger. Journal of African Economies 5(3):366-405.","tokenCount":"1425"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4aa0e80c7b4c73e8f28e47b6c21d58d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bc7e0a1a-73df-4ca3-a708-f4e9c2fe1458/retrieve","id":"1786913844"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"35d6a8e1-be42-4b83-a287-b2bf0960eb44","pagecount":"63","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).1 Frequency distribution of survey households by treatment and region ... Table 2.1 Summary of household demographic characteristics, SI-MFS ....................... Table 2.2 Sleep duration (in hours) for husband and wife during rainy and dry seasons .  2.11 Adoption of sound agricultural practices across household types ............ Table 2.12 Inorganic fertilizer usage (kg/ha) for growing major cereals and legumes ..    The Sustainable intensification (SI) of Mixed farming systems (MFS) or simply the SI-MFS Initiative envisages the production of more food on the same piece of land while reducing the negative environmental footprints usually left behind by conventional agricultural systems. This survey examined the status of project site in terms of the five impact areas of the Initiative, namely nutrition, health, and food security; poverty, livelihoods, and jobs; gender, youth, and social inclusion; climate change; and environmental health and biodiversity.Towards this goal, the Monitoring, Evaluation, Learning and Impact Assessment (MELIA) team of the SI-MFS Initiative conducted a baseline survey in the first quarter of 2023 in Ghana, one of the six Initiative countries among Malawi, Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR), and Nepal. Aligning with the indicators in the results framework of the Initiative, the baseline survey was designed to collect data about the significant constraints and opportunities experienced by farmers in mixed farming systems in the implementation countries to assess the effect of the Initiative on the livelihoods of beneficiary farmers and to help identify successful agriculture innovations and practices for scaling. To that scope, the MELIA team developed a standard baseline survey to be customized and reviewed within interdisciplinary teams at the country level.Ghana's survey comprised 1,320 households (8,017 individuals) in 19 districts of three main regions in northern Ghana. Out of the total sample, 77.8 percent are in the intervention districts. In comparison, 22.2 percent are selected control communities based on similarities in agroecology, soil conditions, market access, and population density with the intervention chosen communities. Descriptive analysis of the data revealed the status quo of the SI-MFS impact areas in Ghana's intervention zones.The baseline survey reveals crucial insights into the demographics, agricultural practices, socio-economic dynamics, and challenges faced by farm households.The survey indicates a predominantly older demographic among household heads in control communities, with low levels of formal education prevalent across both control and intervention areas. Over 90% of household heads lack basic literacy in any language, while crop farming stands out as the primary economic activity for more than 90% of households in the surveyed area.In terms of gender roles, there are clear delineations between activities perceived as the responsibilities of men and women. Wives engage more in community organizations, notably the Village Savings and Loans Association (VSLA), facilitating access to credit, primarily utilized for purchasing fertilizers and pesticides. However, the overall access to credit remains low within the surveyed sample.Regarding agricultural practices, farm households maintain an average of three plots cultivating a diverse range of crops, with maize dominating among cereals, groundnut among pulses and nuts, and yam as the primary tuber crop. Despite diversity, the adoption of sustainable intensification practices like certified seeds, irrigation, and liming remains low, impacting crop yields significantly.In addition to crop cultivation, household's rear livestock, mostly poultry and small ruminants. Livestock integration with crop production systems varies, but small ruminants and poultry show higher integration levels. Access to extension services is moderate, with most farmers obtaining information from government extension agents. However, concerns over food security persist, with approximately 15% of households facing borderline food consumption. Multiple shocks, especially high input and food prices have affected household food security and income over the past three years.Aligning with the Initiative's five impact areas, the study underlines the following findings:1. Nutrition, Health, and Food Security The analysis evaluates food security using indicators like Food Consumption Score (FCS), Household Dietary Diversity Scores (HDDS), and expenditure. Results indicate a significant difference in FCS and food expenditure between control and intervention groups, highlighting potential improvement in food security among the intervention group. Nonetheless, regional disparities in food consumption levels necessitate tailored interventions to address food inadequacy across the former Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions.The study uses income poverty as a measure, revealing significant disparities between control and intervention groups concerning households living below the food and general poverty lines. Agriculture remains a primary employment source, particularly in northern Ghana. However, regional variations in poverty and employment patterns underscore the need for tailored economic strategies to tackle poverty challenges across regions.The analysis examines occupation distribution and social organization memberships across genders, highlighting significant disparities in associations like Village Savings and Loans, Women Association, and Youth Association between husbands and wives. Understanding gender-specific factors influencing participation in social groups is critical for promoting inclusivity.Adoption rates of Sustainable Intensification Practices (SIPs) vary significantly across regions, emphasizing the importance of tailored interventions to promote sustainable agricultural practices based on regional needs. The data showcases regional preferences and ecological differences influencing SIPs adoption.Assessment of biodiversity using tree numbers indicates variations across regions and intervention/control groups. The prevalence of indigenous tree species and agroforestry systems suggests regional differences in ecosystem preferences or historical land-use practices.In conclusion, this report underscores the necessity for tailored interventions addressing regional disparities and specific challenges across northern Ghana's various domains. Strategies targeting sustainable practices, inclusive policies, and enhanced social engagement are vital for fostering long-term resilience and development in the surveyed regions.The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems (MFS) Initiative (hereafter MFS Initiative) envisages the production of more food on the same piece of land while reducing the negative environmental footprints usually left behind by conventional farming systems. MFS cover about 2.5 billion ha of land globally (De Haan et al., 1997). In the developing world, MFS supply around 75% of milk, 60% of meat, and 41-86% of cereals consumed (Herrero et al., 2010). These farming systems occur in nearly all agro-ecological zones, with various climatic and soil conditions (Thornton et al., 2018) and livelihood patterns (Dixon et al., 2019).In MFS, livestock provides draft power for crop cultivation and manure to fertilize the soil, while crop residues provide livestock feed. Livestock is sold to compensate for low crop yields in unfavourable years. Mixed farming systems allow farmers to diversify risk from single crop production, use labour efficiently, access cash, and add value to products. Integrating crops and livestock has the potential to maintain ecosystem function and health, and to help prevent agricultural systems from becoming fragile by enhancing biodiversity and thus increasing the capability to absorb shocks to the natural resource base (Holling, 1995).Population growth, urbanization, water scarcity, soil degradation, climate change, evolving food consumption patterns, and food price volatility are pressures that act on these systems, deepening inequalities in resource access, and leading to conflict and migration (Rao et al., 2019). Social inequalities are a persistent feature of agrifood systems including MFS. They relate to deeply entrenched inequitable norms that produce unfavourable outcomes -primarily for women, youth, and marginalized actors -and obstruct progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (McDougall et al., 2021).This baseline survey aims to understand the status and trends of SI-MFS impact areas and identify main entry points for implementing the SI-MFS Initiative in Ghana.The central development hypothesis of the MFS Initiative is that sustainable intensification of mixed crop-tree-livestock systems leads to increased whole farm productivity, which in turn leads to development outcomes (improved welfare) such as improved livelihoods (income, assets, capacity, etc.) and better food and nutrition security for those who depend on these systems. It is further hypothesized that a combination of relevant interventions is more likely to increase whole farm productivity than single intervention.To test the development hypotheses, the MFS initiative uses the Quasi-Randomized Control Trial (QRCT) evaluation, targeting farming households living in the selected communities of northern Ghana. The QRCT was preferred to the popular Randomized Control Trial (RCT) due to the purposively selected intervention communities, making it impossible to implement a cluster randomized design. Therefore, randomization is done at the household level.Utilizing adoption rates derived from selected technologies and their combinations observed in the Africa RISING endline survey conducted in 2019, we computed adoption rates that ranged from 1% for cereal-vegetable intercropping to 76.5% for drought-tolerant cultivars. To calculate the sample size, we maintained the statistical power at 80% and considered a minimum detectable size (MDE) of a five-percentage point change in adoption rate. The assumed sample size for MDE calculation was fixed at one thousand households.Given the premise that the Initiative will prioritize technologies with lower adoption rates, we assigned more weightage to those specific technologies when computing the average MDE and sample size. The resultant average MDE obtained was approximately 4.5%, while the average sample size reached 999 households. Therefore, having a sample size of at least 1000 households allows for the detection of adoption rate changes as low as 4.5 percentage points during the Initiative.Sample households were selected randomly from comprehensive household lists within each community. Household listings were established beforehand in some communities, while others were enumerated during the Africa RISING project. The Initiative employed a two-stage sampling approach. Initially, thirty-four intervention communities were purposively chosen. To mirror the characteristics of the intervention communities, control communities were selected based on four key variables: agro-ecology, soil condition, market access, and population density. To accommodate any potential non-consent among the selected farmers, approximately 25% of the sample was reserved and randomly drawn from the same population. Twenty communities were designated as the control group, resulting in a total of fifty-four (54) communities involved in the MFS survey.The second stage involves randomly selecting households within each community, comprising 30 from intervention communities and 15 from control communities. The proposed sample size totals 1,320 households (1,020 from intervention communities and 300 from control communities). The survey utilized a comprehensive questionnaire consisting of seventeen sections. Sections A and B primarily addressed household membership and demographic details, while section C gathered information on time use and labour. Section D focused on activities, community organization participation, and gender norms. Sections E to I delved into crop production, harvesting, and storage, while section J centred on livestock ownership. Sections L and M covered both agricultural and nonagricultural income-generating practices. Section N detailed housing and household assets, while sections O and P pertained to food consumption and nonfood expenditures. Lastly, section Q sought information on recent shocks experienced by household members, their impact on welfare, and the coping strategies adopted by households. At the conclusion of the training, both trainers and survey staff underwent a pretest exercise within a nearby community. This exercise involved administering the survey questionnaire to farmers, enabling enumerators to practice the survey process in real-time. Feedback from the enumerators regarding their experiences during the pretesting phase was actively discussed and considered for refining and finalizing the questionnaire before the official commencement of the survey.The survey was organized into three distinct teams, each assigned to specific regions:• Team one was responsible for the Northern, Savannah, and North-east regions.• Team two was designated for the Upper West region.• Team three was assigned to cover the Upper East region.Each of these teams was composed of a field supervisor and a survey coordinator, with the survey coordinator being a staff member of IITA who also undertook supervisory responsibilities. The entire supervision process was overseen by four IITA scientists, with two of them visiting the survey teams in the field. Additionally, one consultant contributed to the supervision process. Moreover, two IT personnel provided technical support remotely, likely through online communication channels.The survey was carried out over a period of approximately two months, commencing on March 14 and concluding on May 15, 2023.The SI-MFS survey collected data from 1,320 households containing 8,017 individuals in the selected study areas. However, data from seven (7) households were incomplete and thus dropped, leaving 1,313 households. Out of the 1,313 households interviewed during the MFS survey, Table 1.1 reports that 291 households were sampled from control communities, constituting 22.2 percent of the total sample. In comparison, 1,022 households were sampled from intervention communities, constituting 77.8 percent of the total sample. For this report, we combined the Northern, North-east and Savannah regions and labelled it Former Northern region since these three emerged from the former Northern region and only few communities were surveyed from the North-east and Savannah regions.The SI-MFS survey initially collected data from 1,320 households across the selected study areas. However, due to incomplete data, information from seven households had to be excluded, resulting in a final count of 1,313 households used in the analysis.From the total interviewed households:• 291 households were sampled from control communities, making up 22.2% of the total sample.• 1,022 households were sampled from intervention communities, constituting 77.8% of the total sample.The data from the Northern, North-east, and Savannah regions were merged and termed as the former Northern region for this report. This categorization was chosen due to their historical connections and the relatively fewer communities surveyed from the North-east and Savannah regions compared to the former Northern region.  The Ghana Statistical Service, GSS (2019) defines household as a person or group of related or unrelated persons who live together in the same housing unit, shares the same housekeeping and cooking arrangements and are considered as one unit who acknowledges an adult male or female as the head of the household. In the SI-MFS survey, however, we defined household in the nuclear family sense, and consists of the household head, spouse, children and other members who depend directly on the household head. This composition reflects the changing social structure of the Ghanaian population, which may consist of a man, his wife or wives and children and some relatives or non-relatives who may be living with them.The data presented in Table 2.1 illustrates the distribution of demographic characteristics among households in the SI-MFS survey, comparing these features between control and intervention community statuses. The findings indicate that the average age of household heads in control communities is 53.1 years, slightly older than those in intervention communities with an average age of 50.1 years. This suggests a predominantly middle-aged farming population within the study area.The statistics also reveal a notable imbalance in household headship, with approximately five times more male heads compared to female heads across the entire sample. This observation aligns with the prevailing trend of male-dominated household headship commonly observed in the study regions and throughout Ghana. Based on our operational definition of the household, the dependency ratio is computed and reported in Table 2.1. The average dependency ratio in control communities is slightly higher than in intervention communities. The overall household dependency ratio of 19.5% is lower than the nationally reported average dependency ratio of about over 60% in Ghana (Amoako et al., 2023;Oteng et al., 2023).The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defined literacy in 1958 as the ability to read and write a simple statement related to everyday life (UNESCO, 2023). In the context of the SI-MFS survey, most household heads in the study area lack reading or writing proficiency in any language, whether English or local dialects. Illiteracy rates are notably higher among the control group compared to intervention group. This high illiteracy suggests a need for increased sensitization to prepare targeted farmers for adopting the technologies introduced through the Initiative. Prior research emphasizes the pivotal role of literacy in enabling individuals to assimilate and implement new technologies effectively (Chander & Thangavelu, 2004;Sanogo et al., 2023). Only around 16 percent of household heads can read or write English, signifying limited exposure to the external environment in the study area.Moreover, merely about 7 percent can read and write local languages like Dagbani, Kasem, Waale, Dagaare, Sisaali, Gruni, and Nankam. Comparatively, households in intervention communities show higher literacy rates than those in control communities.Economic activities in the surveyed households primarily revolve around crop production, accounting for over 90 percent in both control and intervention communities. Other pursuits such as small businesses and livestock farming are practiced by less than 4 percent of households, and notably, none in control communities engage in these activities as their primary economic endeavor. This strong emphasis on crop farming implies significant vulnerability to adverse weather changes, potentially impacting household food and nutrition security.The demographic characteristics, gender distribution, household sizes, language proficiency, and economic activities vary notably between the control and intervention groups. Understanding these differences is crucial for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and their potential impact on various household aspects within the Initiative or the study context.Experts recommend that young adults require between 7 -9 hours of sleep, while other adults generally need 7 -8 hours (Hirshkowitz et al., 2015). However, the pursuit of livelihood often compromises the ability of many adults, irrespective of age, to meet this minimum sleep requirement.The data presented in Table 2.2 highlights significant variations in sleep durations between husbands and wives in both control and intervention communities, particularly during the rainy season. Conversely, during the dry season, sleep durations for both husbands and wives in control and intervention communities generally meet the recommended seven hours per day.In the dry season, wives in both control and intervention households achieve an average of 7.7 hours of sleep per day. However, husbands in control communities tend to obtain slightly more sleep compared to those in intervention communities.In contrast, during the rainy season, differences in sleep duration between husbands and wives persist in both intervention and control communities, with couples from control households obtaining relatively more sleep than those in intervention communities. This observation aligns with the agricultural calendar where peak growing seasons coincide with rainy periods, affecting sleep patterns due to increased farming activities. Conversely, in the dry season, when agricultural production is limited due to reliance on rainfall, households tend to have more consistent sleep durations. Both husbands and wives rank these activities differently across control and intervention communities during the rainy and dry seasons. During the dry season, a notable majority of wives, across both intervention and control communities, prioritize domestic work as their primary commitment. This finding aligns with previous research emphasizing that domestic chores are predominantly managed by wives while husbands tend to focus on non-domestic activities (Lee & Waite, 2005). Conversely, husbands, largely engaged in farming populations, rank farm work as their primary activity during the dry season, with over 25 percent in both control and intervention communities ranking it first. This emphasis on farming aligns with their heavy reliance on crop farming and livestock rearing for their livelihoods.In the rainy season, both husbands and wives prioritize farm work as their primary activity, while socialization ranks considerably lower for wives in both control and intervention households. Conversely, during the dry season, socialization is ranked fourth in importance by husbands, indicating a higher engagement in social activities compared to wives. Studies suggest that social networks significantly influence technology adoption among farmers, even extending to those not directly involved in interventions (Chowdhury et al., 2022;Ramirez, 2013). The prominence of socialization among husbands highlights the potential of leveraging social networks to promote the adoption of SI-MFS technologies within this study's context.Active participation in farmer-based and community organizations can offer significant advantages to farmers in supporting their agricultural pursuits. Datoon Rodmyr et al. ( 2023) highlight the importance of group formation, seen as bonding social capital, and the facilitation of resources from external sources, termed as bridging social capital, in encouraging the adoption of soil conservation methods in the Philippines.In the context of the current study, Table 2.3 outlines the prevalence and distribution of various community associations that households engage in, which includes groups like Village Savings and Loans Association (VSLA), credit groups, women and youth's associations, farmer associations or cooperatives, among others. The results show that groups such as VSLA, Marketing Group, Women Association, Youth Association and others show no significant differences in membership distribution between control and intervention groups. However, for Cooperative Union and Farmer Association, there are significant differences in memberships between control and intervention groups in these associations. While most social groups do not exhibit significant differences in membership between control and intervention groups, the substantial variance observed in the Cooperative Union and Farmer Association indicates that the need to understand these differences for evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and their impact on social group memberships.Farmers participating in associations derive benefits including access to credit, social capital, access to information and access to inputs/subsidy (see Table 2.4). Access to credit is crucial to farmers in the adoption of improved technologies. Modern agricultural inputs often require the adoption of complementary inputs, and the lack of capital to finance the purchase of these inputs is cited as a critical constraint in agricultural production. Therefore, having access to production credit eases some of these constraints. Control group participants (71.0%) have a higher percentage reporting access to credit as benefits compared to the intervention group (61.6%). The p-value indicates a significant difference between the two groups. Control group participants also report significantly higher percentages for access to inputs/input subsidy and access to information compared to the intervention group. Although the control group reports a slightly lower percentage than the intervention group, the p-value suggests no significant difference between the groups regarding social capital and counselling benefits.The data suggests significant differences in certain benefits derived from association participation between control and intervention groups, particularly in access to credit, inputs/input subsidy, and access to information. Understanding these disparities is crucial in assessing the effectiveness of interventions and their impact on the perceived benefits among participants in these associations.While social norms encompass informal rules guiding acceptable behaviour within groups, gender norms specifically shape behaviours among men, women, girls, and boys. Fischer et al. (2021) advocate for gender-sensitive approaches to promote sustainable agricultural practices due to the marginalization often faced by women and youth in developing countries due to entrenched gender norms and cultural practices (Fischer, 2022;Theriault et al., 2017). FAO et al. (2022) define gender norms as a subset of social norms that typically guide behaviour based on gender.In line with gender-sensitive guidelines from FAO et al. ( 2022), our study aimed to capture the (dis)agreement between husbands and wives regarding prevalent gender norms influencing farmers' technology adoption in mixed farming systems. Results, as shown in Table 2.5, reveal mostly similar responses between households in intervention and control communities. However, disparities emerge in the responses of wives to three specific norms across these communities. For instance, while approximately 51 percent of husbands agree that women should seek approval from the landowner before applying sustainable intensification technologies, approximately 56 percent of wives in control communities support this norm compared to about 45 percent in intervention communities. This suggests that such norms might be less entrenched in intervention areas, with fewer wives adhering to these socio-cultural expectations compared to control communities.The findings also indicate that around 75 percent of husbands and 70 percent of wives agree that household chores are primarily a woman's responsibility, underscoring the persistence of this norm in both intervention and control communities. These gender norms may significantly influence the adoption and application of technologies in farming practices, necessitating gender-sensitive approaches for sustainable agricultural intensification.Further, approximately 82 percent of husbands and 70 percent of wives concur with the norm that deems it unacceptable for women to sell livestock in the marketplace. These findings underline the persistence of gender norms that limit women's participation in various livelihood activities, including commercial activities like selling livestock. Such entrenched gender norms, prevalent in both control and intervention communities, signify potential barriers for women in engaging in diverse livelihood tasks, including agricultural activities. These norms might significantly influence women's access to and utilization of agricultural innovations and technologies. Addressing these entrenched gender norms becomes crucial for promoting gender equality and ensuring that agricultural innovations are equally accessible and beneficial to all genders within farming communities.This section discusses the major characteristics of households' farms in terms of parcel and plot ownership, crop production and the various inputs used for producing various crops in the study area.The SI-MFS survey covered 2,524 parcels, comprising 4,004 plots across nineteen districts within three regions in northern Ghana. Table 2.6 summarizes the characteristics of these plots and parcels. Particularly, the average number of parcels between households in control and intervention communities does not exhibit a significant difference. However, there are notable distinctions in the number of plots. On average, farmers cultivate about 2 parcels, each divided into three plots.In terms of land size, no statistically significant difference exists between households in control and intervention communities. Both groups closely approximate the average land size of the total sample, which stands at 3.6 hectares.Similarly, the adult-equivalent per capita land size demonstrates similarity between intervention and control communities, averaging at approximately 0.9 hectares per adult-equivalent member of the household.The size of farms is often contingent upon land availability, with farms nearer to residential areas typically smaller than those located farther away. To account for this factor, the SI-MFS survey gathered data on households' proximity to their farms, specifically in terms of walking time, and these results are outlined in Table 2.6. Significantly differing average walking times to parcels (farms) were observed between households in control and intervention communities. On average, households in control communities spend approximately 50 minutes commuting to their nearest parcel, whereas those in intervention communities spend less time walking, about 41 minutes on average. While there are not significant differences in the count of parcels, plots, land size holding, and per capita land between control and intervention households, the substantial difference in average walking time to the farm suggests that measures to reducing the time taken to access farms should be explored to foster active participation in the Initiatives interventions.From Table 2.7, there are notable disparities in the average walking time to parcels between different regions. The Upper East region stands out with the shortest average walking time, followed by the Upper West region, while the former Northern region has the longest average walking time. The wide standard deviations across regions underscores significant differences in the average walking time to parcels across the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions. This variation could indicate differences in geographical layouts, distances to parcels, or infrastructure between these regions, emphasizing the importance of considering regional differences when analysing and implementing interventions related to farming or land access. The findings indicating the relationship between land size, walking distance to farms, and the geographical distribution of agricultural lands have significant implications for project planning and implementation, particularly in regions experiencing rapid community development and land expansion. Understanding that households demanding larger farm sizes might need to go farther away from residences implies that the Initiative should carefully consider land allocation strategies. Proper targeting of farms concerning household residences and their size preferences becomes crucial. This involves strategically allocating agricultural lands, considering proximity to households and the required land size, to optimize accessibility and reduce walking time.The findings underscore the importance of optimizing farm accessibility, especially in regions where agricultural lands are situated farther away due to increasing demand for construction land. Implementing projects that enhance transport infrastructure or helping for closer, smaller agricultural plots can reduce walking distances and subsequently decrease production costs for households.Acknowledging that small farm sizes and longer distances to farm plots could increase the cost of production aligns with existing literature (Heinrichs et al., 2021).The Initiative should consider these factors when devising strategies for agricultural support, including providing resources or adopting technologies that are suitable for smaller plots or assisting in reducing transportation costs. Longer distances to farms might impact the adoption of efficient agronomic practices and technologies. Providing guidance, support, or technological interventions that are adaptable to smaller plots or available closer to residences can enhance agricultural efficiency.The implications drawn from the relationship between land size, distance to farms, and their impact on agricultural practices emphasize the necessity for a targeted and nuanced approach in project planning and implementation. Ensuring proper targeting of agricultural lands concerning household preferences and optimizing accessibility to farms can significantly contribute to reducing production costs, enhancing agronomic practices, and ultimately improving agricultural productivity in regions facing increasing demand for construction land.The study reveals that households predominantly cultivate cereals, pulses and nuts, vegetables and fruits, and roots and tubers (Table 2.8). Maize stands out as the primary crop across all categories, cultivated by approximately 76% of households in both control and intervention communities. Cereals such as rice, finger millet, and pearl millet follow, with finger millet being the least cultivated. Groundnut leads in pulses and nuts, while red pepper and okra dominate the vegetables and fruits category. Yam is the most cultivated root and tuber crop, particularly in control households. These findings reinforce the prevalent perception that Ghanaian farming mainly centers around staple crops, focusing on starchy staples like maize and rice, and legumes like groundnut and soybean. Although no significant difference exists in the proportion of farmers cultivating maize between control and intervention communities, significant yield differences across treatment statuses are evident, as Table 2.9 indicates. Intervention communities demonstrate higher average yields for major cereal crops like maize and soybean compared to control communities, aligning with previous findings from the Africa RISING baseline survey (Tinonin et al., 2016). However, observed yields for all major crops remain below national and regional averages (MoFA, 2019), hinting at lower yields on smallholder farms. Lower yields might be linked to limited use of improved seeds and fertilizers within smallholder farming systems as reported in scholarly studies by Ragasa et al. (2013) and Abdul Rahman et al.(2022). The dominance of staple crops in Ghanaian farming highlights the importance of supporting these crops, especially in smallholder farming systems. While intervention households exhibit marginally better yields, they still fall short of national and regional averages. To enhance agricultural productivity, interventions should prioritize improving access to improved seeds and fertilizers for smallholder farmers, focusing on key crops like maize, rice and soybean. Additionally, the findings stress the need for targeted agricultural support tailored to specific crop needs and farming practices within smallholder communities to bridge yield gaps and improve overall productivity.The results underscore the significance of crop diversification and improved agricultural practices to bolster yields in smallholder farming systems. Addressing the challenges related to limited access to quality inputs like certified seeds and fertilizers can potentially enhance crop yields, contributing to increased agricultural productivity and livelihood improvement among smallholder farmers in northern Ghana.Section 2.5.2 discussed crop cultivation involving various inputs such as labour, seeds, inorganic and organic fertilizers, pesticides, and rhizobia inoculants. Some of these inputs fall under the category of sustainable intensification practices (SIPs), which aim to enhance yield sustainably while reducing environmental impacts. The analysis begins by presenting the utilization of labour in agricultural tasks by male and female members, including family and hired labour, detailed in Table 2.10 across six primary activities.Weeding emerges as the most labour-intensive task, with male family labour input at 26.4 person-days, female family labour at 6.7 person-days, male hired labour at 10.7 person-days, and female hired labour at 1.2 person-days. Generally, males contribute more labour in activities like land preparation, planting, weeding, fertilizer and herbicide application, and harvesting. Conversely, women tend to contribute more labour in postharvest activities compared to men.Disparities in labour utilization between control and intervention communities are evident primarily in family labour for fertilizer application. Notably, family labour for fertilizer application is higher in intervention communities for both genders. Conversely, female hired labour for land preparation and planting is significantly higher in control communities compared to intervention communities.Farm households' nutrient management and water conservation strategies significantly impact agricultural system productivity. For improved seeds, similar adoption rates were observed in both control and intervention households. The intervention households showed a higher adoption rate of inorganic fertilizer, animal manure and compost compared to the control group. Control households exhibited a higher adoption rate of pesticide usage, zero tillage and contour ploughing compared to the intervention households. For the other practices like irrigation, fallowing, rhizobium inoculation, liming, crop rotation, and intercropping, significant variations were observed across different household types.The differences in adoption rates across household types highlight varied preferences and capacities in implementing sustainable agricultural practices. Control households show higher adoption in certain practices like pesticide use and conservation agriculture methods, while intervention households exhibit better adoption of fertilizer and certain organic practices. Understanding the differential adoption rates among various household types is crucial for targeted interventions and policy formulation. Tailored programs focusing on specific SIPs based on household characteristics could enhance overall adoption rates and promote sustainable agricultural practices in northern Ghana.Figure 2.4 elaborates on the specifics of crop-specific improved seed utilization. The use of improved seeds in maize production prevails but remains below 15 percent in the overall sample. A slightly higher percentage of intervention households use improved seeds compared to control households. Approximately 5 percent of households use improved soybean seeds, while less than 1 percent utilize improved cowpea seeds within the sample. These findings show that the adoption of improved seeds in the sample is limited.The application of inorganic fertilizer in agricultural practices significantly impacts crop yield and overall farm productivity. The study reports the utilization of inorganic fertilizer (kg/ha) in the cultivation of major cereals and legumes among control and intervention groups as detailed in Table 2.12. In maize production, both control and intervention groups applied similar amounts of inorganic fertilizer, with an average of 152.4 kg/ha across the total sample. The difference observed between the control (161.5 kg/ha) and intervention (149.7 kg/ha) groups was not statistically significant. For rice, a substantial disparity in fertilizer usage was evident between the control and intervention groups, resulting in an overall mean of 83.3 kg/ha. Minimal and insignificant differences in inorganic fertilizer usage were observed between the control and intervention groups for sorghum production.For the legumes and pulses group, both control and intervention households demonstrated relatively similar fertilizer usage in soybean production, resulting in an overall mean of 8.0 kg/ha. In the production of bean, while the control group showed minimal or no usage of inorganic fertilizer, the intervention group utilized an average of 2.0 kg/ha, leading to an overall mean of 1.3 kg/ha. Comparable to bean cultivation, the control group demonstrated negligible usage of inorganic fertilizer for groundnut production in contrast to the intervention group's application of 0.8 kg/ha. In summary, while variations in inorganic fertilizer usage were noted across different crops and groups, significant differences were observed specifically in rice cultivation between the control and intervention groups. This disparity in fertilizer application practices could have implications for crop yield and overall agricultural productivity within these systems.Figure 2.3 illustrates fertilizer usage at the household level. Across both control and intervention communities, households use over 180kg of inorganic fertilizer on average.Intervention households demonstrate a higher usage of basal dressing fertilizer compared to control households. Conversely, control households utilize larger quantities of top-dressing fertilizer than intervention households.Households employ various grain storage methods, including granaries and polypropylene woollen bags (Table 2.13), impacting grain quality, nutritional content, viability, and longevity (Arthur et al., 2023;Danso et al., 2019). Specific recommendations for storage infrastructure vary based on crop grains, considering factors like affordability (Arthur et al., 2023). However, many smallholder households, constrained by limited resources, may struggle to afford more effective yet expensive storage methods.Within the research sample, approximately 77 percent of farm households utilize granaries for storage, while around 58 percent use polypropylene woollen bags. Disparities in storage method usage also exist between households in control and intervention communities. Notably, a higher percentage of households in intervention communities employ multiple methods, including roofs, for storing their grains. Notably, there are significant differences in the quantity sold of maize and beans across control and intervention households. Among pulses, only the quantity sold of cowpeas differs between control and intervention households.Across various regions, distinct patterns emerge in crop sales (Figure 2.4). The former Northern region exhibits a notable dominance in soybean, rice, and bean sales. Similarly, the Upper West region demonstrates a significant focus on groundnut and sorghum sales. Conversely, the Upper East region stands out uniquely, primarily engaging in the sale of cowpeas.Livestock production stands as a significant agricultural activity in Ghana, particularly prominent in northern regions. It serves as a vital source of livelihood for rural households in northern Ghana, extending its importance to certain urban and peri-urban communities. Livestock serves not only as a productive asset but also fulfils social and financial roles. During times of livelihood challenges, some households resort to reducing their livestock assets to maintain their consumption levels (Ansah et al., 2021). Additionally, livestock plays a crucial role in the mixed farming systems prevalent in northern Ghana.Within the SI-MFS survey, households possess various types of livestock, with poultry (including chickens, guinea fowls, turkeys, ducks, and doves) being the most common. Table 2.15 shows that around 70 percent of sample households also rear small ruminants (sheep and goats). Ownership of other animal types remains below 20 percent within the total sample. Noticeable differences exist between control and intervention communities concerning the ownership of certain livestock, notably ruminants and poultry. Control communities tend to have a higher percentage of households engaged in rearing poultry, small ruminants, and pigs compared to those in intervention communities. Following the approach of Njuki et al. (2011), we generated a common comparative measure in tropical livestock units (TLU) for assessing livestock quantities. Table 2.16 presents these findings, indicating that small ruminants hold the highest value in terms of livestock units (0.84 TLU in control communities and 0.80 in intervention communities). Despite a higher percentage of farmers owning poultry, their TLU contribution is considerably lower compared to small and large ruminants. Other livestock categories contribute minimally, generally accounting for less than 0.2 TLU in the total sample. The central finding here underscores that livestock production remains relatively low in both intervention and control communities.  The results of crop-livestock integration from the MFS initiative indicate that a substantial portion of farmers in the sample practice some form of integration between crops and livestock. The findings are presented in Figures 2.7 and 2.8.The percentage of farmers engaging in crop-livestock integration is roughly 90%. A slightly higher percentage of intervention households engage in crop-livestock integration compared to control households overall. Control households exhibit a slightly higher rate of integration between crops and poultry, as well as crops and small ruminants, compared to intervention households. The former Northern region dominates in crop-livestock and crop-poultry integration. Upper East region dominates in crop-ruminants (both large and small) and crop-equines integration. Upper West region exhibits the lowest level of integrated farming systems among the studied regions.These findings highlight the prevalence of crop-livestock integration among farmers in the sample and shed light on the variations in integration patterns between intervention and control households as well as across different regions. Access to agricultural information and supporting services, including extension services, credit, and markets, plays a pivotal role across various stages of crop farming, from cultivation to marketing. This access significantly influences the uptake and sustainable adoption of agricultural innovations. Adequate credit facilitates production financing, while extension services enhance farming expertise, and markets facilitate crop sales. Table 2.17 reports the distribution of household access to extension information sources.Analysis of extension information sources among farmers revealed that government extension agents are the foremost information source, with 57 percent of surveyed households ranking them as primary. Approximately 35 percent identified radio and television as key sources, consistent with prior research (Damba et al., 2020) The SI-MFS survey aimed to evaluate farm households' access to extension services regarding diverse agricultural practices. The results, displayed in Table 2.19, depict generally limited access to extension information. Notably, the most common information accessible to farmers relates to new maize varieties, reported by approximately 49 percent of the total sample during the 2022 cropping season. Moreover, 41 percent of farm households received information on crop rotation during the same period. Interestingly, control communities demonstrated higher access rates compared to intervention communities. The SI-MFS survey addressed farm households' access to credit, highlighting its pivotal role in enhancing agricultural production. However, the findings consistently indicate a limited access to credit, especially from formal sources (Appiah-Twumasi et al., 2022). Table 2.20 reinforces this trend, revealing that only about 25 percent of households in the overall sample reported receiving credit within the reference period.The survey also delineated the types of credit obtained (Table 2.20), revealing that fertilizer credit was the most common, followed by credit for purchasing herbicides and other essentials. Notably, irrigation credit was the least accessed by farm households in the sample, despite its crucial role in sustaining crop production, particularly during the dry season. The scarcity of rainfall during this period emphasizes the importance of irrigation for year-round farming. However, the limited availability of credit for irrigation significantly hampers dry season crop cultivation, contributing to its minimal practice. The absence of accessible credit further compounds the issue, hindering farmers from affording the costs associated with irrigation practices. Household housing, assets, income, and wealth distribution were areas of exploration in the SI-MFS survey. This section focused on assessing the housing materials used, the distribution of assets among households, and understanding the income and wealth distribution patterns within the surveyed population.The socioeconomic status of households is often reflected in their housing type and health conditions. In the context of housing, the materials used for construction are indicative of a household's wealth status or living standards. Typically, more affluent households tend to use improved materials for their housing compared to poorer households. Housing conditions, including the materials used, have been linked to influencing sleeping behaviour (Okoye et al., 2021).In the SI-MFS survey, respondents utilized various materials for constructing their house walls, including cement or sandcrete blocks, mud, mud bricks or clay, stones or burnt bricks, and other materials. To categorize these materials, guidelines from DHS Statistics (Croft et al., 2018) were applied, classifying them into improved and unimproved types. Results in Table 2.21 reveal that the majority of households in the sample use improved roofing materials, which is positive. Additionally, around 70 percent of households use improved floor materials. The quality of roofing and floor materials plays a crucial role in determining room temperature and ensuring a comfortable thermal environment for human development (Jayasinghe et al., 2003). However, only 25 percent of households use improved materials for outer walls. 1.0 0.9 0.9Health and sanitation issues were also assessed concerning access to drinking water and toilet facilities. Similar to housing, responses related to health and sanitation were categorized into improved and unimproved facilities. The primary sources of drinking water for most households included boreholes, communal standpipes, dams, rainwater, among others. In terms of toilet facilities, responses included bush, private toilets, latrines, among others. Results indicate that the majority of households have access to improved water sources such as piped water into buildings and protected boreholes. However, access to improved toilet facilities is quite limited, with only around 28 percent of households using improved facilities. This distribution suggests that the health and sanitation conditions of most households in the study area are generally classified as unimproved.The push for using clean energy sources to mitigate environmental impacts appears to face significant challenges in the study area. While a majority of farm households utilize clean energy sources like electricity and torches for lighting (considered improved energy sources), the prevalent use of wood and charcoal (classified as unimproved energy sources) as the primary fuel for cooking undermines the positive strides made through clean lighting energy. Alarmingly, more than 98 percent of farm households rely on unimproved fuel sources, mainly charcoal and fuelwood, for cooking purposes.The survey investigated household assets, categorizing them into various types, and utilizing principal component analysis to create indexes for household and farm assets. The data illustrates diversity in wealth distribution between intervention and control households, contingent upon the specific asset category in question. Figure 2.8 displays the distribution across various assets terciles among both control and intervention households. It shows a prevalence of households with limited or basic assets, suggesting a wealth disparity in the surveyed area.While control communities have more households categorized as having limited assets in terms of housing and household assets, intervention communities display a higher percentage of households with less improved housing, limited livestock and farm assets.Figure 2.9 illustrates the overall wealth index, which reveals a predominance of households with low wealth in the study area. Specifically, households with low to moderate wealth prevail, which is consistent with existing reports on the widespread poverty among northern Ghanaian households. For instance, the Upper West region exhibits a higher proportion of middle-class households in the overall wealth index, while less affluent households predominate in the former Northern region. The Upper East region is characterized by the dominance of high wealth or affluent households.Global trends point to an increasing incidence of uncertainties from various sources, including the climate, economy, societal changes, and others. The effects of these uncertainties affecting livelihoods, particularly of vulnerable households, is often dire. Notable among these recent uncertainties and shocks include the covid-19 pandemic and the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict. The survey collated the existing shocks households in the study context face. Prior to the onset of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, studies in northern Ghana reported drought or floods as the most common shock experienced by majority of farm households (Ansah et al., 2021). Responses from the SI-MFS survey reported in Table 2.22, however, show that input price surges have displaced climatic shocks from the top spot and are now the greatest worry farmers must contend with. More than 50% of farm households in the study sites reported that a large rise in agricultural input prices have negatively affected their livelihood activities over the past three years. Recent reports and news items on both national and international media attribute these high price surges, not only for agricultural inputs but also food, to the Russia-Ukraine war which has negatively affected the export of agricultural inputs and food commodities, especially cereal grains (Lin et al., 2023).Drought is the second most reported shock in the survey, which is not surprising. Northern Ghana is noted for its exposure to long periods of drought, often beginning from October and ending in April or May. These dry periods are also associated with high incidence of heat stress (Muthoni et al., 2019). The multiplicity of these shocks has implications for household welfare, particularly in the context where crop farming is the dominant livelihood activity of the population. For instance, the data shows that both floods and droughts count among the five topmost shocks reported by farm households. The complexity is that farmers may suffer flood losses during the rainy season and yield losses due to drought in the dry season, thus creating a double burden for them in coping with the impacts of the shocks.Besides high input prices and droughts, livestock disease/pests also pose livelihood challenges as reported by about 33% of farm households in the study sample.Among the top ten shocks reported, those relating to climate and prices seem to be the most prevalent. Each of the remaining shocks is reported by less than 5 percent of sample households. Between control and intervention households, only a few of the top ten shocks reported are significantly different, which are floods, crop diseases/pests and death/theft of livestock. One would expect that many households must have mentioned covid-19 as a major shock contrary to what is reported in Table 2.22. Nevertheless, this is logical, as the effects of covid-19 truly felt by households are mostly expressed in the form of market price shocks. No wonder price (input, food) shocks are reportedly the most common by sample households.The negative effects of the foregoing shocks are manifested in terms of income losses, crop production losses and livestock production losses, among others (see Table 2.23). More than 80 percent of farm households reported that income and crop production losses are the most predominant negative effects of shocks they experienced over the last three years. Significant differences exist on the effect of income and livestock production losses across households in control and intervention communities. More households in the intervention communities tend to report the negative impact of these two losses than those in the control communities. This emphasizes the need to develop agricultural systems that are resilient to climate and other market shocks in the study context. Further, the shocks farmers reported were more of the covariate types, where many households in the whole community tend to be affected. Nevertheless, a good proportion of the households reported of idiosyncratic shocks, which mainly affect individual households. A higher percentage of households in intervention communities reported experiencing idiosyncratic shocks than those in control communities.In the face of these myriad shocks and their concomitant negative impacts, most households rely on their savings to cope (see Table 2.24). On the average, about 69% of all households in the sample use their own savings. A destructive coping strategy that ranks fourth on the coping strategy choice set is the sale of productive assets like household livestock. Others like cutting health and education expenditure are also chosen by about 6 percent of the total sample of households in the study area. The risk of these choices to asset accumulation and human capital development have been well argued in the literature (Dasgupta & Ajwad, 2011). The distribution of the coping strategies in Table 2.22 emphasizes the need to help develop the saving capacities of farm households (Berloffa & Modena, 2013). Several other studies in the literature find that individual household or personal savings are often the major source of help in times of existential crisis (Alderman & Paxson, 1994;Ansah et al., 2021).The section concentrates on assessing the present status of SI-MFS impact indicators in the regions slated for the project's implementation. It delves into the five primary impact areas of the Initiative, analysing them based on both treatment status and regional perspectives.This section evaluates the current food security status of both control and intervention households within the SI-MFS Initiative. Food security is assessed using key indicators such as food consumption score (FCS), household dietary diversity scores (HDDS), and food expenditure. FCS and HDDS are proxies for household caloric availability, emphasizing various food groups' consumption. FCS is based on nine food groups, while HDDS involves twelve categories, reflecting diet diversity. Additionally, non-food expenditure is included as it directly influences food purchase. Based on the statistics reported in Table 3.1, here are the main findings:• FCS: There is a statistically significant difference (p-value = 0.0) between the control and intervention groups regarding Food Consumption Score. On average, the intervention group appears to have a higher FCS compared to the control group.• HDDS: The difference in Household Dietary Diversity Scores between the control and intervention groups is not statistically significant (p-value = 0.1). There seems to be a marginal difference, but it is not strong enough to be statistically significant.• Adult-equivalent Food Expenditure: There is a significant difference (p-value < 0.0) in annual food expenditure between the control and intervention groups.The intervention group has a notably higher average food expenditure compared to the control group.• Adult-equivalent Non-food Expenditure: Like food expenditure, there is a significant difference (p-value < 0.0) in non-food expenditure between the control and intervention groups. The intervention group has a higher average non-food expenditure compared to the control group. The data reveals significant regional disparities in the percentages of households falling below acceptable food consumption levels, highlighting differences in food security statuses across the former Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions. Addressing these disparities requires region-specific interventions and targeted strategies to improve access to adequate and nutritious food for vulnerable households, especially in areas experiencing higher rates of food inadequacy.Table 3.3 illustrates the regional distribution of the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) across different regions (former Northern, Upper East, Upper West), segregated into three terciles: Lower, Middle, and Upper. We offer the following interpretation to the data:• Lower Tercile: There is no statistically significant difference (p-value = 0.1) in the mean Household Dietary Diversity Scores among different regions and the total within the lower tercile. The scores are relatively similar across regions for households in the lower tercile.• Middle Tercile: The mean Household Dietary Diversity Scores for the middle tercile are identical across regions (mean = 9.0) with a standard deviation of 0.0. The test (p-value = 1.0) indicates no statistically significant difference in means among regions or the total within the middle tercile.• Upper Tercile: There is a statistically significant difference (p-value < 0.0) in the mean Household Dietary Diversity Scores among different regions and the total within the upper tercile. However, like the lower and middle terciles, the differences in means are relatively small across regions within the upper tercile. The data suggests that for the upper tercile, there is a significant difference in mean Household Dietary Diversity Scores among regions. However, the actual differences are relatively minor. In contrast, both the lower and middle terciles show consistency in mean scores across regions, with no significant differences observed.The global focus on poverty eradication is evident in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), with the foremost objective to eliminate poverty by 2030 (United Nations, 2017). Agriculture, particularly prominent in Ghana and specifically in the northern regions, remains a crucial economic sector (Martinson et al., 2019). However, the climatic conditions in northern Ghana hinder the cultivation of cash crops like cocoa and para rubber.To assess poverty in the intervention areas, we utilized income poverty as a measure. The food poverty line was computed at Gh₵ 7.3 per day using the global poverty line of US$ 1.25, adjusted for a food inflation rate of 50.5% in April-May 2023, and an exchange rate of US$ 1 = Gh₵ 11.40. Simultaneously, the general poverty line was set at Gh₵ 9.1 per day, calculated from the global upper poverty line of US$ 1.90, adjusted for a general inflation rate of 42% in April-May 2023, and the exchange rate of US$ 1 = Gh₵ 11.40. These thresholds were utilized to categorize households based on their respective poverty statuses, as summarized in Table 3.4. Here is the interpretation of the results:• Food poverty and general poverty: The data reveals considerable disparities between the control and intervention groups regarding the number of people living below the food poverty line and the general poverty line. These disparities emphasize the potential impact of the intervention in reducing poverty levels, particularly in terms of food security.• Employment patterns: The prevalence of agriculture jobs is notably high across both control and intervention groups. This underscores the significance of agriculture as a primary source of employment within northern Ghana. Additionally, the data indicates the stability of agricultural employment, remaining consistently high across regions. Although the focus is predominantly on agricultural jobs, there is a visible percentage of households engaged in non-agricultural employment. This diversification of employment sources might contribute to enhancing economic resilience and reducing dependency on a single sector.We further examine the data on poverty and jobs from a regional perspective, reported in Table 3.5, and interpreted as follows:• Regional poverty variation: There are stark regional disparities in poverty levels across the former Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions which confirms the literature on poverty situation in the Ghanaian context (Cooke et al., 2016;Ghana Statistical Service, 2015). These differences highlight the need for region-specific interventions to address varying poverty challenges. • Employment disparities: Regional variations in employment patterns, especially the differences in non-agricultural employment rates among regions, underscore the importance of tailored economic strategies suited to the specific needs and potentials of each region.These results emphasize that tailoring interventions to address regional disparities and focusing on sectors beyond agriculture could further bolster poverty reduction efforts. Further, encouraging diversification of employment opportunities and implementing measures that promote sustainable economic growth may contribute to long-term poverty alleviation in the studied regions. Continued data collection and analysis are crucial for policymakers to make informed decisions, understand the impact of interventions, and refine strategies for more effective poverty reduction initiatives on a global scale.Social exclusion refers to a condition where specific individuals or groups are excluded or unable to partake in social, cultural, or political activities at a level generally considered normatively desirable (Labonté et al., 2012). This exclusion often arises from societal norms or systemic constraints, limiting their access to resources and opportunities. In the context of agriculture, research indicates that women face obstacles in adopting improved agricultural technologies due to entrenched social norms that restrict their access to resources, contributing to their lower probability of utilizing such innovations (Gebre et al., 2019;Ndiritu et al., 2014). Indicators representing social inclusion encompass various facets such as material resources, income, access to formal labour markets, housing, education, healthcare, freedom from discrimination, and engagement in social networks.The assessment of gender dynamics and social inclusion in this study considers occupation (farm work, casual farm work and non-farm work) and spousal social engagement. Table 3.6 reports the distribution of different occupations categorized by gender (Wife and Husband), along with the corresponding percentages and p-values indicating the statistical significance of differences between genders. The distribution of household farm work between wife (99.1%) and husband (99.5%) shows a slight difference, resulting in a total average of 99.5%. The p-value (0.4) indicates no significant difference in household farm work distribution between wife and husband. There is a minor but insignificant variation between wife and husband in casual farm work distribution. The distribution of non-farm work between wife also displays slight but insignificant variation. The percentages show minimal differences in occupation distribution between wife and husband, indicating comparable distribution patterns of different occupations between wife and husband categories. While there are slight percentage variations, the statistical tests (p-values) above 0.05 suggest that these differences are not statistically significant, indicating similar occupational distributions between the two genders.Table 3.7 examines social exclusion from the perspective of association membership by husbands and wives. The key messages from these results are summarized as follows:• Village Savings and Loans Association (VSLA), Women Association and Youth Association: There is a substantially significant difference between wife and husband membership in these three associations, although the total number of couples belonging to the associations are a quarter or less of the total sample.• Farmer Cooperative & Marketing Group: Both groups show lower participation overall, with marginal differences between wife and husband membership that are not significant.• Farmer Association: Significant differences are observed between wife and husband memberships, highlighting varied participation in this association.The data underscores notable disparities in social organization memberships between wife and husband in various social organizations, notably in VSLA, Women Association, Youth Association, and Farmer Association. These findings underscore the importance of understanding and addressing gender-specific factors that influence participation in social groups and associations.The vulnerability of farm households in northern Ghana to climate change threats is significant, especially due to heavy reliance on rainfed agriculture. Section 2.11 highlighted that households in the study sample face more frequent multiple shocks, emphasizing the need for robust coping measures. To tackle these challenges, scientists advocate for adopting climate-smart and sustainable agricultural intensification practices (Ansah et al., 2023;Campbell et al., 2014). This section provides an overview of the current adoption of these practices by the two household types and across the three regions.The adoption rates of sound agricultural practices (Sustainable Intensification Practices -SIPs) varied significantly across regions, as indicated in Table 3.8:• Improved seed: The former Northern and Upper West regions displayed higher rates of improved seed adoption compared to Upper East.• Fertilizer usage: Similar adoption rates of inorganic fertilizer were observed across all regions.• Organic practices: Upper East showed significantly higher adoption rates of animal manure and compost compared to the other regions.• Pesticide Application: The former Northern region exhibited the highest adoption rate of pesticide usage compared to Upper East and Upper West.• Conservation Agriculture Practices: Contour ploughing and crop rotation were more prevalent in Upper East compared to other regions.• Other practices: Significant variations were observed in the adoption of practices like irrigation, fallowing, zero tillage, rhizobium inoculation, liming, and intercropping across the regions. The disparities in SIPs adoption across regions reflect diverse agroecological conditions, cultural practices, and resource availability. The former Northern region's higher pesticide usage might reflect pest pressure, while Upper East's focus on organic practices could stem from ecological awareness or traditional farming practices. Upper East's strong emphasis on conservation agriculture practices like contour ploughing and crop rotation aligns with efforts to promote soil health and water conservation in a region vulnerable to soil degradation. Understanding regional variations in SIPs adoption is vital for tailored interventions promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Targeted programs addressing specific SIPs based on regional needs could further enhance adoption rates, fostering sustainable agricultural development across Ghana. The findings underscore the importance of region-specific agricultural strategies that consider ecological, cultural, and infrastructural contexts to promote sustainable intensification practices.Certainly, biodiversity conservation plays a pivotal role in promoting environmental health and sustainable development. Typically, biodiversity is gauged through various indicators, primarily focusing on the diversity of species encompassing plants, animals, and microorganisms (Udawatta et al., 2021). Studies have demonstrated that changes in land use patterns are the principal catalysts for the decline in biodiversity (Jaureguiberry et al., 2022).The study examined biodiversity using tree numbers as an indicator across the surveyed households' farmlands. The data shows that, on average, there are more trees per hectare in the control group (20) compared to the intervention group ( 16).The difference in the number of trees per hectare between the control and intervention groups might suggest varying agricultural practices, land management strategies, or the impact of interventions on tree density. Further context or information would be necessary to understand the reasons behind the differences observed and to evaluate the implications for ecosystem health, land productivity, or the effectiveness of interventions related to tree growth or conservation initiatives. density might indicate differences in ecological conditions, land use practices, or environmental factors impacting tree growth across the regions. Understanding these regional differences is crucial for informed land management, environmental conservation, and potentially targeted interventions to promote afforestation or manage existing forest resources.Further, Figure 3.6 reveals that indigenous tree species are prevalent on farms of both control and intervention households, while exotic trees are less common, aligning with expectations. Agroforestry systems exist but are practiced by only a minority of farm households whether observed from treatment status or regional perspectives. Differences in tree type distributions might reflect regional preferences, ecological suitability, or historical land-use practices in each area. The dominance of indigenous trees in former Northern and Upper East regions compared to Upper West suggests potential differences in ecosystem preferences or preservation of native flora. The prevalence of agroforestry and fruits across regions might indicate their importance in agricultural practices and food security strategies.While the presence of trees on farms indicates favourable biodiversity, it is worth noting that biodiversity encompasses more than just trees. Animal and diverse plant species are also significant indicators. The crop production analysis further demonstrates that farmers engage in considerable crop diversification, contributing to enhancing biodiversity on their farms.In concluding this section, the data highlights substantial variations in tree density across the former Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions. These differences are unlikely due to random variation, emphasizing the importance of investigating underlying factors contributing to these variations for effective land management and conservation efforts in each region.The demographic structure of the data shows that household heads in the control communities are relatively older than those in the intervention communities, and that formal educational attainment is very low in both control and intervention communities. Over 90 percent of household heads can neither read nor write any language, be it local dialect or the English language. The dominant primary economic activity in the survey area is crop farming, engaged by more than 90 percent of households in the sample. Majority of husbands in the sample spend their time engaging in farm activities in both the rainy and dry seasons, while their spouses preoccupy themselves with domestic chores. The hours spent in the dry season sleeping slightly exceeds that of the rainy season for both husbands and their spouses, thus reducing slightly the available hours to sleep. Besides farm work which takes the time of most husbands, social engagement with family, friends and other networks is very important in the study setting.Wives in the study sample tend to participate more community organizations than their husbands. The most accessed social organization for wives is the Village Savings and Loans Association (VSLA). An important benefit farmers derive from these associations is access to credit. Nevertheless, the data shows that the general level of credit access is very low, with only a quarter of households in the total sample confirming access to some form of credit. These credits are usually for purchasing fertilizer and pesticides.Regarding gender norms, there are strong agreements between husband and spouse that certain activities are the responsibilities for men and women. For example, majority of spouses agree that the wife is responsible for cooking while husbands must undertake livestock sales. Also, wives must seek permission from landowners before applying sustainable intensification practices on their farms.Farm households cultivate diversity of parcels and plots, averaging three plots. Farmers cultivate different crops ranging from cereals, pulses and nuts, vegetables and fruits, to roots and tubers on these plots. Among all crop categories, maize cultivation tops in both intervention and control communities. For pulses and nuts, groundnut is most cultivated, while red pepper and garden eggs are the most cultivated vegetables. Yam is the dominant roots and tuber crop. The average walking distance to a parcel is approximately 49 minutes, while the average farm size is 3.6 ha. Yield differences exist for some maize and soybean across intervention and control households, while for the other crops yields are comparable across household types. Also, maize, rice and soybean are the most traded grain crops in the study sample. For producing these crops, farm households use a range of production resources, including labour, fertilizer, seeds, among others. While male and female labour usage for farming differs per activity, most male labour is spent in land preparation and weeding and female labour focuses on postharvest activities.The adoption of sustainable intensification practices is generally low, particularly for certified seeds, irrigation, rhizobia inoculation and liming. Crop rotation (e.g., cereal-legume rotation) is highly adopted among farm households. Low adoption of sound agricultural practices leads to poor crop yields.Besides crop production, farmers also rear livestock, mostly poultry and small ruminants. Among all livestock categories, small ruminants provide the highest tropical livestock units value among control households while large ruminants yield the highest tropical livestock units value for intervention households. The integration of livestock with crop production systems is high for small ruminants and poultry but less for equines. In addition to livestock, households also possess other household assets, the commonest being a mobile phone, and others such as hoes and cutlasses.Access to extension services is moderate, as some 67 percent of farmers obtain information from government extension agents. In the 2022 production season, for instance, the average farmer received about 8 visits from a government extension agent and 5 visits from an NGO worker. Besides government extension agents and NGO workers, farmers also access agricultural information through radio and television as well as friends and relatives/ neighbours.Food security situation in the study sample is not too poor but still requires attention. While the average farm households have an acceptable food consumption and a relatively diversified food source, more than 15 percent of households are below borderline food consumption. Further, shocks such as high input and food prices threaten household food security in the study sample. Households reported multiple shocks over the past three years, which led to significant income and crop production losses. The shocks were largely of the covariate nature, with the potential of creating widespread losses among households.In conclusion, the Initiative's potential of improving the resilience of farm households to shocks affecting their wellbeing, notably food security, is very high.Given the current level of uptake of existing sustainable intensification practices, food insecurity status is not the worst. Hence, increasing the adoption of the interventions under the Initiative can have large scale effects on the livelihood outcomes of these farm households.","tokenCount":"11414"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"43c52732eb6c9d5c2e28140dd0a5e7e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00177490-b96a-45bb-ba47-09e93652af65/retrieve","id":"-132364249"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17ef8887-f11f-41b0-b696-8c956c2000c1","pagecount":"4","content":"Improved nutrient use and manure management towards sustainable and resilient agricultural systems Key Messages: ■ Nutrients, especially nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), are essential building blocks of plant growth and livestock production. However, the efficiency of global nutrient-use through the addition of organic (e.g. manure) and synthetic fertilizers to soils is only about 50%, leading to considerable greenhouse gas emissions (mainly nitrous oxide -N2O) and aquatic pollution, that can result in additional land use pressures due to fisheries and aquaculture production losses.■ Increasing the efficiency of nutrient use in food systems, through better application of fertiliser, improved manure management and recycling of nutrients in residues, by-products and wastes has the potential to balance the global fertilizer application budget and benefit low-input systems in becoming more productive and high-input systems in becoming less emissions intense. It can also provide important co-benefits for soil, air, and water quality, biodiversity, renewable energy generation, and soil carbon sequestration.■ A range of management practices to increase nutrient efficiency have demonstrated success on the ground, including improved efficiency of fertilization application and types, better adapted crops/seeds for nutrient uptake, use of low-emission fertilizers and fertilizer application techniques and increased used of organic fertilizers in place of synthetic. However, more work is needed on several fronts to enable these practices to be implemented at scale and fulfil the potential of nutrient management to contribute to high-yield, lowemission development pathways.■ Key areas in which action is needed: increasing public awareness, technical assistance, policies, and financial mechanisms to incentivize nutrient and manure management planning; redirection of public support to agriculture away from subsidies that incentivize overfertilization and disincentivise recycling; effective soil testing and farmer recommendations; enhancing the quality of data on nutrient and manure use and relevant farm conditions and management practices, especially for smallholders; and standardized Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) approaches to measure and disseminate the multiple benefits of improved nutrient and manure management for both mitigation and resilient livelihood strategies.■ Provide countries with technical assistance to assess and raise ambition of targets related to nutrient use and manure management in Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.■ Call upon countries to redirect their public support to agriculture (approximately US$570 billion per year in 51 countries 1 ) from distortionary subsidies that incentivize overfertilization to public good investments for improving nutrient use efficiency and balancing the global fertilizer application budget.■ Propose global standards for fertilizer production and application focused on closing productivity gaps, reducing emissions, and enhancing co-benefits (water, soil, air, energy, biodiversity). Develop MRV mechanisms (e.g. technologies, protocols, minimum data proxies) that can measure the multiple benefits of applying those standards.Nutrients are essential for plant growth and livestock production. Sourced from synthetic (e.g. NPK-based) and organic (i.e. animal manure and crop residues) fertilizers, nutrients heavily determine global agricultural yields along with irrigation and climate. Improving crop and soil management practices, including through better nutrient management, is estimated to have the potential to increase production by up to 70% for most crops by closing world yield gaps to 100% of attainable yields. 2 However, global nutrient-use efficiency is estimated to be only about 50%, resulting in significant greenhouse gas emissions (mainly nitrous oxide -N2O). 3 It is estimated that improving nutrient use efficiency could mitigate 0.71 GtCO2e annually by 2030, representing 14.5% of the total agriculture and grassland contribution to efforts to hold warming below 2°C. 4 The use of nutrients (organic and synthetic fertilizers) is also linked to soil carbon sequestration, as increased yields and vegetative biomass can result in larger amounts of biomass and higher quality and quantity of annual carbon inputs (crop residues) to the soils. 5 Important practices also include the avoidance of burning residues and optimizing recycling of both residues and manure.Furthermore, additional emissions can be reduced through improved fertilizer production technology, the replacement of synthetic fertilizers with organic (overall upstream emissions add about 35% to in-field emissions from synthetic fertilizer), and the generation of clean and renewable energy e.g. from anaerobic bio-digesters for livestock manure. 4,6 Improving nutrient use efficiency also provides co-benefits such as soil quality (maintaining soil fertility and enhancing soil carbon), air quality (reducing ammonia and nitric oxide emissions), water quality (reducing nitrification and eutrophication), and improving habitat for biodiversity (increasing fish species richness and abundance). 4 Enhancing the efficiency of nutrient use can be accomplished through a range of existing approaches and technologies that have demonstrated success on the ground. These include improved fertilization timing, precision agriculture, incorporating leguminous crop and forage rotations, using different types of N-fertilizers (e.g. ammonium nitrate instead of urea), improved crops and forage varieties for more efficient nutrient use, and integrated manure management for nutrient recovery and replacement of synthetic sources. 4,6 The latter is especially important as animal protein consumption in human diets is likely to increase globally. However, several technical, institutional, and political economic factors still pose difficulties in assessing and improving yields while using nutrients efficiently. 1,6,7 This submission proposes a set of priority actions areas for consideration by KJWA to further the nutrient and manure management agenda:Priority #1: Strengthening the role of nutrient inputs and manure management in NDCs Given the significant potential for nutrient management improvement to contribute to global agriculture mitigation efforts, the role of enhanced nutrient use efficiency should be given greater priority in support to NDC development and refinement. On the one hand, about 80% of NDCs include actions on mitigation in agriculture and around 90% included the agriculture sector as a priority area for adaptation action. A preliminary analysis of NDCs indicates however that less than 25% of countries focused on mitigation commitments directly related to both fertilizer (43 countries) and manure management (46 countries). A number of additional countries have made commitments that relate more broadly to nutrient and manure management issues e.g. through commitments on livestock, cropland, and grassland management. 8 Technical assistance is needed to support countries to define and/or raise the ambition of nutrient management targets in their NDCs, as well as to capture and disseminate the (co-)benefits of the improved nutrient use efficiency achieved. Country updates to NDCs will be important opportunities for providing this awareness raising and technical support.■ Encourage technical agencies to issue guidance on identifying opportunities for including nutrient management aspects into NDCs. This should include highlighting existing best practices examples. A key intervention that should be universally recommended is the prevention of soil erosion on all crop and grazing lands. Loss of soil via wind and water erosion results in the direct removal of nutrients, carbon, and soil microbiota that are essential for soil health and quality. 9■ Propose the development of technical assistance to be used by NDC Partnership 10 in the support that it provides to members leverage their resources and expertise to help countries with the tools they need to implement their NDCs.Existing technologies and approaches to improve nutrient use efficiency and manure management have demonstrated the opportunities for reducing imbalances in the local and global nutrient budgets, benefiting lowinput systems by making them more productive and high-input systems less emission intense. While large gains can still be made through more widespread adoption of these existing technologies, numerous institutional, political, social, and economic factors have been shown to influence significantly the adoption of such new technologies and approaches by farmers. 7 Budget limitations and other political economy considerations have led many countries to introduce subsidies in the forms of price supports and transfers to producers; however, these have typically resulted in lower economic returns relative to public investment in agricultural research and development. 1 Moreover, certain particularly distortionary subsidies often result in significant negative impacts on the environment including excessive fertilizer use. 1 Lack of adequate training on climate change adaptation and mitigation, gender, level of education, access to information, and lack of trust in recommendations by agricultural extension agents constitute further barriers to adoption. 7 New soil testing coupled with rapid advances in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can reach a larger number of farmers and provide more reliable recommendations for farmers (e.g. handheld soil scanners and targeted recommendations).More work is needed to identify global hot spots for nutrient management (areas with particularly low productivity due to soil nutrient deficiencies and areas with significant emissions related to inefficient nutrient use) and realign public and private support to deliver public-good outcomes to promote nutrient use efficiency and avoid overfertilization in those areas 1,2,3 . Encouraging market subsidies and the private sector led input markets are important strategies to align polices to sustainable nutrients use. 11 A global and open access soil data repository (e.g. ISRIC 12 ) with quality referenced soil data for all countries would also significantly improve soil nutrient and carbon management and conservation for both adaptation and mitigation goals. Research has also shown that tailoring regulations, incentives, and outreach to local conditions, administered and enforced by local entities, and supported by trust established among local stakeholders improves the success of efforts designed to increase fertilizer use efficiency. 7■ Propose the development of a policy brief under the Technology Executive Committee (TEC) 13 on designing policy reforms to reduce distortions in subsidy programs including those that influence fertilizer use and to increase public support for agricultural public goods investments related to nutrient management (e.g. agricultural extension, skills development, research and development to promote organic fertilizer products and markets).■ Draft inputs to Green Climate Fund (GCF) strategy development to identify hot spots and leverage public and private investments toward improving nutrient management in hot spot areas.Positive correlations between the use of fertilizers and crop productivity make the amount of nutrients applied to soil a strong proxy indicator for evaluating nutrient use efficiency. However, research suggests a general trend of exponentially increasing emissions as fertilizer-N inputs increase and exceed crop needs. 14 Use of this knowledge in Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) systems should improve assessments of fertilizerderived emissions and refine the accuracy of mitigation protocols. Challenges also persist for the setting of baselines to evaluate the additionality of targeting reductions in emissions associated with fertilizer application versus overall emission reductions, and without productivity depletion. Capturing data on field conditions, especially for smallholders, to validate global databases is a persistent challenge in the development of scalable nutrient advisory for farmers. 15 A standardized, accurate approach to MRV for assessing nutrient use efficiency in the context of productivity and emission trade-offs would significantly enhance the ability to assess and improve nutrient management over time and to compare results across cases. Promising innovations in information technology, remote sensing, site-specific measurements, modelling, and blockchain technology could be combined to enable government, investors, farmers, and other stakeholders to invest in nutrient use efficiency improvements with increased certainty regarding the costs, benefits, and trade-offs of such improvements.■ Mobilize requests from countries for support under the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) 16 for (i) tools, methodologies, platforms training for MRV on nutrient management and (ii) global standards for fertilizer production and application.","tokenCount":"1819"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cf59eddcb91fdb071884751781ffbf69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cfe02ec3-2834-471a-b6d9-ba03b2791372/retrieve","id":"625782234"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"81a38a1e-9980-44d0-a10d-716edce7e799","pagecount":"4","content":"This is the first of a regular roundup of news from the CGIAR Livestock and Fish research program. Launched in January 2012, the program aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable to poor consumers across the developing world. This update and all news items are published online at livestockfish.cgiar.orgBest-bets are interventions which better fit the prevailing conditions (constraints and opportunities) under which farmers and other value chain actors operate and have more chance to be adopted and contribute towards improving the current situation.Austria funds Livestock and Fish project to increase the productivity of dual-purpose cattle in Nicaragua In December 2012, the Austrian Development Agency approved a three-year research project from ILRI, the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), CIAT and the National Agricultural University of Nicaragua (UNA) on 'increasing the productivity of dualpurpose cattle in Nicaragua -More milk and meat through better breeds.'Targeting small ruminant value chains in Ethiopia -Emerging 'best bets'In early April 2013 the Ethiopian partners in the program joined the last of three workshops to take stock of the results of small ruminant value chain assessments in 8 sites. Together, 67 individuals from the sites and other partners joined the workshops. These came from research, academic, NGO, private companies, as well as international research organizations.The objectives of the workshops were to: share and validate results from the rapid VC assessment in the 8 sites; draft a vision/outcome statement for each VC site; Identify and prioritize best bet interventions for each site; develop intervention plans for each site; and Identify emerging crosscutting issues by research components -breeding, feeding, health, gender.A group of women fish retailers in the Egyptian region of Shakshouk are realizing better profits from the sale of their fish after acquiring iceboxes. Iceboxes help them keep their fish fresh in the market, allowing them to sell more stock each day. The iceboxes were supplied by WorldFish and CARE Egypt as part of the larger \"Improving Employment and Income through Development of Egypt's Aquaculture Sector\" project that supports women retailers who sell fish in rural markets or at the road-side. Without ice to keep their fish in good condition throughout the day, many women find they have to discard the last few kilograms of their stock at the end of the day due to exposure to heat and dust.WorldFish has invested in Egyptian aquaculture for more than 20 years, and is committed to developing the aquaculture industry, and generating employment for the millions of men and women that depend on the sector for income and food security.In Vietnam, the ILRI-led Livestock and Fish research program focuses on smallholder pig value chains. As part of the planned activities for 2013, ILRI organized a stakeholder consultation workshop in Hanoi on 22 March 2013. The workshop aimed to identify a short list of priority research sites that fit the characteristics of three target value chain (VC) gradients: Rural to rural (R2R), rural to peri-urban/urban (R2U), and peri-urban to urban (U2U). A set of GIS maps were presented to the stakeholders for discussions; these identified the list of provinces that met the thresholds for the geographical targeting (pigs, poor people, market access) and the VC gradient classification (% of province area that represent each VC gradient type).Set of priority site selection criteria was presented and the recurring elements that stood out as important according were 1) the expressed willingness by the political leadership to engage with ILRI and its collaborators, 2) the potential for building synergies with development and other ongoing initiatives, and 3) dynamism that will enable the capture of temporal and spatial changes in the process of transformation and better contextualize the dynamics across the different VC gradients.In recent months, Livestock and Fish value chain assessment activities have been carried out in Masaka district as part of the Uganda Smallholder Pig Value Chains Development (SPVCD) and Safe Food, Fair Food (SFFF) projects.On 22 April 2013, Pastor Lukwago, one of the farmers approached by the project team, was unfortunately unavailable to meet the team when they came to collect blood samples from his pigs and administer a house hold questionnaire. However his wife shared a letter that captures the project work [read the posting online] Assessing food safety and food nutrition in food chains WorldFish, in collaboration with ILRI, is undertaking two complementary projects in Egypt to better understand the dual demands of safety and nutrition in food value chains.The Egyptian stream of the ACIAR funded Rapid Integrated Assessment project, brings together an international team of food safety and policy experts from WorldFish; ILRI; the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI); Kafr el Sheikh University, Egypt; and the Royal Veterinary College, University of London. It builds on work carried out under the GIZ funded Safe Food Fair Food (SFFF) project. The inception of the 'MoreMilkiT' project enabled the ILRI-SUA partnership to have a better understanding of the policy environment and appropriate entry points to impact on the poor and marginalised; identify and consult a wide range of stakeholders; conduct a situational assessment nationally and value chain assessments within identified sites; and initiate a process for strengthening the policy environment to better support pro-poor dairying. The findings generated so far suggest the program needs to focus attention on 'growing' the existing informal system of milk production and marketing.In December 2012, ICARDA and ILRI ran a training course for national partners and collaborators on methods and approaches for phenotypic characterization of animal genetic resources.\"For genetic resources to contribute to food security goals, we need to know what we have, be able to improve them, be able to prioritize to effectively utilize them, and conserve them for the next generation\" -Solomon Abegaz, director of Ethiopia's Institute of Biodiversity ConservationThe course brought together 'trainees' from federal and regional agricultural research centers and universities. It covered the conceptual framework for animal genetic resources (AnGR) characterization, an operational framework of AnGR, data collection, management and analysis, reporting and communication, a checklist of actions and provided a practical session in the field.One of the largest aquaculture and aquarium shows in Asia, Aqua Aquaria India 2013, was held in India in February 2013. Aquaculture and Genetic Improvement scientist, Dr. Curtis Lind, made a presentation based on a WorldFish publication entitled 'Considerations about the dissemination of improved fish strains.' The publication summarizes key strategies, knowledge and experience related to the multiplication and dissemination of improved fish strains, and makes recommendations on how some of the practices may be improved. If implemented, these improved practices may help fish farmers increase the productivity and profitability of their farmsUntil recently, livestock husbandry in Vietnam's Central Highlands was not very productive. Animals were intermittently sold to free-up cash to put towards weddings or large purchases, and the rest of the time they were left free to graze on native pasture and crop residues. To help revitalize these livestock systems, researchers at CIAT have been testing different kinds of improved forages and developing improved management strategies with farmers.In December 2012, leaders of the various value chain development projects in the program and other team members met to coordinate their plans and priorities across the countries and chains. The meeting started with situation reports from each of the value chain coordinators: Smallholder pigs in Uganda, smallholder dairy in Tanzania, small ruminants in Ethiopia, small to medium-scale aquaculture in Egypt, smallholder dairy in India, smallholder pigs in Vietnam and smallholder dairy in Honduras and Nicaragua. Participants were updated on the rapid value chain assessment toolkit that is supporting ongoing work across the countries among others.. did you know… Animal source foods provide essential micronutrients and vitamins that often are not supplied by a plant based diet alone, especially for pregnant and breastfeeding mothers, infants and young children. This is particularly the case during the first 2-3 years ('the first 1000 days') in the life of a child.","tokenCount":"1320"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4e2b9abdf414392ad40da90886ff703","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/496f1715-d654-4913-8698-a2d7d8ec4d79/retrieve","id":"-901275393"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"472b7629-12d2-4d39-b465-4f609da4cf0b","pagecount":"7","content":"In Zimbabwe, more than 80% of the population depends on agriculture, and women constitute more than 60% of the agricultural labor force. Over 70% of the rural population lives below the poverty line, with a great share of households headed by children or widowed/ divorced women (ZimStat, 2014). In the semi-arid areas, the effects of economic crisis, poor health systems and frequent droughts negatively impact women more than men, because while men are engaged in work off the farms, it is women who manage the farms.Women farm under increasingly difficult conditions: resource degradation, climate change, and limited access to productive resources. Their ability to secure food is crippled by severe land degradation due to continuous mono-cropping, limited soil amendments and frequent droughts and dry spells. Support services and markets that could help women are often not accessible at all, or not tailored to address womenspecific needs. Within their families, women face acute labor shortages; men and youth of productive age emigrate and leave women, children and the vulnerable to be responsible for agriculture.For a long time, the important contribution that women make to agriculture was not reflected in the investments in agriculture. Policy and development support have mainly focused on promoting maize as a staple crop to ensure food security, and cattle as a major source of wealth. Though women have traditionally had a greater say in matters related to certain crops (e.g. groundnut) and livestock (e.g. goats), and a clear demand for them has been identified, these crops and livestock have been treated as marginal or orphan crops/resources. As a result, these crops and livestock perform far below potential. Fortunately, this situation is changing now, with the government making deliberate efforts for women to access market opportunities (MWAGCD, 2013).Efforts are on in Zimbabwe today for enabling women to raise their income -and therefore food security, nutrition, and health -more effectively. Goats and groundnuts have been identified as value chains that would enhance income and profitability faster as women are already strong in these areas.This brief proposes to donors, government and research partners that engaging women through innovation platforms (IPs) in the inclusive processes of technology and market development can accelerate transitions towards greater sustainability, food security, nutrition, education and health.ICRISAT, Matopos Research Institute and their partners have worked on improving conditions for women farmers in semi-arid Zimbabwe through a series of projects from 2012 to 2017 in Nkayi (450-600 mm average annual rainfall, crop-livestock farming) and Gwanda districts (<450 mm average annual rainfall, livestock dominated) (Figure 1).Photo 1. Women farmers negotiating prices for their goats: for greater women empowerment in agriculture, policies should focus more on commodities that matter for women.Figure 1. Nkayi and Gwanda districts in semi-arid Zimbabwe.They aim at promoting more diversified and better integrated crop-livestock farming systems through IPs; specifically focusing on better access of women to higher value crops and livestock. Eventually, this will help women raise their households' income, their families' nutrition and their own self-esteem.While women make most decisions over groundnuts, women and men share decisions over access to inputs, sale and the use of the income generated from groundnuts (Figure 2). Also, regarding goats, women have an equally strong say as men -when where goats are sold and how the income from those sales is used.\"The reality is that as much as men are in charge, they are often not present at the homestead. We as women do the work on feeding, taking the cattle and goats to diptanks, collecting water, herding -and making the day-to-day decisions ourselves.\"Both women and men feel that there has been a change in decision making in recent years (Figure 3). Women have been gaining decision-making power in regard to goats, mostly as the result of a natural process that requires them to take charge while their husbands are working off the farms. They also acknowledged a change in society, where women are becoming empowered, and taking leadership positions because their competency benefited from experience and technical training. Both men and women perceive this change as an advantage, as sharing of their mutual responsibilities to their families, and a positive contribution to their family's welfare. They see that women continue to grow in their ability to make these decisions as a result of training programs and market exposure. Generally, one of the major fears of promoting market development is an increase in inequality, with marginal farmers being unable to benefit from the new opportunities. This was not the case in Zimbabwe.Women expressed a very strong need to access inputs at the local marketplaces, especially seed and animal health inputs, together with the right information about production technologies and marketing requirements. Since women are not always able to leave their homes and farms due to their family and farm-related responsibilities, they are often at a disadvantage, as inputs are usually available at urban markets.Considering labor shortages, engaging women more in agriculture bears a serious trade-off with their time on family welfare. Solutions improving rural access to input markets and finding efficient ways to intensify production would go a long way to help women farmers.Improving women's participation in groundnut markets (e.g. through mechanized shelling, increasing the area planted with groundnuts, higher groundnut sales) were attributed to increased women's influence over decision making in the household. Similarly, women who lived near recently established formal goat markets reported stronger influence on goat management and marketing decisions as compared to those living far from the markets (Figure 4). Better access to markets and market processes (assembly, weighing observation, price setting etc.) and technical training can help women make better decisions and greater gains from their goats than before.If women already have control over certain commodities, then through interventions that help them participate in those markets, they can generate more income. This increases women's contributions for household expenses and strengthens their position in the households. Innovation platforms engage women and men farmers of different resource and resilience status to envision their desired development scenarios. Where women were given a strong say, goats and groundnuts scored the highest in terms of their potential contribution to food security, profitability, large-scale adoption and risk reduction. Open discussion is important to identify commodities that, given the current constraints, would not be recognized or be attractive for women to invest in.▪ Goats for income generation in Gwanda District: Women highlighted that goats provided livelihoods even for farmers with very little assets, were a source of reliable income when crops failed, and needed less labor than any other farm enterprise.Women trade goats at the marketplace and get the opportunity to network with other farmers, buyers and extension staff whom they want to cooperate with. ▪ Groundnut, a multipurpose crop in Nkayi District:Women expressed preference for groundnuts as it brings food and nutrition for the family, haulms are good feed for livestock and this nitrogenfixing legume improves soil health at no extra cost. If market conditions were improved, surplus represents a source of cash income.IPs that involve women to decide on priority commodities for their tangible benefits are more likely to address women's needs. They give legitimacy to programs that support inclusive value chains.IPs need to be informed by analyses that help to better understand women and men farmers' situations and their decision making around specific commodities in order to support positive changes within the farming systems. In places where IPs built upon what women already own and have control over (e.g. groundnuts and goats), they increased the tangible benefits, which, in turn, motivated women to invest more labor, land and cash in these commodities, leading to a sustainable growth of productive assets.▪ Using goats more productively in Gwanda District: Dry season feed is the bottleneck for livestock production. With the introduction of fodder crops for adequate supply of goat feed, combined with veterinary services that reduce goat mortalities, farmers can build their goat flocks and enhance goat productivity. They can generate higher incomes from selling goats as well as fodder seed. Some farmers reinvest some of the proceeds from goat sales into buying agricultural inputs, thereby improving the overall productivity of their farms. \"My husband did not allow me to grow groundnuts on more land, as there was no market. Since we noticed that there is a market for groundnuts, we've started expanding the land for groundnuts.\"Interventions that instill these positive feedback mechanisms within farming systems through goats or groundnuts, are useful for women to use their resources more efficiently, and improve the health of their families.Photo: S Homann-Kee Tui, ICRISATThey support transition to higher levels of productivity and wellbeing.Participating in IPs can help women to find solutions to the challenges they face when engaging in value chains that would work for them, e.g. goats or groundnuts.▪ Access to markets: While it is clear that there is great potential for Zimbabwean women farmers to benefit more from goat and groundnut production, the greatest challenge is to establish effective market linkages. In Gwanda, women have seen that improved animal quality fetches them higher prices at better organized goat markets. Women changed from selling goats at the farm gate, to goat auctions; this increased prices, made pricing more transparent and allowed sales throughout the year. Through technical trainings, women in Nkayi learned that they can gain more from groundnuts if (a) they produce specific varieties; and (b) they shell the nuts.▪ Access to farm inputs and implements: Solutions that improve rural access to certified seed, fertilizer, animal feed and health inputs are critical, especially as women are not always able to leave their homes and farms due to their family-and farm-related responsibilities. IPs have motivated women to multiply improved groundnut seed among themselves as a group; they then shell, control the quality and sell the grain in bulk. To enable women to directly use the cash from goat sales to reinvest in technologies, IPs arranged for input supplier to display/sell their products at goat auctions. This led to higher uptake of technologies.Women attach great importance to information about relevant new technologies. In Nkayi, women wanted access to and information about managing mechanized groundnut shellers and crop residue choppers as they reduced labor. In Gwanda, women requested training on meat quality improvement and grading. In short, women who have technical knowledge fare better in dealing with buyers and input dealers; their confidence as well as incomes are enhanced.\"In the end, it is all about my self-esteem. When I go to the sale pen, I really want to be seen as a powerful woman.\"For women in Nkayi and Gwanda, IPs have unlocked barriers that held women farmers back. They are now more aware of the real value of goat and groundnut production and associated value chains, including the high potential for local value addition. Market-oriented development through IPs helps women gain economic and social power, which can have potentially far-reaching effects. These are critical principles towards that end:Enabling women farmers to make their own choices ▪ Common vision: Women farmers in Nkayi and Gwanda now have a common vision, that 'their' crops have the potential for more profitable farming.We have seen that by participating in the IP process (stakeholder discussions, technical trainings, attendance of markets) women have enhanced their confidence, self-esteem and ability to represent their interests in many ways. They are more visible as key actors and participate actively in business-oriented activities.▪ Champion crops/livestock: Through IPs, women can identify crops/livestock that can make a difference to them. Mechanized processing of groundnuts and livestock feed are key technologies to reduce labor burden for women. Local seed multiplication and organic fertilizers are ways to reduce their dependence on external inputs. IPs help women generate gender-equitable potential impacts.▪ Capacity development: Wherever IPs have facilitated exchange of ideas and knowledge transfer among women, women have come up with innovations themselves. The open dialog brings out deeper gender issues, practical solutions and priorities. Prioritizing value chains suitable for women and creating mechanisms that support them help women to increase their capacity to deal with challenges and identify new opportunities.▪ Collective action and self-organization: Through IPs, women and men farmers decide to work together on commercializing their produce. Women managing production, post harvesting, quality control and accessing markets improve their capacity to organize themselves around these commodities. Farmer producer clubs operate more effectively and farmers build their own position in price negotiations. As farmers are better organized for a market purpose, it becomes more attractive for buyers to attend to them.Building structures for women farmers to make use of opportunities ","tokenCount":"2072"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"095da0b45d795cd2ebf7eb540513ea1a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2360dd06-39db-4259-93ec-31819a255dfa/content","id":"2048473524"},"keywords":["BLUP, best linear unbiased prediction","DH, doubledhaploid","DTMA, Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa","FDR, false discovery rate","GBS, genotyping-by-sequencing","GS, genomic selection","LD, linkage disequilibrium","LOD, logarithm of odds","MAF, minor allele frequency","MAS, marker-assisted selection","PCA, principle component analysis","PVE, phenotypic variation explained","QTL, quantitative trait loci","r MG , genomic prediction accuracy","SNP, single-nucleotide polymorphism","TSC, tar spot complex"],"sieverID":"294ef498-401a-4325-9c33-b53b185da767","pagecount":"14","content":"Tar spot complex (TSC) is one of the most destructive foliar diseases of maize (Zea mays L.) in tropical and subtropical areas of Central and South America, causing significant grain yield losses when weather conditions are conducive. To dissect the genetic architecture of TSC resistance in maize, association mapping, in conjunction with linkage mapping, was conducted on an association-mapping panel and three biparental doubled-haploid (DH) populations using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Association mapping revealed four quantitative trait loci (QTL) on chromosome 2, 3, 7, and 8. All the QTL, except for the one on chromosome 3, were further validated by linkage mapping in different genetic backgrounds. Additional QTL were identified by linkage mapping alone. A major QTL located on bin 8.03 was consistently detected with the largest phenotypic explained variation: 13% in association-mapping analysis and 13.18 to 43.31% in linkage-mapping analysis. These results indicated that TSC resistance in maize was controlled by a major QTL located on bin 8.03 and several minor QTL with smaller effects on other chromosomes. Genomic prediction results showed moderate-to-high prediction accuracies in different populations using various training population sizes and marker densities. Prediction accuracy of TSC resistance was >0.50 when half of the population was included into the training set and 500 to 1,000 SNPs were used for prediction. Information obtained from this study can be used for developing functional molecular markers for marker-assisted selection (MAS) and for implementing genomic selection (GS) to improve TSC resistance in tropical maize.T ar spot complex is one of the most important foliar diseases of maize in many Central and South American tropical and subtropical areas with moderately cooler and humid climates. Severe TSC outbreaks occurringearly in the growing season may cause up to 75% grain yield loss (Hock et al., 1989;Pereyda-Hernández et al., 2009;ProMED-mail, 2009). Tar spot complex is caused by an interaction of at least three fungal species: Phyllachora maydis Maubl.; Monographella maydis E. Müll. & Samuels; and Coniothyrium phyllachorae Maubl. (Hock et al., 1992). Although the interaction mechanism between the host and the three pathogens is still not clear, P. maydis and M. maydis in the complex seem to be most detrimental (Hock et al., 1995). Although it is likely that the disease was present in Central America for centuries, where it has coevolved with maize, TSC was first reported in Mexico only in the beginning of last century and was later detected and described in other Latin American countries (Castaño, 1969;Liu, 1973;Maublanc, 1904;Shurtleff, 1982). In 2015, P. maydis was reported for the first time in Indiana and Illinois, although the presence of TSC has not been confirmed (Ruhl et al., 2016).The use of resistant varieties is one of the most costeffective and environmentally friendly approaches for controlling the disease (Ceballos and Deutsch, 1992;Mahuku et al., 2016). Dissecting the genetic architecture of TSC resistance with genome-wide molecular markers will allow breeders to improve their breeding efficiency by facilitating the introgression of the resistance genes into susceptible germplasm using MAS or GS strategies. However, only one study has been conducted to determine the genetic basis of TSC resistance in maize using a joint linkage association-mapping approach, and in this study, a major QTL (qRtsc8-1) associated with TSC resistance was identified (Mahuku et al., 2016). To develop functional molecular markers closely linked to TSC resistance genes for use in MAS, the genetic architecture of TSC resistance in maize needs to be characterized more comprehensively and with higher resolution.Linkage mapping and association mapping are the two most commonly used tools for dissecting the genetics of complex traits in plants. Traditional linkage mapping explores the recombination events and marker-trait associations in biparental segregating populations, such as F 2 , DH, and recombinant inbred lines. The method is very powerful in capturing major genes with larger effects and rare alleles (Ding et al., 2008;Raman et al., 2013;Trachsel et al., 2016;Wu et al., 2007). However, the resulting mapping resolution is comparatively low and typically produces a large confidence interval of 10 to 20 cM as a result of the limited number of recombination events occurring in the construction of biparental mapping populations (Li et al., 2010;Manichaikul et al., 2006;Zhu et al., 2008). On the other hand, association mapping explores functional variations within genetically diverse panels through linkage disequilibrium (LD) analysis, which is very efficient and effective for identifying new genes or confirming candidate genes (Aoun et al., 2016;Yu and Edward, 2006). Compared with linkage mapping, association mapping is able to identify historical recombination events in a given population, which improves mapping resolution. At the same time, association mapping may detect a high number of false positive associations and is less efficient at identifying rare alleles (Zhu et al., 2005). The combined use of linkage mapping and association mapping offers the opportunity to reduce false positives while increasing statistical power and improving mapping resolution (Bardol et al., 2013;Lu et al., 2010;Xu et al., 2012). This approach is being used in a wide range of plants to study the genetic basis of complex traits including resistance to several diseases of maize (Li et al., 2016a;Mahuku et al., 2016;Kump et al., 2011).As an alternative to MAS, GS is now being used increasingly in several crops to improve breeding efficiency and increase genetic gains. Genomic selection uses genome-wide markers to predict the breeding values of individuals by capturing the effects of both major and minor genes (Meuwissen et al., 2001). Genomic selection has been shown to be effective in several crops over a wide range of marker densities, trait complexities, and breeding populations (Poland et al., 2012;Spindel et al., 2015;Zhao et al., 2012) where varying levels of prediction accuracy have been achieved. The main factors affecting genomic prediction accuracy are considered to be the relationship between the training and selection populations, training population sizes, population structure of training and testing sets, marker densities, genetic architecture and heritability of target traits, genotype  environment interactions, and statistical methods (Crossa et al., 2014;Combs and Bernardo, 2013;Endelman, 2011;Ornella et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2015;Zhao et al., 2012). Taking genetic architecture information of the target traits into account, it may be possible to improve genomic prediction accuracy while implementing GS (Bernardo, 2014;Spindel et al., 2015). Combined linkage mapping and association mapping in conjunction with GS may be an effective tool to increase breeding efficiency by understanding the genetic architecture of complex traits like TSC in maize.Increasing maker density has been reported to be an important factor for increasing statistical power and improving mapping resolution during association mapping and joint linkage-association mapping (Li et al., 2013), where millions of markers are required to cover all possible recombination events in a broad-based maize association panel with low LD decay. For example, LD decay in maize landraces is <1 kb (Tenaillon et al., 2001). Genotyping-by-Sequencing has been shown to be an economical genotyping alternative for increasing marker density. Romay et al. (2013) first reported that GBS was able to increase the statistical power and improve mapping resolution of association mapping by detecting rare alleles at high confidence levels in a panel of 2815 maize inbred accessions preserved at the US national maize inbred seed bank genotyped with GBS. Li et al. (2015) investigated the impact of GBS in a joint linkage analysis using multiple maize segregating populations and found this approach dramatically improved resolution and statistical power. If GBS technology becomes more affordable, it may also be promising for GS applications within applied breeding programs. Good prediction accuracies have been obtained in several crops, when GBS SNPs were used to predict various target traits in a wide range of breeding populations (Gowda et al., 2015;Poland et al., 2012).In the current study, we combined linkage mapping in three biparental DH populations with association mapping in conjunction with GS using ~1 million GBS SNPs distributed across the genome. The main objectives of this study were to (i) elucidate the genetic architecture of TSC resistance in maize with genome-wide GBS SNPs, (ii) identify major QTL and candidate genes conferring resistance to TSC using the association-mapping approach validated with linkage mapping, (iii) explore the potential of GS for improving TSC resistance in maize, and (iv) investigate the effects of training population size and marker density on genomic prediction accuracy in broad-based maize association panel and biparental DH populations.An association-mapping panel, designated Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA), was used to perform genome-wide association analysis and genomic prediction in the present study. The DTMA panel consists of 282 tropical and subtropical inbred lines derived by the CIMMYT. These lines originate from different breeding programs of CIMMYT and comprise several lines with tolerance or resistance to an array of abiotic and biotic stresses affecting maize in the tropics, improved N-use efficiency, and grain nutritional quality (Wen et al., 2011).Three biparental DH populations were used to perform linkage-mapping analysis and genomic prediction. The first population (Pop1) was derived from an F 1 cross between inbred lines CML495 and La Posta Sequia C7 F64-2-6-2-2-B-B-B. The second population (Pop2) was developed from an F 1 cross between CML451 and DTPYC9-F46-1-2-1-2-B-B-B. The third population (Pop3) shared the parental line CML451 with Pop2 and was crossed to DTPYC9-F74-1-1-1-1-B-B-B-B, a sister line of the second parental line of Pop2. In these three populations, CML495 and CML451 are widely used CIMMYT maize lines showing good resistance to TSC. The other parental lines are drought-tolerant or drought-and heatstress tolerant lines (Cairns et al., 2013), which are susceptible to TSC. In total, 174, 100, and 111 DH lines were developed for Pop1, Pop2 and Pop3, respectively, using the protocols described by Prasanna et al. (2012).The DTMA panel was evaluated for responses to TSC under consistently high natural disease pressure at five locations in CIMMYT experimental stations in Mexico, namely, in Agua Fria (2028  9738 W; mega-environment is lowland tropical) in 2009, 2011, and 2012; in Guerrero (1702  9938 W; mega-environment is lowland tropical) in 2012; and in Veracruz (1915  9612 W; mega-environment is lowland tropical) in 2012. Pop1 was evaluated for response to TSC at three locations, that is, in Agua Fria in 2011 and 2014 and in Guerrero in 2013. Pop2 was evaluated for response to TSC four times, that is, in Agua Fria in 2012 and 2014; each year had two planting dates. Pop3 was evaluated for response to TSC for three times, that is, in Agua Fria in 2012 with two planting dates and in Agua Fria in 2014.A randomized complete block design was used for all experiments with three replications per location. Each plot consisted of a single 2-m row with 10 plants per row. Disease evaluation was performed as described by Mahuku et al. (2016). Briefly, disease scores were first taken at 2 wk after flowering and repeated two times at 7-d intervals. Disease severity was recorded using a 1-to-5 scale with a 0.5 increment, where 1 indicates highly resistant (HR), no visible disease symptoms or lesions identifiable on any of the leaves; 2 indicates resistant (R), moderate lesion development below the leaf subtending the ear or disease symptoms covering ~30% of the leaf area; 3 indicates moderately susceptible (MS), heavy lesion development on and below the leaf subtending the ear and a few lesions above it or 50% of the leaf surface have disease symptoms; 4 indicates susceptible (S), many or severe lesions on all but the uppermost leaves, which may have a few lesions, lesions have coalesced and blighted, or 70% of leaf surface has disease symptoms; and 5 indicates highly susceptible (HS), all leaves are dead, no green leaf tissue remaining or disease symptoms on >80% of the leaf surface. Figures showing the symptoms and development of TSC on maize leaves and cobs was also provided in the reference of Mahuku et al. (2016). For each plot, the average score across the three evaluations was used for further analyses.MEATA-R software (http://hdl.handle.net/11529/10201) was used to analyze multilocation trials using a mixed linear model where all factors, including genotype refer to samples, environment refers to a combination of years and locations, replications in environments, interaction between genotype and environment, and interaction between replication and environment, were considered as random effects. Best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) value of genotypes, variance components, and broad-sense heritability were obtained. A previous study (Mahuku et al., 2016) indicated that response to TSC was negatively correlated with maturity. Thus, anthesis date (data not shown) was used as a covariate to correct maturity effect and calculate the final TSC disease response BLUP. Broad-sense heritability of the target trait was calculated as the ratio of total genetic to total phenotypic variance. In multilocation trial analysis, broad-sense heritability was calculated as ( )  Microsoft). Phenotypic data distribution of the four tested populations and the subgroups of association-mapping panel was showed in a violin plot, which was generated using violin plot package in R software (R Development Core Team, 2013).Genotyping, Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Calling, Imputation, and FilterTotal genomic DNA was extracted from bulked young leaves for all inbred lines using a CTAB procedure (CIMMYT Applied Molecular Genetics Laboratory, 2003). Genotyping was performed at Cornell University Biotechnology Resource Center (Ithaca, NY). Genomic DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme ApeK1.Genotyping-by-sequencing libraries were constructed in 96-plex and sequenced on Illumina HiSeq2000 (Elshire et al., 2011). Single-nucleotide polymorphism calling was performed using the TASSEL GBS Pipeline, where the GBS 2.7 TOPM (tags on physical map) file downloaded from Panzea (www.panzea.org) was used to anchor reads to the Maize B73 RefGen_v2 reference genome (Glaubitz et al., 2014). Imputation was performed with FILLIN method in TASSEL 5.0 (Swarts et al., 2014), and the donor haplotype files required by FILLIN were downloaded from Panzea (www.panzea.org) and consisted of the anonymized GBS 2.7 haplotypes made from 8000-site windows. The parameters for running FILLIN to do imputation were set as the default values, which have been descripted in detail by Swarts et al. (2014).An imputed GBS dataset was used to conduct genomewide association analysis and genomic prediction in the DTMA association-mapping panel, while unimputed datasets were used for further analyses in the biparental populations. For each inbred line, 955,690 SNPs that are evenly distributed on the maize chromosomes were called; 955,120 of these were assigned to a maize chromosome, and 570 of them could not be anchored to any of the 10 maize chromosomes. TASSEL V5.0 (Bradbury et al., 2007) was used to filter raw GBS datasets for SNPs with minor allele frequency (MAF) >0.05 and missing data rates <20% in the DTMA panel and in each biparental population, respectively. Samples with heterozygosity >0.05 were excluded from the SNP characteristic analyses. Basic genotypic information, including number of SNPs, MAF, missing rate, and heterozygosity rate, was calculated at the population level.After filter, 261,055 high-quality SNPs were obtained in the DTMA panel for genome-wide association analysis. Linkage disequilibrium analysis was conducted in TAS-SEL V5.0 (Bradbury et al., 2007) and the average LD decay distance estimated was 3.5 kb (r 2 = 0.1) across the 10 maize chromosomes. Population structure was estimated using an admixture model-based clustering method implemented through the software Structure V2.3.3 (Hubisz et al., 2009), where a subset of 10,000 SNPs with no missing values were randomly selected across the 10 maize chromosomes. Hypotheses were tested for subpopulation number K ranging from 1 to 10, and each K was run seven times with burn-in time and replications both to 100,000. A mixed linear model (principle component analysis [PCA] + K) was applied for association-mapping analysis in GAPIT (Genome Association and Prediction Integrated Tool-R package), where a kinship matrix along with the three principle components were incorporated to avoid spurious associations. Using GAPIT, the kinship matrix was generated automatically with the default Vanraden algorithm (VanRaden, 2008), and PCA was also calculated. The P-value of each SNP was calculated and a false discovery rate (FDR) corrected threshold was used to declare significance with a uniform value of P = 2.97 x 10 −5 , that is, −log(P) = 4.53. Manhattan and quantilequantile plots were created in R package qqman using the association-mapping results (Turner 2014).Based on the association-mapping results, the sequence information of each significantly associated SNP was used to perform BLAST against the B73 RefGen_v2 genome sequence through the MaizeGDB database (http://www. maizegdb.org/), and genes containing the significantly associated SNPs were considered as possible candidate genes for TSC resistance. Candidate gene annotation was performed on PlantGDB (http://www.plantgdb.org/ ZmGDB/) and Gramene (http://www.gramene.org/).For each of the three DH populations, a bin map was constructed with high-quality unimputed SNPs using customized R scripts (unpublished data, 2017). mapping was implemented in QTL IciMapping Version 4.1 using the BIP function. The scanning step was 1 cM, the largest P-value for entering variables in stepwise regression of phenotype on marker variables (PIN) was 0.001, and the largest P-value for removing variables was 2 PIN. One-dimensional QTL scanning was conducted, that is, only additive effects for each QTL was estimated.The LOD threshold used for declaring putative QTL was determined as 3.0, and the phenotypic variation explained (PVE) by each QTL was estimated.Genomic prediction was implemented in rrBLUP package (Endelman, 2011) in the association-mapping panel and in each of the three DH populations. A subset of 10,000 SNPs distributed uniformly across the genome, with no missing values and MAF > 0.05, was used for genomic prediction in the DTMA panel. In each of the three DH populations, SNPs in the genetic map were used for genomic prediction. Details of the implementation of rrBLUP were described by Zhao et al. (2012). A five-fold cross-validation scheme with 100 replications was used to generate the training and validation sets and assess the prediction accuracy within each population. The average value of the correlations between the phenotype and the genomic estimated breeding values was defined as genomic prediction accuracy (r MG ). To test the effects of training population size and marker density on genomic prediction accuracy, training populations ranging from 10 to 90% of the total population size and number of SNPs varying from 200 to 10,000 were used in the DTMA panel to assess the prediction accuracy. In the three DH populations, the training population size ranged from 10 to 90% of the total population size, with an interval of 10%, and the number of SNPs varied from 200 to 20,000. For all the genomic prediction analyses, the training dataset and validation dataset were independent.Phenotypic variation for TSC resistance in the DTMA panel and the three DH populations are described in Table 1 and Fig. 1a. Disease scores varied across populations and the mean values in the four populations were similar, ranging from 2.04 in DTMA panel to 2.50 in Pop3. Sufficient differences were observed between the minimum and maximum scores in all the populations; Table 1. Descriptive statistics of phenotypic response to tar spot complex infection in the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa panel and three biparental doubled-haploid populations. To compare the differences between imputed and unimputed GBS datasets, basic genotypic information of each population, including number of SNPs, minor allele frequency, missing rate, and heterozygosity rate, is presented in However, the missing rate after filtering in all populations was similar, ranging from 6.36% in DTMA panel to 7.90% in Pop2. In both the imputed and unimputed datasets, the heterozygosity rate increased after filtering. Before filtering, 58.75% of the SNPs had an MAF < 0.05, and the average MAF in the imputed dataset of the DTMA panel was 0.09. In the unimputed dataset of Pop1, 85.06% of the SNPs had an MAF lower than 0.05, and the average MAF was 0.04. After filtering, the average MAF was 0.23, with continuous distribution classes from 0.05 to 0.50 at intervals of 0.05 in the imputed dataset of DTMA panel. In the unimputed dataset of Pop1, the average MAF was 0.42 and 79.74% of the SNPs concentrated to the MAF ranging from 0.40 to 0.50, similar to the theoretical allele frequency of 0.50 expected in each DH population. The distribution of MAFs in Pop2 and Pop3 had a similar tendency to that recorded in Pop1 (data not shown).The DTMA panel was divided into three subgroups according to the ad hoc statistic delta K (K) value changes. The numbers of lines were 40, 111, and 131 in Subgroup 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Most of the lines in Subgroup 1 were from the Mexico physiology research group, while lines in Subgroup 2 were mainly from the subtropical breeding program, and lines in Subgroup 3 were mainly from the lowland tropical breeding program. Violin plots of the three subpopulations were provided to show the different responses of the three subgroups to the disease. The mean disease score of the three subpopulations was 2.31, 2.12, and 1.91 in Subgroup 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Fig. 1b).Association mapping results of the DTMA panel are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 3. In total, 155 SNP markers with significant marker-trait associations were detected, with the multiple testing correction threshold of −log10(P) > 4.53 (FDR level of 0.05). These significantly associated SNPs were distributed in four genomic regions in bins 2.05, 3.04 to 3.09, 7.02, and 8.03. Each of these SNPs explained 4.76 to 13% of the total phenotypic variance individually and together explained 52.60% of the total phenotypic variation. The number of significantly associated SNPs detected on chromosomes 2, 3, and 7 was 1, 3, and 1, respectively. The rest of the 150 significantly associated SNPs were located on chromosome 8 (bin 8.03) in a ~33.6 million bp region based on the B73 reference genome (Fig. 3c, 3d) flanked by left and right significant SNPs of S8_57248413 and S8_90835374, respectively. Significantly associated SNPs on chromosome 2, 3, and  7, and the top five SNPs on chromosome 8 are listed in Table 3. The most significant SNP S8_83777799 (P-value 1.29  10 −11 ) was detected on chromosome 8 at position 83,777,799 in the B73 reference genome; this SNP alone explained 13% of the total phenotypic variation. Thus, association-mapping results revealed that TSC resistance is controlled by a major QTL on chromosome 8 with several minor QTL located on other chromosomes. In total, 46 putative candidate genes were identified among the 155 significantly associated SNPs, 28 of which were hypothetical genes with known predicted functions referring to 71 SNPs in total, and the rest of them were putative uncharacterized proteins. For the 28 putative candidate genes with known predicted functions, the number of SNPs detected for each candidate gene ranged from one to 12, and 2.54 SNPs per gene were identified on average (Supplemental Table S1). Some candidate genes contain more than one significant SNP, and multiple SNPs identified in candidate genes is valuable for developing haplotypes for implementing MAS. Functional annotation of the 28 hypothetical genes showed that several of them are associated with disease resistance or defense responses in plants. For instance, GRMZM2G062974 was annotated as an endochitinase that plays a significant role in resistance to plant diseases. Twelve SNPs linked with endochitinase were significantly associated with TSC resistance in association-mapping analysis (Fig. 3d) including the most significant associated SNP S8_88812938 (chromo-some_position). Several hypothetical genes with protein kinase function, such as leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein kinase (GRMZM2G073884, GRMZM2G339540), protein NSP-INTERACTING KINASE 3-like (GRMZM5G835516), MAP kinase family protein (GRMZM2G063144), and protein kinase superfamily protein (GRMZM2G117465) were also detected.Quantitative trait loci detected by linkage mapping in all three DH populations are summarized in Table 4. In Pop1, three QTL were detected in bins 4.08 to 4. 09, 7.03, 8.03, explaining 8.63, 9.19, and 13.18% of the total phenotypic variation, respectively. In Pop2, four QTL were detected in bins 1.05, 2.04, 5.04 to 5.05, and 8.03 accounting for 17.82, 6.19, 5.12, and 43.31% of the total phenotypic variation, respectively. In Pop3, four QTL were detected in bins 1. 06, 7.03, 8.03, and 10.07 explaining 32.29, 5.96, 16.78, and 6.01% of the phenotypic variation, respectively.A major QTL located in bin 8.03 was detected in all the three DH populations and had the largest LOD score and PVE relative to the other detected QTL, with the only exception in Pop3. This was consistent with the association-mapping results, where a major QTL located on bin 8.03 was identified as well. In addition to the major QTL on bin 8.03, other QTL detected by association mapping were also confirmed by linkage mapping in different genetic backgrounds, with the only exception of the QTL on chromosome 3 (bins 3.04, 3.06, and 3.09). The QTL located in bin 2.05 was validated by linkage mapping in Pop2 in a neighboring bin 2.04, and the QTL located in bin 7.02 was validated by linkage mapping both in Pop1 and Pop3 in the neighboring bin 7.03. Additional unique QTL were detected by linkage mapping, which were not identified via association mapping, that is, QTL in bins 1.05 to 1.06, 4.08 to 4.09, 5.04 to 5.05, and 10.07. Thus, integration of linkage mapping and association mapping proved to be a powerful tool for increasing statistical power, and improving the mapping resolution.Genomic prediction accuracies (r MG ) obtained from fivefold cross-validations, and 100 replications for all the four populations are shown in Fig. 4, where the prediction accuracies were moderate to high and varied across populations. The lowest r MG was observed in the DTMA panel with a mean value of 0.55, where 10,000 highquality SNPs were used for prediction. The r MG observed in Pop1, Pop2, and Pop3 were 0.58, 0.74, and 0.69, respectively. In Pop1, smaller phenotypic differences (1.19) and lower heritability (0.54) caused a moderate r MG compared with the other two DH populations. The effects of marker density and training population size on r MG are presented in Fig. 5. The r MG continuously increased as the number of SNPs increased in all the populations. In the DTMA panel, only a marginal increase was observed on r MG , where the number of SNPs increased from 1000 to 10,000, and r MG obtained with 261,948 high-quality SNPs was similar to that obtained from 10,000 randomly selected high-quality SNPs (data not shown). The maximum r MG with minimum standard error was observed when 3000 SNPs were used for genomic prediction. In Pop1, a very slight increase in r MG was observed when the number of SNPs increased from 500 to 20,000, indicating that 500 SNPs were sufficient to obtain good prediction accuracy of TSC resistance in biparental DH populations. The training population   147901114) 3.24 6.01 0.17 † Marker name comprises information on specific chromosome and bin, for example, C4M190 means the 190th bin on chromosome 4 and the physical position is 197,840,452 bp. ‡ LOD, logarithm of odd. § PVE, phenotypic variation explained.size affected the prediction accuracy considerably in all the populations, and the r MG continuously increased as training population size increased in all the populations. In the DTMA panel, a slight increase was observed in r MG when the training population size increased from 40 to 90%. A relatively high r MG with the smallest standard error was observed when 60% of the total genotypes were used as a training population. A similar trend was also observed in Pop1, where relative high prediction accuracy with the smallest standard error was observed when 50% of the total genotypes were used as a training population. This indicated that the optimum size of training population was 50 to 60% of the total number of genotypes used. However, prediction accuracy can vary depending on the population size of total genotypes used and the heritability of the trait of interest.Combined linkage and association mapping can complement the strengths and weaknesses of each approach, and has been successfully used in several crops to dissect the genetic architecture of complex traits (Chen et al., 2014;Li et al., 2016b;Lu et al., 2010). In this study, combined linkage mapping and association mapping was implemented for detecting and validating genomic regions conferring resistance to TSC in maize. Genomewide association analysis revealed four QTL on chromosomes 2, 3, 7, and 8. All the QTL revealed by association mapping were validated by linkage mapping in different genetic backgrounds, with the exception of a QTL on chromosome 3. A major QTL located on bin 8.03 was consistently detected in the association-mapping panel and all the three DH populations, and it exhibited the  Compared with a previous study on TSC resistance (Mahuku et al., 2016), the populations and phenotypic data used in the current study were slightly different in both association and linkage-mapping analysis. In the association analysis, an unbalance dataset was used in the previous study, and association-mapping analysis was performed separately for seven environments. In the current study, a balance dataset from five environments was used, eliminating two environments with low heritability and small numbers of genotypes. Additional QTL were identified in the current study through the use of this improved phenotypic data as well as through the use of higher-density GBS SNPs. Mahuku et al. (2016) identified three QTL located in bins 2.07, 7.02, and 8.03 with an Illumina MaizeSNP50 BeadChip containing 56,110 evenly spaced SNPs. In the present study, we verified all the three previously reported QTL and also identified a new QTL on chromosome 3. Furthermore, the genetic region of the major QTL located on bin 8.03 was narrowed from 81 million to 33.6 million bp based on significantly associated SNPs. These results demonstrate that improved phenotypic data and higher density GBS SNPs can increase statistical power and improve mapping resolution of association mapping as compared with the lower-density chip-based SNP arrays.In regard to biparental linkage analysis, the current linkage-mapping analysis used ultrahigh-density genetic maps constructed with GBS SNPs, which increased statistical power and detected more QTL with improved mapping resolution relative to the previous study of Mahuku et al. (2016). Linkage-mapping analysis in the current study validated all the QTL regions previously reported by Mahuku et al. (2016) with the exception of the QTL located on chromosome 6, which was not identified in this study. Three new QTL located on chromosomes 2, 4, and 5 were detected only in the current study. One reason for this difference is that the populations and phenotypic data used in these two studies were slightly different. Two of the DH populations used in the current study were identical to those used in the previous study, but the third DH population in the current study replaced the F 2:3 population from the previous work. In addition, the number of locations used for phenotyping was also different in these two studies. Populations were evaluated only in two, one, and one location in the previous study, while in the current study, the three DH populations were evaluated in three, four, and three locations, respectively. Improved phenotypic data with higher heritability (0.54 in Pop1, 0.88 in Pop2, and 0.93 in Pop3) resulting in the detection of more robust QTLs in the current study. Mapping resolution of the current study was also improved by using the ultrahigh-density genetic maps constructed with GBS SNPs, and the interval of the detected QTL (Table 4) ranged from 0.57 to 36.44 million bp with an average of 9.66 million bp (physical position difference between the right marker and left marker), which is smaller than the normal interval of the genetic map constructed with few hundred markers.Genotyping-by-sequencing is a low-coverage sequencing technology generating a large number of SNPs at a lower genotyping cost per SNP per sample. However, GBS also results in a very high rate if missing data. Imputation of missing data is generally conducted before downstream analysis is performed. Recently, Wu et al. (2016) reported that the missing rate of an unimputed GBS dataset in a diverse tropical maize panel was 57.99% before filter, which indicates that the imputed GBS dataset is more appropriate for running association-mapping analysis in a diverse maize panel because of the high rate of missing data within unimputed GBS datasets. In the current study, the imputed GBS dataset was used for association mapping, and the missing rate in the diverse DTMA tropical maize panel was 15.17% before filter and 6.66% after filter. Statistical power and mapping resolution of association mapping was improved by including more imputed GBS SNPs. However, within the biparental mapping populations, incorrectly imputed SNPs could result in identification of false crossovers, which would adversely affect the accuracy of the genetic map. For this reason, unimputed GBS data was used for ultrahigh-density bin map construction and linkage-mapping analysis in all the three DH populations. Because an imputed dataset was used in association-mapping analysis and unimputed datasets were used for linkage-mapping analysis, combined linkage mapping and association mapping proceeded as a parallel approach rather than an integrated approach. The integrated approach of employing a common set of SNPs will be assessed in the further studies.Factors affecting genomic prediction accuracy have been investigated in several crops over a wide range of target traits (Poland et al., 2012;Spindel et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2015). In the current study, genomic prediction accuracy for TSC in maize has been estimated in different types of populations with different training population sizes and marker densities. Genomic prediction accuracy observed in DH populations was always higher than that observed in the association-mapping panel, even though heritability of TSC in Pop1 was lower than that of the association-mapping panel. This suggests that the genomic prediction accuracy is relatively lower in a population with a broader genetic base, and novel statistical models are required to be developed to improve prediction accuracies in broad genetic base populations. Similarly, Gowda et al. (2015) found that the genomic prediction accuracy for improving resistance to maize lethal necrosis disease was also relatively lower in a broader genetic population. In actual application, however, maize breeding rarely proceeds using source populations as broad as the DTMA panel since maize breeding programs are generally focused on specific geographies. Within geographies, germplasm is focused on relative maturity targets, and source breeding populations are typically further restricted by organization of lines into discrete heterotic groups, often with important founder lines contributing substantially to breeding progress.Appropriate training population sizes to maximize prediction accuracy while minimizing standard error were also determined for each population. In all populations, relatively high prediction accuracies with the smallest standard error were observed when 50 to 60% of the total genotypes were used as a training population. Currently, one of the most significant challenges for maize breeders is to select an optimum subset of lines or families using MAS or GS prior to multiple-location testing. Optimal training population size for running genomic prediction within a biparental DH population is also of interest. Results from this study indicate that good prediction accuracy of TSC resistance can be achieved by phenotyping and genotyping as little as half of the breeding material as the training set. This confirms the results of Crossa et al. (2014) showing that a good prediction of maize grain yield in a biparental population can be achieved when only half of the population is included in the training set. However, the prediction accuracy could vary depending on the population sizes used and the target traits.The relationship between the training population and selection population is an important factor affecting prediction accuracy. In this study, prediction accuracy was only assessed within each population, which is the most favorable situation for running GS since the training and prediction sets are closely related. However, most breeders also would like to know the prediction accuracy across populations or use pooling of multiple populations into the training set to predict the rest. This will be assessed in the further studies.The majority of the presently grown commercial maize varieties in Central and South America are susceptible to TSC. Developing and deploying improved maize varieties with resistance to TSC is important, as it provides the most cost-effective approach for controlling the spread and impact of TSC in the maize production areas in the Americas. In the current study, the genetic architecture of TSC resistance in maize was dissected through combined linkage and association mapping in conjunction with high density GBS SNPs. Results indicate that TSC resistance in maize is controlled by a major QTL located on bin 8.03 with several minor QTL with smaller effect on other chromosomes. This study is the first report on TSC resistance in maize using sequencing-based genotyping, which increases the statistical power by detecting more QTL and improves the mapping resolution of detected QTL. This study revealed SNPs that are significantly associated with TSC resistance genes. The sequence information of these SNPs can be used to develop assays for MAS, and can be fitted as fixed effects in GS models to improve prediction accuracy (Bernardo, 2014). Tar spot complex resistance in tropical maize could be improved by implementing MAS and GS individually or by implementing them in a stepwise fashion. The decision of a breeding strategy to implement MAS and GS stepwise for multiple traits in a maize improvement program requires further research and development.","tokenCount":"6111"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b97edd8a6d6bb47d87cb258a765ac820","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e41dbd0f-b558-4e49-b7ae-aa459fc196a5/retrieve","id":"-1128680367"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"adc9da3c-2139-45d8-aba8-89b5119f1e9a","pagecount":"14","content":"Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) is an emerging viral disease that can greatly reduce cassava productivity, while causing only mild aerial symptoms that develop late in infection. Early detection of CBSD enables better crop management and intervention. Current techniques require laboratory equipment and are labour intensive and often inaccurate. We have developed a handheld active multispectral imaging (A-MSI) device combined with machine learning for early detection of CBSD in real-time. The principal benefits of A-MSI over passive MSI and conventional camera systems are improved spectral signal-to-noise ratio and temporal repeatability. Information fusion techniques further combine spectral and spatial information to reliably identify features that distinguish healthy cassava from plants with CBSD as early as 28 days post inoculation on a susceptible and a tolerant cultivar. Application of the device has the potential to increase farmers' access to healthy planting materials and reduce losses due to CBSD in Africa. It can also be adapted for sensing other biotic and abiotic stresses in real-world situations where plants are exposed to multiple pest, pathogen and environmental stresses.The advent of digital technology has been making an impact on growing number of areas including agriculture. There is a pressing need for better management of limited resources and optimisation of cultivation practice, including early detection of plant diseases. While end-point PCR is often the preferred diagnostic method for detection of viral nucleic acid in field-collected samples, it is dependent on expensive instrumentation, time consuming and often cannot reliably detect virus early in infection, as seen for cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) 1 . Imaging technology has been applied to the analysis of plant conditions and nutrition levels, either based on visual traits or certain spectral properties reflected by the conditions or diseases 2 . Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and multispectral imaging (MSI) have become increasingly available and affordable techniques that offer many advantages over conventional RGB imaging. RGB imaging has been used to recognise visual symptoms of the disease 3 , while plant nutritional conditions and metabolic or biotic changes due to disease may be reflected in certain spectral wavelengths beyond the RGB channels [3][4][5] . These subtle signs in vast amounts of spectral and spatial imaging data can be successfully detected using advanced machine learning techniques. With the rapid advancement of imaging sensors, MSI systems have become smaller and are able to be applied in real-time and in-field 6 . This paper describes the application of a custom built active MSI (A-MSI) device and a machine learning method that leverages both spectral and spatial information of the imagery data for early detection of CBSD.Cassava, Manihot esculenta Crantz, produces starchy tuberous roots and is one of the important staple food crops in the developing world 7,8 . It is cultivated primarily by smallholder farmers. Cassava production in Africa is limited by two viral diseases, cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and CBSD. Together these diseases cause severe economic losses and threaten food security 9 . CMD has been extensively studied and sources of endogenous resistance have been identified and deployed [10][11][12][13][14][15][16] . Unfortunately, many farmer-preferred cassava cultivars, like the CMD2-resistant cultivar TME204, are highly susceptible to CBSD. CBSD, which was first reported in the coastal areas of Tanzania 17 , has emerged recently as serious threat to food production 14,18 . The rapid spread of www.nature.com/scientificreports/ CBSD throughout east and central Africa resulted in research targeting development of new cassava cultivars that are resistant to both CBSD and CMD 8,[19][20][21] .CBSD is caused by two closely related RNA viruses, cassava brown steak virus (CBSV) and Ugandan cassava brown streak virus (UCBSV), in the Ipomovirus genus of the Potyviridae family. These viruses are transmitted from plant to plant by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci 22 . The viruses are also propagated from one season's crop to the next through the use of stem cuttings obtained from infected plants. CBSD typically induces only mild foliar symptoms that can be difficult to discern. The subtle symptoms can make it difficult even for experts to identify infected plants in the field, and the call is often complex and based on many visual cues. However, the tuberous roots of infected cassava plants have prominent necrotic lesions that can spread throughout the entire root structure, rendering it inedible. Because the necrotic lesions or root rot are only discovered when cassava is harvested, farmers often do not know that their crop is infected with CBSD until harvest at 9-12 months after planting.Although considerable effort has been devoted to the search for strong sources of resistance to CBSD, the progress has been slow because of the lack of a rapid, reliable method for diagnosing CBSD during early stages of infection. Historically, diagnosis is based on subtle symptoms 23 and scoring requires visible symptoms characteristic of established infections and does not distinguish resistant from tolerant plants. The use of molecular techniques to screen for the presence or absence of viral RNA has only recently been implemented in a few African national research programmes because of the technical requirements, cost, and time constraints involved in screening large numbers of plants 8,21,24 . To address these constraints, we have developed an active multispectral imaging (A-MSI) sensor system enhanced with machine learning as a screening platform for virus infection.Multispectral imaging of plant viral infections generates massive amount of data. Machine learning techniques have become the most efficient means of extracting useful information from the wealth of the data available and for detecting the underlying relationships between certain mechanisms or functions under study and a large number of contributing parameters. Our previous studies 25,26 have used feature selections and a novelty detection classifier to distinguish healthy sugar beet plants from rust-diseased plants or stressed from control Arabidopsis plants using laboratory-based hyperspectral imaging systems. Performance was significantly higher than conventional vegetation indices such as NDVI (the normalized difference vegetation index).In the study reported here, an A-MSI device and machine learning were combined to probe the early detection of CBSD. Such an approach alleviates the burden of using an expensive and precise MSI system. Machine learning techniques can effectively make sense of plant conditions even with a low-cost, compact and less precise MSI device. Combining spectral and spatial features of the scans, machine learning identified significant differences at a high confidence between healthy cassava plants and plants inoculated with UCBSV in four experimental trials. The approach reliably detects CBSD much earlier and in a faster and much less invasive manner than endpoint PCR. The integrated handheld device with advanced machine learning should make it possible to detect disease in cassava fields early in the growing season, at a time when farmers can replant with virus-free cassava cuttings and should improve the efficiency of the work of cassava breeders in selecting for resistance to CBSD.Experimental settings. In three independent trials, we used the cassava cultivar TME204, which is susceptible to CBSD, to generate three treatment groups-control, infected and mock-inoculated (18 plants in each group, except for Trial 1-see Table 1). The infected group was inoculated with plasmid DNA corresponding to an infectious clone for the UCBSV Kenyan isolate 125 [27][28][29] . The mock group was inoculated with an 'empty' control E. coli plasmid using the same protocol and the untreated group was not subjected to inoculation. All of the plants were grown together in an insect-free plant growth chamber for the duration of each experiment. The three treatment groups were visually indistinguishable at 7, 14 and 21 days post inoculation (dpi) (Fig. 1, panel B). At 28 dpi, a few plants (15%) inoculated with UCBSV displayed very mild symptoms on a single leaf. For plants showing symptoms, their severity slowly increased over the next 8 weeks. By 87 dpi, all of the plants in the UCBSV-inoculated treatment group displayed symptoms with an average symptom score of 2.6 (out of 4), highlighting the mild nature of the symptom phenotype (Fig. 1, panel A). UCBSV infection was confirmed in 10 plants at 88 dpi by end-point RT-PCR of viral RNA (Fig. 1, panel C). We did not analyze viral RNA in the other 8 UCBSV-inoculated plants because the RcbS positive control could not be amplified from the samples. Viral RNA could also be detected at 52 dpi in some plants but with variable results. During the timeframe of the experiment, no symptoms were seen on plants in the other treatment groups and the RT-PCR results were negative for the control and mock groups. These results indicate that inoculation was highly efficient, consistent with the original report of this infectious clone 29 , but do not guarantee that 100% of plants in the virus-inoculated group were infected. Some of the classification results presented below were therefore done using only the 10 plants with PCR-confirmed infection (\"Trial 2 with PCR\").A single leaf (usually the second visible leaf from the apex) from each plant was screened using the A-MSI device, producing leaf images across 14 wavelengths. Twelve small patches were automatically cropped out from random spatial locations in the leaf area of each image at each wavelength, avoiding the leaf clapping grids and main leaf veins. This represents a simple approach to considering spatial variation in contrast to using the whole leaf for classification. Cropped patches were of various sizes, varying from 16 × 16 to 48 × 48 pixels, which covered sufficient spatial variations. Examples are shown in Fig. 2.Performance for cassava disease detection. From each cropped patch region of a scanned leaf across the wavelengths, a variety of spectral and spatial features were extracted and investigated, including six vegeta-  Details of various vegetation indices are given in the \"Methods\" section. Support vector machine (SVM) was used as the classifier, along with various information fusion schemes, including the proposed probabilistic decision fusion method (ProbDecFus) for more reliable classification. For example, spatial-spectral fusion combines spatial features (MRF) and spectral features (e.g. patch-based spectra) for classification or integrates classifiers built on spatial features and classifiers built on spectral features. Details of various schemes are described in the \"Methods\" section. Performance for detecting CBSD in TME204 has been investigated with various methods described in the \"Methods\" section for utilising these spectral and spatial features as well as classifier fusions, divided into to the following three categories, with corresponding results at 28 dpi shown in Table 2. For each of the three groups or pairs (control vs. infected, mock vs. infected, and control vs. mock), results are divided into the following three subgroups.1. Conventional spectral methods (1st two rows in the table, i.e. Vegetation indices and Spectral reflectance (whole leaf)). In the vegetation indices method, each of six VIs was calculated and averaged from cropped patch regions and six VIs were then concatenated for classification. The spatial reflectance (whole leaf) method refers to using the averaged spectral reflectance (spectrum) from each leaf. 2. Spatial-spectral methods (next two rows). Spectral reflectance (patch-based) refers to using patch-based spectra for classification. Instead of using averaged spectra from entire leaves, patch-based spectra represents Table 2. Classification accuracy (%) at 28 dpi on leaf scans of three trials of Cassava-TME204-UCBSV and one trial of Cassava-Kiroba-UCBSV. 'Trial 2 w PCR' of Cassava-TME204-UCBSV denotes the classification results of the models re-trained only on those leaves that were later confirmed of infection with PCR at 88 dpi. the simplest spatial-spectral approach. The spatial-spectral fusion (patch-based) method refers to the use of concatenated patch spectrum and MRF texture parameters for classification. 3. Spatial-spectral and classifier fusion methods (the remaining five rows). Decision fusion (average) refers to fusion of three classifiers trained on VIs, spectral reflectance and MRF texture parameters extracted from patches. The patch-based voting scheme regards a leaf as infected when at least half of the patches extracted from the leaf are classified as infected. The scheme was used with either spectral information (spectral reflectance (patch-based voting)) or spatial-spectral information, i.e. concatenated patch spectrum and MRF parameters (spatial-spectral fusion (patch-based voting)). The proposed probabilistic decision fusion method (ProbDecFus) combines VIs, MRF texture features and spectral reflectances to generate reliable classification. When the method is used on patches, we refer to it as ProbDecFus (patch-based). When it is used with patch-based voting, the method becomes ProbDecFus (patch-based voting).For a fair and comprehensive comparison, we separately trained the classifiers on three pairs of sample sets: control versus infected, mock versu infected, and control versus mock. A leave-one-leaf-out scheme was adopted in Trial 2 and Trial 3 of TME204 as the numbers of leaf samples in the three conditions (control, infected and mock) were 18:18:18. Trial 1 of TME204 however had unbalanced sample numbers (24:12:12). We therefore randomly selected half of the control leaves each time and then performed the leave-one-leaf-out training. The random selection process of control samples was repeated at least 5000 times and the averaged classification results were produced. For finding the best hyperparameters of the SVM in each training, we randomly chose half of the training samples as the validation set and optimised the SVM classifier using the grid search algorithm.As shown in Table 2, at 28 dpi the proposed ProbDecFus with patch-based voting achieved a classification accuracy of 87.3% for Trial 1, 98.5% for Trial 2 and 93.6% for Trial 3 on control versus infected. The methods using patch-based spatial information (fusion or not) greatly boosted classification compared to using the whole leaf. Using additional MRF texture features further improves and stablises the performance. For the \"Trial 2 w PCR\" results, the classifiers were trained only from those leaves with detected UCBSV by end-point RT-PCR (Fig. 1, panel C). The similarities between this column and \"Trial 2\" column confirm the effectiveness of the A-MSI device and classification method in detecting CBSV at 28 dpi.The progressive detection performances on Trial 1 are shown as an example as it has the longest time course. Figure 3 depicts the classification results of various methods over leaf samples at 7, 28, 53 and 88 dpi. These graphs illustrate again that combining spatial and spectral information gives an edge over other ways of utilising the available information and significantly outperforms the use of vegetation indices. It is worth noting that although MRF is a powerful model for describing spatial dependence, it does not deliver convincing results when used alone.Performance on a tolerant cultivar. The CBSD tolerant cultivar, Kiroba 30 , was also tested in a single trial to verify early detection of CBSD. Eighteen plants in each group (control, infected and mock) were used in the trial using an experimental procedure similar to that for TME204 as described before. Scans of the leaves took place at 14, 26, 53 and 91 dpi. No clearly visible symptoms were observed during the course of the trial. Classifications between control versus infected, mock versus infected and control vs. mock were performed and results of 28 dpi are shown in the \"Kiroba\" column of Table 2. Performances across all time courses are plotted in Fig. 4. As can be seen these results are in line with that of TME204, indicating early CBSD detection at 28 dpi in a tolerant, asymptomatic cultivar. While at 14 dpi, most classifiers, except for Vegetation Indices, whole leaf and MRF, can already separate with over 70% accuracy between the infected and control. After 28 dpi, classification performances do not seem to increase further, unlike in the case of TME204; this could be well due to the tolerant nature of Kiroba and its restrictive virus accumulation 30 .Several technologies have been used for diagnosis of plant viral diseases, including, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) 31 , and PCR. All three have been used to detect CBSV and UCBSV, with PCR being the most widely used. RNA isolation from non-model plants like cassava is often technically challenging, whereas the scanning approach described here does not require RNA isolation. To date, the high cost and need for laboratory resources have been prohibitive for mass deployment of these technologies for real-time, in-field detection of CBSD. Imaging offers an alternative to indirectly sense subtle biological changes reflected in plant leaves as a result of viral infection. Such an approach is almost instant once configured and can be portable, hence offering the potential for widespread, low-cost deployment. The results in this study also show that such changes can be detected at a very early stage, well before symptoms emerge, whereas end-point PCR depends on viral RNA accumulation to detectable levels, which occurs later in infection. Across the three trials of TME204, the available common sampling points were at 7, 28 and 53 dpi, as shown in Table 1. Trials 1 and 3 were also scanned at 14 dpi and detection of differences was also highly probable (> 80%). Further optimization of the spectral profile of the A-MSI device may enable still earlier detection of CBSD. In principle, early detection of infection in primary whitefly-infected leaves could even enable removal of infected tissue before the virus can move systemically thus eliminating infection to preserve the yield of individual plants.Machine learning approaches for analysis of MSI data can effectively even out inaccuracies of the imaging to some extent. Even with intuitively chosen wavelengths, as compared to those strictly optimized through many rounds of cross-validation process, machine learning has proven useful and effective. This in principle is in line with its broad deviation from the traditional orthogonal approach to information processing. With an active MSI system, more crop or growth conditions could be investigated using the modulation properties of various wavelengths of electromagnetic spectrum in response to metabolic changes in the organism, as well as translucent properties of the plant leaves, extending the imaging approach from spectral and spatial to temporal and transitive. We are optimistic that refinements of this approach in future field trials may be useful for early detection of infection in a wide range of crop pathosystems.To further demonstrate the generalizability of the developed spatial-spectral machine learning method to other HSI/MSI applications, a public benchmark HSI dataset was used. The Indian Pine dataset is a HSI image dataset on land coverage 32 . Each image is of 145 by 145 pixels with a spatial resolution of 20 m covering 16 different crops, provided in the ground truth reference as detailed in 32 . The dataset was captured by the AVIRIS sensor at the Indian Pines test site in June 1992. The data contains a subset of a full scene that covers portions of Northwestern Tippecanoe County, IN, USA. The dataset is widely used in HSI analysis for validating classification efficiency. Comparisons with the state-of-the-art methods are presented in Table 3. The classification was performed using a 5-fold cross-validation strategy, and repeated 10 times to achieve satisfactory precision. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) were used on the extracted spectral-spatial features. The baseline model, named 2D-CNN, consisted of seven main blocks (architecture: 1 × 20-(8C3-8C3)-16R3-32R3-64R3-128R3-256R3-(512FC-16FC)). The first block used two convolutional layers, each containing 8 filters of 1 × 3 with zero padding. After subsequent five residual blocks, two fully connected layers were used with a softmax layer to produce probabilistic output over each class. Batch normalisation was inserted in each convolutional layer between the convolutional and ReLU activation. A max-pooling layer was also inserted in each residual block after the addition function. The developed spatial-spectral Net ( SSFNet 2D ) had the same architecture as the baseline except that the input was further combined with MRF texture parameters extracted from the 25 × 25 surrounding neighbourhood of the centre pixels. The networks were trained using the Adam optimiser for 200 epochs with a batch size of 4. The learning rate started at 0.001 and was decreased using the polynomial scheduler. Again, the inclusion of spatial features was beneficial, resulting in more accurate and more stable classification results. prototype, developed at the e-Agri Sensors Centre, the University of Manchester, was used to obtain the data presented in this study. The sensor system exploits a modified proprietary digital imaging detectors appropriately engineered within the active optical assembly, also to enable the vastly overlapping 'Nth-order' molecular vibrational harmonics, from the near-infrared and visible 2D time-series data, to be deconvoluted. Isotropic illumination is achieved, with minimised specular reflectance, via a combination of an integrating hemisphere, optical diffuser and appropriately arranged narrow-band semiconductor sources (LEDs). The latter cover 15 wavebands using 10 LEDs per waveband, at the wavelengths detailed in the Table 4. Custom drive electronics are then used to enable the multispectral frames to be compiled within a parallel processing unit (NVDIA Jetson Nano). The variant of A-MSI adopted in the study is distinct from more traditional passive multispectral imaging (MSI) systems 38 as closed-loop control of the illumination power at each detection band enables highly repeatable measurements to be undertaken with significantly greater signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) than that by a filtered or dispersive-element based passive MSI sensor-system. This is due, in part, to the variability in illumination angle, spectral composition and polarisation of ambient illumination. The prototype instrument used in the study is shown in Fig. 5, which depicts the as-built unit and the inset measurement chamber, relative position of the LED array, and camera assembly within the integrating hemisphere. The system automatically calibrates the illumination level for each band at the start of each scanning process.Kiroba) were originally provided by J. Ndunguru (Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute). Import and containment of plant cuttings and the UCBSV infectious clone (pLX-UCBSVi) followed international, U.S. (Depart- ment of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service), and institutional guidelines. Plants were propagated at 28 °C in a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle. For each experiment, 18 plants at the 6-leaf stage were inoculated under the apical meristem area using a microsprayer and 40 psi helium to deliver gold particles coated with plasmid DNA 39 (Venganza, Inc.). Each plant was inoculated with 1.67 μg of plasmid DNA corresponding to pLX-UCBSVi (infected) 28,29 or pUC119 (mock). pLX-UCBSVi contained an E35S expression cassette driving transcription of UCBSV Ke_125 (GenBank accession KY825166 27 ). Untreated plants (18) were not subjected to the inoculation treatment. Plants were monitored for symptoms and were scored on a scale of 1 (no symptoms), 2 (small yellow blotches on 1 leaf), 3 (yellow blotches on two leaves), and 4 (yellow blotches and yellowing along veins on multiple leaves). TME204 samples (1 mg) were collected at 88 dpi near the petiole of leaf 2 (relative to the plant apex), flashfrozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at − 18 °C. Leaf samples were ground in a Retsch Mixer Mill, followed by RNA extraction using a Qiagen RNeasy Plant Mini kit. RNA concentration was measured using the Qubit RNA  BR Assay Kit (Invitrogen). cDNA was synthesized in reactions containing 0.5 μg total RNA, oligo d(T)18 mRNA primer (60 μM), RNasin (40 U/μL), dNTPs (10 mM), and M-MuLV reverse transcriptase (200 U/μL) using the following conditions: 5 min at 25 μC , 60 min at 42 μC, 20 min at 65 μC. cDNA (5 μL) was amplified in PCR reactions comprising 10 pMol primers, 10 mM dNTPs, and Hot Start Taq polymerase (NEBioLabs). UCSBV RNA was amplified across the 3′ NIa-Pro and 5′ NIb coding sequences using the primer pair-UCBSV-F (GGG TTC CAT AGT GGT GTG ATTAG) and UCBSV-F (CTC GAA CTG GCT CAT TGT ACTT). The cassava RbcS transcript (Manes.05G137400.1), which served as a positive control for mRNA and cDNA quality, was amplified using the primer pair-RBC-1 (CTA CTA TGG TGG CTC CGT TC) and RBC-2 (CCG TTC AGT CGG AGA AAC TC). Both sequences were amplified for 30 cycles using the following conditions: 95 °C denaturation for 60 s, 51 °C annealing for 60 s, 68 °C extension for 60 s. The PCR products were resolved on 1% agarose gels. The UCBSV products were purified using the Qiagen PCR purification kit and verified by Sanger sequencing.Cassava leaf MSI acquisition. Leaves were detached from the TME204 plants at 7, 28, 53 and 88 dpi and from Kiroba plants at 14, 26, 53 and 91 dpi. The adaxial and abaxial surfaces of each leaf were scanned using a handheld multispectral imaging instrument. The leaves were sampled from the same position on each plant (leaf 2 or leaf 6 counting from the plant apex). The plants were also scored for symptom development at the same dpi using a scale from 1 (no visible symptoms) to 4 (severe symptoms). Details of the experimental design are shown in Table 1.In the experiments, multispectral scans of cassava leaves were sampled by automatically cropping out patches. Twelve patches were cropped out at random spatial locations of the leaf region from each leaf scan. For spectral analysis, the number of pixels from the cropped leaf area were averaged over each wavelength range to reduce the variability in pixel intensities and produce the spectral signature. Examples are shown in Fig. 2. Such patch-based spectral information represents the simplest approach to consider spatial variation. Averaged reflectance across the entire leaf was used for comparisons, in which leaf segmentation was performed and average reflectance calculated.The spectral signatures from each cropped patch were extracted and averaged to calculate empirical VIs. Based on the 14 wavelength bands provided by the A-MSI, six empirical indices were extracted and analysed to study plant properties and conditions. The primary formulation is the Carter index (CI), a strong indicator for plant stress, which measures the ratio between reflectance at 695 nm and 420 nm 40 ,The modified chlorophyll absorption in reflectance index (MCARI) measures the depth of chlorophyll absorption at 670 nm relative to the green reflectance peak at 550 nm and the reflectance 700 nm 41 , The optimised index transformed chlorophyll absorption in reflectance index (TCARI) was studied as being more sensitive to chlorophyll content, thus avoiding the influence by canopy and soil reflectance values 42 , (1) CI = R 695 R 420 .(R 700 R 670 . The photochemical reflectance index (PRI) measures the normalised difference VI of reflectivity at 531 nm and 570 nm and has been developed for disease detection 43 , The disease water stress index (DSWI) is the ratio between reflectances at 550 nm and 680 nm 44 , And the healthy index (HI) 45 can be expressed by,The general idea of classifier/decision fusion can be summarised as merging multiple learners or classifiers to produce the best possible decision so as to enhance the prediction performance over a single classifier. By taking into account the outputs of all classifiers, combinations of multiple classifiers minimise the risk of choosing a weak classifier, stabilise results of random classifiers and increase the robustness of the decisions 46 . Classifier/decision fusion has been an active research topic in machine learning since the late twentieth century and much of the effort has been devoted to combining classifiers for decision making in several pattern recognition applications [47][48][49][50] . Typically, in a multiple classifier system, there are two general approaches to obtaining the final decision 46 :1. Selection: Assuming complementary classifiers, only a single selected classifier contributes to the final decision. 2. Fusion: Assuming competitive classifiers, the integration of all classifiers determines the final decision.Based on the output information of classifiers, fusion can be divided into three levels 51 :1. Abstract level: Each classifier only outputs the predicted class label for each input. An abstract level combiner includes weighted or unweighted versions of the majority vote. 2. Rank level: For each input, classifiers rank all labels or classes and produce a list of possible predictions. 3. Measurement level: Instead of class labels, each classifier outputs the probability or confidence score for each class. The measurement level contains the most information among these three levels, making it possible to incorporate with various combiners (e.g. average, maximum, minimum and product), by using either selection or fusion methods.Various methods in the literature are also concerned with how the final outputs can be combined. Majority vote is the simplest and most used combiner, in which the ensemble of classifiers choose the class that receives the highest number of votes. The fusion scheme for the unweighted majority voting can be described as, where {θ 1 , θ j , . . . , θ C } are the C possible classes that an input is to be assigned to, L denotes the total number of classifiers, ŷi,j is the predicted output of the ith classifier for the jth class, and ŷ represents the final decision. In cases where each classifier contributes unequally to the fusion output, a weighted majority vote scheme can be employed by associating a weighting w i for ith classifier, and the decision becomes, Apart from the majority voting, multiple rules can be applied at the measurement level 49,52 . The maximum, minimum or average rule finds the maximum, minimum or average probability of each class among the classifiers and assigns the input to the class with the maximum score among the maximum, minimum or average scores, respectively. These rules can be expressed as,where P(θ j |x i ) represents the estimated probability for input x that the ith classifier output x i belongs to the jth class θ j . Similarly, the product rule multiplies the probabilities or confidence scores generated by each classifier and assigns the class label with the maximum score to given input pattern, Markov random field texture analysis. As a fundamental image property descriptor, image texture models brightness variations in a local neighbourhood. Furthermore, image texture features are associated with various image properties such as orientation, coarseness and smoothness and quantify the spatial arrangements of pixel intensities in an image or an image region. Texture-based image analysis has been shown to be helpful in various applications such as remote sensing, medical imaging and industrial inspection. MRFs are generative, flexible and stochastic image texture models, in which contextual dependencies and spatial interrelationships are established among image pixels or other correlated features 53 . Due to the random nature of imaging and noise, pixels are naturally considered as random variables that are conditionally related to neighbouring variables. As undirected probabilistic graph models, MRFs not only specify the conditional dependencies between these random variables, but also interpolate the joint probability distributions with useful potential functions 54 . MRF based texture analysis plays an important role in modern texture modelling and synthesis [55][56][57] as well as helps visual interpolation and image understanding 54,58,59 .A typical Gaussian MRF model is a stationary noncausal two-dimensional autoregressive process that can be expressed by a set of difference equations 53,60 as where r is the relative position with respect to central pixel s, and {e s } is a stationary Gaussian noise sequence with zero mean and standard deviation σ 2 characterised by where β r is the model parameter describing the relationship between pixels f s and f s+r . All the parameters β r in the neighbourhood system N s form the parameter vector β.In model-based texture methods, model parameters can be used as features for distinguishing textures. Model parameter estimation plays an significant role in analysing image properties and the least squares estimation is commonly used to estimate Gaussian MRF models 60 . The quadratic difference between the centre pixel and its neighbours can be defined asThe least squares problem can be resolved by a close-form solution, where f s+r represents the neighbouring pixels of f s .ProbDecFus: probabilistic decision fusion. Support vector machines (SVMs) are commonly used machine learning algorithms for classification and regression. Given training vectors X = {x (1) , x (2) , . . . , x (N) } = {x (k) } N k=1 ∈ R M×N and its corresponding class labels Y = {y (1) , y (2) , . . . , y (N) } = {y (k) } N k=1 , the ν-SVM 61 solves the quadratic optimisation problem where ω denotes the weight vector, b is the learning bias, ξ is a non-zero slack variable, and ν is the regularisation parameter that controls the trade-off between smaller training errors and larger margins. ν ∈ (0, 1] represents an upper bound on the fraction of training margin errors as well as a lower bound of the fraction of support vectors 61,62 . Training vectors x i are mapped into a high-dimensional space by function φ though the kernel trick K(x (i) , x (j) ) = φ(x (i) ) T φ(x (j) ) . A radial basis function (RBF) is a typical kernel function  where γ is the kernel parameter. Hence the predicted class labels Ŷ = {ŷ (1) , ŷ(2) , . . . , ŷ(N) } = {ŷ (k) } N k=1 can be obtained through the decision function, where α k is the Lagrange multiplier.In addition to predicted class labels, it is also possible to obtain an estimated probability for each class, P(θ j |x (k) ) , by minimising the negative log likelihood and optimising the quadratic problem 62-64 . In this study, three independent SVM classifiers were constructed based on the spectral reflectances, VIs and MRF spatial features, respectively. The spectral reflectance profiles, x (k) 0 , extracted from selected areas of leaves, were averaged within the regions over the entire wavelengths. The empirical VI information, x (k) VI , refers to the concatenation of six VIs (CI, MCARI, TCARI, PRI, DWSI and HI) calculated on the spectral reflectance. The MRF spatial features, x (k) MRF , were produced by estimating the texture parameters in each of the selected area. The classifier built on the spectral reflectances was considered as the baseline model, and we proposed a probabilistic decision fusion scheme, ProbDecFus, for integrating spectral and spatial information for further classification. Firstly, we calculated a threshold value µ based on the classification accuracy of the validation set ( acc val ), where, Then according to the probability estimations, the final classification results were generated by weighting and fusing the three classifiers using (18) K x (i) , x (j) = exp − γ �x (i) − x (j) � 2 , γ > 0, ","tokenCount":"5632"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a1f3a8b461c8e37c91cb6fcfb230af78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c07d36d-697a-44c4-b920-6178336834af/retrieve","id":"696168412"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9cede87d-d5d4-4c7e-adbc-a31f99444e54","pagecount":"24","content":"ii Characterization of the livestock feed resources and potential for enhancing dairy productivity in Bwacha, Choma District, Zambia CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust FundProcess and sample description 2Farming systems 3Livestock production system 7Major income sources 9Major feed sourcesFurther reading iv Characterization of the livestock feed resources and potential for enhancing dairy productivity in Bwacha, Choma District, Zambia Tables Table 1: Female respondents for individual interviews by farm size.                Figure 16. Dietary contribution of crude protein (CP) to the total livestock feed by source in Bwacha.Figure 17: Gender division of labour in feed production, harvesting, and feeding practices on farms in Bwacha, Choma District.Figure 18: Gendered decision-making on crops and feeding.The Gendered Feed Assessment Tool (G-FEAST) was implemented to characterize the livestock production systems in Choma District of Zambia, specifically in the Bwacha Dairy Cooperative. The G-FEAST tool combines both qualitative and quantitative research approaches to identify if farmers communities perceive feed as a problem and the potential solutions. The G-FEAST exercises elicit the viewpoints and perspectives of women farmers in the community regarding feeding practices and general crop and livestock production. It considers the pitfalls that households face, such as the labour burden on women and their limited access to, and control over, resources.The Bwacha Dairy Cooperative Society is in the southwest part of Choma town about 13 km from Choma town. Bwacha is part of the greater cattle corridor in Zambia. Agricultural production in the district is classified as traditional extensive cattle production characterized by large farms, poorly developed grazing systems, unimproved grasses, and large herds of cattle. Over time, cattle production has gradually changed from predominant beef production to dairy production. There are a number of dairy cooperatives developed through the Government of Zambia and development partners such as the GIZ, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Ministry of Livestock. The G-FEAST exercise was conducted on 10 March 2021 at Bwacha Dairy Cooperative. This report presents the findings of the assessment and conclusions for input into interventions that the GIZ in Zambia wish to implement to improve feed resources for smallholder livestock farmers and ultimately enhance the dairy value chain.A scoping exercise was conducted with the help of the local livestock officer to identify individuals and groups involved in livestock farming in the project sites. One gendered focus group discussion (FGD) of 20 women was carried out separately. The G-FEAST exercise lasted for 5-6 hours and was held in community settings selected for the convenience of the respondents. Thereafter, nine respondents were selected for individual interviews from the group. Selection of the participants for individual interviews was based on different wealth categories using landholding as a proxy. This was considered for both male-headed and female-headed households. The composition of the sample is shown in Table 1. The group had a facilitator. A woman facilitator led the women G-FEAST session. Before each session an oral speech seeking permission for the interviews from farmers was given in the local language. Farmers agreed to the discussions and gave consent before the sessions commenced. Each session had a note-taker to record the proceedings and a timekeeper to manage time as well as take photographs. Subsequently, the notes were transcribed into English in a hard copy notebook.Table 1: Female respondents for individual interviews by farm size.Small farm size (<30 ha) 3Medium farm size (30-80ha) 3Large farm size (30-300) 3Total 9Farming systemsThe farming system in the area is primarily state-owned mixed crop and livestock system. Average farm sizes in Bwacha area of Choma District are about 80 ha (197 acres), with most of the land being used for grazing and smaller proportions dedicated to crop production (both food and fodder crops). The average household size is six people per household. Figure 1 presents farm sizes by gender of the household head. We can observe that across the three land holding categories, men and women own land. The largest proportion of female-headed households falls in the medium-scale farms category whereby female-headed household have on average 50 ha of land. This implies that women in Bwacha own land just as men do. Farm size by gender of household head female Table 2 indicates the land size in terms of gendered ownership. It shows that half of the farms in the community are less than 30 Ha and that 80% of these small farms belong to female headed households. Further, 40% of farms fall in the medium scale category which ranges from 30 to 80 Ha. A disaggregation by gender of the medium scale farms revealed that only 30% of such land belonged to female headed households. Lastly, the remaining 10% of land comprises farms that measure between 80 Ha and 300 Ha where 20% of the land is owned by females. This suggests a pattern where females are less likely to own larger pieces of land compared to males. The female landowners are mostly found on the medium and small categories. According to the focus group discussion, it showed that most of the people owning land are males i.e. 56.7% of land owned belongs to men. Common land tenure systems in the study sites are statutory land or individually owned land. Total 100In the study site land is held in leasehold systems whereby farmers have bought land from the government (both local and national). Figure 2 shows land ownership by gender within a household. The results indicate that men and women own most of the land jointly. However, in some households land is individually owned either by a man or woman. In few households, women own land that is less than 6 Ha. Households in the area commonly grow a variety of food crops as shown in Figure 3. The most dominant food crops include Maize (Zea mays), Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and sweet potato (Ipomea batatas). Maize is the most dominant cultivated food crop with average of 7 ha committed to its cultivation. It can also be noted that Female-headed households are more likely to cultivate Cowpea and Sweet potatoes compared to male headed households.  Agricultural production is heavily dependent on Rainfall. Rainfall levels are generally adequate to support agricultural activities during the major cropping season of the year. The average rainfall received in the areas ranges from 600mm to 800 mm per annum. However, with Choma being in a drought prone area, farmers reported that over the years, unpredictable weather patterns have threatened reliance on rain-fed agriculture. It has also threatened livestock production, which relies heavily on grazing of natural grasses and bushes. Table 3 shows the rainfall pattern by season. The first cropping season of the year for farmers is called 'Mainza', which is characterized, by heavy and moderate rain.It starts in November through to May. The most common farming activities during this time include ploughing, seeding and weeding. The second cropping season is the cold season, which is characterized coldness with no rainfall. The cold season starts in late April to the end of July. Major crop farming activities during this time include harvesting, shelling, storing and marketing the produce. The dry season is referred to as 'cilimo or ciindi ca kupya'. During the dry season, farmers plant vegetable gardens, market their products and prepare their land for cultivation.Labour is not always available as and when required by farmers. The minimum monthly labour cost is ZK3, 600 and the maximum rate is ZK5, 400. The labour costs vary according to the type of farming activity. Labour become scarce during the planting season because farm labourers are in high demand, and they also need to attend to their own fields. The scarcity of labour is also in part due to rural urban migration by the youth looking for jobs in towns.The percentage of youths migrating from Bwacha is over 60% with male youths in the majority. Additionally, there is a difference in the wage rate paid to men compared that paid to women. Figure 5 shows that on average, a woman would earn about (USD0.002/hr) compared to a woman who earn (USD0.03/hr). This could imply men are paid more because they are perceived to work either longer hours (deliver more work) compared to women, or they are preferred to do some activities such as tilling and cattle herding. Local dairy cattle are the most dominant type of livestock kept by livestock farmers in Bwacha. The most dominant breed is local and crosses for milk production. Figure 6 shows that other livestock types kept include goats and fattening and draught cattle. Most cattle are kept for milk production and sale as fattened cattle for beef. Goats are mainly kept as a source of income through sale of live animals for goat meat. The men dominate in the keeping of local dairy cattle and women dominate in keeping improved dairy cattle, and on keeping goats. In Bwacha, male-headed households dominate in large ruminant cattle production and mainly for beef production compared to female-headed households that mainly keep improved dairy cattle for milk production. Poultry and small ruminants are mainly kept by women. Livestock, especially cattle, are mainly grazed in open pasture fields most of the day. However, farmers feed their animals with supplements and with cut-and-carry fodder such as Napier grass on feed troughs from late afternoon. Supplementary feeding is mostly reserved for dairy cattle. Nevertheless, in the dry season when feed is scarce and grazing lands are dry, supplementary feeds are extended to other types of livestock too.The most common livestock diseases include foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and tick-borne diseases. Farmers rely mainly on public and private veterinary officers in the area. Public veterinary officers are much cheaper than private veterinarians but are not readily available. Farmers sometimes supplement veterinary services with traditional veterinary 'doctors' services. The women reported that artificial insemination (AI) services are readily available with a score of 50/100. However, majority of farmers (over 50%) often rely on bull services. Farmers in Bwacha mostly use improved breeds of bulls such as Friesians and Jerseys. Some of the challenges with bull services is inbreeding. Farmers reported that AI inseminations sometimes do not work but the women farmers reported only rare cases of repeat AI services.The women farmers said that there are challenges in accessing the input services because of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has increased the cost of inputs resulting from restricted importation. The services relied on by the women farmers include extension and vaccination. Women and men equally listed similar input suppliers implying both men and women are knowledgeable about the needs in livestock production. This can be attributed to efforts made by private players in extending projects encompassing livestock production to the community. The trend is reflected in the decision-making process in either household whereby men and woman make most decisions jointly or individually (Figure 7). Women in Bwacha also own livestock and are actively involved in livestock management decisions. Women and men are just at the same level in terms of ownership of livestock. The main sources of financial service (credit) include banks, village saving and loan associations (VSLAs), savings and credit cooperative societies (SACCOs), dairy cooperatives, and local moneylenders ('shylocks'). Women and men said credit is obtained for purchase of land, medicines, farm inputs and other household needs. Informal credit sources dominate in the credit share compared to formal credits sources. The conditions of accessing credit vary according to the source. Some of the common conditions for obtaining credit for agricultural production include providing guarantors, national identification, and membership in case of a SACCO or group. Credit access challenges affect both men and women according to the women. Both women and men are members of Bwacha Cooperative and so terms and conditions attached to credit access equally affect both. Members of Bwacha area find it hard to access agricultural inputs on the basis that the inputs are expensive and the transport of inputs from the CBD to the area is not very reliable.Figure 8 presents major sources of household income in Bwacha, Choma District. The results indicate that livestockrelated activities, predominantly dairying, contribute the highest share of household income. Dairying contributes the highest share within the livestock category (54%). Cropping (food crops) contributes about 43% to household income. This mainly includes sale of maize, cowpeas, sunflower, sweet potatoes and groundnuts. Business gives about 3% to the household income.Figure 8: Primary sources of household income by category.Cropping 43% Livestock 54%Figure 9 shows relative contribution of major sources of income to household and women's income. Dairying provides 31.11% of the total household income, poultry contributes 10%. Fattening animals, food crops 21.67% and cash crops 22.22% contribute the highest share of household income. Dairying contributes the highest share to women's income. Women also derive income from fattening of sheep and goats. The figure indicates that women are not overlooked when money comes in from the sources.Figure 9: Relative contribution of income sources to household and women's income. Figure 10 indicates that men make decisions on income from dairying, fattening animals, cash crops and food crops. In some households, the decision for the enterprises is joint between the man and spouse. In other households, women make most decisions on cash crops, food crops and in a few households on dairying. Women also make decisions on cash crops, dairy, food crops, poultry and do not dominate. Decisions on fattening animals are made jointly and it is common for the men and women of Bwacha to work together as couples to decide on the use of household income.Figure 10: Gendered decision-making on major sources of household income.  A look at income from the sale of livestock shows that men and women make most decisions jointly on the sale of large ruminants, but women have a larger role in these decisions. In relation to the milk prices, the women and men make decisions jointly and decision making is equal for both genders. Joint decisions are employed when it comes poultry, while men take the lead in making decisions on milk sales, small ruminants and pigs. There is, however, joint decision-making in the sale of livestock and milk (Figure 13). This implies there is a lot of inclusivity in decision-making on income from livestock.Figure 12: Gendered decision-making on sale of livestock and milk. Figure 1 7shows different roles of children and youth, women, and men in forage production activities. Men dominate inland preparation, processing of feed, purchasing of feed, transportation and mixing feed ingredients. Women are mostly involved in planting, weeding forage crops, harvesting and storing of feeds, feeding, watering and storing of feeds. Children and the youth are mainly involved in collecting of off-farm forages, cleaning livestock feeding and watering facilities, collecting off-farm forages, feeding, harvesting and watering. In general, all household members provide considerable labour in the production and management of forages and livestock. This indicates that there is gender division of labour in the activities done Figure 18 shows the decision-making roles between men and women regarding crops and feeding. It is evident that in a household, both men and women make joint decisions about what to grow, where and how. With respect to decisions relating to feeds (what to grow) men are the lead decision makers. However, women are involved either as sole decision makers or in joint decision-making on how to use crop residues. The graph typically shows that women are considerably involved decision making at household level regarding the purchase of feed, what fodder crops to grow and where they are grown as well as how to use the crop residue.Figure 18: Gendered decision-making on crops and feeding. Several farmers in Choma District are dairy producers and cattle fatteners in traditional extensive systems. The introduction of improved forages species in existing pastures should be encouraged to enhance the productivity of their livestock. The farmers also need to be exposed to forage that can contribute to the diet of animals hence improving on milk production. Farmers should also receive training on basic animal health, better use of forages, and balanced feed ration formulation for increased livestock production. Hygiene training should also be emphasized to promote milk production.","tokenCount":"2838"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b09625ec1c36180bb279d0181810dba7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/83f1d5e9-03e7-4c7e-a0c0-a83a487b9352/retrieve","id":"-1141335555"},"keywords":["Destructive sampling","dry matter accumulation","Musa spp-AAB","plant girth","plant height"],"sieverID":"965b046e-6ae9-455f-8dc8-f70daf7a4c3a","pagecount":"8","content":"Allometric relationships have been used widely as a fast approach to estimate biomass and leaf area in many plant species without destructive sampling. Several allometric functions have been developed to estimate above-ground biomass (AGB) in field-grown East African Highland Bananas (EAHB). However, it is not clear if these functions apply to potted apple bananas hence the need for this study. Plants were randomly selected from different treatments to make a representative sample (n=60) across the range of plant heights and vigor in the trial. For each plant, one fully expanded and unfurled leaf was randomly selected to measure and record its length (L) and width (W) at the widest point. The leaf was drawn to scale on squared paper to determine its true area, which was later compared with the area estimated as the product of L, W and an allometric correction factor. The existing and developed functions were evaluated qualitatively using unit plots and quantitatively using the root mean square error (RMSE) and squared correlation coefficient (r 2 ). Girth at 30 cm (G-30) was the best (p<0.001 and R 2 = 89%) input variable for estimating apple banana AGB. It was recommended that leaf area for the potted apple banana plants can be estimated using the existing function but the developed function should estimate AGB with G-30 as the independent variable.Biomass accumulation and leaf area of a plant are key indicators for plant growth and productivity (de la Riva et al., 2016;Lemaire et al., 2019). Leaf area is important in processes like photosynthetic light absorption, carbon uptake and assimilation, transpiration of water, and emission of volatile organic compounds (Fleck et al., 2012). Conventional methods for determining plant biomass accumulation involve destructive sampling, which is undesirable in some studies requiring repeated measures on the same plant (Stevens et al., 2020). On the other hand, the shape of most plant leaves renders ordinary mathematical formulae for determining area rather cumbersome, yet leaf area is an important variable affecting light interception, and hence photosynthesis and carbohydrate production. The use of a correction factor has been advanced to enable estimation of leaf area from conventional formulae for area determination with simple leaf dimensions such as length and width (Awal et al., 2004). Allometric functions have been widely used as a fast approach to estimate biomass and leaf area in the fields of forestry, ecology and horticulture (Nyombi et al., 2009;Ma et al., 2020) without destructive sampling. Allometry is the quantitative relationship between relative dimensions of parts of an organism and its overall size (Gayon, 2000;Niklas, 2004). In trees and bananas, the relative dimensions are usually the easily measurable plant parameters such as girth at the collar (or base), diameter at breast height (DBH), plant height, leaf width and length, and a number of functional leaves (Nyombi et al., 2009;Okore, 2014;Stevens et al., 2020). These parameters have been used to accurately estimate accumulated plant biomass in trees, forage species, coffee, cocoa, mango, soybean, black pepper and bananas among other crops (Tittonell et al., 2005;Kamusingize et al., 2017;Lemaire and Belanger, 2019), leaf area of Grande Naine bananas (Potdar and Pawar, 1991) and East African highland bananas (Nyombi et al., 2009;Stevens et al., 2020).Girth at breast height (DBH) is the commonly used predictor variable (Shem et al., 2013;Kamusinginze et al., 2017) for estimating plant biomass. Other parameters used include girth at the base (Yamaguchi and Araki, 2004;Nyombi et al., 2009), and girth at 100-cm (Wairegi et al., 2009) and use of plant height (Kamusingize et al., 2017). Generally, the equations developed to fit in the general linear equation (Equation 1) with girth as the best predictor variable although they do not agree at what point of girth measurement.(1)Where, y is biomass (corm, leaves, above-ground or total biomass) in kg, x predictor variable-girth (at base or breast height or at 1m), a and c are constants.These functions have been used in predicting biomass accumulated in East African Highland cooking bananas but have not been tested for applicability to apple bananas. For this study, functions developed by Nyombi et al. (2009) predicting total biomass, above-ground biomass, the mass of leaves, and the mass of corm (Table 1) were evaluated for applicability in potted apple bananas since these were young plants of less than 100 cm in height. This was necessary because the accuracy of allometric functions' prediction is species-specific since morphological traits vary with plant species and crop nutrition (Lemaire et al., 2019). Within a diverse species such as bananas, allometric relationships may be expected to differ between cultivars or clone sets of the same species or cultivar (Stevens et al., 2020).East African highland bananas exhibit morphological traits that markedly differ from those of apple bananas (Karamura et al., 2012). More so, these studies have been done on field-grown banana plants, whose morphology differs from that of small potted plants.Diameter at breast height (taken at a height between 100 and 130 cm above the ground) was considered as the best explanatory variable for prediction of biomass in several species (Shem et al., 2013;Kamusingize et al., 2017), yet potted plants with confined rooting volume might not attain such height. Therefore, there was a need to test the applicability of existing allometric functions for estimating aboveground biomass and leaf area of potted apple bananas.The broad objective of this study was to identify allometric functions that are suitable for estimating above-ground biomass and leaf area in young potted apple banana plants.(1) To test the existing allometric functions for predicting above-ground biomass and leaf area on potted young apple banana plants.(2) To develop suitable allometric functions for predicting above-ground biomass and leaf area of potted young apple banana plants, if none of the existing functions proves suitable.The study was carried out in Kifu Forest Reserve (00°28'N and 32°44'E at an elevation of 1250 m above sea level). The climate at the Kifu is warm-humid with an average temperature of 25°C and precipitation of 1560 mm per annum distributed in two seasons (March -June, and August -November) (Ochola et al., 2014).A pot experiment was carried out in a screen house set up in Kifu Forest Reserve. Tissue culture plantlets of apple banana (Sukali ndizi) were planted in pots containing 10 kg of sterilized soil. Potassium was applied at 150 kg ha -1 from inorganic fertilizer (Muriate of Potash, 60% K 2 O), manure and Potassium solubilizing bacteria (KSB). Dry manure was used at a rate equivalent to 150 kg ha -1 and Frateuria auranta was used as the biofertilizer containing the potassium-solubilizing bacteria at a rate of 1 L ha -1 . The inputs were applied at planting in full factorial combination resulting in 7 treatments (3 sole inputs, 3 binary combinations of the inputs, and 1 with all the 3 inputs integrated) plus a control that constituted the trial. That is, T1-no input (control), T2-MOP alone, T3-Manure alone, T4-MOP and Manure, T5-KSB alone, T6-MOP and KSB, T7-Manure and KSB, and T8-MOP x Manure x KSB. These were replicated 3 times in a randomized complete design. The experiment was kept weed-free through hand weeding. The pots were kept well-watered at all times.Sixty plants were randomly selected from all treatments and control such that the sample space spanned a wide range in vigor ln y = χ + a ln(x) 0.68 §Based on ln y = c + a ln(x); where y is the biomass (corm, leaves, above-ground or total biomass) in kg, x is the predictor variable-girth (at base or breast height or at 1m), a and c are constants.†Based on AAct = CF × L ×W: where AAct = actual leaf area; CF = correction factor; L is length of the leaf and W is the width of the leaf at the widest point of the lamina.Plate 1. Biomass separation by component masses (leaves, pseudostem, corm and roots. and morphological traits. The selected plants were further randomly split into two subgroups of 30 plants each. The first subgroup (calibration subgroup) was used in deriving allometric functions for estimating above-ground biomass and leaf area correction factor for estimating leaf area from leaf length and width observations. The second subgroup (evaluation subgroup) was used to evaluate the performance of the generated allometric functions or leaf area correction factor and also to test the reliability of suitable existing allometric functions and correction factor on young potted apple banana plants.For each selected plant, a count of functional (over 50% of the lamina still green and petiole still attached to the pseudostem) and dead leaves (less than 50% of the lamina still green or detached from the pseudostem) was done. Girth at the collar and 30 cmheight and plant height were also recorded. The plants were then carefully uprooted from the pots, washed to remove all soil without losing any roots and excess water mopped off before weighing individually using a digital weighing scale (±0.1 g) to determine total fresh weight. The different biomass parts (roots, corm, pseudostem, and leaves) were separated from each other using transverse cuts as shown in Plate 1. The fresh weight of each biomass part was taken on a digital scale and recorded separately for each plant. Thereafter, a sample was taken from each biomass part and its fresh weight taken on a digital scale and recorded before placing it in a uniquely labeled paper bag for oven drying to constant weight.After oven-drying to constant weight, the ratio of the sample dry weight to the sample fresh weight was multiplied by the total fresh weight of the biomass part to obtain the dry matter content of the biomass part (Bi et al., 2001;Kamusingize et al., 2017). The dry weights of all biomass parts for a given plant were then summed up to give the accumulated total dry weight for the plant sampled.From each plant, a leaf was randomly sampled after taking the total fresh weight of the leaves for the plant. The length (L) of the leaf was measured as the distance between the apex and the point of attachment of the leaf lamina to the petiole and recorded. The width (W) of the leaf at the widest part of the lamina was also measured and recorded. These were used to determine apparent leaf area (AApp) as a product of L and W. The width of the lamina was taken at two leaf points A and B (ensuring that the ruler was perpendicular to the leaf's horizontal axis) where A was 2 cm from apex and B 2 cm from point of attachment of the lamina to the petiole. The lamina between points A and B was then divided into 10 segments, at each of which width was recorded. Using a suitable scale factor along with the length and width data, the shape of the leaf was drawn on a size A4 squared paper by joining the points demarcating the known leaf widths (Table 1). The actual area (AAct) of the leaf was then determined by the summation of full and truncated squares.The observed biomass per plant was regressed on their corresponding values predicted (Piñeiro et al., 2008). The performance of each selected allometric function was assessed by comparing the deviation of the slope from 1 and the deviation of the intercept from 0 using t-tests in GenStat 19 (Baird et al., 2017). The performance of the existing allometric functions were further evaluated using the normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) and squared coefficient of correlation (r 2 ) as computed from Equations 2 and 3, respectively (Taulya, 2015).(2)(3)Where, xio and xip are observed and predicted values for the i th sampled plant, respectively and \uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC65 0 is the mean of observed values for a given morphological input variable in a sample space of n plants.Data were natural log-transformed to fit the assumptions of linear regression before running a simple linear regression analysis in GenStat 19 (Baird et al., 2017). This generated allometric functions whose accuracy and precision were assessed using the evaluation dataset as described above for the existing allometric functions.The observed leaf area (AAct) was regressed on the apparent leaf area (AApp) to estimate the correction factor as the slope of this regression according to Equation 4.(4)The resulting allometric equation was evaluated for accuracy and precision on the testing dataset following the procedure described above for evaluating the existing allometric functions. All significant results are reported at a 95% confidence level.Using girth at the collar (GC) and constants derived by Nyombi et al. (2009) gave statistically significant estimates of biomass (Table 2). However, from the unit plots, the existing functions under-estimated AGB by 15%. The total biomass and corm mass estimates were half the observed values while the leaf biomass estimate a quarter of the observed values (Figure 1).All predictor variables; girth, pseudostem height, and number functional leaves were significantly related to above-ground biomass in apple bananas. However, the number of functional leaves recorded a low regression coefficient (R 2 ) and a high standard error of estimate as compared to other variables. Girth at 30 cm height and girth at the collar recorded significant estimations (p<0.001) for total and above-ground biomass. Pseudostem height also recorded significant estimation of above-ground biomass and total biomass (p<0.001) but with low correlation coefficients of 50.4 and 35.2% for above-ground and total biomass respectively. Aboveground biomass gave a strong regression coefficient in estimating total biomass of 94% (Table 3). A comparison of observed above-ground biomass and the predicted biomass against the 1:1 plot is presented in Figure 2A-D and Figure 3A-D. Girth at 30 cm height and Girth at the collar gave the most suitable estimates of above-ground biomass with coefficients greater than 96%. Functional leaves produced the weakest coefficient of estimation at 65% while a plot of estimates using pseudostems gave higher values than expected. Girth at the collar, girth at 30 cm, pseudostem, and above-ground biomass was also used in estimating total biomass. A comparison  AGB is above-ground biomass (pseudostem biomass +dry weight of leaves), TB is total dry biomass (AGB + root biomass + corm biomass), GC-girth at collar, G30-Girth at 30cm height, FL-functional leaves, PL-Pseudostem height (cm), SEE-Standard error of estimation. Equation; lny = a ln(x) + c. **R2>80%, * R2>65%.against the 1:1 plot is presented in Figure 3A to D.True leaf area was estimated by a leaf area correction factor of 0.68 from the apparent area (Figure 4A). A comparison of true area and estimated leaf area using the determined leaf area correction factor produced a strong positive correlation between the parameters (Figure 4B).The previously developed equations to predict aboveground biomass in EAHB did not accurately predict above-ground biomass of young potted apple banana plants. The equations gave higher predicted estimates than expected (Figure 1 A-D). This could be due to the distinct morphological differences between EAHB and apple bananas. Apple bananas generally have thin pseudostems that support a small bunch of fruit of about 8 kg (Karamura et al., 2012), unlike the EAHB which has stout pseudostems meant to support heavier bunches of fruit. It is also possible that the generated allometric equations could not predict biomass accurately in apple bananas because they were generated on mature plants and included more components that were not catered for in this study.The leaf area correction factor for apple banana was found to be 0.68 and an R 2 of 0.98 (Figure 4A.). This was comparable with what was reported for EAHB (Nyombi et al., 2009), but lower than 0.84 reported in other banana varieties in India (Potdar and Pawar, 1991). Potdar and Pawar (1991) did not explain the protocol used in their study and also did not indicate the width and length range used. The leaf area correction factor generated by Nyombi et al. (2009) for EAHB of 0.68 on the other hand accurately predicted leaf area in apple bananas (Figure 4B). The correction factor by Nyombi et al. (2009) gave accurate predictions possibly because the shapes of banana leaves do not much differ between the mature and potted young plants.The results obtained in this study indicated that girth at 30 cm height was the best predictor variable followed by girth at the collar to accurately predict above-ground and total biomass, p<0.001 and R 2 ranging from 65 to 90%. These results are in agreement with what was obtained by Okore (2014) who found significant above-ground biomass estimation in young and old forest trees using girth at 30 cm height. Kamusingize et al. (2017) found girth at 100 and at 130 cm height to accurately predict total biomass in banana cultivars, Enyeru, Nakinyika, and Nakitembe. The same study identified that girth at collar was not an accurate predictor variable for the total biomass which contradicts the findings of Nyombi et al. (2009). Girth at 130 cm height was also found to accurately  predict above-ground biomass in forest trees (Ketterings et al., 2001).It was suggested by Kamusingize et al. (2017) that in absence of girth at breast height (taken at 130 cm height) as in the case of young plants, which were used in this study, pseudostem height could be used as an alternative variable to estimate above-ground biomass. However, this was not the case in this study.The pseudostem height gave moderate estimates of above-ground biomass R 2 50%. Contrary to the studies of Ma et al. (2020) where leaf area accurately predicted biomass of Fritillaria przewalskii, functional leaves did not accurately predict above-ground biomass in apple bananas. This study proposes girth at collar as an alternative variable to estimate above-ground biomass in young plants in absence of girth at 30 cm height. This study also indicated that above-ground biomass can accurately be used to estimate total biomass of the entire plant at R 2 94%. This could be because above-ground biomass constitutes the biggest percentage of total biomass than below-ground biomass (Okore, 2014).Allometric functions developed for EAHB to estimate biomass did not accurately predict in young apple bananas. The above-ground biomass was predicted by variable parameters in the order G-30> GC> PL>Functional leaves. However, the same leaf area correction factor can accurately predict leaf area in both EAHB and apple bananas.To predict above-ground biomass in young apple bananas, girth at 30 cm height was a better parameter than either pseudostem height or girth at the collar. For estimation of above-ground biomass and total biomass in the subsequent studies, allometric equations having girth at 30-cm height as the predictor variable should be considered since it was consistently better than others in this study. Allometric functions developed for EAHB should be further tested on field grown apple bananas to ascertain their applicability. It is recommended that these developed functions be tested for applicability and reliability on grown apple banana plants since they were developed using young ones.","tokenCount":"3106"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"46a8d866aea9c6b0c0aeb9c2cd158364","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/31a60064-9924-452a-ac51-d4c0f2a78018/retrieve","id":"1715418560"},"keywords":["Bioversity International/G. Meldrum Kutki millet. Credit: Bioversity International/G. Meldrum Via dei Tre Denari","472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino)","Italy Bioversity Int./G. Meldrum"],"sieverID":"b7fb5570-3795-4b3e-835c-1ad8d6278ae2","pagecount":"4","content":"Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) and kutki millet (Panicum sumatrense), also called little millet, are small-seeded cereals and among the oldest cultivated crops in South Asia. These cereals have the ability to grow on dry and marginal lands and at the same time produce grains superior in many nutrients to paddy and wheat. Despite kodo and kutki millets' many valuable properties, their cultivation, consumption and marketing remains underdeveloped compared to other cereals in India. There are indications that consumer demand for small millets is growing in more urbanised centres like Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Chennai and southern India due to a growing awareness and value of health, nutrition, going back to roots and ecoconsciousness. Little is known of the current status and opportunity for marketing of small millets in Madhya Pradesh, where kodo and kutki are cultivated largely in tribal belts on marginal lands.A value chain assessment was carried out in 2017 by Bioversity International, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, and Action for Social Advancement to fill this knowledge gap and to explore current opportunities and constraints for improving marketing of small millets in the region. The research took its point of departure in the farming communities in Mandla and Dindori districts, then followed the crops to the district cities, Jabalpur, Bhopal, and beyond. The assessment was carried out using semistructured interviews to collect information about and perceptions from stakeholders This value chain analysis was completed by E.According to the agricultural department in Madhya Pradesh, the area of cultivated kodo and kutki in Mandla and Dindori districts was around 60,000 ha in 2016 but it has been in decline as compared to historic levels. In the study, 30 producers in Mandla and Dindori districts were interviewed to understand perceptions and trends for millet cultivation. The majority of millet producers interviewed emphasized the strong importance of kodo (67%) and kutki (72%) to their livelihoods. The yields estimated for last years' kodo production ranged from 75-500 kg/acre (mean 252 kg/acre) and that of kutki for the same period ranged between 100-240 kg/acre (mean of 188 kg/acre). Estimated paddy yields by comparison ranged from 25-1500 kg/acre (mean of 413 kg/acre). Elderly farmers reported decreasing trends (88%) for the cultivation of small millets, mainly as a result of shifting to other crops (38%) and declining rainfall (38%). The majority of younger producers also noted declining production of kodo (50%) and kutki (62%) in recent years. The major reasons noted were drought (30% kodo; 63% kutki) and pest issues (50% for both kodo and kutki). For kodo, problems with ants cutting the panicles were observed, whereas for kutki the major pest was burrowing worms. Pests were observed to first attack sesame and later spread to the millets, as these species are often intercropped. Lack of seed for kutki was mentioned as a major reason for its decline, especially for the white kutki variety (sabhat) that cannot withstand drought. Despite these issues, a considerable number of producers had increased production of kodo (30%) and kutki (25%) in recent years. The reasons for increasing production were increasing price and awareness of health benefits, increasing yields, and increasing family need.A total of 66 consumers were interviewed in six markets and commercial centres in Mandla and Dindori districts, as well as Jabalpur and Bhopal. The results showed that in the rural areas of Mandla and Dindori, kodo and kutki have a very important subsistence role for tribal communities, who prefer them equally or more than rice. They consume kodo and kutki mainly as rice and kheer (a kind of porridge). Children like the taste of millets and especially prefer the kheer recipe for its sweet taste. In Mandla town, consumers were aware of millets but showed a stronger preference for paddy rice because of its greater availability, lower price, ease of processing, and preferred taste. Consumers in the cities of Bhopal and Jabalpur were, by contrast, largely unaware of kodo and kutki millet and consequently they did not use these crops. Interestingly, the urban consumers were aware of another small millet called moredhan (Echinochloa colona), which is consumed as a fasting ('bhagar') food.Consumers overall had mostly positive associations with small millets as good, healthy and nutritious food and there was a willingness among many to increase their consumption. The rural consumers encountered in the markets were mainly accessing millets from their own production or purchasing them directly from farmers. More rarely they were purchasing them from tribal market retailers. In Mandla town, Jabalpur, and Bhopal, consumers were accessing millets (mostly moredhan) from grocery shops and retailer shops.The bulk of farmers' millet yield is consumed domestically but for some households, small millets also contribute to income. Half the producers surveyed were selling part of their production. Farmers estimated they consume 20-60% of their millet harvest and sell the remaining amount to local retailers, the local markets (shandy), to neighbours, or to local farmer producer companies who have recently been engaged in commercialization of millets. The unprocessed millet that farmers sell on the shandy is bought by buyers from the regional market (mandi) who accumulate the grains and sell them to bigger buyers, often in neighbouring States. The value chain analysis in fact revealed that small millets from Mandla and Dindori are largely transported to Nasik, Maharashtra where there is a major aggregation point for small millets coming from across the country. Several processing centres were found there that produce bhaghar from small millets. Some local farmer producer companies and federations in Mandla and Dindori have been working in recent years with the support of NGOs and government programmes to improve the value chain of small millets. Such initiatives have shortened the chain between farmers and bigger buyers. Farmer producer companies supported by Action for Social Advancement have engaged in aggregating grains and selling cleaned and graded grains in bulk. Other local initiatives have engaged in production of value added products of millets. One of the brands found stocked in specialized shops, grocery shops and supermarkets in the towns of Mandla and Dindori was from the Kanha Krishi Vanopaj Producer Company (Kanha KVPC) that locally sources and processes millets. The company has been facilitated under the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM). Another notable brand of millet value added products is by self-help groups linked to the Tejaswini Rural Women Empowerment Programme, which is a government supported federation of Women's Self Help Group based in Mehandwani town. Kodo millet rice was the most common value added product found in the districts.Stakeholders interviewed reported that millet products are becoming more popular in Mandla and Dindori as nontribal customers get to know about its nutritional properties and aptness for diabetic diet. For instance, a seller in Mandla reported an increase of kodo and kutki millets sales from 15 kg to 120 kg per month during the last five years. The increased awareness of their health benefits also increase the willingness for consumers to pay higher prices for the processed products. In Mandla city, in the specialized shops, prices up to Rs.85/kg for kodo and Rs.115/kg for kutki could be found.Despite a growing awareness and availability of value added products of small millets in Mandla and Dindori, the marketing of millets was still found to be quite low in urban centres of Madhya Pradesh. The team did not find a single restaurant serving kodo and kutki millet based food items in all the areas surveyed. This may be related to millets still being stigmatized as \"food for the poor\" and thus not perceived appropriate to serve in a restaurant. In Bhopal and Jabalpur it was not easy to find shops, even specialized or organic food shops, selling kodo and kutki millet and the products found were often sold unbranded. One of the few shops selling minor millets in Jabalpur was an organic shop selling 40-50 kg of kodo and kutki millet per month. With a shelf life of only three months after processing, a demand for kodo and kutki millet is needed before sellers would invest in millet products. According to a vendor with considerable experience in trading millets in Jabalpur, the quality of processed millet from Dindori and Mandla districts were rather poor, resulting in sellers prioritizing more expensive millet of higher quality sourced from other far off areas. While specifically, kodo and kutki products were not easily found in these cities, bhagar food was found in grocery shops and outlets with retail prices ranging between 100-120 INR/kg (wholesale 74-80 INR/kg).Madhya Pradesh is one amongst the states in India with the poorest level of nutrition: 60% of the children are underweight compared to 43% at national level. Kodo and kutki millets provide good sources of phosphorus and iron and higher protein content than rice. Because of this high nutritional value and their capacity to even thrive on poor quality soils under water-limited conditions, small millets have great potential to help alleviate nutrition insufficiencies in the State. MinorIndia. Yet, in Mandla and Dindori, kodo and kutki continue to hold an important subsistence role for tribal communities. The development of the value chain for these crops can be a viable income earning opportunity for these producers, while also contributing to a more nutrition-sensitive and climateresilient agricultural production.The study revealed that consumers in Madhya Pradesh have fairly positive associations with millets as good, healthy and nutritious food and there is a willingness to increase millet consumption. Nonetheless, in the cities a lack of awareness about kodo and kutki millets and their positive values is a main challenge for limiting consumer demand. Advertisements and other awareness raising activities could be an effective means to stimulate interest among urbanites to consume small millets. Millet crops have recently received a lot of national and international attention as traditional gluten-free superfoods. This renewed perception further enhances the potential for these cereals to be reasonable economic investment for smallholder farmers in India, while improving local livelihoods, nutrition and resilience. Local farmers have the opportunity to take advantage of this momentum before distant suppliers take actions to meet the growing demand.Urban consumers in Madhya Pradesh are mainly consuming small millets as a fasting food. The main species consumed for this role is moredhan, while kodo and kutki could also be suitable for this role. The study showed that millet production from Mandla and Dindori is largely transported to Nasik, Maharashtra where there exist several processing centres that produce bhagar food. The packages of bhagar food produced by these processors do not always indicate the species of millet. The brands of such fasting food found on the shelves of local supermarkets in Madhya Pradesh were primarily produced in Nasik, which implies a large inefficiency in the value chain with high transport costs shipping 1000-1100 km to Nashik and back (transport estimated at up to 1.4-1.8 Rs/kg kodo and kutki millet with several loading charges and commissions). A locally produced fasting food could overcome this inefficiency and enable the farmer producer companies to market at a competitive price relative to the established brands.Low yields, especially under increasing drought risk, are a major challenge limiting the contribution of small millets to farmers' livelihoods in Mandla and Dindori. Introducing new varieties of millet is acknowledged as an important strategy for adapting to climate changes. Generally low genetic variety exists among millet producing farmers in the study area. Some improved varieties have been released that have much better performance than local varieties, but adoption has been fairly low. Recent efforts of farmer producer companies supported by ASA in Mandla and Dindori have been aiming to raise seed availability for high yielding varieties. Further action to promote adoption of these improved varieties, as well as following enhanced cultivation methods, can be key for overcoming many of the bottlenecks faced in minor millet production.Minor millets are today important for the livelihoods and food security of the farmers cultivating the crops and they have the potential to maintain and even further regain importance in the future as a modern and healthy alternative to rice. These benefits should be appropriately tapped by the tribal farmers who traditionally have refined the cultivation technics of kodo and kutki millets through centuries and for whom such millets have immense food and cultural values. By supporting local production and market of millet in Dindori and Mandla district, this area can again become one of the important centres for millet production in India. Efforts by government and NGOs towards conservation, cultivation, consumption of millets is appreciable, but a stronger and more focused approach is needed to arrest the decline of cultivation area and revive the consumption of millets by giving it a respectable tag of crop that is adapted to the environment of the districts and healthy food for all.Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future.Bioversity International delivers scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity to attain sustainable global food and nutrition security","tokenCount":"2152"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6c31627d448031892b35ba61c73f92df","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/442cb6bd-ea3a-44d9-9078-430e4e780b9c/content","id":"311379261"},"keywords":["climate change","resilience","geographic information system","food and water security","dryland agriculture","adaptation"],"sieverID":"51b7024c-e2d5-4159-869e-cf027fa7c9bb","pagecount":"13","content":"Optimal production areas of underutilized indigenous crops and their role under climate change: Focus on Bambara groundnut.Food demand in Africa continues to outstrip local supply, and the continent currently spends over US$ billion annually on food imports to supplement local deficits. With the advances in agronomy and breeding, commercial crops like maize (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max) in the region are under threat from climate change, decreasing rainfall and degraded lands. Unlike commercial crops that are generally adapted from other regions, underutilized indigenous crops are uniquely suited to local environments and are more resilient to climatic variations and tolerant to local pests and diseases. This study, done in Limpopo Province, South Africa, identifies optimal areas for cultivating Bambara groundnuts (Vigna subterannea), an indigenous crop suitable for arid and semi-arid regions. The aim is to promote the production of underutilized indigenous crops at a large scale with fewer resources, while still meeting local demand and reducing the food import budget. Suitability maps are delineated using a multicriteria decision method in a Geographic Information System (GIS). The procedure is important for diversifying farming systems, making them more resilient (to biotic and abiotic stresses and climate change) and more successful at enhancing water, food and nutritional security. With the province's limited water and land resources for agriculture expansion, promoting indigenous underutilized crops is a pathway to reduce water allocated to agriculture, thereby enhancing drought resilience and ensuring water, food and nutritional security. Large tracts of degraded agricultural land deemed unsuitable for adapted crops, and which may require costly land reclamation practices, can be used to cultivate underutilized crops that are adapted to extreme local conditions.Underutilized indigenous crops are locally produced crop species primarily grown in particular native communities but have been losing their popularity as they have not been mainstreamed into the main food system (Mabhaudhi et al., 2019a;Jahanshiri et al., 2020). They cover a limited area that is neglected in terms of research and are consequently underfunded due to their limited importance in the global food market (Chivenge et al., 2015;Akinola et al., 2020). However, they are often characterized by their resilience and adaptation to extreme climatic and edaphic conditions and have local significance (Padulosi et al., 2011;Stamp et al., 2012;Akinola et al., 2020). Indigenous crop varieties are bestsuited to local environmental conditions, and farmers' needs in marginal agricultural situations (Mabhaudhi et al., 2016). Their low input requirements give them an economic advantage over commercial crops like maize (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max), rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Chibarabada et al., 2017). Current changing environments in southern Africa, characterized by extreme droughts and a shortening rain season, favor indigenous crops (Mabhaudhi et al., 2019b;Nhamo et al., 2019). Historically, they have always helped ensure food and nutrition security as part of a balanced diet, when adapted crops fail, or in between harvests (Tadele and Assefa, 2012;Mabhaudhi et al., 2019b). They provide important vitamins, proteins, and micronutrients and contribute to alleviating the challenges of growth stunting in children in developing countries (Chivenge et al., 2015;Akinola et al., 2020). Examples of priority indigenous underutilized crops suitable for southern Africa are shown in Table 1  (Mabhaudhi et al., 2017).Unlike commercial crops that require costly agronomic practices and a lot of water for their cultivation, underutilized indigenous crops are uniquely suited to local environments, are generally more resistant to certain climatic variations and more tolerant to local pests (Chivenge et al., 2015;Keleman Saxena et al., 2016). Therefore, focusing on the cultivating of indigenous crops is an alternative climate change adaptation strategy (Mabhaudhi et al., 2019b). Furthermore, the consumption of indigenous crops provides nutritional diversity for communities, provides crop rotation options for farmers, creates niche markets in local economies, harnesses and enhances local knowledge (Chivenge et al., 2015;Massawe et al., 2015;Lin Tan et al., 2020). They further provide opportunities to enhance agro-biodiversity at the field level, promote nutritional diversity, disrupt pest and disease cycles (Kahane et al., 2013;Kimani-Murage et al., 2021), and reduce water share allocated to agriculture (Mabhaudhi et al., 2018a). Thus, harnessing and mainstreaming local knowledge and traditional crop species and developing underutilized crop breeds have enormous potential to improve water, food and nutrition security (Padulosi et al., 2013;Adhikari et al., 2017;Gerrano et al., 2021).Regional and national policies in developing countries aim to increase the area under irrigation as a remedy to meet the food requirements of a growing population and ensure food and water security (CAADP, 2009;NDP, 2011). The increase in the irrigated area mainly targets commercial crops as they require more water than indigenous crops (Shelef et al., 2017;Fernández García et al., 2020). Although such initiatives of promoting commercial crops through the expansion of irrigation sound noble, the main challenges are water scarcity and land unavailability for an expanded irrigated area (Mancosu et al., 2015;Chibarabada et al., 2017). In South Africa, it is estimated that 98% of available water resources are already allocated, with over 60% of available water resources allocated to agriculture (Blignaut and Van Heerden, 2009;Von Bormann and Gulati, 2014). In southern Africa, more than 70% of available freshwater resources are used for agriculture, yet the region is regularly devastated by recurring food insecurity challenges (Nhamo et al., 2018;Ngcamu and Chari, 2020). Under such a changing environment, more emphasis should be on promoting the production of indigenous crops as they are suited to harsh local conditions (Stamp et al., 2012;Chivenge et al., 2015;Mabhaudhi et al., 2016). Indigenous crops are generally acceptable and appealing to local communities as they promote the preservation of culture and improve food selection and preparation concerning local people's needs and cultural values (Baldermann et al., 2016;Mabhaudhi et al., 2019b). Identifying suitable areas for cultivating underutilized crops is the initial step for their promotion, commercialization and mainstreaming into the main food system.Cropland suitability mapping is an assessment of land performance when used to produce specific crops (Jahanshiri et al., 2020). It is a prerequisite to achieving optimum utilization of the available land resources for sustainable agriculture production (FAO, 1976;Li et al., 2010;Hagos et al., 2022). Adaptation of crop growth to local agro-ecological conditions' capabilities and constraints is a key principle of sustainable land management (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014;Viana et al., 2022). Identifying optimum land for cultivating indigenous crops is critical for the conservation of environmental resources while at the same time achieving maximum yields (Eastman, 1999;Mabhaudhi et al., 2019b). Thus, cropland suitability mapping provides information for growing potential crops and deriving maximum economic benefits with lower production costs (Kihoro et al., 2013). It also facilitates better water and land management. As indigenous underutilized crops are the 'future food' (Baldermann et al., 2016), this study used relevant agroecological factors in a Geographic Information System (GIS) to delineate optimum areas for cultivating Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterannea (L.)] in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The objective is to provide a procedure to delineate optimum areas for cultivating indigenous crops as a first step to promoting and mainstreaming underutilized crops into the main food system, focusing on the Bambara groundnut.Bambara groundnut (Figure 1) is an indeterminate annual crop that grows close to the ground with seeds being produced underground (DALRRD, 2011;Gerrano et al., 2021;Khan et al., 2021). Being a highly adaptable legume, Bambara groundnut is grown in diverse agroecosystems and generally grows well under drought conditions (Mabhaudhi et al., 2013;Khan et al., 2021). Bambara groundnut has a low water requirement (Mabhaudhi and Modi, 2014), and has been identified as exhibiting all three categories of drought adaptation strategies which are escape, avoidance and tolerance (Mayes et al., 2019;Khan et al., 2021). However, the crop has a low tolerance for waterlogged soils and grows best in well-drained soils (Khan et al., 2021). Some varieties of Bambara groundnut exhibit tolerance to salinity (Mayes et al., 2019). Also, the presence of variation in photoperiod and temperature sensitivity among Bambara groundnut genotypes is a good indicator that there is room for improvement in varieties for adaptation in broad agroecological farming zones (Kendabie et al., 2020). Bambara groundnut has been identified as a potential future crop under climate change (Mabhaudhi et al., 2019b;Khan et al., 2021). In South Africa, Bambara groundnut yield and water productivity are projected to increase by ∼ 37.5% and 33% under climate change (DALRRD, 2011;Mabhaudhi et al., 2018a).The Bambara groundnut seeds are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, ash, fat, and micronutrients, making them a valuable source of nutrition for resource-poor farmers (Lin Tan et al., 2020;Khan et al., 2021). However, limited genetic improvement, poor milling characteristics, long cooking time, and anti-nutritional factors have resulted in the crop being underutilized (Lin Tan et al., 2020;Gerrano et al., 2021). Even though the crop is underutilized, the Bambara groundnut plays a key role in both food, and cultural practices of farmers in Africa and Asia and has been integrated into intercropping systems (Mayes et al., 2019;Lin Tan et al., 2020;Khan et al., 2021).The Limpopo Province of South Africa is the northernmost province, sharing international boundaries with Botswana, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe. The province (Figure 2) covers 125,755 km 2 , comprising 10.4% of the total national area. It has a population of about 6 million people (StatsSA, 2021). It has a varied topography, ranging from lowlands dominated by bushveld vegetation to imposing mountains rich in native forests and unspoilt savanna wilderness (Cai et al., 2017). The topography is divided into three distinct regions that define the climate and vegetation of the province. These include (a) Lowveld region (arid and semi-arid), (b) Middle-veld region (semi-arid region) and (c) Escarpment region (sub-humid climate with rainfall above 700 mm per annum) (Cai et al., 2017).Rainfall is received in the summer (October to March), averaging 500 mm per annum, whilst the other three seasons are generally dry. The eastern and northern parts are subtropical, with humid and hot summers. Average summer temperatures are around 27 • C. In winter (May to September), the nights are cold and mostly frost-free, with chilly mornings and dry, sunny days (Vincent et al., 2010). However, the Lowveld is very hot with temperatures often exceeding 45 • C. The province has abundant fruit and vegetable production as it is endowed with abundant agricultural resources. However, the most limiting resource for agriculture in the province is water, and most of the smallholder farms are under rain-fed agriculture (Oni et al., 2012). Both commercial and smallholder farmers contribute significantly to crop production, although many rural people still practice subsistence farming and are highly vulnerable to climate change.As knowledge of South African soils grew in the late 1960's and early 1970's, there was also a growing realization that, while the soils in many areas were wellknown and had been comprehensively sampled and studied, there was a real need for a comprehensive reconnaissance survey of the natural resources of the whole country (ARC, 2014). This would include the recording of soils, terrain and macroclimate information so that these three pillars of agricultural production would be addressed simultaneously. This survey, which became known as the Land Type Survey (Land Type Survey Staff 1972-2002), was systematically carried out by the Soil and Irrigation Research Institute (SIRI) of the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRARD), which in 1992 became the Agricultural Research Council -Institute for Soil, Climate and Water (ARC-ISCW) (ARC, 2014).The survey's fundamental mapping unit is the land type, which is a unique combination of broad soil pattern, terrain type, and macroclimate. Where any one of these three factors changes, a new land type unit would then be identified (ARC, 2014).The survey was carried out using 1:50,000 scale topo-cadastral maps as background, but it was always intended that the final product would be a series of maps at 1:250,000 scale. After the survey in 2002, a total of 7,071 unique land types had been identified, some of which had more than one occurrence. Therefore, over 15,000 distinct polygons were eventually defined and mapped (ARC, 2014). It is estimated that around 400,000 soil observations (mainly using a soil auger, but also including road cuttings, quarries, riverbanks, etc.) were made, which equates to approximately one observation per 400 ha across the whole country. This is more intense in the more productive areas, such as the Highveld and other eastern zones.In contrast, the drier areas and the more inaccessible mountainous zones were investigated at a noticeably lower detail level. However, every effort was made to physically cover as much of the landscape as possible (ARC, 2014). Therefore, it is important to note the following:• The Land Type Survey was carried out across the country, making South Africa probably the only country in Africa, and one of a select few in the world, that has systematic soil information of the whole surface area, backed by comprehensive analytical data.• The fact that specific principles and guidelines were established and written down (MacVicar et al., 1974;Laker, 2004) means that the survey was carried out to a consistently high, uniform standard throughout the almost 30 years of its completion.• There was a high degree of staff continuity, with several SIRI/ARC-ISCW employees being involved with the survey for almost the entire 30 years.The above factors mean that the Land Type Survey can be regarded as a high-quality, comprehensive product that has massively contributed to natural resource characterization, and agricultural productivity in South Africa, and continues to do so. As the only source of continuous natural resource data for South Africa, it is an important national asset.The knowledge that the land type data, comprising the boundary lines of each mapping unit (vector data) as well as the soil, climate and terrain data contained therein (raster data), could be digitized, and captured on a GIS was the most significant development since the start of the survey. Although this involved a significant amount of trial and error and a great degree of checking and correcting data, it had several advantages. Firstly, the data was available in a digital format, which meant it could be stored, manipulated, and interpreted. Secondly, each land type had a measured area, both in total extent and for the various component terrain types (crest, scarp, mid-slope, foot-slope, valley bottom), one or more of which occurred in varying proportions in every mapping unit. This meant that the estimated occurrence of the soil forms and series (derived from the ground-truthing exercise that comprised the land type field investigation phase), could be empirically linked to each terrain type and consequently to each full land type. This allowed for the determination of soil occurrence within a land type, or combination of land types, to be made.Even in the pre-digitisation era, there were various attempts to use land type data for a broad assessment of agricultural potential (Schoeman, 1978;Scheepers, 1984). However, with the advent of GIS and big data management platforms, it has become much easier to store, process and analyse large amounts of data. The first major initiative to use computerized data involved the concept of land suitability. The original concept derived from the USDA (Klingebiel and Montgomery, 1961) considered the allocation of land into one of eight general classes of suitability for rainfed agriculture, depending on the limitations in terms of a combination of soil (depth, structure, rockiness, etc.), climate (rainfall or temperature restrictions) or terrain (slope). The availability of soil data from the Land Type Survey and interpolated climate data from the Agrometeorology database (Laker, 2004) allowed the development of such a classification for South Africa.The land capability determination was done primarily through an algorithm, a computer-based, step-by-step procedure for calculations, data processing, and automated reasoning. An algorithm's advantage is that instructions can readily be adjusted, then rerun very quickly and efficiently, thus facilitating comparison of previous and new results. In this way, specific algorithms can be created for various crops and adjusted to differing production areas or scenarios (such as winter rainfall in the Western Cape vs. summer rainfall on the Highveld, rain-fed vs. irrigated conditions, and so on) to obtain a set of comparable results.The algorithm is determined as follows: Using a combination of local knowledge and yield results from a specific area, the various production parameters are determined. These include climatic factors (mainly rainfall and temperature), soil factors (such as soil form, effective depth and texture) and terrain (slope class). The algorithm for Bambara groundnuts, using information derived from all available sources, is shown in Table 2.Using local expert knowledge from various sources, such as the ARC, the maximum practical, sustainable yield for any crop is established and the type of yield reduction that would make a crop uneconomic and thus not sustainable (DALRRD, 2011). This allows the initial suitability classes to be established. In this case, four suitability classes (S1, S2, S3 and N) are shown (Table 2). Still, it may be logical to determine either a higher or lower number of classes per crop, depending on what is sensible Generalized description of soil category with a listing of the soil forms* according to the various factors involved. Climatic parameters can then be established, in this case, rainfall over the summer period and different temperature characteristics in the most important part of the growing season. However, other variables, such as evaporation or frost period, may also be used as required (and if available). The assumption is that the lower the rainfall and the more extreme the other parameters, the less suitable the area is for crop production.The ideal slope class is generally determined as being below 4%, with steeper slopes being both more problematic to cultivate and potentially posing an increased hazard for soil erosion. The various soils occurring within any land type are allocated into a specific soil category (as defined in Table 3). The soils listed in Table 3 comprise all of the soil forms occurring in the Binomial System (MacVicar et al., 1974), which was the system in use at the commencement of the Land Type Survey and was used for the whole project.The soils are logically grouped into seventeen categories, which are more or less sequential in terms of decreasing arable agricultural potential, due to a combination of factors such as texture, structure, drainage, and overall ease of cultivation. Generally, soils in categories 1-4 are those where limitations would be expected to be the least, categories 5-9 are more limiting but can still be used for production if other criteria are met, while categories 10-17 usually pose significant problems and are often not recommended for cultivation.When this soil category delineation is combined with effective soil depth (defined as the depth from the surface to any layer in the profile that is significantly limiting for root and/or water penetration), soil suitability can then be established. The hypothetical assumption is that the deeper the soil, the higher the suitability class. However, it is wellknown that in certain areas with low to marginal rainfall, coupled with light-textured soils, it is often advantageous to have a limiting layer (such as hard plinthite) at a specific depth range in the profile, to help with water retention in the root zone, especially in times of below-average rainfall. Such a scenario can also be built into the algorithm as needed.For an area to have the highest possible degree of suitability, all the relevant parameters (climate, terrain, and soil) of the algorithm must be met. If one or more of these parameters are not met, the computer uses the algorithm to determine which class the site must be placed. Suppose all parameters are met, except one, then the class will need to be adjusted downwards, and so the principle of the lowest common denominator will apply.Each land type inventory table is a list of all the soils occurring in that land type and their properties, along with the percentage occurrence of each one. Once the soil from a particular area is assessed in terms of the soil category group and the texture and depth information has been added, the algorithm uses the relevant slope and climate data and combines all these numerical combinations into one assessment per land type to determine relative occurrence percentages. The legend for the various crop suitability maps was designed so that firstly, all the high potential areas are determined and land types with >50%, 30-50% and 10-30% high potential land are identified (shown in shades of green in the map legend). If a land type contains <10% high potential land, the moderate potential areas are then assessed for the same percentages (shown in shades of orange/brown on the map) and so on.The main benefit of the crop-specific algorithms is that, once the user is satisfied with the results, the respective areas of each suitability class can quickly be calculated (this can also be done for a province, local or district municipality, drainage basin or other study area as desired) and comparisons can be made. This can be used by other specialists, such as agricultural economists, to determine potential profit margins for a specific area.The suitability algorithm results can then be shown on a map to obtain a graphic representation of the distribution of the various classes. To illustrate this, the results of the dryland (rainfed) Bambara groundnuts algorithm for the province are shown in Figure 3.According to the procedure used to develop the map shown in Figure 3, much of Limpopo Province has marginal or no suitability for Bambara groundnut production, mainly due to climatic restrictions. However, if the algorithm is run without the rainfall requirement (using soil and terrain only), the results are significantly different (Figure 4). Under irrigated conditions (Figure 4) there is a much larger area with suitable soils, but where the rainfall is to a greater or lesser degree, insufficient.As shown in Table 4, only around 22% of the province has moderate or high rainfed suitability and around 37% either has no suitability or falls within a national park. If rainfall is removed as a parameter (so that all moisture requirements need to be supplied by irrigation, the soil suitability situation is very different. In this scenario, around 30% of the province has some or other degree of high potential, with another 29% with moderate potential.However, the scale of the Land Type Survey (1:250,000) means that the maps show areas of dominance only and that significant variation will exist within many of the map units. Such variation needs to be addressed by more detailed field investigations, as and when required.Regarding degraded and/or eroded areas, land degradation is a challenging aspect to quantify. It is not easy to do from remote sensing (satellite) data since it takes many forms. Gullies (dongas) may be reasonably easy to delineate, but other aspects also occur, such as loss of topsoil, bush encroachment, soil acidification, and compaction. These problems usually need a detailed field investigation to even start to get reliable results.The National Land Cover Database, which has gone through at least three versions since the first one in the 1990's, has had various methods to determine degraded land. Due to differences in methodologies between versions 1 and 2, there was a 36% decrease in degraded land in Limpopo (GTI, 2015). In a recent update of the dataset, the category \"Degraded Land\" has been removed, so there are no up-to-date figures. One source of information is a project carried out by ARC in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Mararakanye and Le Roux, 2011) where every observable gully in South Africa was physically mapped. When the distribution of gullies in Limpopo (shown in black in Figure 5) is overlaid on the suitability map, it can be seen that there are significant areas in the province where this is a problem for cultivation as well as long-term environmental stability.There is a need for further research in many areas to quantify the various forms of erosion and soil degradation that will reduce agricultural potential. In this way, some quantification of these areas might be obtained.Delineating accurate suitability areas for the cultivation of crops is essential under climate change as it improves decisions on crop production and irrigation development to promote food and water security (Magidi et al., 2021b;Hagos et al., 2022). However, the main drawback in achieving accurate statistics on cropped area and the most suitable areas for specific crops has been the lack of reliable input data at reasonably high spatial resolution. There is more that still needs to be done on developing input datasets at acceptable spatial resolution as the current ones are too coarse to derive accurate statistics on spatial distribution and extent of irrigation (Magidi et al., 2021a). As the datasets used in this study may not be readily available in other regions, other crop suitability areas mapping approaches such as the multi-criteria decision method (MCDM) can be used and to achieve reliable results (Jahanshiri et al., 2020;Hagos et al., 2022).Our results showed that Limpopo province has some marginal or no unsuitable areas for Bambara groundnut production, mainly due to climatic restrictions. As the climate continues to change, suitable and moderately suitable areas may become marginally or unsuitable for Bambara groundnut production. The main risks associated with climate change include shifts in rainy season and increasing extreme weather conditions (heat stress, drought and floods) (DEEF, 2013) (Table 5). In the shorter term and regardless of land class, farmers, more so those under rainfed systems, are already vulnerable to current weather variability and associated shocks (Kruger and Nxumalo, 2017). Within the delineated production zones, a key element of climate adaptation is building resilience, and this entails redirecting and/or absorbing the disturbance without system collapse. To better represent adaptation, there is a need to expand the research to consider all factors, including social, economic and environmental domains. Also, more systems (agroecosystem, landscape, catchment) and • Shifting agroecological zones.• Change in crop suitability due to the shortened growing duration * Short term -adaptation strategies that allow farmers to cope better with current weather-induced risk; medium-term -adaptation strategies that would enable farmers to cope better with seasonal and/or annual weather risk; long term-adaptation strategies that allow farmers to adapt agriculture to future climate change.Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems frontiersin.org place-based approaches representing local context, knowledge and aspects of food and nutrition security production other than land type, rainfall and temperature may be required (Beveridge et al., 2018). By comparing the Bambara groundnut crop requirements with the availability of resources, an assessment can be made of the possible levels of investments made in the system. For instance, it would be most favorable to look at areas where water requirements for Bambara groundnut and season rainfall show small differences to invest in an irrigation system. Also, in areas with slopes prone to soil erosion, short-and long-term strategies such as contour plowing and agroforestry, respectively, may be adopted (Table 5). The adoption of multi-cropping coupled with asynchronous or sequential planting can be viewed as a lowcost, short-to medium-term option to improve productivity and resource use efficiency under increasing temperature and water scarcity (Chimonyo et al., 2020) (Table 5). The inclusion of other traditional crops known as drought and heat tolerant into Bambara groundnut cropping systems should also be considered a complementary strategy to increasing mediumand long-term climate resilience in identified marginal areas (Chimonyo et al., 2020).Estimating the potential land resources suitable for irrigation and evaluating the possible impact of climate change on land suitability are essential for planning a sustainable agricultural system. However, South Africa is already challenged with water scarcity. Groundwater use and water marketing are considered options to alleviate medium-to long-term water scarcity challenges (Matchaya et al., 2019). Still, the extent to which they can bring relief to the stressed water resources is yet unknown (Mabhaudhi et al., 2018b). Tapping into groundwater also requires reliable energy resources, which brings to the fore the need for a water-energy nexus planning to enhance agricultural and water productivity (Magidi et al., 2021b).By using available natural resource information and matching it to specific crop production requirements, the basic principles of \"matching\" used in the land evaluation process are followed. The example used here of Bambara groundnuts can be compared with other similar crops, in association with yield estimates and enterprise budgets, to empirically evaluate the suitability for a range of underutilized crops in any specific area. Further to this, and due to the minimum data set required, the method can be replicated across South Africa to assess underutilized crops' suitability. Growing Bambara groundnut with the appropriate management options can be used as an adaptation strategy in areas classified as moderately suitable and marginal. It is imperative to accompany the information regarding land suitability with transformative and autonomous adaptation strategies to mitigate climate risks. In cases where resources are limited, the adoption of multi-cropping and rainwater harvesting, and soil conservation techniques can be used. This is particularly important for resource-poor farmers who reside in many of the marginal areas identified. To smallholder farmers, underutilized crops can address several socio-economic related challenges; therefore, future studies should consider factors such as access to markets, proximity to roads and population density.","tokenCount":"4799"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b59a75a91dc71971c9000cfb813bd2c5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28457bb8-c296-4632-89bb-5369fb619aeb/retrieve","id":"1212927142"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bf71e1ea-d578-4e07-9b7e-dd1f0af6d8d9","pagecount":"42","content":"To male and female small holder farmers, technicians and institutions working to evaluate, validate and adapt agricultural technology to improve food security and productivity of family agriculture in the Andes. To the technicians of the International Potato Center in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, who coordinated the collection of information in the field.Closing gender gaps in the agricultural sector is a key element in reducing poverty and improving food security. Women today are the hidden face of agriculture. They play a fundamental role in all stages of the food production cycle (SOFA and Doss, C., 2011), and yet they do not only have unequal access to resources and technological advancements, but often technologies are not designed considering their needs and conditions.The present study seeks to contribute to the reduction of gender gaps, through the generation of information that allows the design of agricultural technologies considering the needs and conditions of women. The main objective of the study is to answer the question:This work was based on the collection of qualitative information with farmers and technical personnel from institutions in areas of intervention of the International Potato Center (CIP) in the Andean Region, with the support of the Research Programs on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB), and Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) of the CGIAR. Focus group discussions, observation and interviews with technical personnel working directly to promote agricultural technology innovation for food security in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru were conducted.For CIP, RTB and PIM, reducing gender inequalities in agricultural technology innovation processes is a basic condition to achieve the objectives of improving food security and reducing poverty in agricultural production systems (CGIAR, 2011, CGIAR RTB, 2013, CGIAR PIM, 2017). The results presented in this document seek to formulate recommendations to analyze gender inequalities during project design and planning, based on the analysis and consideration of factors that affect the potential adoption of technology by men and women.The main objective of this study was to identify and analyze the factors that influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women. The study was developed with information gathered in high Andean communities where production systems are based on potato cultivation, and where the International Potato Center (CIP), the CGIAR Programs on Roots Tubers and Bananas (RTB), and Policies and Institutions and Markets (PIM), have operational actions.The study was grounded on a constructivist epistemological approach and on the theoretical perspective of interpretivism. It had an open ended and exploratory character based on inductive reasoning. A qualitative research methodology with case studies was used. It included the collection of information through focus groups with men and women, and in-depth interviews with technicians from institutions working in the promotion of agricultural technological innovation. The information collected went through an interpretative phenomenological analysis to identify the main factors that influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women, as well as the interactions and relationships between the different factors.The results of the study show that the potential adoption of an agricultural technology may be different between women and men depending on the manifestation of different factors and their interactions. These factors in turn can be grouped into three levels according to their influence on the potential adoption of agricultural technologies. On a first level, with more influence on the potential adoption of technology, is a group of factors that can be called \"Internal Factors\". These internal factors are the basis for subsequent decisions made by men and women around technology adoption and include elements of productive context (social, political, environmental, economic, cultural), elements of culture, history and education, and gender. At a second level, with less influence on the potential adoption of agricultural technology, there is a group of factors that can be called \"Technological Attributes\". Technological attributes are inherent to the technology and its use, including: a) technical, structural and operational characteristics of the technology; b) the crops for which this technology is intended; and c) the inputs or services necessary for its operation. At a third level is a group of factors that can be called \"External Factors\". These external factors are related to access to productive resources (land, capital, labor), physical access to producing areas and access to information.Although there are variations among factors depending on their level of influence, these variations do not imply a dependence or linear conditioning. There are interaction relationships embedded between factors that can maximize or minimize the potential expression of another factor.One important result of the study is that technology itself is not neutral and entails gender biases that can occur when the conditions of the target group (men, women, youth, or other disadvantaged groups) are not considered at different times. Another important result of the study is that factors do not independently influence farmers' adoption of technology, but rather interact with each other to determine the potential adoption of agricultural technologies.The document is structured in three parts. The first part of the document describes some theoretical elements that support the study and the methodological framework of the research. The second part presents the analysis of the information collected through focus groups and interviews in the different areas of intervention in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. The analysis focuses on the identification of differences and similarities in relation to factors that influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women. Finally, the third part presents a series of conclusions and final recommendations of the study.The International Potato Center (CIP) recognizes that gender equality and the empowerment of women are essential elements for economic growth and poverty reduction. For this reason, CIP's strategic plan and one of its strategic objectives (SO5) include gender as central to all its operations. This objective highlights the importance of improving rural development, food security and nutrition as well as reducing gender inequalities in agriculture to improve productivity and generate more economic and social benefits.The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) has developed an intervention strategy that seeks to improve food security and reduce poverty by pursuing gender equity. To this end, RTB seeks to achieve two types of results: a) respond to gender needs by ensuring that both men and women benefit from the technologies generated and are not adversely affected; (b) transforming gender relations through technologies and interventions that transform gender roles and promote more equitable relationships between men and women.The gender strategy of the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) states that to reduce rural poverty, improve food security, improve health and nutrition, and sustainable management of natural resources; agricultural research should facilitate participation, empowerment and investment in women. Because gender roles affect production and consumption decisions, research should consider these roles in specific contexts. The PIM Program supports research that will: (a) create and implement new tools and methods to understand how the gender approach can contribute to rural poverty reduction, improve food security, health and nutrition, and management of natural resources; and (b) make gender-related issues explicit to participants in multi-level policy processes.To achieve these objectives, different CIP interventions focus on areas with potato-based production system and promote technological innovation in response to the needs of the most vulnerable rural groups. One of these vulnerable groups is women, given the gender differences in the region. Based on the experience of different CIP initiatives with gender analysis, the need of an in-depth analysis of factors influencing the adoption of agricultural technology was identified, particularly for the context of family agriculture and food security, and from the perspective of men and women.As part of the efforts of CIP, RTB and PIM to incorporate the gender approach into agricultural technological innovation processes for food security, this study gathers information on the factors that influence the potential adoption of agricultural technologies by men and women. This paper analyzes these factors and makes recommendations for technology design and for technology dissemination strategies with a gender focus.A broad set of knowledge on gender and adoption of agricultural technology has been generated through quantitative analysis. Studies in this line of analysis show that female farmers are less likely to adopt technology compared to male farmers (Taneralli et al., 2014, Akudugu et al., 2012, Ragasa, 2012). Some variables that have an explanatory power on technology adoption in general are: gender (Taneralli et al., 2014, Akudugu et al., 2012), age, education (Fisher andKandiwa, 2014, World Bank andIFPRI, 2010), access to services (World Bank and IFPRI 2010), access to complementary inputs (Doss and Morris, 2001), access to labor (Fisher and Kandiwa, 2014, Rathgeber, 2011), transport, energy (Singh and Kotwaliwale, 2011), among others. However, while in some cases the variables are positively correlated with gender as a variable, in other cases there are negative or nonexistent correlations. The reasons for these differences may vary between cultures and regions.While some argue that men and women do not necessarily make different adoption decisions, and that adoption is influenced primarily by differential access to complementary inputs (Doss, 2001;Doss, 2006;Peterman et al., 2010); others argue that farmers, both female and male, play different roles in the adoption of technology (Taneralli et al., 2014) and thus differ in their adoption patterns (World Bank and Government of Malawi, 2007;Njiro, 2003). The fact is that there is an ongoing debate around the factors that influence the adoption of agricultural technology and there is a lack of research that systematically analyzes whether women and men differ in their adoption decisions and whether these decisions are in fact due to differences in access to complementary inputs or resources (Ragasa, 2012), or to the differentiated roles played by men and women in adoption. According to Tanarelli, studies examining these differences will be useful for designing policies that improve the development, dissemination, and adoption of technology (Taneralli et al., 2014).In this context, and in the light of the current debate, the present study seeks to explore from an alternative perspective the factors that influence the adoption of agricultural technology, based on farmers' own perceptions (men and women) and the perceptions of researchers and extension workers working in the field. An important line of study that analyze the processes of technology adoption and the factors that influence these processes, are of a positivist nature, with emphasis in quantitative analysis. The present study seeks to provide an alternative view from a constructivist approach based on qualitative methods. The next section of the document presents a description and justification of the approach used and the research design.The study draws on the experience of the International Potato Center with the IssAndes project in the dissemination of agricultural technology for food security in high Andean potato producing communities from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. The technology dissemination process in the project sought to improve food security and nutrition, and included gender mainstreaming processes in its design. However, there were differences in the use of technologies by men and women. Giving way to the following questions:What factors influence the potential adoption of technologies by men and women in high Andean communities where production systems are based on potato cultivation? How do different factors identified influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women?To address the research questions, a constructivist epistemological approach was considered, emerging as an alternative approach to objectivism. In constructivism, the idea that there is only an objective truth waiting to be discovered is rejected (Feast and Melles, 2010), arguing that knowledge is a process of active interpretation and construction of individual representations of knowledge (Bryman, 2012, Jonassen, 1991) where different people can construct different meanings regarding the same phenomenon (Feast and Melles, 2010). One of the most valuable contributions of the constructivist approach is that it encompasses multiple perspectives on a research context (Barillaro, et al., 2009). In this way, constructivism poses a mechanism for overcoming the systemic or cultural biases embodied in empirical research methods (Fischer, 2003).The research rationale is based on the theoretical perspective of interpretivism, which arises as a logic different than positivism. It is used because the subject of study in the social sciences are people and institutions, which essentially differ from the subject of study in the natural sciences (Bryman, 2012) and therefore require a different research logic. Interpretativism postulates that reality is composed of the subjective experiences of people regarding the external world (Barillaro, et al., 2009), where the researchers are not neutral and are involved in the process of interpretation of the elements of the study. According to interpretivists, knowledge and its meaning are acts of interpretation, and therefore there is no objective knowledge independent of thought and human reason (Myers, 2009). According to the interpretative logic, the reality (given or socially constructed) is accessed through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings and instruments. This logic of research recognizes that there can be multiple explanations for different social actions or phenomena and tries to derive its results from a deep examination of the phenomenon of interest (Gephart, 1999).The research had an open ended and exploratory character, under inductive reasoning. The inductive analysis starts from specific observations trying to detect patterns and regularities that allow the formulation of tentative hypotheses (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003).In the present study, the constructivist approach allows us to assume that the factors influencing the adoption of technology are not an objective truth independent of the actors' consciousness and experience, but rather a truth constructed in different ways depending on the context, local culture and the personal experience of each individual (man or woman). In this way, we try to understand the factors and the multiple interactions generated rather than identify an absolute truth. The interpretative perspective allows one to visualize the factors influencing the potential adoption of technology as a context-influenced perception of men and women, recognizing multiple explanations for the potential adoption of a technology. In this same line of thinking, interpretivism recognizes the role of the researcher in the interpretation of phenomena based on a set of determined social constructs.The main contribution of the constructivist approach and the interpretative perspective in this study is the possibility of an in-depth exploration of the factors that influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women and the analysis of the multiple interactions that influence their adoption decisions.Finally, through inductive reasoning patterns and regularities in the interaction of factors that influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women can be analyzed.The focus of the study is to identify factors and the way they influence the potential adoption of technology by men and women in high Andean communities where the production systems are based on potato cultivation. To conduct the work, a qualitative research methodology based on case studies, was selected. It considered the perceptions of men and women in different types of high Andean communities with production systems based on potato cultivation.Case studies are an appropriate research strategy when formulating research questions such as how? or why? regarding contemporary events or phenomena over which the researcher has little or no control (Yin 1994). Cases are studied in themselves and not as a population sample (Robson, 1993).The definitions and concepts of Yin and Robson have been adopted in this study because:• The research questions are related to contemporary social phenomena such as the potential adoption of agricultural technology by men and women in communities where production systems are potatobased.• While it is possible to find information on the research topic (factors that influence the adoption of agricultural technology by men and women), no in-depth studies have been found that contribute to theoretical or empirical knowledge about the factors that affect adoption of technologies by men and women.• Potential technology adoption is an ongoing social phenomenon that evolves as participants learn, relate, and interact with each other. All these qualitative and subjective elements suggest that there are multiple narratives whose meanings must be understood and explained using qualitative approaches.• Technology adoption is a complex process because it involves multiple actors with diverse ways of thinking and working, knowledge, goals and interests; which determine how actors develop their perceptions and ultimately shape the process of technology adoption. Complexity must be studied in and of itself, not just as a population sample.From a theoretical perspective, the justification to consider multiple cases is to follow a logic of replication (Yin, 1994). This is different from the sampling logic in which a representative sample of a population is studied and the results are statistically generalized to the population. The strategy of multiple case studies seeks to challenge the theoretical ideas developed, so that much more solid theoretical generalizations can be made (Thomas, 1998).This last idea is related to the importance of using multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1994;Woodhouse, 1998), whose most significant advantage is the possibility of triangulation (Yin, 1994). This means that evidence is obtained about the same element from different points of view (Thomas, 1998). This research adopts Thomas' definition of triangulation using multiple sources of data and multiple methods to collect it, in order to obtain contrasting and convergent evidence that allows to understand the complexity of the cases studied.The geographical scale of the research covers intervention areas of the International Potato Center (CIP) in 3 countries (Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru) where the production system is based on potato cultivation. A double comparative cross-sectional study was conducted. A first level of comparison relates the perceptions of men and women and a second level of comparison relates communities (geographical areas of intervention) to each other.This study is based on cases located in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, where agricultural production systems are based on potato cultivation. Geographically these cases are located in Andean valleys and Puna regions inhabited by small and medium agricultural producers. Communities intervened through focus groups were contacted through CIP operational partners in each country. Participation in the events was voluntary based on the motivation generated by the development institutions present in the territory.It is important to mention that the information collected in this study does not follow a population sample pattern but rather a structure of case studies. Information can therefore not be used for generalizations or statistical inference, but rather to deepen understanding of the factors that influence the potential adoption of agricultural technology by men and women in potato-based, high-Andean production systems.Two complementary methods were used to collect data. The main tool was the focus groups with men and women in each community and country. In addition, interviews were conducted with technicians working in research and development institutions, for the promotion of agricultural technological innovations with men and women.Perception is a central theme in epistemology or theory of knowledge. Perception can be defined as a set of mental processes by which an individual organizes and interprets information in a logical or meaningful way, from his previous experience. Perception involves objective and subjective elements. The objective elements of perception are those that can be verified. Objectivity poses a reality independent of mental processes; which is related to or is an object, phenomenon or condition within the framework of reality perceived by all observers, independent of individual thought (Calise, 2003). The subjective elements of perception involve psychological elements because they involve our spheres of interest (Henley, 2014). An individual's prior knowledge, experiences, and emotions condition his perception (Calise, 2003). The way in which people perceive social and technological processes, and their outcomes, depend on what they think and feel, rather than on just objective data.In the construction of epistemology, a basic phenomenon that must be accepted is the collective mental differentiation of individuals (Cohen and Schnelle, 1986). People perceive and think differently and these differences structure groups. These groups perceive and think in the same way and act very similarly (Cohen and Schnelle, 1986). A form of collective perception, thought and action is influenced by gender roles. Gender roles determine the type of activities that are socially assigned to individuals, and are a collective construction that emerges from a group based on their prior knowledge, experiences and emotions.Focus groups are a research method based on group interaction designed to obtain qualitative information. Focal group members share common elements and focus on discussions related to the research topic (Kruger and Casey, 2000). The objective of the focus groups is not to generalize or develop a hypothesis for a broad population group. It seeks instead to understand how individuals experience and give meaning to different phenomena (Longhurst, 2016); by exploring, discovering and fostering the understanding of specific topics (O'Sullivan et al., 2008) through a closer proximity with the human experience.The focus group method is a disciplined, systematic, and verifiable process of inquiry (Kruger and Casey, 2000), which, although performed in a flexible and relaxed environment, has a general structure and requires careful preliminary planning (Desimini et al.2088). Focus groups can often be replicated with different participants to identify trends and patterns within the perspectives expressed by the participants (Krueger, 1994, Morgan, 1988).To structure a focus group, having a certain level of homogeneity among the participants to facilitate communication is recommended (Krueger, 1994;Manheim et al., 2008). If the group is very diverse or if the participants have opposite roles, individual participation may be suppressed or group discussions inhibited (Stewart et al., 2007). For this reason, focus groups of men and women were held separately, and in some cases jointly.A total of eight focus groups were conducted with men and women, both separate and jointly, as detailed in Table 1. Focus group discussions had two central parts: a) identify the reasons why farmers decide to use a technology or not; and b) in depth understanding of the reasons for the potential adoption of a technology. During focus group discussions, farmers were consulted about the technologies they used most for their crops in general and for potato cultivation in particular. Based on this initial information, the reasons why men and women decided to use technology or not were explored. Subsequently they were asked which were the technologies that they knew about but did not use, and the reasons why they had decided not to use them were further explored. This information was disaggregated to identify the reasons mentioned by the farmers, comparing them to each other to identify the existence of priorities or interaction. The reasons mentioned were later grouped to identify whether they were technology attributes or a different type of factors. Finally, context information collected for each focus group (level of education, productive context, importance of the crop, gender roles) was analyzed to identify possible relationships with the reasons mentioned for adoption or non-adoption mentioned. The detail of the workflow used during the focus groups is described in Annex 1.Interviews are a research method based on the individual interaction between the interviewer and the interviewees. It is a verbal exchange where the interviewer seeks information from the interviewee by asking questions (Longhurst, 2016). Qualitative interviews generally have a structure based on the interests of the researcher but function flexibly, providing room for spontaneous descriptions and narrative of the respondent (Brinkmann, 2014). The selection of interviewees was based on the objectives and logic of the research. However, in this case it was also important to recognize the background of the research team and the access to potential interviewees (Longhurst, 2016).In the specific case of the study developed to identify the factors that affect the potential adoption of technology, interviews were conducted with technical personnel (men and women) who work in technical assistance and promotion of agricultural technology innovation. The research team was linked to the activities of the International Potato Center (CIP) in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. Therefore, technical personnel of CIP partner institutions with a predisposition to participate in the interview were identified. The participants were technical staff of NGOs and public institutions: 4 in Bolivia, 7 in Ecuador, 4 in Peru.These technicians responded to a general questionnaire about their perceptions regarding the factors that affect the potential adoption of technology and the differential effect these factors have on men and women. Annex 2 presents the general structure of the interview conducted.Interpretive phenomenological analysis (AFI) is an approach for the qualitative analysis of information.It focuses on the ways in which people give meaning to or experience different phenomena (Smith et al., 2009). The AFI involves a meticulous examination and codification of the data generated, identification of emerging patterns (convergences and divergences) and classification of topics, articulation of themes and identification of thematic groups, and production of abstracts with illustrative citations (Storey L., 2008;Larkin and Tompson, 2012).The information from the focus groups was initially systematized in a standardized format for further analysis. Each focus group report was analyzed in terms of the expressions and perceptions regarding different variables (factors) that influence the adoption of technology. For each factor (variable) several perceptions related to one or more technologies, mentioned in the focal group dynamics, were registered.Once the perceptions for different variables (factors) were registered independently, a comparison of results, variable by variable, was conducted between the different focus groups (by country, by community, by gender). This comparative analysis made possible the identification of lines of convergence and divergence between the different types of evidence collected.As lines of convergence and divergence between variables (factors) were identified, groupings were made based on the relationship between factors.The information on interviews to technical personnel was recorded in a standardized form for later systematization and analysis. For the systematization, a matrix of variables was elaborated and all the qualitative answers were codified. This matrix allowed an aggregated analysis of the perceptions of technicians, which in turn informed the larger analysis conducted with information from the focus groups.PART TWO.-The voices of men and women and the relationship between factorsThis section presents the results of the focus group discussions implemented in communities of Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, and the information gathered through the interviews with the technicians working in the intervened communities.Using the interpretive phenomenological analysis (AFI) to study the perceptions of male and female farmers to the potential adoption of agricultural technology in potato producing areas of the Andean region, several factors of influence were identified along with some patterns of relationship between them. The patterns of convergence and divergence identified in the study enabled grouping and classification of factors according to their effect on the potential adoption or non-adoption of agricultural technologies in potato based agricultural production systems.The study shows that there are different factors that have a different impact on the adoption of agricultural technologies by men and women. From the results generated, a classification of three types of factors is proposed. These factors have dependence or embedded interaction relations between them (See Figure 1).1. Internal factors have the highest level of influence. They can be determinant for the potential adoption of a technology. The productive characteristics of a region, the importance of the crop and its destination, cultural and historical practices, and socially constructed gender roles are the first filter for the potential adoption of a technology. 2. A second filter are technology attributes, or specific technology characteristics that create positive or negative predispositions for its potential adoption by men and women. 3. External factors are at a third level of definition (influence), and are generally related to access to productive resources.This study shows that factors do not independently influence male and female farmers' adoption of technology, but rather interact and influence one another. The embedded interaction between different levels of influence is what determines the potential adoption of agricultural technologies by men and women (Figure 1). The results of the analysis of male and female farmers' perceptions on the potential adoption of agricultural technology are presented considering this classification of factors.  Within the framework of this study and the evidence found, productive context refers to the agroecological conditions and the political-economic normative framework that influence agricultural production and the use of technologies.Environmental, political and economic components that shape a productive context can in turn influence the expression of technology as well as the expression of other factors that influence the decisions of individuals on the potential adoption of agricultural technologies. That is why it is necessary to think of multiple technological options for different contexts.In all the focus groups conducted in Bolivia and Ecuador, farmers mentioned that, despite the preference for the use of organic products because of their health safety, there are cases where agroecological conditions and access to technologies motivate the use of agrochemicals. In the three areas intervened in Ecuador, chemicals are used to control late blight, due to the high losses in potato production generated by this phytosanitary problem. The same happens with the control of the Andean potato weevil in the three areas intervened in Bolivia, where male and female farmers mention using this technology (agrochemicals) because of the high incidence of the pest in the context, and the lack of other technological alternatives. However, despite the high incidence of pests in potato crops, women in general are less prone to the use of agrochemicals because they are responsible for the crops of less economic importance or that are destined for self-consumption.Within the framework of this study and the evidence found, the destination of production refers to market or family consumption, or a combination of both.When the crop is destined to the market there is a greater tendency to the use of higher-cost, labor and input intensive technologies. On the contrary, for technologies destined to home-consumption crops to be adopted, they must reduce the use of productive resources, address specific constraints or enhance the interaction between crops (associated crops, agroforestry systems, etc.). This trend takes on different nuances due to gender differences. In all crops managed exclusively by women, priority is given to the use of technologies that require low investment of resources, labor or productive inputs because they are destined for family consumption.However, there are exceptions to this trend that manifest when the productive context is favorable to the use of inputs and labor, or when the specific crop has higher priority. This can clearly be observed in the case of the Achullay community in Ecuador where men and women generally prefer not to use agrochemicals. However, men claim that organic manure is less effective and therefore use chemical fertilizer when potatoes are for sale and not for home-consumption. Women, on the other hand, claim that the native potatoes they grow are for home-consumption and therefore do not use chemical fertilizers. This prioritization of technology use according to the destination of production is also related to preferences and gender roles. This is evident in the case of the community of Achullay, Ecuador, where women say that the use of fertilizers changes the taste of the potato destined for home-consumption and in their opinion, it is less healthy. This is linked to the perception that women have about taste and health, and gender roles in food preparation.A similar case is observed in the community of Jacopampa in Bolivia where men and women claim not to use quality seed for crops such as beans, quinoa, barley and oats. In this case, most men mentioned that this technology is not used because there is no local availability of this product. They mention that in some cases they had to travel outside the community in search of certified seed and had many difficulties obtaining it (referring to seed of high categories for commercial production). Women, on the other hand, stated that they do not use quality seed (certified) because their crops are for home consumption, certified seed is very expensive and difficult to access (although they recalled that they had never tried to go outside community). Another similar case occurred in Jcopamp, Bolivia where men and women claim not to use lime sulfur for the disinfection of seeds for different reasons: men do not use this technology for seeds because the production is destined to home consumption where they often seek to reduce the expenses; women as well as men do not use this technology because it is destined to a home consumption crop, but also because they consider the elaboration process difficult and time-consuming.In addition, as observed in the focus group discussions in the three countries, the varieties of potato selected for production differ depending on the destination of the final product. Improved varieties are produced by men and women and are mainly destined to the market. Native varieties, on the other hand, are generally managed by women and are intended for family consumption. In this scenario, there is a greater tendency to use technologies that are intensive in the use of resources and inputs, for commercial production; compared to the production for home consumption. This is clearly seen in the focus groups of Achullay and Basquitay Quillincocha, Ecuador, where women claim to use agrochemicals to control late blight in commercial potato production but not in native potatoes. Something similar happens in Bolivia where men and women report using certified quality seed for commercial crops, but not for homeconsumption crops.Within the framework of this study and the evidence found, the importance of the crop refers specifically to the relative participation of a given crop in the generation of family income.The study shows shared responsibilities between men and women for crops of economic importance or that have greater importance for family consumption. However, men have more participation in the decisions on the technologies to be used, being technological efficiency more important than the use of resources. In crops that are less important in terms of income or food security, women are more involved in decisions about the use of technologies. This is observed in the focus groups of Achullay-Ecuador, where crops mentioned by men and women are the same except for lupine and rye, which are minor crops managed exclusively by women for family consumption. Something similar occurs in the community of Basquitay Quillincocha, Ecuador, where men and women share responsibility for larger scale crops, but women take responsibility for crops such as onions, chard, cabbage and peas, which are destined to home consumption. In the case of the community of Mariscal Cáceres, Peru, responsibility for major crops is shared, but women take responsibility for crops such as oats, peas and maize, which due to agro-ecological conditions (low temperatures and altitude) are essentially produced for family consumption. In Tiahuanacu, Bolivia, responsibilities are also shared in larger scale crops such as potatoes, barley, broad beans, and peas, but women manage by themselves crops for family consumption or animal feed such as oats, oca and papalisa.Within this generic framework there is a greater tendency to adopt technologies that improve yields and reduce losses for crops that are highly important for family income. Other variables in technology such as: optimization of the use of productive resources (labor, capital, land), interaction with other crops (associated crops, agroforestry systems, etc.), perceptions of safety and variables of transformation or consumption, among others; are prioritized in crops with lower importance for family income.Women, elderly and indigenous people, and other disadvantaged groups are often poorly educated, communicate in native languages and their management of official languages is limited. This hinders the potential adoption of technologies requiring technical knowledge, calculations, reading or social interaction with actors outside their immediate environment (technicians, promoters, service providers).The level of schooling found in all focus groups in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru was low. Men in general had primary education and some even secondary education. As for women, the majority had primary education and some were illiterate. Additionally, in the Bolivian cases, most men and women spoke Spanish and Aymara, but some women spoke only Aymara. The fluency of communication in Spanish varied also, as men understood and used this language more easily than women. In Peru, men and women spoke Spanish and Quichua, although as in the case of Bolivia, men are more fluent with Spanish. In Ecuador, there was no record of the use of native languages.Although during the work with the focus groups there was no specific mention about the level of education as a direct influence factor in the adoption of technology, it was observed that women in general were less inclined to adopting technologies that require higher levels of education, literacy or special technical knowledge. An example of this trend was observed with the focus group in Tiahuanacu, Bolivia where women mentioned not using agrochemicals for pest control because of lack of knowledge about their use and application. In the same way, men with lower levels of schooling mentioned that they did not use products for spraying, whereas those with a higher level of schooling knew and in some cases used these products.In the same line of analysis, women from Chiarumani, Bolivia with lower level of schooling and who used only the Aymara language to communicate, were less inclined to adopt technologies in general.As mentioned in the previous section, personal perceptions play an important role when defining the use of a technology. In the same way, gender roles determine the type of activities that are socially assigned to individuals. Women are usually responsible for seed selection and selection of potato sizes for the market. Therefore, technologies designed for these purposes should consider the different physical and social characteristics of women in the context. On the other hand, the application of agrochemicals is generally a role assigned to men except in regions of high migration where women have assumed this productive role. In this case, the activities and gender roles in the specific context should be analyzed to determine how this factor affects the prioritization of technologies by men and women.In all the focus groups from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, both men and women mentioned that the use of organic products (fertilizers and extracts for pest control) was prioritized because it is considered healthier and not harmful to health. This perception is prioritized above issues of efficiency, economy and ease of use of technologies. In some specific cases (when there is a late blight attack in potato, Ecuador, Andean potato weeble attack, Bolivia and Peru), men prioritize the use of chemical products due to their efficiency. However, this use is also related to aspects such as: a) destination of production -for the market; and b) product efficiency -higher compared to organic options. In all cases, the alternative of using chemicals is more frequently mentioned by men. Women mentioned the use of chemicals only as a last resort.In all the focus groups conducted, a relationship between gender roles (accepted in the context) and the type of technology adopted by men and women, was observed. These gender roles are most clearly seen in the case of focus groups in Peru, where women tend to adopt technologies related to food processing, seed selection, composting, and sprinkler irrigation. These technologies respond to their assigned roles in the household such as food preparation, production of minor crops for self-consumption and waste management. In the case of men, they more frequently adopt technologies related to productive infrastructure (seed storage, construction of platforms), building organization (rotation of crops), and technologies that require physical force and / or intensive use of labor.In Bolivia, the three focal groups conducted also showed differences in the priorization of technology based on gender roles. Seed selection is a practice generally performed by women, particularly in the case of potato seed. Technologies such as seed selection, seed protection with native aromatic plants (rue and fabiana bush) and use of sieves were mentioned only by women. On the other hand, in one of the cases of Bolivia (Patacamaya), mechanized equipment for the selection of potato seed was mentioned. In this context, equipment that required greater physical strength, height or external power source for its operation, were not adopted. Women, who have the role of selecting the seed, preferred more simple equipment and without external power source because this aspect makes the operation more difficult for them.In the case of Ecuador, high migration rates have undermined the traditional structures of gender roles and distribution of activities for the productive area. However, the distribution of roles in food preparation and waste management are still observed. When prioritizing technologies, women more frequently mention aspects related to food (safety, good taste) and to the use of waste (composting, fermentation, extracts).This clearly shows that, when designing technological alternatives, we must first consider who would be targeted, according to the gender roles assigned in the specific context, and subsequently the needs and constraints faced by the user.Technology attributes refer to the intrinsic characteristics (design, cost, domain of recommendation, effectiveness, use of complementary inputs, among the most important) of the technologies that are sought to be disseminated or promoted.Technology in itself is not neutral because it holds a gender bias from its design. Below are some groups of attributes that influence the potential adoption of technologies.Source: Personal elaboration 3.1. Size, strength and/or knowledge required for the operation or implementationThe study shows that in addition to general context factors, some characteristics and conditions of individuals interact in favor or against the adoption of technologies. In this case, the size of the individual and his/her physical strength can favor or hinder adoption based on the characteristics or attributes of the technology.Size, strength, knowledge required for its applicationNeed for productive inputs Some technologies, especially equipment, have specific characteristics that make it more difficult for women to use them. This is the case of: a) equipment, large and / or heavy; and, b) practices that require a lot of physical strength or special knowledge for their application.According to testimonies of farmers from Jacopampa in Bolivia and staff working on technology dissemination, one of the important tasks for the commercialization of potatoes is the selection by size. This task is usually performed by women manually. To reduce the time allocated to this work, equipment for mechanized potato selection was introduced. The evaluations showed positive results but after introduction, the equipment was little used. This happened because the validation events involved a greater number of men and they gladly operated the equipment. However, within the families it was still the women who performed this task. They found the operation difficult due to: a) the height of the equipment; b) the force necessary to lift the bags of potatoes to load the equipment; and c) the strength and knowledge necessary to operate the sieving crank. Understanding these conditions, a much simpler equipment was introduced; low bearing, without cranks, where potatoes slide down by gravity and were pushed through sieves manually. This equipment fulfilled the function of reducing the time allocated to manual selection, and because of its simplicity, low bearing and lower requirement of physical strength, it was gradually adopted by women.On the other hand, female farmers from Achullay and Basquitay Quillincocha, Ecuador, when comparing the use of tractor, yoke plow or hoe for land preparation during sowing, stated that the tractor is the most efficient technology, followed by the yoke plow and finally the hoe. However, most of them used hoes because the yoke plow requires more physical strength and renting a tractor is very expensive. They mentioned that some people who have trained oxen do use the yoke plow because it allows a faster soil preparation, but it is generally men who lead the oxen because of their greater physical strength.Many times, technologies are generically designed and are sought to contribute to problem solving in large recommendation domains 1 . However, it is important to consider that, in mountainous regions, variations in climatic and environmental conditions are wide. Thus, it is important to provide a diversified basket of technological alternatives that can be adapted to the different contexts.A case of incompatibility with local conditions or recommendation domain was clearly observed in the community of Jacopampa, Bolivia. In this case, one groove potato harvesters were introduced to reduce the investment in labor and the time of family members assigned to this work. According to the retrospective expressions of the participants in the focus group, the evaluations with men and women showed high satisfaction of the potential users. However, after some time, the technology stopped being used despite: a) being of easy operation and maintenance; b) being available to members of the community (men and women) through loans. The main reason why it stopped being used was that the equipment worked well in the sectors near the evaluation sites, with loam soils; but did not work well in most of the plots with stony soils. This shows us the need to reconcile the characteristics and recommendation for equipment use with local conditions.One aspect mentioned in all the focus groups, by both men and women, was the cost of technology. In general, farmers and particularly women, seek to minimize costs and tend to prefer technologies that are cheap or do not require resource investment. The exceptions to this preference arise when dealing with crops of high economic importance, intended for the market, or when the production system so requires. This is the aforementioned case of the use of a tractor in Chiarumani, Bolivia, or the case of the use of certified seed of high categories for the sale of seed in Jacopampa, Bolivia. In these cases, due to the importance of the crops, both men and women prefer efficiency over cost. This cases clearly show that there are interactions between technological attributes and other factors.Something similar happens with the ease of use of technologies. In the focal groups of Ecuador and Peru, men and women prioritize technologies that are easy to apply, but in the face of phytosanitary and pest problems that put their entire production at risk, they opt for more complex processes such as the preparation of ferments, soil amendments and / or the use of agrochemicals.The external factors are the factors of production and context elements that make technology access viable. In some cases, the utility and contribution of technologies is evident, but its implementation requires inputs or services that cannot be easily accessed and this hinders the potential adoption of technology despite all the benefits it could bring for both men and women. Much of the literature focuses on the effect of access to these inputs and services to promote or limit access to technology by men and women. An important element to consider is that women in general have less access to these factors, which negatively affects their ability to adopt new technologies. Land is the main factor of production for male and female farmers in all parts of the world. In potato producing regions of the high Andes, the land is usually communal, family and / or individual property, with some cultural restrictions for equal access to this resource by women. Other access mechanisms, although less frequent, include \"split production\" and rent. This is a favorable situation when compared to access conditions in other regions of the world. However, despite favorable arrangements, land is a limited resource. The division of land for inheritance from father to son has given rise to smallholdings, especially in regions with high productive potential. This limits the possibilities of extensive production or diversification of agricultural production. However, based on the results of the study it is inferred that access to land (size and condition) influences the type of technology to be adopted and the potential adoption by farmers.The conditions of land tenure and size for male and female farmers from the communities that participated in the study, in Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru, are similar. The reported size of land varies between 0.5 -2 ha, with individual use of land reported in all cases. Additionally, few variations were reported in the conditions and size of land holding between men and women. However, it is important to note that, according to information provided by local technicians, the land size in the case of Jacopampa and Chiarumani, Bolivia, is greater than that reported by farmers; averaging 5 ha.In this context, the size of the agricultural properties can define the type of technology used. In the community of Vaqueria, Ecuador, men and women mentioned that they stopped using yoke plow to prepare the soil because, although this technology facilitates and speeds up work, their agricultural land is very small and they have stopped rearing oxen. Something similar happens with the use of tractor that is reported by men and women as an efficient technology for soil preparation, that due to its high cost is not used in smaller land holdings such as those managed in Ecuador (Achullay, Basquitay Quillincocha, Vaqueria). On the other hand, in larger farms, the objective is to use less labor-intensive technologies. This is clearly observed in the community of Chiarumani, Bolivia, where the use of tractor is prioritized for agricultural activities such as plowing, fallowing, sowing, hilling and even harvesting of potatoes, because the plots are larger. In these cases, both men and women rent the service because the product is intended for the market.Although different studies show inverse relationships between land tenure and technology adoption, it is also important to note that many of the quantitatively evaluated technologies were designed for extensive production. In this context, women who in different regions of the world face greater difficulties accessing land may also show lower levels of adoption.Based on results from the focus groups, where land tenure and land size are relatively similar between men and women, it can be inferred that it is not necessarily the size of the land that affects adoption, but rather the type of technology and the type of user for whom it is designed.Access to labor is a factor that can affect the adoption of technology. In areas with labor availability at affordable prices, labor-intensive technologies are much more likely to be adopted. In contrast, technologies that reduce the use of labor are more likely to be adopted in regions where access to this factor of production is limited.On the other hand, it is important to highlight that the participation of men and women in the labor market varies according to multiple internal and external factors. This must be analyzed before designing a technology that reduces or increases the use of labor, since it could have adverse effects on men and / or women according to their participation in the labor market.In the different communities that were part of the study, access to labor was one of the main restrictions for the adoption of technology. Due to the high rates of temporary and / or permanent migration of men, women are left in charge of both household tasks and agricultural production, and tend to depend on family labor for different agricultural activities. Accordingly, for food security crops or crops of lesser commercial importance, both women and men prioritize technologies that minimize the use of labor.In the case of Tiahuanacu in Bolivia, the production of quinoa is mainly managed by women in small plots and for home consumption, so there is no adoption of technology that requires the investment of economic resources or intensive use of labor. In the case of Jacopampa, Bolivia, a different phenomenon is observed with the same crop. In this community men and women share the responsibility of producing certified quinoa seed, with a high economic value. For this reason, they work on larger areas, acquire inputs (seed of high quality) and use a lot of labor to harvest and thresh the product. This shows a differentiated use of inputs (capital, labor, land) according to the productive conditions of the context, the importance of the crop and its destination.Therefore, based on the findings of this study, it is inferred that, although access or availability of labor is influential, it is not the main factor that determines the potential adoption of a technology.Access to financial resources, whether in the form of credit, savings, income, or physical resources such as machinery or infrastructure, positively influences the potential adoption of technologies that require investment such as tractors, plows, machinery, and others. In the case of women, they have lower access to capital, low schooling and self-esteem; limiting much more the adoption of technologies that require investment and special operation such as agricultural machinery. However, the study shows that the investment of capital by men and women is feasible and viable depending on the technology and other contextual factors such as the importance of the crop, the destination of production and the characteristics of the production system.The availability of capital and labor are factors that affect the potential adoption of technology. In Conayca, Peru men claim to use plastic barriers to control the Andean weevil because they have the material (plastic) for the implementation. Women on the other hand, claim not to apply the practice because it requires a lot of labor. In relation to this same technology, the women from Mariscal Cáceres, Peru say they do not use it due to the cost of the input (plastic) and the contamination it generates eventually. Men in Mariscal Cáceres, however, claim not to use the practice due to the Laymes rotation system that locates plots at great distance from one another. In these two cases, the interaction of factors such as capital (resources -cost), labor, perception and characteristics of the productive system are observed; all interacting to define the adoption and non-adoption of a certain technology by men and women.Another example of priority for the use of technologies that requires heavy capital investment is the use of a tractor in Chiarumani, Bolivia. In this case men and women prioritize the use of a tractor despite the high cost, due to the productive conditions (crops of greater extension), the importance of the crop and its destination (production of potatoes for the market). This process of interaction to define potential adoption is common in factors such as land, capital and labor. It is not the condition of access to land, capital or labor alone that ultimately determines the potential adoption, but the interaction between factors. Unlike other factors such as gender roles, importance of the crop or destination of production, which can become determinant for decisions about the use of a particular technology.The conditions of roads and / or commercial access are also a factor that can determine the potential adoption of technologies that require the use of productive inputs or mobilization of some kind. This factor affects women more since they have additional limitations for mobilization and access to markets, mainly due to their productive and reproductive roles in the household.In the focus group of Jacopampa, Bolivia, difficulties of access to productive inputs negatively affect the potential adoption of technology by men and women. According to stories told by male and female farmers themselves, one of the most widespread technologies among potato producers in the central highlands of Bolivia is the production and use of quality seed. A group of farmers who produce and market certified quinoa seed recognized that quality seed contributes to improving agricultural productivity. Being quinoa seed marketers, they started a process of quality seed use in other crops. Men reported that they acquired potato seed for their plots, but to acquire the product they had to travel to the seed producing areas located more than six hours away from their communities. This had time and money implications so the practice was discontinued.When reporting these difficulties, male and female farmers were sorry to inform that there are no possibilities of access to commercial seed in town centers near their communities. On the other hand, women reported that for crops they manage in rotation such as: barley, oats and beans; there is no seed available in local fairs and that they have greater difficulties in travelling to look for seed. That is why they did not try to look for it in the past. This shows that accessibility affects both men and women, but its effect is increased based on specific conditions such as gender roles.Similarly, male farmers from the community of Mariscal Cáceres, Peru, claim to know the benefits of using plastic barriers to control Andean weevil in potatoes, and sustain that they have access to the necessary material. However, within the framework of their Layme based productive system, there are multiple production plots that are located at great distances from one another and with limited road accessibility. This prevents them from moving the plastic rolls, installing and monitoring the barriers in their plots with sufficient ease every year.Access to information, that includes various media sources such as radio, television, internet, extension services, among others; is an external factor that can promote or limit the potential adoption of technologies. However, in the case of women this factor may also depend on internal factors such as low literacy, language, cultural restrictions on mobilization or participation in events, among others.Both male and female farmers mention that in some cases they know about the existence of some technologies and have access to them, but do not use them. In the community of Jacopampa, Bolivia, a farmer mentioned that she received the product \"Matapol Plus\" as a prize at a fair, but did not receive any explanation or technical assistance for its application. She knows that it should be used for the storage of potatoes, but she doesn't know about its characteristics (whether it is toxic or not), how to apply it and is not clear about the final utility of the product or the benefits for the control of the potato moth in storage. That is why she has the product at home, but does not use it. A more detailed observation of the previous case showed that the \"Matapol Plus\" bag has a label that describes in detail the utility and mode of use of the product. This shows that access to information is in turn influenced by factors such as the literacy, which in the case of women is lower.However, the results of the research also show that it is not the educational level alone that influences the adoption of technology, but the interaction of this factor with the possibility of accessing written or technical information. For example, in the case of Chiarumani, Bolivia, both women and men claimed to use chemical and natural products for pest control because they received information on the subject. In the same way, low-educated women who only used the Aymara language in Jacopampa, Bolivia, had adopted technologies to control pests such as natural repellents and Karate, because they received training and technical assistance in their native language. This leads us to infer once again that, alike level of education, the use of native languages can influence access to information, regardless of gender.Finally, it should be noted that this study sheds some light on the importance of considering gender differences when designing and disseminating different agricultural technologies. In this sense, future research can contribute to the definition of a conceptual framework that enables the study of the interaction between the different factors that influence the adoption of agricultural technologies in a systematic and structured process; analyzing how these interactions vary according to the conditions of the context and culture, where men and women make their adoption decisions.potatoes and I will keep those to be my seed.Valentina: ah! And what other new things do you do now to improve the production of your products (potatoes, milk, vegetables, wheat ... depending on the place)?The characters can change when the focus group is conducted with women, so that the woman is the one who is interested in the practice that is being applied by the man.Step 2 (general questions)When the story telling has ended, que following question is asked:What new practices / technologies will Don Juanito apply to improve food production: potatoes, milk, vegetables, wheat?As they respond, the cards with the agricultural practices / technologies mentioned are placed on the flipchart.Cards should be placed in the order in which they are mentioned. This will give an idea of which ones they remember the most and if they coincide with the ones they use the most.Once participants have finished mentioning practices / technologies, the practices that were not mentioned but that we know were promoted in the area are included in the list. After this the following questions are asked:o Which are the practices used the most, and why?o Which practices are not applied but would like to, and why?o Regarding practices that were left loose, ask: Why are these practices not applied? In this step, the reasons for the answers given are written on the flipchart to get a better understanding of the reasons for adopting or not adopting a technology.The reasons may be related to attributes or factors. The attributes that influence refer to the technology itself (for example: because it is easy to apply, because it is quick to apply, etc.); the factors can be effects of some attributes or reasons that are external to the technology itself (social, cultural, economic factors, etc.), such as not having access to credit, labor, roads to transport their products, etc.Therefore, the objective is to understand in depth if the reason mentioned is a cause of origin or if it is a consequence of another factor, or of an attribute of the technology. That is why a better understanding is sought through asking the question Why?For example, if the reason mentioned was …• \"it is hard to apply\"• Why is it hard to apply?• \"Because we have to pay laborers to hill again\"• And how much does labor cost?• \"It depends on the time of the year, sometimes it is 80 and some others 120, but labor is hard to find\" • ¿But aren't resources from harvest enough to pay for labor?• No, we produce potatoes for our own consumption not for sale, so it is not enough to pay for labor… additionally production increases when a second hilling is done, but it increases very little.Through this in-depth dialogue the facilitator can extract the following factors and attributes• Access to labor • Effect of technology • Type of crop (commercial, food security)This exercise is repeated for each of the justifications for both the use and non-adoption of a technology.Step 4From the results obtained in the previous step, attributes of technology and factors that influence adoption are selected separately. To have more clarity, attributes and the factors mentioned are written on a new flip chart.This list is submitted to two ratings.1. Assessment of the factors or attributes that influence the most in the adoption of the technology.2. Assessment of the factors or attributes that influence the most in the NON-adoption of the technology.The technique of the 100 units, is applied to rank factors and attributes.The technique of the 100 units (100 grains of corn) is used to rank the alternatives. 100 grains are given to the group and they are asked to distribute the grains among the factors or attributes that influence the most so that a technology is adopted. The same is done with the factors or attributes that influence so that a technology is not adopted.Step 5After the ranking, the implications are verified. This is done by formulating the following statements and promoting an open dialogue.• If a technology is 1, 2 and 3 (mention of the attributes that influence adoption) then you would use it, although 1, 2, 3 (mention the factors that influence NON-adoption)? • If a technology is 1, 2 and 3 (mention of the attributes that influence NON-adoption) then you would not use it, although 1, 2, 3 (mention the factors that influence adoption)? This section will enable a better understanding of the comparative priorities between attributes and factors, know if the attributes of the technology or the factors influence more.","tokenCount":"10535"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e79f812252fc4a1dac0a95e181f3e159","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/929c10d3-45de-4adc-9feb-4fc9343ab187/retrieve","id":"631508137"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"28646359-7016-4e99-84bb-1ec9843b8fb7","pagecount":"13","content":"Throughout history, people have fought over land and over the control of, and access to, valuable resources. Besides being an * UNEP. \"Toolkit and guidance for preventing and managing land and natural resources conflict: Land and conflict.\" (2012). p. 13. economic asset and source of livelihoods, land holds significant social, cultural, and historical importance for individuals and communities. 1 In FCS, forests and land use are often identified as being either the root cause of conflict or exacerbating an existing conflict.1 Ibid.Guidance Note for Peace-Informed Programming at the Green Climate Fund FORESTS AND LAND USE \"Where there is conflict, land and natural resources issues are often found among the root causes or as major contributing factors.\"* Summary: Land has historically been a focal point of conflict, especially in fragile and conflictaffected settings (FCS), where disputes over forests and land use often intersect with broader socio-political dynamics, including unfair resource allocation, marginalization, and governance challenges. Factors such as climate change, population growth, and urbanization are expected to intensify these conflicts in the coming decades. While forest and land use projects aim to address these challenges, they can inadvertently exacerbate tensions, especially if they limit resource access, have weak governance, or marginalize local stakeholders. However, with a conflict-sensitive approach, such projects can promote peace by ensuring equitable land access, fostering sustainable resource management, solidifying land rights, and building trust through community engagement and knowledge-sharing. 7 USAID. \"Land and Conflict: A Toolkit for Intervention 2.0.\" Land Links. (2022). p. 7. 8 UNEP. \"Toolkit and guidance for preventing and managing land and natural resources conflict: Land and conflict.\" (2012). p. 9. 9 USAID. \"Land and Conflict: A Toolkit for Intervention 2.0.\" Land Links. (2022). p. 14. 10 Ibid., p. 8.While forests and land use are rarely the sole driver of conflict, they often tie into other political, economic, social, environmental and security factors -including unequal property rights, unfair land distribution, and issues related to marginalization and weak governance. 2 Moreover, due to the highly dynamic nature of FCS, the relationship between forests and land use and conflict changes over time and can deteriorate rapidly depending on the conflict context. 3 Combined with the increasing pressures from climate change, population growth, worsening food security, forced migration and rapid urbanization, violent conflicts related to forests and land use are likely to intensify over the course of the coming decades. 4 As highlighted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), land is fundamental for peace and security, human rights, and development, and \"essential during the whole conflict cycle including for overall recovery from conflict, economic recovery and for ending displacement.\" 5 Since disputes over forest and land use can be a root cause of conflict, the issue has the potential to be not only a driver of conflict and violence but also a force for peace and stability.Forest and land use interventions include efforts to develop or strengthen: forest protection, restoration and sustainable forest management; natural protected areas systems; REDD-plus; timber and non-timber forest products; deforestation-free supply chains (including timber, beef, palm oil, soy, cocoa, and coffee); agroforestry; land tenure security; land use planning; and forest-based watershed management. 6 The following subsections provide an overview on the operational risks that can arise for climate projects in FCS, including how projects in these contexts might exacerbate ongoing conflict dynamics, and what peacebuilding opportunities exist. We then provide guidance on how to incorporate conflict sensitivity and peace responsiveness in the project. The overview and guidance are based on a literature review of publicly available material and includes a list of guidance notes and case studies for further reading.Given that forests and land play a central role in many FCS, there are diverse conflict dynamics that may negatively impact projects related to forests and land use. Some of the risks related to forests and land are highlighted below:In FCS, competition over access to land and natural resources ties into the broader conflict 5 Ibid., p. 4. 6 GCF. \"Forest and Land Use Sectoral Guide.\" Sectoral Guide Series, Yeonsu: Green Climate Fund. (2022). p. 6.Integrated climate-security programming is the holistic approach of embedding both climate and security considerations into the entire lifecycle of projects-from design and implementation to evaluation. This strategy aims to guarantee that climate finance initiatives are not only environmentally sustainable but also conflict-sensitive.Conflict sensitivity is an organizational process where knowledge of the peace and conflict dynamics in the operational context is gathered through a locally informed perspective and applied to avoid unintended negative consequences and maximize positive effects on peace. Conflict-sensitive practices exist on a spectrum between 'do-no-harm' (e.g., conflict assessment, safeguards, redress mechanisms, etc.) and 'do-good' (e.g., peace responsiveness, peace co-benefits, peacebuilding, etc.). dynamics, with control over land not only creating economic and political incentives, but also providing important cultural and social values. 7 Violent competition tends to be the result of a variety of interlinked conflict dynamics, such as the exploitation of natural resources by conflict parties to fund their military operations. 8 Increased scarcity of fertile land also increases the competition for control over the remaining 'good' land, which in return reinforces a destructive competitive cycle. 9In some contexts, increased competition has increased tensions between farmers and herders, whose mobility has decreased significantly due to insecurity and the dwindling availability of resources. 10The opposite can also be the case in some contexts where there is an abundance of natural resources. This can in turn create slow growth, rent-seeking, corrupt governance, and rebel looting, all of which can generate internal or external violent conflict. This narrative is sometimes called the \"resource curse,\" referring to cases where resource abundance is connected to a higher likelihood of conflict, and paradoxically to economic underperformance. Examples of countries experiencing the resource curse include the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Iraq, Libya, and Angola, who all have been impacted by violent internal conflicts between different groups over the access to and the use of natural resources to finance their fighting. 11Increased deforestation in FCS: While deforestation in FCS can also relate to general cultural practices, there are several drivers of conflict directly or indirectly linked to deforestation. For example: a lack of access to energy can result in widespread fuelwood collection for heating and cooking; 12 military units may clear forests to prevent non-state armed groups (NSAGs) from hiding under tree cover; and, illegal logging activities and charcoal production in relation to the conflict economy. 13 In other cases, deforestationrelated conflict relates more to cultural practices and differences across ethnic groups which affect the natural environment. Recent data provided by the Conflict and Environment Observatory (CEOBS) suggests that the sharp increase in deforestation in many conflictaffected countries in 2020 had a strong relationship with conflict. 14 Since reducing deforestation is the main focus in many forest and land use projects, 15 conflict related deforestation in FCS can prove a major risk to GCF projects.Forced displacement: Violent conflict is one of the primary drivers of forced population displacement, especially in protracted conflict contexts, which often feature in multiple waves of displacement. 16 This can cause communities to engage in unsustainable forestry since research suggests that reliance on wood fuel in displacement settings can be a main driver of forest degradation and deforestation. 17 In areas hosting displaced populations there often is a lack of available resources, which increases the use of wood fuel dramatically. Furthermore, the prolonged There is also a risk that NSAGs in these contexts exploit these tensions to create further instability and gain influence in IDP areas, which they can target for recruitment.Forest and land use projects are not only subject to the increased risk of land-related competition when operating in FCS, but they also risk exacerbating pre-existing conflict dynamics. For example, they can create legal disputes over forest management, conservation, and restoration, including disagreements over forest zoning, protected 18 Fomekong, Steve Tiwa. \"Why communities hosting internally displaced persons in the Sahel need stronger and more effective legal protection,\" International Review of the Red Cross. (2022). 19 Alusiola, Rowan Alumasa, Schilling, Jan Peter and Klär, Paul. \"REDD+ Conflict: Understanding the Pathways between Forest areas, and forest tenure reform, which can involve multiple actors. The following risks includes some of the most common related to forests and land:Lack of access to forest resources: Projects aiming at reducing deforestation can create disputes over access and control of forest resources. Implementation and monitoring for forest restoration and sustainable forest management projects can also interfere with cultural norms and social dynamics. Evaluations of REDD+ projects in Tanzania, Uganda, Indonesia, and Panama provide some evidence on how new restrictive rules and regulations on forest-related livelihood options led to a decline in forest-based income and reduced yields, leading to food insecurity and poor nutrition. 19 In most cases, community reactions to these restrictive measures led to conflict, with the level of violence depending on land tenure security. The less secure communities felt, the more violent their reaction to restrictions. 20Weak land governance: Deforestation or sustainable management projects become complicated when communities lack proper land tenure mechanisms, rule of law, strong institutions, and timely and transparent landrelated information. 21 In these cases, there is an increased risk of projects related to land worsening the situation. They may not sufficiently engage with all relevant land rightholders and users, including indigenous communities, who may have relocated due to insecurity and conflict risks, thus causing further grievances and undermining their claims to their native land.Land grabbing: Whether foreign interventions result in conflict depends not only on the intervention, but also on the perceived Projects and Social Conflict.\" Forests 12, no. 6: 748. (2021). p. 13. 20 Ibid., p.12. 21 UNEP. \"Toolkit and guidance for preventing and managing land and natural resources conflict: Land and conflict.\" (2012). p. 27-30.In the project Community-based Landscape Management for Enhanced Climate Resilience and Reduction of Deforestation in Critical Watersheds by the Japan International Cooperation Agency, a strategic implementation of the Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) approach showcases the power of localized incentives in promoting behavioral change. By combining the traditional mutual support system with training courses, the project encourages the replication of sustainable and climate-resilient livelihood options. Moreover, the CBNRM mechanism is used, especially at the village level, to act as a stabilizing force, maintaining public order and preempting social conflict. Finally, members of a Central and Municipal Project Monitoring Team are trained to supervise, provide technical guidance, and most importantly, resolve any conflicts arising from the introduction of the CBNRM mechanism, ensuring a holistic approach to community-based conflict management. legitimacy and effectiveness of existing land and resource governance systems. 22 Often, however, large land acquisitions in FCS have been associated with human rights violations and violence. 23Different groups may have different cultural values and perceptions related to forests and land. For instance, indigenous communities may view forests as sacred or as integral parts of their identity, while others may view them primarily as economic resources. 24 Projects risk increasing tensions related to these dynamics if not they do not consider how a given forest is perceived by its users. Watersheds are dynamic systems characterized by diverse interactions and spatial relations between humans and the environment with their own socioeconomic, cultural and environmental relationships, flows and conflicts that manifest as 'mosaics' of different land-use systems. 28 Disrupting the upstream-downstream linkages can increase tensions among communities and lead to violent conflict if access to water becomes more restricted. In the UNDP project Enhancing Climate Resilience of India's Coastal Communities, key lessons emphasize the power of community involvement and clear communication. The project designed early engagement and education aiming at reducing potential conflicts between restoration goals and community livelihoods. The project also underscores the necessity of a participatory, inclusive process in identifying beneficiaries, particularly focusing on the most vulnerable groups like women, youth, and Scheduled Castes and Tribes. The project has also established a framework for a Grievance Redress Mechanism so that conflict can be resolved to ensure an equitable distribution of project benefits.Increase access to forests and land: For many communities living in FCS, land and the benefits it provides are the most important source of livelihoods and income. Developing and implementing rules for equitable access to land is, therefore, critical for sustainable development and for tackling related challenges, such as malnutrition and unemployment. 29Create economic opportunities: Sustainable forestry practices can create employment and economic opportunities across a wide range of sectors, if implemented in an inclusive and conflict-sensitive way. This will not only create livelihoods for vulnerable and marginalized groups, especially women, youth, and displaced communities, but also grow the forestry sector and promote more sustainable supply chains. 30 Sustainable resource management: Building better relationships between different communities can support more balanced management of finite land and forest resources, which are highly susceptible to overuse and even destruction in conflict contexts.Facilitating more efficient, transparent, and inclusive natural resource governance structures can also provide more sustainable livelihoods for communities. 31Securing land rights: Securing land tenure arrangements can improve the capacities of communities to adapt to the impact of climate change on livelihoods. 32 Moreover, it can increase access to land for women, ethnic minorities, displaced populations, and vulnerable groups. Clear land tenure rules, transparent and inclusive land management, and equal access to land for all user groups can decrease the risk of conflict. Strengthen community resilience: Conflict dynamics are often linked to a history of exclusion, marginalization, and inequality (real and perceived) between different groups. Focusing on equal participation and inclusion of local stakeholders in the design, planning and implementation of the project will ensure that marginalized people are able to voice their needs and concerns, which can contribute to community resilience. Their strong relationship and knowledge of the local environment can also foster shared meaning between conflicting parties.Supporting deforestation-free production can help grow the value of nontimber forest products (NTFPs), which can then increase sustainable forestry and provide alternative and better income opportunities for local producers. Realizing this potential, however, will require investing in other areas as well, such as micro-finance schemes, transportation, and training. 37There is a wealth of guidance and tools available on how to deliver conflict-sensitive forest and land use projects and how to adequately address challenges as they arise:Planning the project: The GCF's Initial Investment Framework may benefit by applying conflict sensitivity to the investment criteria, in particular 'needs of the recipient community', 'sustainable development potential' and 'country ownership'. A robust application can then proceed, based on a strong understanding of the targeted area, including land ownership, geographic characteristics, land grabbing and other conflict dynamics. The framework addresses conflict impacts on land governance, on existing land reform initiatives, and on infrastructures for peace. 38 To do this, baseline analysis and stakeholder mapping can reveal issues and problems, as well as whom they affect and how. 39 Documenting these different realities experienced by different groups can improve the inclusivity of programming and help identify potential solutions, even among already-existing efforts. This stage can further ensure that the next steps are conflictsensitive by defining a co-benefit indicator and acquiring free, prior, and informed consent from stakeholders.Implementing the project: During activities' rollout, operational risks can be mitigated by robust early-warning systems for land conflict and insecurity, engagement with security officials, and contingency funding for securityrelated delays. Some planning tools can help mitigate the risks of contributing to insecurity and operational risks by extension. For example, stakeholder mapping can clearly define the beneficiaries, staff, and partners, 40 helping the project start with the least controversial issues to build confidence between stakeholders. 41 At this stage, negative impacts can be further prevented by regularly engaging stakeholders and addressing their concerns, in particular through adequate grievance and compensation mechanisms. Activities promote increased security when implementing staff and partners display positive behavior patterns to beneficiaries. 42 How project resources are distributed should consider potential negative impacts. 43 Regular and open communication can bring stakeholders closer, revealing opportunities for peace dividends and raising awareness for durable dispute resolution mechanisms. Finally, a well-designed exit strategy can ensure that land conflict does not reignite and that resilience to compounded climate-related risks is increased. 44Monitoring and evaluating the project: During and after activities, it is key to monitor both operational risks and the project's impacts on the security context. Data on the evolution and emergence of sources of tension and cohesion, on land issues, and on the implementation of conflict sensitivity measures is particularly relevant. It may also be helpful to assess perceptions of the project and potential negative effects of resource allocation (whether real or perceived), and the perception of RAFT (Respect, Accountability, Fairness and Transparency) on the part of beneficiaries. \"There is no 'one fits all' approach when it comes to land tenure rights.\"Securing land rights: There is no 'one size fits all' approach when it comes to securing land tenure and rights; it will depend on the legal, cultural and environmental conditions in the specific context. 49 Projects can help recognize communities' rights to land by developing tailor-made, context-specific, and participatory land use planning strategies. The approach must ensure that local stakeholders -especially women, youth, marginalized communities, indigenous peoples, displaced populations, chiefdoms authorities, tribes and other groups -have legal recognition and ownership of land.Addressing the gender gap: Projects can promote equal rights to land and address the gender gap in land tenure by empowering women and women's groups to actively participate in land governance decisionmaking. They can inform and support land governance institutions, including customary institutions, to be more inclusive and to invite more women's participation. 50 This could start, for example, from working to achieve a better gender balance in community decisionmaking bodies for land use planning and natural resource management. Also, where discriminatory customary practices are deeply embedded, a strategy could be to work with the least discriminatory institutions to try to change the status quo. Then -with generated evidence, experience, raised voices, and confidence -the project can address other institutions more resistant to change.Fostering partnerships with civil society: Due to the lack of agreement and clarity on land ownership in many FCS, it is important to foster partnerships with civil society organizations (CSOs). The partnerships can attempt to resolve conflicts related to land rights through peacebuilding actions, such as those promoting benefit sharing and resource governance. Using participatory approaches to sustainable land use in the development of project design and/or implementation can help tailor the project and its objectives to the target country. For example, the FAO used a participatory analysis, including a rapid landscape analysis, to engage with different stakeholders.They promoted more sustainable food systems and healthy diets through a deeper understanding of the importance of territorial approaches. 51 ","tokenCount":"3096"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"014cf463411ed569c80748072a453cb3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a3cc6b6-c923-4775-93a7-9e4c761df313/retrieve","id":"-110582266"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe336695-0a38-409d-8200-6a0d6faa3df8","pagecount":"3","content":"World convene to improve bacterial blight management and increase farmers' yields MANILA, Philippines (17 October 2023) -Plant pathologists over the world shared the latest discoveries and innovations to increase bacterial resistance in rice and mitigate its impact on rice production at the 7th International Conference on Bacterial Blight (ICBB07).Bacterial blight can cause up to 70% yield loss, making it one of the most destructive diseases in rice. It kills seedlings within two to three weeks, and those that survive are stunted, have reduced tillering, and produce poor-quality grains.ICBB07 featured studies and technological advances aimed at controlling the spread of the disease. First convened in Japan in 2004, the ICBB responds to the need for developing and disseminating better tools for detection, identi cation, and race-typing of the reference Xoo culture collection, and identify sets of near-isogenic rice carrying speci c R genes interacting with corresponding avr genes in the bacteria.Hans Bhardwaj, director for Rice Breeding Innovations at the International Rice Research Institute reiterated the role that the conference plays in the overall advancement of rice research. \"Breeding hybrids with high genetic potential is one thing,\" said Dr. Bhardwaj, \"However, we need c expertise to realize the full potential of these varieties. This is a collective effort, and through this conference, your knowledge and experiences come into play.\"PathoTracer, a tool that reduces the time it takes to identify the contemporary and evolving strains of bacteria causing bacterial blight, was introduced at the conference. The decision support system integrates early-season pathogen diagnostics and disease resistance pro les intended for use by public and private enterprises in accurately de ning breeding priorities and in implementing coordinated actions to manage crop diseases in real time.The conference also tackled new ndings on BB global distribution and their genetic diversity in Asia and Africa, Xoo genomics and their evolution that can contribute to the effective mitigation of the disease, the regulatory mechanisms of rice resistance and Xoo virulence induced by TAL effectors, advances on executor and susceptibility genes, genome editing for engineering BB resistance and of a rice gene for conferring multipathogen resistance, and on strategies for improving disease management and breeding, among others. ","tokenCount":"358"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f2d963963ef511257f84c9242f98e1ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c78e188-5cc0-4b70-87c0-101eb65e04fa/retrieve","id":"443985106"},"keywords":["Sustainability standards","Certification","Extension services","Global value chains","Conventions","Fit"],"sieverID":"8fd2d316-dcd9-4036-b7c6-985412a81ea5","pagecount":"15","content":"Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) are central to sustainability standards and certification programmes in the global cocoa chain. Pruning is one of the practices promoted in extension services associated with these sustainability efforts. Yet concerns exist about the low adoption rate of these GAPs by smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana. A common approach to addressing this challenge is based on creating enabling conditions and offering appropriate incentives. We use the concepts of inscription and affordance to trace the vertically coordinated travel of recommended pruning from research to extension and farming sites, and to describe how pruning is carried out differently at each site. Our analysis suggests that enactments of pruning at the extension site reduce the number of options and space for interactions, and this constrains making the practice meaningful to farmers' repertoires. The conventions guiding and legitimising actions at this site, reinforced by sustainability standards, certification schemes and associated inspections and audits, favour standardised recommendations and consequently narrow room for context-specific diagnostics and adaptions. Therefore, we reframe the adoption problem as a matter of fit between different sites in the 'agricultural research value chain' embedded in the operational cocoa chain. Our contribution problematises the dominant framing of low adoption and highlights that the movement of pruning and the sequential enactment at different sites constrain the affordances available for rendering the practice meaningful to farmers' repertoires. Consequently, addressing the low uptake of GAPs requires institutional work towards conventions that can construct a fit between sites along the agricultural research value chain.Hindrances to the uptake of recommended good agricultural practices (GAPs) have been considered a major challenge to agricultural development in Africa (Meijer et al. 2015;Jha et al. 2020). The emergence of sustainability standards and certification schemes have given this challenge a prominent place in the strategic management of lead sourcing and chocolate firms in the cocoa commodity chain. In their responses to public pressures to make cocoa production more sustainable and rising business concerns over secured access to cocoa as raw material, these firms have endeavoured to integrate smallholder farmers into service delivery schemes and associated extension services to increase the uptake and use of sustainable production practices. These corporate strategies reinforce the dominant assumption that training, novel practices and innovative techniques lead the way to sustainable and yield-increasing production practices, and subsequently bring benefits to farmers. Whether this presumed adoption pathway materialises is not self-evident (Alexander et al. 2020). GAP training in the cocoa chain is accompanied by manuals, guidelines and a related set of training and extension activities for fostering adoption, diffusion, and scaling. While research has recorded positive outcomes from such training (Fenger et al. 2017), uptake of promoted GAPs has been recorded as being low (Nmadu et al. 2015). This presents a challenge to the cocoa sector (Dormon et al. 2007). Low levels of uptake and the diffusion of recommended agricultural practices form major strategic concerns for lead firms and their public and civil society partners who are striving to enhance sustainability in the cocoa commodity chain.GAP training combined with sustainability and certification programmes creates a technology transfer approach that involves notions of adoption, diffusion and scaling (Glover et al. 2019). This perspective frames non-adoption as stemming from unfavourable conditions in the context of adopters. In adoption literature, many studies examine factors within adopting contexts that enable or constrain uptake among farmers (e.g., Meijer et al. 2015;McDonough et al. 2015;Laosutsan et al. 2019). In contrast, we see adoption as a possible emergent outcome of socio-political processes that shape the travel of GAPs (Cook et al. 2021), rather than as a combined result of quality practices and enabling conditions in adopting contexts. GAPs travel from the research sites where they are developed to extension sites where they are transferred and eventually to farming sites, where they are applied.To understand the likelihood of GAPs having material consequences on the ground and, therefore, contributing to sustainability in the cocoa sector, this paper traces the movement of pruning throughout the \"agricultural research value chain\" (Alexander et al. 2020) in Ghana as a widely recommended GAP in the operational global cocoa chain. Pruning, as referred to in this paper, broadly refers to a package of guidelines, manuals, artefacts, extension materials, visualisations, or contracts that prescribe recommended practices advanced by the agricultural research value chain. This package is distinct from the set of mundane and gradually evolving practices of farmers cutting unwanted tree parts on their farms. Prescriptions of how to manage trees are built in the package, which therefore affects the selection of pruning techniques and mediates actions.This turns the travelling package into a pruning script (Akrich 1992;Latour 1992): an evolving framework of action prescribing how cocoa farmers are expected to use tools and techniques in managing their trees and farms. The package is enacted in a set of sequential actions at different sites in the agricultural research value chain that aim to encourage cocoa farmers to adopt recommended pruning practices. The research activities from which the script originated contain different types of pruning, which a variety of mediators at different sites along the agricultural research value chain successively select, translate and inscribe into visuals and manuals that create links between technical content and users (Akrich 1992). Tracing what happens with the pruning script informs the analysis of what recommended pruning practices eventually materialise in the interactions between the extension and farming sites.The analysis of the adoption trajectory of the pruning script is grounded in science and technology studies, which focuses on the inscription of preferences, principles, categories, and expectations into compact, transportable and persuasive forms, such as graphs and other visualisations (Smith et al. 2000). In line with Latour's analysis of the travel of soil samples (1999), we analyse how the carrying out of the pruning script at different sites creates and selects classifications and options and produces a degree of certainty. We also consider the concept of affordance, linked to the notion of inscription, which is elaborated on in the work of Glover et al. (2017). It is useful to examine how scripts underlying the promotion of pruning mediate relationships between researchers, extensionists and users. Affordances are the potential options for use to which a script lends itself; they outline opportunities for interaction that are built into the scripts and transmit the expectations of promoters to potential users. The affordances are carried out at different sites and reshaped during the movement of technological packages or scripts between sites.Following Glover et al. (2017) and insights from Latour (1991Latour ( , 1999)), we offer an alternative way of looking at the uptake of GAPs in the cocoa commodity chain, which is attentive to the implications of actions and choices at different levels in the agricultural research value chain for how GAP touches down in the realities of cocoa farmers. Methodologically, we focus on the interface of situated practices, coordination processes and knowledge-based interventions (Vellema et al. 2021). Tracing the travel of a GAP reveals what makes it likely for packages to be flexible enough for a dialogue between different systems of knowledge and practices resulting in contextual adaptation. GAPs are not merely technical packages, but possess cultural and political dimensions; they are constructed and expressed in various institutional forms at different points in the agricultural research value chain. To this effect, Glover et al. (2017) highlight that instead of focusing on how packages can be transferred and scaled, a new question emerges: how can the skills and placeless knowledge of scientists be made relevant to, translated into and integrated with forms of knowledge and practices in a way that makes sense on the ground? We engage with this perspective and ask the question: what enables GAPs to be or constrains them from being incorporated into farmers' repertoires?We advance a conceptualisation of the travel of pruning based on inscription and affordance with an institutional perspective on how this unfolds in a vertically coordinated process. The travel of GAPs is influenced by governance mechanisms in the cocoa value chain that promote standardisation and uniformity. We add this perspective so that we are able to assess the ways and extent to which cocoa farmers can accommodate, appreciate, resist, subvert or bypass the inscriptions and modes of action included in efforts to transfer and promote recommended pruning practices. It is not self-evident that the mobility of pruning is a two-way process, even though the expectations of pruning at the research and farming sites are not that far apart. Therefore, we provide an institutional perspective on the notions of inscription and affordance to understand the persistence of low uptake of GAP.The institutional perspective uses the concepts of fit and convention. 'Fit' originates from organisation and management studies (Nadler and Tushman 1980;Ansari et al. 2010); it is used to examine how characteristics of GAPs that arrive in the farming site, either fit with farmer's repertoires or do not. To comprehend the observed (mis)fits, we engage with the notion of convention (Diaz-Bone 2016; Ponte 2016), from governance studies literature, to examine the enabling or constraining institutional conditions at play in the agricultural research value chain, embedded in global commodity chains. While our analysis engages with GAPs at the distinct sites, our study neither evaluates the knowledge of GAPs at the sites nor advances arguments on the dichotomy between scientific and farmers' situated knowledge. Instead, we shift attention to and provide an institutional lens for examining the vertically coordinated travel of GAP tangled with sustainability and certification programmes in the cocoa chain and identify enablers or constraints to making GAPs relevant and fit with farmers' repertoires.The paper is organised as follows. After this introductory section, we present the theoretical perspectives from which we derive the main elements of our analytical framework. Next, we introduce the methods for tracing the travel of pruning as a recommended practice in Ghana. The results section traces the travel of pruning from research to extension and farming sites and unravels decision-making and coordination processes at and between multiple levels in the knowledge chain; this informs our institutional understanding of the vertically coordinated travel of pruning. We end with a discussion on the conditions that enable or constrain fitting and contribute to observed fits and misfits, and we conclude with recommendations.Technology transfer thinking dominates the adoption literature and is often accompanied by notions of diffusion and scaling. These notions ascribe neutrality and universal applicability to scientific knowledge (Glover et al. 2019). Pruning for instance, is considered as a neutral package of knowledge on what, how and when to prune, what equipment to use and for what outcome. Its movement into farming is then conceived as transferring knowledge and recommendations through trainings. Glover et al.'s (2017) perspective on the uptake of technological packages, however, highlights that technological packages go through processes of standardisation and simplification to make them mobile and enable them to travel from research stations to farmers' fields, and these have implications for the applicability of the packages. Glover et al. (2017) highlight two processes as being crucial for what happens to technological packages and how they can be used: inscription and affordance. Inscription concerns the work done by designers to build expectations into standard packages of how they are to be used to achieve their intended outcomes. Latour (1991) shows that users can adopt, subvert, change, resist or ignore scripts. For our analysis, we detail how practices and interactions of researchers and extensionists convert expectations of what pruning can do into signs, such as visuals or pictures, and words, such as manuals or training materials. We document the production and transmission of information as forms of inscription happening during the travel of the pruning script.The affordance of packages concerns the potential options for use and opportunities for interactions with the packages. Affordance depends on the characteristics of the packages that enable or constrain the ways they can be employed, as well as the flexibility of interpreting them. According to Glover et al. (2017), the uptake of technological packages depends on the conditions for unpacking their affordances into the repertoires of users. Examining processes and levels of inscription of technological packages, and their affordances and site-specific enactments is, therefore, essential to understanding the uptake of such packages.Following from Glover et al. (2017), we document the production and transmission of information as forms of inscription happening during the travel of a pruning script. In the setting of the agriculture research value chain, inscriptions are carried out at different sites, which refashions the affordances at the subsequent site. The concept of affordance-linked to the notion of inscription in the work of Glover et al.-is therefore useful to closely examine how scripts underlying the promotion of pruning mediate relationships between researchers, extension officers and users (Fig. 1). We trace the travel of recommended GAPs from the site of research to extension and to farming and examine their distinct site-specific enactments. We conceptualise GAPs as site-specific configurations carried out through practice and situated within specific institutional mechanisms.In the cocoa chain, GAPs are tangled with standards and certifications, and have interdependences at various levels of the commodity chain. They are embedded in governance mechanisms in the vertically coordinated chain. The intrinsic dynamics of specific sites mediate what practices actors consider legitimate and whether and through what processes they are adopted (Bromley et al. 2012). Consequently, technologies used within specific contexts pick up other characteristics beyond their technical characteristics. The sites where technologies originate and transfer, for instance, shape their characteristics and how they interact with users (Glover et al. 2017). Like diffusing practices in organisational settings, technologies are socially meaningful, multifaceted bundles of knowledge rather than neutral innovations (Ansari et al. 2010, p. 82). GAPs such as pruning entail more than technical artefacts; they imply a variety of rules and norms emerging from site-specific actions. These site-specific institutional features direct the travel of GAPs and affect degrees of institutional coordination and alignment (Cook et al. 2021) between the different levels of the agricultural research value chain.Unpacking package affordances and incorporating them into farmers repertoires requires a fit between packages' characteristics and users' practices. Nadler and Tushman (1980, p. 45) define fit as \"the degree to which the needs, demands, goals, objectives, and/or structures of one component are consistent with those of another component\". Uda et al. (2018) highlight that fit is a two-sided concept that focuses on tensions and synergies resulting from what works (or not) as practices move from one domain to another. While examining how practices diffuse in organisational settings, Ansari et al. (2010) use the concept to examine compatibilities between characteristics of a practice in two domains of an organisation and how (mis)fit triggers different patterns of adaptation. They distinguish between technical, cultural and political characteristics of diffusing practice to analyse fit between sites. They conceptualise technical fit as the degree to which characteristics of a practice are compatible with technologies already in use by potential adopters. Cultural fit is the degree to which the characteristics of a practice are compatible with the cultural values, beliefs, and decision-making practices of potential adopters. Political fit is the degree to which the implicit or explicit normative characteristics of a practice are compatible with the interests and agendas of potential adopters. We adopt Ansari et al.'s (2010) technical, cultural and political characteristics of fit and heed Cox's (2012) call to define characteristics of the practice for which we analyse fit.Therefore, we unpack pruning practices at the distinct sites into technical, cultural and political characteristics and discuss compatibilities within these characteristics. We use compatibilities and incompatibilities in the characteristics to reveal fits and misfits around pruning practices, and frame adoption and non-adoption as arising from (mis)fits in the characteristics of the arriving package and realities in the farming site. Fit is not a static concept but reflects a dynamic process (Schouten et al. 2016), so we analyse the emergence of fitting and misfitting within the unfolding practices of using manuals and delivering extension services that constitute interfaces where the research, extension and farming sites interact (Fig. 1).We deepen our understanding of observed fit and misfit through the lens of convention theory to unearth conditions that either enable or constrain unpacking the affordances of pruning. Diaz-Bone (2016, p. 215) defines conventions as \"socio-cultural frames for mobilizing a shared interpretation of objects, actions, goals, and collective intentions involved in situations of production, distribution, and consumption\". Conventions serve as a guide for action and collective systems to legitimise those actions and include processual and situational factors that shape specific institutional trajectories (Ponte 2016). Convention theory shifts attention to the institutionally situated characterisation of individual and collective actions, particularly the values, visions and norms that guide processes of coordination (Wilkinson 1997). Realigning a practice to be compatible with a norm, manifest in prescribed GAPs in certification schemes, has become a major coordinating process in commodity chains (Ponte 2016;Ponte and Gibbon 2005). We use convention theory to unearth shared norms, values and interpretations (Geurts 2018) that enable or constrain the unpacking of pruning affordances and their incorporation into farmers' repertoires (Fig. 1). Figure 1 represents the analytical framework underpinning our results and discussions.Practitioners in the field of tree crops highlight pruning as an important low-cost choice for increasing productivity, as trees' energy is channelled into fruit production (Vos et al. 2003). Removing unwanted plant parts through pruning is considered an essential management practice in tree crops such as apple (Elfving 1990), macadamia (Huett 2004) and cocoa (Govindaraj and Jancirani 2017). In cocoa, pruning is expected to improve light capture and efficient nutrient use (Opoku-Ameyaw et al. 2010;Asare et al. 2018) and to find a balance between growth and yield (Govindaraj and Jancirani 2017). Pruning is also recommended for controlling pests and diseases and reducing pesticide use (Opoku-Ameyaw et al. 2010), as concerns over the environmental hazards of pesticides used on cocoa have heightened (Denkyira et al. 2016;Okoffo et al. 2016). Policy makers, standard organisations and private firms in the cocoa sector also promote pruning through sustainability-certification programmes.In Ghana, the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) and institutions, such as the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), conduct research on GAPs, generate knowledge and translate this knowledge into manuals used in extension services. Extension service providers include the public Cocoa Health and Extension Division (CHED) and the extension units of private sourcing and chocolate companies collaborating with civil society organisations. Extension is instrumental to link this translated knowledge to many cocoa farmers. The adoption of pruning in the West African cocoa sector, however, is noted to be low (Govindaraj and Jancirani 2017), and Ghana is no exception (Dormon et al. 2007). In this setting, we used the methods stipulated below to document the travel of pruning through the layered setup of knowledge transfer from the research to extension and farming sites in Ghana.We collected data on pruning practices in the three sites (Table 1). CRIG and IITA formed the research site. Field work took place through ongoing extension activities on pruning in farming communities in three districts: Amenfi West in Western region, Bibiani-Anhwiaso-Bekwai in Western North region and Atwima Mponua in Ashanti region.Additionally, we observed 13 pruning activities in the 2018/19 cocoa season. These included one mass training session, two demonstration-farm visits, four coaching and six direct pruning of trees for farmers called 'gang pruning'.In the coaching and gang pruning, we conducted followup discussions to clarify some of the observed interactions. Some interviews, group discussions and observations were recorded, and the audio and video recordings were transcribed to capture vital details. For the unrecorded ones, detailed notes were taken during data collection.We combined data from the multiple sources and methods in our analysis. We compiled the notes and transcripts into summaries for the distinct sites, then analysed the summaries. We focused on the content of the summaries to examine site-specific enactments of pruning (Coffey and Atkinson 1996). We compiled the emerging insights into cross cutting thematic codes. These thematic codes were: definition of pruning, source of pruning definition, types of pruning typified, weight given to types of pruning, description of the art of pruning, factors to consider when pruning, effects of pruning highlighted, weight given to effects, and labelling of farmers and researchers'/extension officers' way of pruning. These crosscutting themes allowed for examination into how pruning was carried out at each site. We also focused on the interactional contexts and dynamics in the sites to examine interactions among the sites and how pruning travels from one site to the other (Elliot 2005). The analysis of site-specific enactments and the travel of the practice were not sequential; they were cyclical and allowed for in-depth understanding of the dynamic process of how pruning is constructed in each site and the interactional dynamics among the sites (Kumar 2014). We present this in our results section.We then examined the crosscutting themes using our theoretical lenses (see Fig. 1). We typified the engendered characteristics of pruning in each site into technical, cultural and political dimensions, and examined the compatibilities in the characteristics among the sites using the concept of fit. We paid attention to conditions that enable or constrain compatibilities among pruning practices in the distinct sites. Subsequently, we used convention theory to unearth the conventions that shape how pruning is carried out in each site and how and in what form the practice moves from one site to the other.In this section, we trace the travel of pruning from the research site, through manuals to the extension site and through extension delivery activities to the farming site. We focus on site-specific enactments, levels of inscription and the unpacking of affordances of the practice as it travels.At the research site, researchers and agronomists showed that diverse types of pruning exist for different purposes. Formation pruning is conducted on young cocoa trees to adjust the height of the first jorquette and to create desirable shape during establishment; structural pruning is done to shape the canopy of matured cocoa trees to a desired size and architecture; sanitation pruning involves the removal of diseased and unnecessary branches, chupons, epiphytes, mistletoes and mummified pods (Opoku-Ameyaw et al. 2010;David 2011). The agronomists we interviewed highlighted that pruning improves aeration, reduces pests and diseases, and improves light capture and efficient nutrient use, all of which enhances productivity. However, while formation and structural pruning primarily give good tree shape, sanitation pruning improves tree health and reduces pests and diseases. Govindaraj and Jancirani (2017) highlighted that pruning's effect on productivity depends on how much biomass one removes from the tree during pruning, among other factors; they distinguished between deep/heavy (30%), medium (20%) and light (10%) pruning. Asare et al. (2018) assert that removing more than 25% of tree canopy can potentially starve the tree and be detrimental to its growth. Govindaraj and Jancirani (2017) considered medium pruning as having the greatest effect on pod attributes. Agronomists indicated that the main branches of cocoa trees carry pods. Accordingly, one needs to carefully consider if and what main branches should be cut to avoid negative effects on pod-bearing.The agronomists further indicated that farm-specific conditions determine tree response to pruning. These conditions include the presence or absence of shade trees, soil fertility status and microclimate. They specified that cocoa trees live and interact with other shade trees. Thus, light capture for productivity enhancement, for instance, depends on the mutual shading of cocoa trees and that of other shade trees (Govindaraj and Jancirani 2017). For pest and disease reduction, while pruning's effect on improving sunlight penetration can prevent black pod disease (Opoku-Ameyaw et al. 2010), it can increase capsids that thrive in sunlight (Dohmen et al. 2018). Additionally, intensified rainfall, temperature changes and prolonged dry seasons influence trees' response to pruning (Dohmen et al. 2018). The agronomists, therefore, concluded that pruning is a context-specific practice and must be situated in farm-specific conditions.Agronomists mentioned that due to contextual specificities of pruning, one needs expertise in giving pruning recommendations to farmers. One agronomist opined that \"both good and bad pruning can provide adequate sunlight in the farm\", but the \"consequences of bad pruning is detrimental\", so having an \"eye for pruning\" is vital (Agronomist, Tafo, 9/9/19). They noted that expertise is particularly necessary for avoiding the dire consequences of pruning on tree health and productivity.At the research site, pruning is used as a practice that consists of diverse methods and is used for diverse purposes and context-specific outcomes. The affordances of pruning as contained in this site acknowledge diversity in pruning types and different techniques for pruning. Its outcomes are also diverse, including increased productivity, balanced tree growth and yield, enhanced tree health and reduced incidence of pests and diseases. It also allows for a diagnostic capacity to access farm-specific conditions to situate the practice. The site constructs pruning as an open-ended script that allows extension workers and farmers to rewrite and localise it.Manuals represent an interface of interaction between the research and extension sites. They embody abstract representations of reality constructed into words and illustrations through inscriptions for reference (Latour 1999). Through manuals, researchers are able to standardise information on pruning and enable it to travel to the extension site where officers can interpret and use it. Manuals constitute a level of inscription with potential implications on the affordances of pruning.Manuals on cocoa cultivation in Ghana (Table 2) have had information on pruning since the 1980s and have typified diverse pruning types for diverse purposes since 2003. In illustrating pruning, however, information in the manuals concentrate on tree shape. The CABI and STCP manuals, for instance, focus on heavy/structural pruning in an eightstage illustration sourced from the ACDI/VOCA SUCCESS project in Indonesia. The manuals present an unpruned tree as stage one, consider sanitation pruning as stage two and dedicate stages three to eight to pruning that results in a fourmeter tall tree with three to four main branches and a funnelshape canopy. The CRIG 2010 and CocoaSoils manuals on the other hand, portrayed the processes of conducting the diverse types of pruning. However, they also illustrate treeshape before and after pruning, reflecting an emphasis on tree-shape in illustrations.The manuals highlighted diverse benefits of pruning (Table 2). However, they gave credence to the outcomes of structural pruning. For instance, they state that \"the best cocoa tree has one stem only and two or three main branches, with enough side branches and leaves to capture more sunlight\" (STCP Manual 2011, p. 7;CocoaSoils Manual 2021, p. 27). The CABI and STCP manuals state that the productivity of trees pruned as illustrated is higher and underscore the importance of keeping such structure through maintenance pruning. The CRIG 2010 manual also notes that pruning provides shape to the plant and improves aeration and reduces incidence and spread of pests and diseases: these factors are essential for increasing productivity. The manuals accentuate the significance of structural pruning for improving productivity and tree health.The manuals provide little to no attention to farm-specific contextual factors to consider when pruning. The information is focused on the cocoa tree and gives standard recommendations about which unwanted branches and materials should be pruned, when to prune and what equipment to use. The agronomists said that to counter the trade-off from standardisation, the ideal practice is for agronomists to train extension workers on the specificities and situatedness of pruning. However, they also said that such training rarely takes place; if it does, the information from the manuals is reproduced.Although the inscription of pruning in manuals acknowledges diverse types of pruning, illustrations emphasise structural pruning and give credence to its outcome. The specificities and situatedness of pruning also filter into standard recommendations. Thus, the affordance of pruning as consisting of diverse types for diverse purposes narrows. Its construction as an open-ended script that allows for localisation and associated diagnostic capacities for context-specific adaptation also fades.At the extension site, extension officers specified the existence of formation, structural and sanitation pruning for diverse purposes including increased productivity, improved tree health and reduced pests and diseases. However, officers often described pruning with phrases such as desired tree-shape, 3-4 branches and funnel-shaped canopy. They used manuals as sourcebooks and their teaching and learning aids had illustrations of pruning provided in the manuals. The officers indicated that they gave pruning recommendations to farmers on what branches to cut, how to cut them, what time of the year to cut and what equipment to use as indicated in manuals or received in their training. However, few extension officers said that in addition to these standard recommendations, they considered local weather and soil conditions. These officers indicated that they gained this contextual insight from years of working with farmers and learning from their experiences. For the other officers with less experience, they relied on the manuals to provide them with pruning recommendations. These officers equated recommended pruning with illustrations in manuals. The officers indicated that pruning is a key part of sustainability and certification schemes and Ghana Cocoa Board's ongoing productivity enhancement programme. Certification schemes, for instance, specify pruning as mandatory practice. The checklist of one certification programme we examined showed that pruning is to be regularly conducted to obtain optimal tree structure and health. Officers trained farmers on recommended pruning as illustrated and, in some instances, trained other people to directly prune trees for farmers. A contract signed between one firm and farmers for direct pruning service showed that the farmers were appointing the company to structurally prune their farm, and this was a principal clause for defining breach of contract. Extension officers emphasised the importance of farmers adhering to recommended practice for their farms to pass certification audits and inspections.At the site of extension, information in manuals is being reproduced in teaching and learning aids and is being translated into activities geared towards training farmers on recommended pruning as a key component of sustainability efforts. Pruning is treated as an inflexible and fixed recommendation. Its affordances reduce with regards to diversity and specificity, situatedness, contextual adaptability and context-specific diagnostic capacity. The practice becomes more selective and standardised, and dovetails with standard and certification schemes with related checklists and audits.Extension delivery is an interface of interaction between the extension and farming sites. Extension officers give information on pruning during extension activities and farmers interpret and use this information. Extension activities constitute a second level of inscription with potential implications for the affordances of pruning.Varied extension delivery activities on pruning exist in Ghana (Table 3). These activities have fostered diverse interactions between extension officers and farmers. In the mass training we observed, the extension officer asked farmers what they knew about pruning at the beginning of the training. He then told farmers what pruning is, its importance and showed farmers how to prune on their farms. In the demonstration sessions, officers usually told farmers what the recommended practice is and started demonstrating it to farmers. At every stage of demonstration, officers explained why they cut a branch and invited some farmers to demonstrate what they had seen. Farmers asked officers to clarify further when what officers said or demonstrated deviated from what farmers knew or did. For instance, this included when officers cut branches having cherrelle and farmers thought that this would decrease yield, and when an officer said that pruning could increase yield by about 30% and farmers were sceptical about yield increase from pruning without fertiliser application.Officers said that farmers had attended many training sessions and yet often did not adopt recommended pruning on their farms. One officer's statement that \"farmers find it difficult to understand what we say in trainings; they need to see us demonstrate it\" (Private extension officer, Nyinahin, 21/5/19) suggested a need for demonstration sessions. However, they also noted that farmers were not convinced with what they had seen in demonstration farms. \"They [farmers] think the effect of pruning cannot be just a result of pruning\" (Public extension agent, Adjoufua, 1/11/18), \"… they [farmers] think we do some extraordinary treatments to the farm\" (Private extension agent, Asankragua, 6/4/19). Officers specified that the ideal situation was for farmers to receive recommended pruning on their individual farms.Coaching and gang pruning occurred on farmers' farms (Table 3). In these activities, some farmers showed active resistance to recommended pruning due to perceived detrimental effects to cocoa trees. Farmers and officers spent a considerable amount of time discussing their distinct positions on what, how and why to prune. Officers explained their position using their knowledge on recommended pruning while farmers gave contextual information on their farms to explain their position. In some instances, they reached consensus. For instance, when farmers appreciated coaches' or pruners' reasons for what and how to prune, or when coaches or pruners were also farmers and appreciated the farm owners' basis for wanting the trees pruned differently. In some instances, there was no consensus. Officers, however, cajoled farmers into accepting recommended pruning to enjoy the full packages of intervention, which included spraying and hand pollination. In other instances, farmers grudgingly accepted recommended pruning so they were able to pass certification inspections. In a gang pruning activity, for instance, one farmer said \"I am only accepting this [officers recommended branches to cut], because you said my farm will not pass certification if I do not cut these branches\" (Observation 5, Manse, 14/5/19). Officers highlighted that they had to ensure that farmers pruned as recommended to be able to meet internal control measures and subsequently pass certification audits.In other instances, farmers refused to allow trained pruners to prune as recommended. Farmers indicated that it was risky to allow pruners who do not understand how cocoa trees behave to prune branches that would reduce yield or kill the tree. Pruners, on the other hand, said farmers were obstructing their work, and failure to prune as recommended implied that they did not prune well and could not justify their actions to internal control officers who would inspect the farm afterwards. To these pruners \"it is better to label farms as not pruned than not well-pruned\" (Trained pruner, Amoamang, 12/3/19). Officers expressed displeasure about farmers' non-adherence to recommended pruning. They thought that \"farmers should be able to sacrifice and prune their farms\" to reap the benefits (Private extension officer, Accra, 14/8/18).The extension delivery methods had different underlying rationales and settings (Table 3), so fostered different interactions. However, the delivery approach focused on transferring recommended pruning to the farming site. This second level of inscription through extension activities dovetails into certification schemes and interventions that involve inspections and audits. This reinforced inscription in manuals that are carried out in the extension site consisting of reduced affordances in terms of diversity and specificities, situatedness, contextual adaption and context-specific diagnostic capacities. Pruning was promoted as an inflexible package with standard recommendations.On the farming site, farmers indicated that cutting unwanted branches has been part of their management practices for decades. They said: \"we cut the downward looking branches so that it will be easy to walk through the farm\" (Interview 3, Amoamang, 12/3/19), \"my farm became too dark [shady] and wet [damp] so I cut some of the branches\" (Interview 6, Benchema, 8/4/20) \"I cut the dead branches so that insects cannot hide in them\" (Interview 11,Nyinahin,20/4/20). According to farmers, they did this to improve sunlight penetration and prevent dampness and its influence on pests and diseases. The farmers however, described the cut branches as slim, weak, tiny, downward looking, diseased or dead.Farmers indicated that although cutting unwanted branches is an old practice, they did not refer to it as pruning. For these farmers, the use of the term 'pruning' by extension officers and its promotion as a recommended practice referred to the type of pruning that centred on shaping the structure of the tree. Farmers indicated that cutting 'big branches' and opening up the canopy 'too much' could lead to dire consequences. Some farmers recounted yield reduction resulting from cutting main branches. They cited factors such as the rains did not come early, the sun was too much, and I did not apply fertiliser to identify stresses in tree response to pruning they experienced. While some farmers had experienced these adverse effects themselves, others had learned from the experiences of other farmers. They highlighted the importance of learning from the mistakes as much as the successes of other farmers concerning pruning.The farmers highlighted the potential of extension officers' way of pruning on nutrient maximisation and its positive effect on productivity. They explained this using a bowl of food scenario they had learned during training. They said that a bowl of food (nutrients) could feed less people (tree branches) to work more satisfactorily (more productively) than more people. While they acknowledged this, they showed that farms are not the same, and even in the same farm, different soil conditions exist. One farmer narrated:It is important to consider the type of land on which the cocoa is planted so that the trees do not die after pruning. Some trees look like they are dying during the dry season, and it is dangerous to prune them. There is a farm on the road to my farm, the land is hard and cracks during the dry season. They [trained pruners] pruned that farm last year and the cocoa trees have been struggling since then. Anytime I pass by, I tell myself that this woman should not have allowed these pruners to destroy her farm (GD 4, Domeabra 15/3/19).According to the farmers, deciding what to cut and how to cut unwanted branches involves considering soil fertility levels and the ability to apply fertilisers or not, the slope of the land and depth of top soil, rainfall and temperature variability, the presence of shade trees on the farm and the position of such trees in relation to cocoa trees. To these farmers, the composite task of managing and maintaining trees involves assessing sunshine and humidity in the specific location as well as age and status of the tree before deciding what and how to cut unwanted parts. It involves diagnosing the status of the tree situated in the farm and selecting appropriate recipes for ensuring yield. At the site of farming, pruning is carried out as a situational practice that one learns by doing and with context-specific factors to consider.The above traces the vertically coordinated travel of recommended pruning through the agricultural research value chain embedded in the operational cocoa chain. Tracing the travel indicates that the affordances of pruning reduced as it moved from research to extension to farming site. The rich but placeless knowledge of scientists recognised a variety of pruning practices that could be used under different circumstances and for multiple purposes. However, inscription in manuals, a necessary step for making the GAP mobile, entailed setting a standard for pruning and increasingly gave weight to a single pruning technique. This move towards standardisation and a strong focus on promoting structural pruning materialised in the step translating pruning into recommendations and guidelines used and unpacked in the extension site and was reinforced by the anchoring of extension delivery in certification programmes.The result of making pruning mobile is that the practice of pruning that arrives in the farming site is restricted and the multiplicity of options for use tailored to diverse conditions visible at the research site evaporated along the way. Refining and standardising the placeless knowledge of scientists and researchers on GAPs to travel to the sites of extension and farming requires levels of inscription. Much like Latour's (1999) work on the travel of soil samples, pruning, which is a context-specific art, becomes movable through inscription processes in the manuals that standardised it. These inscription processes amplify the standardisation and relative universality of the art; however, they reduce their locality, particularities, materiality and multiplicity (Latour 1999, p. 71). While these inscriptions are necessary to make the package mobile, they influence the content and affordances of the package and limit potential options for use (Glover et al. 2017). This unintended consequence of making GAPs mobile has implications for connecting pruning as a GAP to farmers' repertoires.The analysis of the travel of pruning, as a recommended GAP, opens conceptual space for reframing the adoption problem as a matter of fit and, subsequently, for using the notion of conventions to identify conditions that add to the persistence of low adoption. The low uptake of GAPs observed in the cocoa sector is widely framed as an adoption challenge stemming from constraining conditions in adopting contexts (e.g., Dormon et al. 2007). This framing of the problem drives efforts to increase training and use groups to offer direct pruning services to increase uptake of what is considered a neutral package of scientific knowledge. This paper reframes the problem as a matter of fit between sites through which GAP travels and advances a conceptualisation of the travel of pruning based on inscription and affordance with an institutional perspective on how this unfolds in a vertically coordinated process. This section exposes the characteristics of pruning brought about through distinct site-specific enactments and identifies (mis)fits between the vertically connected sites.Unpacking the affordances of pruning in each site engenders specific technical, cultural and political characteristics (Table 4). In terms of technical characteristics, the practice of pruning at the research site consists of diverse types, has diverse outcomes and needs context-specific diagnosis. The research site encodes the variety of pruning practices in manuals. At the site of extension, however, pruning is carried out as a standardised practice with generic diagnosis focused on the structure of the cocoa tree. The extension site puts little emphasis on translating situated diagnoses into context-specific recommendations. The standard practice of pruning as carried out in the extension site arrives at the farming site where pruning is carried out as a situated practice with diverse outcomes and needing contextspecific diagnosis. Pruning entering farmers' realities as a GAP reveals a misfit with the technical characteristics of the repertoire of pruning practices already in use in the farming site.The cultural characteristics relate to how decisions are made, and options are selected in each site. The research site values and normalises diversity in pruning types and constructs pruning as an open-ended script for localisation. The extension site, however, values and normalises structural pruning and constructs pruning as a standardised practice with fixed recommendations that are transferable to farmers in the form of training and guidelines. The manuals and training offer little guidance in how to define and evaluate the purposes of different 'good pruning practices' and assess their appropriateness for specific circumstances. This standardised recommendation of pruning relates to auditing and certification, which basically check compliance with a limited set of prescribed guidelines. The affordances of the practice that eventually touch down at the farming site have been altered through the enactment in the extension site. This contrasts with the observations of decision-making processes at the farming site, which value and normalise diverse pruning techniques and construct pruning as a flexible practice that one learns by doing.The political characteristics of the practice relate to what is prioritised and what effects of the practice are valued. The research, extension and farming sites all value pruning's plausible positive effects on reduced pests and diseases. Regarding pruning's effect on productivity, however, the research site prioritises productivity pre-and post-pruning, while the extension site enacts improved productivity as a post-pruning outcome. The farming site normatively prioritises pruning's non-disruption of existing productivity. Epitomising the relationship between loss aversion and decision making among farmers (Jin et al. 2020), they select pruning techniques based on evaluations of contextspecific practices and are geared towards non-compromised pod-bearing. When farmers select structural pruning-the generic recipe prevalent in extension services-it depends on what is prioritised at specific moments in time and in accordance with farm-specific conditions. This experimental and evaluative mode of priority setting in the farming site, which allows farmers to find a balance for productivity preand post-pruning, diverges from the fixed priorities emerging in the extension site.Our analysis suggests that enactments of the pruning script in the middle of the knowledge chain may reduce the number of options and spaces for interactions, which reinforces the low uptake of GAPs. Remarkably, the characteristics of pruning at the research and farming site may be commensurable. The research and farming site share the notion that pruning is a specific art, and using it effectively requires adapting the practice to specific farm and agro-ecological conditions (Govindaraj and Jancirani 2017;Dohmen et al. 2018). However, the unpacking of the pruning script during its transmission in the form of manuals and extension services creates contradictions and misfit. Consequently, the paper problematises the dominant narrative, which frames the issue as a lack of or low uptake of recommended pruning. In contrast, it highlights that the movement of recommended pruning and the sequential practice at different sites constrains the affordances available at the bottom end of the agriculture research value chain.Unpacking in the extension site hinders the affordances of pruning to be made relevant and included into farmers' repertoires. Ultimately, this results in a practice with different and fewer affordances, while, as Glover et al. (2017) indicate, for a technology to make sense on the ground, it must create space for its affordances to be unpacked in new contexts. The reduced affordances are not necessarily a purposeful act of extensionists to alter established pruning and tree management practices of cocoa farmers but stem from how the agricultural research value chain is structured. Our analysis understands the low uptake of pruning as emanating from misfits as the pruning practices moves from research to extension and farming.Therefore, we reframe the adoption problem as a matter of fit, which is conditioned by the institutional infrastructure shaping the travel that connects the enactment of pruning, as a GAP, at different sites. Looking into the conventions associated with the different sites helps to explain the persistence of misfit. For understanding the adoption problem, this shifts attention to values, visions and norms (Wilkinson 1997), as well as guides for actions and collective systems that legitimise actions (Ponte 2016) that constrain the flexibility First, translating research into manuals is a process of inscription that operates within the value of universal applicability of scientific knowledge. Thus, providing knowledge and practices of pruning in manuals, for instance, focuses on giving standard recommendations of the practice. The research site provides pruning illustrations from different contexts in manuals, which also orients knowledge exchange towards one type of pruning. Details on diverse types of pruning, its specificities, situatedness and diagnostic capacities fade in manuals. While standardising GAPs is a necessary level of inscription for making the package mobile, the fading of diversity, specificities, situatedness and diagnostic capacities in this process of inscription reduces the affordances of the package and the flexibility needed for fit.Second, in extension delivery activities, the extension site operates within a shared interpretation (Diaz-Bone 2016) of manuals as sourcebooks. The site reproduces standardised recommendations in manuals, which reinforce a package with reduced affordances. Within this norm of relying on manuals, the site interprets 'recommended pruning' as the kind illustrated in manuals and equates these illustrations with 'good pruning'. Also, operating with a collective aim to increase adoption of GAPs among farmers, the site mobilises collective intentions and systems to legitimise (Ponte 2016) efforts towards increasing adoption of this recommended pruning. This manifests in the dovetailing of recommended pruning in sustainability programmes, certification schemes and related interventions with strong focus on adoption as well as using labour groups to deliver recommended pruning to farmers.Third, the continuity of imposing recommended pruning dovetails with certification schemes and associated modes of training and service delivery. This reinforces misfit at the site of extension delivery, or deliberately organised encounters through which farmers come into contact with new packages (Glover et al. 2019). Activities, such as training sessions, demonstrations, coaching and gang pruning constitute another level of inscription guided by values of inspections and audits. These activities are complemented by disciplining actions imposed by incentives, punishments and managerial supervision (Glover et al. 2017) that reinforce the transfer of standard recommendations. The disciplining actions include: incentives embedded in persuading farmers to accept recommended pruning as part of bigger interventions comprising pesticide spraying and manual pollination, punishments evident in fear of failing certification audits for refusing recommended pruning, and managerial supervision imposed by the work of supervisors and superiors who inspect the work of gang pruners.These disciplining actions, which are integrated in sustainability and certification programmes, reinforce prescriptive pruning with reduced affordances and constrain the flexibility necessary for fitting. Unpacking the affordances of pruning and enabling fitting requires the travelling package and the interaction interfaces to foster flexibility and room for manoeuvre (Vellema et al. 2020) and encourage reflexivity and expertise for diagnosing situated actions (Orlikowski 2002). However, the trajectories through which GAPs travel from the research to farming site and the interfaces of interactions leave little room for flexibility and reflexivity to foster fitting capacities.Enabling fit requires presenting the package as malleable and involves farmers in diagnostic and evaluative processes unpacking the affordances and making them useful to their specific circumstances (Glover et al. 2017). However, the conventions at different sites constrain agricultural research value chains' capacity to enable fit and maximise package affordances. At the extension site, for instance, effective use of interactive extension approaches for situated diagnosis are considered resource-intensive and are rarely used (Muilerman and David 2011). Heuristics to help farmers make local adaptations are often lacking (Glover 2014). The conventions associated with manuals and recommended practices sustain the misfit. Misfit persists and is engendered by conventions directing collective systems that legitimise standardised recommendations of what is a rich and sophisticated practice. The conventions reinforce standard recommendations through standard-setting and certification schemes associated with sustainability endeavours in cocoa. This contributes to understanding the low uptake of recommended pruning among farmers.In this paper, we analysed the low uptake of GAPs, specifically pruning, by examining what enables pruning to be and constrains it from being made relevant to and translated into farmers repertoires. We used the concepts of affordances and inscription to provide an account of the vertically coordinated travel of pruning from the site of research through extension to farming. We show that the non-adoption of pruning in Ghana's cocoa sector can be understood as misfit between the characteristics of pruning emerging in the enactment of the practices at different sites in the agricultural research value chain. Our paper moves the problem from farmers as non-adopters to the nature of inscription processes necessary for making pruning and other GAPs fit while being made mobile. With this view, we conclude that the uptake of GAPs is dependent on enabling fit in both their social and material elements. Examining the travel of pruning and anchoring this in the concept of fit shifts the research perspective to conventions. These conventions are strong and reproduce pathways that constrain the package of pruning to be made relevant to and translated into farmers repertoires. There is, therefore, a need to move beyond conceiving the low uptake of GAPs, such as pruning, as an adoption challenge that requires increased extension activities with standardised and de-contextualised recommendations. Our analysis creates space to think in terms of alternative pathways that foster flexibility. We suggest rethinking extension services embedded in global commodity chains, certification schemes and associated interventions to evade the adoption tragedy of forcing standardised good agricultural practices into situated action. This may translate into an institutional architecture with conventions that nourish fit and connect diagnostic capacities at different sites of the agricultural research value chain.","tokenCount":"8532"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"78236ce48be86ece17ae2cae5f9d07e0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c45ddee0-e416-4842-9083-f75553d2ed46/retrieve","id":"1859814297"},"keywords":["Nutrition","Non-Separable Model","Production Diversity, Risk, Market Access"],"sieverID":"fe496b68-aaa9-4591-badf-88c4beda70f7","pagecount":"53","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.Malnutrition is a significant challenge for the world. In the developing regions of the world, 780 million people are undernourished (FAO et al., 2018). The majority of undernourished people are smallholder farmers in rural areas of Africa and Asia (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2007;Sibhatu and Qaim, 2017). Despite the commitment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 to end hunger, the share of undernourished people in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has grown from 17.4% in 2017 to 19.1% in 2019 (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, 2020). Studies show that improving dietary diversity may be a promising strategy to address undernourishment (Arimond et al., 2010;Kant et al., 1993;Popkin and Slining, 2013;Sibhatu et al., 2015). Smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable to under-nutrition, as poverty rates among smallholders are typically much higher than national averages (Rapsomanikis, 2015). For this reason, many development initiatives introduce new crops and production methods to smallholder farmers to boost their production diversity and improve their dietary diversity. However, empirical evidence suggests that households need to grow nine more crops to increase the number of food groups they consume by one (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2018). Vast differences in smallholder market access and participation may be influencing the (in)effectiveness of production diversity as a means to improve dietary diversity (Sibhatu et al., 2015).This study assesses the interaction of smallholders' production diversity, market access and participation, and dietary diversity. We develop a non-separable agricultural household model for multiple crops, involving joint decision making on consumption, production under risk, and market participation. Traditional models of agricultural households assume that food and production choices are separable under perfect markets. However, production and food choices in the context of rural farming households, particularly in developing regions, are non-separable because of market imperfections. Smallholder farmers usually face implicit and explicit transaction costs because they lack market information on prices, buyers, and sellers and can be far away from markets (Chamberlin and Jayne, 2013). These transaction costs can make consumption of on-farm produce for smallholder farmers cheaper than purchasing food products from the market. In addition, smallholder farmers are exposed to market and production risks with limited access to financial instruments (e.g. loans and insurance) to mitigate the effects of those risks. Instead, they diversify their agricultural production to reduce risk exposure and include both food and cash crops in their production mix (Makate et al., 2016). Specifically, our model is a variant of the mean-variance portfolio optimization model, taking the non-separable production and consumption choices of smallholder farmers into account. In the full model, the farming household is endowed with a fixed amount of land and labor and can produce multiple crops. The household can consume its own food production, or as a price taker, it can sell and purchase food items at exogenous market prices. However, both purchasing and selling in the market involve transaction costs (e.g., transportation costs and costs of accessing market information). The household allocates its endowments to maximize jointly (i) the returns from the production while trying to minimize joint production risks, and (ii) household welfare from the consumption of food items. The household's consumption and production diversity are estimated endogenously by our model for given market transaction costs and prices, production risk, and food preferences. Three factors potentially drive production diversity: production risks, the love of consumption variety, and transaction costs (i.e. market acces).Consistent with earlier theories (Finkelshtain andChalfant 1990, Fafchamps 1992), the model predicts that risk increases production diversification and reduces specialization in the production of the crop with the highest financial return. This causes a fall in overall income. Moreover, the household prefers producing cash crops (or crops with high financial returns) to food crops when it is well integrated into markets (as in Omamo, 1998), but it prefers to produce food crops when transaction costs prohibit easy access to markets.Our novel findings concern the interaction between market participation, production, and consumption diversity. We find that the influence of production risks and diversification on dietary diversity depends on the household's level of market access. The model shows that increasing market access (via reducing transaction costs) improves dietary diversity, allowing the household to specialize in producing (cash) crops with the highest (financial) returns. With those returns, the household can purchase and consume a diversified basket of food products from the market. When the household's level of market access is above a certain threshold, production diversity hinders consumption diversity. Increases in production risks incentivize the household to diversify their production to mitigate risk, causing a reduction in the returns from agriculture and consequently, dietary diversity. In contrast, production diversification positively contribute to the dietary diversity of a household with limited access to markets (under a given threshold of market access). Because of the household's love of variety, the household diversifies their production and grows multiple crops, which will primarily be consumed at home. The household aims to satisfy their preference for a diverse diet through a diverse production mix. However, growing more crops does not necessarily increase dietary diversity because it matters which crops are being grown, not just how many.Finally, we test the predictions of the model through regression analysis. For this purpose, we use the nationally representative LSMS data for Tanzania in 2013. Rural Tanzania is a suitable and relevant context to test the predictions of the model, as nearly 68% of Tanzanian households work in the agricultural sector (FAO et al., 2018). Many of these smallholder farmers' diets are susceptible to climate shocks. Despite improvements over the last two decades, Global Hunger Index (GHI) reports that Tanzania has a serious hunger problem and ranks as one of the least food secure countries in the world, scoring 95th out of 117 countries in 2019 (Global Hunger Index, 2019).In our regression analysis, we use the presence of village markets to measure market access, and we use past production shocks to proxy production risks. The results from the analysis show that increased production diversity is positively correlated with past production shocks and negatively correlated with the presence of markets, confirming our theoretical predictions. Further, we test whether market participation/access and production diversity are correlated with dietary diversity and anthropometric measures. Our findings give evidence to the theoretical model by showing that both market participation and production diversity are positively and significantly correlated with dietary diversity. Market participation plays a small mediating role in the correlation of production diversity with dietary diversity -production diversity is positively and significantly correlated with dietary diversity at low levels market participation, but has zero correlation at higher levels. The results do not hold for anthropometric outcomes, as in Chegere and Stage (2020).Our study provides a consistent theoretical framework for the extensive empirical literature surrounding production diversity, market access, and household nutrition of smallholder farmers. The study also gives novel insights to the interaction between these factors. It also provides a clear set of policy implications on rural development and nutrition. Our findings show that improvements in market access of smallholder farmers while reducing their production risks enhances household nutrition. These suggest that improvements in the market participation of smallholders must be supported while introducing agricultural methods reducing production risk (e.g., new varieties and production methods). Their contribution depends on the market access, food choice, and risk exposure of smallholders. To this end, before introducing improved varieties or new crops, development practitioners should follow a participatory approach that involves smallholder households to understand their risks, food choices, market access challenges.Related literature: Our study contributes to two strands of literature. First, we contribute to the agriculture household modeling literature. There is an extensive literature on agricultural household models that assess the responses of household supply and demand to changes in food prices (Taylor and Adelman, 2003). The majority of those models are so-called separable household models where households decide on production and consumption separately.The assumption of perfect markets, which allows for separable optimization, makes those models relatively easy to implement and find analytical results. However, still today, large portions of agricultural households in rural areas of developing countries are both consumers and producers of food. For this reason, several non-separable models have been developed to analyze smallholder farmer behaviour. Like their separable predecessors, these models address a variety of issues, particularly market access's role in crop diversification. For instance, Omamo (1998) shows that in the absence of risk, transaction costs explain the low-levels of specialization in agricultural production as a rational outcome. He suggests that in the case of two goods -a food crop and a cash crop -farmers with high transaction costs tend to inter-crop food and cash crops more, while farmers with low transaction cost specialize in the cash crop. de Janvry et al. (1991) introduced market imperfections (via transaction costs) for food and labour markets to analyze non-separable production decisions. Fafchamps (1992) uses a two-crop non-separable model to analyze the relationship between market access, risk, and crop allocations. The paper shows that small farms are food-crop oriented and large farms are cash crop oriented -a common observation in developing countries. Goetz (1992) illustrates a model whereby the households participate in markets based on fixed transaction costs. Key et al. (2000) extends this work by looking at the differences between the introduction of per-unit and fixed transaction costs on household market participation and supply response and by simultaneously solving the production, consumption, and market participation decisions.The non-separable household models that are mentioned above cannot analyze the cases of many production and consumption goods, instead opting for two-good models. This omission makes it difficult to study household dietary diversity -a key component of household nutrition. This paper fills that gap in agricultural households modeling by introducing a non-separable household model with multiple goods produced under risk. For this purpose, we use the mean-variance framework that was originally proposed by Markowitz (1952) in the context of investors' portfolio allocation decisions in financial markets. The mean-variance approach and variants of it have been applied to farm planning in numerous studies (Collins 1988;Tauer 1983;Watts et al. 1984;Coyle 1992;Coyle 1999). Tzouvelekas (2011) uses a mean-variance approach with non-separability in labor markets. It tests the results for British farmers, in light of EU pricing policy support. In this study, we use the mean-variance approach with non-separable agricultural households models with imperfections in food markets in developing countries, for (to our knowledge) the first time. While our model is focused on the relationships between risk, market access, production and consumption diversification, it is also generalizable enough to potentially add other components.Second, this relates to the empirical literature investigating the relationship between production diversity, market access, and household nutrition in developing countries. We contribute a theoretical framework for the empirical literature and empirically test the role of the interaction between production diversity and market access in determining dietary diversity. Several papers have found increases in consumption diversity associated with increases in production diversity. In Zimbabwe, crop diversification increased the dietary diversity of children and women during a nutrition education intervention (Murendo et al., 2018). Similar results are found in Malawi using nationally representative data, where crop and livestock diversification were associated with higher consumption diversity (Jones et al., 2014). While much of the research regarding the relationship between production diversity and nutrition is in Sub-Saharan Africa, these relationships have been observed in other regions, such as Bolivia (Jones, 2015) and India (Kumar et al., 2016). Despite the evidence that production diversity can improve household nutrition, the efficiency of production diversity as a lever to improve nutritional outcomes has been brought into question. In a meta-analysis of 45 studies in 26 countries analyzing this relationship, Sibhatu and Qaim (2018) find that the mean marginal effect of production diversity on household dietary diversity is quite low. In SSA, the review concludes that a household would need to cultivate nine additional crops just to increase consumption diversity by one food group (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2018).Several other studies empirically analyse the effect of market access on household diversity. For instance, in a panel study in northern Ethiopia, being located closer to markets is associated with higher overall dietary diversity for children (Abay and Hirvonen, 2017). In Kenya, access to selling produce to supermarkets is found to improve household nutrition (Chege et al., 2015). Evidence even points towards market access being a more critical factor in improving household nutrition than production diversity in Malawi (Koppmair et al., 2017). Finally, cash income from produce is associated with higher dietary diversity and micro-nutrient consumption than production diversity in Uganda, Indonesia, and Kenya (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2016). Our theoretical model contributes to this literature by explaining how market access mediates the effect of product diversification on household dietary diversity by emphasizing the importance of the interaction between market access and production, and providing a consistent theoretical framework for existing empirical analysis.The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 2 outlines the theoretical model and its implications. Section 3 introduces the econometric methods for testing the production outcomes of the model. Section 4 discusses the data used in the econometric approach, and Section 5 shows the results of the econometric analysis. We conclude the paper with a brief discussion on the findings. All proofs are shown in the appendices.The proposed model is a non-separable household model (i.e. households maximize consumption, production, and market participation simultaneously) with N agricultural goods. The goods can either be produced and consumed at home or produced and sold on the market in exchange for other agricultural goods. On the production side, the household maximizes production while minimizing production risk according to a multi-good mean-variance function. On the consumption side, households maximize utility according to multi-good additive log utility function. The multi-good approach allows for the extrapolation of dietary diversity scores and can show how dietary diversity is related to market access and production risk (e.g. climate variability).To simplify the model and focus on the linkages of consumption diversity and production diversity with production risk and market access, several assumptions are made. Households are price-takers in both supply and demand of agricultural goods. As consumers, households have a love of variety of goods. Further, households are risk-averse, and their production carries risk (in the form of climatic variation). Households are assumed to have no livestock holdings, cannot engage in off-farm labor, and land and labor costs are zero. These assumptions can be relaxed, but this is beyond the scope of this research.This section first introduces the model's hypotheses, followed by a presentation of the model framework on both the consumption and production sides. The model framework culminates in a derivation of the household's value function. Then, the case of perfect markets in a risk-less setting is analyzed to understand the simplest case of the model. The next two sub-sections relax the assumption of a risk-free environment and of perfect markets, respectively. These specific cases of the model uncover the effects of production risk and market access on household production decisions and on household dietary diversity.The theoretical model is intended to explain the economic theory behind the empirical evidence linking production diversity, market access, and dietary diversity. Three main propositions are put forward in examining these relationships:Proposition 1 Market access leads to greater specialization in production.Proposition 2 Production risk leads to higher production diversity. Proposition 3 Higher production diversity leads to higher dietary diversity if market access is low (and vice versa).Proposition 4 Higher market access leads to higher dietary diversity through increased income.We show that these four propositions hold using specific cases of a non-separable agricultural household model presented below.Let there be a utility-maximizing agricultural household that both produces and consumes food crops during one period 1 The household can consume and produce up to N different crops. Utility is gained through the consumption of crops and takes an additive log-utility functional form with decreasing marginal returns to each individual crop consumed and decreasing absolute risk aversion (DARA):where w i is a preference parameter for good i and c i is the consumption quantity of good i. Adding the constant 1 to consumption allows for zero consumption and ensures only positive consumption values can lead to positive utility 2 . The household can consume any good i through two different channels -by producing and selling crops on the market and using the resulting income to purchase and consume crop i (\"market consumption\") or through producing crop i at home and consuming the resulting home-production (\"home consumption\"). Consumption for good i is defined as:where c m i is market consumption and c h i is home consumption. We assume the household does not differentiate between consumption from the market and consumption from home production (i.e. both types of consumption yield equivalent amounts of utility). In both consumption channels, production of crops is required whether to sell on the market for income in the case of market consumption or to consume at home in the case of home consumption. Households are endowed with a productive asset and can allocate a proportion, 0  s i  1, of that productive asset to any good i of the N goods that can possibly be produced. This productive asset can be thought of as land and/or labor, and it may be a combination inputs. Further, these productive inputs are free 3 (i.e. there are no land or labor costs in the model). Production carries risk and is assumed to be log-normally distributed. Production, q i , for any good i is given by:where q i is the quantity of good i produced, i is a productivity parameter, and ✏ i is the risk term following a log-normal distribution with mean 1 and variance i . We assume all production risks are uncorrelated. This is a simplifying assumption and does not affect the mechanisms which we are trying to demonstrate In Appendix A, we show that the formulation in Equation 3 is compatible with a Cobb-Douglas production function for each crop i if all crops have identical output elasticities for land and labor.Under production risk, households are risk averse in their production decisions and choose to allocate their resources using a mean-variance approach that simultaneously maximises production and minimizes production variance. The expected quantity produced (using a common measure of quantity, e.g. calories) is given by:where a is a non-negative constant determining the variance's contribution to utility. We restrict analysis to the domain in which 0  q i < 1 a because this is the domain on which Equation 4 is monotonically increasing. Beyond this point, expected quantity of good i decreases with more productive resources allocated to it (a common assumption when using quadratic utility functions).Households choose how to allocate their productive resources to maximize their utility. For each crop i, they can allocate resources to production for sale on the market, s m i , or production for home consumption s h i . If the household produces crops for sale on the market, they receive an income of:where p i is the market unit price for good i and t i is the transaction cost for selling a unit of good i on the market. Equation 5 serves as the budget constraints for market purchases as well, and combining Equation 4 and Equation 5, the full income constraint is:where the purchase price for good i on the market is the market price, p i , plus the per unit transaction cost t i . Home consumption does not need to be purchased, but it is constrained by home production. The household cannot consume more of a crop from home production than it produces for home consumption. Assuming there are no post-harvest losses, the home consumption is constrained by:Putting the utility, income constraints, and home-consumption constraints together, the household's utility maximization problem is:The maximization problem in Equation 8 is specified in terms of both c terms (in the utility function) and s terms (in the constraints). The problem states that households maximize their utility from consuming N goods (from home and/or the market) subject to their market consumption of all goods being constrained by their income and their home consumption of any being constrained by the production of that good for home consumption. To simplify the problem and specify it only in terms of s terms, the utility function can be expressed as an indirect utility function (which shows the maximum attainable utility given prices and income) via the principle of duality in optimization problems. Appendix B shows how each c m i term can be written in terms of prices and income and the utility maximization problem can be converted into the value function maximization problem in Equation 9 whereby the household only chooses s values to maximize utility, and optimal c values are obtained ex-post. In the resulting value function maximization problem, home production is simply substituted for home consumption to get:where the constraint ensures that the proportion of productive resources allocated to all crops (for home and market production) is equal to one (i.e. the household cannot allocate more resources than it has). Equation 9describes the entire model. The household chooses production levels and marketing decisions of N goods to maximize their additive log utility of consumption of N goods either at home or from the market. The two terms in brackets are the contributions to utility of consumption from the market place and from home production, respectively, for each good i. The constraint on Equation 9indicates that the household can only use their endowment of productive inputs for production.Market consumption is defined by the first term in brackets in Equation 9. There are two components to total market consumption. The first is household income from producing and selling goods on the market:. This follows directly from the income constraint in Equation 8. The second term is the relative preference of good i divided by the purchase price: wi (pi+ti) P N j=1 wj . Income and the relative preference/price parameter a multiplied together to give this total consumption of a good i from the market place. Intuitively, this shows that households choose their consumption behavior in markets by spending all of their income while consuming more of goods they prefer, consuming less of expensive goods, and balancing these two attributes. Further, The household operates under imperfect markets, whereby it pays a per-unit transaction cost of t to participate in both production and consumption markets.The second term in brackets is the consumption from home production, which follows directly from the second constraint in Equation 8. Households must consume from home production only the total food they produce for home consumption. The final term inside the natural log function is the constant, 1, which ensures that zero consumption of any good is possible and leads to zero utility.The value function is monotonically increasing on the interval of q h,m i 2 [0, 1 a ], the range which we defined the production function above. Using Equation 9, the next subsections focus on specific cases of this model which can show two motivations for production diversity and their differential effects on consumption diversity.In the \"base case\" of the model, the household engages in perfect markets without risk. Understanding how the household behaves under these assumptions, sets the comparison for the model with imperfect markets and/or risk. These comparisons will show how risk affects household outcomes (Propositions 2 and 3), and how market access affects household outcomes (Propositions 1 and 4).In the case of perfect output markets, there are no transaction costs (t i = 0 8 i), and as a result, households can seamlessly sell their production on the market and exchange it for consumption goods. Households do not engage in home production in this case since home production is equivalent to selling a unit of good i on the market and buying it back at the same price, p i . The scenario leads to a separable model, whereby households can maximize their income and consumption separately. Since the value function represents the maximized utility for a given level of income and prices, at this stage, the household only needs to maximize its income to maximize the value function.In the case, we also assume that there is no production risk ( i = 0 8 i). No production risk also implies that the production function is linear instead of quadratic, and expected production simplifies to: E[q i ] = q i . Combining these assumptions, Equation 9 becomes:Since ln(.) is monotonically increasing on the domain specified for the value function, the function is maximized by maximizing the argument of Equation 10. Without production risk, the household chooses to invest in the highest returning productive activity, determined by the term p j j , which maximizes utility.Proposition 1: Market access leads to greater specialization in production.where good k is the good that has the highest return, p k k and yields the highest utility after taking into account fixed costs. Consumption can be calculated ex-post and becomes the optimal consumption values found in Appendix B. From these optimal consumption values, it is easy to see how dietary diversity improves with income. Let dietary diversity be defined by the Herfindahl-Hershman Index (HHI):where C is total consumption. The HHI measures the level of concentration in a diet. A lower HHI indicates a less concentrated diet (or a more diverse diet) while a higher HHI indicates a more concentrated (less diverse) diet. In Appendix C, we show that the comparative static of HHI with respect to income is negative, indicating that dietary diversity improves with increases in income:Therefore, increasing dietary diversity for the household with perfect market access and no risk requires only increasing household income. Production diversity away from the most profitable crop will reduce income and consequently, reduce dietary diversity.To understand why risk increases production diversity (Proposition 2), the assumption of risk-less production is dropped, but the assumption of perfect markets is maintained for simplicity. Equation 9 becomes:Since there are perfect markets, the household can optimize consumption and production separately, and the production choices that maximize income will also maximize utility from consumption. The household solves:Proposition 2: Production risk leads to higher production diversity. This is the standard mean-variance problem and it leads to the well-known optimal solution:where s m⇤ is an N -length vector and the return vector (with respect to s m⇤ ), r, is given by:, the (co)variance matrix, is given by:In the optimal solution, the household diversifies to reduce exposure to risk. While risk is reduced, the income is necessarily lower than in the risk-less case because the household has diversified away from producing only the most profitable good in exchange for producing less profitable crops (and higher return is associated with higher risk). As in the case of perfect markets and no risk, the optimal consumption parameters fall directly from the optimal solution. However, since income is lower in the case involving risk than no risk, and the comparative static of HHI with respect to income is negative (see Equation 13) then diversification caused by risk also has a negative effect on HHI.Proposition 3 (Part 1): Higher production diversity leads to lower dietary diversity if the market access is high.Equation 19 shows part of Proposition 4. Agricultural households with high market access who diversify production to mitigate risk have lower dietary diversity. This means that production diversity is not necessarily associated with higher consumption diversity and can depend on the level of market access. The next sub-sections show the role of production diversity when market access is low.To show the other side of Proposition 3, imperfect markets are introduced (i.e. transaction costs are present). For simplicity of demonstration, let each transaction cost be t i = p i , such that the household cannot earn any income from selling crops. The budget constraint collapses to zero and the household can only consume its own production. Equation 9 becomes:The solution to Equation 9 is given by:In the optimal solution, the household's production decisions depend only on their consumption preferences w and productivity parameters . Therefore, a second source of production diversification is market access -when a household loses market access, then they diversify their production mix in order to meet their demand for different types of food consumption, and they do it in a way that is aligned with their consumption preferences and productive capacity. This is in contrast to the case where the household has perfect market access and no risk, as this household specializes its production completely in the most profitable crop. The result in Equation 21shows the second source of production diversification: lack of output market access.Proposition 3 (Part 2): Higher production diversity leads to higher dietary diversity if the market access is low.It is trivial to show that a decrease in production HHI is equivalent to a decrease in consumption HHI:The effects of autarky on dietary diversity are negative. This result can be logically extended to less extreme cases of imperfect markets, such that 0 < t i < p i . When transaction costs are 0, then the there are perfect markets, and when they are equal to p i , then the household operates in autarky for a given good, i. In the \"in between\" cases, t i ! p i is equivalent to a decrease price and results in a decrease in income (this trivially follows from the definition of income in Equation 5) . Further, this relationship is linear by definition. Appendix C shows that a loss in income is associated with a loss in dietary diversity. Therefore, an increase in transaction costs (or a decrease in market access) is also associated with a decrease in dietary diversity. This results in Proposition 4: Proposition 4: Higher market access leads to higher dietary diversity despite being associated with lower production diversificationThe result in Equation explains why the empirical literature has found that households with higher market access have higher dietary diversity. They have higher incomes and can purchase a diverse range of foods from the markets. However, these households have lower production diversity than households without market access. This shows that market access is a mediating factor for the effect of production diversity (from production risk) on dietary diversity.Additionally, the difference between the range of goods offered on the market may also mean that the household operating in autarky has lower dietary diversity than the household operating in perfect markets. Let there by N crops that are able to be producedi > 0 8 i 2 N and let there by N + M foods that can be purchased on the market. The difference in the goods able to be produced and able to be purchased can occur for a myriad of reasons, e.g. on-farm limitations to the range of crops that can be produced and imports of foods grown in different climates from other areas. By default, the household operating in autarky will have a less diverse diet than if it operated under perfect market access.The empirical analysis tests whether the propositions put forth in Section 2.1 hold among smallholder farmers in rural Tanzania. To better understand how the empirical analysis links with the model's propositions, the propositions can be re-stated using empirical terminology. The terminology in the propositions below draws on the variables used in the analysis (Section 4). The propositions to be tested empirically are: Proposition 1 Market participation and/or living in a village with market is negatively correlated with production diversity.Proposition 2 Households experiencing negative production shocks in the past ten years have higher production diversity than households not experiencing production shocks.Proposition 3 Production diversity is positively correlated with dietary diversity for households with low market participation and negatively correlated with dietary diversity for households with higher market participation (or with village markets).Corollary to Proposition 3 Overall, production diversity is positively correlated with dietary diversity in rural Tanzanian households because market participation is low 4 . Proposition 4 Market participation and/or living in a village with market is positively correlated with higher dietary diversity.Section 2 shows that production diversity can be driven by market access and risk exposure.To test Propositions 1 and 2, we follow an empirical strategy similar to Asante et al. (2018). The following regression model is estimated:where pd i is a production diversity outcome (discussed in Section 4), shock i is an indicator of whether the household experienced a negative production shock in the past ten years (a proxy for perceived risk), market i is the market participation or access variable, X i is a vector of household-level controls, ↵ j is a district fixed effects term, 0 is a constant, and ✏ i is the error term.Standard errors in the models which use count variables (e.g. Agricultural Diversity Score) as dependent variables are estimated assuming a Poisson distribution. The models with HHI (i.e. Simpson's Index) are estimated with a GLM model using a logistic functional link and binomial distribution of the outcome variable, as all values of Simpson's Index fall between 0 and 1. Marginal effects are calculated and reported in each model.The main independent variables of interest are shock i and market i , whose coefficients, 2 and 3 respectively, indicate whether Propositions 1 and 2 hold.To test Proposition 4 and the Corollary to Proposition 3, we use models that are commonly run in the empirical literature surrounding production diversity, market access, and dietary diversity (Sibhatu andQaim 2016, Jones (2017a), Jones 2017b, Koppmair et al. 2017). The model is given by:where dd i is a household measure of dietary diversity (either HDDS or HHI), pd i is a measure of crop diversity (Agricultural Diversity Score or Simpson's Index), market i is a measure for market participation or market access, X i is a vector of control variables, ↵ j is the distric fixed effects, and month i is a fixed effects variable for the month the survey was conducted (included because of seasonal variation in dietary diversity), and ✏ i is the error term.As in the production diversity models, standard errors with models using HDDS as an outcome variable are estimated using an assumed Poisson distribution (as HDDS is a count variable). Standard errors in models with Consumption HHI as an outcome are estimated with GLM with a logistic link and binomial distribution. Marginal effects are reported in each of the specifications.To test the Corollary to Proposition 3, an interaction term between production diversity and market access/participation is added to Equation . The model becomes:The coefficient 3 of the interaction term, pd i ⇥ market i indicates whether market participation has a moderating or exacerbating influence on the relationship between production diversity and dietary diversity. A negative 3 indicates that crop diversity is less important for households with high access/participation in markets, while a positive 3 indicates that crop diversity is more important for households with high market access/participation. Due to well-known issues issues with the interpretation of coefficients for interaction terms in non-linear models (Shang et al., 2018), we calculate the marginal effects of crop diversity for different levels of market-participation and create margins plots to graphically understand and interpret the interaction effects (as in the analysis of Equation 26).The empirical analysis uses data from the third wave of the Tanzanian National Panel Survey (NPS), which forms part of the World Bank's Living Standards and Measurement Studies (LSMS). Tanzania's National Bureau of Statistics (NPS) implemented the survey from October 2012 to September 2013. We restrict the analysis to 1,050 rural households engaging in agriculture and having less than two hectares of land, which is a cutoff for small-scale farmers (Lowder et al., 2016).The NPS survey contains instruments regarding household demographics, household characteristics (e.g. income, assets), household consumption on 59 food items for the seven days prior to the survey, household plot-level agricultural information, and community-level data. We link the household food consumption data with nutrition tables for Tanzania from the Harvard School of Public Health (Lukmanji et al., 2008). We test the propositions in Section 2.1 using the combination of the NPS household and community surveys and Harvard School of Public Health nutrition tables.Production diversity is measured using two common measures of production diversity: the Agricultural Diversity Score (ADS) and Simpson's Index of diversity (SI), which is the HHI applied to an agricultural setting. The ADS is a simple count of the number of food crops grown by the household, according to the same twelve food groups used in the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) (see below). The ADS is a useful measure, but is unable to assess the evennesss' of production across different crops. The SI captures this evenness and for a household, i, is calculated as SI i = P N j=1 1 s 2 j , where s j is the area share of cultivation for crop j. SI corresponds directly to the diversification measures used in Section 2.On the consumption side, dietary diversity is the main outcome variable of interest. Dietary diversity is measured in two ways -the HDDS index (Koppmair et al. 2017, (Jones, 2017a), Sibhatu and Qaim 2016) and the HHI for food consumption (Akerele et al., 2017). These are analogous to the production outcomes. HDDS is a simple count of the twelve food groups consumed by the household in the past seven days. The consumption HHI is a concentration index of the different foods consumed by the household. Using the Harvard School of Public Health nutrition tables, we calculate the total number of calories consumed by the household in the past seven days and the number of calories coming from each food item. We then calculate the percentage of calories coming from individual food items. The consumption HHI for household i is given by HHI i = P N j=1 1 s 2 j , where s j is the percentage share of calories coming from food item j 5As additional analysis presented in Appendix H, we test whether these results translate to children's anthropometric outcomes. Measures of children's anthropometric outcomes can be used as an indicator of overall household nutrition (WFP, 2005). Three anthropometric outcomes for children under five are used to proxy household nutrition. Wasting is measured by a low weight-for-height z-score (WHZ); stunting is measured by a low height-for-age z-score (HAZ); being underweight is measured by a low-weight-for-age z-score (WAZ). As in Chegere and Stage (2020), we create indicator variables for each of these measures. If the z-scores fall below -2 for WHZ, HAZ, or WAZ for any child in the household then a household is considered to have a stunted, wasted, or underweight child, respectively.Depending on the econometric model, the main independent variables of interest are producer market participation and access indicators, the presence of production shocks in the past 10 years, and crop production diversity indicators (discussed in Section 3).Market participation is measured by a weighted average of the percent of crops sold, where the weight is the area of a crop under cultivation 6 . This measure follows the logic of the maize and non-maize market participation variables used in Koppmair et al. (2017), but combines all crops into one and applies weights based on the area of production for each crop.The primary market access indicator is the presence of a daily or weekly markets in a given household's village. This measure is chosen because we make the assumption that market access should be positively correlated with market participation. The presence of a daily or weekly market has the highest positive relationship with market participation of all the considered market access indicators (see Appendix F).Production risk is proxied by whether a household experienced a negative production shock (either drought or pests) in the past ten year. This measure provides a subjective perception of the risk levels of a household's production environment. 5 The HHI is constructed using food items, not food groups because individual food items within a food group can also have important micronutrients (Steyn et al., 2006). 6 Mathematically this is:Each specification includes a series of household and community-level control variables. Household-level demographic variables include the household head's age, sex, an indicator for whether the household head is literate or not, and household size. These variables are related to the labor endowment available to households in Section 2. In relation to households' land endowment, the number of acres devoted to agriculture is included as a control variable. To control for effects livestock on dietary diversity the number of tropical livestock units is included as a control. Outside income and wealth effects are controlled for using log annual non-agricultural income, log value of loans received, log agricultural input value, an indicator for mobile phone ownership, and indicator for use of mobile money. Finally, we include the survey-month fixed effects to capture seasonal variation in consumption and district fixed effects to capture geographic variation in both production and consumption.Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for the households considered in the analysis of the 2012/2013 wave of the NPS. In terms of production diversity, every household cultivates a crop from at least one food group (Agricultural Diversity Score), with the average household cultivating around 3 food groups and the maximum cultivating seven. The average production concentration, measured by Simpson's Index, is 0.51 meaning that most households have a somewhat diverse crop mix. The average household sells only 19% of their crop production, indicating that most households are primarily engaged in subsistence agriculture.The typical household consumed seven food groups (out of twelve possible groups) in the seven days prior to the survey, but this measure is fairly variable with a standard deviation of almost two food groups. The dietary HHI also shows that households have fairly diverse diets (more diverse than their production), but there is considerable variation with some households having a diet concentrated in only one food item. In terms of anthropometric measures, 28% of households have at least one child under five who is stunted, 3% have at least one wasted child, and 10% have an underweight child. However, only about half of the households have any children under the age of five.The average household has 5.66 members, and the average household head is 46 years old. 77% of household heads are men, and 68% of household heads are literate. In terms of household agriculture, the average household owns about two acres of land 7 .Financially, the average household earns 606,649 TZS (⇡ 382 USD using January, 2013 exchange rates). The average household received 37,480 TZS (⇡ 24 USD) in the past twelve months and has 30,406 (⇡ 19 USD) in outstanding loans. Households use 97,225 (⇡ 61 USD) in agricultural inputs on average. Finally, 63% of households have mobile phones, but only 27% have access to mobile money. The results show evidence for each of the four propositions put forth in Section 2. First, the production-side propositions are tested (Propositions 1 and 2), and then the consumption-side results are shown (Propositions 3 and 4 and the Corollary to Proposition 3).To test Propositions 1 and 2, Equation 24 is estimated using the ADS and SI as outcomes variables. The results using perception of production shocks and market participation are presented in Table 2.Proposition 1: Proposition 1 states that households with higher market access grow fewer crops because of gains from specialization. The empirical results related to Proposition 2 are presented in Table 2 (using market participation) and Table 3 (using the presence of village markets).Table 2 shows that more market-oriented households grow fewer crops -a 1 percentage point increase in the percentage of crops old on the market is correlated with a decrease in the number of crops produced by 0.006. This suggests that a household moving from complete home production to complete market participation (a 100 percentage point increase in the percent of crops sold) would reduce the number of crops they grow by 0.6 on average. The specification without fixed effects and controls gives evidence that Proposition 1 holds. However, the results are not robust to the inclusion of district and interview month fixed effects (Column 2) and controls (Column 3).When using Simpson's Index as an outcome variable, market participation appears to play a statistically significant role in determining production diversity. The unconditional correlation presented in Table 2 Column 4 shows that a one percentage point increase in the percentage of crops sold is correlated with 0.0015 point increase in SI. A household moving from complete autarky to complete market participation (a 100 percentage point increase) would increase SI by 0.15 points, which is a reduction of production diversity of nearly 0.5 standard deviations. These results are robust to the inclusion of district and interview month fixed effects (Column 5) and household controls (Column 6). The outcomes is stronger when using Simpson's Index (which is used in Section 2) as an outcome variable.Proposition 2: Proposition 2 states that households with higher production risk will diversify their production as a risk mitigation mechanism. The empirical results for this proposition are presented in Tables 2 and 3 which show the estimated coefficients from Equation 24. Production risk is proxied using the number of production shocks experienced in the past ten years. Column 1 of Table 2 shows that households experiencing a production shocks in the past ten years grow 0.38 crops more on average than households not experiencing a shock, conditional only on market participation. This coefficient is attenuated to 0.13 (and statistically significant at the 90% level) when controlling for district fixed effects and interview month fixed affects (Column 2). The result is not robust to the inclusion of controls (Column 3).The correlations between Simpson's Index and the main independent variables are stronger and more robust than for ADS. This could be because the ADS measurement is relatively less variable than SI (see Table 1). Column 4 in Table 2 shows that households that experienced production shocks in the past ten years have more diverse production mixes than households not experiencing production shocks (by 0.06 points in SI, or 0.2 standard deviations). This correlation is attenuated to -0.04 (or 0.12 standard deviations), but robust at the 90% significance level when including fixed effects, and the result is robust to the inclusion of household controls. These results are also robust to using the presence of a market in the village as a control instead of the rate of market participation (see Table 3). The evidence shows that Proposition 2 generally holds, and is strongest evidence is found when considering Simpson's Index as an outcome variable (as the theoretical model does) rather than ADS.  Marginal effects; Standard errors in parentheses (d) for discrete change of dummy variable from 0 to 1 ⇤ p < 0.10, ⇤⇤ p < 0.05, ⇤⇤⇤ p < 0.01 Columns 1-3 are estimated using a Poisson model Columns 4-6 are estimated using a GLM model using a logistic functional link and binomial distribution.Proposition 3: Proposition 3 states that production diversity is negatively correlated with dietary diversity in households with high market access and positively correlated with dietary diversity in households with low market access. Figure 1 to Figure 4 display the results of the estimation of Equation 26, which tests whether there is a significant interaction between market participation/access and production diversity. The results suggest that there is an interaction term, but there is only weak evidence for this.Figure 1 plots the coefficient of ADS at different levels of market participation. At zero market participation, an increase in the number of food groups produced is correlated with a 0.25 increase in the number of food groups consumed (Panel 1). This suggests that a household would need to grow only four more food groups to consume one more food group 8 . This coefficient steadily decreases as market participation increases. Households selling 80-100% of their crops do not realize any statistically significant benefits to dietary from growing one more food group. These results are robust at the 90% confidence level to the inclusion of district and interview month fixed effects (Panel 2) and household controls (Panel 3). However, the coefficients are attenuated when including controls and fixed effects. The full specification suggests, that households with no market participation, still need to grow nine more food groups to consume just one more food group (a correlation of 0.11), and households selling over 40% of their crops do not gain any dietary diversity by growing more crops.The results in Figure 2 show weaker evidence of an interaction effect. The results in Panel 1 suggest that increases in Simpson's Index are negatively correlated with HDDS for houseolds with low market participation (0-40%). However, the results are only robust at the 90% level to the inclusion of district and interview month fixed effects for households with 20% and 40% market participation (Panels 2 and 3). These dynamics provide weak support for the results in Figure 1.When using consumption HHI as an outcome, the results are similar. Figure 3 shows that an increase in ADS is correlated with an reduction in consumption HHI for households selling 40% or less of their crops. For households who sell low levels of their production (20%-40%), the results are robust at the 90% level to the inclusion of district and interview month fixed effects (Panels 2 and 3). The full specification in Panel 3 suggests that a one unit increase in the number of food groups produced, decreases dietary concentration by around 0.01 point (or 0.05 standard deviations) for with relatively low levels of market participation (i.e. selling 20% to 40% of their crops).Figure 4 shows the results using Simpson's Index as an independent variable and consumption HHI as the dependent variable. The results in Panel 1, which does not include fixed effects or controls, shows that a one unit increase in Simpson's Index (a decrease production diversity) is associated with 0.05 increase in consumption HHI (a decrease in consumption diversity) for households operating in autarky. For households selling more than 0% of their crops, production diversity does not have a statistically significant relationship with consumption diversity. When including district and interview month fixed effects (Panel 2) and controls (Panel 3), there are no statistically significant relationships, although the curve of the margins plot slopes in the direction that Proposition 4 predicts. The findings are much weaker when using market access (Appendix G), but this is likely because market access and market participation are only weakly correlated (Appendix F).The results do not hold when using Anthropometric measures (results shown in Appendix H). As with dietary diversity outcomes, the results even appear to be in contrast to the expected outcomes. However, this can be due to relatively low incidences of malnutrition and half of the households not having children under five (and therefore, by default, having values of zero for malnutrition).  The Corollary to Proposition 3: The Corollary to Proposition 3 states that production diversity should be positively correlated with consumption diversity in the overall sample because the overall sample has low market orientation (an average of 19% of crops sold on the market). This proposition is tested using Equation 3.2, the results are presented in Table 4 and Table 5. Table 4 shows that there is robust evidence of Proposition 4a holding when using HDDS as an outcome variable. Column 1 suggests that if a household cultivates an additional food group, then they will consume 0.16 additional food groups. This correlation is weaker (but still statistically significant) when including district and interview month fixed effects in Column 2. Column 3 shows that, conditional on household controls and district and interview month fixed effects, an increase in the production of one food group is correlated with the consumption of an additional 0.08 food groups. This finding is in line with Sibhatu and Qaim (2018), which finds in a meta-analysis of the literature that households need to grow 10 additional food groups to consume just one more.Higher concentration of production is associated with lower HDDS, as seen in Columns 4-6 of Table 4. A one point increase in Simpson's Index is correlated with a reduction of 0.006 in the number of food groups consumed.Conditional on district and interview month fixed effects, this correlation is only 0.003 (and statistically significant at the 90% level). While these results are statistically significant and indicative that Proposition 4a holds, they are not practically significant. If a household has perfect production concentration (an SI of 1), and changes their production system to perfect diversification (an SI of 0), they will consume 0.33 food groups more on average. In practical terms, gaining an extra food group of consumption from increasing production diversity can be an extremely costly solution.Table 5 corroborates these results by showing that increases in the number of food groups grown are significantly correlated with higher dietary diversity. However, the results are small in absolute terms. Column 1 of 5 shows that an increase of production diversity by one food group is correlated with a reduction in consumption HHI of 0.014 (or 0.07 standard deviations). The result is robust to the inclusion of district and interview month fixed effects (Column 2) and household controls (Column 3). The full specification in Column 3 suggests that an increase in production of one food group reduces consumption concentration by 0.01 points (or 0.05 standard deviations). Columns 4-6 suggest that when using Simpson's Index as the explanatory variable related to production diversity, there are no statistically significant relationships between production diversity and dietary diversity. 5 supports the results in 4 indicating that there relationships between production and dietary diversity, but they are extremely small in practical terms.In terms of anthropometric outcomes, the correlations are much weaker. Food production does not appear to have a statistically significant correlation with the probability of malnutrition in Table 9, although the coefficient of food production is negative in seven of the nine specifications. Similarly, the coefficient of Simpson's Index is not statistically significant for the probability of being underweight and wasting, but it is significantly and negatively correlated the probability of stunting.This suggests that less production diversity leads to a lower probability of stunting (contrary to proposition 4a). However, there are only 35 observations with recorded stunting, so these results should be interpreted with caution. As with the correlation of market participation and anthropometric measures, this result does not disprove the proposition, but rather shows that the same factors driving household dietary diversity are not necessarily driving anthropometric malnutrition outcomes. Proposition 4: Proposition 4 states that households with higher market access, have higher dietary diversity. Table 4 shows the estimates of Equation 3.2 using HDDS as the outcome variable. Across all specifications, there is no evidence in Table 4 that the percentage of crops sold has a statistically significant correlation with HDDS. However, when using the consumption HHI as an outcome variable, the percentage of crops sold is significantly and negatively correlated with consumption HHI (Table 5). These relationships are only observed when including district and interview month fixed effects (Columns 2, 3, 5, and 6). The results in Columns 2 and 5 of Table 5 suggest that a shift from autarky to complete market participation (a 100 percentage point increase in the percent of crops sold) results in a 0.057 decrease in consumption HHI. This is equivalent to a 0.29 standard deviation increase in consumption diversity. The observed relationship is lower when controlling for household characteristics (Columns 3 and 6), where the results suggest that a shift from autarky to complete market orientation is correlated with 0.038 decrease in the consumption HHI. This is equivalent to a 0.19 standard deviation increase in dietary diversity.The results for Proposition 4 are weak, but there is ample evidence for Proposition 4 in the existing literature, as is highlighted in a comprehensive review of the literature on this topic (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2018). The weak evidence could be a result of the low levels of marketing in Tanzania (the weighted average of crops sold is only 19%). The results are also in-line with other studies from Tanzania -Chegere and Stage (2020) finds no statistically significant correlation between market orientation and dietary diversity outcomes, but does not use a dietary concentration index. This could highlight the importance of looking beyond count variables in dietary diversity outcomes and also analyzing concentration indices.Further, the results do not hold when using anthropometric measures as outcome variables (presented in Table 9 and Table 10. This is consistent with Chegere and Stage (2020). The results even suggest that an increase in market participation is associated in an increase probability of a child under five being underweight. However, this result does not hold for wasting or stunting, and the coefficients are small -a 100 percentage point increase in the percentage of crops sold is correlated with an 8% increase in the probability of stunting. This result is contrary to the results presented above, but does not disprove the the theoretical model's propositions because the theoretical model focuses on dietary diversity. However, this result may open a discussion of whether dietary diversity is the best measure of household nutrition or whether anthropometric outcomes represent a better measure for household nutrition.  Marginal effects; Standard errors in parentheses (d) for discrete change of dummy variable from 0 to 1 ⇤ p < 0.10, ⇤⇤ p < 0.05, ⇤⇤⇤ p < 0.01 Columns 1-6 are estimated using a GLM model using a logistic functional link and binomial distribution.Nutrition-sensitive agriculture has become a center-piece of many government programs and agricultural interventions in recent decades as the development community aims to meet the SGDs. A central component of many of these programs is the link between production diversity and dietary diversity. As governments, NGOs, and international organizations become more focused on climate change, production diversity among smallholders is taking an even more central role because of its potential to build resilience to climate change and mitigate smallholder effects on climate change. Despite production diversity's assumed linkage with dietary diversity, the empirical evidence is not promising. Sibhatu and Qaim (2018) finds in a review of empirical studies that a smallholder farmer would need to grow nine more crops to consume one more food group. These results indicate that practitioners and researchers alike should rethink the link between dietary diversity and production diversity.Our paper provides the first theoretical economic model to demonstrate the link between production diversity and dietary diversity, and we provide empirical evidence validating the predicted outcomes from our model. Much of the empirical literature has treated smallholder production diversity as exogenous, but smallholders choose which crops to grow and at what levels. When taking into account why farmers may diversify, the linkage between production diversity and dietary diversity becomes more clear and we can better see which farmers benefit from production diversity (in terms of dietary diversity) and which ones do not. Our empirical estimates show that in order to increase consumption by one food group, the average household needs to produce six more food groups (unconditional on other factors). However, the households that do not participate in markets only need to grow four more food groups to consume an additional food group.From a policy perspective, two major themes come from this research. First,there is not a \"one size fits all\" approach to nutrition-sensitive agriculture. Households with and without access to output markets have very different requirements to improve their nutrition and respond to different incentives. In order to be effective, agricultural programs must take this into account or there will continue to be weak linkages between interventions and nutrition outcomes. In particular, programs seeking to promote new crops or climate smart agriculture (e.g. improved seeds or improved practices that build resilience to climate change), must carefully think about which crops and practices to promote for different households in different market access regimes. In other words, programs must be targeted based on market access to be effective. Second, both the links between production diversity and consumption diversity and market participation and consumption diversity are empirically weak, despite being theoretically strong. This suggests that policymakers should explore other avenues to improve household nutrition, such as improving mobile infrastructure, road infrastructure, reducing gender gaps in agriculture production, and increasing overall farm production.Since the proliferation of non-separable agricultural household models in the 1990s, there has not been much development in theoretical models of the agricultural household. The literature has become increasingly empirical for a myriad of reasons. However, non-separable agricultural household models can provide many insights that the empirical literature may over-look. Further research should continue building on non-separable household models to explore other issues. Our model does not explore reasons for diversification beyond market access and risk mitigation. For example, these could be joint production or differences in output elasticities. Models looking at these motivations for diversification could also lead to important insights on household nutritional outcomes. Non-separable models should also be expanded to look at climate change mitigation efforts, adoption of technology, access to finance, access to labor markets, and various other topics.Empirically, future research should explore the mediation effect of market access on production and dietary diversity. RCTs introducing new crops should also include survey modules on dietary diversity in order to explore the causal effects of increasing production diversity on dietary diversity. More broadly, future research should focus on the mechanisms of production diversity and their links to dietary diversity, as production diversity is driven by a number of factors that may have differential effects on dietary diversity.In the two good case, we will show that at each efficient allocation of land and labour to crops 1 and 2,where a ⇤ i and l ⇤ i are efficient allocations and L T and A T are the total amounts of labour and land endowed.We note that since there are no monetary costs associated with land and labor, maximizing revenue and profit are the same. We also note that the L T term refers to labour that has been allocated to agriculture, excluding labour allocated to off-farm activities.The revenue function is given by:We can see that we have an additive Cobb-Douglas framework, whereby each crop takes the same functional form (i.e. has the same ↵ terms). This assumption is key to the proof.The household faces the problem:The error terms go away in the case of maximizing the expectation. The constraints indicate that all labour and must be allocated.The Lagrangian becomes:The first order conditions are:We cannot explicitly solve for our choice variables, but we can demonstrate key relationships between them: we will show thatWe note that in the optimal case, from standard microeconomic theory, the marginal revenue from labour allocations to crops 1 and 2 must equal, and the marginal revenue from land allocations to crops 1 and 2 must equal.As a result, we set FOC 1 equal to FOC 2, and we set FOC 3 equal to FOC 4. This is equivalent to setting the marginal revenues equal to each other (because FOC's 1-4 are marginal revenues excepting the lambda term which drops out of the analysis in any case when we set FOC's 1 and 2 equal to each other FOC's 3 and 4 equal to each other).We start with FOC 1 = FOC 2:Simplifying:Rearranging:Now we perform the same analysis on FOC's 3 and 4 (the FOC's for the a terms):We start with FOC 3 = FOC 4:Simplifying:Rearranging:Simplifying:Rearranging:Now, we can see that we have two equations that are both equal to 1. So, we can set these equations equal to each other:Cross-multiplying to get a terms and l terms on same side, and we get:Cross multiply to cancel out constants:Rearrange by cross multiplying:Cross multiply the l terms and simplify:Cross-multiply by a terms and simplify:Rearrange:So, we have shown that the ratios of allocations must equal, but we need to show that proportion of total allocations equal each other. So we use the definitions of total allocations: l 1 + l 2 = L 2 and a 1 + a 2 = A T . The proof from here is quite trivial.Let us substitute for a 2 and l 2 :Cross multiplying:Adding a 1 l 1 to both sides:We denote a 1 and l 1 as a ⇤ 1 and l ⇤ 1 because these are efficient solutions. Now, we have proved that under efficient allocations, the proportion of total land and labour allocated to a crop are equal.Because this result holds, the term s i = li L = ai A . We can then write:This concludes the proof for why s i can be used in the mean variance model while maintaining the Cobb-Douglas production function for each good.This appendix derives the optimal consumption levels for goods consumed on the market. To demonstrate this, we present the utility function using only market consumption and an exogonous income constraint for simplicity. At the end of the derivation, we can plug in the income constraint specified in Section 2.The Lagrangian becomes:The FOCs are given by:Solve for c i in terms of exogenous variables and :Plug solution of c i into @L @ and solve for ⇤ :Plug solution of ⇤ into c i to get c ⇤ i :c ⇤ i can be plugged into the utility function to obtain the value function in Equation 9.The FOCs are given by:Put s h i in terms of :After some basic algebra, we get:Using ⇤ to obtain s ⇤ i :This simplifies to:The comparative statics are consistent with economic theory -an increase in the preference parameter w i or the production parameter i leads to an increase in s i , while an increase w j or j for another good j 6 = i leads to a decrease in the allocation to s i .For simplicity in this derivation, we denote s m i as s i for all values of i.The maximization problem is given by: maxThe Lagrangian is:The FOCs are given by:Rearranged, the FOCs become:Let s be the following N-length vector:Let r be the following N-length vector:p 1 1 p 2 2 . . .Let be the following N ⇥ N matrix:2 1 1 2 ⇢ 12 . . . The FOCs can then be written as the following system of equation: s = r 1 0 s 0 1 = 1 (66)Solving the first matrix equation:where 1 is the inverse of the covariance matrix, known as the precision matrix.Using s to solve for , we can show that:Plugging 1 into s, the optimal production shares can be given by:Notice that when a ! 1 (i.e. the household becomes extremely risk averse), then solution is the result of the well-known minimum variance portfolio:In Table 6, the measure that is most positively correlated with market participation is the presence of a daily or weekly market in a village. While log distance to the market (from either household or plots) is significantly correlated with market participation, the direction of the correlation suggests that household further from markets, participate in markets more frequently. This relationship runs contrary to theory, and the market access variable should correlated theoretically and empirically with increased participation. As a result, the presence of any market in a village is chosen (despite not being robust to the inclusion of fixed effects). This exercise underscores the need for careful and better measurement of market access variables.      ","tokenCount":"11176"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4b8471e7564247532cbb751c77cadfd0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3dad43a9-5d95-40c0-bb38-c1bc42aeb454/retrieve","id":"-1719987815"},"keywords":["Policy-oriented research","impact assessment","dairy","equilibrium displacement","Africa","Kenya"],"sieverID":"5d0de510-945b-4fcc-9130-1b4125e6a173","pagecount":"35","content":"Marketing, transporting, processing, and consuming dairy products contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many poor Kenya households. This study analyses the impact of recent research supporting policy changes to liberalize informal milk markets. The study found that behavioural changes in dairy sector participants arising from the research evidence-supported policy and regulatory changes led to an average 9% reduction in milk marketing margins, and a significant increase in the number of licensed small-scale milk vendors.In Kenya, informal milk markets account for approximately 86% of milk supplies to consumers (Omore et al., 2004) and its supply-chain-related actors include small-scale producers, mobile milk traders, milk bar (tea shop) operators and milk transporters (informal sector small-scale milk vendors, or SSMV's). This dominance of SSMVs in Kenya is also seen in neighbouring countries, such as Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda, and in many other developing countries, including India, which is now the largest dairy producer in the world.The demand for milk and milk products is on the rise in Kenya, where annual per capita milk consumption is now estimated at 145 litres, more than five times higher than milk consumption in other East African countries. Dairy products constitute the largest food expenditure item in Kenyan households (Argwings-Kodhek et al., 2005;Salasya et al., 2006).Although most milk in Kenya passes through informal market channels, previous government policies did not adequately address the concerns of the farmers, traders and consumers who make up these channels. The informal milk markets dominate because milk sold through informal markets reaches and satisfies the traditional tastes of poor consumers who pay a lower price for it and farmers receive higher prices than they do via the formal sector. The former colonial dairy policy, which essentially criminalized the activities of small-scale milk vendors (SSMVs), was largely designed to protect the interests of largescale settler dairy producers and professed to be based on concerns about food safety and quality. Prior to an important policy change in 2004, small-scale dairy producers and traders were often harassed as large, powerful dairy market players, linked to those in authority, sought to increase their relatively small market share. The activities of SSMVs were not recognized and they could not trade unless licensed, yet the existing regulations made no provisions for licensing or engaging them. The main regulatory body, the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB), perceived its mandate as one to stamp out small-scale marketing channels.Regulations in effect only recognized a western industrial model of processing and packaging of milk, and small-scale milk producers were required to act only as suppliers.Efforts to revise the old Kenya dairy policy were spearheaded by the Smallholder Dairy Project (SDP), a collaboratively implemented, integrated livestock research and development project whose broad objectives were twofold. The initial research phase focused on identifying best-bet technologies aimed at improving livestock farming practices and livelihoods. The second phase of SDP initiated and implemented strategies to influence and enhance changes in the Kenyan dairy policy, particularly those that did not officially recognize the existence or operations of SSMVs. The revised policy would allow KDB to engage SSMVs through training and licensing as well as milk promotion. SDP officially commenced in 1997 and ceased its activities by 2005.This study is an ex post assessment of the impact of the revised Kenya dairy policy. It outlines the policy change process, investigates induced behavioural changes at the levels of field regulators and SSMVs, and estimates economic impacts on producers, SSMVs and consumers. It also provides a strategic assessment of the magnitude of returns to the research and coordination roles played by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), recognizing that ILRI was only one partner in a complex project with many people and organizations involved. The SDP was implemented by ILRI, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development (MoLFD) and funded by the Department for International Development (DFID). Ths SDP Manager was an employee of MoLFD. Objectives of this ex post assessment include:• To describe and better understand the policy, institutional and behavioural changes that have occurred in Kenya's dairy sector and to identify and learn lessons about how they occurred and what role the research and coordination component of SDP played.• To measure the overall economic benefits of the policy change to consumers, producers and SSMVs.• To present a counterfactual situation, depicting what might have happened if SDP had not been implemented and the dairy policy had not changed.The study assesses both the influence of the research on the policy change process and estimates the economic impact of the policy change. It describes the pathway from research to economic impacts on ultimate beneficiaries (see Figure 1). Lessons learned regarding influencing policy processes are described in detail in Leksmono et al. (2006) and summarized here.The approach analyzes what influenced changes in policy and behaviour, i.e. tracking back from the policy change to explore and document the influences of SDP in Kenya. The economic impact component models the impacts of the changes in policy on farm and retail prices, as well as on the economic welfare of farmers, SSMVs, consumers and input suppliers. The interviews focused on the policy change process as reported by policy officials and associated behavioural changes among field regulators and milk traders. Because this ex post impact assessment had limited time and funds available, the study was limited to Nairobi and Nakuru but included Kiambu and Thika towns on the outskirts of Nairobi. The study areas have always had KDB offices and operations. Aside from the police who were tasked under the Dairy Industry Act to act as field-level regulators, most recognized market locations where SSMVs operate have at least one field regulator from the Public Health Department and one from KDB. In addition, KDB is now spearheading training and licensing efforts in these areas, so that the impact of the new policy is more easily identified in these areas than elsewhere.Nairobi is a high milk density area where the dairy sector is dominated by small-scale milk producers. The area has a large collection of different trader groups with some, particularly transporters and mobile traders, coming from as far as 100 km away. The Thika area supplies parts of Nairobi and Machakos and is dominated by milk bars and small-scale mobile traders. These traders supply a competitive, urban and relatively sophisticated market.Milk is collected in the morning before 0600 hours and transported by public vehicles, arriving at the market by 0900 hours. Some of the traders act as middlemen, selling their milk to other traders who then transport their consignment to the market. Nakuru, on the other hand, is surrounded by large-scale farmers who deliver their milk directly to processors.Small-scale milk traders are left to collect milk from as far as 40 km away from town. The area is dominated by small-scale mobile traders and milk bars. Small-scale mobile traders transport milk using bicycles.Purposeful sampling of SSMVs was undertaken in order to collect information from as many traders as possible given constraints of time and funds. Similarly, the choice of interviewees was not statistically random. Using a checklist, SSMVs from Nairobi and Nakuru were individually engaged in interviews and informal discussions. No prior appointments were made with the traders; they were interviewed as they were encountered going about routine milk marketing operations.The Smallholder Dairy Project, funded by DFID, started in August 1997 as an integrated, collaborative research and development initiative whose purpose was to support the sustainable development of the smallholder dairy sub-sector in Kenya.From 1997-2000 SDP carried out a rapid appraisal of dairy production systems and an economic and structural analysis of dairying, while addressing policy and institutional issues. One of the major findings was that the informal milk sector was critical to the livelihoods of milk producers, traders and consumers. Structured household surveys were used in Kiambu District (close to Nairobi) and other districts in Kenya's Central Province. SDP also assessed public health hazards in the informal milk marketing sector, characterized diary systems and technology uptake, and examined policies and laws banning milk sales byThe second phase of SDP (2000SDP ( -2005) ) focused on policy-level outputs and more active engagement with policymakers. Following a 'snapshot review' in 2000 which reported favourably on SDP's progress but noted that uptake of technologies at farm level was difficult in the prevailing policy environment, it was recommended that SDP develop a strategy for the reform of dairy policy using evidence-based SDP research findings in order to increase impact. SDP drew up a strategy for influencing policy, focusing in particular on the findings concerning the informal milk market, its importance for livelihoods and ways in which perceived public health risks could be addressed. The Kenyan dairy policy at that time did not directly prohibit the uptake of any smallholder farm-level technologies. However, it made farm-level production increases and quality improvement less palatable options because the policy prohibited milk sales through the informal sector into urban areas. It was clear that the prevailing policy environment was actively discouraging the predominant section of the market, with major implications for producers, traders and consumers whose livelihoods depended on this informal sector. To tackle some of the identified informal market issues, SDP piloted the training of SSMVs in basic milk testing, hygiene and handling.Part of SDP's policy-influencing strategy was to foster links with civil society organizations (CSOs) that could bring capacity to engage in policy advocacy in a way that the SDP implementing institutions could not. These CSOs became engaged in active advocacy in support of small-scale traders and farmers and, together with the KDB, were partners in SDP's high-level dairy policy forum held in 2004 to present the project's research results and highlight their policy implications.DFID funded SDP to the tune of approximately USD 2.5 million from 1997 to 2005.Consultations with former SDP personnel revealed that the project's research and development partners contributed an additional USD 2.5 million in staff time, staff resources and other in-kind contributions over the life of the project. Actual staff time in hours was difficult to quantify but SDP had a project manager appointed by MoLFD, ILRI provided the technical research team and the CSOs were very active in the advocacy phase. A steering committee was established with members from ILRI, KARI, KDB, KEBS, MoLFD and the Ministry of Health and some informal market actors.Research aimed at influencing policy is challenging and research into what it takes to successfully influence policy is in its infancy. This ex ante economic analysis significantly benefited from two years of parallel research into better understanding the underlying processes of dairy policy change and the role played by the smallholder dairy project in influencing policy change that positively impacted many poor people (see Leksmono et al., 2006). Kenyan dairy policy history and processes are captured in detail in Leksmono et al., (2006). Here we focus on the most relevant changes and key lessons learned regarding how research influenced policy processes in this instance. Table 1 presents a summary of important events and activities and their timing in the overall dairy policy change process in Kenya.By 2003, the policy advocacy phase of the SDP had become very active. The new government made some changes to the KDB, but by then, such vacillations had emboldened large-scale processors who were opposed to the new bill and policy. In addition to safety and quality issues addressed in the research phase, SDP arguments in favour of engaging SSMVs included the huge impact on employment creation and poverty reduction in the era of Kenya's Poverty Reduction Strategy Process (PRSP). Paid advertisements were placed in local newspapers touting the benefits of legalization, but these were met with rebuttals in the same media by large-scale processors, culminating, by late 2003, in what became known as the 'milk wars'. Arguments in favour of legalization which appeared in local media used research evidence from SDP. In May 2004, SDP and partners organized a consultative dairy policy forum of stakeholders including ministers, members of parliament and other government officials, at which it was agreed in principle that the policy of engagement with SSMVs would be supported. Presentations at the forum included research findings that supported pro-poor policy reforms. In addition, SDP and partners officially launched policy briefs and screened a video entitled 'Unheard voices from Kenya's dairy industry'.While the bill and policy change processes continued in parliament, ministerial authority allowed the Minster for Livestock and Fisheries Development, on the advice of the KDB, to issue a set of dairy industry regulations (Legal Notices 101, 102 and 103) in September 2004. While they were all updated versions of sub-sections of the revised 1958 Act, the most pertinent one was Legal Notice 102, also known as the Dairy Industry (Sales by Producers) Regulations, 2004. These regulations streamlined the licence application processes and, more importantly, clearly enumerated the types of licences that were now available in the dairy sector (e.g. primary producer, processor, mini dairy, cottage industry, milk bar and cooling plant), some of which were clearly focused on activities that were compatible with small-scale informal operations. KDB officials used the impetus provided by the issuance of these regulations to engage and institute training, certification and licensing requirements for SSMVs.Since the policy change, KDB has worked to train and certify SSMVs while licensing their milk outlets and premises which meet requirements on handling, hygiene and quality control. In addition, KDB has trained and employed the services of business development service (BDS) providers to train and certify SSMVs whose businesses would then be licensed by KDB. While progress is being made on these fronts, the number of BDS providers is still small relative to the number of SSMVs waiting to be trained, certified and licensed. Also, KDB is working with NGOs like SITE Enterprise Promotion to encourage milk consumption on the premise that quality is being greatly improved by training and licensing. KDB has started branding milk outlets and premises to improve consumer confidence and promote recognition by regulatory authorities. Evidence, though yet anecdotal, suggests that milk sales are increasing in these branded outlets and premises.Primary information to assess the impact of the new dairy policy on enforcement and compliance and changes in general attitudes and behaviour of both regulators and SSMVs was obtained from interviews with field regulators and SSMVs. Survey references to periods before and after the policy changes, respectively referred to the days or weeks prior to September 2004 versus July/August 2007. Additional insights were gleaned from interviews with policymakers and researchers.Around late 2004, field regulators instituted some changes in enforcement activities, following specific instructions from KDB and Public Health Department officials. Previous activities were limited to policing and inspection, usually checking for licences that were never issued. Currently, their task is to ensure that licensed outlets and premises operated by SSMVs meet conditions on milk hygiene and testing requirements, sanitation of premises and health status of SSMVs. They also provide advice on how to meet these conditions. In addition, some regulators issue milk movement permits to mobile traders and assist the licensing process by enabling relevant paperwork required from SSMVs; these activities are accomplished through field visits, spot checks and training. The skills required to bring about these changes have mostly been obtained through formal training over the last few years.To assess behavioural change among SSMVs, a survey was conducted of 61 milk traders along the purposefully selected Central and Western milk market chain areas. The areas of Nairobi (including Nairobi, Thika and Kiambu) and Nakuru were selected because they represent scheduled trading areas with KDB offices and would therefore be directly influenced by the regulations.Survey results showed that all the interviewed milk traders owned their operations, although there were milk bar operations established by groups of SSMVs. Most (82%) of the businesses were started in 2004 or earlier, i.e. before the policy change, so most interviewed traders were familiar with the policy enforcement environment before and after the policy change.Almost 50% of SSMVs interviewed were producer-traders, implying that their milk was sourced from their farms. The remainder were almost evenly divided among traders who were non-producers, transporter-traders and milk bar operators, with almost all their milk coming from other milk traders. Table 2 presents the distribution of SSMVs interviewed.Almost all respondents were familiar with the new regulations or requirements on milk handling and quality control, and they used these guidelines or regulations in the conduct of their businesses. The specific regulatory requirements mentioned include training and licensing, types of containers used and hygiene. Many SSMVs received information on milk handling and quality control from KDB and, to a lesser extent, from ILRI and other SSMVs, mostly between 2005 and 2007. This was the period when KDB actively encouraged SSMVs to obtain training and to familiarize themselves with issues related to milk handling and quality control.The surveys were conducted in areas where KDB operates. In the survey, approximately 85% of respondents reported that they had been trained on milk handling and quality control methods. However, only half of them reported applying and receiving operating licences immediately following training, implying a lag between training and licensing. The hiatus is not unusual, given that training and certification of SSMVs by BDS and KDB usually precede licensing of premises and outlets for milk sales. In reality, all but two SSMVs who were interviewed had one form of licence or another for their operations.The most common licences reported were milk bar licences (49%), milk movement permits (44%) and mini-dairy licences (15%), as presented in Table 3.Consistent with the policy change timeline, most SSMVs were trained by KDB agents between 2005 and 2007. Nearly 90% of respondents reported that it was presently easier to obtain a license than in the period prior to 2004 when the new policy came into effect, noting that licensing is now being expedited following training and other requirements.On average, SSMVs reported that before they were trained and licensed, they were harassed by KDB and other regulators about four times a month; the average frequency of harassment was significantly higher in Nakuru (six times a month) than in Nairobi. Forty percent of respondents reported that they were last harassed by KDB or other regulators in 2005 or later. The most common form of harassment was by confiscation of milk, but nearly 10% of SSMVs reported bribing their way out of a potential arrest situation. Nearly all licensed SSMVs who had been in operation before the policy change reported a change in the behaviour of regulators toward them since licensing, noting that they were now allowed to operate as long as they complied significantly with all requirements. However, those whose premises and outlets were still not licensed were usually harassed by regulators, although to a lesser extent than before the policy change.The policy changes were expected to improve the welfare of producers, traders and consumers by reducing transaction costs and the retail milk price while increasing producer prices. Previously, small-scale operators venturing into the retail market were likely to incur high transaction costs resulting from milk loss due to adverse police action, quality loss due to milk becoming sour and direct confiscation of milk and containers. However, those SSMVs who paid political rent avoided adverse police action as well as losses due to confiscation of milk and milk containers. Both options ultimately translated into higher consumer prices.(a) Policy impact on transaction costs: a model of equilibrium displacement Transaction costs include information, negotiation and enforcement costs (Hobbs 1997). Several studies have shown that market participation by resource-poor smallholders is hindered by high transaction costs (Staal et al. 1997;Holloway et al. 2000). Implementation of the revised Kenya dairy policy reduced transaction costs and hence, marketing margins. 2006) estimated the reduction in marketing margin at the SSMV level, using the transaction cost approach, at 38%, while this study measured transaction cost as the difference between farm price and retail price. The distribution of gains arising from reduced transaction costs was investigated. The economic model evaluated the collective impact of the new policy through its effect on prices, quantities and overall welfare.Several studies have used equilibrium displacement models to evaluate the distribution of gains from policy change (e.g. Freebairn et al. 1982;Wohlgenant 1993;Lusk and Anderson 2004). Consistent with these studies, we proposed a model to estimate distributional changes in farm and retail prices, and changes in welfare. To better explain our model of equilibrium displacement following Freebairn et al. (1982), we extended Gardner's (1988) program effects model, to include the impact of a reduction in the cost of marketing goods and services in the Kenya dairy market (see Figure 2).The model assumes that the market is competitive, with linear demand and supply functions, and the supply of marketing goods and services is less than perfectly elastic, resulting in a normal supply curve for these goods and services. The model is appropriate because most of the milk produced in the informal sector is sold raw and it is unlikely that aggregate economy-wide pre-policy change milk losses were highly significant given the following: (1) there was high consumer demand for raw, unpasteurized milk, while processors who served the retail markets sold only processed milk; (2) SSMVs had the legal option of selling their milk to large licensed processors who pay less than consumers; (3) SSMVs could make political rent payments to avoid confiscation of milk and containers; (4) SSMVs could target retail markets in areas where there was little or no regulatory activity and (5) SSMVs could engage in limited production for retail market. Some of these options may also reduce losses in quality.In Figure 2, we illustrate the impact of change in the Kenya dairy policy on welfare gains by consumers, producers and SSMVs who provide marketing goods and services. We posit a two-market scenario, a 'retail' market with demand for milk D r and supply of marketing goods and services S n , and a 'farm-level' market with derived demand for milk D f and supply of milk S f . Note that derived demand D f is equivalent to D r -S n ∀ Quantity where D r -S n > 0.We define market margin, M, as the difference between D f and D r (i.e. M = D r -D f ); we assume that it is not constant but generally comprises a fixed portion and a portion that varies with quantity. In the pre-policy change environment, P r is the price of milk in the retail market, P n is the cost of supplying marketing goods and services in the retail market, P f is the farm price for milk and Q 0 is the initial milk quantity that clears the market.To demonstrate the impact of the policy change, consider that the new policy of legalizing the activities of SSMVs after training and licensing leads to a reduction in transaction costs or market margin arising from significantly lower political rent payments and milk losses. Consequently, there is a reduction in the cost of supplying milk and milk products to the retail market. This results in a downward shift in the supply curve for marketing goods and services and, consequently, a new derived demand curve. The proportional shift in derived demand reflects a reduction in the market margin, M, by a cost, w, which is measured as the vertical difference between the D f and D f ' . The resulting increase in quantity of milk supplied to the market, from Q 0 to Q 1 , is also occasioned by an increase in the number of SSMVs now supplying the retail market. The markets also see decreases in retail milk price and the cost of supplying marketing goods and services, but also an increase in milk prices received by farmers. As a result, Figure 2 shows unequivocal increases in consumer surplus by the area P r mnr and producer surplus by the area P f bcd whereas surplus accruing to SSMVs who supply milk and milk products to the market increases by the area efkl while losing the smaller P n gfh. These indicate that there are cost reduction benefits accruing to the market chain actors. In the case of SSMVs, reductions in margins accruing result from political rent that is no longer paid to regulators, and milk and milk containers that are no longer confiscated. The formulae for estimating the welfare changes are provided by Freebairn et al. (1982) and Wohlgenant (1993).Based on these, we present an analytical model following Freebairn et al. (1982), adjusted to reflect that cost reductions only occur for SSMVs activities, but not for producers and input suppliers. The competitive model of the post-policy change environment is presented as:(1)(3)where Q is the quantity of milk at the farm level (which clears the market at equilibrium), P r is milk price in the retail market, P f is milk price at the farm level, M is the retail farm price margin and P i is the cost of non-farm input per unit farm output. In the model, cost reductions attributed to the new policy are represented as w to the SSMV. In all cases, the overall effect is an increase in milk quantity. From the model above, equation ( 1) is the retail demand schedule, equation ( 2) is the SSMV schedule or market margin equation, equation ( 3) is the price link equation representing the retail farm price margin, equation ( 4) is the farm supply schedule and equation ( 5) is the input supply schedule. As previously mentioned, the market margin is not constant. Rather, it includes a fixed component and a component that varies with quantity. Algebraic solutions to the system of equations above (see Freebairn et al. (1982) for an intuitive insight into the derivations) are provided to estimate changes in surpluses to consumers, marketers, farmers and input suppliers, respectively, as:, and(9)whereis aggregate welfare change, w h = is aggregate cost reduced by the policy change and the term. The aggregate welfare change measures additional benefits that accrue to the economy as a result of the policy change. The parallel supply shift presented in Figure 2 represents a simplification; in reality, shifts in supply could also be convergent or divergent. The circumstances under which supply shifts can be divergent or convergent and methods for estimating the resulting benefits are well explained by Lindner and Jarrett (1978). Figure 2 postulates that reduced transaction costs deriving from legalized trading after training and licensing would lead to an increase in farm price and a decrease in retail price, thus resulting in reduced market margins.The average SSMV conducts several transactions in the milk sales business. Those transactions that may not have changed with the new policy include transportation, cess, market place tax and the number of containers used. Those that may have changed with the new policy include the type of containers used, payment of illegal contingency fees or political rent, milk and container loss due to confiscation, milk preservation and quality control, and training and licensing. This study measured transactions costs in terms of retailfarm price margins. Results for daily milk prices are summarized by location and trader type in Table 4.Prices paid and received were highest at milk bars both before and after the policy change. As previously mentioned, the study used September 2004 as the policy change date and asked SSMVs to recall transactions in the immediate pre-policy change days and then compare those to similar transactions in August 2007.In Nairobi, the highest margins accrued to non-producer mobile traders both before and after the policy change, whereas in Nakuru the highest margins accrued to producer mobile traders. When averaged over SSMVs in Nairobi, there was a KES 0.80 per litre (roughly $X) decline in margin that may be attributed to the new policy's effect of reducing market margins. On the other hand, in Nakuru, the decline in margin attributed to the impact of the new policy was only KES 0.27 per litre ($X), indicating that the new policy appeared to have a less discernible effect on the prices of unprocessed milk in Nakuru. In Nairobi, gains in margins resulting from the new policy were highest among non-producer mobile traders, followed by milk bars and mobile transporters.The study used tests of statistical significance to determine whether margins significantly declined following the implementation of the new policy. A t-test confirmed that for the combined data (i.e. Nairobi and Nakuru) comparing margins before and after policy change, there was no statistically significant difference (t = 1.16; p = 0.1256). However, when Mann Whitney tests were performed for the Nairobi dataset alone, the average margin of KES 6.13/litre before policy change was found to be statistically higher than the average post-policy change margin of KES 5.33/litre, albeit only at 10% probability level (Z = 1.36; p = 0.087). Tests for Nakuru revealed that post-policy change margins were not statistically different from pre-policy change margins. Consequently, the study estimated separate welfare measurements for Nairobi area alone, and for the Kenyan economy.Information obtained from the above analysis of market margins in the Kenyan milk sector showed that policy-change effects on margin were more evident in Nairobi than elsewhere in the country. Policy-change institutions such as KDB and BDS providers are more visible, active and effective in Nairobi and its environs. Averaged over all locations and SSMVs, the study found a KES 0.54 per litre ($X) reduction in margin, equivalent to approximately 9% of the pre-policy change margin. Although the overall reduction in margin (averaged over locations and SSMVs) appears small, Figure 3 shows more than a fourfold increase in quantities purchased and sold in Nairobi in the period after the policy change and more than a threefold increase over all locations. Evidently, SSMVs make their profits from small margins but high volume, quick turnovers. While the decline in market margin may also have been affected over time by other factors such as fuel costs, the simplified framework applied here assumes that such cost changes are minimal and hence attributes all margin reductions to the policy change.The increase in quantities purchased and sold by SSMVs is not unusual, given that SSMV activities in scheduled urban areas like Nairobi were previously proscribed and therefore conducted under unfavourable conditions. Allowing licensed SSMVs to operate freely in an environment with high demand for raw milk (e.g. annual per capita milk consumption was 145 litres in 2005) leads to increased milk supply to the retail market. In addition, approximately 45% of the SSMVs interviewed were licensed milk bar owners and daily throughput at milk bars serving an urban retail market could be much higher than, say, mobile bicycle traders. Still, the increased figures mentioned do not necessarily reflect evidence of higher market share to SSMVs; rather they reflect the ability to now conduct marketing activities freely, aided by increasing demand. While annual statistics for milk intake into the formal sector are readily available, those for the informal sector are not, hence the use of recall information.We used the economic model outlined in Section 5.1 to estimate changes in surpluses that accrue to consumers, farmers, SSMVs and input suppliers, and then compared the aggregate of these changes to project costs in order to also estimate the profitability of a POR project: the SDP. In its optimal form, the model is expressed in terms of parameters of retail demand, farm supply and marketer schedules, together with cost changes resulting from policy change. In the absence of survey data typically used to estimate these schedules, we used values presented in Table 5 (and sources) to estimate the parameters for the economywide model. Table 6 presents the parameters used to calculate the Nairobi area welfare changes.The data sources included a combination of SDP statistics, survey data and grey literature. We used SDP data for raw milk production in Kenya, updated in 2005(SDP 2005).Farm and retail prices were obtained from the surveys. Following Salasya et al. (2006), we used housing as a non-farm input and expressed the cost of housing obtained from that study (KES 1313 per month) per unit of raw milk produced per year. We also obtained own price elasticities of demand and supply from the same study. We found no comparable previous studies measuring elasticities of marketing services and marketing inputs, but Freebairn et al. (1982) mention evidence of highly elastic long-run supply curves, thus using a value of 2 or ∞ for illustrative purposes. To use these elasticity measures, the usual caveat of assuming homogeneous preferences among consumers, farmers, SSMVs and input suppliers applies.Estimates of cost reductions in the market margin due to the policy change include KES 0.54 per ($X) litre, or X% of the retail? price to the milk vendor. The Nairobi area model used the same information on elasticities of milk demand, farm-level milk supply and supply of marketing services as did the country-wide analysis. In the models under consideration, aggregate gains are known to be proportional to cost reductions but elasticities have minimal effects, except in terms of distributions. Simulation results are presented in Table 7 for the economy-wide scenario and for the Nairobi scenario.Table 7 presents estimates of how much the dairy sector is contributing to the Kenyan economy, when the effect of the policy change is to reduce transaction costs at the SSMV level alone. Total benefits accruing to the sector are estimated at KES 2.17 billion per annum. More than 70% of the benefits accrue to producers and consumers, and less than 30%to SSMVs and input suppliers. As earlier observed, SSMVs and input suppliers operate in a small margin environment, and this could account for their smaller share of total benefits.Gains realized by SSMVs and input suppliers come from higher sales alone.Nairobi area welfare gains account for approximately 18% of the economy-wide gains. With a potential consumer base of nearly 3.4 million (or 10% of Kenya's total population), Nairobi area welfare gains are sufficiently high to justify the efforts to date on training and licensing and suggest the level of potential benefits to further investment in these activities. However, when the total costs of training and licensing (country-wide costs) are accounted for, policy change in Nairobi area alone is not cost-effective.The NPV of the stream of net benefits was calculated for the economy-wide model (Table 8) using the following assumptions: First, research costs (USD 5 million) were equally spread over the first eight years, corresponding to the life of the project and ending in the year 2004 when the policy change was effected. Second, total DFID funding for SDP was USD 2.5 million over an eight-year period, plus an estimated USD 2.5 million from in-kind contribution by SDP partners. Third, benefits were assumed to start accruing in year 2005 and, for the purpose of this analysis, to the year 2039. Fourth, in the year when benefits start accruing, we impute additional costs of training and licensing of SSMVs (as estimated above)amounting to KES 864 million per year as follows (see ILRI, undated, for cost estimates):because the system was designed to be The results of the analysis (Table 8) show that under the economy-wide scenario, the SDP research investment costs are easily recouped, as the NPV is greater than zero, even when the interest rate is 15%. When the cost of capital exceeds the internal rate of return (IRR), the investment becomes unprofitable. For the economy-wide scenario, the cost of capital would have to exceed 55% before the costs outweighed the benefits of the investment.For the Nairobi area scenario, overall costs exceed benefits, implying that the investment in the policy research has a negative return if the benefits are assumed to only occur in Nairobi.We also re-estimated welfare benefits of the dairy policy research using an estimate of a 38% margin reduction, derived from Salasya et al. (2006). Based on our data, this amounts to KES 2.38 per litre. As previously explained, the model is highly sensitive to changes in cost reductions. With a decrease in the marketing margin for SSMVs of KES 2.38 per litre, annual total benefits increased to KES 9.64 billion, compared to benefits of KES 2.17 billion when margins were assumed to decline by KES 0.54 per litre. .The benefits from the change in policy in this case study began to be realized in the ninth year following the launch of SDP (Table 8). Policymakers and researchers were interviewed However, in order to quantify the probable economic impacts without SDP, information from key informants led to a study assumption that the Kenya policy review and legalization of SSMVs would have been delayed by 20 years, without SDP; impacts were reestimated, assuming a 10-year delay. A simplified additional assumption is that there are no additional investments or benefits until the year in which legalization would occur (i.e. 2015 or 2025). The differences in NPV, with and without SDP, are presented in Table 9.NPV continues to be positive even as legalization is postponed beyond 2004 when SDP influenced policy change (Table 9). In addition, the directly attributable impacts of SDP are also positive, as measured by the differences in outcomes with and without the project, suggesting that legalization resulting from SDP advocacy was beneficial.The research and coordination efforts of SDP continue to contribute to the policy implementation phase, producing policy briefs, training manuals and sessions on milk handling and quality control. These research efforts have also contributed empirical evidence supporting the harmonization of dairy policy regulations across East Africa. Lessons learned in terms of ILRI's success in getting empirical evidence to inform dairy policy changes are highlighted in a study by Leksmono et al. (2006)  Currently, the Kenyan dairy sector is liberalized and moving ahead with plans to train and license SSMVs to become fully engaged in the formal sector. The revision of the Kenyan dairy policy to reflect engagement with SSMVs in the formal sector is still in parliamentary process. However, significant progress has been made and Kenya now leads a noteworthy regional effort to harmonize dairy policies and liberalize trade in dairy products among countries in East Africa. In neighbouring countries like Tanzania and Uganda where there have been no SDP-like activity, policy change has been carried out at a slower rate than in Kenya, hence the process of policy harmonization in the region is helping to speed it up.We found that the smallholder dairy project efforts produced a significant volume of evidence used to influence the policy change process at various stages by different decisionmakers and organizations. Although the Kenyan dairy policy document and bill have been in parliamentary process for more than a decade, written ministerial subsidiary regulation and KDB reorganization provide ample regulatory authority for engaging SSMVs, and this significant shift in dairy regulation was traced back to September 2004. The study found significant evidence of behavioural change among regulators and SSMVs that has led to positive economic benefits across Kenya.The impact of the new policy on market margins shows a significant lowering of margins in Nairobi, by KES 0.80 per litre. In the post policy change environment, increased market quantities were observed in both locations, with approximately fourfold increases in Nairobi. Small-scale dairy operators have profited from quick, relatively high volume turnovers, and as a result, welfare benefits accruing to SSMVs increased; these benefits were also captured by consumers and producers. A cost-benefit analysis revealed that the policy change was highly profitable. In addition, the very high IRR value suggests that positive net benefits will continue to be gained by many actors in the dairy sector for years to come.However, the Kenyan government will need to devise a fairer way of distributing the cost of cess among consumers, producers, and SSMVs, rather than leveling a significant portion of this tax on the small-scale market vendors. Assisted by consultant Prof. Mutungi, the task force held another national stakeholder workshop on the draft Dairy Industry Bill (1996) -or revised CAP 336 -in Naivasha in June to provide stakeholders with an opportunity to comment on and make suggestions to improve the draft Bill. A sub-committee of the task force was formed to review and revise the national dairy policy. MALDM referred the draft Bill to the Attorney General after making the amendments arising from the June stakeholder workshop. Due to critical changes in the ministry, the dairy reform process was delayed.1997 With financial assistance from DANIDA and consulting help from Prof. Mbogoh, the sub-committee of the Dairy Industry Act review task force was reconstituted to include the Ministry of Livestock, KDB, KCC, Planning Division and commercial farmers and charged with continuous review of policy. The sub-committee also reviewed the Act. Drafts of policy document were circulated to stakeholders for comment and after incorporating stakeholders' comments, a new draft policy document was presented to a stakeholder workshop held at Karen KCB Institute in November and attended by SDP Project Manager, KDB, MALDM, ILRI, KARI, university academics and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).1998 The task force sub-committee revised the draft policy document to incorporate inputs from the November 1997 workshop and circulated the revised draft for comments in February. The consultant finalised the document after receiving and incorporating comments. The committee presented the final draft of the policy to the Permanent Secretary in March and thereafter it was presented to the Ministry Policy Committee.1999 The ministry accepted the draft policy document in March; copies widely circulated to stakeholders.2000 With reconstitution of the committee, the ministry began work on the policy in March; new instructions were for the committee to harmonize the Bill and the policy document but changes in the ministry delayed the process. Harmonization of the two documents was completed in May and the harmonized document presented to the ministry, the Parliamentary Committee on Agriculture, Lands and Natural Resources and the KDB Board of Directors in August/September. The Parliamentary Committee requested that stakeholders be given another chance to contribute to the documents, citing delay in harmonization and editing of documents.2001 A workshop on 'Assessing and managing milk-borne health risks for the benefit of consumers in Kenya' was held in February to present findings on levels of risk associated with different market channels and how to control the risks. Dairy Public Health Committee was formed as a result of the workshop and SDP invited to join.March and attended by the Parliamentary Committee. The Minister for Agriculture and Rural Development chaired the workshop and the Permanent Secretary moderated it. DFID funded the workshop through SDP. After the workshop, revised Bill and Policy document were resubmitted to the Parliamentary Committee.SDP and partners started participatory work with SSMVs to develop training approaches and appropriate containers for milk handling. SSMVs would later be asked to form groups and seek licensing.2002 Election year in which there was little activity other than follow-up with the Parliamentary Committee for comments (which were not forthcoming due to elections).2003 After the new government came into office, the Bill and Policy documents were resubmitted to the Parliamentary Committee in an attempt to revive the finalization process.SDP organized a workshop to develop a policy-influencing strategy and started to engage with CSOs as advocacy partners in preparation for a dairy policy forum.'Milk wars' in print and electronic media, pitting large-scale processors opposed to legalizing activities of SSMVs against NGOs and SDP allies in favour of legalization of SSMVs. Independent articles written by journalists in support of SSMVs used research evidence from SDP. SDP partners also met with Ministers for Labour and Livestock providing research evidence in support of legalization of SSMVs.2004 SDP and partners organized a dairy policy forum in May with government ministers, members of parliament and key industry stakeholders in attendance. SDP research findings were presented to support pro-poor dairy policy reform. Policy briefs were officially launched and a video 'Unheard voices from Kenya's dairy industry' was shown.In September, subsidiary legislation/legal notices 101, 102 and 103 were gazetted, allowing KDB to develop procedures that would allow SSMVs to operate legally.Source: Adapted from discussion with HG Muriuki; Leksmono et al. (2006)    ","tokenCount":"7289"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c1baed042caf6babf0ce9acad6a415c5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/32428d8a-39c5-4540-96de-695f1b25cad1/retrieve","id":"-1539555693"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e91da569-dc9c-4ca6-aa1f-10204f83be1e","pagecount":"9","content":"Recent research presented at a seminar in Paris co-organized by CCAFS, ISSC and FutureEarth produced five key policy messages for supporting women farmers in a changing climate: 1. New technologies and practices for climate change will be adapted more successfully when they are appropriate to women's resources and demands; 2. Extension and climate information services need to serve women and men; 3. Institutions need to take into account women's priorities and support their adaptive capacity; 4. Women's capacity as farmers and innovators needs to be recognized and supported; and 5. Climate policy processes should go beyond numerical representation of women to create mechanisms for their active participation to express opinions, take initiatives, and influence decisions.Gender-responsive climate policies and programs include: a) A gender component in the qualifying criteria for accessing international funding b) Design that is informed by needs assessments that distinguish women's and men's needs and priorities. c) Monitoring and assessment indicators of real change in gender and social inclusion.Climate change demands new approaches to agriculture: farmers' practices will need to change in order to adapt to and mitigate changing conditions. Gender is central to this change. Agriculture is a fundamental part of women's livelihoods globally, most markedly in least developed countries, where four-fifths of economically active women report agriculture as their primary economic activity (FAOSTAT, cited in Doss 2011). More women are moving into agriculture as men move out to seasonal or paid labour elsewhere. At the same time women farmers have less access to productive inputs and resources to improve returns from their farming activities and to meet the challenges of climate change (FAO, 2011).Policies, institutions and services to help farmers develop new approaches to deal with climate change will need to produce results for women farmers as well as men. This brief provides five policy lessons to support this process, based on evidence from research in low-income and middle-income countries, and offers guidelines for crafting gender-responsive climate policy at global and national levels.New technologies and agricultural practices can help farmers meet the challenges of climate change. However, women and men do not always have equal access to assets, time and resources -such as secure access to land, water, information, or finances -that enable them to take advantage of new technologies or practices. They may also have different priorities in preferences or use of new technologies.Women and men have different on-farm tasks and responsibilities. For example, in many countries, women manage household kitchen gardens and small livestock, while men take responsibility for commercial crops and large livestock. Farms run by female-headed households tend to have less labour available for farm work, as these households are typically smaller, and because women have unpaid household duties that take them away from incomegenerating productive activities (Ashby et al, 2012). Women, especially those from poor households, are more likely than men to face time constraints that affect their ability to participate in community-based climate adaptation initiatives or other practices that increase their labour burden (Behrman et al 2014). Climate-smart agricultural practices that require higher labour inputs in the first year may thus pose a barrier to implementation by women farmers, regardless of benefits later. Further research is needed on the benefits and disadvantages to women of climate smart agriculture. The impacts on women of men's outmigration for work in terms of shifts in power and decision-making as well as agricultural production also need to be investigated.Women and men have different resources available to them and different constraints on their time. They also may have different priorities. Agricultural interventions to help farmers adapt to climate change must be appropriate to these resources and demands. Dillon and Gill, 2014 In Mali, the introduction of irrigation allowed men to increase the value of their total production and marketed surplus by almost enough to offset the negative impacts of climatic shocks. Women, however, had much lower access to the irrigation technology and therefore did not benefit from its offsetting effect. Similarly, certain farm assets (such as motorized tillers) have positive effects on men's agricultural production, but limited access to these assets locks women out of this adaptation strategy. Other assets, such as ploughs, are more equally shared and their effect on production is similar across both men's and women's farm plots. There is a need to understand access to assets and how this affects the adoption and impacts of new technologies. Maria Montenegro, Cecilia Turin, Brent Swallow, Sandeep Mohapatra, Victor Mares and Roberto Quiroz In the High Andes of Peru, women traditionally keep livestock on communal and private lands, a practice which is an important ingredient of their livelihoods and economic autonomy. With changing markets and support from the government, the cultivation of an Andean root crop, maca, is increasing in the region and displacing grazing from both communal and private lands. The crop, which has a high export value, renders soils uncultivable for up to a decade. It also may contribute to CO2 emissions through burning of vegetation and cultivation of carbon rich soils. Maca processing displaces women's grazing lands and creates jobs that mainly benefit men and young people.Agricultural extension and climate information services are crucial for agricultural development and food security in a changing climate (Tall et al 2014). Weather forecasts over different timeframes coupled with a choice of new options for farm management can support farmers to adapt to climate change and to make efficient use of inputs.Women tend to have much lower access to formal agricultural extension services (Swanson, Farmer, and Bahal 1990;Ragasa 2012). In part this is because extension services sometimes do not consider women to be farmers, and fewer women attend community meetings organized by extension services, or visit demonstration plots (World Bank and IFPRI 2010). Women also tend to have lower access to radio, mobile phones and other media and access information in different ways than men.Multiple channels may be appropriate to reach women more effectively. They can involve improving women's access to radio, extension events, SMS and voice messages, as well as community groups, health clinics and schools (Tall et al, 2014;McKune et al, 2014). Women may also value and take responsibility for different aspects of agriculture from men, and therefore need different information.Recommendation: Both the channels of communication and the content of messages need to be adapted for different audiences. In some cases ministries other than agriculture may have a greater reach (for example, through campaigns that focus on health through nutrition). Thus cooperation among different ministries, such as agriculture, health and environment, will help to get messages across. Partnerships with civil society, universities and CBOs will also expand the reach and accessibility of information. Tall et al. 2014) Research in Kenya and Senegal showed that climate information services, which provide weather forecasts linked to advice about climate-smart agricultural practices, were less likely to target or involve women than men. Women in turn were less likely to receive and use the advice than men. Messages that are tailored to different audiences, as well as multiple channels of communication (such as radio, mobile phone messaging, community groups) are needed to reach different socioeconomic groups.A study in India found that agro-advisory information delivered via mobile phone messages contributed to reducing the information asymmetry between women and men in farming families. The same mobile phone messages were sent to women and men. The listening rate (i.e. the proportion of the messages listened to) was equivalent between women and men. Participating women reported that the messaging had increased their knowledge of climatesmart technologies, helped them make more efficient use of inputs and strengthened their participation in decision-making at the household level, because they were better informed and recognized as such by their male partners. In some circumstances simply making information available to women increases their ability to take part in household decision-making.Institutions involved in climate change adaptation and mitigation in rural areas need to address women's concerns as well as men's. These may include a range of activities related to achieving food security under climate change that go beyond a focus on agricultural productivity, for example income generation, savings and loans, and other support services that improve women's access to food. National and international organizations working in agricultural development and food security tend to focus on increasing agricultural production and improving natural resource management. There is less emphasis on strengthening communities' broader adaptive capacity to meet the challenges of climate change.Women's community-based organizations (CBOs) are effective providers of information and services to women. They can fill the gap between the services that formal organizations provide and the issues that women prioritize. While women's CBOs can help build the adaptive capacity of communities to deal with climate change, care should be taken that the demands on women's time are not increased and the original missions of the CBOs not completely usurped.Recommendation: Institutions supporting farmers to improve their food security under climate change need to address broader priorities beyond agriculture that are relevant to women's and men's concerns. A key function of these institutions is to build women's adaptive capacity.A study across West Africa, East Africa and South Asia found that men were more connected to external, formal institutions (such as national extension agencies), which largely focus on agricultural production. Women tended to focus more on food access activities and utilization. They also tended to be more connected to local institutions and CBOs, which provide an important support and safety net function.Climate change presents challenges to farmers that demand innovative responses. Given space and opportunity, women can be effective innovators capable of identifying and designing new technologies -and adapting existing ones -to meet their needs. But capacity to innovate alone is not enough: an enabling environment must support women's innovation processes, providing access to facilities, services and incentives.As climate change impacts intensify, there will also be growing rural markets for products and services that support climate resilience. It will be important to understand and recognize women's participation in value chains and ensure that the private sector integrates gender concerns into market access and climate change insurance initiatives.Recommendation: Women farmers need to be recognized as effective innovators with specific priorities, interests, and should be partners in identifying and designing appropriate and labour-saving tools. Providing mechanisms that support and legitimize women's innovations in response to climate change is likely to improve outcomes for sustainable livelihoods.Zewdy Gebremedhin, Una Murray,Decolius Kalumo,Ashenafi Tariku,Wellam Kamthunzi,Tony Murray,Rowland Chirwa,Rodah Zulu,Paul Wagstaff and Charles Spillane (www.3d4agdev.org) In Malawi, participatory sessions with 16 innovator groups of women farmers were used to design, develop and test improved, labour-saving agricultural tools. The tools were prioritised, conceptualised and designed by the women farmers. Through the 3D4AgDev program, prototype tools were then tested against existing tools in on-farm trials, resulting in new and improved prototypes. The sessions revealed the significant capacity of the women's groups to identify, prioritise, propose and design improved, labour-saving tools and agri-processing technologies.Himalaya: an illustration of reducing the gender gap in a subsistence agricultural economy in a marginalized environment.In the marginalized mountain environment of the Kumaon Himalaya, subsistence agriculture is the main form of livelihood, driving a large proportion of the male population to out-migrate in search of employment. As climate change has put agricultural systems under stress, women have increasingly taken responsibility for making decisions about land and water management, and have developed their own abilities to innovate and adapt. Women have reintroduced traditional water conservation practices and developed their own indigenous rainwater harvesting system. As women's innovative adaptation measures build their resilience to climate change, men increasingly recognize them as legitimate land managers.Women are active land managers and are affected by climate change policies related to agriculture, forestry including, e.g., policies on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), and land management. They own land, manage their husband's land, and participate in family and community decisions about land management.And yet, women's voices are not always evident in decision-making and policy processes in agriculture, and when women are present they tend to form a minority both within leadership and in consultative processes. National policies and laws do not always translate well to the local level. Reasons for this include sociocultural norms, low visibility of women's work, discriminatory laws, limits on education and income, and caregiving responsibilities (UN Women, 2015). Increasing women's voices at all levels of policy is likely to lead to more equitable distribution of the benefits and costs of climate change policies and programmes, while improving their efficiency, efficacy and sustainability.Recommendation: Agricultural policy, law and decision-making processes at all levels -from community groups to international processes -will be more effective and relevant if they include both women and men in leadership roles, include their voices and implement processes to translate laws and policy into practice.Pham Thu Thuy, Mai Hoang Yen, Maria Brockhaus, Moira Moeliono, and Esther Mwangi Gender is important in REDD+ processes. In the case of Vietnam, the need to ensure gender equity is noted in the National REDD+ Strategy and the Forest Protection and Development Law. However, in the absence of clear detailed guidance on how to implement this at national and sub-national levels, it has been difficult to implement, with the result that benefit-sharing mechanisms and processes for free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), which were developed under the National REDD+ Program, do not integrate gender.According to interviews in Vietnam with 52 local and national government and international organizations that are important in decision-making in REDD+ processes at all levels, women have been invited to, and consulted on, REDD+ processes. However, the National REDD+ Steering Committee itself, which provides strategic guidance on REDD+ implementation, included only one woman within its 15 members in 2014. Policy-making processes have yet to provide the space for and encourage active participation by women to express opinions, take initiatives, and influence decisions.UNFCCC should also institutionalize 'he for she' mechanisms, to encourage men to actively promote women's voices.In turn, the international community can and should work with national governments to incorporate gender equality into policies and programmes. This can include exerting pressure via climate change funding conditions and incentives. Research on scaling-up gender-sensitive approaches is needed to inform translation of policy into programmes.Gender considerations should be incorporated into at least three key areas of climate change policies and programmes: Inclusion of gender dimensions as part of the qualifying criteria for accessing international funding channels (such as REDD+, Green Climate Fund, Clean Development Mechanism, Adaptation Fund and NAMAs). Organizations and countries applying for such funds should be asked to identify how programmes and interventions will affect women, and how they will ensure that interventions will benefit women as well as men. Needs assessments that explicitly distinguish between women's and men's priorities and opportunities should inform policy and programme design. This should be a prerequisite for any national policy and programme that is carried out under the auspices of UNFCCC-mediated processes. Incorporation of gender indicators into monitoring and assessment of programme implementation and impacts. These need to be indicators of real change -increased control of productive assets, participation in decision making, knowledge, awareness, empowerment, and improved economic status for women and men. Gender indicators need to go beyond measuring the representation of women in climate change processes -women need to be actively involved in defining and monitoring implementation and impacts. 1The Green Climate Fund drew on wide consultations to put forward a gender policy and action plan in March 2015. The Fund's gender policy argues that a gender-sensitive approach will achieve more effective and equitable outcomes, mitigate project risks, and reduce the gender gap in outcomes from climate change. Accredited entities to the Fund are obliged to undertake a socio-economic and gender assessment to determine how a proposed project (adaptation or mitigation) can respond to the needs of women and men, identify key drivers of change in gender dynamics, design and budget for gender-specific activities, identify gender-relevant outcomes, and monitor progress including institutional arrangements. Gender-sensitive capacity building and knowledge generation on gender and climate change are also key components of the Fund's gender policy.","tokenCount":"2652"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2acd2c0ce2e878b704e841d5a62b062e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5965381f-0dc4-4e65-8cba-94252b5ad6c3/retrieve","id":"690308837"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fe3c7c8a-98f1-4df6-81a1-234662379124","pagecount":"47","content":"The Kenyan economy is one of the largest in sub-Saharan Africa. It is backed by a strong agricultural sector, but climate change will increase its vulnerability. Kenya's farming sector directly employs more than 40% of the total population, including around 75% of the rural population, generating about a quarter of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). However, the agricultural sector faces yield gaps and is exposed to climate hazards that contribute to uncertain livelihoods, food insecurity, and persistent poverty among the rural population. Hazards include droughts, floods, growing season reductions, and high growing season temperatures. Additionally, the already strong climate variability makes agricultural production vulnerable. Given the importance of agriculture for Kenya's economy and population, there is a dire need for farming to adapt to climate change and mitigate the effects of these hazards. Effective adaptation can take many forms, but farmers' individual behavior will be central.Better-informed decision-making will play a key role in increasing overall productivity and farmer incomes, and to mitigate climate shocks.Without adaptation, climate change will affect the food security and livelihoods of millions of Kenyans.Digitally enhanced agriculture involves using modern information and communication technology, especially mobile phones and the Internet, to accumulate, analyze, understand, and disseminate electronic data with the aim of informing effective decision-making along agricultural value chains. For example, digital tools and services can strengthen the agricultural sector's resilience by helping farmers increase productivity, reduce costs and losses, or increase operating profit. Digital adaptation solutions can involve services around agricultural advisory, climate information, input and output market linkages, financial inclusion, or sophisticated 'smart farming' solutions that optimize production using sensors, drones, satellite imagery, artificial intelligence, or shared farm machinery. In the Kenyan context, where most farmers are smallholders, digital technologies for adaptation will likely rely on services accessed via mobile phones such as apps, short message services (SMS), or interactive voice response technology. Digital technologies have the potential to accelerate adaptation processes by addressing the needs of individual farmers in highly scalable service schemes.Leveraging the potential of digital and data-enabled technologies will be crucial for mainstreaming climate adaptation and resilience in Kenya's agricultural sector and achieving inclusive development.Kenya's thriving digital ecosystem and relatively mature infrastructure offer vast opportunities to develop and deploy innovative and inclusive digital solutions in agriculture. Yet, to date, existing digital services for adaptation in agriculture are used by a minority of Kenyan farmers only. For example, the lack of user-friendly and freely accessible climate information services to anticipate and mitigate extreme weather events is an often-cited challenge for Kenyan smallholders. However, today's near omnipresence of mobile money-which was introduced in Kenya in 2007-has demonstrated that Kenya is ready for digital solutions to be quickly scaled and integrated into virtually all sectors of Kenya's heterogeneous society and economy. But still, low penetration of modern digital devices, scanty coverage by electricity and mobile networks, underdeveloped digital literacy, and gender gaps concerning the use of digital tools are but some of the challenges affecting the success of digital technologies for adaptation in agriculture initiatives in parts of rural Kenya. Beyond innovative agriculture-oriented services, digital adaptation strategies need to address these challenges with aim of affecting the digital sector at large, and promoting the digital transformation of farming. Given the right environment, digital solutions for adaptation can allow for better-informed agricultural production, marketing, and resource management across all social strata and farming systems. This project, spearheaded by the African Development Bank (AfDB), the Global Center on Adaptation (GCA), the Alliance of Biodiversity International, and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), explores opportunities and key needs for digital technologies for adaptation implementation within the Horn of Africa Program. The Horn of Africa Program is one of the programs under GCA and AfDB's Africa Adaptation Acceleration Program (AAAP), with the objective of reimagining African developmental institutions, programs, and policies to emphasize adaptation and resilience to climate change. The current project has been conducted in the context of the \"Climate Smart Digital Technologies for Agriculture and Food Security\" (ClimSmartDigitAg) of the AAAP. The aim is to benefit at least 30 million farmers across 26 countries by 2025 through enhanced, upscaled digital and datadriven adaptation technologies specifically geared toward smallholders and agricultural small and medium-sized enterprises.The aim of this report is to support digital technologies for adaptation investment decisions in Kenya while highlighting actionable next steps for the design and incorporation of new and better digital technologies within the agricultural sector. The emphasis falls on last-mile delivery of digital technologies for adaptation in agriculture. With attention to local contexts, needs, and potential partnerships, the results from this report are geared toward adaptation practitioners and may also help digital development stakeholders to design and select the most successful investments and interventions. The report starts by exploring the Kenyan regional context to understand population and climatic characteristics, significant agricultural sectors, and relevant climate hazards. It then surveys Kenya's digital landscape to analyze access and use, existing infrastructure, and affordability for relevant technologies to foreground promising digital services for adaptation interventions. With consideration of the obstacles to and advantages for implementation, and short-, medium-, and longterm outcomes, this report seeks to guide investment strategies for digital technologies for adaptation in Kenya. This is followed by the provision of actionable guidance toward attaining essential goals, generating and enabling an environment for digital adaptation solutions and establishing the most viable and demanded tools and services. These include, for instance, early climate warnings, risk assessment and management, advisory services, and building the digital capacity. Finally, this report maps a way forward by synthesizing key digital adaptation actions and recommendations to boost resilience to climate change.Kenya, located in East Africa, has a land area of 580,728 km², of which approximately half is agricultural land (CCAFS, 2016). The country's annual GDP is estimated to be around USD 98.8 billion, and a quarter of this is generated by agriculture, forestry, and fishing. The agricultural sector contributes to employment greatly, employing approximately 75% of the rural population and about 40% of the total population (FAO stats, 2021;USAID, 2021a). The export value for agricultural produce is about USD 2.9 billion annually (World Bank data, 2020). However, agricultural production has declined in recent years, impacting the national agricultural GDP growth rate which dropped from 10% in 2010 to 2% in 2017.Like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural production systems in Kenya are dominated by smallholder subsistence farms, which are normally rainfed. Kenya is divided into seven agro-ecological zones based on precipitation and soil type, which vary in terms of farmer and growing season numbers, and primary crop types. In terms of input usage, an average of 0.25kg/ha of pesticides is applied to fields every year, compared to 2.7kg/ha globally (FAOstats 1 ). Regarding fertilizer, instead, its use distributed across croplands is 20.2 kg/ha of nitrogen, 21.1 kg/ha of phosphate, and 5.5 kg/ha of potash (FAOstats 1 ). These values are close to the average fertilizer consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa-estimated at 17 kg per hectare of cropland-but far below the global average fertilizer consumption of 135 kg/ha (AGRA, 2019). The main food crops in Kenya are maize, wheat, rice, potatoes, green grams, and beans. Maize is the primary staple food in the country, and 90% of Kenyan farms grow it, while common bean and Irish potato are the most important legume and tuber crops respectively (AFA, 2021). The second largest livestock herd in Africa is in Kenya, ranking 13th in the world in terms of dairy cows. The livestock sector contributes to around 10% of the GDP, and comprises dairy cattle, goats, camels, and beef cattle, small ruminants, non-ruminants, poultry, and emerging livestock species such as quail and rabbits. The livestock population is concentrated in the arid and semi-arid lands towards the East, which cover about 75% of the total land surface (KALRO, 2021). 1 The numbers reflect the avergae of years 2015-2019According to the 2019 national census, Kenya has a total population of 47 million people, of which 78% live in rural areas (KNBS, 2019). 37% of the total population lives below the US$ 1.90/day poverty line, which is closely related with the prevalence of undernourished people (25%) and the prevalence of children underweight and wasting (11.2% and 4.2% respectively) (World Bank data, 2014). These numbers are reflected in the Global Food Security Index, where the country has a score of 46.8 out of 100, meaning that its performance is moderate and there is still room for improvement. One of the main reasons for this is the high prevalence of undernourishment (The Economist, 2021). In terms of education and infrastructure, instead, the country is rapidly improving, with the literacy rate among youth standing at 88%. Access to electricity has been rapidly increasing, and 56% of the population is already connected, while 46% of the rural population has electricity (World Bank, 2020). This expansion has been mainly catalyzed by the Kenyan government's rural electrification programme.Kenya is highly vulnerable to climate change and variability. The Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative Country Index Rank sees Kenya 147th out of 177 countries, with a score of 39.1. Kenya scores 0.518 on vulnerability and 0.300, making it the 38th most vulnerable country, and the 39th least prepared. Therefore, there is a great need for investment and innovations to improve readiness and resolute action. By 2030, losses related to climate variability and extreme events are predicted to be up to 2.6% of the annual GDP (USAID, 2018). Droughts alone would cost an estimated 8% of the GDP every five years. The recurrent annual burden caused by these climatic extremities will lead to large economic losses of up to $0.5 billion per year, further suppressing economic development (GoK, 2015). The cumulative impacts of climate change over the next two to three decades have the potential to reverse much of the progress made towards the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Vision 2030. This section will examine climate change vulnerabilities and resilience concerning cereals and livestock value chain commodities, the most pressing challenges for Kenya. Additionally, it will focus on the projected impact of climate change on these major value chain commodities or their sensitivity to climate change-related risks and hazards such as diseases, crop failure, and the destruction of assets on farm, post-harvest, and at the market level.Kenya has a diverse climate, with variable annual rains. Some parts of the coastal and highland areas receive annual averages up to 2.000 mm. Yet, 80% of the land mass is classified as arid and semi-arid, receiving less than 500 mm of rainfall per year. Temperatures range from an average of 18°C in high elevation areas like Nairobi, to 26°C in coastal areas such as Mombasa. Hazards stemming from Kenya's changing climate include high and extreme climate variability, heat stress, droughts, floods, growing season reductions, high growing season temperatures, or a combination of the latter. Its geographic location also makes the country prone to cyclical droughts and floods, with climate change expected to make such climate driven events increase in intensity and frequency (GoK, 2015). Arid and semi-arid areas are especially prone to extreme events such as droughts and floods (Marigi, 2017), and periodic droughts occur in Kenya rather frequently. Moderate drought events have been recorded on average every three to four years, and major droughts affect the country every ten years on average. Prolonged droughts, instead, have become more common since 2000 (GoK, 2015). The most droughtsusceptible areas are counties on the Eastern, Northeastern, and Coastal regions, and parts of Rift Valley. January, February, and June to September are the most common drought months, especially in the northern parts of the country. For example, the recent 2020 drought severely affected both the arid and semi-arid counties. The level of food security in these regions was reportedly one of the lowest in the last 15 years, affecting around 1.8 million people, and currently a drought is exposing more than 2 million people to food insecurity (UNOCHA, 2020;NDMA, 2021).Floods mostly occur in the Budalangi, Nyando, Homabay, and Tana River Counties in the lower Tana River catchment. Major cities such as Nairobi and Mombasa, and Northeastern parts of the country, are also prone to flash floods (KMD, 2021a). Highland areas, instead, are prone to landslides and mudslides which manifest during the rainy season. These areas are characterized by steep slopes, and include counties such as Murang'a and the Embu highlands. The number of landslides is reported to be increasing as forested lands are converted to agriculture, resulting in looser soils and fewer trees to slow the flow of water downslopes (Parry. et al, 2012). Kenya's extreme floods have been observed to be triggered by severe thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, and heavy rainfall over many consecutive days.The El Niño Southern Oscillation, Madden Julian oscillations, and other phenomena have been observed to exacerbate the flood situation in the country. For example, at the end of 2015, heavy rainfall driven by the El Niño (KMD, 2021a) killed at least 112 people and displaced over 100,000. The most recent flooding event, instead, took place in spring 2021, displacing thousands of people.Another allegedly climate-related extreme has been the desert's locust invasion, which affected the country between 2019 and 2020, with large swarms spreading across fourteen Kenyan counties, influenced by both wind and rainfall within the region (KMD, 2021a). The locust invasion and other climate-related shocks contributed to a slow recovery from the effects of previous droughts, especially for the most vulnerable communities in the pastoral counties (NDMA, 2020).The average temperature has increased by 0.34°C from 1985 to 2015, with the greatest increases manifesting in the months of March to May in arid and semi-arid regions. Projections show increases in mean annual temperature between 1 °C and 1.5 °C by 2030 (World Bank & CIAT, 2015). By 2050, average temperatures are projected to increase from 1.2°C to 2.2°C, with the greatest warming happening in the west (USAID, 2018). The number of hot days and nights will increase. Hot days are projected to be between 19% to 45%. Hot nights, instead, are expected to increase quickly, and to occur on 45% to 75% of nights by 2050. Increased heat and extreme heat conditions will result in significant implications for human and animal health, agriculture, and ecosystems (GoK, 2015;World Bank, 2020).Although there is little change in overall average annual precipitation, since the 1970s, long rains show reduced rainfall in Central and Southern Kenya, with possible increases in the northern parts of the country (USAID, 2018). Analysis by GoK with data starting in 1960 concur that northern areas of the country have become wetter, southern areas drier, and there also seems to be an increase in the proportion of heavy rainfall events (GoK, 2015). Rainfall projections show a likely increase in average rainfall (projections range from -3 to +28%) from October to May, and a decrease in the duration of dry spells, albeit increased in severity (-2 to +27%) (USAID, 2018). Changes in rainfall distribution and more frequent extreme events are projected to result in more frequent water shortages (World Bank & CIAT, 2015).To identify the likelihood of future climate hazards and their potential impacts in Kenya, we mapped them out for the 2050 period under a business-as-usual emission trajectory (Figure 1). Our projections for 2050 show that 73% of the land used for agriculture in Kenya is under threat from a combination of high to extreme climate variability, heat stress, and droughts, and another 18% is because of a combination of high to extreme climate variability and droughts (Figure 1.a). Climate hazards will hinder the agricultural production of cereals and livestock on over 40 million ha of land (Figure 1d). This would have substantial implications for the rural populations whose livelihoods depend on agriculture. The consequences for small-scale farmers include changes in water availability for crop and livestock production, as well as livestock losses, crop failures, and lower incomes. Other impacts of climate variability include greater incidence and prevalence of crop pests and diseases. On the other hand, in some places this might lead to opportunities for crop diversification and intensification (Rippke, et al, 2016). Finally, more than 15 million rural people and USD 1.9 billion in crop and livestock value are exposed to climate hazards (Figure 1b and c). Without proper adaptation strategies, climate change will lead to serious consequences for key activities along the agricultural value chain at all stages, including input supply, on-farm production, post-harvest processing, and output markets. These impacts are exacerbated by relatively small farm sizes, land degradation, and deforestation, which characterize the agricultural production systems in the country. For this section, a selection of value chains was chosen for a deeper analysis of how climate change affects them.Maize: Maize production systems are prevalent across Kenya and are highly vulnerable to climate change. Annual losses by 2050 are estimated to be between USD $100 and 200 million (Herrrero, 2010).Moreover, yields are expected to decrease at a rate of 0.07 tons/ha/decade, reaching losses between 12% and 23% by 2055, while food prices will increase between 75% and 90% by then (FICCF, 2013;Mumo, Yu, & Ke, 2018). Long, dry spells will affect maize production directly. In fact, the crop is very sensitive to water deficits from flowering to beginning of grain filling (Omoyo, et al., 2015). Earlier in 2021, below-average precipitation amounts in the planning season forced several farmers to re-plant, causing irreversible damage in plants and reducing production by 8% (FAO, GIEWS, 2021). Flooding has also a negative impact on production, leading to crop yield losses, soil erosion, waterlogging, and the leaching of soil nutrients and fertilizers. The viability of seeds is also reduced as the seeds rot in the soil. Excessive rainfall-especially during the harvest-can bring about rotting. In addition, the inadequate drying of maize under wet conditions heightens the chances of aflatoxin contamination. In 2020, the maize farms of Baringo County were flooded, and crops were lost to the floodwaters (KMD, 2020). Maize can also be damaged by temperatures over 35⁰C, which are increasingly common in lowland regions (USAID, 2018). To counter the adverse effects of climate change, it is necessary to climate-proof agricultural crops through adaptation strategies, such as developing drought-tolerant, heat-resistant, and early maturing maize varieties (Omoyo et al., 2015).In arid and semi-arid regions, pastoralism is the dominant production system, hosting approximately 70% of the national livestock herd (Chaudhury et al., 2020). However, it is characterized by unsustainable practices such as overstocking and open grazing. Additionally, the projected climatic trends are negatively influencing production. Pastoral communities in Kenya are already acutely affected: high temperatures are increasing heat stress, as well as pest and disease incidence in livestock. The decrease on annual rainfall leads to feed and water scarcity, impacting the quality and availability of pasture (USAID, 2018). In northern Turkana County, increased competition over grazing lands and water has already heightened the likelihood of conflict and insecurity (HRW, 2015). These are further exacerbated by poor physical and social infrastructure, resource conflicts, and low literacy levels, which further reduce the people's adaptive capacity to droughts (KMD, 2021a). In recent months, livestock trekking distances from grazing fields to watering points have increased in several counties.In August 2021, the distances were 25% to 55% longer than average (FAO, 2021). Grazing resources in most northern pastoral areas and central and southern agro-pastoral areas have been severely affected by two consecutive poor rainy seasons since October 2020. As of September 2021, drought conditions were reported in several counties, with particular concern for Marsabit County in the northwest, and Mandera, Garissa, Isiolo, and Wajir Counties in the northeast (FAO, 2021).Animal health is also affected by both extremely high or low temperatures and by the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases, some of them transmitted by vectors that are highly dependent on climatic conditions. In 2011, the livestock sector lost approximately around 6 billion USD because of drought (GoK, 2013). When disaggregated, 0.5 billion were lost due to costs from veterinary care, water, feed, and production decline, and 5.7 billion due to animal deaths. Climate change also reduces productivity. In fact, in mid 2021, milk production was 25% to 45% below average (FAO, 2021). The prices of livestock have declined by 10% to 30% due to rain shortage in the last two seasons. This is affecting particularly areas hit by prolonged droughts, such as northwestern Turkana, Samburu and Marsabit counties, and northeastern Garissa and Wajir counties (FAO, 2021).The majority of Kenya's population is dependent on agriculture, and generally has low adaptive capacity to withstand the negative impacts of climate change. In addition to the biophysical factors mentioned in the previous section, other factors play a role including poor infrastructure, weak institutional mechanisms, and lack of financial resources (GoK, 2015). There are several other socio-economic factors that leave the Kenyan population vulnerable to climate change, and adaptation efforts should take them into account, as they could represent a hindrance. Poverty is an example of this. In the Rift Valley, Eastern, and Nyanza regions, 40-70% of the population lives on less than USD 1.90 per day, and these areas lack essential infrastructure for adaptation to climate change. For example, efforts to expand irrigation are hampered by poverty and low technical capacity (Chaudhury et al., 2020;Ministry of foreign affairs Netherlands, 2018;HRW, 2015). Furthermore, population increase and the scarcity of non-degraded potential agricultural land leads to land fragmentation. This also hampers the economy of scale to invest in new technology or use part of the land to try out new varieties of practices.Smallholder, low-input, and rain-fed agriculture in the arid and semiarid lowlands are more vulnerable because of their dependence on climate-sensitive and natural resource-based economic activities. Over 75% of the total agricultural output is produced on these small-scale farms, making the system especially vulnerable to climate shocks (GoK, 2015). Additionally, weak land administration and management due to a lack of comprehensive national policies has caused land fragmentation and disparities in ownership, resulting in inadequate conservation measures. The lack of clarity on ownership of resources, combined with resource degradation due to climate change, has caused conflicts in various parts of the country in recent years (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Netherlands, 2018).Access to timely information is also key. Producers lack relevant weather forecast data and information that would assist them in reducing their losses and diversifying with more suitable crops, such as drought tolerant crops during the dry periods and slow-maturing varieties when conditions are wetter than normal (Marigi, 2017). Using digital tools for the production and dissemination of climate information can enhance it's reach and use. However, the gap in (digital) illiteracy rates exacerbate the lack of access to climate information systems. Higher literacy and capacity building around using digital technologies could provide the public with a pathway for creating knowledge about climate change and an awareness of possible adaptation solutions.Additionally, the severity of the impacts of climate change are not evenly distributed over the population. Evidence from 8 African countries including Kenya, shows that climate change is correlated with increased migration of the youth, and this is especially strong for agricultural communities in drought prone areas (Bezu et. al., 2020). This effect is also stronger for men than for women due to fewer recourses and cultural constraints. On the other hand an important consideration regarding youth in agriculture is that this group has had a relatively better education and is more likely to use digital tools than older generations. When targeting digital interventions for adaptation it is therefore important to consider how the youth fits in, whether this is at the farm, extension, in the digital workforce or in agri-entrepeneurship levels.Women are another group that are often disproportionately affected by the effects of climate change.Women manage over 40% of smallholder farms and provide up to 80% of labor for crop production in Kenya (UNDP, 2012), but have a lower adaptive capacity to tackle negative climate change impacts because of less access to information, markets, mobility, alternative income sources, land ownership, access to credit and means of decision-making (Diiro et. al., 2018). Therefore women's empowerment should be a key consideration when thinking about implementing digital services for adaptation as this not only contributes to reducing the gender gap in agricultural productivity, but also to a greater scale and impact of adaptation strategies. Some of the successfully implemented on-farm adaptation practices include intercropping-which has an adoption rate of 60% in Western and Eastern Kenya-and mulching, which is mainly practiced in tea growing areas, which also has an adoption rate of 60% (World Bank & CIAT, 2015). Other practices are terracing, contour bunds, construction of dykes, changing planting dates, and enterprise diversification (Ochieng et. al., 2016). The effects of drought can also be reduced by cultivating drought-resistant crops and fodder such as cassava, millet, pigeon peas, green grams, cowpeas, and brachiaria, especially in semi-arid areas (CIAT, 2015). Other practices include planting early maturing crop varieties, staggered planting, and improved pastures management (CIAT, 2015). A recent survey in the Central Highlands showed that most farmers were adopting one or several types of adaptation strategies, with the most common used practices including crop rotation (60%), terraces (66%) and fertilizer plus manure (71%) (Mairura et. al., 2021). They also found a link between climate change perceptions and the use of certain adaptation strategies; for example, almost all farmers who perceived climate variability implemented crop rotation practices, while no significant correlation was found between climate perception and nutrient management strategies. They found that adoption and the choice of a particular strategy was also related to the level of knowledge farmers had about the adaptation strategy, as well as their access to credit.To address the problem of increasing water scarcity, farmers are involved in its conservation and distribution, aiming to minimize drought impacts and improve agricultural production in dry regions.Water harvesting is a crucial adaptation measure in Kenya. This is done through several methods.Surface water harvesting includes the construction of earth dams, embankment dams, water pans, and sand dams; groundwater harvesting involves boreholes, shallow wells, and subsurface dams; rooftop rainwater harvesting, instead, is done by collecting excessive rainfall using water tanks. The availability of water has the positive effect of increasing productivity and reducing farmer-herder conflicts over access to water (MoALFC, 2021). Water is also crucial to reduce wildlife-human conflicts, which happen when animals invade farmlands in search of water. Irrigation is also a key measure that can address water scarcity. An example of its use is for rice cultivation in the Eastern parts of the country (MoALF, 2016). However, in general, uptake is low due to the high cost associated with the development and maintenance of irrigation infrastructures. Out of the 6.4 million households practicing agriculture in the country, only 369,679 households are practicing irrigation (KNBS, 2019). Timely, early warning systems are one of the off-farm adaptation strategies in use in the country. Early Warning Systems enable farmers to know when and where to plant, and when to move with the livestock in the face of expected climatic shocks. This information is generated by Kenya's meteorological department (KMD) and the National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) and is promoted through websites, pamphlets, SMS, WhatsApp messages, and monthly bulletins, and is disseminated in vernacular radio stations (CARE, 2018).Adaptation strategies around post-harvest and market access include incorporating traditional knowledge and farmers groups. Traditional knowledge can add value to their produce and limit the increased post-harvest losses resulting from climate change and variability. For instance, farmers can process raw milk into ghee. Also, some farmers in Kenya are organized into farmer groups and cooperatives, increasing their capacity to benefit from economies of scale by reducing the costs of inputs, storage, and transport. Moreover, cooperatives and farmer groups play a critical role in the production, processing, and marketing of major agricultural commodities and services. Incorporating adaptation strategies at these levels will reduce the risks and bring adaptation technologies to scale and more rapidly.Even though there are several ongoing adaptation strategies in the country, there is ample opportunity for more innovative and transformative measures to assist stakeholders across multiple value chains.For example, it is critical to increase water availability to vulnerable farmers, both in terms of quality as well as quantity. Some potential adaptation strategies include bringing irrigation facilities and surface water harvesting to scale. Similarly, pasture availability is a constraint in the pastoral systems. Farmers can be sensitized to practice the conservation of fodder and the production forage that is drought-, pest-, and disease-tolerant. It is also important to upscale disease surveillance, health management, breeding, and control of endemic diseases to ensure high-quality livestock products in the country.Similarly, farmers can be trained to correct and balance fertilizer application. Given the highly degraded soils of Kenya, it's crucial for farmers to adopt a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers to improve soil quality and fertility. Organic fertilizers may not only improve soil quality, but may also contribute to climate protection by increasing carbon sequestration in agricultural ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2016) To counter the detrimental impacts of soil erosion, sustainable land management practices can be promoted. These include: terracing; contour bunds; drainage canals; agroforestry; and perennial crops. These practices will increase soil carbon, improve the management of soil organic matter, and rehabilitate the already degraded lands. Additionally, intercropping nitrogen-fixing perennial woody species and trees with annual crops increases soil fertility, produces biomass, and reduces soil erosion. This practice also promotes carbon sequestration and redistributes carbon to deeper soil layers (KMT, 2019). Furthermore, the low adoption of conservation agriculture in the country needs to be tackled.The use of new protocols and technologies concerned with credit acquisition will help farmers invest more in agricultural activities and consequently increase the adoption of tools that will safeguard farmers against the uncertainties arising with climate change. Another important use of digital tools in agriculture to aid smallholder farmers is for insurance. Several pilots have emerged worldwide testing different strategies, from using satellite images to registered local weather events, such as hail and lightning, to access the location and severity of the impact this has had on crops. Another way of doing so is through an app that uses pictures to process damage to crops, such as the picture-based crop insurance app 2 that is currently being tested and used in Kenya. One issue that remains is that without ways of controlling for the using agronomic best practices, or investments possibilities in technologies like irrigation in drought prone areas, it has not easy for insurance companies to come to a sustainable business model. However, artificial intelligence and machine learning, in combination with easy to use apps, remote sensing and digital agricultural advisories, can lead to insurance companies mainstreaming the use and affordability of insurances and with that, reaching smallholder farmers at scale.Nairobi is the biggest digital innovation hub in Eastern Africa, hosting many of the most promising tech companies in the continent. There are several organizations working in the field of digital technologies that can be used for climate adaptation in agriculture in Kenya. This growth has been fostered by a friendly regulatory and policy environment. Innovation hubs have also facilitated the process by providing mentorship and business support to entrepreneurs. As a result, in 2020, 95 services were recorded in the field of agriculture (GSMA, 2020). These services include advisory, financial, procurement, e-commerce, and smart farming services, as well as several technologies, including adaptation strategies.There are also several public organizations working in the field of digital technologies for adaptation: the Kenyan Agriculture and Livestock Organization (KARLO) is directly involved in researching and developing solutions, often collaborating closely with entrepreneurs and startups. Kenya also has its own space agency (Kenyan Space Agency, KSA) which focuses, on agriculture, disaster management, and resource management among other things. It has a satellite imagery analysis portal, and it is working on developing an Open Data Cube for anyone who wants to access the images (Kenyan Space Agency, 2021).For a long time, the Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) has been the only national institution providing climate information services. However, in recent years, collaborative, private sector-driven climate information service initiatives have been established. Furthermore, several international development agencies, NGOs, and private tech companies have been increasingly supporting efforts to provide climate information services (CIS) in the country. Examples include ICPAC, FAO, ACMAD, FEWSNET, AGRA, ILRI, ICRISAT, RCMRD, KALRO, Mercy Corps AgriFin, Esoko, aWhere, ACRE Africa, Upande, GCAP, GeoEnvigro, and AirtelKilimo (ICPAC, 2021, see stakeholder list in the annex).The Kenya Meteorological department (KMD) provides the agricultural sector with weather and climate information. The KMD collects data through its own climate observation stations and collaborations with other institutions and volunteer observers. It maintains a large meteorological infrastructure comprising 40 synoptic stations, automatic weather stations, airport weather observing systems, and satellite receiving stations, often operated in collaboration with other international climate centers and volunteer observers (Meteo.Go.Ke, 2021). However, the data from the Automatic Weather Stations is not yet fully integrated into meteorological applications, as the quality of their datasets are yet to be known (Muita, et al., 2021). These meteorological services are devolved, and each county has a coordinator in charge of disseminating climate information services.In 2020, KALRO launched the Kenya Agriculture Observatory Platform (KAOP), which provides real-time access to ward-level, seven-day weather forecasts including rainfall and temperature, all critically important inputs to inform farm operations. This platform has been recently updated through a partnership between KALRO and aWhere, in which KALRO gained use of aWhere's 6,787 virtual weather stations in Kenya to provide advanced weather data and analytics.Early Warning Systems are also extremely relevant. Drought monitoring and risk management systems are key, especially because, as opposed to floods, the impact is less visible and more difficult to quantify in economic terms. To prevent drought damage, the National Drought Management Authority manages the Drought Early Warning System (DEWS) which operates at the national level. The system releases drought Early Warning bulletins for different regions in the country based on real time data, (NDMA, 2021). There is also the Predictive Livestock Early Warning System (PLEWS), which has been developed by several national and international agencies and aims to reduce livestock losses. PLEWS uses normalized difference vegetation index data and models it against edible vegetation based on high resolution satellite imagery and ground truthing, surface water availability, and past data (Matere, et al., 2020). The tool is still in its pilot phase, but it holds great potential, and it is planned to scale up to other countries in the Horn of Africa.Although there is a good data collection network, capacity to translate weather and climate inputs into user-friendly products generally remains low. Producers and other relevant stakeholders are therefore largely unaware of existing climate information services. To overcome this issue, KMD is in the process of establishing the National Framework for Climate Services in Kenya, which will provide an institutional mechanism for coordinating, facilitating, and strengthening collaboration to improve co-production, delivery, and use of climate services for decision making. An example of existing co-production approaches for climate products are the Country Climate Outlook Forums, which use Participatory Scenario Planning to produce downscaled seasonal forecasts and advisory services. The system is already being used by the KMD to develop forecasts for the planning season (ICPAC, 2021). Moreover, the KMD together with IGAD is establishing the National Framework for Climate Services in Kenya (NFCS), an institutional mechanism to coordinate, facilitate and strengthen collaboration among national institutions. The aim is to improve the co-production, tailoring, delivery, and use of sciencebased climate predictions and services for decision-making. The process is still ongoing, and so far stakeholder consultations and workshops have been conducted (KMD, 2021b).Almost 100% of the population has second generation (2G) network coverage, and 96% has 3G coverage. However, 4G reaches only 65% of the population, and fifth generation (5G) hasn't arrived in the country yet (GSMA, 2021). Mobile Network Operators (MNOs) include Safaricom PLC, Airtel Networks Ltd, Telkom Kenya Ltd, Jamii Telecommunications Limited, and Equitel, with 64.2%, 26.9%, 6.2%, 6.2%, and 2.3% market shares respectively. Although SIM penetration is very high (114 per 100 habitants), the rate of unique subscribers is significantly lower (57.5%) and mobile phone ownership is even lower (49%) (ITU data from 2019, GSMA, 2021). This indicates that some people share the same phone but use different SIMs, while others have multiple SIM cards and other SIM cards are still registered but not in active use anymore. However, in 2019, only 23% of the population uses the Internet, and this is just a slight increase from 17% in 2014. (ITU data). This low rate can partially be explained by costs, since Internet data remains expensive, as 100MB are 44% of the monthly GDP per capita (GSMA, 2021). There are about 11 million social media users in Kenya, and this number has rapidly increased by 25% between 2020 and 2021 (Kemp, 2021). The number of social media users in Kenya was equivalent to 20.2% of the total population. However, when it comes to social media users, there is an important gender gap of 56% (GSMA, 2021), most likely connected with affordability, privacy, and security concerns.Regarding global indexes such as the Network Readiness Index, Kenya can be found quite high in the scale, ranking 82 out of 182. The score is especially high for governance and regulations (Portulans Institute, 2021). In the Digital Readiness Index, instead, Kenya was a bit lower, ranking 104 out of 141.The country has especially good scores for human capital (skilled labor force to support digital innovation), startup environment, and ease of doing business. However, concerning technology adoption (which includes internet adoption) and basic needs (for example access to clean water or energy) the scores are quite low (CISCO, 2019). Despite improvement over recent years, Kenya remains in the lower 30% of countries globally in the ICT Development Index.Kenya is a reference for mobile money in the region. Mobile money has been a game changer in Kenya, and due to its widespread use-even in rural areas-it can now be used for many digital financial services. Between April and June 2021, total active registered mobile money subscriptions rose by 4.7% to stand at 34.7 million, which could be attributed to increased uptake of digital payments to contain the spread of COVID-19.In Kenya, weather and climate information services are communicated using different channels such as mass media, print media, and the Internet. A report from 2016 breaks down the most used media: bulletin/newspaper (52%), radio (45%), intermediaries (41%), SMS (34%), Website (21%), and interactive voice response (IVR-10%) (World Bank Group, 2016a). Regarding radio, the KMD works with several local community radio stations to disseminate climate information to smallholder farmers and other vulnerable communities. However, it has been found that most farmers did not find the climatic information received through radios and local admin useful for operational decisions. All studies point to the fact that there is a mismatch between information provided and user needs, as well as an inability to interpret weather data and translate it into decisions, leading to decreased use of the information (Onyango, 2014, Masieyi, et al., 2021, Cherotich, 2012). On the other hand, intermediaries include extension services, which are the only channel that delivers not just information on climatic hazards but also support services for adaptation. KALRO and the MoALF, for example, have a network of extension officers who receive information from KMD. However, the MoALF extension services are still under resourced. In some instances, KMD provides early warning and climate information specific to flood prone areas, such as some parts of Western Kenya.There is a need to translate weather and climate inputs into user-specific products that aid climate adaptation decision making. The KMD is already working in this direction and has piloted a project on the western part of the country (which is the most populated area) to provide localized weather services. The project has included capacity building of staff and improvement in the dissemination of information. To reach the population, weather forecasts have been integrated into other existing information systems (such as farm inputs or advisory supplies emails or SMS services) (KMD, 2019). KMD also works closely with CABI Plantwise programme to generate pest risk information which is used as an early warning system and measure to ensure that farmers are aware of pest prone areas.TV: \"Shamba Shape Up\" aims to give farmers the tools they need to improve their farms (shambas).Each episode focuses on one farmer and their farm, reaching around 7 million Kenyans weekly (Shamba Shape Up, 2021).Radio: It is the most popular medium and is widely used for the transfer of agricultural information.Farm Radio has a strong presence in the country, potentially reaching 24 million listeners. There are also many radio stations that disseminate climate-related information. Some examples include, Nganyi RANET, Kangema RANET, Bulala RANET, Wajir Community Radio, Pamoja Radio, Baliti FM, DARAJA Initiative under the WISER programme, and the ACREI project in Taita Taveta, amongst other initiatives.Interactive voice response (IVR), SMS, and Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD)• Arifu is a digital content and interactive, personalized, and free learning platform. It works through an omnichannel chatbot, allowing both smart and feature phone users to learn via SMS, WhatsApp, and Facebook Messenger.• iCow is a digital platform that aims to reduce cow mortality rates and educate farmers on proper agricultural practices. Farmers can easily register through USSD, where they are asked to provide specific information about their cows. Once the farmer has provided all the needed information the service sends them tailored SMS' with tips about breeding, animal nutrition, and milk production. The service works as a calendar for cows. There is also an app version.• Safaricom DigiFarm is Safaricom's integrated, mobile platform of digital services for farmers.Accessible on a basic feature phone, it brings together multiple input and service providers onto one platform. Farmers can order inputs, engage in learning, access input credit, harvest cash loans and insurance. connect with buyers, obtain soil testing, and aggregate their products.• MyAnga offers early warning and SMS alerts for pastoralists. It also provides weather forecasts and advice about weather and forage conditions (CTA, 2019).• Mpesa is an electronic mobile money service that allows users to store, send, and receive money on their mobile phone. It is also possible to withdraw cash by visiting an agent (typically in a corner shop) or transfer it to others from your phone. This makes it a quick, safe, and simple way to make payments and handle money. The service is integrated in the SIM card from Safaricom, and users can access it via USSD. Acre Africa, although not an insurance company directly, functions as a service provider working with local insurers and other stakeholders to provide index insurance products, including weather, soil moisture, vegetation, and multi-peril coverage for crops and livestock. This is done through risk assessments, product development and risk monitoring.Driven by increasing mobile phone usage, several AgriTech companies and private sector organizations are spearheading digital agriculture technologies to develop and disseminate climate and information services to enable adaptive agriculture. Yet, many existing solutions have not achieved mainstream use, and a lot of farmers remain unaware of their existence and benefits. Reasons hindering adoption are high technology costs, low digital literacy, limited infrastructure access, and weak enabling policy environment (Osiemo, et al., 2021). The urban-rural gap on ICT usage is especially noticeable, and can be explained by the lack of infrastructure and electricity, rather than human factors such as literacy and income. This divide is more pronounced than the gender gap (the rural-urban gap is 69%, while the gender gap is 31%), and is especially noticeable when looking at Internet users. In fact, most Internet nonusers are women (58%) living in rural areas (84%) (Nyambura Ndung'u, Lewis, & Mothobi, 2019).Women also encounter other disqualifying factors. For example, they are less likely to purchase their own smartphone due to affordability, and they are less aware of the Internet. This makes women less likely to use digital agricultural apps, increasing the gender gap in agricultural productivity. A great opportunity to overcome this is to design services specifically for women, applying an inclusive lens.Another factor to consider when it comes to digital technologies is cyber security. The Communications Authority of Kenya reported 10.2 million cyber threats in 2018 across all sectors. Capacity building for developers and end-users, together with further support of the public and private sector, is essential to ensure further benefits to the already thriving Kenyan digital ecosystem. Initial studies done by the AfBD, FAO, World Bank, and CIAT to assess Kenya's digital ecosystem and prioritization of digital technology uses found that some of the biggest constraints producers face include a lack of decision support, knowledge access, and mechanization. Therefore, investing in weather stations, data analytics, and machine learning offer significant promise in terms of addressing these issues.Table1. Summary of key issues by stage in the information value chain including indicative relevant stakeholders in each stage. This section gives a selective overview of digital services currently available to and used by many farmers in Kenya. In general, the development of these solutions has been driven by entrepreneurialism, while government interventions have focused on providing an enabling environment, including investments into digital infrastructure. Over recent years, Kenya has seen the emergence of digital tools that take advantage of the widespread mobile phone use and increased uptake of mobile money. These instruments formalize agricultural value chains and deliver efficiencies for agricultural stakeholders, including smallholder farmers, crop aggregators, crop buyers, and agribusinesses. The most common digital agriculture services in Kenya include advisories (24%), financial inclusion (20%), market linkages (18%), agriculture intelligence (16%), and supply chain management (8%) (Osiemo et al, 2021). A 2019 report by the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSMA) subdivides digital agriculture tools available in Kenya into three categories: market linkage tools, direct-to-farmer hubs, and last-mile digital tools. Market linkage tools allow crop producers and buyers to connect through mobile-based online platforms, such as Twiga Foods. Direct-to-farmer hubs are centralized online, mobile-based hubs that offer a range of agricultural information, inputs, and loans. The hubs provide platforms through which third-party agricultural service providers can offer services directly to farmers, while buyers can place orders to farmers. An example of a direct-to-farmer hub is DigiFarm for Consumer, an integrated mobile platform that offers farmers \"one-stop\" access to services such as discounted inputs, advice on input use, crops and animal information, and financing. Last-mile digital tools provide solutions that digitize transactions (procurement, payment, receipts) and streamline communication. They additionally create digital profiles for farmers and enable track-and-trace. An example of this is Virtual City. Some of the main services are listed below to exemplify existing efforts to apply digital climate-smart agriculture technologies to adapt to adverse climate impacts and ensure food security.WeFarm is an SMS-based, free-of-charge platform where over 2.4 million farmers worldwide connect to solve problems, share ideas, and spread innovation. WeFarm aims to keep the service for farmers free of charge while relying on crowsourced funding and bringing in revenue through their marketplace and by selling data about found agricultural trends. WeFarm's service employs the latest machine learning technology to provide tailored, crowd-sourced information to help farmers increase yields, gain insight into pricing, tackle the effects of climate change, source the best quality of seeds, fertilizers, and loans, and diversify their agricultural interests.iShamba is a call center for farmers and send localized weather information weekly to almost half a million farmers. Users can SMS their questions or call and speak to an expert for instant help. Agricultural experts oversee requests. Once farmers have signed up, they also receive agri-tips on crop and livestock, market prices, and weather updates.myAnga is an agri-weather information app created for pastoralists that provides them access to accurate weather data, allowing them to enhance their response to harsh weather conditions and climate variability. The app provides daily weather observations from the past seven days, daily weather forecasts for the next seven days, rainfall distribution over the past 30 days, expected moisture conditions, and expected drought conditions. They currently have a reach of 500 herders in two counties, but aims to reach more than 300.000 pastoralists in Kenya over the next five years.Acre Africa is a service provider linking over 1 million farmers in Kenya, Tanzania, and Rwanda with local insurers, facilitating investment in their farms. The offered products vary from crop, livestock, and index insurance to shield farmers against unpredictable weather conditions. The ACRE Africa team undertakes risk assessment, product development and risk monitoring to facilitate smallholder access to crop and livestock insurance products. With customized agriculture microinsurance products, farmers can confidently invest in quality inputs, increase productivity, and access agricultural loans. In addition, the team has developed insurance products to cover a variety of crops against weather risks like drought, storms, flood and erratic rains, as well as other production risks.Apollo Agriculture, serving over 40,000 farmers since inception, bundles everything a farmer needs: financing, farm inputs, advice, insurance, and market access when possible. The company builds credit profiles for its small-scale farmers using machine learning models. It does so by verifying the identity of farmers and taking satellite coordinates of their fields. The obtained data is then used to build automated digital processes for each step in a farmer's lifecycle-from customer acquisition to training to collecting payments. These data collection and analysis procedures and credit building processes guide the company in making scalable lending and credit decisions for farmers. Additionally, the company helps them access increasing levels of their investment over time.Kuza Biashara serving over 3,500 agri-entrepreneurs and 500,000 farmers is a mobile micro-learning platform offering youth, women, and micro-entrepreneurs from informal communities the opportunity to learn, connect, and grow on their terms and convenience. The platform includes packages on digital extension.National Livestock Market Information System (NLMIS) provides livestock market price and volume information on a near real-time basis using mobile technology across Kenya. The system works by collecting price and volume data from designated markets and conveying it to the NLMIS server in Nairobi using SMS-enabled cell phones and a data coding system. This data is then available to all interested parties via SMS query, on the server, or through the Internet portal. The information assists pastoralists and other stakeholders in critical risk management decision-making and market linkages.There are also several digital technologies and/or platforms where there might not be a direct connection to climate adaptation, but are still worth highlighting as these technologies when bundled with other services can serve as climate adaptation technologies in agriculture. For example, integrating climate information services or advisories climate smart agriculture with the highlighted technologies below can enhance the impact of these services separately for adaptation purposes.DigiFarm is a free mobile-based platform offered by Safaricom to over 1.3 million registered smallholder farmers. It offers them a marketplace to access products and services from financial institutions, agro-input providers, and other value-added services. The service is accessible through USSD, and once the user has registered, it allows them to access loans through their M-Pesa account and discounted inputs from selected depots. Users also have access to learning content.iProcure is an agricultural supply chain platform. It connects product suppliers and retailers, providing procurement, distribution services, business intelligence, and data-driven stock management across supply chains. Through this model, product suppliers can benefit from the retailers' network and reach the remotest locations.Twiga Foods is a mobile-based supply platform for Africa's retail outlets, kiosks, and market stalls. It provides a business-to-business supply platform to access distribution into the millions of small and medium-sized vendors in African urban markets. The platform connects farmers to vendors, reducing the number of intermediary steps, lowering the product's final price, and increasing the farmers' income. The platform claims that over 100,000 customers use its services across Kenya while delivering more than 600 metric tons of produce to 10,000+ retailers daily.Hello Tractor tackles the lack of mechanization, connecting tractor owners with smallholder farmers. The start-up provides Internet-of-Things-enabled (IoT) digital solutions that allow farmers to optimize their productivity. It is the largest marketplace for agricultural equipment in Africa. To date, Hello Tractor has mechanized over 500,000 farmers in 15 countries and has more than 3,000 tractors on its marketplace. The company can also provide a pre-screened pipeline of borrowers in need of asset financing, accompanied by the assurance that financed tractors are pre-booked on its marketplace and able to earn revenue to pay-off financing.Virtual City is a solutions provider specialized in developing and deploying mobile-based retail and financial solutions for agribusinesses. Their work revolves around supply automation, mainly across tea, coffee, dairy, horticulture, and grain verticals, aiming to create efficiency, visibility, and transparency for all key stakeholders. They provide digital tools that accelerate financial inclusion for farmers and de-risk investment decisions for financial service providers. An example of one of their solutions is an electronic weigh-scale that, combined with a device connected to the Internet, allows to keep track of the products that farmers bring to their cooperatives for accurate payments.On November 30th, 2021, a national stakeholder consultation workshop was held in Nairobi to assess, validate, and prioritize a potential long list of digital adaptation technologies identified through a comprehensive literature review. Several key stakeholders from a range of sectors participated in the workshop. These included public, private, local, and international research centers, as well as academia, NGOs, and international development partners. The workshop provided an opportunity to assess and validate the current viability and future potential of key digital adaptation technologies appropriate for Kenya's national context. The long list digital adaptation technologies were subdivided into nine digital service categories (Porciello et al., 2021): digital financial services, water and irrigation, livestock knowledge and information, weather and climate, value chain management, extension and pest management, general agronomy and community supported agriculture (CSA), seed and fertilizer, and precision agronomy and soils. Existing and potential new digital adaptation technologies were assessed and validated through a stakeholder lens based on practical experience and knowledge in designing, adopting, and scaling digital adaptation technologies in the agricultural sector.A digital technologies for adaptation support readiness index was developed to inform digital adaptation priorities using the Progress, Policy, Potential, Efficiency, Equity, and Environment (PPP/EEE) method to shortlist the digital adaptation technologies based on their respective service category. Based on this, stakeholders scored the shortlisted digital services according to a set of criteria. These included existing digital infrastructure, current technology maturity, ICT policies, economic prospects, technology drivers, adoption barriers, effects on equality and the environment, and future impacts of the respective tools. The results are depicted in a heatmap in figure 2.The PPP/EEE analysis results indicated that several digital adaptation technologies are already in small-scale adoption stages, except for digital finance services and water and irrigation, which are already in the scaling-up stage. Precision agronomy, seeds, and fertilizers stand behind the rest of digital services as these are still in the research and development phase. The current uptake is low for most technologies, reaching only 0-40% of the targeted users. As a result, profitability is also low. This is because the existing ecosystem offers a wide range of services, while simultaneously being highly fragmented-which can be very confusing for farmers. Additionally, a lack of focus on developing sustainable business models and user readiness for technology design led to lower uptake and profitability.An enabling environment with supportive policies and programs is being created for most digital adaptation services, especially for general agronomy and CSA practices. However, there is still room for improvement, most notably for policies concerning weather and climate, seeds and fertilizer, and precision agronomy and soils technologies. There is also room for direct and indirect government support for all categories. Some examples are indirect programs that focus on overcoming barriers related to smartphone access, data sharing, and digital literacy while providing actionable information to users and developing frameworks for transparent and safe data sharing.Most categories are seeing some degree of investment. However, in most cases, this is not enough to ensure the successful and widespread use of these technologies, except for digital adaptation services under the category of water and irrigation. At the same time, the expected ten-year return on investment for each digital adaptation service is moderate to high, except for seed and fertilizer and precision agronomy and soils. The adaptation technologies with the highest expected profitability are digital financial services, water and irrigation, extension and pest management, and general agronomy and CSA. This shows that the expected return on investment would not happen without substantially increasing current investments, and there would be a gap due to the loss of profits on both sides of the demand and supply chain.The efficiency, equity, and environmental outcomes are especially favorable for solutions in the areas of water and irrigation, and weather and climate. Nevertheless, it is expected that all digital adaptation technologies will increase the efficiency of farmers and pastoralists by reducing labor and promoting the efficient use of input and resources. All technologies have received a favorable score in terms of equity due to their high potential to increase fairness while aligning with different demographics, gender, and agro-ecological contexts. However, the livestock knowledge and information and value chain management categories have scored low. To overcome the associated potential shortcomings, implementers must pay particular attention to them. For example, reaching small-scale (nomadic) pastoralists is not as straightforward and profitable as reaching larger-scale livestock producers that use digital technologies. This could considerably increase the gap between the two, and interventions must ensure that digital adaptation technologies will also serve small-scale producers to enhance equity. Moreover, most of these technologies' categories are also expected to positively impact the environment and natural resources. Still, digital financial services, seeds and fertilizers, and precision agronomy and soils could have a negative impact if not managed with the appropriate knowledge. The digital transformation of Kenya's agricultural sector provides farmers and pastoralists with new ways to understand, manage, and transform their practices and activities. This becomes crucial in light of climate change. Over the past decades, there has been significant progress in the digital transformation of Kenya. The government has backed this transition, creating an enabling environment that promotes the provision and use of ICT services, including several supportive laws, strategies, and policies that promote digital, innovative solutions. As a result, Kenya ranks high in the Global Innovations Index (GII), and it is the third most innovative country in Africa (GSMA, 2018), featuring one of Africa's most advanced digital ecosystems (World Bank, 2017). Nevertheless, the benefits of this recent development are not distributed equally, and women and minority groups still face multiple challenges in terms of digital accessibility. This section will address several enabling factors and critical barriers that need to be tackled to ensure greater use of digital adaptation services.Digital infrastructureICT infrastructure plays a crucial role in catalyzing and supporting digital technologies for adaptation in agriculture. The growing network coverage and the increased quality of mobile data are key enablers. At a continental scale, Kenya's digital infrastructure is relatively well-developed. Over the last two decades, the Kenyan government has invested in fiber-optic cables and broadband network stations, leading to significant improvements in digital service availability, including in rural areas. Multiple undersea cable providers serve Kenya's high-speed Internet connectivity. These include the East African Submarine Cable System (EASSy), The East African Marine System (TEAMS), the Lower Indian Ocean Network 2 (Lion II), and Seacom cables. Five major mobile network providers compete on the Kenyan market, which Safaricom and Airtel currently dominate. This has led to an overall satisfaction rate of 96 % for Kenyans using a third-generation (3G) network and more than half of the adult population owning a mobile SIM subscription (GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index, online). Currently, there are about 33 million feature phones and 26 million smartphones subscribed (CA, 2021). These promising statistics are partially aided by public efforts towards rural electrification, which currently covers a minimum of 62 % of the rural population-the highest rate in the Horn of Africa region (World Bank, 2022). However, network connectivity remains scanty in many rural areas despite general network availability. Moreover, with an average of USD 2.25/GB, the cost of mobile data is relatively high in Kenya, reducing the affordability of digital services that require Internet access (cable.co.uk, 2021). Policy interventions that lower the cost of data packages, such as public subsidies, could help make digital adaptation solutions more inclusive.National policies and government strategies provide an enabling environment for digital adaptation technologies, including a robust institutional and legal framework supporting the growth of the agricultural sector. For instance, the Data Protection Act ( 2019) and the Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy (ASTGS, 2019) provide regulatory guidelines for digital initiatives.The Data Protection Act, which has been primarily modeled on the European General Data Protection Regulation, ratifies a right already present in the Kenyan constitution: the right to privacy. The legislation focuses on protecting users' right to privacy and data security concerning the processing of personal data on a national or transnational level. In the ASTGS, the government has committed to \"establish[ing] a digitally enabled extension program led by ~3,000 county-based youth extension agents\" with the aim of \"supplement[ing] the current estimated workforce of 4,000-4,500 extension officers.\" The ASTGS also foresees strong cooperation with private companies and NGOs in the field of digitally enabled agricultural extension and encourages the use of digital decision-support tools that have been proven to work outside of Kenya, such as the 'Rice Doctor 3 .'The liberalization of the policy framework around digital communication has attracted many players to join the industry. In 2008, the Communications Authority of Kenya (CA) introduced the Unified Licensing Framework (ULF) based on unified technology neutrality licensing. The ULF permits any form of communications infrastructure to be used to provide any type of communications service that an operator or service provider is capable of offering. This regulation effectively abolished multiple licensing regimes where services were grouped based on technology. ULF also simplifies licensing procedures, new application development, internet penetration, and infrastructure investment. As a result, there has been an increase in infrastructural development and entrepreneurial activity, partly driven by international companies.Yet, while the sector's strategies and policies articulate the government's position on digital technologies for adaptation, specific laws and regulations regarding digital agriculture have also been introduced in recent years. In addition to the Kenya Information and Communication Act ( 2008), the National ICT policy ( 2016) is the primary policy document that defines the agricultural sector's digital development environment. However, outstanding concerns around third-party liability and appropriate consent from farmers and other primary data providers are yet to be addressed.In 2010, the Kenyan government released multiple regulations to govern the ICT sector. Among these, the Fair Competition and Equality of Treatment Regulations promote competition, equal treatment, and protection against abuse of market powers or other anti-competitive practices essential to developing a vibrant digital technologies for adaptation sector. In addition, universal access and service regulation seek to provide a regulatory framework for achieving equitable access to digital services in Kenya.Established in 2010 and governed by the Communications Authority of Kenya (CA), the 'Universal Access Fund' collects a mandatory fee of 1% gross revenue from all commercial communications licensees operating in Kenya. In accordance with the ULF Framework, the fund aims to support widespread access to quality ICT services through targeted investments into infrastructure, innovative service development, and capacity-building projects.Nairobi is a major hub for providers of digital adaptation solutions across sub-Saharan Africa, including both established players and many start-ups. Farmers in Kenya have many established digital services at their disposal. The Digital Agri Hub currently lists 67 functional solutions in Kenya, which is more than in any other country worldwide, and GSMA listed 95 solutions in the agricultural sector (GSMA, 2020). In addition to providing a favorable policy environment, the Kenyan government has co-invested into multiple tech hubs such as iHub and NaiLab in Nairobi, where start-ups can work and connect with investors and partners (World Bank, 2016b). A relatively well-developed infrastructure and mobile phone penetration in farming communities, along with a pool of trained IT talent, have led to many initiatives focused on developing and piloting new services in collaboration with Kenyan farmers. While many of these initiatives offer real benefits for their users, public efforts in coordinating different solutions are limited-for example, regarding content clearance for coherent messaging at farmers. To date, there are no official certification schemes that would allow public staff-including extension officers-to promote the uptake of certain digital services by farmers. The Kenyan government's supportive yet hands-off approach to private sector-driven innovation has yielded the establishment of many promising digital adaptation services. However, many small start-ups struggle to move from the application development stage to full-fledged businesses. Currently, scaling the most promising projects depends on garnering public support and reaching out to marginal communities. This could happen through direct credit provision, tax exemptions, subsidies, or public-private partnerships between start-ups working on digital climate smart solutions and public offices like KALRO. Together with the World Bank, the Kenyan government is already improving this situation through the One Million Farmer Platform. The platform aims to bring innovations to scale and connect them to different counties. These types of initiatives can be combined with a farmer registry, which would facilitate all registered farmers to access a comprehensive set of governmental services, including vouchers, insurances, and advice.Overall, Kenya's rural population is relatively well covered by digital infrastructure and end-user devices, including smartphones. However, women are currently less likely to benefit from digital adaptation solutions. Mobile phone ownership is lower among women than men (figures vary by source but lie between 5 and 20 %). Women are also more likely to own a feature phone rather than an internetenabled phone or smartphone, meaning that the divide in accessing advanced digital solutions is greater than the divide in mobile connectivity (Alozie & Akpang-Obong, 2017; GSMA, 2019; Osiemo et al., 2021;USAID, 2021b). In addition, gender gaps in schooling, literacy, and numeracy make it harder for women farmers to access, understand, and use the information provided in digital adaptation solutions, especially if these solutions are text-based and use English rather than a local language. Furthermore, women are more risk-averse to technology use than men, and less likely to trust digital information systems (Stumpf et al., 2020). On average, learning styles also differ between genders, where women are usually more systematic in learning how to use new tools, while men have a stronger preference for tinkering-i.e., learning-by-doing (Stumpf et al., 2020). This has implications for the design of digital adaptation solutions, as decisions on user experience or content design can affect the engagement of women and men differently. Human-centered design (HCD) processes for new digital adaptation solutions can help to ensure that digital services fit women's digital capacities, abilities, and preferences. In HCD, digital developers actively engage a diverse range of farmers-especially women and marginalized social groups-in defining the features of the digital adaptation solution (Müller et al., 2022;Steinke et al., 2022). Kenyan authorities such as CA or KALRO can mainstream gender considerations in licensing, investors can emphasize the need for gender balance among users, and publicly supported hubs and start-up programs (e.g., Startup Savanna, startupsavanna.com) could offer methodological support in implementing successful HCD processes.Because the agricultural extension sector in Kenya is highly fragmented and privatized, no centrally controlled organization reaches out to farmers. In addition, the strong cultural and biophysical diversity makes it challenging for digital initiatives-particularly small start-ups-to create awareness among farmers and scale their user base. As a result, farmers in Kenya now have numerous digital solutions at their disposal but are insufficiently aware of potentially useful digital adaptation options. Low levels of digital literacy among the farming population reinforce this problem (Osiemo et al., 2021;Coggins et al., 2022). While many farmers are familiar with making phone calls, using WhatsApp, and navigating Facebook, the wider Internet and other mobile apps are much less common among the rural population.Limited \"service discoverability\" has been identified as a key barrier to Kenyan farmers' adoption of digital solutions (Kieti et al., 2022). More centralized coordination-for example, by CA-and public support in the promotion of prioritized services may help. However, Kenya still lacks an easily accessible, central platform or database that can provide interested farmers with an overview of functional digital adaptation options. A quality-certified, continuously maintained, one-stop digital marketplace where farmers can identify and try out digital adaptation solutions could simultaneously address low trust and low awareness issues. It has been suggested that public or private investments into building and maintaining an inclusive, user-friendly \"aggregator platform for digital services in agriculture\" would pay off via increased uptake of digital solutions by farmers (Kieti et al., 2021). An aggregator platform could be implemented as a website, app, or an IVR-or USSD-based recommendation (and registration) system. However, setting up this system will require significant collaboration from the diverse private and public sector stakeholders in the digital technologies for adaptation space.By now, numerous private sector initiatives have successfully demonstrated both technical feasibility and the existence of farmer demand for diverse digital adaptation solutions. This includes various agroadvisory, marketing and procurement, and machinery rental services, that either directly or indirectly (as a partner company) bring adaptation practices to producers and other stakeholders. While services such as Twiga Foods, WeFarm, or Hello Tractor have already gained large user bases across the country, many other initiatives remain operative at a small scale and will struggle to become financially sustainable without donor or government support. Kenya can now reap the benefits of providing a stimulating environment start-ups working on digital technologies for adaptation and should identify the most promising digital services that align with user needs and government and donor agendas in agricultural development. Market dynamics and venture capital drive current digital development in Kenya. Therefore, poor smallholder farmers' uptake of these digital tools will continue to be slow without interventions from government or non-profit organizations programs, as they are not the main target group of these commercial initiatives. The AfDB and GCA program AAAP's pillar ClimSmartDigitAg is a key example of such a program that aims to mainstream the use of digital climate smart technologies. Another example is that through public calls for tenders, Kenyan authorities and their partners may now identify priority solutions to support their scaling through public-private partnerships. Consultations among CA, KALRO, the Ministry of Agriculture, and county governments will help define which extant digital technologies for adaptation providers best suit the development goals. Public-private partnerships around digital technologies for adaptation could then take multiple forms, including direct commissioning of services by the Ministry of Agriculture-which is subject to robust evaluation of impacts on farmers' livelihoods-or providing privileges, such as subsidies, tax exemptions, or free access to meteorological or agronomic data held by KMD or KALRO.The ultimate goal of these partnerships is to enable promising digital solutions for adaptation to grow their user bases, become financially sustainable through business models, and increase their impacts on the Kenyan farming sector.Kenya's agricultural sector provides multiple public goods, including food, employment, and landscape management. Given the sector's vulnerability to upcoming climate change, investments by the Kenyan government and international donors into digital technologies for adaptation seem warranted but can be unreliable. Digital adaptation strategies should prioritize self-sustaining business models in the interest of a permanent, sustainable transformation. With growing numbers of users, many digital solutions for adaptation can offer their services at minimal costs per user. 'Freemium' schemes are also feasible. Here, subsistence farmers are provided with free services (or at a symbolic cost), while funds are drawn from commercial users such as larger farms or other value chain actors. Developing farmer registries across individual services with government-verified farmer data will be helpful to design fair pricing schemes.The fragmentation of the existing digital solutions for adaptation sector and a lack of coordination and cooperation among its stakeholders currently create barriers to successful, large-scale digital adaptation solutions. In addition, the fragmentation causes transaction costs and creates confusion among potential users. A more centralized, hands-on approach might enable farmers to efficiently identify trustworthy solutions that meet their needs. One recommendation is creating an overview platform that allows farmers, extension officers, and other stakeholders involved in agricultural value chains to identify suitable digital services. An essential quality criterion will be official accreditation and continuous quality control by public authorities or national research organizations. This should ensure consistency and complementarity in the information and advice provided across different digital adaptation services.Eventually, the fragmentation of digital adaptation solutions and resulting transaction costs can be reduced by promoting vertical integration and bundling of services along and across value chains.Rather than engaging with multiple digital services-each with a unique user interface-farmers should eventually be able to access a wide variety of services such as personal credit, input procurement, climate information, agro-advice, and output marketing within a single bundled 'master' service. Such integration will likely require significant efforts by public institutions (i.e., facilitation, financial incentives). Establishing a dedicated government body in charge of governing and promoting digital technologies for adaptation might help. Such an organization could be staffed by CA, the Ministry of Agriculture, or both and would need a clear political mandate to be accepted by other industry stakeholders as a driving agent of digital adaptation solutions in Kenya. It should operate within a clear legal framework and ensure innovation, quality, compliance, and accountability within the sector.Despite an overall positive trend in the past, resource-poor farmers in Kenya continue to be disproportionately underserved by electricity and mobile data network. The digital divide between urban and rural areas, men and women, and large and small farms persists across most of the country.Directing public or private investments into last-mile connectivity will be a major priority for enabling inclusive digital development. Past experiences have shown that the growing availability of high-quality mobile networks can stimulate farmers, including women, to invest in internet-enabled devices that run digital adaptation services. However, the relatively high costs of mobile data have been another factor discouraging farmers from using existing digital adaptation solutions. Since access to data can now be considered a vital input to modern farming, policymakers may consider policy action to lower consumer prices for mobile data. Worldwide, mobile data is particularly cheap where market competition is strong and government regulation of the telecommunications sector is weak. Market competition among mobile service providers could be governed by more selective licensing. Digital literacy programs-for example, in public schools-could also help strengthen demand for and future use of digital adaptation solutions. As the general population becomes more aware of data privacy concerns, ensuring that sound policies are in place will protect producers and maintain trust in digital tools for adaptation in the future.In addition to the recommendations around an enabling environment in the previous section, table 2 depicts specific recommendations by solution space. These solution spaces were determined through the stakeholder consultation workshop as discussed in chapter 6. The recommendations listed below are the result of a combination of the literature review and the stakeholder consultation process. It is important to note that although these recommendations take both the supply and demand side into account, further fine-tuning of these digital technologies needs to be done in close consultation with the end-users. This should be an ongoing process to ensure that the digital technologies grow with the needs and skills end users have.The recommendations in table 2 are around both the technical and the implementation side of digital technologies, and together can be seen as a package for their solution space. In some cases these can be implemented successively, but in most cases are important to be implemented as parallel processes. There are many technological overlaps between the different solution spaces and individual solutions. As capacity increases in one area, this will likely result in increased capacity in support of other solutions and solution spaces. Although these recommendations take both the supply and demand side into account, further fine-tuning of these digital technologies needs to be done in close consultation with the end-users. This should be an ongoing process to ensure that the digital technologies grow with the needs and skills of end-users. Partnership development with local and international scientific organizations for climate smart and location-specific recommendations.Development and integration of smart maps and pastoralist grazing routes with climatic information, early warning risk analysis and mapping for livestock and nomadic animal movement and distribution.Digitalize the livestock industry market information system, including post-slaughter and quality checks for markets (using global market standards), and the conversion of livestock data collection into digital format. Establish traceability systems and mechanisms for crops and livestock management, integrating them along the whole value chain.Partnership development with local and international scientific organizations will ensure that forecasting of climate hazard impacts can be included along the value chain.Climate proof market access tools, including high costs, low digital literacy, limited infrastructure access, and weak enabling policy environments. Additionally, despite elevated levels of network coverage and mobile phone penetration, there remains a gender gap in mobile internet usage, partially because women are less likely to purchase their own smartphones due to problems with affordability and are less aware of the internet. This makes women less likely to use digital agricultural apps, exacerbating the gender gap in agricultural productivity. Designing services specifically for women by applying an inclusive lens represents a promising opportunity to overcome this drawback. These challenges could be tackled by pairing the services with public awareness campaigns and demonstrations involving public extension systems. Even though Kenya is known for its entrepreneurial and advanced digital ecosystem, the number of digital workers prepared to develop and manage digital solutions remains low, and talent is concentrated in the largest cities. There is a significant opportunity to grow the digital workforce, particularly in rural areas and in the agricultural sector. The urgent need for regulation and data protection and cyber security practices also needs to be addressed in the short term. There is also ample opportunity for public-private partnerships to build additional infrastructure and analytical capacity to support climate services. In combination with other site-specific, decision support tools, timely and accurate weather services stand to substantially improve national agricultural productivity and GDP while lessening damage due to extreme weather.The government, national and international research institutions, non-profit organizations, and the private sector all play an essential role in the digital soltutions for adaptation of the agricultural ecosystem. The government is an important player mainly because it has established an enabling environment and policies in the digital ecosystem. However, Kenya's main driver behind the innovation and development of digital (adaptation) tools lies in the private sector, which is evident by the number of SMEs currently operating in the country. Several national and international research and non-profit organizations back this development. This happens through research and setting up pilots, implementing and scaling initiatives, or by developing financial support capacity, often through partnerships with the public sector. To ensure the use of good digital technologies for adaptation and reduce redundancy, it is important to navigate Kenya's current digital ecosystem. However, given the significant scale of impact that climate change will have on Kenya, further investments in basic infrastructure, enhanced institutional and end-user capacity, a flourishing digital ecosystem, and target adaptation interventions are necessary for successful climate change adaptation. Ulima app has been rolled out in Kiambu, Nakuru and Lakipia counties. It provides weather forecasts, and it is planned to provide precision recommendations. The current business model is to charge for 25% of the service and provide 75% for free. Enlima is an online platform linking farmers to markets, with a large data processing and analytical capacity.Provides farm specific recommendations (fertilizer, agro-weather advisory) based on data collected with the Ujuzi hand-held soil-testing device, weather forecasts and in-house data analytics. The device captures soil characteristics, topography and environmental data which is analyzed by experts to provide actionable recommendations. WeFarm A scalable technology startup doing cutting edge work on machine learning. They provide a platform where farmers connect with one another to solve problems, share ideas, and spread innovation, for free, and without needing an internet connection, since WeFarm works even through SMS. Utilizing the latest machine learning technology, Wefarm's service gets bespoke, crowdsourced information to help farmers increase yields, gain insight into pricing, tackle the effects of climate change, source the best quality seeds, fertilizer, loans and diversify their agricultural interests. They have a Natural Language Processing (NLP) that identifies three regional African languages -Kiswahili, Luganda, and Runyankore -in addition to English. Acre Africa Service provider present in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda. It works with local insurers, linking farmers to them, and facilitating investment in their farms. The offered products vary from crop, livestock and index insurance products to shield farmers against unpredictable weather conditions. The ACRE Africa team undertakes risk assessment, product development and risk monitoring to facilitate access to crop and livestock insurance products for smallholders. It aims to support strategic destocking among pastoralists to avoid large herds that cannot be sustained at times of drought. They also support access to inputs, such as feed supplements, through value chain integration. MoAINFO from Precision Agriculture for Development (PAD) PAD is a Core partner of the Ministry of Agriculture through the MoAINFO platform. The platform, which started providing information about Fall Armyworm, is now expanding to include more comprehensive advisory services for 6 main crops. The advisory provides, based on farm characteristics, management recommendations and it provides weekly weather forecasts. The service is currently being piloted in 2 counties. The main value chains are maize, beans, irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, pigeon peas, bananas. One Million Farmers Platform Through a competitive call, the leaders of this initiative, identified the most promising agri-tech innovations to bring to farmers, onto one impactful digital platform. The platform includes technologies such as mobile apps, data analytics, and digital extension. It also involves solutions that enable suppliers to aggregate farmers' demand for inputs like seeds and services like tractors, which can then cost-effectively be delivered to farmers at the farm gate. Other promising approaches include financial services, enterprise development, market access, and data analytics. The platform offers to the participant solutions, mentorship, training and exposure to reach the necessary scale. Safaricom's Digifarm Safaricom's integrated mobile platform of digital services for farmers. It brings together multiple input and service providers into one platform. The service is accessible on a basic feature phone. Farmers can order inputs, engage in learning, access credit, harvest cash loans, insurance, connect with buyers, obtain soil testing and aggregate their products. The platform also Introduced DigiSoko, an open marketplace for agricultural produce.Hand-held testing device that provides in-field monitoring of soil nutrients via a smart-phone app and hand-held printer. The App delivers assessment and management advice including target yield, soil status, actual nutrient need, soil correction plan and suitable crop types.","tokenCount":"13715"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9ca9fd96580289f2bd16db3963043124","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/879402d6-50dc-464c-ad26-76856e75c84e/retrieve","id":"-1367739726"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"caa19ba2-9a46-4874-912f-a77fe1c1eb4f","pagecount":"55","content":"CHAPTER 6African populations share a close relationship with, and are highly dependent on, biodiversity and ecosystem services. A major challenge lies in managing and governing this human-environment relationship for Africa's transformation towards sustainability and resilience (high agreement, robust evidence). A wide variety of governance options exist in Africa for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable delivery of ecosystem services and benefits to people under a range of future scenarios. Progress in achieving the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and Aichi Biodiversity Targets, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and African Union Agenda 2063, will be shaped by the governance choices made on the continent (Chapter 5, Table 5.7). Good environmental governance is critical for enabling Africa's diversity to deliver ecosystem services to people. A polycentric governance system has always been practiced in Africa and has addressed different interests in managing natural resources. It is grounded in the processes of accountability through stakeholder and actor engagement, harnesses co-benefits and value added, and addresses trade-offs. As such, it entails working across scales, sectors, values and knowledge systems including indigenous and local knowledge and institutions and adaptive management. It also involves building a sense of social responsibility and vigorously pursuing 'no regrets' options, particularly in relation to drivers of changes (identified in Chapter 4) {6.1, 6.2.1, 6.4.5}.African countries are party to a number of global environmental agreements and have made high-level commitments to achieve their targets. The commitments made aim to improve the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. The implementation of the agreements by African parties needs to be supported by financial, human and infrastructure capacity and accompanied by efforts to mainstream biodiversity, ecosystem services and nature's contributions to people into regional, subregional, national and sectoral development frameworks {6.2.1, 6.3}.important for African countries to attain sustainable development (high agreement, robust evidence). Regional integration policies are extremely important considering the shared resources and the transboundary nature of Africa's freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems including transhumant systems. National policies must balance these higher-level needs with policies that support ecosystem service delivery to constituents. Polycentric governance and decision-making at and across multiple policy sectors and levels will be necessary in order to tackle related challenges, and can highlight opportunities for adopting innovative African approaches towards good environmental governance.Indigenous people and their livelihoods are underrepresented and overlooked in international agreements and commitments (high agreement, medium evidence). In the African context, where people are highly dependent on biodiversity and ecosystem services for their everyday well-being, it is critical to incorporate indigenous and local knowledge in policy decisions around the management of nature's contributions to people. Only three of the existing agreements reported in this chapter (Table 6.2) are specific to indigenous people's rights and livelihoods and offer opportunities for only limited positive impacts. Policy processes would benefit from the explicit inclusion of indigenous people's organisations such the Indigenous Peoples of Africa Coordinating Committee to ensure the inclusiveness and relevance of existing and new regulatory instruments.There is need to prioritise environmental governance across scales in order to support the equitable use of resources and conservation (high agreement, medium evidence). Institutional failures are among the main drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. Proposals to correct institutional failures, including market failures such as environmental externalities, and legal and policy failures such as the absence of secure property rights or distorted subsidies, must be both practicable and lead to better protection of biodiversity while balancing the ecological footprint of Africa's growing population and industrialisation ambitions. Good environmental governance requires integration, coordination, harnessing synergies between formal and indigenous governance, and managing conflicts. It entails coordination in planning and implementation to diminish elements of uncertainty, reduce competition over resources and reinforce coherence and positive impacts, as well as allowing for analysis of cross-sectoral trade-offs in decision-making to achieve ecosystem sustainability.Governance options that harness synergies and deliver multiple benefits can help to balance patterns of access and allocation of ecosystem services in Africa. Such governance linkages may also contribute towards poverty reduction and support resilience building more widely (high agreement, robust evidence).Harnessing synergies in multilateral agreements, protocols, Sustainable Development Goals and related targets and initiatives can foster the effective implementation of policies and strategies at different levels and scales and help to improve efficiency in the use and allocation of limited resources. Using existing entry points in spatial planning and land-use and management to leverage synergies can be particularly effective for policy implementation at regional and national levels. Africa's radical transformation towards sustainability in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Agenda 2063 will depend on investments targeting multi-stakeholder, multi-level adaptive governance {6.3}.Different policy instruments and governance options that address specific drivers (identified in Chapter 4), together with scenarios, (identified in Chapter 5) exist. However, challenges and opportunities arise, with choices creating or reinforcing particular patterns of 'winners' (who make gains) and 'losers' (who bear costs) (medium agreement, medium evidence). It is necessary to develop a suite of responses and to be aware that there is no single \"correct\" policy pathway. Rather, it is important to take steps so that policies are synergistic and coherent, and that new policies are able to make up for the weaknesses inherent in existing ones. Challenges to the sustainable provision of biodiversity and ecosystem services such that nature can continue to support Africa's human well-being are significant, requiring specific policy instruments that target conservation of unique and globally important biodiversity, and better articulation of nature's specific benefits to people, as captured in the Sustainable Development Goals. Challenges of population growth, food security, urbanisation, climate change, land degradation, ineffective/ poor governance and path-dependent (unsustainable) historical development decisions, mean that achieving governance that works for both nature and society is not straightforward. Articulating clear processes, which allow the environment to contribute to food security through Africa's agricultural biodiversity, supporting ecosystem services (e.g., pollination, pest control, soil carbon), land restoration, and increased resilience to climate change, are critical to inform the decision-making process. Placing justice and fairness concerns at the centre of the continent's governance priorities can help to improve both the environment and human well-being, while also achieving key international biodiversity and development targets (high agreement, robust evidence) {6.1, 6.2, 6.4.6}.Delivering environmental justice and fairness in access to Africa's diverse biodiversity and ecosystem services lies at the core of 'good environmental governance' on the continent (high agreement, robust evidence). Creating an enabling environment for the prioritisation and selection of appropriate policy and governance options depends on addressing political, legal, institutional and economic limitations as well as improving capacities and resources. Strategic adaptive management systems, that incorporate different knowledge systems, are critical to ensuring sustainability of the ecological system and human well-being. Avoiding a 'tragedy of the commons' requires effective institutional responses that can enable environmental resources to be managed so that they contribute towards human well-being without eroding natural capital {6.5}.The African context is complex both environmentally and in terms of multiple governance systems, layers of policies, and different socio-economic trajectories that can be adopted. Policy options need to navigate across these levels and layers and adapt to include multiple interests from the international to local level.African populations share a close relationship with, and depend upon, biodiversity and ecosystem services for all their human needs. Maathai (2010) noted that Africa's resource conflicts are often fuelled by the need to access nature's benefits in order to sustain livelihoods. There is a critical link between the way natural resources are managed, and peace and security (Gleditsch, 1998). A major challenge lies in managing and governing this humanenvironment relationship for Africa's radical transformation towards sustainability. Enabling environmental justice and fairness in access to Africa's diverse biodiversity and ecosystem services lies at the core of 'good environmental governance' on the continent, in which transparency, accountability, participation, social justice, and sustainable development principles are integrated (Feris, 2010). Avoiding a perceived or actual 'tragedy of the commons' (Hardin, 1968) requires effective governance responses that can enable environmental resources to be managed so that they contribute towards human well-being without eroding natural capital. Useful lessons may be learned by rekindling traditional African natural resource management methods, which by virtue of being flexible and having strict provisions, are considered by some as largely capable of avoiding a 'tragedy of the commons' (Hardin, 1968). In addition to the African Union Agenda 2063 (AU, 2015), the Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015) and the Convention on Biological Diversity's Aichi Biodiversity Targets (CBD Secretariat, 2010) offer valuable international opportunities for framing Africa's diverse biodiversity as a key asset that can, and must, be sustainably and equitably accessed and used in order to reduce inequality and poverty. Nevertheless, there are historical and structural challenges in transforming Africa's environmental governance, and a multitude of environmental frameworks and institutions on the continent (see Chapter 1). Critically, progress towards policy goals will be shaped by the governance choices made.Africa's encounters with a range of civilisations have precipitated into the concept of Africa's Triple Heritage: dependent, culturally mixed, and politically unstable (Mazrui, 2014). The influences and confluences of these civilisations have affected the structures and functioning of the institutions that govern biodiversity and ecosystem services. Institutions simply refer to conventions, norms and rules that help to determine patterns of resource use (Short, 2007), and can be either formal or informal. The current state of biodiversity and ecosystem services on the African continent (Chapter 1) is a consequence of its history and evolution of human and natural processes (Ash et al., 2010). A good understanding of current and future governance and planning for biodiversity and ecosystem services depends on the legacy of past decisions. Experiences of various African countries reveal that effective conservation and protection of ecosystem services in the past has been lacking. This has been partly due to insufficient recognition of belief systems, customs, land tenure systems and rights to use these resources by former colonial administrations, and has perpetuated post-independence (Akuffo, 2011;Vonada et al., 2011;Muhumuza et al., 2013; see Chapter 1).The colonisation of African countries and shifts towards a globalised economy, alongside post-independence centralisation, brought about unprecedented governance changes. For example, changes in the traditional institutions governing land tenure systems have deprived many African communities of their rights to use, as well as their rights to apply local knowledge and indigenous knowledge systems to the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services (e.g., Dalle et al. (2005) and Dixon (2008) on Ethiopia; Cormier-Salem et al. (2010) on Senegal and Guinea Bissau). It is important to seek holistic means of integrating local, regional, and international approaches to valuing biodiversity and ecosystem services, in the context of diverse African indigenous and local knowledge systems that are well suited to environmental conservation. This chapter recognises the importance of taking a polycentric governance approach to assessing options, where multiple autonomous bodies, often across different sectors and operating at multiple levels and over different time frames, interact within a specific policy arena (Biggs et al., 2015) and where space for plural perspectives can be created. A polycentric approach is an alternative to top-down approaches that can be insensitive to local constraints and bottom-up approaches that are sometimes inadequate for dealing with issues at higher levels (Termeer et al., 2010). This chapter highlights the need for systemsbased environmental governance and assesses governance options for Africa, to maintain and improve the continent's rich biodiversity and ecosystem services. The structure of the chapter is presented below (Figure 6.1).The chapter begins by setting out the governance context of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Africa, considering both polycentric and adaptive governance. It then presents an assessment of the existing multi-level policy context at continental, subregional and national levels. Options and mechanisms for mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services into national development initiatives, strategic assessments, economic and financial decision-making are set out and some of the key benefits of mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services are provided. Economic and financial instruments; legal, regulatory and rights-based instruments; and social and cultural instruments, that serve policy and decision-making in improving biodiversity and ecosystem services management, are then discussed. Subsequently, the necessary frameworks and inputs such as capacities, tools, methodologies and resources in creating an enabling environment for biodiversity and ecosystem services governance are discussed. Building on the information outlined in SPM Table 2, Tables 5.6 and 5.7, and Appendix 5.1 where policy options in response to scenario archetypes are outlined, the chapter then summarises key policy instruments for achieving biodiversity and ecosystem services specific policy goals.The governance and policy context provides a hierarchical, multi-level framing to address current challenges in maintaining and sustainably using Africa's natural capital over the different time frames of their implementation. At the national level, African countries have developed policies and strategies to respond to and align with global, regional and subregional scale development policies and strategies. However, ecosystems are dynamic, so it is imperative to identify which governance arrangements can be used to deal with future conditions, aspirations and uncertainties, especially as inter-linked systems often have non-linear feedbacks that can lead to irreversible changes in systems or regime shifts (Duit et al., 2008). A key opportunity arises to integrate the concept of adaptive, flexible governance systems that can deal with future uncertainties into more mainstream governance approaches to ecosystem management (Berkes et al., 2003;Chapin et al., 2009;Novellie et al., 2016). Furthermore, there is a need to deal with the transboundary nature of ecosystems and in particular the strong inter-dependencies of the food-energywater nexus and other complex challenges noted in earlier chapters (see e.g., Chapters 1 and 4).Adaptive governance has been put forward as a way in which to manage and cope with multiple and crossscale interactions in social-ecological systems, especially during periods of abrupt change (Folke et al., 2005). Key aspects of adaptive governance include the emergence of 'bridging organisations' that can lower the costs of collaboration and conflict resolution. They can also assist the development of policy and legislation that can support actors within the system to self-organise and therefore react more quickly, effectively and creatively to shocks (Folke et al., 2005;Olsson et al., 2006). Polycentric governance arrangements are important for being able to realise adaptive governance and facilitate collective action in tackling global environmental problems, such as climate change and deforestation, at multiple levels (Ostrom, 2010;Schoon et al., 2015).The flexible institutional arrangements of polycentric governance systems are often criticised for being inefficient The green box represents the policy context within which Africa must work towards achieving various goals at multiple scales.There are a number of policy instruments (in the purple box) that can be used to guide Africa towards these goals, but in order for the policy instruments to work and the goals to be attained there needs to be an enabling environment (orange box). Together, the elements in the boxes can guide Africa towards a desirable future (see Figure 6.7).because they are non-hierarchical and complex in their organisation. Yet, in practice, they provide a framework that enables resource users at multiple levels to draw on general principles to craft new institutions that cope with changing situations on the ground (e.g., Folke et al., 2005;Barau et al., 2016;Novellie et al., 2016;Ward et al., 2018a;Figure 6.2).Furthermore, polycentricity provides a governance structure that can enable learning and experimentation, participation, connectivity and diversity, which are important characteristics for building resilient ecosystems (Schoon et al., 2015). In the African context, it is even more important to create these plural governance spaces that acknowledge diverse and multiple knowledge systems and framings of nature (see also section 6.5.3 and Figure 6.5). However, building polycentric governance systems is not a simple task and can be derailed by conflicting interests.As governance becomes more polycentric and networked, the active alignment of political and institutional factors becomes necessary, both across the same level (horizontal integration) and between different institutional levels (vertical integration) (Varis et al., 2014). While institutions and platforms that facilitate cross-sector interaction and learning can assist with this (see Stringer et al. (2014) for examples of multi-stakeholder coordination platforms linked to managing climate change in Zimbabwe and Zambia), in the absence of such mechanisms, policy conflicts, competition for scarce resources and duplication of efforts can ensue (Stringer et al., 2009;2012). Ostrom (2010) highlights that devolving some decision-making to the local level whilst being able to maintain higher-level strategy is an important component for governing natural resources. This is particularly the case in situations with complex mixes of public and private decision-making. Box 6.1 provides an example of the challenges in implementing such a polycentric governance in Guinea (Abe et al., 2016). Other African countries provide further insights. Muller (2012) andPollard et al., (2011) focus on adaptive water governance in South Africa, while Ethiopia allows its regional states and indigenous institutions to be involved in decision-making (Hailu et al., 2008). Section 6.3.1 assesses the international agreements that constitute the current global policy framework within which Africa's polycentric governance options can be defined. It then evaluates the continent's progress towards the Convention on Biological Diversity's Aichi Biodiversity Targets, highlighting the links between these and the Sustainable Development Goals. Section 6.3.2 assesses the subregional level policy context and 6.3.3 focuses on the national level.Maintaining and improving Africa's rich biodiversity and ecological infrastructure is essential to address the crosscutting challenges identified in previous chapters (e.g., see Chapters 1 and 4), enabling nature's endurance, humans to live well in balance with nature, and the sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The IPBES document on policy support tools and methodologies (IPBES, 2016a) identifies several Multilateral Environmental Agreements to which most African countries are signatories and that have relevance to biodiversity and ecosystem services, some of which also link to human development. These are set out in The SDGs (2015-2030) provide a further important international framing to the continent's environmental governance. They stipulate various measures and actions to be taken by national governments, directly targeted towards the protection, restoration, conservation and sustainable utilisation of ecosystems and biodiversity resources. They also support responsible consumption and production. Key to biodiversityBox 6 1 Polycentric governance in the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem.Out of a region-wide concern to curb continued degradation of the marine ecosystems and the risk of coastal erosion, 16 countries sharing the Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem collectively initiated a trans-boundary project with a governance model that targeted actions to improve the socioeconomic conditions of the population across the shared coastal marine ecosystem. The broad objectives of the project were to recover depleted fishery stocks and ensure their sustainable utilisation, to reduce further pollution of the ocean and restore and maintain a healthy ecosystem. The success of the governance structure and institutional arrangement was centred on strength of the collective decision-making body, the steering committee formed by the member countries, with a real decision-making exercise by the countries over the management of their coastal marine ecosystem. The governance model resulted in more transparency and built trust among the participating countries easing access to disputed boundaries, which were access-restricted even for research purposes. The multilevel stakeholders (international, regional, national and sub-national) engagement in the governance structure underpinned the success of the project. One unique feature that built support for the initiative was its 'middle out' approach rather than a typical 'top-down' approach. The 'middle out' approach basically started building a network of large marine ecosystem professionals from the different levels of governance. This network worked together with those access to policy decisionmakers, as well as engaging with the grassroots actors who utilise the marine ecosystem resources.Challenges faced by the project, including interruptions of funding, were successfully managed and the effort eventually culminated in the creation of a commission by a protocol to the Convention for the   In return, the international community helps to protect these treasures. In adherence to the treaty, Parties identify and nominate properties in their national territory to be considered for inscription on the World Heritage list. In doing so, they provide details of how the property is protected and a management plan for its upkeep. Parties are also expected to protect the World Heritage values of the properties inscribed and are encouraged to report periodically on their condition. Because it is the responsibility of member countries to safeguard World Heritage properties in their jurisdiction, they work closely with the World Heritage Committee which also compiles the List of World Heritage in danger. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (UN, 2008) is an international instrument to enshrine the rights that \"constitute the minimum standards for the survival, dignity and wellbeing of the indigenous peoples of the world.\"Indigenous peoples are unique holders of knowledge on biodiversity and ecosystem services. By codifying the rights of indigenous people worldwide, protection against forced land dispossession, for self-determination, secured land tenure, right for cultural expression, and any form of association with land, nature and biodiversity the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People provides improved opportunities for indigenous people to continue to care for and nurture their bio-cultural heritages, thereby contributing to biodiversity conservation (Cittadino, 2014;Wright et al., 2014).As part of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organisation, the Swakopmund Protocol on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expression of Folklore (ARIPO et al., 2010) codifies the protection of traditional knowledge held by African indigenous people from commercial exploitation by national and multinational corporations and provides ways of compensating or benefiting indigenous people for the use of their traditional knowledge.By protecting the traditional knowledge of indigenous people in Africa, this protocol enables the conservation and protection of biodiversity, sacred places, specific fauna and flora from commercial and other forms of exploitation, thereby contributing to their protection (Hinz, 2012)The African Union Policy Framework for Pastoralism (AU, 2010) aims to secure, protect and improve the lives, livelihoods and rights of African pastoralists.The policy framework emphasises the need to fully involve pastoralist women and men in the national and regional development processes from which they are supposed to benefit. It emphasises the regional nature of many pastoralist ecosystems in Africa and therefore, the need to support and harmonise policies across the Regional Economic Communities and Member States.Through a plan or proposition to secure sustainable pastoralism that allows traditional movement of pastoralists across large expanses of drylands, enabling them to follow traditional grazing cycles, the framework promises to encourage pastoralism that avoids the 'tragedy of the commons', where regulated pastoralism enables the utilisation of rangelands, without causing land degradation and biodiversity loss. The policy framework has the following two objectives: (1) Secure and protect the lives, livelihoods and rights of pastoral peoples and ensure continent-wide commitment to the political, social and economic development of pastoral communities and pastoral areas; and(2) reinforce the contribution of pastoral livestock to national, regional and continent-wide economies. The fi gure paints a mixed picture with progress towards some targets substantially outperforming that of others. For example, there are worrying trends where more than 50% of countries are not on course to meet Targets (e.g., Targets 3, 4, 6, 12 and 20 show no countries on track). Of particular concern is target 5, where more than 25% of countries are moving away from the target, while targets 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 show no signifi cant change for more than 25% of countries. Overall, progress is being made, but at an insuffi cient rate by more than 50% of countries towards Targets 1, 2,11,12,14,15,17 and 19. Target 16, however, has one country set to exceed the target. All targets face a lack of information on progress from some countries. Source: adapted from UNEP-WCMC (2016). and ecosystem services approaches in Africa is demonstrating how investments in SDG 15 (focused on protection, restoration and promotion of sustainable utilisation of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainable management of forests, combating desertification, and reversing land degradation and biodiversity loss) significantly contribute to human well-being (e.g., SDGs 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7, on poverty reduction, food security, health, watershed management, energy production and ensuring economic growth without harming the environment). In addition, SDGs 11, 13 and 14 focus on building resilience to climate change impacts by strengthening adaptive capacity, policy responses and through conservation and sustainable utilisation of coastal and marine ecosystem resources.Overall, there is a complex international policy landscape in which Africa's polycentric environmental governance options are situated. Despite the multi-scale, polycentric complexity, decision-making about biodiversity and ecosystem services at smaller scales plays a central role in making progress towards these global targets. Using existing entry points within these international agreements to leverage synergy can be particularly effective for policy implementation at regional and subregional levels, ensuring a resource efficient approach (Akhtar-Schuster et al., 2011). However, globally there is a still a weakness in policy implementation and enforcement, complicated by issues such as corruption. The fi gure paints a mixed picture with progress towards some targets substantially outperforming that of others. For example, there are worrying trends where more than 50% of countries are not on course to meet Targets (e.g., Targets 3,4,6,12 and 20 show no countries on track). Of particular concern is target 5, where more than 25% of countries are moving away from the target, while targets 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 show no signifi cant change for more than 25% of countries. Overall, progress is being made, but at an insuffi cient rate by more than 50% of countries towards Targets 1, 2,11,12,14,15,17 and 19. Target 16, however, has one country set to exceed the target. All targets face a lack of information on progress from some countries. Source: adapted from UNEP-WCMC (2016). 6 .3 .2 Africa's regional and subregional policy contextThe main policy at the continental scale is Agenda 2063, which sets out an African approach. Through this, Africa can effectively learn from the past, build on current progress and harness opportunities in the short and medium terms to ensure positive socio-economic transformation in the next 50 years. The continental governance structure, supported by other policies and initiatives, offers opportunities to ensure that there is more effective balance in the use and conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the region. This is important because many African countries share cross-border systems such as lakes, rivers and wetlands (e.g., the Okavango Basin/delta, Lake Chad Basin, Victoria Basin/lake, Nile Basin/delta and Niger Basin/ delta, Congo Basin, Volta Basin), as well as national parks and sanctuaries that are rich and diverse in flora and fauna. Appendix 6.2 summarises some of the transboundary natural resources and their corresponding governance agreements.Managing these natural resources requires coordinated cross-border governance structures as well as regional and subregional cooperation agreements. Box 6.  GEF et al., 2011). The Great Green Wall of the Sahara and Sahel involves reforesting a 15 km strip of land stretching 7,100 km from Dakar, Senegal to Djibouti and the use of sustainable land management practices to enhance productivity (http://www.greatgreenwall.org/). Specific ecosystem services targeted include carbon sequestration (climate change mitigation), nitrogen fixation, soil retention, regulation of climate extremes (floods and droughts) and provision of habitat for biodiversity (Abdou, 2014). Endorsed in 2007 by African Heads of State and Government, the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative aims to reverse land degradation and desertification in the Sahel and Sahara, whilst mitigating social, economic and environmental crises for the region's most vulnerable people (Hertsgaard, 2011). The Initiative has since evolved into a regional vision of sustainable landscapes that generate multiple economic and environmental benefits and help build the resilience of the Sahel, where over half the population lives on less than $1.25 per day, and nearly 70% depend on the services provided by land resources. A new push for Africa's Great Green Wall Initiative also involved the establishment of a regional hub for the World Bank Sahel and West Africa program to share knowledge and strengthen institutional capacity. The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa's Fisheries and Aquaculture Strategy aims to achieve long-term productivity of fisheries and aquaculture, to strengthen food security and the trade benefits of fish products to domestic, regional and international markets, as well as ensuring alignment of programmes and projects in the sector. Similarly, the South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Commission promotes sustainable use of the living marine resources of the South West Indian Ocean region (www.fao.org/fishery/rfb/swiofc/en), while the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, headquartered in Victoria, Seychelles, promotes cooperation among Members to ensure conservation and optimum utilisation of stocks of tuna and tuna-like species, encouraging sustainable development of fisheries based on such stocks in the Indian Ocean and adjacent seas (www.iotc.org).Box 6 4 The Southern African Development Community's Plant Genetic Resource Centre.Resource Centre is a regional gene bank that works with plant genetics centres in each Southern African Development Community member state to conserve and preserve genetic diversity and viability of southern African plant stocks.The centre now holds more than 18,000 diverse crop and wild relative accessions and is increasing its collection of traditional crop varieties and wild species. Other gene banks in Africa are located in Tanzania, Egypt and Sudan. Ensuring genetic retention of species and variability provides a buffer to local agriculture against shocks such as drought, flood, climate change or civil unrest. Regional fisheries bodies and agreements are also important for the region's management of biodiversity and ecosystem services (www.spgrc.org.zm/).According to UNEP (2015), improved coordination between national institutions responsible for various multilateral environmental agreements and relevant ministerial departments and agencies, is critical to the implementation of biodiversity and ecosystem services management strategies in a synergistic way within a polycentric governance system. Synergy can be harnessed between multilateral environmental agreements through mainstreaming national strategies into national and regional development plans, and projects for sustainable development. In turn, mainstreaming can help to identify and mitigate trade-offs. It requires coordinated efforts from many stakeholders (public and private), including intergovernmental and governmental institutions, NGOs, the private sector and local communities, in order to identify solutions to interlinked problems. Such an approach can also help to integrate decision-making across scales from the local to the international.The post-2015 agenda provides an opportunity to guide development pathways to benefit both biodiversity and poverty alleviation for the many smallholders in Africa, who depend on ecosystems for income, jobs, and food. It focuses particular attention on the status of the numerous female smallholders who face severely restricted opportunity space. Lack of consideration of biodiversity and ecosystem services when making major economic decisions produces a risk associated with crossing tipping points that arise from continued loss of biodiversity. One example of a possible tipping point in Africa is the Sahel, where pressure from climate change, land degradation and over-use of limited water resources threatens to degrade the area, which will further exacerbate desertification (Lambin et al., 2014). This degradation and loss of vegetative cover is likely to have severe impacts resulting in the loss of biodiversity providing soil carbon, and loss of hydrological ecosystem services which are the foundations of food, fibre and water production in Sahelian Africa (CBD Secretariat, 2010;Lambin et al., 2014).This section examines options for mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services. Some countries have embedded biodiversity considerations into policies, strategies and practices of key public and private actors that impact or rely on biodiversity, so that it is conserved, and sustainably used, locally, regionally and globally (Huntley et al., 2014;Redford et al., 2015).Integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services into development planning can be achieved in a variety of ways. Other countries such as Mali, Botswana and Tanzania have even gone further to include biodiversity and ecosystem services into their Poverty Reduction Strategies. Figure 6.4 shows the degree to which biodiversity is reflected in the Box 6 5 Ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change.A very important link between climate change and biodiversity is ecosystem-based adaptation, which provides for conservation, restoration and sustainable use of biodiversity while supporting societies adapt to climate change impacts (Scarano, 2017). Ecosystem-based adaptation is defined as \"the plans/measures that aim at integrating the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services into an overall adaptation strategy. It can be cost-effective and generate social, economic and cultural co-benefits and contribute to the conservation of biodiversity\" (Doswald, 2014).Ecosystem-based adaptation measures implemented in many African countries include awareness creation and capacity building for sustainable management of natural resources, use of information and knowledge from all sources, including traditional knowledge, innovations and practices, design of policy measures to protect and control over-extraction of timber trees; establishment of protected areas, watershed management, shelterbelts and agroforestry. These measures have demonstrated multiple economic, environmental, social and cultural benefits by ensuring livelihood sustenance and food security, conservation of biodiversity, sustainable water management, and disaster risk reduction, among other benefits (http:// unfccc.int).Box 6 6 Malawi Poverty Environment Initiative. Source: UNDP-UNEP (2013).Prompted by a natural resources economic analysis and evidence of poverty-environment linkages, the government of Malawi has shifted the course of its national development planning. In January 2011 a study initiated by the Poverty-Environment Initiative, a joint programme of the United Nations Development Programme and United Nations Environment Programme, established for the first time the costs and benefits of sustainable and unsustainable natural resource management in Malawi. This quantification was done in four areas of forestry, fisheries, wildlife and soils. The findings showed that unsustainable natural resource use is costing the country the equivalent of 5.3% of GDP each year, more than the total funding allocated to education and health ministries in the national budget. Soil erosion alone reduces agricultural productivity by 6%, and if this yield was recovered, an additional 1.88 million people would have been lifted out of poverty by 2015. The study also revealed the untapped potential of the country's wealth of natural resources for tackling extreme poverty.The study marked a turning point for both the government and its development partners. The economic analysis not only demonstrated the macro-economic contribution of natural resources to GDP but showed the links between investing in ecosystems and poverty alleviation and has marked a shift in the way government institutions understand the issues. The Poverty-Environment Initiative revealed that the most effective way to mainstream ecosystem management and poverty alleviation into government processes is to get the issues into the core of planning agendas and processes. As a result of the study, Malawi's Growth and Development Strategy II for 2011-2016 identified climate change and natural resource management as one of nine priority areas for the country. This shift in direction at the national level also prompted change across the sectors. As long as the momentum for change is not lost, most policies and plans in Malawi will take into account the linkages that exist between poverty alleviation and natural resources management.  In many countries, the most important national sectors have legislation, action plans and programmes which are developed with a wide range of stakeholders (GEF et al., 2007). Mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services into sectoral legislation and plans not only benefits biodiversity but also benefits other sectors because they reinforce the sustainability impacts of legislated activities. Considering that the activities of several sectors across scales have an impact on biodiversity and ecosystem services, the wider benefits of mainstreaming biodiversity into plans, policies and financial activities cannot be overemphasised. Without mainstreaming biodiversity into the various sectors, the best efforts at sustaining production sectors' activities are likely to be threatened. An example of benefits from mainstreaming can be found in a study from Uganda, which showed that ecosystem services provided by the Nakivubo Swamp to the Greater City of Kampala, were estimated to have a value of $2 million a year in terms of water purification benefits-equal to the cost of building the infrastructure required to provide a similar service. In comparison, the cost estimation of managing the wetland to enhance its capacity to provide waste treatment services was $235,000 per year. These benefits identified through the study resulted in the reversal of the decision of the Ugandan Government to drain and reclaim the wetlands (UNEP-WCMC, 2016).It is important that information generated from the assessment of natural capital accounts is used to inform policy decisions to support the mainstreaming of biodiversity and ecosystem services across sectors. Impacts can be further enhanced by disseminating results from these natural capital account assessments with various stakeholders (WAVES, 2013; Box 6.9; Chapter 2).It is critical to monitor and evaluate mainstreaming efforts to determine benefits for biodiversity and ecosystem services, poverty alleviation and development outcomes. Monitoring and evaluation are generally difficult and where there are no nationally agreed upon baselines, it is difficult to develop targets and indicators. There is thus a need to develop monitoring and evaluation frameworks including indicators for biodiversity and ecosystem services mainstreaming in Africa. Policy instruments are vital in supporting this and are considered in the next section.There is a range of policy instruments available and under development to help ensure that nature's contributions to people are manifested and have real impact. These are classified as economic and financial instruments, legal regulatory, and rights-based instruments, institutional aspects and socio-cultural perspectives, and multistakeholder approaches. The latter are particularly relevant to bottom-up based approaches and fit for polycentric governance processes in the region; these include community-based natural resource management, publicprivate partnerships, and co-management approaches.Economic and financial instruments emphasise the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services; they facilitate the integration of nature into development planning by articulating benefits in economic terms. Economic valuation is a complementary tool but is not fully capable of capturing the diversity of benefits nature makes to well-being.There is continued debate on whether ecosystems should be viewed as economic assets that produce a flow of beneficial goods and services over time (Barbier, 2013). However, the benefits that biodiversity and ecosystem services provide to human populations are sometimes insufficiently taken into account by decision-makers in African development policies, in part because their contribution to national economies and transitions out of poverty are not always well demonstrated.Costs of biodiversity and ecosystem service loss are rarely internalised (Challender et al., 2015). The interaction of market, policy, institutional and livelihood failures promotes undervaluation of biodiversity and environmental assets, causing public and private sectors to fail to appreciate or account for the cost of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation (Barbier, 1994;Dixon et al., 1994;Barbier et al., 1997).Recognition has grown that economic concepts and instruments can substantially improve the status of biodiversity and ecosystems, as well as support social prosperity and a green economy (Albers et al., 1996;IIED, 2003; also see Chapter 2). A clearer understanding of the benefits that ecosystem services provide to populations in the African context can fuel sustainable development and improve social welfare (AfDB-WWF, 2012) especially in sub-Saharan Africa, where many biodiversity hotspots coincide with poor and growing human populations. Economic incentives can significantly promote biodiversity conservation policies (Amin, 2016).Economic instruments can also be effectively employed to address economic drivers (see Chapter 4, section 4.4.3) of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation. Once the specific drivers are known, relevant economic and financial instruments can be selected to help shift people's behaviour towards promoting biodiversity conservation. Emerton (2014) notes that conservation actions involving behaviour change usually need to be economically attractive for those expected to adopt them, either as a standalone activity or related to alternative (unsustainable) options. Incentives can be broadly considered as direct (e.g., rewards for changes in behaviour) and indirect (e.g., creating enabling conditions that lead to behavioural change). It is important that incentives consider the \"specific groups, activities and sectors which they aim to work on\" and that they are \"based on practically implementable actions, and…acceptable and sustainable within the broader social, political and cultural context within which they are being applied\" (Emerton, 2000, p. 19). In this regard, South Africa provides a useful example that links eradication of invasive alien species with poverty alleviation and livelihood diversification (Box 6.10, Chapter 1). Alternatively, mechanisms that penalise people for their actions leading to biodiversity loss, such as taxes, charges and fees, or disincentives, can be applied to support sustainable resource extraction or use rates, or to produce revenue in support of ecosystem service conservation (Panayotou, 1994).  (Richardson et al., 2004). In 2014, the government had a national list of invasive alien species (total 559) in four categories for management under the National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act (Act 10 of 2004) and its Alien and Invasive Species Regulations. Invasive alien species are sometimes considered the single biggest threat to South Africa's biodiversity (Richardson et al., 2004;van Wilgen et al., 2014a;van Wilgen et al., 2014b). This governance option thus tackled an ecosystem dis-service by seeking to improve ecosystem services.Box 6 11 Property rights for access to biodiversity in South Africa.The allocation of community property rights in National Parks and Forest Reserves is particularly widespread (through jointor participatory forest management etc.). For example, in South Africa, the land upon which Richtersveld National Park lies is owned and occupied by local Nama villages. These communities have leased the land to the government while retaining the right to graze an agreed amount of livestock in the park and to engage in the controlled harvest of certain natural resources. Lease payments are deposited into a trust that has been appointed by the community to manage this resource.rights, tenure, leases and concessions over the ownership, management and use of biological resources or biodiversity.Market and charge systems aim to overcome the distortions and weaknesses in prices and markets that send signals to producers and consumers that encourage them to degrade biodiversity because it is cheaper, easier or more profitable to do so in the short-term. They entail trading in biodiversity goods and services and giving them a price that reflects their relative scarcity, costs and benefits. Examples of market instruments include tradable rights, shares and quotas in biological resources and environmental quality (fishing quotas, pollution permits or development rights), hunting permits, and setting new charges or rationalising existing charges (park entry fees, biological resource utilisation licenses, etc.). Box 6.12 provides an example from Mozambique.Fiscal measures aim at discouraging or encouraging the consumption and production of certain goods and products that have an impact on biodiversity. The measure could be to raise and spend budgetary revenues on increasing or lowering the relative prices of different products. Typical fiscal measures are taxes and subsidies (see Box 6.13), for example, attaching high tax rates on biodiversity-depleting land-uses, equipment, inputs and products, or providing subsidies to biodiversity conserving technologies, land-uses and enterprises.Bonds and deposits are product surcharges which shift the responsibility for biodiversity depletion to individual producers and consumers. They are levied on activities that run the risk of harming biodiversity and require the person carrying out these activities to pay a bond or deposit before they start, refundable against the possibility of this damage occurring. By charging in advance for possible biodiversity damage, bonds and deposits provide funds for covering the costs of this damage and ensure that producers or consumers cover the cost themselves. They also present an incentive to avoid negatively affecting biodiversity and can be applied to natural resource-based industries such as forestry, mining, fisheries and other extractive utilisation activities as a tool to discourage negative biodiversity impacts at the same time as promoting efficiency in resource utilisation (Boxes 6.14 and 6.15).Livelihood measures acknowledge that livelihoods, and in particular their constraints and shortfalls, can sometimes drive people to degrade natural resources in the search for scarce subsistence, income and employment (see also Chapter 4). By strengthening livelihoods, diversifying them and making them more secure, these measures aim to decrease reliance on biodiversity and put people in a position where they will choose, and can afford, to curtail economic activities that degrade the environment.These include direct incentives that encourage sustainable use and indirect incentives including diversifying income options and reducing reliance on non-renewable extractive activities with strong biodiversity impacts. A good example of such an instrument is community benefit-sharing, which is a widely-used livelihood incentive for biodiversity conservation, using revenues generated by protected areas to finance development activities in adjacent rural areas (Box 6.16).Other instruments such as subsidies, tradable permits, ecolabelling, liability and compensation schemes are incentivebased and include pricing mechanisms to stimulate biodiversity conservation and enhance the provision of ecosystem services. They can target both consumption side and production side actors and stakeholders (Box 6.17).Box 6 12 Access to marine resources in Mozambique.In the Bazaruto Archipelago in Mozambique -one of the country's most vulnerable, diverse and valuable marine areas -a number of new markets and enterprises have been promoted among local fishing communities as a way of stimulating sustainable biological resource use, and in order to compensate for the economic losses in land and natural resources incurred by the establishment of a National Park.Box 6 13 Biodiversity management: role of taxation and fiscal policies.In Ethiopia and Eritrea, energy taxes and subsidies are used as incentives to encourage the use of energy-saving technologies to reduce deforestation for firewood and charcoal. These governments have implemented a series of fiscal reforms in the energy sector which aim to make wood fuel and wood-based cooking technologies more expensive to users. The reforms include subsidies for kerosene, promoting energy efficient wood fuel cooking stoves, and the dismantling of duties on imported solar equipment.Box 6 15 Regulating biodiversity exploitation in Democratic Republic of Congo.In the Democratic Republic of Congo, a form of deposit bond on commercial forestry operations was established in the early 1990s. This arrangement grants an \"interim concession license\" which requires loggers to complete various forestry planning and management operations, including forest inventory and investigation of efficient harvesting and processing techniques. If the concessionaire does not make the necessary investments within 3 years, the interim license is cancelled and monies are not refunded.Box 6 14 Case study of forestry taxation in Liberia. Sources: FAO (2004); Schwidrowski et al. (2005).Liberia is well-endowed with valuable forest resources, and the sector has made an important contribution to GDP over the past few decades. Liberia's forest resources are significant, containing a number of valuable species -such as African mahogany -that are in high demand on world markets. Timber activity began in the late 1960s, driven by low stumpage fees and the establishment of basic road infrastructure that opened access to forest areas. During the first half of the 1980s, the timber sector remained stagnant because of the weak global demand in key markets but also because of political instability in Liberia. The sector had recovered somewhat by the late 1980s, but the outbreak of civil strife interrupted the sector's formal activities until peace was restored in 1997. Thereafter, logging activity recovered very rapidly, driven also by the demand for charcoal and firewood, reflecting the breakdown of the country's regular electricity supply. The surge in logging soon raised concerns about its sustainability. Liberia enacted many charges and regulations for the purpose of forest product utilisation. Government has increasingly adopted pre-harvest fees such as concession fees and area fees. Over time, the number of taxes, charges, and fees on forestry activity has proliferated, driven particularly by the introduction of new taxes for specific purposes. Some of these related to severance charges ($1.50/m 3 ), reforestation charges ($5.00/m 3 ) and conservation charges ($4.00/m 3 ). Apart from these charges on timber products, non-timber forest products also attract charges of various levels. Fines occupy a very important position as a source of revenue to the country. Timber companies are also financially committed under concessions to the construction of schools, clinics, or roads. Furthermore, it became common practice for timber companies to undertake certain tasks that were originally the responsibility of the government, such as road construction, and they were granted tax credits for those activities.Box 6 16 Biodiversity benefit-sharing.Forest and wildlife departments in East Africa (e.g., in Ethiopia and Kenya), engage in benefit-sharing activities around protected area buffer zones. Kenya Wildlife Service's revenue sharing policy is typical, using a Wildlife Development Fund as a mechanism to distribute some of the revenues earned from protected areas to local communities (from entrance fees). A significant amount of money was spent on community-related activities in protected area buffers zones, including water, education, health, livestock and enterprise development as well as the provision of famine relief.Box 6 17 Sustainable consumption: Managed marine protected area network, Madagascar. Source: Harris (2007).In order to preserve local ecosystems and maintain traditional livelihoods and fisheries, Village leaders in the community of Andavadoaka partnered with marine conservationists to develop sustainable harvesting of octopus so as to protect local ecosystems and maintain traditional livelihoods. A plan was developed using both modern scientific methods and traditional ecological knowledge. This led to the seasonal bans on octopus harvesting and the establishment of marine protected areas that also include no-take zones. This initiative has resulted in increased number and size of the octopus caught. The project has been scaled-up to include twelve other communities to create a marine protected area network.Mainstreaming biodiversity into production and consumption practices can be assisted through the participation of relevant stakeholders in the development and review of guidelines for sustainable management (GEF et al., 2007) Another approach of growing importance is that of geographical indications, which point to the origin of particular products and imply that they contain specific properties or characteristics (Box 6.19). Biodiversity and ecosystem service conservation benefit when these indications of geographic origin include references to practices and places where specific commodities are produced in harmony with the environment.For most sub-Saharan African countries, decentralisation policy is accompanied by a transfer of competences on the management of natural resources and the environment giving greater responsibility and power to local institutions. In Senegal, for example, local and regional authorities have been given the power to deliberate and recover the duties and taxes associated with the environment. This proximity management creates partnerships between local authorities and the private sector, which is now investing in conservation and human welfare. The strengthening of decentralisation stems from the political will to improve governance. Such political will has as its corollary the recognition of customary or traditional norms that more effectively protect wood, endangered species and forests, community heritage areas and other natural resources. Further information on the use of economic policy instruments to manage environmental degradation in Senegal is shown in Box 6.20.Economic measures for biodiversity conservation must always be accompanied by broader supportive measures that reduce the ecological footprint through education, politics, is increasing acknowledgement by some policymakers of GI as potential policy tool to improve environmental incomes. Among these incentives, local speciality enhancement schemes are being implemented whether legal (i.e., fights against usurping of a product's name, counterfeiting, and the protection of intellectual property rights), commercial (i.e., ecolabelling, product promotion and livelihood improvement), and patrimonial (i.e., conservation of the various levels of biodiversity e.g. genes, animal species and vegetal varieties, ecosystems and landscapes, traditions and know-how). In general, however, these tools need to be applied cautiously and properly adapted to the needs of African nations. Countries could learn from the experiences of the South African wine industry (see Cormier-Salem, 1999;Barjolle et al, 2002;Jasanoff et al., 2004;Roussel et al, 2007;Muchnik et al., 2008;Cormier-Salem et al., 2010).information, awareness and social organisation (Bromley, 1991;Albers et al., 1996;Jasanoff et al., 2004;World Bank et al., 2004). They may encompass efforts through national and global processes relating to public sector management, macroeconomic and sectoral policy reforms, proactiveness in implementing environmental agreements and favourable donor arrangements to enhance the conditions of national and local economies (Costanza et al., 1997;McNeely, 1993;Myers et al., 2000;Bagnoli et al., 2008). Equally important instruments to support economic incentive measures for biodiversity conservation include legal, policy, institutional and social measures, as well as agreements, enforcement, and accreditation (Bromley, 1991;Brooks et al., 2001). Any instrument to incentivise or financialise biodiversity and ecosystem services needs to be as innovative and sensitive as possible in order to reduce conflicts between conflicting stakeholder interests, while constantly assessing impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services.To ensure sustainable development, preserve biodiversity and improve the use of ecosystem services and quality of life, both national and international legal instruments should be used effectively (Prevoste et al., 2016). Political interests at all levels play a major role in the formulation of laws and decrees creating protected areas and species, or instituting codes for biodiversity and ecosystem service protection. The State plays an important role, particularly since biodiversity often exhibits the characteristics of a public good (Aubertin et al., 2009). Supporting legislation should be properly designed with the appropriate technical capacity to be able to establish protection objectives, reduce degradation and promote environmental improvements that are compatible with sustainable exploitation of natural resources and while ensuring compliance (Lamarque et al., 1973).There has been remarkable progress in the past 20 years in the development of environmental policies and laws in Africa, although strategies and levels of implementation within and between countries differ. Over 25 African countries now have constitutional provisions on the environment, while 43 countries have framework environmental laws (AMCEN, 2014a). Most of these countries have also developed tools and strategies to ensure that environmental laws are implemented.A tight regulatory framework defining the scope and extent of resource use is a precondition for reversing biodiversity losses. At times such measures can be controversial though, as illustrated through reoccurring conflicts between the allocation of hunting permits and calls for hunting bans. Botswana banned hunting in 2014 and now has more than 230,000 elephants which many perceive as having negative impacts on agriculture and livelihoods (Mbaiwa, 2017).The ban on safari hunting resulted in the loss of income and jobs to the local communities, a loss of rural livelihoods, loss of game meat, increasing poaching incidents, negative attitudes towards wildlife conservation and land-use tenure changes (Mbaiwa, 2017).Regulation remains the most widely used instrument for biodiversity and ecosystem protection. The regulatory toolkit includes a series of 'command-and-control' restrictions, mandatory requirements and procedures by government that directly limit certain actions or impacts and damages to threatened species. There are three basic types of regulatory instruments for biodiversity and ecosystem services:Management prescriptions for good practice in natural resource exploitation or regulation of emissions through emissions standards, ambient quality standards and technical standards;Restrictions on the use of products (e.g., illegally logged timber, activities damaging to endangered species etc.) or establishing production standards (certification, best practice codes etc.); Spatial planning which involves regulation of landuses that have direct implications for ecosystem services or habitats.Box 6 20 Policy instruments to manage environmental degradation in Senegal.Empowered by the decentralization process, the populations of the southern region of Senegal, for example, were the first to denounce the illegal and illicit exploitation of the forest resources of this part of the country. Most of the illegal exploiters came from The Gambia, where this activity is prohibited. The response of rural populations in Senegal reveals the need for subregional collaboration between countries.In terms of mineral resource exploitation in Senegal, the country uses a range of management tools such as quotas, licenses and permits (Bromley, 1991;Brooks et al., 2001), which give rise to the payment of duties and taxes, and which limit respectively the quantities, the number of users and the rights of access and use of the resource. Currently, reforms are underway with respect to subsidies granted to mining companies and on improving transparency through the involvement of the local population and civil society in order to combat corruption and the acquisition of natural resources by foreign multinational companies.However, regulation needs to be compatible with sustainable exploitation and comply with good practices, as well as connecting to conventions and agreements linked to laws at other levels, and key standards. For example, the ISO 14000 family of standards addresses various aspects of environmental management (NQA, 2017). It provides practical tools for companies and organisations to identify and control their environmental impact and constantly improve their environmental performance. ISO 140001, is a practical tool to help organisations identify and control environmental impacts and improve performance. This certification helps with environmental policy, sustainability, resource and asset management, legal compliance, carbon footprint and impact reduction, pollution prevention, corporate social responsibility, cultural awareness and change management, brand reputation (see https://www.nqa.com/ en-us/certification/standards/iso-14001). Another example is ISO 50001 (NRC, 2011), which provides organisations with a structured framework to manage energy such that it can increase energy efficiency, reduce costs and improve energy performance (see http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/ efficiency/industry/cipec/5379).Laws and regulations further interface with rights-based instruments and customary norms. Nevertheless, while conservation projects target both ecosystems' and species' impacts on human well-being, in general, laws in Africa do not take a rights-based approach. This absence severely restricts community capacity to benefit directly and equitably from biodiversity through, for example, bioprospecting of plant species. It has been over four decades since the Kinshasa Resolution (1975) when African governments recognised the rights of indigenous communities and the importance of indigenous knowledge in natural resource conservation and management (Colchester, 2004). This resolution noted the importance of traditional ways of life and land ownership and called on governments to maintain and encourage customary ways of living. It urged governments to devise means by which indigenous peoples could bring their lands into conservation areas without relinquishing their ownership, use, and tenure rights. It also noted that indigenous peoples should not normally be displaced from their traditional lands in the establishment of protected areas, nor should protected areas be established without adequate consultation with the peoples to be directly affected. The same resolution was recalled in 1982 at the World National Parks Congress in Bali, Indonesia, which affirmed the rights of traditional societies to \"social, economic, cultural, and spiritual self-determination\" and \"to participate in decisions affecting the land and natural resources on which they depend.\" The resolution advocated \"the implementation of joint management arrangements between societies which have traditionally managed resources and protected area authorities (Colchester, 2004).A further key step for Africa is found in the Swakopmund Protocol on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Expressions of Folklore within the Framework of the African Regional Intellectual Property Organisation, which was adopted in 2010 and entered into force in January 2012 (Colchester, 2004). It aims to: (a) protect traditional knowledge holders from any infringement on their rights as recognised within the protocol, and (b) protect cultural expressions against misappropriation, misuse and/or exploitation. The protocol employs a broad definition of traditional knowledge and folklore, along with a unique set of protections. Specifically, the holders of traditional knowledge under the protocol are deemed beneficiaries, and receive exclusive rights over the authorisation of use of their traditional knowledge, prevention of the exploitation of traditional knowledge without prior informed consent, the institution of legal proceedings to remedy infringements of rights protected under the protocol, and fair and equitable benefit-sharing arising from the commercial use of their traditional knowledge. Protocols such as this are vital for Africa, where traditional knowledge and indigenous and local knowledge remain important in the management of natural resources. Traditional knowledge and indigenous and local knowledge are examined in further in section 6.5.3.Institutions can be considered as constraints devised by humans to structure human interaction (North, 1994).Informal institutions are those that do not depend on the state for execution or enforcement (Colding et al., 2001). They can include taboos and social norms. Informal institutions governing the use of environmental resources are present in many societies, and in certain conditions (relatively constant group membership, long-term residence in an area, and heavy reliance on natural resources) have led to the development of successful natural resource management (Ostrom, 1999;Jones et al., 2008). The literature nevertheless suggests they can have both positive and negative impacts (Box 6.21, Box 6.22).African societies have rich social and cultural norms, characterised by peaceful co-existing and high-value cultural traditions and institutions (see Chapter 1). In particular, many of the stories and narratives within African culture create a pathway for instilling environmental ethics and the communication of environmental values (Barau et al., 2016), which in turn play an instrumental part in shaping informal institutions, behaviours and roles in society with regard to conserving biodiversity and ecosystems. An example is the 'Gali saree' or camel praise songs, embedded in many social norms, activities and routine daily life of Afar that teach and instil knowledge of nature, biodiversity and 'biophilia' or love for nature to young pastoralists, therebyBox 6 21 Informal institutions and customary norms can have both positive and negative effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services.In Madagascar, 'Fadys' are systems of informal institutions that can make certain behaviours 'taboo' or forbidden, and are a strong part of Malagasy culture. They can vary from encouraging good manners, to strict rules linked to spiritual and ancestral beliefs and many are related to plant and animal species and natural resources (Jones et al., 2008). Breaking fadys risks supernatural retribution, affecting individuals or leading to wider consequences; for example, a river drying up in western Madagascar was blamed on migrants breaking the fady banning pig farming in the region (Scales, 2012).Fadys can protect endemic species and habitats: Jones et al., (2008) concluded that in their study area in Eastern Madagascar, fadys provided significant protection to 5 species considered threatened according to IUCN. It is fady to kill many lemur species because they are believed to represent Malagasy ancestors, and fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox, Vulnerable) are fady to eat because they predate on lemurs i.e., eat the bodies of ancestors (Jones et al., 2008).When surveying hunting and consumption in Eastern Madagascar, Jenkins et al. (2011) found that species reported as fady to eat by a high proportion of respondents, tended to be eaten less frequently. Fadys may also offer protection to important habitats, with some areas of forest where people are not allowed to collect wood, clear forest or even travel through in cases where they contain family tombs (Scales, 2012).However, fadys can also threaten wildlife: Beliefs that seeing an aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis, Endangered) will result in sickness and death (Goodman, 2015) can lead to the killing those straying close to villages in parts of Madagascar.Little has been published on other fadys or cultural beliefs that may have negative outcomes for biodiversity, but there are particular snake species viewed as dangerous, despite not being venomous, and these can be killed out of fear (Tingle, 2012).Over-reliance on informal institutions for biodiversity protection should be avoided: There can be a danger in relying too much on informal institutions alone for protection of biodiversity. Jones et al., (2008) found evidence that fadys can evolve and change in response to economic drivers, e.g. a fady on selling wildharvested species broke down in response to failed harvests. Jenkins et al., (2011) documented increased in bushmeat consumption in eastern Madagascar, which included many typically fady species. Areas where consumption increased tended to have rapid recent immigration and economic development. Immigration leading to social change can weaken traditional beliefs (Jenkins et al., 2013). Fadys may be very specific, only applying to certain people or areas. For example, Kaufmann (2014) found that a fady protecting radiated tortoises (Astrochelys radiate, Critically Endangered) was only prevalent in a few local villages, and the tortoises were still being killed in large numbers by other people passing through. Fadys may also break down where local people lose the right to manage their natural resources. After a clamp-down by park officials on tavy (slash and burn agriculture) in Ranomafana National Park, villagers were observed killing a radio-collared sifaka (Propithecus edwardsi, Endangered), which is normally fady to kill, in order to express their anger to park officials after being excluded from an area of forest (Jones et al., 2008).Box 6 22 The role of informal institutions in natural resource management.Institutions and traditions among Afar communities include: 1) the Adda or a traditional Afar ruling system, where knowledgeable elders called 'Asayamaras', respected and trusted by the community, direct almost all parts of life of Afar pastoral communities (Hailu et al., 2008); 2) The Edo, which is a traditional range scouting, is practiced whenever Afar pastoralists are faced with the prospects of unpredictable future weather'. The 'Edo's' or traditional rangeland scouts, usually strong young men of the village, who are sent to different places to collect information about weather, rangeland condition, local politics and other information relevant to the livelihoods of the pastoral communities (Tesfay et al., 2004), and; 3) The 'Dagu' is an effective and reputable traditional human based information and knowledge sharing network, through which anything anywhere that is relevant to the pastoral life of the Afar, is made to reach to relevant individuals and households (Yimer, 2013).When any village or community in the Afar land is faced with the prospect of uncertain weather and a question of how to utilize and manage rangeland resources, information about future weather is collected from observation of biophysical entities and by traditional experts. The Adda elders also gather to discuss what to do on the basis of this information. They most commonly decide to send strong, experienced herders who are versed in the traditional techniques of weather forecasting to collect information about weather in far located rangelands (Tesfay et al., 2004). The individuals sent for rangeland scouting (Edo) make detailed observations about the plants, soil, atmosphere, and the condition of animals in the far located areas they are visiting.All observations for special indicators such as special plants, insects, birds and environmental variables are made to come to conclusion about the possible near future weather conditions in the rangeland they are visiting. The individuals in the 'Edo' make a detailed analysis of different observations to come up with a recommendation that they will report back to the Adda elders.contributing to positive community behaviours towards nature (Balehegn, 2016).As globalisation processes have spread and property rights have followed a privatisation trajectory, social and cultural conditions and traditional institutions have changed, with the traditional organisation of African societies giving way to the state and the market (Box 6.23). The local social and cultural systems responsible for managing forests, biodiversity and ecosystems have consequently altered, with impacts on the sustainable management of biodiversity and ecosystem services and important consequences for the social and cultural context of governance and decision-making. In the African context, where people are closely dependent on biodiversity and ecosystem services for their everyday well-being, it is critical to incorporate indigenous and local knowledge in policy decisions around the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services to avoid such damage. The food, fuel and financial crisis of the mid-2000s has resulted in a global rush to purchase and lease fertile African land (Anseeuw, 2013). This explosion of commercial land transactions and land speculation has been dubbed by many as 'land grabbing' instead of the depoliticised term 'largescale land investment' (Borras et al., 2012). Africa has been the centre of most of the land grabbing that has taken place (Cotula, 2012). According to the Land Matrix report (Nolte et al., 2016), 422 land deals have been concluded on the continent, covering 10 million hectares. An important issue with regard to land grabbing in Africa is that it is usually done based on arguments of unused land, no man's land or wasteland (Hall et al., 2015). However, because of the nature of traditional land-use in many African indigenous communities being communal, rotational or pastoral, what appears to be unused, under-utilised, or ambiguously owned land in a given time may not be so (Geisler, 2012). The impetus to increase agricultural yield on the African continent has placed a significant proportion of natural habitats that have never been cultivated throughout history, into the category of cultivable or arable. Such labelling resulted in 30-40% of remaining forest in Central Africa to be under concession (Clark et al., 2009). Therefore, it provides an additional impetus for justifying the leasing of 'lowproductivity' communal lands to capital-intensive investors (Balehegn, 2015). Large-scale land grabbers (investors) usually fence their newly acquired land and physically exclude wildlife, livestock and local people, causing a breakdown of traditional strategies and utilization and ecological balance of the land, causing pressure on other areas. For instance, in the Gabmella regional state of Ethiopia, 90,000 households were relocated through resettlement and land investment displacements, resulting in a loss of traditional livelihood for over one million people and enormous ecological pressure on newly resettled areas (Horne et al., 2011). Moreover, the way land deals are being implemented in different African countries is marred by corruption where local uses and issues of biodiversity protection are deliberately overlooked by officials in charge of the land deals (Cotula et al., 2009). For instance, due to lack of legal provisions in the agreements, in Ethiopia large-scale investors (usually foreign) clear natural vegetation with machinery and then burn the cleared wood and debris, while small-scale local investors generally clear forest, convert it to charcoal and carry out the illegal, but lucrative business of charcoal selling (Horne et al., 2011).For example, such land grabbing, instead of fulfilling their intended objectives of local food production, has resulted in 7,100 ha of Mabria forest being cleared for sugarcane in Uganda. This clearance is predicted to threaten 312 plant species, 287 butterfly species and 199 bird species that are available in the forest (Senelwa et al., 2012). Similarly, a leasing of an upstream water source in Tanzania has resulted in a pollution of water pollution affecting 45,000 local consumers (Arduino et al., 2012).Despite seemingly being ignored by many African nations, there are many global agreements that can be adopted and implemented for effectively curbing the impact of land grabbing on communities and biodiversity. New mechanisms designed to assist smallholder in accessing inputs and integrating into global commodity chains, of international regulations e.g. the European Union Renewable Energy Directives (Jacobsson et al., 2009) and Renewable Fuel Standard program (EPA, 2010) should be encouraged. In doing so the host governments not only obtain the much sought-after cash and technology (through international land deals) but also will largely enhance the rehabilitation of abandoned or degraded areas. African states can also sign and strictly implement many international agreements and certifications that can guide responsible investment in land.Examples of such investments that can be applied based on the specific state of land and biodiversity in countries include: the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (Laurance et al., 2010;Schouten et al., 2011), Roundtable on Responsible Soy (Schouten et al., 2012), Bonsucro certification and its local implementation (Moura et al., 2012;Cockburn et al., 2017), and the Soy Moratorium initiative (Leão, 2009). (Tripathi et al., 2004). Similarly, traditional drought forecasting in many African countries (Ziervogel et al., 2010;Le Fur et al., 2011;Chisadza et al., 2015), was as effective as, and in some cases more effective, than scientific techniques (Balehegn, 2016). Del Rio et al.(2016) conducted participatory mapping of the Barotse floodplain and found a strong correlation between the indigenous and local knowledge typology and risk of crop failure to drought and to flooding demonstrating the clear functional basis for the Barotse typology originating from many generations of observation and experience. There are also findings that suggest that when communities monitor natural resources, their results are similar to those of scientists.This is because they know their forests better from years of experience in using and managing them. However, this only applies when monitoring of forests is related to a local perspective (Danielsen et al., 2014). Other studies have established discrepancies among the two knowledge systems e.g., in weather forecasting, (Ziervogel et al., 2010;Simelton et al., 2013;Chisadza et al., 2015) and valuation of plant species (Balehegn et al., 2015). Discrepancies can result from differences in the nature of the two knowledge systems (e.g., variables observed), the system and approach to the comparison, or inherent failure of one or both of the systems to actually depict or perceive reality (Balehegn et al., 2015). Nevertheless, in many local settings, indigenous knowledge has been observed to be more practical, accurate, locally relevant in terms of scale and parameters, as well as more understandable, interpretable and affordable (Roncoli et al., 2002). Most interesting however is the complementarity between the two knowledge systems, which facilitates a deeper understanding of the coupled interactions between nature and its contributions to people, and highlights the risks of decoupling indigenous and local knowledge and conservation.It is repeatedly underscored that local experts' knowledge should be used as a supplement to or in hybridisation with scientific knowledge, or there should be co-production of knowledge while considering capacity building in conservation and natural resource management (Johannes, 1998;Mercer et al., 2007;Glasson et al., 2010;Silvano et al., 2010;Tengö et al., 2014;Pereira et al., 2017;Stringer et al., 2017).Although there is limited literature using the terminology 'Nature's Contributions to People (NCP)' as an alternative expression to facilitate consideration of plural knowledges about nature, African societies are inherently coupled to the environment, though this is not always emphasised. Figure 6.5 shows the combination or hybridisation of knowledge from different sources (indigenous, science and others) (Tengö et al., 2014) alongside the key processes that can facilitate their combination (Stringer et al., 2017).Such approaches to hybridising traditional knowledge and science/ technology enable the production of a knowledge system that is both locally relevant and scientifically accurate (Glasson et al., 2010;Balehegn et al., 2015). Hybrid knowledge systems that successfully incorporate both indigenous and scientific knowledge on an equal footing are very rare. However, some examples of inclusive or integrated knowledge system include the use of cyber tracker for biodiversity monitoring by Kalahari desert bushmen (http://www.cybertracker.org/) and the co-production of weather forecasting knowledge for training farmers and scientists to improve the accuracy of weather prediction at various scales (Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al., 2013); combining indigenous and scientific knowledge for improved weather forecasting in Tanzania (Mahoo et al., 2011), and the Nganyi project in Kenya (Ouma et al., 2015), as well as the production of integrated knowledge (science and indigenous and local knowledge) for monitoring land-use and land cover changes in South Africa (Chalmers et al., 2007).Box 6 24 Linking scientific and indigenous knowledge.In Nigeria, Ayeni et al. (2016) showed a high consistency between indigenous people's perception of land cover changes, remotely sensed land cover products, and climate and surface water situations. Participatory approaches involving communities and local experts in assessing the impact of environmental change can, therefore, provide important insights into forest ecosystem services such as freshwater provision.In Tanzania, Gaspare et al. (2015) compared traditional ecological knowledge with conventional scientific knowledge regarding the types of grouper (Epinephelinae), a fish species utilized by communities, and when they are caught. This information is of considerable value to fisheries managers and policy makers. Most of the resource-use patterns and effort exerted revealed in qualitative data collected about groupers on Mafia Island is consistent with that reported by Fischer et al. (1984). However, information on specific grouper species caught using 'nets' (as defined in this study) is lacking. In this case, fishers' traditional ecological knowledge is the only available source of information to complement conventional scientific data. The results indicated that confirmed scientific data and elicited knowledge that was new to both traditional ecological knowledge and science. It nevertheless highlighted some differences between traditional ecological knowledge and science (e.g. on spawning behaviour). Discrepancies in the two knowledge systems can be attributed to factors including observational scale differences, as well as methodological differences in gathering data (e.g. in sample sizes).In Guinea, Le Fur et al. (2011) showed that ILK could complement scientific studies in describing the seabed, be used as a source of new scientific investigation, provide information on nursery location, and could substitute scientific surveys on fish diets provided the level of validity is identical, and constitute a satisfactory proxy for understanding trophic webs.Such approaches can be extremely useful where capacity, data and resources are lacking, making the codification of local ecological knowledge highly practical (Johannes, 1998;Silvano et al., 2010), particularly in fisheries studies for which the cost of obtaining data is an important consideration (Cury et al., 2005;Garcia et al., 2005). Local ecological knowledge could help to provide answers to questions relating to the identification of sensitive areas in terms of ecosystem productivity (Aswani et al., 2004(Aswani et al., , 2006)), for which diverse knowledge along entire coasts could be obtained.knowledge. There is a need for capacity building for those institutions tasked with the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services to identify and absorb relevant indigenous and local knowledge. Furthermore, it necessitates the fine-tuning of processes such as stakeholder engagement, participation, knowledge exchange and co-production, which are key vehicles for learning, information dissemination and communication. The importance of communication in the management of common assets such as biodiversity and ecosystem services cannot be over-emphasised.There are nevertheless suggestions that combining indigenous knowledge with western science would displace indigenous knowledge from its context or place-based significance, rendering it less useful (Tsegaye et al., 2009). Moreover, there is widespread and steady inter-generational degradation of indigenous traditional knowledge in many African communities. Therefore, indigenous traditional knowledge needs not only incorporation or hybridisation with science but also conservation in its own right (see chapter 1). One increasing way of integrating different knowledge and stakeholder perspectives in Africa's polycentric governance context is through co-management approaches. Comanagement refers to governance that is shared among stakeholders in diverse ways through decentralisation of power and decision-making. This kind of approach is increasingly seen in wildlife and fisheries sectors, as well as in the governance of transboundary resources. However, it is not yet fully utilised in the same ways as in other regions such as Europe (Stöhr et al., 2014). In some cases, authority sits with a government agency that is required to engage or consult other stakeholders in decision-making, drawing on their knowledge and expertise (e.g., the Lake Chad Basin Commission and the East Africa Trans-Boundary Parks Authorities, amongst others). In other cases, multiple stakeholders (sometimes including local communities) participate in a management body that has responsibility for decision-making (e.g., Tanji Bird Reserve in the Gambia (Wicander, 2015)). In the Afar rangeland management process in Ethiopia, indigenous/customary institutions work side by side with government and religious institutions to solve and address conflicts arising from rangeland resource utilisation/sharing (Hailu et al., 2008). Co-management approaches are particularly useful in areas where conservation and development objectives sometimes conflict, and can help to balance differing objectives. There are nevertheless critiques that many such institutional approaches, including those that are devolved to the local level, present social justice issues, in particular by insufficiently involving participation of groups such as women and youth (see e.g., Hope (2012) who provides a useful review of approaches to engage the youth in Kenya) and that they can reinforce elite capture. Indeed, involving local communities in protected area comanagement has increased globally, in order to minimise costs on local communities from conservation interventions. This sharing of power and responsibilities aims to increase legitimacy, inclusivity, representation and empower marginalised groups (Berkes, 2009). A global review of protected areas found that co-managed approaches were more likely to have positive outcomes for biodiversity and local livelihoods (Oldekop et al., 2016). Yet other studies suggest that these approaches can be susceptible to elite capture, increasing inequalities and marginalisation of some stakeholders (Persha et al., 2014). For example, a study in Madagascar found that households perceived limited benefits and high costs to participating in co-management, and an uneven distribution of these within and between communities. Poorer households and villages further from roads and markets were more likely to report costs to co-management (Ward et al., 2018b). This highlights that to prevent exacerbation of pre-existing inequalities there is a need for comanagement approaches to understand the heterogeneous nature of communities, and to ensure that involvement of local communities is representative and inclusive. Mechanisms that can help to reduce elite capture include safeguards such as waiving costs of fees and licenses for poorer participants in co-management (Blomley et al., 2009).Another policy approach that requires institutional development involves public-private partnerships, which can be developed to address shared conservation and ecosystem service management goals (see also the example in Appendix 6.3). In Malawi, public-private partnerships were successfully used to reverse poaching, agricultural encroachment and deforestation in Majete wildlife reserve (Trimble, 2015). In 2003, the Malawian government awarded Johannesburg-based African Parks a contract to provide management expertise, as well as resources, equipment, and capacity building for the rangers. By the year 2015, about 2,559 animals including 217 elephants had been stocked into the reserve. The public-private partnership's success in this case is being used as a model for other reserves in Africa (Trimble, 2015). In another case, the Nairobi Water Fund brings together many partners and or stakeholders (e.g., the Nairobi City Water & Sewerage Company, Kenya Electricity Generating Company, Pentair Inc., Coca-Cola, East Africa Breweries Ltd, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, The Government of Kenya, Water Resources Management Authority, Tana & Athi Rivers Development Authority, International Fund for Agriculture and Frigoken Kenya Ltd), to link upstream agricultural practices to downstream water quality. The Tana River supplies water to 95% of Nairobi's population, as well as another five million people living in the watershed. It supports important agricultural areas and provides half of the country's hydropower output. Deforestation and landuse conversion for agriculture have degraded natural areas that previously stored water, thus increasing runoff and soil erosion, reducing land productivity and increasing sediments in rivers, which affects water supplies. Management of the ecosystem services in this project includes a $10 million investment in water fund-led conservation, and intervention measures are expected to deliver $21.5 million in economic benefits over a 30-year timeframe.However, public-private partnerships are not always effective, especially in cases where the private partner fails to keep their commitments and fails to understand local ethno-politics or does not craft a working relationship with local or indigenous communities. This is exemplified by the case of the African Parks Network in the Nech-sar and Omo National parks in Ethiopia, where the African Parks Network failed to make any investment in improving the condition of the park and local communities (Blonk, 2008). According to a local official in Ethiopia, African Parks Network's approach was described as 'exploitation of poverty in Africa' where the local population had little or no say in the fate of the parks, and usually had to move away, leaving communities feeling that animals are put above people to sustain the European myth of 'the wild', without allowing for human inhabitants and their livelihoods (Blonk, 2008). Lambooy et al., (2011) identified a plethora of further challenges that limit the effectiveness of public-private partnerships in biodiversity conservation in Africa. These include lack of exchange of information and knowledge between the private sector and conservationists, high risks for private partners, high transaction cost for private partners, lack of management capacity and entrepreneurship among private partners, and very high transaction cost for private partners. It is therefore important that public-private partnerships in natural resource conservation start with the development of common understandings among government, local communities and other stakeholders, with each partner being open to compromise. Strong legal frameworks that can assure all parties are committed is a pre-requisite.Many of the more devolved governance approaches can be broadly labelled as community management (e.g., community forests in Central Africa and communal lands in South Africa) or community-based natural resource management (often seen in Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe) (Ribot, 2003;Roe et al., 2009). These approaches have increasingly been used in the agriculture, wildlife, forestry and fisheries sectors. Many African countries used wildlife protection and management as one of the community-based natural resource management goals. Community-based natural resource management passes decision-making authority over biodiversity and ecosystem services to local communities and can drive important institutional reforms and power redistributions (Roe et al., 2009). Communitybased natural resource management also theoretically provides a space for indigenous and local knowledge to have a greater influence (Gadgil et al., 1993). Figure 6.6 sets out the core characteristics of community-based natural resource management.The literature presents a very mixed picture of the success of community-based natural resource management. In Tanzania, community-based forest management has been considered most effective because it provides sufficient incentives for communities to participate in long-term forest management. Community-based forest management has improved management of unreserved forests because villagers own the land and retain full rights to benefit from natural resources. Joint forest management initiatives in Tanzania, where central or local governments own land, perform slightly better than exclusive state-managed forests, though their viability remains uncertain. This is because joint forest management is considered restrictive and the guidelines on benefit sharing are vague, resulting in minimal transfer of benefits to communities and inequitable transfer of management costs to resource managers (Blomley et al., 2009).In Francophone West Africa, community-based natural resource management encompasses the Gestion de Terroirs approach, which links conservation with local development (Binot et al., 2009). Positive reports about this approach come from the fan-palm ecosystems in Niger which support both agricultural and pastoral livelihoods, as well as providing provisioning and pollination services. Before the introduction of Gestion de Terroirs, the area was state managed, with few benefits gained by local communities. By developing a new institutional framework for communitybased ecosystem management, which included establishing new management agencies, environmental protection crews and harnessing communities' own efforts, local incomes substantially increased due to improved palm wood marketing and employment in environmental protection, whilst, at the same time, resulted in the regeneration of more than 3,000 hectares of land (Binot et al., 2009). In addition, cases of conservation such as Hirola in Kenya have been analysed and compared with other successful cases of community-based natural resource management around the world and it was found that all the successful cases have the commonality of being initiated by local communities themselves, and not by external pushes (Measham et al., 2013). In the Hirola case which aims at conserving the last living representative of the Beatragus genus, one of the largest antelopes in Africa, the communities requested the establishment of the Hirola conservation programme. This community-driven programme has ensured the implementation of socially acceptable conservation measures. Pastoralists in eastern Kenya have been more supportive of several rangeland restoration practices which improve Hirola habitat alongside local livelihoods (Ali, 2016). This has ensured the willingness of communities to enact the measures required which emphasises the need for local ownership in conservation initiatives. When communitybased natural resource management is initiated out of necessity by local communities, then, local communities use all resources at their disposal (including ILK) to spearhead the success of projects. This emphasises the need for local ownership and initiatives. When these factors are lacking, community-based natural resource management can fail.Despite many positive reports in the literature, communitybased natural resource management has drawn considerable critique (e.g., Logan et al., 2002;Frost et al., 2008;Shackleton et al., 2010;Pailler et al., 2015). For example, the establishment of new, decentralised committees can sometimes conflict with traditional community governance systems, as found in Benin and Swaziland (Stringer et al., 2007;Mongbo, 2008). Conflicts arise due to the need to redistribute power and authority, but this is opposed by some groups at the local level, particularly if such redistribution challenges traditional structures and processes. These situations can be difficult to manage, particularly if older and younger generations take different positions.Opportunities for harnessing local, indigenous and traditional knowledge are not always taken in communitybased natural resource management. Despite theoretical possibilities that it offers improved involvement of indigenous and local knowledge, in most African countries, this continues to be only a claim devoid of practical implementation (Shackleton et al., 2002). In many cases, the true and beneficial involvement of indigenous knowledge and indigenous people is recommended in some ideal or hypothetical situation where indigenous and local knowledge is said to be able to provide potential support, as opposed to actually being used (Davis et al., 2003). This is mainly because of the nature of indigenous knowledge, which is abstract, subjective and authoritative; this makes it difficult to be amenable to established scientific methodologies and approaches (Cocks, 2006;Briggs, 2008). It is important to note that the losers in this are not only the indigenous African communities, who are deprived of opportunities for participation but also the resource management sector which misses the multifaceted benefits that could have been obtained by involving local and indigenous knowledge (Berkes, 2004).Community-based natural resource management initiatives can also fail because their design and selection do not take into account financial viability, or insufficiently consider the costs of undertaking sustainable ecosystem management. This can be detrimental to local participation in projects which contain financial incentives as a design element. The Tchuma Tchato project, Mozambique, and the community-based natural resource management programme in the Kwandu Conservancy, Namibia, revealed that benefits were often deficient in value and volume. In addition, many households believed that benefits were inequitably shared (Suich, 2013).Effective stakeholder engagement is essential to ensure that relevant issues are included and addressed; as well as being cautious in that existing policies and instruments that are relevant for conservation will not always originate only from environmental policies, but might stem from different sectoral policies, e.g., agriculture and forestry, energy, transport or trade policy, and from local communities.A growing number of positive examples of decentralisation and community-based management exist in Africa, even though cases of successful community-based natural resource management where indigenous and local knowledge has been integrated and utilised remain lacking (Measham et al., 2013). Important lessons can be derived from community-based natural resource management projects in Africa for the governance of biodiversity and ecosystem services (Snively, 2012;Pailler et al., 2015).Key to the development of appropriate policy mixes for the governance of the continent's biodiversity and ecosystem services is an enabling environment: \"the combination of contextual elements allowing progress to be made towards a clearly defined goal\" (Akhtar-Schuster et al., 2011: 300).It is important to identify key determinants for the effective development, uptake and implementation of particular governance and institutional options, and understand the limitations to their effectiveness. This section assesses the importance of capacity (including resources) and tools, drawing on examples from across the continent.Policy making does not follow defined steps and is increasingly reliant on support tools and methodologies which can help both to build capacity and guide policy decision-making. In Africa, these include 'Biodiversity Monitoring Transect Analysis in Africa' which uses spatial data through GIS and remote sensing and scientific support to improve governance and conservation of Africa's biodiversity (http://www.biota-africa.org). Other tools used include the ones used by South Africa's biodiversity research group under the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and departments of biological sciences in several universities across the country. Universities in the continent also use similar tools while other stakeholders engage in emerging platforms such as the Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for Food Security Assembly which was created following the unanimous adoption of the Nairobi Action Agenda and the constitution of the Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for Food Security Assembly by several stakeholders in 2015 (Box 6.25).The IPBES (IPBES, 2016a; see also references therein) summarises seven families of policy support tools and methodologies according to their focus and use in: 1) assembling data and knowledge (including monitoring); 2) assessment and evaluation; 3) public discussion, involvement and participatory processes; 4) selection and design of policy instruments; 5) implementation, outreach and enforcement; 6) training and capacity building; and 7) social learning, innovation and adaptive governance. The availability and use of the best available data and information is critical in making policy decisions. Voluntary guidance meant to improve access to biodiversity-related data and information include 8 : use of common standards to enable integration and discovery of diverse data sets, government regulation and policy incentives to facilitate publication of publicly funded research and unrestricted access;digitisation of natural history collections; establishment of national biodiversity information facilities to promote coordination and sharing of data among stakeholders;enhancing capacity in biodiversity informatics through training programmes and through national, regional and global workshops, and collaboration through networks such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, as a means of increasing availability of data and filling knowledge gaps; public engagement in biodiversity observation through citizen science networks to enhance public awareness and to broaden the evidence base for research and decision-making;encouraging sharing of data obtained from the private sector;developing national platforms for data discovery, visualisation and use, e.g., through websites and portals;analysis of data and information gaps for prioritisation of new data mobilisation; and engagement with and support of both regional and global networks (e.g., the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, the Ocean Biogeographic Information System and the Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation network for data mobilisation and access.In addition to tools and protocols on data-sharing, the tools developed under the Convention on Biological Diversity are used to assist countries and other stakeholders in conserving and sustainably using biodiversity. Greater application of these tools could be of significant help in safeguarding biodiversity and avoiding the worst impacts of its loss.The analysis of tools and methodologies presented in this section follows a conceptual framework of the 8. See CBD/COP/DEC/XIII/31 (https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-13/cop-13-dec-31-en.pdf)Integrated Policymaking cycle (UNEP, 2009) and IPBES conceptual framework (Díaz et al., 2015). The Integrated Policymaking cycle identifies five steps in policy making and implementation: 1) Problem identification; 2) Policy formulation; 3) Decision-making; 4) Implementation; and 5) Monitoring and Evaluation.As many countries in Africa are experiencing transitions in their demographic, urbanisation and economic development patterns (see Chapters 1 and 4), a careful policymaking approach is needed for Africa's biodiversity and ecosystem services. Problem identification takes place in the context of public policy, covering issues, potential and current, which affect various stakeholders, and that can benefit from policy intervention (UNECA, 2015). Some of the most common tools and methods used to identify these problems include vulnerability assessments, the DPSIR framework, scenarios and other forecasting tools (e.g., see Chapter 5). DPSIR is an acronym for driving forces-pressure-state-impact-response and it has been used since 1995 by European environmental agencies to develop indicators, map causal relations and policy options (Maxim et al., 2009). Vulnerability assessments have been carried out for decades in relation to poverty, natural hazards and more recently climate impacts (Kelly et al., 2000). Vulnerability assessment, DPSIR and forecasting tools can take into account local perspectives in problem identification and can use participatory approaches.Policy formulation includes identifying public policy alternatives to address the problem of focus, and following selection processes that narrow the options to deliver the final policy solution (Hai, 2013). Market and non-market valuation methodologies play an increasingly important role in policy making, with the valuation methodologies typically presented in typologies (see Pearce et al., 2002;World Bank et al., 2004;van Beukering et al., 2007). These also complement decision-support frameworks (e.g., costbenefit analysis and multi-criteria analysis) with a number of appraisal techniques that can collect and analyse qualitative information (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, citizen's juries, participatory appraisal, Q-methodology, expert opinions). The strength of multi-criteria analysis as a decision-making tool allows inclusion of a full range of social, environmental, technical, economic and financial criteria, and is different from the use of cost-benefit analysis which typically focuses on economic efficiency.Decisions can both exacerbate and address environmental problems in Africa (Boon, 2015). Toth ( 2004) contends that decision-making needs to be underpinned by the use of the best available information about the biophysical characteristics of the ecosystem for which the decision is being made, their changes and their socio-economic effects, the social context and values with which the environmental problem is imbued, including cumulative and cross-scale effects. Environmental policy decisionmaking should be undertaken in a participatory manner involving local and indigenous communities (Dyer et al., 2013;Leventon et al., 2014) in line with principles of good governance. It also leads to enhanced trust between the different actors involved (de Vente et al., 2016) and allows for the recognition of values, vulnerability concerns, crossscale effects and context (Toth, 2004) and helps to identify and resolve trade-offs, leading to more just distribution of costs and benefits. It can also help to deliver implementation on the ground.Box 6 25 The Ecosystem-Based Adaptation for Food Security in Africa assembly (EBAFOSA).EBAFOSA is a tool aimed at promoting investments in ecological techniques that improve agricultural productivity without negatively affecting the ecosystem's capacity to sustain future productivity. EBAFOSA has provided a platform, in the 16 countries that have so far launched the framework, where stakeholders forge mutually benefitting partnerships aimed at upscaling ecosystem-based adaptation driven agriculture and its value chains into policy and implementation through country driven processes to ensure food security, climate adaptation and enhanced productivity of ecosystems. It has also focused on enhancing value addition to create income and job opportunities, especially for the youth who form 60% of the unemployed in Africa (Munang et al., 2015).In Cote d'Ivoire, EBAFOSA has helped establish partnerships amongst various actors in developing clean energy and markets to build on the 'Attieké d'Or' initiative to incentivise use of climate resilient, high-value cassava crop in all high potential areas -starting with the city of Divo and the Tonkpi Region. This has resulted in enhancement of biophysical & socioeconomic resilience at community level whilst contributing to economic growth (UNEP et al., 2017). In Malawi, on the other hand, through EBAFOSA an inter-agency task force has been formed and it has identified key existing policies for amendment towards complementing establishment of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation agro-industrial zones that will be powered by clean energy (UNEP et al., 2017).The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment's Report (AMCEN, 2014b) on enhancing the implementation and effectiveness of environmental law in Africa, identified administrative, socio-economic and legal causes as drivers of low implementation, weak enforcement and the ineffectiveness of laws and policies implementation in Africa. Serious concerns are still being raised about how the capacity in the areas of planning and financial, human and technical resources will be addressed (AMCEN, 2014b).In terms of capacity building, at a national and regional level, United Nations agencies and other global and regional partners, institutions and organisations have supported several African countries in the areas of environmental law and policy implementation. Capacity building for implementation takes place during the development of instruments like the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, National Biodiversity Reports, resource mobilisation strategies and several other national, regional and subregional projects focus on national capacity building and the establishment of institutions.NEPAD's, Action Plan for the Environment Initiative contains a detailed implementation plan assigning institutions within the Africa Region roles and responsibilities (NEPAD, 2003). The Plan has costed activities which can be presented to potential funders. From the Action Plan, Africa Flagship projects have been developed. The flagships put conserving biodiversity and reducing ecosystem service loss as a priority (NEPAD, 2003).Various methods and approaches have been developed to monitor the impact of policies, to identify gaps and potential unintended consequences/side effects of policy interventions, and plan alternative mitigation actions to ensure the achievement of initial desired goals. Processes such as knowledge co-creation and co-production (Ayre et al., 2015), and approaches such as participatory rural appraisal can provide useful inputs to the monitoring and evaluation process and facilitate assessment of progress towards desired future goals.Governance of biodiversity and ecosystem services requires capacity (financial, institutional, technical, information and communication capacity) as well as processes such as stakeholder engagement, participation, knowledge exchange and co-production, capacity building and the indispensable people working in the various fields of biodiversity and ecosystem management (King et al., 2007). Investments in these areas are particularly vital under options appropriate to less centralised governance contexts. Building capacity in the governance of biodiversity and ecosystem services requires the identification of new approaches and tools that are aligned to local knowledge.Capacity to develop and implement policies for the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services is a baseline requirement for an enabling environment. The effective management and governance of biodiversity and ecosystem services would greatly benefit from the availability of financial, human and technological resources (ICT and other innovations). Dependence on donor funding and projectbased management usually does not lead to sustainability of project activities once the donor leaves or the project ends (Lambert, 2006). Emerging new financing mechanisms (environmental fiscal reforms, payment for ecosystems services, biodiversity offsets, green markets or markets for green products, biodiversity in climate change funding and biodiversity in international development financing) and the emphasis on biodiversity conservation practices will greatly enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services.Identifying new approaches requires that African countries have knowledge on their actual financial needs in terms of how much is needed and where it is most needed.  et al., 2010).The next section focuses on scenarios as tools for decision-making which can effectively harness existing capacities and resources, and be used at various stages in the policy cycle to inform decision-making by exploring options and alternatives.Scenario analysis and modelling have been suggested as important policy support tools for enhancing decisionmaking about the longer-term future, especially given the uncertainty in social-ecological systems (see Chapter 5 of this assessment; MA, 2005;Vervoort et al., 2014;WWF-AfDB, 2015). Scenarios can be used to guide specific planning and policy development by testing assumptions and generating new policy ideas (Vervoort et al., 2014;Figure 6.5). The inherent uncertainty and diversity of potential futures are challenging for designing policies. Policy options are only a first step toward acting on the insights generated by the scenarios (UNEP, 2016). Because a set of scenarios offers the opportunity to explore diverse future contexts, each with their own challenges and possibilities, they can be used to make elements of plans more robust (feasible under future conditions) and/or adaptable to future eventualities.Scenarios are distinguished from other approaches for future decision-making, such as forecasting and risk assessment, by being specifically intended for situations in which the factors shaping the future are highly uncertain and largely uncontrollable (Peterson et al., 2003, Biggs et al., 2007). The main goals of using scenarios in assessments of biodiversity and ecosystem services and their contributions to human well-being are to synthesise knowledge and advance systems understanding; to alert decision-makers to undesirable future impacts of global changes such as habitat loss and degradation; to provide decision support for developing adaptive governance strategies; and to explore the implications of alternative social-ecological development pathways and policy options (IPBES, 2016b).The IPBES Methodological Assessment Report on Scenarios and Models of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, 2016b) highlights the important role that scenarios play in the decision-making process. Figure 5.1 shows that scenarios are helpful across the four major phases of the policy cycle relating to agenda setting, design, implementation and review. However, as highlighted by Chapter 5 (Section 5.2.2) most regional scenarios developed for Africa are 'exploratory scenarios' (80%) that explore plausible futures. Of those scenarios included in the assessment, 17% of them were policy screening, however, only 6% were target-seeking and only 1% represented retrospective evaluations of a policy (Section 5.2.2). An example of a policy screening scenario makes use of a global agricultural land-use model that was developed under two forest conservation scenarios reflecting two different policy goals, namely: maximising forest carbon storage and minimising impacts on agricultural production (Krause et al., 2013). The results of these scenarios show that conserving undisturbed natural forest appears to be a low-cost option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. There are no other regional scenario exercises that explicitly deal with testing policies -either through a target-seeking, policy-screening or retrospective policy evaluation process.Chapter 5 of this assessment outlines five scenario archetypes (Fortress World, Market Forces, Policy Reform Local Sustainability, Regional Sustainability) and analyses how achieving specific biodiversity, ecosystem services and development targets in Africa can be enabled under the contextual assumptions of these 5 archetypal futures (Box 5.2,Section 5.7 and Table 5.7.). Potential governance responses under these archetypes are discussed in Table 5.6. The following section highlights some implications for policy making based on these archetypes, linking more specifically to key policy goals that relate to biodiversity and ecosystem services in Africa (Table SPM 2,  Table SPM 4, Table 5.7, Figure 6.7 below). The majority of the assessment undertaken in Chapter 5 used six core studies for the assessment, including: to a lesser extent, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) climate change scenarios (Nakicenovic et al., 2000;Moss et al., 2008Moss et al., , 2010;;Kriegler et al., 2010;van Vuuren et al., 2012); the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) Scenarios (MA, 2005); the Global Environment Outlook 4 (GEO-4) global assessment (UNEP, 2007); and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Ecological Futures scenarios (WWF-AfDB, 2015) that were specifically developed for Africa and also used in the sixth Global Environment Outlook (GEO-6) regional assessment (UNEP, 2016) (Section 5.3).Under this type of future there is an increased need for proactive legal and regulatory instruments (e.g., Protected area zoning, access and benefit sharing legislation; see also section 6.5.2) and economic and financial instruments (e.g., certification schemes, carbon taxes; see section 6.5.1) that mediate the impacts of intensive agriculture, extractive industries and associated infrastructure (e.g., transport, water and energy). Policy reform envisions a more globally connected world where local economies are boosted and policies aligned with a green economy can potentially flourish, relieving pressure on marine resources which aligns with enhancing Sustainable Development Goal 14: Life below water (WWF-AfDB, 2015). Protected areas increase based on the political recognition that healthy ecosystems underpin development, however biodiversity outside these protected 'islands' declines.Trade-offs between some of the ecosystem services linked to Sustainable Development Goals (e.g., Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero hunger and Sustainable Development Goal 6: Clean water and sanitation) and Aichi Biodiversity Targets (e.g., Target 5: Reduce habitat loss and degradation) are the most apparent related to these scenario types. Decision-makers in Africa under this scenario need to pay careful attention to telecoupling, for example, the impacts of biofuels grown locally for foreign markets (Liu et al., 2013) or diversion of river flows benefiting global markets at the expense of local livelihoods (Bohensky, 2006)  (Alcamo et al., 2005). However, this comes with a projected 3-5 fold increase in waste-water discharge in sub-Saharan Africa, which will require additional policy and infrastructure interventions to ensure that poor water quality does not impact on human and environmental health (Alcamo et al., 2005;MA, 2005). Policies that promote spatial and cross-sector investment and planning can minimise the impacts largescale infrastructure development has on ecosystems, especially with the risk of climate variability. This scenario focuses on building resilience by encouraging policies that promote economic diversification and reduce market failure, but at the same time needs to strengthen environmental regulation to avoid the dependence on a few resources that can rapidly be depleted (Alcamo et al., 2005). Under policy reform, governments actively work together with the private sector and civil society to co-develop new policies to strengthen economic growth (UNEP, 2007). It is vital that indigenous knowledge is integrated into this cooperation (see also section 6.5.3.1 on multi-stakeholder governance).In this scenario, economic development in Africa is most rapidly achieved under a market forces scenario based on policies which create open markets and see the government and private sector promoting the exploitation of the abundant natural resource base for global trade (Nakicenovic et al., 2000;UNEP, 2007UNEP, , 2016;;van Vuuren et al., 2012;WWF-AfDB, 2015). While there is also rapid technology development, there are limited investments in alternative energy and as nations abandon their climate agreements (which is at odds with Sustainable Development Goal 13), fossil fuels are used intensively to power development (Nakicenovic et al., 2000;UNEP, 2007;van Vuuren et al., 2012). Rapid economic growth can potentially benefit many people in the short-term, with inequality lessening (see section 5.5); promoting A future which focuses on strengthening regional and local identities through strong national governments with the main objective to strengthen security is still a plausible trajectory for Africa (Nakicenovic et al., 2000;MA, 2005;UNEP, 2007). Within this scenario, environmental policies are mostly reactive and geared towards facilitating regional economic growth and there is rapid population growth. Under a fortress world future, habitat loss, mainly due to policies which promote extensive agriculture, are the highest relative to other scenarios, resulting in limited ability to achieve multiple Aichi Biodiversity Targets (targets 5, 7, 12, 15) and those Sustainable Development Goals strongly associated with maintaining ecological integrity (Sustainable Development Goals 11,14,15). Under this scenario, countries endowed with high levels of biodiversity and ecosystem services are able to develop faster, increasing species loss and local extinction rates (at odds with Biodiversity Target 12). There are few policies promoting inter-regional trade and the government and the private sector compete for control, with the elite remaining powerful and poverty worsening in many communities (impacting Sustainable Development Goal 10). Under this scenario, which envisions fragmented and slower per capita growth and technological change (Nakicenovic et al., 2000) with associated lower carbon emissions, policies are needed around climate adaptation as there is limited adaptive capacity to address existing climate-related impacts (limited action on Sustainable Development Goal 13) (van Vuuren et al., 2014). Similarly, policies are needed that improve catchment management practices such as better regulation and application of agrochemicals under agricultural intensification, combined with riparian forest conservation to reduce the risk of runoff-driven water pollution (limiting Sustainable Development Goals 6 and 2).In this scenario the future of Africa is based on policies which support intra-regional trade for development with the main objective to contribute towards global or regional sustainability. There is an emphasis on evidencebased policy making with strong, capacitated regional governance systems and a focus on policies linked to strategic planning and implementation of infrastructure that has limited impact on sensitive ecosystems (e.g. There is a need to avoid duplication of effort, refrain from competition for the same resources, enhance efficiency, and instead to tap into the potential for shared knowledge management to harness co-benefits and reduce trade-offs. Such efforts require consideration of policy and institutional interplay, both at and across different scales and levels of governance (Young, 2002;Oberthür et al., 2006). The key take-away policy implications from looking at the scenarios are that it is necessary to have a suite of responses available and that there is no ideal policy pathway that is any better than any other. Rather, it is important to ensure that policies are synergistic and coherent, where relevant and appropriate, and that one policy is enabled to make up for the weaknesses inherent in another policy.As described in section 6.5, an array of policy instruments is available to enhance the opportunities from, and address the challenges associated with, biodiversity and ecosystem services. This chapter has assessed existing policies and governance options and actions in response to the current status of biodiversity and ecosystem services and trends and direct and indirect drivers of change (see chapters 3 and 4). It provided analysis of key policy instruments and governance options linked to specific scenarios identified in chapter 5. It assessed the links between relevant international agreements and initiatives and their mainstreaming across scales and sectors; analysed policy instruments and their application to the African context and considered the important role of indigenous and local knowledge in understanding nature's contributions to people. It highlighted the importance of creating an enabling environment for evidence-based decisionmaking, policy design and reviewed some of the existing policy support tools and methodologies.Avoiding a perceived or real 'tragedy of the commons' requires effective institutional responses that can enable environmental resources to be managed so that they contribute towards human well-being without eroding natural capital. Many indigenous African systems are well placed to do this. Generally, the existence of weak institutional and human capacity undermine efforts for good governance of biodiversity and ecosystem services and nature's contributions to people, emphasising the need to prioritise environmental governance across scales in order to support the equitable use of resources and conservation.Africans depend on biodiversity and ecosystem services for their livelihoods and well-being. Many of Africa's political, legal, institutional, economic, and social contexts present a major challenge for the sustainable management of natural resources. They are further manifested by different challenges faced by the population in Africa including devastating land degradation, population growth, invasive species and climate change.Efforts have been taken by African countries to address issues of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services preservation though signing and ratifying international agreements. This has resulted in African governments making high-level commitments to achieve their targets. However, despite their importance to local development, peace and security, issues of importance and relevance to indigenous and local people have not been incorporated into many of the agreements, while those that focused on indigenous issues, bringing little or no change to indigenous people's rights and livelihoods. The low level of domestication of these commitments has constrained the effective implementation and the achievement of agreed Achieving a desirable and equitable future for Africa is based on an existing set of regional and global goals and targets. By using scenarios as a tool to think about how futures could play out, an enabling policy environment can be co-created to maximise synergies and coherence between actions and minimise trade-offs. This fi gure starts with a set of existing targets and objectives (Agenda 2063 of the African Union, the Sustainable Development Goals, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and other globally agreed goals) that the majority of African nations have agreed to and that are necessary to achieve in order for the continent to reach a desirable future; some of these are cross-cutting because they aim to achieve institutional reform (e.g., Aichi Biodiversity Targets 2, 3, 18, 19 and 20 and Sustainable Development Goals 16 and 17) (See Table 5.7). Recognition of the cross-cutting institutional targets is critical as they focus on what needs to be done within and between institutions if a more desirable future is to be achieved. They not only map onto one cluster of targets e.g., around water or energy, but are necessary to achieve them all. To aid thinking about how to reach this agenda, there are a set of scenario archetypes that help us to conceptualise potential futures that could arise under different conditions and the trade-offs between each of these (See Box 5.2). None of these scenarios offer the desired future that we want; some of them get us closer to a desirable future than others, but the future is uncertain and a complex articulation of aspects of all these potential scenarios. In this light, scenarios are useful tools to help us think about the type of enabling environment necessary for achieving certain goals. Looking at the targets through the lens of the scenario archetypes enables decision-makers to make more informed decisions about what policy instruments could be employed (See Table 5.6), explicitly highlighting trade-offs and directing attention to specifi c synergies and coherence. The fi gure summarises how agendasetting should be accompanied by effective decision-making that recognises future uncertainties in order to employ relevant policy instruments to achieve a desirable future.  14.2, 14.4, 14.7, 14.B, 14.C) targets. Efforts towards poverty reduction and scaling up of resilience will benefit from harnessing synergies between agreements to deliver multiple benefits, which can help to balance patterns of access and allocation of ecosystem services. Moreover, an enabling environment that embraces Africa's diversity will help to ensure justice and fairness in access to the continent's diverse biodiversity and ecosystem services. This chapter represents one of the few assessments of the status of policy options and institutions, especially with regards to scenarios, on African biodiversity and ecosystem services. There is generally a dearth of accessible peerreviewed and/or grey literature to support a comprehensive assessment of policy and governance. It has therefore created challenges in exploring these issues and creates an opportunity for more frequent, comprehensive and extensive assessments. It also presents an opportunity to develop case studies and pilot projects that explore the different policy options and instruments specifically in the African context.Due to science-policy implementation disconnects, most research findings have not yet been taken up and translated into action. More co-engaged efforts and co-production of knowledge between practice, policy, science and ILK systems, are needed to ensure a high level of awareness and the achievement of commitments, particularly among policy makers. For example, the use of the different concepts associated with biodiversity and ecosystem services, especially associated with the use of scenarios, may be confusing to policy makers and constrain their translation into policy options. It is important that Africa develop its own common understanding and interpretation of the different concepts to inform decisions and facilitate the design of appropriate policies. Finally, there is not enough collaboration or sharing of information and lessons learned among countries in the various regions in Africa. Effective cooperation and lesson-sharing are needed. It is equally important to ensure a platform for collaborative initiatives to ensure synergies. In this regard, the role of regional institutions cannot be overemphasised.Africa has an ambitious development agenda that is critically tied to maintaining and sustainably harnessing its diverse natural systems and ecosystem services. In order to achieve this agenda, it is necessary for all stakeholders to make use of effective policies that minimise trade-offs and maximise synergies under uncertainty so as to achieve a desirable and prosperous future for Africa (Figure 6.7).   ","tokenCount":"19298"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6abc89a802bb3ed5a655469ca06ac068","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70c22c5b-87c9-4de9-a048-6c37f5b2856d/retrieve","id":"-320053342"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"10eac8cf-86c8-4c75-af65-04e11d44fae7","pagecount":"2","content":"In Africa, rural youth unemployment is the main cause of rural exodus and emigration. The innovation aims to bolster the rural youth potential through capacity building and entrepreneurship and to link them to the agricultural banks to have access to credit. Innovative business plans were developed covering the activities in the rice value chain and presented to the banks for cofinancing. The models could encourage policymakers to develop special funds dedicated to youth.• Evaluation of the changes in women's and youth's role in decision making conducted, and feedback provided to project leaders, national partners and donors.• 3 -Improved access to financial and other services • 38 -Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making","tokenCount":"117"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe8c9d1bd6ba1e5d803f80e558b504e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f8f432e9-13ea-404b-9f2d-8e6daecd808a/retrieve","id":"-1766834306"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ec71b19b-ede4-46a6-9191-2d05aa68468b","pagecount":"29","content":"The 'Science and Partnership workshop 2017: The Role of Livestock in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in Southeast Asia' was jointly organised on 16 November 2017 in Hanoi by Vietnam National Institute of Animal Science (NIAS) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). This report summarises the discussions at the workshop and presents the key conclusions and recommendations that were made to identify areas of working together among partners to address plan of livestock areas in contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations at national and regional level in Southeast Asia.The workshop was attended by about 50 leading livestock experts and policymakers from 7 Asian countries to reflect jointly on the multi-faceted challenges related to the sustainability of Southeast Asia livestock production systems and find ways for transforming the regional livestock sector in the 2030 Agenda.The workshop was an important first step towards actions that could be taken collectively and individually to strengthen livestock systems of the region. Follow-up on these opportunities will be required in order to take key concepts discussed and suggestions made to a next level.On 25 September 2015, 193 countries adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that includes a set of goals to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all as part of a new sustainable development agenda. Each of the 17 goals has specific targets to be achieved over the next 15 years. SDGs have become the frame of reference for all development (research) work. Agriculture in general, and in particular livestock can play important roles in achieving these SDGs. For example, SDG#2 (End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture) is naturally the strongest linked SDGs for agriculture and livestock. Indirectly, agriculture contributes to many SDGs, including SDG#1 (No poverty) and other goals related to health, environment and partnership. Livestock can contribute directly to eight SDGs, and indirectly to all.Most of the countries have developed an action plan to implement SDGs and need to have a monitoring report to the United Nations. Vietnam has launched the national action plan for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda which was issued in conjunction with Decision 622/QĐ-TTg dated 10 May 2017 by Vietnam's Prime Minister. The action plan defines roles and responsibilities of institutions in implementing this agenda. Other countries in the Southeast Asia region also have an action plan.Seeing the unrecognised but essential roles of the livestock sector towards achieving the SDGs, it is critical to raise awareness and stimulate investments and actions to ensure that the livestock sector contributions to achieving SDGs are maximised.The key objectives of the workshop were -to discuss the key roles that livestock sector plays in SDGs and how livestock research can help countries and region achieve SDGs -to identify the gaps, opportunities and challenges that must be addressed to maximise the contribution of livestock towards achieving SDGs in the region and -to discuss the modalities of working together and resourcing actions that provide solutions to enhance livestock contributions towards achieving SDGs.The workshop included a combination of individual work, small group discussion and plenary discussion. In most sessions, groups were formed to facilitate conversation among the participants. The groups were mixed between sessions to ensure ongoing exchange of ideas and knowledge. At the end of each session, groups presented their findings with the help of flipcharts.The workshop was facilitated by Shirley Tarawali, assistant director general from ILRI and Ngo Thi Kim Cuc, deputy director general from NIAS.The following parts provide detailed information on the organization of the workshop, the outcomes of the reflections, some recommendations on work-together-initiatives and a conclusion.Session 1: Opening The meeting was opened by Vietnam Vice Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development Le Quoc Doanh, Nguyen Thanh Son, NIAS director general and Shirley Tarawali, ILRI assistant director general.In his opening remark, Vice Minister Le Quoc Doanh recognised the critical role that livestock sector plays in the growth and development of each country and of the whole Southeast Asia region. He stressed that strengthening the livestock sector is particularly important in the face of climate change and transboundary diseases. He expected this workshop to provide an opportunity for Southeast Asian countries to share experiences and research findings on the development of the livestock sector in the region, and this meeting will assist regional governments and other stakeholders to clarify the highest priorities in that effort.Nguyen Thanh Son, director general of NIAS hoped to create an enduring platform for stakeholders in livestock development to develop a shared understanding of the opportunities and challenges facing the region's livestock sectors.Shirley Tarawali shared that ILRI is grappling with how to reframe its work programs to better align these with the SDGs and how to retool its partnerships to better ensure that research outputs benefit broad-scale development. ILRI would like to identify priorities across the livestock sector to explore opportunities to work with partners across the region to maximize the livestock sector's contributions to SDGs.Session 2: Setting the scene Shirley Tarawali, in her keynote speech, set the scene speaking about the role that livestock can play in achieving SDGs. She shared that improving small and medium-scale livestock systems can help the world meet each of its agreed 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With research and development and policy support, many current small and medium scale livestock farming and herding production systems can be transformed into more vibrant, productive, efficient and resilient food systems, opening up particular opportunities for women and youth.Following her presentation, representatives from 7 Southeast Asian countries successively gave an overview of the development priorities of their country in relation to 8 SDGs (1,2,3,5,8,12,13,15) and the potential contributions of the livestock sector to each of these SDGs in their country context.This session closed with a presentation by Hung Nguyen (ILRI) on livestock research and development strategy of ILRI in Southeast Asia to fit well with SDGs.See all presentations from this link https://www.dropbox.com/sh/2mz52fb5v09zxez/AADgUkre79Wq8zth3nTivBDWa?dl=0The priorities were captured per country and included in Annex 2.Session 3: Livestock research and SDGs at the regional levelThis session focused on establishing a collective idea about the on-going research on livestock which can contribute to 8 afore-mentioned SDGs. Participants were also asked to identify priorities of their countries in relations to these SDGs.For this exercise, see Annex 2 for discussion results.The focus of this session was on opportunities for working together to optimize the contribution of the livestock sector in the achievement of SDGs. Experts were asked to translate discussions into opportunities for research, innovation and collaboration.Following are key fields potential for further cooperation and collaboration identified during group and plenary discussion:-Feed and forage management• The development of feed industry presents much space to work together. The feed industry is critical to sustainable livestock production. Advancements in raw materials may result in novel feedstocks that change the entire approach to feed formulation. Notably, participants showed much concern about food safety and quality at all stages in feed production as today's feed may contain hazards which requires the industry and governments to take actions and enforce risk-based assessment to ensure food safety.• Besides talking about enhancing commercial feed industry, using the local available feed resources was also strongly recommended. Participant from the Philippines shared the initiative of turning rice straw into feeds for ruminants. A proposal was submitted to the Government of the Philippines. This inexpensive feed option traditionally given to ruminant can provide cheaper feeds for livestock keepers while generating additional incomes for rice farmers.-Animal breeding and genetics• Participants all agreed to work together to improve technology level of producers including appropriate animal genetics. It is recommended to maximize the use of local resources, including indigenous breeds for the purpose of protecting ecosystems. Exchange of animal genetic resources between countries should be done for breeding program. Also, participants proposed to find good genetics and species in order to improve productivity and meat quality. In so doing, farmers would be inspired to keep indigenous livestock.• Application of new technology in the village breeding program in the countries was recommended to enhance productivity of local breeds. In order to do this effectively, the role of ILRI is very important in supporting the experts and solutions.• Participants debated quite a bit on the conflict of income increasing purpose between the support of commercial farms or smallholder farms who keep native breeds although it is of low efficiency. Participants shared the experiences to change the awareness of the farmers on transmitting small scale to big scale. Further discussions are required to work out solutions to harmonize the benefits of both sectors.-Food safety, One Health and antimicrobial resistance (AMR)• Food safety is the major concern of all participants at the workshop. They discussed solutions that can help improve the situation. Of these solutions, they found opportunities to promote voluntary observance by food producers of procedures such as Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) and Good Animal Husbandry Practices (GAHP). Another possible intervention is to improve awareness of farmers on clean and safe substances used and raise awareness of consumers in choosing good and healthy meat. The development of alternative promoters as antibiotic replacement such as probiotic and traditional herbs was appreciated by participants to reduce antimicrobial use (AMU) and AMR. In this aspect, universities and research institutes must play a role. All participants identified AMR as a hot emerging issue, and there are opportunities to work together to address big donors in order to reduce AMU and AMR in the livestock sector.• Participants stressed the role of good law enforcement in animal production to protect the consumer against food incidents.• Many transboundary diseases will require a regional response, and there are many opportunities for joint actions. At the plenary discussion, participants agreed on the importance of promoting One Health network across the region. This network has a role to play in creating collective intelligence to learn from good practices, to avoid replication and to propose innovative approaches for disease control.• The participants from Cambodia raised the idea of strengthening laboratory networks to detect diseases, especially zoonosis. Sharing the same viewpoint, the participant from Indonesia stressed upscaling this kind of network across Southeast Asia.-• There is a clear need to promote livestock market both for exports but especially for the larger domestic markets, which would also address increased national selfsufficiency through impact on all actors in the value chains. Participants focused on intensification and specialization of livestock production systems, based on understanding of areas of competitiveness.• Participants discussed on how to balance between smallholder and commercial producers to equally create employment opportunities for both sectors and optimize their contribution to livestock value chains.-Improving access to credit and saving mechanism• Participants from Indonesia raised the opportunity to develop financial products enabling the purchase of livestock. He shared that stakeholders can upscale this initiative at the regional level. Funding sources can be mobilized from private sector and donors.-Technical assistance and capacity building for livestock keepers• Participants pointed to the need to provide technical assistance to livestock keepers which helps generate more incomes for them and strengthen sustainable intensification.• They also discussed about establishment of systems such as production supply chains, commodity production chains and cooperative farms for livestock production and support the poor people to get involved and get employed in these systems.• Participants agreed that applying IT in livestock sector is critical in the 4.0 Revolution. Farmers should be trained on technology to be capable so that no one is left behind.-Climate change mitigation/adaptation, environmental sustainability and sufficient land use• Participants insisted that livestock stakeholders work together more closely and develop an integrated approach towards managing climate change mitigation and adaptation and ensure environmental sustainability. For that high level political commitment will be needed.• Some initiatives were shared among participants including the use of methane for electricity and cooking, the development of disease climate sensitive food security chain, the boost up of climate information. More specifically, they pointed out the need to encourage more resilient farming system, sustainably manage and combat desertification and halt reverse land degradation. Participants found opportunities to work together to find out a way to reduce and reverse land degradation through better land planning and rangeland management.• Regarding to livestock waste management, Southeast Asia is abundant in livestock waste resources, but its livestock production management is still inefficient, particularly in the smallholder farms. Participants discussed about the possibility to conduct a pilot study for zero-emission village concept of livestock farm-gardenpond as an option in waste treatment and management. In this way, the idea of looking at manure as a resource, not a waste is central to good farm management. • Second, women's traditional role in the home/farm also puts them in a position to handle tasks in food quality-control for food safety outcomes. As such, there is opportunities to work together to provide women with appropriate training and information to enable them to adopt best practices that could bring about the desired food safety outcomes. Stakeholders should design training programs that suit the conditions and address constraints faced by women to adopt these best practices.• At the discussion, participants shared gender-related policies that could support gender initiatives in-country and regionally. In the Philippines, at least 5% of government agency budget is allocated for gender and development initiatives. In Indonesia, 5% of ministerial posts are allocated to women; opportunity to explore these as likely candidates for 'supportive' partners and resources. Vietnam has a law on gender equality law which is currently being discussed, targeted for issuance in 2018. Within this context and from a livestock perspective, livestock employment opportunities for the unemployed men in rural areas could be explored in collaboration with the government extension system, and with relevant and interested private sector partners, where feasible. Moreover, Vietnam's Women Union has yearly budget for gender-related initiatives.• Participants proposed certain development partners to work with including the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) to promote gender equality.-Government capacity building• Participants shared that there are many livestock policies in place, however they may not always work together properly. There have existed governance gaps in Southeast Asia countries. These governance gaps make the implementation of many socially and environmentally friendly practices very challenging. Implementing the SDGs in a transformative agenda requires new government capacities. Participants suggested strengthening cooperation and collaboration with local government and provide training for government staff to build their capacity.• Participants from the Philippines insisted on documenting decision making process in the Philippines as he recently saw the working flow with the Ministry of Livestock of Philippines quite slow in a bilateral program.To round up the workshop, Jimmy Smith, ILRI director general concluded by reflecting on the useful ideas the workshop produces that need to be taken forward and implemented. He shared that ILRI would like to support the current gaps of the region and stressed building strong partnership and trust with partners for further cooperation and collaboration.Nguyen Thanh Son, NIAS director general appreciated the workshop discussions. The discussion results will be used as reference sources for policymakers and researchers in Vietnam and other countries in the region. It will be served as the basis for NIAS and ILRI to develop cooperation framework to boost up the contribution of the livestock sector to global SDGs.The workshop successfully brought together participants representing the various stakeholders committed to collaborating to transform the regional livestock sector in the 2030 Agenda. In particular, the level of discussion and input not only from the speakers and panellists, but from the entire audience showed the engagement and commitment by all to concrete actions.This workshop was the first meeting of its kind in Southeast Asia, and the outcome of the meeting will depend on follow-up actions to translate the recommendations into concrete actions, for instance through working groups to address more specifically the key action points identified as well as follow-up meetings to review progress and plan ahead.The discussions resulted in a number of concrete next steps that should be explored.-ILRI to work out the gaps and opportunities that can be addressed and to approach partners to discuss further collaboration opportunities;-Information and documentation sharing between existing networks on One Health and laboratory;-Explore linkage and further collaboration between the existing One Health and laboratory networks in Southeast Asia;Facilitator: Dr Shirley Tarawali (ILRI)  -Through livestock sector the country try to decrease the risk on human health by:• Improving good farming practice, such as monitoring using of chemical substance on animal food• Improving awareness and health promotion on food consumption behaviour of public-The country is looking for improving livestock for addressing human nutrition problem, since the country still facing child nutrition problem.-Livestock policy is a great battle and often involving political issues.-The major concern currently is awareness of AMR (Antimicrobial resistance)• The policy makers and other stakeholders looks at how to balance between the need of antibiotic as growth promoter in framing practice and farming as economic needs.• The government and university researchers try to look at an alternative substance as substitute of antibiotic.• The government, through ministry of agriculture and local government try to look and monitor closely farmer practice using antibiotic and other chemical substances.• Law enforcement should be improved related to this matter.-In Human health aspect, the government looks at that the livestock management is one a gate in prevention zoonosis diseases.-Livestock also consider playing an important role in combatting child nutrition problem, for example, government implement the policy of milk supplementation program in children side by side with improving local farming.-Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is also a major concern in the country.-Food safety is also a major issue, especially in livestock value chain from farming to market meat distribution.-One health concept is considered to be implemented in livestock management value chain and public health prevention program.-The major issue is food safety in animal production, such as chemical substance used and growth promoter.-The country focus on increasing milk production in small holder farmer in rural area, especially buffalo to be used as milk supplementation program for children in the community (Baranggai).-The major concern in food safety related to livestock production.-The country implements \"Smart farmer program\", which is improving good farming practice in livestock production to protect human health.-The government concern is food safety and security to provide safe food to protect human health -The main issue is food value chain in pig farming, since pork is main source of protein of Vietnamese (76% pig, 19% poultry) ","tokenCount":"3061"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0ef08750f44f6a7a85c9c957e9871fb7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/503f70d0-f869-418c-bf92-d2b9157cfe6c/retrieve","id":"1115086549"},"keywords":["ecological niche modeling","climatic change","pest distribution","future risk","Aeneolamia","Zulia","Prosapia","Brachiaria"],"sieverID":"a2f5cc72-302c-4503-8036-ad75680661d5","pagecount":"17","content":"Spittlebugs (Hemiptera: Cercopidae) are the main tropical pests in Central and South America of cultivated pastures. We aimed to estimate the potential distribution of Aeneolamia varia, A. lepidior, A. reducta, Prosapia simulans, Zulia carbonaria, and Z. pubescens throughout the Neotropics using ecological niche modeling. These six insect species are common in Colombia and cause large economic losses. Records of these species, prior to the year 2000, were compiled from human observations, specimens from CIAT Arthropod Reference Collection (CIATARC), Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), speciesLink (splink), and an extensive literature review. Different ecological niche models (ENMs) were generated for each species: Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), generalized linear (GLM), multivariate adaptive regression spline (MARS), and random forest model (RF). Bioclimatic datasets were obtained from WorldClim and the 19 available variables were used as predictors. Future changes in the potential geographical distribution were simulated in ENMs generated based on climate change projections for 2050 in two scenarios: optimistic and pessimistic. The results suggest that (i) Colombian spittlebugs impose an important threat to Urochloa production in different South American countries, (ii) each spittlebug species has a unique geographic distribution pattern, (iii) in the future the six species are likely to invade new geographic areas even in an optimistic scenario, (iv) A. lepidior and A. reducta showed a higher number of suitable habitats across Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador, where predicted risk is more severe. Our data will allow to (i) monitor the dispersion of these spittlebug species, (ii) design strategies for integrated spittlebug management that include resistant cultivars adoption to mitigate potential economic damage, and (iii) implement regulatory actions to prevent their introduction and spread in geographic areas where the species are not yet found.In the neotropics wide areas are planted in grasses, being Urochloa spp. P. Beauv. (syn. Brachiaria spp.) the most extensive forage monoculture (Ghimire et al., 2015;Worthington et al., 2021). Its economic impact is estimated at USD12.4 million in Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and Brazil, the largest contribution comes from U. brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) R.D. Webster cv. Marandu in Brazil with USD 6.3 million (White et al., 2013). The major biotic stress affecting forage production and its quality in this region is caused by spittlebugs (Hemiptera: Cercopidae). A large group of species causes severe damage in susceptible grasslands (Cardona et al., 2004) with economic losses estimated at USD 840-2,100 million per year in all host crops (Thompson, 2004).Although spittlebugs are found in most terrestrial ecosystems, the tropics are the most diverse ecozone harboring 70% of known species (Thompson, 2004;Dietrich, 2009). In the Neotropics, species are reported from the southeastern United States to northern Argentina (Peck and Thompson, 2008). Different spittlebug species coincide in each country. The main species that occur in Brazil are from the genus Mahanarva (Distant, 1909), Notozulia (Berg, 1879) and Deois (Fennah, 1949)  (Resende et al., 2012). In Mexico, the species Aeneolamia albofasciata (Lallemand, 1939), A. contigua (Walker, 1851), and A. postica (Walker, 1858) are major pests of sugarcane and grasses (Cardona et al., 2004;Thompson and León González, 2005;Parada Domínguez et al., 2019). Whereas in Colombia the predominant species are A. varia (Fabricius, 1787), A. lepidior (Fowler, 1897), A. reducta (Lallemand, 1924), Prosapia simulans (Walker, 1858), Zulia carbonaria (Lallemand, 1924), and Z. pubescens (Fabricius, 1803) (Peck, 2001).Climate change can modify the distribution of species by expanding their presence to new locations and disappearing from previously suitable areas (Hughes, 2000). Anthropic movement, land-use change, environmental degradation (e.g., habitat loss and fragmentation) and biotic interactions (e.g., competition, species introduction, and plant host distribution) produced by the on-going climate change are factors that influence this distribution (Wagner et al., 2021). Insects are well-known for being particularly susceptible to environmental changes of temperature, humidity, radiation, and resource availability driven by those factors (Larson et al., 2019). Processes that homogenize and simplify the landscapes as extensive agriculture, allow the growth of pests over native species (Cardoso et al., 2020). Several studies in recent years have warned about the decline of insect populations to extinction caused by changes in the seasonality and, consequently, in their life cycles. This reduction in the populations has great impact over the ecosystems as the loss of abundance and richness of species continue to occur (Hallmann et al., 2017;Goulson, 2019;Halsch et al., 2021).Despite insect pest outbreaks are expected for the short term (Heeb et al., 2019;Liu and Shi, 2020), its severity may not be evenly increased due to the narrow environmental niche requirements, physiological tolerances of insects, and differential effects of climate variables on their life cycle (Lehmann et al., 2020). Previous models show an increase in suitable areas for pest species in Europe, e.g., Helicoverpa zea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), under climate change scenarios (Grünig et al., 2020). Thus, characterizing the effect of climate change in Colombian spittlebugs geographic distribution and identifying niches where these species would become key pests is important in the transition to more sustainable livestock systems.In this context, ecological niche models (ENMs) provide an approximation to estimate potential geographical zones with environmental conditions that a species requires to maintain its populations (Peterson et al., 2011). This tool is widely used in insect pest management programs to anticipate unknown distributional areas, geographic potential of invasive species, and response to changing environmental conditions (Peterson and Soberón, 2012). ENMs can be built based on occurrence data (inductive or correlative niche models; Elith and Leathwick, 2009) or based on physiological data [deductive or mechanistic niche models; (Kearney and Porter, 2009)]. For spittlebugs associated with grasses, we identified only two studies focused on changes in suitability of geographical areas under climatic change scenarios. The first, based on physiological data of Mahanarva spectabilis (Distant) (Fonseca et al., 2016), and the second, based on occurrence data of four Mahanarva species (Schöbel and Carvalho, 2020).This paper responds to the need to know whether A. varia, A. lepidior, A. reducta, P. simulans, Z. carbonaria, and Z. pubescens are potential key pests in new sites under climate change scenarios that consider the impact of human activities. Hence, spittlebug ENMs contribute to the development of adaptation strategies for tropical America climate-smart perennial grasslands, and sugarcane production, by addressing the need for shift toward more sustainable pest management practices (Macfadyen et al., 2018). For instance, adoption of cultivars with host plant resistance incorporated in high suitability predicted areas, or establishment of susceptible crops in low suitability sites, within intensive livestock and agriculture systems.Our main objective was to determine the current distribution of these six species and estimate the potential distribution under two future climate scenarios via ecological niche methods based on presence-only data.Information about occurrence records of A. lepidior, A. reducta, A. varia, P. simulans, Z. carbonaria, and Z. pubescens were collected from a variety of sources: (1) human observations, (2) CIAT's Arthropod Reference Collection (CIATARC), (3) websites Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF.org., 2020a,b,c,d,e) and speciesLink (https://splink.cria.org.br/), and (4) from extensive scientific papers revision (Hamilton, 1977;Avila de Moreno and Umaña, 1988;Peck, 1998;Sáenz et al., 1999;Cardona et al., 2000;Peck et al., 2001;Rodríguez Chalarca et al., 2002;Rodriguez Chalarca et al., 2003;Ferrer et al., 2004;Castro et al., 2005;Castillo, 2006;Valbuena, 2010;Figueredo et al., 2012;Matabanchoy Solarte et al., 2012;de la Cruz-Zapata et al., 2016;García-González et al., 2017;Paladini et al., 2018). Human observations data were obtained from CIAT historical records. These were captured by CIAT'S entomology department expert sampling in different locations. To georeference records from CIATARC without coordinates but with known location data, first, the geographic information available was verified and corrected according to National Statistics Offices (e.g., DANE to Colombia) and GeoNames (https://www.geonames.org/), second, coordinates were obtained via GoogleMaps (https:// www.google.com/maps). A cleansing process was performed to this first base, removing the duplicates (i.e., more than one occurrence record in 10 km 2 ) and the records after the year 2000 to preserve the same temporal distribution between distribution data and climate data.Elevation layer and 19 bioclimatic layers (bio_1 to bio_19) were obtained from Worldclim from 1970 to 2000 using raster::getData function. For the current climate data, the Version 2 Bioclimatic variables with a spatial resolution of 2.5 min were selected (Fick and Hijmans, 2017) with the aim of maintaining the same spatial resolution of the species georeferenced (Sillero and Barbosa, 2021). To extract values from the bioclimatic layers, the extract function was used. Finally, the species names were combined with coordinates (latitude, longitude), bio_1 to bio_19, and elevation values into a single data.frame.All analyses were performed in R studio version 4.1.0 (R. Core Team, 2021) according to Naimi and Araújo (2016) methodology (https://www.biogeoinformatics.org/), using the package sdm (Naimi and Araujo, 2019;R. Core Team, 2021).To prevent any multicollinearity-related bias in the models, a collinearity test among bioclimatic variables was performed using the vifstep function. Collinearity describes the situation where two or more predictor variables in a statistical model are linearly correlated (Alin, 2010). Therefore, it could inflate both the standard error and the confidence intervals, and prevent the determination of the significance of each variable on the dependent variable (Quinn and Keough, 2002). Variables with VIF (Variance Inflation Factors; Chatterjee and Hadi, 2006) values < 0.7 were selected for the subsequent analyzes. We created a sdmData object including species and previously selected variables, which means low collinearity, as predictors. Approximately 1,000 'pseudo-absences' points were randomly selected over the study geographical area for each species using argument method='gRandom'. Pseudo-absence refers to cells in which the species has not yet been recorded, not to cells in which the species is necessarily absent (Phillips et al., 2009).We used four species distribution models to predict the distribution of each spittlebug species under study. All models were based on presence and pseudo-absence data: Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), Generalized Linear Model (GLM), Multivariate Adaptive Regression Spline (MARS), and Random Forest (RF) models. MaxEnt was used as default settings since it has shown the ability to achieve good performance as a default (Phillips and Dudík, 2008). Models are fitted with sdm function using two replication techniques (subsampling and bootstrapping) establishing 70% of the occurrence data as training data and 30% as test data. This process was repeated 3 times. As a result of our methodological procedure, a total of 24 different projections (4 models * 2 replication techniques * 3 repetitions) were generated for each species.We consider the accessible area of species under study as the entire neotropical ecoregion and that the species do not have restrictions since in this ecoregion there is a large pasture monoculture for livestock and it has a wide sugarcane planted area where cercopids can be established (Jank et al., 2014;Schöbel and Carvalho, 2021). The hypothesis was that climate change will impact or lead to an increase of future potential distributions of the species under study. Models obtained were used to estimate the current distribution in South America using the predict function from the sdm package. This function allows making a raster object with predictions from several fitted models (Naimi and Araújo, 2016). All 24 predictions were ensemble in one using the ensemble function which provides a consensus of multiple models. By combining projections from different models, errors tend to be canceled out thus aiding predictive accuracy (Diniz-Filho et al., 2010).To evaluate model outputs, we used the receiver operated characteristics, analyzing the area under curve (AUC) (Fielding and Bell, 1997) and the true skill statistic (TSS) (Allouche et al., 2006). The AUC value is a standard method to assess the accuracy of predictive distribution models, AUC values below 0.7 were considered poor, 0.7-0.9 moderate, and >0.9 good (Araújo et al., 2005). TSS compares the number of correct forecasts, minus those attributable to random guessing, to that of a hypothetical set of perfect forecasts. TSS values close to one denote an ideal prediction; values of zero or less denote a prediction that is not better than random (Allouche et al., 2006). For each species, the relative importance of bioclimatic variables selected based on multicollinearity analysis and AUC metric were plotted.To build future potential distribution, we used the BCC-CSM2-MR global climate model from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 6 [CMIP6; available for use in the WorldClim (https://www.worldclim.org/data/cmip6/ cmip6climate.html); (O'Neill et al., 2016)] and two shared socio-economic pathways [(SSP); (1) SSP126: an optimistic scenario increasing shift toward sustainable practices with low greenhouse gas concentration levels and (2) SSP585: a pessimistic scenario that assumes an energy intensive, fossil-based economy with increasing greenhouse gas emissions over time (O'Neill et al., 2017;Riahi et al., 2017)] in a 2.5-min resolution. Habitat suitability was modeled using selected previously bioclimatic layers under each SSP scenario. In this study, only one time period was used for near future prediction: 2050 (average for 2041-2060). To quantify the change between current and future distribution, maps were converted from probability of occurrence to presence and absence. For this, the mean threshold (occurrence probability values) was used in the ifelse function which allows reviewing the probability values. If the probability values are greater than or equal to the average threshold, the new value assigned is 1 (presence) and if the probability value is less on the average threshold, the new value assigned is 0 (absence). Later, the current distribution raster was subtracted from the future distribution raster, as a result, possible extinction and invasion were plotted.In total 590 occurrence records were obtained: 115 from human observations, 299 from CIATARC, 108 from GBIF, 24 from SpeciesLink, and 44 from literature review. After data cleansing, 48, 186, 19, 71, 55, and 120 points were used for A. lepidior, A. reducta, A. varia, P. simulans, Z. carbonaria, and Z. pubescens, respectively. Maps showing the occurrence records, estimation of current distribution and future potential distribution (2041-2060) under SSP126 -SSP585 scenarios, and comparison between current and future scenarios (change SSP126 and SSP585) are presented in Figures 1-6. Suitable areas and suitability values as well as bioclimatic layers selected based on multicollinearity analysis differed according to the species in the study (Figure 7). Consequently, probability of occurrence (i.e., suitability) in the niches of each species as a function of two most representative biovariables (Figure 8) varied according to species. In general, the ensembled models reached acceptable values for metrics used to evaluate ENMs accuracy (see Supplementary Table S1). The most used, AUC and TSS metrics, showed high scores for all species under study indicating robust performance (Figure 9).A. lepidior occurred in southern and central Costa Rica, central Panama, and northern Colombia. The ENM estimated a suitable area in central and north Colombia and some areas of Venezuela (AUC 0.97 ± 0.05, TSS 0.80 ± 0.1) (Figure 1). Bioclimatic layers with high contribution were isothermality (bio_3) and temperature seasonality (bio_4), showing high suitability with high values of bio_3 (>70 %) and low values of bio_4 (<77.45%) (Figure 7). Averages of AUC and TSS (± SD) were 0.97 ± 0.05 and 0.80 ± 0.1, respectively (Figure 9, Supplementary Table S1). A considerable increase in suitability is expected for large areas of Amazonas ecoregion of Peru, Venezuela, and the north of Brazil even in the optimistic scenario, with possible invasions in those sites and western Ecuador, northeastern Peru and northern Bolivia (Figure 1). Also in Panama, Costa Rica, and, in the pessimistic scenario, in Guatemala and Belize. Small areas in a few sites of the Pacific coast of Central America and tropical South America show a decrease in suitable areas for this species.A. reducta occurred in Costa Rica, central Panama, and central and northern Caribbean Colombia. Fewer records were obtained in northwestern Venezuela and northern Brazil. The ENM estimated a suitable area in southern Costa Rica and Panama, as well as Eastern Ranges and Caribbean coast in Colombia, and Andean Venezuela (Figure 2). Bioclimatic layers with high contribution were minimum temperature of coldest month (bio_6) and isothermality (bio_3), showing high suitability with high values of both bio_6 and bio_3 (Figure 7). Average of AUC and TSS (± SD) was 0.94 ± 0.01 and 0.88 ± 0.05, respectively. An increase in suitable areas and possible invasions are expected for the future optimistic scenario in Colombian and Venezuelan Llanos and Colombian Caribbean region. In the pessimistic scenario, Amazonas ecoregion of Peru and Brazil, along with some sites in southern Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, and Mexico are predicted to be susceptible to new invasions (Figure 2).A. varia occurred in central and southwestern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela. The ENM estimated a suitable area in Amazonas ecoregion of Colombia, Venezuela, and northern Brazil, and a smaller region in northern Peru (Figure 3). Bioclimatic layers with high contribution were precipitation of the coldest quarter (bio_19), temperature seasonality (bio_4), and precipitation seasonality (bio_15) (Figure 7). Average AUC and TSS (± SD) was 0.97 ± 0.01 and 0.89 ± 0.05, respectively. A decrease in suitable areas is expected for future scenarios compared to the same sites in current sites. Also, extinction is predicted in a few areas of Colombian and Venezuelan Llanos (Figure 3).P. simulans was the most widespread species in this study. Occurrence records were obtained mostly from North America (Mexico) and Central America, with fewer records in western Colombia (Figure 4). Bioclimatic layers with high contribution were precipitation of the wettest month (bio_13) and precipitation of the coldest quarter (bio_18), showing high suitability with values <1,060 of bio_18 and values between 468 and 900 of bio_13 (Figure 7). Average of AUC and TSS (± SD) was 0.91 ± 0.06 and 0.73 ± 0.12, respectively. ENMs showed more habitats in South America and a small area in the Pacific Coast of Central America but with low suitability. An increase in suitability and possible invasions for small areas of Brazil Cerrado in both scenarios, along with Venezuelan Llanos in the optimistic scenario, and a noticeable decrease in Costa Rica is expected (Figure 4).Z. carbonaria has been recorded only in western Colombia, across central Andes. The ENM estimated higher suitability in Colombian and Ecuadorian Andes (middle tropic) and the Amazonian Piedmont of Colombia, decreasing its values to zero in Colombian and Venezuelan Llanos (low tropic) (Figure 5). Bioclimatic layers with high contribution were isothermality (bio_3) and precipitation seasonality (bio_15), showing high suitability with values close to 40 of bio_15 and high values of bio_15 (Figure 7). Average of AUC and TSS (± SD) was 0.99 ± 0.02 and 0.93 ± 0.07, respectively. A decrease in suitability for the Amazonian Piedmont of Colombia and the Andes is expected (Figure 5).Finally, Z. pubescens occurred widely in western and central Andes of Colombia, northern Ecuador and western Brazil, including Amazon and Cerrado biogeographic zones. Fewer records were obtained in southern Peru and northern Suriname         (Figure 6). Bioclimatic layers with high contribution were temperature seasonality (bio_4) and precipitation seasonality (bio_15), showing high suitability with low values of bio_4 (<10) and values close to 40 of bio_15 (Figure 7). Average of AUC and TSS (± SD) was 0.89 ± 0.03 and 0.66 ± 0.09, respectively. An increase in suitability is expected for some areas of Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil in both climate change scenarios, being greater in the pessimistic scenario (Figure 6).In our study ENMs of the occurrence data had a high grade of accuracy given the sample size of five species, except for A. varia, for modeling (>25 records) (van Proosdij et al., 2016;Schöbel and Carvalho, 2020). Despite small sample sizes methodologies based on calculation p-values through Jackknife are implemented in the SDM R package used in this study (Naimi and Araújo, 2016), more records may increase the model accuracy (van Proosdij et al., 2016). Low records for spittlebugs were previously reported for Mahanarva in Brazil (Schöbel and Carvalho, 2020) being underrepresented in occurrence databases. This phenomenon was also observed for the six species studied as most of the records were obtained from CIATARC collection and expert's reports through the years (human observation).The ENMs also revealed differences in the distribution and ecological niche of the six spittlebug species in South America showing that these species ecological niche varies widely in the Neotropic, and has the potential to invade large areas, where livestock systems coincide. A. reducta y A. lepidior have great potential to impact grassland mainly in Colombian and Venezuelan Llanos where susceptible pastures (e.g., Urochloa decumbens) and sugarcane are planted in large areas. Another ecoregion where these two species have high suitability is the Amazonian ecoregion in Colombia and Brazil, where livestock extensive systems are increasing indiscriminately.The evidence showed that Z. pubescens is distributed in a wide altitudinal range (8-3225 m.a.s.l) but with a local reduced temperature seasonality. Elevation has been reported as the most important variable with the highest contribution in the ENMs in other spittlebugs (Schöbel and Carvalho, 2020). Few species have such a wide altitudinal range, which allows us to propose two hypotheses: (1) Z. pubescens presents extreme thermal limits and (2) the species presents geographically separated populations. A case of biotypes is observed for the spittlebug Calitettix versicolor in China, which diverged in two lineages consistent with biogeographical regions separated by Hengduan Mountains (Yang et al., 2016). Similarly, this could be happening with Z. pubescens influenced by the Colombian Andes. Although the species is reported in Brazil (27 occurrence records; average of 400 m.a.s.l), the suitability values are lower than in Colombia and Ecuador (93 occurrence records; average of 1079 m.a.s.l.). The higher number of records in the highlands of Colombia and Ecuador could be causing an overestimation of the occurrence probability at these areas over the records of Cerrado places in Brazil, this would explain the current potential distribution estimated, and also could be reflecting the possible existence of, at least, two populations with different ecological niches.The position of a species within an ecosystem is determined by the interactions with their biotic and abiotic environment (Polechová and Storch, 2019). Tropical spittlebugs have a seasonal dynamic strongly synchronized with rainfall patterns. For instance, Z. carbonaria and A. reducta in Colombia, P. simulans in Colombia and Venezuela, D. flavopicta in Brazil, as well as A. contigua and A. contigua in Mexico, reduce diapause rates and a higher abundance of nymphs is observed after rain season start (Peck et al., 2001(Peck et al., , 2002;;Sujii et al., 2002;Olán-Hernández et al., 2016). Hence, a strong effect of the biovariables 12 to 19 in the models, related with precipitation, in the models was expected but in our estimations, the distribution of habitat suitability of these six species also involved environmental variables related to temperature suggesting that variables derived from temperature has a strong effect on the biology of these species. For P. simulans, precipitation was more important than temperature to determine its distribution with a relative importance over 0.4 for precipitation of the wettest month, thus, greater probabilities of occurrence happen in precipitation between 500 and 940 mm. In general, the habitat suitability estimated for two-dimensional niches was low as the biovariables' relative importance varied among all the species with values below 0.4 (Figure 8). Similar results were obtained by Schöbel and Carvalho (2020) in ENM of four Mahanarva species showing that most of the WorldClim variables did not contribute to their analysis and that for M. fimbriolata and M. spectabilis the biovariables had contribution percentages from 15 to 27%.Regarding the climate change scenarios proposed, we found that these have a significant influence on the potential distribution of the species in study, increasing the suitability value and suitable area for some (mainly for A. reducta and A. lepidior) or decreasing them for others (A. varia). Previous studies showed a declining tendency in suitability for Mahanarva across Central and South America (Fonseca et al., 2016;Schöbel and Carvalho, 2020) and Philaenus spumarius in North America (Karban and Huntzinger, 2018). Global warming and longer drought periods contribute to accelerate this phenomenon as spittlebug biology is highly dependent on plant water status. Being xylem feeders, they require excessive amounts of sap which flow is subject to transpiration (Novotny and Wilson, 1997). Under water stress conditions transpiration rates decrease as well as food availability for spittlebugs, particularly in the nymphal stages. Besides, these conditions may affect nymph thermoregulation by foam or \"spittle\" production, composed mainly of excreted semi-digested plant fluid, fatty acids, carbohydrates, mucopolysaccharides, and proteins produced by Malpighian tubules (Rakitov, 2002;Tonelli et al., 2018). Since the six species are Urochloa spp. key pests, a future limitation of ecological niche in future scenarios in livestock production zones should be taken into account as improved resistant grasses to spittlebug attack and increase the number of forage species are considered a sustainable strategy for the livestock systems under climate change (Rao et al., 2016;Schiek et al., 2018). Competition can influence species future distribution as well. Despite reaching the spittlebug habitat's food limits is unlikely (Schöbel and Carvalho, 2020), the variation among species' life cycles may determine the success of one species over others. A. reducta was reported for the first time in 2019 in Cauca River Valley, Colombia (Hernandez et al., 2021) where A. varia is a key pest of sugarcane and P. simulans of signalgrass [Urochloa decumbens cv. Basilisk; (Rodriguez Chalarca et al., 2003;Gómez, 2007)]. In Colombian Caribbean coast, A. reducta's entire life cycle is shorter (45.2 days) compared with A. varia (62 days) or P. simulans (71.9 days) in Cauca River Valley conditions (Peck et al., 2002;Rodriguez Chalarca et al., 2003;Castro Valderrama et al., 2011). Thus, A. reducta can coexist or even displace these two species in sugarcane and signalgrass for potentially having more generations per year in the region where ∼208 thousand ha of sugarcane was harvested in 2018 (Asocaña., 2019).The current study contributes to the ecological knowledge of spittlebugs, which will be useful in the development of prevention and control strategies for this pest in South America. Finally, we suggest carrying out studies of physiology and genetics of populations to determine the thermal limits of the species and to corroborate if there are genetic divergences between geographically separated populations.","tokenCount":"4263"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6f7734b411e522d8da21b38fda99ea1e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7bccbaf8-3b1c-445b-82e1-586d97376136/retrieve","id":"-697814676"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fa28a0b3-dcee-4654-8f16-14c3155ff772","pagecount":"30","content":"This handbook provides an easy-to-use reference on production of high quality sweetpotato planting material for seed (vines) that will contribute to efficient, profitable and sustainable sweetpotato productivity in Malawi. It is intended for use by extension staff, farmers, seed certification technicians, and other parties interested in sweetpotato seed systems and production. It is envisaged that users will find it useful and that researchers will continue to work for its improvement and applicability.Sweetpotato is one of the widely grown crops in Malawi and has the potential to contribute to improved food and nutrition security. The importance of sweetpotato as an alternative food and cash crop has steadily increased recently. This is attributed to the recurrent droughts and escalating prices of farm inputs, especially for maize which is the staple food crop.Sweetpotato is considered as a low-risk crop that adapts readily to a wide range of agro-ecological conditions.It efficiently utilizes mineral reserves of marginal soils, can withstand unfavorable climatic and is highly efficient in the conversion of solar energy to carbohydrates.Sweetpotato root yields differ greatly across the world, with Asia averaging 18.5 tons/ha, the USA 16.3 tons/ha, South America 12.2 tons/ha and Africa 4.7 tons/ha. Under excellent management and input use, such as can occur in South Africa, yields of 50-60 tons/ha can be obtained.In Malawi, released varieties have yield potentials of over 20 tons/ha. The high yield gap between that obtained by researchers and farmers in Malawi is attributed to poor agronomic practices such as late planting in degraded soils, late or no weeding, wrong spacing, use of disease/pest infected planting materials and other poor cultural practices used by farmers.The main constraint to sweetpotato production in Malawi is lack of high quality and disease-free planting vines. Instead, farmers use sprouts from previous fields as seed material. As these are informally exchanged between farmers they can escalate pest and disease incidences.An effective and efficient seed system will provide farmers with high quality planting materials in a timely manner. A constraint to breeders being able to disseminate rapidly new varieties to farmers is the low multiplication rate for vines (15:1); this is low in comparison to most cereal crops (200-300:1). Fortunately, rapid multiplication techniques have been developed which can reach rates of 90:1 and are constantly being improved.A successful seed system requires availability of improved seed (foundation seed, basic seed) with protocols for cleaning planting materials and rapid multiplication of disease-free vines, and also well trained personnel and stakeholders. The Malawi government Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS) in collaboration with the International Potato Center (CIP) has developed a seed system for sweetpotato in Malawi that ensures production, dissemination, and access by farmers to high quality planting material of improved varieties.The sweetpotato seed system in Malawi is working to contribute to poverty alleviation through raising the crop's productivity by availing quality seed of improved varieties. The seed system is intended to achieve:• Dissemination of high quality and disease-free planting material which results in high yields.• Timely provision of planting material to farmers of appropriate quality and quantity.• Efficient dissemination of new improved varieties from breeding programs.• Provision of replacement planting material following natural disasters or in times of crisis or unrest, as well as routinely replenishing farmers' planting materials.The seed system is also key in the implementation of the seed regulations of Malawi that ensure production and availability of high-quality seed in the country. The Seed Services Unit (SSU) in the DARS is therefore key in the process of ensuring availability of high-quality seed material of sweetpotato in Malawi.Although sweetpotato planting materials can be produced from true seeds, apart from specialist breeders, they are generally propagated vegetatively. The criteria used in determining quality of planting materials of sweetpotato are generally based on the threshold levels of infestation of diseases and pests. Crop fields which fall within the acceptable range of quality standards qualify as sources of good planting materials, while those outside the range are rejected.In addition to incidence of diseases and pests, there are other difficulties associated with the production of sweetpotato planting materials. One of these is the bulkiness of the vines. The bulky and relatively fragile vines can easily be damaged when they are transported to production fields. This can result in poorly established crops.Just like cereals and legumes, the classes of sweetpotato planting materials are: i. Breeder/Nucleus seed: This is seed of a released variety maintained by the breeder. This requires mother plantlets produced using tissue culture and in-vitro preservation.ii. Pre-basic: This is the progeny of breeder seed produced under high level management in tissue culture and screen screenhouses. It is produced by mandated institutions and private entities with relevant facilities and structures.iii. Basic/foundation seed (generations G1 to G3): This is the progeny of pre-basic seed sourced from screen houses and planted in open fields. iv. Certified seed (G4 to G7): This is produced through the multiplication of basic/foundation seed (G3) in open fields.There are three levels of seed multiplication outlined as follows:i. Production at primary stage (G1 to G3):At the primary stage, production is for early generation planting materials in open fields. The initial source of planting material is from screenhouses (pre-basic). The field is managed to a high-level and closely supervised by research scientists, extension staff or trained specialists. While the first open field planting is referred to as G1, the ratooned crop and the replants from the ratoons are classified subsequently by generations (G2 and above), and as approved by SSU between generations.At the secondary multiplication stage, the source of planting material is from primary stage (G3) to produce G4. Seed multiplication is done by individual or commercial producers under technical supervision from researchers as well as extension workers from Ministry of Agriculture, NGOs, private institutions and other partners. These institutions/agencies should be backstopped by breeders/researchers through training about seed management. Seed can be classified from G5 to G7, depending on the assessment and approval by SSU.To enhance dissemination and facilitate easy access to high quality planting materials by the farming communities, decentralized vine multipliers (DVMs) are recruited and trained. The planting material used by DVMs is the secondary stage (G5 to G7). Seed production is done by individuals, groups or commercial multipliers who are closely located to sweetpotato root producers. Supervision is done by extension workers and partners in communities. Inspection and registration with SSU is mandatory if the seed is to be sold.The conventional sweetpotato vine multiplication method is the easiest and most widely used. For this, vines are grown on ridges but at reduced within row spacing of 15 cm between planting stations (compared to 20 cm for root production). It is aimed at producing roots whilst also multiplying vines. However, it has the disadvantage of having a low vine multiplication rate (1:15) compared to the rapid multiplication technique (1:60-100).The primary aim is to multiply vines at high plant density. Seed multiplication is done on nursery beds. The standard bed is 1 meter wide and any length. A 1-meter square bed requires 50 vine cuttings spaced at 10 cm x 20 cm (Figures 1 and 2).  Production of planting materials is done in nurseries and needs to be close to a reliable source of water. The land should be free from volunteer plants and therefore sites where the previous crop was sweetpotato should be avoided. The soil should be well drained, preferably a deep sandy loam. The site should be away from high pressure areas for sweetpotato virus. Ideally it should not be on steep slopes to avoid soil and water run-off. The nursery should be protected from livestock and wildlife damage as much as possible.Beds for vine multiplication should be reasonably spaced to allow for easy working but generally about 1-1.5m soil to increase soil nutrients, improve soil structure and water holding capacity.Sweetpotato varieties to be multiplied should be those demanded by local farmers and the market. These should be high yielding, early maturing, high in dry matter content (at least 30 %), with acceptable taste, low fiber content, good storability, and tolerant to pests and diseases. Details of released varieties in Malawi are provided in Appendix I.i. Select vines that are healthy with vigorous and lush growth. (Figure 3). iii. Cuttings should be taken from the shoot tip because here the meristematic cells are still actively dividing.Avoid using basal and woody parts of the stem as sprouting will be poor. iv. Two to three nodes per cuttings are recommended for rapid multiplication (Figure 4a). Water the beds before planting. Plant the cuttings vertically, at a spacing of 20 cm by 10 cm (Figure 1 and 4b) with two nodes inserted into the soil (Figure 4c). Water the plants again after planting. Water seed bed regularly; never allow the seed bed to become dry. It is also important to keep sweetpotato nurseries weed-free, especially in the first 4-5 weeks of crop growth, before the canopy fully develops. Weeds rob plants of nutrients, water, light, and space, and can also act as alternative hosts for diseases and pests.Care should be taken not to damage roots when weeding. It may be necessary to apply nitrogen fertilizer to boost crop growth, but care must be taken to avoid excessive, soft growth which results in weak vines. Where fertilizer is required apply 200 kg per ha of 23:21:0+4S or CAN at planting or ratooning (1 match box per m 2 or 20g/m 2 of 23:21:0+4S). Good planting materials should be true to type with no admixtures. During field inspections, off-types must be identified, uprooted and destroyed by burying or burning to maintain seed purity. Similarly, all plants infected with viral diseases must be uprooted and destroyed by burning away from the field.Regular routine field inspections to identify, uproot and destroy disease-infected plants is a must. The Regular inspections should start soon after sprouting and be repeated every two weeks. The uprooted plants should be destroyed away from the field by burning. In the early stages of growth, gaps resulting from uprooting must be filled with new cuttings to maintain a full stand. Care should be taken in identification of diseases to avoid confusing with nutrient deficiency/toxicity. Where in doubts, consult appropriate technical experts.In Malawi, the major pests are sweetpotato weevil (Cylas puncticollis) and elegant grasshopper (Zonocerus elegans), while major diseases are sweetpotato virus disease (SPVD) and the fungal disease Alternaria blight.Sweetpotato weevil is the most destructive sweetpotato pest in Malawi. The adult weevil (Figure 5a) is an elongated, black, ant-like beetle. It lives on stems and leaves in early stages of the crop, where it feeds and lays eggs. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae enter and damage the tubers by making tunnels and depositing frass (excrement) (Figure 5b). In response, the tubers produce toxic chemicals called terpenes, which render the   Harvesting should start when the vines are at least 45 cm long (usually two to three months after planting, depending on prevailing conditions). Harvesting should be done for either further vine multiplication or root production. Harvesting is done by cutting at 10 to 15 centimeters above the ground (Figure 9). With good management, two to three vine harvests from ratoons can be obtained within a rainy season, as long as the plants are healthy and free from viral diseases and sweetpotato weevil (see 3.11, Ratoon crop management).   Planting of sweetpotato vine cuttings should be done soon after harvesting. The optimum storage period for sweetpotato vines is one to three days, although cuttings can be kept for up to seven days. The vines should be kept in a cool and shady place. During storage, roots may develop at the base of the cuttings. This is called pre-sprouting. If this happens, the cuttings should then be carefully planted with the roots.Transport sweetpotato vines in open trucks, ox-carts or wheelbarrows, depending on distances. Take care when loading to avoid squashing and damaging the vines; especially when large trucks are used the vines can get squashed and overheat. Transport sweetpotato vines during the cool part of the day to minimize rotting or drying out.When the vines are being harvested care should be taken to avoid bruising the remaining buds. Bruised buds may not sprout. After ratooning, apply urea fertilizer as a source of nitrogen at the rate of 13g/m 2 to boost growth. Keep the field weed free. Another set of vines can be harvested two to three months after ratooning.Ratooning is not recommended, where disease pressure is high. Ratooned field should be certified by SSU. Register with SSU before producing any sweetpotato planting material for sale.ii. Source of planting material for multiplication should be approved by the SSU before planting of the nursery.• Adequate land to permit crop rotation• Water availability for irrigation• Access to land that is in close proximity to a reliable source of water for periodic irrigation (avoid water sources that are fed by drainage and also alleys between beds).• Soils should be fertile and well drained.• The field should be adequately isolated from fields that are currently or have recently been used to grow sweetpotato.• The farmer should have a basic practical knowledge and skills for production of high-quality planting material and have a genuine interest in producing sweetpotato planting material as a business.In deciding to produce sweetpotato planting materials as a commercial venture, answering the following questions may aid quick decision making:   ","tokenCount":"2209"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"130ed3be6d7cf74a27f35445d289bf69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eca3146f-11b8-4079-8325-7c9b1017c75e/retrieve","id":"-1860136684"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"82aa76fc-ac12-482b-b876-df44aad6696a","pagecount":"60","content":"The major subsistence food systems of lhe world that feed resource-poor populations are identified and their capaeity to supply essential nutrients in reasonable balance to the people dependent on them has been eonsidered for sorne of lhese wilh a view to overcoming their nutrient limitations in sound agronomie and sustainable ways. The approach discusses possible eropping system improvements and alternatives in terms of erop eombinations, external mineral supply, additional crops and the potential for breeding staples in order to enhance their nutritional balance while maintaining or improving the sustainability and dietary, agronomic and societal aceeptability of the system. The eonceptual framework calls for attention first to balaneing ero~ Rutrition that in nearly every case will also inerease erop productivity, allowing suffieient staple to be produeed on less land so tha! the remaining land can be devoted to more nutrient-dense and nutrient-balancing crops. Once this is achieved, the additional requirements of humans and animals (vitamins, selenium and 1) can be addressed. Case studies iIlustrate principies and strategies. This paper is a proposal to widen the range of tools and strategies that could be adopted in the HarvestPlus Challenge Program 10 aehieve its goals of eliminating micronutrient deficiencies in lhe [ood systems of resourcepoor countries.Life canno! exist without continuous supplies in adequate amounts of all essential nutrients. If even one nutrient is limiting or missing from the nutrient medium or diet of an organism, the organism will suffer and ultimately die. Thus, nutrient supplies form the basis of al! life on earth. Humans are no exception. Indeed, massive numbers of people are dying each year because of a lack of sui1icient nutrients to thrive. The magnitude ofthis crisis in human health is appalling with annually over 50% of all deaths on earth associated with malnutrition (World Health Organization 2003). In 2003 this amounted to about 30 million deaths mostly among the resource-poor people in developing countries (World Health Organizatíon 2003, Muller andKrawinkel 2005). Incredibly, approximately one (i.e., 0.95) person dies of diet-related diseases every second. No other causes of death (Figure 1) and related misery even come close. Importantly, these deaths are preventable if sustainable solutions to malnutrition are implemented. Micronlltrient malnlltrition alone [e.g., Fe (iron), 1 (iodine), Se (selenium), Zn (zinc) and various vitamin deficiencies] afllicts over 3 billion people worldwide (Mason and Garcia 1993). The consequences to human health, felicity, Iivelihoods, and national development are staggering, resulting in increased mortality and morbidity rates, decreased worker productivity and poverty. These circumstances are associated with and indeed begin with diminished cognitivc ability and lower cducational potential in children boro to deficient mothers (Bhaskaram 2002, World Health Organizatíon 2002). Dr. Bro Harlem Brundtland (Director General, World Health Organizatíon, United Nations), declared at the World Economic Forum in 2000 that: Nulrition is a key elemen! lo any strategy lo reduce the global burden 01 disease. Hunger, malnutrition, obesity and unsafe load all cause disease, and better nulrition will tranólate in/o large improvemen!s in health among all 01 USo irrespective olour wealth and home country. (World Heallh Organization 2002) Further, the World Health Organizalion's 2002 World Heallh Report slates Ihal inadequate food and ils poor nutritive value lead lo a downward spiral of increased susceptíbility lo illness and 1085 of livelihood, ending in premature death. Micronutrient deficiencíes continue lo increase in many nations. For example, Ihe global burden of Fe deficíency has risen from aboul 35% oflhe world's population in 1960 lo over 50% ín 2000(World Health Organization , 2002) and the population during this time had almost doubled. Fe deficiency among poor women is increasing at an alarming rate in many developing countries. Current intervention programs (i.e., food fortification and supplementation programs) to alleviate the problem have not proven to be effective or sustainable in many countries (Darnton-Hill 1999). Furthermore, globally these programs have been limited to addressing only Fe, 1 and vitamin A deficiencies, often singly, with no global programs currently planned for addressing other limiting essential nutrients in the diets of the poor, not to mention the necessity of addressing all limiting nutrients together.The United States National Academy of Sciences held a workshop in 2003 titled \"Exploring a vision: integrating knowledge for food and health\" where attendees recommended a new paradigm for agriculture, one that closely Iinks agriculture to human health. At that meeting, Dr. Charles Muscoplat, Dean, College of Agriculture, Food and Environmental Sciences, University ofMinnesota stated:Jt is time for the United States to shift to a new agricultural paradigm -one based on both what is good for the consumer and profitable for farmers The workshop recommended that new research was needed to address the gaps at the intersection of agriculture and food, food and people, and people and health (Figure 2).How does whal people eal impacl heallh? At the 57 th World Health Assembly in 2004, malnutrítion (both undemutrition and nutritional deficiencies) was acknowledged as a major cause of death and disease globally (World Health Organization 2004). Non-communicable diseases were recognized as being in crisis proportions in developed countries and rapidly increasing in developing nalions. In 2001, chronic diseases (many diet-related) accounted for almost 60% of the 56 million deaths annually and 47% ofthe global burden of disease. It was recommended Ihat national food and agricultural polices be consistent with the protection and promotion of public health. Member Stales were asked lo take heallhy nutrition inlo accounl in their agricultural policies.In 2004, leading economists from around the world met in Copenhagen, Denmark lo rank the ten most important global chaIlenges that nalions should invest in. From Ihat meeting the Copenhagen Consensus was bom which included the top ten ehallenges faeing the world today. Two of the top ten challenges in the Copenhagen Consensus (numbered 2 and 5) included: malnutrition -providing micronutrients to meet human nccds, and development of new agricultural technologies to address malnutrition (Copenhagen Consensus 2004). Thus, the world's mosl respccted economists recognized the importance of linking agriculture to human health.This global crisis in malnutrition is the resull of dysfunctional food systems that cannot deliver enough essential nutrients to meet the requirements of all. Because agriculture is the primary source of all nutrients (excluding water and oxygen) for humans, agricultural systems must be contributing 10 this failure to meet nutritional needs (Welch el al. 1997). How can agricultural systems be changed in ways Iha! will resul! in enough nutrient outpul of farming systems to assure adequate nutrition for all? Importantly, if agricultural technologies are directed at improving the nutritional quality of food crops, they must encompass a holistic food system perspectivc lo assure that the intervention will be sustainable, and adopted by farmers and consumers. Further, the agriculture sector must adopt a specific goal of improving human nutrition and health, and the nutrition and heallh seclors must adopt agricultural interventions as a primary tool to fight malnutrition (Welch and Graham 1999).Humans rcquire al least 51 known nutrients (Figure 3), in adequate amounts, consistently, lo live healthy and productive lives. Unfortunately, global tbod systems are failing to provide adequate quantities of all of these essential nlltrients to vas! numbers of people. Advances in erop produetion, incurred during the Green Revolution, were dependent mostly on improvements in cereal cropping systems (rice, wheat and maize) and resulted in greatly increased food supplies for the world, preventing mass starvalion in many nations. However, eereals as normally eaten, only supply necded carbohydrates for energy, a modest amount of protein but few other nutrients in required amounts. This change in agricultural production towards systems of cereal monoculture and away from more varied cropping systems appears to be contribuling 10 micronutrient deficiencies by Iimiting food-crop diversity (Welch 200Ia). This has had the unforeseen consequences of reducing available micronutrient supplies to resource-poor populations formerly dependent on more diverse cropping systems which provided more traditional micronutrient-rich food crops such as pulses, fruits, and certain vegetables that are now in low supply and no longer affordable to this sector of society (Tontisirin et al. 2002, Graham et al. 200 1).The Known 51 Essential Nutrients for Sustaining Human Life\" : Sn\" ........ _.L~._ .. _ .... ___ _• Numerous olner beneficial substances in food are also known ro contribute 10 good neallh •• Not generally recognized as essenlial but sorne supporting evidence publisbed Figure 3. The known essential nutrients for sustaining human Iife, modified from Welch and Graham (2004).Nutrition transilions in rapidly developing nations are al50 causing increased rates of chronic diseases (e.g., cancer, heart disease, diabetes, obesily, osteoporosis, etc.) where people are shifting from traditional diets 10 more calorie-rich diets derived from adopting developed nations' food systems (Clugston and Smilh 2002). There is an urgent need to lightly link the agricultural and food processing seClors lo human health lo find ways to reduce Ihe burden of diet-related diseases in the world.Farming for health. Tbere are numerous ways in which agriculture can contribute 10 improving human nutrition and health. Of high priority is inereasing the output of micronutrients in staple food crops from farming systems to meet human needs, ulilizing genetic variation within crop gennplasm banks (biofortification), applying fertilizers, diversifying food systems and increasing income (Graham el al. 2001). Agricullure must be close!y Iinked to human health if we are to find sustainable solutions lo nutrient deficiencies aftlicting the Iives and health ofmassive numbers ofpeople globally.Tbe bioavailability imperative. 'You are no! whal you eal. You are whal you eat and don'¡ excrete. ' This is because not all of the nutrients consumed in meals can be absorbed and ulilized in Ihe body (Le., nol all nutrients in diet matrices are \"bioavailable\") because of various interactions Ihat operale in Ihe digestive syslem. Varíous anlinulrients (substances, especially in slaple plant foods, tha! inhibi! Ihe bioavailabilily of nutdents) can dramatically reduce ¡he amounl of a nutrient Ihal is absorbable from a meal. However, other substances (promoters) can counteract the negalive effecls of antinutrients on nulrient bioavailability. Thus, il is imperative that agriculture nol only increases Ihe levels of nulrients in slaple plant foods but also attend lo the effects of an!inulrients by enhancing conten! of promoters. In this paper there is not enough room to discuss ¡he implications of bioavailability to improving the nulritional quality ofplant foods. Various review articles are available for those interested in pursuing Ihis aspecl of the nutritional quality of staple plant foods (refer to: Lopez and Martas 2004, Welch 2002, van Hof et al. 2000).There are several strategies that can be deployed in agriculture to increase the delivery of nutrients to people dependent on its production. Plant breeding is a híghly favored strategy because appropriate new varietíes are readily accepted by farroers. This has been well demonstrated by the large numbers of small producers who accepted and benefiled from the new, high yielding varieties of the Green Revolution. On the whole, this approach requircs the least change in behavior on the part of the subsistence farroer so impact can be high. Of course, to be acceptable, these new, more nutritious varieties must satisfy the profit criteria Ihat any other new variety must in order to be widely grown: high yield and aceeptabJe cookingleating quality.Nutrient contenl also can be increased by use of fertilizers, both mineral and organic.Fertilizer use is common in Asia bul much less so in Africa in spile of the fael thal Africa's soils are often highly infertile. Fertilizers are relatively expensive and all olher delerroinants of production must be reasonably well optimized for fertilizer use to be economic, and so resistance on the part of farmers is more common than wilh the use of new varieties. Nevertheless, for sorne nutrients commonly deficient in agricultural soils (N, P, K, S, Zn) it is possible to boost nutrient content more by fertilizer use than through planl breeding. If this also inereases yield, it is generally profitable for farmers to use fertilizer for the yield-andprofit advantage, and the superior nutrient eontent is a bonus without additional cost lo the farroer. Other agronomic practices can also affeet nutrient eoncentration in foodsluffs: gypsum, lime, green manures, minimum tillage and intercropping. The remaining intervention of coneern in this concept paper is to alter the cropping mix lo create or reereate diet diversily in arder to balance the nutrient supply to the diel by exploiting the differences in nutrient content of various crops. Diet diversity was lost during the Green Revolution wilh its emphasis on high yielding cereals. As the population continues to grow, though fortunately not at sueh high rales (Lutz el al. 200 1), it is quite difficult to tum Ihe dock back lo a lime when diet diversity was much deher than now. However, we argue here Ihat it is possible wilh the use of best-praetice agronomy on the main staples to maximize yieJds, allowing the subsistence farmer the luxury 01' devoting less land 10 cereal produclion and more lo secondary crops that diversif)' the diet and help lo balance the nutrients delivered by the food system. Combining aH three tools, breeding, fertilizers and diversifying diets is obviously complicated 10 implement with sustainability, economic viabilíty and societal acceptability, but their complementarities offer the best prospects of eliminating micronutrient deficiencies and reducing diet-related chronic diseases that threaten more than half ofthe world's people.Tbe plant breeding strategy. A planl breeding strategy is currently employed by the HarvestPlus ChaHenge Program lo improve diets in resource-poor populations by enhancing micronutrient density (coined \"biofortification\") in major staple crops (Graham et al. 200 1).The HarvestPlus strategy focuses on enriching six major staples for Fe, Zn and J3-carotcnc density, and collecting preliminary genetic data on these traits for ten other important staples.Enriched new varielies must have high yield and cooking quality lo ensure they are widely grown. Genetic variation for each of these traits has been found in al1 crops investigated (Graham et al. 1999) bul with Fe and Zn that are nutrients not only for humans but ror the crop too, a hígh genotype X envíronment ínteraetíon has been found that makes the breedíng effort more complieated and breeding progress slower. For ¡l-carotene that is synthesized by the plan! and is no! a nutrient taken from the soil (that varies from place to place), !he breeding is much simpler; moreover, the yeHow pigment in the edible parts is easy to see so that once the pigmentation has been confirmed 10 be due to fl-carotene, selection in segregating populations can in large par! be done rapidly by eye or simple color meter. Across a number of crops the inheritance of J3-carotene or other carotenoids appears to be simple, frequently due to one or two genes in any given cross. On the other hand, for Fe or Zn in seeds or grains, several uptake, translocation and grain-Ioading genes may be involved in each of these components oí the pathway from soil to seed. Moreover, as mentioned already, the content and availability of these nutrients in each soil and the effects of climate and season aH impinge on the final concentration measured in the seed.We argue that a better strategy is to breed for more of certain plant-synthesized substances that promote the absorption by the gul ofthe Fe and Zn present in the grain, or to breed to decrease the inhibitors of absorption. Among the promoters are vitamins A and C, sulfur amino acids and prebiotic non-digestible polysaccharides 5uch as inulin and resistant starch. These prebiotics pass the small intestine undigested but get metabolized in the colon by ubiquitous strains of beneficial bacteria (e.g., bifidobacteria and lactobacilli) that are able 10 degrade these indigestible carbohydrates and tbrough release of short chain fatty acids and induced transporters in the mucosal celJ membrane, can enhance absorption of Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn (Van Loo et al. 2004, Yeung el al. 2005). Vitamin C, usually high in fresh root and tuber staples, is a strong promoter of absorption of Fe from seeds and grains. Vitamin A and 13-carOlene also enhances the utilization of Fe and Zn from bound forms in grains, as do sulfur amino acids under sorne conditions.On the other hand, certain tannins and other polyphenols inhibit the absorption of Fe from staples. Low-polyphenol varieties have shown better bioavailability of Fe in tests (Glahn et al. 2005), although health benefits in relation to chronic diseases may accrue from many of these so-called antinutrient polyphenolics (Hasler 2002), so to breed for low content is debatable.Fertilizer strategies. The nutrient requirements of higher plants differ materially from those of humans shown in Figure 3 because mos! higher plants require only certain mineral s [N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, B, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, CI, possibly Co (cobalt) and Se], water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and solar radiation fram which they can synthesize all organic compounds they need. On the other hand, animals and humans require even more minerals than are known to be needed by plants, and in addition, they require sorne 25 or more pre-formed organic compounds in amounts varying fram large lo very small (Figure 3).Planls are able to supply all the known essential minerals for human diets even Ihough they may not necessarily require all of Ihem for their own grawth. In particular, plants contain Se, I and Co (in column 5 of Figure 3) and their concentrations may be enough lo satisfy human requirements fully ¡fthe soils on whích Ihey grow are not too poor. However, probably half of all soils are deficient in one ofthese three ultra-micronu!rients (daily requirements about 100 times less than those of Fe and Zn) and although plant production is not restricted, humans dependent on crops for most of their diet can be deficient. Well over I billion people live in areas of Se-deficient soils, and a similar number live in areas of I-deficient soils. These soils can be fertilized with Se or I as the case may be in order to preven! these deficieneies in human., but erop praduction is unlikely to be increased because of the ,maller requirements for these elements by plants, if they are required at all, In these cases, there is no incentive for lhe farmer lo use Se and/or I fertilizers unless the consumers are willing to pay more ror lhe enriched praduct. The altemative is for government to legislate for 1 and/or Se lo be added lo fertilizers sucb as urea, pbosphate or compound fertilizers that may be used in these deficient areas. The fertilizer strategy has a particular advantage in thal lbe nutrient has 10 pass tbraugb the crap and/or grazing animal lo enler the human die! and Ibis will ensure that overdose througb misuse or misunderstanding is highly unlikely. This appraacb bas becn used with speetacular success using I in far weslcm China (Cao et al. 1994) and for Se in Finland (Makela el al. 1993).Cobalt fertilizer may need to be used in some subsistence food systems where soíl-available Co is low because Co is a constituent of cobalamin, vitamin B12. The diets of many resourcepoor people in developing countries is so low in animal products thal vitamin B 12 deficiency is becoming of increasing coneem to nutritionists (Stabler and Allen 2004). Vitamin B 12 for humans comes mostly from animal tissues. It is synthesized by rumen bacteria in ruminants and by otber bacteria in nature, but not by plant or animal cells. AH otber organic requirements of humans can be sourced fram plant products, and if vegetarians eat some animal products such as milk-based foods or honey, tbey can obtain enough vitamin BI2 for heaith, provided soils have sufficient Co in the firsl place.In all probability, essential micronutrients remain to be diseovered, but it is already clear lhat these would be needed in only minute amounts, probably in lhe order of the 2 microgram per day requirement of vitamin B 12, a requirement thal may be satisfied by eating small amounts of diverse and exotie fresh vegetables, herbs and spices. No strategy discussed in this paper deals directly with these unknown requirements, but increasing diet diversity per se will be dealt with after the discussion of Zn.Zinc deficiency is importan!. The most widespread known nutritional deficiency in humans worldwide is that of Fe, bul it is particularly ineffective as a fertilizer because it is quickly oxidized and made insoluble in soil. Significantly, Fe deficiency in humans can be due to causes other Ihan Fe-deficient soils and low-Fe [ood crops. It can also be caused by Zn, vitamin A, )3-carotene, 1, Se, foJate or vitamin Bl2 deficiencies, as well as by certain gut bacteria, intestinal worms and other human parasites and pathogens. Bul of all of these, ln deficiency is the most widespread problem (Hotz andBrown 2004, Wuehler et al. 2005).Half ofthe world's soils are deficient in Zn (Sillanpaa 1990) bul ln fertilizers are remarkably effective; a single application may las! for several years. Zinc deficiency occurs in most environments and soil types, inorganic reactions with S and P controlling its solubility, whereas in biological systems, its solubilily is controlled by complexation with ami no, sulfhydryl, phosphate esters and carboxylic compounds and related polymers. In turn, ln determines the functionality of many macromolecules by conformational changes Ihat are extremely important in biology. Zinc-containing enzymes are involved with DNA synthesis and repair and RNA synthesis and editing, and transcriptíon, translation and feedback control of these systems. It further binds to over 900 human proteins (eleven times more than does Fe) and more than 500 proteins in plants ( Gladyshev el al. 2004), largely determinant of function. lt is not surprising therefore the symptoms of ln deficiency are many and varied, depending on the genotype. The concentration of ln in average rock and soil is perhaps 100 times less Ihan that of Fe, yet ln acquired from soil participates in almost all processes and pathways in living organisms. Jt can be deemed the most important metabolic promoter among Ihe 51 essential nutrients. Because ln interacts with such a vast number of proteins, symptoms of ln dcficiency in humans are many and overlapping, and consequently many different disease states are associated with its deficiency. Under Zn deficiency, humans lose muscle mass to release ln for maintenance of the ln concentration in blood and vital organs. So unlike Fe, ln deficicncy is nol easily diagnosed by blood analysis. In these respects, il is not surprising that ln deficiency has been exceedingly difficult lo diagnose in humans and animals. Deficiency of Zn ís the ultimate 'hidden hunger'. However, a survey by Hotz and Brown (2004) of ln in global diets resulted in a map of putative ln deficiency (dietary ln deficiency), and these authors estimated 2.6 -3 billion people at risk. A map from this seminal work (Figure 4) shows a distribution of low-ln diets that is heavily concentrated on South Asia, Soulh-East Asia and Africa, and reasonably mimics, for data so inherently different in naturc, !he map of ln-deficient soils (Alloway 2004).Figure 4. Global distribution of diets low io Zo (Hotz and Brown 2004).Among the changes in food/cropping systems brought about by the Green Revolution are the following:• Loss of diet diversity towards more cereal-based diets lower in Zn • Shift to higher pH soils and lower rainfall characteristic of cereal production • Use of P fertilizers that tend to decrease Zn uptake • Use ofN fertilizers that tend to reduce ln re-translocation from Icaves to seeds Each of ¡hese changes can decrease Zn in ¡he diet, which may be viewed as an unexpected consequence of the Green Revolution. The rise of micronutrient deficiencies generally appears to be among co-varying events of the Grecn Revolution and inelude, as wcll as Zn deficiency, Fe deficiency anemia and vitamin A deficiency in humans. We propose that the rise in ln deficiency is fundamental and so a possible underlying causal factor in tbe other changes.For all these reasons, addressing Zn deficiency is of the highest importance and excellent fertilizer strategies are available for almost any agro-ecosystem. Moreover, the widespread availability of the inductively-coupled plasma (Iep) optical emission spectrometer makes certain the diagnosis of ln-deficient crops and the safe use of ln fertilizers (Graham 2006).Diet diversification through food systems approaches. The incidence of some micronutrient deficiencies can be dealt witb by breeding more nutrient-dense crops (especially for Fe, ln and vitamin A deficiencies), whereas deficiencies of ln, Se and 1 can be beS! addressed by fertilizer strategies. Both ¡hese strategies are available to address Zn defíciency. However, for the two most important cereals, wheat and rice, and for beans, no genetic variation has been found in nature ror ~-carotene so for these crops currently conventional breeding programs are no! an option, but food systems can be changed 10 introduce provitamin A carotenoids into the diet from complementary foods. This is probably the single most important change that can be made to food systems by way of diet diversity.The study that follows in Section 4.3 is a special case of a dysfunctional food system in a poor area of Bangladesh where Ca is deficient in the diet especially for children. However, the general strategy can be used to address any dysfunctional food system, one that fails to deliver all essential nutrients in reasonable balance.The approach is fírs! to deal with the agronomy of tbe staple crop production. This position paper takes the view tbat low-input agriculture is unsustainable in the modem world because tbe population has increased beyond what can be sustained without modem inorganic fertilizers. Global eco10gists have estimated tbat the sustainable human population of the planet is 2 billion (Evans 1993(Evans , 1998)), meaning in effect that more than 4 billion people could no! survive without artificial fertilizers. [fthat is accepted, then even subsislence farmers need some fertilizer to compete effectively -lo match tbe overall lower costs of production from the use of fertilizers, allowing farm families to pay for access to better education and health opportunities, as well as for diet diversification and better nutrition. Of course, this may require certain interventions by governmenls in facilitating access lo credit and the manufacture/distribulion of appropriate fertilizers, and ¡he availability of experienced agronomists, although in many instances, all these services may be supplied by the private sector if the needs are properly identified. Therefore we advocate first optimizing the nutrition of the existing staple crops.When the crop is well nourished, the yield advantage should make production more profitable ror the farmer. Moreover, dealing with micronutrient deficiencies as well as the basic NPK, lime and S requirements means that many of the real or potential deficiencies in humans should be dealt with, but there are exceptions already mentioned: vitarnins A and B 12. Vitamin A can be dealt with by introducing a p-carotene-rich crop into the cropping system, which should be readily achievable beeause the increased productivity of the fertilized primary staple wiJl allow sorne land lo be freed for erop diversification. Field crops rieh in pcarotene inelude selected varieties of pulses like cowpea, chickpea, the cereal s maize and sorghum, root crops Iíke eassava and orange-fleshed sweet potato, and a variety of yellow, orange and red vegetables and fruits. The other vítamín Ihat is not addressed in the cropping system is vitarnin B12, mentioned earlier, Ihat needs to come from very small amounts of dairy, egg or meat sources that ultimately depend on soB-Co taken up by plants. 11 ís necessary of course that the food system is developed with the community to ensure its sustainability of economic viability and its acceptability in terms of foods provided and labor requirements.F ood systems encompass activitíes related to produetion, acquísition, and utilization of foods Ihat affect human nutrition and health (Bernstein 2002). They comprise subsystems such as cropping systems (Christiansen 1967, Pumisacho andSherwooo 2002) and form part ofwider Iivelihood systems (Ellis 2000). Food systems strategies seek to address problems of food insecurity and malnutrition by understanding requirements for Ihe production of and aecess to diverse fooos lo inerease their supply, affordability and their consumption.Subsistence food systems evolve lo optimize food proouction and quality in the face of Iimitations and variability in the environment, seed material, avaílability and affordability of inputs, and numbers of people dependent on them. In the last 40 years there has been an acceleration of change in food systems following the population explosion of the human race that began after World War 11. Under the threat of potential mass starvation, an international effort later dubbed the Green Revolution greatly inereased production of cereals, especially rice, wheat and maize, and in ¡he two decades 1960-1980 restored the world to overall food sufficiency. Cereals now dominate food systems more than ever before. They have partly replaeed legumes in food systems because of their greater yield, tolerance to biotic stresses and wide adaptahility: Figure 7 shows Ihat cereal production has increased at a faster rate and pulse production at a much slower rate than has population growth. In this paper the major food systems are identified by ¡he dominant cereal component(s) and further by secondary staples.Rice is Ihe most important cereal; rice-based food systems feed over half of the human population, most notably in South Asia, East and South-east Asia, bul also provide a complementary staple throughout the world. Rice based food systems inelude rice, ricewheat, rice-pulse and rice-fish systems Ihal are discussed here. These days, rice is mosl commonly eaten after polishing, a process of abrading away the ouler layers of the grain (after removing the hull or husk to convert 'paddy' into 'brown rice'). These outer layers, called the 'bran', inelude the pericarp, seed coat, testa and the nutricnt-rich aleurone layer. In polishing, the aleurone and the germ, also rich in nutrients, are lost to the bran. The bran thus contains much of the Fe, Zn, Ca, vitamins, phytate and sorne of the protein (Lauren et al. 2001). Before the advent of electric milling machines in Ihe villages, rice was processed for cooking by pounding or parhoiling. Pounding is a milder process Ihan modem milling and basically removes the pericarp and seed coat to allow faster water penetration during cooking, an important step as the cost of energy for cooking rice is significant for many resource-poor rice farmcrs. Pounding, by rcmoving the tough seed coat and pericarp, also imparts a more refined taste. With the germ and aleurone largely intaet, some farroers today still claim that pounded or brown rice is more sustaining and nutritious, essential for the hard work of growing the crop itself (Drs. Apichart Vaoavichit and Girish Chandel, pers. comrn.). lo much of India and Bangladesh, brown rice is parboiled by stearning and re-drying before milling. This brief hydration and re-drying allows a milder milling so that more nutrients are retained in the rice while still achieving a product acceptable in appearance and eating quality. lo India, 61 % of rice is parhoiled (Department of Agriculture and Cooperation 2002), undoubtedly a positive factor io the nutrition of a largely vegetarian population.Milling is a food processing issue of importance at leas! as great in terms of nutritional impact as other interventions discussed in Ihis paper. The Phílippines has created a Foundation for Promotioo of Eating Brown Rice (Cuyno 2003) that has increased consumption of brown rice to about 10% of Ihe total in a short time. Similar advocacy and education are needed for parhoiled rice, wheat, yellow maize and cassava and other staples processed into flour. Wheat is mostly milled before use. In subsistence food systems, this is done by stone grinding in which all the components of the grain, inc!uding the aleurone aod germ, are retained in the cooked (wholemeal) products. Modem milling lo white flour may be evcn more drastic than rÍce milling as pure endosperm (break t1our) can be separated. On the other hand, sophisticated milis can now separate by various means all of the different layers of the wheat grain making possible flour oC chosen nutritional composition, potentially a significant advaoce for nutrition.Major wheat food systems inelude rice-wheat and wheat-pulse. The rice-wheat food system of South Asia and adjacent China covers 17 million ha aod feeds in whole or in part about 1 billion people. Although wheat is necessarily grown on drained land (upland), most rice is wet (paddy) rice in which the land is flooded. This systern allows rice to he grown in the wet season when the risk of t1oodiog is high and wheat would faíl whereas wheat can be grown in the 'dry', cooler season less conducivc to high rice yields.Maize is the most widely grown and productive cereal but more than half is used to feed aoimals, and so feeds humans indirectly. There are, however, important subsistcnce farming systems based on maize, notably in its origins of Central America and South America, and in Africa. Maize is also an important crop in Asia where soils are too sandy aml/or infertile for rice. Important maize-based subsistence food systems are: maize, maize-pulse (Africa), maize-bean and maize-cassava (Meso America) Other important subsistence food systems are cassava, cassava-bean, (Africa), potato, sweetpotato (Melanesia) and Andean potato-based mixed staple.A selection of these major subsistence food systems has been described in this section, with the recognized agronomic and nutritional problems of Ihe communities dependenl on Ihem.We describe examples ofhow the cropping system eould be changed in potentially sustainable ways to deliver a more nutritionally balanced food system for improved health of the people dependent on the syslem.We discuss several major food syslems important in their own right because they feed billions of people, and others Iha! are smaller in size bu! illustrate our concept of inereasing nutrient output of food systems lo improve human health. The principal concept held here is that a food system is only sustainable if il adequately supplies, year round, from internal or external sources, aH the nutrients required for good health by the people who are dependent on the food system, including those who in subsistence systems are the drivers of the food system. An indepth analysis of a system ¡neludes productivity, agronomic management practices, sustainability issues. and food composition values for the major crop components, as well as genetic and environmental variability and reliability of rood composition data. Our aim is to identify strengths, weaknesses and opportunities within a particular food system for enhancing its value to human nutrition and health of the dependent communities where problems are known to existo The first systcm discussed is the large rice-whcat food system of South Asia and China.Introduction. Rice and wheat are the world's two most important food crops, contributing 45% of!he digestible energy and 30% of total protein in the human diet (Evans 1993). The ricewheat cropping system is one ofthe most important in the developing world with approximately 17 Mha in South and East Asia. The distribution of this cropping system includes; India, 10.5 Mha; Pakistan, 2.2 Mha; Nepal 0.6 Mha; Bangladesh, 05Mha; and China, 3.2 Mha (Timsina and Connor 200 ¡;Dawe et al. 2004). This section will concentrate on the analysis of the riccwheat cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP).Before the Green Revolution many of the wheat and particularly the rice varieties were photosensitive andJor of long duration resulting in difficulties in matching the planting dates of rice and wheat in a double cropping system. There was more erop diversity in the common mixed cropping systems where a number of crops were planted together Iike wheat with chickpea, mustard, lenti!, flax and others all in the same field. The inlensification of the ricewheat cropping system became feasible with the adoplion of the shorter season, nonphotosensitive, higher yielding rice and wheat varicties, which, together with the development of new irrigation systems, increased fertilizer and pesticide use, resulted in the Green Revolution. Rice production in South Asia grew from 67 Mt in the early 19605 to 144 Mt in the early 19905 (Hobbs and Morris 1996). During the same period, wheat production increased from 15 to 73 Mt. As productivity increased, farmers' incomes grew, staple food costs declined for low-income consumers, employment of landless laborers grew, and -indirectly -deve10pment of small rural industries was stimulated (Hobbs et al. 1997). Allhough the benefits of the Green Revolution are c1ear, India is now a country that has high levels of malnutrition despite large stocks of food-grains.Breeding potential. Wheat screening has shown that the germplasm with the highest levels of Fe and Zn in the grain are the wild relatives, primitive wheats and landraces. There are reports of some entries with levels around 90-100 mglkg of Zn (Monasterio and Graham 2000;Cakmak 2002). The HarvestPlus Challenge Program has adopted the target of increasing the concentrations of Zn in wheat grains by at least 10 mg/kg, and approximately 25 mg/kg for Fe in order to have measurable impact, assuming the percentage of bioavailable nutrient is similar (HarvestPlus website: www.harvestplus.org). Under the conditions of northwestem Mexico, Pakistan and northwestem India, this means Ihat the levels of Zn wíll have to be increased from the current 35 lo a target 45 mg/kg, while for Fe it will have to be increased from 35 to 60 mg/kg. That the donor parents for high levels of Fe and Zn in the grain have levels aboye those required by human nutritionists suggests that breeding ¡he required levels of Fe and Zn in ¡he grain in modem varieties is an achievable goal even though there is significant environmental effect on Fe and Zn concenlrations in wheat and numerous genes involved. The challenge is to be able 10 maintain the high levels of Fe and Zn present in the primitive and wild wheat, while keeping the high yields of the improved modem varieties. The adoption of biofortified varieties will not take place on the basis of micronutrient concentration in the grain, but rather in terms of their yield potential, disease resistance andlor consumer acceptability.There are reports of genetic variability for micronutrient concentration in brown rice with a range of7.8-24.4 mg/kg in Fe and 15.9-58.5 mg/kg in Zn (Gregorio et al. 2000). However, the overall mean values and variances found in polished rice seem to be much smaller, which suggests that using conventional breeding to increase levels of Fe and Zn in polished rice will be a bigger challenge ¡han in wheat and may require a biotechnological approach. While most urban people in lhe IGP prefer to eat polished rice, there appears to be a trend developing for rural people to recognize and value the superior nutritional qualities of brown rice, pounded rice or parboiled rice(less polished rice) that they consumed in earlier times Departmant of Agricultura and Cooperation (2000).Screening for j3-carotene in wheat and rice has not revealed any promising natural variability for this trait. AlI the yellow wheat samples analyzed 50 far present higher levcls of lutein but not of j3-carotene. The lack of natural variation for j3 carotene in rice led to the development of GMO rice varieties with high levels of j3-carotene, which carne to be known as \"golden rice\". The lack of variability observed for j3-carotene in wheat so far suggest8 that a biotechnological approach similar to that used for rice may al80 be requíred in wheat.A preliminary study found limited variability in Se and 1 concentrations in the grain of wheat and white rice (Lyons et al. 2005a, Lyons et al. 2005b). This suggests that improvement for these nutrients through plant breeding would be slow, and probably impracticable where soils are low in these elements. On the other hand there are successful fortification initiatives to make 1 more available to the population using saft as a vehicle, and as these two elements are quite effective as fertilizers in increasing concentralions in grain, Se and I-fortified fertilizers have the potential lo be an even more sustainable strategy. Agronomic practices. Long lerm experimenls on Ihe rice-wheat rotation in South Asia and China have shown Ihat there has becn a significant decline in input productivity (Hobbs andMorris 1996, Pingali el aL 1997), resulting in farrners having to apply more inputs to obtain the same yields as previous harvests. Thís suggests Ihal the sustaínabílity of Ihe rice-wheat cropping system should be re-evaluated nol only in terrns of agronomic performance but also in terms of a food system that can provide Ihe necessary nutrients to the target populations.In India it is estimated !hat 47% of the soils are Zn deficient (Kalyal and Vlek 1985). For example, a soil survey in India reported thal out of 90218 soil samples collected in Ihe slates of Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, 51 % of Ihe soils were considered Zndeficient, 10% Fe-deficient, 3% Mn-deficient and 2% Cu-deficient. The state with the highest incidence of Zn and Fe deficiency was Ilaryana, whíle the lowest was West Bengal (Singh 1999).Zinc deficiency is the main micronutrient problem reported in Ihe soils of Ihe IGP. This problem is more prevalent in rice Ihan in wheat and ¡his seems lO be associated with two factors:(1) flooding of rice fields reduces Zn availability and (2) rice is more sensitive than wheat to Zn deficiency. However, problems of Zn deficiency have al so been reported in wheat that can be corrected by soil applications of Zn sulfate. Experiments in wheal have shown Iha! soil, seed and/or foliar applicalion of Zn can be effective in incrcasing Jevels of Zn concentration in Ihe grain (Cakmak 2002). Moreover, high Zn seeds produce more vigorous seedlings in the next crop. Similarly fertilizer studies have shown good responses in grain concenlrations of Se and 1, indicating thal crop fertilization is a viable strategy for Zn, Se and 1 biofortification (Lyons et al. 2005b).Heavy rates of P fertilizer application to soils low in available Zn can induce Zn deficiency (Robson and Pitman 1983). There are sorne indications of over fertilization wilh P (diammonium phosphate) in sorne areas of Ihe IGP. In a survey of 105 soil samples, 60% contained levels of available P ranging from 35-120 kg/ha. This excess P applicalion is likely lo result in reduced accumulation of Zn in the grain of wheat and rice and a less favorable phytate to Zn ratio in the grain (Cakmak 2002). Reports of Fe deficiency in Ihe IGP rice-wheat system are restricted 10 rice in light-textured, high pH, and calcareous soils.Nufritional analysis of the food system. The segment of Ihe population wilh ¡he most problems of micronutrient malnutrition is Ihe poor, and within this group, especially children and women. According (o Dixon et al. (200 1) Ihe typical poor family in the rice-wheat cropping areas has access, in addition to rice and wheat, to some vegetables and milk. While il is estimated that up to 50% of Ihe milk productíon is consumed by the family (Hemme et al. 2003), stíll, !he production of vegetables and mil k still are in short supply and not sufficient lo cover all Ihe nutritional necds of the family. There are also !he landless poor in the rural arcas and the urban poor !hat cannot grow their own crops and mostly buy them. The urban poor could also potentially benefit from biofortification of food staples.Vitamin A deficiency is a serious problem in the rice-wheat area (Iable 1). Ihis could be addressed by bringing into the food system a ~-carotene-rich pulse crop such as cowpea (summer) and chickpea (winter), or a cereal crop like high ~-carotene yellow maize, or root crops Iike yellow/orange cassava and sweetpotato, and a variety of yellow, orange, green and red vegetables and fruits. Cassava or sweetpotato in the IGP is found usually on the upper parts of the topography where rice is nol grown and drainage is better. Many farmers in Bihar grow maize as a winter staple. In other areas maize is mainly grown as a fodder crop or for roasted sweet como All in all, there is sufficient potential 10 increase the J)-carotene supply in this food system: promoting suitable yellow varieties and educating mothers and their families ol' its critical importance may be the needed drivers for change in this direction. Another solution could be the adoption of Golden Rice, which is currently being tested in field trials. Golden Rice is genetically engineered to contain ~carotene in the rice endosperm, which is latcr converted by the body into vitamin A; 70glday would provide the recommended daily allowance of vitamin A (Paine et al. 2005). However, Golden Rice is yellow-orange in color and it is a genetically modified organism (GMO), so problems with adoption and acceptance must be overcome.The prevalence of Fe deficiency anemia mainly in children and women is another importan! micronutrient malnutrition problem for the populations that live in the rice-wheat cropping system (Iable 1). Tbe increase in anemia in the IGP during the Green Revolulion has been attributed to the reduction in the consumplion of legumes (see Figure 7). Although there is some consumption of legumes and vegetables, these are not sufficient. Legumes and grecn leaty vegetables need to playa more important role in the food system due to their content of Fe bioavailability promoters (see Sections !l, 111).A large proportion of the population in the rice-wheat area does not eat meat. Ihis makes it more vulnerable to vitamin B12 deficiency, which needs to come from dairy, egg or meat sources. Howcver, recent increases in milk production in parts of India where the rice-wheat rotation is important promise to help reduce the problem with this vitamin, and al50 with 1 deficiency (Hemme et al. 2003).Protein content in legumes is significantly higher Ihan in rice and wheat. In addition there is an important difference in the amino acid composition of Ihe protein. Wheal is deficienl in the amino acid lysine, while rice has inadequate le veIs of lysine and threonine. In contrast, grain legumes are deficienl in the S-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine. Combined consumption of cereals and grain legumes is common in South Asia, which results in almost complete essential amino acid balance and a nutritional improvement over cereal-based diets. Maximum prolein nutrition is oblained when the grain legume content is about 10% in a wheallegume diet, and aboul 20% in a diet with rice, maize, or barley (Lauren et al. 2001) but these are levels tha! have not been adequately met since the Green Revolution (see Figure 7).Diversífication of the riee-wheat rotation. In the analysis of the food system the importance of diversifying the rice-wheat system lo improve human nutrition was addressed. In this section the agronomic feasibility of diversifying the system is discussed.In the Trans-Gangetic Plain and in the western part of the Upper-Gangetic Plains, rice-wheat systems mostly inelude an indica-type, monsoon rice and a spring wheat because there is generally insufficient time for a Ihird crop. In the Punjab, covering parts of northern India and Pakistan, in addition lo Haryana and parts of western Uttar Pradesh, Basmati rice is a popular cash crop. There the rice crop is generally transplanted from May lO July and harvested from late October to late November. Wheat is then grown from NovemberlDecember and even inlo January to March in warmer areas and lo May in cooler parts of Pakistan (Timsina and Connor 2001). In Ihis area the best chance for diversification would be lo replace part of either rice or wheat with a different crop. In the castern par! of Upper-Gangetic, and in the Middle-and Lower•Gangetic Plains where temperatures are generally higher, monsoon rice is grown from June/July lo OctoberlNovember, and wheat from NovemberlDecember to March/April. There, R-W systems often inelude an additional crop [e.g., mungbean (Vigna radiate), cowpea (V. unguiculata), dhaincha (Sesbania spp)], afier wheat or before rice and less frequentIy, cowpea, mustard (Brassicajuncea), and potato (Solanum tuberosum) after rice or before wheat (Timsina and Connor 2001). Rice-potato is now one of the most common rotations in the IGP (see Section 4.2).In the northeast and easlern IGP, unpredictable heavy rains during sowing and emergence (ca. 20% of years) reduce establishment of legumes and cause ineffective root nodulation, while more frequent rains (ca. 80% of years) during reproductive growth cause abortion of flower buds, and pods, and reduce grain yield and quality. Thus, high rainfall and water-logging appear to be a major constrainl 10 the successful inclusion of legumes as pre-monsoonal crops in R-W systems ofthe Middle-and Lower Gangetic Plains. Therefore, new cultivars are required of legumes and other crops that can germinate, emerge, and establish under transíent water logging, and are also able to complete grain filling and maintain graín quality under heavy rain.PIanting legumes on raised beds should alleviate water-logging problems (Timsina and Connor 2001). There are reports of 15 to 47% increase in the yield oflegumes when planted on raised beds compared 10 planting on the flat in the lGP (Connor et al. 2003).Inclusion of legume crops in the rice wheat cropping system could potentially have a number of agronomic advantages, for example; biological N fixation if there is good nodulation, nutrient cycling from deeper soj[ tayers and breaking of weed and pest cycles.In the mid and lower reaches of!he IGP there is usually a 60-70 day period between wheat harvesting and rice transplanting that could potentially be used for the inclusion of a third crop in the rice-wheat cropping system. The third crop could be an edible tegume, (Ahtawat et al. 1998;Dwivedi et al. 2003), and development of short-duration summer varieties of crops Jike black gram, green gram, mungbean and pigeon pea, with adequate insect and disease resistance, could potentially be used to díversify the rice-wheat cropping system, partícularly when grown on a raísed bed system. There is li!tlc informatíon about the potential of fruits and vegetables for diversification in the rice-wheat system, but wider adoption of Ihem should also be beneficia!.However the rice-wheat system is diversified, ir it is 10 have a nutritional benefit to the rural communities, !he additional food crop must be consumed and become a part of!he normal diet, not merely marketed. On occasions, this may require sorne inputs into educatÍon of!he health benefits and aspects of consumption.Introduction. Although rice-wheat is the dominant system in !he lGP, there are many other important cropping systems practised by farmers for sustainable Iivelihoods. The kharif (wet season) rice-potato-boro (summer season) rice is !he emerging eropping system in Eastem IGP (Bangladesh and West Bengal, India). Since the early 19705, potato production has increased more rapidly in !he irrigated sub-tropical low lands of Asia than in any other part of the world. The most impressive example of the area expansion oecurred in West Bengal, where land cultivated to potato expanded five fold over the past 25 years (Bardhan Roy et al. 1999).Cropping Systems. The role of potato relative to wheat in the cropping systems is influenced by temperature (hat in tum depends on latitude and altitude. Irrigation within the temperate to sub-tropical zones in Asia can support al! the cropping pattems of rice, wheat and potato described in Figure 5.More !han 80% of potato is cultívated after kharif (wet season) rice in the lGP. In seleeted agro-ecologies ofNorth and North-west India (Punjab, Haryana and West Uttar Pradesh) and Punjab of Pakistan adjoining India, where !he winter is prolonged, sorne farmers practise potato-wheat-rice. The early bulking potato varieties are planted in September/October and harvested in NovemberlDeeember. After potato harvest, the farmers sow wheat. The costs for land preparation and fertilizer requirements for wheat are reduced following potato.Where there is a longer winter, farmers can grow two crops of potato due to low aphid populations and economic bulking rate in both crops under the cooler temperatures. However, this pattem cannot be followed in the short, mild winters of Eastem and Central IGP. The cultivation of 80-90 day potato varieties does no! allow sufficient time for wheat. Consequently, farmers plant either wheat or potato.May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Noy Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Crop Diversification. Fertile land and enhanced irrigation facilities provide fanners with opportunities for crop diversification and intensificatíon. With the introduction of new, highyielding cultivars and improved technologies, the cropping systems are changing rapidly. For example in the lGP of West Bengal, rice-potato-sesame, rice-potato-mustard and rice-potatojute cropping systems are baing replaced by rice-potato-boro rice, rice-potato-groundnut and rice-potato-vegetables (Bardhan Roy et al. 1999). Diversification currently aims to increase productivity by the introduction into the rotations of altemate vegetables, field crops, !Tuit crops, flowers and other options (Modga1 1998), bul ideally, diversification should also aim at improving diet diversity and nutritiona1 balance for Ihe fann families and tIle local population dependent on them. This will require further technology developmenl and extension, lo accompany tIle new options at the fann level.Limitations lo Crop Diversificalion. Crop diversification depends on many factors such as physical, economic, marketing facilities, consumcr demand, location specific technology, and suitable crop varieties. The IGP largely consist of ho! sub-humid and hot hum id eco-regions with alluvium-derived soils (ICAR 1990). The abiotic factors (rainfall, temperature, photoperiod, nutrients), availability of location-specific, appropriate technologies, socioeconomic conditions of fanners and marketing opportunities are factors that define the cropping pattem in a region. For example, the wide adoption of boro rice (summer rice) and groundnu! due to increased productivity and enhanced income of farmers in sorne parts of West Bengal, have changed the cropping pattern from rice-jute and rice-mustard to kharifrice I I (wet season )-potato-boro rice and kharif ríce-potato-groundnut. The expansion of potato production has been impressive in the irrigated lowlands of South Asia. This growth in potato production can be attributed lo the crop's ability lo produce large amounts of food in short periods of time under condítíons of land scarcity fuelled by population pressure. lIIustrating the potato's contribution to satísfying food demand from populalion pressure, production in Bangladesh has tripled since the mid-1960s and about 40% of potatoes are now produced in Dhaka (Munshigoni), the most populous district of the country and an area where potato produclion share was slightly more Ihan 10% prior lO the Green RevoJution.Profitability and sustainability oC potato-rice system in Indo-Gangetic Plains, With the help of staff of the lntemational Potato Center, activities in the IGP now take a commodity perspective and address the following issues: the potential ror intensifying potato production; suitable varieties; displacement effects caused by introducing potato into various cropping systems; interactions between potatoes and other crops in the system; and the implications for natural resource management of intensifYing potato production. For example, potato was introduced with maize as an inter-crop with rice in North Bihar and between rice-wheat and rice-onion in South Bihar, based on the results of participatory trials that optimized varieties and management practices for specific locations, leading to greater productivity and enhanced profitability. In Bangladesh, potato was introduced into the wheat-rice cropping system in Dinajpur District, Northern Bangladesh where the enhanced income from the rice-potato cropping pattem soon became apparent. lntensification ofPotato and Rice by Double Transplanting Teehnology. Rice is a staple food and potato an important cash crop for farmers in the Sub-Tropical Eastem IGP. The arcas under rice and potalo are 15 and 0.8 mi Ilion ha, respectively. In Ihe last five years, potato area has increased by about 10%, though the farmers face over-production about every three to four years, and also potato is more vulnerable to abiotic and biotic stresses. The farmers continue with potato cultivation due to the nel retum from potato being, on average, significantly higher than for other crops. Kharif rice-potato-boro rice and kharif rice-boro rice are the cropping systems that domínate this region. Cultívation of potato and boro rice ín sequence affeets productivity of both crops due to an early harvest of potato or a delayed planting of boro rice. Researchers introduced double transplanting of boro rice in West Bengal with an objective to enhance the productivity by more efficíent management of natural resources. Briefly the double transplanting system is as follows: rice nursery seedbeds are sown 8 days after potato planting, 40-45 days later Ihe seedlings are sown into a larger plot, 10 seedlings per hill at 15 x 15 cm spacing, 40-45 days latee the rice is transplanted foe the second time, 5 tillers per hill at 20 x 15 cm spacing immediately after potato harvest at about 90 days after planting. AII this allows summer rice to be established in main field after potato by the end ofFebruary to obtain maximum yields. The interpolation ofuser-friendly double transplanting technology in the kharif rice -potato-boro rice has provided better use of natural resources, leading to a potential per hectare benefit of US$ 143 comparcd to rice-potato-rice using traditional planting.Nutritional Benefits of Potato, Potato provides carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamin C, B group vitamins, carotenoids (in yellow types) and high quality dietary fiber. The ne! protein utilization or biological value of potato protein (about 71% that of whole egg) is higher than the other components ofthis food syslem, wheat (53%), maize (54%), peas (48%) and beans (46%), and is comparable lo cows' milk (75%) (Gopalan et al. 1972). The vitamin C ofpotato can enhance the bioavailability ofnon-heme dietary Fe such as phytate-bound Fe in co-ingested cereal or legume seeds, an important benefit for farmers growing potato who would otherwise use the potato as a cash crop rather than a beneficial component of the family die!. A detailed analysis of potato is presented in Section 4.5.The Rice-Pulse Food System is a major subsistence farming system in eastem South Asia, including Bangladesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. While tlooded rice dominates the ficlds of these areas, the secondary staple comes from one or more leguminous grain crops grown in the dry season, while in the same region an alternative secondary 'staple' to rice comes from small dried fish caught in the rice paddies.In the south-east panhandle of Bangladesh tha! has double monsoonal rainfall peaks eaeh year and population density is high, this food system has changed in the las! two or three decades. Under the pressure of high population, subsistence farmers have been forced to grow another rice crop in Iieu ofthe pulse (in this case, cowpea) in order to produce enough calories for the growing numbers of mouths to feed (FAO 1999). Whereas in their culture, these people describe themselves as 'rice and pulse eaters\" pulses have not kept up with the increasing population pressures, retaining the low productivity of decades ago (Figure 7). While the near year-round rainfall can support up to three crops of rice per year; yields are low, yet the yield from the rice erop is generally higher and more environmentally stable than that from pulses.Modem rice generally has higher potential yield and 1ess susceptibility to diseases. Under these circumstances, the change to less pulses and more rice is understandable but population growth and consequent changes in the food system have wrought a heavy cast in health and well-being, as the outside world discovered about 12 years ago (Cimma et al. 1997).About 10% of the children in the Chakaria district of the Bangladeshi Panhandle have rickets, weak and distorted bones, with potentially up to 50% of children with lesser symptoms. Rickets ís a disease well known in northern European countries a century ago where it was shown to be due to deficiency of vitamín D, a co-factor in deposition of Ca in bones, the disease resulting from too little sunlight for sufficient biosynthesis of vitamin D in exposed skin. However, the Bangladeshi children had high levels of vitamin D and it was eventually established that they and their die! were deficient in Ca itself (Cimma et aL 1997, Fiseher et aL 1999). It is significant that no one over about 25 years of age in that area had symptoms of rickets, and as the abnormalities last for Jife except through orthopedic surgery, it appears that the diet began to change around 25 years ago, which was also when the cropping system began to change towards continuous rice culture. Tha! this association in time is cause-andeffect is underpinned by the differences in Ca added to the diet by the pulses, vis-a-vis rice (Table 2), and in a later supplementation trial in these children, their Ca status could be brought up to within the normal range by supplementation with as little as 50 mg Ca/day (Abcd and Combs 200 1). As Httle as 25g of cowpea eould supply this dai1y amount of Ca provided the forms in the seeds were bioavailable. More extensive surveys in Bangladesh now suggest that Ca deficiency rickcts in the children of Chakaria is but the tip of Ihe Ca-deficiency iceberg of eastem Soulh Asia and also of parts of Africa (Meisner el al. 2005, Thatcher et al. 1999). Analysis of the food system. The soils of these high-rainfall tropical areas are acid-sulfate soi 18 and generally low in nutrients owing 10 leaching by rain passing vertically through the soil profile into ground water and eventually into the ocean. Deficiencics of N, P and K are widespread (Table 3), regardless of soil type, and soils are mostly very acidic. In addition, deficiencies of micronutrient~ are ofien limiting to crop production but may not be identitied: deficient micronutrients inelude Zn (overall, 49% of all soils globally), B (31%), Cu (14%) and molybdenum (Mo) (15%). Therefore, for good productivity and nutrient composition, crop production is likely to require N, P, K, lime or dolomite (to counter soil acidity and supply Ca and Mg), Zn, B, Mo and on highly organic soils, CU. Productivity in Ihe Chakaria area is low and rice, it~lf poor in nutrients especially afier milling, dominates the food system.Table 3. Percentage of nutrient-deficlent-soils in parts of Bangladesh (A) (Morris et al. 2001) in comparison with 190 soils worldwide (8) (Sillanpaa 1990). Ca/day may be sufficient, bu! while supplements are ideal for acute cases, they are generally not sustainable. Another approach (Meisner et al. 2005) is the addition of a teaspoon of ground Iimestone to the rice during cooking, a strategy similar to tha! in Mexico in the making oftortillo.Lime or dolomite could be added to the soil both to decrease soil acidity, a benefit lo crop productivity in general, and especially to pulse production, and to increase lhe Ca and Mg levels in Ihe crops. Even with a rice-dominated culture, this can be expected to increase the Ca concenlration of rice itself, though the increase is insufficienl of itself to supply the required additional 50mg/day of Ca (Meisner et al. 2005). However, ir this is coupled with new, high-Ca rice varieties, it could well solve lhe Ca deficíency problem. In the Intemational Rice Research Institute, rice varieties have bcen discovered with at leas! twíce the Ca concentralion as that of the widely distributed Green Revolution varieties. The rice analyzed from the Chakaria market averaged 89 mglkg. A rice with 214 mg/kg Ca would supply an extra 30 mg Ca/day to chíldren eating 150 g dry rice daily. This would seem to be a viable option, and would Iikely be suslainable if a Ca-enriched rice variety were introduced to Ihe arca with agronomic and organoleptic characteristics similar in most respects to lhe existing varieties. No change in behavior would be required al al!, and so this strategy has Ihe distinct advantage of sustainability. From our survey of Ca concentrations in the rice germplasm, this breeding program seems entirely feasible (Gregorio and Graham, unpubL). The bioavailability of Ca in the diet could be further inereased by deploying rice varieties high in inulin (Welch 2001b), inulin can promote absorption via the colon ofCa, Fe, Zn and Mg (Van Loo 2004, Yeung et al. 2005). From the Hule evidenee so far available, breeding a high inulin rice variety would be feasible. It is noted here that resistant starch, which does not gel digested in the small intestine i5 al80 a prebiotic like inulin and rice varieties with resistant starch are already known. A study of Ca bioavailabílíty from sueh rice in the Chakaria context is warranted.Human nutrition Iiterature suggests that increasing Ca intake alone may not resolve the problem. Olher nutrients if deficient may interact to affect the efficacy of supplied Ca: not only are Cu, Zn and Mn required for deposition of Ca ¡nto bone (Saltman 1996), but B may also be required (Neilsen 1996). This is in addition to vitamin D that in this case study was not a limiting factor as it has been in cases of rickets elsewhere. Interestingly, B and Zn are highly likely to be deficient in this population that depends largely on the low-nutrient rice staple grown on nutrient-poor acidic soils. Notably, in Ihis context, pulses are generally higher in B, Zn, Cu and Mn than rice, as well as being much higher in Ca (Table 2). Reintroducing pulses to the food system would seem to be an ideal solution as it is obvíously part of the culture of the people, but how could Ihis be aehieved in Ihe face of Ihe opposite trend during the last 20 years or so? Preferred nutrient-balanced food system. A food systems strategy to change Ihe diet in sustainable and aceeptable ways could be developed along Ihe following Iines: We must first target rice production to make it more efficient and productive so Ihat the needed rice could be produced on less arca, leaving land available to Ihe pulse erop, espeeially in the boro (dry) season. What is most needed are fertilizers to inerease rice yield on these soils of poor fertility, and varieties adapted to Ihe environment, and ideally higher in Ca and ¡nulín. The fertilízers adopted must address all the deficiencies in the soil Iha! limit crop productivity materialIy. Only with balanced plant nutrition will the economics become so favorable Iha! the returns in yield are more profitable for the farmer than using no fertilizer. At the same time, balanced fertilizers are importan! for better nutrition of the subsistence farmers and their families. However, increased use of fertilizers will require credit facilities to allow the leap [rom a low-cost, low-yield system to a moderate-input, high-yield one. Increasing the existing pulse crop on the land no longer needed fOf rice will materially balance the diet, and balaneing the nutritional requirements of the pulse erop as well will decrease the additional risk inherent in growing pulses as they wíll be better able to resist disease and abiotic stresses. Then, the supply of vitamins A and C must be addressed. It is Iikely tha! soup greens obtained locally from home or village gardens may be sufficient, but if not, yellow forms of cassava, sweet potato, guc or fruits may be needed. Sorne varieties of cowpea supply pro-vitamin A (B. Reddy pers. comm.) so it is important that provitamin A-containing varieties are available and mothers are made aware oftheir importance. Finally, the adequacy of 1, Se and Co (BI2) in the diet or in bloodlurine samples from the population sbould be checked. If any is inadequate, these three elements can be included in the pulse fertilizer mix to provide enough in the staples (see Section I1I). While global evidenee suggests that we have considered those nutrients most commonly deficient, others may be inadequate in a given food system, and the adequacy ofother essential minerals and vitamins, particularly vitamins BI, BI2 and E should be considered. Vitamins B 1 and E are found already in this food system in the rice bran (aleurone layer and germ) and ways of adding a líttle bran lo Ihe diet in acceptable ways needs to be explored because the extent of beriberi (deficiency of Bl) appears to be increasing (P. Newton, Laos, pers. comm.). Vitamin B 1 2 as already discussed requires small amounts of (small) animal products. Taking care of Ihis last group of vitamins is largely a matter of education of Ihe value of small amounts of bran and animal products, rather tban further changes lo Ihe underlying food syslem.Traditionally in Central America beans have formed part of a food system with maize as the principal cereal, or in dryer regions, with sorghum. Maize and beans have been traditional staples in Central AmefÍca since pre-coloníal times. In recent years and with increasíng urbanization, the food system has become more diversified, although in rural areas and among urban poor, beans and maize remain the basis of the dieto Nutritional status across countries. Table 4 presents data on several common nutritional and health parameters for all five Central American countries. Among these, Costa Rica ís exceptional for ¡ts superior level of economic development and its public services, including its health system. Al a gIance the food system(s) in Central America would appear to be functioning reasonably well in terms of protein and calorle intakes. All countries report average intakes at acceptable levels (at or aboye the recommended minima of 55 g/d protein and 2200 kcal/d energy). However, in spite of an apparently positive overall nutritional scenario for the whole region, Costa Rica reports levels of stunting and infant mortality far below thc other four countries, suggesting serious problems still to be addressed by the o!her nations.National data conceal intemal variability among regions within countries that can present parameters of health differing widely from national averages. Indeed, Latín America is the region with the greatest inequities in income dístribution in the developing world (Londoño and Székely 1997), so national averages are bound to hide significan! disparities. FOf example, in Nicaragua, which is one of the poorest countnes in the hemisphere, the departments of Jinotega and Madriz present 39 and 49% stunting of children, respectively, compared to a national average of 28% (FAO 2001), while in the northeast of Guatemala stunting can reach 70%, versus a national average of 49% (F AO 2003). Almost all countries report higher levels of poverty in rural areas (Jable 4), and this is ofien accompanied by more negative health parameters, as well as fae poorer intakes of protein and calones. For example, in Nicaragua caloric intake amongst the poorest 01' the rural poor can fall below 1000 kcal/d, and protein intake can also be inadequate (FAO 200 1). Prevalence of stunting among children in Honduras increased in the decade of the 90s when the economic state of the country was especially depressed (ACC/SCC 2000). Poverty is an important determinan! of nutritional status and of food consumption. Again in Nicaragua, bean consumption among rural dwellers vades from 17 to 36 kg/person/yr, increasing with higher income level (FAO 2001).Furthermore, other social conditions have influenced nutritional parameters temporarily. During the civil war in El Salvador, food availability suffered and the nutritional state of many worsened (FAO 2002).However, it is noteworthy that Fe status, estimated by rates of anemia among pre-school children, does not vary so widely across countries as other parameters (Table 4). While data from Honduras suggest the most critical situation, even in Costa Rica as many as 26% of preschoolers present anemia. Among public health problems for which data are readily available, it seems that anemia, and probably Fe deficiency anemia, are among the most intractable, and a failing of the food system per se. Vitamin A and 1 deficiencies have been addressed by food fortification but still occur al moderate levels, given imperfections in the fortification and delivery systems (see below).Information on other deficiencies is sketchy but Zn deficiency ofien accompanies Fe deficiency. A recent report of the lnternational Zinc Nutrition Consultative Group highlights Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua as having high risk of Zn deficiency (Hotz and Brown 2004). These countries present an estimated 41 to 49% of the population al risk of inadequate intake of Zn. As in the case of Fe, this is associated with the low consumption of animal products. Costa Rica, on the other hand, holds a medium level of risk with an estirnated 29% of the population at risk. As more attention is directed lo Zn and its levels of deficiency, it rnay well emerge as stíll another weak link in the present food system.Bean production. Beans are both a crop for home consumption and for market, and among traditional crops, are the most important ineome generator in Central America. Ihus, market demands and commercial criteria foc grain type and quality play an important part in farmer varietal preference. Although a wide array of color, is found in landraces, the small, light-red, shiny-seeded types are now the dominant class, followed by small opaque-seeded blacks.Iwo rainfed planting seasons, in May and September, account for more than 80% of production, while a third crop planted in December or January develops under residual moisture or requires irrigation. Drought, poor soil fertility (P and N) and diseases (fungal, viral and bacterial) are important limitations. Although the yield potential oflhe crop is above 3000 kglha, regional yields average around 750 kglha, with El Salvador presenting the highest yields of about 950 kglha.Depending on the region and season, beans may be interplanted with maize in May (one row of maize for every 3-5 rows of beans), or may be planted in relay as the maize crop is maturing in September. Fertilizer is widely available but its use depends largely on capital resources of the producers, and beans ofien receive no added fertility. In the case of relay planting with maize, farmers will ofien apply fertilizer to maize and the beans will be produced on residual fertility. Where beans are fertilized directly, rates of 65 to 130 kglha are typically used, most commonly with 18-20-0 (NP) although 12-10-12 (NPK) is also available in some areas. Ihere is evidence that micronutrients (especially Zn) can be limiting in soils of Central America (Bomemisza andPeralta 1981, ArrozGua 2004). However, micronutrients are not applied lo beans, and there is Httle awareness among producers of potential micronutrient deficiencies. It would probably be necessary to demonstrate a positive response lo Zn fertilization across several crops to induce fertil izer producers to incorporate Zn into formula fertilizers, unless govemment policy demanded it.The role oC beans in the dieto Work al the Central American Nutrition Institute (rNCAP) in Guatemala established proportions of about 2.5:1 maize-bean for optimal amino acid balance (Navarrete and Bressani 1981), a\\though in faet beans are consumed in a lower proportion lhan this. Bean consumption levels vary widely between rural and urban areas. National statistics typically suggest per capita consumptíon of 15-20 kglyr, but both anecdotal accounts and reports ofsurveys testify lo levels that can be Iwice as high in rural areas (FAO 2001). It is not clear that all home consumption is calculated in production figures, and Ihis is consumption that would escape official statistics.Most protein in the Central American die! is of plant origin (FAO 2001(FAO , 2002(FAO , 2003)). Ihis is particularly the case among the poor for whom animal protein represents less Iha! 20% of protein intake, and as little as 10% among the poorest. Although maize is by far the most important source of energy (38-57% among countries), beans supply as much as 14% of calories, and are the third or fourth most important source.Beans are al so a source of dietary Fe, and are particularly important when consumption of animal products is low. If beans are consumed at arate of 20 kglperson/year, this is the equivalent of 55 gld of beans. At a concentration of 50 mglkg Fe, this consumption level would provide 2.75 mg Fe/d. It has been observed that rural populations willingly consume double this quantity of beans if price and availability permit. Furthermore, the HarvestPlus program has set itself the goal of doubling the concentration of Fe in bean cultivars through breeding. If both consumption and Fe concentration were doubled, this would result in II mg/d of Fe from beans, or an additional 8.25 mgld of Fe in the diet. The nutritional benefits from this achievement will depend on bioavailability of the Fe, which is assumed to be low, but it is probable that bioavailability of the additional Fe will be equivalent to that in beans consumed at present, and that the total bioavailable Fe will, in any case, be proportional to the total Fe consumed.It must be noted that to fulfill the HarvestPlus strategy and to maximize the benefits of biofortified beans, both Fe concentration and production must increase significantly. In the case of the poorest of the poor, whose yields are limited by a range of biotic and abiotic stresses, this implies a significant effort in crop improvement. In particular, abiotic stress (drought and poor soil fertility) must be overcome. Poor farmers ofien occupy the most difficult environments, and for them improving yield is more urgent than improving nutritional quality. Very promising results have been obtained at the CIAT in Colombia in improving drought tolerance and combining this trait with disease resistance and commercial grain color. These traits must now be combined with improved Fe and Zn concentrations. Addressing low yields due to poor soil fertility requires a coordinated effort of agronomic management and improved genetic adaptation. The option offortifying NP fertilizers with Zn to redress overt Zn deficiency, increase tolerance to drought and disease, increase the efficiency and adoption of carrier NP fertilizers and increase Zn density may be widely successful in this food system where Zn deficiency in diets hovers around 50%, because it is likely that yield benefits will accrue that will cover the extra cost of Zn, and because both maize and bean are generally considered sensitive and responsive to fertilizer Zn.In this maize-based food system, the greatest contributions from a HarvestPlus program perspective must come from increasing Fe and Zn in beans and increasing pro-vitamin A in the maize crop. Beans should also be explored as a source of Se. Deficiency of I may be addressed by traditional fortification of salt but the agricultural strategy of deploying 1enriched NP fertilizers remains an option that may be more sustainable in !he long runo Otber components of tbe food system. As is common, fruit and vegetable consumption is highly dependent on income, with very low levels among the poor in Nicaragua (FAO 2001), but with much higher intakes across income levels in Guatemala (F AO 2003). Horticultural crops have great potential to contribute vitamins to !he diet. For example, chili peppers are an excellent source of vitamin C and are consumed in parts of Central America. Vitamin C can improve Fe absorption significantly and can play an important role in Fe nutrition. There is sorne evidence that provitamin A (carotenoids) can have a similar positive effect on Fe absorption, especially when subjects are vitamin A-deficient (Garcia-Casal et al. 1998). If this is confirmed, the role of carotene-rich foods such as orange-fleshed sweetpotato, local varieties of squash or fortified sugar eould be importan!. However, at present eonsumption data usually are not discriminated by specific fruits and vegetables to estimate potential contributions. Furthermore, food preparation methods will greatly affect vitamin content and nutritional contribution. The role of complementary foods is a significant gap in our knowledge to analyze the food system realistically, and to plan effective interventions.Food fortification has been employed for many years in Central America for vitamin A, using sugar as the vehicle. This has been successful, for example, in reducing vitamin A deficiency in Honduras trom 40% to 14% since 1965 (OMNI 1998). Sugar has the advantage of having few or no substitutes in !he mass market (assuming !hat \"Iight\" products have little attraction among the malnourished), and therefore enjoys a \"captive audience\". On the other hand, Guatemala was !he first country lo implement sugar fortification in !he region, and although 85% of sugar is fortified, fortification is nol uniform (FAO 2003). Rural populations benefil relatively less, and indigenous populations of the Guatemalan plateau continue to have serious problems. El Salvador reports 36% of !he population as deficient in vitamin A across age groups, based on serum retinol (FAO 2002). Iodized salt is widely used in !he region, although in Guatemala quality of fortification is not optimal and intakes are moderately insufficient (FAO 2003). Fortificatíon of wheat f10ur with Fe has becn contemplated, but rural populations that consume mostly maize tortillas would appear lo benefit only marginally from this strategy.Information gaps. A more complete analysis of a bean-maize based food system in Central America requíres specific data, including: better discrÍmination of consumption levels across rural versus urban areas, and across economic levels; more detailed data on consumption, preparation methods and micronutrient bioavailability of specífic complementary foods, especially chilies, vegetables, fruits and animal products across age and gender groups; more localized data on nutritional status to target interventions; broader data on micronutnent deficiencies in soil and potentíal response of crops to fertilization. This information and potential agricultural interventions in the food system must also be viewed in light of !he potential of standard fortification strategies and their scope of adoption and impactoA multidísciplinary study at !he Intemational Potato Center (CIP) of high-altitude cropping and food systems in the Andes incJuded base tine studies, cropping systems analysis, poverty rescarch, participatory GIS surveys and nutrition studies in 8 farmer communities of !he Department of Huancavelica, Peru (for full documentation see de Haan et al. 2006). Diversity across the department and the communities in which research was conducted makes !his a relevant setting for exploring potato-bascd food systems more generally.The department of Huancavelica covers over 2 million hectares (6.1 %) of!he Peruvian Andes mostly at elevations bctween 3.500 and 4.500m. The total population is just under 500,000 of whom !hree quarters are rural and 97% are economically dependent on agriculture and livestock (INEl 1994). Huancavelica is ofien considered !he poorest of Pern's 24 departments; chronic malnutrítion affects 52% of the children while average infant mortality reaches 112 per !housand in rural areas (MEF 2001, Rubina andBarreda 2000). Potato is the most important crop, covering more than a quarter of the total annual cropping area, fo Ilowed by maize, barley, wheat, faba beans and peas, which together account for another 27% (Rubina and Berreda 2000). Agro-ecological c1assification of the study arca was based on Pulgar Vidal's (\\ 996) framework of natural zones. Although Huancavelica has 5 agroecological zones, Puna, Suni, Quechua, Yunga and Selva Alta, only ¡hree of these contain potato production systems (Table 5). About 87% of the department' s population lives in the Quechua and Suni zones where potato agriculture is concentrated (Rubina and Barreda 2000). Farmers manage several production zones simultaneously, disbursing species, varieties, labor and risk across environments. SeclOral fallowing systems, called \"laymes\", are maintained in most high altitude communities: all farmen; plant the same crop in the same communally defined geographical sector. Rotation cycles begin with potatoes folJowed by barley and/or fallow (natural pasture). Fields at lower altitudes are managed by individual households.Each production zone has a distinctive potato speeies and cultivar portfolio: bitter species and landraees at higher extremes (P2, P3, P4), diverse non-bitter landraees (4 sub-species) al intermediate altitudes (P3, P4, SI, S2), improved varieties at lower levels (SI, S2, QI), commereial landraees in fields dedieated to a single variety (S 1, S2). F armers in all communities also maintain \"chaqro\" fields (production zones P3, P4, SI), in which mixtures of non-bitter/non-commereial landraces are managed together. These receive only locally available, organic inputs as do bitter landraees, while commereial plantings (Iandraee and improved varicHes) receive chemical fertilízers. Farmers generally use their own seed, but occasionally purchase additional seed after poor harvests. The informal potato seed systems cover most communities, maintain reasonable quality, are highly flexible and can distribute seed widely; \\herefore it is an important seed resouree for farmers (Thiele, 1999).Crop damage caused by abiotic factors such as frost, hail and drought is more important than inseet pest and disease damage at the upper altitudinal limits of agriculture as practised in the Huancavelica department. Farmers manage \\hese factors through field-scattering praetiees (Goland 1993), and consider \\hat mixed landrace stands or chaqro fields reduce damage and loss; semi-traditional praetices sueh as buming cow dung near fields to prevent frost damage and the use of fireworks for hail prevention are common. Farmers harvest by hand; men usually dig up tubers and women start seleetion, separating out damaged and small tubers for processing into chuño by freeze-drying; large tubers for sale, and medium size tubers for seed. Seed and tubers for fresh consumption are taken to homesteads for storage whilst bitter pota toes are oftcn left in the fields so \\hat chuño processing can begin once nightly frosts become frequent.Cultural dimensions and local knowledge systems of potatoes far exceed a simple catalogue of varietics and ¡nelude terminology ror the crop's agricultural and social ecology (Brush, 2004). Potato-related practices, knowledge, and culture including a characteristic Andean \"cosmovision\" are highly dynamic, continuously reinvented and frequently molded into new expressions at harmony with modemity. So it is not uncommon to find an improved variety wi\\h a local name being used for an indigenous process such as freeze-drying. This is typical of Andean agricuJture, which purposefully absorbs new technologies and knowledge to reshape \\hese for local utility.Malnutrition in the Huancavelica department Data collected in síx of \\he research communities showed that one in four children presented global malnutrition (weight for age). Only 7% of the ehildren showed normal heíght for age ratios, while 20% were found to be severely malnourished, 43% moderately and 30% slightly so (chroníe). The percentage of acute malnutrition (weight ror height) was found to be mínimal (INEI 2000).Farmers in all communities produce crops and animal products for home consumption. Potato in particular is often produced, yet rarely purchased. Strictly subsistence furmers are virtually nonexisten! in Huaneaveliea and although household consumption is largely determined by on-farm production, food systems are still dependent on purchase of sorne additional inputs. Andean peasants are highly articulated with \\he \"outside world\" (Mayer el al. 1992, Mayer 2002), and markets have played an important role in household economies for many centuries (Contreras and Clave 2002). Farmers [rom all the study communities seH part of their produce, such as potatoes, tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis), maca (Lepidium meyenii), wool and meat at regional markets. With the income, they buy certain foods, ingredients and olher necessities. Food expenditure varies within and bctween communities depending on resources. Non-monetary exchange through reciprocallabor relations or barter of foods is still common. Off-farm empJoyment has become much more common in recent decades for all of Huancavelica's rural communities and provides many households with complementary resources to enrich Ihe food system. The dynamics of migratíon and off-farm employmcnt have changed rural food systems, increasing possibilities to purchase new foods such as rice and pastas through monetary exchange. Families with access lo off-farm employment were rarely ranked as being poor by local standards.Access to aod availability of food. There are three main pathways for rural households 10 obtain [ood: on-farm production, exchange or purchase, and food donation programs from the govemment or regional NGOs. Table 6 provides an overview of foods commonly obtained through each pathway. Access and availability of food is related to a household's relative weallh. Non-poor households have more livestock whilst poor households are more erop dependent. The consumption of barley gruel, barley soup and freeze-dried potatoes were mostly associated with being poor while consumption of rice, pastas, eggs, meat and vegetables were commonly associated with not being poor (Table 7).I Poor households on average spend S./ 157 ($US 46) per month (52%) on food. Non-poor household's total monthly spending is higher with 8./262 ($U8 79) per month (44%) on food.Of the poor households 68% consume only two meals a day, and consume more barley and less rice, pasta, milk and fruit.Die! and nutrition. The nutrilional contribution 01' potato in the diet of women with children from 6 to 36 months old was studied in six communities during the periods of abundance and scarcity. Potato was dominant in the diets of both adult women and children, represented by a mean daily consumption of 839 and 645g (women) and 202g and 165g (children) during periods of abundance and relative scarcity respectively.During the period of abundance the total diversity of potato cultivars consumed was higher than dUfing the period of rclative scarcity, both ror women and children: 90 versus 61 cultivars for women and 81 versus 41 cultivars lor children. Withín the group of \"other roots and tuhers\", carrots and ollueo (Ullucus tuberosus) were most frequently consumed during the period of ahundance while carro! intake alone was more frequent during the period of relatíve scarcity. Barley, rice, oats and pastas were the most frequently consumed cereals by both women and children during both periods. F or legumes, both women and children mas! frequently consumed faba beans and peas in both periods. Broadly, vegetable consumption was infrequent, mainly onions and garlic during both periods of inquiry, and sacha color yuyo (Brassica rapa), a weedy vegetable, during the period of relative scarcity. Overall frequencies of fruit, meat, milk and egg consumption were found (o be extremely low for both groups and periods of inquiry.The overall diet was found to be generally deficient in energy, Fe, Zn and Ca. Potato provided over a quarter of the recommended total energy requirements for adult women and children, and contributed significant amounta of protein: 38% and 28% for women and 58% and 44% for chíldren for the period of abundance and relative scarcity, respectively.The contribution ofpotato to Fe intake was calculated at both low and medium bioavailability. At low Fe bioavailability, total mean potato Fe intake by women and ehildren contributed 7% and 8% respectively of required intake during the period of abundance and 5% and 6% during the period of scarcity, whereas for the medium Fe bioavailability seenario, the corresponding figures are 12% and 15% (women, Table 8) and 17% and 14% (children). The contribution of potato to Fe status may be more than these figures indicate if in faet potato is consumed together in the same meal with Fe from cereals, owing to potato's relatively high vitamin e contento The corresponding figures for low bioavailable Zn are higher (than for Fe) in women, about 23% and 20% but only 8% and 7% for children, for abundant and scarce conditions respectively, (Table 8); for moderately bioavailable Zn, the corresponding figures are 45% and 34% of the required intakes (women) and 16% and 15%, for children under abundant and scarce conditions respectively. For both Fe and Zn, co-consumption with carrota that are high in ¡l-carotene may enhance effieiency of absorption and utilization.The data confirrn that potato is a main slaple Ihat sustains food security for rural households and contributes significantly and positively to nutritional balance during periods of abundance and relative scarcity. Potato contributes more than 95% of the vitamin e requirements for both groups in the two periods, and contributes significantly to the recommended requirements for energy, protein, ea, Fe, Zn and vitamin e (Table 8). Other food categoríes, especially cereals, also provide substantial contríbutions to the recommended requirements.I  León, 1994). Quinoa has high quality protein; it contains relatively more of the essential amino acids Iysine, arginine, histidine and methionine. Tarwi is an exceptional source of protein (42% in dry grajn, 20% in cooked grain and 45% in fiour) and fat (16% of dry graio).Selection from existing varieties, or brccding, for nutritionally superior potato or barley varieties rich in Ca, Fe, Zn and provitamin A may have a positivc impact if these varicties comply with othcr major preferences farmers look for, e.g., taste, productivity, storability and resistance to important biotic and abiotic stresses.Enhanced processing of potatoes may potentially increase food security, especially for those months of the year tha! are critical in terms of availability of staples. This may be achieved by improving the sensitive steps and conditions in the process chain, e.g., the kind of surface on which chuño is prepared.The introduction of greenhouses and vegetable cropping has been promoted by several NGOs as a strategy to diversify diets and improve nutrition. Potential exists to expand and promote smalllivestock such as guinea pigs, rabbits and chickens.Food assistance programs can also make a positive contribution to improving the nutritional status of the population in Huancavelica if carefully managed, for there is a risk of a shift to foods that cannot be produced locally such as rice, promoting dependence and potentially undermining local food systems.The farmers of Huancavelica are not passive recipients of knowledge and technology from outside, as has been described. \"Interventions\" by outsiders should build on this potential and involve farmers in reinventing their local food systems lo make them more nutritious. Education about nutritional needs is one important component that can help farmers modify cropping systems and diets to inelude more nutritious foods, and could be included with farmer field schools and other participatory extension and training approaches that have typically focused on cropping systems rather thao the food system as a whole. The challenge is to work with farmers on a diverse range of options and develop robust local food systems that not only provide more nutritious food but do so in a culturally appropriate way tha! strengthens the ecological and genetic diversity that characterizes !he Andes.A. Potato and SweetPotato/Bean Food Systems in The Great Lakes RegionThe Greal Lakes Region of Central Africa, comprising Burundi, Rwanda, eastem parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and south-west Uganda, covers approximately 65,000 km 2 Iying between latitudes 2\"N and 5 0 S. Altitudes range from 800m on the shores of Lake Tanganyika in Ihe south to over 3,000m along the hign points of the mountainous Nilel Congo Divide. Tne predominantly rien volcanic soi15 of the Divide give way to acid lateritic soils to !he east. The region has a bimodal rainfall pattem with the \"short rains\" occurring bctween mid-October and December and the \"long rains\" between March and June. Rainfall is concenlraled along !he Divide, with less and a marked June to September dry season on Ihe eastem edge.Cropping system. The region is densely populated with mos! of the -20 million people living in the mountainous arcas. Agriculture accounts for !he livelihood of over 90% of the population. Farrns are generally small, averaging 0.5 ha. Few animals are kept, exeept on !he lower eastem plains. There are two main cropping seasons corresponding to !he short and long rains with a third during the June to September dry season in the limited wet valley bottoms. Bananas (Musa spp) are grown by over 70% of households and sweetpotato (lpomea batatas L.) and eassava (Manihot esculenta L.) eaeh grown by over 60%. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is grown at elevations aboye 1,600m asl by approximately 40% of sueh households. Phaseolus beans are tne main protein source, and also an important energy souree, grown by over 80% ofhouseholds. The cereals, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and maize (Zea mays L.), are grown on about 50% of farms. Coco yams (Colocasia esculenta L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), peas (Písum sativum L.), are also grown seasonally.The principal growing seasons are shown in Figure 5. The three erops ayear allow sorne continuity of food supply, but shortfalls occur at !he end of the dry seasons, partieularly wnere farmers nave no aecess to the valley bottoms. The situation is aggravated by !he perishable nature and poor storability of the roO! and tuber crops. Crops are rarely grown as asole crop. except for wheat, peas. recently introduced climbing beans and recently sorne cash crops. such as potato, More commonly, they are grown as complex poly-crops designed to reduce risk. Six or more crops are frequently grown on any small pareel of land and planted in a pre-determined spatial and temporal arrangement to maximize the use of land, water and Iight and ensure an extended harvest. Exact areas devoted to each crop are difficult lo assess, but recent estimates are shown in Table 9. The major constraints lo production are the limited land holdings, leading to intensive cropping and land and soil degradation; low soil fertility away from the volcanic ridge and the almost complete lack of fertilizer use; lack of affordable inputs, parlicularly sufficient quantities of quality planting material; drought and unpredictable rains resulting in increasing cereal-crop [ailure; disease, particularly the recent pandemics of cassava mosaic virus and banana bacterial wilt, which have reduced crop yields by as much as 100% over large areas, thus not only decreasing production but severely curtailing cropping options. Exacerbating these constraints has becn tbe recent civil unrest that has no! only reduced the labor force bu! resulted in a reduction in the animal population by over 60% with the concomitant loss of manure, Ihe main source of soil fertility.Casb crops. Coffee, tea and colton are Ihe major cash crops of the region. However, low prices and the domination of these crops by men means Ihat little of the income derived from them enlers the household budget, a possible exception being lo pay school [ces. General household ¡ncome is derived from sales of excess bananas (usually for beer), potatoes and beans. Such income is generally mínimal from (he smallland-holdings per household.Human Nutrition. Most areas in The Great Lakes Region are considered eapable of producing enough energy and protein for the population under peaceful condítions (United Nations World Food Program, WFP); but FAO estimatcs that 50% of the population of Central Afrien is undemourished (FAO 2003). Approximately 3% of the region's food requirements are imported, mainly in the form of wheat for bread making. However, severe imbalanees and defíeiencies, often seasonal, in intake of both the major and minor nutrients amongst sorne sections of the population, critícally women and young chíldren, are common.A survey by Nkunzimana et al. (l995b) in six Provinces of Burundi indicated that roots and tubers (55%) and legumes (35%) provided approximately 90% of the daily energy íntake: eereals (6%) and fish and meat, vegetables and fats (approximately 1% each) provided the balance. Also highlighted in this survey was the seasonal variation in dietary energy and protein intake (Table 10). The low intake levels, 51-78% and 49-101% of the energy and protein Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) during the short rains coincides wi!h a period of food shortage after reserves have been depleted during !he dry season.Table 10. Range ofseasonal energy and protein intakes among women aged 21 to 48 years in six provinces oC Burundi (Nkunzimana et al. 1995b In addition to the dietary intake of the major nutrients, numerous studies have shown tha! Fe and vitamin A intake in the most vulnerable groups (pregnant and lactating women and children from 6 to 59 mon!hs of age) are also sub-optimal. While data on actual intake are very unreliable, Table 11 shows recent estimates. In one recent study, Donnen et al. (1996) showed !hat vitamin A deficiency co-exists in East Kivu with protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) and is characterized by a high prevalence of severe biochemical depletion and a low prevalence of clinical signs. It is interesting to note that despite the high proportion of children covered by vitamin A supplementation programs, over one-third of children 3till have a sub-clínical deficiency, even where post-conflict activities have been intense.A survey in Burnndi, Nkunzimana el al.(1 995b) and Nkunzimana et al. (1995a), found that 74% of non-pregnant women, 95% of pregnanl women and 51 % of lactaling women received less than !he RDA of Fe suggesting that the figures in Table 1I may be underestimates. Nkunzimana et al. (l995a, 1995bNkunzimana et al. (l995a, , 1996) ) propose that Fe defíciency in these regions ma}' be partly explained by a typical die! poor in highly bioavailable heme-Fe and in promoters of non-heme Fe absorption and concluded tha! the lack of heme Fe and ascorbic acid in diets should be regarded as the main determinant of the low potential Fe bioavailability in the ¡mbo region of Burundi. A major cause is the almost total lack of animal and fish products (approximately 4.5 kg! person/ year or 3.5g! person/ day) in the diet, except for a narrow strip bordering Lake Tanganyika, and a low consumption of all groups of vegetables that provide minerals, ascorbic acid and other vitamins. Such conditions apply to the whole region; with the exception of sorne parts of East Kivu, where leafy vegetables, including cassava and bean leaves, are eaten almost daily (Yazawa and Hirose 1989). Al higher elevations Fe deficíency is often less and may be a resul! of the increased consumption of potato. The low levels of meat intake also affect adversely the ability of the body to absorb the fat-soluble f3-carotene from the intestine since oils are rarely used for cooking. Whilst Fe and vitamin A are the most widely reported deficiencies in the region, there are often also deficiencies of 1, Se and Zn, commonly due Iheir low levels in soil. Systematic studies of the micronutrient status of Central African soils have not been completed; but there is evidence that a11 these elements are deficient to some degree and would be reflected in the human nutrition of mese highly subsistence communities. AII of Ihese micronutrients interact in human metabolic processes and have important benefits lo human vigor and immune competence. Thus ensuring adequate levels of any one may partially offset deficiencies in olhers.Deficiency afI, endemic throughout the region, is now largely controlled by the use of iodized salt. However, Ihe use of iodized salt does nothing for potential deficiencies of 1 for livestock production, the products of whieh would greatly improve the nutritional status of Ihe population and inerease farmers' income allowing for more diet diversification from purchased foods. About 42% of the population of Burundi continues to be affected by 1 deficiency but less than 15% in Rwanda and Uganda (Anon 2003). Deficiencies of Se have been recorded in East Kivu (Fondu et al. 1978) and are considered to play an important role in anemia.Zinc, found in red mea!, legumes and whole grain cereals, is not recognized as a major health problem, but adequate Zn is known lo promote Fe and vitamin A utiJization. Furthermore, soils in Ihe region are deficient in Zn (Hotz and Brown 2004) a situation exacerbated by the rool crop-based diet low in Zn.NutritioD and disease. The population in the Oreat Lakes Region has a high incidence of HIV I AIDS, malaria, acule respiralory infections, tuberculosis and diarrhea resulting in very high lcvels of morbidity and mortality in children and women of childbearing age. Deficiencies in macro-and mieronutrienls affeet the body's ability lo resisl disease. Converscly, malaria, parasites and infcctious diseases affeel Ihe absorption of micronutrients.The increased incidenee of these ailments severely impinges on Ihe individual' s and household well-being, reducing the abilily lo work Ihe land, impairing child development and cognilive ability with an increase in the number of days losl al school, tbus reducing the individual and eountry's potential.ImplicatioDs of the cropping/nutrition balance. War, civil unrest and HIV/AIDS have resulted in many woman-headed households Ihroughout the Region. In Burundi, for example, il is estimated tba! households headed by women are now 18%. Field labor for food crop production is supplied mostly by women. Much of tbe land preparation is carried out at the end of the dry season, when many marginal families are restricted to only one meal a day. Thus women, at a time whcn maximum energy reserves are requíred, are weakened and liable to iIIness. This situatíon is severely aggravated, when the rain s begín and the mosquito population increases, by a seasonal outbreak of malaría. Scarce financial resources are often used to employ outsidc labor. Micronutrient deficiencies, particularly vitamin A deficiency, which lowers irnmunity lo disease, exacerbate the situation. Timely planting and weeding are ofien missed and yields reduced. lt is estimated that the economic impact of vitamin and mineral deficicncies alone amounts to 2.5% and 1.1 % of GDP in Burundi and Rwanda respectively (Anon 2004). Children, especially young girls, are pressured to fulfill tbeir mother' s role resulting in lost educational opportunities.A high rate of population increase, currently over 2.5% tbroughout the regíon, returning refugees, pressure for land and movement to marginal arcas, failure of traditional staple crops due to disease, drought and unpredictable rains are all likely to place pressure on traditional short-duration, cnergy and protein crops, potato, sweetpotato and bean. The question arises as lo how these cropping systems can supply a suffieient and balanced dieto Breeding for nutrition. Sweetpotato is potentially a major source of j3-carotene. Cultivars of sweetpotalo have been identified that are capable of providing ¡he ROA of Il-carotenc from only 100 gld of fresh root and breeding is under way to incorporate tbis character into locally adapted cultivars. Already, locally selected cultívars with increased ¡J-carotene contents are being grown in neighboring arcas ofKenya, Uganda and Tanzania.Bean cultivars wílh high Fe and Zn contents have also been idcntificd (Welch et al. 2000) and similar intensive breeding programs should make available locally adapted, high-F e andlor Zn cultivars. However, Ihe proportion of Fe and Zn that can be absorbed from beans is low due lo their antinutrient content, especially certain polyphenols. Bollini et al. (1999) have shown the possibility of breeding for a reduction in anti-nutrients. Wild potalo species with high carotenoids, vitamin C or Fe contents have also been identified and are currently being assessed for the possibility of incorporating these traits into improved genetic material. If consumed with beans, high levels ofthese constituents may enhance the absorption ofbean-Fe.Future scenarios. Immediate improvement in the PEM and the incorporation of a better nutrient balance is most likely to arise from intensification of current cropping systems and will rely heavily on the currently grown crops; particularly potato, sweetpotato and beans.Traditional poly-culture techniques are likely to be preferred as they reduce risk and the time taken for cultural practices such as weeding and pest control. New cultivars combined with optimal use of animal manures and compost will form the basis of intensification. Dietary mineral and vitamin deficiencies could be addressed through the incorporation of vegetables, including leaves of sweetpotato and bean, fruits rich in minerals, vitamins and essential oils and small livestock or fish that promote the bioavailability of plant sources of Fe, Zn and provitamin A.The longer-term trend within the region is market-orientated and the need for a consistent, quality product. Mono-cropping and the intensive use of inputs, such as new cultivars, improved seed, pesticides, poles for climbing beans, is becoming more common; as is the use of low levels of fertilizer through which soil micronutrient deficiencies may eventually be corrected. However, many inputs remain beyond the financial resources of farrners, making them liable to failure. The changing practices have significant environmental and human health implications. The success of a future market-and nutrient-orientated farrning system will depend heavily on the development of integrated methods for the control of the major pests and diseases, while at the same time safeguarding the environment and developing sustainable market linkages. Ultimately, however, the marketing of crops with better nutritional qualities will benefit the region at large as the fast-increasing urban population, particularly the poor, has access to them.The change to a market orientation may have serious social consequences if the income is confined to the male head of household and the women have even fewer resources with which to maintain the household; a situation exacerbated by ever smaller land holdings. Fortunately, in Rwanda at least, where due to the civil conflict, women outnumber men by 60% to 40% in many areas, recovery has resulted in a more equitable sharing of both workload and income.A review of 30 agricultural projects by Berti et al. (2004) showed that most agricultural interventions increased production, but not necessarily nutrition or health within the participating households. Of the interventions that did have sorne positive effect, most invested in four or five types of \"capital:\" physical, natural, financial, human and social.Those interventions that invested in nutrition education and considered gender issues were particularly successful. AIso, interventions involving \"home gardens\" and vegetable production were more likely to be successful.Traditional agricultural and health projects have not fully benefited the peoples of the Great Lakes Region. The traditional root and legume crops are the most suited to the difficult environmental conditions and have the potential to address both PEM and micronutrient deficiencies. To maximize the value of these crops a holistic intervention is needed that not only introduces nutrient-rich cultivars, but improves understanding of the interactions of micronutrients on nutrition and health, inereases total production and addresses Ihe importan! social issues of gender, nutrition education, including food preparation and the use of green leafy vegetables and the partitioning of household income.Case Study: Maize--Cowpea Intercrop System, ZimbabweDuring the period 199610 2002, a development project was implemented in Communal Areas in low rainfall (300-500 mm) parts of soulhern Zimbabwe. In the communal areas, farmers are allocated small parcels of land, 1-3 heetares, by the traditional chiefs, but have no title deed to that land and consequent1y have no collateral through which loans for produetion development might be accessed. Grazing areas are communally held. Only 15% of farmers are food self-suffieient in mos! years, 25% in some years while 60% are never self-sufficient.During an extensive series of participatory rural appraisals focused on community resource management, agricultural developmcnt problems and possible solutions, low or declining productivity of the maize crop was signaled as Ihe most universal cropping problem. Mostly the soils are coarse granitie sands having poor moisture holding eapacities, with a hard pan formed at aoout 12 cm depth due to many years of superficial moldboard tillage with cattle.Deep tillage to allow roots 10 explore more soil volume for moisture and nutrients was nol a practical oplion.Low soil fertility was implieated -the few available soil analyses indicated most elements were low, but fertilizer application studies utilizing compound fertilizers had rarely resulted in economically viable responses. Further, due to their financial eircumstances and a poorly developed distribution system, very few farmers (7-12% depending on districtlrainfall) eilher used inorganic fertilizers or had tried and rejected them. Although some farrners (who had cattle) had attempted fertilizing with farmyard manure, the majority had rejected its use due to crop buming, particularly under ¡he erratic rainfall eonditions; it was found that they were applying manure at rates recommended for higher rainfall conditions.Studies of N use, eilher mineral or organie (farmyard manure) at low rates, were shown to give yield increases of 30-100% but cost and availability meant Ihat these were options for only the bes! resourced farmers (10-20%). Other options were nceded for Ihe poorer farrners.In the past, cowpeas were a regular componen! of the cropping system in Ihe low rainfall, communal areas of Zimbabwe. Severe droughts in the 1980s, and early 19905 caused the 105s of cowpea seed either directly from crop failure or consumption of seed eowpeas. Laek of a seed distribution network in Ihe dry areas resulted in (he almost complete disappearance of cowpeas. Cowpea was re-introduced to the cropping system in an experimental way with farmers each conducting an experiment on their own plot to compare cowpea intercropped with maize to maize monoculture. Nearly 700 farmers participated in this study.Cowpeas were available [rom a seed company in Harare and the study team provided an initial distribution network and later established local seed multiplication initiatives utilizing innovative farmers. The question became, how to plant the cowpeas -as a 50le crop or as an intercrop in maize? Older farmers spoke of maize-cowpea intercropping in earlíer years but more recently extension messages had discouraged the practice. Further, tbe fewexperiments whicb had been carried out on a dryland research station near the study areas suggested very large maize yield losses due to intercropping, depending on seasonal conditions (Shumha et al. 1990), although the sole maize yields were very mueh greater than expected by farmers. On the other hand, most farmers were constrained by the lack of draft animal power sueh tbat no more land could be cultivated for cropping. Tbis latter factor and shortages of labor ror weeding an additional erop convinced the team to cautiously opt for intercropping.Collaborating farmers were given small packs of various varieties, both long and short season and determinate and indeterminate types. These they planted in participatory adaptive trialscompletely farmer managed, the innovation (cowpea) management dictated by the farmer's management techniques. This allowed a range of outcomes to be observed and analyzed.Generally, maize was planted in 90-1 OOcm wide rows with 30 cm betwecn plants. Depending on the type, cowpeas were planted in one (indetermínate) or two (determínate) rows between the maize rows, normally at first weeding (about 4-5 weeks afier maize planting). No fertilizer application to either erop was the norrn.Surprisingly, there were substantial yield increases obtained by the farmers (Table 12), admittedly from a low base. Furthermore they indicated almost no runoff aficr rainfall, with aceompanying elimination of erosive aetion, and a reduction in weeding required, particularly with indeterminate types. In one administrative arca (Ward 5) in Shurugwi district, there was nearly 100% adoption of this technology by the year 2000, the highest of all wards in the distritt. After harvest in that year, the headmaster ofthe Ward 5 Primary School remarked that sinee the children had been bringing lunches comprising cowpeas and maize rather Ihan maize alone, the children had developed noticeably longer attention spans that he attributed to the cowpeas. The following year, this previously unexceptional school was lhe highest achiever in terms of academic results in the whole district! The local extensíon worker, Mrs Dominica Shumba, working with more than 1000 farroers in 350-500 mm rainfall country won the National Extension Worker ofthe Year Award Jt is worth considering what improvements to Ihe food system eould possibly underpin Ihe putative causal link between cowpea in lhe diet and improved scholastic performance identified by the headmaster. For a start, it is clear that the system is deficient in N that the cowpea can contribute through N fixing nodules on its roots and its consequently higher protein level in the grain. While legume protein is commonly deficient in sulfur amino acids, it can complement maize protein with more Iysine. More importantly for scholastic performance, cowpeas are not only higher in Fe and Zn than maize, but they contribute promoters of absorption and utilization of both these two elements that have been widely linked to cognitive ability in children but which are widely deficient in resource-poor populations. The leaves of cowpea if consumed fresh in soup with Fe from either maize or cowpea itself, as is common practice, contain vitamin C that strongly promotes Fe absorption; moreover, selected varieties contain significant pro-vitamin A (also in yellow, orange and red varieties of maize but not in white types common in Zimbabwe) that promotes absorption aml/or utilization of Zn as well as Fe. In addition, addressing likely deficiencies ofvitamin A, Fe and Zn will greatly improve immune competence that should result in less absenteeism through childhood diseases like diarrhea and colds and flu.Cowpea thus makes a major contribution to the quality of the food system as well as to the agronomy of the cropping system in terms of food productivity. It is important to consider how this food system could be further improved with respect to the health of the population, especially children. On a global scale, after Fe, Zn and vitamin A, the most common deficiencies in subsistence diets are of l and Se; both deficiencies are widespread in East Africa generally. Deficiency ofI is endemic in Zimbabwe, being most severe in the north and north east ofthe country. These two deficiencies can be corrected through the food system by use of 1-and Se-fortified fertilizers that have been successful in other countries, but this strategy depends on widespread and extensive use of base fertilizers that is not the case in this target area. As only minute amounts of these two nutrients are required, it may be practical to spread them by air over large areas in a matter of hours, an initiative that would need to be undertaken by the government after consultation with FAO, WHO and the communities. The advantage of this method is that no change in behavior would be needed from the farming community. The benefits in vigor, immune competence and resistance to the spread of HIV are discussed in earlier sections. Finally, encouraging the use of small amounts of fresh, home grown vegetables, herbs and spices and small livestock can contribute functional components to the diet both known (esp. vitamin B12) and not yet known to science.The value of rice-fish farming systems as a nutrient delivery system for households and communitiesRice-fish farming systems have been in practice for over two centuries by Asian communities where monsoon rains ensure the reliability of rain-fed rice-fish systems. However, with the expansion of aquaculture and further rice-fish system research, these systems have expanded into other areas throughout the world, particularly those areas having high human population densities or where native fish naturally found in ponds and rivers have been heavily fished. This section will summarize sorne of the potential productivity levels that have been reached successfully, the agronomic/aquaculture practices necessary for sustainable productivity while emphasizing the potential for these rice-fish systems to deliver important nutrients and diet diversity to communities where malnutrition still exists. Constraints to the systems' expansion will also be discussed and possible improvements suggested as to its sustainability and dietary, agronomic and societal acceptability.Productivity levels. Rice-fish systems can be either 'capture' or 'cultivated' depending on whether fish are allowed to enter from a surrounding pond or fields to reproduce within the rice field or are stocked from fingerlings released to tbe rice ficld. Mixing fish culture with rice cultivation often providcs an increase in rice productivity and protits due to fewer pesticides required, and the contribution offish to rice soil fertility. Sorne have reported fewer weeds in shallow rice-fish cultivation, adding to productivity and profit of the system.China, where rice-fish systems developed centuries ago, had over 138,000 ha area in 1986. This represented only 1.5% of all rice lands of which 50% are c1aímed to be suitable for ricefish. The productivity oí the fish then was 183 kg per ha (Renkui et al. 1995, Oefu andMaoxing 1995). This increased dramatically during the next decade 10 1.2 million ha with an average productivity of over 310 kglha fish and generally 10-20% increases in rice yields in mos! locations (Table 13).  (Halwart and Gupta 2004).There are many countries that record rice-fish production sorne having expansion rates up to 34% e.g. in Egypt (Figure 6). Productivity levels vary widely among the countries, depending on the intensity of cultivation and length of maturity of tlle rice varieties. In Cllina, yields of fish aboye 3 tlha have been recorded for a range of conditions (MacKay 1995). However, even with the averages recorded in Table 13, there is substantial benefit from fisll cultivation concurrent with ricc. One study recorded fish yields ranging between 62 and 81 kg/ha were sufficient to 'break-even' with tbe additional resource investrnent (Gupta, et. al. 1998) Agronomic Management Practices. There have becn many papers describing the various technical details of the physical modifications required to create an environment suitable for rice-fish cultivation [Gregory 1997, Halwart 1998 (Iists many of those review papers); Halwart and Gupta 2004]. However, the practices common to most systems are Iisted here.For rice varieties, the choice of modern varieties or landraces does not offer any constraints to the system -both work equally well as long as they are locally adapted and suitable (Halwart 1998). Many species of fish can be used with varying commercial and nutritional values.Obviously the grass carp and other fish that consume plants are not encouraged. Also, camivorous fish need to be cultivated singly or not at all for obvious reasons. Integrated pest management (IPM) is practised by mosl rice-fish cultivators owing to concern about the use of pesticides on fish cultivation. Fish themselves can further reduce pest populations by their pesl consumption, offering further savings of pesticides. Fish feeding activities has becn shown lo reduce weed gro'l'.1h in shallow rice-fish systems (Piepho 1993). lncreased supplemental fertilization in Ihis system over rice monoculture is usually practised. Fish have been shown to inerease the soil fertility. thus increasing rice yields in many locations (Gupta el. al. 1998). Additional irrigation is required for areas where rainfall is unreliable. In Bang1adesh, tbe average additional water requirement for fish was estimated at 26% more Ihan for rice alone (Gupta et al. 1999). Aquaculture alone now accounts for 31 % of fish consumed but will expand further as captured fish from ponds and rivers is becoming depleted.Sustainability Issues. Reliable rainfall is necessary for cultured fish in the rice fields. Sometimes fields can have depressions where fish can 'escape' when rainfall level drops or supplemental irrigation is unavailable. Gmwers with larger land properties can have the rice fields open up into a pond lo avoid any lemporary drought so the fish can escape lo the pond and be self-released when the rice paddy i5 again flooded. Thus, marginal farmers with less land become less involved in rice-fish due lo the risks, labor time, inability 10 obtain credit, and less land availabJe for rice-fish to allow for 'escapes' in limes of drought (Gupta et al. 1999). Theft of fish in the rice fields is a concern where there are too few gmwers practising aquaculture or the rice-fish system. Table 13 indicates those countries having or trying ricefish cultivation, but whose area i5 so low that il is not officially recorded. Literature indicales potential for expansion in all these countries in the future. The case study of rice-fish expansion in Madagascar may be studied as 'Iessons leamed' since external assistance had ended (Halwart 1998).Food composition values emphasizing genetic variability in and reliability oC food compositiou data. Much of the data conceming food composition will concentrate on Bangladesh, where much nutritional literature and valid data can be found (Table 14). In Bangladesh, only 6% of tbe daily protein intake of 48 g per capita came from fish in 1983 (Ahmad and Hassan 1983). However, of the protein derived from animals, 59% is fmm fish. Thus, the potential remains for rice-fish to address malnutrition. The addition of fish to a ricehased diet has potentially huge benefits nutritionally. Rice, especially milled, white rice, is relatively low in protein, very low in Fe, low in Zn, low in Ca, supplies no vitamins A and C and is further deficient in fat, B vitamins, including B12, folate, 1 and Se. Fish, especially small fish such as mola Ihat are caten whole, can complement rice in covering practically all of its nutrilional limilations with the possible exceptions of the last two in the case of freshwater fish (sea fish are valuable sources of 1 and Se). It is important that such subsistenee farrocrs realize the great nutritional advantage in consuming ¡hese small fish rather than using them only as a cash crop. In an I-deficient area, fresh water fish are as likely 10 be as deficient as the people so other sources of I must be found. Iodized salt is the most likely but seaweed fmm the ocean can suffice if available and part of the culture. If the area is Se-deficient, a solution from outside is necessary although garlic has the capacity to concentrate Se and much of its odor can be due to Se compounds. External sources are obviously foods from Seadequate or Se-rich areas, such as wheat from North Dakota where soils are unusually high in Se and wheat-Se is an unusuallY bioavailable source of this essential mineral. Fertilization with Se as sodium selenate is very effective bul it is not widcly used as no yield advantage can be expected. Among fish, small indigenous fish are usuaJJy consumed whole and thereby provide a substantial source of Ca from their bones. Vitamin A content varies widely among fish species: from > 15,000RElkg raw edible part for mola, a small indigenous species (Amblypharyngodon mola), to less than 1,000 RE/kg for most of the cultivated carp fish species (Roos et.al. 2002(Roos et.al. , 2003)). Most of the vitamin A comes from the retinol in the fish eyes and viscera. In their study, fish consumption was unaffected by the domestic aquaculture production indicating that fish cultivation did not change household fish consumption. However, 84% ofthe total fish consumed was from the small indigenous species, contributing 40% of the recommended vitamin A intake at the household level. Thus, while fish eonsumption maybe unaffeeted by rice-fish or aquaculture, the species of fish such as mola can be integrated in existing carp culture without negative effects and can contribute to increased household vitamin A intake. It is worthy of note here that in high arsenic (As) areas, mola also contain high concentrations of As but being entirely in the organie form, it is nontoxie to humans. Halwart and Gupta (2004) reviewed papers relating to nutritional advantages to rice-fish cultivation and concluded tha! improvements of a farming household's nutrition as a result of culturing fish in the riee fields may just be an incidental and perhaps even indireet effect, sueh as being able to buy meat or ehicken as a result of the extra cash eamed from fish. The main benefit of rice-fish farming is often secn as providing an opportunity to earn cash, so an education program of the nutritional advantages of household consumption of sorne of the fish harvested is required.Socioeconomic and policy environments and constraints. Because of the increased system benefits of rice-fish to both enterprises, most studies reviewed nave snown very favorable increases to profitability with rice-fish cultivation with few of the net benefits from rice-fish culture being lower than that of rice monoculture alone (MacKay 1995, Gupta 1998, Halwart and Gupta 2004).Reliable rainfal1 or externa! water sources must be maintained for rice-fish culture to continue to expando When water becomes limiting, many studies show that rice-fish cultivation loses its appeal due to the risks. Additionally, most literature reviewed indicates the major constraint 10 lhe systems' expansion is the lack of fingerlings al lhe time of rice-fish cultivalion (Halwart 1988, Litt!e et.al. ! 996). Where this system is well established. fingerlings are available and rice-fish cultivation is more widespread, such as in China.Conclusion (Improvements to the system). The main beneficial effects of rice-fish systems are related to environmental sustainabi!ity, system biodiversity, farm diversification, and household nutrition (Rothuis et al. 1998). Research results on rice-fish systems indieate that with proper c!assificalion ofrice producing areas for lheir suitabilíty for rice-fish farming, and consideration of the capacity of the irrigation infrastructure, general soil characteristics, physica! requirements as well as the socio-economie situation, its arca can expando This expansion can make impacts in maintaining marketable fish within lhe communities but when these same eommunities are empowered with knowledge of nutrients found in the varying fish species, their choice of species can affect their household and community nutritional status. Hidden benefits of rice-fish farming such as risk reduetion through diversification of the farming system may have a strong attraction to many farmers and their families (Halwart and Gupta 2004).V. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLICY ENVIRONMENTS S.I. Household Incomes, Food Prices, and Agrlcultural Development.Interventions lo improve Ihe minerals and vitamins supplied by the cropping system at any given time should be understood in the eontext of agricultura] and economic developmenl over time. In this context, per capita intakes at the household level are generally a funetion of that household's income and food prices. We first examine income.Table 15 shows per capita energy intake and share of food expenditures by broad food groups by income group for three countries. At low incomes the peor give priority to purchasing food staples, lhe most inexpensive source of energy, to keep from going hungry. Then at the rnargin as income increases, they buy non-staple plant foods (e.g. lentils, fruits, vegetables) and animal products (incIuding fish) because of a strong underlying preference for the tastes of these foods. Although diets are expressed in Table 15 only in lenns of energy (and not minerals and vitamins), because non-staple plant foods and animal products are denser than food staples in bioavailable mínerals and vitamins, percentage inereases in mineral and vitamin intakes rise much more sharply with income Ihan do energy intakes. Animal products are the most expensive source of energy, but the richest sources ofbioavailable minerals and vitamins.There is a natural underlying tendency, then, for dietary quality to improve as economic development proceeds. As household income rises and demand for non-staple plant foods and animal products rises, prices for these better quality foads will tend to rise, all things being equal. These price signals, in tum, will give rise to supply responses from agricultural producers. The essence of economic (in this case agricultural) development is that technological improvements will be stimulated (e.g. development of higher yieIding varieties eíther through public or prívate investments in agricultural research) which in tum will lead to more efficient production, faster supply grovvth rates, and eventually lower non-staple food prices.It is the role ofpublic food policies lo influence this long-run process so that aggregate growth is rapid and so that all socio-economic groups (importantly the malnourished poor) share in the benefits of this growth. With thís as background, we now briefly examine foad prices and the role ofthe Green Revolution in influencing food prices. .r:=,\", c;.r:= '\" :g Figure 7 shows the percentage inereases in developing country population, in cereal production, and in pulse production between 1965 and 1999, Developing country population doubled during Ihis periodo Jt is the great achievement of thc Green Revolution that cereal production more than doubled due lo rapid technological change, After adjusting for inflation, real cereal prices have fallen over time despite the doubling of developing country population.As suggested in Table 15, the poor spend a high percentage oftheir income on food staples, and lower cereal prices frees up income that eases their burden and can be spent on a range of necessities, including better quality food, Pulse production in Figure 7 is representative of increases in production for any number of non-staple plant foods, Production increased significantly, but did not keep pace with growth in demand --due bcth to population growth and income increases as developing country economies have grown. There was no commensurate technological change in the non-staple food sector. Consequently, inflation-adjusted prices of many non-staple foods have increased overtime.This change in relative prices -lower food staple prices and higher non-staple food priceshas made it even more difficult for the poor to achieve mineral and vitamin adequacy in their diets. Certainly, in the absence of knowledge among the poor abou! the importance for health of a nutritious diet and what relatively inexpensive non-staple foods can provide in tenns of mineral s and vitamins, for those poor whose incomes have remained constan!, price incentives have shifted the diet more and more toward reliance on food staples. As described in previous sections, this has led to a worsening of mineral and vitamin intakes for many segments of developing country populations, micronutrient malnutrition, poor health, and much misery.To reiterate, lhe long-run task of public food policy is to stimulate growth in the non-staple food sector (sometimes referred to as \"high-value\" agriculture) through any number of instruments -agricultural research, education, building infrastruclure, improving markets for agricultural inputs and outputs, to name a few. However, this is a several-decades-long process. In Ihe meantime, again as deseribed in previous sections, there are specific, costeffective steps that can be taken to utilize agriculture to improve mineral and vitamin intakes. Policy aspects are discussed below for three interventions already discussed in agronomic terrns in eadier sections•• (i) additions of essential trace elements lo soils (ii) biofortificalion, and (iii) introduction of novel, nutrient-dense crops into the food system.As documented in previous sections, minerals severely lacking in human diets can be added to food systems by additions to the soil-using commercially-produced fertilizers applied on the ground, by air and through irrigation systems. To justify implementation of any variants of Ihis strategy, Ihe basic economic principies are (i) thal lhe benefits to human heallh and greater agricultural production are greater Ihan costs of implementation and (ii) where the private sector is involved, thal there be proper incentives for participation and equal treatment of companies.Direct Additions Through Public Action. The DeLong study in westem China (Cao et al. 1994) already discussed provides evidence thal a strategy of adding 1 to an irrigation system provides a simple, low-cost melhod for getting r ¡nto lhe foed system and into lhe diets of people who are I-deficienl. In this well-documented case, Ihe benefits to public heallh are substantially higher than costs. Moreover, tbere are benefits to livestock production as well.While Ihis one case demonstrates a principie, much of agriculture, however, is rain-fed and ofien it will nol be possible to use an irrigation system as a dclivery mechanism. Olher means of delivery, such as lhrough spraying by air and adding lhe nutricnt lo olher fcrtilizers already in use are practicable and may be cost-effective in given situations. To the extent lhat both buman and plant heallh are limitcd by the availability of lhe trace mineral being applied, Zn for example, benefits will be high. To the extent that a single application may be sufficient to generate benefits over several years, costs will be low (unlike N lhat needs repeated applications). Economies of seale in delivery and lack of altemative means of delivery (e.g. in areas of Africa where fertilizer markets are poorly developed or non-existent) may provide the rationale ror public intervenlion as compared wilh relying on private incentives to improve soíl fertility. Carefully researched pilot activities which successfully document high benefits and low costs will be requircd to convince policymakers that ínnovative solutions to supplying trace mínerals to soils should be implemented.Fortiflcation of Fertilizers. In arcas where fertilizer use by farrners is already widespread, it ís technically fcasible to \"fortify\" ferti I izers with specific trace minerals as a vehícle for getting limíting trace minerals ínto soils, then ¡nto plants, and ¡he overall food syslem. In the case of Zn where lhe profits from increased yiclds can far exceed Ihe exlra cost of Zn-enriched fertilizers, ít may be enough through public researeh simply lo document lhe benefits of Zn for yíelds to jump-start prívate sector efforts lo develop supplíes and a market for fertilizers with Zn -as happened in Turkey (Cakmak 2002).Where an increased suppl)' of trace mineral s could contribute to public health, but not to agricultural productivity, two related stralegies are possible. The government could require (pass laws) that all fertilízers be fortified with particular trace minerals to certain minimum standards. This will inerease fertilizer costs to farmers (fertilízer producers will pass the increased production costs on to their customers) and necessitate establishing institutions so tha! !he law will be enforced. lffertilizer priees were significantly affected, the govemment could choose altematively lo subsidize these additional production COSt5, so (hat fertilizer priees would remain unchanged; laws mandating fertilizer fortification would still require enforcement and subsidy payments would require oversight.Again, carefully researched pilo! activities which successfully documented high benefits and low costs would be required to convince policymakers to implement such laws and to incur the COS! of 5uch subsidies.Technical issues associated with biofortification and the potential economic benefits of biofortification have been discussed in previous sections and elsewhere (Graham et al. 2001). With this as background, there are two primary poliey issues: (i) should the governmcnt require that al1 new releases (public and private) for given erops contain minimum levels of specific minerals and vitamins, and related to this, (ií) what leve! of public resourees should be invested in biofortification as part of its investment in agricultural research?As more scientific knowledge and experience is gained with biofortification, as more efficient methodologies are developed, the costs of including mineral and vitamin density as part of \"standard practice\" in breeding may become quite manageable. If so, then there will be strong incentives in terms of improved public nutrition and health to require minimum levels of minerals and vitamins in the edible portions of new releases.What levels to investments in biofortification are appropriate will depend in part on the costs of alternative instruments which are available for providing nutrients in the food system -for example, supplementation, fortifieation, fertilizer strategies discussed aboye, and introduction of new crops in eropping systems which is discussed below. Biofortification may be conceptualized as a subset of this last activity -introducing a new erop line into the food system if not a completely novel erop. Tt has the advantage over the supplementation, fortification. and fertilizer strategies Ihat most costs are incurred up fron!. That is, they do not involve the same recurrent costs year after year.To illustrate this strategy, consider the case of the introduction of orange-flesh sweetpotato (for which there are specific lines very dense in (3-carotene) into a food systcm that is severely deficient in vitamin A. In sorne cases, it may be that white sweetpotato varieties are airead)' beíng consumed. In other areas, sweetpotato may be a eompletely novel erop. In either case, a eommunication strategy would need lo be developed, directed nol only at users but at policymakers and diffusers ofthis technology (diffusers ultimately report 10 policymakers who provide, or do nOI provide, an enabling environment lo implement the dissemination strategy).Efiective communication creates demand for vines, ensures suppliers and markets to link supply. Demand would need lo be motivated by a message of improved nutrition. Finally, after the initial public investment introducing the new erop into the food system, al sorne point public activities would need lo be withdrawn, leaving in place a supply-demand marketing ehain operating within the market economy.Many national food systems have become dysfunctional, failing to supply all the nutrients required for healthy crops and for healthy people dependent on those crops for nutriture. This is a global problem affecting most people, rich and poor. However, agricultural strategies and tools are available to redress these problems that appear to date back to the loss of diet diversity induced by changes in agricultural systems during the Green Revolution. Agronomists, and indeed the whole agricultural sector need lo understand Ihe implications their activities have on the nutrient delivery of Ihe food systems they work with, and to consider their role as developing. in partnership wilh nutritionisls and primary healthcare officials, sustainable cropping systems that can deliver nutríents in balance to whole populations. Much of this new agenda will need lo focus on micronutrienl ínputs and outputs of farming syslems. and wil! require access lo analytical laboratories and careful altention lo nutrient interactions in soils, crops, animals and humans. The complexities of food systems, of micronutrienl chemistry and biology, as well as the opportunities available in molecular and digital technologies offer exciting challenges lo agronomists willing 10 tackle, collaboratively, one of the world' s mos! pressing issues -malnutrition and the devastating effects it has on human health and well being and on societies as a whole.","tokenCount":"22959"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"29b8b3dcf91706c8f170642799fa1501","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e00a55e-5937-45b2-9334-3d9ca4e1a95f/retrieve","id":"2061022775"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"00ec1aa7-8cc4-43b9-bd8e-785e55492d6b","pagecount":"77","content":"This publication was funded (in part) by IFAD's Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP), the single largest climate change initiative for smallholder farmers worldwide.This report is aimed at readers who seek to build economic evidence in support of the inclusion of actions on agriculture in climate change plans and programmes, particularly at the national level under the umbrella of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to the December 2015 Paris Agreement, which aims to restrict a rise in global temperatures and manage risks.Agriculture is a sector especially sensitive to climate change. It also accounts for significant emissions and is, therefore, a priority for both adaptation and mitigation plans and actions at global, national and local levels. The majority of NDCs, which are voluntary national submissions for post-2020 action under the Paris Agreement, express national-level intentions for action on adaptation and mitigation in agriculture: 84 per cent of intended NDCs propose mitigation actions in agriculture and land-use sectors and 92 per cent of intended NDC adaptation plans prioritize agriculture. However, economic assessment and financial analysis of agriculture in NDCs, and in related plans like national adaptation plans (NAPs), are weakly developed to date. Credible economic and financial proposals with a high likelihood of delivering meaningful returns are needed to unleash large-scale public and private investment in agriculture under climate change.Globally, there is a strong economic case to invest in agriculture for future food security and rural livelihoods under climate change. For example, the world's largest programme for smallholder farmers' adaptation, IFAD's Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP), will deliver globally positive returns to investment across a range of climatic futures if adoption rates are high. Ex-ante economic analysis shows that the 32 country-level ASAP investments approved since 2010 generate and redistribute net worth US$0.44-1.63 per dollar invested over a time frame of 20 years to smallholder farmers and other project beneficiaries, generating a mean net present value of US$6.8 million over the period. Similarly, widespread adoption of improved practices in production of major staples will provide economic pay-offs to future food security under climate change.Iterative climate-risk management can address the specific challenges of climate change in agriculture by proposing actions in three different time frames: immediate actions to address current climatic risks and variability, integration of adaptation into current investments with long lifetimes, and early monitoring, research and learning to prepare for the future impact of climate change.At the farm level, positive economic returns can be demonstrated for multiple practices that build adaptive capacity and reduce emission intensity across several of the priority subsectors highlighted in the NDCs -soil and land, water crops, livestock, fisheries and trees. Portfolios of actions may deliver better outcomes than single interventions. In the livestock sector, for example, combining pasture management with improved breeds, watering systems and supplementary feeding can double gross margins while conferring adaptation and mitigation benefits. Importantly, however,the economic results of agricultural practices are highly context-specific and may take several years to deliver positive returns.Alongside farm-level actions are a further set of non-technical mitigation and adaptation interventions, which are just as important but more difficult to quantify and value. These include capacity-building, institutional strengthening, services to provide finance, information, extension and research, policy and legal frameworks, and, finally, programme management, particularly for monitoring and evaluation. Development of policy-based actions may not comprise a major cost component in NDCs or related instruments, but it can provide major leverage for behaviour change among farmers and other value-chain participants.Climate change plans for the agricultural sector need to be based on solid economic assessment that includes policy mainstreaming, iterative planning, a balance of project-level and farm-level assessments of costs and benefits, and appraisal of economic incentives and the enabling environment for farmers and other private-sector actors. Supplementing cost-benefit analyses with better understanding of drivers of behavioural change, including at different scales and time frames within an overall theory of change, will provide better guidance for investment.NDCs are generally well aligned with national development plans so that proposed actions for both adaptation and mitigation contribute to improved development outcomes at the national level, but they do not yet collectively meet the global ambitions of the Paris Agreement. The more ambitious NDCs provide the political capital to promote transformative actions that bring together multiple, longer-term agendas for social, economic and environmental benefit.The Paris Agreement has given the world a powerful platform for action on food and agriculture under climate change. Food security is at the crux of the agreement. Among the 189 submitted intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs), 84 per cent propose mitigation actions on agriculture or land use and 63 per cent include agriculture specifically in their quantitative targets for mitigation (Richards et al. 2015 and2016). Agriculture is even more prominent in INDC adaptation plans: an overwhelming 92 per cent prioritize actions in the sector (diagram 1). INDCs become nationally determined contributions (NDCs) once parties ratify the agreement (box. 1).Together the NDCs provide a stable, transparent enabling environment for both public and private investment, linking to and building on associated climate-policy instruments, such as national adaptation plans (NAPs). Yet the substance of the NDCs' intentions for the key sector of agriculture remains vague. NDCs tend to indicate generic areas of intervention, such as water management or livestock, rather than actual proposals for bringing about change. Economic assessment is not yet well developed or consistent, particularly for returns on investment or even for immediate costs and financing needs. This matters a great deal, not just for national outcomes, but also for achieving the global goals, since NDCs distinguish conditional and unconditional actions, linked to targets that countries commit to with or without additional climate finance. NDCs are voluntary submissions by parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); they provide a public statement of intended post-2020 climate actions in support of the Paris Agreement of December 2015. Ahead of the Paris Agreement, parties submitted their proposed actions in the form of intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs). For all parties that have subsequently ratified the agreement, their INDCs have become NDCs.All NDCs include proposals for mitigation, which cover actions to reduce net loads of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHG). Collectively, these actions comprise the basis of post-2020 global emissions-reduction commitments under the Paris Agreement to hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. Many NDCs also include proposals for action on adaptation to climate change, under the assumption that it may not be possible to avoid all climate change.NDCs are voluntary and self-determined, without a standardized format for communication. Therefore, it is not possible to add up the global benefits or costs of parties' NDCs accurately, for either mitigation or adaptation. On the other hand, the diversity of approaches means that the majority of parties have been able to achieve a strong alignment between NDCs and pre-existing climate plans. For example, parties that have included adaptation actions in their NDCs have largely aligned these with their national adaptation plans (NAPs).There will be progressive steps to review and raise the ambition of NDCs. A facilitated dialogue is proposed for 2018, followed by a new round of NDCs in 2020 outlining ambitions up to 2030. In 2023, there will be a formal global stocktake of the NDCs against the global ambition of the Paris Agreement.All NDCs are linked to, or build on, other climate-change planning instruments, such as the NAPs, which are the main instrument for adaptation planning at the national level, as well as nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) and other national climate-action plans. Agencies such as the UNFCCC Secretariat and the Convention's Green Climate Fund (GCF), which assists developingcountry parties, are actively working to support this coherence and coordination; for example, by making all NAPs available on the UNFCCC website and recognizing them as the basis for GCF support for adaptation. The analysis that we present in this report can be applied not only to NDCs, but also to NAPs, NAMAs and other national-level climate-change plans.The handful of countries that specify financing requirements for agricultural adaptation vary widely in their approaches and figures (diagram 2). Estimates of their individual costs range from a few hundred thousand dollars to US$35 billion, over various time frames. Preliminary analysis shows that there is no relating of annual financial requirements to the size of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) or the apparent risk to agriculture of climate change (Gregersen et al. 2016). African parties to the Paris Agreement that have costed their agricultural mitigation targets show wide variation. The proposals range from single projects, for example, US$2.5 million for a programme to reduce slash-and-burn agriculture in the Central African Republic, to full sectoral mitigation plans, such as Senegal's US$1.8 billion proposal (Richards et al. 2015). By comparison, global studies have estimated the additional costs of adaptation to climate change within the agricultural sector at US$7 billion per year up to 2050 (Nelson et al. 2009), with a further US$7.7 billion per year to counter the impact on children's nutrition (World Bank 2010), US$11.3-12.6 billion per year in the year 2030 (Wheeler and Tiffin 2009) and a cumulative US$225 billion up to 2050 (Lobell et al. 2013)  Costs per year: agriculture (US$ million)As the next chapters will show, there is little doubt of the economic advantages of investing in agriculture to meet climate challenges, and better economic information is available to weigh up the viability and prioritization of investments. Agriculture as a sector offers unique opportunities for integrating mitigation and adaptation. Economic returns of smart investments accrue both to agricultural development and to emissions reductions. But serious public and private investment in agriculture under climate change is going to need credible financial proposals with a high likelihood of positive outcomes. These proposals will need to address not just technical interventions but also capacity-building, institutions, services and administration. Future iterations of NDCs will also need to address how investment in national-level public goods will contribute to global public goods. As discussed further in chapter 5, the mitigation targets in the current set of NDCs do not yet add up to the global goal of the Paris Agreement to hold the increase in average surface temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels.There are many ingredients for successful investment, such as new and expanded financial instruments, mechanisms to blend private and public finance, access to information on financing sources, support to farmers' business and financial capacities, and deployment of public-sector economic instruments (Chambwera et al. 2014, Falconer et al. 2015, Goldman et al. 2016). Here we focus on just one of these ingredients: evidence from economic assessments, with a focus on agriculture and the NDCs. We concentrate on case studies from countries where agriculture constitutes a high proportion of GDP and rural employment. Economic information is not the only input to any policy decision, but it is an important one. In this report, our purpose is to support the next step from generic plans for agriculture in NDCs to actionable and beneficial measures that collectively deliver agriculture's fair share of the global ambitions of the Paris Agreement.• Globally there is a strong economic case to invest in agriculture for future food security and rural livelihoods under climate change.• For example, the world's largest programme for smallholder farmers' adaptation, IFAD's Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP), will deliver globally positive returns to investment across a range of climatic futures, if adoption rates are high.• Similarly, widespread adoption of improved practices in production of major staples will provide economic payoffs to future food security under climate change.Agriculture is the major employer and accounts for more than 30 per cent of GDP in low-income countries (World Development Indicators 2014 data) and is among the most sensitive sectors to climate change. Meta-analysis presented in the Fifth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2013) report provides evidence that climate change without adaptation will have negative effects on the yields of major staple crops where local temperatures increase 2°C or more above 1990s levels -tropical regions are likely to experience stronger yield declines than temperate ©IFAD/David Rose regions (Porter et al. 2014). Combined with future challenges of population growth, demographic transitions and conservation of ecosystem services, climate change puts future food security and rural prosperity at stake. The good news is that farmers, governments, researchers and businesses already have the capacity and knowledge to implement appropriate near-term measures and longer-term transformative changes to agriculture and food systems in response to climate change. This chapter provides two examples that contribute to a global case for investment in agriculture under climate change: first, the geographic perspective of investments in national programmes supported by IFAD, and, second, the valuechain perspective of global investments in specific commodities and technologies, using rice as an example. These examples show that economic returns to investment in agriculture under climate change are positive and substantial in best-case scenarios that assume high levels of uptake.A case for national investments: the example of ASAP IFAD's ASAP is both the largest global financing source for smallholder adaptation and a trailblazer that can offer useful lessons to emerging climate-finance mechanisms at national, regional and global levels. ASAP works in over 30 low-income and middleincome countries, using climate finance to make rural development programmes more climate-resilient. Much of the finance goes to farmers themselves and to farmerled adaptation, through financing of, and decision-making by, local farmer and community organizations.Ex-ante economic analysis (Ferrarese et al. 2016) shows that a representative project among the 32 country-level ASAP investments approved since 2010 generates and redistributes net worth US$0.44-US$1.63, for every dollar invested through ASAP, to smallholder farmers and other project beneficiaries over a time frame of 20 years. Each project, whose implementation lasts between five and seven years, will completely offset its costs and contribute to value generation of US$350,000 per year, generating a mean net present value of US$6.8 million. Benefit-to-cost ratios are positive in all target countries, and reach values of over 4:1 in Cambodia, Liberia, Bolivia and Nicaragua (diagram 3).The analyses are ex-ante and will be confirmed by ex-post analyses during monitoring and evaluation of project performance. The projected income generation assumes an average implementation rate for projects of 65 per cent or more, which may be a generous assumption. Results are intended as best-case scenarios for future outcomes from the set of ASAP investments to provide an accountability system to donors and internal learning for ASAP. IFAD's system for ex-post analysis and evaluation of project impact will be used to assess ASAP performance during the project (mid-term review) and at completion (project completion report).Project activities and costs include: institution-building and capacity-building, particularly at the local level and including support to market development; technical interventions and infrastructure, such as building bunds for rainwater harvesting and improving resilience of post-harvest storage infrastructure to heat, wind and rain; services (financial, information, extension, research); management and delivery of finance; policy and legal frameworks; and programme management, particularly monitoring and evaluation. These are all additional climate-change investments over and above the main investments of the country loan for agricultural development. They may often deliver low-regrets options (i.e. meaningful for any degree of climate change) such as erosion control, as well as broad-based development benefits, for example, development of farmers' associations, rather than being tailored to very specific climate risks. An example of a country investment is provided in the Nicaragua country case study at the end of this report.On average, the socio-economic benefits generated by the implementation of such interventions lead to a 6 per cent increase in the economic well-being of direct beneficiaries in the target areas (Ferrarese et al. 2016). The ASAP programme contributes 3-10 per cent of total GDP generated over the 20 years. This translates into a GDP growth contribution at the national level of up to 0.68 per cent a year. The cumulative net wealth creation globally is US$274 million, compared to US$200 million distributed as grants. Environmental benefits -such as biodiversity conservation, soil and water conservation and carbon sequestration -provide an additional benefit over and above the direct socio-economic benefits. The added economic benefits range from 10-25 per cent additional benefit in countries such as Ghana, Madagascar and Bolivia, through to a more than doubling of the total economic benefit in Djibouti.The analysis also shows that returns from ASAP are robust across a set of climatic futures (diagram 4). At the higher end of climate-change impact, losses to crop yields are estimated at 27-40 per cent below expected mean values without climate change (at the lower end). All countries presented an economic return on project investments greater than the opportunity costs of capital, using a discount rate of 10 per cent. In this analysis, the West Central Africa region shows highest variability under climate change, while the Near East and North Africa region is closest to losing net benefits from interventions under progressive climate change.A case for investments in commodities and value chains: the example of rice A strong rationale for investing in agriculture under climate change is also apparent taking a commodity perspective rather than a country perspective. Sustainable Development Goal 2.3 calls for \"doubl[ing] agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers by 2030\" -thus farmers need options to increase production and to improve rural incomes and food security, while ideally reducing emissions. Rice is a key food-security crop and cash commodity that provides farm incomes throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. This staple accounts for about 23 per cent of the global harvested area of cereals (FAOSTAT 2013) and generates substantial methane emissions -an estimated 9-11 per cent (Smith et al. 2014) of the total greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production.Among the most promising agricultural practices and technologies that might help farmers to achieve higher productivity and incomes, while also reducing  methane emissions, two stand out: alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and urea deep placement (UDP). AWD consists of repeated interruptions of flooding during the season, causing the water level to decline as the upper soil layer dries out, before subsequent re-flooding. This practice increases the efficiency in water usage with little or no effect on yields, and brings a significant reduction in methane emissions. UDP is a technology that aims at increasing efficiency in the plant uptake of nitrogen. It consists of strategic burial of urea \"supergranules\" near the root zones of crop plants; it is expected to have positive effects on yields and lead to a significant reduction in nitrogen emissions.In a 2016 analysis conducted by a team of researchers at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the effects of a wide adoption of these practices were simulated. Data on costs of adoption are still scarce and limited to very specific and localized conditions, and it was decided to assume that adoption would occur only when it generated higher yields. The underlying assumption is that rice farmers can choose among existing practices and the two alternatives and select whichever returns the highest yields. But there is a caveat -the effects on farmer incomes, which might be as important as the combined effects of higher yields and lower food prices, are not considered. The results still represent a best-case scenario because documented adoption rates are much lower than 100 per cent, even when the alternatives are generally deemed more profitable than the status quo. Simulations were carried out using the international model for policy analysis of agricultural commodities and trade (IMPACT) using two global circulation models, HadGEM2-ES and GFDL-ESM2M (a drier and cooler model), under Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 and the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 2 scenario, an IPCC middle-of-the-road projection.Results show substantial benefits to global rice production of around 5 per cent in 2050, compared to 2010, and commodity-market price reductions of 16-17 per cent. While falling market prices from higher supply can hurt farmers, and may change farm-management strategies, poor consumers can benefit from lower food prices. The inclusion of the global trade model shows that there are net benefits to both nutrition and emission reductions globally, leading to a global reduction in the risk of hunger for 12-13 million people and reducing cumulative global greenhouse gas emissions from rice by 7 to 9 per cent (diagram 5). • Iterative climate-risk management can help to address these challenges by proposing actions at three different time frames: immediate actions to address current climatic risks and variability, integration of adaptation into current investments with long lifetimes, and early monitoring, research and learning to start planning for the future impact of climate change.• At the farm level, positive economic returns can be demonstrated for practices that build adaptive capacity and reduce emissions intensity across several of the priority subsectors highlighted in the NDCs, though these are contextand site-specific and thus highly heterogeneous and time-dependent.• Development of policy-based actions may not comprise a major cost component in NDCs or related instruments, but it can provide major leverage for behaviour change among farmers and other value-chain participants.• Non-technical mitigation and adaptation interventions at the project and national level are just as important as farm-level actions, but more difficult to quantify and value. These include capacity-building, institutional strengthening, services to provide finance, information, extension and research, and programme management, particularly for monitoring and evaluation.While the economic case for investing in agriculture at the global level under climate change is strong, the situation at the national and local levels is more nuanced. Best practices may not translate across all countries or regions, as outcomes are site-and context-specific. This chapter presents economic information relevant to the development of plans for agricultural mitigation and adaptation in NDCs.It starts with a discussion of the national-level planning modality and entry points for mainstreaming NDCs. It then looks at some of the challenges of economic appraisal of national mitigation and adaptation, before moving to the project level to consider economic assessment of project-wide activities, such as capacity-building and provision of financial and knowledge-based services. The second half of the chapter considers actions at the farm level, where economic benefits of investments can vary widely with different climatic and agro-ecological zones, farmer wealth and capacity, ecological and social contexts, and timescales for accrual of benefits.National agricultural policy is critical for advancing coherent and structured agricultural growth and development by providing an enabling environment and incentives for farmers and other participants in agricultural value chains. Public policy addresses various market failures, policy failures, governance failures and behavioural barriers, which are all major issues for adaptation and mitigation.The starting point for the NDCs is, therefore, the existing policy, planning and socio-institutional landscape for agriculture at the national level.There is an increasing emphasis on integrating, or mainstreaming, adaptation and mitigation into current policy and development, rather than implementing measures as a stand-alone activity. This means taking account of broader policy objectives and wider costs and benefits, not only for climate-change risks. Thus the challenge for the NDCs is to shift underlying growth and development pathways towards low-carbon pathways and climate-resilient growth. Effective mainstreaming requires the identification of suitable entry points in the policy and development planning process, noting these will differ across sectors and national contexts. For agriculture, the key entry point is usually the sector development plan, traditionally a five-year planning document, which is then subsequently implemented through investment plans and programmatic policies and strategies.National-level public planning usually involves a series of steps built around a policy cycle. This typically involves understanding the problem, identification of options, appraisal of options, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. Several tools are available to structure this cycle, such as the online climate-smart agriculture (CSA) guide, which includes a four-stage CSA plan of situation analysis, targeting and prioritization, programme support and monitoring, and evaluation and learning (see recommended further resources).Economic assessment provides key inputs at several points in the policy cycle and economic analysis supports the development of policy and strategy. In many countries there is existing guidance on how to undertake this economic support, often with mandatory impact assessment or economic-policy appraisal. There is a key role for economics in the early steps of public-policy development, for example, in identifying the existing problems and understanding the justification for planned public interventions, such as to address existing market failures. Subsequently, there is a role for economic assessment in helping decision-making and prioritization, especially to identify and short-list options and later to prioritize and compare these options, which involve economic decision-support tools, such as cost-benefit analysis. Three country case studies at the end of this report (Nicaragua, Rwanda and Viet Nam) show the use of economic assessment at national and farm levels.As well as economic assessment, there is increasing demand for financial appraisal as a decision tool for climate-change planning, particularly for mitigation and for projects that involve private-sector financial services. Financial appraisal involves a different set of information inputs, analytic tools and approaches to externalities, compared to economic appraisal (box 2).As highlighted above, economic appraisal is an important input to national policy appraisal that can help prioritize options for an NDC. While these standard approaches -as used for developing national-level policy -are the starting point for the NDCs, mitigation and adaptation present some particular challenges necessitating some additional considerations for economic assessment. Mitigation, which addresses a global burden, has a simple common metric for assessing different options, in terms of greenhouse gas emissions: the cost-effectiveness metric of United States dollars per ton of CO 2 -equivalent reduced. While this is not always measurable with a high degree of accuracy, it does allow comparison and ranking of options within and across sectors, including in agriculture. This approach has been commonly used in preparing national mitigation plans and many NDCs.A key issue for mitigation at the national level is the potential trade-off between profitability and growth within a sector, for example, for farmers and agricultural industries. In developing the NDC in Colombia, the government assessed how different options of pasture reduction, limiting deforestation and stalling the expansion of palm oil deliver on both emissions reductions and private profits (diagram 6). The results strengthened the case for government programmes to support pasture reduction, which delivers both higher profits and emissions reductions (De Pinto et al. 2016).The lack of a common metric for adaptation makes it very challenging to compare options across sectors, and even within a sector, as adaptation is a response to individual risks. The only common metric is money, and thus economic analysis can have an important role in helping to prioritize options, such as in an NDC. However, the economic analysis of adaptation is challenging for a number of reasons. First, adaptation is strongly related to a much wider set of objectives, criteria, costs and benefits, due to the multifunctional nature of agriculture, and all need to be considered in the decision. These often involve ancillary non-market aspects. Second, building of resilience to climate change stems largely from alternative livelihood options, capacity-building and other non-technical measures, which are more difficult to quantify, cost and value. Third, adaptation faces particular challenges of uncertainty, as discussed below.The impact of climate change and the benefits of adaptation primarily arise in the future. This creates a particular challenge in terms of economics. Early action to address longer-term risks will incur costs in the short term, but these are difficultSocial cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is frequently used in assessments of public investment options by governments. It aims to value all relevant costs and benefits of a proposed project or programme to society, allowing comparison of costs and benefits using a common metric -money. It aims to achieve the maximum social welfare. CBA compares options using net present values (NPV), calculated as total discounted benefits minus total discounted costs, or benefit-to-cost ratios. As it identifies whether benefits exceed costs, it can justify intervention and allow resources to be allocated efficiently against other priorities, facilitating ranking of options.This can be contrasted with a financial appraisal, which aims to assess the return on investment (the internal rate of return [IRR]) of different options. This can be used as a complementary tool in decision support, though it approaches the analysis from a different perspective, maximizing towards the individual, and excludes societal costs and benefits, such as external costs related to the environment. Financial appraisals are widely used in the private sector and are also an increasingly important component of financial applications to multilateral sources, such as the Green Climate Fund.Additional financial information that might be included in NDCs includes: flows of finance to fulfil mitigation pledges, agendas for increased financial flows from developed to developing countries, strengthened practice on green finance, major finance gaps (matched to funding sources) in developing-country agendas for mitigation and adaptation, and details on implementation of policies, incentives for private-sector action, and fiscal and regulatory systems (Hedger and Nakhooda 2015).to justify when the benefits will only accrue later; people (and society) generally prefer to receive goods and services immediately. Climate change also involves high uncertainty. While NDCs set out potential emission-reduction pathways at the national level, collective achievement at the global level remains uncertain. Moreover, even if a future emission scenario is defined, different climate models project very different futures and time frames relevant to agriculture at the local scale. All this uncertainty makes it difficult to plan exactly what to do and when. Early action may underestimate the risks and yield incremental low-regret responses insufficient to meet the scale of the climate risks, or it may overestimate them and trigger investment in costly adaptation that will not be needed.These challenges can be overcome with the use of iterative climate-risk management as recommended in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC 2014). Iterative frameworks can help in identifying early adaptation actions and with the timing and sequencing of options, bringing together the key areas of advice and guidance on economic analysis of adaptation options put forward by the IPCC (box 3).An iterative approach starts with analysis of the impacts of current climate variability and extremes, and then considers the risks of future climate change, including uncertainty. It then looks at a complementary set of three types of interventions (diagram 7):1. Immediate actions that address the current risks of weather and climate extremes (the adaptation deficit) and also build resilience to future climate change. These include early capacity-building and the introduction of low and noregret actions, which provide immediate economic benefits as well as future benefits under a changing climate, such as soil and water conservation. The three categories can be considered together in an integrated adaptation strategy, often termed a portfolio or adaptation pathway (diagram 7). This can be particularly useful in NAPs and NDCs to identify adaptation that could be undertaken in the next decade to address the impacts of short-, medium-and long-term climate change. This identifies early options that can be justified (in economic terms) under conditions of uncertainty. The Rwanda and Nicaragua country case studies at the end of this report illustrate use of an iterative approach to climate-change planning in agriculture.Adaptation and mitigation in agriculture involves far more than new technologies and infrastructure. Equally critical will be investments in institution-building and capacity-building, in services to provide finance, information, extension and research, in policy and legal frameworks, and in programme management, particularly for monitoring and evaluation. These categories overlap considerably in real programmes, so it is impossible to derive completely accurate analyses or guidance for how best to allocate funds or to understand resulting benefits. Nonetheless, a superficial assessment of spending categories of IFAD's ASAP shows a very substantial level of investment in non-technical, non-infrastructure activities (diagram 8).All of these types of options -institution-building and capacity-building, services, policy and legal frameworks, and programme management -will be important within NDCs, but are challenging to assess through quantitative economic appraisal. In the sub-sections below, we discuss the key issues and available information for use in economic assessment of these options in the context of agriculture and climate change.In the agricultural sector, the importance of building capacity at all levels -from governmental institutions to farmers -is widely recognized, particularly as climate change introduces a new set of dynamics and challenges. However, the quantitative and economic estimation of these benefits is challenging and they are generally omitted from economic ex-ante appraisal.At the institutional level, there are potentially large benefits from institutionalstrengthening and technical-assistance programmes, provided these are designed well. In such cases, ex-post evaluation has demonstrated that these programmes improve governance, increase the capacity for sector oversight and strengthen government institutions, which in turn leads to high benefits. Likewise, implementation of technical-assistance projects can substantially increase investment, improve government oversight of a sector and lead to greater accountability of revenue streams generated. These institutional-strengthening and capacity-building aspects are particularly important for adaptation, due to the additional challenges involved, such as long lifetimes, high uncertainty and cross-sectoral risks (Watkiss and Cimato 2016).In terms of valuation of such programmes, it is possible to assess the benefits of institutional strengthening and technical assistance using evidence from previous studies (and their ex-post findings). Another approach is to compare the costs of a project to the benefits that would be needed to justify the investment. For example, in Mozambique, a World Bank project -Agricultural Sector Public Expenditure Program (World Bank 1999) -did this by estimating the agricultural GDP growth rate that would be necessary to justify the costs of the programme (the switching value).Nonetheless, many appraisals consider the cost-effectiveness or value for money of these investments, rather than undertaking a cost-benefit analysis.Assessment of the effectiveness and economic value of institutional strengthening has also tended to have a bias towards governmental organizations, with much less attention paid to private-sector or civil-society institutions and capacities, including in assessments of IFAD investments (Anyonge et al. 2013). In particular, there is seldom analysis of the role of informal organizations or institutions in achieving benefits from national programmes. Part of the problem is that capacity-building is often interpreted in a narrow sense as provision of skills training to individuals, rather than development of sustained organizational functions.A growing area of investment is in public and private-sector services to farmers and other value-chain actors that improve resilience and enable adoption of adaptation and mitigation practices at the farm level. These include: weather and climateinformation services; early warning systems; finance, micro-credit and weather insurance; and knowledge services, research and development. Economic assessments of these services are now accumulating, providing useful guidance on design and targeting. For these studies, it is possible to appraise costs quantitatively. The analysis of benefits is more challenging, but in economic terms, these can also be quantified.Weather and climate-information services have generated a reasonable literature to inform economic assessment. Analysis by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) shows that benefit-to-cost ratios for national hydro-meteorological services are positive in all reviewed cases globally (WMO 2015). Improvements in climateinformation services to reduce disaster losses at the national level have benefit-to-cost ratios of 4:1 to 36:1. Household-level benefit-to-cost ratios are also positive. For example, early warning systems on drought in Ethiopia deliver up to sixfold returns for households in terms of reductions to livelihood losses and dependence on assistance. The economic value of climate information services in agriculture is well established, providing benefits to crop management, irrigation decisions and herd management (Clements and Ray 2013). Detailed guidance is available for development of economic assessment at the national level (WMO 2015).Index-based weather insurance is increasingly promoted as it overcomes challenges of moral hazard and high transaction costs, which made traditional lossbased crop insurance unfeasible for smallholder farmers. Empirical studies show that insurance can improve farm livelihoods by reducing loss of productive assets and enhancing adoption of agricultural innovations. Low demand for, and trust in, insurance products among farmers may limit benefits at scale, but evidence suggests that better design can rapidly improve uptake of insurance (Greatrex et al. 2015).Knowledge services, research and development are widely understood as critical to climate-change actions in agriculture. For example, empirical evidence shows that access to knowledge increases women farmers' propensity to adopt climate-change innovations (Twyman et al. 2014). Over a third of submitted INDCs outlining intentions on adaptation specifically refer to knowledge systems, knowledge transfer and indigenous knowledge (Richards et al. 2016). While there are several economic assessments of knowledge and extension systems from pre-2000, there are fewer more recent appraisals that address the added risks of climate change. There are, however, several economic appraisals of returns from research to climate-sensitive agricultural livelihoods. For example, adoption of improved maize varieties that include climate-resilient traits increased in West and Central Africa from less than 5 per cent of the maize area in the 1970s to about 60 per cent in 2005, yielding an aggregate rate of return on research and development investment of 43 per cent, plus annual poverty reduction of 0.75 per cent per year (Alene et al. 2009). These are generally participatory research programmes that involve farmers in design, field trials and interpretation of results.In many cases, the role of public policy -especially at the national level -will be in creating the enabling environment for private actions at the farm level and in the value chain. There are important barriers to mitigation and adaptation, including market failures, policy failures, governance failures and behavioural barriers (Cimato and Mullan 2010) that make it more difficult to plan and implement actions, and/or lead to missed opportunities and higher costs, which need to be addressed to enable effective and efficient implementation. They are particularly important for nationallevel policy and, therefore, for NDCs. Development of policy-based actions may not comprise a major cost component in NDCs or related instruments (e.g. diagram 8), but can provide major leverage for behaviour change among farmers and other valuechain participants.A recent study undertakes an economic analysis of the costs and benefits of climate-adaptation policy in four countries (Malawi, Tanzania, Bangladesh and India), examining returns to public policies and programmes in climate-related research and extension, input quality and availability, water availability, market access and infrastructure, and improving value chains (Cacho et al. 2016). The study shows positive economic returns to investments and policy changes in these programmatic areas, including significant improvements in a composite resilience indicator, particularly in South Asia. Notably, a key finding is that meeting the size of the climate-change challenge will require a package of integrated policies, rather than a selection of single best-bet policy interventions.To justify increasing investment in policy interventions -for example, increasing the US$1 million in global ASAP policy and legal framework interventions (diagram 8) -there are ways to track the benefits of policy outcomes that go beyond economic and financial modelling (Tsui et al. 2014). IFAD is currently developing methods to measure the impact of policy engagement across its project and grant portfolio.Effectiveness of finance requires consideration of project management and monitoring costs to deliver and demonstrate impact and outcomes. For example, under the UNFCCC mechanism REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), there are formal requirements for monitoring, reporting and verification. Start-up and operational costs for these depend strongly on design features of the project, such as technical capacities, existing data sources and the level of cooperation across sectors and agencies (GFOI 2014).Many of the NDCs that include agriculture in their plans for mitigation and adaptation specify key subsectors for support to action at the farm level (diagram 9). Appraisal of costs and returns of adaptation and mitigation actions provides an important indicator for mitigation and adaptation decision-making. Understanding the effect on net income of adopting a practice, and the net present value or rate of return on the initial investment associated with adoption, allows decision makers to prioritize actions. It also assists them in promoting actions, assessing their likely adoption by particular groups and seeing where additional support or incentives may be needed for those with delayed benefits or large public, but small private, benefits. The Viet Nam country case study at the end of this report shows the importance of understanding heterogeneity among farmers.As a result of heterogeneity among farmers, the costs and benefits of practices and the potential for a practice to increase net income are also highly heterogeneous. As these depend on agro-ecological variables, market conditions and political contexts, costs and benefits may accrue to different social groups or actors in the value chain, depending on their social, political and economic power. The temporal distribution of returns from a practice is also important to consider. Many actions intended to preserve or enhance the natural resource base -soil conservation measures, for example -do not have positive effects on crop yields until several years after adoption. In this section, we have attempted to summarize the current knowledge on economic Diagram 9. Inclusion of subsectors in the mitigation and adaptation plans of NDCs costs and benefits of adaptation and mitigation practices at the farm level, with an eye towards their potential to increase net farm income. We have limited our discussion to incremental (rather than systemic or transformational) adaptation options and mitigation options, excluding land-use change, as these have the most relevance for farm-level economic analysis. This summary is intended to provide a general sense of the economics of adaptation and mitigation options and the variables that most influence economic returns. However, it cannot replace a thorough ex-ante analysis in a particular project location.One emerging finding is that options may be most effective when implemented as portfolios rather than individual actions, and that extension services are key in supporting these. For example, one economic assessment found a portfolio of improved seeds, together with soil and water-conservation measures, was most effective in enhancing agricultural production in climate-vulnerable areas of Ethiopia (Di Falco and Veronesi 2013). Similarly, new econometric modelling suggests that programmes to support adaptation and mitigation practices among farmers will be more effective when packaged as sets of complementary actions -for example, improved seeds coupled with extension services, support to input and output markets and reductions in post-harvest losses, rather than as stand-alone interventions (Cacho et al. 2016).Climate change poses a number of challenges to maintaining the stability and productivity of soils. Less and more erratic rainfall reduces the capacity of soils to supply water and nutrients to plants; more intense storms increase soil erosion, and higher temperatures speed mineralization of soil organic matter (FAO 2013).A suite of practices can contribute to the stability and productivity of soils and the resilience of agricultural systems to climate change by protecting soils from erosion and compaction, maintaining high organic matter and supporting nutrient cycling. On croplands, minimum or no-till combined with mulch or other soil cover In a review of tillage practices in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, net returns from zero-tillage were US$97 higher than conventional tillage (Erenstein and Laxmi 2008).A six-year study in Zimbabwe found negative net present value (NPV) for switching from conventional tillage to conservation agriculture (Mafongoya et al. 2016).A programme in the Brazilian Amazon combining pasture restoration with breeding, watering systems and supplementary feeding increased gross margins by US$1,853-US$2,797 per year (Marcuzzo 2015).Stone bunds increased sorghum yields between 33% and 55% in Burkina Faso's central plateau area and millet yields by more than 40% in Niger (Zougmoré et al. 2014).(sometimes called conservation agriculture) reduces erosion by up to 80 per cent, increases soil organic matter, increases soil-water infiltration and reduces runoff (Richards et al. 2014). On grasslands, improvement of pasture with irrigation, nutrient inputs or leguminous species can provide more feed for livestock and avoid land degradation. On steeply sloped areas, structures such as earth bunds and terraces or live barriers help limit runoff and erosion (Howden et al. 2007). Incorporation of perennials into crop and livestock systems (discussed under \"trees,\" below) can further support resilience to wind and water erosion and provide organic inputs in the form of leaves and root biomass.Long-term. May have higher chance of profitability in mechanized cereal agriculture (e.g. in Indo-Gangetic Plain) due to decreased tillage costs. Profitability in non-mechanized systems depends on cost of labour and competition for crop residue. May shift labour burdens between women and men.Long-term. More likely to provide early economic benefits to farmers when combined with other productivity-enhancing practices.Livestock are often owned or controlled by men, so care must be taken to ensure benefits accrue equitably. Farmers with small herds may bear higher opportunity costs than those with medium and large herds.High costs for construction and annual maintenance.Best in steeply sloped, arid areas. May reduce yields where there is risk of high rainfall and waterlogging. Heavy labour requirements.Climate change threatens to affect livestock systems in several ways, such as in the quality and quantity of pasture and forages, reducing water supply for animals and feed production, thermal stress to animals, and increased exposure and susceptibility of animals to pests and diseases (Thornton et al. 2009). Potential adaptation options to moderate climate impact include: changing livestock breeds or species, adjusting stocking densities to feed availability, altered and adapted forage crops (Thornton and Herrero 2014), use of irrigation, and adaptations to animal housing for better In dairy systems, increases in milk yield have been shown to correlate with decreases in emissions intensity (Gerber et al. 2013) and increases in gross margins.A dairy intensification programme in Brazil nearly doubled gross margins from US$5,440 per hectare to US$10,473 per hectare using a combination of practices, such as rotational grazing, feed supplementation during the dry season and improved breeds (Novo et al. 2013).Studies from Uganda and Kenya showed net returns of US$62-US$122 per year for supplementary feeding with nitrogen-fixing Calliandra species (Dawson et al. 2014).pest and disease management. Adaptation options that improve the resilience of cropping systems (considered in \"crops\" below) are also relevant to livestock, given the importance of crop residues as a feed source. For countries with low livestock productivity, investments in improving animal and herd productivity can also reduce greenhouse gas emissions per unit of milk and meat production. Livestock production contributes about 14 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions globally, most of it released from enteric fermentation in the gut of ruminants (Gerber et al. 2013).Economic benefits of more productive animals are immediately visible. Heat tolerance has latent benefits.Potential to positively impact the incomes and livelihoods of rural women, who comprise two thirds of low-income livestock keepers (Distefano 2013). However, men are often responsible for commercialization of livestock products, and women have difficulty in accessing financial services and markets, creating a risk that benefits will accrue to men and bypass women. Gallina (2016) and Distefano (2013) provide examples of how to design livestock interventions with gender-differentiated roles and responsibilities in mind.Long-term. More likely to provide early economic benefits to farmers when combined with other productivity-enhancing practices (e.g. improved breeds).Benefits visible within one year.Many farm-level adaptation options for cropping systems are similar to existing options to manage risk or enhance productivity (Howden et al. 2007). Farmers may change crop varieties or species to those more resistant to climate stresses, such as heat, drought and disease, or those with requirements more adapted to the new climate (such as replacing coffee with cocoa). They may also change the timing or location of particular cropping activities; for example, to accommodate later or more variable rainy seasons. As climate alters pest and disease dynamics, more effective pest, disease and weed management may be critical to the resilience of cropping systems, along with improved nutrient management. Finally, diversifying crop species can be an adaptive practice, along with diversifying farm and livelihood activities as a whole, by altering the balance of crop and livestock activities or taking off-farm employment. Water management in cropping systems (discussed under \"water\") is also critical to climate resilience and relevant to mitigation in irrigated rice systems.Improved varieties have low upfront costs, with yield benefits visible in first season. Cultivating different species may require upfront investment and a learning curve until the system becomes profitable.Not available to farmers without access to input markets.Little empirical evidence. Little empirical evidence.Long-term. Highly knowledge-intensive; farmers with little access to information may be at a disadvantage.Economic benefits usually visible within first season.Dependent on access to input markets.Diversification with tree crops requires several years for trees to mature. Adding livestock or annual crops has more immediate benefits.Can provide new income opportunities for women. Requires local understanding of gendered roles in agriculture and livestock production.Water-management technologies for climate adaptation include water harvesting (capturing and storing water for later use), practices to conserve soil moisture (such as plastic mulching) and more efficient use of irrigation water (such as drip irrigation).In irrigated rice systems, periodic drainage has been used in water conservation for decades in some Asian countries, and can also reduce methane (CH 4 ) emissions. A study of water harvesting, with supplemental irrigation, of sorghum and maize estimated a net profit (per hectare per year) of US$151-US$626 in Burkina Faso and US$109-US$477 in Kenya, compared with US$15 to US$83 for the Burkina Faso case and US$40-US$130 for the Kenyan case for existing farming practices (Fox et al. 2005). Positive net returns are dependent on nutrient inputs to obtain high crop productivity, otherwise, the initial costs outweigh the economic benefits (Biazin et al. 2012).In a review of alternate wetting and drying in Bangladesh and Viet Nam, Basak (2016) found positive benefit/cost ratios of between 1.7 and 3.8, and increases in net profits of 8%-41%. The profitability of the practice is highly dependent on irrigation costs.Increases yield within first season, but has high upfront cost.Substantial initial investment, which may be a barrier for resource-poor farmers.Little immediate economic benefit unless irrigation has not been used previously.Knowledge-intensive; drip irrigation and similar systems require substantial initial investment that may be a barrier for resource-poor farmers.Immediate cost savings. Economic benefits may be limited to farmers that pay per unit of irrigation water; gender impacts require further study.Climate change has the potential to significantly affect aquaculture and fisheries through temperature variations and saline intrusion into freshwater habitat, reducing rate of growth, size, total production, reproduction and even reproductive capability of fish species. Adaptation strategies for aquaculture and fisheries are based on ecosystem approaches, which aim to increase the resilience of aquatic ecosystems, fisheries and aquaculture production systems (Cochrane et al. 2009). As adaptation strategies for capture fisheries require action at community, national and even international levels, economic returns are more appropriately expressed at these levels than at the farm level (Shelton 2014). In an economic study of adaptation costs and benefits in catfish and shrimp farms of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta, the cost of planned adaptation funded by the government would constitute 0.7% of the total export value from 2010 to 2020, and would be much less costly than if farmers were left to adapt by themselves (Kam et al. 2012).Genetic improvement of aquaculture species has shown positive returns at the farm and programme level for Nile tilapia (Ponzoni et al, 2007) and common carp (Ponzoni et al 2008).Genetic improvement, species redistribution and diversification of livelihoods are also potential adaptation measures, along with improved forecasting, early warning systems, disaster preparedness and integrated coastal-area management. The protection and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems also have mitigation potential via carbon storage in plants (e.g. mangroves) and sediments, often called \"blue carbon\" (McLeod et al. 2011).Long-term. Limited empirical evidence.Long-term. Limited empirical evidence.Tree-cropping systems, such as coffee, cocoa and palm oil, face similar climate challenges as annual cropping systems in terms of rainfall variability, heat stress, and pest and disease pressure. Adaptation options are, therefore, similar as well: diversification with shade trees or other productive tree species (which also has Adding tree crops and other woody perennials can have substantial mitigation benefits.Adding trees to agricultural systems generally improves profitability, as long as competition with other crops is managed.Improving soil, nutrient and pest-management practices in perennial cropping systems.Reduces risk of crop losses due to biological pressures. Improves water and nutrient use efficiency.Nutrient management has moderate mitigation potential due to reduced nitrogen (N) loss as N 2 O.Has been shown to be profitable for high-value tree crops.Tree crops and timber species require several years for trees to mature before benefits accrue.Women can benefit substantially from agroforestry systems, if constraints to their participation are addressed (e.g. lack of capital, poor market infrastructure, high cost of transportation). Initial investment and access to seedlings may be a barrier for resource-poor farmers. Secure land tenure (Mbow et al. 2014) and market access for perennial crops are key to profitability.Little empirical evidence.mitigation potential), improved soil, nutrient and pest management practices, adapted varieties, and irrigation or more efficient water use. Integrating trees into existing cropland and grazing land has significant potential for increasing agroecosystem resilience and mitigating climate change via carbon sequestration.Beyond cost-benefit analyses: promoting incentives and enabling conditions for change Key messages:• Limited funds for action on climate change mean that wise investments will be those that provide strong incentives and leverage, and spread benefits widely.• Supplementing cost-benefit analyses with better understanding of drivers of behavioural change, including at different scales and time frames within an overall theory of change, will provide better guidance for investment.• Private-sector actors other than farmers can play significant roles in promoting climate-change mitigation and adaptation throughout the agricultural value chain, by providing finance, knowledge, technologies and market incentives.• Public agencies and policies can enable positive action across the private sector through regulation and standards, knowledge management and extension, risk-management institutions, finance mechanisms and stable resource rights for smallholder farmers, among others.Analyses of costs, benefits, internal rates of return and net present value (NPV) can provide crucial inputs to inform policies, priorities for investment, business cases and finance plans. Climate-change policy frameworks, such as NAPs and NDCs, are a key mechanism for stimulating action towards meeting adaptation and mitigation targets, and cost-benefit analyses (CBAs) may provide valuable information to support this process. But these types of information alone may not be enough to trigger the kind of wide-scale change we need to meet the challenges of climate change. By themselves, CBAs may not consider a number of features that could enhance their ability to lead to positive outcomes. The Fifth Annual Assessment Report of the IPCC signalled a move beyond cost-benefit analyses towards greater consideration of drivers of behaviours, nonmonetary factors, heterogeneity and inequality in the economics of climate change (Chambwera et al. 2014). These further considerations have the potential to induce transformative change by taking on a much wider range of social, political and cultural factors as internal to economic decisions taken by governments, as well as by farmers, companies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and consumers. Financial institutions may also be able to play a role in accelerating transformative change.Funds for action on climate change in the agriculture sector are extremely limited. Thus, it's all the more important to invest resources wisely, to make smart investments that will leverage the most behaviour change and, where possible, to leverage additional financial resources from the public and private sectors. If CBAs are enhanced with better information on incentives and drivers of behaviours, climatechange policy frameworks, such as NAPs and NDCs, should be more effective. They will also have the chance to reach real scale and provide a platform for transformative change that brings broad-based benefits to the poorest members of society.Combining cost-benefit analysis with adaptive behaviour analysis Using CBA to assess whether and where to allocate money tends to assume that people will respond in known ways to specific investments and that there will be uptake. The assumption is: \"If we build it, they will come.\" But if smallholder farmers do not respond as positively as we assume, then NPVs are likely to overstate the actual returns to investments. This difference between project-level analysis and actual smallholder behaviour is observed over and over again. For example, a recent study in Kenya found that local people valued a proposed agroforestry intervention at 70 per cent below the calculated NPV, which reduced uptake and adoption. There were a number of reasons for this response, including low levels of information and knowledge of these types of interventions, coupled with aversion to risky innovations (Chaudhury et al. 2016).More generally, the large literature on adoption and adaptation suggests that our blanket assumptions about people's behaviour are too simple and often wrong. Instead, it is important to pay attention to the heterogeneity in adaptive behaviour and to understand why different types of people do what they do. Smallholders' decisions are affected by many factors besides current material assets, cash flow and market signals, such as family, culture, tenure, local politics and perceptions of risk.It is often tempting to conclude that CBAs at a local level can also help understand local behaviours and preferences. We assume that households undertake activities that yield positive NPVs. A range of additional approaches that we can call \"adaptive behaviour analysis\" can improve the efficacy of CBA in targeting effective investments. Adaptive behaviour analysis (ABA) has a number of differences to CBA (table 7). Some of these differences represent fundamental differences in approaches driven by different objectives (i.e. CBA to inform government investments versus ABA to understand why smallholders do what they do). Others involve differences in practices that could potentially be done similarly for both approaches, but are frequently limited by data availability.The two approaches provide complementary information: CBA on the net benefits that accrue to households or society and ABA on the factors affecting behaviour change. Some balance between CBA and ABA is needed. For example, a first stage might be to screen proposed climate-change actions using a simple form of ABA. An action that meets criteria for participation among specific target groups (the \"they will come\" criteria) can go to the second stage, where CBA analyses are undertaken for those sets of households that may truly benefit from investments. The CBA might reveal that the NPV is not attractive enough, either at the local or national level, even if there is willingness among farmers. Thus, ABA and CBA together can provide guidance on how best to incentivize uptake of beneficial practices and to make sure that benefits are shared across society, particularly among poorer and more marginalized people.The practice of alternate wetting and drying in rice (AWD) provides one example.A meta-analysis of CBAs shows that the practice is profitable for farmers across several countries, giving a positive NPV at the farm level, as well as delivering higher-level social benefits, including substantial reductions in methane emissions (Basak 2016).But a quick look at adaptive behaviour tells a different story: despite the clear benefits, uptake is slow among farmers. According to experts, there are two main factors influencing farmers' willingness to try out AWD. The first is that farmers tend to pay for water by land area not by water volume, so they do not prioritize reductions in water usage and they think that only the pump operators, who do pay by volume, benefit from the water savings of AWD. The second is that management of land is seldom consolidated; farmers who manage their land collectively, through some form of management agreement, are much better placed to save costs and undertake innovations (Basak 2016). Furthermore, women are often excluded from watermanagement institutions and from extension services, even though they provide half of the labour on Asian rice farms, and may be eager to switch to labour-saving, lowemissions practices like dry-field direct planting (IRRI 2016). The lesson here is that CBA alone, even at the farm level, cannot tell policymakers where to put the smart investment, or smart economic incentive, to improve management of rice paddies under climate change and to improve outcomes for women as well as for men.Are independent behavioural analyses necessary for all groups of farmers, or are there some generic behaviours and preferences? Empirical research at the global scale is rare, but recent analysis shows that some drivers of adaptation are common across many regions of the world. For example, analysis of adaptation behaviours in CCAFS-CGIAR research sites finds that two drivers -membership of farmers' organizations and access to climate information -are somewhat universal across countries and continents (diagram 10). Other drivers, such as physical assets, are important at only a minority of sites (Chen et al. in progress). We can also understand better the reasons that people give for changes in behaviour. At the CCAFS-CGIAR research sites, farmers across all sites say that they make changes in response to both markets and climate variability, although markets are a more widely shared reason than climate (diagram 10). This data analysis across multiple sites (diagram 10) also points to the importance of understanding farmers' behaviours and preferences within the context of different scales of time and space. Farmers across Asia, Africa and Latin America widely report that markets are a key driver of their on-farm practices and choices; markets provide a strong link between actions at the farm level and actions at the national and international levels. Due to causal links across scales, local-level CBA is at best only part of the story. Improved practices that increase yields at scale will shift the supply-demand equilibrium and in most cases reduce producer prices, which in turn will have a dampening effect on uptake of the new practices. This may explain low adoption rates of innovations, such as drought-resistant seed in sub-Saharan Africa, for example. Thus, iterative analyses at different scales are needed, covering both private and social outcomes.Similarly, farmers' behavioural patterns of adoption and preferences for different practices will be driven by their attitudes to risk. One shortcoming of a classic CBA can be the assumption of standard conditions across years. Yet farmers respond to climate variability (diagram 10), which is likely to be increasingly important as both the frequency and magnitude of extreme or unusual climatic events -such as dry spells during the growing season, heatwaves or floods -are expected to have greater impacts in many farming locations under progressive climate change. Farmers' appetite for innovations will depend on how the new practice or technology performs in good, average and bad years. Smallholder farmers are often characterized as riskaverse, meaning that they have a greater interest in avoiding losses in bad years than in maximizing gains in good years. Therefore, some form of risk analysis, for example, testing of farmers' behaviours or stated preferences across the spectrum of current (and/ or future) climate variations, will improve the quality of any economic assessment.A final point is that the level of adoption and uptake of interventions to build climate resilience will depend on the mode of design and delivery. Local institutions and local ownership often constitute the key to success. For example, in the water and sanitation sector, the \"community-led total sanitation\" approach has significantly improved adoption rates of modern sanitation and outcomes for health. The approach focuses more on local leadership of community-wide behavioural change than on building toilets and washing facilities. Similarly, the IFAD ASAP investments are as strongly targeted towards building of local institutions for climate-change adaptation as on building the needed infrastructural or technological hardware.In summary, for an economic assessment to be a strong decision tool, it needs to go beyond CBA to a more nuanced understanding of the drivers of, and incentives for, behavioural change, particularly at the farm level, but also more widely in the valuechain or food system (next section). Understanding the drivers of behaviour provides us with important information to improve the efficacy of CBA in targeting effective investments. If we understand behaviour, we can target a subset of investments where we have empirical evidence to support the proposition that \"If we build it, they will come.\" Moreover, understanding these drivers (such as access to information about weather variability) may in itself suggest investments (i.e. the public provision of that information) that can yield positive returns to investments.The arising practical advice is to include both CBA and ABA within an economic analysis of options for action on mitigation and adaptation, whether in the agricultural sector or more widely in rural or national development policy. The most useful approach may be to embed CBA and ABA within a \"theory of change\" -a hypothesis or proposed storyline on how a sequence of actions leads to a desired outcome, such as raised climate resilience or reduced emissions in agriculture. A theory of change need not be complex (box 4). Its purpose is to question the assumptions that we might make during policy formulation or programme design -assumptions such as high levels of adoption among farmers, robustness over a wide range of possible climate futures, or equal benefits to both women and men. 241,000 farmers (Kasonde 2015). However, its current design does not factor in the ability of the programme to improve climate resilience or reduce emissions. Another key incentive that national governments can provide is better legal recognition and protection of local and customary land rights, including improving land registries and records. This would incentivize farmers to invest in climate-change adaptation and mitigation technologies that provide returns over the longer term. It would also mean that agribusinesses can sign contracts of sufficiently long duration with farmers and cooperatives to justify significant investment in these suppliers.Similarly, multilateral and bilateral development partners have important roles to play in providing incentives for private-sector action. They can promote knowledge-sharing to ensure that corporate approaches to mitigation and adaptation in agriculture align with global standards and methods, like the Sustainable Development Goals indicators. For example, international climate and land-use financing and donor programmes could align application criteria, agree on common metrics and share monitoring tools to facilitate access to finance and to engage large and small businesses more actively. Building national capacity in monitoring and reporting systems is another key role for development partners to enable private-sector performance on climate mitigation and adaptation to be monitored independently.Multilateral and bilateral development partners can also work to ensure that existing or new donor and climate finance programmes build in strong scope to engage and partner with the private sector in financing and implementing their activities. To be attractive to the private sector, finance systems will need to be simple, willing to take on feedback, transparent in governance, geographically flexible to match the value-chain coverage of the programme with that of the private-sector company, and have clear co-investment criteria and guarantees of the leverage this would result in. Suppliers, processors and traders, in particular, tend to operate lowmargin businesses where investments have to show an attractive return.Private-sector actors are not motivated by near-term margins alone; they will be attracted by a well-developed proposition of the non-financial benefits of participating in a financial mechanism or multilateral partnership. For programmes that seek to harness the power of business to raise resilience among smallholders, some examples of benefits to companies may be: greater connectivity to smallholder farmers and opportunities to increase producer loyalty; access to research and data on climate risk and smallholder farmer production patterns; development and training opportunities for their staff; and networking opportunities with other private-and public-sector partners.• Evidence of actions in agriculture that have a high likelihood of delivering meaningful economic and financial returns under climate change has been shown for global, national, project and farm levels.• The ingredients of a strong economic assessment for NDCs and other climatechange plans for agriculture include policy mainstreaming, iterative planning, a balance of project-level and farm-level assessment of costs and benefits, and appraisal of economic incentives and the enabling environment for farmers and other private-sector actors. NDCs are generally well aligned with national development plans so that proposed actions for both adaptation and mitigation contribute to improved development outcomes, but they do not yet collectively meet global ambitions of the Paris Agreement.• The more ambitious NDCs provide the political capital to promote transformative actions that bring together multiple longer-term agendas for social, economic and environmental benefit.This report has presented evidence of actions in agriculture that have a high likelihood of delivering meaningful returns under climate change, from an economic and financial perspective. At the global level, the economic case can be made through several examples of positive returns for future food security and rural livelihoods under climate change (chapter 2). At the farm level, positive economic returns can be demonstrated for multiple practices that build adaptive capacity and reduce emissions intensity across several of the priority subsectors highlighted in the NDCs -soil and land, water crops, livestock, fisheries and trees. Evidence is emerging that combining these actions into portfolios linked to institutional support, such as extension, research and value-chain development, will deliver the best economic returns over time (chapter 3). Understanding and influencing the behaviours of farmers and other private-sector actors will be critical to success (chapter 4). Building on the economic evidence available has the potential to generate new credible proposals that could then drive large-scale public and private investment in agriculture under climate change. The credibility of these proposals will depend on better-quality economic assessments. To recap from chapters 3 and 4, the key ingredients of a strong economic assessment in support of action on climate change in the agricultural sector are summarized below.This report's review of recent economic information pertinent to the agricultural components of NDCs and related climate-change plans at the national level, such as NAPs, suggests some key ingredients for a robust economic assessment:Mainstreaming with development policy (chapter 3): Any economic appraisal that aims to contribute to decisions on climate-change actions in agriculture needs to be mainstreamed into current policy processes. In the ideal scenario, these policies are in alignment with each other. These include:• Climate-change policies and plans, including NDCs, NAPs, nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) and others NDCs are generally well aligned with national development plans so that proposed actions for both adaptation and mitigation contribute to improved development outcomes at the national level. But the NDCs are not yet consistent with the international goal of limiting global temperature rise to 2°C (diagram 11) and fall far short of the aspirational 1.5°C increase. The unconditional components of the NDCs have a 50 per cent chance of holding temperature rises to 2.6-3.1°C by 2100; adding in the actions that are conditional on finance or other factors improves this only to 2.5-2.9°C (Rogerlj et al. 2016). The new round of NDCs in 2020 will provide an important opportunity to close the gap between national and global goals. More ambitious targets are likely to involve mitigation actions that limit shortterm development aspirations -while keeping climate change sufficiently in check that longer-term development remains possible. Agriculture would need emissions reductions of one gigaton (Gt) per year to contribute to the global target without compromising food security. Current technologies can achieve 21-40 per cent of this and the remainder will need to come from much stronger cross-sectoral policies, for example, shifts in diets and food waste, and technological breakthroughs (Wollenberg et al. 2016).More optimistically, climate change encourages longer planning horizons for agriculture than are usual in policymaking. In their NDCs, countries need to contend with potential shifts in production areas for crops, livestock and fisheries, and in turn significant changes in global food prices and countries' comparative advantages. The longer time horizon and new climate funding mechanisms put a greater value on public goods, like the reduction of emissions. In a sense, the NDCs have given policymakers the political capital to promote transformative actions on a broad scale, bringing together multiple agendas for social and environmental benefit. Strong NDCs have the potential to drive effective national policy instruments, provide incentives for positive behaviour change at scale, and achieve the global goals of the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals (diagram 12). The question is whether the changing political economy and stricter environmental regulations are inducing more efficient use of resources and encouraging innovations towards green growth. The more ambitious NDCs signal transformative actions that could trigger a new era of reciprocity between economics and environment. as the initial cost is a relatively small proportion of their annual income (14 per cent and 26 per cent, respectively). However, given that their income dependency on rice is small (10 per cent and 13 per cent, respectively), they might not be interested in shifting rice to coconut and sugarcane, unless they face serious losses due to drought. On the other hand, for farmers in group 3, shifting rice to coconut and sugarcane requires significant initial investment, equivalent to 67 per cent of income, and brings fairly low benefits (only around 22 per cent). Under extreme climate conditions for rice, households in group 3 might consider these practices, if financial support were available. More likely to adopt practices that:-require no initial investment -require low complexity -can be labourintensive More likely to adopt practices that: -require no initial investment -require low complexity -can be labourintensive More likely to adopt practices that: -require low to medium initial investment -require low to medium level of complexity -are low to medium labour-intensive *Education levels: 1 = no school, 2 = elementary school, 3 = secondary school, 4 = high school, 5 = above high schoolBroadly, if a more realistic and heterogeneous farmer population is considered, the NPV of a climate intervention tends to be smaller, since in a real-world scenario not all expected beneficiary farmers would adopt the practices. Taking into account heterogeneity of adoption across the farmer population, the economic return of IFAD's investment is likely to be much smaller -approximately US$70 millionthan when assuming a homogeneous population and a blanket adoption rate of 70 per cent, which yields approximately US$109 million based on four farmer profiles or practices. * The good news is that project costs may be lower than anticipated. In the NDC for Viet Nam, all mitigation costs are positive while in reality this is usually only the case for entirely new practices, as improvements on existing practices tend to have negative costs. In other words, only the difference between the existing and the newThe estimated economic return of options based on adoption probability derived from farmer profiles, including: (i) SRI: 98 per cent of total IFAD's expected area of adoption (2,000 ha); (ii) shifting rice to coconut sugarcane, 39 per cent of 2,175 ha; (iii) coconut to cocoa, 39 per cent of 1,325 ha; (iv) improved variety, 81 per cent of 6,200 ha. cost has to be accounted for, not the investment of starting from scratch. For example, the cost of adopting the system of rice intensification (SRI), a climate-smart method of improving rice productivity, in our analysis amounts to -US$17 per ha, while in the NDC the mitigation cost is US$413 per ha. Or for integrated crop management, the mitigation cost in the NDC is US$10/ha while we calculate -US$503 per ha.Building economic development of agriculture under uncertain climatic future Projections of future crop suitability under climate change face the challenge of large uncertainties in both climate and the models. But across different climate projections, there is absolute agreement regarding changes in suitability for coffee in Nicaragua. By 2050, coffee-growing areas will have moved approximately 300 metres higher and pushed farmers at lower altitudes out of coffee production, increasing pressure on forests and natural resources in higher altitudes and putting the coffee value chain in jeopardy (Läderach et al. 2016).Recognizing this, the Nicaraguan Government, in its NAP for agriculture, prioritized the adaptation of smallholder coffee-farmers' livelihoods, together with market-based diversification. The national policy led the government to request IFAD support in developing climate-change adaptation actions within coffee and cocoa value chains. IFAD committed US$24.12 million to raising the adaptive capacities of poor smallholder producers, strengthening public institutions, improving climate information systems and formulating incentive-based public policies. Crop substitution from coffee to cocoa is a no-regret option at low elevations. In higher areas where climate is expected to remain suitable for coffee, investments are oriented to improve productivity, replant old plantations and produce ecological coffee. The table below shows the expected economic return per farmer for the proposed interventions.  Rwanda has also set up and received capital for a national environment and climate fund -Environmental and Climate Change Fund for Rwanda (FONERWA). This is funding many relevant projects, for example, on soil and water conservation, and it also has a dedicated thematic funding window for proposals for environment and climate-change mainstreaming. The fund can provide incremental finance for the additional costs of mainstreaming within government.These two initiatives have recently been drawn together within an advanced mainstreaming pilot for the tea and coffee sector in Rwanda, which has been funded by FONERWA.In Rwanda, tea and coffee are grown where the soil, temperature and rainfall are suitable. The main production areas (especially for tea) are at higher elevations, where the climate is cooler. Production and quality of both crops are affected by the variability of annual rainfall, and the climate also affects the incidence and severity of pests and diseases. Climate change could have a large impact on these sectors, which are critical for exports: it will affect the productivity and quality of existing plantations and the suitability of areas for growing these crops, as well as the range and prevalence of pests and disease. These effects are particularly important because tea and coffee are long-lived crops and new plantations are managed over decades. Importantly, there are plans to expand the areas of tea and coffee under production and there is a need to plan these areas with the future as well as the current climate in mind.The mainstreaming pilot project has applied the iterative climate risk-management approach set out above and made an economic and financial analysis of the options. It first identified the current and future climate risks and the types of early policy decisions needed and from this identified three areas of adaptation to consider in the overall plan. These include:• The introduction of low and no-regret actions (climate-smart agriculture) and capacity-building to address the current impact of climate variability on tea and coffee. These actions bring immediate economic benefits, as well as offering future benefits under a changing climate. • Integrating adaptation into immediate decisions or activities with long lifetimes, in this case using climate-risk screening to look at the climate-smart development of new tea plantations, making sure that they are located with the future as well as the current climate in mind. • Finally, the project has a programme of monitoring, research and learning to start planning for the future impact of climate change. This includes a more explicit application of adaptive management -looking at possible key impacts and thresholds and putting in place monitoring, especially of pests and diseases.The pilot is being used to provide a framework for the further mainstreaming of climate change into the next revision of the overall sector development plan, with a resource mobilization plan to look for further opportunities for support from international climate finance, including the Green Climate Fund.","tokenCount":"13026"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2ce72a053786a7edbf19424c2e0841fe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e8190ef-45db-482f-9144-f6c99f5c4a08/retrieve","id":"-973270005"},"keywords":["\"Evolution of Crop Plants. Second Edition\"","Sirnmonds","N .W . and Smartt","J. (eds.)","Longman","London","United Kingdom","pp. 287-294"],"sieverID":"7c3cf84f-d063-4519-83dd-dce9d2c465d6","pagecount":"111","content":"The Panel noted that CIA T was reviewing the future of the GRU and that a nev.• Director-General and Deputy-Director General (Research) would ultimately intluence the form , status and program of the Unit.The Panel recognized that financia! constraints are limiting CIA T' s operations, but thought that in relation to the Centre's total budget the GRU is underfunded.The Panel thought that there are dangers in mak.ing use of special Projecr funding for key areas of conservation and research.The Panel was impressed with the successful way in which CIA T and NARS had involved farmers in the utilization of the Centre's germplasm (beans) and also noted that studies were currently underway at CIAT to assess in a quantitative fashion impact made by CIA T' s genetic resources in partners countries.-l -TABLE A-1. GRU IN TIIE CONTEXT OF GH. ACTIVITIES ACROSS CIAT (1995)    The Panel was informed by CIAT' s staff that the data bases used by CIA T for its mandate crops were likely to be compatible with the System wide Information Nerwork on Genetic Resources (SINGER) when it became operational.The Panel was satisfied that for Phaseolus, forage and grass species CIA T's goal is to adhere to Intemational Genebank Standards, as endorsed by F AO and published jointly by F AO and IPGRJ in 1994. Inadequate staff and funds have precluded comp lete achievement of these standards.The Panel thought that exchanges involving staff of the GRU and NARS partners could have a beneficia! and stimulating effect.  CIAT -should review carefully the large number of grass and legume species at present in the Tropical Forage collection with a view to concentrating on thes.e spectes most relevant to its research needs or that are m danger of genetic eros10n.3.CIAT should review the position of its bacteria! and fungal collections with a view to declaring these collections to be held in trust in the pubtic domain.CAJT should negotiate with ICA to pennit first increase of forages in mesh houses t~ increase effective population size and reduce genetic drift.CIA T should in crease staff for SI-n.. and charge other units for service provided by sm..For accessions with limited longevity, samples for both base and active collections should be stored in the long-term vault.All bean accessions should be placed in long-term storage as soon as possible.A pilot cryopreservation project for Manihot should be initiated as soon as possible.A classification should be rnade of the training-user countries, based on the stage of development of GRU in each NARS. The information will malee it possible to develop a strategy for coordinated research between NARS and CIAT, and/or serví ce training of national researchers at CIA T headquarters, as well as the development of research projects by NARS researchers at CIA T.Applied research should be initiated by CIA T to reduce costs for routine activities such as:• Drying in paper bags versus open drying boxes.• Counting smaller samples to estimate total seed number with computer, connections to scales and to en ter seed number and seed weight per l 00 seeds in the data base.• More mechanization in seed processing.• Estimation of seed longevity of various species at temperatures above freezing (accelerated ageing, etc.) to identify species where the active collection should be stored at -18°C.• Use of bar codes.• Computer prograrns to enter gennination results, compute means, and enter in data base. • Determine genetic purity with altemative pollen control systems for outcrossing species.When dehumidifiers need to be replaced in the medium-term storage unit, a larger unit to maintain 28% r.h. should be installed.12.EffortS should be made by CIAT to establish field genebanks, under suitable r• agro-ecological conditions, for cassava accessions and other Manihot species wruch are reported not to be adapted to CIA T headquarters conditions .CIAT should intensify its efforts to promptly arrange for a formal duplication of the cassava gerrnplasm collection and to request relevant information from national and intemational institutes holding \"non formal duplications\" 14. CIA T should establish the same seed health routine procedures, as done for seeds to be send abroad, for the materials distributed inside the CIA T -host country (Colombia).15 .CIAT should distribute information, as data bases, on the genetic distan ces between accessions, which will improve the efficiency of the use of germplasm in breeding programs.CIAT should establish agreernents with NARS-GRU' s that ha ve good scientific and technical capabilities.The Panel cornrnends the GRU for the early designation and use of the core collection methodologies. The rnethodologies used for the initial core were excellent and the refmernents in progress (GIS and molecular markers) are cutting edge technology. The Panel recommends continuing referring GRU core collection and designating cores in additional forage species as feasible.Linkages with other Germplasm Conservation Centres, including Regional, and Networking arrangementsThe GRU collaborates with the Programa Cooperativo Regional de Frijol para Centro América, México y el Caribe (PROFIJOL) and Programa Cooperativo Regional Para la Zona Andina (PROFRJZA); bean networks for Central America and the Andean region, respectively. Both the GRU and BRU are also members of the Cassava (Biotechnology) Network, where a subnetwork deals specifically with cassava genetic resources. The BRU has also been instrumental in the creation and development •of tbe Bean Advanced Research Network (BARN) with important participation of the GRU. The GRU has been collaborating in the Red Internacional de Evaluación de Pastos Tropicales (RIEPT), an evaluation network developed for tropical forages .The GRU has on-going linkages with partners of the regional plant genetic resources networks sponsored by IPGRI: REDARFIT for the Andean Region, and REMERFI for Central America, as well as with the Amazonian network TROPIGEN.The GRU, as part of the GD-SRG, is involved in the organization of a Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) Alliance in Agrobiodiversity Conservation. This is a CIA T initiative, in partnership with IPGRI, Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) and Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIM:MYT), and responds to the CGIAR System-wide Genetic Resources Program (SGRP). The participation of LAC countries in a first scoping workshop with regional organizations such as F AO, Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), will be convened by the LA UNEP Office in Mexico.CIAT has formal agreements with CENARGEN, Brazil, and CATIE, Costa Rica, for the duplication of Phaseolus vulgaris collections (see Table D The govemment of Colombia recognized by law (Law 29 of March 18, 1988) the intemational status of CIAT, and the article Se of law 29 specifically recognized the right of CIA T to import and export genetic material for research purposes and to move such materials within the Colombian territory with the only requisite of complying with the national phytosanitary regulations.5. Institutional Policy on Material that is Designated under the IARC's Agreement with FAO.All germplasm accessions of mandate species acquired by CIAT prior to the entering into force of the CBD, and which have been completely processed for conservation and assigned a number, are included in the designated list.After the CBD, and following the approach of the lnter Center Working Group on Genetic Resources (ICWG-GR) and the CGIAR Genetic Resources Policy Committee, only those gennplasm accessions acquired without strings attached and provided by the donar as \"common good\" are accepted for conservation in the CIAT genebank and become designated.The Panel was informed that CIA T hoped to ha ve a Material Transfer Agreement (MT A) in place befare end of the year. The IPGRI MT A document was being reviewed by CIA T' s Standing Committee on Genetic Resources with a view to making modifications to meet CIA T' s specific requirements. CIA T Board approval would be sought in November 199 5.The following germplasm has been designated in 1995 under the CIAT -CG agreement with F AO (Total accessions at CIAT are given in parentheses).Phaseo/us beans: Cassava: Tropical Forages :26,395 accessions (41,061) 5,595 accessions (5,985) 15,448 accessions {20,689)Germplasm that is in the process of being cleaned up, is being multiplied, and wbich qualifies as designated will be added in due course to that already under the aegis of F AO.Although CIAT does not bave a formal restoration policy, germplasm collections made since 1977 have involved leaving a duplicate sample of collected germplasm in the country of collection.Sets of germplasm, as detailed below, have already been shipped to countries of origin, through nurseries or specific shipments, at the request of country programs:• Mexico: Set of 349 accessions of wild Phaseolus vulgaris sent in August, 1983 .Most of th.is material was collected in Mexico, but was not represented in the national gene bank.• Iran: Set of 493 access10ns of cultivated Phaseolus vulgaris sent in June, 1986.• Honduras: Set of 434 accessions of cultivated Phaseolus vulgaris sent in June, 1989.This germplasm corresponded mostly to part of the original national co llection which was lost due to poor seed viability.• Peru: Set of 159 accessions of landraces of Phaseolus vulgaris sent in October, 1990• Rwanda: This restoration is in progress as part of an international effort (Seeds of Hope Project) for recovering the agricultura! research capacity of Rwanda. lt embraces about 3 11 accessionsThere are three cases of cassava germplasm duplication to Argentina, Paraguay and Peru.Plans are under way to progressively restare the whole collection of beans and cassava through specific projects that include research and training components in addition to the physical shipment of the gennplasm.In these plans, staff from national programmes will be trained in germplasm handling and characterization through classical or molecular methods, and participate in the development of specific areas of knowledge about their plant genetic diversity. Such plans have been initiated with Guatemala, Ecuador and Peru.The Genebank of Kenya at Maguga has made a request for restoration of the Brachiaria germplasm that had been donated to CIA T.(See section on \"Challenges/Opportunities\"). of bred materials, mostly in the P. vulgaris collections. In addition, there is a backlog of material which includes: duplicate material, material without passport data (needs evaluation in case-by-case basis), material received with poor viability (probabl y to be re-asked to country of origin, or re-collected) and material with full passport data (worth introducing).• It is estimated that about 50% of the variability of the genus, including all species, is represented in the CIA T genebank.•  The land race representation in the five domesticated species from the primary centers of diversity is the most complete, but, the coverage of the wild non cultivated species is low. • 2. Cassava germplasmThe cassava collection comprises about 87% of landraces and the remainder are advanced cultivars (277) and hybrids (293).The in vitro collection holds S ,632 clones of Manihot esculenta, an additional 353 accessions of 29 Manihot species and 3 undefined species; and a set of genetic stocks developed for molecular mapping.The estimated coverage of Manihot escu/enta, is 70% and it ranges from O to 5% for the wild Manihot fonns and species.The highest representation of cassava accesions is from Brazil, Paraguay, Colombia and Venezuela; and the lowest from the Amazon basin, Mexico and the Caribbean.This collection comprises 150 genera with more than 730 wild undomesticated species of possible forage potential. Around 90% of the collections are legumes, 1 O% are grasses. Over 50% of the collection cornprises the legume genera Stylosanthes, Desmodium, Centrosema, Zomia and Aeschynomene. (Table B.3).The diversity represented in the tropical forage germplasm, is limited to species of forage potential from tropical, acid soils regions.Around 70% of the collection was acquired through collecting expeditions: of these, about 70% are South and Central America and the Caribbean; 15% from Asia and Oceanía, 10% from Mrica. Five percent rernain without information.Out of 20 of the rnost important legume species, 1 O are represented in the CIA T genebank at medium to high leve! in terrns of accessions; and only 2 out of 8 grass species have medium leve! of representation.In geographical tenns, Colombia, Brazil and Venezuela have a good representation. Overall the collection represents around 50% of the variability in forages legumes for tropical acid soils, and only 25% for the grasses.The Panel recognized the difficuJties faced in making estirnates of coverage and noted that CIA T' s current research program is aimed at identifying gaps in collections. Wild species of Phaseolus, Tropical forages legumes and grasses are all deserving of increased attention.However, the Panel queried the need for CIA T to focus on such a large number of Tropical Forages.* Recomrnendation: CIAT should continue to review carefully the large number of grass and legume species at present in its Tropical Forage collection with a view to concentrating on those species most relevant to its research needs or in danger of genetic erosion.In addition to its plant genetic resources, CIAT has a collection of about 4,000 strains of Bradyrhi=obium . There are about lOO requests per annum for forage legume inoculants and ampoules are provided by CIA T. There is also a collection at CIAT of Rhi=obium and * Recommendation: CIA T should review the position of its bacteria! and fungal collections with a view to declaring these collec tions to be he ld in trust in the public domain. The Panel was impressed with CIA T' s herbarium coll ection of grass and legumes pasture species .Since activities in genetic resources at CIAT are distributed among tbe GRU and the various programs and units of the Center, the overall additional contribution to genetic resources at CIAT would be equivalent to 5. 75 scientist-year at senior staff leve! plus one at Post Doc leve! (Table C-2). The current (1995) core direct operating budget of the GRU is U.S.$791 ,000. This budget includes the personnel of Tab le C-1, including one senior scientist who occupies the budgeted position of the Unit's Head. The total cost of the GRU including indirect costs (eg. electricity, security, station operations, administration etc) is calculated at U.S.$1,028,000. The total costs of the GRU operating budget represents about 3.4% of CIA T' s core operating budget.The additional core budget assigned to genetic resources activities across CIAT programs and units (  Currently, the Leader of the GD-SRG has been assigned as interirn Head of the GRU. The Unit's Senior Scientist (forrnerly with IPGRI) has a coordinating function in the GRU. The three germplasrn Curators are directly responsible for the day-to-day work within their respective collections.With the pending decision before the end of 1995, by CIA T management and BOT, about the merging with the BRU, the status and leadership of the unit will be formally defined .Current total number of personnel assigned to the GRU is 42; their distribution per collection and services is shown in Table C-1 .  Post quarantine facilities at CIA T Facilities for post-quarantine include one greenhouse and three screenhouses specially equipped for grow-out tests. These facilities are used to examine plants from panicularly valuable seed material to eliminate pathogens . Additionall y there is an incinerator located near these facilities to destroy material infested with micro organisms of quarantine importance. Because of limited size of the greenhouse only 4 forage plants per accession can be grown.* Recommendation: Negotiate with ICA to permit first increase of forages in mesh houses to increase effective population size and reduce genetic drift.Seed health testing of out-going germplasm (bean, tropical pastures and panially cassava), is designed to detect pathogens of quarantine significance. The SHL applies the methodologies recommended by CIAT's pathologists and virologists, to comply with the specific quarantine regulations of the recipient country.The ICA plant quarantine Officer, stationed at CIAT, carries out field and green house inspections and issues \"ICA's Phytosanitary Certificate \" which accompanies all outgoing germplasm from Colombia. The SHL also collaborates to improve the phytosanitary standards of the genebank material. In the last five years the SHL analyzed 11,466 samples from different sections of ClAT; but only 1,973 (17%) and 617 (39%) were for GRU samples. In 1993 and 1994, 876 (31 %) were for GRU.In the case of cassava, plant quarantine activities are supervised by the ICA Officer and coordinated by the GRU and the VRU. For germplasm export in vitro, indexation of material is conducted by the VRU, while the seed health laboratory performs indexation of seeds.• Recommendation: Increase sta.ff for SHL and charge other units for service provided by sm.  It is, however, necessary to assign a fully equipped area for the gene bank of cassava clones in liquid nitrogen .The field collection has historically been managed by the Cassava Program, but will probably be transfered to the GRU in 1996. The field area assigned to the cassava collection is about 6,0 ha, with an additional 6 ha required for overlapping of field plots during 4 months. Six plants per genotype are maintained in plots organized by the vigor of the respective material, and the plots are renovated every 12 months .As the bank is located in CIA T headquarters, under conditions where about 3 5% of the accessions are not adapted, the cost of management (pest control) is high and Ionger rotations are needed to avoid disease problems.lntroduction from the in vitro collection, and the identification of duplicates, as well as characterization are additional activities related to field maintenance.An additional 0.3 ha is dedicated to the 29 wild Manihot species which presents more serious problems of adaptation. A large investment is made in greenhouse labor associated with the vegetative propagation of Manihot species.-20 -To Nov 1994, seed of 12 wild Manihot species from collecting rmss10ns by CENARGEN/EMBRAP A, targetting the prirnary gene pool of wild Manihot has been shared with CIA T. Seed is conserved under low relative humidity conditions, befo re seed health testinglcleaning are performed and placed in the field.There is need for developing appropriate methods for conservation of wild Manihot spectes.There is not a formal duplication of the cassava collection in another institute. Using the available information it is estimated that 89% of \"non formal\" duplication of cassava germplasm in different NARS and one CGIAR center (liT A). There is no formal infonnation for duplication of wild Manihot spp, but CENARGEN holds a considerably large representation. (Table D-4).  The tropical forages collection utilizes the same facilities for storage as the Phaseolus collection (see Table D-1 ); field and screen house space for initial in crease and multiplication (see Tables D-7 and 8), and facilities for field conservation of sorne spec1es.During 1990-1991, a thorough study was carried out to analyze the tropical forages germplasm at CIA T and prioritize among genera and species. At that moment, a total of 20,053 accessions of grasses and legumes was maintained in tbe germplasm bank (CIAT, 1991 ). Toda y, in 1995, total accessions maintained are 20,682, and the nurnbers of genera and species are similar to tbose in 1991 (Table D-5), tbus, no substantial changes have occurred since tben and tbe analysis is still applicable.  The present relative importance of different genera is indicated in Table 2, which shows both those genera with important holdings in the germplasm bank and those with the most samples requested and distributed. Nevertheless, the relative importance of genera needs to be interpreted as a dynamic appreciation because it has changed over time and probably will do so in the future . For example, the l.egume genus Zomia was considered very important in the late 1970's and early 1980's while today nobody at CIAT works anymore with Zornia. On the other -25 -hand since the m id 1980's the research into Arachis species with forage poten tia! has become very substantial to the TFP. In addition, \"new\" genera and species became important when CIA T expanded the mandate of the Tropical Forages Program in 1992 to cover also the mid-altitude h.illsides of tropical A.merica. Our research has also expanded into the genera Cajanus, Canavalia and Macrotyloma, for instance. The establishment of a duplicate base collection in another institution 1s regarded as high prioríty.This issue is being discussed with ILCA. the Svalbard Intemational Seedbank (SIS) in Norway, and the national seed storage Jaboratory (NSSL), USDA in USA.Nevenheless, a large proponion of tbe tropical forage collection is held as \"common accessions\" (in active duplication) in ILCA. CENARGEN -Brazil, Commonweath Scienti.fic and Industrial Research Organization (CSIR.O) -Australia, and the University of Florida, USA. About 41 % of legumes and 57% of grasses are jointly listed with these institutions, which m ay serve as a back up to the CIA T collection. Also, 50% the accessions from the \"key species\" is shared with tbese institutions (Table D-7).Recommeodations: Seek to develop a Memorandum of understanding with USDA for security Backup of forage legumes and grasses at NSSL.  The capacity of plastic jars is 700 to 800 grams of bean seeds. Capacity in number of seeds varíes according to seed size: for cultivated species, the maximum number of seeds per jar ranges between 1,200 to 4,000; for seeds of wild species the maximum is about 15,000. Seed inventory has been handled using as reference, fractions of the volume of the jars, as follows :Plastic jar capacity varíes from 1,200 for large seeds to 15,000 for small seedeD wild species. Aluminum foil bags have a capacity which ranges from about 500 seeds for large seeded rnaterials, up to 2,500 seeds for small seeded materials. The physical properties of the bags are satisfactory.There is no routine checking of the initial viability. However, to plan multiplication and regeneration, viab ility monitoring is done by batches based on seed age; this monitoring is carried out after five to six years of storage.A viability monitoring test using 6,000 accessions of P. vulgaris was carried out four years ago . Using rolled paper towels in incubators, it was found that 90% of the accessions had germination above 60% and, that 75% of the accessions had germination greater than 80%.A project is underway to establish a emergence monitoring in sand, because of its high correlation with emergence under filed conditions. A batch of 600 accessions of P. lunatus, having more than six years of storage, is planned to be checked this year.Quantity of material conserved.Because seed capacity of the plastic jars varies with on seed size, a modification of the seed inventory control is underway by which the total number of seeds per jar are estimated. This change will be fully implemented by mid 1996. The current inventaries of the cultivated species suggest that, in order to meet the IPGRl/F AO standards for seed quantity, the following percentages of the present collections need to be processed (i.e.) in the short-medium term : 64% of P. vulgaris, 66% of P. lunatus, 73 % of P. coccineus, 65% of P. polyanthus and , 17% of P. acutijolius. These fi gures are given for the material already increased.Only 6,500 of the 28,271 accessions have been placed under lo ng-term storage; 77% of those are P. vulgaris, and the remainder are other cultivated species.Sorne 6,400 accessions are in the backlog waiting for quarantine processing; 63% are P. vulgaris.* Recommendation: Place all bean accessions in long-term storage as soon as possible.Bean germplasm is multiplied in isolated fields (in Vij es, Teilerife and Popayán) and in Palmira under greenhouse conditions, with supervision from ICA Quarantine Officers. During multiplication, plants showing any symptoms of fungi , bacteria, or viruses are destroyed. The SHL occasionally analyzes the bean seed from Palmira, Popayán, Vijes and Tenerife to establish its health status before storage.The SHL has been working on practica! procedures, under green house conditions for clean bean germplasm production, especially with material from the core collection. ELISA checks are used to detect the presence of BCMV.Monitoring and maintenance of conserved material -regeneration.As in the case of viability, routine monitoring of conserved materials will be implemented. The maintenance of the collection is checked with respect to the arnount of seed stock in the jar, as well as the age of the seed. When the seed stock is below 115 of the jar' s capacity, multiplication is planned. If the accession has more than six years in storage, but, if the seed stock is higher than 1/5, the material is planned for a germination test, prior to a decision about regeneration.Major emphasis has been placed on documentation of the bean germplasm from the primary centers of domestication and/or diversification, 1.e. Mesoamerica and Andean South America.In addition, catalogs with relevant data for P. /unatus, P. vulgaris, wild forms of P. vu/garis and the complex P. coccineus-P. po/yanthus were published and distributed to national programs and bean researchers.• Basic morphological characterization, seed descriptors, growth habit, and flowering features are registered as well as evaluation for key traits and limited biotic and abiotic factors for crop production in a worldwide context.Lists of \"minimum\" descriptors were developed, taking as a basis the descriptors published by IPGRI. Physical quality is high since samples are cleaned manually using screens and blowers.• Genetic quality. Contaminations are avoided by locating the accessions randoml y in the greenhouse and field, so that no species blocks are fonned. To prevent from contamination when breeding systems are unknown, every species is treated as outcrossing.Ouantitv of material conserved• The goal for seed produced per accession is 1 O, 000 seeds; for the base collection (3,000); monitoring (1,000); duplication (3,000); and active collection (3,000).• Sorne accessions are stored with less seed, because of low requests for distribution or because they are peor seed producers.• Recommendations: Place all forage accessions in long-term storage as soon as possible.• The initial seed increase is carried out in mesh-houses or in the field with control of diseases and pests.• However there is not a routine, procedure to monitor the health status of the materials before storage.• There is limited information available on the physiological quality of most of the access10ns.• Germination of 178 legume accessions, representing 10% of seed samples stored from 1985 to 1987, was assessed; under short-term storage conditions, germination ranged 71 to 89%; and 82 to 97% under long-term storage conditions.• Information obtained from long-and short-term storage indicates that legume seed with initial b..igh quality can be stored over a long period with no significant loss of germinability .Regeoeration has seldomly been carried out with selected legume species when seed quantity in the active collection was reduced.Maintenance of adequate documentation system• Documentation of the tropical forages collection is carried out with Sunsparck e en ter 2, 000 with total disk space of 126 Gigabytes and total memory of 128Megabites, usíng a database inplemented on a data managment software system ORACLE.• Recently, an inventory of species held in the collection has been published, as well as catalogs of collections from Colombia; Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; Venezuela; South East Asia; and a world catalog for Centrosema.• The basic passport data are available and have been revised for about 85% of the accessrons.1 1• Besides the basic passport data, infonnation on number of seeds c. ollected and number of plants sampled (40% of accessions) is a1so included.• Many important tropical genera lack a modem taxonornical treatrnent (e.g., the monograph of Arachis was published only in 1994). Proper identification thus requires the collaboration of a large number of specialists worldwide. This effort has led to a steady decrease in un-or ill-identified accessions in the collection. Nevertheless, 2,624 accessions (12.7%) are still not identified at the species leve!, particularly in the genera Crotalaria, Desmodium, lndigofera, Phyllodium, Tephrosia, and lamia.• The reference herbarium now keeps 16,09 1 spec1mens of about 70% of genera and species.• Morphological characterization has been carried out on 18% of the conserved accessions (Tables E-8a and b, 1), and 7% have been biochemically characterized by isozymes and native seed proteins (Table E-9, Annex 1 ).• The Tropical Forages (formerly Pastures) Program characterized acid soi l adaptation of about 7,500 accessions (36%).A core collection (core subset) can represen! most of the genetic diversity of the crop collection with a minimum number _ of accessions (5 to 30%). Characterization and evaluation costs are greatly reduced and efficiencies when screening for desired traits can be increased.A core collection was fonned from among the 24,000 accessions which were available from the global Phaseo/us vulgaris collection held in CIA T. A baseline of 1 O% of the crop collection was set for representation by countries in the primary centers, but this was adjusted up or down according to speci.fic situations such as duplication of accessions . Subsequently, a three-step process was followed . First, regions were prioritized, giving greater weight to traditional bean growing areas. Second, gennplasm was classified as to agroecological origin. Four environmental parameters were identified as critica! : length of growing season, photoperiod, soil type and moisture regime, with 3,2,3 , and 3 levels, respectively. All possible combinations of these pararneters yielded 54 possible environments, of which 49 were actually represented in the crop collection.Another minor class was created to represent cold environments of very long season. By use of map coordinates of the gennplasm collection sites, accessions were matched to their respective environmental class. The third criterion utilized was based on morphophysiological data of grain color and size, and growth habit. Primitive types were weighted more heavily than modero com.mercial types. Having weighted the • representation as such, a random selection was practiced with.in the agroecological classes. A total of about 1,000 accessions were identi.fied from primary centers, and an additional 300 were chosen from secondary centers, plus 40 key landraces, 40 standard bred lines, 40 genetic stocks, and 80 additional accessions for a total of 1 ,500. A core collection ( 111 accessions) has been designated for the wild species based on passport and agronomic infonnation. Molecular markers (RAPD ' s, AFLP's) w ill be used to refine these core subsets.Using a GIS database, representing a range of agroecologies in the major centers of Phaseolus diversity, the two core collections are being classi.fied according to edaphoclimatic characteristics of their original sites, and thus provide a basis for identifying promising areas not yet represented. Combination of the two approaches will enable correlation of genetic diversity at the molecular leve! with diversity at agroecological leve!. The data obtained from the core collections will be also correlated with agronomic evaluation. This has begun with response to low P soils. A core collection of 630 accessions has been defmed at CIA T for improving the efficiency of germplasm evaluation. Together with elite clone accessions, the core collection represents the most completely characterized cassava germplasm and the material most frequently utilized in breeding programs.In the absence of direct measures of genetic variability among accessions in the global collection, parameters (weighted) expected to influence or reflect variability were used in selecting clones for the core collection: (i) Geographic origin; (ii) Diversity of morphological characters; (iii) Diversity of a 13 esterase banding patterns; (iv) A priori decision based on criteria of special interest; (v) Within each country, the definition of the core germplasm, prioritized landraces, accessions from primary centers of diversity and variation among cassava growing ecosystems.The core collection ( about 10% of the crop collection) has been characterized for agronomic traits including root quality parameters (cyanogenesis, amylose-amyllopectin ratios, starch functional properties) and prevailing biotic and abiotic constraints at CIA T headquarters as well as in representative testing sites of Colombia (for sub-humid lowlands and acid soil lowland savanna production ecosystems). In addition, subsets are evaluated for promising characteristics such as high photosynthetic rates, nutrient use efficiency, C4 metabolism, and pest and disease resistance.Tropical Forages Ger mplas m GRU has given priority to forages of 9 genera and 18 species in two families , Leguminosae and Gramineae, for characterization and development of core collections.The genera Stylosanthes, Centrosema and Desmodium have received the most attention in assembling large genetic resources, and in morphologicaJ characterization. Recently, the genus Arachis was identified as promising for pasture improvement and soil cover. For sorne species, such as S. scabra, a core collection was formed on the basis of geographic representation and preliminary evaluation data and subjected to further agronomic evaluation. For the purpose of preliminary evaluation in different environments, small, geographically representative collections of individual species have been assembled. Intensive research using isozyme fingerprinting and morphological descriptors will be used to designate core collections of important key species, such as S. guianensis or Brachiaria brizantha. • What is tbe genetic diversity for conservation in order to ensure genetic progress in tbe commodities; • Which methods can malee conservation of tbat genetic diversity safer and more efficient;Research activities have been carried out collaboratively by GRU, BRU and genetic diversity specialists in the commodity programmes at CIAT. The following topics have been tack.led using molecular markers and other technologies to measure genetic diversity:• species phylogenetic relationships and structure of crop gene pools using classical and molecular approaches; • structure of genetic diversity according to spatial gradients and ecological gradients using GIS; • analysis of founder effect under domestication; • mínimum genetic diversity to capture the variabiliry existing in the commodity germplasms (defmition of core collections by integrating molecular markers and GIS information); • heritability of certain traits for molecular genetic mapping; Phaseolus beans germplasm l . Distribution of material.• A total of 32,740 samples were distributed during the period 1992-1994. More than 26,700 (86%) was distributed to the CIAT com.modity programs, while about 6,000 (14%) were distributed to NARS in developing and developed countries.The above samples comprise 16523 di.fferent accessions, which embodies 62.2% of the designated Phaseolus germplasm.• Very few materials were requested by NGO's and the private sector. It is worth mentioning that more than 370,000 samples have been distributed since the assembling of the collection began in the early 70' s. (Table Hl).Utilization.• CIA T' s Bean Program has been very active in evaluating and using the P haseolus collection. More than 270,000 bean accessions have been provided to the Bean Program throughout the existence of the collection.• Many new cultivars have been released by collaborating national programs. This active use also provided valuable information with regard to specific traits found in the collection, highlighting the critical usefulness of a genebank to germplasm users.(Table H-4).  Impact.• During the period 1979-1994, a total of 203 cultivars ha ve been released in 3 7 countries in most continents, through the international nurseries established by the Bean Program. From the above, 201 (99%) were released in developing countries. Of those cultivars, 55 were selected directly from the germplasm collection without breeding. The other 148 were the result of the breeding strategies, using a wide range of progenitors selected from the gerrnplasm collection. • In addition, the CIAT Cassava Program has been a majar user of the collectio n.• Useful variability for nearly all important agronomic traits has been identified in the cassava collection.• In the last 14 years a total of 47 varieties have been released to national programs. Twenty one out of the 47 clones correspond to landraces released after adaptive evaluation without breeding, and the remaining as improved lines.Forage Germplasm l . Distribution of material • Since 1980, a total of 13 species were selected from gennplasm maintained in the CIA T genebank and released as commercial cultivars in 12 tropical American countries and China.(Table H-5).  Security of facilities and of databases 6. ex l . Interna! emergency power plants. For a long time CIA T had an interna! power plant which supplied about 40% of the Center energy requirements ; it was used for those cases when the public 7 energy was off due to a variety of reasons. Because of its limited capacity, only key areas had det priority for connection to this plant and from the very begining the Genetic Resources Unit has been (la considered as priority for this service.ele Th( Because Colombia sufTered a critica! drought period three years ago , and also at the same 1 CIJ time there has been an increase on the demand for energy in Colombia in the last years, the cost of 1 gas this service has increased substantial1y. Due to these reasons CIAT invested in the acquisition of a ! new system, which includes two power plants with a total capacity of 2,500 Kw., which easily 1 8. surpasses the total CIAT needs of energy. These two plants are alredy on operation and they work and every day during the peak hours of energy requirements in the region (9:00 to 12:00, and 18:00 to SUfJ 21 :00). Also, when unexpectedly the regional energy system fails ,. there is a system to connect inmediately all sections of the Genetic Resources Unit to these plants ( Seed bank, in vitro bank., 9. ~ electrophoresis lab, herbariurn, seed health testing lab., offices) . In addition, the old system is still syst, operational as back up to the new systern.a ye freq1 2. Duplicated cooling and drying systems-eguipment. Each one of the three rnain rooms of the seed it is bank for beans and tropical forages has a duplicate set of cooling, dehumidifying and drying lncat equipment. Each set works completely independent from the others, so that if one fails it is inmediately replaced by the other one.Seed bank doors alarrns. The seed bank., for beans and tropical forages, has four metallic doors : main entrance, long term storage, short term storage and, the drying room. Each of these doors have an individual sound alarrn, which startS ringing when the corresponding door has been forced open or left open for more than one minute. This systern insures that all the doors must remain locked all the time. 4. Seed bank interna! alarrns. Although all doors can be opened from inside, each one of the fou rooms of the seed bank has a big and visible push on buttom on the inside; this can be used in case¡ that any person gets locked in any of those rooms. When the button is pushed, it triggers a nois~ alarm outside in the seed preparation room.There is a panel for a continou monitoring of the temperature and of the relative humidity of each one the rooms in the seed ban as well as of possible failures of the equipment. This panel is strategicall y located for a dayl monitoring routine. There is also a routine checking coordinated w ith security CIAT guar personnel, in case that something goes wrong during this period. There is a plan under study to install fire smoke and gas detectors in the risky areas of the Genetic Resources Unit, such as al! the sections of the in vitro bank (laboratory and storage rooms), where there are both a ternperature component and numerous electrical connections, as well as in the computers working sections for protecting the databases . These detectors will send either a signa! to a telepbone station, and/or, ring an alarm in the central CIA T security office. Tbis study is also considering the possibility of installing sprinklers of carbon gas in those risky sections, whicb can be activated as soon as a fire is detected .Earthguakes. The new building, which houses the seed bank and the in vitre bank, was planned and designed with high standards against earthquakes. Tbe foundations and the shell of the building surpasses the colombian construction standards for earthquakes. 9. Back up fo r protection of the databases_ Befare the new CIAT interna! communication network system was establisbed last year, a routine back up of the databases on tapes was carried out twice a year on average. Under the new system, back ups of all the databases will be produced on a more frequent schedule and, if possible, on an automatic basis, as soon as the databases are updated . Also, it is worth mentioning that the original databases are on the central server of the network; this 1s located in the Information Managernent Network System (1Jv1NS) building away from the GRU • As implied in the preamble, the genetic resources collections held in trust at CIAT : ~; 'lsu ; : üc a key component of CIAT business. Initíall y, CIA T assembled the germplasm co' ~c:t i n'•l s rnainly in arder to support the breeding efforts by the Center's commodity proen: r•: .. •:' fte increase in size ofthe collections and the acquisition of additíonal responsibilities b y; : . ~: G I~ U were not always rnatched with sufficient resources ; in addition, the CGIAR-wide , nan< .al restrictions of the last few years have equally affected the GRU. To place the CG an J ClA T in accordance with the emerging global system on genetic resources, will require a co ncened effort geared towards improving sorne the facilities and priority operations of thc e n ter •• genebank. In spite that CIAT has made ava.ilable sorne li.mited additional r~source~ f~' f 1995 96, the needs for the next 5-6 years are greater.• The followi.ng needs were drawn based oo the \"Genebank Standards\" by F AOIJPGRJ l. Facilitv needs • Seed quality laboratory for monitoring viability.• Temporary storage room for recently harvested seed.• Additonal fieid space in a highland location to multiply and clean germplasm.From 18 support personal in 1990, the beans section of the GRU has been reduced to J 3 core people since 1989.Represents 90% of the Phaseolus collection.• 16,200 accessions (63%) need seed increase.• Seed age of materials calls for routine viability monitoring for multiplícation.• Monitoring viability of wild forms of P. vulgaris • Backlog ( 6, 400 accessioos) needing processing, selecting accessions not represented in the bank.4. P. lunatus: represents 5.0% of the collection• 1,047 accessions for seed increase to meet standards. Large seeded accessions would require lowering down \"preferred standards \".• Routine seed viability rnonitori ng for multiplication • Need backlog ( 1,299 accesions) processmg.5. Complex P. coccineus -P. polyanthus : represents 3.5% of the collection.• 550 accessions for processing to meet standards.Due to outcrossing, growth cycle, and seed size, tbese species require specialized efforts .• Need backlog (339 and 169 accessions respectively) processmg.6. Wild Phaseolus species. non-cultivated: represents 0.6% of the collection.• Special environmental conditions (greenhouse) needed for seed multiplication, according to recent experience in tbe GRU.l . Improved representation of diversity of cassava and wild Manihot species:Of the 28 countries outside of Africa where cassava is important, 22 have donated germplasm to the world collection. Thus, germplasm of sorne entire countries and particular ecosystems is lacking. As tbe target of conservation is genetic diversity, it is important to recognize landraces in ecological regions and not only the principal varieties accounting for production acreage .• Exploration and characterization of oative babitats are oeeded and basic srudies in genetics, ecology and biogeography to cootribute to concepts of interspecific relationships and distribution of diversity .2. Knowledge of seed biology and physiology of Manihot spp.• Wild species are outcrossing and sexually propagated, so several individuals from a population are usually collected or received in excbange as botanical seed.• Seed biology srudies are rudimeotary for the geous and little is known about managing and safe storage, dormancy or germination.Conservation methods for Manihot spp, distinct from those for cassava, remain to be established, for in vitro, in vivo and for true seed options. These joints highlight the need for research.-53 -• The implementation of safety duplication in other institutes is needed. Resources will be needed to cover the operational cost for duplicate conservation.4. Improved d isease indexing metho dology and completion of indexation.• Improved assays for cassava vein mosaic virus (CVMV) and frogskin disease (FSD) are needed. About 41 % of the base collection and 60% of the core collection ha ve been indexed for known pathogens.Main needs in the tropical forage germplarn collection:• Formalized massive procedures for processing of germplasm through quarantine.• Increased efforts in seed multiplication• New collections with larger seed number• Improved knowledge about breeding systems to avoid genetic drift during regeneration cycles , nd be fo• Research in seed conservation to predict seed behavior in storage.Automatic routine seed viability monitoring.• Formalized seed health status for conservation and distribution.Summing up, severa) constraints experienced by CIA T GRU in the past are also often experienced by NARS in Latín America, the first one becom ing evident is a formal recognition of the importance of its broader role in conservation.An expanded role of the CGIAR and CIA T in genetic resources will act as a leverage and thus contribute to keep the GRU's support at a leve) in concert with its basic responsibilities .-54 -• As stated previous ly, CIAT's focus has shifted from a solely productivity app roach to a more demanding one that includes, in addition, conservation of the natural resource base.• The very nature of the com.modities for which CIAT holds germplasrn collections in trust leads to the center to develop a strong research component, targeted on the utilization side: at the generation of information on useful sets of diversity and genepools and useful genes . on the conservation side, at a better defmition of the genetic diversity to be conserved and of methods for improved conservation.• The development of genetic maps and molecular markers technology, the integration of assessment of genetic diversity with geographic infonnation systems, the documentation of useful genes into modern databases are exarnples of initial research that will augment genetic enhancement, and genetic metbodologies for efficient conservation ex situ and in silu .The two research objectives referred to above are also pursued by country prograrnmes in areas where CIAT has already established a long tradition of technology transfer: Central America and the Andean region. Both areas share the characteristi cs of high agrobiodiversity, scarce trained human resources and limited physical resources. Therefore expectations in genetic resources towards CIAT go beyond a seed supply funct ion.• The above obviously have prograrnmatic and financia! implications. The GD-SRG has conducted a f1rst appraisal of the status and needs for upgrading the basi c facilities and operations of the GRU, i.e. related to CIA T' s current mandate in genetic resources. While the fmancial requirernents needed to meet the upgrading are being defined, it is clear that under optimal funding conditions, this task would take 5-6 years. lf the current coverage of the collections is 50% for Phaseolus genus, 40% for cassava and 25-50% for tropical forages, based on geographic and ecological representation, any add itional growth of the collections will require a strong research component not only to better define the composition of the collections, but also their improved conservation and utilization. Opportunities in this area are many .• Two externa] reviews carried out at CIAT in 1994 and 1995 already indicated the opportunities for tbe GRU and BRU to strenghten already existing links and develop further complementary joint projects.• Complementary opportunities for strategíc research in agrobiodivers ity include:-Development of genetic molecular maps (saturated with different markers, and referring to genetic stocks) for studies on genetic diversity (e.g . gene flow and evolution) at O A leve!;Major challenges must be• overcome to ensure the conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources of beans, cassava and tropical forages held in trust by CIA T . These invaluable collections result from more than forty years of work by national programs, CIA T, IPGRJ and others concemed with plant genetic resources in the Westem Hemisphere and beyond.Guaranteeing the future availability of this genetic diversity requires joint actions by CIA T, the genetic resources programs of Latín American countries, and other IARCs to confront a ranl!e '\"' of problems through common agendas and joint activities that improve quality and increase efficiency.l.Insuring the safety and full duplication of the collections of beans, cassava and forages with all pertinent information is the highest priority task. This requires improvements at CIA T as well as at the genebanks that assume responsibility for maintaining duplicares.An interrelated set of activities is involved that includes the processing of materials according to the highest intemational standards for plant health and genetic integrity as well as research to develop specific protocols that are reliable, economical and rapid. Training of national personnel in these protocols is also essential.For safe duplication, preferably as black box entries, institutions such as other IARCs, regional organizations and NARS of developing countries, as well as public labs in the region can be considered.Objectives l.To develop protocols for reliable and masstve plant health testing for the three collections;.., To expedite safe conservation and duplication by increasing the rate of multiplication and processing materials through quarantine under the highest standards in coordination with the ICA plant health office, particularly for Phaseolus beans and tropical forages .For cassava. increasing the rate of disease indexing of materials prior to dispatch will be also necessary.To ensure adequate processing for effective conservation and duplication by installing a seed quality lab at CIA T, and through the development of appropriate infrastructure. and provision of needed training in recipient countries.Because technologies for conserving genetic material in genebanks have been developed principally for temperate species, there• is a lack of in depth knowledge of physiology and metabolism of conserved organs (seed, tissue) of important tropical species including Manihot and tropical forages. Consequently there is a lack of reliable, validated, low cost protocols appropriate to the particular requirements of these species.Current ex-situ conservation of cassava genetic resources is carried out both in the field and as in vitro cultures. Both methodologies are means to maintain germplasm for short tenn. Both interact but are unsuitable for long-tenn conservation of a gene bank. Cryopreservation offers a means for the long-term conservation of cassava genetic resources. CIA T in cooperation with IPGRI has made significant advances in developing cryopreservation of cassava shoot tips suitable for a base gene bank in liquid nitrogen. Cryopreservation of cassava shoot tips offers the opportunity to significantly reduce costs of long term maintenance as well as facilitating duplicate collections. Conversion to cryopreservation of the collection of Manihot needs to be complemented with studies to monitor the safety and genetic stability of this technique.Little is known about the seed physiology of tropical forage species, and preven protocols for conservation need to be developed. To a lesser extent similar studies are needed for wild species of Manihot and Phaseolus in order to even maintain working collections to evaluate their potential for further utilization. Objectives l.To improve efficiency in the conservation of priority tropical forage germplasm by developing physical and chernical treatments that insure the long-term viability of forage germplasm. Research in collaboration with NSSL and other labs in the region and abroad is essential for the achievement of this objective.This would also be undertaken to a lesser extent for certain undomesticated Manihot and Phaseolus species that are conserved as seed germplasm.To develop the technical and logistical aspects involved in establishing and running a cassava collection under cryopreservation. This work can be carried out as a pilot project in cooperation with IPGRI, the NARS and liTA. Participation of advanced labs such as NSSL should also be considered.Assuring adequate coverage of diversity in germplasm collections in both CIAT and in couotries of origin Background Genetic conservation is effective only to the degree that the full range of diversi n• is conserved. The evaluation of extent and representativity of the biological and ¡tf'net . al diversity contained in the collections held in trust at CIA T is required to assure th;¡; a f' ull range of diversity is adequately conserved. This involves understanding the pa~r .• 11:.. and distribution of natural diversity as well as susceptibility to genetic erosion. This ass~-:.-;:;:-nent is particularly needed for cultivated and wild species of Manihot and Phaseolus. It woui.l be conducted in collaboration with NARS and universities in Latín America in order to attain an in-depth and fast assessment. Objectives J.To appraise, in collaboration with NARS, in situ diversity in reiation to pn:::cnt holdings to ensure that biological and genetic diversity is fully understood <md properly documented.To ensure through targeted collecting that essential diversity is adequarely collected and conserved in ex siru collections, in 'both CIAT and in countries of ongm.Once tropical forage species to be used in the future are bener defined by CIA T and user partners, carry out similar studies aimed at ensuring that panems of genetic diversity are properly documented and used for sarnpling and conservation strategies.To facilitate the continuity of conservation and utilization of genetic diversity in the countries of origin by assisting NARS through joint research and training to effectively restore to their collections the full range of indigenous diversity. Subject to NARS priorities, focus would be placed on the countries of highcst. * 16. Toro, 0., Lareo, L., and Debouck, D. G.  * 15 . Hida lgo, R 1991. Conservation Ex-Situ. In: \"Técnicas para el manejo y uso de Recursos Genéticos Vegetales\" . Raúl Castillo, Jaime Estrella y Cesar Tapia (eds .  The Panel recognized that financia! constraints are limiting CIA T's operations, but thought that the GRU is w1derfunded in rela tion to the Centre's total budget.The Panel thought that there are dangers in making use of special Project funding for key areas of conservation and research.The Panel was impressed with the successful way in which CIA T and NARS had involved farrners in the utilization of the Centre's germplasm (beans) and also noted that s tudies were currently underway at CIAT to assess, in a quantitative fashion, irnp<tct made by CIA T's gcndic rcsources in p<trbler countrics.The Panel was informed by CIAT's staff that the databases used by CIAT for its mandate crops were likely to be compatible with the System-wide lnformation Network on Genetic Resources (SINGER) when it became operational.The PL\"tnel was sa tisfied that for Phaseolus, forage and grass species CIATs goal is to adhere to Intemationa l Genebank Standards, as endorsed by FAO and published jointly by FAO and IPGR.l in 1994. l.nadequate staff and funds have precluded complete achievernent of these s tandards. Recomrnendations are mJde to address s pecific deficiencies.The Panel thought that exchanges involving s taff of the GRU and NARS partners could have a beneficia! and stirnulating effect. CIA T should continue to review cMefully the large number of grJss and legume species in the Tropical Forage collection with a v iew to concentrating on those speóes most relevant to its resea rch needs or that are in dange r l)f gendic eros10n.For some a ccessions, rc-coll ec tion may be more efficicnt th,m regenera tion.In 1986, the Tropica l Pas ture Programme (TPP) established a lis t of 18 species of proven value as forage, and the GRU will conce ntrate on those in co llaboration with the TPP as far as acquisition of germplasm is concerned. Given the agreement passed with F AO about the des igna te collection, the accessions ind uded in the designated collection wíll be safely conserved. Under its present s ta tus and leve! of funding, the GRU is not prepared to take major s teps towards the cx situ conservatíon of the 730 specíes of legumes and grasses if threa tened by ge netic eros1on. CIAT should rev iew the position of its bc1cteri,1l c1nd fungal collections \\\\'tth <1 view to d eclaring these collec tions to be held in trust in the public d~o)m,ún .Under its present status, le,•el o f funding and ex~)ertist? a\\•ail,lb le, the GRU will not assume responsibili ty for the conservation \"of these bacteri,\"'l a nd fungal co llections. Their maintenance is a task requiring skilled personnel and specific bcilities; they \\\\'ill be kept ,1s working co llections by CIAT conu11odi t:• prugrammt.'S. Recormneruiatio11 3Fo r accessions with limited longevi ty, sa mp les for Dl)th base and c1ctin: collectioru; sho uld be s tored in the long-term seed vau lt.l\\esucmse to Reco111111ewlation 3 .This point is weH taken, and. after checks tur seed. \\'iability and he,1ltb, and adjustment to right ;;eed mo is ture, m,\"' tl:rials o f :: ~1ecies with limited lungevi ty \\\\' ill be prl)~rcss in:i}• p.ls:-,ed tu the lun¡;-te rm , •,wlt.Rrco 111111Ciltlt7 tioll -l . . . CIAT should negotiJte with !CA to permit first incn:Jse of forJges 111 ml!shhouses to increase effective population size and reduce ge netic drift.ICA is the sole élUthori ty to decide <1bout plant quarantine regulations in Colombia, and a ll steps should be taken not to introduce d iseases and pests. Protocols for quarantine are presently reviewed between GRU, Pathology and Virology programmes/ wtits and ICA so as to come up with a lis t of phy tosan.itar y hazards <1nd controls fo r preventing the introduction and spread of dise<1ses and pests. Such prevention is like ly to involve the development of new diagnos tic kits (e.g. tho~e usíng the PCR technique), as well as the a llocation of new glasshouse space, in order to process more accessions/ year (in order to dear backlogs asa p ), more individuals/accession (in order to limit genetic drift), and under safer procedures.Reca m 11Le1Ldatio 11 5CIA. T should assess the need to tncreJse s taff fo r SHL ( considering chMging other units for servíce provided by SHL). CIAT should consider es t<1b lis h.ing the S<lme seed health routine procedures, <15 done for seeds lo be st:>nt ,1bro,1d, for m,1terials d istribu ted w ithin the hos t country. The SHL focuses on checkíng materials s hípped outside CIAT (nurseries, etc) by commodity programmes (2/3 of the 2,201) accessio ns checked Jnnu,llly o n J\\•erage). In the future, ,1nd in addition, the SHL is expccted to: l) check lw,1lth él~pects <Jt ,Kcessil\"lns prior to their multiplicJtion in the field , Mtd 2) check he,1lth aspects of ,Kcessions prior to their handling in the different conservation systems. The SHl will be élble to perform these tllsks with é\\dditional personnd \\1 professit)n,ll and l l.lb derck) < 1nd additlonal equipment and budget for opera tion,1l expenses (consum,1bles, chemic,1ls ).The Centre intends fol lovving the same seed heal th routine procedures v\\•hen processing all germplasm material at CL-\\ T, irrest 1ective tlf the source 1..1r destination o f such m.1terial. As budget permíts, this point shall be taken into account. In additíon, tvvo new drying facilities are being designed in the field opc rzltions Jr('<l o f thc C.RU, for the pur~\"'~nsc nf drying pods, panides, fruits, etc, from period iccll h<~rves ts.Recom111c11dntioll 7Effo rts sh ould be m<~de by CIAT to establish fie1d genebanks, under suitable agro-ecological conditíons, for cassava accessions and other /vltlnihot speGes which are reported not to be adapted to CIA T headquartcrs conditions.Stakes of wild species of /vlwúhot will be planted in Santander de Quilichao, where adaptation could be better (so ds more sandy). In case tlüs does not work, sites with other ecological conditions will be tested in Colombia .ReconiniCIHilltioll 8CIAT should intensify its efforts to arrange prom~1tly for formal safety backup duplic,1tion of the cass,1va collection off-site <1nd to request relt.•~,•,1nt inform,ltion from national and intern,1tiona l institutes holding 'non-furmal' dupliGltitH1S. Formal agreements shou..ld be s igned by both p<uties.An applied resean.:h programm.e has been initiated to test different gruv\\'th medi,l in arder to make duplication in another insti tution pt..,ssible. Once this proloco l cé\\n be applied to Jll Cé\\ssava genotn1es, contacts will be m.:1de with intern,1tion,1l inst itutes fo c hl)lding él du plic,1te.f{eC011111/CIIdlltÍOil 9 9. CIA. T should seek to develop formal agreern12nts for sec urity b<1ckup , oft-::.ite seed storage of tropical forages.12.Because most Jccessions h,we sub-stélndJrd numbers of seeds, regenerc1tion of these accessions <1nd th ose with su b-st<1ndard vi<1bility should be done promptly.R cspoll sc t o R ecomm cllda tioll 12 the accom p lislunent o f this recomm endJtíon wíll be mct withín the 'Upgradíng Pbn' (see response to recommend atio n 10).R eco mmcwfation 13 13.Initiate.a pilo t cryopreserva tion project for tvfanilwt as soon as possible, bJsed on C IAT research and on resear ch on other cr ops at other ínstitutions.Such a project has been re-initiated in collaboration with IPGKI-HQ. A S¡..\"\"'eCi<1l projcct is bc ing prepared to ex tend the testing of cryoconserva tion ¡xotocols fo r the en.tire collection.Tape backups of the GRU databélse should be m,1de weekly and sec llfely s tored in a different b Lúlding.Resp01 zsc to l~eco lllii1 C 1ldtzti u ll 14Agreed.Reco ninze¡zdatio ll 15 15. CIAT shou.ld continue refining GRU core coUectíons and designating cores in additional fo rage species as feasible. The Panel con1mends the GRU fL) r the early development and use of co re co llcction. methodohJgies. T he metht'~dologies used for the in.i ti•1l core were excellcnt, and the refinements in progress (G IS ,1nd molecular markers) Me cutting edge technologies. .Core collections a t CIAT have been dendoped fo r cnmmon be,1n and CJSS<l\\',1 germp lasm co llections, gi,•en the size of the resern~ cullcdions for those commoditics.As vve can antiópate ,1 higher dis tribution of the core collections. speci,1l sc~d incre,1SL' . .<md hzmdling (i.e. doubling plot size, and puttíng the old cold stores back intL) service) will be performed for them. 'vVhenever relevant, these methodologies ... vill be extended to other germplasm species (e.g. forages). The existing core collections will be hLrther refined, with the user-frien d ly development of GIS, the development of novel marker techno\\ogies, élnd as 'novel' m<1terials are released from the backlogs.Reco m11rellda tio ll 1616.App lied resear ch should be initia ted by CIAT to reduce costs fo r routine activities such as: d rying in paper bags versus open drying boxes; counting smaller samples to estímate total seed n u mber with computer connections to scales to enter seed number and seed weight per 100 seeds in the database; mechanization in seed processing; estimation of seed longevity of various species at temperatures above freezing (accelerated aging, etc.) to identify species where the active collection shoutd be s tored at -lSoC ; use of bar codes; compu ter programs to enter germínation results, compute means, and e nter in database; determine genetic puri ty with alternative pollen control sys tems for outcrossing species, especially fora ges.All these points are pertinent, and are being progressively implemented as p,ut uf the upgradíng process.Rccollwtclldatiull 1717. CL-\\ T sho uld devek)p c1nd di!:>tribu te informatinn c1S d;1tab<1Ses llll gene tic distances be tween accessíons, wh.ich will improve the efficiency of the use of germplas m in breeding programs.Respo 11sc tu R ecU IILJtt c1l d atiu tz 17.The GRU can provide such information only for those accessions thélt have been included in specific genetic diversity s tudies, either with the BRU l)f with thc commodity programmes. _ This information, vvhen avait1ble, will be distributed toge ther with the passport d.1ta. ","tokenCount":"10344"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d062c0918fb79a7fb04a25bae54d82e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/364edb67-0654-48af-b1aa-3b4c18d77fbd/content","id":"1836883634"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d9107f09-0772-4ae7-9e85-6071acd67141","pagecount":"33","content":"Background Regular, detailed reporting on population health by underlying cause of death is fundamental for public health decision making. Cause-specific estimates of mortality and the subsequent effects on life expectancy worldwide are valuable metrics to gauge progress in reducing mortality rates. These estimates are particularly important following large-scale mortality spikes, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. When systematically analysed, mortality rates and life expectancy allow comparisons of the consequences of causes of death globally and over time, providing a nuanced understanding of the effect of these causes on global populations.For more than three decades, the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) has been systematically and comprehensively recording and analysing causes of human death stratified by age, sex, and time across the world. 1,2 This information has been used to guide policy solutions, reduce modifiable risk factors, monitor and evaluate national and sub-national health interventions, and ultimately improve health recommendations at both regional and local levels. 1 Assessing trends in cause-specific mortality is essential to inform health policy that must continuously evolve to account for rapid changes to the global health landscape, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. 3 Comprehensive updates to levels and trends in causes of death give insight into emerging global health challenges and can facilitate benchmarking in the case of a new pandemic or other events that can lead to a staggering loss of life. Therefore, documenting novel changes to mortality, such as an emerging pandemic, in real time, is important.Causes of death are not uniformly distributed between populations; rather, large variability in the leading causes often reflects important social and geographical differences. 4 These differences can include access to and quality of health care, timeliness of health system responsiveness, and exposure to causes that are endemic to specific geographical locations. 4 Mortality patterns continually evolve, as some areas become successful in their reduction efforts, whereas other causes persist within specific locations. The past 30 years have seen improvements among many causes of mortality, some of which have considerably narrowed in geographical range and are now concentrated within smaller areas worldwide. This change enables us to identify the resulting areas of concentrated mortalityareas where deaths from that cause are occurring within a limited subset of the global population. Our analysis provides an opportunity to answer important epidemiological questions that have been at the forefront of global and public health discourse-eg, which causes have contributed to the largest increase or decrease in life expectancy, which locations are experiencing greater concentrations of preventable causes of death, and how has COVID-19 and other pandemic-related mortality (OPRM) affected life expectancy and the overall fatal burden of diseases? Regional variation in many of the leading causes of death remains evident in these most recent estimates, representing important opportunities for creating tailored health policy to improve disparities and alleviate concentrations of mortality.GBD 2021 provides an updated, comprehensive set of the fatal burden of disease summarised with causespecific mortality metrics and years-of-life-lost (YLLs) metrics for 288 causes by age and sex across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021, an update from the previously published estimates covering 1990-2019. In this study, we present mortality concentrations and a decomposition analysis of life expectancy due to different causes of death and illustrate the impact of causes of death on global, regional, and country-specific life expectancy, as well as highlighting locations that are most affected by concentrated geographical mortality burden. As with previous iterations of GBD, this cycle incorporates newly available data sources and improved methodological approaches to re-estimate the entire time series, providing updated estimates that supersede all previous GBD cause-of-death publications. GBD 2021 includes an estimation of several different models for disease and injury outcomes. This manuscript was produced as part of the GBD Collaborator Network and in accordance with the GBD Protocol. 5In GBD 2021, we produced estimates for each epidemiological quantity of interest for 288 causes of death by age-sex-location-year for 25 age groups from birth to 95 years and older; for males, females, and both sexes combined; in 204 countries and territories grouped into 21 regions and seven super-regions; and for every year from 1990 to 2021. GBD 2021 also includes subnational analyses for 21 countries and territoriesEvidence before this study The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) has provided regular updates on the complex patterns and trends in population health around the world since the first GBD publication in 1993. With each subsequent iteration, there have been important methodological updates, new datasets included, and an expanded list of causes, risk factors, and locations for which estimates of the burden of disease are produced. In 1993, mortality and years of life lost (YLLs) were reported for 107 categories of diseases that covered all possible causes of death, for eight regions. In the last GBD cycle-GBD 2019-estimates of mortality and YLLs were produced for 286 causes of death in 204 countries and territories, including all WHO member states, and for subnational locations in 21 countries and territories, for every year from 1990 to 2019. Although many groups have reported on national-level, causespecific mortality and other population-health metrics, including the WHO World Health Statistics reports, GBD is the most detailed and transparent research effort to date. Further, estimates of COVID-19-related deaths in 2020 and 2021 have been reported by several sources, including GBD studies that have quantified excess mortality due to the pandemic within a subset of GBD locations. However, no previous publications have quantified the effect of COVID-19 on life expectancy, while considering the full spectrum of disease mortality over the past three decades, across all countries and territories. This study presents, for the first time, 288 causes of death from 1990 to 2021, complementary to the all-cause mortality findings presented in the GBD 2021 Demographics analysis. Combined, these studies provide a comprehensive view of all-cause and cause-specific mortality from 1990 to 2021.Alongside the all-cause mortality and life-expectancy assessments in companion publications for GBD 2021, this analysis delineates cause-specific mortality and its effect on life expectancy. This study includes a comprehensive decomposition analysis elucidating the primary cause of death influencing life expectancy on a global, regional, and national level. Additionally, we present causes of death and YLLs for all countries and territories, providing policy makers with valuable insights into variations in cause-specific mortality. This study is also the first of its kind to publish 2021 estimates of COVID-19related deaths and YLLs for 204 countries and territories in the context of the global burden of disease. Although other publications have estimated deaths due to COVID-19, those deaths have not previously been compared with deaths from other causes. By modelling COVID-19 deaths within a hierarchy of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive causes of death, this study provides policy makers with information that is essential for setting health priorities around the world. To obtain more comprehensive insights from life expectancy, it is necessary to break it down into age-specific mortality, which is influenced by cause-specific mortality rates. We examined the effect of COVID-19 and other causes of death on life expectancy by decomposing death counts into different cause-specific mortality rates across various dimensions, including country or territory, region, super-region, and five distinct time periods: 1990-2000, 2000-2010, 2010-2019, 2019-2021, and  1990-2021. We could therefore systematically calibrate the COVID-19 pandemic against other causes of mortality over the period 1990-2021. Finally, our study identified several causes of death that exhibited increased geographical concentration over time-ie, causes with a disproportionate impact within a specific geographical area compared with the rest of the global observations. This analysis provides policy makers important information on regional variation and inequalities in causespecific mortality. Also new to GBD 2021, we report on 12 additional causes of death: COVID-19 and other pandemicrelated mortality, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and nine cancer types-hepatoblastoma, Burkitt lymphoma, other non-Hodgkin lymphoma, eye cancer, retinoblastoma, other eye cancers, soft tissue and other extraosseous sarcomas, malignant neoplasm of bone and articular cartilage, and neuroblastoma and other peripheral nervous-cell tumours. Granularity of the estimation of deaths in children younger than 5 years was enhanced by the addition of four new age groups: 1-5 months, 6-11 months, 12-23 months, and 2-4 years.Our study provides a full analysis of causes of death worldwide and across time, alongside the changing patterns in life expectancy precipitated by those causes. Increasing geographical concentration of mortality was observed for many causes of death, highlighting disparities between regions and substantial differences in cause-specific contributions to life expectancy. On a global scale, this information provides an opportunity to examine whether reductions in mortality were resilient to the onset of a novel pandemic. On a regional level, the estimates generated by our study provide important detail on the evolving impact of causes of death among countries, allowing crucial insight into differential success by geography, time, and cause. The comprehensive nature of GBD 2021 causeof-death estimation provides valuable opportunities to learn from mortality gains and losses, helping to accelerate progress in reducing mortality.(appendix 1 section 2.1). An international network of collaborators provides, reviews, and analyses the available data to generate these metrics; GBD 2021 drew on the expertise of more than 11 000 collaborators from more than 160 countries and territories.The methods used to generate these estimates closely followed those for GBD 2019. 6 These methods have been extensively peer reviewed over previous rounds of the GBD study 4,[6][7][8][9] and as part of the peer-review process for GBD 2021. Here, we provide an overview of the methods with an emphasis on the main methodology changes since GBD 2019; a comprehensive description of the analytical methods for GBD 2021 is provided in appendix 1. Detailed descriptions of analytical methods and models for each cause of death are also available in a searchable online tool.The GBD 2021 cause-of-death estimates described here include cause-specific mortality and the premature death metric (YLLs). We calculated YLLs as the number of deaths for each cause-age-sex-location-year multiplied by the standard life expectancy at each age (appendix 1 section 6.3). Standard life expectancy is calculated from the lowest age-specific mortality rate between countries. 10 Briefly, we estimated cause-specific death rates for 209 causes using the Cause of Death Ensemble model (CODEm), and we used alternative strategies to model causes with little data, substantial changes in reporting over the study period, or unusual epidemiology. The modelling strategy used for all causes of death can be found in appendix 1 (table S10). CODEm is a modelling tool developed specifically for GBD that assesses the outof-sample predictive validity of different statistical models and covariate permutations and then combines the results from those assessments to produce cause-specific estimates of the burden of mortality. Methodological improvements for cause-of-death estimates in the present round of estimation focused on several key areas. First, cause-of-death data were updated to include age data for the following age groups younger than 5 years: 1-5 months, 6-11 months, 12-23 months, and 2-4 years. Second, we implemented enhanced methods to account for stochastic variation in cause-of-death data and improve the estimation of small cause fractions present in less common causes of death. Third, we added 199 new country-years of vital registration cause-of-death data, 5 country-years of surveillance data, 21 country-years of verbal autopsy data, and 94 country-years of other data types. Lastly, we incorporated COVID-19 and OPRM, which includes excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, excluding deaths from COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, and pertussis.GBD classifies diseases and injuries into a hierarchy with four levels that include both fatal and non-fatal causes. The GBD 2021 cause-of-death database included data sources identified in previous rounds of estimation in addition to 9248 new sources (appendix 1 table S5). We included multiple data types to capture the widest array of information, including vital registration and verbal autopsy for all 288 causes as well as survey, census, surveillance, cancer registry, police records, open-source databases, and minimally invasive tissue sampling. To standardise these data so that they can be compared by cause, age, sex, location, and time, we applied a set of data processing corrections. First, deaths with insufficient age data to estimate the GBD age groups or missing age and sex data underwent age and sex splitting to assign GBD age groups as well as sex (appendix 1 section 3.5). Additionally, garbage codes, which are non-specific, implausible, or intermediate, rather than underlying cause of death codes from the International Classification of Diseases, were redistributed to appropriate targets to assign the underlying cause of death. 11 We excluded data sources with more than 50% of all deaths assigned to major garbage codes (class 1 or class 2 garbage codes) in a given year for a specific location (location-year) to mitigate the potential for bias from these sources (appendix 1 section 3.7). For GBD 2021, we established a buffer system so that location-years that were included in the previous GBD cycle would not be dropped from the current cycle as long as less than 55% of all deaths were assigned to major garbage codes. This 5% buffer ensured greater consistency in data source inclusion from one cycle to the next.Assessing data completeness illustrates the coverage from a data source on overall mortality for the country. Vital registration and verbal autopsy data completeness-a source-specific estimate of the percentage of total cause-specific deaths that are reported in a given location and year-was assessed by locationyear, and sources with less than 50% completeness were excluded. We excluded 142 country-years of data because of completeness. As with garbage codes, we used a 5% buffer so that sources included in the previous GBD cycle would not be excluded from the current cycle if they had at least 45% completeness, allowing us to retain 24 country-years that had previously been dropped. We then multiplied the estimated all-cause mortality for each age-sex-location-year by the cause fraction for the corresponding age-sex-location-year to adjust all included sources to 100% completeness. Verbal autopsy and vital registration data availability, completeness, and quality rating for each location-year are available in appendix 1 (section 3), as well as full details on all data processing corrections.In GBD 2021, we made two primary improvements to the methods used to reduce stochastic variation, most affecting causes of death with small sample sizes. First, we updated the Bayesian algorithm used in the noise reduction of these data to improve the preservation of real trends in data with large sample sizes, and imparted additional information from regional trends for data with small sample sizes. Second, the non-zero floor, a method that addresses distorted data shapes and nonsensical trends caused by small numbers when transformed to log space, was updated to be time-invariant and independent of demographic inputs. The full details of these two key improvements, as well as other improvements that address stochastic variation, can be found in appendix 1 (section 3.14).We derived COVID-19 and OPRM estimates from an analysis of the overall excess mortality due to the COVID-19 pandemic from January 1, 2020, to December 31, 2021. Full details of the estimation of excess mortality, COVID-19 deaths, and OPRM are provided in appendix 1 (section 5). To estimate excess mortality, we first developed a database of all-cause mortality by week and month after accounting for reporting lags, anomalies such as heat waves, and underregistration of deaths. Next, we developed an ensemble model to predict expected deaths in the absence of the COVID-19 pandemic for the years 2020 and 2021. In location and time combinations with data used for these models, we estimated excess mortality as observed mortality minus expected mortality. To estimate excess mortality for location-years without data, we developed a statistical model to directly predict the excess mortality due to COVID-19, using covariates that pertained to both the COVID-19 pandemic and background populationhealth-related metrics at the population level before SARS-CoV-2 emerged. Uncertainty was propagated through each step of this estimation procedure. 12 To produce the final estimates of COVID-19 deaths used in GBD 2021, we used a counterfactual approach.The counterfactual estimates the number of deaths if infection detection rates were at the highest observed value for each location-year. Using the ratio of counterfactual over estimated excess deaths and the ratio of reported COVID-19 deaths over excess deaths, we calculated the ratio of total COVID-19 deaths over reported COVID-19 deaths and multiplied this figure by the number of reported COVID-19 deaths for our final estimates of COVID-19 deaths. 12 To account for increases in excess mortality in 2020 and 2021 that could not be attributed to particular causes, we introduced a residual cause, OPRM. We identified four causes of death-lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, and pertussis-as related to the COVID-19 pandemic and having reliable enough estimates to not contribute to OPRM. Thus, we calculated OPRM as the difference between excess mortality and the sum of deaths due to COVID-19 and these four causes. 12Cause-specific mortality estimates for 2021 are given in death counts and age-standardised rates per 100 000 population, calculated using the GBD standardpopulation structure. 10 For changes over time, we present percentage changes over the period 1990-2021, and annualised rates of change as the difference in the natural log of the values at the start and end of the time interval divided by the number of years in the interval. We computed uncertainty intervals (UIs) for all metrics using the mean estimate across 1000 draws (appendix 1 sections 2-3), and 95% UIs are given as the 2•5th and 97•5th percentiles of that distribution.The objective of life-expectancy decomposition is to analyse the difference in life expectancy by age and location, quantifying contributions from specific causes (appendix 1 section 7). We examined temporal trends in causes over continuous time periods across different locations. We aimed to identify the effect of causes of death on life expectancy by using three main decomposition steps. For this study, we investigated the top-20 Level 2 and Level 3 GBD causes contributing to change in life expectancy. The remaining causes were then combined as \"other communicable and maternal disorders\" or \"other NCDs\". The first step involved decomposing the difference in life expectancy by age. We calculated age-specific contributions to understand the variation in life expectancy across different age groups. In the second step, each age-specific contribution was further decomposed into cause-agespecific contributions. This analysis allowed for the identification of the specific causes of death that contributed to the differences in life expectancy within each age group. Finally, we aggregated the cause-agespecific contributions across age groups to produce cause-specific contributions to the overall difference in life expectancy. This aggregation provided a comprehensive understanding of how different causes of death contributed to the observed variations in life expectancy. By applying this decomposition approach, we gain insights into the relative effect of different causes of death on changes in life expectancy by age and location.Concentrated causes in GBD refer to causes that exhibit a disproportionate impact in a specific geographical subset of the data compared with the rest of the global observations. In GBD 2021, we used two different methods to identify these concentrated causes: coefficient of variation and mortality concentration.For each GBD cause, we calculated a coefficient of variation using standard statistical methods. This measure assesses the variability of a population relative to its mean. 13 The observations considered for this calculation were national, age-standardised, both-sex mortality rates, using the mean mortality rate between 2019 and 2021. Causes with larger coefficients of variation have data that are less centred around the mean and indicate a greater likelihood of a concentrated cause.To identify concentrations of mortality-geographical locations or groups of locations with populations that are disproportionately affected by a particular causewe first calculated the total number of all-age, both-sex deaths in 2021 by cause in each of the 811 subnational locations and sorted these locations by number of deaths in descending order. We then calculated the cumulative percentage of deaths by dividing locationspecific cumulative deaths by the number of global deaths for each cause. When the cumulative percentage reached or exceeded 90% for a given cause, we divided the population of the geographical subset included in that cumulative percentage by the total global population in 2021, using population estimates from the GBD population model described in previous publications. 10,12 This identification of geographical subsets that contain at least 90% of deaths from a given cause but represent a comparatively small share of the global population was used to identify potential inequalities in the Non-communicable diseases Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional causes Injuries  incidence of mortality between locations and populations. In addition to identifying these concentrations of mortality in 2021, we repeated this same analysis for 1990. By comparing the respective proportions of affected global population in these two years, we were able to differentiate causes that showed increased, decreased, or unchanged concentrations of mortality. The causes highlighted in this study were those characterised by an age-standardised mortality rate greater than 0•5 per 100 000 population. The purpose of presenting mortality concentrations is to illustrate causes that are disproportionately affecting specific populations, when previously that cause affected large swaths of the population. Thus, we did not calculate the mortality concentration for causes that are endemic to certain regions, as the mortality rate is already known to be concentrated among specific parts of the global population. We excluded two endemic causes, Ebola virus disease and Chagas disease, from this calculation.This research is compliant with the Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Reporting recommendations (GATHER; appendix 1 table S4). 14 Software packages used in the cause-of-death analysis for GBD 2021 were Python (version 3.10.4), Stata (version 13.1), and R (version 4.2.1). Statistical code used for GBD estimation is publicly available online.The funder of this study had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, or the writing of the report.Estimates described in the Article are viewable in appendix 2. Detailed results for each cause of death in the analysis are available in downloadable form through the GBD Results tool and via visual exploration through the online tool GBD Compare. Summaries of results for each cause of death included in the analysis are available online.From 1990 to 2019, the annual rate of change in global deaths from all causes ranged from -0   an additional 5•2% (1•0 to 9•7) in 2021. In 2020 and 2021, deaths from COVID-19 and OPRM changed the pattern of mortality for the leading causes of agestandardised death (figures 1, 2; table 1). At Level 3 of the GBD cause-classification hierarchy, the rankings of the four causes of death with the highest agestandardised mortality rates were the same in 2019 as they were in 1990, with each showing a steady decline in its age-standardised death rate (figure 1). These causes were, in descending order, ischaemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lower respiratory infections. In 2021, however, COVID-19 replaced stroke as the second leading cause of age-standardised death globally (with 94•0 deaths [95% UI 89•2 to 100•0] per 100 000 population), with stroke becoming the third leading cause. Additionally, OPRM-which includes excess mortality associated with the pandemic, excluding COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, and pertussis causesemerged as the fifth leading cause of age-standardised deaths in 2021; lower respiratory infections decreased from the fourth to the seventh leading cause. The effect of COVID-19 on age-standardised mortality was similar to that of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 2020 but increased by 60•2% (53•1 to 67•6) in 2021, becoming similar to that of stroke and ischaemic heart disease (figure 2; table 1). The causes of death with the highest age-standardised YLL rates show shifting epidemiological trends from CMNN diseases to NCDs at Level 3 of the cause hierarchy (appendix figure S2). Globally, the leading three causes of age-standardised YLLs in 1990 were all CMNN diseases. Ranked in descending order, these causes were neonatal disorders, lower respiratory infections, and diarrhoeal diseases. In 2019, neonatal disorders remained the leading cause of agestandardised YLLs, but the second and third leading causes were replaced by NCDs: ischaemic heart disease (ranked second) and stroke (ranked third). In 2021, COVID-19 was the second-leading cause of global agestandardised YLLs, making the leading two causes CMNN diseases (with neonatal disorders ranked first), with ischaemic heart disease ranked third. Among the leading causes of age-standardised YLLs, malaria was the only cause to show an increase in age-standardised YLL rates between 2019 and 2021 (ranking ninth in 2019 and seventh in 2021).We found long-standing positive trends in global life expectancy since the early 1990s, with steady increases occurring across each decade between 1990 and 2019 (appendix 2 table S4). Altogether, the global increase in life expectancy from 1990 to 2019 totalled 7•8 years (95% UI 7•1-8•5). In 2019-21, however, we found a global decline in life expectancy of 2•2 years due to deaths from COVID-19 and OPRM combined. This decrease was partly offset by reductions in other diseases, for a net reduction in global life expectancy of 1•6 years. Despite this notable reduction, we observed an overall increase in life expectancy of 6•2 years (5•4-7•0) across the entire study period. This decomposition analysis provides insights into the specific causes that influenced changes in life expectancy over the defined time periods. Among the various contributing factors to a change in life expectancy, the cause with the greatest effect on the increase in life expectancy worldwide was the reduction in deaths caused by enteric infections (figure 3). This category includes diarrhoeal, typhoid, and paratyphoid diseases. A reduction  The differential effect of COVID-19 on reduced life expectancy was observed across GBD regions (figure 6). Although most regions experienced overall improvements in life expectancy between 1990 and 2021, a reduction occurred in southern sub-Saharan Africa, which faced the greatest impact of HIV and was also   †Does not include war and terrorism.-Southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania, 8  ). Control of enteric infections in this region contributed to an increase in life expectancy of 1•9 years, along with reductions in lower respiratory infections and tuberculosis, each of which contributed to an additional 1•6 years' increase in life expectancy. Each region in sub-Saharan Africa experienced reductions in the number of enteric infections, which improved life expectancy in those regions between 0•8 and 2•4 years. HIV/AIDS had a substantial negative effect on lifeexpectancy trends in southern sub-Saharan Africa from 1990 to 2021 (appendix 2 figure S27). Despite improvements in each of the time periods 2000-2010, 2010-2019, and 2019-2021, this region was unable to recover the 9•0 years lost during 1990-2000. Although we found a net decline in deaths due to HIV/AIDS between 2000 and 2019, improvements slowed substantially from 2019 to 2021, when only 0•2 years in life expectancy were gained as a result of reduced HIV/AIDS mortality. Conversely, eastern sub-Saharan Africa had the highest level of recovery to their life expectancy among the regions, gaining 1•5 years of life expectancy over the entire study period.In 1990, malaria-related deaths had almost no effect on life expectancy in eight of the 21 GBD regions (appendix 2 figure S13). By 2021, however, 90% of malaria deaths across all age groups occurred in locations with only 12% of the global population. Efforts to control malaria in various regions of sub-Saharan Africa have yielded modest gains in life expectancy. Central sub-Saharan Africa gained 0•7 years in life expectancy between 2000 and 2010, western sub-Saharan Africa gained 0•9 years during 2010-19, and eastern sub-Saharan Africa gained 0•7 years in 2000-10. Despite these advancements, many regions with malaria transmission experienced a decline in life expectancy from 2019 to 2021. The most noticeable reductions were in eastern sub-Saharan Africa, with a decrease of 0•2 years, followed by western sub-Saharan Africa, which lost 0•1 years in life expectancy over the same period.At the national level, some of the highest gains in life expectancy between 1990 and 2021 occurred in the eastern region of sub-Saharan Africa (appendix 2 figure S12). Life expectancy in Ethiopia increased by 18•2 years (95% UI 16•3-19•8) as a result of reductions in deaths from many causes, most notably other communicable and maternal disorders (3•2 years), tuberculosis (3•1 years), and enteric infectious diseases (2•4 year). The largest reduction in life expectancy occurred in Lesotho, at 12•9 years (10•1-15•7), largely attributed to increased deaths from HIV/AIDS, which resulted in a reduction of 7•3 years (appendix 2 figures S12, S27, table S4). Among CMNN causes, several key trends emerged in their effect on global life expectancy and the localisation of deaths over time. First, the reduction of deaths due to enteric disease had a substantial impact on global life expectancy, with notable regional variations (figure 7). As 160 countries and territories made progress in reducing CMNN disease-related mortality, mortality concentration emerged. Deaths became more concentrated into certain countries or regions, persisting alongside advancements made in other parts of the world. An illustrative example is the shift in deaths due to enteric diseases in children younger than 5 years, with 90% of deaths occurring in locations containing 63% of the population of children younger than 5 years in 1990, decreasing to locations containing 51% of the population by 2021 (appendix 2 figure S28). Second, the reduction in the number of lower respiratory infections yielded positive effects on life expectancy in some regions. Regions such as Andean Latin America and western and eastern sub-Saharan Africa had gains of 1•6 years in life expectancy due to reduced deaths from lower respiratory infections. This progress is further underscored by the transformation from 90% of deaths from lower respiratory infections in children younger than 5 years occurring in locations with 71% of the population of the under-5 population in 1990 to 90% occurring in locations with 58% of the under-5 population by 2021, signalling substantial improvements in some regions and increased concentration of this cause in others (figure 8; appendix 2 figure S29). Third, HIV/AIDS had a substantial impact on life-expectancy trends, particularly in southern sub-Saharan Africa, and with 90% of deaths concentrated in locations containing 46% of the entire population and 39% of the under-5 population in 2021 (appendix 2 figures S27, S30). However, HIV/AIDS was less concentrated in 2021 than in 1990. Fourth, efforts to control malaria in sub-Saharan Africa resulted in modest gains in life expectancy. Similarly, 90% of malaria-related deaths in 2021 occurred in locations containing only 12% of the entire population and 20% of the under-5 population, showing mortality concentration (figure 5; appendix 2 figures S13, 31). Fifth, reductions in tuberculosis-related deaths had a positive effect on life expectancy across all regions, and changes in mortality rates indicated mortality concentration, with 90% of deaths occurring in locations containing 66% of the entire population in 1990, decreasing to 62% by 2021 (figure 9; appendix 2 figure S14). Lastly, although measles had a relatively small global effect on life expectancy, this cause showed high mortality concentration. The disease remained contained globally, with 90% of deaths concentrated in locations containing only 15% of the entire population and 24% of the under-5 population in 2021 (figure 3; appendix 2 figure S15).Reductions in neonatal deaths contributed to a 0•6-year increase in global life expectancy. Also, 90% of neonatal deaths were concentrated in locations containing 71% of the population in 1990, decreasing to 51% by 2021 (appendix 2 figures S16, S34). Finally, nutritional deficiencies had a relatively small global impact on life expectancy but substantial effects on specific regions-eastern sub-Saharan Africa, central  Southern Latin America, 0•1 years  sub-Saharan Africa, and south Asia saw notable increases. We found a shift towards mortality concentration, with 90% of nutritional deficiency-related deaths in children younger than 5 years concentrated in locations containing 49% of the population in this age group by 2021, compared with 59% in 1990 (appendix 2 figures S18, S35). Overall, CMNN diseases showed a large degree of mortality concentration.Among NCDs, several findings reflect their effect on global life expectancy and death concentration. Reductions in stroke led to a notable gain in life expectancy of 0•8 years, but stroke deaths were not concentrated, with 90% occurring in locations containing 84% of the global population (appendix 2 figures S23, S36). Similarly, ischaemic heart disease had a substantial effect on improvement to life expectancy, contributing 0•6 years to global life expectancy; yet, as with stroke, ischaemic heart disease showed little mortality concentration, with 90% of deaths concentrated in locations containing 84% of the population in 2021 (appendix 2 figures S17, S37). Neoplasms added 0•6 years to life expectancy, with highincome regions greatly benefiting; as with other NCDs, 90% of neoplasms deaths occurred in locations containing 86% of the population in 2021, indicating a consistent risk of dying from cancer regardless of geography (appendix 2 figures S19, S38). Chronic respiratory diseases contributed an increase of 0•5 years to life expectancy, with east Asia contributing the most to this increase through substantial improvements in mortality in China. Chronic respiratory diseases also showed little mortality concentration, with 90% of deaths occurring in locations containing 79% of the population (appendix 2 figures S20, S39). Digestive diseases and cirrhosis had a substantial negative effect on life expectancy, with little improvement from 2010 to 2019, and showed little mortality concentration (appendix 2 figures S21, S40). Diabetes and kidney diseases had a negative effect on life expectancy, resulting in a global loss of 0•1 years in life expectancy. This cause also had little mortality concentration, with 90% of deaths occurring in locations representing 89% of the population (appendix 2 figures S22, S41). Overall, NCDs largely did not show concentration, meaning that we did not observe mortality from these causes moving towards more restricted geographical areas (appendix 2 figure S42).The reduction in transport injuries had a positive effect on life expectancy, contributing to a gain of 0•2 years. However, as with NCDs, transport injury-related mortality was not concentrated, with 90% of deaths concentrated in locations containing 88% of the population in 1990, decreasing slightly to 84% of the population by 2021 (appendix 2 figures S24, S43). Unintentional injuries also showed little mortality concentration, with 90% of deaths occurring in locations containing 88% of the population in 2021 (appendix 2 figures S26, S44). Lastly, the overall reduction in mortality rates from self-harm and interpersonal violence contributed to a 0•2-year increase in life expectancy with variable mortality concentration, showing concentration in central and tropical Latin America and South Africa, but not exclusively in these locations (appendix 2 figures S25, S45).The COVID-19 pandemic has emerged as one of the most defining global health events of recent history. Our latest comprehensive estimates of cause-specific mortality give insight into the global landscape of disease before and during the first 2 years of the pandemic, revealing the important changes in disease-burden patterns that followed. After more than three decades of consistent improvements in global life expectancy and declining agestandardised death rates, COVID-19 reversed longstanding progress and disrupted trends in the epidemiological transition. As the second leading cause of age-standardised deaths in 2021, COVID-19 had a pronounced influence on the reduction in global life expectancy that occurred. The heterogeneous influence of the disease across the globe provides important insights for improving future pandemic preparedness and ensuring that nations are equitably equipped to respond to new outbreaks. Additionally, our analysis of geographical and temporal trends in mortality enables us to observe the changing patterns in causes of death worldwide. Many causes have exhibited a reduced geographical reach-a reflection of dedicated and persistent mitigation efforts to reduce the burden of certain causes, as well as potential changes to risk-factor exposure. 15 This study offers an opportunity to apply the lessons learned from these successes to further reduce deaths from causes that are now present within smaller, more concentrated areas throughout the world.The emergence and spread of COVID-19 follows a similar pattern of regional heterogeneity that is common among many leading communicable causes of death, with higher rates of infection and increased fatalities occurring in lower-resource settings. 6,16,17 Although heterogeneity in COVID-19 outcomes in 2020 and 2021 varied by the income status of a country or territory, outcomes were also directly related to age, government actions to close borders, and the implementation of transmission-reduction policies. 18 This general pattern did not always hold true at the national level, however, where estimates from some high-income countries showed a much greater burden than would have been expected, indicating important opportunities for improved pandemic preparedness and response in these nations. 19 The varying effects across locations emphasises the complexity of the pandemic. Diverse social, economic, and political influences contributed to the variations in death rates observed between locations. In general, areas with advanced healthcare systems and robust medical facilities were better able to manage abrupt increases in the number of COVID-19 cases. By contrast, locations with poorer health-care infrastructure were less equipped to handle the surge in infections that occurred, 20 although strong health-care systems did not singularly influence the outcome of the pandemic. 19 Improving preparedness for future pandemics should also include engagement strategies to enhance the trust that individuals place in public health recommendations. 19 Additionally, identifying methods to enhance death-reporting systems 3 and overcome political obstacles to ensure accurate reporting will be crucial steps for monitoring COVID-19 and future pandemic occurrences. 21,22 Our study shows that COVID-19 was one of the leading global causes of death during the first 2 years of the pandemic and provides an opportunity to delineate between the disease's direct and indirect mortality effects as well as its effect on life expectancy. As previously predicted, 3 COVID-19 shifted baseline patterns of mortality for diseases and injuries that were affected by physical-distancing measures and other governmentmandated restrictions. Deferred care-seeking during the height of the pandemic also probably contributed to shifts in patterns of mortality for some diseases and injuries and might also have contributed to the emergence of pandemic-related deaths not attributable directly to COVID-19, lower respiratory infections, measles, malaria, or pertussis (OPRM). Deferred careseeking might also have been a contributing factor in the notable divergence in the age distribution in deaths between COVID-19 and OPRM, whereby COVID-19 deaths were substantially higher in older ages, whereas the highest rate of OPRM was seen in older ages as well as in children younger than 23 months. Mortality might have increased in the youngest ages because caregivers might have hesitated to seek medical care during the peak of the virus's spread. Understanding these disparities is imperative for shaping future health policies and preparedness efforts.Advancements over the past three decades in the prevention and control of infectious diseases have contributed to increases in life expectancy in many locations, increasing the need to support populations living with NCDs. 23 The global decline in life expectancy that occurred in 2020 and 2021 confounds the longerterm trend of increase. 10 Our decomposition analysis suggests that this decline was predominantly a result of the pandemic (combined COVID-19 and OPRM), but the degree of severity varied greatly by location. Although large improvements in many causes-including HIV/AIDS and lower respiratory and enteric infectionssomewhat counterbalanced the decline, the decrease in life expectancy was also compounded by increasing rates of mortality from other causes, such as diabetes and kidney diseases.The effect of COVID-19 on life expectancy showed varying degrees of severity, ranging from a large loss of 4•9 years in Andean Latin America to almost no change in east Asia. From 1990 to 2021, reductions in many of the leading causes of death resulted in overall lifeexpectancy increases across most regions, despite heavy setbacks for many because of the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that despite Andean Latin America having the largest regional reduction in life expectancy due to the pandemic, overall life-expectancy reductions across the region were tempered by improvements in other causes, with reductions in rates of death from lower respiratory infections and neonatal disorders responsible for an increase in life expectancy of 2•6 years overall between 1990 and 2021. The impressive reductions in neonatal disorders throughout many countries in Andean Latin America have been attributed to the improvements made in implementing effective maternal and neonatal health intervention strategies. 24 The reduction in life expectancy in southern sub-Saharan Africa also exceeded the global average by a substantial margin, with a reduction of 3•4 years due to COVID-19. Although life expectancy in the region was substantially affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, the reduction was also attributable to high mortality rates from HIV/AIDS. Some nations with high pandemicrelated death tolls were among those already burdened by high rates of other infectious diseases. Several countries in southern sub-Saharan Africa navigated the challenges of the pandemic, alongside long histories of combatting some of the highest HIV/AIDS prevalence rates in the world. 25,26 A subset of countries were faced with a triple burden of COVID-19, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. 27 The combined burden of these causes across southern sub-Saharan Africa was not offset by sufficient improvements in mortality from other causes, leading to an overall reduction in the region's life expectancy of more than 4 years over the entire study period.Estimates of mortality concentration reflect shifting patterns of disease over time, from diseases that have a widespread presence moving to more geographically reduced subsets of the global population. These changes highlight differences between populations and their progress towards reducing mortality due to diseases and injuries. These findings also provide an important opportunity to improve how best public health practices are applied to further disease reduction. Broadly, widespread declines in many communicable diseases resulted in mortality from these causes exhibiting more concentrated geographical distributions in 2021 relative to patterns seen in 1990. The degree of mortality concentration estimated by this study for enteric and lower respiratory infections, malaria, HIV/AIDS, neonatal disorders, and tuberculosis reflects substantial global progress in reducing mortality from these causes over the study period, underscoring the success of several public health campaigns, global commitments, and improvements in communicable-disease programmes. [28][29][30] Estimates of mortality concentration can be used to examine where disease mitigation strategies have been successful, where they can be further implemented to reduce inequality, and where more research might be needed to develop effective treatment and intervention strategies.Notably, our estimates support previous findings 31 that show deaths from malaria are becoming increasingly concentrated and are now particularly concentrated within western sub-Saharan Africa, with an additional corridor running through central Africa and into Mozambique. Countries in western sub-Saharan Africa with the highest under-5 death rates from malaria in 2021 included Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone, and Niger. This concentration of malaria mortality reflects both differential rates of population growth across Africa, as well as the varying rates of progress in reducing transmission, most notably by malaria nets treated with long-lasting insecticide and in strengthening case management. 32 At a time of growing threats to progress against malaria, including emerging parasite and vector resistance and budgetary pressures, but also amid promising new tools such as second vaccine for malaria, it is more important than ever that changing patterns of mortality are quantified and understood. 33,34 Enteric infections showed large disease concentration. Under-5 deaths from enteric infections were largely concentrated within sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. Countries in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia with the highest under-5 death rates from enteric infections in 2021 included Chad, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic. There are many contributing factors that should be considered when examining how to reduce enteric infections in the remaining concentrated locations. Alongside the provision of oral rehydration solution and rotavirus vaccines, critical public health improvements such as in water, sanitation, and hygiene might have contributed to decreases in enteric deaths. 35,36 Childhood growth failure, also a leading risk factor for deaths from lower respiratory infections, malaria, and measles, must be addressed through interventions to improve women's health including anaemia, promotion of early exclusive breastfeeding, and management of acute malnutrition, among others. 37,38 Countries with the highest burden of infectious disease mortality in children younger than 5 years tend to be geographically clustered, suggesting multisectoral approaches are necessary to continue reducing mortality in the countries with the highest rates. 39 A broad and recurring theme from this study is that reductions in enteric infections contributed to improved life expectancies over the past several decades. The reductions in childhood mortality associated with diarrhoeal diseases that have occurred across many parts of Africa 35,[40][41][42] can also be partly explained by many combined local efforts in improved immunisation; 43 access to water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities; 12,44 breastfeeding; 45 oral rehydration therapy; 46 and zinc supplementation, 15 alongside global initiatives such as the Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhea. 47 Given that enteric diseaserelated mortality and specifically diarrhoeal disease-related mortality continued to decline during the COVID-19 pandemic, the post-pandemic period might offer opportunities to accelerate progress on prevention and treatment. Diarrhoeal diseases are particularly amenable to public health intervention, and given this cause's high burden among children, we must continue to direct resources towards its prevention. 47,48 Several locations still do not have the necessary financing, governance, and political commitment to reduce rates of enteric infections. 49 To accelerate progress in reducing enteric disease-related mortality, routine and catch-up immunisation programmes must be strengthened and expanded, including building on the global success of the rotavirus roll-out 50 and countering disruptions in childhood immunisation during the pandemic. 51 Additionally, efforts should focus on advancing candidate vaccines against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, norovirus, and shigella. [51][52][53][54][55] Our study also found that some vaccine-preventable diseases, such as measles, have shown widespread reductions in mortality rates and were geographically concen trated. Under-5 deaths from measles were concentrated within western and eastern sub-Saharan Africa. Although multiple factors contribute to decreases in infectious disease burden, improvements in measles mortality have largely been attributable to the global availability of a safe and effective vaccine against measles, producing life-long immunity, with two-dose efficacy exceeding 95%. 56 Measles incidence has decreased dramatically where vaccination efforts have been successful, including North America, South America, Europe, and Australia; [57][58][59][60][61] although, since 2016, endemic measles transmission has been re-established in ten countries that previously had achieved measles elimination. 61 We found that, as of 2021, measles mortality was concentrated in countries and regions with insufficient access to the measles vaccine, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Although valuable insights can be drawn from countries that have achieved measles control through effective vaccination programmes and surveillance systems, interventions still must be tailored to the affected communities and countries for successful reductions in mortality. 62 Some infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, also showed mortality concentration. Deaths from HIV/AIDS were largely concentrated within sub-Saharan Africa, most notably southern sub-Saharan Africa. Countries in sub-Saharan Africa with the highest age-standardised mortality rate in 2021 included Lesotho, Eswatini, and Botswana. Countries in sub-Saharan Africa with the highest under-5 death rates from HIV in 2021 included Lesotho, Equatorial Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau. This concentration highlights how HIV-control campaigns, preventative measures, 63,64 improved treatment with the emergence of antiretroviral therapy, 65 access to testing and health care, 66 and research advancements might have contributed to the reduced global mortality of HIV. Despite these successes, substantial barriers remain to reducing HIV mortality, such as stigma discouraging people from accessing treatment and care, 67,68 insufficient health-care infrastructure, 69 access to testing, 70 coverage of antiretroviral therapy, 71 and complications due to co-occurring diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV. 72 Preventative measures are particularly important for the reduction of HIV mortality because HIV prevalence is the primary contributor to high mortality rates. Although countries can learn from successful HIV campaigns and strategies, global support is needed to ensure HIV treatment and preventative measures are accessible to all populations at risk. 70,73,74 In many high-income nations, the overall rate of neonatal deaths decreased between 1990 and 2021, becoming more concentrated over time. Deaths from neonatal disorders in 2021 were concentrated within sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. 75 Countries in these regions with the highest under-5 death rates from neonatal disorders in 2021 included Mali, South Sudan, and Sierra Leone. However, the disparity in mortality between high-income and low-income countries and regions highlights inequality in progress. Newborn care that can reduce mortality includes resuscitation, prevention of hypothermia and infection, in-facility delivery, and exclusive breastfeeding. 76,77 Neonatal mortality might be reduced globally if policy makers examine the strategies that led to successes elsewhere. 78 Conversely, although the burden of many NCDs has also been reducing, these causes have typically not followed the same pattern of mortality concentration seen in CMNN diseases. These trends emphasise a key distinction in the spatial dynamics of NCDs compared with many communicable diseases. Although noncommunicable causes might not exhibit the same degree of concentration as communicable causes, the mortality burden has changed in distribution, reducing over time in high-income countries and regions, while persisting in low-income countries and regions. Age-standardised mortality rates due to NCDs decreased in most locations within the high-income; Latin America and the Caribbean; north Africa and the Middle east; and central Europe, eastern Europe, and central Asia super-regions between 1990 and 2021. However, NCDs in the south Asia; sub-Saharan Africa; and southeast Asia, east Asia, and Oceania super-regions have either increased or decreased at notably lower levels in 2021 compared with in 1990. Examples of this trend include ischaemic heart disease, neoplasms, and stroke, all of which largely declined over the study period-although their reductions have been widely dispersed and not as targeted as the CMNN causes. These findings show that NCDs do not appear to be moving towards more condensed geographical locations over time in the same way that many CMNN diseases are, which could make interventions and policies more complex to implement.Ultimately, the extent of mortality concentration reflects both the progress achieved in health-care advancements and the shortcomings that persist in their equitable implementation. Disease concentration is evidence that there are effective interventions and policies that have successfully reduced disease burden in many locations, but these innovations have not been equitably distributed throughout the world or have been ineffective at addressing the specific challenges certain populations face. There remains a global need to improve access to new interventions and vaccines, to invest in the implementation of validated public health policies, and to strategise with geographical sources of disease in mind. Future efforts should continue the ongoing mitigation of communicable diseases, focusing on locations where these causes have become more geographically concentrated, while also initiating efforts to combat chronic causes within low-resourced settings. Additionally, patterns of high geographical concentration among infectious causes and low geographical concentration among chronic causes reflect the global epidemiological transition, wherein mortality rates of infectious deaths declined throughout most years of our study. The increased concentration of a cause of death, particularly communicable diseases, illustrates success in mitigation that can be adapted within the countries and regions with mortality concentration identified in our study, with the potential to greatly reduce mortality from those causes of death.Methodological advancements have enabled GBD 2021 to produce cause-specific estimates of mortality more easily than in previous iterations; however, as with any study of this scope, there are several important limitations to acknowledge. Cause-specific limitations for every cause of death in GBD are detailed in appendix 1 (section 3). Here, we describe cross-cutting limitations with applicability across many causes. First, sparsity of data or unreliability of data from specific regions, time periods, or age groups can influence the accuracy of our estimates, particularly poor data quality and coverage from western, eastern, southern, and central sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. Second, the quality of cause-of-death and verbal-autopsy data rely on accurately coded death certificates to the international standards set by the International Classification of Diseases and are subject to the practice of the doctor completing the death certificate, who may or may not have received training to facilitate comparability of reporting underlying causes of death. This process is further complicated by comorbidities at the time of death, which might affect the accuracy of both vital-registration and verbal-autopsy data sources. A key data-processing method for GBD is the re-allocation of incorrectly or vaguely assigned deaths-referred to as garbage codes 11 -to a more accurate, plausible underlying cause of death. This step helps to create comparable cause-specific estimates of mortality by underlying cause. Third, GBD assesses quality of cause-of-death data partly by examining levels of completeness, which indicate the accuracy with which the vital registration can capture deaths that occur in a location-year, irrespective of the percentage of garbage coding. Data completeness depends on the percentage of well-certified data, which is not necessarily indicative of low garbage coding. Fourth, some sources of uncertainty, including the covariates used in models, are not captured in our estimation process. Fifth, we used a negative binomial modelling approach to improve our estimation of deaths for some causes with over-dispersed data, but do not have a standardised empirical approach for selecting causes to which we apply this method. Sixth, to provide estimates for locations with low levels of completeness, as well as to address the lags in data reporting that occur, our estimates for the most recent years depend more heavily on the modelling process. For causes where data are limited, providing estimates with appropriate uncertainty is preferable to providing no information. Seventh, in the calculation of life expectancy decomposition, there is instability when the difference in all-cause deaths is too small. In this case, we use the reduced Das Gupta equation (appendix 1 section 7). Additionally, to avoid assigning positive life-expectancy contributions to COVID-19-related causes, if the signs for the change in life expectancy and all-cause deaths were the same, we used the same reduced Das Gupta formula, except in the case that the cause in question was COVID-19-related (either COVID-19 or OPRM), when a modified version was used. When viewing life expectancy decomposition, it is important to understand the effects of fatal discontinuity events, such as earthquakes or conflict. If life-expectancy decomposition is calculated for 2 consecutive years, we can see the effect of unique, stochastic events, but for the longer time periods, the interpretation of the effect of these events will be misleading. This method works well with causes that have continuous time trends, and not for causes that have mortality spikes in select years and locations. This type of event confounds true health trends within a time period because the absence or presence of a disaster is seen as a change in life expectancy. Finally, this cycle of GBD contains additional limitations that pertain to modelling deaths and related mortality from the COVID-19 pandemic. The limitations of the methods used to calculate COVID-19 have been fully outlined in previous publications, 12 but it is important to reiterate that COVID-19 estimates are limited by data-source availability. The methods to estimate COVID-19-related deaths were especially limited in certain regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa, which means our estimates in these areas are solely driven by relationships with covariates. Future development of these data sources is crucial because estimates improve as the quality of the underlying data sources improves. Subsequent GBD cycles will provide revised estimates after additional data for recent years become available.In the next iteration of GBD, we will include over 100 location-years of vital registration and other data types that have been reported since GBD 2021 estimates were produced. Additionally, we will continue to expand the estimation of causes of death by disaggregating broad categories of causes of death into more detailed causes where available. These improvements aim to enhance precision and timeliness of estimates of COVID-19related deaths and other cause of death. We also plan to simplify our approach to estimating COVID-19-related deaths. In lieu of the residual OPRM category reported in GBD 2021, we will use all available location-years of cause-of-death data to attribute mortality to specific causes, removing this residual category. We anticipate that this method will facilitate more timely and actionable insights for public health planning and policy making, especially as we expect to observe more regular and modellable mortality patterns in the post-pandemic years. Through these advancements, we will improve the utility and accuracy of the GBD study as a tool for effective public strategies.Findings from GBD 2021 provide a comprehensive overview of long-term mortality trends along with important insights into the COVID-19 pandemic years. The COVID-19 pandemic fundamentally changed the landscape of global health and mortality. As a leading cause of death, COVID-19 reduced life expectancy in 2 years nearly as much as reductions in communicable and NCDs have improved it over decades. The changes in mortality caused by the pandemic were not predictable through the standard GBD estimation methods and required the development and application of novel estimation methods as the pandemic emerged in real time. These timely updates on causes of death are essential for monitoring progress, identifying prevailing health concerns, guiding targeted interventions, and optimising resource allocation. GBD 2021 shows that better life expectancy outcomes might be achieved by leveraging past successes in mortality reduction. If future policy efforts are guided by the successes made in countries and regions with effective disease-mitigation programmes, such achievements might be replicated in locations where high mortality persists. While COVID-19 and other health challenges continue, GBD 2021 can offer valuable guidance for public health investment and policy making.  To download the data used in these analyses, please visit the Global health Data Exchange GBD 2021 website (https://ghdx.healthdata.org/ gbd-2021/sources). collaboration with investigators of IVI and does not necessarily reflect the opinions or views of IVI. Data for this research were provided by the Cancer Registry of the Republic of Slovenia. The interpretation and reporting of these data are the responsibility of the authors and in no way should be seen as an official policy or interpretation of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Datasets were provided by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) based on data provided by WHO and Ministries of Health from the affected countries. The views and opinions of the authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the ECDC. The accuracy of the authors' statistical analysis and the findings they report are not the responsibility of the ECDC. The ECDC is not responsible for conclusions or opinions drawn from the data provided. The ECDC is not responsible for the correctness of the data and for data management, data merging, and data collation after provision of the data. The ECDC shall not be held liable for improper or incorrect use of the data.Editorial note: The Lancet Group takes a neutral position with respect to territorial claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.","tokenCount":"9674"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a31250de4c687ca2c148bd6c5d425b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/352021b2-f908-4d34-a117-53f8a222d192/retrieve","id":"305383721"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e8ea2f9a-a206-4009-96eb-364aa0b98201","pagecount":"60","content":"planteó, entre otras, la importancia de conocer cómo son los procesos de acceso y disponibilidad a alimentación saludable en Cali en el marco de los sistemas alimentarios sostenibles. Es así como eltransformaciones entre quienes hacen la \"sistematización\" y quienes llevan a cabo las prácticas sociales. Por otro lado, el ejercicio de sistematización tuvo en cuenta los principios de la ética en la investigación y en ese sentido este proyecto contó con el aval de ética de la Universidad del Valle (Anexo 1). Por lo tanto, a todos los participantes se les pidió consentimiento informado en el cual se informaba en qué consistía la participación y se pedía autorización para grabar las entrevistas y hacer fotografías; además, se les garantizaba confidencialidad de la información y el anonimato (Anexo 2).Se presentan en este informe los resultados del proceso de sistematización. En la primera parte, se describen las experiencias identificadas: huertas urbanas y mercados, ambas se caracterizan por mantener una producción agroecológica y no tienen intermediación con los consumidores. En el segundo apartado se analizan las dinámicas sociales, políticas y culturales que se generan en torno a las experiencias identificadas y, finalmente, se exponen los elementos que son valorados como significativos por quienes lideran dichas experiencias y se discuten las potencialidades y amenazas de las experiencias de producción y distribución de alimentos identificadas.El propósito de este trabajo es contribuir a mejorar los procesos de información en distintos niveles, de tal forma que se acerquen los productores con los consumidores, en aras de garantizar la reducción de los costos y una distribución más justa, equitativa y saludable de alimentos y, en últimas, garantizar la continuidad y ampliación de estas experiencias locales.Reconociendo la necesidad de hacer acuerdos conceptuales y teóricos sobre los cuales se desarrolló la sistematización, el equipo de trabajó a partir de una revisión de literatura, definió los conceptos claves de la investigación, cuyos resultados se presentan abajo.Posteriormente, se presentan las experiencias identificadas, según los criterios de inclusión definidos a partir de la revisión de literatura.Con el fin de afinar aspectos teórico-metodológicos del ejercicio de sistematización, el equipo de trabajo seleccionó y realizó la revisión conceptual de cuatro aspectos claves relacionados con la producción y distribución de alimentos en zonas no urbanas. Estos elementos se presentan a continuación:El concepto de urbano proviene del latín urbs-urbis el cual hace referencia a los asentamientos con una alta densidad poblacional, refiriéndose en este contexto a las ciudades. Dentro de las características principales de lo considerado como urbano, se resalta la dotación de infraestructura de todo tipo y ser el punto de concentración del poder.El objetivo de estos espacios es propiciar mejores condiciones de habitabilidad, salubridad y el acceso a servicios como la educación, los sistemas de mercado o salud al concentrarlos todos en un mismo territorio uno cerca al otro (Arroyo, 2001).Por otra parte, los territorios periurbanos hacen referencia al intersticio que va desde el espacio urbano hasta la zona rural. Aunque es un término que no forma parte del diccionario de la Real Academia Española (RAE), éste ha sido tratado por diversos investigadores como Hernández (2016) quien plantea que en el espacio periurbano se hacen particularmente visibles las tensiones generadas en los procesos de transformación del territorio. La indefinición urbanística y conceptual que caracteriza a esta zona de transición entre el mundo urbano y el rural, la convierte en un espacio potencialmente marginal donde proliferan usos que degradan ambiental y visualmente el paisaje que rodea a la ciudad.En relación con las dinámicas de usos que se gestan en los territorios periurbanos Bijarro y Montemayor (2008) plantean la desaparición de pequeños productores agrícolas a las orillas o en las zonas periurbanas, debido a los altos costos de producción que repercuten en el precio de los productos que se venden al consumidor. En otras palabras, se trata del efecto de la escala de producción. Si a esto aunamos los altos costos del agua en la urbe, la agricultura practicada sería, según los términos de rentabilidad privada, un mal negocio.Esto genera que el uso de las tierras periurbanas se restrinja para los productores agrícolas rurales, a pesar que bajo parámetros sociales la rentabilidad de ese proceso debería ser alta.Por otra parte, algunas iniciativas de producción con gran requerimiento de espacio físico ven con gran atractivo el territorio periurbano dada sus condiciones de acceso económico.También los suelos periurbanos son atractivos, pues allí es posible la evasión de externalidades generadas por ciertos procesos productivos (ej. chatarrerías deshuesadoras, tratamiento de residuos, agricultura periurbana, etc.) y tienden a ocupar estos espacios generando dinámicas que distan tanto de las llevadas a cabo, tradicionalmente, en la zona rural, como de las prácticas con uso intensivo del suelo ligadas al centro urbano (Hernández, 2006).Con referencia a la zona de estudio, para Cali se asumió como zona urbana donde se concentra la población y donde se dispone de infraestructura vial y redes primarias de acueducto, alcantarillado, energía y donde por la aptitud de los suelos se puede continuar con el proceso de urbanización (POT, 2014). Los limites fueron definidos con base en el Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial (POT) de Municipio de Santiago de Cali, 2014. Por su parte, las zonas periurbanas se tomaron como aquellas definidas en el POT como zonas de desarrollo incompleto, dado que no hay una delimitación de zonas periurbanas; no obstante, en el POT se relaciona ambos conceptos. En el mapa 1 se muestra las zonas urbanas y las periurbanas de Santiago de Cali con base en la información tomada en el POT vigente.La agricultura urbana es definida como el cultivo de plantas alimenticias, aromáticas, medicinales y ornamentales dentro de áreas urbanas y/o en áreas de expansión urbana de los municipios y distritos (FAO, 1999). Esta agricultura es desarrollada mediante técnicas como la producción limpia, las buenas prácticas agrícolas (BPA), la producción orgánica o la producción ecológica y complementa la agricultura rural en la provisión de alimentos y productos sanos e inocuos para la población (Pareja, 2008).Esta práctica se caracteriza por reformular los usos de ciertas áreas ubicadas en centros urbanizados (o con un porcentaje significativo de urbanización) y tiene como fin contribuir a la sostenibilidad ambiental y social en las ciudades (Cantor, 2010). Sin embargo, dado que se trata de espacios no convencionales dedicados a la agricultura, implica que estos pueden no revestir las características adecuadas para la producción de alimentos, lo cual se relaciona con el éxito de los procesos de cultivo y con la calidad de los productos. Esto ha obligado a que se generen alternativas no convencionales que permitan la viabilidad de las prácticas por medio del desarrollo de distintas técnicas de cultivo adaptativas que viabilizan la micro producción masiva en zonas urbanas (Hernández, 2006).Dichas alternativas propenden por la utilización de tecnologías que mejoren las condiciones ambientales y no afecten la salud de las personas, ni de los animales domésticos. Estas prácticas incluyen la adecuación y mejoramiento del suelo en terrenos urbanos; la utilización de diferentes tipos de contenedores y sustratos para la siembra; la provisión de sistemas de captación, manejo y riego de agua que no genere mayores presiones sobre la disponibilidad de agua potable, por ejemplo se destaca la captación y uso de aguas lluvias;el rescate e intercambio de semillas y saberes tradicionales y ancestrales; la construcción de reservorios de semillas, dándole prelación a las especies nativas; la investigación, innovación y transferencia tecnológica; la asistencia técnica y capacitación comunitaria; la promoción de estilos de vida saludables; y la transformación, intercambio y comercialización de los productos y subproductos de la agricultura urbana (Cruz & Sánchez, 2001). FAO (2007) describe estos procesos como \"el conjunto de actividades multifuncionales y multicomponente, que incluyen la producción o transformación inocua, de productos agrícolas y pecuarios en zonas urbanas y periurbanas, para autoconsumo o comercialización, (re) aprovechando eficiente y sostenible de recursos e insumos locales, respetando los saberes y conocimientos locales y promoviendo la equidad de género a través del uso y coexistencia de tecnologías apropiadas y procesos participativos para la mejora de la calidad de vida de la población urbana y la gestión urbana social y ambiental sustentable de las ciudades\" (FAO, 2007, p. 2). En general, estas prácticas buscan suministrar productos alimentarios provenientes de distintos tipos de cultivos (granos, raíces, hortalizas, hongos, frutas), animales (aves, conejos, cabras, ovejas, ganado vacuno, cerdos, cobayas, pescado, etc.), así como productos no alimentarios (plantas aromáticas y medicinales, plantas ornamentales, productos de los árboles) de fácil acceso y que fortalezcan el componente alimentario.Las ventajas de este tipo de prácticas se encuentra no sólo en que proveen alimentos directamente a los productores, sino que podemos hablar de su éxito cuando la agricultura urbana y periurbana logra adaptarse correctamente al entorno, al hacer frente a los retos que son planteados por la urbanización y logran articularse a los demás niveles del sistema alimentario, obteniendo un lugar adecuado en los procesos de comercio y abastecimiento de alimentos, gracias a las facilidades y la cercanía que tiene con el consumidor, garantizando así productos más frescos y nutritivos a precios más competitivos (Hernández, 2006). Además de la viabilidad en la agricultura urbana, la sostenibilidad de cualquier proceso es aquel que determina su continuación o éxito y, por supuesto, para el caso de las actividades agrícolas y el sistema alimentario en general, también, es un elemento clave. La sostenibilidad es la relación armoniosa entre los elementos interconectados dentro del proceso en sí mismo o con otros procesos con los cuales se encuentran en constante interacción. Dicho concepto puede ser aplicado en distintos niveles en los que se establece un \"punto de éxito\" deseado que satisface las expectativas que recaen sobre este, además de conseguir un grado de \"independencia\" en su funcionamiento (Vilches & Gil, 2003).Este concepto de sostenibilidad fue adherido al de desarrollo a partir del informe de Brundtland publicado en 1987 por las Naciones Unidas, en un intento de reconciliar dos modelos que parecen estar en completa oposición. La idea central consistió en animar al desarrollo global desde su enfoque económico a articularse a los territorios de una forma consciente en la que prevalezca la salud y el ambiente. Esto, con el fin de mantener un equilibrio que permita darle a la generación actual sin quitarles a la generación venidera.En resumen, aunque la producción agrícola en zonas urbanas y periurbanas tiene muchos retos, también debe reconoce sus bondades, sobre todo si se logra su articulación con los sistemas alimentarios en distintas escalas. De hecho, hay experiencias de agroecología urbana las cuales se proponen como estrategias contra el desarrollismo y como expresión del derecho a la ciudad (Saco, 2017).Un sistema es por definición el \"Conjunto de cosas que relacionadas entre sí ordenadamente contribuyen a determinado objeto\" (DRAE, 23ª Ed). En sociología, cuando se hace referencia a los sistemas, se presta especial atención al sistema social, siendo considerado el más complejo de los sistemas y se hace referencia a éste como las innumerables partes que componen al grupo social. La teoría estructural funcionalista, a su vez, plantea que la sociedad es un sistema de acciones estructuradas que cumplen funciones de acuerdo con patrones culturales estables (DUEK, 2014).Según lo anterior, un sistema alimentario se refiere al conjunto de procesos y acciones estructuradas y funcionales relacionadas con las etapas inherentes a los alimentos y la alimentación. Por ello, se incluye los distintos procesos de cultivo, tratamiento, recolección, traslado, disposición, almacenamiento, comercialización, preparación y consumo; así como las prácticas de buena disposición de residuos, tanto en los espacios productivos como en los lugares de consumo.Sin embargo, se debe considerar que un sistema alimentario no es sólo un asunto técnico o un conjunto sucesivo de etapas y procedimientos. Altieri ha planteado, por eso, que \"Comer es un acto político\", pues detrás de este acto hay respuestas a preguntas tales como ¿Qué alimento se produce y para quién se produce? Las respuestas dan cuenta de la compleja red de intereses y fuerzas sociales, políticas y económicas que fundan, organizan y redefinen los sistemas alimentarios. Siguiendo a Altieri (2012) de lo que se trata es de transformar los sistemas alimentarios industriales actuales que se fundamentan en producción industrial, producción de \"alimento\" para máquinas, monocultivo, uso intensivo de agroquímicos, cultivos de variedades transgénicas, entre otras, hacia un sistema agroecológico campesino que se funda en producir alimentos para la gente, valoración de la variedad (policultivo), uso de materia orgánica y vegetal, producción a pequeña escala, relaciones de intercambio entre productores y entre productores y consumidores, con estos sistemas agroecológicos se garantizaría alimento para las poblaciones y se reduciría el impacto sobre el ambiente.Los individuos y su organización en distintos grupos de intereses son quienes dinamizan la sociedad misma, provocando transformaciones encaminadas a conseguir un objetivo concreto que les permita modificar algún elemento en específico de su situación de vida actual. Estelí (2008) afirma que \"desde el inicio de la historia los humanos hemos sentido la necesidad de reunirnos para poder sobrevivir, así organizados hemos buscado alimentos, vestidos y vivienda. Los hombres y mujeres organizados han hecho grandes obras y juntos han logrado grandes cambios sociales, como la eliminación de la esclavitud, la liberación de Nicaragua y otras transformaciones hacia sociedades diferentes\" (Estelí, 2008, p. 10).Estas formas de organización se refieren a grupos distintos que pueden adquirir diversas maneras según sus fines político, social, ambiental, cultural o económico.Las experiencias de base social y comunitaria son entendidas como aquellos procesos que se gestan desde, con y para la comunidad, como resultado de la toma de conciencia sobre una problemática específica del contexto compartido y el cual su busca transformar. En estas, generalmente cada uno de los procesos y actividades son operadas por los miembros Gráfico 1. Proceso de identificación de experiencias de producción y distribución de alimentosFuente: Elaboración propia *El uso de esta información fue autorizado por los autores, de acuerdo con los requerimientos del Comité de Ética Humana de la Facultad de Salud de la Universidad del Valle.En el mapa 2 se observa que las experiencias de producción de alimentos se encuentran distribuidas especialmente en los bordes de la ciudad (periferia), en especial, en las comunas 1, 3, 6, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 y 22. Los estratos socioeconómicos moda en estas comunas son medio (3) y bajo (1 y 2), excepto en la comuna 22 cuyo estrato moda es 6, pero la experiencia identificada está dentro del campus de la Universidad del Valle. identificadas en la ciudad, se observa que están distribuidos de norte a sur en la zona central del municipio. Estos mercados, se localizan en barrios con estrato socioeconómico moda 3, 4, y 5.En el mapa 4 se localizan las zonas donde se concentran las experiencias de producción y distribución de alimentos, como se mencionó con anterioridad, estas se concentran en el centro-occidente de la ciudad zona urbana y periurbana y en el oriente de la ciudad.Las experiencias tanto de producción como de distribución de alimentos son de base comunitaria y social, aunque algunas actualmente cuentan con el acompañamiento de diversos proyectos liderados por instituciones públicas y privadas, las experiencias se constituyen con miembros de la comunidad. Teniendo en cuenta esto, los insumos y la mano de obra requerida para la construcción y la continuidad de las experiencias es aportada por las comunidades.En el cuadro 2 se presenta información sobre las prácticas y manejo de la agricultura en ambos tipos de experiencias (Huertas y mercados).Abonos orgánicos, cobertura vegetal muerta para la fertilidad del suelo, lombrices y compost. Sólo una experiencia hace uso de pesticidas y abonos químicos.No hay pérdidas. Los productos sobrantes se usan como abonos y se llevan a las composteras. En el caso de los mercados los alimentos son comercializados a un menor valor económico. Trueques con organizaciones (ej. congresos de los pueblos)  Personas que visitan la experiencia, semillas orgánicas  Semillas suministradas por proyectos  Desconocen la procedencia Precarios sistemas de riego en zona urbana  Captación de agua lluvia  Sistema de micro-aspersión  Goteo  Manual con uso de agua potable Con el fin de seleccionar las experiencias de producción que fueron caracterizadas a profundidad, se definieron como criterios de inclusión los siguientes: Estar localizados en la zona urbana y periurbana de Cali,  Ser de base comunitaria y social,  Contar con la vinculación de más de diez miembros de la comunidad,  Tener una producción sostenible de alimentos.Para las experiencias de mercados se definieron los siguientes criterios: Estar localizados en la zona urbana y periurbana de Cali,  Ser productores directos,  Tener más de diez integrantes,  Distribuir alimentos producidos de manera sostenible (agroecológico, limpio u orgánico).Quedaron seleccionadas, entonces, 11 (once) experiencias de producción y 5 (cinco) de distribución. La información sobre estas experiencias se recogió a través de entrevistas a sus líderes o dinamizadores. Además, para lograr un mayor acercamiento a la dinámica de los mercados se entrevistaron compradores (experiencias de distribución de alimentos). Por otro lado, fueron entrevistados tomadores de decisión y funcionarios de entidades que trabajan en el área de alimentación o agricultura urbana, para identificar potencialidades y amenazas de estas experiencias.El gráfico 2 muestra los cuatro grupos de actores que brindaron información para conocer las dinámicas sociales, económicas y culturales que se generan en torno a los dos tipos de experiencias.Teniendo en cuenta el enfoque de sistemas alimentarios en las entrevistas se indagó por la valoración que se le da a la experiencia de producción; es decir, hacia donde son dirigidos los intereses del grupo o de los integrantes del grupo para crear la iniciativa y para continuar con ella, considerando que cada uno tiene intereses diferentes. Las once (11) experiencias se originaron por el interés de miembros de la comunidad y aunque algunas de ellas han recibido apoyo de instituciones públicas y privadas, todas son de base comunitaria y social.En estas experiencias participan más de diez personas de la comunidad de diferentes familias, quienes se distribuyen las tareas que demanda la práctica agrícola. Casi todas de estas experiencias están localizadas en las zonas periféricas de la ciudad y en el área periurbana, y una de ellas se localiza en el centro histórico de la ciudad. En estas experiencias, las prácticas agrícolas se fundamentan en la agroecología, en la agricultura urbana y en la agricultura limpia.A partir del acercamiento realizado a dichas experiencias, se identificaron las valoraciones que sus participantes le dan. Estas valoraciones se relacionan con los temas de soberanía alimentaria, sostenibilidad ambiental, organización social y seguridad alimentaria (Ver gráfico 3). Respecto a soberanía alimentaria los participantes experiencias identifican la importancia de ser un reservorio de semillas y donde es posible tener una libertad alimentaria, ya que se pueden producir los alimentos propios a su cultura.En cuanto a sostenibilidad ambiental algunas experiencias se conciben como un espacio pedagógico, donde educar y aprender sobre conservación, cuidado y protección del ambiente, incluido el recurso hídrico, es lo más relevante. Aquí, también se incluye la importancia de mejorar la calidad del aire, proteger el recurso hídrico y conservar los suelos.Por otra parte, en organización social, los participantes reconocen que las experiencias son un espacio donde se comparte y se intercambian saberes, donde hay unión y trabajo en equipo y donde trabajan todos por un mismo objetivo. Todas las experiencias resaltaron este aspecto. Si bien, en todas las experiencias los alimentos son para el auto-consumo, los participantes le dan más valor a las relaciones sociales que se generan en torno a la misma experiencia de cultivar. En ese sentido, que los alimentos se produzcan para hacer parte de la canasta de alimentos en los hogares, es un asunto secundario.La transformación en los usos del suelo y la creación de nuevas formas de sociabilidad, además de transformar a los sujetos, también tiene la capacidad de provocar transformaciones tangibles en el territorio. De hecho, en casi todas las experiencias, los huertos han sido parte de procesos de recuperación de espacios que las comunidades consideran críticos porque envolvían problemáticas ambientales o porque en ellos se desarrollaban prácticas ilícitas (consumo de sicoactivos, pandillas) que incomodan a la comunidad. La transformación del espacio tiene otros efectos adicionales que se ligan a la transformación de los imaginarios comunitarios dado que ya no son vistos como sitios que profanan las dinámicas sociales, lo cual le otorga un nuevo grado de legitimidad a la iniciativa por parte de la comunidad circundante que no participa activamente en los procesos de las huertas urbanas.Esta relación iteractiva entre territorio -individuocomunidad es uno de los elementos que más potencian estas iniciativas de agrucultura urbana, dado que la identidad territorial se refuerza y permea a un mayor número de miembros del grupo; por ello, los procesos en pro del territorio serán más potentes cualitativamente hablando y su duración en el tiempo será mayor. Si bien es necesario mencionar que siempre existirá algún tipo de inconformidad o incomodidad de parte de alguno de los miembros de la comunidad en relación al uso que se le dé al espacio o a las actividades que allí se desarrollen, los resultados del proceso y su contenido mismo determinan su legitimidad.El trabajo en conjunto que se realiza en este tipo de espacios, las relaciones comunitarias que se comienzan a formar y los resultados directos del proceso, inciden directamente sobre la comunidad generando una mayor solidaridad, el aumento de la cohesión y el empoderamiento para lograr metas en común.A continuación, en el grafico 3 se muestran las valoraciones otorgadas a la experuiencia por los productores. Debido a que hay interacción con compradores, gran parte de la valoración que se otorga a la experiencia está relacionada con los compradores. Es decir, se le da gran valor no sólo a los beneficios personales que se obtienen en la comercialización de sus productos, sino en las relaciones que se generan con los compradores y en el aporte a las comunidades. Las relaciones de amistad, de confianza y de fidelidad construidas con los compradores son de gran importancia y motivación para los productores, lo cual se traduce en un compromiso permanente por ofrecer alimentos de calidad a los clientes.Otras de las valoraciones se relacionan con la protección del ambiente, responsabilidad social, valoración de las relaciones y sustento económico (Ver gráfico 4). En cuanto a la protección del ambiente, la producción de alimentos sin agroquímicos es uno de los objetivos principales; sin embargo, no siempre la producción es sostenible. La reconversión y consolidación de procesos que protegen el ambiente ha sido progresivo y es parte del proceso organizativo de los productores.En el ámbito de la responsabilidad social, la educación para mejorar los hábitos alimentarios y el manejo que dan a las perdidas y desperdicios son características significativas que aportan desde su experiencia al sistema alimentario. Esta valoración se conecta con las relaciones sociales construidas a partir de la experiencia, no sólo entre productores y distribuidores, sino con los compradores o clientes en los mercados, entre quienes se han construido relaciones de confianza.Finalmente, en el sustento económico se vela por garantizar un precio justo a los productos ofrecidos, en concientizar a los consumidores que la producción se llevó a cabo en un proceso más largo y responsable con el ambiente y que en efecto por eso tienen un precio un poco más elevado que otros alimentos que no tienen las mismas características.En el grafico 4, se muestran las valoraciones manifestadas por los productores líderes o dinamizadores de las experiencias de distribución de alimentos.Protección de la salud de los consumidores A partir de la información recolectada con los cuatro (4) grupos de actores mencionados antes (productores, distribuidores, compradores y tomadores de decisión y funcionarios), a continuación se presentan el análisis de las potencialidades y amenazas que tienen las experiencias de producción y distribución de alimentos en Cali.Las fortalezas son entendidas como los factores que han generado el desarrollo de mayores capacidades técnicas, económicas, productivas y sociales en las experiencias. Por otro lado, las amenazas son los peligros que pueden alterar la continuidad o éxito de la experiencia; dentro de las amenazas, se consideran también las vulnerabilidades internas o condiciones que generan mayor susceptibilidad a que se interrumpan o finalicen las experiencias. En la tabla 1, se presenta el resumen de las potencialidades de las experiencias de producción de alimentos en Cali, según los participantes en la sistematización.Tabla 1 Factores que potencializan las experiencias de producción de alimentos-cali, 2108Apoyo institucional (Universidades, sindicatos, juntas de acción comunal) relacionado con acompañamiento, financiación, formación, etc.Becas de apoyo económico para iniciar, impulsar y fortalecer las experiencias.Participación de diferentes miembros y grupos de la comunidad en diferentes ciclos de vida.Apoyo de programas que financian económicamente las iniciativas, para adquirir insumos y materiales necesarios.Apoyo en formación en buenas prácticas agrícolas por parte de DAGMA y UMATA.Articulación entre miembros de la comunidad que tienen diferentes motivaciones.Soporte por parte de la Policía Nacional para la protección de la experiencia.Realización de programas de empoderamiento de la comunidad para proteger y conservar su entorno.Líderes comunitarios con iniciativa de generar mejores condiciones de vida para la población.Disponibilidad de tierras o espacios óptimos para realizar prácticas agrícolas.Facilidad para la adaptación de espacios para producir alimentos.Protección y cuidado de la experiencia por parte de todos los miembros de la comunidad.Disponibilidad de agua para hacer el riego utilizando diferentes técnicas.Acceso a insumos necesarios para la producción sustentable de alimentos Valoración de la comunidad aportando a: Seguridad alimentaria, soberanía alimentaria, organización social y sostenibilidad ambiental.Compromiso más comunitario y menos individual.Los conocimientos empíricos, académicos y profesionales de la gente que vive en el barrio.Apoyo de algunas entidades como la JAC, el comité Ambiental y la voluntad política en el barrio.En la tabla 2 se presentan los factores que limitan o reducen la capacidad de continuidad y cumplimiento de objetivos de las experiencias de producción de alimentos. Como se mencionó anteriormente, no solo se identificaron los factores externos sino también los problemas internos.Tabla 2. Factores que amenazan la creación y continuidad de las experiencias de producción de alimentosDificultad en el acceso a espacios adecuados para la producción agrícola urbana y periurbana.Consumo de sustancias psicoactivas en espacios donde se localizan las iniciativas.Estigmatización por parte de la comunidad (referente a consumo de SPA en estos espacios).Estigmatización por parte de instituciones por la \"apropiación de espacios públicos\".Conflictos entre entes regulatorios y productores por la conservación y uso de las semillas propias.Dificultad en el acceso a recursos económicos que permitan fortalecer las iniciativas.Falta de reconocimiento de las iniciativas como parte fundamental de la soberanía alimentaria.Poco apoyo por parte de las instituciones que tienen relación con la seguridad alimentaria de la población (salud, económica, bienestar).Falta de continuidad de los programas y proyectos realizados por la alcaldía municipal.Poca continuidad de los miembros de la comunidad en su participación en las experiencias.No hay una política de Estado, sino que hay procesos coyunturales, como alcaldes que en su gobierno le trabajan al tema ambiental y a la seguridad alimentaria.Violencia e inseguridad. Hay fronteras invisibles por casi toda la zona y muchos jóvenes no pueden movilizarse libremente por el lugar.Ubicación de las experiencias en zonas de alto riesgo de deslizamiento e inundaciones. Población altamente vulnerable.No hay acceso a semillas limpias. Las semillas suministradas son modificadas o con contenido toxico.Acoso por parte de grupos políticos para obtener apoyo en sus procesos, e incumplimientos en la ejecución de sus propuestas.Falta de conocimientos para generar procesos de compostaje y aprovechamiento de residuos solidosPoca apropiación por parte de algunos miembros de la comunidad que destruyen los espacios donde se desarrolla la experiencia Suelos secos, compactos, bajo en sales de fosforo, son suelos muy ácidos Falta de recursos para implementar sistemas de riego eficientes y sostenibles ambientalmente Contaminación del agua utilizada para el riego Dependencia por parte de la población en el financiamiento de las iniciativas La tabla 3 resume los factores que potencializan, fortalecen e impulsan las experiencias de distribución de alimentos en su desarrollo, aportando a su continuidad o la construcción de futuras experiencias.Tabla 3. Factores que potencializan las experiencias de distribución de alimentosApoyo económico de instituciones, fundaciones, ONG.Valoración de las iniciativas en las políticas públicas relacionadas con la calidad de la alimentación.Conocimientos de los consumidores que valoran la producción agroecológica, orgánica y/o limpia, especialmente salud y ambiente.Posibilidad de aprovechamiento de los espacios públicos para localización de mercados.Apoyo de las juntas de acción comunal para conservar las iniciativas existentes.Apoyo de la UMATA en la formación de los agricultores para producir de manera sustentable.Apoyo de la alcaldía para iniciar con las experiencias (motivación) .Apoyo de medios de comunicación y alcaldía para que la población tenga conocimiento de los mercados existentes.Comercialización de alimentos al precio justo tanto para el productor como para el consumidor .Apoyo de la entidad ambiental DAGMA para ubicarse en espacio apto para la venta de los alimentos.No hay desperdicio de alimentos. Consumidores apoyan estrategias de compra de excedentes a menor precio.Planeación y organización del grupo de productores y productoras.Continuidad de la experiencia en la comuna aunque no se tenga ningún tipo de apoyo externo.Contar con líderes o dinamizadores del proceso que tengan experiencia en estas iniciativas.Reconocer un \"padrino\" de la iniciativa. Aunque sea una iniciativa de los productores tiene apoyo permanente de alguna institución.Contar con semillas limpias y no tener dificultades legales para el uso de las propias.Disponer de infraestructura óptima para la exhibición y venta de productos a los consumidores.Conciencia por parte de los consumidores en el apoyo que significa comprar directamente a un pequeño productor.Finalmente, en la tabla 4 se presentan los factores que amenazan las experiencias de distribución de alimentos. Al igual que en las experiencias de producción, también se identifican las vulnerabilidades de la experiencia.Tabla 4. Factores que amenazan la creación y continuidad de las experiencias de distribución de alimentosDificultades en el acceso a espacios físicos óptimos para la instalación permanente de los mercados Precios altos comparados con otro tipo de mercados debido principalmente a que el productor es quien asume costos de traslado a la ciudad Ausencia de políticas públicas que garanticen escenarios de comercialización de alimentos a los pequeños productores Inexistencias de apoyo económico o subsidios que faciliten el desplazamiento de los productores a los mercados Poca continuidad de los proyectos y programas del gobierno local que están relacionados con incentivar estar experiencias Autofinanciamiento no sostenible de la logística necesaria para participar en los mercados Poca capacidad de ofertar alimentos de manera continua (producción a pequeña escala)Limitaciones en la disponibilidad de muebles óptimos para la exhibición de productos (estantes, sillas, mesas)Instituciones y entidades que no perciben como prioridad estas experiencias (ejemplo: Secretaria del deporte), y se justifican en la prohibición de apropiación de espacio publico Productores en condiciones de vulnerabilidad a desastres, como inundaciones y deslizamientosPoco apoyo en la difusión y publicidad de los mercados en la ciudad Reducida sensibilización en la población frente a la importancia de apoyar a pequeños productores Ausencia de equipamientos necesarios para la localización de mercados, como es el caso de los baños públicos y los parqueaderos Ningún tipo de apoyo para participar o distribuir los productos en plazas de mercadosNo todos los productores realizan procesos de producción 100% agroecológicos Desconfianza de los consumidores respecto al proceso de producción y utilización de insumos agrícolasEn síntesis, las experiencias de producción y distribución de alimentos en Cali tienen fortalezas que han garantizado su permanencia; en este sentido, las comunidades han desarrollado y aportado gran cantidad de recursos que aprovechan en las prácticas agrícolas y estos recursos, aunque en la mayoría de los casos, no son económicos, son el medio para que las personas que participan desarrollen actitudes y capacidades que aportan al mejoramiento de su calidad de vida y al bienestar de sus familias. Además de los recursos y aportes desde la misma comunidad que hacen que se potencialicen las experiencias, hay apoyo de instituciones públicas y privadas que también son bastante significativos para el logro de los objetivos propuestos.Sin embargo, aunque este respaldo institucional es de gran importancia en las experiencias, también fue identificado como una de las principales amenazas tanto en las experiencias de producción como de distribución la falta de continuidad del apoyo institucional; es decir, el apoyo es recibido en el marco de un proyecto en particular que cumple con periodos de tiempo establecidos. En ambos tipos de experiencias se concluye que hay diversas potencialidades desarrolladas desde la comunidad y las amenazas o limitantes identificadas visibilizan los problemas relacionados con la falta de apoyo para el fortalecimiento y la construcción de este tipo de experiencias, las cuales facilitan el acceso y la disponibilidad de alimentos saludables en el municipio.De manera complementaria, dado que se relataron, en el proceso de recolección de información diversas políticas, proyectos y programas relacionados con producción y distribución que han sido realizados en Cali, se hizo una indagación en Internet a través del motor de búsqueda de Google, con el fin de conocer información de las entidades encargadas, la fecha de inicio y finalización, y la descripción de cada política, proyecto o programa. Para esta búsqueda se usaron como palabras claves los nombres relatados en las entrevistas, añadiendo la palabra \"Cali\". Posteriormente, también se utilizaron las siguientes palabras claves: \"política pública alimentación Cali\", \"programa agricultura urbana Cali\", \"proyecto mercado campesino Cali\", \"proyecto huertas Cali\", \"municipio Cali mercados\", \"municipio Cali huertas\". Para esta búsqueda no se definió un periodo de tiempo. Como resultado se identificaron dos (2) políticas, cinco (5) programas y cinco (5) proyectos. En la tabla 1 se presentan un resumen de las políticas encontradas. Por último, en la tabla 7 se presentan los hallazgos de los proyectos identificados en el municipio, los cuales en su mayoría están activos. Tiene como objetivo implementar extensión agropecuaria participativa con apoyo de la comunidad y entidades territoriales por aptitud de uso de suelo y tipo de productor, con procesos de seguimiento continuo por medio de indicadores estándar de país. Acciones: Uso eficiente de fertilizantes en actividades agropecuarias. Realizar manejo adecuado de labranza.Implementar sistemas agrosilvopastoriles. Fomento de la producción orgánica.A manera de síntesis se indica que hay una falta de información sobre los programas y proyectos de producción y distribución que se han llevado a cabo y que están en desarrollo en el las zonas urbanas y periurbanas del municipio. De otro lado, de la información mostrada anteriormente de programas y proyectos, la gran mayoría corresponde a procesos de producción de alimentos, encontrándose disponible poca información sobre otros que se enfoquen en la distribución de alimentos o que tengan como objetivo la conexión entre el productor rural y la población de Cali.Aunque se halló información general se desconoce cómo ha sido el proceso de implementación y como han sido los resultados obtenidos de los que fueron finalizado. En resumen, se cuenta con poca información de los procesos desarrollados por entes gubernamentales en los que se favorece el acceso, la disponibilidad y el consumo de alimentos naturales en Cali.Finalmente, con base en el ejercicio de sistematización se presentan las condiciones esenciales para la creación y desarrollo de experiencias de producción de alimentos y mercados campesinos y agroecológicos en Cali:Producción de alimentos:1. Disponibilidad de espacios físicos óptimos para la producción de alimentos. Esto significa que se requiere que en el Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial del municipio, se dispongan oficialmente espacio para dicha actividad.2. La política pública de seguridad y soberanía alimentaria debe considerar dentro de sus estrategias, la producción de alimentos en zonas urbanas y periurbanas de la ciudad 3. Apoyo económico para acceder a semillas, equipamientos, sistemas sostenibles de riego y otro tipo de insumos 4. Mayor flexibilidad por parte de los entes de control para que se permita el uso de semillas propias 5. Generar convocatorias para promover la vinculación u organización de diferentes grupos comunitarios en las experiencias, por ejemplo: Jóvenes y adolescentes, grupos de la tercera edad, etc.6. Generar estrategias de comunicación que aporten a la apropiación y sentido de pertenencia por parte de algunos miembros de la comunidad hacia las experiencias.7. Capacitar a la comunidad en técnicas de producción sostenible de alimentos.8. Ofrecer capacitaciones donde se brinden conocimientos para generar procesos de compostaje y aprovechamiento de residuos solidos 9. Estrategias de comunicación para fomentar el reconocimiento de las iniciativas de producción de alimentos como parte fundamental de la soberanía alimentaria 10. Mayor continuidad de los proyectos de producción de alimentos, los cuales son promovidos por entidades gubernamentales en el municipio 11. Valorar y dar a conocer las diferentes motivaciones de las comunidades que las impulsan a construir y desarrollar las experiencias.1. Disponibilidad de espacios físicos óptimos para para la instalación permanente de los mercados donde se ofrecen los alimentos. El Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial del municipio, se dispongan oficialmente espacio para dicha actividad.Adicionalmente con disponibilidad de la infraestructura requerida.2. A través de la Política pública de Seguridad y soberanía alimentaria debe gestionar el apoyo a los mercados campesinos y agroecológicos.3. Apoyo económico a los productores para la logística de transporte de los alimentos producidos en sus fincas 4. Generar estrategias de sensibilización dirigidas a la población caleña para valorizar este tipo de experiencias 5. Intensificar el apoyo técnico ofrecido por la UMATA a los productores de las zonas rurales de Cali 6. Mayor continuidad de los proyectos de apoyo a productores distribuidores de alimentos, los cuales son promovidos por entidades gubernamentales en el municipio 7. Estrategias para hacer visibilizar en la ciudad las oportunidades de comprar en circuitos cortos de comercialización de alimentosDe acuerdo con los actores participantes aunque los programas, políticas y proyectos presentan una larga trayectoria en la ciudad, la falta de continuidad en dichos procesos ha reducido la capacidad de generar un impacto positivo en la población.Considerando el marco de acción de sistemas alimentarios sostenibles: \"Pacto de Milán\", la política pública de seguridad y soberanía alimentaria del municipio debe considerar dentro de sus estrategias, la producción de alimentos en zonas urbanas y periurbanas de la ciudad.En el Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial del municipio, se debe considerar la importancia de destinar espacios óptimos para la producción de alimentos. Parte del ordenamiento del territorio de las ciudades debe considerar los problemas alimentarios existentes y, por ende, las acciones para mitigar el problema.Las valoraciones o motivaciones identificadas para la creación, existencia y continuidad de las experiencias caracterizadas son diversas. Esto significa que cada grupo comunitario u organización tiene diferentes perspectivas, que si bien algunas se enfocan en la seguridad alimentaria, otras lo hacen con mejorar los impactos del cambio climático, por la soberanía alimentaria, por fortalecer las relaciones sociales en la comunidad, entre otras.Las experiencias de producción y distribución de alimentos en la ciudad presentan diversas amenazas que se relacionan principalmente con el reducido apoyo y seguimiento por parte de las instituciones gubernamentales. Su participación en la investigación no le brinda beneficios directos e inmediatos, pero se espera que a la información obtenida sea un insumo para ser utilizado para orientar decisiones dirigidas a la mejorar los sistemas alimentarios en las ciudades. Es importante aclarar que usted no recibirá ninguna compensación económica por participar en esta investigación y tampoco incurrirá en ningún gasto.Su participación en el estudio consiste en responder preguntas de una entrevista, la cual tendrá una duración aproximada de 40 minutos, durante este tiempo se pretende obtener información del proceso histórico de la experiencia de huertas o mercados campesinos a la que pertenece, los aprendizajes, las dificultades, etc. Si usted lo permite, para no perder detalle de la información que nos brinde, cuando le realicemos las preguntas, le solicitamos nos permita grabar en audio. Las grabaciones y las transcripciones serán únicamente utilizadas por los investigadores y tendrán un uso exclusivo para este estudio; además, esta información será confidencial, cada una de las entrevistas se le asignará un código de identificación y, por lo tanto, serán anónimas. Su nombre no será divulgado en ningún documento que se origine de esta investigación. Las anteriores medidas son con el fin de disminuir el riesgo de confidencialidad y anonimato que tiene la investigación para usted. Adicionalmente, solicitamos su autorización para tener un registro fotográfico de la experiencia sin que involucre la imagen de ninguna persona.La fecha y la hora de las entrevista será acordada con usted, es importante aclarar que existe la posibilidad de realizar un segundo encuentro para complementar la información, en caso de ser así estaré en contacto de nuevo con usted. Es relevante precisar que la información suministrada será guardada bajo estricta confidencialidad. Desde ya le agradecemos su participación.Si tiene alguna duda sobre esta investigación, puede hacer preguntas en cualquier momento durante su participación en el estudio.Al firmar este documento usted acepta participar voluntariamente en esta investigación. Yo Reconozco que la información que proporcione en el curso de esta investigación es estrictamente confidencial y autorizo a los investigadores para que empleen la información suministrada para realizar el presente estudio. Además, he sido informado de que puedo hacer preguntas sobre la investigación en cualquier momento y que puedo retirarme del mismo si así lo decido, sin que esto conlleve perjuicio alguno para mi persona. De tener preguntas sobre mi participación en este estudio, puedo contactar a Janeth Mosquera Becerra al teléfono 554 24 76 ext. 112 correo: jmosquera@grupogesp.org y al representante del Comité Institucional de Revisión de Ética Humana (CIREH), teléfono: 518 56 77, correo electrónico: eticasalud@correounivalle.eu.co.Autorizo para que utilicen los resultados de esta investigación para ulteriores trabajos de investigación previa aprobación del Comité de Ética, además apruebo que los datos que surjan a partir de este trabajo sean utilizados en informes y publicaciones.Entiendo que una copia de este consentimiento me será entregada, y que puedo pedir información sobre los resultados de este estudio cuando esté haya concluido. Para esto, puedo contactar a la anteriormente mencionada.Para constancia de aprobación de realización de la entrevista se solicita su firma y la de 2 testigos Anexo 3 Tabla de identificación de experiencias de producción de alimentos en Santiago de Cali  Despensa orgánica, sembrar para la vida, escuela de autoformación, salud familiar, fondo de solidaridad, amor-animal, que han posibilitado en el desarrollo de su proceso colectivo voluntades de vivir que apunten a una vida digna y al autogobierno. Maíz, variedad de fríjoles, plantas aromáticas, cebollín, tomate silvestre (tomatillo), cimarrón, cebolla, sávila. ","tokenCount":"6944"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2c1e830b71af589c7c3d81edd9eb59e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3bf9d0a-8fbf-4029-ba7a-97df7ee1e7c0/retrieve","id":"-1759485972"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f5a8df92-4689-46ee-b6aa-8f868b8b2653","pagecount":"4","content":"1'' '' ..,.   Julio Cesar Toro Ernesto Cells Gustavo Jaramillo Una prueba regional no es más que un experimento donde un número considerable de variedades (no más de 24), se evaluan agron6mlcamente bajo una tecnología uniforme en un amplio rango de regiones edafo-cllmátlcas, con el objetivo principal de medir su potencial de rendimiento en comparac16n con la variedad o variedades locales prevalentes en cada localidad de prueba. Como el Programa de Yuca por razones logfstlcas no puede mantener un Banco de Germoplasma en cada una de las regione~productoras de yuca de Colombia y que a la vez representen áreas similares en el mundo, se hace necesario evaluar los materiales promlsorlos a trav6s de reglones productoras con caracterfstlcas de suelo y clima contrastantes.Las pruebas regionales son realmente un complemento nece~rlo para los Fltomejoradores, ya que los Agr6n~s que las conducen pueden constatar o n6 les bondades de los materiales gen,tlcol promlsorlos después que estos han pasado por ensayos avanzados de rendimiento. Además del objetivo principal se quiere también extrapolar los resultados a otras partes del mundo con regiones slmi lares.Identificar Colaboradores.1 Las Instituciones nacionales sel~cclonadas para colaborar o conducir por si mismas una o varias pruebas deben primero que todo tener necesidad e Interés antes que se piense sembrar una prueba, de lo contrario sería una pérdida lamentable de tiempo, dinero y esfuerzo.En cualquier país se debe tener en cuenta tanto las reglones productoras de yuca actueles, como las que ofrezcan algOn potencial para expans16n de la frontera agrfcola si existe. En otras palabras los sitios seleccionados deben ser representativos de grandes reglones productoras. Además los s itios para las pruebas deben estar ubicados en l~ares fácilmente accesibles y visibles de tal manera que Jos agricultores 4be pasen puedan desarrollar alguna curiosidad .• Identificar el Responsable.Esta es una tarea bastante dlffcll ya que rara vez se consigue una persone ldonea y responsable a quien se le pueda confiar la prueba y por conslgulen• te el cuidado de la misma y los resultados que se obtengan . Lo más Indicado es dar capacltaci6n adecuada y especfflca a la persona que se encarga de conducir una pruebe para poder tener la certeza de que Jos datos que se toman son .. ~' \" -------finos, confiables y que representan y significan algo.Epoca de Siembra.Esta se decide después de una amplia encuesta con agricultores de la reglón. Sin embargo si el sistema de lluvias permite definir l Epocas muy marcadas es conveniente sembrar una prueba en cada época diferente. Como las pruebas no reciben riego artificial generalmente se deben sembrar al Inicio del perfodo de lluvias de cada reglón.En los Llanos Orientales de Colombia como ejemplo hay una excepción. En esta región que representa un gran potencial para yuca, llueve corrrunmente de Abril a Diciembre (8 meses), pero si se siembra a principios de las lluvias generalmente ocurren ataques más fuertes de plagas y enfermedades que si se siembra hacia finales de la época de lluvias (principio de Octubre). En esta reglón mientras no existan materiales resistentes a las plagas y enfermedades principales se ha sembrado en el segundo semestre aunque últimamente se estableció la prueba del primer semestre cuyos resultados para el primer ano no son tan malos como se esperaban.Se debe seguir la práctica más común usada por los agricultores de la reglón bajo estudio. En el caso de Colombia, pafs que se extiende desde 4\" de latitud sur hasta 12• de latitud norte, generalmente se cosecha entre los 8-10 meses en regiones por debajo de 1.000 metros de altitud. Por encima de esta altura la cosecha se demora por regla general un mes por cada 100 metros de elevación. DI sello.Las pruebas se deben sembrar en bloques al azar con un mfnlmo de cuatro re pe t 1 e 1 ones. Tamallo de la Parcela.Los resultados obtenidos durante los últimos ellos en relación con tamallo de parcela Indican que estas deben tener un mfnlmo de 9 plantas útiles, las cu¡les se cuentan después de dejar 2 surcos de borde por cada lado. Cuando sea posible se deben sembrar parcelas con un mayor número de plantas útiles.En las pruebas regionales del Programa de Yuca del CIAT se siembran parcelas de 72 plantas (9 x 8 surcos) en los extremos de cada bloque y 64 plantas (8 x 8 surcos) en las otras parcelas, pero en ambos casos se cosechan las 24 plantas del centro. SI al momento de la cosecha hay plantas faltantes en la parcela útil estas no se ajustan, ya que el rendimiento se debe dar por el área sembrada y nó por el número de plantas.Se recomienda dejar 2 surcos de borde en cada parcela para cada variedad y eliminar asf el efecto de borde debido e competencia por luz, agua y 580 -..,. ' _______ ..... nutrientes principalmente, debido también a diferentes hábitos de crecimiento de las variedades.Es conveniente dejar callejones entre bloques no solo para facilitar la toma de datos, sino también para propósitos demostrativos. Cuando las condiciones lo permiten es aconsejable que éstos callejones sean de 3-4 metros de ancho..., Tecnologfa Usada Selección de Estacas.Esta es ta 1 vez la parte más Importante de 1 paquete tecnológl co junto con el control de malezas. las estacas se deben obtener de plantas maduras y sanas de las cuáles se cortan con herramienta bien afilada de un tama~o de 20-25 cms. teniendo en cuenta que posean un número de nudos no Inferior a 5. El corte se hace en el aire en forma perpendicular a la longitud del tallo con machete bien afilado o sierra circular. Se deben descartar estacas con chancros, galerfas, médula central muy manchada y diámetro muy pequeno. En regiones donde la Bacterlosls es común y aunque se selefcionen plantas aparentemente sanas es preferible usar estacas solamente de la parte basal de la planta o tallo primar io, es decir por debajo de la primera ramificación.Tratamiento de las Estacas.Como es Imposible encontrar resistencia varletal al gran número de Insectos y pat6genos que habitan en el suelo se hace un tratamiento con productos qufmlcos que funcionan más que todo como preventivos y protectores para garantizar una brotaclón normal y un desarrollo Inicial vigoroso. El•tratamlento cons 1 s te en sumergl r la s estacas duran te 5 minutos en una suspen\\; 16n que con• tenga uno o dos funglcldas, o un funglclda y un Insecticida, según las enfermedades o plagas que prevalecen en la reg16n. Cuando no existen prob lemas , se pueden usar 6 gramos por litro de agua de cualquiera de los siguientes funglcldas: Dlthane M-45 (Mancozeb), Hanzate 80 (Haneb), Orthoclde (Captan), Da• conll (Ciorotalonll), Vltlgran (Oxlcloruro de Cobre), Arasan (Tiram), Brasslcol (PCNB), Oemosan (Cloronib), Dlfolatan (Captafol) o Bavlstln (Carbendazlm). Al emplear mezclas con 2 de estos productos, se usan solamente 3 gramos de cada uno.-... siembra u ordenamiento espacial se utilice.Preparacl6n del Suelo.Como el producto final de la yuca más común hasta el momento son las rafees y el 80% de ~stas se desarrollan en los 30 centfmetros superiores del suelo, esto indica claramente la Importancia de una buena preparac16n del suelo. Esta preparac16n sigue la práctica más común usada en la regl6n t~lendo en cuenta que si los suelos son arcillosos y el régimen de lluvias está por encl-'ma de los 1.200 mil lmetros al a\"o, se deben hacer caballones para evitar la pudrlc16n de las rafees.Poslci6n de Siembra. En relac16n con el rendimiento final, muchas veces es Indiferente sembrar las estacas en poslci6n horizontal, Inclinada o vertical; sin embargo, en zo• nas de lluvias erráticas, los resultados son más favorables si se siembran las estacas en poslcl6n vertical, la cual garantiza mejor brotacl6n, mejor dlstrlbuc16n de rafeas alrededor del tallo y mucho mejor anc laje para evitar el volcamlento, principalmente en reglones de vientos fuertes. La mitad de la estaca debe quedar enterrada con las yemas orientadas hacia arriba. • dianas a pesados y cuando en mezcla 2 litros de Goal y uno de Lazo. SI se requiere una o más desyerbas cuando el cultivo tiene más de 5 meses, se puede aplicar, en forma dirigida, una mezcla de 2 litros de Gramoxone (Pa raquat) y un kilo de Karmex por hectárea.No se controlan ni Insectos ni enférmedades con el ffn de medir el verdadero potencial de las variedades~ las condiciones naturales en que se siembran.En el caso de las pruebas regionales del Programa de Yuca del CIAT en Colombia solamente se aplica fertilizante en Carlmagua, (Llanos Orientales) y Santander de Qulllchao donde prevaLtcen suelos ácidos e lnfertlles Oxlsoles y Ultisoles respectivamente.Como se puede ver en el Cuadro 2, el plan de fertllizac16n se basa en siembras contfnuas de yuca en el mismo lote y en el efecto residual de los fertilizantes. La cal se aplica como elemento en cantidades limitadas, no para neutralizar la acidez del suplo, sino para proporcionar calcio a la planta.CUADRO Vi s itas Necesarias.Se requiere un mfnlmo de 7 visitas como sigue: Las muestras para el an&llsls 'de suelo se toman Inmediatamente despufs de la siembra, teniendo el cuidado de recolectar una muestra por cada bloque o repetlcl 6n.Esta debe ser lo más completa posible, incluyendo localidad , municipio, estado o provincia, latitud, altitud, temperatura promedia, promedio de lluvia anual, diferencia entre temperatura máxima y mfnlma, humedad relativa, claslflcacl6n del suelo, cultivo anterior, fertilizante o pesticidas usados. En cada lote se instala un pluvlometro. Toma de Datos.Existe un libro modelo para toma de datos los cufil es se pueden pasar directamente a computador o se pueden manejar manualmente. 1. Número total de plantas por parcela 2. NGmero total de plantas Gtlles cosechadas por parcela 3. Número de plantas faltantes por parcela 4. Número total de rafees por parcela 5. Peso fresco de rafees por parcela en kilogramos 6. Número de rafees por planta 7. Area de l a parcela útil 8. Toda evaluaci6n de plagas y~fermedades se debe calibrar de 1 a 5, con incrementos de 20 a 25% para cada nivel de dano en forma tal que la ausencia de cualquier dano tenga un valor de uno.Es Importante tener en cuenta que despu's de la prueba regional se necesita hacer pruebas agron6mlcas de a~bado , tend ientes .principalmente a encontrar la poblaci6n óptima y la mejor edad de la variedad para la cosecha, todo lo cual se debe hacer con aquellas variedades que en cada lugar demuestren ser sobresalientes en rendimiento y otras caracterfstlcas.El acabado es realmente responsabilidad de la lnstltucl6n nacional que es la que al final recomendar¡ o ~6 una variedad de alto rendimiento para entrar a ser una variedad más en una determinada reglón.\"","tokenCount":"1761"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"91cbde4a37e693c4e2bc294ef825341e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7988dbb5-255f-4923-a3bc-2ff0c66ca3b0/retrieve","id":"-1466436881"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1af3e5b-5d90-425d-be0b-c1e0f8ebc186","pagecount":"7","content":"Three new cultivars (cvv. Sabanera, Caporal and Centauro) originated from the CIAT's gene bank were tested and released by Agrosavia (Colombia)Over one million hecateres are planted with Urochloa hybrids developed by CIAT's Urochloa Breeding program ___________________________________________________________________________ Demand for livestock products (such as meat, milk and eggs) in developing countries is expected to double by 2050. Forage is any plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten by livestock. Tropical forage grasses and legumes are important plants that provide valuable feed to livestock. There is a long history of identification and use of tropical forages to increase productivity and sustainability of livestock production systems. However, productivity and sustainability of livestock production is likely to fall within the next decade due to climate change and environmental degradation unless action is taken. Such action involves the release of new forage cultivars with improved traits (e.g., better forage quality), for their also targeting of ever evolving agricultural management options (e.g., grazing, cut and carry, silvopastoral systems).There is a vast diversity of tropical forages, of which a sample is safeguarded in gene banks run by CGIAR centres (ILRI and Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) with over 22,000 accessions of 72 species. This represents the largest ex-situ collection of tropical forage species worldwide. Furthermore, there is an on-going Urochloa and Megathyrsus maximus breeding program that develops hybrids on a constant basis. Evaluation, breeding and selection of germplasm accessions and hybrids is regularly conducted by CIAT and its partners. In the past five years, this has led to i) two grasses and one legume accessions released in Colombia; ii) the advancement of generations and release of multiple hybrids in various geografies. All released products exhibit better attributes (e.g., better forage quality) than forages traditionally used in different regions that these new cultivars are targeted for.Below we briefly report on the progress of creation, release and commercialization of tropical forage cultivars originated from breeding (Urochloa and Megathyrsus maximus hybrids) or from selections made out of germplasm accessions. Also, we briefly report on improved qualities of new forage cultivars originated from germpolasm accessionsYearly, the Urochloa and Megathyrsus maximus breeding program creates new generations, advances existing generations, releases to next-user outstanding hybrids which are candidates to become a new product, while partners advance on dissemination of existing products (Figure 1). During the last five years, new generations of hybrds of Urochloa (Br19, Bh18) and M. maximus (Pm21) were created. Thus, existing generations of Urochloa (e.g.,Br15, Br12) were evaluated for multiple stresses like apomictic behaviour, spittlebug resistance, drought and multiple field trials to identify the most promising hybrids, which were released to next user (i.e, Private sector). Simultaneously, our partners evolved new products from populations Br02, Br04 and Br06 already in their hands. This gave birth to the new releases in the market: Urochloa hybrids Camello and Mestizo. Meanwhile, products already available continue being disseminated and growing in the market as well as reaching registrations in new geographies (Table 1). The positive acceptance and adoption of the products by the final user is reflected in the seed sales. Based in seed sales we estimate our hybrids are currently planted over one million hectares (Figure 2).   Three cultivars (cvv. Sabanera, Caporal and Centauro) originated from germplasm accessions from CIAT´s gene bank were recently released by Agrosavia (Colombian Agricultural Researh Instittute). Basic information of these newly released cultivars are summareized in Tables 2  and 3. There is a positive impact of these new cultivars upon animal response parameters and milk production (Table 2). The release of these new forage cultivars is therefore expected to have positive economic impacts as shown by previous studies on the economic impact of new forage cultivars. For instance, improved cultivars of Brachiaria, Stylosanthes, Vigna unguiculata, and Calliandra spp. have been adopted by 2015 on over 12 million hectares in Latin America, Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, producing net economic benefits of over $5.8 billion/year when compared with productivity using traditional cultivars (https://bit.ly/312Qt4k). As such, there is a need to provide farmers extension work support, accompanied by training on how to plant, cultivate and maintain forage productivity. Furthermore, commercial access to seeds must be guaranteed to ensure the processes of diffusion and adoption at scale. The potential success of these newly released cultivars depends on their level of adoption by livestock producers and to proper technology management that allows high productivity levels overtime. These recently released cultivars fall into a logistic technology adoption curve, and according to different scenarios (basic, optimistic and pessimistic) will take shorter or longer time to reach maturity (i.e. general use in livestock production systems) (Figure 1). For instance, analysis performed on cv. Caporal suggests that the total period of diffusion and adoption will take 27 years , where the maximum adoption rate will be reached after 20 years of availability on the market (2041), and from there on, no growth is expected (https://bit.ly/3rbxUGg). ","tokenCount":"809"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"39403ddb4972cbcd7633ba8d87cf0a41","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/634d1155-b9ab-42fd-9f05-45f5a6cecf13/retrieve","id":"1490242292"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"59e95d41-585f-462c-8ed2-5e70793fe17d","pagecount":"8","content":"December 2016 RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Putting a price on ecosystem services and letting national policies reflect it can ensure that resource users who degrade ecosystems or related services pay for resource replacement or rehabilitation of ecosystems. This will conserve and sustain natural resources essential to food production, such as land.2. Matching crops with suitable agro-ecologies will decrease the need for inputs such as fertilizer and support increase in yields, thereby promoting sustainable ecosystem service management and ultimately increasing food security. This can be achieved through establishing and implementing policies that ensure production of different crops according to suitability zones in each of the EAC countries.3. Promoting policies that support increased inter-regional trade by improving infrastructure (as enshrined in the East African Common Market Protocol) and ultimately lowering transportation costs will contribute to increased agricultural productivity and reduce cost of staple foods.4. Greater gender equality contributes to economic efficiency and the achievement of key development outcomes. Proactively promoting the participation of women and youth in trade in national policies will boost exports and generate revenue for the individual nations as well as improve household status.5. Forming national policies that emphasize equal access to land and other productive resources for men and women, and implementing such policies through institutions with appropriate mandates, will foster improved management and more sustainable use of land, ultimately increasing sustainable food production.6. Instating national and regional policies that support the private sector to innovate and promote labor-saving technologies that are women friendly will support sustainable ecosystem management.Updating national and regional policies to promote 1) sustainable and optimal use of natural resources, 2) reduced transportation costs in food trade, and 3) equal access to land and business for women and men can boost inter-regional trade of staples and improve food security across the region, while preserving ecosystems and their services. Harmonizing such policies across the EAC region will optimize the benefits by boosting inter-regional trade and allowing each country to leverage its natural resources for optimal agricultural productivity. Ultimately, implementing the recommended package of coordinated policy interventions, which leverage the interconnections between environment, productivity, trade and gender equity, can enhance productivity and reduce prices of staple foods such as maize, beans and rice.Beans are among the staple foods in EAC. Credit: Georgina Smith, CIAT Terracing can help restore degraded land.Food insecurity and ecosystem degradation are worsening in the EAC region. Soil health is decreasing due to excessive nutrient mining and increased erosion; pest resistance and pest outbreaks are becoming more frequent due to inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides; biodiversity is declining; and ecosystems and their related services, crucial to food production, are at risk. Food insecurity is on the rise in most countries in the region (Table 1). Water scarcity is projected to become increasingly severe in EAC countries. (Table 2). The threshold for water stress resulting in disruptive water shortages is estimated at 1,700 m 3 per capita per year, while water availability below 1,000 m 3 per capita per year leads to serious challenges for food production and human health.Furthermore, nutrient mining in East Africa is among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa, with an estimated annual nutrient depletion rate of 41 kg nitrogen (N), 4 kg phosphorus (P) and 31 kg potassium (K) per hectare (Bekunda et al., 2002).Failure to halt ecosystem deterioration comes with a heavy financial cost on the individual countries. For instance, in Kenya and Tanzania, over a 30-year planning horizon, the respective costs of action against land degradation has been estimated at about 18.1 and 36.3 billion USD; but the costs of inaction are substantially higher, i.e., 74.9 and 138.8 billion USD, respectively (Kirui and mirzabaev, 2015). In other words, land degradation prevention activities could save four dollars for every dollar spent.Achieving food and nutrition security at national and regional levels will depend on urgently addressing ecosystem degradation and ensuring sustainable use of ecosystems. Our recommended solution is to implement a coordinated package of national policy changes that harness the interconnections between environment, productivity, trade and gender equity to ensure greater productivity and lower prices for staple foods as well as more sustainable use of ecosystem services.A review of key national policies related to trade, water, land and food security in each of the EAC countries revealed that, except for in Kenya, environmental preservation is inadequately embedded in trade policy frameworks. Particularly, no framework for valuation of ecosystem services exists in policy. Similarly, neither the environment nor trade policy frameworks attach ecosystem value to pricing and marketing of goods and services. Current policies therefore fail to provide incentive for production of staple foods that have minimal negative impacts on ecosystems.However, embedding and, most importantly, implementing policy mechanisms to ensure that resource users who degrade ecosystems or related services pay for resource replacement or rehabilitation could create incentive for sustainable use of ecosystems. For example, governments could instate a natural resources tax on commodities whose market prices do not accurately reflect the true environmental and social costs incurred in their production, such as the cost of land degradation. Furthermore, revenues generated from environment and natural resource taxes could be used to promote sustainable resource use and environmental protection.A comparison of the biological requirements of maize production with land characteristics showed that maize is not necessarily produced in suitable agroecologies.This study was carried out in five different areas, i.e., in Burundi; Rwanda; the agro-ecologies of Lake Zone in Kenya; the Kyoga plains and the Southern High-  \"Unsuitable\" to \"Highly Suitable\", were defined to identify how suitable each of the agro-ecologies were for production of four different crops (Figure 1-4).It was found that more than 41%, 75% and 84% of the area of arable land under maize production in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda respectively, is only marginally suitable for maize production. This failure to match suitable land to maize production was observed across all the study areas.Establishing suitability zones to ensure that crops are produced in suitable agroecologies in each of the EAC countries could help increase productivity as well as halt ecosystem degradation. To assess how inter-regional trade can be harnessed for increased agricultural productivity and sustainable use of ecosystems, two scenarios were developed, using a regional economic multi-market model of agriculture. Data on regional supply, demand and trade as well as input on yield potential from experts within the EAC region was used to construct the model, which was designed to connect the dynamics of supply and demand of the key staple crops to prices and trade patterns across the five EAC countries.The trade patterns and price differences across the region were tied to differences in supply and demand patterns as well as to transportation and transaction costs.Both scenarios explored the effects of reducing the cost of transporting staple foods within the EAC region by improving regional road and railway networks and removing unnecessary barriers to trade, such as inconsistent protocols for weighing of goods, controls and checkpoints.The first scenario proposes to reduce all transportation costs across the EAC by 50%. This is projected to support increased trade and benefit consumers, traders and governments. Reduced transport costs will reduce prices of staple foods in those countries able to import more, leading to increased demand and consumption of the staples in those regions, and greater benefits for their consumers. Prices will rise slightly in those regions now able to export to their neighbors, thereby stimulating increased production for the expanding market and providing benefits for producers. However, this intervention alone would not necessarily ensure that maize, rice and beans would be produced in zones of higher suitability. In this scenario, the overall harvested areas will be reduced by 1.9% (from 9,350,000 hectares to 9,171,000 hectares).The second scenario explores lowering transportation costs by 50% and increasing productivity of maize, rice and beans by 10%, such as through use of improved agricultural practices and technologies.As in the first scenario, lowering transportation costs is projected to reduce prices of staple foods in countries importing more from their neighbors, while increasing prices in the countries that export. The increase in yield, however, has the biggest effect on bean prices, making the price decreases in Rwanda and Burundi (the regional importers) greater and the price increases in Tanzania and Uganda (the exporters) smaller.In addition, improving crop productivity while also establishing better conditions for regional trade is projected to increase incentives for matching crop production with suitable agro-ecologies. In this scenario, crop choice becomes decoupled from both existing national demand and from immediate food needs because export to and import from other countries in the EAC becomes a viable option. This means that countries (and regions within countries) can leverage their comparative advantage and produce the crops most suitable for their local agro-ecologies and export domestically grown crops to elsewhere in the region, where demand is high, while importing those crops that are in demand, but not suitable for local agro-ecologies.For example, the area of maize produced under low suitability is projected to decrease by 20.7%; bean under low suitability by 18.3%; and bean in unsuitable zones by 91.1%. In contrast, beans and rice under high suitability are projected to increase by 4.6% and 1.5%, respectively.Finally, this second scenario projects a reduction of the overall harvested area by 5.5% (from 9,350,000 to 8,839,000 hectares), contributing to further reducing agricultural production's ecological footprint, paricularly by reducing water and soil pollution.improve gender equity for increased productivity, trade and more sustainable use of landNational policies within the EAC region were also reviewed to identify policy gaps related to gender equity. Gender mainstreaming was found to be weak in the national trade policies for Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda. For example, although policies recognize that empowering the private sector with business and entrepreneurial skills is key to boosting trade, no strategy exists for ensuring that marginalized groups, such as women, benefit. Besides, policies favor production for export under a trade liberalized setting, but have no clear agenda for supporting access to credit and inputs, barriers that generally prevent women from participating in trade. These disadvantages reduce women's productivity and competitive-ness as actors in the agricultural value chain as well as their overall market effectiveness.Furthermore, weak enforcement of rights of women and other marginalized groups on access to and control of land is eminent in the EAC countries (FIDA Kenya, 2009;Human Rights Watch, 2003;and mugabo, 2015). In Uganda for example, women's land and property rights have been favored in recent policy reforms (such as the National Land Policy of 2013), but the implementation and enforcement of such laws and policies remains a huge challenge (mugabo 2015).Information collected both through focus group discussions in all the agro-ecologies studied and by interviewing key informants and stakeholders complemented these findings. The initial conclusions show that males and females play dif-  2009).Furthermore, it is reported that women are the majority participants of cross-border trade in East Africa (Stiftung, 2006).Increasing the ability of women to engage freely in cross-border agricultural trade has the potential to improve food security and reduce poverty among vulnerable populations (USAID, 2012). Therefore, as pointed out earlier by Higgins (2012), removing the impediments faced by women and proactively promoting their participation in trade will boost exports and revenue for the various countries.Similarly, enhancing women's access and control over land resources is likely to lead to more sustainable management of land and other natural resources. Notably, women in the region contribute approximately 80% of the labor force (Ahabwe, 2011), but women's lack of land tenure means that they have limited incentives for conserving or investing in land, as pointed out by Eswaran et al., 2001;Gebremedhin and Swinton, 2003;and Gebreselassie et al., 2009. Thus, giving women greater control over land will lead to more sustainable use and, in turn, greater agricultural productivity.Finally, putting in place policy measures to encourage development of womenfriendly agricultural technologies that support preservation of ecosystems will be helpful. Women are important ecosystem stewards, but currently the majority of technologies developed are by and for men, and they are not always appropriate or accessible for women. There are limited education and training opportunities for women, as well as scarce resources and support for women's movements, networks, and entrepreneurship in green industry. Public and private expenditures towards the creation of gender friendly work environments remain low (UNIDO, 2015). Reversing this status quo and facilitating a more equal inclusion of both women and men could propel sustainable ecosystem management and lead to better development outcomes.Contour farming. Credit: Désiré Hakizimana, Kilimo Trust","tokenCount":"2067"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4f99a08ce95ddc7af20a93c131734e52","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/23401a27-41a5-4e9b-b823-6b408c9fc338/retrieve","id":"-216878458"},"keywords":["www","climatesecurity","cgiar","org Africa Climate Crisis Security Observatory www","climatesecurity","cgiar","org Climate Security Observatory Series"],"sieverID":"88b4ddee-e351-4e52-9a72-fcdd41d8fb36","pagecount":"11","content":"This factsheet answers if policy makers are aware of the climate security nexus, using social media analysis. The results show a disassociation between climate, socio-economic insecurities, and conflict in the public communications of policy makers.The relationship between climate and conflict has been receiving increased attention in the past decade, as the effects of climate change have shown to impact social and political stability. However, despite heightened interest and awareness regarding the potential linkages between the climate crisis and peace and security, this relationship has yet to be reflected in the policy arena. Policy cycles for national security and for climate adaptation and mitigation are often detached and do not reflect the complex pathways that link the two dimensions (Brzoska 2012).To explore the potential policy gap related to climate security, an innovative, data-driven method has been developed to assess the policy landscape of the Climate Security Observatory countries. Drawing on cutting edge academic research that relies on social media platforms as proxies for wider public discourse and engagement, digital methods approaches were applied to detect issue formations in online networked content (Rogers et al. 2015). The main research questions we address are:1. How salient is climate security in the policy agenda of the Climate Security Observatory countries?A machine-learning approach was applied to extract, process and analyze thousands of publicly available Tweets from policy makers to investigate the salience of climate security narratives and dynamics among policy actors at the national level.This factsheet summarizes the key findings for Kenya. Overall, results show a disassociation between climate, socio-economic insecurities, and conflict in the public communications of policy makers.Together with the Policy Coherence assessment, insights emerging from this analysis provide a starting point for the development of evidence-based advocacy and engagement strategies so that effective responses to climate change are sensitive to the interlinkages with the security context in the country.Twitter has been widely recognized as an important venue for institutional communications; news media increasingly rely on the platform as a primary source for official statements and positiontaking. Its potential as a real-time, topic-driven platform enables rapid detection of trends to uncover discourse dynamics (McDonald 2013). Hence, to frame perceptions around the climate-socio-economic insecurities-conflict nexus at the policy level in Kenya, an analysis of government communications on Twitter was performed.An algorithm was developed to extract all publicly available Tweets from the official accounts of central government bodies, ministries of agriculture, natural resources, and the environment, as well as national security bodies (Table 1), from which the presence of a climate security taxonomy was explored. In total, 43,376 Tweets were collected between 2012-09-13 to 2021-08-04.Then, building on the country-level impact pathways developed for Kenya and the other Climate Security Observatory countries, a taxonomy was constructed to establish broad categories and specific topics for classification. The overall framework consists of 115 terms, organized within seven groups of variables: Climate, Conflict, Agricultural impacts, Resources, socio-economic, socioecological, Political/Institutional. The terms were matched to AGROVOC 1 , the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) open-source, multilingual vocabulary. AGROVOC consists of more than 37,000 concepts covering FAO's areas of interest, such as food, nutrition, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, environment, etc. Vocabulary is available in up to 37 languages, which is particularly relevant as the multi-language definitions enable identification of topics in the original idioms of Tweets.For each topic, the corresponding AGROVOC definition was extracted, and a custom algorithm was developed to detect and classify the related terminology within the text of the Tweets. The topics were then assessed through correlation measures and sentiment analysis to identify the dynamics of linkages among them.In addition, leveraging on specific affordances of Twitter, network analysis enables assessing the relationships among policy actors by analyzing the accounts mentioned on their tweets. As defined in the Climate Security Observatory's country level network analysis, a network is a graphical representation of the relationships (edges) between different entities (nodes). In this case, the @ mentions are the nodes and their relations are the lines connecting pairs of nodes. This means that accounts are connected if they are mentioned by another. As the focus of this analysis is on the interaction between national security and climate adaptation and mitigation policy narratives, the network was restricted to the links between the 13 government accounts.No. TweetsNational Drawing on the mechanisms through which climate stressors may interact with socio-economic, ecological, and political dimensions identified in the Kenya impact pathways, Figure 1 shows their overall distribution, as frequency counts. 'Water' and 'Livestock' are the most regularly mentioned topics, followed by socio-economic variables 'Poverty', 'Hunger', and 'Food security'. The most present topics for climate and conflict variables are 'Rain' and 'Armed conflict', respectively.While the overall distribution of variables uncovers the cumulative prominence of topics, a temporal distribution provides a more nuanced perception of topic prevalence over time. Beyond the presence or absence of a topic, the algorithm also quantified their presence 2 . Figure 2 presents timelines for the prevalence of climate variables (top) and conflict variables (bottom) in the corpus of tweets. The visualization indicates not only which topics were in focus, but also when they were of most interest.Among climate variables, 'Rain' was the most prevalent topic throughout the period of analysis, with two major peaks in 2013 and 2019, both of which coincide with periods of extreme rainfall reported in the country (FEWS NET 2013; Wainwright et al. 2020). The conflict timeline shows higher variability among variables, with 'Armed conflict', 'Theft' and 'Crime' oscillating between peaks and low prevalence. The peaks in 2013 could be linked to the national elections held that year, in which there was widespread concern that the violent episodes seen in 2007 would be repeated. As identified in the impact pathways, 'Theft' is most likely associated to livestock raiding, a significant problem in the country's rural areas. Conversely, Tweets detected to contain conflict-related content are strongly correlated to several climate and socio-ecological variables, namely 'Rain', 'Land grabbing', 'Sea level' and 'Environmental degradation'. Though it is important to note that the level of correlations in the latter is lower, this suggests that Tweets that cover climate stressors generally do not make a link to potential insecurity outcomes, while Tweets that discuss different types of conflict do recognize ecological threats.The direct links between climate and conflict are presented in Figure 4, which features the correlations among the six conflict types described in the impact pathways and climate stressors and socioecological variables. The strongest positive associations (in blue) concern 'Armed conflicts' with 'Deforestation' and 'Rain'. However, it is notable that most variables present negative associations (in  red), meaning that the connection between climate and conflict is largely absent from the official discourse of Kenyan government actors on Twitter.A sentiment analysis algorithm was applied to identify the direction -or tone -of the Tweets. The analysis enables the creation of a sentiment index, where the scale of polarity consists of counting terms related to \"positive\" sentiment and terms related to \"negative\" sentiment, and where unrelated words have a score of 0. While the many positive results can be surprising, given the generally negative effects attributed to the climate crisis, these should be interpreted from an institutional communications lens, i.e., the messages policy makers wish to convey publicly. As such, Tweets tend to focus on actions and solutions.For instance, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry has been promoting a large campaign to plant trees countrywide (#TowardsTenPercentTreeCover is a frequent hashtag in the corpus) 3 , which helps explain the positivity associated to 'Environmental degradation' and 'Deforestation'. Likewise, 'Armed conflict' is often addressed from the perspective of state measures to tackle and prevent terrorism. Hence, topics associated to a negative sentiment can indicate not only areas where risks and insecurities are greater, but also challenges to which policy solutions have yet to advance.Lastly, one of the key affordances of Twitter is user interaction through the @mention, when an account is tagged and notified, giving it the ability to engage in direct public dialogue. The network in Figure 6 presents a visualization of the dynamics between the key state bodies representing climate, agriculture, natural resources and security interests. The spatialization of nodes was estimated with a force-directed algorithm that turns structural proximities into visual proximities (Jacomy et al. 2014).This means that linked nodes are drawn closer while unrelated nodes are pushed farther apart, thus facilitating interpretation of the data. The sizes of the nodes and the labels are partitioned by degree centrality, a measure of the number of connections to a particular node, whereas the edges are also weighed by the number of times a pair of nodes is connected. The graph points to the strongest connections between the Ministry of Environment and Forestry and central government accounts (Spokesperson and Government News), and between the Ministry of Interior and the National police, as well as to potential gaps in dialogue, as represented by weaker and absent connections.  ","tokenCount":"1470"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4c05f818e658505eb570038ef3f044c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/deb8e6d5-cdd3-485c-8d44-0de72f9a2d1c/retrieve","id":"-951160566"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eb989ab8-4fc7-4477-89fc-1293cc5f45b9","pagecount":"2","content":"P1682 -Product Line 3.1.1: On-farm, large-scale and global feed assessments and prioritization approaches Description of the innovation: Based on expert knowledge systematization, the Tropical Forages Selection Tool helps researchers, advisors, development specialists and farmers to make informed choices of species and genotypes for particular environments and farming systems. The tool was developed to capture the expertise of experienced, often retired, global forage specialists and present it in a structured way to guide a new generation of implementers. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 4: uptake by next user (USE) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Outcome Impact Case Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: The updated Tropical Forages Selection Tool and mobile apps were released in August 2020 and thus available to the end-users. The tool is currently being used on average by >6,500 unique visitors per month from the global Tropics, resulting in >40,000 monthly page views on average.","tokenCount":"164"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/5242200912.json b/data/part_1/5242200912.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"025aafe42f181bb870c108181f909b92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c36e1a3-d478-41d5-8cb7-05c9f1236026/retrieve","id":"726771695"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"905d1a30-bf46-44ef-afcc-6ce4b1700c15","pagecount":"83","content":"CASO DEL SISTEMA FRIJOL + MAIZ EN IPIALES, COWHBIA 1982-1986 J.N. Woolley1, J.A. Beltrán l , R.A. Vallej02 y M. Prager 3Este documento presenta un recuento sobre lo que se ha hecho hasta ahora en un programa de investigación en campos de agricultores (ICDA).Se hace énfasis en la evolución de las actividades año tras año y en la integración de la información agronómica y socioeconómica. Se pretende que este documento sea utilizado en ejercicios y discusiones en programas de capacitación en lCDA y que les proporcione ideas e información a científicos que trabajan en asociaciones de frijol/maíz.En el distrito de Ipiales al sur de Colombia se adelantó un proyecto ICA-CIAT sobre el subsistema frijol/maíz para probar la metodología de ICDA, demostrar su efectividad y generar tecnología apta para pequeños agricultores. El área objetivo tiene 10,000 ha de frijol voluble + maíz a una altitud que oscila entre 2450 y 2900 msnm; el 77 por ciento de los agricultores tiene menos de 4 ha y generalmente son propietarios de su tierra. Se mercadea el 94 por ciento del cultivo de frijol pero el maíz es un cultivo de subsistencia.La metodología empleada basó el diseño de diferentes tipos de ensayos en un reconocimiento inicial y una encuesta formal, rápidos y respaldados por breves estudios adicionales en la medida en que surgieron las necesidades. El trabajO de cuatro años con cambios realizados paso a paso en el subsistema frijol voluble + maíz condujo a la liberación de una variedad estable del tipo de semilla aceptable locahlente y a la identificación de una línea precoz estable como candidata para su liberación. Ambas pueden sembrarse a la densidad de población y espaciamientos utilizados por los agricultores o también a densidades mayores.Otros cambios tecnológicos identificados, con potencial de adopción por los agricultores, incluyeron un mejoramiento en el control de enfermedades foliares y el control del marchitamiento por Fusarium mediante el uso de las nuevas variedades y químicos. Algunos temas nuevos que surgieron durante el trabajo y los cuales se espera que conduzcan a tecnologías adoptables incluyen el cambio de las variedades de maíz para permitir la obtención de mayores rendimientos de maíz o frijol; la inoculación con Rhizobium con o sin mayor fertilización química, con el fín de aumentar los rendimientos sin perturbar el equilibrio maíz-frijol; y aspersiones foliares con sulfato de magnesio pare curar el amarillamiento foliar causado por bajas temperaturas.También se han identificado asocios de ciclo corto de frijoles volubles o arbustivos con maíz, lo\" cuales permiten incluir también un cultivo de rotación en el mismo ciclo.La metodología utilizada fue muy efectiva para identificar tecnologías adoptables por los agricultores. La participación de los agricultores ha sido importante en todas las etapas, pero especialmente en la evaluación de los ensayos. El ensayo espontáneo y la adopción de una línea por los agricultores condujo a la decisión de su liberación formal. Su difusión se ha retrasado por los bajos precios de mercado y las inusuales heladas.La lCDA ha dependido del suministro de líneas de frijol y poblaciones de maíz provenientes de la estación experimental de Obonuco, como también de una colaboración estrecha entre investigadores y extensionistas. El lCA está desarrollando un proyecto de lCDA, denominado generación y transferencia de tecnología en sistemas de producción en seis áreas de Colombia, siendo Tpia1es una de ellas, en parte por el resultado del trabajo que se presenta aquí.l.Hay interés en varias partes del mundo sobre la eficacia de la investigación en campos de agricultores. Hay, sin embargo. relativamente pocos informes sobre la ejecución de todo el proceso. Este documento describe en detalle un programa de investigación en campos de pequeños agricultores en Colombia y analiza algunos de sus éxitos y problemas. Como se trata de un proyecto que todavía se encuentra en marcha, las conclusiones pueden modificarse en el futuro, como es de esperar también habrá más logros para reportar.Desde 1978 el Programa de Frijol del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) y el Programa de T.eguminosas de Grano del InstitutoColombiano Agropecuario (ICA), han trabajado bajo un convenio sobre la investigación en frijol. Al principio, este trabajo se concentraba en programas de mejoramiento en estaciones experimentales, incluyendo la de Obonuco, departamento de Nariño. Sin embargo, hubo también trabajos sobre validación de tecnologías en campos de agricultores en los departamentos de Antioquia (Tobón et al, 1982) y Huila (Ruíz de Londoño et al, 1985).A principios de 1982, la investigación ICA-CIAT se inició en campos de agricultores, en el departamento de Nariño, enfocada hacia fríjol después de una solicitud al CIAT por parte de los directivos regionales del ICA. En el período de 1978-1982 se estimó que Nariño era tercero en la producc:!ón nacional de frijol con 9535t (15,000 ha) 76000t (113,600 ha) (URPA, 1985).(Entre 1983 de un total de y 1985, los extensionistas locales han estimado 25000 ha de frijol en Nariño).En 1982, las actividades del Programa de Frijol en campos de agricultores amplió el enfoque, expandiendo la validación de tecnologías (Sandere y '-ynam, 1982) al concepto de la investigación en campos de agricultores usando un modelo similar a los de otras instituciones, especialmente del CIMHYT. tas actividades de investigación en campos de agricultores en Nariño se encajaron dentro del marco metodológico descrito por Woolley y Pachico (1987) e incluyeron los pasos de selección del área de trabajo, diagnóstico (revisión de información secundaria, reconocimiento, encuesta y estudios especiales), de diseño (identificación de limitantes, grupos objetivos de agricultores y sus prácticas; identificación de soluciones apropiadas y diseño de ensayos) y de ensayos en campos de sgricultores (varietales, exploratorios, de niveles económicos, de verificación y semicomerciales) cada uno con sus diferentes métodos de evaluación (Figura 1).Con ayuda de estimativos de producción en cada municipio proporcionados por funciouarios del ICA, se identificaron tres zonas potenciales de trabajo. Un reconocimiento confirmó que el frijol era importante en cada una y que el clima, la situación agrícola y los sistemas de cultivos para frijol en las tres zonas fueron 10 suficientemente distintos para justificar el trabajo en todas. Una zona era el distrito Ipiales, las otras (Funes y El Tambo) se describen en otros documentos (Woolley et al, 1988a(Woolley et al, , 1988b)).Se procedió en mayo de 1982 a confirmar la bondad del distrito lpiales con base en la recopilación de información (principalmente por entrevistas con funcionarios del ICA) pero también por consulta de datos meteorológicos y escritos existentes (ICA, 1980). Ocho características tenían importancia.a. El distrito agrícola.b.Es una zona de 6 ha.c. El frijol agricultor se vende); lpiales es importante en el plan nacional de desarrollo de minifundio con 77% de las propiedades ocupando menos es una fuente importante de ingresos para el pequeño (la encuesta después estimó que el 94% de la producción siempre se siembra en asocio con maíz que se usa para el autoconsumo, siendo una de las fuentes principales de alimentos (las otras son la papa, cebada y trigal.Existe la estación experimental de Obonuco a 80 km de lpia1es que apoya los trabajos en la zona.e.Hay personal del lCA asignado al distrito lpiales, pero sus trabajos se habían concentrado en papa, trigo, cebada y ganado de leche debido a la falta de recursos para trabajar en frijol/maíz.f. Se estimaba un total de 10,000 ha de maíz asociado con frijol en el área de influencia del distrito lpia1es.g. El frijol de grano grande producido en la zona es fácilmente vendible a alto precio (US$l/kg en la cosecha de 1982).h. Las comunicaciones hacia y dentro de la zona son buenas gracias a la carretera Panamericana.El reconocimiento de la zona (ver sección 3), identificó cinco características más de la zona que confirmaron sus condiciones para un proyecto de investigación en campos de agricultores.i. Los agricultores de la zona demostraron mucho interés al ser interrogados sobre frijol y maíz y manifestaron sus deseos de conducir ensayos en la zona.Los rendimientos promedios de frijol en la zona eran muy bajos (1.00 kg/ha en nueve meses) a pesar de que los rendimientos de maíz eran algo más aceptables (2000 kg/ha).k.Los agricultores estaban acostumbrados a usar insumos (especialmente en papa, pero también en frijol/maíz). Sin embargo todo el maíz y frijol sembrado era de variedades locales.l.Existían tecnologías de la estación Obonuco aparentemente apropiadas para la zona.m. El sistema frIjol asociado con maíz es atractivo para los productores porque ofrece mayores retornos que el trigo y la cebada, pero implica menor riesgo y uso de capital que la papa.En tres días, durante el mes de mayo de 1982, un grupo de cuatro profesionales del CIAT (dos economistas y dos agrónomos) realizó un reconocimiento de la zona en compañía de extensionistas del lCA. Se cubrieron las partes donde se encontraba frijol en los municipios de Ipiales, Pupiales. Contadero, Gualmatán. Potosí, Córdoba. Puerres.Túquerres. Ospina y Sapuyes. Los últimos tres tenían relativamente poco frijol debido a su clima más frio y se eliminaron de la zona de trabajo inicial.En junio de 1982 se diseñó y ejecutó una encuesta para 45 agricultores de los otros siete municipios. T\"a planif icación del primer año de ensayos se hizo con base en la información del reconocimiento y de la encuesta. Los ensayos se sembraron en septiembre y octubre de 1982 en lpiales, Contadero, Gualmatán, Potosí y Córdoba. Pupiales y Puerres se excluyen para hacer más compacta la zona de investigación inicial. Para verificar los resultados de la encuesta y tener mayor información adicional, se ejecutó otra en febrero de 1983 a 27 agricultores de los cinco municipios en donde se concentraron los ensayos. Con base en la información secundaria, en el reconocimiento y en las dos encuestas (que eran consistentes entre si) (Pachico, 1984), se presents una breve descripción de la zona.La zona de trabajo cubre alturas entre 2450m (la parte más baja del valle del río Guáitara) hasta 2900m (lImite de las siembras de frijol por el frio: el maIz sigue hasta los 3000m y la papa hasta los 3200m).La topografía es generalmente quebrada y los suelos son andisoles.Hay un período más seco, de junio a agosto, y los meses más lluviosos son de octubre a diciembre seguidos por marzo y abril. La precipitación promedio se estima en 800 mm anualmente. La temperatura media varía de 11 a 14 Oc según la altura dentro de la zona. Datos de precipitación tomados a 2600 msnm en 2 fincas de la zona ubicadas en los municipios de Contadero e Ipiales, estimaron la precipitación en el año 1986 como 723 y 779 mm. Hay mayores datos disponibles de estaciones meteorológicas pero todas se encuentran en las partes mas altas de la zona de trabajo.Las estsciones ubicadas en las cabeceras de Puerres (2820 msnm) , Gualmatan (2830 msnm) y el aeropuerto de Ipiales (2960 msnm) , estimaron una precipitación promedia de 898, 880 y 875 mm anualmente (promedio 1980-1986).La fecha de siembra de frijol varía un poco entre los municipios más húmedos hacia el este de la zona (PotosI, Córdoba, Puerres y la vereda de Chaguaipe en Ipiales) y los mas secos hacia el oeste (Contad ero , Gualmatan, Pupiales y el resto de Ipiales). En el este las siembras se distribuyen de mayo a noviembre con un máximo en agosto (30%). En el oeste, el período es más corto, de agosto a noviembre, con un máximo en septiembre (32%) y octubre (41%).El frijol/maíz se siembra más comunmente después de papa (38% de los lotes de frijol), cebada (27%), frijol/maIz (20%), trigo (7%) o arveja (3%). En el este, una mayor proporción Se siembra después de un cultivo anterior de frijol/maIz y hay pocas siembras después de papa; en el oeste, se da lo contrario. Muchos agricultores niegan que existe un cultivo \"principal\" en sus fincas y enfrentan las variaciones de precios en el mercado sembrando un poco de todos los cultivos.El frijol/maíz se asocia con otros cultivos, incluyendo calabazas (84% de los lotes, pero con pocas plantas/ha), haba (Vicia faba) intercalada (50%) o quInoa (Chenopodium guinaal (8%). También se encuentra tupinus sp., pero solamente en los bordes de lotes de frijol/maíz.El 68% de los agricultores preparan la tierra con bueyes; el 11% con una combinación de tractor y bueyes; el 12% con tractor, y el 9% con azadón.Cuando se usan bueyes, 10 más común es dar dos aradas y una rastrillada.Se siembran 4 semillas de maíz y 2 de frijol. Todos los ensayos Se realizaron con agricultores quienes dedicaron una mayor parte de eu tiempo a la finca, en su mayoría, lo más típico del área. Los lotes solicitados a los agricultores, fueron casi siempre los que tenían destinados para la producción de frijol ese año, con el fin de obtener las prácticas típicas de rotación. Una excepción a esta regla fueron los campos con un historial de problemas de pudriciones radicales.Dentro del dominio de recomendación tentativo, los ensayos se distribuyeron de tal manera que se muestreara adecuadamente el rango de variabilidad en la textura del suelo, la fertilidad del mismo (generalmente se dispuso de los análisis de suelo antes de la siembra), la pendiente y la altitud.En todos los ensayos, los agricultores realizaron operaciones de rutina cuando no se trataba de tratamientos experimentales: preparación del terreno, desyerba, aporque y control de enfermedades foliares e insectos. Los investigadores aplicaron los fertilizantes en todos los ensayos, excepto en los semicomercia1es. En los ensayos de variedades, exploratorios y de niveles económicos, el testigo tncluído en el ensayo correspondió a la práctica modal identificada en las encuestas y aplicada por los investigadores. En los ensayos de verificación, el agricultor anfitrión primero sembraba su propia práctica como uno de los tratamientos. Luego. con la ayuda del agricultor, los investigadores imitaban dichas prácticas en otros tratamientos, cambiando solamente los componentes involucrados en la tecnología en prueba.La semilla de frijol utilizada en los ensayos era una mezcla de la semilla cosecbada de los ensayos de los agricultores del año anterior.La semilla producida en las estaciones experimentales solamente se utilizaba para líneas nuevas en su primer año de prueba. Cuando la variedad de maíz no correspondía a un tratamiento experimental, se utilizaba la semilla de maíz de cada agricultor (casi siempre Morocho Blanco).  En 1984B, cinco de los nueve agricultores utilizaron en sus aplicaciones productos que controlan la roya, en tanto que los investigadores no.Mortiño y Frijolica 0-3.2 respondieron al control de enfermedades aplicado por los investigadores pero 32980-1-41 no (Cuadro 8). 32980-1-41 sufrió un mayor ataque de roya que las otras líneas y el control de roya por algunos agricultores quizás explique la diferencia.El minador de la hoja fue un problema severo en 1982B. Los intentos de los investigadores por controlarlo con insecticidas piretroides sintéticos fueron infructuosos en dos ensayos, por 10 cual fue necesario aplicar metamidofos para evitarles la pérdida total del fríjol a los agricultores colaboradores. T\"a incidencia del minador de la hoja disminuyó marcadamente en 1983B hac iendo imposible la continuación de los estudios de control que se habían iniciado. A finales del ciclo 1985B reaparecieron los síntomas del minador de la hoja en algunas zonas.Existe el peligro del volcamiento del maíz si se aumenta el número de plantas de frijol por sitio. Por consiguiente, en los primeros intentos para aumentar la densidad de frijol se utilizó un componente que había sido evaluado a nivel de estación y de finca en el departamento de Antioquia, Colombia. Cada 0.5 ID se sembraron dos semillas de frijol y dos de maíz en lugar de cuatro de maíz y dos de frijol cada infiere que el uso de la fórmula 13-26-6 es apropiada, puesto que es factible que sea más barata que las aplicaciones separadas de N y K Y en ocasiones se pueden también obtener respuestas al P.La respuesta al magnesio fue variable en las fincas y entre años. Aunque no fue beneficioso en promedio. el magnesio aumentó el rendimiento de Frijolica 0-3.2 en 220 y 276 kg/ha en dos fincas que sufrieron de amarillamiento (véase la sección 4.12) en 1984B.La aplicación de 300 kg/ha de 13-26-6 aumentó los rendimientos tanto de frijol como de maíz en aproximadamente 100 kg/ha y fue económica en comparación con el nivel actual de los agricultores de 100 kg/ha. el cual a su vez dió una alta tasa marginal de retorno en comparación con la práctica de no fertilizar el cultivo (Cuadro 18). Solamente en 1985B, también se probaron niveles de 200 y 400 kg/ha de 13-26-6. Esta última dosis dio el mayor beneficio neto.A pesar de estos resultados, en los ensayos de verificación de 1985B, la aplicación de 300 kg de 13-26-6/ha solamente aumentó el rendimiento de maíz en campos con menos de 60 ppm de P y no aumentó el rendimiento de frijol en ninguno de los dominios tentativos (Cuadro 10). El diagnóstico actual del problema indica que una deficiencia de magnesio es agravada por el frio antes de la floración. El problema puede corregirse mediante aplicaciones foliares de sulfato de magnesio tan pronto como aparezca. Las aplicaciones al suelo al primer aporque también son efectivas, pero su alto costo (y ligero efecto negativo en campos sin amarillamientol las convierten en una \"póliza de seguros\" no atractiva.Cada año se ha realizado un ensayo de niveles económicos con el objeto de incluir otro cultivo después de la cosecha anterior de ma!z + frijol. La aceptabilidad de Frijol1ca 0-3.2 fue evaluada con 38 agricultores después de la cosecha de 1984B (Guerrero y Pachico, 1985). Los resultados fueron similares a los de un año antes (Cuadro 30), aunque ahora más agricultores notaban el pequeño descuento en su precio (Cuadro 31) estimado en 6.3 por ciento en junio de 1985. El 61 por ciento de los agricultores vendían Frijolica 0-3.2 solo y el resto mezclado con Mortiño. El tamaño del grano de Frijolica 0-3.2 y Mortiño varían de un año a otro y de una finca a otra. En 1984B, Frijolica 0-3.2 con frecuencia fue inferior en tamaño, aparentemente debido al problema del amar11lamiento. Los agricultores notaron la diferencia en tamaño, pero no consideraron a Frijolica 0-3.2 más susceptible al amar1llamiento que Mortiño (Cuadro 31).El 87 por ciento de los agricultores afirmaron que sembrarían Frijolica 0-3.2 en 19858 y el 85 por ciento guardó semilla para este propósito; en promedio, 6.7 kg de Frijolica 0-3.2 en comparación con 18.2 kg de Por 10 tanto, cuando se incluye la participación de los agricultores, la investigación a nivel de finca no es un proceso ni demorado ni costoso.A continuación se presenta un resumen sobre las formas como las experiencias en Ipiales han contribuído a la evolución de las metodologías utilizadas, con énfasis especial en la autocrítica.El reconocimiento fue útil para la preparación de la encuesta exploratoria que le siguió y para la preparación de la lista de problemas y posibles soluciones. Una mayor discusión de los resultados del reconocimiento habría permitido interrogar a los agricultores sobre las razones de ciertas prácticas para su inclusión en la encuesta exploratoria, como 10 recomendamos ahora. En retrospectiva, los ensayos planeados el primer año generalmente tuvieron en cuenta las necesidades y razoneS de los agricultores. Sin embargo, en el caso de la aplicación de fertilizantes, un mejor entendimiento inicial habría mejorado la calidad de los ensayos del primer año. En el reconocimiento, los investigadores encontraron que algunos agricultores aplicaban fertilizante al momento de la siembra. Sin embargo, en nuestro afán deducimos de los principios de nutrición vegetal y de los métodos de aplicación en la estación experimental de Obonuco, que esta práctica sería la más benéfica a nivel de finca, pero se presentaron daños radiculares y bajas poblaciones (sección 4.10). Una encuesta realizada el primer año mostró que pocos agricultores fertilizan al momento de la siembra y todos aplican el fertilizante por encima de la semilla (práctica que, dicho sea de paso, también puede perjudicar la población de plantas; véase el Cuadro 17).ta participación del agricultor puede dividirse en el manejo de los ensayos, la selección de tratamientos para ser incluidos en los ensayos y la evaluación de los ensayos. En los ensayos en pequeñas parcelas y de verificación, los agricul tores generalmen te han manej ado todas las variables no experimentales excepto la aplicación de fertilizantes, en la que las variaciones por manejo en la dosis pueden afectar severamente los resultados. En los ensayos semicomerciales, todas las prácticas han quedado en manos de los agricultores (Woolley y Paehico, 1987). A los agricultores no se les ha consultado explícitamente acerca de los tratamientos exactos que se deben incluir en los ensayos, aunque sus evaluaciones de ensayos anteriores influyen en la selección por parte del investigador. ta reacción de los agricultores en ensayos semicomerciales demostrará en el futuro de este proyecto si los investigadores han desperdiciado su esfuerzo debido a esta estrategia.Desde el principio. los agricultores han participado en la evaluación de los ensayos de verificación. En 1984B y 1985B se introdujo la evaluación de todos los ensayos por los agricultores. Se ha descubierto que, para una evaluación efectiva, el agricultor debe COnocer los tratamientos desde el momento en que se siembre el ensayo.La evaluación por parte del agricultor en ocasiones ha sido engañosa o posiblemente mal organizada por nosotros. Por ejemplo, los agricultores que manejaron una distancia de siembra en la hilera de 0.5 m en los ensayos exploratorios no detectaron problema alguno en su manejo.Incluso aquellos que trabajaron en parcelas más grandes en los ensayos de verificación, sólo expresaron, próximos a la cosecha, su rechazo a las prácticas de cultivo necesarias. Los agricultores también presentaron exceso de optimismo en cuanto a la venta de Frijolica 0-3.2 en mezcla con Mortiño, sin descuento en el precio. Obviamente, pudieron haber sido influenciados por el entusiasmo de los investigadores.Esta generalmente ha sido excelente, y se puede afirmar que la investigación en campos de agricultores ha unido grupos que originalmente estaban más separados. Los investigadores tanto a nivel de finca como de la estación experimental han estado involucrados en la planeación de la ICDA Y visitan mutuamente sus trabajos. En Obonuco se han sembrado copias de los ensayos para comparar los resultados con aquellos obtenidos con agricultores.En general, fue exitoso el rápido progreso hacia la verificación y la iniciación simultánea de varias líneas de investigación.Los ensayos de verificación no fueron exitosos en el primer año. principalmente debido a que los dos campos escogidos fueron inusitadamente improductivos. leA Llanogrande resultó estar mal adaptada al área. pero los agricultores no se sintieron desestimulados por ésto (ambos continuaron como colaboradores). En general. se puede afirmar que. si la verificación se comienza en el primer año. debe hacerse en suficientes fincas (por 10 menos cuatro por dominio).La variabilidad de las respuestas de un año a otro pueden interferir con una estrategia agresiva de investigación, pero generalmente no ha sido un problema en 1piales. La respuesta consistente de Frijolica 0-3. Las DMS para el maIz generalmente son aproximadamente tres veces superiores que las del frijol, puesto que el mafz es un cultivo de polinización cruzada y, por lo tanto, más variable de planta a planta que el frijol que es autopolinizado. Sin embargo, como las relaciones de precio frijol:maíz han promediado 3:1 (rango 2.4:1 a 4.5:0 en los cuatro años, los errores •en el rendimiento de frijol tienen, en promedio, tres veces más efecto en el beneficio neto estimado que errores del mismo tamaño en el rendimiento de maIz.Por consiguiente, no es necesario aumentar la precisión en los datos del mafz, a menos que la relación de precios frijol:mafz disminuya sustancialmente.Problemas en la definición de tratamientos para el control de enfermedades En la sección 4.7 se subestimó la efectividad del benomyl al comparar las prácticas variables de control de enfermedades que utiliza el agricultor, ajustadas según la ocurrencia de lluvias, con los tratamientos por calendario hechos por los investigadores. Comparar las nuevas prácticas de control de enfermedades con aquellas de los agricultores es un problema complejo. discutido en más detalle por Woolley (1987).8.5.3 Número de repeticiones/finca y número de fincas Generalmente han sido necesarios datos de cuatro fincas para ensayos de variedades volubles. con el fin de detectar fuertes interacciones genotipo x ambiente de algunas líneas menos deseables. Cuatro copias del ensayo exploratorio de 1982B aería el mínimo deseable (en efecto hubo cinco) y cuatro copias parece ser el mínimo deseable para ensayos que tratan sobre cambios en la densidad y el arreglo espacial. Se requirieron hasta nueve ensayos (dispersos en tres años) con el fin de entender el efecto de las aplicaciones de fertilizantes. El maíz parece menos variable y los resultados de solo dos fincas en el ensayo de maíz precoz se consideran como confiables.puede ser suficiente para entender Dos fincas infectadas por altO el control de las pudriciones radiculares. pero se deben sembrar más fincas puesto que la infección no puede garantizarse.En los ensayos de verificación, dos repeticiones a nivel de ca.da finca son necesarias según nuestra experiencia. Los datos derivados de una sola repetición en cada una de 14 fincas en 1983B fueron difíciles de interpretar puesto que se sospechaba que las parcelas de los extremos habían sido afectadas por una fuente de varianza nO experimental. Ocho ensayos de verificación cosechados era lo mínimo para poder estratificar bien una zona variable. como Ipiales. en 1985B.Dos líneas de trabajo que surgieron muestran la adaptabilidad de la lCDA a situaciones nuevas. Los ensayos sobre los beneficios de la inoculación comenzaron como estudio de respaldo para determinar el potencial de la ino('ulación y comparar la nodulación de Mortiño y Frijolica 0-3.2. Sin embargo. la inoculación pareció ser una manera de aumentar el suministro de nitrógeno al maíz '1 frijol sin aumentar la competencia por el maíz. perjudicial para el frijol. y en el segundo año ya se está probando en tratamientos \\m un ensayo de fertilizantes.En una serie de circunstancias diferentes. se iniciaron los estudios sobre el problema del amarillamiento debido a su aparición repentina y condujeron en 15 meses a la recomendación preliminar de hacer aplicaciones foliares curativas con magnesio.En una forma diferente. el tratamiento de la semilla con benomyl+ carboxin en polvo se evaluó como control para pudriciones radiculares, pero en cambio parece ofrecer protección temprana contra la antracnosis.La fumigación del suelo con captafol no protegió contra las pudriciones radiculares del frijol. pero dio un aumento inesperado en el rendimiento de maíz. Ninguno de estos resultados habia sido informado anteriormente. Por consiguiente, la investigación adaptativa en campos de agricultores puede conducir a nuevos temas para investigación de respaldo o adaptativa.Es desafortunado que el nombre utilizado para la línea Ecuador 605 como nueva variedad fuera escogido sin consultar a los investigadores locales y a los agricultores, y utilizando una serie de criterios aparentemente diseñados para la conveniencia de los administradores de la investigación.Nuestro conocimiento sobre el comportamiento del agricultor para nombrar materiales nos hubiera permitido predecir que los agricultores habrfan recortado el nombre \"Frijolica 0-3.2\" a \"Frijolica\", el mismo nombre dado a otras tres lfneas de frijol liberadas en 1985 y 1986. Se recomiendan nombres cortos, atractivos, y que hagan parte del vocabulario de los agricultores. El nombre de una área local (de donde también se inferiría la adaptación de la variedad p.e. ICA Pijao), fue usado anteriormente con éxito por el lCA. Estos aproximan el promedio de la relación frijol:maíz durante un período más largo, durante el cual hay datos disponibles. Por supuesto, las relaciones de precio frijol:fertilizante y maíz:fertilizante también afectan la interpretación de ciertos ensayos y tampoco son constantes.La variabilidad en retornos económicos de finca a finca para ciertas tecnologías esta fuera del alcance de este documento y se discute en otra parte (Luna y Valderrama, 1986) usando algunos datos de Ipiales.Para asociaciones de ciclo completo de maíz y frijol (que ocupan 8-9 meses a 2600 manm) , los siguientes componentes pueden ser adoptados independientemente por los agricultores:La variedad Frijolica 0-3.2, sembrada al espaciamiento normal de los agricultores y con el maíz de los agricultores o, si se desea un espaciamento más corto, con tres semillas de maíz y tres de frijol cada 0.8 m en la hilera (la ventaja de utilizar tres semillas de maíz y cuatro semillas de frijol se espera confirmar en poco tiempo). Alternativamente. la línea más precoz TIB 30-42 puede ser utilizada con las prácticas de los agricultores o con tres semillas de maíz y cuatro semillas de frijol a 0.8 m en la hilera.Se espera que el maíz Pool 7 quede confirmado como compañero apto para TIB 30-42.La adición de benomyl (0.5 kg/ha) a la fumigación que se utiliza actualmente para el control de enfermedades e insectos. con una reducción del maneb a 1.0 kg/ha.El tratamiento de la semilla de frijol con 0.75 g/kg de benomyl + 0.25 kg/ha de carboxin en polvo (recomendación provisional; se espera incluir captafol en polvo en lugar de benomyl + carboxin o junto con dicha mezcla).Para un cultivo de ciclo corto de 6-6.5 meses a 2600 mnsm, el sistema de         ","tokenCount":"4766"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2629574bde35decaf7bb22cb22ca4440","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b33979da-4fb7-4f42-97b5-a5d4dda96863/retrieve","id":"450341494"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"86d424d7-e35f-4b09-8a8c-260530dbc921","pagecount":"15","content":"ទាំ នតងបស់ ពួ កចគជាមួ យ នទឹ ផង្អ កពាក់ ព័ នធចដាយស័ ្្ គរ ិផរ\" (Dahlsrud, 2008)។ ចគលបំ ផងច តោោះោ ុ យ នទឹ ង្ទ សសនៈបុ រាផ្្ដ លចារ ់ទុ កការ ទទួ លខុ សត្វូ របស់ អាជី វកមមគឺ ត្វូ តចែ ើ ផឲ្យមាចស់ ភាគ ហុ នទទួ លាន ត្ ែ ក់ រាំ ផចញអរិ បរមា (Carroll and Shabana, 2010)។  (TransparencyI nternational,2008;Foranetal., 2010;Lawrence, 2009 (Foran et al., 2010;Fonseca, 2010 (Foran, 2010;Baghel and Nüsser, 2010)។ (LRQA and CSR Asia, 2010;Krechowicz and Fernando, 2009a;Krechowicz and Fernando, 2009b)    (Foran et al., 2010;King et al., 2007;LRQA and CSR Asia, 2010;Krechowicz and Fernando, 2009b;Matthews, 2012;Haas, 2008;Molle et al., 2009;Lawrence, 2009)  The SOK series sets out to evaluate the state of knowledge on subjects related to the impact, management and development of hydropower on the Mekong, including its tributaries. Publications in the series are issued by the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food -Mekong Programme. The series papers draw on both regional and international experience. Papers seek to gauge what is known about a specific subject and where there are gaps in our knowledge and understanding. All SOK papers are reviewed by experts in the field. Each section in a SOK papers ends with a conclusion about the state of knowledge on that topic. This may reflect high levels of certainty, intermediate levels, or low certainty.The SOK series is available for download from the CPWF Mekong website at http://mekong.waterandfood.org/ Reviewers cannot be held responsible for the contents of any SOK paper, which remains with the CPWF and associated partners identified in the document.This SOK has been edited by Terry Clayton at Red Plough International Co. Ltd. clayton@redplough.com and proofread by Clare Sandford claresandford@hotmail.co.ukDesign and lay-out by Remy Rossi rossiremy@gmail.com and Watcharapol Isarangkul nong.isarangkul@gmail.comThe Challenge Program on Water and Food was launched in 2002 as a reform initiative of the CGIAR, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research. CPWF aims to increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production (crops, fisheries and livestock). CPWF does this through an innovative research and development approach that brings together a broad range of scientists, development specialists, policy makers and communities to address the challenges of food security, poverty and water scarcity. CPWF is currently working in six river basins globally: Andes, Ganges, Limpopo, Mekong, Nile and Volta. More information can be found at www.waterandfood.org.In the Mekong, the CPWF works to to reduce poverty and foster development by optimizing the use of water in reservoirs.If it is successful, reservoirs in the Mekong will be: (a) managed in ways that are fairer and more equitable to all water users; (b) managed and coordinated across cascades to optimize benefits for all; (c) planned and managed to account for environmental and social needs; (d) used for multiple purposes besides hydropower alone; (e) better governed and the benefits better shared. More information can be found at www.mekong.waterandfood.org.Contact us at cpwf.mekong@gmail.com.SOK 3: ែារទទលួ ខសុ ្្ រូ វផ្ នែក សង្ មគ ែង្ ុ កែារអភិ វឌ្ ឍនវា៍ រី អគ្ គគសនី ី November 2013.","tokenCount":"494"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2471b9d6571a3b6af8cf21e4817f268d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1d6fe332-8ca1-4442-ba1b-de9d2492b5d8/retrieve","id":"-750570386"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"50d63658-c47a-437b-8e40-e5caedf8cd01","pagecount":"40","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.As in many southern African countries, cattle is the traditional indicator of wealth in Swaziland and, since prestige is derived from the number of cattle owned rather than their quality or commercial value, overgrazing is rife. There is however an opportunity for smallholder livestock keepers to increase their income from livestock sales as national and regional demand for meat is increasing and there are unmet export quotas for Europe (European Union and Norway).Extensive production systems are common for cattle producers with little investment as capital is limited to buy inputs and adopt new technologies in order to increase productivity and improve the quality of their animals. The above and dependency on rainfall, have been making formal lenders hesitate to disburse loans to farmers to boost productivity. However, increased access to irrigated land through various rural development programs such as the Lower Usuthu smallholder irrigation project (LUSIP) offers new opportunities to farmers. There is a potential to start grass/forage based fattening of animals which will significantly reduce the production costs and improve quality.The research conducted looks into cattle producers, fatteners and traders' production and marketing behavior and access to credit in two areas of Swaziland in order to inform the development of a financial instrument (a loan) that will help producers, fatteners and traders improve their competitiveness.The initial study (focus group discussions) was conducted between October 2013 and February 2014 followed by individual in depth interviews that lasted up to June 2014. In total one hundred and eleven persons were interviewed: fifty three cattle producers, thirty six cattle fatteners and twenty two cattle traders. The average age of cattle producers is 50.3 years, and 51.3 years for cattle traders. Cattle fatteners have the lowest average years (45.4), and mostly females (44%) compared to the producers and traders groups. The collected data was coded and entered into excel and analysed using STATA version 13.0.Main findings are:• Sales of beef cattle are the main source of income for all three groups, although this is of least importance for cattle traders. Traders obtain more than one third of their income from other agricultural activities such as livestock production, fattening, transport, etc. The high percentage of revenue derived from livestock by producers and fatteners is because many of them are unemployed and have no other source of income, selling a head of cattle will pay for household expenditures including school fees. About one third of cattle producers interviewed had not sold cattle in the past two years. Revenues from sugarcane farming contribute 30 to 35% for producers and fatteners. Around half of the producers, almost all fatteners and two thirds of traders interviewed were part of an association. • The area surveyed falls under Swazi national land. The average land size for cattle producers, fatteners and traders interviewed was 3.5, 2.3 and 3.8 hectares respectively. This land is mainly used for vegetables, maize and cotton farming. During the off-season, cattle are allowed to vii graze in the fields. Apart from land and cattle ownership, farmers own a number of assets such as vehicles, plough, and permanent houses. • All three groups deal with multiple livestock species (cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and chickens).Forty-one per cent of cattle producers own less than ten animals. For cattle fatteners, livestock ownership is almost evenly distributed for herd size of up to 50 cattle. Almost all the traders have been involved in cattle trading activities with different intensities during the past 12 months. Herd composition varies; more than half of the herds of producers are cows older than 4 years. Fatteners have mostly animals less than 24 months of age for both sexes. • Extensive systems are the most common for cattle producers and cattle fatteners. Twenty-five per cent of fatteners has indicated the exclusive use of stall-feed system (zero grazing), while other cattle producers and cattle fatteners indicated relying mostly on grazing supplemented in the dry season. Only 7% of the fatteners use commercial feed. The use of sugarcane tops still very low among farmers albeit this residue of the sugarcane industry is abundant in the region. • The average number of cattle sold during the last 12 months by cattle producers is 3.47; traders sold 37 and fatteners 18. The two main market channels for all groups are butchers and Swaziland Meat Industries (SMI). For producers, selling to other producers is also important. Producers are the most important cattle suppliers. There is a preference to purchase animals up to 2 years, although purchase of 3-5 year male cattle and old cows during the last 12 months does also happen. About half of the traders indicated that the quantity of animals on offer was less than in previous years, while the others thought it had remained the same or even increased. Seventy-three per cent of traders operate only in the Lubombo region. For producers, the mean selling price of cattle is SZL4382.68/animal. Cattle fatteners mostly sell animals on the basis of live weight (in Emalangeni per kilogram), the mean price being 20.51 SZL/kg (USD2/kg). • All existing agreements among the different groups are verbal and the following aspects are considered: time of sale, price, body condition, weight, age, animal health, regime followed, conditions and timing of payments and transport of animal at the time of sale. The majority of respondent groups are willing to be on a written contractual fattening agreement with the other stakeholder. Almost two-thirds of both cattle fatteners and cattle traders accepted to bear these operational costs. The majority of cattle producers prefer sharing the benefits with the traders rather than asking for a fixed amount. • Access to extension services is below 40% and knowledge on the use of suitable feed resources to fatten the animals is limited or inexistent among respondents. Access to market information is high (over 64%); for other farmers, extension services and buyers are important sources of information. • Almost all cattle fatteners and traders have a bank account compared to 70% of producers. Only around half of all respondents have access to credit for livestock/farming activities mostly due to lack of collaterals. Informal sources of credit such as friends/relatives were the most sited source of borrowing money for cattle producers and cattle fatteners. Almost two thirds of the traders declared preferring getting the loan individually and directly from the financial institution.Beef consumption is rising throughout the southern Africa region, providing opportunities on local, national and regional markets (IAASTD 2007;World Bank 2007). A variety of export initiatives, increased consumer income, population growth, and urbanization of southern African countries (growing influence of supermarkets), have increased the demand for quality beef, differentiated by grades and requiring formal slaughter and inspection (Katz and Boland 2000;McDermott et al. 2010;Scoones et al. 2010). This increase in demand should ideally translate to increasing income for cattle farmers including smallholders. However, as production is not market oriented incomes from livestock are low and irregular for many smallholders in the region.The increased demand for livestock and livestock products -livestock revolution (Delgado et al., 1999) in the European Union (EU) markets has also brought about opportunities for countries in southern Africa. The region was able to negotiate a deal with the EU for export of boneless beef under a generous reduced tariff, thus opening new markets and enabling the payment of premium prices to farmers (Scoones and Wolmer 2008). Some southern African countries such as Namibia and Swaziland have been allocated quotas for beef exports to the EU under the Lome's Convention (Sartorius Von Bach et al. 1998).Under this trade agreement, commercial beef producers have been gaining premium prices while smallholder farmers were excluded because inferior quality animals due amongst others to lack access to financial markets, land, irrigation, and production chains. Developing countries have initiated policies that promote, develop and encourage smallholder cattle farmers to produce into a more market oriented way.New opportunities have risen for Swaziland as recently the quota allocated to the country to supply boneless beef to the EU and Norway markets was increased (by 90% for the Norway market), and local demand for livestock products remains high. Furthermore, Swaziland Meat Industries (SMI), the country's only exporting abattoir, is adding more production lines that will focus on processed meat products. This will result in value addition in this industry and will reduce importation of these products. This is another development that may encourage farmers to engage more in commercialization.On the supply side, there are also a number of developments happening that may encourage increased cattle production and commercialization. The Swaziland the Livestock Development Policy provides the policy framework for smallholder farmers to improve their social and economic status through improved cattle production and commercialization. Access to irrigated land by smallholder farmers allow for improved production through growing of forages as well as the use of crop residues for animal feeding from the sugar cane industry. This area is still very under developed with most cattle farmers keeping their animals in extensive systems without supplementation.In 2011 Lidwala Insurance Company introduced an agricultural insurance package targeted at both the small and large commercial farmers. The package includes a comprehensive livestock policy which covers various livestock species. This access to insurance has encouraged commercial banks and microfinance institutions to invest in agricultural production although no particular financial products have been made available to date.As in many southern African countries, cattle is the traditional indicator of wealth in Swaziland and, since prestige is derived from the number of cattle owned rather than their quality or commercial value, overgrazing is rife. Many of the cattle are grazed on communal Swazi nation land (SNL), and there is therefore no incentive to preserve pastures and avoid overgrazing. As a result, Swaziland has one of the highest density grazing rates in Africa, one beast to each 1.6 hectares (Vilakati, 1994). This situation is further aggravated by the continuously expanding areas dedicated to sugar cane production reducing the available grazing area.The subsistence nature of livestock rearing in the country characterized by weak and low investments in the sector and poor linkages of most farmers to formal markets and value addition chains has led to low cattle off-take. According to data from 1998 (FAO), off take is 6.3% for smallholders on SNL which is similar to figures for the communal areas in South Africa (6%) (Scholtz and Bester 2010). Cattle production, and more particularly the beef industry value addition, is of little interest to investors and to the financial sector beyond a small number of large scale producers with strong links to or also owning slaughterhouses, processing and retailing facilities.Farmers generally need working capital to buy inputs and adopt new technologies in order to increase their agricultural productivity and improve the quality of their produce. Access to formal credit from financial and/or microfinance institutions is a key point. Dependency on rainfall and poor farming systems, have been making formal lenders hesitate to disburse loans to farmers for large-scale investments to boost productivity. In addition, a land title is one of the essential prerequisites for loan qualification set by the lending institutions, but which has been denied to most small-holder farmers. Smallholders in Swaziland are located in SNL, thus do not possess a land title.Despite various interventions of supplier-led approaches to credit, limited success has been achieved in improving access to credit, and Swaziland is still searching for better ways to improve access to credit for smallholder farmers. If the aim is to reduce poverty of smallholder farmers and to promote rural economic development, a shift in paradigm to a demand-driven approach in rural financial market is the way forward (Manganhele 2010). In Swaziland, there has been a renewal of interest in improving access to agricultural credit especially for sugarcane and vegetable farmers (Msibi 2009). Cattle farmers are still lagging behind as the livestock sub-sector is engulfed by poor animal husbandry practices, and limited market incentives.Few comprehensive attempts have been made to analyse Swaziland's credit policy for smallholder farmers in order to improve smallholders' access to credit. In Swaziland, smallholders have been targeted in a large number of projects with multiple pro-poor development objectives. In some cases these have been strongly technical and organizational in impact, with somewhat limited power to integrate the value chain to deliver business models that sustain the associated income streams (Wetengere and Kihongo 2012). Many attempts to support the establishment of feedlots or organizing livestock auctions in dry areas have failed mostly because they were not economically viable (grain-fed fattening systems are expensive) or due to the low prices paid to farmers (Msibi 2009).This study is part of an International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) funded project implemented by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) which aim is to enhance smallholders' cattle famers' access to credit form formal lending institutions through the implementation of a viable lending scheme directed to cattle producers, cattle fatteners and cattle traders. The main objectives of this study are to: i. characterize the type of producers, fatteners and traders involved in the beef value chain as well as their production systems and marketing channels; ii. determine the current credit access status of smallholder cattle producers, fatteners and traders; and iii. assess cattle producers and fatteners' willingness to adhere to a contractual fattening scheme with cattle traders and the different modalities that such contracts should include.The study was conducted in the Swaziland Water and Agriculture Development Enterprise (SWADE) project areas, as shown by the green colour in Figure 1, in the Lubombo District about 300 km from Mbabane (Capital city of Swaziland) and in the Hhohho District about 170 km from Mbabane. The study area is located in the lowveld which is one of the ecological zones in Swaziland. This area was chosen because of various SWADE implemented projects: LUSIP; Lower Usuthu smallholder irrigation project-Global Environment Facility (LUSIP-GEF) and the Komati downstream development project (KDDP).These projects allow smallholder rural farmers to have access to irrigated land for sugarcane farming and other agricultural activities and at the same time being able to conserve natural resources and the environment.The mean annual rainfall ranges from 440 mm to 570 mm and the mean annual evapo-transpiration is 2,057 mm. About 70% of the annual rainfall within the hot summer rainy season is from October to March. The mean annual temperature in winter ranges from a minimum of 5°C to a maximum of 20°C.As mentioned in the introduction section, three types of stakeholders participating into the beef value chain in Swaziland have been targeted:• Smallholders, either facing grazing constraints in dry or remote locations (graziers). These are referred hereafter as cattle producers.• Smallholders with access to fodder/feed who are located in irrigated areas 1 but do not have capital for livestock purchase (potential fatteners). Some of these stakeholders have already been involved in cattle fattening activities. We will refer to this group as cattle fatteners , and • Rural cattle traders and those developing small enterprises for rural economic development.Exhaustive lists from the three types of stakeholders have been elaborated from individual data provided by SWADE, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and local committees. Table 1 reports the different locations, districts, and the type of actors involved segmented by the gender.From the above list of stakeholders, a stratified random sampling procedure was applied. Random selected samples were obtained from each type of actors leading to a total one hundred and eleven (111) numbers of interviewed stakeholders and composed as: fifty three (53) cattle producers, twenty two ( 22) cattle traders and thirty six (36) cattle fatteners. In few cases some farmers 2 were not available or it was not possible to contact them, in that case they have been replaced by other respondents from a \"reserve\" random list. Socio-demographic characteristics of sampled farmers are summarized in Table 2. Most individuals who own cattle are males this especially the case of cattle producers and cattle traders (this trend is also observed in other developing countries in Africa). Women are more presents when it comes to cattle fattening activities. The average age of cattle producers is 50.3 years, and 51.3 years for cattle traders. Cattle fatteners have the lowest average years (45.4), and mostly females (44%) compared to the producers and traders groups. The term \"farmers\" will refer hereafter to the three types of actors: cattle producers, cattle fatteners and cattle traders.Fifty-eight per cent of cattle producers had formal education and 9% had informal education while almost one third were illiterate (respondents older than 60 years). Cattle fatteners had the highest percentage of secondary school education (36%). Out of all the cattle farmers, cattle traders (14%) had tertiary level of education with 6% of cattle fatteners while cattle producers had none. On average cattle farmers were in-between informal and primary school education level. Data was collected from both primary and secondary data sources. Focus group discussion (FGD) with cattle producers, fatteners and traders were first conducted during the period of October 2013-February 2014 to collect general information on cattle famers' husbandry practices as well as the relationships between the different actors involved in the value chain. In a second step, the information collected through FGDs was complemented by face-to-face interviews with the three types of stakeholders during the period of April-June 2014. Both open-ended and closed ended questions were used in the questionnaires because of the nature of the data that had to be collected from each group of stakeholders. Data that were collected through the questionnaires comprises of each stakeholders' socio-economic characteristics, cattle production and marketing practices, income received from cattle trading and other activities, involvement in contractual agreements and, access to credit. The questionnaires for cattle producers/fatteners and cattle traders are reported at the end of this document in Appendix 1 and 2 respectively.Secondary data were obtained from the MoA, Department of Veterinary and Livestock Services, SWADE, GIS unit from the LUSIP information management system (LIMS) department and the internet using published and unpublished documents.The collected data was coded and entered into excel and analysed using STATA version 13.0. Descriptive analysis was mainly used to analyse the data accompanied in some cases by graphics and figures to a better visualization of the results. For specific variables, cross-tables were estimated to assess possible correlation between these variables.As expected, cattle husbandry is the main business activities for the majority of cattle producers (91%), while for cattle fatteners, cattle production is the main source of income for two thirds of the respondents, and only 41% of cattle traders confirmed that cattle trading is their main business activity.Cattle farmers are generally involved in other agricultural and/or non-agricultural activities (Figure 2). Taking into account that the respondents were sampled from the LUSIP and KDDP areas where sugarcane and vegetable production are the main agricultural activities, 30% and 36% of cattle producers and cattle fatteners respectively depend on sugarcane farming. Due to diversification, 30% of cattle producers depend on other agricultural activities, such as vegetable and maize production. In addition to cattle trading, cattle traders are also involved in other activities such as farming and retailing (mainly as meat retailers).From a list of different items, respondents were asked to specify exactly which type of livestock and other agricultural related activities they are engaged in. Results (Figure 3) confirm the previous ones and what was expected. In fact, livestock producers are mainly concerned with livestock production and cropping, with few of them who are also providing slaughtering services. Almost the same pattern is observed for fatteners who are mostly involved in two types of activities: livestock production and As expected, traders are involved in many livestock and agricultural activities which enable them to reduce risk by diversifying their activities and generate additional incomes and liquidity. These activities vary from livestock production, fattening, transport, slaughtering, up to meat processing and retailing. Almost a fifth of the respondents from the traders' group also indicated that they are involved in cropping. Respondents were asked to rank the three main types of livestock species they are involved with in production and or/marketing activities (Figure 4). The first result is that, as expected, all cattle producers and cattle traders indicated cattle among the ranking of the three important species. This is not the case of fatteners where only 69% of them ranked cattle among the three main important species. In fact, in this group some fatteners have abandoned cattle fattening activities from many years because it was not economically viable. It's important to highlight that all traders as well as almost all producers ranked cattle as the first most important species, while for fatteners this proportion goes down to 72% (from the total number of fatteners' respondents who are currently involved in livestock activities).  The second result from the analysis is that more than two-thirds of cattle traders are also trading other livestock species especially poultry, goats and pigs. This proportion is even higher (three-quarter) in the case of cattle producers who also rear poultry or goats, and less (slightly more than half) for cattle fatteners who are also involved in poultry or piggery activities.The mean level of monthly income in other business activities for both cattle producers and fatteners, and cattle traders ranges between SZL1,000-2,000 and SZL2,001-5,000 3 , respectively. The share of income from cattle trading for cattle traders is 40% of their overall income. The high percentage of cattle producers (72%) deriving their income from beef cattle is attributed to the fact that most cattle producers are unemployed, they sell cattle for household income and to pay school fees. But this does not mean that they are involved in beef cattle production commercially. About 28% of cattle producers interviewed had not sold cattle in the past two years. This has led to the encouragement of cattle producers to commercialize livestock production in order to derive more income from the business and improve the economic status of livestock production in the country.Land is the most important asset as the majority of the respondents derived their livelihood from farm-based activities. The area surveyed falls under SNL, which is held in trust for the nation by the King through Chiefs who allocate usufruct rights to individual Swazi families or inherited from relatives. From the results, it can be gathered that the average land size for cattle producers, fatteners and traders interviewed was 3.5, 2.3 and 3.8 ha respectively. This land is mainly used for vegetables, maize and cotton farming. During the off-season, cattle are allowed to graze in the fields. A minority of the cattle farmers interviewed either share land with other family members or members of their association for farming (sugar cane or vegetable production). Assets' ownership of cattle farmers are reported in Table 3. Apart from land and cattle ownership, farmers own a number of assets such as vehicles, plough, and permanent houses. Only minority of cattle farmers from SNL own rental buildings in urban areas. Assets play a crucial role when it comes to access to credit as they are considered as collateral. From the survey results cattle farmers do not have assets that can be considered as collateral when taking up a loan for livestock production because their permanent houses are located in SNL (not considered as collateral), and most of their vehicles are imports (insurance companies do not insure this category of cars).In general, livestock keeping forms part of the Swazi tradition and is still considered a source of social status. From the survey results, all cattle farmers interviewed own livestock such as, cattle, goat, sheep and chicken. For cattle traders, trading activities (number of cattle purchased and number of cattle sold during the last year), was documented and results indicated that almost all the traders (95%) have been involved in cattle trading activities with different intensities. Figure 5 shows cattle distribution among cattle producers and fatteners. Farmers interviewed owned cattle ranging from 2 to 74. The number may not necessarily represent the actual number of cattle owned by the farmer as some respondents were reluctant to reveal their real cattle numbers. The government of Swaziland through the Swaziland Revenue Authority is investigating and exploring ways on how cattle farmers can start paying tax (Times of Swaziland 2014). Cattle ownership distribution is skewed with 41% of cattle producers owning less than 10 cattle while at the other extreme, 2% have more than 60 cattle. The rest of cattle producers fall within this continuum. For cattle fatteners, livestock ownership is almost evenly distributed for herd size of up to 50 cattle. Only 3% of cattle fatteners own more than 60 animals. The composition of the herd size is reported in Table 4. The mean herd size for cattle producers and fatteners are 17.4 and 18.4 respectively with high standard deviations, which confirms the disparity of cattle ownership within both groups. More cattle producers have female cattle than male cattle.  Forty per cent of cattle producers own male cattle older than four years (Min=1; Max=9; Mean=3.4), while 22% of cattle fatteners own this category of cattle. Results also indicate that most cattle farmers own young cattle than old cattle, which could points out to a possible increase in cattle fattening activities and a possible slightly higher propensity of farmers to sell their animals.Results in Table 5 indicate that extensive systems are the most common for both cattle producers (all respondents) and cattle fatteners groups (two-third of respondents). As indicated earlier, most cattle are grazed on SNL, which is confirmed by the survey's results. This is also the case for almost 90% of cattle fatteners.Seven out of 28 fatteners (25%) has indicated the exclusive use of stall-feed system (zero grazing), while other cattle producers and cattle fatteners indicated the use of a mixed system where grazing prevail when pasture is available with supplementation of crops residues, fodder and feed during the dry season. Only very few, seven out of 36 cattle fatteners use of industrial feed. This has 2 important implications: first, the daily weight gain per animal will be very low resulting in a longer fattening period; second, it indicates that commercially available feeds are expensive which discourages cattle fatteners to opt for stall-feeding system. This is also confirmed by the low success of the fattening contracts programme established between SMI and cattle fatteners in the past.As previously indicated, sampled farmers are located in regions where access to irrigation water is available, which explains that 60% of cattle producers and cattle fatteners use also crop residues for animal feeding. Sixty per cent of cattle producer and cattle fatteners use also crop residues for animal feeding which mostly entails letting the animals into the cropping areas after harvest or feeding them residues from legume production. There is very limited crop residue conservation taking place. (Table 5). The use of sugarcane tops still very low among farmers albeit this residue of the sugarcane industry is abundant in the region. Cattle producers in Swaziland, as stated earlier are reluctant to sell their animals. This is confirmed by the average number of cattle sold per year by cattle producers which is 3.47 (Table 6). As expected, cattle traders have the highest number of cattle sold per year (more than 37) but the standard deviation indicates that the data is widely spread among the group. Cattle fatteners occupy the second position with around 18 head of cattle sold per year. This could be considered as relatively a low average taking into consideration that fattening activity represents the main source of income for an important proportion of the sampled fatteners. However, the high standard deviation indicates that cattle sales vary significantly within the group of fatteners. Cattle producers generally sell different types of cattle ranging from 1-2 year steers/bull up to old cows, while cattle fatteners mainly sell mature male cattle (3-5 year) which they consider the best animal age/weight to market. Less frequently, cattle fatteners do also sell weaners and young cattle (1.-2 year steer/bull). On the other side, cattle traders' sales vary from weaners up to mature male cattle. They also sell old cows but less frequently.Almost 53% of cattle fatteners did not sell any cattle the previous year, as some of them ceased feedlotting in the year 2009. Almost a third of cattle producers (28%) have not sold any cattle during the last 12 months, said reasons were either stock building or there was no need to sell. Only one cattle trader never sold cattle the previous year because of lack of capital. Cattle producers market their animals through mainly two channels: butcheries or selling cattle to other producers. A smaller proportion of producers market their animals to processors/abattoirs (Figure 6), however butchers remain the first ranked customers for cattle producers. The trend is somehow different in the case of fatteners who also mainly work with two types of buyers: SMI and butchers. Although this result was expected, it's important to highlight the difference between both marketing channels when it comes to the first ranked customer. In fact, around 44% of the sampled fatteners indicated that SMI is their first client, while only 19% of the respondents reported that butcheries are their first customer. This highlights the impact of the contractual fattening programme between SMI and the fatteners. These contracts are verbal agreements that may also exist between fatteners and butchers.As expected, traders have more diversified marketing channels where for the majority of them butchers are among the important customers. A more focused look on the ranking of these buyers indicates that producers (36%) and SMI (32%) are ranked as the first customers for cattle traders which once again highlight the important role of SMI as cattle buyers during the last years.The mean price of selling cattle for producers is SZL4,382.68/animal; this is an average price including all types of cattle being sold by the producers. Cattle fatteners mostly sell animals on the basis of live weight (in Emalangeni per kilogram), the mean price being SZL20.51 /kg (USD2/kg).Traders were also asked about their main purchase channels for cattle. Results indicated that all respondents (those who bought animals during the last 12 months) indicated cattle producers among their suppliers, followed by collectors/traders (47%), and then brokers (21%). Again, if we only focus on the first ranked cattle supplier, almost all respondents (95%) indicated that cattle producers are their main supplier. This result shows the importance of cattle producers within the beef value chain in Swaziland and how vital to get them more market oriented and more involved in cattle business activities. This could be probably further improved if market infrastructure would exist as currently all transactions take place at the dip tanks.Table 7 indicates the type of cattle purchased by cattle traders from cattle producers and the reasons/purpose for purchasing, changes in number of cattle being purchased and reasons for the changes. Almost two-thirds of traders purchased weaners, almost half of them purchased 1-2 year steers/bulls, and one-third purchased 3-5 year male cattle, while only one-fifth (23%) purchased old cows during the last 12 months. A majority of cattle traders indicated that they sell the animals soon after purchase acting as brokers or intermediaries, and more than half of them fatten the animals for later sale (adding value through fattening activities). Cattle trading in Swaziland is not operated as a commercial business, for this reason contractual arrangements are rare and if done it is usually under verbal agreements. From the interviewed value chain actors around 43% of cattle producers, 65% of cattle fatteners and 52% of cattle traders are engaged in verbal/purchasing agreements.Farmers (producers, fatteners and traders) who indicated having verbal agreement with their buyers were asked to indicate with whom they have such agreements (Figure 7). Cattle producers have verbal agreements mainly with butchers and other cattle producers, which in some way confirm the previous results on the main marketing channels (Figure 6). As expected, fatteners are mainly verbally/written engaged with SMI, and some of them have also verbal agreements with butchers. The case of traders is different from the other stakeholders. In fact traders are for some reasons less proponent to have contractual written/verbal agreements with their clients and if it's the case, they'll prefer to stick to few of them. This is indicated by the relatively low proportion of traders who have verbal agreements with butchers: only 45% from the sub-group of traders who have contractual agreements with their customers while previously (Figure 6) it was shown that 82% of the traders are selling beef meat or live animals to the butcheries. that cattle buyers and/or cattle sellers are looking for when buying/selling the animals. Cattle buyers (such as, butchers, SMI, abattoirs , traders and farmers) and cattle sellers (producers, fatteners, traders) agree on the following important modalities before transacting: season (time of year), price, body condition of animal, weight of animal, age of animal, animal health regime followed, conditions and timing of payments and transport of animal at the time of sale. These are the general trends observed for the three studied cattle value chain actors; however it's important to highlight that in few cases, the importance of specific agreements varies among the farmers. For instance, the feeding regime followed is in general an important aspect for cattle fatteners and not important for a high proportion of producers.Generally the following aspects are not very important for the three groups of actors when negotiating the verbal contract: the animal breed, transport and supply of feed (except for fatteners), supply of any other livestock/cropping services or inputs by buyer, agreements surrounding labor or wage, exchange of any consumer goods and transport of animals at any time during growth. It's interesting that results from cattle fatteners are relatively different compared to the two other groups of producers and traders. In the latter case, there is somehow unanimity of responses from cattle producers or cattle traders (the proportions generally range between 70 and 100%) while in the case of fatteners for many responses it's possible to observe quasi-equal proportions (40 to 50%).  As the main objective of this project is to provide producers, fatteners and traders with loans to buy cattle and also to pay for operational costs, we were interested to check whether cattle producers and cattle fatteners were able to collaborate with the traders on the basis of a contractual agreement which specifies the technical and operational requirements for the fattening. Table 9 reports the different modalities discussed. First it's important to highlight the fact that the proportion of farmers involved in fattening activities is very low (less than half) and none of the producers reported that he has been involved in such livestock activities. Almost one third of traders have been involved in cattle fattening.The majority of fatteners' respondents started their activity recently (5 years ago) and almost all of them have feedlot premises with varying capacities.The three famer groups have provided approximately the same information about their preferred characteristics for weaners to be fattened and the fattening period. However some differences do exist and it's worthy to highlight them. First, it seems that fatteners prefer buying younger animals (15.2 months on average) compared to traders (17.9 months) and producers (18.3 months). The former are also willing to pay slightly a higher price compared to the two other groups, and prefer selling the fattened animal at around 450 kg weight which is higher compared to the targeted average weight of the other groups. This probably indicates the expertise and experience of the fatteners compared to traders and producers. Interestingly, it's the traders' group who are proposing the highest selling price this is probably due to their experience in cattle trading and the availability of potential buyers for quality beef.When assessing the average daily weight gain (the ratio between the average weight gain during the fattening period by the average number of days of the fattening period) from the results in Table 9, fattener (1.436 kg/day) and trader (1.421 kg/day) groups present the highest average indicators compared to the producer group (1.263). This was expected since that the former groups have some experience in fattening activities. However, these daily weight gains are very high compared to other experiences in Africa and in other developing countries. For instance, in Nigeria, Ayoola and Ayoade (1991) found that feeding a two-year cattle with crop residues supplemented with agro-industrial byproducts (cottonseed cake (CSC), brewers' dried grains (BDG) and molasses) for 120 days resulted in a daily weight gain of 0.67Kg/day. The same pattern was recorded in the case of Vietnamese cattle producers who have grown fodder (forage grasses) and used concentrate feed from farm-grown ingredients (such as cassava and rice bran) to fatten thin cattle provided by the traders and reached acceptable weight gain of 0.775 kg/day for a 3 month period of time (IFAD 2011).The majority of respondent groups are willing to be on a written contractual fattening agreement with the other stakeholder. Two-thirds of cattle producers and more than 80% of cattle fatteners accept to sign fattening contract with traders. Almost three-quarters of the traders are also willing to contract cattle producers/fatteners for fattening activities. These results indicate that the important enabling condition of partners' willingness to collaborate on a contractual and clear basis exists.Cattle producers are on average willing to fatten around five animals per year. Fatteners are willing to fatten on average 10 animals/year while for the traders' group the average is around 22 animals/year (the standard deviation is very high and the median is 10 animals). Generally the three groups prefer growing weaners and/or 1-2 year old steer/bull, although a slightly higher proportion of fatteners (45%) prefer weaners and higher proportions of traders (44%) and of producers (54%) prefer 1-2 year old steer/bull.When asked if they would agree to bear the operational costs of animal feeding, animal health and transport, less than half of cattle producers accepted. Almost two-thirds of both cattle fatteners and cattle traders accepted to bear these operational costs. The majority of cattle producers prefer sharing the benefits with the traders rather than asking for a fixed amount. In the former case, on average producers want to almost equally (48%) split the benefits with the traders after deducting operational costs. Nearly the same proportion of fatteners is willing to share on average 38% of the benefits with the traders. The latter stated that on average they are willing to share 27% of the benefits with the producers/fatteners after bearing the operational costs.These differences in profit sharing were expected since every group of actors tries to allocate the highest profits and also because this type of contract scheme is innovative/new for the different stakeholders involved. In a similar study in Vietnam (IFAD 2011), traders contracted loans from development bank and allocated cattle to producers for fattening. Feeding and labour costs were bear by the producers/fatteners. The agreement stated that the farmers would receive 90% of the benefit of the increased live weight gain during the fattening period. The trader would benefit from trading and receive 10% of the value of the weight gain generated to compensate him for his time and cost of loan (IFAD 2011).Almost the majority of respondents from the three groups indicated that they prefer monitoring the different production and fattening activities related to growth rate, feeding levels and types, and animal health and vaccination. This indicates that both contracted parties are concerned by the fattening activities and want to be involved in order to decrease the risks of financial losses due to poor fattening programme and animal health issues. However when it comes to taking responsibility of animal death, the responses differ among the three groups. A high proportion of cattle fatteners and more than half of cattle traders agree that if the animal dies within one month of the start of the fattening programme, it is the trader who is responsible. If the animal dies after one month it will be the responsibility of the fattener. For the producers' group, the majority of respondent stated that the trader is always held responsible for the cattle death. If the animal is stolen again the majority of fatteners and traders stated that it will be the responsibility of the fatteners, while the majority of cattle producers indicated that the trader will be held responsible of the stolen animal.Interestingly, a high proportion of producers and fatteners accept to share repaying the loan if the fattening activity was not successful. They generally prefer to agree with the trader on a specific amount that will be paid cash. When the three cattle value chain actors were asked what they will do if they have a better offer, more than half of respondents indicated they will stick with the actual contract.Others indicated they will renegotiate the contract and only one-fifth of the producers indicated they will abandon the contract.To conclude, from the results on this section, the general perception of establishing fattening contracts between cattle traders and cattle fatteners or cattle producers is positive and very promising. The majority of respondents are willing to take part to this scheme and want to be involved and monitor the fattening activities to increase the chances of success.Tables 10 and 11 provide information on access to extension services, market information, training and credit which play a vital role in the promotion of livestock production and marketing, thereby improving farmers' income and human capital. According to the survey results in Table 10, the proportion of cattle producers who have access to extension services is relatively low (29%), and slightly higher (42%) in the case cattle fatteners. Access to extension services is one of the factors for successful fattening and cattle production as farmers need the relevant expertise to improve their production skills. Results show that farmers are still unable to access these services. The provision of extension services to farmers in Swaziland is mainly the government's role. SWADE has taken over some of these services as government extension officers have difficulties in accessing the remote areas (limited support in terms of transport).The survey results indicate that cattle farmers have access to a selection of market information sources (Table 10). On average, 64% and 81% of cattle producers and cattle fatteners respectively have access to market information, such as market price information, type of animals to purchase/sell, type of buyers and quality of animals. For cattle producers, the main sources of information are other farmers (including traders), butchers, extension officers (government). While for cattle fatteners government extension officers are the most cited source of information followed by butchers and farmers.Training is an important factor in production and marketing of livestock in any developing country; however, a number of smallholder farmers are still unable to access training as a service. This service is mainly provided by government and non-governmental organizations. As shown in Table 10, almost half of cattle producers and cattle fatteners received cattle production training mainly on the following: record keeping, beef cattle marketing, beef cattle health, general farm management, pasture/rangeland establishment and management, and beef cattle feeding. Access to credit is one of the factors for successful livestock production and marketing as farmers need credit to improve their investment in new and improved technologies and purchasing of cattle. Inability to access credit inhibits production and hence there is a need for the improvement of credit availability. But to access credit from a commercial bank for instance; you need to have at least a bank account. The results from the sampled farmers indicate that the majority of cattle fatteners and cattle traders (around 91%) have a bank account (Table 11). These accounts were savings, investments and transmission accounts. The proportion of cattle producers with a bank account is lower (70%) compared to the other two groups; however, this is still higher compared to other cattle producers in developing countries.Almost half of cattle producers and cattle traders contracted a loan from a bank or a financial institution, and it is also the case for 70% of cattle fatteners. The latter who usually have written purchase agreement with SMI (or other meat processors) are logically more disposed to get the loans. Interestingly the Swaziland Development Finance Corporation (FINCORP), which is a private bank, is the main loan provider for cattle producers (almost two-third of cattle producers who contracted a loan) and cattle fatteners. Almost half of cattle traders who had contracted a loan declared that Swazibank (also a private bank) was their provider. Surprisingly, the majority of the financial institutions named by the three types of respondents are private banks. The role of micro-finance institutions as loan providers for the livestock sector seems very limited.  Generally, the loans contracted by cattle producers, cattle fatteners and cattle traders are for livestock and farming activities, although in few cases farmers could contract loans for other non-agricultural activities. Almost half of cattle producers and 55% of cattle fatteners and cattle traders indicated that they got access to credit for livestock/farming activities. But in addition to these formal money borrowing institutions, informal ways represent also an important source of credit. In fact, friends/relatives were the most sited source of borrowing money for cattle producers and cattle fatteners.Traders were also asked if they prefer getting directly an individual loan from a financial institution or if they prefer to get the loan from a traders' association after allocation from the bank. Almost two thirds of the traders (64%) declared preferring getting the loan individually and directly from the financial institution. The rest of respondent preferred borrowing the money from the traders' association.Establishment of farmers groups registered as farmer companies are encouraged in the LUSIP and KDDP area, as this will maximize the outreach of the project. According to the survey results (Table 12), 55% of cattle producers, 92% of cattle fatteners and 64% of cattle traders are members of an association. The main type of association that cattle farmers are involved in is sugarcane farmers association as this was the purpose of the SWADE projects.In addition there are feedlot farming association, maize farmers' association, and savings and credit cooperatives. It is evident from the results that the main benefit of being in an association or cooperative is that of improved income, access to credit, acquisition of new technologies and ideas, collective action and access to piped water for farming and production. Even though there is a national farmers' association called Swaziland National Agricultural Union (SNAU), the cattle farmers suggested that there is a need for a beef cattle farmers association if beef production will happen in a more market oriented way. The aim of this study was to assess smallholder cattle producers, fatteners and traders' access to credit and strengthening vertical coordination for cattle production and marketing in Swaziland. Specifically the study characterized cattle farmers' production and marketing activities, their access to credit, and their involvement into a beef value chain contractual agreement with other actors of the chain.Cattle production and trading plays an important role in the livelihood of cattle producers, cattle fatteners and cattle traders. For cattle producers it's a source of income and it also provide draught power for crop farming. Cattle traders are generally also involved in many others agricultural and nonagricultural activities which enable them to reduce risk and generate additional income and liquidity.Extensive systems using SNL is the predominant production system for the sampled populations, which has not only environmental implications (overgrazing and land degradation), but also affects animal growth as without supplementation it will only produce low quality animals. The existence of irrigation systems, acceptable plot sizes and crops should be better valued by cattle producers and fatteners, by growing fodder and using crop residues as feed resources for cattle.A large majority of cattle producers, cattle fatteners and cattle traders have limited or inexistent knowledge on the use of suitable feed resources to fatten the animals. Although the Swazi government is providing extension services, the proportion of cattle producers and cattle fatteners who have access to these services are low. More work is needed to reach a higher number of beneficiaries.The recent experience of fattening scheme contracts between SMI and cattle producers or cattle fatteners was not successful because of the feeding programme mainly based on grain intakes (high production costs) and also because of the monopolistic position of SMI. Lessons should be learnt to avoid such failures.Written fattening and/or selling contracts are very rare in Swaziland. However, value chain actors have verbal agreements (between buyers and sellers) which specifies the date of selling, the price, etc. The majority of respondents who were involved in this study are willing to be sign written contractual agreement between traders and producers/fatteners specifying the number of animals, who pays the operational costs, the profit share, the payment mode, etc. Surprisingly an important proportion of cattle producers/fatteners accept to share repaying the loan contracted by the trader if the fattening activity is not successful. This is of good notice for further possible implementation of written fattening contacts.The majority of producers, fatteners and traders have a bank account, but less than half of them were able to access credits from the banks or any other financial institutions. The lack of collaterals is the main constraint because the majority operates on SNL which is held in trust of the Swazi nation by the king. Swazi government and the private banks should agree on acceptable solutions that overcome this constraint. In other countries, private banks accept to consider animals as collateral. Currently, informal credit sources such as friends and relatives represent the most accessible lenders. However this is not a long term sustainable solution if there is real willingness from the Swazi government and the other value chain actors to develop and improve the beef sector.","tokenCount":"8283"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e1098984b30965876c78a24ec4bf20b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/24f3aa52-6231-4792-864e-ac845306bc15/content","id":"1019374823"},"keywords":["durum wheat","Tunisian landraces","center of diversity","genetic diversity","population structure","DArTseq technology"],"sieverID":"ef257e16-d0c6-40ba-9837-ba2157bcc89b","pagecount":"21","content":"Tunisia, being part of the secondary center of diversity for durum wheat, has rich unexploited landraces that are being continuously lost and replaced by high yielding modern cultivars. This study aimed to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of 196 durum wheat lines issued from landraces collected from Tunisia using Diversity Array Technology sequencing (DArTseq) and to understand possible ways of introduction in comparing them to landraces from surrounding countries. A total of 16,148 polymorphic DArTseq markers covering equally the A and B genomes were effective to assess the genetic diversity and to classify the accessions. Cluster analysis and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) allowed us to distinguish five distinct groups that matched well with the farmer's variety nomenclature. Interestingly, Mahmoudi and Biskri landraces constitute the same gene pool while Jenah Zarzoura constitutes a completely different group. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed that the genetic variation was among rather than within the landraces. DAPC analysis of the Tunisian, Mediterranean and West Asian landraces confirmed our previous population structure and showed a genetic similarity between the Tunisian and the North African landraces with the exception of Jenah Zarzoura being the most distant. The genomic characterization of the Tunisian collection will enhance their conservation and sustainable use.Durum wheat is the tenth most important crop worldwide, grown on 13 M ha with a production of 39.1 Mt in 2017 (International Grain Council, Grain Market reports, 2017) and is mainly used for pasta production. It is mainly grown in the countries around the Mediterranean basin and its cultivation has extended to India, Mexico, North America, and Russia [1,2]. North Africa grows around 2.5 M ha of durum wheat with around 1 M ha in Tunisia. Landraces are still grown under traditional farming systems and are highly appreciated for local dishes such as frikeh, burghul, couscous, but their acreage is reduced significantly with the large adoption of new cultivars released since the 1970s [3,4].Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. durum) is a self-pollinated allotetraploid cereal (2n = 4x = 28, AABB) originating from a cross between Aegilops speltoides (SS) and Triticum urartu (AA) and domesticated from primitive wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccum) in the Fertile Crescent around 8000 years ago [5][6][7][8][9]. North Africa and Abyssinian regions are considered as secondary centers of diversity for durum wheat [10]. Tunisia, being part of the secondary center of diversity for durum wheat, has a rich diversity in terms of landraces and wild relatives [11,12].Durum wheat landraces are valuable parental germplasm for wheat improvement programs around the world. Genesys database (www.genesys-pgr.com) contains 60,488 durum wheat accessions of which 22,600 are landraces. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) genebank holds one of the largest collections of durum wheat accounting more than 20,531 accessions of which more than 65% are landraces. The Tunisian genebank (NGBT) holds a total of 4000 accessions of durum wheat most of which are pure lines collected from the predominant remaining landraces.The Tunisian landraces are well adapted to a broad range of environments, genetically diverse, and are considered as an important reservoir of useful genes that could be exploited in wheat breeding programs [3,13,14]. A high genetic diversity of local Tunisian durum wheat has been reported using morphological, agronomic, physiological, and biochemical traits [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Sourour et al. [16] has shown important phenotypic diversity of the Tunisian germplasm estimated to 0.77 using Shannon-Weaver indices. Several molecular markers techniques were used to assess the genetic diversity in wheat including RFLP, RAPD, ISSR, AFLP, EST-SSR [17], DArT, and SNP [18,19]. A significant genetic difference using SSR markers was detected between landraces of durum wheat originated from Morocco and Syria using the Bayesian method and the Eigen analysis [20]. Medini et al. [21] reported high genetic diversity among 33 old Tunisian cultivars using 15 SSR markers. More recently, progress has been made for wheat in genomic research and genetic diversity analysis methods through the construction of a high-density SNP-based consensus map for durum wheat and the development of several next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms [22,23]. An Axiom 35K array used to genotype 370 entries of durum wheat panel allowed us to differentiate among improved varieties and landraces and to show that Middle East and Ethiopia had the lowest level of allelic diversity compared to other regions [24]. Many studies have shown that genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) has been increasingly adopted as a rapid and low-cost molecular technique for whole-genome SNP coverage [25], SNP discovery, genotyping, and genetic variability analysis for various crop species including durum wheat landraces [26][27][28]. The development of DArTseq™ technology has been applied successfully for large genomes such as barley [29] and polyploid or/and complex genomes such as tetraploid and hexaploid wheat [18,29,30]. The power of the DArTseq™ approach based on Illumina short read sequencing have been proven to be effective when used to study the genetic diversities of Syrian and Turkish durum wheat landraces [31,32], bread wheat [33], watermelon, and common bean landraces [34,35].The present study aimed at (1) characterizing for the first time the population structure and the genetic diversity within and among the Tunisian durum wheat collection, (2) looking at potential mis-classification by linking off types of landraces to local modern durum wheat varieties and/or other landraces, and (3) comparing the Tunisian durum wheat landraces to landraces from the countries around the Mediterranean basin and West Asia region using high throughput DArTseq™ technology.In this study, a total of 110,856 DArTseq markers were identified in a set of 196 lines issued from six Tunisian durum wheat landraces, of which 16,148 markers were found to be of high quality and polymorphic, after removing markers with more than 20% missing data and with less than 5% minor allele frequency (MAF). Around 10% of the markers had 0 heterozygote alleles. The average of the polymorphism information content (PIC) value of the DArTseq markers was 0.165, and the median was 0.105. The distribution of the majority of MAFs was between 0.05 and 0.15 (Figure 1). The DArTseq markers are well distributed across all the 14 chromosomes of durum wheat genomes based on the consensus bread wheat genetic map obtained from the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium database (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/download/iwgsc/). The distribution is almost equal between A (4201 markers) and B (4659 markers) genomes with the highest number of markers observed on the chromosomes 7A and 2B. However, 7324 markers are still unassigned to any of the chromosomes (Table 1). A similar range of genetic diversity values (He) is observed for both A and B genomes with an average of around 0.25. The maximum value of the expected heterozygosity (He) was observed at chromosome 6B (0.28) and the minimum value was seen for chromosomes 3A, 4A, 5A, and 5B (0.24). For all chromosomes, the expected heterozygosity values (He) were higher than the observed heterozygosity values (H0).  The DArTseq markers are well distributed across all the 14 chromosomes of durum wheat genomes based on the consensus bread wheat genetic map obtained from the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium database (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/download/iwgsc/). The distribution is almost equal between A (4201 markers) and B (4659 markers) genomes with the highest number of markers observed on the chromosomes 7A and 2B. However, 7324 markers are still unassigned to any of the chromosomes (Table 1). A similar range of genetic diversity values (H e ) is observed for both A and B genomes with an average of around 0.25. The maximum value of the expected heterozygosity (H e ) was observed at chromosome 6B (0.28) and the minimum value was seen for chromosomes 3A, 4A, 5A, and 5B (0.24). For all chromosomes, the expected heterozygosity values (H e ) were higher than the observed heterozygosity values (H 0 ). The allele sharing distance (ASD) among the 196 Tunisian landraces lines ranged from 0 to 0.79 with an average of 0.46 (Figure 2). However, different distance patterns were observed for different landraces. Jenah Zarzoura shows the lowest distance with an average of 0.1 and the lowest variability among its lines ranging from 0 to 0.16. For the Bidi landrace, the average distance is 0.17 with a range of 0.02-0.48. For Rommani, the average distance is 0.25 with values ranging between 0.02 and 0.63 and for Mahmoudi the average distance is 0.30 with a range of 0.35-0.58. Both Biskri and Jenah Khotifa show the highest average distances respectively of 0.43 and 0.44 with the largest variabilities reaching 0.78 and 0.61 respectively. The allele sharing distance (ASD) among the 196 Tunisian landraces lines ranged from 0 to 0.79 with an average of 0.46 (Figure 2). However, different distance patterns were observed for different landraces. Jenah Zarzoura shows the lowest distance with an average of 0.1 and the lowest variability among its lines ranging from 0 to 0.16. For the Bidi landrace, the average distance is 0.17 with a range of 0.02-0.48. For Rommani, the average distance is 0.25 with values ranging between 0.02 and 0.63 and for Mahmoudi the average distance is 0.30 with a range of 0.35-0.58. Both Biskri and Jenah Khotifa show the highest average distances respectively of 0.43 and 0.44 with the largest variabilities reaching 0.78 and 0.61 respectively. Cluster analysis of the 196 lines derived from the six Tunisian landraces was performed using the allele sharing distance (ASD) method and the results allowed us to group them into five clusters and to identify lines wrongly assigned to some landraces. The first cluster comprised all the lines of Jenah Zarzoura (Zar). The second cluster contained mainly Bidi lines (Bid). The third cluster is subdivided into two sub-groups, one containing Rommani lines (Rom) and the other having a mixture of lines from other landraces (seven from Biskri (Bis), three from Jenah Khotifa (jkf), and two from Bidi (Bid)). Cluster 4 had the majority of Jenah Khotifa lines (jkf) but contained also four lines of Rommani, two of Biskri, and one of Mahmoudi. The last cluster constitutes the largest one and gathered almost all lines of Biskri (Bis) and Mahmoudi (Mah) (Figure 3). Cluster analysis of the 196 lines derived from the six Tunisian landraces was performed using the allele sharing distance (ASD) method and the results allowed us to group them into five clusters and to identify lines wrongly assigned to some landraces. The first cluster comprised all the lines of Jenah Zarzoura (Zar). The second cluster contained mainly Bidi lines (Bid). The third cluster is subdivided into two sub-groups, one containing Rommani lines (Rom) and the other having a mixture of lines from other landraces (seven from Biskri (Bis), three from Jenah Khotifa (jkf), and two from Bidi (Bid)). Cluster 4 had the majority of Jenah Khotifa lines (jkf) but contained also four lines of Rommani, two of Biskri, and one of Mahmoudi. The last cluster constitutes the largest one and gathered almost all lines of Biskri (Bis) and Mahmoudi (Mah) (Figure 3). The DAPC (discriminant analysis of principal components) results showed that 88 Principal Components (PCs) explain 82% of the total molecular variance. The optimum number of clusters was obtained with K = 6 using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), which divided the lines into six sub-populations (Figure 4). The first subdivision level using the hierarchical population structure K = 2 separated Jenah Zarzoura lines (Zar) clearly from all the lines of the other landraces (Figure 5A). When K = 3, in addition to the separate sub-population of Jenah Zarzoura, two other sub-populations were identified, one combining most Mahmoudi (Mah) and Biskri (Bis) lines and the other included lines of landraces Bidi (Bid), Jenah Khotifa (jkf), and Rommani (Rom) (Figure 5B). With K = 4, a separate sub-population containing Jenah Khotifa lines appeared (Figure 5C); when K = 5, all the landraces were assigned to different sub-populations, except for Biskri and Mahmoudi, which remained grouped in the same sub-population (Figure 5D). The number of sub-population K = 5 was then chosen to differentiate between different landraces and the sub-populations were given the following names: BID for Bidi, BIS+MAH for Biskri and Mahmoudi, JKF for Jenah Khotifa, ROM for Rommani, and ZAR for Jenah Zarzoura.Increasing K to 6 resulted into the formation of an additional small group composed by 13 lines mainly of Biskri (7) and Jenah Khotifa (4) showing that these lines could be off-types within their respective landraces, which need further characterization (Figure 5E). The global population structure image was maintained for the values of K equal to 7 and 8 with all different landraces assigned to different sub-populations except the landraces Biskri and Mahmoudi that are still The DAPC (discriminant analysis of principal components) results showed that 88 Principal Components (PCs) explain 82% of the total molecular variance. The optimum number of clusters was obtained with K = 6 using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), which divided the lines into six sub-populations (Figure 4). The first subdivision level using the hierarchical population structure K = 2 separated Jenah Zarzoura lines (Zar) clearly from all the lines of the other landraces (Figure 5A). When K = 3, in addition to the separate sub-population of Jenah Zarzoura, two other sub-populations were identified, one combining most Mahmoudi (Mah) and Biskri (Bis) lines and the other included lines of landraces Bidi (Bid), Jenah Khotifa (jkf), and Rommani (Rom) (Figure 5B). With K = 4, a separate sub-population containing Jenah Khotifa lines appeared (Figure 5C); when K = 5, all the landraces were assigned to different sub-populations, except for Biskri and Mahmoudi, which remained grouped in the same sub-population (Figure 5D). The number of sub-population K = 5 was then chosen to differentiate between different landraces and the sub-populations were given the following names: BID for Bidi, BIS+MAH for Biskri and Mahmoudi, JKF for Jenah Khotifa, ROM for Rommani, and ZAR for Jenah Zarzoura.Increasing K to 6 resulted into the formation of an additional small group composed by 13 lines mainly of Biskri (7) and Jenah Khotifa (4) showing that these lines could be off-types within their respective landraces, which need further characterization (Figure 5E). The global population structure image was maintained for the values of K equal to 7 and 8 with all different landraces assigned to different sub-populations except the landraces Biskri and Mahmoudi that are still grouped in the same sub-population (Figure 5F).   The results of analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) for K = 2 to K = 7 showed that the variance between populations was high for K = 2 (31.92%), and it decreased for K = 3 and K = 4 (28.75% and 31.29%, respectively) to increase and reach a plateau for K = 5 with a slightly higher value (31.77%). The variance between lines within populations decreased from 11.32% for K = 2 to reach values close to 0% for K = 5. Comparing AMOVA results between populations with K = 5 and the real groups using the landrace's name clearly support the hypothesis that K = 5 better differentiates genetically the lines than the characterization of landraces by name, resulting in higher variance between populations (31.77% for K = 5 and 28.79% for real groups), lower variance between lines   The results of analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) for K = 2 to K = 7 showed that the variance between populations was high for K = 2 (31.92%), and it decreased for K = 3 and K = 4 (28.75% and 31.29%, respectively) to increase and reach a plateau for K = 5 with a slightly higher value (31.77%). The variance between lines within populations decreased from 11.32% for K = 2 to reach values close to 0% for K = 5. Comparing AMOVA results between populations with K = 5 and the real groups using the landrace's name clearly support the hypothesis that K = 5 better differentiates genetically the lines than the characterization of landraces by name, resulting in higher variance between populations (31.77% for K = 5 and 28.79% for real groups), lower variance between lines 68.23% for K = 5 and 70.39% for real groups, and lower variance between lines within populations (Table 2). Thus, these findings indicated a higher genetic variation among rather than within Tunisian landraces. The results of analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) for K = 2 to K = 7 showed that the variance between populations was high for K = 2 (31.92%), and it decreased for K = 3 and K = 4 (28.75% and 31.29%, respectively) to increase and reach a plateau for K = 5 with a slightly higher value (31.77%). The variance between lines within populations decreased from 11.32% for K = 2 to reach values close to 0% for K = 5. Comparing AMOVA results between populations with K = 5 and the real groups using the landrace's name clearly support the hypothesis that K = 5 better differentiates genetically the lines than the characterization of landraces by name, resulting in higher variance between populations (31.77% for K = 5 and 28.79% for real groups), lower variance between lines 68.23% for K = 5 and 70.39% for real groups, and lower variance between lines within populations (Table 2). Thus, these findings indicated a higher genetic variation among rather than within Tunisian landraces. Results from hierarchical AMOVA using hierarchical subdivision strata from K = 2 up to K = 5 indicated that most of the molecular variance was explained with the first level K = 2 separating Jenah Zarzoura from the other landraces (17.18%) and the fifth level K = 5 within the four groups (26.62%) separating Bidi, Rommani, and Jenah Khotifa and the large group constituted by Biskri and Mahmoudi. The remaining molecular variance (variance between lines) was also low compared to non-hierarchical AMOVA results (60.55%) using K = 5 (Table 3). Table 3. Hierarchical AMOVA results from K = 2 to K = 5 using hierarchical subdivision strata of 196 lines derived from the six durum wheat Tunisian landraces.Variations between K = 2 271.63 Finally, the resulted variance components from AMOVA analysis with K = 5 were significant when they were tested using permutations (Figure 6). These results showed that the structure found by number of groups with K = 5 was valid and not a result of a random effect. Results from hierarchical AMOVA using hierarchical subdivision strata from K = 2 up to K = 5 indicated that most of the molecular variance was explained with the first level K = 2 separating Jenah Zarzoura from the other landraces (17.18%) and the fifth level K = 5 within the four groups (26.62%) separating Bidi, Rommani, and Jenah Khotifa and the large group constituted by Biskri and Mahmoudi. The remaining molecular variance (variance between lines) was also low compared to non-hierarchical AMOVA results (60.55%) using K = 5 (Table 3).Table 3. Hierarchical AMOVA results from K = 2 to K = 5 using hierarchical subdivision strata of 196 lines derived from the six durum wheat Tunisian landraces.Variance Components Percentage Variations between K = 2 271.63 Finally, the resulted variance components from AMOVA analysis with K = 5 were significant when they were tested using permutations (Figure 6). These results showed that the structure found by number of groups with K = 5 was valid and not a result of a random effect. The genetic distance between landrace populations showed that Jenah Zarzoura sub-population is the farthest from all the other landraces, from Rommani (0.820), from Biskri and Mahmoudi (0.730), Figure 6. AMOVA permutations test using 1000 permutations for number of sub-population K = 5.The genetic distance between landrace populations showed that Jenah Zarzoura sub-population is the farthest from all the other landraces, from Rommani (0.820), from Biskri and Mahmoudi (0.730), from Jenah Khotifa (0.682), and from Bidi (0.816) (Table 4). Furthermore, the Jenah Khotifa sub-population was equally distant to the landraces Bidi and Rommani (0.557). These results confirmed the population subdivision found by DAPC, which separated the Jenah Zarzoura sub-population from the other landraces when K = 2 and grouped the sub-populations Jenah Khotifa, Bidi, and Rommani when K = 3. Results of genetic diversity estimates in each sub-population obtained based on DAPC with K = 5 show that the highest genetic diversity was observed within the Jenah Zarzoura and Rommani populations (H e = 0.27). The lowest genetic diversity was observed within the Bidi population (H e = 0.12). Biskri and Mahmoudi forming the same group with 73 lines showed a moderate genetic diversity (H e = 0.23). Based on F ST values, Jenah Zarzoura showed a low F ST value of 0.05. Thus, this population presents a genetic drift compared to the others, having a fixation of alternate alleles with F ST values superior to 0.25 (Table 5). The results from genetic diversity confirmed the results obtained using the allele sharing distance (ASD) between lines within the same population as shown in Figure 1. Cluster analysis based on the ASD method was performed using a set of 27 Tunisian durum wheat landrace populations, six local improved varieties, and seven ICARDA/CIMMYT inbred elite lines, along with lines which formed the additional sub-population when K = 6 from the previous set. This study aimed at showing the relationships among a larger number of Tunisian landraces, the differences with improved varieties, and germplasm and at shedding more light on the mis-classified lines included in the last sub-population where K = 6.Results of cluster analysis showed three main clusters (Figure 7). Cluster 1 contained most of the improved varieties released in Tunisia and the advanced lines from ICARDA and CIMMYT, along with three landraces; Azizi (Aziz P), Chetla 1(Chet1 P), and Jenah Khotifa 2 (JK2 P). The six mis-classified lines of Biskri (Bis) from the additional sub-population when K = 6 in the analysis of Set 1 are included in this cluster and are grouped with the improved variety Khiar (Khia T). Cluster 2 contained the majority of the Tunisian landraces along with two improved varieties: INRAT69 (INRA T) and Karim (Kari T). This cluster could be subdivided into two groups: a small group composed of six local landraces (Arbi (Arbi P), Rommani 3 (Rom3 P), Biskri 1(Bis1 P), Chetla 2 (Chet2 P), Richi (Richi P), and Agili (Agil P)) and the two improved varieties, Karim (Kar T) and INRAT 69 (INRA T) and a large group that can be further divided into two sub-groups, one of which constitutes a separate group with only Jenah Zarzoura lines (Zar1 L, Zar2 L, and Zar3 L) and the other of which is composed of the majority of local landraces: Jenah Khotifa 1(jkf1 P), Sbei (Sbei P), Mahmoudi (Mah P), Souri (Sour P), Bayadha (Baya P), Swabei Algia (SA P), Aouadi (Aoua P), Hamira (Hmir P), Rommani (Rom1 P), Bidi 1(Bid1 P), Bidi 3 ( Bid3 P), Rommani 2 (Rom2 P), Wardbled (WB P), Derbessi (Derb P), Chili (Chil P), Biskri 2 (Bis2 P), and Bidi 2 (Bid2 P). This last sub-group showed that the two lines of Jenah Khotifa (Jk2  The population structure of the Mediterranean and West Asian landraces along with four lines The population structure of the Mediterranean and West Asian landraces along with four lines representing each of six Tunisian landraces included in Set 1 was assessed using the DAPC method. The optimum number of groupings is determined with K = 12 based on the BIC criterion using 66 PCs, which explained 82% of the total molecular variation. Sub-population 6 showed that the Tunisian landraces Rommani (Rom), Jenah Khotifa (jkf), and Bidi (Bid) were grouped with the majority of the Algerian landraces (8); Sub-population 12 included all Ethiopian landraces (11), along with one accession from Afghanistan and two accessions from Yemen; Sub-population 9 included the Tunisian landraces Biskri (Bis) and Mahmoudi (Mah) that were grouped with the remaining five landraces from Tunisia, with the majority of Algerian and Lebanese landraces ( 6), and with some Moroccan landraces (3). Sub-population 11 included exclusively the Tunisian landrace Jenah Zarzoura (Zar) with two accessions from Jordan (Figure 8). The population structure results confirmed that the newly collected landrace Jenah Zarzoura constitutes a new gene pool and that the Tunisian landraces are genetically closer to North African landraces. PCs, which explained 82% of the total molecular variation. Sub-population 6 showed that the Tunisian landraces Rommani (Rom), Jenah Khotifa (jkf), and Bidi (Bid) were grouped with the majority of the Algerian landraces (8); Sub-population 12 included all Ethiopian landraces (11), along with one accession from Afghanistan and two accessions from Yemen; Sub-population 9 included the Tunisian landraces Biskri (Bis) and Mahmoudi (Mah) that were grouped with the remaining five landraces from Tunisia, with the majority of Algerian and Lebanese landraces ( 6), and with some Moroccan landraces (3). Sub-population 11 included exclusively the Tunisian landrace Jenah Zarzoura (Zar) with two accessions from Jordan (Figure 8). The population structure results confirmed that the newly collected landrace Jenah Zarzoura constitutes a new gene pool and that the Tunisian landraces are genetically closer to North African landraces. The molecular markers techniques are important tools for better understanding genetic diversity, undertaking association mapping and ensuring efficient conservation and management of genetic resources. This study demonstrated the relevance of DArTseq technology as a reliable and cost-effective tool for assessing the diversity within and between landraces and for comparing them with other germplasm of durum wheat. This technique yielded a large number of polymorphic and informative markers equally spread in the A and B genomes allowing high coverage of the genomes of the Tunisian durum wheat germplasm compared to other molecular techniques used previously. Similar genomes coverage was found on a panel of 170 durum wheat entries [27]. The large coverage of the genomes can serve to undertake association mapping in the studied germplasm, including finding new allelic variations for major breeders sought traits such as QTLs found by other studies The molecular markers techniques are important tools for better understanding genetic diversity, undertaking association mapping and ensuring efficient conservation and management of genetic resources. This study demonstrated the relevance of DArTseq technology as a reliable and cost-effective tool for assessing the diversity within and between landraces and for comparing them with other germplasm of durum wheat. This technique yielded a large number of polymorphic and informative markers equally spread in the A and B genomes allowing high coverage of the genomes of the Tunisian durum wheat germplasm compared to other molecular techniques used previously. Similar genomes coverage was found on a panel of 170 durum wheat entries [27]. The large coverage of the genomes can serve to undertake association mapping in the studied germplasm, including finding new allelic variations for major breeders sought traits such as QTLs found by other studies in chromosomes 7A and 2B linked to protein content [36], gluten strength and yellow pigment [37,38], and salinity tolerance and yield components [39,40]. DArTseq technology along with other high throughput and genotyping by sequencing molecular techniques are increasingly used to study the genetic diversity of different crops as they allow to study the genetic diversity of large number entries and complex genomes [41,42].Polymorphic information content (PIC) values revealed by DArTseq markers averaged 0.165 with an asymmetric distribution skewed towards low values. The same distribution tendency was found using the same approach for 91 durum wheat landraces from the Fertile Crescent and for 138 wheat germplasm from Southwest China [32,41]. Ren et al. [43] have shown the same PIC value for North African durum accessions (0.168) using 946 SNP markers as part of a genetic diversity study in a worldwide durum wheat germplasm collection. Recent studies using DArTseq markers reported higher PIC values for worldwide durum wheat accessions (0.35) and for accessions originating from central Fertile Crescent (0.26) [27,32]. A previous study on 34 Tunisian durum wheat old varieties reported a PIC value of 0.68 [25]. This difference is explained by the bi-allelic nature of DArT markers for which the maximum value for PIC is 0.5 compared to multi-allelic SSR markers with the maximum PIC value of 1 [44].The lines of the six Tunisian durum wheat landraces showed a moderate level of genetic diversity (H e = 0.25), which is higher than the one exhibited by a set of world-wide durum wheat collection (H e = 0.224) using SNP markers [43]. Our results confirmed previous findings showing that the Fertile Crescent and the eastern Mediterranean durum landraces are more diverse than those from the Western Mediterranean regions [45,46]. Although several studies revealed high genetic diversity in the Tunisian landraces based on phenotypic characterization [15,16], the moderate level of genetic diversity could be explained by the fact that the Tunisian durum wheat lines included in this study are derived from six landraces collected from a limited geographic area in the center and the south parts of Tunisia.Allele sharing distance using DArTseq markers allowed us to differentiate among the six landraces Jenah Zarzoura, Biskri, Jenah Khotifa, Mahmoudi, Bidi, and Rommani by showing different distance patterns. Two methods, clustering analysis based on ASD (allele sharing distance) and DAPC (discriminant analysis of principal components) were used for depicting the genetic relationship and structure of the Tunisian collection. The first method classified the panel into five groups matching mostly with the farmer's landraces names, with Jenah Zarzoura being the most distant and Mahmoudi and Biskri included in the same cluster. The closeness of Mahmoudi and Biskri is for a long time reported by Boeuf [11] based on glume and spike color, which could be due to the exchange of these landraces among farmers from Algeria and Tunisia [47]. The clear distinction of Jenah Zarzoura could be due to its confinement to a geographically limited area of the Mareth oasis or to a different pattern of introduction.The use of the multivariate method DAPC to evaluate the population structure showed better performance and allowed for a population subdivision similar to other studies [24,48]. Several molecular approaches were used to assess the population structure in durum wheat landraces from SSRs to DArTs [49,50]. More recently, GBS-SNPs and DArTseq approaches were mainly used for hexaploid wheat population structure studies [28,51], and some reports have described a durum wheat population structure based on the DArTseq technique that allowed to classify the Turkish and Syrian durum wheat landraces in the same gene pool [32]. The DAPC analysis results were in concordance with those of clustering analysis, despite minor differences. Both showed a good fit between the grouping and the names of the varieties, which reflects the ability of farmers to differentiate among the landraces. However, a small group composed of a mixture of landraces appeared, and some lines of the differentiated landraces are included in different clusters, which could be due mainly to mis-naming of the landraces during the collecting missions and to possible mixtures in the landraces. These findings confirm the multiline nature of landraces that is also found through morphological and agronomic characterization [52]. This heterogeneity offers an important buffering capacity of landraces in drought-prone and fluctuating environments.Hierarchical AMOVA analysis based on hierarchical subdivision strata from K = 2 up to K = 5 agreed with DAPC analysis results and supported the high level of molecular variance to K = 2 (17.18%) and to K = 5 (26.62%). AMOVA analysis results on the basis of the landraces' names indicated a higher genetic variation among (28.79%) rather than within (0.82%) Tunisian landraces. Taking in consideration the structure of the population based on the optimal number of grouping K = 5, AMOVA results showed an increase in percent of the explained genetic variance among landraces (~31.77%) and a decrease of the genetic variance within them. Soriano et al. [49] revealed much variability within sub-populations (83%) than between them (17%) and Mangini et al. [53] found higher genetic diversity within the two Italian durum wheat landraces \"Bianchetta\" and \"Grano Ricco\" (9.5 and 9.4%, respectively) and low genetic diversity within \"Dauno III.\".This study allowed us to assess for the first time the genetic diversity within and among the Tunisian durum wheat landraces using the DArTseq technique, which allowed us to show different levels of genetic diversity within landraces. Jenah Zarzoura and Rommani populations showed the highest genetic diversity (H e = 0.27), and the Bidi landrace showed the lowest genetic diversity (H e = 0.12). The low genetic variation within the landraces could be explained by the selection from farmers for desirable traits and/or from environmental conditions pressure. Compared to the other landraces, the Jenah Zarzoura landrace showed a high expected heterozygosity (H e = 0.268) and a low fixation index (F ST = 0.05). Thus, this small differentiation could be explained by the confinement of this landrace to a specific environment in the oasis of Mareth, which reflects the geographic isolation of the oasis of Mareth, limited seed exchange, and selection pressure by farmers. Most often, farmers are selecting the best representative spikes from a landrace to form the seed lots.The cluster analysis extended to 27 other Tunisian landraces, improved varieties, and germplasm along with the lines included in the mixed cluster when K = 6 from Set 1 showed large genetic diversity among the germplasm studied. The six lines of landrace Biskri mis-classified in the additional sub-population when K = 6 in the Set 1 analysis were grouped with the modern cultivar Khiar, and the two mis-classified lines of Mahmoudi and Jenah Khotifa were grouped with the elite germplasm (MCHCB-102). These results confirm the possibility of mixture in some landraces, which could be due to seed exchange and threshing practices as suggested by other studies [52,54]. This extended genetic study confirms the uniqueness of the Jenah Zarzoura landrace and the classification of Jenah Khotifa, Rommani, and Bidi lines with their respective landraces, but not with the other populations with the same name. This could be due to the mis-naming of landraces during seed exchange among farmers or during the collecting missions undertaken by the genebank teams.Tunisia is considered as a secondary center of diversity for durum wheat, and the introduction patterns of durum wheat landraces into Tunisia and North Africa are still under discussion. The DAPC analysis including landraces from Tunisia and landraces from the countries around the Mediterranean and West Asia regions allowed us to define 12 distinct groups, which can be used to highlight the relationships between Tunisian landraces and other landraces. Most Tunisian landraces held at the ICARDA genebank as well as the lines derived from landraces collected recently in Tunisia were grouped with landraces from North Africa neighboring countries and with landraces from Greece, Italy, and Lebanon. Jenah Zarzoura remained distinct from all landraces studied except for the two landraces from Jordan. These results suggest that most Tunisian landraces could be obtained through Lebanon via Greece and Italy, while Jenah Zarzoura was obtained through another introduction pathway. Previous reports have demonstrated two dispersal patterns of durum wheat in the Mediterranean Basin from the Fertile Crescent: over the north side via Turkey, Greece, and Italy and the south side via North Africa [55]. Moragues et al. [56] supported this hypothesis and classified a collection of durum wheat landraces originating from different Mediterranean countries in two groups: (i) landraces from the North and East Mediterranean basin and (ii) landraces from North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. More recently, Soriano et al. [49] showed an eastern-western dispersal of the Mediterranean durum landraces, which have been classified into four sub-populations: (i) Eastern Mediterranean, (ii) the Eastern Balkans and Turkey, (iii) the Western Balkans, and (iv) Egypt and the Western Mediterranean. The grouping of landraces from North Africa with Italy and Greece was also confirmed by Olivera et al. [57] and Nazco et al. [58], and could be explained by the Roman influence on durum wheat cultivation in North Africa. The early development of Carthage trade maritime activity in the Mediterranean sea enhanced seed exchanges between Tunisia and the Mediterranean countries [59], which might explain the grouping of the Bidi, Jenah Khoutifa, and Rommani lines with the majority of Algerian landraces (Sub-population 6) and that of the Biskri and Mahmoudi lines with Lebanese and Moroccan landraces (Sub-population 9). Moreover, our work confirmed that Biskri and Mahmoudi lines constitute the same gene pool and that Jenah Zarzoura lines constitute a new gene pool distant from the other Tunisian and foreign landraces, which were grouped with only two accessions from Jordan (Sub-population 11). A possible explanation is that the Jenah Zarzoura population, which was collected from the oasis of Mareth, located in the south of Tunisia, near the Mediterranean Sea, might have been introduced from the east through different paths, probably from Egypt to neighboring countries and possibly received from Palestine and Jordan [60,61], or through the introduction by the Phoenicians coming from Lebanon to Carthage between the 9th and 2nd centuries B.C [59]. During the Roman period (7th to 3rd centuries B.C.), Tunisia became the breadbasket of the Italian peninsula and the source of the excellent semolina quality from durum wheat grown in North-African countries [62]. The landraces of Tunisia and North Africa have also be traced to the introductions by Romans, who contributed to the modernization of the irrigation systems and extended wheat cultivation to Southern Tunisia [59].The results of this study can be used to direct future activities of collection, conservation, and the use of durum wheat genetic resources in Tunisia. In terms of adding new diversity to the existing collections, more collection is needed in Tunisia mainly in the oasis areas to collect different landraces like Jenah Zarzoura. Future studies of this kind of germplasm will shed more light on the specific nature of this germplasm as in the case of durum wheat germplasm from Ethiopia [24]. Additionally, more landraces from other regions, even if they have the same local names, should be collected and given different identifiers within the genebank database and considered as different accessions in the ex situ collection. When collecting, the team should avoid plants with characteristics of improved varieties to avoid mixtures. For ex situ conservation, the genebank in Tunisia should conserve the bulk seeds of each landrace instead of seeds of many individual lines constituting each landrace. This will reduce the cost of conservation and avoid conserving several copies of the same line. DArTseq markers have also allowed us to identify outlier lines within the landraces and can therefore be eliminated during multiplication and characterization. For landraces still prevailing under traditional farming systems and under harsh conditions, on-farm conservation could be promoted to conserve a larger genetic base and the associated local knowledge. The need for ensuring long-term conservation of Tunisian durum wheat landraces is dictated by the on-going genetic erosion due to the spread of newly released cultivars and by their richness in genes for tolerance to drought, heat, and salinity and their quality attributes for different end uses [63].This study used three sets of germplasm:• Set 1: A total of 196 pure lines issued from six Tunisian durum wheat landraces known as Mahmoudi, Rommani, Jenah Zarzoura, Bidi, Jenah Khotifa, and Biskri, collected from 5 regions between 2009 and 2010 and conserved by the National Genebank of Tunisia (NGBT), were used for assessing the intra and inter genetic diversity ( , Jordan (11), Israel/Palestine (10), Iraq (11), Iran (12), Afghanistan (16), Yemen (10), Greece (18), Cyprus (10), Italy (12), and Ethiopia (11)-randomly chosen from the ICARDA genebank collection along with four lines representing each Tunisian landraces from Set 1 were used for a genetic relationship study ( Table 8).The seeds for Sets 1 and 2 were taken from single plant spikes of each line, landrace, and germplasm grown at the Mornag INRA-Tunisia experiment station during the 2014-2015 growing season, while the seeds for Set 3 were send to CIMMYT from the ICARDA genebank within the joint effort to genotype wheat genetic resources.  Fresh young leaves from a single individual plant per accession have been used for genomic DNA extraction performed through a modified CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) method [64]. The DNA quality was determined by electrophoresis using 1% agarose gel and quantified with NanoDrop 8000 spectrophotometer V 2.1.0.A high-throughput genotyping method using DArTseq TM technology was employed to generate a genomic profile of the germplasm at the Genetic Analysis Service for Agriculture (SAGA) facility at CIMMYT, Mexico. This method used a combination of two restriction enzymes (PstI and HpaII) to reduce the genome complexity and to generate a genomic representation of the samples [31]. The genomic DNA was submitted to a process of digestion and ligation with a specific PstI-RE site-adapter tagged with 96 different barcodes, which allow to multiplex 96 DNA samples in a single lane of Illumina HiSeq2500 instrument (Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA, USA). The amplified fragments were sequenced up to 77 bases, generating around 500,000 unique reads per sample. A FASTQ files (full reads of 77 bp) were quality filtered using a Phred quality score of 30, which represents a 90% base call accuracy for at least 50% of the bases. An additional filter has been applied on barcode sequences. DArTsoft 14 was used to generate Silico-DArT score tables as data (1/0), indicating the presence/absence variation (PAV) markers and SNP markers.DArTseq markers were mapped using the consensus map version 4.0 (www.diversityarrays.com) developed by DArT Pty. Ltd., Australia, and the reference wheat genome issued from the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium database (IWGSC WGAv0.4), available online at https://urgi. versailles.inra.fr/download/iwgsc/.DArTseq raw data was filtered according to markers criterion; minor allele frequency >5% and missing data ≤20%.The summary statistics of the filtered DArTseq markers such as the expected heterozygosity (He) or genetic diversity (GD), minor allele frequency (MAF), and the polymorphic information content (PIC) [44], were calculated using R-project (http://www.r-project.org/) [65].For cluster analysis of the collection, allele sharing distance matrix was computed as described by Goa et al. [66]. The distance between individuals i and j was defined aswhere L is the total number of markers, and dij(l) is 0, 1, or 2 if individuals i and j have zero, one, or two allele(s) in common at Locus l. Classification of the individuals into groups was performed using the allele sharing matrix and Ward's minimum variance algorithm [67]. The clustering algorithm was run using the hclust function within the R package [68].Discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) was used to infer the number of clusters of genetically related individuals [48], using the adegenet package and popr in R-project [68]. DAPC is a multivariate analysis requiring three steps; first the data is transformed using principal component analysis, sub-groups are then identified using k-mean clustering, and discrimination between the sub-groups is then optimized using discriminant analysis. For the k-mean clustering, the optimal number of groups was identified using the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) as a measure of goodness of fit. The number of sub-groups (K) was set from 2 to 8 and the K-value with the lowest BIC was retained as the optimal number of clusters. A discriminant analysis was then implemented using the groups found by k-mean clustering [69].For detecting the genetic variation among and within population(s) and supporting the hypothesis of the population structure, analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed for different hierarchical subdivision levels as well as for the full population structure strata from K = 2 to K = 8. Significance levels for variance component were estimated based on 10,000 permutations using the randtest function in the R-project as described by Excoffier et al. [70].For genetic differentiation and relationships among the sub-populations issued from the population structure analysis, the genetic distance between the sub-populations using Reynolds genetic distance was computed [71], and the genetic indices, such as the observed heterozygosity (H o , the proportion of loci that are heterozygote for a population), the expected heterozygosity or genetic diversity (He, the fraction of all landraces which would be heterozygote for any randomly chosen locus), and the F-statistics (F ST ) as developed by Wright [72], were calculated.","tokenCount":"7262"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3ccde99c5265097fd2fa2d66de556eb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/ccd37ffb-2199-429a-837c-d54104c2dd74/content","id":"912755449"},"keywords":["Rust Resistance","Wheat Glossy","kompetetive allele"],"sieverID":"3e63164a-4f69-4f00-9b78-cc0eb41eb2b2","pagecount":"23","content":"An F 3 population from a Glossy Huguenot (GH)/Bansi cross used in a previous Australian study was advanced to F 6 for molecular mapping of adult plant stem rust resistance. Maturity differences among F 6 lines confounded assessments of stem rust response. GH was crossed with a stem rust susceptible F 6 recombinant inbred line (RIL), GHB14 (M14), with similar maturity and an F 6:7 population was developed through single seed descent method. F 7 and F 8 RILs were tested along with the parents at different locations. The F 6 individual plants and both parents were genotyped using the 90K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) wheat array. Stem rust resistance QTL on the long arms of chromosomes 1B (QSrGH.cs-1BL) and 2A (QSrGH.cs-2AL) were detected. QSrGH.cs-1BL and QSrGH.cs-2AL were both contributed by GH and explained 22% and 18% adult plant stem rust response variation, respectively, among GH/M14 RIL population. RILs carrying combinations of these QTL reduced more than 14% stem rust severity compared to those that possessed QSrGH.cs-1BL and QSrGH.cs-2AL individually. QSrGH.cs1BL was demonstrated to be the same as Sr58/Lr46/Yr29/Pm39 through marker genotyping. Lines lacking QSrGH.cs-1BL were used to Mendelise QSrGH.cs-2AL. Based on genomic locations of previously catalogued stem rust resistance genes and the QSrGH.cs-2AL map, it appeared to represent a new APR locus and was permanently named Sr63. SNP markers associated with Sr63 were converted to kompetetive allele speci c PCR (KASP) assays and were validated on a set of durum cultivars.Stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt), is one of the most devastating fungal diseases affecting wheat production worldwide. The detection of Pgt isolate Ug99 (Pretorious et al. 2000) and its variants with additional virulence led to a global research program (https://www.globalrust.org/). Subsequent appearance of highly virulent non-Ug99 races in Ethiopia (Olivera et al. 2012(Olivera et al. , 2015) ) and Germany (Olivera et al. 2017), and an outbreak of Pgt race TTTTF in Italy (http://rusttracker.cimmyt.org/? p=7083; Babiker et al. 2017;Bhattacharya 2017) on both common wheat and durum highlighted the need for continuous discovery of new resistance genes and monitoring of variation among Pgt populations.Of the 62 stem rust resistance genes that have been described; most belong to the race-speci c all-stage resistance (ASR) category. These genes generally confer high to moderate levels of resistance to avirulent races but are often short lived due to the emergence of new races with virulence for commercially deployed resistance genes. A few adult plant (APR) stem rust resistance genes include Sr2 (McFadden 1930), Sr55 (Herrera-Foessel et al. 2014), Sr56 (Bansal et al. 2014), Sr57 and Sr58 (Singh et al. 2015). APR genes typically reduce the growth rate of the pathogen (Herrera-Foessel et al. 2012) and may be race non-speci c. APR genes are also known to interact with ASR genes to enhance their expression (Ayliffe et al. 2013; Bariana et al. 2001;Lagudah 2011).Many stem rust resistance genes in hexaploid wheat were introgressed from wild relatives or progenitors including Sr2, Sr22 and Sr35 (Fedak 2015). Among the tetraploid species of wheat, T. turgidum ssp. durum, is the main species grown commercially. Durum, the 10th most important crop in the world with annual production of approximately 36 million metric tons, accounts for 5% of global wheat production (Bassi and Sanchez-Garcia 2017). Although the Mediterranean basin accounts for ~75% of global durum production, durum is grown to a lesser extent worldwide. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia is the largest wheat producer, with nearly 40% of its wheat growing area under durum production (Bergh et al. 2012) and accounting for 90% of durum production in that region (Sall et al. 2019). Despite its economic importance and value as a source of stem rust resistance genes in common wheat far less information is available on stem rust resistance in tetraploid wheat than in common wheat.Many commercial durum cultivars carry stem rust resistance genes Sr8b, Sr9e and Sr13a-d allelic variants either singly or in different combinations (Toor et al. 2013;Letta et al. 2013, Gill et al 2021), with only Sr13a-c being broadly effective against the Ug99 lineage. The adult plant stem rust resistance gene Sr2, which was introgressed into hexaploid wheat from tetraploid Yaroslav emmer, has remained effective for over a century (Ellis et al. 2014; https://globalrust.org/gene/sr2), but it is not known to be present in any durum cultivar. Relatively few studies have described new stem rust resistance genes including APR in durum genotypes. Herrera-Foessel et al (2011) reported the presence of Sr58/Lr46/Yr29 in durum cultivar Quetru and it was later detected in a large number of durum cultivars (Li et al. 2020). Haile et al. (2012) identi ed minor QTL against Ug99. Toor et al. (2013) screened 73 tetraploid landraces from the Watkins Collection and identi ed lines with varying levels of APR. Using association mapping on 183 elite durum accessions, Letta et al. (2013) identi ed 13 QTL located on chromosomal region where no stem rust resistance gene was reported previously; however, further characterization is required to determine the effectiveness and distribution of those QTL.According to Hare (1997) Glossy Huguenot is a waxless selection believed to be derived from the Algerian durum variety Huguenot, an awnless selection from Medeah. Both Huguenot and Medeah were cultivated in Western Australia between 1890 and 1922 (Valder 1900). Hare (1997) crossed Glossy Huguenot (GH, Aus2499) with the stem rust susceptible durum genotype Bansi and based on analysis of F 3 lines concluded that stem rust resistance in Glossy Huguenot was conferred by a single dominant APR gene.The possibility of a second gene was not ruled out. With the objective to map the adult plant stem rust resistance in Glossy Huguenot we developed a recombinant inbred line (RIL) F 6:7 population and conducted QTL analysis using the 90k single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) wheat array and identi ed resistance-linked molecular markers.Initially, F 3 population from a cross of adult plant resistant parent GH and susceptible parent Bansi were enhanced to F 5:6 RIL generation and the population was named GHB. This population was screened at the University of Sydney Plant Breeding Institute, Cobbitty in 2003-2010. The segregation for maturity and stripe rust among this population affected stem rust assessments. Hence, a set of 210 F 6:7 RILs from a cross between GH and a stem rust susceptible but stripe rust resistant RIL GHB14 (M14) was developed through single seed descent method. M14 was similar in maturity to GH. F 7 and F 8 generations were tested for adult plant stem rust response variation.A set of 20 Australian durum cultivars and 155 lines from 39th International Durum Screening Nursery (IDSN) from CIMMYT were used for marker validation. Parents Glossy Huguenot and M14 were included as controls.Adult plant stem rust phenotyping was done on the parents and 192 F 7 and F 8 RILs during 2014 and 2015 using race RTR (Singh 1991) at Ciudad Obregon, Mexico and F 8 RILs in 2019 at Njoro, Kenya. Stem rust response variation was scored based on disease severity (0 -100%). Pearson's correlation coe cients across years and locations were computed using R (R Core Team 2020, https://www.r-project.org/).DNA from F 6 generation was isolated according to Lagudah et al. (1991). A set of 192 RILs and parental lines were genotyped using the In nium 90K wheat SNP array described in Wang et al. (2014), following the manufacturer's instructions (Illumina Ltd, USA). A high-density linkage map was constructed from 7,811 markers using ASMap (Taylor and Butler 2017), an interface to MSTmap (Wu et al. 2008) for the R environment (R Core Team 2020, https://www.r-project.org/). Genetic distances were estimated using the Kosambi function (Kosambi 1943). Linkage groups were formed using the criterion of p >1e-6 for each pairwise marker association. Linkage groups were assigned to the 14 chromosomes using marker location in a durum consensus map that contained most of the markers (Maccaferri et al. 2015). Rust severity data from trials were analysed with a mixed linear model using ASReml-R (Butler et al. 2009), treating years as a xed effect and genotypes and replicates as random effects. The QTL analysis was performed using multivariate whole genome average interval mapping (Broman et al. 2003;Verbyla and Cullis 2012).In addition, we also used MapManager version QTXb20 (Manly et al. 2001) for linkage map construction.The Kosambi mapping function (Kosambi 1943) was used to convert recombination fractions into centiMorgans (cM). The redundant markers were excluded using the command \"hide redundant loci\", option and the phenotypic data imported into MapManager. QTL cartographer (Wang et al. 2012) was used for composite interval mapping (CIM) with 1000 permutations. Graphical representation of the linkage map was generated using MapChart (Voorrips 2002).Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers previously assigned to different wheat chromosomes were obtained from the GrainGenes website (https://wheat.pw.usda.gov/GG3/). Kompetitive allele speci c PCR (KASP) assays for trait-linked SNPs were obtained from PolyMarker (http://www.polymarker.info/designed_primers). All KASP markers were tested on the entire RIL population. PCR reactions were performed in 96-well plates in a total volume of 8 µl, comprising of 25-30 ng of genomic DNA, 4 µl of KASP master mix (LGC Biosearch Technologies, Hoddesdon, UK) and 0.11 µl of assay mix containing 12 mM of each allele-speci c forward primer, and 36 mM of reverse primer. The cycling conditions were: 15 min at 95 o C, 10 touchdown cycles of 20 sec at 94 o C, 60 sec at 65 o C (dropping 0.8 o C per cycle), 25 cycles of 20 sec at 94 o C, and nally 60 sec at 57 o C. Fluorescence detection of PCR products was done using Bio-Rad CFX96 manager v 3.1 software. If genotyping clusters were not formed after initial ampli cation, 5 to 8 additional ampli cation cycles were performed, and the samples read again. SNPLr46G22, linked to the Lr46/Sr58/Yr29 APR locus (Lagudah unpublished) was used as a KASP marker to genotype the mapping population based on Kandiah et al. (2020). KASP_32429 was ampli ed using allele speci c primers 1. Agtgaatgcattgctcataaaaatt, 2. Agtgaatgcattgctcataaaaatg and a common primer cattaaccagtaaccaccaaagg. Allele primers 1 and 2 were tagged with FAM and HEX, respectively.Mean stem rust severities across sites/years for RIL carrying GH and M14 alleles for peak markers were compared to assess QTL interaction and to determine their individual mean contributions towards reductions in stem rust severity. Least signi cant differences (LSD) were calculated to compare mean disease severities of RILs carrying different combinations of QTL using R (https://www.r-project.org/).Adult plant rust responses GH exhibited 10 to 20% stem rust severities across all eld trials whereas the responses of the susceptible parent M14 ranged from 50 to 100%. The stem rust responses of RILs ranged from 10 to 80% in 2014 and 2019 trials, whereas 20 to 100% disease severities were noted in 2015. Figure 1 shows the distribution of disease severity during three seasons. The high inoculum pressure in 2015 compared to the other seasons resulted in higher disease severities across whole population.The map of the GH/M14 RIL population (192 lines) comprised 23 linkage groups, each of which mapped with high con dence to one of the 14 durum chromosomes. A high-quality map was generated based on 7,812 SNPs distributed across all 23 linkage groups. There were 1,293 recombination bins, resulting in an average of six markers per bin covering a total map length of 1,937.2 cM.Signi cantly positive correlations among the rust severity data among the three trials were observed (Table 1). One QTL each was detected on the long arms of chromosomes 1B and 2A in each growing season and these were named QSrGH.cs-1BL and QSrGH.cs-2AL, respectively. Both QTL were contributed by GH. The positions of SNP markers associated with both QTL are shown in Figure 2, and the QTL intervals, likelihood of odds (LOD) scores and phenotypic variation explained (PVA) are presented in Table 2. Several SSR markers previously mapped to chromosomes 1B and 2A were used to de ne the target regions. Only gpw1077-1B among nine SSR markers was polymorphic between the parents and was used for mapping (Figure 3). Markers gwm265, gwm382, gwm312 and cfa2164 from chromosome 2A were polymorphic between the parents and all were used in mapping, only gwm312 mapped close to the QTL and is included in the map (Figure 3).  Mendelisation of QSrGH.cs-2ALQSrGH.cs-1BL was mapped to the chromosome 1B region reported to carry the pleiotropic gene Lr46/Yr29/Sr58/Pm39. This QTL was therefore considered to be either Sr58 or a closely linked gene.Genotyping with Sr58/Lr46/Yr29/Pm39 (hereafter referred to as Sr58)-closely linked marker csLV46G22 predicted its presence in GH. The GH/M14 RILs that carried the Sr58-linked csLV46G22 allele were removed and the remaining RIL population was used to Mendelise QSrGH.cs-2AL. Thirty-seven RILs were scored resistant (mean stem rust severity 52.1%) and 36 were susceptible (stem rust severity 64.5%). The phenotypic data were converted into genotypes; 'A' for GH and 'B' for M14 and incorporated into the GH/M14 map. QSrGH.cs-2AL was anked by markers IWB32429 (2.7 cM) and IWB4881 (3.0 cM) (Figure 3). This locus was named Sr63.The SNP markers linked to QSrGH.cs-2AL (Figure 3,4) were converted to KASP assays. Only IWB32429 was reliably scored as a diagnostic KASP (KASP_32429). As expected, the KASP marker co-segregated with the respective SNP from which it was developed. KASP_32429 was also used for genotyping a panel of durum cultivars. No cultivar carried the Sr63-linked KASP_32429 allele indicating the absence of QSrGH.cs-2AL (Table 4). Of the 155 durums from CIMMYT, 2 showed the Sr63 diagnostic SNP (Table S1). This marker will be useful for marker assisted introgression of this APR allele. Marker csLV46G22 diagnostic for Sr58/Lr46/Yr29 has been described previously (Cobo et al. 2018;Kandiah et al. 2020) Assessment of QTL interaction GH contributed both QTL QSrGH.cs-1BL and QSrGH.cs-2AL and the expression of 15 to 20% stem rust severity proves the interaction of these QTL. However, the RIL population was divided into four classes; QSrGH.cs-1BL+QSrGH.cs-2AL, QSrGH.cs-1BL, QSrGH.cs-2AL and no QTL ( Although Pgt race TTKSK (aka Ug99) detected in Uganda in 1998 (Pretorius et al. 2000) posed a major threat to wheat production globally, durum cultivars were not signi cantly affected by that race or its derivatives, presumably due to the widespread presence of resistance gene Sr13 and its alleles (H.S. Bariana unpublished results). However, other Pgt races virulent for these genes were reported (Singh et al. 2011). Race analysis following a severe stem rust outbreak in Ethiopia in 2013-14 indicated the presence of TTKSK (Ug99), JRCQC and TKTTF (Olivera et al. 2015). Only 5% of durum cultivars had effective resistance against the non-Ug99 races JRCQC and TKTTF (Letta et al. 2013;Olivera et al. 2015). The Pgt race involved in a stem rust outbreak in Sicily in 2016 that affected both common wheat and durum wheat was typed as TTTTF, which is virulent on Sr13 (http://www.globalrust.org/races/ttttf; Bhattacharya 2017). Although there is now evidence for allelic variation following the cloning of Sr13 and different sequence variants (haplotypes) respond differently to the Pgt races (Zhang et al 2017), breeding material is highly unlikely to contain all haplotypes.We identi ed two consistent stem rust resistance QTL, QSrGH.cs-1BL and QSrGH.cs-2AL, explaining high levels of variation in stem rust response in Glossy Huguenot. Hare (1997) concluded that a single APR gene was present in Glossy Huguenot, but the wide variation in maturity in his materials would have been a confounding factor in determining reliable differences among his materials. QSrGH.cs-1BL was mapped in the same region as the pleiotropic APR gene Sr58. Molecular isolation of this locus will shed further light on this. Marker analysis with the linked marker, csLV46G22, also suggested the presence of Sr58 in GH. However, a higher level of resistance conferred by Sr58 remains a query to be resolved, but it is well known that disease resistance genes confer higher levels of protection at lower ploidy level. A high level of expression by this chromosome 1BL locus has been overserved for stripe rust resistance (Pakeerathan et al. 2019). Although, the ASR gene Sr21 is also located on the long arm of chromosome 2A and the current knowledge indicates that distinctive ASR and APR genes are unlikely to be allelic.Moreover, we located QSrGH.cs-2AL (Table 3) in the interval 683-696 Mb in CS-Refv2.1 (Zhu et al. 2021) whereas Sr21 was located at 713 Mb (Chen et al. 2018). Since there is no previously reported APR gene in this region SrGH is named Sr63.Although the most widely used APR gene Sr2 in common wheat originates from the tetraploid Yaroslav emmer, no known durum cultivar is known to carry this gene. Li et al. (2020) suggested the presence of Sr58 is several durum cultivars. Tests of tetraploid landraces in the 'Watkins Collection' showed varying degrees of APR to stem rust (Toor et al. 2013). Genome-wide association mapping of seedling and adult plant resistance in a panel of 280 durum wheats (Megerssa et al. 2021) identi ed regions on chromosomes 5B, 6A and 7A for eld resistance. No QTL was identi ed on the long arms of chromosomes 1B or 2A. Test in Ethiopia on durum mapping populations indicated the involvement of chromosome IBL (Bariana and Bansal unpublished results).High levels of resistance to Ug99, has been achieved by combining APR genes in hexaploid wheat (Pretorius et al. 2017). Comparison of disease severities of RILs carrying Sr58 and SrGH (Sr63) in combination with those carrying these genes individually demonstrated positive interaction causing reduced stem rust severity and it is even evident from responses of GH in different environments. All lines of a panel of durum accessions in this study were positive when tested with a marker that is linked with Sr58. Sr63 linked allele was detected only in two out of 175 lines indicating that it is likely to be rare in durum cultivars and this gene can be introgressed into breeding populations using the KASP marker developed in this study.Figures ","tokenCount":"2945"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"22811245718c717bc5eab18d0d8a14b1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/564c25c7-532d-41c0-8c59-5f3d64d345f5/retrieve","id":"-1180932274"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0dfe94c4-0664-4f2a-b730-36b9f7c9e13c","pagecount":"6","content":"Uganda in 2010 commissioned a study in the Karamoja subregion to ensure three adaptation strategies, namely: continuous agricultural production and development, water management, and ecosystem environmental protection. It identified drought-tolerant and early-maturing crops available for community uptake. Both traditional and improved varieties were identified and recommended. Crops recommended include sorghum varieties (indigenous) such as Tinyitinyi, Akirikir, Naterekune, Tinyang, Ekabir, and Loyokou, and improved ones like Sekedo. Other crops include green gram, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), K131 beans, Tepari beans, pigeon pea, cassava Katumani, pearl millet, and bulrush millet.T he primary goal of promoting water-smart agriculture (WaSA) is to support water management efforts in agriculture and increase crop productivity for every drop of water used. Similarly, there is a strong element of ensuring food security in promoting WaSA through droughttolerant crops in Nakapiripirit, Karamoja Subregion by the Ecological Christian Organisation (ECO), a non-governmental organization with support from Cordaid. The practice also tries to build resilient communities in fragile ecosystems such as those Karamoja in to enhance sustainable management of resources, understanding the possible scenarios of climate change and disaster risk reduction measures with respect to livelihood.The promotion of drought-tolerant crops started in 2012, targeting local agro-pastoral farmers in Lolachat and Nabilutuk subcounties as primary beneficiaries. ECO did a survey in October 2014 among the direct project beneficiaries to assess the effectiveness of growing drought-tolerant crops among other adaptation measures. In that survey, 78% of respondents strongly agreed that using drought-tolerant crops is a contextually effective and affordable measure. Other measures include weather information, early warning centers, drip irrigation, apiary, development of bye-laws and use of energy-saving stoves.Essential is the community awareness of both indigenous and improved varieties, their sources and markets, handling and propagation procedures, importance of the practice and their overall contribution to soil health, agro-pastoralism, water resources and human well-being. The effectiveness of the practice to produce high-yielding and drought-tolerant crops largely depends on variety, environmental conditions, and management.The sensitization helped build consensus, achieveNakapiripirit is one of the districts of Karamoja, a semiarid area located in northeastern Uganda that comprises six other districts: Kaabong, Kotido, Abim, Napak, Moroto, and Amudat. The district is home to about 26,870 people and economically, about 85.6% of the rural population live below the poverty line-less than 1 dollar/day (UBOS, 2012). The area is characterized by low and unreliable rainfall, a unimodal rainfall pattern with one planting season, vulnerability to frequent droughts and persisting food shortage. Mean annual rainfall ranges between 600 and 1,000 mm. The area is characterized by low groundwater recharge, high potential evaporation, and growing water demand (MWE, 2013).There is a water challenge cycle in Karamoja as demonstrated by low inputs into the system and high output rates. Being an agro-pastoral setting, water is needed for crops, animals, domestic use, and environmental needs. This puts pressure on the limited water resources and thus requires smart practices that ensure sustainable use and effective mitigation of disasters. Drought is the major hydrometeorological challenge in Nakapiripirit, which leads to crop failure and food shortage (UNDP, 2013).Drought-tolerant crops are being promoted as they are able to adapt to water-stressed situations. They also have low feeding habits and low nutrient needs, among other physiological advantages that drive the necessary management practices. Studies have shown that many areas with low and erratic rainfall, where crop water stress is common, are also deficient in nutrients. This deficiency is frequently the second most limiting soil factor. An interaction often occurs between soil water and nutrients, which means that soil water can influence the availability of nutrients, which availability can, in turn, affect the uptake of soil water and crop resistance to drought. Thus, reciprocally, both factors can influence each other. As a result, water deficiencies become more quickly apparent and damaging than nutrient shortages. This suggests that conserving water may often have priority and quicker benefit over attempting to conserve soil particles per se (FAO, 2014).of progress was easy because each group has a leadership structure. The leaders ensure communication, keep records, address conflicts, convene meetings, and facilitate management.Most of the crops planted have been doing well though yield varies across communities due to a number of factors. Farmers are encouraged to plant various crops and varieties so that they can complement each other, and spread the risk. Drought-tolerant cropping in Nakapiripirit and areas with related environmental conditions is unique given the various benefits that accrue. For instance, they require attention to site-specific attributes, harmonization of efforts, and ability to strengthen linkages between research and policy to inform practice and vice versa, which are vital to WaSA. It promotes comparative advantages in agricultural production, supports food security, and mitigates overconsumption of resources like water, and enables producing within resource capacity means, among others. Beneficiaries have greatly endorsed the practice as effective for their local setting.6 Promotion of drought-tolerant crops has resulted in commendable acceptance of agriculture in a predominantly pastoral community, evidenced by the wide adoption of drought-tolerant crops.6 Local communities are more aware of and concerned about issues of climate change and how to adapt to climate and become water-smart. This has been achieved through greater understanding of the practice, manage expectations, and facilitate wider adoption.The community was given a number of alternatives to choose from and practice. ECO has directly supported 2,000 households by supplying seed of their chosen crops-these included green gram, simsim, groundnut, sorghum, and cowpea. Very few people were interested in millet. 6 Growing drought-tolerant crops has benefited the various households, development partners, government, private sector businesses dealing with agro-inputs, research institutions in the region, and ECO through the ability to realize their missions and objectives of sustainably improving the food situation.6 There is noticeable behavioral and attitude change, improved decisionmaking, reduced need for humanitarian intervention, informed agrodecision making by the implementing partners, and better research use/application for the related institutions in the project area compared with the past.6 Lastly, optimizing soil moisture is one other key result through the adoption of droughttolerant crop. Most crops such as banana and sugarcane use large quantities of water, which under rainfed conditions come entirely from water in the soil. Thus, crops that are light feeders like sorghum tend not to overdrain the soils, making them fit for an already soil waterstressed area.6 High rural poverty levels are a key challenge in promoting related interventions and their sustainable uptake. Most community members cannot afford seeds, improved varieties, and onsite field studies of their soils.6 High levels of illiteracy where 86% of project beneficiaries could not write and read (ECO survey, 2014) constitute a barrier. This hinders farmer record keeping, reading, and research on interventions individually.6 While promotion of indigenous drought-tolerant crops is appreciated by many farmers, these farmers sometimes exhibit bias in the promotion of trial varieties. They are interested in new varieties that raise their expectations, and when their expectations are not quickly and easily met, they get demoralized.Limitations 6 Use of drought-tolerant crops alone is 'no silver bullet' to increase crop yield, and confront soil and water challenges in the area. They require packaging well with other supportive interventions, and understanding the technicalities involved, which are normally hard to comprehend locally.6 Climate change effects amidst other naturally existing challenges of aridity and low soil fertility also hinder the performance of these crops.6 Projects are unable to quantitatively establish the water smartness of crops in various fields.6 Beneficiaries mostly focus on output and impact rather than on practice/mode. ECO directly links the practice to the community needs and visions they developed, demonstrating how drought-tolerant crops contribute to the attainment of the Vision 2020 maps of the various communities developed and adapting technical terminologies to local understandable concepts.6 Drought-tolerant crops are water-smart, given their physiological makeup. Therefore, promoting them in drought-prone areas results in higher adoption.6 Also learned, the communities have long developed confidence and attachment to their indigenous varieties. If found worthy, they should be promoted more by re-cultivating confidence in the use of these varieties.Substantive 6 Recognize soil and water as key and living components of the environment. To date, it has received far less attention in comparison with the aboveground components, which are more readily perceived, and should therefore be promoted.6 Usefulness of rainwater and organic matter should be promoted. By recycling through different biotic processes as many times as possible, adoption of multiple soil and water conservation techniques will support the natural elements of drought-tolerant crops.6 Focus should be on socio-environmental acceptability rather than on textbook philosophy.Research should bear a clear understanding of the people and their social-cultural perspectives, build consensus, and mobilize local support.6 There is a need for more research on indigenous varieties that can easily be adopted, are affordable, and can be replicated. Research finding must be disseminated to the people who need them in easy-to-comprehend terms.6 Continuous linking with research institutions to keep abreast of local and other site-specific agricultural requirements and knowledge should be encouraged and promoted to ease adoption of WaSA practices and technologies for development.","tokenCount":"1488"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/5386650407.json b/data/part_1/5386650407.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c78dae528b5bb8a0ea757cd64b5a085c8b4503bd
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0c4af57f37f4993605528dd61efc6e44","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5381d4c2-3b79-4732-9f44-85bd00e50d1b/retrieve","id":"772217201"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"362dda77-6343-401d-a7f9-d21801df1a97","pagecount":"4","content":"This methodology was proposed by the validation exercise developed as a GPG-2 initiative among other CG centers.This protocol is a modification of Escobar and Roca, W.M. (1997), Cryopreservation of cassava shoot tips though rapid freezing.1. Propagated the plants by shots or buds on 4E medium (Roca 1984). Each explants type on different containers during 2-3 months. Put maximum 30 units /50 ml/container, 28-30°C, 12/12 photoperiods with two T8 tubes/shelf. 2. Under stereoscope with the highest magnification take shoot (1-3 mm in height) and grown on a Petri dish with pre-induction Kin-0.5 medium during 3 days under light, 28°C, 12/12 photoperiod. 3. Moved the explants to a new Petri dish with a Pre-culture C4-medium (Escobar et al 1997) for 3 days, at 28°C, on light conditions. 4. Moved the tips on a cryovial and add 1 ml of cool cryoprotectant solution. Put on ice bucket during 2 hours. 5. Removed the solutions, and take out the tips. Moved on a Petri dish with filter paper Whatman No. 2 and dried on a closed container under flow-cabinet per 1 hour, at room temperature 6. Put 10 tips each on a clean and dried cryovial. Transfer to a dewar flask or ice bucked with L. N. at least for 1 hour 7. After frozen step, take the cryovial and warm on a 37°C bath for 1.5-2 min. 8. Recover the tips on Recovery R3 medium (2 days) and them move on Induction Kin 0.5 medium. Those steps are under dark conditions. After 2 weeks post-freezing move gradually to light conditions. 9. Evaluations (growth and shoot recovery) could be done after 1-1,5 month after last media changes.","tokenCount":"273"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/5388858395.json b/data/part_1/5388858395.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..dfeb1c89432433ddeb14fe58ebf1832100899aef
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9924ca7eb477c3c0f6047ff4e76b88fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/119a34a6-faaf-4648-b36c-e3c9e1c1748a/retrieve","id":"-1915447947"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a980d3cb-acda-43da-b18a-88e2841e2d2c","pagecount":"20","content":"no more Neglected This programme was successfully completed four years later, laying the groundwork for a three-year follow-up programme, Empowering the rural poor by strengthening their identity, income opportunities and nutritional security through the improved use and marketing of neglected and underutilized species, which started in 2007. The foundation for these studies is a firmly held and increasingly recognized belief that biodiversity is important for people's lives, and that one way of protecting biodiversity is by supporting the use and appreciation of plant species that are currently neglected and underutilized.Biodiversity-or biological diversity-is the sum of all the species that exist, their interactions and the ecosystems they form. It is the basis for food, fodder, fibre, fuel, pharmaceuticals and many other products and services that contribute to the wellbeing of all the inhabitants of our planet.Cultural traditions and religious beliefs are intimately tied to biodiversity, and biodiversity-based food culture is part of the identity of communities around the world. Security, resilience, social relations, and freedom of choice and action are other non-material benefits associated with biodiversity. These benefits are, however, far from being fully enjoyed by all people. Many regions in Africa, Asia and Latin America are still deprived of the basic infrastructure and know-how needed to make biodiversity useful to them. Furthermore, the biodiversity basket that the world relies on is shrinking, constituting one of the greatest concerns of our time.Although there are some 7000 edible species recorded today, only a very small number of these are used on a large scale because of the predominance of a handful of commodity crops, such as maize and rice. Globalization and changes in lifestyle, accompanied by the standardization of diets and food cultures, are converting humankind's centuries-old culinary heritage, which is based on biodiversity, into a mere curiosity. Biodiversity-rich dishes, whose vitamins and micronutrients are strategic for nutritional security and for reducing the incidence of obesity and cardiovascular disease, are being replaced by foods rich in energy but poor in nutritional elements. For millions of people, particularly the poor, the current erosion of their food culture is dramatically reducing income opportunities and diet-related sustainability options. In 2005, an Assessment Study was conducted to evaluate the progress made in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs); it confirmed an increasing incidence of hidden hunger, which is largely caused by simplified diets, particularly among the poor. Genetic erosion is also associated with loss of cultural values and beliefs, to the detriment of local identity and self-esteem; the safeguarding of these values is critical for reinforcing development initiatives among the poor.Mobilizing biodiversity, in particular species that have been overlooked by research and development (R&D) interventions, is a powerful way of giving visibility and voice to the socio-economic groups that rely on these species, and in doing so strengthening the role of these groups in decision making, fighting nutritional insecurity and poverty, and reducing the silent cultural impoverishment that affects the world today. Poor capacity: For the successful promotion of these species, many countries need to strengthen the capacity of the diverse actors that participate in the value chain for cultivating, processing, commercializing and promoting NUS. Poor conservation: In most gene banks, NUS have been poorly sampled, conserved and characterized, which limits the possibilities of improving these crops through breeding and agronomic enhancement. Lack of seed: NUS are characterized by nonexistent or very fragile seed supply systems.Poor image: The low-status image of many of these species represents a handicap for promotional campaigns and makes them vulnerable to neglect in times of socio-economic change.Poor marketing: NUS are sold primarily in local markets, where their products are often characterized by poor quality and competitiveness. Poor value chains: All too often NUS suffer from non-existent or poorly organized value chains, which make their commercialization inefficient and unsustainable. Poor information: Lack of precise data on the extent of cultivation and use of NUS is an obstacle for those interested in their promotion.Nutritional value: NUS comprise a vast portfolio of thousands of species that can play a strategic role in boosting nutritional security and providing diversity-rich food with essential micronutrients. Source of diversification: NUS can be valuable elements in agricultural diversification strategies aimed at strengthening the income-generation possibilities of rural households and forest dwellers. High adaptation: NUS hold a comparative advantage over commodity crops in terms of their high adaptation to a range of agro-ecological niches, marginal lands and low-input systems. They comprise landraces, ecotypes and wild species, which have the advantage of producing well in areas where other crops would have poor yields or would fail completely. This is an important consideration in risk-mitigation strategies for local communities. Self-reliance: NUS are of special interest in strategies for supporting self-reliance in countries that aim to reduce the importation of agricultural products. Tradition: In the hands of the poor, NUS represent a diverse, unique cultural asset and make an important contribution to keeping community traditions alive at the local and regional levels.Local knowledge and self-esteem: The fact that the cultivation and use of these species draws on rich indigenous knowledge (IK) makes them ideal instruments for promoting the maintenance of the knowledge, identity and self-esteem of local communities. Health: NUS are widely used for the preparation of locally accessible and affordable medicines. Flavouring: NUS offer a vast array of aromas and fragrances for the preparation of traditional foods,There are diverse challenges that must be addressed by research and development efforts to promote the maintenance and use of neglected and underutilized species (NUS). At the same time, the rich opportunities they represent constitute an important source of motivation. a thereby contributing to safeguarding typical regional recipes, which are often featured as important attractions in eco-tourism activities.Today, farmers cultivate NUS less than in the past because they are not economically competitive with the crops that have come to dominate the world food supply, which are supported by seed supply systems, production and post-harvest technologies, and extension services. In order to bring NUS back into viable cultivation, or to stem their loss, it is important to develop their competitive edge. New markets, such as those that respond to innovative food and lifestyle trends, must be discovered; new opportunities, such as rural tourism, must be explored; better policy frameworks-for instance to support nutritionally-rich species, adapted to hardy environments-must be developed; and investments must be made to develop better production and post-harvest technologies.In most genebanks, NUS have been poorly sampled, conserved and characterized, which limits the possibilities of improving these crops through breeding and agronomic enhancement.  In reviewing the IFAD-supported work on NUS, it is important to note that over the past ten years there have been significant instances of international acknowledgement and promotion of the contribution of these species to our global fight against nutritional insecurity, poverty and environment degradation.  This effort, coordinated by Bioversity International, represents the first UN-supported, truly global initiative to promote NUS. As such, it has contributed to raising the visibility of these species at the national and international levels and constitutes the most comprehensive effort to date to enhance their use. It also created an unprecedented opportunity for the cross-regional exchange of experience, thanks to the diverse range of partners involved (from the Andean region to South Asia) and to the multi-stakeholder participation in the project (scientists, NGOs, universities, research organizations, regional networks, farmers' associations, women's associations and private companies).The project worked to enhance the use of a number of priority species, including Andean grains (Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru), nutritious millets (India and Nepal), and medicinal and aromatic plants (Egypt and Yemen). This initiative comprised a wide spectrum of activities, including assessment and maintenance of diversity, selection of better varieties, improvement of processing, value-addition, enhancement of supply chains, influencing policy makers and building public awareness.As highlighted by an independent IFAD evaluation carried out in November 2005, the project was particularly successful in:working with farming communities securing and making available the diversity of target species improving agronomic practices reducing drudgery in processing adding value to products (e.g., avoiding nutritional degradation and expanding the range of palatable dishes) conducting training and building capacity among stakeholder groups fostering the establishment of grassroots consortia (e.g., self-help groups and cooperatives) creating links among the various actors in the value chains raising awareness at the local, national and international levelsThe following table summarizes the outputs and impact of the IFAD-NUS global project.10 The project has contributed to raising the visibility of these species at the national and international levels and constitutes the most comprehensive effort to date to enhance their use.aAlthough this work has been successful, further efforts are needed to consolidate its outcomes and to create an effective and widely applicable tool to support NUS worldwide. A follow-up project, with IFAD as the lead funding agency, began in 2007; it is designed to ensure the realization of the full potential of NUS in improving income generation, increasing sustainable production and ensuring better nutrition among rural communities.This new project aims to contribute to empowering the rural poor, and to raising incomes and strengthening the identity and food security of small farmers and rural communities worldwide, by making full use of the genetic and cultural diversity represented by NUS.The objectives of the new global project on NUS are: 1. to increase the contribution of NUS to improved livelihoods by enhancing stakeholder capacity in value-adding technologies, sharing best practices for the promotion of local biodiversity (at both inter-and intra-specific levels), and improving the marketing of target species and products 2. to identify the contribution of key species to dietary diversity and improved nutrition, particularly among children and expectant women 3. to strengthen the contribution of NUS to sustainable agricultural production by promoting their integration within a greater range of production systems, thereby ensuring more effective use of these species and improved maintenance of their diversity 4. to develop methodologies and approaches for the management of tourism activities by local communities, with a focus on safeguarding local NUS-associated cultural identity and genetic resource assets 5. to support the development of multi-sectoral enabling policies at the national and international levels, including the provision of relevant data to policy makers, and to strengthen collaboration among institutions working on NUSThe project is expected to directly or indirectly benefit a wide range of stakeholders:Small farmers, resource-poor entrepreneurs, processors and actors in NUS supply chains will benefit from the availability of better varieties and improved cultivation techniques for less favoured and marginal areas; access to profitable value-adding techniques; enhanced quality; sustainable supply and demand; and greater efficiency of market systems. Links to other international and national projects will provide access to scaling-up methods and approaches, for their adaptation and adoption in new areas.Community members and marginalized groups will enjoy greater self-esteem as a result of capacity development interventions; these, in turn, will promote participation in existing and emerging market and tourism opportunities.16 A new global project on NUSThe IFAD-NUS project has contributed to promoting research in and use of selected neglected and underutilized species in target countries, as well as to raising awareness of the need for increased R&D at the national and international levels.a Emphasis will be placed on empowering women through the creation of employment opportunities, development of skills and promotion of increased access to training.Consumers will have increased access to nutritionally rich foods and dietary diversity, resulting in overall improvements in health. In particular, children, the elderly and women-the groups most vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies-will benefit from the increased availability of micronutrient-rich foods resulting from the expanded use of NUS.Research and academic institutions will benefit from enhanced capacity and information in the field of NUS thanks to the availability of approaches, methodologies, research tools and protocols. MSc research theses and other training activities linked to project activities will also contribute to improved research capacity.Government departments dealing with agriculture and public health will benefit from the scope of the project in terms of species coverage and tools generated, and from the policy proposals it will generate.Local institutions in the target countries will be enabled, through increased awareness, capacity and transfer of technology, to act as multipliers of the promoted technologies and approaches among their communities.The private sector will benefit from novel business opportunities generated or strengthened by the greater use of NUS and their products, as well as by the increased demand for these.The international community will enjoy access to public goods, including enhanced food species, methodologies, research protocols, technologies and other project deliverables.The primary partner countries will be Bolivia, Peru, Yemen and India. Other countries interested in the selected crops (or in other NUS facing similar challenges) will participate as secondary partners, recipients and users of project deliverables. The participation of African partners in the programme will be ensured through collaboration with an international project on fonio (Digitaria exilis) in West Africa (awaiting approval of funding), the Bioversity International-AVRDC Challenge Programme activities on horticultural crops in Sub-Saharan Africa (currently being implemented in Malawi and Mozambique) and the IFAD PROFIL project in Burkina Faso (under development).Activities will be undertaken in pilot sites located in the main partner countries and/or carried out through global initiatives. These are grouped under eight areas of focus: Research into the conservation and use of biodiversity is important for everyone. The more plant and animal genetic diversity we conserve, the more opportunities there will be for innovation and growth in agricultural production, and the more options we will have to cope with climate change and new pests and diseases. Biodiversity makes our environment more fertile, our meals more nutritious and delicious, and our lives more vibrant.Biodiversity is available to people everywhere, even in the most impoverished areas of the world. Indeed, some of the world's poorest countries are among the richest in biodiversity. Bioversity's aim is to promote research that will protect biodiversity and harness it to fuel community development in ways that respect local traditions and the environment.Bioversity is committed to research that fosters sustainable development; research that helps people living in poverty to secure dignified and sustainable livelihoods through food and agricultural production; research that helps to raise nutrition levels in areas where hunger is widespread; and research that helps to keep communities and the environment healthy.Our area of expertise is biodiversity, but benefiting people-especially the people of the developing world-is at the centre of our work.Our work is motivated by the vision of a world in which the conservation and deployment of agricultural biodiversity on farms and in forests enables people to enjoy greater well-being through increased incomes, sustainable improvements in food security and nutrition, and greater environmental health.Bioversity undertakes, encourages and supports research and other activities that involve the use and conservation of agricultural biodiversity, especially genetic resources, to create more productive, resilient and sustainable harvests. Our aim is to promote greater human wellbeing, particularly among poor people in developing countries, by helping them to achieve food security, to improve their health and nutrition, to boost their incomes, and to conserve the natural resources on which they depend. Bioversity works with a range of partners the world over to maximize impact, develop capacity and ensure that the voices of all stakeholders are heard.The purpose of Bioversity's work is to enable individuals and institutions to make optimal use of agricultural biodiversity to meet the current and future development needs of people and societies. To achieve this purpose, Bioversity concentrates on six focus areas: developing and implementing strategies to promote global collaboration for the conservation and use of genetic resources for food and agriculture, with a focus on policies, genetic resources information systems and awareness raising monitoring the status and trends of biodiversity, including locating diversity in situ and measuring genetic erosion enhancing ex situ conservation and use of species diversity promoting the conservation and sustainable use of important wild species managing agricultural biodiversity to promote better nutrition, improved livelihoods and sustainable production systems for the poor conserving the diversity of selected high-value crops and promoting the use of this diversity to benefit the poorB Bi io ov ve er rs si it ty y is the world's largest international research organization dedicated solely to the conservation and use of biological diversity, commonly referred to as biodiversity. It is nonprofit, nonreligious and independently operated.","tokenCount":"2686"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"74eec867a56f78f1537b5d95919f77c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7cfc8802-d62b-4afe-a9cb-61743749177a/retrieve","id":"-1454221168"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"228ecf04-453c-44cf-8081-002e621e4ad1","pagecount":"1","content":"◊ New breeding products with traits important for women as well as men ◊ Increase varietal adoption, genetic gains and varietal turnover economic benefits, poverty reduction, food security, and nutrition and health improvements that development and adoption of specific agricultural technologies will generate.The assessments were conducted with a shared methodology across five crops, using an economic surplus (ES) model, cost-benefit analysis, and poverty impact simulations.A dedicated website provides a step-by-step description of the process and methods applied with. Includes a series of short, illustrative videos on the methodology and accompanying scripts available in three languages (English, French, and Spanish).Tools for Gender-responsive breeding ","tokenCount":"102"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"25b64ced7d35043d740abb3908de34b3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb5d352e-a159-4466-90eb-41746a7fcfa9/retrieve","id":"153895287"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"43c9fbae-c78a-4470-908f-b2f3160baafb","pagecount":"4","content":"• Les protocoles sur le commerce intra-régional du bétail et l'intégration régionale introduit par l'Union Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (UEMOA) et la Communauté économique des états de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (CEDEAO), doivent être simplifiés, harmonisés et mis en oeuvre.• La diffusion des informations relatives au commerce du bétail, y compris les protocoles simplifiés de l'UEMOA et de la CE-DEAO, devrait être encouragée par le biais de canaux de sensibilisation et d'information (par exemple, la radio, la télévision et des affiches) ;• Il faudrait diminuer les droits de douane sur l'importation des camions neufs et de leurs pièces de rechange afin de réduire les coûts relatifs à l'achat et à la location et faciliter le transport routier.• Des mécanismes d'autofinancement pour les opérateurs privés du marché du bétail devraient être établis par le biais des associations de commerçants en bétail.• De nouveaux marchés à bestiaux frontaliers -des marchés qui sont situés à la frontière des pays limitrophes dans le but de faciliter le commerce transfrontalier -devraient être établis et l'infrastructure des marchés à bestiaux existants devrait être améliorée et modernisée.• La réglementation de la CEDEAO qui prévoit la libre circulation des personnes et des biens dans la région devrait être mise en oeuvre en réduisant le nombre de postes de contrôle fixes, en limitant les excès des sociétés de convoyage et en luttant activement contre la taxation routière illégale.• Un système de standardisation des poids et des niveaux de qualité pour le commerce du bétail et de la viande devrait être développé. Le recours aux options existantes telles que les ponts de pesage qui sont disponibles sur certains marchés mais qui sont la plupart du temps ignorés des commerçants doit être encouragé. l'encadré 3). Ces approches contraires en matière de politiques régionales de l'élevage expliquent aussi, en partie, la variation sur le plan de la progression et du niveau de mise en oeuvre des politiques au sein des pays de la région.Il faut simplifier et harmoniser les politiques afin d'encourager une meilleure intégration régionale du commerce du bétail pour ensuite, les mettre en oeuvre de façon coordonnée afin d'éviter les goulots d'étranglement bureaucratiques.• Le commerce intra-régional du bétail devrait être axé sur la viande plutôt que sur les animaux vivants comme c'est actuellement le cas. l existe des disparités importantes entre les pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest en ce qui concerne les politiques relatives au secteur de l'élevage; principalement parce que certains de ces pays sont exportateurs de bétail (le Burkina Faso, le Mali et le Niger) alors que d'autres (la Côte d'Ivoire, le Ghana et le Nigeria) en sont des importateurs nets (Figure 1). Les pays exportateurs cherchent généralement à renforcer la commercialisation et la transformation des produits d'élevage, ainsi qu'à promouvoir le commerce intra-régional du bétail. D'autre part, les pays importateurs nets encouragent les politiques visant à protéger les producteurs de bétail locaux et adoptent des programmes de développement pour stimuler la production nationale et assurer la sécurité alimentaire en produits d'élevage (voirCommercialisation du bétail en Afrique de l'Ouest:Synthèse 1La présente synthèse fait le résumé des débats et des principaux résultats de l'atelier de travail régional organisé par l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI) en 1999 pour débattre des options politiques quant à la réorganisation du commerce du bétail en Afrique de l'Ouest dans le cadre d'un projet financé par le Fonds commun pour les produits de base (CFC) intitulé «Amélioration de la commercialisation et du commerce intra-régional du bétail en Afrique de l'Ouest». Le projet est exécuté par le Comite Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte Contre la Sécheresse au Sahel (CILSS) en collaboration avec l'ILRI (voir l'encadré 1).Les débats de l'atelier de travail ont révélé d'importants contrastes entre les pays importateurs et exportateurs (voir l'encadré 3). Dans ce dernier, par exemple, le bétail est le produit le plus important en valeur dans le commerce intra-régional et contribue pour jusqu'à 45% du PIB agricole au Mali (Figure 2). L'importance du secteur de l'élevage transparaît à travers les politiques qui encouragent davantage la commercialisation et la transformation des produits d'élevage et promeuvent le commerce intra-régional du bétail.Des taxes à l'exportation élevées, des procédures commerciales à l'exportation complexes et le harcèlement des opérateurs du marché transfrontalier du bétail par les agents gouvernementaux ont, par le passé, ralenti le flux commercial et ont mené au développement de circuits informels, surtout au Niger. Suite à cela, il est devenu difficile d'améliorer le commerce du bétail et de développer le secteur de l'élevage dû au manque d'informations statistiques fiables.Plus récemment, certaines politiques ont réduit les taxes à l'exportation et assoupli les procédures commerciales à l'exportation ainsi les goulots d'étranglement administratifs pour encourager l'utilisation des circuits d'exportation officiels et améliorer la disponibilité de statistiques sur ce secteur important.En revanche, la contribution de l'élevage au PIB agricole des pays importateurs nets est bien inférieure -allant de 7% du PIB agricole en Côte d'Ivoire à 13% au Nigeria (Figure 2). Les importations de bétail et de viande représentent jusqu'à 70% de la consommation nationale de viande des pays importateurs nets. En termes réels, le coût total des importations de ces trois pays a plus que doublé en augmentant de 1,01 milliard de $US en 1990 à 2,26 milliards de $US en 2000. Les importations de bovins à elles seules alourdissent les factures d'importation en nourriture de la région de grosso modo 150 millions de $US par an. Dans ces circonstances, il n'est pas surprenant que ces pays cherchent à adapter leur politiques pour soutenir la production interne et croissante du bétail en vue de conserver leurs rares devises étrangères et d'atteindre la sécurité alimentaire (voir l'encadré 3). Pourtant, ces politiques ont des effets néfastes sur les pays exportateurs qui dépendent du bétail qui constitue leur produit commercial le plus important.Les pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest sont donc dans une position difficile qui leur impose une dépendance mutuelle (en matière de commerce de bétail et d'autres biens) tout en devant poursuivre des intérêts nationaux plus stricts. Une telle divergence d'intérêts permet d'expliquer le manque d'harmonie au niveau des politiques régionales pour le secteur de l'élevage et explique aussi partiellement les différences dans la vitesse de mises en oeuvre des politiques en matière de commerce du bétail.Le groupe de travail 1 a débattu du thème « Les rôles des gouvernements, la pertinence des politiques existantes et les mécanismes d'harmonisation des politiques ». Il s'agissait de l'organisation de marché, l'information, la taxation, l'investissement et l'infrastructure, le financement, les statuts et règlements, et l'amélioration des politiques futures en matière d'élevage.Les domaines suivants sont ceux dans lesquels les gouvernements ont progressé:• La simplification de la structure tarifaire et la réduction tarifaire: les structures des tarifs ont été simplifiées, à l'exception notable du Nigeria, et les tarifs ont été réduits dans tous les pays participants. Il est également souhaitable que l'on réduisent davantage les coûts relatifs aux camions de transport et à leurs pièces de rechange.Encadré 1. Cadre référentiel En 1999, l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI 1 ) a commencé une étude financée par le Fonds commun pour les produits de base (CFC 2 ) en vue d'identifier les contraintes économiques, politiques et institutionnelles en matière de commercialisation et de commerce intra-régional du bétail en Afrique de l'Ouest. Pour démarrer l'étude, l'ILRI a organisé un atelier de travail régional portant sur « Les options politiques pour l'amélioration du commerce régional du bétail en Afrique de l'Ouest » à Niamey au Niger au mois de mai de la même année. Des conseillers politiques du Burkina Faso, de la Côte d'Ivoire, du Ghana, du Mali, du Niger et du Nigeria y ont présenté les politiques gouvernementales en matière de commerce du bétail, alors que des représentants des commerçants ont débattu des problèmes et des perspectives d'avenir en matière de commerce transfrontalier du bétail. La présente synthèse établit le résumé de ces débats, ainsi que des solutions politiques proposées, et fait également référence aux conclusions des études de terrain menées dans le cadre du projet financé par CFC intitulé «Amélioration de la commercialisation et du commerce intra-régional du bétail en Afrique de l'Ouest». Le projet a pris fin en octobre 2004.Encadré 2. Les objectifs de l'atelier de travail 1.Identifier les politiques nationales actuelles en matière de commercialisation et de commerce transfrontalier du bétail;2. Déterminer de quelle façon ces politiques peuvent entraver ou promouvoir le commerce intra-régional du bétail;Etablir des options mutuellement bénéfiques aux pays participants pour éliminer ces contraintes et améliorer le commerce du bétail; etIdentifier les options devant faire l'objet d'une étude plus approfondie et donner priorité aux thèmes de recherche pertinents.• Les guichets uniques: les guichets uniques pour la régularisation des documents douaniers et de transport existent au Mali depuis plus de 10 ans. On s'attend à ce que plus de pays suivent ce bon exemple.• Les droits compensatoires: la Côte d'Ivoire a imposé des droits spéciaux sur les importations de viande rouge de qualité inférieure depuis 1991 pour contrer les subventions à l'exportation de viande de qualité inférieure offertes par l'Union européenne (UE).• La suppression des barrières routières: le Ghana a connu un franc succès en supprimant les barrages routiers pour permettre le commerce libre du bétail, bien que le gouvernement subisse actuellement une certaine pression pour augmenter les traitements des agents gouvernementaux opérant sur les routes. En revanche, on a assisté à une prolifération des barrages routiers où l'on se livre à la taxation routière illégale en Côte d'Ivoire.On a identifié trois domaines par rapport auxquels les progrès ont été insuffisants:• Les coûts, les droits de douane et les taxes officielles: les commerçants supportent les frais relatifs aux documents d'exportation et certificats vétérinaires officiels et ce, aussi bien dans les pays exportateurs qu'importateurs (voir l'encadré 4). Les taxes d'exportation sont particulièrement élevées au Burkina Faso et au Niger.• Combattre les pratiques illégales: la taxation routière illégale et les excès des sociétés de convoyage, qui facilitent ostensiblement la circulation des commerçants en bétail à travers les barrages routiers, continuent à causer d'énormes problèmes au commerce régional (voir l'encadré 4). La plupart des gouvernements se montreraient trop cléments envers ces problèmes (voir les synthèses 3 et 4).• L'harmonisation et la cohérence des politiques: il existe des opportunités de réalignement des politiques dans les domaines de la libéralisation du commerce et des systèmes de facilitation, d'échange et de paiement ; en particulier, par le biais des institutions et des mécanismes établis tels que l'Union Économique et Monétaire de lʹAfrique de lʹOuest (UEMOA). La progression du réalignement des politiques nationales en matière de bétail a pris du retard par rapport aux objectifs fixés. Néanmoins, au début de l'an 2000, les membres de l'UEMOA ont adopté une union douanière et des tarifs externes communs; ils ont également harmonisé la réglementation relative à la taxation indirecte (la taxe sur la valeur ajoutée [TVA]). L'élimination des tarifs sur le commerce transfrontalier du bétail est réalisable et devrait être urgemment appliquée étant donnée son importance pour le commerce intra-régional. De même, la législation devrait être élaborée et mise en vigueur afin de supprimer la taxation illégale.En outre, il faudrait s'efforcer d'étendre les progrès réalisés dans les huit Etats membres de l'UEMOA à la grande Communauté économique des états de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (CEDEAO). Il est intéressant de noter que quatre pays de cette étude, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali et Niger, sont membres de l'UEMOA. Le fait d'étendre les lignes directrices d'harmonisation de l'UEMOA aux deux autres pays encouragerait et consoliderait encore davantage le commerce régional du bétail. La mobilisation de la volonté politique de faire progresser le programme d'harmonisation des politiques dans la région constitue un défi que les gouvernements de la région doivent absolument relever.Le groupe de travail 2 a traité la question « Les intrants et les services requis pour augmenter la profitabilité du commerce transfrontalier du bétail » et a constaté que le commerce transfrontalier du bétail est renforcé par une forte demande en viande dans les pays importateurs (voir la synthèse 2). Les contraintes majeures qui font chuter la rentabilité de la commercialisation du bétail dans la région sont les suivantes :• Le coût élevé du transport: peu de routes du bétail, de longs voyages et les conflits avec les cultivateurs suite aux dégâts causés aux cultures représentent certains des problèmes associés au transport d'animaux sur pied. Le harcèlement de la part des agents gouvernementaux et les coûts élevés de la location des camions constituent les obstacles majeurs au transport routier (voir la synthèse 3). Bien que le transport par train soit moins onéreux que par route, il est entravé par le nombre limité de wagons disponibles et par la durée des voyages qui entraînent des pertes de poids et parfois la mort chez les animaux.• L'accès inadéquat aux crédits: les services de soutien financier ne sont pas bien adaptés aux besoins des opérateurs dans le secteur de la com- • Encourageant la privatisation et la promotion de l'investissement privé dans le secteur de l'élevage (B et M) ;• Encourageant une meilleure organisation au niveau des opérateurs du marché (B et Ng) ;• Améliorant l'infrastructure des marchés à bestiaux et l'information sur les prix (Ng) ;• Interdisant l'importation du boeuf et de ses produits dérivés (B).• Etablissant des fonds de développement (B) ;• Développant localement des ressources/pâturages pour l'alimentation du bétail (B, M et Ng) ;• Encourageant l'intégration culture-élevage pour une gestion durable des ressources naturelles (Ng).Les politiques en matière de commercialisation/importation du bétail et de la viande :• Faciliter le transport transfrontalier des animaux commercialisés (G) ;• Restreindre les importations en exigeant des permis d'importation, des certificats vétérinaires pour le bétail, etc. (C, G et Ngr) ;• Imposer des taxes compensatoires sur le boeuf réfrigéré de qualité inférieure et subventionné qui provient de l'Union européenne (C) ;• Libéraliser le commerce du bétail (C, G et Ngr).Stimuler la production du bétail pour devenir autosuffisant en :• Etablissant des programmes d'amélioration génétique des • Carte consulaire : disponible auprès de l'ambassade du Mali en Côte d'Ivoire pour 10.000 FCFA. Valable pendant 3 ans.• Carte de séjour : disponible auprès de la police ivoirienne pour 17.500 FCFA et qui est exigée au poste de douane. Pour l'obtenir, les deux certificats supplémentaires suivants et coûtant 1.000 FCFA sont exigés par camion :-Certificat de vaccination -Certificat sanitaire d'exportation exigé par les agents du SLACAER (Service local de l'appui conseil de l'aménagement et de l'équipement rural).• Lettre de voiture inter-états : disponible à la Direction nationale des transports (DNT) à Sikasso pour la somme de 2.500 FCFA par camion.• EMACI : certains commerçants ont cité cette formalité pour laquelle ils paient 1.500 FCFA par camion à Zegoua -un poste de contrôle au Mali.• Douane : bien que les droits de douane officiels aient été abolis au Mali, les commerçants paient systématiquement 5.000 FCFA par camion aux barrages « douaniers » de Sikasso et de Zegoua.• Douane : les droits de douane officiels en Côte d'Ivoire se paient à Pogo (avec reçu) et dépendent du nombre d'animaux par camion. Ils varient entre 27.500 et 35.000 FCFA par camion.• Frais de convoyage : ces frais ont plus que doublés pour s'élever de 35.000 FCFA en 2000 à 80.000 FCFA en janvier 2001. Les commerçants de Sikasso paient ces frais à Pogo (voir la synthèse 3).• Laissez-passer vétérinaire : 250 FCFA/bovin ou 15.000 FCFA/camion de bovins payés au Ministère de l'Agriculture et des Ressources animales, Direction régionale du Nord, Poste d'entrée de Nielle.*(1 $US = 550 FCFA) mercialisation du bétail du fait de la nécessité de garantie, du choix limité de prêts et des taux d'intérêt élevés. Cela engendre une mauvaise mise à disposition de crédits pour les opérateurs du marché du bétail. Actuellement, l'aide vient principalement des associations des commerçants en bétail (voir la synthèse 2).• Le manque d'informations fiables par rapport au marché: les commerçants et les producteurs prennent de mauvaises décisions du fait de l'inefficacité des systèmes existants d'information sur le marché (voir la synthèse 2).• Le bagage académique insuffisant des opérateurs: cela représente un obstacle majeur à la compréhension des statuts et règlements existants ainsi qu'à l'adoption de nouvelles innovations.• L'absence de normes pour le commerce du bétail: il n'existe aucune norme officielle et préétablie sur les poids, les prix ou les niveaux de qualité dans le cadre de l'achat et de la vente d'animaux.• Le manque d'organisation: de nombreux opérateurs du marché n'ont pas la formation requise en organisation et gestion modernes des affaires.Les domaines pour lesquels on recommande une recherche plus approfondie sont les suivants:• Le développement d'un mécanisme de financement approprié par le biais des associations du marché du bétail pour les opérateurs du marché du bétail ;• L'établissement de normes et des niveaux de qua-lité pour la commercialisation du bétail;• L'identification de nouvelles routes du bétail potentielles et le développement d'un cadre juridique pour leur protection ;• L'acquisition de camions à double usage pour le transport du bétail et de commodités ; et Cette publication est issue du rapport final du projet «Amélioration de la commercialisation et du commerce intra-régional du bétail», financé par le Fonds commun pour les produits de base (CFC). Les opinions énoncées dans ce document ne sont toutefois pas nécessairement celles du CFC ou CILSS. ","tokenCount":"2849"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7c44b6d31ffe21413cec07710a6aa0bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3f4266bd-72b7-46b1-91f8-55f5f01ab7d5/retrieve","id":"-560935674"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"76c81405-2966-4ccc-9455-09323634a14f","pagecount":"109","content":"Anexo V -Modas y frecuencias de valores para descriptores morfológicos de cada grupo de cruzamiento…………………….………………..………………….………………….89 Anexo VI -Evaluación de características agronómicas por genotipo…………………….91 Anexo VII -Fotos de electroforesis en acrilamida………………...………………..….…95 Anexo VIII -Salidas del citómetro de flujo……………..……………………...……….105 Anexo IX -Fotos de hojas y flores del híbrido stn x cjm 506028.1 con sus parentales....108 Anexo X -Fotos de tubérculos de los parentales 703985 y 762573.240 y de su progenie resistente a tizón tardío……….Al Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) por el financiamiento para la realización de esta tesis; especialmente a la Dra. Meredith Bonierbale y a la Blga. Matilde Orillo, quienes gestionaron y siguieron paso a paso el desarrollo del proyecto.A mi patrocinadora, la Dra. Rosa Espejo, por la revisión y correcciones al presente documento, así como a los otros profesores miembros del jurado.A los asistentes y personal técnico del Centro Internacional de la Papa, sin los cuales no hubiese sido posible el desarrollo de la presente investigación.   Finally, we evaluated the pollen's fertility and ability to produce unreduced pollen of these hybrids. Being that the aim of the breeding scheme was to transfer the resistance from diploid wild potatoes to the tetraploid gene pool, production of unreduced pollen was one of the major factors in selecting the best hybrids for breeding. Despite the fact that they are not the best when taking their agronomical traits into account, the eight genotypes with more than 0.5 percent of unreduced pollen found by this study would be the ones recommended as male parents for direct crosses to tetraploid germplasm.Keywords: SSR, ploidy analysis , unreduced pollen, morphological traitsLas especies silvestres diploides de Solanum constituyen una gran fuente de genes para la introducción de resistencias en los cultivares de papa tetraploide. Siguiendo un esquema de mejoramiento 4x-2x, se seleccionó para este estudio 166 genotipos diploides resistentes al tizón tardío, progenies de cruces entre las series Piurana (S. piurae, S.paucissectum, S. chiquidenum) y Tuberosa (S. cajamarquense), y cultivares de papa diploide (S. phureja, S. goniocalyx y S stenotomum). En este estudio se evaluó a los híbridos resistentes individualmente y agrupados de acuerdo a su pedigree, eligiendo a los mejores para continuar con el esquema de mejoramiento 4x-2x.Para cumplir este objetivo, fue necesario comprobar la hibrididad del material. Para ello se utilizaron marcadores moleculares microsatélites. Esta prueba confirmó la procedencia de la mayor parte de muestras ensayadas. Ocho muestras presentaron alelos foráneos, lo cual es indicio de que podrían no ser producto del cruce del cual se asume provienen.Luego, se verificó el nivel de ploidía de las plantas por conteo de cloroplastos, citometría de flujo y conteo directo de cromosomas. El nivel de ploidía fue diploide para todas las muestras evaluadas, como se esperaba del producto del cruce de dos diploides. La citometría de flujo probó ser una técnica muy confiable, coincidiendo los resultados con los obtenidos por medio del conteo de cromosomas. Así mismo, el conteo de cloroplastos identificó correctamente más del 95 por ciento de las muestras evaluadas bajo este método.Seguidamente, se realizó la caracterización morfológica de cada genotipo individualmente y por familias, para mantener el rastro de cada planta a lo largo del esquema de cruzamiento. Paralelamente, se evaluaron algunas características de interés agronómico con el objetivo de reducir el tiempo entre la introducción de la resistencia a la obtención de una variedad económicamente viable. Las características de longitud de estolones, uniformidad de tubérculos, proporción de tubérculos con brotes, forma de tubérculos y profundidad de ojos permitieron seleccionar doce genotipos con las mejores características, para enfocar los esfuerzos de mejoramiento en ellos.Finalmente, se evaluó la fertilidad de polen y la producción de polen no reducido en estos híbridos. Siendo la meta del programa de mejoramiento la transferencia de la resistencia de papas silvestres diploides al germoplasma tetraploide, la producción de polen no reducido es uno de los factores principales para la selección de los mejores híbridos para mejoramiento. Para esta variable, se hallaron ocho genotipos con más del 0,5 por ciento de producción de polen no reducido, los cuales fueron propuestos para realizar cruces directos como padres a genotipos tetraploides, a pesar de no ser los mejores por sus características agronómicas.Palabras clave: microsatélites, análisis de ploidía, polen no reducido, descriptores morfológicosLa papa es uno de los cultivos alimenticios más importantes, después del arroz, el trigo y el maíz. Representa más del 90% del área destinada al cultivo de raíces y tuberosas, estando su cultivo difundido en todo el mundo (FAOSTAT, 2007). La tolerancia a climas adversos y su gran valor nutritivo han contribuido a que se siembre en zonas que son desfavorables para otros cultivos, como en las tierras al norte en Rusia y Ucrania.En el Perú, la papa es uno de los alimentos más importantes en la canasta familiar, representado el 15% de la disponibilidad total de alimentos, el 7% de la ingesta calórica y el 5% de la ingesta proteica. La producción de papa representa el 10% del PBI agropecuario y el consumo per cápita se encuentra alrededor de los 50 Kg. al año (INEI, 2007). La superficie sembrada con el tubérculo en el país fue de 229 891 ha para la campaña 2007-2008 (Ministerio de Agricultura, 2009).La papa, al ser un cultivo que mayormente se propaga por vía asexual, tiene el problema que los cultivares tienen poca variabilidad genética (Watanabe et al, 1995), por lo que puede ser susceptible fácilmente a enfermedades. La más importante es el tizón tardío, o 'rancha', causada por el oomiceto Phytophthora infestans. Este es un patógeno con reproducción asexual y sexual, de ciclo corto de vida, que presenta gran número de razas. Las resistencias de los cultivares mejorados no duran mucho tiempo, ya que el patógeno logra adaptarse a ellas, volviéndose virulento nuevamente (Robinson, 2002). Hoy en día se tienen variedades comerciales de papa moderadamente resistentes, pero que aún así es necesaria la aplicación de fungicidas durante el cultivo (Pérez y Forbes, 2007).La presencia de importantes caracteres de resistencia en las especies silvestres, da la posibilidad de incorporarlos al genoma de la papa cultivada, ampliando la base genética con la que cuentan en la actualidad los mejoradores (Trognitz et al, 1997). La obtención de híbridos entre papas silvestres y variedades cultivadas es el primer paso para introducir estos genes en líneas avanzadas de mejora. Estos híbridos deben ser caracterizados, tanto por su resistencia al patógeno, como por otros caracteres agronómicos de interés. La ploidía y presencia de polen 2n también son de suma importancia, ya que de estas características depende en gran medida el éxito en las cruzas 4x-2x que se requieren para introducir los genes de interés en la papa cultivada tetraploide (Mendoza, 1990).El desarrollo de variedades con resistencia genética al tizón tardío, permitiría reducir el uso de fungicidas en el campo; disminuyendo los costos para el agricultor y evitando la contaminación del ambiente.El mejoramiento convencional, hasta mediados de los setentas, usó una cantidad escasa de la diversidad disponible, en cuanto a variedades cultivadas como a parientes silvestres (Watanabe et al, 1995). Se logró incorporar resistencia a los virus X e Y de la papa a partir de variedades silvestres, los cuales son caracteres dominantes, controlados por un solo gen.A partir de los ochentas, se comenzaron a usar métodos de mejoramiento nuevos, que permitieron incorporar genes de parientes diploides. Para esto, se utilizaron principalmente haploides de cultivares 4x, y gametos 2n. Los haploides de cultivares tetraploides tienen carga genética 2x; por lo tanto se puede romper la barrera de la ploidía para cruzar directamente variedades cultivadas con silvestres diploides. En el segundo caso, los gametos 2n de variedades diploides son 2x; al igual que los gametos de las variedades tetraploides, siendo posible la polinización directa y consecuentemente, la producción de híbridos vigorosos predominantemente tetraploides a partir de estos cruces (Hanneman y Peloquin, 1967). Gracias a estos métodos, se lograron introducir genes de resistencia a plagas, pertenecientes a especies silvestres diploides, en el genoma de la papa cultivada (Watanabe et al, 1995).El caso de la resistencia a nemátodos es un antecedente exitoso de la introducción de genes de resistencia de especies diploides en la papa tetraploide. Se usó la selección fenotípica recurrente, ya que esta característica mostraba una heredabilidad bastante alta.La población de mejoramiento estuvo compuesta por clones diploides derivados de S. phureja, S. stenotomun, S. sparsipilum, S. chacoense y S. microdontum. La resistencia se transfirió luego mediante cruzamientos 4x-2x a las variedades de cultivo (Mendoza, 1990).Otros ejemplos exitosos del uso de cruzamientos 4x-2x en papa son los presentados por Ortiz y colaboradores (1997), también en resistencia a nemátodos, y Veilleux y colaboradores (1997), en tolerancia a altas temperaturas.En la actualidad, las investigaciones apuntan hacia el uso de la diversidad genética; siendo un factor muy importante en los programas de mejoramiento, especialmente en la formación de poblaciones base con un amplio bagaje genético.La papa es una planta de hábito herbáceo, anual, cuyos órganos comestibles son los tubérculos. Pertenece a la familia de las solanáceas, estando cercanamente emparentada con el tomate. El género Solanum presenta una serie poliploide extensa originada a partir de autopoliploidizaciones y de cruces seguidos de duplicación del material genético (Hawkes, 1996). Dentro de las papas cultivadas, se presentan especies diploides, triploides, tetraploides y pentaploides, siendo la papa tetraploide la de mayor difusión e interés comercial.Taxonómicamente, la papa se clasifica de la siguiente manera:Reino: Plantae División: Magnoliophyta Clase: Magnoliopsida Subclase: Asteridae Orden: Solanales Familia: Solanaceae Género: SolanumEl Perú, al ser centro de origen de este cultivo (Spooner et al., 2005), concentra una gran cantidad de especies silvestres y cultivadas de papa. Todas ellas pueden, potencialmente, ser fuente de genes para el mejoramiento de las variedades cultivadas, siendo la más importante la papa tetraploide Solanum tuberosum.Según Hawkes (1990), existen 68 especies silvestres de la serie Tuberosa entre la zona andina de Sudamérica y México. Las especies cultivadas presentan un rango amplio de número de ploidía, siendo principalmente diploides y tetraploides.Egúsquiza (1989), clasifica a las papas cultivadas en 9 grandes grupos, como sigue a continuación: Solanum stenotomun (2n=2x=24): La probable antecesora de todas las especies cultivadas conocidas, originada a partir de la selección de los productos de recombinación de especies silvestres diploides. Solanum phureja (2n=2x=24): Derivada de S. stenotomun, con la diferencia de que sus tubérculos no necesitan un periodo de reposo y tiene un ciclo corto. Solanum goniocalyx (2n=2x=24): Derivada también de S. stenotomun.Caracterizada por el color amarillo intenso de la pulpa de los tubérculos. La papa amarilla pertenece a esta especie. Solanum x ajanhuiri (2n=2x=24): Originada de la hibridación de S. stenotomun con la especie silvestre S. megistacrolobum. Esta última le otorga resistencia a heladas, por lo que se cultiva principalmente en el altiplano. Solanum x juzepczukii (2n=3x=36): Triploide producto de la hibridación de S.acaule, tetraploide silvestre, con S. stenotomun. Sus tubérculos son amargos y se consume en forma de chuño. Solanum x chaucha (2n=3x=36): Triploide originado por hibridación natural entre S. tuberosum subsp. andígena y S. stenotomun. La papa huayro está incluída en este grupo. Solanum tuberosum subsp. andígena (2n=4x=48): Tetraploide originado a partir de hibridaciones, duplicaciones cromosómicas y selección de especies diploides cultivadas y silvestres, especialmente de S. stenotomun. Está adaptado a fotoperiodo corto, y es la sub-especie a la que pertenecen el 70% de las papas nativas peruanas. Solanum tuberosum subsp. tuberosum (2n=4x=48): Tetraploide seleccionado a partir de clones de S. tuberosum subsp. andígena. Está adaptado a fotoperiodos largos, por lo que es la sub-especie que se siembra en todo el mundo. Solanum x curtilobum (2n=5x=60): Se originó del cruce natural entre gametos no reducidos del triploide S. x juzepczuckii y gametos dihaploides de S. tuberosum subsp andígena. Es una papa con tubérculos amargos y buena tolerancia a heladas.Los objetivos principales del mejoramiento de papa son: el rendimiento y calidad de tubérculo, precocidad, resistencia a insectos, nemátodos, virus y al tizón tardío, tolerancia a temperaturas extremas y sequías, y producción de semilla verdadera. Rendimiento de Tubérculos: Es la característica más importante a lograr en los programas de mejoramiento. Las nuevas variedades no serán adoptadas por los agricultores a menos que les garanticen buen rendimiento (Egúsquiza, 1989). Calidad de Tubérculos: Esta característica va de la mano con el rendimiento, ya que el mercado requiere papas de buen tamaño, uniformes y sin heridas. Precocidad: La precocidad se relaciona directamente con el tiempo necesario desde la siembra para la obtención de los tubérculos. Mientras las plantas sean más precoces, se podrán realizar mayor número de campañas por año y escapar a ciertas plagas, con lo que aumenta el beneficio para el agricultor. Resistencia a Insectos: La polilla de la papa (Phthorimaea operculella, Symmetrischema tangolias, entre otras especies) es una plaga importante que ataca al tubérculo de la papa en almacén, ocasionando pérdidas importantes a los agricultores. Resistencia a Nemátodos: Los nemátodos atacan directamente la parte aprovechable, por lo que hacen un daño apreciable en las cosechas. La resistencia a nemátodos está codificada por genes mayores, los cuales se busca introducir en cada línea avanzada de mejora. Resistencia a Virus: Los virus no se pueden tratar con fungicidas o plaguicidas, por lo que el único medio seguro de protección es la resistencia genética. Por este motivo, este carácter es uno de los más importantes en los programas de mejoramiento. Resistencia al tizón tardío: El tizón tardío es la enfermedad más importante en papa, la cual obliga al uso de fungicidas en todas las campañas. Por esta razón, sigue siendo una prioridad en los programas de mejora obtener variedades resistentes a esta enfermedad. Tolerancia a temperaturas extremas: La tolerancia a amplios rangos de temperatura, permite que la variedad se adapte a ambientes diferentes. La resistencia a heladas es importante en las variedades de sierra, ya que ellas pueden acabar con la producción de la campaña. Producción de semilla sexual: La contaminación de la semilla vegetativa (tubérculo) por virus y otros patógenos, hace importante la producción de semilla verdadera. Los virus y patógenos rara vez llegan a infectar la semilla sexual, por lo que es ventajoso renovar la semilla vegetativa cada cierto tiempo, especialmente en zonas donde las condiciones son favorables para el desarrollo de los patógenos.Un híbrido es un organismo originado a partir de dos padres genéticamente diferentes (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010). En ese sentido, el híbrido se presenta en contraste a la planta originada por autopolinización, es decir, de la semilla producida mediante la fecundación del óvulo por un grano de polen proveniente de la misma planta.En un esquema de mejoramiento, se utilizan cruces dirigidos para lograr incorporar características de interés de un parental en el genotipo del otro. En general, se trata de evitar la contaminación con polen de distinta procedencia usando técnicas como el corte de estambres antes de la dehiscencia y cubrir las flores después de la apertura floral. Sin embargo, se hace necesario comprobar la procedencia del genoma de las semillas para asegurarnos de que los cruces hayan sido exitosos.La forma más sencilla de evaluar la procedencia de un material es haciendo un estudio comparativo de su morfología, para así encontrar características de ambos parentales en el supuesto híbrido. Lamentablemente, las características fenotípicas se ven afectadas por las condiciones ambientales. Además, muchas de las más útiles, como la morfología floral, se tienen que evaluar en estados avanzados del cultivo. Si bien es una alternativa, los programas de mejoramiento moderno hacen uso de las herramientas moleculares con cada vez mayor frecuencia.En el contexto de la evaluación de hibrididad, los marcadores moleculares permiten identificar en el genoma de la planta zonas heredadas de cada uno de los padres. El análisis de ploidía sirve para conocer el número de cromosomas que presenta un determinado clon. Si bien para la mayoría de especies vegetales la ploidía es una característica propia de la especie que no tiende a variar, las tuberosas suelen presentar variaciones en éste entre las especies cultivadas y especies silvestres emparentadas. En el caso de la papa, existe una serie poliploide, tanto en las especies silvestres como en las especies cultivadas tradicionalmente.La ploidía a menudo influye directamente en las características morfológicas de la planta. Por ejemplo, el paso de diploide a tetraploide viene a menudo acompañado de un mayor desarrollo de la parte vegetativa, con tallos hojas y frutos de mayor magnitud, producto de células de mayor tamaño. En el caso de la papa, el conteo de cloroplastos en células guardia de estomas es una técnica sencilla que se ha usado durante mucho tiempo en la determinación de la ploidía aproximada para clones de mejoramiento (Huamán, 1995).Sin embargo, las características morfológicas se pueden ver afectadas, en mayor o menor medida, por las condiciones ambientales (Morpurgo y Ortiz, 1988). Es necesario hacer ensayos en donde se pueda observar directamente el material genético celular para poder comprobar con mejor exactitud la ploidía de un determinado clon. Una opción es realizar el conteo de cromosomas en puntas de raíces de plantas en crecimiento. Si bien es una técnica que consume bastante tiempo, los resultados son producto de observación directa del número de cromosomas, por lo que nos dan con exactitud la ploidía del individuo.Una opción rápida y muy efectiva de medir directamente la cantidad de material genético por núcleo celular es mediante el uso de la citometría de flujo (Galbraith y colaboradores, 1983; Arumuganathan y Earle, 1991). Esta técnica permite el paso de los núcleos celulares uno por uno a través de un capilar, en donde, por espectrofotometría, se puede cuantificar la cantidad de ADN presente. De esta manera, se puede cuantificar la cantidad de ADN de una gran cantidad de células de una forma rápida y eficaz.En las plantas con flores, la producción de polen se realiza mediante meiosis. En el caso de la papa, las dos divisiones meióticas se dan encerradas por la misma membrana celular de la célula madre, dividiéndose al finalizar la segunda división meiótica (Lam, 1972). El producto de la meiosis son 4 células con la mitad del material genético de la célula madre inicial. Por este motivo, al polen que posee la mitad del material genético inicial se le conoce como polen reducido. Esta célula reducida recuperará el material genético correspondiente a la especie al unirse a la óosfera, equivalente al gameto femenino, la cual es producto de una meiosis, por lo que presenta una cantidad de material genético similar.Sin embargo, en muchas especies ocurre la producción de algunos granos de polen que presentan una cantidad de ADN similar al padre. A estos granos de polen se les denomina polen no reducido (2n). Mok y Peloquin (1975a) describen 3 mecanismos de formación de polen no reducido en una población de híbridos de Solanum diploides.Al obtener un individuo genéticamente diferente, ya sea por medio de cruces dirigidos u otras técnicas más sofisticadas, es necesario evaluar las características novedosas que posee esta planta. Las primeras etapas de la evaluación se suelen hacer en ambientes controlados, en donde se podrán observar algunos caracteres morfológicos y replicar el material vegetal para las siguientes etapas del programa de mejoramiento. Sin embargo, para poder conocer las características que las plantas generadas tendrían al ser liberadas como variedades, es necesario realizar evaluaciones en campo bajo condiciones normales de siembra.Existen características morfológicas de herencia cuantitativa y de herencia cualitativa (Vásquez, 1988). Las características cuantitativas, como precocidad y rendimiento, por lo general presentan rangos grandes de variación y son muy dependientes de las condiciones ambientales. Para poder evaluar estas características se hace necesario realizar experimentos con un número alto de repeticiones, en ambientes diferentes y durante varias campañas.Por el contrario, las características cualitativas presentan diferentes estados discretos para cada variable, los cuales no se ven afectados en gran medida por el medio ambiente. En la papa, características como color de flor, profundidad de ojos y forma de tubérculo se consideran de herencia cualitativa (Vásquez, 1988).Existen características de interés para el agricultor y características que le serán indiferentes. Las primeras, que pueden ser tanto cuantitativas o cualitativas, se evalúan durante un programa de mejoramiento con el fin de seleccionar los mejores genotipos para ser liberados como una nueva variedad.Sin embargo, existen características neutras desde el punto de vista agronómico, pero que son de fácil evaluación y no se ven sensiblemente afectadas por el ambiente.Estas características se pueden usar como descriptores morfológicos, permitiendo la identificación de individuos a lo largo de los programas de mejoramiento (Gómez, 2000).Caracterización de híbridos interespecíficos diploides de papa (Solanum spp.) con resistencia a P. infestans para su uso en cruzamientos 4x -2x como parte del programa de premejoramiento de la papa. Comprobar la hibrididad del material. Confirmar el nivel de ploidía de los híbridos. Evaluar la presencia de polen 2n. Caracterización agronómica de los híbridos. La población de híbridos utilizada en este trabajo procede de polinizaciones dirigidas, seguidas de rescate de embriones (Ordoñez, 2008). En algunos casos se usó una segunda polinización con una S. phureja diploide que posee un marcador dominante, denominada IvP-101. La segunda polinización favorece la maduración del fruto en cruces con muy pocas semillas. El marcador presente en IvP-101 se manifiesta con una marca roja visible en las semillas. Las semillas con este marcador fueron eliminadas, quedando sólo los híbridos deseados. Los 166 clones que se evaluaron son producto de una selección previa en campo de todo el material obtenido por rescate de embriones. Estos clones son los que presentaron una mayor resistencia a Phytophtora infestans en dos zonas diferentes (Oxapampa y Monobamba), por lo que fueron elegidos para este trabajo. La procedencia de todos los genotipos en estudio se encuentra detallada en el Anexo I.Se evaluaron en total 54 cruces diferentes, divididos en 12 grupos: Grupo I: Sesenta y cinco híbridos provenientes de cruces entre S. phureja y S.chiquidenum, 39 provenientes de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo II: Cuarenta y cinco híbridos provenientes de cruces entre S. goniocalyx y S.chiquidenum, cinco de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo III: Diecinueve híbridos provenientes de cruces entre S. stenotomum y S.chiquidenum, seis de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo IV: Tres híbridos provenientes de cruces entre híbridos diploides y S.chiquidenum, uno de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo V: Dos híbridos provenientes de cruces entre S. phureja y S. cajamarquense, uno de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo VI: Trece híbridos provenientes de cruces entre S. stenotomum y S.cajamarquense, cinco de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo VII: Dos híbridos provenientes de cruces entre híbridos diploides y S.cajamarquense, ninguno proveniente de bayas donde se usó la doble polinización. Grupo VIII: Dos híbridos provenientes del cruce entre híbridos diploides y S.paucissectum, y tres híbridos provenientes del cruce entre S. phureja y S.paucissectum; ninguno proveniente de bayas con doble polinización. Grupo IX: Cinco híbridos provenientes del cruce entre híbridos diploides y S.piurae, ninguno de bayas donde se haya usado IvP-101. Grupo X: Tres híbridos provenientes del cruce entre S. phureja y S. piurae, ninguno de bayas donde se haya usado IvP-101. Grupo XI: Tres híbridos provenientes del cruce entre S. stenotomum y S. piurae, todos provenientes de bayas donde se usó IvP-101. Grupo XII: El único híbrido entre S. circaefolium var. capsicibaccatum y S. cajamarquense a evaluar, para el cual no se usó IvP-101 en el cruce. Cámara de crecimiento  Como primer paso se trituró en un mortero frío aproximadamente 1 gramo de hojas con nitrógeno líquido hasta obtener un polvo fino. Luego, se transfirió el polvo suficiente para llenar a la mitad tres tubos Eppendorf de 2 ml, en el caso de los parentales, y dos tubos para cada híbrido a evaluar. A estos tubos se les añadió 700 μl de buffer de extracción CTAB con B-mercaptoetanol. Se mezclaron bien por inversión, para después incubarlos a 65°C durante 45 minutos, agitando cada 15 minutos.Terminado este tiempo, se dejaron enfriar los tubos por lo menos cinco minutos a temperatura ambiente. Seguidamente, se le agregó a cada uno de ellos 700 μl de cloroformo:alcohol isoamílico (24:1); mezclando suavemente por inversión.Posteriormente, las muestras se centrifugaron a 10000 rpm por cinco minutos, transfiriéndose el sobrenadante resultante a un nuevo tubo Eppendorf de 1,5 ml, para luego añadir 50 μl de CTAB al 10% (en NaCl 0,7 M) y mezclar suavemente.Nuevamente se añadió 700 μl de cloroformo:alcohol isoamílico (24:1) a cada muestra, mezclándose por inversión. Luego, se centrifugaron a 10000 rpm por cinco minutos y se tranfirió el sobrenadante a un nuevo tubo Eppendorf. A éste se le añadió 500 μl de isopropanol frío, mezclándose suavemente por inversión hasta ver la medusa de ADN.Los tubos se conservaron a -20°C durante la noche.Al siguiente día, se centrifugaron los tubos a 10000 rpm por cinco minutos. Se procedió a eliminar sobrenadante y se dejaron secar los tubos al ambiente por un par de minutos. Posteriormente, se lavó el precipitado primero con 1 ml de etanol al 70% por tres minutos. Luego, se descartó el etanol y se agregó 1 ml de etanol al 90%. Las muestras fueron centrifugadas a 10000 rpm durante cinco minutos, para después eliminar el etanol.Los tubos se colocaron en un liofilizador Speed-vac por 11 minutos, en la opción medium.Posteriormente, se transfirieron todos los pellets resultantes de cada muestra a un único tubo, resuspendiéndose el ADN con 75 μl de solución Tris-EDTA por cada pellet, al interior de un baño maría a 55°C.Finalmente, se añadió 1 μl de RNAsaA (10 mg/ml) y se incubó a 37ºC por una hora.El ADN resultante se conservó a -20ºC hasta el momento de su uso.El ADN extraído se cuantificó por espectroscopía ultravioleta usando el equipo NanoDrop 1000 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Estados Unidos). A partir de la muestra obtenida de la extracción, se hicieron diluciones a 2 ng/ul, para ser usadas en la amplificación.Se usó el protocolo de amplificación de marcadores microsatélites descrito por En primer lugar, se prepararon dos láminas de vidrio, enjuagándolas con agua y dando una última lavada con etanol. En seguida, se aplicó a una de las láminas solución adherente (3 μl de bind-silane y 3 μl de ácido acético en 1 ml de etanol al 95%) recién preparada, con un papel tissue, asegurándose de cubrirla completamente. Después de transcurridos cinco minutos, se limpió la lámina con un papel tissue humedecido en etanol al 95% en forma vertical y horizontal, repitiéndose este proceso tres veces, usando un papel nuevo cada vez.A la segunda lámina se le aplicó solución repelente Sigmacote con un papel tissue, removiéndose el exceso de éste con una hoja nueva de papel después de 10 minutos.Usando las láminas anteriormente preparadas, se ensambló la cámara de electroforesis, justo antes de agregar el gel, usando espaciadores de 0,4mm y sujetadores de papel.El gel se preparó añadiendo 33 μl de TEMED y 33 μl de persulfato de amonio al 10% a 60 ml de solución de poliacrilamida (Acrilamida 57g/l, Bis-acrilamida 3g/l, Urea 7M y TBE 1X). Éste se añadió entre las placas de vidrio lentamente, dejando que polimerice por lo menos dos horas. Transcurrido ese tiempo, se precorrió el gel a 500 V entre 15 y 30 minutos, para después cargar las muestras con tampón de carga: 500μl de EDTA 0,2M y 100μl de colorante (xylene cianol y azul de bromofenol 50mg/ml) en 9,4 ml de formamida. La electroforesis se realizó a 1200 V de cinco a seis horas.Terminada la electroforesis, se separaron las placas de vidrio, poniéndose la placa con el gel en una solución de ácido acético al 10% y dejándola en agitación por 20 minutos.Luego, se sumergió el gel en agua destilada durante dos minutos, agitando constantemente.Se dejó escurrir el agua para luego pasar el gel a otra bandeja con agua destilada y repetir el proceso. Posteriormente, se transfirió el gel a la solución de nitrato de plata (2g de nitrato de plata y 3 ml de formaldehido al 37% en 2l de agua destilada), agitándose bien por 30 minutos.La solución de revelado fue preparada inmediatamente antes de su utilización, añadiendo 3 ml de formaldehido al 37% y 34 μl de tiosulfato de sodio a 1,4 litros de unaEn esta prueba se contaron los cloroplastos en 10 células guardia de estomas, de plantas creciendo en condiciones de invernadero en La Molina. El procedimiento seguido fue el propuesto por Huamán (1995).Se colectaron foliolos terminales del tercio superior de la planta. Con una pinza fina, se procedió a sacar un fragmento pequeño de epidermis de la hoja y se colocó en una placa portaobjeto, sobre una gota de solución de yodo-yoduro de potasio (1g de yodo y 1 g yoduro de potasio disueltos en etanol al 80% en agua destilada). Luego, se añadió suavemente una gota más de la misma solución.Después de un par de minutos, se cubrió la lámina con un cubreobjeto de 22 x 40 mm para su observación en microscopio óptico a 200 aumentos.La estimación de la ploidía se hizo de la siguiente forma: Menos de nueve cloroplastos en promedio por célula: diploide. Nueve o más cloroplastos por célula: ploidía mayor a diploide.Para esta evaluación, se siguió el protocolo proporcionado por el fabricante (Partec, Alemania).En primer lugar, se tomaron muestras de hojas jóvenes de cada híbrido a evaluar, colectándolas en placas petri con papel filtro húmedo. De esta muestra, se pusieron aproximadamente 50 mg en una placa petri chica nueva, añadiéndose 1 ml de buffer de extracción CyStain UV Ploidy (Partec, Alemania).Luego, se cortó la sección de hoja en trozos muy pequeños con una cuchilla, para así liberar los núcleos celulares. Posteriormente, se añadió una cantidad similar de buffer y se pasó por un filtro de malla de nylon Cell Trics de 50 µm (Partec, Alemania) colocado en un tubo de ensayo. Se dejó incubar en el tubo por cinco minutos a temperatura ambiente, para luego evaluarlo en el citómetro de flujo (Partec PA-II Ploidy Analyzer), analizando como mínimo 3000 células.Antes de comenzar las evaluaciones, se ajustó la visualización del citómetro con un testigo diploide, cuya preparación es similar. La evaluación se hizo observando los dos picos en la curva de absorbancia, uno perteneciente a G1, con una cantidad de ADN igual a 2C, y el otro perteneciente a G2, con una cantidad de ADN igual a 4C, cuando la célula ya ha duplicado su material genético para entrar en división. El primer pico lo ajustamos arbitrariamente a 50 en la visualización del testigo, con lo que el segundo pico caerá en 100. De esta manera, las muestras que presenten los picos de forma similar se consideraron diploides; mientras que aquellas muestras con un primer pico en 100 y el segundo en 200 se consideraron tetraploides. El analizador de ploidía calcula un coeficiente de variabilidad de los picos automáticamente definidos. Este coeficiente será menor en cuanto los picos se encuentren mejor definidos. Se trabajó con los resultados de muestras cuyo coeficiente de variabilidad fuese inferior al cinco por ciento, repitiéndose la muestra en caso este haya resultado mayor.El conteo de cromosomas en puntas de raíces es un método directo para determinar la ploidía, ya que se pueden visualizar los cromosomas directamente. Sin embargo, requiere tener material vegetal cuyas raíces estén en proceso de crecimiento, y de una buena prefijación para incrementar el número de metafases que es posible visualizar bajo el microscopio. Por estas razones, se evaluó sólo un pequeño número de los híbridos, como comprobación de los resultados obtenidos mediante las técnicas anteriores. Se trabajó con los tres prefijadores utilizados por Watanabe y Orrillo (1993).Como primer paso, se colectaron raíces jóvenes entre las 11 am y 12 m, en el prefijador (permetrina 100 ppm a 4°C, 8-hidroxiquinoleina 0,02M a temperatura ambiental o agua destilada a 4°C). Las muestras se mantuvieron a 4°C por 24 horas para la permetrina y el agua destilada, o cinco horas a temperatura ambiental en el caso de la 8hidroxiquinoleina. Transcurrido ese tiempo, las muestras se pasaron a etanol:ácido acético (3:1) recién preparado, donde se mantuvieron a 4°C por al menos 24 horas.El siguiente paso fue la hidrólisis, para lo cual se transferieron las raíces a HCl 1N a 60°C, incubándose la muestra a esa temperatura durante ocho minutos. En seguida, se descartó el ácido, dejándose las raíces en agua destilada a 4°C hasta el momento de la preparación de la muestra.Posteriormente, las raíces se colocaron en una placa petri de vidrio chica con orceína lacto-propiónica (1g de orceína disuelta en solución acuosa al 23% de ácido láctico y 23% de ácido propiónico). Se dejaron coloreadon en la solución alrededor de una hora.Luego, se tomaron entre tres y cinco raíces en un portaobjeto con una gota del colorante, cortándose los ápices y descartando el resto. Se les colocó encima un cubreobjeto de 22 x 22 mm, aplastando suavemente los ápices de las raíces con la punta de un lápiz. Con la ayuda de un papel de filtro, se presionó fuertemente la lámina, evitando que se mueva lateralmente. De esta manera, se separaron las células y se eliminó el exceso de colorante.Finalmente, las muestras se revisaron bajo el microscopio óptico a 400 y 1000 aumentos, contándose los cromosomas de al menos cinco células por muestra.La evaluación de la cantidad de polen 2n se realizó usando tinción con acetocarmín glicerol y distinguiendo por tamaño al polen no reducido del polen normal. Se consideró como polen no reducido aquel que presentó un diámetro de entre 1,2 y 1,4 del observado para el polen normal (Quinn et al., 1974). Esta prueba además nos sirvió para estimar la viabilidad de polen, tomando como polen fértil los granos redondos e intensamente coloreados.Se recolectaron las flores del campo en bolsas de papel durante la dehiscencia de las anteras. En el laboratorio, se agregó una gota de aceto-carmín glicerol en una lámina portaobjeto. Luego, con un estilete, se hizo caer el polen de las anteras de hasta cuatro Los datos de descriptores morfológicos, correspondientes a las características de la I a la XI, y de la XV a la XVII, se evaluaron primero individualmente por genotipo. Luego se identificó dentro de cada grupo de cruzamiento el valor más común para la característica, la moda. Seguidamente, se calcularon las frecuencias de aparición de los posibles valores para cada característica dentro de los genotipos pertenecientes a cada grupo de cruzamiento.Se tomaron como características de identificación para un grupo de cruzamiento aquellas que nos resultaran en una combinación de rasgos que aparezca mayoritariamente en solamente ese grupo.Para la evaluación de características de interés agronómico se consideraron los valores correspondientes a las variables: longitud de estolones, uniformidad de tubérculos, proporción de tubérculos con brotes, forma de tubérculo y profundidad de ojos, descritas anteriormente. Como estos datos se presentan en escalas diferentes, fue necesario hacer una estandarización para poder compararlos unos con otros. De esta manera, el menor valor para la variable tomó el valor de cero, mientras que el mayor tomó el valor de uno para los valores estandarizados.Las cinco características de interés agronómico se consideraron de igual importancia, por lo que el valor final correspondiente a cada genotipo se estableció como la suma simple de los cinco valores estandarizados. Ya que para las cinco características el valor mínimo resulta ser el más deseable desde el punto de vista del agricultor, y el valor máximo el más indeseable; los clones con un valor final menor se consideraron los de mejores características. Se tomó arbitrariamente el valor de dos como el máximo para que un genotipo sea seleccionado, ya que esto nos dio como resultado un número adecuado de clones repartidos entre varios grupos de cruzamiento diferentes. Para una lista en detalle de los valores registrados y escalados para cada genotipo evaluado, véase el Anexo VI.  Se consideraron híbridos a los clones que presentaron las bandas de ambos padres en la corrida electroforética. En el caso del iniciador STM1016, hubo un genotipo usado como parental femenino, 703572 (phu), que presentó una sola banda visible. Sin embargo, de los 27 clones evaluados que provienen del uso de este genotipo como madre, sólo 16 presentaron la banda característica del genotipo 703572 junto con la correspondiente al parental masculino (véase Figura 2). Los 11 clones restantes presentaron solamente la banda del progenitor masculino, lo cual hace pensar que es posible que la madre sea heterocigota para este locus, siendo uno de los alelos un alelo nulo.Ya que los iniciadores microsatélite utilizados fueron tomados de trabajos relacionados con cultivares de papa tetraploide, S. tuberosum, era de esperarse diferencias en los locus microsatélite en estudio, no solamente en el número de repeticiones, sino también en las secuencias de ADN de los sitios de anclaje de los iniciadores. La presencia de mutaciones en los sitios de anclaje de los iniciadores impide un buen alineamiento de los iniciadores, provocando la ausencia de amplificación, tal como es descrito por Dakin y Avise (2004). Cabe resaltar que la metodología utilizada para hacer los cruzamientos que dieron origen a la población en estudio, colecta las bayas directamente de la planta madre. En ese sentido, es posible una autopolinización o contaminación con polen extraño, lo cual hace necesario comprobar la procedencia de los híbridos. Sin embargo, salvo mezclas en la manipulación de semillas y plántulas, podemos dar por seguro la identidad del parental femenino. Considerando que la proporción de clones que presentaron la banda no difiere significativamente de la proporción 1:1 que se esperaría de la segregación para un locus en heterosis en un individuo diploide, se han tomado en cuenta como híbridos la progenie del clon 703572 que presenta bandas tanto de la madre como del padre, como plantas que presentan sólo la banda del padre. De Sousa y colaboradores (2005) presentan un caso en donde se revela la presencia de un alelo nulo mediante la evaluación de plantas madre y semillas provenientes de ellas, presentándose una segregación similar entre plantas heterocigotas con dos alelos amplificados y plantas que presentaron un solo alelo, pero se presume que poseen además un alelo nulo.Los híbridos con identidad comprobada se distribuyeron en los grupos de evaluación según como se presenta en la Tabla 2. Muestras que no presentaron amplificación clara no fueron tomadas en cuenta para el análisis. La lista completa de los resultados de amplificación para cada genotipo se encuentra en el Anexo II. Si bien, el conteo de cloroplastos es una técnica indirecta para la verificación de ploidía, presenta resultados más confiables que otras características morfológicas, como la longitud de las células guardias de los estomas (Qin y Rotino, 1995). Los resultados obtenidos en el presente trabajo concordaron en un 95% con los encontrados por citometría de flujo. Por la facilidad y menor costo de esta técnica, se recomendaría su uso en evaluaciones rápidas de muestras desconocidas, para luego evaluar solamente las que presenten datos dudosos con técnicas más sofisticadas.Se analizaron por citometría de flujo 147 clones en total, incluyendo a los clones evaluados para conteo de cloroplastos. Todos los clones evaluados dieron como resultado una ploidía diploide, como se indica en la Tabla 4, aunque con pequeñas desviaciones en algunos casos. Estas desviaciones no fueron mayores a 4 unidades para el primer pico de la gráfica de frecuencia. Se puede observar la operación del analizador de ploidía en la Figura    1985), no necesariamente causada por déficit cromosómico.El conteo de cromosomas descartó la ausencia o presencia de cromosomas adicionales en las muestras evaluadas, comprobándose asi los resultados obtenidos mediante citometría de flujo. Ambas técnicas tienen un nivel de precisión bastante alto, por lo que se puede descartar la presencia de anomalías severas en el número cromosómico de los genotipos evaluados.Los resultados en detalle de cada genotipo evaluado para las tres técnicas de análisis de ploidía se encuentran listados en el Anexo III.Ya que la producción de polen 2n varía con el ambiente (Haynes et al., 1987) En su mayoría, los clones evaluados presentaron polen fértil en cantidad suficiente como para usarlos como progenitores masculinos en cruzas posteriores, siendo solamente 15 genotipos los que presentaron un porcentaje de polen estéril superior al 90%. La diferencia en apariencia entre polen n, 2n y estéril se puede observar en la Figura 5.  1989), por lo que era de esperarse encontrar entradas productoras de polen no reducido, útiles desde el punto de vista del mejorador. Si bien la técnica del acetocarmín glicerol mide indirectamente la viabilidad del polen, se correlaciona bien con datos de crecimiento de tubo polínico (Trognitz, 1991).El polen 2n es una característica muy importante a evaluar en estos híbridos diploides (EBN = 2), ya que permitiría la cruza con papa tetraploide (EBN = 4) directamente, al poseer dos juegos de cromosomas y así ser compatible con el EBN de la papa tetraploide (Johnston y Hanneman, 1980; Johnston y colaboradores, 1980; Jansky 1996). Esto evita la necesidad de doblar la ploidía usando colchicina, ahorrando un paso en el proceso de mejora. Además, el polen 2n obtenido por restitución de la primera división aporta mayor heterosis que el doblamiento de cromosomas alternativo (Mok y Peloquin, 1975b).De los genotipos evaluados, es posible cruzar directamente con plantas tetraploides las ocho plantas con producción de polen 2n. A pesar de que estas plantas no resultaron ser las mejores en la caracterización agronómica, cruzarlas directamente sería recomendable, ya que permite obviar la duplicación del material genético como paso previo a su cruzamiento con cultivares tetraploides.En la evaluación de campo se logró evaluar para todos los descriptores listados (véase 5. Las características de fruto no se pudieron evaluar, sin embargo los descriptores utilizados cumplen las funciones que se les asignó para el presente estudio, de servir como control para asegurar el mantenimiento del clon correcto durante las siguientes etapas de mejoramiento. La caracterización morfológica resultó en una lista de características propias para algunos de los grupos, mas no pudiéndose identificar todos los grupos con una o más características distintivas. Los descriptores para flores y hojas resultaron ser los más útiles como medios de identificación, siendo de utilidad para seguir el rastro de los diferentes clones durante el proceso de mejoramiento, y así evidenciar rápidamente posibles confusiones en cuanto a la identidad de las plantas con las que se trabaja. Gopal y colaboradores (2008) encontraron una cantidad considerable de características florales útiles como descriptores para variedades de papa.En la Figura 6 podemos observar la inflorescencia de un híbrido phu x cjm, en donde se aprecia el descriptor correspondiente a este grupo de cruzamiento. En los Anexos IX y X se presentan imágenes de plantas parentales con su respectiva progenie, tanto de hojas y flores como de tubérculos.Figura 6 -Inflorescencia de un híbrido phu x cjm (506013.2). Se puede observar el cáliz pigmentado con abundante verde, característico de este grupo de cruzamiento.Adicionalmente a la característica de resistencia que se busca introducir a programas de mejoramiento mediante estos híbridos, muchos de ellos poseen rasgos de los parentales silvestres que son no deseables en las variedades mejoradas. En la medida que los híbridos usados para cruces con tetraploides tengan mejores características, se podrá reducir sustancialmente el tiempo necesario para eliminar las características no deseables residuales en la población de mejoramiento. Por esta razón, se hizo necesario hacer evaluaciones en campo de estos híbridos que ya presentan la resistencia deseada, para poder sugerir el uso de los que poseen mejores características en futuros programas de mejoramiento.Las cinco características agronómicas evaluadas: longitud de estolones, uniformidad de tubérculos, proporción de tubérculos con brotes, forma de tubérculos y profundidad de ojos, nos permitieron seleccionar unos pocos genotipos con las mejores cualidades, para poder enfocar los esfuerzos de mejoramiento en ellos. De los 12 genotipos seleccionados, ocho provienen de grupos de cruzamiento diferentes, por lo que el cruzarlos entre ellos para concentrar la resistencia podría ser una opción a realizar a futuro. La acumulación de varios genes de resistencia de diferentes orígenes en la misma variedad podría hacer más lenta la pérdida de la resistencia por modificación genética del patógeno, ayudando a que la variedad resultante tenga vigencia por mayor tiempo. La mayor parte de los clones trabajados fueron confirmados como híbridos obtenidos a partir de los parentales que se tienen registrados, por medio de marcadores moleculares SSR. Todos los híbridos evaluados fueron diploides, siendo muy probable que toda la población de mejoramiento lo sea. La citometría de flujo mostró ser una técnica efectiva para la evaluación de la ploidía. Así mismo, el conteo de cloroplastos resultó ser una alternativa rápida y de bajo costo. Se encontraron ocho plantas con alta producción de polen 2n, siendo posible su uso para cruzamientos directos 4x-2x. Las características agronómicas permitieron seleccionar doce genotipos de ocho grupos de cruzamiento diferentes como promisorios para continuar con el programa de mejoramiento. No se encontraron descriptores morfológicos para todos los grupos de cruzamiento, siendo las características de flores y hojas las más útiles como discriminantes entre los diferentes grupos. Repetir la prueba de hibrididad en los clones que presentaron alelos foráneos, utilizando las plantas que se tienen conservadas in Vitro, para así confirmar si provienen o no de los parentales a los que se les atribuye. Realizar cruzamientos 4x-2x con genotipos tetraploides de élite, utilizando como parentales masculinos los genotipos con producción de polen no reducido mayor al 0.5 por ciento evaluados en el presente estudio. Ensayar doblaje de cromosomas con los genotipos que presentaron buenas características agronómicas, para así poder utilizarlos en el mejoramiento de papa tetraploide a pesar de no poseer buena producción de polen no reducido.Anexo I -Listado de genotipos por grupo de cruzamiento. Anexo V -Modas y frecuencias de valores para descriptores morfológicos de cada grupo de cruzamiento.Frecuencia (%)Frecuencia (%)Frecuencia (%)Frecuencia (%)Frecuencia (%)Frecuencia (%) ","tokenCount":"7500"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5d7d855c3a053bdceaa2f613ab6bcab8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6dd6443a-feec-4711-a366-48552f0c2ea0/retrieve","id":"1093271888"},"keywords":["Agriculture","climate change","food security","gender"],"sieverID":"59fdf8c9-3f45-4d5c-b596-e4d49a09c132","pagecount":"18","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.This brief summarizes findings of a project entitled \"Food Security in Developing Countries: Gender and Spatial Interactions'\" undertaken by researchers from the University of Alberta.The project uses a large cross-sectional dataset from the Integrated Modelling Platform for Mixed Animal Crop systems (IMPACT) Lite collected by Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) from 2010 to late 2012. This dataset surveyed 1,500 households located across seven countries in Africa and Asia. The project focused on estimating three spatial effects on food security: i) a spatial autoregressive effect that measures how neighbors' food security influences a farmer's food security; ii) how these spatial effects differ for male and female-headed households; and iii) how the food security of neighbors of the same gender affect their own food security.Generally, female-headed households are more vulnerable and less food secure than their male counterparts (Babatunde et al. 2008). One of the major reasons is that women often face a wide range of constraints that affect their households in numerous ways. Substantial differences between women and men include access to land, credit, labor, and ownership of assets. Additionally, it is common for women living in rural areas of developing countries to be constrained by an array of socio-cultural factors such as gender migration and education beliefs.Women's access to land is one important factor that can affect food security. Individuals who own land can control vital household decisions such as what crop to grow and what to consume and sell. However, women tend to either own smaller pieces of land than men or are landless. In addition to providing food and income, land and its associated tenure represents a valuable resource because it can serve as collateral to access credit (Doss 2001).Particularly, women's access to credit is known to increase household and child food security.The ability of women to generate income in the agricultural sector may also be constrained by their limited access to human capital (Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003), which may come from household members or hired help. Typically, labor constraints in a household are shaped by the gendered division of labor and household size and composition. Women who are poor and at higher risk of being food insecure are also more likely to work as wage laborers (Sraboni et al. 2014) or their households tend to be smaller than their male's counterparts (Doss 2001).The ability of women to acquire wealth or assets is frequently attributed to whether institutions allow them to own and be in charge of their own property or take part in contracts. For example, in some cultural contexts property rights are determined by marital and inheritance systems (Deere et al. 2013). Hallman (2003) suggests that females who have greater control over resources, including assets, have improved food security.Women that head a household are often divorced, widowed, or separated, and their social context, choices, and outcomes can be much different from those of women living in maleheaded households (Drèze and Srinivasan 1997). The roots of such a social context depend on demographic and social factors that have fostered the increase of female-headed households. Women without spouses who have children typically drop out of school or college, reducing their probabilities of working (Duflo 2012). Likewise, socio-cultural beliefs can contribute to the perception that women have less education than men (Kassie, Ndiritu and Stage 2014).The discussion above suggests that gender can be an important aspect of food security.Gender differences manifest themselves in the allocation of resources and in decisions among and within households. Understanding gender and its interactions with other socioeconomic factors is crucial in understanding food security.Individuals interact and their behavior is often influenced by networks of relationships.Individuals' characteristics like gender, and their varying behaviors, affect the formation and structure of social networks (Bramoulle, Galeotti and Rogers 2016). Numerous factors are identified in the literature that influence interactions and activities of individuals. Such factors include social learning, diffusion of innovation, homophily, and social capital.Social learning is a process in which individuals have the ability to gather information from, and observe behavior of, others, thereby enhancing their knowledge (Foster and Rosenzweig 1995). Learning processes may change over time; individuals may draw signals of different quality and might be selective in their conversations.Diffusion of innovation refers to the spreading of information, over a wide range of topics, due to the interactions between individuals in gathering information and observing others (Foster and Rosenzweig 1995). Part of the diffusion of information from social learning may be caused by imitation. For example, women may tend to join groups that can mobilize fewer resources than men as they are resource constrained (Maluccio, Haddad and May 2003). As a result, the spreading of information through men's and women's networks may be quite different.Social capital is another important element of social networks. Social capital refers to the resources (i.e., information, influence, and status) that are embedded in social networks (McDonald 2011). Podolny (2010) finds that being connected to another person can bring status benefits. Social capital also influences women's relationships in numerous ways. The difference of resources endowments that female-headed households have, relative to maleheaded households, may impact their social capital formation and exchange of information (Katungi et al. 2008).As social networks are able to influence many socioeconomic characteristics of households, it is important to develop insights on how they are formed, and how their structure can generate heterogenous social impacts. An important factor in social network formation is homophily -the preference of individuals to interact with peers they consider to be alike, e.g., people of the same gender (Stehlé et al. 2013). For instance, an individual with many smoker friends might be influenced to become a smoker. Similarly, women imitate women, and men imitate men, which can result in powerful motivation (Gittinger 1990).Spatial interactions also play an important role in establishing social links. Social networks exist and operate within geographical spaces. Nolin (2010) suggests that spatial interactions are more likely to occur within spatially closer households or neighbors for three reasons. First, transaction costs of time and resources for travel increase with distance. Second, it is easier to assess information from closer individuals like neighbors than from those further away. Third, closer neighbors interact more frequently, which may increase the probability of future interactions.Spatial interactions can take a wide variety of forms that include travel for shopping, commuting to work, and on-farm interactions. The possibility remains that spatial interactions affect women differently than men. For example, women may have a higher opportunity cost of time than men (e.g. from a high domestic workload), which reduces their participation in organizations or other social interactions (Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen 1998). This constraint may motivate women to engage in relationships that are spatially closer, and perhaps develop fewer but more meaningful relationships.The discussion above shows that there are numerous factors that may interact with gender dimensions to influence behavior. Moreover, these interactions may produce spillover effects within the system where information and other externalities are transferred to others (refer to Anselin, 2003 for a discussion).The potentially central role that spatial relationships play within the complexities of social networks suggest that we may use the spatial distribution of households as a proxy for more complex relationships. In our dataset, we characterize spatial position using GPS coordinates for every household. We proceed to test the hypothesis that these spatial coordinates are meaningful in helping to explain the food security of households.A common approach in the literature is to capture gender differences with dummy variables based on whether the gender of the head of the household is male or female (Fekadu and Muche Mequanent 2010). Although the use of dummy variables may be practical, the limitations of using a simple gender dummy can be numerous, given that men and women in agricultural societies face many different inequalities in their farming activities (see discussion above). Given that the info note will interact gender with spatial effects, we believe our best option is to capture the influence of gender by using a binary gender variable (i.e. female-vs. male-headed household), which is well established in the literature (e.g. Babatunde et al. 2008). Such an approach is necessary to investigate extensively across wide regions, rather than intensively at a single study site.To assess the status of food security, we use a calorie gap measure that reflects the \"food access\" dimension of food security. We adopt this approach because the IMPACT Lite survey contains detailed information about food consumption over different seasons of a year, which also provides us with seasonality data that will help address the \"stability\" dimension.The calorie gap metric is defined as the difference between the actual daily calorie intake and the recommended daily calorie intake by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The FAO/WHO recommended daily calorie intake measures account for differences in individual's energy requirement by gender and sex (Ncube et al. 2016). A positive calorie gap implies the household is food or calorie-rich; conversely, a negative gap indicates that a household is food or calorie-poor.To model gender and spatial interactions, we implemented a Spatial Autoregressive (SAR) model. To estimate a SAR model, observations are characterized by their location (i.e. GPS coordinates). Our survey instrument collected GPS coordinates of the location of each household. This information allows us to construct the spatial weights matrix W, which is required to estimate a SAR model. The spatial weight matrix W indicates, for each location in the system, which of the other sites affect food security at that location (Anselin 2001). The matrix W assigns weights for the influences of each neighbor on a household's food security.There are two fundamental assumptions regarding spatial weights in the spatial econometrics' literature. First, the literature assumes a decline in influence among agents as the distance between two observations increases. We adopt a truncated version of W, where an element \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57=0 if households at locations \uD835\uDC56 and \uD835\uDC57 are further than 20 kilometers apart. The second assumption is row-normalization, with the convention that the diagonal of W is zero. We row-normalize our matrix W so that a row \uD835\uDC56 represents a convex combination of weights that household \uD835\uDC56 places on the influence of neighbors within 20km, i.e., every element \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 element is between 0 and 1.In the SAR model, the main term of interest is \uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4C. \uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC4C is a weighted average of neighbors' food security, where weights increase with spatial proximity. Therefore, the spatial autoregressive parameter \uD835\uDF0C, often referred to as the spatial effect, captures the marginal effect of neighbors' food security on own food security. That is, when neighbors' food security increases by x calories, own food security increases by \uD835\uDF0Cx calories.Given the potential effect that spatial interactions may have on food security, we are interested in estimating the following SAR model:In order to integrate gender into our baseline model, we construct two types of models: Ego-Gender and Gender-Homophily. We will refer to \"ego\" as a household of reference; the focal position concerning which household's food security is being affected in the model. We assume that each ego household can be either female-or male-headed. All other households located within 20km from the ego are defined as comprising the ego's \"neighborhood\".Using an ego-centric perspective, where a household \uD835\uDC56 of gender \uD835\uDC54∈{\uD835\uDC40,\uD835\uDC39} is influenced by other households \uD835\uDC56's neighborhood, the gender spatial model in scalar notation is:where the superscript \uD835\uDC54 indicates that only observations of ego-centric gender \uD835\uDC54 are included in the regression. We estimate a regression model for each gender. This procedure delivers a set of parameters for males and another set for females. The parameter \uD835\uDF0C\uD835\uDC40 is estimated when the model has gender \uD835\uDC54=\uD835\uDC40 and therefore uses 1298 male ego-centric observations, while \uD835\uDF0C\uD835\uDC39 uses 198 female ego-centric observations.Learning about homophily interactions is essential to a better understanding of food security as it captures a reduced-form arrangement of how social ties grow into complex structures to generate opportunities for sharing and distributing food resources at the community level (Mertens et al. 2015). In homophily models, we are interested in estimating the effect of the food security of neighbors of gender \uD835\uDC54 on the ego household of same gender \uD835\uDC54. Therefore, not all neighbors are considered when calculating the weighted average of neighbors' food security.To calculate the weights, we construct a new spatial matrix \uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC3A that collects the influences of column individuals on a row individual, where all individuals have the same gender \uD835\uDC54.Therefore, in the female homophily model, this matrix is a 198×198 square matrix, and a 1298×1298 matrix in the male homophily model. The Gender homophily model in scalar notation is: Equation (1) reveals that the spatial lag term of the SAR model is correlated with the error term. The outcomes of neighbors affect the egos' outcomes, and vice-versa, which leads to reverse causality. We address the endogeneity of the spatial lag by implementing a GMM/IV strategy, which was first proposed by Kelejian & Prucha (1998;1999) and is currently wellestablished in the literature.Our findings suggest that the food security of neighbors has a positive influence on own food security. Specifically, a household's food security increases by approximately 17 calories in response to an increase of 100 calories in neighbors' food security.The results of the Ego-Gender Models indicate that female farmers' food security increases by 49 calories when neighbors' food security increases by 100 calories. The effect goes down from 49 to only 14 calories for male-headed households. This finding suggests that gendered spatial effects influence food security and may therefore provide valuable information for policy-makers when designing policy interventions. The results of the Gender Homophily Models are shown in Figure 1. The spatial effects parameters \uD835\uDF0C=0.68 (p<0.01) and \uD835\uDF0C=0.16 (p<0.01) for females and males, respectively. Note that the spatial effect for male households is similar to that of the Ego-Gender and SAR models. In contrast, women benefit more than men from all neighbors. Moreover, results from the Gender Homophily Model show that women receive a large boost on food security from the spatial interaction with female neighbors. The spatial effect suggests that femaleheaded household's food security increases by 68 calories in response to an increase of 100 calories in female neighbors' food security. This result supports the idea that homophily may be a factor that influences smallholder farms' food security, but only for women. In situations where developments projects are budget constrained and seeking to target resources, this spatial effect for women could induce policy-makers seeking to improve food security to design gender-clustered policies, i.e. redirecting their efforts towards femaleheaded households, surrounded by female-headed neighbors.Our results show that improving food security has spatial multipliers that help all households, but that these spatial multipliers help female-headed households more;especially if the spillover is between two female-headed households (i.e. homophily). This is encouraging news for development, because policies that aim to target aid can have the largest positive spillover effects where they are needed most.While targeted policy efforts towards promoting women's access to a wide range of resources seems critical for promoting food security and development, complementary efforts within spatial effects on food security could play an important role. For example, development programs that have tried to build social capital among women (e.g. women self-help groups, or support for women's cooperatives) appear to be working and helping to create large spillover effects. Along these lines, new programs to promote food security may be more effective if they include means of strengthening social capital as an amplifying mechanism for pursuing food security.In summary, food insecurity is a development problem that would benefit from having policy-makers be aware of gendered-spatial impacts. Our investigation demonstrates that spatial effects can have positive consequences for women's food security. Therefore, it is germane to understand the complexities that involve interactions among women and their influence on food security concerns. Based on these findings, potential policy solutions include the strengthening of social capital of female-headed households, which could facilitate spatial spillover effects that boost their food security, and that potentially could ensure significant progress in important development dimensions for women.","tokenCount":"2674"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6a3c96bcb26da5869ef3d8d66c6ccaa4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/252dc658-579a-41ec-94b8-47487a1f6260/retrieve","id":"1482291768"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"48f2dbd2-dc1e-4004-bdb5-28fe72015426","pagecount":"163","content":"Carraa Interpiraayizii madda galii haaraa uumuuf qonnaan bultoota xixiqqaa waliin hojjechuun wal-xaxaa, yeroo kan fudhatuu fi milkaa'inaaf kutannoo kan barbaadu ta'a. Ta'ullee, dhimmoota hawaasummaa ciccimoo waan tuquuf, keessattuu kan akka amantaa, ijaarsaa, barnoota ogummaa fi yoo haala gaariin raawwate ammoo bu'aa uummataa hedduu waan fiduuf guddaa abdachiisaa ta'a. Kennitoota tajaajilaatiif, Interpiraayiziin qonnaa tooftaa xiyyeeffannaa hiyyummaa baadiyaa qofaaf otuu hin ta'in carraa argannaa haaraa tekinikaa fi hawaasummaa ittiin barbaadanii fi fedhii ittiin uuman dha. Kun qorannoo Faayinaansii fi Imaammata Naannoo irraa deggarsa kan barbaadu dha. Haala kanaan, adeemsi Interpiraayizii qonnaa kennitoota tajaajilaa fi fayyadamtoota isaaniif bu'a-qabeessummaa agarsiisuu ni danda'a.Haala jiruun, kennitoota tajaajilaa irraa deggarsi qonnaaf taasifamu omisha guddisuu irratti kan xiyyeeffate dha. Adeemsi kun haala gaariin kan hojjetu dursi wabii nyaataaf yoo kennamee fi omisha gahaa kan bitu yoo argame dha. Akka carraa, dhiheessiin kan dabalu haala omishni guddataa adeemee gabaa naannootti saffinaan dhihaatuun yeroo murtaahaa qofaaf ta'a. Seera dhiheessii fi fedhii hordofuudhaan gabaatti heddumminaan dhiheessuun atattamaan gara kufaatii gatii fi yeroo dheeraa booda galii qonnaan bultootaa hir'isuutti kan adeemu ta'a.Gama biraatiin, qonnaan bultootaa fi deggartoonni isaanii waan gabaan barbaadu omishuu mannaa waan omishaniif gabaa barbaaduu irratti humna isaanii balleessu. Gabaa irratti xiyyeeffachuu dhabuun omisha hin barbaadamne gatii baay'ee gad-aanaa ta'een gurguruuf nama saaxila.Qajeelfamni kun qonnaan bultoonni fedhii gabaa irratti hundaa'anii akka omishan deggaruuf kennitoonni tajaajilaa tooftaa itti gargaaraman kan agarsiisu dha. Keessattuu kan baay'ee gaarii ta'e keessaa filachuuf tooftaalee carraa gabaa ittiin addaan baasanii fi gamaaggaman kan ilaallatu dha.Kaayyoon waliigalaa maanuwaalii kanaa carraa gabaa addaan baasuu fi Interpiraayizii qonnaa mijaawaa kan fufiinsa qabuu fi galii qonnaan bultootaa, qopheessitootaa fi daldaltootaa fooyyessu haala hirmaachisaa ta'een cimsuuf mijeessitoota gabaatiif qajeelfama ta'ee akka gargaaruuf dha. Keessattuu maanuwaaliin kun kan irratti xiyyeeffatu:• Qonnaan bultoonni gabaan akka wal-qunnaman mijeessitoonni haala hirmaachisaa ta'een dandeettii akka argatan;• Odeeffannoo gabaa fi toora gabaa irraa walitti qabame irratti hundaa'uudhaan gabaa addaan baasuu fi kan caalu filachuuf qajeelfama akka ta'u;• Hawaasa keessatti dandeettii Interpiraayizii qonnaa cimsuun qunnamtiin gabaa fuulduratti fufiinsa akka qabaatu taasisuu.Manneen hojii kan dandeettii hojjetoota isaanii deggarsa gabaatiin cimsuu barbaadan qajeelfama kanatti fayyadamuu ni danda'u. Maanuwaaliin kun mijeessitoonni gabaa akkaataa hojjetoota misoomaa kan hawaasa baadiyaa keessatti argaman gargaaranii fi qonnaan bultoonni carraa gabaa itti barbaadanii fi Interpiraayizii qonnaa haaraa guddisan dha. Mijeessaan gabaa qonnaa keessatti qondaala ekisteenshinii, misooma beeladaa fi qurxummii; hawaasa keessatti qondaala misoomaa; yookaan miseensa hojjetaa Dhaabbataa Mit-Mootummaa yookaan Dhaabbilee Dhuunfaa, garee qonnaan bultootaa, waldaalee fi dhaabbilee kan biraa kan dabalatu ta'uu ni danda'a.Qajeelfamni kun gulantaalee misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa waliin mijatee kutaaleen addaan bahee jira. Wal-duraa-duubni hojii kutaa tokko keessatti karoorfame bu'aan isaa kutaa lammataa keessatti akka ka'umsaatti gargaara.Kutaaleen kun:1. Ibsa gabaabaa misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa hirmaachisaa ta'e; 2. Bu'uura gabaa; 3. Qophii fi karoora mana hojii;; 4. Akkaataa hawaasa wajjin hojjetamu; 5. Geggeessummaa fi qooda fudhattoota filachuu; 6. Bakka projektii filachu fi gamaaggamuu; 7. Omishaa fi carraa gabaa addaan baasuu; 8. Omisha gaarii yookaan carraa Interpiraayizii maamiltoota waliin filachuu; 9. Hubannoo walitti-hidhiinsa gabaa; 10. Sagantaa Interpiraayizii yookaan deggarasaa qopheessuu; 11. Raawwii gamaaggamuu fi ol guddisuu.Qajeelfamni kun adeemsa misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa fi jalqabaa hanaga xumuraatti akka hordofamu kan wixineessame ta'ullee, tooftaan kun gufachuu akka hin dandeenyetti ilaalamuu hin qabu. Adeemsi hojii kamiyyuu akka waliigalaatti balaa qabaachuu waan danda'uuf itti fayyadamtoonni tooftaa kana akka fedhii, dandeettii fi qabeenya garee qonnaan bultootaa fi deggartoota isaaniitti fudhachuu fi hojii irra oolchuu qabu.• Wal-duraa-duuba hojii misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa hirmaachisaa;• Barbaachisummaa itti fayyadama adeemsa kanaa;• Hulaa kennitoota tajaajilaa fi maamiltoota adda addaa irratti hubannoo bu'uuraa ni argatu.Qajeelfamni kun Projektii Tarsiimoo Misooma Interpiraayizii Qonnaa Baadiyaa [Rural Agroenterprise Development (RAeD)] ''CIAT''n fedhii misooma industirii dhaabbilee hawaasa baadiyaa deggaran guutuuf qophaa'e kan ibsu dha.Tooftaalee, meeshaalee fi haalli barnootaa asitti ibsame bu'aa projektoota hedduu Laatiin Amerikaa, Afrikaa fi Isiyaa keessatti waggootii 10 ol hirmaatanii ti.Muuxannoo irra caalaanqooda fudhattoota Afrikaa keessa jiranii fi carraa hojii haaraa hawaasa baadiyaa irratti xiyyeeffachuuf dhaabbilee deggaraniif tooftaa karaa agarsiisu dha. Tarsiimoo kana keessatti gulantaalee bu'uuraa kan ta'an fakkii 1 irratti agarsiisameera. Waliigalatti tooftaaleen kun haala misooma ''Interpiraayizii qonnaa baadiyaa hirmaachisaa, kan naannoo bu'uureffate'' jedhamee beekama. Haalli kun gaaffi qooda fudhattoota misooma qonnaa gara tarsiimoo wabii nyaataa irraa gara tarsiimoo omisha gabaa irratti xiyyeeffate; gaaffii gabaa irratti hundaa'ee kan galii argamsiisutti akka jijjiiramu kan fedhan irraa ka'ee ti.Qajeelfama kana keessatti jecha Interpiraayizii qonnaa kan ibsu dhaaba hojii, keessattuu dhaabbilee xixiqqaa kan maasii irratti adeemsifamu yookaan tajaajila dhaabbilee kan biraa deggaruuf gargaaru ta'uu ni danda'a.Interpiraayiziin qonnaa waliigalatti, sadarkaa omishtootaatti tuuta hirmaatanii fi sadarkaa dhuunfaatti toora gabaa keessatti kan tajaajila kennan irratti xiyyeeffata.Fakkeenya Interpiraayizii qonnaa kan ta'an misooma midhaanii yookaan misooma beeladaa kan tuuta qonnaan bulaatiin omishamee gabaa beekame keessatti gurgurame; omisha haala bu'aa dabaluun tolfame kan akka omisha midhaanii sadarkaan addaan bahee qullaahe; mosee yookaan kasaavaa haala gaariin goggogee nyaataaf qophaahe, yookaan aannan gabaa beekame keessatti gurguramuuf haala baaduutiin tolfamee qophaahe kan dabalatu dha. Naannoo tajaajilaatti fakkeenya kan ta'u kan akka callaa guddistuu dhiheessuu; qopheessuu (kan akka omishtoota looziitiif tajaajila omisha falfaluu kennuu); tajaajila gorsaa kan akka deggarsa gabaa omisha tuuta qonnaan bulaa ni dabalata. Misoomni Interpiraayizii qonnaa hirmaachisaan hawaasa baadiyaatiif tekinika sirna gabaa haaraa sadarkaalee isaa waliin kan uumu dha. (Ulaagaaleen filannoo hawaasaa uddeellaa 1 keessatti ibsamee jira). Barmaata hawaasa qonnaan bulaa jijjiiruu keessatti dhiibbaan jiru, keessattuu kan hawaasa hiyyeessaa cimaa dha. Kanaaf, qaamni haala kana hubatu yeroo fi qabeenya barbaachisu qalbiidhaan hubachuu barbaachisa.Rakkoon gabaan wal-qabatuu fi caasaa haaraa dhaabbata tokkoo hundeessuu keessatti hawaasa qonnaan bulaa hiyyeessa, keessattuu kanneen aadaa midhaan wabii nyaataa qofa omishan irratti dhiibbaa guddaa qaba.Haalli fuul-duree dinagdee hawaasa baadiyaa biyyoota guddachaa jiranii, keessattuu Afrikaa keessatti fooyya'aa miti. Omishtummaan midhaan nyaataa fooyya'iinsa haa qabaatu malee, bakka baay'eetti galiin abbaa warraa qonnaan bulaa yeroo irraa yerootti sababii guddinni dinagdee naannoo dadhabaa ta'ee fi dorgommiin gabaa addunyaa guddachaa adeemeef galiin abbaa warraa qonnaan bulaa gad-bu'aa dha.Akka carraa ta'ee, gatiin omisha qonnaa waggootii 20 hanga 30 darban keessatti gad-bu'aa ture. Qonnaan bultoonni sadarkaa xixiqqaa kan sadarkaa giddugaleessaa fi sadarkaa ol'aanaa waliin dorgomuun isaanii guddachaa adeemeera. Akkuma kanaan, qonnaan bultoonni sadarkaa xixiqqaa baay'een omisha jijjiirama hin qabne irratti of-qabanii yeroo jiranitti qonnaan bultoonni miliyoonotaan lakkaawaman aadaa durii fi sirna itti fayyadama callaa guddistuu gad-aanaadhaan omisha garaagarummaa hin qabne omishu.Waan hin hafne, qonnaan bultoonni kun haala wabii nyaataaf omishaniin haala gabaa caalaatti gad-buusuu ni danda'u. Carraa qonnaan bultoonni sadarkaa xixiqqaa haala gabaa jijjiiruuf qabsaahuu qaban:1. Dorgommii omisha isaanii sadarkaa naannoo fi biyyoolessaatti fooyyessuu;2. Ol'aantummaa dinagdee karaa gurmaa'ina omishaa fi gabaa argachuu;3. Tajaajila misoomaa bu'aa ol'aanaa qabuu fi/yookaan gabaa dorgomaa carraa hojii uumuu danda'u argachuu; 4. Midhaan galii guddaa fi/yookaan beelada guddina gabaa waliin adeemu babal'isuu; 5. Gabaa galii guddaa argachuun akka danda'amuuf aadaa qonnaa gara fooyya'aatti jijjiiruudhaan qulqullina omishaa dabaluu; 6. Waliigaltee hojii haaraa keessa galuu (qonna kontiraataa); 7. Yeroo hojiin qonnaa hin jirre carraa hojii kan biraa, fakkeenyaaf magaalaa keessatti barbaaduu. Tooftaan Interpiraayizii qonnaa \"RAeD\"n qophaahe sirnoota gabaa kan bu'uura ta'an sadarkaa sadarkaan dabalatee jira. Adeemsi kun haala hiyyummaa keessaa bahuu danda'amuun: (1) omisha tokko qofaa irratti kan hin xiyyeeffanne (2) yeroo qonnaa fi yeroo qonnaan hin jirre gidduutti madaallii isaa eegee kan deggaru (3) sochii gurmaa'insaa, heddummina omishaa fi dhimma bu'aa dabalu ni deggara.Adeemsi kun jireenya itti fayyadamtoota naannoo addaan bahee beekame tokkoo fooyyessuu irratti xiyyeeffata. Filannoon omishaa fi karoorri deggarsaa galii naannoo itti fayydamtootaa irratti hundaa'a. Kaayyoon adeemsa kanaa Interpiraayizii qonnaa bu'aa guddaa hawaasaa bu'uureffate, akkasumas guddina tajaajilaa fi jijjiirama Imaammataa fi to'annoo hubannoo keessa kan galchu dha. Kaayyoon adeemsa naannoo addaan bahee beekame irratti xiyyeeffachuu isaa kan biraa hordoffii cimsuu fi qooda fudhattoota naannoo waliin ta'uudhaan haala mijeessuu fi ol guddisuuf dha.Adeemsi kun adeemsa hirmaachisaa dha. Sadarkaa projektiitti garee qooda fudhattootaa galma tokkoof hojjetan hirmaachisuu dha. Gareen kun dhaabbilee misoomaa, kennitoota tajaajilaa kan uummataa fi kan dhuunfaa, daldaltoota ni dabalata. Sadarkaa hawaasaatti, kaayyoon adeemsichaa garee qonnaan bultootaa fi kennitoota tajaajilaa kan carraa Interpiraayizii qonnaa uumaa jiran jajjabeessuu dha. Qooda fudhattoonni kun gulantaalee adda addaa keessatti hirmaachuu ni danda'u, garuu hundi murtee kan karoora, qo'annoo, hojii irra oolchuu fi ol guddisuu keessatti raawwatu irratti dhiibbaa gochuu ni danda'u.Adeemsi kun gabaadhaan durfama; omishaan kan durfamu miti. Kaayyoon isaa Interpiraayizootaa fi hirmaattota carraa omisha jiru yookaan gabaa jiru yookaan haaraa keessatti jajjabeessuuf dha. Adeemsi kun deggarsa omisha carraa guddinaa qabu yookaan garee fayyadamtootaa galiin isaanii dabalaa jiru irratti xiyyeeffata.Adeemsi kun hirmaattonnii fi qooda fudhattoonni \"qonnaan alatti akka yaadan\" jajjabeessa. Yaad-rimeen kun rakkoolee ciccimoo sadarkaa adda addaatti qunnaman hubachuudhaan toora gabaa irratti kan xiyyeeffatu ta'ee, haala saffina qabuun deggaruu dha. Kanaafuu, Interpiraayiziin qonnaa deggarsa bu'aa guddaa argamsiisu hojii irra oolchuu irratti kan kaayyeffate dha. Deggarsi gabaa bu'uureffate: walitti-hidhiinsa gabaa, tajaajila naannoo jajjabeessuu, fi argannoo haaraa kan biraa ni dabalata.Adeemsi misoomaa hedduun gosa hirmaattotaa toora gabaa tokko irratti xiyyeeffata: Innis namoota qabeenyaan gad-aanaa ta'an dha. Qonnaan bultoonni qooda-fudhattoota barbaachisan dha. Walitti-hidhiinsi gabaa irracaalaa bu'a-qabeessa kan ta'u qonnaan bultoota ol'aanaa, yookaan daldaltoota, yookaan qopheessitoota waliin walitti-hidhiinsa yoo qabaatan dha. Walitti-hidhiinsi akkasii qaama bituuf amantaa guddaa kan uumuu fi qonnaan bultoota qabeenya xinnaa qabaniif haala qonnaa fi gabaa isaanii fooyyeffachuuf bu'uura barnootaa ta'uu ni danda'a.Interpiraayizii qonnaa gulantaalee hedduu kan garee raawwattootaatiin hojii irra oolu of-keessaa qaba. Sochiilee ijoon sadii:(1) sakatta'iinsa qooda fudhattootaa fi qabeenya bakka projektii adeemsisuu;(2) hubannoo gabaa fi (3) dizaayinii deggarsaa, hojii irra oolchuu fi ol guddisuu.Sochiileen kun miseensota tuuta hojii, garee sakatta'iinsa gabaa fi tuuta Interpiraayiziitiin kan gaggeeffamu ta'a.Amalli guddaan tooftaa kanaa deggarsa qooda fudhattootaatiin sadarkaa shaakalaa irraa babal'achuu danda'uu isaa ti. Haala salphaadhaan ol guddisuun waan danda'muuf lakkoofsa tuuta fayyadamtootaa baay'ee ta'een jalqabuu mannaa fayyadamtoota lakkoofsa murtaahaa ta'een jalqabuun barbaachisaa ta'a.Dhimmi qabiinsa gabaa sochii addaan citu otuu hin ta'in adeemsa fufiinsa qabu dha. Gabaan guddachaa kan adeemuu fi Interpiraayiziin qonnaa haala dhaabbataa ta'een rakkoo haaraa fi carraan kan qunnamuu danda'u dha.Adeemsi Interpiraayizii qonnaa qooda fudhattoonni naannoo waan haaraa akka hordofanii fi tarsiimoo mijaawaa akka addaan baasan isaan dandeessisa.Dhaabbileen misoomaa karoora naannoo fi Imaammata keessatti adeemsa kana idileeffachuudhaan rakkoolee Interpiraayizii qonnaa yeroo projektiin hojii isaa xumuru qunnamaniif kan isaan fayyadu ta'a.Adeemsi kun qonnaan bultoota, qopheessitootaa fi daldaltoota dabalatee dandeettii fi qabeenya naannoo hawaasa keessa jiru ijaara. Galmi isaa dandeettii kennitoota tajaajilaa, tuuta qonnaan bultootaa fi daldaltoota naannoo ijaaruu fi kana irraa kan ka'e hawaasni adeemsa kana keessatti hirmaachuudhaan irraa fayyadamaa ta'uu ni danda'a. Adeemsi kun dhaabbilee misoomaa irraa dhiheessii tajaajilaa babal'isuu otuu hin ta'in raawwattoota naannoo fi sektara dhuunfaa keessatti haala mijeessuu fi jajjabeessuu ta'a.Interpiraayiziin qonnaa haala adeemsa gabaatiin namoota hunda waan qaqqabuuf dhimma korniyaa irraa bilisa. Ta'ullee, adeemsi kun fedhii tuuta dubartootaa fi tuuta saaxilamtootaa kan akka dargaggootaa, maanguddootaa fi uummata dhibee \"HIV/AIDS\" waliin jiraatan haala hubachuu danda'uun kan qophaahe dha.Sochiileen Interpiraayizii qonnaa sochiilee hawaasummaa kan qooda fudhattoota kutannoo qabanii fi humna nama barateetiin qindaahuu barbaachisu dha. Haala hundaanuu, adeemsi kun akka haala naannoo isaatti mijaahuu kan qabuu fi irratti waliigalamuu kan qabu dha. Karoorrii fi invastimantiin isaa fedhii maamilaa irratti kan hundaa'ee fi raawwiin isaa haalaan hubatamuu barbaachisa. Bu'aan argamuu kan danda'u yeroo Interpiraayiziin qonnaa carraaqqii fi ogummaadhaan hojii irra oole qofaa dha.Akka muuxannoon argisiisutti, adeemsi kun bu'a-qabeessa akka ta'uuf kennitoonni tajaajilaa fi tuutni qonnaan bultootaa ogummaa haaraa kan karaa adda addaa hojii ittiin raawwatan argachuu qabu. Jijjiiramni kun yeroo fi maallaqa barbaada; kanaaf, adeemsi kun haala dandeettii naannoo irratti hundaa'ee fi haala jireenya gabaatiin sagantaa ijaarsa dandeettii yeroo dheeraa, yoo xinnaate waggaa 2 hanga 4 ta'u barbaachisa. Ta'ullee, qabiyyee misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa hunda haala qabateen hawaasa shakke keessatti waggaa 8 hanga 10 fudhachuu ni danda'a. Yeroon akkasii tuuta qonnaan bultootaa hedduu hundeessuuf kan barbaachisuu fi gara waldaa sadarkaa lammaaffaatti dabaluu fi tajaajila deggarsa sochiilee naannoo jajjabeessuu; kana irraa kan ka'e dinagdee gahaa waan qabaniif gabaa keessatti yeroo dheeraadhaaf dorgomaa ta'uu ni danda'u.Bakka tokko tokkotti, fakkeenyaaf naannoolee hanqina wabii nyaataa qabanitti tooftaan kun barbaachisaa ta'uu dhiisuu ni dabda'a.Hulaan adeemsa misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa dhimmoota kanatti aansanii jiran irratti hundaa'uudhaan kan jijjiiramu dha. (1)gahumsa gurmaa'insa qonnaan bultootaa fooyyessuu fi omisha of-harkaa qaban irra -caalaa gurgurachuu akka danda'an taasisuu,(2) qooda fudhattoota misoomaa kan galma tokoof hojjetan filachuu, fi (3) sochii Interpiraayizii qonnaa keessatti dorgommii cimsuu dha.Hulaan kun kan garee qonnaan bultoota caalaatti gurmaa'anii, waliin hojjetanii fi omisha isaani walitti fidanii yookaan haala idileetiin gurguratanii fi Qonnaan bultoota yookaan garee akkasiif deggarsi ta'uu qabu kan xiyyeeffatu omisha adda addaa yookaan akkaataa omisha isaanii irratti bu'aa dabalaa barbaaduufii dha. Gareen kun omisha haaraa irratti bobba'uuf fedhii cimaa yoo qabaate, adeemsi itti aanu gabaa omishichaa qorachuu ta'uu qaba.Fedhiin garee omisha haaraa gamaggamuu yoo ta'e, adeemsi itti aanuu qoranno carraa gabaa (MOI) haala hirmaachisaa ta'een addaan baasuu dha.Qorannoon carraa gabaa addaan baasuu (MOI) carraa gabaa haaraa argachuu kan dandeessisu dha. Haala walfakkaatuun, mijeessitoonni gabaa gahumsa qunnqmtii hojii fi gabaa cimsuuf hojjechuu qabu. Gareen qusannoo fi galmee haala idileetiin cimsachuu qaba.Bakka kanatti,qonnaan bultoonni omisha bu'aa ol'anaa fi gad-aanaa qaban irratti bu'aa dabaluuf gareedhaan hojjetu. Xiyyeeffannaan hulaa kanaa: (1) Dorgommii filannoo bu'aa guddaa jiru fooyyessuu;(2) Saffina hojii ol giddisuu; (3) filanno bu'aa guddaatiif carraalee haaraa gamaaggamuu; (4) gahumsa hojii garee cimsuu;( • Dhiheessii: Baay'ina omishaa kan omishtoonni gurgurtaaf dhiheessan.• Fedhii: Baay'ina omishaa kan fayyadamtoonni bitachuu danda'an.Bakki gabaa walii galatti seera fedhii fi dhiheessii irratti hojjeta.Gabaabinaan Mijeessaan gabaa qoodafudhattoota gabaa, gosoota gabaa fi ga'ee fi hojii uummatni toora gabaa keessatti qabu beekuu barbaachisa. Hirmaattonni yookaan qooda bituu, qopheessuu, gurguruu fi omisha q qonnaa fudhachuu keessatti ni hirmaatu.Kana malees uummatni gurgurtaa omishaa deggaruuf tajaajila kennan ni jiru.Ga'e-qabeessonni gabaa yookaan \"daldaltoonni omisha qonnaa irraa fuudhanii harka itti fayyadamtoota kan qaqqabsiisan dha. Waliitti-dhufeenyi omishtootaa fi itti fayyadamtoota gidduu jiru kuntoora gabaa jedhamee beekma. Gosoonni gabaa naannoo adda adda keessatti adeemsifaman kanneen kanaan gaditti tarreeffaman dha.Gabaan akkasii kun omishawwan qonnaa otuu gabaa gurgurtoota waliigalaatti hin ergamin dura qonnaan bultoonni omisha isaanii bakka itti gurguran dha. Daldaltootaaf, qonnaan bultoota irraa omishawwan qonnaa bituu irra qonnaan bultoonni yeroo fi bakka murtaa'aa ta'etti omisha isaanii gurguruun salphaa waan ta'uuf gabaan walitti qabiinsaa shoora ol'aanaa taphata. Gabaan walitti qabiinsaa yeroo baay'ee baadiyaa keessatti argamu;garuu yeroo tokko tokko magaalota xixiqqoo lafa qonnaaf dhihoo ta'an keessatti argamuu ni danda'u.Gabaan gurgurtaa waliigalaa, walumaagalatti magaalota guguddoo keessatti argamu. Bakki kun bakka qanxabdoonnii fi daldaltoonni bitanii dhiheessan dha.Qonnaan bultoonni omisha isaanii gabaa gurgurtaa waliigalaaf dhiheessuu ni danda'u, haata'u malee, yeroo baay'ee daldaltoonni qonnaan bultootaa fi daldaltoota xixiqqoo irraa bitanii dhiheessu. Yeroo baay'ee gurgurtoonni waliigalaa omishawwan qonnaa qanxabdootaaf yookaan gabaa kan biraatti gurguruuf bitu.Gabaan gurgurtaa waliigalaa omishawwan baay'ee bakka tokkotti akka gurguraman taasisu. Kun ammoo gatiin omishawwanii dhiheessii fi fedhii irraatti akka hundaa'u taasisa.Gabaan kun bakka fayydamtoonnii fi manneen nyaataa xixiqqoo bittaa itti raawwatan dha. Gabaan kun baadiyaas ta'e maagaalota keessatti ni argama.Naannolee baay'een gabaa qanxabbii kan ofii isaanii qabu. Guyyaa hunda yookaan torbee keessatti tajaajila kennuu ni danda'u.Guddinni magaalotaa fi fedhii guddaan giddugala gabaa guguddaa uumee jira. Supermaarketoonnis magaalota keessatti amanamaa fi mijaawaa ta'anii jiru. Qonnaan bultoonni omisha isaanii supermaarketootatti gurguruu ni danda'u; garuu haalli bittaa isaanii qulqullina nyaataan, hamma dhiheessii fi gatii isaanii gabaa gurgurtaa waliigalaa irraa adda dha.Sochii gabaa kan jedhamu omishni qonnaan bultoota irraa gara fayyadamtootaa hanga ga'utti ga'ee hirmaattota gabaatiin kan raawwatu dha. Sochiin kun ammoo omishawwan qonnaa irratti bu'aa dabala.Sochii gabaa keessattii dhimmoota bu'uura ta'an kan garee qonnaan bultootaa yookaan daldaltoota naannootiin raawwatan keessaa qonnaan bultoota hedduu irraa omisha walitti guuruu dha. Kun akka qonnaan bultoonni yeroo tokkicha omisha isaanii hedduumminaan gurguratanii fi gatii gaarii argachuuf daldaltoota wajjin waliigalan dandeessisa.Omishni sassaabame warshaaf yookaan fayyadamtootaaf otuu hin dhihaatin dura qulqullaa'uu qaba. Adeemsa kana keessatti wantoonni qulqulluu hin taane kan akka cirraachaa, qolaa fi dhagaa omisha keessaa bahuu qabu.Omishni qonnaa harkaan, maashinoota harkaa fi maashinoota mootaraan qulqullaa'uu ni danda'a.Qabeentaan Raawwii gabaa saffisaa ta'e uumuuf toora gabaa keessatti tajaajila hojii misoomaa hedduutu jira. Tajaajila deggarsaa hedduu keessaaa: dhiheessii callaa guddistuu, qorannoo, gorsa/tajaajila misoomaa, geejjiba, qunnamtii, odeeffannoo gabaa fi faayinaansii irratti xiyyeeffanna.Gabaa fi misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa keessatti, gabaan haala saffisaa ta'een akka raawwatu qofaa otuu hin ta'un, argannoo haaraaf ga'ee guddaa waan qabuuf tajaajilli hojii misoomaa haala salphaadhaan ilaalamuu hin qabu.Haala humna bittaa giddugaleessa godhateen callaa guddistuu akkaataa qulqullinaa fi baay'ina barbaadameetiin dhiheessuun qooda fudhattoota toora gabaa keessa jiran hundaaf murteessaa dha. Qonna keessatti callaa guddistoota murteessaan sanyii, kemiikaala qonnaa, bishaan jallisii, meeshaalee qonnaa fi meehaalee omisha boodaa ni dabalata. Qopheessuu keessattis bishan, humni ibsaa, fi meeshaaleen jijjiirsaa ni barbaachisu.Qorannoon misooma tekinooloojii mijaawaa fi tooftaa omisha dabaluuf Omisha irratti garaagarummaa fiduu fi omisha dogomaa ta'e dabaluuf tekinooloojii haaraan murteessaa dha.Hirmaattonni gabaa naannoo hojii isaaniitti odeeffannoo fi tajaajila gorsaa irraa bu'aa argachuu ni danda'u. Kunis naannoo omishaa, bulchiinsa qabeenya uumamaa, omisha booda, qopheessuu, gurguruu, bulchuu fi karoora hojii kan dabalatu ta'uu ni danda'a. Gorsi akkasii qondaala ekisteenshinii qonnaa fi gabaatiin qaamolee Mootummaa fi tajaajila odeeffannootiin, Dhaabbilee Mit-Mootummaa fi Dhaabbilee Gorsaatiin kan kennamu dha.Ka'umsi rakkoolee gabaa, keessattuu naannoolee fagoo ta'an keessatti hanqinaa fi gatii tajaajila geejjibaa ti. Bakka akkasiitti geejjibni kan jiraatu yeroo gatiin gurgurtaa gatii bittaa caalee argamu qofaa dha. Gabaan geejjibaa akkuma gabaa kan biraa akkaataa fi gatii adda addaa qaba. Qonnaan bultoonni geejjiba kan gatiin mijataa ta'e barbaaddachuu fi yeroo hunda madaaluun irra-caalaa kan baasiin isaa mijataa ta'e barbaaddachuu qabu.Toora gabaa keessatti yaa'insa odeeffannoo gaarii fi baasii xiqqaadhaan hojjechuuf tajaajilli poostaa, bilbila, \"e-mail\", \"Internet\" murteessaa dha.Addunyaa guddachaa jiru keessatti babal'inni \"Internet\", \" e-mail\", keessattuu bilbilli 'moobaayilii' qooda fudhattoota gabaatiif qunnamtii saffisaa ta'uudhaan bu'aa guddaa argamsiisaa jira. Bakka bilbilli 'moobaayilii' jiru hundatti bitattoonni baasii isaanii xiqqeessuuf dhiheessitoota waliin kan qunnaman bilbila 'moobaayilii'tiin ta'ee jira.Odeeffannoon gabaa baasii fi badii dhufuu danda'u xiqqeessuudhaan murtee kennuu keessatti qooda guddaa qaba. Odeeffannoo gabaa qabaachuun hirmaattonni gabaa fedhii fayyadamtootaa qaqqabuu akka danda'anii fi carraa bu'a-qabeessa akka barbaaddatan isaan gargaara. Hirmaattonni odeeffannoo gabaa yoo argatan gatii seera-dhabeessa ta'e irraa bilisa ta'uu ni danda'u.Qonnaan bultoonni maddi callaa guddistuu fi gatiin isaa eessaa fi hammam akka ta'e; gabaa naannoo keessatti omishaa fi gatiin yeroo-yeroon maal akka fakkaatu; gabaa keessatti jijjiiramni gatii gara kamitti adeemaa akka jiru;gurgurtaaf yoomtu baay'ee gaarii akka ta'e; fi haalli gatii fi wayitummaan isaa attam akka ta'e hubannoo qabaachuu qabu. Gabaa naannoo adda addaa keessatti bitattoonni meeqa dhimma kam irratti akka bobba'an beekuuf odeeffannoo argachuu barbaachisa; akkasumas baay'inaa fi qulqullina barbaachisuu fi akkaataa gurgurtaa beekuuf odeeffannoo argachuu barbaachisa.Omishawwan sirna gabaa keessatti akka socho'an faayinaansiin barbaachisaa dha. Qonnaan bultoonni callaa guddistuu bitachuu fi gatii guddaa irraa bu'aa argachuuf jecha omisha isaanii of-harka tursuu ni barbaadu. Daldaltoonnii fi qopheessitoonni Investmentii irratti faayinaansii isaanii dhangalaasuu barbaadu.Biyyoota guddachaa jiran baay'ee keessatti Baankii irraa liqii argachuun rakkisaa dha. Waan kana ta'eef, qonnaan bultoonni, daldaltootaa fi qopheessitoonni yeroo baay'ee qusannaa fi madda kan biraa irraa fayyadamu. Qonnaan bultoonni daldaltoota irraa bifa liqiitiin callaa guddistuu fudhachuudhaan erga omishanii booda bifa omishaatiin yookaan bifa maallaqaatiin deebisu. Omisha isaaniis bifa liqiitiin gurguruudhaan bitattoota gargaaruu ni danda'u. Gurgurtoonni waliigalaa fi qopheessitoonni daldaltoota walittiqabdootaa fi kuustotaaf bittaa omishaaf dursanii maallaqa dhiheessu.Hirmaattonni gabaa hundi akkaataa toorri gabaa socho'uu danda'uun tajaajila hojii fi Imaamata mijeessu. Toora gabaa jechuun adeemsa omishni hanga fayyadamtoota qaqqabutti socho'u dha. Qonnaan bultoonni omisha isaanii kallattiidhaan fayyadamtootaatti yeroo isaan gurguran baay'ee muraasa dha. Irra-caalaa omishni qonnaa harka hedduu keessa darbee fayydamtoota qaqqaba.Gabaa keessatti fedhii baay'ina, qulqullinaa fi gosa omishaa ilaalchisee dhimmoota heedduu ta'antu jira. Kanatti aansanii kan dhihaatan dhimmoota haala adeemsa gabaa irratti dhiibbaa uumanii fi yeroo gabaabaa, yeroo giddugaleessaa yookaan yeroo dheeraa keessatti attamiin gabaa miidhuu akka danda'an kan ibsu dha.Afrikaa keessatti guddinni baay'ina uummataa dhibbantaa 2 hanga 3 ta'a.Kana jechuun ammoo waggaa-waggaan namoota baay'eef omisha qonnaa barbaachisa jechuu dha. Biyyoota baay'ee Sahaaraa gaditti argaman waggoota 15 hanga 20 dhufan keessatti baay'inni uummata isaanii dachaa lamaan dabala. Kun ammoo fedhii omishawwan qonnaa ni dabala.Jaarraa darbe addunyaa keessatti magaalonni saffinaan guddatanii jiru.Uummata addunyaa keessaa dhibbantaa 50 kan ta'u magaalota keessa jiraata. Biyyoota guddatan keessatti sadarkaan magaalotaa guddaa dha.Biyyoota guddachaa jiran keessatti ammoo saffinni isaa, keessattuu Afrikaa keessatti guddaa dha. Baadiyaa irraa gara magaalotaatti godaansi waan jiruuf fayyadamtoonni baay'een bituu malee omishuu hin barbaadan jechuu dha.Biyyoota baay'ee keessatti galiin uummata dabalaa jira. Jechi kun sirna qunnamtii fi geejjibaa keessatti daldalaa fi qindoomina gabaa addunyaa ibsuuf kan itti gargaaramnu dha. Adeemsi kun biyyoota baay'een dinagdee isaanii bilisa akka taasisanii fi omisha qonnaa dabalatee bal'ina daldala isaanii akka dabalan kan jajjabeessu dha. Bilisummaan dinagdee fi banaa ta'uun isaa gara guddinaatti kan ceesisu ta'ullee, biyyoota guddataa jiran hedduuf bilisummaan dinagdee rakkina cimaa ta'e uumuu ni danda'a.Addunyummaan humnoota gabaa irratti dhiibbaa guddaa akka qabu qaamolee hedduun kan beekamu dha.Rakkoolee hamaa dhiibbaa addunyummaatiin mudachuu danda'an keessaa inni tokko kufaatii gatii omisha qonnaa gabaa addunyaa irratti gurguraman dha. Omishawwan qonnaa guguddaa 20 kan ta'an waggoota 40 oliif gatiin isaanii sadarkaa gad-aanaatti bu'ee argama. Dhiibbaan kun kufaatii gatii omisha qonnaa fi heddummina dhiheessii gabaa guguddaa irratti mul'atu irraa kan ka'e dha.Waggoota 20 darbaniif lakkoofsi bitattootaa gabaa addunyaa irratti hirmaatan daldaltoota hedduu sadarkaa naannoo irraa gara daldaltoota xiqqaa sadarkaa addunyaatti jijjiirmanii jiru.Omishawwan guguddoo kan akka qamadii, boqqolloo, aatoo faranjii (soybean), bunaa fi zayita nyaataatiin lakkoofsi daldaltootaa omisha-omishaan manneen daldalaa 5-10 ta'utti gad bu'ee jira. Kanneen keessaa gabaa midhaanii irratti kan akka ADM, Cargill, fi Louis Drefuss; yookaan gabaa bunaa irratti Sara Lee fi Nestle bebbeekamoo dha. Sadarkaa daldaltootaatti dhabamiinsi dorgommii toora gabaa keessatti aangoo gabaa qonnaan bultootaa gara bitattootaatti jijjiira. Qonnaan bultoonni omisha isaanii irratti daldaltoota waliin aangoo wal-falmii kan hin qabne taanaan sirna gatii gabaa bitattootaa keessatti sakaalamanii kan hafan ta'a. Badiin adeemsa kanaa bitattoonni muraasni gatii gad-aanaa uumuuf aangoo akka qabaatan isaan dandeessisa.Lakkoofsi baay'ina kufaatii bitattoota addunyaa sektaroota qanxabdoota irratti haaluma wal-fakkaatuun calaqqisa. Omishtummaan qabeenya uumamaa miidhuu ni danda'a. Kun ammoo haala qonnaatiin kemiikaalotaa fi farra ilbiisotaa baay'ee fayyadamuudhaan kan dhufu dha. Kana jechuun ammoo qonnaan bultootaaf omishtummaan lafa qonnaa isaanii ni hir'ata. Kanaaf gara lafa haaraatti socho'uuf dirqamu. Kun ammoo qabeenya uumamaa ni miidha. Fayyadamtoonnis omishawwan haala qulqulluu ta'een omishamaniif fedhii guddaa agarsiisu. Omishawwan akkanaafis gatii guddaa kaffalu. Gara fuulduraaf adeemsa omisha amanamaa fi kan qabeenya uumamaa hin miine baay'ee barbaachisaa ta'a. Gabaan omishtoota uumamaa waggaa tokko keessatti dhibbentaa 20'n guddachaa jira.Baadiyaa keessatti kompiyuutarootaan wal-baruu fi irra caalaa bilbila moobaayiliitiin walbaruun wal-qunnamtiin akka saffisuu fi qonnaan bultoonni odeeffannoo haaraa akka argatan taasiseera. Gara fuulduraaf moobaayiliin baadiyaa keessatti qunnamtii odeeffannoo faayidaa guddaa qaban ta'uu akka danda'an ni tilmaamama. Itti fayyadamni bilbilaa yammu babal'achaa adeemu meeshaaleen daldalaa baay'ee barbaachisaa ta'u. Biyyoota baay'ee keessatti bitattoonni dhiheessitoota isaanii wajjin wal-qunnamuuf barbaadu.Fayyadamtoonni Yeroo waa'ee omishaa hubachaa adeeman omishawwan adda ta'aniif gatii guddaa kaffalu.Jireenya haaraa akkasii keessatti omishawwan fedhii fayyadamtootaa guutanii fi fayyadamtoota biratti hedduu filatamaa kan ta'an gabaa mijataa kan biraa uumuu ni danda'u. Buna qulqullina isaa eeggatee lafa qonnaa bal'inaan xiqqaa ta'e irraa kan omishamu, omishawwan xiqqaa ta'anii fi gatiin isaanii omishawwan kaan irra kan caaluuf fakkeenya ta'uu ni danda'a. Haaluma wal fakkaatuun fayyadamtoonni tokko tokko omishawwan karaa sirriitiin daldalaman qoofa bitu. Kanaaf Dhaabni \"OXFAM\" jedhamu omishawwan irratti waliigalteen gurgurtaa akka jiraatu yaada dhiheesseera. Kun ammoo qonnaan bultootoonni omisha qulqulluu yoo dhiheessan gatii barbaachisaa ta'e akka kaffalamuuf kan taasisu ta'a.Gabaa baramaa dhufan keessaa inni tokko gabaa omishawwan uumamaa ti.Kun ammoo qoricha uumamaa biqiloota irraa argaman, boba'aa uumamaa, ,omishawwan biqiloota viitaaminoota fi albuudawwan of keessaa qaban, kan akka mixaaxisa viitaamina \"A\"tiin badhaadhaa ta'ee fi baaqelaa sibiilaan badhaadhaa ta'e of keessaa qabaata.Omishawwan akkasii fayyadamtootaan jaallatamuu yoo baatanillee, baay'inaan omishamaa jiru.Kun ammoo gabaan isaanii yeroo xiqqoo keessatti akka guddachuu danda'u agarsiisa.Akkaataa dandeettii omisha isaaniitiin qonnaan bultoonni xixiqqaan qabeenya isaanii irraa bu'aa argachuu irratti rakkoon isaan qunnama. Hawaasni baadiyaa kessa jiraatan humna, qabeenyaa fi dandeettii isaaniitiin waan haaraa uumuudhaan carraa hojii irraa fayyadamuu barbaadu. Haala baay'eedhaan akkaataa amma mul'atuun qonnaan bultoonni xixiqqaan gurmaa'ina hin qabnee fi gabaa irraa fagoo ta'an haala gadheen xiyyeeffannoo dhabsiisuu ni danda'a. Kana irratti jijjiirama fiduuf hawaasni baadiyaa, tarsiimoo kan akka babal'ina mala qonnaa, bakka xiqqaa irraa bu'aa guddaa argachuu, omisha adda addaa omishuu fi yeroo qonnaan hin jirretti hojii galii argamsiisu hojjechuu aadaa godhatee fudhachuu barbaachisa. Kanaaf, omisha isaanii dorgomaa gochuuf qulqullina itti dabaluu fi omishawwan qulqulluu gabaa gurguddaaf dhiheessuu barbaachisa.Hojiilee baay'ee ulfaataa ta'an keessaa, yeroo tarsiimoo gabaa qopheessan carraa hojii haaraa waliin sadarkaa badii uumamuu danda'u sakatta'uu dha.Qonnaan bultoota hiyyeeyyii ta'an waliin yeroo hojjetamu akkaataa sadarkaan badii uumamuu danda'u addaan bahu beekuu barbaachisa. Akaakuu omishaa fi gabaa wal-cinaatti madaaluun carraa badii uumamuu danda'u addaan baasuun ni danda'ama.Xumura kutaa kanaa booda, Dhaabbanni dhimma kana geggeessu :Sakatta'insa naannoo fi qooda fudhattoota jiran;Naannoo projektii adda baasuu danda'uu qaba.Yeroon Barbaachisu:Torban 2 hanga 3.Akkuma qaama adeemsa karooraatti, dhaabni mijeessaa gabaa deggaru naannoo keessatti hojjetamuuf yaadame irraa odeeffannoo saffinaan argachuuf sakatta'iinsa adeemsisuu qaba. Odeeffannoon kun eessatti sochiin akka jalqabuu fi attamitti qooda fudhattoota gahumsa qaban waliin qunnamuun akka danda'amu hubannoo kennuu ni danda'a. Sakatta'iinsi torban tokko kan hin caalle odeeffannoo waliigalaa kan dhimmoota kanatti aansanii dhihaatan irratti xiyyeeffatu ta'uu qaba.Odeeffannoo gahaa naannoo filatamee irratti, waa'ee seenaa, haala qilleensaa, baay'ina uummataa, garee hawaasaa fi ilaalcha isaa sakatta'uu.Biyyee gabbataa, bishaan, omisha hedduun beekamaa ta'uu, loon, qabeenya uumamaa, naannoo bareedaa ta'e, danddetti guddaa qabaachuu.Sirna geejjibaa, bu'uura misooma gabaa, bal'ina lafa qonnaa.Dhaabbilee fi Ejensoota naannootti hojjetanii fi maal akka hojjetan addaan baasuu; dhimmoota gabaan wal-qabatanii karoorsaman irratti hubannoo, fedhii, fi hirmaannaa isaan qaban addaan baasuu barbaachisa.Daldaltoota guguddaa wajjin waa'ee omishawwan guguddaa fi tajaajila gabaaa keessatti kennaman ilaalchisee dhiibbaa fi carraa jiru irratti yaada wal jijjiruu barbaachisa. Dhaabbileen omishawwan qopheessan, dhaabbilee guguddaa fi daldaltoota wajjiin waa'ee gabaa irratti yaada bal'aaban wal jijjiru. Kennitoota tajaajilaa kan akka dhiheessii callaa guddistuu, faayinaansii xixiqqaa, fi Baankii wajjiin hojii investimentii jalqabuu irratti danddettiin fayyadamuuf yaada wal jijjiiru.Sakatta'insa naannoo projektii dabalatee, ejensiin dhimma kana ogganu naannoo projektichi keessatti hundaa'aa jiru keessatti haalli gabaa bal'inaan uumamuu isaa hubachuu qaba. Qorannoon kun guyyaa 3 hanga 5 qofa kan fudhatu ta'uu qaba. Dhimma kana irratti geggeessitoota projektoota misooma qonnaa guguddaa waliin qunnamuun barbaachisaa dha.Interpiraayizii Qonnaa fi Mijaa'ina Gabaaf Sadarkaa Gahumsa \"Mana-keessaa\"Interpiraayiziin qonnaa damee hojii haaraa waan ta'eef, dhaabbileen beekamoon gahumsa mana-keessaa dandeettii gabaaf qaban madaaluudhaan misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa fi gabaa irraa fayydamuu ni danda'u. Odeeffannoon kun haala jiru sakatta'uu fi bu'aa barbaadamu argachuuf sadarkaa ijaarsa dandeettii irratti murtee kennuuf kan gargaaru dha.Dandeettii mana keessaa gamaaggamuu keessatti kennitoonni tajaajilaa adda duree ta'an dhimmoota kanatti aansanii dhihaataniif xiyyeeffannoo kennuu barbaachisa.• Baay'ina hojjetootaa, kan sochii hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaatiif itti gaafatamummaa qaban;• Ogummaa hojjeetootaa, muuxannoo fi sakatta'insa mana hojii, jechuun guyyota oggansaa, guyyoota gorsa qonnaa, fi guyyoota hojjetoota dirree;• Gahumsa hirmaachisaa ta'e uumuu keessatti sadarkaa leenjii, kan akka(1) hirmaannaa uummataa (2) garee qonnaan bultootaa uumuu (3) dawwannaa gabaa, (4) xinxala gabaa, (5) karoora hojii (6 ) qusannoo fi liqii fi/ykn faayinaansii xixiqqaa, (7) misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa, fi (8) misooma tajaajila hojii ni dabalata.• Muuxannoo gahumsaa kanaan olitti tarreffameen, gahumsi kunniin gara hojiitti jijjiiramanii jiruu? Yoo kana ta'e bu'aan isaa maal ture?• Sochii mijaa'ina gabaa keessatti deggarsi akka jiraatu taasisuuf leenjiif carraa argachuu.Interpiraayizii qonnaa guddisuun hojii wal-xaxaa ta'e dha. • Dandeettii haaraa qooda fudhataan kun garee isaaf dabarsuu danda'u maal?• Kaayyoon isaa maal?• Kaayyoo kana galmaan ga'uuf dhaabni kun maal hojjechuu danda'a?• Dandeettii tekinikaa fi faayinaansii yookaan qabeenya barbaachisu qabaa?• Teessuma lafaa barbaadame irratti hojjechuu ni danda'aa?• Hojiiwwan Interpiraayizii qonnaatiin dandeettii ni qabaa?• Interpiraayizii qonnaa guddisuuf waadaa galuu ni danda'aa? yookaan fedhii qabaa?• Adeemsa hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaaf deggarsa maallaqaa kennuu ni danda'aa?• Dhaabbilee kan biraa kan akka qorannoo yookaan faayinaansii xixiqqaa waliin ta'ee hojjechuu ni danda'aa?• Hojjetoota hirmaachisummaa fayyadamuu irratti leenjifaman ni qabaa?Qabxiiwwan bu'uura ta'an kan biraa:• Dhaabbatichi Projektii yeroon daangeffameen hojjechuu ni danda'aa? (fakkeenyaaf, waggaa 1 hanga 3) yookaan sagantaa yeroo dheeraa;• Galmi isaa uummataaf dandeettii gahaa argamsiisuu ni danda'aa? yookaan gabaa caalaatti gahumsa qabu argachuuf ni dandeessisaa?• Uummataaf wantoota barbaachisaa ta'an kan akka sanyii, meeshaalee adda addaa, liqii, fi loon dhiheesuu ni danda'aa? yookaan qooda deggarsa mijeesummaa caalmaa qabu raawwachuu ni danda'aa? • Sababa haala qilleensaa irraa kan ka'e hir'ina nyaataa.• Balaa kan akka waraana , hongee fi lolaa.• Tasgabbii dhabiinsa siyaasaa.• Gabaa irraa fagaachuu irraa kan ka'e madda galii dhabuu.• Haala jireenya aadaa kan galii bu'aa-ba'ii irratti hundaa'e.Haala kanaan kennitoonni tajajilaa adeemsa gabaatti darbuun dura haala qabeenya kuufachuu irratti murteessuuf ummataa fi dhaabbilee gargaarsaa wajjin hojjechuu qabu. Haa ta'u malee kennitoonni tajajilaa galmi isaanii qabeenya naannoo cimsuu fi gara caalutti ce'uu akka ta'e ifatti mirkaneessuu qabu.Yeroo baay'ee hojii gabaa mijeessuu keessatti gorsi gaariin bilisaan kan kennamu akka hin jirree hubachiisuu dha. Kun ammoo adeemsi misooma Interpiraayizii qonnaa tooftaalee deggarsaa yookaan gargaarsa maallaqaatiin kan raawwatan waliin yoo ilaalamu harkifataa ta'ulle, adeemsi isaa fufiinsa kan qabu dha.Waggootii darban keessatti itti fayyadamani liqii misooma baadiyaa keessatti beekamaa dhufeera. Dhaabbileen mit-mootummaa sirna liqii bal'inaan deggaraa turaniiruu. Rakkooleen hanqina liqii deebisuutiin wal qabatan dadhabbii maamiltoonni kisaaraaf furmaata kennuu dhabuu; dhaabbileen liqii haala fufiinsa qabuun jiraachuu dhabuu dhaabbileen mit-mootummaa baay'ee ta'an mudatanii jiru. Tooftaan qusannoo xixiqqaa kan haala baay'een xiqqaa ta'een jalqabuun barsiisuun yaada qusannoo hubachiisuu keessaa isa tokko dha.Garee qonnaan bultootaa baay'eef carraan gabaa ni argama; kunis ta'uu kan danda'u deggarsi maallaqaa fi meeshaa yeroo gabaabaaf yoo taasifame qofaa dha.Qonnaan bultoonni danddeettii qabaachuun isaanii kan beekamu ta'ee argamnaan, callaa guddistuu bifa tola ta'een kennuun akka hin barbaachifne yaadatamu qaba.Haa ta'u malee, mijeessaan gabaa, kanneen akka sanyii, xaa'oo, farra ilbiisootaa, meeshaalee yookaan gejjibaa guuttachuu akka danda'an yoo addaan baase kennitoonni tajaajilaa qonnaan bultoota meshaalee asiin olitti tarreeffaman akka bitan danddesisuu qabu. Yaadni hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaa qonnaan bultoonni walii galteen akka hojjetan dha.Itti fayyadamni liqii gahumsa bulchiinsa maallaqaa barbaachisa. Bakka barbaachisaa ta'ee argametti kennitoonni tajaajilaa qonnaan bultoonni dhaabbilee faayinaansii xixiqqaa irraa liqii akka argatan mijeessuu qabu.Hojiin Interpiraayizii yaaddoo qaba. Naannoo hojii keessatti kisaaraan uumamuu ni danda'a. Kanaaf, adeemsa karooraa keessatti haala kana galchuu fi itti gafatamummaas qooduu barbaachisa.Gareen Interpiraayizii kanneen danddettii haraa barachaa jiran hojii haaraa bu'a-qabeessa ta'uu isaa otuu hin beekiin maallaqaa fi yeroo isaanii balleesu.Garee qonnaan bultootaa dagataman, yookaan hiyyummaa cimaa keessa jiran, akka Interpiraayizii qonnaa keessa galan jajjabeessuuf kennitoonni tajaajilaa gargaarsa maallaqaa gochuudhaan sochiilee kanatti aansanii jiran deggaruu qabu.1. Karoora hojii qopheessuu.2. Waldaa garee Interpiraayizii hundeessuu.3. Omisha addaa irratti yaalii taasisuu.4. Dhimmoota cimoo ta'an kan akka to'annoo qulqullina omishaa, saamsuu fi qabiinsa herregaa irratti leenjii kennuu.Akka filannoo muuxannoo babal'isuutti, ummataa fi garee qonnaan bultoota waliin hojjechuun yeroo meeqa akka fudhatu karoora baasuu barbaachisa.Kaayyoon isaa, dandeettiin ummata baay'ee yoo guddate yeroon garee qonnaan bultootaaf kenname tilmaamamuu fi beekamuu qaba. Xumura kutaa kanaatti mijeessaan gabaa:Hubannoo gaarii dhimmoota hirmaachisummaa barbaachisaa ta'an qabaachuu;Qooda fudhattoota fedhii qaban dhimma hirmaachisummaa irratti leenjii kennuu;Dhimmoota hirmaachisummaa daran hin beekkamne irratti shaakala gochuu qaba.Adeemsi hojji Interpiraayizii qonnaa sadarkaalee hirmaannaa garee qonnaan bultootaa fi qooda fudhattoota biraa keessatti fudhatamuu qaban of keessaa qaba. Adeemsi wal-ga'ii fi hojiin karooraa wal-amanuu fi hirmaannaa cimaa ijaara. Ummata waliin hojjechuun adeemsicha keessatti dhimma baay'ee barbaachisaa ta'ee dha.Mijeessaan gabaa deggarsa hojii Interpiraayiziif godhamu yeroo murtaawaa ta'e qofaaf akka itti fufu ummataaf ifa gochuu qaba. Akkuma maqaan isaa nutti agarsiisuutti mijeessaan gabaa shoora ol'aanaa taphata; mijeessaan gabaa omishawwan fi tajaajila hin dhiheessu.Filannoolee hojii milkaa'aa ta'an guddisuu keessatti, key social values of trust, amanamuummaa, wal gargaarsa garee fi itti gaafatamummaa irratti walii galuun sona hawaasummaa keessatti dhimma barbaachisaa dha. Hojiin misooma Inter piraayizii qonnaa danddeettii guddisuu fi Interpiraayizii naannoo ijaaruudhaan galii guddisuu qofaan otuu hin ta'in, wal-qixxummaa korniyaa fi itti gaafatamummaa hawaasummaa babal'isuu qaba.Naannolee baadiyaatti dubartoonni hojii maatii keessattis ta'e hojii qonnaa irratti shoora ol'aanaa taphatu. Haa ta'u malee, hojiin isaanii yeroo baay'ee fudhatama hin qabu.Murtii kennuu irrattis yeroo baay'ee xiyyeffannaan hin kennamuuf. Yeroo baay'eef itti fayyadamiinsa dhiiraan wal-qixa ta'e hin qaban. Kanaaf, mijeessaan gabaa fedhii fi sona dubartootaaf xiyyeeffannaa guddaa kennuu qaba.Hojii ol'aanaa mijeessaan gabaa hojjechuu qabu naannoo tokko keessatti waa'ee maamiltootaa sirriitti beekuu fi isaan wajjiin wal -qunnamtii amanamaa ta'e gochuu dha. Kun ammoo kan ta'uu danda'u haawaasicha kakaasuu fi mariidhaan ta'a.Dubartootaa fi miseensota haawaasa xiqqaa ta'an kan akka dargaggootaa fi namoota HIV wajjin jiraataniif kessattuu haawaasa kakaasuun kan jalqabu bulchaa haawaasichaa, jaarsolii biyyaa, dura bu'oota naannoof waa'ee sagantichaa oddeeffannoo kennuun ta'a.Waan kana ta'eef bulchaan naannoo sanaa sagantaa kanaaf hayyama kennuu fi haawaasichi wal -ga'ii jalqabaaf akka qophaa'an taasisa.Fakkeenyaaf, dura bu'aan naannoo sanaa waa'ee hojii hojjetamuuf jiru ummataaf ifa erga godhee booda jiraattota naannoo wal-ga'iif waama. Walga'iin akkanaa sagantaan gara fuulduraatti godhamu fudhatama akka qabu gargaara.Haawaasni xiqqoon yoo hirmaateyyuu haawaasni hunduu oddeeffannoo argachuu danda'a; yookaan ni argata. Miseensonni tokko tokko carraa barachuu argachuu danda'u; warri kaan ammoo wal-ga'i jalqabaa irratti hundaa'anii saganticha irratti hirmaachuu barbaadu. Geggeessitoota naannoo irraa gargaarsa argachuun guddina haawaasaa keessatti tarkaanfii jalqabaa ti.Wanti biraan ammoo mijeessaan gabaa haawaasicha wajjin wal-qunnamtii cimaa ijaaruuf miseensota haawaasichaa wajjin yaada wal-jijjiiruun akka tarkaanfii jalqabaatti fudhatama. Miseensoota haawaasichaa irraa gorsa fudhchuuf yeroo kennuu qaba.Jalqaba irratti wal-ga'iin barbaachisaa dha. Mijeessaan gabaa carraa waa'ee ummataa yookaan haawaasa naannoo hojiif filatame irratti jiraatan beekuu fi itti fayyadamuu qaba. Odeeffannoon kun mijeessaan gabaa fi kennitoota tajaajilaa waa'ee carraa akkanaa fi waa'ee rakkoolee haawaasicha mudatu akka beekan gargaara.Qonnaan bultoonni tokko tokko sochii mijeessaan gabaa taasisu irratti shakkii qabaachuu ni danda'u. Warri kaan ammoo wal-ga'ii yeroo jalqabaaf godhamu irratti argamuuf (hirmaachuuf) diduu ni danda'u; yookaan ammoo sirumaayyuu wal-ga'ii irratti hin hirmaatan ta'a. Waan kana ta'eef mijeessaan gabaa qonnaan bultoonni wal-ga'ii irratti kallattiin akkka argaman, akka walbaran, hojii kana keessatti maaliif akka galan akka beekanii fi yaada wal-jijjiiruuf walabummaan akka isaanitti dhaga'amu rakkoo kana furuu qaba. Qonnaan bultoonni hiyyeessa ta'an yeroo baay'ee qonnaan bultoonni badhaadhaa ta'anii fi kan baratan akka hasa'aniif ni caliisu. Mijeessaan gabaa karaa ifa ta'een yookaan karaa banaa ta'een qonnaan bultoota wajjin hojjechuun walamanuu fi hirmaannaan gaarii ta'e argamuu ni danda'a.Hawaasa beekuu fi odeeffannoo karaa hirmaachisaa ta'een sassaabuuf \"CIAT's enabling rural innovation team\" maloota kanaan gaditti argamanitti fayyadama.• Mallattoo lageenii;• Maappii qabeenya hawaasaa;• Wayitii omisha midhaanii;;• Sadarkaan kaa'uu, galmeessuu fi madaaluu;• Galmee seenaa;• Haala buufata maamiltootaa;• Maappii sochii gabaa;• Ilaaluu;• Daawwii gabaa;• Tooftaa hordoffii fi gamaaggama hawaasa hirmaachisu.Maloota kanaan olitti tarreeffaman qofa-qofaan yookaan waliin fayydamuun ni danda'ama. Mijeessaan gabaa haala jiruuf mala kamtu gaarii yookaan mijaawaa akka ta'e filachuun murteessuu qaba.Sochiin tokko tokko yeroo baay'ee fudhachuu ni danda'a; guyyaa tokko yookaan guyyaa walakkaa fudhachuu ni danda'a. Yeroo qonnaan bultootaa yaaduu fi walga'ii irratti yeroo hammam akka fudhatu ibsuu barbaachisa. Sochii hojii hawaasichaa baay'ee barbaachisaa ta'een yoo walitti dhufe hawaasicha wajjin waliigaluun ni danda'ama.• Yeroo hunda walga'iin yeroo eegame caalaa akka adeemsifamu karoora baasi; sababni isaas hawaasni baay'ee dhimmoota sassaabuuf, hiikuu fi murtii irra ga'uuf yeroo waan barbaadaniif;• Walga'icha of barsiisuu fi miiltota kee barsiisuun eegali; maal akka hojjetamuu fi maaliif akka hojjetamu ibsi; qonnaan bultoonni of akka barsiisan yeroo kenni;• Gilgaalli guyyaa guutuu yoo fudhate qonnaan bultoonni nyaata akka argatan taasisi; kun ammoo hawaasichaaf kaffaltii kaffaluun yookaan ammoo dhugaatii lallaafaa, daabboo, boqqolloo fi ruuzii fiduudhaan jechuu dha. Kun ammoo haala hawaasichaa irratti hundaa'a. Itti gaafatamummaa kee hawaasichaafis qoodi.• Namni baay'een walga'icha irratti yoo argame garee xixiqqaa uumi; kun yeroo baay'ee hirmaannaa cimsa. Gareedhaan hojjechuun yeroo walga'icha gaggeessuuf oolu xiqqeessuu ni dandeessa. Karaa biraatiin ammoo odeeffannoo baay'een akka sassaabame mirkaneessuu dandeessa.• Malawwan yeroo xiqqoo keessatti odeeffannoo hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaaf barbaachisan sassaabuuf gargaaran fayyadami.• Odeeffannoo sassaabuuf maloota xiqqoo of eeggannoon fili.• Walga'iiwwan qophaa'an irratti argami; gilgaalawwan baay'eef peennaawwan halluu adda addaa qaban, waraqaa guddaa fi teeppii (kaaseetii), bakka bu'oonni hawaasaa kan akka teeppii yoo barbaadan peennaa fi yaadannoo kenniif.• Yammuu walga'ichi mufachiisaa ta'aa dhufu wantoota qalbii namaa kakaasan fayyadami; gilgaalota gaggabaaboo kennuun gara fedhii hawaasaatti duufuu; dhiigni isaanii sirriitti akka socho'uu fi waan hojjechaa turan irratti qalbii isaanii akka sassaabbatan taasisuu.Sochiin kun hawaasicha jajjabeessuu fi karaa agarsiisuuf shoorri mijeessaa gabaa maal akka ta'e kan agarsiisu dha. Diraamicha booda mijeessaan gabaa diraamichi maal akka bakka bu'e, eenyu maal akka hojjetee fi kun ammoo yaada Interpiraayizii barachuu fi hawaasa aangessuu wajjin akkam akka wal simu marii bana.Dhimmi kun hawaasa yookaan qe'ee tokko wajjin kaartaa hojjechuuf kan fayyadu dha. Kana jechuun waa'ee qabeenyaa fi teessuma lafa naannoo sanaa oddeeffannoo bal'aa kan qabu dha. Kun miseensota hawaasichaa wajjin yookaan garee qonnaan bultootaa mijeessaan gabaa keessatti hojjetu wajjin hojjetamuu danda'a. Kaartaan qabeenya uumataa kan jalqaba irratti itti hojjetamu ta'uu qaba. Sababni isaas uummaticha waan kakaasuu fi hirmaannaa waan mirkaneessuuf dha.Jalqaba irraatti mijjeessaan gabaa qonnaan bultoonni daangaa irraa jalqabanii kaartaa naannoo isaanii akka kaasan gaafata. Kana booda kaarticha irratti wantoonni adda addaa kan akka manneen jireenyaa, bakkeewwan amantaa, manneen barumsaa, kilinikoota, karaawwan lafa qonnaa, bishaan fi kan kana fakkaatan qonnaan bultooni chaartii irratti kaartaa akka kaasan maarkariin isaaniif kennama. Qonnaan bulaan hundumti kaarticha irratti waan tokko akka kaasu ni jajjabeeffama.Mijessaan gabaa qabeenya hunda gaafachuu hin qabu; garuu maal akka qaban akka yaadanii fi fakki qabeenya isaanii akka kaasan yeroo kennu qaba.Waraqaan yoo dhabame qabeenyaa fi teessuma lafa naannoo sanaa agarsiisuuf wantoota kan akka dhagaa, suphee, fuduraalee, fi biqiltoota adda addaa fayyadamuun lafa irratti kaartaa kaasuun ni danda'ama.Mijeessaan gabaa sochii hojii gabaa isaaf wanti barbaachisaa ta'e maal akka ta'ee fi wantootni gabaa keessa akka hin seenne isaan taasisan maal akka turan namoota gaafachuu qaba. Mijeessaan gabaa namni kamiyyuu ofii isaaf qofa kaartaa akka hin kaasne to'achuu qaba. Xumura gilgaalichaa irrati miseensonni baay'een gilgaala kana irratti hirmaachuu qabu. Yoo danda'ame footoon kaartaa kanaa ka'uu qaba.Wayitiin omishaa (seasonal calendars), qonnaan bultoonni amala qonnaa itti fayyadamaa turan, waggaatti si'a meeqa akka omishan galii isaanii fi wabii nyaataa wajjin akkamitti akka wal-simsiisan, jireenyi isaanii maal akka fakkaatuu; fi kanaafis waggaa guutuu humna barbaachisu beekuuf kan gargaaru dha.Kun, rakkoolee jiranii fi sochii taasifamaa jiru agarsiisuu fi carraalee omishaa sadarkaa gadii irraa hanga sadarkaa ol'aanaatti jiru adda baasee madaaluun mijeessaan gabaa toora omishaa murteessuuf, jechuun sanyii yookaan omisha haaraan yammuu dhufu beekuuf carraa Interpiraayizii sakatta'uuf yeroo mijataa ta'a. Fakkeenyaaf wayitii hanqina roobaatti omishtummaan hir'isuu waan danda'uuf qonnaan bultoonni omisha yookaan sanyii yeroo gabaabaa qorachuu barbaadu ta'a; humni namaa wayitii akkanaatti baay'inaan waan argamuuf Projektii diriirsuuf yeroo garii dha ta'a. Mijeessaan gabaa waraqaa irratti ji'oota wagga Amajjii hanga Muddeetti barreessee yeroo kana keessatti qonnaan bultoonni hojii qaban akka guutan gaafachuu danda'a; qonnaan bultoonni ji'oonni kam rooba akka qaban fi ji'oonni kam akka gogaa ta'an agarsiisuu fi waa'ee sochii rakkoolee kan akka yammuu ilbiisoonni baay'atan, dhibeen biqiltootaa yammuu ka'u, yammuu karaan cufamu, yookaan yammuu gabaan bal'inaan dhiheessu irrattis oddeeffannoo gahaa ta'e kennuu qabu.Mijeessaan gabaa carraa kanaa fi rakkoo kana waggaa tokko keessatti hubachuuf yaaluu qaba.Fakkii: Maappii qabeenya hawaasaa ganda tokkoof qophaahe.Malli kun garee qonnaan bultootaa waliin kan fayyadduu fi hawaqasichaan maaltu akka omishame, hammam akka omishamee fi maliif akka omishame beekuuf gargaara. Barbaachisummaan isaa qonnaan bultoonni omisha beekaniii akka filatan taasisuuf dha.Gilgaalli kun yammuu adeemsifamu mariin akka irratti adeemsifamee fi gareen hunduu barbaachisummaa sadarkaa kennuu beekuu isaanii mirkanessuun barbaachisaa dha. Gilgaalli kun garee qonnaan bultootaa wajjin yoo hojjetame oddeeffannoon barbaachisaa ta'an sassaabamuu qabu:• Namoota garee keessa jiran meeqatu omishawwan mariin irratti gegeeffame omishan ?• Bakka gabaa omishawwan kanaa.• Haala gabaa (gatii) baay'ina dhiheessii fi qulqullina barbachisaa ta'e.• Lakkoofsa daldaltoota hirmaatan.Oddeeffannoon asii olitti tarrefame projektii shaakalaa fi omisha filachuuf yoo gargaare mijeessaan gabaa yaada isaa gara omisha yeroo gabaabaa keessatti omishamu galii guddaa argamsiisu, gabaa keessatti barbaadamaa kan ta'ee fi miseensota garee qonnaan bultoota baay'een omishamutti deebisuu qaba.Dhimmi kun odeeffannoo waa'ee haala qonnaan bultoonni waggoota 5 hanga 10 darban keessa turan agarsiisuuf fayyada. Hawaasni yeroo irraa yerootti waan jijjiiramuu fi baay'een isaanii burqaa baay'ee irraa gargaarsa waan argataniif mijeessaan gabaa yeroo darbe keessatti waan uumame beekuu qaba. Fakkeenyaaf yeroo darbe keessatti rakkoon hawaasa qunnamee turee ? Rakkoon qunname yoo jiraate rakkoo siyaasaa moo kan uummama ti ? Hawaasicha hammam miidhe? Hawaasichi sochii yookaan jijjiirama haaraan fayyadamee jiraa? Waggoota 4 hanga 5 darban keessatti gabaan hammam jijjiirame? Hawaasichi jijjiiramoota armaan olii hammam akka dandamate qorachuun jabina carraa fi ilaalchaa qunname yoo jiraatee fi hawaasichi qabu mijeessaan haala gaariin baruu ni danda'a. Qonni qabeenya uumamaa irratti hirkataa waan ta'eef mijeessaan gabaa gama qabeenya uumamaatiin jijjiirama maaltu akka uumame irra caalaa qulqullina isaa irratti jijjiiramni maaltu akka uumame beekuu qaba. Sababa dhiqama biyyeetiin omishtummaan hir'iseeraa? yookaan qabiinsa lafaa irratti Imaammata haaraan ba'eeraa? Kan jedhu beekuuf gargaara.seenaan wayitii omishaa fi gabaa qonnaan bultoonni jijjiiramaaf attamitti deebii akka kennan akka ilaalanii fi bu'uura qabeenya isaanii irratti dhiibbaa isaan qaban beekuuf gargaara.seenaa wayitii omishaa fi gabaa qopheessuuf, mijeessaan gabaa wantoota armaan gadii guutuu qaba.• Uummatni hamman yaadachuu akka danda'u gaafachuudhaan, yeroo baay'ee namoonni kan yaadatan wantoota gurguddaa ta'an waan ta'eef mijeessaan gabaa kana qopheessuuf dhimmoota kanaan olitti akka gaaffiitti ka'aa turan fayyadamuu qaba.• Kana booda wantoota waggaa waggaatti uumaman kan qonnaan bultoonni yaadatan mijeessaa gabaatiin waan hundumtuu galma'ee mirkanaa'uu qaba. Qonnaan bultoota manguddoo ta'an gilgaala kana keessatti hirmaachisuudhaan mirkaneessuun barbaachisaa ta'a.Sababni isaa manguddoonni waan baay'ee yaadachuu fi yeroo dheeraa himuu waan danda'aniif.• Qonnaan bultoota waliin waa'ee dhimmota naannoo isaanii jijjiiranii fi haala qonna isaanii jijjiiran irratti mari'achuu.• Seenaa wayitii irratti akka mari'atan taasisuun qonnaan bultoota jajjabeessuuf, kun ammoo murtii qonnaan bultootaa beekuuf, sadarkaa hubannoo hawaasichaas guddisuuf ni gargaara.Kun karoora tajaajilaa naannoo hojii keessatti argamu isa filatamuu fi kan gargaaru dha. Gama biraan ammoo ilaalcha qonnaan bultootaa irraa ka'uudhaan dudhaa isaaniif qabxii kennamuu fi tajaajiloota hojii gargaaran hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaa gargaaruuf hojjetaman jiraachuu isaanii qonnaan bultoota irraa beekuuf gargaara. Hojiin kun tajaajila hawwaasichi argatu maal akka fakkaatu beekuuf gargaara. Adeemsi hojii kanaa haala adeemsa seenaa wayitii keessatti hojjetamen ta'uu danda'a. Haa ta'u malee, yeroo kana mijeessaan gabaa ilaalcha qonnaan bultoonni qulqullina tajaajilaa irratti qaban maal akka ta'e beekuu qaba.Shoorri mijeessaa gabaa carraa Intepiraayizii qonnaa irratti tattaaffi gochuu waan ta'eef hirmaannaa tattaaffii kanaaf gaarii kan ta'e kaartaa gabaa ti.Hojiin kun maappii qabeenyaa wajjin kan wal-fakkaatu dha. Yeroo kana garuu bakka omisha tokkoo (toora gabaa keessatti) kaasuuf carraa kenna. Kana walsimsiisuuf mijeessaan gabaa omishawwan gatii guddaa argamsiisan gilgaala sadarkaa kennuu irratti sadarkaa guddaa qaban filachuu fi kana ammoo akka fakkeenyaatti fayyadamu qaba.Maappiin gabaa sadarkaa lama qaba. Mul'ata qabaachuun adeemsa mijeessaan gabaa qooda fudhattootaa fi garee qonnaan bultootaan qorannaa gabaa dabalataa booda karoora tarkaanfii waliinii guddisuuf fayyadu dha. Adeemsi kun gareen qonnaan bultootaa har'a haala maal fakkaatu irra akka jiru ilaaluu fi boru haala maal fakkaatu irratti ta'uu akka danda'u kan agarsiisu dha.Mijeessaan gabaa hojiiwwan haala jiru jijjiiruuf hojjetamuu qaban haala gaarii ta'een akka barreessaniif qonnaan bultoota waliin hojjechuu qaba. Karoorri akkanaa kan yeeroo dheeraas ta'uu ni danda'a.Fakkii: Maappii gabaa.Waa'ee mul'ata qabaachuu waan baay'ee beekuuf gareen maappii qabeenya naannoo isaanii qophaa'e ilaaluu jalqabuu ni danda'a. Kana booda gara fuulduraaf naannoon sun maal fakkaachuu akka danda'u kaa'a.Gilgaalli kun gareen gara fuulduraaf maal gochuu akka barbaade, fakkeenyaaf waggoota 10 dhufaniif maal galmeessisuu akka barbaadan akka agarsiisan isaan gargaara.Kun kaayyoo garee fi yookaan haawaasichaa beekuuf gargaara. Mijeessaan gabaa kutaan hawaasa adda addaa kaayyoo fi karoora adda addaa qabachuu akka danda'u sirriitti beekuu qaba.• Bal'ina lafaa irratti facaafamu• Meeshaalee itti fayyadaman (gasoo irraa jalqabee hanga meeshaalee qotiyyoon harkifamanii fi tiraakteraatti garaa gara ta'uu ni danda'a).• Maloota qonnaa jijjiiramuu qaban (gosa sanyy, akaakuu, hamma sanyii facaasamu, maloota aramaa, itti fayyadama xaa'oo, itti fayyadama jallisii).• Lafa qonnaa to'achuu; irra caalaa Interpiraayizii guddaaf irratti kan hubachuu qabnu adeemsi wal-fakkaatu Interpiraayiziin beeyiladaa fudhatamuu danda'a.• Omishni yoom fi eenyuun sassaabama?• Filanoowwan kuusaa fi faasiliitii kan biroo.• Adda baasuu, sadarkaa kennuu, saamsuu, fi maqaa itti maxxansuu.Dhimmoonni kunniin haala bittaa qaama bituun kenname irratti hundaa'uun carraa gabaa filatame irratti xiyyeeffachuu qabu.• Gareen omisha isaa akkamitti gurguruu akka barbaadu agarsiisuu.• Geejjibaa fi sagantaa yeroo dhiheessii qopheessuu.• Akkaataa kaffaltii maallaqaa (cheekii, barbaachisummaa lakkoofsa baankii, qaamolee dhimma kaffaltii irratti mallatteessan) agarsiisuu.• Maallaqni garee keessatti attamitti akka qoodamu agarsiisuu.• Karoora investimentii garee fi akkaataa qusannoo qopheessuu.• Tajaajila kamtu baay'ee barbaachisaa akka ta'e.• Tajaajila kamtu jajjabeeffamuu akka qabu.• Tajaajilaaf gatiin kaffalmuu qabu attam akka ta'e beekuu barbaachisa.Kana booda mijeessaan gabaa gareen dandeettii fi qabeenya naannoo isaatti fayyadamuun maal galmeessisuu akka danda'amu, dhimmoota faayinaansii fi deggarsa alaa dabalatee maal galmeessisuu akka danda'amu irratti murtii akka kennu taasisa. Odeeffannoon kun waa'ee kennitoota tajaajilaa rakkoolee beekaman kamiyyu irratti odeeffannoo kennuun qulqulla'uu danda'a.Mijeessaan gabaa muuxxannoo argachaa yammuu dhufu adeemsi xiyyeeffannoo Interpiraayizii jireenya qabatamaa irratti hojjetamuu danda'a;fakkeenyaaf bittaan omisha murtaahaa tokko haala amma jiru fudhachuun hojiiwwan kanatti aansanii jiran of keessaa qaba.• Dhimmoota Omishuu dura jiran, kan odeeffannoo gabaa wajjin walqabatan.• Dhimmoota omishuu.• Dhimmoota omisha sassaaabuu.• Dhimmoota gabaa.• Gamaaggama gurgurtaa boodaa.Waliigaltee hojii haaraa gurmeessuu fi keessatti dorgooma akka ta'an taasisuuf qajeelfamoota hordofuu caalaatti kan barbaachisu dha. Namoonni hawaasa keessaa filataman kanneen hojii mijeessaa gabaa ofitti fudhachuu danda'an, garee hojii fi gabaa keessatti hirmaachuu kan danda'anii fi hojii misoomaa keessatti muuxannoo fi fedhii kan qaban ta'uu qaba. Muuxannoon amma jiru akka agarsiisutti, hojjettoonni misoomaa hundi yookaan qorattoonni misoomaa hojii omishaa keessaa yookaan deggarsa hawaasaa keessaa gara gabaa wajjin hojjechuutti socho'uu ni danda'u; kanaafuu, namoota sirriitti beekaman adda baasuun filachuun barbaachisaa ta'a. Namoota dhimmoota gabaa ilaalchisee beekumsa waliigalaa qaban adda baasuuf sakatta'a adda addaa adeemsisuudhaan barbaaduun ni danda'ama.Sakatta'a kana adeemsisuuf onnachiiftuun, kan akka maallaqa xiqqoo ni barbaachisa. Bakka barbaachisetti mijeessaan gabaa hirmaattota bu'aqabeessa ta'an badhaasuu akka danda'uuf maallaqa yookaan badhaasa qopheessuu qaba.Miirri hojii uumtummaa qabatamaatti waan mul'atu miti; wantoota haaraa hojjechuu, waan haaraa uumuuf yaaduu fi kutannoo fi jaalala hojii qabaachuu of keessatti hammata.Hiikkaan galmee jechoota akka ibsutti, Interpiraayiziin: hojii, dhaabbata, yookaan projektii, keessattuu kan ifa ta'ee mul'atu, kaka'umsaa fi humna kan barbaadu yammuu ta'u, hiikkaan miiraa ammoo qaama fiizikaala namaa otuu hin ta'in, yaadawwan cimaa ta'an kan akka ilaalchaa, amalaa fi cimina sammuu waliin kan wal-qabatu dha. Yaadni kun hojii, dhaabaa fi sochii irratti hojjii irra ooluu ni danda'a. Gama biraatiin ammoo sochii bu'aa argachuu qofaaf hojjetamu miti.Garee keessatti, itti gaafatamummaa fi sakatta'insa yaaddoo gamaaggamuuf yaaliin sadii kanaan gaditti dhihaatee jira.Kana keessatti jalqaba hojii uumtota beekamoo ta'an 3 akka maqaa dhawan gaafachuu fi itti aansee ammoo naannoo isaanii irraa sadii akka maqaa dhawan gaafachuu dha. (Kana gara gareewwan xixiqqaa namoota 3-5 qabaatanitti erga qoodee booda namoonni kunniin beekamoo ta'an kun maaliif milkaa'uu akka danda'an jechoota 10 akka ibsan gaafadhuu.Namoonni kun hojii artistoota, yookaan dura bu'oota amantaa yookaan dura bu'oota naamusaa beekamoo ta'uu ni danda'u. Kana erga barreessanii booda gareewwan mari'achuu fi wal-amansiisuu qabu. Jechoonni kun maaliif akka filamanii fi maal akka agarsiisan beekamuu qaba. Miseensi garee kammiyyuu dandeettii akkasii qabaa jedhanii hubachuun barbaachisaa dha.Damee hojii keessatti maaltu namoota tokko tokko namoota biraa irraa milkaa'aa akka isaan taasisu; dandeettiiwwan kunniin nama tokkoon yookaan garee tokkoon akkamitti qulqullaa'uu akka danda'u akka hubatan gargaara.Kaayyoon yaalii kanaa dandeettii sanduuqaan ala yaaduun yaalii miseensota garee ilaalu dha. Yaalii kanaaf mijeessaan gabaa sana keessatti qarshii 10 dhoksa; qarshii kana otuu gareen kutaa kessa hin seenin barcuma jala yookaan afata jala dhoksa; mijeessaan gabaa kutaa kessatti hirmaattotaaf wantoota qaccee qabsiisan kaa'uu danda'a (gareen qarshii sana akka argatu kan gargaaran jechuu dha). Hirmaattonni qarshiin eessa akka dhoksame beekuu qabu.Yaalii kana jalqabuuf mijeessaan gabaa hirmaattonni akka taa'an erga itti himee booda gaaffii tokko gaafata. Gaffichis \"qarshii 10 kan jalqaba kuufate akkamitti argata\" kan jedhu dha. Deebii garee keessatti gaaffiiwwan kanatti aansanii jiran dhihaachuu ni danda'u.• Omishni (sanyiin kun) asitti biqiluu ni danda'aa?• Asitti biqiluu akka danda'u yookaan biqiluu dhiisuu isaa akka qoratamu saamuda isaa argachuun ni danda'amaa?• Gabaa keessatti gatiin isaa hammam ta'a?• Gatiin isaa omisha baay'ee garii ta'an irra guddaa dhaa?• Omishni kun naannoo kanatti gurgurama moo sadarkaa adunyaatti gurgurama?• Omisha kana eenyutu nurraa bita?• Ofii keenyaan akka gurgurru maqaa bitattoota tokko tokko argachuun ni danda'amaa?• Waa'ee omisha kanaa, waa'ee gatii isaa, waa'ee qulqullina isaa yookaan waa'ee gabaa isaa odeffanoon ni argamaa?• Gara omishuutti yoo senne waliigalteen keenya kontiraata ta'a? danda'amaa?• Gabaan omishaa yoo gad bu'e omisha kana nyaachuu dandeenyaa?Mijeessaan gabaa deebii gareewwaniin kenname kan duraa waliin wal dorgomsiisuu qaba. Gareewwan gaaffilee asii ol jiran kaasuu yoo baatan jechuun omishichi gabaa keessaatti hammam akka barbaadamu gaafachuu yoo baatan mijeessaan gabaa yaaliin kanaan olitti adeemsifame akka isaaniif hin galletti hubata. Kanaaf ijaarsi dandeetti haaraan ni barbaachisa jechuu dha.Qonnaan bultoonni filannoo gabaa haaraa barbaaduu keessatti tarsiimoo ifa ta'e yoo qabaatan, adeemsi leenjii kaayyoo isa jalqabaa galmaan ga'eera jechuun ni danda'ama.Kutaa kana keessatti dhaabbanni dhimma kana ogganu hojiiwwan armaan gadii xumuruu qaba.Bakka tajaajilli misoomaa itti kennamu filachuu;Qooda fudhattoota wajjin hojjetan filachuu.Hojiin interpiraayizii qonnaa wal-xaxaa fi dhaabni tokko hojii kana haala garii ta'een xumuruuf dandeettiiwwan barbaachisan hunda qabaachuu yookaan qabaachuu dhiisuu ni danda'a. Kanaaf hojiin kun qooda fudhattootaa fi maanajimantii barbaada. Muuxannoo jiruun hojiin kun gahe-taphattoota sadii barbaada:1. Garee maanajimantii 2. Garee sakatta'insa gabaaHojiin garee kanaa wixinee adeemsichaa hunda hojii irra olchuu fi to'annaa hojichaa waliin kan wal qabate dha. Haaluma asiin dura ibsameen, dhaabbanni ogganu mijeessaa gabaa ni dhiheesa. Yeroo tokko tokko, gareen manjimantii ejensii qorannoo fi misoomaa gidduutti qooda fudhattoota ta'uu danda'a.Gareen kun murtiiwwan armaan gadii kennuuf itti gaafatamummaa qaba.• Naannoo projektii filachuu• Gareewwan Interpiraayizii maamiltoota ta'aniif ulaagaalee baasuu• Leenjii, dhihessiiwwan adda addaa, investimentii fi tajaajila adda addaa dhiheesuu• Hojii irra olmaaf yeroo inni fudhatu• Tarsiimoo itti galiinsaa fi keessaa ba'iinsaa.Shoorri garee kanaa, kennitoota tajaajilaa, Mootummaa Naannoo, qonnaan bultoota xixiqqaa fi daldaltoota hojii murta'aa ta'e kessatti hojjatan gidduutti qunnamtii hojii fooyya'aa ta'e uumuu dha. Miseensonni muuxannoo qaban toorri gabaa sochii erga jalqabee booda shoora ol'aanaa taphachuu akka danda'an taasisa.Gareen kun maamiltootaa fi qooda fudhattoota hojii gurmeessa. Haala qabatamaan, gareewwan kun gareewwan qonnaan bultootaa ti. Haa ta'u malee, haala tokko tokkoon gareewwan daldaltootaa yookaan gareewwan qopheessitootaa ta'uu ni danda'u. Sadarkaa qonnaatiin gareen Interpiraayizii garee qonnaan bultootaa adeemsi Interpiraayizii qonnaa toora gabaa murtaa'aatti adeemsifamu hojii irra oolchuuf kennitoota tajaajilaa cinaatti dhaabbate kan hojjetu ta'uu qaba. Toora gabaa keessatti, kennitoonni tajaajilaa daldaltoota naannoo yookaan hojjetoota tajaajila misoomaa kaayyoo qaban ta'uu danda'u.Gareen qonnaan bultoota fi tajaajila misooma hojii, dhiheessitoonni wantoota fooyya'insaaf barbaachisan keessaa kanneen bu'uura ta'an dha. Kunniin gabaa kan saffisiisanii fi dhiheessii omisha gabaa keessatti jijjiirama guddaa fidu.Gareen qonnaan bultootaa haala dadhabaa ta'een yoo gurmaa'e yookaan ajaja kennitoota tajaajilaa qofa kan hordofu yoo ta'e Interpiraayiziin kan itti fufuu hin dandeenye ta'a. Kanaaf hojiin mijeessaa gabaa garee qonnaan bultootaa keessatti dandeettii ijaaruu dha.Hawaasni tokko wal makaa dha. Kana jechuun of keessatti qabeenya hawaasummaa yookaan garee qabeeyyii ta'an qaba jechuu dha. Sadarkaa qabeenyaa beekuun hojiiwwan kan akka Interpiraayizii qonnaaf baay'ee barbaachisaa dha.Qabeenya hawaasichaa madaaluuf dhimma baay'ee barbaachisaa kan ta'ee fi haala gaarii ta'een hojjetamuu yookaan qabamu qaba. Gareewwan hawaasaa tokko tokko irra caalaa gareewwan galii dhaabbataa qaban gareewwan qabeenya hin qabneef yookaan xiqqaa qabaniif fedhii addaa qabaachuu danda'u. Yeroo baay'ee irra caalaa haawaasa tokko keessatti namoonni dureeyyii ta'an namoota hiyyeessa ta'an caalaa lafa gaarii irratti jiraatu, barumsa gaarii argatu, yaada haaraa maddisiisuuf baay'ee barbaadu;Kan biraa ammoo hojiiwwan yaaddoo guddaa qaban hojjechuuf kan qopha'amu dha.Mijeessaan gabaa hawaasni tokko gareewwan hawaasa filannoo Interpiraayizii adda addaa irratti hojjechaa jiran irraa faayidaa argachuu danda'a jedhee yoo yaade, xinxala sadarkaa qabeenyaa geggeessuu qaba. Kun yeroo haala gaariin hojjetamu gareewwan ijoo waliin, gosni gaaffiiwwan hojii kana hojjechuuf dhihaatan kanneen armaan gadii of keessaa qabaachuu qabu.Isaanis:• Haawaasicha kessatti eenyutu loon qaba?• Eenyutu (gareewwan kamtu) hawaasicha kessatti lafa bl'aa qaba?• Miseensota hawaasichaa keessatti isaan kamtu geejjiba dhihoo yookaan geejjiba kan ofii isaanii qabu?• Eenyutu bilbila moobaayilii qaba?• Dhiheessii bishaanii irratti garaagarummaan jiraa? yoo jiraate maaliif?• Miseensota hawaasichaa keessaa isaan kamtu waggaa baay'eef barachaa turan? Eenyutu yeroo baay'ee gara magaalota gurguddootti deddeebi'a?• Eenyutu gabaa fagoof omisha omisha?Guddina hawaasa tokkoof waan guddaan barbaachisu namootni dandeettii geggeessummaa qaban jiraachuu dha. Jechi geggeessummaa jedhu hiikkaawwan baay'ee qaba. Haala kanaan namoota geggeessitoota hawaasaa kan jedhaman namoota geggeessummaa, gargaarsaa fi gorsa gama hundaan kennuu danda'an dha.Namoonni akkanaa yeroo baay'ee fudhatama kan qabanii fi hojii Interpiraayiizii qonnaa keessatti shoora isaanii sirriitti taphachuu yoo danda'an mijeessaan gabaa yeroo isaa fi humna isaa qusachuu danda'a. Yeroo baay'ee namoonni akka dinqisiifatan waan barbaadaniif haawaasa tokko keessatti geggeessitoota naannoo gargaaranii fi karaa agarsiisan dha. Mijeessaan gabaa hawaasa tokko keessatti eenyu dandeettii akka qabu beekuuf yaada kana gareewwan ijoo wajjin mari'achuu danda'a. Kana booda namoonni kun filatamanii mijeessaan gabaa hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaa sirriitti akka hojjetu fedhii qabaachuu fi dhiisuu isaanii ni gaafatama.Qonnaan bultoonni xixiqqaan biyyoota guddachaa jiran keessatti argaman gabaa wal dorgommii qabu keessatti milkaa'uuf haala gaarii ta'een gurmaa'uu qabu yaadni jedhu jira. Waggoota 20 yookaan 3o darban keessatti adeemsi adda addaa yaalamaa ture. Caasaalee mijaawaa ta'an keessaa hawaasa bal'aa, gareewwan ofiin of gargaaranii fi garee qusannoo fi liqii kanneen akka fakkeenyaatti dhihaachuu danda'an dha. Dhaabbileen asiin olitti tarreeffaman hunduu yaada tarkaanfii waliigalaa yookaan ammoo adeemsa wal gargaaruu irratti kan hundaa'an dha.Miseensonni waldaalee, faayidaawwan kan akka odeeffannoo, liqii, baasii xiqqaan callaa guddistoota argachuu fi gatii gabaa guddaa argatu. Yeroo ammaa qonnaan bultoonni gareewwan hojii gamtaa, irra caalaa gareewwan hojii gamtaa Mootummaa keessatti galuu shakku; sababni isaas qonnaan bultoota baay'eef faayidaawwan gareewwan hojii gamtaa dadhabbina oggansaa irraa kan ka'e badiinsi maallaqaa waan isaan qunnameef dha.Haa ta'u malee hawaaasni baay'een dhaabbilee kan akka gareewwan qusannoo misensonni akka qusatanii fi yeroo barbaachisaa ta'etti kan akka baasii fayyaa, kaffaltii mana barumsaa, cidhaa fi du'aa kan gargaaran qabu.Gareewwan gosa akkanaa walumaagalatti kan ofiin of filan, lakkoofsa miseensotaa murtaa'aa ta'e kan qaban, jechuun namoota 10 hanga 30 kutaa hawaaasaa wal fakkaatu irraa kan ba'anii fi kan wal amanan dha.Gareewwan haaraa uumamuu yaaluu irra gareewwan hawaasicha keessa turan waliin yoo hojjete mijeessaa gabaaf salphaa ta'a.Adeemsa oddeefannoo (information flow ) fooyyessuuf, sababa midhaanii fi sadarkaa qulqullinaa fooyyessuuf tarsiimoo gaariin qonnaan bultoota omisha wal fakkaatu omishan bakka tokkotti sassaabuu dha. Kanaaf, yammuu gareen tokko haala gaarii ta'een omisha gabaaf dhiheessu mijeessaan gabaa gareewwan kana akka garee isaa jalqabaatti ilaaluu qaba. Mala kana fayyadamuudhaan mijeessaan gabaa garee tokko waliin hojjechaa gareewwan kaan bakka bu'aa isaanii waliin wal qunnamtii uumuudhaan hojiin agarsiisuu adda addaa fayyadamuudhaan gargaaruu danda'a. Adeemsi kun qonnaan bultoonni bakka tokkotti argaman omisha naannoo tokkoo haala ammayyaatiin waliin akka hojjetan gargaara.Dhuma boqonnaa kanaa irratti mijeessaan gabaa dhimmoota kanatti aansanii tarreeffaman raawwata.• Bakka projektii/deggarsaa ni filata• Haala hirmaachisaa ta'e uumuudhaan hawaasa hirmaachisa• Hawaasa garee qonnaan bultootaa waliin ta'uun sagantaa hojii qopheessa.Hawaasa tokko waliin hojjechuu jalqabuu dura, bakka hojiin irratti hojjetamu murteessuu barbaachisa. Murtiin kun kaayyoo adeemsichaa irratti hundaa'uu danda'a; garuu dhabbilee baay'eef filannoon isaanii haala jiru irratti kan hundaa'ee fi yaada Mootummaan yookaan arjoomtonni kennan irratti hundaa'a. Yeroo baay'ee, bakkeen hojii haallen armaan gadii irratti hundaa'ee filatama.1. Naannoo bulchiinsa siyaasaa 2. Tamsa'ina gandaaGareen hojjetootaa bakka hojiin Interpiraayizii qonnaa itti adeemsifamu murteessuu qaba. Ulaagaaleen bakka hojii filachuuf barbaachisan hawaasa kam wajjin hojiin kun akka hojjetamu filachuu fi naannoo keessatti argamu murteessuuf:• Bakka qooda fudhattoonni itti hojjetan• Babal'isuuf mijaawaa ta'uun isaa• Hojichi akka hin miidhamne haalli mijaa'uu danda'uu isaa• Hojiin Interpiraayizii qonnaa eessatti jalqabamuu akka qabu beekuu barbaachisa.Bakki hojii erga filatamee booda hojiin itti aanu qabeenya naannoo projektii sakatta'uu dha. Hojiin kun adeemsa hirmaachisaa waan ta'eef hojiin miseensota garee hojjetoota keessaa filataman waliin hojjetamuu qaba.Gareewwan Interpiraayizii fi qonnaan bultootaaf dhiheessiin jiru xiyyeeffannaa gudda argachuu qaba. Sababni isaas gareewwan kunniin yeroo fi qabeenya isaanii waan baasaniif, mijeessaan gabaa haala qonnaan bultoota xixiqqaa yookaan investmantii naannoo hirmaachisuun hojjechuu qaba. Hawaasa naannoo baadiyaatti argamu waliin gaaffii fi deebii gochuuf haallen hirmaachisaa tokko tokko kanneen Kutaa 4 keessatti argaman fayyadamuu barbaachisa.Qorannoon kun garee hojjetootaa qabeenya naannoo tokko karaa fiizikaalaa, hawaasummaa fi dinagdeen qabu akka beekan qofa kan gargaaru otuu hin ta'in adeemsa Interpiraayizii qonnaaf hundee ta'a.Kaayyoon qorannoo kanaa, waa'ee naannoo yookaan hawaasaa fi filannoo gabaa irratti odeeffannoo haala gaariin qindaa'ee fi barbaachisaa ta'e kennuu dha. Kun ammoo mijeessaan gabaa fi qooda fudhattoonni odeeffannoo bu'a qabeessa ta'e akka argatan gargaara. Kutaan dhumaa, gabaasa hirmaachisaa ta'uu qabu, karoora adda addaa gareewwan Interpiraayizii qonnaa hawaasichaatiin ba'anii fi gareewwan kunniin gara fuulduraatti hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaa keessatti maal galmeessisuu akka qaban kan agarsiisu dha. Gareewwan hawaasaa odeeffannoo qorannoo adda addaa irraa sassaabamu akka hubatanii fi sagantaa hojii kaayyoo isaanii galmaan ga'uuf gargaaru akka baasan jajjabaachuu qabu.Mijeessaan gabaa jalqaba qonnaan bultoonni sagantaa hojii adeemsa kaayyeffachuuf gargaaru akka qopheessan gargaara. Kana booda, qonnaan bultoonni marsaa irra deddeebi'an keessatti akka darban taasifamu. Kun ammoo dhimmoota dursuu qaban akka tarreessanii fi karoora isaanii akkamitti akka galmaan ga'an beekuuf isaan gargaara. Karoora isaanii wantoota gargaarsaan hojjetamanii fi wantoota gargaarsa dhaabbilee tokko tokkon hojjetaman of keessaa qabaachuu qabu. Gargaarsi kan barbaachisu yoo ta'e gargaarsi kun eessarraa akka argamuu danda'uu fi akkamitti gara hojiitti akka jijjiiramu agarsiisuu qabu.Kaayyoo fi yeroo barbaachisu dhiphisuudhaan mijeessaan gabaa adeemsa qonnaan bultoonni taasisan kan galmaan ga'uu danda'uu fi kan dhugaa irratti hundaa'e ta'uu isaa mirkaneessuu qaba. Sadarkaa adeemsa kanaa tokko tokko keessatti haawaasichi qabeenya isaa, qooda fudhattootaa isaa fi carraa isaa yaada keessa galfachuu qabu.Hawaasichis waa'ee nyataan of danda'uu fi waa'ee filannoo hojii Interpiraayizii qonnaa dursa kennuu fi karoora baafachuu qaba. Mijeessaan gabaa yammuu gareewwan adda addaa waliin hojjetu kaayyoo gareewwan biraa maappii godhamu keessatti dabaluu qaba. Yoo kana ta'e gareewwan qonnaan bultootaa omisha wal fakkaataa ta'an irratti galii guddaa argachuuf hojjechuu jalqabuu danda'u.Sadarkaa kanatti, qonnaan bultoonni odeeffannoo waa'ee filannoo omishaa argachuu waan hin dandeenyeef karoorichi nuffisiisaa ta'uu hin qabu.Kaayyoon karoora kanaa inni guddaan gareen gara fuulduraatti hojii hojjetu akka murteessuuf dha. Shaakala kana keessatti mijeessaan qabaa hirmaannaa wal-qixa ta'e dhiraa fi dubartootaaf mirkaneessuu qaba. Hojii akkanaaf iftooma, wal-qixxummaa fi xiyyeeffannoo guddaan kennamuu qaba.Gareen kasaaraa qarshii miseensotaaf itti gaafatamummaa waan fudhatuuf, seerri gahee itti gaafatamummaa miseensotaa agarsiisu qophaahuu qaba.Miseensonnis seera kana kabajuu yoo baatan adabbii qaba.Biyyoota tokko tokko keessatti gareewwan gargaarsaaf kan beekaman qaama bulchiinsa naannoo sanaa wajjin sadarkaa murta'e tokkotti yoo galmaa'an dha. Biyyoota tokko tokko keessatti galmaa'uun dirqama ta'a. Biyyoota kan biraa kessatti ammoo waan barbaachisaa akka ta'e ni beekama; garuu dirqama miti. Yoo danda'ame gareen hunduu Lakkoofsa Baankii banuu qabu.Sababni isaas maallaqa baankii keessatti akka kuusanii fi yammuu barbaachisu ammoo baasanii akka ittiin fayyadamaniif.Gareen dhimma of-gargaaruun wal-qabate tokkoof ijaarame gara hojii guddaa ta'etti ce'uu kan danda'u ta'uun isaa kan hafu miti. Gama kanaan, akkuma hojiin dabalataa uumamuun gareen hojii isaa itti dhiheenyaan hordofuuf, itti gaafatamummaa haaraa dabalataan uumame hubannoo keessa galchuun koree hundeessuu qaba.Ijaarsi koree haaraa kamiyyuu gargaarsa mijeessaa gabaatiin ta'ee, hawaasaan durfamuu qaba. Haaluma kanaan gareen, koree hojii raawwachiistuu kan sochii hojii faana bu'ee hordofuun ogganamuu qaba. Miseensonni koree hawaasichaan filataman fedhii guutuu ta'een fudhachuu qabu. Gama biraatiin ammoo hojii adda ta'e irratti xiyyeeffachuu danda'u.Miseensonni koree garee tokkoo odeeffannoo barbaachisaa ta'e kan akka gatii gabaa sassaabuu fi gareef kennuun gargaaruu danda'u. Koreen tokko qorannoo fi filannoo Interpiraayizii qonnaa filatamee fi qorannoo qonnaan bultoota hirmaachisu geggeessuuf kan hundaa'u ta'uu danda'a.Miseensota koree filachuuf hawaasni fedhii qabaachuu qaba. Kun ammoo dandeettii irratti kan hundaa'ee fi ulaagaalee kan akka muuxannoo hojii hawaasa keessatti beekame, aangoo kan biraa kan qabu, barreessuu fi dubbisuu kan danda'u, haala gaariitti kan dubbatuu fi miseensota hundumaan fudhatama kan argate ta'uu qaba. Sababni isaas booda waliin hojjechuu irratti rakkoo waan fiduuf dha.Walitti bu'iinsa jiraachuu danda'u maqsuuf adeemsa baay'ee iftooma qabuu fi hirmaachisaa ta'e uumuu barbaachisa. Gama kaaniin ammoo filannoon miseensotaa nama fedhii qabu hundaaf banaa ta'uu qaba. Bu'a qabeessummaan koree ilaalchisee yoo xiqqaate waggaatti si'a tokko ilaaluun barbaachisaa dha. Barbaachisummaan koree yoo xiqqaa ta'ee yoo argame hojii isaanii akka dhaaban taasisuun barbaachisaa dha.Sadarkaa hirmaachisummaa hawaasaatti aansuudhaan mijeessaan gabaa sagantaa hojii waliinii qopheessuuf akka ta'utti qooda fudhattootaa fi bakka bu'oota Interpiraayizii waliin hojjechuu qaba. Sagantaan hojii kun rakkoolee guguddoo kan addaan baasuu fi qooda fudhattootaa fi gareen Interpiraayizii waliin ta'ee attamitti rakkoolee hiikuu akka danda'uu fi gara hojiitti galuu akka danda'u kan agarsiisu dha. Kunis sagantaa yeroo gabaabaa, giddu galeessaa fi dheeraa keessatti kan raawwatuu fi bu'aa maaltu argamuu akka qabu waliin kan wal-sime ta'uu qaba.Mijeessaan gabaa gabaasa fuula 15 hanga 20 qabu waan haaraa argate, rakkoo mudatee fi hojii karoorfame irratti barreessuu qaba. Gabaasni kun rakkoowwan yeroo gabaaba, dheeraa fi giddu galeessaa agarsiisu ta'uu qaba.Gama biraatiin ammoo kaayyoo isaanii galmaan ga'uuf gareen qonnaan bultootaa maal hojjechuuf akka karoorfatan agarsiisuu qaba. Kana booda gabaasni kun gareewwan hojjechaa jiran hundaaf kennamuu fi garee Interpiraayizii keessatti mari'atamuu qaba.Kaayyoon kutaa kanaa qooda fudhattoonni waa'ee fedhii gabaa omisha adda ta'aniif qaban akka beekanii fi omisha adda addaa akka dorgomsiisan kan dandeessisu dha. Ulaagaaleen filannoof barbaachisan omisha omishuuf waan barbaachisu (meeshaa barbaachisu), haallen gabaan barbaaduu fi kaayyoon isaa kan biraa ammoo filannoo omisha haaraa qonnaan bultoota jajjabeessu yookaan ammoo omisha isaanii akka baay'isan kan taasisu dha.Gara hojii itti aanutti ce'uun dura, dhimmoonni kanatti aansanii tarreeffaman murtee argachuu qabu. Baay'ina tarreeffama filannoo omishaalee muraasa taasisuuf, karaa inni gabaabaan omishawwan bal'inaan omishamanii fi bu'aa ol'aanaa qaban filachuu dha.• Odeeffannoon lammaaffaa naannoo projektii irraa argame gara omisha wabii nyaataa mirkaneessanii fi omisha galii guddaa argamsiisanitti yoo geddarame gareen gabaa omisha galii guddaa argamsiisan 3 hanga 5 maamiltootaaf yookaan garee qooda fudhattootaaf kennuu danda'u.• Omishni tokko odeeffannoo miseensota garee hojjetootaa irraa argamanii fi marii garee qonnaan bultootaa waliin taasifamuun filatamuu danda'a. Garee qonnaan bultootaa waliin yammuu filatamu omishni ulaagaalee armaan gadiin filatamu.Omisha irra caalaan galiif omishamu.Omisha miseensota garee baay'een omishamu.Omisha qonnaan bultoota, kennitoota tajaajilaa yookaan hoji-uumtota naannoo irraa Interpiraayizii haaraa hundeessuuf investimantii kan hawwatan.Omisha jiru filachuun bu'aa lama qaba. (1) gareen hojjetootaa yookaan gareen gabaa filannoo Interpiraayizii qonnaa irratti atattamaan hojjechuu jalqabu.(2) qonnaan bultoonni omishini sun akkamitti akka biqilu waan beekaniif irra caalaa waan gabaa irratti xiyyeeffachuu dnada'u .Omishaalee filataman bu'uura godhachuudhaan, gareen gabaa, haalleen gabaa gamaaggamuuf, karooraa fi gaafannoo qopheeffachuu qaba.Omishawwan filatamaniif gosa gabaa akka sakatta'amu barbaadamu ifa Gaaffileen sakatta'insa omisha addaan baasuu dura qophaa'an haala kanatti aansee tarreeffameen ta'uu ni danda'a.• Maqaan keessan eenyu. Lakkoofsa bilbilaa, fi teessoo?• Fedhiin gabaa omisha \"A\" guddachaa adeemuu, bakkuma duraa jiraachuu yookaan gad bu'uu isaa natti himuu dandeessuu?• Yeroo omishni \"A\" xinnaatee argame waggaa kam keessa akka ta'e ni beekamaa. Yoo kana ta'e maaliif?• Jijjiiramni wayitaa attamiin gatii irratti dhiibbaa fida?• Haala sadarkaa omishaatiin garaagarummaan gatii maali?• Gatiin omisha \"A\" baay'ee guddaa yoo ta'e, omisha kan biraa kan ummatni bitatu kam fa'i?• Omisha \"A\" hammam bitattu?• Gabaa keessatti daldaltoonni akka keessanii meeqatu jira?• Baay'ina omisha \"A\" gabaa kana keessatti bitame tilmaamuu ni dandeessuu?• Daldalaan omisha \"A\" heddumminaan daldalu eenyu?• Eenyu irraa bitattu? Eessatti argamu?• Omisha \"A\" yoo xinnaate hammam bitattu?• Omisha \"A\" yeroo meeqa keessatti bitattu?• Maddi omisha \"A\" keessan eessa irraa ti?• Omisha \"A\" gatii meeqaan bitattu?• Baasiin keessan meeqa?• Kaffaltiin keessan attamiin raawwata?• Garee qonnaan bultootaa irraa bitachuuf fedhii ni qabduu?Daawwannaa gabaatti fufuudhaan, gareen gabaa odeeffannoo sassaabame qindeessuu qaba. Gabaasni qindaahu omisha, baay'ina bitame, dhiheessii, madda omishaa, gatii, haala kaffaltii, fedhii daldaltoonni garee qonnaan bulaa waliin qaban hubannoo keessa galchuu qaba.Yeroon sochii hojii kanaaf barbaachisu baay'inaa fi fageenya gabaawwan gidduu jiru irratti hundaa'a. Daawwannaan gabaa hirmaachisaan omishawwan 3 hanga 5 gamaaggamuuf guyyaa 4 hanga 5 ni fudhata.• Guyyaa 1 ffaa : Koreen gabaa yaad-rimee qorannoo gabaa hirmaachisaa fi attamitti akka adeemsifamu ni beeksisa. Gaafannoon yookaan cheekliistiin ni qophaaha. Cheekliistiin qophaahe otuu qorannoo guddaan hin adeemsifamin naannoo gabaatti ilaalamuu qaba.• Guyyaa 2 ffaa fi 3 ffaa : Gabaa keessaa ragaan ni sassaabama.• Guyyaa 4 ffaa : Bu'aan qorannoo gabaa qophaa'ee ni qaacceffama.• Guyyaa 5 ffaa : Argannoon sakatta'insa gabaa miseensota gareef yookaan hawaasa bal'aaf ni dhihaata.Odeeffannoo dhiheessuu: Odeeffannoo gabaa irraa sassaabuudhaan garee gabaatiin irratti mari'atamuu fi galmaa'uu qaba. Odeeffannoon kun akka omisha yookaan Interpiraayizii filachuu keessatti garee qonnaan bultootaa waliin mari'achuuf akka bu'uuraatti kan gargaaru dha. Filannoolee Interpiraayizii qonnaa gamaaggamuuf ulaagaalee hedduutti fayyadamuun ni danda'ama. Ulaagaaleen kun miseensota gareetiin haala salphaadhaan hubatamuu kan danda'an ta'uu qabu.• Qonnaan bultoonni xixiqqaan haala salphaadhaan filannoo dhiheessuu ni danda'u.• Filannooleen dhihaatan hawwataa ta'uu qabu.• Filannooleen dhihaatan itti fufiinsa omishaaf gahee qabaachuu qabu. Yaada waliigalaa gabaabaa karoorsuu, eenyummaa miseensota garee addan baasuu, fi gahee fi itti gaafatamummaa bakka buusuu, sochiilee hojii yeroo fi bajataan wal-simsiisuu.Barreeffama dhimma kanaan wal-fakkaatu dubbisuu, ragaalee dhimma kanaan wal-fakkatan sassaabuu fi gabateen agarsiisuu.Argannoo ragaa irratti hundaa'uun bakka qorannoo adda baasuu, fi essatti yeroo fi qabeenyi murtaahaan akka ramadamu murtee tarsiimo'aa kaa'uu, dhimmoota wal-duraa duubaan kaa'uun gaaffilee qoranoo adda baasuu, yeroo fi bajata barbaachisu kaa'uu.Ilaalcha, fedhii fi yaada isaanii argachuuf qaamolee dhimma sektarxiqqaa kana irratti beekumsa gabaa qaban addaan baasuu fi gaafachuu.Sektar-xiqqaa yookaan toora gabaa keessatti qaamolee gabaa adda baasuu fi filachuun gaafannoo qopheessuu (bal'ina saamudaa beekuu, irra deebii adeemsisuu.Haalleewwan mijaawaa ilaaluu, fakkeenyaaf: gabaa, manneen kuusaa, geejjibaa fi mana kuusaa qorraa) fi raawwii fi hojii gabaa ilaaluu.Argannoo irratti yaada wal-jijjiruu fi mari'achuu, gabaasa qopheessuu, maamilaa fi qooda fudhattoota fedhii qabaniif dhiheessuu.Gabaasa fooyyessuu, duub-deebii irratti hundaa'uun gulantaalee kanatti aananii jiran dhiheessuu:-Yaada Imaammataa fi fooyya'insa to'annoo kennuu.-Tekinooloojii, caaseffama mana hojii, fi qindeeffama hojiilee gabaa (karooraa fi hordoffii) keessatti argannoo guddisuu.-Kana males qorannoo hojii irra oolu irratti xiyyeeffachuu. Dhihoo kana gabaa kuduraalee fi muduraalee irratti \"FAO\"n qajeelfama Ekisteenshinii gabaa maxxansee jira, kun qorannoo gabaa fi daldaltootaaf cheeklistii gaaffilee qopheessuuf, gorsa tekinikaa ta'ee gargaara.Qajeelfamichi adeemsa misooma gabaa kan qorannoo Ekisteenshinii gabaa bu'a qabeesa ta'an of keessaa qabu ta'ee gorsa bu'a qabeessa kan kennu dha.Miseensa garee keessaa namni tokko barreeffama qorachuu fi ragaalee kan biraa xinxaluu qaba. Dhaabbileen gargaarsaa, waldaaleen hojii adda addaa, yunivarsiitonni naannoo, yookaan dhaabbileen qorannoo madda odeeffannoo ta'uu ni danda'u. Akka carraa ta'ee biyyoota guddataa jiran keessatti ragaaleen gabaa baay'inaan haaraa ta'anii waan hin argamneef qorannoo keessatti ilaalamuu qabu. Ta'ullee, odeeffannoo kana akka haala gaaffii, baay'ina/heddummina daldalame, hirmaattota gabaa kanneen beekamootaa fi dhaabbilee fi waajjiraalee gabaa, dhaabbilee daldalaa, fi qaamoleen Mootummaa qorannoo keessatti yeroo baay'ee argamuu ni danda'uHubannoo toora gabaa gaarii ta'e argachuuf qorannoo bal'aan kan barbaachisu ta'ullee, haala mata duree hunda qabatuun gad-fageenyaan qoratamuu hin danda'u. Gareen, naannoo qorannoo fi tooftaa qorannoo adda baasee filachuu barbaachisa. Yeroo fi qabeenya (Baay'ina xinxaltootaa fi deggarsa meeshaalee) qorannoof ramadame bal'ina qorannoo murteessuu ni danda'a. Gareen qorannoo xinxaltoota waliin hojjetan 2 hanga 3 qabaachu qaba.Omisha sektar-xiqqaa keessatti, saamuda kanneen odeeffannoo kennan addaan baasuun gaafachuun qorannoo gabaa ariifachiisaa keessatti dhimma murteessaa dha. Tokkoon tokkoo gulaataa sektar-xiqqaa yookaan toora gabaa keessatti saamuda odeeffannoo kennan muraasa filachuu barbaachisa.Odeeffannoon kanneen gaafataman irraa kennamu waan isaan hojjetan, amala attamii akka qaban haala hojii isaanitiin xinxalli attamii akka hubatame, kanneen odeeffannoo kenaan kan biraa waa'ee rakkoolee fi carraalee addaan baasan maal akka yaadan wal-bira qabamee ilaalmauu qaba.Wal bira qabanii mirkaneessuun kan raawwatu toora gabaa sadarkaa adda addaa jiru gaaffilee wal-fakkaatan gaafachuudhaan ta'a. Tooftaan kan biraa ammoo toora gabaa keessatti deebii namoota dhuunfaa yookaan dhaabbilee sektar-xiqqaa gulantaa wal-qixa ta'e irra jiran yookaan gulantaa walitti dhihaatu irra jiran wal-bira qabuudhaan kan ilaalamu ta'a. Hirmaattota gabaa hedduu toora gabaa tokko keessa jiran irratti hundaa'uudhaan haalli wal-bira qabanii mirkaneessuu kun tekinika ragaa sadii (triangulation) jedhamee beekama.Kanneen odeeffannnoo kennan adda addaa gaafachuuf chekliistiin qophaa'uu qaba. Kunis mata duree barbaachisaa ta'e, akkasumas gaaffilee wal-duraa-duubaan tarreeffaman qabaachuu qaba. Qajeelfama kanatti fayyadamuun gaafannoon adeemsifamu irra caalaa omansiisaa akka ta'u gargaara. Tokkoon tokkoo gaafannoo booda, xinxalaan waliigala odeeffannoo qindeessee qopheessuu qaba. Waliigalli odeeffannnoo kun marii yeroo qorannoo fi qophii gabaasaatiif nama gargaara.Gaafannoon bakka hojiitti qophaahuu qaba. Haala qabiinsa omisha boodaa, qulqullinaa fi sadarkaa omishaa, manneen kuusaa, geejjibaa fi sochii bittaa fi gurgurtaa daawachuu barbaachisa. Kun hirmaattonni sektar-xiqqaa maal akka jedhan, amala attamii akka qaban, fi sochiin hojii isaanii maal akka ta'e addaan baasuuf hojjetama. Bakka raga gaariin hin jirretti, bakka hojii daawachuun haala sadarkaa hojii tilmaamuuf gargaara.Hojiin dirree erga xumuramee booda, miseensonni garee baay'ee otuu hin barreessin dura walga'anii waan hubatan irratti mari'achuu qabu. Sochiin akkasii miseensoonni garee argannoo isaanii, xumuraa fi tilmaama isaanii kan miseensota garee kan biraatiin qoratamanii fi wal-morman akka dhiheessan isaan taasisa. Geggeessaan garee qophii gabaasaa irratti miseensota garee geggeessuu qaba. Waliigalatti gabaasa fuula 10 hin caalle ta'ee maamiltootaa fi qooda fudhatootnni guguddoon argachuu qabu.Dhiheessiin gabaasaa sa'atii tokkoo gad fudhachuu qaba. Qabxii gabaasaa keessaa ala bahuun hirmaaaattota dadhabsiisuun akka hin uumamne of eeggachuu barbaachisa.Karoora Interpiraayizii saffisaa ta'e qopheessuuf bu'aa qorannoo gabaatti fayyadamuu:Qorannoo gabaa ariifachiisaan odeeffannoo omishaalee kan hirmaattota toora gabaa, saffinaa fi carraalee yookaan rakkooleen wal qabatan ni sassaaba. Odeeffannoon argamu toora gabaa keessatti guddina omishaa fi saffina yookaan deggarsa tajaajilaa agarsiisuu danda'uu qaba. Ragaaleen kun hundi karoora Interpiraayizii qopheessuuf gulantaa itti aanuuf bu'a qabeessa dha.Karoora Interpiraayizii qopheessuu jalqabuuf, qorannoon gabaa odeeffannoo dursa argate adda baasuun hirmaattota toora gabaa fi kennitoota tajaajilaaf kennuu qaba. Kanneen keessaa• Odeeffannoo bitattootaa gosa bittaa fi gurgurtaa, haala bittaa (gatii naannoo, baay'ina bitame, sadarkaa qulqullinaa, haala saffina dhiheessii, haala kaffaltii, gurgurtaa keessa galuuf fedhii jiru.)• Akkaataa fedhii maamiltootaa fi raawwii toora gabaa fooyyeessuuf carraa jiru.• Argannoo tekinooloojiif carraa jiru.• Argannoo gurmaa'insaaf carraa jiru, fakkeenyaaf waldaalee qonnaan bultootaa fi daldaltootaa ijaaruu.• Sadarkaa Interpiraayiziitti deggarsa tekinikaa dorgommii cimsu.• Naannoo tajaajilli deggarsa hojii itti fooyya'uu qabu kan akka odeeffannoo gabaa, omishaa fi qorannoo gabaa, fi ekisteenshinii kan fedhii dabalu yookaan baasii bittaa fi gurgurtaa maamiltootaa xiqqeessuu.Interpiraayizii Hundeessuu Yookaan Sagantaa Deggarsaa QopheessuuInterpiraayizii filatame yookaan walitti hidhiinsa gabaa cimsuuf karoora dhimmota hundaa of-keessaa qabu qopheessuu qabu.Sochiileen kun bajataan deggaramuu qabu. Madda maallaqaa jiruun maaltu hojjetamuu akka danda'u, qusannoo irraa deggarsa taasifamuu danda'u, yookaan deggarsa qooda fudhattootaa, fi qabeenya madda alaa irraa argamu beekuu barbaachisa. Akkaataa qophii karoora kanaatiin, gareen eessatti maallaqa dhangalaasuu, yookaan galma Interpiraayizii qaqqabuun akka danda'amu murteessuu ni danda'a.Fakkii: ___ Toora gabaa keessatti qabxiilee murteessaa ta'aniif dursa kennuu fi sochiilee hojii.Gabatee:_____ Fakkenya tartii deggarsa dursi kennamee fi hirmaattota toora gabaa. Gaheen mijeessaa gabaa fi garee qorannoo gabaa, marii garee qonnaan bultootaa fi abbaa kontiraataa waliin adeemsifamuuf sagantaa walga'ii qopheessuu yoo ta'u, qonnaan bultoonni haala faayidaa isaanii eeguu danda'uun mallatteessuu ni danda'u.Tajaajilli Misooma Hojii fooyya'aa fi kontiraata mijataa, fi carraa gabaa haaraan, qonnaan bultoonni sadarkaa omishaatti caalaatti dorgomaa akka ta'n isaan taasisa.Ragaa gabaa gad-fageenyaan gara sagantaatti ceesisuuf of-eeggannoo fi xiyyeeffannoo barbaachisa. Gareen qonnaan bultootaa wal-duraa-duuba gulantaalee: omisha dura, yeroo omishaa irraa hanga qabiinsa omisha boodaa, fi gabaa omishaatti hubannoo qabaachuu qabu. Sagantaan hojii dhimmoota gurmaa'insaa, dhimmoota investmentii fi attamiin dhimmoota tekinikaa mo'achuun akka danda'amu hubannoo keessa galchuu barbaachisa.Adeemsa kana keessatti mijeessaan gabaa haala daangaa sochii isaa akka beekuuf mul'ata qabaachuun barbaachisaa dha. Kutaa 4 ffaa dookumantii kanaa keessatti: \"Tooftaa Hawaasa waliin Hojjechuu\" ilaalchisee akka ibsametti, gareen har'a eessa akka jiruu fi fedhii gabaatiin gama gatii, qulqullina, baay'inaa fi yerootiin maal argachuu akka barbaadan hubachuu barbaachisa.Si'a tokko wixineessamnaan, adeemsi karooraa jalqabamuu qaba. Adeemsi kun sadarkaa afur: gabaa, karoora hojii, omishaa fi omisha booda ni dabalata.Sochii adeemsa qonnaa keessatti gabaan omishaa bakka guddaatti ilaalama.Carraaqqiin raawwate hundi bu'aan isaa gurgurtaadhaan xumurama.Kanaafuu, karoorri asirratti barbaachisu murteessaa dha. Gareen, gurgurtaan attamiin akka raawwatu, gabaan isaa waligalatti attamiin akka raawwatuu fi haalli iftooma hirmaannaa bu'aa fi kisaaraa isaa attam akka ta'e murteessuu qaba.Sadarkaa omishaatti, qonnaan bultoonni fedhii gabaa guutuuf waan barbaachisaa ta'e hunda kan akka: sanyii, lafa, humna namaa, fi maallaqa isaan barbaachisa.Gareen, omishtummaa, yeroo sassaabbii, roobaa fi kan kana fakkaatan yeroo shallagu, of-eeggannoo taasisuun barbaachisaa dha. Akaakuu haaraan omishtummaa dachaan akka dabalu ogeessa irraa odeeffannoo yoo argatellee, gareen haala ragaa qonnaatiin shallaguu qaba.Gareen, rakkoolee kan akka rooba gara boodaatti harkifachuu, yookaan dursee roobuu, ilbiisota omishtummaa irratti miidhaa geessisan, yookaan qonnaan bultoota karoora keessatti qabamanii akka tasaa keessaa bahan hubannoo keessa galchuu qaba. Akka sirnaatti dibbantaa 10 hanga 15 kan ta'u shallaggii keessaa baasuun barbaachisaa dha.Qabiinsa omisha boodaatiif gareen, omisha adda baasuuf, sadarkaa qulqullinaa kennuuf, saamsuu fi kuusuuf karoorsuu qaba. Karoorri kun otuu omishni hin sassaabamin dura ta'uu qaba. Qonnaan bultoonni gahee fi itti gaafatamummaa waliin qabaachuu qabu. Midhaan dirree irratti qulqullina ol'aanaa qabu sababii hanqina qabiinsa omisha boodaa irraa kan ka'e haala salphaadhaan baduu ni danda'a. Kanaafuu, omishni haala gaariidhaan gurguramuu akka danda'uuf xiyyeeffannaa guddaan kennamuu qaba. Haalli omishni gara gabaatti ittiin geejjibamus mijaahuu qaba.Tokkoon tokkoo gulantaalee hojii: omisha, sassaabbii, fi qabiinsa omisha boodaa keessatti qulqullinni omishaa hanga eegametti baasiin bu'aa caaluu akka hin dandeenye gareen hubachuu qaba.Gaheen mijeessaa gabaa fi garee qorannoo gabaa, karoora hojii fi sirna hordoffii kan ittiin of-madaalaa adeeman qopheessuudhaan garee qonnaan bultootaa qajeelchuu dha.Karoorri Interpiraayizii erga xumuramee booda, mijeessaan gabaa, chekliistiitti fayyadamee ofisara gabaa yookaan investara beekamaa waliin hojjechuudhaan galma hojii madaaluu qaba. Chekliistiin kun, galmi kaa'ame gama gabaa, omishaa, fi faayinaansiitiin wal-simuu isaa gareen Interpiraayizii akka madaalu dandeessisa. Kana malees, gareen dhimmota bulchiinsaan walqabatan ittiin madaaluu kan danda'u yoo ta'u, chekliistii kanaan hordoffii fi gamaaggama geggeessuus ni danda'a.Argannoo qorannoo gabaa irratti hundaa'uudhaan jijjiirama imaammata investimantii irraa bu'aan argamuu ni danda'a. Hojiin kun irra-caalaa dhaabbilee misoomaatiin kan raawwatu ta'ee, jijjiiramni akkasii gara ciminaatti dhufuuf harkifataa ta'uu ni danda'a.Gaheen mijeessaa gabaa fi garee qorannoo gabaa, faayidaa jijjiirama kana irraa hawaasni argatu agarsiisuuf, dhimmoota kana dhaabbilee misoomaa naannootti argamanii fi bulchaalee biratti kaasuu qabu.Yeroo tokko tokko sagantaan akkasii rakkoolee gareen dursee hin argin kan agarsiisu ta'uu ni danda'a. Kunis hubatamuu fi jijjiiramni karooraa akka taasifamu barbaachisa. Rakkoon akka isa hin qunnamne gareen shakkii yoo qabaate, duraan dursee karoora isaa keessaa hanga tokko jalqabee ilaaluu qaba.Gareen qonnaan bultootaa omisha filatamaa omishuuf ulfaataa ta'ee yoo itti mul'ate, irra-deebi'anii ilaaluu, yookaan karoora isaanii keessaa haqanii gara omisha rakkoo guddaa hin qabnetti jijjiiruudhaan tartii carraa gabaa addaan bahe keessatti dabaluu ni danda'u.Qonnaan bultoonni omisha gabaa keessatti caalmaatti bu'a-qabeessa ta'e omishuu akka danda'an murteessuuf, wayitii itti aanu keessatti akaakuu murtaahaa ta'e bakka hedduutti qorachuuf fedhii qabaachuu ni danda'u.hojii irra oolchuu dha. Gaheen mijeessaa gabaa sadarkaa kana irratti kan xumuramu ta'ee, garuu gareen ijaarsa dandeettii ofitti amanummaa dabalataan barbaaduu waan danda'uuf karoorri gara hojiitti jijjiiramuu qaba.Mijeessaan gabaa sadarkaa kana irratti garee daawachuun yeroo omishaa hammam karoorri hojii irra oolaa akka jiruu fi rakkoolee garee qunnaman irratti marii geggeessuuf sagantaa qopheessuu qaba.Kutaan kun hordoffii fi gamaaggama fooyya'insa Interpiraayizii qonnaa fi karoora Interpiraayizii gara fuul-duraa irratti yaada kennuudhaan xumurama.Gareen Interpiraayizii sochii hojii haaraa jalqabe rakkooleen qunnamuu waan hin hafneef atattamaan xiyyeeffatamuu barbaachisa. Tarii, haala karoora keessa taa'een dhimmoonni tokko tokko akka yaadametti otuu hin raawwatin hafuu, yookaan dhimmoonni hin yaadamne uumamuu ni danda'u. Dhimmoota akkasii dafanii qaqqabuuf gareen fooyya'insa irratti mari'achuu fi rakkoolee mudataniif fala barbaaduuf itti dhiheenyaan hordofuu fi haala fufiinsa qabuun walga'ii qabaachuu qaba. Adeemsi barnootaa deggaramuu kan danda'u, gareen karoora isaa hordofuu fi omisha irratti, faayinaansii fi qabxiilee marii irratti ragaa yoo qabaate dha.Gareen, ragaa torbanii fi guyyaa kudha shanii dhimmoota kanatti aansanii jiraniif xiyyeeffannaa addaa kennuu qaba.• Galmi gabaa, omisha, faayinaansii fi bulchiinsaa haala gaariin walitti mijaaheeraa?• Jijjiirama attamiitu barbaadama?• Sochiin faayinaansii, keessattuu, callaa guddistuu fi gurgurtaa hubatamuu fi sirrummaan isaa eegamuu qaba.• Ragaan liqii hordofamuu fi hammam liqeeffachuun akka danda'amu odeeffannoon fufiinsaan kennamuu qaba.• Ragaan raawwii omishaa tokkoon tokkoo qonnaan bulaatiin galmaa'ee taa'uu qaba.• Rakkoolee irratti xiyyeeffachuu fi mari'achuu barbaachisa.darbin dura deggarsi wayitii lamaaf kennamuu qaba. Kun, mijeessaan gabaa waggoota 2 hanga 5 deggaramuu kan qaban lakkoofsa garee akka dabalu gargaara. Waan fedheefuu, sadarkaa kanatti karoora baafachuun barbaachisaa dha; kanaafuu, miseensonni garee hundi attamitti hojiin akka raawwatu, naannoo projektiitti hojii kamtu haala gaariin adeemsifamaa akka jiru, maaltu haala gaariin adeemsifamaa akka hin jirre adda baasanii ni hubatu.Interpiraayizii qonnaa kana keessatti dhimmi gara xumuraa irratti dhufu hojii gamaaggamuu dha. Gamaaggamni kun raawwachuu kan qabu garee qorannoo kan mijeessaa gabaa waliin hojjechaa jiruun ta'uu qaba. Hordoffiin waliigalaa muuxannoo irraa barnoota kan ta'uu fi haala fooyya'insaa kan madaalu ta'uu qaba.","tokenCount":"11938"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"80429325817a6ca6c962e7c448f541e6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ab320ee9-f2e2-4fee-a836-b8e1aee0f4d2/retrieve","id":"-1552913590"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"62093f9d-d00d-4702-b34f-0275586ec04a","pagecount":"96","content":"Papers provide an overview of the discussions and findings of workshops and conferences that the division has helped organize and sponsor. It is generally expected that a proceedings volume of papers will be published at a later date.SePR Working Papers contain results of research done by ILRI scientists, consultants and collaborators. The Working Papers are not subjected to full refereeing and are disseminated to motivate discussion and comment. It is expected that most of the Working Papers will be published in some other *form. The author(s) alone is (are) responsible for the contents.level includes research related to technology policy, marketing and market access policy, credit and pricing policies, land tenure policies, nutrition policies, and natural resource management policy.In addressing these policy issues we have a number of projects to carry out, which include:• Projects and institutions for improving sustainable livelihoods;• Projects for improving the competitiveness of dairy systems;• Projects for improving the competitiveness of smallholder livestock systems, market access and trade;• Projects related to property rights, risk and livestock development;• Projects for the sustainable delivery of animal health services.We have a small core staff for implementing the above projects and we work in partnership with many institutions both in the developing and the developed world. Our linkage with MU is an example of such partnerships. We are pleased to have developed this linkage, which has enabled us to address problems of significant importance to the region.More importantly, the linkage has enabled us to build the capacity of MU staff members who have been involved in the project. Through this project many have been able to obtain scholarships to study overseas, particularly at the Agricultural University of Norway, which is also one of our key partners in this project.Reducing poverty is a real challenge. Impacts of programs and policies can be maximized if we are able to identify through research the conditions under which particular sets of programs and policies have been successful or not. It is our hope that through this project we can help realize the following objectives for the region of Tigray:• Enhance awareness about land degradation and its causes• Identify major pathways of development• Identify and assess policies and strategies to facilitate more productive, sustainable, and poverty-reducing pathways of development v• Increase awareness about land degradation problems and strategies to promote more productive and sustainable land management• Strengthen the capacity to conduct socio-economic and policy research related to sustainable land management in the region.I wish all the participants successful deliberations during the workshop.hank you.viOn behalf of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), it is a great honor and pleasure to welcome you to this conference on 'Policies for Sustainable Land Management in the Highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia.' IFPRI is one of sixteen Future Harvest Centers of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Established in 1975, IFPRI has the mission to help developing countries identify and implement policies and strategies to reduce poverty and ensure food security for all people, while ensuring sustainable use of natural resources.In partnership with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and Mekelle University (MU), we have been working to plan and implement policy research on sustainable land management in the highlands of Ethiopia since 1996. In late 1996, we held a national workshop on sustainable land management issues at ILRI, attended by representatives of the Federal Government of Ethiopia, regional states and other stakeholders, to identify key problems and priorities for policy research on this issue. That workshop was followed by an East African regional research planning workshop at ILRI in February 1997, and a planning workshop for research activities in Tigray at Mekelle University in March 1997. The research project 'Policies for Sustainable Land Management in the Highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia' began in January 1998, and preliminary results have been presented at an interim workshop held in Mekelle in January 1999, and at national workshops held in Addis Ababa in May 2000 andJanuary 2001. This workshop will review and discuss findings from this research project, and from other related research being conducted in the highlands of Tigray by Mekelle University and its collaborators.As most of you know, land degradation, low agricultural productivity, food insecurity, and poverty are severe problems in the highlands of Tigray. These problems are interrelated, and in some areas are leading to a downward spiral of land degradation and vii impoverishment. The main objective of our research has been to identify pathways out of this downward spiral, considering potential technology, policy and institutional interventions. As a result of this research, we have learned a great deal about the extent and causes of these problems and the potential ways for overcoming them.I will not try to anticipate all of the findings and discussions to come over the next two days. However, I expect that among the main themes that will emerge will be the following:• There are profitable opportunities for more sustainable development and land management in the highlands of Tigray; • Exploiting these opportunities will require investments in an appropriate portfolio of physical, human, natural and social capital; • The appropriate strategy for investments, policies and institutions must be suited to local comparative advantages; there is no one-size-fits-all strategy that will work in all circumstances of the highlands of Tigray.I want to extend my sincere thanks to:• The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation for providing financial support to this research, • The International Livestock Research Institute and Mekelle University for their partnership in all aspects of research planning, implementation and dissemination, • The Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the Tigray Bureau of Planning and Economic Development, for providing crucial institutional support, participation in the research, and access to secondary data, • Many other organizations, including the Commission for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation in Tigray, the Relief Society of Tigray, Mekelle Research Center, and other organizations and their representatives who provided valuable information to this research, • The many zonal and woreda level officials who provided information and logistical support to the project, and, • Particular appreciation is due to the many community leaders and farmers who so graciously and patiently participated in the research.Without the active interest and participation of leaders and farmers from the region, this research would not have been possible. I hope that the research and this workshop will help regional and national policymakers to develop strategies to better serve these leaders viii and farers in their quest to eliminate poverty and land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands.I wish us all success in this effort.Thank you.ixDear workshop participants, Ladies and gentlemen, It is my pleasure to make an opening speech at this very important workshop on 'Policies for Sustainable Land Management in the Highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia.'The workshop aims at reviewing research findings of the project conducted in the region since 1997. It also aims at discussing the results of the research project with policymakers here, researchers in different disciplines, development practitioners at grass root levels and other stakeholders both in government and non-government organizations. The workshop will be having implications for these different stakeholders because they are partners in implementing land management policies in the region. The workshop will also aim at identifying and discussing key policy issues and options for sustained land management and priorities for policy action.The project is a triangular collaboration between Mekelle University (MU), the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) with strong support from the Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) and the Bureau of Planning and Economic Development (BoPED). The two partners, BoANR and BoPED, have been instrumental in giving us all access to secondary information and in linking to farming communities. I regret not including farmers in this meeting, who have benefited us very much with their interaction and I believe we could open opportunities for our farmers to have access to this information through translations into Tigrigna.The research again was aiming at characterizing the problem of land management in the highlands of Tigray and developing and testing hypothesis supporting government policy.x Some hypotheses have been proved and a lot of data collected; and hopefully with the presentations we will be able to see how other hypotheses have been tested.The workshop also aims at identifying proper pathways of development in the region.It is a timely and important workshop as we are implementing the new Rural Development Strategy in the region. Past experiences and interactions of various practices in improving agricultural productivity, reducing poverty and bringing sustained land management will also be reviewedThe project also aims at strengthening the capacity of collaborating organizations in Tigray to conduct policy research and analysis related to land management. The project also helps to facilitate the adoption and implementation of policy strategies to improve land management in the highlands of Tigray.The study was conducted in 50 tabias representing diverse villages, households and plots operated by these households. A comprehensive database was created through careful collection and computerization. Dr. Berhanu Gebremedhin will present the database.Household, community and plot surveys have been conducted within the community and a special database of soil samples on about 2170 plots of land has been collected to verify soil fertility that will serve in formulating strategic land management issues. The database will help understand the resource base of the region that will be availing itself for updating. It is my belief that other researchers will enrich the database in their studies. The utility of the database could be realized through the envisaged household targeted studies in the coming cropping season for formulating different technology packages in pilot areas in Tigray.The workshop will also facilitate the implementation of the rural development strategy drawn by the government, which anticipates rapid and sustained economic development. The spin-offs of the research will also strengthen the capacity of researchers to undertake different studies. Publications from the research will increase the economy of thought by improving the teaching and learning process.The workshop is organized in such a way that various researchers involved in land management will be sharing experiences. Issues regarding environment, energy and xi indigenous knowledge will be discussed. Resource persons involved in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of land management activities will present past efforts in land management and extension in Tigray.The participants are drawn from relevant institutions related to management of resources that will vitalize the discussion and the output. I expect candid and positive interaction from participants. I realize that all of you have come sacrificing time and energy. This is an encouragement to all of us since we all feel the urgency to address issues of land management and seek solutions for increasing productivity in the region. I wish you all the best in your presentations and declare the workshop open.Thank you very much.Land degradation, especially soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and soil moisture stress are severe problems in the highlands of Tigray. Land management is therefore a key problem area in addressing land degradation in the region. The proximate causes of land degradation are relatively well known. These factors include cultivation of steep slopes and erodible soils, low vegetation cover of the soil, burning of dung and crop residues, declining fallow periods, low and uncertain rainfall, and limited application of organic or inorganic fertilizers. Little is known, however, of the underlying causes of land degradation, which are thought to include population pressure, poverty, high cost or limited access of farmers to fertilizer, fuel and animal feed, limited farmer knowledge of integrated soil and water management measures, lack of access to credit, and other factors.Government policies and programs can play an important role in farmers' land management decisions by influencing the underlying factors. The policies and programs include macroeconomic and sectoral policies, land tenure policies, agricultural research and extension policies, credit programs, infrastructure development programs etc. Due to the complex array of factors affecting land management and diverse agro-ecological and socioeconomic conditions in the highlands of Tigray, a 'one-size-fits-all' set of policies is unlikely to work effectively across the region.To mitigate the problems of land degradation in the highlands of Tigray, IFPRI, ILRI and MU have been conducting collaborative research in order to identify policies, institutions and programs to facilitate improved land management in the highlands of Tigray.The long-term goal of the project is to contribute to improved land management in the highlands of Tigray in order to increase agricultural productivity, reduce poverty and ensure sustainable land use. The immediate purpose of the project is to develop and assess policy and institutional options for sustainable land management and help policymakers in Tigray implement the policy and institutional strategies to improve land management in the highlands of Tigray.The specific objectives of the project are to:• characterize the problems of land management in the highlands of Tigray and develop hypotheses about the key causes, emphasizing government policies and programs;• identify dominant 'pathways of development' in the region, and their causes;• determine the past and current impacts of different factors (esp. policies and programs) on land management in the different 'development pathways' and their implications for agricultural productivity, poverty and sustainable land use;• strengthen the capacity of collaborating organizations in Tigray to conduct policy research and analysis related to land management;• help facilitate adoption and implementation of policy and institutional strategies to improve land management in the highlands of Tigray.The project activities include:1. problem characterization and hypotheses development based on literature reviews, key informant and farmer surveys, and analysis of secondary data, 2. community (50) and village (100) surveys and analysis of ensuing data, 3. household (500) and plot (2117) surveys and analysis of ensuing data, 4. strengthening capacity of collaborating institutions through: xiv• involvement of collaborators in the design and implementation of surveys, analysis of data, and authorship of publications,• PhD training,• short-term trainings,• in-service training, and• transfer of databases, GIS equipment and computers, and other project equipment.5. increasing awareness about problems of land degradation in Tigray and strategies to address the problems, through policy seminars, workshops and conferences, advisory committee meetings, and papers and publications 6. facilitating adoption and implementation of policy and institutional strategies to improve land managementThe project conducted surveys in 50 communities, 100 villages, 500 households and 2117 plots operated by the sampled households. Most of the information collected pertains to changes in agricultural and natural resource conditions between 1991 and 1998. Soil samples were collected from each surveyed plot, of which 300 samples were analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, pH, soil texture and organic carbon.A summary of the database collected through the project is given below:1. Community (tabia) level • Other products from plot (poles, branches, leaves, roots, fruits)• Conditions of soil/land on plot (gullies, erosion, soil depth, soil The papers presented at the workshop dealt with a wide array of topics related to land management in the highlands of Tigray. Presentations on the objectives, activities and database of the project, and on the performance of the first regional Five-year Development Plan (1995-99) and the stipulations of the second Five-year Development Plan (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005) set the stage for careful scrutiny of and deliberations on the findings of the subsequent presentations. The subsequent papers reported results on the causes and implications of agricultural change and land management; the status and determinants of soil fertility; land use, land transactions and impact of tenure security on land investment; policies and institutions for livestock development and sustainable land use; community woodlot and grazing land management; comparative analysis of community and private tree plantations;the economic return to and impacts of policies affecting land management; and the role of extension in sustainable land management in the region.Soil erosion, nutrient depletion, and soil moisture stress are severe interrelated problems of land degradation in the highlands of Tigray. Land management is, therefore, a key problem area in achieving sustainable agricultural development in the region. While the effect of proximate causes of land degradation (e.g. cultivation of steep slopes, low vegetation cover, erodible soils, burning of dung and crop residues, declining fallow periods) is relatively well understood, the effect of underlying causes (e.g. population pressure, poverty, limited farmer knowledge of integrated soil, and water management measures) is not well known. Government policies and programs can influence farmers' land management decisions through their effect on the underlying causes of land degradation.xviii Policymakers face the challenge of identifying and implementing appropriate policies and programs to mitigate the problem of land degradation and help achieve sustainable agricultural development. Due to the diverse agricultural and natural resource conditions that exist in the highlands of Tigray, it is unlikely that a 'one-size-fits-all' set of policies will work under all circumstances. Policies may not be developed to suit every possible situation.However, it may be important to identify appropriate policies and programs for different 'development pathways' (common patterns of change in livelihood strategies), which may have different comparative advantages as determined by their agricultural potential, market access and population density. For example, in areas with high agricultural potential (high rainfall or irrigation, and good soils) and high market access, intensification of cereal crop production using high levels of external inputs and expansion of perishable cash crops may be the two development pathways of greatest potential. In less-favored areas with low agricultural potential and further away from markets, a development pathway based on improved livestock productivity through improved management of grazing lands and integrated natural resource management may be more beneficial. The policy options for different development pathways may be different. The purpose of the project was, therefore, to identify and assess alternative policy, program, and institutional options for sustainable land management and help policymakers in the region to implement the appropriate options.Based on an evaluation of the performance of the first Five-year Development Plan (1995-99) of the region, Haile Yohannes (in this working paper) 1 reported that the regional economy has achieved an average annual growth rate of 6.7 percent during the planning period.  conditions and soil fertility in the highlands showed an improvement between 1991 and 1998. However, laboratory soil analysis showed that soils in the highlands of Tigray are deficient in soil nutrients, especially in total nitrogen, suggesting that despite the perceived improvements, the fertility status of the soils in the highlands remains very low.Land transactions (sharecropping, fixed rental and borrowing/gifting) are widespread in the highlands of Tigray. Improving land transaction systems in the region can improve access to land and raise efficiency of land use. It could be expected that land quality and expected yields of grains and straw may affect the terms of sharecropping arrangements.However, if sharecropping serves as a balance between incentive problems in wage contracts and risk pooling (as argued in the theoretical literature on sharecropping), then land quality may not be an important determinant of sharecropping arrangements. Land quality and expected yields do not appear to affect sharecropping arrangements in Tigray. Although there are variations in sharecropping arrangements across the region, the tendency appears to be towards equal share between the owner and the tenant. Farmers operate smaller plots in irrigated areas mainly because of the high labor requirements of irrigated agriculture. The land transaction practices (esp. sharecropping and renting) in irrigated areas may be different from those in rainfed areas. This issue needs further study, as the survey did not capture it well enough. Landlessness was found to be high in low population density areas, perhaps because cultivable land may be less available in low-density areas or due to migration to lowdensity areas in search of land. Some policy issues regarding land tenure were raised: how and whether to institutionalize land transactions, whether all household members should have the right to own land, and steps to reduce population growth.Livestock being an integral part of the rural economy in Tigray, identification of the factors associated with the development of livestock and its relationship with sustainable land management is important for policy purposes. Oxen ownership in Tigray increased between 1991 and 1998 and this is mainly attributed to availability of formal credit. However, there has been a drop in oxen price during the same period, perhaps because of the closing of the xxvi Eritrean market due to the war with Ethiopia. While formal credit from REST proved to be very important for livestock development in the region, the role of informal credit was not investigated. Future studies may need to consider the role of informal credit for livestock development. Ownership of cows decreased with better access to market. Future studies are needed to consider why this is the case. The extension program in the region is biased towards crop production. Participants agreed that future extension programs need to give greater emphasis to livestock production, especially in light of the significant economic returns to livestock production reported during the workshop.The free and uncontrolled grazing system is considered as a major cause of grazing land degradation in Tigray. Private or communal management of grazing lands could replace free grazing. A comparative analysis of the two grazing land management systems may reveal their relative effectiveness in terms of sustainable use of the resource. The degradation of grazing lands and other natural resources are also severe in the lowlands of Tigray, which could warrant a similar study.Despite their contributions in facilitating the establishment of community woodlots, external organizations and programs reduced the effectiveness of collective action for community woodlot management. The reason may be because Woreda Bureau of Agriculture experts and development agents attempt to dictate management decisions to the communities.The regional Bureau of Agriculture also has a similar assessment and steps are being taken to redress the problem. Proximity to market may encourage community members to break rules of community woodlot management in order to taje fuel wood to town for sale, in addition to the effect on higher opportunity cost of labor used for collective action. Regarding community management of grazing lands, it would be useful to study in detail the process of collective decision making and documentation of rules, methods of conflict resolution, and arrangements for benefit sharing.The comparative analysis of community and private tree plantations revealed that although extension service and labor inputs are higher at tabia and village levels, survival rate of trees is higher at household level. This could be because households water seedlings more frequently, which can make a lot of difference in tree survival. Participants raised the xxvii issue of private woodlots being planted more with eucalyptus, which may have negative environmental effects such as competition for ground water. Whether or not the negative environmental effects of eucalyptus are as real as perceived by ecologists was debated at length and participants agreed on the need for careful evaluation of the environmental effects.The issue of requiring permission to harvest woodlot products was also discussed at length.Although it was not clear whether there was a uniform rule across the region for harvesting woodlot benefits, participants reached at a consensus that decisions on use of community woodlots should be left to the communities themselves, with technical input from the Bureau of Agriculture and other government and non-government organizations.Most of the fuel wood used by rural households in Tigray comes from communal areas, such as woodlots, forests and bushes. The long-term strategy in the region is however to develop private woodlots. Sometimes conflicts arise among communities on the right to collect fuel wood from communal areas. Participants indicated that studies should be conducted to identify the causes of the conflict and traditional means of settling the conflict in order to provide information for better management of communal resources. Private tree planting did not turn out to be a significant substitute for use of dung and crop residues, perhaps because private tree plantation is intended for other purposes than fuel or because private tree planting is still too limited to have significant impacts. Participants said there is a potential for tree growing for charcoal production in the region, provided efficient ovens would be available. Improved stoves could save energy. Efforts have been made in Tigray to introduce improved stoves in rural areas. However, the fuel production and consumption study did not find use of improved stoves to be an important determinant of fuel consumption in Tigray, perhaps because of technical limitations of the stoves. Understanding why improved stoves failed to have significant impact on fuel consumption can supply important information for the development and dissemination of improved stoves in the future.In semi-arid areas such as most of the highlands of Tigray where soil moisture is an important limiting factor for agricultural production, irrigation development offers an option to alleviate the problem. However, the experience in the highlands of Tigray shows that salinity can be a serious problem of irrigation water use. Salinity is not a problem of irrigation dams only; river diversions and spring irrigation can result in salinity as well. The xxviii soluble salts are on farmlands and the problem is created by excess water on farmlands.Salinity could, therefore, be minimized through better plot management, regulated irrigation water use, and application of gypsum. Use of appropriate drainage channels is still another option, although this may not be effective on cracking soils where hydraulic conductivity is very low. Participants also mentioned the importance of looking for other water harvesting techniques that could better be suited under different climatic and topographic conditions.Further and continued research is needed to generate more information on alternative water harvesting and use techniques, and the institutional and policy strategies required to make irrigation water more effective and beneficial to farmers.Several important issues were raised regarding the determinants of household crop production and income. Female-headed households in Tigray have lower crop production and household income than male-headed households, perhaps due to lower labor productivity of women in crop production, or cultural restrictions against women ploughing. Although international factors such as food aid may be important in analyzing the impact of policies on land management in Tigray, it is conceivable that such variables affect policies at the national level. Population pressure, land holding and irrigation did not have strong impact on economic returns in Tigray. Land transactions are working to equalize access to land. The insignificant effect of irrigation in the region warrants a detailed and comprehensive study.Similarly the return to fertilizer and improved seeds is low in the region, perhaps because of soil moisture stress.Significant improvements in the provision of infrastructure and public services have been achieved in Tigray since 1991, more so in areas that were less favored in 1991. Soil fertility of the soils of the highlands of Tigray, as measured by the levels of N, P, and K in the soil is very low, implying that a comprehensive soil fertility management strategy would be needed to restore and maintain the fertility status of the soils. Local communities and development agents need to be well informed about the soil fertility status as well as conservation of biomass.xxix Land transactions are important functions for providing access to land in the region.Institutionalizing these informal land markets could increase the efficiency of the land markets. Participation of local people in resource management planning is essential for sustainable use of natural resources. In this regard, for better resource management, the people at the local level should be better informed and trained.The highlands of Tigray are suited for livestock production, as shown by the relatively high returns to investment in livestock. However, credit, market access, extension services and infrastructure development appear essential for livestock development in the region. Moreover, households involved in non-farm activities have higher income than those dependent solely on crop production, implying that non-farm development has the potential to improve household income and welfare in the region significantly. Crop production using low-external input investments and practices such as terraces, manuring, composting, and reduced tillage, rather than high-external input intensification using high levels of inorganic fertilizers, appears to be a better crop production strategy in the region.Collective action for woodlots and grazing lands management in Tigray appears to function well. However, involvement of external organizations and programs in community resources management needs to be demand driven and complementary to local efforts.Moreover, community resource management appears to be more effective and more beneficial if conducted at the most local level. Private tree planting does not appear to contribute significantly yet to fuel consumption in the region. Given the severe shortage of fuel in rural Tigray, policy and extension services need to be strengthened to encourage private tree plantation in the region.Soil moisture stress is a critical limiting factor of agricultural production in the region. Irrigation development offers a potential option to alleviate the problem. However, the impact of irrigation on crop production and farm income has not been significant. This In light of this, during the last decade, the government in collaboration with the local communities and various non-governmental organizations has implemented different programs/projects in pursuit of reducing chronic poverty, ensuring food security, promoting the private sector, and reducing the level of unemployment. These have brought many encouraging and remarkable achievements in different fields of the economy. Moreover, during the First Five-Year Development Plan (1995-99) the region's economy has achieved an annual average growth of 6.7 percent. To strengthen these achievements and attain further objectives, a Second Five Year Development Plan has been prepared for the period 2000-05, with the main objectives of reducing poverty, ensuring food security, achieving ecological improvements and environmental protection, preventing HIV/AIDS and others.The second development plan envisages achieving a remarkable success in different sectors of the economy and an overall annual average regional economic growth rate of 7.10 percent. In the course of attaining the stated goals, the development plan indicates that aggregate investment will increase from ETB 1.05 billion in 2000 to 2.01 billion in 2005 (from 22.8 percent of the regional GDP in 2000 to 27.4 percent in 2005).In the agriculture sector, the average annual agricultural production is planned to rise from the existing 7.75 million quintals to 10.76 million quintals in 2005, i.e. achieving an annual average growth rate of 1.2 percent. Similarly, through wider introduction of the package of technologies (like the Sasakawa-Global, SG-2000), the productivity of crops of the traditional sector is also expected to grow.In the education sector, the gross enrollment rate of students in primary education is planned to rise from 63.5 percent to 81 percent, and from 17.7 percent to 25.7 percent in secondary education. The health service coverage is also planned to rise from the existing 55 percent to 70 percent coverage at the end of the plan period. With the view of improving the road networks, the road density is also planned to reach 53 km per 1000 km 2 or 0.71 km for 1000 people at the end of the plan period.With regard to providing adequate public services and creating an efficient civil service, the availability of skilled manpower in sufficient quantity is of paramount importance. Therefore, during the plan period, a total of 10,000 new permanent civil servants are expected to be employed in the different government offices. This will increase the current 33.4 percent fulfilment of the required-trained manpower to 60 percent by the end of the plan period.The second five-year plan provides a special emphasis to building implementation capacity at the lower administrative structure, especially at woreda and tabia levels. This is expected to enable and facilitate implementation of various development activities and attaining food security at household level, bring about improved socio-economic status in the region, and an overall improvement in the living standard of the society.Belete Taffere Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources BACKGROUND Tigray is one of the regions most known for its serious land degradation problem. This is manifested in the form of soil erosion, deforestation, declining bio-diversity resources, and soil moisture stress. Environmental and natural resource degradation in the region has caused serious drought and famine problems. The frequency of drought is increasing from time to time. Agriculture in Tigray is the dominant economic sector of the region. However, farming practices are backward and traditional. Production increases resulted from expanding cultivated area and not from increasing yield. However, the land frontier, especially in the highlands, has shrunk. In order to bring about sustainable livelihood of the people, the regional government and the people have put significant effort in the rehabilitation and development of the region's natural resources, especially since 1991.The paper has the following specific objectives:1. to assess the potential and the constraints of the region's natural resources, with an overview of its socio-economic and environmental impact 2. to identify technical, policy and institutional issues that need to addressed in natural resource management in the region 3. to come up with the possible strategic recommendations that need to be considered.Tigray is located at the northern limit of the central highlands of Ethiopia. The landform is complex composed of highlands (in the range of 2300-3200 meters above sea level, (masl), lowland plains (with an altitude range of <500-1500 masl) 1 , mountain peaks The improvement in access to infrastructure and services has been even greater in areas that were less favored in 1991, helping to equalize access in the region.In addition to public investments and services, farmers have also undertaken a substantial amount of private and community investment, including accumulating livestock assets (especially oxen), planting trees (both privately and in community woodlots), and investing in various soil and water conservation structures. They have also adopted more labor and capital-intensive agricultural management practices. These private investments have also likely contributed to improvements in welfare as well as improvements in resource conditions, most of which were also perceived by farmers to be improving in general.We have investigated the determinants of changes in agricultural and land management practices and their implications for productivity, resource conditions, and human welfare, and have identified a number of important tentative findings. The agricultural extension program appears to have effectively promoted more intensive land management and conservation practices, contributing to higher crop yields, increased wealth and access to food. However, it also appears to have contributed to worsening grazing land conditions. The Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) should investigate this problem further, and consider options to intensify and improve management of grazing lands.Irrigation was found to be an important factor underlying different livelihood strategies. Irrigation has contributed to intensified land use and to changes in crop choice, but has been associated with less adoption of fertilizers and improved seeds and less improvement in yields than expected. As a result, it appears that the returns to modern irrigation investment so far have been relatively low. This issue should be of high priority for further study, given the large amount of resources that are being invested in this development, and options should be considered to improve the returns to irrigation investment in Tigray. Among these options may be increasing priority of extension activities in irrigated areas and increasing emphasis on promotion of high value crops in such areas.Complementary investments in roads or other infrastructure may also be important in some areas.Road development appears to have contributed to shifts in production away from livestock (especially cows) and to greater production of some cash crops. Road development is not as strongly associated with adoption of purchased inputs as we expected, but has contributed to changes in some agricultural practices, particularly burning to prepare fields.This may be an important reason why yield improvement for barley and maize has been greater in areas with better road access, since burning is associated with declining yields.Road improvements are associated with increased food availability, improvement in the quality of grazing land (probably as a result of reduced emphasis on livestock production), and to improved availability and quality of water. Overall, road development has contributed to agricultural development and improved resource management and human welfare.Population pressure was found to increase the labor and capital intensity of agriculture. However, this intensification did not result in significantly increased yields, suggesting that land degradation caused by population pressure is reducing cropland productivity. The quality of grazing land is also being degraded by population (and associated livestock) pressure. Despite these negative indications, differences in measures of human welfare were generally unrelated to population pressure, and in some instances, population pressure was associated with improved conditions. This is likely due to greater investments in infrastructure or public services in areas with greater population pressure, suggesting the importance of such investments in maintaining and improving welfare in the region despite the high population pressure.Educational improvements appear to have contributed to several aspects of agricultural intensification and technology adoption, including use of fertilizers and vaccines and adoption of some intensive land management practices such as composting, planting trees and live fences. Despite this, there is a puzzling association between education and declines in soil fertility and yields of some crops. This may be related to the fact that fallowing is declining more rapidly in areas where farmers are more educated. This suggests the importance of teaching principles of sustainable land management in school curricula.Aside from this negative association of education with soil fertility, the impacts of education on many other natural resource conditions (e.g. the quality of grazing land, forest, and water) are positive and large. Education is also strongly associated with reductions in infant mortality. Thus the overall benefits of improved education for resource management and human welfare appear to be quite substantial.Differences in livelihood strategies have also led to important differences in land management and in productivity, resource conditions, and human welfare. Areas where nonfarm employment is important have performed better than other areas in several respects, including improvement in crop yields, food availability, reduced erosion, and improved availability and quality of water. Promotion of non-farm development thus appears to offer a potential as a more productive and sustainable development pathway for the region.Realization of this potential appears to depend upon agricultural development, however,given the strong association of this strategy with irrigation investment. Development of cash crops, including perishable annual crops and perennials, is also strongly associated with irrigation investment, and also helps to reduce pressure on grazing land and cropland erosion.In many areas, however, the potential for development of cash crops or non-farm activities is much lower. Livestock will continue to be critical to the development strategy of these areas.A critical issue for these areas will be to increase the productivity and sustainability of grazing land management.Periodic monitoring of the status of natural resources is fundamental to generate adequate information for planning and policymaking for their sustainable management. In Tigray, land degradation is severe and extensive measures are being taken to reverse the situation. In addition to the mass mobilization, decentralization of power, and free market approaches, the region needs a good information base and good planning methodologies. The existence of a land use, management and conservation policy is important as a guideline for the proper use and development of available land resources.One of the major drawbacks of the various land use and management planning methodologies developed so far is the fact that they are difficult to implement. Interinstitutional rivalries, for example, between agronomic and conservation interventions, hinder a coordinated strategy for dealing with integrated programs. Thus the institutional framework is often lacking for integration and application of such methodologies at local levels of planning.This study provides an overview of a new conceptual framework based on local characterization of land resources problems in a defined area such as watersheds for designing and implementing a land use management and conservation planning system. The hypothesis used in testing the methodology proposed is that mapping of local perceptions of environmental problems and resource conditions and its representation communicate information and expand new knowledge more effectively. Spatial data and information in the form of maps are no longer traditional overviews of landscapes but images created to project the views and perspectives of their creators. With the advent of spatial information science several groups in society have been provided with the opportunity to redefine themselves and their territories with maps.In this study, we used local experiences for two reasons. First, it is such knowledge that is currently dominating the local planning process. Second, it enables a smooth transfer of the methodology with adaptable language without involving technical jargon.The new conceptual framework is tested with a case study in Alaje woreda. The design and application of the map of watersheds as natural and administrative units was evaluated for its ability to provide useful information with emphasis on the improvement of the degree of perceptions, interpretation and transfer of knowledge for practical application of decision-making for development purposes. These evaluations were undertaken through questionnaires and discussions designed to elicit the views of all those experts and woreda level development practitioners in the course of the two-year case study in the woreda.For the map of the watershed, the appraisal emphasized the stakeholders' perception of the strengths and weaknesses of the division of the woreda into watersheds as an information source. This was done by drawing comparisons between the derived information from the maps of the watershed and the existing information sources for woreda description, such as land use, soils, etc. Appraisal was then based on interviewees' reactions to the two sets of information sources.In general, local planners believed that the information and knowledge generated by the approach led to better-informed activities because it expanded their knowledge base.Local planners developed greater insights into the intricacies of decisionmaking for resource management planning. The information produced was also found to be useful for woreda authorities and council members. The format allowed them to clarify variables and to put values upon the variables that were meaningful to them. In effect, it allowed them to construct meaningful information for their own use. Soil samples taken from 300 plots stratified by altitude and soil type were analysed for organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorous, available potassium, soil texture, and pH. Forty-two percent of plots had shallow soil depth (less than 75 cm), while 37 percent had medium soil depth (75-100 cm) and 21 percent were of deep soils (more than 100 cm depth.).Soils were found to be very low in total nitrogen. Employing the scientific rating of more than 1 percent N to be high, 0.5-1.00 percent medium, 0.1-0.2 percent very low, and less than 0.10 extremely low, we found that 76 percent of the plots had extremely low levels of total N, while 21 percent had very low, and 3 percent had low total nitrogen content. The level of available phosphorous is even worse in the study area. Using the Olsen method and rating of more than 15 percent available phosphorus as high, 5-15 percent as medium and less than 5 percent as low, we found that 98 percent of the plots had low available phosphorous.The level of available potassium content of plots was found to be relatively better: 30 percent of the plots had high available potassium, 37 percent had medium level, while only 33 percent of the plots had low available potassium content. The reported results had been derived based on the assumption that available potassium of more than 0.6 meg/100g soil represent high content, 0.2-0.6 meg/100g soil represent medium content and less than 0.2 meg/100g represents low content of available potassium.The results of pH tests revealed that one percent of plots had alkaline soils (pH >8.5), 51 percent of plots had medium alkaline soils (pH of 7-8.5), one percent had acidic soils (pH<5.5) and 47 percent had medium acidic (pH of 5.5-7.0) soils. The level of organic carbon in the sample plots was also very low. Employing a rating percent organic carbon content of 20 percent to be very high, 10-20 percent high, 4-10 percent medium, 2-4 percent low and less than 2 percent very low, we found that 94 percent of the plots showed very low organic carbon content, while only 6 percent of the plots had low level of organic carbon.Clay, silt and sand contents varied much among the plots. Sand content varied from 18.28 percent to 94.16 percent and silt from 0.70 to 60.00 percent. Clay content also ranged from 3.28 percent to 58.72 percent. Table 1 gives summary statistics of the soil analysis results. Increasing population results in land scarcity and, when alternative employment opportunities outside of agriculture are limited, may eventually lead to landlessness. Under this situation, well functioning land markets may result in welfare gain by allocating the land resource to more efficient users and by permitting land consolidation to achieve economies of size. However, for land markets to function efficiently, low transaction costs and tenure security are essential. Land tenure security is important not only for the development of efficient land markets, but also for investment in land improvements.In Ethiopia, after almost two decades of socialist oriented economic policy under the military regime, the new Ethiopian government has been taking measures to liberalize the economy since 1991. In the agricultural sector, measures to liberalize the input and output markets and increase institutional support for agriculture, such as agricultural research and extension services, have been taken. In the regions of Tigray and Amhara, land registration aimed at improving farmers' land tenure security has also been implemented. However, the long-term impact of these measures will depend on their effect on the structure and stability of economic incentives available to farmers. Whether or not government policies are conducive to investment in agriculture, and whether the incentive structure translates into a more sustainable use of the natural resource base is an empirical question.This paper assesses the land use, land tenure and land access situation in the northern Ethiopian region of Tigray since 1991 and investigates the effect of land tenure security on land management. Descriptive analysis and econometric analysis of data collected from 50 tabias 1 (communities) and 100 villages in 1998 are used.1 . Tabia is the lowest administrative unit in Tigray usually comprising of four to five villages.According to survey respondents, landlessness is increasing in the Tigray region.Between 1991 and 1998, the number of landless households per tabia grew by more than 140 percent. Informal land transactions are operating in the region, including sharecropping, fixed lease paid in cash or in kind and borrowing. The use of fixed lease as a means of land acquisition, although very low, appears to be increasing, and sharecropping arrangements seem to be shifting towards equal share between the landholder and the leaseholder. While the rental price of land seems to be dependent on the quality of land, sharecropping ratios appear to be independent of the quality of land.While landowners cover part of labor, seed and fertilizer costs in sharecropping arrangements, traction and equipment costs are entirely covered by the shareholders. The average terms of sharecropping and fixed lease is about two years, and is not influenced by the type of crop planted. The likelihood of renewal of sharecropping or lease contracts is not affected by the type of crop planted or land investment by the tenant. Farmers reported that while tenure security is highly likely to affect farmer incentives to invest in land, farmers own land investment is unlikely to affect tenure security. Irrigated land appears to be concentrated in high population density areas.Econometric analysis of the effect of tenure security on land investments and use of improved farming practices show that tenure security is an important determinant of farmers' incentives to invest in land and use improved farming practices. Stability of tenure encourages investment in stone terraces, while landlessness detracts from it. Perceived tenure security was associated with investment in tree plantation and soil bunds.Our results imply that improving tenure security is important for improved land management in the region. The land registration that took place in Tigray, coupled with the regional legislation that prohibits further general land redistribution are important steps in this direction. However, legal support for farmers' use rights in perpetuity, their right for compensation of land investment in case of special-circumstance land redistributions, and the right to bequeath land to children could strengthen tenure security.Our results also imply that the potential roles of public policy to facilitate the development of the fledgling land market needs to be explored. Moreover, restrictions on land exchange may need to be revisited. The wishes and preferences of farmers regarding land tenure arrangements and land administration should be considered as an important and crucial inputs into the design of future tenure arrangements in the region. (communities) and 100 villages in 1998/99. A stratified random sample of 50 tabias was drawn, and two villages within each tabia were drawn randomly. Analysis of descriptive information from the survey was used to examine the changes in livestock ownership, availability and quality of grazing lands and use of livestock vaccines and purchased feed, and the associated reasons. Econometric analysis was used to identify the determinants of the changes.We find that there has been improvement in oxen ownership in Tigray between 1991 and 1998. Communities attribute increased ownership of oxen to improvement in access to credit. The highest improvement was observed in households who had no ox at all acquiring 1 . Tabia is the lowest administrative unit in the region, and usually consists of 4-5 villages.an ox or more. However, there has been decline in ownership of cows, sheep and goats.Communities reported losses due to drought, diseases and feed shortage as the major causes for the decline in ownership. Some improvements have also been observed in conditions of grazing lands while availability decreased. No change has been observed in the importance of various sources of feed between 1991 and 1998.Econometric analysis results showed that credit access, road development, access to transportation services and literacy are important for livestock development. In a creditconstrained rural economy, credit institutions that are suited to the needs of rural households are important for agricultural development. Our results show that households who have access to credit are more likely to own livestock, especially cows and oxen. Access to credit also increases households' use of purchased feed. Moreover, an improvement in access to credit was associated with higher donkey ownership. In the Ethiopian highlands donkeys are important for transportation of goods.Road development and improvements in access to transportation services stand out as important for increased ownership of oxen and cows. Infrastructural development such as roads and improved access to transportation services may improve the profitability of crop and livestock production by reducing transportation costs and improving access to market.Literacy is positively associated with livestock ownership. Literacy in rural settings may be important for access to written information, which may improve the efficiency of agricultural activities.Households' use of purchased feed appears to be determined by factors that affect both the availability of feed (such as annual precipitation and population pressure) and demand for feed (such as access to credit and transportation services). Use of purchased feed is low in highly populated areas, perhaps because population pressure reduces the availability of feed. Annual rainfall increases use of purchased feed since feed availability is higher with high rainfall.We also find that population pressure has a negative effect on grazing land conditions, supporting the Malthusian perspective of the effect of population pressure on natural resource conditions. Annual precipitation and crop intensification improve the conditions of grazing lands, perhaps by improving the availability of feed, implying that the grazing lands may be supporting livestock beyond their carrying capacity. Road development is associated with worsening conditions of grazing lands, suggesting that infrastructure development may have negative effects on natural resource conditions.There has been substantial increase in the use of animal vaccines in Tigray. However, use of animal vaccines is higher at higher elevation (than at lower elevation), and lower in areas with higher transportation access. woodlots are managed at village level, while some are managed at the higher community (tabia) level. We find that community-managed woodlots tend to be larger than villagemanaged ones, perceived benefits from woodlots are greater in village-managed than community managed woodlots, and violations are more common in community-managed than village-managed ones. The average return per person-day invested in 1998 was higher for village woodlots than community woodlots. Villages are pursuing a more intensive management strategy than larger communities. Woodlots are in most cases protected by a guard paid in cash or in kind.Woodlots are most commonly planted with eucalyptus trees (especially globulus and camaldulensis). We find that a woodlot of average-sized eucalyptus trees would be worth more than ETB 80 thousand per hectare at prevailing pole prices in 1998/99. Thus, despite the limited current benefits that communities receive from community woodlots in Tigray, community woodlots are contributing substantially to community wealth. Communities see few problems as a result of the establishment of woodlots.We find evidence for an inverted U-shaped relationship between collective action for woodlot management and population density, where collective action is high at intermediate population density and low at both low and very high densities. Market access detracts from collective action for woodlot management, perhaps by increasing the opportunity cost of labor or increasing exit options. The involvement of external organizations (mainly the Bureau of Agriculture) in promoting woodlot establishment has a negative effect on tree survival, suggesting that external organizations may not be achieving full participation of local communities in promoting woodlots.As with woodlots, grazing areas with use rules and regulations (restricted grazing areas) are widespread in the highlands of Tigray. Almost 90 percent of villages have one or more restricted grazing areas. However, unlike woodlots, all restricted grazing areas are managed at the village level. More than half of the restricted grazing areas are used solely for grazing by oxen. In about 42 percent of the cases, restricted grazing areas are used only during September to December. In addition to grazing animals, other allowed uses include cutting grass for feed or construction, fuel wood collection from dead trees, and bee keeping.All villages reported that the grazing lands have regenerated significantly due to the use restrictions.Unlike woodlots, most of which were promoted by external organizations, most restricted grazing lands were promoted by local communities themselves, indicating the prevalence of local initiative for collective action in managing grazing lands. Most restricted grazing lands were established prior to 1991, contrary to the case with woodlots. However, similar to woodlots, restricted grazing lands are usually protected by a hired guard. Most frequent violations reported in 1998 were letting animals graze while grazing is not allowed, and cutting grass for feed and construction without permission. Most violations are penalized.Similar to community woodlots, we find that collective action for grazing land management is higher at intermediate population than at low or very high population levels.Communities with higher social capital (as measured by the number of local organizations operating in the community) are more likely to contribute for collective action for grazing land management. Market access detracted from collective action for grazing land management, similar to the effect of market access on community woodlot management.Community heterogeneity in oxen ownership increases the likelihood of violations of use restrictions and regulations.Collective action for woodlot and grazing land management generally functions well in the highlands of Tigray. Thus, community natural resource management can be an effective means of redressing natural resource degradation and increasing community wealth.However, community natural resource management may be more effective and more beneficial if conducted at the most local level, and if involvement of external organizations is demand driven and complementary to local initiatives. Collective action for natural resource management may be more effective in areas with intermediate population that are far from markets and have higher social capital. In areas of greater market access, high population or high wealth heterogeneity, private-oriented approaches to resource management may be more effective.Zenebe Gebregziabiher Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) Using a sample of 200 households from rural Tigray an attempt was made to examine fuel production and consumption behavior of rural households in the region. A non-separable farm household model was used in the empirical analysis. Qualitative and quantitative descriptions indicate that biomass fuels, particularly woody biomass and dung, constitute the prominent fuel sources in the study area. These two fuel types were found to account for over 96 percent of the total fuel consumption. Some indication of changing pattern of fuel consumption towards increased use of dung and reduced use of woody biomass has been observed. Seasonal variations were observed in the consumption of the different fuels.Greater proportions of woody biomass, charcoal and kerosene were consumed during the wet season and greater proportions of dung and crop residues were consumed during the dry season.Estimation of fuel collection functions was one aspect of the empirical analysis. In this respect, collection functions were estimated for woody biomass, dung and crop residues.The woody biomass collection function was estimated under three different conditions: dry season, wet season and total woody biomass collection. A separate consideration was made for woody biomass collection from common areas. Separate regressions were carried out for total dung collection and dung collection from commons. In the woody biomass collection functions, the time spent collecting fuel had a significant and positive effect in all cases.Number of female youths was more important (significant and positive) in dry season woody biomass collection. But, both the number of male youths and number of female youths were found to be equally important in the wet season woody biomass collection, perhaps due to the desire to spread wet season labor burden among household members. However, on the whole the number of female youths was found to be more important in the case of total woody biomass collection. But, number of female adults was significant and negative.The total dung collection function was found to be statistically insignificant. The time spent collecting dung influenced significantly and positively dung collection from commons.The number of female youths and number of male youths were significant and negative.Number of cattle was highly significant and negative, as expected, implying that there will be little incentive to collect dung from commons as the number of cattle owned by household increases. The agro-ecological variables of middle highland and upper highland were found to be significant and positive suggesting that significantly greater quantities of dung are collected from commons as one goes from the lower to the upper highlands.In the crop residue collection function, age of head was significant and negative implying an inverse relationship between age of head and crop residue collection. The time spent collecting residues had a significant and positive effect. The number of cattle was significant and negative, as expected, implying that the quantity of residue collected for fuel decreases as the number of cattle owned increases, since cattle compete with fuel for crop residues. Residue collection is less in the middle highlands than the lower highlands. Among the crop pattern variables, maize increased crop residue collection while millet reduced it.Growing sorghum did not have significant effect on crop residue collection.Demand functions were estimated for woody biomass, dung, crop residues, kerosene and charcoal use in rural Tigray. The woody biomass demand function was estimated under three scenarios: dry season, wet season and total woody biomass demand. Because of the non-separability of production and consumption decisions due to market failures for fuel as well as labor used for fuel collection, virtual (shadow) prices and shadow wages were used as explanatory variables instead of market prices in the woody biomass, dung and crop residues demand estimations. Fuel specific marginal product of labor (or shadow wage) was computed from the respective fuel collection functions. Then shadow fuel prices were drawn as a product of shadow wage and time spent to collect a unit of that fuel type. Unexpectedly, own-price elasticities of woody biomass demand were significant but positive. But, all crossprice elasticities turned out to be insignificant, which implies that the different fuel types are independent. All own-wage elasticities were found to have negative signs. But, only the ownwage elasticity for wet season was significant. This suggests that farm households are more sensitive to wet season increased shadow wages and respond by cutting fuel consumption.In the dung demand function, own-price elasticity was negative as expected but insignificant and cross-price elasticity was negative but insignificant. Both own-and crosswage elasticities were insignificant but with different signs. Number of cattle, food habit and the agro-ecology variables of middle highland and upper highland were found to have significant influence in the demand for dung. In the case of crop residues demand, own-price elasticity was significant but positive. Cross-price elasticity and all other variables considered turned out to be insignificant. The variables upper highland, food habit, and improved stove were found to have more influence on charcoal demand. Although the variable improved stove was found to have the expected negative sign, in both the woody biomass and dung demand functions, it was insignificant. Its negative sign indicates the tendency towards fuel saving.Considerable variations in the stove dimensions in general and stove height in particular were observed. Most of the improved stoves built were found to be larger than the recommended dimensions. These problems contribute to the ineffectiveness of the improved stove. The technical limitations in the stove dimensions must have arisen from inadequate training, inappropriate grasp of the technicalities in stove construction, and lack of appropriate supervision and follow up by extension agents during stove construction; which emanates from a very dispersed and massive but weakly conceived stove extension program.Seasonal factors play an important role in the fuel consumption pattern and in the labor allocation decisions of farm households. Households were found to be more sensitive to wet season labor scarcities. Among the household composition variables, number of female youth was more important in total woody biomass consumption. This implies that energy and forestry policies should take into account seasonal factors and the intra-household labor patterns, if meaningful results are to be achieved. Empowerment of women should also be considered. Moreover, dung collection from commons was found to constitute a significant proportion of dung consumed in the study sites. The fuel consumption pattern of households was found to vary depending on agro-ecological conditions. Households in the lower highlands depend more on woody biomass, whereas households in the middle and upper highlands were found to depend more on animal dung. Households producing maize were found to consume more crop residues but households producing millet were found to use less crop residues. This implies the need for agro-ecology based interventions to alleviate the fuel scarcity problem.The number of trees was found to have insignificant impacts on fuel consumption in most cases, and no indication of substitution was observed between private tree planting and burning of dung or crop residues. There are no indications of privately grown trees being used for fuel. This suggests that the supply-side oriented measures of tree planting are inadequate. The community woodlots, communal grazing lands with woody biomass resources and natural forests, which constitute important sources of woody biomass collection for most of the rural households, suffer from absence of utilization guidelines and lack of a clear legal/institutional framework as regards to their ownership and utilization.Hence, an appropriate management regime or institutional arrangement needs to be established to manage and control the common resources.The high price of pole-sized trees in the construction market, perhaps as a result of the recent drive in reconstruction efforts, must also have discouraged substitution between private tree plantation and fuel consumption from other sources. Improvements in stove diffusion and/or design is among the feasible alternatives to alleviate the fuel crisis in the region. However, the improved stove that was so far being promoted was found to be ineffective. Considerable variations were observed from one household to the other in the stove dimensions, contributing to its ineffectiveness. This calls for further technology refinement. In addition, the limitations in the stove dimensions are largely outcomes of the inefficiencies in the extension system that promoted adoption of the stove. As it is not possible to provide conclusive evidence of the problem of fuel collection and consumption in rural Tigray with such a one period study, further studies on the topic are recommended. Improving access to the virtually untouched resources in community woodlots could significantly relieve pressure on indigenous woodland as well as provide fuelwood, freeing up dung for use as fertiliser. In addition, allowing communities and smallholders to harvest poles, fuelwood and other products from these woodlots offers alternative sources of income in a region where there are few non-farm income generation opportunities.Devolution of forest resources is a possible mechanism for improving community and smallholder access to resources in woodlots, which include poles, fuelwood, tree fodder, grass, and non-timber forest products such as honey and incense. Over the past decade the regional government of Tigray has been devolving woodlots from community (tabia) level management to village (kushet) level management, sub-village (sub-kushet) level management, and has also been allocating community wasteland for private tree planting.Thus, we have a unique opportunity to compare the experience of these varying levels of woodlot management. Information about the potential benefits and costs, as well as other characteristics of the various institutional approaches to woodlot management can inform forest policy, which is currently under review in the region.Two targeted woodlot surveys were conducted in Tigray between late 2000 and mid-2001. The surveys focused on investments that were made between 1997 and 2000, their costs and the benefits received. Three community woodlots per tabia were randomly selected for surveying. Of the 120 community groups surveyed about their woodlots--34 were tabia managed, 75 were kushet managed, and 11 woodlots were managed at the sub-kushet level.Wherever possible respondents included a representative from the tabia or kushet baito, a member of the agricultural cadre, the woodlot guard, one woman and a community member with no office. To investigate management of private woodlots, three households were randomly selected from tabias that had redistributed community land for private tree panting (66 households were surveyed in total).Managers of all kushet and sub-kushet woodlots received extension training on woodlot management between 1997 and 2000, while only about 25 percent of households received such extension advice. Since many households lack access to forestry extension and advice there is likely a role for non-government organizations (NGOs) and the regional Bureau of Agriculture (BOA) to increase extension to these households. The most common types of extension advice received were on the topics of general woodlot management, soil and water conservation, and seedling planting and tree tending.Several types of woodlot investments were undertaken in woodlots between 1997 and 2000. The most common types of investment were paying a guard to oversee the woodlot, and labor investments in planting trees, weeding/cultivating, removing stones or building soil and water conservation structures. Community woodlots managed at the sub-kushet level more commonly undertook important management activities including weeding and watering that were most likely to improve tree survival rates. Labor investments per hectare in woodlot management activities were much higher in tabia-managed woodlots where mass mobilization and compensated labor (through food for work or cash for work programs) are employed. For example, the amount of labor used for removing stones and building soil and water conservation structures in tabia-managed woodlots is over 100 person-days per ha. per year, compared to kushet and sub-kushet managed woodlots that average approximately 40 person-days per ha. per year. These data are particularly interesting when compared with average survival rates for trees planted. Tabia-managed woodlots have the lowest survival rates (approximately 45 percent), whereas household managed woodlots, with the lowest labor inputs, have much higher survival rates of approximately 65 percent. The comparison of labor investments and survival rates raises the question of whether tabia-managed woodlots over-invest in labor-intensive activities that are unlikely to improve the biophysical productivity of the woodlot.With respect to benefits received by communities and households, thatching grass and fodder grass were the most common products harvested from woodlots. No communities or households reported harvesting fuelwood or tree fodder, and there was very little harvesting of poles, non-timber forest products or grass used for handicrafts. The highest yields of thatching grass were observed in tabia-managed woodlots (almost 15 headloads per hectare per year), whereas the highest yields of fodder grass were observed in kushet and household managed woodlots (approximately 11 and 9 headloads per hectare per year respectively). For the few cases where poles were harvested, eucalyptus poles were most commonly cut (84 percent of poles harvested). The average age of harvested poles was approximately 10 years, and the average pole price was approximately ETB 11.Information on the institutional barriers to harvesting was collected. For most woodlot products, communities require permission from the Bureau of Agriculture to harvest. Interestingly approximately half of the households that managed private plantings on community wasteland also reported that they required permission to harvest poles and fuelwood. Most of the communities and households that required permission to harvest woodlot products faced penalties if they harvest without permission from the BOA.Communities managing woodlots overwhelmingly stated that they would harvest more from the woodlots if permission was not required. Households did not express the same desire to harvest more if permission was not required, but given the very young age of most of these woodlots (i.e. 1 year), it is likely that many households have not been faced with the question of whether or not to harvest products from their woodlots. NPV/ha per year estimates--though they are still predicted to be negative for all community managed woodlots, but positive for household woodlots. Harvest of a larger portion of the tree stock or harvesting more often would lead to positive NPV in most cases.In general communities and households perceived that woodlots had positive environmental benefits. There was a general perception that soil, water and biodiversity conditions were improving in woodlot sites. In addition, communities and households perceived that soil depth and moisture in the areas surrounding the woodlot were improving, while run-off and flooding and the width of gullies decreased, particularly downhill from woodlots. Perceptions of these types of positive externalities were the same for woodlots where greater than 75 percent of the trees planted were eucalyptus, indicating that farmers perceive no discernable difference between the benefits of eucalyptus and other tree species.This finding suggests that limitations should not be put on planting eucalyptus in woodlots.However, maintaining some level of species diversity in woodlots is advisable. A study was carried out on 14 micro dams in different ecological zones in Tigray to monitor the changes in socio-economic condition and in salinity of the harvested water and irrigated soils. Farmers living in the vicinity of the micro dams are aware of the problem of land degradation, understand the effect of sedimentation on the reduced capacity of the dams to store water to be used for irrigation, and are willing to invest in sustainable land management systems. Dams at lower altitudes in general exhibited statistically significant higher salinity levels as compared to dams situated at higher altitudes. Salinity of the harvested water varied with seasons. During the dry season when the water volume is low, salinity levels increased.The salt content of the irrigated fields nearer to water outlets was significantly higher than the one on fields at the tail end of the schemes. However, no significant yield reduction was observed on onion and maize planted on soils with different salinity classes. The major causes for the increase in salinity of the land include mismanagement of the distribution of water and the absence of drainage to reclaim excess water from irrigated fields. Health studies conducted on 7000 children indicated that villages near to micro dams have increased risk of malaria. Community participation in draining excess water and bed nets has reduced this risk. Some land management practices were found to substantially increase crop production, including construction of stone terraces, reduced burning, reduced tillage, and application of manure or compost. The rate of return to investment in stone terraces was estimated to be about 25 percent, and terraces were found to increase use of fertilizer.Reduced burning, reduced tillage, and application of manure and compost have even larger estimated impacts on production. These practices apparently contribute to productivity by helping to conserve soil moisture and organic matter, which are critical constraints in the soils of Tigray. Manure and compost are also found to contribute to perceived improvement in soil fertility. Greater ownership of cattle is strongly associated with increased crop productivity, probably as a result of increased manure availability (whether or not intentionally applied). Promotion of such conservation practices and exploitation of complementary livestock production show more promise to boost crop production than large application of modern inputs such as inorganic fertilizer and improved seeds. However, there are opportunities to exploit complementarities between use of such inputs (especially fertilizer) and investment in stone terraces.Improved livestock production can help to significantly increase household income, both directly through income earned from livestock, and by contributing to increased crop production. The marginal rate of return of livestock in terms of livestock income was estimated to be about 11 percent, but was significantly higher for cattle, chickens and beekeeping. Considering the impacts on crop production as well as livestock income, we estimate that the rate of return in 1998/99 was about 16 percent for all livestock, and 36 percent for cows. The rate of return to chickens and beehives were also above 30 percent.Thus, there appear to be promising opportunities to increase household income through improved livestock management. This is supported by the fact that households whose livelihoods are cereals-livestock or cereals-beekeeping earned substantially higher returns from livestock than other households, controlling for the value of stock that they own and other factors. Members of agricultural cadres and households who have participated in a literacy campaign also earn substantially higher livestock incomes than other households. These types of households apparently have greater skill in attaining high returns from livestock than other households. It could be valuable to study further how such farmers are able to achieve higher returns, and to incorporate lessons learned into the agricultural extension program and development projects. Improved literacy contributes to significantly higher per capita incomes, largely through the positive impact on livestock productivity mentioned above. Another factor found to be strongly associated with higher household incomes is membership in a marketing cooperative, which appears to increase household income by more than 1000 EB, mostly through higher value of crop production. How such organizations are able to boost incomes so substantially should be studied in more detail, and lessons drawn about how and where such beneficial impacts can be replicated.Households pursuing livelihood strategies that generate non-farm income, such as off-farm salary employment, trading, food for work and other non-farm activities were found to earn substantially higher total income than households specializing only in crop production. Promotion of such non-farm activities, through development of roads, vocational training, and other programs, could thus help to boost incomes in the Tigray region. Surprisingly, formal education was not found to be associated with greater adoption of nonfarm activities, though this may be due to data limitations (limited number of formally educated households in the data). Further study of this issue is needed.Households that depend on food aid or other assistance as a secondary source of income have significantly higher total and per capita incomes (not counting the value of assistance received) on average than households that depend solely on cereal crop production. This suggests that there may be a lack of targeting of food or other aid to the poorest households. Given the relatively small number of aid dependent households in our sample, this result could be a statistical anomaly (though the result was statistically significant with 95 percent confidence). Further study of the targeting of food aid and other assistance appears to be warranted.Two categories of households that face greater poverty than others are female-headed households and larger households. Female-headed households earn substantially lower crop income and total income than male-headed households. While larger households earn comparable or larger total household income than other households, their income per capita is significantly lower. Increased efforts to address these problems through improved education of girls and women, family planning, and other targeted interventions appear to be needed. The fact that households with members of a women's association earn substantially higher non-farm income suggests that such associations can help by promoting income diversification.Land tenure was not found to be a major factor affecting total crop production and household income. However, our evidence does show that tenants (mainly sharecroppers) use fewer inputs and obtain lower yields at the plot level than owner-operators. This may be because restrictions on the duration of land lease contracts (no more than two years unless 'modern technologies' are used by the tenant) prevent landowners from leasing land to tenants that they know well, so that the incentive problems involved in sharecropping (i.e. tenants' incentive to use less inputs because they receive only a fraction of the output resulting) can lead to reduced farming intensity and yields. This problem was not observed in several villages in the Oromiya region, where the average duration of sharecropping arrangements was much longer than two years. Thus, the restrictions on land leasing in Tigray may be inhibiting productivity on sharecropped land. The regional government should consider whether such restrictions are really necessary and helpful, or perhaps prolong the allowable duration of tenancy contracts regardless of the technology used by the tenant.Overall, the findings of this study show that profitable opportunities exist to increase agricultural production, household incomes and achieve more sustainable land management in the highlands of Tigray. These opportunities include improvement of crop production using low-external input investments and practices such as terraces, manuring, reduced tillage and reduced burning; improved livestock management; and diversification of livelihoods towards non-farm activities and small scale livestock such as poultry and beekeeping. The comparative advantage of people in the Tigray highlands is not in intensive cereal crop production but more in such alternative activities. As a result, greater emphasis on developing these alternatives in agricultural extension and other development programs may be fruitful. Food crop production should not be ignored in the development strategy, but less promotion of purchased inputs such as fertiliser and improved seed and greater emphasis on non-farm opportunities, livestock and sustainable land management practices may be helpful.variation will occur when crop populations of small species are isolated in geographical niches. The second factor is the ratio of labor to land, which includes agricultural intensification, or technical change that increases output per unit of land. Modern varieties are one form of agricultural intensification, and they are likely to be adopted where population densities are high. A third is market access, which affects farmers' incentives from crop commercialization. Sites in Tigray vary according to these underlying generic factors.To understand how farmers' decisions about the varieties they grow affect diversity it is essential to characterize that diversity. The relationship between wheat variety names and genotype diversity has not been established conclusively in Tigray. Some researchers maintain that a variety is not named unless farmers recognize its distinctive phenological or agronomic features. Others argue that different names may be given to varieties with the same genotypes, reflecting farmers' use preferences. Furthermore, varieties that are variable in genotype may be given the same name. Resolving this problem requires a two-way characterization. Moreover, the frequency of desirable genes has to be estimated because the morpho-type variability may not be related to the genetic variability of the germplasm in stressed environments. Detecting sites of high allelic diversity will be relevant for exploring the genetic base of the varieties and in situ conservation.Seven woredas, and two tabias within each woreda were selected from the southern, eastern and central zones of Tigray based on hypothesized levels of wheat diversity and their representativeness of the social and physical environment of the crop. History of use of improved seed, and the sampling design of the IFPRI/ILRI/MU survey were also considered, since the data of wheat diversity will later be linked to selected variables included in the survey. Tabia administrators, development agents and agricultural experts were involved in selecting the woredas. Focus group discussions were conducted with elders, seed selectors, development agents and tabia administrators in order to understand community perceptions of wheat diversity and management. A community diversity fair was organized to enhance the awareness of popular, extinct and endangered varieties. International wheat descriptors received from the IPGRI library were used to characterize the displayed varieties.A total of 420 households (30 from each tabia) were then randomly selected. A survey was conducted to elicit farmers' knowledge of wheat varieties, preferences, and information about management of varieties. Both women and men were interviewed.We find that farmers deliberately enhance the existing diversity of their wheat cultivars, by selecting and adapting variable genotypes. They select different types of plants based on their differential response to environmental stresses. This selection process has contributed to great genetic variability and stability. Some are experimenting with local varieties based on both pureline and mass selection methods.Three practices of selecting and developing wheat varieties were observed. First, farmers from Endamehoni woreda, Neksege tabia, were able to select and develop two varieties of wheat, using single plant selection and mass selection methods. Sinday Abraha, a variety named after the person who developed it (Abraha) is popular in some areas of Neksege tabia. Second, a few farmers in Wukro, Hagereselam, and Enderta woredas were maintaining and experimenting with endangered varieties known as Shemelmalo and Felasito. One of the farmers in Enderta woreda, Aragure site, had increased the seed of the extinct variety Shelmelmalo and tested it for three years. On the fourth year he and his wife jointly experimented with the consumption quality of the variety. Two popular varieties (one local and one improved variety) and the Shemelmalo variety were ground separately and baked to test their bread quality. Family members expressed a preference for Shemelmalo over the other varieties.A third practice encountered was the adaptation or 'rustication' of improved varieties. Based on farmer perceptions, the status of wheat varieties in Tigray can be grouped into three, as currently popularly grown (e.g. Shehan, Tselim Sirnay), those on the verge of extinction (e.g. Gombel, Guande, Desalegn) and those that are extinct (Dekotsa, Lilay, Aykurtem). Changes in climatic conditions, especially rainfall, are the principal causes for the changes in wheat diversity. ","tokenCount":"13621"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5ad7b440ccdd705add467ae14c6749f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5bea0bac-a97d-4ff7-b0eb-330e84009c07/retrieve","id":"-1266269203"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"488624d8-0c5e-44f4-9fe3-bcbf2681a220","pagecount":"7","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Unsafe food presents a significant challenge to public health. According to the World Health Organization, in 2010, 31 food hazards caused 600 million cases of illnesses and 420,000 deaths, resulting in a burden of 33 million disability-adjusted life years. Children under five years of age are greatly affected. A few initiatives on food safety have been witnessed in the past but a lot still needs to be done, especially in Africa where the burden is high and food is mostly traded through informal channels. The need to invest in the safety of domestic food products was outlined in a recent review of food safety investments in Africa.In February 2020, representatives from the International Livestock Research Institute and the Global Food Safety Partnership met with officers from the East Africa Community Secretariat to discuss the food safety situation in the East Africa region. The Global Food Safety Partnership is a public-private partnership that supports capacity building in food safety. The International Livestock Research Institute works to improve food and nutritional security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for better and more sustainable use of livestock. Food safety is critical in ensuring food security for better health and economic development. The East African Community is a regional intergovernmental body founded in 1967. It has six partner states (Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan) and its secretariat is based in Arusha, Tanzania.The meeting took place at the East African Community headquarters on 2 February 2020 and was attended by the following persons:• Christophe Bazivamo, Deputy Secretary General, Productive and Social Sectors• Jean Baptiste Havugimana, Director, Productive Sectors • Fahari G. Marwa, Agriculture and Food Security Sectoral CommitteeGlobal Food Safety PartnershipThe objectives of the meeting were to (1) understand the food safety initiatives currently being implemented in the region by governments, research and academia and discuss a mechanism for future coordination of the projects and (2) discuss opportunities for future collaboration, including supporting the development of a strategy to ensure food safety is prioritized in the region.Global Food Safety Partnership An overview of the major findings of the 2019 report, Food Safety in Africa: Past Endeavors and Future Directions.• Investment in food safety in Africa is very low. Although important for trade, food safety investments should be focused on alleviating foodborne disease burden impacts on public health which are higher than impacts on trade.• In tackling food safety, risk-based approaches are crucial to help prioritize the use of limited resources targeting the important food safety hazards.• The market drivers of food safety leveraging on consumer awareness are important in pulling food safety.An overview of the institute's food safety activities in the region.• Helping partner states to analyse their national food safety control systems.Individual country reports will be used to synthesize a report about the food safety control systems in the East African Community. This project is supported by Purdue University and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health.• Together with the Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa, developed the African Food Safety Index which was included in the 2020 Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme peer review.• Building food safety capacity among key stakeholders in the East African Community member states (through the Safe Food, Fair Food project and follow-up training on risk assessment).The East African Community has developed a food and nutrition security strategy and action plan that has a section on food safety. Areas of collaboration were highlighted as below.Advocacy and awareness along the food value chains, taking cognizance of the domestic wet markets, is imperative. The approach of the Food Safety and Standards Agency of India to target consumers to drive demand for safe food was appreciated as one that could be applied in the East African Community context.Improving skills at all levels: This is for farmers and extension agents who will ensure the produce is safe for consumers along the farm-to-fork continuum. Noted the Global Food Safety Partnership laboratory training program in partnership with the Singapore Food Agency. Noted the initiative by the International LivestockResearch Institute and partners to develop a comprehensive food safety curriculum. The teams from the International Livestock Research Institute and the Global Food Safety Partnership also travelled to Kampala and discussed the curriculum with the Inter-University Council for East Africa as well as plans to conduct a stakeholder workshop.Need for food safety tools: It was noted that the ability of farmers to test and ensure the safety of their produce will help build trust and reduce the food loss and waste currently experienced.Governance: Following the successful international food safety conference in February 2019 hosted by the African Union, the region recognizes the need to establish a governance platform to support food safety.The Global Food Safety Partnership and the International Livestock Research Institute will review the East African Community food and nutrition security strategy and action plan to see the extent to which food safety is addressed and identify ways to support its implementation by member states.• The Global Food Safety Partnership and the International Livestock Research Institute will explore available tools for improving food safety along the value chain, focusing on those that are sustainable, easy to deploy, implement and use in the East African Community member states.• The Global Food Safety Partnership will share with the East African Community Secretariat information on its training courses on laboratory capacity on aflatoxins, pesticides residues and mercury detection, and regulatory systems to ensure greater participation from the East African Community.• The International Livestock Research Institute will share, when available, information resulting from the food safety situational analysis work.• In line with the interests of the East African Community, the Global Food Safety Partnership and the International Livestock Research Institute will share food safety global best practice and follow up as needed.","tokenCount":"1000"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"739141f29cfa6b4a69d00661c70b6629","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d364133-db99-496c-a9ac-90c174841d5e/retrieve","id":"364071125"},"keywords":["CTA Practical Guide Series","No. 4 CTA Practical Guide Series","No. 4"],"sieverID":"5de1f7f1-02ab-430f-a806-9b17e94682c9","pagecount":"4","content":"The information in this guide can be freely reproduced for non-commercial use, if credited as coming from CTA. Reproduction for commercial use requires prior authorization from CTA.You will need:• One cock for every 10 hens • Water and feed containers • Housing space • Laying nests • Carton box with ventilation holes • A sisal sack or wood shavings • A source of vaccines and drugs• Select a hen that is broody, does not abandon her eggs during hatching and looks after her chicks well. • Select a healthy, strong cock.• Housing space (2 metres by 3 metres) or a liuli (traditional brooding basket). The liuli can be used as a brooder basket for chicks, either inside or outside the house. • House should be raised to protect birds from predators. • Perches should be provided in the house for chicken to roost on at night. • The house should be well ventilated.• Provide a balanced diet. For example, a small handful of maize, a teaspoonful of local fishmeal and some fresh greens, in addition to scavenged feeds like insects, will provide a good diet for one chicken in a day. • Provide clean water at all times.1Indigenous chickens play an important role in the livelihoods of most rural families in Eastern Africa. Despite increased use of commercial breeds by large-scale producers, around threequarters of chickens in the region are indigenous breeds.• Meat and eggs are tastier and preferred by most consumers to those obtained from commercial breeds • Initial investment is less than that needed to keep commercial breeds • More tolerant of harsh conditions, including diseases, than commercial breeds • Can be fed on cheap, locally available feeds • When allowed to range freely, they need little feeding or other care • Women and youth often control income from chickens • Local markets are readily available for both eggs and chickens • Droppings are rich in nutrients: can be used for compost making, pond fertilizing and as feed for livestock.• Survival rate of chicks can be increased from three to eight out of ten.• If you hatch your eggs and sell chicks, earnings can be much higher (up to 7-times higher) than if you simply sell the eggs. • Simultaneous hatching of hens (so all chicks hatch at the same time) makes planning for vaccinations easier. • By cooperating with neighbours, farmers with small flocks can access vaccines at more affordable rates. • Planning your production to meet high seasonal demand -such as at Christmas, Easter and other festivals can greatly increase your profits. • If hens are prevented from hatching their own eggs or brooding chicks, they will start to lay again more quickly -after just 21 days, instead of the usual three months.• Provide a safe, dry, dark place for the hens to lay.• Collect eggs daily, write the date on the egg in pencil and store with the broad end facing upwards: this helps to ensure the embryo develops properly.• Use only eggs that were laid in the last 14 days. • Hatch eggs using the mother hen, another broody hen, a (surrogate) duck or an incubator. • For hens and ducks, make sure the number of eggs chosen for hatching corresponds to the bird's body size -all eggs must fit under the bird. • For synchronized hatching (all chicks hatch at the same time), delay the first hen that becomes broody by giving it just one egg to sit on while you wait for other hens to lay their clutches and become broody. • For successive hatching (the hen or the surrogate duck sits on eggs for two consecutive clutches), chicks are removed when they hatch and replaced with new eggs. • After hatching, dispose of egg shells, clean the nest and transfer chicks to a brooder.• Turn the eggs regularly, especially when using an incubator.• Brood chicks using a mother hen, foster hen, a lantern, kerosene brooder, charcoal stove or charcoal placed in a metal container. • If a foster hen is used, condition it for a day by giving it new chicks.• Where a lantern brooder or other heat source is used, place it in a cardboard box with ventilation holes or inside the liuli placed upon a sisal sack or wood shavings. • Take care that chicks cannot get burned -cover charcoal stove or container, ensuring that there is no risk of fire.3 4• Provide clean water at all times in shallow, clean troughs.• Provide soft feeds like flour from cereals or tubers.• Allow chicks to roam freely when they reach 3 or 4 weeks of age.• Vaccinate chicks against Newcastle disease at 4 days of age.Keeping good records will help you to assess whether or not you are making a profit. The table below compares the profit made using traditional and improved management practices. Under traditional management, fewer eggs are laid and fewer birds are reared as many more chicks die.Eggs produced per year 36 60Eggs placed for hatching per year 30 30Chicks hatched (8 out of every 10) 24 24Growers reared and available for sale 6 18Value of surplus eggs (US$0.07 per egg) 6 x 0.07 = 0.42 30 x 0.07 = 2.10Value of growers (US$2.90 per grower) 6 x 2.9 = 17.40 18 x 2.9 = 52.20 Mr. Lawrence Wamukoye has good reason to appreciate the benefits of adopting improved management practices for indigenous chickens. Proceeds from sales of chickens have enabled him to make the last payment due on his plot of land. He can also now afford to buy books and uniforms for his three children who attend a local primary school.Lawrence is a small-scale farmer from Majengo village in Western Province, Kenya. He is a father of four and his family depends on just one-fifth of a hectare of land. A few years ago, he received training from a non-governmental organization, Africa Now, on improved methods of indigenous chicken keeping. He was shown how to vaccinate his birds and also how to timely produce to meet the high demand for chickens during religious and cultural festivals, such as Christmas. As a result he managed to reduce the previously high mortality rate in his flock, double the number of eggs his birds lay and increase his income.He keeps 10 laying hens. When they hatch their eggs, he transfers the chicks to three traditional brooders and provides them with supplementary feeds. On average he sells 10 chickens every month and has around 150 birds on his farm at any one time.He now plans to move his expanding poultry enterprise onto a new, bigger piece of land. To buy the land, he is arranging to obtain a loan from a local microfinance organization and is confident of repaying the loan from the proceeds of his successful indigenous chicken business.","tokenCount":"1131"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"170d1dfa0218d2f0d0a017adfdb3419b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/39b03c08-c4c4-4909-b5ba-8fd098cb7bf3/retrieve","id":"-1868761943"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"28d12cdf-2915-4a78-a5b6-9dcf5e79c148","pagecount":"41","content":"The development of Vietnam's agriculture and rural areas in the period from now to 2030 is of particular interest to the Party and the State of Vietnam, determined in the direction of restructuring agriculture towards ecology, modern agriculture, and transforming thinking. agricultural production, linking agricultural production with industry and services, production with preservation, processing, consumption, and enhancement of the value chain (Resolution of the XIII Party Congress). Resolution No. 19-NQ/TW of the Fifth Conference of the 13th Central Committee of the Communist Party on Agriculture, Farmers and Rural to 2030, with a vision to 2045 identifies the goal of fast-growing agriculture, effectively, sustainably, ensuring national food security, protecting the ecological environment and adapt to climate change through the tasks of restructuring agriculture substantively and effectively, taking advantage of which prioritizes the restructuring of crops and livestock to meet the needs of domestic and export markets, actively integrating and expanding the market. Therefore, Vietnam is trying to encourage finding solutions and scaling up initiatives to achieve this direction. The \"National Action Plan -NAP\" to transform the Food System towards transparency, responsible and sustainability till 2030 is finalizing and submitting to the Prime Minister for Approval. To support this NAP approval, a technical report is required.The Nature+ project is one of the important Initiatives to re-imagine, co-create, and implement nature-positive solutions-based agrifood systems that equitably support local food and livelihoods, while simultaneously ensuring that agriculture is a net positive contributor to nature. To contribute to the NAP technical report, the project implemented a review of related fields, including:-The current situation of agrobiodiversity in Vietnam -The current situation of agroecology/nature-positive practices in Vietnam -The current situation of the circular economy in Vietnam -The status of the use of input in Vietnam to improve food safety in Vietnam The reviewed outputs are not only contributing to the NAP report but also providing knowledge of several strategic policies in Vietnam such as Strategy for sustainable agricultural and The health of the ecosystem plays a crucial role that all living species including humans have to rely on; however, the ecosystem has been degraded with a loss of biodiversity leading to negative impacts on health and life quality, for instance, reduced livelihood sources, especially with smallholders. According to WWF, The Living Planet Index (LPI) shows populations of mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians. This LPI was 69 % decrease since 1970, and the Asia Pacific region reveals 55% from 1970 to 2018 1 . Although having the advantage of climate and topography resulting in a high level of biodiversity, Vietnam shows the most affected areas of biodiversity loss. This is mainly caused by the transition of the natural forest land accounting for 2,8 million hectares to commercial plantations such as fruits (Thuaire B, Allanic Y, Hoàng Việt A & Q, Lưu Hồng T, Nguyễn Thế C, 2021) Biodiversity is expressed through diversity in ecosystems, species composition, and genetic resources as well. It also plays a vital role in the provision of biodiversity services (provisioning services, regulatory services, cultural services, and support services). Through these services, biodiversity makes a significant contribution to the national economy, providing a basis for ensuring food security, maintaining genetic resources of animals and plants; and providing materials for construction, fuel and pharmaceutical resources.Biodiversity for food and agriculture has changed significantly. Many drivers affecting these changes include changes in land and water use and management, pollution and external inputs, over-exploitation and overharvesting, climate change, natural disasters, pests, diseases, alien invasive species, markets, trade, and the private sector, policies, population growth and urbanization, changing economic, socio-political, and cultural factors, advancements and innovations in science and technology. Of these, the pressure from the increasing human population combined with an increasing level of consumption is resulting in the overexploitation of biodiversity resources. In addition, land conversion and infrastructure construction have significantly reduced the area of natural habitats, increased ecosystem fragmentation, and degraded the habitats of many species of wild plants and animals. Natural resources, especially biological resources, are undergoing overexploitation. Of these, timber, non-timber and aquatic products are particularly vulnerable. Furthermore, alien species, environmental pollution, and climate change are all directly affecting the biodiversity of Vietnam.The recent change in the biodiversity of Vietnam is reflected in a variety of ways and aspects: although the area of Vietnam's forest cover has increased, much of this increase has been due to the planting of production forest; both inland water and marine ecosystems are being degraded due to inappropriate exploitative activities. Overall, the status of rare and endangered species is declining sharply; new crop varieties and animal breeds with high yields have pushed out the traditional ones that lead to a huge loss of precious indigenous genetic resources.Vietnam's Government issued several legal documents related to biodiversity conservation in the early 1960s. Recognizing the need to conserve biodiversity, since the 1960s of the last century, the Party and State have adopted policies to protect primary forests (forbidden forests). Vietnam is considered a country that actively participates in the unification and signing of consensus with the world on biodiversity conservation and has overall strategies for implementation. The Convention has become a guide for countries around the world to perfect their institutions and policies to implement biodiversity conservation. The State's determination and commitment to biodiversity conservation has been given more importance after Vietnam became a member of the Convention on Biological Diversity CBD (1992) and CITES (1994) conventions, with a system of national parks and protected areas. Conservation areas have been planned and established nationwide.Since then, the national policies, programs, and enabling frameworks that support or influence the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for food and agriculture and the provision of ecosystem services have been significantly enhanced. It can be listed as policies for the implementation of the Ecosystem-Based Approach, Payment for Ecosystem Services, enabling frameworks governing exchange, access and benefits policies (programs governing the access to its genetic resources of associated biodiversity), improving the stakeholder participation and ongoing activities that support the maintenance of biodiversity for food and agriculture. In addition to these are policies and programs to encourage the collaboration between institutions and organizations, for capacity development: training and extension programs, or elements of programs, at all levels, exist that target the conservation and sustainable use of associated biodiversity.Together with the promulgation of legal documents, Vietnam's government has also issued several national strategies, plans, and priorities to secure and improve the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for food and agriculture. For instance, plans to improve the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity to enhance its contribution to improving food security and nutrition; rural livelihoods; productivity; the sustainability and resilience of production systems; supporting ecosystem function and the provision of ecosystem services; sustainable intensification; improving the capacity and operations of the institutions, collaboration between stakeholders; supporting the development of new policies; implementing ecosystem approaches for the various components of biodiversity, to improve stakeholder awareness, involvement and collaboration in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, to support the role of farmers, pastoralists, fisher folk, forest dwellers, and other rural men and women dependent on local ecosystems in the conservation and use of biodiversity for food and agriculture, to improve recognition of the contribution of women to the conservation and use of the different components of biodiversity for food and agriculture, Notably, the Biodiversity Law in 2008 is considered to be progressive, visionary, systematic and fully accessible to international commitments and standards on biodiversity conservation. This is the first legal framework of Vietnam that regulates the conservation and sustainable development of biodiversity, the rights and obligations of organizations, households and individuals in biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.Up to now, Vietnam has 186 protected areas, with a system of protected areas already established, our country has been internationally recognized 20 zones with international titles of biodiversity value, including five Ramsar sites, eight conservation zones world biosphere reserve, five ASEAN heritage sites and two world natural heritage sites.According to the national report on the current country report produced by the Center for Genetic Resources (2017), biodiversity in Vietnam includes ecosystem diversity, biodiversity species and diversity of genetic resources for food and agriculture.-Diversity of ecosystems: including 3 main types: terrestrial ecosystems, wetland ecosystems and marine and coastal ecosystems.+ Terrestrial ecosystems forest ecosystems, grassland ecosystems, steppe ecosystems, arid lands, urban ecosystems, agricultural ecosystems and limestone mountain ecosystems in which natural forests are has the most species diversity including forest trees and wild animals living in the forest.+ The terrestrial wetland ecosystem is very diverse including natural lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps, rice fields and water bodies such as streams, rivers and canals in which streams and marshes are diverse with many species. newly discovered, contributing to agrobiodiversity.+ Coastal and marine ecosystems: Our country has about 20 typical marine ecosystems of 9 natural regions with different marine biodiversity such as mangroves, lagoons, seas, caves, coral reefs, and grasses. The sea and the areas surrounding coastal and offshore islands have high biodiversity and are very sensitive to environmental changes in which coral reefs and seagrass beds are considered important ecosystems. most typical due to the highest biodiversity and conservation value.-Species diversity: According to the Center for Plant Resources (2017), biodiversity is also reflected in species diversity.+ The terrestrial flora is made up of an abundance of about 13,766 plant species (except microalgae), of which, 2,393 species of non-vascular plants and 11,373 species of vascular plants (according to data) survey in 2011).+ Terrestrial fauna has been listed and identified 10,300 animal species including 307 species of nematodes (Nematoda), 161 species of helminth parasites in cattle, 200 species of earthworms (Oligochaeta), 150 species of ticks ( Acartia), 113 species of beetles (Collembola), more than 7,700 species of insects (Insecta), 317 species of reptiles (Reptilia), 167 species of amphibians (Amphibia), 840 species of birds (Avecs), 312 species of mammals and subspecies (Mammalia).+ Microorganisms listed and identified include 7,500 species, including more than 2,800 species of plant pathogens, 1,500 species of human and animal diseases and more than 700 species of beneficial microorganisms. Freshwater genetic resources: 1,438 species of 259 genera and 9-branched microalgae have been listed and identified; more than 800 species of invertebrates; 1,028 freshwater fish species.+ Marine genetic resources: According to statistics, Vietnam has discovered 11,000 species in the sea, of which, there are about 6,300 species of trefoil, 2,500 species of fish with more than 100 species of fish of high economic value; 653 species of seaweed; 657 species of zooplankton; 537 species of phytoplankton; 94 species of mangroves; 225 marine shrimp species; 14 species of seagrass; 15 species of sea snakes; 25 species of marine mammals; 5 species of sea turtles.+ Plants have the most diversity, being one of the 8 centres of Vavilov origin with many domesticated plants. Accordingly, our country has 700 species of plants belonging to 79 families) which are grown for food, medicine and construction materials. Vietnam is the region of origin or region of origin for many crops such as rice, taro, native onions and a variety of endemic fruit trees. Vietnam has exploited and used plant species such as starchy food crops (39 species), non-starch food crops (95 species), fruit trees (104 species), vegetables (55 species), oil crops (44 species), fibre crops (16 species), beverage production plants (12 species), spice plants (39 species), aromatic plants (19 species) and cover crops for greening hills bald (29 species). Plants with wild relatives in our country are also very diverse. Rice genetic resources are the best known and also the most significant and valuable among the crops in Vietnam.+ Livestock genetic resources are abundant with 46 known and used varieties. Indigenous livestock breeds are highly resistant to disease, can use low-quality and nutritious feed, and are highly adaptable to the environment. Currently, Vietnam has about 14 species of animals and birds, including 20 breeds of pigs (of which 14 are indigenous), 21 breeds of beef (with 5 indigenous breeds), and 27 breeds of chickens (with 16 indigenous breeds). , 10 varieties of ducks (there are 5 varieties of terrestrial ducks), 7 varieties of muscovy ducks (with 3 native varieties), 5 breeds of geese (with 2 native varieties), 5 breeds of goats (with native varieties), 3 breeds of buffaloes (with 2 indigenous breeds), 1 sheep breed, 4 rabbit breeds (two indigenous breeds), 3 horse breeds (2 indigenous breeds), 2 native crocodiles, deer and two imported ostrich breeds.+ Genetic resources of insects and microorganisms: About 10,000 species of insects have been identified in Vietnam with 1000 species considered pests and more than 1000 species as natural enemies of pests such as predators. ladybugs, beetles, mantises, yelloweyed beetles, flies, beetles, large spiders, small predatory arachnids), parasites + Forest flora: very rich and diverse. However, to date, there are no detailed statistics on the composition of plant species. According to Nguyen Nghia Thin (1997), there are about 11,373 species belonging to 2524 genera; 378 families of 7 branches of forest flora in Vietnam. Botanists predict that if there is a meticulous survey of the composition of the Vietnamese forest flora, the number of species could reach 15,000. Vietnam's forest ecosystem is diverse with many different types of forests, swamps and rivers providing habitat for about 10% of the total global bird and animal species. Many species of animals and plants are considered to be unique in Vietnam.+ Aquatic species: Up to now, about 11,000 aquatic species living in more than 20 typical ecosystems have been discovered in the coastal and marine areas of Vietnam in 9 marine biodiversity regions. Of the total species discovered, there are about 6,000 benthic species; 2,038 species of grass (including 100 species of economic value); 653 species of algae, 657 species of zooplankton, 537 species of phytoplankton, 94 species of mangrove plants, 225 species of saltwater shrimp, 14 species of seaweed, 15 species of sea snakes, 12 species of marine mammals, 5 sea turtles and 43 species of birds. The freshwater fish species is about 10278.In addition to the diversity of ecosystems, diversity of ecosystems, diversity of species and diversity of genes, agricultural biodiversity also has diversity in ecological regions. Currently, according to classification, the diversity of our country's ecological regions is divided into 9 regions, including the northwest, northeast, and central mountainous areas in the North, the Red River Delta, the North Central Coast, the South Central Coast, the Central Highlands, and the Central Highlands. Southeast, Mekong Delta 2 (). Agro-biodiversity in agroecological regions varies depending on topographical, soil, climatic, and farming conditions.Although there is a clear classification of biodiversity, there are also many problems with biodiversity. According to the combined results of Tran Van The et al (2022). The description of the task of developing environmental protection programs in agricultural production and restoration of degraded natural ecosystems by 2030 shows that biodiversity in our country has been seriously degraded. The area of planted and restored forests has shown signs of increasing (the rate of forest cover increased gradually from 2010 to 2014 was 39.5-40.43%, respectively) but the area of natural forest decreased alarmingly, causing an alarming rate of growth. The extinction of some species increases or reduces/lost the functions of the ecosystem, reduces the level of biodiversity, the conservation rate is low. The burned forest area (on average from 1,000-3,000 ha) and the problem of deforestation (about 6,700 ha in 2011 and 870 ha in 2014) put great pressure on the natural environment of our country. The mangrove ecosystem is degraded (in the period 1990-2012, the rate of mangrove loss was 1.7 times higher than in the previous period, equivalent to nearly 9,500 ha/year); Seagrass ecosystems, coral reef ecosystems (the area is reduced by 15-20%) are also seriously degraded, mainly due to human development activities and partly due to climate change. when the restored planting area is very small. Along with that, the level of species biodiversity and the level of biodiversity in genetic resources are also reduced due to the decline of mangrove ecosystems.Biodiversity in the country is as diverse as the above analysis but has been degraded, especially natural ecosystems and agricultural ecosystems According to Tran Van The et al (2022). Explaining the task of developing environmental protection programs in agricultural production and restoring degraded natural ecosystems by 2030, the main causes include:-Conversion of land/water surface without an appropriate scientific basis such as converting forest land to other purposes into industrial crops (sugar cane, tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, pepper, cassava) and Industry and infrastructure not only lose forest area but also reduce the biodiversity of forest ecosystems.-Deforestation due to shifting cultivation is one of the direct threats to deforestation or forest degradation. Shifting cultivation has been found to correlate with forest loss and degradation in some regions. However, there is also evidence that in ethnic minority areas, shifting cultivation is practised but has little impact on biodiversity. This result shows that shifting cultivation and nomadism are not associated with indigenous traditions and culture, which has led to a reduction in forest area, making the situation of deforestation for agriculture more serious, reducing functional forests, and leading to a decrease in productivity and output of crops.-Expansion of production and agricultural intensification to meet the food needs of population growth has changed the ecosystem. The overview results show that in the Mekong Delta, especially the Dong Thap Muoi region and the Long Xuyen quadrangle, most of the natural grasslands have been converted into rice-growing areas that affect the habitats of certain areas, endangered species, while at the same time reducing some natural resources.Recent studies on the availability and use of aquatic biodiversity from rice-based ecosystems in Cambodia, China, Laos, and Vietnam documented 145 species of fish, 11 species of crustaceans, 15 species of molluscs, 13 species of reptiles, 11 species of amphibians, 11 species of insects and 37 species of plants directly caught or collected from the rice fields and utilized by rural people during one season.Fish plays a major role in supplying food and small-scale income among the groups encountered. Most of it is consumed fresh, but there are several ways to preserve it for periods when the supply of fresh fish is interrupted. Among these, drying and fermenting are the most common methods, but fish is also preserved in salt, or smoked; and some aquatic organisms are preserved in alcohol to be used as medicine. Aquatic animals represent a significant, often the most important, source of animal protein and are also essential during times of rice shortages (Halwart, 2008).Rice cultivation is closely linked to socio-cultural values and has created specific agrobiodiversity. Increasing development pressures lead to an intensification of small-scale production systems and with this to changes in landscapes and associated ecosystem services.In the mountainous study areas with low rice production agricultural activities are deeply embedded in socio-cultural practices. Rice production has a cultural meaning above food production. (Vera et al., 2017) As an economic system, home gardening in Vietnam is an indigenous, integrated method of home production that often combines vegetable and fruit gardening with fish ponds and livestock (pigs and buffalo). This system, in which the wastes of one type of production provide inputs for other forms of production in a cyclical relationship, is known by the widely recognized designation, VAC (V: garden, A: pond and C: cattle) -Home gardens with fruit trees (e.g. south Vietnam), -Home gardens with ponds and covered livestock areas (e.g. Red River delta and central Vietnam), -Home gardens with vegetables (e.g. Red River delta and central Vietnam), -Home gardens with forest trees (e.g. northern mountainous area occupied by minority nationalities)The study showed that species diversity per home garden is highest at the southern sites, with an average of 53.9 species. The range of species found in gardens was also higher in the Mekong Delta, with home gardens containing 20-103 species. These species are important to households as they provide income and sustenance year-round from the diversity of crops contained within them which are harvested at different times. The commercialization of home garden products is currently affecting species composition, and home gardens are in a state of flux in some areas of Vietnam. Monocultures of single commercially viable species (e.g. Dimocarpus longan, Nephelium lappaceum, etc.) can especially be seen in the southern sites (Hien, 2003) Research on home gardens flourished in the 1980s and 90s with innumerable papers from around the world describing backyard agriculture, listing crops grown, and measuring height and diversity. (Salick et al., 2006) Vigorous marketing of modern cultivars representing only a few species by seed companies is resulting in the rapid disappearance of old local varieties and indigenous species which may carry valuable characteristics and contribute to the country's biodiversity. Siemonsma and Piluek, 1994 estimated 1,500 to 2,000 species of plants are used as supplementary food in Southeast Asia.According to (Hue et al.,n.d), Vietnam has rich and diverse indigenous vegetable resources and knowledge of exploitation and use. Indigenous vegetables rich in nutrients have economic, cultural, and healthcare values for everyone. Indigenous vegetables that are easy to grow, have good resistance to pests and diseases, and are highly adaptable to harsh ecological conditions, are national assets that should be prioritized for conservation and rational use for the sake of agricultural and rural development. In the past time, despite many efforts, there are still many shortcomings and challenges in the conservation of indigenous vegetables in the country 3 .According to a study done by {Jones, 2021 #515}, there were significant differences in scores for the status of agrobiodiversity in consumption and conservation across regions. For example, the Americas and Europe had significantly higher scores than Africa and Asia for the status of agrobiodiversity in consumption, suggesting that the former regions have access to higher levels of agrobiodiversity for healthy diets. Conversely, Africa and Asia had significantly higher scores than the Americas and Europe for commitments to agrobiodiversity in conservation, indicating that these regions are driving the integration of agrobiodiversity into policy to meet global conservation agendas. The importance of linking conservation with utilization was recognized and activities to promote utilization among farmers, traders, women, children, and consumers, in general, were undertaken. Promotional activities included field demonstrations and participatory evaluation.In mountainous areas of Vietnam, ethnic groups such as The Tay, Yao, and Hmong are producing many native crop varieties and animal breeds. Through their farming practices, intercropping main commercial crops and indigenous crops give multiple values, such as the crops being more resistant to drought and suffering less pressure from pests and diseases, and more importantly, it helps to conserve indigenous crop genes and ensure biodiversity. (Son et al., 2021) 8. BioTrade 4 -the global initiative dissemination in Vietnam \"BioTrade is when a product or service sourced from biodiversity is commercialized and traded in a way that respects people and nature\" From 3 to 14 June 1992, representatives of 179 countries around the world attended a United Nations International Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and went agreed on Agenda 21 (Agenda 21) which contains statements on environment and sustainable development and principles for sustainable forest management. The agenda in section 2.19 is as follows:\"Environment and trade policies should be mutually supportive\" \"Environmental and trade policies must complement each other\" Agenda 21 towards 3 sustainable development goals named 3 E's are:The Agenda also specifies the goals and defines the role of the United Nations Trade and Development Forum (UCTAD) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) as follows:• Environmental policies and international trade must support each other to facilitate sustainable development;• Clarifying the roles of GATT and UNCTAD as well as other international organizations in dealing with issues related to the environment and trade;• Encourage competition and ensure productivity in production and at the same time ensure environmental and development-related issues.Concerning trade and the environment, the two chapters of Agenda 21 set out specific contents for the task of combating poverty with impacts that improve the livelihoods of the poor sustainably. With the goals and missions defined in Agenda 21, UNCTAD introduced the \"BioTrade\" initiative in 1996. Since UNCTAD coined the term until now, BioTrade has been recognized as one of the most significant initiatives in promoting sustainable development and reducing poverty through trade and investment.Initiative has been developed and implemented and fostered by government organizations, business associations, NGOs, and companies in nearly 100 countries. In Vietnam, the Central and local levels have not had specific programs or activities on BioTrade development, at this time in the national media (VTV), the term \"BioTrade\" is also recognized. This is a regional project implemented in 3 countries Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. The main objective of the project is to conserve biodiversity by promoting sustainable trade in natural raw materials and enhancing the competitiveness of local and regional producers and exporters that improve the livelihoods of the people involved. The main activities of the project are to improve the management capacity of the supply chain of natural materials for partners in the process of applying sustainable standards in terms of economy, society, environment, and trade promotion. and especially attracting the attention of the community of the Government's policy development and issuing agency to increase support for agents participating in BioTrade. The target market of BioTrade products is high-end markets in Europe, the US, and Japan -markets with many customers wishing to buy and sell quality products at the same time as the production process. Producing and trading products that ensure other social and environmental values. Therefore, businesses have paid attention and started to apply voluntary standards to ensure those values such as Organic standards of USDA, EU, Japan JAS, FairTrade, Rainforest Alliance, Fair for life, and GlobalGAP. This is also a standard that is close to the UEBT standard for Ethical Raw Material Harvesting Systems. Within the framework of the project, BioTrade's 7 principles have been implemented in parallel with the Organic standards that businesses have registered and recognized. Therefore, most products have applied both Organic standards and the BioTrade (Pham Thi Hanh Tho, Trinh Van Tuan, 2019)Agroecology/Nature-Positive Practices in VietnamAgroecology is not a new invention. It can be identified in scientific literature since the 1920s and has found expression in family farmers' practices, in grassroots social movements for sustainability, and in the public policies of various countries around the world. More recently, agroecology has entered the discourse of international and UN institutions Agroecology (AE) is fundamentally different from other approaches to sustainable development. It is based on bottom-up and territorial processes, helping to deliver contextualized solutions to local problems. Agroecological innovations are based on the cocreation of knowledge, combining science with the traditional, practical, and local knowledge of producers. By enhancing their autonomy and adaptive capacity, agroecology empowers producers and communities as key agents of change. (FAO, 2018) According to Dao The Anh (2022) 6 , AE is the soul of sustainable agriculture. This is a strategic tool, talking about sustainable agriculture means AE. AE is flexible in terms of scale (small-large) and nature (partially and fully integrated) to help provide context-appropriate solutions to local problems. region and region. Technically, agroecology applies ecological principles in the design of production systems to enhance ecological benefits (such as biological control, pollination, nutrient regeneration, soil conservation, etc.). water), contribute to environmental protection, rational use of resources, and bring values of food safety. AE is attracting special attention from many countries and international organizations as a solution to transform a safe, responsible, transparent, and sustainable food system. For Vietnam, transforming food production based on AE will contribute to diversifying crops, improving ecological value, and improving farmers' production capacity in ensuring food security. food production, providing safe food products, enhancing agricultural biodiversity, and improving the resilience of food production systems to adapt to climate change.There are more than 20 definitions of Agroecology 7 . Agroecology is a scientific discipline, a set of practices, and a social movement. As a science, it studies how different components of the agroecosystem interact. As a set of practices, it seeks sustainable farming systems that optimize and stabilize yields. As a social movement, it pursues multifunctional roles for agriculture, promotes social justice, nurtures identity and culture, and strengthens the economic viability of rural areas. (FAO, 2018). According to Erica Doro, and Dario Licatoni (2022), Agroecology is a holistic path toward a sustainable food system: environment, climate change, and social inclusion.In the sixties of the 20th century, the World began the period of the Green Revolution, which was considered miraculous by scientific achievements spread and applied in agriculture. The world has witnessed a trend in large-scale, high-yield agriculture with costoptimized inputs, with the strong development of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Since then, many parts of the world, including Vietnam, have been able to get out of poverty and switch to commodity production. Today's food and agricultural systems and agriculture have successfully supplied large volumes of food to the global market. However, agricultural systems that require a lot of external inputs and are resource-intensive have caused severe deforestation, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, land depletion, and greenhouse gas emissions in the region. high level. Despite significant progress in recent times, hunger and extreme poverty remain major challenges globally. Even when poverty has been reduced, inequality still exists in many places, hindering poverty reduction. (FAO, nd;Third World Network & SOCLA, 2015) In guiding countries to transform their food and agricultural systems, to mainstream sustainable agriculture on a large scale, and to achieve Zero Hunger and multiple other SDGs, the following 10 Elements emanated from the FAO regional seminars on agroecology:-Diversity; synergies; efficiency; resilience; recycling; co-creation and sharing of knowledge (describing common characteristics of agroecological systems, foundational practices, and innovation approaches) -Human and social values; culture and food traditions (context features)Responsible governance; circular and solidarity economy (enabling environment)The 10 Elements of Agroecology are interlinked and interdependent.There are no specific policies for AE but it is included in the general agriculture and rural development policies of the country, as follows: For Vietnam, based on the agricultural development strategy for the period of 2021-2030, with a vision to 2050 (Decision 150/QD-TTg dated January 28, 2022). Vietnam's agroecological transformation is based on value chains at all three levels: (1). National key commodity chains (wood, shrimp, pangasius, rice, coffee, vegetables, cashew, pepper, rubber, etc.), (2) Provincial key commodity chains, and (3) OCOP products.The results of the overview of the current state of agro-ecology show that, at present, there is no complete assessment of 10 elements constituting agro-ecology, but there have been many results of research and model implementation for one, several aspects of AE, specifically:-Assessment results of the Institute of Agricultural Environment (2021). Develop a report on environmental protection of the agricultural sector in 2021 and the Department of Science, Technology, and Environment (2022) at the Workshop of Agricultural By-products -Renewable Resources on September 28, 2022, showing that by-products the largest volume of agricultural by-products from the cropping industry, in which the rice by-products account for a large amount (42.8 million tons), the stem, leaves, and cobs are about 10 million tons, and vegetables and fruits about 3.6 million tons, cassava stems about 3.1 million tons, artificial fruit peels about 3.1 million tons and by-products from other crops about 6.1 million tons. By-products from the processing of agricultural products of the horticulture industry include 8.6 million tons of rice husks, 3.5 million tons of bagasse, 1.4 million tons of corn cobs, 1.3 million tons of cassava husks, and assorted another 2 million tons. Although this is a source of by-products with high organic content, suitable for recirculation and reuse as fertilizer and feed for livestock and poultry in the development of circular agriculture in AE, it is still being squandered. According to the survey results from 16 provinces in 8 ecological regions of the Institute of Agricultural Environment (2021), the percentage of crop by-products (peanut shells, corn stalks, rice straw, cassava stalks, soybean skins,...) collected and used only 52.2%. The rate of use of rice straw is only 56.3% (to make raw fodder for grazing cattle, as a filler for livestock, as a biological cushion for livestock, as a straw mushroom, as a mulch for livestock. plants, lining the fruits...). A considerable amount of straw is burned in the fields in some places in the North and Central region, causing air pollution, obstructing traffic, and affecting human health.-AE including crop production and livestock production systems, according to the Institute of Agricultural Environment (2022), the livestock industry in the whole country discharged 60.4 million tons of cattle and poultry manure, and 290 million m3 of wastewater. The amount of waste from livestock is increasing, can reach nearly 72 million tons (Livestock development strategy for the period 2021-2030, vision 2045; Decision No. 1520/2020/QD-TTg dated October 6, 2020, of the Prime Minister). This is an important source of organic matter contributing to the development of AE and circular agriculture. According to a survey by the Institute of Agricultural Environment (2021), only 48.5% of livestock waste is applied with traditional composting, 11% is used for biogas plants, and only 6% is used for biogas plants. using microbial products for treatment, 2.7% using biological buffer, equivalent to about 4 million tons of organic fertilizer in the area where the demand for organic fertilizer is over 22 million tons. The use of livestock waste still exists due to livestock practices, regulations on the management of livestock waste (especially liquid waste), livestock infrastructure, and the scale of livestock production. , leading to inefficient and wasteful use of livestock waste.-According to Eco-Fair (2022). Developing ecologically processed agricultural products and using by-products in circular production at the Workshop on Agricultural By-products -Renewable Resources on September 28, 2022 (Tái Tạo Phụ Phẩm Tài Liệu Hội Thảo.Pdf, n.d.), showed that in many countries, AE and fair trade are emerging as a promising agricultural development strategies. The EVFTA also has specific provisions related to the promotion of equitable ecological products. The Eco-Fair project has implemented many AE models such as mid-heat composting to treat organic waste as organic fertilizer for plants; composting from mushroom residue, making use of solid waste to create biochar; growing organic rice, using natural products to enhance nutrition for rice; using galangal pulp from processing, applying biochar as a bio-buffer and using bio-buffer for organic farming. Although in the beginning, the models implemented by Eco-fair are actively contributing to the transformation of food production systems based on AE and circular agriculture.In terms of policies: According to the overview results done by (Tung, 2021), policies related to agroecology include policies on agro-forestry combined with five characteristics. : (i) usually consists of two or more crops (or plants and animals), of which at least one perennial tree species is required; (ii) usually produces two or more products; (i .) Source: (Tung, 2021)  In Vietnam, organic farming is the traditional way and can be considered the most potential model for AE development. Organic products produced by applying third-party certification standards and Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) are increasingly emerging. The system has been around for thousands of years, but Organic farming according to the current concept of IFOAM is only was started in Vietnam in the late 1990s with a few initiatives, mainly focused on exploiting natural products such as tea, spices and essential oils for export to some countries in Europe. According to FiBL data, from 2010 to 2016 area of organic farming land in Vietnam increased by more than 2.76 times, from 19.27 thousand hectares in 2010 to 53.35 thousand hectares in 2016, but the area was still much lower than in Asian countries. Currently, product retail sales in Vietnam's organic agriculture reached more than 17 million USD, and the expenditure per capita consumption of organic products is close to 0.2 USD. -cited by (Pham Thi Hanh Tho, Trinh Van Tuan, 2019). In 2021, Vietnam was ranked as the 9 th largest area of organic plantation, accounting for 174 thousand ha (Bao nong nghiep Vietnam, 2022).Currently, although there are many products labeled \"agrocological products -sản phẩm sinh thái\" on the market, they are different from products labeled on the basis of applying standards (certified by third parties, or PGS); Agroecological or Eco-labelled products are currently not recognized by the Vietnamese legal system because no State regulations have been issued. This is also the content that many businesses and scientific organizations suggest that need to be supplemented and perfected in the near future 8 .As early as 1998, Directive 36/CT-TW mentioned \"applying clean technology, low waste, low consumption of raw materials and energy\", followed by Resolution 41 giving orientations on \" encourage recycling and use of recycled products\", \"recall and dispose of used products\", etc. From those guidelines of the Party, the State has promulgated Laws and policies related to \" exploitation and economical use of resources\", \"using renewable energy\", 3R, \"replacing plastic bags\", \"sustainable production and consumption\", \"green supply chain\", \"consumer green\",… Vietnam has also had some successful examples, such as the Garden-Pot-Cage model and variations such as Forest-Garden-Pot-Cage, and aquaponics (which help recover gas) waste or utilize food and nutrition), the Zero Waste to Nature initiative initiated by the Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry VCCI, the initiative to recycle Tiger beer caps into iron to build bridges at Tien Giang (helps recover iron), straws made from grass and rice replace plastic straws (helps to reduce plastic emissions), several successful cleaner production models.A circular economy is known as an alternative to a traditional linear economy (make, use, and dispose of) where the life cycle of resources used is lengthened for adding value to the resources that can be reproduced. Circular economy (CE) plays an important role in sustainable development, especially in the context of urbanization with an increase in the population that leads to an increase in waste creation like in Vietnam. In 2018, according to the statistical data from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, urban household waste of the urban areas is about 32 thousand tons per day of which organic waste accounted for 60%. This waste has increased but its management/recycling is at a low level. Other types of waste such as e-waste and plastic are also increasing. This is more concerning when those wastes are mainly treated by landfilled with Municipal Solid Waste -MSW (Ghosh, 2019)Legal framework related to Circular Economy in Vietnam Vietnam is now facing challenges related to resources management, environmental protection, and climate change, making this urgent to take appropriate policies and actions. In pursuit of sustainable development, Vietnam's Communist Party and the Government have issued a range of policies, directives, and regulations. These documents confirmed Vietnam's consistent viewpoints on sustainable development that included many existing principles of circular It can be seen that in the Party's directions and the Government's policies and laws mentioned above, the term \"circular economy\" is not officially stipulated. However, such documents regulate many principles of circular economy, including rational and economical use of natural resources; reduction, reuse, and recycling, based on principles of waste management. (SWITCH-Asia, 2019)In Clause 1, Article 1 of Decision 687/QD-TTg in 2022, Vietnam's circular economy development perspective includes (i) Proactive development of the circular economy is inevitable, in line with trends and requirements. the need to create breakthroughs in economic recovery and implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); contributing to promoting economic restructuring in association with renovating the growth model towards modernity, improving competitiveness and ability to proactively adapt and withstand external shocks, realize The national strategy on green growth in the 2021-2030 period, with a vision to 2050, ensuring national defense and security; (ii) The development of the local economy must be based on an open approach, focusing more on creating space and facilitating economic efficiency, on the basis of strengthening international cooperation, ensuring the mobilization and use of effective human knowledge, achievements of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 and digital transformation, necessary resources from the private sector, international organizations and foreign partners; (iii) The development of the knowledge-based economy needs to be urgent, practical, effective, feasible, inheriting the best practices in other countries and the country, and boldly experimenting in specific fields, attracting the attention of investors. the interest of domestic and foreign investors; (iv) Focus on promulgating long-term policies to encourage, give incentives and facilitate the development of the local economy, associated with specific roadmaps and results, and at the same time complete a solid legal basis and create flexibility and initiative to promote the basic economic model at the appropriate level in sectors, fields and localities; avoid applying stereotypes and homogenization of the theoretical economy to the entire economy; and (v) Sustainable development of the local economy based on raising awareness, initiative, promoting innovation and corporate social responsibility; encouraging the responsible lifestyle of each individual towards the community and society, orienting future generations to a green living culture, forming a civilized and modern society in harmony with nature and the environment. With this view, it can be seen that the development of the circular economy in general and in agriculture, in particular, is inevitable, integrating multi-values, keeping up with the trend to transform and restructure production in line with the current situation. ecological conditions, environmental protection and climate change adaptation.Waste recycling is an important factor in the development of a circular economy in agriculture. According to the Department of Crop Production (2022) at the Workshop of Agricultural By-products -Renewable Resources on September 28, 2022, with the potential of more than 100 million tons of crop by-products, but the use is not reasonable in which the number of by-products Burning in the field accounted for 45.9%. According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, for every 1 million tons of straw burned, 34,000 tons of CO2, 828 tons of CO, 28 tons of CH4, 48 tons of SO2, 1 ton of N2O and over 70 tons of dust are released. This result shows that burning straw wastes organic matter for agricultural production, especially in the context of increasingly limited use of manure and green manure, both polluting the environment and causing GHG emissions. , making the earth hotter and hotter. ONMT from burning of by-products after harvest has seriously affected air quality and traffic. According to the Department of Crop Production (2022), annual cultivation uses 10.23 million tons of fertilizer, including 7.6 million tons of inorganic fertilizer (accounting for over 75%), the amount of organic fertilizer used is only 2.63 million tons, accounting for a very low proportion in which the potential of raw materials for the production of organic fertilizers in our country is very large.For livestock, according to the Department of Livestock Production (2020), the livestock industry annually generates 60.1 million tons of solid waste, 289.56 million m3 of solid waste, and the amount of solid waste is forecast to increase to 68. .15 million tons in 2025 and 71.92 million tons in 2030.Regarding policies: Clause 1, Article 142 of the Law on Environmental Protection 2020 stipulates that the circular economy is an economic model in which design, production, consumption and service activities aim to reduce the exploitation of raw materials, materials, prolong the product life cycle, limit waste generation and minimize adverse impacts on the environment. With this definition, the recycling of waste is not regulated but can be understood to be included in extending the product life cycle. However, agricultural production is a specific activity, in addition to the harvested products used for consumption and product processing, there are also crop by-products and organic waste that play a very important role in production. For the production of ecological and organic agriculture, detailed regulations are needed to facilitate the formulation and promulgation of relevant policies.Article 138 of Decree 08/2022/ND-CP guiding the implementation of the Law on Environmental Protection (2020), which regulates the general circular economy (including the agricultural sector), provides for:-General criteria for the circular economy include (i) Reducing exploitation and use of non-renewable resources, water resources; increasing efficiency in the use of resources, raw materials and materials; energy saving; (ii) Prolong the use of materials, equipment, products, goods, components and components; (iii) Limiting waste generation and minimizing adverse impacts on the environment including reduction of solid waste, wastewater, emissions; reduce the use of harmful chemicals; waste recycling, energy recovery; reduce single-use products; green shopping.-Units, organizations and individuals implement one or more measures in order of priority to achieve circular economy criteria (Article 139 of Decree 08/2022/ND-CP): (i) Limitations use environmentally unfriendly products; optimize the use of equipment and products; increase production efficiency, effectively use resources, raw materials and materials; (ii) Extend the life cycle of products and their components and components, including: reuse (products are reused by other consumers); repair (repair or maintenance of defective products to prolong their service life); refurbishment (restore and upgrade old products); remanufacturing (using components, components, components of waste products for similar functions); change the purpose of use (using discarded products or components and components for new products with other functions); (iii) Waste reduction includes: waste recycling (treatment and processing of waste to convert it into raw materials, fuel and useful materials); Energy recovery through waste incineration.-According to the law, the State encourages and prioritizes circular economy activities (Article 140 of Decree 08/2022/ND-CP) including (i) Scientific research, application development, technology transfer and equipment production, human resource training to implement circular economy; (ii) Provide a platform for sharing information and data on the circular economy; (iii) get incentives and support for environmental protection, projects are granted green credits. Priority circular economy development activities include (i) Research, develop technology, technical solutions, provide consulting services, design, evaluate the implementation of circular economy according to provisions of law; (ii) Developing models of linkage, sharing the use of products and waste; establish cooperative groups, cooperatives, unions of cooperatives, recycling alliances, models of regional linkage, urban-rural linkage and other models as prescribed by law to implement investment, production, business and service activities meet the criteria of the circular economy; (iii) Apply industrial symbiosis measures in accordance with the law on management of industrial parks and economic zones; (iv) Developing a market for reuse of discarded products and recycling of waste; (v) Mobilizing resources in the society to implement the circular economy in accordance with the law; International cooperation, exchange of experience, knowledge and technology on the circular economy in accordance with the law.In order to concretize the legal provisions on circular economy development, the Government issued Decision 687/QD-TTg dated June 7, 2022 approving the circular economy development project with the following objectives: specifically (i) reduce the intensity of GHG emissions per GDP by at least 15% by 2030 compared to 2014 and work towards the goal of net zero emissions by 2050; (ii) Increasing awareness and investment interest of domestic and foreign enterprises and investors in the concept of the knowledge economy; promoting the application of the THIS model to promote the greening of economic sectors. By 2025, economic projects will initially be put into practice and bring into play their economic, social, technological and environmental efficiency; contribute to the recovery of renewable resources, reduce energy consumption, increase the share of renewable energy in the total primary energy supply, the rate of forest cover, increase the rate of waste recycling, increase strengthen the localization rate of agricultural, forestry, fishery and industrial exports. By 2030, renewable energy-based projects will become a major driver in reducing primary energy consumption, achieving self-sufficiency in most or all renewable energy-based energy needs, and in increasing the share of renewable energy. forest cover rate; (iii) The THIS model supports building a green lifestyle, encourages waste segregation and promotes sustainable consumption. By 2025, reuse, recycle and treat 85% of generated plastic waste; reduce 50% of plastic waste in the sea and ocean compared to the previous period; gradually reduce the production and use of non-degradable plastic bags and disposable plastic products in daily life. Significantly increase the recycling capacity of organic waste in urban and rural areas. Raise awareness of agencies, organizations, businesses, communities and people in the production, consumption and disposal of plastic waste, non-biodegradable plastic bags and single-use plastic products in daily life. By 2030, the proportion of urban domestic solid waste collected and treated up to standards and regulations through the economic models will reach 50%; 100% of urban organic waste and 70% of rural organic waste are recycled; does not give rise to the direct burial of domestic solid waste from the eco-economic models in urban areas; maximize the rate of urban wastewater collected and treated to meet standards and regulations as prescribed in urban areas; and (iv) The ECO model makes an important contribution to improving the quality of life and people's resilience to climate change, ensuring equality in conditions and opportunities to develop capacity, improve labour productivity and income of workers from the basic economy.Prioritized tasks and solutions for the implementation of circular economy development include (i) fully, timely and effectively implementing the orientations of tasks and solutions identified in the Action Program for implementation. Resolution of the 13th Party Congress; National strategy on green growth for the period of 2021 -2030, with a vision to 2050; Project on strengthening plastic waste management in Vietnam; Law on Environmental Protection 2020; National Strategy on the Fourth Industrial Revolution to 2030l; (ii) Propaganda and awareness raising about the knowledge economy; (iii) Develop a separate plan for the development of the local economy or integrate the implementation of the development of the local economy in the strategies, master plans and plans for the development of sectors, fields or socio-economic development of the locality; (iii) Research and integrate the development of the local economy into policies, regional linkage projects, activities to implement Decision 1658/QD-TTg dated October 1, 2021 of the Prime Minister approving the National Strategy on green growth in the period of 2021 -2030, with a vision to 2050; (iv) Strengthen research, develop plans and roadmaps for information collection, use and analysis to support comprehensive and harmonized information and communication technology applications and solutions associated with the model of Circular Economy; (v) Actively discuss with foreign donors and international organizations to seek opportunities to access knowledge, skills and resources to develop the knowledge economy through specific pilot projects on the knowledge economy, projects on technology and services (information technology, environment...) that are friendly to the local economy; (vi) Strengthen publicprivate dialogue on the development of the knowledge economy, on the basis of promoting corporate social responsibility; find out and grasp the needs and problems of enterprises, thereby taking appropriate measures to remove and support or propose competent authorities to consider, remove and support at an appropriate level; (vii) Review and finalize the policy and legal framework to facilitate the development of the knowledge economy. Research and review the current state of the development of the knowledge economy in many priority areas/can be piloted soon; (ix) Having mechanisms and policies to attract and use investment and human resource development in the development of the knowledge economy. Completing the mechanism for industrial development and environmental services.According to Tran Van The (2021). Experience in managing by-products in some countries around the world. Research results on rice straw treatment in Hanoi. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment such as:-The US has enacted many policies to encourage the use of crop by-products such as the Law to limit the burning of crop waste (1991) and force farmers to reduce the burning area according to a specific route to 90% in 1992, and 60% (in 1995) and down to 25% (in 2000). According to the US National Bureau of Scientific and Technological Information (2010), thanks to this law, by 1997, 98% of the straw was no longer burned in the field, but instead was used as organic matter. replenishment to the soil. By 2003, the US Government had added many support measures to be incorporated into the policy for the development of infrastructure to use crop by-products. Instead of only supporting farmers, the policy also supports end users of products processed from crop by-products; -In Japan, rice straw from rice cultivation is left in the soil accounted for 61.5%, used as animal feeds for 11.6%, green manure for 10.1%, roofing for cattle barns 6, 5%, mulching materials in the field 4%, handicrafts from straw 1.3% and burning in the field about 4.6%. The Japanese government has many policies to support agricultural development and has its policy for rice production to ensure food security, and increase income for farmers, but minimize the burning of crop by-products. through national monitoring programs on crop residue management including mixed taxation with farming practices that do not implement appropriate by-product management, mechanisms and policies to support the development of processing technology and reuse crop by-products, mainly focusing on rice straw.-China has a volume of rice straw of 230 million tons/year, providing 72.2% of biomass for energy production. The Chinese government has issued and implemented supportive policies for rice straw management through the production of biofuel from straw, thermogasification of straw through direct combustion, anaerobic digestion, production of straw briquettes, gasification of rice straw, liquefaction, carbonation of rice straw, biochar and investment in small-scale bioenergy projects using crop by-products.-India is also facing many challenges regarding the burning of waste after harvesting wheat and rice. The Government of India has issued and implemented a national environmental assessment program, including air pollution from burning agricultural byproducts into the monitoring program of SO2, NOx, PM2.5, PM10, and speed. wind, wind direction, temperature, air pressure, and humidity in air quality assessment and monitoring to put warnings and management measures. Based on the monitoring, it provides limited solutions for burning rice straw in the field in agricultural production areas and is the basis for developing sanctions for burning crop residues. The Indian government has developed several support policies for seed companies to support farmers to use rice straw in soil improvement, minimize the burning of straw, and have policies to prices for equipment, machinery to collect by-products in the field, rice straw rolling machines to make fuel rods for domestic use and related industries. Regulations on limiting the burning of straw are also specified in the Law on Air Protection and Control, the Law on Environmental Protection, the Law on Civil Courts, etc., to serve as a basis for law enforcement in quality management. crop waste in general and straw in particular.-In Thailand, the Government has issued an action plan to control the burning of byproducts and national haze from central to local levels to minimize the burning of crop residues. The evaluation results of many studies related to these policies have not yet been effective due to the people's habits and customs, while the sanctions are not strong enough, financial support solutions are lacking, and communication and education activities in the community in recognizing the consequences of burning biomass; lack of supportive policies for technology research and development to diversify technology to reuse by-products not only by administrative orders.-The Philippines is also considered a country with a tradition of wet rice cultivation, with the International Rice Research Institute located in the Philippines. According to Cheryll C. Launio et al. (2013), the amount of rice straw burning in the field still accounts for 57.6% of the spring crop (January-June) and 71.0% in the crop season (June-December). Only a small amount of rice straw (8.4%) is put into composting and 4% is used as animal feed. With a high rate of burning rice straw, the air environment in rural and suburban areas at the time of rice harvest becomes very serious, especially in a country with hot weather all year round. The Philippine government has included in the Environmental Law specific provisions on limiting the burning of straw. Although the awareness of the people about the implementation of environmental laws has changed, the restriction of burning rice straw in the fields, farmers have not had positive results due to the lack of supportive policies, especially for small-scale farmers.This by-product from rice production is considered the most potential value-added strategy of circular economic development in Vietnam. Thus, it can be seen that in terms of circular economy policies in agriculture, there are general orientations and regulations, but specific regulations for circular economy development in agriculture are still limited and lacking. system-specific regulations, lack of activities to fully integrate agricultural development activities (ecological agriculture, circular agriculture, low carbon agriculture, organic agriculture) to create resources, synchronous technical solutions, supporting mechanisms and policies, production organization, and management.-Lead the engagement of the outputs related to the above topics in the technical report under the preparation of the food systems transformation national action plan led by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development in VietnamFor the agricultural sector Considering the nature, content, formation and development process to generalize the circular economy model in Vietnam, it can be seen that at present we do not have a circular economy model built from project-based supports and also from the traditional practices that have existed quite early.From 2013 to 2019, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) supported Vietnam with 13,654 biogas plants establishment under the Low Carbon Agricultural Support project implemented in Lao Cai, Son La, Phu Tho, Bac Giang, Nam Dinh, Ha Tinh, Binh Dinh, Tien Giang, Ben Tre and Soc Trang provinces. In addition to these projects, three eco-industrial park pilot programmes have been developed in Can Tho, Da Nang and Ninh Binh provinces under the project \"Implementation of Eco-Industrial Park Initiative for Sustainable Industrial Zones in Vietnam\" funded by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). All of these models are ultimately aimed at reducing waste through waste recovery and material circulation. However, the models have not been replicated or applied on a large scale because of their limitations. It is claimed that in these models, waste reuse and recycling are not as effective and still cause environmental pollution while the outstanding ecological criteria are also not clearly defined. (SWITCH-Asia, 2019) -Model of collecting manure in the suburbs of Hanoi (typically in Co Nhue village, Tu Liem district, Hanoi in the 50s-70s of the 20th century when there was no private-household toilet but the public one 9 . Using water, straw was food for cattle, during the war, straw was the raw material for making equipment to avoid shrapnel and shrapnel.-Model garden -pond -barn (VAC), garden -forest -pond -barn (VRAC) from the 70s-80s of the twentieth century, ecological economic model from the 90s-2000s. These models are a combination of farming and livestock in the form of food chains, the latter coming after 2000 with the addition of gas recovery from livestock in the form of Biogas.-Currently, the farm household model of recovering manure and biogas brings economic efficiency to increase income along with selling output products, typical of some households in the Moc Chau cattle raising models.-The model of using rice straw after harvesting rice is used to feed buffaloes and cows, produce straw mushrooms, and construction materials in some localities, but it is not yet popular. Harvest and utilize corn husks to make handicrafts.For industry, handicrafts -The present appearance in traditional craft villages in Vietnam using scraps, byproducts and wastes from industrial production wastes: Recycling steel production-Da Hoi Bac Ninh, Duong recycled paper production Drive-Bac Ninh, manufacturing recycled plastic and nylon products Minh Khai-Hung Yen, Bronze casting craft village from copper scrap in Y Yen-Nam Dinh, the recycled glass appeared early and still exists and develops today.-Cleaner production has been implemented in enterprises and brought certain effects to enterprises with old technology that wastes resources, and energy and discharges directly into the environment. This model is approached based on business profitability by improving production stages, saving resources, and energy and recovering waste, therefore, it has mobilized the participation of enterprises. the principle of volunteering is the main one. Typically, the coal screening company Cua Ong, Quang Ninh, instead of the water used to wash coal, is discharged into Bai Tu Long sea, then switched to water recovery, sedimentation of peat sediments, reuse of coal washing water, and nodes. the whole economy increases profits for the company and does not discharge into the environment.-The birth of the eco-industrial park recently in Hai Phong, Ninh Binh and many other localities from the direction of the Government has been evaluated by UNIDO as a model close to the circular economy. typical economic performance in Vietnam.-Some businesses have shown signs of reuse and recycling of waste such as the former Thang Long drug company (selling tobacco rolls to Vinh Phuc flower farmers as fertilizer, and reselling the waste of cardboard boxes). ), Hanoi beer company (reuse bottles in the form of deposit), Heineken beer company (reuse bottles and recycle bottle caps)…and many other companies that do not waste recyclable waste. use, recycling brings economic efficiency. It has appeared that the waste output of one enterprise is the production input of another enterprise.For the service industry, tourism -Services of collecting scrap, and waste with input value for reuse and recycling such as iron, steel and metal.Despite the positive impacts of higher agro-chemical use, the increase in agro-inputs contributed to environmental pollution, soil infertility, and a decrease in biodiversity (Nguyen 2017; Berg and Tam 2018) cited by (Atieno et al., 2020) Vietnamese agriculture has experienced remarkable growth over the past 20 years. The sector's strong performance has propelled the country into the ranks of the top five exporters of half a dozen agricultural commodities and contributed to poverty reduction, social stability, and significant improvements in food security. Today, however, Vietnamese agriculture is edging toward the limits of a growth model rooted more in the intensification of production systems-featuring heavy use of labour, chemicals, and natural resourcesthan in efficiency or value addition gains. Agricultural growth is decelerating and Vietnam's competitiveness as a provider of bulk, undifferentiated commodities is flagging as the agricultural sector faces rising competition for labour, land, and other resources.1 The environmental fallout from intensification has also begun to adversely impact productivity and the position of Vietnam's commodities in international markets.From the 1980s to the present, Vietnam's agricultural sector and crop production systems have evolved in four distinct stages. Many of these changes have been policy-led. 1960-1980s: Before 1960, crop production was mainly traditional and extensive. This began to change with the Green Revolution in the 1980s, and when the 1986 sixth Party Congress of the Communist Party initiated sweeping economic reforms (Doi Moi). As part of broader reforms, the government allowed the diversification of crop varieties. These changes helped Vietnam reduce hunger and rapidly become an exporter of rice. 1990-2000s: During this period, significant investments in irrigation systems and rural infrastructure were made to increase agricultural production both for export and domestic consumption. Many projects and programs on agricultural development were promulgated to reclaim poor fertility and unused lands to expand rice farming. Intensification and specialization in crop production increased. Many places moved from two to three rice crops per year, helped by protective dykes. Farmers' income increased, food security ceased to be an issue for many households, and a rice surplus was exported. However, besides the positive economic gains, pollution associated with agricultural intensification and expansion also emerged. 2001-2010: A key characteristic of this period was the high intensification of crops to increase production volumes to meet the demands of socioeconomic development. Crop production systems were maximized to meet export, national food security, and rural development goals. Policies on increasing crop production were issued particularly on breeding crop varieties with high-yield potential. At this stage, Vietnam became the world's third2 largest rice exporter. However, it did not come without costs. High agricultural intensification resulted in more serious pollution impacts on soil and water environments due to the excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides. Natural resource degradation, diversity reduction, and problems in soil fertility became more common than ever. 2010-present: Recognizing the above problems, the government started placing more emphasis on the sustainability of agriculture. Diversification from rice and integrated farming systems have been encouraged to reduce pollution and natural resource degradation. Policies to control agricultural pollution were introduced. The Agricultural Restructuring Plan (ARP) was adopted to increase the value added to agricultural products, focusing more on quality than quantity and getting more from less. Good agricultural practice (GAP) standards and climate-smart agriculture were introduced. Vertical and horizontal linkages between and within actors in crop value chains (such as production partnerships) were promoted. Markets for organic foods and food safety products started to grow. However, it is taking time to change farmer behaviour for the use of agro-inputs. At present, the majority of farmers still use more inputs than required. In the past 20 years, Vietnam's harvested area has increased steadily. This has resulted from both agricultural intensification and expansion.Fertilizer use for crops has varied among and within provinces but generally increased in volume over time. Vietnam is a net importer of inorganic fertilizers. The country has imported between 3.5 million and 4.5 million tons/per year since 2000. Urea imports reached a peak in 2000-2004, before declining. In contrast, amounts of imported ammonium sulfate (SA) and potassium (K) have tended to increase since 2005. Overall, fertilizer use in rice, coffee, and maize cultivation has been increasing. This could be due to crop intensification (especially the growing of three rice crops per year) and soil degradation (especially the lack of alluvium caused by closed dyke systems built to allow three rice crops per year in the MKD).In the MKD, farmers use more pesticides than those in the RRD (Figure 23) (MRC 2007). In the MKD, on average, pesticides were applied 5.3 times per crop. Farmers sometimes apply pesticides in the early stages of the rice crop's development to prevent leaffeeding insect damage (especially leaf folder and leaf blast). Many believe that these pests affect rice yields. In rice production, 50-80 per cent of farmers used pesticides higher than the recommended levels (Bui, Vo, and Nguyen 2013) because they thought that a higher dosage is more effective against pests; no farmer used less than the recommended level. Farmers' overreaction concerning pesticide use led to the outbreak of secondary pests such as the brown plant hopper, with negative economic and health consequences (Nguyen et al. 1999). Cited by (WB, 2017) In the GMR, soil degradation was caused by erosion, depletion of nutrients and soil organic carbon, aggravation of soil salinity and acidification, and decline in biodiversity of natural, agricultural, and forest ecosystems. Extensive use of heavy doses of mineral fertilizers (such as synthetic ammonia, urea, ammonium phosphate or triple superphosphate) in industrialized agricultural systems has further affected soil health. This soil degradation has strong negative economic impacts. Restoring the soil fertility of degraded agricultural soils is one of the most pressing topics that hold the key to dealing with three main challenges i.e. feeding the growing population, mitigation of climate change and biodiversity conservation while achieving a productive and sustainable system (Atieno et al., 2020) Research by An Giang University showed that there is a parallel development of rice production in Viet Nam and the use of active ingredients and trade names of pesticides in the last 30 years. This is also shown by the increasing cost of agrochemicals in rice production.Out of 48.9% of agro-chemical cost in the total rice production cost, of which around 40% is spent on pesticides and 56% is on fertilizers 10 .The state management of agrochemicals in Viet Nam has been improved in the last few years. However, challenges remain at different levels: state management, businesses and farmers' uses. According to the list published by MARD, 503 mono-active ingredients are grouped into pesticides (133 active ingredients), fungicides with 157 active ingredients and herbicides with 85 active ingredients. A real challenge for state management is the monitoring of cocktailing these mono-ingredients into active groups.As for farmers' use level, it seems that using pesticides has been considered a guarantee for a good harvest and has become an ingrained routine for most farmers. It would not be an easy task to change this mindset. As for businesses, the pesticides business truly brings about huge profits, attracting large numbers of groups, companies, and distributors. These all together make the task of governmental agencies harder in putting in place regulations for the control of pesticides, and also in finding alternative measures to reduce negative impacts on health and the environment.Overuse of pesticides leads to serious environmental problems. According to the Vietnamese Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), disposed water from agricultural production is the key issue. For example in MKD, the overuse of pesticides in farming activities has a tremendous impact on aquaculture. Evidence suggests that the residue of chlorpyrifos was found in catfish in the US. 60% of contaminated groundwater in Vietnam is the result of the overuse of pesticides and fertilizers from agricultural production (Saxion 2019 Prof. Futselaar). This issue is getting more and more awareness in the past few years and changes have been made step by step.Several policy efforts have been taken by the government. For example, the Mekong Delta is an important agricultural production hub of Viet Nam and is suffering from the huge impacts of climate change. In 2017, the government issued Resolution 120 on climateresilient sustainable development in MKD to push forward the restructuring of not only agriculture in the delta towards quality-oriented and nature-based farming practices. Next to that, other regulations can be counted including Decree 109/2018 on organic farming, paving pathways for the development of organic farming in the country; Decision 3965/2018 by the Ministry of Science and Technology stipulating organic farming production criteria; Decision 2025/2020 by MARD on the agricultural master plan in MKD. These set important milestones to reduce the application of hazardous pesticides in agriculture.Still, there is a long way from policy to practice when statistics show that the average use of agrochemicals in the Mekong River Delta is higher than the average use of the whole country. In 2021, in the Mekong River Delta, the average use of chemicals is found higher than the average in the whole country.Although producers are overusing chemicals, there has been an emerging trend of organic fertilizers registration and use in the country. 11 A shift from more toxic to less toxic Ais between MP1 and MP2 was confirmed from pesticide expenditure data. Contract farming with the prọduct quality assuảnce is one of the strong motivations of this shift (Hoi et al., 2008). The transition to less toxic ones and low-pesticide vegetable production leads to ensuring food safety which is increasingly required by Vietnamese consumers; however, safe food assured production and bringing a premium price, such as in the vegetable value chain is not always achieved, which is considered an unsuccessful case. This is due to low trust among the value chain stakeholders. (Van Hoi et al., 2009) Agriculture plays a particularly important role in terms of economy, and politics, and is the mainstay of the economy to help stabilize society, especially during the Covid-19 pandemic recent outbreak. However, agricultural production also causes a large increase in by-products, when improperly managed, will cause environmental pollution and waste source of organic matter. The total volume of by-products in 2020 of the whole country is over 156.8 million tons, including: 88.9 million tons of post-harvest by-products from crops, from processing agricultural products of the cropping industry (accounting for 56.7%); 61.4 million tons of cattle manure, poultry from the livestock industry (accounting for 39.1%); 5.5 million tons from forestry industry (accounting for 3.5%) and about 1 million tons from the fisheries sector (10.6%). From the perspective of a circular agricultural economy associated with growth green growth, by-products in agriculture, forestry and fishery must be considered as natural resources renewable resources, not waste. This resource needs to be considered as an important input, extending the value-added chain in agriculture. (MARD & SWITCH ASIA, 2022)Based on the results of this documentary study, a number of priority recommendations for Vietnam in the implementation of the National Action Plan for a transparent, responsible and sustainable food system transformation as well as relevant fields are as follows:About Agrobiversity:-Increase participation of local smallholder farmers with indigenous knowledge practices.-Bringing into play the advantages of ensuring biodiversity from conservation and development of indigenous products (such as vegetables, medicinal herbs) into products for tourism to experience, discover indigenous culture, associated with programs national target programs such as the New Rural Program (OCOP product development).-Encourage models to ensure biodiversity and fair commercialization of products that benefit communities, including disadvantaged groups and women.About Agroecology and Input use:-Continue to develop food safety and quality assurance practices (such as GAP, Organic, ...) as the basis for agro-ecological development -integrating other principles related to society, culture, and environment -Research and institutionalize labeling for agroecological agricultural products.-Associate agroecology with rural development and rural tourism, especially when agroecology is developed in a large area, creating a distinct landscape of the region.About Circular Economy:-Develop the organic input production industry from the advantages of agriculture by industry and by product region.-Complete and institutionalize waste management right from household level to waste treatment.-Raise awareness about plastic waste, reduce the use of plastic bags in the community","tokenCount":"12099"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"959c273fbcb26ff87d0d8504dff49746","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/982b6c1f-4e05-4331-aaf7-08f3ee9b85eb/retrieve","id":"1722465600"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dcb98043-6767-432e-ba14-03352d8e38b5","pagecount":"4","content":"Invest in both formal and informal dairy value chains to support more inclusive youth employment opportunities. Support diverse youth interests and the multiple ways that youth engage in the dairy sector. Invest in youth-specific collective action initiatives through inclusive financial mechanisms. Tailor low emission development (LED) interventions to specific cultural contexts.The dairy sector in Kenya produces over 4 billion liters of milk per year and supports 1.3 million producer households with a vital contribution to incomes and nutrition. However, total national production fails to meet demand. There is a need for increased efforts to support value chain development growth in the sector. In addition to the potential of dairy to support economic growth, the dairy sector is receiving substantial attention as a pathway to achieve Kenya's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), commitments to international agreements to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensities. Intensification of production would reduce emission intensities by generating a higher volume of milk per unit of GHG emission. However, Kenya's NDCs specify that the environmental target of GHG emissions reduction should be pursued in accordance with its broader sustainable development agenda. Low-emission development has significant implications for reaching International Sustainable Development Goals; specifically, Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG #8) and Gender Equality (SDG #5). Kenya's youth population, defined as those between the ages of 15-35, constitute approximately 36% of the population and are largely under or unemployed. The Kenyan Youth Development policycurrently under reviewemphasizes education, skill development and entrepreneurship in the agricultural sector to alleviate unemployment. While these are important, youth face numerous constraints to utilizing acquired skills and education to benefit the sector. Geography and social factors influence the positions of young women and men in society often result in differential access to capital, productive assets and knowledge.The converging commercial and environmental agendas foreshadow a rapid and substantial transformation of the Kenyan dairy sector in the coming decade. This transformation raises numerous questions about technological interventions, as well as important questions about how to create youth-specific employment opportunities, especially for rural youth. A dual focus on technological and social dimensions of sustainable intensification will lead to interventions that are environmentally, economically and socially beneficial. Dairy intensification has the potential to create and support employment, innovation and equitable access to opportunity.In addition to market dynamics promoting intensification in the dairy sector, the Kenyan government is in the process of developing a Green Climate Fund (GCF) proposal that, if successful, would invest tens of millions of US dollars in promoting low-emission development in the dairy sector. The aim is to reduce GHG emissions intensities, enabling Kenya to achieve its NDC targets for reducing emissions from the agricultural sector, while simultaneously increasing milk production through the promotion of dairy intensification technologies. However, the history of dairy intensification and commercialization around the world has shown that such processes can create winners and losers in the sector and deepen existing inequality. Kenya's challenge will be to integrate the goal of fostering viable rural livelihoods into lowemission development planning. Social outcomes of the GCF investments should be considered in proposal planning stages to ensure that socio-economic inclusivity goals are considered alongside economic growth and environmental targets. Greater inclusion of youth in LED policy development will support the opportunity to increase youth employment through low-emission dairy development.The objective of this study is to understand how intensification in the dairy sector, in combination with changing urban-rural dynamics, influences young women and men's employment opportunities. Then we describe how local geographic and social factors, such as norms, relations, and networks, may enable, or constrain, young men and women's abilities to navigate and take advantage of emerging opportunity spaces in the dairy sector.This research was designed to generate evidence that will inform LED strategies that will address youth and economic and environmental targets. We analyzed qualitative data from youth who participate in various nodes of the dairy value chain to identify the key opportunities, constraints and strategies they use to engage in Kenya's intensifying dairy sector.This study was conducted in Nakuru and Kiambu Counties to compare regional differences in youth experiences in dairy. Twelve key informant interviews were conducted with dairy stakeholders, including livestock officers and extension agents in cooperatives, to understand broader regional issues about youth and dairy. This informed the design of subsequent focused group discussions. A total of 22 sex-disaggregated FGDs were conducted, with a total of 200 participants. Qualitative data were then coded and analyzed for key themes. Finally, a workshop with 22 research participants was held to validate findings, refine key messages and solicit youth policy recommendations.Youth participation in dairy value chains is heavily contingent upon a variety of geographic factors, such as roads and electrification, proximity to markets, availability of dairy infrastructure and supporting institutions. These locally variable contextual factors make up the enabling environment for youth engagement in dairy. Without these fundamental parts in place, dairy is not as attractive as a business opportunity.The increased number of specialized tasks have created more work opportunities and possibilities, though this is heavily gendered. Easy to enter, flexible positions include selling milk and casual labour. Both require low capital investments. Women and men transport milk to urban centres, however women seldom drive vehicles and rely on public transport and private hires, expenses that reduce their profits. In Nakuru, norms about women's mobility restrict their selling activities.Casual labour is also common and is carried out by men. Women are generally not viewed as strong enough and it is considered \"dirty work\". More difficult, specialized and remunerative positions include running agrovet shops, providing AI services and installing biogas. Men tend to enter these positions more easily because of better access to capital and training.The main ethnic groups differ in Kiambu and Nakuru counties. Kikuyu and Kalenjin ethnic groups differ in their historical experiences in dairy farming systems and the role of dairy in their livelihood practices. These differences affect current norms and social relations in the community and the household that mediate youth's acquisition of capital, assets and knowledge. Social relations with parents and spouses were described as being the most important to enable youth participation in dairy.Parents' primary ways to support youth is through asset inheritance and moral support. Land inheritance laws have made it possible for both sons and daughters to inherit. However, rates of land subdivision and parents' unwillingness to give land has reduced land inheritance rates, especially in Kiambu County. Parents often discourage youth entry in dairy, more so when they have made significant investments in education. Upon completion of school, parents expectation is for their sons and daughters to pursue white collar jobs.Gender norms and practices in married households typically require that women carry out most of the reproductive tasks, such as cooking, cleaning and child care. These activities influence women's available time to earn income through dairy. Women in the homestead may assume for many of the labour intensive dairy production tasks, such as feeding, watering, and milking. Women's potential to benefit from dairy often depends on context specific cultural norms. Age, gender and ethnicity intersect in particular ways in Nakuru that make dairy unattractive to women, because Kalenjin women are effectively prohibited from owning cows and land and seldom participate in decision-making about income.Cooperatives exist in both counties and are important in the dairy value chain. However, intergenerational tensions often limit youth empowerment and voice in dairy cooperatives. Age hierarchies and norms can discourage, or even prohibit, young and old from participating in groups together.As an alternative, young women and men, mostly in the rural areas of Nakuru County, have organized into youth groups through regional dairy projects that support business and skill development. Youth groups provide opportunities to interact with and learn from each other. Youth groups' activities include savings and knowledge sharing.Youth's increased access to mobile phones has ushered in new ways to learn about local and global dairy practices, to link to markets, e.g. heifer sales, and to connect with dairy farmers in social media platforms.Dairy plays important and diverse roles in and across youth transitions that occur between the ages of 18-35. These transitions are not necessarily linear. Young women and men move between places, in and out of work and across life phases. We identified four common youth pathways in dairy that can be distinguished by the reasons for entry and length of time in dairy.One pathway refers to youth who enter dairy as laborers to earn money during a phase of uncertainty, specifically the transition period between school completion and \"finding a job\". Youths will easily move on once a better opportunity comes along, e.g. white-collar job. A second group enter with intention to explore whether dairy can be a stepping stone into other more remunerative positions in the value chain, such as value addition or establishing a milk ATM. They may drop out of dairy production, or they may keep it as part of a diversified livelihood strategy. The third group of youth, the majority of our sample, enter the sector with a vision of dairy as a core livelihood strategy. Dairy production is a key part of their efforts to diversify income, either in or out of the dairy value chain. Finally, the fourth pathway refers to welleducated youths who have been \"tarmacking\" for years, and enter dairy in later stages of youth, e.g. in their 30s, and often as a fallback option after not having found a white-collar job. While there may yet be other pathways, the important point to recognize is that youth motivations and abilities to engage in dairy varies across life phases and socio-ecological contexts.Youth are agents of change who alter social norms through their personal practices and relations, namely deciding who to marry and how to raise children. Increasingly, but not everywhere, young women and men marry individuals from different ethnic groups, occasionally breaking out of restrictive ethnicity-based norms that prohibit women's ownership of assets, for example.Youth, are often more educated than their parents, and are making choices to raise their children differently by resisting older generation's gender specific roles, practices and boundaries. Rather, youth as parents are renegotiating and expanding opportunities for boys and girls to pursue life choices.The Kenyan NDCs specify that LED should be aligned with SDG targets. The following policy recommendations suggest how to practically integrate these social targets in pursuit of environmental and economic targets of lowemission development.Invest in both formal and informal dairy value chains to support more inclusive youth employment opportunities. The majority of milk consumed in Kenya is traded in the informal sector, which is a source of both casual work and more remunerative opportunities for youth. Entry into the informal sector can be a gateway to more formalized work opportunities, especially value addition, sales and innovations. Creation of less prohibitive regulations would enable youth to cultivate and develop business and innovations.Support diverse youth interests and the multiple ways that youth engage in the dairy sector. Young women and men participate in the dairy sector in a variety of ways and during different life transitions and phases. Intervention strategies should facilitate diverse engagement of women and men in rural and peri-urban locations and create more equitable youth opportunities in the dairy sector.Collective action in the form of youth self-help groups can be a significant enabling factor in some areas overcoming barriers to entry into the dairy economy. Membership in youth-only groups enhances access to capital, assets and information in ways that membership in crossgenerational cooperatives do not. The provision of youth empowerment funds has assisted groups in going to scale with business ideas and financial support to groups should be increased.Ethnic groups across Kenya have different cultural heritages and beliefs that influence youth and gendered roles, relations and practices in decision making and asset ownership. Strategic attention should be given to social and rural development outcomes in the design of LED interventions and specific focus on how to increase the potential of intensification to support youth employment and youth equitable outcomes. Youth should be engaged in policy processes and share their insights and expertise with relevant stakeholders. ","tokenCount":"2001"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"11de4be1aef994306ccb68f1bca1d9d8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5a177abf-1246-4471-b235-93e77eb67f55/content","id":"-2042134525"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d55743f-24d4-463c-851a-c9628e89ef1c","pagecount":"16","content":"Planting strategies of smallholder farmers are examined in two coptrasting study areas in Zimbabwe. Mangwende (sub-humid. natural region II)  and Mudzi (semi-arid. natural region IV), to show that farmers regard maize as a viable alternative to other crops for late planting in Mangwende and early planting in Mudzi. Comparative economic analysis shows farmers' assessment to be justified economically on the criterion of average returns to key labour, working capital, and land resources. However evidence suggests that farmers adjust their economic decisions according to their assessments of relative risk. The analysis was therefore extended to evaluate relative returns assuming farmers were averse to risk. The results remained unchanged and suggest that in Zimbabwe maize competes well with current alternative crops for late planting in natural region II and early planting in natural region IV. The implications of these findings for maize research and extension are discussed briefly.Over recent years maize has been planted on ever larger proportions of the smallholder crop production area in Zimbabwe. This increase in maize area has led to growing concern that maize will replace sorghum and millet in semi-arid areas. The Scientific Council of Zimbabwe (Gore 1987) noted that the government, in a bid to halt this trend, has made it policy 10 discourage farmers from growing more maize and encourage Ihem to grow tropical small grains (millet and sorghum) and oilseeds. Extension workers are discouraging the expansion of maize area in drought prone areas (Rohrbach 1988). Concem over maize has arisen since physiologically it is less suited than lropical small grains 10 low and unreliable rainfall areas.Research into short season, drought tolerant crops has been given priority, reflecting the government's desire to increase the production of drought tolerant crops in semi-arid areas. Government research (Department of Research and Specialist Services, DRSS) and extension (AGRITEX) departments defined the following order of priorities for research in 1 Work summarized here was undertaken fOf an M Phil degreeIn the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension. University of Zimbabwe. by Maxwell Mudhara under supervision of Allan Low and Godfrey Mudimu.the main semi-arid smallholder cropping region, natural region IV (NR IV) (Vincent and Thomas 1965), where seasonal rainfall ranges from 450 to 560 mOl (DRSS and AGRITEX 1987a): Yet farmers are concerned with more than physiological adaptation, and so the first aim of this study was to examine whether small grain cereals and oil seeds are more viable economically than maize under farmers' current management practices in NR IV.The literature suggests that, even though maize is more suitable than small grains in the less risky subhumid areas of Zimbabwe (NRs II and III), it has to be planted early in the season. Some of the earliest research results on the advantage of early planting are reported in Mundy (1921). supported by further reports from Spear (1968), Wilson and Williams (1974), Anon (1983), Shumba (1984), andChiduza andFunnah (1984). Government research and extension in Zimbabwe have devoted substantial resources to seeking alternative crops to late planted maize, such as sunflower. However, farmers in NRs II and III still plant maize late for several reasons, including avoidance of a mid-season drought, false starts to rainy seasons, and shortages of labour and draught power for timely land preparation (Hukura and Shumba, personal communication 1988). Accordingly, a second aim of this study was to look at whether under current farmer practices sunflower is more economically viable than late planted maize in NR II.Results presented in research reports tend to use biological yield as the major criterion in assessing the performance of different crops. Waddington and Kunjeku (1989) noted that most research to date has tended to evaluate technologies solely in terms of production per unit area of land and has not looked at other criteria, such as power or cash resources, that are also important to farmers. In this paper we go beyond using simple yield assessments to compare maize with alternative crops. We also employ comparisons of the economic returns to labour, land, and working capital and attempt to account for risk considerations. In the 1987/88 surley, demographic data were collected using single-visit structured questionnaires. Input and output data were obtained for each field planted to maize, sunflower, or pearl millet through weekly visits. On each visit, a farmer was asked to detail all the activities carried out and amounts of inputs used in a specified field since the time of the previous visit. Just after crop maturity, land area and total grain yield were measured from each of the monitored fields.The 1988/89 survey was also conducted over several visits. Additional demographic data were collected a:ld farmers' cropping intentions for the season recorded. The farmers' operations were then monitored once a fortnight. At fortnightly intervals farmers were also asked to estimate the expected yield from fields that year and the proportion of years over a 1O-year period when better or poorer yields were anticipated. The area of each field was measured again after crop maturity. Grain yields obtained in 1988/89 were given by the farmer in units of bags per field and converted to metric tonnes per hectare (t/ha).Zimbabwe has a diverse climate. Vincent and Thomas (1965) classified Zimbabwe into five natural regions (NRs) on the basis of soil type and rainfall and other climatic factors. The potential of these regions for intensive crop production decreases from NR I to NR V with the progressive decrease in annual rainfall and an accompanying deterioration in soil fertility. Farmers in NRs IV and V represent 75% of the communal farmers in the country (CSO 1987). Risk in crop production increases from NR I to NR V.While climatic factors. particularly rainfall. determine the risk of crop production in each region. the characteristics of the farm household. particularly those related to household food security. also influence farmers' perceptions toward risk.Lineham (1972) calculated the frequencies of rainy pentads over 30 years for 30 stations to examine the occurrence of a mid-season break in the rains in NRs II, III, and IV (Figure 1). Figure 1 shows a higher frequency of rainy pentads earlier in the season and during the season as we move from region IV to II, indicating that on average the length of the season is longer for NR II than for NR IV. The probability of a mid-season drought. characterised by a fall in the frequency of rainy pentads around late January, is greater as we move from NR II to NR IV.Thus, Mangwende (NR II) usually receives more rain and experiences lower mean temperatures than Mudzi (NR IV). See Figure 2 for the rainfall in 1988/89. an average season.Farm~rs' Planting' Strategi\".~~s in ManbrwendE:' and Mudzi ..The yields of most crops, especially maize. fall as the date of planting is delayed after the onset of effective rains (Mundy 1921). Farmers facing risk in crop production (especially in Mudzi) have limited resources with which to produce their crops, and must make difficult decisions on where to plant. when to plant. and how much land to allocate for each crop.The amount and reliability 01 rainfall. the type of soil in 25r------------------..., Source: Lineham (1972) a field, thG distance of the field from the homestead, cash and labour available; and tna objectives and priorities of the farmer are some of the factors determining planting decisions (Mudhara 1990). Here we focus on the relative timing of maize plantings versus plantings 01 other crops.Figure 3 shows the cumulative percentages of the area planted to different crops after 1 November 1988 in Mangwende and Mudzi. To show the effect of rainfall on the cropping calendar, the 1988/89 rainfall distribution is plotted as well.Responses in the surveys clearly indicated that farmers in both Mudzi and Mangwende regard maize as a crop to be planted before sunflower. But in Mangwende both maize and sunflower are considered relatively suitable for later planting. By the end of December in Mangwende, only maize and sunflower remained to be planted. By that same date in Mudzi, the maize plantings had been completed but sunflower remained 10 be planted. By 15 January only about 20% of sunflower had still to be planted in Mangwende, compared to more than 50% of the sunflower crop, about 40% of the pearl millet crop, and 30% of the sorghum crop which remained to be planted in Mudzi. Farmers in Mudzi recognise a high risk from planting maize in January and so have switched to planting drought tolerant crops late. However farmers appear to regard maize as unsuitable (relative to other crops) only for the late plantings in Mudzi. Farmers find maize productive when planted early. This information contrasts with research and extension departments' (DRSS, AGRITEX) and other authorities' perceptions, which are that maize is relatively unsuitable compared to other crops for all 16 Returns to farmers' resources-Farmers allocate resources to different crops to get good returns to their inputs. Three basic kinds of inputs are under farmers' control:• Labour, which comes from household members; • Working capital, which is used to purchase fertiliser and seed, to prepare land, etc.; and• Land.Input and output data were collected from selected fields. Only inputs used before harvesting were recorded. Standard input values for harvesting have been calculated by AGRITEX and were used here. This was done with the conviction that harvesting depends more on the quantity of yield already in the field than on the farmer's present decisions. The following variables were calculated for each field:• Total working capital Invested (Tel): obtained by adding the cash used by the farmers, per hectare per crop, for purchasing fertiliser, seed, and other inputs such as herbicide and insedicide, as well as for hiring labour and/or oxen used before harvesting.   • Total family labour hours invested per hectare (TFL): obtained by adding up all the family labour used per hectare before harvesting started.To include a time component in the analysis, the variables listed above are presented and examined on the basis of the four categories given in Table 1.Value of output per hectare:• where:Value of output per hectare (Z$/ha); Yield per hectare (Vha);The average price received by farmers in the sample for a commodity (Z$/t); andThe average transport and handling charges per tonne incurred by the farmers to take their crop to the marketing board.The categories in Table 1 were selected to capture the 20 December cut-off point, a date commonly used in Zimbabwe to mark the beginning of 'late planting' of maize (Shumba. personal communication 1988)\" Since we are concerned with early planting in Mudzi and late planting in Mangwende, only results of plantings in these categories are reported in Tables 2  and 3. The hypothesis explored here is that maize planted late in NR II and early in NR IV does not give significantly worse economic returns than the alternative crops.• Gross margin (GM) (Le., return to land) GM = VOUT -TCI  4) shows that farmers respond to the decrease in yields (that is, to the increased risk of crop failure) with progressive cuts in their investment in maize production. Since the value of output from maize and the level of cash investment move in the same direction with time, the returns to cash investment nearly remain constant. Similarly the returns to labour are not appreciably different between the planting time categories (see Figure 4).In no case did maize give significantly lower returns than sunflower in Mangwende for the late plantings (Table 2). Maize obtained significantly greater gross margins than sunflower for plantings between 21-30 December, 1987.In Mudzi, pearl millet or sunflower did not show significantly higher returns than maize. Maize gave higher returns to land and per family labour hour than pearl millet (Table 3).The only criterion for which allernative crops showed a consistent (though in most cases not significant) advantage over maize was returns to cash. One reason for this result is that average cash inputs into maize production are much higher than for alternative crops. With alternative crops, marginal returns to cash fall rapidly after mooerate cash investments, whereas maize continues to give acceptable marginal returns at higher cash input levels.Economics of delaying planting in Mangwende-- Mundy (1921)  --B--GM (Z$lha)-+--RTC(%) Assuming that farmers are averse to risk, does maize still compete with the alternatives?A comparison of average returns to maize and to alternative crops suggests that maize is competitive as a late planted crop in NR /I and as an early planted crop in NR IV. However, one argument in favor of alternative crops is the increased risk supposed to be associated with growing maize versus sunflower and small grains. This increased riskiness is associated with greater variability in maize yields compared with yields of alternative crops. In the next part of this paper we ask:Farmers' perceptions of risk in maize production Mudhara (1990) shows that farmers give preference to maize through field selection, especially in Mudzi.Maize is planted on the soils least prone to drought and on fields closer to the homestead, where better management and protection are possible. Farmers also use higher levels of cash in maize production.However, as we have seen, this cash input declines for later plantings in Mangwende. Here we focus on returns to cash in Mangwende versus Mudzi, to see whether farmers' decisions on cash inputs are influenced by their perceptions of risk.-----+---..------G-Family labour (h/ha)Results support the hypothesis that, even though the value of output per hectare decreases as planting is delayed, there are also accompanying decreases in the labour and cash inputs into maize production. Thus later plantings end up being competitive with the early plantings in terms of economic returns to cash and family labour.Results of the regression equations for sunflower's output versus gross margins and returns to labour are given in Table 5.The comparison of returns to maize and sunflower as planting is delayed is presented in Figure 5. The gross margins from maize are consistently higher than those from sunflower. However, the returns per Note:• = significant at th\" 10% level; ns =not significant.Note:• = significant at tho 10% level.Gross margins (Z$/ha) Z$ 500 ... .----------------------  ---------------------...  The aversion to risk has been observed to cause farmers to apply lower levels of resources than would have been desirable for maximising profits.Inefficiencies in resource allocation can be examined in terms of the marginal returns to mean input levels.Comparing marginal returns obtained by farmers across crops or regions that diverge to different degrees from optimum resource allocation gives evidence of different levels of risk perception.Multiple regression equations relating maize yields to land 'abour, and cash inputs in Mangwende and Mudzi are given in Table 6. The marginal value products per dollar (Z$) of cash invested in Mangwende and Mudzi are given in Table 7. The coefficients in the equations represent the marginal contribution to output (in tonnes) to a unit change in the level of the factor, after the effects of the other factors have been taken into account. Labour inputs are measured in hours. cash inputs in dollars, and output in tonnes. Multiplication of the marginal contribution to output by the field price of the output gives a measure of the marginal value product per dollar invested in maize in the two areas (Table 7).Mangwende would only get back Z$ 0.85 for each dollar that they invest. The immediate suggestion,is that average levels of cash input into maize in Mudzi are lower than they might be. If we look at the returns to cash inputs for maize in Mudzi assuming that the average levels of inputs increase to the levels used in Mangwende, then the marginal return falls to Z$ 0.94 per dollar invested.It is likely that the greater riskiness attached to cash investments in Mudzi compared to Mangwende has induced farmers to reduce their inputs below the theoretical, no risk, optimum. Another contributing factor could be the lower credit availability in Mudzi compared to Mangwende. Indeed the seeming overinvestment in Mangwende might be related to credit packages that encourage higher than optimum use of fertiliser (Mataruka et al. 1990). We have some evidence that farmers' economic behaviour reflects a concern about risk in maize production but little evidence that farmers see maize as having a higher yield variability than alternative crops. Nevertheless in assessing the relative advantage of maize over alternative crops we should take account of the variability around mean estimates of economic performance. It is possible that higher mean performance may also be accompanied by higher variability of performance around the mean for maize than with the alternative crops. Given the assumption that most communal farmers are risk averse. this might cause farmers to discount a mean performance with high variability more than those with less variability.Note: Good = 1; averag& = 2; bad = 3.These results provide some evidence that farmers perceive maize to be more risky in Mudzi than Mangwende, and that they adjust their economic decisions accordingly.FArmers' assessments of yield variability--An attempt was made to assess farmers' relative perceptions of risk for producing maize, sunflower, and pearl millet. Farmers were asked whether they thought the 1988/89 season was good, average, or bad and asked how they would expect yields to differ from these expectations over a 1O-year period (Table 8). Farmers in Mangwende regarded most of the season as between good and average. Those in Mudzi, on the other hand, regarded the start of the season as between average and bad. and average to good after 1 January.To measure farmers' perceptions of relative yield variability, farmers were asked to give the number of years, out of 10 years, they would expect to get a yield:• Equal to the one currently expected; • 50% greater than the yield currently expected; and • 50% less than the yield currently expected.Table 9 gives the results for the years out of 10 that farmers expect 50% less than the current yield estimation made before and after planting. These estimates suggest that farmers tend to see the chances of obtaining low yields of maize as no higher than for alternative crops. Maize is only given a significantly higher score in the case of the estimate after planting in comparison with sunflower in Mudzi. Note: na = not available.The analysis was therefore extended to examine whether:• Maize has more variable returns than the alternative crops; and • Higher variability of returns in maize changes the conclusions of our simple means analysis, assuming risk averse behaviour on the part of communal farmers.Mean-variance analysis. Variability in the mean, a measure of the risk attached to a crop's returns, was measured using the index of variability. The index, which allows for comparisons across means of different magnitude. is calculated by dividing the standard deviation of a variable by its mean and mUltiplying by 100. As a proxy of risk. the greater the index of variability, the greater the risk attached to the crop in respect of the variable.Where higher returns are accompanied by lower variabilities, the higher yielding alternative would be preferred. Similarly. where no difference in average yields is apparent the alternative with the lower variability would be preferred. However where higher average returns are accompanied by higher variability there would be no clear preference for either alternative.Tables 10, 11, and 12 summarise the returns to land, labour, and working capital and the accompanying variability indices for maize and the alternative crops.The preferable crop, chosen on the basis ofhighe\"r return andlor lower variability, is indicated.Maize emerged superior to sunflower and peari millet on many scores on the basis of both mean performance and the variability index. In both Mudzi and Mangwende, sunflower performed better than maize in terms of returns to working capital.Stochastic dominance analysis. An alternative approach is to compare the probability distributions of the returns in the alternative crops.Crop (a) will be preferred over crop (b) if its returns are higher at all probability levels. The cumulative distribution functions of retums to working capital are plotted for maize and pearl millet in Rgure 6. Neither crop dominates in this case since the cumulative distribution functions cross. In the first degree stochastic dominance curve (FSD), pearl millet has a higher mean but a higher variation around this mean.However farmers who wish to avoid risk will be concemed that comparing two functions, (a) and (b), the accumulated expected value of losses over all output levels would be less than the accumulated expected value of gains.To determine whether the gains outweigh the losses, a second-degree stochastic dominance (SSD) analysis can be performed. The SSD functions are    -------------------------..   Thus the analysis suggests that. given the choice of applying low levels of cash inputs to sunflower or higher levels of cash inputs to maize, risk averse farmers in Mangwende would prefer the former option. In all other cases, risk averse farmers would either prefer maize or no clear advantage can be attached to maize or the alternative crop.In three cas~s in Mudzi, maize becomes preferable under assumptions of risk averseness where maize showed no clear advantage under the more restrictive criterion of utility maximisation at all probability levels (FSD). This suggests that in Mudzi farmers who wish to avoid risk are as likely as risk neutral or risk taking farmers to select maize over alternative crops for early planting. The normal assumption that maize is less preferable than alternatives in NR IV, particularly for risk averse farmers, is brought into question by this analysis.This analysis of retums to land. cash, and labour indicates that, for late planting in NR II and early planting in NR IV, average returns obtained to land and lC'\\bour are no worse for maize than for the current alternative crops advocated by research and 26 extension. Even when variability of output and farmer risk aversion are taken into account, maize seems to be clearly less preferable than an alternative crop only in the case of sunflower for late planting in Mangwende and only where returns to cash determine the farmer's choice.The conclusion from this study is that farmers' current choice of maize over alternative crops for late planting in NR /I and early planting in NR IV is economically rational. Farmers in NR IV even select maize over alternative crops recommended for late planting. For example, The Herald newspaper of 9 January, 1990 reported that farmers in Matebeleland 'were now replanting maize. against the advice of Agritex officers who urged them to grow drought-resistant crops such as sorghum, mhunga [pearl millet), and rapoko [finger millet).'The findings from this study have implications for maize research and extension. Maize research has focussed on developing recommended practices for production under favourable conditions. Little work has been conducted on options for producing maize under unfavourable conditions. However, this study crops, large areas of maize will continue to be grown under unfavourable conditions in Zimbabwe (planted late in high rainfall areas and planted early in low rainfall areas).Initial monitoring studies of farmers' practices on maize in NR II indicate that, compared with early planted maize, late planted maize receives less fertiliser and suffers more early weed competition, but plant spacing does not differ (S. Waddington and P. Kunjeku, personal communication, 1989). Farmers apply these management compromises in the absence of information from research about options for maize management under sub-optimal and risky conditions.For the drier environments, maize research opportunities identified by Waddington and Kunjeku (1989) include:• Breeding for drought avoidance and tolerance; • Seed placement and timing for planting on drying seedbeds; • Plant population densities for maximization of yield stability; • Moisture conservation tillage systems; and • Inorganic fertiliser management at low rates in relation to use of manure and crop residues.Extension, following research, has recommended that farmers produce alternative crops to maize as production conditions become less favourable. Extension advice on alternative maize management strategies and the comparative economics of alternative crops under different dimatic conditions is likely to be more helpful to farmers than directives to plant Crop X or Crop Y as an alternative to maize.Farmers see a dear role for maize in the risky environments of Zimbabwe. Rather than dispute this viewpoint, research and extension should aim to help farmers betler define maize's role in relation to the alternatives.","tokenCount":"3993"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6824cf60b45959c47a9d1f2edc9168d5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/09e1bcf7-e5ef-450b-9a74-6566cb542b1c/retrieve","id":"1412884604"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b993fe4e-c551-4211-81e7-b8904204388c","pagecount":"34","content":"The purpose of the CRP budget narrative is to summarize the information provided in the Flagship budget narratives and participating partners' excel-based budget templates by justifying how the budget cost elements are necessary to implement the CRP overall and accomplish 2022 target outcomes. It should also provide the CRP Management and Support costs, with a detailed description of what is included and how the costs are calculated.and analyses and reporting of survey data (CoA2.1 and 2.2). Other activities include the development and conduct of investment games (CoA2.1); the development, testing, and dissemination of improved postharvest equipment and practices such as baling of straw and husk, improved dryers and storage facilities (CoA2.3); development, testing, and dissemination of improved processing equipment and practices for rice grain and rice byproduct materials, such as parboiling, briquetting and peleting of straw and husk; research into novel product development (CoA2.4)  FP3: collection of survey data among farmers at key action sites (involving travel, local expenses in country such as translators, enumerators, vehicle rental, local partners), and analyses and reporting of survey data (CoA3.1); the development and use of simulation models for crop growth, farming systems, greenhouse gas emissions (CoAs 3.1 and 3.2); the conduct of experiments in greenhouses, on stations, and on-farm (CoAs 3.2 and 3.3); farmer-participatory experimentation on new farming systems and crop management practices (CoAs 3.2 and 3.3); development and measurement of quantitative and qualitative multi-dimensional sustainability parameters (CoA 3.2); development, testing, and dissemination of improved equipment and machinery, such as mechanized land leveling, seeding, transplanting, combine-harvesting (CoA3.2)  FP4: establishment and maintenance of high-quality field-experimental sites under the global rice array (CoA4.1); the development and application of simulation models for crop growth (CoA 4.1); the conduct of experiments at the global rice array sites and the collection of phenotyping data, including the development, testing, and use of modern sensors (CoAs 4.1 and 4.2); collection, analysis, and reporting of plant and soil biome samples (CoA4.3); collection of plant samples, determination of genetic make-up, genetic and genome-wide analysis (CoA44.); development and use of a big data platform that makes (open) accessible all collected genotypic, phenotypic, and environmental data, analysis tools, and analyses conducted (CoA4.5)  FP5: establishment and maintenance of high-quality experimental trials throughput the breeding pipeline (greenhouse, screenhouse, open field trials; multi-location evaluation trials) (CoAs 5.3-5.6); Conduct of participatory variety selection trials (CoAs 5.3-5.4); conduct of sensory evaluation panels (CoA5.5); collection and analysis of phenotypic (plant characteristics) and genotypic data (DNA samples) (CoAs 5.3-5.6); collection of plant samples, determination of genetic make-up, genetic and genomic analysis, development of markers and of novel breeding tools and software (CoAs5.1 and 5.2); Laboratory experiments to determine grain quality properties and derive genetic traits (CoA5.5); making (open) accessible all collected genotypic, phenotypic, and environmental data, analysis tools, and analyses conducted (all CoAs)  Cross-cutting: workshops; stakeholder consultations; development of communication materials (papers, flyers, brochures, websites, video, etc); partnership development; development and support of learning alliances; partner capacity development for research, innovation, and delivery; (open access) data management -see section 4 below.The targets of RICE (broken down by target country), and their associated costs -are presented in Table A of the Performance Information Matrix. The costs are estimates, as the various outcomes and targets are all mutually related and feed into each other as explained in the RICE impact pathways (section 3 of the RICE description and of each flagship project). For example the targets 'no. people assisted out of poverty' and 'no. people assisted out of hunger' is a direct consequence of the target 'no. farmers adopting new technologies'. Though most flagship projects (FP) contribute to most of the targets, FPs 4 and 5 (and their budgets) specifically contribute to 'increase in genetic gain' and 'no. of people consuming high Zn-rice'; and FP3 to 'no. of women consuming adequate number of food groups', '5% increase in water and nitrogen use efficiency', and 'reduction in greenhouse gas emissions'. FP1 contributes to scaling out and ensuring that large numbers of beneficiaries are reached with new varieties, technologies and services. At a more detailed level, sub-IDOs are given in Table C of the Performance Information Matrix, and outcomes and their associated costs in Table B of the Performance Information Matrix. Section 2 of each flagship project description lists all the outcomes, sub-IDOs, and IDOs that the flagship project delivers.The main funding priority (as per resources allocation) is given to genetic enhancement, and farming systems, where the biggest comparative advantages of RICE are. The contribution of new crop varieties to improving food security and reducing poverty is one of the best documented outcomes of international agricultural research, especially for crops such as rice and wheat (Evenson and Gollin 2003, Fan et al 2005, Raitzer and Kelley 2008, Renkow and Byerlee 2010). Genetic crop improvement is one of the pillars of the CGIAR and it features prominently in the SRF. Yields still need to increase to keep up with increasing global demand for rice, and increasing genetic gain is one of the two main ways to increase yields -the other being improved agronomy/crop husbandry to close yield gaps as addressed in FP3. Adaptation to climate change and mitigation of greenhouse gases is a major 'societal grand challenge (SRF)' addressed by FP3.The RICE CRP is an 'umbrella program', consisting of five 'umbrella flagship projects', which include up to 100-125 bilateral grants any given year. Hence, the RICE budget is dictated by the collective investments that donors want to make through W1/2, W3, bilateral, and 'others means'. The investment levels are unpredictable: 1) the W1-3 donors can not commit to 6-year funding obligations and the W1-3 investments into the CGIAR fluctuate substantially each year, and 2) 70-80% of the budget is contributed to by bilateral projects, the majority of which still need be developed and secured. Hence, the likelihood that budgets are obtainedand spent -as targeted, decreases as the CRP progresses in time. Each year, updates on investment expectations and budgets will be developed, and spending managed accordingly. At the level of bilateral projects, spending risk is managed by project leaders following procedures spelled out in project contracts. For W1-3, spending risk is managed by flagship project leaders and the RICE program Planning and Management Team. Project leaders get regular updates on actual spending rate through OCS, and are required to make project adjustments if under-or overspending occurs beyond the (donor-) accepted range (usually 10% of line items).Table A of the Performance Information Matrix indicates the investments made for target country beneficiaries. The RICE budget supports a range of in-country activities, mostly centered around 'action sites', based on local partnerships in villages to districts where new technologies are developed, evaluated, improved, and disseminated in a highly participatory mode. Action sites also include laboratories, breeding locations (e.g., multi-environment trials), or experimental platforms. Although RICE will work in many countries, key action sites will be located in Africa (Burundi, Côte d'Ivoire, Madagascar, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tanzania); Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, (Eastern) India, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Vietnam); and Latin America (Colombia, Nicaragua, and Peru). Typical activities at action sites include: collection of survey data; developing and sustaining multistakeholder platforms; developing partnership arrangements for scaling out; adoption studies, including the lay-out of randomized control trials; the development, testing, and dissemination of improved postharvest equipment and practices such as baling of straw and husk, improved dryers and storage facilities; development, testing, and dissemination of improved processing equipment and practices for rice grain and rice byproduct materials, such as parboiling, briquetting and peleting of straw and husk; the conduct of agronomic experiments in greenhouses, on stations, and on-farm; farmer-participatory experimentation on new farming systems and crop management practices; development, testing, and dissemination of improved equipment and machinery, such as mechanized land leveling, seeding, transplanting, combine-harvesting; establishment and maintenance of high-quality field-experimental sites under the global rice array; establishment and maintenance of high-quality breeding trials throughput the breeding pipeline (greenhouse, screen house, open field trials; multi-location evaluation trials); conduct of participatory variety selection trials; conduct of sensory evaluation panels; workshops; stakeholder consultations; development and support of learning alliances; partner capacity development for research, innovation, and delivery. For more details, see annex 7 on 'Collaboration with other CRPs and site integration'.Please provide insight into the CRP funding plan: how much bilateral funding is already secured? What are the requirements for fundraising to assure achievement of the proposed 2022 targets?Total CRP budget by sources of funding (USD) As seen from the Tables, considerable effort is required to raise the investments needed to accomplish the goals, objectives, and targets of RICE, both for W1-3 and for bilateral grants. With a donor-imposed cap of 30% on W1,2 contribution, most effort will be directed at bilateral grant acquisition. However, there will remain considerable uncertainty on actual donor investments. Hence, RICE developed a value proposition based on three levels of donor investments: a low investment scenario, a medium investment (presented here), and a high investment-with W1,2 contributions of 20-30% (see section 2 of the full RICE proposal 'Goals objectives, targets). For each investment scenario, the value proposition of RICE is elaborated in terms of contributions to the CGIAR SLO targets. Outcomes and milestones for the low and high investment levels will be prepared in a modular way, so that RICE can adapt to any actual investment level and respond with associated budget adjustments. 2) the level of budget ownership of the flagship leaders (tracking, reporting, revising, etc.)3) Rules and expectations around annual variances for flagship and participating partners budgets 4) Expected major capital investments (>$25,000)From any W1,2 investment in RICE, first the management cost is taken 'from the top' -after any adjustment caused by funding fluctuations. The remainder is allocated to participating centers based on a fixed percentage (reviewed regularly by the RICE management team and the Independent Steering Committee to ensure relevance maintained), derived from needs for investment on a continental basis (Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean). Continental investment needs were derived from an assessment of geographic importance of rice in relation to food security, poverty, and the environment, and to expected impacts on the SRF SLO targets. Each center distributed its W1,2 allocation over the five flagship projects, bearing in mind the relative importance of investments in flagship projects (see 'funding level rationale' under section 1 above) and the (expected) investments through W3, bilateral grants, and 'other means'. RICE aims to retain maximum flexibility in allocation of W1,2 funds to respond to emerging needs and opportunities in the coming six years and to developments in bilateral grants, and following principles of results-based management (see annex 6)-hence, variances may be more than 10%/year per FP or per budget line item.Flagship project leaders will track and report on use of W1,2 funds within their FP, and on FP results in general. They will annually review progress, update impact pathways and theories of change (if needed), and propose adjustments to the W1,2 budgets to the RICE program Planning and Management Team (PPMT) for approval. The PPMT tracks the use of W1,2 funds across all FPs, and adjusts allocations based on the expected level of W1,2 investments (following the regular updates in the CGIAR Financial Plan issued by the System Office).See above under 'FP W1,2 allocation process'.Capital investments are expected over the duration of RICE for the upgrading of existing equipment or the purchase of new ones, specifically for laboratories, experimental platforms, computing power and software. The Global Rice Array sites and the phenotyping platforms will build as much as possible on existing infrastructure, but investments will be required in new equipment such as sensors, drones, spectrometers, etc. The modernization of the rice breeding programs requires investments in specialized machinery such as transplanters, seeding drills, and seed sorters that can handle small volumes of (diverse) seed. New equipment is required to study grain quality parameters in the laboratory. Open access management of large volumes of data and information requires storage, back up, and open-source enabling software (see annex 9 to the RICE proposal for details). As the scope for capital investments through bilateral projects is limited or restricted, an annual allocation for capital equipment is set aside from W1,2 sources as well. Priorities for capital investments will be determined on an annual basis.Please feel free to use this section to provide any other commentary or information that helps to describe and justify the budget request presented.Although contributing only between 20 and 30% to the total RICE investment, W1,2 funds play a crucial role in providing the 'glue' or 'backbone' to the whole CRP. W1,2 funds are used to invest in new research and development directions along the impact pathway, from upstream research to downstream development of business models and multistakeholder partnerships for innovation an scaling out. The W1,2 investments cover both the product development component of the impact pathway and the enabling environment, eg through capacity development and partnership building. The long-term nature of W1,2 funding is also crucial in providing continuity to research, and to invest in new research that will deliver results in 5-10 years time only. It complements a set of bilateral grant projects that are usually of shorter duration, that focus on a smaller set of activities and outcomes, and often are limited to research and development activities further down the impact pathway, such as validation and delivery of already proven technologies. Particular use of W1,2 funds includes: Gender research and gender mainstreaming in the research and development continuum (see section 4 and annex 4 of the RICE description)  Capacity development along the impact pathway, through scholarships, partnership development, and institutional capacity strengthening (see section 10 of the FP descriptions, and annex 3 of the RICE proposal)  Strengthening results-based management and 'monitoring, learning, and evaluation' through the development and application of a performance information and management (PIM) system, the conduct of adoption and impact assessment studies, and the commissioning of external reviews and evaluations (mainly through FP1)  Targeted research into new areas of the SRF and into supporting areas for the SDGs, especially health and nutrition (through improved nutritious quality of rice grains, farm diversification) and climate change (adaptation and mitigation).  Support for CGIAR 'site integration' through co-investments with other CRPs at selected action sites in key 'site integration countries'.  Startup research in new areas such as market analysis, value chains, diversified farming systems, Big data, and the Global Rice ArrayMore examples of specific use of W1,2 funds are given for each FP in section 5 ('other') of the FP budget narratives. The Tables B-C indicate the contribution of W1,2 to the delivery of FP1's outcomes and sub-IDOs.The GRiSP CRP (2011-20) initially operated on an annual W1,2 budget of 30-35 million $ and invested 1.5-2 million $/year in upstream research through competitive grants. In the base funding scenario, the W1,2 funds for RICE are expected to be between 40-60% of the GRiSP level, and investments in upstream research are routed (including commissioning) through the RICE partners. In the uplift budget, RICE will again invest W1,2 funds through competitive grants.Please describe key activities and estimated costs (included in the line items above) for the applicable categories below, as described in the guidance for full proposal: Engages in policy dialogue to scale up results, through engagement with national and regional bodies as listed in section 9 of the main RICE proposal, and through developing and communicating results of policy analyses, using tools such as policy briefs, media releases, fora and ministerial roundtables); communicates with actors on the ground to scale out technologies and practices, through the development of multi-stakeholder platforms and scaling out activities, using tools such as participatory impact pathway mapping (PIPA), stakeholder and outcome mapping, problem tree definition and analysis; develops and communicates information and content to about RICE in general, its science, results, and progress; communicates and engages with partners through collaborative and participatory approaches to R&D and convening various networks, communities of practice, platforms, and consortia; promotes learning and sharing of information to improve communication and collaboration, through learning and feedback mechanisms. Development of journal papers, manuals, technical reports, and other communications media such as video, audio, websites, etc. Participation in conferences, workshops, forums, stakeholder meetings, etc.The purpose of the flagship budget narrative is to supplement the information provided in the excel-based budget template by justifying how the flagship budget cost elements are necessary to implement project activities and accomplish 2022 target outcomes. The flagship budget narrative is a tool to help Reviewers fully understand the budgetary needs of the project and is an opportunity to provide descriptive information about the costs, drivers, and risks that can't be easily communicated in the flagship participating partners budget templates. Together, the flagship budget narrative and participating partners budget templates should provide a complete quantitative and qualitative description that supports the proposed flagship budget. Please use this flagship budget narrative to provide a thorough description of your flagship budget and only complete questions that are relevant to your proposal.This flagship budget narrative will also serve as the basis for the CRP budget narrative which is composed of the flagship budgets plus the CRP Management and Support Cost. Flagship project 1 is composed of 6 clusters of activity as described in the FP1 narrative section 6. Each cluster of activity delivers one or more outcomes each (with a related set of milestones), as listed in the Performance Indicator Matrix, Tables B-D. The required investment (budget) for each outcome is listed in PIM The RICE FPs are 'umbrella projects', which include a large number of bilateral projects any given year. Hence, the FP budgets are dictated by the collective investments that donors want to make through W1/2, W3, bilateral, and 'others means'. The investment levels are unpredictable: 1) the W1-3 donors can not commit to 6-year funding obligations and the W1-3 investments into the CGIAR fluctuate substantially each year, and 2) 70-80% of the budget is contributed to by bilateral projects, the majority of which still need be developed and secured. Hence, the likelihood that budgets are obtained -and spent -exactly as targeted, decreases as the CRP progresses in time. Each year, updates on investments expectations and budgets will be developed, and spending managed accordingly. At the level of bilateral projects, spending risk is managed by project leaders following procedures spelled out in project contracts. For W1-3, spending risk is managed by flagship project leaders. Project leaders get regular updates on actual spending rate through OCS, and are required to make project adjustments if under-or overspending occurs beyond the (donor-) accepted range (usually 10% of line items).Benefits: Describe the components of the benefits (column R of the \"Budget Details\" sheet) included with the salary costs. For example: pension, health insurance, expatriate costs, housing/education/vehicle allowances etc.Benefits are separated out and include pension, housing, vehicle, home leave, medical insurance, and education allowances.Other Supplies and Services: Provide a brief description and rationale for other Supplies and Services required, including cost assumptions used to develop the budget for these costs. Costs related to the collection of survey data, conduct of interviews, and other methods of collecting socio-economic data involving local expenses in country such as recruitment of translators, enumerators, vehicle rental, local partner costs, laptops for data entry);  Software for the development and use of simulation models, supply-demand models, and ex-ante impact assessment models; the results-based management system; the monitoring, evaluation and learning system;  Costs related to the development and sustenance of multistakeholder platforms at action sites, and for the development of partnership arrangements for scaling out (partner costs, workshop costs, stakeholder consultations, meetings);  Conduct of adoption studies, including the conduct of randomized control trials;  Various others: workshops; partner capacity development (training materials, training course costs, costs for on-the-job training, survey costs for capacity needs); publications; communication costs; various small office supplies. Costs for the above vary by continent and country (eg, costs in Africa being higher than in Asia), and local budgets are developed in accordance with local costs in detail prior to conduct of any activity.Please describe your contingency plans if full project funding does not become available. Any significant expected in-kind contributions should be included in the space below.1. Aggressively seek additional funding from bilateral sources. 2. All RICE FPs have a modular set of outcomes and activities related to various levels of donor investment: with fluctuations in donor investment, budgets, activities, outcomes and milestones can easily be adjusted accordingly. 3. Seek new partnerships based on self-funding principles (in kind contributions included) that can contribute to outcomes that are underfunded Engages in policy dialogue to scale up results, through engagement with national and regional bodies as listed in section 9 of the main RICE proposal, and through developing and communicating results of policy analyses, using tools such as policy briefs, media releases, fora and ministerial roundtables); communicates with actors on the ground to scale out technologies and practices, through the development of multi-stakeholder platforms and scaling out activities, using tools such as participatory impact pathway mapping (PIPA), stakeholder and outcome mapping, problem tree definition and analysis; communicates and engages with partners through collaborative and participatory approaches to R&D and convening various networks, communities of practice, platforms, and consortia; promotes learning and sharing of information to improve communication and collaboration, through learning and feedback mechanisms. Development of journal papers, manuals, technical reports, and other communications media such as video, audio, websites, etc. Participation in conferences, workshops, forums, stakeholder meetings, etc.Please feel free to use this section to provide any other commentary or information that helps to describe and justify the budget request presented. This may include assumptions and rationale behind indirect costs, risks, anomalies or other assumptions Reviewers should be aware of when reviewing the budget.W1,2 funding is critical to the success of FP1. It is used specifically to support the cross-cutting functions of FP1 such as adoption and impact studies; monitoring, evaluation and learning; and gender and youth studies. It is used to develop the gender and youth strategies, and to conduct mission-critical research in these areas. W1,2 fund are also invested in developing and supporting multistakeholder and scaling partnerships needed to bring RICE's products and services to scale and reach millions of beneficiaries. Whereas bilateral grants are used to scale out specific technologies (such as the STRASA project for delivery of stress-tolerant rice varieties in CoA1.4), the W1.2 funds are used to conduct research on scaling methodologies and derive general lessons on applicability of the various scaling models. In impact assessment studies, W1,2 is specifically used to support the development and use of advanced techniques such as randomized control trials. W1,2 furthermore play a crucial role in developing and applying the RICE results-based management and monitoring, evaluation and learning systems. Activities are also funded to support individual and institutional capacity development. The Tables B-C indicate the contribution of W1,2 to the delivery of FP1's outcomes and sub-IDOs.The purpose of the flagship budget narrative is to supplement the information provided in the excel-based budget template by justifying how the flagship budget cost elements are necessary to implement project activities and accomplish 2022 target outcomes. The flagship budget narrative is a tool to help Reviewers fully understand the budgetary needs of the project and is an opportunity to provide descriptive information about the costs, drivers, and risks that can't be easily communicated in the flagship participating partners budget templates. Together, the flagship budget narrative and participating partners budget templates should provide a complete quantitative and qualitative description that supports the proposed flagship budget. Please use this flagship budget narrative to provide a thorough description of your flagship budget and only complete questions that are relevant to your proposal.This flagship budget narrative will also serve as the basis for the CRP budget narrative which is composed of the flagship budgets plus the CRP Management and Support Cost. Flagship project 2 is composed of 4 clusters of activity as described in the FP2 narrative section 6. Each cluster of activity delivers one or more outcomes each (with a related set of milestones), as listed in the Performance Indicator Matrix, Tables B-D. The required investment (budget) for each outcome is listed in PIM The RICE FPs are 'umbrella projects', which include a large number of bilateral projects any given year. Hence, the FP budgets are dictated by the collective investments that donors want to make through W1/2, W3, bilateral, and 'others means'. The investment levels are unpredictable: 1) the W1-3 donors can not commit to 6-year funding obligations and the W1-3 investments into the CGIAR fluctuate substantially each year, and 2) 70-80% of the budget is contributed to by bilateral projects, the majority of which still need be developed and secured. Hence, the likelihood that budgets are obtained -and spent -exactly as targeted, decreases as the CRP progresses in time. Each year, updates on investments expectations and budgets will be developed, and spending managed accordingly. At the level of bilateral projects, spending risk is managed by project leaders following procedures spelled out in project contracts. For W1-3, spending risk is managed by flagship project leaders. Project leaders get regular updates on actual spending rate through OCS, and are required to make project adjustments if under-or overspending occurs beyond the (donor-) accepted range (usually 10% of line items).Benefits: of the benefits (column R of the \"Budget Details\" sheet) included with the salary costs. For example: pension, health insurance, expatriate costs, housing/education/vehicle allowances etc.Benefits are separated out and include pension, housing, vehicle, home leave, medical insurance, and education allowances.Other Supplies and Services: Provide a brief description and rationale for other Supplies and Services required, including cost assumptions used to develop the budget for these costs. Costs related to the collection of survey data, conduct of interviews, and other methods of collecting socio-economic data (eg., investment games) involving local expenses in country such as recruitment of translators, enumerators, vehicle rental, local partner costs, laptops for data entry);  Various software  Costs related to the development and sustenance of learning alliances at action sites (partner costs, workshop costs, stakeholder consultations, meetings);  Cost for development of prototype improved postharvest equipment such as dryers, milling machines, quality determination kits;  Cost for development of prototype improved/novel processing equipment (eg., parboiling, grain fortification, balers, pellet machines) and novel products;  Various others: workshops; partner capacity development (training materials, training course costs, costs for on-the-job training, survey costs for capacity needs); publications; communication costs; various small office supplies. Costs for the above vary by continent and country (eg, costs in Africa being higher than in Asia), and local budgets are developed in accordance with local costs in detail prior to conduct of any activity.Please describe your contingency plans if full project funding does not become available. Any significant expected in-kind contributions should be included in the space below.1. Aggressively seek additional funding from bilateral sources. 2. All RICE FPs have a modular set of outcomes and activities related to various levels of donor investment: with fluctuations in donor investment, budgets, activities, outcomes and milestones can easily be adjusted accordingly. 3. Seek new partnerships based on self-funding principles (in kind contributions included) that can contribute to outcomes that are underfundedPlease describe key activities and estimated costs (included in the line items above) for the applicable categories below, as described in the guidance for full proposal:• gender Engages in dialogue to scale up results, through engagement with national and regional bodies as listed in section 9 of the main RICE proposal, using tools such as media releases, fora and ministerial roundtables; engages with actors on the ground to scale out technologies and practices, through the participation of multi-stakeholder platforms and scaling out activities (convened in CoAs 1.3 and 1.4), using tools such as participatory impact pathway mapping (PIPA), stakeholder and outcome mapping, problem tree definition and analysis; contributes information and content to overall communicate about the program, the science, results and progress; communicates and engages with partners through collaborative and participatory approaches to R&D and convening various networks, community of practice, platforms, and consortia; promotes learning and sharing of information to improve communications and collaboration. Development of journal papers, manuals, technical reports, and other communications media such as video, audio, websites, etc. Participation in conferences, workshops, forums, stakeholder meetings, etc.Please feel free to use this section to provide any other commentary or information that helps to describe and justify the budget request presented. This may include assumptions and rationale behind indirect costs, risks, anomalies or other assumptions Reviewers should be aware of when reviewing the budget.Being a new FP (compared with GRiSP) with relatively few bilateral projects, W1,2 funding is critical to the success of FP2. W1,2 funds are used for strategic market and value chain research. Identified entry points for improvement are explored in a limited set of action sites, and, when successful, further developed and scaled out through the acquisition of bilateral project grants. Similarly, prototype technologies for improved postharvest operations, processing, or novel products are developed and tested at small scale using W1,2 funding, and scaled out when additional funds become available. W1,2 funds are also used to ensure that the gender dimension of FP2 are addressed (see also section 9 of the FP3 description). The Tables B-C indicate the contribution of W1,2 to the delivery of FP2's outcomes and sub-IDOs.The purpose of the flagship budget narrative is to supplement the information provided in the excel-based budget template by justifying how the flagship budget cost elements are necessary to implement project activities and accomplish 2022 target outcomes. The flagship budget narrative is a tool to help Reviewers fully understand the budgetary needs of the project and is an opportunity to provide descriptive information about the costs, drivers, and risks that can't be easily communicated in the flagship participating partners budget templates. Together, the flagship budget narrative and participating partners budget templates should provide a complete quantitative and qualitative description that supports the proposed flagship budget. Please use this flagship budget narrative to provide a thorough description of your flagship budget and only complete questions that are relevant to your proposal.This flagship budget narrative will also serve as the basis for the CRP budget narrative which is composed of the flagship budgets plus the CRP Management and Support Cost. Flagship project 3 is composed of 3 clusters of activity as described in the FP3 narrative section 6. Each cluster of activity delivers one or more outcomes each (with a related set of milestones), as listed in the Performance Indicator Matrix, Tables B-D. The required investment (budget) for each outcome is listed in PIM Table B. The Clusters of activities (CoA) and their outcomes are: The RICE FPs are 'umbrella projects', which include a large number of bilateral projects any given year. Hence, the FP budgets are dictated by the collective investments that donors want to make through W1/2, W3, bilateral, and 'others means'. The investment levels are unpredictable: 1) the W1-3 donors can not commit to 6-year funding obligations and the W1-3 investments into the CGIAR fluctuate substantially each year, and 2) 70-80% of the budget is contributed to by bilateral projects, the majority of which still need be developed and secured. Hence, the likelihood that budgets are obtained -and spent -exactly as targeted, decreases as the CRP progresses in time. Each year, updates on investments expectations and budgets will be developed, and spending managed accordingly. At the level of bilateral projects, spending risk is managed by project leaders following procedures spelled out in project contracts. For W1-3, spending risk is managed by flagship project leaders. Project leaders get regular updates on actual spending rate through OCS, and are required to make project adjustments if under-or overspending occurs beyond the (donor-) accepted range (usually 10% of line items).Benefits: Describe the components of the benefits (column R of the \"Budget Details\" sheet) included with the salary costs. For example: pension, health insurance, expatriate costs, housing/education/vehicle allowances etc.Benefits are separated out and include pension, housing, vehicle, home leave, medical insurance, and education allowances.Other Supplies and Services: Provide a brief description and rationale for other Supplies and Services required, including cost assumptions used to develop the budget for these costs. Costs related to the collection of survey data among farmers at key action sites, involving local expenses in country such as recruitment of translators, enumerators, vehicle rental, local partner costs, laptops for data entry);  Various software for development and application of crop growth simulation models;  Costs related to the development and sustenance of multistakeholder platforms and learning alliances at key action sites (partner costs, workshop costs, stakeholder consultations, meetings);  Cost for development of prototype improved machines and equipment for rice production, such as laser levers, combine-harvesters, improved direct-seeding and transplanting machines;  Cost for establishment of weather station (if nonexistent) and measurement of weather data: radiation, temperature, wind speed, humidity, pan evaporation, sunshine hours  Costs for agronomic field trials (greenhouse, on station, on farm) and on-farm participatory experiments, including experimental diversified farms: land rental; seeds, agrochemicals, irrigation water, plastic sheets; plant and soil sampling; harvesting; sample processing (small supplies such as paper bags, strings, labels, markers); bar coding; tablets for data entry; use of small equipment such as leaf area meter, SPAD meter, radiometer, soil moisture tensiometers, irrigation water measurement devices, piezometers, penetrometer, etc;  Cost for sample processing: laboratory analysis: plant chemical analyses; soil and water chemistry; soil physics;  Cost for greenhouse gas emissions (equipment, chemicals);  Various others: workshops; partner capacity development (training materials, training course costs, costs for on-the-job training, survey costs for capacity needs); publications (leaflets, journal papers, videos, brochures, websites, audio materials); communication costs; various small office supplies. Costs for the above vary by continent and country (eg, costs in Africa being higher than in Asia), and local budgets are developed in accordance with local costs in detail prior to conduct of any activity.Please describe your contingency plans if full project funding does not become available. Any significant expected in-kind contributions should be included in the space below.1. Aggressively seek additional funding from bilateral sources. 2. All RICE FPs have a modular set of outcomes and activities related to various levels of donor investment: with fluctuations in donor investment, budgets, activities, outcomes and milestones can easily be adjusted accordingly. 3. Seek new partnerships based on self-funding principles (in kind contributions included) that can contribute outcomes that are underfundedPlease describe key activities and estimated costs (included in the line items above) for the applicable categories as described in the guidance for full proposal: All RICE impact assessments are carried out under CoA 1.5 of FP1 Engages in dialogue to scale up results, through engagement with national and regional bodies as listed in section 9 of the main RICE proposal, using tools such as media releases, fora and ministerial roundtables; engages with actors on the ground to scale out technologies and practices, through the participation of multi-stakeholder platforms and scaling out activities (convened in CoAs 1.3 and 1.4), using tools such as participatory impact pathway mapping (PIPA), stakeholder and outcome mapping, problem tree definition and analysis; contributes information and content to overall communicate about the program, the science, results and progress; communicates and engages with partners through collaborative and participatory approaches to R&D and convening various networks, community of practice, platforms, and consortia; promotes learning and sharing of information to improve communications and collaboration. Development of journal papers, manuals, technical reports, and other communications media such as video, audio, websites, etc. Participation in conferences, workshops, forums, stakeholder meetings, etc.Please feel free to use this section to provide any other commentary or information that helps to describe and justify the budget request presented. This may include assumptions and rationale behind indirect costs, risks, anomalies or other assumptions Reviewers should be aware of when reviewing the budget.In FP3, W1,2 funding is used for strategic research into the new area (compared to GRiSP) of diversified farming systems, and to support the development of new management technologies. This use of W1,2 funding complements a set of bilateral projects that are more development oriented and that engage more in downstream technology validation, adaptation, and dissemination. W1,2 funding supports a few key action sites and partnerships where -together with other CRPs (see annex 7 on linkages with other CRPs and site integration) -rice farming is expanded into other crops, animals, or trees. This will contribute to the process of CGIAR 'site integration' through co-investments with other CRPs in key 'site integration countries'. Capacity development activities are funded by W1,2 through scholarships and on-site participatory research and development activities. W1,2 funds are also used to ensure that the gender dimension of FP3 are addressed (see also section 9 of the FP3 description). The Tables B-C indicate the contribution of W1,2 to the delivery of FP3's outcomes and sub-IDOs.The purpose of the flagship budget narrative is to supplement the information provided in the excel-based budget template by justifying how the flagship budget cost elements are necessary to implement project activities and accomplish 2022 target outcomes. The flagship budget narrative is a tool to help Reviewers fully understand the budgetary needs of the project and is an opportunity to provide descriptive information about the costs, drivers, and risks that can't be easily communicated in the flagship participating partners budget templates. Together, the flagship budget narrative and participating partners budget templates should provide a complete quantitative and qualitative description that supports the proposed flagship budget. Please use this flagship budget narrative to provide a thorough description of your flagship budget and only complete questions that are relevant to your proposal.This flagship budget narrative will also serve as the basis for the CRP budget narrative which is composed of the flagship budgets plus the CRP Management and Support Cost. Flagship project 4 is composed of 5 clusters of activity as described in the FP4 narrative section 6. Each cluster of activity delivers one or more outcomes each (with a related set of milestones), as listed in the Performance Indicator Matrix, Tables B-D. The required investment (budget) for each outcome is listed in PIM Table B. The Clusters of activities (CoA) and their outcomes are: The RICE FPs are 'umbrella projects', which include a large number of bilateral projects any given year. Hence, the FP budgets are dictated by the collective investments that donors want to make through W1/2, W3, bilateral, and 'others means'. The investment levels are unpredictable: 1) the W1-3 donors can not commit to 6-year funding obligations and the W1-3 investments into the CGIAR fluctuate substantially each year, and 2) 70-80% of the budget is contributed to by bilateral projects, the majority of which still need be developed and secured. Hence, the likelihood that budgets are obtained -and spent -exactly as targeted, decreases as the CRP progresses in time. Each year, updates on investments expectations and budgets will be developed, and spending managed accordingly. At the level of bilateral projects, spending risk is managed by project leaders following procedures spelled out in project contracts. For W1-3, spending risk is managed by flagship project leaders. Project leaders get regular updates on actual spending rate through OCS, and are required to make project adjustments if under-or overspending occurs beyond the (donor-) accepted range (usually 10% of line items).Benefits: Describe the components of the benefits (column R of the \"Budget Details\" sheet) included with the salary costs. For example: pension, health insurance, expatriate costs, housing/education/vehicle allowances etc.Benefits are separated out and include pension, housing, vehicle, home leave, medical insurance, and education allowances.Other Supplies and Services: Provide a brief description and rationale for other Supplies and Services required, including cost assumptions used to develop the budget for these costs. Please describe your contingency plans if full project funding does not become available. Any significant expected in-kind contributions should be included in the space below.1. Aggressively seek additional funding from bilateral sources. 2. All RICE FPs have a modular set of outcomes and activities related to various levels of donor investment: with fluctuations in donor investment, budgets, activities, outcomes and milestones can easily be adjusted accordingly. 3. Seek new partnerships based on self-funding principles (in kind contributions included) that can contribute to outcomes that are underfundedPlease describe key activities and estimated costs (included in the line items above) for the applicable categories below, as described in the guidance for full proposal:• gender Engages in dialogue to scale up results, through engagement with national and regional bodies as listed in section 9 of the main RICE proposal, using tools such as media releases, fora and ministerial roundtables; engages with actors on the ground to scale out technologies and practices, through the participation of multi-stakeholder platforms and scaling out activities (convened in CoAs 1.3 and 1.4), using tools such as participatory impact pathway mapping (PIPA), stakeholder and outcome mapping, problem tree definition and analysis; contributes information and content to overall communicate about the program, the science, results and progress; communicates and engages with partners through collaborative and participatory approaches to R&D and convening various networks, community of practice, platforms, and consortia; promotes learning and sharing of information to improve communications and collaboration. Development of journal papers, manuals, technical reports, and other communications media such as video, audio, websites, etc. Participation in conferences, workshops, forums, stakeholder meetings, etc.Please feel free to use this section to provide any other commentary or information that helps to describe and justify the budget request presented. This may include assumptions and rationale behind indirect costs, risks, anomalies or other assumptions Reviewers should be aware of when reviewing the budget.Being a new FP (compared with GRiSP) with relatively few bilateral projects, W1,2 funding is critical to the success of FP4. W1,2 funds are used to 'kick-start' the establishment of the Global Rice Array at a few key sites, building on the multi environment The purpose of the flagship budget narrative is to supplement the information provided in the excel-based budget template by justifying how the flagship budget cost elements are necessary to implement project activities and accomplish 2022 target outcomes. The flagship budget narrative is a tool to help Reviewers fully understand the budgetary needs of the project and is an opportunity to provide descriptive information about the costs, drivers, and risks that can't be easily communicated in the flagship participating partners budget templates. Together, the flagship budget narrative and participating partners budget templates should provide a complete quantitative and qualitative description that supports the proposed flagship budget. Please use this flagship budget narrative to provide a thorough description of your flagship budget and only complete questions that are relevant to your proposal.This flagship budget narrative will also serve as the basis for the CRP budget narrative which is composed of the flagship budgets plus the CRP Management and Support Cost. Flagship project 5 is composed of 6 clusters of activity as described in the FP5 narrative section 6. Each cluster of activity delivers one or more outcomes each (with a related set of milestones), as listed in the Performance Indicator Matrix, Tables B-D. The required investment (budget) for each outcome is listed in PIM The RICE FPs are 'umbrella projects', which include a large number of bilateral projects any given year. Hence, the FP budgets are dictated by the collective investments that donors want to make through W1/2, W3, bilateral, and 'others means'. The investment levels are unpredictable: 1) the W1-3 donors can not commit to 6-year funding obligations and the W1-3 investments into the CGIAR fluctuate substantially each year, and 2) 70-80% of the budget is contributed to by bilateral projects, the majority of which still need be developed and secured. Hence, the likelihood that budgets are obtained -and spent -exactly as targeted, decreases as the CRP progresses in time. Each year, updates on investments expectations and budgets will be developed, and spending managed accordingly. At the level of bilateral projects, spending risk is managed by project leaders following procedures spelled out in project contracts. For W1-3, spending risk is managed by flagship project leaders. Project leaders get regular updates on actual spending rate through OCS, and are required to make project adjustments if under-or overspending occurs beyond the (donor-) accepted range (usually 10% of line items).Benefits: Describe the components of the benefits (column R of the \"Budget Details\" sheet) included with the salary costs. For example: pension, health insurance, expatriate costs, housing/education/vehicle allowances etc.Benefits are separated out and include pension, housing, vehicle, home leave, medical insurance, and education allowances.Other Supplies and Services: Provide a brief description and rationale for other Supplies and Services required, including cost assumptions used to develop the budget for these costs. Costs for establishment and running of the breeding trials: land rental; seeds; agro-chemicals, irrigation water, plastic sheets, etc;  Cost for establishment and measurement of weather data: radiometer, temperature, wind speed, pan evaporation, sunshine hours  Cost for data collection: plant and soil sampling; harvesting; sample processing (small supplies such as paper bags, strings, labels, markers); bar coding; tablets for data entry; etc;  Cost for laboratory analysis: DNA extraction; genetic and genomic analyses; grain quality analyses  Cost for data analysis: computer software, computing platforms (cloud, rental)  Cost for 'breeding': making crosses, developing near-isogenic parental lines, developing nested association mapping populations, etc (various small materials and supplies involved, such as trays, trolleys, labels, pens, markers, bar codes, stickers, paper bags, etc);  Cost for data and material sharing among partners, such as seed shipments, quarantine costs, health and sanitation processes and checks, etc  Costs for participatory variety selection and sensory panels, involving local expenses in country such as recruitment of translators, enumerators, vehicle rental, local partner costs, laptops for data entry;  Various others: workshops; partner capacity development (training materials, training course costs, costs for on-the-job training, survey costs for capacity needs); publications (leaflets, journal papers, brochures, websites); communication costs; various small office supplies. Costs for the above vary by continent and country (eg, costs in Africa being higher than in Asia), and local budgets are developed in accordance with local costs in detail prior to conduct of any activity.Please describe your contingency plans if full project funding does not become available. Any significant expected in-kind contributions should be included in the space below.1. Aggressively seek additional funding from bilateral sources. 2. All RICE FPs have a modular set of outcomes and activities related to various levels of donor investment: with fluctuations in donor investment, budgets, activities, outcomes and milestones can easily be adjusted accordingly. 3. Seek new partnerships based on self-funding principles (in kind contributions included) that can contribute to outcomes that are underfundedPlease describe key activities and estimated costs (included in the line items above) for the applicable categories below, as described in the guidance for full proposal:• gender ","tokenCount":"7748"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fdec38814d4f63dee6755a008adea3c6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d887e60b-a708-47a5-88bf-c5a7e5c579ec/retrieve","id":"1213753418"},"keywords":["cassava","erosion","extension","farmer participation","research","vetiver","Thailand"],"sieverID":"f265d26a-d108-4cc5-a297-c59708398d8b","pagecount":"12","content":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the third most important food crop in southeast Asia and the most important upland crop in the northeast of Thailand. The crop is usually grown by small-holders in marginal areas of sloping or undulating land. Most farmers realize, however, that cassava production on slopes can cause severe erosion, while production without fertilizers will lead to a gradual decline in soil productivity.Research has shown that cassava yields can be maintained for many years with adequate application of fertilizers and/or manures, and that there are various ways to reduce erosion.Adoption of recommended practices, however, has been minimal as farmers generally see little short-term benefits, while initial costs of establishing these practices may be substantial.In order to enhance the adoption of soil conserving practices and improve the sustainability of cassava production under a wide range of socio-economic and bio-physical conditions, a farmer participatory research (FPR) approach was used to develop not only the best soil conservation practices, but also to test new cassava varieties, fertilization practices and cropping systems that tend to produce greater short-term benefits. The FPR methodology was initially developed in 2-3 sites each in China, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam.In the second phase of this project, again funded by the Nippon Foundation in Japan, the farmer participatory approach to technology development and farmer-to-farmer extension has been further developed and the total number of sites has rapidly expanded to about 32 sites in Thailand, 35 in Vietnam and 23 in southern China.In Thailand, farmers in almost all sites selected the planting of contour hedgerows of vetiver grass as the most effective and most suitable practice to control erosion. In 2002 nearly 900 farmers in 18 sites in eight provinces in Thailand had planted a total of 130 km of vetiver grass hedgerows in close to 950 ha of cassava fields. Through the use of a farmer participatory extension approach, including cross visits, farmers' field days, training courses and the establishing of community-based self-help groups, the number of farmers planting vetiver grass is growing day by day. In the long-term, this will result in less erosion and the conservation of soil and water resources to the benefit of farmers as well as the community as a whole.The northeast is the poorest region of Thailand. The soils are sandy and of very low fertility while rainfall is rather unpredictable even during the six month wet season. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the most important upland crop in the area because it is highly drought tolerant and well adapted to acid and low fertility sandy soils. Cassava is also a popular crop because it does not suffer from any serious diseases or pests problems in Thailand and, as such, does not require the spraying of pesticides. During the 1970s much of the natural forest vegetation in the northeast was cut and burned to open land for cassava cultivation. Initially farmers obtained reasonably high yields, but after several years of continuous cassava cultivation, yields started to decline due to soil degradation as a result of nutrient depletion, rapid organic matter decomposition and erosion. Despite the introduction and rapid dissemination of new highyielding varieties, starting in the early 1990s, yields remained stagnant at about 14-15 t/ha due to declining soil fertility and a continuous displacement of cassava from the relatively more fertile eastern region to the less fertile northeast.Intensive research over the past 25 years by the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and Kasetsart University (KU), in collaboration with the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), not only resulted in several new high-yielding and high-starch cassava varieties, but also identified the best fertilization, improved cultural practices and effective ways to control erosion.The Department of Agric. Extension (DOAE) and the Thai Tapioca Development Institute (TTDI) were actively involved in the multiplication and distribution of planting material of new varieties, which were readily accepted by farmers. Presently, nearly 100% (one million ha) of the cassava growing area in Thailand is planted with these new varieties. Meanwhile, upon the suggestion of His Majesty the King of Thailand, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, the Land Development Department (LDD) and many other institutions conducted a wide range of studies on the use of vetiver grass for soil and water conservation. While cassava farmers in Thailand readily adopted the use of new varieties and some started to use fertilizers, there was little awareness of the seriousness of soil erosion and thus little adoption of any type of soil conservation practices.A study by KU conducted from 1989 to 1993, comparing the nutrient uptake and soil losses by erosion from cassava and six other crops, found that cultivation of cassava caused more severe erosion than that of other crops (Putthacharoen et al., 1998). However, many cultural practices that could markedly reduce erosion were also identified, such as minimum tillage, contour ridging, planting at closer spacing, intercropping, mulching, fertilizer application, and the planting of contour hedgerows of various grasses, such as vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides), Paspalum atratum, Brachiaria brizantha and Setaria sphacelata. Still, few of these practices were adopted by farmers as they usually considered soil conservation as either not necessary or too complicated or costly.For that reason, a new project, funded by the Nippon Foundation in Japan, was initiated in 1994 to try to enhance the adoption of soil conservation practices through the use of a farmer participatory approach, in which farmers conduct soil erosion control trials on their own fields.The first phase of the Nippon Foundation supported cassava project (1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998) was coordinated by the CIAT Regional Cassava Office for Asia, located in Bangkok, and was implemented in collaboration with several research and extension organizations in China, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam. In Thailand the project was implemented in partnership with DOA, DOAE, KU and TTDI; KU and DOA concentrated on research on effective erosion control practices, DOA and DOAE on the development of farmer participatory research (FPR) methodologies, and TTDI on the training of farmers.The farmer participatory approach is basically an extension of the previously used on-farm and farming-systems approach, in which farmers become more and more involved in the research process. Farmers' problems and limitations also feed back to researchers, thus improving the relevance of their work. The idea behind FPR is that farmers, researchers and extensionists all have complementary skills and that real on-farm problems can best be solved by researchers and extensionists working closely together with farmers, especially by helping farmers test a few selected options on their own farms using simple experimental techniques. Since farmers know the environmental (soil and climate), social and economic conditions in the area better than anyone else, they should select the type of trials to be conducted and the treatments to be tested. They conduct the trials themselves with some initial help from project technicians, and based on the results of these trials they select the most suitable practices for adoption. By conducting simple soil erosion control trials on their own fields, farmers can see the amount of soil loss by erosion, and become convinced of the need for soil conservation. They also can see that a few simple practices can markedly reduce the loss of soil, water and fertilizers from their fields, that gully formation can be prevented or existing gullies repaired, and that crop yields will increase as a result of this. Having experienced this, these farmers are more likely to adopt soil conservation practices.The FPR methodologies used in this project, as well as the experimental techniques for onfarm erosion control trials, have been described in detail before (Howeler, 1999(Howeler, , 2002;;Howeler et al., 2002;Vongkasem et al., 2001;Watananonta et al., 2001). This includes the following activities:1. Researchers conduct Rapid Rural Appraisals (RRAs) in potential pilot sites; from this a few pilot sites are selected.2. Farmers from these sites visit demonstration plots that show many options to reduce erosion; from these farmers select a few promising treatments.3. With the help of project technicians, farmers conduct simple erosion control trials on their own fields; they may also conduct trials on new varieties, fertilization practices, green manuring, weed control, intercropping etc. 4. After harvest of all the trials in the village, results are discussed and farmers decide on treatments to be retested or adopted on their production fields.During the first phase of the project this methodology was tested initially in two pilot sites in each of the four countries mentioned above. In Thailand this was in Soeng Saang district of Nakhon Ratchasima province and in Wang Nam Yen district of Sra Kaew province; this was later expanded to another two sites in Kalasin and Chachoengsao provinces. By the end of the first phase (1998), farmers in all four sites in Thailand had selected the planting of contour hedgerows of vetiver grass as the best way to control erosion in cassava fields, and some farmers had started to plant vetiver grass in small areas of their fields (Howeler et al., 1998;Howeler, 1999;Vongkasem et al., 2001).During the second phase (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003), project activities concentrated in Thailand, Vietnam and China, while the emphasis gradually changed from farmer participatory research to extension, with the principal objective of enhancing adoption of improved varieties and production practices and benefiting more farmers. In addition to the four institutions participating during the first phase in Thailand, the Land Development Department (LDD) also joined the project. Each year the project expanded to more sites and in 2002 the project was or had been working in 24 villages in 17 districts of eight provinces where cassava is an important crop (see Figure 1 and Table 3). In 2003 the project further expanded to seven new sites in three additional provinces.Farmer participatory extension activities were mainly the responsibility of DOAE with active participation of personnel at the national, provincial, district and subdistrict levels.Researchers and extension personnel were trained in FPR and FPE methodologies in special training courses held in 1994, 1997, 1999 and 2002. The idea behind FPE is that farmers are often more convinced about the benefits of a particular technology if they see it adopted or being promoted by other farmers, rather than just being recommended by researchers or extensionists. Farmers who had already participated in FPR and had adopted certain technologies were often willing to share their experiences with other  farmers in the community or from other sites. This \"farmer-to-farmer extension\" was encouraged and facilitated by the following FPE activities:1. Cross-site visits: farmers from a new site would visit a village where the project had worked before (\"old\" site), and where new technologies had already been adopted.Farmer field days at harvest: farmers from the community and surrounding villages were invited to evaluate each treatment in the FPR trials, including the amount of roots harvested and the amount of eroded soil trapped in plastic covered channels below each plot. Together they would discuss the results and select the best treatments for further testing or adoption.3. District or provincial level field days: these were held in only a few sites with participation of hundreds of farmers, school children, government officials, press and TV.This was an opportunity for local farmers to disseminate to a wide audience the results of their trials as well as their experiences in the field.4. FPR training courses: these were organized for key farmers and the local extension agent from each site with the objective of forming local \"FPR-teams\" that could help farmers in their own or neighboring communities conduct FPR trials or adopt the practices that they had selected.in Thailand these are called \"Cassava Development Villages\". These groups select their own president and four other officials, write their own by-laws and manage a rotating credit fund, which was initially supplied by the Thai government in the form of chemical fertilizers. After harvest, members who had used the fertilizers must return the value of the fertilizers plus some interest to the rotating fund, from which they can then borrow again.Table 1 shows results of the FPR demonstration plots at the TTDI Research and Development Center in Huay Bong in 2001/02. These plots were visited by several groups of farmers from new pilot sites. Farmers visually evaluated all treatments and selected a few that they considered most useful and wanted to try out in FPR erosion control trials on their own fields. The data indicate that most of the hedgerow treatments (T 12 -T 18 ) as well as contour ridging (T 3 ) and closer plant spacing (T 8 ) were very effective in reducing soil losses by erosion. Some of the intercrops (T 9 and T 11 ) and one of the three vetiver grass (T 16 ) accessions competed strongly with nearby cassava, causing a reduction in yield. Most farmers selected vetiver grass hedgerows as the most suitable practice, followed by closer plant spacing, the combined application of fertilizers and chicken manure, contour ridging, and intercropping with pumpkin.Many results of the FPR trials conducted by farmers in Thailand have already been published (Howeler, 2001;Vongkasem et al., 2001;Watananonta et al., 2001;Howeler et al., 2002). Table 2 is an example of FPR trials conducted by farmers in Chayaphum province. Itshows that both vetiver grass and lemon grass hedgerows were very effective in reducing soil losses by erosion; in some (but not all) cases they also increased yields and net income. Farmers overwhelmingly selected vetiver grass over lemon grass because of the former's tolerance to drought and poor soils, and for its ease of planting and maintenance. Similar results were obtained in many other sites. Farmers observed that contour plowing and ridging, closer plant spacing and adequate fertilization also contributed to reduced erosion and generally increased yields.Intercropping with peanut, mungbean, sweet corn and pumpkin often increased farmer's income and reduced erosion, but these practices are not widely adopted in Thailand because of the high cost of labor, marketing problems of pumpkin, and regular intercrop failures due to insect pests and drought. Once farmers saw the benefits of the various soil conservation practices, they adopted closer plant spacing, more balanced fertilization and the planting of contour hedgerows of vetiver grass; the latter in turn led to contour plowing and ridging in some areas. 29.4 1) Variety KU-50; T 8 -T 18 were all fertilized with 50/kg rai of 15-15-15 fertilizers, and all treatments except T 8 were planted at 0.8 x 1.25 m. spacing; 1 ha = 6.25 rai 2) Prices: cassava baht 1.31/ kg fresh roots at 30% starch peanut 10.0/ kg dry pods pumpkin 10.0/ kg sweet corn 5.0/ kg lemon grass 5.0/ kg 3) Low yield due to strong intercrop competition and poor drainage 4) Low yield due to competition from very vigorous vetiver grass hedgerow The planting of vetiver grass hedgerows was done either by individual farmers on their own fields, or as a community activity. For instance, in 1999 farmers in Sapphongphoot village in Nakhon Ratchasima province spontaneously organized a Soil Conservation Group which decided to plant about 100 km of vetiver grass hedgerows on 320 ha of cassava fields in the community. In 2000 they had planted 17 km and in 2002 this had increased to 20 km covering about 132 ha (Table 3). Being one of the first groups to adopt the planting of vetiver grass hedgerows for erosion control on a large scale, farmers from many other sites visited Sapphongphoot village during \"cross-visits\" to talk directly to farmers who had adopted this technology. Similarly, well organized Cassava Development Villages in Huay Suea Ten (Kalasin) and Khut Dook (Nakhon Ratchasima) received many groups of cassava farmers during cross-visits. Large-scale field dayswere also organized at these sites to disseminate farmers' experiences about the planting of vetiver grass to other farmers, government officials and the media. This further enhanced the adoption of the technology.The setting up of the Cassava Development Villages was another effective way to empower farmers to organize themselves and to make their own decisions. In 2001 the Thai government, through DOAE, set up these community-based self-help groups in 11 of the project pilot sites, providing about US$1,000 to each group in the form of fertilizers to initiate a rotating fund. In 2002 this was further expanded to another 7 sites. These groups generally hold monthly meetings to discuss local problems, they conduct their own FPR trials on new varieties, fertilization, green manures, organic manures, soil erosion control, weed control etc.; some set up their own vetiver grass nurseries to supply planting material to members, and as a group they planted many kilometers of vetiver grass hedgerows. Figure 2 shows the rate of adoption of soil conservation practices in the project sites in Thailand and Vietnam, while  villages in 11 provinces of the north, central and southern part of the country (see Figure 1). In 2002, 30 such trials were conducted and results generally were even more convincing than in Thailand about the benefits of planting vetiver grass hedgerows. However, good results were also obtained with contour hedgerows of Tephrosia candida (mainly in north Vietnam), Panicum maximum, Paspalum atratum and pineapple. Because of the unavailability of large amounts of planting material of vetiver grass in Vietnam, as well as farmers' practice of on-farm cattle, buffalo, pig and fish feeding, most cassava farmers in Vietnam adopted the planting of Tephrosia candida or Paspalum atratum, in adition to vetiver grass.In both Thailand and Vietnam farmers were initially not very concerned about soil erosion and were not fully aware of its impact on soil productivity. They joined the project mainly to get planting material of new cassava varieties. They readily agreed to test these varieties as well as different fertilizers and intercropping systems, as these technologies can give them substantial short-term benefits. In contrast, soil conservation practices seldom produce immediate benefits to farmers, while they generally require additional labor or inputs (seeds, planting material, fertilizers etc). It is, therefore, not surprising that farmers seldom adopt soil conservation practices spontaneously, but only if there are some incentives such as government subsidies. Once those subsidies stop, farmers are likely to abandon soil conservation practices. By letting farmers test on their own fields several different technologies, such as varieties, fertilization, intercropping, and the planting of various contour hedgerows, all of which can contribute to reducing erosion, they become aware of the extent of soil loss by erosion, and can select simple practices that will reduce these losses. Thus, new higher yielding varieties, as well as other practices with immediate ","tokenCount":"3045"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6578c05a5ac750a67067e55d45b8c755","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.globallandscapesforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/6-White-Paper_GLF-Climate-Ecosystem-based-adaptation-in-agriculture_En.pdf","id":"-1645935683"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9d85231c-7fca-461a-8bb6-e15ec937a2e2","pagecount":"6","content":"Climate-resilient food systems are food systems1 that address and overcome the following challenges:• The global food system did not eliminate hunger and contributes to increasing levels of malnutrition.Smallholder farmers continue to be those who suffer the most from hunger and poverty. The reason is structural inequalities in the food system. Prevailing high levels of food loss and waste are another indicator of unsustainable food systems.• Agriculture is both a casualty of, and driver of, climate change. Agriculture is responsible for about a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions, and at the same time it suffers from the impacts of climate change. Agriculture-induced land use changes are also responsible for biodiversity loss. Further, agriculture accounts for the bulk of freshwater useand contributes to its pollution.1 \"A food system gathers all the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the production, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of food, and the output of these activities, including socio-economic and environmental outcomes\" (HLPE 2014). 3 \"Nature-based solutions are approaches that work with and enhance nature to address societal challenges. They encompass a broad range of actions that protect, restore, or sustainably manage ecosystems (including natural, semi-natural, or created) to provide benefits to people\" (Chaussan et al. 2020).share key principles which provide a basis for them to mutually benefit from each other's strengths.Both approaches are systemic in nature. Yet, agroecology does not explicitly consider existent or projected climate conditions. This creates a clear opportunity to employ agroecological practices within an EbA framework so that they are explicitly used to address specific adverse effects of climate change while also contributing to the overall resilience of agricultural and food systems. The following five steps can guide country-level implementation of agroecology as an ecosystembased adaptation approach in agricultural landscapes (hourglass model):• Identify relevant national commitments emerging from international agreements and national commitments regarding climate and food security and corresponding programmes and projects designed to achieve those. To identify synergies between approaches to adapt to climate change and to achieve food security, it is key to strengthen platforms that facilitate co-operation between climate and agriculture communities at national and local levels. The Global Landscapes Forum (GLF) is the world's largest knowledge-led platform on integrated land use, dedicated to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and Paris Climate Agreement. The Forum takes a holistic approach to create sustainable landscapes that are productive, prosperous, equitable and resilient and considers five cohesive themes of food and livelihoods, landscape restoration, rights, finance and measuring progress. It is led by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), in collaboration with its co-founders UNEP and the World Bank and Charter Members. ","tokenCount":"440"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"16b50e82e2dd538ae3122d97e75c3a2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/54c1a6cd-99f8-48e4-a4f7-3db5c6999483/retrieve","id":"-930566958"},"keywords":["GenRes Bridge","Plant Gentic Resources Newsletter","Animal Genetic Resources","ECPGR","ERFP","EUFORGEN genetic resources","food and agriculture","Sustainable Development Goals","global assessments","knowledge gaps crop wild relatives","protected areas","ELC-analysis","Sweden benefit-sharing","methodology","genetic resources","marine","areas beyond national jurisdiction DNA fingerprint","genetic resources","molecular markers Cucurbitaceae","base collection","active collection","breeding"],"sieverID":"c628b97b-c520-4124-994e-65a4c56fbcb0","pagecount":"56","content":"The taxon richness of priority crop wild relatives across Sweden, as discussed by Weibull and Phillips on pp. 17-23The designations employed, and the presentation of material in the periodical, and in maps which appear herein, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of ECPGR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of ECPGR.Between 1970 and 2009, FAO and IPGRI/Bioversity International were jointly producing the Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter (PGRN) 1 , a peer reviewed journal focusing on \"genetic resources of useful plants, resulting from new work, historical study, review and criticism in genetic diversity, ethnobotanical and ecogeographical surveying, herbarium studies, collecting, characterization and evaluation, documentation, conservation, and genebank practice\". Paper issues were originally distributed free of charge and eventually the publication was converted into an online open access publication. This magazine covered a specific niche of interest for the plant genetic resources community, publishing information that normally would not be suitable for existing scientific journals. It was open to contributions from all regions and offered a free of charge publication service.The FAO journal Animal Genetic Resources 2 , supporting the implementation of the global plan of action for animal genetic resources (GPA-AnGR, (FAO, 2007), had a similar history and was discontinued in 2016. Over a 30-year period, more than 600 papers were published and available in 3 languages (English, French and Spanish). The papers published between 2010 and 2016 are freely available online. A majority of the articles were focused on the ruminant species and about 60% of them were related to the characterization and monitoring of animal genetic resources.The discontinuation of PGRN and Animal Genetic Resources was determined by strategy changes and redefinition of priorities of the international organizations that were managing these journals.In the field of plant genetic resources, at least two peer-reviewed magazines (Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution and Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilization) were already in operation at the time of PGRN and continue today to offer the opportunity to publish scientific contributions. However, the possibility was lost to formally publish 'grey literature' type of contributions, i.e. methods, strategies, guidelines, reports, case studies, etc., with the support of an international institution as a publisher, offering free of charge services. In fact, since the termination of PGRN, the Secretariat of the European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (ECPGR) received various inputs from its members, inquiring about the possibility to resurrect the journal and soliciting action.As for the field of AnGR, several journals are offering the possibility of publishing work related to animal genetic resources, provided that their scientific interest and scientific quality is in scope with the magazines' objectives, however none of them are specifically dedicated to AnGR. In Europe, an alternative was sometimes found through oral or poster presentations during scientific conferences in Europe, such as the European Federation of Animal Science (EAAP) conference. The annual conference of the EAAP organizes a specific session devoted to AnGR every year, coordinated by ERFP, FAO and EAAP.The opportunity to attempt the re-establishment of a journal that would take on the heritage of PGRN and Animal Genetic Resources in a new context was provided by the decision of the three European networks on plant (ECPGR), animal (European Regional Focal Point for Animal Genetic Resources, ERFP) and forest (European Forest Genetic Resources Programme, EUFORGEN) genetic resources to join forces within the Horizon 2020 project 'GenRes Bridge -Joining forces for GenRes and biodiversity management' 3 , which was approved for funding by the European Commission (EC) for the period 2019-2021.As part of this project a task dedicated to the creation of the journal Genetic Resources was included, thus securing funding for the journal's initial establishment and the production of the first three issues. It is the intention of the three networks to develop a sustainability plan for the continuation of the journal after the end of the project, depending on its success and the feedback received from users, thereby exploring the possibility in the future to share costs and responsibilities as part of their own budgets, as well as seeking support from other possible sponsors.Prior to the launch of the journal, a survey was carried out of selected audiences about the main gaps that a journal on genetic resources would be expected to fill (Maggioni, 2019). The survey gave an indication of an existing interest for a new journal on genetic resources (91% of respondents). Although agricultural plants (80%), including wild relatives (59%) raised the highest interest, the forestry (24%) and farm animals (9%) domains also registered a significant interest, considering that only a limited number of stakeholders 3 www.genresbridge.eu from these domains were included among the survey recipients.The journal was started under the management of the ECPGR Secretariat and is published by Bioversity International on behalf of the ECPGR. The editorial board includes members of the plant and animal genetic resources community with expertise in different sectors of relevance. The journal's focus is on publishing original research as well as methods, strategies, guidelines, case studies or reviews on topics of interest on the present and future use of genetic resources, thus serving a variety of stakeholders across sectors.Genetic Resources uses the open-source web publishing platform Open Journal Systems (OJS 4 ), and a webbased production software (www.typeset.io), which guarantee that running costs of the publication are limited, allowing the journal to provide real open access publications, which are free to publish and free to read. The journal is a member of Crossref 5 , a not-for-profit cooperative effort among publishers to enable persistent cross-publisher citation linking in online academic journals. It also adheres to publication ethics as published by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) 6 .The active support of voluntary reviewers recruited worldwide and particularly within the European networks ensures timely processing of manuscript submissions. The European networks also offer hubs of expertise to support the editorial and language review of articles.Based in Europe and mainly supported by the European networks, Genetic Resources is open to worldwide contributions, offering a public free of charge service also to other regions. This new journal can thus be seen as a contribution of the European region to the implementation of the FAO global plans of action on genetic resources (FAO, 2011(FAO, , 2014(FAO, , 2007)), particularly in terms of promoting access to communication, data and information exchange.The importance of genetic resources, the challenges ahead (primarily habitat destruction and climate change) and the existing gaps of knowledge call for intensified actions and global collaboration, as illustrated in the keynote review by the Commission for Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) in this first issue (Pilling et al, 2020).This journal has the aspiration to contribute to encouraging a fertile framework of collaboration and exchange of information. It is hoped that the opportunity to use the publication services of Genetic Resources, starting with this issue, will be increasingly used and appreciated by contributors and readers. Their feedback will be taken into account and their judgement will eventually determine whether this enterprise deserves to grow and to continue into the future.Genetic resources for food and agriculture (GRFA) are vital to food security, nutrition, livelihoods and the productivity, resilience and adaptability of production systems in the crop, livestock, forest, fisheries and aquaculture sectors. They are key resources in efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper presents an overview of the state of GRFA and their management, drawing largely on the findings of the monitoring activities overseen by the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Commission) of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (Boxes 1 and 2) and highlighting future management challenges, with an emphasis on knowledge gaps. There are no comprehensive figures available for the status of crop varieties across the world's production systems and there is as yet no standardized way of assessing their risk status. However, the available evidence indicates that, overall, the crop diversity present in farmers' fields has declined (FAO, 2010). Many farmers' varieties and landraces have disappeared or become rarer. The situation is, however, complex, with new varieties sometimes being grown in addition to, rather than in replacement of, traditional ones. The state of genetic vulnerability (\"the condition that results when a widely planted crop is uniformly susceptible to a pest, pathogen or environmental hazard as a result of its genetic constitution, thereby creating a potential for widespread crop losses\" (FAO, 1997a)) is also difficult to assess. However, many countries have reported significant genetic vulnerability in their production systems (FAO, 2010). Crop wild relatives are key resources in plant breeding and are widely under threat (Bilz et al, 2011;FAO, 2010;Magos-Brehm et al, 2017).Threats to domesticated PGRFA include changes to production systems that lead to declines in the use of traditional varieties (FAO, 2010). Crop wild relatives are affected by pressures on their habitats, including those related to climate change and to land-use changes associated, inter alia, with agriculture (Magos-Brehm et al, 2017;Bilz et al, 2011;FAO, 2010).Among the more than 17,000 known avian and mammalian species, (Burgin et al, 2018;BirdLife-International, 2018), only about 40 have been domesticated for use in food and agriculture (FAO, 2015). Production is very concentrated among a few species, with eight (pig, chicken, cattle, sheep, goat, turkey, duck and buffalo) providing 97 percent of global meat production in 2018; four of these (cattle, buffalo, goat and sheep) accounted for almost 100 percent of global milk production, and chickens alone accounted for 93 percent of egg production (FAO, 2020b). A total of 8,719 livestock breeds are recorded by FAO as of 2020; 26 percent of these are classified as at risk of extinction, 13 percent as not at risk, 6 percent as extinct and 55 percent as being of unknown risk status (FAO, 2020a). SDG Indicator 2.5.2 is \"Proportion of local breeds, classified as being at risk, not-at risk or unknown level of risk of extinction\" (\"local breeds\" are breeds found in only one country). As of 2020, 62 percent of local breeds are classified as being of unknown status, 28 percent as at risk and 10 percent as not at risk (the figures exclude extinct breeds) (FAO, 2020a). In all regions other than Europe and the Caucasus and North America, more than 80 percent of local breeds are of unknown risk status. Improving reporting is thus a major challenge. AnGR are threatened by a range of factors. Immediate threats include breed substitution, poorly managed cross-breeding and the decline of livestock-keeping livelihoods, all driven in turn by a variety of economic, social and environmental factors, exacerbated by weak policies and institutions (FAO, 2015). Acute events such as disease outbreaks can be a threat to small, geographically concentrated breed populations (ibid.).There are over 60,000 tree species in the world (Beech et al, 2017). Most of these are wild species that have not been subject to any form of domestication. The country reports submitted for The State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources (SoW-FGR) (FAO, 2014b) listed nearly 8,000 species of trees, shrubs, palms and bamboo, of which about 2,400 were being actively managed for the products and/or services they supply and over 700 were included in breeding programmes. Information on the status of tree species remains incomplete. The Global Tree Assessment, which aims to assess the conservation status of all known tree species by 2020, reports as of March 2020 that 34,204 species (57 percent of all tree species) have been assessed and that 12,237 (36 percent of the assessed species) are threatened globally (Global Tree Assessment (GTA), 2020). There is no systematic global monitoring system in place for intraspecific diversity in tree species, but loss of genetic diversity in commercially important species has long been a concern among forest managers (FAO, 2014b).FGR are threatened, inter alia, by land-use change, particularly conversion of forests to cropland and grazing land, overexploitation, selective harvesting and climate change (ibid.). Forests cover 31 percent of the global land area (4,060 million hectares), but they continue to be lost at an alarming rate despite efforts to promote natural regeneration and tree planting (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of forest expansion was 5 million hectares per year, while the rate of deforestation was 10 million hectares per year, meaning that the net loss of forests was about 5 million hectares per year (ibid.).There are more than 160,000 species of fish and aquatic crustaceans, molluscs and plants in the world (FAO, 2019c). Of these, around 1,800 species or species items (a species item is a category of aquatic animal or plant at the species, genus, family or higher taxonomic level) are targeted by capture fisheries (ibid.). The total number of farmed species items recorded in aquaculture production by FAO, as of 2018, was 622, corresponding to 466 individual species, 7 interspecific hybrids of finfish, 92 species groups at genus level, 32 species groups at family level and 25 species groups at order level or higher (FAO, 2020d  , 2019c), the latter covering farmed aquatic species and their wild relatives within national jurisdiction. The Commission has also overseen a global assessment covering all components of biodiversity of relevance to food and agriculture, The State of the World's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture (FAO, 2019d). The global assessments are repeated at intervals of approximately ten years, meaning that second reports on plant and animal genetic resources have been published (FAO, 2015(FAO, , 2010) ) and that the second assessment on forest and the third on plant genetic resources are ongoing. The first global assessments for plant, animal and forest genetic resources were followed by the adoption of global plans of action for the respective sectors (FAO, 2014a(FAO, , 2007b(FAO, , 1997b)). In the case of plants, a second global plan of action was adopted in 2011 (FAO, 2011). A global plan of action for aquatic genetic resources is currently under negotiation (FAO, 2019b). The Commission has overseen the development of a number of codes, standards and guidelines to support the implementation of the global plans of action. In 2019, the Commission adopted a Work Plan for the Sustainable Use and Conservation of Micro-organism and Invertebrate Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ibid.).species items. In Asia, approximately twice as many species are reported farmed as in other continents. The report also records over 200 species that are farmed in countries where they are not native. Aquaculture is, for the most part, a relatively new activity and the sector has few well-established improved farmed types equivalent to the varieties and breeds of terrestrial crops and livestock (FAO, 2019c). Farmed aquatic organisms are often very similar to their wild counterparts, which are sometimes used as broodstock or seed. Little information is available on the status of AqGR below the species level. As noted in Box 2, FAO is currently developing a prototype registry for these \"farmed types\".Micro-organisms and invertebrates contribute to food and agriculture in a multitude of ways, including in pollination, pest control, nutrient cycling, food processing, and digestion in ruminant animals. The status and trends of micro-organisms and invertebrates, including those that contribute to food and agriculture, are generally less well monitored than those of plants and vertebrate animals. However, at the level of broad taxonomic and functional groups the available evidence indicates worrying declines (e.g. (FAO and ITPS, 2015;FAO, 2019d;IPBES, 2019;IPBES, 2016). The habitats upon which useful micro-organisms and invertebrates depend are often in decline (FAO, 2019d). While the overall number of honeybee colonies worldwide has increased over recent decades, some countries have experienced substantial falls in colony numbers or have required extra efforts on the part of beekeepers to maintain production (FAO, 2019d;IPBES, 2016).There are big knowledge gaps on the state of soil biodiversity, but there are grounds for serious concern in all regions of the world (FAO, 2019d;FAO and ITPS, 2015). Threats to MIGR include habitat destruction, inappropriate use of pesticides and other agricultural inputs and the effects of climate change (FAO, 2019d).Management of GRFA is taken here to include use and conservation. Each of the three existing global plans of action (GPAs, see Box 1) sets out priorities in each of these areas. Implementation is monitored via periodic rounds of country reporting and via the information systems mentioned in Box 2. The following subsections provide overviews based on these and other sources. It needs to be borne in mind, however, that use and conservation are multifaceted and interlinked fields of activity and that their boundaries are not clearly defined. Definitions and approaches to monitoring vary across sectors, as does the significance of specific management activities (e.g. in situ vs. ex situ conservation). Space precludes a detailed discussion of the state of the art in management or of the status of implementation of management activities around the world. Readers are directed to the \"State of the World\" reports (Box 1) for additional information.Higher level composite indices for the implementation of the Second Global Plan of Action for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Second GPA-PGRFA) were calculated for the period 2012 to 2014 based on data provided by 69 countries (FAO, 2020e). Scores for actions related to the sustainable use of PGRFA were generally at a medium level (averaging approximately 4.3 out of a maximum possible 8). ABox 2. FAO's information systems on genetic resources for food and agriculture FAO operates global information systems for plant and animal genetic resources for food and agriculture, both of which are used for monitoring progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 2.5. The Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) a provides tools that can be used to monitor national breed populations and to support informed decision-making on the management of animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. It provides access to official data for monitoring progress towards the animal component of SDG Target 2.5.The World Information and Early Warning System on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (WIEWS) b provides access to official data for monitoring progress towards the plant component of SDG Target 2.5 and on the implementation of the 18 priority activities of the Second Global Plan of Action for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.In 2019, the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture requested FAO to initiate the development of a new global information system on forest genetic resources (FAO, 2019b). Work is also underway to develop a global information system for aquatic genetic resources for food and agriculture, including a prototype registry of farmed types based on standardized terminology (Mair and Lucente, 2020). In the absence of such a system, AqGR are largely excluded from the monitoring of progress towards SDG 2.5. These new information systems will be fundamental to the implementation and monitoring of the Global Plans of Action in the respective sectors.a http://www.fao.org/dad-is/en/ b http://www.fao.org/wiews/en/ preliminary study conducted on a smaller sample of country reports (FAO, 2016) indicated several positive developments in the field of characterization, evaluation and further development of specific collection subsets to facilitate use, with many genebank accessions reported as having been assessed and distributed for use. In the field of plant breeding, genetic enhancement and basebroadening, again a range of activities were reported, focused mainly on major crop species. International and regional networks of genebanks were reported to be widely involved in the supply of germplasm. About one-third of the reported activities in this field aimed to address constraints relevant to the production systems of small-scale farmers or local communities. Genetic enhancement and pre-breeding activities mainly targeted local cultivars and landraces. Actions promoting diversification of crop production and broadening crop diversity received a relatively low average score. However, several initiatives were reported, including the introduction of a number of new crops or wild species into cultivation. Countries reported a range of laws, policies, programmes and projects promoting the development and commercialization of crop varieties. Actions related to supporting seed production and distribution received the highest average scores, with vegetables and cereals being the crop groups most widely reported to be targeted 1 .The state of ex situ conservation for PGRFA is monitored under SDG Target 2.5 (Box 2). Over the past 24 years, the number of PGRFA accessions stored under medium or long-term conditions has steadily increased (by approximately 100,000 accessions per year) reaching 5.4 million − held in over 700 genebanks in 103 countries and 17 regional and international centres − in 2019 (FAO, 2020e). These figures are lower than previously published estimates (e.g. FAO, 2010) as current WIEWS data comply with SDG 2.5.1 prescriptions for avoiding duplication in the reporting of collections and accessions within national inventories. Between 2000 and 2018, the number of species conserved in these collections more than doubled, increasing from about 24,000 to over 51,000 (ibid.). While the highest rate of increase occurred during the first 10 years, on average about 700 new species were added to ex situ collections worldwide annually during the period from 2014 to 2018. These increases were the result both of collecting missions and of improved taxonomic classification of already conserved materials.As of December 2019, 290 genebanks around the world held almost 96,000 samples from over 1,700 species listed in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's categories of major global concern 2 (FAO, 2020e), including relatives of crops particularly important for global and local food security. Despite the progress made, the global response in terms of preserving crop diversity in ex situ facilities compliant with genebank standards is likely to be insufficient to respond to the alarming pace of the growth of the threats posed by climate change, particularly of the case for crop wild relatives, wild food plants and neglected and underutilized crop species. Species in these groups continue either to be absent from genebank collections or have their intraspecific diversity poorly represented.Reporting on the implementation of the Second GPA-PGRFA between 2012 and 2014 indicated that increased attention was being given to the in situ conservation of crop wild relatives. Among the 30,000 in situ conservation sites reported in 39 countries, 9 percent had management plans addressing crop wild relatives and wild food plants (FAO, 2020e). However, indicator scores for this area of management were low. Overall, in situ conservation and on-farm management (comprising priority activities in the fields of surveying and monitoring, supporting on-farm management and improvement, assisting farmers in disaster situations to restore crop systems, and promoting in situ conservation and management of crop wild relatives and wild food plants) underperformed as compared to ex situ conservation and other areas of PGRFA management (ibid.).The third round of country reporting on the implementation of the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources (GPA-AnGR) took place in 2019. Analysis of the 104 country progress reports submitted is ongoing at the time of writing, but broadly speaking they reveal that many countries have continued to strengthen their activities related to sustainable use and development. However, the level of implementation and the extent to which progress has been made since the adoption of the GPA vary greatly both across regions and across countries within regions, with higher levels reported in Europe and the Caucasus and North America than elsewhere. In 2014, when the previous round of country reporting took place, strategic priorities targeting sustainable use and development were at low to medium levels of implementation, with global average scores of between 0.5 and 1 out of a maximum of 2 (FAO, 2014c). Actions related to breeding programmes scored slightly better than those related to ecosystem approaches and support for local and traditional production systems. Sustainable use policies scored lowest, with averages dragged down by the underdeveloped state of access and benefitsharing policies in many countries (ibid.).As with PGRFA, the state of ex situ conservation of AnGR is monitored under SDG Target 2.5 (Box 2). Out of 7,760 local breeds (including extinct ones), 258 are reported to have some genetic material stored, and 79 are reported with sufficient material stored to allow them to be reconstituted (FAO, 2020a). The 2019 progress reports on the implementation of the GPA-AnGR indicate that conservation actions have continued to be strengthened over recent years in many countries. The previous round of country reporting again indicated low to medium levels of implementation of strategic priorities in this field (FAO, 2014c). In situ conservation scored relatively well compared to ex situ conservation (ibid.), although it needs to be borne in mind that in situ activities and their impacts are difficult to monitor because of a lack of detailed data and differences in the way the term is used in different countries. Country reporting for The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (FAO, 2015) indicated that at least some in situ conservation activities were being implemented in most countries, with a wide variety of different approaches reported, including those related to breeding programmes, to market development and to other forms of support for farmers and herders raising rarer breeds. However, it also clearly indicated that levels of implementation were far below those that countries considered necessary to provide an adequate degree of protection for their AnGR (ibid.). As of May 2020, 223 (11 percent) of the 1,808 local breeds recorded in DAD-IS (Box 2) as \"critical\" or \"endangered\" were listed as \"maintained\", meaning that \"active conservation programmes are in place or populations are maintained by commercial companies or research institutions\" (FAO, 2020a).The first round of country reporting on the implementation of the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Sustainable Use and Development of Forest Genetic Resources (GPA-FGR) took place in 2018 (FAO, 2019a). The response rate was quite low (44 countries) and hence it is not possible to draw comprehensive conclusions. Across the GPA-FGR as a whole, reporting countries had on average achieved 67 percent of action points and had initiated efforts to achieve a further 10 percent. Only four had achieved all 15 action points. A total of 1,145 tree and other woody plant species (including hybrids) were included in the 44 country progress reports. With regard to the state of use, a total of 531 tree species were reported to be included in national tree seed programmes. The numbers reported by individual countries varied greatly, from zero in several cases up to 114. A total of 288 species were reported to be included in tree-breeding programmes, with the numbers reported per country ranging from zero to 55. However, many more species are used in forestry; for the SoW-FGR, countries reported about 2,400 species as being actively managed for products or services in forestry and more than 700 as being included in tree improvement programmes (FAO, 2014b).Information on the status and trends of in situ conservation activities − the main approach to FGR conservation − is limited. In 2018, only 568 species were reportedly included in in situ conservation programmes and 647 in ex situ programmes. However, the country reports submitted for the SoW-FGR listed nearly 8,000 species of which about 1,000 were reportedly conserved in situ and 1,800 ex situ (FAO, 2014b). Only 625 out of 2,260 priority species listed were reported to be subject to any kind of ex situ conservation, with maintenance in field collections, including clone banks and provenance trials, much more frequently reported than storage in seed or in vitro collections (ibid.).As a GPA for the sector has yet to be adopted, AqGR management has no global monitoring system equivalent to those existing in other sectors. However, some relevant data are available. For example, Metian et al (2020) report the use of a large and increasing range of species in aquaculture, particularly in Asia, and argue that this enhances the resilience of the sector by improving capacity to adapt to change. While new species are being developed for aquaculture and the list of cultured species continues to expand, global aquaculture production is increasingly dominated by a few key species, with the top ten species accounting for 50 percent of global production (FAO, 2020c), a trend which, if it continues, may erode resilience to challenges such as disease and climate change.As noted above, genetic improvement activities are relatively underdeveloped in the aquaculture sector. Among the species listed as being farmed in the country reports submitted for the SoW-AqGR only 55 percent were reported to be subject to any kind of genetic management (FAO, 2019c). While studies indicate that there is potential for major gains in productivity via selective breeding of farmed aquatic species (ibid.), 45 percent of countries reported that genetic improvement was yet to have any significant impact on their aquaculture production, and the report identified an important need to increase the adoption of genetic programmes, especially for lower-value species important to food security. The report highlights the need to set an appropriate balance between investment in the diversification of species used in aquaculture and the application of genetic technologies to better adapt existing cultured species to diverse culture environments.In situ conservation of AqGR relates mainly to the protection of wild species, for example via the establishment of protected areas, management and regulation of fishing and other habitat-protection measures, although \"on-farm\" conservation to prevent the loss of farmed-type genetic resources is also required. Both aquaculture and capture fisheries have an important role to play and conservation objectives need to be integrated into aquaculture development and fisheries management strategies.Countries that contributed to the SoW-AqGR generally considered protected areas to be an effective means of conserving the genetic resources of wild relatives of farmed aquatic species (FAO, 2019c). Seventy-five percent of the 92 reporting countries indicated the implementation of ex situ conservation activities for aquatic organisms of national relevance falling within the scope of the report. Approximately 290 different species, almost 200 of which were considered to be threatened at national or international levels, were being maintained in a total of 690 ex situ collections. Finfish accounted for 90 percent of the species concerned, with the other 10 percent accounted for by macro-invertebrates and aquatic micro-organisms such as rotifers and microalgae. Most ex situ conservation is in vivo. About 38 percent of reporting countries indicated the existence of in vitro conservation of AqGR (farmed species and wild relatives), involving a total of 133 different species.Because of the difficulty of preserving the eggs and embryos of aquatic organisms, most in vitro conservation involves cryopreservation of sperm.Many micro-organisms and invertebrates of importance to food and agriculture are not actively managed in any way by producers. However, many approaches that involve introducing them into production systems or managing habitats to encourage their presence, for example in the context of integrated pest management, pollination management or integrated plant nutrition management, are becoming more widely implemented globally (FAO, 2019d). Few species are subject to genetic improvement. However, there are a substantial number of commercial honey-bee breeding companies around the world that implement genetic improvement programmes, with the main goals being higher honey production, greater docility, reduced swarming and, particularly in recent years, better disease tolerance (ibid.). Micro-organisms used in food processing and in agroindustrial processes are subject to a variety of geneticimprovement strategies (Alexandraki et al, 2013;Chatzipavlidis et al, 2013). Some genetic improvement is also being conducted in micro-organisms used in plant nutrition, biological control and food preservation (FAO, 2019d).Micro-organisms and invertebrates are conserved in situ along with other components of biodiversity in protected areas. They also benefit from the adoption of biodiversity-friendly management practices in the food and agriculture sector and elsewhere. However, the number of species specifically targeted is limited, as is information on the coverage and effectiveness of conservation measures (ibid.). Micro-organisms can be stored under laboratory conditions in a range of different ways. Existing culture collections are, however, far from representing the full range of micro-organisms of relevance to food and agriculture (ibid.). Various invertebrates of importance to food and agriculture are raised in captivity by commercial companies or by research institutes. However, there are few systematic ex situ conservation programmes, even for high-profile groups of invertebrates such as pollinators. Some work has been done on the cryoconservation of bee semen, although the technique has not become widely used (ibid.).Knowledge gaps are a major constraint to the effective management of GRFA. As discussed above, population status and trends are inadequately monitored across most categories, hindering the planning of conservation efforts. The following subsections briefly outline key knowledge gaps by sector and related to cross-sectoral integration.Monitoring PGRFA diversity in situ and on-farm to predict and minimize loss of inter-and intra-specific genetic variation is a major challenge, particularly in vulnerable groups such as crop wild relatives, wild food plants and underutilized crops. National conservation planning would greatly benefit from the development of indicators that could be widely used to quantify genetic erosion and monitor changes in the extent and distribution of individual species and populations at various scales. Research on the characteristics of the above-mentioned vulnerable groups, including on their reproductive biology, agronomic and nutritional properties, traditional and potential uses, and contributions to the health of agro-ecosystems, is vital to efforts to improve their conservation and sustainable use. Knowledge of their geographical distribution also needs to be improved.Efforts to integrate in situ and on-farm management and conservation of PGRFA with the work of national, regional and international genebanks and research institutes need to be documented and widely publicized. Knowledge gaps on recalcitrant seed physiology and behaviour in neglected species, along with a lack of standardized protocols for their in vitro conservation and cryopreservation − and a lack of alternative low-cost conservation methods -is often a severe constraint to national ex situ conservation programmes. Other key knowledge gaps relate to breeding systems, reproductive biology, dormancy mechanisms and technical problems associated with regeneration practices for \"unconventional\" species. The use of molecular methods, biochemical assays and high-throughput phenotyping in germplasm characterization and evaluation to identify useful genes, understand their expression and variation, and in particular understand their roles in adapting to climate change, increasing nutritional values and strengthening ecosystem services, has been limited to a few major crops in developed countries. Further work is also needed on development and harmonization of standards for the exchange of data on in situ germplasm and the documentation of ethnobotanical information on farmers' varieties, landraces and underutilized species.The genomic revolution has led to impressive progress both in terms of improving knowledge of AnGR and in terms of genetic improvement. However, it has also widened gaps between developed and developing countries and between the relatively few international transboundary breeds that increasingly dominate high-input production systems globally and the mass of breeds adapted to more extensive systems. There are clear knowledge gaps in terms of the characterization of phenotypes (especially functional and adaptive traits) and their relations to production environments. As characterization is a prerequisite for effective implementation of genetic improvement programmes (Leroy et al, 2016), these knowledge gaps are to some extent hindering the realization of the opportunities offered by genomics.One of the most important challenges in AnGR management relates to the difficulty of developing governance systems that fully integrate livestock keepers from developing regions (Leroy et al, 2017). Systems of this kind are vital to the implementation of characterization studies, breeding programmes and market development (Gowane et al, 2019). Experiences in this field need to be documented and publicized, although success will also depend on the provision of adequate institutional, technical and financial support over the long term (Mueller et al, 2015).Priorities in the field of FGR management include improving knowledge of the amount and distribution of genetic diversity in forest trees and of how well current efforts to conserve FGR in situ are maintaining this diversity in the long term (FAO, 2014b). There is also a need to enhance the production of seed and other forest reproductive material, especially for many native tropical and subtropical tree species, to meet demand for restoration and for establishing new forests and tree-based production systems (FAO, 2014b;FAO and UNEP, 2020). Furthermore, recent advances in forest genomics need to be translated into practical applications for conserving and using FGR and for increasing our understanding of the adaptation of forest trees to climate change (e.g. Holliday et al, 2017).Characterization and monitoring of AqGR suffers from a lack of knowledge of genetic resources below the level of species and a lack of standardization and harmonization of terminology and nomenclature. The prototype registry being developed by FAO for farmed types (Box 2) will help address this issue by promoting the collection and sharing of key information on the availability and properties of AqGR. A variety of genetic technologies can be used to develop and improve farmed types for use in aquaculture. However, a clear understanding of the risks and benefits of these technologies is often lacking. Aquaculture stands to benefit greatly from effective implementation and uptake of well-managed breeding programmes, with a focus on selective breeding. Many governments consider this a role for the public sector, but such programmes often fail to deliver tangible and long-term increases in production. There is a need to identify mechanisms for effective engagement of the private sector in such programmes, for example through public−private partnerships. Finally, cryopreservation clearly has a role to play in ex situ conservation of AqGR, but further research is needed into methods for cryopreservation of eggs and embryos.There are enormous knowledge gaps related to MIGR. In every taxonomic and functional group, many species remain to be identified and characterized. The roles of MIGR in the supply of ecosystem services, how they are affected by environmental changes and how they can be managed to support food and agricultural production need to be much better understood. Knowledge of the significance of micro-organism and invertebrate diversity at within-species level to food and agriculture is very limited.Integrated use of the various \"sectoral\" categories of genetic resources can give rise to a range of synergies and complementarities that can help increase productivity in a sustainable way and make production systems more resilient (Dawson et al, 2018;Duval et al, 2018;FAO, 2019d). There is a need for research into how integrated management can be made more effective at a range of scales, from the individual plot to the landscape. This needs to include research into how genetic resources management can contribute, for example via appropriate choice of combinations of species, varieties, breeds, etc. for use in particular integrated systems and via appropriate genetic improvement strategies.Despite some positive developments in various aspects of GRFA management, much remains to be improved. Progress towards SDG 2.5 has been minimal overall. Action clearly needs to be urgently stepped up across all sectors. However, there is also a vital need to improve cross-sectoral cooperation. For example, many drivers of loss of GRFA affect more than one sector of food and agriculture and in many cases also affect species and ecosystems that are priorities for the nature conservation sector. Habitat destruction is a major driver of loss of forest, aquatic, invertebrate and micro-organism genetic resources, as well as of wild relatives of crops and livestock and of biodiversity in general. Climate change is a severe threat across all categories of GRFA. Threats of this kind need to be addressed in a comprehensive and cross-sectoral way, with the food and agriculture sector recognizing its role as a major contributor to biodiversity loss.For domesticated plants and animals, changes in consumption patterns and production systems that lead to declines in the use of diverse GRFA are a major threat. This threat can to some extent be addressed by ensuring that diversity is utilized as fully as possible in the interests of livelihoods and food security, for example via the production benefits of raising species, breeds, varieties and farmed types that are well adapted to local conditions, the nutritional significance of diversity in the food supply and the marketing opportunities associated with unique products provided by specific GRFA. However, there is a need to recognize that the maintenance of genetic resources for the long term is a public good and that interventions specifically aimed at supporting producers in this role will, in some cases, be necessary. The challenge is to maximize synergies and manage trade-offs among the various demands placed on production systems in terms of supporting and improving local livelihoods and in terms of the reliable supply of a broad range of ecosystem services, including genetic resources conservation. Within a given landscape or seascape, this may require cooperation among stakeholders from the crop, livestock, forest, aquaculture, fisheries and nature-conservation sectors (among others).Approaches that effectively combine ex situ conservation with in situ conservation, and conservation with sustainable use, need to be promoted. These activities need to ensure that they target a sufficiently wide range of genetic resources to meet the needs of producers and other stakeholders across a range of diverse and changing production systems and, in the longer term, the needs of future generations. In this regard, there is a need to increase efforts to raise awareness among policymakers (and other stakeholders, including consumers) of the importance of neglected and underutilized GRFA. More generally, awareness raising with respect to the significance of all types of GRFA and the need to manage them sustainably remains a key priority.Across all sectors (including in the context of integrated management), the numerous knowledge gaps that constrain effective management of GRFA need to be urgently addressed. Where research is concerned, there is again a need to ensure that activities are sufficiently broad based in terms of the genetic resources and production systems targeted. Attention needs to be given to how new technologies and existing good practices can be scaled up and adapted for implementation in different contexts.Enabling policy, legal and institutional frameworks for sustainable management need to be put in place at all levels, including mechanisms for ensuring active and equitable stakeholder participation and collaboration. Stakeholder organizations and networks of various kinds have important roles to play, and their establishment or strengthening should be promoted where necessary.Although not a topic focused on in this paper, problems with the implementation of access and benefit-sharing mechanisms also remain to be addressed in many countries.At global scale, the existing GPAs have provided a valuable framework for planning and monitoring actions across the various fields of GRFA management, helped to raise awareness and promoted international cooperation. Over the coming period, the Commission will be working to finalize a global plan of action for AqGR and a global plan of action or other policy response for biodiversity for food and agriculture as a whole. The Convention on Biological Diversity is in the process of developing a global framework for all biodiversity for the post 2020 period (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2018). There is an urgent need for the international community to engage fully in these processes and in the implementation of their outcomes and those of the existing GPAs. Research has an essential role to play in informing both policy development and the implementation of agreed actions. Already back in 1979, the Nordic countries established what was probably the first regional genebank for the ex situ conservation of seeds of agricultural and horticultural plants. For many years, the (then) Nordic Gene Bank stood as an example of foresight regarding long-term conservation and use of plant genetic resources. Although occasional attempts were made to raise the issue of in situ conservation at the Nordic level (Blixt et al, 1992), concrete work and activities never took off. Decades later, during the period 2015-2019, the Nordic countries (Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Iceland) joined forces and initiated two subsequent projects to help strengthen the efforts of conservation and use of crop wild relatives (CWR) across the region.Whereas the first project focused on reviewing and revising previously published compilations of CWR taxa, and their prioritisation, the second one put more emphasis on developing guidelines. As a result, policy recommendations were put forward that included creating national strategies for each Nordic country, and adopting and implementing complementary in situ conservation as the main approach for safeguarding CWR across the region (Weibull et al, 2016).A central activity of the second project (Wild genetic resources -a tool to meet climate change) included an Eco-geographic Land Characterisation (ELC) analysis. Using eco-geographic diversity as a proxy for genetic diversity is a well-known technique (Parra-Quijano et al, 2012) that has been employed for certain Nordic countries (Phillips et al, 2016), but not previously for the entire Nordic region. Based on more than 971,000 occurrence records, and using ELC and socalled Complementary Conservation Analysis (Rebelo, 1994), Fitzgerald et al (2019) were able to single out those protected areas (PAs) in the region harbouring the largest number of priority CWR. The number one complementary PA site was in Aalborg Commune in Denmark covering 88 target species in two ELC zones. The surprising fact that the first complementary PA site in Sweden firstly appeared as number 13 on the Nordic list and, secondly, was represented by a PA site in the mountain region close to Norway called for an extended analysis.The work presented below takes a specific Swedish perspective and aims to answer the following questions:(1) How common are Nordic priority taxa in Sweden and how are they distributed over the country? (2) Will a targeted ELC analysis provide an eco-geographic map of higher resolution? (3) How well does taxon diversity and genetic proxy diversity coincide with the existing distribution of PAs? (4) Will we be able to pinpoint specific sites in Sweden where active in situ conservation of CWR may begin? We began by locating taxa rich areas and areas where potential data bias might be prevalent and continued by constructing an eco-geographic map to help determine how genetic diversity could be portioned across the country within populations of taxa. An in situ complementarity analysis accounting for taxa richness, eco-geographic richness and the PA network in the country was also performed. We see this work as a starting point for further in-depth research on CWR distribution, conservation and use within Sweden.In line with the Nordic level approach, priority CWR for Sweden were identified from the regional list of priority CWR (Fitzgerald et al, 2018). Therefore, the Swedish priority list contained 121 naturalized and indigenous taxa. Data on the taxa distribution was gathered from Swedish LifeWatch (https://www.anal ysisportal.se/) and limited to data gathered between the years 1990-2018. Distribution data was combined for duplicated taxa from the initial list, e.g. Barbarea vulgaris and Barbarea vulgaris var. vulgaris, to limit duplication of results. In total, 102 priority taxa were used for Sweden that altogether consisted of 617 320 occurrence points. Number of occurrences per taxon ranged from 29 646 (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) to less than 100 (Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch, Lactuca quercina L., Rubus allegheniensis Porter, Trifolium alpestre L. and Trifolium pratense var. maritimum Zabel). The taxa with fewer than 100 occurrences should be considered for further research and surveying efforts to confirm their distribution and levels of vulnerability.To identify areas of species richness and data bias the TomBio Tool in QGIS software QGIS (2020) was utilised. Analysis of taxon richness (Figure 1) shows clearly that the south and east of Sweden, including the island Öland in the Baltic Sea, are the areas containing the highest number of different taxa.The areas in the north of Sweden appear to be the least rich in priority taxa, however these areas also have the lowest number of recorded taxon occurrences (Figure 2). This is to be expected since these areas cover two thirds of the country and to a very high degree overlap with the three boreal zones (southern, middle and northern) and the alpine zone$, i.e. bio-geographical zones characterised by lower winter temperatures, shorter vegetation periods and lower habitat diversity. An exception to this general picture includes the coastal area along the Bothnian Gulf all the way up to the Swedish-Finnish border at Haparanda which is characterised by slightly more favourable climate and, thus, growing conditions.Although there are more CWR occurrence data in the areas in the southern third of the country, especially around large cities, this pattern is not completely reflected within the taxon richness map. Historically, occurrence data tend to be collected on an ad hoc, non-systematic, basis and closer to cities due to ease of access (Chapman, 2005). The pattern of CWR occurrences in Figure 2 also mirrors the demography of Sweden 1 and, as an additional effect, the location of main educational centres (universities, colleges). Therefore, any potential bias this may cause in the results should be acknowledged. This also shows a need to further survey those areas showing gaps in occurrence data to limit any biased results in future work. More surveying in the northern and western boreal and alpine regions of Sweden will help to fill in gaps in our knowledge on CWR distribution and increase the accuracy of predictive analyses using Geographic Information Systems.Eco-geographic maps take account of environmental variables that combined create unique adaptive scenarios for plant species. A combination of geophysical, edaphic and bioclimatic variables that have the greatest influence on abiotic adaptation of the species are then used to create an Eco-geographic Land Characterization map (ELC map). The resulting ELC zones can be used as a substitute to represent genetic diversity (Parra-Quijano et al, 2012). Thus, if populations are conserved both in situ and ex situ across their eco-geographic range (i.e. within all their ELC zones), this will ensure that the full range of genetic diversity is protected.The eco-geographic map for Sweden was created with the CAPFITOGEN software (Parra-Quijano et al, 2016) using the following environmental variables: isothermality (average temperature range/annual temperature range), elevation, aspect of slope, 'northness', 'eastness', topsoil organic carbon content, topsoil pH, and topsoil depth 2 . Figure 3 (left) shows the ELC map comprising 25 ELC zones at a resolution of 1 km 2 cells. The largescale pattern of ELC zones agrees reasonably well with the dominating land use classes of the country (Figure 3, right), which indicates that the ELC analysis does provide a useful estimate of vegetation characteristics and habitat diversity.The complementarity analysis is an important concept for ensuring efficient conservation of resources. As described by Rebelo and Siegfried (1990), the analysis uses an iterative selection approach in which the cell, or PA, with the highest taxon number is selected first. These taxa are subsequently excluded from the analysis and the location with the next highest number of different taxa is selected, upon which the procedure is being repeated until all taxa are conserved across a network of reserve locations. The complementarity analyses were created using CAPFITOGEN software (Parra-Quijano et al, 2016). Our complementarity analysis of the priority CWR within the network of PAs identified eight complementary areas that altogether conserve 101 (99%) of the priority taxa (Figure 4).The PA complementary network ensures that the largest number of different taxa are protected. In Sweden, the majority of suitable PAs, as regards priority CWR, were found to be located in coastal zones of Southern Sweden. The number one priority reserve, Kristianstad Vattenrike -a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve -is the number one priority location as it contains the highest number of unique taxa (85 of 102 taxa; Table 1). With the addition of the two following PAs -Stora Alvaret, a Birds Directive PA, and Tjålmejaure-Laisdalen, a Ramsar Site in Lapland -93% of the unique taxa on the Swedish priority list are covered.Using the eco-geographic map, we can determine which ELC zones are within each of the complementary PAs. This will help to determine how well represented the eco-geographic zones are within the proposed network, which may then help to determine the range of genetic diversity among populations that is captured within the network. In our study, 13 of the 24 ELC categories, or 54 %, are represented within the proposed PA complementary network.The grid cell complementary network takes account of the number of taxa across the whole of Sweden (not  just within PAs). The grid cell complementarity analysis revealed that to protect the same 101 priority taxa, altogether 10 (5 km 2 ) locations are required (Figure 5). The majority of these are found in the south of Sweden along the coast and in the east of Sweden around Stockholm and Uppsala. While the number one grid cell, located near Stockholm, includes 76 different taxa the three top cells in Sweden protects close to 90 % of the priority taxa.Overlaying both the PA complementary and grid cell complementary networks shows where locations overlap. This serves to help identify which locations to investigate further for potential in situ protection of CWR. In Sweden, it would be most efficient to focus initial in situ conservation efforts within those PAs that are located in the south such as Kristianstad Vattenrike, Stora Alvaret and Gotlandskusten. These PAs are also close to priority grid cell complementary locations.The rationale for carrying out this extended analysis was the fact that Sweden came out rather poorly in the study by Fitzgerald et al (2019). The southern parts of the country, known to have been repeatedly inventoried since the mid-1800s and whose flora is very well mapped (e.g. Weimarck and Weimarck, 1985;Sterner, 1986;Genberg, 1992;Rydberg and Wanntorp, 2001;Fröberg, 2006;Edqvist and Karlsson, 2007;Johansson et al, 2016;Johansson and Petersson, 2016), were surprisingly underrepresented as compared to the findings of other countries. When comparing our results with those of Fitzgerald et al (2019), we observe some immediate differences. Whereas both studies have three sites in common -Höga kusten (World Heritage Site), Gotlandskusten (Nature Conservation Area) and Hummelholm (Nature Reserve) -all other locations differ. In particular, we note that our two top locations -Kristianstad Vattenrike (UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve) and Stora Alvaret (Special Protection Area -Birds Directive) -were not even included in the joint Nordic analysis.There may be several reasons for this, but we suggest that a main cause could be the background data upon which the analysis is based. The datasets provided by the UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC-UNEP) contain the entire spectrum of PAs, ranging from areas with 'strict' protection such as national parks, nature reserves, habitat protection areas, and wildlife and plant sanctuaries via so-called natural monuments (e.g. individual and unique trees) to World Heritage Sites and UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserves. In our analysis for Sweden, we deselected sites that could give bias to our analysis including, e.g., those representing different habitats or purposes of protection such as HELCOM areas (Baltic Sea PAs), OSPAR (Marine PAs), and RAMSAR sites. In addition, natural monuments that commonly represent individual objects were also removed. In our view, these measures provide a better subset of PAs on which to draw conclusions.Another aspect relates to the analysis of occurrence data. While Fitzgerald et al (2019) used 971,633 data points in their analysis of the entire Nordic region, we based our results on 617,320 data points from Sweden only (time frame 1990-2018). We argue that data robustness is absolutely essential to be able to draw proper conclusions from analyses at a higher level of resolution. The risk of bias when using large data sets of distribution records, such as those available from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), has been shown earlier (Beck et al, 2014). We certainly acknowledge the value of the broad Nordic analysis, but, as shown in this study, care should be taken when drawing generic conclusions to describe the situation 'on ground'.The large differences in number of ELC zones found in the regional vs. the national analysis, respectively, may at first seem surprising. What could the reason(s) be that we observed 25 ELC zones while Fitzgerald et al (2019) only described 8-10 in their analysis? The fact that an analysis covering the entire Nordic Region per se implies a much larger geographical scale also means that the ELC variables used should try to capture the landscape over a wider range of eco-geographic 'niches'. Given that the diversity of zones vary greatly from Northern Iceland to South Denmark and Eastern Finland, it should be expected that Sweden -not sharing all the same niches -would only be described by a share of all the zones. While the regional analysis is important from the point of developing joint approaches, this observation highlights the importance of also looking at domestic eco-geographic variability as a basis for selecting key PAs for CWR in situ conservation. Finally, the observation by Fitzgerald et al (2019) that 58 % of the identified important PAs for CWR conservation were situated in Norway raises the notion of possible data bias, as well as the procedure by which sites for CWR diversity are being identified. Firstly, while the total number of PAs in Norway is only 27 % and 50 % of that of Finland and Sweden, respectively, the vast majority (80.6 %) are classified as Strict Nature Reserves (IUCN PA category Ia). Finland, on the other hand, is characterised by a large proportion of category VI PAs (89.5 %). The fact that such areas are \"[. . . ] often established to protect particular species or habitats rather than the specific ecological aims of category Ia\" (IUCN, 2020) points to the possibility that CWR diversity is higher in category Ia areas and it is for this reason that Norway takes a lead in the Nordic regional comparison. Secondly, the finding that well-known and diversity-rich sites in several of the countries (e.g. Åland archipelago in Finland and Öland in Sweden) did not appear in the regional analysis calls for a careful evaluation of how data points and variables are used in the analysis. Fitzgerald (personal communication) noted a general problem with coastline taxa that, \"depending on the coordinate points and country map boundaries [. . . ] in some cases end [ed] up in the sea and therefore [had to] be removed from the analysis.\" From a national perspective, where priorities need to be made, it is essential that those sites comprising the widest taxon and eco-geographic diversity are selected.Our extended analysis of occurrence data of Swedish CWR has helped us to identify three major PAs where in situ conservation could take off. Initial steps are now being taken to proceed with concrete measures within the UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve Kristianstad Vattenrike. Further work is needed, however, to ensure the long-term robustness of any CWR conservation strategy within Sweden. Such planned activities are framed within the established Nordic CWR network that is led by NordGen, and include:• An ex situ conservation analysis to identify any gaps in the collection of material for conservation and use outside of PAs, on the assumption that seed management of CWR is technically and economically feasible; • A predicted distribution analysis of how populations may move under the current climate and to help identify collecting and data bias gaps across the country; and • A climate change analysis to determine if, how and when taxa may shift their distributions as the climate changes. This will be vital in determining which in situ PAs will be the most effective in the long-term conservation of Swedish CWR.Finally, from a European perspective, it would be worthwhile in the future to foster synergies with other genetic resource domains (e.g. forestry, animal) in terms of identifying conservation sites and needs. Such an approach may help to strengthen an in situ conservation network for CWR by adding \"value\" to proposed in situ sites.According to Article 1 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992), the objective of the Convention is 'the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources' 1 .  (2014), there is as yet no specific, internationally agreed legal definition of the term 'benefit-sharing' in the context of utilising genetic resources (Schroeder, 2007;Morgera and Tsioumani, 2010;Morgera, 2014;Parks, 2019). In addition, the terms 'fair' and 'equitable' are also not clearly defined (de Jonge, 2011; Morgera, 2014). This can lead to difficulties between stakeholder groups in terms of different interpreted definitions and requirements associated with benefit-sharing, as well as differences in motivation with respect to the notion (de Jonge, 2009(de Jonge, , 2011)). Nonetheless, the Nagoya Protocol and other genetic resource frameworks, such as the FAO International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and the WHO Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework for the sharing of influenza viruses and access to vaccines and other benefits, provide suggestions of what benefitsharing could entail (FAO, 2001;Nagoya Protocol, 2011;World Health Organization, 2011). A list of types of nonmonetary and monetary benefits that can be shared are listed in the Annex of the Nagoya Protocol (2011).Negotiations for a new international legally binding instrument (ILBI) under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982) for the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) began in 2018. Negotiations address a 'package' of four elements and cross-cutting issues. The four elements include: marine genetic resources (MGR), including questions on the sharing of benefits; measures such as area-based management tools (ABMT), including marine protected areas (MPAs); environmental impact assessments (EIA); and capacity-building and transfer of marine technology (UNGA Res. 72/249, UN Doc. A/Res/72.249, 24 December 2017, para. 2.). In order to govern MGR in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) and to answer questions on the sharing of benefits, it is important to consider which benefitsharing options may be most appropriate in this particular context.Under the Nagoya Protocol, benefits should be shared by the users of genetic resources with the provider state, in accordance with domestic legislation (Art 5. Nagoya Protocol 2011). However, in the BBNJ context, although the types of users may be similar, there will be no provider of the genetic resources, since MGR exist outside the borders of national jurisdiction. It has not yet been agreed who the beneficiaries will be, but could involve 'developing states Parties, in particular least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, geographically disadvantaged states, small island developing states, coastal African states and developing middle-income countries' (Art 11, BBNJ draft text, 2019a). In addition, since the Nagoya Protocol applies only to areas within national jurisdiction, the same access and benefit-sharing (ABS) provisions do not apply to the utilisation of genetic resources from ABNJ. As such, new benefit-sharing options are under consideration for adoption as part of the new BBNJ agreement (BBNJ draft text, 2019a) 2 .Whilst a list of potential benefit-sharing options can be found in the Annex of the Nagoya Protocol (2011), the effectiveness and success of these measures, and the ABS system as a whole, has been questioned by stakeholders (Fedder, 2013;Pauchard, 2017;Ruiz-Muller, 2018). Between 1996 and 2017, a total of 217 ABS agreements for commercial research and 248 for non-commercial research were concluded (Pauchard, 2017). To date, there is a lack of evidence to support the assumption that benefit-sharing leads to effective conservation of biodiversity (Suneetha and Pisupati, 2009;Pisupati and Bavikatte, 2014). In addition, the burden on the users (such as universities and private companies) and regulatory authorities in terms of administrative complexity when complying with ABS legislation and conducting benefit-sharing can act as a disincentive for utilisation of genetic resources, potentially limiting the benefits derived and shared (Richerzhagen and Holm-Mueller, 2005;Tvedt, 2013). Further challenges exist with regards to achieving fair and equitable benefit-sharing and sustainable development (Louafi, 2013;Tsioumani, 2018). It is timely and appropriate, therefore, to reevaluate how the success of implementing benefitsharing options are measured and reconsider which forms may most fairly balance the positive and burdensome associated aspects (Ruiz-Muller, 2018). In order to understand this balance, key factors may be used to assess the overall positive influence of a benefitsharing option, such as the number of beneficiaries receiving benefits, the effect on biodiversity goals and the long-term impacts and significance of benefitsharing, as well as the overall burdensome aspects, such as the burden on the user of genetic resources and the burden on the regulator (Tvedt, 2013;Correa, 2017;Morgera, 2018a;Harden-Davies and Gjerde, 2019).Consideration of the benefit-sharing options for adoption as part of the new BBNJ agreement provides a good opportunity to identify benefit-sharing factors and assess the overall positive versus burdensome balance of different benefit-sharing options. It has been noted that of the four elements under consideration as part of the BBNJ package, MGR including questions on the sharing of benefits remains the most challenging and immature element, with few detailed solutions suggested to date (Voigt-Hanssen, 2018). This is to be expected given the different stakeholder perspectives, goals and concerns Collins et al (2020). However, review of non-monetary and monetary benefit-sharing options in light of benefit-sharing factors and understanding of which measures may provide the most fair and balanced outcome could provide a useful platform on which negotiatons can progress (BBNJ, 2019a;Sirakaya, 2019;Collins et al, 2020).The first aim of this paper, therefore, is to develop a benefit-sharing methodology which can be used as a tool to understand the balance of beneficial versus burdensome aspects associated with different benefitsharing options. This will involve making use of a multi-criteria analysis technique (MCA) to help decisionmakers to select options in an objective and transparent manner (de Brucker et al, 2013). The main objective of the MCA technique is to overcome challenges that human decision-makers experience when handling large amounts of complicated information in a consistent manner (Dodgson et al, 2009). The second aim is to demonstrate how the methodology can work by applying it to the BBNJ context, to review the different types of non-monetary and monetary benefit-sharing options with potential for adoption under the new agreement, in order to determine which forms may provide more balanced outcomes. The BBNJ context was selected for demonstration of the methodology because these negotiations represent a relevant, current opportunity which may directly benefit from such an exercise with regards to making informed decisions in terms of the benefit-sharing options to be adopted in the treaty text. This objective was achieved by identifying the key benefit-sharing factors to consider, as well as their relative importance to stakeholders. The benefitsharing factors were then applied to different benefitsharing options through the use of the new equation, to reveal the balance of beneficial impacts versus burden associated with the different options.The authors acknowledge the limited number of interviewees involved and suggest that further interviews with a larger number of participants would be needed to draw significant conclusions in the context of ongoing BBNJ negotiations, as well as also in other genetic resource ABS circumstances. In addition, the authors wish to highlight the broad scope of the current paper and general nature of the factors considered. Future research is needed to build on the results gathered in this study and to include more comprehensive literature review as well as more detailed information gathered from various expert groups. This would help to consolidate the perceived balance of beneficial impacts versus burden associated with benefit-sharing options.The study began with a scoping literature review to identify benefit-sharing factors that may enable analysis of the positive versus burdensome aspects of benefitsharing options. The benefit-sharing options which could be considered for a potential governance (ABS) system for MGR from ABNJ were also identified (FAO, 2001;Nagoya Protocol, 2011;World Health Organization, 2011;BBNJ, 2019b;Collins et al, 2020). The literature review involved searches through Pubmed, Embase, EurLex, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the United Nations BBNJ website 3 , the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Nagoya Protocol (UNCLOS, 1982;CBD, 1992;Nagoya Protocol, 2011). Search keywords included: benefit-sharing, ABS, genetic resources, MGR, ABNJ, and capacity building.As a result of the authors' own experience in terms of how benefit-sharing works in practice, specifically the modalities of drafting and negotiating benefitsharing contracts, coupled with literature review, five factors were identified as being the main objectives and considerations of benefit-sharing associated with utilisation of genetic resources (referred to in this paper as 'benefit-sharing factors', Young and Tvedt, 2017). generate the so-called 'benefits' in the first place, such as tailored training courses or a monetary payment, but also the transaction cost of sharing benefits. In addition, the generation and sharing of benefits will involve human labour costs, for example sending experts to beneficiary locations to conduct capacity-building or training initiatives. Time may represent another burdensome aspect. Whilst some types of benefit-sharing require only one simple transaction, other forms may require repeated actions over time. BBNJ context: sharing of benefits in the BBNJ context may involve burdens and costs to the user, for example to set up and organise databases in which MGR data can be stored and accessed, or sending of laboratory equipment as a form of technology transfer. 5. Burden on the regulator: A regulator may encounter a degree of burden linked to the process of benefit-sharing, as well as related to the need to build capacity in the context of novel regulation. This may involve raising awareness of and enforcing compliance with applicable legislation. These burdens may be both in terms of monetary costs and human labour costs, similar to those described for the users above. However, for the regulator, these costs may be linked to monitoring and checking compliance of users with the benefit-sharing requirements. BBNJ context: at present, it remains unclear whether there will be a regulator for ABNJ, or who this could be (Mohammed, 2017;BBNJ, 2019b). However, in the event that there is a regulator/regulatory body charged with regulating ABS linked to MGR from ABNJ, and benefit-sharing is a requirement, then the regulator may face burdens associated with overseeing the process of benefit-sharing, particularly in terms of monetary costs, complexity and time.The reasoning behind the five factors on benefit-sharing is threefold. The first reason relates to the concept of establishing a balanced ABS system as referred to in our previous research (Sirakaya, 2019(Sirakaya, , 2020)). For an ABS system to successfully establish balance between the user and the provider (in bilateral genetic resources frameworks), so as to fairly distribute benefits arising from utilisation of genetic resources between the users of genetic resources and beneficiaries, it is crucial to ensure that such a system attends to the international biodiversity goals. The authors here specifically explore benefit-sharing options and therefore the factors pay due regard to the international biodiversity goals as identified under our current research as well as the previous research conducted on the matter (Sirakaya, 2020). Secondly, the five factors were selected since they clearly define and influence the modalities of benefit-sharing and can be negotiated when drafting agreements (Young and Tvedt, 2017). The authors believe that these factors, coupled with agreement between users and providers, can promote an objective balance in benefit-sharing.Multiple stakeholder groups are involved within the BBNJ context and it is of utmost importance that an instrument is developed that attains the needs of all of these groups to the greatest extent possible. A stakeholder-driven MCA is the best available method to achieve this (de Brucker et al, 2013) (Sirakaya and De Brucker, personal communication). A recent study conducted by Sirakaya and De Brucker (under review) demonstrates how MCA can been applied to design regulatory frameworks for access to genetic resources in cases which involve multiple stakeholders. As such, the third reason for the selection of the criteria refers to the importance of stakeholder consultation under the MCA. According to Freeman (1984), stakeholders are defined as 'any individual or group who can affect an organisation's performance or who is affected by the achievement of this organisation's objectives.' Looking into regulatory issues related to benefit-sharing in ABNJ, taking into account Freeman's definition, five key stakeholder groups were identified: developing states, developed states, civil society, the scientific research community and the private sector (Collins et al, 2020). Although questions remain regarding whether there will be any form of regulatory body in the BBNJ context, this could potentially involve members from both developing and developed states working together to fulfill the role. The scientific research community and private sector represent the potential users of MGR. Developing states and civil society are the likely beneficiary groups who would receive benefits shared from utilisation of MGR from ABNJ.Stakeholders' perceptions play a crucial role in MCA conducted on ABS frameworks. This is due to the fact that a balanced ABS system can only be established if there is a reasonable ABS framework that the users would be incentivised to adhere to. The same principle applies to a potential benefit-sharing system for ABNJ. The users (i.e. the scientific research community and private sector) would only be incentivised if there is a foreseeable balance between the impact of being a part of the system and the burden thereof. Likewise, the system would only function as intended if the cost borne to the regulator (including members from developing and developed states) of establishing and maintaining the system is considerably lower than the benefits generated through the system to be shared with beneficiaries (developing states and civil society). In line with this, Harden-Davies and Gjerde (2019) stipulate the 'need to strike a balance between the right to use and the responsibility to share'. Therefore, by reviewing the balance of potential beneficial impacts (private, social and environmental aspects) versus burden, negotiators may be in a better position to make informed decisions regarding which benefit-sharing options may be most  Pisupati and Bavikatte (2014) appropriate to consider including as part of a new benefit-sharing framework for ABNJ.In sum, these five benefit-sharing factors are crucial in establishing a balanced benefit-sharing framework for ABNJ with governance options that attain international biodiversity objectives, as outlined by legal acts and treaty's, and pay due regard to stakeholder preferences (Collins et al, 2020).In order to objectively evaluate different benefitsharing options in terms of the ratio of potential positive impacts versus associated burden in a fair and consistent manner, an equation was proposed, taking into consideration the five benefit-sharing factors (see Figure 1). Weighted values were used in this study to incorporate consideration of the fact that some benefitsharing factors may be perceived as more important than other factors and should therefore contribute more to the final score. Different methods can be used to generate the weighting values for different factors. For example, an analytic hierarchy process, case-based reasoning, simple multi-attribute rating technique, mathematical programming or interview approaches could be used (von Winterfeldt and Edwards, 1986;Ho et al, 2010;Nerini et al, 2014). In this study, the values of weightings were obtained through an interview process. Benefit-sharing factors (G, #, S, U, R) were first each multiplied by an average weighting (a-e) assigned to each factor by interviewees. The three positive, weighted benefit-sharing factor scores are multiplied together, as are the two burdensome, weighted factor scores. The positive aspects are then divided by the burdensome aspects to give a benefit-sharing balance value for each benefit-sharing option.After development of the benefit-sharing methodology (see Figure 1), a semi-structured, qualitative interview was prepared (see Supplemental File 1). Interviews were conducted with ten experts. Availability and willingness to participate in the interview represented a controlling factor in the recruitment of participants, as well as the variety of stakeholder groups, and contributed to the limited numbers. These experts are based in different locations around the world (four from developing and six from developed states) and representative of different stakeholder groups: two from the scientific research community (one from a developed and one from a developing state), three from developing states delegations, three from developed states delegations, and two from civil society (both from developed states). Whilst effort was made to include private sector stakeholders in the interview process, and indeed representatives from one organisation did provide helpful feedback on some of the questions, time constraints and availability of representatives rendered this not possible in the scope of the current study.Interviews were conducted during the third session of the intergovernmental conference (IGC3) for BBNJ in New York (between 19-28 August 2019).The interviews followed a pre-defined guide list of questions (see Supplemental File 1), which started by requesting participants to rank five benefit-sharing factors (see Table 1) on a scale from 1 to 5 in terms of perceived relative importance (see Figure 2). Participants were then asked to score a variety of nonmonetary and monetary benefit-sharing options in terms of potential impact of these on the five benefit-sharing factors (from 0 = no impact, to 5 = very high impact), according to their perspective, and to give short reasons for their decisions. These scores were used to perform a MCA, whereby scores were multiplied by the average weighting assigned to each factor and inserted into an equation (see Figure 1), to determine the balance of potential positive impact versus burden associated with each different form of benefit-sharing (see Figure 3 and Figure 4). This enabled comparison of the ratio of potential positive impacts versus burden between different benefit-sharing options, taking into account the relative importance of different key factors. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. Microsoft Excel software was used as a means to store the data. A thematic analysis of the transcripts was conducted to identify common themes in responses. All data were anonymised by grouping results into stakeholder groups. Written informed consent forms were signed by all of the interviewees in this study.According to the average stakeholder ranking, biodiversity goals were considered as the most important factor to be taken into consideration when assessing how balanced different benefit-sharing options are. The other four benefit-sharing factors were considered approximately equal in terms of importance (see Figure 2). The range of ranking given by interviewees was greatest for the direct beneficiaries factor, as indicated by the larger error bar in Figure 2. Reasons given by interviewees for these rankings are described below. Biodiversity Goals. The majority of interviewees stated that the biodiversity goals are the most critical factor from their perspective. Whilst many different goals could fall under this category, interviewees most frequently referred to conservation of biodiversity as the aspect that they consider most important. This is because the goals of 'conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity' are the key overarching goals of the new agreement as a whole (BBNJ, 2019b). Collins et al (2020) present further detailed information regarding stakeholder goals for a potential new ABS mechanism for ABNJ. Other goals, such as promoting marine scientific research, are viewed as necessary to achieve the conservation objectives. They also indicated that biodiversity goals are more important than any of the other four benefit-sharing factors considered in this study. One interviewee noted that biodiversity goals are important for all stakeholders involved, not just for the beneficiaries of benefit-sharing.Direct Beneficiaries. Most interviewees indicated the benefits should be shared amongst as many people as possible, and that the greater the number of people who are positively affected the better. However, three interviewees also noted that the importance of beneficiaries depends on the definitions, whether it is only the people who are directly affected, or also those who indirectly benefit. Sometimes only a few people may immediately and directly benefit from a benefitsharing initiative, such as collaborative or joint venture projects, but such an effort may indirectly have a large impact on many more people and other factors, perhaps over time. For example, sharing of MGR samples and data for scientific research may only initially affect a moderately low number of people, but if this leads to development of new pharmaceutical products to treat human illness or to maintaining the health of the ocean through conservation measures, then a far larger number of beneficiaries will be encountered.Benefit-Sharing Significance. The majority of interviewees assigned this factor a moderately high score. Two interviewees stated that the duration of benefit-sharing significance is vital. However, two other interviewees gave this a moderately low score and suggested that, from their perspective and in the current context, this factor was not as important as the others considered in this study. Burden on the Users of (M)GR. Burden on the user was considered moderately important by over half of interview participants. One interviewee raised the question of whether there might be the possibility to charge a 'handling fee' for certain types of benefits (such as sharing of material). The degree of burden on the user may be affected by whether there is the possibility to charge a handling fee (or similar) to disseminate MGR samples and other benefits. It was suggested that sharing of benefits cannot all be for free.Burden on the Regulator. The majority of interviewees assigned this factor a high score. Whilst it remains unclear whether there might be or who might constitute the regulatory authority in the BBNJ context, it is possible that such an institution will be established. Interviewees acknowledged that this is an important factor because if burden on the regulator is not taken into careful consideration, then the whole benefitsharing system, whether non-monetary or monetary, could fail. For example, if the system is overly expensive, then any potential monetary benefits may be used to fund running of the system itself rather than accruing for the benefit of beneficiaries (Morgera and Tsioumani, 2010;Morgera, 2014;Tsioumani, 2018). In addition, burden on the regulator could result in lengthy decisionmaking processes, thereby indirectly affecting potential users.To gather perspectives on benefit-sharing, interviewees were asked to consider the potential influence of different benefit-sharing options on the five benefit-sharing factors (Table 1). Analysis of the President's aid to negotiations (2019) and a review of the literature lead to identification of seven non-monetary benefitsharing options which could be considered in the context of governing the utilisation of MGR from ABNJ (see Figure 3). A description of the options considered in this study, and their significance, can be found in Sirakaya (2019) and Collins et al (2020). Non-monetary benefitsharing options considered here include:1. Sharing of Raw Data: The benefit-sharing balance, as calculated using the equation described above, indicated the most favourable balance of beneficial impacts versus burden associated with sharing of GSD and sharing of research results. Sharing of biochemical information, metadata and capacity building received a similar, but slightly lower score. Technology transfer, and in particular research directed towards priority needs, received less favourable balances (see Figure 3B). Reasons given by interviewees for potential positive impacts versus burden associated with different non-monetary benefit-sharing options are described below.For some participants, all three types of raw data sharing are viewed together as a package. It was suggested that if raw data were to be made publicly available online, this could have a positive impact on a relatively large number of beneficiaries (Figure 3A). This is because many people would then be able to access the data easily, quickly and possibly for free. However, two interviewees also acknowledged that many people, particularly in developing states, may not be able to make use of the raw data since they lack the capacity to work on it. As such, unless accompanied by capacity building, the number of beneficiaries impacted by sharing of raw data may not actually be very high. Interviewees suggested that sharing of raw data may not immediately have a large effect on the number ofBenefit-Sharing 31 direct beneficiaries, the biodiversity goals or benefitsharing significance. However, by building up large data sets, the beneficial impact of sharing raw data on these benefit-sharing factors may grow and could become relatively high over time. This could also be in part due to the long-lived nature of data; once data is curated and stored, it can be made available and accessed for a very long time. One interviewee suggested that sharing of raw data could be one of the best things we could do to have a positive influence on the benefit-sharing significance.One interviewee explained that a lot more work is required to generate biochemical information than for generation of metadata and GSD, because the process is comparably less straightforward. In addition, one interviewee suggested that whilst it is already best practice to share metadata and GSD, they were unsure whether it is yet best practice to share all biochemical information. Therefore, the burden on the user associated with sharing of biochemical information, in terms of opportunity cost, may be higher than that associated with the other forms of raw data sharing. In addition, the burden on the users related to sharing of data may depend on the stakeholder group in question and the type of data that is required to be shared. For some users, such as those in the private sector, this is likely to be very burdensome and possibly even a deterrent, particularly if mandatory and involves the obligation to share commercially important data. This is because mandatory sharing of raw data would likely change the incentive to invest. Scientists in the private sector routinely conduct novel scientific research and publish results in scientific journals. They also disclose scientific information in the form of patents. However, from a commercial viewpoint, if sharing of data beyond current practice is mandatory, this may have broad implications for protection of intellectual property (IP) and for maintaining competitive market advantage. As such, mandatory sharing of valuable data may disincentivise investments in private sector projects involving MGR from ABNJ.Interviewees indicated that the level of burden on the users and on the regulators would depend on the way in which benefit-sharing is done. Under the assumption that a new system is developed and must be used to share benefits, for example sharing of GSD through a clearing house mechanism or other form of database, this could lead to significant burden on the users and regulators. One interviewee noted that in the draft treaty text (BBNJ, 2019a), reference is made to a new system whereby benefits will need to be shared through a clearing house 7 and raises the question of timing. According to the interviewee, the issue of when and how benefits will be shared could have huge impacts on the degree of burden experienced. If benefit-sharing is left according to current practices, particularly in terms of where raw data are stored, then this could have very little or even zero impact on the burden felt by users or the new regulator. However, if we proceed with a new system, requiring a change in the way that data are shared, burden may be encountered by users in terms of requiring conversion of data into a particular format to fit into a specific database. As such, if benefitsharing were to become mandatory and involves new requirements and procedures, the burden on the users will be higher than at present.The burden on the regulator could be relatively straightforward, if all they have to do is verify that data is being shared with a database, but the degree of burden will depend on how much information they need. One interviewee also noted that it may be important to consider the burden on the beneficiaries accepting raw data. This may involve requirements to develop infrastructure to receive and make use of data.Interviewees indicated that a relatively large number of beneficiaries could be impacted by the sharing of research results (Figure 3A). However, one interviewee suggested that research results, such as a research paper, may be read by fewer people compared to the number of people who could access or use raw MGR data.Sharing of research results could have a large positive effect on the overall impact of benefit-sharing, and also on the biodiversity goals such as conservation. It was suggested that this could be partly due to the long-lived nature of research results.Interviewees suggested that the impact of sharing research results on the burden experienced by users would be moderate, since writing of research articles inherently involves a degree of human labour costs. However, it was also noted that this could be less burdensome for users than sharing of raw data, because this would involve a different system which may remain more similar to current practice. It was suggested that the burden on the regulator may also be moderate, but would depend on whether this was mandatory or voluntary. If the regulator was required to track that sharing of research results has been done, then this could lead to quite a heavy burden. Capacity Building. It was suggested that the influence of capacity building on biodiversity goals and significance would depend on how sustainable the capacity building initiatives are. For example, if scientists are trained as part of a capacity building effort and then decide to leave the country, this cannot be considered as sustainable. According to one interviewee, this is unfortunately the case when reviewing current capacity building activity, and represents a challenge faced in many developing countries. The key question here is how to ensure the sustainability of capacity building. In an ideal world capacity building would be sustainable, so that effects are long-lasting.The burden on the users of MGR may be greater in association with capacity building than some of the other options (Figure 3A). This is because it requires a combination of time, money and specific expertise to execute such an initiative. Technology Transfer. It was suggested that the number of beneficiaries who could benefit from technology transfer would be moderately low. It was proposed that this may be because only a few people will be able to make use of the technology, particularly if the technology is very sophisticated and the absorptive capacity is low. One interviewee suggested that the impact of technology transfer on the biodiversity goals will be less than that associated with other benefitsharing options (Figure 3A). As with capacity building, the influence of technology transfer on the benefitsharing significance will depend on the sustainability. Interviewees were of the opinion that technology transfer may have an impact for a short amount of time, but were uncertain whether this would have long-lasting effects.The burden on the users related to technology transfer may depend on the stakeholder group in question, the type of technology that is required to be shared, who pays for the transfer of technology and the means by which this is done. It was suggested that for some users, such as the scientific research community, this may be less burdensome than sharing of raw data. However, for other uses, such as those in the private sector, this is likely to be very burdensome, particularly if mandatory. This is because investors in the private sector aim to recoup investments, and mandatory, free transfer of technology would possibly discourage further investment. Alternatively, one interviewee suggested that if technology transfer were to be conducted on commercial terms, this could represent less burden for the private sector. Research Directed Towards Priority Needs. One interviewee stated that, although research directed towards priority needs has the potential to reach a lot of people and could have a very high impact on attending to the biodiversity goals, particularly contributing towards conservation and sustainable use, they simply did not think that it was going to happen. This is because the interviewee felt that such a system of focusing research on priority needs would be unfeasible and unworkable. As such, the anticipated number of beneficiaries and influence on biodiversity goals and significance was scored relatively low (Figure 3A). In addition, it was noted that the impact of research directed towards priority needs on the benefit-sharing factors would depend on what exactly the priority needs are.The burden on the user was thought to be moderately high, unless the users are already conducting research in the priority needs area. One interviewee suggested that such priority needs could be linked to research with socially beneficial uses, including 'health and food security' as described in Article 8 of the Nagoya Protocol (2011). This is because forcing scientists to change their research from one field of work to a different one, associated with the identified priority needs, would require significant monetary costs. Similarly, the burden on the regulator would likely also be high. It was suggested that the regulator may experience burden associated with understanding who the developing states are, identifying their priority needs and deciding how this should be regulated. One interviewee noted that it would likely be very difficult for a regulator to monitor this, and could be very challenging if it involves a new system in which to direct their regulation towards this specific purpose.Analysis of the President's aid to negotiations (2019) and a review of the literature lead to identification of eight monetary benefit-sharing options which could be considered in the BBNJ context (see Figure 4). A description of the options considered in this study, and why they might be important, can be found in Sirakaya (2019) and Collins et al (2020). Monetary benefitsharing options considered here include:1. Research Funding 2. Salaries 3. Joint Ventures 8 4. Joint IP Rights 5. Royalties 6. Milestone Payments 7. License Fee 8. Access FeeInterviewees were asked to consider the potential impact of different monetary benefit-sharing options on the five benefit-sharing factors. According the benefit-sharing balance calculation, the most favourable monetary benefit-sharing option, in terms of balancing beneficial impacts versus burden, was research funding followed closely by salaries (see Figure 4B). Joint ventures were considered the next most favourable option, followed by joint IP rights. Access fee, milestone payments, license fee and royalties were viewed as similar in terms of balancing the potential positive impacts versus burden. Reasons given by interviewees for potential positive impacts versus burden associated with different monetary benefit-sharing options are described below.Interviewees noted that their answers in this section were given under the assumption that commercialisation of MGR is successful and that there will be money to share. This is crucial, because four interviewees out of the ten indicated that they do not believe that there will be any financial profits derived from R&D on MGR, and therefore no money to share. Research Funding and Salaries. Five of the ten interviewees indicated that they view research funding and salaries as similar in terms of the potential positive impacts versus burden. Interviewees indicated that research funding and salaries could have a greater positive influence on the biodiversity goals and benefit-sharing significance than the other forms of monetary benefit-sharing, and may have more longterm positive effects (see Figure 4A). For example, research funding could help to build capacity in developing states, potentially contributing towards enhanced employability, and could also be directly focused on long-term conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. One interviewee noted that the level of burden on the user associated with research funding and salaries would depend on who is paying for it. The burden on the users would be low if this is to be paid by the regulator, and the burden on the regulator may be relatively high. However, vice versa may be true if the users are required to pay this. It was also suggested that since research funding is something that is already done by the scientific community, then the burden on the regulator would likely be less for research funding than other monetary benefit-sharing options, if the regulator is only required to make sure that the money has been channeled appropriately.Joint Ventures. Most interviewees agreed that joint ventures would influence a relatively low number of beneficiaries (Figure 4A). One participant stated that joint ventures will require money which cannot be shared amongst many people, and therefore the number of people affected will likely be low. The influence of joint ventures on the biodiversity goals and significance was also thought to be low, and would likely depend on the conditions.It was suggested that the level of burden experienced by the user and the regulator would be moderate, but could be low if joint ventures were considered on a voluntary rather than a mandatory basis. This is because if joint ventures were required on a mandatory basis, then perhaps users/ organisations who are not equipped with the appropriate capacity would struggle to establish such projects.Joint IP Rights. The majority of interviewees felt that joint IP rights (IPR) would impact a low number of beneficiaries (Figure 4A). One interviewee suggested that perhaps it was possible for this number to grow over time. Participants were also of the view that the influence of joint IPR on biodiversity goals and benefitsharing significance would be low, possibly with no longterm positive effects. With regards to burden on the user, interviewees suggested that this would depend on the conditions associated with the joint IPR, but was likely to be moderate to high. The burden on the regulator is likely to be high, and participants noted that they were unsure how this form of benefit-sharing could be regulated.One interviewee indicated that they did not see joint IPR as a feasible option, as it would either not be relevant or appropriate in most cases. The interviewee stated that only inventors or co-inventors can claim IPR and requesting joint ownership with entities who do not represent this would lead to an inability to fulfill the required criteria to claim IPR. The only situation where such an approach has been considered previously is in the context of traditional knowledge, where indigenous knowledge may be included in an invention. However, according the interviewee, even then there are much better approaches to follow than joint IPR in order to share benefits. Nonetheless, if scientists from developing countries are included in a research project and at some point in time a new invention is developed, then joint IPR could be appropriate. It was also noted that publications have copyrights involved, which could also be considered as a form of joint IPR if multiple coauthors are involved in the effort. As such, the feasibility of these options will depend on the details regarding how this is done.Most interviewees considered that milestone payments, license fees and royalties would lead to similar impacts on the benefit-sharing factors (see Figure 4A). One reason given for this is that people find it very difficult to distinguish between the three. It was suggested that the milestone payments could have similar positive impacts on the benefit-sharing factors as an access fee (see below). As with the access fee, questions were raised regarding whether users of MGR would be able to pay the milestone payments, license fees or royalties. One interviewee stated that they did not believe that a license fee would actually be workable.Interviewees indicated that license fees and royalties may be more burdensome on the user and regulator than the milestone payments, but that all three would likely be more burdensome than an access fee. This is because the access fee could take the form of a one-off payment (with no subsequent costs), of a preset and limited amount, whereas the others may incur more than one fee and may be payable at times which are less clearly defined than at the point of access (Collins et al, 2020). Access Fee. The majority of interviewees were of the opinion that an access fee would impact only a low number of beneficiaries (Figure 4A). It was suggested that this may be in part because relatively little money would be generated and few users would be able to pay this if it was expensive, although research institutions could potentially seek scholarships to cover this (see Collins et al, 2020) for more detail). Questions were raised regarding to whom this fee would be paid.The influence of an access fee on the biodiversity goals and significance was also considered low. One interviewee noted that the influence would depend what this fee is used for, but was sceptical that it would have a positive effect on these factors. Another interviewee stated that an access fee system could be attractive because it would ensure that some income is generated when MGR are collected from the high seas which could be channelled into benefit-sharing. However, the same person also acknowledged that they did not think an access fee would be feasible, because it would inflict on the 'Freedom of the High Seas' principle. Therefore, from a negotiation point of view, this would likely be very difficult to implement.Benefit-sharing in the context of existing genetic resource frameworks under the Nagoya Protocol (conducted in a bilateral manner) is often considered to lack transparency, clarity and accountability, particularly for monetary benefit-sharing options (Fedder, 2013;Pauchard, 2017;Ruiz-Muller, 2018). For example, when dealing with ABS under the Nagoya Protocol, and since ABS contracts are private and users are not obliged to report what is in the contract, governments do not have access to information regarding the amount of money that flows out as a result of ABS. Making use of a methodology, such as that described in this study, could help to achieve a more favourable balance by negating the issue of transparency, by clarifying the key factors and helping negotiators to make informed decisions. In addition, lessons learnt from the ITPGRFA in terms of aspects to consider as part of an operating, multilateral ABS system may also be useful here (Louafi, 2013;Stannard and Moeller, 2013;Tsioumani, 2018). Ultimately, use of this tool could help to enhance understanding and implementation of benefit-sharing policies/ legislation with greater potential to balance beneficial impacts with associated burden, thereby enhancing workability of the ABS system as a whole. However, challenges with the methodology have been identified during application in this study (as described in the section below) which should be addressed in order to develop a more robust tool for application in a variety of benefit-sharing contexts.Accurately determining the influence of different benefit-sharing options on benefit-sharing factors, such as the significance, are difficult to measure. Indeed, interviewees found it challenging to give scores for some options, partly because participants may not have fully understood or known how to measure and give an accurate answer. This is a clear aspect of the tool which could be improved in the future through consultation with a greater number of experts on that particular aspect. In addition, given the fact that these questions were asked in the context of ongoing negotiations, it is expected that some participants will have responded with strategic rather than objective answers. This may be the reason why a small minority of interviewees indicated that salaries as a form of monetary benefit-sharing would have a large positive influence on benefit-sharing factors, whilst the authors expected the impact to be moderately low compared to other options. In addition, the authors do not suggest that results collected in this study represent a comprehensive review of stakeholder perspectives on this subject matter. Further interviews with a much larger number of participants would be needed to draw significant conclusion for the BBNJ context. However, it is suggested that the benefit-sharing equation described in this article provides a useful tool and starting point, which can be built upon by decision makers in the future, to include more detailed information gathered from various expert groups, such as likely impacts on potential beneficiaries, to consolidate the perceived balance of beneficial impacts versus burden. In addition, the equation can be tailored according to different policy settings where different benefit-sharing factors and additional nuance may be more appropriate.The most important benefit-sharing factor, according to average weights allocated by interviewees (see Figure 1), was the influence on biodiversity goals. This is likely because these goals, in particular conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, are the primary objective of existing genetic resource frameworks, such Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (1) 24-39 Developing a Methodology to Balance  as the Nagoya Protocol 9 and the Plant Treaty, and as such set the precedence for similar frameworks in the future (CBD, 1992;FAO, 2001;Nagoya Protocol, 2011;World Health Organization, 2011;BBNJ, 2019a). In the BBNJ context, it has already been suggested that fair and equitable benefit-sharing related to MGR from ABNJ can enable the international community to address global challenges (Morgera, 2018a). These global challenges may be related to environmental protection, social objectives and private economic goals (de Brucker et al, 2013;Mohammed, 2017;Morgera, 2018a). The particular goals of greatest importance to stakeholders are different in the BBNJ context compared to areas within national jurisdiction, where aspects such as legal certainty are considered most vital (Collins et al, 2020;Sirakaya, 2020). Legal certainty is perceived to be of particularly high importance for private sector users of genetic resources (in order to promote investment), who at present appear to view genetic resources in areas within national jurisdiction as more relevant to them than MGR in ABNJ (Sirakaya, 2019;Collins et al, 2020). As such, the benefit-sharing factors involved in the methodology, and the weighting assigned to each, are likely to vary according to the circumstances.Interviewee results indicate that sharing of GSD and research results provide the most favourable balance in terms of beneficial impacts versus burden. Technology transfer, and in particular research directed towards priority needs, received less favourable balances (see Figure 3). It has been noted by the Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on DSI on Genetic Resources under the CBD 10 that DSI 'plays an important role in deepening knowledge about biodiversity, identifying and mitigating risks to threatened species, enhancing our ability to track illegal trade, identifying species and the geographic origins of products, and assisting with biodiversity planning and conservation management'.As such, the sharing of this type of information in the context of BBNJ is likely to have a positive influence on the biodiversity goals, in particular the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ. Sharing of GSD appears to be a relatively straightforward procedure, and it is considered best practice amongst the scientific research community (Devi and Pisupati, 2018). Under the assumption that the BBNJ agreement describes requirements to share GSD in keeping with current practices, through the same current channels (and not through other systems), then this form of benefit-sharing may not incur additional burden on the users of MGR. However, the authors acknowledge the 9 For example, according to Article 9 of the Nagoya Protocol (2011), 'The Parties shall encourage users and providers to direct benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources towards the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components'. Whilst sharing of GSD/DSI itself may be relatively uncontroversial, the potential requirement for monetary benefit-sharing associated with utilisation of GSD/DSI is highly contentious (Kobayashi, 2019). Sharing of research results is thought to have a similar positive effect to the sharing of GSD on enhancing the potential for conservation of marine biodiversity, by helping to build an enabling environment in which MSR can flourish (Harden-Davies and Gjerde, 2019). Technology transfer represented a relatively unfavourable balance. This may be associated with a combination of relatively high expected burden on the users of genetic resources and on the regulators, together with limited potential beneficial impacts. The potential burdens on different stakeholder groups associated with technology transfer are described in Collins et al (2020). It is suggested that the degree of burden, in terms of financial cost and administration, will depend on the type of technology, the conditions, how it is funded and how the transfer is managed, but on the whole, these will be more significant than for other forms of non-monetary benefit-sharing. For example, it is generally expected that the funding required for technology transfer will be greater than for other nonmonetary benefit-sharing options (Collins et al, 2020). In addition, the owners of technology are often private companies or individuals (Prip et al, 2015). As such, transfer of this technology will need to involve consideration of commercial aspects, such as the inherent requirement for private sector entities to generate a return on investment and maintain market competitiveness. Related factors will include appropriate intellectual property arrangements and/ or private economic incentives or public funding, particularly in the circumstance of private ownership of technology (Prip et al, 2015). Moreover, the beneficial impacts linked to technology transfer may be limited by absorptive capacity (or enabling factors) in the recipient state. According to Prip et al (2015), successful technology transfer depends on three factors: the existence of relevant technology to address particular (environmental) challenges, the relevant dissemination of technology in a manner which makes it available to entities which need this, and the application of technology in a manner which is conducive to solving the challenges in mind.As noted by interviewees involved in a study conducted by Sirakaya (2019), research directed towards priority needs would involve a degree of burden associated with making sure that the research precisely benefits the provider country (or in the context of BBNJ, the beneficiary state(s)), because this would require a considerable amount of time, effort and resources. This potential burden is likely to contribute to the less favourable balance for research directed towards priority needs.According to interviewee results, research funding, followed closely by salaries, were selected as the monetary benefit-sharing options which provide the most favourable balance regarding beneficial impacts versus burden. Access fees, milestone payments, license fees and royalties received less favourable balances (see Figure 4).The favourable benefit-sharing balance indicated for research funding and salaries may be because there is a greater degree of perceived transparency involved in these approaches, compared to other forms of monetary benefit-sharing, in terms of where the financial resources are directed and how 'beneficial' this could be (Altman and Simera, 2010). This transparency with regards to research funding is promoted by funding organisations 11,12 , science foundations 13 , journals and international initiatives, such as the EQUATOR (Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of health Research) network, which aim to encourage transparent reporting of research, research funding processes and the use of reporting guidelines 14 . In addition, salaries and in particular research funding can directly support R&D on MGR, with potential to enhance conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ. The less favourable balance indicated for access fees, milestone payments, license fees and royalties may, therefore, be associated with a lack of clarity and transparency in terms of how financial resources are used and how much of a beneficial impact this might have (Altman and Simera, 2010). Indeed, interviewees involved in this study raised questions and uncertainty regarding how money could be utilised in the scope of monetary benefit-sharing options to promote biodiversity goals, such as conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. This uncertainty may also be due to the complicated nature of the factors explored. Further research, building on the current study, should be more specific in nature and would likely be simpler for interviewees to respond to, yielding increasingly insightful results. For example, it was suggested that the balance for monetary benefit-sharing options could be more favourable than currently perceived if money could clearly be linked to supporting these goals. Whilst some monetary benefit-sharing options may at some stage create incentives for biodiversity conservation, this would depend on how and where financial resources are allocated. This is currently not as clear or as transparent as processes associated with research funding and salaries (Altman and Simera, 2010). In addition, the potential impact of benefit-sharing options 11 https://www.nihr.ac.uk/blog/how-do-you-make-research-fundingtransparent-and-fair/10991 -accessed 02 March 2020 12 https://www.ukri.org/about-us/policies-and-standards/transparen cy/ -accessed 09 March 2020 13 https://www.nsf.gov/od/transparency/transparency.jsp -accessed 21 March 2020 14 https://www.equator-network.org/-accessed 09 March 2020 on bioidiversity goals and the overall benefit-sharing balance may be affected by the approach and language adopted in the new agreement. For example, the Nagoya Protocol (2011) text refers mostly to 'encouraging' the flow of benefits towards biodiversity conservation, but there is no clear obligation 15 . The Benefit-Sharing Fund of the Plant Treaty provides a different example, whereby the Contracting Parties decide for themselves the contributions that they will make (Tsioumani, 2018). In order to reach a more favourable balance, it will be necessary to include language in the BBNJ agreement which clearly ties benefit-sharing options to the objectives. This is an important point which should be kept in mind during the negotiation process.In this study, the authors investigated benefit-sharing options in the manner in which they are currently being addressed in accordance with existing ABS frameworks under the Nagoya Protocol, Plant Treaty and in the draft BBNJ text. When investigating details regarding monetary benefit-sharing options with a view to developing a methodology to balance these with various factors, it became apparent that these options are pooled together under the 'monetary benefitsharing' term without making the distinction between those which accumulate (such as royalties, access fees and milestone payments) and those which distribute funding (such as research funding and salaries). Given that monetary benefit-sharing is already a contentious item in the realm of benefit-sharing, the fact that it is dealt with in this confusing manner is not useful and could prove problematic when translated into practice. This point represents an important finding in the present study. Whilst out of scope of this paper, further research should be conducted in the future to adjust and tailor the formula according to whether the monetary benefitsharing options generate or distribute funding.A further factor which might contribute towards the less favourable balance of monetary benefit-sharing options compared to the non-monetary options is the fact that the benefits will need to be shared amongst large numbers of beneficiaries. Whilst sharing of data or information with many people does not dilute or divide the benefits received by each individual/ entity (each can receive the same package of data/ information), the sharing of monetary benefits amongst many beneficiaries will likely result in limited and small amounts of money reaching the beneficiaries. This aspect may contribute towards the perception held by many delegates that non-monetary benefitsharing could represent more predictable and more significant options than forms of monetary benefitsharing (Morgera, 2018b). By focusing on goals and identified capacity requirements, non-monetary benefitsharing can have a more immediate and tangible impact 15 Article 9, Nagoya Protocol, 2011: 'The Parties shall encourage users and providers to direct benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources towards the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components.' Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (1) [24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39] Developing a Methodology to Balance Benefit-Sharing 37 on bridging the equity gaps related to R&D on MGR. This approach has been considered the principal success of the Plant Treaty (Stannard and Moeller, 2013;Tsioumani, 2018).To date, benefit-sharing related to the utilisation of genetic resources has not been as effective as was hoped (Ruiz-Muller, 2018;Pauchard, 2017). This is at least partially related to the lack of focus associated with benefit-sharing options on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, possible hampering of scientific research as well as the burden placed on the regulator and users of genetic resources. This has in some cases led to a loss of incentive to conduct R&D on genetic resources, with potential to further limit conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (Tvedt, 2013). The authors acknowledge that there are many other political and legal issues, in addition to the technical aspects referred to in this study, which contribute towards the challenges currently experienced with existing benefitsharing systems. These issues include, for example, the lack of objectivity in terms of approaches to agreeing appropriate benefit-sharing measures.A tool, such as the methodology presented in this study (Figure 1), provides a useful means to assess the balance of different benefit-sharing options in terms of the potential beneficial and burdensome impacts, taking into account the varying relative importance of different factors. This would help policy-makers in the future when deciding which forms of benefit-sharing may be most appropriate to adopt, or when improving existing ABS measures, with greater potential for meeting proposed objectives, such as conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Use of this methodology would also likely promote transparency, objectivity, clarity and workability of the benefit-sharing system, possibly leading to enhanced generation, accrual and sharing of benefits (Lindhjem et al, 2010).Results in this study indicate that in terms of nonmonetary benefit-sharing options under consideration for the new BBNJ agreement, sharing of GSD and research results may provide the most favourable balance. Should monetary benefit-sharing be included in the agreement, research funding and salaries may represent the most fairly balanced options. In addition, in order to reach a favourable balance, it may be necessary to include language in the BBNJ agreement which clearly ties benefit-sharing options to the objectives. However, further interviews with a larger number of participants would be needed to draw significant conclusion for the BBNJ context. Nonetheless, the benefit-sharing equation described and demonstrated in this article provides a useful tool and starting point, which can be tailored according to different policy settings where consideration of different benefit-sharing factors may be more appropriate. In addition, the methodology can be developed to include more detailed information gathered from various expert groups to consolidate the perceived balance of beneficial impacts versus burden associated with benefit-sharing options.Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR), also known as microsatellites, were introduced in plant research almost three decades ago (Akkaya et al, 1992). Due to their abundance, reproducibility, and polymorphism, SSRs have proven highly useful for confirming identity of accessions in plant collections and in quantifying their relatedness. In clonally propagated crops, which include most of the fruit and berry crops, each cultivar originates from a single recombination event and all cultivated plants of a particular cultivar would therefore be expected to have the same SSR profile (Nybom and Weising, 2010). Sports, e.g. mutants that differ in fruit * Corresponding author: Hilde Nybom (hilde.nybom@slu.se) colour, usually differ so little from the original cultivar that they cannot be distinguished with SSRs.The ability to correctly identify plant material from different cultivars has economic importance (e.g. regarding infringement on plant variety ownership) as well as forms a basis for management of plant collections and their utilization in plant breeding and research. Compared to some of the more recently developed approaches like Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), SSRs are comparatively easy to apply and interpret, and can be very cost-effective for developing smaller datasets. This means that specific questions asked by growers, plant nursery owners, amateur pomologists and genebank curators can be solved by analysing just a few plant samples and comparing their SSR profiles with Genetic Resources (2020), 1 (1) 40- 48Table 1. SSR loci, DNA sequences, references and annealing temperature of the nine primer pairs selected by the ECPGR Prunus working group for assessment of plum accessions. All amplifications were performed according to Dirlewanger et al (2002) with the minor changes of an increase to 1 U Taq polymerase (Thermo Fischer Scientific, Surrey, UK) and the introduction of four different annealing temperatures (Table 1). Diluted PCR products were mixed with Hi-Di formamide (Applied Biosystems, Beverly, MA, USA) and an in-house prepared size standard, after which the amplified fragments were separated on an ABI 3130xl Genetic Analyser (Applied Biosystems).Since errors due to competitive amplification are more difficult to spot in samples of hexaploid organisms compared to diploid ones, we recommend that all amplifications are performed in simplex. Whether to pool the amplification products from two (or three) loci together before allele sizing in, e.g., an automated gene sequencer, is less critical and therefore a matter of what is regarded as most convenient in each laboratory.A set of seven reference accessions has been appointed: the large-fruited Canadian eggplum 'Valor' (cross between 'Imperial Epineuse and 'Grand Duke'), the small-fruited German eggplums 'Hanita' ('President' x ' Auerbacher') and 'Topfirst' (' Čačanska Najbolja' x 'Ruth Gerstetter'), the French greengage 'Reine Claude Violette' (offspring of 'Reine Claude Verte'), the largefruited American prune 'Stanley' ('d'Ente Double' x 'Grand Duke'), the French mirabelle 'Mirabelle de Nancy', and the East European small-fruited prune 'Bistrica'. Allele sizes of these references (Supplementary Table 1) can be used as a basis for determination of the size adjustment needed to render data from other laboratories comparable. Leaves of these genotypes can  (Nei, 1978) for 9 SSR loci, calculated among 175 plum accessions investigated by Gaši et al (2020) and by Sehic et al (2015), as well as among 7 reference cultivars. In previous ECPGR-recommended sets of SSR markers (Clarke and Tobutt, 2009;Evans et al, 2009), 16 loci were selected for both pear and sweet cherries, although only six loci were defined as first priority in cherries followed by three loci as 2 nd priority, three loci as 3 rd priority and four loci as 4 th priority. In these diploid crops, the maximum number of alleles scored would thus reach 32 although the number is usually lower due to the presence of two copies of the same allele in several loci. Since all European plums are hexaploid, up to six different alleles can be expected in each SSR locus, amounting to a maximum of 54 alleles for nine loci. However, the total number of alleles in a plum sample analysed with the proposed nine loci has only reached 35 on average (Sehic et al, 2015). The discrepancy here is also probably due, at least in part, to multiple copies of the same allele in some of the locus/genotype combinations.In a study of 78 presumably hexaploid plum genotypes screened with all nine loci, 59 accessions revealed six alleles in one to three loci, while the remaining 19 accessions revealed a maximum of five different alleles in any locus (Sehic et al, 2015). In another study of 110 accessions analysed with 8 of the proposed SSR loci, 85 accessions revealed six alleles in at least one locus, while 23 accessions revealed five alleles and two accessions revealed a maximum of only four alleles (Gaši et al, 2020). Counting the total number of bands for each genotype is thus recommended, since an unusually low number of alleles can be an indicator of poor amplification.Multilocus SSR profiles are generally scored as 'allelic phenotypes' based on the presence of alleles but not their frequencies. Since the likelihood of actually overlooking alleles is much higher in hexaploid samples compared to samples of lower ploidy, the threshold for determination of whether two (or more) samples are identical, has to be relatively low. In a study of European plums, all pairwise comparisons with the fraction of shared bands, S xy [= 2n xy /(n x + n y )], reaching 0.88 or higher, were interpreted as resulting from the same recombination event and thus being genetically identical except for possible minor somatic mutations (Gaši et al, 2020).Availability of biostatistical software which can be used on genotyping data of allopolyploid accessions, such as the hexaploid plum, is significantly restricted compared to software solutions for diploid accessions. However, some programs provide options to overcome the challenges of allele dosage ambiguity. Population genetics software SPAGeDI 1.3 (Hardy and Vekemans, 2002) and POLYSAT (Clark and Jasieniuk, 2011), an R package for polyploid microsatellite analysis, enable the replacement of \"missing alleles\" in loci where fewer than six different alleles (de facto maximum in hexaploid plum) are scored, with the average allele size. This enables the calculation of allele frequency, as well as gene diversity (Nei, 1978) and F statistics (Weir and Cockerham, 1984). Additionally, population structure can be investigated using the Bayesian model-based cluster procedure within Structure version 2.2.3 (Pritchard et al, 2000).Genetic differentiation among groups of genotypes (based on various criteria such as geographical origin, morphological or taxonomic traits, breeding status, or obtained as reconstructed panmictic populations in Structure), can be examined using the Geno-Type/GenoDive package (Meirmans and Tienderen, 2004) which enables analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) (Excoffier et al, 1992) among polyploids, as well as among a mix of genotypes with varying levels of ploidy.Although the visualization of relationships among polyploid genotypes is easily accomplished through hierarchical clustering, such as UPGMA dendrograms using a matrix with pairwise comparisons based on the Jaccard similarity coefficient, the use of factorial correspondence analysis (FCA) on SSR data of diploid crops has become increasingly common. This multivariate analysis can be conducted on a matrix of binary microsatellite allele presence/absence data using the \"dudi.coa\" routine in R 2.15.2 (R Core Team, 2012) as suggested by Muller and McCusker (2009). Construction of the mentioned matrix is quite simple and appropriate for polyploid genotypes. A graphical display of the FCA results can then be achieved with the rgl package version 0.93.945 (Adler and Murdoch, 2013) in the same statistical software.A joint dataset covering 165 accessions (subsequent to removing the duplicates between studies) was compiled from the two datasets (Sehic et al, 2015;Gaši et al, 2020). The 8 loci from the original study by Gaši et al (2020) were complemented by the genotyping of BPPCT039, resulting in 9 loci scored for all accessions. Most of these accessions had never been genotyped before and they were chosen so as to represent both the major coverage of cultivars in plum-growing countries in Europe as well as the whole range of material in germplasm collections, from local and landrace accessions to commercial cultivars produced in modern breeding programs. This dataset is available in Supplementary Table 1 and can be regarded as a starting point for a shared international dataset to be used by different research groups.Genetic structure among accessions in this compiled dataset was investigated with a Bayesian modelbased cluster procedure using Structure version 2.2.3 (Pritchard et al, 2000). For individuals with fewer than six allelic variants per locus, absent alleles were treated as missing data. K (unknown) reconstructed panmictic populations (RPPs ) were computed on individuals, testing K (log-likelihood) = 1-10 for all samples, assuming that the sampled accessions were from unknown origin. Ten independent runs were conducted for each K. A burn-in period of 200,000 and 500,000 iterations was applied. Structure Harvester version 0.6.1 (Earl and Holdt, 2011), which implements the Evanno method (Evanno et al, 2005), was used to estimate K values for the analysed data (Figure 1). K = 2, 4 and 9 were used to assign individuals to specific clusters. All input files were compiled using MADC version 1.2 (Grahić and Grahić, unpublished data).For K = 2, accessions were divided into two approximately equal RPPs (mostly red or mostly green) and a large number of admixed genotypes (Figure 2). Among the green-coloured samples (RPP2:1) were P. insititia cultivar no. 81 'Kozlienka' from Slovakia, the feral P. insititia accession no. 82 'Krikon' from Sweden, the Hungarian plums no. 106 'Potyó fehér' and no. 107 'Potyó szilva', and the Central-Eastern European prunes also known as zwetschen (e.g., no. 108 'Požegača'). Redcoloured samples (RPP2:2) instead included the French prunes of 'd'Agen' type (no. 36 and 37), most of the greengages (no. 118-121, 123 and 124) and largefruited cultivars grown across Europe as dessert plums (e.g. no. 153 'Victoria').For K = 4, the previous RPP2:1 (≈ P. insititia) was split into one large (green, RPP4:1) and one smaller (red, RPP4:2) RPP (Figure 3). RPP4:1 contained the above-mentioned 'Kozlienka', 'Krikon', 'Potyó fehér', 'Potyó szilva' and 'Požegača', as well as small-fruited plums of the damson or bullace type like the Italian 'Ramassin ' (no. 115-117). RPP4:2 instead comprised several Norwegian landrace plums but also e.g. 'Spilling' (no. 135) collected in Denmark but most likely of German origin. The previous RPP2:2 (P. domestica s.s.) was split into one larger RPP (yellow, RPP4:3) with 'Victoria' and many other large-fruited dessert plums, and one smaller (blue RPP4:4) with greengages like 'Reine Claude Bålnäs' (no. 118) and 'Reine Claude grande verte' (no. 124) as well as the French prunes.For K = 9, most samples showed an admixed genotype (Figure 4). The previous RPP4:1 was divided into three RPPs with the largest (dusty pink, RPP9:1) containing small-fruited accessions like 'Cariadoggia' (no. 33) and 'Muninca' (no. 101) from Italy, 'Karsavas' (no. 73) from Latvia and 'Moravka' (no. 98) from Serbia. The zwetschen (e.g. 'Požegača') were found in the second (orange, RPP9:2), while two putatively diploid samples (no. 2 and no. 51) and the Greek ' Asvestochoriou' (no. 10) made up the third (red, RPP9:3). The previous RPP4:2 was split into two RPPs containing mainly Norwegian landraces (green, RPP9:4, and brown, RPP9:5, respectively). The previous RPP4:3 was divided mainly into two RPPs with the German 'Gräfin Cosel' (no. 49) and 'Ruth Gerstetter' (no. 127) in RPP9:6 (dark blue) and some other large-fruited cultivars in RPP9:7 (pale blue). Several well-known cultivars like 'Victoria' were denoted as an admixture of these two RPPs. The previous RPP4:4 corresponded relatively closely to RPP9:8 (yellow) and contained mainly greengages. The mirabelles (no. 95-97, 161 and possibly also no. 52) formed a RPP of their own (purple, RPP9:9) in spite of having admixed genotypes at lower K-values.In this contribution we present, for the first time, a set of nine SSR loci recommended by the ECPGR Prunus working group for use in genotyping of European plums, and for analyses of genetic variation and structure. A set of seven reference cultivars is proposed. A compiled dataset with allelic information for 165 accessions is presented as a resource to allow comparison of further datasets. Genotyping of these 165 accessions showed that all loci produce highly polymorphic genetic profiles, while analysis of genetic structure revealed a major dichotomy between P. insititia-related accessions and cultivars belonging to P. domestica sensu stricto, as well as differentiation among minor subgroups defined by pomological traits and geographical origin. By adding genetic profiles for new samples into this dataset, researchers can easily check whether they are synonymous with any of the present 165 accessions and also check for parent-offspring relations. In addition, performance of genetic structure analyses with all available samples is likely to provide valuable information about pomological grouping of the new samples in genetic collections as well as in plant breeding programs.      Vegetable production is one of the leading sectors in Armenian agriculture. Variation in agro-ecological conditions, climate and altitude in Armenia, as well as longtime traditions in multipurpose use of vegetables have led to a large diversity of vegetables grown by farmers. Among vegetables species of the Cucurbitaceae family, the following are of specific interest due to their palatability, nutritional value and dietary qualities: (1) pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima Duchesne, Cucurbita maxima var. turbaniformis (M.Roem.) L.H.Bailey, Cucurbita moschata Duchesne, Cucurbita pepo L.); (2) vegetable marrow (Cucurbita pepo L. subsp. pepo var. pepo L.); and (3) summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L. subsp. ovifera * Corresponding author: Alvina Avagyan (alvinaav@hotmail.com) (L.) D.S.Decker). Dietary benefits of pumpkin and vegetable marrow are associated with a high content of vitamins C, B1, B2, B6, PP, E and carotenoids (α-and β-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin), a favorable ratio of potassium and sodium, and low calorie content. These crops are given a great importance in the production of baby food (Piskunova and Muteva, 2016). Summer squash is an excellent source of manganese, copper, folate, magnesium, potassium, and fiber, whereas vitamins C and A act as antioxidants, which may help to protect against hardening of blood vessels (Hashash et al, 2017). The nutritional value of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash makes these crops attractive both for large farms providing vegetables for canneries and for small landholders producing these crops in response to market demand. Moreover, ongoing state programmes on subsidizing agriculture and providing preferential loans and investments that are being put into the modernization of Armenia's greenhouse sector create an enabling environment for the introduction and cultivation of different vegetables, both in open fields and in greenhouses.The Scientific Centre of Vegetable and Industrial Crops (SCVIC) has engaged in breeding and seed production of vegetable crops and provides growers with seeds of different varieties of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash that have been bred at the Centre and released in the country. So far, the numbers of locally bred varieties of the above-mentioned crops are not many: three varieties of vegetable marrow, four of pumpkin and one of summer squash. To meet grower and consumer demands in both production level and varietal diversity of cucurbitaceous vegetable crops there is a need for strengthening breeding programmes and undertaking genetic enhancement efforts. For this purpose, genetic resources of cucurbitaceous species are required as inputs into the continuing process of enhancement through selective breeding. To conserve and provide breeders with germplasm for further breeding programmes, the seed collection that over many years has been created and maintained at the SCVIC under room conditions was significantly improved by the purchase of freezers, the acquisition of new and regeneration of old accessions, and the rationalization of the existing ex situ collection (Sackville-Hamilton et al, 2003) .Base and active collections were established both from newly introduced and regenerated germplasm as well as from accessions of working/breeding collections that were collected and maintained in paper bags over a period of about twenty years under room conditions without the possibility to control temperature and humidity. Accessions of foreign varieties have been received in the frameworks of collaboration projects with other countries with the purpose of testing under local conditions. Accessions of research material were received from the World Vegetable Center with the aim of multiplication and use in breeding programmes. Seeds of landraces were collected from local markets and farms. The process of acquisition of germplasm, seed drying, regeneration and storage of base and active seed collections was carried out in line with internationally accepted standards (FAO, 2014). To maintain the genetic integrity of original accessions during regeneration in open fields and avoid risk of outcrossing, plants were planted in blocks, not in rows, and 1,000 m isolation distance between different varieties was maintained. Seeds were collected from plants in the center of each block. In addition, samples with limited numbers of seeds were regenerated in individual polyethylene film greenhouses using handpollination.Selected seed samples were dried to appropriate moisture content using a drying chamber. Before storing, initial seed viability tests were conducted. Dried seeds were placed in laminated aluminum foil bags of 11 µm thickness and hermetically sealed. All seed packages were labeled with printed barcode and QR-code, which includes information on accession name, acquisition date, origin and biological status, reducing the possibility of errors and facilitating search of requested accessions. Accessions of the base collection are stored under long-term conditions at a temperature of -18 • C. Material placed under mediumterm conditions (i.e. active collection) is stored under refrigeration at 5 • C.Passport data for each accession are fully documented according to the FAO/Bioversity multi-crop passport descriptors (Alercia et al, 2015). The database for accession records is developed in Excel format compatible with EURISCO.Purchasing the appropriate seed storage deep freezers and refrigerators, drying chamber, germination boxes and aluminum foil bags provided the possibility for establishing base and active seed collections, each with a specific target and coverage.The active collection of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash was created to provide breeders, farmers, and researchers with seed material for study and use in breeding, research and educational programmes, as well as for seed material exchange. All Armenian varieties of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash released in the country since 1991 are included in the active collection regardless of their present cultivation area and market demand. The active collection includes 11 foreign varieties, which are in demand on the local market due to their economically important traits, such as early maturing and high productivity. Research material that, based on preliminary studies, has potential interest for breeders is also included in the active collection.The base collection serves as safety material for the active collection and mainly includes varieties bred in Armenia, traditional farmers' varieties, as well as the most valuable breeding/research material of both local and foreign origin. Accessions were incorporated into the base collection based on the following criteria defined by a Scientific Council of the SCVIC: Considering priority areas of breeding, research materials that could serve as a source of important traits, such as resistance to powdery mildew or early ripeness were incorporated into the base collection.The SCVIC maintains a breeding collection of 88 accessions of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash, which is stored for a short period (from one to three years, depending on the species) under room conditions. Such collections are intended for breeding research conducted in the short term. Some accessions of the breeding collection have low initial germination or insufficient number of seeds, and must be regenerated, processed and stored in priority order. The existing ex situ collections of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash were expanded by including obsolete varieties, landraces, research lines, samples obtained from partners in the framework of collaborative projects and cooperation with the World Vegetable Center. Accessions were requested according to the top priority areas of breeding of Cucurbitaceae species in the country, in particular high productivity, early ripeness, bushy growth habit and resistance to powdery mildew. At the same time, duplicate accessions and accessions with low seed variability were eliminated.The enlarged seed collections of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash are not big compared with the collections of other species of the Cucurbitaceae family (Figure 1): they are new and contain valuable accessions of varieties and hybrids selected or bred in Armenia with viable seeds. In total, the collection (base and active) includes 117 accessions of six species and covers all available varieties, hybrids, breeding lines and landraces of Armenian origin.The ratios of breeding varieties, research material and landraces vary depending on the crop. Thus, about 72% of the seed collection of pumpkin are represented by modern varieties. Among accessions of vegetable marrow, the research material represented by breeder's lines, hybrids, and lines of individual selections from hybrid populations exceeds the number of accessions of modern breeding varieties (Figure 2). The summer squash collection is represented in equal quantity by varieties and research/breeding material.In the base collections of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash, breeding varieties prevail, while most of the accessions of the active collections are represented by breeding and research material (Figure 2). Although there is a limited number of landraces of the gourd family existing in the country, the inventory indicated gaps in the collection in terms of farmers' varieties of pumpkin and vegetable marrow, which are being gradually displaced by commercially developed modern varieties. As for summer squash, this crop is a relatively new one in cultivation, so landraces do not exist.Varieties of Armenian origin prevail over foreignintroduced varieties of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash in both collections. The number of accessions of introduced breeding/research material exceeds those of local origin, triggered by the need for diverse germplasm from outside Armenia in order to minimize genetic uniformity of new varieties.As a result of establishing base and active collections of pumpkin, vegetable marrow and summer squash at the SCVIC the conservation of the genetic resources of these crops is ensured under conditions that meet internationally accepted standards. Due to the enlargement and rationalization of the ex situ collection, a resource base for genetic enhancement of these crops to produce substantial economic benefits was created. It can serve for breeding new varieties that meet requirements of local agricultural production, such as early maturity, high yield, resistance to pests and diseases, tolerance to abiotic stresses and other characteristics dictated by producers and consumers. The conserved genetic resources are available for users and can be provided upon request. As soon as the work on upgrading the collection of the remaining species of Cucurbitaceae, particularly bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.) and loofah (Luffa aegyptiaca (L.) Roxb.) is finished, the passport data on all Cucurbitaceae accessions will be recorded in EURISCO to make the information on available accessions accessible for users at national and international levels.The work on inventory of the collections, seeds viability tests and placing for long-term and midterm storage has started with crop species of the Cucurbitaceae family. This is the first step in upgrading the vegetable crops genetic resources collection and establishing properly managed seed collections. The future activities will be focused on further enlargement","tokenCount":"23083"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"02ba84c5faef7e91d37039bce28fbf96","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89aedb74-9543-4fad-9431-6abf16a4f9fa/retrieve","id":"-40738359"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ed2d1e1-6d12-4d83-ac06-104dd0e78faf","pagecount":"25","content":"Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING is creating opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base.Feed shortage and poor quality of available feeds are major factors that have constrained the livestock production sector in Ethiopia. The increasing human and livestock population has resulted in continuous natural resources degradation and decline in productivity. Moreover, drought and natural disasters like flooding becomes more frequent in many parts of the country. The expansion of croplands to meet the food demands makes the grazing lands to shrink continuously. Despite all these constraints, livestock plays a major role in the livelihood of most pastoralists and farmers by providing food to the family, supporting crop production and contributes to the national economy.The government of Ethiopia, in its growth and transformation plan, has considered livestock as the main agenda of development and a driver of change. In this plan, the major intervention is transforming the feed supply and quality, in which cultivated forage production is the main target. On the other hand, the national Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy targets the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from livestock through improved feeding and increased productivity. The main strategy is keeping crossbred animals and improved feeding through cultivation of forages. Similarly, the Livestock Master Plan (LMP) has also designed livestock development primarily with increased access to cultivated forage production.Currently, the major feed sources for livestock are natural grazing lands and crop residues. The contribution of agro-industrial by products concentrate feeds and cultivated forage crops is minimal. Adoption of cultivated forage crops in the farming system is very low. The main reasons for this low adoption include lack of awareness, shortage of inputs, use of low producing animals, poor supply of seeds and planting materials.Different species of cultivated forage crops have been evaluated for their various uses and their production in the different agro-ecologies of Ethiopia. These forage crops are broadly categorized as forage grasses, legumes and browses. With the current scenario of very critical feed shortage in Ethiopia, use of cultivated forage crops is not a choice but is a must. However, cultivation of forage crops, particularly by smallholder farmers, is feasible when various appropriate options of forage production strategies are practiced.In small and medium scale market-oriented livestock producers especially, dairy producers need to cultivate forage crops in a conventional way. Depending on the number of animals and feed requirements farmers could decide the size of the farm to cultivate forage crops. Forage crops cultivated should primarily consider adaptability, productivity and quality.In areas where communal grazing is practiced and if there is communal after-math grazing then forage crops cultivated should preferably be annuals like oats, vetch, lablab, Sudan grass, cowpea etc. Such forage crops should be grown in the normal cropping seasons usually under rainfed conditions, harvested and conserved as hay or silage. The produced forage should be properly conserved and fed to livestock in a well-planned way. On the other hand, cultivation of perennial forage crops may create difficulties to keep them during the offseason unless and otherwise it is fenced and well protected from free grazing livestock.Forage crops can also be cultivated under irrigation where such areas are protected from livestock grazing. Under such conditions, highly productive annual and perennial forage crops can be cultivated and used either in a cut and carry or conserved and fed to animals.Generally, when planning cultivation of forage crops, one needs to consider gathering information on the soil and production system and identify suitable and productive forage species to the area (annuals vs perennials, grasses vs legumes and mixtures) Effective planning and targeting of cultivated forages can enable smallholders and commercial producers to get adequate feed year-round and most importantly farmers who do not have access to or the capacity to purchase concentrate feeds can get good quality feed with relatively cheaper prices in their vicinity.One of the strategies to produce a small scale but high-quality forage production is cultivation of forages in and around the backyards. Backyard of smallholder farmers are usually small but with high soil fertility. Farmers use the backyards for different purposes. They planted mostly perennial crops of high-value crops like spices, fruits and vegetables. However, farmers with productive animals can grow very high quality and a remarkable good quantity of forages in and around the backyards. In addition to this various forage crops could be planted along the fence lines and could provide multipurpose uses. It provides forages, serve as fence and wind protection. The forages to be grown in the backyards needs to be.• Adaptable for the targeted agro-ecology • High in quality in terms of animal preference and nutrients especially Crude proteins • Highly productive per unit area • Highly prolific with fast regrowth ability • Very good compatibility with other guarded crops • When planted along the fence lines browse trees and taller forages like elephant grass could be usedThe availability of irrigation from different sources (rivers, shallow wells, boreholes, reservoirs etc) around the backyards would be an additional advantage. The water could be used as a supplemental irrigation during the dry season or when there is moisture stress to have fresh and quality feed supply throughout the year.The crop livestock mixed production systems are practiced dominantly in the highland and mountainous areas of Ethiopia. These areas were traditionally cultivated for hundreds of years. The human and livestock population was tripled during the last forty or so years, which creates a lot of pressure on land and natural resources. Currently, land degradation is a serious challenge in Ethiopia, which is also aggravated by climate variability and changes.In this regard, various efforts are going on nationally on natural resources conservation especially in the areas of water and soils. Forage crops have an important role in natural conservation practices. Using forages in conservation activities have the advantage of protecting the land from soil and water erosion and could also provide forage as feed source to livestock. These activities are widely practiced by the ministry of agriculture, ministry of natural resources and environmental protection and many other NGO engaged in agricultural development. Forages are planted on soil bands, gullies, enclosures, degraded grazing lands and sloppy areas to protect soil and water resources.Such activities are widely implemented at community and individual levels. Communities have participated in communal lands, enclosures where the management of the outputs and the overall efficiency are low. On the other hand, individual farmers are making conservation structures on their arable lands, plant forage crops on conservation structures and farmers are benefited a lot from such activities.The forage species to be used in the conservation structure could be selected based on their adaptability to the given agro-ecology. In the highland areas species well adapted to the highlands (cooler environment) could be used similarly well performing species in the mid and low altitude areas are pertinent in the warmer and hot areas (Table 1). In addition to their forage productivity and vegetative growth, forages for conservation practice need to have deep and fibrous roots to hold the soil firmly, bunch types of growth habit with numerous tillers, tolerant to trampling and possible grazing of animals, drought and moisture tolerant so that it can persist the longer dry season, and quickly responsive to small showers with fast growth.Oat-vetch mixture forage Description Oat and vetch are annual forages, which-when grown using intercropping-provide a high biomass yield of good nutritional quality. While oat comes from the grass family, vetch is a leguminous forage. Consequently, oat-vetch mixture is a balanced feed in terms of energy and protein contents and has very high feed values for animals as green fodder or hay. Moreover, vetch potentially offers substantial improvements in terms of soil fertility through nitrogen fixation and serves as a weed and disease break when used in crop rotations.• Oat and vetch are compatible when grown using intercropping and have a short growth cycle, ranging from 60-90 days before the forage can be used as feed. • This feature enables farmers to effectively use available rain to produce good quality fodder in a short period of time and free up their land for other crops. • The short growth cycle also makes these forage combinations suitable to be grown under irrigation.• The land preparation for oat and vetch is like that needed for other crops. It needs to be plowed repeatedly, preparing a smooth plot, before the seeds can be sown. • The land also needs to be well drained, as water logging has a significantly negative effect on yield rates.• Seed rates of 75 kg/ha for oats and 25 kg/ha for vetch are recommended with a high germination rate (above 90%). The seed rate can be increased to 90 kg/ha for oats and 30 kg/ha for vetch to provide allowance for low seed emergence. • Both row planting and broadcasting may be used depending on the amount of land and the availability of labour. In case of row planting, the spacing between rows should be 15 cm and oat and vetch should be sown on alternate rows (i.e. oats on the first row, vetch on the second one, etc.). It is a good practice to divide the seeds between the total number of rows before starting to sow to make sure the distribution is even. • When a broadcast method is used, the seeds need to be thoroughly mixed to ensure a uniform distribution of the two forages.• The ideal moment for harvesting oat-vetch is when the forage has reached the bloom stage.• The forage can be conserved in the form of hay or used as a green feed mixed with other locally available feed resources.The oat-vetch mixture provides high biomass yields (approximately 12 tonnes of dry matter per hectare) of good nutritional quality (crude protein of 15.5% and metabolizable energy of 10 MJ/kg of dry matter. The mixture provides a balanced diet in terms of protein and energy. The forage can be used as a very good supplement for lactating cows, fattening sheep or beef cattle. Mixing about 30% of the oat-vetch mixture with about 70% of locally available feeds, such as crop residues, improves utilization and animal productivity. Milk yields of lactating cows consuming crop residue-based diets have increased by more than 50% when supplemented daily with approximately 2 kg of dry matter of oat-vetch mixture.Tree Lucerne (Chamaecytices palmensis)Tree Lucerne (Chamaecytices palmensis) is one of the few leguminous fodder and fertilizer tree species that perform well in areas of high altitude. The plant fixes and adds nitrogen to the system, enhancing livestock, crop and soil productivity. Commonly referred to as tree lucerne or tagasaste, it is native to Spain and exotic species to Australia, Ethiopia, South Africa, Rwanda and New Zealand-Lucerne can grow in areas from 2,000-over 3,000 masl of the Ethiopian highlands.-It requires from 350-1,600 mm of rainfall.-The soil in which it is planted should be well drained.Photo 1 . A farmer in Lemo district, southern Ethiopia harvesting oat-vetch mixture forage in his backyard for feeding to lactating cows (photo credit: ILRI/Kindu Mekonnen)-The identification of farmers interested in planting, managing and using tree lucerne is important. -Seed sources: Seeds can be collected locally or sourced from suppliers.-Seedling raising: Private, community and government nurseries are involved in this area of business. -Seedling production systems include bare rooted and container systems.-Seed treatment: Tree lucerne seeds require scarification or immersion in boiled water for one minute. -Ensuring the compatibility of farmer planting niches needs supervision.-A seedling size of more than 45 cm is preferable for planting.-Seedlings require at least three months in the nursery.-A planting hole of 30-40 cm deep is recommended to protect the tap roots from being harmed. -It can be planted as a live fence, fodder lot, soil and water conservation structures, and boundary planting and intercropped with crops and vegetables. -Lucerne trees should be planted at least 25 cm apart from each other.-Regularly spot weeding around the seedling.-Fencing should be erected to protect the trees against incursion by livestocktrampling and browsing. -The use of mulch/manure is recommended to help retain moisture in the soil and suppress weeds. -The plants should be watered at an early on to improve survival and growth rates.-Cutting the tree at a height of 1-1.5 m provides good biomass.-The plant can be harvested two-three times a year, depending on growing niches and management practices.-In a well-managed farm, the plant can be harvested and used as an animal feed with nine months of planting. -The lucerne tree can produce more than 4-7 ha-1 of dry biomass year-1 under and when planted at 1 m x 1 m spacing. -The leaf and edible branches of tree lucerne contain large amounts of crude protein (20-25%) and digestible organic matter (> 70%). -The foliage of tree lucerne can be fed green or wilted or preserved in the form of hay and used as needed. -A 1 kg supplement of dried tree lucerne leaf feed to a lactating dairy cow can give up to 1.2 liters of extra milk. -A 300-400 g supplement of tree lucerne hay fed to a fattening sheep is enough to achieve a daily body weight gain of 70 g. -Tree lucerne seeds serve as good sources of poultry feed.-Tree lucerne flowers are a very good source of bee fodder.Household size, access to reliable water supply, and management factors-including fencing planted seedlings to protect from browsing, mulching during dry periods, clean spot weeding and applying organic fertilizers-significantly enhanced survival and growth of tree lucerne at the Africa RISING planting sites.Fodder beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. Vulgaris L) is an annual/ biennial plant with thick roots and is cultivated in a cooler climate. The roots are a rich energy source for livestock. Fodder beet needs a long growing season (6-7 months), and rich soil to perform well. It grows in the highlands of Ethiopia (1800-3000 masl) with 750 mm rain and above. The high sugar content makes fodder beet palatable and a valuable energy source for ruminants and to some extent for pig.To provide palatable and high energy feed for livestock with nutritive value equivalent to cereal grains.• Field preparation A clean and well-prepared seed bed is required.Fodder beet does better on light or medium soils to avoid harvest problems. The recommended seed rate is 5-10 kg/ha or use raised seedlings from nursery. Seeds can be row planted in June at 2 cm sowing depth and in rows 50 cm apart. Thinning can be done to give 20-25 cm spacing between plants or seedlings that can be transplanted from nurseries 1-2 months after planting.Photo 2. Farmers at the Endamehoni Africa RISING site, Tigray region, feeding tree lucerne to small ruminants (photo credit: ILRI/Kindu Mekonnen.Apply DAP at 100 kg/ha during establishment or about 10-15 t/ha of farmyard manure. Manure is very variable in quality and hence rates may vary depending upon soil types and previous cropping.Requires effective hand weeding especially during the early establishment period (the first one-two months). Hoeing and piling the soil around the roots is essential to facilitate increased root development and growth.Fodder beet requires a lot of work, but rewards are high in terms of yield and animal performance. The average tuber yield is around 20 tons dry matter/ha. The leaves/tops will also contribute a further 3-4 tons dry matter/ha. Roots are high in energy (12-13 MJ ME/kg DM) but low in protein with crude protein values of 6-10%. It is highly digestible (70-80%). Tops (leaves) are relatively better in nutrient levels than bulbs(roots).Fodder beet flowers and produces seeds in the second year and the root decreases in size. When seed of fodder beet is ready for harvest, stripping is used for seed collection. Seed yield is about 400-500 kg/ha.The roots can be harvested after about 6 months from planting when they are at their maximum size. The roots are harvested carefully by digging them out of the ground. They need to be washed and separated from any soil material. In general, washed roots can be used for intensive management systems in dairy or fattening farms by chopping before feeding. Tops may also be fed after wilting. The tops can also be grazed or ensiled. Roots can be stored in the field (underground soil) or can be stored in stores after harvest for 4-5 months if not damaged during harvest. Cows must be adapted to feeding the tuber gradually, by starting with a low level of an offer for the first time (e.g. 1 kg of tuber in the morning and 1 kg in the afternoon) and gradually increasing the amount of tuber provided over a week time. However, intake should not exceed 0.8% of the animal's live weight to avoid risk of acidosis. Feeding the fodder beets after the cows have been fed to other roughage feeds is advisable to reduce risk of potential toxicity if fed in the morning as a starter feed.• Porcupine damage can be a problem Sweet lupine (Lupinus albus) as a feed and food crop Description Sweet lupine is a leguminous crop that was recently introduced to Ethiopia. As opposed to the local bitter lupine variety-which has high alkaloid content-sweet lupine has minimal levels of secondary metabolites, and the grain's crude protein content is high (35%); this makes it suitable for use as food and feed. As a legume crop, it contributes to soil fertility and can serve as a rotation crop, especially in areas where disease affecting pulse crops, such as faba bean, has become a serious problem.• Sweet lupine varieties, such as Sanabor and Vitabor, released by Amhara Agricultural Research Institute through the national system have been found to perform very well at the Africa RISING research sites. • While sweet lupine varieties are generally susceptible to water logging and do not grow well on vertisols, they tolerate soil acidity. • Farmers can grow sweet lupine as a sole crop or intercrop it with maize.• Sweet lupine has a slow initial root establishment period. To compensate for that, the land needs to be prepared well through repeated ploughing (at least twice). • Water drainages should be established to ensure that run-offs do not negatively impact the sweet lupine plot. • A seed rate of 80 kg/ha is generally recommended. In the case of row planting, the nationally recommended spacing is 30 cm between rows and 7 cm between plants.However, with a high germination rate (above 90%), the spacing between plants can be increased to 15 cm. • Initial fertilizer application equivalent to 100 kg DAP/ha may be applied. As a legume crop, sweet lupine fixes nitrogen and does not need additional fertilization at later stages. • Mid-July is a suitable period for planting sweet lupine.• Ideally, the crop should be weeded twice during the growth cycle, the first time after full emergence, and the second just before the plant flowers.• The crop reaches gain harvesting stage around the end of December. When mature, sweet lupine pods tend to shatter. It is, therefore, important to closely monitor sweet lupine fields and harvest the pods as they mature.• Sweet lupine yields up to three tonnes of grain/ha, and eight tonnes of haulm/ha.• The grain is a very good protein and energy supplement for fattening animals.• Supplementation of 200 g of sweet lupine grain daily to fattening sheep results in a daily body weight gain of about 75 g. The grain can effectively replace commercial concentrate supplements and help farmers finish fattening their animals using a farm grown energy and protein diet. • Like other pulse crops, such as the faba bean and field pea, it can be used for human consumption. Mixed one-one with field pea grain, the Shiro from the grain has been very well received by farmers in north western Ethiopia. • The grain can be processed into various products in the same way as soya bean.• Generally, integrating sweet lupine into the mixed farming system provides multiple functions-ranging from soil fertility improvement to animal feed supplements and human food resources.Photo 4 Sweet lupin field and sweet lupin grain (Photo credits: ILRI/Melkamu Bezabih)Lablab (Lablab purpureus)Lablab is a leguminous annual or short-lived perennial fodder crop with a very good potential to provide high quality feed for livestock in midland areas and lowland drylands. Lablab is suitable for intercropping with other food crops such as maize and growing under perennial crops. The forge has large leaves, white flowers and light brown seeds. It is fast growing and produces fodder in three months and tolerates drought and cool temperatures. As a legume, it restores soil fertility. It can be used for grazing or cut and carry feeding system.-Field preparation-well prepared and ploughed field -Establishment-broadcast seed at 30 kg/ha at 3 cm depth and cover -Fertilizer-apply 100 kg DAP or manure per hectare -Weeding-slow early growth so weed once after the third weeks after establishment -Harvesting-at flowering after about three monthsOn average about 30 t/ha fresh forage can be harvested, which can be wilted or used as cut and carry. Protein content of the forage is about 18% Alfalfa is a perennial 1egume that can remain productive for over a decade with good management. It has a deep tap root system that enables the crop to extract moisture deeper soil layers and withstands frost. It has mainly purplish flowers, but also yellow colored cultivars are available. Pods of alfalfa range from the sickle type to those that are twisted into spirals. Each pod contains several small kidney-shaped seeds. New growth occurs from buds in the crown. Leaves are alternately arranged on the stem and are normally trifoliate. Alfalfa is highly palatable with high levels of protein. It is a highly suitable crop for conservation as hay or silage and can be grazed.Alfalfa grows best on deep, well-drained, friable soils. Lands subject to frequent overflows or high-water tables are unfavorable for alfalfa. The pH of the soil should be 6.5 or above. It can grow well in cool highlands and warm lowlands of Ethiopia Establishment -A seedbed must be smooth, firm, free of weeds and trash, and contain adequate moisture for germination and emergence. Seeds can be broadcast or drilled in rows or on ridges 50 to 70 cm apart at 8 to 10 kg/ha -Fertilizer-apply 100 kg DAP per hectare -Weeding-weeding is essential in establishment stage and crop requires frequent cultivation -Harvesting-harvested for hay by cutting at 5 cm height at first flowering Performance About 20 t/ha dry matter per year from about 6 to 8 cuts in well managed stands. Protein content of the forage is usually from 20-25% with digestibility of about 70% Limits of use -Not tolerant of continuous grazing -Poor drought tolerance and require water for year-round production -Not very tolerant to acidic soils and waterlogging -Susceptible to many pests and diseases -Bloat in livestock is the major limitation to grazing alfalfa Desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) Description Desho is an indigenous grass belonging to the family of Poaceae. It is a perennial grass that has an extensive root system that anchors well with the soil. It produces high biomass (10-20-ton DM/ha) with a potential of 2-4 times cutting with rainfed production and up to 9 times cutting using irrigation per year. It grows upright with the potential of reaching 90-120 cm based on soil fertility. It can grow anywhere from 1500-2800 masl with optimum elevation over 1700 masl on medium to low soil fertility.-For a year-round livestock fodder -For erosion control through strip planting -To rehabilitate degraded land -To improve grazing land management -As silage or hay for dry season feed-Desho needs very good land preparation -Splits of grass from root clump can be used as planting material -Grass clumps should be uprooted and split into several splits -Stem cutting of matured plant that has ≥ 3 nodes can also be used as planting material -Recommended to plant at 10 cm by 10 cm intervals along bunds for SWC -Recommended to plant at 50 cm by 50 cm intervals for grazing land management -Remove the leafy part before planting to reduce competition before it establishes well -Open the soil with hoes and place the split in the soil before pressing the basal soil around the seedling-Compost/manure of about 4500 kg/ha for establishment and 1000 kg for maintenance -Use about 100 kg/ha of fertilizer for establishment and 25 kg for maintenance-Cut and carry system is encouraged -Should be harvested at 8 cm high from ground level -Highest yield can be obtained if first harvested at 4 months after planting-Desho provides a small business opportunity for Ethiopian farmers (sale of the cut and planting materials) -The use of Desho for feed and land management is increasing rapidly-The grass rarely seeds, and propagation is mainly through root splits Brachiaria would require a well-prepared seed bed. Due to the small seeds. A fine seedbed would be preferable. As for most crops, seedbed preparation should be done well before the rains for ease of preparation and killing of weeds. If the piece of land is prone to obnoxious weeds, e.g., couch grass, herbicide spraying is advisable to systematically control these weeds.Plough to about 25 cm depth and harrow the land to obtain a fine soil tilth necessary for seeds that are small. Preferably avoid sloping and uneven land for lay the plots and minimize likely variations in performance.Mulatto II (and also other brachiaria grasses) does not bear viable seed under the Ethiopian climatic conditions. So, the main mechanism of propagation, unless seeds are sourced from outside of the country, is through root splits and cuttings. Root splits are planted in a row (40-50 cm between rows and 20 -25 cm between plants).If seeds are available, it can be either planted in rows, 40-50 cm apart (8 kg /ha) or broadcasted sown at 10-12 kg/ha. For drilling through seed drills, be very careful not to bury the seed more than 2 cm in depth. Roller drills are preferred because they do not bury the seed too deeply, but instead press the seed just below the soil surface. For broadcast sowings, seed can be spread mechanically or hand sown. The seed must be covered after sowing by harrows. On small areas, tree branches or large brooms can be used to lightly cover the seeds with soil. Be careful not to bury the seed no more than 1-2 cm under the soil. Seeding can be started after 30 mm of rainfall.After fertilizer application during planting (for the initial fertilization use a phosphorus dominated fertilizer to support root development -DAP), subsequent applications should be annually with nitrogenous fertilizer at a rate of 100 kg/ha of urea. Application should be done after rains and the soils is wet enough to dissolve the fertilizer. Preferably, application should be after harvesting and the soils are wet, for the regrowth.Brachiaria will take 70-80 days till the first cut. In rotation the following cuts can be done after 25-45 days while rainy season respectively 60-70 while dry season. Napier is mainly established using cuttings. Cuttings are taken from the basal 2/3 of moderately mature stems and each cutting should contain at least 3 nodes. These are pushed into the soil at 45º, basal end down, with 2 nodes buried. Cuttings can also be planted horizontally into a furrow, to a depth of 5-10 cm. Normally planted in rows 0.5m -1m apart and 0.5 cm apart between plants. Closer spacing is required for soil conservation contour hedgerows and for high rainfall environments. More open spacing is used in drier environments.Should be planted into fertile soil. Once established, requires, 150-200 kg/ha/yr N, together with other nutrients as indicated by soil tests. Responses at much higher levels of applied N have been obtained. Yields decline rapidly if fertility is not maintained.Yields depend on fertility, moisture, temperature and management. DM yields of 10-30 t/ha/yr are common, (and up to 85 t/ha/yr) if well fertilized. More frequent cuts (up to 45 days) give less dry matter, but better leaf production than infrequent cuts.-Not adapted to areas with frost -Not suited to waterlogged areas -Will not persist without fertilizer -Coarse, fibrous and sharp leaves if not cut frequently Photo 8 Napier grass intercropped with Silver leaf Desmodium (Photo credits: ILRI/ Aberra Adie)As feed is the main cost of livestock production, it is essential that available feed resources are used for feeding livestock in an optimal way. Among several measures that need to be taken to optimize feed utilization, the first one is to minimize postharvest losses during feeding and storage. Feeding troughs and feed storage sheds play an important role in minimizing feed wastage. The other important measure is to mix feed ingredients in a proportion that can supply a balanced ration for livestock. In this regard, feed troughs also play an important role because mixing can be done easily, and animals can be offered mixed diets on feeding troughs conveniently. Therefore, it is highly advisable that individual farmers construct their own feed storage sheds for dried feed stuffs including crop residues and hay and feeding troughs for cattle and small ruminants. Traditional practices of chopping cultivated fodders, stovers and leaves before feeding also contribute to increasing feed intakes, minimizing wastages and easing mixing of different feeds.Traditionally, dried feed resources-such as hay and crop residues-are stored as heaps in the open air and feeding takes place by spreading a portion on the ground. These management practices are associated with considerable loss of feed biomass and quality as a result of weather, pests, contamination and moulding. Moreover, in a cut-and carry feeding system-where fresh cultivated forages form the basic component of animal diets-traditional feeding practices incur feed biomass wastage due to trampling and defecation on the feed.Photo 9 A two-sided feeding trough prototype for cattle (photo credits: ILRI/Kindu Mekonnen)-Feeding troughs and storage sheds can be constructed from locally available materials; nails are the main external inputs required. -Depending upon where the trough is placed, it can be either one-or two-sided. -A two-sided feeding trough is desirable if it is to be located in the middle of a barn or backyard.-A one-sided feeding trough is convenient if it is to be attached to a wall of a barn or house. -In line with the size specification indicated in figures 1 and 2, the length of the trough depends upon the number of animals feed on it, allowing for a 70 cm per animal spacing requirement. For instance, a two-sided trough for four animals needs to be 1.4 m long, while one-sided trough for the same animals should be 2.8 m long. -Adding a roof for feeding trough is optional and can be done using locally available materials (grass mat), or plastic and corrugated iron sheets, depending on the capacity of the farmers.-As a basic requirement, all sheds should be built with a roof and a raised floor platform to avoid spoilage from above and below. -The floor needs to be raised 30-40 cm from the ground and aerated with the regular cleaning of the surface underneath. This ensures that the floor is protected from mould and rodent infestation. -The size of the shed depends on the amount of feed (crop residues and hay) that need to be stored there. It is generally recommended that on average a farmer should build a shed of at least 4 m by 3 m to store his or her feed resources safely.-The evaluation results showed that use of a combination of feed troughs and storage sheds saves individual farmers from 30-50% of feed biomass that would be otherwise wasted. -The labour requirement for feeding is reduced by a minimum of 10-20% due to use of feeding troughs.-The sensory quality of crop residues and hay is preserved static when stored in sheds, opposed to when it is stored in heaps in the open air. -The cost incurred in the construction of feeding troughs is recovered within a year, while that of storage sheds within three-four years.","tokenCount":"5318"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"86b49ad6109634a8a7a4fcefc34659ea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3bd9d66e-1614-4bdd-9971-56f44ed73455/retrieve","id":"-935555718"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"59fba0e5-df0e-4b58-89ba-4543e9ba4f34","pagecount":"23","content":"Maize prices fluctuate significantly throughout the year in Malawi, creating winners and losers depending on who is selling and who is buying the staple at different times. We link maize market price data to nationally and temporally representative household survey data on maize sales and purchases to quantify welfare gains and losses throughout the year. A stable maize price would lead to only a modest increase in Malawi's total social surplus when summed across a whole year, but a dramatic reduction in hunger during the lean season. We discuss policy options to smooth maize prices throughout the year.The recent spike in global food prices has renewed academic attention to the effects of food price inflation on consumer and producer welfare. This new literature builds on earlier research inspired by periods of high food prices in the mid-1970s and late 2000s. This body of literature focuses on headlinegrabbing but rare events. In this paper, we instead turn our attention to the welfare effects of a more ordinary but, due to its regularity, equally impactful source of food price instability: seasonality caused by reliance on the natural yearly cycle of rainfed agricultural production. We estimate that in a typical year in Malawi, seasonal maize price fluctuations lead to 198 million person-days of hunger. Completely stabilizing maize prices throughout the season would lead to only a modest increase Malawi's total social surplus when summed across a whole year, but a dramatic reduction in the incidence of hunger.The first efforts to understand the relationship between food prices and welfare are theoretical in nature and focus on the welfare implications of food price stabilization through trade or the use of grain reserves. In a series of papers published after the food crisis of the mid-1970s, Just et al. (1978), Bigman and Reutlinger (1979) and Turnovsky et al. (1980) demonstrate that in most cases, food price stabilization benefits consumers but not necessarily producers.In non-industrialized settings where a large share of consumers also produce food, the opposite effects that price fluctuation has on consumer and producer welfare complicate the assessment of the impact of food price changes on net welfare. Unsurprisingly, empirical studies do not form a consensus in this respect, and their results often depend on context-specific factors (see, for example, Sah and Stiglitz 1987, Ravallion 1990, Ivanic and Martin 2008, Swinnen and Squicciarini 2012). After correcting for recall errors in an analysis of the impact of food price changes on poverty and food security in multiple countries, Headey and Marin (2016) find that continued increases in food prices have often benefited the poor and likely contributed to a faster reduction in global poverty. In Mozambique, Arndt et al. (2008) show that food price increases hurt urban households but benefit rural households who are net sellers. Benfica (2014) finds a similar pattern in Malawi. In Kenya (Levin and Vimefall 2015), and Cameroon (Quentin 2015), higher maize prices are shown to negatively affect welfare of poor households. Similar findings are reported in a multi-country study covering Ethiopia, Malawi, Niger, and Tanzania (Magrini et al. 2017). Based on data from Thailand, Deaton (1989) shows that the bulk of the households benefiting from higher rice prices lie in the middle of the income distribution. This is due to the fact that poor households generally tend to be subsistence farmers while rich households tend not to grow rice at all and thus do not receive greater returns from sales. Barrett and Dorosh (1996) find that gains from price increases are highly concentrated among the largest rice farmers in Madagascar who are able to produce the largest surpluses to sell. In Nigeria, Adekunle et al. (2020) conduct separate analyses for net buying and net selling households and find that net food buyers suffer negative welfare outcomes of price increases while net sellers have positive welfare outcomes. Araar and Verme (2019) compare different welfare estimation methods and demonstrate that for price changes larger than 10% different welfare measures show divergent effects.The complicated and often negative impacts of food price fluctuations have moved many governments to hedge poor farmers and consumers with price stabilization policies for staple foods. However, the identification of who benefits or loses from price stabilization policies depends on the ability to unambiguously identify who is a net buyer or a net seller which is currently difficult to establish due to data measurement issues (Carletto 2012). In rural Ethiopian households, eliminating price volatility was found to yield gains in welfare but in a distributionally regressive fashion (Bellemare et al. 2013). In another study, the price stabilization interventions of the Food Reserve Agency in Zambia were found to increase food prices, which benefited surplus maize producers but adversely affected net buyers of maize and the majority of the rural poor (Mason et al. 2013). Both these studies use panel data to estimate household welfare effects of price changes over several years. However, seasonality in food prices within a single year also has important welfare implications due to timing of purchases and sales (Sahn 1989), and these seasonal welfare impacts due to within-year price variation have received relatively little attention. Our paper seeks to fill this literature gap.We link maize market price data from Malawia country whose staple price volatility is among the highest in the world due to predominantly rainfed production and a single annual harvestto nationally and temporally representative household survey data on maize sales and purchases to quantify welfare gains and losses from seasonal price fluctuation measured as the net benefit ratio introduced by Deaton (1989). We then convert monetized welfare changes due to a theoretical price stabilization intervention to plausible changes in energy intake to estimate the impact of price seasonality on food security.The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 outlines the contextual background of the study. Section 3 describes the data, section 4 discusses the methodologies used in the study, and section 5 presents the results and findings. The final section summarizes our results and discusses their policy implications.Maize is Malawi's main food crop grown by 88% of farming households (74% of all households). It takes up nearly half of the country's cultivated land, most of which is unirrigated. Many maize producers sell a portion of their output, but most households, who on average derive about half of their energy intake from the grain, are dependent on markets to buy maize for consumption at some point in the year (De Weerdt and Duchoslav 2022).Its centrality to Malawian agriculture and diets makes maize a very political crop and subject to many policies and regulations. Its production is heavily subsidized. Each year, vast amounts are purchased and deposited into the country's Strategic Grain Reserve (SGR) and released back onto the market later in the season. 1 The government regulates minimum farmgate prices of maize and regularly restricts exports of the commodity.Many of these policies are intended to dampen the seasonal maize price fluctuations associated with producing the crop in an agricultural system that is almost exclusively rain-fed and relies on a single annual rainy season. Unfortunately, they often do the opposite due to mistiming and poor implementation (Duchoslav et al. 2022). Poor temporal arbitrage in maize markets, market power along the marketing chain, and sell-low, buy-back-high behavior among liquidity and credit constrained households likely further deepen the price cycle (Stephens and Barrett 2011). As a result, Malawi regularly experiences some of the most acute seasonal differences in maize prices in sub-Saharan Africa (Gilbert et al. 2017), despite reasonably good spatial maize market integration (Myers 2013, Burke and Myers 2014).  Covering 11,434 households, the survey is representative at the national level, including the country's regions, urban-rural areas, and district levels. The survey is also temporarily representative at the monthly level (see Table A1 and Figure A1 in the appendix for balance tests and interview locations by month respectively) which allows us to describe seasonal consumption patterns of Malawian households. 3 NSO gathered consumption data through the standard LSMS-ISA food consumption module detailing the food items consumed by the household in the past 7 days. For each food item consumed by the household, we know the total quantity consumed from three sources: from purchases, from own production, and from gifts or other sources.  4,122,702  1,751,742 2,370,960  3,452,625 670,078  1,073,540 1,498,637 1,550 Notes: Income is a real expenditure-based calculation deflated to the price level in April 2019. We use the national poverty line of MWK 165,879 per capita per annum, which is equivalent to $0.63 per capita per day at nominal exchange rates and $1.70 per capita per day at PPP, i.e., below the international poverty line. The threshold for smaller/larger maize-growing households is 0.1 ha of maize cultivated per capita.The second data source are daily maize prices collected by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) from 26 major markets in Malawi.Due to the importance of maize in Malawian diets, the LSMS-ISA questionnaire asks about its consumption in four different forms: maize grain (or kernels), whole grain maize meal, refined maize meal and maize 'bran meal'. To compare kg of maize consumption like-for-like across these four products, we scale maize meal and bran back to a kernel equivalent (in which maize prices are also typically expressed). The whole grain meal, locally known as mgaiwa, keeps 96% of the whole kernel, while refined meal will remove the germ and bran, keeping only 85% of the kernel (Jayne et al. 1995). We use these ratios to convert the whole grain and refined meal into the equivalent amount of maize kernel needed to produce them. Maize bran is a by-product of the milling process and consists of 15% of the kernel removed when milling refined meal. The bran is often mixed together with mgaiwa and consumed as a product locally known as madeya. Madeya is considered an inferior product, which is re-flected in its lower price. To convert madeya back into kernel maize equivalent, we scale using the median price of madeya relative to the median price of mgaiwa. That makes the consumption of 1.27 kg of madeya equivalent to the consumption of 0.96 kg of mgaiwa, which in turn is 1 kg of maize kernel. 4The household survey data do not allow us to measure consumption seasonality at the household level because of a short (7-day) recall period for food consumption. However, we are able to assess seasonality for typical households because the interviews were randomly spread over the course of an entire year. From the date a household was interviewed, we know over which 7-day period it was reporting consumption and use that information to calculate the average amount of maize consumed by households in each calendar month, disaggregated by three different sources: own production, purchases, and gifts and other sources.In establishing sales seasonality (how much maize was sold when), we face two complications. The first is that the survey was rolled out in April 2019, at which point households were reporting on harvests and sales of the previous 2017/18 harvest. As the survey progressed, households started reporting on the 2018/19 harvest. About 70% of maize farmers reported on the 2018/19 harvest, and we restrict our sample for sales related calculations to this season.The second complication is that households sell maize at different points in time, but are, obviously, only able to report on sales that made prior to the interview. Following Dillon (2020), we draw a cumulative distribution function of the share of households who sold any maize by month m, by restricting the estimate at each m to households interviewed in month m+1 or after. This means that each point on the cumulative distribution function is estimated using a different sample of households, namely those interviewed after the month in question. Thus, we rely on the temporal representativeness of the sampling during the year to estimate the share of farmers selling maize by each month.The monetary value of the welfare effects of maize price volatility depends on the timing of maize purchases and sales. We conducted the following thought experiment for each average household to assess this: suppose this household maintained the same quantities of maize bought (\uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A ) and sold (\uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC5A ) in each month of the year, but instead of facing the actual price for month m, denoted by \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC5A , it faced a hypothetical flat price that does not vary by month, denoted by \uD835\uDC5D ̃.5 We therefore measure the net income effect of maize purchases and sales as follows:(1)The sign of \uD835\uDC64 in equation ( 1) indicates whether a household earns more (positive values of \uD835\uDC64) or less (negative values) income from maize sales than it uses for maize purchases.In our thought experiment we hold the quantities and timing of maize sales \uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC5A and purchases \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A constant and change the price at which these transactions happen. Rather than the prevailing market price for that month, \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC5A , we assume that the household now faces a stable price \uD835\uDC5D ̃, so that the net income effect now becomes:(2)We define the net income effect of the new set of prices by subtracting equation (1) from equation ( 2):12 \uD835\uDC5A=1(3)Dividing equation ( 3) by the mean monthly household consumption expenditure \uD835\uDC66, we obtain the Net Benefit Ratio (NBR or \uD835\uDF0E) introduced by Deaton (1989):It expresses the monetary value of welfare gain or loss resulting from the fluctuation in price as a percentage of total consumption. First, consumption of maize is very large. Depending on the month, households consume between 9 and 10 kg of maize grain per capita per month. This implies an average daily per capita caloric intake of 1,100 kcal from maize alone. Clearly maize is central to energy intake for Malawian households.Second, total maize consumption has a moderate level of seasonality. It is lowest in the lean season, starting to decline around December and arriving at its lowest point in February. By then it has dropped by about 10% compared to what it was between June and November.Third, seasonal fluctuations are much more pronounced in the shares of maize consumption coming from purchases and from own fields. Whereas right after the harvest, in April, people consume 7.2 kg of self-produced maize per capita per month, this drops to just 1.9 kg per capita per month during the lean season, December through February. The amount of purchased maize that the household consumes in a month follows an inverse trend from 6.8 kg per capita at its peak in the lean season to only 1.8 kg per capita in April. The share coming from gifts and other sources is small and seasonally stable.While practically all Malawian households consume maize, 74% of households also produce it. For our welfare calculations it is important to understand how much of this maize production is sold, as well as the timing of these sales.The solid red line in Panel A of Figure 3 shows the cumulative share of households who sold any maize from the latest harvest by a given month. It starts at 0 in April, rises quite steeply up to November, after which it flattens out. Important to note is the very low level at which the line plateaus: while 74% of Malawian households grow maize, only 16% of households sell any maize they have produced. As such welfare impacts of maize sales only apply to 16% of households which, dampens the impacts of maize price fluctuations on selling households as noted by Benson (2020). The impacts of maize price fluctuations could be substantial because of the large proportion of households who are net buyers as evidenced by the large share of maize purchases in total consumption and the small shares of households selling maize.From the cumulative distribution we can derive a distribution function of the share of households making their first sale in each month (dashed green line in Panel A of Figure 3). We see that peak time for households entering the maize sales market is June, July and August, but never exceeds 3% per month, a very low number consistent with very few households selling. The solid red line in Panel B of Figure 3 shows a similar cumulative distribution function for the average household quantity of maize sold by a given month. We see that 57% of the quantity of maize is sold between April and September, when prices are below the median for the year (shaded portions of both panels in Figure 3). Less than 14% of the maize is sold between November and March when prices are highest. Note that the curve in Panel B does not plateau off as markedly as the curve in Panel A, implying that the average volume of monthly sales per household increases from November to March. It is primarily the larger and better-off producers who make these high-volume sales towards the end of the season. Between December and March maize sales are effectively zero for poor households and for small maize growers, while over the same period a small share of non-poor and larger maize farmers are able to sell a conditional average of more than 500 kg per household. This is more than the conditional average amount sold by poor households at harvest time. More details on this can be found in Figure A2 in the appendix, which splits Figure 3 by poverty, rural/urban, and maize farm size.Figure 4 plots the NBR for each month. We see that at the peak of the lean season, a lower price of maize would result in just over 3% monetary welfare gain, on average. For the poor, who start from a lower consumption base, the welfare gain from stable prices reaches a peak of 6% in February (Appendix Figure A3). Monetized welfare calculations (the numerator in NBR) show similar overall patterns to NBR and peak welfare gain of about MWK 750 per capita per month in February (Appendix Figure A4).It is not clear whether prices can ever be completely stabilized and, if they could, how the costs of doing so would weigh against our estimated benefits. It is therefore instructive to think through a scenario where prices still follow a seasonal pattern, but variation is reduced by, say, 50%. There are still considerable welfare gains from such a scenario, with the peak lean season benefits of just below 2% monetary welfare gains on average (Appendix Figure A5).So far, we have assumed no quantity reaction from producers and consumers. That most people sell after harvest when prices are low and buy when prices are high suggests that prices exert only a weak influence over \uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC5A and \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A . This is consistent with the centrality of maize in Malawian diets. In the IHS consumption module, 98% of all households report consuming maize in the past week, and quantities reported suggest it is eaten every day. With maize being the main source of calories, there is a very large marginal utility of consumption up to a certain number of calories per day, after which that marginal utility quickly drops to zero. In other words, demand for maize by households who consume below the threshold is highly price elastic, but once the threshold is reached, demand becomes highly inelastic with respect to price. Put yet another way, anyone under the threshold would revise the quantity consumed upwards in response to lower prices in the lean season. That is not consistent with NBR assumptions but creates an additional positive effect that we are not capturing, leading our measure to underestimate the positive impact. On the other hand, in the post-harvest season, when prices are low and the stable price would be higher, anyone revising bm downwards because of the higher prices might be pushed below the calorie threshold. That would be a negative effect that we do not capture. However, this is exactly the period when most people are primarily consuming from own production (Figure 2) and are shielded from such an effect.Finally, in the longer run, one could expect stable and predictable prices to make growing maize more attractive, being subject to less price risk. Beyond producers and consumers, stable prices have been argued to benefit all value chain actors -including input suppliers, traders and processorsand contribute to macroeconomic stability (Timmer 1989).Hunger is a recurrent phenomenon in Malawi. During the 2023 lean season, after a harvest that was neither particularly good nor bad, IPC (2022) predicted that 20% of the Malawian population would require assistance to avert hunger. Ensuring sufficient calorie intake during the lean season is therefore a primary concern. The blue dashed line in Figure 5 represents the status quo or baseline situation for the average Malawian. This line lies 97 to 282 kcal per person per day above average caloric requirements (indicated by the red line) between April and October. It dips under the red line in November and stays about 98 to 290 kcal per person under requirements until March. 6   The green dotted line in Figure 5 represents the following counterfactual scenario: Adding to the notation already introduced, if the household purchases an amount of maize \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A in month \uD835\uDC5A, with a caloric value of \uD835\uDC58\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC59(\uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A ), then for the same total outlay \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC5A at the prevailing monthly price \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC5A , it could buy aTo obtain the average per capita energy requirement for each month, we first calculate the total energy requirement per individual based on their age and sex, using values recommended by FAO, WHO and UNU (2001). For individuals between 15 and 64 years old, we then make further adjustments for hours of hard physical work as follows. We first calculate how many hours the individual worked on the household's own farm and as a casual laborer in the week preceding the interview. Next, we determine, per individual, how much that estimate deviates from the yearly sex-specific averages across the whole sample. We then use the results of Srinivasan et al. (2020) to adjust the calorie requirements for each hour of hard labor above or below the average (14% for women and 13.5% for men). Finally, we add all the adjusted individual requirements up within each household and divide by household size to obtain a household level daily per capita requirement, allowing us to draw the red line in Figure 5.total quantity of \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC5D ⁄ at stable price \uD835\uDC5D ̃, giving a counterfactual caloric intake of \uD835\uDC58\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC59(\uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC5D ⁄ ). Under this counterfactual scenario, we see a smoothing of consumption over the season, resulting in more optimal spread of calorie intake across the year. We estimate that, in total, this would avoid 185 million person-days of consumption under the calorie threshold in the lean season. In the same season, an estimated 1.9 million people were food insecure in Malawi between November and March (IPC, 2020), which is equivalent to 289 million person-days of consumption under the calorie threshold assuming that all food insecure people consumed below the optimal energy intake for the full duration of the 5 months, and fewer if at least some people consumed at or above the optimum at least some of the time during the 5 months. 7 Full price stabilization would therefore have helped reduce the incidence of hunger by at least 64 percent.As observed in the welfare estimates, there are still large benefits in calorie consumption under a scenario where price volatility is reduced by 50% rather than being fully stabilized. In that scenario, 73 million person-days of hunger would be avoided during lean season, or 25 percent of estimated hunger incidence. We have shown that a stable maize price would lead to a relatively modest increase in Malawi's total social surplus when summed across a whole year, but a dramatic reduction in hunger during the lean season. Unfortunately, large seasonal maize price fluctuations persist in Malawi. This presents clear opportunities for arbitrage: one would expect traders to buy maize when and where it is cheap, store it until prices increase, and resell it when and where it is more expensive, until price differences equal marginal costs of storage and transport. Such arbitrage transactions should happen temporarily, that is buying when prices are low after the harvest and selling as they increase towards the lean season; spatially at the domestic level, that is buying in the north of the country, where maize is more abundant relative to population size and selling in the south; and spatially at the international level by trading with neighboring countries where maize price seasonality is less pronounced (Cardell andMichelson 2022, Gilbert et al. 2017). The fact that arbitrage does not smooth prices more suggests that maize markets are not functioning well in Malawi.Many factors impede good functioning of Malawi's agricultural markets. Removing some hurdles, such as poor transportation, communication, and marketing infrastructure, would have long-run benefits to trade, but will require considerable capital investments. Other impediments can be overcome through relatively cheap policy adjustments. At present, the government tends to intervene in agricultural markets in often arbitrary and unpredictable ways. Current legislation grants individual ministers broad and virtually unchecked powers to intervene in agricultural markets by licensing the buying, selling, or marketing of crops, deciding who is permitted to obtain a license; setting the minimum and maximum prices for crops; enumerating export procedures; and generally doing whatever appears necessary or desirable for the purposes of regulation. At the same time, existing legislation provides no safeguards or compensation for individuals adversely affected by actions taken under the laws, nor does it describe the conditions under which specific ministerial powers should be exercised. This opens the door for policy decisions to be made in an arbitrary manner. Even if policy decisions are consistent, the mere legal possibility of arbitrariness undermines the confidence of farmers, traders, and processors in how predictably agricultural markets operate in Malawi, which in turn restricts production, trade, and investment. It also increases price risk for crop storage and reduces investments in new facilities. Establishing clear, binding rules and procedures for such interventions would greatly improve the predictability and thus functioning of Malawi's agricultural markets and increase investment in crop storage.Some government interventions even directly contribute to maize price seasonality. They are often mistimed, being decided upon late and implemented even later. As a result, maize exports are often banned when prices are lowest following harvest, and export mandates are only issued once prices have increased. Similarly, Malawi's Strategic Grain Reserve (SGR) gets replenished once prices are on the rise, but drawdowns from it often find their way to consumers during harvest timetoo late to help during the lean season and depressing prices which are already falling. Doing away with such interventions would reduce seasonal price fluctuations compared to current practice.Timing market interventions correctly would reduce maize price seasonality even more. Correcting the timing of export bans and mandates should in principle be easy and practically costless to the treasury. Improving the timing of SGR drawdowns should also not cost the treasury anything, while buying maize for SGR replenishment earlier in the season when prices are lower would lead to significant savings for the public purse.There is no guarantee, however, that maize prices will become perfectly stabilized even if all the changes described above are affected. To achieve stable prices, the government could intervene more forcefully. One obvious avenue for price stabilization is the SGR. In theory, the SGR could buy up enough maize after the harvest and release it into the market during the lean season to fully stabilize its price. However, even partial stabilization of prices would require frequent and expensive movement of maize in and out of the SGR, and the required volumes of maize would likely be prohibitively expensive to store (Baulch and Botha 2020).An alternative to central storage would be the promotion of home storage of maize by smallholder farmers. Improving storage for own consumption to enable households to maintain a stable share of ownproduced consumption throughout the year would have the same income effect as stabilizing prices. It is, however, not clear how widespread availability of maize storage at the household level could be achieved, let alone how much it would cost.This leaves a final alternative of promoting medium-scale private storage owned and operated by larger traders. This is quite limited in Malawi, which leads to poor temporal arbitrage and the possibility of collusion and rent seeking by the few businesses with storage facilities. Traders are unlikely to invest into more storage capacity unless the government reduces market uncertainty by committing to less intervention in maize markets, or at least to clearly defined rules and objectives for when and how government will intervene, as discussed above.Thanks to its ability to strengthen trade and investment, a predictable, rules-based market environment seems to be the best way of reducing maize price volatility and thus improving food security in Malawi.The degree to which maize price stabilization is economically sensible, and the combination of reforms and interventions through which it can best be achieved, will ultimately depend on the cost of these interventions relative to the benefit of stabilized prices. In this paper, we describe a method to estimate the latter, and provide a short-run upper-bound estimation of the social benefits of fully stabilizing maize prices over the course of an agricultural season in Malawi. Future work should focus on estimating the costs of the policies and interventions that can lead to price stabilization. Other limitations of this study could also be explored with future research including estimating welfare over a longer time period, allowing for substitutions in consumption as a result of relative price changes, and exploring more heterogeneity among households and across geographic regions.     ","tokenCount":"4928"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b1759df4bda331a5361ed85bcd4bac37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5c4f23f-6c3b-4c9a-a606-e7cc9f0dcc49/retrieve","id":"161449350"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5956b594-6de0-4f93-834b-0330afee13e6","pagecount":"5","content":"Agriculture in developing countries faces a huge challenge. In the next 50 years the number of people living in the world's poorer countries will increase from 5 billion to 8 billion. To feed these people farmers in 2050 will need to produce at least 50% more food, which for the 2000-2001 World Resources Report, could have devastating implications for human development and the welfare of all species.Paul Ehrlich, one of the most influential ecologists in the USA and author of the book The Population Bomb, developed an equation in the 1970s to describe the impact of human population on the environment. A version of this equation, called the population-resource equation, helps put the challenge facing agriculture into stark perspective. The equation says that:(Natural resource use) x (technology) = (population) x (per capita consumption). i Given that populations are growing, per capita consumption needs to increase to feed the 830 million underfed people in the world, and our natural resource base is already seriously damaged, the only option would appear to be very rapid technological change. Is this really the only option? And if so, where are these technology gains going to come from? Vernon Ruttan, a professor emeritus in the Departments of Economics and Applied Economics at the University of Minnesota believes, as do many others, that biotechnology is the answer. Ruttan writes, \"biotechnology is poised to become the most important new general-purpose technology in the first half of the twenty-first century\" ii . The private sector agrees. Monsanto puts it this way: \"agricultural biotechnology will play a major role in realising the hope we all share. Accepting this, science can make a dramatic difference to millions of lives.\"There is a strong opposing view. The United Nations (UN) Development Programme's Human Development Report 2001, published in July, urges that there should be \"greater public investment in GM [genetically modified] research and development to ensure it meets the needs of the poor\". However, the report was immediately slated by nearly 300 organisations around the world, including Oxfam, Greenpeace International and Action Aid who chastised the UN for its uncritical support for biotechnology. The fact that so many organisations were so quick in their condemnation bears testament to how deeply and widely reservations about biotechnology are held. Indeed, this feeling has already led to a consumer boycott against GM food in Europe that has included GM food being barred from the menu at the UK headquarters of a transnational biotech company.In our opinion the debate has become polarised and the result is 'two-value thinking'-the assumption, frequently unexamined, that every question has two sides, and only two sides, and that organisations and individuals are either on one side or the other. In this article we examine the issues on both sides of the debate and suggest a way through the middle that, while not seeing biotechnology as the new panacea, does not dismiss it as a false and dangerous dawn.Technology change that biotechnology may or may not bring is at the heart of both people's hopes and people's fears. Some have found it useful to think of technology change as an evolutionary process. People, as a result of the pressures they face and the opportunities they see, learn and then generate new ideas, things, and ways of organising themselves. If these novelties work well then others adopt them and they spread. Agricultural change is built up of many replications of this novelty generation, selection and diffusion process, just as we have evolved through countless natural selection iterations. Unlike natural selection though, this 'learning selection' process is not blind. Who benefits depends on who generates the novelties, how selection decisions are made, and how innovations are promulgated.The main role of science in agriculture has been to propel this evolutionary process by generating novelties that allow us to produce more with less land and less effort. Results have been spectacular. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), a grouping of 16 international agricultural research institutes, is best known for starting the Green Revolution of rice and wheat in Asia. In the 30 years from 1971 to 2000 the improved crop varieties produced by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) have helped raise average rice and wheat yields by 2.3 and 1.65 times respectively, helping to feed an Asian population that grew by almost 70% in the same period. Data from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show that from 1961 to 1991 the Asian population doubled from 1.6 to 3.4 billion (Article published by IRRI). In the same period, rice production grew from 199 million tonnes in 1961 to 540 million tonnes in 2000 (170%), thanks largely to the yield associated to the new, improved rice varieties. Using these data, a team of researchers from IRRI found that the total annual gains from the adoption of these new modern rice varieties now stand at US $ 10.8 billion, i.e., about 150 times the total investment made in rice research over the same 40-year period by IRRI and its national researchfor-development partners in Asia.The Green Revolution crop varieties were novelties that farmers rushed to adopt. In 1982, IR36 was planted on 11 million hectares, making it the most widely planted rice cultivar ever. However, problems emerged when millions of rice farmers all moved from growing a number of their traditional landraces to just one or two genetically homogenous cultivars. Some of the resistance that the breeders had given the improved varieties against pests and diseases broke down within 3 to 5 years leading to huge crop losses. In Indonesia, for example, a fifth of farmers lost their entire crop to brown plant hoppers in 1985 and 1986. Farmers in Thailand and the Philippines suffered a similar fate.In evolutionary terms the cause of the problem was not with the novelties per se, but with the selection and diffusion mechanisms that led to the technologies being so widely adopted without considering the consequences. Farmers did not know the consequences because they were used to operating on the scale of their own fields, not to thinking about what might happen over millions of hectares. And the research and extension systems that were encouraging them to adopt did not know the consequences either. This has been a salutary lesson to the CGIAR system: reductionist science that isolates problems and ignores contexts and scale issues can become horribly unstuck even in relatively simple agroecosystems. It does not necessarily produce sustainable solutions.The world now needs a second Green Revolution to feed growing populations in developing countries. We believe that biotechnology has a role to play, but only if the lessons of the first Green Revolution, and from decades of experience in agricultural development in general, are learnt. In addition to the lesson about reductionist science, these lessons are:• farming in developing countries is profoundly different to farming in developed countries;• farms are generally small, and farming systems often complex and 'fine grained' where each grain represents a different set of opportunities and constraints that often require different solutions;• technologies, in general, do not transfer from developed to developing countries. Rather, they need to be built up in situ using local knowledge and innovative ability after which, if successful, they will spread from farmer to farmer;• sustainability is about empowering local communities to be able to adapt successfully to change; and• if a country produces enough food to feed itself this does not mean there is no hunger. Whether people have enough food is determined by infrastructure and government policy, as well as who has access to technology.To help farming in developing countries, therefore, biotechnology needs to support local innovative capacity and to be assessable. Local people and institutions need to be in control of the novelty generation, selection and diffusion processes. Biotechnology will not help the poor if it is transferred in a top-down, reductionist way, from first world to third. However, there is real concern that this is what is going to happen because of some actions taken by large multinational biotech companies. An example is the use of so-called Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs) to develop 'Terminator seeds', i.e., seeds modified to produce infertile seed thus forcing farmers to buy new seed every year. This makes good sense for a company whose primary loyalty is to making profits for its shareholders, but is not at all in the interest of the 1.4 billion people, nearly all living in developing countries who rely on saved seed as their primary seed source. Furthermore, such technology threatens to undermine the indigenous innovation system that over the last 10,000 years has 'invented' and then refined the world's crops.A related threat to indigenous innovation is the current patent system that offers no protection for indigenous and community-based innovation to private sector claims. The US patent on the Mexican enola bean, for example, raises the spectre of poor farmers being prevented from growing seed they have been breeding for centuries.Hopefully biotechnology will never be used to thwart indigenous plant breeding in developing countries. Some in the private seed sector (i.e. Monsanto and Syngenta) have already given commitments not to use GURTs. Both companies see it in their own interest to develop partnerships with the public sector that will help bring benefits to developing countries. In April 2000, for example, Monsanto announced that it was making its draft rice genome sequence data available to public researchers involved in the International Rice Genome Sequencing Project. Within this decade, research in crop improvement will also be targeting improvement of food quality, i.e. vitamin A content. Golden Rice and other crops with capacity to produce betacarotene may contribute to a balanced diet in poor rural areas as well as new demands for varied diet from urban populations with enhanced income. The private sector announced that some of the patents associated with the development of GoldenRice will not be enforced to allow consumers in the developing world to benefit from this new crop variety. Research groups are already attempting to improve GoldenRice further by enhancing the quality of the rice protein to contain more essential amino acids.The UN Human Development Report believes, however, that relying on the spotlight of public opinion to encourage multinationals to do the right thing is not sufficient. A main conclusion from the report is that policy, not charity, will determine whether new technologies become a tool for human development everywhere. One solution the authors suggest is that rich countries support a global effort to create incentives and new partnerships for research and development. The biotech products developed by the private sector must be deployed in a way that considers both environmental and human health issues. While this discussion remains sensitive, particularly for the inhabitants of the industrialised world, it is a debate in which the developing world should have a voice, and must set its own biosafety standards within the context of economy, ecology and climate. Of course, scientists and policy makers in the developing world must ensure that the New Science serves the needs and aspirations of their people. Some of these biosafety issues need to be addressed while deploying transgenic technology:• transgenic plants should not lead to new pests or new pest strains;• transgenic technology for pest control should not affect non-target organisms;• transgenic food should not pose a health risk;• agrobiodiversity should not be suppressed by adoption of new transgenic crops; and• transgenic plants should not affect agroecosystems if new lands are to be incorporated into agriculture.An interesting example of research-for-development in biotechnology is provided by CAMBIA,Center for the Application of Molecular Biology, to International Agriculture. This is a notfor-profit research institute in Canberra, Australia, which was set up in 1991 to develop and package the novelty generation and selection tools that biotechnology is making possible so that farmers and local researchers can use them. One of the technologies is 'transactivation', which is based on the fact that much of the genetic variability in plants comes not from the presence or absence of genes, but from gene regulation, i.e., the extent to which genes are 'turned on' and in which tissues. Manipulating gene activity in this way can create a composite crop population with a tremendous degree of variety. The plan is to provide breeders and farmers with populations of these 'turned on' plants to allow them to select the novelties they want. The power of this approach is that it allows farmers and breeders to scan the evolutionary history of a crop and recreate a vast range of novelty that might have existed at some point but died out almost immediately through natural selection. Such novelty might be of huge benefit because what a farmer requires from a crop can be the opposite to what a plant needs to survive in nature.Functional genomics and transactivation are just some technologies that fall under the heading of 'biotechnology' which can provide both opportunities and risks to developing countries, depending on how they are used. Others include:• Tissue culture-together with improved selection techniques tissue culture allows plant breeders to generate a new plant variety in a few generations rather than the many required using conventional techniques.• DNA probes that allow genes conveying desired traits to be identified much more reliably and faster than conventional 'phenotyping', i.e., identifying the desired gene from the traits it produces in plants growing in the field or greenhouse. DNA probes also make it possible to screen for several genes simultaneously which is very important because features such as high yields and stable resistance to pests and diseases come from the interaction of a number of genes, rather than the presence of just one.• Genetic engineering, i.e., the manipulation of an organism's genetic information by introducing or eliminating a specific gene. Whereas in conventional plant breeding, breeders are tied to using genes from the same species, genetic engineering allows them to look almost anywhere for genes providing the traits they desire.Genetic engineering is the technology that provides the greatest perceived threat and has caused the most controversy. One area of concern is whether GM plants and food are safe for humans and animals to eat. So far the most potent 'smoking gun' has been the finding that pollen from GM maize kills Monarch butterflies in lab experiments (but not yet confirmed by field research).There are also concerns that proteins in GM food might also cause allergic reactions.A more important area of concern for developing countries is whether GM organisms will 'flow' to other organisms. For example, a rice plant genetically modified to have drought tolerance would sooner or later out-cross with weedy rice. This could produce 'super-weedy' rice that might exasperate the already serious problem that South American farmers have with weedy rice. The more general fear is that plants or animals that gain genes that confer some advantage would then outcompete and reduce biodiversity. This is a greater threat for developing countries, which contain the centres of biodiversity for the world's most important crops, than for developed countries. However, there are no records of a plant becoming a weed as a result of plant breeding. Interspecific hybridisation appears to be rare in nature, and resulting hybrids are mostly sterile.Whether biotech helps balance Ehrlich's equation depends on how it is used, and by whom.Nearly everything points to policy. Clear, strong and equitable policy is needed in both developed (innovative incentive and funding structures) and developing countries (biosafety regulations, intellectual property right arrangements). There is no global framework for supporting biotech research and development that addresses the common needs of poor people in many countries and regions. The CGIAR system could be it! i Ehrlich. P.R. (1986). The Population Bomb. Ballantine Publishing Group. 201 pp.ii Ruttan, V.W. (1999). The Transition to Agricultural Sustainability. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA) 96:5960-5967.","tokenCount":"2634"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1afb664e15fc293afa2008ea0da0d5fe","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/075e9ad3-a1b9-4673-9aa9-10c28133f6de/retrieve","id":"775384098"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6d1a5986-39bc-4350-b4fb-c85d91d4cd2c","pagecount":"1","content":"T1 Training + Rating Only (168 vendors) T2 Training + Rating + Equipment (168 vendors) C No training (167 vendors)We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr.• 90% of pork, the most widely consumed meat in Vietnam, is sold through wet markets, where hazards are pervasive. • Adherence to basic food and hand hygiene practices among vendors has the potential to reduce contamination at low cost, but a lack of either market incentives or regulatory enforcement of food safety standards implies weak incentives to adopt. • Voluntary programs to improve food safety in Vietnam has been limited, and there is a dearth of evidence regarding the impact of such initiatives on food safety outcomes.Intervention and take-up  • Total bacterial counts were 10%-pts lower in pork meat samples, 5 %-pts lower in cutting board samples of vendors given equipment, vs. control vendors, neither statistically significant (p = 0.31 for meat, p = 0.31 0.70 for cutting boards • Presence of Salmonella was unchanged across meat samples• Sales revenue: Vendors in treatment markets report 10%-pts higher sales per day relative to control vendors (p = 0.06). Those who also were assigned equipment report 14%-pt higher sales (p < 0.01). • Value of pork stocked: Treated vendors increased the value of inventory by 8% (p=0.07) relative to control markets. Vendors assigned equipment report an 11% increase (p=0.01) • Price of most popular cut: Treated vendors were able to charge a higher price per kg for pork belly.Treatment vendors charge 0.11 USD more on average (p<0.01), those assigned equipment charged 0.08 more (p=0.04)• Results suggest potential for voluntary rating interventions to harness consumer demand for food safety. However, lack of significant impact on contamination of pork indicates a need to identify more effective technologies to control food safety hazards in this context. • Lists of all traditional (open air) pork markets in Ha Noi, Thai Nguyen, Dong Nai, Thua Thien Hue, and Can Tho provinces were obtained from government authorities. After excluding markets without water access or more than two hours' travel time from a study laboratory, 20 markets in Ha Noi, and 12 for each of the other provinces, were drawn by simple random sampling and randomly assigned to treatment versus control status • 10 vendors in each treatment market and 5 vendors in each control market were randomly selected. A public lottery was held in each market through which up to 5 pork vendors were randomly selected to receive hygiene equipment. • Cut pork and cutting boards were swabbed for each interviewed vendor at baseline. Up to 5 vendors who received equipment and 5 vendors in control markets were swabbed at endline. Both samples were tested for total bacteria count, and cut pork was qualitatively tested for Salmonella spp.","tokenCount":"456"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0af5ed5eff47f19669be3e38d5959b46","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f5aa426a-2e40-4fdb-8fc5-695f62742415/retrieve","id":"1042591155"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"033a21cd-995a-4be7-9435-3025f4e8c45b","pagecount":"13","content":"Genetic improvement or gain is a long-term strategy that promises a brighter future for livestock farming. By consistently using top-ranking animals as parents of the next generation, farmers can achieve permanent gains in livestock performance. This improvement accumulates over time, leading to enhanced efficiency and increased profit for farmers. Regular genetic evaluation and selection of animals provide a sustainable route to improving livestock performance at the national level and is a key component of any breed improvement program.The environment influences the ability of the animal to express its genetic superiority (or inferiority). On average, 75% of the differences among cows in production are attributed to the environment, while 25% are based on their genetic merit. Genetic evaluations are designed to account for genetic differences in the ability of animals to produce after correcting for the type of environment under which the animals were raised.Procedures used in the genetic evaluation are constantly revised and improved based on the quantity and quality of information available on the animals. These calculations, which account for many environmental and genetic factors, are designed to enhance accuracy. For young animals, genomic information plays a crucial role in predicting their potential performance, allowing for the earlier identification of superior animals and reducing the generation interval. Ancestor information is also included to enhance accuracy further.Genetic evaluations for milk production and growth are computed using an Animal Model. This means the review is based on the animal and its relationship with other animals being evaluated-i.e., its parents, ancestors, and progeny, all known relationships among the animals. Each animal additionally influences the evaluation of its relatives. The Africa Asia Dairy Genetic Gains (AADGG) project aims to provide results from the genomic evaluation of animals in the program countries each year to guide dairy genetic gains.i.Accuracy of selection: Our ability to select animals that are truly genetically superior for the different traits. This is determined by the model and techniques used to evaluate the animals ii.Selection intensity: This depends on the proportion of animals that are identified to be parents for the next generation. It includes the superiority of these animals compared to the average of the overall population. The selection intensity in bulls is high because only a small number of bulls are needed to produce semen for a large population of cows.A good dairy farmer retains 75% of his females based on genetic merit to produce replacements.iii. Genetic Variation: This indicates the relative differences among animals that are controlled by genetic factors. It is measured as the heritability of the trait iv.Generation interval: The average age of the parents when the offspring are born. The rate of genetic change increases when the generation interval decreases (this is why the Age at first calving and the calving interval are important traits in monitoring dairy performance)To achieve genetic gains, the accuracy of selection must be high and the parents must be genetically superior compared to the average population.The cost of feeding animals is a critical variable cost in producing milk. The feed consumed is used for production (milk quantity and quality (composition)), body maintenance, and reproduction. About one-third of the feed consumed is used for body maintenance, which is directly related to body size. Heavier cows need more feed and water for body maintenance. In smallholder farming systems where feed is a major limiting factor to productivity gains, an important goal is to get as much milk as possible with less feed.Using data on animals registered on the AADGG platform in Tanzania, we evaluated milk production and body weights to generate GEBVs for each trait. These genetic parameters, obtained through the evaluation, have been used to develop an index that improves the rate of milk production while keeping body weight constant. This index, which allows us to rank and select bulls, empowers farmers to promote more efficient dairy bulls and future cows that produce more milk without increasing feed consumption.The index weights derived are 1.00062 for milk and -0.0189 for body weight. This means that animals with heavy body weight will be penalized since the aim is to improve milk production efficiency.The results from the genomic animals assessment registered on the ADGG data platform are shared in the Excel spreadsheets in separate lists for bulls and cows. The results are further presented in separate lists for cows registered from the different regions.The correlation between the INDEX for sires in 2021 and 2024 was 0.75, while that for cows in 2021 and 2024 was 0.70, implying a significant re-ranking of both bulls and cows in 2024 (Figure 1).Breeding value: This is the total genetic ability of an animal for a given trait. An individual receives one-half of their breeding value from each parent:Breeding value = Sire's Transmitting ability + Dams Transmitting ability Estimated breeding values (EBV) present the genetic superiority (or inferiority) that a bull or cow will transmit to their offspring.The information derived from the genes inherent in an animal is used to improve the accuracy of selection in populations. This information enhances details on relationships among animals. Genomic breeding values are thus calculated to improve the accuracy and the rate of genetic gains in populations.Reliability is a measure that estimates the accuracy of the breeding value based on the amount of information used in the evaluation. The more the information available for an individual, the higher the reliability. When an individual has a large number of offspring (e.g. daughters of sires), the reliability increases.When using AI, service providers, and livestock keepers should try to use semen from bulls with a positive GEBV. This will ensure they incorporate better genes suited for milk production and efficiency in their herds. In cases where bulls are used for natural mating, farmers should be advised not to use any bulls with negative GEBVs but be encouraged to use bulls with positive and higher GEBVs.Farmers should be advised as follows:1. When looking to replace a cow in their herd, the cows with the poorest GEBVs should be the ones to cull or sell off.2. When looking for cows to buy, select cows with GEBVs higher than the average GEBV for their herd.3. When looking for a bull to use for mating, ensure the GEBV for the bull you have chosen is higher than the average GEBV for their herd, or ensure the GEBV for the bull is higher than that for the cow to which the bull will be mated.i.Farmers/producers who do not mind keeping or feeding heavier cows can choose bulls based on milk yield only (Milk GEBVs).ii. Farmers/producers interested in higher efficiency will select bulls based on the index.  ","tokenCount":"1096"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9669bc38ae23365f16fb3ccf846540a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/90898d29-14d5-4433-b90c-f41b4af96d5c/content","id":"1152025609"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"264897a1-ed92-44f7-9ca5-9aff4335a6b2","pagecount":"13","content":"Linear and non-linear models used in applications of genomic selection (GS) can fit different types of responses (e.g., continuous, ordinal, binary). In recent years, several genomic-enabled prediction models have been developed for predicting complex traits in genomic-assisted animal and plant breeding. These models include linear, non-linear and non-parametric models, mostly for continuous responses and less frequently for categorical responses. Several linear and non-linear models are special cases of a more general family of statistical models known as artificial neural networks, which provide better prediction ability than other models. In this paper, we propose a Bayesian Regularized Neural Network (BRNNO) for modelling ordinal data. The proposed model was fitted using a Bayesian framework; we used the data augmentation algorithm to facilitate computations. The proposed model was fitted using the Gibbs Maximum a Posteriori and Generalized EM algorithm implemented by combining code written in C and R programming languages. The new model was tested with two real maize datasets evaluated for Septoria and GLS diseases and was compared with the Bayesian Ordered Probit Model (BOPM). Results indicated that the BRNNO model performed better in terms of genomic-based prediction than the BOPM model.In genomic selection (GS) and genomic prediction (GP), all markers are fitted simultaneously to the training and testing Abbreviations: BGLR, Bayesian Generalized Linear Regression; BOPM, Bayesian ordered probit model; BRNNO, Bayesian Regularized Neural Network for Ordinal data; BS, Brier Score; GBS, Genotype by Sequencing; GEM, Generalized EM algorithm; GLS, Gray Leaf Spot; GMAP, Gibbs Maximum A Posteriori; GS, Genomic Selection; MAE, Mean Absolute Error; MCMC, Markov Chain Monte Carlo; MER, Misclassification Error Rate; RMSE, Root Mean Square Error; SHL, Single Hidden Layer; SHLNN, Single Hidden Layer Neural Network. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2020 The Authors. The Plant Genome published by Wiley Periodicals, LLC on behalf of Crop Science Society of America populations. Practical and simulation studies have favored the use of GS as a way to increase genetic gains in less time (Crossa et al., 2017). For continuous traits, models have been developed to regress phenotypes on all markers using a linear model (Meuwissen, Hayes, & Goddard, 2001). However, in plant and animal breeding, the response variables in many traits are discrete counts (y = 0, 1, 2, …). In classical probability theory, counts could indicate a binomial, multinomial or a Poisson distribution. For smaller counts, data analysts recommend using logarithmic or square root transformations. In GS it is still common practice to apply linear regression models to categorical data or transformed data (Montesinos-López et al., 2015a). Transformations do not consider many distributions (of count data) as positively skewed: several observations have a value of 0, and a high number of 0 values in the data does not allow a skewed distribution to be transformed into a normal distribution; it is also possible that the regression model will produce negative predicted values. When a transformation is used, it is not always possible to have normally distributed transformed data, and often times, transformations are counterproductive (Stroup, 2012).Ordinal data are very common in many research fields, such as econometrics, finance, agriculture, animal and plant breeding, genetics, etc. In agricultural applications, resistance/susceptibility to diseases is usually measured on an ordinal scale (e.g., 1 = no disease, 2 = low infection, 3 = moderate infection, 4 = high infection, and 5 = totally infected). With data on this scale, it is possible to obtain relative or absolute frequencies, but the usual sample mean or sample standard deviation cannot be obtained, since the distance between classes is not defined (Stevens, 1946). An important application with ordinal data is ordinal regression, where a response variable that is measured on an ordinal scale is predicted by using several covariates. Ordinal regression has been widely used in plant and animal breeding (e.g., Gianola, 1982) and is mainly based on linear mixed models. However, ignoring the ordinal nature of the data can cause several problems related to biased estimates, which could potentially lead to wrong and misleading conclusions (Montesinos-López et al., 2015a). In plant breeding, several economically important traits are categorical, and in general, threshold models have not been considered in GS. One of the first studies that introduced the threshold model to GS incorporating genomic × environment interaction was Montesinos-López et al. (2015a) when 278 maize lines scored for resistance to gray leaf spot (GLS) were measured using an ordered categorical scale in three environments.In GS, a response variable is predicted based on dense molecular markers. Most of the models used to predict the response variable are linear, and the following assumptions hold: (1) the response variable is normally distributed, (2) the variance of the residuals is constant, and (3) the expected value of the response variable is a linear function of covariates (Montesinos-López et al., 2015a;Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2012). Recently, linear models used in GS have been extended to model ordered phenotypical categories (e.g., Montesinos-López et al., 2015a;Montesinos-López, Montesinos-López, Crossa, Burgueño, & Eskridge, 2015b;Wang et al., 2013).In order to make predictions on new data, machine learning builds models from sample data using several algorithms (Samuel, 1959). There are some applications of machine learning in genomic selection (González-Camacho et al., 2012;González-Camacho et al., 2018) with connected network architecture, which is a type of machine learning algorithm that uses an artificial neural network with input, hid-• Neural networks are universal approximation machines that can be adapted to predict ordinal responses • Neural networks outperform the predictive power of linear models • Data augmentation is a valuable tool for fitting neural network models den and output layers linked non-linearly. The layers consist of stages of non-linear data transformations. Non-linear kernel-based models and neural networks have also been used in the context of GS for continuous traits with promising results (González-Camacho et al., 2012, 2018;Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2012). Recently, Montesinos-López et al.(2019) compared genome-based prediction accuracies for ordinal traits using several deep machine learning methods and the threshold model for ordinal data on an extensive number of ordinal data; the authors found that the threshold genomic best linear unbiased prediction was the most consistent model in terms of genomic-enabled prediction accuracy. However, the scientific literature does not show results on many non-linear GS models and methods for categorical data.Based on the previous considerations, and motivated by the fact that (1) artificial neural networks are considered universal approximations, which in some cases exhibit better predictive ability than linear and non-linear models, and that (2) several traits commonly used in GS are measured on an ordinal scale, the main objective of this study was to introduce a Bayesian Regularized Neural Network for Ordinal data (BRNNO) with a Single Hidden Layer (SHL). We used a data augmentation algorithm (Tanner, 1993) to make part of the computations feasible. We assumed that the process that leads to the observed response variable is a latent variable (unobserved), which is a continuous random variable that follows a standard normal distribution (e.g., Albert & Chib, 1993;Gianola, 1982;Montesinos-López et al., 2015a). We combined Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) simulation and EM with other optimization algorithms that allowed us to fit the proposed model. The BRNNO model can also be considered a generalization of the probit ordered regression in the context of nonlinear models and can also be extended to generalize the logit ordered regression model (Montesinos-López et al., 2015b).This paper is organized as follows: In the Materials and Methods section we introduce the Bayesian ordered probit model (BOPM) and the Bayesian ordered logit model (BOLM) for ordinal data; next, we introduce the Bayesian Regularized Neural Network for Ordinal data (BRNNO) and describe the procedures used to assess the predictive power of the proposed model. Then, we present an application of the BRNNO using two real datasets for wheat diseases from CIM-MYT maize and wheat breeding trials (https://www.cimmyt. org). Finally, we present the results and discussion.According to Albert and Chib (1993), suppose that \uD835\uDC4C 1 , … , \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC5B are observed and \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56 can take observations on \uD835\uDC3E ordered values, that is, \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56 ∈ {1, … , \uD835\uDC3E}, 1 < 2 < ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ < \uD835\uDC3E. Furthermore, suppose that we are interested in modelling the probabilities, \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 = \uD835\uDC43 ( \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC57), \uD835\uDC57 = 1, … , \uD835\uDC3E. Probabilities \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 can be modelled using covariates \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 = (\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC561 , … , \uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5D ) with regression techniques, which leads to several very well-known statistical models, e.g., the probit model or the ordered logit model, among others. Below we briefly discuss these two models from a Bayesian perspective.Albert and Chib (1993) assume that there is a unobserved random variable \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56 normally distributed with mean \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61  \uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDEC3 and variance 1, where \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 = (\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC561 , … , \uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5D ) , a \uD835\uDC5D-dimensional vector of input covariates and \uD835\uDEC3 is a vector of unknown regression coefficients of dimensions \uD835\uDC5D × 1. We observe that \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC57 if λ \uD835\uDC57−1 < \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56 < λ \uD835\uDC57 with λ 0 = −∞, λ \uD835\uDC3E = ∞, λ 1 , … , λ \uD835\uDC3E−1 are a set of unknown thresholds; note also that λ 0 ≤ λ 1 ≤ ⋯ ≤ λ \uD835\uDC3E . The latent variable \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC56 , also known as liability (Gianola, 1982), can be represented using the regression framework, that is:where \uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56 is a random normal variable with mean 0 and variance 1. Using this representation, it can be shown that:with Φ(⋅) as the standard normal cumulative distribution. Albert and Chib (1993) assigned a diffuse prior for (\uD835\uDEC3, \uD835\uDECC) and showed that all conditional distributions necessary to implement the Gibbs Sampler algorithm (Geman & Geman, 1984) have closed form and can be used to draw samples from the posterior distribution \uD835\uDC5D(\uD835\uDEC3, \uD835\uDECC|data).Montesinos -López et al. (2015b) argue that the ordinal logistic regression model is often preferred over the ordinal probit model because it provides regression coefficients that can be more easily interpreted as the regression coefficients are connected with the odds ratio. Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) proposed using a latent variable (liability) with logistic distribution, which can be represented as follows:where ẽ\uD835\uDC56 is the standard logistic random variable; therefore, the probabilities \uD835\uDC43 ( \uD835\uDC4C \uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC57) are computed based on the distribution function of a logistic random variable. The authors propose using Póyla-Gamma data augmentation, which facilitates the computations when sampling from the posterior distribution of the parameters of interest with the Gibbs sampler (Geman & Geman, 1984).Following Albert and Chib (1993), Gianola (1982), González-Camacho et al. (2012) and Pérez-Rodríguez, Gianola, Weigel, Rosa, and Crossa (2013), in this study, we propose using the latent variable approach in order to model ordinal data with a Single Hidden Layer Neural Network (SHLNN), as shown in Figure 1. The structure of the neural network was analogous to that shown in Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2013), that is, the input layer has the input variables \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 = (\uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC561 , … , \uD835\uDC65 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5D ), which were then combined with linear inputs in neuron \uD835\uDC5A = 1, … , \uD835\uDC46 and transformed by applying a non-linear activation function \uD835\uDC54(⋅) in the hidden layer and then combined linearly in the output layer to regress the latent variable, that is:The activation function is a function that maps the inputs from the real line into the bounded open interval (−1,1), for example, the tangent hyperbolic function tanh(⋅) is given by \uD835\uDC54 (\uD835\uDC62) = 2 1+exp(−2\uD835\uDC62) − 1. There are several options for activation functions, but tanh(⋅) is a popular alternative implemented in most software packages that fits neural networks. The output from equation ( 5) is related to the observed data using the approach employed in the probit and logit ordered model, that is,the set of unknown thresholds. By using this approach, the probabilities given in equations ( 2) and ( 3) can  2013) for ordinal data using the latent variable approach be computed as follows:Note that the ordered probit model (Albert & Chib, 1993) is a special case of the single layer perceptron, which also is a special case of the proposed Single Layer Neural Network, which is obtained by setting the number of neurons equal to 1 (\uD835\uDC46 = 1), \uD835\uDC64 1 = 1, \uD835\uDC54 (\uD835\uDC62) = \uD835\uDC62 (identity function), \uD835\uDC4F 1 = 0, \uD835\uDEC3 = \uD835\uDEC3 [1] . A Single Hidden Layer Neural Network that generalizes the ordered logit model proposed by Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) can be obtained replacing the random error term in equation ( 5) by a random error term with standard logistic distribution.The BRNNO model can be fitted using the Generalized Expectation-Maximization algorithm (Kärkkäinen & Sillanpää, 2013;Neal & Hinton, 1998) or by using Bayesian methods. Let \uD835\uDEC9 = (\uD835\uDC64 1 , … , \uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC46 ; \uD835\uDC4F 1 , … , \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC46 ; \uD835\uDEC3 [1] , … , \uD835\uDEC3 [\uD835\uDC46] ), the vector of weights, biases and connection strengths, and let \uD835\uDC5D(\uD835\uDEC9|σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 ) be the prior distribution assigned to the elements of this vector. Here we assume that \uD835\uDC5D (\uD835\uDEC9|σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 ) = \uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC41(\uD835\uDFCE, σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 \uD835\uDC70), where \uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC41(\uD835\uDECD, \uD835\uDEBA) stands for multivariate normal distribution with mean \uD835\uDECD and variance-covariance matrix \uD835\uDEBA; in this case, \uD835\uDECD = \uD835\uDFCE and \uD835\uDEBA = σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 \uD835\uDC70, with σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 a variance parameter common to all the elements in \uD835\uDEC9, assuming for the moment that σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 is known. In the data augmentation framework for ordinal data (e.g., Albert & Chib, 1993), the joint posterior distribution of {\uD835\uDEC9, λ 1 , … , λ \uD835\uDC3E−1 , \uD835\uDC4D 1 , … , \uD835\uDC4D \uD835\uDC5B }, given the observed data, can be obtained as follows:By assigning a diffuse prior for \uD835\uDC5D(\uD835\uDECC), this leads to:\uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC54 ( \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A + \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDEC3 [\uD835\uDC5A] ) , 1)where ϕ(; μ, σ 2 ) is the density function of a normal random variable with mean μ and variance σ 2 , and 1(\uD835\uDC4B ∈ \uD835\uDC34) is the indicator function that takes a value of 1 if \uD835\uDC4B is contained in the \uD835\uDC34 set, and a value of 0 otherwise. Note that the joint posterior distribution of the parameters of interest does not have a closed form, so we must use numerical algorithms and simulation techniques to fit this model. In order to ensure the identification of the \uD835\uDECC parameters, λ 1 is set to 0 (Albert & Chib, 1993). Next, we describe two numerical algorithms that can be employed to fit the BRNNO model: GMAP and GEM (Generalized EM algorithm). The GMAP algorithm (Kim, Hall, & Li, 2009) combines the Gibbs Sampler algorithm (G = Gibbs; see Geman & Geman, 1984) and an optimization algorithm to obtain the posterior modes of some parameters of interest in the model (MAP = Maximum A Posteriori). Pursuant to Kim et al. (2009), it is necessary to divide the parameters into The Plant Genome two parts, which are labeled as 'tractable' and 'intractable'. Tractable parameters are those whose full conditional distributions have a closed form, whereas the remaining parameters are 'intractable'. Thus, 'tractable' parameters can be sampled by using the Gibbs sampler and 'intractable' parameters are estimated by MAP and G; MAP steps are repeated until convergence. As for the problem of interest, the tractable parameters are the latent variables and the thresholds {\uD835\uDC81, \uD835\uDECC}, while the intractable parameters are the weights, biases, connection strengths and variance parameter σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 , that is {\uD835\uDEC9, σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 }. Next, we derive the full conditional distributions for tractable parameters and briefly explain how to obtain the posterior modes of intractable parameters. Appendix 1 shows computational details for implementing the GMAP algorithm.The fully conditional distribution of the latent variables can be obtained from ( 8); it has closed forms and can be obtained as follows:)which corresponds to a truncated normal random variable truncated at the left (right) by λ \uD835\uDC57−1 (λ \uD835\uDC57 ), location parameter ∑ \uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC5A = 1 \uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC54(\uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A + \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDEC3 [\uD835\uDC5A] ) and scale parameter 1.The fully conditional distribution of λ \uD835\uDC57 |\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC52 is proportional to: The set of intractable parameters is {\uD835\uDEC9, σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 }. From equation (5), and by taking into account the prior distribution assigned to \uD835\uDEC9, it is clear that the problem reduces to fitting a Bayesian Regularized Neural Network with a Single Hidden Layer; the details of the algorithm can be found elsewhere, such as in Foresee and Hagan (1997), Gianola, Okut, Weigel, andRosa (2011), Okut, Gianola, Rosa, andWeigel (2011), and Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2013), among others. The algorithms used to fit the Bayesian Regularized Neural Network need to be slightly modified to take into account that the residual variance for \uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56 in equation ( 5) is set to 1. The Appendix shows the computational details for estimating posterior modes for these parameters. One interesting output from this algorithm is the effective number of parameters η which can give some guidance about the number of neurons to include in the neural network (see, for example, Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2013). This parameter is computed as follows (see Appendix 1 for more details):where \uD835\uDC5D is the number of elements in \uD835\uDEC9, α = 1When this parameter shows little change for S and S+1 neurons, the more parsimonious model is preferred.The GEM algorithm (Kärkkäinen & Sillanpää, 2013;Neal & Hinton, 1998) is similar to the GMAP algorithm. The 'tractable' parameters (latent variables and thresholds) are updated according to the conditional expectations for distributions given in ( 9) and (10) and the 'intractable' parameters are estimated using MAP, so the updating of 'tractable' and 'untractable' parameters is repeated until convergence. As the number of parameters to estimate increases, the GMAP algorithm becomes slow, and therefore, our preferred algorithm for fitting the proposed model is GEM. Appendix 2 shows computational details for implementing the GEM algorithm.The ordered probit model described above can be fitted using the BGLR library functions in R (Pérez & de los Campos, 2014). The ordered logit model proposed by Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) can also be fitted in R (R Core Team, 2019); the authors provided the code in the supplementary materials included in the published paper. The GEM algorithm for fitting the ordinal Bayesian Regularized Neural Network proposed in this study was implemented using the C programming language (Kernighan & Ritchie, 1988) and the R statistical package (R Core Team, 2019) to speed up computations and facilitate user interaction with the software. We included the resulting routines for fitting the proposed model in the brnn package version 0.8 with the GEM algorithm (Pérez-Rodríguez & Gianola, 2020), while the code for fitting the model with the GMAP algorithm is included in supplementary materials. We decided not to include it in the brnn package, as it is very slow.In order to evaluate the proposed model's predictive ability, we proposed partitioning the data at random into the training and testing sets. The basic idea was to fit the model with the training data and then predict phenotypes (observed ordinal response) for the individuals in the testing set. In the case of continuous response, the model's predictive ability was measured by Pearson's correlation coefficient between observed and predicted phenotypical values or mean squared error prediction (MSEP).However, in the case of categorical data, several metrics are widely used, such as sensitivity, specificity, ROC curve, etc. (Tharwat, 2018). Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) suggested using the Brier score (BS) (Brier, 1950) because these authors argued that this statistic uses all the information contained in the predictive distribution. The Brier score can be computed as follows:where \uD835\uDC5B is the total number of observations in the set of interest, π\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 is the estimated probability that observation \uD835\uDC56 = 1, … , \uD835\uDC5B belongs to class \uD835\uDC57 = 1, … , \uD835\uDC3E, which can be computed using the adjusted model with the equations ( 6)-( 7) and \uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 = 1, if observation \uD835\uDC56 belongs to class j and \uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57 = 0 otherwise. As defined above, BS takes values between 0 and 1, and small values are associated with better prediction ability.Other genome-based prediction performance measures that are used with ordinal data are, for example, the misclassification error rate (MER), which is obtained by counting the number of classification errors and then dividing the result by the number of test cases. Mathieson (1995) argued that for ordinal responses, performance measures that take into account the difference between class numbers are preferred over MER due to the lack of better information. In this case, two performance measures that take into account this criterion are Mean Absolute Error (MAE) computed as 1 \uD835\uDC5B ∑ \uD835\uDC5B \uD835\uDC56 = 1 |\uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC56 − ŷ\uD835\uDC56 | and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), which can be obtained as Costa & Cardoso, 2005, for more details). Pearson's correlation coefficient, widely used with continuous data, can be replaced by Sperman's rank correlation coefficient or Kendall's tau coefficient; here, we used Sperman's coefficient. It is important to note that the predicted class ŷ\uD835\uDC56 in the testing set is obtained by first predicting the value of the latent variable ẑ\uD835\uDC56 using the estimated parameters and associated covariates, and then ŷ\uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC57 if ̂λ\uD835\uDC57−1 < ẑ\uD835\uDC56 < ̂λ\uD835\uDC57 , where λ is the vector of estimated threshold parameters.Septoria is a fungus that causes leaf spot diseases in field crops, forage crops and vegetables. The Septoria dataset includes information for 268 wheat lines from CIMMYT (http://www.cimmyt.org) and was previously analyzed by Montesinos-López et al. (2015b). The lines were planted in 2010 in Toluca, Mexico. The dataset includes information about disease severity, which was measured on an ordinal scale with four points. The lines were genotyped using Genotype by Sequencing (GBS; Poland et al., 2012). Markers were filtered by removing markers with more than 50% missing values, imputed using observed allelic frequencies, and further removing markers with minor allele frequency smaller than 0.05. After that, 6787 markers were still available for further analysis. The dataset can be downloaded from http:// hdl.handle.net/11529/10254.Gray Leaf Spot (GLS) is a disease caused by the fungus Cercospora zeae-maydis. This dataset consists of genotypic and phenotypic information for 278 maize lines from the Drought Tolerance Maize (DTMA) project of CIMMYT's Global Maize Program. The dataset was originally analyzed by Crossa et al. (2011), and re-analyzed later by González-Camacho et al. (2012), Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) and Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2018) using different statistical models. The dataset includes information on disease severity measured on an ordinal scale with 5 points: 1 = no disease, 2 = low infection, 3 = moderate infection, 4 = high infection and 5 = totally infected. The lines were initially genotyped with 1,152 SNPs and re-genotyped later with 55k SNPs using the Illumina platform. After removing SNPs with more than 10% missing values and imputing filtering markers with minor allele frequency smaller than 0.05, a total of 46,347 markers were still available for further analysis. The dataset can be downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/11529/10254.We evaluated the predictive ability of the proposed model by using 100 partitions generated at random with 90% of observations in the training set and the remaining 10% in the testing set. For each partition, we fitted the Bayesian Regularized Neural Network (BRNN) for ordinal data with two neurons. In order to expedite computations, we first computed a genomic relationship matrix (\uD835\uDC06) between centered and standardized genotypes (Lopez-Cruz et al., 2015); we then performed the eigen-value decomposition of \uD835\uDC06, that is, \uD835\uDC06 = \uD835\uDEAA\uD835\uDEB2\uD835\uDEAA ′ , and used \uD835\uDEAA\uD835\uDEB2 1 2 (principal components) as our matrix of covariates to fit the models (see Gianola et al., 2011, for other computing strategies). The model was fitted using the GMAP and GEM algorithms. In the case of GMAP, inferences were based on 5000 MCMC iterations obtained after discarding 5000 samples that were taken as burn-in, due to high computational times.In the case of ordered probit regression, we used the same computational strategy as before for speeding up computations. We fitted the model using the BGLR package in R (Pérez & de los Campos, 2014), and inferences were based on 5000 MCMC iterations obtained after discarding 25,000 samples that were taken as burn-in. For each partition, we computed several statistics that allowed us to assess the performance of the models; in this case, Brier score, MAE, RMSE, Spearman's correlation (r) and MER.F I G U R E 2 Scatter plot matrix of MAE for BRNNO and BOPM. Points above the 45 • degree line are associated with the worst performance of the model on the y-axis (BOPM) in comparison with the model presented on the x-axis (BRNNO). When the worst model is BOPM, this is represented by a filled circle; however, when the worst model is BRNNO, it is represented by an open circle. The plots also show the number of times that BOPM is inferior to BRNNO as %Table 1 shows the results for Septoria and GLS in Colombia, Harare and Mexico. Results in Table 1 show the five criteria for determining the best models for all of them (except the correlations), i.e., the lower the better, whereas for the correlations, the higher the better. Results show that the BRNNO model performed better than the probit model (BOPM), except in the case of BS criterion for the Septoria disease (BS = 0.3205). For all the other cases, the performance measured by criteria MAE, RMSE and MER was always smaller for BRNNO than for the ordered probit model (BOPM). In addition, it should be noted that the associated Spearman's rank correlation coefficient is higher for BRNNO than for the probit model (BOPM). The best prediction of the BRNNO algorithm occurred for disease GLS measured in Colombia using the GEM algorithm with 0.5745, 0.8683, 0.7295, and 0.4942 values for criteria MAE, RMSE, r, and MER, F I G U R E 3 Scatter plot matrix of MER for BRNNO and BOPM. Points above the 45 • degree line are associated with the worst performance of the model on the y-axis (BOPM) in comparison with the model presented on the x-axis (BRNNO). When the worst model is BOPM, it is represented by a filled circle, and when the worst model is BRNNO, it is represented by an open circle. The plots also show the number of times that BOPM is inferior to BRNNO as % respectively. Furthermore, usually the second best model was also BRNNO (using either one of the two algorithms GEM or GMAP).Table 2 shows the number of parameters that should be estimated for the neural network and the estimated effective number of parameters. We fitted the models with S = 3 neurons and concluded that it was not necessary to include more neurons.Figures 2 and 3 show the evaluation of metrics MAE and MER for Septoria and GLS in Colombia, Harare and Mexico, respectively, for each of the 100 partitions generated at random and obtained with the GEM algorithm. Results show similar patterns for the GMAP algorithm. These figures are a graphical representation of the summary shown in Table 1. The 45 • line makes it possible to quickly compare the performance of the two models, from where it is clear that MAE and MER are worse for the probit model than for the proposed (BRNNO) model because they exhibit higher values.For the MAE criterion, BRNNO was superior to BOPM in GLS because the latter exhibited higher MAE in 89% of times in Mexico, 85% of times in Colombia and 69% of times in Harare. The MAE for Septoria was slightly better for BOPM since BRNNO was worse in 52% of times. Similar patterns were observed in the case of MER, where BOPM was worse than BRNNO for GLS, MER was higher 87% of the times for Mexico, 84% of times in Colombia and 73% of times in Harare. Finally, in the case of Septoria, the BOPM performed slightly better than the proposed model since it had smaller MER values 56% of times.Results suggest that the proposed model BRNNO performs better than the BOPM model for both algorithms, GMAP and GEM; however, GEM is several orders of magnitude faster than GMAP. For example, for the GLS dataset, the process took ∼8 minutes to fit the proposed model with the GEM algorithm in a computer with an intel quad core i7 processor at 2.8 GHz, whereas for 10,000 MCMC iterations with GMAP on the same computer, the process lasted ∼3 hours. Thus it is clear that computing times are reduced substantially by using the GEM algorithm.As already mentioned, the single hidden layer neural network (BRNNO) proposed in this study generalizes the Bayesian ordered probit model (BOPM), as well as the Bayesian ordered logit model (BOLM) of Montesinos-López et al. (2015b). It should be noted that the Brier score results from Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) are not directly comparable with those obtained for the proposed BRNNO method in this study. However, the pooled BS of the real GLS data in Table 4 of Montesinos-López et al. (2015b) showed a slightly higher BS of around 0.37 for BOLM and BOPM than the BS estimated for the BRNNO ranging from 0.33-0.35 for the three locations in Colombia, Mexico, and Harare (Table 1). The BS values for the Bayesian ordered probit model (BOPM) of this study for the three locations, Colombia, Harare, and Mexico, were 0.3550, 0.3458, and 0.3359, respectively.Not many studies have been reported on the prediction of ordinal traits in genomic-enabled prediction. Recently, Montesinos-López et al. (2019) proposed a deep learning method for the simultaneous prediction of mixed phenotypes (binary, ordinal and continuous) in plant breeding. The proposed neural network BRNNO and the open-source R package brnn referred in this study for the genomic-enabled prediction of ordinal data is important due to the fact that there is a lack of genomic-enabled studies predicting categorical data in plant breeding and simultaneously offering ready-to-use R software.We introduced a neural network that generalizes existing models for the prediction of ordinal responses. We explored two algorithms (GEM and GMAP) that can be used to fit the proposed model. The GMAP algorithm is able to fit the model, but it is very slow because at each iteration, it is necessary to fit a Bayesian Regularized Neural Network using the latent variable as a response; additionally, it is necessary to have several thousands of MCMC iterations to make inferences. In contrast, although the GEM algorithm is also slow in the empirical evaluation, it requires much fewer iterations to converge; these results are in agreement with Kärkkäinen and Sillanpää (2013). Thus, we conclude there is ample room for improvement in both algorithms.Regarding the genomic-enabled predictive accuracy of the models, most of selected indexes (MAE, RMSE, r, MER), except the Brier score, favored the proposed BRNNO model, fitted either with the GMAP or the GEM algorithm. Improvements are limited, but consistent with the findings of other studies (Montesinos-López et al., 2015b). We should point out that this approach could be applied not only in the GS context, but also in the context of conventional phenotype plant breeding for disease resistance and many other ordinal traits.1. Fit for the regularized neural network, using as a response variable the pseudo-data generated in step 2 (see equation 5):\uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC54 ( \uD835\uDC4F \uD835\uDC5A + \uD835\uDC99 \uD835\uDC61 \uD835\uDC56 \uD835\uDEC3 [\uD835\uDC5A] )with \uD835\uDC54 (\uD835\uDC62) = 2 1+exp(−2\uD835\uDC62) − 1 the tangent hyperbolic activation function.Steps 2-4 are repeated B times until convergence.The steps necessary to fit the regularized neural network with pseudo-data are essentially the same as those used to fit a Bayesian Regularized Neural Network for a continuous response; see, for example, Foresee and Hagan (1997), Okut et al. (2011), Gianola et al. (2011), Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2013). Here we summarize the basic algorithm:1. Obtain the conditional posterior mode of the elements in \uD835\uDEC9, setting σ 2 \uD835\uDC52 = 1 and assuming that σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 is known. These modes are obtained by minimizing the augmented sum of squares:where \uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC56 = \uD835\uDC67 \uD835\uDC56 − ẑ\uD835\uDC56 is the prediction error and \uD835\uDC5D is the number of elements in vector \uD835\uDEC9. The augmented sum of squares can be minimized using the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (Levenberg, 1944;Marquardt, 1963).1. Update the variance component σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 by maximizing \uD835\uDC5D(\uD835\uDC9B|σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 ). Because of non-linearity, the marginal log-likelihood, log \uD835\uDC5D(\uD835\uDC9B|σ 2 θ ), is not expressible in closed form, but can be approximated as: updated value of the parameter and α \uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC51 the value of the parameter in the previous iteration. The algorithm described above was implemented in R and the C programming language (Kernighan & Ritchie, 1988), and is included as electronic supplementary material, but was not included in the brnn package because it is very slow. The user can fit a Bayesian Regularized Neural Network by providing data to the R function brnn_ordinal_mcmc, which internally combines interpreted and compiled codes to fit the model. Upon successful execution, the routine returns an R object with MCMC samples for {\uD835\uDC81, \uD835\uDECC} and the posterior mode for {\uD835\uDEC9, σ 2 \uD835\uDEC9 } obtained by fitting the Bayesian regularized neural network with \uD835\uDC81 and \uD835\uDECC fixed to the posterior mean of those parameters obtained from MCMC samples. MCMC samples can be obtained for posterior distributions for thresholds, i.e., \uD835\uDC5D(λ \uD835\uDC57 |data). The output object also allows the prediction of new observations (e.g., in a testing set for cross-validation) using estimated network parameters.","tokenCount":"5565"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"947c0108f5fed74f5efde74aebfd268e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95b89956-d4a6-46af-b5b7-24caa668b552/retrieve","id":"400195595"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cd9a5176-15ac-4761-95a5-2d69f97420c6","pagecount":"25","content":"High-altitude paramos water catchment area of Cayamba-Coca Ecological Reserve, Ecuador, which provides ecological services (water) for the capital city of Quito Source: Graeme L. WorboysProtected areas are places where conscious efforts are made to preserve not only wild species, but also the ecosystems in which species live. In parts of the world where most of the landscape has already been transformed by agriculture or industry, protected areas may be the only natural or near natural ecosystems remaining for large areas. The wider socioeconomic and cultural values of these natural ecosystems are increasingly being recognised, as are the important ecosystem services they provide (see Box 6.1). Until recently these services have often been taken so much for granted that their values have been underestimated, forgotten or simply never noticed. The acknowledgment of ecosystem services was boosted by a seminal paper by Robert Costanza (1997), who noted ecosystem goods (such as food) and services (such as waste assimilation) represent the benefits human populations derive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions. In 2003, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment suggested a simple typology to summarise the various services from natural ecosystems (MEA 2003). This typology has been expanded and adapted for different purposes, including for protected areas (Kettunen and ten Brink 2013). Figure 6.1 outlines the various ecosystem services we might expect from protected areas and lists the benefits associated with these services (these benefits are introduced in more detail in the next section).We should not forget that nature conservation remains the primary aim of protected areas. Conservation of biodiversity-of species, genetic diversity within species and of habitats and ecosystems-underpins ecosystem function (Cardinale et al. 2012) and has many practical, utilitarian benefits, as described below.There is in addition wide agreement that we have an ethical obligation to maintain the full range of the planet's living diversity-in other words, not to speed up the rate of extinction beyond what would be expected in natural circumstances. We are manifestly failing in this aim at present, with species declining and disappearing all the time, often before they have even been recognised and described by scientists. Nonetheless, research across multiple data sets provides strong evidence that protected areas are one of the most effective tools for slowing the rate of biodiversity loss and many species continue to survive only because of the protection provided by national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas (see Chapter 21). The ethical basis of biodiversity conservation is recognised by signatories of the Convention on Biological Diversity, nationally through wildlife protection and protected area legislation, by senior members of all the world's major religions (Palmer and Finlay 2003), and by much of the general public. ➲ Ecosystem process maintenance (soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production etc.)➲ Lifecycle maintenance (nursery habitats, seed dispersal, species interactions etc.) ➲ Biodiversity maintenance and protection (genetic, species and habitat diversity)(i.e. ecosystems' bene cial regulatory processes) There are three aspects to transforming these recognised ecosystem services into measurable socioeconomic benefits for human communities: 1) quantifying and assessing (often qualitatively) the value of the various benefits; 2) understanding them in relation to other benefits including benefits forgone by retaining the ecosystem; and 3) understanding who receives the various benefits. None of these is particularly straightforward.We summarise information on several techniques for quantifying and valuing benefits in economic and other terms below. But the benefits also need to be understood in the context of competing benefits (so-called tradeoffs)-for example, retaining a forest to protect water also means that the timber in the forest is not available for sale or the land for conversion to agriculture or development-and that these benefits and their relative values accrue to different people. One of the persistent challenges in securing ecosystem services is that many services maintained by sustainable management or protection of ecosystems are diffuse in nature, providing many people with a small number of a hard-to-measure benefits (for example, non-monetised and with no clear ownership rights), while unsustainable use provides one or a few people with a lot of benefit (for example, wellmonetised with clear ownership rights).So, the landowner who chops down a forest in a watershed and sells the timber receives a pile of money in their pocket, while the city downstream loses water quality and pays in extra purification costs or extra stomach upsets. The net watershed values to society as a whole may be much greater than the net timber value gained, but not to the landowner who has clear ownership rights to the timber, while the city-dwellers downstream have no clear ownership rights to the clean water produced by the forest. In parts of China farmers now have to pollinate their crops by hand with paintbrushes because pollinating insects have declined so dramatically. When we say that protected areas provide us with irreplaceable resources, for once the term 'irreplaceable' is, in many parts of the world, not in any way an exaggeration, and our ability to adapt to these losses is becoming ever more difficult.This means in turn that the perception of and attitudes to the benefits from protected areas will alter with who is benefiting. At an extreme, people who suffer from poverty and inequality and have been displaced from their traditional lands to create a protected area are likely to remain resentful and largely oblivious to any wider regional or global values. On the other hand, people who benefit culturally, spiritually, through direct or indirect jobs and through recognised ecosystem services will probably have a very different perspective. And the way people view protected areas can also change over time as benefits are more widely appreciated, fair access and equitable sharing of any benefits are assured and management learns to respond more sensitively to the needs of a wide variety of stakeholders.Finding ways of rewarding people for retaining ecosystem services is one of the critical steps in concretely capturing the socioeconomic value of protected area benefits and, consequently, retaining or regaining support for protected area policies. Protected area managers who are aware of both the full range of protected area benefits and the range of stakeholders affected have a far better chance of managing successfully. In the remainder of this chapter, we provide an overview of the range of benefits that can come from protected areas and look at how these can be measured, utilised and managed.Exactly what are the benefits from protected areas? A very short summary follows; more detailed sources are available (Stolton and Dudley 2010a;Kettunen and ten Brink 2013). Although most of these benefits can come from any natural ecosystem, protected areas often have the advantage that they are already established as efficient, successful and cost-effective tools for sustainable ecosystem management, with associated laws and policies, management and governance institutions, knowledge, staff and capacity. They thus often maintain a wider range of ecosystem services than other areas and they also come with far more associated security than unmanaged, unregulated areas that are more open to rapid degradation and change. We are not, however, claiming that protected areas are the only such vehicle: other well-managed land and water controlled by communities, governments and companies can play similar functions.At a time when many agricultural systems are becoming increasingly reliant on inputs of fertilisers, pesticides and large amounts of fossil fuel energy, natural ecosystems that are self-regulating and powered solely by the sun are more rare. 'Supporting processes and functions' refer to the basic running of an ecosystem: soil formation and nutrient cycling; life-cycle maintenance for species by provision of services like fish nursery habitats, means of seed dispersal and continued species interactions; along with conservation of the full range of biodiversity. By protecting functioning ecosystems, protected areas provide services to surrounding ecosystems, both through the direct spillover of soils, nutrients and intercepted solar energy and from the potential to use protected areas as baselines of information and raw materials for restoration within the rest of the landscape.For example, demonstration of the opportunities for land restoration through dryland habitat protection amasses important information, and builds confidence, for authorities to tackle desertification issues in the Arabian Peninsula. Reductions of desertification and dust storms are two concrete results that can become apparent in a small number of years; however, major challenges here are that a generation or more of people have grown up believing that the highly degraded ecosystems covering most settled parts of the peninsula are 'natural'. Policy changes rely not only on proof that protection and restoration can work, but also on a long-term effort to build understanding about ecology in the countries concerned.Of more immediate interest to people are the various tangible resources that protected areas either provide directly or support.Well-managed natural ecosystems play a key role in food security, particularly for the poorest members of society, many of whom are still leading a subsistence lifestyle and are dependent on a diversity of edible products from protected areas. For example, freshwater and marine protected areas and coastal mangroves provide valuable breeding grounds for fish, ensuring the populations do not collapse and providing spillover into surrounding waters (Roberts and Hawkins 2000). Many marine protected areas also allow sustainable fishing for local communities, or follow traditional seasonal closures. Terrestrial protected areas also enhance food security, by such measures as providing emergency grazing during times of drought in drylands, sources of fodder as long as this is harvested in a sustainable manner and even allowing controlled extraction of food species from within the protected area boundaries. Illegal overhunting within protected areas is conversely a major problem. The use of protected areas as 'emergency' food supplies is highlighted, for instance, in some parts of northern and eastern Africa (Dudley et al. 2008).Some ecosystems also increase the net amount of available water, particularly watersheds containing cloud forests, where leaves 'scavenge' water from mist and cloud, condensing it on specially evolved leaf parts and then funnelling it down branches and trunks. The city of Tegucigalpa in Honduras is one of several large Latin American cities that protect surrounding cloud forest to guarantee water supplies, in this case in the La Tigra National Park (Hamilton 2008). In some ecosystems forests can hold more rainfall in the catchment than cleared land, reducing water export and (depending on geology) increasing aquifer storage (Siriwardena et al. 2006).Many protected areas have been established explicitly to conserve natural resources such as timber and valuable plants. But an increasing number also sanction some level of collection, usually by local communities and focusing on items like poles for building and fencing, grasses for thatching, firewood and more valuable timber for carving, boatbuilding and numerous other nontimber forest products (NTFPs). Some extractive reserves (IUCN Category VI) have been set up explicitly to allow sustainable harvesting of key products from natural ecosystems; here protection and production inherently go hand-in-hand. Rubber collecting in Amazonian extractive reserves is the original, classic example. The Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve in Brazil is part of a large conservation complex of more than 6 million hectares where biodiversity conservation is balanced with the needs of sustainable development. But today such approaches are being used in land and waterbased protected areas throughout the world; it is now the fastest-growing of all protected area management categories (Bertzky et al. 2012).Source: Eduard MüllerProtected areas help support public health in a number of ways: by providing a sustainable source of medicinal herbs that are still the medicines of choice for the majority of the world's poor people, and providing genetic resources for pharmaceutical companies, some of which have signed agreements to pay prospecting rights to individual protected areas. Ethno-botanical studies have been conducted in numerous protected areas, showing not only the wide range of values these places contain, but also that in many parts of the world some species, and sometimes also the knowledge on using these species, is increasingly being confined to protected areas. In countries such as Nepal, access to medicinal herbs has declined so steeply in some areas that management agreements to collect small amounts in national parks are now the only remaining option (Stolton and Dudley 2010b).As mentioned above, biodiversity has more than simply aesthetic or ethical values, but provides raw material for a range of products including the pharmaceuticals already highlighted and particularly crop wild relatives (CWR)-wild species that are closely related to domesticated crops and which can supply valuable genes for breeding to address issues such as drought tolerance or resistance to disease (Stolton et al. 2006;Hunter and Heywood 2011). Crop wild relatives already support the multi-billion-dollar annual seed business and the need for CWR is increasing all the time as environmental conditions shift rapidly under climate change, throwing agriculture under additional stress. Several microreserves have been established in Armenia, for instance, to protect important CWR in one of the global centres of crop diversity (see Boxes 6.2 and 6.6).Well-managed natural ecosystems also maintain a range of beneficial processes and functions with direct relevance to human wellbeing. These so-called regulating services refer mainly to the role of natural ecosystems in helping to control aspects of climate, hydrology and the water cycle, weather events and key natural systems that impact on agriculture, such as pollination. Our understanding of the value of these systems is increasing all the time.Although only recognised comparatively recently, the role of natural ecosystems in both storing and sequestering carbon, and thus reducing the rate of climate change, is now for many people a primary reason for conservation. Natural ecosystems form critical carbon stores, including vegetation such as forests, grasslands, wetlands and marine vegetation including seagrass and kelp beds, along with subsurface storage in humus-rich soils and particularly peat. Conversely, their destruction and subsequent release of carbon are factors currently leading to runaway climate change. Protected areas thus help both by preventing further losses of carbon to the atmosphere and, in healthy ecosystems, by sequestering additional carbon (Dudley et al. 2009).The UN Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC 2008) has calculated that a minimum of 15 per cent of the world's stored carbon is already within protected areas. The opportunity to add to this through sequestration means that role of restoration in protected areas thus becomes increasingly important (Keenleyside et al. 2012). Canada is amongst the countries to have estimated the carbon storage benefits of its existing national park system.The Kosciuszko National Park high mountain catchments, part of the Australian Alps national parks, generate approximately 9600 gigalitres of high-quality water per annum, worth an estimated US$9 billion annually (Worboys and Good 2011) Source: Graeme L. WorboysIn 2000, its then 39 national parks were estimated to store 4.432 billion tonnes of carbon (Kulshreshtha et al. 2000). Carbon management is seen as an important factor in persuading governments to conserve natural ecosystems, although current compensation schemes proposed under Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) are not usually enough on their own to make up for values forgone in development. Carbon financing also expands the scope for the strategic growth of protected areas to encompass degraded or deforested land that is regrown, replanted or restored to protect ecosystems, endangered species or habitats, including corridors, which also contribute to adaptation to climate change.Natural ecosystems also make cost-effective ways of mitigating various extreme weather events and the after effects of major earth movements; many of the former are becoming more frequent and more intense due to climate change. Natural ecosystems in protected areas can mitigate a wide range of hazards: 1) natural vegetation including particularly forests can help to control landslip due to snowfall and avalanche, hillside soil erosion or earth movement; 2) mangroves, coral reefs and sand dunes all act as barriers against storms, typhoons, sea-level rise and ocean surge following tsunamis; 3) riverside forest and protected natural floodplains help to absorb floodwaters; 4) natural vegetation in dryland and arid areas can prevent desertification, and reduce dust storms and dune movement; and 5) several intact forest ecosystems, particularly in the tropics, are far more resistant to fire than degraded or fragmented ecosystems (Stolton et al. 2008). The term mitigation needs to be defined clearly.No-one is suggesting that natural vegetation can prevent all damage from every extreme weather event, any more than can engineering solutions such as dykes, levees and firebreaks. But experience suggests that well-managed ecosystems can prevent or reduce damage from many, often most, such events and save money and lives in the process (Stolton et al. 2008).In an increasingly polluted world, ways of reducing the pollution load are urgently required. Natural ecosystems, if not overwhelmed, can help reduce many forms of pollution. Forests and vegetation types such as paramos in Latin America naturally produce pure water, and some freshwater plants play an active role in detoxification of certain pollutants. For example, in Florida's cypress swamps, 98 per cent of all nitrogen and 97 per cent of all phosphorous entering the wetlands from wastewater were removed before this water entered the groundwater reservoirs (Ramsar Convention Bureau 2008). Research found that one-third of the world's 100 largest cities draw a substantial proportion of their drinking water from forest protected areas (Dudley and Stolton 2003).Similarly, forests and other vegetation types can absorb a certain amount of air pollution and provide valuable shading. The ability of an ecosystem to neutralise pollutants is significant and important, but by no means infinite, and high pollution levels are also a major threat to some protected areas, most dramatically in the case of ocean acidification due to rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Wetland protected areas also provide valuable water storage services, and protection of buffer zones around lakes and rivers helps to prevent pollution.Crop wild relatives contain a wealth of genetically important traits due to their adaptation to a diverse range of habitats and the fact that they have not passed through the genetic bottlenecks of domestication. The ability of breeders to increase or even sustain crop yield and quality in the face of a growing magnitude of threats is being questioned without much greater use of the natural range of diversity found in CWR taxa and the genetic traits they provide. The global value of the introduction of new genes from CWR to crops is estimated to be US$115 billion annually (Pimental et al. 1997). The taxa cannot, however, continue to be used by plant breeders to sustain food security if they are not conserved and available for utilisation. At present, CWR conservation is largely neglected, unfortunately, even in protected areas (Hunter and Heywood 2011;Maxted et al. 2012). CWR in these sites are likely to be passively conserved and they may come under threat or even be lost entirely.Although sites where in situ CWR populations are actively managed are still rare, the position has improved significantly in recent years due to the growing threat to global food security and the realisation that they may offer at least a partial solution. The threat to CWR is very real; in a recent Red List assessment of 572 European species from 25 economically important crop groups, 11.5 per cent (66) of the species were threatened, with 3.3 per cent (19) of them critically endangered (Kell et al. 2012). The Convention on Biological Diversity Strategic Plan Target 13 calls '[b]y 2020, [for] the status of crop and livestock genetic diversity in agricultural ecosystems and of wild relatives [to have] been improved'. Although CWR are currently poorly conserved and threatened, their more active conservation in protected areas is essential to sustain humankind itself (Hunter et al. 2012).Apart from its critical role in maintaining species diversity and vegetation patterns, pollination has direct utilitarian roles for humans, as an essential part of agriculture and fruit growing, and as a stimulant for the production of honey. In a world where pesticides, industrial pollution and habitat loss have had a catastrophic impact on insect numbers, protected areas are increasingly being seen as a tool for maintaining pollination services. Many protected areas allow local beekeepers to place beehives with native bee species within the protected area. Farmers benefit from pollination services maintained within the protected area itself and spilling out into farmland and orchards, and protected area planners are starting to realise that they need to include the retention and where necessary restoration of pollination pathways within conservation planning exercises.Controlling serious pests and diseases is increasingly important as the degree of threat from invasive alien species is recognised and climate change encourages the spread of pests and diseases into new ecosystems.Protected areas can help minimise these problems in a number of ways, particularly by physically blocking unwanted species: many invasive plants are coloniser species and do not penetrate into mature vegetation.The same is true of some insect pests like the tsetse fly, and malarial mosquitoes have also been recorded as moving far more slowly through dense forests.Clearly not all the benefits we derive from natural ecosystems are narrowly utilitarian: humans enjoy a wealth of complicated cultural, psychological and spiritual links with the natural world. Because protected areas tend to be established in particularly beautiful and pristine parts of nature, these cultural services are particularly strongly represented (see Chapter 4).The day-to-day uses of nature for relaxation, exercise and psychological renewal stretch back way beyond recorded history and have been a major driver for protected area creation. Most visitors tend to cluster around the edges of large reserves and keep to footpaths-for walks, family outings, picnics and nature watching; a smaller subset of visitors likes to penetrate much deeper, walking, riding or canoeing for days inside the larger national parks. For these people, the sense of isolation and wilderness is a key part of the attraction. With tourism now arguably (Nature-based) physical and mental wellbeingAs well as the benefits from recreational use of protected areas, research and practice have found that people with physical and mental problems or alcohol and other drug addictions can benefit positively from immersion in an attractive landscape. Health authorities in the United Kingdom are encouraging use of local nature reserves as safe and appealing places for exercise, to combat a national obesity problem. The 'Healthy Parks Healthy People' movement, started in Melbourne, Australia, links protected area and health agencies and uses parks to provide relaxing places for people with mental health issues and/or substance addiction. These approaches have proved very encouraging and a pleasant environment has proven to be good psychological and physical therapy (Stolton and Dudley 2010b).Perceptions of beauty are culturally formed. The Romantic movement in the arts was a major stimulus for the development of national parks in Europe (Box 6.3). Iconic national parks like Yellowstone in the United States, the Blue Mountains outside Sydney, Australia, the Lake District in the United Kingdom and the Japanese Alps have inspired artists and writers for generations, and on a more local scale protected areas provide rich sources of ideas and energy for poets, painters, musicians and other artists. A 'sense of place' is also a useful concept for describing and understanding the attachments some people form with protected areas (Lin and Lockwood 2013). Such place attachments can include emotional (including identity) and functional aspects even for communities who have only recent connections with a protected area (Byrne and Goodall 2013).Visitors, boardwalk and the spectacular cascading waterfalls of the Plitvice Lakes National Park World Heritage Property, CroatiaSource: Graeme L. WorboysProtected areas provide an ideal location for ecological research as they are often in fairly pristine condition, and have sympathetic staff and sometimes facilities for visiting scientists. A proportion of reserves are set up specifically for research purposes, and these are amongst the most strictly protected areas in terms of access and disturbance, so ecological processes and interactions can be studied under the best possible circumstances. Other protected areas have extensive education programs, often developed in association with local schools and colleges, giving children an increasingly rare opportunity to interact directly with nature.Many protected areas contain sites of spiritual importance (see Chapters 4 and 23). Protected areas can, if sensitively managed, accommodate such interests, and can provide both additional protection and a pleasant surrounding environment for meditation and worship. In Amber Mountain National Park, northern Madagascar, local people can visit a sacred waterfall within the park, and in Donaña National Park in southern Spain every year a major pilgrimage takes place, linked to the Catholic Church. To an increasing extent, resident faith groups within protected areas are becoming actively involved in conservation, as in Rila National Park in Bulgaria, where the monks in Rila Monastery manage their own lands as a nature reserve, in accordance with teachings about the sanctity of nature (Mallarach and Torcal 2009).The cultural and historical values found within protected areas are also often very important although sometimes rather difficult to define. In the same way that iconic buildings, writers, musicians and football teams can come to embody the heart of a nation or region, so too can special views, landscapes or wild species. Climbing Mount Triglav, in the national park of the same name, is something many Slovenians intend to do at least once in their life. Further east in Europe, Mount Kazbegi has a potent mixture of cultural and spiritual values for many Georgians, who visit the ancient church built high in the mountains under its shadow. These issues are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 23.Many conflicts between nation-states focus on the borders between countries. The first trans-boundary conservation initiative in the modern sense of the term is attributed to the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, which was declared in 1932 to commemorate the peace and Recognising socioeconomic benefits is only the first step; we also need to understand the related value (including relative values compared with alternative uses of the natural resources) and have an agreed plan for their management. Over the years, a variety of tools has been developed for measuring and valuing natural resources, including those within protected areas. These range from detailed and costly economic and social valuation techniques to simple questionnaire-based approaches, which are quicker to use but provide more approximate information. While economic valuation is important, it is not the only way in which to assess the value of the natural world and/or resources, and over-reliance solely on economic values can be dangerous, overlooking the range of broader welfare benefits and associated values outlined above.'Value' is a vague word, although a number of typologies exist to help provide more detail (Harmon and Putney 2003;Pagiola et al. 2004;van Beukering et al. 2007).First, assessments often distinguish between 'intrinsic value' and 'value to humans' (or 'instrumental value').The meaning of the latter is fairly clear and the subject of much of this chapter. Intrinsic value on the other hand attempts to capture values that are distinct from human interests. This is inevitably difficult: humans are the ones who are trying to define non-human values so that we are still viewing these through our own eyes, but the attempt is important. The intrinsic value of species is their place in the evolutionary process, which is responsible for the continuation of life on Earth; they hold that value whether or not they have any direct or indirect use to people, or even if their continued existence is antithetical to people's interests. Development of theories of intrinsic value marks an important step forward: particularly in the West, people used to believe that nature only had value to the extent that it was of use to us and had no 'rights' independent of humans. These ideas (which were never accepted by most Eastern philosophies) are being increasingly challenged.The overall value of the natural world to humans consists of both economic values and broader cultural and other non-economic values and can be captured in the following typology. While easier to define than intrinsic values, the human values also contain a number of nuances and it should be noted that the distinctions outlined below are not necessarily clear-cut.These refer to the immediate uses we make of ecosystem services. Examples might be catching fish whose populations are maintained within marine protected areas, or the jobs that the protected area provides. They often refer to some kind of harvesting and are often provisioning services. Generally, it is relatively easy to understand direct use values and also to assign them socioeconomic values.These refer to values that come in more diffuse form, often affecting a large number of people and sometimes including populations far from the origin of the value. Option and bequest values are both clearly use values, while existence values could also be regarded as a kind of anthropogenic indicator of intrinsic values. Attempts have been made to assign economic and welfare values to non-use values, although the adequacy of these attempts is contested.Today managers of protected areas-whether they are government officials, private charities or communitiesare increasingly expected to show the wider benefits of their sites in terms of society, poverty reduction and development. Protected area specialists are divided about how these benefits should be portrayed. Some believe that valuation, especially in economic terms, is critical so that conservationists can talk with governments and industry in their own language. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) approach (TEEB 2011) has highlighted the role of economic assessment, although TEEB is careful to note that this is only one form of valuation. Others remain concerned that economic valuation is dangerous, not least because clever economists can often argue that using a resource now is more valuable than leaving it for the future and partly on the philosophical grounds that we have no right to reduce the rest of nature to figures on a balance sheet. We recognise the pitfalls but nonetheless believe that careful use of economic valuation can be useful.When approaching protected area valuations, it is important to consider all values and all stakeholders over a lengthy period. We have pointed out that for the individual, non-sustainable extractive uses (like felling timber) are often immediate and highly profitable to the owner of the resource, while the costs (such as soil erosion, poorer water quality and the release of carbon into the atmosphere) are borne to a small extent by many people over a much longer period. Eventually all the 'small' hidden costs of environmental degradation add up to a large cost to society as a whole. Similarly, a valuation that only looks, for instance, at the profits from ecotourism but ignores the benefits forgone by local communities will not produce a complete picture. It is therefore important that an assessment takes account as far as possible of the views and values of all stakeholders (see Box 6.4). In addition, valuation should not look at a single snapshot in time, but should consider long-term implications as well: some values are short term while others exist for years, decades or even centuries. This makes valuation inherently complex; our understanding of benefits and their value changes over time. Ten years ago the role of protected areas in carbon sequestration was hardly discussed; today it is at the top of the list for many valuation studies.It is also important to acknowledge that benefits provided by protected areas come with costs related to the implementation of management activities. Like benefits, costs can be experienced by different stakeholders at different levels ranging from global to local, from international donors to local communities. Therefore, when assessing the overall value of benefits provided by protected areas it is also necessary to think about the associated costs. This allows conclusions to be drawn on the actual net benefits (for further information, see Kettunen and ten Brink 2013). Importantly, complementing the assessment of benefits with information on related costs guides the appropriate uptake of valuation results in practice (as elaborated in the next section).The value of benefits can be assessed at three levels: qualitative, quantitative and monetary (Kettunen and ten Brink 2013). Qualitative valuation focuses on non-numerical indications of value-for example, by describing the role of a protected area in supporting local culture and identity. Quantitative indicators of value focus on numerical data including, for example, visitors to or the quantity of carbon stored in a protected area. Monetary valuation focuses on capturing or reflecting the different values in monetary terms-for example, by calculating the revenue generated by visitors or defining the value of carbon storage. Only a limited number of benefits can be captured through monetary indicators. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of protected area benefits is likely to build on a combination of qualitative, quantitative and monetary indications of value.A range of methods is available and is currently used to estimate the value of protected area benefits. Kettunen and ten Brink (2013) provide a more comprehensive overview of the available methods and their appropriate application. As a rule of thumb, market values and prices are generally useful when assessing the value of benefits related to the access to biodiversity resources, and opportunities for recreation and tourism. There are also several benefits that are not currently captured by the markets but can be valued in monetary terms. For example, the value of protected areas in purifying water can be captured as the avoided costs of pre-treatment by water companies. Similarly, several survey-based methods are available, designed to assess indicative or 'hypothetical' market values for different benefits. The wider welfare (non-economic) values are difficult to capture in monetary terms. For example, it is difficult to find monetary indicators that would sensibly reflect the role protected areas play in supporting mental health and cultural identity. In these cases, qualitative and quantitative methods are often the most feasible approaches for valuation.Identifying the purpose of an activity is a key to its success: in order to guide practical decision-making, the benefit assessment and related valuation need to be fit for purpose (Kettunen and ten Brink 2013; TEEB 2013). For example, socioeconomic assessment of benefits, building mainly on qualitative and quantitative information (see above), is often very suitable for raising initial awareness of the benefits among stakeholders. These assessments can be carried out in the context of a scoping study designed to both collect information and engage relevant stakeholders (for example, Stolton and Dudley 2009; Kettunen and ten Brink 2013). Such assessments also form a useful starting point for further valuation: they help to avoid creating an imbalanced overview of benefits by focusing on benefits for which monetary evidence is available while ignoring benefits with less readily available information.Detailed economic valuation, including monetary assessment, can usefully complement and further specify the overview of total benefits (see Box 6.5). For example, economic valuation can be required when there is a need to demonstrate protected area benefits in relation to alternative land-use practices. Similarly, the development of concrete management mechanisms, such as Payment for Ecosystem Services or new markets for sustainably produced goods, requires detailed economic valuation.Identifying and assessing the value of benefits and understanding the stakeholder dynamics involved in maintaining and using the benefits are key steps towards their management (see Box 6.6). Once we have this information, we have the tools needed to reach some kind of consensus about how the various benefits from a protected area can be divided up, managed and maintained in a sustainable and equitable manner. The Protected Area Benefit Assessment Tool (PA-BAT) provides a standardised format for documenting and assessing multiple benefits of protected areas amongst different stakeholders (Stolton and Dudley 2009). The PA-BAT is essentially a set of datasheets that collects basic information about the types of benefits (that is, permissible activities in relation to resource use and ecosystem services), to whom they are important, qualitative information about their level of importance, their relationship to the protected area and the times of year in which they are important. Twenty-four sheets cover assessments of biodiversity values, protected area management (jobs), benefits related to food, benefits related to water (provisioning and regulating services), cultural and spiritual benefits and values, health and recreation values, knowledge, materials, and environmental services.The Küre Mountains National Park (Küre Dağları Milli Parkı, KDMP) in Turkey was declared in July 2000. There are almost no settlements in the core area of KDMP, but there are some 20 000 villagers in 123 villages in the buffer zone. The PA-BAT was implemented in KDMP in March 2009. At the time KDMP had no management plan, but management had a strong focus on involving local people in planning initiatives related to the national park and buffer zone.Three meetings were held around KDMP to assess the values and benefits of the protected area in two provinces (Bartın and Kastamonu). The first public meeting was attended mainly by local Muhtars (leaders of the village). The meeting concentrated on using a simplified version of the PA-BAT based around a PowerPoint presentation and assessed the values (subsistence, economic and potential) for local people living inside and near the protected area. The second meeting was for representatives of park management (national parks and forestry) and local university departments. The group was divided into two working groups, who between them completed all the PA-BAT datasheets relevant to the park. The third meeting was also a public meeting of mainly local officials from the forest, water and parks sectors.The assessment and discussion around each of the values highlighted significant differences in the perceptions of local people, managers and service providers. For example, the local community noted the major importance of sacred springs in the area, while managers, researchers and service providers assessed these as being of minor importance. The importance of permitted traditional agriculture, wild food plants and medicinal herbs in the buffer zone was also assessed differently between the groups, with managers thinking traditional agriculture was more important than the local people, whilst managers thought collection of medicinal herbs was of no importance whereas local people assessed this as being of major importance.As the PA-BAT was one of the first examples in Turkey of assessing ecosystem services and their benefits in protected areas, it served as a basis for the development of a business plan for KDMP during the management planning process. The tool also increased the awareness and technical capacity of park managers and experts on how to integrate benefits in protected area planning and management.In the Dinaric Arc region of Europe the PA-BAT was being implemented in 2013 and 2014 in all the national parks in the eight countries of the region-the first time such a tool has been used on a regional basis. For many protected areas in the region, the PA-BAT workshops have been the first time that stakeholders have been asked to participate actively in, and comment on, park management. For managers and stakeholders engaged in the process, the workshops have provided a fascinating insight into local cultures and traditions and have raised awareness of the range of benefits provided by the park (for example, ecosystem services are generally a new concept introduced during the workshops). Across the region some clear patterns are emerging of how protected areas can better promote conservation, protect local culture and develop sustainable funding strategies. For instance, there is clearly potential in developing branding for local/regional products from protected areas (for example, honey, mushrooms, medicinal plants, cheese) that highlights that these products come from 'healthy and sustainable' sources. The role of protected areas in the mountainous regions of the Dinaric Arc (a karst region) in providing clean water to the population of the whole region is known scientifically. In theory, the development of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes could help support the conservation of these areas; however, these resources have been taken for granted for so long that there is a vast task of educating policymakers and citizens of the role protected areas play in providing water before any such scheme could be developed.A key aspect of protected area management is to understand the synergies and conflicts between the wants and needs of different users and to manage the trade-offs and build on the opportunities that result. One important aspect of this is managing different, and sometimes conflicting, demands on ecosystem services, in turn keeping in mind their various implications for biodiversity conservation. Human-wildlife conflict is a classic example of conflict and trade-off. An expanding population of elephants, large cats or monkeys may be a success for the protected area, in terms of both achieving conservation goals and increasing potential for tourism, but a problem for local villagers whose crops are damaged or children endangered. Similarly, a new tourist complex may bring visitors and money into the protected area but also generate significant waste streams that may pollute nearby seawater, negatively impact marine ecosystem's natural nursery functions and imperil the livelihoods of local fishing communities. Preventing local people from riding horses inside protected areas may create a more pristine environment for biodiversity and visitors alike and help to maintain the soil's natural regeneration capacity but loses support among key constituencies. Managing these conflicts is a key aspect of the lives of most protected area managers, and ensuring that one person's benefit does not substantially undermine other people is an important priority. At the same time, the primary role of nature conservation should not be overshadowed in the rush to develop other protected area values. Good assessment and, where necessary, valuation of ecosystem services can help to address these conflicts.Here synergies and opportunities can play a role. For example, understanding the links between protected areas and the surrounding landscape can ensure support from local beekeepers to help conserve flowering plants, which make high-quality honey, or local farmers who rely on the pollinators who thrive on flora in a protected area to pollinate crops or orchards.The need for equitable distribution of costs and benefits has gained important backing through the development of 'access and benefit sharing' (ABS) agreements within several international treaties and instruments, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (see Chapter 26). In particular, the 'Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization' was adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its tenth meeting on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. It is an international agreement aimed at sharing the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. This includes appropriate access to genetic resources and transfer of relevant technologies.The ways in which the ABS protocol will be implemented are still subject to much discussion: from the perspective of protected areas it has important considerations relating to the rights of traditional owners, local communities and the managers of the parks themselves, depending on the area's history. While the ABS protocol does not address all protected area benefits, the need to ensure that protected area benefits and costs are balanced out equitably between those who benefit and those who manage or experience the costs remains critical.One key aspect of successful management is to make sure that people understand and appreciate the wide range of benefits from protected areas. Many, particularly indirect, values have long been treated as 'free goods' and the problems that have arisen only when they disappear, such as water pollution, soil erosion and coastal damage, are what have focused attention on their good management. The Thousand Islands National Park (TINP) is named after the larger Thousand Islands ecosystem of Eastern Ontario, Canada. The park was established in 1904 and is one of the smallest national parks in Canada. The total area is 22.3 sq km while the entire ecosystem covers an area of 3000 sq km that is bisected by the international border between Canada and the United States.Thousand Islands has historically been a rich area that has provided a host of ecosystem services (food, water, recreation) to First Nations, early settlers and modernday residents and visitors. The park itself was primarily created as a place for recreational activities such as picnicking, camping and boating. More recently, the park has become better known for protecting a unique Canada-United States trans-boundary ecosystem that is part of an extension of the Canadian Shield, connecting the Appalachian forest of the south-eastern United States to the northern boreal forest. The park provides critical habitat for a great diversity of plant and animal life, including more than 30 species at risk.The population of Eastern Ontario has grown significantly in recent years. In 2011, for example, approximately 2 million people lived within 100 km of the Thousand Islands ecosystem-an increase in population of 47 per cent since 1981. Today, the TINP ecosystem is influenced by habitat fragmentation, pollution and other activities on the landscape that are associated with rapid population growth in the region. While population growth and other pressures have created challenges for the park, they have also highlighted the importance and value of the ecosystem services it protects. Parks Canada is working broadly with First Nations, adjacent communities, organisations and volunteers to protect and connect visitors with this special place while assessing and ensuring a lasting flow of ecosystem services.A land-cover analysis using satellite imagery formed the base data from which estimates of the value of ecosystem services were produced. Within the Thousand Islands ecosystem, the three primary land covers were forest (31 per cent), cropland (24 per cent) and water (22 per cent), while wetlands and urban areas covered 7 per cent and 6 per cent of the area respectively. TINP has higher forest cover (82 per cent) and wetlands (10 per cent) and lower cropland/field (2 per cent) and built-up areas (2 per cent) compared with the entire ecosystem.Estimating monetary values from ecosystem services protected by and flowing from the TINP supports park management, policy development and public education purposes. Two methods were used to estimate the monetary values for ecosystem services. The first method reproduced the results of the study Estimating Ecosystem Services in Southern Ontario by Troy and Bagstad (2009) for the case study area. The second method involved making estimates of selected ecosystem services by land-cover type, drawing from published valuation studies and transferring monetary values found in similar areas within the park. Using the first approach, estimates of the annual value of ecosystem services for the TINP were produced, ranging from C$12.5 million to $14.7 million (2012 dollars). Using the second method, the value of the park's recreation services as well as option, bequest and existence values associated with the park's wetlands were produced. The annual recreational services for all land-cover types in the park were valued at C$3.9 million (2012 dollars). Finally, the annual option, bequest and existence values of the park's wetlands ranged from C$434 000 to $531 000 (2012 dollars).The monetary values identified for the TINP are conservative estimates and represent an experimental effort by Canadian Government departments and agencies. Depending on the approach taken and the data sets used to support the analysis, a range of value estimates can be generated. Much consideration needs to be given to the valuation methods, the supporting data and the selection of the ecosystem service or suite of services measured and reported. As demonstrated by the TINP case study, even with the selection of a small data-rich area, the analysis does not represent the total value of the national park area.For further information concerning the case study and the production of the experimental monetary valuations for TINP, see Statistics Canada (2013).Nigel Maxted and Danny HunterMost genetic reserves (areas where the specific goal is to conserve the genetic diversity of CWR species) will be established in existing protected areas to avoid the cost of establishing new sites (Maxted 2003). Their implementation may be divided into five steps.1. 'Ground truth' potential in in situ conservation sites.Having established the in situ conservation goals, an ordered list of potential in situ conservation sites should be established. The list of potential sites is likely to have been achieved remotely from the actual sites using eco-geographic or geographical information systems (GIS) techniques and the potential sites must be visited to check if the prediction matches the reality at the site and the CWR population is viable.2. Reformulate protected area management goals. The first step in formulating the revised management plan is to observe the biotic and abiotic dynamics of the site for both CWR and non-CWR species. A survey of the species present in the site should be performed to help understand the ecological interactions within the reserve. A clear conservation goal should be decided, the management interventions recommended for the site and how the CWR are to be monitored to ensure the management is promoting CWR population health.3. Ensure the in situ conservation sites comply with (at least) the minimum quality standards. The quality standards are related to enable the genetic reserve to function and fulfil its conservation objectives (Iriondo et al. 2012) and include such factors as: sites being identified through a rigorous scientific process; the site is of sufficient size to conserve the populations of the target taxon, its natural habitat and to maintain natural processes; a management plan using participatory and evidence-based criteria has been developed; and the site has a legal foundation that underpins long-term site stability.4. Integrate in situ conservation priorities with national/ international agro-environmental schemes. The selected protected areas that contain genetic reserves constitute a national network of genetic reserves and should be integrated with agro-environmental schemes.5. Ensure local communities value and use their local CWR diversity. Promoting the involvement of local communities in in situ conservation and management of CWR is often crucial for conservation to be effective. Awareness of the value of CWR may need to be raised among the different stakeholders.Finally, it should be stressed that the implementation of specific CWR in situ conservation actions within protected areas will ultimately be pragmatic, dictated by the resources available as well as national and regionallevel governmental will, and NGO and local community involvement (Hunter et al. 2012).Communication is therefore critical. Protected areas have the opportunity to reach a wide variety of visitors, and along with information on wildlife and walking trails, a growing number are telling people about the other values they contain (see Chapter 15). Perhaps even more important is to work with local communities to understand the full range of values-through community evaluations (see Box 6.5), meetings, discussions on community radio and articles in local newspapers. Just as essential from the protected area's perspective, however, is that large downstream users understand and where necessary pay a contribution towards the benefits, through such initiatives as payments for ecosystem services schemes (see Chapter 8).There are an increasing number of case studies from protected areas around the world where local people, rights-holders and stakeholders are working closely together to ensure the full range of socioeconomic benefits is conserved. Three examples are given in Boxes 6.7 to 6.9, and many more can be found in peer-reviewed and published literature (see, for example,  1998). In Tsavo East National Park, the largest national park in the country, the Voi River is a major source of water for wildlife and for communities which border the park. Similarly, swamps that are mainly located in Amboseli National Park sustain wildlife and people in the greater Amboseli ecosystem. In the mountains of central Kenya, Mount Kenya National Park (which is also a UNESCO World Heritage property) and the Aberdare National Park are the sources of rivers that provide water to approximately half of Kenya's population and produce nearly 60 per cent of Kenya's hydroelectric power (UNEP 2009).Many of the important benefits that Kenya's national parks provide to the Kenyan people and their economy are even more crucial in the context of climate change. Droughts are becoming more frequent, prolonged and severe in the south and unusual weather patterns appear to be contributing to unpredictable river flows and lake water-level fluctuations in the central highlands and Rift Valley. These changes can put increased pressure on natural resources and the benefits derived from them. The conservation of healthy park ecosystems is recognised as an important strategy for helping Kenyan wildlife and human communities adapt to climate change. Additional pressures on park ecosystems, however, such as overgrazing by wildlife and livestock, and the spread of invasive species, which are sometimes also aggravated by climate change, mean that park managers have to actively manage these systems to ensure they remain resilient to climate-related changes and can continue to provide important benefits into the future.The Kenya Wildlife Service is taking action to reduce pressures on national park ecosystems and restore areas that have already been damaged in order to build the resilience of ecosystems and the communities which depend on them to climate change and other stressors. For example, riparian areas around Mzima Springs in Tsavo West National Park, which were degraded due to overgrazing by wildlife, have been fenced and revegetated to reduce erosion and siltation. At the same time, alternative watering sites for wildlife inside the park have been installed, thus helping to protect clean water for downstream users and reducing the risk of human-wildlife conflicts that could result from wildlife seeking alternative water sources outside the park. Similar work has been conducted to restore terrestrial habitat and swamps in Amboseli National Park. There, community and livestock watering sites outside the park have also been improved to reduce grazing pressure on the park ecosystem while helping to maintain the traditional way of life of the local people.Reafforestation in Mount Kenya and Aberdare National Parks has been an important part of restoration efforts aimed at helping to retain water in the important watersheds that these parks protect. The work has also resulted in benefits for local people, including training of members of local community forest associations in modern propagation and reafforestation techniques and the modernisation of community tree nurseries. Along with community groups, park visitors have been directly involved in restoration efforts such as tree plantings, which have not only provided memorable experiences for them but have helped to build support for restoration efforts and raise awareness of the important climate change adaptation benefits these protected areas provide.As is the case in many protected areas, invasive species are a management issue for Kenya's protected areas, as well as for local communities which practise subsistence agriculture. In Amboseli, Tsavo East and Lake Nakuru National Parks, local people have been trained in invasive species identification and have been employed by the Kenya Wildlife Service to help with eradication efforts.Invasive species removal has not only improved wildlife habitat in the parks, but also has improved wildlife viewing opportunities for visitors. Employment opportunities provided by the parks have been important for local communities but, perhaps more importantly, local people have, through participation in this work, gained important knowledge and skills that are transferable to other aspects of their daily lives.Whether the benefits of protected areas are associated with tourism, provisioning of water, regulation of or adaptation to climate change, knowledge transfer, or support for traditional lifestyles, implementation of active management strategies aimed at maintaining or restoring these benefits is often necessary. The Kenyan work described above is just one example of how multiple benefits can be maintained or restored through actions that simultaneously address ecological issues associated with the structure and function of ecosystems while at the same time considering visitor experience, learning opportunities and the needs and values of local people. A micro-credit fund was established to support local people for the development and maintenance of small nature-friendly businesses to serve visitors. Since 2001, the park has actively developed rural tourism, which is attractive for Russian and foreign tourists. More than 30 local families converted their homes in the park to guesthouses providing activity-based services (boating, fishing, sightseeing, biking and hiking) with relatively inexpensive accommodation for the night, weekend or holiday period in cosy farmhouses. Hosts are always ready to show all the attractions in the vicinity and provide opportunities to try local traditional home cooking, fishing, picking mushrooms and berries, and horseback riding. Visitors can also take part in some simple farm work, such as haymaking, feeding animals and harvesting vegetables.Kenozersky National Park is now well known in Russia not only for its picturesque natural forests and lakes but also for the numerous examples of restored timber architecture (especially chapels and farm buildings) that blend into the northern landscapes. Once these structures have been restored using traditional skills at state cost, community leaders become permanent employees of the park as the guardians of these heritage buildings. The special spiritual experience that has been created through the presence of 'live' objects of cultural heritage together with the revival of the traditions of the local population is one of the main factors of attractiveness of the area for tourists.Education, through annual children's environmental camps, has become a major feature of the park. The camps are attended by students from the Arkhangelsk region as well as from Moscow, and even from neighbouring Finland. These camps also accept children from the villages located in the park as well as from orphanages and socially disadvantaged families.The main campsite is in a picturesque setting near the Maselga village. It is a small log-cabin 'town' in a setting vastly different from what the visiting city children are accustomed to. Children actively participate in a range of subjects, including meteorology, geobotany, hydrobiology, as well as studying the history of the village and the cultural heritage of the region. In addition to outdoor exploration, each child takes part in masterclasses in traditional crafts including birch bark weaving, modelling clay toys and learning traditional folk songs. Local elders and artisans provide much of the tuition for these classes.Together these four elements have enabled a revival in the local economy, provided pride and self-esteem to locals and recreated Kenozero National Park as a vibrant visitor attraction.This text taken from Protected Area Governance and Management, edited by Graeme L. Worboys, Michael Lockwood, Ashish Kothari, Sue Feary and Ian Pulsford, published 2015 by ANU Press, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.Reproduction of this ANU Press publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder, provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.","tokenCount":"9623"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a89dbe3e34a1210c2bb82de8b5c89b5e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f09a31ee-862e-4579-a63b-f0999fe9a5e3/retrieve","id":"1136697236"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4d9efc33-b354-4d97-94ee-ebdfb7cc1ff9","pagecount":"6","content":"O presente artigo tem como objetivo apresentar a experiência de Assessoria Técnica Contínua -ATC -tal como concebida e implantada no semiárido cearense, Nordeste do Brasil pelo Projeto Paulo Freire (PPF). A iniciativa disponibilizou ações dirigidas a agricultores/as familiares pobres e extremamente pobres e focando em grupos específicos: mulheres, jovens e comunidades tradicionais (indígenas, quilombolas e pescadores/as). A proposta de Assessoria Técnica Contínua foi desenvolvida pelo PPF, vinculado à Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Agrário (SDA) do Governo do Estado do Ceará, em parceria com o FIDA -Fundo Internacional de Desenvolvimento Agrícola.Visamos aqui ressaltar o diferencial do Projeto Paulo Freire no que tange sua visão de como se organizar o serviço de assessoria técnica, em relação a outros modelos implantados no país. O trabalho teve uma abordagem participativa, orientada pelas demandas do público beneficiário. Analisarmos também o desafio de desenvolver essa tarefa dentro de um órgão governamental: a Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Agrário do Estado do Ceará.Acreditamos que o compartilhamento da experiência de implementação do modelo construtivista de assistência técnica do Paulo Freire poderá contribuir para o desenvolvimento de futuros projetos, bem como na atuação das entidades da área. Assim, esperamos contribuir para a replicabilidade da proposta junto ao Poder Público, Profissionais da Extensão Rural, Organizações Não Governamentais, Entidades de Ensino Superior e Técnico, Agricultores e Agricultoras e Movimentos Sociais.Para realizar a assessoria junto às comunidades rurais, a estratégia adotada (e também opção política) foi trabalhar com entidades da sociedade civil, reconhecendo que elas vêm acumulado ao longo dos anos práticas e metodologias que valorizam o conhecimento de agricultores e agricultoras, favorecem a troca de saberes entre eles/as e promovem o resgate de práticas comunitárias. Trabalhamos em e com 62 comunidades de 31 municípios pertencentes à 4 territórios: Cariri Oeste, Inhamuns Crateús, Sobral e Vales do Curu-Aracatiaçu. Juntos somam 15% da população rural extremamente pobre do Estado. Foi eleito como público prioritário famílias de agricultores/as e familiares, com e sem terra, em situação de extrema vulnerabilidade econômica e social. Famílias que, uma vez fortalecidas em suas capacidades através de uma Assessoria Técnica O Projeto Paulo Freire trouxe bons resultados para as 2.644 famílias, pois vem contribuindo para que agricultores e agricultoras protagonizem e se tornem sujeitos de seus caminhos. Mais que isto: aos poucos, a antiga visão de projeto como uma \"ajuda\" dá lugar ao sentimento de direito. Uma das exigências do Projeto foi que as Entidades tivessem uma identidade territorial, ou pelo menos regional, como garantia do conhecimento da realidade local. Para tanto, cada uma das entidades montou equipes locais com perfil e experiência de trabalho com o público beneficiário. As equipes foram dimensionadas em função do número de famílias a serem atendidas -numa relação aproximada de um/a técnico/a para cerca de 80 a 100 famílias. O dobro de atenção, em comparação ao sistema tradicional de Assistência Técnica, que ocorre na média uma visita por mês. Usando esta proporção, os membros da equipe puderam se dedicar exclusivamente aos beneficiários, bem como às suas organizações produtivas e assessorá-los na elaboração dos seus Planos de Desenvolvimento e Planos de Investimentos.Começamos com um Diagnóstico Rural Participativo -DRP, que consiste em uma leitura crítica da realidade, com foco nas necessidades e demandas dos beneficiários, assim como nos temas centrais: produção, renda, manejo e conservação de recursos naturais, equidade de gênero, juventude, etnia. Esta metodologia se fundamenta no reconhecimento dos agricultores/as e como sujeitos da ação, o que exigiu formação multidisciplinar das equipes de Assessoria Técnica. Posteriormente, o Diagnóstico é traduzido em um Plano de Desenvolvimento, contendo as demandas das comunidades. Tal instrumento é submetido à aprovação da comunidade. Nesta ocasião, discutimos em profundidade os potenciais locais para um Plano de Investimento, documento que consolida o financiamento das demandas a serem atendidas pelo Projeto.Coube também às equipes de Assessoria Técnica Contínua a discussão e implantação de práticas agroecologias junto aos agricultores/as, segundo os princípios do Projeto. Estas implicam na conservação e no uso consciente da biodiversidade do Semiárido, construindo assim de um modelo sustentável de desenvolvimento que inclui atividades agropecuárias. Todas as ações pautaram-se no diálogo e troca de saberes, na valorização das tradições e conhecimentos das comunidades e no reconhecimento da diversidade étnica e cultural das famílias beneficiárias. As equipes de assessoria foram contratadas através de seleção pública baseado em técnica e preço. Com o contrato, a Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Agrário e a ATC estabeleceram conjuntamente objetivo, cronograma de trabalho e metas. A presença do técnico/a pelo menos uma vez por semana na comunidade é um dos elementos básicos desta parceria. A implantação de toda e qualquer experiência, principalmente uma experiência de Assessoria Técnica Contínua inovadora como a que se propôs o Projeto Paulo Freire, esbarra em várias dificuldades.Em nossa avaliação, a principal delas foi o estabelecimento de uma relação de parceria entre a equipe do Projeto e as entidades da sociedade civil. Devemos levar em consideração que se trata de instituições e/ou pessoas com trajetórias distintas, derivadas de ideologias distintas as quais resultam em propostas potencialmente conflitantes.A segunda dificuldade diz respeito ao estabelecimento claro dos papéis de cada uma das partes, que muitas vezes se confunde, principalmente dentro da equipe da Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Agrário. É fundamental evitar o risco do estabelecimento de uma relação \"quem fiscaliza x quem executa\". Em ambos os casos, recomendamos um diálogo permanente. O processo mostrou que encontros de planejamento e discussão de estratégias são fundamentais para \"aparar as arestas\".O projeto investiu muito na capacitação das equipes, tanto a da SDA quanto as das ATC´s, e em algumas vezes também trazendo agricultores/as para esses momentos. Essa interação mostrou-se fundamental para a formação e o nivelamento de informações. Acreditamos que a experiência deve ser replicadaAcima O Projeto elaborou ainda um sistema de Monitoramento e Avaliação dotado de vários instrumentos para a coleta de dados","tokenCount":"952"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bd11a50ef01bfc650e0c47cf98854d07","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/dc1b0a24-f252-4724-8667-7608e34707d9/content","id":"-1284814379"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dd5a0474-408d-4333-a870-bed4aa951f98","pagecount":"23","content":"Key message Defence responses of cyst nematode and/or wheat curl mite infested barley engage the altered reactive oxygen species production, antioxidant machinery, carbon dioxide assimilation and photosynthesis efficiency. Abstract The primary aim of this study was to determine how barley responds to two pests infesting separately or at once; thus barley was inoculated with Heterodera filipjevi (Madzhidov) Stelter (cereal cyst nematode; CCN) and Aceria tosichella Keifer (wheat curl mite; WCM). To verify hypothesis about the involvement of redox metabolism and photosynthesis in barley defence responses, biochemical, photosynthesis efficiency and chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements as well as transmission electron microscopy were implemented. Inoculation with WCM (apart from or with CCN) brought about a significant suppression in the efficiency of electron transport outside photosystem II reaction centres. This limitation was an effect of diminished pool of rapidly reducing plastoquinone and decreased total electron carriers. Infestation with WCM (apart from or with CCN) also significantly restricted the electron transport on the photosystem I acceptor side, therefore produced reactive oxygen species oxidized lipids in cells of WCM and double infested plants and proteins in cells of WCM-infested plants. The level of hydrogen peroxide was significantly decreased in double infested plants because of glutathione-ascorbate cycle involvement. The inhibition of nitrosoglutathione reductase promoted the accumulation of S-nitrosoglutathione increasing antioxidant capacity in cells of double infested plants. Moreover, enhanced arginase activity in WCM-infested plants could stimulate synthesis of polyamines participating in plant antioxidant response. Infestation with WCM (apart from or with CCN) significantly reduced the efficiency of carbon dioxide assimilation by barley leaves, whereas infection only with CCN expanded photosynthesis efficiency. These were accompanied with the ultrastructural changes in chloroplasts during CCN and WCM infestation.The changing climatic conditions, for example long, warm spring, hot summer, lack of the frost during winter and changed rainfall patterns in the temperate climate zone, are conducive to pests and pathogens gradation on crop plants. All these circumstances can contribute to a decrease in crop productivity (Gregory et al. 2009). Cyst nematodes and eriophyoid mites are significant pests affecting cereals. The cereal cyst nematode (CCN) Heterodera filipjevi (Madzhidov) Stelter (Nematoda: Heteroderidae), is one of the global scale biotrophic phytopathogen of cereals (Toumi et al. 2018). Upon the root infestation, infective larvae of CCN induce syncytia in the vascular cylinder. These multicellular structures are becoming the solely sources of nutrients drawing from the host plant. What is important, the parasitism of H. filipjevi specimens on roots of the colonised cereal plants may cause even to 50% grain yield losses (Pariyar et al. 2016;Dababat and Fourie 2018). The wheat curl mite (WCM), Aceria tosichella Keifer (Acariformes: Eriophyoidea), is around the world scattered eriophyoid pest of cereal plants (Kuczyński et al. 2016). WCM is a serious problem on cereals, including barley, because it damages leaves, what can impair overall physiology of plant, but until now there have been very little published reports regarding biochemical/physiological interactions with cereal hosts (Skoracka et al. 2018b). Furthermore, WCM can effectively spread plant pathogenic viruses such as the wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV) from the family Potyviridae. This is the most significant economic impact of WCM on cereal yielding. As a result of WCM feeding or WSMV transmission on cereal leaves, the grain yield losses may reach up to 40% (Skoracka et al. 2017(Skoracka et al. , 2018a;;Aguirre-Rojas et al. 2019).It is well known that in plant organisms suffering from the pathogen or pest infestation, the altered metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS) occurs (Labudda et al. 2018;Woźniak et al. 2019). ROS are continuously produced in various metabolic pathways, including photosynthesis. Besides, the ROS metabolism and the regulation of photosynthesis are tightly linked (Foyer 2018). The chloroplastic ROS have origins in photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII) and they are produced when the absorption of light quanta outbalances the efficiency of photosynthesis and the photoprotection responses are interrupted (Khorobrykh et al. 2020). ROS have a dual role in plant physiology. On the one hand, they participate in various developmental processes under normal plant growth and act as signalling molecules in acclimatization to environmental stresses. On the other hand, the exaggerated ROS level in plant cells can lead to the oxidation of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, saccharides and pigments (Muszyńska and Labudda 2019;Muszyńska et al. 2019). To render the pauperization of plant cell functions impossible, the ROS content in cells is mastered by enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant mechanisms. The enzymatic machinery consists of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), multifarious peroxidases and enzymes of the Foyer-Halliwell-Asada cycle (Labudda and Azam 2014;Muszyńska et al. 2018;Kapoor et al. 2019). The non-enzymatic mechanisms are mainly based on the reduced glutathione (GSH) and ascorbate (ASA) and an abundant group of the phenol metabolites (Saxena et al. 2016;Durak et al. 2019;Muszyńska et al. 2020). Among the phenols, salicylic acid (SA) is a phytohormonal molecule, which modulates many plant reactions to the environmental stresses (Morkunas et al. 2011(Morkunas et al. , 2018;;Maruri-López et al. 2019;Formela-Luboińska et al. 2020).While the knowledge about the physiological basis of plant responses to the infection by one pathogen or pest species is constantly increasing, the number of research reports attempting to explain the complex mechanisms of double biotic stress is extremely limited. In our research team, we have investigated the physiological response of plants to the cyst nematode infection for several years (Labudda et al. 2016a(Labudda et al. , b, 2018(Labudda et al. , 2020a, b;, b;Labudda 2018). In addition, even though WCM is a very intensively studied mite on a global scale, little is known about the responses of host plants to WCM infection (Skoracka et al. 2018b). Our goal was to find out if a pest infection induces in barley leaves various but interconnected defence responses at different levels of plant organization (from biochemical, through physiological, to ultrastructural). We hypothesized that these responses against biotic stress factors could fit the concept of 'fanshaped' defence response engaging a holistic and complex but integrated plant stress response. This 'fan-shaped' type of plant defence response was originally proposed by Sanità di Toppi and Gabbrielli (1999) for abiotic stress (cadmium exposure). However, so far such a hypothesis has not been considered in the literature in the context of cereal plant response to the stress caused by the infestation by two pests. Therefore, we undertook to examine parameters of two primeval stress-sensitive metabolic areas, namely the redox balance and photosynthetic efficiency (Ślesak et al. 2019). The research approach used by us seems to be particularly interesting because CCN attacks roots, while WCM infests leaves, what should cause consequences in the holistic plant response to biotic stressors. To learn about these, we implemented biochemical and enzymological methods, photosynthesis efficiency and chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements accompanied by observations under a transmission electron microscope.The spring barley Hordeum vulgare L. cv. 'Airway' seeds were washed in tap water for two hours. Then, they were surface decontaminated in 5% sodium hypochlorite with 0.2% polysorbate 20 as a surfactant for 10 min with stirring. Next, they were rinsed under tap water for 1 hour and an incubation, for 1 hour in 0.2% Plant Preservative Mixture (PPM) (Plant Cell Technologies, Inc., Washington DC, USA) to eliminate potential microbial contamination, was performed. The decontaminated seeds (embryos upwards) were put into Petri dishes (9 cm diameter) on a 0.2% PPMsoaked filter paper and covered. After 18 hours incubation in the fridge at 4 °C in the dark, the seeds were kept in the dark at 23 °C for 2 days (Labudda et al. 2020b). Twelve germinated seeds were subsequently planted into a black plastic pot (25 × 25/26 cm) with saucer. Pot was filled with a commercial horticultural substrate consisted of mixed lowmoor and high-moor peats (0-20 mm fraction). Substrate had no addition of mineral fertilizers, its pH in water was in the range of 5.6-6.8 and before planting it was autoclaved at 121 °C, 0.1 MPa for 20 min. Aliquot of 150 ml of sterile 0.2 × Knop medium (pH 6.4) was added to the pots. Plants were cultivated in a growth chamber MLR-350 (Sanyo, Tokyo, Japan) at 25 °C during the day and at 23 °C at night with a 16 h/8 h day/night cycle under a photosynthetic photon flux density of 100 ± 25 μmol m −2 s −1 and at 50% humidity. Every 2 days, plants were watered with 100 ml of water.The stock colony of Aceria tosichella Keifer was maintained for 45 generations on H. vulgare plants growing in pots in laboratory of Department of Plant Protection (Section of Applied Entomology) at Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW. A. tosichella biotype MT-1 (GenBank: JF920077) was used (Skoracka et al. 2013). WCM-infested plants were cultivated in a growth chamber MLR-350 at 27 °C during the day and at 25 °C at night with a 16 h/8 h day/night cycle under a photosynthetic photon flux density of 100 ± 25 μmol m −2 s −1 and at 50% humidity. Each pot was put in rearing cages consisting of metal frames tightly covered with nylon mesh bags.The Heterodera filipjevi (Madzhidov) Stelter cysts were collected from naturally cyst nematode-infested experimental Triticum aestivum fields of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Yozgat (39° 08′ N, 34° 10′ E; altitude 985 m a.s.l.) in the Central Anatolian Plateau of Turkey. Cysts were extracted from rhizospheres and roots of Triticum aestivum plants harvested at the end of the growing season. The modified extraction protocol was implemented (Ashrafi et al. 2017). Hatching of H. filipjevi pre-parasitic juveniles was provoked by the incubation of cysts in sterile 0.003 M ZnCl 2 at 17 °C. Freshly hatched pre-parasitic juveniles were washed six times and then suspended in sterile water.Pots with 7-day-old plants were divided into four groups: nematode-uninoculated and WCM-uninoculated controls (C), CCN-inoculated (N), WCM-inoculated (WCM) and both CCN-inoculated and WCM-inoculated (N + WCM) plants. Roots of plants from the N and N + WCM groups were inoculated with approximately 2400 freshly hatched pre-parasitic H. filipjevi juveniles (per pot) and plants were watered with 100 ml of water. Leaves of the plants from the WCM and N + WCM groups were inoculated with three females (per plant) of WCM adapted to feed on barley and plants were watered with 100 ml of water. Control plants were watered as well. Each pot was put in rearing cages consisting of metal frames tightly covered with nylon mesh bags. Control and infested plants were sampled after 18 days of experiment. This sampling time point was chosen based on our previous published observations (Labudda et al. 2020b) reflected the dynamics of growth and development of H. filipjevi larvae in spring barley (the same cultivar as tested in this article) roots under conditions of pot experiment. After 14 days post-inoculation (dpi) but before 21 dpi, most sedentary J2 larvae moulted to J3 larvae, which indicated that the 18-dpi syncytia met their nutritional demands. About 18 dpi, the J3 larvae fed intensively to reach the J4 stage and sexual maturity after 21 dpi and start reproducing. The sampling time at 18 dpi was also rational and justified by the fact that at this time the barley plants showed clear signs of being infected by the WCM (leaf curl and 1 3 yellowing) but the WCM population had not yet developed to the point that could cause the death of infested plants. For biochemical measurements, the leaf bulked samples were collected, and experiments were conducted in three biological replicates.Assay of superoxide anions level was conducted according to Doke's method (Mai et al. 2013). Leaves (100 mg) were immersed in millilitre of the 0.01 M K/Na phosphate buffer (pH 7.8) containing 0.05% nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) and 0.01 M NaN 3 . Samples were kept in the dark for an hour at room temperature (RT). Next, reaction mixtures (without plant material) were incubated at 85 °C for 15 min and forthwith cooled on ice. The superoxide anions level was expressed as absorbance at 580 nm per gram of fresh leaf weight (FW).The H 2 O 2 amount was measured according to the method by Junglee et al. (2014). Leaves (100 mg) were disintegrated in medium containing 250 µl of 0.01 M K/Na-phosphate buffer (pH 5.8), 250 µl of 0.1% trichloroacetic acid and 500 µl of 1 M KI. Supernatants, collected after homogenate centrifugation (4 °C, 15 min, 16,000×g), were incubated in the dark for 20 min at RT. Next, the samples were centrifuged (10 min, 16,000×g), and the absorbance was read at 350 nm in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The hydrogen peroxide amount was calculated from a standard curve and expressed per gram of FW.Leaves (200 mg) were crushed in a mortar with quartz sand and 2 ml of ice-cold buffered mixture (pH 7.2) containing 0.05 M tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane hydrochloride (Tris)-HCl, 0.002 M 2-mercaptoethanol, 0.001 M ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 5% propane-1,2,3-triol, 0.001 M phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 0.005 M magnesium chloride, 2% polyvidone. Enzymatic extracts were obtained by the centrifugation of homogenates (4 °C, 20 min, 16,000×g).The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was estimated by Kostyuk and Potapovich (1989) method. An assay mixture was made by mixing equal aliquots of 0.025 M EDTA and 0.067 M K/Na phosphate buffer (pH 7.8). The pH value of assay mixture was precisely adjusted to 10 with N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethane-1,2-diamine. Next, 50 µl of assay mixture and one-hundred 20 µl distilled water were pipetted to 5 µl of enzymatic extract. The enzymatic reaction was initiated by the addition of 5 µl of 2.5 × 10 -6 M 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-3,5,7-trihydroxy-4H-chromen-4one suspended in (CH 3 ) 2 SO. Assays were made in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. The absorbance at 406 nm was recorded for 20 min with reads every minute. The arbitrary unit of SOD activity was ascertained as 0.01 decrease of absorbance after minute per gram of FW.The activity of catalase (CAT) was estimated by Aebi (1984) method. The enzymatic extract (2 µl) was mixed with 18 µl of 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.2) and 10 µl of 0.168% H 2 O 2 in the same buffer. Assays were made at 37 °C in UV-Star 96-well plate (Greiner, Monroe, NC, USA) on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. The absorbance at 240 nm was monitored for 10 min with reads every minute. The CAT activity was expressed as a breakdown of micromoles of H 2 O 2 per minute and gram of FW.The peroxidase activity (POD) was estimated by Lück (1962) method. The enzymatic extract (5 µl) was mixed with a reagent consisting of 0.49% p-phenylenediamine and 0.049% H 2 O 2 in 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.2 or 8.8. Assays were conducted at 37 °C in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. The absorbance at 485 nm was read for 10 min with reads every minute. The POD activity was expressed in arbitrary unit, separately for pH 7.2 (POD 7.2 ) and 8.8 (POD 8.8 ). The unit of POD activity was defined as 0.1 increase of absorbance after minute per gram of FW.The guaiacol peroxidase activity (GOPX) was estimated by Chance and Maehly (1955) method. The enzymatic extract (5 µl) was mixed with a reagent consisting of 0.005 M guaiacol and 0.0025 M H 2 O 2 in 0.05 M acetic buffer, pH 5.6. Assays were performed at 37 °C in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. The absorbance at 470 nm was measured for 10 min with reads every minute. The GOPX activity was expressed in micromoles of produced tetraguaiacol (ɛ = 26.6 mM −1 cm −1 ) per minute and gram of FW.The ascorbate peroxidase activity (APX) was estimated by Nakano and Asada (1981) method. The enzymatic extract (5 µl) was mixed with a reagent consisting of 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.2, 0.002 M ASA, 0.005 M EDTA and 0.0001 M H 2 O 2 . The APX activity was measured at 25 °C in UV-Star 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader by following the rate of ASA oxidation for 10 min with absorbance reads every minute at 290 nm. The APX activity was expressed in micromoles of ASA decomposition (ɛ = 2.8 mM −1 cm −1 ) per minute and gram of FW.The dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) activity was estimated using Trümper et al. (1994) method. The enzymatic extract (10 µl) was mixed with a reagent consisting of 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.2, 0.004 M GSH and 0.001 M dehydroascorbic acid (DHA). The DHAR activity was measured at 30 °C in UV-Star 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader by following the rate of DHA reduction for 10 min with absorbance reads every minute at 265 nm. The DHAR activity was expressed in micromoles of ASA production (ɛ = 14 mM −1 cm −1 ) per minute and gram of FW.The glutathione reductase (GR) activity was estimated by Foyer and Halliwell (1976) method. The enzymatic extract (10 µl) was mixed with a reagent consisting of 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.2, 0.00025 M nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), 0.001 M EDTA and 0.001 M oxidized glutathione (GSSG). Assays were performed at 37 °C in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader and the change in absorbance at 340 nm was noted for 20 min with reads every minute. The GR activity was expressed as micromoles of oxidized NADPH per minute and gram of FW.The nitrosoglutathione reductase (GSNOR) activity was estimated by Sakamoto et al. (2002) method. The enzymatic extract (10 µl) was mixed with a reagent consisting of 0.05 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 7.2, 0.0002 M nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), 0.0005 M EDTA and 0.0006 M S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO). Assays were carried out at 37 °C in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader and change in absorbance at 340 nm was noted for 20 min with reads every minute. The GSNOR activity was expressed as micromoles of oxidized NADH per minute and gram of FW.The arginase (ARG) activity in enzymatic extract was measured by Labudda et al. (2016a) method. After the activation of ARG (0.005 M manganese dichloride, 56 °C, 10 min), the enzymatic extracts were kept at 37 °C with 0.25 M L-arginine (pH 9.6). The reactions were terminated after 60 min by adding the reagent consisting of sulphuric acid:orthophosphoric acid:distilled water (1:3:7, v/v/v). Next, 9% α-isonitrosopropiophenone dissolved in 96% ethanol was added, and samples were incubated at 96 °C for 45 min. Next, samples were placed for 10 min in the dark at RT. The absorbance was recorded at 550 nm in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. The content of produced urea was estimated based on the standard curve and the ARG activity was expressed as micromoles of urea per hour and gram of FW.Leaves (100 mg) were crushed in a mortar with quartz sand on ice-bath. The phenolic metabolites were extracted with 5 ml of ice-cold 80% methyl alcohol and tissue homogenates were centrifuged for 15 min at 4 °C (16,000×g). The amount of total phenols, hydroxycinnamoyl tartaric acid esters, flavonols and anthocyanins was estimated by Fukumoto and Mazza (2000) method. The methyl alcohol extracts were mixed with 0.1% HCl solution prepared in 96% ethanol and 2% HCl solution prepared in distilled water. Then 15 min after incubation in the dark at RT, the absorbance was noted in UV-Star 96-well plate (Greiner) on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. The absorbance at 280, 320, 360 and 520 nm reflected total phenol, hydroxycinnamoyl tartaric acid ester, flavonol and anthocyanin contents, respectively. The chlorogenic acid (total phenols), caffeic acid (hydroxycinnamoyl tartaric acid esters), quercetin (flavonols) and cyanidin (anthocyanins) were used as equivalents for assessment of phenolic metabolites. To measure the polyphenol content, the Folin-Ciocalteu method was used (Labudda et al. 2016b). Briefly, the methyl alcohol extract was mixed with distilled water and Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (POCH, Gliwice, Poland). Samples were kept at RT for 4 min, and 1 M saturated Na 2 CO 3 solution was pipetted and incubation at 40 °C for 30 min was carried out. The absorbance was noted at 740 nm in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader and the polyphenol content was calculated as gallic acid equivalent. The results of the phenolic metabolite levels were expressed in milligrams of the respective equivalents per hundred grams of FW.The total salicylic acid (free and conjugated forms of SA) contents were measured by the reversed-phase highperformance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) with detection of fluorescence according to Szkop et al. (2017) method with minor modifications. Leaves (100 mg) were macerated in a mortar with quartz sand and 0.4 M dipotassium phosphate. Samples were vigorously agitated for 15 min at 70 °C and centrifuged at 16,000×g for 10 min. Next, supernatants were mixed with 10 M HCl and the hydrolysis at 95 °C for 90 min was conducted. Subsequently, ethyl ethanoate was added to the hydrolysates and samples were vigorously agitated and centrifuged at 16,000×g for 10 min. The organic phases were mixed with phosphate buffer (pH 7.8) and samples were vigorously agitated and centrifuged at 16,000×g for 10 min. The aqueous phases were collected, filtered and pipetted into the vials. The HPLC analysis was performed using system consisted of a binary pump (Model 1525, Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, USA), a fluorometric detector (Model 474, Waters Corporation) and an autosampler (Model 717plus, Waters Corporation). Separations were carried out at RT on a C8 column (Symmetry 4.6 × 150 mm, 5 μm, Waters Corporation) guarded by a C8 precolumn (Symmetry 3.9 × 20 mm, 5 μm, Waters Corporation) with a linear gradient elution. The content of SA was calculated based on the external standard curve prepared with the use of HPLC-grade SA (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, MO, USA).The measurement of the 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) content was estimated by Hodges et al. (1999) method. Two hundred microlitres of methyl alcohol extract (obtained as described in Phenolic metabolites paragraph) was pipetted to 800 µl 0.5% 2-thiobarbituric acid prepared in 20% trichloroacetic acid. Samples were incubated at 90 °C for 20 min and reactions were terminated on ice. Samples were centrifuged (16,000×g) for 10 min and the absorbance was read at 440, 532 and 600 nm in Nunc U-bottom 96-well plate on a Varioskan LUX Multimode Microplate Reader. TBARs content was counted and expressed in micromoles per gramme of FW.To estimate protein carbonylation (carbonyl groups, C = O) content, leaves (100 mg) were crushed with liquid nitrogen in mortar. Two millilitres of extraction medium (0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.2 with 0.001 M EDTA, and 0.1% Triton X-100) was added into the macerated tissue. Samples were centrifuged (16,000×g) for 15 min at 4 °C. The protein content was measured in supernatants with Bradford reagent and bovine serum albumin (Sigma-Aldrich) as the protein standard. Aliquots containing 180 µg of soluble proteins were prepared, and next proteins were precipitated with cold propan-2-one. The protein carbonylation was measured by derivatization of protein carbonyls with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) using Levine et al. (1994) method. Briefly, 0.01 M DNPH in 2.5 M hydrochloric acid was added to proteins and incubated at RT for hour in darkness with mixing every 15 min. Next, the protein pellets were washed three times with cold ethyl alcohol/ ethyl ethanoate (1:1) mixture. Dinitrophenyl group (DNP)labelled proteins were solubilised in 90 µl of rehydration medium containing 7 M carbonic diamide, 2 M thiocarbamide, 4% 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate and 0.04 M Cleland's reagent.Samples containing 5 µg of derivatized proteins were mixed (1:1, v/v) with a sample buffer containing 0.126 M Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 20% propane-1,2,3-triol, 4% sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), 10% 2-mercaptoethanol and 0.004% bromophenol blue. Denatured protein samples were electrophoresed on 11% SDS acrylamide gel in a 0.025 M Tris, 0.192 M 2-aminoethanoic acid and 0.1% SDS running buffer (pH 8.3) at 60 V for 15 min followed by hour at a constant current of 0.025 A per gel until the blue dye front reached the bottom of the gel (Mini-Protean electrophoresis system; Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis separated proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Mini-Protean electrophoresis system; Bio-Rad). After hour of blocking with 5% skimmed milk at RT, the membrane was incubated with anti-DNP polyclonal rabbit antibodies (Sigma-Aldrich; 1:1500) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (pH 7.4) with 0.5% Tween 20. Alkaline phosphatase-conjugated goat antibodies against rabbit IgG (Sigma-Aldrich; 1:20,000) were used as the secondary antibodies. The blots were developed by NBT/5bromo-4-chloro-3′-indolyphosphate (BCIP) reagent containing 0.015% of BCIP and 0.03% of NBT in 0.1 M Tris-HCl buffer, pH 9.5 supplemented with 0.1 M sodium chloride and 0.05 M magnesium dichloride. The molecular weight (MW) of proteins was determined by SpectraTM Multicolor Broad Range Protein Marker (Thermo Scientific). Blots were digitalized with G:BOX EF2 (Syngene, Cambridge, UK) and the intensity of bands was quantified as % volume with free BioVision software (Vilber, Collégien, France). The average intensity of all bands was ascertained. Results were compared with C plants, to which a value of 100% has been ascribed.The photosynthetic pigments were estimated by Lichtenthaler (1987) method. Leaves (100 mg) were homogenised in ice-cold 80% propan-2-one with addition of calcium carbonate and centrifuged (16,000×g) for 15 min at 4 °C. The absorbance of propan-2-one extracts was read at 470, 646 and 663 nm using double-beam spectrophotometer U-2900 (Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). The chlorophyll a (chl a), chlorophyll b (chl b) and carotenoid (car) contents were calculated according to Wellburn (1994). Total chlorophylls (chl a + b), the ratio of chlorophyll a to b (chl a:b) and the ratio of chl a + b to car (chl a + b:car) were also calculated.Actual photosynthesis efficiency was evaluated by measuring gas exchange (H 2 O and CO 2 ) and maximal efficiency of photosynthesis light reactions by photosynthetic light response curve measurement using a portable open gasexchange system (LCpro-SD; ADC BioScientific Ltd., Hoddesdon, UK) equipped with a 6.24 cm 2 cuvette and a mixed Red/Blue LED Light Source Head. Measurements were carried out on fully developed leaves of five plants from each treatment. In gas exchange measurement, to allow photosynthesis to reach the steady state, each leaf was adapted for 2 min in the cuvette. The measurements were performed in CO 2 saturated conditions (650 μmol mol −1 ): 300 μmol s −1 of airflow, 50-55% relative humidity within the cuvette, 25 °C leaf temperature and under the 175 μmol m −2 s −1 red/blue light intensity. Net photosynthesis [PN (μmol CO 2 m −2 s −1 )], stomatal conductance [Gs (mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 )] and rate of transpiration [E (mmol H 2 O m −2 s −1 )] were evaluated. Photosynthetic light response curves were recorded on other leaf each of the same five plants. Light Source Head was used for a stepwise reduction of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) ranging from 1500 to 0 μmol (quanta) m −2 s −1 (in 300, 100, 50, 20, 0, 100, 300, 500, 1000, 1500, 300 and 100 μmol (quanta) m −2 s −1 steps). The leaves were adapted to each of the light intensities for 5, 5, 3, 2, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 and 5 min, respectively, before data point recording. Air flow, relative humidity and CO 2 concentration inside the cuvette were the same as described for gas exchange measurement.Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurement was carried out with Handy-PEA (Hansatech, King's Lynn, UK) fluorometer using standard procedures. Ten leaves (two on each of five plants) from each treatment were dark-adapted for 25 min. The fluorescence was induced by red light: max = 650 nm, 2000 mol m −2 s −1 . Selected functional and structural photosynthetic parameters were calculated (Jiang et al. 2008;Kalaji et al. 2011) (Table 1). Table 1 was compiled according to Piwowarczyk et al. (2018). Recorded curves were analysed using the fluorometer producer's softsware (PEA-Plus). Evaluated parameters allow for assessment of photosystem II (PSII) efficiency.The leaf blade fragments (about 2 × 2 mm in size) were sampled from the central barley leaf part from each treatment. They were fixed in 2% glutaric dialdehyde and 2% polyoxymethylene dissolved in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer (pH 7.2) for 3 h. After four times rinsing in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer, samples were post-fixed in 2% osmium tetroxide for 2 h, dehydrated in increasing ethyl alcohol concentrations, propylene oxide and finally infiltrated with EPON 812 epoxy resin (Fluka, Buchs, Switzerland). Ultra-thin (60 nm) sections were taken with a Leica UCT ultramicrotome (Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany) and stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate. Sections were examined in an FEI 268D 'Morgagni' (FEI Corp., Hillsboro, OR, USA) transmission electron microscope operating at 80 kV and a SIS 'Morada' digital camera (Olympus-SIS, Münster, Germany) was used for acquisition of images.Representative data were presented as the means ± SD.Results were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The significant differences between experimental groups were determined using Tukey's honest significant difference test at p < 0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistica program, version 13.3 (TIBCO Software Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA).The level of superoxide anions was about 0.6-fold lower in N, WCM and N + WCM plants than in C plants (Fig. 1a). The applied analytical method allowed to state that C plants had no H 2 O 2 in leaves (Fig. 1b). In contrast, plants under three stressful treatments presented the enhanced content of H 2 O 2 . N and WCM plants had its similar level about 615 nmol g −1 . Significant decrease in H 2 O 2 content to about 422 nmol g −1 was noted in N + WCM plants in relation to N and WCM ones (Fig. 1b).The activity of SOD was found to be 0.7-fold lower in WCM than in C plants and 1.6-fold higher in N + WCM plants in comparison to WCM plants and 1.1-fold higher in N + WCM plants in comparison to N plants (Fig. 2a). The CAT activity was up-regulated by 1.1-fold in N plants in relation to control plants and down-regulated by about 0.7-fold in WCM and N + WCM plants in relation to C plants. Furthermore, the activity of this enzyme was 0.6-fold lower in N + WCM plants in comparison with C ones (Fig. 2b). The activities of class III peroxidases, including POD at pH 7.2 and 8.8 as well as GOPX, had similar patterns. Their activity decreased about 0.7-fold in WCM and N + WCM plants in relation to C plants, while N + WCM plants presented about 0.6-fold lower activities than N plants. The activity of POD 7.2 and POD 8.8 was 30% lower in WCM plants than in N plants and in the case of GOPX by about 50% (Fig. 2c-e). The activity of APX, a member of class I peroxidases, was found to be decreased in N, WCM and N + WCM plants by 0.8-, 0.8-and 0.5-folds, respectively, in comparison to C plants and its activity was significantly diminished by 0.6-fold in N + WCM plants as against N and WCM plants (Fig. 2f). As Fig. 3g presents, the DHAR activity was slightly stimulated (1.1-fold) in N plants in relation to C ones. The WCM plants had the lowest activity of this enzyme, which reached the level around 70 µmol min −1 g −1 . However, the DHAR activity was increased in N + WCM plants (about 25%) in comparison with WCM plants (Fig. 2g). In turn, the activity of GR was similar in C, WCM and N + WCM plants and it was kept at the level of 23 µmol min −1 g −1 (Fig. 2h). As a result of WCM infestation, the GR activity was significantly down-regulated by 1.6-fold and 0.7-fold in relation to N + WCM and C barley plants, respectively (Fig. 2h). WCM the activity of the GSNOR was increased by 1.6-fold upon CCN and 1.3-fold upon WCM infection in relation to the C plants, whereas in N + WCM plants the 0.6-fold reduction of the GSNOR activity was noted in comparison with both N and WCM plants (Fig. 2i). The highest activity of ARG was observed in WCM plants (about 6 µmol h −1 g −1 ) and the lowest (about 4 µmol h −1 g −1 ) in N + WCM plants.In the comparison with C plants, the ARG activity of N and N + WCM plants was diminished about 0.9-and 0.7-folds, respectively (Fig. 2j).The parameters including total phenols, hydroxycinnamoyl tartaric acid esters, flavonols, anthocyanins, polyphenols and salicylic acid differed significantly in the analysed four experimental conditions (Fig. 3a-f). The content of total phenols was decreased by about 10% in N plants in relation to the C plants and it increased by about 10% in N + WCM plants in comparison to N ones (Fig. 3a). It was found that the hydroxycinnamoyl tartaric acid ester content was about 10% significantly higher in WCM and about 15% higher in N + WCM plants than in N plants (Fig. 3b). The flavonol content was decreased by about 10% in N plants in relation to the C plants and it was increased by about 10% both in WCM and N + WCM plants in comparison with N plants (Fig. 3c). The anthocyanin content was decreased by about 12% in N plants in relation to the C plants and it was increased by about 12% both in WCM and N + WCM plants in comparison with N plants (Fig. 3d). The content of polyphenols was about 20% higher in N plants and about 50% higher both in WCM and N + WCM plants than in the C plants and it was about 30% higher both in WCM and N + WCM plants than in N plants (Fig. 3e). The level of salicylic acid was significantly enhanced by about 70% in WCM and by about 60% in N + WCM plants in comparison with C plants. Furthermore, N + WCM plants had about 55% more and about 20% less salicylic acid in leaves as against N and WCM ones, respectively (Fig. 3f).The highest content of TBARs was observed in N + WCM plants (about 220 µmol g −1 ) and the lowest (about 75 µmol g −1 ) in N plants. TBAR level was 0.6-fold diminished in N, and it was enhanced by 1.4-and 1.6folds in WCM and N + WCM plants in comparison with C plants. Moreover, the amount of TBARs was 2.9-fold higher in N + WCM than in N plants and 1.2-fold higher in N + WCM than in WCM plants (Fig. 4).  In addition to the TBARs content, the intensity of the protein carbonylation processes, the protein marker of the oxidative damage in plants, was also ascertained (Fig. 5).In response to the separate N and WCM inoculation, the level of protein carbonylation increased in comparison with the C plants. The N inoculation caused the increase in the total protein oxidation level by approximately 12%, and the WCM inoculation by 36% in comparison with C plants. However, the combination of N and WCM led to decrease in the intensity of carbonylation level by 8% against C plants. Moreover, also patterns of oxidized (carbonylated) proteins changed in response to stresses. In the WCM and N + WCM plants carbonylated proteins with molecular weight ~ 72 and 65 kDa were clearly visible, but they were not noticeable in C and N plants. The intensity of bands with MW ~ 55 and 53 kDa was almost constant in all experimental conditions. The level of 50 kDa band was similar in C and WCM plants, but its intensity was lower in N plants, and the lowest in double-stressed barley specimens (N + WCM). Also changes in bands with 45 and 42 kDa differed between experimental variants. Those two bands were the most intense in WCM plants, lower intensity was noticed in N and WCM ones and almost no carbonylation of these proteins was observed in control plants (Fig. 5).The photosynthetic pigment composition in leaves of various experimental plant groups was not significantly differed (Fig. 6). Although differences in photosynthetic pigment contents were not at a statistically significant level, measurements of chl a fluorescence provided substantial and interesting results. Actual photosynthesis efficiency did not change statistically between evaluated treatments as evidenced by unchanged net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and the rate of transpiration (Fig. 7a-c). However, analysis of photosynthesis efficiency at higher radiation intensities revealed statistically significant differences in light reactions efficiency in plants under different treatments (Fig. 7d).Between radiation of 500 and 1500 µmol (quanta) m −2 s −1 , light reactions efficiency was significantly higher in plants inoculated with nematodes than in plants inoculated with mites and plants inoculated with both nematodes and mites. Moreover, at the highest radiation (1500 µmol m −2 s −1 ), efficiency of light reactions was significantly lower in WCM plants than in C plants (Fig. 7d). Furthermore, the measurement of chl a fluorescence also revealed some changes in PSII efficiency between barley plants uninoculated and inoculated with different pests. Values of PSII parameters, presented on the radar chart, were normalized in relation to a control value (Fig. 7e). The rate of reduction of PSII acceptor side (V I ) increased significantly in plants inoculated with WCM in comparison with control plants and nematodeinoculated plants. In turn, parameters related to the electron flows (ρ Ro , δ Ro ) and quantum yield for the reduction of end acceptors of PSI per photon absorbed (φ Ro ) decreased in WCM plants in comparison with C and N plants (Fig. 7e). Also, total electron carriers per reaction centre (Sm) were reduced in these plants in relation to N-inoculated plants (Fig. 7e). Some changes were also noted in electron flow parameters (ρ Ro , δ Ro ) of N + WCM plants, which were reduced as compared with N plants (Fig. 7e).As some photosynthesis parameters differed between each experimental group, we used transmission electron microscopy to find out whether these changes go hand in hand with the changed ultrastructure of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts of plants from treatments differed in the shape, the thylakoid structure, the stroma density and the presence of starch grains; however, their distribution and number in leaf cells were like each other (Fig. 8). In the mesophyll of control plants, chloroplasts were ellipsoidal in shape and they had a regular structure of thylakoids, electrondense stroma and numerous plastoglobules. Additionally, some small starch grains were occasionally observed (Fig. 8a-c). In leaves of N-(Fig. 8d-f) or WCM-infected plants (Fig. 8g-i), irregularly shaped chloroplasts with swollen (Fig. 8d-h) or electrontranslucent (Fig. 8i) stroma were found. Apart from these malformations, chloroplasts of infested plants had rather regular arrangement of thylakoid membranes with welldeveloped grana. In turn, mesophyll cells of leaves from plants infected simultaneously with nematodes and mites contained chloroplasts with different degrees of degradations (Fig. 8j-l). In these chloroplasts, the stroma was electrontranslucent, whereas the thylakoid system was well visible. Interestingly, besides properly developed cells with chloroplasts similar to control ones, cells with far-reaching changes were found, probably in these leaf part where A. tosichella fed (Fig. 8j, k). In such degraded chloroplasts the dilated thylakoids forming many vesicles occurred apart from typically arranged ones (Fig. 8l). What is more, no starch grains were noted in all chloroplasts of infested plants, but numerous plastoglobuli were still observed.As sessile organisms, plants are equipped with sophisticated defence apparatus involving non-enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidants to cope with oxidative stress and to promote photosynthesis efficiency. Regulation of ROS and photosynthetic metabolism underlies plant successful responses against numerous environmental stressors (Suzuki et al. 2014;Choudhury et al. 2017;Woźniak et al. 2019;Morales et al. 2020).The photosynthetic apparatus is one of the most sensitive sensors of redox changes in the plant, which allows it for effective acclimatization to altering environmental conditions (Goltsev et al. 2016). Biotic and abiotic stress factors cause redox imbalance in the plant, leading to a reduction of photosynthesis efficiency, an activation of alternative  lites (Piwowarczyk et al. 2018;Tokarz et al. 2018Tokarz et al. , 2020b;;Makowski et al. 2019;Rozpądek et al. 2019). Attack and colonization of plant by pests lead to an increased demand for primary metabolites, mainly carbohydrates, and imply the activation of a defence response requiring an increased production of secondary metabolites (Blasi et al. 2015). Feeding mites secrete into the leaves specific mix consisting of elicitors and fatty and amino acids, which on the one hand enable the plant to recognize the pest, but on the other hand, lead to host tissue and cell damage (Gilardoni et al. 2010). As a result, an intensive production of ROS occurs leading to membrane lipid peroxidation, DNA degradation, redox and photosynthesis efficiency disorders (Blasi et al. 2015). The reduction of photosynthesis may be induced by either direct mesophyll damage and a significant reduction in stomatal conductance (Fadini et al. 2004) or disorders in the transcription and translation of proteins associated with the photosynthetic apparatus (Schmitt et al. 2014) or disruptions in the synthesis pathway of chlorophylls and carotenoids (Bronner et al. 1991). It was shown that reduced photosynthesis efficiency in rice plants can be caused not only by a decrease in chlorophyll content (Buffon et al. 2016(Buffon et al. , 2018) ) but also by down-regulation of seven proteins synthesis related to NADPH production and thus to adenosine triphosphate and glucose synthesis (Blasi et al. 2017). In the presented experiment, however, no significant differences were observed in the efficiency of photosynthesis (PN), transpiration (E), as well as in stomatal conductance (Gs) between barley plants inoculated and uninoculated with CCN and WCM. In addition, no differences were found in the content of photosynthetic pigments between these plants. However, the photosynthetic light response curve revealed that the presence of mites (apart from or with nematodes) significantly reduced the efficiency of CO 2 assimilation what some malformations in the chloroplast ultrastructure accompanied simultaneously. At the same time, inoculation with nematodes increased photosynthesis efficiency. Therefore, to determine the real condition and efficiency of photosynthetic apparatus, the OJIP fast-fluorescence test based on non-invasive chl a fluorescence measurement was applied. Stress factors leading to redox imbalance disturb both photochemical and biochemical phases of photosynthesis (Tokarz et al. 2020b). Stressors reduce the number of electrons reaching the PSII reaction center (RC) because of disturbances in the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) (Nikkanen et al. 2017). This PSII donor side limitation threatens with the appearance of the strongest biological oxidant the excited primary electron donor of PSII (P680*). On the other hand, redox homeostasis disorders on the PSII acceptor side lead to a reduction in the rate and efficiency of electron transport between PSII and PSI and thus to PSI oxidation (Tokarz et al. 2020a). In contrast, the limitation on the  (Tokarz et al. 2020a). All these limitations lead to generation of ROS, RNS and organic radicals causing irreversible destruction of the photosynthetic apparatus (Kalaji et al. 2016;Tokarz et al. 2020a). Kinetic of chl a fluorescence revealed that rice plants sensitive to mite feeding had a significantly lower number of open PSII RC (F 0 ) among all PSII RC (Vj) as well as significantly lower efficiency of trapped energy flux (TRo/ CSo) compared to resistant plants (Buffon et al. 2018). At the same time, sensitive cultivars dissipated more intensely part of the trapped energy (Dio/RC) (Buffon et al. 2018). Barley plants examined in this work, regardless of kind of pest inoculation, were characterized by the same efficiency of trapping and transporting radiation to PSII RC as control plants. At the same time, no limitations on the PSII donor side were observed indicating no damage of OEC. On the other hand, inoculation with WCM and N + WCM caused a significant limitation in the efficiency of electron transport outside PSII RC. Limitation resulted from decreased pool of rapidly reducing plastoquinone PQ (V i ) as well as the significantly diminished total electron carriers (Sm). Inoculation with WCM, apart from and together with nematode, significantly limited the electron transport on the PSI acceptor side (ρ Ro , δ Ro , φ Ro ); thus ROS appeared in barley cells because of these limitations.We have previously presented enhanced superoxide anion and H 2 O 2 production in aerial parts of Arabidopsis thaliana plants infested with Heterodera schachtii (the beet cyst nematode) (Labudda et al. 2018). What is more, Khanna et al. (2019) proved increased generation of superoxide anions and H 2 O 2 in shoots of tomato plants infected with Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode) and Javadi Khederi et al. (2018) documented enhanced level of H 2 O 2 in Vitis vinifera leaves infested with Colomerus vitis (the grape erineum mite). In our investigations discussed here, we noted a considerable decrease in superoxide anion accumulation in barley leaves because of separate CCN or WCM infection and of a double infection with CCN and WCM. Diminished superoxide anion content partly arose from superoxide anions' dismutation into O 2 and H 2 O 2 by the activity of SOD. However, since the SOD activity was not very strongly stimulated in stressful conditions, it can be argued that reduced amounts of superoxides were results of another metabolic event. NADPH oxidase (Nox) is an enzymatic source of superoxide anions in plants. Nisimoto et al. (2018) presented that one of the Nox, Nox4 is a hydrogen peroxide sensor and its dehydrogenase domain reacts quickly to H 2 O 2 in cytosol to modulate the activity of Nox4. Thus, reduced content of superoxide anions in barley plants under three stressful conditions may also result from Nox down-regulation through exaggerated accumulation of H 2 O 2 . As already mentioned, increased content of H 2 O 2   under three stress situations as well as in control plants. The activity of GOPX and CAT was significantly stimulated in N-infested plants in comparison with control ones. Similar results were observed earlier in A. thaliana and Lycopersicon esculentum plants infected with nematodes (Labudda et al. 2018;Khanna et al. 2019). In the present results, elevated activities of GOPX and CAT were not reflected in the reduced content of H 2 O 2 . This can suggest that the H 2 O 2 production was greater than the ability to scavenge H 2 O 2 by GOPX and CAT. The increased activities of GOPX and CAT corresponded to a reduced content of phenols, including flavonols. The peroxidase-flavonoid mechanism of the ROS deactivation often occurs in plant cells, and during this GOPX degrades phenolic molecules with simultaneous neutralisation of H 2 O 2 (Takahama and Oniki 2000). Furthermore, CAT can act as a bifunctional enzyme; on the one hand, CAT catalyses decomposition of H 2 O 2 , but on the other hand it can oxidize hydrogen donors such as phenolic molecules with consumption of peroxides (Chen et al. 2017). Therefore, it can be assumed that both above described systems (peroxidase-flavonoids and catalase-phenols) participated in controlling H 2 O 2 level in leaves of nematodeinfected barley. Interestingly, the postulated catalase-phenol activity corresponded well to the lower lipid peroxidation in nematode-infected plants that might partly be due to consumption of lipid peroxides by CAT. As described above, plants have to counteract tear ROS homeostasis down during stress, but phytophagous mites seek to colonise effectively of plant hosts among others owing to secreting salivary protein effectors into leaves to modulate/curtail plant defence mechanisms (Jonckheere et al. 2016). Attention is drawn to the inhibited activity of PODs and GPOX in WCM and N + WCM plants in this context. Hemetsberger et al. (2012) showed that Ustilago maydis secreted effector Pep1 (Protein essential during penetration-1) into the maize leaves to inhibit of host peroxidase activity and to establish of a biotrophic interaction. Although this type of effector has not yet been identified in mites, our results may suggest that WCM deliberately modulated the peroxidase activity to prevent the activation of class III peroxidase-dependent defence responses such as lignin and suberin production, the cell wall components cross-linking or formation of phytoalexins (Almagro et al. 2009;Minibayeva et al. 2015).APX, belonging to class 1 peroxidases, takes part in H 2 O 2 neutralisation by Foyer-Halliwell-Asada pathway consisting of GSH and ASA as a key non-enzymatic antioxidant compounds and enzymes such as DHAR, GR and monodehydroascorbate reductase (Labudda 2018). Our results indicate that the decomposition of H 2 O 2 in the leaves of C plants depended on APX activity, because its stimulated activity was noted. However, regarding our main research question (how does barley react to the double infestation?), our finding that the APX activity was diminished in N + WCM plants in relation to N and WCM plants indicates that H 2 O 2 scavenging in N + WCM plants was re-routed to non-enzymatic H 2 O 2 decomposition during direct reaction with ASA. Decreased APX activity ensured ASA molecules that reacted with H 2 O 2 and scavenged them (Grinstead 1960). The product of the H 2 O 2 reaction with ASA was its oxidized form, DHA, which could be a substrate for DHAR. This antioxidant mechanism from Foyer-Halliwell-Asada pathway was in operation efficiently because the activity of DHAR in N + WCM plants was on the same level than in C plants; hence the recovery of ASA by DHAR still occurred. One more discovery supports our interpretation. DHAR tapped two molecules of GSH to produce one molecule of ASA but GSSG was equally formed. The increase of GR activity in N + WCM plants was noted. Since GR transforms GSSG to GSH, regenerated GSH pool was constantly achievable and/or GSH could anew begin reaction of DHAR. GSH could be also oxidized to GSSG by the direct reaction with H 2 O 2 , which in this way was beneficially removed from cells (Abedinzadeh et al. 1989;Labudda 2018;Ding et al. 2020). Summarizing, observed by us, decreased number of H 2 O 2 in N + WCM plants was presumably due in no small part to the Foyer-Halliwell-Asada pathway. In addition, this mechanism could be supported by polyphenols, which through reaction with ROS/RNS restricted oxidative damage in stressed barley plants (Hussain et al. 2016).Reactive nitrogen species (RNS), including nitric oxide (NO) that is in the leading position amid RNS, are important regulatory molecules during undisturbed plant ontogenesis. They also participate in the cellular signalling under stressful conditions (Corpas 2017). Moreover, NO can reversibly bind the sulfhydryl groups of cysteines, so S-nitrosothiols (SNOs) are produced, including GSNO, a biochemical stock of NO in cells (Jahnová et al. 2019). Metabolism of GSNO in cells is controlled by GSNOR, catalysing reduction (reliant on NADH) of GSNO to GSSG and ammonia (NH 3 ) (Corpas and Barroso 2013). Kovacs et al. (2016) and Begara- Morales et al. (2019) presented claims that ROS can inhibit the activity of GSNOR resulting in the accumulation of GSNO and significantly increased H 2 O 2 neutralisation through the Foyer-Halliwell-Asada pathway. Other research showed GSNO-dependent irreversible inhibition of the enzyme activity of APX (Clark et al. 2000). This APX inhibition by GSNO strengthens our explanation regarding down-regulated activity of APX in N + WCM plants. Our results are in accordance with Kovacs et al. (2016) and Begara- Morales et al. (2019) and indicate that antioxidant capacity of N + WCM barley plants to some extent came from the inhibition of GSNOR and the accumulation of GSNO. Moreover, Jahnová et al. (2019) proposed that diminished GSNOR activity with simultaneous increase in the GSNO level can lead to improved plant resistance to pest/pathogen infections. Regardless of this, the up-regulated GSNOR activity in N and WCM plants was documented, thus scavenging the intolerable amount of NO through the activity of GSNOR took place. Therefore, barley plants under separately CCN and WCM infestation were protected from effects of the high concentrations of RNS that are toxic for plants (Corpas and Barroso 2013).Our earlier published article indicated that alterations in nitrogen metabolism occurred in plants infected with the beet cyst nematode (Labudda et al. 2020a). Arginase (ARG) is not an enzyme that has direct influence on ROS deactivation, but it provides ornithine for the synthesis, e.g. polyamines, important metabolites during plant diseases (Walters 2003). Ornithine decarboxylase initiates the ARG-dependent polyamine synthesis pathway, so ornithine is decarboxylated to putrescine. From putrescine spermidine synthase produces spermidine, and spermine synthase synthesizes spermine from spermidine. Putrescine, spermidine and spermine are positively charged metabolites; therefore, they can bind to negatively charged compounds and neutralize ROS (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2019). It cannot be excluded that enhanced activity of ARG in WCM plants can promote synthesis of polyamines and indirectly improve non-enzymatic antioxidant apparatus in these plants. However, another mechanism is also possible. The enhanced ARG activity, and thus possible stimulated polyamine synthesis, in combination with the observed accumulation of salicylic acid, a master mediator of plant defence (Palmer et al. 2017), may point to defence strategy induced by barley plants to prevent excessive development of WCM populations on infested plants. In reaction to devouring pests, attacked plants synthesize and emit herbivore-induced plant volatiles 'as a call for help' to attract carnivorous natural enemies of herbivores. Due to these volatiles, plants can indirectly decrease the number of herbivores by more than 90% (Kessler and Baldwin 2001). The exogenous treatment with putrescine, spermidine and spermine led to emission of volatiles in Phaseolus lunatus leaves, among others methyl salicylate, and its content was particularly high after treatment with putrescine (Ozawa et al. 2009). These authors also presented that P. lunatus leaves treated with spermine + jasmonic acid at the same time attracted more predatory mites Phytoseiulus persimilis than those treated with jasmonic acid singly. It has been suggested that spermine has an important role in the regulation of synthesis of volatiles induced by Tetranychus urticae (Ozawa et al. 2009). Furthermore, Shimoda et al. (2002) proved that two predators of T. urticae, thysanopteran Scolothrips takahashii and coleopteran Oligota kashmirica benefica exhibited preference for methyl salicylate or methyl salicylate + jasmonic acid-treated P. lunatus leaves when compared with T. urticae-uninfested leaves. Taken together, our results can suggest that stimulated polyamine synthesis through ARG reaction and co-existing enhanced level of free and conjugated forms of salicylic acid in WCM-infected barley plants can indicate that barley plants try to cope with herbivores through increased synthesis of volatiles to lure carnivorous insects. Such defence response of barley plants has been shown in article by Ninkovic et al. (2001). These authors proved that volatiles synthetized by the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi)-infested barley plants attracted adults of the seven-spotted ladybird (Coccinella septempunctata). Ninkovic et al. (2001) concluded that aphid-induced barley volatiles had an important role in food-searching behaviour of ladybirds and this behaviour can be inborn or effect of associative learning of C. septempunctata imagines.In our research, we implemented two biochemical markers for the assessment of oxidative damage in barley cells. We began with scrutiny of TBARs level for the detection of lipid oxidation products, such as 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and malondialdehyde and other toxic aldehydes, alkenals and hydroxyalkenals (Alché 2019). The observed lowest level of TBARs in N plants (even lower than in C plants) indicates that the antioxidative mechanisms were efficient enough to limit the oxidative damage of cell membranes, as we have previously suggested to some extent this may be due to catalase activity against peroxides through the pathway catalase-phenols (Chen et al. 2017). A high level of TBARs was observed in barley plants on whose leaves WCM individuals were feeding. We suppose it could have a double effect on physiological processes in these plants. On the one hand, negative because the integrity of some cell membranes of WCM and N + WCM plants was destroyed what corresponded with different degrees of degradations of chloroplasts in these plants. However, the positive side of this state is also possible, with a direct impact on increased barley defence mechanisms against WCM. First, the increased accumulation of lipid oxidation products in WCMinfested leaves makes them a less favourable nutrient source for WCM. A similar observation was made by Shukle and Murdock (1983). It was observed that the plant diets containing the soybean prooxidant enzyme lipoxygenase (LOX) (initiating various oxygenated compounds production) led to retarded Manduca sexta larval growth, the insect pest of plants from the family Solanaceae. Second, wounds induced by WCM feeding on barley leaves could stimulate releasing of fatty acids from membrane lipids such as linolenic acid and next LOX could convert linolenic acid to jasmonic acid and further volatile aldehydes can be produced (Mosblech et al. 2009;Rahimi et al. 2016). This would be consistent with the above postulated role of arginase in the production of polyamines and stimulated by them the emission of volatiles. Moreover, Hildebrand et al. (1986) presented that because of T. urticae infestation on soybean leaves, a large increase in TBAR content and a significant enhancement in LOX activity co-occurred.The second marker of oxidative stress was the carbonylation of proteins expressed in amount of the C = O groups incorporated into proteins because of predominantly lysine arginine, proline and threonine residues oxidation (Kalemba and Pukacka 2014). The above presented antioxidant mechanisms operating together indicated efficient antioxidant capacity of N + WCM plants because the combination of N and WCM stresses led to the lowest intensity of carbonylation level against other plant groups. Therefore, it can be assumed that wastage of protein functions was significantly diminished. However, upon separate nematode or mite inoculation, the number of C = O groups in proteins was enhanced in comparison with the control plants. Our results are consistent with the research presented by Dworak et al. (2016), who showed that the protein carbonylation level was increased in leaves of Zea mays plants infested with T. urticae or under water deficit in comparison with control plants. However, the combination of T. urticae and water deficit resulted in significantly decreased amount of C = O groups in proteins in comparison to singly T. urticae or water deficit-stressed plants as well as control ones. Our results and Dworak et al. (2016) can indicate that the double stress, regardless of whether these are two biotic stresses or a combination of abiotic and biotic stresses, plants react in a similar way. In the future, it would be interesting to examine whether such plant response takes place also in other experimental systems and whether it goes beyond species from the Poaceae family. This discovery can set new research paths because issues related to posttranslational modification of proteins during stress combination are virtually unexplained.To conclude, the obtained results increase the knowledge of redox metabolism and photosynthesis of cereal plants infested simultaneously with two pests. We unravelled for the first time how barley reacts to stress arisen by cereal cyst Miscellaneous biochemical/physiological mechanisms may operate in an additive and in a potentiating manner and interact with each other to establish a holistic defence response of infested plant  nematode and wheat curl mite infestation. It was found that the ROS production and oxidative damage were increased in nematode and mite-infested leaves and prominent enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants were activated. Furthermore, infestation with mites (apart from or with nematodes) significantly decreased the efficiency of CO 2 assimilation by leaves of barley plants, but infection only with nematodes increased photosynthesis efficiency. Our investigations point out tight relatedness between the ROS metabolism and the regulation of photosynthesis in leaves of barley plants colonised by nematodes and mites. Summarizing, to manage the stress induced by pest infestation, barley plants can induce a multi-component model of stress response in the form of biochemical-physiological 'fan-shaped' defence response (Fig. 9).","tokenCount":"9888"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"79e74b7f9530019a43c40188ca2eaf18","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e019b568-6fd8-4b4e-a490-0f35969f44ee/retrieve","id":"609463140"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"74cf5812-5bb0-441a-9a9a-3dfb59d695d3","pagecount":"230","content":"This volume contains an executive summary of papers and the discussions on them as well as the reports of working groups and the recommendations of the Roundtable on Livestock Development Strategies for Low Income Countries. In addition to the executive summary there is a Keynote paper and two other background papers, two papers on issues, constraints and opportunities for livestock development and five papers on options for increasing livestock's contribution from the major production systems. The volume also contains reports of all the discussions and summarized reports of the working groups that were convened for sub-Saharan Africa and West Asia and North Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean. It is completed by a short report of the discussion at the final plenary session, the closing peroration and the recommendations of the Roundtable.The Roundtable on Livestock Development Strategies for Low Income Food Deficit Countries was a joint undertaking between the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). The initiative originated from informal discussions between the Animal Production and Health Division (AGA) of the Agricultural Department of FAO and ILCA (as it was then). FAO provided funds for ILRI to undertake the arrangements and also contracted an experienced writer and resource person to compile and edit the Proceedings. Preparatory work was undertaken by the ILRI Organizing Group who decided that it should directly follow the inaugural Board meeting of the new ILRI which combines the infrastructure and human and technical resources of the two previously independent centres, the International Livestock Centre for Africa and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases.The presence of board members and experts with vast experience in livestock development from many parts of the world greatly increases the chances that the recommendations will be rapidly adopted by the international community. This is especially important for the time is opportune, with attention focused on the newly established ILRI, to put livestock back on the world stage where they rightfully belong. It is also important that the recommendations and rationale for development arising from the Roundtable reach the widest possible audience of policy and decision makers.It is hoped that this Roundtable will mark the beginning of a period of greater cooperation between FAO and ILRI and with all the institutions and organizations represented. It should also result in a more rational and efficient use of scarce resources. An earlier Consultation hosted by ILRI in January 1995 to discuss A Global Agenda for Livestock Research complements this Roundtable. A further companion meeting organized jointly by FAO/WAAP will take place in May 1995 in Korea to discuss issues relating to the supply side of livestock products, especially to urban consumers.The primary objectives of the Roundtable were to:• provide a forum for scientists and developers to exchange views and experiences; and• raise the level of awareness of a broad and influential audience with regard to the potential and the constraints facing animal agriculture in low income countries.The immediate objectives of the Roundtable were to:• review the contribution and potential of livestock to increase sustainable food production, and contribute to income generation in low income countries with a forward perspective to 2020 (\"The Global 2020 Vision for Livestock\");• identify major social, economic, technical and institutional constraints limiting livestock's contribution to achieving food security and economic development; and• define appropriate strategies to alleviate these constraints and propose a framework for international action to enhance animal productivity.The expected outputs of the Roundtable were:• an analysis of past and present trends in livestock productivity and consumption of livestock products which would be used in part as an input to a \"2020 Vision\" paper to be further developed after the meeting;• a defined of objectives for the time frame specified and a related description of the constraints that must be overcome for the objectives to be achieved; and• formulation of the set of measures (\"a framework for action\") or strategies needed for increasing livestock productivity in low income countries and securing better management of natural resources from the present to the end of the second decade of the 21st century.The Roundtable was organized around four sessions. Session One started with a Keynote paper and two other background papers were presented to set the scene for the remainder of the programme. Session Two comprised two detailed papers that dealt in depth with major issues, constraints and opportunities for development. Session Three drew on the expertise of scientists and field workers to present a series of five papers covering the options for increasing livestock's contribution to human welfare from the world's major production systems and agroecological zones. These three sessions included discussion periods following the presentation of each paper and a fuller discussion of all papers together before the session closed. The last part of the meeting, Session Four, consisted firstly of detailed discussions by participants who were split into three Working Groups covering: sub-Saharan Africa and West Asia and North Africa; Asia; and Latin America and the Caribbean. Secondly, the conclusions and recommendations of these Working Groups were presented in a Plenary Session, again discussed and then formed the basis of the final presentation and recommendations.Livestock services in developing countries have not been very effective, especially in reaching the poor. Two key factors -declining budgets and administrative efficiency, and changing clients, problems and issues -caused this lack of impact and led to a search for alternative systems.The most important trends in the institutional organization of livestock services now in the mainstream of the current development dialogue are a better distribution between the public and private sector and greater decentralization and transfer of responsibility to direct beneficiaries. The public sector must maintain public good which it can (or must) do itself, can subcontract to the private sector under close supervision, or can transfer fully to the private sector and maintain only an overview function. Pure public good services include policy planning, quarantine, food inspection and quality control. Public service responsibilities which can be subcontracted to the private sector are goods with externalities, such as compulsory vaccinations, extension through the mass media and research that is not patentable. Pure private goods include clinical animal health care, animal breeding and credit.Livestock development in low income countries needs to operate within the overall development objectives of reducing rural poverty, promoting rural growth and enhancing sustainable resource use. Future development support could therefore be expected to concentrate on three main areas: further fine-tuning of economic policies; strengthening services to small holders; and increased emphasis on environmental investments in the livestock sector. In the last case, subjects for emphasis might cover the whole spectrum from land degradation and management (especially in the arid zones), through programmes to reduce livestock methane emission and then to cleaning of the environment.The discussion on this paper again covered a broad range of questions. The relative roles of the public and private sectors were considered very important. There was general consensus that clear distinctions must be made between the role of the state in public good areas and that of the private sector in private good areas. Privatization should not be pushed too fast where a private sector was not yet able to perform efficiently in the interests of producers and consumers. The role and timing of credit were also considered important.The impact of human endeavours on the environment in the struggle to eke out a living through crop and animal agriculture is examined in a holistic context. Analyses focus on all the sources of pressure that modify the vegetation cover of rural Africa, including the effects of fires and burning of biomass, fuel wood extraction and deforestation and land clearing.Direct and indirect impacts of livestock production on the natural resources can only be assessed as an integral part of the overall pressures that human activities exert on the environment. Work on the dynamics of Sahel ranges shows that livestock are not a major factor in degradation. Even under extreme grazing during droughts less palatable and lower productivity plants supplant more palatable and more productive species only in the short run. A recent review concludes that the effects of grazing and drought are confused and that there is no solid evidence of irreversible effects on vegetation from livestock except around water points and permanent human settlements.Woody cover in African drylands has decreased at a rapid rate, especially in the arid and in the drier parts of the semiarid zones. Soil degradation is less serious on crop than on rangelands with 75 per cent of the drylands being unaffected. Soil erosion, shifting sand and surface crust formation impeding infiltration and promoting run-off are among the major causes of soil degradation. It is probable that depletion of soil organic matter and nutrients is the most common cause of degradation.Fire is responsible for 42 per cent of gross atmospheric emissions of CO 2 to which Africa contributes 43 per cent, this exceeding the combined emissions of South America and Asia (39 per cent). Savanna fires consume more than 80 per cent of all burnt biomass. The impact of fuel wood use by rural populations and urban centres on wood resources and vegetation structure is a major pressure on the environment. In rural Africa, 80-90 per cent of the energy demand is derived directly from woody vegetation and wood-derived charcoal is an important source for food preparation and heating in the urban sector. Deforestation and land clearing for crops are other major sources of degradation.Partitioning of biomass removal reveals the relative importance of the pressures exerted by human activities. By assessing support capacities for crops, livestock and fuel wood an aggregate index could thus emerge that would measure overall impact on the environment. Depending on ecosystem resilience -emanating from climate, landscape and soil and vegetation cover characteristics -risks of degrading processes and their resulting impact could then be identified. Causes of degradation such as wind and water erosion and nutrient depletion in soils due to crop and biomass removal could be given importance rankings and then aggregated.Impact assessment could be incorporated into procedures developed by FAO to estimate the human support capacity from assessment of potential yields and outputs of crops. Conversion of yields of appropriate crop mixes into calories and protein enables computation of potential population densities that the food output can support. Comparison with present and future anticipated densities allows identification of critical areas where food output is or will be insufficient to meet minimum human needs. Livestock and fuel wood productivity models have recently been added by FAO to the estimation of potential productivity of land resources. These models, designed to operate on a digitalized land resource data base, include provisions for quantifying soil erosion hazards and resulting estimates of \"tolerable\" soil losses. Since the models are interphased, land productivity can be optimized for any set of development constraints and demand. A contextual framework thus exists that incorporates the essential building blocks for assessing whether current land use is sustainable and this framework could accommodate location specific data sets to estimate environmental impact.There was general consensus during discussion that the role of livestock in resource degradation was still largely misunderstood in the broader world but that this ignorance resulted in negative effects being exaggerated. Methodologies need to be developed to study environmental issues. Proper presentation of results is also needed to avoid adverse criticism.for the remainder of the paper. Section 3 examines agricultural and livestock development in major developing regions in relation to macroeconomic and trade policies whereas Section 4 looks at livestock sector policies. Recent West African experiences in livestock production and trade against a background of changes in international and regional economic policies are the focus of Section 5. The concluding Section 6 focuses on appropriate economic policies for livestock development in low income countries.Macroeconomic, trade and sectoral policies are among those affecting the livestock sector in addition to public infrastructure, animal health services and investment in processing and marketing facilities. Because many services are public goods and essential to the success of other economic reforms governments needs to promote or provide them.Policy should promote optimal use of domestic resources for both local consumption and export. The specific economic, social and natural resource characteristics of each country and the varying potential for livestock sector growth mean that policies must differ from country to country. Each country's production potential, consumption profile and market opportunities will determine livestock's role and the areas in which governments might seek to promote greater market efficiency.The institutional capacity for micro and macroeconomic analysis of livestock issues is limited in most low income developing countries. For low income exporting countries, greater familiarity with international market developments is especially important, as is the development of more accurate and comprehensive data bases for policy analysis.International market instability and distorted world prices create major policy dilemmas for developing countries that can produce livestock at relatively low cost. These dilemmas include whether world prices that are primarily the result of distortionary policies in developed countries should be used, whether to import lower cost livestock products because they benefit consumers despite the negative impact on producers and long term growth, and whether to protect domestic producers to encourage development of their own livestock sectors and thereby forego the benefits of low import prices.Economic theory suggests international prices as the best measure of opportunity cost and determinant of domestic prices. The argument for using world prices depends only on the fact that they are fixed from the point of view of the country concerned. Each country needs, however, to make a critical appraisal of its own situation to arrive at a desirable solution. Careful assessment should be made of the possible extent to which inappropriate domestic policies are also important factors in the unsatisfactory performance and contribution to overall economic growth and poverty alleviation of the agricultural sector in general and the livestock subsector in particular.The processed food sector offers opportunities for growth especially in Latin American and Asian countries already involved in exports. In the medium term low income countries in the Sahel and other developing regions might be able to increase production of dairy and other processed products to meet expanding regional and local demands. Beyond regional markets there are formidable barriers. To overcome these, developing countries need to engage in frequent negotiations with the industrial countries for better market access and seek agreement to be consulted in the setting of food import standards. Developing countries also need to encourage foreign investment in domestic industries in order to get support from the multinational firms that dominate world food markets.In all regions, but especially in sub-Saharan Africa, governments must ensure the availability of the infrastructure and support services that producers need in order to be able to respond effectively to price incentives. Governments also need to help develop private sector capacity where state marketing boards are being dismantled and the private sector appears unable to respond to the new marketing environment.There was animated discussion on this paper and more detailed explanations were called for in some aspects. It was emphasized that the analysis in the paper does not support active government intervention to limit trade in order to further existing or new development policies. It was also pointed out that livestock sectors have suffered from policy interventions due to the anti-agriculture bias displayed by the economywide and sector policies adopted in most developing countries.A framework for international action to support livestock development is presented and discussed. The goal is to help achieve increased and sustainable food production and generate revenue for improved food security in low income countries. This goal conforms to the global mandate of ILRI which, although its main function is research, cannot ignore the linking of research to technology transfer if it is to make an impact. Issues related to the role of livestock research in strategies making up the action framework and especially effective linkage with technology transfer are discussed. Africa is the focus, because, although it is not unique in facing the problems of low income countries, it provides the greatest challenge to the global agricultural development community.NARS need not only trained personnel but also adequate funds to cover fixed and operating costs if they are to function effectively. Government funding for livestock research has rarely been sufficient and has often been used ineffectively. Average expenditure on agricultural research for less developed countries in 1981-1985 was in the range 0.54-0.94 per cent of agricultural GDP, this being about a quarter of the percentage investment in developed countries. National resources are used mainly for staff salaries, which often account for 90 per cent of the total budget, and infrastructure. Donor funding is thus most often used for the marginal costs of experiments. Many NARS are still considered to be performing badly in spite of donor aid.A human capacity/institution building model must replace long term technical assistance in order to develop national capacity. Building effective systems capable of doing adaptive as well as applied research requires continued investment in higher education in the agricultural sciences. IARCs can play an important role in capacity building through training and collaborative research. Short courses should be supported by research training to collaborators in the context of projects undertaken in CGIAR-sponsored cross-centre and ecoregional initiatives. CGIAR scientists can also act as technical resource persons in applied and adaptive research projects. Increased efficiency will result from regional groupings of NARS or using established networks to carry out this research.The action framework needs to include research and technology transfer policies. It also needs measures to promote increases in agricultural research investment within the framework of the new human capacity and institution building model. The effects of macro and sectoral policies affecting research impact also need to be considered as do international concerns about the consequences of livestock development on the environment, human health, equity and other critical issues.An effective mix of research types and the strengths of all partners in global research and development need to be included in strategies that promote livestock development goals. Models such as CGIAR ecoregional projects, the CGIAR systemwide livestock initiative and the ILRI conceptual framework for dairy research provide useful examples. Organizational models that ensure transfer of new technologies are also needed and must include international organizations and NGOs. FAO/IARC cooperation is a useful model for effectively linking research and technology transfer.To accomplish the framework's objectives explicit measures will be required to harness resources and ensure impact. Such activities could include:• an ILRI/FAO/IFPRI policy unit charged with carrying out impact and policy analysis, educating the public, and garnering advocacy and support for livestock development; and• a livestock policy network such as that seen as part of the ILRI/IFPRI project on the determinants of dairy demand, which could help train NARS scientists in policy research and analysis and could be tied to the previously described policy unit.Using these two structures, a \"2020 Vision for Livestock Development\" could be mounted to promote the message of the positive effects of livestock development for the public, interest groups and donors in the developed countries. These tangible measures would ensure that the framework for action is translated into reality and result in livestock development that will have a strong impact on human well being in low income countries.There was some concern that direct participation by the beneficiaries -the small farmerswas not accorded sufficient attention. This argument was countered by the fact that the social dimension is included to the extent that the recommendations will positively affect farmer welfare. There was avid discussion on the role of research and how it should be funded. Consensus was difficult to reach on the latter, mainly because of efficiency issues with the public impression being that staff numbers and therefore expenditure had increased relative to operations in recent years. It was agreed that this should be viewed in the light of initial low staff numbers and salaries. The role and methods of technology transfer were discussed especially in relation to the framework of the proposed policy unit. the ranching model. By the early 1980s poor performance had subverted confidence and a decade of experiments involving large and small donors ensued. This was accompanied by extensive field research (including pastoral systems studies conducted by ILCA) and theoretical retooling (notably in scientific ecology). Much of this was innovative and practical but it did not provide a framework for assembling new research ideas and intervention techniques into an adequate policy for rangeland development. Recent advances in scientific ecology and pastoral studies have also failed to \"solve\" the overstocking problem and have not suggested more effective ways of removing surplus animals. They have, however, encouraged a reframing of the problem.Typical projects of the 1980s sought to provide services, improve welfare and pastoral incomes, or develop pastoral community organizations. They had little success in accounting for how these activities contributed to sustainable resource management and its links with economic development.Changes in the 1990s are underlined by abandoning of the earlier goal of \"rangeland conservation\" in favour of \"sustainable rangeland production\". Applied research on pastoral economies shows that priorities hinge on the volume and kind of produce and, contrary to the assumptions of the ranching projects (which were that sales equalled income), that traditionally managed livestock often provide their owners with cash and in kind benefits in excess of those derived from additional animal sales.The dominant variables driving ecological changes on communal rangelands are physical factors, such as rainfall, outside management control. In these event dominated systems it is unrealistic for managers to try to forestall environmental change by tinkering with a single dependent biological variable such as livestock numbers. Managers who cannot control their environment must quickly adapt to it if they are to minimize the consequences of unpredictable rainfall. This opportunistic approach demands temporary but sudden and very substantial adjustments in livestock feed demand in response to abrupt changes in feed supply. Flexible exploitation strategies must be profitable as well as environmentally beneficial if producers are to adopt them. In other words, environmental concerns dominate project objectives but economic ones define project purpose. These dual intentions require both biological and economic indices of success -tracking and buffering of environmental fluctuations. Tracking refers to the biological phenomenon of prompt adjustment of livestock feed needs to fluctuating levels of primary production. Buffering refers to the economic phenomenon of shielding of pastoral incomes from the worst effects of violent climatological and biological changes.Field research on problems of opportunistic management would undoubtedly produce more precise recommendations or increase confidence in those already proposed. Some activities such as paraveterinary programmes, water harvesting and famine early warning systems are ready for large scale use. Other potential project components such as famine relief, land tenure, livestock marketing and forage production still need research and field experimentation but are likely over the long term to improve the tracking and buffering of environmental variability in Africa's rangelands.The role of research was the main focus of discussion. There was general agreement on the need for policy research and that institutions such as ILRI have a comparative advantage in undertaking surveys among systems. The concepts of \"tracking\" and \"buffering\" raised both comment and required clarification. Land reform and tenure were discussed with a consensus that widespread agrarian reform for communal areas is neither desirable nor feasible but that there is a need to explore other forms of tenure that allow for greater control of \"key\" resources such as dry season grazing.The important position and role of mixed farming systems in land use intensification in sub-Saharan Africa is reviewed. This is done by examining the current situation that is followed with a justification for mixed farming. Further sections follow on changing patterns of land use, including the effects of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis, and on constraints to further croplivestock integration. Research needs are considered in a final section with particular emphasis on biophysical factors (feed development, nutrient management, dual purpose livestock, animal health, genetic improvement and natural resource management) and policy analysis.Development objectives for sub-Saharan Africa are moving towards resource conservation and natural resource management while striving for greater agricultural production. Economic growth must increase by 4-5 per cent annually if food security is to be achieved and a modest standard of living provided for the 1.3 billion people expected in the region by 2025. Rapid urban population growth (55 per cent of Africans will live in urban areas in 2025) and higher incomes will create a need for better quality food, particularly of animal origin, from a rural population that is expected to feed 592 million by 2025 compared to 350 million in 1990. This is an enormous challenge in a region that experienced a negative per caput GDP during the 1980s.Strategies designed to raise the productivity of specific mixed crop-livestock systems must consider the stage of development of the target area in relation to intensification and the nature of crop-livestock interactions, the availability and cost of inputs, and whether or not policies favour mixed farming. No one set of actions is applicable to all situations. Mixed farming is an option for increasing agricultural productivity while ensuring environmental safety in the semiarid, subhumid and highland zones.Mixed farming is developing naturally in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa. At present economic levels livestock seem a viable alternative to manual labour and they help to replenish soil fertility and provide cash income for household needs. Production increases need to be rapid and sustainable and guarantee the well being of all. In order for this to be achieved political will and national commitment need to enact the required policy changes to intensify agriculture.Discussion focused on the likelihood and impact of intensification including competition for land and labour. New technologies were considered important in the intensification process although the poor past performance of \"technology transfer\" and the lack of research relevance were noted. There was no consensus that integration and intensification is the only way forward. It was pointed out that many arable farmers do not own animals and those who have do not necessarily have the incentive to integrate or commercialize. The need for characterizing integrated farming systems by various economic, environmental and social indicators was discussed.Mixed systems that include crops and livestock are widespread at all altitudes in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) on small and medium sized farms. On larger farms, as in the South American savannas, integration is becoming common despite traditional separation of crops and livestock.Major social, economic and environmental changes took place in the region in the last 20 years including stagnation or a fall in GDP, hyperinflation, acute fiscal deficits and large foreign debts. Population growth was more than two per cent per year. Macroeconomic adjustments to reduce market distortions and public deficits have been harsh in the short term. They have included removal of subsidies and caused lower production of staple foods, widespread unemployment and reduced social services. Public spending on agricultural research and support has decreased. Civil disturbance, organized violence and crime symbolize the period. Recent improvements in some countries have been offset by deterioration in others and international war returned to the region in 1995.Milk and beef are important in the Latin American diet. Overall average consumption of milk and meat per caput remained fairly static between 1976-1983 and 1984-1991 but more countries recorded decreases than increases in both products, especially in Central America and the Caribbean.Total milk production has increased by about two per cent per year since 1976 but has generally failed to keep up with population growth. Tropical LAC produced 88 per cent of its milk requirements during [1984][1985][1986][1987][1988][1989][1990][1991]. A deficit of nine million tonnes is predicted for the year 2000. Beef production has increased more rapidly than milk. Most expansion, however has been from increases in inventory as yields per head have remained fairly stable. The region has been a net exporter of beef over the last two decades but a shortfall of 356,000 tonnes is predicted by 2000.LAC has a privileged situation compared to other parts of the tropical world but has major problems of poverty and violence, declining standards of living and environmental degradation. Cattle have an important role in improving this situation and there is much current technology to do this. Yet progress has been slow and opportunities lost. A holistic, integrated concept of livestock production is the most important factor for harnessing resources and catalysing change. Once this is in place, policies conducive to the sustainable development of systems including livestock will be set more widely and appropriate research and training to serve the region's future needs can be undertaken.Discussion centred on what many participants obviously considered controversial matters introduced by the speaker. There was concern in particular about remarks that extension workers were not needed as farmers acted as their own extension agents as well as about the need to avoid continuing with farm surveys over long periods of time without achieving tangible results. The amount of information available and its accessibility and transfer were also major points of discussion.The relevance of integrated crop-animal systems is highlighted with reference to advantages, synergism and complementarily, economic benefits and sustainability. Illustrative cases of two broad types of mixed farming systems combining animals and annual cropping and systems combining animals with perennial cropping are presented.The economic importance of livestock in Asia is reflected in their contribution of 10 per cent of the total value of commodities, this figure being the highest of all the developing regions. The largest contribution within agroecological zones of 44.9 per cent is from the warm humid/subhumid tropics and subtropics, the arid and semiarid tropics with summer rainfall being next with 37.6 per cent.Increased investment in research in the rainfed warm humid/subhumid and arid/semiarid tropics is necessary together with strong multidisciplinary efforts to address the more complex problems associated with natural resource use and management in mixed systems. The potential benefits are directly associated with a more concerted role for animals, increased productivity from these zones and demonstration of environmentally sustainable mixed farming systems.Opportunities for research and development to overcome existing constraints are enormous and the contribution of animals can be greatly increased. Reorientation of programme focus and direction is necessary to achieve this, using multidisciplinary strengths in target agroecological zones. Holistic research on mixed systems has been weak and most past research has been on cropping systems. Inclusion of animals in systems research began only 10 years ago in some countries. Some progress has been made in the development of methodologies to understand the interactions between subsystems but much research has been sporadic and has not been tested on a large scale. Research needs in support of croplivestock-tree systems include baseline studies to quantify energy flows, simulation models to identify possible coefficient changes, field testing of interventions and new technology, and \"test marketing\" of proposed developments on typical subpopulations within the region.Better use of animal genetic resources is necessary to maximize productivity. Dairy production, for example, has received major attention in almost all countries and has had varying degrees of success but is hampered by yield-reducing environmental stresses, inadequate feed production and poor nutritional management, high capital costs, limited market size, low cost of competing imports and product perishability. Investment in these programmes has been enormous but returns are essentially short term and long term viability is very doubtful. An associated inability to sustain breeding and maintenance of crossbred animals is a further problem. Such massive use of resources has diverted attention from more balanced development and use of other species to increase protein production. Notable in this regard are beef cattle, swamp buffalo, goats, sheep and ducks. Many potentially important breeds have never been adequately used and many are destined for extinction.Feed is the principal constraint among the non-genetic factors affecting productivity. Ruminant feed resources are greatly underused. Better feed use is hampered by low animal numbers, inadequate intensification of the production system and poor technology delivery and use. The approach should be towards a balanced feed supply, with balanced energy/protein ratios and correction of critical deficiencies with low cost supplements. In areas where livestock are the basis of the economy and the production system is largely pastoral increased fodder production is necessary as are corrections to problems of mineral deficiencies. Research into these and other constraints provides a major challenge for rangeland ecology and national livestock production.Inadequate, inappropriate and inefficient technology use is a major limitation to increasedWorking groups were assigned three tasks:• Task One was to review changes that have taken place in the supply and demand for livestock products over the last 30 years. The analysis was to include directions in input use and resource management and degradation and identification of the factors underlying these changes, such as macroeconomic policies, institutional elements, trade, urbanization and population growth. The output was expected to contribute to a report on past and present directions in livestock productivity and consumption of livestock products as part of a forward looking 2020 vision paper to be produced later.• Task Two was to identify the key goals and opportunities for livestock development over the next 25 years by major agroecological zones and the major social, economic, environmental, technical, policy and institutional constraints to achieving these goals. The expected output was a clear statement of defined goals and opportunities for livestock development that could realistically be achieved by 2020 and a related description of the set of concerns and constraints that must be overcome for the goals to be achieved.• Task Three was to identify appropriate strategies for the goals identified in Task Two, including actions on-and off-farm at the national level, and at regional and international levels, in order to improve livestock production and the research and development implications of these actions. The temporal, spatial and social implications of these actions were to be indicated if possible. The expected output was a clear formulation of the measures required for achieving better management of the natural resource base to 2020.Task One: Sub-Saharan Africa General trends have been away from extensive and mobile range systems towards more intensive and sedentary small holder agropastoral and mixed farming systems. Some data are available on research and extension funding, human resource situations and levels of training but there is no political lobby or domestic constituency for long term agricultural research. Structural adjustment has improved the image and acceptance of policy research but associated budget cuts have had a negative effect. Link between research and extension are generally poor. Vocational training and farmer education require strengthening but a training needs assessment is required. With regard to resource management and degradation, it is not possible to identify trends until a workable definition of degradation is agreed. If soil nutrient depletion is a good criterion degradation on crop lands may be serious but it will be much less so on grazing lands. Awareness of natural resource management problems is improving. NGO interest is high but their effectiveness is unpredictable because they lack appropriate technical knowledge. In the field of policy, devaluation has a negative effect on high input, intensive, import dependent systems but favours those based on domestic natural resources. Anti-agricultural trade, marketing and exchange rate policies are changing and have already had an effect on trade. Badly conceived domestic sectoral and trade policies can offset the benefits of devaluation. Correlations between tenure reform and changes in agricultural output are weak and other constraints to better performance are more important than deficiencies in land laws.Livestock product supply is well below demand and the general trend is downwards. Most countries are net importers of livestock products. Socio-economic and development indicators show the share of GDP derived from agriculture to be good. Some countries, through policy instruments, are committed or attempting to implement structural adjustment programmes but others are resisting them. Rangeland tenure policies vary although there has been a general trend towards privatization. Most WANA countries have had politically motivated land reforms that have been variously effective. Production quotas remain for several critical crops but movement and sales controls are now being removed. The primary effect of irrigation is through fodder crop production and the use of crop residues. Credit availability has promoted livestock production. Extension services are weak in technology transfer and often act as state agricultural police but there are some signs of improvement. Expenditure on agricultural research is low in relation to GDP. Road and railway infrastructure is generally better in WANA than in sub-Saharan Africa. There are regional organizations and some potential for regional market integration but there is generally not much current activity.Development prospects over the next 25 years seem bleak without fundamental policy reform and technical innovation. The importance of small ruminants is likely to increase with increasing population pressure and declining farm size in the semiarid zone. There is potential for increased dairy production but appropriate policies are required. Fattening operations can be expected to develop where feed is available. There are prospects for expansion and intensification in the subhumid zone where cattle will take precedence over small ruminants but the output mix will depend on prices. Larger crop areas will have a negative impact on migratory livestock producers who will tend to settle. Tsetse flies will decline in importance as cultivation spreads and Bos indicus cattle will expand at the expense of trypanotolerant Bos taurus types. In the humid zone it is likely that crop-livestock integration will be limited to economic links but poultry and pig production will probably expand. The disease challenge is high but there is good potential if the considerable health and management problems can be overcome. The main consuming areas in the humid zone give it a comparative advantage for final fattening but there will be a need to control potential environmental pollution. There are possible resource degradation problems in parts of East Africa. Soils are better than in West Africa so nutrient depletion is less of a risk but slope and wind erosion may be problems. The bimodal rainfall pattern allows pastoralism to penetrate deep into relatively high rainfall areas. Subhumid lowlands in parts of East and Southern Africa have low population density and high potential if tsetse problems can be overcome. Root crops are expanding in these areas which may limit integration possibilities. There is potential for intensive livestock production for small scale pigs and poultry in Southern Africa in general. The highland areas can be considered as a series of subzones with different sets of advantages and problems. In the \"roots and beans\" highlands the demand for livestock products is limited by low purchasing power of consumers and continued civil strife is a problem. In the \"dairy\" highlands land is the scarcest production factor but further specialization in the vicinity of urban areas can be expected. Temperature is the limiting factor at high altitudes in the \"grain\" highlands where extensive sheep grazing predominates and prospects for more efficient production through fattening are good. Dairy production is likely to replace the oxen/cereal system at middle altitudes as farm sizes become smaller.The major causes of concern are security at the local level, especially between pastoralists and farmers over crop damage and competition for scarce resources, and civil war on a wider scale. Human health problems and weaknesses in the marketing system are additional problems. Concerns about animal welfare and the environment will assume increasing importance.A major general goal is to exploit the comparative advantage presented to livestock by crop residues and native pastures and the integration of forage crops, feed grains and agroindustrial by-products in livestock diets. Nutritional management of small ruminants should be improved to avoid feed wastage and to make better economic use of animal genetic potential. Expansion of meat, dairy and poultry production based on domestic and imported feed grains and agro-industrial by-products should take place where there is a comparative advantage in so doing. An institutional framework for the most appropriate management of rangelands is missing. Development prospects over the next 25 years are that West Asia and North Africa will continue to be the biggest importer of livestock and livestock products in the world and will be a major potential market for sub-Saharan Africa. There are prospects for intensifying existing mixed farming systems through the use of external feed resources and forage crops. Intensive horticulture may compete with intensive livestock production for capital and scarce natural resources. There is considerable potential for increased milk production if suitable policies are put in place. More intensive production will increase the absolute value of livestock output but livestock's contribution to GDP may show some decline. An area of concern is that there is no unused land and no possibility of horizontal expansion so increases in output must come through intensification and irrigation.In the low potential areas comprising the arid and part of the bimodal rainfall semiarid zones there is some need for development and employment of both existing and new technology but policy and institutional factors are of greater importance. All of the technology, policy and institutional spheres are in need of very strong support in the high potential areas of the semiarid and subhumid zones and that part of the highlands with good development opportunities where returns to investment should be very high. Highland areas with high population densities are considered to be of reasonably high potential deserving of strong support and returns to all of the technology, policy and institutional spheres should be reasonably high. There is little need for technology or institutional support for agribusiness but the policy area needs clarification.In the arid zones (< 200 mm) where range and pastoral mountain systems are dominant technology should focus on known techniques to arrest degradation and possibly to increase productivity. In the policy area there is need for clarification of property rights and establishment of appropriate communal or private management. There is typically weak institutional capacity at the national level and political and legal issues are not well understood. There is potential for social conflict in many countries. Partnerships between IARCs and NARS on strategic issues related to interactions between technology and policy are essential to the development of sustainable management.In the cereal-legume mixed farming semiarid zones with 200-450 mm annual precipitation the technology focus on introduction of legumes, especially forage legumes, has had limited success. Adoption rates for seed and fertilizer technology for barley production have been low. Sheep are the key enterprise on many farms. The main focus should be on economic integration for optimal nutritional management of small ruminants. Policy must focus on integration of cereals and legumes with small ruminants. Strategic research is needed on price-subsidy relations, structural adjustment, comparative advantage and factor availability. The institutional capacity of NARS must be strengthened and governments must increase funding to research. The effort devoted to management and nutrition of small ruminants should be increased to bring it in better balance with existing efforts on animal breeding and veterinary services. IARCs must work together on policy, trade, price and factor issues to balance long term strategies against social disfunctions due to sudden policy changes.The subhumid zones where precipitation is in the range 450-1200 mm have considerable diversity with emphasis on winter wheat, horticulture and industrial crops and intensive dairy, feedlot and poultry enterprises. Long term technology issues relate partly to the management, scarcity and competition for water and potential pollution of the environment by agroindustries and feedlots. Current technology and knowledge is adequate for short term management of resources through NARS. There appears to be no major need for IARC involvement. There is a need for greater policy emphasis on strategic issues affecting resource use, inputs, import and export issues and markets for horticultural products. The scope for integrating crops and livestock within and across ecozones and within existing land use patterns must be further defined. Institutional needs relate to integration of livestock with crops and rangeland, inadequate links between research and extension for technology transfer and feedback to policy, development of effective mechanisms for people participation in improved range production, encouragement of appropriate privatization of services, consideration of who should do strategic research on major animal diseases, seed deficits, and macroeconomic distortion.Cold winters and transhumant livestock compound technology problems in the highland zones. Integration with the rest of the region to assist trade and poor infrastructure in remote areas are policy domain concerns. Low literacy and poor technology uptake are among the institutional problems.The three major agroecological zones are the humid and subhumid, arid and semiarid and highland zones. Analysis of trends over recent years and expectations and identification of opportunities indicated that investment in livestock research and development has been falling in Southeast Asia but the current rate of decline is expected to slow down. Human populations will rise rapidly but this will be accompanied by an increase in average incomes. The rapid increase in crop area should not continue and a change to oil palm, rubber and citrus fruit tree crops may reduce the total crop area early in the 21st century. Increases in livestock numbers will mainly be in pigs and poultry.The initial emphasis was on opportunities, constraints affecting them and supporting research and development strategies in order to define broad priority research spheres. Six major research areas were identified within which specific issues were further indicated. These, ranked in order of importance, are feeds, systems, genetics, policy, socio-economics, and health policy. Within each research area the magnitude of a particular constraint was further identified.In the humid and subhumid zones feed use requires more research than conservation or production. Capacity is lacking in systems research and has the highest priority with methodology being next, followed by environment, watershed management and dynamics. There is only low priority for research on plant and animal genetic resources. Domestic policy requires average resource inputs as does scenario development in the socio-economics area. Community development in the socio-economics area demands few resources in all three agroecological zones as does health policy.In the arid and semiarid zones most emphasis is needed on feed production and animal movement in systems research. Average resources should be directed to feed utilization, systems dynamics and methodology, animal genetic resources and socio-economic scenarios. Relatively little support is needed for systems environments and research capacity, plant genetic resources and domestic policy.In the highlands high priority is needed for feed production and animal movement in the systems area. Conservation and use of feeds is of medium priority as are systems dynamics, watershed management and methodology. Domestic policy and socio-economic scenarios should also receive average priority. Least use of resources is demanded by environmental research and research capacity in the systems area and by animal and plant genetic resources.Development must be a partner in research. If both research and development efforts focus on defined problems the outcomes for low income farmers and livestock herders are likely to be significant increases in productivity. The development focus should be on lowland rainfed systems. The core themes could be community development to encourage local groups to improve the productivity of the resources they manage, applied research and technology transfer with a view to substantially improving linkages between research and extension, increasing the efficiency of extension and adapting strategic research findings to local conditions, and price policy so that the probability of adoption of general recommendations arising from pure policy research is high. Links between research and extension could be further strengthened by setting firm time specific targets. Field rather than station research might be an important element in the pursuit of such targets.The efficiency of many research and extension programmes is low. Attention should thus be given to the development of indicators of effectiveness so that there will be faster transfer of potential benefits at less cost. A parallel problem is lack of awareness of emerging research technologies and methodologies among scientists working on core problems, particularly in the suggested focus on the development of systems thinking and integrated systems. A third aspect is the need for a forum to bring together research and development specialists to develop, for Asia or by theme, draft proposals, act as a coordinating body, and evaluate and/or supervise projects where this is appropriate. In all these developments maximum use should be made of existing bodies and structures.Indicators selected for this task relate to demography, macro and trade policies, consumption, imports, exports, inflation, land availability and use, income, impact of attitude to adoption of new technology, trends in production systems, product yields and offtake rates, input sales for livestock, importance of livestock products in diets and elasticities of demand, structural adjustment programmes leading to opening of markets, and regional and international trade agreements. The human population is about 450 million of whom more than 50 per cent live in urban areas. Cultivated land is equivalent to 0.43 ha/caput and grazing land to 1.27 ha/caput, both these being considerably higher than the average for all developing regions. Crop and livestock output per caput is also relatively high, the latter being more than two and a half times that of low income countries as a whole.Milk production increased by 23 per cent from 1985 to 1990 but was mostly from more animals and not from higher production per animal. Beef production is 13.9 per cent of world output. As for milk, production increases are mainly from horizontal expansion and not from animal productivity increases. Horizontal expansion results in cattle gradually being displaced to more marginal land.There is extremely rapid urbanization and the rural population declined from 50-60 per cent in various countries of the region in 1960 to 10-40 per cent in 1990. Milk production has not kept pace with demand and urban growth. Meat production exceeds local demand and allows considerable exports but regional consumption per caput shows a downward trend. Low land prices allow production systems to remain extensive in nature and there is little pressure to intensify in many areas. Price policies have focused on urban consumers and this has been assisted by subsidized prices of imports from the European Union. Prices paid to consumers have remained low.Priority areas are the humid, subhumid and semiarid lowlands and the highland agroecozones. The goal is the sustainable improvement of the welfare of people and the environment, which can be described as ecosystem health. The main purposes in achieving ecosystem health are to optimize the contribution of livestock to the national economy and welfare, increase livestock productivity, and maintain or enhance the natural resources and biodiversity in the context of livestock production systems. Each purpose has an accompanying set of outputs and these in turn are achieved by a group of activities. Outputs expected from optimized livestock contributions are improved farm income and better rural development, improved health and welfare of the rural and urban poor, improved livestock markets and better conditions for research on crop/livestock systems. Optimized feeding strategies, improved animal health, selected and appropriate species and breeds, an improved understanding of the role of livestock in mixed farming systems, better training and education programmes and improved product quality and processing methods are the outputs expected from the increased livestock productivity purpose. Maintained or enhanced natural resources and biodiversity are expected to result in improved soil fertility, stabilization of hillsides and reduced erosion, and reduced deforestation and smaller areas of slash and burn agriculture.The discussion centred largely on points requiring clarification in the presentations by the three working groups. General comments covered the costly and not very successful farming systems approach in sub-Saharan Africa but it was felt that this criticism of on-farm research was probably premature as the real objectives and problem definitions were not sharp enough and lead to the collection of costly and unnecessary data that were not analyzed or, if they were, contributed little to the removal of the ill-defined constraints. A further comment on research failure related to the lack of a genuine needs assessment of rural farmers, insufficient attention being paid to an ecosystem approach and the hierarchy of nested ecosystems that comprise the animal production system.It was also considered that widespread support for helping people in low income countries through livestock development needed some institutional structure based on sustained allocation of funds and manpower. There was also considered to be a need for a mechanism that takes into account the concerns of the public, interest groups and policy makers in developed countries and that a global forum, a secretariat, a policy network and a \"2020 vision for livestock\" would be complementary activities in this mechanism. Attention was also drawn to the fact that publicizing the role of livestock and promoting policy research would cost money. Funding might have to be a consortium effort.Finally, policy was highlighted as important but it was accepted that this is swayed by politics, external funding, resource allocation, interest lobbies and many other factors. Livestock were considered to make a major yet still undervalued contribution to development. The answers coming out of this meeting and the constraints and opportunities identified must be exploited for the benefit of livestock development and the welfare of the world's people.The main point arising from the Roundtable is that the welfare of small farmers and herdersand not of livestock -is the goal. Livestock research and development must turn the goal into reality. Livestock's case must therefore be presented to show that improved production will not adversely affect opportunities to feed people, maintain environmental quality and conserve genetic resources.The new vision places livestock in a production and an ecological system. There are immense opportunities to improve producer and consumer welfare by further integration of crops and livestock into truly mixed systems. This new system thinking presents a challenge. Experts in systems analysis and modelling need to be brought into livestock research fora. A critical factor for further progress will be a clear articulation of the role of livestock in advancing human development.Understanding of the consequences of continuing with the status quo versus the pursuit of visionary but realistic alternatives must be developed as part of the process. A capacity to create development scenarios and policy alternatives has been identified as a need, requiring the blending of Global Information Systems and modelling with policy analysis techniques. The resultant framework should show where livestock can make a difference. It could form the basis of a set of research and policy decision support systems for use by international, national and local organizations.Progress in the development of realistic scenarios needs to be supported by research on indicators of performance -ecosystem health -so that the models can be simple and persuasive. Research on indicators will also be useful in clarifying the relations between livestock and the environment.One of the greatest openings for progress lies in the identification of opportunities to improve livestock policy and the institutional arrangements that influence livestock management and investment strategies. Land tenure arrangements, for example, can give investment security and facilitate joint management of resources. New price and regional trade policies would do much to improve overall welfare and reduce land degradation. As some reforms would bring about significant structural adjustment it is important that the most effective order or sequence for implementing change is identified. Simple generalized recommendations that fail to clarify the impact of change are insufficient and only serve to discredit livestock research.Past research agendas have failed to involve local farmers. Isolated behind field station gates much research has seemed, and on examination has proved, to be irrelevant. Research projects that focus on problems that are not relevant to farmers' needs risk failure. The alternative is a research environment that creates a seamless link between resource use, people, development, extension and research. Development projects can be modified to provide the adaptive platforms necessary for effective research. Animal breeding trials and forage utilization trials can be carried out on farms.The search for new research mechanisms suggests a parallel need for research on ways to encourage local communities to solve their own problems, to form their own organizations and, even, to commission research. Overall the vision is one that is output and product focused with people at the centre. Problem recognition, firm product targets, clear hypotheses, system thinking, policy relevance and small farmer welfare provide focus for that vision.The livestock roundtable concluded its meeting with optimism and purpose. In particular, it felt that the new vision of livestock research and development working in partnership must result in the development of an action plan. It resolved unanimously:• that senior representatives from FAO and ILRI meet before May 1995 to form a Livestock Research and Development Forum with a charter to • coordinate livestock related research and development across the developing world,• identify opportunities to create synergies between development and research by, for example, targeting work in the same region and designing projects so that they can be used for complementary research and development purposes,• ensure that research conclusions are incorporated into development proposals as soon as possible,• act as a clearing house for information about livestock development and research proposals,• facilitate the refinement of draft project plans by means of appropriately constructed working groups,• endorse integrated development/research plans for submission to donors,• promote livestock's image in development and the potential for research on livestock production and resource conservation to enhance their positive contribution to sustainable development, and  The Roundtable on Livestock Development Strategies for Low Income Food Deficit Countries was a joint undertaking between the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Livestock Research Institute 1 . The initiative originated from informal discussions between staff of the Animal Production and Health Division (AGA) of the Agricultural Department of FAO and ILCA (as it was then) personnel. A tentative programme and speakers were then decided and FAO provided funds under a Letter of Agreement for ILRI to undertake all the practical arrangements, including providing international travel for participants. FAO provided, in addition, the services of an experienced writer and resource person for compiling and editing the Proceedings.The preparatory work was undertaken by the ILRI Organizing Group. They are to be congratulated for their courage in deciding that it should directly follow the inaugural Board meeting of the new institution now known as the International Livestock Research Institute which combines the infrastructure and human and technical resources of the two previously independent centres, the International Livestock Centre for Africa and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases. This brave decision enabled board members to contribute to the Roundtable: some as main speakers; others as moderators; and all as active participators. The presence of board members and renowned experts with vast experience in livestock development from Asia, Africa, the Americas, Australia and Europe acting as speakers and resource persons greatly increases the chances that the recommendations will be rapidly adopted by the international community. This is especially important for the time is opportune, with attention focused on the newly established ILRI, to put livestock back on the world stage where they rightfully belong. It is also important that the recommendations and rationale for development arising from the Roundtable reach the widest possible audience of policy and decision makers. The rapid appearance of these Proceedings is an attempt to facilitate this process.It is hoped that this Roundtable will mark the beginning of a period of greater cooperation between FAO and ILRI and with all the institutions and organizations represented. It should also result in a more rational and efficient use of scarce resources. An earlier Consultation hosted by ILRI in January 1995 to discuss A Global Agenda for Livestock Research complements this Roundtable (see Annex I). A further companion meeting organized jointly by FAO/WAAP will take place in May 1995 in Korea to discuss issues relating to the supply side of livestock products, especially to urban consumers (see Annex II).In January 1994, the newly appointed Director General of FAO initiated a major restructuring of the whole organization and its programme. Food security and sustainable agricultural development were chosen as the main development objectives of the Food and Agriculture Organization, with particular emphasis being given to Low Income Food Deficit Countries.This was an opportunity for AGA to assess both the structure and focus of its own work critically. An internal informal Working Group of six professional staff undertook an assessment of the old programme and produced a proposal for a newly structured programme more responsive to FAO's new initiatives and their implementation.The exercise was a truly \"preparatory process\" that included almost continuous discussion and interaction among staff. The timing was critical as the results needed to be included in the Programme of Work and Budget for the 1996-1997 biennium Two major documents were produced as a consequence of the internal review:• Final Report of the Working Group on \"Restructuring of the AGA Livestock Programme\"; and• an AGA Staff Working Paper \"Livestock: A Driving Force for Food Security and Sustainable Development\" 2 After much discussion a general consensus was reached on all important issues and AGA will have a new programme for the 1996-1997 biennium. This will be based on an integrated systems approach rather than the former structure which has been based on the classic focus by technical discipline. The six subprogrammes of the new Programme will be:• information systems, policy and planning; • periurban systems;• mixed farming systems • pastoral and extensive grazing systems; • animal genetic resources; and • transboundary animal diseases.Cross-disciplinary Task Forces rather than individual specialists will be responsible for planning and implementing subprogramme elements and activities. Development issues in each subprogramme will be treated on-farm, off-farm, nationally and globally. On-farm problems of livestock development will be approached in an agroecoregional framework.More detailed programming of the technical elements and activities of the internal planning cycle has not yet started. The outcome and recommendations of this Roundtable will be particularly relevant for there exists a realistic opportunity to adopt them, at least in part, into AGA's Regular Programme for the next biennium and into ILRI's new global focus.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) came into being as a new institute on 1 January 1995 3 . ILRI is an amalgam of the former International Livestock Centre for Africa, based in Ethiopia but with several field stations in the various agroecological zones of Africa, and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases, which had its headquarters in Kenya. The concept, status and mandate of the new centre result from early recommendations by the Technical Advisory Committee of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research followed by long discussions and decisions by high level Task Forces and committees with members drawn from several disciplines and from all corners of the globe.3 This sections draws on the Welcome Address given on behalf of ILRI by Hank Fitzhugh ILRI continues the work of its two contributing institutions and can draw on two times twenty years of accumulated experience 4 of animal health research on the one hand and of biological, agroecological and socio-economic research on the other. ILRI has a global mandate to:• improve animal performance through generating technology and conservation of animal (and plant) genetic resources;• improve and sustain production systems;• improve the technical and economic performance of the livestock sector; and• transfer technology and information to national programmes and institutions. 4 For more details of the work done by the two founding institutes see their various Annual Reports and Programme Highlights. In particular see: ILCA 1994\"Twenty years of livestock research, 1974-1994\";and ILRAD 1992 \"Meeting the challenge of livestock diseases, ILRAD moves towards the 21st Century\". New programmes will complement the major thrusts inherited from the founding institutions. The new programmes are still being developed in detail but are likely to include some or all of:• Conservation and use of biodiversity• animal genetic resources • plant genetic resources• Production systems and resource management• system modelling and impact assessment • system analysis in ecoregions• use of feed resources and rumen ecology• Livestock policy analysis In addition to ILRI, centres in the CGIAR system that have livestock or related programmes include CIAT, ICARDA, ICRAF and IFPRI. The CGIAR system is currently working on a \"Systemwide Livestock Initiative\" that is intended to harmonize the approach to livestock by the various centres. As the only specialist centre on livestock in the system ILRI is coordinating the SLI document for the Technical Advisory Committee.The primary objectives 5 of the Roundtable were to:• provide a forum for senior livestock scientists and developers for the exchange of views and experiences; and• raise the level of awareness of a far wider and influential audience with regard to the potential and the constraints facing animal agriculture in low income countries.The immediate objectives of the Roundtable were to:• review the contribution and potential of livestock to increase sustainable food production, and contribute to income generation in low income countries with a forward perspective to 2020 (\"The Global 2020 Vision for Livestock\");• identify major social, economic, technical and institutional constraints limiting livestock's contribution to achieving food security and economic development; and• define appropriate strategies to alleviate these constraints and propose a framework for international action to enhance animal productivity in its broadest sense.The expected outputs of the Roundtable were:• an analysis of past and present trends in livestock productivity and consumption of livestock products which would be used in part as an input to a \"2020 Vision\" paper to be further developed after the meeting;• a statement of a defined set of objectives within the time frame specified and a related description of the constraints that must be overcome for the objectives to be achieved; and• formulation of the set of measures (\"a framework for action\") or strategies needed for increasing livestock productivity in low income countries and securing better management of the natural resource base from the present to the end of the second decade of the 21st century.The meaning and scope of food security Livestock and food supply Livestock as a source of income Livestock as generators of employment Livestock as suppliers of inputs and services for crop production Livestock production, resource management and environmental degradation Trends and projections in food production Conclusions ReferencesBetween 1960 and 1990 the world's human population increased by 75 per cent from 3.1 billion to 5.4 billion but developing country populations increased by 97 per cent from 2.097 billion to 4.138 billion (FAO, 1992). Food grain production per caput during the same period increased from 310 to 375 kg overall but from 190 to 260 kg in developing countries. In the late 1970s, 45 developing countries were unable to assure adequate food energy needs of 2200 calories per person per day for their populations and 25 of these countries were still in the same position in the late 1980s (Pinstrup-Andersen, 1994). There are now 800 million people suffering from malnutrition and hunger, not only due to insufficient production and inadequate distribution but also because the poor lack the income to acquire food of adequate quantity and quality to satisfy their needs (FAO, 1993a).The world population is projected to increase from 5.4 billion in 1990 to about 7.2 billion in 2010. This increase will occur mainly in the developing countries and in urban areas and will have major effects on patterns of food production, marketing and consumption. Strategies are needed to ensure food security for the growing population, to increase income, to support economic development, and to protect the environment.Livestock production is a major component of the agricultural economy of developing countries and goes well beyond direct food production. Sales of livestock and their products provide direct cash income to farmers. Livestock are the living bank for many farmers and have a critical role in the agricultural intensification process through provision of draught power and manure for fertilizer and fuel. They are also closely linked to the social and cultural lives of millions of resource-poor farmers for whom animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable farming and economic stability. Official statistics often underestimate the overall contribution of livestock and especially their multipurpose contributions to food and agricultural production in developing countries. This paper considers both direct and indirect contributions of livestock to food security and sustainable development in the developing countries.The meaning of food security has evolved since the first World Food Conference of 1974. It is now accepted that it relates to access by all people at all times to enough food for an active healthy life (Reuntlinger, 1985;World Bank, 1986;FAO, 1989) but the concept is used differently at different levels.At regional and national level it is equated with national or regional balances, i.e. between availability and need based on assumed per caput need. At household level, food security is equated with sufficiency of household entitlements -that bundle of food production resources, income available for purchases, and gift or assistance sufficient to meet the aggregate needs of all household members. Achieving food security in this case is largely determined by an assumption of minimum nutritional need. Security at the level of the individual is rarely, if ever, considered (Chen and Kates, 1994).Irrespective of the reference level, food balance is now considered an inadequate criterion for food security because availability may not guarantee access due to poor distribution or lack of purchasing power. There are many examples of coexistence of aggregate food self-sufficiency and widespread malnutrition and hunger. Food security is therefore defined by a combination of criteria that are not mutually exclusive (Chen and Kates, 1994), as:• balance between availability and need;• absence of famine or temporary food insecurity;• seasonal or chronic undernutrition;• micronutrient deficiency, especially iron, iodine and Vitamin A; and • nutrient-depleting illness such as malaria, diarrhoea and internal parasites.In theoretical and empirical literature food security is defined with reference to food grains. This is especially misleading for societies where roots and tubers are major sources of food and income and for mainly pastoral or livestock-based societies where livestock products are important sources of food and income (Anon, 1989). For example, foods other than cereals supply 40 per cent of total food energy for half of the sub-Saharan African population with the highest risk of food insecurity (FAO, 1993b).In this paper, the potential contribution of livestock to food security and economic development is assessed in relation to other functions. Exclusion of livestock is inappropriate because individual and household food security depends on access to assets, work and assured income. Livestock may contribute to food security through increased output of livestock and non-livestock products and by employment and income generation that may assure access to food.If food security is defined as \"...access to enough food for an active healthy life\" livestock can make a major contribution. An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food is a primary indicator of quality of life, human welfare and development. Animals are an important source of food, particularly of high quality protein, minerals, vitamins and micronutrients. The value of dietary animal protein is in excess of its proportion in diets because it contains essential amino acids that are deficient in cereals. Eating even a small amount of animal products corrects amino acid deficiencies in cereal-based human diets, permitting more of the total protein to be utilized because animal proteins are more digestible and metabolized more efficiently than plant proteins (Winrock, 1992, De Boer et al, 1994). \"Quality foods ... derived from animal sources have major importance for optimizing human performance in chronically mild to moderately malnourished populations\" (Diaz-Briquets et al, 1992). This is especially important for young children.In 1990, per caput consumption of meat, milk and fish in developing countries was 22, 18 and 33 per cent of that in developed countries (Table 1). Between 1962 and 1987, consumption of energy, protein and fats from livestock products increased 23 times faster in developing than developed countries (Table 2). Yet absolute levels of consumption of these nutrients in 1987 were nearly five times higher in developed than in developing countries.  Source: FAO, 1992 Developed countries increased already high levels of consumption through slower population growth and rapid increases in livestock productivity by use of improved technology. Developing countries failed to bridge the gap in consumption in spite of a much more rapid increase in all categories of livestock (Table 3). In order to meet increased demand, developing countries imported increasing quantities of animal products, particularly dairy products (Figure 1a). There is a balance in aggregate imports and exports of meat (Figure 1b) but exports are primarily from a few developed countries while many developing countries are importers. Source: FAO, 1992. First, many poor small holders will have direct access to more food of livestock origin.Second, increased production will keep livestock product prices down and allow low income groups access to such food. Producers should gain in the face of lower prices because livestock products are both price and income elastic, so lower prices should increase demand, total production and farm revenue. In many countries, low income people suffer more from energy than they do from protein deficiency. Increased production and low prices may allow consumers on low incomes to increase consumption of livestock products and help overcome the energy-protein deficiency simultaneously (Lipton, 1988).Third, increased domestic production will reduce imports and save foreign exchange which can then be diverted to productive investment and indirectly contribute to food security. Some countries generate revenue by taxing imported goods including animal products. Taxing increased income from domestic production may serve the same purpose.Animal products are a source of disposable income for many small farmers in developing countries. In fact, livestock are often the most important cash crop in many small holder mixed farming systems. Disposable income is important for purchase of agricultural inputs and other family needs.The first five of 45 ranked agricultural commodities in developing regions are rice, milk, wheat, beef/buffalo meat and pig meat. Eggs, poultry meat and sheep/goat meat rank 9, 20 and 21 (FAO quoted in TAC/CGIAR, 1992). On a global basis meat, milk, eggs and fibre together contribute about 40 per cent of the total value of crop (excluding trees) and livestock (excluding fish) production. The proportion is about 50 per cent in developed areas and 25 per cent in developing regions (USDA, 1990, quoted in Fitzhugh, 1993). If trees and fish are included in the definition livestock account for 19 per cent of all agricultural commodities in the developing regions as a whole but the share is up to 25 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean and West Asia and North Africa (Table 4). These figures do not include the values of draught power and manure, and the contribution from equines, camels, yak and other minor livestock species. Adding these would further increase the proportional contribution of livestock in developing regions. In sub-Saharan Africa including non-food products and services would increase livestock's contribution by 50 per cent (Winrock, 1992). Source: FAO quoted in TAC/CGIAR (1992).At farm level, the importance of livestock as an income source and the actual sources of income vary across ecological zones and production systems, which in turn determines the species raised and the products and services generated. Cash can be generated from sales of livestock products regularly (milk, eggs) or sporadically (live animals, wool, meat, hides) or from services (draught, transport). Dairy produce is the most regular income generator. Dairy development has been shown to increase income, consumption and repayment capacity in India (Kulkarni et al, 1989;Saini et al, 1989).In densely populated Bangladesh, cattle fulfil multiple roles in generating income and ensuring food security. A survey in a periurban area and a remote village showed average land holdings in the former to be half of the latter but average cattle holdings were only marginally lower (Table 5). In the remote village 78 per cent of cows were dual purpose compared to 48 per cent in the periurban area. Average milk yield of draught cows was about 60 per cent of non-draught ones, yet farmers used cows as they did not have enough cash to buy bullocks nor enough feed to maintain both bullocks and cows. Source: Jabbar and Ali, 1988.Crop production of such farmers would suffer without using cows for draught. About 77 per cent of households in both the villages sold part or all of the milk output to supplement income from crop and other sources. A higher proportion of households in the periurban village sold all their milk indicating that a high value nutritious food was given up to meet other family needs (Jabber and Ali, 1988).The importance of livestock as a source of income for poor farmers in Bangladesh is illustrated by the fact that the Grameen Bank, which assists the \"poorest of the poor\", provides nearly 50 per cent of its loans for the purchase of livestock, mainly large ruminants for milk production and fattening for sale (Hossain, 1988).In small holder crop-livestock systems in the Ethiopian highlands livestock accounted for 34-87 per cent of total cash income from crops and livestock. Crops are more often a subsistence enterprise. The livestock share in cash income was higher in those villages where total cash income was higher indicating that increased cash income came primarily from livestock (Gryseels, 1988;Asamenew, 1991;Omiti, 1995). In semiarid Mali, livestock contributed 78 per cent of cash income from crops and livestock on small holder mixed farms (Debrah and Sissoko, 1990). In both Ethiopia and Mali, a major part of livestock cash income was spent on food and medicines. In some crop-livestock systems, such as in semiarid areas of Botswana, self-sufficiency in food crop production may not be a major goal. Most food crops may be purchased by income generated by livestock. In a similar environment in a different place, as in northern Nigeria, farmers may place heavy emphasis on self-sufficiency in food crop production because food grain supplies cannot be reliably obtained through the market (Norman et al, 1988).In many societies, women have specific family responsibilities and ownership of livestock and access to livestock products for sale helps them in these functions. In southern Nigeria 41 one per cent of 5460 sales of small ruminants in four village markets over a period of 14 months were by women. Although both male and female sellers sold primarily for cash needs (55 per cent of sales), cash needs for buying food and clothing were a more prominent reason for sale by women (Jabbar, 1995).Livestock give increased economic stability to farm households, acting as a cash buffer (small stock), a capital reserve (large animals) and as a hedge against inflation. In mixed farming systems, livestock reduce the risk through diversification of production and income sources and there is therefore a much greater ability to deal with seasonal crop failures and other natural calamities. Livestock represent liquid assets which can be realized at any time, adding further stability to the production system.Increased production implies higher employment. Dairying is labour intensive at farm level and women are active in production and marketing. Labour typically amounts to over 40 per cent of total costs in small harder systems. It is estimated that each 610 kg per day of additional milk processed in India adds one man-day for feeding and care. In Kenya small holder systems, processing of 25 kg adds one man-day and similar levels were seen on parastatal dairy farms in Zimbabwe. Goats, sheep, poultry and rabbits, and especially from backyard production systems, are an important source of part-time work, particularly for landless women and children.The processing sector has also been identified as a focus for generating employment and limiting rural depopulation. Small scale milk processing and marketing is labour intensive (50-100 kg per workday) and generates employment (and income) from local manufacture of at least part of the equipment used. The meat sector also provides employment for slaughter, marketing and processing (Table 6). Source: FAO, unpublished dataBovines, equines, Camelidae and elephants are used in draught operations as diverse as pulling arable implements and carts, lifting water and skidding logs. The number of animals used for draught is estimated at 400 million. About 52 per cent of the cultivated area in developing countries (excluding China) is farmed using draught animals against 26 per cent with hand-tools (Figure 2). During the past ten years there has been a 23 per cent increase in the numbers of cattle and buffalo used for draught as well as meat and milk production. At the same time the number of equines used primarily for draught and transport has not significantly changed.It is expected that draught animal use will decline slightly by the year 2000 in all regions except Africa. In Latin America and the Near East, tractor use will increase slightly while use of human power will increase slightly in Asia (Alexandratos, 1988). In areas such as semiarid and subhumid West Africa, where crop-livestock mixed farming is evolving and expanding, increased use of animal traction will help intensification and contribute to higher output and income (McIntire et al, 1992) and therefore to greater food security. In the 1960s and 1970s, rapid urban and coastal economic growth encouraged migration from the Sahel and increased the opportunity cost of using cattle for traction. In recent years, however, this cost has been decreasing due to coastal economic stagnation and it is likely that the situation is now more conducive to development of mixed farming and increased use of traction in the inland countries (Delgado, 1989).At farm level, draught animal ownership patterns have implications for food production and security. There are positive correlations between draught animals and cereal crop production (Gryseels, 1988;Omiti, 1995). In many developing countries ownership is skewed. Many small and marginal farmers own none or an inadequate number of traction animals (BBS, 1986;Gryseels, 1988;Asamenew, 1991). Crop production of these farmers suffers due to late planting, poor quality tillage, use of low value crops needing less tillage and an inability to cultivate all available land. These problems may be aggravated after natural calamities such as flood or drought due to death or poor health of animals and increased draught animal prices (Jabber, 1990).Draught power economics are improved if one animal is used instead of two and if a cow is used instead of a male. This strategy reduces the cost of maintaining the larger herd necessary to satisfy replacements and milk production. Draught cows need, however, to be given additional feed if milk production and reproduction are not to be affected.Nutrient recycling is an essential part of any strategy for sustainable agriculture. Integration of livestock and crops allows for efficient recycling through use of crop residues and by-products as animal feeds and for animal manure as crop fertilizer. Cattle dung contains about 8 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of phosphate and 16 kg of potash per tonne of dry matter (Ange, 1994). In addition, manure returns organic matter to the soil, helping to maintain its structure as well as its water retention and drainage capacities Throughout the developing world, manure is the primary source of plant nutrients for traditional rainfed crops. Chemical fertilizers are expensive and applied mainly to high yielding varieties especially in irrigated conditions. A massive currency devaluation in the West and Central African Francophone countries in 1993 increased prices of fertilizers so much that farmers responded by applying more manure, by making compost in a systematic manner and by developing a market for manure (Sanders et al, 1995).In areas where crop-livestock mixed farming is emerging manure is an important link. Manure is of paramount importance in these areas because most soils are fragile and of low inherent fertility. Only a small fraction of crop land receives adequate manure, however, and availability in a given year depends on the livestock population arid its species composition, location at manuring time, feed supply from range and crop land and efficiency of manure collection. Since crop and livestock production are not yet integrated on a wide scale, there is considerable loss of nutrients in the process of transfer from range-based livestock to crop fields. Nutrient flow may be further affected by drought-induced changes in livestock populations, species composition and animal mobility. For these reasons, it has been estimated that, in present production systems, animal manure is not adequate to sustain the current level of crop production in the semiarid areas because it requires a very high pasture area per unit of crop area (Fernandez-Rivera et al, 1994;McIntire andPowell, 1994: Williams et al, 1994).This is probably an interim problem because population pressure and market conditions will drive intensification in the future and crops and livestock will be more integrated. Loss of manure will then be minimized as it becomes critical for sustaining soil productivity. It has also been suggested that efficiency of manure use can be increased by joint application of manure and fertilizer and manipulation of the relative amounts and times of application of manure (Brouwer and Powell, 1994;Murwira et al, 1994). Improved feeding, such as using ureatreated straw, improves manure quality which in turn gives higher crop yields. It is recognized, however, that achieving higher productivity in agriculture will require increased use of chemical fertilizers.In many countries dung is valued as fuel for cooking and heating and for reducing expenditure for fuel wood or fossil fuels. It represents the major fuel for household use by millions of farmers in Asia and Africa and in parts of the Near East and Latin America. In India, 300 million tonnes of dung are used for fuel every year. The collection and drying of dung for cooking generates income for women. It is also used as plaster and as a building material.In an historical context, use of dung as fuel is a recent phenomenon prompted mainly by scarcity of fuel wood and represents a loss to plant nutrition. An individual household in a given situation tries, however, to maximise its use by allocations between manure and fuel and by taking into account the trade-off between the two. Unless chemical fertilizer can adequately compensate the use of dung for other purposes, this competition may negatively affect food production and food security in some situations. Biogas production may be a viable alternative to reduce competition between fuel and manure use.Biogas from manure is an excellent substitute for fossil fuel or fire wood. The best sources for these purposes are (in descending order) pigs, cattle, horse, camel, poultry (Kumar and Bisas, 1982). About 1 m 3 of gas is produced from 25 kg of fresh cattle dung. Simple low-cost plastic biodigesters have recently been developed by a number of FAO/TCP projects, for example in Cambodia, Tanzania and Vietnam. Biogas production on the farm reduces the workload of women by eliminating wood collection or the purchase of fuel. It is woman-friendly because of convenience, increased hygiene and the supply of services such as lighting, warm water and heating. Biogas can also be used to drive machinery such as water pumps.Effluent from biodigesters can be recycled as fertilizer, with even better results than the original manure (Talukder et al. 1988), as a fish feed, or to grow azolla and duckweed. Biodigestion has positive public health aspects, particularly where toilets are coupled with the biodigester, and the anaerobic conditions kill pathogenic organisms as well as digesting toxins such as botulinum. Biogas from dung has also been used in China (Zhin and Pan, 1983) to control insects in stored grains, using the anaerobic reaction, without adverse effects on grain germination. Biogas technology is being successfully adopted by millions of farmers -about 25 million people use it in China alone -in developing countries (Marchaim, 1992).Livestock, particularly sheep, are efficient in controlling weeds and thus help to increase crop production. They are used in many countries in the Mediterranean basin to reduce forest undergrowth in order to reduce fire risk during summer. In Malaysia, it has been shown that, in rubber and oil palm plantations, the use of livestock on the ground cover under the tree canopy increases overall production and can save up to 40 per cent of the cost of weed control (Chen et al, 1988). Sheep have also been used to control weeds in sugar cane fields in Colombia (Carta Asolucerna, 1993), lowering the cost of herbicides, reducing by half the total cost of weed control and providing an additional income from meat production. Such systems also safeguard the environment and avoid chemical pollution while supplying additional organic material to the soil.Manure can be a valuable source of feed for other animal species and poultry manure is commonly used for ruminant feeding. Poultry and pig manure can also be used to generate algae as a feed for fish.By-products such as slaughterhouse wastes, when adequately processed, are useful protein (offals and viscera) and mineral (bones) supplements in animal feeds. Household wastes are commonly fed to pigs and small animals in backyard systems in developing countries. In urban and periurban areas, restaurant and catering wastes can easily be processed for pigs.Industrial fish waste creates pollution around canning plants. It is usual to dry it, at very high cost, for fish meal for export to developed countries. Preservation of fish waste in molasses for feeding has been shown to be technically and economically feasible for use by poor farmers.In recent years, the importance of animals as an efficient and economic means of food production has been challenged, as have their effects on the environment. These concerns are predicated on a number of issues, prominent among which are:• competition with alternative land use, and between using cereals (and some roots and tubers) as animal feeds or directly for human consumption (Durning, 1991;Durning and Brough, 1991);• resource degradation and environmental damage caused by deforestation, overgrazing and pollution (Durning, 1991;Rifkin, 1992;Earthwatch, 1993);• failure or marginal success of many large investments in livestock development projects to increase productivity and create impact on agriculture (Blackburn and de Haan, 1993).Almost 50 per cent of world grain is fed to livestock yet 800 million people suffer from hunger and malnutrition (FAO, 1993a). This apparent paradox arises because 85 per cent of all fed grain is given to animals in developed countries whereas hungry people are mostly in developing countries because the poor cannot afford to buy cereals from the rich. Reduced use of grain as a feed in developed countries is sometimes suggested as a solution to the food security problem in developing countries. This approach can be used only to solve serious but temporary food insecurity such as a famine. Long term solutions lie in rationalizing production methods and appropriate costing and pricing.Rapid expansion in poultry and pig output largely reflects worldwide changes in production practices from backyard, low input, scavenging systems to industrialized, high input intensive grain-based systems. Coarse grains and oil seeds have been regarded as the most convenient, if not the only, way to feed monogastrics and to fatten ruminants. Use of grain as feed has been assisted by production subsidies. Not including the costs of soil erosion, loss of soil fertility and environmental degradation have kept apparent production costs and prices low. If the ecological costs of grain production and intensive livestock management were fully charged to the livestock enterprise, costs of meat and milk would be so high that management practices would have to return to lower cost, lower intensity systems (Fitzhugh, 1993). Food security in the developing countries may be assured if production systems everywhere operate under a truly competitive environment.Net grain imports into developing countries have steadily increased (Figure 3), however, particularly to feed animals that are eaten by the minority higher income sectors of society. Exports of animal feeds are not negligible, a large proportion of these being oilseed cakes which are important sources of by-pass protein and which could, in most cases, be better used locally to improve production from the national herd. This, in turn, would reduce imports of animal products. Grains are not indispensable for feeding stock and FAO has given high priority over the last 20 years to developing alternative feed systems, with little or no use of grains, for both monogastrics and ruminants. A Chinese project turned the cropping zones, over five years, in to the major producers of beef using untreated straw and cottonseed cake as supplements, with no use of grain (Mack, 1993). Sugar cane juice, palm oil, sugar palm juice and cassava roots have been successfully tested to replace grains in pig rations in about 15 countries in tropical America and Asia. Other local energy sources are being actively sought as alternatives to grain.In recent years, there has been a growing volume of criticism against livestock from environmentalists. Prominent among these criticisms are that livestock contribute to:• increased desertification through long term over grazing particularly of semiarid rangelands;• deforestation by lopping branches for use as fodder and felling trees to make way for pastures as in Latin America• the greenhouse effect, since they produce methane as an end product of rumen digestion; and• water and environmental pollution through animal wastes.Some of these criticisms are unfortunately levelled without hard evidence but hard evidence is emerging to show that livestock are not the environmental villains they have been made out to be. An extensive literature review on the impact of livestock on rangelands (Dodd, 1991) concluded that the effects of grazing and drought have been confused and that there was no solid evidence of irreversible effects on vegetation from livestock other than around water points and permanent settlements. Long term research in the Sahel in Mali clearly shows the resilience of Sahel rangelands and that annual biomass yields closely track annual rainfall even after extended drought and heavy grazing pressure (ILCA, 1992;Fitzhugh, 1993).Deforestation and expansion of ranching into Latin American forests is sometimes linked with supplying beef to the North American market and to profitability of production. In reality, neither the North American market nor profits as such are the main reason for expansion of ranching in Latin American forests (Belk et al, 1992). It is rather the policies of various governments to provide subsidized livestock credit, technical services, roads, favourable market prices and tenure policies that encouraged land speculation (Hecht, 1989;1992;Durning and Brough, 1993;Kaimowitz, 1994;McCorkle, 1994). Expansion of shifting cultivation due to poverty and population growth is a principal cause of tropical deforestation in developing countries (Cleaver and Schreiber, 1992;Winrock, 1992).Livestock's contribution to the greenhouse effect has been overemphasized and ruminant livestock contribute only about 2.5 per cent of the total greenhouse gases. Gas emissions from cars and industries are far greater and have been increasing at a much higher rate. The problem of pollution created through waste disposal is specific to intensive production systems in developed countries.In general, improved livestock productivity, economic development and sustainable natural resource management are not incompatible goals. Appropriate technologies, policies and institutions will, however, be required to achieve that goal.Relative to its importance as a direct and indirect source of food and as a major component of sustainable development, the livestock sector is under-funded and under-resourced throughout the developing world. As an example within FAO, livestock is represented by a Division within the Agriculture Department and receives about half the budget of the fisheries sector which merits a full Department. CGIAR core budget allocation to livestock research is not congruent with the value of livestock products when the values of non-food products and services are included. In the World Bank, only four per cent of the loans given to the agriculture and rural development sector were for livestock projects although livestock are components in some integrated agricultural projects (Figure 4). whereas that for agricultural projects decreased from 75 to 55 per cent in the same period (Blackburn and de Haun, 1993).Many livestock development projects have failed to meet their initial objectives but there are many successful projects. Some examples are:• Operation Flood in India which promoted dairy development among small or landless farmers and created a modern and efficient dairy industry;• a similar dairy project in Uganda which, under difficult conditions, successfully developed milk production near Kampala;• micro cheese making units in Niger that provided jobs and income to several hundred women;• a beef fattening project in China which used local cereal straw treated with urea and supplemented with cottonseed cake turned the farmers of two provinces, in a span of a few years, into the most important beef producers in China;• on-farm testing and field support activities for a successful beef fattening project in northern Tunisia in the 1970s;• the New World Screwworm project in North Africa that, using environmentally safe biotechnology, eradicated this pest in less than four years and is an example of efficient organization and cooperation between donors and UN agencies.Projects have failed most frequently in their initial objectives because inappropriate technologies or institutions were used or because they were implemented in an unfavourable policy environment. The Asian Development Bank noted that the principal cause of poor performance and even failure in publicly and donor-funded livestock programmes and projects was the use of inappropriate technology.A particular mistake was the import of high producing breeds that were unable to adjust to local conditions, notably feeding and diseases (ADB, 1993).In West Africa, modern dairy plants were set up in several countries with donor funding to process locally-produced milk for urban consumers. The policy of dumping dairy products by advanced countries combined with inappropriate domestic trade and monetary policies subsequently made import cheaper than local production and collection. The dairy processing plants remained severely under-used or totally so and the development of the domestic dairy sector remains an unfulfilled goal.During the last 20 years, output of livestock products has increased at similar and, in a number of cases, at higher rates than major cereals (Table 7). Major increases have been in monogastric meat production. Egg production also increased from 4.6 million tonnes in 1969/1971 to 15.3 million tonnes in 1988/1990, or by 331 per cent. It is projected that during the next 20 years, rates of milk and meat production will surpass those of the major cereals and that the increases in production from monogastric animals will continue to be considerably higher than from ruminants, provided feed is economically available for production.By 2010, animal products are expected to contribute proportionally more to food supply and food security in the developing countries than they do at present. Integrating livestock and agriculture increases short term benefits to and long term sustainability of agriculture.The multipurpose and flexible livestock sector is able to react to changes in national economies. Monogastric species and ruminants are adapted to varying local conditions and use local resources to produce products and services.Increased ruminant productivity requires research to develop feeds and feeding systems, identify and use adapted genotypes, reduce mortality, improve production systems and inform appropriate policies.Pigs and poultry are likely to remain the main source of meat where rapid urbanization is occurring. Use should be made of transferable technologies to expand small scale production.Emphasis should be given to feeds that do not compete with human food.Facilities and credit for small scale producers should be emphasized, rather than major investments in institutions and facilities (such as big abattoirs, dairy plants and feedmills) which are usually oversized, overstaffed and overequipped.C de Haan 1 -Livestock Adviser, World Bank, Washington DC, USALivestock ownership is frequently equated with wealth but livestock development often benefits the poor. In Morocco and Egypt small farms have four to six times more animals per hectare than larger farms (Glenn, 1987). Landless farmers in India and those with less than one hectare own more than 30 per cent of cattle and buffaloes and have four times more stock per hectare than larger farmers. Higher stocking rates may not result in optimal efficiency but they demonstrate the importance of livestock development for rural growth and poverty reduction.Effective and sustainable livestock services are a key issue in rural development policy and they have attracted 30-50 per cent of international support for livestock development in the last 10 years.This overview is a developer's perspective of the current state of key issues in the establishment and functioning of effective livestock services for small holders in low income countries. The paper covers issues and trends affecting all services. It uses examples from publicly funded development support for key services such as animal health, livestock extension, breeding, credit and marketing services.India's Operation Flood developed a comprehensive service package which eventually reached about eight million farmers (NDDB, 1994). The Turkish Foundation created a viable integrated service and processing chain based on small poultry farmers (Unger, 1993), These two projects are among few exceptions to the general situation in which livestock services in developing countries have not been very effective, especially in reaching the poor. The two key factors leading to this situation were declining budgets and administrative efficiency, and changing clients, problems and issues. The long term lack of impact has resulted in a search for alternative systems.Fiscal constraints and poor management of resources caused livestock service staff numbers in many African and Asian countries to grow faster than the means (vehicles and fuel, pharmaceuticals, etc) to support them. This decline in recurrent non-salary funding forced the services to cut back on field activities. In 1961-1962, for example, 33 per cent of livestock service budgets of six Sahel countries was allocated to operating expenditures. This share had been reduced to 25 per cent by 1975and 16 per cent by 1988(de Haan and Bekure, 1991). The situation in other regions is less serious but almost all livestock services in the developing world have seen large decreases in non-salary recurrent funding.Increased demand for animal products and decreased grazing resources have led to intensification of production. Small holders with crossbred dairy cattle and pigs and hybrid poultry need higher quality services more focused on individual animal care. The introduction of crossbred dairy cattle in India, for example, increased the need for individual and immediate animal health care and for which the public sector was badly equipped. A similar shift is happening under the Chinese \"lean pig\" policy which involves an ambitious crossbreeding programme that will lead to a pig population that requires (and justifies) much more individual care.This shift in technology coincided with a change in the profile of the livestock farmer as traditional livestock keeping evolves to more commercial operations. Cattle ownership in many African areas, for example, is shifting from ethnic groups with considerable indigenous knowledge to much less experienced crop farmers. These \"new\" livestock farmers demand more frequent and more sophisticated services than the archetypal public sector services cannot provide. In addition, there is decreasing emphasis on greater production and more regard for increased efficiency. Attention to the sustainable use of renewable resources is assuming importance and this also requires a different set of policies, services and supplies.The two most important trends in the institutional organization of livestock services now in the mainstream of the current development dialogue are a better distribution between the public and private sector and greater decentralization and transfer of responsibility to the beneficiaries.Several publications of the last 10 years have discussed the distribution of responsibilities between the public and private sector, including the livestock sector (Umali et al, 1992). They recommend redistribution of responsibilities over three broad categories whereby the public sector has tasks, which it:• needs to do itself;• can subcontract to the private sector, but needs to supervise closely and (at least partially) finance; and• can transfer fully to the private sector, with Government maintaining only an overview function.These are pure public good services such as policy planning, quarantine, food inspection and quality control. This area has traditionally received considerable donor support and no significant innovative institutional structures have emerged.These remain under the responsibility and supervision of the public sector and frequently have its financial support. They are goods with externalities, such as compulsory vaccinations, extension through the mass media and research that is not patentable. In this area a significant number of new developments has emerged in recent years in the developing world.Subcontracting of compulsory vaccination campaigns to private veterinarians under (often partial) payment by the public sector has proven to be a very effective catalyst in developing private animal health care systems. This is clearly demonstrated in Morocco where the number of private veterinarians rose from two in 1983 to 130 by mid-1994 (World Bank data). This was due to an attractive subcontracting policy and strict curtailment of government involvement in private good services when a private veterinarian establishes a practice. It resulted in net savings for Government as the fee per animal vaccinated paid to the private operator was estimated to be lower than the average vaccination cost by the public veterinary service. Finally, it improved livestock protection as the private veterinarians, with stronger incentives, vaccinated on average a higher percentage than public sector staff (World Bank data).Similar successful experiences also emerge from sub-Saharan Africa, where rinderpest vaccination is now being subcontracted to private veterinarians. Subcontracting also offers opportunities to increase the flexibility and impact of extension services.Subcontracts with NGOs and private firms for extension are being introduced in, for example, Chile. A phased system has been introduced going from Government financed individual contacts, to group extension and finally to complete take-over by the beneficiaries (Amour, 1994).Some interesting new incentive systems have also emerged recently where extension stays within the public sector. These include: (i) \"contract extension\", where village extension workers enter into contracts with farmers, or farmers' associations, based on a fee plus a share in the profits; (ii) \"share cropping\" with farmers for a profit. In this case, the farmers provide land, animals and labour, and the extension agent, with his easier access to credit, supplies the inputs. The share-cropped cow is the demonstration plot, where other farmers can see the effects of the new technology; and (iii) \"voucher\" programmes, whereby farmer groups are given Government vouchers that they can trade for individual or group extension to be delivered by individual extension agents (Ameur 1994).Competitive grant systems with possibilities for subcontracts to NGOs and private groups (and other Government organizations, such as universities) are being introduced in projects being funded by the World Bank in Indonesia and Kenya. Initial experiences are good.These are pure private goods, such as clinical animal health care, animal breeding and credit.Considerable progress has been made in sub-Saharan Africa (especially in the Francophone part, where there are now an estimated 400 private vets, covering most of the clinical care and drug sales), North Africa, Eastern Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean. The public sector still dominates veterinary services in Asia, including West Asia. The discussion has now shifted in many countries from the role of the public and private sectors to distribution of responsibilities within the private sector. The role of auxiliaries (nonprofessional technical assistants) is still very much a point of discussion (VSF, 1995) This is still almost exclusively in the public domain in developing countries and subject to rigid rules of public administration (Walshe et al, 1991). The use of sophisticated equipment and inputs (including liquid nitrogen) since the 1970s and 1980s has led, in Africa and many parts of Asia, to AI services being too expensive, not available or so unreliable that farmers cannot use them. Almost without exception, conception rates to AI in developing countries are below 50 per cent (Mergos and Slade, 1987;Walshe et al, 1991) thus defaulting on the main objective of most farmers in the developing world of having their cows give one calf per year. Commercialization of the services, with more performance-oriented incentive schemes, is being introduced in North Africa and China. Pure private Al using fresh semen and adapted transport is also strongly emerging in China.Thinking has changed considerably recently. First, credit appears less crucial in technology adoption than previously thought. Most farmers have access to informal sources and many agricultural and livestock technologies can be introduced gradually. Second, perceptions regarding private loan intermediaries, who used to be considered exploitive, is changing. Some exploitation by private loan intermediaries does exist but private (informal) credit institutions are less exploitive than originally thought (Yaron, 1992a(Yaron, , 1992b)). In spite, however, of the importance of livestock to the rural poor and the need for initial capital to start livestock production, credit programmes have been largely unsuccessful in getting this target group involved in livestock production. The mobile nature of livestock complicates collateral requirements and the long production cycle makes livestock production less attractive to commercial bank loans. Group lending and other institutional channels have only recently been tested for livestock and experiences such as the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh are promising.The impact of increased privatization and commercialization on the poor has not been fully documented. There is, however, increasing evidence that if a good or service is subsidized or provided free its access will be restricted to the wealthy and it will not be available to the poor. Subsidized interest rates in Latin America (but also elsewhere) mainly touched the wealthier minority of producers as political influence rather than market efficiency was the deciding factor in allocation of loan funds. It has been clearly shown (Leonard, 1985) that, when the Government of Kenya shifted to a greater degree of cost recovery, access of poor farmers increased significantly.Participatory development is an iterative process between different stakeholders in deciding their own development interventions (Chambers, 1993;World Bank, 1995). It is now frequently used as a means of improving the beneficiaries \"ownership\" in development projects. A considerable number of tools exists to improve the planning, based on Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques.A project in Egypt (World Bank, 1995)  This is the second key organizational form. Livestock products are perishable and do not give producers a great deal of leverage vis-a-vis their processors. This makes cooperative movements especially relevant in the livestock sector. Some important cooperative movements in the agricultural sector in the developing world are thus found in the livestock product processing industry, as shown by Indian dairy cooperatives and the Turkish Foundation. Both have successfuly mobilized large groups of small producers and-have provided them with inputs and services and outlets for products. Monopolistic tendencies have emerged recently, however, in several successful coop movements. Inefficient processors could now become a factor in depressing producer prices and inflating consumer prices and thus constrain overall dairy development. A main challenge in the future, therefore, will be to prepare cooperatives for a more competitive environment.Livestock development in low income countries needs to operate within the overall development objectives of reducing rural poverty, promoting rural growth and enhancing sustainable resource use. Future development support within the World Bank, for example, could therefore be expected to concentrate on three main areas.Particular attention will be paid here to:• creating \"level playing fields\" for all service providers; • improving production efficiency; and• environmental linkages to reduce the negative and enhance the positive impacts of livestock on the environment.This will be achieved by:• continuing the development of private services in animal health and breeding; and• focusing on public sector tasks such as livestock research and extension but not necessarily through public sector delivery.In extension, alternative organizational forms, such as the involvement of NGOs and the introduction of performance related incentive systems would need to be explored. Publicly funded research would need to concentrate on:• technologies for small holders which would be low cost and \"user friendly\", to allow their use by non-professional staff and groups; and• increase the efficiency and sustainability of renewable resource use.These, because of their significant externalities will become increasingly important in development support. Subjects for emphasis might cover the whole spectrum from land degradation and management (especially in the arid zones), through programmes to reduce livestock methane emission and then to cleaning of the environment. The impact of human endeavours to eke out a living through crop and animal agriculture is examined in a holistic context in this paper. It is argued that the direct and indirect impact of livestock production on the natural resource base can only be assessed as an integral part of the overall pressures that human activities exert on the environment.Removal of plant cover by livestock is usually identified as the major cause of impact. The analyses therefore focus on the main sources of pressure which continue to modify the vegetation cover of rural Africa. These sources include effects of fires and burning of biomass, fuel wood extraction and deforestation and land clearing.Assessment of land degradation is usually confined to the drylands of the world, as other degrading human activities such as deforestation and biomass burning are assessed separately. Degradation is regularly reported for rangelands, soils and crop lands (Table 1). The severity of degradation for each is grouped into four classes, ascending from none/slight to very severe. In general, these classes refer to the percentage loss of expected productivity with moderate being less than 25 per cent, severe in the range 25-50 per cent and very severe more than 50 per cent. Rangeland degradation is mainly related to the state of the vegetation cover of the woody and herbaceous strata. In Africa, rangelands are estimated to cover about 13.4 million km 2 or 60 per cent of the continent. This is close to the combined extent of the arid and semiarid zones and the drier parts of the subhumid zone (Dregne et al, 1991). Reductions in perennial grasses and woody biomass appear to be the main criteria to assess class values but the \"yardstick to measure the potential\" has not been clearly stated.There is little doubt that woody cover in African drylands has decreased at a rapid rate in particular in the arid zone and in the drier parts of the semiarid zone. Needs for fuel wood and crop land has unavoidable impact on woody cover but how changes in herbaceous cover cause degradation is less clear. In the drier part of West Africa (< 800 mm annual rainfall) grasses are mostly annuals except on sites benefiting from run-on soil moisture. Their productivity is almost entirely determined by rainfall (Box 1). Perennial grasses dominate in East Africa at lower rainfall (up to 400 mm) because it is bimodal but in dry years the proportion of ephemeral annuals increases (Njoka, 1984;Herlocker et al, 1993).Annual grasses that dominate the various land units in the Sahel have an outstanding ability to produce large stocks of seed under many constraining circumstances Traits that contribute to reseeding ability include:• seed dormancy is restricted and is broken before the next growing season;• date of flowering is governed by day length and therefore the period of seed setting is short and fixed;• growth cycles adapt to the rainfall distribution pattern allowing at least some seed production even when rains are poorly distributed;• plants develop protective devices against grazing when flowering and setting seed and possess efficient seed dispersal mechanisms;• most species produce large numbers of tillers, depending on plant density and available soil moisture and nutrients;• defoliation by livestock tends to increase tiller numbers although few tillers may reach the flowering stage; and• under extreme continuous grazing pressure shorter cycle and lower yielding annuals replace longer cycle species and although these are palatable they are very resistant to grazing due to their short growing period.Source : Hiernaux, 1994 As the herbaceous stratum provides most of the livestock feed, secondary productivity rises and falls with rainfall but is mostly controlled by heavy drought induced mortality. If the rangelands dominated by annual grasses are considered resilient rather than degraded, about 8-9 million km 2 move up into the none/slight class of degradation (Table 1).Soil degradation is less serious on crop than on rangelands, with 75 per cent of the drylands being unaffected (Table 1). Soil erosion, shifting sand and surface crust formation impeding infiltration and promoting run-off are among the major causes of degradation in upland soils.The same causes play a role in the degradation of rainfed crop land. It is probable, however that depletion of soil organic matter and nutrients is the most common cause of degradation (Smaling 1992). There is no substantial evidence that the major causes of soil degradation in drylands are grazing (34.5 per cent), deforestation (29.5 per cent) and agriculture (28.1 per cent) as asserted in a recent UNEP publication (Greijn, 1994).It may seem odd to revert to livestock distribution patterns based on livestock statistics compiled during the late 1970s (Jahnke, 1982). Unfortunately, that analysis is the only available baseline linking livestock distributions to ecological zones within countries. Numbers have recently been updated but the older distribution patterns between zones and regions were maintained (Winrock, 1992).About 76 per cent of the 154 million Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) in 1986-1988 were in lowland tropical Africa with 40 per cent of these being in the arid, 34 per cent in the semiarid and 26 per cent in the subhumid zones (Table 2). The other 24 per cent were mainly in the highlands (18 per cent) and the humid zone (6 per cent). East and West Africa accounted for 56 and 26 per cent of the total livestock wealth whilst Southern (12 per cent) and Central Africa (6 per cent) had fewer numbers (Winrock, 1992).Ratios between people and livestock are indicative of their importance in rural production systems. The highest ratios are found in pastoral East Africa. More sedentary systems average 0.5 TLU/person (Table 2) except in the subhumid and humid zones where livestock wealth is very low (Table 3) and where the proportion of small ruminants is high. Notes: a) Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda b) Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sierra Leone c) Zaïre, Gabon, CAR, Congo, Cameroon Source: adapted from Jahnke, 1992In the Ethiopian highlands, population and livestock pressures are high (up to 120 people and 130 TLU/km 2 ) due to a near universal reliance on cattle and equines for soil tillage and transport. Intensive small holder dairying has transformed the livestock industry in the Kenya highlands where highly productive pastures, cut and carry forage production and supplementary concentrate feeding allow stocking rates as high as 100 TLU/km 2 . Extremely high population pressure in the highlands of Rwanda and Burundi explain why stocking rates are lower (50 TLU/km 2 ) due to continuous conversion of pastures to cropped land. Feed resources are thus scarce here. They include banana stems and leaves, spent grain from beer brewing and forages grown on erosion bunds.From 1979 to 1988, cattle increased by 18 million (12 per cent), small ruminants by 48 million (22 per cent) and camels by two million (18 per cent). Increases in numbers have not been uniform across zones and regions. In the arid zone, due to droughts in the early 1980s, cattle numbers stagnated or declined due to high mortality and permanent migration into better rainfall areas. This, combined with rapid expansion of ox traction cropping of cotton, boosted cattle populations in subhumid West Africa.Consumption of plant cover by livestock has a major impact and overgrazing is believed to contribute substantially to desertification and land degradation (Dregne et al, 1991). Plant removal reduces protective plant cover, vigour and regrowth capacity, the effects of which increase exponentially with removal rates (Belsky, 1988;Hiernaux et al, 1994). Indirect effects include trampling which leads to soil compaction and, when excessive (as along cattle trails and around homesteads and water points), may cause run-off and gully erosion. Grazing implies removal of nutrients (NPK and trace elements) and organic matter, part of which is returned as faeces and urine. Depending on the recycling processes, a substantial portion is retained in the ecosystem (de Leeuw et al, 1994;Fernandez-Rivera et al, 1994).To assess impact on a continental scale overall biomass removal can be derived from the expected intake of the entire population of grazing ruminants. The parameters included in this computation (Table 4) are based on meta-analyses of a large set of data (Fernandez-Rivera et al, 1994) on intake and faecal output providing gross and net removal rates, and the fraction of herbaceous forage and browse in the intake. Gross removal amounts to 460 million tonnes of dry matter (DM), over 80 per cent of which is from the herbaceous layer. Cattle account for 70 per cent of the total removal. Small ruminants and camels consume the remainder, including almost 90 per cent of the browse totalling 83 million tonnes of DM. Net consumption averages 55 per cent of gross intake so that over 200 million tonnes are potentially recycled back to the ecosystem.  Winrock, 1992 Comparing these gross removal rates with actual stocking rates provides an index of impact per unit area of land. At 10 and 20 TLU/km 2 of stocking, roughly 0.3 and 0.6 tonnes DM of biomass are eaten. Hence, given average end of season yields of forage in the arid and semiarid zone of 0.5 and 1.5 tonnes DM/ha, the consumed fraction would be 60 per cent and 40 per cent in the two zones. These use rates may seem dangerously close to the recommended \"proper use\" factors of 0.3 to 0.5 (de Leeuw and Tothill, 1993). The presumed impact is much less, however, because 60-75 per cent is grazed during the dry season without impairing the subsequent regrowth potential of the grass cover. In the arid zone, impact on the herbaceous cover is further mitigated by browse consumption of camels and small ruminants.The relative proportion of perennial and annual species further modifies herbivore impact as annuals are generally the most resilient.Highly aggregated feed demand: supply ratios ignore local factors limiting access such as flooding and cropping during the growing season, dense woodland and thickets often combined with tsetse infestation, steeply sloping terrain and areas without water. Use of grazing is also affected by site selection for pastoral settlement and by the livestock wealth of sedentary farmers. It is often believed that remote areas attract pastoralists but a strong correlation (p < 0.001) has been shown (Bourn and Wint, 1994) between livestock densities and the percentage of cultivated land and human habitation in West Africa and that \"there is little room for doubt that livestock tend to congregate where land is cultivated\". Settled farming communities attract herders and herds because they are close to water supplies, markets and other infrastructure. More importantly, livestock ownership by farmers increases with intensification of land use (Mortimore, 1989;de Leeuw et al, 1994).Encroachment onto grazing land, including creation of national parks and game reserves and by squatter farmers, is usually listed high as a cause of increasing grazing pressure. It can be argued, however, that converting land from grazing to crops increases overall feed supplies, in particular in subhumid areas with high fire frequencies. Intensification reduces the fraction of grazable biomass removed by fires and raises output of crop residues (Figure 1). Fire hazards are lessened by greater herbage and woody biomass removal and a greater heterogeneity and patchiness of the vegetation.Fire in tropical Africa has received renewed attention since it was realized that biomass burning contributes 42 per cent of the gross atmospheric emissions of CO 2 (Cachier, 1992). Africa contributes 43 per cent of the total which exceeds the combined emissions of South America and Asia (39 per cent) (Williams and Balling, n.d.). The area of tropical forests is much greater (15 million km 2 ) than that of humid savannas (9 million km 2 ) but it is estimated that only 90000 km 2 of forest are burned every year compared to 5.4 million km 2 of savanna (Cachier, 1992). The total amount of burnt biomass in Africa is 2820 million tonnes DM to which savanna fires contribute 2500 million tonnes (Table 5). Source: recalculated from Delmas et al, 1991 Savanna fires in tropical Africa extend roughly from 15° N to 25° S latitudes. The area potentially subject to fire hazard is of the order of 10 million km 2 encompassing savannas in the semiarid, the subhumid and the drier part of the humid zones (Table 5). Almost all savanna fires occur during the dry season, from December to March in the northern hemisphere with the peak in January. Night-time low-light satellite imagery shows the highest frequencies of fires in a broad belt between 3° N and 10° N, coinciding with the subhumid zone and secondary vegetation in the humid zone (Cahoon et al, 1992). Farther north, fires are more patchy and extend into southern Mali, Burkina Faso and Sudan.South of the equator frequent fires reach peak occurrence in southern Zaïre in June and then sweep eastward to reach maximum values in Mozambique in September. Fires are widely spread over the entire dry season between 0° and 18° S in Congo, most of Angola, the southern third of Zaïre, most of Zambia and eastern Tanzania (Cahoon et al, 1992).Interpretation of AVHRR/NOAA and LANDSAT imagery combined with field observations indicates that about half the fire prone zones are burned each year (Table 5). Annual fire frequency decreases from 0.7 to 0.4 with diminishing rainfall, mainly because of reduced fuel loads. Along the rainfall gradient, combustible biomass, comprising mainly standing grass and tree and shrub foliage, falls from 7.5 to 3.5 m.t. DM/ha. Because most fires are wind-driven, they pass through rapidly and thus the amount of woody biomass destroyed is negligible (Delmas et al, 1991).Woody foliage and herbaceous biomass were partitioned by difference. As fire initiation needs a combustible ground mass greater than 1 m.t. DM/ha it seems likely that fires in the drier areas burn off about 1.5 m.t. DM/ha on average. With increasing rainfall, standing dry herbage and litter increase to median values of 3.0 m.t. DM/ha although in West Africa much higher herbage yields are recorded (Boudet, 1975;ILCA, 1979;Cesar, 1991).These computed foliage yields are in agreement with literature sources (Walker, 1980) but may be overestimated where combustion rates are lower than the 80 per cent that has been adopted elsewhere (Delmas et al, 1991). This may partly explain some lower estimates (de Leeuw 1992) on a total area of 3.3 million km 2 with a biomass loss of 800 million tonnes DM, this being only about 30 per cent of the 2500 million tonnes shown in Table 5. The two estimates produced respective average burned mass amounts of 5.1 m.t. DM/ha and 2.7 m.t. DM/ha. The major conclusion arising from these analyses, however, is that fires remove about half the dry season herbaceous biomass or 1000 million tonnes DM per year, about 45 per cent of which is from the semiarid savanna. Assuming lower combustible fuel loads and reduced proportions of burnt land with rising rural population density a revised estimate of the contribution of the semiarid zone would be lower and amount to 32 per cent (de Leeuw 1992).The impact of fuel wood use by local rural populations and the more distant urban centres on wood resources and vegetation structure is a major pressure on the environment. In rural Africa, 80-90 per cent of the energy demand is derived directly from woody vegetation and wood-derived charcoal is an important source for food preparation and heating in the urban sector.Total demand in tropical Africa of the rural population of 350 million people in 1994 would convert to 170 million tonnes of wood at average annual use rates of 0.5 t/person. The urban population of 150 million would require 60 million tonnes at a use rate of 0.4 t/head. Other sources of organic fuel include crop residues and animal dung. In areas such as the Ethiopian highlands where wood is scarce these sources supply 45 per cent of total demand.Given the high transport cost, fuel supplies in rural areas are mostly from nearby sources, either from a farmer's own land or communal areas. The impact of wood cutting is therefore localized and directly related to site-specific population densities. At a density of 20 people/km -a common figure in many parts of the semiarid and subhumid zones -wood extraction would amount to 10 t/km 2 /annum. In these zones, standing woody biomass in farm and fallow shrub lands varies from 3-8 m.t. DM/ha but rises to 20 m.t. DM/ha in well developed Acacia woodlands (Franklin and Hiernaux, 1991).Similar estimates of woody cover were made in an assessment of wood volume and vegetation cover over 320000 km 2 in northern Nigeria. Woody biomass in farmed and shrub lands was in the range 3-7 m.t. DM/ha whereas in woodland it was in the range 15-30 m.t. DM/ha. Fuel wood biomass of the entire area averaged 7.5 m.t. DM/ha (RIM, 1991). At annual increments of 0.2 m.t. DM/ha (Groten;1991) fuel wood support capacity would be about 40 people/km 2 . Standing woody biomass gradually diminishes in excess of this density unless wood from distant surplus areas is available. The most critical part of the survey area was the dry semiarid zone (< 700 mm rainfall) where rural population density was high (> 150 person/km 2 ), cropped land exceeded 60 per cent and there was more pressure from livestock at densities of more than 50 TLU/km 2 (Mortimore, 1989, RIM, 1991;Bourn and Wint 1994).Discussion on deforestation in Africa usually emphasises the closed forests of the humid zone.Estimates combine exploitation for commercial timber, removal of woody cover related to slash and burn agriculture and conversion to small holder or plantation tree crop production. African closed forests covered 2.0 million km 2 in 1985, or half the area designated as the humid zone. Annual projected deforestation rates for 1981-1985 averaged 0.6 per cent or 12000 km 2 (World Resources, 1989). The rate for open woodlands was estimated at 0.5 per cent representing an annual area of 23400 km 2Statistics on clearing of new land and of old fallows are difficult to interpret as there is overlap with data on deforestation. In contrast to Latin America, clear felling of woody cover to open land for cropping is still rare in rural Africa. In most cases land clearing is a gradual process and useful trees are retained, this explaining the wide occurrence of parklands in tropical Africa (Nair, 1989;RIM, 1991).About 1.5 million km 2 of land was classified as crop land in 1985-1987(World Resources, 1989), representing 6.4 per cent of total land. If it is assumed, however, that lack of rainfall precludes cropping in areas with less than 350 mm in West Africa and less than 500 mm in East and Southern Africa (Ellis and Calvin, 1993), the cropped area would rise to 8.7 per cent and this would increase further if expressed as a ratio of the total of potentially arable areas if land with shallow stony soils and very steep slopes were excluded.Cropped areas expanded rapidly in 1965-1975but possibly decelerated thereafter. In 1965-1985, 15 , 15 of 36 major countries in tropical Africa had growth rates exceeding 20 per cent, and 11 countries had rates of over 50 per cent. In contrast, 21 countries showed less than 5 per cent expansion in 1976-1986, whilst crop land areas contracted in several more. Expansion greater than 10 per cent continued into the 1980s in only six countries (World Resources, 1991). Total crop output seems to corroborate these trends with rapid growth during 1965-1973, a drastic slowing down in 1973-1980 and then an upturn in 1980-1987. To what extent these swings in output can be attributed to the effects of rainfall fluctuation on crop yield per unit area is not clear.An increase of only five per cent expansion of crop land over 1976-1986 -equivalent to 7.3 million ha -seems incompatible with a rise in the rural population averaging 7.5 million/yr as this would indicate that each additional person adds less than 0.1 ha to the pool of cultivated land (Winrock 1992).It is usually accepted that savanna vegetation becomes more dense and reverts to woodland when protected, especially when fires are effectively excluded. A series of burning experiments was established during the 1950s across the savanna regions of Englishspeaking Africa (see bibliography by Wein and Edroma, 1986). The major purpose was to assess the use of fire as a rangeland management tool, mainly to promote the grass component and suppress woody regrowth, especially of vigorously coppicing species.Woody regrowth in savanna systems is environmentally desirable to control erosion, supply fuel wood and sequester carbon but farmers dislike regrowth in their fields as it reduces the grazing potential for cattle. Bush encroachment thus reduces the feed supply: demand ratios if demand is not reduced through destocking. This positive feedback between overgrazing and invasion of woody species is described for the Borana region in Ethiopia (Coppock, 1993) and shows that woody growth reduces herbage yield and limits access by stock, thus exacerbating grazing pressure on land with less bush (Box 2). Overstocking on Zimbabwe ranches was linearly related to financial loss due to reduced beef output from bush infested grazing land, losses being less severe on ranches with browsing wild herbivores (Kreuter and Workman, 1994). Similar interactions between fire frequency and herbivory by grazers and browsers (especially elephants) were highlighted in models developed to predict long term trends in woody and herbaceous biomass and its effects on the productivity of land stocked with mixed domestic and wild herbivores (van Wijngaarden, 1986).Semiarid to subhumid with 600 mm annual rainfall in two seasons: droughts occur one year in five and multiyear droughts one year in twenty Cyclic herd performance drought losses ® recovery ® overgrazing (with 50 per cent drought loss and 6-8 year recovery cycle) resulting in grassland (perennial grasses) ® woodland (mainly Acacia) due to increased grazing pressure repeated defoliation ® nutrient removal ® nutrient removal in topsoil ® reduced vigour ® less reseeding ® reduced or no fireshift from herbaceous to semipermanent dense woody cover access to grazing stock reduced increasing pressure on remaining more open land leading to lower animal output lower income and impaired food security of cattle ownersprescribed burning during recovery phase planned woody cover reduction through fuel wood and charcoal sales hay making and Acacia pod collection for supplementary feeding opportunistic crop production in favourable areas in good years greater livestock offtake when density dependent phase approachesThe complexity of these interactions is also shown by the potential effects of increasing population and livestock density on fire frequency and extent and the potential consequences for the overall feed supply at the community level (c.f. Figure 1).Further additions to woody biomass arise from fallow regrowth after cropping. Recovery is particularly rapid where fire tolerant species that coppice vigorously from extensive root systems are dominant. The destruction of primary forests due to slash and burn agriculture in the humid zone is similarly countered by increases in secondary forest cover and conversion to tree crop agriculture. In Côte d'Ivoire between 1965 and 1985, for example, one third of the forests were converted to other land use. Some 28 per cent of the 6 million ha was converted to tree crops, seven per cent was used for food crops and 65 per cent reverted to secondary woody formations. Thus over 90 per cent of the land retained some form of woody cover (Spears 1986 quoted in Ehui and Hertel, 1989).If, during the 1980s, the annual rate of land clearing was restricted to about 1 million ha, the removal of biomass would be very small in comparison to that removed by livestock, fire and by use for fuel wood. Herbaceous cover and woody foliage are usually burned after clearing whereas woody stems and trunks are removed for fuel or for building material.Partitioning of annual biomass removal between the three major sources of impact shows that livestock grazing is responsible 24 per cent of the herbaceous biomass loss and for 14 per cent of the combined woody and herbaceous loss in a total of 3200 million tonnes DM (Table 6). These fractions would diminish substantially if only net ruminant intake were considered. Given the inverse relationship between the extent and frequency of fires and livestock density, it is postulated that greater livestock pressure reduces biomass removal by fires, thus increasing the available herbage and reducing the relative removal rates by livestock.The impact of fuel wood removal depends on whether dead or live biomass is taken. Where fires are frequent and woody cover is adequate (as in most of the subhumid zone) cutting of live vegetation is rare and loss to the ecosystem is therefore minimal. Charcoal production which accounts for a quarter of the total has greater impact as valuable hardwood species, including Acacia, are selected and overall savanna biodiversity is reduced.The partitioning of biomass removal throws light on the relative importance of the pressures exerted by human activities. It has, however, been argued that these impacts should be aggregated (de Leeuw, 1992) rather than partitioned as is done by UNEP (Greijn, 1994). By assessing support capacities for crops, livestock and fuel wood an aggregate index could thus emerge that would measure overall impact on the environment. Depending on ecosystem resilience -emanating from climate, landscape and characteristics of the soil and vegetation cover -risks of degrading processes and their resulting impact could then be identified. Rather than partitioning sources of impact, causes of degradation such as wind and water erosion and nutrient depletion in soils due to crop and biomass removal could be given importance rankings and then aggregated.Impact assessment could easily be incorporated into the procedures that have been developed by FAO to estimate the human support capacity from assessment of potential yields and outputs of crops (Higgins et al, 1987). Actual crop yields are derived from the suitability of land by assessing climatic and edaphic attributes at given levels of inputs. Conversion of yields of appropriate crop mixes into quantities of calories and protein enables the computation of potential population densities that the food output can support. Comparison with present and future anticipated population densities allows the calculation of critical areas where food output is or will become insufficient to meet minimum human requirements.Livestock and fuel wood productivity models have recently been added by FAO to the estimation of potential productivity of land resources (Kassam et al, 1991). These models are designed to operate on a digitalized land resource data base and include provisions for quantifying soil erosion hazards and resulting estimates of \"tolerable\" soil losses. Since the three models are interphased with each other, land productivity can be optimized for any given set of development constraints and demand. A contextual framework thus exists that incorporates the essential building blocks for assessing whether current land use is sustainable and could accommodate location specific data sets to estimate the impact on the environment. This Keynote Paper incited discussion over a broad range of issues. Principal among these were the functions of livestock in mixed farming systems and their various roles in use of natural and other resources, the supply of and demand for livestock and livestock products, the development and transfer of technology to beneficiaries and policy issues.The functions of livestock and the need for using livestock for utilizing resources and for providing labour opportunities needs to be seen in relation to farm size, which is an indication of land availability, and labour availability. The relative importance of livestock in relation to other enterprises may change with farm size and other production factors. The implications to be drawn from this are important for assessing the importance of livestock for food production and for identifying research needs (Peters). It is true that issues of size, scale and structure as they relate to livestock in developing countries are not adequately known so they do need to be given adequate attention. These relationships do, however, vary across ecozones and regions. In South Asia, for example, landless people raise livestock by using feeds, which have no or very low opportunity cost, from roadsides and pathways and thus generate income and employment (Fitzhugh).Attention needs to be given to the effects of livestock development on rain forest clearance and on wildlife species diversity (Young).The role of manure in soil fertility should not be overemphasized because manure may not be enough to maintain fertility in some situations (Oram).[\"Impact of human activities and livestock on the African environment: an attempt to partition the pressure\" by de  covers some of these issues in more detail]The importance of income growth on demand for animal products given that such goods are essentially \"superior goods\" and that prices are now low needs to be studied. Caution is also needed in recommending expansion of livestock production to reduce import dependence without making reference to comparative advantage factors that might mitigate against expansion of livestock production (DeRosa). Relations among price, income, supply and imports are complex and multilayered and will be better understood in a systems framework that considers both micro and macro levels. Income is a major determinant of demand and if supply increases in relation to demand prices remain low. Research and development aimed at increasing supply will benefit both consumers and producers although the former will benefit more than the latter as has happened in the developed countries (Fitzhugh).Promoting small farm production while trying to keep prices low may be counterproductive. Domestic dairy production in developing countries will be adversely affected by GATT (Chantalakhana). It is true that the dairy sector in developing countries does not always suffer because of comparative disadvantage but because of dumping by developed countries. Appropriate policies are required to support suitable production environments (Fitzhugh).Adverse impacts that arise when developed countries protect producers from competition are less production because world prices are lower and income is also lower so there is reduced demand. Developing countries control prices to urban consumers, however, which also results in less production that works against both urban and rural welfare. Processing controls that affect efficiency also suppress production. It is not yet known if production will increase in response to removal of controls after structural adjustment policies are completed. As these factors have been entrenched for a long time there is potential to improve livestock's contribution to development but this needs to be seen in a general equilibrium context of who gains, who loses and what are the impacts that will induce further changes (Young).The only way prices can be lowered to the benefit of both producers and consumers is by cutting costs per unit productivity. ILRI attempts to do this by generating and spreading new technology to allow production increases at lower costs. Conflicts between producer and consumer interests with respect to price level changes will not be an issue if lower prices are technology driven (Badiane).Low prices should not be a concern because livestock products are both price and income elastic. Demand may be high when prices are low so that total production and revenue will increase (Ehui).[\"Macroeconomic, international trade and sectoral policies in livestock development\" by Williams, and \"Research and technology transfer for livestock development\" by  cover some of these issues in more detail]Project failures are due not only to technology and policy but also to human capacity. There is a need to understand why problems have arisen and the goals of people in specific regions or under varying conditions. The meeting should look at approaches to research and development in formulating strategies for low income countries (Ostergaard).Dependency on imports can be reduced though technology improvement, particularly in cases of subsistence animal husbandry with largely under-commercialized livestock sectors. By removing policy and institutional constraints and providing improved technologies production can be raised efficiently to meet higher consumer demand as economies expand and levels or rates of growth of imports are reduced (Badiane).Much can be done to serve producer and consumer interests simultaneously by an intelligent choice of production systems. Whether all tropical low income countries should aim to increase livestock production is questionable but there is an overall obligation to rationalize production systems in order to make the most efficient use of resources for the long term benefit of the whole community (Vaccaro).[\"Research and technology transfer for livestock development\" by  covers some of these issues in more detail]The discussion on this paper again covered a broad range of questions. The relative roles of the public and private sectors were considered very important.There was general consensus that clear distinctions must be made between the role of the state in public good areas and that of the private sector in private good areas. Privatization should not be pushed too fast where a private sector was not yet able to perform efficiently in the interests of producers and consumers. The role and timing of credit were also considered important.The private sector needs to be defined. Individuals form producer cooperatives in which the private element is the farmer. The status of the cooperative in this schema needs clarification (Peters). Private initiatives to form associations are an important instrument for development and these are \"private\". This is not an area for public intervention but such associations may become partners with the public sector in development activities (de Haan).Division of responsibility between private and public sectors is important for developing countries but moving too fast towards privatization of essential services may not be to the advantage of small holders (Chantalakhana). It is true that moves toward the private sector should not be too fast but private/public task sharing needs to be promoted. Where the private sector has an advantage government policy should support private initiatives (de Haan).In Eastern Europe, both private and public sectors are competing for research funds. Consideration should also be given to both public and private institutions in research in developing countries (Oram). Research contracts may be given to universities, NGOs and private institutions. In the developing countries universities and NGOs are targets for research funding but the \"pure\" private sector is still largely undeveloped (de Haan).Giving entire responsibility to the private sector for genetic improvement is not advisable (Vaccaro). It is agreed that genetic aspects should not be given to the private sector (de Haan).Poor infrastructure is a major problem in many developing countries and will not help privatization (Oram). Roads are important and will remain mostly a public sector activity. In some cases construction is related to development projects including dairying. Processing and collection of milk is mainly in the public sector but with improved roads these are better done by the private sector. The World Bank will emphasize this aspect of development (de Haan).Credit for small holders is generally important .Timing may, however, be more important than credit per se. Pastoralists usually sell animals at difficult times when prices are low and allowing them credit at these times may save them from loss and increase their buffering capacity (Williams).Small holders have a poor record of repayment of public funded credit. Group pressure may not be the best way to ensure repayment. Credit may not be as critical for technology adoption as was originally thought. Collateral for credit does remain a problem but group responsibility has been shown to be a workable alternative for poor households (de Haan).Credit may be given to input supply agencies and intermediate marketing agents who will ensure supply of inputs and purchase of products: both of these are essential for increased production (Shapiro). Input supplies and market agents need short term credit while farmers often need medium to long term credits. Both needs are important and one cannot be fully substituted for the other (de Haan).There was general consensus during discussion that the role of livestock in resource degradation was still largely misunderstood in the broader world but that this ignorance resulted in negative effects being exaggerated. Methodologies need to be developed to study environmental issues. Proper presentation of results is also needed to avoid adverse criticism.The effects of livestock on the environment may vary across ecoregions and care must be taken not to generalize. Degradation induced by fire, for example, is more important in savanna than in humid environments (Toutain).Stock and flow concepts are important in degradation measurements. An area may appear degraded now but it is important to know when the degradation actually took place. In order to calculate the effects of livestock on the environment some objectives need to be set. These objectives may include changes in animal productivity, maintenance of soil status, net carbon stock and unchanged biodiversity. The state of each objective or criterion could then be measured as could the public and private sector response to such changes. Threats leading to pressures that are likely to change the state of an objective should also be identified. This needs to be done to increase the understanding of intervention capacities (Young).A methodology needs to be developed to study environmental issues. Keeping silent is not the solution because others will keep on raising these issues (Peters).  , 1993a). If the value of animal traction, transport and manure were added, the share of agricultural GDP contributed by livestock would be much higher.Despite the importance of livestock, growth in output has been slow in relation to potential in many developing countries. Between 1979Between -1981Between and 1992, per caput production of livestock and animal products declined by 10 per cent and 14 per cent in WANA and SSA, remained stagnant in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) but increased by 65 per cent in Asia (FAO, 1994a). Domestic supply of meat and milk has lagged behind demand in virtually all developing regions. Between the early 1970s and late 1980s, per caput meat consumption increased by 6 per cent in SSA, 32 per cent in LAC, 40 per cent in Asia, and 63 per cent in WANA (FAO, 1991).Several factors underlie these trends. On the demand side, rapid increases in per caput income (especially in Southeast Asia), urbanization and high income elasticities of demand for livestock products have partly fuelled increases in per caput consumption. On the supply side, low animal productivity, inappropriate technologies, inadequate research and extension support, poor infrastructure and unfavourable external conditions (for example protection in developed countries) contribute to poor performance by the livestock sector. In addition to these factors policy choices by Governments in many developing countries played a significant role in widening the gap between domestic demand and supply.Historically, governments in both developed and developing countries have intervened in the agricultural sector for political and economic reasons by a variety of instruments and institutional arrangements. In developing countries evidence suggests that macroeconomic and sectoral policies pursued in the past and the institutional instruments used to implement these policies stifled production by creating a pervasive anti-agricultural bias (in SSA) or encouraged inefficient production for the domestic market and reduced incentives for producers to look outward (in LAC and Asia). Some policies simultaneously made imported livestock products more available and affordable than domestically produced equivalents, thus encouraging inappropriate consumption (World Bank, 1981;Krueger et al, 1988;Jaeger, 1992;Williams, 1993a).The economic and production inefficiencies spawned by these policies created structural and macroeconomic imbalances that were considered inimical to economic growth in developing countries. In line with the worldwide trend to reduced state control and intervention in economic activities there have been moves in many developing countries toward liberalization of markets and reform of sectoral, trade, and macroeconomic policies. This new attitude to economic policies and rethinking of the state's role in fostering agricultural development creates an opportunity and a challenge for policy research. Research is needed to assess the achievements of implemented reforms and identify lingering constraints and opportunities to rectify them.This paper analyzes the implications of macroeconomic, sectoral and trade policies for the livestock sector with a view to informing the policy debate on development, especially in low income countries. It describes the economic and institutional factors that influence livestock sector growth and the options available to policy makers to improve performance and reviews the impact of past and present policies on the livestock sector.The focus is on production from ruminant livestock in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America, although references are made to West Asia and North Africa and to poultry meat and pork when appropriate. Given the heterogeneity in production systems, institutions, and economic environments, some selectivity has been exercised in discussing policy issues affecting the livestock sector. The paper seeks to identify broad similarities and differences between regions and (where feasible) countries, in order to highlight patterns that form and constrain policy decisions in developing countries.Livestock production in different regions differs markedly. Differences exist not only in production systems but also in the relative importance and potential for increased production by livestock species. Variations arise due to differences in resource endowment, climate, population, disease incidence, level of economic development, research support and government economic policies. Production trends are also difficult to measure because of the cyclical nature of meat supply. An accurate production measure would include both meat produced by slaughter and change in inventory but the data generally available are based only on slaughter figures. Sole reliance on slaughter figures often creates a bias in trends, particularly for cattle, since slaughter numbers and change in inventory vary inversely during the cattle cycle. Calculations of ruminant production trends are therefore usually sensitive to the choice of the time frame used in a trend analysis.Ruminants provide the major share of meat produced in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and West Asia and North Africa whereas pigs and poultry provide the larger share in Asia (Table 1). Beef accounted for 52 per cent and 50 per cent by weight of total meat production in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa in 1990-1999 but pork and poultry accounted for 80 per cent of meat production in Asia. In relation to world production, Latin America is an important beef region with 19 per cent of global beef output in 1990-1992. During the same period Asia produced about 42 per cent of world pork output but the four regions considered here accounted for only 23 per cent of global cow milk production.Asia has shown rapid growth in meat and milk production in the last 10 years in contrast to slow growth in the other developing regions (Table 2). Production of red meat grew by 4.0-6.5 per cent in Asia but by only 1.0-2.8 per cent in LAC, SSA and WANA. Growth in red meat output in SSA and WANA has been below the population growth rates of 3.1 per cent and 2.9 per cent. Across regions, red meat production has grown more slowly than white meat, partly reflecting rapid industrialization of white meat production in many developing countries. Milk production grew at a higher rate than meat production in SSA but milk output expanded less than meat output in the other regions.Livestock output over the past 20 years grew more slowly than demand in many developing countries (Figure 1). Demand for meat, in particular, out-paced domestic supply by a wide margin. In the 1970s and 1980s the Asian region showed fastest growth in meat consumption among developing regions, most of this being in pork and poultry. Per caput increases in income, urbanization and changes in relative meat prices were the main determinants of higher meat consumption. Income has the greatest influence on demand for livestock products, demand increasing with higher incomes up to a certain level, after which it tends to stabilize before it declines at the highest incomes. East Asia and the Middle East show increased consumption accompanying economic growth. This is due to rapid industrialization in East Asia and increasing oil revenues in the Middle East.Between 1969-1971 and 1986-1988, WANA showed a 63 per cent increase in per caput meat consumption. Reduced incomes cause reduced consumption or a switch to cheaper substitutes. Depressed growth in real incomes in Latin America during the 1980s, for example, caused a shift from beef and pork to cheaper poultry (Jarvis, 1986). A similar switch occurred from imported to local dairy products in several West African countries in the late 1980s (Williams, 1993b).  1969-1971 1990-1992 1969-1971 1990-1992 1969-1971 1990-1992 1969-1971 1990-1992 Red meat Source: Estimated from various FAO publications using log-linear least squares regression   1982 1990-1992 1980-1982 1990-1992 1980-1982 1990-1992 1980-1982 1990-1992 1980-1982 1990-1992 Sub-Saharan Africa Source: Calculated from FAO production yearbooks and data tapesSlow domestic growth relative to demand has led to increased imports and reduced exports. For 1990-1992, regional net meat imports in WANA, Asia and SSA were about 950,000, 282,000 and 148,000 tonnes per year (Table 3). In the period 1980-1982 to 1990-1992, Latin American beef exports fell by nearly 30 per cent while pork exports from Asia rose by over 200 per cent. Dry milk powder dominates dairy product trade in developing countries, commercial imports in 1990-1992 being highest in Asia and lowest in SSA, probably due to lack of foreign exchange in SSA and an increasing capacity of some countries in East and Southern Africa to produce the milk needed for domestic consumption.These statistics conceal a lot of diversity between countries. It is clear, however, that with adequate income growth a huge potential for increased demand exists in developing countries given current low consumption levels, high income elasticities of demand and increased population and urbanization. Slow growth in livestock production in some countries and particularly in SSA is, however, a bottleneck to sector development. This implies that in addition to technical measures required to raise productivity revised policies are needed to create appropriate incentives to spur sector growth.Economic prospects for animal agriculture in less developed countries are conditioned by the general economic performance impinging on agriculture and the rural sector. Concerns for technology, infrastructure and sectoral policies are frequently foremost in the minds of livestock producers and analysts. Economists, however, point to the equal if not greater importance of economic growth and macroeconomic policies (including trade, finance, and investment policies) to the development prospects of farm and other rural based activities in low income countries. Political economy factors in these countries often militate against the economic interests of rural communities and their often underestimated contribution to national output and economic welfare (Johnson, 1994).Prudent macroeconomic policies are widely recommended as the basis for an \"enabling environment\" for growth and broad based gains in economic welfare. These policies include stable monetary growth, open and relatively flexible arrangements for international transactions and sustainable fiscal policies designed especially to avoid excess monetary expansion and not cause inflation.For livestock, prudent policies assume particular importance given that the subsector involves assets that, analogous to durable manufactures, can be stores of value as well as inputs to production. Meat, milk and dairy products and eggs are also widely regarded as superior goods in consumption -that is, goods that increase in importance in consumption expenditure as household (and national) incomes rise (Mellor and Johnston, 1984). In this last connection, although production and especially consumption of livestock products might be expected to increase as income levels rise with economic development, it should be emphasized that the causality runs principally from economic growth and development on the one hand, to the livestock subsector, on the other. In other words, promotion of animal agriculture cannot usually be advanced beyond the pace of general economic development except where fundamental economic factors enable a country to specialize in animal production and export the bulk of it to markets in higher income countries. Where foreign investment is allowed, some important constraints, such as availability of human capital and advanced production and other technologies, might also be alleviated, furthering the possibilities for development of animal agriculture where other fundamental factors (and economic policies) are favourable.Macroeconomic stability and economic growth are of fundamental importance to advanced as well as less developed countries and to the general performance of most production sectors within countries. In the context of animal agriculture in less developed countries a special concern is that inappropriate monetary and fiscal policies can give rise to a bias against agriculture and its most efficient subsectors. Specifically, disincentives to agricultural production and exports can arise when the pursuit of unsustainable expansionary monetary and fiscal policies result in an overvalued exchange rate, excessive imports and lower exports. The frequent outcome is that new import controls are imposed as foreign exchange reserves fall, \"validating\" the overvalued exchange rate and reinforcing the import-substitution policies. This outcome also results in the repression of incentives for greater exports of agricultural commodities and products, including livestock, that bulk large in the underlying comparative advantage of many less developed countries.In the economywide perspective linkages among macroeconomic policies, protection and agricultural production and trade in less developed countries are at once complex and straightforward. Trade policies are often considered as macroeconomic policies due to their close relationship with the macroeconomic conditions for equilibrium in international payments balances. They can equally be regarded, however, as complex arrays of sector policies, frequently with the central purpose in low income countries of promoting industrialization or other development objectives, such as increasing export diversification.Import substitution policies promoting industrial or other subsectors, including non-competitive subsectors of agriculture itself, essentially result in distortions to domestic relative prices that discourage production and greater exports of internationally competitive goods. These are traditional and other goods that use a given country's (relatively) abundant resources most intensively. Agricultural production and exports frequently suffer when protection in developing countries is given to encourage industrial or other production. More generally the disincentives to agriculture will have a negative impact on the rural sector and forestall the greater contribution that robust performance in agriculture and the rural sector can make to economic growth in many less developed countries (Badiane, 1991;1992).The circumstances of the livestock and agriculture sector in less developed countries can be considered with reference to production and consumption possibilities in a \"small\" exporting country (Figure 2). The country produces both manufactures (M) and agricultural goods (A) but its stock of both natural and accumulated primary factors of productionland, labour, and capital (inclusive of human capital, technology and social infrastructure) -is assumed to support greater production of food and other agricultural goods than manufactures over a wide range of possible relative prices. At the given international terms of trade Pa/Pm* the country maximizes its economic welfare by producing at point P* and consuming at a point such as C*. This involves the (balanced) international exchange of the country's excess supply of agricultural goods (exports, Y*Z*) to meet its excess demand for manufactures (imports, X*W*).High rates of protection for industry, for political economy reasons or to support economic development objectives, are commonplace in developing countries, especially low income countries in Africa and Asia (Finger and Laird, 1987;Erzan et al, 1989;DeRosa, 1992). Introducing import substitution policies (in the form of an ad valorem tariff on imports of manufactures) results in production and consumption occurring at points such as P and C (Figure 2). The import substitution policy protects local industry and causes domestic terms of trade Pa/Pm to decline, thereby providing the incentive for producing and consuming a greater quantity of domestic manufactures. At the same time, by reducing domestic terms of trade to a point below the international terms of trade for agriculture Pa/Pm*, the policy has the indirect effect of creating a \"bias\" against production (and exports) in the agricultural sector (Valdés, 1973: Cavallo andMundlak, 1982;Krueger et al, 1988;Bautista and Valdés, 1993) within the framework of somewhat more sophisticated analytical models that incorporate consideration for the non-traded goods sector.The foregoing analysis is highly stylized. To incorporate animal agriculture explicitly a multi-sector framework such as might be provided by a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model would be required as well as greater consideration of natural resource endowments and the factor requirements for producing animal products. In the mainly heuristic terms pursued here however, what is at issue is whether the livestock sector conforms more to the profile of the \"disprotected\" agriculture sector or more to that of the protected industrial sector previously described.Animal agriculture is widely considered to have attractive attributes. It is widely practiced, at least informally, and offers a natural path for commercialization of farm activities in rural areas, even by low income households. Some animal operations, such as dairying and fattening, can be more labour-using (and land-saving) than other farm activities and on an expanded commercial basis require substantial inputs from other agricultural subsectors, especially feed grains. In regions of South Asia with limited arable land greater livestock production might thus efficiently absorb \"under-used\" labour and increase demand for \"inferior\" food grains, such as sorghum and maize. Processing of livestock products could absorb further labour but might need capital or technology inputs whose (relative) availability in developing countries is more problematic, especially where foreign investment by multinational or other foreign enterprises is prohibited or highly restricted.From a normative in addition to the pursuit of prudent monetary and fiscal policies, the first-best remedy for overcoming the disprotection of livestock and other efficient subsectors of agriculture in low income countries is the reduction of protection for industrial and other sectors having little or no international comparative advantage. Such liberalization of trade policies also increases integration with the world economy, in effect allowing world relative prices for agricultural commodities to prevail in the domestic economies of low income countries. It should also be expected to provide such countries with greater benefits from multilateral agreements to liberalize world trade in agriculture, such as under the recently concluded Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations.Finally, in the real world of second-best policy options, it is frequently suggested that more sector specific improvements to regulatory regimes and infrastructure are to be preferred over macroeconomic and trade policy reforms. This is an area needing more analysis. Recent studies nonetheless indicate that, while inherently desirable, sector-specific policy reforms have limited capacity to overcome biases against agricultural subsectors as long as economic distortions related to macroeconomic and trade policies remain in force (Krueger et al, 1988;1991).Consequent on the overlong Uruguay Round meetings, renewed interest in preferential trading arrangements, mainly in the form of \"free\" trade areas, has surfaced in a number of developing regions (Table 4). The implications of such arrangements can be sketched using the analytical framework that has already been described (Figure 2). A trading arrangement can be formed in which one country (Figure 2) forms a free trade area with another country from the same region (Figure 3). Production possibilities of the second country are represented by the PP curve, which portrays the second country as nearly identical to the first in terms of relative resource endowments. The production possibilities of the two countries differ in scale, however, reflecting an underlying difference in the absolute size of their respective endowments of primary factors of production. Like the first country, the second is assumed to forgo production at the free trade point P* and to enforce import restrictions that promote greater domestic production of manufactures. Equilibrium production under protection thus occurs at point P at the domestic terms of trade Pa/Pm, which are lower than the international terms of trade Pa/Pm*.The terms of trade governing production and consumption in the first and second countries, Pa/Pm and Pa/Pm, are not necessarily the same. Their relative magnitudes depend principally on the restrictiveness of the trade measures enforced in the first versus the second country. If protection levels are the same in both countries relative prices will be the same and there will be no incentive for intraregional trade. If, however, the first country maintains a higher (lower) level of protection than the second, the relative price of agricultural goods will be lower (higher) in the first than the second country and there will be incentive for trade between the two either officially or unofficially. Specifically, the first country will tend to exchange exports of agricultural goods (manufactures) for imports of manufactures (agricultural goods) as Pa/Pm < (>) Pa/Pm.Under a free trade arrangement between the two countries trade with third countries (i.e. countries outside the regional trading bloc) would be diverted to a greater or lesser degree. Assuming no barriers to trade except political ones the domestic terms of trade in the two countries would converge to a level between Pa/Pm and Pa/Pm in order to accommodate the adjustment of production, consumption, and trade. Economic welfare in the two countries, would not necessarily be improved. The well being of the first country is not improved unless the intrabloc terms of trade are greater than Pa/Pm' (Figure 3), in which case the new equilibrium point for production would lie between P' and P* and the new equilibrium point for consumption would occur at a higher level of (national) economic welfare than that corresponding to point C.These results demonstrate the fundamental importance of the complementarily of relative factor endowments and hence differences in comparative advantage among countries forming a preferential trading arrangement. If the first country allies itself with one or more countries that have relative factor endowments very similar to its own -i.e. other agricultural exporting countries -the intrabloc terms of trade are unlikely to exceed Pa/Pm' appreciably. Only if the alliance is one in which the member countries are marked by considerable complementarity of natural and accumulated factor endowments would the regional trading arrangement be likely to result in a significant reduction in the bias against agricultural production and trade and to yield an appreciable improvement in economic welfare. This is ironical because in such circumstances members of the trading alliance would be more likely to enjoy terms of trade approximating those available to them under free trade -i.e. Pa/Pm*.In addition, the expansion of production and trade in agriculture is principally in the domain of the first country. Given initial relative prices in the two countries under protection, the first will expand production and exports of agricultural goods but the second will specialize further in the production and export of manufactures. Though both countries might thus have an underlying comparative advantage in agriculture from a world vantage the preferential trading area in fact contributes to overcoming the bias against agriculture only in the first country although the regional trading arrangement might improve economic welfare in both countries.Extension of these results to production and trade in livestock products is not entirely straightforward. In broad terms regionalism might offer less developed countries an opportunity to expand mutual economic interests through preferential trading arrangements covering livestock products as well as other agricultural goods and manufactures. Fully articulating animal and other agricultural subsectors and greater opportunities for specialization and trade would clearly be introduced within a multisector framework. Nonetheless, the benefits of regional trade liberalization would still be more limited than those available to the countries under general trade liberalization. Further regional economic cooperation should not be expected to promote livestock production and exports widely in the region as long as resource endowment profiles among regional trading partners are similar.Notwithstanding the insights from this simple analytical framework (Figure 2, Figure 3) recent research and pragmatic discussions of regionalism have both pointed to some substantive reasons why regional trading arrangements among developing countries might be given greater consideration.First, the appreciable weakness of the international terms of trade facing exports from many developing countries (for example due to increased protectionism in the major industrial countries or, in the case of some commodity-exporting developing countries, the \"dumping\" of meat, dairy and other agricultural surpluses on world markets by industrial countries) sustains the view that greater integration with the world economy offers no clear advantages to less developed countries. As emphasized elsewhere (Wonnacott andWonnacott, 1981: 1992), at the margin foreign protection and its contribution to unfavourable terms of trade for developing (or other) countries in the world economy make membership in regional trading arrangements more attractive by lowering the critical terms of trade Pa/Pm' (Figure 3) [high transport costs for shipments of exports or imports would have implications similar to those for high foreign rates of protection: on the importance of international transportation costs for sub-Saharan African countries, see Yeats, 1990]. Progress in liberalizing world trade in agriculture, following the Uruguay Round outcome, would be expected to make regional trading agreements less attractive by raising the critical terms of trade. Early analyses suggest that little was achieved by way of measurable short or long term improvements to the international terms of trade of livestock or other agricultural products (FAO, 1994;Ingco, 1994;Hathaway and Ingco, 1995).Among other considerations shortcomings in both physical and institutional components of the infrastructure surrounding agriculture in developing countries could have major implications on the desirability of seeking regional trading arrangements.Indeed, as documented in studies of structural impediments to greater agricultural productivity, the components of infrastructure surrounding agriculture are often seriously deficient in low income developing countries (Lele, 1991). This relates to transport and communications networks, rural credit markets, organization and regulation of agricultural input and output markets and legal or informal arrangements surrounding the tenure and property rights of individual economic agents over agricultural lands, waterways and irrigation systems.As an example, poor rural transport or marketing networks in the second of two otherwise similar neighbouring countries (both pursuing import-substitution policies) would be expected to impair economic incentives for agricultural production in the second country, in effect foreshortening the production possibilities curve PP'' along the agricultural output axis (Figure 3). This would give rise to more sharply divergent relative prices in the two economies than depicted. Whether the creation of a free trade area would result in greater intraregional trade would depend, however, on the precise inadequacies of the infrastructure serving the rural economy of the second country. This would affect, in particular, how they might contribute under liberal trading arrangements to making intraregional trade more attractive to economic agents than wider international trade.If, for example, overland routes from areas of surplus livestock or other agricultural production to markets in neighbouring countries are shorter or more passable than (say) main routes to port facilities for overseas trade, or if intraregional trade is not required to pass through a parastatal marketing system, then the free trade area would result in expansion of intrabloc trade and tend to eliminate the differences in the relative price of agricultural goods between the two countries.In other circumstances creation of a preferential trading area might lead to little appreciable expansion of trade or adjustment in domestic relative prices without simultaneous elimination of underlying structural impediments.A \"core sample\" of 16 low income and other developing countries (Table 5) provides an overview of macroeconomic performance, agricultural and livestock production growth and monetary and fiscal policies during the 1970s and 1980s in six subregions of Asia, Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. Indicators of macroeconomic performance include economic growth, inflation, and change in the inflation adjusted or real exchange rate. Those illuminating the progress of agriculture and livestock (meat only) comprise the real growth of production and exports. Indicators of macroeonomic policies are confined to the two variables of monetary growth and government expenditure relative to GDP. These indicators are far from comprehensive and, taken individually, are subject to a number of shortcomings including the reliability of the data that underlie their measurement. It should also be noted that statistics by region are based on representative but very limited samples of the countries in the six subregions.  1980 1980-1990 1970-1980 1980-1990 1970-1980 1980-1990 1970-1980 1980-1990 1970-1980 1980-1990 1970-1980 1980-1990 Macroeconomic performance Regional country currencies vis a vis US $ Sources: UNCTAD, 1992;FAO, 1994c;World Bank, 1994a (data are derived as simple averages of country data by region)The subregions are about equally divided into middle and low income areas. Middle income countries (GNP > US $ 1000 per caput in 1990) are mainly in Southeast Asia and the Latin American subregions. GDP growth was generally greater than 4.0 per cent per annum during the 1970s except in South Asia where it was just under 3.0 per cent. Inflation and exchange rate changes are remarkably similar across the subregions (Table 5). Inflation was in the range 12.0-15.0 per cent per annum except in South America where it averaged nearly 60.0 per cent. In all subregions the inflation-adjusted exchange rate tended to appreciate during the 1970s with the steepest average rates recorded by West Africa and Southeast Asia. Notwithstanding the trend in real exchange rates export growth was generally positive with highest average rates in Central America and Southeast Asia and lowest rates in South America and Eastern and Southern Africa (Table 5).In comparison to GDP growth the average growth of agricultural production in the 1970s was generally more modest at 2.0-3.0 per cent annually, except in Southeast Asia where it exceeded 4.0 per cent and South Asia where it was just over 1.0 per cent (Table 5). Average growth of agricultural exports was positive only in Central America. In the other subregions it was strongly negative.The generally weak performance of agricultural production and exports might be taken as symptomatic of the bias against agriculture in the sample countries, depending on the precise nature of the macroeconomic policy environment of the countries surveyed. It needs to be noted, however, that growth rates of meat production and, to a lesser extent, meat exports were frequently more robust than those of general agricultural production and exports during the 1970s (Table 5), presumably reflecting aggregate economic growth but possibly also protection for the meat subsector from import competition. The data suggest that during this period production of meat in some subregions, especially in Latin America, was oriented towards the domestic market as indicated by the higher average growth rates of production than exports.The 1980s are often referred to as the \"lost decade\" for developing countries because of lower rates of economic growth, frequent balance of payments problems and sharp (real) exchange rate adjustments. These economic difficulties are reflected dramatically in the actual decline of per caput income levels between 1980 and 1990 in the Latin American and sub-Saharan Africa subregions (Table 5).From a macroeconomic policy perspective many developing countries failed to curb their large monetary and fiscal imbalances during the 1980s in response to reduction in monetary growth and increased emphasis on achieving greater economic efficiency and international competitiveness in the USA and other major industrial countries. Indeed, monetary growth and government expenditure (relative to GDP) increased -or were not reduced sufficiently -in several subregions (Table 5). This placed many countries at a considerable disadvantage as economic policies in a world economy dominated by industrial countries shifted gear abruptly and encouraged international flows of financial resources to fund higher rates of investment in the major industrial countries than they had during the 1970s.The strength of such international economic forces combined with policy adjustments taken reluctantly in many less developed countries during the second half of the 1980s caused real exchange rates to adjust to lower levels in most developing regions during the 1980s. Economic growth matching that during the previous decade could not be achieved in the developing subregions except for South Asia, which increased its average rate of GDP growth from 2.9 per cent to 5.0 per cent. Aggregate growth of exports, on the other hand, improved appreciably in several areas. This included South America where, in association with the sharp average depreciation of the real exchange rate (5.5 per cent), it increased from 1.5 per cent to 2.1 per cent per annum. Improved export performance, except in South Asia and Central America, was \"led\" by improved growth of agricultural exports.Growth rates of agricultural production and exports fell in Southeast Asia while growth rates of meat production rose relative to the previous decade. Agricultural exports rose sharply in both South America and West Africa but average growth rates of agricultural production, meat production and meat exports fell relative to the previous decade. Against the record of these three subregions, however, two bright spots are seen in the economic performance of South Asia and Eastern/Southern Africa, where growth rates in output and exports of both agricultural products and meat were marginally or substantially higher than during the 1970s.In summary, the 1980s witnessed greater disarray rather than added growth and development in agriculture and livestock in most developing regions. This might be attributed in part to changes in the international macroeconomic environment but failure by many developing countries to adopt more prudent macroeconomic policies under the changed international conditions are also an important factor. This lends weak support to the view that such policies in the domain of developing countries themselves are vitally important to achieving robust growth in the most internationally competitive subsectors of agriculture in less developed countries.Relationships between macroeconomic policies and agriculture sector performance, especially the livestock sector, are complex and not easily captured by simple statistics. In addition, trade and sectoral policies should be factored into the analysis. An overriding issue with respect to this discussion of macroeconomic policies, however, is the continuing uncertain progress of policy reforms in many low income and other developing countries, as typified by a recent financial crisis in Mexico. Possibly of greater consequence, however, is the uncertain progress and sustainability of reforms being undertaken by developing countries elsewhere, especially in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The experience of developing countries in several subregions during the 1990s with regard to macroeconomic policies and performance will determine the epitaph of the 1990sThe global trading system is dominated by the major industrial countries. Expanding trade relations around the Asia-Pacific Rim -an especially dynamic region of the world economy that includes the fast-growing and outward oriented (newly) industrialized countries (NICs) of East and Southeast Asia -have, however, become a major factor in the growth of world trade during the last 10 or more years. The importance of the major industrial countries to the global trading system extends particularly to international trade in agriculture, which occupied a prominent place in the Uruguay Round of mutilateral trade negotiations.With respect to livestock, international trade in meat and dairy products takes place in a relatively small residual market and the volume traded accounts for a very small proportion of world production. Excluding trade among EU member countries, only about 10 per cent of global beef output, 5 per cent of dairy, 3 per cent of pork and 8 per cent of poultry were traded internationally in 1991 (World Bank, 1993) but even adding trade in the EU raises the percentage only slightly. Over 70 per cent of international trade in dairy products is through the KU, New Zealand and the United States.The EU is the largest beef exporter, accounting for about 26 per cent of world exports in 1991 with Australia contributing another 21 per cent. Some of these countries are also major importers, the USA taking 31 per cent of world beef imports in 1991, the EU 12 per cent and Japan 15 per cent. In an environment dominated by a few market participants world price movements and expectations are largely determined by the domestic meat and dairy policies of the key producing countries.Concerns for food security and the secular trend of declining importance of agriculture in national output in developed countries have caused agricultural producer support policies to flourish (Figure 4). These are enforced by import controls as well as direct market interventions to maintain high prices for domestic farmers. These policies impose high and increasingly transparent costs on consumers and taxpayers. In the context of global trade relations they have also come to have important spill over effects on efficient producers in other countries, including less developed countries. The agricultural price raising policies of the major industrial countries succeeded in inducing over production in many EU countries and the USA. This has weakened world prices for meat, poultry and dairy products (and other agricultural commodities) indirectly via the effects of import controls and directly by dumping of excess government commodity stocks and officially subsidized exports -butter exported from the EU in 1994 needed a subsidy of almost US $ 2000/tonne and non-fat dried milk a subsidy of almost US $ 1000.The world fresh meat trade is also faced with non-tariff barriers based on health restrictions. The EU bans meat produced with growth hormones but the most important restrictions are those on meat imports from countries where there is foot and mouth disease. Combined with domestic farm and livestock support policies the restrictions promote segmentation of world markets for livestock and lead to exclusion of most developing country exporters from the lucrative markets of industrialized countries. Trade in processed meat and dairy products is not exempt from these difficulties. Few developing countries now export processed meat. Expansion of exports of higher value added meat and dairy products is, however, one way of overcoming barriers to the fresh meat trade and raising foreign exchange earnings. Protection of food processing industries in developed countries has its own peculiar features. In addition to tariffs and quantitative restrictions processed products from developing countries face two further barriers: non-tariff ones due to differing health, food safety and environmental standards; and structural ones due to domination of developed country food markets by oligopolistic firms benefiting from major economies of scale and scope. A review of trade barriers to processed food exports from developing countries (Matthews, 1994) concluded that rising standards in developed countries will make it more difficult for developing countries to gain access and thus compete in terms of scale economies and product quality.The Uruguay Round was historic because negotiations to liberalize world agricultural trade were on the agenda. The industrial countries have made dramatic advances in liberalizing trade in manufactures in periodic rounds of negotiations of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Until the advent of the Uruguay Round, however, agriculture was largely outside efforts to expand international trade under GATT principles. The Round sought to curb, if not eliminate, protectionist policies. Drawn out over seven years, negotiations on agriculture proved to be very difficult and were not concluded until December 1993, after special bilateral understandings were reached between the EU and the USA. The agreement on agriculture concerns three principal areas: market access; domestic support policies: and export competition.The major triumph is tariffication of all non-tarff barriers and the stipulation of an average 36 per cent reduction of bound tariff rates over the 6-year period of the agreement. Rules established for tariffication are not precise and, as a consequence, high rates of tariff protection are expected to be bound by many countries. Circumventing this problem in part is the additional requirement that minimum access be guaranteed for previously restricted import categories amounting to three per cent of domestic consumption initially and five per cent at the end of the implementation period (ironically, this requirement promotes establishment of tariff-rate quota systems in direct contradiction of basic GATT principles).Domestic subsidies subject to control under the agreement are to be reduced by 20 per cent over the agreement period.Expenditure on subsidies and volumes of subsidized exports must be reduced by 36 per cent and 21 per cent over the period of the agreement.These terms apply mainly to industrial and advanced developing countries. For other developing countries the Uruguay Round agreement on agriculture is less stringent under the rubric of \"special and differential treatment\" for less developed countries. In the main, the period of adjustment to the new multilateral trading regime in agriculture is extended to 10 years. Subsidies accorded to food and agriculture sectors for \"development purposes\" are also exempt from coverage. With the exception of tariffication, therefore, requirements for compliance to the terms of the agreement by less developed countries are limited.Early estimates of the impacts of liberalization of industrial country farm policies based on simulations of multisector partial equilibrium and general equilibrium models (Burniaux et al 1990;Page et al, 1991) indicate that the total volume of agricultural exports by efficient producers will expand by about 25 per cent. This would be accompanied by an increase in the aggregate level of world prices for agricultural products of 10-15 per cent.Under the terms of the new agriculture agreement changes in international trade and prices will be considerably smaller. Precise estimates are not available but, ceteris paribus the long run expansion of trade in agriculture by efficient exporters in response to greater market access is not expected to be more than 5-10 per cent. The long run increase in world prices for agricultural commodities is not expected to be more than 2-5 per cent in the aggregate and 5-10 per cent for some subgroups, including meat and dairy products as well as wheat (Table 6).Some commitments were made by the EU and US to reform border measures distorting trade in agriculture (Table 7).Beyond illustrating the observance of the letter of the new trade agreement they reveal some important and disquieting elements. With regard to the tariffication of import barriers it is apparent that tariff rates have been widely bound at initial (1995) levels above the tariff equivalent rates of the pre-Uruguay Round non-tariff barriers.In the case of milk products, for example, the EU and the USA raised initial protection levels substantially above pre-Round levels. Although the EU commitment implies a 29 per cent reduction in import controls by the year 2000, the endperiod rate is actually 18 per cent higher than the pre-Round level. In respect of pledges of reduced volumes of subsidized exports the percentage reductions are inflated by the fact that, by agreement, they are measured relative to the average levels of 1986-1990 rather than the higher volumes of subsidized exports anticipated to take place in 1995.  Source: Hathaway and Ingco, 1995 These disquieting elements of the GATT agreement, together with lowered expectations about quantitative estimates of the more general effects on international trade and prices of agricultural commodities, may be disappointing. Many agricultural and trade policy analysts, however, point to the success of the Uruguay Round in finally bringing agriculture into greater conformity with the basic principles of GATT and to the potential of future multilateral trade negotiations for achieving greater liberalization of trade in agriculture (Josling et al, 1994;Sanderson 1994). Against this view must be weighed that of critics who point to the unabated strength of administered arrangements in agriculture left in place by the Uruguay Round agreement and the creation of new administered arrangements in the tariff-rate quotas mandated under the market access provisions of the new agreement. To these critics, future negotiations to liberalize trade in agriculture will continue to be hindered by the still effective political consensus in favour of agricultural support programmes in the major industrial countries.The outcome of the Uruguay Round negotiations leaves room to doubt that appreciable expansion of international trade in animal products or other farm products will occur in the near future, at least directly in relation to the multilateral agreement on agriculture. Indirectly it is possible that world demand for agricultural goods might be increased through opportunities for expanded trade in textiles and other manufactures, or even services, made possible by the larger agreement.This leaves for greater consideration the trade regimes of developing countries themselves especially those seeking to expand exports of livestock and animal products as well as other traditional and non-traditional agricultural commodities and goods (Table 8). The portrait is, however, deficient in several respects. First, regional summaries reflect the circumstances of the core countries and not of all countries in each region. Second, summaries of non-tariff barriers do not include consideration of foreign exchange restrictions which are vital to understanding the breadth of barriers to trade (including animal disease and other health and sanitary regulations that are sometimes enforced in a discriminatory manner against imports) in many African and other low income countries. Third, the data are incomplete with respect to trade in categories other than animal products, cereals and total trade owing to deficiencies in the underlying data sources. Notwithstanding these limitations, some aspects of the data are noteworthy for their possible implications for livestock development across the six subregions.Judging principally by the height of national tariff walls the most protected economies are those in South Asia and South America whereas the least protected are Central America and Southeast Asia. African economies fall somewhere in the middle with average tariff rates on imports of manufactures as well as primary commodities falling in the range 25-33 per cent. With regard to livestock and animal products it is notable that tariff escalation occurs widely across regions with meat, dairy products and eggs generally facing substantially higher applied tariff rates than livestock. In addition, not unlike the circumstance surrounding imports of cereals and cereal preparations, restrictions on imports of animal products are frequently enforced by non-tariff barriers, including state trading monopolies as well as various forms of quantitative restrictions. In economic terms such restrictions are especially costly because, unlike (ad valorem) tariffs, they interfere with the efficiency of the price system in allocating resources as well as goods in consumption and production.The height of the barriers against imports of animal products suggests that consumers in developing regions bear higher than necessary economic costs in meeting their demands for these products. In other words, lower import barriersespecially to imports of higher value meat, dairy and poultry products -would tend to lower costs of these food items to consumers. They would also, of course, expand opportunities for greater trade to producers of these commodities in other developing countries as well as in the major industrial countries.Consistent with the earlier discussion of economic theory the possible bias against greater production and trade in livestock and agriculture in general can be related to the higher rates of protection for manufactures than for livestock and agricultural raw materials. Essentially, import substitution policies favouring industrial activities (but also possibly some staple food sectors such as cereals) limit economic incentives for greater specialization in the agricultural activities for which less developed countries (and subregions) have a strong underlying comparative advantage. It could be argued that countries in several of the subregions might enjoy greater output and exports of livestock and related products under more liberal trade policy regimes. Possibilities for such expanded production and exports include livestock in Southeast Asia and Central America, meat products in South Asia, South America and Eastern/Southern Africa and dairy products and eggs in Southeast Asia and South America.Finally, with regard to regional trade relations, the data clearly show that the strongest trading ties of the six subregions in livestock and animal products are with the major industrial countries, especially with respect to imports. In the case of exports, livestock and meat exports from Central America are also destined mainly for markets in the more advanced countries. This leaves exports of dairy products and eggs and, to a lesser extent, livestock as the animal subsectors in which trade is conducted relatively extensively with other developing countries, presumably mainly on an intraregional basis given the high transport costs for livestock and the perishability of dairy products and eggs. In the context of regional cooperation and possibilities for expanding intraregional trade in livestock and animal products an attractive option for regional policy makers would be the introduction of preferential tariff rates for intraregional exports of dairy products and eggs. This would be encouraged by regional producers recognizing their mutual interests in cooperative trade policies to promote exports to neighbouring countries at the (seeming) expense of exports from outside the region. Indeed, this policy option runs parallel to the focus of many regional trading arrangements among less developed countries on expanding intraregional trade in manufactures. From the economywide perspective, however, the extent to which preferential trading to promote intrabloc trade in industrial or other nontraditional sectors relieves constraints on the scarcest resources and enables greater aggregate consumption to be achieved is of primary importance for economic welfare. In these terms, policies to expand intrabloc trade in sectors for which the region may have limited international comparative advantage are not likely to yield appreciable gains in economic welfare except to the regional producers whose economic interests are principally served by the preferential trading arrangements. Notwithstanding distortions in the global trading system that adversely affect the less developed countries, the secondbest policy option, as well as the first-best, for the national economies of developing countries and those subsectors of agriculture that are most internationally competitive is likely to be general liberalization of trade with countries outside and within the same region on a nondiscriminatory basis.In addition to the economywide policies already discussed direct livestock sector specific interventions in developing countries are common and take many different forms. Traditional methods of intervention in the livestock sector include the use of price controls and state monopoly marketing boards, restraints on private sector involvement in processing and marketing and an array of inhibitory measures such as export taxes, import tariffs, export and import licenses, quotas and bans. These intervention policies were often implemented with the aim of achieving certain broad objectives including output expansion, export promotion, revenue generation, price stabilization, inflation control and improvement of income distribution. With few exceptions, however (e.g. Operation Flood in India), the evidence suggests that traditional methods of intervention in the livestock sector have failed to achieve their objectives and have, instead, largely benefited consumers at the expense of producers (Jarvis, 1986;Williams, 1993a).Failure of traditional intervention methods stems in part from the inherent conflicts that often arise between the desired objectives of livestock policy and the instruments required to achieve them. In many LAC and SSA countries, for example, state marketing boards were established in part as instruments of revenue generation and producer support and to control export of livestock products. They functioned as buying and selling agents. At government prompting they often fixed low purchase and selling prices or used export earnings to subsidize and lower the urban retail price of meat and dairy products -thus benefiting consumers and harming producers. In cases where agency domestic selling prices (set by government) were inadequate to cover their handling costs and the costs of purchasing products at the government-guaranteed producer prices, subsidy payments were made by the treasury. In Zimbabwe in 1984 and 1986, for example, the Cold Storage Commission (the parastatal responsible for beef marketing) needed 8.5 million and 6.0 million Zimbabwe dollars to cover trading deficits incurred as a result of government control of both purchase and wholesale selling prices (Williams, 1993a).There was similar inadequate appreciation of the potential conflict involved in attempting to achieve domestic livestock production objectives through the price mechanism and maintaining external trade balance. The traceable nature of livestock products implies that if stiff tariffs or quotas are imposed on imports to correct trade imbalances created by an overvalued exchange rate they will often have an indirect ill effect on the livestock sector since they were not implemented with the latter in mind.Previous intervention policies also failed to account for the dynamic behaviour of the livestock sector and the role that other institutional factors such as credit and public infrastructure could play in promoting livestock growth. Large variations in producer prices over the cattle cycle, for example, imply that income would vary significantly were the number of animals slaughtered to be held constant. Slaughter does increase in the short term as prices fall and producers disinvest in livestock. Thus, when prices are falling, unless credit is available or there is a good network of roads and transport system to move animals to regions where prices are stable, producers will often sell more animals than they otherwise would to achieve needed income (Jarvis, 1977;Doran et al, 1979;Sapelli, 1984). This extends the time needed to rebuild herds and increase output.Meat and dairy price controls also failed to curb inflation, and in some cases even exacerbated it, in countries where such measures were implemented. The prices fixed were generally too low in relation to demand and supply. Scarcity of products sold at controlled prices rapidly developed alongside parallel markets with prices higher than would in the absence of price controls. As a result the proportion of goods sold at controlled prices fell while parallel market sales increased, with an inflationary effect. These problems were met in several LAC countries in the late 1970s and in SSA in the early 1980s.These lapses and structural problems such as poor export performance, increasing import bills and huge parastatal financial losses combine to demonstrate the failure of traditional intervention methods. Since the mid 1970s in LAC and Asia and the 1980s in SSA sectoral and macroeconomic reforms have been implemented in several countries. These have emphasized shifts from administered price setting towards greater use of market determined prices, reduction of the statutory roles of public marketing agencies, devolution of some functions to private sector organizations and removal of restrictions on private sector marketing. Macroeconomic reforms involving trade and exchange rate liberalization and reforms of fiscal, monetary and investment credit policies have also been undertaken.Evidence of the effects of these reforms on the agricultural sector remains tentative and mixed, partly because of the varying degree of commitment to all aspects of reforms. The evidence is still very scanty for the livestock sector. A recent review of the impact of structural adjustment programmes in SSA showed that macroeconomic reforms have spurred external competitiveness while reduced taxation of agriculture has encouraged production and exports (World Bank, 1994b).One analysis (Valdés 1993) of the effects of economywide and sectoral reforms in Chile and New Zealand showed the overall impact on agricultural production and exports to be beneficial, particularly in Chile, with moderate efficiency gains in New Zealand. On the debit side, Chile still faces the challenge of raising the incomes and welfare of small farmers in the marginal areas that have benefited least from reform and in New Zealand continuing protection of domestic industry hurts the agricultural sector. The study also highlighted the importance of trade and macroeconomic policies over sectoral interventions, and in particular the strategic role of the real exchange rate in allowing agriculture to compete domestically and internationally.Another study of the effects of recent dairy price policy reform in Kenya (Steal and Shapiro, 1994) showed that deregulation reduced the negative protection previously experienced by producers by 20-30 per cent. The continuing existence of entry barriers into milk processing for private investors and the monopsony power of Kenya Cooperative Creameries, however, prevented further gains of price deregulation being passed to producers.What is clear from the scanty evidence is that earlier expectations of rapid economic transformation as a result of reform implementation were too optimistic. Implementation has been more difficult and time consuming than originally expected and in some cases lacked a coherent framework for initiating and sequencing sectoral and macroeconomic reforms. It is also clear that errors in sequencing and adjusting traditional policy instruments to a partially liberalized policy environment could derail or threaten the gains obtainable from reforms.West African countries provide a good illustration of the implications of macroeconomic, international trade and sectoral policies for regional trade in livestock products. The Sahel countries, over many centuries, have been the major source of livestock products, mainly fresh meat, to their coastal neighbours. Three major developments in the 1970s and 1980s fundamentally changed patterns of livestock trade in the region. The first was the severe drought of the late 1960s and early 1970s which opened regional markets to substantial extraregional imports of frozen meat, initially from Argentina and later from the EU. The second was the sustained imbalance in macroeconomic policies in the Sahel countries during the 1970s and 1980s, epitomized by the heavily protectionist trading policies in favour of industry, coupled with substantial and explicit taxation of the agricultural sector and the gradual appreciation of the CFA Franc. The third was the emergence of considerable surpluses in the livestock sector of the EU after decades of heavy subsidies.Sahel beef exports to coastal West Africa dropped significantly as a consequence of these developments. In Côte d'Ivoire, for example, beef from the Sahel countries by the end of the 1980s had fallen to half of an initial share of over 60 per cent. Imports of frozen beef from countries outside the region, mainly from the EU, jumped 3-fold from a low of 16 per cent to 44 per cent (Delgado and Lent, 1992). The decline in Sahel exports occurred despite nearly complete recovery in the livestock sector from the drought of the 1970s. This indicates a much greater role of sector-specific and trade policies in the Sahel and neighbouring countries as well as livestock production and export policies in the EU. Underlying the changes in relative export shares was a shift in the price ratio between Sahel beef and imports from 0.5 in the early 1980s to 2.0 by 1990, as import prices for EU beef fell to 20 per cent of their initial level. The fall in the price of imported beef reflects increases in subsidies to exports to West Africa which rose from CFA 124/kg in 1974 to CFA 710/kg in 1991 in order to reduce mounting surplus stocks in the EU. It has been estimated that subsidies to European beef have been as high as 7580 per cent (Delgado and Lent, 1992;Afrique Agriculture, 1993).In addition to the detrimental effects of EU trade policies on regional exports, the latter have been adversely affected by prevailing policies in the Sahel countries, by trade barriers within West Africa and by economic decline in importing coastal countries.Domestic factors affecting the supply of livestock exports from the Sahel countries include sectoral policies that discourage trade, mainly transport and marketing policies that raise the cost of operating in local and transborder markets and (to a greater extent) the appreciation of the CFA Franc. Because demand for livestock products is strongly elastic macroeconomic policies in importing countries (through their impact on the overall rate of income growth) have major implications for regional trade in livestock products (Badiane, 1994). The 1980s was characterized by a rapid decline in incomes in most of West Africa and meat demand in the two major importing countries, Côte d'Ivoire and Nigeria, fell from 12.2 and 8.4 kg per caput to 11.0 and 4.2 kg.The implications of domestic supply factors in the Sahel countries and of EU export policies for livestock product trade in West Africa have been highlighted by the reaction of regional trade flows to the devaluation of the CFA Franc and the reduction of export subsidies for EU beef. The sharp decline in EU intervention stocks (Figure 5) made it easy for the EU to reduce subsidies on beef exports by as much as one third (Afrique Agriculture, 1994). This coincided with the devaluation of the CFA Franc by 50 per cent in February 1994. EU beef import prices rose by 50 per cent as a result while Sahel export prices dropped in non-CFA coastal countries or changed only slightly in CFA countries. Exports from the Sahel countries reacted favourably and during the first quarter of 1994 exports from Burkina Faso and Niger were three and two times higher than their respective exports for the whole of 1993 (Afrique Agriculture, 1994).  The proposed extension of the milk quota system for a further eight years and improvements in feedlot operations are also projected to result in a general rise in EU beef production up to the late 1990s (World Bank, 1993). Higher Sahel beef prices and potential increases in EU beef export subsidies in order to dispose of the higher stocks can be expected to return regional livestock markets in West Africa to the situation of the 1970s and 1980s.A broad range of policies affects the livestock sector. This range includes macroeconomic, trade and sectoral policies in addition to public infrastructure, animal health services and investment in processing and marketing facilities. Because services such as infrastructure, communications, research, extension and training are public good and are essential to the overall success of other economic reforms government has a role to play in promoting, or actually providing, these services.Government policy should promote optimal use of domestic resources in the production of livestock as well as other agricultural commodities and products for both domestic consumption and export. Given the diversity of natural, social, institutional and economic resources and the varying potential for livestock sector growth, desirable livestock policies must differ from country to country. Each country's production potential, consumption profile and marketing opportunities will determine the role of livestock production in the economy and the areas in which governments might seek to promote greater market efficiency.Livestock policy analysis is complex but the institutional capacity for micro and macroeconomic analysis of livestock issues is very limited in most low income developing countries. For low income exporting countries, greater familiarity with international market developments is especially important, as is the development of more accurate and comprehensive data bases for policy analysis.International market instability and distorted world prices create major policy dilemmas for developing countries that have the natural resources to produce livestock at a relatively low cost. Should they resist using world prices in situations where these are primarily the result of distortionary policies in developed countries? Should they import lower cost livestock products on the grounds that they benefit consumers despite their negative impact on producers and long term growth? Or should they protect domestic producers to encourage development of their own livestock sectors and thereby forego the benefits of low import prices?The answer to the first question is clear. Economic theory suggests that international prices are the best measure of opportunity cost and should determine domestic prices. The argument for using world prices does not depend on how they are determined but only on the fact that they are fixed from the point of view of the country concerned. Three reasons can be given, however, as to why international market price distortions might be of legitimate concern to developing countries (Duncan and Jones, 1993). First, if policy reforms in developed countries lead to reduction or elimination of distortions, current prices might not be a good guide for longer term investment decisions. Second, the reduction of domestic production of products that compete with imports might make a country more vulnerable to future increases in world market prices. Third, importing goods at distorted prices will have an income distribution effect, favouring consumers of the subsidized product and harming producers.Although these arguments might provide a basis for imposing countervailing duty measures to restrict subsidized imports each country needs to make a critical appraisal of its own situation to arrive at a desirable solution. In this connection careful assessment should be made of the possible extent to which inappropriate domestic macroeconomic, trade and other policies are also important factors in the unsatisfactory performance and contribution to overall economic growth and poverty alleviation of the agricultural sector in general and the livestock subsector in particular.The processed food sector in developing countries offers additional opportunities for growth of the livestock sector. This is true for the Latin American and Asian countries already heavily involved in the export trade. In the medium term, however, low income countries in the Sahel and other less developed regions might also be able to increase production of dairy and other processed livestock products to meet expanding regional and local demands. Beyond regional markets, formidable barriers to entry remain in the markets of the developed countries. To overcome the obstacles in these markets developing countries need to engage in more frequent negotiations with the major industrial countries for better market access and to seek agreement to be consulted in the setting of food import standards. Developing countries also need to encourage foreign investment in their domestic food industries in order to get the support of the multinational firms that dominate the food markets in developed countries.In all regions, but most especially in subSaharan Africa, governments have a role to play in ensuring the availability of the infrastructure and support services that producers need in order to be able to respond effectively to price incentives. In addition, governments need to help develop private sector capacity where state marketing boards are -being dismantled and the private sector shows signs of not being able to respond to the new marketing environment.Developing countries have nearly two thirds of the world's livestock but produce only about a quarter to a third of the world's meat and a fifth of its milk. Low output in the developing regions is due to both low offtake rates and low yields per animal. Beef and veal output per head of cattle in North America is 281 kg whereas yields in Africa and Asia are about half at 142 kg and 129 kg. In South America, the developing region where livestock production is most advanced, beef and veal output per animal is 213 kg. Milk yields are almost ten times lower in Africa and four times lower in South America and Asia than in North America and Europe (USDA, 1990;FAO, 1992a;1992b;1992c;World Bank, 1993). Relatively few cows are milked in Asia but the market is growing quickly. These figures suggest that major improvements in livestock productivity are possible. Research can provide technologies to help achieve productivity increases but technology needs to be transferred to producers to ensure impact.Global research and development is expanding to include not only international, national, regional and developed country research institutions but also development and donor agencies (including NGOs) and developing country governments. These developments can be seen as problems or opportunities. They are opportunities if this group of expanding partners and stakeholders develops closer links and new functional models. New modes of functioning can help to link the interests and activities of all concerned in development. The mandate of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is also being broadened at a time when the growth rate of available resources may be slower than in the past. Making an impact in a global context with so many partners and stakeholders will require more focus and closer cooperation and coordination.A framework for international action to support livestock development is thus timely. The goal of this framework is to help achieve increased and sustainable food production and generate more income for improved food security in low income countries. This goal fits within the new global mandate of ILRI which, although its main function is research, cannot ignore the need to link its research to technology transfer efforts if it is to make an impact.This paper considers issues related to the role livestock research can play in strategies making up this framework for action and especially its effective linkage with technology transfer. The focus is on Africa because the region, while not being unique in facing the problems of the developing world, provides the greatest challenge to the global agricultural development community.Development of an effective framework for action needs to take into account the current state of research in the global system and particularly in developing nation programmes (Sanders et al, 1995).Prevailing research and national policy need to be considered. The neglect of agriculture, and especially of research, since independence in Africa defines the current state of national research programmes. The great need of national programmes in Africa remains human capacity and institution building.From the time of the Green Revolution successes in the late 1960s to the early 1980s the international and developed country donors operated on the paradigm that introduction of agricultural technology was the engine of growth. This was not only for agriculture but also for the whole economy in most lower income developing countries. The global research system has consisted until recently mainly of the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and the International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs) sponsored primarily by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).The CGIAR grew out of the Green Revolution successes and has provided the predominant institutional model. Following the success of the Green Revolution, the response of the international donor community was to expand the IARC system. The IARC model has been that agricultural research requires narrow definition of priorities, well trained multidisciplinary teams of scientists and long term commitment (Ruttan, 1982). Developed country donors have attempted to isolate the IARCs from short run political and economic pressures and provided sufficient financial incentives and infrastructure to create and motivate multidisciplinary teams of scientists over long periods covering 10-20 years.Donor support was also provided to NARS, the IARC model being adopted by most of these. Human capital formation in the NARS has now been supported by both the developed countries and the IARCs for over 20 years. NARS have been unable, however, to remain isolated from local political and economic pressures and to maintain size and continuity in their research programmes. As agencies of their governments NARS have had to respond to the continually changing objectives of their governments and, often, of donors. Thus, despite the progress made the NARS still need to improve human capital and institutional capacity.The current state of research in Africa is also in part a function of the nature and focus of the institutions set up during the colonial period and the technical assistance model that has dominated since independence. A skeletal agricultural research infrastructure was established in most countries of sub-Saharan Africa early in the 20th century (McElvey, 1965). Research concentrated almost exclusively, however, on export crops such as oil palm, cocoa, coffee, groundnuts and cotton which yielded rather substantial returns. Little attention was given to research on food crops and, essentially, hybrid maize in Kenya and Zimbabwe was the only staple food receiving substantial research effort during the colonial period. After independence the institutional base of agriculture was largely geared to supporting large farms, plantations, ranches and export agriculture (Eicher, 1993).African governments have mainly been concerned until recently with highly visible development projects.They have considered the agricultural sector to be a labour pool for industry and a source of cheap food for urban areas. Policy makers have overlooked the potential returns from investing in agricultural research. In economic terms the rate of time discount was too high. Agricultural research, especially increasing the institutional and human capital capacities of research institutions, is a long term investment. It has very high payoffs but most returns are subtle and not immediately obvious to policy makers. Diffusion of new technology is usually gradual and food price declines are small. With the historic major disincentives against the agricultural sector in most sub-Saharan countries, there should be even greater appreciation of the gains from new technologies that have been achieved.Research policy is mainly translated into investment in agricultural research capacity. Where investment has been inadequate, such as in Africa, there has been a marked lack of success in development and transfer of new technologies. Slow development due to lack of support for human capacity and institution building by governments has been compounded by donor insistence on using expatriate technical assistance to support national research programmes (Eicher, 1990).Life became more difficult in the global research system during the 1980s when there was a shift in the predominant paradigm in development to \"getting the prices right\". This implied structural adjustment, accompanied by devaluation, changes in emphasis from parastatals to development of a private sector and a stress on exports rather than achieving food self sufficiency. The forced economic changes of structural adjustment and extraction of capital to repay the loans of the 1970s made the 1980s and the first half of the 1990s very difficult for most developing countries, especially the low income countries. Many changes resulting from structural adjustment will help the agricultural sector in the long run. With the shift of the development paradigm, however, there has been a levelling off of donor funding for international agricultural research. Competition for donor funds then became more intense and acrimonious in the 1980s and 1990s due to efforts by both IARCs and NARS to sustain research budgets.The scientific gap and institutional immaturity in Africa is also in part the result of lack of investment in developing scientific and managerial capacity (Eicher, 1990). Following 30 or more years of independence, Africa has the lowest scientific capacity of the developing regions. It has only one fifth the number of research and development scientists and engineers per million compared to Asia. About a quarter of the total value of human resources in NARS, including academic staff, are expatriates (Eicher, 1990). About 20 per cent of researchers in sub-Saharan Africa are engaged in research related to livestock production compared to 17 per cent in Asia and the Pacific (excluding China), 21 per cent in LAC, 16 per cent in WANA and 18 per cent for the developing world in general (TAC, 1993). Africa, however, has far fewer scientists than other developing regions.To function effectively NARS need not only trained personnel but also adequate funds to cover fixed and operating costs. Government funding for NARS in Africa has rarely been sufficient and has often been used ineffectively. Average expenditure on agricultural research for the less developed countries, including SSA, in 1981-1985 was 0.94 per cent of agricultural GDP (Pardey et al, 1991cited by Eponou, 1993). Other sources put the figure at 0.54 per cent of agricultural GDP and state that this is only about a quarter of the percentage investment in developed countries (Jain, 1990). National resources are now mainly used for maintaining staff salaries, which often account for 90 per cent of the total budget, and infrastructure. Donor funding is thus used most often for the marginal costs of experiments. Many NARS are still considered to be performing badly in spite of donor aid.The human capacity/institution building model must replace long term technical assistance in order to develop national research capacity. Building effective national systems capable of doing adaptive, as well as applied, research will require continued investments in human capacity through higher education in the agricultural sciences. IARCs can play an important role in NARS capacity building through training and collaborative research. Short term training courses should be supported by research training to collaborators in the context of projects undertaken in CGIAR-sponsored cross-centre and ecoregional initiatives. CGIAR scientists can also act as technical resource persons in applied and adaptive research projects that build upon results and technologies developed by the CGIAR. Increased efficiency will result from regional groupings of NARS or using established networks to carry out this research.It is, however, questionable whether the necessary human and institutional development can take place in a research environment increasingly dominated by short term project related research funding. Short term funding is a particular problem for livestock research since the reproduction cycle of animals is so long. Many technological advances in the continent, such as the development of Zimbabwe hybrid maize, have their roots in research studies undertaken by a small group of scientists working over several decades (Delgado and Mellor, 1984). Human capacity/institution building strategies and long term funding for livestock research projects would be worthwhile components of any framework for action.The environment affecting research is determined not only directly by research policy but also by sectoral and macro policies. These policies can have a direct bearing on the demand for technological change and the extent of adoption and thus the impact of research efforts. Some such policies can depress domestic production and encourage poor management of the natural resource base. These include: food pricing policies that subsidize consumers and tax producers; overvalued exchange rates that favour imports rather than domestic production; and inefficient input and credit market policies that inhibit the uptake of new technology (Ehui and Lipner, 1993).Sound sectoral policies in support of animal agriculture can have several effects on producers. They provide incentives to intensify livestock production with purchased inputs and to commercialize livestock activities and integrate them in the market economy. They also encourage investment in items such as barns and fencing, encourage public investment in infrastructure to improve market efficiency, provide regulations that facilitate market operations for the supply of inputs and the delivery of animal health services and assist in providing improved credit facilities (Fitzhugh et al, 1992).Macro policies can affect research impact through their influence on food production, distribution and consumption. Until recently trade policies encouraged imports of cheap dairy products into Africa and discouraged development of domestic dairy industries (von Massow, 1989). Policy changes on the part of the EU, the USA and other major dairy exporters under the GATT agreement have led to a decline in world milk supplies, pushing up world market prices and making African domestic production more competitive with imports from developed, especially European, countries. Even if world market prices do not continue to rise as expected (Shapiro et al, 1990;Shapouri and Rosen, 1992) domestic milk production in many sub-Saharan countries will remain competitive due to recent currency devaluations (Walshe et al, 1991). Livestock production in the semiarid areas of West, East and Southern Africa also has a comparative advantage relative to livestock production in coastal humid countries that improves the prospects for interregional trade.Policy reforms such as structural adjustment need to go beyond liberalizing output and input prices. A recent analysis of effects of price and macro policies on livestock production shows that, since the early 1980s, there has been a reduction in price discrimination against producers in sub-Saharan Africa. There is still scope, however, for improving price incentives if macroeconomic imbalances that cause exchange rate distortions and high domestic inflation are corrected (Williams, 1993). An analysis of the effects of policies on periurban dairying near Nairobi looked at institutional factors beyond prices that needed policy reform. Producers were found to have major opportunities for higher profits since market access is good and productive technology can be profitably used (Steal and Shapiro, 1994). An analysis of dairy price decontrol indicated, however that the market remained non-competitive. The effect on producer incentives is thus still negative compared with potential profitability in a policy free environment.Policy research and information dissemination may need to be a part of the strategies making up the framework for action. Such efforts will need to improve the data base on livestock, as well as its accessibility to NARS and regional research institutes (RRIs). The framework for action should also improve the ability of NARS to provide analyses to help policy makers in developing countries anticipate and understand the probable consequences of policy actions. Policy research and analysis of this type is needed because new livestock policy instruments such as full cost pricing for input services, payment of full market prices and interest rates are being introduced in many developing countries. There is a need to know whether these policies facilitate or hamper livestock development, including the sustainable use of the natural resource base.Livestock research objectives have a direct bearing on the strategies chosen and the ways that research is organized to achieve them. The chosen objectives also affect the ability to obtain the needed resources. Research objectives derive from policy decisions made by partners and stake holders in development -NARS, RRIs, research networks, developed country research institutes, IARCs, NGOs and developing country governments and donors. Objectives should ideally reflect the goals and aspirations of the direct beneficiaries in addition to consideration of the interests of society as a whole. Stakeholders in developing countries, including farmers, extension agents, agribusiness and policy makers, must be involved in setting research and development priorities. Involvement is essential to ensure that research is relevant to the needs of the targets.It is increasingly recognized that even local decisions can affect the whole world. In a world growing ever smaller and more closely interconnected the global interests of the developed world are not only becoming broader but also more powerfully enunciated. International concerns about livestock development are exerting a strong influence on research policy and affecting donor attitudes to funding of livestock activities. These concerns include: the environment; human health; animal rights; equity issues, including poverty and gender; the use of existing food surpluses from the developed world; and private versus public sector involvement in agricultural development. The concerns and interests of donors and interest groups must be carefully considered and efforts made to educate the general public. Education of the public and policy makers in the developed countries would be a worthwhile component of the framework for action.The case of environmental concerns is particularly instructive. Too often, and mistakenly, development of animal agriculture is seen as harmful to the environment. Global losses of tropical rainforest are a major international concern and deforestation has been associated with increased production of greenhouse gases and global warming. Another global concern is desertification. That livestock are a major factor in deforestation and desertification has become a widespread controversy in the developed world and affects donor contributions to research and development. Empirical evidence does not support the contention that livestock necessarily contribute to these problems. In the humid and subhumid zones the major impetus for expansion of agricultural land is population growth combined with shifting cultivation (NRC, 1993).Work on the dynamics of Sahel ranges shows that livestock are not a major factor in degradation. Even under the extreme grazing pressure that occurs during drought less palatable and lower productivity plants supplant more palatable, more productive species only in the short run. The more productive species are then able to re-establish themselves earlier than they might have if they had been subject to continuous grazing pressure (Hiernaux, 1994). A recent review of literature on the impact of livestock on rangelands (Dodd, 1991) concluded that effects of grazing and drought had been confused and that there was no solid evidence of irreversible effects on vegetation from livestock except around water points and permanent human settlements.Other recent research shows that it is mainly poverty that drives farmers to exploitative resourcedepleting practices (Vosti et al, 1991). Raising farm incomes by cash generating activities such as livestock can lead to a withdrawal from marginal areas that are susceptible to degradation. Neither people nor policy makers in poor countries will feel concern for the environment or biological diversity, however until a higher proportion of the population is able to satisfy its basic needs and the economic system develops its capacity to respond to the rapidly increasing demands for food products. The immediate problem, therefore, is to get intensive technologies moving through NARS research systems and onto farmers' fields. Developing country policy makers will then have the flexibility to respond to environmental concerns (Sanders et al, 1995).More research and policy attention should certainly be devoted to the environmental concerns of the global community. These issues should not, however, be barriers to funding livestock research and efforts to introduce new livestock technologies since such introductions can help resolve these problems. The low income developing countries need to accelerate the pace of food output increases.Until recently the IARCs had global or continental objectives for specific commodities. The NARS role was seen as selecting and adapting what was most useful for their own environments from IARC results and to do agronomic and production systems research Specific to their regions (Lynam and Blackie, 1994). NARS have taken over more of the breeding functions as they have developed and have fought for a larger share of international resources as these have become scarcer. RRIs are also coming into being to achieve critical mass and to attempt to solve problems common to more than one developing country. This is causing the IARCs to redefine their roles and seek to move upstream in the technology development process. At the same time the IARCs must ensure that their work results in impact. To accomplish this there is a need for greater cooperation and closer collaboration between IARCs and NARS so that more impact is achieved with available resources.Among modes of functioning that are emerging to meet global agenda needs are research programmes headed by the CGIAR. Cross-centre programmes are being called for by TAC and ILRI has been charged with taking the lead in livestock research in the CGIAR system. ILRI will thus have a major role in the livestock components of many CGIAR projects. It will also take the lead in CGIAR systemwide livestock programmes and collaborate with sister institutions concerned with livestock research including CIAT, ICARDA and IFPRI. A challenge facing ILRI and the CGIAR is effective integration of NARS in ecoregional and global initiatives to help them develop their human and institutional capacities.In these new modes the comparative advantage of the various partners in research needs to be taken into consideration in defining their respective roles. Research can be categorized as basic/strategic, applied or adaptive (Figure 1). These categories form a continuum in the research spectrum and all have implications for development. Basic/strategic research is scientific investigation that advances the knowledge of feasible biological processes but may not have immediate application in farming practices.In basic/strategic research the problem definition is more general, the degree of predictability of results is moderate and the extent and time of impact are broad and long. Applied research is oriented towards achieving a practical objective, such as developing the genetic resistance of animals to parasites.Adaptive research refers to adjustment of technology to a particular set of farming conditions, an example being the selection of certain forage species for use as feed in a specific agroecological zone or region. Problem definition in adaptive research is very specific, the predictability of results is very high and the extent and time of impact are narrow and short.In the global system, NARS and RRIs have a comparative advantage in adaptive and applied research whereas the IARCs and advanced institutes have advantage in basic/strategic and applied research. Basic research requires expensive equipment and staff skills that few developing countries possess. The IARCs represent, however, only about 3.5 per cent of the global agricultural research expenditure of US $ 9 billion (Eicher, 1993). IARCs are well positioned to assist NARS and RRIs with transfer of basic research results from specialized institutes in developed countries. IARCs and RRIs have comparative advantage for doing research from which results \"spill over\" to similar agroecological and socioeconomic conditions across national boundaries.One challenge of the framework for action will be to define strategies to increase cooperation with institutes in donor countries. Some of these already contribute to development of the livestock sector in developing countries. There is, however, a need to increase collaboration with universities in North America, Europe and Asia. Involvement of these institutions in the new modes of undertaking research will influence the policies of their governments with regard to research in developing countries and will help determine the extent of support provided. Effective collaboration with RRIs offers opportunities to accomplish more with the scarce resources available. Several regional organizations have been formed in Africa in attempts to use resources more efficiently while tackling problems of a regional nature. The Centre International de Recherches et Développement sur l'Elevage en Zone Sub-humide (CIRDES, formerly Centre de Recherches sur les Trypanosomes Animales -CRTA) in Burkina Faso and the International Trypanotolerance Centre (ITC) in The Gambia are attempting to serve broader regional mandates. Regional programmes can complement the functions of NARS and IARCs and serve as mechanisms for NARS to pool resources and rationalize responsibilities in the accomplishment of individual and collective objectives. Like NARS, however, they frequently lack sufficient funds.Networks are another mechanism for cooperation and are maturing rapidly as an effective means of allocating resources. Networking allows collaborating NARS partners to pool and coordinate scientific efforts, do more effective research on problems of mutual interest and avoid inefficient multiplication of effort. National scientists are increasingly well trained but there are few in the same discipline in one institute or even in one country. Multilocational projects managed through networks provide opportunities for enhancing research efficiency and allow the introduction of standardized methodologies that lead to more significant conclusions than can be obtained from isolated experiments.IARCs already play a major role in networks as partners in collaborative research, providing training opportunities to network participants, disseminating research methods and results and facilitating the exchange of information. IARCs also assist with network support functions which include helping to attract donor funding, organization of meetings for setting up network steering committees, sponsoring meetings of participating scientists and providing services in areas such as data analysis, documentation and publishing. A challenge for ILRI to be included in the framework for action will be how to maintain and expand its networks to include the new NARS partners of the global mandate.The organization of dairy research programmes within the conceptual framework developed by ILRI provides an example of how partners in research can work together to increase impact. The conceptual framework is a research management tool that ensures:• coherence between strategic, applied, and adaptive research objectives and across disciplines;• research at any level is done in a systematic manner;• organization of mulidisciplinary research;• there is no duplication of research across sites; and• consistency of research methods and resulting data across sites to increase relevance and impact.Use of the conceptual framework (Figure 2) allows involvement of many partners, enables them to coordinate efforts at all research levels and encompasses both systemwide and ecoregional endeavours. Support for these activities in the framework for action would ensure that there are sufficient resources to realize the potential impact.As the number of partners and stakeholders expands the effective linkage of livestock research and technology transfer is becoming more complicated. Greater coordination and synergy between research and technology development will also be required if technologies are to be transferred and impact achieved. The expanding global research system will need greater interaction with development agencies, including multilateral organizations such as FAO and UNDP, trilateral government agencies and NGOs. Developing country governments will also have an increasingly greater say in the research and development activities that take place within their borders. The framework for action must thus tackle the effective linkage of technology transfer with research.Among other international organizations, FAO confronts livestock development across a broad spectrum.It provides technical advice and assistance to the agricultural community, governments and funding agencies. It collects, analyses and distributes information, advises governments on policy and planning and provides opportunities for governments to meet and discuss food and agriculture problems collectively. FAO is taking the lead in organizing work on the conservation and utilization of animal genetic resources in which ILRI plays a major role. Partnerships of this kind can provide essential critical mass and state of the art technology and knowledge for the benefit of national research institutes.NGOs can also play an important role in transferring livestock technologies in developing countries. They have close contact with producers and their potential to expand delivery of technical services to producers and to participate in field testing activities is high. Many donors are increasingly channelling development support through NGOs.Examples of new modes of functioning in this area include the \"FAO/IARC Collaboration for Technology Transfer\" projects organized by FAO in collaboration with CGIAR centres. These projects are to promote proven IARC technologies that are awaiting diffusion. Included are NARS and extension experts from countries in a region (or ecoregion) where conditions conducive to the adoption of the technologies prevail. In the first phase, a workshop is held to present the technologies and to prepare country project proposals that can be part of a regional proposal to be submitted to donors. In the second phase the country projects are carried out with technical assistance from FAO experts with the IARC scientists who developed the technologies acting as resource persons. An important innovation of these projects is the role of information sharing between regions. In the FAO/ILRI project on cow traction the second phase projects are initially to be carried out in Eastern and Southern Africa but Asian traction experts will participate in the first phase workshop to share their expertise and experience and to explore the possibilities of extending the project to Asia.African governments will need to improve their support for agricultural research and extension institutions. They will also need to become more efficient in the use of their own funds. Reliance on donor funding for critical investments is increasingly risky because donors often have short time horizons and make quick changes in priorities and funding. This is incompatible with institutional research development requiring long term investment. The key issues in Africa are whether and where governments can find resources to support agricultural research.Structural adjustment is making agriculture more profitable. African governments are increasing their revenues through these programmes by tax reform and by selling public enterprises that they had to subsidize in the past. They are also cutting food subsidies to urban consumers. Since agricultural research is a public good with a very high return on investment -even though it takes a long time to realize -more revenues should be invested in it as they become available.As economies in the developing countries improve they need to play a greater role in funding research but developed country contributions will clearly be required for some time. This need not be seen solely as a philanthropic or humanitarian activity as funding research in developing countries can benefit agriculture in developed countries. Far more genetic diversity exists in plants and animals in Africa than in the developed countries. This is true, for example, of resistance to endoparasites in some African sheep and goat breeds. Embryo transfer has allowed five African goat and sheep breeds to be introduced to Australia where they will be reared for live (re)export. This was not possible before due to the disease considerations that have been a constraint to export of live animals from Africa. The transfer of this technology was possible due to the public good nature of research generated technologies.There is current debate in the donor countries on whether the private or the public sector should finance the development of agriculture in developing countries. Its origin lies in concerns for liberalization and privatization arising from the process of structural adjustment being undertaken in the developing world and it is gaining in importance with the conclusion of the GATT negotiations. The belief is that in many countries the economic situation can only improve if the public sector disengages from economic activity. This argument neglects, however, the role that government can play to correct for market failures arising from the existence of public goods (Smith and Thomson, 1991).An example is the significant role that research can play in economic development. There is now broad consensus that a large proportion of agricultural research must be recorded as a public good and requires funding by the public sector even in countries pursuing free market philosophies. The reasons for this (Ellis, 1992) are:• most agricultural innovations (including, for example, cultivation practices and disease resistant animal breeds) are in the public domain after release and cannot be protected by patents or copyright laws;• private enterprise usually restricts itself to applied research that lends itself to copyright protection but this is a small fraction of the research needed to achieve the long run output, equity and food security goals of society;• small holders, who are often the main beneficiaries from research in developing countries, cannot easily organize and finance the scale of research required for widespread advances in technology; and• consumers, who are the other main category of research beneficiaries, would not organize and finance agricultural research of their own volition.It has been said that \"The only meaningful approach to modern agricultural research is to conceptualize most of its contribution as public goods. As such they must be paid for on public account, which does not exclude private gifts to be used to produce public goods.\" (Schultz, 1984). Public investment in livestock research can also be very profitable judged by the high rates of return to research of greater than 50 per cent obtained in other parts of the world (Pinstrup-Andersen, 1982).Major improvements in livestock productivity are possible and needed to assist economic growth in developing countries. Research can provide technologies to help achieve productivity increases but transfer of technology is needed to achieve impact. The global research and development community is expanding and new functional modes are required to ensure coordination of the use of resources. This paper considers issues related to the role of research in the strategies making up an action framework to promote livestock development and especially effective linkage of research with technology transfer.The action framework will need to include strategies for research and technology transfer policies especially in the developing countries. It will also need measures to promote an increase in agricultural research investment within the framework of a human capacity and institution building model to replace the technical model that has been dominant in the past. The effects of macro and sectoral policies affecting research impact also need to be considered as do international concerns about the consequences of livestock development on the environment, human health, equity and other critical issues.An effective mix of the various types of research and the strengths of all the partners in the global research and development system need to be included in the strategies chosen to promote livestock development goals. Models such as CGIAR ecoregional projects, the CGIAR systemwide livestock initiative and the ILRI conceptual framework for dairy research provide useful examples. Organizational models that ensure the transfer of research generated technologies also need to be designed and must include the role of international organizations and NGOs. FAO/IARC cooperation provides a useful model for the effective linkage of research and technology transfer.To accomplish the framework's objectives explicit measures will be required to harness resources and ensure impact. Such activities could include:• an ILRI/FAO/IFPRI policy unit charged with carrying out impact and policy analysis, educating the public, and garnering advocacy and support for livestock development; and• a livestock policy network such as that seen as part of the ILRI/IFPRI project on the determinants of dairy demand, which could help train NARS scientists in policy research and analysis and could be tied to the previously described policy unit.Using these two structures, a \"2020 Vision for Livestock Development\" could be mounted to promote the message of the positive effects of livestock development for the public, interest groups and donors in the developed countries. These tangible measures would ensure that the framework for action is translated into reality and result in livestock development that will have a strong impact on human well being in low income countries.Macroeconomic international trade and sectoral policies in livestock development Research and technology transfer for livestock developmentThere was animated discussion on this paper and more detailed explanations were called for in some aspects. It was emphasized that the analysis in the paper does not support active government intervention to limit trade in order to further existing or new development policies. It was also pointed out that livestock sectors have suffered from policy interventions due to the anti-agriculture bias displayed by the economywide and sector policies adopted in most developing countries.In addition to the range of policies that now affects the livestock sector there is a more fundamental question. It concerns the very roots of livestock policy formulation within countries. There is a need to know how the process of policy formulation is initiated and the circumstances that contribute to this process. What makes a country overemphasize the use of resources (for example for dairy development) as opposed to a more balanced development of the totality of the sector also needs to be known. There is now a new approach to more integrated use of natural resources that will require policy support for systems oriented work. This side of policy may be worth addressing to provide a framework for more interventions (Devendra). The analysis in the paper does not support active government intervention to limit trade in order to further existing or new development objectives. With regard to the issue of better understanding policy formation the political economy of trade policies should be recognized more widely, particularly with regard to the ability of highly concentrated interest groups (whether consumers or producers) to lobby policy makers effectively to enact trade control measures that do not necessarily benefit the nation as a whole (DeRosa).There may never be any justification for imposing mechanisms that restrict imports, either by tariffs or quantitative restrictions, to protect an infant industry and particularly if any revenue generated is used to develop the domestic industry (Mack). There is little support for infant industry protection in economic theory and in practice there are no examples of such schemes having succeeded (DeRosa).There is real need for in-depth studies into livestock development as affected by international trade requirements, including GATT. Small dairies in developing countries are going to be seriously affected if import of powdered milk is allowed. Policy measures such as quotas or taxation can be used but if the price of recombined milk is cheaper then dairy farmers will be destroyed. Developing countries such as Thailand are expected to benefit from export of rice but there may be little benefit if its dairy farms are going out of business (Chantalakhana). The presentation may have given the impression of advocating international policies for the livestock sector possibly due to the discussion of the West African question where regional markets were subject to heavy export dumping of livestock products by the EU. Careful reading, however, shows that the main argument is that the livestock sector has suffered from policy intervention due to the anti-agriculture bias displayed by the economywide and sector policies adopted in most developing countries. The call for measures to protect domestic sectors from the effect of dumping is not international in the sense of wanting to provide undue protection to this sector. It is, rather, rightfully recognized that the input price of EU livestock products is by no means a long term indicator of border prices facing West African producers since it is mainly dictated by EU stocks which not only fluctuate but are also very unlikely to be sustained in the long run. The short run welfare cost of allowing these imports at their dumped prices are therefore likely to be much lower than the welfare loss in terms of lost production potential in the long term given the comparative advantage many West African countries enjoy in livestock production (Badiane).In examining the recommendations that arise from theoretical models it is important to remember that policy changes affect people. Equity considerations can be as important in practice as efficiency considerations. Political considerations are also important in liberalizing economies -those who lose from a policy change \"vote\" (Young). The political influence of social, economic and other groups adversely affected by trade and policy measures is not always proportional to their numbers. Repression of agriculture in lower income countries is frequently a reflection of the limited political power of rural communities to match the more effective political influence of highly concentrated industrial and urban interests in maintaining import substitution policies and low food prices. Achieving trade liberalization to reduce bias against agriculture and increase national output and welfare is particularly difficult and might not be accomplished entirely through sentiments expressed in ballot boxes (DeRosa).There was concern from some part of the group that direct participation by the beneficiaries -the small farmers -had not been accorded sufficient attention but this argument was countered by the fact that the social dimension is included to the extent that what is recommended will positively affect the welfare of the farmer.There was avid discussion on the role of research and how it should be funded: consensus was difficult to reach on the latter mainly because of efficiency issuesthe public impression was that staff numbers and therefore expenditure had increased relative to operations but it was then agreed that this should be viewed in the light of the initial low starting point of staff numbers and salaries. Finally the role and methods of technology transfer were discussed especially in relation to the framework for the policy unit proposed in the paper.The policy research programme presented seems to lack a social dimension and is focused more on increasing productivity by policy related means rather than by rural development per se. The proposal for the livestock policy unit does not show clearly how the main actor, the farmer, will be involved (Lahlou-Kassi). The paper is about research policy and the impact of macro and sectorial policies on research funding and the extent of adoption of research results. The social dimension is included to the extent that what is recommended will positively affect the welfare of the farmer. Integrated rural development is certainly the overall goal but livestock are here treated as a component of the development strategy. Increased livestock productivity will contribute to improvements in rural development but \"rural development\" is too broad a context here. Effective research and technology transfer show concern for the farmer as the overall goal (Ehui).An important issue in livestock research is project formulation that has specific focus, is concerned with real needs and involves the participation of farmers in all aspects of problem definition and implementation. In this sense, the systems approach provides the most important means for project formulation and can be carried all the way through to monitoring, evaluation and impact (Devendra).It may not be very useful to keep asking for more money for research: what is needed is greater efficiency. The example of increase in funding versus staff growth rate is instructive. In the period 1961-1965 to 1981-1995 agricultural research support grew at an annual rate of five per cent from US $ 149.5 million to US $ 372.3 million. During the same period for the same institutions staff numbers increased by 7.2 per cent annually from 1323 to 4941 and in fact staff expenditure grew twice as fast as operation expenditure (de Haan). It is true that NARS will need to be more efficient in managing their resources but the fact that resources currently allocated to research and extension are very limited should not be ignored (Ehui).The reasons for the insufficient financial support to livestock research need to be investigated.Reference can be made to the ISNAR study on OFROR country experiences which indicates the importance of measuring impact, attaining efficient technology transfer and adoption and of bringing successes to the attention of public and politicians (Peters).There should still be scope, and there are certainly reasons, for higher efficiency. The tremendous contribution of agricultural research both at national and international levels over the last 20-30 years should not, however, be ignored. There is no part of the globe where agricultural output has not grown considerably and yields have increased in many regions. This clearly would not have been possible without research. This does not change the fact that impact remains cliff cult to document. There therefore does not seem to be a need to be apologetic about asking for more resources. The rising challenge in SSA and Southeast Asia with respect to poverty alleviation, malnutrition and population increase leaves no other choice than to increase support to research. This is particularly so given the recent trends of declining support which can mainly be linked to aid fatigue rather than to a lack of performance among research systems. With this background it appears dangerous to stress the high labour expenditure shares in research institutions. Research is a service oriented business and therefore quite labour intensive. Stressing the shares instead of looking at the aggregate level is misleading. Support for agricultural research in absolute terms is very low. In the same way high growth rates in research expenditure are valuable only when the absolute level and especially the very low base figures are taken into consideration (Badiane).There is a clear need to increase the efficiency of research resource use in developing countries. Research is fragmented across subsectors/commodities and disciplines and there is limited coordination or interdisciplinary collaboration. The need is to increase support to existing staff through training and better equipment in order to raise effectiveness. National programmes in Africa should take advantage of linkages to regional organizations which support agricultural research and capacity building, such as SPAAR, SADCC, ASARECA and CILSS. There are congruence tests between research expenditure and commodity values which can help assess the comparative validity of resource allocations to research for example, on cereals, export crops and livestock. More attention to impact evaluation could help justify more funds. The need to pay more attention to environmental and social issues presents new challenges that neither national nor international research systems are yet equipped to meet (Oram).The process of programming research is important in collaborative efforts with NARS. Extension institutions should provide the link to the users of technology. Extension methods applied in NARS research and development systems can be a constraint. ILRI needs to consider how it relates to these processes and method oriented issues. Research and extension activities to develop and transfer technology may have to be directed to items which could become private goods, such as AI and seeds. Organizational and institutional issues may need to be scrutinized in terms of speeding up development; impact and sustainable development at system and sector levels (Peters).There is a case for large scale management experiments and learning by doing. It has been advocated -although for trees, fish, water and corporate owners and not small poor farmersthat management interventions be treated as experiments as a way of overcoming uncertainty, system complexity and ignorance. This approach may have another function when funding is scarce -linking research to (better funded) development projects (Behnke).This paper is about what is needed in the framework for action in terms of strategies to promote livestock research as well as improved linkages to technology transfer. The policy unit that is being advocated would do impact assessment, package research results in a form that would make them more palatable for public consumption and possibly consider the process of research formulation. It should be realized, however, that ISNAR is charged with doing this. Perhaps they could also play a role in the policy unit activities. The important point is to set up strong mechanisms to promote livestock development (Shapiro).Activities Conclusions ReferencesThe arid and semiarid zones cover about one third of the earth's land surface but nearly two thirds of the African continent. The majority of African livestock and possibly 30 million people dependent on livestock reside in these dry zones along with the greatest and most diverse concentrations of wild mammals still in existence (Ellis, 1994). Twenty of the world's poorest countries are found here. Economic considerations, environmental interest, geographical extent and human welfare suggest that African rangelands should be high on the development agenda but they are not. This paper discusses some of the reasons for the neglect and proposes some remedies.Throughout the 1960s and 1970s the blueprint for African range and livestock development projects was the ranching model (Sandford, 1983). By the early 1980s poor project performance had subverted confidence in this model. A decade of experiments involving large (World Bank pastoral associations) and small (NGO water harvesting, restocking and paravets) donors ensued. This was accompanied by extensive field research (including pastoral systems studies conducted by the then International Livestock Centre for Africa) and theoretical retooling (notably in scientific ecology). Much of this was innovative and practical but it did not provide a framework for assembling new research ideas and intervention techniques into a more adequate policy for rangeland development. This now seems possible.The ranching model projects of the 1960s and 1970s presumed that enlightened resource management was both intrinsically good and likely to provide economic dividends. Economics and conservation were linked by the presumption of pastoral overstocking (Behnke et al, 1993). Overstocking was supposed to explain why African pastures were degraded, herd output was low and pastoralists were poor. The problem with ranching projects, however, was that they could not deliver lower stocking rates.The development initiatives of the 1980s, whatever their other successes, proposed few new techniques for adjusting livestock numbers to forage supply on open rangelands. Recent advances: in scientific ecology and pastoral studies have also failed to \"solve\" the overstocking problem and have not suggested more effective ways of removing surplus animals. They have, however, encouraged a reframing of the problem.The concept of the four horizontal rows (Table 1, Table 2) depicts relationships among the broad objectives to which a project contributes, the project's immediate purpose, its intended results and the activities it will support. The four vertical columns refer to aspects of this cause and effect sequence -the logical links among intentions and results, measurable indicators of performance, how to obtain data for assessments of performance and the assumptions underpinning each step of the exercise.There are remarkable continuities and important changes in pastoral and range development projects from 1960 to the present (Table 1, Table 2).  Both the former ranching projects and those now proposed share an important characteristic in that they are attempts at natural resource management. In this respect both the very old and the very new project formats are distinct from most pastoral development efforts of the 1980s. Typical projects of the 1980s sought to provide services, improve welfare, improve pastoral incomes or develop pastoral community organizations. They had little success in accounting for how these activities contributed to sustainable resource management and its links with economic development (Table 2).There are, however, fundamental differences between the objectives of range resource management in the 1960-1970s and the 1990s. These changes are underlined by abandoning of the earlier goal of \"rangeland conservation\" (Table 1) in favour of \"sustainable rangeland production\" (Table 2).For rangeland managers of the 1960s and 1970s domestic livestock were an intrusive element that destabilized \"natural\" botanical systems. The notion that domestic herbivores were a foreign intrusion had considerable intuitive appeal in North America and Australia-where stock owned by Europeans had suddenly burst on the scene. The natural \"before\" and the disturbed \"after\" were clearly distinguished in historical time and the requirements of industrialized agriculture confronted a nostalgia for a bygone landscape. Concepts of plant community succession and climax provided a powerful theoretical rationale for the conservation of pristine rangeland flora. Traditional range management conceived in these terms was fundamentally botanocentric. The state of the vegetation marked the success or failure of a management regime with botanical indices such as plant population; vegetative mass and species composition providing evidence of range trend, condition and livestock carrying capacity.Despite its enduring popularity this type of rangeland assessment suffered in Africa from several limitations. The distinction between natural and manmade vegetation caused philosophical problems and operational ambiguities. Humans, their fires, and domestic stock contributed to creating some of Africa's most productive and picturesque savanna landscapes.Parts of North Africa, on the other hand, are undoubtedly degraded by human use but have been so since Greco-Roman times.The use of predominately botanical indices to assess the performance of a form of agriculture in which plants are not directly used or consumed by humans might also be questioned.Range vegetation must be eaten by animals if profits are to be made. In areas where rainfall is reasonably constant large livestock populations may indeed consume enough vegetation to alter the plant life that they leave behind. Range livestock production -like most forms of agriculture -may alter the natural vegetation to produce food, fibre and other goods for human use.These botanical changes are not proof of degradation unless agriculture itself is equated with degradation and no distinction is made between agricultural systems capable of producing for prolonged periods and those that are not. The conservation of pristine vegetation is of less concern for agriculturalists than the expected length of time that output can he maintained from altered vegetative states under different management regimes. In short, the objective of botanical immutability is less useful than a workable notion of sustainability. These concerns are reflected by the indicators of project achievement stated as maintenance of livestock product output over an extended time (Table 2).The common purpose of both old and new kinds of projects is to increase producers' incomes from livestock. What distinguishes the new type from its predecessors is the way livestock income is defined and measured. This is a more significant change than would first be suspectedLivestock income in the older ranching projects was effectively defined as cash from sales of animals for slaughter. This presumed that pastoral development was a matter of technology transfer. Most industrial ranchers supported themselves by marketing carcasses and it was thought that modern African pastoralists should do the same. Such reasoning was an important link in the logical structure, and hence the appeal, of ranching projects. The belief was that animal sales had three beneficial functions: increased pastoral incomes; destocking and conserving rangelands; and supplying urban consumers with an essential commodity (Table 1). There were no uncomfortable trade-offs and everybody was a winner (Kerven, 1992).Applied research on pastoral economies over the last 10 years has explained why this scenario was too optimistic. This hinges on the volume and kind of produce yielded by pastoral herds. Contrary to the assumptions of the ranching projects, traditionally managed livestock often provide their owners with cash and in kind benefits in excess of those to be derived from additional animal sales (that is, unless meat prices increased). If urban consumers were to eat more meat they had to pay prices high enough to bid against the alternate uses of livestock in rural trade networks, for immediate household use, as inputs into other productive processes or for breeding or growing out. Herd structure studies also suggested that urban consumers (or pastoral cooking pots) were already claiming the categories of animals suitable for slaughter and having few other competing uses. In other words there was no vast underexploited reservoir of meat standing around on the range chewing its cud. Comparative studies also show that pastoral productivity consistently equals, and frequently exceeds, the calorie, protein or cash value of output per unit land area from ranches in comparable ecological situations. Rational pastoralists therefore took their place beside rational peasants in the academic and development literature of the 1980s. The great leap forward in pastoral output and income unfortunately never materialized. It had been based on an illusion all along.There remains, nonetheless, scope for genuine improvement of pastoral incomes and output through increased commercialization of pastoral systems of production, product disposal and household provisioning. Raising pastoral incomes will therefore remain the purpose of the new generation of projects. The opportunity for these improvements is created by the difference between the calorie and cash terms of trade for livestock products and grain. With certain important exceptions, prices for grain, meat and milk are such that pastoralists obtain more calories by selling livestock produce and buying grain than they could obtain directly from consuming the protein rich products of their herds. For poor pastoralists this means a chance of survival despite reduced per caput herd wealth. For the rich favourable terms of trade provide an opportunity to improve their standard of living or to reinvest surplus earnings in pastoral production.Commercial investment in pastoralism is needed since traditional production systems are well adapted to the demands of their natural environment and output per hectare is already high.Increased output is thus dependent on the use of new industrial inputs. If producers are to obtain the cash to purchase these inputs commercial livestock production is unavoidable. Indeed, it is not only unavoidable but is happening. Recent field research has shown that small scale commercial innovations are continuously undertaken in most pastoral economies. These spontaneous changes are the exact opposite of the carefully engineered leaps envisaged in the ranching model. The more modest pastoral development efforts of the 1980s also successfully promoted incremental changes.Maintaining a constant low stocking rate was the primary intended result of the ranching project. In hindsight, however, there was little scientific evidence that destocking programmes would fulfill their environmental objectives or increase total livestock output (Table 1). Lower stocking densities could, in fact, actually damage pastoral incomes.Stocking rates low enough to ensure that forage shortages never occurred would be uneconomic to maintain in very dry environments with widely fluctuating rainfall. Economically optimal stocking densities also vary according to the kinds of products yielded by herds, the breeds and species kept and the husbandry techniques employed. Pastoral stocking densities may be too high to maximize beef production per hectare or to meet the botanical standards of professional observers trained in a ranching environment. These densities may, nonetheless, maximize the combined output of live animal products such as milk, traction, manure and fibre. Destocking these \"overstocked\" rangelands would probably depress both individual and aggregate pastoral incomes. This probably explains the almost universal rejection by pastoralists of enforced destocking programmes.Environmental benefits of conservative stocking regimes are as dubious as their alleged economic benefits. Irreversible changes in plant life occur episodically and not incrementally in climatically unstable environments. The dominant variables driving these ecological changes are physical factors, such as rainfall, outside management control. In these event dominated systems it is unrealistic for managers to try to forestall environmental change by tinkering with a single dependent biological variable such as livestock numbers. Managers who cannot control their environment must quickly adapt to it if they are to minimize the consequences of unpredictable rainfall fluctuations. This opportunistic approach to rangeland exploitation demands temporary but sudden and very substantial adjustments in livestock feed demand in response to precipitous changes in feed supply (Table 2).Flexible strategies of resource exploitation must be profitable as well as environmentally beneficial if producers are to adopt them. In other words, environmental concerns must dominate project objectives but economic concerns define project purpose (Table 2). These dual intentions require both biological and economic indices of project success -tracking and buffering of environmental fluctuations. Tracking refers to the biological phenomenon of prompt adjustment of livestock forage demands to fluctuating levels of primary production.Buffering of environmental fluctuations refers to the economic phenomenon of shielding of pastoral incomes from the worst effects of violent climatological and biological fluctuations.Quantifiable measures of project success are not the same for biological tracking and economic buffering. Parallel changes in livestock feed requirements and supply provide evidence of successful biological tracking. Economic buffering dampens the effects of environmental variability by creating more stability in the income from livestock than in rainfall or primary production levels. Range livestock development needs activities, or combinations of activities, that simultaneously produce high coefficients of variation for feed demand and low ones for the value of output. This is \"opportunistic\" rangeland management or the attempt to maintain large, healthy and productive herds that allow, when conditions dictate, removal of as many animals as necessary as quickly and profitably as possible.Opportunistic resource management is not new to African pastoralists. Official endorsement of opportunism does not, therefore, demand the radical reform of existing husbandry systems. It does, however, bring government and donor management objectives into line with customary practices, anticipates evolutionary rather than sudden economic change and, belatedly, adds pastoral development to the growing list of participatory or client oriented forms of development. Responsible project design must, however, balance local and national interests, and match community priorities with wider policy concerns. Environmental tracking and economic buffering are among these concerns and provide criteria for screening local initiatives.Field workers, often in conjunction with NGOs, have developed many new techniques for delivering services to pastoralists over recent years. These include improved systems for primary animal health care, water harvesting and storage, design of drought and famine early warning systems and postdrought restocking. All range livestock development initiatives already have a core of tested field techniques to draw on, reject or modify in the light of local circumstances and the policy framework (Table 2).There is also scope for modifying existing project methods. Project components urgently in need of revision are those that are expected to perform new functions under opportunistic management. In the older project framework drought was an emergency -an unexpected catastrophic event outside the parameters of normal planning. In the present framework erratic rainfall (that is, drought of varying severity) is viewed as a continual hazard. Incorporating drought into the concept of normal climatic variability demands a rethinking of how pastoral relief and development is to be achieved.Emergency sales force many animals to market during droughts, forcing prices down when poor harvests and grain scarcities are causing cereal prices to rise. If market forces set food prices under these adverse conditions some pastoralists may starve unless they receive relief provisions. Development agents are therefore confronted with an apparent dilemma in that they either let human and animal populations \"track\" environmental fluctuations and people suffer or they \"buffer\" pastoral incomes from environmental stress but foster dependency.A more attractive approach to providing relief would attempt to make sure high levels of grain were available through normal commercial channels. This could be achieved by bulk sales of relief supplies at concessionary prices. Hoarding and speculation would be controlled by adjusting the volume of external supply relative to the strength of internal demand. It would be necessary to maintain drought early-warning systems to provide information on the geographical extent and severity of a crisis in order to estimate these supply-demand factors but in order to influence these factors there would need to be adequate transport infrastructure and, possibly. transport subsidies to ensure that food moved in the desired direction.Consistent with the anticipated results of the project (Table 2) these arrangements would promote both buffering and tracking since pastoralists could maintain their incomes only by selling stock during droughts.Tracking and buffering would also require improved livestock marketing systems. Livestock marketing was previously seen by project designers as a mechanism for maintaining continuous high offtake and low steady stocking rates to prevent overstocking and deaths of animals during droughts. Ecological research suggests, however, that livestock population crashes are unavoidable when rainfall is erratic. A more realistic project goal under these conditions is not to design marketing systems that can forestall fluctuations in throughput but to design systems capable of absorbing such fluctuations. Low cost techniques of meat preservation, improved transport infrastructure, access to the largest possible consumer market for meat and elimination of subsidized international competition may be components of this effort. Withdrawal of government regulatory agencies or marketing monopolies that add to the covert costs of trading, stifle competition and depress producer prices may be equally important.Project managed land tenure reforms in the past attempted to limit herd growth by confining herds to restricted areas. Managers viewed permeable territorial boundaries as undesirable since livestock owners were thereby allowed to escape the negative effects of overstocking.Opportunistic strategies of resource exploitation turn this reasoning on its head. Shortage of feed is often localized due to the erratic distribution rather than the total absence of rain. If adjacent grazing areas experience asynchronous productivity flushes, herd mobility -and nonexclusive tenure arrangements that allow it -are a cost effective way for animals to walk away from temporary local imbalances in stock numbers and feed supply. The practical question for project design is not how to eliminate non-exclusive tenure systems but how to ensure that pastoralists can take advantage of them.Rangelands must be comanaged by local communities and government authorities. Government cannot intensively administer rangelands because their output is generally low and erratic and will not pay the costs of direct administration. The only economic solution is for users to bear the costs of resource management. They will be willing and capable of doing this only if they have proprietary rights. In pastoral areas, however, administrators cannot expect to allocate resources once and for all. These are environments where rainfall and forage productivity are fleeting resources. Human and livestock populations must rearrange themselves in space on a seasonal and interannual basis. By conferring basic property rights on producers and local communities impartial intercession will still be required to sort out the conflicting, shifting and multiple entitlements implied by these rights. In order to be able to do this local government authorities must establish their neutrality, institute procedures for conflict resolution and enforce their decisions.Past forage development programmes concentrated on improving yields from cultivated fodders. Opportunistic management would put less emphasis on the search for yield increases and concentrate on production of forage when it was most needed in low rainfall years.Measures of success would be indicated by yields which were less variable than those from surrounding natural vegetation and improved profits from livestock resulting from a greater total feed supply.A review of existing research (Scoones, 1994) has produced recommendations for project activity in the areas discussed in this paper. Field research on problems of opportunistic management would undoubtedly produce more precise recommendations or increase confidence in those already proposed.In the short term what is left is a mixed picture. Some activities such as paraveterinary programmes, water harvesting and famine early warning systems are ready for large scale use. Other potential project components such as famine relief, land tenure, livestock marketing and forage production still need research and field experimentation but are likely over the long term to improve the tracking and buffering of environmental variability in Africa's rangelands.Development objectives for sub-Saharan Africa are moving towards resource conservation and natural resource management while striving for greater agricultural production. Economic growth must increase by 4-5 per cent annually if food security is to be achieved and a modest standard of living provided for the 1.3 billion people expected in the region by 2025 (World Bank, 1989). Rapid urban population growth (55 per cent of Africans will live in urban areas in 2025) and higher income will create a need for better quality food, particularly of animal origin, from a rural population that is expected to feed 592 million by 2025 compared to 350 million in 1990. This is an enormous challenge in a region that experienced a negative per caput GDP during the 1980s. The 3.2 per cent average annual population growth and severe financial and environmental crises portend an even gloomier future.Agricultural intensification is inevitable in sub-Saharan Africa and livestock are critical to the development of sustainable and environmentally sound production systems. Intensification has occurred gradually over many years in other developing regions but in Africa it will need to happen over a very short time due to rapid population growth. Past research and development efforts which promoted crop-livestock systems have failed to bring about the desired agricultural transformation. Some of the problems to be tackled are:• the role of mixed farming in sub-Saharan Africa's future agriculture;• obtaining a better understanding of crop-livestock relations in an attempt to make mixed farming a favoured option for intensified land use;• identification of knowledge gaps; and• the needs for popularizing mixed farming.This paper reviews the important position and role of mixed farming systems in land use intensification in sub-Saharan Africa.The origins of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa remain unclear. Vegeculture was probably practiced on the northern margins of the tropical forest as long as 7000 years ago but the beginning of cereal cultivation is less clear. Sub-Saharan Africa had a limited range of crops when Europeans first arrived in the 15th century, the most important being sorghum Sorghum vulgare and several millets. In parts of West Africa indigenous yams, rice and banana were grown. New food crops, including cassava and maize, were introduced after the discovery of the Americas. The first cattle entered Africa through Egypt about 7000 years ago. The plough, by then present over most of the Old World, did not reach Africa until the 19th century except in Ethiopia. Unlike Asia, animal and arable agriculture were generally separate in Africa and could have been a barrier to early intensification.Sub-Saharan Africa is essentially a continent of small holders and its environments are very sensitive. At relatively low population densities traditional methods start to degrade the soil and threaten future production. Climatic realities result, except in the humid zones, in frequent crop failures from drought or dry spells in the growing season. Most African soils are derived from highly weathered granite and gneiss parent material. Soils are thus coarse with low contents of fine clay particles and organic matter and are deficient in most nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus. The water holding capacity of African soils is poor so rainfall leaches out soluble nutrients. Soil organic matter is rapidly decomposed under high temperatures except in the cooler highlands. Once vegetation is removed water and wind erosion remove the top soil, the surface crusts easily and is then sealed against infiltration.As cropped areas expand fallow periods shorten progressively. Short fallows do not allow regeneration of soil fertility, produce little fuel wood and are a poor grazing resource. The crop residues and dung that are so desperately needed to maintain soil structure and fertility are increasingly burnt for want of alternative fuel sources. Communal or uncertain land tenure over most of the continent only makes the development task harder.Most farms in sub-Saharan Africa intercrop anything with everything. Growing a mixture of crops and varying land management are strategies for adjusting to different soil and water regimes. Intercropping provides a protective cover of vegetation which lowers soil temperature, increases water infiltration, helps to prevent soil erosion, lowers the incidence of pests and diseases and reduces labour needs for weeding. By combining different heights, root depths and maturity periods intercropped plants complement each other in the use of light, water and nutrients. The total output of intercropped areas is usually greater than monocrops but yields have stagnated or declined in the absence of soil fertility replenishment. Use of fertilizers compensates for shortening fallow periods but farmers in many countries have no incentive to use them because prices for farm produce are not sufficiently attractive or fertilizers are not readily available.The short and simple answer to this question is that it increases the bioenergetic efficiency of agriculture and preserves environmental quality. Production objectives should be to:• optimize output over a long period;• maintain diversified agroecosystems with components having complementary functions;• build up soil fertility and prevent nutrient losses;• provide continuous vegetative cover possibly by the use of legume based rotations or green manure; and• limit imported fertilizer applications and pesticide use.The case for integrating animal and crop systems is based on the premise that by-products from the two systems are used on the same farm. Draught power, closed nutrient cycling, improved environmental quality and use of roughages and low quality feeds contribute to overall higher output per animal and per hectare. Soil fertility improvements result from the volume of organic components that circulate through the soil and plants and the animal manures that enrich the soil through long lasting carry over effects. Livestock also provide a ready means of acquiring cash and support the use of inputs in crop production which in turn generates higher levels of output from both crop and livestock (Brumby, 1986).unsuitable for animals. Land able to store or provide water becomes a target for intensified use as populations increase. Demand for power encourages integration of animals in farming systems.There is, however, no consistent association between agroclimate and population density. When animal traction is cheaper than hand cultivation the choice for the farmer is to rent or own draught power. When manuring is necessary to replace fallows the choice between manuring contracts and livestock integration depends on farming intensity and the transaction costs of substitutes (McIntire et al, 1992). As manure becomes scarce (herders also need it as they now use it on their plots) and fertilizers are unavailable farmers resort to manuretransported mixed farming. At high cultivation densities crop residues are more important because the area of natural pasture declines. Herders gain access to crop residues by entering into contract grazing with farmers or by producing crop residues directly. As farmers gain knowledge of livestock production they start keeping animals in pens and feed them crop residues to produce manure and to provide traction. Crop-livestock integration is thus encouraged at both ends of the spectrum of pure pastoralism and pure cropping (Table 1).Every zone in sub-Saharan Africa has a meat and milk deficit. The favourable market for these products could encourage livestock productivity improvements through land use intensification. Integration of crops and livestock has been the objective of past agricultural development in sub-Saharan Africa. Mixed farming was a development goal early in the 20th century in northern Nigeria as shown by selection for improved draught qualities as well as meat and milk (Straw and Colville, 1950).Loans have been provided under various development schemes to allow farmers to buy animals and field equipment. Where animal draught is used it allows an increase in the area cultivated. This has largely occurred as a result of the introduction of cash crops, the profit from which financed the purchase of draught animals and equipment. This process of expansion occurred when land was abundant in relation to labour by encouraging expansion into virgin lands and subsequently to fallow lands.There are other examples of cropping systems incorporating livestock to take advantage of manure or crop residue feeding, transport and possibilities for wealth accumulation. The level of integration is a function of:• environmental differences between the two enterprises;• factor and input substitution;• year round feed supply, stock feeding and management;• high labour inputs reducing incentives to keep livestock until output prices rise in relation to the opportunity cost of family labour;• alternative investment opportunities; and• benefits from integrated systems.Benefits to integrated crop-livestock systems are sometimes small from manure, crop residues and draught power (McIntire et al, 1992;Williams et al, 1994) implying that exogenous technical changes including improved seeds, fertilizer, water and nutrient management are needed to raise overall productivity.The process of integrating livestock in crop systems is initiated when two independent complementary systems interacting through the exchange of byproducts compete for the key production factor, land. Competition for land and labour is between the end users of crops versus livestock, resident and immigrant farmers for crop land and village livestock owners and pastoralists (Speirs and Olsen, 1992). Population increase does not only take place by natural growth but also by migrant influx. The potential for conflict for labour between crops and animals will differ in land scarce and land abundant situations. Manure collection, for example, is labour intensive and manuring thus depends on labour availability. Land scarcity contributes to declining fertility as fallow periods are reduced, and rising land values lead farm households to escalate the process of securing land. As competition for land increases conflicts are inevitable, especially where traditional systems of verbal usufruct agreement are misinterpreted or owners have difficulty in recovering land from those claiming \"squatters rights\". Migrant inflow also accentuates conflicts over use of crop residues, fallows and access to dry season forage and water. Customary property institutions in Africa define different types of rights for the resources used and these constitute barriers to long term investment.Traditional leaders have also lost their authority to determine property rights and governments lack the capacity or the infrastructure to define and enforce them.A certain level of population and reasonable market access are required for successful mechanization. Economic distortions in many sub-Saharan Africa countries since independence have affected the process of agricultural intensification. Cash crops and minerals continue to be the main sources of foreign exchange and government revenue.Fluctuating commodity prices contribute to variable trade balances and budgets and make long term planning impossible. Frequent changes in key personnel by donor governments and changes in aid or loan conditions have impaired the bilateral and multilateral development programmes. In the short period since independence the development consensus for sub-Saharan Africa has shifted from high to low to mixed technology, from project aid to aid designed to influence policy, from enthusiasm for populist approaches to privatization and from encouraging population growth to cuts in aid to those populations. These factors continue to impair independent long term policy formulations and implementation by sub-Saharan Africa countries.Domestic production has also suffered from a policy priority to supply urban areas with cheap milk and meat as well as government price controls and over valued exchange rates. Technological innovation, infrastructure and extension services have not catered for the changing circumstances of the farmer. Farmers moving to marginal areas continue to use the traditional techniques which failed to sustain productivity even in the agriculturally better lands they abandoned.The arid zone has the lowest capacity to supply human needs but ruminants in traditional nomadic and pastoral systems are well adapted to converting pasture and browse into food and income. Increasing human populations and the spread of cropping into marginal lands reduce the ratio of range to crop land and create serious environmental concerns. Integrated wild life-domestic livestock systems may be more sustainable in this zone. In the wetter part of the semiarid zone, however, favourable cropping conditions and the absence of trypanosomiasis are conducive to the expansion of mixed farming.In the subhumid zone abundant cattle, low trypanosomiasis challenge, strong product demand, level terrain and proximity to areas of animal draught reserve and cultivation are factors that should have favoured wider use of animal traction and mixed farming. Lack of farmer knowledge has been identified as a major cause for the failure of animal traction to spread southwards in the subhumid zone. Soil hardness, trypanosomiasis and cropping patterns that were believed to constrain expansion of mixed farming were not, on the other hand, found to be important (Blench, 1987). The knowledge gap is not insurmountable, however, as people elsewhere have learnt to use animals and other technologies within a short time. In the northern subhumid and the semiarid zones it is possible that mixed farming did not develop because early planting to make use of the short rains and growing period is a greater priority than tilling of the predominantly sandy soils.In the humid zone the major factor limiting ruminant production is trypanosomiasis. Livestock expansion by clearing forests is not environmentally desirable but there are opportunities for integrating trypanotolerant livestock into permanent tree systems.The highlands ought to favour field mechanization because of high population density, continuous cultivation and relatively heavy soils. Very steep slopes and erosion risk impose, however, a certain cropping pattern and very small farm sizes do not require mechanization or individual ownership of draught power. Hiring is thus a cheaper way of using animal traction. Production increases in the highlands must come, however, from further intensification of the crop-livestock land use systems.Disease can be a major constraint to integrating cattle in crop farming. Trypanosomiasis is the most important disease in sub-Saharan Africa and is followed by tick transmitted and tick associated diseases and internal parasites. Diseases whose importance increases as production systems intensify include soil borne bacterial diseases such as anthrax, infectious diseases of the reproductive tract including brucellosis, diarrhoea, pneumonia, mastitis and mineral deficiencies. These must be controlled to assure farmers that intensification will yield adequate returns to their investments (Winrock, 1992). The inability of many countries to maintain effective surveillance and control measures and ineffective delivery of veterinary services throughout sub-Saharan Africa are major impediments to effective disease control. Indigenous ruminant sources of resistance or tolerance to disease are currently poorly characterized and inefficiently used.In all sub-Saharan countries population density has yet to reach the level where intensive farming becomes unavoidable. It has, however, reached the level where massive ecological damage will occur if traditional methods continue to be used. Governments can assist the intensification process by supporting new technology generation and transfer and by favourable policies to improve markets, infrastructure and other facilities for agriculture.Countries in sub-Saharan Africa must seriously consider agricultural intensification, before population density compels them to do so, in order to meet future food needs. Intensification can be accelerated through research which should consider socio-economic, natural resource, technical and institutional factors that influence productivity and sustainability. Inability to feed animals adequately throughout the year is the most widespread technical constraint for livestock producers. Seasonal feed availability from natural resources is affected by land competition resulting from population growth.Commodity research programmes have neglected mixed farming systems. Extension services split into crop and livestock sectors have exacerbated the problem. The possible benefits from crop-livestock integration have thus not been fully exploited. In many cases technologies have been extended beyond the ecological limits and to areas where returns to labour were inadequate or where there were other promising opportunities (McIntire et al, 1992).Socio-economic and biophysical flows run in parallel and are interdependent on a farm. Socioeconomic inputs are land, labour, capital, culture and knowledge whereas outputs are fulfilment of life needs including income, health, knowledge, social stability and a sense of community. Physico-chemical inputs include energy for operations such as tillage, harvest, fertilization and pest control. Biological inputs include organic matter such as crop residues, animal manure, legume nitrogen, cover crops, rotations and cropping patterns (Grove and Edwards, 1992). In mixed farming systems there are opportunities to increase land productivity by optimizing the value of biophysical inputs. Use of genetically improved crops for high photosynthetic rates and animals capable of converting cellulose tissues in the rumen are examples of this.Plants have the ability to capture and use solar energy. The range of life in any particular location is limited by temperature and moisture. Within the bounds of varying climate, season and terrain the diversified biomass interacts among itself and with the soil to establish a selfregulating ecosphere. The desired cyclic relationship is distorted in modern agriculture and the fight against pests and diseases -normally kept in balance in natural ecosystems -requires major effort. Wastes in modern agriculture have also become a practical and social problem and recycling them has not been seen as an ecological resource renewal procedure.Biological diversity and nutrient cycling are common processes in the functioning and persistence of agroecosystems (Grove and Edwards, 1992). Development of sustainable mixed farming systems therefore depends on understanding the mechanisms controlling the kind and amount of biodiversity and the factors governing rates of mineralization and recycling of the organic matter fractions that stabilize the systems. Crop-livestock integration increases diversity in farming systems and provides a management tool for improving net production, stabilizing agriculture and protecting the environment. Feed supply is a primary constraint in sub-Saharan Africa. Seasonal shortages are determined by the length of the growing period, cropping intensity and stock numbers. In mixed farming systems feed for livestock can be improved by:• selection of crops having higher nutritive values in their residues;• intercropping herbaceous and tree legumes with grain crops for higher fodder biomass production and nutritive quality per unit area; and• creating fodder banks as supplementary source of seasonal feed.Past efforts in crop improvement have increased the grain value of crops for all the target zones. Crop residues are an important livestock feed and replace natural pastures at high cropping intensities. There is inter and intra species variation in the nutritive value of crop residues at similar grain yields (Table 2) and selection for higher feed quality among crops capable of adapting to several ecozones should be a priority in crop improvement programmes.Intercropping is a well established land use technique in sub-Saharan Africa. Where land is in short supply and feed is deficient, as in the Ethiopian highlands, human food and animal feed production must be maximized on the same land. Compatible associations are possible between food and forage crops (Table 3, Table 4) where forages in the mixture benefit from husbandry practices on crops. Concurrent management for different outputs from the same land is, however, difficult as forages have better nutritive value in the vegetative state and grain formation in cereals starts only after completing the normal vegetative growth. Spatial and temporal complementarily are achieved by reducing competition for the same growth resources among the different components in the mixture. Crop-forage combinations therefore need to be adapted for different ecozones. Forage species need to be selected for complementary growth and maturity. Deep rooted trees are a good source of fodder during the dry seasons and their integration into farming systems, particularly in the humid zones to serve multiple needs, is a valid research area.  Cultivation intensities tend to change the pattern of feed availability. At low population and cropping intensities the dry season is critically short of quality feed, especially protein, in all ecozones. Energy is also short in the arid, semiarid and at the drier end of the subhumid zones. At higher population densities with expanded areas of crop land the large amounts of biomass available after harvest compensate for the loss of natural dry season pastures. There is, however, a feed constraint during the wet season as most land is occupied by crops and livestock have limited access even to fallow lands because they are locked up within cropped areas. Providing a renewable source of feed supplement by establishing fodder and protein banks is possible. Research is needed in this context to predict future land use changes and to be able to tailor feed production and utilization strategies to the various ecozones and production systems.An important link in mixed farming systems is the cycling of natural vegetation and crop residue biomass between livestock and soil via faeces and urine. Nutrient deficiencies are common in sub-Saharan Africa and livestock can contribute to imbalances by excessive removal of vegetation while grazing and in harvested feeds and by not recycling nutrients or depositing them unevenly on the land. Seasonal and annual fluctuations of feed quantity and quality affect the number and type of animals that farmers keep and thus affect manure quantity and quality and its effects on crop production, especially in the semiarid zone.Because nutrient mineralization and losses are influenced by manure handling, storage and application there is a need to develop techniques to improve manure quality and nutrient recovery. In view of the competition between livestock and soil for cereal stovers and crop residues long term trends need to be assessed in terms of plant, animal and soil productivity.The value of legumes in improving feed quality and in contributing to the total nutrient economy of mixed farming systems also needs to be understood.The biological processes regulating nutrient inflow in mixed farming systems are mediated mainly by socio-economic factors. As most aspects of intensified manure management depend on the labour available to collect, process, transport and spread it on crop land and the availability of cash to build pens and for purchase of animals and carts, development policies need to consider these factors. Assessment of temporal and spatial total factor productivity by quantifying changes in stocks and soil nutrient flows and the effect of material inputs and outputs on productivity may assist in understanding the sustainability of the systems.Where mixed crop-livestock farming is well integrated, particularly in the Ethiopian highlands, further intensification and productivity can result only from improving energy use efficiency by livestock. Work oxen provide farm power but are used for only 8-10 weeks in the year. Ethiopia has up to seven million work oxen and there are 3-4 times more cattle than this for oxen replacement. All these compete on the same communal feed resource with other livestock. Use of cows for both milk and draught can potentially reduce the large herd kept for work oxen replacement and reduce overall grazing pressure. In order to integrate dual purpose cows into mixed farming systems there is a need to understand the functional relationships among milk production, reproduction, feed energy utilization and draught work and then to test the on-farm technical and economic performance and social acceptability of using cows for traction.On-station experiments with F 1 Friesian × Boran and Simmental × Boran cows carried out by ILRI and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research show that both milk and work output are satisfactory if nutrition is adequate (Table 5). Limited on-farm tests are showing substantial increases in household incomes and farm outputs as a result of milk sales, cow traction and reduced numbers of work oxen.The major animal health problems in sub-Saharan Africa are parasitic and viral diseases, some of which are transmitted by arthropod vectors. These are widely distributed but their severity is strongly influenced by environmental conditions (Winrock, 1992). A large group of infectious and noninfectious diseases will become more important as production systems intensify. Interactions among disease, genotype, management and environment in the various production systems must be understood in order that integrated disease control strategies can be developed.Most indigenous livestock in sub-Saharan Africa have evolved to cope with the harsh environmental conditions. The research challenge is to improve productivity without losing the adaptive traits essential to survival (Winrock, 1992).Research must develop technologies that maintain effective interactions among crop, fallow and rangelands. Most damage outside the crop land that disturbs the ecological balance is caused by soil erosion as the protective plant cover is removed. Grazing can incapacitate plants by preventing seed formation and reducing regenerative ability. Data on the effects of grazing impact on vegetation dynamics and nutrient flow and transfers are needed to design management strategies for sustaining crop and livestock productivity and rangeland and soil quality in the mixed farming agroecosystems. Identifying policies to facilitate the development of sustainable land use systems deserves high priority. Autonomous intensification as a result of the effects of population growth on factor scarcity and the free play of market forces is by itself unlikely to achieve the expected gains in per caput agricultural production and rural income (Lele and Stone, 1989). Land use planning needs to be guided by a knowledge of land suitability potential so that higher value and higher yielding crops can be grown on the most productive land. Land use rights, production incentives and market strategies are important policy issues. There is a need to evolve a management process for integrating several land use options at the geographical catchment level to serve the multiple needs of communities. Cooperation by the whole community should be fostered for management of the common resources that affect crop lands. The mechanisms needed to effect changes in common resources governance and for technology transfer are also issues for policy research.Strategies designed to raise the productivity of specific mixed crop-livestock systems must consider the stage of development of the target area in relation to intensification and the nature of crop-livestock interactions, the availability and cost of inputs, and whether or not policies favour mixed farming. No single set of actions is applicable to all situations. Mixed farming systems are an option for increasing agricultural productivity while ensuring environmental safety in the semiarid, subhumid and highland ecozones of sub-Saharan Africa. Past efforts to encourage mixed farming failed because of the wrong policies and issues that were pursued and promoted by scientists and development agents.Mixed farming is developing naturally in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa. At present economic levels livestock seem a viable alternative to manual labour, help to replenish soil fertility and provide cash income for household needs. Production increases need to be rapid and sustainable and guarantee the well being of all. In order for this to be achieved political will and national commitment need to enact the required policy changes to intensify agriculture.This paper looks forward to the year 2020 in the West Asia/North Africa (WANA) region. The region extends from Morocco in the west to Pakistan and Afghanistan in the east, and from Turkey in the north to Ethiopia and Yemen in the south. The prospects for crop (and crop residue) production, rangeland capacities and livestock and feed deficits are reviewed. Several case studies of flock level diet calendars for small ruminants and whole farm economic views of mixed crop-livestock systems are presented. The ways in which microlevel balances help in understanding how livestock management options affect cropping decisions while macrobalances at country level determine the economic contexts of livestock production are demonstrated.WANA is the centre of origin of wheat, barley, lentils and chickpeas, and of sheep and goats. It is also the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. WANA held the non-European parts of the Greek, Roman, Ottoman and Persian Empires. The region comprises the Arab countries and several of today's largest non-Arab Islamic countries. This \"social ecology\" of WANA must be respected and remembered in any discussion of \"ecoregions\", particularly when it comes to matters of management and policy in agriculture. WANA farming systems thus differ from areas in Australia, California, Chile and South Africa with similar crops and climates. \"Farming does not take place in a cultural vacuum\" (Fadda, 1992).WANA is characterized by high population growth, low and erratic rainfall, limited areas of arable land, some of the world's biggest and harshest deserts and limited water resources for irrigation. Climates vary from Mediterranean to monsoonal and from temperate to tropical (Tutwiler and Bailey, 1991).There is great diversity in the countries of the region in terms of trends in human and ruminant livestock diets over the 1970-1990 period and the differential prospects for domestic food and feed production in relation to projected human populations for the years 2000, 2010 and 2020. Food and feed production prospects are contrasted in 18 of the 25 countries considered by ICARDA as part of its WANA region: Afghanistan, Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey and Yemen. Other sources (TAC/CGIAR, 1992) consider Ethiopia and Sudan to be part of sub-Saharan Africa and Pakistan as part of Asia so these countries are considered separately here. Source: GNP data from USDA, 1993b for 1990 or nearest year except Afghanistan. Iraq, Lebanon, Libya, Sudan and Yemen for which source is EIU, 1992 and for which data are GDP; population data are from UN, 1993 These groupings are somewhat arbitrary but serve to demonstrate the disparities in WANA and between WANA and other areas.Average GNPs per caput of the five WANA groups in 1990 were US $ 763, US $ 1210, US $ 2484, US$ 5538 and US $ 324. GNPs in developed countries in 1990 were US $ 16000 in the UK, US $ 19400 in France, US $ 21900 in the USA and US $ 25800 in Japan (World Bank, 1993). The western stereotype of the \"rich Arab\" is most inappropriate for the great population masses of WANA.In addition to large differences in GNP, oil wealth, significance of remittances and the size and expected trajectories of their populations, the WANA countries show great differences in agricultural potential due to unequal endowments of soil and water resources. Contested land ownership and tenure in WANA has a 5000-year history (Nordblom, 1992). Successive civilizations have rejected and borrowed parts of previous institutions in forming new ones for dealing with land resources. After the Islamic conquests only urban property was privately owned whereas farm and pastoral areas were community property. Towards the end of the Ottoman Empire (19th to early 20th centuries), however, communal or tribal types of land tenure in the main agricultural areas were replaced by forms of private ownership.The Ottoman Land Code of 1858 introduced order to the mass of earlier legislation and was the legal basis of tenure in Syria and Iraq until the 1930s. It defined five categories of land (Warriner, 1962):• Mulk, held in absolute freehold and governed by sacred, not civil statute law, conferred the right of absolute ownership and usufruct of the land, both rights belonging to the individual;• Miri is in the absolute ownership of the state but usufruct rights belong to the individual in a form of heritable \"ownership\" through which the state leases land to him;• Waqf is land dedicated to religious and benevolent purposes such as mosques, schools and hospitals;• Matruka land is reserved for public use such as roads, rivers, buildings, market places and village threshing floors; and• Mawat or Mubah is unreclaimed desert or empty land in the property of the state in the sense of absolute ownership but bringing such land under cultivation over a fixed period confers Miri rights.Land reforms were implemented by most Arab states and Iran in the 1950s and 1960s. The stated aim was to redress gross inequalities in the distribution of land and rural incomes from the Ottoman era and the colonial/mandate period. Reform broke up large holdings and distributed them to former peasants and share croppers but tribal control of rangelands, virtually \"states-withinstates\", was also revoked in many countries. The unintended result of this was to take rangelands out of traditional common property management and move them to open access and subsequent uncontrolled use and heavy degradation.Farmland taken from large landholders was often distributed among peasants in small, marginally economic units (Beaumont, 1989;Hopfinger, 1991). Land reforms in Syria have been followed by introduction of schools, electricity, clean water and all weather roads, resulting in enormous improvement in peasants' lives (Rabo, 1986).Small and highly fragmented farms in Jordan and the need for soil and water conservation in rainfed areas that require modern equipment and proper management have led the agricultural sector away from the laissez-faire philosophy to land use characteristic of the Ottoman and post Ottoman periods. This philosophy resulted in land speculation, absentee landlords, share cropping on short leases without protection for tenants and ploughing of submarginal land with tractors. Pilot projects in Jordan have been based on the idea of government guided agriculture through legislation and compulsory farm associations or farm cooperatives for supply of credit and inputs and, with land pooling, for proper soil and water management and conservation where needed (Aresvik, 1976). It has been said: \"Some land reform programmes have given rise to the establishment of new rural institutions, of which the most important has been the government managed cooperative. These were intended to provide credit, the means for production and help with marketing. In many countries such co-operatives have not lived up to their expectations. Credit has been insufficient and machinery supply and maintenance a problem Even more important, though, is the fact that farmers do not manage their lands individually. As a result, a feeling of alienation has occurred, with the co-operative officials viewed in much the same light as the landowners they replaced. In other cases state farms have been established in which members are paid either a fixed wage or in relation to the number of hours worked. With such organizations the workers do not feel a close tie with the land and so innovation and commitment have been lacking.\" (Beaumont, 1989) Some policy issues needing consideration in respect of rehabilitation and sustainable productivity of rangelands are the appropriate form of institution and the length of tenure. Possibilities include government cooperative, tribal cooperative and private management and long term lease of state land or communal or private ownership with zoning or other restrictions on land use.Determined efforts have been made to revive the communal 'hema' system of rangeland management in WANA (Draz, 1969). This ancient indigenous system provides reserve supplies of feed while protecting rangeland soils and vegetation (Masri, 1991;Qureshi, 1991). Unfortunately, \"owing to the specific socio-economic and political changes of the past two decades in the Near East the idea of reviving the 'hema' system has not met with success\" (Janzen, 1991).The idea of communal land ownership and management seems foreign and unworkable to \"westerners\" living in societies ingrained with English Common Law. To them, individual responsibility, freehold ownership or contractual leases are the normal way of life. As experiences in Australia, the USA and Canada attest, there certainly can be problems with long term land degradation under their legal systems of land tenure and covenants.The delineation of these problems in Australia and the unfinished debates on how best to solve them, have been well elaborated (Chisholm and Dumsday, 1987;Harrington et al, 1990) The possibility of communal ownership or leasing of farm or pasture land is never discussed in Australian debates but many of the points and proposals made, particularly for leased public lands, are worth considering in the context of institution building and revival in WANA. There are, however, enormous differences in human cultures and institutions. There are also profound differences in farm size and grazing management with typical Australian farms and flocks being perhaps 100 times larger than farms in WANA. Virtually all sheep grazing management in Australia is done inside boundary fences. Fences are unknown and shepherded grazing is the norm in WANA where farm wages are less than 10 per cent of those in Australia.Several countries have attempted central planning and control of cropping patterns in their main farming areas, even going so far as to define the proportions of land in each district, and each farm in the district, which must be in which crops. Egypt and Algeria have recently abandoned this policy on grounds of economic efficiency. Among sources of efficiency are the new flexibility that farmers have to match production more closely to price signals and to resources, including their skills, family labour, soils and marketing and employment opportunities.Numerous studies on optimizing farm plans to maximize profits of crop/livestock enterprises under various prices and constraints have been conducted for specific sites in WANA. These include Turkey (Satana, 1974), Pakistan (Qureshi, 1975), Sudan (Abdelmagid, 1986;1992;Shomo, 1992), Lebanon (Kizirian, 1970) and Syria (Sting, 1987;Maerz, 1990;Nordblom et al, 1992;Nasser, 1994). Further such studies by NARS will be needed to understand farmers' options under new technologies and new price sets.Solutions to land use management problems in this region must come from within and be adapted to the conditions in each state.Most formal plant breeding and conservation and characterization of genetic resources in WANA is done by government institutions with some help from the IARCs. The formal seed sector crosses, selects, tests, multiplies and distributes seed for farmers. Seed is expected to meet certain quality standards for purity and germination. It is through the plant breeding and selection process that high yielding varieties are introduced and germplasm shared among countries.These services yield public goods, especially of self pollinating species such as wheat, rice, barley, lentils and chickpeas which can be multiplied many generations while retaining their genetic character and advantages. This makes such species unattractive for private breeding companies. Large state farms and public seed corporations in many countries that were established to multiply and distribute improved seed have, however, proved ineffective and failed to meet the diverse crop and varietal requirements of farmers (Jaffee and Srivastava, 1994).The formal sector releases and multiplies named varieties of high genetic and physical purity. In the case of pasture species such as annual Medicago, however, a pure stand of a single variety is often not as desirable as a mix of species due to the ecological advantages of each species under different weather conditions. The formal seed sector could release pure lines to be blended later and sown as pasture mixes. This practice unfortunately further divides the small proportion of effort that NARS allocate to pasture and forage seed and multiplies the cost per species as well as reducing the volume of each species offered.ICARDA and NARS are working to bypass this obstacle outside the formal sector in Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco and Syria. Local pasture species are multiplied and seed harvested by cheap hand sweepers (Christiansen, 1993). Seed pods of the pasture species are sown with a cereal crop. Some of the pasture plants germinate and form a pasture in the next year (Mitri, 1994). Pods can also be sown to rehabilitate non-arable pastures.An open question for policy discussion is the desired balance in support for the formal and informal seed sectors in view of the fact that the latter is often larger and touches the greatest numbers of poor farmers. The question cannot easily be asked of the mass of farmers comprising the informal sector but NARS and IARCs would do well to seek answers through diagnostic studies in the neglected environments where farmers save their own seed.Public investments have tended to be heaviest in veterinary services because major public good can be derived through preventive measures. Veterinary epidemiology, research and extension have been identified as services yielding public goods whose provision is economically justified in most countries (Umali et al, 1994). Veterinary surveillance and quarantine can provide first line defence against introduction of infectious disease. Due, however, to the permeability of many national borders in the region surveillance and quarantine face great practical difficulties.Governments can also effectively provide public goods through veterinary drug quality control and in food hygiene inspection especially in dairies and abattoirs to avoid moral hazards in these issues. Governments may also sometimes be justified in organizing vaccination campaigns, vector control and diagnostic support. Private goods with consumption externalities include clinical interventions such as diagnosis and treatment and preventive medicine including vaccination, vaccine production and vector control (Umali et al, 1994).Emphasis and investment in veterinary services in many WANA countries appears greater than in some industrialized countries where livestock contribute a major share to the value of agricultural production. The extreme case is Egypt (Table 2) with one veterinary practitioner for each 431 Veterinary Livestock Units (VLUs). Only Japan in the developed world approaches this intensity.Iraq and Syria also have heavy veterinary cover. Jordan, Lebanon, Tunisia and Oman have about 4500 VLUs per veterinarian compared to 5000 in France. Morocco and Saudi Arabia in WANA proper have the highest ratios. Afghanistan, which can here be classed with the countries of South and East WANA has a ratio of over 20000 to 1 (Table 2).Several countries forbid slaughter of young or productive female sheep. The practical result is that government abattoirs with inspection facilities mainly process male sheep whereas female sheep are slaughtered in the informal sector (Heylen, 1993).Carcasses without testicles intact cannot be hung on display by many butchers in WANA. The public health hazards of uninspected slaughter are the main problem where market forces quietly override a traditional regulation. Of equal importance, however, is that health inspection facilities are usually available only in the larger cities. A further regulation in the main rainfed districts of northern Syria and northern Iraq requires all sheep flocks to move out of the area from mid February until after harvest of the crop. Flocks are allowed to graze weeds and young cereal crops in winter but must be removed later due to the impossibility of preventing night grazing of crops by flock owners. Such regulations are in direct conflict with efforts at better integration of livestock and crop production using sown pastures grown in rotation with cereals.Veterinary and auxiliary staff numbers do not always translate into services. Compared to their counterparts in developed countries veterinary personnel in WANA often lack equipment, are underpaid and do not have access to transport or communications. Migratory flocks and herds add to the challenge faced by the veterinary services.Health and productivity are closely linked to nutrition and management. Research and extension on nutrition and management have received lower priority than they deserve in most WANA countries and usually trail behind veterinary services and efforts at genetic improvement. With \"public good\" justification most WANA countries have embarked on expensive and ineffective breed improvement programmes. Livestock nutrition and management often remain \"traditional\" and are considered something that farmers already know everything about, thus justifying research neglect.Vitamin or trace mineral deficiencies in feeds offer the prospect of high economic response through better livestock performance.Sheep are known to be deficient in sodium and vitamin E across wide areas of Jordan, Syria and Turkey, suffer from copper deficiency in the Euphrates valley in Syria, are deficient in selenium in Turkey and are low in zinc in many WANA countries (White, 1994). Supplementary feeding of trace elements and minerals, which is common in the developed countries, remains virtually unknown in WANA.Use of near infra-red spectroscopy techniques on small samples of straw linked to voluntary intake of the same straw by sheep provides the possibility of inexpensive early screening for quality in plant breeding programmes (El-Haramein and Goodchild, 1993). More efficient integration of livestock nutrition and better cereal/legume crop rotations offer the prospect of more profitable and stable rainfed farming systems (Nordblom et al, 1994).The open policy question to be faced by NARS and IARCs is the optimal balance of emphasis on veterinary services, animal genetic improvement or better nutrition and management. The last are closely linked to or part of crop and resource management because animal nutrition encompasses crop residues and forage crops, grazing of native pastures and feed grains and feeding of concentrates.Crop residues and rangeland production are marketable only via livestock. Poor productivity by WANA livestock is linked to poor management on the farm and indigenous livestock often perform well below their genetic potential. In these conditions veterinary services and breed improvement cannot overcome the effects of poor nutrition and management. There is still little quantitative data but considerable work is needed simply to approach the policy question of balances between veterinary, breeding and management work on livestock and the broader balance between crop and livestock research.Some WANA countries open or close their borders to imports and exports of live animals with sometimes disturbing consequences for their own and their neighbours' enterprises. Some also try to prevent (or require) internal movement of livestock and other commodities among their own provinces.Egypt and Syria have feed subsidies, credit for sheep fattening cooperatives and systems of feed delivery and storage in the dry rangelands. They have also renovated Roman cisterns for stock water. These measures have contributed to overstocking of rangelands in both countries.Livestock market information and well differentiated price signals to producers are often poor or totally lacking (Rodríguez et al, 1993). Information is typically limited to verbal contacts and personal observation in local livestock markets where animals are sold at a negotiated price either singly or in lots with condition and weight being judged by feel and sight. Public market transactions lower costs for buyers and sellers and limit the scope for misinformation. Good road and telephone links further serve these purposes as do quality standards or grades for live animals or carcasses. These, however, are usually missing. Government imposed regulations are often intended and used to keep urban retail meat prices down (Mahmood and Rodríguez, 1993). It is not always possible to enforce these regulations and they may, in any case, have negative consequences on both producers and consumers.Reviews of grain production and consumption from 1970 to 1990 and projections to 2020 reveal large differences among countries in the range of plausible outcomes (Nordblom and Shomo, 1994). Population and production data from standard sources (FAO, 1993a: USDA, 1994) for two 5-year periods centred on 1970 and 1990 for 18 countries were plotted as 20-year trend lines (Figure 3). Consumption patterns (for both livestock feed and direct human consumption) were also calculated for these periods. Grain use in Jordan, Libya and Saudi Arabia rose very rapidly from 1970 to 1990. Much of the increase was for livestock production as reflected in changes in human diet composition (c.f. Figure 1). Livestock production is chiefly for domestic use in Saudi Arabia and Libya. Syrian and Jordanian merchants and farmers' cooperatives import live animals, grow and fatten them with domestic and imported feed and re-export them to the Gulf states. The poorest countries have not been able to balance population growth with increased production or imports and human diets have declined in quantity. These countries have all suffered civil wars and major economic dislocations. Production in Tunisia, Egypt and Syria has kept pace with population growth while in Morocco it has not. Income growth and concessionary pricing has enabled the import of grains for food but also as poultry and livestock feeds. Demand for grain was greatly in excess of production in Jordan, Libya and Saudi Arabia.Turkey is the greatest agricultural country of the region and its per caput production is nearly double that of its nearest contenders. Turkey is unique for having promoted a large, sustainable and economically sound agricultural sector and is further developing its substantial renewable water sources for irrigation. Turkey is, and will probably remain, WANA's largest (if not only) net exporter of cereal grains and pulses. Algeria has a substantial agricultural sector producing below its capacity. It imports most of its total grain consumption and funds this by oil exports. Like the other \"oil-exporters with large populations\" Algeria has given highest priority to industrial development and neglected, in relative terms, rural development and agriculture (EIU, 1992). This group of countries is considered to have, in addition to oil, good physical potential for sustained agricultural growth (Janssen, 1993).Jordan, Libya and Oman produce the smallest shares of their own consumption and import most of what they use. Changes in levels of domestic production would have negligible impact on human diets. This fact may ultimately limit popular support for major uneconomic investments in increasing grain production instead of pursuing other opportunities such as intensive production of higher value crops.Saudi Arabia has developed substantial grain production capacity based on irrigation with nonrenewable water supplies and heavy fertilizer use. This is a unique achievement in the region although Libya is proceeding with its \"Great Man Made River\" project (EIU, 1992). Costs of production in Saudi Arabia are, however, several times higher than world prices even without accounting for the scarcity price of water or costs of subsidies on investments in irrigation (Nurul Islam, pers. comm.)Opportunities for expanding rainfed or irrigated areas in WANA are few (Alexandratos, 1988). It is in this context that sustainable increases in rainfed agricultural productivity of grain, pasture, forage and livestock are the key focus of ICARDA.The role of pulses in human diets is greater than their small quantities suggest (Figure 3) due to their high protein and energy contents and their use in diets of the poor as substitutes for animal products (Oram and Belaid, 1990). The faba bean, for example, is known as the \"poor man's meat\" and lentils and chickpeas are known to have similar nutritive qualities.Per caput consumption is not projected beyond 1990. An imaginary flat line of constant 1990 per caput consumption (Figure 3) shows the gap with production under the various assumptions. Increases in per caput consumption over 1990 levels are badly needed in the poorest countries. Consumption per caput is unfortunately not a function of want but of effective demand and is directly related to income level. Per caput consumption can be expected to rise to 400 kg or more per year in countries with moderate incomes. Any gap between production and consumption in these countries will be made up by grain imports which in many cases will consist of feed grains.Current levels of production of all grains can be maintained in most countries although, as in Saudi Arabia, it will not always be economic. Continued efforts will, however, be needed to keep inputs in the form of improved seeds, fertilizers and fuels flowing and for maintaining infrastructure. Attempts to increase production by varying proportions (Figure 3) would require greater effort and technical, economic and political help. High anticipated costs for sustaining very rapid production increases must be balanced against the low costs of imported grain.Optimization of future national grain production trajectories involves economic analyses of comparative advantages and the taking into account of other sectors, domestic resources and world prices. There is also a large element of political choice capable of ignoring or embracing such arguments.These analyses are beyond the scope of this paper and no comment is made on the current capabilities for enlightened political choice in the countries of the region. In principle, however, each country should seek out its comparative advantages and may wish to improve them through investments in human capital and infrastructure.The range of possibilities for economically viable rates of increase in grain production could run to more than five per cent in countries where agriculture has been neglected in favour of industrial growth and where there is still considerable potential for intensification, as in Morocco, Algeria and Iraq. In Iraq, for example, cereal (mainly wheat and barley) areas increased by 100 per cent from 1989 to 1990 and production increased by 130 per cent. Production was down by 21 per cent in 1991, however, due to policy changes, changed incentives for farmers and the weather (USDA, 1993b).Irrigated cereal production by oil exporting countries with small populations could be reduced by 10 per cent or more annually if they choose to restrict allocation of non-renewable water supplies to high value vegetable crops and domestic uses. They could then buy the needed food and feed grains on the world market and maintain strategic food stocks as appropriate.Other countries in the region do not have such options and the range for manoeuvre is more restricted. The poorest countries could increase production at more than three per cent annually under peaceful conditions following civil war. Such \"peace dividends\" are not automatic, however, and depend on wise policy and investments.The effects of failure to achieve higher production in the face of population increase cannot be quantified in terms of human misery. High population growth rates drag down per caput projections of grain production in most countries. The more \"downward-bending\" the production projections the higher the projected rates of population growth (Figure 3).Livestock include ruminants for meat and milk, camels and equines for draught and poultry (chickens and turkeys) for eggs and meat (Appendix Table A). Poultry products are gaining importance and account for a major share of animal products in human diets in many countries (USDA, 1993a).Aggregation of animal populations for each country was done by taking the numbers of each kind and multiplying by a factor for conversion to a Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) equivalent to a bovine of 250 kg live weight at maintenance. The aggregate TLUs were then plotted against total livestock feed (Figure 4). Feeds include crop residues of all sorts, grazing from native pastures, feed grains and other concentrates (Appendix Table B). Crop residues are not usually reported in national or international statistical series but quantitative estimates can be derived with some confidence by using relevant crop data and multiplying by a factor specific to each (Appendix Table B).Native pasture or rangeland grazing is the most important feed source for several countries (FAO, 1993a). Offtake quotients are not reported in any regular statistical series but was estimated for 10 countries by multiplying areas by specific assumptions (Appendix Table B).Feed grains and other concentrates include domestic and imported barley, maize and cottonseed (whole, meal and cake). They are the smallest feed category for most countries in WANA but exceptions are Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Libya (Figure 3) where spectacular increases in feed imports have occurred over the past 20 years.The mega-trend chart (Figure 4) illustrates the close match between aggregate TLUs and total feed availability in WANA. The envelope of annual dry matter consumption, which assumes feeding levels between three per cent and six per cent of live weight per day, covers the middle range of the region's feed and livestock balances. The three feed categories of crop residues and forage crops, natural pasture grazing, and feed grains and other concentrates, nominally add up to 100 per cent of feed use. Contrasts in feed resource endowments and general shifts towards greater proportions of feed grains and crop residues and away from natural grazing are apparent most spectacularly in Jordan, Lebanon, Libya and Saudi Arabia (Figure 5). All countries except Afghanistan and Yemen show natural pastures as diminishing proportions of livestock diets. This trend does not take account of rangeland degradation for which there are no quantitative data but is the outcome of increased livestock numbers, increased cropping activities and more use of feed grains. The general trend towards greater use of feed grains and concentrates is expected to continue. Much of this will be to supplement diets based primarily on crop residues and natural grazing but increasing amounts will be profitably used in expanded feeding operations for dairy, poultry and meat production (Khaldi, 1984;Sarma, 1986). Domestic feed production in most WANA countries will probably increase with developments in crop and sown pasture production. Quantities of both domestic crop residues and feed grains should increase and there should be better management of cereal crops in rotations including forage and food legume crops (Osman et al, 1990). In spite of this, domestic feed production is unlikely to keep up with demand in most countries.If it is assumed that crop production increases are allied to increases in crop residues, forage crops and feed grain production in equivalent proportions it is possible to make projections of the numbers of TLUs that can be supported by domestic feed sources in the future. The analysis further assumes, somewhat optimistically, that natural grazing sources will continue to provide current levels of feed. Subtracting feed imports from each country's total feed resources gives a median estimate of 0.2 TLU per caput for 1990 (Nordblom and Shomo, 1993).Owing to abundant domestic crop residue and rangeland feed resources some countries show surpluses well above 0.2 TLU per caput (Figure 6). The TLU figures represent, however, the standing populations of livestock and not the annual offtake of livestock products. A deficit in TLUs may be satisfied either by imports of livestock products or imports of feeds at the-rate of 2738 kg dry matter per TLU but such deficits may simply remain unsatisfied. Libya is projected to have a feed deficit of under one million tonnes by 2020 if the country's crop production increases at an annual rate of three per cent and a deficit of about 2.5 million tonnes at one per cent whereas Syria's and Algeria's larger populations, with feed deficits already apparent in 1990, are projected to have very large deficits by 2020 (Figure 6a). Scenarios of one per cent rates of increase in crop production would leave some countries with large deficits in domestic feeds given their projected populations (Figure 6b, Figure 6c). It is most likely that oil rich countries such as Libya, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states will buy more live stock products and feeds as their populations grow. Poorer countries with the majority of WANA's population will have access to ever smaller amounts of animal protein per caput beginning from an already low base (c.f. Figure 1). Pulses, which substitute for livestock products at lower incomes, will probably gain in importance in absolute terms. Even substantial increases of three per cent per annum will not reduce the decline in per caput TLUs capable of being supported by domestic feed production in most countries of the region.\"Oil exporters with small populations\" must be considered separately from other countries of the region based not only on their oil wealth but also on poor prospects for economically sustainable large scale agriculture. If, as is done elsewhere (Alexandratos, 1993;Mitchell and Ingco, 1993;Rosegrant and Agcaoili, 1994), these countries are included in overall analyses the prospects for food purchase of \"food-deficit WANA\" are overstated.\"Oil exporters with large populations\" are another matter in terms of agricultural potential and the financial resources to develop them. They form a subgroup which should be distinguished from the rest of the region. Each country in this group is projected to have annual feed deficits of some 10 million tonnes by 2020. The combined (and rapidly growing) population of 101 million means that these countries deserve special attention.The \"oil and remittance sensitive countries\" are at various levels of development but rely on rainfed agriculture and pastures for much of their production. With the exception of Turkey, and possibly Tunisia, countries in this group will all face food and feed deficits by 2020.Egypt and Pakistan each have large populations, agriculture that is heavily dependent on rivers (although there is some rainfed farming) and extensive dry rangelands. Both countries deserve separate attention and Egypt in particular has the current largest feed deficit in WANA. Turkey should also be considered separately and not aggregated with the rest of WANA because its good soil and water resources otherwise mask the conditions of the poorer countries. Turkey and Tunisia are the only countries in WANA proper projected to support more than 0.2 TLU per caput in 2020. Other analyses (Alexandratos, 1988;1993;Mitchell and Ingco, 1993;Rosegrant and Agcaoili, 1994) do not treat Turkey separately and therefore overstate the agricultural capacity of the \"food-deficit states\".The problems in WANA agriculture cannot be solved by averaging the poor with the rich on paper but by raising the capacities of the poor. A perceptive person recently remarked: \"The WANA region has a glorious past, a worrying present and a frightening future\". Perhaps the \"fright\" comes with the realization that food self sufficiency is not attainable for most WANA countries in view of their enormous population increases. Food demand has outgrown domestic production in most countries and will probably continue to do so.Greater integration with world markets will become more essential as will investments in human capital, research and technology development. Each WANA country will benefit by developing its agriculture in a manner consistent with its particular comparative advantages. Being a large importer of food and feed grains is not a catastrophe provided a country develops stable means of financing imports through service industries, manufacturing and advantageous nonagricultural and agricultural exports. Where these means are not actively developed serious food crises can be expected in the future.In respect of comparative advantages in meeting livestock/feed deficits by importing feed, an alternative is to import live animals and frozen or processed livestock products. Policies favouring feed and livestock product imports at prices below domestic production costs could benefit consumer diets but damage domestic livestock and feed producers. In some cases this could have favourable environmental impact, through lower price incentives and by discouraging risky cereal cultivation and overgrazing in the rangelands. This, and the obvious prospects of a rising import market for low cost feed grain and livestock products, should attract the interest of the major feed and livestock exporting countries.Public goods will be needed over the next 20 years to improve human welfare and sustain natural resources. Public goods resulting from international research but for which full funding from national or private sources cannot be justified or expected include:• human capital and institutional strengthening in rangeland tenure and the making of decisions at the farm level (pastoralists and farmers with insecure tenure cannot be expected to consider sustainable resource use but major economic gains appear feasible by devolving property rights and decision making from state bodies to individual farmers or well organized small groups);• evaluation, conservation and improvement of plant (particularly wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, faba bean, forage crops and pasture species whose centres of origin and wild relatives are in WANA) and animal genetic resources (for example, the hardy fat tailed sheep found from Tunisia through central Asia and prized for milk and meat production) by international institutions working in partnership with NARS;• helping the informal seed sector to provide improved services by support for strategic research on methods followed by well informed extension; and• giving increased attention to improving livestock management and nutrition on the farm and encouraging economic balance with the current emphasis on national veterinary and animal breeding investments in WANA.It is no coincidence that ICARDA's mandate is focused on the strategic research areas designed to yield public goods information and the building of human capital for the sustained benefit of mankind. Partnerships with NARS are as much a key as are concerns for sustaining natural resource use and the welfare of resource users and consumers. Partnerships with other CGIAR centres and non-CG centres of excellence will be essential to bring resources and critical masses of research skill to bear on many of these issues.Feeding/grazing calendars in mixed systems System specific feeding and grazing calendars for sedentary farmers in northeast Syria, agropastoralists in northwest Syria and sedentary (semi-intensive sheep/cereal) farmers and pastoral (goat) herders in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon are presented here (Goodchild et al, 1995). Northeast Syria is a semiarid rainfed crop zone with about 400 mm mean annual precipitation but where there is also some irrigated cotton (Nordblom et al, 1993a). The northwest Syria study focuses on flocks with winter bases in rangeland-barley areas with about 230 mm mean annual precipitation that move in summer and autumn to graze crop residues in higher rainfall and irrigated areas (Wachholtz et al, 1993). Pastoral goat flocks in Lebanon typically graze foothills and rangelands in spring, summer and autumn whereas sheep of the sedentary farmers stay on or near their home farms the whole year (Hamadeh et al, 1994).Feed calendars were developed (Figure 7) based on a single round survey of more than 30 farmers in each system (Nordblom et al, 1993b). Characteristics common to all systems are the marked seasonal diversity in feed sources, hand feeding of cereal straw and concentrates in the winter and stubble grazing in summer. There are differences, however, in the importance of range grazing and in the starting and ending dates and importance of this feed source. Access to various crop residues, feed grains and agro-industrial by-products such as sugar beet pulp, wheat bran and cottonseed cake is also reflected in the differences in diets among the four systems. This type of system description allows evaluation of farmers' current practices before designing trials aimed at improving mixed farming systems. It is also useful in economic analyses comparing current practices with proposed improvements.Production practices, costs and constraints were established in the single round survey (Nordblom et al, 1993a;Nasser, 1994). A long term rotation and grazing trial had been established with the Syrian Ministry of Agriculture near Kamishly in northeast Syria in 1986. Lentils, vetch, fallow, wheat and medic pastures were managed in 2-year rotations with wheat, both phases of each rotation being present every year. Crop yield and pasture offtake estimates for eight years were included in a whole-farm model (Shomo et al, 1995). Market price survey data of inputs and outputs of the mixed system from 1986-1994 were also used, these being deflated to 1992 Syrian Lira (SL 42 = US $ 1) using the Laspeyres general wholesale price indices for 1986-1993 and a projected index for 1994.Medic pasture competes with other crops for land and labour and grazing offtake in spring and summer compete with other feed sources on the farm, including rangeland and roadside grazing, cereal straw and stubble residues and purchased feeds such as barley grain and cottonseed cake. Medic pasture may be used by breeding flocks of ewes and their lambs or by lambs bought for fattening. Optimal grazing management of medic pasture is affected by:• quantity and quality of pasture production over time;• feed demand of sheep over time and as affected by pregnancy and lactation;• quality, quantity, time of availability and costs of all other home grown or bought feed resources; and• prices of sheep products, other farm outputs, other farm inputs and wages.All these are explicitly accounted for in the whole-farm linear programming model (Shomo et al, 1995). Pasture offtake estimates were derived from recorded grazing days multiplied by estimates of dry matter intake per sheep per day and scaled to appropriate values for all four seasons.The number of ewes is a \"strategic\" model variable and is optimized over the 8-year run in relation to prices and availability of all feed sources and prices of lambs and milk. Sheep diets are simultaneously optimized for minimum cost while meeting minimum dietary levels of crude protein and metabolizable energy and maximum levels of dry matter intake among the four seasons in each year. The amounts of each feed in each season are \"tactical\" variables in the model as are the amounts of family and hired labour used and the quantities of crops sold. The model can be used to solve with profit maximizing or non-linear objectives, the latter being for risk aversion where farmers wish for the highest possible average income while avoiding low outcomes in any particular year. The profit maximizing results for each rotation are shown separately for an assumed farm size of 16 ha, typical family labour availability and no access to range grazing.The optimum number of ewes and their share of lambs, rams and replacement yearlings is part of each solution of the model. With a model run for each of the crop rotations separately the sequence of annual whole-farm incomes after all costs over the 8-year period can be shown (Figure 8). The results in terms of optimal ewe numbers and average income can also be shown (Figure 9). The lentilwheat rotation outperforms others in terms of highest net whole-farm income partly because of the quantities of lentil straw and leaves produced and which can be stored to reduce winter feed purchases. The model results are best viewed as expected means and variances of net whole-farm income over time (Figure 9). Standard deviations and coefficients of variation (CV) are used as measures of income variation to allow easy comparison among rotations. Lentil-wheat, for example, offers not only the highest mean but the lowest CV in whole-farm incomes and there is little doubt why this rotation is the most common in the area. Wheat-wheat and wheat-medic, in contrast, provide the lowest means and highest CVs. Fallows and vetch are not widely used in the study area and medic remains virtually unknown to farmers except as a local weed. Similar results were obtained with a model based on price and growing conditions for a slightly lower rainfall zone (330 mm) in northwest Syria over the period 1985-1993(Nordblom et al, 1995)). Crop and pasture offtake estimates are from a large crop rotation and grazing trial at ICARDA's main station, 35 km south of Aleppo. Farm and market surveys in the area provided the economic data.Farms with 16 ha and 64 ha of arable land are considered as typical and large farms in this area. Barley yielded better than wheat after medic because it matures earlier. Barley prices are always lower than wheat but medic-barley is an additional rotation option in northwest Syria. The lentil-wheat rotation was again best in this model as it was in northeast Syria. With the model set to find an optimal mix of rotations barley-medic entered the farm plan at low but significant levels with the major proportion of the farm going to lentil-wheat. This is explained by a low correlation between lentil yields and medic pasture offtake such that the combined potential for economic crop and feed production is better than either rotation used alone.All model runs were made with the \"standard\" set of prices and yields observed over the 8-year study period and the effects on the medic/barley area of changes in prices of sheep were considered for risk averse and profit maximizing (risk neutral) farmers.Price levels were set at 80, 90, 100, 110 and 120 per cent of the standard and a sensitivity analysis was done representing the outcome of 40 runs plotting only the \"highest-utility\" results among 20 runs with sheep and 20 without (Figure 10). The no sheep option removes the labour needed for herding. At the 100 per cent cost/price condition the risk averse solutions for both 16 ha and 64 ha farms call for greater areas of barley/medic pasture than the risk neutral solutions. In addition, and for both risk levels, barley/medic takes a larger share of crop land of the 64 ha than of the 16 ha farm. This can be explained by the relative shortage of family labour on the larger farm linked with the low labour demand of medic compared to lentils.Reduced or increased sheep prices relative to the standard 100 per cent (Figure 10) call for corresponding decreases or increases in the optimal barley/medic pasture area on both farm sizes if the farmer is risk averse. With sheep prices at 80 per cent of standard, ceteris paribus a no sheep-no medic strategy would be best for risk averse farmers on both large and small farms. With sheep prices at 120 per cent of standard nearly a quarter of the area of small farms and a third of large farms would be devoted to the barley/medic rotation. The effects of different sheep prices are less pronounced for risk neutral farmers. The effects are dramatic if lentil prices are allowed to oscillate around the standard level, (Figure 11). As lentil/wheat in the rotation is the strongest competitor for land with barley/medic, higher lentil prices lead to an increase in the share of lentils in the farmer's portfolio of rotations. Lower lentil prices, on the other hand, open the way for greater allocations to barley/medic. The adaptability of sheep to various diets and the ability of shepherds to direct them to the cheapest available feed source in a given season and year have so far been reflected in the model on the assumption that sheep must stay on the farm. Many farmers, however, have access to grazing off the farm, including rangelands and roadsides. The use of such areas is typically heavy and persistent by multiowner flocks often under open access conditions but sometimes under common access by a closed group to a village or cooperative grazing area. Exclusive use of a range grazing area by a single farmer is very rare in Syria (Nordblom, 1993).The grazing offtake potential from a given area of rangeland and yields of rainfed crops vary from year to year depending on the weather. Rangeland offtake in the study area, derived from a long term grazing trial, is estimated at 50 per cent of biomass production (Osman et al, 1991;Osman, 1992;Osman and Bahhady, 1993). It can also be assumed (Nordblom and Thomson, 1987) that rangeland can be grazed in winter and/or spring. Taking all winter grazing would preclude spring grazing, and vice versa. Linear combinations of the options are available each year (Nordblom et al, 1995). Costs associated with the rangeland in addition to herding, are assumed to include an annual maintenance application of triple superphosphate fertilizer similar to that under which the trial observations were made.The assumption limiting range grazing to the winter and spring months (January-May) is justified by results of surveys of flock owners in northern Syria in which rangeland use was reported to be neligible at other times mainly due to the seasonal availability of other feeds and especially cereal stubbles and straws (Nordblom, 1987;Wachholtz et al, 1993).Model runs showed consistent results for both farm sizes and both levels of risk in that exclusive access to 10 ha of rangeland led to lower strategically optimal areas of barley/medic and larger flock sizes (Figure 12). Another consistent result was that risk averse farmers of either farm size wood prefer smaller flocks and larger barley/medic areas than those chosen by risk neutral farmers regardless of the area of rangeland up to 50 ha. With 30 ha of rangeland the risk neutral farmer with 16 ha of farmland would drop barley/medic from the optimal portfolio while maintaining a substantial flock size. Due to substitution of cheap range grazing for relatively expensive medic pasture (opportunity costs of not growing higher value wheat crops) greater access to rangeland means lowered interest in medic pasture. In the major farming districts, however, many farmers have little, and very rarely exclusive, access to substantial areas of rangeland.The implications of access to rangeland on choice of farming activities have not yet been fully explored but these results provide new insights. The income generating capacity added to a rainfed farm by well defined access to rangeland raises the question of economic incentives for maintaining and increasing range production through better management. This is likely to be a key to supporting institutional reforms for rangeland property rights.The analysis reveals a positive but limited economic niche for medic pastures in northwest Syria. The size of this niche is sensitive to a number of variables such as sheep and lentil prices, farm size and access to rangeland. Prices are subject to change as the economy develops in relation to world markets. Current tariff protection of domestic sheep and lentil prices, for example, provides plus and minus incentives for medic pasture.The clear lesson to be drawn from the micro-analyses of the diet calendars and whole-farm models in the light of the macroanalysis which demonstrates vast differences in national feed resources among countries is that different farming systems with different optimal mixes of crop and livestock activities will be found across the region. From the farmers' viewpoint optimal mixes of activities will shift with changing prices of inputs and outputs as well as with changes in technology or policy that alter production possibilities.Both technology and policy are susceptible to improvement for more sustainable and productive mixed farming systems in WANA. This provides some relief to the region's rather gloomy prospects for rapidly declining self sufficiency in livestock production in view of the expected large increases in human populations to 2020 and beyond.Mixed systems that include crops and livestock are widespread at all altitudes in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) on small and medium sized farms. On larger farms, as in the South American savannas, integration is becoming common despite traditional separation of crops and livestock (Vera et al, 1992). This paper examines opportunities for development of the animal component of mixed farming systems in the tropical countries of the region. The emphasis is on cattle because they are the most widely distributed species and they contribute nearly half the meat and almost all of the milk produced in the LAC countries.Major social, economic and environmental changes took place in the region in the last 20 years. The period 1980-1990 was characterized by stagnation or a fall in GDP, hyperinflation, acute fiscal deficits and large foreign debts. Population growth was more than two per cent per year (Appendix Table A). The 75 per cent urbanization distinguishes LAC from tropical Africa and parts of Asia. Macroeconomic adjustments to reduce market distortions and public deficits have been harsh in the short term. They have included removal of subsidies and caused lower production of staple foods, widespread unemployment and reduced social services. Public spending on agricultural research and support has decreased. Poverty increased (CEPAL, 1990) and, in addition to widespread rural poverty a rising proportion of the poorest households now live in cities. Civil disturbance, organized violence and crime symbolize the period. Recent improvements in some countries have been offset by deterioration in others and international war returned to the region in 1995.Milk and beef are traditionally important in the Latin American diet with high income elasticities of demand in all economic strata (Rubinstein and Nores, 1980). Overall average consumption of milk and meat per caput remained fairly static between 1976-1983 and 1984-1991 (Appendix Table A) but more countries recorded decreases than increases in both products, especially in Central America and the Caribbean. The serious deterioration in diet quality of the poorest families, documented recently in Venezuela, is masked by the average figures and is likely to be widespread.Total milk production has increased by about two per cent per year since 1976 but has generally failed to keep up with population growth (Appendix Table B). Individual countries vary but there has been little overall change in yield per cow in most areas of the region except in the Caribbean where considerable progress has been made in Cuba. Tropical LAC produced 88 per cent of its milk requirements during 1984-1991. A deficit of nine million tonnes is predicted for the year 2000 (Seré, 1990).Beef production has increased more rapidly than milk, especially in Mexico (Appendix Table C). Most expansion elsewhere, however has been from increases in inventory as yields per head have remained fairly stable. The region has been a net exporter of beef over the last two decades but a shortfall of 356000 tonnes is predicted by 2000 (Seré, 1990).The trends described for production and yields have been associated with changes in the pattern of land use and production systems. Several related tendencies can be identified.Intensive, specialized dairy systems on high value lands and based largely on concentrate feeds derived from imported grains have tended to disappear in favour of dual purpose systems. Movement of national herds towards less fertile lands, as documented for Brazil and Colombia (Seré, 1990), has also been noted elsewhere in Central and South America. Lower costs and higher profits from milk production have been associated with systems of medium, rather than high, intensity (Wilkins et al, 1979;Holmann et al, 1990;Madalena et al, 1990) and milking in beef herds is becoming more common in an effort to intensify production.There has been no significant increase in the amount of land under annual or perennial crops in any major area of the region (CIAT, 1993). Latin America, at 7.3 million ha/year, had, however, the highest rate of deforestation in the world during the 1980s (Serrao, 1994). Much of this area ended up as pasture land either because of direct substitution or because the cropping systems that replaced the forests were unsustainable. The area under permanent pastures in 1990 was 10 per cent greater than in 1974-1981(CIAT, 1993) ) but 50 per cent of pastures in tropical LAC are now considered to be in an advanced state of degradation (Serrao and Toledo, 1990).Against this background major opportunities for progress can be identified.Firstly, much can be done so that cattle fit better into cropping systems in order to help achieve sustainable production in the whole system. Application of current knowledge to the use by ruminants of the residues and byproducts of major crops, including sugar cane and cereals, has yet to be fully exploited in Latin America. The role of locally grown supplements, including legumes, in achieving this goal through strategic balancing of dietary nutrients has been well emphasized (Preston and Leng, 1987). There is also evidence from various ecosystems to show the beneficial effects of grasses and legumes introduced into mixed systems as pasture, forage or edible cover crops. Reduced erosion and improved fertility, structure, water retention and biological activity in the soil have been recorded, as have associated increases in subsequent crop yields and reductions in fertilizer requirements (Sánchez and Ara, 1991;CIAT, 1992;Vera et al, 1992;Mares, 1994). The economic potential of mixed systems in the savannas is already known (Vera et al, 1992), as is the increase in animal production to be obtained from suitably adapted grasses and legumes (Table 1) but the effect these deep rooted species may have on soil carbon storage has been demonstrated only recently (Fisher et al, 1994). Thus, besides their potential for increasing crop and animal production, introduced pastures based on adapted species may prove a substantial buffer for carbon dioxide emissions. If this is so, the widely held negative view of the effect of tropical pastures on the global environment would require revision. Sources: Paladines and Leal, 1979;Fisher et al, 1994;Lascano, 1994 Secondly, tropical pastures are important in the recuperation of lands that have been degraded by mismanagement. The introduction of cattle because soil is too depleted to continue to produce crops is widespread, as is the case on small and medium holdings in Costa Rica (Thrupp, 1980). Increases in cattle production of 200-400 per cent have resulted from grass and grass-legume mixtures introduced in degraded rainforest pastures where properly adapted and adequately managed germplasm has been used (CIAT, 1992). Pioneer crops can help defray the costs and varieties suitable for infertile, acid soils have reached economically attractive levels of yield in the savannas and humid tropics (CIAT, 1992;Vera et al, 1992). Regional experience suggests that pastures in the humid tropics have a high potential for sustainable use (Sanchez and Ara, 1991). It has been estimated that the degraded pastures left by deforestation in the Amazon basin can be brought into sustainable use and meet the region's requirements for meat and milk until at least 2000 by using currently available technology (Serrao, 1994).Thirdly, there is undoubtedly much room for better animal performance in the systems that seem likely to prove sustainable. One example is the magnitude of differences between neighbouring farms that have dual purpose cattle and cereal cropping enterprises (Table 2). Variations of 28-123 per cent in major production traits were associated with forage quality and quantity, levels of legume or multi-nutrient block supplementation, water availability, daily walking distance, preventive medicine and cattle genotype. A second example shows how the correct genotype depends on system intensity and can be of major economic significance (Table 3). Mismatches are still common, especially in milked herds where high grade and pure European cattle are often over-represented. Evidence from Venezuela indicates that about 150 per cent more milk and beef could be produced from the existing national herd if technologies for the efficient use of local resources were applied on an integrated basis (Plasse, 1992). This work, based on experiments validated over many years on commercial farms, is likely to be widely applicable elsewhere in lowland tropical LAC. The conceptual frameworkThere are strong arguments in support of the view that the main constraint in tropical LAC is conceptual rather than technical.Animal, crop and environmental sciences are usually separated in teaching, research and development planning in LAC. The social sciences often have little more than a token role in these activities.Animal production and veterinary medicine are also frequently separated and are indeed still notorious for their rivalry. Most LAC countries now have ministries dealing with environmental issues but these are almost always disconnected from agriculture and forestry. These separations are exacerbated by the traditional organization of research institutions along disciplinary lines, by universities and their curricula, and by the highly theoretical content of university course work.Animal scientists, now increasingly from cities, are frequently ignorant of practical problems and unaware of the broader production systems context, sustainability issues and current social concerns. One study of tropical forages and grassland in LAC concluded that the knowledge of the last 12-15 years, together with emerging social concerns, had yet to be adequately incorporated into university teaching (Nores and Vera, 1993) and that the most frequently used textbooks were published before 1980. A survey of 33 universities in 13 countries showed that only 57 per cent of professors did research and that this occupied less than 40 per cent of their time. Low budgets allow little opportunity for on-farm research and isolate universities further from reality. Teaching, understandably, is biased towards the well documented intensive models of temperate countries. In the past even prestigious public agricultural research institutions gave low priority to further training unless this was externally funded and, with notable exceptions, has changed little or for the worse (Ardila et al, 1982).It is not surprising, therefore, that much of the research done by national institutions in tropical LAC appears to be divorced from urgent problems. Two case studies illustrate this point. In the first a sample of papers published in [1973][1974][1975][1976][1977][1978][1979][1980][1981][1982][1983][1984] shows that the proportion relating to dual purpose compared with specialized dairy cattle is almost the reverse of their numerical importance (Table 4). This is in contradiction to the evidence (Table 3) that European type dairy cows may have very little place in sustainable tropical production systems. Judging by disciplinary distribution the apparent neglect of research in such critical fields as systems, management, economics and forages is very instructive. Notes: a) Seré and Rivas, 1987 b) Papers in major LAC journals 1973-1984, adapted from Vaccaro, 1986 The second case relates to publications on forage and grasslands abstracted from a data base serving the needs of tropical LAC scientists. Only 22 per cent of publications were related to problem solving research and only seven per cent had any explicit socio-economic perspective (Nores and Vera, 1993). The conclusion from this and other sources is that the profession seemed to be \"talking to itself\". The situation is now somewhat better but these examples represent sadly wasted opportunities and depict a legacy of slow and difficult change.Radical modernization of basic research and training concepts in animal science is required to ensure that advantage is taken of the abundant opportunities and to ensure that the frontier of knowledge is carried forward fast enough to meet future needs. Livestock scientists must become properly conscious of the role of the animal as a component of sustainable systems rather than as an end in itself. Emphasis on high yields per animal will then give place to one on the long-term social benefits of the system as a whole. A powerful aid to achieving this change is provided by on-farm teaching and research. Cooperative models in which institutions, including universities, and farmers participate in carrying out a mutually agreed research agenda have been successful in the region. Farmers have proved willing to provide financial support even in such disciplines as animal breeding where results take a long time to emerge. Such models obviate the risk of irrelevance and ease the task of the extension services.Information exchange is another critical ingredient of research and training. Reputable animal science journals are very scarce in Latin America and many scientists and most university students have difficulty reading anything except Spanish and Portuguese. They are concurrently confronted with a daunting volume, not all of which is useful, of literature. An urgent case can be made for an information system which filters that which is relevant to animal science in sustainable tropical production systems and shares translated texts among continents.Inappropriate policies are a direct consequence of the conceptual framework just described. They are perhaps the most serious constraint to progress in the livestock sector. The effects range from lost opportunities in promoting development to active damage to the economy and the environment. The most notorious examples include the complex issue of deforestation and cattle ranching in the Amazon basin (Mares, 1994) and the subsidized import of European cattle (Jarvis, 1990), whose consistently poor performance (Table 3) was already predictable.Policies related to the livestock sector are generally short term because of political instability and too fragmented to be effective. Issues such as land tenure, rural security markets and prices, credit, input and product quality control -which are all crucial in LAC -are often neglected. It is common to find government technical services in one area (e.g. reproduction and genetics) incompatible with another (e.g. feed resources) and with the main production systems. These problems of incoherence and instability must obviously be corrected.The greatest need is for policies which are holistic and not simply centred on livestock. The next, and vital, dimension is that they should be designed to make rational and sustainable use of resources and to balance the needs of all sectors of the community. They will thus promote the long term productivity of overall production systems by optimizing the use of the animals within them. In addition to political will this is a complex area in need of new expertise and urgent research. If development policies are set in this way the technical aspects related to the livestock component will fall more clearly into place.Available technology can substantially increase livestock production but growing needs demand advances that must come from research. This section tries to predict agendas in different areas while recognizing that progress depends on advances in each being integrated as a coherent whole.Research on livestock production systems has at least a 20-year history in the region (Ruiz, 1989). It was criticized initially for being too concerned with methodology and diagnostic work. Revitalized, it now has a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of holistically defined systems especially if adequate attention is to be paid to current social, economic and environmental concerns. There is a shortage of qualified personnel and local training centres but successful advances will have major consequences for priority setting in all other research domains.Poor nutrition is widely recognized as a major constraint to animals kept on a basic diet of tropical grazing and crop residues and by-products in LAC. Vigorous research is being pursued in this domain with particular attention to local resources to complement the nutrient content of the basic diet (Combellas and Mata, 1992;Pezo et al., 1992). There are still major gaps in the knowledge of the reproduction, agronomy and utilization of many promising plant species, especially legumes, which may be able to fulfil this role. Variation in the ability to contribute to environmental conservation will also receive more attention. Better integration of crop-livestock systems should encourage plant breeders to monitor the value to livestock of residues and by-products in their selection programmes.LAC has generated one of the major bodies of information on the genetics of tropical beef cattle but is less advanced in dual purpose animals. Work is needed to achieve a better understanding of the very important genotype: environment interactions, to validate the results of mating systems in crossbred populations and to determine the genetic parameters of economically useful traits. Tropical LAC is the home of various endangered \"native\" (Criollo) breeds but blanket recommendations for conservation are not credible, especially where resources are scarce. Research should be directed to methods of differentiating genotypes which justify conservation from those which may not, this also being an issue of concern in other developing regions.The impact of disease on cattle production in LAC is extremely heavy and in cases such as foot and mouth disease is a factor limiting export development. A major part of the health problem in the region is, however, confounded with inappropriate production and management systems, malnutrition and the use of unsuitable genotypes. It should thus be considerably reduced as improvements in these aspects become more widespread. Control methods for the major infectious and contagious diseases are well known but the future depends mainly on resources and political decisions. Reproductive disfunction and parasitic disease are, however, areas of immense economic importance in the region and pose particular problems through their interactions with genetics and nutrition. They would therefore seem to be areas where research is particularly justified.Despite a privileged place compared to other parts of the tropical world LAC suffers major problems of poverty and violence, declining standards of living for large sectors of society and environmental degradation. Cattle have a demonstrably important role in improving this situation and much current technology can do this. Yet progress has been slow and opportunities lost. A holistic, integrated concept of production is the most important single factor for harnessing resources and catalysing change. Once this is in place, policies conducive to the sustainable development of systems including livestock will be set more widely and appropriate research and training to serve future needs can be undertaken.  1976-1983 1984-1991 1976-1983 1984-1991 1976-1983 1984  1976-1983 1984-1991 1976-1983 1984-1991 1976-1983 1984  1976-1983 1984-1991 1976-1983 1984-1991 1976-1983 1984 Mixed farming systems are the backbone of Asian agriculture (Devendra, 1983). These systems have many distinctive features including:• diversification in the use of production resources:• reduction in, and spread of, risk;• small size of most farms;• large populations of ruminants (buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep) and non-ruminants (chicken ducks and pigs);• integration of crops and animals:• multipurpose roles of crops and animals;• low use of inputs and traditional systems;• location in the three main agroecosystems (highlands, semiarid and arid tropics, and subhumid/humid tropics).These integrated farming systems involve several subsystems including crops, animals and fish. Synergistic interactions have a greater total effect than the sum of the individual effects (Edwards et al, 1988). Ecological and economic sustainability is achieved when the natural resources of land, crops, animals and water are used to reinforce each other.Mixed farming systems in the Asian region are varied. Farming practices have developed as a response to environmental dictates, especially temperature, rainfall, altitude, type and intensity of animal production and human intervention. Diversification of resource use spreads risk and provides stability. Farmers consciously diversify the use of the resources to produce a mix of activities that are economically rewarding. Within this broad variety of agricultural activities, opportunities are created that enable switching of practices within and between crops and animals. Diversification rather than specialization is the primary consideration.The inclusion of animals is based on the consideration that they provide power, food, a supplementary income, insurance and a safe investment. Seldom are more than two species of ruminants reared together. Among the agroecosystems feed supplies are most abundant in the humid areas and here ruminants are valuable in converting feed to animal products that include meat, milk, fibre and power.This paper describes the genesis of mixed crop-animal systems and their characteristics, the various types of mixed farming systems, major constraints to production in specific agroecosystems and the opportunities for research and development to increase productivity. It further discusses intensification of animal production systems and the role of ruminants and non-ruminants.The economic importance of animals in Asian mixed farming systems is considerable but is often underestimated. Their value increases with a shift from subsistence agriculture to market oriented economics and intensification of production. Within mixed systems the economic contribution of animals becomes ever more significant when these types of changes, including increased sustainability, occur.The annual value of crop, livestock and forestry output in developing countries has been estimated at US $ 605 billion, to which livestock contribute 19 per cent (TAC/CGIAR, 1992). Asia accounts for 59 per cent of the total value (Table 1). The priority ecoregions of the semiarid tropics and subtropics with summer rainfall and the warm humid and sub humid tropics and subtropics contribute 43.4 per cent of total value (Table 2). In these regions about 22.5 per cent is from the warm humid and subhumid tropics and subtropics where traditional mixed farming systems predominate. These figures are certainly underestimated as they do not include the major contributions of draught power and manure.The concentration of domestic animals varies across agroecological zones (Table 3). Small ruminants are found mainly in the rainfed lowlands and the upland areas and are especially valuable for fibre and meat, and also for transport, in the Hindu Kush and Himalayan highlands. Large ruminants are more heavily concentrated in the irrigated lowlands where their value is mainly for draught and haulage. Crop-animal systems have evolved and developed over many centuries. The principal determinants of the type of crop and animal systems in a particular location are the agroecological conditions (Duckham and Masefield, 1970;Spedding, 1975;Ruthenberg, 1980;Sere and Steinfeld, 1994).Climate and, to a lesser extent, soil affect natural vegetation and determine what crops can be grown. These in turn determine the feed base and its quantity, quality and distribution. The feed base, together with the disease challenge, governs the development of potential animal production systems. Feed resources provide a direct link between crops and animals and the interaction of the two largely dictates the development of such systems (Figure 1).Animal production involves both non-ruminants and ruminants and a variety of systems integrated with crops. Systems vary as a function of agroecological zone and intensity of farming operations. Development of these systems has considerable potential, the benefits being associated with the complementary interactions of the subsystems, the products being additive. Two examples of such integrated systems, their economic benefits and their contribution to sustainability are: pig-duck-fishvegetable systems in Indochina, Indonesia and the Philippines; and small ruminant-tree cropping systems throughout Southeast Asia and the Pacific (Devendra, 1993).Ruminant production systems are of three main types: extensive systems; systems combining arable cropping including roadside, communal and arable grazing systems, tethering or cut and carry feeding; and systems integrated with tree cropping These systems are unlikely to change in the for-seeable future. New systems and the returns from them would have to be demonstrably superior to present ones and supported by massive capital and other resources (Mahadevan and Devendra, 1986;Devendra, 1989). It can be predicted, however, that there will be increasing intensification and a shift from extensive systems to ones including arable cropping. These changes will be induced by population growth and because population density and land use intensity are positively correlated (Boserup, 1981). This situation is increasingly likely with the decreasing availability of arable land that will occur in many parts of Southeast Asia. The principal aim should therefore be improved feeding and nutrition to maximize the use of available feed resources, especially crop residues, low quality roughages and leguminous forages.Two broad categories of mixed farming systems can be identified:• systems combining animals and annual cropping in which there are two further subtypes• systems involving non-ruminants, ponds and fish • systems involving ruminants; and• systems combining animals and perennial cropping in which there are again two subtypes• systems involving ruminants • systems involving non-ruminants.Five distinct types of mixed farming systems are found in Asia in the various agroecological zones (Table 4). The length of the growing period is indicative of the combined effects of rainfed soil moisture and temperature and is defined as the period in days during the year when rainfed available soil moisture supply is greater than half the potential evapotranspiration.An important element of mixed farming systems, and especially the contribution of animals to viability and stability, is the use of draught in the Philippines and Thailand. Of particular significance is the fact that for farm sizes of up to 2 ha both manure and animal power were important, but the role of the latter was more significant than the former. Only 2.3 per cent of farms use mechanical power (Table 5).Development in the past has tended to focus on lowland irrigated systems which are now overcultivated. As increased productivity is the main objective, research and development efforts in the future must shift to the lowland rainfed areas which have large numbers of animals. These areas are generally more fragile and complex so research will be more challenging and become increasingly mutidisciplinary and holistic.The Hindu Kush-Himalayan region is an excellent example of mixed farming involving both animals and subsistence crops. Yaks are multipurpose animals for tillage, transport, milk, meat and hair. Sheep and goats provide meat, milk and fibre and some pack services. The main crops are potatoes, barley, wheat, millet and fruits. Feed conservation is essential because of the short growing period.  Source: adapted from FAO, 1993aRainfed humid/subhumid tropics (MRH)The system includes mainly annual cereals, soya beans and vegetables, ruminants and nonruminants. Cattle and buffalo are the most common ruminants. There are fewer sheep and goats due to higher rainfall and humidity. Pigs and chickens are common and thrive on crop by-products.In upland areas tree crops such as coconuts, oil palm and rubber are becoming common. In much of Southeast Asia the native herbage under trees enables integration of livestock, especially small ruminants, and the development of a sustainable animal production system (Devendra, 1991;1993). Many types of small farm systems are found here and operate at variable levels of intensity.Rainfall is much lower in this zone, this being a major constraint to crop growth. The main crops are millets, sorghum and date palm. This is the natural home of small ruminants and camels which provide security and survival for very poor farmers and landless peasants. Limited crop growth is associated with reduced feed availability. In South Asia, northeast Thailand and eastern Indonesia, where this ecosystem is common, increasing human and animal population pressures have resulted in severe resource degradation. Animal production is usually more extensive than in the previous agroecological zone.This high rainfall area is the heartland of intensive cropping. Most swamp buffalo and, to a lesser extent, cattle are found here and are closely associated with draught and transport operations. Buffalo are worked on about 110 days per year in these areas (Chantalakhana and Banyawechewin, 1994). Farmers are generally wealthier than in other agroecosystems. Increasing labour productivity and affluence are reflected in more use of tractors for cultivation. Ducks do well in this environment and pigs and poultry thrive on the abundant crop residues. Animals and intensive crop production in this ecozone are an illustration of a successful integrated and sustainable agricultural system.These areas are mainly in South Asia and animals are of secondary importance. Large and small ruminants subsist on crop residues and limited grazing. Irrigation allows increased fodder production which reduces the feed deficit and promotes dairy development especially in periurban areas.The relevance and potential importance of integrated systems is associated with the complementarily of the crop and animal subsystems resulting in increased total productivity. In this context there are eight major advantages of integrated systems:• diverse and efficient resource use;• reduced risk;• better use of farm labour for higher productivity and increased income;• improved use of space:• efficient use of biological and chemical energy in the system and less dependence on external inputs;• development of sustainable systems that use recycling, involve no pollution and are consistent with environmental protection;• increased economic output; and• development of stable farm households.Three-strata forage system (Indonesia)The three-strata forage systems (TSFS) is a way of producing and conserving the feed requirements of cattle and goats without degradation of the environment. In dryland farming areas such as eastern Indonesia and South Asia the system combines production of food crops, including maize, groundnuts, cassava and pigeon pea, with shrubs and trees to supply year round feed for stock (Nitis et al, 1990). Highlights of the system, whose concept and technology are now becoming institutionalized, are:• increased forage production allows higher stocking rates and live weight gains (3.2 animal units equivalent to 375 kg/ha/yr in the TSFS compared to 2.1 units or 122 kg/ha/yr in the non-TSFS;• 19 per cent more live weight gain by cattle to reach market weight 13 per cent earlier;• farm income raised by 31 per cent (addition of goats to the system raises income further);• soil erosion reduced by 57 per cent by introduction of forage legumes and increased soil fertility; and• production of 1.5 m.t. of fuel wood, meeting 64 per cent of annual needs, from 2000 shrubs and 112 trees logged twice a year.The success and rapid expansion of the rice-fish system in particular (and the inclusion of ducks in Indonesia) is an example of the efficiency of integrated natural resource use and its economic benefits.Net returns from a rice-fish-duck system (Table 6) were more than double than from rice alone. Fish production, at 185 kg/ha, was also much higher than the yield from traditional systems. The ratio of the net returns on inputs per year in the rice-rice-fallow and rice-rice-fish were 115-125 per cent whereas in the (rice + fish) -(rice + fish) -fish they were 173 per cent (Yunus et al, 1992). Income from fish was able to meet 20-59 per cent of the total cost of rice production in the rice-rice-fish and (rice + fish)-fish systems. Similar economic benefits in integrated fish-duck-goat systems are reported from the Philippines (Cruz and Shehadeh, 1990), Malaysia (Mukherjee et al, 1992), China (Chen, 1992), Vietnam (Le Hong Man, 1992), Thailand (Little et al, 1992) and Bangladesh (Huque, 1992).Two types of approach have been used to develop integrated pig and fish systems. One is the use of ponds in which several species (polyculture) of fish fingerlings are raised with pigs. The other is the use of water reservoirs for pig-fish systems. In both systems the integration of pigs, fish and ducks, and even vegetables, is a very efficient and intensive system of using natural resources (Figure 2).An example of the first system concerns polyculture of fish stocked at 10000-20000 fingerlings/ha combined with 40-60 pigs with an average initial weight of 20 kg per hectare. Best results were obtained with 60 pigs and 20000 fish/ha to produce 1.9 m.t. fish/ha/90 days and 60 pigs with a total live weight gain of 2.2 m.t./90 days. Three cycles of 90 days produce 3.9 m.t. of fish and 6.7 m.t live weight gain of pig (Cruz and Shehadeh, 1990).In the reservoir system several species of fish were raised with pigs and pearl grass at a number of locations in Zeijiang province. Pig manure was fermented before use or put into biogas digesters to eradicate pathogenic bacteria and parasites to prevent fish diseases (Lee and Zhen, 1990). Fish yields of 6.5-14.5 m.t./ha/yr were recorded.In the rainfed lowland areas of Pangasinan in the Philippines, rice-mung bean has replaced ricefallow. Intercropping with siratro and incorporation of the herbage as green manure from the last cutting two weeks before replanting into the soil resulted in higher yields of the succeeding crop (Table 7). Rice-fallow-rice 3.0 -Rice-mung bean-rice 3.7 1.0-1.5Rice -(mung bean + siratro)-rice 4.5 1.0-1.5Cattle fed rice straw as the basal feed supplemented with siratro and mung beans, rice bran and urea generally had better weight gains and lowered weight loss. The technology has now been widely adopted. The benefits of this system are:• increased yield of rice and farm income;• 50-70 per cent reduction in dependence on and cost of organic fertilisers;• increased forage biomass;• increased cattle carrying capacity;• availability of feed for cattle calving at the end of the wet season and the start of the dry season when feed deficits are a major constraint to production;• development of all year round feeding systems; and• increased output from animals.The integrated tree cropping-ruminant system has not been adequately exploited in view of its considerable benefits. The potential for this system derives from an estimated area of 535 million ha (FAO, 1993b) under forests and woodland of which a high proportion is coconuts, oil palm and rubber. A study of the effects of grazing with cattle and goats compared to no grazing in young and mature oil palms showed that grazing resulted in increased yields of 2.2-5.2 m.t./ha/yr of fresh fruit bunches (Table 8). In view of the total area under oil palm and the value of fresh fruit bunches per tonne the economic advantage is substantial. Similar results are reported for integration of small ruminants with rubber or coconuts in Malaysia and the Philippines. In the upland areas in central Sri Lanka crop production involves trees (coconuts and fruits), root crops and herbs in stratified layers. Livestock, mainly dairy cattle, goats and poultry, are integrated into about 20 per cent of these farms. Economic analyses for 1985-1992 for farm sizes of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 acres show that dairying contributes most to gross profits at 31, 63 and 69 per cent for the three farm sizes. Crops were the next most important enterprise (29, 37 and 19 per cent), followed by poultry (22,0 and 9 per cent) and goats (18,0 and 3 per cent). Dairy cattle and goats gave the greatest returns among livestock. Animals made a major contribution to soil fertility through manure and biogas production (de Jong et al, 1994).Intensification of animal production systems in Asia differs for ruminants and non-ruminants in respect of species, breeds, scale, extent and impact.Intensification in ruminant systems is associated with supplies of low cost roughages for which the land base must be adequate. An adequate land base can be achieved through: more intensive use of existing land such as rice bunds in lowland irrigated areas; intensification of crop/forage production systems to form a food-feed system: expansion in land area by use, for example, of lowland rainfed areas and uplands; resettlement; and reallocation of the land use patterns on existing farms. The first three of these options have varying degrees of potential. Expanding land use to include lowland rainfed areas, uplands and even the highlands is possible where there are large concentrations of animals. Increased crop production and therefore feed availability is a major way of intensifying and maximizing animal productivity.Non-ruminants are less location specific than ruminants and have less reliance on the land base. This subsector is especially important in Southeast and East Asia where there are large capital intensive advanced industries and strong private sector participation. As much as 95.8 per cent of the total volume of pig meat produced in Asia is from China. Vietnam and Indonesia. China, Thailand and Malaysia produce 83.5 per cent of the poultry meat. This level of production is associated with fast economic growth, rapid population increase, demographic shifts (especially urbanization), improvement in socio-economic indicators and demand for animal proteins. The last is reflected in large projected demand over existing supplies. From 1987 to 2006 demand for meat is expected to increase 2-to 5-fold from a base of 31 million tonnes, there will be a 3-to 10-fold increase in demand for eggs from 9 million tonnes, and a 3-to 6-fold increase for milk from a base of 64 million tonnes (ADB, 1991).Growth, intensification end expansion of the poultry and pig industries have been promoted mainly by market demand but also by financial and commercial forces, private sector participation and operations, access to modern technology and an ability to develop rapidly. The prerequisites for intensification are opportunities to intensify into large scale vertically integrated production, use of appropriate breeds and strains, feed quantity and quality, processing and storage facilities, good housing, disease control and assured markets both at home and abroad.Large intensive units are not without problems and are vulnerable to a number of factors. These include, inter alia, the cost of imported raw materials, tariffs, over-dependence on imported technology, breeding stock tied to franchise companies overseas, imported vaccines and regional and international competition in the export trade. The dependence on imported feeds is a particularly important constraint. The cost of feed is increasing in several countries and it is not certain how long the industry will be able to maintain its profitability in the face of this.Intensive animal production systems in the Asian region include:• ruminants• buffalo and cattle dairy production (India)• beeflots (Philippines)• sheep fattening (Pakistan, Indonesia);• non-ruminants• pigs (China, Vietnam, Indonesia)• poultry (China, Thailand, Malaysia)• integrated pig-vegetable-duck-fishUnlike the intensive single commodities such as beef or pig meat the last example reflects intersectoral production systems which are equally intensive. Detailed results from such systems are not yet generally available but evidence is emerging of their economic viability and sustainability (Congyi et al, 1993). The research involved comparison of conventional fish culture with an integrated crop-pig-fish system containing three subsystems of crops (barley and rapeseed cake to feed pigs and fish), fish (for food) and cultivated forage (feed for herbivorous fish). The system was tested at intensive, semi-intensive and extensive levels. The main results were:• semi-intensive systems had the highest net profit per unit cash input;• efficiencies of energy and nitrogen use were highest in semi-intensive systems;• output was 2.6 times production costs;• positive interactions in the subsystems, recycling of nutrients and economic viability of the integrated system were demonstrably sustainable;• integrated systems were especially appropriate for resource poor small farms, efficient use of low inputs and development of sustainable agriculture.One aspect of intensification worthy of comment concerns the use of animal germplasm for pig and poultry production. Breeds now being used are mainly if not exclusively of exotic origin but there could be more effort devoted to indigenous pig, chicken and duck breeds and to traditional systems. Native chickens are favoured locally, often command premium prices and there is an expanding market for their meat. A similar situation exists for duck meat and eggs. The Chinese experience suggests that pigs and ducks have a very important function in integrated systems in humid Southeast Asia and in the development of sustainable production systems.The second aspect of intensive production systems is related to the implications of the GATT agreement. Opportunities to increase production for the export market will become more attractive with the removal of subsidies. Beef from Philippine feedlots, for example, will have potential markets in Hong Kong, Japan and elsewhere. Key determinants of success, however, are efficiency of the production process, an ability to keep the cost of production to a minimum, and maintenance of strict animal health and hygiene standards.Opportunities for research and development to overcome existing constraints are enormous and the contribution of animals can be greatly enhanced. In order to achieve this, however, a reorientation of programme focus and direction is necessary, using multidisciplinary strengths in target agroecological zones. Such programmes have the potential to demonstrate sustainable production systems, increased productivity and environmental protection.In general, holistic research on mixed farming systems involving crops and animals is weak and most past research in Asia has been on cropping systems. The inclusion of animals in mixed farming systems research began as recently as 10 years ago in some countries. Some progress has been made in the development of methodologies to understand the interactions between subsystems but much of the work has been sporadic and has not yet been tested on a large scale.Observations relevant to research on mixed farming systems are:• there is a paucity of information on methodologies and results;• there has been limited work focused on specific agroecological zones;• there are inadequate methodologies for crop-animal systems compared to crop systems and mixed systems research is relatively new;• non-ruminants have had less attention in integrated systems because of the priority given to ruminants by most governments;• strong multidisciplinary efforts are a prerequisite to research and development of mixed farming systems;• increased focus needs to be given to rainfed agroecological zones in view of the complexity of these areas and the natural resource management issues; and• increased investments for research on mixed farming systems in priority agroecological zones will provide major benefits and contribute to development of sustainable agriculture.Research requirements in support of crop-livestock-tree systems in Asia are suggested to be: baseline studies to quantify energy flows; simulation studies to identify possible coefficient changes in the system; field testing of possible interventions and new technologies; and \"test marketing\" of proposed developments on representative subpopuations within the region. It is further suggested (Timor, 1992) that such studies need to be carried out across national boundaries within ecoregions.Better use of animal genetic resources is necessary to maximize productivity. Animal development programmes in most countries have tended to emphasize one or two sectors. Dairy production has received major attention in almost all countries mainly because of its ability to generate quick income for poor people and produce precious animal proteins. Dairy development has had varying degrees of success but is hampered by yield-reducing environmental stresses, inadequate feed production and poor nutritional management, high capital costs; limited market size, low cost of competing imports and product perishability. Investment in these programmes has been enormous but returns are essentially short term and long term viability is very doubtful. An associated inability to sustain breeding and maintenance of crossbred animals to support these programmes is a further problem.Such massive use of resources has diverted attention from more balanced development and use of other species to increase protein production. Notable in this regard are beef cattle, swamp buffalo, goats, sheep and ducks. Implicit in this observation is that many potentially important breeds have never been adequately used and in many cases are destined for extinction. Ironically, FAO's global animal genetic data bank indicates that Asia possesses 38-84 per cent of the total number of breeds in various species (63 buffalo, 200 cattle, 147 goats, 231 sheep and 142 pigs) but it is doubtful if most of these are fully used in commercial terms. Future development of currently underutilized areas, such as the rainfed ecosystems, must involve concurrent and more effective use of many of these breeds.Increased intensification and efficiency in the use of feeds is most important. Feed is the principal constraint among the non-genetic factors affecting productivity. Ruminant feed resources are greatly underused. Feed availability from native and cultivated grasses and roughage by-products in Malaysia is about four times in excess of requirements (Devendra, 1982). More recent calculations for the Philippines indicate that the available feed can support six times the current ruminant population. The situation is similar throughout Indochina. Better use of available feed is hampered by low animal numbers, inadequate intensification of the production system and poor technology delivery and use.In areas such as Mongolia where livestock are the basis of the economy and the production system is largely pastoral, increased fodder production is necessary as are corrections to problems of mineral deficiencies. Research into these and other constraints provides a major challenge for rangeland ecology and national livestock production (Falvey and Leake, 1993).Within different ecosystems different types and quality of feed are available but the general principles of feeding and management are the same. The approach should be towards a balanced feed supply, with balanced energy/protein ratios and correction of critical deficiencies with low cost supplements.Inadequate, inappropriate and inefficient use of the available technology is a major limitation to increased animal production. Technology application at farm level is particularly weak and is related to a combination of poorly formulated development programmes that often preclude strong interdisciplinary team effort and concerted on-farm use. The use of research results therefore merits very high priority. Large scale on-farm testing is needed and will involve a major shift to participatory development. Intensification and efficient resource use will determine the extent to which traditional systems can be transformed into market oriented enterprises with their attendant benefits.Investment in agricultural research usually produces high rates of return. The benefits from high yielding cereals is one example. Parallel evidence for animal production systems is scanty but this imbalance needs to be corrected through increased investment. Focusing research on commodities is no longer enough and it should now be expanded to crop-animal systems especially in rainfed areas. Because of the complexity of research and development in the rainfed lowlands and uplands resource management will need to be more holistic. Costs will be higher but returns for the contribution of livestock are likely to be much greater in the future.Disease reduces animal productivity and causes economic loss. Important diseases of ruminants are foot and mouth, rinderpest, haemorrhagic septicaemia and anthrax. Swine fever is the main disease of pigs and Newcastle diseases is a serious problem for poultry. Tick-borne diseases including theileriosis, anaplasmosis and babesiosis are endemically stable in indigenous Asian animals but cause loss and mortality in imported and improved stock. It is estimated that tropical theileriosis causes an annual loss of US $ 800 million in improved cattle in India.Other infectious and non-infectious diseases also lower animal productivity. These include internal parasites such Fasciola gigantica in all ages of buffalo and cattle and Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. in small ruminants. Other diseases include brucellosis, contagious pneumonia and mineral deficiencies.Animal health services account for about 80 per cent of Government support to the livestock sector and there is substantial donor aid in this field (ADB, 1993). As most endemic diseases are under workable control, the main role of governments should in vaccination and prevention of epidemic diseases such as rinderpest. Training of farmers in basic animal hygiene should also repay investment.Key institutional requirements are:• commitment to interdisciplinary research, a systems approach and sustainable development, these being especially important for integrated research and development in specific ecosystems;• formulation of research programmes with production and postproduction components and community based participation in response to the real needs of farmers;• institutional and structural commitment that are programme-led and programmes that are needs-led; and• promoting effective interinstitutional coordination and collaboration for decision making, management, dissemination of practical technical information and resolution of feedback issues.Successful implementation of projects needs strong policy support. A reorientation of animal production programmes is required to deal with more complex multisectoral and multidisciplinary projects that address natural resource use and management and that provide for environmentally sustainable development. Some factors to be considered include watershed management, nutrient recycling, biodiversity, changing socio-economic conditions and attitudes, and consumer preferences.Redesigning for risk: tracking and buffering environmental variability in Africa's rangelands Mixed farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa Livestock feeds and mixed farming systems in West Asia and North Africa Mixed farming systems in Latin America and the Caribbean Mixed farming and intensification of animal production systems in AsiaRedesigning for risk: tracking and buffering environmental variability in Africa's rangelandsThe role of research was the main focus of discussion. There was general agreement on the need for policy research and that institutions such as ILRI have a comparative advantage in undertaking surveys among systems. The concepts of \"tracking \" and \"buffering \" raised comment and required clarification. Land reform and tenure were discussed with a consensus that widespread agrarian reform for communal areas is neither desirable nor feasible but that there is a need explore other forms of tenure that allow for greater control of \"key \" resources such as dry season grazing.The comparative advantage of institutions such as ILRI in doing the types of activities identified in the paper needs to be clearly identified, with which partners they should do it and the process mechanisms that need to be established (Peters). This relates in part to earlier discussion on research funding. It also seems it is now time to make intelligent interventions in agropastoral systems rather than just doing research. One possibility would be to have a scientific component in all projects while viewing the actual implementation as an experiment and the overall project as a trial. The limit for speculation about what is likely to happen has probably been reached and it is now time now for action (Behnke).Tracking must be related to mobility in space and over time and to the question of security. The importance of scale and distance in tracking needs to be known. The main problems seen by pastoralists are: the adverse teens of trade in which livestock prices are too low and goods and services are too high, and inaccessible range due to security problems and disputes. Many current problems are politically based and poor security will limit the ability to do tracking (de Leeuw). Tracking would be both temporal and spatial. Monitoring of markets would be one indicator but many of these are imperfect and affected by government (which is usually counterproductive) and often, inadvertently, by donor policies. Security can be a serious problem and is often politically based: if there were greater \"economic attachment\" to a particular country security might be less of a problem (Behnke).Producer \"ownership\" of a project in which they are involved in identifying the problem as well as the solutions helps in management of risk. The views that are presented need to be reconciled with farmers' interests (Nana-Sinkam). There is probably only a small overlap between the perceived needs (wants) of pastoralists and what any programme of tracking and buffering could or should provide: only those items that are appropriate should actually be provided (Behnke).The role of pastoral organizations needs to defined (de Haan). The focus on these has mainly been in West Africa in recent years: reviews seem to indicate that they have been expensive to establish and have not always survived when external funding stops. Traditional associations are models that should be considered (as they have been in West Africa) (Behnke).The adverse effects that the research driven ranching model has had on pastoral development have been described. Should pastoralists be concerned if ILRI ignores the problems identified or should they be strong advocates of the ILRI programme in this area (Young). Pastoralists would not distinguish ILRI participation from that of government and would give it a sceptical reception (Behnke).ILRI does not have a mandate to intervene in ranching model systems but it does have a comparative advantage in working across different pastoral systems, in looking across time and in taking a global view and drawing conclusions from those comparisons and the rapid changes that are taking place (Fitzhugh). There is no disagreement here and, in addition, the benefits may go beyond the pastoral sector so that the approach could be used to examine related systems (Behnke).Sustainability includes accounting for environmental deterioration and the consequences of economic activity. Care needs to be taken of the cost in environmental impact of these economic activities and rates of return or profitability figures may not reflect reality (Nana-Sinkam). Environmental impact must be measured by biologists but if economic parameters of impact assessment are needed, given that trend data masks the intrinsic instability common to these systems, then modelling (with all its failings) is probably the best available tool (Behnke).Land reform may be important in development (de Haan). The future is not in widespread agrarian reform, which usually implies individual ownership, but in a complex mix of individual and communal tenure. It is important that pastoralists are allowed to control key resources such as dry season grazing areas and water. Control varies from very strict individual ownership to open access and largely depends on the importance or value of the resources in question. Total \"communal resource management\" is not realistic, however, where very valuable resources are involved and some regulation may be needed here (Behnke).ILRI has a role in research on tenure, especially comanagement (Young).Discussion focused on the likelihood and impact of intensification including competition for land and labour. New technologies were considered important in the intensification process although the poor past performance of \"technology transfer\" and the lack of research relevance were noted. There was no consensus that integration and intensification is the only way forward and it was pointed out that many arable farmers do not own animals and those who do may not necessarily have the incentive to integrate or commercialize. The need for characterizing integrated farming systems by various economic, environmental and social indicators was discussed.Further comment is needed on competition for labour and land in the intensification process. Management and labour skills should be considered when formulating and testing or developing mixed farming systems. Scientists should focus more on how a farmer can move between systems if the alternatives are more appropriate to their needs (Ostergaard). Land and labour competition will vary according to the level of intensification (Saleem).Mixed crop-livestock systems will continue to intensify and result in higher output and income but this can only happen in an environment characterized by rapid urbanization which raises the opportunity cost of keeping cattle for traction or for purposes other than meat and milk.Rises in beef prices can adversely affect mixed crop-livestock systems this being the same effect as when crop prices are low. The role of policy related to mixed systems needs to be seriously considered (Ehui).Guiding the dynamic development of mixed systems will require farm analysis and comparisons between enterprises in terms of efficiency and economic returns. ILRI may want to look at the importance of these methods which should have greater importance in NARS (and other partners) in order to improve research and extension activities, farmer participation and overall linkages within the system (Peters).A \"mixed farming system\" needs to be defined: based on the proportion of subsistence and/or income from livestock or on the level of interaction including manure, traction, fuel and other exchanges. In crop-livestock communities there are many poor farmers (in terms of livestock) and by focusing on livestock ILRI may be excluding the poor and favouring the rich (de Leeuw). A definition of \"mixed-farming\" may not be required but it is an integration of distinct activities that can range from predominately crop to predominately livestock orientated. A basket of interventions (technologies) is required to cover varying situations and there is no one technology appropriate to \"mixed farming\" (Ehui).Attempts should be made to characterize systems by various indicators such as ecological (balance of N. P. K and flora), economic (household income and stability over time), and social (education of children, family life and quality of life) (Ostergaard).ILCA had a long history of research on single animal draught work. Uptake has been poor and the relevance of the technique to the target population needs to considered (Wilson). The correct issues may not have been tackled in the past but changing economic circumstances may now lead to a better uptake: intensification, the need to be reduce grazing pressure and sustainability issues are now better understood by farmers (Shapiro).Separation of livestock and crops, especially in the supply of services such as extension has been indicated. Research progress is also limited by the narrow (usually cultural or disciplinary based) views taken by scientists, an example being plant breeders failing to take account of by-products (Toutain). ILRI has always adopted a multidisciplinary approach to livestock research (Saleem).Disease control in intensified systems demands better management and is dependent on farmer education. Responsibility for this probably resides with agencies other than ILRI.Epidemiological studies might reveal specific constraints such as extended calving intervals that could be overcome with simple technology such as heat detection tests (Ole Nielson).Specific problems related to intensification include:• sociological ones where cropping and livestock are done by groups of people with different social and ethnic backgrounds who are unwilling to integrate;• lack of a maximum profit motive leading to lack of incentive to intensify; and• low population density in many rural areas means land is still available leaving farmers the option to move to new areas when soil fertility declines rather than developing integrated systems (Baker).The potential of new technology should not be underestimated. There is nothing sacrosanct about mixed farming systems as they are dynamic and subject to change. Increasing population will lead to demand driven intensification and the need to adopt improved technologies. The issues are to identify opportunities, assign priorities and intervene to ensure a successful transition. The erroneous view that production has not increased in sub-Saharan Africa over the last 20 years should be discarded. Production has increased by about two per cent per year overall even though per caput production has declined. Not all of the increase in production has been due to yield increases per unit area and much has been due to area expansion. There have, however, been major technological successes with food crops such as maize, as well as cereals in cotton rotations. Mixed farming as a model of development, as presented in this paper, is helpful but does not go far enough. Mixed farming is not an end in itself. If it is treated as such it will only lead to further development failures. A model is needed that will help to identify alternative strategies to bring about agricultural development. The mixed farming model is basically the conservation model and one that makes improved integration of crops and livestock the goal. This conservation model has been able to achieve only low productivity increases of about one per cent per year but about four per cent is needed to achieve increased agricultural output in the face of three per cent population growth. The required model is the intensification model of Boserup and others based on the premise that increased population pressure leads to decreased land availability and quality and decreased opportunity cost of labour but increased market opportunities. These factors motivate farmers to intensify via land saving cash inputs. Mixed farming is thus inadequate as a development model for identifying potential change. The intensification model includes the possibility for improved crop-livestock integration but also intensified mixed systems as well as intensified or low input specialized systems (such as agropastoralism) and is what must be used as the conceptual model for development (Shapiro).There was considerable discussion on the sustainability of many of existing practices, particularly the use of subsidized feed grain and its consequences. The future for many countries in the area is bleak especially those lacking a potential manufacturing base or mineral wealth. Self sufficiency in grain or animal products is unlikely although rotations incorporating legumes, on the little evidence available, might increase overall production and have the additional effect of increasing the amount animal feed. Considerable interest was expressed in the survey methodology used by ICARDA and its potential for use by NARS.Even where there are no lentils in the rotation the use of annual Medicago spp. has been limited. It would be useful to know why the introduction of grain and/or forage legumes in crop rotations has not had greater uptake. One reason is that the harvesting of grain legumes is labour intensive and labour in the region has a high opportunity cost. The future for grain legumes is, however, brighter than for forage legumes as the increasing population will not be able to afford to maintain the already low consumption levels of high value animal products and pulses become increasingly more important in human diets. The future of livestock will depend to a great extent on pricing and import policies. If, however, self sufficiency remains a regional objective, especially for wheat, then livestock production may benefit as a change from continuous wheat monoculture to rotations that include grain and forage legumes will provide valuable additional animal feed.The effects on water use efficiency and ground water reserves are important. Technology that is likely to increase leaf area indices and evapotranspiration may be undesirable (Saleem). Farmers basically only care about the value of production and do not take a long term view on the value of water (Nordblom).Two clusters of countries with respect to population growth and economic situation were presented. It would be interesting to know how this clustering is used in research programming (Peters). The stereotype of an oil rich Arab state is not representative of the region which comprises typically poor countries with agricultural economies: the latter group is the focus of ICARDA's programmes (Nordblom).ICARDA's capacity for microeconomic systems analysis has been demonstrated. Presumably these results are used in research programming and in improving the capacity of its partners in improving information systems, farm analysis and the setting of research and extension priorities (Peters). Most of the rotational trials have been undertaken by associated national programmes. The methodology is being used by NARS but is still at an early stage (Nordblom).Subsidized concentrate (grain) feeding must be having some effects on the rangelands in the region (de Haan). The effect is generally negative since this kind of supplementation allows animal numbers far in excess of range carrying capacity to be maintained. Range grazing may represent only a relatively small proportion of the diet but the large increase in animal numbers is causing the damage (Nordblom). Livestock pressure on the rangelands is compounded by the large mother flocks needed to supply male stock to the feedlots (T. Lahlou-Kassi).The population challenge is clearly critical to any assessment of the type of research to be carried out. A description of the key elements in any scenario to feed the expected 2020 populations would be very useful (Young). Wheat prices are expected to remain low and will be the staple diet of the increasing population although neither grain nor animal product self sufficiency is likely. The prospects for those countries that do not develop a manufacturing base or have mineral wealth remains bleak. Demand will not be related to either \"want\" or \"need\" but to disposable income, that is, to effective demand (Nordblom).Discussion centred on what many participants obviously considered controversial matters introduced by the speaker. There was concern in particular about remarks that extension workers were not needed as farmers acted as their own extension agents and about the need to avoid continuing with farm surveys over long periods of time without them achieving any tangible results. The amount of information available and its accessibility and transfer were also major points of discussion.It does not seem possible to work with farmers without extension agents (Oram).The statement about \"no more surveys\" is alarming. On-farm epidemiological surveys are useful in identifying determinants of health and productivity. This method can identify practices that farmers use to improve performance as well as identifying the most important constraints needing research. Measuring performance improves performance (Ole Nielsen).The statement that no further surveys are needed is very surprising. It is not possible to disseminate and then monitor the effects of dissemination of new techniques without using surveys (Lahlou-Kassi).There should be concern about information overload. It is now becoming difficult to find the germs among the large volumes of information that add little to knowledge. Some hints for solving this are needed. More effort needs to be given to the way communication is done to avoid too much repetition (Young). There is inadequate information in most areas and if there is too much elsewhere it would be interesting to know about it (Peters).Information systems are very important but there is much dissent about what systems are needed. Information systems must be separated from data bases. Resources to do the literature reviews, screening and translation indicated in the paper are probably not available (Oram).One of the main constraints to improving productivity in failure to apply existing knowledge but this is a problem that must be tackled (Irvin).The responsibility of the education system should be taken very seriously and the argument could be expanded. International agricultural research systems have to think about how to overcome the linkage problem and the overall efficiency of research and extension. In comparison to industrial research systems public research has too many networks without a problem orientation and delivery mechanism involving all partners of the research, extension and education systems. IARCs need to be concerned with this since final success will depend on the efficiency of research, extension and education generation and delivery (Peters).There is much talk of farmer participation. This is important but in reality, when two sets of farmers are contacted from the same village, they come up with totally dissimilar problems.There is a need to find some commonalities about topics for international research (Saleem).Markets are talked about in very abstract terms. There is a need to specify whether these are external or internal and, if the former, it would be interesting to know how the Third World can compete with the rest of the world and its formidable propaganda machinery, news media, quality impositions, ridiculous standards [sic!] and money power. Perhaps, for example, preferential treatment or territorial market-producer relationships should be encouraged for the developing countries (Saleem).The complexity of Asian systems was a major focus of discussion. Non-ruminants are very important in Asia and may need more research. It was agreed that conventional and non-conventional systems are evolving rapidly in response to population growth and urbanization. It would be useful to have much more information on the extent of the positive and negative (including the generation of waste) changes taking place.There is rapid economic growth. Urban incomes and demand for food and animal products are high and rising in many Southeast Asian countries. It would be interesting to know why the farming community is not benefiting from investment of off-farm income in farming, especially through family connections in both sectors (de Leeuw).Some consequences of urbanization are increases in \"waste\" production including water effluent and sewage, human food waste and waste from agricultural and food processing. Instead of considering these as wastes they could be regarded as potential resources for improving livestock/crop production systems in periurban areas. In this respect they are worthy of further research (Irvin). Wastes can, however be dangerous, as are water in China and manure and tannery effluent in India (de Haan).Mixed crop-livestock farming with ruminants and non-ruminants has been identified as very important in Asia. This perhaps suggests that the emphasis on ruminants should be changed and that when non-ruminants are components of a production system of interest they should of necessity be studied as part of the system (Osuji).More needs to be known about the structure of land size and ownership and, especially for tree crops, how much is owned by individual farms and how much by commercial companies (Oram).It seems that in countries with rapid economic growth and growing demand for animal products there is a trend towards specialization. More should be known about intensive pig and poultry production in Southeast Asia and changes in size of production units. Integrated farming systems that have an aquaculture component should be covered by the ICLARM aquaculture farming system network in Southeast Asia (Peters).Mixed and intensified systems have been discussed but not the so called landless systems that are common and increasing in Asia as source of animal food. We need to know the reasons for this development and about interactions with other systems (Maki-Hokkonen). 2 Working groups were assigned three tasks. Task One was to review changes that have taken place in the supply and demand for livestock products over the last 30 years, including directions in input use, resource management and degradation and to identify the underlying factors causing these changes such as macroeconomic policies, institutional factors, trade, urbanization and population growth. The output was expected to contribute to a report on past and present directions in livestock productivity and consumption of livestock products as part of a forward looking 2020 vision paper to be produced laterThe discussion opened with a debate on how to deal with regional diversity. A grouping of countries by agroecological zones was suggested but some felt a need to get closer to factors driving system changes such as population density and growth, the overall economic situation and the livestock feed situation. It was agreed that development prospects and not just the ecological base must be taken into account in setting research objectives. In addition, a pure ecoregional breakdown is crosscut by economic development indicators such as the contribution of the agricultural sector or livestock subsector to GDP. Generally low incomes across sub-Saharan Africa, however, make clustering by economic indicators less informative than it might otherwise be.Trends have been away from extensive and mobile range systems towards more intensive and sedentary small holder agropastoral and mixed farming systems in respect of both large and small ruminants. Livestock numbers are increasing in the wetter areas and decreasing in drier areas because transhumant herders have moved south and settled while local farmers have incorporated ruminants into their fanning systems. Small ruminant numbers have increased relative to cattle over the last decade in West Africa.Some data are available on research and extension funding, human resource situations and levels of training but there is no political lobby or domestic constituency for long term agricultural research programmes. This problem is especially acute in sub-Saharan Africa.Structural adjustment has improved the receptivity and visibility of policy research but budget cuts associated with structural adjustment have had a negative effect. Linkages between research and extension are generally poor. Vocational training and farmer education requires strengthening although some countries such as Kenya and Nigeria have made a start. The demand for and supply of various kinds and levels of training need analysis. The use to which people are put after training also needs to be clarified.It is not possible to state a trend until a workable definition of degradation is agreed. One participant considered soil nutrient depletion an important criterion. If this is accepted degradation on cropped lands may be serious but will be much less so on grazing lands. Awareness of natural resource management problems is improving (especially in national research organizations) and there are now some good case studies of local community land management. NGO interest in this area is high but their effectiveness is unpredictable because they have no appropriate technical knowledge.Devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 had both positive and negative impact on livestock production. It had a negative effect on high input, intensive, import dependent systems but favours systems based on domestic natural resources. Some apparently negative impacts of devaluation may be necessary corrections of policy induced distortions. Antiagricultural trade, marketing and exchange rate policies have begun to change. These reforms have already had an effect on trade [see paper by Williams et al in these Proceedings]. It is hoped to see production responses and not escalating prices. Badly conceived domestic sectoral and trade policies can offset the benefits of devaluation.In East and Southern Africa the contradictory objectives under which parastatals operatedthey were obliged to make a profit while simultaneously serving consumer and producer interests -thwarted performance.Correlations between land tenure reform and changes in agricultural output are weak in sub-Saharan Africa. Other constraints to better agricultural performance are more important than deficiencies in land laws.Livestock product supply in WANA is generally well below demand. Most countries are net importers of livestock products with subsidies for local producers. It is not wise to generalize, however, and Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria have different policies for the import of milk powder with the last being a massive importer. Sudan and Turkey are the exceptions to the general pattern of import dependence.Income growth is suggested as a useful criterion of economic development with respect to livestock. The share of GDP derived from agriculture is good [information on changes in input use, population, literacy, life expectancy, importation of livestock feeds and some aspects of macroeconomic policy relevant to livestock are in Nordblom et al in these Proceedings].Turkey, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia are committed to or attempting to implement structural adjustment programmes whereas Libya, Syria, Iraq and Iran are resisting them. In general, however, there is continuing devolution from the public to the private sector.Rangeland tenure policies vary by country although there has been a genera' trend towards privatization. Government has asserted its authority on tenure in Syria and tribal authority has been rescinded: unfortunately nothing has taken its place and there is now de facto open access. Jordan supports tribal authorities in control over animal movement but some problems are emerging with urbanization and privatization of rangeland. Large scale invasion of rangeland by olive and barley cultivation is occurring in Tunisia where the government is about to set up a new commission to study land allocation in low rainfall areas. A new land law is about to be promulgated in Morocco where an attempt to set up communes with territories which overlapped or cut across old tribal territorial boundaries resulted in ambiguity and conflict. The respective responsibilities of the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform and of the Ministry of the Interior also cause confusion.Most WANA countries have been through politically motivated land reforms that have been variously effective but which have usually involved the breakup of large holdings. Many holdings are now uneconomically small and fragmentation is a serious problem. It is difficult to rectify this situation as it still is not easy to sell land in many countries. Large state owned livestock operations have usually failed and land is being transferred to the private sector.There are production quotas for several critical crops but movement and sales controls are now being removed from parastatal institutions. In many countries, however, fertilizer and machinery sales and distribution remain the purview of government.The impact of irrigation on livestock production differs with the type of irrigated farming system, of which there are several in WANA. The primary effect is through fodder crop production and the use of crop residues [data on fodder and residue use are to be found in Nordblom et al in these Proceedings but no distinction is made between the contribution of irrigated and rainfed agriculture].Availability of credit has promoted livestock production.Extension services are weak in technology transfer and often serve as state agricultural police.There are some signs of improvement especially in the Maghreb. Expenditure on agricultural research in relation to GDP is low. There has been a major increase in literacy in the last 20 years but this is still low by western standards.Roads and railways are generally better in WANA than in sub-Saharan Africa. There are regional organizations and some potential for regional market integration in the Maghreb and the Gulf states but there is generally not much current activity.3 Task Two was to identify the key goals and opportunities for livestock development in the next 25 years and by major agroecological zones and to identify the major social, economic, environmental, technical, policy and institutional constraints to achieving these goals. The expected output was a clear statement of defined goals and opportunities for livestock development that can realistically be achieved by 2020 and a related description of the set of concerns and constraints that must be overcome for the goals to be achievedIn general these seem bleak without fundamental policy reform and technical innovation.In the arid pastoral zone beyond the limits of cultivation (excluding irrigation) the human carrying capacity can be increased through trade.The importance of small ruminants is likely to increase with increasing population pressure and declining farm size in the semiarid zone. There are large concentrations of cattle in this zone but no commensurate level of milk production. There is potential for increased dairy production but appropriate policies are required. Some fattening operations can be expected to develop where feed is available.There are prospects for both expansion and intensification in the subhumid zone. Cattle will take precedence over small ruminants but the livestock product output mix will depend on prices. As there is little demand for animal traction in root cropping systems there are fewer possibilities for integration of livestock except for feed and labour use. There is potential for expanded maize production and for its increased use as animal feed. Greater areas of crops will have a negative impact on migratory livestock producers in this zone who will tend to settle. Tsetse flies will decline in importance as cultivation spreads and Bos indicus zebu cattle will assume more importance at the expense of the trypanotolerant Bos taurus types.In the humid zone it is likely that crop-livestock integration will be limited to economic links. Poultry and pig production is likely to expand. There is no cultural attachment to livestock, especially ruminants, and the disease challenge is high but there is good potential if the considerable health and management problems can be overcome. The main consuming areas are in the humid zone which therefore has a comparative advantage for final fattening near urban areas but there will be a need to control any possible environmental pollution.There are possible resource degradation problems in semiarid and subhumid East Africa.Crop areas are reduced here because of bimodal rainfall. Soils are better than in West Africa so nutrient depletion is less of a risk but slope and wind erosion may be problems. The bimodal rainfall pattern allows pastoralism to penetrate deeper into relatively high rainfall areas. Subhumid lowlands in Tanzania, Mozambique and Angola have low population density and high potential if tsetse problems can be overcome. Civil war has been a problem for many years. Root crops are expanding in these areas which may limit integration possibilities. There is potential for intensive livestock production in Zimbabwe and for small scale pigs and poultry in Southern Africa in general.The highland areas can be considered as a series of subzones. In the \"roots and beans\" highlands of Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Zaïre the demand for livestock products is limited by low purchasing power of consumers and continued civil strife is a problem. In the Kenya \"dairy\" highlands land is the scarcest production factor but further specialization in the vicinity of urban areas can be expected. Dairy production may then be squeezed out of these areas, but total milk output is likely to remain constant as dairy production shifts to more peripheral areas. Temperature is the limiting factor at high altitudes in the \"grain\" highlands of Ethiopia where extensive sheep grazing predominates. There are prospects for more efficient sheep production through fattening. Dairy production is likely to replace the oxen/cereal system at middle altitudes as farm sizes become smaller.","tokenCount":"71191"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"896cd4132615739860df4f7a404cc55e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d4e644d-ab82-4f8a-b8c8-ca4efd63a1a6/retrieve","id":"1662895048"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5e345792-bdea-45dd-8ea8-d75c6aec3491","pagecount":"30","content":"Guatemala es el segundo mayor productor de café en América Central, después de Honduras. El sector cafetalero es un motor de la economía rural, aportando ingresos para más de 122.000 agricultores, el 98 % de los cuales son pequeños productores. La producción cafetalera de Guatemala genera medio millón de empleos en la economía rural, casi el 10 % de la fuerza laboral activa en el ámbito nacional. Cada año se producen aproximadamente 3,3 millones de sacos de granos de café de 60 kg.El café arábica cultivado bajo sombra para mercados internacionales constituye la norma en los campos de los caficultores. La demanda de los consumidores ha impulsado el crecimiento de las exportaciones de grano Estrictamente Duro, la máxima calidad del café producido en Guatemala, que representa aproximadamente el 83 % de las exportaciones. Las exportaciones de café integran el 14 % del valor total de las exportaciones o 651 millones de dólares estadounidenses. Este es el segundo producto agrícola más importante, después de la caña de azúcar, en términos de generación de divisas.Se proyecta que las zonas cafetaleras actuales experimenten un aumento gradual de la temperatura hacia rangos más extremos, así como periodos de sequía y lluvias torrenciales. Se calcula que la temperatura anual se eleve de 1,7 a 2,0 °C y que la precipitación anual total disminuya 0,8 % en la costa sur y 0,6 % en la frontera entre las regiones norte y nororiente.Aunque los países en América Central son emisores relativamente pequeños de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), se proyecta que se encuentren entre los más afectados por el cambio climático. Como parte del paisaje en esta región, las fincas cafetaleras de Guatemala se volverán cada vez más vulnerables a una serie de riesgos climáticos: El Niño Oscilación del Sur (ENOS), sequías, tormentas, vientos fuertes, lluvias intensas e inundaciones.Una forma en que se puede brindar apoyo a una adaptación eficaz, es la clasificación de los impactos del cambio climático en un gradiente de fácil comprensión que pueda superponerse a un mapa. Nuestros análisis y mapas de grado de impacto indican que la mayoría de áreas requerirán adaptación sistémica, pero las fincas a mayores altitudes a lo largo de la Sierra Madre pueden lograr una producción sostenible adaptada al clima con solo adaptación incremental. Los grados de impacto en el suroriente de Guatemala se presentan más heterogéneos, con áreas cerca de las fronteras, en Chiquimula, Jalapa y Jutiapa, que necesitan adaptación transformadora, pero el resto de áreas en dichos departamentos son zonas de adaptación incremental o sistémica.La producción en sistemas agroforestales es más resiliente que la de fincas sin sombra. Sin embargo, la agrosilvicultura y las prácticas de manejo son cruciales para asegurar que la finca se encuentre bien adaptada a las condiciones climáticas futuras y a fenómenos climáticos extremos. Aún existe un margen significativo para que los caficultores guatemaltecos hagan que sus fincas sean más resilientes, intensificando a su vez la producción de manera sostenible y mitigando las emisiones de GEI de sus fincas.Diferentes grados de impacto requieren diferentes estrategias de adaptación. Variedades adecuadas, mejor manejo de sombra y cultivos de cobertura son las prácticas mínimas requeridas de Café Sostenible Adaptado al Clima (CSAC). Con el aumento del grado de impacto, es necesario añadir al sistema cobertura de mulch, sombra temporal, setos vivos y cortinas rompevientos. Donde la sequía sea cada vez más problemática, se recomienda el riego por goteo, la cosecha de agua de lluvia y el uso de polímeros mejoradores de suelo o el biochar. Además de mejorar la gestión agronómica, el cambio climático progresivo hará que sea necesario obtener un ingreso diversificado de cultivos alternativos, ingresos fuera de la finca o seguros de cosecha.Para que las intervenciones en CSAC tengan éxito, es fundamental que se preste especial atención a los recursos y el entorno en que los pequeños productores de Guatemala toman sus decisiones. Fortalecer su acceso a los mercados para obtener insumos y crédito. Las iniciativas del sector privado pueden estimular la capacidad de las cooperativas y grupos de agricultores para que proporcionen asistencia técnica y financiamiento para la adopción de un mejor manejo de la finca. La desigualdad de género puede plantear otros obstáculos para la implementación del CSAC en fincas manejadas por mujeres.Los enfoques orientados hacia la ampliación de la escala de las prácticas de CSAC son la piedra angular para la sostenibilidad a largo plazo del café guatemalteco de calidad superior. Sin embargo, las inversiones en la producción cafetalera, y en particular en CSAC, pueden tomar varias décadas en rendir los frutos esperados. Los enfoques que conllevan la participación de múltiples actores del sector son la mejor opción para alcanzar los objetivos de CSAC, porque no existe una tecnología o procedimiento de escalamiento que comparta el mismo objetivo y tenga un impacto lo suficientemente grande, en las decisones de los productores.El concepto de agricultura sostenible adaptada al clima (ASAC o climate-smart agriculture -CSA, en inglés) refleja la ambición de mejorar la integración del desarrollo agrícola y la capacidad de respuesta al clima. Su objetivo es alcanzar la seguridad alimentaria y objetivos de desarrollo más amplios en un clima cambiante y con la creciente demanda de alimentos. Las iniciativas de ASAC aumentan de manera sostenible la productividad, mejoran la resiliencia y reducen/eliminan los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI). Si bien el concepto es nuevo y sigue evolucionando, muchas de las prácticas que conforman la ASAC ya existen en todo el mundo y son utilizadas por los agricultores para hacer frente a diversos riesgos de producción. La incorporación del café sostenible adaptado al clima (climate-smart coffee en inglés) requiere un balance crítico de los fundamentos del sector, cambios climáticos ya evidentes y proyectados relevantes para la producción de café y prácticas prometedoras para el futuro, así como de facilitadores institucionales y financieros para la adopción del CSAC. Este perfil de CSAC proporciona una instantánea de una base de referencia en desarrollo creada para iniciar el debate, tanto dentro de los países como a nivel mundial, sobre los puntos de entrada para invertir en CSAC a gran escala.La producción de café sostenible adaptado al clima (CSAC) aumenta la productividad, mejora la resiliencia al riesgo climático y reduce o elimina las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) de manera sostenible. Si bien el concepto es nuevo y sigue evolucionando, muchas de las intervenciones que conforman el CSAC ya existen en todo el mundo y son utilizadas por los agricultores para hacer frente a diversos riesgos de producción. Las intervenciones se pueden llevar a cabo a diferentes niveles, es decir, a nivel tecnológico, organizacional, institucional y político.A menudo, la adaptación al cambio climático se entiende como un cambio de las prácticas productivas en la finca. En talleres con expertos, evaluamos posibles prácticas a nivel de finca para determinar su contribución potencial a los pilares del CSAC. Cuantos más beneficios proporcionase una práctica, mayor fue su puntaje en cuanto a sostenibilidad y adaptabilidad al clima. La mayoría de las prácticas ofrecen múltiples beneficios de adaptación y/o aumentan la capacidad del sistema productivo para soportar perturbaciones.A medida que aumenta el grado de impacto climático, también aumenta la importancia de un enfoque sistémico de la adaptación y un entorno favorable. La adaptación basada en prácticas mejoradas y gestión de la finca alcanza un límite cuando el clima cambia de tal manera que sistemas alternativos de producción resultan más atractivos. En tal caso, es posible que sea necesario cambiar la estrategia de subsistencia. Los enfoques sistémicos de adaptación que incluyen la cadena de valor buscan abarcar una gama más amplia de actores y cultivos para gestionar el riesgo del café. La propia cadena puede ser a prueba de riesgos o más eficiente, por ejemplo, en las etapas de procesamiento y transporte o en el momento en que agricultores y exportadores elijan diversificarse hacia cultivos alternativos. Tal adaptación sistémica o transformadora podría requerir cambios en las condiciones generales o ambiente favorable para el CSAC. Este entorno favorable incluye políticas, disposiciones institucionales, participación de los interesados y perspectiva de género, infraestructura, crédito, esquemas de seguros, así como acceso a información meteorológica y servicios de asesoría.El diseño eficaz de tales intervenciones requiere una comprensión de los cambios climáticos que se observan en los datos meteorológicos históricos, actualmente percibidos por los agricultores y proyectados por modelos climáticos globales. Este informe discute este tipo de datos para Guatemala y las posibles vías para introducir al país intervenciones sostenibles adaptadas al clima.• Adaptación Incremental (afrontar), donde es más probable que el clima siga siendo adecuado y la adaptación se logre mediante un cambio de prácticas e, idealmente, mejores estrategias y facilitadores.• Adaptación Sistémica (ajustar), donde el clima muy probablemente seguirá siendo adecuado, pero con un estrés sustancial a través de un cambio integral de prácticas, pero que también requiere un cambio de estrategia y facilitadores adecuados.• Adaptación Transformacional (transformar), donde es posible que el clima haga que la producción de café sea inviable; requerirá enfocarse en un cambio de estrategia y facilitadores adecuados, pues puede que las prácticas por sí solas no sean económicamente viables.Actualmente, Guatemala es el segundo mayor productor de café en América Central, después de Honduras y antes que México. En la cosecha 2016/17, Guatemala produjo 3,3 millones de sacos de 60 kg. La producción de café en América Central se ha reducido o estancado por más de 40 años, mientras que otras regiones han aumentado significativamente su rendimiento. La excepción notable es Honduras, que duplicó su producción en menos de 2 décadas, la de Guatemala, en cambio, se redujo durante ese mismo periodo. Hasta finales de la década de 1990, la producción se encontaba al alza, pero desde entonces se estancó e incluso disminuyó considerablemente en la última década. El área total se ha mantenido prácticamente constante durante décadas; todos los cambios en producción fueron consecuencia de cambios en la productividad [2]. Durante las últimas dos cosechas, la productividad se estabilizó.El café es el tercer producto de exportación más importante, después del banano (incluido plátano) y la caña de azúcar. En 2016, las exportaciones de café se valoraron en US$651 millones y constituyeron el 14 % de las exportaciones de productos agropecuarios, o el 6 % del total de las exportaciones [3], y el 1,04 % del PIB total [1]. No obstante, el total de exportaciones de café y su participación en el total de exportaciones ha ido disminuyendo sistemáticamente desde la cosecha 2011/12, luego del brote de roya del café y hoy en día continúa en descenso.El café se cultiva con fines de exportación; lo que se exportó constituye aproximadamente el 92 % de la producción de 2015 a 2017 [4]. Los principales mercados de exportación para la cosecha 2016/17 fueron los Estados Unidos (38 %), Japón (15 %), Canadá (12 %) y Bélgica (8 %) [1].La producción cafetalera guatemalteca ha experimentado una transformación en los últimos 10 años, a raíz de los cambios en las preferencias de los consumidores de los países importadores. Los grandes terratenientes solían producir otros cultivos, en tanto los pequeños productores cultivaban café para exportación a mayores altitudes. Para la cosecha 2008/09, se estimó que la cadena de valor del café guatemalteco contaba con 74.000 pequeños agricultores que produjeron alrededor del 20 % del volumen total, en comparación con los 15.000 medianos y grandes agricultores que produjeron el 80 % [5]. Para 2016/17, el número de pequeños agricultores aumentó a122.000, cultivando el 98 % de la producción [4].La producción cafetalera es una actividad importante de la economía rural que genera 500.000 empleos y abarca el 9 % de la fuerza laboral activa [6]. El 70 % de los hogares en las regiones cafetaleras vive por debajo del umbral de pobreza y el 20 % de los hogares vive en condiciones de pobreza extrema [6].La producción cafetalera ocupa el 3 % del total del territorio nacional guatemalteco [1]. Guatemala tiene una tasa de deforestación de alrededor de 1,2 % al año. Entre 1990 y 2015, el área con cubierta forestal se redujo de 44 a 33 % del total de la superficie. A lo largo de dicho periodo, el área cafetalera experimentó un ciclo de contracción y expansión. En áreas idóneas para la producción de café la expansión de este cultivo ha sido un factor importante para la pérdida de bosques [8]. Por otro lado, los precios bajos y volátiles dieron como resultado la conversión de sistemas agroforestales hacia otros tipos de cultivo, usualmente de menor valor ecológico. Se estima que los productores de mediano tamaño sean los más sensibles a cambios en el precio del café para convertir sus plantaciones [7].El café se cultiva en la mayor parte del territorio guatemalteco, principalmente en la Sierra Madre, 204 de sus 340 municipios, y 20 de sus 22 departamentos producen café. Sin embargo, más de la mitad del café producido se cultiva en tan solo 5 departamentos: Huehuetenango y San Marcos, que constituyen el altiplano occidental y Santa Rosa, Chimaltenango y Chiquimula, que constituyen el altiplano central y oriental [1].Dentro de esta área, existen alrededor de 300 microclimas únicos generados por una mezcla de temperaturas y lluvia por debajo de los cafetos cultivados bajo sombra en distintas altitudes [9]. La Asociación Nacional del Café de Guatemala (ANACAFÉ) ha dividido el país en 7 regiones cafetaleras, en las que el volumen es relativamente similar. Cada región cuenta con una oficina regional y extenionistas que brindan asistencia técnica en el área. Dentro de las principales regiones cafetaleras, ANACAFÉ ha seleccionado 8 áreas específicas y comercializa el café por calidad superior de taza, derivada de los microclimas específicos, suelo, altitudes, etc.Históricamente, Guatemala se ha caracterizado por su alta calidad de café arábica lavado, un legado de plantaciones alemanas de 1800 y que aún sigue siendo el sistema productivo predomienante. Guatemala produce casi exclusivamente granos de café arábica y clasifica la calidad del café en 5 categorías, cada una de las cuales hace referencia a la altitud en que se cultiva el grano: el grano Estrictamente Duro es el principal grano de café que se exporta, representando el 83 % de la cosecha 2016/17 [1,4], un incremento frente al 40 % que representaba en la década de 1990. Dicha expansión se derivó en su mayor parte de la demanda del consumidor de este tipo de café [10].No se publican estadísticas sobre la proporción de productores certificados o la cantidad de café comercializado como certificado, por ejemplo, de Rainforest Alliance, Orgánico o de Comercio Justo [1].Los pequeños agricultores producen el 98 % de todo el café de Guatemala [10]. Por lo general, un pequeño agricultor cultiva menos de 1,2 ha [4]; sin embargo, la mayoría de pequeños productores cultivan menos de un tercio de hectárea [1]. Las estimaciones de productividad (quintales de café pergamino por manzana) han ido disminuyendo sistemáticamente. ANACAFÉ estima que la productividad se ha reducido casi el 40 % en 10 años, desde un máximo de 964 kg/ha en 2006/7 a 638 kg/ha en 2015/16 [1].Tradicionalmente, el café de Guatemala se ha cultivado bajo sombra, un sistema de cultivo que persiste aún el día de hoy. La asociación nacional de cafetaleros afirma que el 98 % del café se cultiva bajo sombra. La cantidad de sombra depende de la altitud y va de 50 a 70 % de sombra en altitudes bajas y de 25 a 30 % en altitudes elevadas [1]. Se cultiva una gran variedad de árboles de sombra, entre los que se incluyen variedades nativas y/o favorables al café. La diversidad de especies en finca es variable y depende del acceso a semilla y la extensión, la altitud y el tipo de parcela (nueva o renovada). Las fincas grandes normalmente se encuentran a altitudes menores, en tanto que los pequeños agricultores cultivan tierras más altas. Las fincas grandes cuentan con parcelas diversificadas y cultivan palma africana y hule junto con el café.La agricultura de subsistencia se da en sistemas cafetaleros de pequeños productores, pero no en todos los casos. Los agricultores emergentes del altiplano de Huehuetenango y San Marcos se expandieron a partir de la agricultura de subsistencia y del trabajo como jornaleros en plantaciones de café pasando a producir su propio café y produciendo cultivos de subsistencia, como maíz y frijol [10]. En regiones predominantemente cafetaleras, cerca del 20 % del alimento disponible para guatemaltecos en situación de pobreza es generado por la agricultura de subsistencia, en tanto el 80 % se obtiene comprándolo en el mercado. En otras partes donde se cultiva café junto con otros cultivos (por ejemplo, cardamomo en las Verapaces o cultivos alimenticios en el altiplano oriental), las familias pobres dependen en menor grado de las compras en el mercado, pues los cultivos de subsistencia representan el 30-40 % del alimento consumido [11]. Esto quiere decir que durante la reciente crisis provocada por la roya y en épocas en que el precio del café es bajo, los pequeños agricultores no tienen acceso a una alimentación adecuada y suficiente.La producción de café es vulnerable al cambio climático progresivo, pero al mismo tiempo contribuye emitiendo gases de efecto invernadero. Las emisiones se pueden evaluar utilizando recursos como la Herramienta Cool Farm [12].Los aspectos más importantes del impacto climático de la producción cafetalera son las reservas de carbono en pie en los sistemas productivos y la huella de carbono del producto, que mide las emisiones de GEI por unidad de peso del café producido. Los datos presentados abarcan los principales sistemas productivos de América Central: policultivo tradicional, policultivo comercial, monocultivo bajo sombra y monocultivo sin sombra [13].Los sistemas de policultivo presentan una menor huella de carbono, de 6,2 a 7,3 CO2 equivalente por kg de café pergamino, que los de monocultivo: 9,0 a 10,8 kg CO2 equivalente. Los policultivos tradicionales tienen reservas de carbono mucho más altas en la vegetación, de 42,5 Mg por hectárea, que los monocultivos sin sombra, de 10,5 Mg. Al comparar las reservas con la huella de carbono, queda de manifiesto que los sistemas de policultivo tradicional y comercial son mucho más amigables con el clima que los sistemas de monocultivo con y sin sombra. Las estrategias para aumentar los impactos climáticos positivos de la producción cafetalera y reducir los negativos incluyen la diversificación de las fincas cafetaleras con árboles productivos de sombra (el uso de su madera puede sustituir los combustibles fósiles y los materiales de construcción de uso intensivo de energía), el uso específico de fertilizantes y el uso de métodos secos o ecológicos de procesamiento del café, en lugar del proceso tradicional totalmente lavado.Uno de los principales desafíos que enfrenta la producción cafetalera en Guatemala es la renovación de las fincas de café. ANACAFÉ estima que el 50 % de las fincas necesita renovarse (ver también la sección siguiente). USAID reporta que 169.000 hectáreas (70 %) requieren renovación y resiembra [14]. Sobre las variedades para resiembra, existe discrepancia en cuanto a que sean variedades resistentes, productivas y con calidad de taza.Entre las variedades con calidad de catación superior que se cultivan comúnmente se encuentran Caturra, Catuaí y Borbón. Dichas variedades también son de las más susceptibles a roya, con una incidencia de 43,2 %, 41 % y 7,6 % respectivamente [1]. Además, el café Borbón es particularmente vulnerable a lluvias torrenciales, pues la variedad sufre la caída de sus frutos. Aunque estas variedades pueden obtener un mejor precio por su mejor calidad de taza, son más susceptibles a enfermedades y a menudo se venden como café cereza, por lo que no pueden acceder a mercados de café especial.Actualmente, en Guatemala, los precios no cubren los costos de los pequeños productores, lo cual ocasiona que se reduzca la cantidad de insumos y labores efectuadas [15]. Un pequeño productor que cultiva 1,7 manzanas (1,2 ha) con buenas prácticas agrícolas podría obtener un ingreso anual de aproximadamente US$3000 (GTQ22.100), con una pérdida anual de US$240 (GTQ1800). No obstante, pocos pequeños productores alcanzan ese nivel de ingreso y US$1870 (GTQ14.000) sería un cálculo más moderado [16]. Asimismo, el salario mínimo en Guatemala ha aumentado un 95 % más que el precio del café. Con US$420 al mes, Guatemala cuenta con el salario mínimo más alto entre los países productores de café en América Latina [16]. Los grandes caficultores también se han visto afectados por la reducción del margen de ganancia debido al aumento del costo de la mano de obra y continúan diversificando su patrimonio, a menudo cultivando palma africana, hule, banano o cambiándose a pastos, dependiendo de la altitud [7].Reducir los insumos para mantenerse competitivos y rentables puede poner a los pequeños agriculores en situaciones precarias en cuanto a plagas y enfermedades. La fertilización regular ayuda al desarrollo de las hojas y evita la pérdida del cultivo; sin embargo, con menor rentabilidad se reduce el uso de insumos y aumenta la vulnerabilidad de los cafetos a la roya [17].La desigualdad de género es una realidad conocida y que se observa no solo en la producción cafetalera, sino que se extiende por toda la cadena de valor. No es común encontrar datos públicos específicos sobre Guatemala, en relación con la participación y posesión de propiedades de la mujer. En entrevistas informales, mujeres que son pequeñas productoras identifican el machismo con un desafío para la producción de café.No solo limita el poder de decisión de las mujeres, sino también reduce las oportunidades de desarrollar sus capacidades, ya sea visitando parcelas demostrativas o participando en talleres y capacitaciones.En regiones de mayor pobreza, adolescentes menores de edad a menudo trabajan en la finca familiar recolectando café e incluso trabajan como mano de obra contratada. Esto es más común entre los hombres que entre las mujeres [18].Las principales enfermedades y plagas que afectan a la producción de café en Guatemala son: la roya del café (CLR, sus siglas en inglés; Hemileia vastatrix), el ojo de gallo (Mycena citricolor) y la broca del café (Hypothenemus hamperi).Guatemala sufrió el impacto de la crisis de la roya del café de América Central (2012/13), donde se vio afectado el 70 % del total de la superficie cultivada y los rendimientos del país se redujeron entre un 20 y un 25 % [1,15]. Las condiciones favorables, entre ellas un amento de la temperatura mínima y la anticipación de la época lluviosa, son las posibles causas del brote [17]. En Guatemala, se reportaron brotes de roya con una intensidad de ataque similar entre los 400 y 1400 m s. n. m. [17]. Después del brote, la región reaccionó con un redoble de esfuerzos en mejoramiento y resiembra con variedades resistentes a roya. Para 2017, un total de 15.860 hectáreas habían sido renovadas, lo cual tuvo un costo cercano a los US$84 millones. Además, Guatemala estableció un Fideicomiso de US$100 millones para brindar apoyo a medianos y grandes productores [17]. Entre 2015 y 2016, la presencia de roya aumentó un 5 %, afectando de manera considerable a Chiquimula, donde se pudo observar un 53 % de defoliación de los cafetos, a lo cual se sumó la presión climática y del mercado [11].La broca del café es la principal plaga que afecta la producción cafetalera, atacando directamente el grano del café y utilizándolo para su reproducción. La alta incidencia se da al inicio de la época lluviosa y su manejo es principalmente manual. Se prevé que las mayores temperaturas ocasionarán que se amplíe el área de incidencia incluyendo plantaciones a mayor altura, además de encontrarse la plaga en distintas etapas de desarrollo en la temporada de formación de fruto [19].El ojo de gallo es una enfermedad fúngica que afecta la producción cafetalera, específicamente en condiciones de alta humedad. Esta ha representado un problema específicamente para variedades resistentes a roya, tales como IHCAFE 90 y Lempira [20].La época seca presenta condiciones favorables para araña roja, una especie de ácaro (Oligonichus yothersi) que succiona la savia y daña las hojas del cafeto, así como de los árboles de sombra, incluido el mango (Manguifera indica) y el eucalipto (Eucalyptus sp.) [21].Las cochinillas (Pseudococcidae) atacan la raíz de la planta de café. Sus secreciones atraen a las hormigas que las protegen de sus enemigos naturales. Cuando se dañan las raíces, las hojas comienzan a perder color y eventualmente la planta de café muere. Es más común encontrar estos insectos durante los primeros cinco años después de la siembra. Las altitudes medias y bajas, los suelos ácidos y arenosos y un ambiente húmedo favorecen su desarrollo y propagación.Expertos y caficultores informan que ya perciben un cambio en el clima y un aumento de los fenómenos climáticos adversos, como tormentas, lluvias irregulares, aumento de la variación térmica, sequías, altas temperaturas y fuertes vientos. Los agricultores percibieron que la precipitación era menos frecuente, pero con un mayor volumen de lluvia. Se dice que estas tendencias tienen un impacto alto o muy alto en la producción cafetalera por cambios de plagas, enfermedades y malezas, riesgos poscosecha, erosión del suelo, caída del fruto y causar floración irregular. La reciente epidemia de roya del café se atribuyó generalmente a condiciones climáticas propicias y expertos regionales afirman que desde el punto de vista climático, América Central se ha vuelto más extrema con tendencia hacia más sequías, lluvias más fuertes y temperaturas más altas. En esta sección, primero describiremos los cambios climáticos que pudimos encontrar en los datos meteorológicos de 1980 hasta 2017. A continuación, reportaremos los cambios proyectados por modelos climáticos globales en un escenario de cambio climático de severidad intermedia.La presencia del café en Guatemala se da principalmente a lo largo de la Sierra Madre, que se extiende desde México hasta Honduras. Estas zonas de Guatemala se han vuelto más secas y calurosas en las últimas tres décadas. Las temperaturas anuales han aumentado en todo el país, la evapotranspiración potencial y la distribución de las precipitaciones se han vuelto más variables. El alcance de estos eventos varió en todo el país. Para algunas variables, no pudimos identificar eventos significativos, p. ej., la precipitación total anual se mantuvo sin cambios en todo el territorio guatemalteco. Sin embargo, temperaturas más altas y nubosidad reducida aumentarán los requerimientos de agua del cultivo del café, en cuyo caso el estrés hídrico puede aumentar a pesar de que la disponibilidad de agua no haya variado.¿Qué es una tendencia \"significativa\"?La definición de la \"significancia\" de una tendencia climática para los especialistas en café suele ser diferente de la definición científica. Un experto local en café puede afirmar que una tendencia fue significativa si en temporadas recientes los eventos climáticos se desviaron de las expectativas habituales y ello hubiese tenido un impacto en el manejo del cultivo y el rendimiento. El método científico se inventó para probar tales hipótesis utilizando observación y medición sistemática, porque la percepción humana puede fallar influida por unos cuantos eventos recientes que no equivalen a una tendencia que continuará en el futuro, o la causalidad puede estar sesgada por lo limitado de nuestros sentidos. Sin embargo, dada la urgencia de la acción climática, la importancia científica tiene sus propias limitaciones: una tendencia en los datos climáticos puede ser estadísticamente significativa, pero carecer de sentido para un profesional; es posible que la limitación de datos no permita el análisis riguroso de la significancia estadística, especialmente de fenómenos raros, pero impactantes que se dan \"una vez cada cien años\". El inicio y punto final del análisis de tendencias puede afectar la detección de tendencias o puede ser una función de la variabilidad natural durante décadas. Por tanto, no es aconsejable suponer que continuarán en el futuro sin pruebas sólidas que las respalden. Por último, no todas las tendencias locales fueron causadas por el calentamiento global, sino son el resultado de la deforestación, la urbanización o proyectos locales similares.¿Cómo se efectuó el análisis de tendencias?Primero calculamos las variables indicadoras bioclimáticas para los años 1980 a 2016 y luego usamos el estimador Theil-Sen para ajustar una tendencia a los datos. Este método ajusta una línea eligiendo la mediana de las pendientes de todas las líneas a través de pares de puntos. El estimador de Theil-Sen es más preciso que la regresión por mínimos cuadrados para datos heterocedásticos e insensible a los valores atípicos. Consideramos una tendencia como significativa si el intervalo de confianza del 95 % no incluye cero. Utilizamos datos mensuales interpolados de Terraclimate de temperatura, precipitación pluvial y evapotranspiración potencial. Definimos que el año de cultivo comenzara con los tres meses más secos del año en el promedio multidecadal y los 9 meses siguientes. Para cada año de cultivo, derivamos 31 variables bioclimáticas que describen los patrones anuales y estacionales. Para cada celda de cuadrícula de 0,05 ° de Guatemala, evaluamos la significancia de la tendencia y estimamos la pendiente. Seleccionamos variables bioclimáticas con tendencias en regiones cafetaleras que podrían tener un impacto biofísico. Por último, en las regiones con cambios significativos, seleccionamos una localidad cafetalera representativa para determinar el cambio absoluto, el valor de p y la pendiente.La evapotranspiración es el proceso combinado de evaporación de la superficie de la Tierra y la transpiración de la vegetación. La evapotranspiración potencial (ETP) es la cantidad que se daría si hubiera suficiente agua disponible. Se estima utilizando la temperatura promedio, mínima y máxima del aire y la radiación solar en el método Hargreaves [31]. El déficit hídrico acumulado al final de la estación seca es el exceso acumulado de ETP sobre la precipitación pluvial.Las proyecciónes de modelos climáticos globales muestran que la temperatura media anual aumentará de 1,7 a 2,0 °C hacia mediados de siglo. Se proyecta que los cambios serán mayores en los departamentos centrales de Alta y Baja Verapaz, así como en el oriente de Petén, Izabal y Zacapa. La lluvia acentuará los efectos de las elevadas temperaturas, pues se proyecta que partes de estos departamentos presenten una reducción del 6 % en la precipitación anual.América Central ha sido afectada por sequías en repetidas ocasiones en el pasado, particularmente a finales de la década de 1990 y principios de siglo [23]. El rendimiento del café es muy sensible a estos fenómenos que se proyecta sean más frecuentes e intensos en las próximas décadas, en la medida en que avanza el cambio climático. Entre otros fenómenos climáticos extremos que son potencialmente dañinos para el café en América Central se encuentra El Niño Oscilación Sur, vientos fuertes, lluvias intensas e inundaciones. El daño causado por estos fenómenos se verá agravado ante precios bajos o periodos de volatilidad de precios, en la medida en que se reduzca el incentivo para que los caficultores renueven y resiembren o adopten otras medidas de manejo agrícola para recuperar la producción [23].Una proyección climática es la respuesta simulada del sistema climático a un escenario de emisiones o concentraciones futuras de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), generalmente derivada de modelos climáticos globales. Un modelo climático global (GCM, sus siglas en inglés) es una representación del sistema climático basada en las propiedades físicas, químicas y biológicas de sus componentes, sus interacciones y procesos de retroalimentación. Las proyecciones climáticas dependen del escenario de emisiones utilizado, que a su vez se basa en supuestos relativos a futuras situaciones económicas y tecnológicas.Los resultados de los GCM tienen una resolución aproximada de 100 o 200 km, lo que no es práctico para evaluar paisajes agrarios. Por tanto, utilizamos proyecciones climáticas a escala reducida. Para cada GCM, las anomalías se calculan como el delta entre el clima simulado de la base de referencia y la predicción futura. Dichas anomalías se interpolan y se agregan a los datos climáticos de la base de referencia. Las suposiciones clave de este enfoque consisten en que los cambios en el clima solo varían a grandes distancias y la relación entre las variables en la base de referencia se mantiene en el futuro.Para respaldar una adaptación eficaz, desarrollamos un gradiente de los impactos del cambio climático en la producción cafetalera. Dicho gradiente es una evaluación específica para café de los cambios climáticos proyectados. Cambios climáticos idénticos en lugares distintos podrían ocasionar impactos severos o irrelevantes, según las condiciones climáticas históricas. Por ejemplo, una reducción de 50 mm de precipitación pluvial podría ser crítica para el cultivo del café en lugares con poca disponibilidad de agua, pero sería irrelevante donde las precipitaciones son abundantes durante todo el año. Según el grado de impacto, se recomiendan diferentes paquetes de prácticas de adaptación.Estas áreas tienen probabilidades de permanecer aptas. La atención debe centrarse en la intensificación sostenible de la producción y la adaptación incremental mediante la ampliación de la cartera de productos de los agricultores para gestionar el riesgo climático. Se debe priorizar prácticas de ASAC con alto potencial de mitigación y productividad:Prácticas mínimas de ASAC en café: Uso de sombra permanente El gradiente muestra el grado más probable de las medidas de adaptación necesarias en distintos escenarios climáticos futuros potenciales. El gradiente de impactos indica que la mayor parte de la producción cafetalera de Guatemala puede mantenerse con un esfuerzo adecuado. Actualmente, cerca de la mitad del área del país cuenta con condiciones climáticas aptas para producir café, pero la mayoría de las áreas aptas necesitan un esfuerzo considerable de adaptación. Del área actual de café arábica, el 20 % requerirá adaptación transformadora; el 30 %, cambios sistémicos y casi el 50 % restante seguirá siendo apto utilizando las prácticas actuales de producción. Las áreas por debajo de los 800 m s. n. m. requerirán un cambio transformador, por ejemplo, a café robusta u otros cultivos. En el futuro, la mayor parte del área de arábica se encontrará a partir de los 1200 m s. n. m. Las áreas por encima de 1800 m s. n. m., que previamente no eran aptas, presentarán mejores condiciones.Los impactos siguen un gradiente altitudinal y se encontró muy poca diferencia entre regiones. Las zonas bajas en las que históricamente se ha producido café perderán su aptitud para el cultivo. La producción cafetalera en Guatemala ya se encuentra confinada a una zona óptima en altitudes elevadas, debido a la demanda de granos de café de calidad superior.En el futuro, en este límite geográfico se reflejará el estrés proyectado con el cambio climático. La altitud mínima apta para el cultivo de café se elevará al menos 200 m.Se proyectaron diferencias regionales por la importancia del estrés por sequía. En las áreas de Huehuetenango y San Marcos, se encontró que el estrés térmico es relativamente más importante. A lo largo de la costa del Pacífico, se proyectó que tanto el calor como la sequía aumentarán a niveles que se considerarían no aptos en las condiciones actuales. Por ello, aunque grandes extensiones del país tienen probabilidad de permanecer aptas, la adaptación a tales riesgos será una condición previa.Es probable que los sitios previamente subóptimos se vuelvan antieconómicos para el cultivo del café. Esta tendencia ya se hace evidente en la desaparición gradual del café de calidad inferior en las últimas décadas. El café de grano duro en parte tendrá dificultades para mantenerse productivo, a menos que se implementen medidas integrales de adaptación. El café de grano estrictamente duro requerirá cambios graduales de manejo para seguir siendo productivo. Como cualquier perspectiva futura, nuestro modelo tiene un grado considerable de incertidumbre y debe considerarse como una proyección y no como una predicción. La incertidumbre en nuestro modelo también proviene de los escenarios de emisiones, modelos climáticos y el modelo de cultivo. La incertidumbre de los escenarios de emisiones se discutió anteriormente y, por supuesto, reducir las emisiones a nivel mundial es la opción de adaptación más prometedora. Utilizamos 19 modelos climáticos globales como proyecciones igualmente válidas del clima futuro. Estos modelos muestran un alto nivel de consenso en cuanto al aumento de la temperatura, pero discrepan en cuanto a la distribución regional y estacional de la precipitación pluvial. Por tanto, el modelo obtenido del consenso de las proyecciones independientes está influenciado en gran medida por el aumento de la temperatura y la discrepancia de la precipitación se enmascara. No obstante, un aumento de la temperatura implica mayor necesidad de agua en la producción agraria. Por último, nuestro modelo es un modelo que considera que \"todo lo demás queda igual\" y solo considera el cambio del clima. Nuestro enfoque estadístico está diseñado para evitar el sobreajuste y deliberadamente también incluye localidades marginales para el café. Esto debe considerarse como incertidumbre \"amigable\", porque significa que, a través de una adaptación orientada, los peores impactos serán evitables.Para cultivar café sostenbile adaptado al clima se recomienda una serie de prácticas agrícolas que cumplen con uno o más de los objetivos clave de la Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima. Dada la necesidad urgente de adopción a gran escala, una manera de desarrollar el CSAC es promover la ampliación de la escala de las estrategias de respuesta \"sin remordimientos\" para los agricultores. El siguiente listado contiene prácticas validadas por expertos. Pueden servir como punto de partida para desarrollar paquetes de prácticas para cada una de las zonas de riesgo. Se puede encontrar información adicional sobre las prácticas en el anexo o en Coffee & Climate [10]. Debido al cambio climático y al impacto masivo causado por la roya del café en Guatemala, del cual no se ha recuperado totalmente, existe necesidad de renovación y rehabilitación (R+R). USAID estima que casi el 70 % del área total sembrada con café debería ser R+R [14]. Los rendimientos podrían aumentar entre 5 y 25 % si se efectúa R+R.Los agricultores suelen resembrar con semillas de mala calidad de su misma parcela. ANACAFÉ produce una variedad denominada Anacafé 14 que es resistente a roya, aunque actualmente no se obtienen cantidades suficientes para distribuir a los agricultores.La prioridad del desarrollo varietal en Guatemala ha sido la resistencia a la roya del café. Últimamente, la siembra de Catimores y Sarchimores ha estado aumentando. Esas variedades híbridas son resistentes a roya y comercialmente en Guatemala se conocen como:Anacafé 90, Catimor T-8667 y Costa Rica 95, entre otras. Otras variedades como Anacafé 14, Icatú, y Obatá son resistentes a roya y también tolerantes a sequía y nemátodos. ANACAFÉ proporciona información detallada sobre las variedades de café [24].Una iniciativa de World Coffee Research (WCR) para promover huertos semilleros y ensayos de campo con variedades mejoradas y certificadas se está llevando a cabo en Guatemala desde el año 2016 al 2020.Los planes de café sostenible adaptado al clima deben considerar los sistemas o entornos en que los caficultores toman sus decisiones de inversión y manejo. La falta de acceso a mercados de crédito, insumos y el pequeño margen de ganancia por calidad superior, así como consideraciones de género, constituyen poderosos desincentivos para la implementación de prácticas de CSAC. En muchos casos, el reducido tamaño de la finca no justifica invertir en maquinaria cara; además, las pronunciadas pendientes en que se cultiva el café en Guatemala dificultan mucho el uso de maquinaria pesada.Se requiere una mayor vinculación con el mercado, tanto para obtener insumos como para vender la producción, para que así los agricultores puedan invertir adecuadamente en sus fincas y obtener mayores beneficios. Actualmente, muchos pequeños caficultores dependen de los denominados coyotes o usureros que cobran intereses muy altos por su acceso al mercado. Los agricultores están ya sea demasiado o muy poco vinculados con sus respectivas cadenas de valor. Alrededor del 70 % de los caficultores tienen vínculos con cooperativas o alguna forma de grupo organizado en torno al café; sin embargo, dichos grupos no suelen tener la capacidad de proporcionar a sus miembros acceso a financiamiento o capacitación [14].La desigualdad de género y el machismo representan un problema no solo dentro de los hogares, sino también para familias caficultoras donde una mujer es cabeza de familia.La Fundación Hanns R. Neumann (HRNS, sus siglas en alemán) brinda apoyo a Mujeres en Café Guatemala, una asociación dedicada a mejorar la situación de las mujeres en todas las etapas de la cadena de valor de la producción cafetalera de Guatemala.El Plan Trifinio, que también es patrocinado por HRNS, se centra en la Adaptación basada en ecosistemas (AbE). Las fincas cafetaleras agroforestales son proveedoras de servicios ecosistémicos. El Plan Trifinio, implementado en la frontera entre El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras, busca prevenir la invasión de la selva tropical por fincas cafetaleras. La AbE es una estrategia para aumentar la tolerancia al impacto negativo del cambio climático mediante biodiversidad y servicios ecosistémicos. La recuperación de tierras y de la función de amortiguamiento de la vegetación ribereña son ejemplos de tales medidas, las cuales pueden incrementar la resiliencia de los rendimientos de las fincas de café, a la vez que aumentan los beneficios externos.La recomendación para las familias caficultoras en áreas de transformación es considerar seriamente la transición a otro cultivo, preferiblemente uno que se produzca en un sistema agroforestal, con el fin de garantizar la permanencia de los servicios ecosistémicos, pues en esas áreas el cultivo de café puede hacerse antieconómico de mediano a largo plazo. Diversificar la producción con nueces y aguacate, por ejemplo, no solo es una opción para facilitar a los caficultores dicha transición en zonas de transformación, sino también es recomendable para fincas en áreas de adaptación incremental y sistémica. Las crisis provocadas por el clima o los precios pueden reducir severamente la seguridad alimentaria de familias campesinas en situación de pobreza, de manera que participar en otras cadenas de valor reduce el riesgo que implica perder los ingresos del café.Dos opciones que han sido ampliamente discutidas para zonas que pierdan ideoneidad para arábica son el café robusta y el cacao. Dichos cultivos son tan sensibles al clima como el café arábica, pero pueden soportar temperaturas más altas. No obstante, donde la sequía sea una amenaza para el café arábica, es poco probable que el cacao sea una buena opción, debido a sus altos requisitos de precipitación pluvial [11], pero se proyectó que el clima sería apto para ambos cultivos en algunas de las actuales zonas cafetaleras de Guatemala [12].Para facilitar la adopción de prácticas de CSAC, es necesaria la expansión y adopción de intervenciones favorables. Estos tipos de intervención están diseñados para proporcionar a los agricultores opciones de financiamiento y los servicios necesarios para que tomen sus decisiones con respecto a inversión y manejo.Debido a la insuficiencia de fondos del Fideicomiso, muchos caficultores aún dependen de prestamistas locales, conocidos como coyotes, que cobran intereses extremadamente altos por los préstamos. Puesto que el café es un cultivo tan importante para la subsistencia de los agricultores, estos tienen una gran aversión al riesgo y es necesario generar confianza en soluciones o tecnologías mediante la observación de impactos concretos.Un hábil alineamiento de prácticas de manejo con patrones estacionales puede evitar pérdidas de insumos y mano de obra debidas a fenómenos meteorológicos imprevistos. Las alertas de manejo relacionadas con el clima combinan calendarios de cultivo por época de siembra con datos de estaciones meteorológicas para activar el servicio de mensajería al teléfono móvil. En vez de iniciar el manejo siguiendo el ritmo estacional normal, las alertas aconsejan prácticas, tales como siembra o fertilización, cuando el clima observado sugiera que es la etapa adecuada de desarrollo del cultivo.se vislumbran prometedores para reducir los riesgos climáticos. Los pagos se activan por eventos meteorológicos predeterminados y por lo tanto no requieren verificación de pérdidas. Dichos seguros basados en índices pueden evitar problemas de selección adversa y riesgo moral. También tienen costos de transacción mínimos, lo que ayuda al mercado de seguros a llegar a personas de escasos recursos. Un índice diseñado adecuadamente podría abordar la amplia variación de los rendimientos y la calidad que es tan importante para la rentabilidad del café. Sin embargo, los seguros basados en índices han tenido baja aceptación entre los beneficiarios previstos, en particular, pequeños agricultores. Un contrato de seguro basado en índices a nivel grupal, como una cooperativa de café, podría ser una solución potencial al problema de la baja aceptación.Una labor activa para ampliar la adopción de las prácticas sostenibles adaptadas al clima es prioritaria para asegurar la sostenibilidad del sector cafetalero a largo plazo. Puesto que la producción de café es una inversión de varias décadas y muchas prácticas de ASAC tienen un largo tiempo de entrega, es necesario tomar medidas de adaptación inmediatamente con un enfoque prospectivo. Se requerirá un enfoque de múltiples partes interesadas ya que ninguna tecnología única o vía de escalamiento puede representar la diversidad de entornos de decisión de los actores involucrados. Junto con el desarrollo institucional, sugerimos vías alternativas de escalamiento para la producción café sostenible adaptado al clima que responda a incentivos comerciales: certificación voluntaria, acumulación de carbono (carbon insetting), inversiones de impacto y marca de sostenibilidad.Prácticas de manejo, tales como el uso de sombra e influencia en la reforestación tienen el doble beneficio de reducir la vulnerabilidad climática y aumentar las reservas de carbono en el cultivo del café. En algunos casos, estas sinergias pueden utilizarse para incentivar y subsidiar medidas de adaptación a través de la contabilidad de carbono para medidas de mitigación. La acumulación de carbono ofrece compensar las emisiones de GEI en los procesos o cadena productiva del café.Por ello, las empresas tostadoras y comercializadoras pueden compensar su huella de GEI invirtiendo en actividades de secuestro de carbono a nivel de agricultor que al mismo tiempo apoye la adaptación de los agricultores al cambio climático progresivo. Un estudio en Nicaragua demostró que la forestación con sistemas agroforestales de café y siembra de árboles para delimitación de parcelas de áreas degradadas dio lugar a las mayores sinergias entre adaptación y mitigación [25]. Puede que surjan posibilidades de financiamiento para estas actividades conjuntas de mitigación y adaptación a través de la compensación de carbono, acumulación de carbono y reducción de la huella de carbono.El interés de las empresas en invertir en CSAC depende de su modelo de negocio y de la escala de sus operaciones. Las empresas que trabajan en estrecha colaboración con los agricultores tienden a no distinguir entre esfuerzos climáticos o de sostenibilidad, sino se centran en programas holísticos para aumentar la productividad y hacer atractivo el cultivo del café. Las grandes marcas obtienen grandes cantidades y eligen invertir en actividades de cambio climático a partir de negocios basados en volumen. Las empresas que están \"a la vanguardia\" se preocupan por los volúmenes de suministro, pero además generan valor a partir de la reputación de su marca. Por último, el valor de marcas más pequeñas a menudo se basa en la reputación social y ambiental. Es por ello que estos últimos tienen mayor capacidad que las empresas más grandes de desarrollar soluciones en contacto directo con su base de pequeños agricultores. Estas empresas pueden actuar como catalizadores para innovar en enfoques de CSAC que las grandes marcas, con mayor aversión al riesgo, puedan promover más extensivamente, con el fin de ampliar la escala de la adoptción de la CSAC (ver el estudio de caso más adelante para obtener un ejemplo concreto).Los fondos de inversión social buscan maximizar los efectos sociales y ambientales positivos de las inversiones al proporcionar financiamiento a pequeñas empresas rurales para inversiones a corto y largo plazo. Los inversores privados tienen mayor capacidad que las organizaciones gubernamentales de proceder sobre la base de información novedosa, pero requieren algún grado de certidumbre sobre la eficacia de las prácticas. Así mismo, trabajar con organizaciones de productores en vez de productores individuales puede representar incentivos eficientes en la adopción de prácticas financiables de CSAC. No obstante, en la actualidad, las inversiones privadas tienen un alcance limitado.El Ministerio de Agricultura Ganadería y Alimentación (MAGA) establece los estándares y normas para la producción agropecuaria para promover la eficiencia, competitividad y la protección del medio ambiente. Dentro de las atribuciones del MAGA se encuentra la formulación de políticas para capacitación agraria, comercio internacional de la producción agraria y reforzar las capacidades de las organizaciones agropecuarias para que alcancen sus objetivos [27].La Asociación Nacional del Café (ANACAFÉ) se fundó en 1960 por la Ley del Café, aunque ahora es una institución privada. Su objetivo principal es mejorar la producción nacional y exportaciones de café. Es el principal grupo representativo del sector cafetalero guatemalteco y se encarga de asignar licencias de exportación, promover el café en el ámbito nacional e internacional y desarrollar e implementar políticas relacionadas con el café. Representantes de cooperativas y asociaciones forman parte de su junta directiva.La Federación de Cooperativas Agrícolas de Productores de Café de Guatemala (FEDECOCAGUA) cuenta con más de 20.000 miembros de 148 cooperativas y grupos de agricultores en todo el territorio guatemalteco. La misión de la organización es cerrar la brecha entre los pequeños caficultores que cuentan con recursos limitados y los importadores en los países donde se consume el café. Para cumplir con su misión, FEDECOCAGUA brinda asistencia técnica, financiamiento y apoyo a la comercialización. Cuenta con cinco organismos regionales en Huehuetenango, Suroccidente, Centro, Norocciddente y Cobán [28].El Centro de Investigaciones en Café (Cedicafé) tiene como objetivo aumentar la rentabilidad del café ante escenarios adversos. Se apoya en experimentación en campo con innovaciones, mejores prácticas agrícolas, procesamiento poscosecha y mecanización. El centro publica informes técnicos dos veces al mes sobre temas que van desde el monitoreo de calidad hasta la detección y manejo de araña roja (Oligonichus yothersi) [29].El 85 % del café guatemalteco se exporta a través de la Asociación de Exportadores de Café (ADEC). Se fundó en 1965 y actualmente tiene 33 miembros. A través de esta asociación, los miembros promueven reglamentaciones en materia de exportación y brindan capacitación y apoyo logístico, en mercadeo y procesamiento poscosecha, entre otros [30].Mujeres Café es una asociación de mujeres caficultoras creada para fortalecer la competitividad, sostenibilidad y rentabilidad de las fincas cafetaleras manejadas por mujeres. La asociación también busca incentivar la participación de las mujeres en el sector cafetalero guatemalteco y que mejoren su calidad de vida, por ejemplo, mediante competencias de injerto de café y talleres solo para mujeres [31].La Federación Comercializadora de Café Especial de Guatemala (FECCEG) es una ONG constituida por 12 cooperativas de pequeños caficultores. Su objetivo es desarrollar e implementar programas relacionados con igualdad de género, desarrollo sostenible y fortalecimiento institucional. Brinda apoyo a los pequeños caficultores miembros mediante asistencia en administración, diversificación y acceso a crédito. También mejora el acceso a mercados internacionales a través de la Asociación de Exportadores de Café Especial de Guatemala, que se enfoca en exportar café de calidad superior con certificación orgánica y de Comercio Justo.El Ministerio de Economía (MINECO) formula las políticas para el comercio internacional de la producción agropecuaria, junto con el Ministerio de Agricultura Ganadería y Alimentación. También asiste a las mesas de discusión sobre sobre la creación y extensión de políticas agrarias, tales como la provisión de fondos al Fideicomiso y la Ley para la reactivación económica del café [32].La Cámara del Agro (CAMAGRO) se fundó en 1973 y actualmente une a 13 asociaciones agrarias, incluida ADEC y ANACAFÉ. Su actividad se centra en coordinar los programas y objetivos de sus miembros para aumentar su eficiencia y el valor agregado del sector agrario. También brinda apoyo en formulación de políticas, mediante informes técnicos sobre las iniciativas de ley [33].Anteriormente conocido como la Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA), el Ministerio de Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (MARN) se creó para brindar asistencia y coordinar las políticas nacionales con el fin de proteger y mejorar el medio ambiente en Guatemala. Actualmente, gestiona las políticas ambientales y promueve el desarrollo sostenible [34].La Fundación de la Caficultura para el Desarrollo Rural (FUNCAFÉ) inició operaciones en 1994 con el fin de impulsar el desarrollo humano en el área rural. Se fundamenta en tres pilares: seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, salud y educación.En 1969, se aprobó la Ley del Café (Decreto 19-69) que fue reglamentada nuevamente en 1970 (Decreto 13-70) y regula la producción y comercialización del café y delega en ANACAFÉ una función de asesoría para el Gobierno de Guatemala. En 1972, se aprobaron dos decretos (37-72 y 74-72) que establecen exención de impuestos por la compra de equipo agrícola y fertilizantes. En 2013, la duración del Fideicomiso del Café de Guatemala se prolongó hasta el año 2026 y en 2019 se prolongó hasta 2051 ofreciendo una reestructuración de la deuda de créditos vencidos y devolución de crédito fiscal a los exportadores [15].La Ley para la reactivación económica del café (Decreto 4-2019) se aprobó a mediados de 2019. Está dirigida a pequeños caficultores para facilitarles el acceso a crédito para inversiones en sus parcelas de café, mediante financiamiento, la prolongación del Fideicomiso y la reestructuración de sus deudas. Se requieren de 6 a 8 años para renovar una finca de café, por tanto, el acceso a crédito es fundamental [35].Aunque la mayoría de caficultores en Guatemala dependen de sus propios ahorros o de préstamos a intermediarios, muchos de los pequeños productores ahora poseen títulos de propiedad que pordrían utilizar como garantía. El Fideicomiso sirve de base para conceder créditos a pequeños y grandes caficultores de manera individual u organizados como grupos formales. Los micro y pequeños caficultores pagan tasas de interés del 2 % sobre los préstamos, un punto porcentual menos que los medianos y grandes caficultores. Los plazos de amortización dependen del plan de inversión (diversificación semipermanente: 15 años, renovación de cafetos: 7 años) Actualmente maneja US$100 millones. Existen dos Fideicomisos: El Fideicomiso Apoyo Financiero para los Productores del Sector Cafetalero Guatemalteco y el Fideicomiso Mejoramiento del Pequeño Caficultor [22].Una iniciativa conjunta de ANACAFÉ y USAID denominada Proyecto Cadenas de Valor Rurales coordinó la renovación de más de 3000 ha entre 2012 y 2017. Un total de 129 organizaciones cafetaleras y alrededor de 7000 familias caficultoras se beneficiaron y, según informes, los rendimientos aumentaron más de 60 % en parcelas renovadas y resembradas.El Programa de Verificación de Semillas fue diseñado e implementado por World Coffee Research (WCR) en 2016 y se espera que continúe hasta 2020. El objetivo de este programa es proporcionar a los caficultores mejores variedades para sus parcelas. WCR brinda apoyo a viveros locales en la selección de plantas y siembra de variedades mejoradas de café.El Plan Trifinio es un esfuerzo internacional encabezado por la Fundación Hanns R. Neumann y la Mesa de Café Trinacional (MCT), cuyo fin es proteger la cuenca ubicada en la frontera entre Guatemala, Honduras y El Salvador. La idea detrás de esta iniciaiva es \"facilitar\" la transición entre la selva tropical y las tierras utilizadas para la producción agraria. Además, el plan aporta variedades mejoradas y capacitación para que los caficultores eleven su productividad e ingresos sin invadir la selva [36].Cada vez se promociona más el turismo agrícola en fincas cafetaleras, por ejemplo, en la cuenca del Lago de Atitlán. Junto con catación en tiendas de cafés especiales, los visitantes aprenden cómo se cultiva el café y los servicios ecológicos que prestan las fincas cafetaleras [15].Aumentar la productividad, adaptarse al cambio climático y fenómenos climáticos extremos, así como mitigar las emisiones de GEI a nivel de finca constituyen resultados positivos para todos los actores de la cadena de valor. Sin embargo, son los agricultores en situación de pobreza quienes cargan con la mayor parte del costo y el riesgo al intentar implementar nuevas prácticas. Tanto el sector público como el privado deberían promover un ambiente favorable para la toma de decisiones y el acceso a capacitación y financiamiento para facilitar la adopción de prácticas que redundan en beneficio de todos.Mejorar el acceso a mercados para obtener insumos y financiamiento es clave para aumentar la inversión, pero poder cosechar los beneficios de sus inversiones por medio de precios más altos es igual de importante. Las iniciativas dirigidas a grupos y cooperativas de productores tendrán la ventaja de llegar a un mayor número de caficultores y facilitar la cooperación entre dichos grupos aumentará su eficiencia.La adopción generalizada de sistemas agroforestales es un punto de partida muy valioso hacia la consecución de los objetivos del CSAC. Para lograr un mayor avance, es necesario ganarse la confianza de los caficultores en los nuevos enfoques, de la misma manera que la comprensión de los entornos en que toman sus decisiones. Los servicios ecosistémicos que prestan las fincas cafetaleras en Guatemala deberían ser recompensados, a la vez que se debería tomar conciencia de que se encuentran en riesgo de reducirse a causa del cambio climático.Las iniciativas del sector privado deben continuar implementando programas sostenibles adaptados al clima, animando a los pequeños caficultores a participar y evitar su exclusión. Esto requiere que todos los actores de la cadena de valor, no solo los productores o procesadores, compartan los costos y los riesgos.Ya ha implementado muchas prácticas en su finca que pueden clasificarse como de CSAC: curvas de nivel, manejo de sombra y nutrición orgánica, entre otras. Recientemente comenzó a incorporar cultivos de cobertura y un mejor distanciamiento para favorecer el desarrollo de sus cafetos. Desafortunadamente, el Sr. Castillo solo puede vender su cosecha a intermediarios en la ciudad. Nos cuenta que los intermediarios fijan los precios y esto le dificulta añadir valor a su producción.Aparte de los bajos precios de venta, plagas y enfermedades, como la roya (Hemileia vastatrix) y antracnosis (Glomerella cingulata) también contribuyen al deterioro de su producción. Sin embargo, estos no son los únicos desafíos que él enfrenta. Santos Castillo observa que, comparado con diez años atrás, \"la época seca es más larga y más severa, y como consecuencia, las plantas se marchitan y los granos de café se caen prematuramente\". Los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos también se están haciendo más intensos: \"durante 2018, sufrimos una de las sequías más severas que yo recuerde\". Ante estas expectativas, el uso de mejores variedades y prácticas agrícolas son su manera de prevenir los riesgos externos a los que se encuentra expuesta su finca.Las prácticas de CSAC ya están demostrando sus ventajas; los cultivos de cobertura que él sembró le ayudaron a regular la temperatura del suelo y retener humedad. Luego, el mulch de los cultivos de cobertura aumentó la materia orgánica en su finca. Aunque el costo de la semilla y acceder a ellos sigue siendo un problema, él tiene claros los efectos de esta práctica: \"yo vi la diferencia durante la sequía de 2018; mi plantación tuvo un mejor comportamiento donde sembré cultivos de cobertura\".  ","tokenCount":"9622"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"275c2d26a1011eff5aeb8b729dbd8541","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9decb661-741b-4e83-97b4-0465576b359a/retrieve","id":"-1064973378"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4e66e3e3-6973-4182-8c43-8ab490a46adc","pagecount":"1","content":"In Malawi, lack of quality seed potato was a major constraint in production. Farmers obtained planting materials from informal seed sources. From 2006/2007, the use of positive selection technique was introduced to farmers. Although positive selection proved very useful in improving quality of on-farm saved seed, the incidence of potato viruses detected as latent infection in selected tubers was relatively high. Production of higher quality seed required use of innovative techniques. This study was conducted to evaluate technical and financial feasibility of seed potato production using tissue culture, screen-house and field techniques.Over all mean number of seed tubers produced per seed tuber planted was 6.2 ± 0.9 across the three varieties. The overall mean number of tubers obtained per sampled harvested plant was 11.1 ± 2.7 across the three varieties, resulting in a mean yield gap of 44%. Mean weight of individual seed tuber harvested was 44 ± 7 g (Table 1). Cost of seed produced decreased from USD 0.30 (Mk 50.10) per G0 seed tuber to USD 0.034 (Mk 5. 68) per G2 seed tuber (Table 2). Farmers were selling degenerated tubers saved as planting material from their ware potato crops of local cultivars at USD 0.04 (Mk 6.68) per tuber.  In Profit and competitiveness heavily depend on achieving the highest seed multiplication ratio. This can be obtained through best production management at tissue culture, screen-house, field and seed storage levels, and through minimizing yield gap ","tokenCount":"237"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e06239253cde6c25a8ebbcabb3078671","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fad28dd2-1673-4e6d-ac97-056206411fcc/retrieve","id":"1161809957"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e378d6f1-3b76-4bb1-ad64-87f088cc40d6","pagecount":"10","content":"ollowing the \"Green Revolution\" that increased cereal production in some developing countries, a more holistic \"doubly green revolution\" has been prescribed for agriculture in the 21 st Century if the global community is to both sustain the growing human population and its demand for food in a manner that conserves natural resources (Conway, 1997).An important component of the approaches to improving productivity in the agricultural sector involves the use of biotechnology. The tools of molecular biology already contribute to the characterization of animal, plant, and microbial genetic resources. Molecular techniques have been employed to isolate genes for the diagnosis of disease and its prevention by development of safe and efficacious subunit vaccines and to capture desirable production traits in plants and animals. However, genomics research is undergoing a revolution of its own, where the emphasis is shifting from a study of single genes to a systems approach involving a study of all the genes or groups of genes that occur within an organism. This has become possible due to development of large-scale DNA sequencing strategies together with computer infrastructure and software capacity to manage the process and analyze the data produced. Bioinformatics research in combination with microarray or \"DNA chip\" technologies and other high throughput screening strategies herald new approaches to analyzing biological systems in the context of whole genome sequences (McKusick 1997).The discipline of genomics offers fresh perspectives on research problems and the private sector has positioned itself to take advantage of these developments, as the return on investment is high. The international agricultural research centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) must do likewise or the gap in science addressing the needs of the poor in developing countries will grow wider. In this review we highlight four project activities where the tools of biotechnology are being used at ILRI, and outline major developments occurring in genomics as these will impact on future research activities. Research partnerships are crucial for accessing some of the genomics technologies, and ILRI has formed one such linkage to address a constraint to vaccine development against a lethal disease of cattle that occurs in sub-Saharan Africa.There is evidence for a rapidly increasing demand for livestock products in developing countries as a result of population and income growth and urbanization leading to a shift of dietary preference away from cereal-based foods and \"the next food revolution\" (Delgado and others 1999). Milk and meat consumption has grown by about 3 and 5 percent per year, respectively, and is expected to increase even more by 2020. Thus, the increase in livestock production is being demand-driven although it is not evenly spread among develop-Vishvanath Nene, Subhash Morzaria, Lyden Baker, Agnes Odonyo, Ed Rege, Ercole Zerbini, and Richard Bishop ing countries. Livestock agriculture usually accounts for 25-30 percent of the agricultural GDP of developing countries and is thus an important component in their economies.Most smallholder farming systems, the priority target group of the CGIAR, rear animals in a mixed crop-livestock system and livestock play an integral role in the lives and livelihood of these resource-poor farmers. Meat and milk are highcalorie foods that also provide micronutrients and are essential for improvement and maintenance of human health. Livestock are an important source of draft power and traction, activities that would otherwise be performed primarily by women and children. Livestock are able to convert otherwise indigestible crop residues into food that is fit for human consumption, and in a synergistic relationship livestock manure plays an important role in nutrient recycling that helps to sustain crop production. Manure can also provide cheap and affordable domestic fuel in certain circumstances. The sale of farm products, such as milk, can provide a daily income for the rural poor and this usually benefits women who tend to be the managers of smallholder systems. In addition, because of their high value, livestock contribute to asset building and constitute a form of social security.There are differing constraints to increasing livestock productivity in developing countries depending on prevailing agroecological conditions. Perhaps most importantly, increase in livestock performance and productivity can be gained by changes in diet and feeding practice, from improvements in farm management strategies and disease control. Livestock with relevant productivity and disease resistance traits can also contribute to maximizing the efficiency of animal agriculture. ILRI recently re-examined the critical issues affecting livestock productivity and identified seven key areas under which most research relating to productivity enhancement and sustainability would fall: The tools of molecular biology are being used in five of the seven key researchable areas outlined above. Thus, there is clearly much scope for the application of biotechnology in alleviating constraints to livestock productivity. Four activities that will benefit from the developing science of genomics are outlined below.Conventional crop breeding programs tend to concentrate on selecting varieties that have high grain yield for human consumption, with less value placed on crop residues, such as leaves and stems, for animal feed. Crop residues, also called stover, tend to have poor nutritional value and efforts have been made to improve this by chemical and biological means. However, there has been little adoption of these techniques by smallholder farmers for a variety of social and economic reasons. An alternative, more environmentally friendly and practical strategy would be to increase the nutritive value of crop residues through genetic enhancement.A collaborative project between the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), ILRI, and NARS in India aims to identify improved dual-purpose crop varieties of sorghum and millet. Crop residues play a major role in animal feed in the smallholder mixed crop-livestock farming systems in India's semi-arid tropics. Improved digestibility of crop residues as feed for ruminants will result in an increased conversion of crop material into valuable animal products such as meat, milk, manure and animal draft power. A feed simulation model estimates that as little as 1 percent increase in digestibility of crop residues would result in a 6-8 percent increase in animal products and traction capacity (Kristjanson and Zerbini 1999).The ongoing research ranges from participatory rural appraisals of crop varieties at the farm level (Chambers 1990) to the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for residue quantity and quality (Hash and Breese 1999;Hash and Witcombe 1994). The project addresses four major research issues: • farmer perceptions of quality and productivity traits in crop residues • relative importance of genetic (G) and environmental (E) variation and G x E interactions in nutritive value • opportunities for indirect selection for stover quality in selected genotypes, based on observable morphological or agronomic characters • application of existing and novel DNA markers to identify QTLs that contribute significantly to the observed genetic variation in digestibility traits.Identifying the desirable heritable traits for improved stover quality and defining the existing genotypes that carry these characters will enable a final selection to be made in multilocational trials on station and on farm. These selected genotypes will then be available for the future development of new dual-purpose cultivars by conventional and marker assisted breeding techniques and ultimately through biotechnology.Molecular techniques have great potential for enhancing rumen function by allowing the introduction of new or improved fermentation activities thereby improving the utilization of poor quality feeds or expanding forage resources. Current rumen microbiology research at ILRI focuses on two major areas: detoxification of plant toxins which constitute anti-nutritional factors; and enhancement of the rate of degradation of fiber to improve the utilization of poor quality feeds.The rumen microbes of wild ruminants are of particular interest because they survive in areas where feeds contain high concentrations of fiber and factors that are toxic for domesticated ruminants. For example, Bison bison have a superior ability to digest low quality forages when compared to Bos taurus (Varel and Dehority 1989).Alteration of rumen function could occur via genetic manipulation of rumen organisms or by using defined microbes to supplement the rumen flora. For example, the transfer and establishment of an exotic rumen microbe in the rumen of naive animals has been described, allowing previously susceptible livestock to successfully utilize toxic Leucaena leucocephala as feed (Jones and Megarrity 1986). A gene from the soil bacterium Moraxella that allows detoxification of the plant toxin fluoroacetate has been successfully expressed in the rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens (Gregg and others 1994) and shown to protect sheep from fluoroacetate poisoning (Gregg and others 1998). Rumen cellulolytic microbial genes have also been transferred to several noncellulolytic rumen bacteria, but it has not always been possible to alter the phenotype of genetically altered bacteria (Cheng and others 1992), indicating that there is much to be learned.Little is known about the diversity of rumen microbes. Thus, application of molecular techniques including denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (Muyzer and Smalla 1998), competitive PCR (Reilly and Attwood 1998), group specific hybridization probes (Zhang and others 1997) and shotgun sequence analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA genes, to characterize rumen microbial communities, will contribute much to an understanding of the ecology of rumen organisms. By linking these data with animal diets and in vitro analyses it may be possible to define key microbes and their role in the detoxification of phytotoxins and fiber degradation. Such information should lay the foundations for the manipulation of specific organisms for the benefit of domesticated ruminants.Over the centuries, livestock farming under different environmental conditions has resulted in breeds with traits such as heat tolerance and disease resistance, which favor their survival under these stresses. Farmers have also been breeding for a variety of attributes with a major focus on productivity traits such as increased milk and meat yields. As a result of such selective forces there exists a variety of breeds with different potential to benefit farming systems in different environments, the relative importance of one trait over another being dictated by farming conditions.Livestock genetics research at ILRI focuses primarily on cattle, sheep, and goats, and is divided into two major activities: characterization, conservation, and use of tropical indigenous animal genetic resources; and genetics of disease resistance.Basic breed information and indigenous knowledge of animal husbandry is being collated to contribute to breed biodiversity information in a database, and to help guide decisions on use of breeds. Molecular characterization is being used to analyze the population genetics of African ruminant livestock. This study, the first, covering the whole of sub-Saharan Africa, has provided a basis for a comprehensive examination of the origin and classification of African cattle, and has identified a possible new center of cattle domestication in Africa (Bradley and others 1996;Hanotte and others 1999). The second area of research is currently directed at the development of DNA markers to identify the QTLs or genes that bestow disease resistance to trypanosomosis in cattle and helminthosis in sheep.Trypanosomosis is the most important livestock disease in Africa, constituting a major constraint to livestock production, with annual losses estimated at US$1340 million without including indirect losses such as manure and traction (Kristjanson and others 1999). Conventional methods of control, such as vaccination, chemotherapy, and vector control are unavailable, expensive or difficult to sustain. The N'Dama breed of cattle, native to the tsetse-infested areas, is known to be tolerant to infection with Trypanosoma congolense (d'Ieteren and others 1998). Research focuses on this breed, and central to this project was the establishment of an F2 population of cattle in which the tolerance trait is segregating. Correlation of animal genotype with phenotype has lead to the identification of five chromosomal regions controlling resistance to trypanosomosis (Hanotte, O. and others, personal communication).Helminthosis, or gastrointestinal worm infection, constitutes one of the most important animal health constraints to sheep and goat production in both tropical and temperate regions of the world (Gill and LeJambre 1996). Current control methods in industrial countries focus on anthelmintic treatment or controlled grazing. In the tropics, these control methods are limited by the high cost of anthelmintics, their uncertain availability, increasing frequency of drug resistance and limited scope for controlled grazing.There is evidence for genetic resistance among certain indigenous tropical small ruminant breeds, for example, the East African Red Maasai sheep (Baker and others 1998). Similar breeding programs and activities to that described above for trypanotolerance in cattle are under way to identify genetic markers linked to QTLs controlling resistance to helminthosis in sheep.The ruminant research is being supported by sophisticated mouse studies where genetically resistant and susceptible strains and advanced inter-cross lines are being used as surrogate models for trypanosomosis and helminthosis research (Kemp and others 1997). Using comparative rodent and ruminant genomics, it is expected that the time to discovery of important genes that are relevant in ruminants will be considerably shortened. The products of this research will be molecular probes as markers for disease resistance. These could be used for more efficient selection in conventional breeding programs for improved performance in extant indigenous livestock breeds endowed with innate disease resistance. Alternatively marker-assisted introgression approaches could be used for development of new, productive livestock types through efficiently combining disease resistance genes with genes for enhanced productivity that already exist in many breeds in areas where the diseases of concern do not occur. By understanding the molecular basis of resistance to these diseases it may also be possible to develop novel alternative disease control strategies.Vaccination offers one of the most effective and sustainable methods of disease control (Kurstak 1999;McKeever and Morrison 1998;Morrison 1999). The considerable potential of vaccine for effective disease control can be gauged by the eradication of smallpox and the global vaccines programs of the World Health Organiation. Veterinary vaccines against a number of livestock and poultry diseases have already played a critical role in increasing livestock productivity under disease challenge (Mowat and Rweyemamu 1997). ILRI's vaccine research program concentrates on two major diseases that affect ruminant livestock in Africa: trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax; and East Coast fever caused by Theileria parva.Vaccine development against an infectious organism is more likely to succeed when there is clear evidence of acquired immunity to infection. It is then possible to define immune responses that contribute to immunity and to use screening systems based on this knowledge to identify pathogen molecules that are the targets of protective immune responses, and to incorporate these into experimental vaccines. Another effective method of disease control involves reducing the pathological effects of infection rather than parasite burden itself (Playfair, Taverne, and Bate 1991). This approach holds promise in trypanosomosis vaccine research where study of the pathogen and host-parasite interaction has so far not revealed any obvious clues for vaccine development against the organism itself. As will be described below, genomics research offers new opportunities in combating infection and disease by understanding the biology of pathogens and their hosts in greater detail.Genomics is setting new paradigms in research approaches within biological sciences, and will be a major force in enhancing the rate of progress in understanding biological systems and exploiting them for development of products. The rapid rates of progress in this field are based on high throughput technologies in the area of structural and functional genomics (McKusick 1997). Data derived from such research have the potential to significantly decrease the time frame for problem solving and to initiate novel research activities. The purpose of this section is to make the reader aware of the changes taking place in genomics. It is not intended to be an exhaustive list of the full range of methods that have been developed or those that are being developed as a consequence of the huge increase in genome sequence data. What is pertinent is that these technologies allow novel approaches to address biological problems, and because some of them currently require very specialized resources and expertise, the only way to access them is through research partnership.A series of new platform technologies have been developed that have resulted in rapid ad-vances in three areas that are interlinked. When taken together the area of genomics has become an incredible growth industry during 1995-99, and it is widely believed that these research areas and the immense amount of new data that they generate will fundamentally change approaches to asking and answering questions in biology. What are the changes that have occurred and what are the consequences?First, developments in DNA sequencing have made the acquisition of whole genome sequences a reality and it is now almost routine to sequence microbial genomes. Such data, when interpreted using bioinformatics gives a complete listing of all the genes present in an organism, the genetic \"blueprint\" of an organism. The first genome sequence of an organism more complex than a virus was published in 1995 (Fleischmann and others 1995). Twenty-three genome sequences are now available in a public database held at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, and numerous genome sequencing projects of a wide variety of organisms, including plants and mammals, are under way Second, a number of different types of technologies have been developed for genome analysis allowing rapid genotyping and genome expression studies using microarray technology (Lander 1999). What puts this technology into a different league is that with the growing list of whole genome sequence data available, it will be possible to scan the genomes of different organisms rapidly and to develop a systematic approach for mapping genetic traits (Brown and Botstein 1999;Chakravarti 1999).Third, developments in computational biology or bioinformatics, which were essential in underpinning the advances in DNA sequencing and genome analysis, will increasingly allow the prediction of gene function from gene sequence (Burks 1999). Although there are currently considerable gaps in this knowledge base, it is nevertheless possible to build a theoretical framework of the biology of an organism from the listing of its genes. This forms a very powerful base for hypothesis-driven experimentation. In addition, by comparing physical and genetic maps across different organisms it is possible to significantly reduce the time frame for the identification of important genes (Bevan and Murphy 1999). The genome sequences of several microbes are already available and soon the annotated genomes sequence of a plant (Arabidopsis thaliania), the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), mouse, and humans will become available. These resources will define a new era in comparative genomics research and the biological sciences.East Coast fever (ECF) is a usually fatal disease of cattle, and approximately 24 million cattle in 11 countries in eastern, central and southern Africa are at risk (Norval, Perry, and Young 1992). ECF is characterized as a lymphoproliferative disorder and is caused by an intracellular protozoan that induces a reversible cancer-like phenotype of parasite infected white blood cells (Irvin and others 1975;ole-MoiYoi 1989). The levels of morbidity and mortality particularly in improved exotic cattle breeds are extremely high. Estimates of annual economic losses of US$168 million establish that effective and sustained control of the tick-transmitted causative agent of ECF, Theileria parva, would have a high impact (Mukhebi, Perry, and Kruska 1992). Conservative ex ante impact analysis indicates that investment in research to develop improved vaccines against ECF has a potential cost-benefit ratio of 15:1 (Kristjanson 1997). The current methods of disease control include use of acaricides to prevent tick infestation and live vaccines that rely on infection with potentially lethal parasites, followed by treatment (Radley 1981). The disadvantage of acaricide use includes cost and development of tick resistance to the treatment. Additional problems, with broader implications, include pollution of the environment and toxic residues in animal products. The disadvantages of live vaccines include strain-specific immunity, high cost, requirement for drug treatment (oxytetracycline), and a possibility of causing severe disease due to incorrect vaccine administration and requirement for a cold chain to deliver the vaccine.It has been demonstrated that antibodies against surface components of sporozoites, the infective stage of T. parva, introduced into the mammalian host by feeding ticks, will inhibit their capacity to gain entry into host cells to establish infection (Musoke and others 1982). By analyzing the mechanism of immunity engendered by infection and treatment it has been demonstrated that a subset of T cells called cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) play a major role in the clearance of pathogenic, schizont-infected cells (Morrison and others 1987). Thus, antigens from two lifecycle stages of the parasite that are the targets of protective immune responses, are desirable components of a vaccine against ECF. ILRI is currently evaluating a recombinant form of p67 (Musoke, Nene, and Morizaria 1993), the major surface antigen of sporozoites, as an antisporozoite vaccine because, under laboratory conditions, p67 routinely induces immunity in about 70 percent of immunized cattle. This molecule is a promising vaccine antigen and is undergoing development to improve protective efficacy. The search for schizont vaccine antigens is complicated by the cell biology of antigen processing and CTL recognition of parasite infected cells. The specificity of CTLs is likely to be determined by interaction of a receptor on the T cell with a peptide 8 to 11 amino acid residues long that is associated with host MHC class I molecules (Collins and Frelinger 1998). Consideration of molecular mechanisms in cell biology indicates that schizont molecules must gain access to the host cell cytoplasm, and from there into the host cell MHC class I antigen processing pathway. Conventional methods to identify such peptide antigens are technically demanding, and genomics research offers an alternative approach to vaccine antigen identification.As described previously, from the genome sequence of an organism it is possible to predict all the genes encoded within it. Schizont molecules that access the host cell cytoplasm are likely to be either secreted or shed from the cell surface. Again cell biology dictates that these types of parasite molecules will be processed by the classical secretory pathway and will contain N-terminal peptides with conserved features that can be identified from gene sequences in a high percentage of cases (Nielsen and others 1997). Thus from the complete listing of T. parva genes it will be possible to identify a subset of genes that contain most if not all candidate vaccine antigens, thereby overcoming the current constraint in identifying antigens recognized by cytotoxic T cells. This set of parasite genes would have to undergo further screening to identify which ones are suitable for cattle experiments (see Nene and others 1999 for more details).The genome sequence would also underpin other research on the parasite. It will be possible to build a hypothetical framework if the biology of the parasite and, for example, its biochemical capacity. Very little is known about the latter, and much could be inferred from the complement of parasite genes. From such information it may be possible to define novel drug targets, an approach that has already stimulated new research in chemotherapy of malaria and toxoplasmosis (Waller and others 1998;Jomaa and others 1999). It may also be possible to gain insight at the molecular level of host-parasite interaction that ultimately results in ECF. A unique aspect of the schizont, referred to earlier, is that it causes infected cells to behave like cancer cells. The schizont induces host cells to proliferate and it divides in synchrony with the host cell resulting in huge increases in schizont parasitemia (Carrington and others 1995). By understanding this phenomenon and the molecules that mediate the process, new methods of disease intervention may be developed. This research potentially has implications for human medicine, particularly leukemia research. The genome sequence would allow valuable comparative analysis of related pathogens that cause disease in livestock (T. annulata, Babesia, and Eimeria) or which cause debilitating diseases in humans (Plasmodium and Toxoplasma).To determine the genome sequence of T. parva, ILRI has formed a collaborative partnership with the Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR), a private but not-for-profit research institute based in the United States. TIGR is a world leader in the large-scale acquisition of DNA sequences, and pioneered the \"shotgun\" DNA sequencing approaches that are now being used to assemble whole genome sequences. Although this process has been used primarily with microbial genomes and purified eukaryotic chromosomes, it is believed that it can be extended to assemble the genome sequence of complex eukaryotes (Venter, Smith, and Hood 1996). TIGR also has considerable expertise in bioinformatics and microarray technology, and both will be essential in analyzing and prioritizing parasite genes for further study.The genome sequencing project will build on the considerable data already acquired (Nene and others 1999), and has two additional collaborating institutes, which like ILRI wish to make use of the T. parva genome sequence data. The first is the Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology-Africa (IMCB-A), which has been recently established in Nairobi under the auspices of UNESCO. IMCB-A has a particular interest in the humanveterinary interface that T. parva research offers as a model system for vaccine and cancer research. The second is the Department of Infectious Diseases at the University of Hokkaido, Japan, which plans to use the T. parva data in comparative analysis with a related Theileria parasite, T. sergentii, that infects cattle in Southeast Asia and Japan (Uilenberg 1981).Although genomics research offers new avenues leading to potential solutions of constraints to livestock agriculture, it must be recognized that the commercial implication of products resulting from such research means that intellectual property rights (IPR) must be exercised. This might seem contrary to the philosophy of the CGIAR that products developed by the CGIAR are for the public good, and to the funding sources that pledge public funds for research. It is envisaged that biotechnology product manufacture and marketing would occur through the private sector, and it is not likely that a commercial company would undertake such an activity in the absence of a framework that legally protects its investment. Thus, patents and other forms of IPR are necessary and can be used to ensure that products reach the intended client and at reasonable cost.The issue of IPRs resulting from the genome sequence of T. parva has been resolved, because TIGR as a not-for-profit institute is aware of the public good that would accrue from this research. However, many problems face the commercialization of experimental vaccines. Because of the nature of the product being developed, for example, it often occupies a niche market for poor farmers in developing countries. This is not a lucrative market for the commercial sector in the industrial countries, economic principles making it difficult to justify incurring the research and development costs. A number of the technologies in vaccine development are held by the private sector, and additional constraints may arise in a lack of freedom to operate. Licensing requirements of third party intellectual property could result in increased costs or even prohibit product development. Such constraints in the discovery to delivery pathway require novel solutions or the benefits of science will not be realized.The discipline of genomics will accelerate the acquisition of fundamental knowledge about biological systems. The outputs of genomics research will change our approach to solving biological problems, and result in novel uses of biotechnology to develop and improve products for crop and livestock agriculture. The CGIAR must position itself, as has the commercial sector, to exploit the rapid advances being made and to adopt genomic technologies. This will support the strategic role of the CGIAR in global agricultural partnerships, and strengthen its ability to contribute to the principles of poverty eradication, food security, and protection of the environment.","tokenCount":"4505"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1a97512f7ec208a61b7d11dede5e2484","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.ctc-n.org/system/files/dossier/3b/sustinable_woodfuel_trainers_course_manual_ctcn_icraf_august_2018.pdf","id":"-16713337"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bf94f66f-39c5-4ef2-a32c-a4f2affa8315","pagecount":"66","content":"This third version was developed for the trainer's course under the response plan on scaling-up sustainable woodfuel (charcoal and firewood) systems in the coastal regions (Mtwara, Lindi  and Pwani)  in Tanzania. The response plan is supported by Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN). The response plan is being implemented by World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the request was made by Tanzania Renewable Energy Association (TAREA) through Tanzania Commission of Science and Technology (COSTECH). The trainers' course is part of the capacity development and awareness raising under the response plan. The training materials in this third version of the manual include new information compiled from results of the Stakeholder Approach to Risk-informed and Evidence based Decision-making process (SHARED) workshops conducted in November 2017 in Mtwara, Lindi and Pwani under the response plan. This manual indicates lessons delivered using training and knowledge materials prepared by trainers who were also trainees promoting co-learning approach hence tapping knowledge that exist among stakeholders and practitioners. The training manual adopts a system approach to sustainable woodfuel with components including sustainable wood production, efficient processing of wood into charcoal, effective marketing/trade, consumption, policy and regulatory framework on woodfuel and gender issues in the systems. Annexe 1-5 provides other resource materials used during the training. Annex 6 provides a brief of the training and how it was delivered. Annex 7. Inspiration story on impact on increased production of charcoal and income after participation in the trainer's course. Copies of the training resources were provided to the trainees and trainers.The objectives of the trainings and awareness raising trainers course were under the response plan include:  Compilation of training/knowledge resources from a \"whole system\" perspective;  Testing the available training materials for suitability for grassroots courses;  Co-learning on systems approach and innovations for sustainable woodfuel among researchers, practitioners and policy makers involved in various aspects of the wood fuel systems  Gathering ideas about the content and delivery options for grassroots courses.This manual comprises of 6 modules which were delivered through lectures, discussions and demonstration and was delivered by both trainers and trainers through a co-learning approach (Table 1.) The trainers course was carried out in March 2018 at Lindi, Tanzania and a brief of the training is provided as an annex 6. Module one and two were offered in day one and modules three to six in day two. Policy and regulatory framework 6.0 Regulations in wood sourcing, charcoal processing, transportation and trade. Delivery: Lecture using powerpoint presentation and discussion with examples from trainees.Zawadi J. Jilala (Regional Secretariat, Lindi), Ronald N. Pangah (Regional Secretariat, Mtwara) *Organizing team, & Numbering in the manual.1.1 Woodfuel and the need to make it sustainable Wood is an important source of energy that has been used for millennia for cooking, boiling water, lighting and heating (WHO, 2006). More than 2.7 billion people -38% of the world's population, relies on the traditional use of solid biomass for cooking, typically using inefficient stoves in poorly ventilated spaces (IEA, 2016). Woodfuel (charcoal and firewood) is the most commonly form of energy used for cooking and heating in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and it is also used in small-scale businesses such as restaurants, bakeries, street food kiosks, brick making, drying produce such as tea and tobacco. In SSA more than 90% of the population relies on either firewood or charcoal (IEA, 2006). Africa produce 62% of the global wood charcoal estimated at 52 million tons (Mt) (FAO, 2016a). Tanzania ranked 7th in the world for overall charcoal production, accounting for roughly 3% of global charcoal production at over 1.6 million tonnes (Mt). Woodfuel provide 85-90% of Tanzania's energy supply (World Bank, 2009;URT, 2015b). Charcoal is mainly consumed in urban areas while firewood is used in rural areas. In urban areas in Tanzania, 71% of households depend on charcoal (Doggart and Meshack, 2017). Charcoal contributed over USD 650 million annually to the Tanzanian economy and is a major source of employment and income in both urban and rural areas. The situation is the same in other countries in Eastern Africa where for instance in Kenya 82% of urban households rely on charcoal for cooking and in Ethiopia 70% of all charcoal produced is consumed by urban households (MoE, 2002;GCF, 2014;Yigard, 2002). In Zambia charcoal use increased by four percent between 1990 and 2000 and 85% of urban households rely on it for cooking and heating (Chidumayo et al., 2002). Charcoal production has risen in recent decades as demand has grown among urban households and enterprises (FAO, 2017). Charcoal consumption is expected to grow in SSA in coming decades, especially given that the percentage of population living in urban areas is projected to grow from 36% to 50% by 2030 (World Bank, 2014). The woodfuel value chain has considerable value as it provides income, employment, livelihoods and energy security. For instance in Tanzania and Kenya it has an economic value estimated at US$650 million and US$ 1.6 billion respectively (FAO, 2017) and hence the need for its development as a productive sector.On the other hand unsustainable woodfuel processes results into 1-2.4Gt of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per year which is 2.7% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions (FAO, 2017).The emissions are generated in various stages of the value chain and wood production, carbonization of wood into charcoal and utilizations are the greatest contributors (FAO, 2017). In very inefficient operations charcoal production can result into 9kg of CO2e per kilogram of charcoal produced and 29-62%, 28-61% and 9-18% of emissions are from wood sourcing, carbonization of wood into charcoal and end use (FAO, 2017). Inefficient use of woodfuel such as use of poorly dried wood, burned in inefficient cook stoves and in poorly ventilated results into smoke which has been linked to respiratory illnesses. Globally, over 4 million deaths occur annually from illnesses related to the smoke generated by indoor combustion, which mainly affects women and small children (Lim and Vos, 2012). Coughing, sneezing and headaches are common among women who work in smoky kitchens, while bronchitis, lung cancer, asthma and tuberculosis have also been linked to smoke from indoor combustion (WHO, 2006).Interventions exist with potential to make woodfuel sustainable and efficient. For optimal impacts in reduction of deforestation, GHG emissions and negative effects on public health there is need to address the inefficiencies at all the stages of the value chain and develop enabling policy framework. For instance, sustainable wood production for woodfuel could be achieved through sustainable forest, woodlands, shrublands management, sustainable community-managed woodfuel plantations, integrated food and energy systems, agroforestry and urban forestry, and recovery and reuse of biomass residues and waste streams (FAO, 2017). Shift from traditional kilns to highly efficient kilns and shift from traditional stoves to improved stoves can result into reduction of GHG by 80% and 63% respectively (FAO, 2017). Addressing the different hot spots in the woodfuel value chain at the same time for example combining sustainable harvesting of trees on-farm for woodfuel with more efficient stoves yields higher impacts (Njenga et. al., 2017). Recovery of organic waste including wood waste for briquette production has benefits in reducing loss of trees and emissions, provision of additional fuel, and generation of income and employment (Njenga et al., 2014).The woodfuel value chain operates under a variety of sectors where for instance wood production is under both forest and agriculture, marketing/trade and transport is under transport while uses is under energy. In most cases these sectors operate in silos. For effective development of enabling woodfuel policy that benefits for instance national government through tax, promotes income generation and employment while conserving the environment there is need for a coordinated regulatory framework aligned to the sustainable development goals. For informed decision making in the policy development and effective implementation there is need for data and participation of actors with a stake in the sector. Clear understanding of gender roles, needs, aspirations and potential of different categories of people is crucial for greater impact. There must be policy direction to support the adoption of sustainable woodfuel production and use technologies and practices which are suitable for the local context (Iiyama et al., 2017).The three regions of focus in the project include Mtwara, Lidi and Pwani, Tanzania. Mtwara region has a population of 1,270,854 (male 599,648 and female 671,206), Lindi has 864,652 (male 414,507 and female 450,145) whereby Pwani has 1,098,668 (male 537,826 and 560,842) (URT, 2013). According to regional forest officer (RFOs, personal communication) in the three regions, the consumption of charcoal in urban centres is 90, 85% and 80 for Mtwara, Lindi and Pwani respectively while in rural areas is 10, 15 and 20 for Mtwara, Lindi and Pwani respectively. Pwani is among the top three charcoal regions producers in Tanzania, after Morogoro and Tanga.Considering the demand in urban areas the rate of deforestation in unlikely to decrease if woodfuel systems are not transformed into sustainable systems.The woodfuel system in this project was defined during stakeholders engagement processes held in Mtawa, Lindi and Pwani beteen 1-10 th November 2017 with the participation of 81 stakeholders and 7 project team members. The Stakeholder Approach to Risk-informed and Evidence based Decision-making process (SHARED) a methodology developed by World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) was applied. Woodfuel systems were defined to include four key stages from sourcing of wood through to consumption (Figure 1.). The stakeholders during the workshop gave their perception on woodfuel systems (fgure 2.) and stated that over time there has been changes occurring in the woodfuel systems (table 2) and there are concerns on sustainable (table 3).  In order to understand woodfuel systems well and effectively plan interventions that equitably address the need of key stakeholders within the woodfuel system it is impacts to consider gender differentiated roles and decision-making power. The stakeholders during the SHARED workshops described gender roles in the woodfuel systems as illustrated in Figure 3.  There has been significant change in the past 10 years with women being much more involved in harvesting, marketing and controlling many decisions regarding woodfuel usage and having better access to income.Men make more decision in:  Transportation  Culturally and traditionally men have more control across the system  Wholesale activities Women make more decision in: Small scale-retailing and purchasing quantities  Choice of stove Land tenure and access  Patrimonial land tenure system in place which negatively impacts woman's ability to access, own and have decision making power on the use of land and associated activities  Men often own the main assets including land and the household Recommendations for addressing gender aspects in scaling up sustainable woodfuel system  Establish a fair-trade procedure to allow women equal access in the marketing and trade aspects  Women to be engaged directly in trainings  Women to be empowered especially in technologies in cooling charcoal during processing and efficient use of woodfuel  Labour regulations to address women's inclusion and income parityDuring the stakeholder engagement processes held in November 2018 sustainability. Stakeholders analyzed cause of unsustainability in woodfuel and resultant effects and impacts at shown in table 2 (Chesterman et al., 2018). The stakeholders considered sustainability across four key dimensions, namely economic, social, environmental and institutional Charcoal and firewood fits well within the cooking practices including food types cooked and stoves used by communities. Conservation of trees is carried out through beliefs  Need for communities to understand the need for minimization of domestic and commercial consumption of charcoal and firewood through use of efficient stoves and reduced wasage of trees by use of effeciciet kilns  Its important to hold dialogue with the all stakeholders in the charcoal and firewood business  Stakeholders education through social networks on how to conserve the tree for benefits of the environment and other resources such as water• Introduction of modern forestry agricultural activities for increased producition of trees • Alternative livelihoods and income sources to reduce pressure on tree resources • Alternative activities such as cash and food crops to earn money for alternative sources to purchase other fuel types such as gas • Poverty alleviation through job creation • Prioritization in the national budget to address forestry issues including woodfuels • Education and training for charcoal processers to enhance yield of charcaol hence more income • Support with modern and efficient kilns to produce charcoal• Modern technology for charcoal processing i.e. efficient kilns to reduce wood waatage and emisions that cause air poluttion and produce more charcoal will less wood • Increased tree plantations close to areas of demand for charcoal and firewood for example schools and prisons • Awareness raising and support to communities on planting trees to replace the old ones or those harvested • Afforestation programs and establishment of forest plantation for supply of woodfuel uses • Sustainable harvesting of wood for fuel such as through resourcess assessment , invontroty and harvetsing plan for every district, cutting mature branches and leaving others to grow • Modern farming and soil and water conservation for cash crops and vegetable gardens • No cutting of trees near water sources • Practice agroforestry by having trees interropped with crops or pasture or in a small piece of land in the farm as woodlots. • Awareness raising on impact of deforestation and people will take urgent action Institutional / political sustainability Use of woodfuel energy is not in itself a bad thing, However, there are some concerns: (i) sustainability due to the methods used to harvest wood; (ii) inefficiency of the methods used to convert wood into charcoal; and (iii) inefficiency in the use of woodfuel. These concerns can be resolved through technological development. The concerns about biomass energy have to some extent led to biomass energy being ignored in the global debates on sustainable clean energy. This has been despite the benefits they provide to livelihoods and the environment and the potential they have as a renewable energy. Using biomass energy globally for example saves the world about 8% of CO2 emission from fossil fuels where SSA saved 2 Mt and India 121 Mt (IEA 2011). Fossil fuels, on the other hand, were formed from plants and animals hundreds of millions of years ago and are not renewable within human timescale.(a) Unsustainability of harvesting of wood Unsustainable harvesting of wood such as cutting down of trees and shrubs for woodfuel without replanting, degrades land and communities lose the benefits they derive/get from trees (Box 1). Charcoal has more impacts on trees than firewood as the latter is mainly sourced from tree branches or dead wood while the former is commonly through cutting down of trees.What are the benefits of planting and harvesting trees sustainably for woodfuel (Box 1)Burden on women and children in sourcing firewood from forests Women and their children carry the burden of sourcing cooking fuel. Sourcing firewood is a time consuming and exhaustive exercise that requires around two day per family per week. It strains the female calorific energy balance and thus affects women's productivity. They are at risk of being attacked by wild animals and human beings. Young children involved in firewood collection often miss education opportunities, a situation that disproportionately affects girls. Carrying heavy firewood pieces loads on women and children's back or head risk spinal, head and leg injuries (Figure 5). Surprisingly women find firewood collection as an opportunity to socialize as they spend most of their time in farms while their male counterparts are able to spend time with friends in social places such as hotels and alcohol selling places.  (c) Inefficiency in the methods of converting wood into charcoal (i) provisioning of biological products such as fruits, nuts, vegetables and staples, feed for livestock, medicine and pesticides for people and livestock, oils, construction materials and wood fuel. E.g. in Embu, Kenya over 90% of farmer's source firewood from trees on-farm, for 65 % it is their main source and 40% exclusively depend on this source for firewood (Gitau and Njenga, 2015). (ii) ecosystem supporting services e.g. through e.g. fixing atmospheric nitrogen (N) hence soil fertility management, soil moisture e.g. where deep roots bring water to the surface and biodiversity, (iii)regulating services on micro and macro climate by providing shade, air quality through wind and dust control, water regulation and soil erosion by reducing speed of runoff and rain drops (iv) cultural services through ecotourism Faidherbia albida for soil fertility improvement in Tanzania. Photo by Mathew MpandaWood or biomass wastage: One of the major challenges facing sustainable charcoal production is the use of traditional inefficient kilns (carbonization techniques which is burning biomass under controlled oxygen) that yield 10-20% charcoal in weight of original wood which implies that 100kg of wood produce 10-20kg of charcoal resulting into wood wastage and large areas of land required to produce charcoal (Figure 6). These traditional practices also result into land degradation.Figure 6). Traditional earth kilns in TanzaniaEmissions: Inefficiency of kilns also results in heavy smoke containing greenhouse gases (GHG) and particles such as methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) particulate matter (PM) that are harmful to the environment and people. The GHG trap heat reflected from the ground and make the planet warmer. The resultant of these increase in global temperature include rise in sea levels, change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, floods, drought, water borne diseases (Jian et al., 2007, Figure 7). Poor cooking techniques result in energy wastage and emissions. Traditional 3 stone stoves, for example consume more fuel compared to improved cooking stoves. The traditional stoves also produce more emissions than some of the improved stoves (Figure 8). Using wet firewood to cook consumes more wood and produces more smoke than dry wood. Kitchens with poor ventilation worsen the problem of smoke. There are serious adverse consequences for health when biomass energy is used in inefficient cooking practices. Household indoor air pollution from biomass causes 4 million annual deaths globally, with women and children being the most affected as they spend a lot of time in the kitchen (Lim et al., 2012). Some of the illnesses include chronic obstructive pulmonary, lung cancer, eye problems, head ache, asthma, pneumonia, and stroke. The chapter presents options for making woodfuel systems sustainable. To make woodfuel systems sustainable it is critical to address the unsustainability's and inefficiencies in all the components of the systems as illustrated in figure 9. The interventions also need linkages across the components which will contribute to addressing the adverse effects of unsustainable woodfuel systems on the larger landscape. During the stakeholder consultation SHARED workshops priority interventions to make woodfuel systems were identified and this training covers some of them (Table 4.).  forest areas required to meet charcoal demand (000 ha/year) kiln @10% kiln @10% + improved stove kiln @10% + improved stove + AF kiln @10→@30% kiln @10→@30% + improved stove kiln @10→@30% + improved stove + AFAlternative biomass fuel from organic waste: BriquettesThe session covers:  Agroforestry: benefits, types,  Nursery establishment and management  Tree seedlings planting in the field  Record keeping for nursery and planted trees in the form This session was delivered using the manual by Ogossy Gasaya, Mary Njenga and Anthony Kimaro (March, 2018). A simple guideline manual on designing and managing a basic tree nursery. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya. This is provided as Annex 1.Tree planting and awareness raising by Environmental Conservation for Wildlife and Community Enterprise (ECOWICE), presented by Ignatus J. Pesha. This is provided as Annex 2.(ii) Farmer managed natural/assisted regeneration.The session is delivered using: Kimaro, A.A., Kaale, K.B., Muriuki, J., and Mowo, J.G. 2017. Scaling Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration for Sustainable Land Restoration in Tanzania. A policy Brief. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. This is provided as Annex 3.One way of reducing wood wastage and emissions from charcoal production is by developing and adopting more efficient kilns. Work is going on in this field and improved kiln with about 30% yield are available (Odour et al., 2006, Figure 10). In developed countries such as Sweden wood to charcoal conversion methods applied by farmers have higher yields over 40% and the gases are used for heating the wood in the silos as well as heating houses. Some of the challenges however noted with adoption of improved kilns in developing countries are that they need more people to be operated and more capital to purchase as compared to traditional kilns.Discussions and presentation on different types of improved kilns and their benefits and challenges.   Some practices that improve air quality in the kitchen during cooking with biomass:  Use of improved cook stoves as compared to the traditional three stone which will be addressed later in the course  Using well dried wood. Drying of firewood can be done under the sun or in the kitchen (Figure 15)  Having a well-ventilated kitchen increases air circulation which drives away smoke.  Lighting mobile cook stoves outside and bringing them into the kitchen when smoking stops and fuel has caught fire.Figure 15: Rafter in a kitchen and a shed outside used to dry firewood Improved cooking stoves use less wood, cook faster with reduced emissions. For example a gasifier cooking stove save 40% of fuel, reduce concentration of carbon monoxide by 45% and of fine particulate matter by 90% (Njenga et al., 2016.) A gasifier burns biomass fuel e.g. firewood, maize cob, coconut husks under controlled oxygen, the gases energy are used as a source of cooking energy. It burns the fuel in low energy and hence produce charcoal as a by-product. The charcoal is used for another cooking or for soil improvement.   Briquettes are made from compacting dry biomass material into a solid unit that is used for cooking or heating just like charcoal or firewood. Some community members collect charcoal dust/fines from charcoal production sites or trading places. Some communities use a drum kiln to produce charcoal from weeds or tree branches. Others use saw dust, rice husks, coconut shells, maize cob among other crop residues. The raw material is ground using traditional motor and pestle like that used to grind maize. If the raw material has low sticking capacity a binding agent such as biodegradable paper, soil, cassava starch, corn starch, molasses a sugarcane waste is used. They are compacted using bare hands or manual and electric machines and then dried under shade for less than 5 days depending on weather as shown in table 4. After that they are ready for use to provide cooking and heating energy.Demonstration on briquette production at home by farmers  This session is delivered using materials developed by Revocatus M. Frumence (District Tanzania Forest Services {TFS}-Manager).This session covers:  Harvesting of forest products  Harvesting from village land and forest reserves  Marketing and trade of charcoal This session is delivered using materials prepared by Zawadi J. Jilala (Regional Natural Resource Officer) Lindi & Ronald N. Pangal (Regional Natural Resource Officer) Mtwara. ( 2018). Policy and Regulatory Framework on Woodfuel.Summary on benefits of sustainable clean energy innovations  This simple guideline is for individuals and group of farmers with limited trees nursery knowledge but are interested with growing tree species for on-farm trees production and environmental conservation purposes through small scalenurseriesAgroforestry (AF) is a farming system that integrates crops and livestock with trees and shrubs. The resulting biological interactions provide multiple benefits, including diversified income sources, increased biological production, better water quality, and improved habitat for both humans and wildlife. ICRAF developed participatory tree domestication techniques and strategies aimed at empowering local communities, promoting food self-sufficiency, generating income and employment, and enhancing nutritional benefits in semiarid Tanzania through different agroforestry technologies. Tree nurseries are key success factor in many forestry and agriculture development interventions through agroforestry. Agroforestry technologies will be the delivery mechanism for multifunctional agriculture that help rural communities to be self-sufficient and to support their families as it plays an important role in the socio-economic development of these communities, as trees planted on farms provide timber, fuelwood, fodder, fruits, medicine, windbreaks, and other economic and environmental benefits. In order to meet present and future demand for tree related products, there is a need to promote tree nurseries which will be owned and managed by individual farmers of the selected villages for on-farm and other trees planting technologies including intercropping, contour, woodlots, shelterbelt, boundary and homestead.AF Benefits: Agroforestry offers robust options to improve agricultural productivity, income and achieve environmental sustainability Agroforestry technologies provide the following benefits: A tree nursery is a managed site, designed to produce tree seedlings grown under favourable conditions until they are ready for planting. It can be an informal, small-scale arrangement or a large commercial enterprise. All nurseries primarily aim to produce sufficient quantities of high quality seedlings to satisfy the needs of users. The purpose of the nurseries include for commercial biomass production, land rehabilitation and forest conservation, local capacity building and livelihood enhancement.Seedlings and grafts are produced in nursery from which the fruit orchards and ornamental gardens can be established with minimum care, cost and maintenance. The nursery planting materials are available at the beginning of the planting season. This saves the time, money and efforts of the farmers to raise seedlings. Nurseries also ensures the production of genetically improved quality planting material, it provides employment opportunities for technical, skilled, semi-skilled, unskilled labour, they are an important source supplying the seedlings for meeting the fruit, pulp and paper, fuel wood, timber and other demands of the industries.The nursery site should be located in the nutrient rich/medium soil, near to water source, free from soil pathogens and insects, availability of cheap and skilled labours and has good access to the main road for easy transportation. The site should be on gently sloping area and away from other tall crops: this is important for good drainage as well as to encourage air circulation. An appropriate site must be selected for the most effective, efficient, and economical design of a nursery. The purpose and target of plants to be produced will decide the site selection and its improvement. Careful observation of site conditions and an assessment of past and present climatic records are important. If desired, make a list of potential nursery sites and compare them using a decision matrixFactors to be considered for raising a nursery 1. Location of the nursery: The nursery should be located somewhere flat, sheltered and well-drained. Avoid placing your nursery in areas that are liable to flooding (e.g. at the bottom of a valley or in riverine areas), strong winds (e.g. at the top or a hill or in the middle of an exposed valley) or soil erosion (e.g. on a steep hill). 2. Near the house 3. Well exposed to the sun but protected against severe heat 4. Well protected against animal damage, strong winds. 5. Water sources 1) Nursery has to be placed near the water source because reliable source of water is essential for continuous sustainable water supply 2) Positioning the nursery close to a nearby spring, stream, pond, borehole or well will minimize the working time on looking and collecting water for the nursery. 6. Soil 1) Soil should have a large quantity of organic matter 2) Soil texture should be neither too coarse nor too fine 3) Has a fair degree of water holding capacity 4) Normally rich in all the necessary elementsEquipment checklist when establishing trees nursery includes the followings; Wheelbarrow or trolley for transporting materials within the nursery  Spade or shovels for soil mixing  A trowel for filling planting bags or pots with soil  Polythene bags for germination of seeds and growth of seedlings  Shading materials for covering nursery beds to protect seedlings from direct sun and strong winds  Hosepipe with spray nozzle/a watering can for watering plants  Spray bottles for irrigating very small, delicate seedlings.  Cutters or scissors for pruning seedlings.  Planting labels  Notebooks for record keeping  Pens and pencilsTree nursery operations involves various activities including seed sourcing, Seed bed preparation, Sowing seeds, Potting, Shading, Watering, Weeding, root pruning, application of additional fertilizers or manure whenever is necessary.Seed zones and elevation are important to consider for most effective results, operator should order seedlings grown from seeds collected in the same seed zone and elevation in which they will be planted. It is also important to use good quality seed in planting. Seed can be obtained from matured trees found in local farms; forest or public land as long as one collects from at least quit number of trees to maintain diversity and or other seeds can be bought from local seed suppliers, from NGOs, and from institutions such as TTSA, TFS and TAFORI offices. During collection of seeds ensure that the seeds not immature and is not containing empty seed. Also more information for seeds sources can be obtained from nearby forestry officer available within the village.Sometimes it is important to treat seed before it is planted, in order to improve on the level, speed and uniformity of germination. The common known treatment methods include;(a) Soaking is either done using hot water or cold water. Seeds with very hard seed coats are soaked in hot water until the seeds look swollen. Trees species of which their seeds need the soaking method include leucaena, albizia, most acacias, tamarind, and calliandra. Soaking procedure for this is boil water and pours it over seeds in a container, and then leaves the seed in the water until the seeds look swollen. The hot water weakens the hardcover of these seeds for easy and speed germination process.  Soaking seed in cold/cool water is recommended for those with soft seed coats such as sesbania, tephrosia, dalbergia species, gmelina, Gliricidia, sesbania and Acacia augustissima, etc. The time for soaking varies between 12-48 hours, depending on the tree species. Procedure: Soak the seeds in cold water and make sure all seeds covered with water, and then remove the floating seeds that show poor germination.(b) Cracking the seed shell and soak method Cracking is done using a sharp knife, a nail cutter or stone and is mostly for leguminous seeds such as Sesbania sesban with thick and hard seed coats to allow water penetration to accelerate the germination.The germination bed should be established on a flat or level area near a water source within the nursery site. Nursery beds can be arranged either by raised on a flat bed, or can be set into a sunken bed, which is a basin like excavation of about 1 m by 1 m and about 10 cm deep. Prepare a germination bed at most 1m wide, and its length will depend on the number of seeds to be sown, size of seeds and available space.Before planting of sapling in the polythene tubes, the tubes should be filled up with proper potting mixture. The mixture (soil, sand and compost/manure) should be moistened before potting and then pressed into polythene tubes to a depth of about three-quarters of the height of tubes. Polythene tubes should then be topped up more loosely with mixture and pressed down lightly to about 2 cm below the top. Heavy compaction should be avoided at the top of pots because it will inhibit root penetration, then after filled all tubes with mixture, watered them lightly before sowing seeds into it.Sow large seeds 2cm to 3cm or twice of its thickness deep in the soil. Sow small seeds by broadcast and cover them with a small amount of fine soil. During planting more than one seed can be applied in a tube and then, if more than one germinates, seedlings can be pricked and transplanted to another tube to leave a single individual in each tube. The beds can also be covered with thatch or a plastic sheet till the seeds germinate. Sowing also can be done using polythene tubes that are around 4 inches in diameter and 10 cm deep or bigger, depending on the size of the given species seed in question and the time that seedlings will be in the nursery. Other locally available materials that can be used during seeds sowing include small open-bottomed tins, milk packets, cardboard boxes, calabashes and clay pots.Pricking out is done to attain uniform growth and high survival rate in the field, and this is recommended for small seed, which normally sown by broadcasting and is best done when seedlings is two weeks old or when acquires two leaf set. It is performed by selecting and uprooting the germinated seeds carefully by hand using a hand trowel or chopped stick. During uprooting, hold seedlings at the base of the stem and pull it out gently from the mother beds and when transplanting make a deep and wide hole in the polythene bag or container for transplanting the seedlings.Water is the most important factor in germination and seedling production too much water can be just as harmful as too little water. The quantity of water required depends on the size of the nursery, the kind of soil, the species, the number of seedlings and the irrigation method practiced. More water is needed in arid region nurseries because the sandy soils have a low water holding capacity. To avoid drying of seedlings, a reliable and continuous supply of water should be ensured by the facility of storage of water for at least 3 days' supply. It is also necessary to ensure the quality of water used for irrigation. Normal pH water area the best suited, while water with more than pH of 7 favours attacks of 'damping off' fungi. Watering preferably in the mornings and avoiding the mid-day period when the sun will cause excessive evaporation. The visible symptoms of over watering are slight to severe yellowing and stunted growth.Use locally available materials such as grass, mats, or banana fibers for shade construction to protect the seedlings from direct sunlight for two to three weeks after pricking out. Weeds are any plants present in the cultivation area which is out of our interest. They normally compete with the seedlings for nutrients, water and light, and suppress the growth of young plants because the weeds are usually more vigorous and grow at a faster rate. The most troublesome are grasses or dicotyledonous plants that grow from a root stock. Remove all the weeds around the beds with a small garden hand hoe and don't leave any rubbish around unless you are sure that this can be converted to compost. Using hands gently pull out unwanted growth and this should be done continuously whenever weeds are observed.Frequently removing of weeds reduces competition of nutrients to the seedlings as known that weeds are a threat to healthy seedlings development.Generally sufficient quantity of nutrients is not available in the soil used for seedbed. Hence, well rotten compost and leaf mould is added to soil. Rooted cuttings, layers or grafted plants till they are transferred to the permanent location, require fertilizers. Addition of fertilizers will give healthy and vigorous plants with good root and shoot system.Adoption of plant protection measures, well in advance and in a planned manner is necessary for the efficient raising of nursery plants. For better protection from pest and diseases regular observation is essential. The major disease of nursery stage plant is \"damping off\", and for its control is through good sanitation conditions are necessary.Make sure that the site where you are taking seedlings is ready to be planted. The followings are things to take into consideration during transporting seedlings to the site for planting. Cover seedlings during transport to shade and protect them.  Take only as many seedlings to the field as can be planted that day.  Handle bags gently and take precautions to minimize bouncing and sliding around on the bed of the truck.  If weather is sunny, windy, dry, or warm, be sure to have something to keep seedlings protected (i.e. water, reflective tarp, damp mulch).  Keep seedlings away from fuel and chemicals.  Handle seedlings carefully at all times as physical abuse causes subsequent decline in seedling vigourPlant tree seedlings at the right time of year to avoid some post-planting problems, such as drought and transplant shock. Seedlings should be planted when they are dormant, generally December-April, depending on local conditions. However, the planting season may be extended in areas in which irrigation is possible into all year around. The number of trees per acre can be determined based on the spacing applied during planting (Figure 1). o It also reduces the need to use soil nutrients and fertilizers by improving soil quality and maintaining good nutritional balance and fertility. o Finally, agroforestry strengthens agricultural resilience by increasing crop yields and offering better environment for farm animalso The greenhouse effect is countered by the constitution of an efficient system for carbon sequestration, by integrating the stock maintenance of organic material in the soil and superimposing a net fixing wooded layer.It requires a huge amount of time to reap products It is cost as it requires intensive knowledge and technology during implementation.A well-kept and up-to-date nursery inventory helps to assess whether the nursery is operating as planned, and whether demands are being met. Your inventory should list all plants currently in the nursery by bed or frame number, and details of delivery of seedlings, including the site, name of owner and site conditions. It can be an important tool to record feedback from the planting sites and can then help to determine whether seedlings have the right quality for the sites on which they are planted.When the nursery has been established, there should be a decision on what methods, tools and records will be kept. The long-term success of the nursery depends on reliable information about how to efficiently grow your target species to a high standard. Obtaining this information requires regular record keeping that documents both failures and successes. Over time, these records can help to create a clear picture of best practice for the species of concern within the given nursery. Also it helps operators, researchers and other stakeholders in planning, monitoring, and decision-making for improved nursery operations. The record keeping in the nursery helps to:  Estimate how much seed is required to grow a given number of plants for each species. Estimate how long each seedling takes to grow to planting size.  Develop and improve protocols for nursery workers to follow. Measure the performance of the nursery as a whole. There are three types of records nursery group may choose to keep in the nursery: 1) Plant Development Records document how each species is performing within your nursery. Typically this involves having one separate datasheet for each batch of seed that comes into the nursery for each species, and recording data on seed source, germination, growth and planting. They are particularly useful for developing new protocols for each species in the nursery.2) A nursery inventory can describe the performance of the whole nursery at one point in time. Typically. This involves counting the number seedlings for each species in your nursery and their stage of development. Inventories should be completed at least every two months.3) Plant supply records help to record the number and quality of plants supplied to different planting sites. They also contain information on dates of delivery, who received the saplings and which site they were sent to. These records will be vital if you want to follow-up and monitor survival of saplings in the wild. Vision:• Developed rural communities for biodiversity conservation Mission:• Increase rural community income and food security for biodiversity conservation To promote and solicit establishment of agro-forestry farm and growing fruit trees, fodder trees and fuel wood trees by the economically disadvantaged rural communities.Fostering rural decision-making for establishment, management and conservation of agroforestry resources for social and economic development, and reduce adverse environmental impacts  Conservation education Establishment of \"Save wild club\", at primary school, secondary school and universities, aiming for capacity building and increase awareness for biodiversity conservation.Ensure securing market for agricultural and agro-forestry products produced by rural communities which will contributes generating income for communities • Some of mango tree species which are mostly grown Mango tree Apple mango tree Red indians White sopha Alphonso Tommy atkins Keit Some of other fruit tree spies  Two-third (61%) of Tanzania's land area, especially arid and semi-arid lands, is degraded and pose challenges to conventional tree planting techniques for sustainable land restoration.  At about US$ 9.56 Million per year, the cost of tree planting for land restoration in Tanzania can be prohibitive, if low-cost and ecologically viable approaches such as FMNR are not considered. Incorporating FMNR in the National Tree Planting Strategy is a step towards addressing this challenge and ensuring sustainability of land restoration programs.  Building on previous multi-stakeholder and farmer oriented land restoration practices, such as Ngitili, is critical for contextualizing and promoting FMNR in Tanzania.  FMNR is taken up rapidly by farmers and other stakeholders in pilot sites in Tanzania due to its multiple benefits to the society and the environment, at little or no cost. Unlocking the barriers of FMNR adoption by establishing a multi-sectoral national coordination body to institutionalize and mainstream FMNR will create a conducive enabling environment for out-scaling FMNR.Restoration of degraded forest and agricultural landscapes is a priority for Tanzania as noted by a series of integrated land restoration programs implemented in the 1990s. Among these include the Land Conservation in Shinyanga Region (including the current Shinyanga and Simuyu Regions), known as in Kiswahili as Hifadhi Ardhi in Shinyanga (HASHI). HASHI is renowned for promoting the restoration of Ngitili, a traditional fodder reserve system by the Sukuma tribe. Globally, Tanzania has expressed interests to join the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) and processes to set restoration targets are underway. The AFR100 Initiative, is a pan-African country-led effort to contribute to global land restoration programs such as the Bonn Challenge. Agroforestry, a system that promotes integration of trees in agricultural and degraded landscapes to restore land productivity and ecosystem services, is considered as one of the options to help African countries meet their restoration targets in a manner that generates economic and social benefits while enhancing climate change resilience and rural livelihoods. By adopting Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) as one of the major practice for regenerating trees under the National Tree Planting Strategy (URT, 2016), Tanzania set a stage to take advantage of agroforestry practices to meet land restoration targets. This strategy target to plant 185,000 ha (equivalent to 280 million trees) per annum over the next 5 years (2016 -2021) at an estimated annual budget of US$ 9.56 Million. This huge running cost is a challenge to the government and other stakeholders and it underscores the need for a costeffective and socially acceptable options to sustain the program. As noted in other countries (Rinaudo, 2012), the use of FMNR particularly in arid and semi-arid sites, reduces operational costs and hence can contribute to the effective implementation of the National Tree Planting Strategy. FMNR also holds promise to support other land restoration programs, which seek to integrate restoration objectives with improved rural livelihoods in the country.FMNR evolved in the early 1980s in Niger following limited success and minimal impacts of several attempts to reforest degraded farming landscapes using conventional tree planting approaches. It was noted that most planted tree species could not survive the harsh growing conditions. FMNR, the systematic regeneration and management of ecologically adapted trees from stumps, roots and/or seeds; was thus promoted as an alternative (Rinaudo 2012). Under this practice, naturally regenerating trees are allowed to grow and then managed (pruned and thinned) to minimize competition and produce desired quality of products, including fodder, firewood, poles, timber, fruits, medicines, shade and other ecosystem services at little or no operational costs. FMNR is promoted widely as a farmer driven, low cost and an easy-to-replicate approach to improve tree and shrub vegetation cover in degraded farmlands, rangelands and woodlands in various countries in Africa and Asia. Tanzania has traditional land restoration practices, such as Ngitili, with land restoration features and benefits (Pye-Smith, 2010;Duguma et al., 2013) similar to those reported for FMNR. Ngitili is a silvopastoral system of the Sukuma tribe in which farmers set aside a fodder reserve at the beginning of the rainy season for grazing when pasture is depleted. The management of Ngitili is governed by customary rules and regulations set by the traditional assembly (Dangashida) and implemented by the village guards (Sungusungu) (Kamwenda 2002). Like FMNR, this practice has successfully restored over 500,000 ha of degraded woodlands through a multi-stakeholder and farmer centered engagement process over a long period in Shinyanga and Simuyu regions of Tanzania (Pye-Smith, 2010). Lessons from the experience with promotion of Ngitili can be used to inform national program for scaling FMNR in Tanzania. Similarly, participatory forestry management practices in which local communities are actively involved to manage forest resources and share benefits accrued, provide additional experience in institutionalizing FMNR in the country.FMNR is based on encouraging the regrowth of trees from stumps and self-sown seeds. Where few stumps of natural regenerating tree remain, regeneration of trees from seeds in the soil has been the major means of trees establishment. Pruning and thinning are the main silvicultural management practices conducted to create favorable conditions for crop growth when FMNR is practiced on farmlands and to produce high value wood products. Usually, 3-5 tallest and straightest stems are retained. Best results are obtained when the farmer regularly prunes any A dry season fodder reserve in Meatu District, Simiyu Region in Tanzania unwanted new stems and side branches as they appear. It is expected that the stems remaining after pruning and/or thinning will increase in size and value each year, and will continue to protect the environment. Each time a stem is harvested for wood supply, a younger stem is selected to replace it. The number of stumps varies widely but generally 50-100 stumps per ha is considered ideal when FMNR is practiced on cropland in the Sahel (Rinaudo, 2012). This recommended stump number is similar to 105 stumps per ha reported for FMNR pilot sites in Kongwa and Kilimatinde, Tanzania (Masanyiwa and Safari, 2017). To archive wider impacts, sites where FMNR is practiced are usually protected from further degradation through collective action by participating communities. Where necessary, local institutions and by-laws related to natural resource governance can be used to protect the sites to allow for successful regeneration and restorations of degraded landscapes.Integrating trees in agricultural systems helps rural communities to attain multiple objectives, including food security, land restoration, adaptation and mitigation to climate change and improved rural livelihoods. These benefits are achieved because of the diverse roles trees play in the agricultural landscape such as soil erosion control, modifying environments under the influence of tree canopy (microclimate amelioration) to reduce the impacts of extreme weather conditions (heat and moisture stress) on crops, improved soil fertility and land productivity and fuelwood supply (Sanou et al. 2011;Rinaudo, 2012). Duration of the piloted FMNR in Tanzania was too short to empirically quantify these agro-ecological benefits, but farmers perceptions at the end of the project confirmed that some of these benefits (e.g. improved soil fertility and reduced soil erosion) were already being realized (Masanyiwa and Safari, 2017).World Vision, in collaboration with national partners and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), has been implementing the regional FMNR project in Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda since October 2012. By the end of this project, it was noted that about three quarter (73%) of farmers in the project sites in Tanzania had adopted FMNR practice, with a higher proportion of male (75%) compared to female (67%) (Masanyiwa and Safari, 2017). The main factors driving FMNR adoption in these sites are farm size, training on FMNR practices, marital status and gender (Swamila et al. 2016). Farmers with larger farms and increased awareness from training (on tree and land management) and were more likely to adopt FMNR (retain and manage naturally regenerating trees or planted trees) than those with limited land and education. Land size was also noted to be a key driver of the household decision to plant and/or retain trees in their fields (Githioni et al., 2012). Training on FMNR and other land and crop management practices was provided by the World Vision staff and it was mostly attended by men because women need to get consent from their spouses to attend meetings (Swamila et al. 2016).Although more men attended training and own more land than women, men participation in training did not correlate with FMNR adoption while low participation of women in training was associated with low adoption. This suggest that men did not transfer the knowledge of FMNR to women, who often provide labor for most farm operations, including tree planting and management. Thus, FMNR adoption may be affect if women are not integrated in training programs right from the beginning so as to improve their knowledge and practice of FMNR. While it is critical to target FMNR interventions appropriately by taking the advantage of land available and training, women empowerment to address gender inequality, especially in land ownership and access to training on new technologies, is a critical factor determining the success of FMNR in Tanzania (Swamila et al. 2016). Experience from the Ngitili traditions and FMNR practices elsewhere (Pye-Smith, 2010;Rinaudo, 2012;Duguma et al., 2013) indicate that the following factors are also critical for the successful scaling of FMNR: Change in mindset to overcome myths and stereotypes on land restoration practice and impacts of trees in agricultural landscapes. Development practitioners, scientists and farmers need to learn by experience that stump regeneration can be an alternative to conventional tree planting in harsh environment and that re-established trees can be managed well to optimize productivity of crops and livestock.  Building on local knowledge and practices, especially on land with trees of known value and uses cultivate acceptance of the FMNR by farmers.Improved millet growth under the canopy of a baobab tree in Dodoma, Tanzania.Baobab is one of tree species found in farmlands in FMNR sites in Tanzania  Supporting policies and regulations on the protection of regenerating trees and on granting user right of trees on farm. In most agro-pastoralists communities, farmlands are open access grazing after crops harvest. However, in order to have wide-scaling and minimize heavy browsing pressure on regenerating trees in croplands, there should be locally accepted by-laws and regulations to protect trees rather than opting for private fencing, which may be costly on a large-scale. Where user right of trees on farm is restricted, there is little or no incentive for farmers to manage trees on-farm sustainably.  Livelihood opportunities. Income accrued or saved as a result of benefits from implementing FMNR is one of the driving factors for rapid spread of FMNR is Niger.On-going work suggest that out scaling FMNR practices has multiple benefits to farmers, the nation and global community in terms of restoring degraded landscapes, enhancing crops production and adaptation and mitigation to climate change. There are a number of past and current integrated land restoration programs in the arid and semi-arid Tanzania which can provide lessons for successful FMNR scaling in Tanzania. The FMNR practice is rapidly being taken up by farmers in the pilot sites, suggesting that with the appropriate policy support and government led restoration programs like those of 1990s, large-scale adoption of FMNR in the country is possible. Already FMNR has been integrated in the National Tree Planting Program as a cost effective strategy to restore degraded semi-arid lands through natural regeneration of trees and other vegetation. However, more initiatives are needed to incorporate this approach in other ministries linked to natural resource management such as the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourisms (MNRT) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF). One of these initiatives is the national workshop on combating desertification and restoring degraded lands into food baskets, conducted to the Members of Parliament in June 2016. In his closing remarks, the Minister of State in the Vice President's Office responsible for Union Affairs and Environment, Hon. January Y. Makamba (MP), endorsed FMNR and called for national support to promote this farmer driven and cost effective method of land restoration. The following recommendations are drawn from this workshop and other fora to provide guidelines for scaling FMNR in Tanzania: Mainstreaming FMNR into relevant government programs and into school and college curricula at all levels from primary school.  Formation of a national and an inter-ministerial coordinating body for land restoration in Tanzania. This body could consist of representatives from the Tanzanian government, civil society and other stakeholders. The body will also provide a platform for the government to take leadership and own restoration initiatives in the country.  Support Tanzania to become a member of the AFR100 and establish a national target for • Mkaa na kuni ni miongoni mwa mazao ya misitu yanayotegemewa kwa kutoa nishati kwa matumizi mbalimbali kuanzia ngazi ya kaya mojamoja hadi viwandani. • Karibu asilimia 97 ya wananchi wanaoishi katika maeneo ya vijijin hutegemea kuni kama nishati kwa matumizi mbalimbali na asilimia 95 ya wananchi wanaoishi mjini wanategemea mkaa kama nishati.• Watu wengi huvuna mkaa na kuni kwa matumizi mbalimbali ikiwemo:i.Matumizi ya nyumbani -kupikia ii. Matumizi ya biashara iii.Mkaa pia hutumika viwandani Sababu za mkaa kutumika sana viwandani ni kama zifuatazo: -Unakiasi kidogo sana cha salfa -Una uwiano mdogo sana kati ya masizi na hewa ya ukaa.-Hauna moshi.-Hauharibu bidhaa nyingine za viwandani -imara na pia huchukua eneo kubwa unapowaka. iv. Mkaa hutumika kwa matumizi maalumu kama vile;  Kilimo cha mbogamboga/matunda na maua.  Kwaajili ya kuimarisha ukijani kibichi katika mimea  Mkaa kwa matumizi ya chakula cha mifugo  Pia hutumika kutengenezea baadhi ya madawa v. mkaa kama nishati katika viwanda kwa ajili ya kuyeyusha vyuma Ili kupata mafanikio ya soko la uhakika kwa mkaa na kuni ni lazima mambo yafuatayo yaweze kuzingatiwa:i. Kuwa na umoja imara wenye sera na kanuni zinazotekelezwa kwa kila eneo la uzalishaji.  Mfano umoja uweze kuishawishi serikali kuhakikisha kuwa hakuna mtu mwingine anayeruhusiwa kuuza mkaa na kuni katika wilaya husika isipokuwa wale waliosajiriwa na umoja tu.ii. Umoja ujitangaze vya kutosha katika maeneo kuliko na kule kunakotarajiwa kuuzia bidhaa ili ufahamike kwa wateja na wadau wengine. iii. Wauzaji wawe na sehemu maalum ya kuuzi mkaa na kuni (charcoal/woodfuel selling centres) na visitembezwe mitaani. iv. Biashara hii lazima ifanywe rasmi kwa kusajiliwa katika vyombo vyote vya serikali ili kuondoa ukinzani wa utekelezaji wa sera na taratibu za nchi kwa taasisi mbalimbali za serikali.v. Umoja uwe na akaunti ya biashara inayofanya kazi .  Hii itasaidia biashara kutambulika katika taasisi za fedha hivyo kuwa rahisi kukopesheka bila kuhitaji udhamini wa mali kama vile hati za nyumba.Katika biashara ya mkaa na kuni ni lazima kuangalia yafuatayo:-1. Uzalishaji kwa kiwango cha biashara na rejareja wa mkaa na kuni lazima uendane na sera na sheria za mahali husika. 2. Ni kwenye nchi tu zenye misitu mikubwa na upungufu wa makaa ya mawe hutumia mkaa kwenye viwanda vya kuyeyusha vyuma. 3. Bei isiwe tu kigezo cha uzalishaji na uuzaji wa mkaa na kuni lakini pia tuangalie madhara ya uharibifu wa misitu mazao hayo yanazalishwa.Ili uzalishaji na uuzaji wa mkaa na kuni uwe endelevu ni vizuri wafanyabiashara na wadau wote kuzingatia kanuni za uhifadhi wa mazingira na upandaji miti.The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism is responsible for formulating policies, laws and regulations that govern the forestry sector in the country.The Ministry provides extension services related to forest management, evaluation and monitoring policy implementation, and coordinating all stakeholders involved in conservation activities.The Ministry through the Forestry and Beekeeping Department established a Forest Policy for the first time in 1998. Citizens and stakeholders in general should be committed to engaging in the implementation of this guide which has been provided for the purpose of -ensuring sustainable use of our resources for the benefit of current and future generations.A guide for sustainable harvesting and forestry business that is harvested in natural forestsThe main framework for the preparation and implementation of the Guide is based on the Forest Management Plan. The FMP notes, among other things, the amount of trees allowed for the annual harvesting in each area and the amount of trees to be planted. In addition, every forest should have a harvesting plan to manage sustainable harvesting. It is emphasized that the harvesting of forest products will be carried out in accordance with the Rules, Principles and Guidelines.Continue…….This guide focuses on stakeholders and the general public:-the process of harvesting and conducting forestry business; -conditions for establishing forestry processing industries; -Conditions of conducting forestry trade within and outside the country; -and various legal documents that are legally recognized during the harvesting, exporting and trading of forest products.Harvesting Forests for energy such as Charcoal making; Drying tobacco; Drying fish; burning bricks; burning lime; and baking bread will be done in the following order:-Identify and allocate forest areas for charcoal, tobacco consumption, fisheries, bricks, mortar burning and baking each year.-Every person involved in the activities mentioned above will have to have a license. -Registration applications and licenses will be submitted to Forestry Officers or District Forest Managers and discussed and approved by the District Harvesting Committee. -Every Forestry Officer and District Forestry Manager will have to have a list of harvesters and traders of mentioned forest uses. -The Village Government will maintain a List of People who will be involved in mentioned forest uses. -The register will also contain a record of the number of charcoal pockets taken and signatures for each harvester.Continue….Every tree harvester for fore mentioned uses or similar business should pay for the royalties as stipulated in the Table specified in the Forestry, Tender and Auction Code or Agreement specially based on the Forestry Law and its Regulations as well as the Procurement and Public Finance Act.In the same way, the producer will be required to contribute to the Tree planting fee by paying 5% of the royalties and the funds will be allocated to the Forestry Fund (TaFF). Wood cutting of wood, coal production, tobacco drying, frying, blasting, mortar burner and baking will be done by choosing suitable trees for the same activity just as it leads to Forestry Law 323.Manufacture of charcoal will be made using effective technics, such as semiorange or Casamanse Kiln.The village government will ensure that environmental conservation is considered in the area of harvesting.The harvesting permit and the use of natural trees for industrial power generation will not be provided.8Harvesting in VLFR, Private owned forestThe following procedure will apply: -Individuals will be required to provide validity for forest / tree management through the Village Government and District Forest Officer. -The harvesting applications will be sent to the relevant owner of the forest in writing and certified by the Village Government and Forestry Officer or District Forest Manager; -Harvesting will be permitted once a tree inspection is carried out and certified by Forestry Officers that the trees have reached the harvesting level. District Forest Officer or Manager District Forests will measure the diameter of the tree before it is shattered; -Harvesting will take place in accordance with the relevant forest management plan; -The Client shall have a Transit Pass -TP certification document recognized by the Forest Service Agency; -Putting a mark of an approved hammer by the Agent on the stumps of all the harvested trees; -Putting a hammer mark on both ends of the log; Traders will be required to pay the state tax for every 30 kg kg; at 60 kg; at 90 kg. A full over 90 kg of cash will pay fine in accordance with the Forestry Regulations and Regulations; All councils will be required to allocate special centers (magulio) for charcoal in their areas; with Every charcoal package to be transported with any instrument must be taxed by the Government and the vessel must allow the inspection to be carried out effectively and efficiently.Page 1 of 5A brief on Trainers course on scaling-up sustainable woodfuel (charcoal and firewood) systems in Pwani, Lindi and Mtwara regions, Tanzania The trainers course was carried out as part of the capacity development and awareness raising under the response plan on scaling up sustainable wood fuel (charcoal and firewood) systems in Pwani, Lindi and Mtwara regions Tanzania supported by Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN). The response plan is being implemented by World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the request was made by Tanzania Renewable Energy Association (TAREA) through Tanzania Commission of Science and Technology (COSTECH). The trainers' course was held at The Vocational Education and Training Authority (VETA) Lindi on 28 th and 29 th March 2018. The trainees in the trainer's course comprised of 21 people 16 men and 5 women involved at different aspects of the wood fuel system. They were from local communities, NGO's and government departments in the three regions. There were 7 members of the organizing team from ICRAF, COSTECH and TAREA.a) Compilation of training/knowledge resources from a \"whole system\" perspective; b) Testing the available training materials for suitability for grassroots courses; c) Co-learning on systems approach and innovations for sustainable woodfuel among researchers, practitioners and policy makers involved in various aspects of the wood fuel systems d) Gathering ideas about the content and delivery options for grassroots courses;The above objectives were met and bottlenecks included need for further synthesis of the training/knowledge resources and subsequent translations for grassroots courses.The training materials used in the trainer's course were a compilation of existing resources from the Stakeholder Approach to Risk-informed and Evidence-based Decision making (SHARED) workshops held in November 2017 as part of the project and other works by ICRAF and partners and the trainees. Co-learning approach was applied in knowledge sharing as most trainees are involved in various aspects of the woodfuel system as shown in table 1.The trainers' course comprised of the following modules and components of each are shown in table 1.  The grassroots trainings will be facilitated by the graduates of the trainer's course supported by the project team. The trainees from each of the three regions developed a training schedule with shared responsibilities on facilitation. The compiled training resources used in the trainer's course will be adapted and synthesised into a simple grassroots training manual which will also be translated into Kiswahili.Envisions impact on the ground by the graduates of the trainers course  Increased awareness and self-motivated decision making on system approach to sustainable woodfuel  Improved wood resource management including tree nursery establishment, tree planting woodlands management and sustainable harvesting for woodfuel  Improved techniques in wood conversion into charcoal and consumption of woodfuel  Increased gender equity and women involvement in profitable aspects of the woodfuel systems  Increased income for households and the government  Effective adherence to regulations for sustainable woodfuel systems","tokenCount":"10424"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b09558341830dc3101b2fbea1d5e37b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/41304451-135f-428d-b7f1-00ab2a166697/retrieve","id":"-1087624417"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"83ca43d3-4192-49fa-8dd9-06d9528d01ef","pagecount":"8","content":"T he first decade of the 21st century has brought harbingers of a troubled future for global food security. The food-price spike of 2008 led to food riots and political change in several countries. In 2010, the excessive heat and drought in Russia that led to wildfires and a grain embargo, as well as the unprecedented floods in Pakistan, signal more trouble ahead. A world population approaching 9 billion by 2050 and higher incomes in hitherto poor countries will lead to increased food demand, which means significant challenges to sustainable agricultural production.An uncertain future means there is a range of plausible outcomes between now and 2050. The study considers three combinations of income and population growth: a baseline scenario (with moderate income and population growth), a pessimistic scenario (with low income growth and high population growth), and an optimistic scenario (with high income growth and low population growth).The study combines each of these three income/popu lation scenarios with four plausible climate scenarios that range from slightly to substantially wetter and hotter on average, as well as with an implausible scenario of perfect mitigation (a continuation of today's climate into the future). The results here are thus based on 15 possible scenarios to 2050.Figure 1 shows rainfall changes between 2000 and 2050 for two of these scenarios-one based on a model produced by Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the other on the Model for Interdisciplinary Research on Climate (MIROC), produced by the University of Tokyo's Center for Climate System Research. The CSIRO scenarios have smaller but more evenly distributed precipitation increases. The MIROC GCM scenarios have greater increases on average but important agricultural regions of the world see decreased rainfall by 2050.World prices are a useful single indicator of the future of agriculture. Rising prices signal the existence of imbalances in supply and demand and growing resource scarcity, driven by demand factors such as growing population and income or supply factors such as reduced productivity due to climate change. This analysis suggests that unlike the 20th century, when real agricultural prices declined, the first half of the 21st century is likely to see increases in real agricultural prices. Increasing demand driven by population and income growth is greater than productivity growth which is hampered by the negative productivity effects of climate change. In Figure 2, the price increase called the economic growth effect is for a 2050 world with perfect mitigation. Income and demographic changes between 2010 and 2050 result in price increases that range from 10.8 percent for rice in the optimistic scenario to 53.9 percent for maize in the pessimistic scenario. These substantial increases show the underlying pressures on the world food system, even in the unlikely event that perfect mitigation is achieved. With climate change, price increases will range from 31.2 percent for rice in the optimistic scenario to 100.7 percent for maize in the baseline scenario.Figure 3 illustrates the combined effects of economic development and climate change on food security. The To these already daunting challenges, climate change adds more. Because food production is critically dependent on local temperatures and precipitation, any change outside the range of current conditions requires farmers to adapt their practices. The IFPRI study from which this brief is drawn, Food Security, Farming, and Climate Change to 2050, suggests that while the adaptations might be beneficial for a few farmers, for most farmers they will pose major challenges to productivity and more difficulties in managing risk. This brief highlights results from the study on possible development and climate change scenarios between now and 2050 and on what these scenarios mean for food security.   Although the various scenarios show different plausible futures, together they point to four main policy implications for improving food security.Broadbased growth in income is essential to ensuring that the optimistic scenario becomes a reality and, in turn, to improving human wellbeing and delivering sustainable food security. Families with more resources at their disposal are better able to cope with any uncertainties that arise, whether natural or human caused. Farming families with higher incomes are able to experiment with new technologies and management systems that might be costly up front but have big productivity and resilience payoffs in the future. Domestic production and international trade flows determine domestic food availability-but per capita income determines consumers' ability to pay for that food. Today, the average consumer in a lowincome developing country has only twothirds of the calories available in a developed country. This analysis shows, however, that with high per capita income growth and perfect climate mitigation, calorie availability in lowincome countries can reach almost 85 percent of that in developed countries by 2050. And because the optimistic scenario allows the poorest countries to grow more rapidly between now and 2050, they catch up to today's middleincome countries. In contrast, under the pessimistic scenario, calorie availability-and human wellbeing more generally-declines in all regions.The calorie availability results can be used to provide a graphic illustration of the costs to human wellbeing-the number of malnourished children under the age of five. In the optimistic income/population scenario, the number of malnourished children in developing countries falls by more than 45 percent between 2010 and 2050. With the pessimistic scenario, on the other hand, the number decreases by only about 2 percent. The benefits of the optimistic scenario are greatest for the middleincome developing countries, which have the greatest share of world population. For middle income developing countries, the optimistic scenario results in a 50 percent decline in the number of malnourished children. For lowincome developing countries, the decline is 37 percent. In the pessimistic scenario, the number of malnourished children in middleincome developing countries still declines, but only by 10 percent. For lowincome developing countries, however, the pessimistic scenario is devastating; the number of malnourished children increases by more than 18 percent. Again, climate change worsens future human wellbeing, especially among the world's poorest people, increasing the number of malnourished children relative to a world with perfect mitigation.Increased agricultural production is essential to meeting the growth in food demand resulting from population and income growth and will, in turn, generate the income growth in rural areas needed to improve food security. Although it is still possible to cultivate new land in some parts of the world, doing so would likely cause significant environmental damage. Investing in agricultural productivity improvements would make it possible to meet more of the rising demand from existing agricultural land resources and to reduce the environmental threats from increased production. The study simulated five types of potential productivity enhancements: an overall increase in crop productivity in developing countries of 40 percent relative to the baseline assumptions, an increase in commercial maize productivity, improvements in wheat and cassava productivity in selected developing countries, and an increase in irrigation efficiency. Each scenario has different consequences for food security and human wellbeing.The first simulation-an overall productivity increase in developing countries-would have the greatest effect on human wellbeing, reducing the number of malnourished children in 2050 by 16.2 percent (or 19.1 million children under age five).Some in the commercial maize industry suggest that commercial maize yields can increase by an annual average of 2.5 percent through at least 2030, so the second simulation is a 2 percent productivity increase through 2050 in countries that produce about 80 percent of world production in 2010. The effects on world maize prices are dramatic: prices increase only 12 percent, instead of 101 percent, between 2010 and 2050. The effect on malnourished children is also significant, with a 3.2 percent decline relative to the baseline in 2050. The effect is larger in the lowincome developing countries (a decline of 4.8 percent) because maize food consumption is relatively more important in this group of countries.The wheat productivity experiment increases productivity growth to 2 percent in selected developing countries that together account for about 40 percent of world production in 2010. Because this simulation affects less production than the maize simulation does, the outcomes for human well being are less dramatic, with only a 2.2 percent reduction in the number of malnourished children in developing countries in 2050. The middleincome developing countries fare better (a 2.5 percent reduction) than the lowincome developing countries (1.6 percent reduction), because India and China are both major wheat producers and consumers and are included in the group of middleincome developing countries.Cassava is a particularly important crop for consumers in some lowincome developing countries. It is the fourth most important source of calories for this group of countries and provides about 8 percent of average daily consumption. The simulation increases productivity growth to 2 percent annually for the six top producing countries (Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Thailand) that collectively accounted for over 60 percent of world production in 2000. Although the effect on the number of malnourished children is only a 1.1 percent decline in 2050 for all developing countries, it is concentrated in the low income developing countries, where the decline is 2.2 percent.Finally, the study looked at the effects of a 15 percent increase in irrigation efficiency in developing countries. The world's irrigated area is concentrated in South and East Asia. In East Asia, increased precipitation from climate change (in most scenarios), along with changing consumer preferences away from rice, reduce the need for irrigated area between 2010 and 2050. Therefore, any irrigation efficiency improvements there have relatively small effects on food production (although they are critical for freeing up water for industrial and urban use). In South Asia, however, the benefits of more efficient irrigation are substantial. And for middleincome countries as a whole, increased irrigation efficiency reduces the number of malnourished children in 2050 by 0.3 percent, or about 0.3 million children. In low income developing countries, however, because the share of irrigated area is low, the efficiency effect is small, reducing the number of malnourished children by only 0.2 percent (0.1 million children).These results collectively demonstrate the power of broadbased productivity increases to increase well being dramatically. Previous IFPRI research suggests that public spending of at least US$7 billion annually on three categories of productivityenhancing investments-biological research, expansion of rural roads, and irrigation expansion and efficiency improvements-is needed to compensate for the productivity losses associated with climate change through 2050.Despite large differences in precipitation amounts and seasonal variation across the climate scenarios, the differences in price and other outcomes are relatively small-except for international trade flows. Different climate models result in dramatically different effects on trade flows, as Figure 4 illustrates. With perfect mitigation, net cereal exports from the developed countries are about the same level in 2010 and 2050, regardless of overall scenario. With the CSIRO scenarios, net cereal exports from the developed countries decline somewhat. With the MIROC scenarios, however, developed countries' cereal trade actually becomes negative by 2050, with substantial imports. This result is driven by a combination of increased maize production in developing countries and the negative effects of the MIROC climate scenarios on U.S. maize. Trade flows can partially offset the effects of climate change on local productivity, allowing regions of the world with fewer negative effects to supply those with more negative effects.To give some perspective on the effects of increased climate variability for one part of the world, the study simulated one possible outcome of climate change-an extended drought in South Asia, in this case from 2030 to 2040. The analysis shows that substantial increases in trade flows would help soften the blow to Indian consumers. Source: Authors' calculations.During the drought, South Asia would experience large increases in imports, or reductions in net exports, of the three key commodities-rice, wheat, and maize. These imports would drive world prices higher. Other countries' producers and consumers would thus help reduce, but certainly not eliminate, the human suffering that a South Asian drought would cause. These findings reinforce arguments about the need to complete the Doha Round of world trade negotiations and to put in place the legal instruments to help countries respond to shortterm disruptions in domestic production by relying on international transactions.Climate change exacerbates the challenge of improving food security under any income/population scenario, as Figure 3 makes clear. Compared with perfect mitigation, climate change increases the number of malnourished children in all developing countries in 2050 by 8.5 percent in the optimistic scenario and 10.3 percent in the pessimistic scenario.Although these results only touch on some elements of the human cost of unfettered climate change, their magnitude and consistency across the scenario results make clear the need for immediate action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and find ways to facilitate adaptation.The study whose results are highlighted here breaks new ground in the level of detail in its agricultureclimate interactions, but, like any large modelbased analysis, it must use some simplifying assumptions and features. The general directions are likely valid even if the specific magnitudes are uncertain. The modeling will be enriched by newly developed partnerships across the centers of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and with researchers around the world. This ongoing work provides IFPRI's research, capacitystrengthening, and communications activities are made possible by its financial contributors and partners. IFPRI receives its principal funding from governments, private foundations, and international and regional organizations, most of which are members of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IFPRI gratefully acknowledges the generous unrestricted funding from Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the World Bank.guidance on how to direct limited financial resources in order to sustainably feed a world confronting the challenges of adapting to climate change, a growing population, and reduced poverty.The world's poorest people will bear the brunt of the effects of climate change, especially if the world follows a path of low income growth and high population growth. This analysis shows that the most important way to help poor people adapt to climate change is to address poverty. Policy actions to achieve broadbased economic growth that reaches the poor, improve productivity in crops that are important to poor farmers and consumers, and strengthen trade to cope with regional disparities in the agricultural effects of climate change will help increase poor people's resilience to climate change. In fact, under an optimistic scenario, this study shows that food security, even among poor people, could significantly improve. Investments and policy reforms that will increase agricultural productivity are specific actions that governments need to begin immediately.It is also critical to start slowing emissions growth immediately. Because agriculture, broadly defined, contributes as much as onethird of greenhouse gas emissions, it must be part of this effort. The goal should be carbonnegative agriculture by 2050. Climate change exacerbates risks to human wellbeing and sustainable food security. The results from this study show that the more the world can mitigate the effects of climate change to 2050, the greater the potential improvements in food security. The challenges are likely to increase beyond 2050, when the climate change threat becomes much more severe. All scenarios now show average temperature increases by 2050 to be on the order of 1° C. After that, they diverge dramatically, ranging from 2° C to 4° C by 2100. Yields of many more crops will be severely threatened. Reducing emissions growth to minimize the effects of climate change is thus essential to avoid a calamitous post2050 future.","tokenCount":"2566"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"955b115a979eb39ee89ef48e23d814dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6700eabf-ea43-4df9-92ed-3945477f3a67/retrieve","id":"-976209850"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7e1c8f87-a982-4709-9442-dd8ee709b2a1","pagecount":"9","content":"Tool 3-2: Inter-community stock route and rangeland resource mapping Tool 3-2 Inter-community stock route and rangeland resource mapping Objective To assist rangeland management institutions from two or more rangeland units as well as other stakeholders in a shared landscape to map stock routes and key rangeland resources in order to lay the groundwork for intercommunity landscape level planning.For communities to strengthen the Third Leg of participatory rangeland management, they and the facilitating organization supporting them need to have a good understanding of where livestock move and how resources are shared among different communities and rangeland units within a landscape. Landscape level participatory mapping of things such as livestock migration corridors (stock routes), pasture areas frequently used by herders from different locations and areas that are prone to conflict can generate information that will be useful in a few different ways. It can help communities:• decide on the rangeland management units (which involves deciding which pasture areas should be grouped together under a community rangeland management institution);• prepare for joint rangeland planning together with neighbouring rangeland units in the same landscape; and• pre-empt conflict by agreeing on the location of migration corridors and how pastures will be shared among communities.The approach is to gather a group of local experts-people who are knowledgeable about the rangeland resources, migration routes and other features in the landscape-and have them map the features. This can be done at various scales. For example, at the smallest scale it could involve just two or three neighbouring rangeland units. Or at the other end of the scale, it can be done for a very large landscape that encompasses several counties. Regardless, what is important is to recruit local experts from all parts of the landscape in question.When feasible, it can be effective to do this kind of mapping at two different levels. For example, first stock routes and rangeland resource can be mapped for an entire county, and then those maps are used in creating the base maps for mapping exercises at sub-county level.Step 1: Pre-workshop -Preparing base mapsBase maps need to be prepared for use in the workshop. Topographical maps can be useful for this, with additional features overlaid for easy orientation. These might include towns and settlements, known water points, livestock markets and administrative boundaries. Where the location of stock routes and other rangeland features is already known, these should be included. The base maps should be prepared such that the whole landscape is depicted across several (at least eight) A0 map sheets. Ideally, facilitators should come to the workshop with two copies of each map sheet.Step 2: Defining map attributes and legend for participatory mappingThe following are suggested for the kinds of features to be mapped and symbols to be used.Stock routes will be identified in a participatory manner and will be categorized as major and minor routes. In terms of use, each route can be identified as either functional or non-functional. The seasonality of use of routes can also be noted. When mapping, each of these classes will be given a colour symbol. Photo 1: Mapping team discussing the codes and searching for stock routes on the maps Tool 3-2: Inter-community stock route and resource mappingStep 4: Feedback andPart of the process of the mapping exercise is also to have feedback from colleagues and ensure harmonization of the coding and descriptions of features. Each mapping team can present its work to the others in order to get feedback, identify errors and receive suggestions.Photo 3: Feedback of from the different mapping teams -each team presents to the rest of participants Photo 3: Feedback of from the different mapping teams -each team presents to the rest of participantsStep 5: Finalization of mappingAfter receiving the comments, each team will incorporate these in the maps and make any corrections. Also, people from the other teams who have expertise can contribute in the updates and filling in the information gaps. Features that have been marked in pencil should now be marked in coloured marker pen according to the legend (see Step 2 above).Then, the edges of each team's maps are matched and joined on the floor in order to create one large map of the entire landscape. The teams should ensure that, where the different team's map sheets meet, the stock routes and other features along the edges of the map sheet meet correctly. After the workshop, the GIS team will have a task of making sure the edges of the maps match and there is continuity from one map to another. It is important here to ensure that stock routes and other features that span two different map sheets are shown in the correct location. ","tokenCount":"777"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f94679e061509ff46e25abeffbf9ba9b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f4d3ba0-cc7e-441d-b9ac-411dff38d877/retrieve","id":"522852141"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cfaa61e5-d6c8-468b-97c7-c075870ed7c5","pagecount":"20","content":"ABOUT THIS DATA NOTE | The Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA) district agrifood systems assessment aims to provide a reliable, accessible, and integrated evidence base that links farm production, market access, dietary patterns, climate risk responses, and natural resource management with gender as a cross-cutting issue in rural areas of Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. It is designed to be a multi-year assessment. The survey was conducted only in households with adolescents (10-19 years of age). Adolescents and their behaviors are important when studying food systems because current practices and experiences can have long-term, intergenerational consequences. Using data collected in February-March 2023, this data note describes adolescents' diets and future aspirations. This is one of a set of data notes that, together, provide a holistic picture of the agrifood system in the district.Girls & boys exposed to packaged foods/drinks advertisementsGirls & boys involved in taking care of domestic animalsGirls & boys who wanted to primarily do farming in the futureTAFSSA's district agrifood systems assessment aimed to interview three respondents per household: a female adult (aged 20+ years), a male adult (aged 20+ years), and an adolescent (aged 10-19 years). Information on the household and respondent sampling strategy is provided at the end of this data note.In this data note, you will first find information on background characteristics of the households and adolescents (by sex). This is followed by information on what adolescents eat, which was captured using the Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS) and a food frequency questionnaire. You will also learn about adolescents' perceptions on food choice.In addition, you will find information on adolescents' exposure to food advertisements as well as nutrition messages, and the sources of such information. The data note then delves into adolescents' involvement in various tasks, and their perceptions of those tasks.Finally, you will get an insight into adolescents' aspirations, beginning with their preferences regarding working in agriculture in the future, followed by their preferences for future occupations and their parents' expectations.More details about the measurement methods are found in the following pages.   GLOBAL DIET QUALITY SCORE | The Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS) application was used to conduct a 24-hour dietary recall, which also captured when (at what eating occasion -prebreakfast, breakfast, a snack between breakfast and lunch, dinner, etc.) people ate each food item. The survey participants were asked about everything they ate or drank on the previous day, from the time they woke up until the time they went to bed and did not eat or drink anymore. This includes all snacks and foods or drinks consumed at home and outside the home. The foods consumed were classified into 25 food groups -16 healthy food groups, 2 food groups that are unhealthy when consumed in excess (red meat and high-fat dairy), and 7 unhealthy food groups.On the following pages, the figures show how many times per day adolescent girls and boys eat (Figure 4), the percentage of adolescents eating at various eating occasions (Figure 5), the percentage of adolescents who consume various food groups (Figure 6), and the quantity consumed by food group (Figure 7).✓ Boys and girls shared similar patterns related to eating occasions, with nearly all consuming at breakfast, lunch, and dinner.  Note:. High-fat dairy and red meat are considered unhealthy when consumed in high quantities.TAFSSA District Agrifood Systems Assessment -Adolescents' Diets and Aspirations Note: \"Low\", \"medium\", and \"high\" describe consumption levels based on quantity consumed that predict noncommunicable disease risk in studies from Africa, Asia, and the Americas (Bromage S, Batis C, Bhupathiraju SN, et al. 2021). Disease risk is minimized when healthy foods are consumed in \"high\" quantities and unhealthy foods are consumed in \"low\" quantities.Unhealthy✓ Few adolescents consumed \"high\" quantities of healthy foods except liquid oils. ✓ All adolescents consumed \"high\" quantities of refined grains/baked goods.Sentinel food list For the food frequency questionnaire, a set of 25 \"sentinel foods\" were selected to better understand both how frequently these foods are consumed and adolescents' perceptions about these foods.Sentinel food items were derived from the food groups outlined in the Diet Quality Questionnaire (Uyar BTM, Talsma EF, Herforth AW, et al. 2023). The most commonly consumed food items within each food group were identified by consulting with local people in the district locations during scoping visits.Survey respondents were asked how frequently they consumed these foods in the past 7 days (Figure 8).Understanding these patterns provides insights into adolescents' consumption of healthy and unhealthy foods. Note: This is calculated among the subsample of adolescents who saw or heard advertisements for any food or packaged drinks in the past 30 days. Mass media includes television, radio, newspapers, posters, and social media.Adolescents' exposure to food advertisements and nutrition messages was measured by asking adolescents whether, in the past 30 days, they had heard or seen:1. Advertisements for any food or packaged drinks (Figure 9)2. Information about avoiding certain foods such as soft drinks, energy drinks or sweets, biscuits, chips, namkeen, or bhujiya (Figure 11)3. Information about eating five different food groups or eating a diverse diet (Figure 13)Additionally, adolescents were asked where they had heard or seen such food advertisements or nutrition messages (Figures 10, 12, 14). Understanding the sources of such information can provide insights into the mediums for influencing adolescents' food choices.✓ 45% of girls and 54% of boys had seen or heard advertisements for food/packaged drinks in the last 30 days. ✓ Most adolescents reported seeing or hearing advertisements via mass media such as television, radio, newspapers, posters, and social media.  TASK ALLOCATION | To understand the role of adolescents in various agricultural and nonagricultural tasks, they were asked questions about their involvement in specific tasks. They were asked which agriculture-related activities they are involved in (Figure 15) and how often they carry out these activities (Figure 16).A parent of each adolescent was asked which household members do different types of tasks. The proportion of households where an adolescent was involved in each task was identified. Further, the involvement of adolescent girls and boys in tasks related to agriculture, food, and other domestic work (Figure 17) was examined.✓ A higher percentage of adolescent boys than girls were involved in working in the field and collecting fodder/taking care of animals. ✓ Girls were less frequently involved in taking agricultural products to the market than boys.  ✓ Few adolescents were involved in agricultural tasks (less than 17% girls and boys). ✓ Boys were more involved across diverse agricultural tasks and purchasing food, while girls were more involved in all food-related and domestic tasks.    18).Adolescents' aspirations were measured by asking them about what kind of work they would prefer to engage in for earning money in the future. This provides an insight into whether adolescents want to be involved in agriculture in the future (Figure 19). This is important to understand as adolescents constitute the next generation of producers.Finally, adolescents were asked about what occupation they aspire to and would prefer to engage in, in the future. Adolescents' aspirations were compared with parents' expectations for their children (Figure 20). ✓ Less than 8% of adolescents wanted to take up agriculture as their future primary occupation.  43% of parents expected their adolescent daughters to be married and unemployed in the future, while most parents aspired for their sons to be salary employed.We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: https://www.cgiar.org/funders/ The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by CGIAR, centers, our partner institutions, or donors. This data note has not been peer reviewed.","tokenCount":"1266"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"45c53b52fffaa36ddd974a19d0dac817","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a34b381d-f028-4315-acda-10423a8da70f/content","id":"-898677968"},"keywords":["adaptation options","climate change","determinants","multinomial logit model"],"sieverID":"286e3429-5292-470e-9f15-382d08a3d454","pagecount":"9","content":"Exploring micro-level evidences is critical to fine tune effective adaptation options to cope with the adverse impact of climate change. In this regard, detailed studies on climate change adaptation options are not available in the study areas. Hence, the objective of this study was to assess farmers' climate change adaptation options and determinant factors that influence their choice. Data were collected from 253 respondents randomly using probability proportional to the sizes (PPS) of the population of each district and peasant association from which sample households to be drawn. Descriptive statistics were employed to assess adaptation options while the multinomial logit model (MNL) was used to identify factors influencing households' choices. The results revealed that farmers use change in crop type /variety, soil and water conservation practices, crop diversification, change in planting date and irrigation practices as climate change adaptation options. Educational level of the household head, age of the household head, sex of the household head, farm income, access to extension service, access to credit, access to climate information and agro-ecological settings were the most important determinant factors that affect significantly the choice of farmers to climate change adaptations. Therefore, an effort that enhances farmers' awareness to climate change and creates the capacity to adopt climate resilient options is an important strategy that should be considered by a variety of societal groups, including policy makers, and farmers support organizations.There is a general consensus that the Earth's climate is undergoing changes, and observations are consistent with scientific expectations regarding the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that there is a statistically significant increase in the global mean state of the climate or in its variance, and further increases are expected if carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions are not controlled (IPCC, 2007). Human activities, such as burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have altered the global climate, resulting in increased temperature and alter the amount, intensity and distribution of precipitation and sea level rising.Like other African countries, Ethiopia is widely held as one of the most vulnerable countries to future climate change (Conway and Schipper, 2011). Ethiopia's economy is built predominantly on agriculture, which contributes 41% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP), employs 80% of the labor force and produces more than 80% of its foreign exchange earnings (You and Ringler, 2010;Gebreegziabher et al., 2011). Agriculture in Ethiopia is mainly rainfed that involves many subsistent and small-scale farmers (Deressa et al., 2009). This condition together with its geographical location, topography and low adaptive capacity, makes the country highly susceptible to the adverse impacts of climate change (Gebreegziabher et al., 2011). Among the regional states of Ethiopia, Tigray Regional State has been vulnerable to climate change (stable change over a long period of time usually 30 year or more). Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and magnitude of natural disasters and extreme weather events. Observations revealed that mean minimum and maximum temperatures of the region for the period 1954 to 2008 have increased by 0.72 and 0.36°C per decade, respectively indicating that the region is warming faster than the national average of 0.25°C (Gebrehiwot and van der Veen, 2013). Moreover, mean annual rainfall has shown a decreasing trend (Teka et al., 2012;Gebrehiwot and van der Veen, 2013). The onset and rainfall cessation date has changed towards decreasing the length of growing period (Hadgu et al., 2013).The degree to which an agricultural system is affected by climate change depends on its adaptive capacity. Indeed, adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences (Sahu and Mishra, 2013;Vincent et al., 2013). Farmers in the study area have a long history of responding to climate variability and change through various strategies. While it is not possible to say that past adaptations will be sufficient in the face of the expanded range of future climate change, they give a better idea of what is required to reduce the negative effects of climate change, and therefore can inform policy and practices (Vincent et al., 2013). Research on adaptation-climate change interaction have been conducted in different parts of Ethiopia (Deressa et al., 2009;Tesso et al, 2012;Legesse et al., 2013;Mulat, 2013;Tessema et al., 2013). However, the information obtained from these studies was not sufficient to represent the study area as most of the previous studies focused on different agroecologies with different social, institutional and ecological settings. Moreover, most of the studies (Deressa et al., 2009;Legesse et al., 2013) focused on issues at national or regional levels and hence lack details at the household or farm level.Previous studies revealed that adaptation strategies are vary contextually and spatially (within communities and even within individuals) and identified adaptation measures do not necessarily translate from one area to another (Deressa et al., 2009;Legesse et al., 2013). As site-specific issues require site-specific knowledge, it is very important, therefore, to clearly understand what is happening at site or household level. In the absence of local level evidences, it is difficult to fine tune interventions geared towards achieving effective and efficient adaptation options to cope with the adverse impact of climate change at local level. However, detailed studies on climate change adaptation options are not available in the areas identified for this study. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to identify the types of climate change adaptation measures practiced by farmers and assess the determinant factors that influence farmers' choice of adaption options.The study was carried out in three districts of the Tigray National Regional State of Ethiopia. The districts are Ganta-afeshum, Alamata and Enderta, which are situated at different agroecological zones. In general, Ethiopia has four traditional agro ecological zones (Deressa et al., 2009). These are Bereha (desert, below 500 m a.s.l.), Kolla (low land, 500 to 1500 ma.s.l.), Weynadega (middle land, 1500 to 2500 m a.s.l.) and Dega (highland, 2500 to 3500 m a.s.l.). Out of the four traditional agroecological settings of Ethiopia, the survey districts fall in three of them (Dega, Weynadega, Kolla). Accordingly, Ganta-Afeshum is classified as dega and weynadega with an altitude ranges from 2461 to 3290 m.a.s.l; and received an average annual rainfall of 584 mm and mean annual maximum and minimum temperature of 23.6 and 6.9°C, respectively.On the other hand, Enderta district comprised of two major agroclimatic zones. A greater portion lies in the Weynadega altitudinal climatic zone with an elevation range between 1500 to 2300 m while a smaller portion in the eastern and western parts lay in the 'Kolla' altitudinal climatic zone with elevation between 500 to 1500 m (Florence, 2008). This study considers mainly the Weynadega part and characterized with mean annual maximum and minimum temperature of 24.3 and 11.3°C, respectively and average annual rainfall of 601 mm and Alamata district is found in the most Southern zone of Tigray. It is located at 12°15'N latitude and 39°35'E longitude (Gebrehiwot, 2005). Topographically, Alamata is divided into western highland and eastern lowlands. The lowland area has an altitude of 1500 m.a.s.l or below (kola) and account about 75% of the district, while 25% of the district falls in the intermediate highlands (weynadega) and highland (dega) with an altitude ranges between 1500 to 3148 m.a.s.l. (Berhane et al., 2010).In this particular study, the low land part is used to represent the kola agro-climatic zone with an average annual rainfall of 752 mm and mean annual maximum and minimum temperature of 29.9 and 15.2°C, respectively. An exploratory study was first carried out in order to have a clear insight and to identify priority issues to be focused for the formal survey. Through this survey, information about the agro-ecological and socioeconomic features of the study area were collected. To supplement the formal survey, checklist was prepared and administered across different social groups and actors of the study communities. The formal survey was then framed based on the insight gained during the exploratory phase. Accordingly, three districts representing all agroecological zones were first selected purposively. Then, two peasant associations from each district were randomly selected. Finally, a total of 253 farm households were sampled randomly using probability proportional to the sizes (PPS) of the population of each district and peasant association from which sample households to be drawn. To select sample households from the selected peasant associations, list of household heads has been used. The distribution of sample households in the study area is presented in Table 1.Qualitative data obtained from interviews and group discussion and the review of documents were compiled, organized, summarized and interpreted through concepts and opinions. Both descriptive statistics and econometric model were used to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics such as mean, frequency of occurrences and percentage were computed to summarize the adaptation options used by farmers. Analytical tools such as the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version-12 and STATA-10 were used to summarize the data.Due to its computational simplicity, the multinomial logit model (MNL) specification was used to model climate change adaptation behavior of farmers involving discrete dependent variables with multiple choices (Deressa et al., 2009;Legesse et al., 2013;Tessema et al., 2013). MNL was employed to estimate the effect of explanatory variables on the choice of adaptation options to climate change and variability. The model is normally estimated using the iterative maximum likelihood estimation procedure, which yields unbiased, efficient and consistent parameter estimates (Deressa et al., 2008(Deressa et al., , 2009)). The formula is given as follows:Where P stands for probability, J stands for adaptation options, X for explanatory variables and β j = K x 1 is coefficients, j = 1, 2. . , J.The equation of multinomial logistic regression model requires the independent irrelevant alternative assumption (IIA) as noted in Deressa et al. (2009). It indicates that the probability of using a certain adaptation options by a given household needs to be independent from the probability of choosing another adaptation option. Thus, before data analysis and presentation, the model has been tested for the validity of the IIA assumptions, using the Hausman test for IIA as explained in Hassan and Nhemachena (2008) and Deressa et al. (2009).The dependent variable for multinomial logit model used in this study is households' choice decision on climate change adaptation options used by the farmers. The alternative climate change adaptation strategies include crop diversification, changing planting date, changing crop varieties/crop types, soil and water conservation practice and irrigation practices. These are frequently reported climate change adaptation methods in rain-fed agriculture of many African countries (Hassan and Nhemachena, 2008;Deressa et al., 2009). Thus, the dependent variable in the model is a categorical variable taking a discrete value of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 representing the above choices, where;(1) Change in crop and variety: It involves switching to varieties better suited to the new climate such as the use of stress tolerant crops and/or varieties that have a shorter growing period. It also includes cultivating crops better suited to the new climate and growing conditions.(2) Change in planting dates: It involves the adjustment of planting time better suit the shifts in the growing season by delaying or undertaking early planting/sowing.(3) Soil and water conservation practices: Includes the adoption of soil and water conservation practices such as terracing, soil/stone Independent variables are variables that determine whether or not a household recognizes climate change and take some mechanism used to adapt its impact. Based on the review of literature on adaptation studies, a range of household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, institutional factors and agroecological settings that describe local conditions were hypothesized to influence farmers' adaptation choice in the study area. The expected effect of each of these variables is presented in Table 2.The surveyed households have encountered many environmental shocks such as drought, flooding and water-loggings (Figure 1). The result revealed that most of the contacted households had recognized drought as the major environmental hazard that they have encountered in their life. In line with this, Mengistu (2011) showed that drought was ranked as primary climate hazard by the community of Adiha, central Tigray, Ethiopia. Moreover, Deressa (2010)  how susceptible is the region to weather vagaries.Particularly, the 1984 drought (the worst in the modern history of Ethiopia that took one million lives) is still fresh to remember in many families. These shocks have resulted in a variety of reported losses. Most of the respondents perceived that these shocks have reduced crop production that resulted to food insecurity (Table 3). In line with this, Teka et al. (2012) reported that there was a general perception among rural households that crop and livestock production, and land productivity declined in the last 20 years. Moreover, about 77.1 and 84.9% of the farmers perceived that the amount of water used for irrigation and for home and animal consumption has declined due to decline in rainfall amount, resulted from climate induced impacts. Farmers indicated that deep boreholes are open for municipal water services. Thus, this effect might not be due to climate change alone but also due to pressurized underground water utilization. On the other hand, climate shocks such as recurrent drought associated with long dry spell and shortening in the length of growing period have resulted to loss of landrace cultivars (74.7%) and to face with new pests (73.1) including striga and parthenium weeds. In addition, farmers' also pointed out declined in crop productivity followed by a shortage of water for consumption and irrigation purposes as indicators of climate change.The surveyed farm households who claimed to have observed climate change in the last 20 to 30 years were asked if they have responded through adaptations to minimize the impact and/or to optimize opportunities of climate change. Accordingly, farmers used different management practices to reduce the effect of climate change. In this regard, farmers who perceived change in climate have used changing crop type/variety, soil and water conservation, changing in planting date, crop diversifications and irrigation practices as climate change adaptation options (Figure 2). On the other hand, despite their awareness on climate change, 5.5% of the farmers did not use any of the adaptation options indicated earlier. Similarly, Mengistu (2011) also reported that irrigation, changing crop types/varieties and soil and water conservation practice are commonly used climate change adaptation methods by the farming community of Adiha. The report further noted that, despite their importance, crop diversification and change in planting date were not common in these communities. A survey carried out in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia also revealed that farmers who claimed to perceive change in climate have used planting trees, soil conservation, use of different crop varieties, changing planting dates and irrigation to reduce the impact (Deressa et al., 2009). Moreover, Legesse et al. (2013) noted that crop diversification together with soil and water conservation and water harvesting practices were commonly used climate change adaptation strategies in eastern Ethiopia. Adaptation strategies vary from region to region and/or from place to place depending both on the extent and range of climate change or the exposure of the area to climate change, and the socioeconomic background of the people in the area (Sahu and Mishra, 2013). In general, similar adaptation strategies have been reported in different areas (Nhemachena and Hassen, 2007;Fosu-Mensah et al., 2010) (Figure 2).The Multinomial Logit Model was run taking 'no adaptation' as the base category against which the remaining outcomes compared (Table 4). An important assumption of the MNL is the Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA) and the model was tested using the Hausman test to see if it fulfills the assumption. The Hausman test supported that the IIA is not violated with The estimated coefficients of the MNL model together with the levels of significance are portrayed in Table 3. The likelihood ratio statistics from the MNL model indicated that χ2 statistics (297.69) was highly significant (P < 0.0001), suggesting the model has a strong explanatory power. As noted earlier, the parameter estimates of the MNL model provide only the direction of the effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables: estimates do not represent the magnitude of change or its probability. Thus, the marginal effects from the MNL, which measure the expected change in probability of a particular choice being made with respect to a unit change in an independent variable, are also presented in Table 4. The result showed that the level of education of household head, age of the household head, farm income, extension service, credit service and climate information influence positively in using one or a combination of climate change adaptation strategies identified by farmers. In contrast, gender of the household head found to influence negatively the adoption strategies noted by farmers. Moreover, the agroecological settings where the farmers are living significantly affect the farmers' choice of climate change coping strategies. On the other hand, family size, farming size and the number of livestock ownership were not found to influence climate change adaptation options. The under mentioned section will discuss on variables that significantly influence climate change adaptation options.Farmers living in different agroecological setting use different climate change adaptation methods. The multinomial logit model revealed that farming in weynadega decreases significantly the probability of using irrigation and soil and water conservation by 23.34 and 53.7%, respectively as compared to farming in kola.On the other hand, farming in weynadega increases significantly the probability of changing crop types and/or varieties by 37.16%, compared to the farmers living in the kola area. This difference might be arising due to the difference in soil, climate and other natural resources as well as experience to climate related stresses. The most important characteristic feature of lowland areas that limit crop production is high temperatures, which enhances evapotranspiration loss and create heat stress. Farmers living in this agroecological setup are, therefore, expected to invest management strategies that reduce heat loads while increase availability of moisture in the crop root zone. The positive concomitant between farming in the lowland and adoption of soil and water conservation and irrigation might be justified due to the aforementioned fact. In line with this, Deressa et al. (2009), Tesso et al. (2012) and Legesse et al. (2013) also observed that farmers living in different agroecological settings have different choice of adaptation to climate change impact.The report further revealed that farming in kola increases the probability of soil and water conservation and water harvesting practice as adaptation options, compared to dega or weynadega. On the other hand, farming in kola significantly reduces the probability of diversifying crop varieties, planting trees, and irrigation by 21, 13 and 2.3%, respectively, compared with farming in weynadega (Deressa et al., 2009).Gender of the household head is one of the most important variables that significantly affect the farmers' choice of climate change adaptation options. As can be seen from Table 3, male headed households increase the likelihood to change crop types and/or varieties, to use crop diversification, to practice soil and water conservation and to use irrigation as climate change adaptation strategies. However, being male headed household reduces significantly the probability of using change in planting date by 71.8%. Overall, male-headed households have greater preferences for these strategies that require labor, finance and information than femaleheaded households, which relies on common practices known to most farmers, such as change in planting dates. This agrees with the argument that male headed households are more likely to get information about new technologies and take risky business than female headed households (Asfaw and Admassie, 2004). Similarly, Deressa et al. (2009), Legesse et al. (2013) and Mulatu (2013) concluded that being male-headed increases significantly the ability and choice of households' climate change coping strategies.Age of the household head, which is considered as a proxy indicator for farming experience, affects positively the farmers' climate change adaptation options. The result revealed that one year increase in the age of the household head significantly increases the probability of adopting change in crop type and/or variety, crop diversification, soil and water conservation and irrigation practices, respectively by <0.001, 1.1, 1.27 and 0.29%. This might be related to the fact that older farmers are able to assess the available technologies, gained enough knowledge and technical expertise on the options, which enable them to make adoption decision (Gbetibouo, 2009). Similarly, Deressa et al. (2009) reported that the probability of adopting change in crop varieties and tree planting was increased with age of the household head.On the other hand, age had no effect on adopting climate change adaptation options by farmers in eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia (Legesse et al., 2013;Tessema et al., 2013).Education of the household head increases the probability of adapting to climate change. Education significantly increases the use of irrigation practice as climate change adaptation methods. One year increase in the number of years of schooling was associated with a 1.41% increase in irrigation use. Moreover, all adaptation methods have a positive relationship with education. Farmers' with higher education are likely to have more information on climate change, which in turn might promote the probability of adopting climate change adaptation strategies. Furthermore, education is likely to enhance farmers' ability to receive, interpret and comprehend information relevant to making innovative decisions in their farms (Ndambiri et al., 2013). This result was similar to that of Deressa et al. (2009) and Tesso et al. (2012) while in contrast with that of Mulatu (2013), who noted a negative relationship between education and selection of climate change adaptation options. In the latter case, better educated farmers had left agriculture and the probability of using climate adaptation option was reduced.This variable had positive and significant influence in adopting climate change adaptation options. As farm income increases by one birr the probability of using change in crop type and/or variety as climate adaptation options increase by less than 0.001%. It is well known that adoption of new crop variety requires more financial resource than adoption to crop diversification and changing planting dates. The positive impact of farm income on climate change adaptation options could be associated to the fact that farmers with better financial capacity are more risk averse to crop production, have access to information and longer-time planning horizon (Deressa et al., 2008). Mulatu ( 2013) also showed that increase in farm income of the household increases the likelihood of adapting to climate change using soil conservation, irrigation and livestock production.As expected, extension visit to the households has positive influence on the probability of adopting the prevailing adaptation options. However, the effect of extension contact on adoption of climate adaptation option was significant only for changing in crop type and/or variety. Result of MNL model showed that a unit increase in extension contact is likely to increase the probability of the farmer to adopt change in crop type and/or variety by 0.07%. This result corroborates with that of Deressa et al. (2008Deressa et al. ( , 2009)), Tesso et al. (2012) and Mulatu (2013), where all noted that increase access to extension service has increased the probability of using climate change adaptation options in different parts of Ethiopia. Legesse et al. (2013) also reported a mixed effect, wherein increase in extension contact increase the probability of the household to adapt crop diversifications and the use of soil and water conservation strategy but decreases the probability of adopting water harvesting strategy. This might be due to the fact that water harvesting technologies are capital intensive investments and not necessary influenced by the farmers' awareness on the importance of the technology to adapt climate change impacts.Access to credit service also plays a positive role for farmers to adopt climate change adaptation options. The result revealed that increased access to credit is likely to increase the probability of the household to practice irrigation as climate change adaptation strategy by 22.75%. As already known, irrigation is one of the most effective climate change adaptation strategies; avoids crop failure due to moisture stress and enable farmers to cultivate year round. However, it also requires capital investment, which most of ordinary households could not afford. Therefore, leveraging the cash shortage of households through credit might encourage farmers' to engage in irrigation practices. Deressa et al. (2008Deressa et al. ( , 2009) ) and Tesso et al. (2012) also noted that increase in credit access significantly enhanced the farmers' choice of climate change adaptation strategies. In contrast, Tessema et al. (2013) reported that credit access has negative influence of the probability of using tree planting as climate change adaptation option.Even though service on climate information delivery is not formal, access to information from different sources had positive influence on the probability of adaptation options to climate change. Access to climate information significantly increased the probability of using crop diversification, soil and water conservation and irrigation practices by 9.47, 14.73 and 10.85%, respectively (Table 3). This result implies the important role of increased institutional support in promoting the use of climate change adaptation options to reduce the negative impact of climate change. This result confirms the finding of Mulat (2013) who showed that increase in access to climate information increases farmers' likelihood to prefer crop diversification and change in planting date as climate change adaptation options. Moreover, Deressa et al. (2009) noted that information on temperature and rainfall has a significant and positive impact on the probability of using different crop varieties by 17.6%.The results indicated that most of the farmers in the study region undertake soil and water conservation, crop diversification, change in crop type and/or variety, change in planting date and use irrigation practices as adaptation options to counteract the negative impact of climate change. On the other hand, gender of the household head, educational level of the household head, age of the household head, farm income, access to extension of crop and livestock production, access to credit service, access to climate information and agroecological setting of the area have significant impact on the choice of farmers to climate change adaptation options. Based on this result the following policy options are suggested:(1) Investment in education and yield increasing technology packages that increases farm income in the","tokenCount":"4330"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36a38076acb85d128834767334022aeb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2dc1dd11-0198-45a6-9d6a-4f41f0965850/retrieve","id":"1735453163"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8877f5b0-c179-4091-94e5-efeed20b85a9","pagecount":"13","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-Adaptive Methodology for Ecosystem Sustainability and Health (AMESH)A research and social/behavioural change process that includes multiple stakeholders (both researchers and community members) in framework that explicitly involves both social and ecological systems thinking and design (the ecosystem approach), derived from specific guiding principles, meant to assist research and sustainable development in health to happen in conjunction and cooperatively (Waltner-Toews and Kay 2005).A particular disease, health disorder, or condition under investigation found in an individual or within a population or study group.In medical usage, an individual having a particular disease, disorder, or condition (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).The first case in a family or other defined group to come to the attention of the investigator (Porta et al. 2008).The abnormalities of structure or function observed in the patient by the veterinarian or the client. These are customarily graded according to severity, e.g. severe, moderate, mild, and according to speed of onset and progress, e.g. peracute, acute, subacute, chronic, intermittent (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/clinical+signs).A research and social change strategy that is focused on gender and social equity and involvement for improving health outcomes (Minkler and Wallerstein 2008).Contact, direct A mode of transmission of infection involving fomites or vectors. Vectors may be mechanical (e.g. flies) or biological (when the disease agent undergoes part of its life cycle in the vector species) (Porta et al. 2008).A mode of transmission of infection involving fomites or vectors. Vectors may be mechanical (e.g. flies) or biological (when the disease agent undergoes part of its life cycle in the vector species) (Porta et al. 2008).A branch of medical science that deals with the incidence, distribution, and control of disease in a population Focuses on gathering and analysing quantitative measures and applying that knowledge in interventions to disrupt disease progression in populations (adapted from Merriam-Webster online).A strategy for data verification, using data from multiple sources to verify results (Coffin 2012) or 'To check (as data or reports) from various angles or sources to determine validity or accuracy' (Merriam-Webster 2013).For many communities, poverty is the subject of shame, and the needs of the poorest are sometimes glossed over or even concealed, either by the poor themselves or by officials working with them (Mariner and Paskin 2000).Direct contact transmission takes place when organisms are transmitted directly from the source to the susceptible host without involving an intermediate object; this is also referred to as individual-to-individual transmission (Adapted from NCBI 1996).The biological dimension of nonhealth, an essentially physiological dysfunction (Porta et al. 2008).Disease, preclinical Disease with no signs or symptoms because these have not yet developed (Porta et al. 2008).Disease, subclinical A condition in which disease is detectable by special tests but does not reveal itself by signs or symptoms (Porta et al. 2008).Malnutrition, morbidity and mortality all tend to be highest at the end of the dry season; surveys carried out at other times of the year will miss these phenomena (Mariner and Paskin 2000).Ecosystem/ ecohealth approaches 'Ecohealth approaches are systemic, participatory approaches to understanding and promoting human health and wellbeing in the context of complex social and ecological interactions.' (David Waltner-Toews).The constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographic area or population group; may also refer to the usual prevalence of a given disease within such an area or group; used in human, animal, environmental, and ecosystem health (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).The occurrence in a community or region of cases of an illness, specific health-related behaviour, or other health-related events clearly in excess of normal expectancy; used in human, animal, environmental, and ecosystem health (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).An outbreak (epidemic) of disease in an animal population; often with the implication that it may also affect human populations (Porta et al. 2008).A group of animals with a defined epidemiological relationship that share approximately the same likelihood of exposure to a pathogen. This may be because they share a common environment (e.g. animals in a pen), or because of common management practices. Usually, this is a herd or a flock. However, an epidemiological unit may also refer to groups such as animals belonging to residents of a village, or animals sharing a communal animal handling facility. The epidemiological relationship may differ from disease to disease, or even strain to strain of the pathogen (OIE 2013).The facilitator most likely has some preformed opinions about what the situation surrounding the appraisal is, and without great care will allow their own opinions to distort the record of what the participants express (Coffin 2012).Negative test result in an individual who possesses the attribute for which the test is conducted. The labeling of a diseased individual as healthy when screening in the detection of disease (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).Positive test result in an individual who does not possess the attribute for which the test is conducted. The labeling of a healthy individual as diseased when screening in the detection of disease (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).Focus group A small number (6-12) people gathered for a group discussion and interview based on their experience or knowledge of a problem or area (Coffin 2012).Fomites (singular, fomes)Articles that convey infection to others because they have been contaminated by pathogenic organisms (Porta et al. 2008).A type of socio-economic analysis that uncovers how gender relations affect a development problem. The aim may just be to show that gender relations will probably affect the solution, or to show how they will affect the solution and what could be done. Gender analysis frameworks provide a step-by-step methodology for conducting gender analysis (Wikipedia 2013).Household meeting This generalized term often refers to a meeting of members of a particular household for either informational or data gathering purposes.The number of instances of illness commencing, or of individuals falling ill, during a given period in a specified population. More generally, the number of new health-related events in a defined population within a specified period of time. It may be measured as a frequency count, a rate, or a proportion (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).Incubation period The time interval between invasion by an infectious agent and appearance of the first sign or symptom of the disease in question.In a vector, the period between entry of the infectious agent into the vector and the time at which the vector becomes infective; i.e. transmission of the infectious agent from the vector to a fresh final host is possible (Porta et al. 2008).See Case, Index.The entry and development or multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of an individual, where it may or may not cause disease (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).See disease, preclinical and subclinical.Isolation 1. In microbiology, the separation of an organism from others, usually by making serial cultures.2. Separation, for the period of communicability, of infected individuals from others under such conditions so as to prevent or limit the transmission of the infectious agent from those infected to those who are susceptible or who may spread the agent to others. Additional biosecurity measures may also be employed to prevent transmission via indirect contact (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).Individuals who have had previous experience with the communities under investigation, or are community leaders of one type or another (paraphrase- Mariner and Paskin 2000).The language needed for a semi-structured interview may be poorly translated, and can result in inaccurate results. Note this is actually less common in semi-structured interviews that are well conducted as cross-checking and probing are designed to correct such inaccuracies (Coffin 2012).Matrix scoring A visual scoring method which compares at least two indicators, where a two-dimensional grid is used to score items by at least two sets of categories (Jost et al. 2007).Similar to the typology of participation, but with six levels of participation instead of seven. it can be measured in terms of three units:(1) Individuals in a population who were ill,(2) the illnesses (periods or spells of illness) that these individuals experienced,(3) the duration (days, weeks, etc.) of these illnesses (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).The number of deaths occurring in a population.Change in the genetic material not caused by genetic segregation or recombination that is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations provided that it is not a dominant lethal factor (Porta et al. 2008).And epidemic limited to localized increase in the incidence of a disease, e.g. a single population (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).An epidemic occurring worldwide or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries, and usually affecting a large number of individuals (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).An organism capable of causing disease (literally, causing a pathological process) (Porta et al. 2008).The property of an organism that determines the extent to which overt disease is produced in an infected population, or the power of an organism to produce disease (Porta et al. 2008).Prevalence A measure of disease occurrence: the total number of individuals who have an attribute or disease at a particular time (or period) divided by the population at risk of having the attribute or disease at that time or midway through the period (Porta et al. 2008).A political and social empowerment tool. Focuses on social networks (Neudoerffer et al. 2005).Participatory epidemiology is the application of participatory methods to epidemiological research and disease surveillance. It is a proven technique, which overcomes many of the limitations of conventional epidemiological methods, and has been used to solve a number of animal health surveillance and research problems (Jost et al. 2007) orParticipatory epidemiology (PE) is based on conventional epidemiological concepts but uses participatory methods to solve epidemiological problems. It is a practical approach to epidemiology that gives stakeholders a greater role in shaping programs (Jost et al. 2007).The application of PE to disease surveillance. PDS is a method of disease surveillance where participatory appraisal approaches and methods are used to combine local veterinary knowledge with conventional methods to establish the presence or absence of a specific disease in a particular area (Ameri et al. 2009).A general term for methods that encourage people, especially poor people, to analyse and solve problems in their own communities. Also the title of an informal journal by the IIED (International Institute for the Environment and Development) (Coffin 2012).An exercise where participants collectively draw a map of their area of expertise/community, including details that they and/or the facilitator are concerned with or decide are important (Coffin 2012).Uses many of the same techniques as RRA, but with the key difference that it is meant to be 'by, for and with' the local people. (Chambers 1994b). Knowledge gained is meant to be owned by local people and shared with outsiders. Outsiders are facilitators but not directors. It is used in a variety of ways that range from fully participatory to mostly extractive (Coffin 2012).Similar to PRA but with urban populations instead of rural, focuses on finding solutions to problems (Coffin 2012).Person bias Influential persons interviewed (particularly as key informants) are often either biased against poor people, or ignorant of their needs. The 'rural elite', while not at all representative of the cross-section of farmers, is often the most vociferous at group interviews, and can give the wrong impression. Thus, it is essential to include the rural poor as key informants and ensure they are interviewed in settings where they feel comfortable enough to express their views. In addition, there is a tendency for both interviewers and interviewees to be men; the needs of women, and their contribution to farming, thus remain 'invisible' (Mariner and Paskin 2000).Participants may choose to tell the facilitator what they believe the facilitator wants to hear, or the facilitator may unintentionally lead participants to respond in certain expected or hoped for responses (Coffin 2012).There may be a prevailing opinion that 'everyone' in the community ascribes to publicly, though they may have privately differing opinions or observations. Similarly, one or more opinion might be the politically savvy thing for participants to express; this can take the shape of currying favour with local political leaders, or in trying to leverage the research to get as much financial or other assistance out of a project as possible (Coffin 2012).Professional training may in itself be an obstacle, making it difficult for the researcher to understand the linkages in the system they are trying to observe, or leading them only to \"see\" the richer segment of rural society (Mariner and Paskin 2000).Visitors and researchers are often channeled to areas where projects have been active (there is 'more worth seeing' in such places), and most of the work will then concentrate on these places (Mariner and Paskin 2000).Proportional piling A semi-quantitative method for determining community priorities, involving the distribution of a counter between different categories. This can be modified to draw out various subtleties in community opinion (Coffin 2012).Sampling with a purpose or sampling based on a characteristic (or risk), aims to capture a section of the population that is most likely to exhibit a trait (or problem). This type of sampling is often used in sociological studies (Trochim 2006).A sample in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected (thefreedictionary.com).A mostly extractive/elicitive technique used to get useful, honest, and representative social information (for development) in a short amount of time. Usually yields qualitative data, but occasionally quantitative data also. Makes use of the concepts of optimal ignorance, quickly established rapport, and triangulation. Knowledge is often owned by the outsider and sometimes shared with the local people (Chambers 1994a).Memory does not always accurately represent true events, and those studies that rely upon memories from past years are vulnerable to this bias (Coffin 2012).The probability that an event will occur, e.g. that an individual will become ill or die within a stated period of time or by a certain age (Porta et al. 2008).Risk-based sample See purposive sample.1. An aspect of individual behaviour or lifestyle, an environmental exposure, or an inborn or inherited characteristic that, on the basis of scientific evidence, is known to be associated with meaningful health-related condition(s).2. An attribute or exposure that is associated with an increased probability of a specified outcome, such as the occurrence of a disease. Not necessarily a causal factor: it may be a risk marker.3. A determinant that can be modified by intervention, thereby reducing the probability of occurrences of disease or other outcomes (modifiable risk factor) (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).If only a small number of sampling locations are used, they may not accurately represent an entire region (Coffin 2012).A visualization technique that attempts to map events that occur seasonally, usually looking for correlations between events of interest (such as disease) and climatic, social, or other seasonal changes (Coffin 2012).An interview, with either individuals or groups, that has been outlined prior to enactment but is specifically designed for the flexibility to pursue topics of interest or need for clarification as and if they arise (Coffin 2012).The probability that a diseased individual in the population tested will be identified as diseased by the test (true-positive probability, true-positive rate) (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).Sentinel health event A condition that can be used to assess the stability of change in health levels of a population (Porta et al. 2008).A branch of science dealing with the measurement and characterization of antibodies and other immunological substances in body fluids, particularly serum (Porta et al. 2008).An individual whose serological results suggest that they have not experienced a specific infection at some time in the past.An individual whose serological results suggest that they have experienced a specific infection at some time in the past.The type of a micro-organism determined by its constituent antigens based on one of several different antibody-antigen reactions, or a taxonomic subdivision based thereon (Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 2007; http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/ serotype).The methodical analysis of social networks. Social network analysis views social relationships in terms of network theory, consisting of nodes (representing individual actors within the network) and ties (which represent relationships between the individuals, such as friendship, kinship, organizational position, sexual relationships etc.). These networks are often depicted in a social network diagram, where nodes are represented as points and ties are represented as lines (Wikipedia 2013).A socio-economic impact assessment examines how a proposed development will change the lives of current and future residents of a community. (http://www.lic.wisc.edu/shapingdane/ facilitation/all_resources/impacts/analysis_socio.htm), or 'To assess whether the socio-economic benefits outweigh the risks to human health and the environment' (Wikipedia).Occur when PA facilitators fail to take into account spatially determined confounding factors, for example, by only dealing with villages or communities along convenient or accessible roads or flight paths where circumstances are most likely different than away from easy travel routes (Coffin 2012).The probability that an individual without the disease (noncase) will be correctly identified as non-diseased by the test (true-negative probability) (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).Occurring irregularly, haphazardly, from time to time, and generally infrequently (e.g. cases of certain infectious diseases) (Porta et al. 2008).Structured interview Structured interviews involve questions, which are set out and followed thoroughly. Each candidate is presented with the same questions and this ensures that each respondent has had the opportunity to respond to each question (http://www.psyasia.com/supportsuite/index. php?_m=knowledgebase&_a=viewarticle&kbarticleid=191#ixzz2KqHV67Zl).Systematic and continuous collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, closely integrated with the timely and coherent dissemination of the results and assessment to those who have the right (or the need) to know so that action can be taken (Porta et al. 2008). Susceptibility 1. Vulnerability; lack of resistance to disease; the dynamic state of being more likely or liable to be harmed by a health determinant.2. The condition or status of having one or two interacting causes already and therefore being susceptible to the effect of the other.3. A process occurring over time during which host factors (both inherited and learned or otherwise acquired and embodied) increase the likelihood that an exposure will produce disease. Susceptibility to positive influences and beneficial outcomes also exists (Porta et al. 2008).Sustainable activities A systems-oriented approach to understanding complex ecological, social, and environmental interactions in a given context (Adapted from Pretty 1994).Any subjective evidence of disease or of a patient's condition, i.e. such evidence as perceived by the patient; a change in a patient's condition indicative of some bodily or mental state (http:// medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/symptom).A visualization activity that attempts to clarify when historical events have taken place, linking events that are important 'timekeepers' for activity participants with a dating method that can be more universally understood (Coffin 2012).To ascertain the successive stages in the development or progress of a disease (Adapted from The Free Dictionary 2013).A path along which one counts and records occurrences of the phenomena of study (e.g. plants) (Wikipedia 2013).Transect walk Facilitators and participants (in a small, 2-4 persons, group) walk together along a specified route, or transect, through the community observing and discussing resources, features, landscape, and main land use as it pertains to problems or questions being addressed (Adapted from World Bank).Any mechanism by which an infectious agent is spread from a source or reservoir to another individual. Can be indirect or direct, as in direct or indirect contact.Triple task A process for evaluating the health of the group dynamics that emerges during focus group sessions. The three tasks operate in parallel at the same time.Task 1: first 'scoping' works to draw participants into a group and agree on major task and issues, then visions of change are used to come up with an agreement on what needs to be done; planning for the desired change is then initiated in practical steps.Task 2: is a review of the group dynamic from the 'outside in' (conducted by someone outside the process) following methods of socio-analysis such as the BECM method used in Open University.Task 3: is an 'inside out' evaluation of the group dynamic using a contrasting socio-analysis technique such as Symlog (www.symlog.com, Bell et al. 2012) or the Myers Briggs approach (Adapted from: Bell et al. 2012).Typology of participation (Pretty 1994) Inclusive list of stages, or types, of participation that a project, intervention, or process can achieve. Seven levels have been described.1. Passive participation-People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management without any listening to people's responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.2. Participation in information giving-People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.3. Participation by consultation-People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to views. These external agents define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people's responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision-making, and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people's views.4. Participation for material incentives-People participate by providing resources, for example labour; in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.5. Functional participation-People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project, which can involve the development of promotion of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages of project cycles or planning, but rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self-dependent.6. Interactive participation-People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make of systematic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions, and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.7. Self-mobilization-People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. Such self-initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of wealth and power.Vector An insect or any living carrier that transports an infectious agent from an infected individual or its wastes to a susceptible individual or its food or immediate surroundings. The infectious agent may or may not pass through a developmental cycle within the vector (Porta et al. 2008).The degree of pathogenicity; the disease-evoking power of a microorganism in a given host. Numerically expressed at the ratio of the number of cases of over infection to the total number infected as determined by immunoassay. When death is the only criterion of severity, this is the case-fatality rate (Porta et al. 2008).An infection or infectious disease transmissible under natural condition between vertebrate animals and humans. May be enzootic or epizootic (Adapted from Porta et al. 2008).","tokenCount":"3835"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2a9d6946aba0d26904d121194abb23ab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/567eae21-182b-414f-b417-4378f5c345ca/retrieve","id":"-273765553"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7c84c4bc-ae97-4e93-bae2-bf2d2ac1c7ab","pagecount":"1","content":"h Livestock systems are socioecological systems that generate different ecosystem services and environmental benefits. We have prioritized seven ecosystem services and three environmental benefits of interest. h Integral valuation is a method that allows to assess the ecological, economic, and social value of ecosystem services and environmental benefits. Information generated from this method is amenable to benefit cost analyses for evaluating the returns on investment for introducing interventions in livestock systems. h Knowing the integral value of the interventions allows us to demonstrate to stakeholders their economic, environmental, and social viability, and persuade them to contribute to the financing of more sustainable livestock farming models.To identify the main ecosystem services and environmental benefits in livestock farming, to propose an integral valuation strategy, and to incorporate these values into economic evaluation methods. This integral valuation strategy will allow us to evaluate the impacts of interventions by comparing situations before and after an intervention or between intervened and non-intervened systems.The integral value of ecosystem services and environmental benefits will provide crucial support for informed decision-making on specific restoration initiatives, considering the project' s objectives and the potential return on investment. In particular, integral valuation represents an opportunity for the design of economic instruments that allow financing sustainable technologies, for example carbon credits, biodiversity bonds, and Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES).This integral valuation strategy was designed based on an extensive literature review, discussions by an ecosystem services advisory group with experts from CIAT, ILRI, and ICARDA, and field studies in Colombia.Based on the functioning of the socioeconomic system in livestock farming, we identified the main seven ecosystem services and three environmental benefits generated on these ecosystems. We designed an integral valuation strategy, and we piloted it in three field studies in Colombia.   ","tokenCount":"289"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1fb3c06af43a5bc4886eac583f48a2b6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fa2850af-b0ee-462e-91f2-317e7f57a685/retrieve","id":"268228364"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"035b7823-c76a-479b-bc52-7d5aea0110e3","pagecount":"12","content":"Choice of crop varieties plays an important role in climate adaptation (Ceccarelli et al. 2010). One of the most important options farmers have to adapt arable farming to future climates is adjusting the crop varieties they use to new climates as they emerge (IPCC 2014). Also, a portfolio of two or more varieties can substantially buffer the impact of climate variation between seasons (Nalley and Barkley 2010;Di Falco et al. 2007).Several barriers, however, stand in the way of a more effective use of intraspecific crop diversity for climate adaptation. Variety recommendations are often based on station trial data-hardly reflecting variety performance in low-input agriculture-and are seldom based on climate analysis (Abay and Bjørnstad 2009). This means farmers often reject the new varieties they try because of poor performance (Ceccarelli and Grando 2007). In addition, many varieties are released based on their potential for broad adaptation. This approach offers a good average potential yield over many localities but will not maximise yield at any given place (Ceccarelli and Grando 2007). In addition, breeding rarely relies on genebank material, focusing instead on elite varieties with limited allelic diversity. Genebanks hold thousands of varieties of major crops that have (co-)evolved under natural and human selection for thousands of years and have the potential to host alleles for adaptation to various biotic and abiotic stresses (Vavilov and Dorofeev 1992). Yet, these promising, diverse materials are rarely used. Introducing sets of diverse materials into areas where modern varieties have not yet made an impact is a possible first step in support of climate adaptation. This does not only serve to identify initial populations for breeding programmes, but can also identify farmers varieties (or varieties bred for other areas) that may prove superior and can therefore be disseminated directly. For example, in Ethiopia we found in a durum wheat trial that the best farmer variety outperformed the best modern variety with a yield difference of 20% (Mengistu et al. 2018).The use of improved or modern varieties (MVs) has limitations in Africa (Salami et al. 2010). MVs often require a high quantity of external inputs to fulfil their potential. On African low-input farms in high-risk areas, landraces may be chosen over MVs by local farmers because of their better adaptation, higher market value and better end-product quality (Ceccarelli et al. 2010). In addition, the cultivation of a small set of MVs over large areas lowers the genetic diversity at a landscape scale, with detrimental effects on the resilience of agro-ecosystems (Cabell and Oelofse 2012).At present, both public and private efforts fail to insert varietal diversity for climate adaptation into local farming systems in a rational way (Ceccarelli 2015). On-farm testing is crucial to determine farmer knowledge and preferences (Mancini et al. 2017). Such tests can also identify suitable germplasm for breeding and can be linked to improved dissemination of the genetic material to local communities through more efficient seed systems (Thomas et al. 2012). Current on-farm testing is usually done with a limited set of elite materials, which are compared to the current market-leader variety. These trials require constant attention from technical personnel. As a result, the testing is relatively costly, especially in marginal areas where technical personnel must travel long distances. These trials are therefore kept relatively small and thus have limited statistical power. In some cases no formal statistical inference is done, and decisions are made based on tallies of farmer votes and simple averages of yield data. These trials allow the release of a small number of varieties backed by limited evidence of their value under farm conditions (Abay and Bjørnstad 2009).For climate adaptation of African smallholder agriculture, a different approach is needed. The best approach would be a hybrid system in which the quantitative aspects of conventional trials are combined with the benefits of participatory onfarm methods. This would ensure that a diverse range of useful genetic material reaches farmers. A system in which farmers play a more active role would accelerate genetic gain and access to variety diversity, thus contributing to system resilience (Badstue et al. 2012).In this chapter, we present a possible solution to a number of the problems of on-farm trials: the triadic comparisons of technologies, or \"tricot\". Following a citizen science philosophy, this approach increases farmer ownership of trials and uses smart, simple data collection formats to help scale on-farm testing (van Etten et al. 2016). The tricot approach involves cost-effective, large-scale, repeated participatory evaluation of varieties under farm conditions using novel material from national gene banks or other sources (advanced lines from breeding programmes, varieties bred for other areas). Van Etten et al. (2016) provide a detailed discussion on how the tricot approach simultaneously builds on and differs from previous participatory approaches in crop improvement. The approach was designed to overcome a number of specific challenges in participatory crop improvement, including the need for scaling, cost reduction, data standardisation, and taking into account heterogeneity in environments and farmer preferences.The tricot approach is especially suited for climate adaptation. Combining the resulting geo-referenced variety evaluation data with environmental data and climatic data, the approach distinguishes different responses of crop varieties to seasonal climatic conditions. The data can then be translated into concrete variety recommendations that reflect current farm conditions, stabilise yields, and track climate change over time. We illustrate the approach with an example, using simulated (yet realistic) data.We performed a series of simple simulations to illustrate the methods and results of the tricot approach. In our simulation we use realistic data that mimic the data collected in a number of countries, including India, Nicaragua, Honduras and Ethiopia.Farmers provide feedback based on different traits. These traits are selected together with farmers and technical personnel in focus groups. The traits can include yield, pest and disease resistance, phenological characteristics, plant vigour and more.In the trials, each farmer receives three different varieties and is trained on how to set up the experiment in terms of plot layout and management. They plant the seeds, and, as the crop grows, they rank the varieties for each of the traits. Farmers do not know the names of the varieties in their set, which are randomly allocated to them from a larger portfolio, generally at least 10-20 per trial, at times previously selected from a much larger set-up to 400 in a recent application in Ethiopia (Mancini et al. 2017). Farmers are asked to fill out the forms during the season based on the traits they are evaluating. At the end of the season, farmers complete the forms by providing their assessments of productivity and the quality of the final product, as well as an overall performance judgment (Steinke and Van Etten 2016;Van Etten et al. 2016). The entire process is supported by the digital platform ClimMob (http://climmob.net/), which takes the user through a structured process of trial design, electronic data collection, analysis and automatic reporting.The overall performance of crop varieties was analysed using Plackett-Luce trees, using R software (Hothorn and Zeileis 2015;Zeileis et al. 2008;Turner et al. 2018). Publicly available soil and climate data can be linked to the trial dataset by using location data (latitude and longitude) and the planting date of each farm. The Plackett-Luce model can use these data to distinguish between groups of environments with different patterns of variety performance.We simulated two examples. In each, 500 farmers ranked a set of 3 varieties taken from a set of 20 varieties. Varieties are assigned in a randomised and balanced way. In Example 1, farmers draw random values from a normal distribution separated by a small interval and rank the varieties based on these values (see Fig. 11.1). This simulates the error that farmers make, following our findings on the accuracy of farmer observations in these trials for a relatively difficult trait (Steinke et al. 2017). An interesting feature of this ranking approach is that it also works for more elusive traits that depend on farmers' preferences, such as the taste of the product or farmers' overall evaluation of each variety, which is eventually what determines variety adoption.In Fig. 11.2, the results of the first simulation can be seen. The original input values of the simulation are on the x axis and the Plackett-Luce model estimates are on the y axis. As the graph shows, the PL model is able to reconstruct the values very closely, with a correlation of 0.994 with the original values. In a few cases, the model does not retrieve the right order. Variety 13 is ranked lower than Variety 12 and Variety 18 is ranked lower than Variety 17. In other words, only 10% of the varieties are shifted by one position. There is very little information loss. However, there are important features that reveal the limitations of the PL model. The y scale represents the log-odds of winning from Variety 1, the variety arbitrarily chosen as our reference. The scale of the model parameters does not have an absolute zero. Variety 1 has a parameter value of zero, but any other variety can be chosen as the reference variety. In reality the underlying mean value for Variety 1 is 4. The original value cannot be retrieved from the model. In other words, the index given by the PL model has a meaning only relative to the other varieties, even though there is a strong linear relationship with the underlying latent variable.In Example 2, we added a complication in that 250 of the 500 farmers experienced a drought condition, which made two varieties increase their mean. However, there is also an error in the measurement of the drought condition. We then applied a Plackett-Luce tree model to this artificial dataset, to visualise how it distinguishes between the two groups of farmers and their variety rankings. Also, we show how to derive variety recommendations from the model outputs to respond to climate risk. In Fig. 11.3, we show the results of a Plackett-Luce tree, applied on data with a covariate representing seasonal rainfall. The Plackett-Luce tree determines how to use the drought variable to split the data.In real analyses, we derive covariates from a geospatial weather dataset, using the GPS point of each farm and the planting date to retrieve data from the right place and time. We then generate multiple variables from these data (number of consecutive dry days, number of days with temperature above a certain threshold, total rainfall accumulated, etc.). We also use variables related to the terrain and soil. The Plackett-Luce model picks the best predictor and determines the best point where to split the data (for example, making a group with less than four consecutive dry days and another group with more than 4 days).In our second example, the model splits the set of farmers in two equal groups. In the simulation, 250 farmers were assigned to each condition. It correctly identifies the drought resistant varieties-Varieties 6 and 10-which jump out in the right part of the graph. The graph also shows 95% confidence intervals around the parameter estimations, which give an idea of the certainty we have that the varieties are really different.The results of our simulation illustrate how the tricot approach can distinguish between different varieties and has the power to evaluate the variety by climatic conditions. In a simulation of different environmental conditions, it is clear that the performance of the different varieties varies based on those basic climatic conditions. This influences the evaluation of the farmers, who provide different feedback.The outputs from the Plackett-Luce model and the Plackett-Luce tree are shown on a log-scale in reference to winning from a particular variety. These values are a bit abstract, but as shown in Fig. 11.2, the values are linearly related to the underlying trait values. The PL model can also produce probabilities of winning from all other varieties for each of the varieties, which are easier to interpret. These values can be used to construct portfolios of varieties.We illustrate variety portfolio construction with an example. To construct robust portfolios, we use theory from financial asset management, adapting the method of Dembo and King (1992) to relative losses (probabilities of being the best). The method is closely related to Conditional Value at Risk (Testuri and Uryasev 2004). This is a state-of-the-art metric now widely used in banks, which was previously applied by Sukcharoen and Leatham (2016) to variety portfolio construction.For simplicity, we focus on a smaller example, with four varieties in two seasonal climate scenarios. In Table 11.1 we show a possible output from a Plackett-Luce tree, which can be interpreted as a payoff matrix for the construction of robust portfolios.We generated another table from this, Table 11.2, showing the relative opportunity loss. We obtained these values by dividing the values by the highest value in each column, to first get the so-called competitive ratio. We subtract the competitive ratio from 1 to get relative opportunity loss values. Different types of seasonal climate happen with different probabilities. In our example, we have determined with long-term weather data or seasonal climate forecasting that the probability of dry conditions during the growing season is 0.6 and of a wet condition 0.4.From this table, we can calculate the expected regret for a particular portfolio of varieties. We square the regret per variety per scenario to give more emphasis to higher regret values, following Dembo and King (1992). For example, a portfolio with 50% Variety 2 and 50% Variety 3, would give a regret of 0.0062 (Table 11.3).Expected regret will never become zero, because we can never beat a perfect forecast by choosing a good portfolio. But we can get very close. We can pick an optimally robust portfolio by minimising the expected regret. We can calculate the proportions of each of these varieties in an optimally robust portfolio through a simple optimisation, which can be done in Microsoft Excel. In this case, the optimal portfolio has 67% of Variety 1 and 24% of Variety 2 (and small contributions from Varieties 3 and 4), achieving a regret value of 0.0014, more than four times less than the portfolio we looked at above. More study is needed to determine the best portfolio design method on the basis of this type of data. There are various ways to parameterise the model further. However, our main point here was to demonstrate that it is possible to construct rational variety portfolios from this type of data. This portfolio construction approach can also be used to construct crop portfolios for climate resilience. Variety Dry (P = 0.6) Wet (P = 0.4) Expected regret Var2 (0.5 share) 0.6 * (0.10 * 0.5)2 = 0.0015 0.4 * (0.00 * 0.5)2 = 0.0000 0.0015 Var3 (0.5 share) 0.6 * (0.17 * 0.5)2 = 0.0042 0.4 * (0.07 * 0.5)2 = 0.0006 0.0047 Expected regret 0.0057 0.00055 0.0062Our simulation exercises show that the tricot approach is statistically robust and allows us to identify the varieties or portfolios of varieties that are preferred by farmers in different environments. Each farm constitutes a mini-experiment in which most of the conditions are not constant. The tricot approach does not try to eliminate the variability between farmers' management practices, soil types, seasons and preferences, but rather makes statistical use of such information to provide recommendations that work in each place and are robust to climate risk.The approach can also determine if varieties perform differently under different environmental conditions. This has the potential to significantly contribute to the improvement of seed systems by allowing the delivery of varieties based on seasonal climate forecasts or on prevailing conditions in different environments. When working in a complex topography such as those found in Ethiopia, one can expect important differences in conditions among villages, depending on altitude, rainfall and other factors. The tricot approach can help to deliver the best seeds based on the actual climatic conditions of a particular village.The tricot approach also can cover a higher number of varieties than usual onfarm testing approaches. It can engage with a larger community of farmers than a conventional participatory variety selection (PVS), and the larger number of farmers provides considerable statistical power, resulting in more data points. In addition, the tricot approach could be combined with genomic data to increase the predictive power of the model (Jean-Luc Jannink, personal communication).Lastly, even without determining absolute levels of yield or other variables, the tricot approach can deliver variety recommendations for risk-reducing portfolios, which adds another tool for climate adaptation. In the literature, limited applications of crop variety portfolio design can be found, mainly for well-endowed production environments in the US and Mexico (e.g., Nalley and Barkley 2010, among others).Our simulation shows that it is possible in principle to generate crop variety portfolio recommendations for marginal environments through participatory trials at scale.Under the current agricultural model, climate change will cause a reduction of yields for many crops in many parts of Africa. Farmers in these environments need accelerated seed-based innovation to cope with climate change. It seems logical, therefore, to diversify in ways that will enhance productivity at any given locality by quickly delivering varieties that are tested by the farmers. Such an approach will significantly increase the adoption rate. As Ceccarelli (2015) has argued, success of plant breeding should be measured based on the technologies that are adopted by the farmers and not by the number of released varieties.Modern plant breeding has not yet reached many marginal environments and is unlikely to reach them in the next couple of decades through conventional approaches. Research has shown that all over the world, farmers often prefer to grow traditional varieties despite the availability of more productive technologies (Jarvis et al. 2011). The reasons for this include the traditional varieties' better adaptation to prevailing climatic and soil conditions, taste preferences, market preferences, nutritional value, resistance to pests and diseases, and reduced risks. Many times new technologies are not adopted because of costs or lack of accessibility-or simply because they do not match farmers' needs.Engaging farmers directly in the development of new technologies has many benefits (Beza et al. 2017). It decentralises crop improvement efforts, reduces costs, enhances the efficiency of plant breeding, and shortens the time frame for new varieties to be released. It also increases adoption rates, and allows the adoption of a portfolio of varieties that will enhance resilience in the face of climate unpredictability. Perhaps most importantly, it will maximise yields at any given location rather than promoting a good average variety.Another significant advantage is the use of material conserved in national or international gene banks. This injects into the production systems novel alleles for adaptation to a number of stresses, biotic and a-biotic, that are lost when only elite lines are used in the process of breeding. Many of the farmers' varieties conserved in the gene banks have been exposed to different pests and pathogens and different climatic conditions, and as a result have developed alleles that allow them to adapt to a multitude of conditions. The gene banks, designed mainly as recipient of material to be eventually distributed by breeders, need to rethink their role and become a source of new traits for farmers and production systems. A shift in the functioning of the gene banks is already underway in Ethiopia and Uganda, where gene banks are delivering material to the farmers and are helping to manage community seed banks.Once such genetic material is out in the production system, the new alleles in the varieties selected by farmers may prove very important for breeders. If the varieties are also investigated using genotyping approaches, this would allow the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for relevant traits and promote marker-assisted participatory breeding.The tricot approach has the potential to contribute to making seed systems more dynamic when demand and supply are put in contact-e.g., using the ClimMob platform-and more diversified because more varieties per crop will be delivered in a location-specific way. A more integrated seed system will allow both informal and formal contributions to the sustainability and resilience of farming system. It also creates the space for an intermediate seed system in which local seed cooperatives or community seed banks are involved in the production of preferred seeds that are identified through the tricot approach. Legislation is being developed in Africa (including in Tanzania, Uganda and Ethiopia) in which seed production rules are designed to allow those local actors to multiply and sell seeds of certain varieties of a sufficiently good quality (Quality Declared Seeds or QDS). This legislation favors the promotion of varieties developed using the tricot approach. Also, variety release procedures could benefit from scaled on-farm testing using the tricot approach.How does this work contribute to Climate-Smart Agriculture? Climate-Smart Agriculture means different things to different people (Chandra et al. 2018). The smartness in our approach does not come through technical prioritisation exercises that guide investments towards certain \"climate-smart\" agricultural practices that are guaranteed to confer climate-related benefits. We have serious doubts about this approach. The Green Revolution settled on seeds largely because more knowledgeintensive approaches were more difficult to realise in the absence of well-developed extension systems (Fitzgerald 1986;Harwood 2009). As a result, \"smartness\" had be put into scientifically-bred seeds as the vehicles that would reach farms. Farmers would not need to learn, they simply had to start using the new seeds. This worked, but it worked best where the ground was already prepared, in production areas that most resembled modern temperate-climate agriculture, where agriculture was commercial in outlook, used high levels of inputs or irrigation water, and worked in relatively homogeneous environments (Fitzgerald 1986). Mechanisation and increased use of bulky fossil inputs characterised these farming systems, rather than knowledge intensification.In our approach, which focuses specifically on marginal areas, we do not pretend that agricultural science can inject smartness into farming using seeds or other \"climate-smart\" technologies as the vehicle. \"Climate-smart technologies\" do not exist literally, if at all. It is subject to the fallacy of misplaced concreteness. In the end, smartness is about how people do things, how farmers are involved in constantly assessing the local appropriateness of technologies, how farmers, extension agents and researchers create new linkages that enhance information generation and exchange, and how these different ways of doing are then leading to new types of knowledge, seeds, and technologies. These end products may symbolise people's collective smartness, but do not replace it. The desired smartness (or better, wisdom) emerges as a systemic property of reconfigured seed and knowledge systems in which knowledge and technology is generated and exchanged in ways that are in pace with accelerated climate and socio-economic change, more equitable, and more attentive to environmental and social diversity and needs.Van Etten J, Beza E, Calderer L et al (2016) First experiences with a novel farmer citizen science approach: crowdsourcing participatory variety selection through on-farm triadic comparisons of technologies (tricot The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.","tokenCount":"3848"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1eec79df4addafc64fd543ee98f5bed3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c61937c9-7ad5-495e-a6b8-799629b0135c/retrieve","id":"-1874216137"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4ccf6f23-d232-498f-a24e-6993cfbc0b78","pagecount":"112","content":"The rural populations of most poor countries consist mainly of farmers with limited economic resources and little political in fluence. Furthermore, the small scale of their individual farm s and the frequent absence of producer organizations make them easy to overlook, particularly in the face of other, more immediate or sen sational problems. This difficult reality has been driven home dramatically over the past few years.The recent recession that has affected most countries has created se rious domestic problems for many major donors. Government rev enues are down significantly, social programs are stretched to the breaking point, and macroeconomic factors suggest the prosperity of the 1980s is still elusive.On the international front, the end of the cold war gave cause for celebration, but ensuing events have tempered initial optimism. Geopolitical stasis in Eastern Europe and parts of Africa and Asia has given way to social and economic upheaval, further diverting donors' attention and resources from historical as well as present and future issues such as the environment, global food security, and rural problems. Am ong the 18 international centers of the CGIAR, ISN A R is the only one fu lly dedicated to helping developing countries reinforce the national institutional base for the agricultural research needed to serve farmers. W ithout the presence and active participation of viable national research systems, the work of the rest of the CGIAR centers is largely irrelevant to national development objectives. For it is only through national research structures that developing countries can absorb, adapt, and apply the innovations made at the international level.ISN A R is a small organization with an immense mission. The demand for services from developing nations has always exceeded our capacity to respond. Certainly we m ust keep ourselves tuned to the needs and aspirations of our clients and try to make the best use of our limited financial and human resources.In addressing this A nnual Report for 1993 to our partners, donors, and others interested in the state of national agricultural research, we attempt to demonstrate that ISN A R , though small, can and does make a valuable contribution in several areas of research policy and management in the developing countries. In the end, however, the success or failure of the activities described in the following pages is best judged by our partners, the national agricultural research sys tems. If, because of ISN A R 's service, national research leaders and policymakers are better able to serve poor farmers and consumers, then we will have fulfilled our mission, at least in part. We extend an open invitation to these men and women to inform us, as well as our supporting donors, whether IS N A R is on the right track, and if not, what can be done.Executive Summaryeadquartered in The H ague, The N etherlands, ISNAR is a m em ber center of the C onsultative G roup on International A gricultural Research. Its m andate is to assist developing countries in bringing about lasting im provem ents in the perform ance of their national agricul tural research system s (NARS) and or ganizations. It does this by prom oting appropriate research policies, sustainable institutions, and im proved m anagem ent. ISNAR's services are ultim ately intended to benefit consum ers and producers and to safeguard the natural environm ent.In past years ISNAR's annual report has been published as separate English, French, and Spanish editions. Given the current situation of tight funding, ISNAR m anagem ent decided to publish the full text of the 1993 annual report in English only, as a cost-saving m easure. However, as a service to readers, this executive sum m ary appears in English, French, Spanish, and Arabic. It highlights m ajor 1993 ac tivities and aims to give a sense of the key issues of concern to NARS, their m anag ers, and policym akers. The ISNAR w ork described here is not exhaustive.Nicole Senécal, vice-president (m ulti lateral branch) of the C anadian Inter national D evelopm ent Agency, w as elected chairperson of ISNAR's Board of Trustees. H er term began in October. She succeeds John Dillon of A ustralia who joined ISNAR's board in 1986 and becam e its chairperson in 1990. D uring the year, tw o other trustees, having com pleted their term s, left the board. ISNAR's board now has 14 m em bers, including the direc tor general. In addition, a representative of FAO is a constitutionally appointed ob server.The 1993 report leads off w ith a them e essay titled N atural Resource M anage m ent and the Environm ent: W idening the A gricultural Research A genda.A key m essage of the essay is that a new paradigm , both scientific and organi zational, is needed if the goals of increas ing production and protecting the natural resource base are to be com bined success fully. Holistic w ays of approaching com plex scientific problem s of sustainable agricultural production have been em erg ing for som e years now an d this trend will continue. A genda 21, the m anifesto of the 1992 UN Conference on Environm ent and D evelopm ent, has helped to identify, am ong other things, the new directions re search will need to take and the problem s it will have to solve.Research policy-m aking, as well as re search planning, priority setting, im plem entation, an d evaluation, requires m ore sophisticated analytical tools than have been generally used in the past. M anagers will need to draw heavily on system s theory, economic analysis, and other tools. The design of crop, anim al, and other production system s, as well as necessary changes in policies, will increas ingly have to take into account en vironm ental and social costs and benefits not priced in the m arket.Planning across sectors -agriculture, health, education, com m unications, water, transport, and so on -will becom e espe cially im portant as new factors are taken into account in research an d developm ent projects. A gricultural research can con tribute significantly to such planning.D ealing w ith sustainability issues will also require changes in the structure and m anagem ent of research organizations. Some reorganization m ay be needed to ensure integrated planning w ithin the ag ricultural research system a n d to m aintain good linkages w ith outside players w ho also have a stake in sustainable develop m ent. Training program s and h u m an re source p lanning will need to respond to d em ands for a new mix of scientific ex pertise.The essay notes recent evidence of NARS com m itm ent to tackling sustaina bility concerns. However, it cautions that the task w ill be very difficult for countries w ith m eager resources or pressing prob lem s of p overty an d hunger. The longer action is postponed, though, the greater the risks of fam ine an d environm ental d e gradation for the next generation.For their part, donors m u st not lose sight of the fact that sustainable develop m ent occurs in the real-life context of farm ers, other producers, an d consum ers, often very poor, struggling for survival. N utritional levels in m any developing countries are still inadequate an d the global p o p u lation w ill probably double in the next 100 years. Production-oriented agriculture and agricultural research, therefore, cannot be relegated to a m inor role. W ithout them it w ill be im possible to significantly alleviate h u m an poverty, a condition th at inevitably leads to en vironm ental degradation. Strong and stable investm ent in agricultural research is crucial to the future of the planet.The them e essay is accom panied by a de scription of recent ISNAR activities in the area of sustainability and natural resource m anagem ent (NRM) research, as it affects NARS. These include collaboration w ith research organizations in Bhutan and Kenya; research to develop agroecologically based m ethods of setting research priorities at the regional level, initially for Latin America; a w orkshop on the use of applied system s analysis; and the creation of a bibliographic data base on the m an agem ent aspects of NRM research. To unify these an d other related activities, ISNAR has set u p a cross-program com m ittee on NRM issues.The m ain body of the annual report pro vides details of ISNAR's advisory service, research, training, an d inform ation activi ties in a range of m anagem ent an d policy areas. These areas are divided into three broad them es around w hich ISNAR's p ro gram w ork is organized.The ■ For som e years ISNAR has collected and analyzed inform ation on staffing levels, fu nding trends, an d other aspects of national agricultural re search system s around the w orld. This kind of inform ation is needed by policym akers and system planners. In 1993, w ork in this area continued, w ith the focus on sub-Saharan Africa.Statistical briefs on five countries w ere produced. Ten others are in progress.■ The policy program is investigating the role of regional agricultural re search netw orks in strengthening national systems. The initial venues for this new area of w ork are East Africa and West Africa.■ Following a 1992 pilot study in G hana, four country case studies on the links betw een structural adjustm ent p ro gram s an d agricultural research w ere com pleted an d tw o others launched.The G hana study, plus one on Indone sia, w ere published in the ISNAR Briefing Paper series. Also, in coopera tion w ith the W orld B ank's Economic D evelopm ent Institute, a w eek-long sem inar on the topic w as staged for senior research leaders an d govern m ent policym akers in M arch in Nairobi.■ Work on the links betw een public-and private-sector research also continued, w ith a case stu d y of the situation in Jamaica. Briefing papers on Ecuador and Colom bia w ere published.■ The Interm ediary Biotechnology Ser vice conducts studies an d provides in form ation to NARS on biotechnology issues, resources, and expertise. It p ro duced tw o ISNAR Research Reports: one on biotechnology program s in 10 countries, the other on intellectual property rights. It also organized an international consultation on biotech nology research at ISNAR h ead q u ar ters in N ovem ber and set u p a data base on international biotechnology program s.■ The m anuscript of a m ajor book on the theory an d practice of research plan ning and priority setting, especially u n d er conditions of scarce resources, reached the final stages of preparation. The book draw s heavily on the tools of econom ic analysis.■ The ISNAR stu d y of research m anage m ent in 50 sm all countries w as com pleted d u rin g the year. It u n d e r lines the im portance to such countries of forging scientific links w ith outside sources of technology. It also suggests the need for further investigations of how sm all countries can best benefit from research netw orks a n d from tech nology \"spillovers\" betw een countries.■ A m ajor project to help Latin A m erican and C aribbean countries strengthen their capacity to plan, monitor, and evaluate agricultural research entered its final phase. Several dozen national institutions are participating in this re gional project. Training m aterials w ere designed, tested, an d produced, a n d a course w as staged for project partici pan ts from the A ndean countries. ISNAR also collaborated w ith CAB In ternational on the publication in Eng lish of a sourcebook on m onitoring an d evaluation of agricultural re search, w hich will also appear in Spanish.  ® In the area of financial m anagem ent, staff of the MOR program gave advice to four countries: Mali, Morocco, Tan zania, an d U ganda. The w ork in Mali included ISNAR participation in a W orld Bank appraisal m ission w hich paved the w ay for m ajor investm ents to strengthen the country's agricul tural research system.® ISNAR com pleted a stu d y of w om en's participation in the agricultural re search system of the Philippines. Fiftythree percent of scientists w ith MS or PhD degrees are w om en. This p ropor tion is high by international standards. However, w om en w ere found to be underrepresented in senior scientific an d m anagem ent positions. The study, w hich w as w ritten u p as a prelim inary report, includes recom m endations on practices to m axim ize the contribution of professional w om en to agricultural research.® MOR staff also began w ork in tw o areas of organizational perform ance: assessm ent and benchm arking. For the first, a set of indicators is being con structed to help NARS m anagers m easure an d assess how w ell their in stitution is fulfilling its scientific m is sion (effectiveness) an d how w ell the resources available to do it are being m anaged (efficiency). Second, ex am ples of good m anagem ent practices in NARS, so-called benchmarks, are being identified an d described by ISNAR so th at other research institu tions m ay learn from their experience.■ A ssessing the job perform ance of re searchers is a crucial an d often prob lematic area of hu m an resource m anagem ent for NARS. MOR staff, collaborating w ith institutes in Morocco an d Senegal, began w ork on the design of new perform ance-assessm ent system s that aim to m axim ize and rew ard the contributions of scien tists.Also w o rth y of m ention is a m ajor activity that drew on the subject-m atter expertise of staff from several ISNAR units. Two ISNAR staff served as guest editors of the A ugust 1993 issue of Public Administration and Development, an international journal of training, research, and practice. The w ork involved com m issioning and editing 11 p ap ers on agricultural research m anagem ent in developing countriesseven by ISNAR staff and four by outside experts.ISNAR officers w orked in about 40 coun tries d uring the year. In som e cases, these w ere high-level m issions to give direct a d vice and su p p o rt to senior m anagers on m ajor changes or events taking place in their research system s -such as planning exercises. In other cases, ISNAR staff pro vided in-country training on individual topics, carried ou t country case studies, or assisted w ith the design an d introduction of specific m anagem ent m echanism s or systems.A m ajor area of direct country col laboration w as the developm ent of national or subnational research plans. ISNAR assisted Burkina Faso, Jordan, Lebanon, M auritania, an d M ozam bique. In the case of research p lan im plem enta tion, advice and su p p o rt w ere given to Bhutan, Mali, Niger, Tanzania, U ganda, an d Uruguay.Diagnostic review s of the research sys tem s of Algeria, N am ibia, an d Yemen w ere also com pleted.With their agreem ent, ISNAR desig nated tw o countries -U ganda and Ecuador -as long-term partners u n d er its com prehensive institutional develop m ent (CID) m echanism for collaboration. U nder this arrangem ent, ISNAR w orks intensively w ith a sm all num ber of selected countries on a range of policy and m anagem ent issues. A concerted ef fort is m ade to a d a p t and transfer ISNARdeveloped tools and m ethods to the country. The close relationship is also a learning experience for ISNAR, allow ing it to im prove service to all client countries.In U ganda, an outposted staff m em ber p rovided continuing su p p o rt to NARO, the country's lead organization for agri cultural research. The CID program of w ork calls for advice an d training on a w ide range of m anagem ent com ponents: institutional structure, scientific an d m an agem ent inform ation system s, personnel an d financial m anagem ent, program p lan ning, m onitoring an d evaluation, research netw orking, and linkages w ith technology transfer. These are provided by head q u ar ters-based staff or consultants. The project in Ecuador foresees a sim ilar program of w ork w ith backstopping from h ead q u ar ters.In Tanzania, an outposted staff m em ber gave broad-based su p p o rt to the De p artm en t of Research an d Training. A m ajor focus of w ork w as the introduction of INFORM, as noted above.Finally, a special ISNAR contribution in 1993, aim ed at strengthening agricul tu ral research in Africa, is w orthy of note. An ISNAR program director served as chairperson of an international task force assem bled w ith the assistance of the Special Program for African A gricultural Research (SPAAR). The task force is charged w ith preparing a \"fram ew ork for action\" to revitalize research in West and C entral Africa. A griculture m inisters in the region have endorsed the task force's interim report and recom m endations. IMS staff w orked w ith the ISNAR Publi cations C om m ittee to redesign an d intro duce three new ISNAR publication series:Research M anagem ent Guidelines, Re search R eports, an d Briefing Papers. IMS also carried out a readership survey to help ISNAR target its publications better.A m ajor task accom plished by IMS d u rin g the year, u n d er the leadership of the com puter unit, w as the design an d in troduction of a new address-and-m ailing data base. This will serve the daily needs of all staff.M oving beyond its internal support w ork, IMS collaborated w ith the NARS of India an d S udan on issues of inform ation m anagem ent. In India the w ork centered on drafting a strategy for a nationw ide \"agricultural research inform ation sys tem \" to enable Indian agricultural re searchers to m ake the m ost of new com puter and telecom m unications tech nology. In Sudan, ISNAR assisted the Ag ricultural Research C orporation w ith an analysis of its com puter needs and priori ties.In January, IMS also organized and staged an expert consultation on the infor m ation m anagem ent needs of NARS, in cooperation w ith CTA an d CAB Inter national. Representatives of NARS, donor agencies, and other CGIAR centers partic ipated.ISNAR produced a total of 58 m ajor docu m ents during the year for outside dis tribution, including restricted circulation. A m ong these w ere 26 formal, printed ISNAR publications such as Research Re ports, Research M anagem ent Guidelines, Briefing Papers, the A nnual Report, and ISNAR Newsletter. M ost of these w ere produced w ith the direct assistance of the Publications Services unit. The total also includes grey literature (e.g., Discussion Papers), in som e cases photocopied for lim ited circulation, in other cases printed. In addition, staff m em bers also produced 82 papers, book chapters, an d articles published by outside organizations, som etim es w ith joint authorship.D uring the year ISNAR drew on the ser vices of 60 outside consultants or consult ing groups.In 1993, ISNAR's total operating expendi tures w ere US$10.323 million. Of that, $5.989 m illion w as funded through coreunrestricted grants an d the rest through core-restricted grants, special project funding, reim bursem ents for services ren dered, an d other revenues. This repre sents a 3.6 percent decrease in ISNAR's overall expenditures com pared w ith 1992. W hile core-unrestricted funding fell by al m ost 9 percent, the com bination of core restricted a n d other resources rose by about 3.4%.L 'ISNAR, membre du Groupe consultatif pour la recherche agricole internatio nale, ayant son siège à La Haye, aux Pays-Bas, a pour m andat d'aider les pays en développement à améliorer de manière du rable les performances de leur système na tional de recherche agricole et des organisations qui en font partie. A cette fin, l'ISNAR oeuvre à prom ouvoir des politi ques de recherche appropriées, à renforcer les institutions et à en améliorer les mé thodes de gestion. Le but final des services de l'ISNAR est le bien-être des producteurs et consommateurs des pays en développe ment, ainsi que la conservation de l'environ nement naturel.Depuis plusieurs années, le rapport de l'ISNAR paraissait en trois versions (anglais, français et espagnol). Compte tenu de la contraction du budget, la direction de l'ISNAR a décidé, par mesure d'économie, de ne publier le rapport annuel de 1993 qu'en anglais. Néanmoins, afin d'en facili ter la lecture, son contenu a été condensé en un résumé analytique en anglais, français, espagnol et arabe, qui met en lumière les points saillants des activités de 1993 et en fait ressortir les aspects fondamentaux pour les SNRA, les responsables de ceux-ci et les décideurs. La description du travail de l'ISNAR présentée dans ce résumé n'a pas un caractère exhaustif.Nicole Senécal, vice-présidente (branche multilatérale) de l'Agence canadienne de développement international (ACDI), a été élue présidente du Conseil d'adm inistration à compter du mois d'octobre. Elle a succédé à John Dillon, d'Australie, membre du Conseil d'adm inistration depuis 1986, qui en était devenu le président en 1990. Dans le cours de l'année, le Conseil de l'ISNAR a vu le départ de deux autres adm inistrateurs dont le m andat était parvenu à expiration. Il se compose désormais de quatorze mem bres, dont le directeur général. Il comprend également, conformément à ses statuts, un observateur de la FAO.Le rapport de 1993 s'ouvre sur un essai inti tulé « Gestion des ressources naturelles et environnement : élargissement du champ d'action de la recherche agricole ».Cet essai délivre un message fondamen tal : si l'on entend réaliser les objectifs de l'accroissement de la production et de la protection des ressources naturelles, l'ém er gence d 'un nouveau paradigm e est indis pensable, aussi bien sur le plan scientifique qu'au niveau organisationnel. Depuis quel ques années, l'on voit apparaître de nou velles approches qui appréhendent dans une perspective holistique les problèmes scientifiques complexes posés par la durabi lité de l'agriculture, et cette tendance est ap pelée à se poursuivre.L'Agenda 21, manifeste de la Conférence des Nations Unies sur l'environnement et le développe ment de 1992, a aidé à définir, entre autres éléments, les nouvelles orientations de la re cherche et les problèmes auxquels il lui faut s'attaquer.La formulation de stratégies, ainsi que la planification, la définition de priorités, la mise en oeuvre et l'évaluation de la re cherche nécessitent des outils analytiques plus sophistiqués que ceux qui ont été géné ralement employés jusqu'à présent. Les res ponsables de la recherche doivent faire appel à la théorie des systèmes, à l'analyse économique et à d'autres méthodologies performantes. La mise au point de systèmes de culture, d'élevage ou autres et la réorien tation nécessaire des stratégies doivent se faire en tenant compte de coûts et de béné fices environnementaux et sociaux dont la valeur n'est pas déterminée par les forces du marché.Une planification globale sur l'ensemble des secteurs -agriculture, santé, éducation, communication, eau, transports, etc. -de vient d'autant plus importante que des fac teurs nouveaux entrent dans les considérations des projets de recherche et de développement. La recherche agricole peut contribuer de manière significative à cette planification.L'apport de solutions aux problèmes de durabilité implique également des change ments dans la structure et la gestion des in stitutions de recherche. Une réorganisation sera sans doute nécessaire afin de créer les conditions requises pour une planification intégrée au sein du système de recherche agricole et afin de m aintenir des liaisons ap propriées avec les acteurs extérieurs partici pant à la réalisation de l'objectif du développement durable. Les programmes de formation et la planification des res sources humaines devront pouvoir satisfaire la dem ande d'expertises scientifiques de type nouveau.Ainsi qu'il est souligné dans l'essai, une volonté de prendre en main les problèmes de durabilité se manifeste depuis quelque temps chez les SNRA. Cependant, il s'agit là d'une tâche particulièrement difficile pour des pays dotés de maigres ressources ou affligés de problèmes pressants de pau vreté et de nutrition. Pourtant, plus l'on tar dera à agir, et plus les risques de famine et de dégradation de l'environnem ent seront grands pour la génération à venir.Les bailleurs de fonds, quant à eux, ne doivent pas perdre de vue le fait que l'objec tif du développement durable se situe dans le contexte de la vie réelle des paysans, des producteurs en général et des consomma teurs, c'est-à-dire de populations souvent très pauvres, qui luttent pour survivre. Le niveau nutritionnel demeure insuffisant dans bon nom bre de pays en développe ment et l'on devrait assister à un double ment de la population mondiale au cours des 100 prochaines années. C'est pourquoi l'agriculture et la recherche agricole qui a pour vocation d'en accroître la productivité ne doivent pas être reléguées au second plan. Sans elles, il sera impossible de faire reculer la pauvreté humaine, et il en résulte ra immanquablement une dégradation de l'environnement. Il est crucial pour l'avenir de la planète que des investissements consé quents et soutenus soient consacrés à la re cherche agricole.L 'ISN A R et les systèmes nationaux : la durabilité au centre de la collaboration L'essai s'accompagne d'une description des activités récentes menées par l'ISNAR en di rection des SNRA dans le domaine de la d u rabilité et de la gestion des ressources naturelles (GRN) : collaboration avec des or ganismes de recherche au Bhoutan et au Kenya ; recherche sur des méthodes partant de bases agroécologiques pour définir des priorités de recherche au niveau régional, initialement pour l'Amérique latine ; atelier sur les applications de l'analyse de sys tèmes ; et création d'une base de données bibliographiques sur les aspects de gestion de la recherche sur la GRN. Afin d'harm oniser ces activités et d'autres projets appa rentés, l'ISNAR a mis en place un comité de coordination des programmes.Le corps du rapport annuel fournit des dé tails sur le service conseil et les activités de recherche, formation et information relatives aux divers aspects de la gestion et des politi ques de recherche. Ces aspects sont regrou pés en trois grands thèmes autour desquels s'articule le travail des programmes de l'ISNAR.Les programmes sont les suivants : ® Politiques de recherche et stratégies au niveau du système (RPSS)® Conception et gestion des programmes de recherche (RPDM)® Gestion des organisations et des res sources (MOR).La coordination du service conseil et de l'appui aux SNRA au niveau national est as surée par les Services de collaboration et de formation (CST). Les CST et les trois pro grammes bénéficient de l'appui de sept uni tés qui composent les Services de gestion de l'information (également investis d'une fonction externe d'appui aux SNRA) et les Services administratifs. Il convient également de mentionner une ac tivité qui a mis à contribution l'expertise de spécialistes de plusieurs unités de l'ISNAR. Dans le courant de l'année, les experts de l'ISNAR sont intervenus dans une quaran taine de pays. Dans certains cas, il s'agissait de missions de haut niveau visant à appor ter des conseils et un appui directs aux diri geants de systèmes de recherche, à l'occasion de changements ou événements majeurs tels que des exercices de planifica tion. Dans les autres cas, le personnel de l'ISNAR a assuré des actions de formation locales sur des thèmes spécifiques, effectué des études de cas ou aidé à élaborer et à mettre en place des mécanismes ou sys tèmes de gestion. Un domaine im portant de collaboration directe avec des pays a été l'élaboration de plans de recherche (à l'échelle nationale ou plus localisés), pour lesquels l'ISNAR a ap porté une aide au Burkina Faso, à la Jorda nie, au Liban, à la Mauritanie et au Mozambique. Il a également fourni des conseils et un appui au Bhoutan, au Mali, au Niger, à la Tanzanie, à l'O uganda et à l'U ru guay pour la mise en oeuvre de leurs plans de recherche. En outre, des études de dia gnostic ont été effectuées sur les systèmes de recherche de l'Algérie, de la Namibie et du Yémen.Avec leur accord, l'ISNAR a désigné deux pays -l'O uganda et l'Equateurdevant collaborer en tant que partenaires à long terme à son mécanisme de développe m ent institutionnel global (DIG). Dans le cadre de ce dispositif, l'ISNAR travaille de manière intensive avec un petit nombre de pays sélectionnés sur une série de questions ayant trait aux politiques et à la gestion de la recherche. Des efforts concertés sont dé ployés dans ce cadre afin d'adapter les ou tils et méthodes mis au point par l'ISNAR et de les transférer à ces pays. Cette collabora tion constitue également pour l'ISNAR une expérience d'apprentissage lui perm ettant d'améliorer ses services pour l'ensemble des pays qui sont ses clients.En Ouganda, un expert détaché par l'ISNAR a assuré un appui perm anent au NARO, principal organisme de recherche agricole de ce pays. Le program m e de tra vail du DIG consiste à fournir des conseils et une formation sur les divers aspects de la gestion : structure institutionnelle, systèmes d'information sur la recherche et sur la ges tion, gestion des ressources humaines et des finances, planification, suivi et évaluation des programmes, réseaux de recherche et liaison avec le transfert de technologie. Ces services sont assurés par le personnel du siège ou par des consultants. Un projet si milaire doit être mis en oeuvre en Equateur avec un appui venant du siège.L'ISNAR a détaché en Tanzanie un ex pert qui a apporté un appui de nature géné rale au Département ministériel de la recherche et de la formation. Ainsi qu'il est mentionné plus haut, l'un des axes de cette assistance a été l'introduction du système INFORM.Enfin, l'année 1993 a été marquée par une contribution spéciale de l'ISNAR au renforcement de la recherche agricole en Afrique. L'un des directeurs de programme de l'ISNAR a présidé un groupe de travail international constitué avec l'assistance du Programme spécial pour la recherche agri cole en Afrique (SPAAR). Ce groupe de tra vail a pour charge de préparer un « cadre d'action » afin de relancer la recherche en Afrique de l'Ouest et centrale. Les ministres de l'agriculture de la région ont entériné le rapport intérimaire et les recommandations de ce groupe de travail.Deux projets de formation à la gestion de la recherche se sont poursuivis. Le premier consiste en une série d'activités de forma tion menées conjointement avec le KARI au Kenya. L'ISNAR a apporté un appui direct à trois des quatre cours organisés durant l'année. Le deuxième projet de formation, mis en oeuvre en collaboration avec la SADC et l'ESAMI, s'adresse aux responsa bles de recherche de la région de l'Afrique australe et se déroule à l'ESAMI, institut de gestion régional basé en Tanzanie. Un expert de l'ISNAR détaché en poste assure la coor dination du projet.Dans le cours de l'année, le Service de formation a continué d'appuyer les activités de formation des programmes de l'ISNAR. Il a notam m ent travaillé à l'élaboration de modules de formation sur la planification et la définition des priorités de recherche.Le personnel des IMS a travaillé avec le Co mité de publication de l'ISNAR au remanie ment du programme de publication et au lancement de trois nouvelles séries : Guides pratiques pour la gestion de la recherche, Rapports de recherche et Notes informatives. Les IMS ont également effectué une enquête sur le profil des lecteurs afin de per mettre à l'ISNAR de mieux cibler ses publi cations.Parmi les principales tâches accomplies durant Tannée, une nouvelle liste de diffu sion informatisée a été élaborée et mise en place sous la direction du Service de l'infor matique, pour les besoins quotidiens de l'ensemble du personnel.Au-delà de leurs fonctions d'appui pure m ent interne, les IMS ont apporté une assi stance aux SNRA de l'Inde et du Soudan dans les domaines de la gestion de l'infor mation. En Inde, ils ont aidé à rédiger une stratégie nationale devant déboucher sur un « système d'information sur la recherche agricole » qui perm ettra aux chercheurs in diens de tirer pleinement parti des technolo gies nouvelles de l'informatique et des télécommunications. Au Soudan, l'ISNAR a aidé TAgricultural Research Corporation à analyser ses besoins et priorités en matière d'informatisation.Au mois de janvier, les IMS, en coopéra tion avec le CTA et le CAB International, ont organisé et accueilli une consultation d'ex perts sur les besoins des SNRA en matière de gestion de l'information. Des représen tants de SNRA, de bailleurs de fonds et d'autres centres du GCRAI ont participé à cette consultation.L'ISNAR a produit pendant Tannée un total de 58 publications destinées à être distri buées à l'extérieur, y compris celles à diffu sion restreinte.Ce total com prend 26 publications officielles imprimées : des Rap ports de recherche, un Guide pratique pour la gestion de la recherche, des Notes informatives, le Rapport annuel et l'ISNAR en bref. La plupart ont été produites avec l'as sistance directe des Services de publication. Le total inclue également de la littérature grise (tels les Documents de discussion), dans certains cas imprimée, dans d'autres photocopiée en vue d'une diffusion limitée. En outre, le personnel a produit, parfois en collaboration avec d'autres auteurs, 82 do cuments, chapitres de livres et articles p u bliés à l'extérieur.L'ISNAR a fait appel en 1993 aux ser vices de 60 consultants ou firmes de consul tation externes.En 1993, le budget de fonctionnement total de l'ISNAR s'est élevé à 10,323 millions de dollars. Sur ce montant, 5,989 millions étaient financés par le budget central non restreint, et le reste par le budget central res treint, des financements de projets spéciaux, des remboursements de services rendus et des revenus divers. Par rapport à 1992, cela représente une baisse de 3,6 % du montant global des dépenses de l'ISNAR. Tandis que le budget central non restreint a diminué de près de 9 %, l'ensemble du budget central restreint et des autres ressources a augmenté de quelque 3,4 %.Resumen Ejecutivo E l ISNAR, con sede en La Haya, Países Bajos, es uno de los centros que forma parte del Grupo Consultivo para la In vestigación Agrícola Internacional (GCIAI). Su m andato consiste en ayudar a los países en desarrollo a mejorar el desempeño de sus sistemas nacionales de investigación agríco la (SNIA) y organizaciones, promoviendo el establecimiento de políticas apropiadas para la investigación agrícola, de instituciones que se dediquen a la investigación orientada a la sostenibilidad agropecuaria, y a una mejor administración de la investigación. Los servicios del ISNAR buscan en última instancia beneficiar a los consumidores y productores de los países en desarrollo y proteger el medio ambiente natural.En años anteriores, el informe anual del ISNAR ha sido publicado por separado en inglés, español y francés. Debido a la actual situación de escasos recursos financieros, la dirección del ISNAR ha decidido publicar el informe anual de 1993 sólo en inglés, como una medida para ahorrar costos. Sin embar go, con el fin de brindar un servicio a nues tros lectores, este resumen ejecutivo será publicado en inglés, francés, español y ára be. Este resumen resalta las principales acti vidades del año 1993 y aspira a hacer notar los asuntos que preocupan m ayormente a los SNIA, a sus representantes, y a los formuladores de políticas. En este resumen no se describe el trabajo desarrollado por ISNAR en detalle.Nicole Senécal, vice-presidente (oficina m ul tilateral) de la Agencia Internacional Cana diense para el Desarrollo (CIDA), fue elegida presidente de la Junta Directiva del ISNAR. Su servicio a la junta comenzó en octubre. La Sra. Senécal, sucede a John Dillon de Australia, quien se unió a la junta directiva en 1986 convirtiéndose en presi dente de la misma en 1990. Asimismo, d u rante este año, dos otros miembros de la directiva, finalizaron su servicio. La junta directiva del ISNAR tiene ahora 14 miem bros, incluyendo el director general. Ade más, cuenta con un representante de FAO, nom inado constitucionalmente, que asiste como observador.El informe anual de 1993 comienza con un ensayo sobre el tema Manejo de los Recur sos Naturales y el Medio Ambiente: Am pliación de la Agenda de la Investigación Agrícola.Un mensaje clave de este ensayo es que un nuevo paradigm a, tanto científico como organizativo, es necesario si las metas que se desean alcanzar, tanto en el aum ento de la producción como en la protección de los re cursos naturales, han de combinarse con éxito. Desde hace varios años han ido sur giendo m aneras integrales de enfocar los problemas científicos de la producción agrí cola orientada a la sostenibilidad y aparen temente se va a continuar en esta dirección. La Agenda 21, el manifiesto de la Conferen cia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo, realizada en 1992, ha ayudado a identificar, entre otras cosas, los nuevos rumbos que la investigación de berá tom ar así como los problemas que ten drá que resolver.La formulación de políticas para la in vestigación, la planificación de la investiga ción, el establecimiento de prioridades, la ejecución y la evaluación, necesitan herra mientas analíticas más sofisticadas que las que se han usado hasta ahora. Los adminis tradores de la investigación necesitarán in volucrarse intensamente en la teoría de sistemas productivos, el análisis económico y otras especialidades. El diseño de siste mas de cultivos, de crianza de ganado, y otros sistemas de producción, así como los cambios necesarios en las políticas, tendrán que tom ar en cuenta cada vez más los costos y beneficios del m edio ambiente y del aspec to social, que no son valorizados por el m er cado actual.La planificación de los sectores -agríco la, salud, educación, comunicación, agua, transporte, y otros -será especialmente im portante a m edida que se consideren nuevos factores en los proyectos de investigación y desarrollo. La investigación agrícola puede contribuir significativamente a esta planifi cación.Para tratar algunos aspectos de la sostenibilidad también se requerirá cambios en la estructura y el manejo de las organizaciones de investigación. Se necesitará realizar al guna reorganización, con el fin de asegurar un planeamiento integrado dentro del siste ma de investigación agrícola, y para mante ner buenos vínculos con los protagonistas fuera del sistema, quiénes tienen también responsabilidad en el desarrollo sostenible. Los program as de capacitación y planifica ción de los recursos hum anos deberán ser capaces de responder a las necesidades de una nueva integración de conocimientos científicos.Este ensayo da evidencia reciente del compromiso de los SNIA en abordar los problemas de sostenibilidad. A su vez, in forma que esta tarea será m uy difícil para los países con escasos recursos y con gran des problemas de pobreza y hambre. En es tos casos, cuanto más se posterga la toma de acción, es más grande el riesgo de hambre y degradación medioambiental para las gene raciones venideras.Por su lado, los donantes no deben olvi darse que el desarrollo sostenible ocurre en el contexto de la vida real de los agriculto res, otros productores, y los consumidores, a m enudo m uy pobres, quiénes tienen que lu char por sobrevivir. Los niveles de nutrición en muchos países en desarrollo son todavía inadecuados y probablemente la población mundial se duplicará en los próximos 100 años. La agricultura orientada a la produc ción y la investigación agrícola, por lo tanto, no pueden ser relegadas a un rol mínimo. Sin ellas, será virtualm ente imposible aliviar la pobreza hum ana, una condición que ine vitablemente conduce a la degradación me dioambiental. Una inversión fuerte y esta ble en la investigación agrícola es crucial para el futuro.Este ensayo comprende además una recien te descripción de las actividades de ISNAR en el área de sostenibilidad y la investiga ción del manejo de los recursos naturales (NRM), y su efecto en los SNIA. Esta inclu ye la colaboración con las organizaciones de investigación en Bután y Kenia; la investiga ción para desarrollar métodos para el esta blecimiento de prioridades a nivel regional basados en principios agroecológicos, ini cialmente para América Latina; un taller so bre el uso del análisis de sistemas aplicados; y la creación de una base de datos biblio gráfica sobre los aspectos de la gestión y el manejo de los recursos naturales. Para inte grar éstas y otras actividades pertinentes, ISNAR ha establecido un comité inter-programas en los temas de NRM.La sección principal del informe anual infor ma sobre el servicio de asesoría del ISNAR, la investigación, la capacitación y las activi dades de información en el rango de las áreas políticas y administrativas.Estas áreas están divididas en tres temas principa les y amplios sobre los que el programa de ISNAR está organizado.Estos ■ El manuscrito de un libro principal sobre la teoría y práctica de la planificación de la investigación, establecimiento de prio ridades, especialmente en situaciones donde los recursos son escasos, se en cuentra en su últim a etapa de prepara ción. El enfoque de este libro se centra en las herram ientas a utilizarse en el análisis económico.■ El estudio del ISNAR sobre el manejo de la investigación en 50 países pequeños se completó durante el año. Este estudio sobresalta la importancia de estos países para pactar alianzas científicas con las fuentes externas de tecnología. También, subraya la necesidad de una mayor in vestigación en situaciones donde los paí ses pequeños puedan beneficiarse entre ellor de las redes de la investigación y de los 'efectos beneficiosos adicionales' de la tecnología.■ Se implemento la segunda fase de un proyecto principal de ayuda a los países de Latinoamérica y el Caribe para forta lecer su capacidad de planificación, se guimiento y evaluación. Varias decenas de instituciones nacionales están partici pando en este proyecto regional. Se de sarrollaron, ensayaron y produjeron los materiales de capacitación y se organizó un curso para los participantes en los proyectos de los países andinos. Asimis mo, ISNAR colaboró con CAB Interna cional en la publicación de un manual de referencia sobre seguimiento y evalua ción de la investigación agrícola que será también publicado en español.■ Se publicó un informe de investigación sobre los vínculos entre los sistemas de investigación y las agencias de transfe rencia de tecnología. Este proyecto resu me los resultados de un estudio multinacional del ISNAR. Un investiga dor americano en licencia sabática, tra bajó con el personal del ISNAR en la preparación y el ensayo de materiales de capacitación para los administradores, tom ando como base éste y otros trabajos, en el desarrollo de vínculos con los usuarios de la tecnología. Además, con el fin de ampliar su trabajo en este tema, el program a RPDM inició un proyecto para estudiar los vínculos del sistema de investigación con las organizaciones de agricultores. Tres estudios de caso de países se están llevando a cabo: Kenia, Ghana y Burkina Faso.■ Se inició la prim era fase de un proyecto de investigación sobre el rol y las contri buciones de las universidades en la in vestigación agrícola. Las universidades y los institutos de investigación de Benin y Nigeria están colaborando con ISNAR en este proyecto. Se están desarrollando esfuerzos para asegurar la participación de otros países de Africa. ■ En el área de administración financiera el personal del programa MOR asesoró a cuatro países: Mali, Marruecos, Tanzania y Uganda. El trabajo de Mali incluyó la participación del ISNAR en una misión de evaluación del Banco M undial que trazó el camino para mayo res inversiones con la finalidad de forta lecer el sistema de investigación agrícola de ese país.■ ISNAR completó un estudio de caso so bre la participación de la mujer en el sis tema de investigación agrícola de las Filipinas. Las mujeres representan el 53% de los científicos con grados de maestría o doctorado. De acuerdo a los estánda res internacionales este porcentaje es bastante alto. Sin embargo, se encontró que las mujeres estaban subrepresentadas en puestos tanto científicos como ad ministrativos.Este estudio es un informe preliminar, comprende reco mendaciones y prácticas para maximizar la contribución de las mujeres profesio nales en la investigación agrícola.■ El personal del programa MOR también comenzó a trabajar en dos áreas del desempeño institucional: evaluación y puntos de referencia. En la primera, se está desarrollando un conjunto de indi cadores para ayudar a los adm inistrado res de los SNIA a medir y evaluar de que manera su institución está cumpliendo con su misión científica (efectividad) y de que m anera están siendo manejados los recursos disponibles para realizarla (eficiencia). En la segunda área de este programa se identifica y describe ejem plos de buena administración en los SNIA, los llamados puntos de referencia, de modo que otras instituciones puedan aprender de su experiencia.■ La evaluación del desempeño de los in vestigadores es un área crucial y proble mática de la gestión de los recursos hum anos para los SNIA. El personal del programa MOR, en colaboración con los institutos de Marruecos y Senegal, inició el trabajo sobre el diseño de sistemas de evaluación del desempeño, cuyo objeti vo es maximizar y reconocer las contri buciones de los científicos.Cabe mencionar una actividad importante que recae en la especialización sobre un de terminado tema del personal de algunas unidades del ISNAR. Dos de los miembros del ISNAR trabajaron como editores invita dos en la edición de agosto 1993 de la revis ta internacional de capacitación, Administración Pública y Desarrollo. El traba jo comprendía la edición de 11 documentos sobre el manejo de la investigación agrícola en los países en desarrollo -siete de estos documentos fueron editados por los miem bros del ISNAR y los otros cuatro, por ex pertos externos.Los expertos del ISNAR colaboraron con cerca de 40 países en el presente año. En al gunos casos, la colaboración se realizó a tra vés de misiones de alto nivel para dar asesoría y apoyo a los administradores de los SNIA sobre cambios im portantes o even tos que deberían llevarse a cabo en sus siste mas de investigación -como por ejemplo, actividades de planificación. En otros casos, el personal del ISNAR prestó servicios de capacitación en el país sobre temas indivi duales, realizó estudios de caso del país, o ayudó con el diseño y la introducción de mecanismos o sistemas específicos para la gestión y el manejo.Un área im portante de colaboración di recta a los países fue el desarrollo de planes de investigación nacionales o subnacionales. ISNAR asistió a Burkina Faso, Jordania, Líbano, M auritania y Mozambique. En el caso de la ejecución de los planes de investi gación, se asesoró y apoyó a Bután, Mali, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda y Uruguay.Se completaron también las misiones de diagnóstico de los sistemas de investigación de Algeria, Namibia y Yemen.A través de convenios de colaboración, ISNAR designó a dos países -Uganda y Ecuador -como colaboradores a largo pla zo mediante su servicio de desarrollo insti tucional integral (CID).Bajo estos convenios, ISNAR trabaja intensivamente con un núm ero de países pequeños en el rango de las áreas políticas y de la gestión. Se hará un esfuerzo conjunto para adaptar y transferir las herram ientas y métodos desar rollados por ISNAR al país correspondiente. Esta estrecha relación será adem ás una ex periencia de aprendizaje para el ISNAR, la cual le permitirá mejorar su servicio a otros países.En Uganda, un especialista de ISNAR asignado a este país prestó apoyo continuo a NARO, la organización líder de la investi gación agrícola. El program a de trabajo de CID com prende servicios de asesoría, capa citación en un amplio rango de los compo nentes del manejo: estructura institucional, sistemas de información científica y de la gestión, manejo de personal y adm inistra ción financiera, planeamiento de los progra mas, seguimiento y evaluación, investi gación de las redes y de los vínculos en la transferencia de tecnología. Estos servicios se brindan a través del personal apostado en la sede o consultores externos. El proyecto de Ecuador brinda un program a similar de trabajo con el apoyo desde la sede del ISNAR.Un funcionario del ISNAR con base en Tanzania prestó amplios servicios de apoyo al Departamento de Investigación y Capaci tación. Como se mencionó anteriormente, el objetivo principal de este trabajo fue la in troducción de INFORM.Finalmente, también es digno de men ción la contribución especial del ISNAR en 1993, en el fortalecimiento de la investiga ción agrícola en Africa. Un director de pro grama del ISNAR, prestó servicios como presidente de una comisión especial forma da con la ayuda del Programa Especial para la Investigación Agrícola (SPAAR). La co misión especial se encargará de preparar un \"marco de acción\" para revitalizar la inves tigación en Africa Occidental y Central. Los ministros de agricultura de la región han aprobado el informe interino y las recomen daciones de esta comisión especial.Se continúa trabajando en los dos proyectos principales de capacitación en el área de m a nejo de la investigación. Uno es una serie de actividades con KARI en Kenia. ISNAR apoyó directamente a tres de los cuatro eventos de capacitación durante el año. El otro es un proyecto conjunto de SADC, ESAMI e ISNAR, dirigido a administradores de la investigación en la región de Africa del Sur. Tiene su base operativa en ESAMI, un instituto regional de la gestión en Tanzania. Un miembro de ISNAR apoya este trabajo.Durante el año, la Unidad de Capacita ción continuó apoyando el trabajo en este campo de los miembros del personal de ISNAR. Particularmente, desempeñó un rol clave en el desarrollo de módulos de capaci tación, sobre el planeamiento de la investi gación y el establecimiento de prioridades.El personal del programa IMS trabajó con el Comité de Publicaciones del ISNAR en el re diseño y la introducción de tres nuevas se ries de publicaciones:Guías sobre el Manejo de la Investigación, Informes de In vestigación y Documentos Informativos. IMS también realizó una encuesta entre sus lectores con el objetivo de ayudar al ISNAR a mejorar el enfoque de sus publicaciones.Una tarea importante que el IMS logró cumplir durante el año, bajo el liderazgo de la unidad de cómputo, fue el diseño y la in troducción de una nueva base de datos de direcciones y listas de distribución. Esta base de datos será usada diariamente por todo el personal del ISNAR.En adición a los servicios internos que brinda, el IMS colaboró con los SNIA de India y Sudán en temas sobre el manejo de la información. En India el trabajo se centró en la preparación del borrador de una estra tegia para el sistema de investigación agrí cola a nivel nacional, con el fin de que los investigadores agrícolas de ese país puedan maximizar el uso de las nuevas tecnologías en los campos de telecomunicaciones y computadoras. En Sudán, el ISNAR ayudó a la Corporación de Investigación Agrícola con un análisis de sus prioridades y necesi dades de computación.En enero, el IMS organizó y realizó una consultoría de expertos sobre las necesida des de los SNIA en el manejo de la informa ción, en colaboración con el Centro Técnico para la Cooperación Agrícola y Rural y CAB Internacional. Participaron en esta consultoría los representantes de los SNIA, de agen cias donantes, y de otros centros del GCLAI.ISNAR produjo durante el año un total de 58 documentos principales para distribu ción externa, incluyendo documentos con circulación restringida. Dentro de estos do cumentos, 26 son publicaciones oficiales del ISNAR tales como Informes de Investiga ción, Guías sobre el Manejo de la Investiga ción, Documentos Informativos, el Informe Anual y el Boletín Informativo. La mayoría de estas publicaciones fueron producidas con la ayuda directa de la unidad de Servi cios de Publicación. Este total también in cluye las publicaciones 'no oficiales' (por ej.: Documentos de Discusión), en algunos ca sos fotocopiados debido a su circulación li mitada, y en otros, impresos. Además, los miembros del personal de ISNAR produje ron 82 documentos, capítulos de libros y ar tículos publicados por otras organizaciones, algunas veces como co-autores.Durante el año ISNAR contrató los servicios de 60 consultores externos o equipos de consultoría.Durante 1993, el total de gastos de opera ción del ISNAR fue de US$ 10.323 millones. De los cuales, US$ 5.989 millones provinie ron de donaciones irrestrictas al presupues to central y el resto provino de donaciones restringidas al presupuesto central, proyec tos especiales, reembolsos por servicios prestados y otros.Esto representa una disminución de 3.6% en los gastos totales de ISNAR comparado con el año 1992. Mientras que los fondos del presupuesto central irrestricto dism inu yeron casi un 9%, la combinación de los fon dos del presupuesto central restringido y otros recursos financieros aum entaron cerca de 3.4%.l ■l'a i g u j j L a j i l j j l u l l ^j -y . j l l l _ û l j J < ; » • -( J j S j j t l j ^u â l j ^x J l A u a i a .ll ^I j Î w f V l ¿ ) j ^ k^ l j U ^k \\.a ^^4 -a k l j l ^j ^â j . _ ^^f r l l -jaLaH y ^ ^ y ^l a J AaaJÓII j <!luU Ó W~i.al' ,*aS[I j -a J j A Í ^y-a-j i l ¿ j l j i ll , » a L -á j^j l j j t -'1 ^I j j ^l j i J j -**■ -II 4 -l á i l ^ le . Lai j l w '■ -j • • • kilLí j J C ^J l L a j i ^j Lé ^Ú T V I J j Ia j II j k 4 -a lá j S /l 4 _ j j lá j -b A j ' j l a < L « -a j -j L ú c V ' L ^I j ¿)í i » .\"A ulj+ JI ^ 4 -a _ £ U ! k ljl j j Í Ú a I I ^j-lc. 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Aft^jftl \" j l U \" \" o l i . j -U J l o ^j c-J « * . -J ^.-j L i l i i . J C . U |^i C J ^j A J v l I i j l j f t l u j I r u i ! J X i .C.\" ( j J .^r J ¿ ¡ J * j i » . U j * ¿ f c A * ^ <**• J j I x Ij j x V ' ^A3ljL* I J k j • • J j V l J J j j l . . ' ( j -* ( J -£ J ( j j ^) J J ^ £ -• \"* J J * J e -l ^j lI u j Ix j I J x U I ^'.-^«-'11 ( j l k i ^ j l i j ¿ j j ^a l l J J i J < L ^\\ J L J i j c . 1 J c . J j J I J J ,ii*JI J j . C j L . j L -J I o j l j l J i L ^j l * J j L_iVl-¿jVI A_A*Jjj£j ¿H* j-ail' aJlij-Vl ¿H* ij-JJC.' jjM ¿kA^M' J >^1 ' ^Lill ftLaji J£ Ja-Ju \" A_jcljjll 4 -i J I C j L a U ^V J J a J C > u ' -i j -J ' J \"ajc.1 J j l l ¿ j U o V i a x a \" j U J \" a J j J I C j U A i J l j S j * J j[ £ . J Z . j -' j j . -< » j• c>¿ jj U J I j t j l j ) A j a j Aj &I j J I J j U a t y J k i J l -£'>• J-u JJC.J t aIjxJI j 4^jUI CjVISJ j \"o-jU \" C> willjJ^ljLUj .J j j j j l \" JJ ^jillJ ^J ^1 jjll . a J j J I a j c . 1 j j l l J j j -v ill A j^ji■* * \\.->y i 4 f--«1' -' UJ-^^J A __iiLo ^_JI <L>a J J-»J I A -.I4J'j A^-JJ Jljjll l^jc. I ^laJI \"jl-' -J \" ^iii ' # j ' ^ J j L a j V I Aj a ^j II \"j LLJ\" L i l l e . J >lr v i J j -a l i . l ^l a ¿ j j J i C j A I mi s \" j j ^a -J l ^j j j l l \" d l l j J L *j a j -I .i-ll eJC.L^Jlj JjLc. Ja-Jl alA | Jm4 jl^*-al ^ OSj . AjjliiV* \"jllJ\" a J u j 1 ¡j ji*JI jjjiJI j t AojLljV' Jjliiill j \" ■' LT1 * * ' A x -tlij ( j l J j i I x j 1 u i Xjl J c . L-Oji J L c x V l -U«JI t j j l x l L*£ . J a i l e U x j l L ± } j J -U I ¿ ¿ \\ ¿ s , d h J l ^j L ^V U . j _ £ i ^^V U J j ^j j J l l ^^ i j j ^ ^V U J l . u u j J Aj x j U . C j U k l . A J a * -lJ J U j ^l i J j 4 j I j j j l i i l l J u_u ^il ftl j J J k A T• j l u <JjLmU*hI <C. jJLi»l Ijj i_t jii. ¿11-i.j i CAc.jjAa J>*1 j I Sila-. JtU 3iJ^ if-' S.iw.. j f ji. -.¿¿jIb J -L -U I ( j l j j V ' J -' . » ■« 7.X j l a U -j ft_>*J' t A f t f t j • iJ j a ^ U i l U L * j i l ^i f t f t L j i V I ,*j jtlA j f t i j . k j -11 ¿ J l_ f t .ll j L j I Lj j j Sj X 1 ^j ll J jiftll A ^fti u ft-ft.il U i u j • m T ^Ijlj A j j l i . ■ j U . 1 \" j S _ > JThe Arabic translation was done by the Public Authority for Agriculture Affairs and Fish Resources (PAAFR), Kuwait, by courtesy of ISNAR Board member, Naima al-Shayji, who also revised the Arabic text. he Earth Sum m it in Rio has come and gone. But like a \"shot heard round the w orld,\" the conference's m ain off spring, A genda 21, will resonate for de cades to come.G overnm ents have com m itted to p aper their unprecedented w illingness to p u rsu e sustainable developm ent. Protec tion of the n atural environm ent an d its re source base for present an d future generations now shares equal billing w ith the goal of producing enough food and other goods to m eet the needs of the grow ing w orld population. A genda 21 is the blueprint.The im plications of this docum ent for global agriculture, as w ell as for the vast mosaic of national and international re search that su p p orts it, are profound. Of the 115 program areas for action set ou t in the docum ent, som e 70 are relevant to the w ork of agricultural researchers in developing countries.Farm ers are still the prim e users of land, water, plant, and anim al resources. It is prim arily on their holdings an d in the su rrounding environm ent -adjacent river valleys, plains, hills, coastal regions,President of Mozambique, to UNCED, Rio de Janeiro, June 1992 an d m ountains -that A genda 21 will be played out. S upporting those farm ers in their form idable task of feeding a global population that will double in the next 100 years is a com m unity of m ore than 130,000 agricultural researchers w orking at the national level. A d d ed to this pool are a few th ousand scientists in som e tw o dozen international research centers around the world.The fundam ental issues raised at the Earth Sum m it -officially the U nited N a tions Conference on Environm ent and D evelopm ent (UNCED) -are no t really new. M uch of h u m an history is a chronicle of the struggle for survival an d how it has continuously altered the natural environ m ent. A nd m uch of the earth's landscape, from Iceland to C hina, from the A m azon basin to the Nile delta, from the great plains of N orth Am erica to the m ountain nations of central Africa, has been in delibly transform ed by h u m an activity, especially settlem ent a n d agriculture.W hat is n ew is th at technologies for m assive intervention in the environm ent, coupled w ith the forces of population pressure an d poverty, have drastically sh ru n k the m argin of error open to h u m an beings in exploiting natural re sources to m eet needs an d w ants. There is little room for m aneuver left. We need to retreat from this untenable, \"unsustain able\" position of consum ing the earth's capital.Collective action, then, of the kind p led g ed at the Earth Sum m it, is needed right now. But how will that be translated into concrete w ork program s an d tim e tables? A nd w h at should be the priorities? Each country m u st decide for itself.Econom ists and agricultural scientists have know n for decades th at rises in agri cultural productivity are a prerequisite to alleviating p overty in developing coun tries. Increased productivity helps m eet grow ing d em and for food an d other p ro d ucts an d generates the incom e needed by people to b uy necessities they cannot pro duce them selves.Scientists have also long recognized th at productivity increases on favorable lands are needed to m inim ize h u m an in cursion into vulnerable environm ents. O therw ise there is the risk of irreversible dam age from w idespread tree cutting, cultivation of erosion-prone land, and other acts of survival -indeed, acts of desperation -as farm ers are forced by p overty into m arginal areas.Even the notion th at such productivity increases m u st be sustainable has a long history. Justus von Liebig, a founding father of agricultural science, reflected on this in the 1860s: \"The task of the farm er is n o t to achieve high crop yields to the detrim ent of the field, w hich only causes it to im poverish earlier. R ather it should be in his ow n interest, as w ell as society's, to achieve h igh yields th at are constantly increasing on a p erm anent basis.\"In the 1950s, fear of w idespread fam ine triggered a m ajor p u sh to develop new high-yielding crop varieties. The re sulting green revolution in the 1960s and '70s, driven largely by plant breeding w ork in international research centers, boosted production dramatically. It pre vented a m ajor hu m an disaster in the developing w orld, especially Asia. All this has been w ell docum ented.W hile the application of green revolu tion technologies has helped to remove, at least tem porarily, the prospect of massive fam ine in m any areas, it has not been w ith o u t environm ental consequences. In som e developing countries, problem s of soil salinity, w ater logging, erosion, silt ing, and groundw ater depletion have be come serious. A nd in the industrialized w orld, w idespread intensification of crop and anim al production based on the use of m o d em chemical inputs, often in an unbalanced way, has led to soil an d w ater pollution and threats to hu m an health.O ver the past 25 years or so, m odern agricultural science has tu rn ed its atten tion to the m ore com plex problem s of m aintaining the production base so that future fam ines an d environm ental dam age can be avoided. Several dom ains of \"environm ent friendly\" m ultidisciplinary research have em erged -crop an d p ro duction ecology, farm ing system s re search, integrated pest m anagem ent, and agroforestry, to nam e a few. A nd on the institutional side, the CGIAR has broa dened its m andate in recent years to in clude forestry, agroforestry, irrigation, and aquatic resources.But UNCED w as the event to galva nize political will. It called for solutions on a global scale, taking into account not only the role of agricultural and other sciences, b u t of com m unity participation, training, inform ation, institutional change, an d policym aking.A genda 21 sets ou t a dau n tin g task for agricultural scientists. The new research agenda, in the m aking for m any years now, can be expressed in a single phrase: the design of sustainable production sys tems.A sustainable agricultural production sys tem can be usefully defined as \"one that indefinitely m eets rising d em and for food, fiber, an d other agricultural com m odities at economic, environm ental, an d other so cial costs consistent w ith rising p er capita welfare of the people served by the sys tem.\"There are tw o key points to keep in m ind here. First, the definition recognizes both the production-grow th an d environm ental-protection dim ensions of ag riculture. Second, it im plicitly recognizes th at it is not good enough for people to m erely survive. Instead, agriculture m ust bring lasting im provem ents to hum an welfare, particularly am ong the very poor.ISNAR has a key p art to play in help ing the national research system s to incor porate sustainability concerns into their agendas and w ork program s. The boxed text on pages 45 to 47 provides som e exam ples of recent ISNAR w ork to address the policy, organizational, and m anagem ent issues im plicit in the shift to sustainability research.The design of sustainable agricultural sys tem s requires research planners and policym akers to look at the big picture rather than production com ponents in isolation. It m eans looking at all the costs and benefits of introducing new technolo gies or practices, not just those that are priced in the m arket. As the A dm inistra tor of the U nited N ations D evelopm ent Program , Jam es G ustave Speth, noted in a recent speech: \"econom ic analysis that fails to m easure changes in the productiv ity of natural resources will m ake farm ing practices th at degrade the resource base look m ore valuable than those that con serve it.\"H ere w e briefly m ention tw o exam ples of concepts that can help create the holis tic perspective needed for research and policy w ork on agricultural sustainability issues.The first is total factor productivity, or TFP for short. Borrowed from economics, it can be a pow erful tool for defining, and ultim ately m easuring, the sustainability of either an existing agricultural production system or one th at is to be altered by in troducing new technologies or practices.W ith TFP analysis, all the relevant ou t p u ts an d in p u ts of production are con sidered. The productivity ratio includes traditional variables priced in the m arket, such as the value of crops a n d anim als on the o u tp u t side and the value of land, labor, an d fertilizer on the in p u t side. But it also takes into account costs to the n a tu ral resource base an d dam age to the w ider environm ent th at are often underpriced in the m arket -such as depletion of groundw ater an d b u ild u p of silt dow nstream from farm ers' fields. Simi larly, enhancem ents to environm ental and social goods such as soil fertility, wildlife habitat, or recreational potential are also factored in.The TFP of a production system , then, is expressed as the ratio of all the \"real\" ou tp u ts to all the \"real\" inputs. If the ou t p u ts consistently outw eigh the in p u ts and the ratio rises over time, perm itting im p rovem ents in h u m an welfare, then the p roduction system m eets the sustainabil ity requirem ent. A m ajor challenge in using TFP analysis is to assign correct values to those social an d environm ental costs an d benefits th at are not norm ally priced in the m arket. A second problem is th at the tim e fram e in w hich m easurable changes in total productivity take place m ay be rath er long, perhaps a decade or more. This sets u p obvious logistical h u rdles for agricultural econom ists, re search planners, an d policym akers.A second useful concept, w hich has been referred to as a new \"land theory of value,\" p u ts the physical characteristics and use of land at the center of analysis. It p rovides a fram ew ork for determ ining w hich types of governm ent policy an d re search are needed for agriculture on different kinds of land. Such an analysis can help b oth researchers and policy m akers to reconcile environm ental and natu ral resource m anagem ent issues w ith the need to boost agricultural production.In a land-centered perspective, levels of productivity potential an d vulnerabil ity to environm ental dam age can be used to classify land. The m atrix on page 39 is an elegantly sim ple representation of re search a n d policy strategies for four general categories of land. Research and policy m ay be geared to both en vironm ental protection a n d productivity, productivity alone, or environm ental p ro tection alone. A nd for one of the four types of land, little or no intervention is required.Research that m arries environm ental an d productivity considerations can be re ferred to as sustainability research. C on sider the hypothetical case of a fertile hilly area suitable for grow ing m aize b u t prone to erosion. A groforesters an d agronom ists m ight w ork together to identify the suit able agronom ic practices an d the best high-yielding variety to p lan t betw een row s of nitrogen-fixing trees th at enhance w ater retention a n d soil fertility. O n the policy side, the governm ent m ight p ro m ote the use of this m aize-tree cropping system by offering tree seedlings to farm ers at low cost. Such a production system m ay be physically sustainable, b u t is it also econom ically an d socially viable as sug gested by the definition given earlier? T hat is, does the technical innovation also help m eet rising dem and for agricultural products and im prove the welfare of the affected population? Sustainability re search clearly requires no t only coopera tion am ong various physical scientists bu t also the involvem ent of social scientists.The land theory and total factor pro ductivity are just tw o exam ples of con cepts th at prom ote a system s approach to research an d policy. O ther tools and m od els are em erging, or are being refined, as scientists gain experience w ith defining an d dealing w ith sustainability problem s. M aking these changes an d coping w ith them will be especially dem anding on developing countries that have a large and com plex agricultural sector b u t few resources. In som e cases, the effort will unfortunately have to be postponed be cause governm ents m ust first attend to the pressing needs of poverty-stricken, m alnourished, or even starving citizens.For both national and international re search system s, the design of sustainable production system s im plies an expansion of scientific objectives. Technology developm ent requires m ore an d better in- (2) There will be a good payoff to traditional agricultural research aimed at boost ing yields under these farming conditions. Environmental research is not war ranted. Policy can focus on incentives to increase production.(3) Environmental research is needed to curtail further damage. There is good rea son to reduce production, so traditional agricultural research has little or no role. And policy should aim to discourage production and set penalties for causing dam age.(4) Little or no research, either environmental or agricultural, is warranted because the payoff would be very low. Likewise, little or no policy intervention is required. That is, there is no reason for a government to introduce production incentives on such marginal land or to discourage farming on it. With increased aw areness of the inter play betw een various production an d re source m anagem ent problem s, new dom ains of m ultidisciplinary research will continue to em erge, along w ith new m ethodologies for integrated problem solving. This w ill require adjustm ents to the m ix of scientific expertise w ithin national research system s. For som e dis ciplines there w ill be an increase in the num bers of scientists an d technicians, for others a decrease. A nd researchers from different disciplines w ill have to cooperate m ore closely. Soil scientists, for exam ple, m ay have to w ork side by side w ith hydrologists an d resource econo m ists, or p lan t breeders side by side w ith anthropologists an d ecologists.A gricultural researchers will increas ingly be called on to cooperate w ith other scientists on gathering, coordinating, ana lyzing, an d packaging geographical and other d ata about natu ral resources and land use. This inform ation is no t only for their ow n use b u t also for that of policy m akers, planners, an d those im plem enting developm ent projects. A variety of m ethods com e into playground-based observation, rem ote sens ing, analysis of production statistics, and so on -in the preparation of m aps and inventories. A lthough this w ork is a long term an d expensive proposition, it is a key in p u t to the planning an d design of re search on sustainable production system s an d natural resource m anagem ent.A key them e com ing out of A genda 21 is the im portance of cross-sectoral planning for developm ent projects, as w ell as greater local participation in planning and decision m aking. This will undoubtedly require new links to be established be tw een agricultural research organizations and outside players. N ot only does plan ning becom e the shared job of all sectors involved in land an d w ater use -agricul ture, industry, transport, health services, an d so on -b u t specific interest groups at the local level, like NGO s an d farm er groups, get a bigger say.\"A farm er centered approach is the key to the attainm ent of sustainability in both developed an d developing countries,\" A genda 21 asserts. \"The decentralization of decision m aking tow ards local and com m unity organizations is the key to changing people's behavior and im plem enting sustainable farm ing strate gies.\"Cross-sectoral planning w ith locallevel participation of course is not new. N either are the jurisdictional, legal, and scientific battles it often triggers. In m any countries, the use and m isuse of land, water, an d other resources have set inter est groups against one another. Farm ers reliant on irrigation confront river valley authorities over w ater rights. En vironm entalists trying to preserve wildlife habitat oppose housing or industrial developers intent on pushing out city limits. Indigenous hunters an d gatherers set u p blockades on roads into controver-sial logging sites, w hile landless farm ers push relentlessly dow n those roads. C om m unity groups shout \"not in m y back yard\" w hen they learn of new w aste dis posal sites being planned by governm ent authorities. The draw ing of such battle lines over land an d resource usage is not limited to developed countries. O n the contrary, it is now a global phenom enon.The challenge to cross-sectoral p lan ning and com m unity participation is to harness and transform the resources and hum an energy spent on such confronta tions into cooperative inform ation sharing and decision m aking. A gricultural re search system s, being a m ajor depository of scientific know ledge an d expertise on land and n atural resource use, clearly have an im portant contribution to m ake here. To do so, though, they need to have their ow n house in order. As one com m entator on A genda 21 p u t it: \"A unified national agricultural research system can be a valid interlocutor in the cross-sectoral p lanning process; a fragm ented one m ay not.\"The m ove to sustainability research and cross-sectoral planning, then, w ill com pli cate institutional arrangem ents an d re search m anagem ent w ithin agricultural research system s. A genda 21 specifically recognizes that som e countries will need to restructure their research system s to ac com m odate the new realities. Separate bodies m ay have to be m erged to cut out duplication. A nd organizational changes will be required to unify planning and priority setting across the entire research system .E ntrenched interests m ay vigorously resist such restructuring, m aking the senior research m an a g er's job very difficult.A nother com plicating factor for re search is technology transfer an d a d o p tion. The shift from sim ple production technologies, such as the u se of new varie ties, to m ore com plex practices for m anag ing natu ral resources m ay slow dow n technology transfer. A t the sam e time, the perennial problem of n o nadoption by farm ers w ill also affect the transfer of such new m ethods. A producer concerned w ith feeding her fam ily today m ay be re luctant to ad o p t an innovation w hose en vironm ental benefit will only be felt a decade hence. Or, if the environm ental benefit is one th at will be felt largely in som eone else's back yard, farm ers m ay prefer n o t to risk a change of practice.In dealing w ith these problem s, re searchers w ill need m ore an d better feed back from farm ers. O ne w ay to get this is to w o rk m ore closely w ith extension w orkers an d com m unity groups, w hich m ay have a better feel for farm ers' atti tudes and needs.F unding is a m ajor h u rd le for the national research system s. H ow can the develop ing countries cope w ith the ad d ed com plexities of sustainability research at a tim e w hen m any national treasuries are depleted? At a tim e w hen Eastern Europe an d the republics of the defunct Soviet U nion also require a share of develop m ent funds an d technical assistance? At a tim e w h en d o nor countries are slashing I their ow n aid budgets because of economic recession at hom e? For research, it's a classic case of being forced to do m ore w ith less.A genda 21 contains a renew ed pledge by the leaders of donor countries to con tribute 0.7% of G N P to developm ent as sistance. This is a possible source of external funding for sustainability re search. But the tim e fram e for such scien tific w ork clearly extends beyond the political life-expectancy of m ost national leaders. Will the m oney m aterialize w hen it is needed? If so, w ill it bear so m any w ell intentioned \"sustainability\" condi tions that the goal of increased production is relegated to a handful of overw orked p lan t breeders operating on a shoe-string budget? Policym akers in donor countries need to address these questions. Donors m ust not lose sight of the fact that the drive to preserve the environm ent cannot succeed in a scientific vacuum labelled \"sustainability,\" uncoupled from the day-to-day concerns of farm ers trying to produce enough food, feed, fuel, and fiber. Sustainable production im plies an expansion of the research agenda, not a sim ple sw itch to p u re environm ental re search.O verall consum ption of calories and essential nutrients is still inadequate in m uch of the developing w orld. To m eet future global d em and for food at nutritionally adequate levels w ould re quire food production to triple over the next 100 years or so, given the expected doubling of the population.Clearly, traditional agricultural re search still has a central, critical role in feeding the w orld. It w ould be unfor tunate if research proposals w ere system atically rejected by donor agencies because the w ords \"agricultural re search,\" not so fashionable these days, a p p ear on their title page.W hat about the level of com m itm ent to sustainable agriculture am ong the national agricultural research system s of developing countries? C om m ents by rep resentatives of som e developing countries suggest th at they consider agriculture's negative im pact on the environm ent to be a rich-country obsession that poor coun tries can ill afford. Unlike m any in dustrialized nations w ith agricultural surpluses, they are still struggling w ith the production side of the agricultural equation.It is true th at m any developing coun tries have not yet reached the intensity of fertilizer an d pesticide application found in the richer countries. Thus, som e of the environm ental problem s related to exces sive chemical use are no t yet a serious problem (although the health of indiv id u als w ho h an d le chem icals is often at risk).But as m entioned earlier, there is evi dence of severe soil degradation, erosion, and gro u n d w ater depletion in developing countries. Even those poor countries facing the biggest production problem s should take n atural resource m anagem ent issues seriously. The longer action is post poned the greater the risks of fam ine and environm ental crisis for the next genera tion. Research to prevent environm ental degradation in the short term is also less costly than rehabilitation a few decades dow n the road.Furtherm ore, natural resource m an agem ent research an d conventional com m odity research can com plem ent each other. Research to protect the environm ent and its resources is no t necessarily done at the expense of increased production. For instance, n atural resource m anagem ent research m ay produce m ethods for in creasing w ater retention of soil in a partic u lar area. This no t only reduces runoff, erosion, and silting, b u t it could also pave the w ay for the introduction of a new high-yielding variety w ith high m oisture requirem ents, a p roduct of traditional com m odity research.D espite substantial disagreem ent over the priority th at should be given to n a tu ral resource m anagem ent an d sustainabil ity research in developing countries, there is recent evidence of grow ing com m it m ent on the p a rt of national research sys tems. For exam ple, at a global m eeting of national an d international researchers at ISNAR headquarters last November, developing-country participants agreed that the concept of sustainable agricul tural developm ent w as being taken seri ously in their countries. In fact, they felt it w as no longer a controversial issue. They also noted th at high-level policym aking bodies an d executing agencies h ad been established in som e countries such as Ban gladesh, Kenya, an d the Philippines specifically to address resource an d en vironm ental issues.A sim ilar expression of com m itm ent to sustainability research cam e ou t of a Sep tem ber 1993 m eeting in Benin sponsored by ISNAR an d the governm ents of The N etherlands an d Sweden. That m eeting brought together senior representatives of 22 African national agricultural research system s to discuss, am ong other things, their w orking links w ith the international centers of the CGIAR. It w as a \"NARS only\" discussion, w ith no donor or inter national center representatives present.The African research leaders endorsed the so-called \"ecoregional\" approach to international agricultural research espoused b y the CGIAR. U nder this pro posal, research w o u ld span political, a d m inistrative, cultural, a n d economic boundaries. It w ould no t be based on specific com m odities or disciplines. Rather, it w ould be organized around the needs of a geographical region w hose ag ricultural lands share a com m on set of cli m atic an d natural resource characteristics. O ne challenge of the ecoregional a p proach is to im prove the institutional ar rangem ents u n d er w hich the national re search system s and the international centers cooperate on sustainability prob lems.To quote the research leaders' report: \"The ecoregional approach benefits from the total approval of the NARS, w ho w ant to safeguard, protect, an d im prove the en vironm ent an d its resources as the basis for agricultural productivity.\"N ot just in Africa b u t aro u n d the w orld, p u ttin g such w ords into practice will be an enorm ous an d expensive task in the closing years of the 20th century. U nfortunately, there is also serious con cern in high places that im plem entation of A genda 21 is stalling. In a recent speech on food security, U N D P A dm inistrator Speth said: \"The 1992 UN Conference on E nvironm ent an d D evelopm ent in Rio sig nalled th at things m u st be different.... Some im portant follow -up actions are al ready being taken. But, in truth, govern m ents have not p u rsu ed the Rio agenda w ith the dedication an d com m itm ent it deserves.\"The design and use of sustainable pro duction system s is a task to be shared by farm ers, extension w orkers, com m unity organizations, research m anagers, and en vironm ental an d agricultural scientists at both the national an d international levels. But w ith o u t the com m itm ent of the donor agencies an d political leaders the w orld over, their chances of success will be slim. It w ould be a sham e if the recent m arriage in Rio -betw een agricultural production an d environm ental protection -soon ended in divorce for lack of com m itm ent. W ho then w ould take responsibility for having m arooned future generations on a h u ngry and inhospitable planet?As NARS give greater priority to n atu ral resource m anagem ent (NRM ) an d en v iro n m en tal conservation, m any q u estio n s of research policy an d organization are arising. H ere w e briefly describe som e of ISN A R 's efforts in 1993 to u n d e r stan d the im plications of these issues b etter an d to h elp NARS ad ju st to the changing research scene.It sh o u ld be noted, though, that as ISN A R itself co n tin u es to incorporate these issues into its m ethods and collaboration w ith NARS, it w ill be increasingly difficu lt to d istin g u ish \"su sta in a b ility \" w o rk as a separate category of activi ties to b e reported. In future, N R M an d enviro n m en tal concerns w ill influence m ost activities. T his is n atu ral an d w ill b e a sure sign th at the new p riorities have been fu lly in stitu tio n alize d w ith in ISNAR. B ISNAR con tinued its collaboration w ith B hutan to stren g th e n \"ren ew ab le n at ural resource\" research, w hich is based on the five m ajor land-use p atterns fo u n d in th is sm all m o u n tain o u s kingdom . F u n d in g w as p ro v id ed by the Sw iss D ev elo pm ent C ooperation. T he w ork follow s u p on earlier assistance to B hutan's M inistry of A griculture in fo rm u latin g strategic and m edium -term re search plans.In  The first is the system level. The RPSS p rogram 's perspective is broad, taking into account the full m osaic of bodies that perform , organize, or su p p o rt agricultural research in a country. These include governm ent departm ents, policym aking bodies, autonom ous an d sem i-autono m ous institutes, universities, com m odity organizations, foundations, netw orks, and regional organizations. The m ain interest of the RPSS p rogram is to prom ote syn ergy -ensuring that all the p arts w ork together to achieve national goals. Of special concern is how research system s affect, an d are affected by, national poli cies on developm ent, science an d tech  They have a strong influence on policy m akers and are often the prim e contact p oint for ISNAR.The third set of clients is policy analysts. This sm all b u t increasingly im p o rtan t group consists m ainly of econom ists in econom ic institutes of NARS, plan n ing m inistries, donors, and academ ia. They closely m onitor ISNAR's quantitative w ork (such as studies on the num bers of research scientists in develop ing countries a n d on changes in research funding). They often provide ISNAR w ith expertise for further quantitative analysis.In general, RPSS seeks to provide its clientele w ith four types of service or tools: data base developm ent, new a p proaches to research system m anagem ent, better linkages betw een developm ent policy an d technology system develop m ent, an d assistance in expanding the frontiers of research.H ere w e seek to provide essential infor m ation so that the various inputs to a country's agricultural research system, such as the pool of scientific expertise and the research funding it receives, can be an alyzed an d com pared w ith those ob served in other countries. This provides a basis for subsequent m onitoring of re search in p u ts an d for trying to relate in p u ts to the perform ance of the agricultural sector.The hub of research in this area in 1993 w as the second phase of the ISNAR In dicator Series project. The geographical focus w as sub-Saharan Africa, w here w ork w as carried ou t w ith national col laborators in m ore than 20 African coun tries. Two Latin A m erican countries were also included.Five brief country reports -on R w anda, Niger, M alaw i, Botswana, and Kenya -w ere published in an inform al statistical brief series. A further 10 country reports are expected in the first quarter of 1994.The reports give historical background on each NARS, indicate staffing and fu n d ing trends over 30 years, describe the re search system 's structure, and outline its current com m odity research program . The African stu d y is expected to be com pleted in mid-1994. We will follow u p w ith a re gional analysis of the research policy im plications of the stu d y 's findings. Both the country a n d the regional reports will fur nish background m aterial useful for p lan ning at the individual NARS level.RPSS has p u t considerable effort into developing new tools that allow research system m anagers to be m uch m ore rigorous an d system atic in the w ay they m ake decisions. These tools, draw ing heavily on econom ic analysis, help to m inim ize the guessw ork involved in allo cating resources to research an d in evalu ating its outcom es.D uring the year, ISNAR m oved for w ard on a collaborative project w ith the Chinese A cadem y of A gricultural Sciences. Specifically, w e jointly u n d er took a pilot research exercise on research priority setting in the Chinese province of Jiangsu. A nd in A rgentina, ISNAR w orked w ith INTA to im prove the insti tu te's m ethodology for strategic priority setting.We should also m ention here a m ajor und ertak in g th at has m uch w ider applica tion: a com prehensive book on the use of various economic an d econom etric m ethods for research p riority setting, to be published by Cornell U niversity Press. By the end of the year, RPSS staff w ere in the final stages of m anuscript preparation.A part from priority setting at the national level, RPSS has also done p re lim inary w o rk on regional priority setting. This is a topic of considerable current in terest because of the potential for resource sharing am ong countries. The boxed text beginning on page 45, w hich describes ISNAR's w ork on sustainability an d n a tu ral resource m anagem ent issues, gives m ore details on this new initiative in Latin America.In recent years, ISNAR has also looked at the problem s of research system m an agem ent encountered by sm all countries. This w ork has centered on a stu d y of the agricultural research system s of som e 50 countries that w ere sm all either in size or in research resources. The findings point ou t a num ber of constraints on both the scale an d scope of research carried out in such countries. The stu d y underlines, in particular, the im portance of establishing an d cultivating links w ith outside sources of technology.The findings further suggest a need to exam ine in greater detail how countries w ith scarce h u m an an d financial re sources can benefit from research net w orks, as w ell as from technology spillovers from their neighbors. C onserva tion of research funds and scientific know -how are possible payoffs. A t the sam e time, though, netw ork \"overload\" w as identified as a problem in m an y sm all countries. The stu d y also found a general d earth of know ledge about the im pact of agricultural research netw orks an d the best w ays to m anage them .The sm all-countries project is now com plete an d a synthesis of its findings is being developed. W ork on the role of net w orks, however, is continuing in tw o veins. First, a joint project w ith CIRAD is looking at the im pact of netw orks in West Africa. Second, w ith funding from USAID, ISNAR is assisting a group of NARS in East Africa to develop an inter nal system of m anagem ent for a series of regional netw orks.As p a rt of its interest in the organiza tion an d structure of NARS, the RPSS pro-In the 1980s, structural adjustment became a dominant feature of policymak ing in many African countries. Aimed at overcoming spiralling inflation, national indebtedness, and a general decline in productivity, it has been dras tic and often unpopular economic medicine to swallow. The implementation of structural adjustment programs has altered, for better or for worse, the opera tion and effectiveness of public-sector institutions.There is some evidence that national agricultural research organizations are bearing a disproportionate share of the adjustment burden. As a result, they may be unable to fully support the restoration of satisfactory, sustainable growth and development.In response to several requests from NARS, ISNAR carried out a series of country analyses on this topic. In addition, we joined forces with the Economic Development Institute (EDI) of the World Bank in holding a regional seminar relating structural adjustment to agricultural research in Eastern and Southern Africa. This presented an opportunity to open a dialogue on structural adjust ment with eight countries and to test a new approach to training in the RPSS program.The seminar examined the process of structural adjustment as it bears on, and is influenced by, agricultural research. Two tasks were emphasized: identifying the links between changing economic policies and institutional performance, and defining ways to reorient research systems so that they better support the dual macroeconomic aims of economic efficiency and poverty alleviation. To be sure, the seminar brought together ISNAR's traditional partners in the NARS and agriculture ministries. But senior policymakers from ministries such as finance, planning, and science and technology also attended. These are branches of government whose policies also directly impinge on agriculture and agricultural research.The participants concluded that the seminar led to a better inter-ministerial understanding of how adjustment-related policy changes affect NARS and how negative effects might be alleviated. These topics are the theme of a forth coming ISNAR publication.gram analyzed 35 diagnostic review s of NARS (plus one regional an d one sub national review ) that h ad been carried out by ISNAR over the previous 12 years. This exercise attem pted to correlate the structure of those national system s (or, in som e cases, individual organizations) w ith their perform ance. However, the analysis w as necessarily rather lim ited for tw o reasons. First, ISNAR's review m ethodology evolved d u rin g this period.Second, the objectives an d m ethodology of the review s w ere no t consistent across countries, largely because the reviews were dem and-driven. G iven th at institu tional change typically occurs at a snail's pace, the analysis suggested there w ould be m erit in revisiting som e of those coun tries to try to assess stru ctu ral/fu n ctio n al relationships over the long term . In partic ular, it w o u ld be useful to exam ine those NARS in w hich ISNAR review recom m endations has led to organizational or structural changes. RPSS has undertaken a review of seven developing countries' experiences w ith structural adjustm ent. The aim is to relate these experiences to changes in the agricultural research system an d to iden tify w ays to im prove the participation of the NARS in the reform process. D uring the year, case studies in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Mexico, an d Chile w ere com pleted in collaboration w ith NARS personnel. A nd studies in E gypt an d Burkina Faso w ere launched.The findings of each study have been or are being pu b lished as ISNAR briefing papers. The series of studies, w ith rele v an t background m aterial from ISNAR, the W orld Bank, an d other collaborators, will be published jointly w ith the B ank's Economic D evelopm ent Institute in 1994.In m any of the countries studied, governm ents are trying to encourage greater private-sector participation in re search. RPSS has been exam ining the links betw een public-an d private-sector agri cultural research an d studying w ays to m ake privatization a practical reality.This topic is of particular interest to Latin Am erica, w here m any countries are partially or com pletely divorcing their ag ricultural research from the public sector. RPSS has been studying p u b lic/p riv atesector linkages in the research system s of three countries w ith w idely differing p ri vate-sector com ponents. The countries are Ecuador, Colom bia, and Jamaica. Strengths and w eaknesses of the various types of linkages encountered have been exam ined an d discussed at sem inars in the respective countries an d in m eetings w ith donors prom oting the privatization approach.A problem faced by RPSS in its policy w ork relates to the m ultiplicity of govern m ent jurisdictions affecting national re search system s. M ost of the NARS and NAROs that ISNAR w orks w ith are closely linked to m inistries of agriculture. How ever, policies that strongly influence w h at can or cannot be done by these re search system s or organizations are often determ ined by other m inistries, such as fi nance, planning, or science an d tech nology.D uring 1993, ISNAR tried to bridge this gap in anglophone Africa. W orking w ith EDI, ISNAR brought together a group of senior personnel at the decision m aking level from different m inistries and institutes. A t a w eek-long sem inar partici pan ts review ed the linkages betw een structural adjustm ent a n d agricultural re search an d set ou t a p lan for follow -up sem inars at the national level (see page 56).Two areas of agricultural research that have attracted m uch attention in recent years are biotechnology an d environm en tal conservation. In bo th cases the knowl-edge an d experience of m any developing countries is extrem ely limited. They are m ajor areas in w hich ISNAR foresees playing a n ew role in guiding the policy debate an d investm ent environm ent.ISNAR's w o rk in biotechnology policy lapsed d u rin g 1992 through lack of re sources. But a large grant from the Dutch governm ent enabled us to rekindle o u r ef forts early in 1993.In its first phase, the biotechnology p rogram has focused on providing userfriendly m aterials targeted at developing-| country policym akers w ho m ay not have a strong background in science. It also b ro u g h t together representatives from m ore th an 30 international research p ro gram s, IARCs, technical an d regional n et w orks, an d d onor organizations that m ake biotechnology services available to developing countries. The results of this global exchange, along w ith published an d unpublished ISNAR reports, will | form the core docum entation for a series of regional w orkshops on biotechnology policy starting in 1994. esearch program s m ust be properly designed, prioritized, and m anaged if they are to contribute to national developm ent. If they are not, then the w ork of scientists, even w hen it is of high quality, will go unrecognized and the im pact on agriculture will be m inim al or negligible.The RPDM program w orks w ith NARS to b uild their capacity to develop and m anage research program s. It pro vides advice, develops tools and m ethodologies, an d organizes training. It also prom otes the m anagem ent of essen tial linkages -both betw een com ponents of the research system an d betw een the research system an d outside actors -to im prove overall perform ance and ac countability.In 1993, the RPDM program m ade sig nificant progress in four areas: PM&E; links betw een, on the one hand, the re search and technology-transfer system and, on the other hand, farm ers and farm er organizations; program organiza tion as it is affected by the grow ing im portance of n atu ral resource m anagem ent research; an d research's links w ith sources of know ledge.M ore th an 60 publications an d other docum ents w ere p roduced in these the m atic areas to strengthen ISNAR's w ork w ith developing countries.Building on 1992 achievem ents, RPDM staff launched the final phase of a PM&E project titled \"Strengthening A gricultural Research M anagem ent in Latin Am erica and the C aribbean.\" (See the shaded text starting on p age 61 for an overview of the project.) C ollaborating w ith national and regional organizations, they focused on the design, developm ent, testing, an d re finem ent of training m aterials. They also began efforts to institutionalize PM&E training in the region.H ere are som e of the y e a r's highlights: A rrangem ents w ere com pleted to translate an d a d a p t the training m aterials for English-speaking countries an d to publish the M&E sourcebook in Spanish. The project also form ulated a strategy to m ake PM&E training a p erm anent activ ity of the participating NARS through an nual subregional training courses. F und ing is being sought for these.The program continued its long-standing w ork in the im portant area of linkages be tw een research and technology users, including farm ers an d farm ers' organiza tions. Staff an d collaborators conducted research, tested results an d guidelines, and gave advice to NARS.ISNAR launched its RTTL study on linkages in 1988. The results an d lessons from the seven country case studies w ere sum m arized in a m ajor research report published in 1993, titled Partners in Agri cultural Technology: Linking Research and Technology Transfer to Serve Farmers.In 1992 the program em barked on a supplem entary stu d y to enable the project team to focus on research system links w ith farm ers and farm er organizations. Case studies w ere begun in three coun tries: Kenya, G hana, an d Burkina Faso. G ood headw ay w as m ade in 1993. U pon com pletion early in 1994, the studies should provide ISNAR w ith valuable know ledge to im prove the advice and as sistance it gives.A major collaborative stu d y w ith ODI titled \"Farm ers' O rganizations and Re search as P artners\" w as approved for 1994. It w ill be the next m ajor th ru st of our in-depth analysis of linkages betw een research an d technology users.Collaborative w ork w ith a visiting re searcher (w orking at ISNAR on a sixm onth sabbatical leave) resulted in the first draft of a training m odule on identi fying linkage problem s. This, p lus another m odule on m anaging linkages w ith tech nology users, w hich w as com pleted and tested earlier, w ill be further field-tested and approved in 1994. The tw o will formMajor improvements in the way agricultural research is planned, monitored, and evaluated are becoming evident in many countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Much of this progress can be attributed to a collaborative proj ect between ISNAR, several national, regional, and international organizations in the region, and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), which pro vided most of the funding.By the end of 1993, the project team had analyzed various country experiences, prepared practical guidelines, disseminated new methods, and improved re search managers' understanding of the principles and processes of planning, monitoring, and evaluation (PM&E). Through participation, collaboration, di versification, learning by doing, and synthesizing information, a conceptual framework was developed and is now widely used in Latin America and the Caribbean.The project has so far gone through six phases: planning, case studies, prepara tion of training materials, training courses, preparation of reports and publica tions, and dissemination of findings. In the final phase, participants will discuss and evaluate the project results at a regional workshop and prepare for the institutionalization of PM&E training and improvement in the region.At the first regional workshop, in 1992, participants planned the project. This was followed by 13 case studies in North, Central, and South America and in the Caribbean. The Late in the year the RPDM program launched the first phase of a G erm anfunded project on the role of universities in national agricultural research systems.A research associate w as appointed to further develop and test the conceptual fram ew ork an d methodology.This is a collaborative project w ith re search an d university institutions in Benin an d N igeria. The first w orkshop w ith national an d international consultants and the national steering com m ittees is scheduled for early 1994.Funds are being sought for a second phase that w ould secure the participation of other countries. This w ould enrich the project, giving it the range an d diversity of country experiences needed to form u late w idely applicable guidelines and strategies for strengthening universities' roles in NARS and their links w ith other research institutions.A special activity u n d er the them e of \"linkages w ith know ledge system s\" has been the developm ent of a m aster's de gree program in agricultural research m anagem ent. ISNAR is doing this in cooperation w ith three m em bers of the N etw ork of European A gricultural Uni versities and Scientific Com plexes (NA-TURA): W ageningen (the N etherlands), Leuven (Belgium), Reading (U.K.).A nine-m onth curriculum has been de signed in m odules to be offered in the three universities. A special ISN A R /N A -TURA project to cover the training pro gram , fellow ships, an d related activities has been prepared for possible funding by the European Community.The m aster's program is aim ed at m id career research m anagers from the Afri can, C aribbean, an d Pacific nations of the Lome C onvention, w hich have historic links w ith Europe. Field dissertation w ork will be carried o u t in the stu d en t's ow n or a sim ilar country.RPDM's w ork u n d er this them e is focused on how to broaden or reorient agricultural research agendas to address the sustain able use of n atu ral resources in agricul ture, forestry, an d fisheries. Special consideration is given to the policy, insti tutional, program , and m anagerial im pli cations of such broadening.With the assistance of external consul tants, our analysis has created a solid base for the evolution of a NARS-oriented ISNAR strategy and program in the area of natural resource m anagem ent research. See pages 45 to 47 for m ore on this.RPDM provided a senior staff m em ber to chair a task force charged w ith preparing a \"fram ew ork for action\" to revitalize agricultural research in the hu m id and subhum id zones of West an d C entral Africa. The w ork is sponsored by the Special Program for African A gricultural Research (SPAAR) an d the Conference of M inisters of A griculture in West an d C en tral Africa (CMAWCA).D uring the year the task force p re pared the m ajor building blocks for thein to the re v ita liz a tio n o f a g ric u ltu ra l research in West a nd C e n tra l A fric a .fram ew ork an d presented its interim re p o rt to a m eeting of the college of m inis ters in Accra, G hana, in December.The m inisters endorsed the th ru st of the fram ew ork for action. It calls for bol stering national an d regional capability in agricultural research to be , strategic p lan ning of research at the national level, building coalitions for the benefit of re search, and creation of an um brella m ech anism to prom ote regional collaboration. U pon com pletion, the fram ew ork w ill be subjected to scientific validation at a re gional w orkshop an d to political endorse m ent at the next conference of m inisters.RPDM staff also gave continuing as sistance and advice to m any NARS in the areas of strategic planning, program form ulation an d priority setting, linkage m anagem ent, and planning, m onitoring an d evaluation. A m ong the countries counselled w ere Bhutan, Benin, Ban gladesh, U ganda, Morocco, M auritania, Niger, Kenya, G hana, an d m any Latin A m erican an d C aribbean countries.M O R 's aim is to help research organizations to become more con ducive work environmentsthrough better management, stim u lating work conditions, and adequate resources. The program strives to meet this objective by devising management tools, train ing managers, and assisting them with transforming their organi zations into sustainable units, responsive to the needs o f their stakeholders.he MOR program is built around three them es. The first is institution building. Topics include leadership, guiding values, governance, and struc ture. The second is the m anagem ent of re sources: people, funds, physical assets (such as equipm ent, land, an d buildings), an d the inform ation needed to properly m anage research activities. The third them e is m anagem ent processes. This covers operational planning an d m onitor ing institutional perform ance.The program also supports the m an agem ent of ISNAR's ow n h u m an and fi nancial resources. These internal functions account for 10 to 15 percent of the p ro gram 's resources. The first project w as a stu d y of the m anagem ent of physical resources, specifically the planning an d design of re search facilities. The results w ere p u b lished in ISNAR's Research M anagem ent G uidelines series (see page 67). This prac tical guide is aim ed at senior m anagers of national agricultural research organiza tions. It is intended to help them m ake decisions about the planning of new buildings or rem odeling of existing ones.The second project w as in the area of h u m an resource m anagem ent. We com pleted a m ajor case stu d y th at addresses the issue of w om en's participation in national research organizations. The final report is being revised.Women now m ake u p a significant proportion of professional staff in m any NARS. In the Philippines, w here the case study w as done, 53 percent of scientists w ith MS or PhD degrees are w om en. This high level of female participation reflects several factors: the rise of educational op portunities for w om en, the relative gender neutrality of science, the low er status of science com pared w ith som e other profes sions, an d access to jobs in governm ent and universities that tend to provide hospitable, flexible, an d nondiscrim inatory environm ents for w om en. Such con ditions are found throughout the developing w orld. So issues raised in this case stu d y m ay find w ider applicability.The ISNAR stu d y show s that, in spite of their overall num bers, w om en re searchers are still underrepresented in senior scientific an d m anagem ent posi tions.The Philippine stu d y report, produced in prelim inary form as an ISNAR discus sion paper, concludes w ith recom m enda tions on practices to increase the entry, retention, an d achievem ent levels of pro fessional w om en in NARS.ISRA in Senegal is the first institute in Africa to fully im plem ent INFORM, a m anagem ent inform ation system de signed by ISNAR for use in agricultural research. Following a pilot phase in one of ISRA's departm ents, INFORM w as ex tended to all departm ents in 1993. The in stitute now has a data base covering all its experim ents an d scientists, com plete w ith a set of analytical tables that should facili tate the next research planning exercise. ISRA is considering using INFORM to m onitor its research program s.In U ganda, INFORM w as im ple m ented in N A R O 's research institutes and the three faculties of M akerere U niversity that have agricultural research program s. Eight of these nine centers have their ow n INFORM data base of research scientists an d research activities as w ell as a copy of the national data base. They p lan to use it in the next round of research program planning in January 1994.In the area of financial m anagem ent, several NARS are m odernizing their con trol system s. This m akes sense given the size of investm ents an d the im pact these system s w ill have on the m anagem ent of research. Three countries -Tanzania, U ganda, an d Morocco -called on ISNAR for advice on services being offered by private consulting firms. ISNAR re sponded by analyzing proposals an d re ports subm itted an d by providing a second opinion on such services.MOR program staff also took p a rt in a World Bank appraisal m ission to set the basic param eters of the financial m anage m ent system s to be im plem ented in IER, M ali's um brella agricultural research or ganization.A t the request of IER, MOR program staff also advised the institute's m anage m ent on organizational changes that are p a rt of a m ajor project to strengthen agri cultural research in Mali. The advice covered a variety of activities a n d topics: defining a \"consolidated funding m echa nism \" (to coordinate financial su p p o rt from various sources), contract research, decentralization of research m anagem ent to the project level, the conditions an d re quirem ents of em ployee service, an d revi sion of IER's bylaws.ISNAR has been concerned for m any years ab out the im pact of its training ef forts.In Decem ber 1992, ISNAR staff partici pated as resource persons in a training w orkshop for 27 new or soon-to-be a p pointed research m anagers in Asia. It w as organized in collaboration w ith our sister institute IRRI in the Philippines. Partici pan ts w ere asked to prepare an action p lan for im proving the w ay they work. Time w as set aside throughout the course for this purpose.The extent to w hich participants p u t their action plans into practice w hen they returned hom e to their jobs becam e the criterion for a 1993 evaluation of the w ork sh o p 's im pact. Training did appear to influence the w ay participants p er form ed tasks -in m anaging people, in form ation, an d linkages, an d in planning, program m ing, an d priority setting.ISNAR has recorded the results of this follow -up exercise in its discussion pap er series. T hrough such evaluations, ISNAR hopes to im prove its future training ef forts.In assessing organizational perform ance, both effectiveness and efficiency should be considered. Effectiveness refers to how successful an organization is in fulfilling its m ission. Efficiency relates to the am o u n t of resources it consum es in doing so.ISNAR is conducting research to develop a set of indicators that will m easure the perform ance of an institu tion. These w ill help research organization m anagers m onitor progress from year to year a n d provide insights about the m an agem ent com ponents that need to be strengthened.M any NARS aro u n d the w orld have im plem ented INFORM over the last three years w ith su p p o rt from ISNAR. Field conditions have varied w idely an d differ ent im plem entation tactics an d strategies have been followed.It is still too early to attem pt a full im pact evaluation of such inform ation m an agem ent procedures on decision-m aking in NARS. However, it is appropriate to re view these experiences to determ ine their current use, strengths, an d weaknesses an d to record any innovations m ade by the NARS. Such a review also serves to identify m odifications to be considered in future im plem entations. This review has been com pleted an d the results are being w ritten u p as an ISNAR discussion paper.In its sim plest form, benchm arking for national agricultural research organiza tions is a w ay to foster change in m anage m ent m ethods by bringing to light and prom oting the best observed practices in other NARS of the developing w orld. An analogy can be m ade w ith agricultural ex tension th at spreads the best farm er prac tices throughout a surrounding region. W ith the assistance of national staff, ISNAR is docum enting successful m an agem ent practices in various NARS. These w ill becom e m odels for other coun tries facing sim ilar m anagem ent problem s an d constraints on the research environ m ent.O ne interesting practice, observed at INTA in A rgentina, relates to the recruit m ent of m anagers. W ithin the institute, m anagers are given short-term appoint m ents, m aking for a healthy m easure of com petition and allow ing rotation based on perform ance. This practice, now being w ritten u p for publication, has served as a test case for the ISNAR approach to p re parin g benchm arks.Planning and designing agricultural research buildings is an intricate process to which re search scientists promoted to management posi tions have had little exposure.They can rely on professionals such as architects and engineers to help them in this task. But un less they understand and take an active role in the planning of a building or a retrofit, as well as in the various steps from concept to finished product, they may not reap the full benefit of those professionals. Furthermore, the design and materials that research managers eventually choose may have a dramatic impact on construction and maintenance costs, as well as recurring costs for utilities.No. 1, 132 pages) steers the uninitiated re search manager through a variety of issues and decisions. These include the selection of an architect, identification of user needs, choice of materials, de sign of the building to minimize utility and maintenance costs, bidding processes, supervision of contractors, and disbursement of funds to the con tractors. The user should find here useful information, ideas, and practical ad vice on many aspects of research facility planning.The main focus of the guidelines is the design of offices, laboratories, and an cillary buildings in developing countries, primarily in tropical regions. How ever, a whole chapter is devoted to maintenance because this is a major consideration in the design of facilities. Special consideration was given to low-cost maintenance that significantly extends the useful life of buildings.Research managers, although the prime target, are not the only professionals who can benefit from the information presented. Others associated with plan ning and developing agricultural research facilities -such as administrators, architects, agriculturalists, engineers, builders, lenders, and other funding agencies -will also find these guidelines useful.ISNAR has h ad a w ealth of experience in guiding an d prom oting change in national agricultural research organiza tions in developing countries. The MOR p rogram has begun research to integrate ISNAR's ow n experience w ith the availa ble international literature on change. This w ill help identify the perspectives, proce dures, an d steps that organizations can take to p lan a n d im plem ent change. The concepts generated by this MOR project will be field-tested in collaboration w ith agricultural research organizations. The conceptual fram ew ork w as presented in Ecuador in a joint IS N A R /IIC A /F A O re gional w orkshop on the m anagem ent of change in NARS th at are facing dow nsiz ing.Researchers are clearly the m ost valuable resource that an agricultural research in stitution has. But m otivation som etim es w anes because of disillusionm ent w ith the conditions of em ploym ent or other factors. W hen that happens, scientists often look for jobs w ith other national or international organizations or resort to m oonlighting to boost their incomes.Im proving perform ance is a com plex process involving the introduction of in centives, prom otion m echanism s, and procedures for rew arding good w ork. But these m easures m u st ensure th at the p er form ance being rew arded m eets the or ganizational objective of service to farm ers rath er than academ ic interests. This calls for the design of an appropriate schem e of service an d a system for assess ing researcher perform ance.For several years now ISNAR has been receiving requests for assistance in this area, especially from francophone Africa. The requests have come both from scien tists concerned w ith prom otion and from m anagers w ishing to encourage their re searchers to focus m ore on serving users' needs an d less on getting scientific articles published. In collaboration w ith INRA in Morocco and ISRA in Senegal, MOR has begun w ork on the design of a new p er form ance assessm ent m echanism.The sustainability of research organiza tions is being challenged by at least tw o sets of forces over w hich they have no control.The first is fiscal stringency in developed an d developing countries alike. Research organizations find it in creasingly difficult to obtain additional funds or even m aintain current levels. Consequently, they need to be m ore effi cient in the use of resources and m ay even have to dow nsize to adjust to the new re alities. Moreover, as they attem pt to change, they need clear indications of p er form ance to dem onstrate that they are progressing tow ard developm ent objec tives.Second, research is faced w ith the diffi cult task of increasing the productivity of physical resources so as to m eet the grow ing dem and for food, feed, an d fiber. As noted in the them e essay in the opening pages of this report, such a challenge will require a broadening of the research agenda to include, am ong other things, natural resource m anagem ent. In the changing scientific environm ent, current organizational structures will be called into question. Research will increasingly becom e the dom ain of highly m ultidisci plinary team s w orking on longer-term horizons. In som e cases, it w ill lead to less tangible results than in the past. Clearly, research leaders will be presented w ith se rious m anagem ent problem s. In addition to the activities described above, the program is initiating research projects to articulate realistic responses to the n ew trends. As a result of its participa tion in ISNAR's w orking group on n atural resource m anagem ent research, MOR isCollaborative Services and Training (CST) serves as a central con tact point between IS N A R and its national and regional partners. In doing so, it enables the institute to harmonize its collaborative work with developing countries and their institutionswork that takes the form o f advice, research, training, and information ex change in the areas o f policy and management. While C ST coordi nates such relationships and implements cross-program activities such as the long-term \"comprehensive institutional development\" (CID) projects, it is the three IS N A R programs described earlier that take responsibility for much of ISN A R 's in-country advisory work. The pro g ram 's scope rem ained w ide, ranging from com plex activities like the CID projects to m ore specific, short-term ones. Unfortunately, the scale of the pro gram w as lim ited by w orsening budget constraints. This m ade pro m p t response to country dem ands im possible if funds h ad not already been clearly earm arked.The overall structure of Collaborative Services rem ained unchanged from that prevailing in 1992. However, the year saw one m ajor staffing change. O ur regional coordinator for Eastern an d Southern Africa, a 12-year veteran of ISNAR, left the institute for a w ell-earned retirem ent. He w as replaced through internal recruit m ent. The situation afforded the o p p o rtu nity to m ake som e m inor changes in the allocation of country responsibilities be tw een ISNAR's tw o regional coordinators for Africa. The new country assignm ents reflect the capacity of the coordinators to w ork in English-an d French-speaking countries.ISNAR carried out collaborative w ork in 36 countries d u rin g the year. Key details are p ro vided in the \"ISNAR aro u n d the W orld\" section beginning on page 79. In the follow ing pages, w e focus on a few of ISNAR's m ajor country activities in 1993, including the w ork of outposted staff and activities classified as CID projects.A m ong the m ilestones reached in 1993 w as the com pletion of diagnostic review s of the agricultural research system s of N am ibia, Algeria, an d Yemen. The review of N am ibia is expected to lead to as sistance in strategic planning d u rin g 1994.Also to be highlighted is ISNAR C om prehensive institutional develop m ent, or CID, is a key form of ISNAR service, as outlined in our strategy and m edium -term plan. Long-term intensive partnerships -over five to 10 yearsare being set u p w ith a few selected coun tries. The program thus allow s for a con certed effort in transferring ISNARdeveloped m anagem ent technologies to a p artner NARS an d in helping it to become institutionally sustainable.But ISNAR also benefits. The CID pro gram provides an invaluable opportunity to develop or im prove m anagem ent tools u n d er the actual conditions faced by NARS and to test certain hypotheses.The program m ade considerable pro gress d u rin g the year. It m u st be rem em bered that the activi ties listed above are by no m eans all-inclu sive. O ther activities will be started as the projects m ature.T hroughout the year, tw o outposted staff m em bers assisted the NARS in U ganda an d Tanzania. In each case this support w as linked to ongoing World Bank-as sisted projects. In U ganda, w ork started som e years ago. The ISNAR staff m em ber there has been assisting the director general an d senior m anagem ent of NARO in developing a n d establishing an im proved research m anagem ent system . He is also a key figure in the im plem entation of the CID project in th at country.In Tanzania, an ISNAR staff m em ber took u p duties in early January' 1993. His term s of reference are broadly sim ilar to those of the outposted adviser in U ganda. However, there is greater an d m ore specific em phasis on supporting the De partm ent of Research and Training's Proj ect Im plem entation U nit an d in assisting w ith the introduction of an inform ation m anagem ent system .Assistance to the B angladesh A gricul tural Research Council, described in last y e a r's annual report, ended in June. Col laboration w ith BARC continues, how ever, in a rather less structured and less intensive way.Associate experts are young graduates as signed to international organizations for one to three years of in-service training un d er the direct guidance of senior staff. Through the UN, the G overnm ent of Ger m any pro v id ed assistance for an associate expert to join ISNAR's staff in 1993. This is the second such position created at ISNAR. D uring the year, he w orked p ri m arily w ith the tw o regional coordinators for Africa. In 1994, he w ill be assigned full-tim e to assist w ith ISNAR's w ork in U ganda and su p p o rt our outposted staff m em ber there.ISNAR cooperation w ith regional organi zations helps create the conditions for socalled spillover effects -that is, the sharing an d application of research m an agem ent know ledge and expertise am ong m em ber countries. It is also a m eans of assisting regional entities w ith the developm ent or reinforcem ent of their ow n agricultural research m anagem ent policies an d program s.ISNAR m aintained contact w ith the African D evelopm ent Bank in 1993 and there is now an ongoing dialogue w ith that im portant developm ent body. Similar contacts have been established or reestab lished w ith the A sian D evelopm ent Bank and w ith the Inter-A m erican D evelop m ent Bank; a n um ber of areas of m utual interest have been identified.ISNAR also strengthened its contact w ith the Southern A frican D evelopm ent C om m unity an d the Institut d u Sahel. It is expected th at a collaborative program w ith INSAH will be designed in 1994.In Latin Am erica, ISNAR intensified its contacts w ith subregional groupings such as PROCISUR, JUNAC, and PROCI-ANDINO. Likewise for its links w ith AARINENA, AOAD, and CIHEAM in the W ANA region.After a hiatus of 16 m onths, the Training U nit w elcom ed its new coordinator. She took u p her duties in early November. However, the u n it also lost its training m aterials specialist, w ho returned to the USA.The year began w ith the form ulation an d refinem ent of a new strategy for the unit. This calls for three types of service. First, the u n it will su p p o rt other ISNAR units involved in training NARS m anagers. Second, it will be responsible for organizing com posite training events th at cut across ISNAR program lines. A nd third, the u n it w ill contribute to building ISNAR's capacity to help NARS m anage their ow n training activities. The five-year training project w ith K enya's lead organization for agricultural research, KARI, continued d u rin g the year. Four training events took place. One of these w as organized an d presented en tirely by KARI itself. The other three w ere im plem ented w ith the assistance an d p ar ticipation of ISNAR. The project ends in 1994.Phase 2 of the SA C C A R /ISN A R / ESAMI training project began in 1993. It is based in A rusha, Tanzania, at the Eastern and Southern African M anagem ent Insti tute, a n d aim s to strengthen research m anagem ent in that region of Africa. Problem s in recruiting a project m anager, as w ell as other adm inistrative hurdles, resulted in som e delays in getting this phase of the project u p and running. However, the project m anagem ent is now fully established.The w ork is financially su p p o rted by USAID an d assisted by an outposted ISNAR staff m em ber w ho serves as proj ect adviser. The project design em phasizes the transfer of responsibilities to the target countries, their NARS, an d to ESAMI, the regional training and m anagem ent insti tution. In addition to assisting ESAMI in establishing training capacity in agricul tural research m anagem ent, the project or ganized a regional train-the-trainer course. Also, a national w orkshop on pri ority setting w as held in Zambia. For 1993, the Publications Services unit can point to five m ajor accom plishm ents, in addition to the production of 26 official ISNAR publications.First, the u n it inaugurated a new p u b lications p rogram designed in 1992. This consists of five regular series, in addition to corporate publications such as the A n nual R eport an d Newsletter. Three new series are Research M anagem ent G uide lines (projected at about three p er year), Research Reports (about six p er year), and Briefing Papers (about 12 p er year). Two series th at continue from before 1993 are C ountry Reports, w hich are diagnostic re view s of particular NARS, and reports of m eetings on agricultural research m an agem ent.Second, the unit carried ou t a reader ship survey. Late in the year, readers of the ISNAR N ew sletter received a ques tionnaire about their interests w ithin the field of agricultural research m anage m ent. D ata from these questionnaires will be used to develop m ore specialized m ail ing lists.Third, the unit introduced im proved internal m anagem ent procedures. ISNAR now aw ards contracts for printing on a m ultiyear basis. The inventory of publica tions in stock has been com puterized, as has been inform ation on budgets, costs, and projects in progress.Fourth, the head of Publications Serv ices co-authored a report assessing con straints, needs, an d priorities w ithin the inform ation p rogram of the Institut d'Econom ie Rurale in Mali. This w as the m ain p ro d u ct of his participation in an ISNAR m ission to Bamako in October 1992.Finally, a joint ISNAR/CTA project w as prepared w ith the aim of helping several East A frican NARS to im prove the planning an d production of their annual reports.ISNAR's library an d docum entation unit continued to im prove services to staff and to a d d to its holdings. R equests to other li braries for m aterials not held at ISNAR averaged m ore than 30 per m onth, alm ost double 1992 dem and. R equests for on-line bibliographic searches increased similarly. A dditions to the catalog averaged about 150 p er m onth, about the sam e as in 1992.Two external activities w ere especially significant.In cooperation w ith CTA an d CAB In ternational, the u n it organized an expert consultation at ISNAR in January on In form ation M anagem ent N eeds in NARS. The m eeting w as attended by repre sentatives of NARS, donor agencies, and other CGIAR centers. The objective w as to identify issues in inform ation m anage m ent for w hich NARS an d international agencies could develop joint initiatives.The unit h ead also participated in an ISN A R /IC A R team to analyze inform a tion needs in the Indian NARS (see fol low ing page).ISNAR continued to develop its internal PC-based netw ork. Each scientist, adm in istrator, an d secretary is a m em ber of that netw ork via a personal com puter on his or her desk. M any staff also have a PC at hom e an d are connected via rem ote email. O utposted staff in Tanzania an d U ganda are sim ilarly linked to the netw ork. ISNAR is still a long w ay from becom ing an \"institution w ithout w alls,\" b u t it is an evolving com m unity extending w ell be-In early 1993, the Government of India began work on a major project to bring the power of new information technology to its NARS. It clubbed the project \"ARIS,\" an agricultural research information system. It asked ISNAR to take the lead in formulating a strategy.This process had two parts: assessing needs and identifying appropriate tech nologies. Each was carried out by a team consisting of ISNAR staff and NARS leaders. In the course of about two months in India, the teams had established contact with more than 400 NARS staff and more than 150 information special ists. The entire operation was based on three assumptions:■ that the lack of access to information is, and will continue to be, a serious con straint on both management and scientific decision making in the Indian NARS ■ that new technology has the potential to strengthen information management, thereby improving decision making ■ that early action is required if information management in the NARS is to be improved. Too much technology and too much data may actually weaken rather than strengthen decision making. The challenge is to strike a balance between three interrelated considerations: the need for information, the willingness of NARS managers and scientists to use it, and their capacity to manage new information technologyThe needs assessment team worked to develop a consensus on four subjects: the main features of information management procedures currently in place, the strengths and weaknesses of these procedures, judgments about the bene fits to be had by improving these procedures, and a list of issues that developers of an ARIS would have to face (e.g., data content, data collection and compatibility, organization and management, and resources required). By the end of the year, it contained nearly 12,000 records, of w hich 4,700 m ake up the publications m ailing list.Second, it developed a new data base for fixed assets. This allows ISNAR m an agem ent to identify an d locate assets such as equipm ent an d furniture, as w ell as plan for m aintenance an d replacem ent. In 1994 the data base w ill be linked to the ISNAR accounting system for deprecia tion calculations.Third, the unit expanded ISNAR's inhouse com puter training program . In 1993, it ran m ore than 15 courses for staff.Fourth, the u n it h ead participated in an ISNAR m ission to S udan to analyze com puter needs an d priorities in the A gri cultural Research C orporation (ARC). He w as also a m em ber of the ISN A R /IC A R team that recom m ended inform ation tech nologies for the Indian NARS.Adm inistrative Services supports the day-to-day operations o f all program and support groups. It comprises fo u r units: Accounts, Central Files and Telecommunications, Personnel and Adm inistra tion, and Services and Supplies.ere w e highlight three A dm inistra tive Services activities aim ed at im proving ISNAR's internal m an agem ent of resources.First, ISNAR's external auditors, M oret Ernst & Young, review ed ISNAR's ac counting procedures an d system s of inter nal control as p art of the routine annual au d it of ISNAR's accounts early in the year. Their recom m endations, aim ed at providing strong an d stable adm inistra tive controls w ithin ISNAR, have been im plem ented. The review w as done as a follow -up to the introduction of a new com puterized financial system d u rin g the previous year.Second, w e conducted an internal au d it of the procurem ent of consum able supplies for office use. This w as p a rt of an ongoing exam ination of policies, system s, an d procedures in place w ithin specific ISNAR w ork units, aim ed at im proving accountability an d m anagem ent. Al though no m ajor flaw s w ere noted, several recom m endations w ere m ade and im plem ented to further im prove control an d transparency of the procurem ent process.Third, a w orking group of ISNAR staff, d raw n from various job categories an d w o rk units, m ade proposals for a new em ployee perform ance assessm ent and enhancem ent (PAE) system . Following en dorsem ent of their proposals by m anage m ent an d the Board of Trustees, an infor m ation an d training program w as launched to ensure sm ooth im plem enta tion of the new PAE system . This w as done w ith the aid of a consultant. The following pages present, in point form , ISN A R 's 1993 activities around the world. Included are global, regional, and national events that IS N A R either organized alone, conducted jointly with other or ganizations, or contributed to by providing resource people.For a number o f major projects launched by IS N A R in 1993, addi tional information is provided in the New Initiatives at a Glance section, beginning on page 48.  Publications about ISNAR No. 1. Guidelines for planning and designing agricultural research buildings.No No. 1. Colombia: Relaciones entre los sectores público y privado en la investigación agrí cola. By César A. Falconi.No. 10. Linking science and the farmer: Pillars of the national agricultural research system in Sierra Leone. By M.T. Dahniya. No. 93-2. Natural resource management and sustainable agriculture: Policy implicationsStatement of Financial Position (as of December 31,1993, in thousands of U.S. dollars) ISNAR's operating budget for 1993 w as $10,460 million, of w hich $5,989 m illion w as core-unrestricted grants. The rem ainder w as core-restricted grants and \"com plem en tary\" (i.e., special project) funding. ","tokenCount":"26605"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3946a0a2f1e77289be1c0c57a4f83298","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a18dab51-813d-41d9-83ca-1902ac2aa197/content","id":"538324274"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c367ef5b-5c56-4046-8f33-6375858b56f0","pagecount":"22","content":"Ethiopia recently experienced a large-scale war that lasted for more than two years. Using unique High-Frequency Phone Survey (HFPS) data, which span several months before and after the outbreak of the war, this paper provides evidence on the immediate impacts of the conflict on households' food security. We also assess potential mechanisms and evaluate impacts on proximate outcomes, including on livelihood activities and access to food markets. We use difference-in-differences and two-way fixed effects estimation to compare trends across affected and unaffected regions (households) and before and after the outbreak of the war. Seven months into the conflict, we find that the war was associated with a 37 percentage points increase in the probability of moderate to severe food insecurity. Using the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED), we show that exposure to an additional battle leads to a 1 percentage point increase in the probability of moderate or severe food insecurity. The conflict was associated with significant reduction in access to food through supply chain disruptions and by curtailing non-farm livelihood activities. Non-farm and wage related activities were affected the most, whereas farming activities were relatively more resilient. Our estimates, which likely underestimate the true average effects on the population, constitute novel evidence on the near-real-time impacts of large-scale conflict. Our work highlights the potential of HFPS to monitor active and large-scale conflicts, especially in contexts where conventional data sources are not immediately available.Armed conflicts continue to be major drivers of poverty, and they are on the rise in Africa (Collier et al., 2003; Corral et al., 2020; Shemyakina,  2022). About 48 percent of all the globally extreme poor people were living in conflict affected regions in 2018 and this is predicted to increase to 68 percent by 2030 (Corral et al., 2020). As part of this increasing trend in conflicts and political instabilities in Africa, Ethiopia recently experienced a large-scale war that affected millions. Political disagreements between the Ethiopian federal government and the Tigray regional state ensued into full-scale war on November 4, 2020. The conflict played out in most parts of Tigray while also spilling over into parts of Amhara and Afar regions. Despite some high-level assessments (e.g., UNOCHA, 2021; WFP, 2022) and anecdotal accounts, to date there has not been any micro-level assessment of the welfare impacts of the armed conflict on affected households. 1 Using unique High-Frequency Phone Survey (HFPS) data, collected midway into the conflict, we provide fresh empirical evidence of the (near real-time) impacts of the conflict on households' food security. To assess potential mechanisms, we evaluate impacts on proximate outcomes, including on livelihood activities and access to food markets. We also evaluate the distributional patterns of these effects across economic sectors and geography.Much of the earlier work on the impacts of violent conflict is crosscountry in nature, examining macro-level relationships between conflict and economic growth and development outcomes (Collier et al.,  2003; Corral et al., 2020). Most of these cross-country studies find significant negative impacts of conflicts on macro-level economic outcomes (Barro, 1991; Gupta et al., 2004), some of which are transitory and are followed by quick recovery (Miguel and Roland, 2006; Justino and  Verwimp, 2006; Chen et al., 2008; Cerra and Saxena, 2008), while in other cases negative consequences are found to persist over longer periods (Blattman and Miguel, 2010; de Groot et al., 2022; Shemyakina,  2022). Several studies document important heterogeneities in impacts of conflicts across countries and regions (Bove et al., 2017; de Groot et al.,  2022).The increased availability of household survey data in the last decade has led to proliferation of micro-level studies that examine the effects of violent conflict on welfare and economic outcomes of affected populations (e.g., Akresh and de Walque, 2008; Bundervoet et al., 2009;  Akresh et al., 2011; Chamarbagwala and Morán, 2011; Merrouche,  2011; Shemyakina, 2011; Akresh et al., 2012; León, 2012; Mansour and  Rees, 2012; Akbulut-Yuksel, 2014; Grimard and Laszlo, 2014; Valente,  2014; Pivovarova and Swee, 2015; Brück et al., 2019; Martin-Shields  and Stojetz, 2019; Verwimp et al., 2019). However, much of the micro studies on conflicts in African have typically examined delayed outcomes observed several years following a conflict. For example, Akresh  (2008) and Kraehnert et al. (2019) examine the longer-term impacts of the Rwandan genocide on schooling and fertility outcomes. 2  Minoiu and  Shemyakina (2012) find strong negative impacts of the 2002-2007 Cote d'Ivoire conflict on children's health status in subsequent years. 3 Similarly, studies of the impacts of the 1998-2000 Ethiopia-Eritrea border conflict find evidence of negative impacts on child health and schooling outcomes in subsequent years (Akresh et al., 2012; Weldeegzie, 2017). In northern Nigeria, Adelaja and George (2019) and George et al.  (2020), respectively, find that increased intensity of Boko Haram attacks reduced agricultural productivity and increased food insecurity. 4 Most micro-level studies evaluating the impact of violent conflict suffer from two major data related limitations. First, because the outbreak of violent conflicts disrupts traditional data collection efforts, evaluating the immediate impacts of an active violent conflict proves difficult. Second, tracking the trajectory of outcomes associated with violent conflict may require high-frequency data that are not usually collected in conflict settings. This is particularly crucial for large-scale high intensity violent conflicts that may evolve in ways that are difficult to foresee. Delays in data collection in conflict settings forces most micro-level studies to rely on recall information often going back several years and involving aggregations, which are prone to recall (e.g., Gibson  and Kim, 2007; Beegle et al., 2012) and aggregation biases (Sharma and  Gibson, 2019; Rockmore, 2017; Rockmore and Barrett, 2022). Besides, limiting our understandings of the nature and consequences of violent conflicts, 5 such data-related limitations are, among others, likely to hinder the speed and capacity of humanitarian organizations to target and deliver lifesaving humanitarian assistance to affected populations (Baker et al., 2020).To the best of our knowledge, we provide the first quantitative ex durante study of the microeconomic consequences of an active largescale conflict using high-frequency phone survey data. This gives us important descriptive insights on the immediate effects of war on food security, livelihood activities and access to food markets. We discuss how such ex durante monitoring and analysis may inform post-conflict recovery and rebuilding efforts, an important endeavour Ethiopia is currently pursuing after a peace agreement was signed to end the war. Finally, we discuss how similar high-frequency phone surveys and related remote data collection efforts could best be mobilized to monitor future conflicts in similar settings elsewhere.Our analysis combines HFPS with conflict events data to identify the impact of the conflict on welfare outcomes and proximate outcomes. 6 The HFPS are monthly phone surveys that cover all regions of Ethiopia and span between April 2020 and May 2021, with multiple waves before and after the outbreak of the war. The HFPS sample is drawn from a nationally representative face-to-face survey fielded in 2019 (the 4th round of the Ethiopian Living Standards Measurement Study -Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA)). These combined data offer several advantages and a unique opportunity to link households' welfare outcomes to exposure to conflict events. First, the spatiotemporal coverage of the HFPS data permits the construction of aggregate (affected versus unaffected regions) and disaggregated (household-level) measures of exposure to conflict. Importantly, because the HFPS surveys are georeferenced, we were able to merge the household data with granular conflict events data from the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED) project. Second, the HFPS data also allow us to go beyond standard welfare measures that are typically assessed in conflict studies. In particular, we are able to investigate potential disruptions in economic activities and food market supply chains, mechanisms through which violent conflicts can affect food security and related welfare outcomes. 7 As a main outcome of interest, we focus on household food security, measured using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). To uncover some of the mechanisms, we explore impacts on two broad proximate determinants: (i) households' participation in major economic and livelihood activities (farming, non-farm business, and wage employment); and (ii) households' access to food and food markets. To quantify the impact of violent conflict on these ultimate and proximate outcomes, we use Difference-in-Differences (DID) and two-way fixed effects (TWFE) model and compare temporal trends in welfare across households with varying exposure to the conflict. The first stage of the war (November 2020 to June 2021) was mostly confined to Tigray, expanding to neighbouring Afar and Amhara regions thereafter. Thus, our analysis focuses on the first period of the war, so that we can precisely define the spatial extent of the conflict. To account for potential intermittent conflicts elsewhere, we relax this treatment assignment in the analysis by using monthly household-level exposure to conflict from the ACLED database. We follow recent advances in the DID/TWFE literature to show that our results are robust to corrections for treatment dynamics and heterogenous treatment effects (Callaway and Sant'Anna,  2021; Goodman-Bacon 2021; de Chaisemartin and D'Haultfoeuille,  2020).The high-frequency nature of the data facilitates our identification strategy in two useful ways. First, the monthly follow-up and hence 2 Similarly, León (2012) and Bertoni et al. (2019) find negative impacts of conflict on human capital accumulation and schooling outcomes, respectively, in Peru and Nigeria; while Odozi and Oyelere (2019) examine the impacts of a broader range of conflicts on poverty.3 Dabalen and Paul (2014) find evidence of reduced dietary diversity for the same period. 4 Other studies in Africa have focused on identifying causes of violent conflicts as in the case of increases in food prices levels and extreme climatic conditions leading to socio-political unrest (e.g., Hsiang et al., 2011; Hendrix  and Salehyan, 2012; Smith, 2014; Maystadt and Ecker, 2014; van Weezel,  2019). For the case of Ethiopia, Akresh et al. (2012) and Weldeegzie (2017) use panel data to estimate impacts of the 1998-2000 Ethiopia-Eritrea border conflict on child health and schooling outcomes of children. 5 For example, in the absence of real-time data, it may prove difficult to recover the immediate impacts of violent conflicts (e.g., transitory food insecurity) several years after conflicts occur.comparison of outcomes across affected and unaffected regions allows us to minimize compounding trends. The existence of multiple pre-war and post-war-onset waves also allow us to indirectly test for parallel trends, the main identifying assumption for a DID estimation strategy. Second, the relatively large sample size due to high-frequency data allows us to probe the robustness of our results using alternative definitions of control groups. For example, in some of our estimations, we restrict our sample to the Highland regions of the country, with Amhara, Oromia and SNNP regions serving as the controls. We find that the outbreak of the war is associated with 37 percentage points increase in the probability of moderate or severe food insecurity. The prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in conflict-affected communities jumped from about 30 percent in the pre-war (October 2020) round to 67 percent in May 2021. This is a substantial impact, but not surprising given the scale of the war and the massive disruptions to livelihoods and services that ensued. Our analysis of the granular conflict data in the ACLED database indicates that exposure to an additional battle leads to 1 percentage point increase in the probability of moderate to severe food insecurity. Some of the ultimate effects on food security are driven by disruptions in markets and supply chains, destruction of livelihoods and income losses while some may have simply been consequences of the suspension of public services (e.g., banking, telecommunication, electricity, and transport services). Specifically, we find that the war has dramatically reduced households' access and ability to buy food while also significantly disrupting livelihoods of households in conflict affected areas. Non-farm and wage employment appear to be the most affected while farm activities were relatively more resilient. Similarly, economic activities in urban areas were much more affected than those in rural areas. This is partly because urban areas and main roads connecting towns continued to be heavily militarized even during periods of relative lull in fighting. These suggest that the ultimate impacts of the violent conflict, in addition to curtailment of livelihoods, were likely mediated through disruptions in the functioning of markets and supply chains in urban areas. Given the recent peace agreement between the parties to the conflict, these findings can inform rehabilitation and rebuilding efforts.The rest of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 describes the geographic and political context of this study and data used. Section 3 summarizes trends in welfare outcomes. Section 4 outlines the empirical strategy while Section 5 presents our results and discussion. In Section 6, provides concluding remarks.For over two decades, Ethiopia has been one of the world's fastestgrowing economies and often nicknamed as the \"hub of stability\" in a volatile Horn of Africa region. This changed drastically in early November 2020 when war broke out in Tigray, causing massive loss of life and infrastructure damages. Initially, the war involved the Tigray regional forces, and an alliance of the federal army, regional forces from neighboring Amhara and Afar regions. The conflict escalated when neighboring Eritrean forces joined the alliance led by the Ethiopian federal army. Banking, telephone, electricity, transport, and other basic services were suspended in most parts of the region immediately after the war broke out. Most of Tigray was directly affected by the war and quickly became inaccessible to humanitarian assistance. After weeks of intense fighting, the federal and allied forces took control of large swaths of Tigray, including the regional capital Mekelle at the end of November 2020, which continued until June 2021. After capturing the regional capital Mekelle, the federal government installed a provisional regional government in Tigray and some public services such as telecommunication and electricity services were restored, and limited humanitarian assistance resumed in areas under the full control of the federal army. Most of these services were discontinued when the federal army and the provisional regional government left the capital in June 2021.Internally displaced people (IDP) from various parts of Tigray swelled camps set up for IDPs in several towns, including the regional capital, Mekelle. While effects of the war remained largely unreported because of the restricted access to internet and telephone services, widespread disruptions, lootings, and civilian massacres were later confirmed, including by an investigation led by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (EHRC and OHCHR ). The conflict spilled over into neighboring Amhara and Afar regions when the Ethiopian federal army and allied forces were pushed out of Tigray in June 2021. 8 The expansion of the war into neighboring Amhara and Afar regions caused further economic and welfare damages in those regions. A recent assessment by the World Food Program shows that hunger had more than doubled in the Amhara region during the first months of the expansion of the war into the region (WFP, 2022). Thus far, the HFPS data cover the period until May 2021, forcing us to focus on impacts of the first phase of the conflict, which was confined to the Tigray region. 9Fig. 1 presents the distribution of violent conflicts, specifically battles, across all regions of Ethiopia before (August 2019-October 2020) and after the outbreak of the war (November 2020-May 2021). These figures are based on conflict event records in the ACLED data. Panel (a) shows that battles were sparsely and evenly distributed across regions before November 2020. Panel (b) confirms that during the November 2020 -May 2021 period, there was dramatic spike in battle events, the vast majority of which were confined to Tigray, with little change in battle incidents elsewhere. This figure further highlights that these battles covered all parts of Tigray, due partly to the multiple warring parties involved in several fronts. In southern Tigray the armed conflict was between Tigray regional forces and the federal army and allied forces. In the north it was between Tigray regional forces and the Eritrean army. In western Tigray, the war involved the federal army (along with their allied Amhara regional forces and the Eritrean army) and the Tigray regional forces. Thus, most of Tigray was effectively an active war zone.We use the World Bank's HFPS data for Ethiopia, conducted between April 2020 and May 2021 to monitor the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic (World Bank, 2020). 10 The phone survey sample is a subsample of households drawn from both urban and rural areas in all regions of Ethiopia surveyed face-to-face in the LSMS-ISA in 2019. The 2019 LSMS-ISA Ethiopia data are nationally representative sample of 6,770 households. Of these, 5,374 (79.3 percent) reported phone ownership and were used as sampling frame for the phone survey in 2020. The actual sample size for the phone survey was set at 3,300 households of which 3,247 of them were successfully interviewed in the first phone survey in April 2020 (Wieser et al., 2020). These households were re-interviewed every 3-4 weeks, for eleven rounds, until May 2021, allowing high-frequency monitoring of changes in key outcomes of interest including labor market participation and food security. We combine the 2019 face-to-face survey data with these HFPS data.The 2019 baseline data provide detailed characteristics of households, including GPS coordinates of the household allowing merging these data with the ACLED database. The ACLED database records event-based information for different types of conflicts, including battles, attacks against civilians, remote violence, and protests and riots and is a widely used database to study the consequences of conflicts in different settings. We focus on the number of battles because the Ethiopian war that broke out on November 4, 2020, involved intense battles that caused mass casualties and displacements. More than half of the incidents recorded by ACLED during our sample period (August 2019-May 2021) represent battles. The remaining represent attacks against civilians and remote violence. We construct household-level measure of exposure to battles by counting the number of battles within a 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 km radius around the households' location. We compute cumulative number of battles in the preceding months up until the end of the survey month. Based on the cumulative number of battles we also generate a binary indicator of extensive margin of exposure to one or more battles. Table A1 shows that the number of battles has tripled after November 2020. 11 The HFPS sample continually declined in the follow-up rounds due to non-response to calls and attrition. Furthermore, the Tigray sample was especially affected by the war itself and disruptions in telecommunication services in the region, further reducing the sample to 1,982 households in May 2021 (Table A2). Our analysis is, therefore, based on unbalanced panel of households interviewed in the pre-war and postwar-onset phone surveys between April 2020 and May 2021. Though the pre-pandemic (and pre-conflict) sample of the LSMS-ISA survey in Ethiopia is randomly selected from urban and rural households in each 11 Before November 2020, such events consisted of low intensity armed conflicts between state police or special regional armed forces and ethnic militias, typically reflecting localized political grievances. district, the follow-up phone surveys are subject to two levels of nonrandom selection issues.First, the phone sample may differ in systematic ways from the original 2019 sample, partly because ownership of mobile phones may be correlated with wealth (see Table A3). Second, phone surveys in conflict hotspot areas are likely to suffer from pervasive non-response, partly because of inaccessibility and network problems. The prospect of being contacted in the phone surveys is likely to be greater for those who are relatively better off economically, as well as those located in areas with better access to telecommunication services (due to better infrastructure or less destruction by the war). Table A3 shows that sample attrition increases with the presence of armed conflicts with the response rate being lower for Tigray (due to the intensity of the war) than for the rest of the regions. Telecommunication and electricity services were disrupted in much of Tigray following the breakout of the war. These services were later restored in areas that came under the control of the federal government and provisional regional government in Tigray, which enabled reaching households by phone.To account for these systematic non-responses in the phone surveys, we constructed inverse probability sampling weights which we used in our subsequent analysis. Our final sample consists of those households appearing (at least once) in the pre-war and post-war-onset phone survey rounds, implying that the weights need to be constructed considering attrition and non-responses in both phases. 12 We use a rich set of household and location characteristics collected in the 2019 survey to characterize and predict the (joint) probability of response in the prewar and post-war-onset phone surveys using a logit model. Table A3 characterizes the probability of response in: (i) at least one pre-war phone survey, (ii) at least in one post-war-onset phone survey, and (iii) both pre-war and post-war-onset phone surveys. These results generally confirm some of the above hypothesesbetter off households (educated and wealthier) are less likely to attrit from the sample and this pattern remained similar across the pre-war and post-war rounds. Furthermore, attrition rate significantly increased in the conflict affected Tigray region. Applying the weights markedly reduces the differences between the unweighted and weighted mean differences in the observable characteristics of the sample (Table A4). More specifically, Table A4 shows that applying the sampling weights makes observable characteristics of the phone survey sample comparable to that of the full sample. These weights were applied in all our analyses to address potential biases due to systematic sample attrition and non-response (Wooldridge, 2007; Korinek et al., 2007). Nonetheless, to the extent that our results fail to control this bias, our results may be taken as lower bounds of the actual impacts of the conflict.The paper focuses on three broad categories of outcomes that are observed both in the pre-war and post-war-onset phone surveys. These are: (i) the household food insecurity experience, (ii) (ii) participation in labor market and livelihood activities, and (iii) Households' access to food markets. The 2019 face-to-face survey collected a wealth of information on household food security, employment and labor market participation, consumption, and other socio-economic characteristics that serve as baseline for the phone surveys. The phone surveys also covered these topics which are of interest in this study, particularly household food security and participation in various livelihood activities. Because phone surveys generally tend to be shorter for data quality reasons, the HFPS implemented similar questionnaires across rounds but followed a modular approachsome modules were dropped, while others were kept or added in different rounds. Thus, we observe food security and labor market outcome indicators across multiple pre-war and post-war-onset rounds but not necessarily across all twelve rounds.Food insecurity is measured using the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES), an experience-based food insecurity metric developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations that is widely applied to measure prevalence of food insecurity (FAO,  2014a). 13 The FIES relies on respondents' direct responses to an eightquestion survey module, referring to experiences of difficulties to access sufficient and nutritious food in the last 30 days. The FIES elicits responses based on whether the respondent or another household member (1) was worried about having enough food to eat, (2) ate only a few kinds of foods, (3) unable to eat healthy and nutritious foods, (4) ate less than should have eaten, (5) had skipped a meal, (6) ran out of food, (7) was hungry but did not eat, and (8) went without eating for a whole day. A binary variable is coded for each question that takes the value of 1 if the answer is \"yes\" and zero if otherwise, and these responses are used to construct various food insecurity indicators. An advantage of FIES is that it generates a direct composite estimate of food insecurity summarized from a set of easy-to-understand questions, convenient to include in high-frequency surveys. It, thus, allows comparability across 12 Households appearing only either in the pre-war or post-war phone surveys were dropped from the analysis and assumed as nonresponses in constructing the sample weights.13 https://www.fao.org/in-action/voices-of-the-hungry/background/en/.time and space. This standard module was included in many of the highfrequency phone surveys, with reference period for the last 30 days preceding the survey date. Based on the above FIES questions, we adopt two approaches to measure food insecurity. First, we use the raw values of the responses and associated \"raw score\" which we generate by summing the responses to the eight questions. The raw value of these responses assumes binary nature while the raw score assumes a value between zero and eight. By this definition, those households reporting experience of food insecurity across one or more of the eight dimensions are assumed to be facing food insecurity.Second, data from this module is analyzed further, following procedures detailed by the FAO, to generate a food insecurity metric based on responses provided to each of the FIES questions (FAO, 2014b). 14 The analysis involves parameter estimation, statistical validation against global standards, and calculation of individual and population-level food insecurity prevalence rates. 15 For this purpose, we follow the following steps: First, we compile all binary responses for each of the eight FIES questions above (this requires specific ordering and naming of variables) along with appropriate weights. We retain this file and export it to.csv format. Second, we upload the.csv file to the FIES Shiny App: https://fies.shinyapps.io/ExtendedApp/, which is developed and managed by the FAO. Third, we follow the analyses, exclusion and inclusion steps described by FAO for generating respondent-level, modelbased food insecurity indicators. In particular, this analysis generates several important indicators of food insecurity, including: (i) raw score that is simply generated by adding the raw values of responses to the eight FIES questions, (ii) severity of food insecurity, an interval score ranging between zero and eight which is used to classify households' severity of food insecurity (into moderate or severe food insecurity) (FAO, 2014b). 16 (iii) probability of moderate or severe food insecurity, and (iv) probability of severe food insecurity. We finally downloaded and merged these indicators with our main sample.Based on these alternative approaches, we end up with four sets of food insecurity indicators: (i) raw responses to each of the eight questions, (ii) raw score across the eight questions, (iii) a binary indicator of experience of moderate or severe food insecurity based on severity of food insecurity, and (iv) binary indicator of experience of food insecurity (assuming a value of 1 for those households with raw score above zero and 0 otherwise). Table 1 presents the weighted pooled summary statistics and shows that 45 percent of households experienced moderate or severe food insecurity. These are comparable with other recent studies from Ethiopia and other African countries (e.g., Josephson et al.,  2021). About 64 percent of households report experiencing at least one of the eight dimensions of food insecurity that constitute the FIES. 17Both the 2019 face-to-face survey and the 2020-2021 phone surveys collected detailed household-level data on labor market participation in income-generating activities, including farming, non-farm family businesses, and wage employment. The data on households' participation in various livelihood activities are available for most rounds, but with slight differences across rounds. First, the data on farming and non-farm activities are available for all rounds, but wage-related activities were dropped in some rounds (August 2020, February 2021, and May 2021) of the phone surveys. These wage-related data are available for two rounds after the outbreak of the war (December 2020 and January 2021), allowing us to assess labor market participation effects of the war in the immediate aftermath of the outbreak of the war. 14 See detailed procedures and definitions at: https://www.fao. org/3/i7835e/i7835e.pdf. 15 See detailed procedures at: https://www.fao.org/3/ca9318en/ca9318en. pdf. 16 Details of the implementation of procedures this analysis is given in FAO,   2014a, b and Josephson et al. (2021). 17 See Fig. 2 (in Section 3) for the temporal evolution of these outcomes across survey rounds and across conflict affected and unaffected regions.  Second, there was a slight change in the reference period across rounds. In the August 2019 face-to-face survey, the labor market participation of household members was collected for the last 7 days preceding the survey. But the reference period and framing of the questions were slightly changed for the phone surveys. More specifically, at the start of the phone surveys in April 2020, respondents were asked to report on whether household members were able to perform farming and non-farm activities since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020). 18 In the follow-up phone surveys (from May 2020 to May 2021), the above labor market participation questions were asked with reference to the last call (survey), which is approximately one month. 19 As long as the effects of changes in the reference period on responses are uniform across all regions, inclusion of round dummies in our estimations should take care of these concerns.We define three indicator variables for each of the major employment activities, taking a value of 1 if any member of the household participated in farming, non-farm own business, and wage employment, respectively, and 0 otherwise. We also generate an indicator variable for participation in any of these livelihood activities. 20 Fig. 5 (in Section 3) provides temporally and spatially disaggregated trends in households' participation in these activities.Besides the ultimate food insecurity experience, the HFPS elicited responses related to households' access to food and food markets.Households were asked whether they were able to buy enough staple foods (e.g., teff/ injera, wheat/ bread, maize and cooking oil) in the previous week. These questions are important to capture households' physical access to and affordability of food, and hence allow us to investigate the ways in which the conflict may have impacted food systems and livelihoods. In one hand, the outbreak of the war has directly affected access to food by impeding the functioning of markets, especially in conflict hotspot areas. On the other hand, the war curtailed livelihood activities, leading to reductions in income and food affordability. Thus, the outbreak of the war is expected to directly impact both access to and affordability of food. Table A5 shows pooled summary statistics of these measures and proxies for accessibility and affordability of food and food markets.We start by describing trends in household level aggregate food security outcomes. Fig. 2 reports trends in overall prevalence of food insecurity across survey rounds and the four major highland regions in Ethiopia: Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray. The two measures of food insecurityprevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity and probability of food insecuritywere constructed using the eight FIES questions as described in Section 2.3. Panel (a) shows that prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity (experienced during the previous month) more than doubled in Tigray after the outbreak of the war, jumping from 30 percent in the last pre-war (October 2020) round to 67 percent in May 2021. In comparison, food insecurity slightly declined inThe Impact of violent conflict on aggregate measures of food insecurity.(1)( Notes: The outcome variable in the first column is a binary indicator assuming a value of 1 for households classified as moderate or severe food insecure based on the severity of food insecurity generated from the eight FIES questions. The dependent variable in the second column is a binary indicator assuming a value 1 for households experiencing one or more types of food insecurity and 0 otherwise. The outcome variable in the last column stands for raw sum of the responses to the eight FIES questions. All estimations use sampling weights to capture systematic non-response and attrition in phone surveys. Standard errors, clustered at district (woreda) level, are given in parentheses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.18 For wage-related activities this continued to be one week (since last week). 19 The specific labor market participation questions are: (i) since last call, did you or any member of your household work on a family farm growing crops or raising livestock? (ii) since last call, did you or any member of your household operate a non-farm family business? (ii) in the last week, were you able to do your wage/salary job as usual either from place of work or work from home?, and (iv) In the last week, were you able to do your wage/salary job as usual either from place of work or work from home? 20 It is thus important to note that our estimations on labor market participation aim to quantify the implication of the war on the extensive margins of the outcomes.Amhara (from 37 percent to 29 percent) but slightly increased in Oromia and SNNP (from 45 percent to 49 percent, and from 45 percent to 48 percent, respectively). 21 Similarly, panel (b) shows that the share of households experiencing food insecurity increased by 25 percentage points (from 55 percent to 80 percent). This is consistent with the recent assessment by the World Food Program, which reported that 83 percent of people in Tigray were food insecure (WFP, 2022). On the other hand, trends in the other major regions remained relatively stable. To put this in context, immediately before the war, the trends in the overall prevalence of food insecurity were broadly comparable across regions (with similar trends in Tigray and Amhara), but by May 2021 the prevalence and probability of food insecurity sharply increased in Tigray while the corresponding trends for the other regions remained about the same.Fig. 3 further disaggregates the patterns of food insecurity experiences using some of the questions included in the FIES module. Panel (a) shows that the percentage of households who reported worrying about not having enough food during the previous 30 days. The figures remained reasonably stable between May 2020 and October 2020, after which the share of households who respond in the affirmative increased from 35 percent to 66 percent in Tigray. 22 For the other regions, the corresponding trends changed little. In panel (b), relative to the pre-war period, the share of households in Tigray who reported having to skip a meal in the last 30 days has shown a sharp rise from 14 percent to 46 percentan increase of 32 percentage points. Panel (c) shows the share of households who reported consuming less varieties of food. Compared to October 2020, the decline in food varieties consumed after the outbreak of the war is significantly higher in Tigray (increased from percent to 74 percent) than in the other three regions. Panel (d) shows the percentage of households who reported not being able to consume healthy and nutritious foods. In Tigray, the figure jumped from percent in October 2020 to 76 percent in May 2021. For the other regions, the corresponding figures changed little (51 percent in October 2020 and 50 percent in May 2021). Overall, the results shown in Figs. and 3, attest to the dramatic deterioration in food security in Tigray in the aftermath of the breakout of war in November 2020.In this section, we report descriptive results on households' participation in labor market and livelihood activities between August and May 2021. Fig. 4 presents temporal trends in overall participation in livelihood activities for the four weeks preceding survey interviews. Three important trends in these outcomes emerge. First, compared to the other regions, the proportion of households that participated in any economic activity was slightly lower in Tigray both before and after the war broke out. Second, the share of households who reported engaging in non-farm and wage related activities in Tigray is comparable to the other three major regions, while that of those who engage in farming was much less. Three, in the aftermath of the start of the war, there was a significant drop in participation in economic activities in Tigray compared to the other regions.As shown in panel (a), the share of households that reported being engaged in any employment activity was stable in Amhara, Oromia and SNNP. In Tigray, on the other hand, the patterns of participation in any activity dramatically dropped following the onset of the war in November 2020. About 95 percent of the interviews for the November 21 Note that the war expanded to Amhara and Afar regions after late June 2021. This period is not covered by this study. 22 Compared to May 2020, there are 18 percent more households reporting being worried about having enough food.2020 round had been completed before the outbreak of the war (November 4). Thus, we do not expect dramatic declines in livelihood activities in the November 2020 round. However, the share of households participating in any activity in Tigray declined sharply from 78 percent in October 2020 to 48 percent in January 2021. Much of this decrease is associated with a decline in non-farm employment (panel (c)) and wage employment (panel (d)). The change in patterns of nonfarm business activities appears slightly nuanced, however. After the war broke out, the share of households who reported employment in non-farm business decreased from 29 percent in October 2020 to 8 percent in February 2021, before bouncing back to 23 percent in May 2021. In the other three regions, both non-farm employment and wage employment remained somewhat stable or increased. Farm activities were much more resilient. The share of households who engaged in farming activities in Tigray changed little immediately after the start of the war, though it decreased considerably in the May 2021 round (15 percentage points less than the October 2020 levels). 23 Much of the observed decline in labor market participation in Tigray was primarily driven by the sharp falls in employment in urban areas (see Fig. A1 in the Appendix A). The share of households who reported participation in any economic activity in urban areas of Tigray declined by 48 percentage points from 72 percent in October 2020 to 38 percent in January 2021. In rural areas, on the other hand, employment quickly recovered after a brief dip in November 2021 to the pre-war levels by January 2021. The latter is related to the return of farm households to cultivate their land albeit at a high security risk.We next examine how access to food and the functioning of food markets were affected by the conflict. Fig. 5 presents the trends in households' ability to purchase staple food from the market. Panels (a)-(c) show temporal trends in households' ability to buy teff, wheat and maize, respectively, in the four main highland regions of Ethiopia. 24 In all three panels, access to food markets remained stable for Amhara, Oromia and SNNP regions. The story is completely different for Tigray. Between October 2020 and May 2021, the share of households that reported not being able to purchase teff increased from 5 percent to 23 percent and the corresponding figure for wheat increased from 2 percent to 21 percent. The reported change in the ability to buy maize was relatively modest. Households were asked to report major causes for their inability to buy these food items. The main reasons for households' inability to buy teff were increase in prices (61 percent) and decrease in incomes (37 percent). Likewise, among those who reported not beingThe Impact of violent conflict on labor market and livelihood activities.(1)( Notes: The outcome variable in the first two columns is a dummy variable for participation in any economic activity. The variables in columns 3-8 are binary indicators assuming a value of 1 for those households participating in these activities. All estimations use sampling weights to capture systematic non-response and attrition in phone surveys. Standard errors, clustered at district (woreda) level, are given in parentheses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 23 When compared to the April/May 2020 levels, this drop is between 3 and 13 percentage points.able to buy wheat, increase in prices and decrease in incomes were the main reason for 51 percent and 44 percent of households, respectively. Finally, panel (d) shows trends in broader access to food items. Prior to the start of the war, households in Tigray had slightly better access to food, with the lowest share of households reporting inability to buy food among the four major regions. After the war broke out, this figure increased by 24 percentage points, from 5 percent in October 2020 to 29 percent in May 2021. The four panels in Fig. 4 paint a grim picture of food access and affordability in Tigray following the outbreak of the war.The monthly nature of our data allows us to use alternative empirical strategies to identify the impact of the conflict on affected households. To evaluate the impact of conflict on food security and livelihood outcomes, we use two empirical approaches: First, we employ a Differencein-Differences strategy with region and survey round dummies, and their interactions. Second, we use the ACLED database to generate granular time-varying exposure to violent conflict and estimate TWFE models. The availability of multiple pre-and post-war-onset round data allows us to test the parallel trends assumption needed for the validity of our DID estimation. We estimate the following DID specification:where Y hrm is a measure of food insecurity and related outcomes associated with household h living in region r observed in month m, α h represents household-specific fixed effects, and α m is a vector of month/ round dummies. Pre-war survey rounds range from 1 to M1 while postwar-onset rounds range from M1 + 1 to M2. Tigray r represents an indicator variable for households living in Tigray region and hence those affected by the violent conflict. Because the first stage of the war, which lasted between November 2020 to June 2021, took place in Tigray, it is the region affected in the first phase of the war. 25 The other regions of Ethiopia, which were not affected by the first phase of the war, serve as controls. As a robustness exercise, we restrict the control sample to the three highland regions of Ethiopia (i.e., Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP) given their similarities to Tigray in both agroecological and livelihood contexts. As shown in Section 3, these regions share comparable trends in food security and participation in livelihood activities before the war.The third (interaction) term in equation ( 1) captures Tigray specific pre-war trends and hence the parameters associated with this term serve us to indirectly test the parallel trends assumption. The fourth (interaction) term in equation (1) captures Tigray specific trends following the outbreak of the war in November 2020. The key parameters of interest are, thus, stacked in γ m , the interaction effects of being from the affected region and the post-war round dummies. If the identifying parallel trends assumption holds in our context, the parameters associated with the interaction term, γ m , identify the impact of the war on food security and livelihood outcomes. The error term, ε hrm , captures otherThe Impact of violent conflict on households' access to food and market.(1)( Since the HFPS data follows households for multiple rounds, unobserved effects (error terms) can be correlated over time and across households living in the same district. As a result, we cluster standard errors at the district (woreda) level. We also consider alternative definitions of conflict exposure and control group assignments as noted above. Thus, we estimate equation ( 1) for the full sample as well as for a restricted sample consisting of households from the highland regions of Ethiopia.Our first approach, which considers Tigray as the treatment region and the rest of the country as a comparison group, assumes that all survey households from Tigray have been affected by the war. Given the first phase of the war was concentrated in Tigray (see Fig. 1), this is a reasonable assumption. However, some survey households may have been completely immune from impacts of the war. With exposure to the war as defined above, our estimates measure intention to treat (ITT) impacts. If households who were not affected by the conflict were rather erroneously considered to have been impacted by it, these estimates would be smaller than the average treatment effect (ATE) of the war.We generate more granular measures of exposure to violent conflict using battle events from the ACLED database for the August 2019 -May 2021 period, which coincides with our pre-war and post-war-onset HFPS data. Because of the expansive nature of the war, we computed exposure by counting the number of battles that took place within 10 km and 20 km radius around the homestead of households. Defining exposure as such allows us to identify potential heterogeneities in impacts associated with the intensity of exposure to battles. It also serves to probe the robustness of our main results. We, thus, estimate the following TWFE specifications:where Battles hrt stands for either a binary indicator measuring exposure to battle within 10 km or 20 km radius from households' residence or a continuous cumulative number of battles experienced within 10 km or 20 km radius from households' residence. All other terms are as defined before.Unlike the coarse measure of exposure to conflict in equation ( 1), which is based on region of residence at the time of the survey, the granular measures of exposure defined based on distance between location of battle events and households' residence is less likely to suffer from misclassification of households into affected and comparison groups. More specifically, it is highly likely that battles that take place close to a household's residence would be more relevant to the household's food security and livelihoods. Given these are not exact measures of exposure at the household level, technically our estimates remain ITT. However, we argue that for the short distance buffers based on which exposure is defined, it is unlikely that these ITT estimates differ much from ATE.Despite these alternative specifications, our analysis is constrained by some remaining shortcomings, which merit discussion. First, while the pre-conflict (pre-pandemic) sample of the LSMS-ISA in Ethiopia is randomly selected from urban and rural households in each district, the follow-up phone surveys are prone to systematic non-response and attrition. To account for these systematic non-responses in the phone survey, we construct and employ sampling weights as discussed in Section 2. These sampling weights can help to recover appropriate and representative statistics if the observable characteristics we use to construct our weights sufficiently capture the systematic non-response and attrition in the data (Wooldridge, 2007; Korinek et al., 2007). To the extent that they fail to control this bias, our results may be taken as a lower bound of the actual impacts of the conflict.Second, COVID-19 related economic restrictions may interact with the effects of the war. Most mobility restrictions and pandemic-related policies in Ethiopia had been relaxed long before the outbreak of the war. Our maintained assumption is that these are additive effects which may be captured by the time dummies or household fixed effects. However, it is possible that violent conflict largely substitutes for economic restrictions. 26 If this is the case, then we might worry that economic or mobility restrictions are only imposed (or enforced) in areas not affected by the war. In such a case, our estimates are also lower bound estimates of the true effects of the conflict.Finally, we note that equation (2) estimates the impact of battles happening throughout the country, including those outside of Tigray. Thus, besides the overall impacts of the war, households living in different parts of Ethiopia were exposed to localized battle events at different times. Application of TWFE models to staggered treatment (exposure to war in our case) may introduce identification challenges due to potential heterogeneity in treatment effect and temporal  , 2020). The TWFE estimator is a weighted average of group-time average treatment effects. In the presence of dynamic and/or heterogenous treatment effects, some of the group-time weights can be negative, resulting in negative overall treatment effect even though the individual group-time treatment effects are positive. To probe whether these patterns drive our main results, we apply the correction proposed in Callaway and Sant'Anna (2021) to our second specification using ACLED conflict events data.In this section, we present two sets of results based on the approaches outlined in Section 4: DID estimates and ACLED-based TWFE results. In all our estimations, we apply the sampling weights constructed using the procedure described in Section 2. 27 Exposure to battles and food security: using all components of the FIES.(1)( Notes: Panel A and B report results using extensive and intensive margin of exposure to battles within 20 km radius around households' residence. The outcome variables in this table are raw responses to standard FIES questions on whether the respondent or household member (1) was worried about having enough food to eat, (2) ate only a few kinds of foods, (3) unable to eat healthy and nutritious foods, (4) ate less than should have eaten, (5) had skipped a meal, ( 6) run out of food, (7) was hungry but did not eat, (8) went without eating for a whole day. Exposure to conflict is measured by counting the number of battles withing 20 km and 30 km of place of residence by the survey time. All estimations use sampling weights to capture systematic non-response and attrition in phone surveys. Standard errors, clustered at district (woreda) level, are given in parentheses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 27 We estimated both weighted and unweighted regressions for each outcome variable. However, there is little difference between the weighted and unweighted results, suggesting that our results are robust to applying sampling weights. Thus, we present results based on the weighted regressions and the unweighted results are available upon request.The first set of results focus on three aggregate food insecurity measures constructed from FIES questionsprevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity, probability of experiencing food insecurity and raw food insecurity score (Table 2). The availability of multiple pre-and post-war-onset survey rounds enables estimation of a disaggregated DID model using round dummies instead of before and after indicators. This uncovers potential temporal heterogeneities in the impact of the conflict while also allowing testing pre-war trends in food security and labor market outcomes. Table 2 provides estimates of disaggregated impacts of the conflict on overall food insecurity. The full set of FIES questions were first introduced in the May 2020 round, dropped in rounds 8-11, and then reintroduced in round 12 (May 2021). Thus, the third round serves as a base period and round 12 as the post-war-onset period. The key measure of the impact of the war on food security outcomes is thus the interaction term of round 12 and Tigray dummy.Relative to the base period, food insecurity has been declining in most of Ethiopia. Prior to the outbreak of the war, the overall trends in food security outcomes had been similar across Tigray and the rest of Ethiopia, as shown by the statistically insignificant Tigray specific time trends in Table 2. More specifically, the coefficients associated with the interaction terms between the Tigray dummy and pre-war survey rounds confirm that the parallel trend assumption holds for almost all cases. However, after the outbreak of the war, Tigray experienced a statistically significant differential trend in food insecurity. Compared to the May 2020 round, households in Tigray reported 37 percentage points higher probability of experiencing moderate or severe food insecurity in the May 2021 round. This amounts to 103 percent increase, relative to the average prevalence rate in the pre-war period.Column 2 of Table 2 presents similar results for the probability of being food insecure. Households from Tigray report 20 percentage point higher probability of experiencing food insecurity after the outbreak of the war, which is a 37 percent increase from the pre-war average prevalence rate. The corresponding results for the raw food insecurity index calculated from the eight FIES questions are shown in column 3. The results are consistent with those obtained for the other two aggregate food insecurity measures. In Tigray, the war associated with 1.5 units increase in the number of dimensions of food insecurity reported by households. These large effects are plausible given the massive humanitarian crises the war has created in the region (see WFP, 2022). Next, we report impacts of the armed conflict on the eight FIES variables that constitute the aggregate indices shown in Table 2. Besides uncovering the statistically indistinguishable pre-war trends in food insecurity experience between Tigray and the rest of the country, the results in Table 3 confirm the main results in Table 2. The coefficients of the interaction terms between pre-war round dummies and Tigray establish the overall statistically similar trends in Tigray and the other regions of Ethiopia. 28 A clear divergent trend emerges in Tigray in the post-war-onset period as evidenced by the coefficients of Round 12 × Tigray. We find that the war was associated with a significant increase in households' experience of alternative forms of food insecurity (Table 3). For example, the share of households who skipped meals increased by percentage points and those that reduced food consumption by 40 percentage points. Likewise, the share of households who were unable to eat healthy/nutritious foods also increased by 28 percentage points.Table 4 reports the impacts of the violent conflict on livelihood activities, mainly on the overall labor market participation of households and participation in farm, non-farm business and wage employment. We use data from rounds 1-10 of the surveys for this analysis, where rounds 1-8 represent the pre-war and rounds 9-10 represent the post-war-onset periods. Again, these results confirm that pre-war trends of participation in various labor market and livelihood activities are generally statistically similar across households affected and unaffected by the armed conflict, as evidenced by the coefficients of the interaction between Round 2 -Round 8 dummies and the indicator for Tigray region. Immediately after the outbreak of the war, households from Tigray experienced a significant reduction in economic activities, with the war reducing participation in any economic activity by 20 -21 percentage points. However, the impacts vary by type of livelihood activity. Relative to the baseline, households from Tigray experienced 20 - Number of battles and battle-related fatalities, pre-and post-war-onset. Notes: This table provides pooled summary statistics on the number of battles (and hence extensive and intensive margin of exposure to battles) using the ACLED data.Sample of households interviewed across survey rounds. Notes: This table presents the number of households surveyed in the August 2019 baseline and the follow up phone surveys in HFPS between April 2020 and May 2021.28 There seems to be a Tigray specific pre-war trend for the raw indicator for \"did not eat all day\" in column 8. This may be due to an already deteriorating political environment in the months leading up to the war which resulted in restriction of trade on the main transportation corridors to Tigray through neighboring regions.percentage point reduction in participation in non-farm business activities in the aftermath of outbreak of the armed conflict (December and January 2021). Similarly, war-affected households reported 19percentage point reduction in participation in wage-related activities in the first two months after the outbreak of the conflict. 29 Besides the overall impact on livelihood, sectoral differences in the resilience of different sectors are evident. As shown in column 2, participation in farm activities remained unaffected. 30 This may be because battles mainly took place in areas around the main highways in the region, where incidentally all larger urban centers are located. To sum up, this supports evolving evidence showing that agriculture in general and smallholder farming can be relatively more resilient to covariate shocks such as armed conflict and pandemic. For example, some recent macro and micro-level studies show that farming activities are relatively resilient to the COVID-19 pandemic and associated mobility restrictions (e.g., Amare et al., 2021; Josephson et al., 2021; Khamis,  2021). These findings appear to suggest that the war led to wide-ranging economic decline in Tigray, especially in urban areas where non-farm business and wage employment are concentrated. These developments may have lasting dire implications to Ethiopia's overall economic transformation that was taking shape over the last few decades (e.g., Bachewe et al., 2018).Table 5 presents results on the impacts of the war on access to food as measured by households' ability to purchase a variety of foods. In columns 1-4, we show results for commonly consumed staples and oil followed by results for more broadly defined access to food in column 5. Compared to the immediate pre-war month, the results in columns 1-2 show that the war led to 26 and 20 percentage points increase in households' inability to buy teff, and wheat, respectively. The dramatic deterioration in access to staples in a short amount of time reflects one of the key aspects of the warthe disruption of trade between Tigray and the rest of the country. On the other hand, households' access and ability to buy maize, a locally produced and traded staple, remained unaffected. This is consistent with recent studies showing differential impacts of conflicts on locally produced items and regionally traded and imported items (Hastings et al., 2022). We do not find statistically significant effect on households' ability to purchase oilalthough the coefficient is relatively large, it is imprecisely estimated. In column 5, we find similar results for broader access to food. In the aftermath of the war, the share of households who report being unable to buy food (either of the staples in columns 1-4) increased by 26 percentage points.Note that these are net impacts and combine the effects due to unavailability of these staples on the market as well as reduced purchasing power of households due to lost income and increase in the prices of these staples. In fact, as discussed in Section 3.2, most households report that increase in prices, supply shortages, and reduction in incomes are the main reasons for their inability to purchase teff and wheat.Modeling the probability of response in pre-war, post-war-onset and both phone surveys: logit estimates. Notes: This table reports coefficients from a logit regression. The base education is those below upper primary education. The base asset quintile is the first quintile, and the base region is Tigray. Standard errors in parentheses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 29 We note that the parallel trends assumption does not appear to hold for nonfarm activities, with pre-war trends in Tigray indicating an already deteriorating environment. This may have to do with an increasingly worsening security situation on highways leading to Tigray with vigilante groups reportedly confiscating goods being transported to Tigray through Amhara region prior to the start of the war in November 2020. 30 These findings are intuitive because relative to smallholder farming, the war has led to massive destruction of business enterprises, infrastructure, and disruptions of major public services (electricity, telephone, banking and transport services), which are essential inputs running non-farm and wage-related activities.We triangulate our results based on interaction between post-waronset dummies and the war-affected region dummy by running TWFE regression of the same set of outcome variables on exposure to battles near the household's residence. More specifically, we construct both binary indicators of exposure to battle(s) as well as measures of intensity of exposure to battles taking place within 10 km and 20 km of the household's residence. The measures of intensity of exposure to battles are constructed by computing the cumulative number of battles that have taken place within 10 km and 20 km radius of the residence of households prior to each survey round. The 10 km and 20 km distance buffers were chosen to ensure that battles are close enough to have impacts on our outcome variables. The extensive margin of exposure to conflict assumes a value of 1 for those households experiencing one or more battles and 0 for those not exposed to any battles within 10 km or 20 km radius of their residence. The coefficients associated with the extensive margin of exposure captures the effect of being exposed to one or more battles while the coefficients associated with the intensive margin of exposure capture the effect of exposure to an additional battle event on household food security and labor market outcomes.Table 6 presents the impact of exposure to battle(s) that occurred within 10 and 20 km distance from households' residence on food insecurity. Panel A shows impacts associated with the extensive margin of exposure to battle(s) while Panel B shows results associated with the intensive margin of exposure and hence impact of exposure to an additional battle. For all three measures of food insecurity, exposure to Notes: These values come from a series of questions eliciting whether a household was not able to buy each of the above staple foods and essential goods.The Impact of violent conflict on aggregate measures of food insecurity: sample restricted to highland regions.( battle(s) was associated with an increase in food insecurity. For example, column 2 shows that the probability of moderate or severe food insecurity increases by 16 percentage points with exposure to one or more battles within 20 km of household residence. The results in Panel B indicate that each additional battle that took place within 20 km of residence is associated with a 1 percentage point increase in the probability of moderate or severe food insecurity. In column 4, we show that exposure to one or more battle(s) within a 20 km radius increases probability of experiencing food insecurity by 8 percentage points and an additional battle leads to a 1 percentage point increase in the probability of food insecurity. The results for the raw food insecurity index are similar. We have also estimated our specification for 30, 40 and 50 km distance buffers, and find broadly consistent results, with impacts decreasing with distance. For the remaining estimations we report those based on 20 km. 31 As we are considering the impact of battels that have taken place throughout Ethiopia, it is important to note that localized exposure to battle events has been staggered, with certain areas experiencing battles at earlier periods than others. To account for potential biases due to temporal treatment effect dynamics and treatment heterogeneity arising from staggered treatment, we follow the approach proposed in Callaway  and Sant'Anna (2021). Fig. 6 presents estimates for two food insecurity measuresexperiences of moderate or severe food insecurity and raw FIES food insecurity scorefor battles within 10 km and 20 km distance buffers. As in our previous results, exposure to one or more battle(s) is associated with increase in food insecurity, though these impacts seem to have delayed onset, which suggests that households were able to mitigate some of the adverse effects of the war by drawing down their food stock for the first few months. However, such conditions could not be sustained without access to food markets, which is reflected in the heighted food insecurity in the ensuing months. The overall treatment effects for moderate or severe food insecurity and raw food insecurity score at 10 km and 20 km distance buffers, respectively, (0.125 and 0.136; 0.570 and 0.542) are consistent with those reported in Table 6.Table 7 reports results associated with the impacts of exposure to battle(s) on the eight FIES outcomes. Panel A report results using extensive margin of exposure to battles within 20 km radius while Panel B reports estimates using intensive margin of exposure to an additional battle within 20 km buffer around households' residence. For most outcomes, exposure to one or more battle(s) is associated with increased food insecurity. For example, exposure to one or more battles is associated with a 17 percentage points increase in the probability of skipping meal (Panel A). The share of households who report being worried about getting enough food, unable to eat healthy foods or ate few food varieties increased by approximately 1 percentage points with an additional battle event within 20 km of the residence of the household. The impact on the share of households who skip a meal or eat less food is similarone more battle event is associated with about 1 percentage points increase in these coping strategies.The impacts of the war on labor market and livelihoods estimated using households' exposure to battles within 20 km are consistent with the DID findings reported earlier. Exposure to one or more battle(s) is associated with about 5 percentage point reduction in participation in any livelihood activity (Panel A of Table 8). An additional battle leads to about 0.5 percentage points reduction in participation in any livelihood activity (Panel B of Table 8). The fall in economic activity was primarily due to a decrease in non-farm business and wage-earning activities. An additional battle is associated with 0.2 and 0.5 percentage points decrease in participation in non-farm business and wage activities, respectively. There was, however, no impact on farm activities, signifying the resilience of the agriculture sector to the stresses of armed conflict. These results are consistent with those estimated using the difference-in-difference approach (Table 4). Fig. 7 shows estimates of the extensive margin impact of exposure to battle events within 20 km of homestead following Callaway and Sant'Anna (2021). For all outcome variables, exposure to war is associated with decline in livelihood activities. Participation in overall economic activity, non-farm business and wage employment declined immediately following experience of battles nearby. Consistent with the patterns in Fig. 4, some of the activities have recovered after about three months. The overall effects of the war on any economic activity, farming, nonfarm business and wage activities were − 0.07, − 0.033, − 0.031, and − 0.072, respectively, which are consistent with those reported in Table 8. The fact that the estimates using the Callaway and Sant'Anna (2021) approach reported in Figs. 6 and 7 are similar to those reported in Tables 6 and 8, respectively, gives us confidence that our main estimates are less likely to be biased due to dynamic treatment effects and treatment heterogeneity.We run several empirical tests to prob the robustness of our results. Most importantly, our main estimations consider the rest of Ethiopia except Tigray as control group. However, households living in the highland regions (Amhara, Oromia, Tigray and SNNP) and lowland regions engage in slightly different livelihood activities. 32 Similarly, households living in some of the major urban centers (e.g., Addis Ababa) have markedly different economic conditions and sources of livelihood. To reduce potential differences in the impacts of the war due to differences in livelihood activities between Tigray and the control group, we restricted the sample to the four highland regions, with households from the three regions (Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP) serving as control group. We then run all our estimations on this restricted and significantly smaller sample. Despite the change in the sample size, the results in Tables A6-A7 show remarkably similar impacts to those reported using the full sample.Table A6 shows the impact of the war on the share of households who are moderately or severely food insecure and the probability of food insecurity for the reduced four-region sample. The results associated with food insecurity prevalence are similar to the full sample (40 vs 37 percentage points). Similarly, the impacts on probability of food insecurity compare well with the full sample (25 vs 20 percentage points). If anything, these estimates appear to indicate that effect of the violent conflict on food security is likely higher than that established in Table 2. As the first round was collected using face-to-face interview while the remaining rounds were collected through phone surveys, we also estimated some of our specifications by dropping the first round. As shownThe Impact of violent conflict on labor market and livelihood activities: dropping the 2019 round and using different reference period.(1)( Notes: The outcome variable in the first two columns is a dummy variable for participation in any economic activity. The variables in columns 3-8 are binary indicators assuming a value of 1 for those households participating in these activities. The base round is the month immediately before the outbreak of the conflict. All estimations use sampling weights to capture systematic non-response and attrition in phone surveys. Standard errors, clustered at district (woreda) level, are given in parentheses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 32 For example, households in Ethiopian highlands are likely to practice mixed farming while those in the lowlands(arid and semi-arid lands of Ethiopia) practice animal husbandry as dominant source of livelihood (e.g., Abay and  Jensen, 2020).in Table A8, dropping the face-to-face survey round and changing the reference period generates similar findings.A large-scale war that broke out in the Tigray region of Ethiopia in late 2020 caused significant human suffering and economic disruptions. To make matters worse, besides the direct effects of the war on lives and livelihoods, the disruption and blockade of public services in war affected areas has limited our understanding of the breadth and consequences of the armed conflict. One fortuitous aspect of this situation, however, has been the opportunity to repurpose a high frequency phone survey (HFPS), originally developed by the LSMS-ISA program at the World Bank to monitor the COVID-19 situation and related impacts in Ethiopia, which continued to monitor household food security and economic activities amidst an armed conflict.Using these HFPS data, combined with the Armed Conflict Location and Events Data (ACLED), we show evidence of significant disruptions to livelihoods, with adverse impacts on household food security and access to food in the first few months of the war covered by the HFPS data. We find that, as a result of the conflict, moderate or severe food insecurity increased by 37 percentage points, from 30 percent at baseline (pre-war) to 67 percent in May 2021. Using the ACLED data on households' exposure to violent conflict, we show that exposure to an additional battle within 20 km radius is associated with a 1 percentage point increase in the probability of moderate to severe food insecurity. Similarly, affected households report 20-22 percentage point reduction in non-farm activities and 19-20 percentage point reduction in wage employment within two months of the start of the war. Farming, on the other hand, was notably resilient to impacts of the war, with participation in farm activities remaining relatively steady.These results corroborate calls for urgent large-scale humanitarian assistance while also highlighting that the war may have lasting dire implications on affected populations. Moreover, these results are likely to have worsened as the war continued until the signing of the cessation of hostilities agreements in November 2022. The combined effects may thus reverse the progresses of the last two decades in the Ethiopian economy, especially in reducing poverty and the share of agriculture in GDP and employment. In the short-term, these findings can inform rehabilitation and rebuilding efforts in Ethiopia. With the recent signing of the peace agreement, these results can contribute to ongoing discussions on rebuilding and rehabilitation of conflict-affected areas. For example, these results can inform prioritization of sectors and value chains that deserve immediate attention.The HFPS sample is a subsample of a nationally representative sample of households drawn for an in-person survey in 2019. It covers households who reported phone ownership in the in-person survey. Due to this non-random sample and additional complication of war related nonresponse and displacements of households during the survey period, the survey is likely to include those who are relatively less exposed and less vulnerable to the vicissitudes of the war. While we try to account for systematic non-response and attrition using sample weights constructed using a long list of observables, the actual negative impacts of the conflict are likely to be larger on average, and it is difficult to fully quantify the extent to which this is the case. Moreover, we note that these impacts refer to the first few months after the onset of the crisis but also in months relatively closer to the harvest season. We know that even in normal times, food insecurity worsens closer to the lean season (Berhane  et al., 2011).Given the intensity of the war, these results are not surprisinghuman suffering has been widely reported in contexts of war. In fact, the share of affected people who report continuing work is perhaps surprisingly high, given the circumstances, and even after allowing for selection bias. For example, despite the war, some households continued participation in various farm and non-farm activities. This reflects the exigencies of feeding one's family, even under conditions where the pursuit of livelihoods is fraught with danger. By the same token, our results may be taken as indicators of the resilience of some livelihood sectors and of ordinary people to maintain their livelihoods despite the challenges of an active conflict. Some of these patterns, including those related to differential responses and participation rates across various economic activities and associated resilience are broadly consistent with previously documented coping strategies to conflict (e.g., Brück et al.,  2019; Shemyakina, 2022).Our insights about the overall impact of the war are limited by the ways the war and associated government responses unfolded as well as by the ways in which information was elicited in the surveys. For example, as the war in Tigray was compounded by suspension of public services and blockade of trade, it is difficult to disentangle the impact of the war itself with impacts of the government war-time policies. Furthermore, given that the war continued for more than a year after the last round of the HFPS and expanded to neighboring Amhara and Afar regions, our results cannot provide a complete picture on the overall impact of the large-scale war in Ethiopia. Similarly, due to the limitations associated with phone surveys, we have focused on welfare outcomes that can be easily captured in short surveys. For example, while we observe the extensive margin of economic activity (i.e., whether or not labor was allocated to a particular activity in the reference period), we are unable to directly observe the intensive margin (e.g., as the number of hours worked). A final caveat is in our measures of conflict exposure. We have shown that our regional-dummy approach generates results which are consistent with those obtained from point location estimates of battle events derived from media reports (via the ACLED database). However, future studies may complement this using additional sources of data, including by asking respondents to indicate their exposure to conflict via survey instruments.These caveats notwithstanding, our analysis indicates enormous potential for using high-frequency phone surveys and related remote data collection methodsideally associated with a baseline sample of respondentsto monitor the impacts of active conflicts, and to quickly devise post-conflict responses that are tailored to geographical and household heterogeneity in impacts suffered. The ability to quickly mobilize such surveys in new areas would facilitate this, and would be a worthy target of the international community. 33 This corroborates recent efforts and innovations in remote data collection in fragile states (e.g., Dabalen et al., 2016; Verwimp et al., 2019; Hoogeveen and Utz,  2020). To facilitate effective use of remote data collection methods, it would be useful to maintain access to a much larger database of potential telephone survey respondents, designed for maximum geographical and socioeconomic representativeness, given the constraints of household-level phone access and regional ICT infrastructure.The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.this paper are those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development /World Bank Group, IFPRI and CIMMYT.See Fig. A1 and Tables A1-A8.","tokenCount":"12536"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3ea92cfd6548a69ec7f7ce7258c82782","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e677e982-542c-422d-8b42-8134985ee4a2/retrieve","id":"-2091843777"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"371df335-45d6-4837-88f9-f98db1aa7b87","pagecount":"107","content":"The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRI or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these participating organizations.M. Ambrose welcomed the participants to the UK, Norfolk and Norwich. He hoped that their visit would be both enjoyable and productive. He noted that the number of participants was larger by two than for the first meeting of the Working Group on Grain Legumes and he especially welcomed the presence of FAO, VIR and a representative from the informal sector as observers to the meeting. He thanked Siyka Angelova from Bulgaria, Laszlo Holly from Hungary and Miroslav Hýbl from the Czech Republic as corresponding members for their written contributions. He asked all the participants to briefly introduce themselves. The apologies of Mr Shahal Abbo from Israel and of Mr Wojciech Swiecicki from Poland, who were not able to attend, were transmitted to the Group. It was noted that a member from Italy was also unable to attend, but a written contribution on winter varieties of grain legumes in Italy was received for inclusion in the present report. The agenda was approved.Lorenzo Maggioni welcomed the participants on behalf of IPGRI and thanked Mike Ambrose and the John Innes Centre for hosting the meeting in Norwich. He reminded the Group that Phase V of ECP/GR would be concluded at the end of the current year. He also gave a brief summary of the activities carried out within crop and thematic networks during the past five years. The number of participating countries in ECP/GR had recently increased to 32 members, with Slovenia the last to join. A special word of welcome was addressed to the Slovenian participant as the first representative of his country to attend an ECP/GR meeting. During Phase V of ECP/GR two full-time Coordinators were appointed, with Thomas Gass serving in this position from 1994 to 1996, prior to his appointment as Director of the IPGRI Regional Office for Europe. His replacement, L. Maggioni, took up the position of Coordinator from September 1996 up to the present.An account was given of the Seventh ECP/GR Steering Committee meeting, held in Braunschweig, Germany, 29 June and 4-5 July 1998. On this occasion the Steering Committee approved the continuation of the Programme for a further five years (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003). A new set of objectives was defined for the Programme. New emphasis was given to the combined use of in situ and ex situ strategies for long-term conservation, to promoting the integration of countries currently not members of ECP/GR, cooperation with NGOs (non-governmental organizations) and private breeders and the need to encourage sharing of responsibilities for plant genetic resources in Europe. The inclusion of a representative of NGOs as an observer to the Steering Committee meeting was seen as representing an opening of ECP/GR to the informal sector. This effort was continued by welcoming an observer from the Henry Doubleday Research Association to attend the present meeting.He explained that a modified mode of operation will characterize Phase VI. Although the various ECP/GR Working Groups will continue to be the main frameworks for the implementation of workplan activities, the role of the Networks will be enhanced with the definition of Network Coordinating Groups, composed of Working Group Chairs and Vice-Chairs or Database managers. These groups will work closely with the Secretariat to which they will submit proposals for activities and review progress, achievements and future workplans. 1 It is hoped that an enhanced internal coordination within the networks will facilitate better planning and follow-up of the agreed workplans. At the same time, a reduced number of Working Groups meetings is envisaged, which should enable the Programme to invest funds in small technical meetings addressing relevant issues identified within the Networks. An increased scope and flexibility of operation is the expected result of these operational changes. Practical consequences for the Working Group on Grain Legumes, which is the only Working Group within the Grain Legumes Network, is that only one full meeting of the Network is planned to be held during Phase VI, between the third and fifth years. Therefore the importance of the Group making use of the current meeting to identify a Network Coordinating Group, with the aim of guiding the Working Group in the years to come, was stressed.Complementary activities will be implemented within ECP/GR as separate programme modules. The undertaking of emergency actions, cooperation with EU-funded projects and training activities will be initiated as soon as possible, pending the availability of sufficient funding, which will be sought from various sources. Other themes will be taken into consideration for additional complementary activities, as recommended by the European Symposium on the implementation of the Global Plan of Action, held in Braunschweig on 30 June-4 July 1998. Proposed themes are the following and the Working Group on Grain Legumes could consider getting involved in one or more of them:• Surveying and inventorying PGRFA • Compiling crop-specific regeneration guidelines • Supporting planned and targeted collecting • Expanding characterization, evaluation and number of core collections to facilitate use• Studying genetic diversity to analyze comparative genetic diversity in wild relatives and their respective crop genepools • Undertaking genetic enhancement of prebreeding genepool via base-broadening • Inventorying and monitoring legal framework of seed production and distribution in Europe.The comments presented below are additional to the report appearing under 3.5.1 Grain Legumes Working Group in the document for Agenda Item No. 2 of the Steering Committee Meeting, Braunschweig, Germany, July 1998.The first meeting of this Working Group was attended by 17 participants, paying testimony to the importance and interest in grain legumes within ECP/GR funding countries. While it was recognized that each species had its own agenda and priorities, the inclusion of a range of species was of considerable benefit to the discussions. During the meeting:• collective in-depth discussions were helped by the specific experiences and expertise from the various species represented • differences in state of progress and PGR in one species could be compared and contrasted in-depth in relation to others • also discussed were the involvement of minor species that would not be otherwise covered within the ECP/GR Programme. Awareness and recognition of the expertise within this Working Group (WG) is growing. In addition to involvement with the PHASELIEU FAIR programme, the WG now has a nominated member on the newly formed Lathyrus Genetic Resources Network (LGRN, International network). Prof. Karl Hammer has been nominated to this position.Activities of the ECP/GR WG on Grain Legumes were presented in a contribution on Pisum made at the 4th International Research Conference on Food Legumes held in Adelaide, Australia in October 1997, in a report on global Pisum genetic resources activities.A second European Crop Database is now on-line. The European Phaseolus Database went on-line at the beginning of July 1998 and is now available through the ECP/GR platform pages. The database combines information on 28 000 accessions from 30 institutions in 20 countries.The most important benefit arises from the meeting of participants, establishing contacts and focusing on common goals. The ECP/GR meetings provide a unique forum for managers of collections in the region to meet, and the meetings remain at the core of the ECP/GR Programme. Communication between WG members has been valuable and effective and I would especially single out the action of WG members and IPGRI in the case of the emergency action over the University of Cambridge Phaseolus Collection in the UK. The more successful contacts over the interim period have been between managers of collections. In many instances these would exist independently of ECP/GR Group but the Programme forms a valuable additional item to many bilateral working agendas.The participation and links with breeders have proved less sustainable over the interim period. Breeders provided valuable opinions as to which descriptors should be included alongside passport data in the Central Crop Databases. The value of breeders at the meeting to represent end-users was useful to a degree. The diversity of Europe as a region with respect to breeding strategies priorities and resources leads me to question whether the present mechanism for their involvement is the most efficient within the present meeting and WG structure. In most cases links with breeders remain on a bilateral basis with individual institutions. It is my view that this is the most efficient and productive model for this form of interaction where each collaboration requires highly specific practical and technical detail.As reported, there has been good progress on a number of the agreed items but less on others. This is largely owing to the varying resources and limitation of work undertaken by the different participating institutions as payment in kind to the Programme. This is acknowledged in the ECP/GR Coordinators' end of Phase V report and ultimately stems from institutional differences, various levels of resources and diverse systems of national funding strategies.• Completion of existing workplan objectives remains the primary goal. Some Central Crop Database systems are coming on-line and others will shortly follow, thus providing easier access to information on holdings. Further development and standardization of formats will be encouraged. • High levels of duplication are known to exist within a number of the legume collections, not only in Europe but worldwide. Central Crop Database initiatives remain an essential prerequisite step toward addressing this situation. It is likely that the ECP/GR WG will take the lead in this at the international level as no other key players are presently considering the problem. • Concomitant with the issue of duplication and rationalization is the identification of country of provenance with respect to the identification of accessions within National Collections, which will feature on the agenda of the forthcoming WG agenda. • The participation of breeders in the Working Group requires careful thought. Their participation within the current meeting format is not wholly satisfactory and other mechanisms for serving the breeding community should be explored. • Contacts with the informal sector are ongoing with a number of WG members. These will be discussed at the next WG meeting with a view to raising their profile and exploring more sustainable working models between NGO/GO collaboration and for their contribution to ECP/GR activities.for a total of 11 925 accessions from 6 institutes. Data from 3 additional institutes were received recently. A. Omeltchenko from VIR will soon complete the incorporation of these additional data, which will be displayed on the Internet, thanks to the collaboration with ZADI, Bonn.European Vicia faba DatabaseGérard Duc reported on the effort to establish the Vicia faba database. Data were requested from 57 institutions and 26 replies were received. At present the majority of the most important collections are represented in the database, which contains data for 13 000 accessions, including 52% of European origin. However, data were not yet received from VIR, where it is estimated that about 1200 accessions are conserved. Establishment of the database was started before the Budapest agreement on the multicrop descriptors and therefore very heterogeneous data were received. The rate of duplication of the European collections is estimated to be high and the database will have to be analyzed in the future to sort out the duplicates.European Phaseolus Database (Federal Office of Agro-Biology, Linz, Austria) R. Schachl presented the status of the Phaseolus database. Data were collected since the start by providing the database structure (IPGRI/FAO Multicrop passport descriptors) to the collections curators. Twenty-two institutions replied to the request for data and data on 27 000 accessions were collected. It is estimated that data for about 80% of the existing accessions in Europe are therefore included in the database. However, data from large collections of special value, such as those from France, Greece, Poland, Romania and Turkey, still need to be forwarded. The database is accessible on Internet as a searchable database and is also available as a CD-ROM upon request. Although the coverage of passport data is good, few characterization data have been received up to the present. There is an absolute need to standardize the characterization and evaluation descriptors before continuing the work. A first step in this direction was done by the FAIR Project PHASELIEU during its first meeting held this spring in Pontevedra, Spain.European Lupinus DatabaseAn update of the status of this database was not received before the publication of the present report.European Pisum Database (John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK and Institute of Plant Genetics, Poznan, Poland) M. Ambrose informed about the status of the Pisum database, which currently includes data for about 6000 accessions. Data from VIR were also received with thanks and they were already entered in the database. A conversion to the multicrop list structure was started, although it is not yet complete. The level of duplication is estimated to be about 60%. A project student will soon analyze the database to sort out the duplicates. All the information is available at the moment as a flat file, available upon request.• The Group acknowledged the good progress made in the establishment of the Grain Legume Databases after the first meeting. However, gaps remain in several databases, owing to lack of response to the request for data from the database manager. Database managers will make sure that relevant Working Group members and the Chair are kept informed about missing datasets. Each Working Group member will endeavour to make sure that all the grain legume collections data available in the respective countries are sent in appropriate format to the European database managers.• Offers were received from both Laszlo Holly, Institute for Agrobotany, Tápiószele, Hungary and from the Federal Office for Agro-Biology, Linz, Austria, to host a European Central Crop Database (ECDB) for Vigna. Both were thanked by the Group. Considering the progress made by the Phaseolus database, Linz was suggested as the most appropriate location for the database of this closely related species. The database will be named the European Vigna Database (EVDB). • The establishment of a European Arachis Database is considered important. The Group agreed that the Network Coordinating Group explore the possibility that the database be managed in Sadovo, Bulgaria or that an alternative hosting institute is found before the end of June 1999. 2 • The Group encourages the Grain Legume Databases managers to start analyzing their databases, with the aim to identify duplicates and therefore facilitate the rationalization of the collections.Internet presence of the Grain Legume Databases L. Maggioni briefly summarized how the recommendations emerging from the Documentation Workshop (Budapest, October 1996) were implemented by establishing a home page on the Internet, to provide common access to on-line ECP/GR databases. This is now the home page of the European Information Platform for Crop Genetic Resources, available at <http:/cgiar.org/ecpgr/>. Standard entry pages of the European Cicer, Glycine and Phaseolus databases were shown to the Group. These now provide access to the respective on-line searchable databases. The development of the European Information Platform has been the result of the collaborative work of the Internet Advisory Group of ECP/GR. 3 This Group is available to assist in the technical preparation of European databases for on-line presentation and the possibility to temporarily host them on the CGN, IPGRI, NGB or ZADI servers is also offered.Database managers of the Lens, Lupinus, Pisum and Vicia faba databases will provide the ECP/GR Coordinator with an electronic logo of their institute and a short description of the content of their database by 31 December 1998. Entry pages will then be prepared by IPGRI and presented on the Internet European Information Platform. They are also invited to make their databases available as diskettes or CD-ROMs and to undertake the steps to make them available on Internet in downloadable and/or searchable form. The ECP/GR Internet Advisory Group will be available for help and consultation.M. Ambrose reminded the Group of the recommendation made at the Documentation Workshop in Budapest (October 1996) by the European Central Database managers, regarding the adoption of the IPGRI/FAO Multicrop passport list for data exchange. He pointed out the example of the Phaseolus database, which is already based on this list. L.Maggioni added that all the ECP/GR Working Groups had already adopted this format for data request and data exchange. The Minor Fruits and the Potato databases (under construction within EU-funded projects) are also using this list in full or partially. M. Ambrose explained that all the ECP/GR Working Groups had already chosen to approve the list and that they usually decided to add to the list one or more crop-specific passport descriptors. L. Maggioni gave the examples of the Forages, Barley and Avena passport lists, mentioning the additional passport descriptors included in the respective lists. M. Ambrose invited the Group to proceed with a formal adoption of the list as the standard format to use for data exchange within the Grain Legume Databases. A discussion followed about the opportunity to add additional descriptors to the Multicrop list.The Sadovo institute subsequently welcomed this idea and offered to host the European Arachis Database (see also Part II, National Collections: Grain legume collections in Bulgaria, p. 41 and The groundnut collection in Bulgaria, p. 44).Members of the Internet Advisory Group are Theo van Hintum (CGN), Samy Gaiji (IPGRI), Morten Hulden (NGB), Daniel Jimenez Krause (ZADI) and Brigitte Laliberté (IPGRI) as coordinator.• The Group adopted the IPGRI Multicrop passport descriptors for data exchange. The optional inclusion of the remaining  in the data exchange format is also recommended to the database managers. • The Group agreed to include a descriptor indicating whether the safety-duplicate was made or not (Yes/No). • The Group agreed to the proposal of the Barley and the Avena Working Groups to add the attribute 'genetic stock' under descriptor '14 Status of sample', by using a separate state 6.Database managers referred to the difficulty of receiving characterization data and the consequent variable coverage of these descriptors in the databases. After some discussion the Group agreed that a minimum set of characterization data would be important to offer the users a better idea at first glance of the type of material available from the collections. R. Schachl explained the comparative usefulness of images with respect to numerical data. He suggested that a picture of each accession could be obtained and imported into the Phaseolus database as well as displayed on Internet.• The inclusion of the minimum set of characterization descriptors, as agreed in Copenhagen in 1995 was confirmed (see Report of the WG first meeting, page 17). The definition of the states for these descriptors will be determined by the Group, under the coordination of the Network Coordinating Group, before the end of February 1999. • The Phaseolus database manager is invited to pursue the attempt to obtain pictures showing the pod and the grains of each accession and to make these images available on CD-ROM and/or on Internet.L. Maggioni reminded the Group that the sharing of conservation responsibilities for PGRFA in Europe was identified by the Steering Committee as an objective for ECP/GR during Phase VI. An enhanced and formalized system of responsibility, as well as benefit-sharing, is seen as the most efficient way to go in a context of limited resources and of reduced funding for public interest commitments.During the European Symposium in Braunschweig (June-July 1998), different approaches of responsibility-sharing were discussed. The main options considered were to share responsibility on an 'accession basis' (each country to take responsibility for a number of accessions) or on a 'crop-by-crop basis' (a few countries to take responsibility for entire crop collections). A third option would be to share responsibility in an integrated way on 'a subregional basis. 4  Within ECP/GR the 'crop-by-crop' option is already applied, for example in the case of the European Allium collections, which are respectively maintained in the Czech Republic (long-day vegetatively propagated Allium species), Israel (short-day vegetatively propagated Allium species) and UK and The Netherlands (seed-propagated Allium species). The 'accession basis' option also has been taken into consideration by several Working Groups. Group and by the Forages, Barley and Prunus Working Groups. These collections would comprise accessions that European genebanks would agree to maintain on behalf of all member countries of ECP/GR. Formal commitments would be taken by database managers and by curators in agreement with National Coordinators or the relevant national authority (see Report of a Workshop on Secale genetic resources, Poland 1996; Report of the Sixth meeting of the Forages Working Group, Norway 1997; Report of the Fifth meeting of the Barley Working Group, Germany 1997; Report of an Extraordinary meeting of the Prunus Working Group, Spain 1997).Before the recent Steering Committee meeting, all the Working Groups had not started to apply such a system, since they were waiting for the conclusion of a debate at higher level and for the approval of the National Coordinators. At Braunschweig, the Steering Committee encouraged the Working Groups that have developed proposals for the sharing of responsibilities to elaborate on these and to seek to implement them. At the same time, all the Working Groups are encouraged to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of the various options for sharing responsibilities for their respective crop, including the technical conditions to be fulfilled.In the following discussion M. Ambrose invited the participants to share with the Group their experience of responsibility-sharing in their respective countries, as well as their feelings and reservations for the different options presented.L. van Soest expressed satisfaction for the bilateral collaboration whereby Germany maintains the responsibility for Beta genetic resources and The Netherlands takes care of the potato collection. He informed about ongoing discussion to include more crops in the bilateral collaboration.G. Duc explained the success of the French system, which is formalizing the maintenance of a decentralized National Collection. He stressed the visible advantage of reducing costs through responsibility-sharing.According to G. Poulsen the subregional collaboration of the Nordic countries is the most appropriate approach for that region, since one genebank is sufficient for the needs of the five countries, while it would not seem convenient to maintain several genebanks. R. Schachl informed that in Austria a combination of the 'accession' and 'crop-by-crop' options is starting to be accepted. One step in the direction of increasing mutual trust between the countries would be to undertake formal agreements for safety-duplication between countries. He also informed that the negotiations for the revision of the International Undertaking are currently at a stall and that the risk is that the debate will be transferred to the Convention on Biodiversity forum. He therefore stressed the importance of being aware and thinking about a European way, independently from the unpredictable outcome of the international negotiations.M. Ambrose explained that in the UK there are models of the 'crop-by-crop' option. However, some features of the French model are also being taken in consideration in the ongoing discussion at the governmental level.A. Hadjichristodoulou reminded the Group that countries with small breeding programmes may not be inclined to openly share the limited original material when they have to buy expensive modern lines for their agricultural systems.A. Ramos Monreal informed the group that the mandate of the Genebank in Madrid was to conserve material of Spanish origin, in line with the Convention on Biodiversity. Help to maintain genetic resources of foreign origin could also be offered, in case of need, to less equipped countries. On the other hand, there would be reluctance to entrust to a different country the maintenance of Spanish genetic resources. Therefore a mechanism of decentralized responsibility-sharing seems the more acceptable.The Group acknowledges the need for a thorough investigation of the advantages and disadvantages deriving from the application of each of the three options, when applied to the different grain legume crops within the existing European context. The Network Coordinating Group will strive to organize, within the Working Group, a comparative, analytical study of the available options for responsibilitysharing, taking into consideration costs, savings, technical, scientific and political constraints and benefits.The Cambridge collection of Phaseolus L. Maggioni reported to the Group the background leading to an ECP/GR emergency action, carried out to address the urgent need of regenerating the Cambridge collection of Phaseolus.A collection of Phaseolus germplasm comprising about 4000 accessions from all parts of the world was assembled in Cambridge, UK, in the 1960s and 1970s, largely at the expense of the British Overseas Development Administration (ODA). The collection was maintained by the University of Cambridge until 1995. With the closure of applied plant science research facilities at Cambridge, support was provided on an informal basis by Horticulture Research International (HRI), Wellesbourne, UK, for both the long-and short-term storage of the material. However, financial direct assistance for the regeneration of accessions and the continuing maintenance of the collection is currently uncertain. Part of the collection was last regenerated in 1993 at Cambridge. All other accessions were grown in Cambridge in 1990 or earlier. The longevity of dry beans stored under ambient conditions is between 7 and 12 years. The 1990 and 1993 material was dehumidified to 5% RH and stored at -20°C in 1995. The 1990 material was therefore facing an urgent need of rejuvenation.The ECP/GR Working Group on Grain Legumes, made aware of the endangered status of the Cambridge Phaseolus collection, became active by involving the European Phaseolus Database (EPDB) manager in Linz, Austria, with the purpose of identifying a priority list of accessions in need of urgent regeneration. This list was obtained by comparing the Cambridge database with the EPDB, so that priority could be given to unique accessions in Europe. Accessions with a PI number, which were thought to be duplicated at Fort Collins, CO, USA, were also not considered as priority, since they should be available from the US collection.A first priority list of 508 accessions last regenerated in 1990 or earlier was defined. HRI were able to confirm that only 403 of these accessions were actually stored in their genebank. A second list includes 1937 accessions, last regenerated in 1993.As a result of action taken by the ECP/GR Working Group on Grain Legumes, four institutions were identified in Italy, offering their availability to share the task to regenerate the first batch of 403 accessions:• Dipartimento di Agrobiologia e Agrochimica, Università della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy. • Istituto Sperimentale per l'Orticoltura, Sezione di Montanaso Lombardo, Milano, Italy. • Dipartimento di biotecnologie agrarie e ambientali, Università di Ancona.• Istituto Sperimentale per le Colture Industriali, Bologna, Italy.Accessions were shipped to the above institutions on 1 May 1998 from HRI, UK and the seed was received by the addressees in May 1998.The following workplan was agreed by the Italian institutions, which are being partially reimbursed for their work with Emergency funds from Phase IV of ECP/GR: 1. Grow out the Phaseolus accessions received and provide for their regeneration, insofar as the seed is viable. A minimum of 20 plants (if seed available) should be grown per accession. Regenerated seed of each accession should be distributed in two or more paper bags, containing about 100-200 g of seed each. It should be ensured that each parent plant contributes with an equal amount of seed to the regenerated sample. Each regenerated accession should be given an identification number. 2. Identify the genus, species and possibly subspecies of each accession, when this information is missing in the original database. 3. Carry out, as much as possible, characterization/evaluation of the accessions, using the list of \"Descriptors for the European Phaseolus Database -Characterization data\", made available by the EPDB manager. 4. Distribute the regenerated seed of all viable accessions in at least two equal parts to be sent to the Federal Office for Agro-Biology, Linz, Austria and HRI, Wellesbourne, UK. The seed will be dried and prepared for safety-storage at the recipient station. The seed should always be accompanied by an electronic file (ideally .xls or .dbf), containing the data of points 2 and 3 (regenerated seed should be sent to Wolfgang Kainz, Linz, Federal Office for Agro-Biology, Austria and to Dave Astley, HRI, Wellesbourne, UK). 5. Provide the Federal Office for Agro-Biology, Linz, Austria and HRI, Wellesbourne, UK with a list of the accessions of which a sample is retained, specifying whether they will be maintained in long-/short-term storage and/or used for research or breeding purposes.The regeneration of the second batch of 1937 accessions, last regenerated in 1993, remains a point for consideration by the Working Group.G. Duc informed the group that several Vicia faba collections in Europe may face the risk of being abandoned in the near future. This is due to declining market interest shown for this crop, which is affecting both the private and public breeding sector activities. He stressed the importance of the Group closely monitoring the fate of the broadbean collections and that adequate space for storage in long-term conditions be found whenever it is possible to prevent the loss of entire collections.M. Ambrose stressed the importance of safety-duplicating the grain legume collections. L. Maggioni added that formal agreements would ensure official recognition to the safetyduplication and also that any emergency situation could be dealt with according to procedures planned in advance. The Memorandum of Understanding between the Nordic Gene Bank and the Institute of Biology, Latvia, as published in the report of the Sixth meeting of the Working Group on Forages (Norway, 1997), was presented as an example of safety-duplication agreement with a 'black-box' type of arrangement.A survey on the availability to host safety-duplicates under black-box arrangements was made during the meeting and resulted in the following table: Regarding other grain legumes important for human consumption, such as lentil or Pisum, the local races already had been given up at the end of last century and therefore could not be included in the collections. Though Pisum rose again in importance during the last decades especially as a field crop, new bred cultivars were offered, mostly brought in from abroad. Lupinus, on the other hand, never was of importance and cultivation never reached a level going much further than beyond an experimental stage. Others like Cicer are not known at all.The collecting activities on Vicia and Phaseolus might be considered to be finished as no additional material can be expected. At present both collections are maintained in base collections and partially in working collections; samples of most of the accessions are available.A report on the status of grain legume collections in Bulgaria was received from S. Angelova. IIPGR, Sadovo, holds the grain legume collections of pea, beans, lentil, lupin, chickpea and faba beans. The larger collections are those of pea (2100 accessions) and beans (1710). Wild species are maintained in situ in different parts of the country. According to maturity all legumes are divided into extremely early, early, medium-early, late, very late. The pea and lentil collections belong mainly to the early and medium-early groups and those of field beans, lupin and chickpea to the medium-early and late groups. An important trend is the creation of collections of winter-resistant accessions. This is done mostly for pea, and work has started also for lentil and lupin. For field beans, research focuses on accessions germinating at low temperatures, early in spring. Ex situ collections of Pisum elatius have been created in Sadovo. A network for ecological trials of the pea collections allows periodical selection of the accessions which are most plastic and adapted to Bulgarian conditions, for inclusion in the different breeding programmes. A 3-year collaborative study of grain cultivars has been undertaken together with INRA, France. The data revealed great differences in the grain yield of the tested cultivars.Another contribution describing the Arachis hypogaea collection held at the Sadovo Genebank in Plovdiv was received after the meeting from S. Georgiev. The collection includes 317 accessions from 32 countries, belonging to the subspecies fastigiata and hypogaea. The collection has largely been characterized in its morphological and agronomic traits. Accessions adapted to different climatic conditions have been defined and resistance to diseases such as Fusarium, Sclerotinia, Oidium, etc. have been identified. The affinity to local strains of Rhizobium and the reaction to common agricultural practices (mechanized harvest, use of herbicides, etc.) have been investigated.Under consideration of the existence of other groundnut collections in Europe and the potential interest for groundnut cultivation in southern and southeastern Europe, the institute in Plovdiv kindly offered to host a European Arachis Database.A. Hadjichristodoulou presented a report by the National Coordinator, Ms Athena Della, on the present status of the grain legume collection in Cyprus. A total of 174 accessions have been collected and stored in the Genebank (101 faba bean, 28 chickpea, 12 ochrus vetch, 19 lentil, 6 haricot bean and 8 cow pea). Passport data of all accessions were forwarded to the European databases. Characterization and evaluation of 101 faba bean accessions were completed. A selected line obtained from these accessions was recommended for release. Furthermore, selected lines were crossed with imported genetic material at Wye College, England, for the development of lines for the freezing and canning industry. The best selected line is currently under multiplication.A report was received from M. Hýbl on the status of grain legumes in the Czech Republic. The activities of the Czech national grain legume collections, established at the same time as the breeding programme based on national germplasm (1952), are coordinated by the \"National Programme for Saving Biodiversity\", financially supported by the government. Passport and characterization data are fully computerized and available. The collections include a total of 4384 accessions belonging to seven genera (Pisum, Vicia, Phaseolus, Glycine, Lupinus, Cicer and Lathyrus) representing 11% of the total national germplasm holdings. Germplasm collections include Czech original landraces, old and recent varieties, and wild forms collected in expeditions. They contain accessions from Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia. Germplasm is generally kept under good storage conditions, but is held in several institutions: AGRITEC, Ltd. Sumperk (2409), Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP), Gene Bank Department, Olomouc (1931) and Research Institute for Fodder Plants,Ltd.,Troubsko (91). The main priorities are mass regeneration and storage in the central long-term storage in the Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP) in Prague, because of the high cost of maintaining collections in several institutes. The Czech and Slovak National Genebanks have recently concluded an agreement on safety-duplication (1998). Implementation of this agreement will be a priority in the near future. responsibilities and guidelines for genetic resources maintenance for a national collection (= French core collection), in addition to (or in parallel with) the working collections used for breeding purposes by INRA and the different private companies. Pea and lupin collections are regenerated in the field, while faba bean is regenerated under isolation from insects. Seeds are kept in low humidity cold rooms (3°C) and sometimes at room temperature in the case of short-term collections. There is no safety-duplication arrangement at -20°C at present, but the BRG Charte foresees such maintenance conditions in the future.Characterization of faba bean genetic resources has been interrupted, together with the respective breeding programme. The working collection derived from past breeding work will soon be added to the present 2000 accessions entries. Future availability of this breeding material to users outside INRA is currently uncertain.Characterization of pea genetic resources is managed by a group of coordinated INRA laboratories. A Web site is under progress and probably will be available for access next year.T. Gladis summarized the main changes since 1995 in the grain legume collections of German genebanks. Current collections total about 7500 grain legume accessions in Braunschweig and more than 19 000 in Gatersleben. It is planned to transfer the Glycine collection from Gatersleben to Hungary in 1999. Details on the level of regeneration carried out in 1998 and the current availability of the collections were given. The collecting missions annually organized by Gatersleben were briefly mentioned, including the missions planned for the future to Italy, Albania and South Korea. T. Gladis provided extensive lists of German institutions and plant breeders keeping collections of grain legumes and of research projects with relevance to grain legume germplasm ongoing in Germany.C. Paoletti, representing P. Ranalli, was unable to attend. A contribution from Italy was not received before the publication of the present report.The Netherlands L. van Soest presented the status of the grain legume collections maintained at CGN, Wageningen. The collection consists of 1803 accessions of Pisum, Vicia faba and Lupinus. The collection was established in 1985 and most of the material originated from the former Foundation for Agricultural Plant Breeding (SVP).However, some accessions of consumption peas were received from the former Institute for Horticultural Plant Breeding (IVT). Lately the Pisum, Vicia faba and to a small extent the Lupinus collections were extended with material from the Centre for Plant Breeding and Reproduction Research (CPRO-DLO) and accessions received from several breeding companies in The Netherlands. Furthermore some landraces from two East European genebanks were included. The grain legume collection does not have a high priority in the CGN system and receives less emphasis.G. Poulsen explained that the mandate of the Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) covers conservation and promoting utilization of plant genetic material with Nordic origin. Among grain legumes, this comprises the following species: Lupinus luteus, Lens culinaris, Pisum sativum , Vicia faba and V. sativa. The ordinary Nordic collection holds 170 grain legume accessions, and in addition there is the special collection from Weibullsholm of which approximately 450 type lines are maintained in collaboration with the John Innes Center (JIC), with NGB holding the base collection while JIC is responsible for the active collection. Additionally, the Weibullsholm collection comprises 700 accessions of Nordic origin, 500 accessions are stored for specific purposes and 1200 are presumed duplicates.W. Swiecicki was unable to attend. A contribution from Poland was not received before the publication of the present report.A. Mendes Dordio presented a report on the activities of the Portuguese grain legume germplasm collections held in different institutes in the country (Portuguese Plant Germplasm Bank, Braga; ESA, Castelo Branco; ENMP, Elvas; ISA, Lisboa; EAN, Oeiras; UTAD, Vila Real). The number of accessions collected was reduced, but the number of accessions characterized and evaluated is significant. Regarding safety-duplication, 26% of the total accessions stored are safety-duplicated. It is planned to duplicate all accessions maintained in all collections existing in the country.A contribution sent after the meeting by S. Strajeru described the Romanian grain legume collections, which are held in the Research stations of Fundulea, Suceava, Turda, Bacau and Iernut. The largest collections are those of soyabean and beans, mainly consisting of foreign material. Extensive collecting activity was carried out throughout Romania in the last 10 years by the Suceava Genebank. Several landraces and old varieties of beans, peas, faba beans and lentil were found, still under cultivation because of their good local adaptation and for tradition. Regeneration, multiplication and characterization activities are carried out at the genebank at a lower rate than is necessary, since the available financial resources are often very limited.M. Vishnyakova reported that the national grain legume collection of VIR contains 43 866 accessions, including 13 genera and 147 species. The main activity of the Institute is currently the completion of a duplicate subset for long-term storage. At present about 70% of the collection is stored in medium-and long-term conditions at +4°C and -20°C. Other activities are also continued, such as acquisition of additional foreign genetic resources, evaluation, prebreeding and breeding work, provision of seed to breeding companies, documentation of the collections and germplasm exchange. She also mentioned that the multiplication of accessions of southern origin has become a low priority for the Institute. However, this type of accession could be multiplied by partner countries offering collaboration.A. Ramos expressed interest in collaborating in the regeneration of material of Spanish origin, such as chickpea, Lupinus albus, lentil and Vigna. The Group thanked Spain for their offer of help on this problem.The Group suggested that VIR prepare a list of grain legume germplasm of southern origin in need of regeneration. The Central Crop Databases should be used to identify unique accessions for priority action. M. Vishnyakova is to provide a list to the Chair by 31 December 1998.F. Debre informed the group that the Coordination of the Programme on biodiversity conservation is currently ensured as a state project, funded and supported by the Ministry of Agriculture. Mandate for coordination was given to the leading institute in plant production in Slovakia: Research Institute of Plant Production, Piešïany (RIPP). Under the coordination of RIPP another 18 stations in Slovakia participate in PGR activities. These altogether form one research group, dedicated to PGR work. Among grain legumes, the largest is the pea collection (1300 accessions), stored in Horna Streda Plant Breeding Station at Statny Podnik and at the Nitra University of Agriculture. This is followed by the Phaseolus collection (1150 accessions), stored at Piešïany.V. Megli¹ reported on the status of the grain legume collection held at the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, consisting of 1051 accessions (Phaseolus vulgaris 964, Ph. coccineus 53 and Vicia faba 34). All grain legume accessions are well documented for IPGRI minimum passport descriptors, with minor gaps. Establishment of an information and database management system for the Slovenian Genebank is under way. Bean and faba bean collections will serve as pilot databases. New accessions are assayed according to morphological, agronomic and ecological characteristics and molecular data are also efficiently used for this purpose. A subsample of the Slovenian Phaseolus germplasm collection was compared with a group of check accessions representing the Andean and Mesoamerican genepools. A group of Slovenian accessions revealed a fair amount of distinctness from both, representing a possible set of unique germplasm. Evaluation of the faba bean collection showed that most accessions appeared to be of equina type, with one of minor and the rest of major type.A. Ramos Monreal reported that all genetic resources activities are now held under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and that a National Council on Genetic Resources is evaluating, every three years, projects submitted for funding. In the grain legume area, the following programmes are currently approved for funding:• Rationalization of Pisum collections of Spanish origin conserved at CRF (Centro de Conservación de Recursos Fitogenéticos), Madrid • Establishment of an active collection of Lupinus at SIA (Servicio de Investigación Agraria ), in Estremadura Collecting of Cicer and Phaseolus landraces was undertaken recently by the Provincial directorates of the Ministry of Agriculture. Systematic characterization of the chickpea collection is an ongoing activity. Breeding programmes in Turkey make large use of the genetic resources. For example, five Lens varieties and one faba bean variety were improved from AARI plant genetic material and were registered for the market. All material conserved at AARI is freely available, but feedback information on its use is requested.D. Joviºeviº reported that the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes (BBGJ) concentrated its work during the period 1989-92 on the following grain legumes: Glycine, Phaseolus, Pisum , Vicia faba, Lupinus, Cicer and Lens. In its final form, the information system of the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes included data on 542 samples of grain legumes. After the break-up of the former Yugoslavia, the national collection of the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes presently includes only samples of Glycine (60) and Phaseolus (290). The samples are stored in chambers for mid-term storage (at +4°C) rented from the Maize Research Institute in Zemun Polje. The overall activity of the Bank is considerably reduced owing to financial difficulties at the national level. It had been planned for the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes to have storage capacity for 100 000 samples and equipment for long-term storage at -20ºC. However, the construction of the Bank, which started in 1990, has not been completed yet.M. Ambrose mentioned that a new long-term storage facility (-20°C) had been set up at East Craig in Scotland and a reference collection will be conserved there. Regarding the collection conserved at the John Innes Centre (JIC), he informed the Group that the level of safetyduplication is as high as 80%, although this is only based on informal arrangements. An agreement with the Nordic Gene Bank is under formulation. M. Ambrose also reported that JIC is maintaining the base collection of genetic stocks and that additional genetic stocks will be included in the future, including collected stocks that were thought to have been lost. Finally, he explained that the proportion of requests, especially made via Internet, for material conserved in the genebank has been increasing.M. Ambrose welcomed Alan Gear from the Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA) to the meeting. He underlined the importance in the participation of a representative from the informal sector, who are an important group of stakeholders, to the Working Group meetings and the exploration of complementarity and collaboration with the informal sector that would ensue.M. Ambrose reminded the Group of the recommendations made at the Braunschweig Symposium, where ECP/GR was invited to address the subjects of in situ and on-farm conservation, in line with the recommendations of the Global Plan of Action.He invited the Group members to report examples of in situ and on-farm conservation activities ongoing in their respective countries and to give some accounts of the existing interaction with NGOs.N. Açikgöz informed the Group about the progress of the in situ project under way in Turkey since 1993. Seven Gene Management Zones were identified in three pilot conservation zones: Kazdag in western Turkey for wild plums and chestnut, Ceylanpinar in southeastern Turkey for wild wheats and wild lentil, and the Tourous Mountains for wild legumes. In this last area, candidate Gene Management Zones were identified for the conservation of Lens ervoides and L. orientalis (3 zones), Pisum spp. (3 zones) and Vicia johannis (2 zones). Gene Management Plans are currently under preparation and they will include the involvement of local NGOs, as well as a programme of public awareness for the local population.T. Gladis reported about the existing cooperation in Germany between NGOs and the formal sector (genebanks, research institutions). He explained that NGOs as well as private persons maintain seed collections and provide seeds, mainly from vegetables, spices, ornamentals and some cereals and fruits (e. g. VEN, Association for the conservation of crops diversity; VERN, Association for the conservation and recultivation of crops in Brandenburg). Other organizations are international, such as Arche Noah, with about 1500 German members, and the US Seed Saver Exchange. NGOs in collaboration with GOs are currently developing strategies for extensification in agriculture and for fruit production (e.g. federal and local groups of NABU e.V. (German Society for the protection of nature) and BUND e.V. (Friends of the Earth Germany). Some are also participating in joint projects (IPK-Gatersleben with Arche Noah, VERN, in the EU-funded potato project and for the reintroduction of traditional cereal varieties in agriculture). Private initiatives of 'Ecobreeders' started to develop for bio/eco farmers cereal varieties specifically adapted for ecological farming systems.These require low input, and have improved weed competitivity (soil shading ability, density), good resistance and quality (taste, digestibility) characters. Organizations such as 'Slow food' are working for the improvement of direct market channels for farmers to sell their ecological products.L. van Soest reported that during the last two years discussions were held between CGN and ecological farming groups in The Netherlands. Some of these groups stated that the genebank was only working for the private sector and research institutes and not for the traditional farming community. After several discussions, an intention agreement was signed between some ecological farming groups and CGN to work together and commit themselves to obtain funds for PGR activities for ecological farming. Initially wheat and lettuce were selected but other vegetable crops may be considered. During the last two years, CGN conducted activities for ecological farming in wheat (evaluation) and lettuce (development of a core collection). The parties agreed to find funding to conduct further evaluations. Criteria for evaluation include disease resistance, lodging resistance, optimal rooting system, and ability to suppress weeds during early growth.A.R. Monreal mentioned a case in Spain which can be considered as an example of onfarm conservation. This is the case of the cultivation of Triticum spelta, which is grown in small areas for limited production of traditional food for local recipes. In situ conservation in Spain is dedicated to wild plants and it does not include agricultural systems. There are NGOs in Spain who are dedicated to genetic resources conservation; however, A. Monreal was not aware of any coordination established to date with the formal sector.Small efforts of ongoing in situ conservation for legumes were reported from Bulgaria by a correspondence from Siyka Angelova.S. Hovinen reported that in Finland such activities have started, mainly on cereals. The farmers get financial support from the government for using local varieties, thus making it possible to save some diversity. The administration is within the responsibility of the State Institute of the Seed Testing Department.G. Poulsen reported that to increase knowledge about in situ conservation and on-farm conservation, NGB and the Baltic Genebank organized an in situ symposium in Lithuania where most working groups were represented.Attention was also drawn to the fact that a key element for on-farm conservation on a larger scale would be the introduction of legislative measures which allow distribution and commercialization of landraces and obsolete varieties, as recommended by article 203e of the Global Plan of Action. R. Schachl announced that Austria and Germany had elaborated a formulation in close cooperation with seed control service, genebanks and people concerned, such as plant breeders and representatives from the ecological farming community, to open the existing legal regulations to allow trade of seed of those types of genetic resources to a certain extent. Within the Austrian EU Presidency this paper should be discussed with other Member States and the Commission to find a common EU regulation, to be possibly approved before the end of the year.The Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA) was presented by Alan Gear. HDRA is a NGO which started its activity 40 years ago as an association of gardeners for organic growing. In the meantime the organization, with 25 000 members, became the biggest one still based on organic farming and not supported by the government. The organization keeps demonstration gardens running throughout the country; they receive enormous public interest. To increase awareness it is intended to establish a vegetable museum. Research work is preferably done on contract basis, mainly in the direction of pest control and trials for variety testing to find the most suitable varieties for organic farming. Another part of the activity, in cooperation with Third World Countries, aims to introduce organic farming as a low-input farming system. For that purpose a small collection of tropical trees is also maintained. Genetic resources conservation activities started in the mid-1970s. Seed is available from a catalogue published every year and will be sent on request. Seed production is largely done by seed gardeners, a selected group of members who deal with certain crop species. There is no restriction of the material, all is taken on board and thus some very old races could be preserved. To find old and obsolete varieties, so-called \"seed detectives\" are employed, searching in home gardens for gaps in the already existing collection. In view of long-term conservation of the material, cooperation with genebanks is sought, such as the genebanks of Wellesbourne, UK or Linz, Austria. Although the organization has become renowned at international level, the main problem remains: how to improve the links between NGOs themselves throughout Europe. It is hoped that a solution to this problem can be developed as an outcome of the Braunschweig symposium on PGRFA.M. Vishnyakova reported that, as part of the national programme, VIR is now studying theoretical approaches to in situ conservation of wild relatives of grain legumes. A list of target species is being prepared and methodological aspects are being discussed.Screening and evaluation of peanut germplasm for calcareous Mediterranean soils A. Hadjichristodoulou gave a presentation on the screening and evaluation of peanut germplasm for calcareous Mediterranean soils (see p. 82). He explained that soils in Cyprus and other Mediterranean countries have high CaCO 3 (up to 25%) and active lime (up to 10%). Under such conditions, peanuts suffer from lime-induced iron chlorosis and their yields may be reduced dramatically, even down to zero. It is possible to correct chlorosis by applying expensive treatments with iron chelates. 'Cyprus Local' and the Israeli variety 'Shulamit' are relatively tolerant to chlorosis. A large number of peanut lines, developed at ICRISAT, India, were screened for tolerance to chlorosis. After several years of selection 12 tolerant lines were selected. They are also higher-yielding (20-30%) than 'Cyprus Local' and show a long shelf-life and a larger kernel size than 'Cyprus Local'. Three released varieties were registered jointly with ICRISAT by the Crop Society, USA. Seed may be obtained from USA, Cyprus or ICRISAT.M. Ambrose went on to outline the main recommendation relating to utilization of PGR made at the Braunschweig Symposium, highlighting core collection, genetic enhancement and improved collaboration between public, private and informal sectors.M. Ambrose updated the group on the Pisum core collection work. Molecular marker studies had been undertaken by colleagues at the John Innes Centre over the past two years on a subset of the core collection. The resulting phylogenetic trees would feature in a presentation to be made in session 7.A. Monreal briefly mentioned that a core collection of peas of Spanish origin had been formed and a comparison made of 11 different sampling methods. A paper was to be presented at the forthcoming 3rd European Grain Legume Conference in Valladolid later that month.M. Vishnyakova informed the Group that they were preparing to form a core collection from the VIR collection of Glycine and asked for information on the practical aspects and experience from those who had already undertaken the formation of such collections.G. Duc highlighted the need to consider the formation of a core collection within European holdings of Vicia faba. Over the past few years the area of Vicia faba has fallen and breeding interest in the crops declined. R. Schachl intends to request the members of the PHASELIEU project to cooperate in the establishment of a Phaseolus core collection. He hoped that the wider Phaseolus community would also help in this initiative.M. Ambrose outlined the discussions that were taking place in the UK on the gap that had developed in the flow of exotic germplasm into breeding programmes following the privatization of breeding programmes some 10 years ago. This represented a market failure in the transfer of information on material in the public sector to the private sector.G. Duc stated that in his experience breeders were reluctant to consider exotic material that was too far from the cultivated form. This was especially the case where a crop was in decline such as Vicia faba.L. van Soest commented that prebreeding at governmental level had declined. S. Hovinen informed the Group that composite crosses will be developed by Boreal Plant Breeding, Finland, starting from ordinary breeding material of field peas. The objective is to preserve pea genetic resources with high adaptability to the Nordic countries environment. Material obtained from this prebreeding programme will be documented and stored at the Nordic Gene Bank.M. Ambrose outlined the model of the GSP which is funded out of the levy on seed sales.The GSP works with a series of paying breeding companies on a circular crossing programme for a series of traits. All members get to select from the resulting segregating progeny and undertake their own selections. Exotic material was used in this operation.M. Ambrose mentioned that areas of collaboration between collections and commercial breeders are increasing. G. Duc reported that France was building a strong molecular marker programme bringing the public and private sectors together.A. Monreal stated that Spain had recently initiated a 4-year programme of molecular characterization of peas of Spanish origin, and that high-quality molecular characterization of landraces of Vicia faba accessions was still ongoing at the University of Cordoba in the laboratory of J. Cubero.There followed a discussion of priority problems in relation to germplasm utilization. Main problems identified for the various crops were the following:• Cicer: Ascochyta rabiei (Ascochyta blight) in Turkey.• Vicia faba: the problem of salt tolerance was reported in regions of eastern Europe and the southern Mediterranean. Orobanche was reported as a serious problem in regions of southern Spain and areas of Turkey, severely restricting the growing of faba bean in these regions. • Phaseolus: narrow genetic base of the current European cultivated material.• Pisum: Ascochyta pinodes and Fusarium resistance in the Russian Federation.• Lens: cold tolerance in the Central Anatolian region of Turkey.• Core collections of grain legumes: the Group agreed to help G. Duc collate and develop a strategy for the development of a core collection of Vicia faba in European collections. • The Group welcomed the initiative of the Federal Office for Agro-Biology in Linz, to work toward the formation of a Phaseolus core collection. • The Network Coordinating Group was charged to further develop the review of genetic enhancement on crop-by-crop and geographical area bases. • The Network Coordinating Group is asked to explore the possibilities of improving the links to the work on overcoming the problem of Orobanche to grain legume production area in Europe and the genetic resources community. Following this exercise the NCG is asked to assess the need and funding opportunities of multidisciplinary project proposals in this area.A. Monreal reported on the Spanish exchange programme on plant genetic resources with the South American region. An annual international PGR course is run in Madrid.A. Dordio reported on the Portuguese contacts with new Portuguese-speaking African countries.G. Poulsen outlined the Nordic Gene Bank's long-term programme in southern African countries.T. Gladis reported on activities in Germany. IPK genebank staff is involved with checklists and joint collecting missions of plants, e.g. in Albania, Central America and Cuba, Italy, and in North and South Korea. The DSE (German Foundation for International Development) in cooperation with genebanks, universities and NGOs runs long-term and short courses.M. Ambrose reported on the MSc and MPhil courses on conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources run by the University of Birmingham in conjunction with the University of Reading and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Cyprus and Turkey are both members of WANANET which is a cooperative programme for plant genetic resources in West Asia and Northern Africa, coordinated by the IPGRI regional office of CWANA in Aleppo.The Chair of the Group will contact the IPGRI WANANET Coordinator to exchange information on activities and explore areas of working contact in relation to database activities.Studies of molecular diversity in a number of grain legumes N. Ellis from the John Innes Centre mentioned the use of molecular markers to analyze genetic distances between different grain legumes, in order to find pattern relationships. He explained how they use a combination of a series of marker types.CABINET Network: Carbohydrate Biotechnology Network for grain legumes C. Hedley from the John Innes Centre explained how the CABINET Network had been set up to carry out work on carbohydrates. Its objective is improving the quality of carbohydrates in legume seeds from both a nutritional and agricultural point of view. The network took advantage of an INCO-COPERNICUS contract with the EU, whereby a concerted action programme with 29 partners (including Estonia, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine) was started in February 1997. The action has a 3-year duration and an availability of 207 000 Euro. The activities will not only focus on meetings, but also on the production of a book. The CABINET Network is addressing carbohydrates from the following several angles:1. Chemist -Collate information on composition of starch, soluble carbohydrates and fibre fractions of grain legumes. 2. Nutritionist -Identify and characterize those carbohydrates which act as antinutritional factors and should be reduced within the diet and those which should be enhanced. • to stimulate interactions between the different ongoing programmes related to grain legumes and to explore the most appropriate areas of research to follow • to identify the requirements from production sector and from end-users in feed/food/non-food grain legumes • to combine different expertise during meetings and thematic workshops to discuss, define and implement key actions in research on grain legumes.LINK is conceived as an open network and its initial partners should be able to extend their interaction with additional partners. Cliff Hedley from JIC, coordinator of CABINET, is one of the LINK partners. Genetic resources will of course be considered under LINK.The PHASELIEU project R. Schachl, in his capacity of participating member of the EU-funded concerted action PHASELIEU for the improvement of sustainable Phaseolus production in Europe for human consumption, informed the Group that he was to take part in the second project meeting next week in Belgium, where he would represent the ECP/GR Working Group on Grain Legumes. He provided the following information on the project background and objectives.Phaseolus bean are also known as green, dry, dwarf, haricot, French and runner beans. An improved sustainable and more economic Phaseolus production in Europe, leading to highquality products, would, on one hand, contribute to the diversification of agricultural systems and the development of more environmental agricultural practices. On the other hand, it would allow for an increased independence from the world market, which is characterized by cost fluctuation and unpredictable supply. Currently large amounts of dry Phaseolus beans are important to the EU. Regarding green Phaseolus beans, the self-sufficient grade in the EU export is much higher.The overall aim of PHASELIEU is to coordinate the ongoing research on Phaseolus and to elaborate an integrated strategy model for the improvement of Phaseolus production in Europe for human consumption. Also, this project would like to avoid duplication of current research and other RTD activities at national and transnational level on Phaseolus .The detailed objectives of PHASELIEU are, through concertation and coordination of ongoing research:1.1 to analyze the potential and opportunities of Phaseolus beans for European agriculture 1.2 to improve the management of genetic resources at European level in cooperation with the ECP/GR and widen the genetic base of Phaseolus, including introduction of new germplasm sources of variation and interspecific hybridization 1.3 to set up an EU-wide trial system for multiplication, characterization and evaluation of different genetic material for the above characteristic 2.1 to identify the biotic and abiotic stresses that contains a wide distribution of Phaseolus beans in some European areas 2.2 to seek improved non-chemical methods of crop protection related to biotic stress (bean fly, aphids, mosaic virus, Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas) and abiotic stress (drought and cold tolerance) 2.3 to optimize diverse farming systems incorporating Phaseolus varieties and monoculture and mixed-cropping systems 2.4 to seek increased nutritional and organoleptic quality and improved cooking characteristics including HTC (hard to cook) character 3.1 to develop a widely applicable transformation and regeneration protocol for Phaseolus 3.2 to develop molecular markers for use in Phaseolus breeding.F. Debre mentioned the opportunity for the Working Group on Grain Legumes to establish a contact with the FAO ESCORENA network on soyabean, with the purpose of exploring common areas of interest and collaboration, such as the establishment of databases.The section Discussion and Recommendations of the report was presented to the participants and it was approved with minor modifications.Mike Ambrose was elected Chair of the Group until the end of the next meeting. He will be joined in the coordination of the Network by Gérard Duc (as Working Group Vice-Chair) and by Rudolf Schachl. Siyka Angelova will be approached to check if she is available to join in the Network Coordinating Group.The Chair informed the group that Andreas Hadjichristodoulou had recently retired from his Institute. During his career he made many important contributions to development and utilization of genetic resources for a range of crops including legumes and cereals. Although he has not yet stopped his activity, he was offered the Groups' thanks for his contributions to both meetings of the ECP/GR Working Group on Grain Legumes and wished a long and happy retirement. The Chair thanked all the participants for attending this meeting and contributing to all the sessions. He wished the Group to continue in the direction it was moving and reminded that its work will have to be recorded and reported so as to be accountable to the Steering Committee. The Group conveyed its warm thanks to Mike Ambrose and to the John Innes Centre for the excellent organization of the meeting and for the nice environment encountered during the Group's pleasant stay in England.The European Cicer database was established in 1995, following the first meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group on Grain Legumes, held in Copenhagen, Denmark. It is maintained by the National Plant Breeding Station in Elvas, Portugal, and is now searchable on-line through the Internet server of the Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) at <http:www.ngb.se/databases/ECP/cicer>.The structure of the database was organized according to the guidelines of the IPGRI/FAO Multicrop Passport Descriptor List (Appendix II in Lipman et al. 1997).From the \"Directory of European Institutions Holding Crop Genetic Resources Collections\" (Frison and Serwinski 1995), 32 institutions were recognized as potential owners of databases for Cicer. These institutions were contacted in December 1995 and in July 1997. In the first call, we asked for passport data and for the five recommended characters selected at the first meeting of the Working Group: growth habitat, flower colour, seed shape, seed colour and seed weight. In the second call, a diskette was supplied with the structure of the passport file, to overcome the problem of non-uniformity of the different databases.The data are compiled in Microsoft Access version 2.0 for Windows.A total of 16 institutions from 10 countries sent the passport data of the material maintained in their germplasm collections (Table 1). The database contains information on 3664 accessions (advanced cultivars, primitive cultivars/landraces, breeding materials and wild accessions) representing 14 species of Cicer (Table 2). Most of the accessions belong to the cultivated species. The number of accessions included in the Cicer Database represents only 38% of the total number of accessions existing in Europe (Frison and Serwinski 1995). This reflects one of the problems detected during the establishment of the Cicer database. It is difficult to obtain the data from the institutions holding the collections. The problem of non-uniformity of the data was also encountered.An update of the database is planned soon.  1. Further to the 57 letters sent to presumed Vicia faba collection curators in Europe, 34 answers were received and it was possible to include data from 26 seed collections for a total of 12 981 accessions. This list includes all the well-known European collections, except those of the Vavilov Institute (VIR, Russia) and of a few private companies which were not contacted originally. 5  These collections mostly contain cultivars and farmer's populations resulting from collecting missions, and apparently very few breeder's working lines. No information is available on the technique used to maintain the material (under pollen isolation? is the material still alive?). A statement mentioning free access to the material was not always associated with the data files received.We had asked for a minimum of eight passport descriptors: Country and Institution, Species, Accession code, Botanical name, Origin, Country of the collecting, Donor, Donor accession code. After processing the available passport data, we obtained a standardized data file, ipgri\\eurvicia.dbf, which was built under dBase software and made of 19 columns (see Table 2). Up to now, this work permitted the collation of 24 collection files (9478 accessions). The objective is now to add the few missing files and to work on the elimination of duplicates. This will be a long and difficult task, because of the many variations in the spelling of cultivar names, donor codes, and even of country codes.On the 9478 accessions, 30% have cultivar names, 17% have unknown geographic origin and 52% are of European origin.We had asked for five important descriptors: type (minor, major, equina), flower colour, spring or winter type, 1000-seed weight and seed shape. Only 10 collections were available with characterization data, and in most cases they were very incomplete in comparison with our demand. Therefore, we did not work on standardization of these data.• The gathering of passport data on Vicia faba genetic resources was rather successful, showing a considerable size of European collections (13 000 accessions). • In the first step of our query, requests were sent mostly to public institutions. In a further step it would be interesting to find out which collections could be accessible from private companies. • In the last few years, there was a clear reduction of investment from public and private groups in Vicia faba germplasm in Europe. This means that a large part of the conserved material may be abandoned and die in the near future. This problem is amplified by the allogamy of this crop which makes the maintenance of the material more expensive and difficult. This makes it urgent to define a core collection for this species and the means of its maintenance. • A key point to achieve this objective is to rapidly analyze the duplicates in the database.This will be the next phase of our activity, representing a heavy workload and for which the possibilities of INRA may be limiting. Federal Office of Agro-Biology, Linz, AustriaDuring the meeting of the Working Group on Grain Legumes in Copenhagen in 1995, it was agreed that the establishment of the database involves two steps: 1. to develop a proposal for the database, putting emphasis on the field structure, taking care only of passport data and four botanical characters which should help the curator identify quickly the material; 2. to assemble the data obtained from the various genebanks. To do so, two possibilities were taken into consideration: a. requesting the data in a form which already coincides with the structure of the database b. requesting the data as they are and do the transformation ourselves.The activity was scheduled to be completed within 1.5 years, and in any case before the present meeting of the Working Group on Grain Legumes.From the \"Directory of E uropean Institutions Holding Crop Genetic Resources Collections\" (Frison and Serwinski 1995), 49 institutes listed were contacted. Out of these, 24 institutes answered and 22 institutes also sent data. Not all institutes appeared to be holding collections, owing to reorganizations in national programmes. However, 25 institutes did not reply; these include genebanks where we can expect larger collections of special value, such as the genebanks of Turkey, Greece or Romania.In total 28 271 accessions are currently included in the European Phaseolus Database. The status of sample is known for only 1/3 of the accessions. For the rest we might assume that 2/3 belong to landraces and 1/3 to commercial varieties, with the percentage of commercial varieties higher in central Europe, and that of landraces in southern and eastern Europe.According to the \"Directory of European PGR Collections\" the number of accessions is estimated at 35 000 accessions. Thus 80% of the material reported or expected in European genebanks is currently recorded in the Phaseolus Database.The Phaseolus Database is available on the Internet at <http://www.agrobio.bmlf.gv.at/phaseolus>. Data were requested in the form as managed individually by the genebanks, and were assembled by the Federal Office of Agro-Biology in Linz in a common form based on the FAO/IPGRI Multicrop Passport Descriptors, in view to facilitate the exchange of information with other networks, e.g. WIEWS. During the Copenhagen meeting it was discussed whether management data, like minimum characters, have to be taken into account in addition to the passport data in helping the genebank curator in searching and identifying accessions. For Phaseolus the inclusion of three highly heritable descriptors were agreed, namely: plant type (bushy or climbing), seed colour and seed size.We suggest to rely for the near future on DOS 16-bit standard format, the advantage being that the data as distributed in the European Phaseolus Database can be easily processed by all common data-processing programmes, individually available to users. Thus the database does not need to be linked to a special genebank programme.In general, the accessions of almost all genebanks are very well described by passport data. The description by characterization and evaluation data, however, appears poor, and even the three management (characterization) data requested were not available. There is an absolute need to standardize the characterization and evaluation descriptors before continuing the work.Three sets of descriptors are commonly used: IPGRI descriptors, UPOV descriptors and COMECON descriptors. The IPGRI descriptors are very well detailed and adequate for accessions of wild and weedy types and landraces, but do not sufficiently take care of bred cultivars. On the other hand, the UPOV descriptors do, but neglect the possible variation in primitive races. The COMECON descriptors still offer a wide range of characters, but are outdated, especially in respect to how the characters are recorded. For the purposes of the European genebanks comprising in their collection landraces as well as commercial varieties, a synthesis of IPGRI and UPOV descriptors could be taken into consideration.This problem has been addressed by Phaseolus experts, within the framework of the EUfunded project PHASELIEU. A revised list of passport data (Annex 1) and a preliminary list of characterization data (Annex 2) were agreed for adoption in the European Phaseolus Database.Very little is known about genetic variation of the accessions represented in the database. Grouping the accessions according to their origin and location of collection, as far as it is known, results in the following.Accepting the theory of Vavilov and considering that in the conditions of a gene centre, genesis of new types is higher than loss by selection and dominant genes accumulate, this material might be of special value.Mediterranean Region 4664 Portugal and Spain 3502 Italy, Greece, Albania (although the collection of Greece is not included yet). Since the initial exchange of Phaseolus beans occurred between the American centres of origin and the Iberian Peninsula, originality in the material might be expected to some extent.There was a strong cultural link between Spain and Austria through the Hapsburgs in the 17th century, and intensive exchange of agricultural goods within the Austro-Hungarian countries was only limited by environmental boundaries, so that a certain uniformity in the material can be expected.There are also big collections resulting from international exchange and collecting activities: Cambridge, UK (2200 accessions); Gatersleben, Germany (7272); VIR, St. Petersburg, Russia (6136).In the context of widening the genetic base and introduction of new germplasm, priority may be given to some extent to the evaluation of the material already existing in Europe.However, more than 28 000 accessions is a number which requires a consequent strategy on how to proceed in the evaluation in view of the incurred workload and costs. To some extent, especially for large collections, the establishment of a core collection could probably help to handle the number of accessions to be subsequently evaluated.Apart from that, broadening the genetic base will be an absolute need, considering that we may not expect a very wide genetic variation in the accessions available in Europe. 6Annex 1. Minimum multicrop passport descriptors adapted for the Phaseolus database.Code of the institute where the accession is maintained. The code consists of 3-letter country code plus number as specified in the institute database that will be made available by FAO. Preliminary codes (i.e. codes not yet incorporated in the FAO Institute database) consist of a 3-letter country code and an acronym.This number serves as a unique identifier for accessions and is assigned when an accession is entered into the collection. Once assigned this number should never be reassigned to another accession in the collection. Even if an accession is lost, its assigned number is still not available for re-use. Letters should be used before the number to identify the genebank or national system (e.g. IDG indicates an accession that comes from the genebank at Bari, Italy; CGN indicates an accession from the genebank at Wageningen, The Netherlands; PI indicates an accession within the USA system). Original number assigned by the collector(s) of the sample, normally composed of the name or initials of the collector(s) followed by a number. This item is essential for identifying duplicates held in different collections. It should be unique and always accompany subsamples wherever they are sent. Subdivision below the country level and other locality information that describes where the accession was collected or the distance in kilometres and direction from the nearest town, village or map grid reference point (e.g. CURITIBA 7S means 7 km south of Curitiba).(COLLDATE: C 8) 10. Latitude of collecting site (LATITUDE: C 5) Degrees and minutes followed by N (North) or S (South) (e.g. 1030S). Missing data should be indicated with hyphen (e.g. 10-S). 11. Longitude of collecting site (LONGITUDE: C 6) Degrees and minutes followed by E (East) or W (West) (e.g. 07625W). Missing data should be indicated with hyphen (e.g. 076-W).(ELEVATION: C 4) Institute for Introduction and Plant Genetic Resources \"K. Malkov\" (IIPGR), Sadovo, District Plovdiv, BulgariaGrain legumes are of great importance for Bulgaria. In the collections of IIPGR, Sadovo, they are represented by pea, beans, lentil, lupin, chickpea and faba beans. Their study and evaluation is carried out in relation to the different breeding programmes and use in the country (Angelova and Guteva 1995;Angelova and Yancheva 1996a).The two larger collections, pea and bean, are represented by the following more important species: Pisum sativum, P. arvense, P. asiaticum, P. transcaucasicum convar. speciosum, P. hortense, P. elatius, Phaseolus vulgaris, Ph. multiflorus, Ph. lunatus, Ph. angularis and Ph. aureus. The status of grain legume collections is shown in Table 1. The Bulgarian accessions are mostly old local cultivars and populations, all newly bred cultivars and released cultivars. Foreign accessions consist mainly of cultivars and breeding lines from France, Russia, Poland, USA, The Netherlands and the Czech Republic. The wild species are included in in situ conservation (Table 2). Pea has not been a major protein crop in the past in Bulgaria; until 1970 it occupied only 25 000 ha. However, during 1980-89, pea became the most important grain legume crop and reached up to 300 000 ha. Later it decreased by about 10 times owing to the changes that took place in agriculture. Now it is again appreciated by the farmers, mostly for feeding livestock.Field beans are a traditional crop for Bulgaria and are of considerable importance as a food crop. In the 1950s they occupied the greatest area of all legumes -more than 100 000 ha. Later, and for a long period of time, only about 60 000 ha remained under cultivation. At present their acreage is increasing.An intensive breeding programme has been developed for those two crops in three institutes in Bulgaria: Pleven, General Toshevo, Obraztsov Tchiflik. IIPGR works in close collaboration with them. Breeding is mainly targeted toward earliness, winter resistance and lodging resistance.Lentil was mostly grown in Bulgaria during the 1930s, on 14 000 ha. Then its area decreased progressively and since 1963 to the present it is not more than 2000-3000 ha. Greater commercial interest in the last few years led to increases in and renewal of lentil collections and breeding was directed toward cultivars with higher yields and larger seeds.Chickpea is an old crop in Bulgaria. The maintenance and enlargement of the lupin collections is carried out for education and research. The studies are directed toward the biochemical composition of the grain and its alkaloid content. In the past it was widely used for green manure.The most important character for grouping of the collections is maturity (Makasheva 1973;Angelova and Guteva 1995). According to that character all legumes are divided into extremely early, early, medium-early, late, very late. The pea and lentil collections belong mainly to the early and medium-early groups and those of field beans, lupin and chickpea to the medium-early and late groups. The early accessions express their potential best and they are the most requested by breeders.The medium-early accessions have good properties but their yield is not stable throughout the years, depending mostly on the temperatures during flowering and the rainfall during grain formation. The dry and hot Bulgarian summer does not allow for the late cultivars to express their potential and their grain yield is variable.The very late cultivars produce less seeds. Their cultivars are difficult to maintain and they have almost no place in the cultivar list of the country.An important trend is the creation of collections of winter-resistant accessions. This is done mostly for pea. The valuable quality of winter resistance is possessed by about 400 accessions of pea. The percentage of plant survival has been checked for 10 years (Angelova and Yancheva 1996b). In the first place a certain number of local and old foreign populations of subsp. arvense, austrianum type can be mentioned, with more than 95% winter survival. Among these are 'CAA', 'P-226' from Russia, 'Shampaign' from France, 'N37', 'N63', 'E-48', 'P-1' from Bulgaria. The accessions 'N37-Kneja' and '63' from Kalofer are original local forms and 'E348' is an accession from the Bulgarian-Russian expedition in 1959.An ecological trial in five sites in the country shows that a great part of the accessions of forage type overwinter successfully for a long period of time. The grain cultivars, including the afila type, are typical for the great instability of this character, the percentage of overwintered plants ranging from 50 to 90 (Angelova and Yancheva 1996a;Anonymous 1998aAnonymous , 1998b)).The pea accessions with quick growth and development are very valuable in the Bulgarian climate when used for green forage because they accumulate dry matter quickly. Numerous cultivars from Bulgaria, Poland and Sweden have been selected.Work has started on the creation of winter lentil and lupin collection forms. For field beans, research focuses on accessions germinating at low temperatures, early in spring.The percentage of local cultivars populations and forms kept in the genebank in Sadovo is greatest for the field beans among all legumes (Table 3). During collecting expeditions, seeds from mountains, semi-mountainous and flat parts of the country have been collected and are now preserved. These accessions are extremely diverse and polymorphic as a result of many years of local breeding. In many parts of Bulgaria old local beans are still grown in kitchen gardens. Local populations of the other legume crops are preserved too but they are not as numerous since they are not grown in the private farms. Possibilities for on-farm conservation are considered, in collaboration with NGOs, private farmers, etc. for protection of old plant forms.The following species are maintained in situ in different parts of the country (Strandja, Black Sea coast, East Rhodope): Lupinus angustifolius, Lupinus graecus, Cicer montbretii, Lens ervoides, Lens nigricans and Pisum elatius (Table 4).Ex situ collections of Pisum elatius have been created in Sadovo. A network for ecological trials of the pea collections has been created. This allows periodic selection of the accessions which are most plastic and adapted to Bulgarian conditions, for inclusion in the different breeding programmes (Anonymous 1998a(Anonymous , 1998b)). A 3-year collaborative study of grain cultivars has been undertaken together with INRA, France (Table 5). The data revealed great differences in the grain yield of the tested cultivars for the different countries and for the ecological trials in the countries (Anonymous 1998a(Anonymous , 1998b)).The maintenance and enlargement of the grain legume crop collections, including diverse genetic material, helps the development of an effective breeding in Bulgaria and the creation of cultivars suitable for the country. The collected information allows the use of the collections for different purposes now and in the future.The history of groundnuts in Bulgaria dates back to over 100 years. They were first imported in 1896 and sown on 0.7 ha. During 1899-1900 they were grown at the Agricultural School in Sadovo. During 1902-07 the first experiments were carried out by the former Agricultural Experimental Station in Sadovo (currently IIPGR) in order to specify their economic traits and possibilities for cultivation in the country. The results were filled with hope: the crop offered good perspectives and its dissemination began in the Plovdiv region. In 1926 the area under this crop was 57.4 ha and gained economic importance (Georgiev 1992). During the last nine years, in spite of the difficulties due to the transition to a market economy, the area cultivated to groundnuts was between 10 000 and 15 000 ha, thus ranking second after sunflower among oil crops. Bulgaria is the biggest producer of groundnuts in Europe with about 81% of the continental cultivated area and 56% of the production (Bentcheva and Georgiev 1997;Georgiev and Bentcheva 1998). The first experiments carried out in the former Agricultural Experimental Station during the period 1902-07 consisted of introduction and investigation of varieties from different countries. With periods of interruption and restoration , this activity has continued up to the present in Sadovo. Originally the groundnut collection was created as a small working collection and it was supported and used by groundnut breeders. This activity was enlarged with the establishment of IIPGR in 1977 in Sadovo, and during 1977-84 the collection contained 199 accessions. From 1984 to 1998 the number of accessions in the collection increased to 317, including those whose investigation is not completed (Table 1). The collection covers the whole botanical diversity of the species Arachis hypogaea L. with the exception of variety hirsuta of subsp. hypogaea, which has a long vegetation period and spreading habit, and with limited dissemination in Brazil and Peru. It is impossible to maintain the groundnut collection containing the whole botanical diversity of the species Arachis hypogaea under field conditions in Bulgaria or any other European country because of the limiting temperature factor. The collection includes varieties and accessions from 32 countries with different geographic origins (Table 2). In a first stage, the collection of 199 accessions was fully studied on a taxonomic basis for 39 morphological and economic characters, including productivity, early maturity, resistance to diseases, adaptability to mechanized cultivation, reaction to local strains of root-noduling bacteria from the genus Rhizobium , reaction to herbicides applied in the agricultural practice, economically important traits of the pods and seeds, and chemical composition of the seeds. To distinguish the most promising accessions, as an initial material for breeding programme and production, the collection was quantitatively estimated by the 100-point system method, improved by Georgiev (1988). This method is based on the so-called 100-point system, a mechanism to assign a weighted value to accessions under investigation, in comparison with ideal accessions, varieties taken as standards, and parents of breeding material which possess all positive characteristics expressed at the highest degree, and are disease resistant. The estimation of the comparative value of the accessions under investigation is obtained by multiplying the values of their phenotypic expression of the traits, with weighted values (points) ranging from 0 to 100, according to the economic importance of the crop. The variation of some quantitative traits in different taxonomic varieties under temperate climate is determined by a coefficient of variation. With the aim to assist plant breeding, the relations between quantitative traits and between these and the yield, according to the taxonomic variety, are determined by correlation and path coefficients (Georgiev 1988(Georgiev , 1994)). During the last few years a new direction was included: resistance to carbonate chlorosis, caused by lack of iron in carbonate soil with pH above 7.On the basis of the taxonomic investigation of the groundnut collection in IIPGR-Sadovo, the following conclusions were drawn and are taken in account for groundnut introduction and breeding:1. Under temperate climate conditions (central and south Bulgaria), the accessions of subsp.fastigiata var. fastigiata 'Valencia' type are the highest yielding with an average pod yield of 2924 kg/ha. During the study period the highest yields of the best 'Valencia' type varieties reached 4984 kg/ha, but no accessions produced more than 'Sadovo 2609' and 'Kalina' (controls). The accessions of 'Spanish type' rank second with an average yield of 2834 kg/ha, the highest yield being 4676 kg/ha. Varieties of subsp. hypogaea are low yielding: the pod yield of 'Virginia Bunch' is 1869 kg/ha and that of 'Virginia spreading' type 1692 kg/ha. 2. The vegetation period of the accessions of 'Valencia' and 'Spanish' types under the conditions in Sadovo averages 136 days, and those of 'Virginia' types ('Virginia Bunch' and 'Virginia spreading') 156 days. Under our climatic conditions they do not complete their vegetation cycle and a large part of pods and seeds do not mature before the first frost. For this reason, the accessions of this subspecies are less productive under our climatic conditions in spite of their higher productive potential. For the same reason, only a few accessions are maintained in the collection, since their reproduction and preservation in field conditions involve a high risk of losses, and their cultivation in greenhouse is very expensive. 3. The accessions of 'Virginia' type are more resistant to diseases (Fusarium sp., Sclerotinia arachidis, Phyllosticta arachidis, Oidium arachidis) than those of subsp. fastigiata. Within subsp. fastigiata, the 'Spanish' type is more sensitive than the 'Valencia' type. This character varies widely between the cultivars of 'Valencia' and 'Spanish' types, and less for 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Virginia spreading' types. In each botanical group there are cultivars with good resistance and others with high sensitivity to the mentioned diseases.An estimation of the reaction of the varieties to these diseases is carried out according to a 1-5 point system and they are classified into groups. In this respect, under the conditions of temperate climate, all resistant accessions from subsp. fastigiata are more suitable as breeding material because they have a shorter vegetation period than those of 'Virginia' type and because the long vegetation period in the hybrid generations has a dominant inheritance. 4. The accessions of both taxonomic subspecies of groundnuts do not show specific reaction to herbicides. This conclusion assisted us in further work and this aspect was eliminated in the following investigations with new accessions. 5. The accessions of subsp. hypogaea ('Virginia' type) generally show better affinity with local strains of Rhizobium and the yield increase with root-noduling bacteria averages 14.8%, whereas for subsp. fastigiata it is 7.8%. Moreover, the level of reaction has been established for each botanical variety, showing that some varieties increase their yield by 24.2%, while others show little or no effect. 6. Varieties of subsp. fastigiata and botanical type 'Virginia Bunch' are suitable for mechanized cultivation, owing to their erect habit (respectively score 1.8 and 2.6) and compact distribution of the pods around the crop root. Those of 'Virginia spreading' type are unsuitable because of their spreading habit (score 4.9). 7. The varieties of subsp. fastigiata surpass those of subsp. hypogaea for some economic traits.The ripe pods of the first subspecies average 72.5%, against 59.2% for the second. The average rate of seed shelling is 67.5% in subsp. fastigiata and 60% in subsp. hypogaea. The seeds of the varieties of subsp. hypogaea are bigger than those of subsp. fastigiata, with a 1000-seed weight of 619 g against 416.4 for 'Valencia' type and 361.4 g for 'Spanish' type. 8. The fat and protein contents in the seeds of the varieties of subsp. fastigiata are 50.4% and 28.6% respectively, while for subsp. hypogaea they are 46.9% and 26.7% respectively. 9. Because of the long vegetative period and high percentage of unripe pods under the Bulgarian climatic conditions, the varieties of subsp. hypogaea develop a bad flavour. They are not suitable for production and can be used only as groundnut breeding material.These conclusions have been confirmed by the last investigations with the new accessions. The results of these investigations have been presented as part of a Doctor of Science Thesis (Georgiev 1988) and are successfully used in groundnut breeding in Bulgaria (Georgiev 1994).Owing to the limiting temperature factor, groundnut is grown only on a small scale in other countries of southern and southeastern Europe (Italy, Greece, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania and Hungary), which also maintain a limited number of accessions. In connection with the future development of the groundnut collection in Europe, it is necessary that a Central Crop Database be established in the framework of the ECP/GR Working Group on Grain Legumes in order to support breeding work in these countries. Bulgaria is situated at the centre of the Balkan Peninsula and is able to set up and maintain this database.Collection/conservation Accessions (n=101) of the local variety of faba bean (Vicia faba L. var. major), which is still the main variety grown, were collected in 1980 from different areas of Cyprus (Della 1980). Twenty-eight accessions of the local varieties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), 12 of ochrus vetch [Lathyrus ochrus (L.), DC.] and 19 of lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) were collected during a multicrop collection mission in 1984 (Della 1984). Six accessions of haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and eight accessions of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) were collected during 1990 (Della 1995(Della , 1996(Della , 1997)).Germplasm is stored at the National (CYPARI) Genebank at 0-4 o C and 50% RH in laminated foil bags. Duplicates were sent to several institutions. Viability tests are carried out regularly and regeneration of the material is carried out when necessary.Lathyrus ochrus (L.) DC. and Lens culinaris have been recorded in the wild (Meikle 1977). Seed has not been collected, as yet, from the wild to be conserved in the National Genebank and no measures have been taken for their conservation in situ.A database was created to record the conservation and regeneration/multiplication of the germplasm collection in the National Genebank using Microsoft Access version 2.0. The fields used are: accession number (accno), line number (line no), species, previous regeneration, last regeneration, weight (g), other information. The total number of records so far is 11 394 (7987 records of Triticum durum collection and 3407 of Hordeum vulgare). The computerization of seed stock data concerning the grain legumes collection will follow. In addition, the passport data of Triticum durum, Hordeum vulgare, Vicia faba, Vicia sativa, Vicia ervilia, Lathyrus ochrus, Lathyrus sativus, Lens culinaris, Cicer arietinum, Pisum sativum and Amygdalus communis were computerized.The passport information concerning grain legumes was forwarded to the European databases.The collection of broad bean (101 accessions) was grown during 1980-82 under irrigation and under rain-fed conditions for characterization/preliminary evaluation.In total, 38 descriptors were studied. The local cultivar was not uniform for a number of characters such as grain size and shape, earliness, grain yield, plant height, protein content, etc. The results of this study as well as the collecting data and the variation present were reported by Della (1986Della ( , 1988)).Selected Cyprus germplasm was tested in yield trials, 1981-87, under both irrigated and dryland conditions. Significant differences in the agronomic traits studied, such as grain yield, 1000-grain weight, time to flowering, plant height and protein content, were detected among accessions. A high-yielding, early flowering and large-seeded population of the local cultivar was recommended and released to farmers (Della 1990).Characterization/evaluation has not as yet been carried out on other leguminous crops conserved in the National Genebank.Between 1993 and 1997, grain legume production in the Czech Republic decreased from 90 110 ha to 49 630 ha (Table 1). This decrease was due to economic reasons: grain legumes could not compete with cereals in yield stability and market prices. However the harvested area increased to 58 148 ha (17%) in 1998 (Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic 1997). The low quality and quantity of seed material, resulting from poor weather conditions during maturity and harvest periods in the main production centres last year, prevented further increase.Pea, the most important grain legume species in the Czech Republic, contributed a great deal to this increase. It is commonly grown on 90% of the grain legumes area, the other species (beans, lentil, faba bean, vetch) taking approximately 10%. Peas are mostly grown for dry seeds, rich in proteins, and about 75-80% of the production is exported. Only 10% of the total pea production is used for fodder and the rest is seed material and reserve.Despite the high yield potential of beans, the current yield is not satisfactory. Beans are very sensitive to poor growing conditions and profitability is dependent on high investments in harvesting technology. Given the high imports of beans, their production could be increased to 600-700 t but owing to limiting soil and climatic conditions the area cultivated under this crop cannot be increased further.Lentil is much appreciated in the traditional Czech diet, but its soil, climatic and technology requirements limit its production, as for beans.Although faba bean and other species (vetch, chickpea) are traditional species in the Czech Republic, their production decreased rapidly during recent years. Their varieties have the highest yield potential of all grain legume species grown in the Czech Republic. They require a high level of technology, and their sensitivity to the existing climate and high sensitivity to chemical treatments result in an average yield of 2 t/ha.The grain legume breeding programme based on national germplasm started in 1952. Several good varieties (e.g. 'Bohatyr', 'Smaragd', 'Duel') were bred and registered in many countries. The Czech national grain legume collections were established at the same time as the breeding programme The collections include genetic resources which are important for breeders and for preservation of biodiversity.The activities of the Czech national grain legume collections are coordinated by the \"National Programme for Saving Biodiversity\", financially supported by the government. Passport and characterization data are fully computerized and available. The collections include a total of 4384 accessions belonging to seven genera, representing 11% of the total national germplasm holdings. Grain legume holdings are listed in Table 2. Introduction, characterization, regeneration, evaluation and documentation of new accessions are carried out on the basis of \"Frame Methods\", which are updated every 4 years. New material is obtained through collaboration with different foreign and Czech institutes, genebanks, universities and seed production companies. Expeditions for the collecting of wild species are organized, particularly in natural reserves.Germplasm collections include Czech original landraces, old and recent varieties, wild forms collected in expeditions. They contain accessions from Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia.New seed samples are multiplied in glasshouse or small plots. During multiplication, the health status is observed and a preliminary characterization is made. Evaluation and regeneration of accessions are carried out in trial plots (6 m 2 ). Regeneration of the accessions stored in short-term conditions is done every 4 years to maintain the germinative ability. The accessions of Pisum spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Glycine max and Cicer arietinum are characterized for approximately 30-35 morphological traits, using the EVIGEZ Descriptor lists (scale 1-9). Descriptor lists are defined according to COMECON standards and were established and updated on the basis of consultation with grain legume breeders. A descriptor list was developed for Lupinus (Hýbl and Faberová 2000). Vicia and Lathyrus accessions will be evaluated on the basis of Lists of selected descriptors which are part of the EVIGEZ database description system.Passport and characterization data are held in the database information system EVIGEZ, managed under FoxPro. Passport data are fully computerized and freely available.The main objective of plant genetic resources work is to contribute to the understanding of genetic variation and its conservation. In the Czech Republic, priority was given to the collecting, evaluation and conservation of the species utilized in breeding programmes. The results of studies undertaken on the collections are regularly presented in scientific articles or annual reports.The strategy of the \"National Programme for Saving Biodiversity\" is to collect the widest possible biodiversity and ensure long-term conservation of collections important for plant breeding in the Czech Republic and elsewhere. Considering that all passport data are computerized and continuously updated, the main activities at present are regeneration and storage of the germplasm under controlled conditions. Long-term storage facilitates dedicating more activities to evaluation and detailed study of the collection. In a first step, morphological evaluation of germplasm is undertaken. Polyacrylamide electrophoresis is used for more detailed evaluation and a catalogue of morphological and electrophoresis identification has been published (Pošvec and Griga 1997;Samec et al. 1998). It is planned to complete regeneration during the next 2 years and focus afterwards on detailed germplasm evaluation. Characterization and evaluation of the genus Pisum (Pavelkova e t al. 1986), Phaseolus (Hornakova et al. 1991), Glycine (Pastucha et al. 1987) and Cicer (Hýbl et al. 1998) are carried out on the basis of national descriptor lists. A Descriptor list was developed for Lupinus and Lists of selected descriptors were generated for Vicia and Lathyrus. The lists will be derived partly from the UPOV, IPGRI and COMECON descriptor lists.The agreement on safety-duplication seems to be very useful. Storage of the rarest Czech germplasm in the Slovak genebank increases its safety and opens possibilities for further collaboration. Under the frame of BRG (Bureau des Ressources Génétiques), a general agreement called Charte linking the different institutions has been established. It defines the sharing of responsibilities and guidelines for genetic resources conservation for a National Collection (= French core collection), in addition to (or in parallel with) the working collections used for breeding purposes by INRA and the different private societies. Our collections are renewed in field situations for pea and lupin and under isolation from insects for faba bean. Seeds are kept in low-humidity cold rooms (3°C) and sometimes under laboratory conditions for the short-term collections. There is no safety-duplicate at -20°C at present, but the BRG Charte foresees such maintenance conditions.Characterization of faba bean genetic resources has stopped with the arrest of breeding programmes. Characterization of pea genetic resources is managed by a group of coordinated INRA laboratories.Following the termination of Vicia faba breeding programmes, the related faba bean working collection will soon be added to the present 2000 accessions. No conclusion is presently proposed for the future availability of this breeding material for users outside INRA.Our Web site is being prepared and will be available for access in the near future. It is planned to transfer the Gatersleben collection of Glycine to Hungary in 1999. Limited quantities of each accession, i.e. safety-duplicates, should remain and even be reproduced at the IPK genebank because soyabeans are one of the oldest, traditional model plants of the Institute since its foundation. Increasing cross-pollination might occur in southern countries. The BAZ genebank in the past mainly assumed responsibility for the long-term maintenance of collections received from many institutions in Germany and abroad. The figures therefore represent accessions with known collection data. The rest comes from other sources.Regarding technology at IPK Genebank, see Diederichsen and Hammer 1996. Regarding storage strategy at BAZ Genebank, see Bücken and Frese 1998. No further progress.• Collecting missions since 1995 The former genebank of West Germany in Braunschweig (Lower Saxony) has been established as a service unit and integrated element of breeding research and commercial plant breeding (Bommer 1972). Furthermore this genebank worked as an information and germplasm acquisition centre, which resumed responsibility for the long-term maintenance of collections received from many institutions in Germany and abroad. In principle this genebank functioned as an outsourcing facility which managed seed collections and data sets linked with it for the benefit of research institutes and breeders. Therefore the BAZ genebank is organizing collecting missions mainly in cooperation with other institutions. Joint missions regarding the collection of grain legumes have not been carried out since 1995.• Planned collecting missions There are no collecting missions planned on grain legumes.• Collecting missions since 1995 1995: Albania, Spain, Central Asia, Turkey, Morocco, Italy. 1996: Spain, Israel, Canada, Albania, Italy, Croatia. 1997: Croatia, Italy. 1998: Bulgaria.• Planned collecting missions Italy, Albania, South Korea. Fundamental taxonomic researchSince 1996 there are no publications available on classical taxonomic research on cultivated grain legume species. This is the consequence of a stagnation (BGRC) or a remarkable loss in personal resources at the scientist and technician levels (IPK). The availability of limited technical expertise bears the danger of a latent genetic erosion in genebanks.The Netherlands (CGN), Wageningen, The NetherlandsThe collection consists of 1803 accessions of the grain legumes Pisum, Vicia faba and Lupinus (Table 1). The collection was established in 1985 and most of the material originated from the former Foundation for Agricultural Plant Breeding (SVP); however some accessions of consumption peas were received from the former Institute for Horticultural Plant Breeding (IVT) (van Hintum and van Soest 1997). Lately the Pisum, the Vicia faba and to a small extent the Lupinus collections were extended with material from the Centre for Plant Breeding and Reproduction Research (CPRO-DLO) and accessions received from several breeding companies in The Netherlands (van Soest and Boukema 1995). Furthermore some landraces from two East European genebanks were included. The grain legume collection does not have a high priority in the CGN system and receives less emphasis. The collection consists mainly of material of P. sativum. Only a few wild species, including P. abyssinicum, P. arvense and P. elatius are available (Table 1). The 25 accessions described as \"Pisum (unknown)\" are primitive forms of P. sativum and probably some unidentified wild species. The collection includes over 341 landraces, 53 of which originate from Europe including three from The Netherlands ('Grauwe erwt', 'Noord-Hollandse Rozijnenerwt' and 'Wijker Vale'). The other European landraces are mainly from eastern and southern Europe. More than 250 landraces originate from the centres of origin in Asia (168) and Africa (88). This material is rather primitive and not well adapted to north European conditions. It includes nearly 150 accessions from Pakistan and Ethiopia, material collected with Dutch participation (Hashmi et al. 1981). The cultivars (448) form the greater part of the collection and consist of dry peas for animal feed and peas for human consumption. The latter group includes over 140 cultivars. Most of the cultivars are of European origin while a limited number is obtained from North America and Australia. In addition there are 91 accessions classified as research material, particularly from Europe and the USA. The population type of a relatively large group of accessions is not defined, further updating may result in additional information on this group. Furthermore the country of origin of 248 accessions is not known.The faba bean collection consists of 726 accessions of the cultivated species V. faba. There are 393 landraces in the collection, largely from Asia (188) and Africa (114). These landraces were collected in the centres of origin of the faba bean, particularly in a number of countries of the Middle East such as Syria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and Turkey. Also present are 78 landraces from the centre of diversity in Ethiopia. Only 54 landraces from Europe are found in the collection, including the old Dutch landrace 'Oldambster'. The faba bean collection includes 228 cultivars. The accessions are mainly from Europe (195), particularly from The Netherlands (49), Germany (60), United Kingdom (20), France ( 16) and Russia (11). Some old Dutch cultivars presented in the collection are 'Mansholt's Wierboon' (1892), 'Adrie ' (1919) and 'Wierboon C.B' (1931). Only a few cultivars from Asia, Africa and America are present in the collection. Ten accessions belong to the population type 'research material'. The country of origin and the population type of, respectively, 58 and 95 accessions are not known.This small collection includes only 69 accessions of the species L. albus and L. luteus (Table 1).In the collection there are only two landraces from eastern Europe and 19 cultivars from The Netherlands, Germany and Poland. The other material mainly consists of research material of the former Foundation for Plant Breeding (SVP) and Poland (van Soest and Boukema 1995).Faba beans and lupins are regenerated in plots spatially isolated in winter rye fields with a distance of approximately 50 m between the plots. The size of the plots is 8 m 2 , and normally 200 seeds are sown directly in the field. In the case of pea, 100 seeds per accession are sown against a fence, directly in the field without isolation. During the growing season the accessions are monitored both visually and by means of serological tests for Pea Seed-borne Mosaic Virus (PSMV). Plants positive for PSMV are removed entirely. Nearly all material listed in Table 1 has been regenerated and is available to bona fide users. During regeneration, accessions of P. sativum and V. faba are characterized for 14 and 13 different agromorphological traits respectively, using CGN minimal descriptor lists (Dijkstra and van Soest 1986). The lists are partly derived from the IPGRI and UPOV descriptor lists and were developed after consultation with several grain legume breeders in The Netherlands. Presently 7700 characterization data of Pisum and over 8300 data of V. faba are included in the information system GENIS (van Soest and Boukema 1995).Prof. J. Kraft (USDA-ARS, Prosser WA, USA) evaluated several Pisum accessions of Pakistan for resistance against three diseases (Fusarium solani f.sp. pisi, race 2 of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi and Aphanomyces euteiches). The evaluation data are included in GENIS.The two Lupinus species have only been characterized for two traits: plant type and flower colour.The 1803 accessions of the different grain legumes are all documented for passport data in GENIS, an information system based on the database management system ORACLE (van Hintum 1989). The passport data of some accessions are not complete. There is a lack of data for the landraces of P. sativum and V. faba, collected in the centres of origin in Asia and Africa (Ethiopia). Further updating of the passport data of the Pisum collection started in 1998 and will be completed in the near future. Thereafter a new set of passport data will be sent to the respective European Grain Legume Database.Since April 1998 data of most CGN collections can be found on CGN's Web site (<http://www.plant.wageningen-ur.nl/about/Biodiversity/Cgn>).Presently only information on passport data is accessible and can be searched on-line or downloaded via Internet.After regeneration the seeds are cleaned and dried to a moisture content of 5-7°C. The seeds are packed in laminated aluminium foil bags and stored at -20°C for long-term storage. The users' samples are, however, stored in medium-term storage conditions at 4°C.Eighty percent of the collection is stored for safety-duplication in the HRI Genebank at Wellesbourne, UK, at -20°C. Some recently regenerated material also needs to be duplicated.Since 1988 CGN has distributed 894 accessions of Pisum to users in The Netherlands and abroad. During the same period 142 accessions of V. faba and 11 of Lupinus were distributed. Users are supplied with 50 seeds and additional information on the requested material. The safety-duplicates of NGB material are stored in the permafrost store in an abandoned coal mine on Svalbard. On average 57% of our material is safety-duplicated; the remaining material will be included as soon as it is justified for long-term storage.Presently our Nordic working groups on vegetables and legumes are active in three projects on genebank material: WG5 26Multiplication and characterization of pea accessions WG6 FI:3Composite cross populations of peas WG6 FI:2Collection, multiplication and characterization of farmers varieties.Peas are germinated individually in peat pots, and transplanted to a pathogen-free field nethouse when the risk of frost is over. For each accession, 75-150 plants are grown without isolation between accessions. High-growing accessions are supported by poles and wires.During the cultivation, standard plant protection is carried out and plants infected with PSMV (Pea Seed-borne Mosaic Virus) are immediately removed to reduce spread of the virus.Accessions are evaluated for 38 characters during cultivation using genetic descriptors (Blixt 1972(Blixt , 1975(Blixt , 1977)); seeds are harvested in bulk and using type selection.Beans are germinated in a similar way and cultivated in greenhouse in order to extend the growing season. Recently, fewer plants (30-40) were used because of limited availability. UPOV (1979) descriptors are used for characterization of the material.NGB accessions are stored in a base collection and the active collection at -20°C after drying to 5-10% moisture (FAO/IPGRI 1994). The safety-storage is subject to natural conditions at -4°C. Generally, we store 4000 viable seeds in the base collection, 10 000 in the active collection and 500 in the safety-store.Estaç±o Agronómica Nacional, Quinta do Marquês, Oeiras, PortugalThe activity of the Portuguese grain legume germplasm collections for the last 3 years is presented in Table 1. It can be observed that the number of accessions collected was reduced, but the number of accessions characterized and evaluated is significant, with 382 accessions collected, mainly of the genus Lupinus; 875 accessions were characterized for morphological traits and 30 for molecular traits, while 408 were evaluated.Table 2 represents the status of the safety-duplication of the Portuguese grain legume germplasm collections. It can be noticed that 26% of the total accessions stored are safetyduplicated. Although this figure is relatively low, it represents an effort of the last 3 years and work continues in order to duplicate all accessions maintained in all collections existing in the country. Around 30 collecting missions were undertaken in 10 years of Suceava Genebank's activity. During these missions, 76 ecological areas were explored in 35 Romanian districts, resulting in 5113 accessions of which 1803 samples belong to grain legume species (Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum L., Vicia faba L. and Vigna sinensis L.). The distribution of collected grain legume resources in the main districts is shown in Figure 1. The Suceava district was noted as having the greatest variability in Phaseolus sp., concerning seed size and shape, hilum colour, seed basic and pattern colours, seed pattern kind and protein content.In some districts of the north of Bucovina, Maramures and Apuseni Mountains, old varieties of beans, peas, faba beans and lentils are still cultivated in individual gardens. The reasons why these primitive cultivars are used by peasants in the respective areas are: tradition, perfect adaptation to the pedo-climatic conditions and, last but not least, lack of financial resources to buy modern varieties. All the material collected by the Genebank's team is represented by landraces or old varieties.Regeneration is carried out when seed viability decreases below 80%, and multiplication when seed stock is under 1000 seeds. Both activities being very expensive, about 80% of accessions need either regeneration or multiplication. The capacities in terms of space and staff are sufficient while funds are limited. Old and freshly regenerated material is conserved separately. Characterization and evaluation of grain legume accessions are done for a limited number of samples because of the high cost of these activities. A descriptor list based on IPGRI descriptors completed by descriptors of interest to breeders is used for evaluation.  In the first 10 years of activity, grain legume genetic resources have been introduced in conservation in the following three main ways:• collection (1803 accessions)• acquisition of working collections from various institutions (904 accessions)• exchange with partner institutes worldwide (19 accessions).This material, numbering about 2726 accessions belonging to 14 species, is kept as an active collection. The bean collection, with its vast number of samples, is regarded as one of the most valuable sets of accessions (Table 2). The collection of grain legumes in VIR was initiated in the 1920s. It is remarkable as being very representative of the world diversity of cultivated plants and their wild relatives.The main objectives of the Institute since the early times have been exchange, preservation and evaluation of the world germplasm of crops and their wild relatives used in national breeding programmes.Recently, the funding of scientific activities in Russia has been considerably limited owing to the transition period and the changed priorities in the activities at VIR. One of the main problems is currently the need to regenerate the entire collection. This is especially necessary for the samples of southern origin, as VIR no longer owns some experimental stations based in former Soviet Republics in the south.The objective of the Institute's activities at this stage is to save the germplasm with the creation of a duplicate set of accessions for storage in refrigerators. At present more than half of the collection is duplicated in refrigerators at the headquarters in St. Petersburg and about two-thirds at the National Seed Store in Kuban, near the city of Krasnodar.The collection of seeds, including genetic stocks collections of pea and soyabean, comprises 43 853 accessions. It contains 13 genera and 146 species of Fabaceae: pea, soyabean, vetch, lupin, faba bean, lentil, chickpea, cowpea, mung bean, common bean, and some species of tropical legumes (Cajanus, Cyamopsis, Dolichos, Cannavalia) (Table 1). Because of financial constraints, field multiplication in the near future has to be reduced (Table 2). For many years the evaluation of the collection has been carried out in the frame of a network of experimental stations covering several different geographical areas. At present this activity has been reduced. Evaluation of new accessions and screening of the collection for the main traits are being carried out without the possibility to compare data obtained in such a wide range of different ecological/geographical conditions as was the case before.The germplasm evaluation starts in the field with the evaluation of agronomic traits. Afterwards, in collaboration with the research laboratories and other institutes, evaluation of the following main characters is carried out: chemical composition, resistance to diseases, pests, soil acidity, drought, cold, nitrogen-fixing ability. The objective is to find sources of genes that can help solve the \"bottle-neck\" problems of grain legume breeding for different regions of the country. For every crop, the traits related to time of maturity and high productivity are always being investigated as a rule. For every crop the most important specific characteristics are evaluated. For instance, for pea, priorities are the sources of resistance to Aphanomyces root rot, Ascochyta pisi, Mycospherella pinodes, Bruchus pisorum the lima-bean pod borer, spring drought, as well as the traits for afila leaf type, high efficiency of nitrogen fixation, non-shattering pods and small seeds. For soyabean, priority is given to samples with neutral reaction to photoperiod, cold resistance, with a high efficiency of nitrogen fixation, good seed quality, high height of the first pod, resistance to diseases. For lupin, stable and low content in alkaloids, determinate branching, resistance to Fusarium wilt and high efficiency of nitrogen fixation are very important. For vetch, material with cold resistance before flowering, leaflets fall before maturation, resistance to root rot and good seed quality are the most desirable. As a result all curators have at their disposal \"working collections\" for the main regions where the crop is cultivated. In addition, \"trait collections\" are created for prebreeding work. At present in VIR some \"donors\" of valuable genes as well as new varieties have been created.New varieties• Faba bean var. Virowskie: highly productive, cold resistant, tasty, with white flowers and yellowish seeds. 100-seed weight: 86-120 g. Period of maturation: 88-106 days. • Lupinus polyphyllus var. Pervenetz: low alkaloid content with early maturing seeds. For regions with limited warmth. Long-living, cold resistant, not too demanding regarding soil fertility. Green mass yield 40-60 t/ha, seed yield 0.8-1.5 t/ha.• Pea -hybrid lines F 5-6: highly productive, with sugary pod, non-shattering, determinate growth. Donors of the genes p, v, def, det. Period of maturation 76-85 days. For breeding grain fodder varieties. • Common vetch -mutant lines: with high seed productivity (15-17 pods/plant), seeds, leaflets fall before maturity. For breeding of grain forage early maturing varieties.• Phaseolus -mutant early maturing lines: determinate growth, with early maturing seeds (80-90, 85-95 days). For breeding of vegetable and grain varieties. • Soyabean -cold resistant soyabean lines (\"northern ecotype\") are bred. Period of maturity 90-100 days, resistant to cold soil.In situ conservation priorities are being discussed and in the process of being implemented. The list of wild relatives of cultivated species in Russia is being established and preliminary recommendations for their conservation in situ have been made.At present the databases contain the passport and conservation data. The coverage of evaluation data is still incomplete in the databases.The first version of the full passport database of VIR grain legume collection is available on-line at <http://www.dainet.de/genres/vir/data/dbf.htm>. New data are being added as new accessions are entered into the collection.Data for Phaseolus, Cicer, Pisum, Lupinus and Glycine have been included in Central Crop Databases. Lens and faba bean data will be sent for inclusion in the European databases later on.Seed material is available for breeding programmes and for scientists, both within the country and abroad. Every year several sets of seed are sent to national breeding centres throughout the country according to requests. On the other hand, breeders supply VIR with their own new varieties.International activities concern joint evaluation and exchange of seed samples. Every year many requests from foreign genebanks and users are fulfilled (Table 3). Sometimes the requests regard the repatriation of accessions to their countries of origin. Germplasm distribution abroad: Syria, Australia, Spain, Germany, Japan, France, Republic of Korea, USA, Ukraine, Israel, Canada and others.Germplasm introduction: USA, Syria, Germany, France and others. Now the large set of accessions originated from arid regions is being evaluated in Mediterranean nurseries of Syria, Ethiopia and Australia in the frame of a joint project with ICARDA-CLIMA.    Seed management information also describes the physical location of seed in the storage. The structure of the storage table is presented in Table 4 (identical for long-term and for active collections).Monitoring of viability is planned after 10 years for the base collection and after 5 yea rs for the active collection.Characterization/evaluation data are not stored for all accessions. More than 30 descriptors have been developed for the most important crops. However, new proposals for the improvement of the list of descriptors are being submitted, in order to be able to also maintain quantitative data and biochemical or, as the case may be, molecular characteristics.   We are currently preparing a new proposal for a PGR project in accordance with the Global Plan of Action. We have no experience concerning on-farm conservation, but we plan to develop this kind of activity in the future. There is currently no in situ conservation of grain legume genetic resources in our region.Slovenia belongs to the Mediterranean and to the European centres of diversity. Slovenia could be considered as a gene centre for some Brassicaceae (cabbage, turnip), Alliaceae (onion, garlic), Asteraceae (lettuce, chicory), Valerianaceae (corn lettuce) and some fruit and grapevine species, grasses, clovers, medicinal and aromatic plants. Crop relatives such as Mycelis muralis, Lactuca serriola and Cichorium intybus of the Asteraceae can be found in the wild. Owing to the presence of extensive grassland area in Slovenia, many different ecotypes of grasses and clovers can be found. Many landraces also appear in crops which were introduced more than a century ago from other parts of the world. From America, maize, beans and potato were spread at the time of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. In the different ecological conditions of Slovenia, farmers selected a lot of different populations adapted to the less favourable growing conditions.Early projects to collect Slovenian autochthonous populations, ecotypes and landraces of agricultural species with the goal of breeding new and improved cultivars were initiated about 35 years ago. In the former Yugoslavia, during the late 1980s, a programme started with the task to collect plant genetic resources for the Yugoslav Genebank. After the independence of Slovenia, the Slovenian Ministry of Science and Technology supported the genebank of vegetables, potato, fodder plants, grasses, clovers, small fruits and grapevine from 1992 to 1994. In 1996 the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food started financing the Slovene Genebank programme with the aim of maintenance, evaluation, regeneration and preservation of Slovenian autochthonous species, ecotypes, populations and landraces of agricultural plants.The germplasm collection at the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia is one of the three working collections within the Slovene genebank system. This is a fairly large ex situ collection of lettuce, onions, cabbage, winter wheat, grasses and clovers, small fruit, grapevine and grain legumes. The grain legume collection consists of 1051 accessions of Phaseolus and Vicia faba (Table 1). Seed samples and passport data were obtained with the assistance of local elementary and agricultural schools, Agricultural Advisory Service, newspaper ads and farmers. Most of the people who sent us samples filled out a questionnaire which gave us, besides the passport data, some additional information on local names and growing practices. All accessions were inspected, sorted and numbered. Through that action we received 852 accessions by the end of 1995. However, because of the inappropriate storage facilities, some of the samples were destroyed by insects and some completely lost their germinative ability. In 1996 about 100 additional samples were obtained in a repeated action. At present we are continuing the effort of broadening the grain legume collection with other species.All grain legume accessions are well documented for IPGRI minimum passport descriptors, although some minor gaps exist. Recently an initiative was taken to establish an information and database management system for the Slovenian Genebank. Because most information is available for these species, bean and faba bean collections will serve as pilot databases.To maximize the useful genetic diversity, new accessions are assayed according to morphological, agronomic and ecological characteristics and molecular data are also efficiently used for this purpose. A subsample of the Slovenian Phaseolus germplasm collection was compared with a group of tester accessions representing the Andean and Mesoamerican genepools. A group of Slovenian accessions revealed a fair amount of distinctness from both, representing a possible set of unique germplasm.Evaluation of the faba bean collection showed that most accessions appea red to be of equina type, one of minor and the rest of major type.In F.R. Yugoslavia, three species of grain legumes share a total acreage of 106 000 ha: soyabeans are grown on 70 000 ha, beans on 24 000 ha and peas on 12 000 ha. The area under grain legumes represents only 2.2% of the total agricultural land of 4 867 000 ha. Although they are valuable sources of relatively inexpensive nutrients, grain legumes take an undeservedly small portion of the total agricultural production in Yugoslavia when compared with other countries. In addition, the Yugoslav production of grain legumes is limited to a small number of species.A short history of collecting, studying and conserving grain legume genetic resources Work on the collection, classification, partial evaluation and conservation of some species of grain legumes started within the framework of a project initiated by the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes (BBGJ). In the period 1989-92, the programme included the following grain legumes: Glycine, Phaseolus, Pisum, Vicia faba, Lupinus, Cicer and Lens. The material under study originated from active collections of research institutes and seed companies of the former Yugoslavia.Within the framework of the National Programme, 20 regional expeditions were organized with the aim of collecting and conserving the existing genetic variability. Collecting and partial characterization in accordance with (IBPGR) IPGRI descriptors were carried out by breeders and botanists from research institutes.In its final form, the information system of the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes (YUGB) included data on 542 samples of grain legumes (Table 1).After the break-up of the former Yugoslavia, portions of grain legume samples were either preserved in former Republics or were destroyed if they happened to be passing the regeneration phase in war-infested zones. Current status of the grain legume samples in F.R. Yugoslavia From the number of samples given above, the national collection of the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes presently includes only samples of Glycine (60) and Phaseolus (290). The samples are stored in chambers for mid-term storage at +4ºC, rented from the Maize Research Institute in Zemun Polje. In the period 1996-97, 20 Glycine samples and 68 Phaseolus samples were regenerated. The overall activity of the Gene Bank is considerably reduced owing to financial difficulties at national level. It had been planned for the Yugoslav Bank of Plant Genes to cover 5500 m 2 and to have a storage capacity for 100 000 samples. These storehouses were planned to be equipped for long-term storage at -20ºC, for additional safety of the stored samples. However, the construction of the Gene Bank, which started in 1990, is not yet completed.Work on the characterization of samples has not been completed and data are not available to potential users. A possibility of duplication cannot be ruled out in spite of the small size of the national collection of grain legumes.No funding can be provided to organize regional expeditions for collecting populations and old varieties. This is an unfortunate situation, considering the biodiversity and genetic variability of the flora of Yugoslavia. The flora of F.R. Yugoslavia makes 1.7% of the total world flora while the area of the country takes only 0.035% of the total dry land. The territory of Yugoslavia is floristically rich, with a high diversity of species (e.g. Fabaceae: 313).The situation is much better in the active collection of research institutes. There are six institutes in Yugoslavia engaged in the study, maintenance and breeding of grain legumes (Table 2). In most institutes, active collections are kept in chambers for mid-term storage (+4ºC). Each sample has, or should have, complete passport data. Before being stored, seed viability and moisture content are measured. Viability is periodically monitored and when it drops below 70% the sample is regenerated by sowing in the field. As a rule, sample size is not in agreement with the IPGRI requirement. It varies depending on how frequently a sample is used by breeders. Furthermore, the characterization of samples in most cases has not been done according to the IPGRI descriptors.The current situation and the number of samples in the active collections (Table 3) indicate the necessity of another round of collecting for the needs of the national collection (BBGJ). Before embarking on that project, however, it is necessary to check the existing documentation of the active collections, in order to avoid duplication of samples in the national collection. The cultivation of winter grain legumes -faba bean, chickpea, lupin and lentil -has dramatically decreased in Italy during the last 40 years. At the beginning of the 1950s approximately 817 000 ha of grain legumes were cultivated, 82% of which were in the southern and insular parts of Italy. Later, the cultivation of these crops showed a progressive and continuous decrease, until it reached 94 000 ha, 84% of which were only faba bean cultures.There are multiple causes for this decrease of interest in legume cultivation: unstable yields, lack of mechanization of the main cultural practices (sowing, weeding and harvesting), lack of interest in the consumption of such simple food in our society and, particularly for faba bean, the decline in the number of horses which were the main consumers of this legume in our country. Moreover, until the mid-1970s, everywhere in the world and especially in Italy, there was a generalized lack of interest in agronomic and genetic research for legumes that had a strong negative impact on the cultivation of these crops.Surprisingly, while agronomic research slowed down worldwide, the demand for legumes on the Italian market increased, presumably because of a renewed interest in the Mediterranean diet and because of the use of legumes as sources of proteins, especially for the animal feed industry.To match the new demand and successfully reintroduce these grain legumes in Italy, in the mid-1970s the need of developing research activities aimed at obtaining high and stable yields and at making legume cultivation economically competitive with respect to other crops became evident. The agronomic advantages in increasing legume cultivation are multiple. These crops play an irreplaceable role as renewal crops because of their suitability for less favourable conditions and they are capable of improving soil fertility, especially in southern Italy, which is characterized by an arid or semi-arid climate and clay soils with no irrigation. Arable lands in these areas often undergo rotations of just a few crops, primarily durum wheat. As a matter of fact, between 1989 and 1991, wheat covered about 40% of the total arable land in the south. Moreover, legumes are capable of fixing nitrogen. This is particularly important nowadays when the cost of industrially produced nitrogen has increased, and public opinion is particularly sensitive to environmental pollution issues.On the basis of different projects supported by the Italian National Research Council, by the Agriculture Ministry and the Foreign Ministry, by the European Union and by the ENEA (Ente Nazionale Energie Alternative), several projects evaluating legume germplasm, designing more efficient harvesting techniques and innovative agronomic practices have been carried out.Owing to the breeding work carried out in the last 20 years, new varieties were added to the few ones previously registered in the National Variety list of the Italian Ministry of Agriculture (faba bean and pea for animal feeding). At the moment the National Variety list includes 8 varieties of faba bean, 13 varieties of pea, 6 new varieties of chickpea, 1 new variety of lupin, but none of lentil.Common bean is a traditional grain legume grown in Slovakia. During the last collecting missions in Slovakia, several tens of bean landraces were collected. They were studied for their morphological and agronomical characteristics and introduced into the bean collection. Nevertheless there is no or very limited information about their origin or pedigree, and moreover some of them possess similar or identical morphological traits. There is also a high probability that this set of landraces contains duplicates of commercial genotypes released or imported and grown in Slovakia in the last years.For differentiation and identification of bean genotypes, seed storage proteins and isozymes have been used as molecular markers (Gepts et al. 1986;Driedger et al. 1994). Nevertheless their polymorphism to differentiate individual genotypes is limited. Therefore different types of DNA markers have been used, more frequently RFLP (Stockton and Gepts 1994) and RAPD (Skroch and Nienhuis 1995;Fofana et al. 1997) markers. Their differentiation potential is higher. Analysis of satellite sequences have been used in population dynamic studies in humans, animals, and plants. Microsatellite-derived DNA probes for the study of variability in the genus Phaseolus were applied by Hamann et al. (1995). Stockton and Gepts (1994) tested minisatellite-derived and other hypervariable DNA probes to reveal polymorphism within the Phaseolus vulgaris genome. They concluded that not all hypervariable probes are equally useful for fingerprinting in Phaseolus vulgaris but specifically the M13 bacteriophage and 33.15 human probes were able to generate polymorphic hybridization patterns. To accelerate, improve and minimize time of analysis, a technique based on DNA amplification using simple sequence repeats-derived single primers was presented in studies of evolutionarily diverse genomes (Gupta et al. 1994).The present research had the following objectives: to differentiate 85 bean landraces and detect possible duplicates, and to determine the potential of satellite polymorphism to estimate genetic diversity in common bean.Eighty-five bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) landraces were obtained during collecting missions in different localities of Slovakia. The seeds of collected landraces were introduced into the bean collection and maintained in the Genebank of Slovak Republic, Piešt ïany.The genomic DNA of the analyzed genotypes was isolated by the method of Dellaporta et al. (1993) from leaves of young seedlings. The sample of each genotype represented a DNA collected from 10-15 individual plants. Seven primers derived from core sequences of microsatellites -(ACTG) 4 , (GACA) 4 , (ACAG) 4 , 5'-(GACAGATA) 2 -3' -and core sequences of minisatellites -M13 bacteriophage (5'-GAGGGTGGXGGXTCT-3'), 33.6 (5'-AGGGCTGGAGGAGGGC-3') and 33.15 (5'-AGAGGTGGGCAGGTGG-3') -were used for amplification. The PCR reactions were performed in 20-µl volumes. The programmes were as follows: 1 min at 94°C followed by 35 cycles each of 1 min at 94°C, 1 min at annealing temperature (each G/C = 4°C, each A/T = 2°C), 5 min at 72°C. Extension step in the last cycle was 8 min at 72°C. Amplification reactions contained 1x Taq-DNA polymerase buffer, 0.25 mM each of dNTP, 1 mM primer, 0.8 U Taq-DNA polymerase, and 25 ng DNA.The PCR reactions were performed in . Amplified PCR products were separated in 1.5% agarose gels and stained with ethidium bromide.Only unambiguous and intense bands were used for evaluation of generated DNA markers. The statistical analyses were performed using the statistics package software SPSS 8.0.1 (SPSS, Inc.).The analyzed landraces included variability in morphological characteristics of seed (shape, colour, coat pattern), plant (bush or climbing), colour of immature pods, and others. Nevertheless this is not sufficient to differentiate all landraces from each other and to determine their identity. Therefore a molecular approach was used to identify and distinguish a set of bean landraces. All four microsatellite-based primers and three primers derived from core sequences of human and M13 bacteriophage minisatellites were able to amplify reproducible, high polymorphic banding patterns. Microsatellite primers generated 2-4 polymorphic markers in the range of 600-1200 bp, minisatellite-based primers generated 5-9 polymorphic markers in the range of 260-1700 bp. The highest number of polymorphic markers (9) was generated by the minisatellite primer derived from M13 bacteriophage. As a result, it was possible to discriminate one from the other 85 landraces under analysis (Fig. 1).We conclude that microsatellite and minisatellite DNA markers could be very effective tools for the identification and differentiation of common bean genotypes. Moreover the PCR-based approach is very convenient to analyze genetic diversity and differentiate common bean genotypes.During the last EUCARPIA Symposium on breeding of protein and oil crops, held in April 1998 in Pontevedra (Spain), P. Gepts from the University of California showed that the domestic genepool of Phaseolus consists of two main geographic genepools, the Andean and the Mesoamerican, corresponding to the main domestication centres. In addition, an intermediate genepool was identified, distributed on the Pacific slope of the Andes in Ecuador and Northern Peru. Unlike the two major genepools, the latter contains only wild populations and was never introduced into cultivation. The intermediate nature of the third genepool could theoretically be the result of hybridizations of the two domesticated ones, or be attributed to common ancestry. The PCR-based survey of the distribution of tandem direct repeats in phaseolin genes shows that the only bean genotype lacking any of the surveyed repeats is the population of the intermediate group. This observation suggests that the intermediate population is the presumed ancestor of P. vulgaris.Starting from the Mesoamerican gene centre, P. vulgaris and P. coccineus were brought to Spain in the 16th century, in 1534 and 1550 respectively. Phaseolus bean was reported in Germany in 1594. It reached England and from there was brought back to North America. After 1500, Phaseolus spread over the Mediterranean part of Europe and arrived in the Turkish-Iranian gene centre around 1600. In the 17th and 18th centuries the bean reached the East African gene centres, through Arab traders. Assuming that, in a gene centre, environmental conditions prevail that lead to enrichment of the genepool, these areas might be of special interest. Regarding the genetic variability to be expected, we must keep in mind that mostly beans from the Mesoamerican gene centre came to Europe. Gepts also noted that from a large-scale scrutiny, the genetic variation within the two domesticated genepools, the Mesoamerican and the Andean, is rather narrow although the variation of beans grain regarding colour, shape, size, etc. would anticipate a large genetic variation. The wide variation in the feature of the grain is easy to explain as such mutations can be immediately noticed by man and therefore selected. ","tokenCount":"23021"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6dbd48f2cbd676e1485b6d5046e2f19d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1c56e1fe-1819-4f62-8b5b-1cbc1a488ca7/retrieve","id":"1869127057"},"keywords":["L'amidon de manioc . Fermentation","séchage solaire et pouvoir de panification . ~ _","-.-:~","~-;","-~-~-"],"sieverID":"4058fbdb-6e1a-4707-b829-03f53bceffdc","pagecount":"54","content":"Ce document est une synthese sur la bibliographie étudiée de février 1994 a avril 1995 pendant mon CSN au CIAT. 11 complete la bibliographie présentée dans mon rapport de OEA en particulier en ce qui concerne l'irradiation de l'amidon.Le manioc (Manihot escuelenta Crantz) est un arbuste cultivé sous les tropiques pour ses tubercules qui contiennent entre 30 et 45% de MS dont 85% d'amidon. Cette plante :)luriannuelle peut atteindre 2 a 5m de hauteur. Les racines nourriciéres s'enfouissent profondement dans le sol et les racines tubérisées, au nombre de 5 a 1 O par plantes, sont disposées en faisceau et ont un poids variant de 200g a 3kg (L. AURENT, 1992)..A'Uo----;...._--++------Moelle et xyléme primaire Source: GRACE, 1978 Le manioc s'accomode de sois médiocres et de conditions climatiques difficiles. 11 est reproduit par bouturrage et se développe 3 a 4 mois avant de commencer a formar des tubercules. La récolte s'effectue de 7 a 18 mois aprés la plantation (COCK, 1982), au fur et a mesure des besoins.La détérioration du manioc commence des que les racines sont déterrées et se manifeste par l'apparition de stries bleues et noires entre 24H et 48H (CHUZEL, 1985). Elle est due a l'augmentation des enzymes oxydantes qui produisent des phénols polymérisant plus tard pour donner des tanins (COOKE et al, 1989). Elle est suivi d'une détérioration secondaire due a des microorganismes.Le manioc est consommé tel quel pour les espéces a faible teneur en cyanure et sinon transformé d'une maniere générale. Le foufou et le gari sont des produits traditionnellement consommés en Afrique et dont la préparation repose sur un procédé de fermentation, comme pour l'amidon aigre d'Amérique latine. 11 existe quelques rapport sur la toxicité chronique du cyanure contenu dans le manioc, principalement en Afrique ou la consommation est tres importante (COCK, 1982).En effet, les variétés douces de manioc contiennent une haute teneur en linimarine, un glucoside cyanogénétique. Lors de la récolte et de la préparation du manioc, la linimarine se 8/b/iogrsphie décompose par une action enzymatique en produisant de l'acide cyanidrique, un composant antinutritionel et toxique (BEST, 1994).L'acide cyanidrique est soluble dans l'eau et volatile. 11 est éliminé cturant les procédés de cuisson. Seules des traces apparaissent dans le produit fini (BEST, 1994). En Colombia et au Brésil, le procégé d'extraction par voie hu mide de l'amidon de manioc permet d'éliminer la totalité de l'acide cyanidirque (FIGUEROA, 1993).Domestiqué il y a 4000 ans par les indiens d'Amérique Latine, le manioc a été implanté sur les cotes occidentales de I'Afrique par les Portuguais et plus tard implanté jusqu'en Asia.Aujourd'hui, la culture du manioc s'étend a toutes les zonas tropicales et subtropicales (BEST, 1994).L'Afrique présente la production la plus importante avec 45% du total mondial, suivie par I'Asie avec 35% et par les Amériques avec 20% (BEST, 1994). La FAO estime a 158 milions de tonnes la quantité de manioc produite dans le monde en 1991 . Le tableau 1 présente les 5 plus gros producteurs mondiaux de manioc et la production colombienne (FAO, 1992).Durant les 20 demieres années, la production mondiale a augmentée au méme taux que dans les pays en voie de développement (De BRUIJN et al, 1989). Les rendements sont restés constants (10tlha), bien loin de l'optimum de 80 tlha obtenu au CIAT en 1979. Ce Tableau 1 -Les plus gros producteurs mondiaux de manioc et la place de  sont les zonas cultivées a l'échelle famillale sans engrais ni insecticidas qui s'étendent.En Afrique, le manioc est un aliment de base pour plus de 300 milions de personnes. En Asia, l'amidon de manioc est devenu une matiere premiare importante pour !'agro-industrie alimentaire et chimique. Apres le riz, c'est la seconde source de carbohydrates pour l'alimentation humaine. En Amérique latine, la majorité du manioc est destiné a la consommation humaine (64%) et a la consommation animale au niveau de termes, alors que seulement 6% sont utilisés a des fins alimentaires et industrielles sous forme d'amidon (BEST, 1994).L'amidon de manioc représente 11% de la production mondiale d'amidon. Cette demiére s'élevait en 1992 a 33 millions de tonnes pour une valeur de 14 milliards de dollars . L'am idon de ma'is produit principalement par les Etats Unis (40%) et la CEE (18%) et représente 64% de la production mondiale d'amidon (ORSTERTAG, 1994). L'amidon est synthétisé par les chloroplastes des feuilles du manioc. C'est un amidon de transition stockés dans les thylako' ides du chloroplaste pendant l'activité photosynthétique. 11 est transporté sous forme de saccharose pendant la nuit par la seve élaborée vers les organes utilisateurs et notamment vers les tissus de réserves (les tubercules dans le cas du manioc) ou il sera de nouveau condensé en grain d'amidon dans les amyloplastes.Le plaste est un corpuscule hyaloplasmique partiellement autonome dans le stroma (milieu intraplastidial) duquel du matériel amylacé se déposerait sous forme de goutelettes biréfringentes qui s'initieraient en noyeau. Le grain d'amidon s'accroitrat par apposition autour de ce primordium. En fin de croissance, le grain d'amidon occupe !'ensemble du volume de l'amyloplaste et demeure entouré de la membrana plastidiale.La transformation de l'amidon de manioc a traditionnellement 2 objectifs fondamentaux:la conservation d'un produit hautement périssable, -l'abaissement de la teneur en composés cyanogéniques présents dans la racine.Quasiment tous les procédés de transformation du manioc a des fins alimentaires comprennent une étape de fermentation microbienne {ZAKHIA, 1994).L'amidon aigre de manioc que l'on trouve en Colombia et au Brésil est un amidon fermenté naturellement qui a des propriétés spécifiques (pouvoir de panification, absorption d'eau, arOme) utilisées dans l'élaboration de nombreux produits au fromage (pandebono et pan de yuca en Colombia et en Equateur, chipa au Paraguay et en Argentina, pan de queijo ou biscoicho au Brésil). 11 sert de matiere premiare pour une seconde transformation au niveau ménager, artisanal, mais aussi au niveau industrial pour la confection de tarines composées distribuées par la suite au niveau des supermarchés (LAUAENT, 1992).La production d'amidon aigre reste une activité essentiellement artisanale dont l'impact socio-économique est significatif. La principale région productrice d'amidon aigre en Colombia se trouve dans les montagnes au sud de Cali, entre 1 000 et 1600m d'altitude. Cette région considérée comme défavorisée comprend environ 200 rallanderias (unité d'extraction de l'amidon) traitant entre 1 et 5 tonnes de racines fraiches par jour, employant entre 3 et 5 personnes et s'approvisionnant en moyenne aupres de 30 producteurs (CHUZEL, 1990).Le manioc est livré aux rallanderias dans de grands sacs en fibras brun~tres végétales (\"Fique\", une variété d'agave). 11 va subir une transformation qui comprend plusieurs étapes (figure 2).1 . Un lavage des racines dans un tambour rotatif dont la paroi est rugue use et dans lequel un léger courant d'eau est maintenu: la terre et les enveloppas suparficielles du tubercule sont alors éliminées.Un rapage des tubercules propres afin d'obtenir une pulpa la plus fine possible dans laquelle les cellules détruites libérent les grains d'amidon.3. Un tamisage afín de séparer la suspension d'amidon (lait d'amidon ou lechada) de la pulpa de manioc. Le lait d'amidon est acheminée par gravité vers un bac ou des canaux de décantation et !'afrecho (pulpas) est commercialisé comme aliment du bétail aprés séchage.La sédimentation du lait d'amidon dans un bac ou des canaux de sédimentation. Le surnageant est éliminé par la suite comme la mancha (couche gris~tre composée de protéines et d'impuretées diverses) qui repose a la surface de l'amidon.Aprés 5 ou 6 sédimentations successives correspondant aux extractions journaliéres successives, l'amidon est enlevé des bacs ou des canaux de sédimentation par blocs a la pelle et transféré vers des tanks de fermentation d'une capacité de 1 a 3 m3. La technique recommandée pour un bon démarrage de la fermentation est de prélever une quinzaine de litres du sumageant d'un tank en fin de fermentation et de les versar dans le tank ou va s'effectuer la fermentation avant son remplissage. Ainsi, lors du remplissage du tank, l'amidon est inoculé de maniere relativement .homogéne. Les parois des cuves de fermentation sont souvent recouvertes de bois, ce qui permet la conservation des microorganismes favorables a la ferrnentation d'un ferrnentation sur l'autre.Au bout d'environ 30 jours de fermentation, le sumageant du tank est éliminé. La couche superficielle de l'amidon est éliminée en méme temps que la flore et que la fauna qu'elle contient (vers blancs, larvas ... ).Le tank est ensuite vidé a la pelle et l'amidon étalé et émietté sur une grande surface a l'aide d'un rateau et d'un rouleau en bois ou en ciment. Les morceaux obtenus font de 2 a 1 O mm. Le séchage au soleil dure entre 1 et 4 jours et vise a réduire l'humidité aux alentours de 10%.La figure 3 présente !'ensemble des machines utilisées pour l'extraction par voie hu mide de l'amidon aigre.Ea u e v apor-e-e 126q 1 :=,.=m =,=ci o=o=~=rci=u~     Ce phénomane a fait l'objet de plusieurs études afin d'en comprendre les agents, les mécanismes et l'influence sur la qualité de l'amidon aigre.Différentes hypothases ont été émises quant au déroulement de la fermentation du manioc. Les plus anciennes remontent aux années 70 mais sont toujours d'actualité car peu d'études récentes ont été publiée sur le sujet.Le processus comporterait 3 phases, pas toujou rs distinctes, qui correspondraient a l'apparition de différentes flores microbiennes (CEREDA, 1973):1-La premiare se caractérise par l'installation de microorganismes pe u exigeants, sporulés et producteurs d'acides organiques. lis seraient a !'origine de la chute rapide du pH dans les 3 premiers jours (6,5 a 3,5). L'acidité et la présence de bactéries productrices d'enzymes amylolythiques provoquerait la •dégradation croissante de l'amidon, accompagnée de la production de sucres fermentiscibles. Cette phase permettrait done l'établissement de conditions propices a la fermentation ultérieure. Les genres Achromobacter, Escherichia, Aerobacter, Pseudomonas, Bacillus et Clostridium seraient impliqués.2-Des bactéries plus exigeantes et plus productrices d'acides agiraient par la suite. Trois types de fermentation auraient alors lieu: une fermentation lactique (Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus), une fermentation propionique (Propionibacterium), une fermentation butyrique (Ciostridium).3-La troisiame phase verrait l'action de microorganismes consommant les métabolites produits par les 2 premiares phases. Les microorganismes impliqués (Bacillus, Levures) ne serait pas d'une grande importance dans le processus de production de l'amidon aigre.Une autre hypothase (CHUZEL, 1992) va dans le sens des travaux de CEREDA (1973). Trois phases sont ici ancore distinguées sur un plan physico-chimique plus que microbiologique:1-La premiare est une acidificatioin rapide les 2 premiers jours avec une chute de pH de 6,5 a 4,4 et parrallalement une augmentation de l'acidité totale. Ce résultat a été vérifié par LARSONNEUR (1992) et ASTE (1994).2-La seconde phase est stationnaire, dure de 12 a 15 jours et correspondrait a l'adaptation de la flore au milieu.3-Une reprise de l'acidification se produirait alors. Elle se stabiliserait en quelques jours a un pH de l'ordre de 3,5, qui correspond au pKa le plus bas des acides organiques produits.Enfin une troisiame hypothase est calle de JORY (1989) qui ne fait pas référence a des phases distinctes ou se chevauchant partiellement, mais a une succession de générations microbiennes s'autoalimentant sans qu'a aucun moment ne s'observe ni explosion démographique, ni dépeuplement par suite d'épuisement du substrat ou de pH devenu trop défavorable. Cette hypothase repose sur le fait que la flore totale reste a peu pras constante dans tous les échantillons, ce qui rapelle les ensilages.Bíbllographle 11 n'y a pas vraiment de contradiction entre ces différentes hypotheses: le phénomene de fermentation serait lié a l'action d'une succession de générations microbiennes (JORY, 1989), a répartir en 3 grands groupes (CEREDA, 1973), et transformant les propriétés physicochimiques de l'amidon de maniere distincte en fonction du temps de fermentation (CHUZEL, 1992). L'hypothese d'une reprise de l'acidification en fin de fermentation n'est pas confirmé par les résultats de LARSONNEUR (1992) et de ASTE (1994). 232. Les mlcroorganlsmes lmpllqués dans la fermentatlon de l'amldon de manloc L'jnjtiation de la feunentation En début de fermentation, la teneur en oxygene de l'amidon diminue pour étre proche de zero au troisieme jour de fermentation (FIGUEROA, 1991 ). Différents microorganismes interviendraient dans la phase d'établissement des conditions de la fermentation. lis appartiendraient aux genres Achromobacter, Escherichia, Aerobacter, Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Clostridium (CEREDA, 1973).L'activité amylolythique durant les 3 premiers jours de fermentation est souligné: elle serait principalement due aux bacilles dominants pendant cette période puis présents en quantité constante jusqu'a la fin du processus. Cela confirmerait le rOle d'initiateur de la fermentation des bactéries amylolythiques (MARTINEZ, 1988).A contrario, C. CAMARGO (1988) place l'action des bactéries amylolythiques apres le début de la fermentation, alors que les acides produits en début de fermentation ont déja commencé l'altération des grains.Certaines des colonnies présentes en début de fermentation auraient la capacité de produire des exopolysaccharides. Ce sont des bactéries mucilagineuses et hétérofermentaires appartenant au genre Leuconostoc. Cependant, dans les conditions de fermentation (milieu solide, anaérobie, pH de 3,5), la biosynthese de polysacccharides ne semble pas possible (FIGUEROA, 1992).Enfin pour CHUZEL (1992), des coques apparaissent en début de fermentation et des bacillus en fin de fermentation et, d'une maniere générale, les bacillus restent la forme majoritairement rencontrée.• Le déroulement de la teuneotatioo Peu d'informations sont disponibles sur les microorganismes intervenant par la suite et sur les générations qui se succédent (JORY, 1989).Seloo FLOREZ (1992), Lactobacillus spp se rencontre dans toutes les fermentations évaluées. Les Leuconostoc sont également mentionnés (DUFOUR, 1991 ). L'acide lactique représente la tres grande majorité des acides organiques mesurés et la fermentation est homolactique. JORY (1989) rappelle que la flore totale reste constante dans tous les échantillons. 11 note une augmentation tres nette des levures et des moisissures entre les jours 20 et 25. CARDENAS et al (1980) ont analysé la flore de différents amidons en cours de fermentation. Les microorganismes prédominants sont des bactéries lactiques GRAM+. Lactobacillus plantarum est le plus représenté accompagné de Lactobacillus caseí. Des levures de type Saccharomyces ont été également ideritifiées par les auteurs, comme des moisissures de type Geometricum candida. L'actiyjté arnylolythjgue des bactédes lactjgues Certains Lactobacillus rencontrés dans toutes les fermentation évaluées ont un caractére amylolithique remarquable (FLOREZ, 1992). En particulier, une souche nouvelle de Lactobacillus plantarum possédant une torta activité a-amylasique a été identifiée (GRIFFON et al., 1994). L'activité amylolythique lors de la fermentation serait due a différentes formes d'a-amylases de poids moléculaire situés entre 30 et 80kD, thermostables, acido-tolérantes et a torta affinité pour l'arnidon (FLOREZ, 1992). Elle serait de plus localisé dans la fraction chromosomique soluble et non pas sur des plasmides (AAIMBAUL T, 1992).L'association de bactéries amylolythiques et de levures au cours de la fermentation est possible et pertormante. Par ailleurs, elle permet de développer des príncipes aromatiques intéressants que l'on ne retrouve pas dans les cultures puras de chacun de ces microorganismes.  (DUPRAT et al, 1980).Elle est formée de longues chaines non ramifiées ou les unités de glucosa sont reliées par des liaisons a.(1-4). Les chaines présentent une longueur variable et leur poids moléculaire varíe de quelques miliers a 500 000 (figure 4). L'amylose n'est pas réellement soluble dans l'eau et elle forme des micelles hydratées virant au bleu en présence d'lode. Dans ces micelles, la chaine s'enroule en hélice (LENHINGER, 1979). La caractérisation de l'amylose extraite de l'amidon par fractionnement et par précipitation est basé e sur ( DU PRAT, 1980):-sa capacité d'absorption de l'iode par la formation d'un complexa amylose-iode, -son hydrolyse par la (i-amylase en maltosa, -sa viscosité en milieu KCI ou tout autre milieu (KOH, DMSO pur) qui permet de déterminer son poids moléculaire.C'est une macromolécule fortement ramifiée. La longueur moyenne des ramifications est de 24 a 30 unités glucosa selon les especes. La chaine principale comporte des liaisons a.(1-4), tandis que les ramifications se fixent par des liaisons a.(1-6) (figure 4). L'amylopectine donne des solutions collo\" idales ou micellaires quise colorent en rouge violacé avec l'iode. Son poids moléculaire peut atteindre 100 milions (LENINGHER, 1979).La molécula d'amylopectine est constituée de 2 chaines: les chaines A, internes ou extemes, de DP15-20, et les chaines B, internes de DP45. Les chaines B forment l'ossature de la macromolécule d'amylopectine et supportent des grappes (2 en moyenne) constituées par des chaines A. Les chaines A pourraient étre associées 2 a 2 coaxialement , ou une chaine A avec une chaine B, pour constituer des doubles hélices (structures 11), entités conformationnelles de base dans la structure de l'amylopectine. Les différences de structure fines existantes entre les amylopectines d'amidon de différentes origines botaniques tiennent essentiellement au taux de ramification de la macromolécule (DUPRAT et al, 1980).Parfois appelé \"amylose anormale\", il est formé d'une gamma de structure dont le taux de ramification est intermédiaire entre celui de l'amylose et de l'amylopectine (DUPRAT et al, 1980).Source: BOURSIER, 1994L'organisation du grain d'amidon dépend de la maniere dont l'amylose et l'amylopectine sont associées par liaisons hydrogene inter-moléculaires.Le degré de liaison mutual entraine des différences de structure. Lorsque les liaisons sont intensas, nombreuses et régulieres, les chaines s'associent en réseaux cristallins. Par contra dans les zonas amorphes, mémes si certaines liaisons hydrogene sont intensas, leurs irrégularités rendent les macromolécules plus indépendantes. Cette désorganisation est ancore accentuée par la présence de liaisons a(1-6) dans l'amylopectine.Entre les zonas cristallines et amorphes, il y a une gradation de structure de densité variable mise en évidence par des attaques ménagées du grain. L'hydrolyse acide ménagée montre l'existence de 3 niveaux de résistance: une phase amorphe \"tendre\" rapidement , .. .. , drolysée, des zonas amorphes plus dures hydrolysées plus lentement et enfin des zonas christallines acido-résistantes. En général, ces 3 structures représentent 40, 30 et 30% de la masse du grain.Diversas méthodes permettent l'étude des niveaux de structure:-la sorptlon de l'eau et les mesures diélectriques pour les zonas amorphes, -la diffraction des rayons X pour les zonas cristallines, -la microscopia pour la répartltion des différentes structures. Le comportement de l'amidon est essentiellement déterminé par des facteurs génétiques qui président asa biosynthese (OUPRAT et al, 1980).Le grain d'amidon est une structure macromoléculaire éminement cristallisée. Les rayons X permettent de différencief 2 grands groupes: ceux qui présentent un spectre de type A comme les amidons de céréales, et ceux qui présentent un spectre de type B comme les amidons de tubercules. L'amidon de manioc echappe a cette description: c'est un amidon de tubercule de type A (figure 5).L'allure du spectre dépend de la teneur en eau des grains: plus l'amidon est hydraté, plus les raies du spectres s'affinent. Les cristaux d'amidon sont de tres petite taille, surtout dans le sens des chaines; ils sont intimement reliés a la phase amorphe qui les entoure. Au cours de l'hydratation, la phase amorphe intercristalline se dilate, elle structure !'ensemble des microcristaux, les parrallélise et les meilleurs arrangements mutuels provoquent une meilleure diffraction des rayons X. Le phénomene est réversible a température ordinaire (figure 6).Lorsque l'amidon granulaire est soumis a une hydrolyse ménagée acide, les fractlons les plus amorJ:?hes sont les plus attaquées et la cristallinité augmente. Si l'amidon est du spectre B, cela se manifeste par l'augmentation de l'intensité des raies du spectre. Si l'amidon est de type A, il apparait également des variations dans les hauteurs relativas des raies, différentes se Ion le type d'amidon. Ceci est du au fait que la phase cristalline des amidons A est hétérogene et se compose de type de cristaux, B et D.Figure 5 -Dlagramme de dlffractlon aux rayons X d'amidon de blé de type A et d'amidon de pomme de terre de type B (intensité diffractée (1) en fonction de l'angle de Bragg (9), longueur d'onde du Cu 1 ,5405 A)• Aspect de 1'6volutlon du dlagramme de dlffractlon aux rayons X de l'amidon de pomme de terre en fonction de sa teneur en eau: Corélation entre le rapport 1(2°42)/1(8\"30) et l'accroissement de volume AV du grain d'amidon.Sout\"C»: DUPRAT et al , 1980Les grains d'amidon se caractérisent par leur forme, l'emplacement de leur hile, leurs dimensions, leur température de gonftement et de gélatinisation. Les amidons de tubercules sont générallement volumineux, ellipsoidaux et présentent un hile excentré (pomme de terre, babane). Plus rarement, les grains sont sphériques ou hémisphériques tronqués, comme dans le cas du manioc (planche photo). Orientation mg!éculajre daos le grajo Le graio d'amidon placé entre nicols croisés, en lumiére polarisée, se comporte comme un sphérocristal et s'illumine en étant traversé d'une croix noire. On explique ce phénoméne en admettaot que les cristaux sont réguliérement disposés dans le grain, et que leur axe principal est permendiculaire a la surtace. La diffraction aux rayons X d'un gros grain d'amidon montre de méme que l'axe de fibra des cristaux est perpeodiculaire aux stries d'acccroissement du grain jusqu'a sa surface (FRENCH, 1975). L'analyse des grains d'amidon marqués par bombardements au tritium suggére par ailleurs que les extrémités non réductrices des chaines sont dirigées vers la surface des grains.La microscopia photonique révéle une striation concentrique des grains qui reste invisible en microscopia électronique a transmission tant que le grain d'amidon o'a pas été modifié chimiquement.La microscopia electronique a balayage, a une température intérieure a calle de l'empesage, montre des zonas de moindre résistance dans le sens radial (STEALING, 1974). Des techniques nécessitant une dégradatlon sélectlve de l'amidon permettent de révéler différentes structures:-les régions les moins organisées sont les plus vulnérables, -le grain cfamidon est formé de couches superposées (stries d'accroissement), formées d'éléments compacts (microgranules, \"blocklets\"), dont la taille correspond au volume de une a plusieurs macromolécules. Ces entités montrent des variations de volume importantes a divers niveaux du grain, ainsi que dans leurs modas d'associations et de la natura du liant qui les unit. La figure 7 per. met d'expliquer les différences constatées au cours de l'aamylolyse entre les différents amidons et notamment la plus grande résistance de l'amidon de pomme de terre et des amidons de tubercules en général.L'organisation du grain résulte d'une \"cohésion covallente\" suivant la direction \"radiale\" et d'une cohésion hydrogéne qui lui est perpendiculaire. Les traitements hydrothermiques ménagés dégradent les zonas les plus fragiles de la cohésion hydrogéne et les hydrolyses s'attaquent aux liaisons covallentes. On observe une différence de structure selon !'origine botanique et dans certains cas une grande hétérogénéité de la dimension des ensambles macromoléculaires au niveau des couches superposées.La rotation entre les plans de 2 cycles de glucosa consécutifs impose a grande distance a la macromolécule une structure torsadée qui peut, dans certaines conditions, conduire a des formes hélico\"idales (DUPRAT, 1980).Dans l'eau ou dans des solutions salines diluées (0,5M KCI), la chaine d'amylose se comporte comme une série de segments hélico\"idaux séparés par des zonas de pelote statistique. L'hélice est stabilisée par des pontages par moléculas d'eau: il y a peu de liaisons hydrogene. Selon la composition de la soluti&n, la macromolécule peut se trouver dans tous les états intermédiaires entre la pelote statistique et l'hélice compacte si la solution contient un agent complexant. L'organisation la plus stable est une hélice gaucha (DUPRAT, 1980). L'amylopectine a un comportement plus compliqué du fait de ces nombreuses ramifications. Les chaines externas A peuvent acquérir toutes les conformations décrites précedement, mais leur faible DP ne permet pas de déterminer le comportement de la macro molécula. L'amylopectine a une masse moléculaire élevée (jusqu'a 1 09) et une viscosité intrinseque élevée ( environ 1 00 cm3 .g-1 ) qui dépendent de sa masse moléculaire. En solution, elle est plutót allongée, hydratée et peut rigide.Pour une méme masse moléculaire, les solutions d'amylopectine sont bien moins visqueuses que calle d'amylose.L'iode est un agent complexant de l'amylose et le complexa obtenu a une couleur caractéristique de la longueur de la chaine impliquée. La formation de ce complexa permet le dosage de l'amylose (dosage ampérométrique ou potentiométrique) et la mesure du DP des dextrinas (longueur d'onde maximum d'absorption en UV). En solution iodoiodurée (12, IK); l'amylose absorbe 20% de son poids d'iode, alors que l'amylopectine n'en absorbe quasiement pas (moins de 5%).1 1 Bibliogrsphie 17 342. La dlsperslon de l'amldon dans l'eau L'étude des propriétés gélifiantes de l'amidon nécessite la solubilisation des macromolécules en les individualisant dans un solvant. La destruction de la structure granulaire est nécessaire par recours a des moyens thermiques. Dans un deuxiéme temps, les macromolécules vont établir des liaisons intramoléculaires conduisant a la gélification (THIBAUT, 1988).A température ambiante, l'amidon peut retenir par sorption de l'eau, enviran 40ml d'eau pour 1 OOg de MS. A 55-60°C en présence d'un ex ces d'eau apparait le phénoméne irréversible de l'empesage (ou gélatinisation) du a une ruptura des liaisons hydrogénes. Avec l'augmentation de la température, le grain se disperse, et l'amylose et l'amylopectine passent en solution collo'idale. Lors du refroidissement, il y a gélification puis rétrogradation par une cristallisation partielle du réseau macromoléculaire (DUPRAT, 1980). Souf'C8: DUPRAT (1980)et MESTRES (1986) La sorptjon La sorption de l'eau est due a la fixation des moléculas aux hydroxyles de l'amidon par des liaisons hydrogénes, ce qui entraine la dilatation du réseau macromoléculaire. Ce phénoméne présente une hystéresis pour des valeurs d'humidité relativa moyenne (DUPRAT, 1980).L'amidon natif du fait de son organisation semi-cristalline est insoluble dans l'eau froide. Le phénoméne de sorption se manifeste peu: les grains présentent un faible gonflement du a l'absorption de l'eau dans les pAtas amorphes (THIBAULT, 1988).Toute l'eau de sorption du grain a saturation se fige dans le réseau macromoléculaire, devient non salvante des alcools et est incongelable (DUPRAT, 1980). L'empesage (ou gélatjnjsatjon) Lorsque la température s'éleve et atteint des valeurs proches de 60°C, les grains gonflent irréversiblement, les moléculas d'amylose de faible poids moléculaire diffusent hors du grain (leaching), et la viscosité augmente: le systéme s'empése. En lumiére polarisée, la croix 8/b/lographie naire de biréfringence disparait (DUPRAT, 1980), et par diffraction aux rayons X, la disparition de la cristallinité s'observe (THIBAULT, 1988). La température a laquelle la biréfringence disparait est appellée température de gélatinisation (ROMERO, 1993).L'empois d'amidon obtenu est une structure hétérogene formée de grains d'amidon gonflés et riches en amylopectine plongés dans une solution macromoléculaire riche en amylose (THIBAULT, 1988). Pour obtenir une dispersion complete de l'amidon granulaire, un autoclavage vers 120 a 130°C de plusieures heures est nécessaire. Méme apres un tel traitement, certains amidons riches en amylose restent intacts (DUPRAT, 1980). L'amylose et l'amylopectine forment alors une dispersion collo\" idale.La gé!jfication et la rétrogradatjon Dans la majorité des cas l'empesage n'est pas total et l'empoi est une structure hétérogene, un mélange de grain gonflés, fragmentés (\"fantOmes\") et de macromolécules dispersées qui ont dittusées hors des granules (THIBAULT, 1988).•Lors du refroidissement, l'empois forme un gel composite de partículas riches en amylopectine enserrées dans un empois d'amidon. Jusque vers 60°C, les associations intermoléculaires restent faibles et le milieu isotrope.Les propriétés du gel dépendent de (THIBAULT, 1988):-la viscoélasticité de la matiere du gel, qui dépend principalement de la concentration en amylose, -la rigidité de la phase solide: moins les granules d'amidon sont gonflés, plus ils sont rigides et plus leur effet de renforcement sur le gel d'amidon sera important.Aux températures inférieures a 60°C, le gel rétrograde et les liaisons hydrogene intermoléculaires deviennent plus nombreuses. La rétrogradation conduit a une cristallisation partielle des chaines en cristaux de type 8 (DUPRAT, 1980).De nombreux parametres influencent la cinétique de rétrogradation de l'amidon (MESTRES, 1988):-!'origine botanique et la teneur en amylose, -la température de stockage du gel, -la présence de lipides complexables (acides gras, monoglycérides) qui induisent l'apparition de complexas amylose-lipises, -la technologie de préparation des gels: chaque traitement de dispersion de l'amidon induit un partage différent de l'amylose et de l'amylopectine et done des structures différentes pour les gels.Selon la variété employée, les gels d'amidons de manioc obtenus et le comportement en solution de l'amidon de manioc ne sont pas du tout les mémes. L'étude de la viscosité de l'amidon de manioc a été réalisée avec un viscoamylographe Brabender. profjl de yjscostté de !'amjdon doux Pour l'amidon frais ou séché a l'étuve, LARSONNEUR (1993) montre que les profils de viscosité obtenus sont quasiement les mémes.Les profils de viscosité obtenus pour l'amidon frais • varient en fonction de !'origine de l'amidon et de la variété de manioc. C. CAMARGO (1988) obtient un profil comportant un maximum de viscosité a environ 85°C, suivi d'une diminution de la viscosité avec un épaulement , puis une rétrogradation importante en fin de viscoamylogramme. ASTE et VERNEREY (1994) montrent un comportement différent sur la variété ~Aigodonna~ en début de viscoamylogramme . Un épaulement apparait a 67°C pendant la gélatinisation et le maximum de viscosité est atteint par la suite a 85°C. Le phénomene de gélification et de rétrogradation est le méme que celui observé par C. CAMARGO (1988). D'apres DICKINSON {1982), lors du refroidissement de l'amidon apres gélatinisation, il n'y a pas de formation de gel appréciable. Une étude basée sur des mesures rhéologiques lui permet de montrer que l'instabilité de l'amidon de manioc et ses faibles propriétés gélifiantes (comparées au blé ou au ma' is) sont dues aux faibles liaisons intermoléculaires dans le grain d'amidon et entre les grains d'amidon. Selon lui, il n'y a pas de dégradation des moléculas lors de la montée en température dans le viscoamylographe.A ce résultat, ceux . de VERNEREY (1994) peuvent étre opposés. Elle montre que les propriétés gélifiantes de l'amidon de manioc (Aigodonna, Mcol 1522 du CIAT de Cali-Colombie) sont comparables a calles du ma' is et de la pomme de terre (figure 10).al  Tem.,. (mln)Source: VERNEREY. 1994 ZAKHIA et al. (1994) montrent que les propriétés rhéologiques des amidons de manioc sont tres variables et que, globalement, 3 comportements peuvent s'observer (figure 11 ). Les 33 variétés étudiées issues de la collection centrale du CIAT présentent des propriétés de gélification et de rétrogradation importantes. Eyolution des profjls de yjscosjté au cours de la termentation Un suivi de fermentation réalisé sur \"Aigodonna\" (ASTE, 1994) permet de montrer l'évolution des profils de viscosité.La température de gélatinisation ne varíe pas, la température (67°C) et la valeur (450UB) au premiar maximum de viscosité ne varient pas, mais les valeurs de viscosité au second pie diminuent au cours de la fermentation pour passer de 620 a 420 u B.Le séchage au soleil marque les différences entre les différents temps de fermentation . Le second maximum de viscosité disparait completement, et les valeurs au premiar maximum apparaissent décroissantes avec le temps de fermentation .La figure 12 montre l'évolution des propriétés rhéologiques de l'amidon de la variété Algodona au cours de la fermentation .L'échantillon d'amidon (provenant d'une industrie du Brésil, daos la région du Minas Gerais) testé par C. CAMARGO (1988) présente également un profil .de viscosité tres différents avant et apres fermentation: les viscosités a gooc sont beaucoup plus faibles, l'épaulement constaté apres le maximum de viscosité disparait, et le ratio cold viscosity/hot viscosity devient plus fort. La caractéristique principale des amidons fermentés serait leur meilleure solubilité daos l'eau chaude, lié a un plus faible volume de la fraction des grains gonflés daos la pAte. Le fort ratio cold/hot viscosity n'est pas a lier a une destruction préférentielle des zonas amorphes. Par contra, une réduction du poids moléculaire de l'amylose et de l'amylopectine pourrait l'expliquer.  Evolutlon des propriétés rhéologlques de l'amidon au cours de la fermentation -SÉCHAGE SOLAIRE La cuisson de l'amidon permet d'obtenir le caractere épaississant désiré: les conditions de cuisson appliquées et les caracténstiques organoleptiques recherchées déterminent le choix de talle ou talle amylacée pour une application donnée. Température de gélatinisation, viscosité maximale et teneur en amylose sont prisas en compte. Les applications les plus courantes des épaississants sont les soupes, les sauces, et la confiserie pour les amidons a haute teneur en amylose.Les amidons comportant plus de 20% d'amylose forment des gels par rétrogradation. Le gel, instable, présente cependant des qualités organoleptiques stables pendant un a deux jours a 4°C. La creme patissiere, par exemple, est réalisée en portant a ébulition du lait mélangé a de l'amidon de ma•is ou de blé. En refroidissant, on obtient un gel stable de durée de vie compatible avec celle du produit. Elle est réalisée par ajout des agents de réticulation a une suspension d'amidon maintenue a une température inférieure a la température de gélatinisation. Lorsque la réaction est terminée, l'amidon est essoré et lavé pour éliminer les traces de réactifs avant séchage.Le taux de réticulation s'exprime en nombre de pontages par AGU (AnhydroGiucose Unit). La viscosité maximum d'un amidon réticulé est plus faible que calle de l'amidon natif correspondant, cependant les liaisons établies permettent cféviter l'éclatement du grain et la perta de viscosité.Les substitutions sont réalisées au niveau des groupements hydroxyles libres par l'intermédiaire de groupements ethers et esters. Elles permettent de limitar la rétrog~adation (stabilisation),' de reduire la température de gélatinisation de l'amidon ou cfintroduire de nouvelles propriétés.Le greffage de groupements hydroxypropyles o•u acétates sur les moléculas d'amidon augmente les phénomenes de répulsion interchaine (figure 14). Les réassociations intermolécules aprés cuisson sont évitées et ainsi tous les phénoménes liés a la rétrogradation (augmentation de viscosité, opacification au refroidissement, gélification, synérése) sont minimisés. La substitution sur de l'amidon de groupements octényls succiniques tres hydrophobes permet de développer ses capacités émulsifiantes. La viscosité est ajustée par la suite aux besoins.11 s'agit de provoquer une hydrolyse plus ou moins importante des moléculas afin d'affaiblir les granules, de diminuer la capacité de gonflement a la cuisson et de réduire la taille des moléculas.Les méthodes utilisées pour l'obtention de ces amidons sont diversas.~la conversion acide ou hydrolyse acide: l'hydrolyse acide entraine une ruptura de la liaison hémiacétale c:x( 1-4) catalysée •par l'acide et une fluidification de l'amidon. Au contraire a des températures élevées, l'hydrolyse acide conduit a des transglucosylations c:x(1 -6) qui accroissent le taux de ramification de l'amidon (DUPRAT et al, 1980).-l'oxydation: l'action du chlore ou de l'hypochlorite oxyde les alcools secondaires de l'amidon en groupes cétoniques qui facilitent la ruptura ultérieure de la liaison glucosidique. Les groupements carbonyles peuvent provoquer une réticulation du réseau macromoléculaire (DUPRAT et al, 1980).-la dextrinisation par traitement thermique ou thermique/acide sur de l'amidon granulaire sec: la viscosité a chaud diminue rapidement lorsque l'intensité du traitement croit. Apres refroidissement, la force des gels rétrogradés diminue également mais a vitesse moindre. Les amidons fluidisés sont utilisés principalement en confiserie.Le traitement de l'amidon avec de l'acide, saos changer significativement la forme granulaire, donne un amidon modifié avec des propriétés intéressantes sur le plan commercial. L'attaque acide se fait préferentiellement sur les zonas amorphes du grain (ROBERT et al., 1984).•Une hydrolyse d'amidon doux de manioc a 35°C par de l'acide chloridrique et par de l'acide acétique a été réalisée : 150g de MS d'amidon sont mis en suspension daos 600ml de HCI2M ou d'acide acétique 2M pour des périodes de 30 a 90 minutes. Le pH de chaque hydrolysat est ajusté a 3, 7 avec Na OH 1 M et l'amidon est récupéré par centrifugation.Une suspension (150g/l) de chacun des amidons obtenus précedemment dans un tampon phosphate (pH3,7; 0,2M) est alors réalisée. on y ajoute du C02 par bullage, ou de l'acide lactique pur (25mllkg de MS d'amidon) ou de l'acide propionique pur (25ml/kg de MS d'amidon).Apres 36 heures d'agitation, l'amidon est récupéré par centrifugation et séché au tour a 30°C (CAMARGO et al., 1988).•CARDENAS et al. (1980) réalisent des solutions d'amidon de 0,5 a 1% (VN) avec des acides lactique, acétique et butyrique ainsi que différentes combinaisons de ces acides. Le traitement dure 1 o a 20 jours a 37°C.•VERNEREY (1994) impregne de l'amidon non fermenté avec des concentrations d'acide lactique croissantes de O a 18g .1 -1. 600g d'amidon en base sache est mis en suspension dans 1400ml d'acide lactique VQSP par agitation magnétique pendant 8 heures. 8 heures de décantation a 4°C permettent de récupérer l'amidon modifié.•L'hydrolyse de l'amidon par HCI 2M entraine une augmentation de l'expansion durant 30 minutes. La dégradation du grain doit done étre faible et l'expansion n'est possible qu'avec un amidon pe u polymérisé. L'expansion n'est jamais aussi bonne qu'avec un amidon fermenté. Lors de la cuisson, la désorption des acides organiques produits pendant la fermentation pourrait 1 8/b/i<Jgraphie 2 5 expliquer le volume d'expansion, mais l'eau présente dans la pAte peut l'expliquer tout aussi bien (CAMARGO et al., 1988).La combinaison d'une hydrotyse tégere suivie d'une imprégnation en un composant (acide lactique, acide propionique ou acide carbonique) ne permet pas d'obtenir des expansions semblables a calles obtenues avec un amidon fermenté (CAMAAGO et al., 1988).• CARDENAS et al. (1980) mettent en évidence une dépolymérisation des moléculas constitutivas de l'amidon, qui, dans les conditions de l'expérimentation, ne permet pas d'obtenir des propriétés semblables a calles d'un amidon fermenté. L'amidon doux, comme l'amidon traioté par l'acide présente des grains a la surface lisse et réguliere, alors que l'amidon fermenté présente une surface irréguliere et des cavités .. Les propriétés rhéologiques de l'amidon aigre et des amidons ayant subís différents traitements acides sont tres proches. Seuls les amidons fermentés présentent un pouvoir de panification important (4,2cm3/G contra 2,2 ou 2,3 pour les amidons modifiés par l'acide). CAADENAS et al. (1980) lient cette différence de pouvoir de panifícation a l'attaque enzyrnatique qui s'observe duranHa fermentation.•VEANEAEY (1994) obtient un optimum d'expansion pour une concentration d'imprégnation en acide lactique de l'amidon d'environ 2g.l-1 . Pour des concentrations supérieures, le pouvoir de panification des amidons modifiés baisse.Les amidons natifs et modifiés peuvent étre présentés sous des formes solubles a froid grAce a un traitement de précuisson. Les amidons obtenus, dispersés a froid, ont tous les propriétés de l'empoi d'amidon apres cuisson.La pyrolyse de l'amidon a faible teneur en eau (<6%) et sous vide partiel conduit a la formation de nombreux composés dont les plus importants sont un levoglucosane (~-0( 1-6) anhydroglucopyranose) et ses dérivés. D'importantes modifications de la structure, des dimentions des macromolécules ainsi que de leurs propriétés sont provoquées.Au dela de 200°C , la pyrolyse produit des gazs (CO, C02, H20) et des corps volatils (acides, alcools, dérivés carbonylés, furannes) a moins de 6 carbones résultats de l'ouverture et de la dégradation des cycles glucosa.On distingue deux types d'enzymes responsables de la dégradation de l'amidon. L'épaisseur d'amidon pendant le séchage est proche de 1 ,5 cm (0,2 g/cm2) et toutes les 2 heures environ, l'amidon est remué. Le séchage peut durar 1 a 2 jours et permet d'atteindre une teneur en humidité proche de 1 0%.Le séchage solaire est indispensable a l'acquisition d'un .bon pouvoir de panification, critére essentiel de qualité de l'amidon aigre (ASTÉ, 1994).. lnfluence du séchage solalre sur les proprlétés de l'amldon de manloc Une cinétique de séchage réalisé sur un amidon fermenté 33 jours montre que, lors du séchage solaire, l'acquisition du pouvoir de panification semble correllée a l'augmentation de la tendance a la rétrogradation de l'amidon: au bout de 3 heures, la tendance a la rétrogradation est stabilisée alors que le pouvoir de panification maximum est atteint (DUFOUR et al.,19. 94).Lors de la méme cinétique de séchage, une augmentation de 0,25 du pH est observée aprés séchage solaire et est liée a une variation de la proportion d'acide lactique et de lactate. Dans le méme temps, la teneur (acide lactique+ lactate} mesurée par HPLC chute de 35% alors qu'elle est constante aprés séchage étuve. DUFOUR et al. (1994) émettent l'hypothése que l'acide lactique est consommé par une réaction chimique lors du séchage solaire.513. Essals de séchage artlflclel de l'amldon de manloc (LARSONNEUR, 1993) lnftuence du taux d'humidjté Aprés un premiar séchage solaire de 8 heures, de l'amidon aigre de manioc a été réimprégné a 45% d'humidité et mis a sécher une seconde fois durant 8 heures. Aucune augmentation notable du pouvoir de panification n'apparait sur l'un des deux amidons utilisés, par contra, une augmentation de 1 ,5cm3.g-1 est noté sur l'autre. L'eau parait done nécessaire a l'acquisition du pouvoir de panification qui se réalise dans les 3 premieres heures de séchage solaire. Aprés un premiar séchage solaire, l'amidon aurait encore un potentiel d'expansion qui ne pourrait s'exprimer qu'en présence d'eau, aprés réimprégnation. lnfluence de l'épajsseur de la coucbe d'amjdon lors du séchage Lors du séchage solaire, une couche épaisse d'amidon remuée réguliérement permet d'obtenir un pouvoir de panification plus important que celui qu'on obtient avec une couche fine non remuée. Dans ce demier cas, l'évaporation se ferait trop vite en début de journée, alors que la puissance solaire est ancore faible. Ceci confirmerait la nécessité de l'eau pour l'acquisition du pouvoir de panification. Séchage ayec filtre UYA Une simple plaque de verre a été utilisée comme filtre UVA. En général, le verre absorbe au dessous de 330nm, c'est a dire des longueurs d'onde correspondant aux UV-B etC. Le pouvoir de panification na changa pas avec ou sans filtre. Les longueurs d'onde arrétées par une plaqüe de verre n'interviendraient done pas dans la réaction photochimique permettant l'acquisition du pouvoir de panification.Séchage a l'étuve (30°C) avec une lampe UV (COLE-PALMEB. 4W. 254 et 365 oro)Les UV semblent entrainer une légere modification du pouvoir de panification, mais l'insuffisante puissance de la lampe ne permet pas d'obteoir de différence significativa. Un séchage de 165 heures daos les mémes conditions, avec 2 réhumidifications intermédiaires de l'amidoo mootre une augmentation nette du pouvoir de panification; mais 565W oot alors été apportés. Le séchage solaire daos les conditions du CIAT permet d'apporter plus de 1000w lors d'une joumée ensoleillée. (MERCIER ET AL., 1993) Les processus photochimiques sont liés a la présence de radiations visibles,UV ou IR qui menent a des réactions de polymérisation ou de dégradation des polymeres. 11 convient de les distinguer de l'action des radiations ionisantes électromagnétiques ou émises par le noyeau de l'atome (rayons X 5<A.<1 OOnm et rayons y A.<1 nm).L'irradiation de matériaux est a !'origine d'oxydations ou de polymérisations, qui sont les principales réactions en chaines de la chimie organique. Elles comprenneot 3 étapes:-l'amor~e ou initiation de la chaine cinétique, -la propagation de la chaine cinétique, -l'arrét de la chaine cinétique ou terminaison.L'amor9age se fait grAce a un amorceur, c'est a dire une substance comportant une liaison chimique labile qui par une ruptura homolythíque va produire des radicaux libres. Daos le cas le plus simple, les radicaux libres soot produits par décomposition chimique d'un amorceur:L'absorption lumíneuse modifie le mode d'appariement des électrons excités (spin paralléle ou spin antiparallele).Les radicaux peuvent également étre produit par une rupture de chaine íntermédiaire ou par un transfert d'hydrogene entre l'espece excité et un donneur. Les facteurs influeo~t une photodégradation soot:-la natura des chromophores (récepteur d'éoergie lumineuse} et la présence d'impuretés absorbaotes, -la natura de l'atmosphere environnante et la possibilité qu'elle a de diffuser daos le matériau, -la température, et particulierement la température de transition vitreuse dont dépend la mobilité des chaines, la mobilité des chaines, la diffusioo de 1'02 daos le matériau, et la diffusion des produits de photolyse vers l'extérieur des matériaux, -la forme de l'échantillon. Processus La photodégradation débute par l'absorptioo d'éoergie lumineuse daos les UV ou daos le visible. Cette énergie est réemise sous forme radiative ou non radiative, ou encere transférée a un accepteur. Si la durée de vie des ététs excités est suffisemeot longue, diversas transformations chimiques pourront intervenir.Une fois excité, la substance chimique peut se désactiver par: -transfert radiatif: la lumiere émise par désactivation est absorbée par une autre molécula, -transfert non radiatif, qui peut se faire entre des entités séparées par des distancs relativement grandes (5 a 1 O o m} o u sur des distan ces plus courtes (1 a 5 o m) saos collision, mais par recouvremeot des nuages électroniques des especes mises en jeu. Une photodissociation se produit lorsqu'apres irradiation, le composé passe daos un niveau d'energie supérieure a la limite de dissociation de la courbe potentielle de l'état excité ou lorsque l'état excité est de type dissociatif.Les domaines d'absorption des polymeres sont souveot en dehors des spectres de lumiere visible ou du proche UV. L'absorption est due a la présence d'impuretées ou de motifs monomeres ayant une structure différeote des autres.Certains composés dits photosensibilisateurs (benzophénone par exemple} peuvent étre ajoutés volontairement au polymere. lis absorbent l'énergie lumineuse, passe daos un état excité et transferent cette énergie au polymere. L'eotité absorbante peut étre indépendante ou faire partie du polymere (chromophore exteme ou interne}. ROle des solvants daos la photodégractation lis agissent comme des chromophores extemes, comme générateurs de composés réactifs (radicaux libres} ou tres photosensibles. lis peuveot étre préseots daos le matériau a l'état de trace, étre en contact avec lui ou ancore en faire partie si il est sous forme dispersée (émulsions, peintures, • ... }.A l'exception des hydrocarbures aliphatiques, tous les solvants sont photolysés entre 200 et 700 nm. 1. Le polymere extrait ou non de son milieu initial et séché ou non est exposé directement aux radiations d'une lampe UV dans des conditions d'atmosphere données. STEVENS et al. (1989) utilisent une lampe germicide (2,5X88cm,30W,General Electric). MERLIN et al. (1980) utilisent une lampe a vapeur de mercure haute pression {OSRAM, 200W) et selectionnent la banda 1=365nm.2. L'amidon est mis en suspension dans une solution d'eau et de péroxyde d'hydrogene a pH controllé (HARMON et al., 1972), dans une soluti'm cétonique de photoamorceur (MERLIN et al., 1980) ou dans de l'eau désoxygénée avec du nitrogene et a laquelle on ajoute des acides acryliques (TRIMNELL et al., 1980). Les lampes utilisées sont alors contenues dans un tube de quartz et plongée dans la solution.3. Dans le cas de l'irradiation de la cellulose (GRACINTOV et al., 1980), c'est un film de dérivé cellulosique qui est plongé dans une solution et irradié a l'aide d'un lampe a vapeur de mercure Gneral Electric -AH4 de' 1 OOW. 533. Oxydatlon de l'amldon par H202 en présence d'UV (HARMON et al., 1972) Une suspension d'amidon dans une solution d'eau et de péroxyde d'hydrogene est réalisée dans un ballon avec un agitateur magnétique. Une lampe UV de 450W introduite dans un tube de quartz est immergée dans la solution: un flux de gaz de 2150CC/min est maintenu dans le ballon. Apres l'oxydation, le contenu du ballon est filtré, lavé a l'eau et séché avant d'étre soumis aux analyses de teneur en carbonyl et carboxyl et aux analyses de viscosité. L'oxydation de l'amylopectine par le peroxyde d'hydrogene conduit a une dépolymérisation de la macromolécule suivi d'une intensa oxydation de ses extrémités réductrices. Du C02 et de l'acide formique sont alors produits (WHISTLER et al. cité par HARMON et al., 1957).En présence d'UV et d'un barbotement continu d'air, l'oxydation entraine une chute du pH probablement due a la formation d'acide formique et d'amidon carboxylé (carboxystarch ). L'oxydation de l'amidon par H202 enprésence de lumiere UV donne de meilleurs résultats a pH faible qu'a pH fort: la production de composés carboxylés est plus importante, comme la viscosité. Ce dernier résultat est surprenant: l'oxydation conduit a une dépolymérisation des macromolécules et devrait done logiquement conduire a une baisse de viscosité. Par ailleurs, ceci est en contradiction avec les résultats suivants de la méme publication qui montrent une corrélation négative entre le taux de composés carboxylés et carbonylés et la viscosité.Une augmentation de la concentration en H202 (de 1 a 4 moles/0,42 AGU) entraine une oxydation plus intensa mise en évidence par une production plus forte de composés carbonylés.Enfin, la présence ou l'absence de flux dair dans le ballon ne modifi e pas l'oxydation. Un flux d'02 semble accélérer le processus, probablement a travers la formation d'un singulet 0•.  L'étude a montré que le traitement UV était plus efficace que le traitement chimique dans le contrOle des champignons sur le tubercule stocké. Les UV interviendraient en augmentant la résistance des tubercules aux pathogenes par la formation de phytoalexines, d'enzymes lythiques et de composés phénoliques. Leur action ne serait pas directa sur le pathogéne. L'analyse des nutriments dans le tubercule irradié ne montre aucune différence significativa entre les traitements a lexception de la teneur en amidon: celle-ci serat plus forte dans les tubercules irradiés. Une moindre dégradation de ramidon dans les tubercules irradiés en serait la cause. Ceci est surprenant car e traitement UV dans le cas de la patata est un traitement de surface qui ne devrait pas affecter significatiVement la teneur en amidon.535. Utlllsatlon de. photoamorceurs pour lnltler la formatlon de radlcaux libres GRACINTOV et al.(1980) présentent différentes méthodes de greffage d'un monomére sur un polymere; l'une d'entre elles, la radiation de faible énergie (UV} nécessite l'utilisation d'un photoamorceur. Dans le cas du greffage de monomére vinyl sur des dérivés cellulosiques, ils utilisent un colorant anthraquino' ide. Le film cellulosique est plongé dans une solution contenant le colorant. Le colorant s'adsorbe sur la trame de cellulose. 11 va luí arracher un atome d'hydrogéne . et ainsi produire sur celle-ci un radical libre capable d'initier une polymérisation.  536. Formatlon de radlcaux libres (MERLIN et al., 1980) Les analyses ESA réalisées lors de différentes expérimentations ont montré que l'irradiation UV de l'amidon entraine une scission des chaines et la formation de radicaux sur la chaine glucosidique. La ruptura de liaisons glucosidiques entraine un raccourcissement des moléculas d'amylose et une linéarisation des moléculas d'amylopectine.• Lors de l'irradiation, les concentrations de radicaux tendent vers un état stationnaire, mais la vitesse de formation des radicaux dépend de la natura des photoamorceurs. Comme dans le cas de l'irradiation g, 3 types de radicaux issus de la dégradation de l'amylose et de l'amytopectine peuvent étre identifiés gréce au spectre ESA.lis résultent de la ruptura de pontages entre cycles (A), suivie éventuellement de l'arrachement d'atomes d'hydrogéne (8). Sur l'amytopectine, la coupure de la liaison glucosidique reliant les • motifs d'une chaine greffée peut également amener la formation de radicaux (C).) 111011?11Cll-0 (3)Figure 18 • Représentatlon de désactlvatlon de radlcaux pouvant entralner une rupture de chalne polyosldlque 537. Le greffage de composés vynlllques sur l'amtdon ou la cellulose MERLIN et al. (1980) ont greffé du méthacrylate de méthyle {MMA) sur l'amidon en phase hétérogene. La fécula est en suspension dans une solution d'eau, d'acétone, de photoamorceur, et de monomére. Le tout est irradié avec des 1>330nm. Le résultat du greffage s'exprime par:  Sourcs: MERLIN st al., 1980 Des recombinaisons radicalaires ou des transferts d'hydrogene explique les réactions de terrninaison.Le processus varia en fonction du photoamorceur et nécessite un solvant donneur d'hydrogene de type THF (MERLIN et al., 1980). GRACINTOV et al.( 1980) explique de maniere tres similaire le greffage de monomere vinylique sur un film de dérivés cellulosiques. Le film est trempé dans une solution de monomere et de colorant (photoamorceur). La molécula de colorant photoexcité provoque l'arrachement d'un atome d'hydrogene du substrat. Le radical formé sur le squelette cellulosique initie la polymérisation et amorce le greffage. Le film obtenu peut avoir jusqu'a 3,5 fois le poids du film initial {fig 20).Les radiations ionisantes appartiennent a différentes catégories:-radiations électromagnétiques (rayons X et \"f), -particules émises par le noyeau (rayons ex, p, neutrons), -eléctrons accélérés.Les sources de radiations employées dans le cas de l'amidon sont le plus générallement le Cobalt 60 et les doses de radiations re~ues par l'amidon vont de 1 o5rad a 1 o 7 rad.541 . Modlflcatlon des proprlétés physlco-chlmlques de l'amldon L'irradiation \"f entraine une diminution du pH et une augmentation de l'acidité totale de l'amidon de manioc. Ceci s'expliquerait par la dégradation des moléculas d'amidon en composés plus petits et par la libération de radicaux libres pouvant formar par la suite des acides organiques (SAADANY et al., 1976). Des liaisons estar lient l'acid,!J phosphorique du tubercule de manioc aux chaines d'amidon. La dégradation de ces liaisons entrainerait une libération d'acide phosphorique a !'origine de la baisse du pH et de l'augmentation de l'acidité totale (KERR, 1950   cité par SAADANYet al. , 1976).La teneur en sucre réducteur augmente proportionnellement a la dose de rayonnement re~ue .Ceci indiquerait une réaction chimique au .niveau des macromolécules d'amidon (SAADANYet al., 1976). MICHEL et al. (1980) montrent que la viscosité intrinséque d'un amidon irradié est inversement proportionnelle au pouvoir réducteur, qui est lui-méme proportionnel aux nombres de moléculas présentes. Le pouvoir réducteur serait done inversement proportionnel au degré de polymérisation (DP) de l'amidon.Une modification des propriétés viscoélastiques de l'amidon lors de l'irradiation y est constatée par SAADANYet al. (1976) et CE RE DA (1981 ). Les profils de viscosité Brabender (fig ure 21) s'applatissent avec des valeurs maxima qui diminuent tres fortement (de 850uB pour 0,5Mrad a 100uB pour 8Mrad) avec la dose de rayonnement re~e (CEREDA, 1981).  SAADANY et al.(1976) expliquent les changements de propriétés physicochimiques par la formation de petits composés moléculaires a partir des macromolécules d'amidon. Ceci est confirmé par la chute de la viscosité spécifique avec l'irradiation. 11 y a une dépolymérisation des moléculas d'amidon due a la cassure de la liaison C-C ou de liaisons glucosidiques. Ces résultats sont confirmés par d'autres auteurs et par l'augmentation de la solubilité et la baisse du pouvoir de gonflement de l'amidon apres irradiation. Enfin, SAADANY et al.(1976) montre un comportement exactement semblable pour l'amidon de ma• is, a celui qu'il décrit pour l'amidon de manioc. 11 ne met en évidence aucune spécificité de l'amidon de manioc.Une comparaison rapide des résultats obtenus ici avec les résultats obtenus apres séchage au soleil d'amidon doux de manioc (LARSONNEUA, 1993-VERNEREY, 1994) montre que:-les radiations 'Y entrainent une diminution du pH et une augmentation d'acidité totale alors que les radiations solaires ont un effet contraire, ... -les radiations 'Y et les radiations solaires semblent avoir des effets tres similaires sur les profils de viscosité Brabender (CEREDA, 1981-LARSONNEUR, 1993).La modification la plus importante induite par l'irradiation 'Y est la dépolymérisation de l'amidon.La formation de produits de faible masse moléculaire potentiellement toxique est secondaire (MICHEL et al., 1980). Des radiodextrines de masse intermédiaire entre les composés précédents et celle des macromolécules d'amylose et d'amylopectine dont elles sont issues sont produites également. Radjodégolymérisatjon de l'amjdon La viscosité intrinseque, directement liée au degré de polymérisation moyen, et le taux de produits hydrosolubles formés permettent de suivre la radiodépolymérisation. La viscosité intriseque augmente avec la dose d'irradiation y et pour un amidon donné, elle est inversement proportionnelle??? au pouvoir réducteur, lui-méme proportionnel au nomb~e de moléculas (MICHEL et al., 1980). La probabilité de ruptura d'une liaison glucosidique diminue lorsque la teneur en eau augmente. CEREO A (1981) remarque que l'humidité a un effet protecteur et l'explique en donnant a l'eau un role de tampon de l'effet des radicaux primaires formés, qui, en proportion, s'attaqueront moins a des moléculas d'amidon. MICHEL et al. (1980) montrent que l'eau a également un effet inhibiteur sur la formation des produits hydrosolubles, mais aussi sur calle des produits carbonylés et autres produits radio-induits.Au contraire, ROY et al. (1984) soulignent que les doses de radiations nécessaires pour obtenir un changement significatif dans un polymere solide sont beaucoup plus importante que pour le méme polymere en solution.Effet hydrolythjgue de l'jrradjatjon y (ROBIN et al .. 1978) Par comparaison de méthodes enzymatique et chromatographique, les dextrinas issus de la dégradation des macromolécules sont étudiées. Les auteurs font allusion a la présence dans l'amidon irradié de dextrinas contenant une ou plusieurs unités modifiées porteuses d'un groupement carbonylé et absorbant la lumiere ultraviolette a 254nm. Ces dextrinas sont réfractaires a l'action de la ~-amylase. lis concluent que l'effet hydrolythique de l'irradiation 'Y est a rapprocher de celui occasionné par une hydrolyse acide ménagée de l'amidon granulaire. Le. s zonas cristallisées du grain seraient mieux protégées du rayonnement g que les zones amorphes riches en amylose. Les radiodextrines issues des zonas riches en amylopectine conserveraient une conformation hélico'idale et l'organisation cristalline présentée par l'amidon natif. La dépolymérisation des macromolécules s'accompagnerait par ailleurs de ruptura des liaisons hydrogénes intercaténaires. Les composés carbonylés Durant l'irradiation y se forment des composés carbonylés et des péroxydes connus pour étre fortement mutagénes et toxiques. Leur dosage semble étre un indicateur possible pour le contrOle de la stérilisation par irradiation des produits contenant de l'amidon (STOCKHAUSEN et al., 1978). Un modele explicant la formation des composés carbonylés est propasé (fig 22).f omsacion :(3) L'action du pétrin, par la multiplication des contacts entre les divers constituants du mélange, permet aux moléculas d'eau de se lier aux différents groupements chargés existants sur les granules d'amidons et les moléculas protéiques. Dans un deuxieme temps, il permet d'établir des liaisons entre les différents constituants (GODON, 1989).Au cours du pétrissage, des substances organiques talles que les lipides et des zonas de protéines sont repoussées par l'eau. Elles se regroupent alors pour formar des ensambles isolés du milieu aqueux et s'assemblent. Les protéines sont en plus capables d'établir des liaisons par des atomes de souffre dont elles sont particulierement riches (glutamine). Des ponts disulfures se mettent en place. Ainsi, par le jeu d'intéractions hydrogene, hydrophobe et disulfure, le gluten se forme par suite de l'association des gliadines et des glutenines. Petit a petit, il constitue une masse viscoélastique emprisonnant l'amidon et qui donne sa structure a la pAte (GODON, 1989).Associé d'abord en masse souple, les protéines du gluten subissent des torces de cisaillement dans une méme direction pendant tout le pétrissage. Elles s'orientent alors et s'ordonnent progressivement en lamelles minces entre lesquelles s'intervalent des lipides. Ce film protéique continu, quasiement imperméable aux gaz, sera capable d'emprisonner le gaz carbonique obtenu lors de la fermentation (GODON, 1989).   Sourcs: GODON, 1989 Elle se fait en deux temps dans un milieu qui n'est pas strictement anaérobie et dure enviren 4heures (ALAIS, 1991 ):1.La levure fermente d'abord les glucides libres de la pAte pendant que les amylases attaquent les granules d'amidon endommagés a la mouture. 11 se forme alors des mattoses et des dextrinas limites.2.La levure peut alors de développer aux dépends des oses libérés dans la fermentation proprement dite. 11 se produit alors du gaz carbonique, de l'alcool et des acides organiques. Le gaz carbonique emprisonné dans le réseau de gluten sera a !'origine du développement du volume de la pAte lors de la cuisson (GODON, 1989).Elle se fait vers 250°C durant 20 a 30 minutes dans un tour a atmosphére saturée en eau et comporte différentes transformations:-jusqu'a 60°C, un accroissement brusque du volume du pain se produit et un film précurseur de la croute se forme en surface; -a partir de 70°C, les protéines du gluten se dénaturent et coagulent (ALAis, 1991 ); le réseau de gluten coagule formant le squelette qui maintient la forme du pain (DARBON, 1988); (figure 16); -vers 90 a 1 oooc, la croute se forme et la vapeur d'eau se répartit de fa~n concomittante dans lamia; -a partir de 11 0°C, se produisent une dextrinisation et une caramélisation et des produits de torréfaction apparaissent en surface entre 170 et 230°C (ALAIS, 1991 ); la réaction de Maillard entre les produits d'amylose et les protéines donne au pain sa couleur et sa flaveur (DARBON, 1988).Le pain refroidit lentement. Lorsque la température devient inférieure a 60°C, la rétrogradation de l'amidon débute:-de l'eau est libérée (synérase), -l'amylopectine se replie et la rigidité augmente, -la croOte se ramollit par migration de l'eau provenant de la míe.Dans les pays en voie de développement, la consommation de pain de blé a augmenté considérablement ces dernieres années et obliga les gouvernements a de couteuses importations de blé. Des recherches lancées pour substituer au blé des plantes tropicales talles que le manioc ont montré que 70% de blé au mínimum étaient nécessaires pour obtenir un bon pouvoir de panification.Les recherches se sont alors orientées vers l'utilisation de produits de substitution du gluten de blé. Les djfférentes substances utilisées: Différents liants ou agglomérants ont d'abord été utilisés avec plus ou moins de suecas mais sans application par la suite. 11 s'agit du GMS (glycérol monostéarate), de corps gras, de blancs d'oeufs, de gliadines. Des gommes et des amidons prégélatinisés ont également été étudiés.Des essais ont été réalisés avec des produits locaux disponibles facilement au Nlgéria. L'utilisation de blancs d'oeufs et de margarina a donné les meilleurs résultats au point de vue panification, en méme temps qu'un produit apprécié des Nigérians. La méthode de panjfication utiliSée:Différents ingrédients sont mélangés dans un mixeur: de la farine de manioc (80g), de la farine de soja grillée (20g), de la levure sache (1 ,5g), du sel (1 ,5g), du sucre (6g), de la margarina (4 a 1 Og) de l'eau 110g) et des blancs d'oeufs battus (48g).La pAte obtenue est moulée et laissée fermentar dans son maulé pendant 60 minutes a 30°C puis ouite a 200°C au tour.La margarina, associée a des blancs d'oeufs battus ou de la gomme de xantham permettent une amélioration du volume du pain et de la qualité de sa mie. Les additifs permettent d'augmenter la quantité d'air emprisonnée dans la pAta lors du mixage. Les bulles formées par l'air sont investís par le C02 formé lors de la fermentation par les levures. Les levures, sinon, ne seraient pas capables de créer des bulles de gaz.L'ajout d'un émulsifiant tel que le GMS dans une pAta de manioc et de soja permet d'augmenter le nombre de cellules de gaz obtenu et de réduire leur taille. L'ajout de margarina entraine une diminution légére de la capacité d'hydratation de l'amidon, du a une diminution de la gélatinisation de l'amidon dans la mie. L'ajout de blancs d'oeuf battus entraine une diminution significativa de la teneur en humidité de la mie. Sur la pAta, le blanc d'oeuf réduit la gélatinisation de l'amidon, le gonflement de l'amidon et sa solubilisation.Les volumes spécifiques des différents pains obtenus ici restent relativement faibles. Le plus important est de 2, 63 cm3.g-1 pour le pain obtenu avec du blanc d'oeuf et 10g de margarina.Le grajn d'amjdon pendant la cujsson L'amidon de manioc fermenté donne des biscuits expansé au fort volume spécifique: 0,093g.cm-3 ou 10,75cm3.g-1 avec une croute fine et craquante.Durant la cuisson, l'humidité passe de 38% a 6,3%. L'amidon est devenu complétement amorphe, mais les grains ne sont pas détruits. Le granule se déshydrate en surface, gélatinise a l'intérieur et se dilate, s'expense. L'hydrolyse aeide de !'arnjdon doux Lorsqu'elle n'est pas trop forte, elle permet l'augmentation du volume spécifique. La dégradation des grains d'amidon doit restar légére car l'expansion n'est pas possible avec des amidons trop fortement dépolymérisés.Le pouvoir d'expansion obten u aprés dégradation acide d'arnidon doux et quelque soit l'acide employé n'est jamais aussi bon que celui qu'on obtient avec de l'amidon fermenté: il se forme une larga bulle entourée d'une croOte épaisse et résistante est obtenue. La fennentation de l'arnjdon ajgre Elle produit des acides lactiques et propioniques, et du gaz carbonique, qui s'adsorbent sur les granules d'amidon. L'expansion lors de la cuisson pourrait étre liée a leur désorption et a leur expansion, comme a la vaporisation de l'eau. La croute formée en surface retiendrait les gazs produits.L'acidification qu'on observe lors de la fermentation rendrait l'adsorption des acides carbonique (pKa 6,4} et propionique (pKa 4,87} plus facile. ","tokenCount":"10285"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3e00e453e3816042dc01f013023d119c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9fa0e1e4-d609-430c-8b73-8b9756b01711/retrieve","id":"-2100483462"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"63908be5-cffd-424e-8f34-59b694d5b1aa","pagecount":"12","content":"Materials and Methods .Yam production is constrained by the limited availability and high cost of quality seed due to its slow vegetative propagation ratio. Micropropagation using nodal and meristem explants have been used to produce clean plantlets, with a 1:4 multiplication ratio for nodal explants and 1:1 ratio for meristem explants, the latter taking 6 to 24 months before plantlet regeneration. The effect of six hormone-free basal medium compositions, made of Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium and Gamborg's B5 medium modified mainly in terms of nitrate to ammonium ratio on micropropagation ratio of four genotypes of white yam were investigated using single nodes from in vitro established plantlets. A second experiment was conducted on the effect of different concentrations of NAA (naphthalene acetic acid), GA 3 (Gibberellic acid), BAP (benzyl amino-purine), and UP (Uniconazole-p) at different combinations on micropropagation, using a completely randomized design with 20 replicates. Data were collected on number of nodes per plantlet every four weeks for twelve weeks. ANOVA was done and means were separated at P = 0.05. The average number of nodes per plantlet after 12 weeks was 3.76 in conventional MS medium which was the best for all the genotypes except TDr 95/19177 in which there were no significant differences among the different nitrogen regimes. The B5 medium produced the lowest number of 1.85 nodes after 12 weeks of culture. Nitrogen use efficiency seems to differ among genotypes, necessitating the use of an ion-specific nutrient test for increased optimization. Medium containing 0.2 mg/l BAP and 0.1 g/l UP in MS medium produced the highest mean number of nodes (6.5) after 12 weeks. Both mineral nutrition and hormones were effective in increasing the yam micropropagation ratio.Keywords: Yam micropropagation, nitrogen nutrition, growth regulators, Uniconazole-pTo investigate effects of basal medium and plant growth regulator regimes on meristem and nodal culture of white yam with a view to identifying optimum regimes for increased micropropagation ratio.Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is an annual or perennial tuber bearing and climbing plant. White yam (D. rotundata), yellow yam (D. cayenensis), water yam (D. alata), trifoliate yam (D. dumetorum), aerial yam (D. bulbifera), and Chinese yam (D. esculenta) (FAO 2013) are the most important staples out of more than 600 species of yams existing. Yam production is however constrained by the limited availability and high cost of quality planting materials due to the slow vegetative propagation methods used. Diseases also accumulate over generations due to continuous use of infected planting materials.Seed yam accounts for up to 63% of production costs (Agbaje and Oyegbami 2005;Ironkwe 2005). Micropropagation using meristems followed by nodal culture has been used to produce disease-free yam plantlets. The growth regulator content of culture media can have a dramatic impact on plant regrowth (Balogun et al., 2014) while morphogenesis is influenced by the form and total amount of nitrogen provided in the medium (Leblay et al., 1991;George and Klerk 2008) and other minerals (Niedz and Even 2007). However, a 1:4 multiplication ratio was reported for yam nodal cultures (Polzin et al., 2013) while meristem cultures were characterized by blackening and premature senescence (Ng and Hahn 1985;Poornima and Ravishankar 2007) and shoot induction but no plantlet regeneration in D. rotundata (Adeniyi et al. 2008). The most commonly used basal medium is Murashige and Skoog (MS), which is characterized by high levels of nitrogen in the forms of ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate. This study tested effects of other basal medium formulations and growth regulator regimes on nodal and meristem cultures of white yam.In  1) were used in the first experiment. In another experiment, Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), Gibberellic acid (GA 3 ), Benzyl amino-purine (BAP), and Uniconazole-p (UP) at different combinations were tested on nodal and meristem cultures in a completely randomized design. For meristem cultures, plantlets were precultured for twenty-one days, their meristems were excised and cultured into four media types containing per liter 4.43 g MS, 30 g sucrose, 0.1 g Myo-Inositol, 0.02 g L-Cysteine, 0.2 mg BAP, and 0.08 g Adenine hemisulphate. Media I, II, III, and IV differed in that they contained 1 mg GA 3 and 0.1 g UP; 0.5 mg GA 3 and 0.1g UP; 0.1g UP; 0.1 mg NAA and 0.04 mg GA 3, respectively, per liter of medium. The same media (but without adenine hemisulfate) were tested for nodal culture except that 0.1 mg NAA and 0.04 mg GA 3 in medium IV was substituted with 1 mg kinetin. Data were collected on number of nodes and buds per plantlet every four weeks for 12 weeks. ANOVA was done using SAS 9.4 and means were separated at P = 0.05.The average number of nodes per plantlet after 12 weeks was 3.76 in MS medium which was either the highest or not significantly different from cysteine-free MS, N1 or N2 for all the genotypes except TDr 95/18544 in which MS was significantly (Table 2, Annex 1) higher than other regimes. The B5 and N3 media had the lowest number of nodes per plantlet with 1.85 and 2.33 nodes, respectively, after 12 weeks of culture. This may be due to the low quantity of reduced nitrogen ((NH4)2SO4) and absence of nitrate in Gamborg B5 medium and too much total nitrogen in N3. Nitrogen use efficiency seems to differ among genotypes, making it necessary to test this in more genotypes while also investigating effects of specific ions on micropropagation. Among plant growth regulator regimes added to MS medium, 0.2 mg BAP + 0.1 g UP produced the highest mean number of 6.5 nodes (Table 3, Annex 2) after 12 weeks. However, the plantlets had short internodes.  Means for medium, week and genotype followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05; Media I, II, III and IV: 1 mg GA 3 and 0.1 g UP; 0.5 mg GA 3 and 0.1 g UP; 0.1 g UP; 0.1 mg NAA and 0.04 mg GA 3, respectively per liter of medium.Mean square values from Analysis of variance for effects of plant growth regulators and genotype on rates of micropropagation of yam nodal culture. **Significant at P = 0.01.Up to six new nodes and six buds were produced from a single node and meristem, respectively, in 12 weeks. Buds regenerated into plantlets 2 months later, making a total of 5 months. Taking this plantlet through two cycles of nodal propagation of 3 months each at a ratio of 1:6, 36 clean plantlets will be produced in another 6 months. Basal medium and growth regulator increased micropropagation ratio although this varied with genotype. Protocols should be optimized for end-user preferred genotypes. Work is also ongoing to investigate the effects of other cultural factors for better performance.","tokenCount":"1109"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4aaa279517df29506f7664322e084bd7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1dbeecac-f2da-4dbf-81a4-526243df56af/retrieve","id":"-833892950"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"35ffd844-3f4f-4969-ae86-2b29877cc02e","pagecount":"87","content":"There are many reasons to process milk into dairy products, such as the following: ? Many dairy products can be kept longer than fresh milk, therefore the milk does not have to be consumed immediately. ? The demand for fresh milk may be limited, and there may be more interest in dairy products.This Agrodok is meant to serve as a manual for those who want to start small-scale production of dairy products in developing countries. The booklet introduces the reader to small-scale dairy production using simple techniques. It also gives an idea of the opportunities available to earn some income through cheese making. Locally there is often much knowledge available on production of dairy products. We would advise you to get acquainted with such methods in your area before starting on your own. We would also suggest that you not introduce Western dairy products if there is no need to do so, especially if local dairy products are already being made.The authors have used information provided by the late J.C.T. van den Berg of the Wageningen Agricultural University in the Netherlands, who had much experience with factory production of dairy products in the tropics. The recipes described in this Agrodok have been drawn from various sources. We would greatly appreciate it if you would write to us about your experiences with the recipes in this book and with information on other local recipes. Where possible, they will be included in a future revised edition.The sixth, revised edition has been updated with some technological knowledge about dairy science and dairying techniques and experience in extension service. However it is utterly impossible to cover the whole field of dairy technology. To do this, one needs basic knowledge of dairy chemistry, physics and microbiology, in addition to hygiene and handling of the milk on farm level. Therefore this booklet has to be considered as an introduction. Interested readers have to extend their knowledge by means of further reading and professional training in some important dairy techniques. The list of literature references and useful addresses may be of help.1 IntroductionLivestock is usually kept for various reasons in the tropics such as traction, the provision of meat, wool, hair, skins and manure which, when dried, can be used as fuel. Milk is often no more than a byproduct of animal husbandry, although it is a valuable foodstuff. Furthermore, keeping livestock can be a way of saving. In the event of an emergency, animals can be sold to provide money. As such, animal husbandry is also a kind of insurance against, for example, disease and crop failure.It is not by accident that a certain kind of milk-producing animal is kept in a specific area. This is due to climatic conditions, locally prevalent diseases, available fodder, the possibilities for the owner to take risks, additional tasks that the animal is expected to do, religion and tradition and the preference for products that the animal produces.Keeping dairy animals often leads to a surplus of milk. If milk production is higher than consumption in a certain area, the surplus can either be sold on the market, or it can be processed so that it does not go off. If the quantity of milk to be processed is small (up to 100 litres at a time), this activity is considered to be small scale. This Agrodok deals with the small-scale processing of milk using simple equipment.? If the daily amount of fresh milk for sale is limited, it may be more economical to process the milk into less perishable products, store them, and sell them later in greater quantities. ? There may be no market for fresh milk close by, and only preserved products can be sold at markets at a greater distance. ? Greater financial gain may be obtained.Apart from these reasons, it should also be realised that many population groups in Asia and Africa cannot or can hardly consume milk because of so-called lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance implies that the body is almost or entirely unable to digest the milk sugar, lactose, which is found in milk. Only small amounts of milk (up to 200 ml) consumed several times a day can be digested. Dairy products in which a proportion of the milk sugar is converted during production, such as cheese, curd, yoghurt and sour milk or buttermilk, do not cause many problems in this respect.Before processing surplus milk, one must consider whether it is profitable to do so. The processing is not always easy and there may be losses. For example, a waste product of cheese making is whey, which contains many valuable nutrients. If the whey is not used, a valuable part of the milk is lost. Furthermore, while milk is being processed quality deterioration may occur and it can go off. Only when milk is drunk immediately can you be sure that nothing is lost.Small-scale processing of milk means the processing of small quantities of milk, up to 100 litres at a time, using simple implements and as little extra equipment as possible. Processing milk in the tropics can be difficult because of the high temperatures and high relative humidity often found there. These conditions present special problems in choosing the right kind of dairy products. Their storage life must always be taken into account.High temperatures are bad for cheese making, especially for maturing cheeses. High temperatures also cause the bacteria already present in milk to multiply quickly. Milk sugar then turns sour, leading to the curdling of milk. However, these lactic acid bacteria are not harmful to humans.Thorough cleaning of dairy utensils and equipment is essential. Anyone handling milk must also pay great attention to hygiene. Lack of hygiene can contaminate milk with other types of bacteria, which turn it sour and reduce its storage life. The prevention of contamination is especially difficult when milk is collected from various places and processed centrally. Addition of even a small quantity of infected milk contaminates the total quantity of the milk.A further problem is the lack of equipment. One has to try to manage with simple dairy equipment, but even this can be difficult to find for small-scale milk processing. Electricity is usually not available so electric equipment (e.g. for cooling) cannot be used unless a generator is installed. Additives such as rennet for cheese making are often difficult to obtain in the tropics.The following chapters discuss the importance of milk in the diet, hygiene and milk processing techniques.The second part of the booklet gives guidelines for heating, cooling and fermentation and for the processing of cream, butter, ghee, sour dairy products and cheese. An important protein in milk is casein (in many cases 80% of the milk protein). This is the base for cheese making. Casein is linked to calcium phosphate, which is why milk contains a relatively large amount of this salt that is a very important nutrient for humans and animals.In addition to casein, milk contains whey proteins (20% of the milk protein). The whey proteins are in most cases not incorporated in the cheese; they remain in the whey. Whey proteins (globulins and albumins) have a very high nutritive value.Milk protein is of a high quality. This means that the human body can use a large part of the protein efficiently. Proteins in various other foodstuffs have a complementary effect. In combination with cereals, potatoes, meat, eggs or nuts in one meal, the body can use an even greater percentage of the milk protein.Apart from milk, there are other animal protein sources such as fish and meat. Vegetable protein, which is also important in making the body's proteins, is found in cereals and pulses. Protein is needed by the body for growth, replacement of worn-out body proteins and the production of compounds that the body needs.Milk sugar (lactose) is a carbohydrate, a necessary component to keep the body going. Our bodies burn carbohydrates in the same way an oven burns wood. Through this combustion, energy is released which is used by our bodies for many kinds of activities.Milk fat is present in the form of small fat globules, which have a lower weight than the other components of the milk. When cow milk is allowed to stand, these globules collect on top of the milk and form a layer of cream. Buffalo milk also forms some cream on top, but other kinds of milk, such as that of sheep and goats, hardly form a layer of fat at all. For these types of milk one needs to separate the cream from the milk. Milk fat is easy to digest. The body uses fat as a fuel or stores it as fat reserves.Milk is also an important source of minerals and vitamins. It contains large quantities of calcium, which can easily be absorbed by the body after digestion and is important for the formation of bones (the skeleton). Milk is also an important source of vitamin B2 (Riboflavin), but there is little vitamin C in milk. Therefore a person's diet must also include vegetables and fruits in order to ensure a sufficient supply of vitamin C.Milk is able to compensate for a lack of certain nutrients in a monotonous diet because of the great diversity of nutrients it contains and the high value of milk protein. It can therefore greatly improve the quality of the diet. Products derived from milk contain these nutrients to a greater or lesser extent. Milk is especially desirable for vulnerable groups, for instance babies, toddlers, children and pregnant and nursing mothers. Always strive for a healthy, varied diet, which apart from milk also includes cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits and if possible meat or fish.The various types of milk differ in various ways, including nutritional value. In the next pages this is dealt with in more detail.The composition of mother's milk and milk from cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, camel, donkey and lama is shown in table 1. The figures in table 1 show that the composition of the milk of non-ruminants, e.g. mother's milk and mare milk, differs distinctly from the milk of ruminants (cow, goat, sheep, etc.). This may be partly explained by differences in the digestive system of the two groups.Apart from the differences in cream formation there are other differences between the various kinds of milk. There is a lot of provitamin A (carotene) in cow milk, giving it its yellow colour, but not in buffalo, goat or sheep milk. In the milk of goats and sheep the carotenoids are already converted into the colourless vitamin A. This is why only cow milk is yellow in colour. Buffalo milk curdles sooner than cow milk. Unless the preparation is adjusted, cheese made from buffalo milk will mature more slowly and have a drier consistency than cheese made from cow milk. Goat milk can have an unpleasant smell; this can be prevented by boiling the milk as soon as possible after milking. Between some goats or breeds of goats there may be a difference in the taste of the milk.Cow milk accounts for 91% of the world's milk production. Buffalo, goat and sheep milk account for 5.9%, 1.6% and 1.7% respectively.Although there are enormous regional differences we can generally say that, if it is to be drunk, milk from cows or buffaloes is preferred to that from goats and sheep. This is because of the more neutral flavour of cow milk and buffalo milk.Goat and sheep milk are, just like the milk of cows and buffaloes, popular for making cheese and soured milk products (especially sheep milk). Camel milk is usually drunk. Mother's milk is the most ideal food for a suckling infant. Nonetheless, many substitutes have been developed which find a ready demand. We shall pay more attention to infant nutrition in the next section.Mother's milk is best suited to the needs of a baby, and contains certain components that protect an infant against infectious diseases. All the nutrients a baby needs, except iron and vitamin C, are to be found in sufficient quantities in mother's milk. At birth, a baby has a store of iron in its liver, which it uses up during its first 6 months. Any kind of supplementary feeding is only necessary after 3 months, as the mother's milk then no longer supplies all the nutrients the infant needs.Fruit juice and mashed fruit provide additional vitamin C, which the infant then needs. Supplementary feeding of energy-giving foods is also desirable. Mixing small quantities of milk powder into mashed food can considerably improve the food's value (especially the value of its protein).It is advisable to continue breastfeeding as long as possible because mother's milk is often the only source of animal protein for a baby. If the mother cannot breastfeed, does not have enough milk or dies, bottle feeding is a solution and the best substitute. However, in practice often too much water is added to the (artificial) baby food, which is usually bought in powder form. It becomes too watery and is therefore not nutritious enough. Moreover, artificial foods are costly and require good hygiene. Dilution with water is often a cause of infection because the available water may be polluted. Water used for bottle feeding must first be boiled, but sterilising water by boiling uses a lot of fuel, which is often in short supply. By using a cup or a spoon it is easier to maintain the necessary hygiene rather than a bottle because they are easier to clean.Money might be better spent on essential necessities of life than on artificial infant food if the latter is not strictly necessary. If a baby cannot digest milk, you will be forced to use milk products, which do not contain lactose. This is the case with inherited lactose intolerance. We shall discuss this in more detail.Lactose intolerance means that the human body is almost, or entirely, unable to digest the milk sugar, lactose, which is present in milk because the body lacks the enzyme lactase. Lactase splits the lactose into glucose and galactose. The latter two mono-saccharides can easily be absorbed in the intestine.Undigested lactose can be converted by the microbial flora in the intestine into lactic acid and gases. Consumption of larger quantities of milk thus causes flatulence, stomach cramps and diarrhoea. 'Lactose intolerance' is thus often called 'lactase deficiency'.There are different forms of lactose intolerance among children: ? Congenital lactose intolerance. In this case, a baby cannot digest milk because the baby lacks the enzyme lactase, necessary for the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose. ? Lactose intolerance among children who are 2-5 years old. From the age of two years lactase activity in a child decreases and the child may have problems due to insufficient lactase by the time he or she is 4-5 years old. Consumption of small quantities of milk (one glass at a time) usually does not cause any problem. It is also possible to prevent problems by eating fermented milk products, in which part of the milk sugar has been converted, such as cheese, yoghurt and buttermilk. ? Lactose intolerance as a result of intestinal disease and/or malnutrition, especially in babies and toddlers. The lactose activity is temporarily decreased making it necessary to use lactose-free milk products for a short time. Cheese and fermented products like yoghurt, in which milk sugar has been converted, are also suitable.Apart from lactose intolerance, the use of milk also depends on other factors, which we will now discuss.Diet refers to the way people feed themselves and the foodstuffs they use to do so. This is strongly influenced by people's traditions and religion, their economic position, their place in society and the possibilities offered by their natural surroundings. It is not surprising that each population group has its own diet. The use of milk and dairy products can also be looked at when examining the diet.Here are a few examples of how the factors mentioned above can influence the role and form of milk and dairy products in the diet.? The cow is a sacred animal in India; therefore the rennet used in cheese making may not be taken from a calf's stomach. ? If milk or dairy products have to be bought, money is needed. ? In densely populated areas, people are forced to use all available land for crops that give a maximum yield, or crops that can be directly consumed by the people. This limits the land available for dairy farming. ? It may not be possible to keep cattle in certain regions, e.g. the humid tropics, due to the natural environment. For example, in humid areas of West Africa cattle cannot be kept because they are the host of the tsetse fly, which transmits sleeping sickness.For these reasons, milk and dairy products in the diet can be of greater or lesser importance in one area or another. Economic and social situations are especially subject to change and dietary patterns change with them.New foodstuffs may be introduced to (partly) substitute others.Adoption of new products is often no easy matter; sometimes centuries-old traditions may have to change. Also, taste and other characteristics such as texture are important in the acceptance of new kinds of food. Something that may be considered very tasty in one place, may not be appreciated elsewhere. Milk should be handled with care. There are several factors that can make milk go off and become unsuitable for further consumption. These include:? the presence of too many micro-organisms in the milk ? contamination by diseased animals (tuberculosis, brucellosis) and/or people ? bacterial and/or chemical conversion of certain substances in the milk ? contamination of the milk with antibiotics (used for treatment of diseased animals), disinfectants, pesticides and so on.The above-mentioned factors always cause some deterioration of milk.In some cases it is only the flavour that is affected, but usually the structure and smell of milk also change. In the case of contamination with antibiotics and disinfectants, the milk's appearance does not change, but fermentation, which is necessary for processing the milk, is inhibited.We will first discuss the way micro-organisms cause the deterioration of milk. Then precautions which can be taken to minimise the impact of these factors will be explained, and some suggestions for cleaning and disinfection will be given.Bacteria, yeasts and moulds are all called: micro-organisms.Micro-organisms are very small and cannot be seen with the naked eye. They are found everywhere in nature: in the air, water, and soil and also in food and milk. Micro-organisms can multiply very rapidly.Milk in the udder of a healthy animal contains almost no microorganisms (aside from lactic acid bacteria). After the milk leaves the udder contamination with, sometimes harmful, micro-organisms will take place during milking, milk handling, transport and storage. Milk may be contaminated with micro-organisms originating from the skin of the animal, the milker's hands, the milking utensils or the air.Most micro-organisms are not harmful, but some can cause diseases like salmonella infection, dysentery, tuberculosis (in man and in animals), diphtheria and typhoid. These disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogenic bacteria. Through inadequate hygiene, diseases can be transmitted from person or animal to person. Micro-organisms can multiply very rapidly in milk. Temperature plays an important role in the life of micro-organisms. Their growth can start at a temperature of about 4°C. It is therefore very important to store milk or milk products at a temperature no higher than 4°C; otherwise deterioration will take place rapidly. Above 20°C, bacteria multiply at an incredible speed. Most micro-organisms are killed during pasteurisation, e.g. at a temperature above 63°C for a period of at least 30 minutes. But a few, the so-called spore-forming bacteria, will survive more intense heating. They can give problems like off flavours and coagulation in pasteurised milk.Yeasts are micro-organisms that can ferment sugars into alcohol, gas and other substances. They are about 5-10 times larger than bacteria. Reproduction usually takes place through budding. Yeasts usually grow in an acid environment; they need oxygen and they can withstand rather high concentrations of acids.In dairy products, yeasts are usually found in soured products like sour milk or buttermilk, sour whey, butter, and curd and on the surface of cheese. When present in large numbers, they produce gas and they cause undesirable off flavours of the product.Moulds are string-like micro-organisms. The fine threads, called mycelium, are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. To develop they need atmospheric oxygen, and they thrive best in humid and acid conditions. Moulds multiply by forming spores. These float easily through the air and can often be found on poorly maintained ceilings and walls. Their mobility makes them an important source of infection.Moulds can be seen on the surface of butter or cheese in the form of coloured spots. For some soft cheeses (like Camembert and Brie) moulds are essential for ripening. In general, moulds are harmless, but some produce poisonous toxins (mycotoxins), such as aflatoxin in peanut products.Cells and spores of moulds and yeasts are destroyed by pasteurisation (heating the milk 30 minutes at 63°C or 20 seconds at 72°C).Bacteria are single-cell micro-organisms that multiply by cell division. Raw milk and many dairy products contain many different kinds of bacteria. Environmental conditions (such as acidity, temperature, humidity or amount of oxygen) can change, making conditions less attractive for one group of bacteria but at the same time creating optimal conditions for another type. This is why some families of bacteria will always be found in milk or dairy products (lactic acid bacteria).An exception must be noted, which is dried products like milk powder. Micro-organisms cannot grow without water and therefore the number of bacteria in uncontaminated milk powder will be low.Bacteria found in milk can be divided into two groups: useful and harmful. Lactic acid bacteria (e.g. Streptococcus lactis) are useful. They produce lactic acid, which is not harmful and gives milk a fresh, sour taste. Moreover lactic acid is a good preservative for the sour products. Pathogenic bacteria (those that cause diseases in humans) cannot grow in acid products. When producing certain dairy products like soured milk, yoghurt and cheese, good use is made of these specific properties (see chapter 5).Sometimes milk is spoiled by the growth of bacteria that do not produce lactic acid. In this case, certain disease-causing bacteria can develop and whey separates from the milk. This usually happens after long storage of pasteurised milk. The smell is unpleasant and the taste bitter. Such milk should not be consumed.Extraneous substances must be prevented from entering into the milk. These can be dangerous to one's health or cause unpleasant flavours and smells, reducing the suitability of milk for further processing. Some examples are cleaning and disinfecting agents, medicine, pesticides and pieces of metal or glass. The feed given to animals, such as some weeds, onions and cabbage, can also influence the taste of the milk. This can be avoided by feeding the animals after milking. Good hygiene can reduce deterioration. How to achieve a good level of hygiene will be discussed in the following pages.Contamination occurs when micro-organisms enter into the milk.Possible sources of contamination during production, storage and processing are: ? inflammation of the udder (mastitis) ? the animal itself: skin of teats and udder ? conditions at the milking place (floor, dung, dust, dirty water, etc.) ? the person milking ? utensils and equipment used during processing ? the air and environmentIt is no easy task to keep micro-organisms out of milk. Much depends on the person who is milking, the care taken of the animals and the cleanliness of the utensils. If everything is well sanitised and kept clean, relatively few micro-organisms will enter into the milk. Good hygiene is of major importance. In addition, milk -if not used or processed immediately -should be cooled after milking and kept cool.Good hygiene measures therefore: ? Prevent contamination of the milk. ? Prevent bacterial growth through good refrigeration of the milk.There are several possible causes of contamination during milking.In a normal, healthy cow very low numbers of bacteria are found inside the udder and the teats. Cows possess various mechanisms to prevent the entry of bacteria. To avoid problems while milking, it is important that an animal become accustomed to the activity. It will then know that it will be milked, and will react positively to it. Such positive behaviour can start if, for instance, it hears milk cans clanging, feels its udder being cleaned, etc. Then the animal is easier to milk and gives more milk. Stress and unrest make the cows move too much and kick; consequently more dirt and manure can enter into the milk.When a cow has an udder infection (mastitis), its milk will be contaminated with the bacteria that cause the udder infection, and that may produce pus and sometimes blood. Milk from these animals should not be used in any way. Mastitis can be prevented by maintaining good hygiene and avoiding injury to the teats during milking. An infected udder is not always easy to see. When an udder infection occurs, it is advisable to remove milk from the udder very frequently (e.g. every 3 hours by hand). The number of microorganisms in the udder is thus reduced. Be aware, however, that milking an infected udder by machine or by hand is often painful for the animal. The animal will kick frequently and this can be an important source of contamination of healthy cows.Bacteria can be transferred from the skin or teats to the milk, even with healthy dairy cattle. It is therefore important to clean the udder before milking. Wipe the udder clean with a dry, clean, preferably disposable cloth to prevent infection. If the teats or udder are really dirty, they must first be washed with clean, hand-warm water and a clean cloth and then dried with a clean towel. Cleaning the udder improves the cleanliness of the milk and makes milking easier. Skin and hair can also be sources of infection.Do not feed animals first before milking, it may create a lot of dust. See to it that the floor is clean, and be careful when clearing dung, mud or dust. A clean, well-illuminated milking place and fresh surrounding air are essential to maintaining good hygiene. Insects such as flies and cockroaches can also be sources of infection. Try to control them as they can carry many bacteria and viruses.When milking, the milk is caught in a pail or bucket. Dirty milking equipment is the main source of infection of milk.If residues of milk remain in the equipment because of improper cleaning and drying, bacteria will develop in these residues. These bacteria are already accustomed to the milk and will multiply rather quickly during transport and storage of milk in the equipment. Use pails and buckets that are smooth on the inside, for instance seamless metal buckets.All milking equipment should be thoroughly cleaned immediately after each use. Use soap or other detergents if necessary. Make sure that the water used is clean. If you are in doubt, boil it for several minutes or add chlorine. Very important: after cleaning, the equipment should be stored upside down in such a way that the inside of the buckets and cans dry. This prevents the remaining bacteria from growing.The person milking plays the most important part in maintaining proper hygiene during production. He or she keeps an eye on the condition of the animal, chooses the milking place and cleans all the equipment. He or she should have clean hands and wear clean clothes.If the milker suffers from tuberculosis, salmonella infection, dysentery or some other disease, the risk of contamination of the milk becomes very high; it would be wise to have somebody else take over. This is also the case if the milker has open wounds or ulcers.By now you should know that milk should be processed as quickly as possible after milking and that it should be properly stored in order to minimise its chances of spoiling.It is best to filter fresh milk through a filter or clean cloth. This will remove visible dirt that might have entered into the milk. Clean or replace the cloth during filtering or filter the milk several times. The cloth should be thoroughly cleaned after use and then left to dry in the sun.In tropical conditions, raw milk, i.e. non-pasteurised milk, goes off within a few hours. It must therefore be kept cool and quickly pasteurised and again cooled to a temperature of 4°C if possible.Properly pasteurised and cooled milk can be kept for a few days, even in a warm climate.If you are not able to cool milk below 10°C, then do not mix different batches. Even if the older milk is still good, you will end up with an increase in bacterial growth and reduction of the overall quality. Use clean equipment for storage. Containers that are clear, such as glass, should be stored in the dark as light reduces the quality of milk. Clean your equipment with clean water.Utensils must be cleaned in such a way that all dirt, food residues, feed and micro-organisms are removed from the surface of the equipment. Dirty saucepans, jugs, milking equipment and utensils should be cleaned immediately after use. Washing soda (sodium carbonate) dissolved in hot water is an excellent cleaning agent. It may be useful to disinfect equipment in order to kill any remaining harmful micro-organisms. You can use a chloride solution such as bleach (sodium hypochlorite).A proper way of cleaning your equipment is the following: ? Start cleaning immediately after milking, so that milk residues will not dry and stick on the buckets and utensils. ? Rinse well with water. ? Scrub the tools in a hot soda solution (1.5 tablespoons of soda to 5 litres of water), using a small amount of water to dissolve the soda before adding it to the rest of the water. ? Rinse well with hot water. ? Buckets, tubs, etc., should be turned upside down on a rack during storage; the water can then drain and no dirt or dust can enter. Let the utensils dry to prevent bacterial growth.Well-cleaned tools are nearly sterile, only a small part of the bacteria remains on the tools. If these tools dry during storage hardly any bacteria will be present. In that case disinfection is not necessary.Tools which are used for storage of pasteurised milk or for cheese making and which do not get a heat treatment together with the milk can be disinfected after cleaning or before use. Proceed as follows:? Clean all your equipment properly. The following step will be ineffective if the utensils are not clean to start with. ? Disinfect in a chloride or bleach solution after cleaning or shortly before use. Add 2 tablespoons of bleach per 4.5 litres of water.It is advisable to use stainless steel equipment, cheesecloth and wooden utensils. Tools or any other equipment made from aluminium should not be washed in a strong soda solution, as soda attacks aluminium. Iron utensils will rust in a strong chloride solution.Therefore rinse and dry these utensils immediately after cleaning and disinfection.If you have no cleaning agents -like soda-or disinfectants, you can disinfect your equipment as follows:? Thoroughly clean the utensils using clean water.? Rinse with a soap solution.? Dry the equipment on a rack in the sun upside down or rinse with boiling water.WARNING: Take care that acid cleaning agents (e.g. nitric acid) and chlorine never come in contact with each other as very poisonous fumes can be formed.Cleaning agents and disinfectants are chemicals that -if not diluted -can irritate the skin. Direct contact should therefore be avoided; wear gloves, if possible. Do not use any disinfectants other than chloride (bleach). As cleaning agents and disinfectants are dangerous products, they should be locked away in a safe place, where no unauthorised person can get at them. Label the bottles clearly.Milk can be stored longer if it has been processed. Extended storage is possible if you are able to control the growth of micro-organisms. The processing technique used will determine the storage life of the milk and dairy products. The following rules should be followed during the production, storage and processing of milk.? Always wash your hands and avoid putting them in the milk if not necessary. ? See to it that all equipment used during processing is properly cleaned and disinfected if needed. ? Take care that no dirt particles or insects enter into the milk. ? Try to prevent the use of copper utensils. (Copper can give off flavours in butter and milk.) ? Do not expose milk to sunlight; store it in a dark place. ? The use of a thermometer is recommended. ? Make sure that milk used for consumption has always been boiled or pasteurised. ? Never store raw (i.e. unheated) milk if it is not immediately cooled below 4°C. ? Never drink raw milk because it may contain pathogenic bacteria like tubercular bacteria and salmonella.The following processing techniques will be dealt with in this chapter: ? pasteurisation ? cooling ? souring (acidification) ? creaming.Heating and cooling are in fact ways to preserve milk, but for convenience we will deal with them under the heading of processing techniques.As you by now know, milk contains certain micro-organisms that can spoil it. These bacteria grow best at temperatures between 10°C and 40°C. It is therefore important to cool milk as quickly as possible. This can be difficult in the tropics if no cold water or refrigerators are available.Most bacteria will be destroyed during heating. The most effective temperature depends on the heating time. In other words, heating for a longer period at a lower temperature can be as effective as heating for a shorter period but at a higher temperature. Pasteurisation improves the safety and storage life of a product, while the taste hardly changes and the loss of vitamins is minimal. A distinction is made between low and high pasteurisation (see table 2).Although high pasteurisation initially kills more bacteria, the resulting milk can usually not be kept as long, because the high pasteurisation temperature stimulates spores of some bacteria to germinate. Moreover, the taste of high pasteurised milk has more or less the flavour of boiled milk. Pasteurised milk can be kept for about one week at 4-6°C if no re-infection takes place.The pasteurisation temperature to be used depends on the product to be made of the milk. ? Low pasteurisation is used for milk for direct consumption and cheese. ? High pasteurisation is used for yoghurt, butter and kefir. If there is no thermometer to measure the exact temperature, heat the milk to its boiling point.The following method A is suitable if you are able to accurately control both temperature and time. Method B is more hygienic, if the exact temperature of the milk is unknown.You will need: ? raw milk, a heat source, a saucepan with a thick bottom that is smooth on the inside, a thermometer and a means of cooling the milk that has been heated ? for method A: a clean wooden spoon ? for method B: glass jars with lids or bottles with tops, or plastic bags and sealing equipment.Method A Put the milk in a clean saucepan and heat it to 68°C, stirring continuously. Keep the milk at that temperature for at least 3 minutes.Clean the glass jars with lids or bottles with tops. Fill them with milk and close the lids. Submerge the jars and bottles in a large pan filled with water. Heat everything to 80°C and keep it at that temperature for at least 10 minutes.When using method A, let the milk cool down as quickly as possible.The best storage temperature is 4°C. The proper storage temperature for a soured milk product or cheese can be found in chapters 6 and 7.If you are using method B but are not able to maintain a constant temperature of 80°C, the best alternative is to heat the water in the pan until it boils and keep it boiling for some time. It is important to store the pasteurised or boiled milk at 4°C. At this temperature it can be kept up to one week. Handle the boiled or pasteurised milk with care to prevent re-infection.Storing milk at a low temperature will greatly reduce the growth of bacteria. Bacteria develop much slower in cold milk. The best storage temperature is 4°C. If this temperature cannot be achieved, store the milk in a dark place at the lowest temperature possible: see table 3. Without cooling, raw milk will spoil within a day.Put the hot pasteurised or boiled milk in a clean container (the high temperature will disinfect the container). Let it cool down as quickly as possible, preferably in a large pan with cold water (refresh the water if it warms up). The best temperature for storage is 4°C. Cooling down in air, e.g. in a cold cellar or a refrigerator is very ineffective as the transfer of cold by air is very slow. If you use a pan with cold water make sure that no water enters into the milk because it would contaminate the milk again. Add ice cubes to the cooling water, if available. Stir both the water and the milk during cooling with a clean spoon, using different spoons. Figure 10 shows how to cool milk.As mentioned above, properly pasteurised or boiled milk can be kept for about one week if stored at 4°C. At 10°C it will spoil quickly; if it is 15°C or warmer, it should be consumed the same day (see table 3). Another way of increasing the shelf-life of milk is to ferment it into soured milk products. Part of the milk sugar is converted into lactic acid by bacteria, for example by the yoghurt bacteria Streptococcus thermofilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus or the bacteria that grows at room temperature Streptococcus lactis.Fresh raw milk can be left to sour spontaneously, but then you cannot control which bacteria are growing. It is better to sour the milk with the help of specific lactic acid bacteria as a starter culture after the milk has been pasteurised. Quality and taste are influenced by the products that the different lactic acid bacteria produce.Cream is made from the fat that rises to the surface of cow milk. A layer of fat forms on the surface of the milk after it has been left to stand for at least half a day. After a day this layer contains about 20% fat. The simplest way of collecting it is by skimming it off the top of the milk. Sheep and goat milk do not cream easily. You will need a creamer or centrifugal separator to obtain good results. You should be able to get about 1 -2 litres of cream from 10 litres of milk.The skimmed milk which remains after the removal of the cream is still very nutritious, because it contains nearly all the protein of the milk. You can either drink it or use it for the production of sour milk or cheese.Sour (fermented) cream and sour (fermented) milk are produced by incubation of inoculated fresh cream or fresh milk. A culture of lactic acid bacteria is used for inoculation of the fresh milk or the fresh cream.Butter (80% fat) and buttermilk are made by churning cream or milk.One hundred litres of milk with a 4% fat content produces 20 -30 litres of cream, which yields about 4 kg of butter. However, butter is not an important product in tropical countries because it melts easily at high temperatures and it is expensive. There is generally little demand for butter. Butter and cream can be used to make ghee. Ghee keeps better than cream and butter as it contains practically no moisture; it is almost pure milk fat. In tropical countries it is often difficult to prevent raw milk from spoiling before consumption. One way to avoid this is to allow the milk to acidify or ferment. This is done by adding lactic acid bacteria to fresh milk. The addition of lactic acid bacteria is called inoculation.There are several groups of fermented milks. The principal differences between these groups are: ? type of milk used (cow, goat, sheep, buffalo, camel or mare) ? type of fermenting flora ? the way the milk is processed either before or after fermentation.Various kinds of lactic acid bacteria produce various kinds of sour milk. Yoghurt, dahi, laban, nono, kefir and koumiss are all produced in this way. These products differ in flavour, colour and consistency.Bacterial growth shows a specific pattern comprising the following consecutive stages: adaptation phase (A), a period of rapid multiplication (B), a stabilisation period (C) and a decreasing phase (D). See figure 12.After inoculation with the bacteria, the milk starts souring. In practice the whole souring cycle takes one to two days. In this period one can recognise the four growth phases of bacteria as follows.During this period, bacteria, of which only a relatively small number is present, have to adapt to their new environment. Multiplication is still very slow. The length of the adaptation period depends on the type of bacteria, their viability, the temperature of the milk and whether there are any bacterial growth inhibiting factors present.The bacteria, after adjusting to their new environment, multiply rapidly and start fermenting milk sugar (lactose) into lactic acid. The milk gets thicker because of coagulation of the proteins and the taste becomes sour.During this stage, the number of bacteria remains constant. The reason for this is that they do not thrive in the acidic milk.Due to the exhaustion of the nutrients of the food source and the production of lactic acid, the bacteria become inactive and die after some time.Note: The gradual inactivation of the bacteria is the reason why you must not wait too long before adding part of a desirable bacterial culture to fresh milk (inoculation).Starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria can be obtained from specialised firms and laboratories or from other dairy plants. Most of the starter cultures from the laboratories and specialised firms are freeze-dried; dairy plants generally have fresh (liquid) starter cultures available.If starter cultures cannot be obtained easily, it is recommended that you cultivate and maintain your own cultures. That way it is not necessary to buy a fresh starter culture each time you want to make cheese or a soured milk product. If fresh raw milk is stored at ambient temperatures the bacteria in the milk (including the lactic acid bacteria) will develop, after some time acid will be formed and the milk will curdle. The lactic acid bacteria that develops can be used for the fermentation of the product; see section 5.5.During this spontaneous souring, however, undesirable microorganisms could contaminate the milk. It is therefore better to use a commercial starter culture. When small quantities of products are made, a small amount of fresh yoghurt, whey or sour milk (or buttermilk) can be used as a starter culture. Experience has shown that the use of a starter culture produces a more consistent and better product than the use of naturally soured milk.It is difficult to keep the starter culture fresh and active, especially under tropical conditions and with limited resources. The cultivation of the culture requires good hygiene and proper temperatures.Different products, such as yoghurt and cheese, require different cultures of lactic acid bacteria. If you can obtain a freeze-dried powder culture, follow the instructions on the package. Once the seal of the package has been broken, the bacteria will not survive for a long time, in any case not longer than 6 months.To make a starter culture you will need: ? fresh milk ? a thermometer ? a heat source ? a normal size (1 to 2 litre) pan with a lid ? a fresh starter culture or a freeze-dried starter culture ? a place to store the culture that has a constant warm temperature (e.g. an insulated box) ? a spoon or a small measuring cup ? glass pots that can be closed properly.The equipment can be sterilised by immersing spoons, ladles and lids in boiling water for at least 5 minutes.Milk used for the production of a starter culture should be handled under very hygienic conditions. Either whole or skimmed milk can be used as a base, but as the fat in the milk has no use, it is more economical to use skimmed milk. Boil the (skimmed) milk for at least 5 minutes in a saucepan. Transfer the boiled milk into a clean glass (use only glass!) jar, which can be properly closed. Normal clay pottery is porous and therefore more difficult to clean, so it can easily become a source of bacterial contamination. Cool the milk to the proper fermentation temperature. This temperature can be found in the instructions for use on the package of the starter culture.For the production of the first starter culture you must use a freezedried culture or an active fresh liquid culture. If a freeze-dried powder is used: mix the powder with a small quantity of milk to make a smooth paste (everything coming into contact with the starter paste should be disinfected). Add more cold, boiled milk (follow the instructions on the package) and leave the mixture at the proper temperature as indicated in the instructions for using the powder. Dry starters are usually weaker than fresh cultures and should therefore preferably be re-inoculated and incubated one time more before being used to make other products (see figure 13).If you start with a fresh liquid culture a quantity of 1 to 3% has to be added to the milk for inoculation. For freeze-dried starters follow the instructions on the package. The inoculated milk has to be incubated at a certain specific temperature for some time (generally 20 -24 hours at a temperature of 18 -20°C). In that time the bacteria multiply and the milk ferments.Different products, like cheese and yoghurt, require different starter cultures. Incubation time for yoghurt is much shorter, generally 3 -6 hours at temperatures between respectively 45 and 38°C.Bacterial growth starts at the moment the starter culture has been mixed through the milk. From this point, a constant and correct temperature must be maintained. There are a number of ways to keep the culture at the desired temperature. It can be poured into a sterilised thermos flask while warm, or an insulated box can be used to incubate a jar containing the souring milk. Covering the closed saucepan with a blanket or placing the closed pot under the bed covers will also help to keep the temperature constant.Once the culture has been fermented, it can be used to make sour milk products and cheese.Maintenance of the culture involves daily transfer of the existing culture to freshly boiled and cooled milk. Use skimmed milk if possible. This process is needed to prevent the bacteria from becoming too weak and thus useless. Part of the existing culture is used to inoculate fresh milk, which in turn is fermented to become the new 'mother culture'. The rest of the original culture can be used to make products such as yoghurt, cheese and buttermilk. The addition of 1 -3% culture to the milk should be adequate. After incubation the milk has to be cooled, e.g., by putting it in a refrigerator, and incubated again for 20 -24 hours. If a refrigerator is available, inoculation could be done on a weekly basis, but it is better to refresh the starter 2 times per week. The mother culture must be kept properly cooled.If the culture is not used immediately, it can be kept, without transferring, for one week at most in a cool place, e.g. a refrigerator. After repeated use, the culture may become less active or its quality may decrease because it may not have the desirable fresh, sour flavour any more. If it appears that the activity of the culture is decreasing after some time, a fresh starter should be used.A general guideline is to discard the culture when it takes longer than 10 hours to make yoghurt at 40 -45°C, or 30 hours for milk to become sour after the addition of the starter culture to the milk (temperature at 20°C). If the fermentation seems slow, the coagulum is rather thin and does not have a fresh smell, you may be sure that the starter bacteria are weakened.Instead of using milk, one can also use milk powder. It is absolutely essential to use clean, well-boiled water to dissolve the milk powder. Instead of a culture, a portion of the ready-made product (yoghurt, sour milk or buttermilk) can be used if this product was made shortly beforehand, but this method is not very dependable. The safest but also most expensive method is to use a new starter each time, certainly when fermented milk products are made irregularly, i.e. not every month. This will save the effort of frequent inoculation of a new culture.If starters cannot be obtained easily, it is possible to cultivate simple lactic acid starters from raw milk (see figure 14). Store raw milk at ambient temperature until it has developed sufficient acid to curdle. For instance: leave 1 litre of fresh, raw milk to stand for 24 -48 hours at 20-30°C.After souring of this milk, a second quantity of milk is then boiled and cooled to the temperature at which the milk is usually fermented in the production process. The top layer of the available sour milk is skimmed off with a spoon or ladle (to remove micro-organisms, which stick to the fat globules) and this cream is thrown away. Add a small quantity of this soured milk (called inoculum) to the boiled milk (about 2 -5%) and mix them.After 24 hours of incubation at ambient temperature, again a fresh quantity of boiled milk with a temperature of about 20°C is inoculated with a small quantity (1-2%) of the second batch of sour milk (see figure 14). This procedure is repeated daily for about one week.Fermentation of the milk should take place in a jar or a bottle, which must be closed with a clean cover that is also dust free. It is essential that all the utensils and tools used (jars, spoons, etc.) are clean and disinfected. Prevent contamination after disinfection! After this period of cultivation the sour milk can be used as a starter, because the lactic acid bacteria will have overgrown other bacteria almost completely. Problems with the fermentation can have the following causes: ? The milk contains antibiotics, e.g. penicillin (because the cow had been treated with antibiotics). ? The milk has been contaminated with hydrogen peroxide or disinfectants; this slows down fermentation. ? The incubation temperature of the milk is too low (below 18°C). ? The temperature of the milk at the moment of the inoculation was too high (above 40°C).Figure 15 gives a rough overview of the different dairy products that can be made from milk.Every recipe in this chapter starts with a list of the ingredients and equipment needed. The actual preparation is then described. Success depends on a lot of factors, so do not give up if you do not end up with the desired results the first time. Experimentation is necessary and you will probably have to adapt the recipes.Several preservation techniques, like cooling, heating, drying, souring, salting, etc., are relevant to most recipes. Different types of milk can be used, which give different results. Take great care when cleaning all pans, dishes and utensils; see chapter 3.You will need raw milk and a heat source.After leaving milk to stand for about 24 hours at as low a temperature as possible (4-12°C), the cream can be skimmed off using a spoon or saucer. This method makes use of the fact that cream rises and then stays on top of the milk. It contains most of the milk fat. Only cow milk readily produces cream this way; other kinds of milk need a hand creamer (centrifugal milk separator) to separate cream and milk.Materials: a hand creamer (milk separator), two big bowls.Heat the milk slightly to a little over 40°C and pour it into the upper bowl of the separator. It is important to turn the handle at a constant speed during the separation. After separating the cream from the milk, pasteurise both cream and skimmed milk.The use of a separator produces more cream and leaves skimmed milk with less fat. A disadvantage is that the separator has to be cleaned thoroughly, including the disks, which takes much time. A hand creamer is a complex tool. Never buy a second-hand creamer before having checked that it works well. It might lack some irreplaceable parts or may be corroded or damaged.The cream can be kept for a few days if it has been pasteurised. It can also be used for the preparation of various recipes. Cream can be used to make butter, for example.The skimmed milk that is left after the cream has been removed still contains a lot of nutrients (protein, fat, milk sugar, etc.) and can be used for direct consumption or for the production of soured milk or low-fat cheese.You will need: ? fresh pasteurised cream ? a saucepan ? a thermometer ? a metal or wooden spoon ? a starter culture or fresh fermented milkCool the cream after pasteurisation to 18°C. Add 10 -30 ml (1 -3%; equal to 1 -2 tablespoons) of sour milk or a starter culture to one litre of cream while stirring. Let the mixture become sour at a temperature of between 16 and 18°C, stirring it once after a number of hours to allow it to ferment evenly. After 24 hours the cream should be sufficiently sour and ready for consumption. Butter is made by churning one of the following products: cream, sour cream, or sour milk. If you do not have enough milk from which to skim off the cream, the milk can be soured and churned as a whole (provided that the fat content of the milk is rather high; above 4%). But sour cream is better to churn than sour milk.It is only possible to manufacture sweet cream butter if the production and handling of the milk, cream and butter are exceptionally hygienic and the cream has undergone after pasteurisation a cold treatment by storing it for at least 12 hours at temperatures below 10°C.Heat the milk or cream to a temperature of 85°C. Let it cool down to 18°C as quickly as possible (use a thermometer) using cold running water on the outside of the pan.Add 10 -30 ml (about 1 -2 tablespoons) of fresh fermented sour milk or a starter culture to one litre of milk or cream and stir. After about 24 hours at 16 to 18°C, the mixture will become thick and sour enough to be churned.During churning the cream, sour cream or sour milk will be mixed intensively with air. This process causes fat globules to flocculate (or stick together), producing butter and buttermilk.The simplest way to make butter from small quantities of milk is by using a bottle or a jar that can be covered with a well-closing lid or a simple bowl with beaters. If large quantities of milk or cream are available, you should consider acquiring a real churn. There are several types available. The churn tub is a simple method, which is often used in the tropics. A cheap and practical domestic churn is a glass pot with a paddle attached to a screw top. The paddle can be turned manually. This churn is difficult to clean. It is best to rinse it with water before use, in order to prevent the butter from sticking to the sides.Churns should not be filled more than one third with soured milk or sour cream. Churn with a regular up and down or sideways movement. Stop churning when the butter particles reach the size of rice grains or peas and the buttermilk looks rather liquid. If, after 30 minutes, no grains have yet been formed, you can change the temperature by adding a little clean cold or warm water. See also the remarks at the end of this chapter. The amount of added water should never be more than 25% of the total amount of churned cream or milk.The butter particles will float to the top of the buttermilk, because butter is lighter than buttermilk. This makes it easier to separate the two products by pouring off the buttermilk through a coarse sieve. Never add too much water, otherwise the buttermilk will become too watery.Washing of the butter grains is not necessary. However, if very clean water is available, it can improve butter quality.Washing the butter can be done in two ways: 1 Fill the churn 2/5 full with clean, cold water. Wash the butter by churning it for about 3 minutes. This can be repeated, if necessary. The idea is to remove part of the remaining buttermilk from the butter particles. It is important to remove as much as possible in order to produce butter that can be kept for a longer period. After washing, the butter particles can be skimmed off or the buttermilk can be drained.Figure 16: Using a jar to make butter 2 If small quantities are available, the butter particles can be washed using a sieve. Put the sieve on top of a bowl and pour the mixture through it. Make sure that during churning the butter does not become one big lump, otherwise it will be difficult to wash -in case you want to do this.Salting is not necessary for preservation; many people, however, like the taste of salted butter. The butter can be slightly salted (according to taste) by kneading in about 10 grams of salt to each kilogram of butter.Mix the butter again the next day in order to allow the salt grains to dissolve.Kneading the butter is important in order to get a nice, smooth product. It helps to distribute the moisture and this improves quality and shelf life, provided that kneading is done in a hygienic way.Use a clean, well-rinsed kneading board. Knead the butter with the back of two wooden spoons until drops of water and buttermilk are not perceivable any more and the butter has a nice, smooth surface. Remove drops of buttermilk during this process. Instead of a wooden spoon, a wet roller or bottle can be used. If none of these are available, just use clean hands to knead.Butter should be stored in a cool, dark place. Put it in a pot or wrap it up in greaseproof paper or aluminium foil. After some time, one to two weeks, the surface of the butter can be covered with moulds. This mould formation can be partially prevented by sprinkling salt on the surface or by wrapping the butter air tight. Moulds only grow if oxygen is available.Butter can also be frozen. However, after defrosting the butter will rather soon have an off-taste. It is therefore a good idea to divide the butter into smaller portions before freezing. Salted butter is less suitable for freezing.1 If milk has gone sour without the use of a starter, but it still tastes and smells fresh, it can still be churned. 2 Churning can take from 5 to as much as 60 minutes. A number of factors may influence the time needed, for instance: ? type of animal the milk came from ? the fat content of the cream ? treatment of the cream; the cream must have had enough time (at least 12 hours at 10 -18°C) before churning for crystallisation of part of the fat to take place ? feed eaten by the animal; feed influences the crystallisation (= melting point) of the fat ? the temperature of the cream during churning.This last aspect is also dependent on the melting point of the fat.If the cream is too cold, the fat globules do not easily stick together and churning will take longer. If the temperature of the cream is too high, churning will go quickly and the butter grains will not stick together and butter will not be formed. A good churning temperature is 15 -20°C. 3 Butter has a limited shelf life. It can become mouldy or rancid. An unpleasant cheese-like flavour may develop due to the deterioration of its protein. An alternative is ghee (see below), which does not spoil as quickly as butter. Ghee is produced by removing the last water remnants from butter by heating the butter and letting the water evaporate, or by melting butter and draining the water, which separates from the fat.Buttermilk is a by-product of the butter-making process. The taste can be more or less sour depending on the sourness of the cream or the milk, which is used for butter making, or on the degree to which it sours after churning.It is also possible to make a product like soured buttermilk using milk or skimmed milk, by inoculating it with sour milk and letting it ferment for one day. For the fermented milk you will need: fresh (skimmed) milk, a heat source, a wooden spoon, fresh fermented milk or buttermilk or a starter culture, a saucepan with a thick bottom, and a thermometer.Heat the fresh (skimmed) milk to boiling point, stirring all the time. Cool it down to 18 -20°C, for instance in a large pan with cold water. Add 10 -30 ml of sour milk or buttermilk or a starter culture per each litre of milk (1%). Leave for it 18 -24 hours at room temperature (18 -20°C); if the surrounding temperature is higher, fermentation time will be somewhat shorter. After this the sour milk is ready. Store it in a cold place (cool basement or a refrigerator), if you want to keep it for some days.To make ghee, you will need: ? butter ? a heat source ? a pan ? a metal spoon.Heat the butter until water and fat form separate layers; the fat will float on top. There are two ways to remove the water: ? It can be removed by further heating. The water present will evaporate. ? It is possible to remove the layer of fat with a spoon. This fat should then be heated again. The scum, which will form, has to be skimmed off regularly, preferably with a skimmer. The colour of ghee can vary from almost white to dark brown. A rancid flavour is acceptable, but if it tastes burnt it should be discarded.Koa or khoa is a type of concentrated milk. You will need: ? fresh (unboiled) whole or skimmed milk ? a heat source ? a shallow, clean, wide, iron pan with a thick, flat bottom ? a flat, clean metal utensil to stir with (e.g. a flat pancake spatula).Fill the pan with the milk up to 30 to 50% of its capacity. Bring the milk to boiling, stirring continuously. The water will evaporate and after some time the milk will reach a certain viscosity, this means the milk will thicken. Take great care to scrape the sides of the pan during stirring. Once the milk has reached a dough-like consistency and stirring does not prevent the mass from sticking to the side of the pan, you can remove it from the heat source and lower the temperature by at least 20°C. At this point the water content should have been reduced to about 40% of what it was. Take the lump of koa out of the pan, put it on a cold surface and flatten it. After cooling, the koa will be firm and can be cut into squares. It will have a sweet, nutty flavour. Koa can be kept only for about 2 -5 days because of possible re-infection.The preparation of koa requires much time (a few hours) and fuel, on top of which 1 litre of milk produces only 0.4 litres of koa.Rabi is sweetened, concentrated milk. During concentrating, sugar is added from time to time. You will need: ? (unboiled) milk ? a heat source ? a wide, shallow iron pan with a thick bottom ? a flat metal scoop ? sugar ? scales.Add sugar to the milk during the heating process (maximum 300 g per litre of milk) and follow the same procedure as for koa. Lumps of sugar will often be found in the end product.Yoghurt is produced when milk is soured by certain lactic acid bacteria, which prefer growing temperatures far above room temperature: 37 -45°C. The milk should first be heated to 85°C or higher. A high pasteurisation temperature (above 72°C) gives a better consistency (thickness) to the final product. After the milk has been soured, the resulting yoghurt can be used to make more fresh yoghurt by adding it to fresh milk.You will need: ? fresh raw milk ? a heat source ? a saucepan ? a spoon ? a thermometer ? cooling facility (e.g. a large pan with cold water) ? a cool place (refrigerator or cellar) ? starter culture for yoghurt or some fresh yoghurt ? thermos flask or a box covered with a blanket Heat the milk to 85°C or higher and keep it at this temperature for 3 minutes. Cool the milk to 45°C. Add 30 ml (2 -3 tablespoons) of fresh yoghurt to each litre of milk; the yoghurt should not be more than 2 days old. Instead of fresh yoghurt you can use a yoghurt starter culture. Mix the milk and the starter and leave it to ferment. The time required for the milk to turn sour depends on the temperature. To give you an idea: ? at 40 -45°C it takes about 3 to 6 hours ? at 35 -37°C it takes about 20 to 15 hours ? at 30°C it takes about 24 hoursThe ideal temperature to make pleasant-tasting yoghurt with a firm consistency is 40 -45°C. It is not possible to produce yoghurt at temperatures below 30°C or above 50°C. The correct temperature can be maintained using an insulated box or a blanket. Yoghurt is ready for consumption once the incubation period is finished. If cooled, yoghurt can be kept for one week.Heat the milk to at least 85°C, then cool it to 45°C. Pour 90% of the milk into a thermos flask, which has been rinsed with hot water. Mix 1 -2 tablespoons of fresh prepared yoghurt (or yoghurt culture) with the rest of the milk and add this to the thermos flask. Close the flask well and leave to stand for 3 -6 hours. Remove the yoghurt from the thermos flask and store in a cool place. Yoghurt made of sheep milk is very firm and therefore not suitable for fermentation in a thermos flask.Make milk from milk powder according to the instructions on the package, but add 10 to 15% extra milk powder. Dissolve the milk powder in water, heat it to boiling point and let it cool down to 45°C. Stir in 1 -3 tablespoons of fresh yoghurt or a yoghurt culture per litre of milk. Cover the saucepan and put it in a warm, insulated place. After 3 -6 hours this (firm and concentrated) yoghurt should be ready for consumption.? It is best to use fresh milk to make yoghurt. Milk powder can also be used. Sterilised milk may give a thinner yoghurt than pasteurised milk. ? After incubation, cooling is desirable, preferably below 10°C, so that souring is stopped (this retains the pleasant taste) and the bacteria remain more viable, allowing the yoghurt to be used to inoculate milk again. ? Make sure the milk ferments as quickly as possible, preferably at 40 -45°C rather than 30°C. Harmful bacteria have less opportunity to develop if the fermentation process goes faster. ? Thicker yoghurt can be produced by adding 2 to 3 tablespoons of milk powder to each litre of milk before heating it to 85°C. ? It is not advisable to use fruit yoghurt from a shop as a starter culture because it contains a lot of additives. Plain yoghurt from a shop can be used if it is not too old. Sterilised yoghurt is not suitable either, because the yoghurt bacteria have been killed by the sterilisation process. ? When using yoghurt from a carton or a pot as a starter, first remove the top layer and take the yoghurt from the centre to make fresh yoghurt. This is because the bacteria in the middle are probably the most diverse and active. ? Stir the product as little as possible before removing some, to avoid the extra risk of incorporating undesirable bacteria.Kefir, like yoghurt, is a milk product first discovered by the nomadic tribes living in the cold areas of the Caucasus. When making kefir, acid, gas and some alcohol are produced. Like sour milk and buttermilk, it has a special aroma which is different from that of yoghurt. Kefir is made by using a 'yoghurt plant', which is actually a misleading name as it is not a plant and it has nothing to do with yoghurt.The 'yoghurt plant' is in fact a cauliflower-like lump of chalky crystals and micro-organisms consisting of yeasts and bacteria. The yeasts produce alcohol and gas, while the bacteria convert the milk sugar into lactic acid. You may be able to obtain a piece of this from someone who regularly makes kefir. If not, get some dried kefir granules at the local market.You will need: fresh raw milk, a saucepan, a heat source, a thermometer, a clean pan, a glass bottle with wide neck, a bottle which can be closed tightly, kefir granules or a 'yoghurt plant', a sieve, cooling facilities, clean water, a teaspoon, and a cool place to store the product.Boil the milk and put it into a bottle, which has been thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with hot water. Do not fill the bottle completely; let the milk cool down to 20°C (use a thermometer). Add one tablespoon of kefir granules soaked in water to each half litre of milk in the bottle and cover it loosely so that the gas produced can escape. You can use a fresh yoghurt plant instead of the soaked granules. Keep the bottle at a temperature of 16 to 18°C. After 24 hours the milk will have become a little thicker, forming some froth: this is kefir. Sieve the kefir and use the (washed with clean water) granules, which remain in the sieve to make fresh kefir again. The kefir is now ready for consumption or can ripen for some days to get more flavour.The kefir can be left to 'ripen', during which time further fermentation takes place. This is essential to create kefir's characteristic qualities. Pour the kefir into a well-cleaned bottle, which can be closed, or a bottle with a clip fastening and do not fill more than 3/4 because gas forms during ripening.Leave the bottle at about 15°C, but do not store it for more than 3 days. Towards the end of the ripening process the whey separates and can be incorporated again by stirring or turning the bottle. The end product is a thick, creamy, frothy drink with a sour taste and smell and the produced carbon dioxide is perceivable. If the kefir is left to ripen for more than 3 days, the milk may curdle and the drink becomes too sour. The temperature and the time are important as they determine the flavour. The kefir can be kept in a refrigerator or a cellar for a few days.If kefir production is stopped for some time, the kefir granules can be dried as follows: Put them into a sieve and rinse well with clean water until all remaining milk is removed. Place them on a clean cloth and leave to dry in a clean place, but not in the sun, until the granules have shrivelled up. The granules can be kept in a closed bottle in a cool place for 12 to 18 months. The rinsed granules can also be kept in a freezer.Kefir granules can also be kept in a pot with water at 4°C, but they become inactive after 8 to 10 days.? There is a greater chance of failure with kefir than with yoghurt.The end product may not only taste bad, it can also be unhealthy. In order to produce good kefir, the appropriate hygiene should be applied. Care should also be taken not to work at too high temperatures. ? The shelf life of kefir is the same as for yoghurt, sour milk and buttermilk: its quality will rapidly decrease if it is stored too long. At 5° C, soured products can be kept for about ten days; at 10°C this is three days, and 20°C is too high. ? Kefir may be too sour or too yeasty (due to an incorrect balance between the activity of the bacteria and yeasts). A fishy or ammonia-like taste can be the result of a breakdown of proteins by undesirable bacteria, which enter due to insufficient hygiene.Koumiss is a sour milk product similar to Kefir. It is manufactured from mare milk.Figure 18: Cow milk accounts for 91% of the world's milk production (see section 2.2)Cheese is a product that has been made for centuries. Virtually all the nutrients present in milk are concentrated in cheese (see table 4).There is a huge assortment of cheeses. They can have various compositions; we make a rough distinction between fresh cheese and matured cheese, and between soft cheese and hard cheese. Fresh cheese can be consumed immediately after production, whereas matured cheese has to be stored after processing to develop flavour and a good consistency. Soft cheese has a higher water content than hard cheese; moreover hard (or semi-hard) cheese generally has a clean, dry rind. Soft cheeses and hard cheeses can be matured for some weeks or even up to a number of years. Cheese production in the tropics is typified by specific problems; consequently, production processes and end products differ from those in Western Europe.? Outside the temperate zones, high temperatures and very high air humidity must be taken into consideration. Both these factors are unfavourable for cheese making, in particular for the maturation of cheese.? Milk is often available in small quantities, while its quality may not be up to standard. In particular, its hygienic quality and composition may leave much to be desired. ? Hard and semi-hard cheeses require good-quality milk and hygienic processing. Moderate temperatures are needed for good ripening and storage of these cheeses. In warm and hot climates most cheeses are produced on a small scale and cannot be stored for a long time. Therefore generally these are soft cheeses. ? In many tropical and subtropical countries, very matured cheese is not very popular. Most consumers are not used to the distinct flavour and smell of such cheese.The shelf life of cheese can vary from several days to some months and even to some years, depending on its processing.Fresh cheese can, like fermented products, be stored for only a short time; it must be consumed immediately or within a few days. The keeping quality of such cheese can be improved by cold storage and salting. Fresh cheese generally does not have a rind and is packed in a wrapping or a package. Most of the fresh cheese has been curdled using only an acid; it cannot be ripened and it should be consumed within a couple of days.Soft cheese is processed by using acid and rennet, in most cases it matures for some weeks or even some months. Soft cheese generally has a rind and often also a microbiological flora on the surface of the rind (like Camembert and Brie).Semi-hard and hard cheese can be kept well for 3-4 months or more.Cheese which is able to continue ripening should not be kept in a refrigerator, but in a cellar or cool place at 10-15°C. Where applicable, information and instructions will be given in the following recipes on keeping qualities and ways of storing products.When making cheese, you will not always need all the utensils described below. Decide beforehand which you will use, and make sure that they are clean and rinsed with clean water. It is preferable to use utensils made of stainless steel or glass.Figure 19: Utensils for cheese makingThe utensils used during cheese making are: 1 a thermometer with a range of 20 -100°C 2 a measuring cup 3 a bucket for coagulation of the milk 4 cheese moulds, which can be made in various ways (see below) 5 cheesecloth, its size depends on the size of the mould 6 cutlery and other tools such as: ? spoons to measure rennet and/or acids ? a knife to cut curdled milk ? a skimmer to scoop curd out of whey, or a colander.Cheese moulds can be made from various materials e.g. wood, plastic or metal. Metal materials should be non-rusting. Do not use plastic tubing used in construction as it can release poisonous substances. Cut the moulds lengthwise and drill holes from the inside out. Plastic moulds for the production of soft cheese are also commercially available. Wooden cheese moulds can be used as well.Cheese that will have a closed rind after pressing is never placed directly into a mould. Instead, a clean cloth of linen or cotton is first placed in the mould and it is then filled with curd. The cheesecloth is then folded closed.To make hard or semi-hard cheese you will also need the following: ? a curd knife to cut the renneted milk ? a cheese press  Cheese making begins with hygienic milking. The quality of the milk used greatly influences the smell, taste and keeping qualities of cheese. The composition of milk can vary greatly. Just before a cow is set dry -the period in which a cow is not milked -and just after calving, the cow milk has a different taste and composition. Milk from a cow with an udder infection is not suitable for human consumption, and therefore cannot be used for making cheese.Apart from the usual measures taken to ensure good hygiene during milking, attention must be paid to the following points:1 Clean the equipment very well.2 Disinfectants and cleaning agents must never be left in or on equipment. Disinfectants inhibit the growth of the bacteria of the starter or souring agent. 3 The room in which cheese is prepared must be kept properly clean. 4 The milk used for cheese making should preferably be pasteurised (15 seconds at 72°C or 30 minutes at 63°C). More intense heating is not desirable because it reduces the curdling of milk. More rennet or calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ) is then needed. 5 For the above reasons, milk powder which is strongly heated during its production (high-heat milk powder) is less suitable for cheese processing. Only low-heat milk powder can be used. 6 Sour milk neutralised with sodium bicarbonate will not curdle well.The principle of cheese processing is based on the coagulation of the protein in milk, during which about 90% of the milk fat is encapsulated. The coagulated mass is called curd, the remaining liquid is called whey. Curd consists mainly of milk proteins (casein) and milk fat; while whey mainly contains water, milk sugar (lactose), protein (serum proteins) and B-vitamins.There are two basic ways to cause milk to coagulate: ? using an acid ? using a rennet (enzyme coagulation)This is mainly used to make fresh cheese. The acid can come from bacteria from the starter culture or from an acid added to the milk. When using a culture, pasteurised milk is inoculated. Inoculating agents can be a specific cheese starter culture, whey or sour milk.Curdling time depends on the amount of inoculating agent added (0.1 -5% of the milk used to make cheese), temperature (20 -35°C) and the starter culture used. It takes 2 -16 hours. When the curd is firm, the curdling is finished.When using an added acid, you can use pure vinegar acid, lactic acid, citric acid or any other harmless organic acid. Sometimes a natural acid such as lemon juice is added. The acid can be added drop by drop to warm milk (about 80 -90°C, just after boiling). Milk curdles much quicker at a high temperature.The curd is collected by straining the curdled milk through a coarse cloth. Sometimes the collected curd is pressed a little bit, and sometimes no pressure is applied. These products are consumed fresh.Rennet used in cheese processing can be of animal, vegetable or microbial origin. The rennet in cheese has two functions. ? Rennet causes the milk to coagulate. ? During ripening, rennet causes milk protein to break down, giving the typical cheese taste.Rennet is available in liquid form and as a dried powder. As it is an enzyme and therefore a biological product, the strength of the liquid product decreases during storage. Therefore, it is preferable to use the dried form.The concentration of the rennet is written on the package. The amount of rennet to be added depends on the strength of the rennet and on the kind of cheese you are going to make. When making soft cheese, sometimes no rennet is needed; if rennet is added, only a little is needed (0.1 ml of rennet to 10 litres of milk). For hard or semi-hard cheeses, about 1.5 ml of rennet is added to 10 litres of milk; assuming the rennet concentration is 1:10,000. A starter is almost always added before or while adding rennet.A number of factors influence coagulation: ? Amount of rennet or acid added. ? Curdling temperature. When using rennet a small rise in temperature (for example from 30°C to 33°C) can significantly reduce coagulation time.? Intensity of pasteurisation. Curdling is reduced when milk has been strongly heated. This effect can be neutralised by adding a small amount of CaCl 2 ; for example 7 grams of CaCl 2 per 100 litres of milk. ? Fat percentage of the milk. A high fat percentage means more fat must be encapsulated and curdling occurs a little bit slower.Rennet from animal origin is prepared from the stomach of suckling calves or lambs. It is obtained by extraction of the stomachs in a salt solution with a preservative.A traditional method formerly used in The Netherlands can be applied in the tropics: ? Take 9 litres of boiled water.? Add 26 carved calf stomachs, 500 gram sodium chloride (salt) and 200 gram boric acid. ? Store these for at least 10 days and stir once per day. ? After ten days, remove the stomachs from the solution, add another 500 gram salt to the solution and store it for some days more. ? Then, pour it into clean bottles, close these and store the bottles in a cool and dark place. Your rennet is ready.You have to try out the strength of the rennet. Also, the keeping quality of these rennets is usually poor.Sometimes the stomachs of the young animals are kept after cleaning, salting and drying. The dried stomachs are easy to transport and are used by some nomadic tribes. In cheese making a piece of dried stomach is then added to the milk.Three methods can be followed to separate curd from whey: ? hanging the curd/whey mixture up in a clean cloth (see figure 23);? putting the curd/whey mixture in cheese moulds, or in cylindrical forms with perforated sides; ? first cutting and stirring the curd/whey mixture, putting the curd in the cheese moulds and then pressing the cheese.When making fresh cheese, the first or second method is usually used. As the whey drains through the cloth or the mould, the volume of the curd will reduce to 1/2 or 1/3. When making ripened cheese, the last method has to be used to remove sufficient whey from the curd. The effect of cutting and pressing is described below.Whey is the by-product of cheese making. The acidity and the composition vary widely with the type of cheese and manufacturing process used. Whey from rennet-coagulated cheeses is less acid than whey of acid-coagulated cheeses. Also, the content of solids varies depending on the method of cheese making. If the content of solids is high, e.g. in the case of the processing of sheep cheese or in the case of rough curd treatment, the solids of the whey can be processed to a whey cheese. A rather well-known type of whey cheese is the Italian product Ricotta.1 Heat the acidified whey till at least 85 °C or boil it for some time till the whey proteins have coagulated. 2 Add some salt (0.1%) if desired. 3 Collect the coagulated curd by filtering the mass through a towel or a filter. 4 If you press the curd you will get a hard cheese; if the curd is pressed lightly or not at all, the cheese is consumed fresh. 5 Add some salt if you like (if you did not do so before) 6 Store the cheese in the fridge.If whey is discarded it can cause serious problems as a dairy effluent. Therefore it is far better to use the whey as an animal feed. It has a good feeding value because of the presence of some of the whey proteins. It can be used for feeding pigs or young animals like calves or lambs. Even adult cows or fattening cows can be fed with whey.It is important that the whey used for animal feed is acid (completely acidified) at the moment of feeding, otherwise the animals can get intestinal problems because of the lactose content of the whey.The amount of whey (water) in the curd has a great influence on the cheese properties. Maturation time, flavour, consistency, keeping quality of cheese, etc., all depend on the water content.Whey contains milk sugar or lactose. This sugar has to be converted into lactic acid by the lactic acid bacteria of the added starter.If a great deal of the whey is removed from the curd, you get cheese with little moisture, therefore a dry and hard cheese, which has to mature a rather long time. If little whey is removed from the curd, you get cheese with a lot of moisture, therefore a soft cheese. This cheese has in most cases a sour taste. Since the curd treatment of fresh cheese and ripened cheese is quite different, they will be discussed separately.It is important during this step of chease making that the curd does not cool down and remains at about 30 -36°C. The curd treatment can be started when the coagulated milk forms a firm mass. You can determine this by moving a small strip through the curd: if a smooth clear cut develops when the curd breaks it has coagulated sufficiently.As a rule, to make fresh cheese little whey is removed. After curdling the milk, the curd/whey mass is hung in a cloth or placed in cheese moulds. After 24 hours, enough whey has leaked out and the curd is cooled down. The cheese is then ready for consumption. The separation of the whey can be stimulated by piling the cloths or cotton sacks on top of each other so that more whey is pressed out of the cheese.After coagulation of the milk, the coagulated mass is cut with a sharp knife into square cubes of about 1.5 cm: see figure 24. It is important that the cubes are more or less of the same size and that the cutting is done very gently.After cutting, the curd/whey mixture is briefly left to stand, for about 10 minutes, after which it is carefully stirred. After some time it can be stirred a little bit more vigorously. Most of the whey is removed from the cheese vat and the curd is placed in the cheese moulds. The curd is then pressed (0.1 kg/cm2). After about one hour the pressure can be increased to 0.4 kg/cm2. Other ways of determining the pressure are respectively 2 times and then 5 times the curd's own weight.After being pressed, the cheese is left for some time (4 -20 hours) at 20 -25°C. In the meantime the lactose present in the cheese is completely converted into lactic acid. Then the cheese can be salted.Trying to produce cheese of a Gouda or Edam type in this way will be disappointing, because the cheese will become very firm, crumbly and acid. The reason for this is that the curd -after fermentation by the lactic acid bacteria -contains too much lactic acid. Therefore Gouda cheese makers add 15 to 20% of hot water to the curd and whey after stirring for about 30 minutes. The temperature of the water is such that after addition of the water the temperature of the curd and whey is 35 -36°C. (Water temperature is about 65 -70°C. Before adding the hot water, part of the whey (30%) is drained off). After adding hot water the curd-and-whey mixture has to be stirred again for at least 20 minutes.Salting can be done in several ways: 1 Stir the salt through the curd; add 30 grams of salt per kilogram of curd. This reduces the effect of the bacteria of the starter, but potentially damaging micro-organisms are also inhibited at an early stage. 2 After pressing the cheese, rub it in with salt. Rub both sides in and then turn the cheese. This must be done every day for 3 days; in total 20 grams of salt is needed per kilogram of cheese. 3 Place the cheese in brine of 200 grams of salt per litre of water at 12 -16°C. During this pickling, the cheese absorbs salt and secretes lactic acid. The brine becomes more sour and improves in quality; it should therefore not be thrown away. Salt must be added regularly to the brine; 20 grams of salt is removed from the brine by each kilogram of cheese. For a small cheese, e.g. less than 1 kg, pickling time is about 12 hours. During pickling, the cheese must be turned once.During the maturation of the cheese, protein and fat are partly broken down, causing a change in structure and flavour. The older the cheese, the more flavour it will have. Sometimes, after more than one year the structure becomes crumbly because of the protein breakdown. Maturation is caused primarily by the enzymes in the cheese. To mature cheese, it can be stored in a cool room. This is a good method but technically rather difficult in the tropics. After salting or pickling, cheese is ripened on a wooden shelf in a cool environment (12 -20°C) with a not too high relative humidity (about 80%). Cheese must be turned regularly: initially, i.e. during the first 2 to 3 weeks, daily and later once a week. If mould grows on the cheese, it can be removed with water or vinegar.In addition to this method, the following treatments can be carried out on curd: ? Curd can be smoked over a fire (see figure 25).? Curd can be boiled in brine.? You can salt curd, make little balls of it and leave them to dry in the sun. The products which result are particularly suitable to be processed in other foods. After boiling, cheese will not ripen anymore because the enzymes inside the cheese are destroyed by heating.There are many variations in cheese making. To make a good product, it may be necessary to adjust the recipe. Therefore you should have a good method of recording exactly how the cheese is made.Your records can include the following aspects: ? date and surrounding temperature ? quality of the milk and pasteurisation temperature ? amount of milk ? ingredients, amount of starter culture, acid or rennet added ? temperature at which starter culture, acid or rennet was added ? coagulation time ? temperatures during the cheese making process ? temperature at the end of coagulation ? pressure applied, length of time applied, etc. ? salting time ? storage time and conditions during storageThe following recipes should be seen as guidelines for making cheese. Instead of cow milk, you can often use goat, sheep or buffalo milk.Start by making rather simple products like yoghurt, fresh cheese, etc.Fresh or unripened cheese has a high moisture content of about 75%; it can be consumed directly after preparation. It is made by removing the whey from soured, skimmed milk. The milk is usually coagulated by souring. Sometimes a small amount of rennet is added; this is done to facilitate the draining of the whey. However, addition of rennet is not essential.A well-known kind of fresh cheese is curd, known in various countries by the following names: Frischkäse, fromage frais, quarg, and baker's cheese. The differences between these cheeses are their fat levels.You can make curd by souring fresh milk, cream or skimmed milk into sour milk, sour cream or sour skimmed milk and then draining the thick sour milk in a bag or cloth. Sometimes bags are placed on top of each other to increase the removal of whey. After draining, the curd has a crumbly structure. By stirring or using a blender you can make the product smooth again. There are various kinds of curd cheese in which moisture, fat and salt content and size of curd particles vary.Fresh cheese has a fresh sour taste, especially when it is prepared from skimmed milk. By adding cream, the taste will become milder and richer.Curd can be kept for only a short time and must be stored at cool temperatures. During storage, further whey separation can occur; this is the result of further souring of the product.Pasteurise the milk 30 minutes at 63°C and then cool it to 20°C. Add per 10 litres of milk ¼ -½ litre of starter culture or fresh sour milk or buttermilk; yoghurt can be added if desired. Add 2 drops of rennet -if available. It is advisable to dilute this small amount of rennet with several ml of water to improve its distribution through the milk.After stirring well, leave the inoculated milk to stand for 24 hours at 18 -20°C. During those 24 hours, souring and coagulation will take place; the milk becomes a rather firm mass. This thick mass is subsequently poured into a cotton or linen cloth or a bag so that the whey can drain through the cloth. The cloth is placed into a large colander or cheese mould beforehand so that the whey can thoroughly drain. After 24 hours, sufficient whey will have leaked out and the remaining curd can then be mixed, for example with a spoon or blender, until it becomes a homogenous mass. The curd can now be consumed. When kept in a refrigerator, curd can be stored for 1 -2 weeks.You will need a sieve, small basket or cheese mould and a cheesecloth or tea towel.Let 10 litres of buttermilk with low fat content drain through a cheesecloth until 1.5 litres of bag cheese, or curd, remain. Place a cheesecloth in a sieve, small basket or cheese mould and press the curd firmly into it. Let the curd drain for several hours, then turn it. About 1.5 kg of bag cheese has then been made, which contains no salt and hardly any fat. It can be kept for only a rather short time: 1 to 2 weeks. Keep it cool, preferably in a refrigerator.For making krut one needs buttermilk, cheesecloth and salt. This is a way to make cheese from any leftover milk. Add some sour milk or buttermilk to the leftover milk and mix. Boil the mixture until the milk curdles. Separate the curd from the whey by pouring it through a cheesecloth. The curd is then kneaded with 2 -4% salt and dried in the sun.You will need raw milk, a fire, pan, spoon, lemon juice or sour whey, cheesecloth, bowl, knife and concentrated sugar water.Rasagollas is a sweet dairy product originally from India.Traditionally it was formed into sweet curd balls, but because of the way it is prepared here, the curd can only be cut into cubes and not formed into balls.The milk is boiled with lemon juice (10 tablespoons or 150 ml per 10 litres of milk) or sour whey (1.5 litres per 10 litres of milk) while stirring continuously. Sour whey can be obtained from drained sour milk after the production of curd. The curd is separated from the whey by pouring the mixture into a cheesecloth, which has been placed over a bowl. The slightly elastic curd is cut into cubes with sides of about 2.5 cm. These are then boiled for about an hour in a sugar solution of 600 g per litre of water. 1 litre of sugar solution is needed for each kilogram of curd. The cubes can be stored quite some time and are very sweet.You will need sheep, goat or cow milk, starter culture or fresh sour milk, rennet, cooking-salt, knife, cheese moulds, cheesecloths and cans or a plastic container to store the cheese.Feta is a sharp, salty cheese originally from Greece that is made of sheep and goat milk. You can also use a mixture of sheep and cow milk, but then the cheese will not have its typical white colour. Feta is kept in a solution of whey and brine.Heat 10 litres of pasteurised milk mixed with 200 ml of a starter culture, sour milk or buttermilk to 30°C. After 1 -2 hours, rennet is added; use 2 ml of rennet per 10 litres of milk. After allowing it to coagulate for about one hour, the curd is cut into cubes of about 2.5 cm, after which it is carefully stirred for another 20 minutes.The curd must then be carefully transferred to the tubs covered with cheesecloth. This can be done either by scooping the curd directly out of the whey into the moulds lined with cheesecloth, or by letting the curd settle, pouring off the whey and only then putting the curd in the cheese moulds.After a few hours the cheese must be turned. The curd mass is carefully removed from the cheesecloth and replaced upside down.After one day, the lumps of curd are cut into cubes of about 10 cm. Salting can be done by sprinkling the blocks several times with salt or by placing the blocks in brine for 24 hours.If the cheese is kept for several days at about 18°C, it must be turned regularly and washed with cold water at the end of the storage period. The cheese can be kept for some time by piling blocks of cheese closely on top of each other and covering them with brine. The cheese should have a smooth and soft consistency.The so-called queso blanco is manufactured in many ways in Latin America. Typical for this cheese is that salt is added directly to the whey/curd mixture. This has the advantage that slightly soured milk can be used to make queso blanco.A much-used method is the following: Take raw (unheated) soured milk of 32°C, or take 10 litres of pasteurised milk and add 50 ml of sour milk, buttermilk or starter culture. Add 1.5 ml of rennet. After 45 minutes the curd is cut and stirred. Leave the whey/curd mixture to settle for another 30 minutes at 30 -36°C. Pour off the whey and compress the curd to remove more whey. Mix 30 -50 grams of salt through the curd. The salt can also be dissolved in water before being added. 100 grams of salt dissolved in 50 ml of water must then be added for each 10 litres of milk.Transfer the salted curd into cheese moulds and press the cheese.During the first hours, turn the cheeses occasionally. Press them until the following day. To improve rind formation, pour whey heated at 50°C over the cheese while being pressed (after one hour). Cheese made with rennet can be kept for 2 months at 10 -15°C.As a variation to this method, you can add acid instead of a starter culture and use no rennet. Take raw milk, which may already be a little bit sour. Heat it to almost boiling. Acidify it with 300 ml vinegar per 10 litres of milk until a precipitate is formed. The acid can be partly neutralised with the addition of some sodium bicarbonate (double soda). Pour off the whey. Proceed further preparation as above.Fresh goat cheese (in oil) You will need pasteurised goat milk, a heat source, a pan with lid, a thermometer, sour milk (or buttermilk or starter culture), rennet, a spoon, an insulated box or blanket or newspapers, cheesecloth, salt, cheese moulds, a cool storage place, greaseproof paper (if available), a large pot, herbs and olive oil.Bring the pasteurised goat milk to a temperature of 20°C. Per 10 litres of milk, add 0.5 litre of fresh starter or sour milk or buttermilk. Take 20 drops of rennet per litre of milk, dilute this in a little water and stir this through the milk.Place the pan in the insulated box or in the blanket or the newspapers to prevent it from cooling down. Check the next day to see if the milk has curdled sufficiently; a little whey on top is acceptable.Cut the curd into cubes the size of a matchbox. After 2 hours transfer the mass into a cheesecloth and let it drain for 12 hours at room temperature. Mix the dry curd with some salt and put the cubes into cheese moulds. Press the curd into the moulds so that no air holes remain and place the moulds in a cool (15°C) place.The next day remove the cheese carefully from the cheesecloth and replace it upside down in the cheesecloth and mould. Leave the cheese for a further 24 hours in a cool place. Remove the cheeses from cloth and mould and turn them daily. Should they become too dry, wrap them tightly, for example in greaseproof paper. If you wish to store the fresh goat cheese cubes for several weeks, place them in a large (glass) jar, which can be closed. Sprinkle a mixture of different herbs over them, such as rosemary, basil, thyme, bruised juniper berries, a finely chopped piece of garlic, several pepper kernels and a chopped up hot pepper. Other herbs can also be used. Pour olive oil over the cheeses until they are just covered and add a few twigs of dill or rosemary to the oil. Close the jar and put it away in a cool and dark place. Before using the cheeses, let them drain well. Use the leftover oil for salad dressing.Fresh goat cheese (salted) You will need pasteurised goat milk, a heat source, pan with lid, thermometer, sour milk (or buttermilk or starter culture), acid, spoon, rennet, knife, colander or cheesecloth, cheese moulds, pressing equipment and salt.Heat the pasteurised milk in a pan to 30°C, stirring continuously. For each 10 litres of milk, add 0.2 -0.5 litres of sour milk or buttermilk or 0.2 litres of a starter culture and 30 drops of rennet (diluted in water).After 45 minutes, cut the coagulated curd with a knife; after another 10 minutes, the curd will be the size of a marble. The top layer of whey can be poured off after leaving the mixture to stand a bit.Leave the curd in the carefully closed pan with the rest of the whey for a further 30 -45 minutes. Then transfer the curd into cheese moulds in which cheesecloth has been placed. Press the curd; one hour is sufficient. The cheeses must then be pickled in brine. For a cheese of 500 grams, 10 hours of pickling is long enough.You will need pasteurised sheep milk, a heat source, a pan, a thermometer, a starter culture or fresh sour milk or buttermilk, rennet, a spoon, a knife, a cheesecloth, some salt (if desired) and cheese moulds.Sheep milk contains more fat and protein than cow milk and therefore only 4 -4.5 litres of sheep milk are needed to make 1 kg of cheese.Because of the higher content of dry matter in the milk, sheep milk coagulates firmer than cow milk.Heat the pasteurised milk to about 30°C, stirring continuously. Add 300 ml of a starter culture and 40 drops of rennet to each 10 litres of milk. After 45 minutes the milk will have coagulated sufficiently to be cut. Cut the curdled, thick mass carefully; continue till the curd particles have the size of a pea. Bring the curd into a cheesecloth. If desired mix in some salt, and let the cloth hang until the cheese has the desired firmness. You can speed up the draining of the whey by opening the cheesecloth after several hours, scraping the thick part from the cloth, and mixing it in with the rest of the curd.You may want to make a less sour sheep cheese, which is a little bit firmer and with some lower moisture content. For this, you must leave the curd for a longer time: about 15 -30 minutes in the cheese vat where the curd treatment is done. After a short period of rest, pour off part of the whey, stir the curd carefully again and fill the cheese mould using a cheesecloth. Add some salt to the curd, if desired. Press the curd: about 4 hours of light pressing is sufficient. Store in a cool place. Sheep cheese can be kept for at least one week in the refrigerator.You will need pasteurised sheep milk, a heat source, a pan, a thermometer, sour milk (buttermilk or starter culture), rennet, a spoon, a knife, colander, a cheesecloth, cheese moulds and pressing equipment, salt, a tightly sealed pickling tub, coarse cheesecloth and a cool storage place.10 litres of sheep milk yields about 2 kg of ripened cheese. After adding 60 ml of starter culture or sour milk (or buttermilk), leave the milk to stand at 30°C for 30 -45 minutes. Only then add 60 drops of rennet, diluted with a little water, per 10 litres of milk, and stir it thoroughly through the milk. After allowing it to curdle for 1 hour, cut the coagulated milk for about 15 minutes until it is divided into particles of about 1 -2 cm. Then stir it for 10 minutes, pour half of the whey off and heat the curd to 35°C by adding hot water with a temperature of 80-100°C. Stir the mixture again for about 15 minutes, after which time the curd must be left to stand for 30 minutes in the pan. Keep the pan warm as well as possible but never place it on a fire. Remove the whey that has separated, and pour the curd with the remaining whey into a colander. After the first draining, the curd must be transferred by hand into cheese moulds covered with cheesecloth. Press the cheese for 15 minutes with its own weight and turn the cheese. Spread the cloth in the mould again, press the cheese in place and fold the corners of the cloth over it again. Press the cheese for 2 to 3 hours, initially with a weight that is twice that of the cheese, later on with a weight 3 -5 times as heavy. Subsequently pickle the cheese in brine (1 kg for a maximum of 24 hours). Then move it to a cool place where it must ripen for 5 to 8 weeks.","tokenCount":"17851"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"761444fae9213900260ba06718487c07","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/55a4aba9-94d6-402a-a708-6ae538e0713f/retrieve","id":"-96542341"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2d76db13-c103-4284-8b8b-cc65a8da9c18","pagecount":"4","content":"Documentation of sweet pepper varieties by an organic farmer in his experimental plot in collaboration with the visiting researchers.to vegetable seeds for resilient family farms in Costa RicaPhoto: Lindsey Hethcotexperiments with tomato and sweet pepper varieties were successful and the results show promise for continuing to encourage farmers in gaining access to horticultural crop genetic resources.The resulting diversity could be the basis for diversified farming systems that are more resilient under progressive climate change and in the context of price volatility, while providing nutritious food crops as well. This case study therefore calls for the inclusion of more horticultural crops in the annex 1 list of species covered by the multilateral system (see page 10), such as tomato and sweet pepper.Why mix coffee production with tomato and sweet pepper? In Turrialba, Costa Rica, climate change and low coffee prices motivated small scale coffee farmers to spread risk and diversify their farms by integrating new crops. Eight small scale coffee farmers in Turrialba chose to participate in an experiment with tomato and sweet pepper led by the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Centre (CATIE). These crops were chosen for the experiment for the following reasons:1 Farmers in this region have expressed strong interest in horticulture crops as alternative cash crops complementary to coffee, as well as for domestic consumption; 2 CATIE's gene bank maintains highly diverse collections of these two crops, which provides the necessary variety for selection of interesting materials, and are openly accessible under the multilateral system (MLS) established by FAO´s International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRA). (see page 15) The experiment's premise is that diversified farming systems are often ecologically and economically more resilient than those with less components. Diversified systems provide farmers a range of benefits, including stable income and production, as well as diverse food for consumption. This diversity has led to systems becoming more resilient to climate change and price volatility.However, farmers often do not have access to appropriate seed material to diversify their systems with food and/or cash crops of their interest. In this project we explore how access to diverse genetic material can improve a farmer's ability to effectively diversify their farm in a way that makes it resilient and sustainable.How did farmers conduct the experiment? Eight farmers, four organic and four conventional, were invited to participate in the study based on their interest in diversification and willingness to participate. The farmers evaluated three types of tomato and sweet pepper varieties. These included (a) popular commercial varieties, (b) traditional varieties from CATIE's seed bank that were selected according to farmer preferences indicated in initial interviews, and (c) new varieties that were developed by breeders from the World Vegetable Centre (AVRDC) in Taiwan to respond to specific biotic and abiotic conditions in Central America.Seeds from CATIE's seedbank were ordered using the Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA, see page 10) developed by the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Seeds of the AVRDC varieties were obtained by CATIE after signing a SMTA to test them in Central America. In addition, the commercially most common tomato and sweet pepper varieties were ordered from a local greenhouse.After the seedlings were transplanted to each farm, plastic bands were installed as protective roofs above each variety. Conventional and organic seedlings were given to each producer, along with a management guide that was used to ensure that the same management approaches were used at all farms.Each farm was visited once a week from the time the transplant began in April 2015 until the end of the field experiments in November 2015. During the visits, the following data was recorded: (a) morphological and evaluation data of each variety, (b) site characterisation of each farm, (c) management evaluation of each producer, (d) climate data, (e) yield data, (f) participatory evaluations with the producers, and (g) individual interviews with the producers about their preferences.affected the variety preferences of each farmer, including the type of management used on the farm and local market factors as well as local biotic factors. Although many farmers appreciated the commercial varieties because of their pest and disease resistance and their high yields, several CATIE accessions as well as a few AVRDC varieties were ranked either equally or more preferred than the commercial varieties Most of the producers involved in this project expressed satisfaction with the unfamiliar varieties that were brought to their farms. Rosa Hernández Céspedes, a coffee farmer who has been trying to diversify her 7 hectare farm for the last eight years, is very excited:\"These new varieties also give us something new to sell. The local people want new kinds of vegetables, new options, but I never knew where to find the seeds. So I have started saving the seeds from the new varieties and I can now sow my own seedlings and produce these great vegetables again.\" vegetable crops like cucurbits, are not yet part of the list of crops that are covered directly by the multilateral system (see page 10). This means that access to a wide range of varieties for these crops is difficult to obtain for small scale family farmers due to the bureaucracy, cost and intellectual property rights involved.Although the resources contained within gene bank collections are important, without proper access to particular information for farmers, breeders and agronomists, the material cannot be used efficiently. In this study for example, morphological data of gene bank accessions were used to select the varieties according to farmer preferences and in the evaluation their on-farm potential under different conditions. It´s important that such morphological characterisation and What started out as purely a coffee plantation had already been converted by Rosa into a diverse organic farm that now includes a vegetable greenhouse, a restaurant and tree nursery. Yet, before her involvement in this project Rosa had limited success in diversifying with vegetables: \"I always planted the same commercial varieties of vegetables, including commercial varieties of tomato and sweet pepper. But with this project, I have discovered many traditional varieties of great quality, some of which are more resistant to the increase in rain we have had this year. It's great to have all of these new options on the farm.\"For farmers like Rosa who are searching for diverse products with unique characteristics, the traditional CATIE varieties were of most interest. Many of the traditional varieties tested in the study showed characteristics that were appealing to these farmers, such as high resistance to pests and diseases as well as fruit forms that were uncommon, but often preferred. The commercial varieties were often most preferred by producers selling strictly to the conventional market.What lessons can be drawn from this study? This study shows the importance of facilitating farmers' and breeders´ access to the genetic resources of horticultural crops and the key role that could be played by accessible collections, such as those of CATIE and AVRDC. Tomato and sweet peppers, as well as other important One of the conventional farmers participates in the evaluation of fruit production of different tomato varieties.crops is difficult to obtain for family farmers due to the bureaucracy, cost and intellectual property rights","tokenCount":"1190"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/5937996048.json b/data/part_1/5937996048.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a6e67c91c3bae64ac4f5b04956ee7d5f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9134318-25cf-4fae-87fb-c56a22c01737/retrieve","id":"1619276823"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c788445c-ce1d-4c6b-81fc-7e95a2e5bdb2","pagecount":"2","content":"Esta renovación parte de una pradera que tiene poca cobertura y se encuentra en proceso de degradación. Que tiene muy pocas plantas de pasto y/o que estas plantas estén pequeñas y no crecen.Este arreglo se realiza sobre pasturas mejoradas ya establecidas. Consiste en la aplicación e incorporación de correctivos o enmiendas para mejorar las condiciones del suelo, así como la resiembra en partes que lo requieran. Adicionalmente se opta por la siembra de leguminosas herbáceas.Preparación del terreno, (1 o 2 pase de rastra/ha) según criterio técnico y disponibilidad de maquinaria, incorporando correctivos y/o enmiendas.Siembra las semillas de los forrajes 15 días después de la aplicación de las enmiendas con las especies adaptadas y especies concertadas con el beneficiario.Enmiendas SiembraTrazado para la división de potreros e instalación de los postesExtensión del alambre y aislamiento del cercoInstalación de la cerca eléctrica y capacitación en el manejo La Alianza, en asocio con Red Adelco e ICCO Cooperación, implementarán el Programa Rutas PDET para la estabilización, el cual es financiado por la Unión Europea a través del Fondo Europeo para la Paz y liderado por el Gobierno Nacional, que responde a las necesidades prioridades de los PDET de las comunidades identificadas en el territorio.El programa es una apuesta con un enfoque integral, diferencial y territorial, cuyo propósito es consolidar la cadena láctea en el departamento del Caquetá, en los municipios de La Montañita, El Paujil, San Vicente del Caguán y Puerto Rico. Su operación es a través de cinco ejes principales: el mejoramiento de la infraestructura vial, el fomento al encadenamiento productivo, el apoyo a la aceleración empresarial y financiera, el impulso a la innovación tecnológica y la promoción de alianzas estratégicas. This study is part of the OneCGIAR initiative on Livestock and Climate. We would like to thank all the donors who globally support our work through their contributions to the CGIAR System.","tokenCount":"310"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/5938448163.json b/data/part_1/5938448163.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..45ba304c5e171090785efd9a35dc945c50f718c2
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fdddb0f17830f118fb9d49449eeede1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed0f10b8-ed18-43af-b382-893399017d50/retrieve","id":"882846104"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c357d045-9338-49e4-bd02-0f678756532d","pagecount":"2","content":"The use and reuse of water, land and ecosystem services for agriculture is central to a communities' ability to be vibrant, sustainable and to feed itself.The access and control of these resources, and the knowledge and ability to act upon the knowledge about these resources, can determine the success of using them sustainably.Within communities, different members play different roles, and the challenge is to enable all community members to participate and contribute to the development of resilient and vibrant communities.Three elements contributing to this, which are often underestimated and misunderstood, are the role of men and women in guaranteeing this, the implications of poverty to safeguard this, and the degree to which institutions can hinder or enable this.Therefore, understanding how we can support communities to manage, use and reuse the resources more sustainably and equitable will be vital in the future.Photo: cc: IFPRITo improve the analysis, the interventions and policy making environment on water, land and ecosystems to ensure vibrant and sustainable communities through: Improving access to resources and decision making for women  Enhancing capacities to understand and target poverty issues  Supporting institution capabilities to provide sustainable and equitable development  Investments that provide women with equal access to land, water, seeds, training, and funding in agriculture could increase farm yields by 20-30%  Environmental degradation increases women's time for labor-intensive household tasks, such as having to walk longer distances for the collection of fuel wood and water. Countries where women's share of seats in political bodies is greater than 30% are more inclusive and egalitarian and democratic.In order to develop the appropriate solutions, a closer engagement and a better understanding is required to address the range of issues around equity and poverty. Understanding the dynamics of gender inequity and poverty traps as related to land and water is vital in the changing agricultural landscapes. Yet equally important is the need to identify tools and approaches to understand and integrate poverty questions when developing solutions and policy options, identifying investable options for women, and in developing a better understanding of institutional constraints and opportunities for communities to tap into.Research focuses on (a) understanding and improving the access, control, interests and demands women and men place on land, water and ecosystem, (b) increasing the access and understanding of decision making on natural resources, (c) understanding and developing approaches to ensure solutions are targeted to deal with poverty, create prosperity and allow for (re)investments in natural resources, and (d) restraints and opportunities as related to institutions.Along with providing data and improved approaches to analysis equity and poverty, through engagement with partners, we will codevelop options and identify investable solutions for women and communities to ensure that they can enhance their agriculture while maintaining their natural resources. This will build upon and develop synergies between opportunities already developed, but requiring more tailoring to specific agro-ecologies, and identifying gaps for future alternative approaches and solutions.The work is done with and through the different themes within WLE, such as rainfed systems, irrigations and decision making. It is also situated within West (Volta), East (Nile) and Southern (Limpopo/Zambezi) Africa, and Central Asia.Based on this research we will develop investment plans for improved management of large-scale water resources variability in selected Asian and African river basins.Ministries of Agriculture, Women, and Water, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), International Land Coalition (ILC), various universities, local and international NGOs and women's organizations. ","tokenCount":"568"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"af3f01d6e2d30b3b52a7a93dda46ac9e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/670b19b6-a646-4696-94d2-26e96ed164fe/retrieve","id":"-1490671968"},"keywords":["Romano, G.","Del Coco, L.","Milano, F.","Durante, M.","Palombieri, S.","Sestili, F.","Visioni, A.","Jilal, A.","Fanizzi, F.P.","Laddomada, B durum wheat-based products","polyphenols","isoprenoids","antioxidant activity","resistant starch","NMR","metabolomics"],"sieverID":"25ad9110-3c3e-4e8c-9599-9d9f71426b3a","pagecount":"19","content":"An important research target is improving the health benefits of traditional Mediterranean, durum wheat-based foods using innovative raw materials. In this study, we characterised wholemeal flours obtained from a traditional durum wheat cv. Svevo, two innovative durum wheat varieties (Svevo-High Amylose and Faridur), the naked barley cv. Chifaa and the elite lentil line 6002/ILWL118/1-1, evaluating them for targeted phytochemicals, untargeted metabolomics fingerprints and antioxidant capacity. To this aim, individual phenolic acids, flavonoids, tocochromanols and carotenoids were identified and quantified through HPLC-DAD, and the antioxidant capacities of both the extracts and whole meals were detected by ABTS assays. An untargeted metabolomics fingerprinting of the samples was conducted through NMR spectroscopy. Results showed that the innovative materials improved phytochemical profiles and antioxidant capacity compared to Svevo. In particular, Svevo-HA and Faridur had higher contents of ferulic and sinapic acids, β-tocotrienol and lutein. Moreover, Chifaa is a rich source of phenolic acids, β-tocopherols, lutein and zeaxanthin whereas lentil of flavonoids (i.e., catechin and procyanidin B2). The NMR profiles of Svevo-HA and Faridur showed a significant reduction of sugar content, malate and tryptophan compared to that of Svevo. Finally, substantial differences characterised the lentil profiles, especially for citrate, trigonelline and phenolic resonances of secondary metabolites, such as catechin-like compounds. Overall, these results support the potential of the above innovative materials to renew the health value of traditional Mediterranean durum wheat-based products.The cultivation of traditional staple crops, such as cereals and legumes, is receiving increasing attention to cope with the world's population increase to 10 billion by 2050. Indeed, cereals and legumes, besides helping to fight hunger and malnutrition, can help in transitioning towards healthier diets and more sustainable food systems [1]. Notably, whole-grain cereal and pulses are good sources of complex dietary carbohydrates (starch and dietary fiber), protein, minerals, B vitamins and phytochemicals [2,3]. The combined Foods 2022, 11, 4070 2 of 19 consumption of cereals and legumes in traditional food formulations of the Mediterranean diet especially is able to prevent obesity and non-communicable diseases (NCDs), such as heart and chronic respiratory diseases, strokes and type-2 diabetes [4]. However, in the last 50 years, a progressive abandonment of the Mediterranean diet is occurring in Mediterranean Countries due to a general improvement in social and economic conditions, increases in urbanisation and sedentary lifestyle, overeating and the consumption of highcalorie foods rich in saturated fats, sugars and salt [5]. This issue also affects an increasing part of the population from low-and middle-income countries [6], supporting an urgency to promote the Mediterranean diet. A priority issue of the 2030 Agenda is to reduce the mortality from NCDs by one-third. In this scenario, MEDWHEALTH, a project funded by PRIMA Foundation (Horizon 2020), aims to improve the health benefits of several traditional Mediterranean durum wheat-based products using innovative raw materials developed in recent breeding programs. Female cooperatives and grain processors in North Africa and other Mediterranean Countries will assist in using these innovative materials to make products that are healthier and palatable. Moreover, the efficacy of the new food formulations in reducing the symptoms of concomitant metabolic syndrome and Crohn's disease will be evaluated in humans during the clinical trials. Therefore, MEDWHEALTH includes a range of studies from plant breeding and food processing to human nutrition, market acceptance and consumer perception (http://www.unitus.it/it/ dipartimento/medwhealth, accessed on 18 November 2022).Based on tradition, a large number of Mediterranean products are made using durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum) [7] and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) [8] as raw materials, the species of interest of MEDWHEALTH and of this study. In particular, we considered the following materials: (1) Svevo, an Italian traditional durum wheat cultivar; (2) the line Svevo-High Amylose (HA), obtained by modifying the starch synthesis in cv. Svevo through TILLING to enhance the amylose content from 25% to 55% [9];(3) Faridur, a soft durum wheat variety released in Italy in 2020 and developed by introgressing the puroindolines genes from Svevo into bread wheat to modify the grain texture [10]; (4) Chifaa, a naked barley variety released in Morocco by the National Institute for Agronomical Research (INRA) with increased β-glucan content (8%); (5) the elite lentil line 6002/ILWL118/1-1, improved for protein content (25%). Svevo-HA was used for the beneficial effects of amylose and resistant starch on health. Indeed, a positive correlation was found between the amylose content in wheat grain and the amount of resistant starch (RS) in the derived foods [11,12]. Although not digested in the stomach, RS plays health benefits similar to those of dietary fibre by reducing the glycaemic index and heart disease, improving prebiotic activity and preventing colon cancer, but, unlike other fibres, RS does not affect the flavour or colour of food [13]. Cv. Faridur flour was considered for its technological behaviours similar to those of bread wheat flour, although conserving the typical durum flavour, yellow pigmentation and antioxidant activity. In addition, the soft kernel positively impacts the milling process, reducing energy consumption [14]. The high β-glucan content in cv. Chifaa has the potential to reduce blood cholesterol and increase satiety while reducing the postprandial glycaemic response and is an immunostimulant against infectious diseases and colon cancer [15]. Like wheat, whole-grain barley contains other bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, tocopherols and carotenoids, with antioxidant activity and associated anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects [16][17][18]. The lack of a hull in cv. Chifaa reduces yield losses in threshing and enhances the quality of barley products; barley hulls are notorious for being difficult to remove. The elite lentil line 6002/ILWL118/1-1 was considered an important source of protein with a complementary biological value similar to that of cereal proteins. In fact, taken together, the cereal and legume combination provides not only a better overall balance of essential amino acids but of minerals, including iron, zinc and vitamins [19]. Moreover, lentils are an important, traditional pulse in many Mediterranean countries and have been rediscovered to meet the needs of more sustainable agriculture and food systems [20].The present study fully characterised the MEDWHEALTH materials for other healthpromoting components in addition to starch, resistant starch, and fibres. The phytochemical profile of each wholemeal flour for polyphenols (i.e., phenolic acids and flavonoids) and isoprenoids (tocochromanols and carotenoids) was analysed by HPLC-DAD. Moreover, the antioxidant capacity of both the phytochemical extracts and wholemeal was detected by ABTS assays. Another aim was to test the potential of 1 H NMR spectroscopy in differentiating between the materials carrying out an untargeted metabolic fingerprinting of the aqueous and organic extracts that could be used in the future for tracing the composition and quality of the derived foods formulations.Durum wheat cv. Svevo, Svevo-HA [9] and Faridur [14] were grown at the Experimental Farm \"Nello Lupori\" (University of Tuscia), located in Viterbo (Italy, lat. 42 • 26 N, long. 12 • 04 E, altit. 310 m a.s.l.), in the 2020-2021 growing season. The naked barley cv. Chifaa and the elite lentil line 6002/ILWL118/1-1 were grown at INRA and the ICARDA experimental station in Marchouch, Morocco (lat. 33.98, long. −6.49, alt. 380 m a.s.l), respectively, in the 2020-2021 growing season. The experimental design consisted of three plots (9 m × 15 m) for each genotype. Crop management was performed using standard cultivation practices. Whole-grain samples were milled at a particle size ≤1 mm using a 1093 Cyclotec™ Sample mill (FOSS, Hilleroed, Denmark) to produce wholemeal flour. Milled samples were stored at −20 • C until analysis.Starch was extracted from whole flour following the procedure described by Zhao and Sharp [21]. The amylose content was determined from a 15-mg aliquot of purified starch using the iodine assay developed by Chrastil [22]. A standard curve was generated by mixing amylose purified from potato (Fluka, Neu-Ulm, Germany) and wheat amylopectin (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). Total starch, resistant starch and β-glucan were measured on whole flours using kits provided by Megazyme Pty Ltd. (Wicklow, Ireland). The total starch content was determined following the protocol specific for \"Samples containing also resistant starch\". The private company Bonassisa Lab Srl (Foggia, Italy) carried out the analyses for the main nutrition facts of whole flour.A colorimetric method [23] with some modifications [24] was used to determine the total content of arabinoxylans (TOT-AXs) expressed as a percentage of xylose. In detail, 4 mL of distilled water and 20 mL of the extracting solution (110 mL glacial acetic acid, 2 mL concentrated hydrochloric acid, 5 mL of 20% w/v phloroglucinol in ethanol, and 1 mL of 1.75% w/v glucose in water) was added to 10 mg of whole flour. Samples were placed in a boiling water bath for 25 min and vortexed twice during the incubation. The samples were placed on ice for 5 min. The xylose percentage in the sample was calculated by subtracting the absorbance at 510 nm from that at 552 nm. A xylose standard curve was prepared with the same procedure used for the samples. WE-AXs were determined according to Finnie et al. [25]. The water-extractable fraction was extracted by adding 25 mL of distilled water to 125 mg of whole flour. The suspension was stirred for 30 min and centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 10 min. For WEAX determination, 1 mL of the supernatant was added to 1 mL of distilled water and to 10 mL of extraction solution following the method for the determination of the TOT-AXs reported above.High purity standards for the qualitative-quantitative determination of carotenoids were purchased from CaroteNature (Lupsingen, Liestal, Switzerland). Alpha and β-tocotrienols were purchased from Cayman Chemicals (Ann Arbor, MI, USA). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) grade solvents, αand β-tocopherols, ABTS (2,2 -Azino-bis(3ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), Trolox (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2carboxylic acid), potassium persulfate were bought from Sigma-Aldrich (Milan, Italy). Standards for phenolic acids and flavonoids qualitative-quantitative analyses (p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, ferulic acid, 3,5-dichloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, procyanidin B2, procyanidin B3, catechin, epicatechin, luteolin, kaempferol-7-O-neohesperidoside) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Gillingham, UK.To extract the total phenolic acids and flavonoids (the sum of the soluble and insoluble fractions), 0.25 mg of wholemeal flours were de-lipidated twice with 5 mL hexane per time, stirred for 15 min and centrifuged at 6000× g for 10 min. Then, samples underwent hydrolysis with 4 M NaOH (8 mL) for 2 h at 4 • C in the dark. After saponification, the supernatants were acidified to pH 2 with 12 M HCl (2.4 mL) prior to extraction with ethyl acetate. The ethyl acetate extracts were dried under nitrogen flux, re-dissolved in methanol:water (80:20 v/v) and analysed with HPLC using an Agilent 1100 Series HPLC system equipped with a Phenomenex-luna 5 µm C18 (2) 100 A • column (250 × 4.6 mm). Phenolic acids were separated as described in Alzuwaid et al. [26] and identified and quantified using the peak retention times and UV-Vis spectra at 280, 295 and 320 nm that were compared with those of authentic phenolic standards. The phenolic acid extracts also were used for flavonoid analysis. These were separated as described by Gerardi et al. [27]; the chromatograms were acquired at 520, 280, 320, 370 and 306 nm, and the individual molecules were identified and quantified by comparing the peaks retention time and spectra with those of external standards.Isoprenoids (tocochromanols and carotenoids) were extracted following a slightly modified version of the method described by Laddomada et al. [28]. Briefly, to 0.1 g sample was added 800 µL methanolic KOH (60%, w/v), 800 µL ethanol (20% v/v), 400 µL mL NaCl (0.1% w/v) and 1 mL BHT (0.05% w/v) in acetone and incubated in a water bath at 70 • C for 30 min. After saponification, the samples were immediately placed on ice, and cold NaCl (3 mL, 0.1% w/v) was added. The sample was then extracted twice with 3 mL n-hexane/ethyl acetate (9/1, v/v). The upper phase, containing the isoprenoids, was collected, dried under a stream of nitrogen flux, re-dissolved in 100 µL ethyl acetate, and filtered through a 0.45 µm syringe filter (Millipore Corporation, Billerica, MA, USA). Extracts were analysed by HPLC using an Agilent 1100 Series HPLC system equipped with a reverse-phase C30 column (5 µm, 250 × 4.6 mm; YMC Inc., Wilmington, NC, USA) as previously reported by Durante et al. [29]. Absorbance was registered by diode array at wavelengths of 290 nm and 475 nm for tocochromanols and carotenoids, respectively.The antioxidant capacity of polyphenols (phenolic acids and flavonoids) and isoprenoids (tocochromanols and carotenoids) extracts was performed according to the original protocol by Re et al. [30] with some modifications. An ABTS •+ stock solution was prepared by reacting overnight a 7 mM aqueous solution of ABTS with 2.45 mM potassium persulfate. The ABTS •+ working solution was prepared by diluting the stock solution in ethanol 96% to a final absorbance of about 0.7 at 750 nm. 950 µL of ABTS •+ were mixed with 50 µL of sample extracts and placed in a rotating disk for 20 min.The absorbance was then read at 750 nm, and the variation ∆A was calculated with respect to a blank-treated ABTS •+ solution. The Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) of samples was obtained from ∆A by using the following Equation:where a and b are the slope and intercept of the calibration line constructed with Trolox standard solutions in the range of 0.05-0.4 mM, respectively. The TEAC in µmoles/mL is numerically equal to the TEAC in µmoles/g of dry matter since the extracts were 1 g/mL.The total antioxidant capacities of the wholemeal samples were assessed by a direct procedure according to the method described by Serpen et al. [31], in which the ground materials react directly with the coloured radical cation ABTS •+ . An ABTS •+ working solution was prepared by diluting the stock solution in a mixture of ethanol/water (50:50, v/v) to a final absorbance of about 0.7 at 740 nm. This ethanol/water mixture was chosen to overcome the solubility-dependent low reactivity of antioxidants toward ABTS •+ . 5 mg of Svevo, Svevo HA and Svevo soft and 2 mg of Chifaa were suspended in 10 mL of ABTS •+ working solution, and 1.5 mg of lentil was dissolved in 15 mL of ABTS •+ working solution to start the decolourisation reaction. The above mass/volume ratios were selected to obtain a suitable radical cation decolouration. The samples were placed in a rotating disk for 30 min to facilitate the surface reaction between the grounded samples and the ABTS •+ reagent. After centrifugation at 9200× g for 2 min, the clear supernatant was separated, and the absorbance was read at 740 nm.The resulting ∆A with respect to the starting ABTS •+ solution was used to calculate the TEAC (in mmoles/L) by Equation ( 1). The value was finally converted into mmoles/Kg of dry matter by dividing by the concentration in Kg/L of samples used for the assay.All chemical reagents for analysis were of analytical grade: D2O (99.8% atom%D), TSP, 3-(trimethysilyl)-propionic-2,2,3,3,d4 acid were purchased from Armar Chemicals (Döttingen, Switzerland).The wheat extracts were prepared according to a modified Bligh and Dyer extraction method with some modifications [32][33][34]. For each sample, ~100 mg of flour was added to 400 µL chloroform, 400 µL methanol and 400 µL deionised filtered water. The solution was vigorously mixed using a vortex and placed on an ice bath for 10 min before centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 20 min at 4 • C. The 2 phases obtained, polar and lipophilic, were then separated and dried by a SpeedVac concentrator (SC 100, Savant, Ramsey, MN, USA) and freeze-dried for 3 h. The polar extracts were dissolved in 600 µL D 2 O (with KH 2 PO 4 buffer, pH 6.0) containing 3-(trimethylsilyl)-propionic-2,2,3,3-d4 acid (TSP δ = 0.00) as the internal standard and transferred into 5 mm NMR tubes for NMR analysis. The lipid extracts were stored for further analyses. The NMR experiments were recorded on a Bruker Avance III NMR spectrometer (Bruker, Ettlingen, Germany), operating at 600.13 MHz for 1 H observation, equipped with a TCI cryoprobe (Triple Resonance inverse Cryoprobe), incorporating a z-axis gradient coil and automatic tuning-matching. Experiments were acquired at 300 K in automation mode after loading individual samples on a Bruker Automatic Sample Changer, interfaced with the IconNMR software (Bruker, Ettlingen, Germany). For each sample, a standard 1D 1 H one-dimensional spectrum (with suppression of water) was acquired with 128 transients, 16 dummy scans, 5 s relaxation delay, size of the FID (free induction decay) of 64 K data points, spectral width of 12,019.230 Hz (20.0276 ppm), an acquisition time of 2.73 s and solvent signal saturation during the relaxation delay. The resulting FIDs were multiplied by an exponential weighting function corresponding to a line broadening of 0.3 Hz before Fourier transformation, automated phasing, and baseline correction. Moreover, 2D NMR spectra ( 1 H-1 H COSY, 1 H- 13 C HSQC and 1 H- 13 C HMBC) were also acquired. The NMR spectra were processed using Topspin 3.6.1 (Bruker, Biospin, Italy) for visual inspection and characterisation of samples. Chemical data are presented as mean values ± standard deviation of three independent experiments. Data were analysed using SigmaStat version 11.0 software (Systat Software Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test posthoc comparison tests were performed to establish significant differences between means (p < 0.05).The NMR spectra were subjected to the bucketing process for multivariate statistical analysis. A matrix of data (bucket table) was obtained using the rectangular bucketing process of 0.04 width, within the range 10.0-0.5 ppm, respectively, excluding the water and methanol residual solvents. The total sum normalisation and Pareto-scaling algorithms are applied to minimise small differences due to sample concentrations and/or experimental conditions among the samples [35]. An unsupervised (Principal Component Analysis, PCA) statistical analysis is performed to study a set of samples described by a large number of variables (the NMR-bucketed signals) by using the web server Metaboanalyst 5.0 [36]. Finally, the corresponding loading plot is studied to provide significant metabolites which contribute to the separations among the samples.The nutritional information for the wholemeals of Svevo, Svevo-HA, Faridur, Chifaa and lentil 6002/ILWL118/1-1 are summarised in Table A1. These included the energy value per 100 g of each milling, the averages of macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins and fats), total dietary fibre, salt, ash and moisture and main fatty acids. Although no major differences emerged for the majority of the components among the wheat wholemeal flours (Svevo, Svevo-HA and Faridur), carbohydrates and total dietary fibre of Svevo-HA were slightly lower than those of Svevo and Faridur. In addition, Chifaa and lentil samples had the highest contents of total dietary fibre.We analysed the five wholemeal flours in detail for total starch, resistant starch (RS), amylose, total arabinoxylans (TOT-AX), water extractable arabinoxylans (WE-AX) and β-glucan contents (Table 1). The results showed only slight differences in total starch among the three wheat samples that were not significant: however, a highly resistant starch content characterised Svevo-HA (6.9%) differently from Svevo (0.2%) and Faridur (0.38%). Also, the amylose content of Svevo-HA was nearly double (58.7%) that of Svevo (33%) and Faridur (34%). Together with resistant starch and amylose, Tot-AX and β-glucan significantly also increased in Svevo-HA compared that in Svevo and Faridur (Table 1). As expected, Chifaa had a high β-glucan content (7.05%). Although the elite lentil line 6002/ILWL118/1-1 had lower amylose than Svevo, Faridur and Chifaa, it was characterised by a higher resistant starch content (2.12%), yet lower than that of Svevo-HA, and by a lower amount of TOT-AX, WE-AX and b-glucan. The last two were not detected in the whole flour.Table 1. Composition of Svevo, Svevo-HA, Faridur, Chifaa and the elite lentil line 6002/ILWL118/1-1 whole-flours for total starch, resistant starch (RS), amylose, total arabinoxylans (TOT-AX), water extractable arabinoxylans (WE-AX) and β-glucan. Non-detected, nd; a-c different letters within each column show significant differences (p < 0.05). The wholemeal samples were analysed for the qualitative and quantitative composition of several phytochemicals with associated antioxidant activity, namely polyphenols (i.e., phenolic acids and flavonoids) and isoprenoids (i.e., tocochromanols and carotenoids) which can vary depending on the different amylose, resistant starch, TOT-AX and β-glucan content of the samples. In fact, preliminary results showed that by modifying the carbohydrate synthesis, an increase of several secondary metabolites occurred (data not shown).A total of six phenolic acids were identified and quantified by HPLC in the wholemeal flour extracts (Figures 1 and A1). Five were less represented, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, syringic acid and sinapic acid; their content comprised between 2 and 30 µg/g d.m. Conversely, ferulic acid was more abundant in all wholemeal samples, except for lentils, varying in a range between 370 and 480 µg/g d.m. The wholemeal samples were analysed for the qualitative and quantitative composition of several phytochemicals with associated antioxidant activity, namely polyphenols (i.e., phenolic acids and flavonoids) and isoprenoids (i.e., tocochromanols and carotenoids) which can vary depending on the different amylose, resistant starch, TOT-AX and β-glucan content of the samples. In fact, preliminary results showed that by modifying the carbohydrate synthesis, an increase of several secondary metabolites occurred (data not shown).A total of six phenolic acids were identified and quantified by HPLC in the wholemeal flour extracts (Figure 1 and Figure A1). Five were less represented, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, syringic acid and sinapic acid; their content comprised between 2 and 30 µ g/g d.m. Conversely, ferulic acid was more abundant in all wholemeal samples, except for lentils, varying in a range between 370 and 480 µ g/g d.m. Overall, the majority of minor phenolic acids and ferulic acid significantly increased in Svevo-HA, Faridur and Chifaa wholemeal flours compared to those of Svevo wild type, except for lentil, which showed a completely different profile for both composition and content. Different from the other samples, wholemeal lentil flour was also characterised by the presence of some flavonoids that were identified and quantified through HPLC (Table 2 and Figure A2). These comprised the two most represented molecules, namely (+)-catechin (187.9 µ g/g d.m) and kaempferol-7-O-neohesperidoside (96.83 µ g/g d.m.), Overall, the majority of minor phenolic acids and ferulic acid significantly increased in Svevo-HA, Faridur and Chifaa wholemeal flours compared to those of Svevo wild type, except for lentil, which showed a completely different profile for both composition and content. Different from the other samples, wholemeal lentil flour was also characterised by the presence of some flavonoids that were identified and quantified through HPLC (Table 2 and Figure A2). These comprised the two most represented molecules, namely (+)-catechin (187.9 µg/g d.m) and kaempferol-7-O-neohesperidoside (96.83 µg/g d.m.), and for minor components (procyanidin B2, procyanidin B3, luteolin and (−)-epicatechin (Table 2). When the total sum of individual phenolic acids and flavonoids was considered, it came out that, except for lentils, the other innovative materials (i.e., Svevo-HA, Faridur and Chifaa) had significantly higher contents than Svevo (Figure 2). The antioxidant capacity of the extracts followed a trend similar to the concentration of total polyphenols (Figure 2).When the total sum of individual phenolic acids and flavonoids was considered, it came out that, except for lentils, the other innovative materials (i.e., Svevo-HA, Faridur and Chifaa) had significantly higher contents than Svevo (Figure 2). The antioxidant capacity of the extracts followed a trend similar to the concentration of total polyphenols (Figure 2). The five wholemeal samples also were characterised for isoprenoids, identifying four tocochromanols (β-tocotrienol, α-tocotrienol, β-tocopherol, α-tocopherol) and two carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) that were expressed as µ g/gr d.m. (Table 3, Figure A3-A5). Based on the results, the innovative wheat and barley meals had higher amounts of these bioactive molecules compared to those of the traditional Svevo variety. In particular, Svevo-HA and Faridur had significantly higher contents of β-tocotrienol and lutein than Svevo. On the other hand, barley and lentil were rich in β-tocopherol, lutein and zeaxanthin. Moreover, β-tocopherol was highly concentrated in the barley (24.19 µ g/gr d.m.) and lentil (19.86 µ g/gr d.m.) wholemeal flours, but it was not detected in the wheat samples (Table 3). Isoprenoid extracts had the lowest antioxidant capacity in Svevo (Table 3). Table 3. Composition of Svevo, Svevo-HA, Faridur, Chifaa and lentil wholemeal flours for isoprenoids expressed as µ g/g d.m. a-d Different letters within each column show significant differences (p < 0.05). Non-detected (nd). The five wholemeal samples also were characterised for isoprenoids, identifying four tocochromanols (β-tocotrienol, α-tocotrienol, β-tocopherol, α-tocopherol) and two carotenoids (lutein and zeaxanthin) that were expressed as µg/gr d.m. (Table 3, Figures A3-A5). Based on the results, the innovative wheat and barley meals had higher amounts of these bioactive molecules compared to those of the traditional Svevo variety. In particular, Svevo-HA and Faridur had significantly higher contents of β-tocotrienol and lutein than Svevo. On the other hand, barley and lentil were rich in β-tocopherol, lutein and zeaxanthin. Moreover, βtocopherol was highly concentrated in the barley (24.19 µg/gr d.m.) and lentil (19.86 µg/gr d.m.) wholemeal flours, but it was not detected in the wheat samples (Table 3). Isoprenoid extracts had the lowest antioxidant capacity in Svevo (Table 3). Table 3. Composition of Svevo, Svevo-HA, Faridur, Chifaa and lentil wholemeal flours for isoprenoids expressed as µg/g d.m. a-d Different letters within each column show significant differences (p < 0.05). Non-detected (nd). The antioxidant capacity due to the isoprenoid content was almost negligible in all samples (always <0.2 mmol Trolox/Kg; Table 3), whereas that of the polyphenol extracts (Figure 2) represents a higher fraction, being 25/30% of the total for wheat and 20% for Chifaa. An exception is lentils, for which the polyphenol extract accounts for only 4% of the total antioxidant capacity. The total antioxidant capacity of untargeted functional groups present in the wholemeal samples (Table 4) showed that the three wheat samples did not differ significantly for their antioxidant capacity (on average 30.3 mmol Trolox/Kg), whereas the barley and lentil meals had significantly higher values (43.5 and 140.4 mmol Trolox/Kg, respectively). A representative first dimension 1 H NMR spectrum, referenced to TSP (δ 0.0 ppm), is shown (Figures 3 and A6), and the specific resonances of metabolites were identified based on their chemical shift and by comparison with published data. For all the extracts, complex signal patterns for sugar moieties (sucrose, maltose, glucose and raffinose, among others) were dominant in the spectra. Besides sugar signals, amino acids (alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, threonine, tryptophan), organic acids (citrate, malate, acetate, formate, fumarate) and phenolic/aromatic compounds also were identified (Figure A6). Using the 1D NMR spectra, a matrix binned data (bucket table) was obtained by applying the bucketing process, and a multivariate data analysis (MVA) was performed on the NMR wheat, lentil, and barley aqueous extracts. In particular, the PCA analysis was performed as an unsupervised method able to visualise the similarities or differences among samples, which were not labelled according to the groups. From the PCA model obtained, we observed the tendency for the formation of clusters across the first and the second principal components (PC1 and PC2) that explain 65.4 % and 19.3% of the total variance, respectively. The corresponding PCA score For all the extracts, complex signal patterns for sugar moieties (sucrose, maltose, glucose and raffinose, among others) were dominant in the spectra. Besides sugar signals, amino acids (alanine, asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine, threonine, tryptophan), organic acids (citrate, malate, acetate, formate, fumarate) and phenolic/aromatic compounds also were identified (Figure A6). Using the 1D NMR spectra, a matrix binned data (bucket table) was obtained by applying the bucketing process, and a multivariate data analysis (MVA) was performed on the NMR wheat, lentil, and barley aqueous extracts. In particular, the PCA analysis was performed as an unsupervised method able to visualise the similarities or differences among samples, which were not labelled according to the groups. From the PCA model obtained, we observed the tendency for the formation of clusters across the first and the second principal components (PC1 and PC2) that explain 65.4 % and 19.3% of the total variance, respectively. The corresponding PCA score plot (Figure 4) showed relevant differences, especially between the wheat, barley and lentil samples.  The analysis of the corresponding loadings plot (Figure A7) showed the relationships between sample clustering and the most significant NMR variables. At first glance, the wheat and barley samples had similar NMR profiles, both with negative values for the first principal component (PC1). Moreover, the Svevo, Svevo HA and Faridur samples were clearly different from barley for the second principal component (PC2) for their relatively higher content of betaine and glucose, and a relatively lower amount of malate, with respect to the barley cv. Chifaa. Among the three wheat samples, Svevo-HA showed a significant reduction of glucose, sucrose, maltose, raffinose, malate and tryptophan and a high relative content of fructose and isobutyrate compared to Svevo. Faridur extracts showed similar sugar, malate and tryptophan contents as Svevo-HA. On the other hand, a relatively high content of fructose and isobutyrate was found in Faridur with respect to the other wheat samples. Finally, substantial differences characterised lentils, in particular for the specific presence of citrate, trigonelline and phenolic resonance of catechin/epicatechin compounds and the absence of the NMR resonance corresponding to betaine, fumarate and peaks related to the anomeric protons of alpha and beta glucose. Finally, only the lentil samples showed the presence of asparagine signals.Several studies demonstrated that daily adherence to the Mediterranean Diet has positive effects on human health in the prevention of NCDs [37,38]. In particular, durum wheat, a staple crop widely present in the Mediterranean Diet, can be used as a vehicle to prevent diet-related diseases, and for this reason, several breeding programs are aimed at improving its nutritional and health-promoting quality [9,[39][40][41]. The genotypes here characterised represent interesting raw materials that, alone or blended, will be used in the MEDWHEALTH project for making a large variety of durum wheat based-foods typical of the Mediterranean tradition (i.e., pasta, couscous, bulgur, freekeh, leavened and flat breads, frise, taralli, tarhana, bsissa, azenbou, boumeghlouth, mermez and biscuits). The two durum wheat genotypes, Svevo HA and Faridur, derived from two breeding programs focused on the genetic improvement of nutritional quality [9] technological value [10]. The durum wheat Svevo HA is characterised by a high con-  The analysis of the corresponding loadings plot (Figure A7) showed the relationships between sample clustering and the most significant NMR variables. At first glance, the wheat and barley samples had similar NMR profiles, both with negative values for the first principal component (PC1). Moreover, the Svevo, Svevo HA and Faridur samples were clearly different from barley for the second principal component (PC2) for their relatively higher content of betaine and glucose, and a relatively lower amount of malate, with respect to the barley cv. Chifaa. Among the three wheat samples, Svevo-HA showed a significant reduction of glucose, sucrose, maltose, raffinose, malate and tryptophan and a high relative content of fructose and isobutyrate compared to Svevo. Faridur extracts showed similar sugar, malate and tryptophan contents as Svevo-HA. On the other hand, a relatively high content of fructose and isobutyrate was found in Faridur with respect to the other wheat samples. Finally, substantial differences characterised lentils, in particular for the specific presence of citrate, trigonelline and phenolic resonance of catechin/epicatechin compounds and the absence of the NMR resonance corresponding to betaine, fumarate and peaks related to the anomeric protons of alpha and beta glucose. Finally, only the lentil samples showed the presence of asparagine signals.Several studies demonstrated that daily adherence to the Mediterranean Diet has positive effects on human health in the prevention of NCDs [37,38]. In particular, durum wheat, a staple crop widely present in the Mediterranean Diet, can be used as a vehicle to prevent diet-related diseases, and for this reason, several breeding programs are aimed at improving its nutritional and health-promoting quality [9,[39][40][41].The genotypes here characterised represent interesting raw materials that, alone or blended, will be used in the MEDWHEALTH project for making a large variety of durum wheat based-foods typical of the Mediterranean tradition (i.e., pasta, couscous, bulgur, freekeh, leavened and flat breads, frise, taralli, tarhana, bsissa, azenbou, boumeghlouth, mermez and biscuits). The two durum wheat genotypes, Svevo HA and Faridur, derived from two different breeding programs focusing on the genetic improvement of nutritional quality [9] and technological value [10]. The durum wheat Svevo HA is characterised by a high content of amylose and resistant starch compared to cv. Svevo (Table 1). For this reason, it can be used for reducing the glycaemic index of wheat-based foods [42][43][44][45].A daily intake of RS (15-20 g/day) helps to reduce postprandial glucose and insulin levels and has beneficial physiological effects due to its fermentation in the large intestine by the gut microbiota [12]. This process produces short-chain fatty acids, including butyrate and propionate, that play a role in the reduction of cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the blood and in maintaining the normal state of colonic epithelium. In addition, recent studies highlighted that the type of resistant starch influences the type of species colonising the large bowel [12].We found an increased amount of arabinoxylan and β-glucan in Svevo HA compared to Svevo (Table 1). These non-starch polysaccharides are the major source of soluble dietary fibre in cereals and play a potential functional role in human health. In this regard, an adequate consumption (25 g/day) of fibre is highly recommended due to its association with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, overweight/obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cancer [46]. In this context, the introduction of foods enriched with resistant starch and fibre in the daily diet can help to reach the amount needed for having positive physiological effects on human health.The barley cv. Chifaa showed an improved content of β-glucan (Table 1). β-glucans are fibre components associated with beneficial effects, as they can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by lowering the blood cholesterol concentration, prevent diet-related diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, by reducing the postprandial glycaemic response [47], and have an immunostimulant action against infectious diseases and cancer [48].Barley almost disappeared from the diet of many countries in the Middle Ages, especially in Europe, being preferred for feeding and malting [8]. However, it is still a staple food in several regions of the world, such as Middle East and North Africa Countries (MENA), South America and Central Asia. Recently, due to its nutritional and healthy properties, barley is regaining importance also in Europe and North America.The Mediterranean diet is based on cereal grains and legumes that provide the necessary macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) but also micronutrients, dietary fibres and phytochemicals that are important to healthy lives [38]. Polyphenols and isoprenoids are among the most important health-promoting phytochemicals whose concentrations may vary across whole-grain species [49,50].In this study, the wholemeal flours obtained from the innovative genetic materials used in the MEDWHEALTH project were characterised by the content and composition of phenolic acids, flavonoids, tocochromanols and carotenoids. Rather than a genetic variation study, this work estimated how these health-promoting components in the MEDWHEALTH materials would improve, alone and blended, different durum wheat based-foods typical of the Mediterranean basin.Based on the phytochemical profiles, Svevo-HA, Faridur, and Chifaa had higher contents of several minor and major phenolic acids (Figure 1), tocochromanols and carotenoids compared to those in the traditional Svevo (Table 3). The wholemeal lentil sample had a completely different phytochemical profile, which was poor in phenolic acids and rich in (+)-catechin and procyanidin B2 (Figure 1 and Table 3). Our results confirmed that conventional breeding could be effective in increasing the content of phytochemicals in whole grains [49]. Moreover, the results confirmed those of previous studies showing that the majority of polyphenols are phenolic acids, which are present mostly as insoluble bound forms or esterified to low molecular mass compounds [28]. Pulses, on the other hand, are characterised by other classes of polyphenols (i.e., flavonoids) that were more abundant than phenolic acids [51,52]. A large fraction (90-95%) of polyphenol intake is not absorbed in the small intestine and it reaches the large intestine intact, where the polyphenols exert their antioxidant activity after being metabolised by the intestinal microbiota [18]. Several studies suggested that both the phenolic acids and flavonoids present in whole-grain cereals and pulses also contribute to reducing the risk of a variety of chronic inflammatory diseases associated with intestinal disorders and endothelial dysfunction and inflammation [17,18].The isoprenoids that are important in preventing cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, and cancer, and in reducing lipid peroxidation and photo-oxidative damages [53,54], were confirmed as moderate sources of tocochromanols and carotenoids in the cereal and legume whole meals [28,52].The total antioxidant capacity of whole meals is given by the separated contribution of all bioactive antioxidant molecules present in each sample. Ideally, if the concentration of all antioxidant molecules is known, we can calculate a theoretical value of the antioxidant capacity by summing up the concentration of each molecule multiplied by their respective TEAC unless synergistic effects are active. The comparison of experimental and calculated TEAC of isoprenoid extracts is shown in Table 5. The good agreement between experimental and calculated values indicates that the isoprenoid detected and quantified by HPLC accounted for all antioxidant capacity in the extract. An analogue comparison between the experimental and calculated TEAC of polyphenol extracts is shown in Table 6. In this case, there is a good agreement between experimental and calculated values for the three wheat and Chifaa samples considering the sole phenolic acid content (Figure 1). For lentils, even considering the additional flavonoid content listed in Table 2, the experimental TEAC is double that of the calculated value, indicating that other antioxidant molecules were extracted and not identified, especially in the flavonoid chromatograms due to the lack of molecule standards (Figure A2) and/or a synergistic effect of the identified molecules.The NMR approach is widely used in food screening and the characterisation of complex matrices [55]. The molecular characterisation of food and, in general, agricultural matrices gives important information about the specific markers investigated (targeted) or metabolite patterns (untargeted) analysed in metabolomic studies. In particular, the NMRbased study revealed different profiles among the three wheat varieties (Svevo, Svevo-HA and Faridur), with a significant reduction in glucose, sucrose, maltose, raffinose, malate and tryptophan in the Svevo-HA with respect to Svevo. Whereas the soluble sugar content of wheat grain is technologically important, especially in bread making for improving loaf volume, a reduction of simple carbohydrates (i.e., soluble sugars) in wheat flour is important for reducing the glycaemic index. So far, Svevo-HA not only had higher resistant starch, amylose, TOT-AX and β-glucan contents but also a lower content of soluble sugars.To further improve the health benefits of durum wheat-based foods, whole meal lentil flour can be used, not only for the complementary biological value of its proteins with those of wheat and barley but also for the presence of different and complementary phenolic molecules, such as catechin/epicatechin [56] and alkaloids (i.e., trigonelline) with important associated antioxidant activity [57].Wholemeal flour from the of innovative wheat, barley and lentil varieties, improved for amylose, resistant starch and protein content, and currently in use in the MEDWHEALTH project (PRIMA, Horizon 2020), resulted also improved for other health-promoting components and antioxidant capacity. In particular, Svevo-HA and Faridur had a higher content of phenolic acids (i.e., ferulic acid and sinapic acid) and β-Tocotrienol and lutein. The naked barley Chifaa resulted in a rich source of phenolic acids, β-tocopherols, lutein and zeaxanthin, whereas, the lentil whole meal was rich of the flavonoids catechin and procyanidin B2. Untargeted, metabolomic fingerprinting of wholemeal flours through NMR spectroscopy revealed that Svevo-HA and Faridur had a significant reduction in sugar content, malate and tryptophan when compared to that of Svevo. Finally, substantial differences characterised the lentil profiles with respect to citrate, trigonelline and phenolic resonances of secondary metabolites, such as catechin-like compounds.The present findings endorse the use of the MEDWHEALTH innovative materials, alone or blended, in renewing a variety of traditional foods typical of the Mediterranean diet.      ","tokenCount":"6588"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bdec4576385209246a4e74ca57f1c66b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c891e670-c4ed-44ca-99c5-189d8d95ba42/retrieve","id":"252994197"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e86bd353-9747-482c-95d0-f0ddcc1d5375","pagecount":"16","content":"With rapid economic growth and a massive population increase, emerging economies grapple with resource scarcity and an immense increase in solid waste generation (Bui et al. 2022). Waste collection in these countries is minimal, capturing less than half of the total waste produced (Kaza et al. 2018). This inadequacy has resulted in significant environmental and public health issues, (Lazurko 2018;Ferronato and Torretta 2019). To combat these challenges, emerging economies are exploring ways to shift from a linear to a circular bioeconomy framework. Circular bioeconomy \"aims at products and services from recovered resources to promote sustainable growth through regenerative practices. It focuses on processing biomass from different waste streams into marketable products such as organic fertilizer and bioenergy\" (Taron et al. 2023a).The move from a linear to a circular economy has received impetus through government policies and regulations (Koval & Weis, 2019). This approach involves incentivizing technological advancements and offering economic incentives like subsidies and easing financing mechanisms. The adoption of circular economy principles is also guided by SDG targets, including Goal 6 (clean water and sanitation), Goal 7 (affordable and clean energy), and Goal 12 (responsible production and consumption) (Ferraz & Pyka, 2023). However, the sector remains nascent, with regional growth disparities stemming from insufficient enabling conditions such as infrastructure gaps, financial constraints, limited technical expertise, and low public awareness (Cantu et al. 2021). This technical brief explores the potential and current state of key markets within the circular bioeconomy in the Global South, specifically focusing on biogas, compost, and wastewater reuse in agriculture. These markets represent significant opportunities to create value from waste management and transition to a sustainable consumption and production process.A significant challenge for these countries is access to affordable and reliable energy. Currently, 758.93 million people lack electricity, and 2.6 billion rely on traditional biomass, coal, or kerosene for cooking, which leads to significant health and environmental issues (IEA 2023). Renewable energy sources like biogas can mitigate these issues by converting organic waste (food waste, livestock and crop residue, municipal sewage, and household solid waste) into usable energy (Afridi et al. 2023).Biogas adoption varies significantly across emerging economies in Southeast Asia. The region's capacity remains limited, with less than one gigawatt (Villegas, 2024). China leads in biogas production, boasting an installed gridconnected capacity of about 500 MW as of 2017 (Lu and Gao, 2021). However, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia have set ambitious biogas expansion targets. Thailand aims to achieve 5,570 MW by 2036, while Indonesia and Malaysia target 810 MW and 1,065 MW by 2025, respectively (Villegas 2024).Thailand's biogas initiatives began at the household and farm levels but have since expanded to industries such as cassava starch, palm oil, and rubber, as well as municipal waste. As the first Southeast Asian country to introduce a feed-in tariff (FiT), Thailand offers investment incentives like corporate income tax exemptions and import duty waivers to boost biogas projects. Financial analyses indicate that compressed biomethane gas plants with capacities below six tons/day require 30% government funding to achieve a 5-6 year payback period. Larger plants with capacities over six tons/day can achieve a 7-8 year payback without government support (Tonrangklang et al., 2022). The government is focusing on areas over 50 km from natural gas pipelines, indicating potential for further expansion.Malaysia has also extended its biogas generation targets to industries reliant on agrowaste, particularly palm oil. Since 2016, the Malaysian biogas sector has grown, driven mainly by the palm oil industry. The installed biogas capacity of 68 MW under the FiT scheme is set to increase, with an additional 73 MW approved and awaiting commencement (Jain 2019).These developments serve as examples for Indonesia and Vietnam, where biogas initiatives at the household and farm levels, primarily using livestock waste, are ongoing. The Indonesia Domestic Biogas Program (IDBP) and Vietnam's Biogas Program for the Animal Husbandry Sector (BPPMU) began in 2009 and 2003, respectively. By 2021, Indonesia had constructed 26,818 biogas units, while Vietnam had installed 158,500 domestic biogas digesters, offsetting 800,000 tons of CO2 equivalent annually (SNV, 2019). Both countries have significant potential to further utilize agricultural waste for biogas production.Beyond these nations, biogas production in Southeast Asia remains minimal despite its vast potential. For instance, the Philippines is an agricultural country that generates large quantities of biowaste and is committed to attaining a sustainable and clean energy future. However, biogas accounted for less than 1% of the power generation mix in 2020 (German-Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry 2020).In South Asia, India has made significant progress in biogas development, boasting approximately 5.04 million biogas plants and 22 bio-CNG plants, which collectively produce substantial amounts of biogas daily. This growth is bolstered by government initiatives such as the National Bioenergy Program and the Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT) scheme, which aim to promote the adoption of biogas and bio-CNG across the country. The SATAT scheme, in particular, targets the establishment of 5,000 Compressed Bio-Gas (CBG) plants by 2025, which are expected to produce 15 million tons of biogas annually (Press Information Bureau, 2022).Nepal has also made strides in the biogas sector, with nearly 7,000 biogas plants installed across the country. The growth of biogas in Nepal has been significantly supported by microfinance institutions, which have provided the necessary financing to rural households for the installation of biogas systems (Afridi et al. 2023). These efforts contribute to energy security and environmental sustainability in rural areas.Conversely, Pakistan and Bangladesh have yet to fully realize their biogas potential. Despite having ample agricultural waste and livestock manure that could be used for biogas production, both countries have lagged in adopting this technology. A few pilot projects exist in Pakistan, but large-scale adoption remains limited due to financial, technical, and infrastructural challenges (Afridi et al. 2023). Similarly, Bangladesh has focused more on solar energy, with biogas development receiving less attention, resulting in underutilized potential (REN21 2023).The Africa Biogas Partnership Programme (ABPP), implemented in 2009 across several countries, including Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda, boosted Africa's biogas sector. The program installed small-scale biogas digesters for household use, provided training and provided financial support. Despite not meeting installation targets, ABPP improved agricultural productivity and created jobs, benefiting many households, especially women (Ton et al. 2019). Despite being unable to meet the intended target of installation, other benefits of the program were noticed, such as the fertilization of more than 300,000 ha of land, leading to a 20-30 percent crop production increase. 90 biogas construction enterprises (BCEs) were also established leading to the generation of 4,200 jobs. More importantly, approximately 38,000 women no longer needed to collect firewood or scrub soot from vessels, saving them 2.5 hours per day.In Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), small-scale biogas digesters have been installed in rural areas, primarily using agricultural residues. Countries like Colombia, Costa Rica, and Mexico have adopted Taiwanese models due to their low-cost design. Brazil, despite initial setbacks, now has significant biogas production potential, with 2.8 billion cubic meters produced annually from 885 plants. Argentina also produces notable amounts of biogas, primarily for thermal energy and electricity. Colombia has developed several biogas projects using diverse substrates like manure and municipal waste (Vega et al. 2024). In contrast, Mexico's biogas production remains limited, with less than 1% of biofuels coming from biogas. Most installed biodigesters use cattle and pig manure, and municipal solid waste is not yet a common substrate for biogas production (Vega et al. 2024).While biogas has proven benefits and growing adoption, its potential is underutilized in many emerging economies. Strategic policies, financial incentives, and technology adoption are crucial for advancing biogas as a sustainable energy source, addressing energy access issues, and promoting environmental health.Recovering compost from organic waste remains underutilized in many regions of the global south. The primary reason behind the underdeveloped market is the competition organic soil amendments face from chemical fertilizers. In South Asia, composting is prevalent, especially in Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka, which have established standards for compost manufacturing. Sri Lanka's standards (SLS 1634:2019 for municipal solid waste and SLS 1635:2019 for agricultural and livestock waste) specify physical, chemical, microbiological, and biological requirements for compost (Sri Lanka Standards Institution 2019). Sri Lanka, facing issues with open dumping and burning of waste, launched the Pilisaru (national solid waste management program). Although the country briefly banned synthetic fertilizers to promote organic farming in 2021, the policy was reversed due to a lack of support for farmers (Weerahewa & Dayananda 2023). The major issue with the compost produced at the Pilisaru compost plants -it does not reach the market, and there is a lot of inventory of compost not properly marketed. Beyond the capacity of Public Health Inspector (heading the compost plant) to monitor and market the compost.In Bangladesh, regulations like the National Agricultural Policy 1999, National Policy for Water Supply and Sanitation 1998, and the Fertilizer Act 2008 promote composting. The National Fertilizer Standardization Committee has set compost standards and empowers the Ministry of Agriculture to certify commercial composting industries. The government supports composting by exempting VAT and sales tax on compost, 5-10 years tax holiday and reducing import duties on eco-friendly technologies (Sultana et al. 2020). However, the sustainability and scalability of composting plants are hindered by a lack of proper training and technologies. Many organizations and individuals operate composting processes without adequate knowledge of material selection, processing, packing, storage, and marketing. Authorized commercial composting industries are lower in Bangladesh, limiting compost availability in the market (Kabir 2015;Matter et al. 2015). Cofie et al. 2014 reported that 32 compost companies have government certification, and about 200 companies are in the queue. Product licensing takes over 600 days, and for some companies, it takes more than three years. Further, compost companies need to file separate certifications for different products. Presently, only 5 percent of the collected waste is composted, whereas 79 percent of the generated waste is organic. AIIB (2024) reported 3 urban local bodies (Rangpur, Chattogram, and Kushtia) to have compost plants of 5-20 tons among the 12 ULBs where the project is planned.  Order, 1985, and Fertilizers (Control) Amendment Order, 2003, amended in 2013, provide specifications for compost and the criteria for a certificate of registration with a validity for three years. Certification is not required for state governments and municipality manufacturers or manufacturers producing less than 50 tons of vermicompost. The government tried to promote the composting of organic waste from cities through the Swachh Bharat Mission. However, this could reach merely 5 percent of the urban organic waste. The Market Development Assistance (MDA) scheme by the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, was introduced in 2016. This policy stated subsidies for compost sales along with inorganic fertilizer. This subsidy was to reduce the selling price of compost for farmers. It required agreements amongst municipal bodies, compost manufacturers and compost marketers, including fertilizer companies. According to the mobile Fertilizer Management System (FMS) portal, fertilizer companies have claimed market development assistance (MDA) for 0.12 million tons of compost, whereas 30 compost manufacturers have claimed MDA for the sale of 62,394 tons of compost. So, in total MDA was claimed for 0.18 million tons of compost in 2017-18. This policy was revoked in 2021 since the subsidies recovered were low and the policy merged with incentive mechanisms offered on biofertilizers.MENA countries have significant potential for composting due to high organic waste. Except for Bahrain and Libya which have a low organic fraction (35-37%), the average organic fraction is 50-65%, with the highest in Egypt (79%) (Hussein et al., 2021). Egypt produces 90 million tons of waste annually and composts only 20.7 million tons, far below the demand of 54.5 million tons (Negm & Shareef, 2020). Jordan and Kuwait lack composting facilities, leading most waste to landfills. Saudi Arabia, with 15 million tons of food waste annually, has recently established the National Center of Waste Management under Vision 2030 to reduce landfill waste by up to 82% through 1329 facilities. However, the quality of compost is often poor, with bad odor and heavy metal contamination (Zajonc et al., 2014).Although organic waste constitutes approximately 50% of the total waste stream in Latin America, less than 1% is currently composted, with such efforts being limited to a few countries. The majority of waste-52%-is disposed of in sanitary landfills, while 26.8% ends up in open dumps (Kaza et al., 2018). This low rate of composting can primarily be attributed to the lack of established standards and the low tipping fees that do not incentivize organic waste diversion.In Mexico, 19 composting plants process organic waste from urban areas, agricultural and livestock operations, and forestry. Mexico City alone hosts four composting stations that produce around 295 tons of compost daily. Brazil, in contrast, sees minimal engagement in composting, with only 127,500 tons of organic waste composted annually. In Chile, composting initiatives are limited, with just 13% of municipalities actively working on organic waste recovery. Compost plants in the region tend to be concentrated in areas with strong demand and easy access to organic waste, such as in Cundinamarca near Bogotá, Colombia, which hosts 16 composting facilities.Governments have begun addressing organic waste management (UNEP, 2020). Some countries, including Colombia, Peru, and Brazil, are in the process of developing policies aimed at enhancing resource recovery. Brazil's recent National Plan of Solid Waste sets ambitious targets, including the elimination of controlled dumps starting in 2024 and an increase in the recovery rate of municipal solid waste (MSW) to 48.1% by 2040. In contrast, Panama's Box 1. Examples from India in developing marketing mechanisms for compost.The HARIT Ticker is a blockchain-based platform designed to improve the organic compost value chain in Maharashtra, India. This platform connects compost producers, farmers, agricultural institutions, and other buyers, facilitating faster transactions and better management of compost production, storage, and distribution. Currently, the HARIT Ticker has registered numerous urban compost producers and farmers, creating a significant business potential. The platform is supported by government subsidies and aims to make the composting process more sustainable and profitable.policies focus narrowly on food waste, and current initiatives are still experimental. This overview underscores the pressing need for improved composting infrastructure and policies across the region to better manage organic waste and reduce landfill dependency.Many countries are experimenting with fecal sludge-based compost to tackle soil nutrient depletion. Otoo et al. (2018) studied the market adoption and diffusion of compost derived from fecal sludge in the Greater Accra and Western regions in Ghana; Kampala, Uganda; Bangalore, India; Hanoi, Vietnam; and Kurunegala, Sri Lanka. The study indicates that the farmers were less willing to pay for the compost above a certain price (comparable to existing compost and artificial fertilizers). Farmers with larger land holdings were willing to pay more. However, farmers were concerned about product safety and the related need for third-party certification. The study recommends that future businesses will need to invest in strong awareness programs coupled with actual field experiments to increase product recognition and eventual adoption.In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, efficient reuse of treated wastewater is prevalent due to high water stress. The number of water reuse projects has increased to 409 in 2020 with 11% of the total wastewater being used directly, 35% indirectly reused, and 54% lost unproductively (Velpuri et al., 2023). Countries like Egypt, Morocco, UAE, Tunisia, and Jordan lead in this practice, with the UAE, Kuwait, and Qatar reusing over 80% of their wastewater, and Saudi Arabia using 90% for irrigation. Abu Dhabi aims for 100% reuse by 2030. Different countries in the region use treated wastewater for various purposes: forestry and agriculture in Egypt, Tunisia, and Jordan, and landscaping in Morocco, UAE, and Oman (Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2022). However, increased wastewater treatment leads to more sludge, which poses environmental challenges. For instance, Kuwait produces 250 tons of sludge daily, while Tunisia and Jordan produce one million and 105,000 tons annually, respectively (Taron et al. 2023b).In South Asia, the reuse of treated wastewater is limited. Most wastewater is used untreated or partially treated for agriculture, posing significant public health risks. India is the only country with established guidelines for reclaimed water (RW) reuse in irrigation, considering soil nature, crop salinity tolerance, and metal ion limits (GoI 2013). However, other South Asian countries lack such guidelines, leading to the widespread use of untreated wastewater. Bangladesh treats only 2% of its wastewater, but the new Dasherkandi Sewage Treatment Plant is expected to increase treatment capacity by 500 million litres. Sri Lanka has treatment plants like Moratuwa-Ratmalana and Ja-Ela, but sludge management remains a challenge (Taron et al. 2023b).Wastewater reuse percentage for emerging economies Source: UNU-INWEH, 2019In India, urban areas generate 72,368 million liters of wastewater daily, with only 28% treated. Smaller cities lack resources for treatment plants, leading to untreated wastewater being disposed of in water bodies. Most sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is disposed of in dumpsites without proper treatment. Of the treated water, only 3% is reused across the country for different purposes, mainly irrigation (Mishra et al. 2023). However, there is potential for energy generation from treated sludge through incineration or anaerobic digestion (Singh et al. 2020;Mitra 2021). In East Asia and the Pacific, Singapore leads in wastewater treatment and reuse. The Changi Water Treatment Plant, with a capacity of 900 million liters per day, produces NEWater, which meets 30% of Singapore's water demand. By 2060, NEWater is expected to meet 55% of the demand (Lefebvre 2018). China has also improved its water treatment and reuse, treating 63.3 billion cubic meters of water annually, with 19.9% reused. Most of the water is reused for landscape irrigation and industrial cooling followed by agricultural irrigation, and other urban uses such as toilet flushing and car washing. China's sludge management involves land applications, incineration, and sanitary landfills (Hu et al. 2021;Wei et al. 2020).In Latin America and the Caribbean, wastewater reuse is limited and often does not meet quality standards. Sludge treatment is minimal due to inadequate legislation and regulations. Brazil's SANEPAR, however, has made progress, treating sludge to produce Class A biosolids, which are used in agriculture and have proven more efficient than mineral fertilizers (Martin-Hurtado & Nolasco, n.d). Why is resource recovery and derived products not picking up?The poorly developed market and low adoption rates of RRR products in emerging economies are attributed to various factors. The major challenge faced by most of the countries is the consistency and quality of waste. Most developing countries do not have regulations regarding the sorting of waste, and these regulations are not implemented strictly across the country. For example, countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have a significant amount of food and green waste in their MSW. Major food loss takes place during the processing stage, especially for cereals, fruits and vegetables and seafood. Large amounts of husks and leaves from farming also contribute to this organic waste (Hettiarachchi et al. 2018). This waste is harder to burn and provides a lower caloric value leading to a fluctuation in electricity output and revenue uncertainty for biogas plants. The input and output market should be controlled through strong market protection policies to ensure that the entire value chain is not disrupted. Setting segregation standards will enable easy access to organic waste, especially for composting. Similarly, for the output markets, all the RRR products face competition from their liner counterparts. The RRR markets, if not protected from externalities, may be disrupted by their liner substitutes.In addition, for biogas, the major techno-economic and institutional barriers limiting the uptake include limited availability of feedstock to produce biogas to meet the daily energy demands (especially in rural households), as well as large land requirements, high investment cost due to the dependency on external technology and skilled labor, and ultimately lack of coordination between public and private sectors for promoting biogas energy to the market and making it commercially stable. These challenges are faced in India, where despite a large number of biogas plants being installed most of them are not in use (Afridi et al. 2023). Besides, renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydro also present challenges to the growth of the biogas market. The combined market value of renewable energy reached $ 970 billion in 2022 (Precedence Research, 2023)-approximately 12 times greater than the 2022 estimates for the biogas market. Despite their linear economic value, these sources are favored by governments due to their scalability, ease of storage, relatively lower operational costs, and existing technological advancements. The Sfax Governate in Tunisia is a region where the demand for water exceeds the supply. Due to the scarcity of natural water resources including both groundwater and surface water, recycled water from wastewater treatment plants provides a valuable new water source that can be used for irrigation. The Sfax Sud WWTP uses both industrial and domestic wastewater and serves a population of 526800 residents. It has also helped improve agricultural production to include 533.5 t of olives, 2,045 t of milk, 68.72 t of meat, 4165 t of manure and 150 heifers thereby improving farmers income. Safar and Chamtouri 2022).El Berka wastewater treatment plant:The El Berka wastewater treatment plant in Cairo, Egypt treats 0.4-0.5 million m3/day of which 5% is used for irrigating lemon, Khaya senegalensis and jajoba trees. Another 12% of the treated water is used by farmers to irrigate 1000 ha of land. In addition to this the plant also produces 50-60000 t of sludge of which one third is sold for composting and to the construction sector (Drechsel & Hanjra, 2018).The composting sector in emerging markets is confronted with inadequate source segregation and waste collection, resulting in organic wastes seldom reaching composting plants for treatment (Ferronato et al. 2019). Furthermore, compost faces direct competition from organic and chemical fertilizers, both of which serve a similar purpose of soil nourishment at subsidized prices which distorts the market for compost. Moreover, composting yields a low-value product ($0.06 to $0.02/kg), and its localized demand, coupled with significant variations in quality, fails it to pick up. Compost products are also not adequately marketed in most countries. Andhra Pradesh has taken up 'demand profiling', where the major demand areas are identified at the urban local body (ULB) level, and only then are suitable treatment systems installed to meet the demand. This can be implemented in more areas to reduce loss of revenue.Many emerging countries face various institutional, economic and technological challenges in setting up and operating wastewater treatment plants in their countries. For example, in India, ULBs are responsible for installing and operating water treatment plans. However, most of these institutions suffer from a lack of manpower and infrastructure such as monitoring stations, laboratories, water testing equipment etc. A survey conducted showed that there were staff shortages upto 37.6%, 39%, and 52.3% in scientific, technical, and administrative domains respectively (NITI Aayog, 2022). Countries also face technological challenges such as reliance on older, nonperforming technology to save on capital costs, difficulty in procuring land in urban areas and lack of large scale and continuous electricity supply (Kumar & Tortajada. 2020). Studies have also shown that the reuse of treated wastewater is also adversely impacted by social factors such as lack of awareness and acceptance to reuse treated wastewater for potable and non-potable uses. It was seen that in Singapore, a change in terminology from treated wastewater to 'recycled' water helped increase social acceptance by 74% (Timm & Deal. 2018). Most people also do not want wastewater plants installed near places where they reside due to concerns about odour, noise and the probability of a decrease in land value. This further creates problems for the acquisition of land. China has, therefore, set up underground treatment plants that are hidden from the public eye.Raising awareness about RRR products, especially among consumers, is therefore crucial. This can be achieved through campaigns, posters, and educational programs in public places, as well as integrating the importance of such products into school curriculums. Increased awareness will create natural demand for organic products, encouraging businesses to innovate and supply the market. One such way is promoting the organic produce market. Globally, there is increasing demand for organic food and beverages, estimated at $174.37 billion in 2024. Governments should also invest in research and development -as one of the major challenges faced by RRR products is technological efficiency. Developing and refining the technology will help local governments and other businesses to adapt and make higher profits. ","tokenCount":"4045"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/5973516445.json b/data/part_1/5973516445.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..613a1958d2a95b97a0f800fe5dfb7d978cf93b24
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d3f1052be701e23d42009bd4d4193dbd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/760b5335-eab0-4c72-9efd-e42c6344c084/retrieve","id":"1289830354"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"03e4ebae-0870-446a-8115-22b8edab5b9b","pagecount":"10","content":"Le projet Acce ĺe ŕer les impacts de la recherche climatique du CGIAR pour l'Afrique (AICCRA) est un projet qui contribue a ̀ cre ér un avenir africain adapte ́ face au climat, axe ́ sur la science et l'innovation dans l'agriculture. Il est dirige ́ par l'Alliance of Bioversity International et le CIAT et soutenu par une subvention de l'Association internationale de de veloppement (IDA) de la Banque mondiale.Sow S., Worou O. N., Diedhiou L., Yessoufou N., Houessionon P., Sylwia Trzaska, 2023. Intégration du contenu du curriculum sur les risques climatiques dans les programmes de formation professionnelle au Sénégal. Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA)  ............................................................................................... 7 04. Contraintes et opportunités .............................................................................................................. 9 05. Conclusion et recommandations ....................................................................................................... 9 a. Contexte général de l'enseignement supérieur au Sénégal Un processus interactif de révision et de test pilote du programme de formation a permis de garantir la pertinence du curriculum de formation à la suite de séances de formation et de consultation avec les enseignants/formateurs et de formation pilote de 73 professionnels.Dans la stratégie de conception et de mise en place des programmes de diffusion au public académique et professionnel en vue d'accroitre la sensibilisation a ̀ l'importance de la CMRAE auprès des institutions de formation au Sénégal, une consultation publique avec les acteurs de l'enseignement supérieur a e te ́ planifiée. L'objectif est de mettre a ̀ disposition un certain nombre de matériels et de manuels de formation adaptés qui sont déjà̀ élaborés.Ensuite de faire un plaidoyer pour l'intégration de la formation en gestion des risques climatiques dans les programmes de formation professionnels sur la base de l'examen des programmes existants et des résultats obtenus a ̀ partir de l'évaluation des besoins de formation et le pilotage du programme de formation.Pour la réussite de cet atelier les responsables des instituts et écoles dans les domaines agricole, pastorale et environnementale ont e te ́ invités. Il s'agit des chefs d'établissement (directeurs et directrices), des directeurs des études, des vices directeurs, des chefs de départements, des acteurs de la formation organisée a ̀ l'intention des conseillers, des représentants des conseillers formés, des responsables des bureaux de la formation du ministère charge ́ de l'agriculture et du ministère charge ́ de l'élevage, de l'ANCAR, de l'ANACIM, de l'association Jokalante, de M-Louma, du RESOPP et de l'ISEP de Thiès. Les participants ont compris dans l'ensemble l'importance de l'intégration des modules Risques climatiques dans le curricula universitaire. Ainsi principales contraintes sont : La périodicité de révision des maquettes qui est de cinq ans ;  Le quantum horaire qui est statique, ce qui veut dire, qu'il faut réduire ou éliminer certains cours pour intégrer les modules de formation,  L'accréditation par l'ANAQ-sup. Cependant, il s'agit maintenant de saisir l'opportunité qu'offre le programme AICCRA pour étudier les modalités d'intégration de la question du changement et risque climatique dans le curricula universitaire.Cette conférence avec les acteurs de l'enseignement supérieur et les praticiens a permis de ressortir les possibilités et contraintes de l'intégration des risques climatiques dans le curricula universitaire. Les acteurs ont salué l'organisation de cette importante conférence sur la durabilité des connaissances par rapport aux risques climatiques.Il a été également demandé l'accompagnement du programme AICCRA dans le renforcement des capacités des enseignants qui doivent prendre en charge cette formation. Pour ce faire la proposition de la création d'un comité de suivi a été formulée. Il reste à créer ce comité et de définir ses activités. La création d'un certificat de spécialité ;  Un programme sous forme de module optionnel ;  L'organisation de conférences sur le changement climatique au sein des universités. aiccra.cgiar.org info@cgiar.org CGIARAfrica","tokenCount":"603"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ca8a17ee603cb3e02f5865b7fa4d2ac4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/2DT22T/IA5TVH","id":"-1229523341"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0daf221a-afc7-47aa-8346-af29043d9436","pagecount":"12","content":"INF.ID.3) Country INF.ID.4) District/Region INF.ID.5) Commune INF.ID.6) Village with ZIP/PIN code INF.ID.7) Name of supervisor INF.ID.8) Hamlet relief Top of mountain / plateau/ catchment area INF.ID.9) household identifier (Sequential number) INF.ID.10) Latitude ( at least 7 digits) xx.xxxxx INF.ID.11) Longitude (at least 7 digits) xx.xxxxx INF.ID.12) Altitude (in meters) INF.ID.13) Supervisor control datehis questionnaire will be administered to a woman in the household. Ask first if it there is a woman living in the household with a child aged 6 to 59 months; if so, conduct the interview with her. If there is no woman with children 6 to 59 months in the household, carry out the interview with a woman who usually prepares the food in the household.In the case where there are several women with children 6 to 59 months living in the household that would be eligible, randomly select one of these women (mothers). Do the same if more than one child from the mother chosen is eligible. INF.ID.14) Name of woman interviewed:____________________________________________ INF.ID.15) Age (in years):_______ INF.ID.16) Relation with household head (encircle) : 1= Wife; 2=child; 3=Sister; 4= Niece/cousin; 5=grandchild; 6=Domestic worker; 66=others (indicate explicitly) INF.ID.17) Child name:_______________________________________________ INF.ID.18) Child sex:___________ INF.ID.19) Child age (in months) [check with an official document (birth certificate, health card, etc.)]:_______ INF.ID.20) Tick this box if child is between 6 and 23 months [ ]In SECTION 1 of the questionnaire, a 24h recall is performed with the mother/woman interviewed about the foods she consumed the day before the interview, subsequently she will also respond in place of her child for a 24h recall about the foods consumed by the child. If there is no eligible child in the household, the interviewer directly goes to section 3 of the questionnaire.The 24h recall will be performed in 4 steps :Step 1 : Record a list of foods consumed the preceding day. Ask the woman to name the foods eaten the day before, in ascending chronological order (for easy recall). Fill the column (a) and in column (b). It can also fill in column (c) if the mother already indicates the time of taking meals or foodStep 2 : Revise the list together with the mother/woman and probe for foods often forgotten, such as foods consumed in between major meals ;Step 3 : Collect details about the listed foods; ask for more information about the time of consumption of the foods and also about the different ingredients of composed/mixed dishes. For each single food or ingredient, ask for the source of the food/ingredient. Fill in columns (c), (d), (e) and (f) for each food/ingredient.Step 4 : Perform a final check on all foods listed and ask again if no foods or ingredients were forgotten. If something was omitted, add the foods/ingredients with all details to the table and fill in columns (c), (d), (e) and (f). The interviewer will use the results from the focus group discussions (FGDs) to help (via probing questions) the participating women recall all necessary details about ingredients used during food preparation, including the use of wild plants and spices, aromatic plants, etc.MOTHER/WOMAN 1. Ask the mother/woman to recall all the foods she consumed the day preceding the interview, from the time she woke up in the morning till she went to bed in the evening, including beverages and small foods consumed as snacks in between the major meals.Write in column (b) every food and dish the mother/woman consumed the preceding day. 4. Proceed with a final check. Oversee with the mother all the information she gave and ask again if she did not forget anything, especially probe if she did not consume foods in between meals. If the mother/woman mentions other foods, add them to the list and ask for all details as in the above table. CHILD Once the recall for the mother is completed, explain the mother that you are now going to perform the same exercise, but concerning the foods her child ate yesterday. Follow the same steps as for the recall of the mother. Use the table below to describe all the details about the consumption of the child. 4. Proceed with a final check. Oversee with the mother all the information she gave for the child and ask again if she did not forget anything, especially probe if the child did not consume foods in between meals. If the mother/woman mentions other foods or ingredients, add the omitted foods/ingredients to the list and ask for all details as in the above table.For questions 7 to 9, take the last 12 months preceding the interview as reference period.The interviewer makes a choice between the numbers corresponding to the answer of the respondent and ticks the box in the column 'Code'. ","tokenCount":"785"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/6018030426.json b/data/part_1/6018030426.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..87edd8478d028298bbba17612312739bdc2e079a
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d0133c4507dd798dc0590fc018d53671","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f9b5f3ec-bb8b-4ecf-bdcc-fba16950a7e3/retrieve","id":"-120074184"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0fd25817-574b-41fa-affa-69dd0eb66c08","pagecount":"8","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-One of the innovations promoted by CGIAR's Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender inclusion (SAPLING) relates to Innovation Package 1 namely: . IP1: Gender-sensitive behavior change communication (BCC) for improved sheep and goat productivity through integrated technology adoption, delivered through Livestock Champions (LC). It is based on a combination of health, feeding, reproductive-genetic and breeding interventions within a behavioral change framework, and designed to reduce mortality, morbidity, weight and reproductive losses, and thereby increase productivity. The application of this integrated package by small ruminant farmers aims to promote the intensification of sheep and goat production systems, including sheep fattening, combined with better manure production and utilization to improve crop yields. To achieve this change, a series of cascading, gender-sensitive capacity-building activities were initiated.A first phase of capacity building was therefore organized in three (03) sessions, including two (02) for LC1s in the Ségou and Sikasso regions, and one (01) for LC3s in Farakala in the Sikasso region.The training sessions were carried out in the chief towns of two districts, Sikasso and Baroueli. Level 3 champions were trained in the commune of Farakala in Sikasso District.The training sessions took place from 23-29 November 2023.The training was led by International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) staff, including a postdoctoral researcher (Olivier Zannou) and the capacity building officer (Ahmadou Sow).The aim of the training was to build the capacity of Level 1 and Level 3 livestock champions in the areas of health, nutrition, genetics and breeding to increase the productivity of their small ruminant herds.The training program took place over six days, including two days per site. Days 1 and 2 (23 and 24 November 2023): Sikasso District; Days 3 and 4 (25 and 26 November 2023): Farakala commune; Days 5 and 6 (28 and 29 November 2023): Baroueli District. See Appendix 1 for details on the full program of the day's events at each site.The three training sessions brought together 34 participants, distributed as follows: 15 participants in the session of Sikasso including 1 woman; 12 participants in the session of Farakala including 3 women; and 7 participants in the session of Baroueli.A total of 4 women took part in the training, including 1 under the age of 35. Among the 30 men who took part in the training, 11 were under 35.Among the 34 participants, 22 were vets and extension officers from both the public and private sectors in the Sikasso and Baroueli districts. The remaining 12 were livestock farmers from the commune of Farakala.The champions of Level 1 will train those of the other levels in each of SAPLING's communes.The approach adopted during the capacity-building sessions was as follows:Part 1: Parasitosis in small ruminants Existing types of parasitosis in small ruminants were identified. The classification according to parasite location, notably internal external and blood parasites, was also made. The prophylaxis plan, based on gastrointestinal, blood and external parasite control, was presented to the livestock champions (LCs). The clinical signs of parasitized animals and the differential diagnosis of certain diseases with common symptoms were reviewed. Treatment based on the administration of boluses against gastrointestinal and hepatic parasitosis; administration of anti-trypanosomiasis products and those against external parasitosis; and the use of products against external parasites in pour on and/or baths were points shared with the participants.The types and groups of feeds for small ruminants were presented. Distribution, done in two ways and according to production objectives, especially for stalled animals, was discussed in detail. Feed budgeting for better planning of breeding activities related to available feed and production targets was developed.The importance of animal habitat was highlighted. The different types of habitats that exist and the materials used for their construction were presented. Variable density was discussed, depending on production objectives and habitat type. The orientation of the building itself, which varies little, was explained. The regulatory distance between animal and human habitats was presented, considering the realities on the ground.The sex ratio and how to maintain it. Career management of males and females according to production objectives and type of breeding was discussed with participants. Emphasis was also placed on respecting career plans. The choice of a good sire was an important point of discussion.The various components of animal welfare were reviewed. They cover feed, health, housing and transport. Each component was detailed and explained to the LCs.The importance of administration, management and data recording on a small ruminant farm was explained to participants, and examples shared.The identification and diagnosis of a sick animal was presented. The steps to follow were explained, and it was recommended that field diagnosis be supplemented by laboratory diagnosis.The dominant diseases of small ruminants in the intervention zone were identified. They include: peste des petits ruminants (PPR), pasteurellosis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, foot-andmouth disease, anthrax, contagious ecthyma, brucellosis, mastitis, pneumonia, foot rot, trypanosomosis and sheep pox etc. For each of these diseases, the definition, symptoms, prevention and treatment methods were given.Part 9: Field immunization of small ruminants Topics covered included the veterinary cold chain, PPR control and eradication (the case of Mali); organization of the small ruminant immunization campaigns, organization of small ruminant immunization sessions during the campaign, existing and new PPR immunization protocols, postvaccination monitoring of small ruminants, and the participatory approach to immunization (ILRI's experience in Mali). ","tokenCount":"917"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/6021258755.json b/data/part_1/6021258755.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..28e4c200295666535c865345dbb44ee2395b4260
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"09bf4ea85eee7c80a947555697534b5a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b0761c5d-62db-44f3-8528-fa9a4c846fb8/content","id":"-2029592525"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1e9c3a49-bd1a-495a-9f84-88b0926337ef","pagecount":"34","content":"\"Today more people are hungry than entire population of South Asia at beginning of Green Revolution (1970)  Strategy (5-year cycle)Up-scaled breeding and testing to deliver genetic gain. . .High value parents as donors for different traitsCrosses: ~1500 Biparental, ~500 Top and ~500 Back Targeted utilization of new genes, traits and germplasm Large population sizes (depends)Selection of progenies in segregation generations \"Each selection adds to the gains for more than one trait\"Borlaug's Shuttle BreedingLeaf rust, Fusarium Elite Nursery annually distributed by CIMMYT to collaborators ~200 sites with 50 lines (+checks) in α−lattice q q q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q qq q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q q Genetic Progress (gains) Pop (F 2:3 )Ped F 4:5Ped F 5:6Testcrosses GS 13.4% of gains against checks GS higher gains than pedigree (7.3%) ","tokenCount":"268"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/6055732015.json b/data/part_1/6055732015.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..79aa5ab0098f97b89bfa391e2c07df960b0f9acc
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b640db95dab886ac3473d80013159778","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7726a055-ac07-45cd-9c0a-9b5f538c4992/retrieve","id":"-1606611539"},"keywords":["Rice","Genetic resources","Progenitor contribution","Productivity","Economic benefit","Impact pathway"],"sieverID":"e8066624-0583-4c9b-92e1-806f20e2e162","pagecount":"14","content":"Background: The International Rice Genebank (IRG) currently safeguards the largest and most diverse collection of rice genetic resources in the world. Over the past decades, genetic resources from the IRG have been used effectively to increase smallholder farmers' rice productivity in developing economies. Bangladesh is one of the direct and indirect recipients of IRG germplasm for rice genetic improvement. This study aimed to map the impact pathways of IRG germplasm transfers to Bangladesh, evaluate the genetic contribution of IRG germplasms to rice productivity of farmers, and compute the equivalent economic benefit. Methods: Impact pathway analysis was conducted to map the IRG's germplasm transfer for varietal improvement and seed dissemination of improved rice varieties in Bangladesh using the information collected from key informant interviews. Using data from the farm household survey conducted by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in 2016 in five divisions in Bangladesh, a pedigree analysis was conducted that related the productivity changes in farmers' fields explicitly to genebank accessions through varietal improvement. Afterward, we evaluated the economic benefit of IRG contribution in rice varietal improvement in Bangladesh using the computed marginal increases in productivity, average paddy price, and estimated total rice area.Results: IRG's impact pathway on germplasm transfer in Bangladesh showed that impacts for farmers were achieved through joint efforts with IRRI and the National Agricultural Research and Extension System's research-for-development programs. On average, 52% of the improved rice varieties' genetic composition, cultivated by farmers in Bangladesh, definitely came from IRG accessions. This contribution factor could increase up to 67% if possible contributions were taken into account. The results of the Cobb-Douglas model implied that for every 1% increase in the definite IRG contribution to an improved rice variety, there was an increase in rice yield of about 0.99%, holding other factors constant. This yield increase can be translated into an additional US$ 8,576,973 aggregated net benefit of farmers during the wet season in Bangladesh. The enhanced yield can be associated with the added important agronomic traits contributed by the accession provided by the IRG in the genetic background of the rice varieties developed for farmers in Bangladesh.Rice is not only an important crop and food staple for more than half of the world's diet, of which the majority are Asian countries (FAO Statistical Yearbook 2014),*Correspondence: d.villanueva@irri.org 1 Impact Evaluation, Policy and Foresight Unit, International Rice Research Institute, Pili Drive, University of the Philippines, Los, Baños, Philippines Full list of author information is available at the end of the article but it is also crucial to the food, nutrition, and economic growth of rural communities. In Bangladesh, rice is the staple food for approximately 135 million people across the country, and the rice sector contributes to half of the country's agricultural gross domestic product and onesixth of Bangladesh's national income (Wright and Countries 2020).Since the 1960s, Bangladesh has experienced significant rice productivity gains, achieved through yield improvements. The country's ten-year average rice production (1961-1970 and 2010-2019) increased by 229% from 15.8 to 52 million metric tons, respectively. This was attained without significant increases in corresponding averages for area harvested, which only increased by 22% or 9.37 to 11.42 million ha, respectively. To date, Bangladesh is the world's fourth-largest rice producer (GRiSP Global Rice Science Partnership 2013).Bangladesh's story was one of the successes of international agriculture research that spurred the Green Revolution in the 1960s, which helped avert food security challenges driven by population growth and stagnant productivity. However, the Green Revolution also increased the cultivation of rice varieties with similar genetic backgrounds, raising concerns for an impending crop diversity loss. Increasing the genetic uniformity of cultivated modern rice varieties poses threats to the existence of traditional varieties and wild species that, in turn, reduces the available global genetic resources. These traditional varieties and wild species are important sources of genetic variation needed in crop improvement to cope with the many biotic and abiotic stresses that challenge rice production around the world (International Rice Research Institute IRRI, n.d;Bailey-Serres et al. 2010;Gilliham et al. 2017).The International Rice Genebank (IRG) was set up in 1971 by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) after initiating the first wide-scale collection of rice genetic resources in 1962. IRG currently safeguards the largest and most diverse collection of rice genetic resources globally. Many of these genetic resources have benefitted international rice research programs and the National Agricultural Research and Extension System (NARES) that aim to advance work on crop improvement. Over the past decades, genetic resources from the IRG have been used effectively to increase smallholder farmers' rice productivity in developing economies (Evenson and Gollin 1997;Gollin and Evenson 1998;Hossain et al. 2003;Villanueva et al. 2020).Bangladesh is one of the direct and indirect recipients of IRG germplasm for rice genetic improvement. It currently ranks fifteenth among the top recipients of germplasm from IRG. Since 1987, the country has received an average of 134 accessions per year (see Additional file 1: Fig. S1). Almost 75% of these accessions were used in research, evaluation, and crop improvement (see Additional file 1: Fig. S2), and three-fourths (74%) of the recipients of seeds were national centers that conduct rice breeding programs, and some of them are managing Bangladesh's local genebanks (see Additional file 1: Fig. S3). Accession is a set of samples managed and conserved by a genebank as a single genetic entity, derived from, and intended to be genetically the same as a single sample acquired by the genebank from elsewhere with documented provenance and representing a cultivar, breeding line, or a population. Samples of the same cultivar acquired by the genebank on different occasions are different accessions (Guzman and Hamilton, 2019).IRG accessions are foundational in IRRI's rice genetic improvement programs. The IRG allows the breeding programs to tap into the diverse genetic resource pool from around the world and use them in their breeding programs to produce improved cultivars both in the form of \"varieties\" that are ready for use in farmers' fields and in the form of \"advanced lines\" suited for use as parent material in national plant-breeding programs (Evenson and Gollin 1997, p. 471). The accessions provided by the IRG in the genetic background of the improved rice varieties added important agronomic traits that enhance farm yields (Bailey-Serres et al. 2010;Ismail and Atlin 2019;Cobb et al. 2019a, b). However, we only note a few studies that have explicitly related, in quantitative terms, the on-farm productivity changes to genebank accessions through varietal improvements, such as the landmark studies by Evenson and Gollin (1997) and Gollin and Evenson (1998), and the most recent study by Villanueva et al. (2020).In addition, there has been no attempt made yet to map the impact pathways of IRG's contribution to farmer incomes and wellbeing through its genetic contribution. This study looked at the various processes in IRG impact pathways, from upstream to downstream, and the key causal pathways that ultimately make a difference to farmers' income and wellbeing as well as environmental sustainability. This analysis not only strengthens IRG's impact contribution claims to developing countries but scrutinizes the causal chain for process and performance improvement.This study applied a similar methodology to that found in Villanueva et al. (2020) but with additional components. First, we mapped out impact pathways of IRG germplasm transfers to Bangladesh, including the seed dissemination of improved rice varieties. Second, we evaluated the genetic contributions of IRG germplasms to rice productivity of farmers in Bangladesh by analyzing the IRG germplasm's progenitor contribution to the improved rice varieties. Lastly, using the analysis of progenitor contribution, we computed the economic benefit of IRG contribution in rice varietal improvement in Bangladesh.To address the first objective, we drew from the impact pathway evaluation approach. First used in international agricultural research by (Doutwaite et al. 2003), impact pathway evaluation is a theory-driven approach that enables explicit mapping of how research activities and outputs induce behavioral outcomes that contribute to an impact. Emphasis is given on how interactions of networks and actors co-produce and transform knowledge over time to achieve development outcomes and impacts (Matt et al., 2017). We adopted this framework first to describe the complex landscape of interventions and actors that govern the rice breeding and seed systems in Bangladesh. Second, to map the pathways through which IRG germplasms, together with IRRI research-for-development programs, interact across various stages of innovation, piloting, and scaling to impact farmers.To evaluate the quantitative impact contribution of IRG accessions to yield benefits of improved rice varieties, we first identified the improved rice varieties cultivated by the farmers in Bangladesh during the 2015 wet season in the RMS dataset. Then, pedigree analysis was employed to measure the progenitor contribution of IRG accessions to each improved rice variety. Progenitor contribution is the probability that an unselected allele comes from that progenitor with values ranging from 0 to 1. This analysis used the Mendelgram, a program of the International Rice Information System (IRIS), to calculate the progenitor contribution. The program assumes that each parent contributed an equal amount to their progeny based on Mendelian genetics.Figure 1 shows a simple illustration of the pedigree tree of a rice variety Y that follows Mendelian genetics with three hierarchical levels of ancestors or progenitors. 1 In this pedigree tree, the first level contains the direct parents of Y, which are AM1 and AF1 that have a progenitor contribution (values in parenthesis) of 0.5 each. The second level includes the grandparents of Y, which are BM2 and BF2 (parents of AM1), and CM2 and CF2 (parents of AF1). The progenitor contribution of each grandparent is half of the parent's progenitor contribution; therefore, all grandparents in this pedigree tree receive 0.25 progenitor contributions. The third level contains the great grandparents of variety Y, and each of them has 0.125 progenitor contributions, half of the progenitor contribution of the grandparents.Following the definition and methodology of Villanueva et al. (2020), we classified the ancestors found in each varietal pedigree tree into four categories of progenitor contribution: (1) definite contribution, (2) possible contribution, (3) no contribution, and (4) unknown contribution. Definite contribution refers to a progenitor whose name is tagged with an International Rice Germplasm Collection (IRGC) number in the IRIS records. Having an IRGC number in the variety name means that accessions were obtained directly from the IRG. There are progenitors in the pedigree tree that did not have an IRGC number but have a matching name in the IRG collection. For this kind of progenitors, we classified them as possible contributions. This means that there is a possibility that the ancestors came from the IRG, but there was no documented proof of accessing them. If a progenitor had no IRGC number in its variety name and had no match by name in the whole IRG collection, these were classified as no contribution. Lastly, unknown contribution refers to the progenitor with unknown or confidential information (e.g., hybrid varieties). In Fig. 1, we colorcoded these various categories of progenitor contribution as green, orange, purple, and white, respectively.After categorizing the progenitor contributions, we computed for total progenitor contribution of IRG accessions for each variety following a rule-based summing protocol. This method ensures proper computation of the progenitor contribution and eliminates double-counting as adopted from Villanueva et al. (2020). The first rule is that the summing procedure gives the highest priority to progenitors with definite contribution, followed by possible contribution, then unknown and lastly no contribution. This means that if both an immediate parent with definite contributions and a grandparent with possible contributions are present in one pedigree line, only the immediate parent will be considered in the computation to avoid double-counting. The second rule is that progenitors with the same classification can only be added if they come from independent pedigree lines. Lastly, if there is a recurrence of the progenitors with the same classification in the same pedigree line, only the progenitor located in the lowest ancestry level or the most immediate parent is included in the computation to avoid double-counting.To illustrate the procedure using Fig. 1, first, the progenitors with definite contribution (green) were identified and examined for their location and independence in the pedigree tree. Since DM3 is independent of any other progenitor with definite contributions in one pedigree line, it is then included in the computation. For the case of AF1, CF2, and GF3, since they belong to the same pedigree line, only AF1 was included in the calculation since it is the most immediate parent. Thus, the computed definite progenitor contribution for variety Y is the sum of the contributions of DM3 (0.125) and AF1 (0.5), which is equal to 0.625.The next step was examining the progenitors with possible contributions (orange). Only the progenitor contributions of DF3 (0.125) and EM3 (0.125) were considered in the computation since they satisfy the priority and independence rules and do not have similar progenitors with the same classification in the same pedigree line. FF3 was not considered because it is under the pedigree line of AF1, which is already considered in the computation of the definite contributions. Hence, the total possible progenitor contribution for variety Y is 0.250.Since EF3 was the only progenitor with unknown contributions (purple) and is independent with other progenitors with possible and definite classifications, its total progenitor contribution is 0.125. However, the progenitors with no IRG progenitor contributions (white) were in the same pedigree line of the progenitors included in the computation of definite, possible, and unknown contributions. Thus, the contribution of unknown progenitors is zero. Following this rule-based summing procedure, the total progenitor contribution for variety Y is the sum of the definite (0.625), possible (0.250), unknown (0.125), and no (0.000) progenitor contributions, which is equal to 1.The analysis of the pedigree tree of a variety will be more complex and the computation will become more complicated if it has many progenitors and breeding crosses and has multiple appearances of the same progenitor in the different levels, which is the case of this study. For further illustration, (see Additional file 1: Figures S4 and S5) show the screenshot of the pedigree tree and the Mendelgram generated by IRIS for BR11, respectively. A detailed discussion on this computer-generated output can be found in Additional file 1. BR11 was one of the inbred varieties included in the analysis of this study. The pedigree tree and the Mendelgram of other varieties included in the analysis were not shown in this document because they will occupy many pages for a journal article.The overall average progenitor contribution of IRG to an improved rice variety by category was computed in two ways. The first method was by using the simple average, and the second method was by using the percent area of the improved rice varieties adopted by farmers surveyed as weight.To test the effect of the genetic contribution of genebank accessions to productivity, a plot-level yield response function was estimated. The estimation was done while controlling for the influence of conventional inputs (fertilizer, labor, machinery, plant protection, irrigation), age of variety, management (age and education), geographical location (the distance to the nearest input dealer and the division where the residence of the household was located), and environmental factor (submergence). To standardize the values of continuous variables pertaining to production output and input, they were transformed into units per hectare (ha). In the initial exploratory analysis, the sum of the definite and possible contributions of IRG on the variety was included in the model. However, in the final model, only the index for definite contribution was used to measure the clear impact of IRG on productivity.To examine the effect of the genetic contribution of accessions from IRG on mean yields, four functional forms were tested: (1) linear, (1) extended linear, (3) Cobb-Douglas, and (4) translog. Below are the specifications of these models.Extended linear:Cobb-Douglas:where y i is yield of rice/ha, x i is the quantity of conventional production inputs/ha, and z i is the non-conventional input variables (management, environmental factors, and progenitor contribution).The validity of the necessary model assumptions was determined by performing model diagnostics. In this study, variance inflation factors (VIF) and Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisberg were used in testing the multicollinearity among independent samples and the presence of heteroscedasticity in the model, respectively. To evaluate the economic performance of the functional specification for each model, both Akaike's information criterion (AIC) and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) were used. The model with the lowest AIC and BIC values was the most preferred model specification. Model estimations and necessary diagnostic tests were performed using Stata 16.1.To account for the yield contribution of IRG accessions, we measured and incorporated genetic (progenitor) contributions in our model. A statistically significant coefficient means that IRG accessions affected rice yield, while a statistically insignificant coefficient means it did not make any detectable effect on yields. A positive coefficient sign relates IRG accessions to increases in yields and negative to decreases in yield.To evaluate the economic benefit of IRG contribution in rice varietal improvement in Bangladesh, this study focused on estimating the marginal effect of the IRG genetic contribution for the whole of Bangladesh. From the results of the yield response function model, the marginal effect of IRG progenitor contribution was computed in terms of kg/ha. Then, the marginal effect on the net income of Bangladesh Taka (Tk)/ha was calculated after considering the changes in the farm gate price of paddy and in the total input cost brought by the yield changes. Afterward, this estimated change in net income was multiplied by the estimated total rice area cultivated by modern rice varieties during the wet season of 2015 in the five divisions of Bangladesh included in the survey. The result was the estimated marginal effect on the economic (monetary) benefit (Tk) of the genetic contribution of the IRG in 2015. Additional computations were performed to convert this monetary benefit into a real value of 2020 US$. All the above computations were summarized in the formula below.where: Q-estimated marginal change in net income in Bangladesh due to a 1% change in IRG contribution in 2015 (2020 Tk). A-average yield of modern varieties (kg/ha). B-coefficient of ln_Definite_contribution in the Cobb-Douglas model. E-average paddy price of modern varieties during Aman 2015 (Tk/kg). F-estimated increase in paddy price due to the increase in production (%) computed from the IRRI Global Rice Model (IGRM) 2 . I-estimated total input cost/kg of paddy during 2015 wet season (Tk/kg). L-estimated area cultivated by modern varieties during 2015 wet season (000 ha). Nexchange rate of 1 US$ to Tk (2015) (Tk). P-consumer price index in 2020 (base = 2015) (Tk).Key informant interviews were conducted to characterize the impact pathway on IRG's germplasm transfer to Bangladesh and the dissemination of improved rice varieties to farmers. The interview respondents were purposely selected based on their knowledge and involvement with IRG germplasm. Particularly, the target respondents were involved either in the germplasm transfer from IRRI to Bangladesh, the development of improved rice varieties2 IGRM is a dynamic partial equilibrium framework developed by IRRI where each country model includes equations representing supply, demand, trade, and price relationships. The model covers the global rice market in 31 countries and regions that represent about 90% of the worlds' rice consumption and production (Hoang and Meyers, 2015).using IRG germplasm, the process of the varietal release, or the dissemination of improved rice varieties in Bangladesh. A total of 11 respondents were successfully interviewed. Eight of the respondents were IRRI staff, where three of them were working directly in the IRG. Two respondents were from the NARES partners and one was from a private seed company in Bangladesh. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the interviews were conducted via Google Hangouts using a semi-structured survey questionnaire. The guide questions mainly focused on the roles and responsibilities of respondents in germplasm transfer, varietal improvement, or seed dissemination of improved rice varieties. Other questions were about the institutional arrangements or protocol on germplasm transfer from IRG to Bangladesh. There were also questions on the various pathways from accessing an IRG germplasm to breeding new rice varieties and from new rice varieties to release, dissemination, and farmer adoption in Bangladesh.To assess the genetic contribution of IRG accessions on rice productivity and to evaluate its economic benefit, this study used cross-sectional farm-level data from the Rice Monitoring Survey (RMS) of Bangladesh, which was funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The survey was conducted in five divisions of Bangladesh, namely Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, and Rajshahi, in 2016. This survey aimed to monitor rice system that captures varietal turnovers over time and to examine the diffusion of stress-tolerant rice varieties in Bangladesh. A total of 150 villages were randomly selected from the rural villages defined in the 2013 village census, and in each village, 10 households were randomly selected. The total number of households interviewed was 1500, with the sample size in each division proportional to the rural population across divisions. To be able to correct the potential biases due to the sampling design and to make our data representative of the target population, we used weights that are equal (or proportional) to the inverse of the probability of being sampled. Although the data was not yet published in any data repository, the scientist-in-charge allowed us to use the data for the purpose of this study. Figure 2 shows the geographical location of the villages included in the survey, while Table 1 shows the distribution of sample villages and households by division as well as the average rice area per household. The farm-level data of RMS were used to determine the name of improved or released rice varieties grown by the farmers during the wet season of 2015. In the econometric analysis, plot-level data were used since some farmers had more than one rice plot. Only those plots that were planted by improved rice varieties with pedigree information were included in the analysis. The final sample size used for the model was 763 rice plots, which corresponded to 743 farmers.The data used in the pedigree analysis of the improved rice varieties were retrieved from IRIS. IRIS is the rice information management system of the International Crop Information System, which is a database system that provides integrated management of global information on genetic resources and crop cultivars. This system is used to manage germplasm information of materials developed, received, and maintained by IRRI.The main feature of the IRG's impact pathway on germplasm transfer in Bangladesh is that farmer impacts are achieved through joint efforts with IRRI and NARES's research-for-development programs. The IRG is an important source of rice germplasm for crop improvement, and Bangladesh is one of the recipients of plant genetic materials from IRG. IRG lines, such as the IR8 and the IR64, which drove the Green Revolution, are germplasms that are conserved within the bank and have been made available to many developing countries and breeding programs since the late 1960s and mid-1980s, respectively.While we found that majority of the accessions requested from IRG were for the development of advanced breeding lines facilitated by IRRI, these are also open to other institutions and individuals. National genebanks and research institutions are also significant groups that request or access germplasms. Also, farmers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and private sectors can request germplasms as well.Figure 3 illustrates the impact pathway of IRRI and IRG in the breeding and seed systems in Bangladesh. IRRI's research activities involve capacity development, both on upgrading partner NARES technical capacity and facility upgrading, knowledge sharing, joint research, social science, consumer and market, and monitoring and evaluation research with a development focus (IRRI experts, interview by the authors, 05 November 2020). This interdisciplinary approach recognizes the multifaceted nature of bringing about impacts on farmers and achieving food security. In IRRI's breeding work, IRG plays a foundational role in providing access to diverse collections of rice genetic resources. IRG also performs a supporting role in facilitating the international exchange of germplasms through its Seed Health Unit.Another mechanism supporting national breeding and release systems is the International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER). INGER is a network between IRRI and its NARES partner organizations. It is a platform where national research partners can evaluate advanced pre-variety breeding lines of their interest, test in different environments and countries, and access traits information for their breeding research. Doing these activities without INGER would incur NARES partners' significant expenses.In the past 5 to 10 years, significant improvements have been achieved by IRRI on improving the breeding's pathways to impact. There are three areas in which the breeding and seed dissemination systems in Bangladesh continuously evolve: (1) product fast-tracked breeding coupled with improved capacities of NARES partners, (2) linking market and farmer preferences to breeding, seed system dissemination, and (3) national and private partnerships.Fast-tracked or rapid cycle breeding provides a way for increasing the rate of genetic gains without significantly increasing the program costs (Cobb et al. 2019a, b). Genetic gains are important for increasing crop productivity. Under this strategy, genetic gains are achieved through continuous optimization and improvement of breeding processes, such as molecular marker-assisted breeding (MAB) and rapid generation advance (RGA). These technologies increase the selection differential and accuracy and shorten the breeding cycles. RGA can be done by reducing the fixed-line development so that field and multi-location trials can be performed earlier to complete one cycle. Earlier development and release of improved varieties, in turn, would allow earlier adoption and benefits to farmers.IRRI mainstreamed these modern approaches in plant breeding and practices in the private sector to improve program performance. This also includes building the local capacity of NARES partners, including Bangladesh. Collaboration in transferring MAB and RGA technology with the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) in 2014 became fully functional in 2015. Through this process, improvement from the traditional time of 14-15 years to develop one variety using a one-season pedigree method has been shortened to 5-6 years (BRRI and IRRI experts, interview by the authors, 05 November  ). This also resulted in improving the probability of getting a higher yield by five to ten folds. MAB, together with improvements in shortening the breeding process enables more accurate and efficient targeting of traits for forward breeding, while backcrossing good traits to popular varieties can be achieved within 3-4 years.Another development is enhancing the relevance of varietal products to market and consumer preferences through the formulation of product profiles. Product profiles are a compilation of trait packages required for effectively penetrating a market segment that informs breeding programs at the early stage (Ragot et al. 2018). This set of information introduces evidence-based manners of targeting trait developments that have a higher probability of value creation. Product profile typically covers information on the varietal preferences and gathers feedback on the existing variety from all actors in the value chain apart from the farmers (Cobb et al. 2019a, b).Before a breeding pipeline can be designed or optimized, it must have plausible objectives with respect to the type of product it will produce. Many breeding programs refer to this as the product profile. The product profile describes the trait package needed to replace a specific reference or target variety. A product profile, as defined by Ragot et al. (2018), is \"a set of targeted attributes that a new plant variety is expected to meet in order to be successfully released onto a market segment. \" Rather than an imaginative venture to design the perfect variety, a product profile attempts to focus breeding efforts on the key traits that drive incremental value creation. Based on this profile, IRRI and its NARES partners can make transparent advancement decisions using the profile as criteria for advancing certain varieties for national trials and release. Product profiles also allow harmonization of interest and priorities between breeding programs and value chain actors, facilitating the more effective matching of investment priorities that yield better targeting and employment of resources.IRRI, together with NARES partners, has facilitated the production and distribution of about 230,000 tons (t) of stress-tolerant rice seeds in 2017, which were used in 2018 (Baltazar and Samantaray 2018). These are roughly estimated to reach 8 million farmers through various dissemination mechanisms, such as head-to-head trials, participatory varietal selection, and crop cafeteria (ibid). Bangladesh share in this total is roughly estimated at 80,000t or 2.9 million farmers. Recently, IRRI and national public and private partners are using the information from product profiles to inform what varieties to scale in the seed systems.In (see Additional file 1: Table S1) shows the basic information about the varieties and the progenitor contribution of the IRG. A total of 53 improved rice varieties (43 inbred and 10 hybrids) were cultivated on about 2 million ha. Additional file 1: Table S2 (see Additional file 1) shows that out of the 43 inbred varieties, 38 (88%) have at least one progenitor in the pedigree tree that definitely came from the IRG. If possible contributions were included, the number of inbred varieties with at least one progenitor that came from the IRG would be 41 (95%). The average number of IRG progenitors with definite and possible contributions in an inbred variety is 25, with a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 60. All hybrid varieties do not have pedigree information from the IRIS database, and thus, the progenitor contribution of IRG in these varieties is unknown.Table 2 shows the summary of the computed progenitor contribution of IRG to each of the adopted improved rice varieties by farmers during the 2015 wet season in Bangladesh. In all types of IRG contributions, the minimum and maximum progenitor contributions were 0 and 1, respectively. The unweighted mean shows that the average definite and possible progenitor contribution of IRG to an improved rice variety was about 52 and 15%, respectively. Using the estimated percent planted area as weights, the average definite and possible progenitor contribution of IRG to an improved rice variety was about 67 and 18%, respectively. On average, 67% of the genetic composition of an improved rice variety cultivated by farmers during the 2015 wet season came from IRG accessions. The progenitor contribution can increase by up to 85% when the possible contribution is added. If there are IRG accessions in the pedigree of the hybrid varieties with no information, the progenitor contribution can still be higher. These findings reveal that IRG accessions form a significant part of the genetic composition of improved rice varieties in Bangladesh.Table 3 reports the definition and some basic descriptive statistics for the variables included in the yield response function. The average yield was about 4.96 t/ha, with a standard deviation of 1.44 t/ha. Farmers applied an average of 171 kg/ha of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizer on aggregate. Labor input had an average of 116 days/ha, while the cost of power and other material inputs had an average of Tk 12,923 and Tk 1394, respectively. The average age of the variety from the time of its official release up to the survey year was around 26 years, with a standard deviation of 12 years. Forty-six percent of the plots used supplemental water irrigation sources, while only 3% experienced submergence conditions. On average, the distance of the respondent's house from the nearest input dealer was about 2.03 km, with a standard deviation of 1.96 km. The average age and education of the farmers were about 46 and 6 years, respectively. The plot-level average of the definite contribution was 0.68, which means that about 68% of the genetic composition of the variety came from the genes of IRG accessions. The shares of the plots cultivated by modern rice varieties that are located in Barisal, Chittagong, and Dhaka were 12% each, while 42% and 22% of the total plots were located in Khulna and Rajshahi, respectively.In this study, there were four estimated models in different functional forms (see Additional file 1: Tables S3-S6). To arrive at these estimates, the basic diagnostic tests for linear regression were conducted, and the results were evaluated. The results of VIF confirmed that there was moderate multicollinearity (mean VIF = 1.85) among independent variables, but it was not severe enough to warrant corrective measures (see Additional file 1: Table S7). On the other hand, the results of the Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisberg test for heteroscedasticity were significant, which meant that there was a problem of heteroscedasticity in all models (see Additional file 1: Table S8). To deal with this problem, heteroskedastic linear regression was used in all models instead of the ordinary least square regression. This study employed the -hetregress-function of Stata 16.1, which fits a multiplicative heteroskedastic linear regression by modeling the variance as an exponential function of the specified variables using either maximum likelihood or Harvey's two-step generalized least-squares method. Only the results of the primary model of the heteroskedastic linear regression were presented in the tables since that was the focus of the analysis of this study. The AIC and BIC were computed to assess the most appropriate functional form in each model (see Additional file 1: Table S9). Among the three models, results showed that the Cobb-Douglas had the lowest values of AIC and BIC. This result implied that Cobb-Douglas was the functional form that best fit the data. The final yield response model of this study is presented in Table 4. Results showed that, except for other material inputs, the conventional production inputs were positive and significant, which conformed to the production theory. The negative sign and insignificant effect of other material inputs in yield can be attributed to the dependence of the cost of herbicides and pesticides applied to the occurrence of weeds and pests, respectively. Plots planted with recently released modern rice varieties had a higher yield. The use of a supplemental source of water for irrigation did not significantly affect the yield. This result can be associated with the adequate supply of water brought by rain during the wet season. The coefficient of submergence was negative and significant. This abiotic stress affected the growth of the rice crop and decreased its productivity. In some parts of Bangladesh, rice is cultivated in lowlying areas that are prone to submergence due to heavy rains and water intrusion from rivers or seas. The distance of the house from the nearest input dealer negatively affected the yield. Farmers who lived farther from the shop of the input dealer had a lower yield. Based on this result, lower yield can be attributed to the insufficient amount and untimely application of farm inputs due to their high cost caused by additional logistic costs and the difficulty in traveling to the input dealer's shop. The age and education of the farmers did not significantly affect the yield.In this study, the main variable of interest was the definite IRG contribution. The model results showed that the coefficient of the definite IRG contribution was positive and significant. This result means that as the size of the genetic contribution of progenitors from the IRG in an improved rice variety increased, its yield also increased. The magnitude of the increase in yield was computed by obtaining the exponential value of the coefficient of variable pertaining to the definite IRG contribution. The result of the computation was 1.0099. In terms of percent change, this result was interpreted to mean that a 1% increase in the definite IRG contribution on an improved rice variety can increase the yield by about 0.99%. Furthermore, a 10% increase in the definite IRG contribution can lead to a 9.9% yield increase. These results imply that the germplasm acquired from IRG contributed to the yield improvement of rice varieties. The enhanced yield can be associated with the added important agronomic traits contributed by the accession provided by the IRG in the genetic background of the rice varieties developed for farmers in Bangladesh.The economic benefit of IRG contribution was estimated from the resulting income and yield increases that can be attributed to the marginal increase in progenitor contribution. Table 5 shows the step-by-step procedure used to calculate the marginal increase in net income in Bangladesh due to a 1% increase in IRG contribution. Results showed that a 1% increase in the definite IRG contribution (variable B in Table 5) leads to a 0.99% yield increase (C). This is equivalent to 49.36 kg/ha (D), calculated at the mean yield of modern rice varieties of 4964 kg/ha (A).Following the law of supply and demand in economics, the increase in production of a particular commodity shifts the supply curve to the right and results in a lower price of that commodity. Using the IGRM model, the increase in rice production in Bangladesh by 0.99% decreased the price by 1.89%/kg (F).On the other hand, the increase in productivity can also incur additional costs of labor and material inputs. Using the plot-level data of the RMS, the average input cost of producing 1 kg of paddy was about Tk 10.00. Considering the corresponding decrease in price and increase in the production costs, the results showed that the estimated marginal increase in net income due to a 1% increase in IRG contribution was about 261.38 Tk/ha (K).Given that Bangladesh had an estimated rice area cultivated by modern varieties during the 2015 wet season of 1.946 million hectares (L), the total increase in net income for the whole country was about Tk 508,620,707 (M). The US$ equivalent of this estimate for 2020 was around US$ 8,576,973 (Q). Although this study was This paper provides evidence of the impact of IRG's genetic resources on rice productivity among smallholder farms in Bangladesh. Using data from the farm household survey conducted by IRRI in 2016 in five divisions in Bangladesh, a pedigree analysis was conducted and related the productivity changes in farmers' fields explicitly to genebank accessions through varietal improvement. Afterward, we evaluated the economic benefit of IRG contribution in rice varietal improvement in Bangladesh using the computed marginal increase in productivity, average paddy price, and estimated total rice rea. We also mapped out the impact pathways of IRG in germplasm transfer for varietal improvement and seed dissemination of improved rice varieties in Bangladesh using the information collected from key informant interviews. IRG's impact pathway on germplasm transfer in Bangladesh shows that farmer's impacts are achieved through joint efforts with IRRI and NARES's research-for-development programs. The interdisciplinary research and development efforts of IRRI, where IRG also performs a necessary role, recognize the multifaceted nature of bringing about the impacts on farmers and achieving food security.The study found that, on average, 52% of the improved rice varieties' genetic composition, cultivated by farmers during the 2015 wet season in Bangladesh, definitely came from IRG accessions. This contribution factor can increase up to 67% if possible contributions are taken into account. Using the yield response, this study assessed the farm-level impact of the IRG on productivity by including the index for the definite IRG contribution as one of the explanatory variables. The results of the Cobb-Douglas model showed that the definite IRG contribution had a positive and significant impact on yield. For every 1% increase in the definite IRG contribution to an improved rice variety there was an increase in rice yield of about 0.99%, holding other factors constant. This yield increase can be translated into an additional US$ 8,576,973 aggregated net benefit for farmers in 2015 wet season in Bangladesh.The findings of this study demonstrate the valuable contribution of IRG's conservation and distribution of genetic accessions to the development of improved rice varieties and rice production on farms in Bangladesh. The Table 5 Step-by-step computation of the economic benefit of IRG contribution a IRRI Global Rice Model b The total input cost/kg was computed using the cost and return data of RMS results can also be used to justify the continuity of collecting accessions and identify future potential sources of additional genetic acquisitions for varietal improvement.Most importantly, this case study illustrates the benefits of maintaining rice genetic resources, which can be used as evidence to attract funding from donors for the continuous support of IRG.For future research, a combined analysis to assess the farm-level impact of IRG in eastern India and Bangladesh could also be conducted due to the availability of similar data. Another potential study could be performing a surplus analysis to estimate the overall net economic benefit of the IRG after the deduction of its research and operational costs. The results of these studies can then strengthen the evidence and can add value to the aggregated impact of IRG on farmers' productivity and income.","tokenCount":"6711"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7135b5db09216f0e5f8b7a9df5255501","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b43c670-02d7-4ebe-9bcb-12c7744f7b91/retrieve","id":"402920422"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"81c05670-9a1f-4c53-9b3d-c2413aa86476","pagecount":"8","content":"En Colombia, existen incentivos que respaldan una producción agrícola rentable libre de deforestación. Al considerar el contexto de los productores de cacao, algunos incentivos se ajustan mejor que otros a estos productores. La falta de claridad en la tenencia de la tierra no permitiría a los agricultores acceder al Incentivo a la Capitalización Rural ni al Certificado de Incentivo Forestal, pero no representaría un problema al buscar financiamiento bajo un esquema de pagos por servicios ambientales y Obras por Impuestos.Los acuerdos de conservación podrían convertirse en el paso intermedio que posteriormente derive en la recepción de pagos por servicios ambientales y financiarse mediante Obras por Impuestos. Para los productores de cacao, la clave está en poseer la capacidad de implementar usos sostenibles del suelo que reduzcan la presión sobre los bosques.Permitir a los agricultores acceder a incentivos que puedan hacer que su producción sea rentable ayudará a garantizar que la producción de cacao en Colombia esté libre de deforestación.Esto apoyará la visión del país de contar con una cadena de suministro de cacao con cero deforestación y constituirse en un participante más activo en un mercado internacional del chocolate, como el de la Unión Europea.Mapa de Colombia. Foto: Google maps.El presente documento de políticas en síntesis brinda claridad acerca de los incentivos que pueden promover la producción de cacao libre de deforestación en Colombia. Propone pasos que pueden adoptar los tomadores de decisiones para apoyar la visión de Colombia de una cadena de suministro de cacao con cero deforestación.Colombia se encuentra entre los 10 países con mayor producción de cacao. La mayoría de los cacaoteros son pequeños productores y establecen plantaciones de cacao bajo sistemas agroforestales. La fusión de la agricultura y la silvicultura, la agrosilvicultura, se considera un sistema de producción sostenible porque permite a los productores contar con diversas fuentes de ingresos y alimento, además de ofrecerles múltiples servicios ambientales, entre ellos, el almacenamiento de carbono, mejor salud del suelo, mejor infiltración de agua y menos escorrentía de nutrientes.En el contexto de Colombia, un sistema agroforestal de cacao implicaría la siembra de árboles junto a otros cultivos productivos. En algunos casos, esto incluiría la cría de ganado. Académicos, organismos gubernamentales, empresas privadas y otros actores del sector cacaotero colombiano han apoyado históricamente la siembra de cacao en sistemas agroforestales, porque se ajusta al cultivo tradicional del cacao en el país, requiere menos insumos y se considera benéfico para el entorno natural, en comparación con otros sistemas productivos.A diferencia de otros principales países productores de cacao, este cultivo no impulsa significativamente la deforestación en Colombia. La Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO) define la deforestación como \"la conversión de bosques a otros usos del suelo, como agricultura e infraestructura\" (FAO, 2020), que incluyen pastizales, embalses, minería y áreas urbanas. Colombia se ha comprometido a lograr una deforestación neta igual a cero para el año 2030. El Gobierno de Colombia indica que \"la deforestación cero neta cero se logra al neutralizar la pérdida de bosque por deforestación, con la ganancia por procesos de reforestación/restauración u otros\" (https://bit.ly/3WqNfjL). El marco conjunto de acción de la Iniciativa Cacao, Bosques y Paz Colombia, firmado por el Gobierno y otros actores de la cadena de suministro de cacao, define la deforestación como \"la conversión directa y/o inducida de la cobertura de bosque natural a otro tipo de cobertura en un período de tiempo determinado\" y señala que \"se considera que las áreas con plantaciones de cacao han conllevado deforestación si el cambio de cobertura de bosque a no bosque ocurrió con posterioridad al 1 de enero de 2011\" (https://bit.ly/3q7UQrl).En promedio, las plantaciones de cacao en Colombia miden menos de 3 hectáreas. Representan únicamente una fracción de las fincas que manejan estos productores y tradicionalmente cuentan con áreas de bosques naturales. Como producto básico, el cacao ha servido como herramienta política y económica para alcanzar los objetivos del Gobierno y sus socios para el desarrollo en cuanto a reducir la deforestación, fomentar la reforestación y consolidar la paz. Desde la década de 1980, el Gobierno ha apoyado la producción de cacao como sustituto de la siembra de cultivos ilícitos, especialmente coca, un cultivo que ha estado ligado tanto a la deforestación como al conflicto en Colombia.Aunque la producción de cacao no es considerada como uno de los principales responsables de la deforestación en Colombia, nueva evidencia sugiere que algunos productores de cacao sí cortan algunos árboles en áreas de bosques naturales. Los agricultores lo hacen, por ejemplo, para reducir el exceso de sombra que podría atraer plagas y enfermedades y, de ese modo, afectar la salud de los cultivos en las plantaciones y a su vez, disminuir el rendimiento y los ingresos. Sin embargo, esta práctica no está generalizada.El objetivo de Colombia es asegurar que la producción de cacao en el país se dé efectivamente sin deforestación. Aparte de cumplir con el compromiso de convertir la cadena de suministro de cacao en libre de deforestación, Colombia debe llevar a cabo su visión de ser un participante más activo en el mercado internacional del cacao, especialmente en el segmento de fino o de aroma, satisfaciendo a su vez la fuerte demanda nacional de cacao. Al producir cacao sin deforestación, Colombia tendría el potencial de acceder a un importante mercado del chocolate: el de la Unión Europea. Recientemente, la UE aprobó una legislación (https://bit.ly/3q2h2mW) que exige la circulación en su mercado de ciertos productos, entre ellos el cacao, únicamente si se produjeron sin deforestación y degradación de bosques. Dicha legislación estipula que los operadores deben proporcionar una declaración de debida diligencia que incluya detalles sobre el país de producción y todas las parcelas productivas. Permite que certificacionesVoluntad de los productores de cacao encuestados de conservar el bosque.Listado de razones para conservar el bosque, según la encuesta realizada a productores de cacao en Caquetá y Cesar.Plantación agroforestal en Caquetá.E. Villarino/CIAT (Proyecto IKI-SLUS).¿Conservaría usted el bosque? Razones para conservar el bosque respalden el proceso de debida diligencia, pero no las exige.En la etapa de producción de una cadena de suministro agrícola, potencialmente ocurre deforestación. En el caso de la cadena de suministro del cacao, los agricultores, al ser los actores principales en la etapa de producción, son cruciales para garantizar que la cadena se encuentre libre de deforestación. Los resultados de una encuesta que involucró a 930 productores de cacao en los departamentos de Caquetá y Cesar sugieren que ello representa una posibilidad para Colombia. La encuesta muestra que la mayoría de las personas que respondieron conservarían el bosque (Figura 1), donde la protección del medio ambiente y las fuentes de agua se encuentran en los primeros lugares del listado de razones para hacerlo (Figura 2). Sin embargo, dicho hallazgo sería posible si la producción libre de deforestación generara suficiente retorno económico, es decir, ganancias para los productores. El árbol de cacao comienza a producir frutos, los cuales contienen los granos que eventualmente se procesarán y comercializarán 3 años después de la siembra. De este modo, un productor no puede esperar devengar nada de una planta de cacao durante esos años. Esto no significa que los productores comenzarán a percibir ganancias de su plantación al cuarto año. De acuerdo con un análisis costo-beneficio elaborado por Lugo Escobar y Pérez Marulanda (2022), si un productor asume todos los costos de producción, es decir, sin crédito e incluyendo el costo de la tierra, al momento de establecer un sistema agroforestal de cacao en una hectárea de terreno y, además, su manejo incluye fertilización química en vez de orgánica o sin riego, entonces el productor deberá enfrentar costos altos durante los primeros 8 años de la plantación y no comenzará a percibir ganancias hasta el año 14.Para mejorar la rentabilidad de la producción de cacao en Colombia, es importante permitir a los productores acceder a bajas tasas de interés en créditos y a los denominados instrumentos financieros verdes. Dichos instrumentos representan lo que se conoce como incentivos.Los incentivos son instrumentos públicos y de mercado, cuyo fin es motivar a los agricultores a preservar o mejorar los servicios ambientales que los benefician a ellos y a otros, mejorando a la vez su productividad y rentabilidad. Estos pueden ser económicos o monetarios: por ejemplo, créditos o precios premium recibidos por una operación certificada, o no económicos, como asistencia técnica.En Colombia, existe una variedad de incentivos. Dado el contexto del sector cacaotero, algunos se ajustan mejor que otros a la situación de los productores. Por ejemplo, es común que los productores cacaoteros, especialmente en áreas afectadas por el conflicto armado, no posean los títulos de sus tierras. De manera que estos productores no podrán acceder a la línea especial de crédito denominada Incentivo a la Capitalización Rural de Finagro, el órgano financiero del Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural. Esta línea especial de crédito es para proyectos que pueden mejorar la competitividad y sostenibilidad de la producción agrícola. Los agricultores que carecen de respaldo en la tenencia de su tierra no calificarían como beneficiarios de un Certificado de Incentivo Forestal, una forma de reconocimiento del Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural de Colombia a los impactos positivos de la restauración de áreas de bosque. Dicho reconocimiento viene acompañado de un incentivo que asciende hasta el 50% del costo del establecimiento de una hectárea de una nueva plantación forestal con fines comerciales y hasta un 50% del costo del mantenimiento de la plantación desde el año 2 al año 5.Para algunos agricultores puede valer la pena procurar esta certificación. De acuerdo con el análisis de Lugo Escobar y Pérez Marulanda (2022), una finca agroforestal de cacao avanzada, con certificación orgánica, instalaciones adecuadas para la poscosecha y potencial para vender créditos en los mercados de carbono ofrece una tasa interna de retorno mucho más alta, en comparación con la forma común de cacao agroforestal descrito en la sección anterior. Los precios premium por cacao orgánico certificado que cumple con los estándares pueden oscilar entre el 10 y 20% por encima de los precios nacionales. Dicho esto, la certificación orgánica implica un costo extra que podría representar \"desde unos cientos hasta varios miles de dólares\", según el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos, cuyo sello de orgánico se encuentra entre los más anhelados por las empresas y productores de cacao. En el caso del sello de orgánico de la UE, se estima que el proceso para obtenerlo tiene un costo de USD3.000. Asimismo, el mercado para el cacao certificado es relativamente pequeño: únicamente el 22% del mercado global de cacao, según las estimaciones de la Fundación Mundial del Cacao. El cacao colombiano certificado se destina principalmente al mercado internacional, en tanto la demanda de ese tipo de cacao colombiano en su mayor mercado, que es el nacional, es insignificante. De acuerdo con Per Abbott et al. (2018), los residentes locales consumen productos de cacao, como las barras de chocolate de venta masiva y chocolate de mesa, porque forman parte de su dieta básica.Una opción adecuada para los productores cacaoteros de Colombia sería encontrar incentivos que pudieran estimular sus aparentes tendencias de no deforestar y restaurar bosques y que al mismo tiempo, tomaran en cuenta sus dificultades en cuanto a la tenencia de la tierra. Los incentivos que cumplirían estas condiciones serían el pago por servicios ambientales y Obras por Impuestos.El programa de pago por servicios ambientales otorga a los beneficiarios efectivo, bienes o servicios si los ecosistemas que utilizan o manejan generan beneficios.El uso del suelo, y no las prácticas, constituye la base de los pagos y el compromiso de las partes de mantener dicho uso de suelo comprende el criterio de cumplimiento. Dentro del programa, los solicitantes pueden ser propietarios o inquilinos de las propiedades dentro de las áreas inscritas en el Registro Único de Ecosistemas y Áreas Ambientales (REAA) o el Registro Único Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (RUNAP). Se firma un acuerdo y se puede optar a financiamiento de autoridades ambientales locales y nacionales.Obras por Impuestos es un mecanismo por el cual las empresas colombianas que han tenido un ingreso bruto equivalente a 33.610 UVT en el año anterior, tienen la opción de usar el 50% de sus ingresos e impuestos complementarios como inversión en proyectos en áreas afectadas por el conflicto o la pobreza. En función del valor de la UVT establecido por la autoridad fiscal colombiana, la DIAN, en 2023, dicha suma equivaldría a 1.400 millones de pesos colombianos o USD321.000. El Gobierno indica que Obras por Impuestos puede financiar esquemas de pago por servicios ambientales.Las actividades cuyo objetivo sea conservar y restaurar ecosistemas en territorios objetivo de los Programas de Desarrollo con Enfoque Territorial, un programa que implementa las disposiciones de la ley de la reforma rural y el Acuerdo de Paz de 2016, podrían constituir dicho esquema. La clave radica en estructurarlas como un esquema dentro de un proyecto que pueda registrarse ante la Agencia de Renovación del Territorio, el organismo del Gobierno de Colombia que supervisa Obras por Impuestos.Aunque los incentivos puedan aumentar la rentabilidad de la producción de cacao, aún se debe investigar a profundidad la magnitud exacta de dicho potencial. De manera similar, vale la pena explorar la forma en que los distintos tipos de sistemas de producción de cacao con diferentes prácticas agrícolas y niveles de rentabilidad se podrían beneficiar, y de qué manera, de los incentivos disponibles.Plantación de cacao en la selva amazónica, Colombia. E. Villarino/CIAT (Proyecto IKI-SLUS).Un convenio de conservación es una transacción negociada entre un grupo de personas, comunidades u organizaciones de productores con el fin de conservar los recursos naturales. Si bien los convenios dentro de los esquemas de pago por servicios ambientales se enfocan en el uso del suelo, los convenios de conservación se centran en acciones que contribuyen a la conservación. Además, los esquemas de pago por servicios ambientales implican una forma de remuneración, en tanto los convenios de conservación no necesariamente suponen pagos. Un convenio de conservación puede ser un punto de partida para desarrollar esquemas de pago por servicios ambientales y posiblemente proyectos que podría financiar Obras por Impuestos.El acuerdo entre la Asociación de Productores Agroforestales Alternativos de Belén de los Andaquíes, conocida como ASPROABELÉN; el Parque Nacional Natural Alto Fragua Indi Wasi y las ONG WWF Colombia, Corporación para el Desarrollo Sustentable del Piedemonte Andino-Amazónico y el Proyecto de Conservación de Aguas y Tierras constituye un ejemplo de un convenio de conservación que puede servir de base para el establecimiento de proyectos que califiquen para obtener los beneficios de los incentivos. De hecho, como parte del convenio, ASPROABELÉN se ha comprometido a \"buscar más incentivos que promuevan la conservación con familias vinculadas a la asociación, mediante la gestión de proyectos\". Entretanto, las ONG se comprometen a brindar apoyo a la asociación de productores para mejorar sus operaciones comerciales orgánicas, implementar acciones para la conservación del parque natural y la restauración de áreas degradadas en las fincas de los afiliados, así como monitorear el cumplimiento del convenio.Las partes interesadas en apoyar la visión de Colombia de una cadena de suministro de cacao libre de deforestación deberían aprovechar la voluntad de los productores cacaoteros de conservar los bosques y su poca tendencia a deforestar. Pueden apoyar a los productores concertando acuerdos cuyas estipulaciones puedan formar la base para el desarrollo de proyectos que les permitan acceder a instrumentos financieros sostenibles, como pagos por servicios ambientales y Obras por Impuestos. Posteriormente, las partes interesadas pueden apoyar a los productores en la estructuración de dichos proyectos, ya sea proporcionándoles directamente conocimientos y capacitación o financiando esfuerzos para ampliar la escala de intervenciones que fortalezcan sus capacidades de desarrollar proyectos.Para decidir los tipos de incentivos que puedan contribuir al fomento de una producción libre de deforestación y así promoverla entre los productores, proponemos adoptar las siguientes medidas: (a) identificar si ya existen incentivos que busquen una producción con cero deforestación y revisar los requisitos para acceder a ellos; (b) comprender la posición de los agricultores en cuanto a la conservación y los desafíos que enfrentan para acceder a incentivos y (c) determinar cuáles incentivos se ajustan al contexto de los productores.Villarino La Alianza es parte de CGIAR, un consorcio mundial de investigación para un futuro sin hambre, dedicado a transformar los sistemas alimentarios, terrestres y acuáticos en medio de una crisis climática.e.villarino@cgiar.orgEsta política en síntesis se elaboró con el apoyo de las Iniciativas de Investigación de CGIAR en Sistemas Alimentarios Bajos en Emisiones (Mitigate+) y en Sistemas de Innovación Agroalimentaria Resilientes, Crecimiento Inclusivo y Reducción de la Emigración en América Latina y el Caribe (AgriLAC Resiliente), así como el proyecto 18_III_106_COL_A_Estrategias productivas sostenibles, que forma parte de la Iniciativa Internacional sobre el Clima (IKI, sus siglas en alemán). El Ministerio Federal para el Medio Ambiente, Protección de la Naturaleza y la Seguridad Nuclear (BMU, sus siglas en Alemán) brinda apoyo a esta iniciativa, en función de una decisión adoptada por el Parlamento Alemán.Proyecto SLUS","tokenCount":"2807"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fd94c804fd92e9b211b8fe7e03784a2a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5f3d1d57-12a3-4aff-a5d4-9e80e1386b64/retrieve","id":"-2052261485"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2f5707cf-adb3-4c6c-b7b9-8518be829858","pagecount":"30","content":"CGIAR Initiative Ukama Ustawi: Diversification For Resilient Agribusiness Ecosystems in East And Southern Africa Initiative (UU) supports climate-resilient agricultural livelihoods and agribusiness ecosystems to help millions of vulnerable smallholders transition from hard to sustain maize-mixed systems to sustainably intensified, diversified, and de-risked agrifood systems with a solid maize base. The WP3 of UU supports enterprises in strengthening the capacity to run profitable and sustainable agribusinesses to incentivize and enable diversification, intensification, and de-risking of maize-mixed systems through a sciencebased accelerator program. As a part of the accelerator program, an international consultant is tasked to produce a methodology for organizing the innovation bundling process based on the inception report approved by the UU management 1 and the market study conducted by the UU team 2 . This report presents the methodology for executing the innovation bundling process within the science-based accelerator program. It provides details on i) the innovation bundling approach, ii) the operationalization workflow, iii) the data sources used in the bundling process, iv) the strategic innovation themes of the accelerator program, v) repositories of high-readiness core innovative solutions co-developed by CGIAR and vi) complementary solutions that are necessary to use the core innovations at scale in Kenya successfully, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia.The science-based accelerator program for climate-smart agribusinesses is a business acceleration program with triple goals of increasing the use of climate solutions co-developed by CGIAR, improving the capabilities of small private enterprises to operate sustainable businesses and mobilizing resources of small private enterprises. The accelerator program adopted and implemented by the UU builds on the AICCRA (Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa) accelerator program implemented in the second half of 2021 3 and has the following four stages The first stage, innovation bundle development, consists of four steps; market analysis, innovation selection, packaging, and co-validation (Figure 1). Market analysis is a base analysis of the agricultural sectors in Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia. It presents the key factors influencing the commercial success of a private enterprise and the significant problems the innovative solutions need to consider to increase the use of climate solutions at scale. It guides the selection process of the enterprise and innovation configurations (EICo) that would best address the contextual problems and have the highest likelihood of achieving the UU objectives. The second step, selection, is a systematic prioritization process in which the applications to the UU science-based acceleration program are ranked based on their likelihood of achieving impact. It ensures that the EICos focuses on the best-bet innovations. The third step, packaging, is a stepwise combination of core innovations proposed by the enterprises to solve livelihood problems with complementary solutions addressing critical bottlenecks such as finance, supply chain, market services, regulatory system, extension services, and entrepreneurial capabilities constraints. Finally, co-validation is a participatory and interactive process in which stakeholders provide feedback to the EICos. It ensures that the innovation bundles consider the priorities of various stakeholders.The methodology described by this report focuses on the innovation bundle development stage of the science-based accelerator program. Since the first stage, market analysis is done based on industry-standard protocols, the methodology focuses on steps 2 to 4.The science-based accelerator program executed by the UU aims at i. build the capabilities of small agribusiness to have and generate commercial and social benefits from the use of climate-smart solutions,ii. mobilize complementary long-term finance for small agribusinesses,iii. increasing the use of scientific CGIAR climate solutions at scale in the short and medium terms, i.e., 2-3 years.To achieve these triple objectives, the innovation bundle development process must have a peculiar approach. Precisely, the process should The innovation bundle development approach used in this report systematically responds to the aspects above and presents the following workflows and practices.The innovation bundle development workflow designed based on the approach flow has 4 steps, market analysis, selection, packaging, and co-validation.A summary of the market analysis and its value added to be completed in the final version based on the final configuration of the process.The selection of high-impact potential EICos, is organized into five substeps; formulating selection criteria, organizing a call for applications, eligibility check, core-team rapid assessment of the EICos, and assessing the impact potential of EICos.Science-based accelerator programs aim to build the capabilities of small enterprises and enable them to have sustainable businesses while creating social impact for a broad range of beneficiaries in rural areas. In addition, UU has a particular objective to increase the use of science-based climate innovations at scale. These dual objectives require a combination of criteria from a diverse pool. Specifically, the criteria should include• market relevance that can play a significant role but are not as commonly referred to in selecting high-impact potential EICos. Group A is also divided into two further groups. A1 refers to the criteria that are easy to provide information, therefore, can be used in the rapid assessment substep. In contrast, A2 refers to the criteria that are not straightforward and sometimes derived from analytics, therefore suitable for the assessment substep. A1 criteria have three level ranking (high, medium, low), while A2 criteria have two levels (true and false). B group criteria are not designated a ranking yet as they are not envisaged to be used in the selection but provided as an annex (Annex -1) for general usage. The UU Accelerator program will provide significant support to small enterprises with highimpact potential and a small grant to the most successful entrepreneurs in the accelerator program. However, this support won't be sufficient to sustain the enterprise's business unless they are well positioned in the market and have established support networks for their capital, human resources, and input needs. Therefore, a high-impact small enterprise must be informed about and complement existing enterprises and be connected to networks.A1: Business Landscape Criteria for rapid assessment • include a CGIAR science-based climate solution as the core innovation,• include a CGIAR science-based climate solution as the complementary innovation,• include multiple CGIAR science-based climate solutions,• include a complete CGIAR innovation package.Innovation and scaling theory and practices showed that it takes a few decades to achieve impact at scale in the agricultural sector from the period the solution has been conceptualized.To identify the innovative solutions that can achieve impact in the short and medium term as the UU aims, it is necessary to ensure that the solutions in the EICos have high maturity or readiness.A1: Scaling and Impact Readiness Criteria for rapid assessment Following an internal consultation process, four of these themes, i.eMechanized irrigation, conservation agriculture, nutrition-sensitive climate-smart agriculture, and agricultural risk management, were identified as the CGIAR strength areas that would make the maximum contribution to the EICos. Therefore, the accelerator program will prioritize the EICos that capitalize on science-based solutions in these four investment themes.Mechanization or mechanized agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanize the work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity and input use efficiency. CGIAR has developed mechanized equipment such as 2-wheel tractors, direct maize shelling, reaper harvester, and many product-practice bundles solar powered irrigation, supplementary irrigation, mechanized raised bed machines, etc., that are proven to reduce climate change impact of agriculture and increase the resilience of farmers.Conservation agriculture is a farming system that promotes minimum soil disturbance, Agricultural risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks in agricultural activities, including coordinated and economical applications to minimize, monitor, and control the probability or impact of unfortunate events and maximize the realization of opportunities. They make farming more predictable and increase the resilience of farmers. CGIAR teams have produced multiple agricultural risk management solutions such as insurance instruments for crop production, flooding, and general climate disasters, risk assessment tools, methodologies for farming risk profiling, gender integrations, and other tools and approaches.To be written later. The process 2Scale and others go through to maximize the number of relevant applications. Some comments are hereTo be written later. The enterprise database 2Scale has and its contribution to the innovation bundle development.To be written later. The platform of VC4A and its contribution to the effectiveness and efficiency of innovation bundle development.The eligibility check is the third sub-step of the innovation bundle development process. Previous experiences with the innovation accelerator programs show that although a call for applications defines a specific context, it is not uncommon to have applications focusing on the work outside of this context. In addition, some applications do not include all the information necessary to assess all relevant aspects of the EICos.# basic criteria are used to check the eligibility of the business • The application includes all the critical information necessary to assess the impact potential of the EICos. • The enterprise is registered in at least one of the eligible countries (Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, or Zambia) • The enterprise has been operational in these countries for more than 3 months • The enterprise has at least 3 partners or employees Rapid assessment is the fourth substep of the innovation bundle development process. It is done by a core team of experts who manage the innovation bundle development process via the use of the proven acceleration service platform. The service platform provides information about the market, business landscape, agribusiness capacity and prospects, science-based CGIAR solution portfolio, and scaling and impact readiness criteria included in the A1 group (Table 1). Rapid assessment reduces the number of applications and provides a short list of relatively high-potential EICos. The description of the method 2Scale will use to select the short-list to be added laterAssessment is the fifth sub-step of the selection process, and only short-listed EICos go through the assessment process. The assessment is done using the A2 group market, business landscape, agribusiness capacity and prospects, science-based CGIAR solution portfolio, and scaling and impact readiness criteria (Table 2). In addition to the core team members, a (technical) expert group evaluates the information provided by the applications using the criteria listed in Table 2. Innovative solutions produced or used by the high-ranking EICos will be going through a two substep packaging process; a participatory functional gap identification workshop and complementary solution selection process.In the scaling diagnosis sub-step, the innovator and service teams of the EICos will participate in a facilitated workshop in which they identify and agree on the shortcoming scaling essentials inhibiting the use of their solutions at scale together with the technical experts from the CGIAR based on the core innovative solution their existing business focus on. Initially, each innovator or service team member is asked to answer assessment questions about the scaling essentials listed in Table 3 and provide their answers individually. After the answers, the facilitator checks if there is a consensus on the answers by the all team. If there is a consensus, the facilitator asks the next question. If there is no consensus, the members who give a minority answer are asked to explain their reasoning. After the explanation, the other members of the team reflect and the team agrees on the same answers. If a specific essential is considered a shortcoming, it will be noted. Then the facilitator asks the question about the next function and the individual assessment, reflection, and agreement cycle are repeated.The workshop finishes once all the essentials are discussed by the team. The CGIAR experts respond to the technical questions asked by the innovator and service team members and, where relevant, make their contributions. Are there any other complementary solutions that will increase the benefit of the solution your business is offering?16 Efficiency of the core solution Are there any other complementary solutions that will decrease the cost of providing the solutions you are offering?In the innovation packaging process, the innovator and service teams of the EICos identify complementary innovations that address the shortcoming scaling essentials identified in the scaling diagnosis sub-step. Based on the specific shortcoming, the enterprise teams are offered information about CGIAR science-based complementary solutions proven to improve the specific essentials in the context the enterprise operates (Annex -2).The complementary CGIAR solutions are sourced from reduce unit costs 36. Provide a standardized framework for assessing and evaluating the impact of CSA solutions to help agribusinesses and agritechs to attract funding and position themselves in the market as sustainability and resilience-driven players 37. Embed an approach focusing more on the adaptive capacity of the agri-food system to increase the resilience of farmers and agribusinesses from funders, policies, and technologies. 38. Provide incentives to ensure farmers' ability to adopt sustainable solutions and compete with market alternatives, while maintaining livelihoods and meeting food needs 39. Empowering women and youth through training and resources to commercialize their activities can not only help formalize their role, but also 40. Shift the mindset of the opportunities at the value chain 41. Support women and youth in inclusively diversifying crops and enterprises and foster employment opportunities across different areas of the value chain. 42. Support women in investing in post-production activities and taking up service enterprises to deepen incomes 43. Promote productive labor through automation and digitalization, and support women in moving from production to higher-value chains. 44. Inspire youth 45. Provide clarity on stage terminology, investment type, conditions, and methods for monitoring impact 46. Ensure the availability of data on the sector to help drive funding in the agritech sector. 47. Contribute to making the sector more collaborative and provide data 48. Help educate investors and other supporters on sector-specific issues to ensure more strategic and methodological investment processes 49. Increase co-investment opportunities between investors with different areas of expertise to leverage technical strengths 50. Partners with local investors for ensuring on-the-ground portfolio management, context expertise and experience, and business integrity 51. Partners with agriculture research organizations who can provide technical expertise in integrating CSA themes in investment strategies, assisting to de-risk investments by supporting environmental and social (E&S) due diligence of companies pre-investment and E&S management post-investment 52. Activate the investor landscape at the growth stage to showcase the opportunities and encourage more early-stage funders to invest 53. Provide a reliable reporting process for startups, and understand the weight of different metrics in the analysis of results to assert the short-and long-term impact of a solution. 54. Define indicators for measurement, such as the number of rural farmers reached, percentage rise in farmer incomes and the number of households brought out of poverty or food insecurity 55. Increase co-investment or opt for blended finance instruments with technical assistance facilities to mitigate some of the risks 56. Provide data, networks, and events to connect investors with opportunities that meet their needs and requirements 57. Collaborate with local ESOs to source agritechs and access a qualified deal flow 58. Provide access to information on existing regulations governing the sector in countries of interest to help investors understand the ease or difficulty in investing in a certain sector or country 59. Presents different criteria for attracting investments 60. Feed into an existing climate smart agriculture investment plans 61. Integrate a gender lens in their mandate 62. Supply women and youth with both technical and financial capacity to build their linked businesses 63. Improve access to market data and infrastructure to facilitate access to farmers located outside of hubs 64. Foster partnerships through local smallholder farmers networks and cooperatives 65. Increase collaboration with agritechs providing solutions to connect easily with farmers 66. Collaborate with local agrodealers to sell products 67. Ensure an advisory service for smallholder farmers after receiving inputs using new extension models and apps where possible. 68. Deliver up-to-date information on market trends and consumer expectations 69. Equip with tools and mechanisms to benchmark and be aware of the competition 70. Help lighten restrictions and limitations related to access to debt financing. 71. Has diversified funding options 72. Attracts co-investments to minimize risks 73. Provide access to data on funders or other corporates in the value chain supporting the agriculture sector to find co-investors 74. Develop networks to help corporates expand to new markets and reach new customers 75. Support development of skills and knowledge needed to support expansion 76. Improve the testing and standards checking process to accelerate market entry 77. Facilitate market entry by putting in place regional agreements to encourage cross-border trade and exchange of goods and services 78. Develop strong risk management tools to minimize the impact of the risks 79. Embed CSA solutions rooted in adaptation and mitigation to strengthen resilience ","tokenCount":"2708"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"278bfd25d725ae5583dd7aff9f16e5c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d019a064-6f33-4c5d-b4ef-44081c159337/retrieve","id":"1697381415"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e934eabd-76db-4bee-bf43-e9e0aa9e5122","pagecount":"7","content":"In many countries, varietal turnover rates are stubbornly low in seed systems that target smallholder farmers. While there are several factors that contribute to low turnover, two important behavioral factors that limit adoption of new varieties are the difficulties that farmers may face in learning about new varieties and their hesitancy to assume risks associated with investing in new varieties. In this brief, we review part of the literature on behavioral constraints that result in slow varietal turnover and discuss the interventions that the CGIAR Initiative on Market Intelligence and Product Profiling for Impactful Breeding will be testing to overcome these behavioral barriers. We highlight areas for innovation to facilitate farmers' learning about new varieties, including leveraging social networks and information and communication technologies (ICT), and to strengthen farmers' ability to manage risks associated with investing in new varieties, including facilitation of experimentation, insurance and consumer marketing.Rates of varietal turnover in small-scale agriculture remain low in many parts of the developing world. For example, a maize variety launched in 1986 remains one of the most popular varieties grown in Kenya (Rutsaert and Donovan 2020), and in 2011, only nine rice varieties, with an average age of more than 20 years, covered at least 75 percent of total rice area in lowland Nepal (Witcombe et al 2017). Low rates of varietal turnover often, in part, reflect newly released varieties that do not meet farmers' needs or have traits that are less desirable to farmers (Thiele et al 2021). Hence, carefully defining market segments and developing targeted products that cater to each segment's unique sets of needs and preferences will be a critical step towards increasing varietal turnover.Farmers often also fail to adopt newer seemingly well-targeted, carefully designed varieties possessing attributes that could better serve their market segment, such as varieties that are higher yielding, more nutritious, better tasting, more tolerant to climatic stressors or less resource intensive. This is of particular concern to policymakers when these targeted products also have social benefits; for instance, a higher supply of more nutritious varieties or more drought-tolerant varieties could, respectively, improve public health outcomes or food security outcomes. Key questions are why farmers do not adopt or upgrade to these newer targeted varieties when they are available and what types of interventions are needed to incentivize farmers to replace their old varieties. One important class of explanations has to do with behavioral constraints faced by farmers when deciding whether to adopt a new variety. 1 That decision may be even more problematic for a smallholder farmer to make than the decisions to adopt other agricultural technologies, such as fertilizer or pesticides. Adopting any new technology can be risky and require substantial learning on how to incorporate the technology into the production process. Choosing a new variety can pose even more risk to the farmer since the produce from new varieties can have a different taste, texture or color and, as a result, can be rejected by consumers (or other downstream actors, such as processors). Indeed, in many cases smallholder farmers are primary consumers of their own production, and so they risk producing goods that they might not want to consume. Thus, when it comes to the decision to replace an old variety, farmers face additional consumption-and market-related barriers to adoption.Accelerating turnover to newer, better varieties will therefore require creative solutions to address key behavioral barriers, such as difficulties associated with (1) learning about new varieties and (2) risk taking faced by both farmers (in their roles as producers) and consumers (with farmers also being consumers of their own production). Behavioral Intelligence, a work package in the CGIAR Initiative on Market Intelligence and Product Profiling for Impactful Breeding (henceforth Market Intelligence), will study interventions to overcome these barriers through a three-year multicountry, multicrop social-science research program. Specifically, randomized controlled trials in Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda (see figure 1) will explore the effectiveness of both a set of common interventions implemented across all sites and various context-specific interventions in each country. We discuss current evidence 2 about interventions that address these behavioral barriers as well as the opportunities to improve intervention effectiveness that our research will explore.Market Intelligence: Practice of gathering and analyzing data to identify and describe opportunities for breeding and seed systems to optimize their contribution to CGIAR Impact Areas of nutrition and health, poverty reduction, environmental health, gender equality and social inclusion, and climate adaptation. Behavioral Intelligence: A type of market intelligence analyzing what drives farmer, consumer and private-sector decisions to adopt new varieties and related products. This includes the generation of actionable evidence on how to (1) influence variety replacement and product substitution decisions by consumers and farmers and (2) encourage the private sector to invest in marketing new varieties and products that contribute to gender equality, healthier diets and social inclusion. This evidence can be leveraged to identify cost-effective and inclusive strategies to accelerate varietal  Many modern learning intervention approaches have shifted towards farmer-to-farmer models, where local, agriculturally savvy farmers teach others in their communities about new technologies. Notably, such approaches may not only preserve public extension resources but potentially facilitate better learning. For instance, Krishnan and Patnam (2014) found that while both traditional extension and learning from peers have positive impacts on adoption of new varieties in Ethiopia, the impacts of traditional extension on adoption fade over time, while those from peer influence remain. There is an active literature on how to select these peer farmers to induce the highest levels of learning and adoption. Some studies exploited network analysis to identify particularly influential members of a community. Other studies examined whether information received from someone with a similar social identity was more influential. For example, there is evidence that individuals may learn better from someone more like them in aspects such as gender, kinship linkages and membership in community organizations (BenYishay and Mobarak 2019, Kabirigi et al 2022). Hence, using existing social ties may be an effective strategy to enable learning about new varieties and to increase adoption.Intelligence seeks to understand whether we can leverage this behavioral insight to facilitate learning about improved legume varieties. In a context-specific intervention, community farming leaders within villages in Odisha will be given supplies to set up a demonstration plot where other farmers can learn about the new varieties by observing their on-farm performance. These demonstration plots are also meant to stimulate conversations among farmers about the new varieties, and demonstration-plot farmers will be paired with other farmers in their community with whom they are to discuss the demonstration plot and teach about the new varieties. Critically, the research design will randomize whether the paired farmers are in the same caste as the demonstration plot farmers. The behavioral insights mentioned suggest that perhaps this pairing of farmers with a peer of the same caste will facilitate more effective learning.Private-sector actors may also be able to play a larger role in providing information about new varieties to farmers. For example, in a survey of Kenyan farmers, Rutsaert and Donovan (2020) found that 80 percent of farmers purchasing seed from agro-dealers reported being influenced by the agro-dealer in their seed-purchasing decision. Over the past decade, the Alliance for the Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) has experimented with various agro-dealer development programs that equip sellers with the knowledge and skills necessary to advise farmers on agricultural best practices, including the adoption of new varieties. Such approaches may be a promising step forward in contexts where farmers trust the advice of agrodealers. Dar et al (2021) found that training input dealers on a flood-tolerant rice variety increased farmer-level adoption by more than 50 percent compared with a peer farmer extension approach in Odisha. However, there may be inequities in access to agro-dealer networks since not all farmers purchase seed in the formal sector, and farmers rely on informal seed systems for many crops (Almekinders 2000). Indeed, in the Rutsaert and Donovan (2020) study, only 20 percent of farmers purchase from agro-dealers.Market Intelligence research in Kenya combines the above behavioral insights to test the effectiveness of a contextspecific, private sector, peer-farmer information delivery model to encourage farmer uptake of drought-tolerant maize varieties. Specifically, a private sector company hires local peer farmers, called 'champions,' who are tasked both with providing information about new varieties and selling seeds to farmers. Notably, these champions are well-known in their local communities, and about half of them are women. This feature may help address some of the issues that especially female farmers typically face in trusting and communicating with public extension agents or private sector agro-dealers. This model has the potential to be both an effective and inclusive approach to enabling learning and adoption.Besides varying the source of information, innovative approaches to the delivery and presentation of information may help farmers learn about a new variety.For one, the increased availability of ICT technologies among smallholder farmers provides opportunities to communicate with them relatively cheaply and frequently. This may be particularly critical for farmers adopting a new variety since knowledge gaps may require follow through during the production process. Cole and Fernando (2021) found that cotton farmers with free access to a service that both provides agricultural advice via voice messages and a call-in hotline increased the use of recommended seed varieties. As cell phone ownership increases, possibilities for such programs will expand. Yet, even in contexts with less widespread phone ownership, providing ICT technology to extension workers may improve farmers' willingness to experiment with new technologies (Fu and Akter 2016).Increased access to ICT may also allow information to be presented in clearer and more engaging ways that are conducive to better learning. Television and video programming in the form of 'edutainment' has the potential to present information in an entertaining way, which may help viewers understand and retain information better. Areal et al (2020), for example, show that Kenyan farmers who watched the farm makeover reality-TV show Shamba Shape-up were more likely to purchase new maize seeds from an agrodealer (rather than recycling old seeds), as recommended by the show. Moreover, ICT can create cheaper opportunities for interactive learning; simulating input decisions in a virtual farm app can help farmers make better input decisions on their real farms (Tjernström et al 2021).Research under the Behavioral Intelligence work package in Kenya has also utilized the insight about the importance of engagement to encourage more effective learning among farmers in designing a context-specific intervention. Specifically, researchers developed a special episode of Shamba Shape-up called \"The Wise Woman,\" which emphasized the importance of both husbands and wives in joint agricultural decision making (including the decision to grow a drought-tolerant maize variety). Preliminary results show that farmers who watched the episode are less biased when deciding whether to take agricultural advice from a champion of the opposite gender and that a few weeks after watching the episode, women and men were more likely to engage in joint productive decision making.Given that producers are often also consumers of their production, the success of the adoption of new varieties also crucially hinges on consumers' willingness to incorporate new varieties in their diets. Therefore, information campaigns to inform farmers about the benefits of new varieties can also be a useful strategy to increase adoption. Educating potential consumers about these traits can greatly increase their willingness to pay, especially when favorable attributes of new varieties are not directly visible (for instance the nutritional benefits associated with biofortified crops) (Birol et al 2015). As with information about agricultural production techniques, both ICTs and social networks may play key roles in spreading information about the consumption traits of new varieties. For example, Zossou et al (2022) found that in Benin video broadcasts and radio transcripts on the benefits of a locally produced improved rice product increased its market share by 14 percent, an effect further amplified by 11 percent through word-of-mouth exchanges with peers. Similarly, Meenakshi et al (2010) found that nutritional messaging delivered via radio campaigns and community leaders increased consumer demand for orange maize in rural Zambia. Given these insights, our Behavioral Intelligence research will test a common consumption-focused intervention with producers across Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda (figure 2 describes the experimental design). Critically, the intervention will be the same in all countries. While this intervention is still in development, it will likely include edutainment videos that highlight positive consumption properties of the new varieties being promoted.Smallholder agriculture can be a risky endeavor, and farmers' risk aversion may hamper investments in new technologies. Adopting a new variety can come with production-side risk. Farmers invest money and resources in cultivating a new variety for which the returns may be uncertain; how this new variety will perform on their land may be uncertain and it may require a few seasons to figure out optimal growth practices. The adoption decision can also come with consumption or market risk, in that consumers and other downstream value-chain actors may not want to bear the risk associated with processing and/or consuming a new variety.Farmers may want to experiment with a new variety and learn about its benefits firsthand before fully adopting it, rather than simply learning from others (Laajaj and Macours 2017). Yet, improved seeds tend to be more expensive than traditional varieties, and this additional cost may deter experimentation. Reducing the cost of experimentation with new varieties may aid farmers in their adoption decisions.A short-term subsidy for the purchase of new varieties can be an expensive but effective way to facilitate such learning (Bernard et al 2019). Offering farmers the opportunity to buy smaller quantities of seeds (rather than having to invest in a full bag) can also encourage experimentation with new varieties (Yitayew et al 2022).Behavioral Intelligence researchers are testing the effect of a common trial-pack intervention-providing free trial packs of new varieties-on the decision to grow those varieties in the subsequent season. Testing this common intervention in all study sites will allow us to potentially make more generalizable, externally valid claims about the effectiveness of this trial-pack intervention as well as enable direct comparisons across contexts. However, in some study sites, additional context-specific interventions will complement the trial packs. In Uganda, for instance, researchers will offer an additional set of randomly selected farmers the opportunity to purchase the same trial packs at a small cost, to understand whether receiving free trial packs causes farmers to value the packs less and, in turn, put less effort into learning about the new maize variety.In Nigeria, randomly selected farmers will receive a free supply of complementary inputs (such as fertilizer) with their trial packs to understand whether learning about a cowpea variety requires a more comprehensive input package.Traditional risk mitigation products aimed at smallholder farmers, such as weather index-based insurance, have suffered from limited uptake (Jensen and Barrett 2017). Innovations in the structure of insurance contracts may increase the demand for insurance among smallholder farmers and make them feel better protected, in turn increasing their willingness to experiment with new technologies. One challenge in scaling insurance is basis risk, meaning that insurance payouts are not sufficiently correlated with actual crop losses. Again, technological innovations may prove useful; picture-based insurance, where damages are assessed via smartphone images of insured crops, may serve as a relatively cheap way for insurers to lower the basis risk of their products (Ceballos et al 2019). This will be especially true if AI classification algorithms are eventually able to automate damage assessments with limited human intervention.In both Ethiopia and Kenya, pioneering Market Intelligence studies will assess the effects of context-specific interventions offering picture-based insurance on uptake of new varieties. In the Kenyan case, the initiative is partnering with ACRE Africa, a private company that develops and implements solutions for agricultural risk management, particularly insurance. ACRE Africa's champion farmers take repeated smartphone photos of insurance clients' plots to help document crop damage as a base for insurance claims settlement. In Ethiopia, the initiative is partnering with the World Food Programme's R4 Rural Resilience Initiative, which provides smallholder farmers with solutions to transfer, mitigate and prepare for risk through insurance, risk-reducing technologies and practices, and savings. It promotes prudent risk taking and improved livelihoods by increasing access to credit. In the context of this program, researchers will compare the effect of picture-based insurance and R4's standard weather-index insurance program in encouraging uptake of new wheat, maize, sorghum and teff varieties.Farmers may be hesitant to produce a new variety when a robust market for the variety does not yet exist, or when they are unsure whether the variety will be acceptable to downstream actors, such as processors or consumers. Farmers who consume their own production may also be hesitant to grow a new variety when they are unsure whether they will like its taste, texture or cooking suitability. Providing farmers with opportunities for low-risk experimentation with new varieties in their role as consumers may increase adoption. For instance, Adekambi et al (2020) found that attending a cooking demonstration to learn how to cook a new sweet potato variety is positively associated with adoption of that variety by Ghanaian farmers. Indeed, even having the opportunity to taste new foods can be instrumental to consumers in forming their valuations of those foods (Lewis et al 2016). As mentioned, Market Intelligence studies across five countries will implement a common consumer-focused intervention among farmers to see whether this affects adoption of new varieties. The intervention will likely include a component that facilitates consumption-focused experimentation with new varieties. Examples may include provision of a meal kit or a cooking contest, either of which would provide consumers an opportunity to cook with and taste the new varieties.For CGIAR breeding innovations to achieve their full potential for impact, it is important to understand how farmers decide whether to replace their current varieties and adopt new varieties. While farmers may face behavioral barriers that inhibit varietal turnover, Market Intelligence research builds on existing knowledge to design and test innovations that assist farmers in the process of learning about and experimenting with new varieties. This, along with understanding the other barriers and challenges faced by farmers, will be critical to moving the needle of adoption of new, improved varieties and products.There are two additional innovations within our behavioral research program. The first is that the research takes seriously the idea that farmers are often simultaneously producers and consumers of their own production and that farmers likely consider consumption-related attributes when deciding which varieties to grow. So our research aims to compare the effectiveness of a more traditional production-focused intervention with the effectiveness of a consumption-focused intervention in accelerating varietal turnover. Specifically, we plan to cross-randomize the two common interventions discussed over the same samples of farmers across the five study countries. The provision of trial packs serves as a more traditional productionfocused intervention, while the other treatment (likely a meal kit or edutainment cooking video) will serve as a more consumption-focused intervention. In this way, we can test whether providing farmers with the productionfocused treatment, the consumption-focused treatment or both treatments encourages them to grow newer varieties in subsequent seasons. Since this cross-randomized experimental design will be implemented in all countries, we will be able to compare the effects of the interventions across contexts and assess external validity of the results.The second innovation to highlight is the model of collaboration between researchers necessary to implement a coordinated set of experiments that test a set of common interventions across contexts. Randomized experiments are expensive to conduct, especially within the social sciences, and hence are usually conducted within limited geographical contexts. It is also uncommon for independent teams of researchers to coordinate on experimental design features, because projects are generally conducted in an ad hoc manner based on the priorities of the researchers and their funders. Moreover, in academic publishing there is often a premium awarded to novelty rather than replication of previous results. As a result, even studies testing similar interventions can vary greatly in their methodologies and implementation strategies, making it challenging to conduct rigorous meta-analysis.The Initiative on Market Intelligence has enabled coordination between various research teams within CGIAR that are studying behavioral barriers to varietal turnover. Teams in all five of the focus countries were already independently planning to study various behavioral barriers to varietal turnover, with existing bilateral funding collaborations. Under the status quo, we might have expected to get five sets of context-specific results that would be nearly impossible to compare. However, under this new working paradigm, the research teams collaborated via both in-person and virtual meetings to consider how they could alter their original designs to simultaneously answer questions that were important to the existing project (usually related to the context-specific interventions) and incorporate common components that allow for direct comparison of some interventions across settings. While compromises on both sides were necessary to achieve these dual objectives, the teams have been able to coalesce on research designs that are suitable in each setting. Given the success of this collaborative model so far, perhaps other research teams within the CGIAR and elsewhere can take this 'proof of concept' as an impetus to explore similar models.","tokenCount":"3508"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"40186992d57f557347706b7ff993d2d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c61d18d-f102-428d-9a51-0aa8f26f38f9/retrieve","id":"-877499705"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0d7bc566-17ba-4acb-b453-ac06f28ccb2b","pagecount":"7","content":"Farmers' rankings were compared with breeders' rankings during different stages of crop growth (vegetative, flowering, and maturity) as shown in table 7.Correlation between breeders and farmers al all siles and in al! the years was consistently low. Very few of the trials showed significant or highly significant agreement between farmers and breeders (trials that showed any significant agreement were mainly in 1999). In general, agreement was insignificant or even negalive (although not strongly so). It was impossible lo make an assessment of agreement between farmers and breeders in 1997 and 1998. However, in 1999, although there was high agreement in varietal ranking among farmers and among breeders, there was generally low agreement between farmers and breeders, which may indicate that farmers and breeders consider different criteria. Farmers' rankings are not correlated with yield, indícating Ihat farmers consider other criteria in their rankings.The breeders' top five favorite late-duratíon varíeties ín the 1999 trials included Swama, BKP-232, R650-18l7, R304-34, and R738-1-64-2-2 (aH modern varieties). These varieties also ranked in the top five in yield. The farmers' top five favorite varieties included Swarna, Safii-17, R 738-1-64-2-2, Mahsurí, and R650-1817. These were not always the highest yielding varieties-in fact, Mashuri gave one of the lowest yíelds and Safii-17 (a tradítional variety) was somewhere in the middle. These varieties were likely selected for other reasons than yield. Varieties preferred by both groups (ranking on average in the top 5) included Swarna (first choice ofboth farmers and breeders, and also high yieldíng), R650-1817, and R738-1-64-2-2. These are aH modero varieties, and are also the three varieties that had the híghest yíelds in the trials (table 8). Consistently ranked highly in the tep 5 by beth groups in the field sites and en-station Always ranked in the !op 5 by farmers, bu! no! so well ranked by breeders , Thls 15 ranked in !he top 5 by farmers and breeder5 in !he farmers' flelds, but les5 , well ranked In on-station trials.Ranked flrst by breeders, but not IIked by farmers, even though yleld 15 quite good ! (5 tJha). Ranked low by both groups in fleld sites ! Bold rains, not susceptible to disease, oommands hl h market prlee Mahsun On-stalien. ranked wíthin top 5 by farmers, en station and in one farm site, although yield is consistently iowOn-slation. ranked highly by breeders Yield is gaod, bu! larmers don't like it (one of their least favarttes) ______ -\"-.. Ra\"'r1.ked Jow by all in larm trialsIn Tarpongi, the top ranking medíum-duration varieties for breeders were R574-11, IR42342, Chepti gurmatia, BG380-2, R703-1-52-1, and ORl158-261. AlI of these were also the top six yielding varietíes. Al! are modem varieties except for Cheptí gurmatia. F or farmers, the top ranking varieties included BG380-2, ORI158-261, R714-2-9-3-3, IR63429, and R574-11. These are al! modem varietíes, bu! no! always top yielding. R714-2-9-3-3 gave medium yields, while IR63429 gave relatively low yields when compared with the other varieties. Farmers and breeders agreed onIy on R574-11, BG380-2, and ORl158-261 as their favorite varieties (table 9). During the kharif season 2000, Ihe medium-duratíon' varielies that were further evaluated on-stalion and on farmers' fields were IR4234 (breeders' choice), R574-1I (farmers' choice), BG380-2 (common choice), and Chepti gurmatía (best local choice). The late-duration varieties were BKP-232 (farmers' choice), R304-34 (breeder's choice), R650-1817 (common choice), and Swarna (local check).The challenge facing plant breeders in IGAU and IRRI ís lo develop new cultívars that are better Ihan Swama and Maharnaya, while a1so meeting the other requirements and criteria thal furmers have for their given rice environments. While it is impossíble 10 combine all the requirements in one single variety, giving farmers (both men and women) an opportunity 10 test the performance of different rice genotypes on their own fields and 10 evaluate their cooking and eating qualíties can ¡ead 10 more efficient rice varietal improvement in the Chhattisgarh region in Madhya Pradesh.This paper focused on methodologies for improving our understanding ofthe eriteria used by farmers (both men and women) in selecling specific rice varieties and ofhow these criteria are considered in partícipatory breeding strategies in the rainfed lowland environments of the Chhatisgarh region in Madhya Pradesh, eastem India, Different methods for understanding farmers' eriteria in selecting rice varíeties were used. These melhods were (1) a questionnaire with open-ended queslions eliciting positive and negative attribules ofthe most popular modem and traditional varíeties, (2) a participatory weighted-ranking method, disaggregating the perceptions of men and women by land types and size oflandholdings, and (3) participatory varietal selection, where farmers evaluated severa] prereleased and local varíeties on their fields as well as on-station. The results of the study highlíght the importanee farmers attach to characteristies other than grain yield: eating quality (taste), rnarket price, durationlrnaturity, drought tolerance, and pest and inseet resistance.Both men and women have similar eriteria in choosing rice varíeties. However, straw quality for multiple uses is an important consideration for women farrners but not for meno F armers, particu-larIy women who do most ofthe weeding, prefer rice varíeties that are inherently dark green orpurpie to distinguish them from wild rice and enable the farmer to eradicate the wíld rice at an early stage of crop growth. Wild rice is a prevalent pesl and a constraint to high rice productivity in the Chhattisgarh regíon. The attributes considered by men and women farmers, however, are not gen-eralIy used as screenlng eriteria in most formal breeding prograrns, where the emphasis is mainly on grain yield. Qualíty attributes should be' emphasized more Ihan they have been in the past in breeding prograrns for rainfed areas. Because of the proximity of the villages lo !he markel, farmers prefer lo grow varieties Ibat no! only mee! their own eonsumption needs bul also those of consumers, including millers and traders. Therefore, farmers maintain their rice diversity and grow both traditional and modero varíeties that meet their varied interests and needs. Using approaches like farmer participatory breeding and varíetal selection from many rice lines provides an opportunity to fanners to choose varieties suitable lo their environment and needs as well as access to new seeds.Breeding lines R574-1l, BG308-2, and IR42342 performed well over the tbree years ofthe project in the medillm-duratíon group and showed tolerance to drought. Breeding lines R304-34 and JET -14444 (R 738-1-64) also proved promising. A large quantity of seeds have been multiplied by one ofthe farmers of Saguni village where blight is a problem.Badakshan is located in the extreme northeastem comer of Afghanistan and has not yet come under Taliban control. The province is virtually cut off from the rest of the country and is traditionally food deficient. The 20-year-old conflict in the region has further aggravated the situation, causing massive population displacement and almost complete destruction of civil institutions and infrastructure. The situation has become so serious that food aid has to be distributed in the period of grain deficit, starting from before the harvest. Simultaneously, efforts are being made to rehabilitate and improve the agricultural systems of these farming cornrnunities.In all formal and informal surveys in the area over the last three years, the farmers have identified good seed of wheat cultivars and fertilizer as being their main priority. Currently the seed of high-yielding cultivars acquired from the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) are available, but such varieties do not always perform well underfarmer's conditions. The potential ofthese varieties can not be realized without the use offertilizers. Almost all the available animal dung is used to as fue! and Iittle is available for use as manure. The small amounts of chemical fertilizer available are totally inadequate in quantity and exorbitant in price. In response to these needs, improved varieties of wheat, potatoes, and vegetables are being provided to over 100 villages in five isolated districts bordering Tajikistan. Three to eight farmers in each village are testing the new planting materials under their local conditions. These farmer-Ied, on-farm evaluations are al so serving as demonstration plots forthe remainder ofthe farmers in the village. The farmers will compare the performance ofthe varieties provided with their existing varieties. Cultivation of the better of the two will be encouraged through farmer-to-farmer exchanges and credit through village organizations for the inputs. This procedure will be repeated every growing season whenever new potential materials, including varieties, ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ｲ ｡ ｣ ｾ ｳ Ｌ ＠ and different crop species are available. A secondary goal is to enhance on-farm genetic diversity among and within different crop species. These activities will be gradually transformed into participatory breeding, allowing the community to gain full control over the type and amount ofvarieties being produced and exchanged with their neigbbors. Participation in the management and decision making for seed security by the farming community will contribute to reestablishing local food security and peace in the area.Focus Humanitarian Assistance (FOCUS) is an intemational group of agencies established in Europe, North America, and Soulh Asia to complement lhe provision of emergency relief, principal!y in lhe developing world. It helps people in need reduce their dependency on humanitarian aid and facilitates lheir transition to sustainable, self-reliant, long-term development. FOCUS is affiliated wilh lhe Aga Khan Development N etwork, a group of institutions working to improve opportunities and living conditions for people of al! faiths and origins in specific regions of lhe developing world. Underlying the establishment ofFOCUS by the Ismaili Muslim cornmunity is a history of successful initiatives to assist people struck by natural and man-made disasters in Soulh and Central Asia, and Africa.Assisting farmers in disaster situations to restore agricultural systems was identified as a priority in lhe Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The plan was adopted by over 150 countries at lhe Intemational Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources (Leipzig, Germany, June 1996). The conference Iqbal Kennali is a Senior Program Officer with the Focus Humanitarian Assistance Europe Foundation in the UK.recognized Ihat disasters, civil strife, and war pose challenges lo agricultural systems, Often, adapted crop varielies are losl and canno! be recuperaled locally. Food aid, combined with Ihe importation of often poorly adapted seed varieties, can undermíne food security and íncrease Ihe costs of donor assistance.ln such situatíons, the goal is 10 deliver seed of adapted varieties and landraces as needed to help reestablish indigenous agricultural syslems in arcas affected by disaster. In turn, Ihis can playa major role in restoring local food security,Afghanistan is one of the pooresl countries in the world. This millenium, the country passed (he mark of 2! years of conflict, which has brought complete destruction and immense suffering to its people. After the fall of the Soviet-backed government in 1992, ¡he prospects for peace have receded, with continuing civil war fragmenting the country into struggles between the various politica! and mililary groups in shifting allianees. Currentl}', more than 80% ofthe eountry is under the Taliban, while the remainder is under a united front. However, the Taliban movement is not yet recognized by the internatíonal community, exeept for Pakistan, Saudí Arabia, and the United Arab Emírates, The natíon's agricultural system has suffered from physical damage to irrigation structures, from mines, and from the disruption of normal markets and input-delivery mechanisms. Seeurity eoneems, high transport prices, and continual currency depreciation aH combine to cause shortages of agricultural iuputs such as seeds, fertilizers, chemieals, credit, and labor, resulting in increased food searcity. The civil umest has caused the country to move from near self-sufficiency in the mid-1970s lo a dependency on imports in recent years.Badakshan, one ofthe mosl remote areas in Afghanistan, is located in the northeastern comer bordering Kunar, Lagham, Kapisa, and Thakar provinces, In addition, the province borders Pakistan in the southeast, China in Ihe east, and Tajikistan in the north. It is one ofthe two major areas not under the control of the Taliban. The Panj River (Amu Darya) separates its long border with Tajikistan. The province is normally linked with the rest of country a by narrow, drivable road through the province ofTakhar on the West. Currently, after Takhar tbe road intereepts the frontline with the Taliban. The provine e is thus virtually cut offfrom Ihe rest ofthe country, On tbe eastern side, the road is línked with the Gorno-Badakshan provinee ofTajikistan through a narrow bridge over the Panj River at lshkashem. Badakshan lies in the Hindu Kush mountain range with the Wakhan rising up into tbe Pamir Mountains. The Hindu Kush mountain system is characterized by young, rugged ranges witb sharp peaks and deep valleys. The eastern half of tbe provine e lies between 1,300 meters (Darwaz) to 3,000 meters (Wakhan). The westem half is at a lower elevation, wítb Keshem, the lowest point, at 960 meters. Inside the province, mosl of the districts are isolated from each other for a greater part ofthe year by heavy snowfall in the winter, landslides in spring, and floods in the surnmer, Because of tbe rugged mounlain terrain, mueh of the land area is uninhabitable. Connecting dirt roads are either very rough or do not exist. Donkeys, horses, and walking constitute tbe major means of transport. It is eornmon for villagers to walk three to four days lo the nearest market. There is virtually no effeetive government operating in Ihe provinee at the current time. The víllages and larger towns in the province have no electricity, no running water, no sanitation facilities, few medical facilities, and poor schools.Badakshan province has historically been isolated and neglected. It has always been considered a poor province; even before ¡he war, local agricultural production met only 50% of the needs. The few development inítiatives ever started were abandoned after the eornmunist takeover and the subsequent fight between the Taliban and the Northern Allianee. 1t í5 estímated that agricultural production is down by at least 40% as a resutt of the war (UNIDATA 1966).The province has a highly diversified eropping system. Crop production, hortieulture, and livestock are Ihe maín sourees of income for most households. It is difficult lo obtain relíable statistics on agricultural produetion. Figures on land holdings provided by farmers during intervÍews tend 10 be grossly underestimated for fear of government taxalion and lo qualíf'y for humanitarian assistance. The majority ofhouseholds own less than one hectare, and further fragmentation ofland holdings occurs because of Ihe traditional inheritance laws. Srnaller farmers usually sharecrop Ihe land owned by farmers with relatively larger holdings (more !han two hectares). Many distrÍcts do not produce enough food, for example, surveys have shown tha! food deficits in Sheghnan, Ishkashem, and Wakhan range frorn two 10 5ix months.Autumn and spring wheat i5 Ihe main grain crop. Other crops include pulses (broad beans, vetches, field peas, grass peas) ofien grown as a companion crop with spring barley. Finger millet and chickpeas are also planted in spring. Srnall quantities of oil-seed crops such as sesarne and flax are oeeasionally grown for oil, bu! the wild mustard that giows as a weed in the wheat fields is harvesled by women and clúldren for oi! and cooking. Maize i5 grown at lower elevations (below 1600 m) from Darwaz through Shekay as a second crop after wheat. Colton is also grown in small quantities in sorne villages from Darwaz downstrearn, where it is used for stuffing quilts and pillows, and Ihe oi! extraeted from !he seed ís used for larnps.Vegetables include spinach, oníons, beans, occasionally tornatoes, carrols, squash, and a variety of herbs. Several kinds ofpotatoes ofvarying lengths of rnaturity are grown. These vegetables provide a supplementary dietduring the hungry months of spring and early surnmer before Ihe harvest. Fruit trees, particularly mulberries, are important. Olher cornmon trees inc1ude fruit trees such as walnut, apricot, plum, sour eherry, apple, and grape, and timber trees such as poplar, willow, and walnut. Several wild plants play an important role and include wild mustard, wild rhubarb, wild orclúd tuber, black cumin, licoriee, and mushrooms, in addítion lo the wild herbs of medicinal value. Opíum poppy i8 not cultivated on a cornmercíal basis, allhough small patches rnay be planted by addicts for Iheir own use.Livestock are a main source of Ihe household eeonomy in rural areas. The sale oflivestock ís the primary means for much of the population to earn income for purchase of other food and essential items, especially wheat, during the spring monlhs when they run out of food stock. The province has huge eornmon grazing areas that support herds oflivestock belonging to Ihe local people as well as to nomads.","tokenCount":"2732"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b52307c30d07e642927f191eb48339d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c6f0390c-110c-4417-8bf4-8ddacd737479/retrieve","id":"-271936663"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e06f3601-291d-46bd-9166-2e15c9528511","pagecount":"1","content":"y la Comisión Institucional de Biodiversidad (UCR). Este trabajo ha sido realizado como parte de la iniciativa \"Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change: Collecting, Protecting and Preparing Crop Wild Relatives\", la cual es financiada por el Gobierno de Noruega. El proyecto está dirigido por Global Crop Diversity Trust junto con Millenium Seed Bank of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, e implementado en colaboración con bancos de germoplasma e institutos de mejora genética de todo el mundo.El estudio del material indicó que no era un Desmodium, tampoco un frijol Lima silvestre, pero sí ¡un espécimen completo de P. microcarpus con seis racimos! Figuras 1 y 2. Detalle de la flor (Fig. 1) y de los frutos (Fig. 2) de la población #3263 de P. microcarpus.","tokenCount":"123"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c55bdb9e93eb44015f2a0c1f085b4580","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/07305c57-b472-45cb-bf8f-14a7847afbde/retrieve","id":"-1772162130"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0bc56557-3a09-4ca4-9506-8213f4f0871e","pagecount":"3","content":"PART 2: Mapping to Alliance strategy and structure 13.3 -Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning 13.2 -Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning 13.1 -Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries CONTACT PERSON http://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) delivers research-based solutions that harness agricultural biodiversity and sustainably transform food systems to improve people's lives. Alliance solutions address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation.The Alliance is part of CGIAR, a global research partnership for a food-secure future.Climate change has made it difficult for farmers in eastern Guatemala to make a living due to droughts, heavy rainfall, and unpredictable weather patterns. Many farmers have limited access to climate information and lack the skills to understand and use the information to become more resilient. The Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees (LTACs) is a CGIAR innovation [1] that uses a participatory approach to deliver climate information throughout Guatemala. In the LTACs, a group of experts including many stakeholders from the public and private sector have been working since 2017 to provide tailored agroclimatic information to farmers. The LTACs are co-producing, translating, and transferring this information to facilitate effective decision-making in agricultural activities. Building on the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS), the AgriLAC Resiliente, a CGIAR initiative led by the Alliance of Bioversity-CIAT, has enhanced the dissemination mechanisms for the LTACs to ensure that more segments of the rural population could benefit from local and tailored agroclimatic information. Members of the LTACs develop and disseminate easy-tounderstand seasonal (quarterly) agroclimatic bulletins to local stakeholders and farmers via a variety of digital and non-digital means. Additionally, the LTACs create agrometeorological bulletins, which are disseminated through LTACs' social media groups. The LTACs are also producing systematized radio spots with bulletins info to broadcast throughout the eastern region, reaching more than 20,000 rural people in the region [2]. An M&E strategy designed by CGIAR scientists and other stakeholders has been put in place to assess success in the dissemination of climate services in eastern Guatemala by ensuring that the information provided is effective and reaches those who need it the most, including vulnerable groups of women, youth, and indigenous populations [3]. A M&E study carried out at the end of 2022 reported that more than 50% of the participating people of eastern Guatemala, have implemented some of the recommendations of the agroclimatic bulletin, mainly for crop planning and crop management) in relation to expected climate conditions [3]. Results demonstrate that farmers have improved their resilience with better access to information that allows them to make informed decisions about their agricultural practices. The LTAC experience is an excellent example of how collaboration and a focus on community needs can lead to positive change. By co-producing and disseminating tailored information and engaging with stakeholders, the LTAC has made a real difference in the lives of farmers in eastern Guatemala.CapDev relevance: 1 -Significant. The LTAC approach sought to strengthen participants' capacities by conducting training workshops on agro-climatic information and tools which are used to inform crop management decisions. To build skills, it also focused on empowering members of the committees by assigning alternating roles and tasks among participating organizations [1,2,3]. Youth relevance: 1 -Significant. The LTAC approach has produced young-sensitive climate information [3]. Climate change relevance: 2 -Principal. By enhancing farmers' capacity to understand and access agro-climatic information, they can make better decisions, thus increasing their resilience in the face of climate variability and climate change [1,3] ","tokenCount":"608"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c162f1edecff1ab8de8209f40f5f44e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff8976f6-13a0-41b6-b1cd-4a0ff27ee36d/retrieve","id":"-1650198138"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c52a6f02-d3f7-48bf-87a7-50690cdb3db7","pagecount":"6","content":"The global yield of bananas-one of the most important food crops-is severely hampered by parasites, such as nematodes, which cause yield losses up to 75%. Plant-nematode interactions of two banana cultivars differing in susceptibility to Radopholus similis were investigated by combining the conventional and spatially resolved analytical techniques 1 H NMR spectroscopy, matrixfree UV-laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometric imaging, and Raman microspectroscopy. This innovative combination of analytical techniques was applied to isolate, identify, and locate the bananaspecific type of phytoalexins, phenylphenalenones, in the R. similiscaused lesions of the plants. The striking antinematode activity of the phenylphenalenone anigorufone, its ingestion by the nematode, and its subsequent localization in lipid droplets within the nematode is reported. The importance of varying local concentrations of these specialized metabolites in infected plant tissues, their involvement in the plant's defense system, and derived strategies for improving banana resistance are highlighted.plant protection | induced plant defense | matrix-free LDI-MSI B ananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are among the world's most important food and cash crops, with a global production of about 138 million tons in 2010. These crops are part of a well-balanced human diet and are a major food staple for more than 400 million people in the tropics (1,2). About 82% of the world's banana production is consumed locally, particularly in India, China, and many African countries (Table S1) (1,2). Export of bananas to the northern hemisphere represents an important source of employment in countries such as Costa Rica, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Philippines (Table S2) (1,2). Banana yields are severely hampered by fungi, insects, and plant-parasitic nematodes. The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis (Cobb, 1893) Thorne, 1949, is the key nematode pathogen, causing yield losses up to 75% (3). R. similis is found in all major banana-producing regions of the world; its best-known hosts are bananas, black pepper, Citrus spp. (4), and coffee (5). R. similis causes extensive root lesions that can lead to toppling of banana plants (6).Plant-parasitic nematodes have been effectively managed through the use of nematicides. However, their high toxicity has adverse effects on humans and their toxic residues are known to accumulate through nontarget organisms in the food chain (7). After the withdrawal of many effective nematicides, such as methyl bromide, from the market (8), organophosphate and carbamate nematicides are still intensively applied to banana and therefore continue to threaten the health of agricultural workers and the environment (9). Although several biological control approaches, including the application of both single and multiple control organisms-such as Fusarium oxysporum, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Trichoderma atroviride isolates, and Bacillus firmus-have proved promising under greenhouse conditions, the control they confer to banana plants most probably does not protect plants for more than one cycle in the field, and most of these organisms have yet to be tested under field conditions (10).The ongoing decline of banana yields caused by pathogens and the use of toxic chemicals to manage them has attracted considerable attention because of the importance of bananas as a major staple food for more than 400 million people. We demonstrate that secondary metabolites (phenylphenalenones) of Musa are the reason for differences in cultivar resistance, and detected the phenylphenalenone anigorufone in greater concentrations in lesions in roots of a nematode-resistant cultivar than in those of a susceptible one. An in vitro bioassay identified anigorufone as the most active nematostatic and nematocidal compound. We discovered that large lipid-anigorufone complex droplets are formed in the bodies of Radopholus similis exposed to anigorufone, resulting in the nematode being killed.The in-depth investigation of the plant-nematode interactions at the cellular and molecular level could lead to the development of more rational and efficient control strategies (11). The production of toxic, herbivore-deterrent or -repellent secondary metabolites, which is typical for many plant defense systems, is particularly interesting in this context. Musa cultivars resistant to R. similis have been identified, especially the cultivar Yangambi km5 (Ykm5) (12). Histochemical and ultrastructural investigations of lesions caused by R. similis in Ykm5 revealed the accumulation of phenolic compounds in response to infection (13). Unfortunately, many of these studies were based solely on histochemical staining methods and did not identify the chemical structures of nematicidal secondary metabolites (7,14,15). Initial phytochemical analyses of R. similis-infected roots of the Musa cultivar Pisang sipulu identified the phenylphenalenone anigorufone (1) as a phytoalexin produced in response to nematode damage and confirmed earlier suggestions of the significant role of phytoalexins in the plant defense system (16). Phenylphenalenones are a group of special phenylpropanoidderived natural products (17), which are known as Musaceae phytoalexins (18). The activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (EC 4.3.15), the entry-point enzyme of the phenylpropanoid pathway, is correlated to the biosynthesis of specific phenylpropanoids involved in defense and was substantially induced in nematode infected roots of Ykm5 (19). Phenylphenalenone-related compounds show biological activity against bacteria, fungi, algae, and diatoms (18,(20)(21)(22). The formation of these compounds has been elicited in banana leaves by Mycosphaerella fijiensis (Black Sigatoka leaf streak disease), in the fruit peels by Colletotrichum musae (anthracnose disease), and in roots and rhizomes by F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Panama disease) and R. similis (16,18,21,23).Root Damage and Root Lesions. In the greenhouse, potted Grande Naine (GN) and Ykm5 plants were inoculated with R. similis. Roots of 20-wk-old plants were monitored for nematode damage 12 wk after infection. Root damage was more severe in GN than in Ykm5. Visual observation of infected GN roots revealed large, continuous, and tunnel-like lesions (Fig. 1 A and B). Moreover, root damage extended to the root bases near the GN corms (Fig. 1C). Newly formed root lesions were light red in color. Older lesions were dark red-brownish. In Ykm5, no corm infection was observed and both newly formed and older root lesions were small, discontinuous, dark red-brown in color, and nonexpanding (Fig. 1 D and E). Uninfected roots of Ykm5 and GN, used as controls, showed no lesions and appeared healthy upon visual inspection.Isolation and Identification of Metabolites. R. similis lesions from GN and Ykm5 roots were manually dissected from infected roots under the microscope, and metabolites were extracted from lesion material using ethanol. The intensely red-colored lesions were easily visually distinguishable from healthy, beige-colored root tissues. Equal amounts of roots from uninfected plants were used as controls. Liquid-liquid separation from all of the above four samples resulted in CHCl 3 , ethyl acetate, 1-butanol, and aqueous subfractions. Preliminary 1 H NMR analysis of subfractions of the R. similis-infected GN and Ykm5 root material revealed signals in the aromatic range of the spectrum of the CHCl 3 extract, whereas the other subfractions did not show aromatic signals of notable intensity. The CHCl 3 subfractions were further analyzed for the occurrence of phenylphenalenones. In a first step, the CHCl 3 subfractions of all of the samples were purified by semipreparative HPLC. The individually collected fractions were subjected to 1 H NMR spectroscopy for identification and the structures of all compounds were identified as typical metabolites and major phytoalexins of Musa species (Fig. S1) (18,21,23). The phytochemical profiles and the number of secondary metabolites in GN and Ykm5 (Fig. S1) were slightly different. Anigorufone (1), hydroxyanigorufone (2), irenolone (5), 4-phenyl-1H,3H-benzo[de]isochromene-1,3-dione ( 7), and 4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1H,3H-benzo[de]isochromene-1,3-dione (8) were detectable in the extracts of lesions from both cultivars. (2S,3R)-2,3-Dihydro-2,3-dihydroxy-9-phenylphenalen-1-one (3), isoanigorufone (4), and anigorootin (9) were exclusively found in Ykm5, and methylirenolone (6) only in GN. Twice as much anigorufone (1), the major specialized metabolite of lesions in both cultivars, was found in Ykm5 compared with GN. Additionally, all minor compounds were present in smaller amounts per kilogram of root material in GN compared with Ykm5. The amounts of the isolated compounds are shown in Table S3.Analysis and Interpretation of Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometric Imaging Data. The suitability of matrix-free UVlaser desorption/ionization mass spectrometric imaging (LDI-MSI) to identify secondary metabolites of Arabidopsis thaliana and Hypericum species (24) encouraged us to use this spatially resolved bioanalytical technique to study the presence of phenylphenalenones in the lesions of GN and Ykm5. The Ultraflex III-and the ultrafleXtreme mass spectrometers allowed the application of a high lateral resolution of 10 μm, enabling the localization of phenylphenalenones in the lesion area (100-200 μm 2 ).The accumulation of secondary metabolites in the lesions was detected by LDI-MSI. The LDI-MSI data obtained from the lesion and the surrounding tissues (Fig. 2) show mass signals of phenylphenalenones precisely at the site of nematode infection. The LDI-MSI images were plotted in SCiLS Lab software (SCiLS) after spectra baseline correction, hotspot removal (by suppressing 1% of most intense pixels), and edge-preserving image-denoising to reduce the pixel-to-pixel variation (25). Within the lesions, m/z values of the discovered secondary metabolites (compounds 1-9) were detected, which are consistent with compounds resulting from the phytochemical investigations of the dissected lesions. The m/z value of 271 detected within the lesions was assigned to [M-H] + of the compounds anigorufone (1), 4, or both (Fig. 2C). A signal for compound 7 (m/z 273) was found in this area (Fig. 2D), as well as signals of compound 2 and its 4-phenyl analog 5 (m/z 287) (Fig. 2E). The signal m/z 289 was attributable to the secondary metabolites 3, 8, or both (Fig. 2F). A signal for the O-methyl phenylphenalenone (6) of m/z 301 was also detectable (Fig. 2G). Furthermore, using the ultrafleXtreme, we were able to detect a signal for the dimer 9 at m/z 573.The areas of the lesions were strikingly different from the healthy, uninfected surrounding regions with regard to the presence of secondary metabolites, both in the isolation experiments and in the LDI-MSI investigations. Nevertheless, an elevated ion signal background in single LDI measurements caused by high laser intensities was observed within the uninfected regions of the tissue. As the color mapping indicates only the signal intensity at specific raster points and not the occurrence of a certain compound, color signals appear where only background is detected (Fig. S2).Effect of Phenylphenalenones in R. similis Motility Bioassay. To test for antinematode properties of the phenylphenalenone-type phytoalexins, an in vitro bioassay on the motility of R. similis was performed with 13 selected phenylphenalenones and related compounds (Fig. S1 and Table S4). The percentage of nematode motility inhibition (nematostatic effect) was monitored after 24, 48, and 72 h of exposure to the compounds.At both tested concentrations (50 and 100 ppm), anigorufone (1), and compounds 2 and 13 showed a nematostatic effect as of 24 h of incubation. This effect was either constant (compound 13) or increased over time up to 72 h (1 and 2). Anigorufone (1) showed the strongest activity, with 89% of the nematodes becoming immotile after 72 h of incubation. Similar nematostatic effects were observed for compounds 2, 4, 8, and 4-hydroxy-2methoxy-9-phenylphenalenone (11) at a concentration of 100 ppm. Exposure to 50 ppm resulted in higher percentages of immotile nematodes of 48 h of exposure, in comparison with the 1% ethanol control. The compounds 5, 9, methoxyanigorufone (10), musanolone C (12), and perinaphthenone (15) revealed inconsistent nematostatic effects. Methylirenolone (6) and dihydroxyanigorootin ( 14) did not show any substantial inhibition of nematode motility (not included in Table S4). The solvent (1% ethanol) exhibited a negligible effect on nematode motility comparable to sterile distilled water.Dosage Effect of Anigorufone (1) on R. similis Motility Bioassay.Among the phenalenones tested in the R. similis motility bioassay, anigorufone (1) was the most active compound at a concentration of 100 ppm (Table S4). Therefore, anigorufone (1) was selected for a more detailed investigation of its nematostatic potential. The data obtained at 10, 20, 40, 50, and 100 ppm clearly showed a concentration-dependent effect of anigorufone (1) on nematode motility (Fig. S3). At an incubation time of 24 h, the percentage of immotile versus the total number of nematodes increased from nonsignificant 26%, at a concentration of 10 ppm, to significant 50.2% at 40 ppm and 74.3% at 100 ppm. Hence, significantly (P < 0.05) higher levels of nematostatic effects were observed from 40 ppm upwards compared with the control (1% ethanol). Increasing the concentration to 150 ppm resulted in partial precipitation of anigorufone (1). Compared with the values obtained after 24 h, the motility of nematodes further decreased at incubation times of 48 and 72 h (Fig. S3). The concentration of anigorufone (1), which inhibited the motility of 50% of the nematodes (IC 50 ) in the bioassay, was 59 μg/mL for an incubation time of 24 h. For an exposure time of 48 h, IC 50 was 38 μg/mL, and only 23 μg/mL for 72 h of exposure.A surprising observation was made during the evaluation of the R. similis motility bioassay with anigorufone (1). Under bright field microscopy (BF), yellow droplets were seen in parts of the bodies of nematodes exposed to high concentrations of anigorufone (1) (Fig. 3). These droplets were readily visible because of the natural transparency of the nematode cuticle. Nematodes containing such yellow droplets were subjected to LDI-MSI to identify the yellow pigment. The drying of the nematodes on the indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated conductive glass slides and the high-field vacuum conditions of the LDI-MSI process preserved the position of the nematodes on the slides and allowed pointing the laser precisely at the target region. This aspect was important because the shape of the yellow droplets changed during the drying on the glass slides and during the LDI-MSI measuring process, because the droplets converged. LDI-MSI spectra recorded from yellow regions of R. similis nematodes showed an ion peak of m/z 273 [M+H] + , corresponding to the molecular mass of anigorufone (1) (Fig. 4). LDI-MSI spectra of control nematodes not exposed to anigorufone (1) did not show such a signal. Ingestions of large enough amounts of anigorufone (1) to be visible by BF always led to nematode mortality. Thus, it has become obvious that anigorufone (1) is not only a nematostatic but also a nematocidal compound.Raman Microspectroscopy. Studies were conducted to analyze the chemical composition of the yellow droplets appearing in the bodies of R. similis after ingestion of anigorufone (1). Recent developments in combining Raman spectroscopy with optical microscopy provided a new noninvasive technique to assess and image biological samples and processes. The technique has recently been successfully applied to identify and visualize lipid droplets in nematodes (26). Fig. 5A shows a BF image of part of a R. similis nematode using a 60×/NA = 1 water-immersion objective. The Raman image, reconstructed from the integrated areas of the scattering intensities originating from C-H stretching vibrations of organic molecules of part of the image in Fig. 5A, is shown in Fig. 5B. Fig. 5C was generated from Fig. 5B using a spectral decomposition algorithm that searches for the greatest spectral contrast within a given dataset. Subsequently the abundances of the spectral information were plotted. The distribution of lipids is shown in red in Fig. 5C, the protein distribution in light blue. Apparently, the lipids are arranged in rather large fat droplets, whereas the abundance of the proteins reveals the internal organization of the organism. Fig. 5D shows the associated spectral information. The spectrum shown in light blue exhibits all characteristic features associated with proteins. For example, the scattering intensities between 2,800 and 3,100 cm −1 originate from C-H stretching vibrations of the protein residues; the band centered around 1,650 cm −1 is a result of stretching motions of the C = O bonds of the peptide backbones; and CH 2 scissoring motions can be observed at 1,450 cm −1 . The red spectrum resembles a typical spectrum of lipids. The intensities of C-H stretching bands between 2,800 and 3,100 cm −1 and C-H deformation bands near 1,300 and 1,440 cm −1 are more intense than in proteins. Further bands are assigned to C = O bonds of ester groups at 1,740 cm −1 , C = C groups of unsaturated fatty acid chains at 1,260 and 1,660 cm −1 , and C-C groups at 1,070 cm −1 .Banana cultivars show different grades of susceptibility to the burrowing nematode R. similis. The cultivar Grande Naine (GN), which is extensively cultivated for banana fruit production, is susceptible to R. similis and, in contrast, the cultivar Yangambi km5 (Ykm5), is largely resistant. The objective of this study was to investigate if secondary metabolites of the Musa plant could be the reason for these differences in plant-nematode interaction.This study provides evidence for the local induction of phenylphenalenone-type secondary metabolites in response to R. similis infection in Musa spp. LDI-MSI was used with phenylphenalenones and nine phenylphenalenone-type compounds were detected in nematode-induced lesions. These compounds were elucidated by NMR analyses and identified as typical metabolites and major phytoalexins of Musa species (21). Anigorufone (1) was the most abundant phenylphenalenone-type secondary metabolite present in the nematode-induced lesions of the resistant cultivar Ykm5, as well as in the susceptible cultivar GN. As recently reported for secondary metabolites of A. thaliana and Hypericum species, LDI-MSI is an effective technique of localizing secondary metabolites in plant tissues (24). Here this technique revealed that the location of phenylphenalenones in Musa roots is restricted to the lesions created by R. similis.A significant difference between the two Musa cultivars was observed when the mass fraction of the compounds in the lesions was determined. A greater concentration of anigorufone (1) and other antinematode phenylphenalenones was discovered in the small lesions in Ykm5 roots than in the large lesions in GN roots. In vitro bioassays revealed the IC 50 concentrations of anigorufone (1) necessary to immobilize and kill R. similis. These critical concentrations of active phenylphenalenones are not reached in the lesions of GN roots. In the sensitive GN cultivars, nematodes are neither immobilized nor killed and continue feeding and invading more tissue, creating larger lesions. In contrast, these critical concentrations are reached in Ykm5 roots and lead to the immobilization and eventual death of R. similis in situ. Hence, it appears that the biosynthesis of high concentrations of phenylphenalenones in the nematode-infected tissues in the roots of Ykm5 is the key mechanism responsible for Ykm5's resistance to R. similis. Phenylphenalenones do not create a nematode-toxic environment when they are present in roots at low concentrations. The local increase in concentration of these specialized metabolites upon nematode attack in resistant Ykm5 roots causes reduced motility and mortality, preventing nematodes from migrating to neighboring regions outside the initial infection zone.To the best of our knowledge, the present bioassay-based study provides evidence of antinematode properties of phenylphenalenones and related compounds. Although bioassays were presumably performed with the active ingredients of both currently available and obsolete nematicides, and may have proved to be nematicidal in these tests, this information is not  available to us in literature, as tests were part of company internal research and development work. Therefore, direct comparisons of anigorufone with nematicides, such as Nemacur, Temik, and Furadan are not feasible. Ferulic acid, a biosynthetic phenylpropanoid precursor of some phenylphenalenones (27), was recently shown to have nematostatic and nematocidal effects on R. similis (28). An IC 50 of 57, 84, and 42 μg/mL −1 was obtained after 24-, 48-, and 72-h treatment, respectively. In comparison with ferulic acid, the IC 50 of anigorufone at 72 h was only 23 μg/mL −1 , showing that the latter is the stronger in planta antinematode compound. In addition, ferulic acid was not detected in the nematode induced lesions of our studied Musa cultivars. The most abundant compound, anigorufone (1), also proved to be the most active antinematode compound in the in vitro bioassays. Of the compounds tested, anigorufone (1) caused the greatest nematostatic and nematocidal effects. In addition to anigorufone (1), the compounds 2, 4, 8, 11, and 13 also had substantial nematostatic effects on R. similis, whereas others had less (compounds 5, 9, 10, 12,15) or no effect at all (compounds 6, 14). Whether or not the composition of the phytoalexin mixture present in lesions also contributes to the resistance seen in Ykm5 remains to be investigated. Testing selected combinations of different phenylphenalenones and whole extracts could reveal synergistic or antagonistic effects of individual phenylphenalenones (7).The uptake of a plant secondary metabolite, anigorufone (1) by individual nematodes, was detected by LDI-MSI. No extraction of nematodes was necessary to analyze the ingested metabolites. Whether phenylphenalenones were incorporated into the nematode with the diet, via the skin, or via both routes was not addressed in this study. However, once taken up, nonglucosidic, poorly water-soluble phenylphenalenones, such as anigorufone (1), may converge with lipids. In this context, it was a remarkable finding that Raman microspectroscopy confirmed lipids as the major contents of yellow droplets in R. similis. In Caenorhabditis elegans, intestinal oil droplets-storage components for lipophilic compounds-are involved in minimizing the toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyl (29). A similar process may be indicated in R. similis by the observed formation of bulky oil droplets containing anigorufone (1). However, the enlargement of the oil droplets is not accompanied by an expansion of the nematode body limiting the space available to the internal organs and essential life processes. As opposed to the observed retention of lipids and the formation of bulky droplets in R. similis, a variety of stressors increased the excretion and stopped the pharyngeal pumping as a response in C. elegans. In this organism, a complex system of regulatory mechanisms can minimize the toxic effects of alcohol or heavy metals, at least for a limited time (30). Exposure of C. elegans to quercetin and caffeic acid resulted in an altered lipid metabolism with a reduced intestinal fat deposition. In contrast to the toxic effect of phenylphenalenones on R. similis, the tested compounds quercetin and caffeic acid caused an effect which is linked to longevity in C. elegans (31). Genes involved in regulation of lipid storage and mobilization (e.g., enlarged fat droplets in C. elegans) have been reported (32). Thus, the formation of large lipid droplets in R. similis upon exposure to phenylphenalenones may be an effect of these plant metabolites on the lipid regulatory system. The development of such bulky lipid droplets as part of the Musa-R. similis interaction may be comparable to the role of lipids in the aging of C. elegans (33).Extrapolating data from laboratory bioassays to the field situation should be done with caution (34). Nevertheless, phenylphenalenones, both natural phytoalexins and synthetics, are potential pest control agents. However, regardless of their origin from plants or from chemical synthesis, phenylphenalenones as polycyclic aromatic compounds hold potential risks for farmers, consumers, nontarget organisms, and the environment. Adverse effects, such as phototoxicity of phenylphenalenone-producing plants and pure phenylphenalenones have been reported (35,36). Hence, further investigations and risk assessments are necessary before considering phenylphenalenones as model compounds for the development of nematicides (7).Metabolic engineering (37) to enhance the cellular concentration of inducible phenylphenalenones (phytoalexins) could be an appealing way to develop commercially important banana cultivars that are as resistant to R. similis as Ykm5 and as productive as GN is. Engineering of specialized metabolite pathways for enhancing the disease resistance represents a feasible strategy (38), but requires the genes and enzymes of the pathway and its regulation to be fully known. So far this is not the case for phenylphenalenone biosynthesis and, as a consequence, such studies are a necessary prerequisite. Moreover, the identification of the genes involved in local response to nematode attack and local induction of phenylphenalenone biosynthesis, as seen in Ykm5 and resulting in concentrations sufficient to control nematodes (or other pests), is challenging. The recent description of the draft sequence of the 523-megabase genome of a Musa acuminata doubled-haploid genotype represents a major advance to elucidate the complex biochemical processes of banana-pathogen interactions (39).Detailed experimental procedures are provided in SI Material and Methods. Briefly, the Musa cultivars were inoculated with a population of R. similis. The isolation, purification and structural elucidation of phenylphenalenones from lesions of root tissues were achieved by partition chromatography, semipreparative reversed-phase HPLC, and 1 H NMR spectroscopy. LDI-MSI on the Ultraflex III and ultrafleXtreme mass spectrometers were used to localize phenylphenalenones in the lesions and anigorufone (1) in R. similis, respectively. Two series of in vitro bioassay experiments determined the effect of 13 phenylphenalenone-type compounds and the dosage effect of anigorufone (1) on the motility of the nematodes. Raman data of the lipid droplets were acquired with a confocal Raman microscope.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We thank Lut Ooms, Tamara Krügel, and the greenhouse teams at the University of Leuven and the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology for the help in raising Musa plants, and ","tokenCount":"4041"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c54a5663171343e0236f37fe91caaea5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/899a22f6-1906-48b9-a5d6-de5faf670f3e/retrieve","id":"1676148447"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1b080706-43ee-4843-b8ac-4ac49284a14f","pagecount":"8","content":"The Barind region, a water-stressed area in northwest Bangladesh, had an underdeveloped agricultural economy and high levels of poverty until two projects revitalized the area with enhanced groundwater irrigation. The Barind Integrated Area Development Project in 1985 and Barind Multipurpose Development Authority (BMDA) in 1992 used new water extraction technology and innovative management practices such as deep tubewells (DTWs) fitted with smart card-operated electric pumps to develop drought-resilient irrigation. Both projects have helped the Barind region reduce poverty and achieve self-sufficiency in rice. However, there are concerns about declining groundwater levels in the Barind and nearby regions, resulting in a temporary halt in DTW expansion. Preliminary evidence presented in this case study suggests farmers served by shallow tubewells (STWs) may be losing access to groundwater in some parts of the Barind region, which can have significant development implications because these tubewells remain the predominant source of irrigation. This evidence provides grounds to question whether an irrigation model reliant on DTWs is sustainable and equitable in the long term. Further research is needed to better establish groundwater conditions and understand the risk to STW users to inform future policy on DTW-driven agricultural development.The United Nations' Millennium Development Goals and the Bangladesh government's poverty reduction strategy emphasize that \"raising land productivity and increasing diversification of agriculture production\" are \"fundamental to poverty reduction as well as for food security\" in the country (IMF 2013). In this context, the positive impacts of the BMDA on agriculture, especially rice production, has been rightly regarded as a success story. This autonomous body under the Ministry of Agriculture, presently working in 16 districts of Bangladesh (map 1), seeks to enhance food security and living standards mainly through agricultural development. Its multipronged resource management model is a rare example of integrated development. In this drought-prone region where rain-fed monocropping was the norm, the BMDA introduced inverted DTWs and a prepaid smart metering system that has transformed agriculture into a \"three crop revolution\" (Kang 2013). Cropping intensity has risen from 117 percent to 200 percent, higher than the national average of 175 percent (Jahan et al. 2010b). The results have helped reduce poverty in the region from 57 percent in 2000 to 36 percent in 2010 (Jolliffe et al. 2013). The Barind region is characterized by diverse agroecological conditions. Aside from the Padma River, all other rivers are seasonal and dry up during the dry season (Jahan et al. 2010a). Precipitation is diverse, erratic, and low with an average 1,600 millimeters compared to the national average of 2,550 millimeters and sometimes affected single- crop production before irrigation was available. The Rajshahi district receives low rainfall, whereas Thakurgaon and Rangpur lie in the 1,500-to 2,000-millimeter and 2,000to 2,500-millimeter belts, respectively. Runoff is high in some areas with limited groundwater storage, which makes it prone to drought (Ahmeduzzaman, Kar, and Asad 2012).Although this case study profiles the clearly impressive innovations regarding electric-powered DTWs, it also poses the question of whether DTW-driven rice crop intensification is sustainable in parts of the region. A limited number of interviews in communities using STWs, mainly in the Thakurgaon district, suggests that though farmers within DTW command areas are thriving, farmers outside these areas may be struggling with enhanced groundwater drawdown in the dry season because maximum STW depths are typically only 15 to 20 meters (de Silva and Leder 2016). With STW-dependent farming communities constituting most of the region's population, this case study argues that the viability of DTWs must consider the externalities that they may induce.Framing this discussion on sustainability of DTWs in certain parts of the Barind region is what could be described as the rice-groundwater nexus in Bangladesh, a dominant development paradigm driving investments in the agriculture and irrigation sectors. Bangladesh is now the world's fourth-largest rice producer and nearly self-sufficient in rice (Mainuddin and Kirby 2015). Rice accounts for nearly 80 percent of the country's gross cropped area (Amarasinghe et al. 2014), and rice production has almost tripled since 1976-77 (Mainuddin et al. 2014). Given the scarcity of land, the production increase was driven by yields that rose to almost 4.3 tonnes per hectare from 2.7 tonnes per hectare in 1995. Bangladesh's rice area under irrigation has increased to 77 percent from about 30 percent in 1995 (Amarasinghe et al. 2014), and the country increased use of modern varieties during the same period. The rapid expansion of the dry-season rice crop has especially contributed to enhanced production. Today, 80 percent of boro rice is groundwater irrigated (Mainuddin et al. 2014) and accounts for almost all the irrigation-consumptive water use of rice. These results have improved the livelihoods of millions of rural poor (Qureshi, Ahmed, and Krupnik 2014)  DTWs were introduced by the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) in 1963-66 and were originally diesel-powered. In about 1990, the energy source powering DTWs changed to electricity because of the unreliability of diesel DTWs and resulting crop losses. The BWDB handed over supervision of DTWs in northern Bangladesh to the BMDA in 2001-02.The primary aquifer in the Barind region accessed by DTWs and STWs alike is the Dupi Tila formation composed of deltaic sands, silts, and gravels overlain by as much as 30 meters of Barind clay. Recharge to the aquifer is limited by vertical leakage through a low-permeability clay layer (Ahmed and Burgess 1995). The BMDA engineers designed an inverted DTW because the conventional DTW technology was not suitable to lift groundwater in the Barind region. The inverted DTWs, described by Asaduzzaman and Rushton (2006), can extract water from relatively \"poor\" aquifers with limited saturated thickness that exist at a depth of approximately 30 to 40 meters. Of the 25 upazilas (subdistricts) in the Barind region, 10 have poor aquifers, where normal DTWs cannot function. According to the BMDA, 15,813 DTWs currently irrigate 496,198 hectares of boro paddy in the Barind region. DTW command areas vary in size. In Dhondogaon village, Thakurgaon district, it can reach 24 hectares for rice, though this measurement varies depending on the specific water demand of selected crops.The BMDA initially collected irrigation fees from farmers by issuing paper coupons through dealers. This was a cumbersome process with loopholes for corrupt practices.There was scope, for instance, for operators to run a pump without receiving any coupon and to illicitly sell water to farmers without the BMDA's knowledge. In 2005-06, prepaid metering was introduced, and by 2010, almost all pumps were managed through the new system, in which each farmer in the command area buys a smart card from the BMDA's upazila office at a nominal cost. The BMDA selects a dealer for each upazila to recharge the smart cards, who is provided a mobile vending unit (MVU) at a cost of Tk 30,000 to 60,000 (US$360 to $720). The BMDA pays the dealer a commission of 2.5 percent on the amount of recharge. Farmers recharge their respective smart cards with a dealer and approach the DTW operators to buy water. When a farmer requires irrigation, the farmer-elected DTW operator enters the farmer's smart card in a prepaid meter attached to the DTW, and water is supplied for irrigation. The pump stops automatically after the scheduled duration requested by the farmer, and the prepaid meter deducts the necessary amount from the farmer's smart card (photo 1). Irrigation charges are fixed depending on the discharge rate of the pumps and vary between Tk 75 and 115 (US$0.9 to US$1.40)This system collects 100 percent of irrigation charges for the BMDA, making it a surplus-generating, self-sufficient organization. About 60 percent of the money collected from farmers pays for electricity consumption, 10 percent goes to DTW operators, 2.5 percent to the smart card dealers, 15 to 20 percent for maintenance, and the remainder pays for other costs such as BMDA staff salaries. Field operations are overseen by the BMDA's upazila offices, which are managed by Assistant Engineers, who hire mechanics and other staff to maintain the DTWs and collect data from the MVUs. The BMDA is working to introduce telemetering systems that would monitor DTW functioning from BMDA headquarters. In this system, the data from each pump will automatically be uploaded to a server at the BMDA's head office.Underground pipelines are being put in place in all DTW command areas to avoid substantial loss of water during distribution as a result of seepage and evaporation and to minimize the need for farmers to have water channels on their land. Maintenance of concrete channels has been costly because of frequent breakage. Construction included overhead water tanks at DTWs for irrigation and supply lines to distribute drinking water when supplies of the latter are scarce in the summer months.Electric-powered DTWs have enabled farmers in the Barind region to largely overcome the risks of crop failure and drought-related crises. DTWs help farmers stabilize crop production during midseason dry spells and carry over groundwater storage during multiyear monsoon failures, ensuring minimum crop losses. Farmers interviewed during the field study confirmed that since construction of DTWs in their area, they have not faced the severity of drought as in earlier years.DTWs substantially increase cropping intensity and lowered costs for farmers. Purchasing water from private STWs has been expensive, costing between Tk 3,000 and 3,500 (approximately US$36 to $42) for irrigating one bigha (approximately 0.1 hectare) of boro (summer) paddy. Irrigation from electric DTWs costs one-third to one-half less. The changes have boosted farmer income, reducing migration in search of jobs and improving children's education.Source: Authors. Recent studies have expressed apprehension about overutilization of groundwater resources (Adhikary et al. 2013;Ahmeduzzaman, Kar, and Asad 2012;Islam et al. 2010;Rahamatulla et al. 2013). According to Dey et al. (2013), some parts of the Barind region reveal a declining trend in groundwater levels between 1981 and 2011. Aziz et al. (2015) show a direct relationship between the increase in boro paddy production and groundwater depletion in the Rajshahi district (figure 1). Although farming communities served by DTWs have clearly benefited, communities without access to DTWs report conditions have become more challenging, and this has potentially significant developmental implications (de Silva and Leder 2017). In some parts of the Thakurgaon district, STW users can no longer provide timely supplementary irrigation for aman rice. The same issue arises in the case of dry-season boro rice when STW functionality is particularly impacted, with a lack of irrigation also for rabi crops such as potato, wheat, and maize. The overall impact is lower yields across these crops and seasons and increased irrigation costs that now constitute more than 50 percent of total production costs. Farmers in these areas estimate that they therefore earn Tk 30,000 to 40,000 (US$360 -US$480) a year less than farmers serviced by a DTW. They expect this gap to grow, believing production costs will increase, particularly as a result of rising fuel costs. Domestic hand pumps in such villages also struggle during March and April each year. The division between STWand DTW-dependent farmers in Thakurgaon is captured in their differing perceptions of water security. Farmers in DTW command areas expect another 15 to 20 years of good irrigation and feel it less imperative to change their crop choices and cultivation practices. STW users are, not surprisingly, more anxious. In Rajshahi, the need to deepen DTWs and pump failure early in the boro season suggests there, too, groundwater-based irrigation is becoming more challenging.The full implications of the divergence in water security views are still emerging, and villages dependent on STWs significantly outnumber those served by a DTW (  irrigation (fuel) costs rising and rainfall and temperature fluctuations likely to increase irrigation demand, the plight of STW-dependent farmers is a fundamental policy question. For these communities, the absence of DTWs is a dual problem because hand pumps used to supply domestic water also cease to function. The development conditions where STWs no longer work may further regress if households become mainly reliant on rain-fed cultivation.In other words, they risk returning to a pre-irrigation era.In addition to lower earnings and food security, a scenario where STWs become wholly or seasonally redundant also means fewer crop combination options to respond to climate change and other stresses. The capacity for greater agrarian diversification was in fact highlighted by Gautam et al. (2016) as a key condition if multiple developmental goals are to be met, including reducing rural poverty and malnourishment. The emerging concerns over future groundwater irrigation as a key means of production must be taken seriously as a driver of developmental inequity that may potentially reverse hard-won gains fighting poverty.The Barind approach augmenting groundwater-driven irrigation with about 16,000 DTWs has been an example of adaptive resource management in the face of adverse agroecological conditions. The current suspension of new DTW installations also provides a pause to reflect on the important emerging trade-offs between food security policy defined through rice production and water security and crop diversification. This break may present an opportunity to promote more crop diversification that could reduce pressure on groundwater resources while addressing the need for agrarian diversification, as emphasized by Gautam et al. (2016). Farmer interviews suggest that the innovations around DTWs may, ironically, have stifled crop diversification as they attempt to maintain water security in areas where groundwater levels may be in decline. Such scenarios provide little incentive for farmers to shift from their comfort zone of rice cultivation. In other words, diversification to less-water-demanding crops and other water-saving methods is unlikely to occur voluntarily until a water insecurity threshold is experienced, by which time diversification would be reactive rather than a proactive adaptive strategy.The analysis in this case study purposefully ends on cautionary footing. Although not seeking to detract from the significant positive gains made through investments in DTW technology to date, it does seek to make the point that a resource base cannot sustain longterm overextraction, so the balance between benefits and externalities is likely to shift. The evidence presented here suggests a need for more-comprehensive research to verify groundwater conditions, risks to STW users, and developmental implications to inform future policy on farm development driven by DTWs in the Barind region.","tokenCount":"2331"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b5f0219951ca51b4f73fb31d8b365f0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/66b2d48b-2afd-4cc6-9880-1f61ccafadac/retrieve","id":"821586461"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ca4123f2-970e-45bd-8b12-a690754990ec","pagecount":"1","content":"In Vietnam, the use of antimicrobials in livestock in general and in pig production in particular has been perceived as not well regulated and practiced. This leads to the over-use of antibiotics and would contribute to the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in animals, human and the environment. While many studies have focused on quantification of antimicrobial use (AMU) and AMR profiles resistance in livestock production, much less has been known on how farmers and other actors on the social aspect of the AMU, meaning the drivers and decision leading to the AMU.The research was conducted in Bac Ninh province in the Red River Delta of Vietnam, about 30 kilometers from Ha Noi during 2018-2019. The research team conducted 74 in-depth interviews with pig producers, local veterinarians, local authorities, leaders of department of health, veterinarian drug shops, feed shops, veterinarian drug companies, feed companies, organic food stores; 9 focus group discussions with farmers in different farm scale sizes namely small (<20 pigs), medium (<200 pigs), and large farm sizes (>200 pigs). Researchers also had 7 farm stay observations where they stayed 5-7 days in each farm to observe daily pig production activities and pig disease treatments. AMU in pig production was driven by multiple and complex factors such as profits of farmers, profits of veterinary drug shops and companies, market price of pork, mass media and policy regulations.Veterinarian plays important roles in AMU. The decision on whether or not to prescribe an antimicrobial was influenced by numerous factors relating to the veterinarians' experience, the clinical situation presented, and the profit they may earn from selling veterinary drugs. This study described the practices of feeding and pig health management in different size farms and examined the factors that influenced the AMU practices and decision of AMU of multiple actors in pig production. The profits of different actors along the value chain is key to AMU.  Our study aims to understand how and why antimicrobials are used in pig production and identify factors that influence the AMU in raising pigs in Vietnam. This study is part of the \"Health and Antibiotics in Vietnamese Pig Production\" (VIDA-PIG Project), funded by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA that addresses the major health issues affecting Vietnamese pig farms.","tokenCount":"371"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2edace25265d141011218bc111dd915c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/38275ea2-f945-4598-a61d-9e74af74dfc3/content","id":"-2014834931"},"keywords":["G x E interaction","genotype plus genotype x environment (GGE) biplot","stem borer resistance","yield stability"],"sieverID":"53aeba93-f1ad-4e24-b5e3-cd89eaee84da","pagecount":"7","content":"Twenty-seven stem borer-resistant maize hybrids and three checks were evaluated in 14 locations in Kenya and Ethiopia to study the genotype x environment interaction (GEI) and yield stability. An analysis of variance was conducted for grain yield, number of days to silking, plant height, ear height and grain moisture content, and reaction to turcicum leaf blight, gray leaf spot, maize streak virus diseases and common rust. The yield stability and adaptation pattern of genotypes were examined with genotype plus genotype x environment (GGE) interaction biplot. Variations due to location, genotype and GEI effects were highly significant for all traits. Location variance among the hybrids was the most important source of variation for all traits, accounting for 58 to 90% of the total variance. The genotypic variance was higher than the GEI variance for turcicum leaf blight, plant height and silking date. The GEI variance was higher than the genotypic variance for grain yield, ear height, gray leaf spot, common rust and grain moisture content. The GGE biplot showed that 50% of the entries had positive PC1 scores suggesting above average performance, and 50% of them had negative PC1 scores indicating below average performance. Based on the mean grain yield and stability parameters, hybrid CKIR07003 (5.5 t/ha), CKIR07004 (5.5 t/ha) and CKIR07005 (5.6 t /ha) were identified as high-yielding and stable genotypes, and could be nominated for national performance trials for commercial release in various countries.Maize is an important food crop in sub-Saharan Africa providing 50% of the calories in diets in southern Africa, 30% in Eastern Africa and 15% in West and Central Africa (Pingali and Pandey, 2000). Improving grain yield and resistance to major stem borer and leaf diseases are the major objectives of maize improvement programs in sub-Saharan Africa (Vivek et al., 2009) where the livelihood of millions of resource-poor farmers depends on successful maize production.Among insect pests in maize production, stem borers *Corresponding author. E-mail: y.beyene@cgiar.org. Tel: +254 20 7224654. Fax: +254 20 7224601.are the biggest cause of reduced maize yield in Africa from damage to leaves, stems, ears, to kernels. As examples, the spotted stem borer Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Crambidae) and the African stem borer Busseola fusca Fuller (Noctuidae) are the chief lepidopteran stem borer species causing significant annual loss of maize estimated at 13.5%, and worth US $91 million in Kenya (De Groote et al., 2002).The application of chemical insecticides has been recommended in order to protect plants against the stem borers. However, in addition to posing health problems, insecticides are frequently unavailable or too expensive for subsistence farmers in Africa. Therefore, an environmentally safe and economically feasible stem borer control practice is needed. Host plant resistance is a practical, easy to adopt and use method of stem borer control. Developing high-yielding maize varieties that are stem borer resistant will minimize the overall cost of production.Newly-developed maize cultivars need to be tested in many locations for several years to determine their performance and adaptability before commercial release. Inconsistent genotypic responses to environmental factors such as temperature, soil moisture, soil type or fertility level from location to location and year to year are a result of genotype x environment interaction (GEI). GEI has been defined as the failure of genotypes to achieve the same relative performance in different environments (Baker, 1988). Large GEI variation impairs the accuracy of yield estimation and reduces the relationship between genotypic and phenotypic values (Nachit et al., 1992).In sub-Saharan Africa, GEI has been reported in maize (Beyene et al., 2011;Pixely and Bjarnason, 2002;Vivek et al., 2009). When GEI is present, one of the options available to the breeder is to use stability analyses to identify the most high-yielding and stable cultivar. The sites regression (SREG) (Crossa and Cornelius, 1997) has been suggested as the appropriate model for analyzing multi-environment trials when large yield variation is due to different environments (Yan et al., 2000). The SREG method uses a graphical display known as the 'genotype plus genotype x environment interaction (GGE) biplot' which identifies cultivars which are superior in different environments.International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) is involved in strengthening and expanding plant-breeding efforts of national programs and the private sector by regularly exchanging improved germplasm through regional and international trials where national partners can identify adapted and high-yielding genotypes suitable for their specific locations. In 1999, CIMMYT and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) initiated the Insect Resistant Maize for Africa (IRMA) project with the aim of developing and deploying maize varieties that are resistant to key field and storage insect pests. Since its inception, maize germplasm including inbred lines, hybrids and open-pollinated varieties has been evaluated and new varieties released for various maize-growing ecologies of Kenya. The objectives of this study were, therefore, to determine the yield stability of stem borer-resistant experimental maize hybrids, their agronomic performance and their reaction to foliar diseases evaluated across 14 locations in Kenya and Ethiopia.Twenty-seven stem borer-resistant three-way hybrids developed through the IRMA project and three checks were used in this study. The hybrids were developed as follows: three stem borersusceptible elite inbred lines, CML254, CML334 and CML444 were crossed with 10 stem borer-resistant advanced lines to obtain 30 single crosses (SC). Based on seed availability, 27 SC served as parents, and crossed either with CML312, CML395 or Pop. 390 MIRT C5 Bco S2 Comp to obtain 27 three-way cross hybrids (Table 1). The 10 selected lines were elite or advanced lines in the CIMMYT breeding program, having above-average resistance to stem borers in previous experiments (Beyene et al., 2011). The CIMMYT multiple borer-resistant (MBR) maize population was developed by compositing global maize germplasm reputed to be resistant with a number of stem borer species (Smith et al., 1989). Initially, the multiple borer-resistant population was developed by recombination followed by recurrent selection under infestation with Southern corn borer Diatraea crambidoides, sugarcane borer Diatraea sacharalis, European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis and fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda. Resistant lines were then developed from these populations following recurrent selection under artificial infestation with Chilo partellus and B. fusca (Beyene et al., 2011;Mugo et al., 2001Mugo et al., , 2007)).Twenty-seven test hybrids and three checks were evaluated in a 6 × 5 alpha lattice design with three replications per location during the 2010 the main maize planting seasons (March-September). The hybrids were grown in 14 different environments in target ecologies (Table 2). Each entry was planted in two-row plots of 5 m length. The rows were spaced 0.75 m apart and the hills spaced 0.25 m apart. Two seeds per hill were sown and later thinned at three weeks post-emergence to one plant per hill to give a plant population of 53,333 plants per hectare. Data recorded from each plot included number of days to 50% pollen shed, number of days to 50% silking, plant height, ear height and grain moisture (%). Grain yield in tons per hectare (t/ha) adjusted to 12.5% moisture content was calculated using unshelled grain weight. Disease severity ratings for gray leaf spot caused by Cercospora zeae maydis (GLS), leaf blight caused by Exerohilium turcicum (ET), common rust caused by Puccinia sorghi (PS) and maize streak virus caused by maize streak geminivirus (MSV) were recorded on a plot basis using a 1-5 scale where 1= no symptoms on leaves, 2 = light disease symptoms on 20 to 40% leaf area, 3 = moderate symptoms on 40 to 60% leaf area, 4 = severe symptoms on 60% of leaf area, 5 = severe symptoms on 75% or more of the leaf area. For all the diseases, using the visual scale, a plant showing <1-1.0 was considered highly resistant; 1.1-2.0 resistant; 2.1-3.0 moderately resistant; 3.1-4.0 susceptible; 4.1-5.0 highly susceptible.Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted for each location individually. A multi-location combined analysis was conducted using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS (SAS, 2003). Genotypes were considered as fixed effects, and replications and blocks within replications as random effects. Broad sense heritability was calculated as the proportion of genetic variance relative to the total phenotypic variance. For the combined multi-location analysis, variances were partitioned into relevant sources of variation to test for differences among genotypes and the presence of G x E interaction. The effect of maturity on G x E was excluded by adjusting grain yield in each trial according to the anthesis date.To determine stability and identify superior hybrids across environments the sites regression (SREG) model was used (Cornelius et al., 1996;Crossa and Cornelius, 1997). A twodimensional GGE biplot of the two principal components (PCs) was plotted (Yan et al., 2000). Genotypes and environments were displayed in the same plot. Each genotype and environment was Table 1. List of hybrids and pedigree used in the study.Hybrid code Pedigree Local Check 2 defined by their respective scores on the two PCs. Angles between environment vectors were used to judge correlations (similarities/dissimilarities) between pairs of environments (Yan and Kang, 2003).There were significant differences between the genotypes and the locations for grain yield, agronomic traits and reaction to leaf diseases (Table 3). Genotype x location interaction was significant for all traits, indicating the importance of genotype x environment interaction in affecting the traits. Location variance was the most important source of variation accounting for 58 to 90% of the total variance for all the traits (Table 3). The genetic variance for the traits ranged from 1 to 12%. For turcicum leaf blight, plant height and silking date, the genotypic variance was higher than that of the genotype x location interaction. For grain yield, ear height, GLS, common rust and grain moisture content, genotype x location interaction variance was higher than the genotypic variance (Table 3). Although the experiments were carried out in 14 different locations, the sources of variation for different traits in the analysis of variance, excluding error, explained 77 to 96% of the total variance (Table 3), showing good experimental accuracy.There were significant differences among the hybrids for grain yield, agronomic traits and reaction to leaf diseases (Table 3). Mean grain yields ranged from 4.0 t/ha for CKIR06008 and CKIR09003 to 5.7 t/ha for CKIR07013 and CKIR07011. Thirteen experimental hybrids had an above average grain yield, while eight hybrids had an   equal or higher grain yield than the commercial check, WH505 (Table 3). The top six high-yielding hybrids were CKIR07013 (5.7 t/ha), CKIR07011 (5.7 t/ha), CKIR07008(5.6 t /ha), CKIR7012 (5.6 t/ha), CKIR07003 (5.5 t/ha) and CKIR7004 (5.5 t/ha). These hybrids were comparable with the best commercial check hybrid in terms of number of days to silking and reaction to turcicum leaf blight and gray leaf spot, but were slightly higher in plant and ear heights. All the hybrids were resistant to gray leaf spot and common rust with a disease score of below 2. About 50% of the hybrids were susceptible to maize streak virus with a disease score of above 3; however, the most resistant hybrids were CKIR07005, CKIR07001 and CKIR07002 (Table 3). Medium to high estimates of heritability were found in different traits (Table 3). The highest heritability (h 2 =0.9) was recorded for number of days to silking, plant height and turcicum leaf blight score, while the lowest was for gray leaf spot and maize streak virus score (h 2 = 0.5). Grain yield and ear height had a heritability of 0.8.The GGE biplot explained 67.44% of the genotype main effect; the G x E interaction with the PC1 score explained 59.17% and with the PC2 score explained 8.27% (Figure 1). Kakamega, Bako, Thika and Elgon Downs had longer vectors than other locations indicating that they were the best locations for genetic differentiation of cultivars. The most non-discriminatory locations were Kibos, Bukura and Msabaha as they had short environment vectors. If resources are limited, the least discriminatory test locations could be discarded as they provided little information. The obtuse angle between vectors for Msabaha and Bukura, Msabaha and Elgon Downs, and Msabaha and Sangalo, indicates a negative correlation between these locations in ranking these hybrids. The two-dimensional biplot showed that almost half of the entries had either positive or negative PC1 scores suggesting above or below average performance. Five hybrids (entries 2, 3, 9, 10 and 12) had long environmental vectors, indicating that they were good performers under favorable locations such as Bako, Alupe, Sangalo and Elgon Downs. Three hybrids (entries 9, 10 and 12) were high-yielding and stable because they showed large PC1 scores and near-zero PC2 scores. On the other hand, two hybrids (16 and 26) were very poor in yield (having a high negative PC1 score but a stable (near-zero) PC2 score).The occurrence of a significant G x E interaction effect indicated inconsistent phenotypic performance of the tested genotypes across locations, which may cause selections made in one environment to perform poorly in another environment. Location variance among the hybrids was the most important source of variation accounting for 58 to 90% of the total variance for all traits (Table 3). The 14 locations were distinct agro-ecologies with different annual rainfall, growing seasons and elevation (Table 2). Epinat-Le et al. (2001) provided biological interpretations of GEI. They found earliness of flowering, water balance, and mean temperature in the second part of the cycle contributed to GEI in maize yield.The G x E interaction variance for grain yield and most other agronomic traits was higher than the genotypic variance (Table 3) indicating that it is essential to evaluate genotypes for such traits in different environments. A higher G x E interaction variance than genotypic variance for grain yield has been reported in a previous study with early maize hybrids tested in 30 locations in northern France (Epinat-Le et al., 2001). However, Beyene et al. (2011) reported that variation due to genotype was higher than the G x E interaction in a study of 30 stem borer-resistant hybrids tested across locations in Kenya. Van Eeuwijk (1995b) reported that variation due to the G x E interaction was small in relation to the genotypic variation of 18 Dutch maize varieties for silage dry matter content. There were variations among genotypes for their resistance to foliar diseases. Furthermore, the genotypic variance for all diseases was higher than the genotype x location interaction variance indicating that most of the variations for reaction to these diseases were genetic.The 30 genotypes tested presented a range of variability for grain yield and other agronomic characteristics, with opportunities for selecting maize genotypes for high yield and acceptable agronomic traits. Eight hybrids had an equal or higher grain yield than the commercial check. These hybrids were comparable with the check hybrid, WH505, in grain yield, kernel moisture content, and reaction to gray leaf spot, maize streak virus and common rust, indicating that they could be suitable for growing in a wide range of environments. These results were in agreement with Beyene et al. (2011) who reported that some of the newly developed stem borerresistant hybrids were as stable as and as high-yielding as the commercial check. These hybrids could be commercialized in Kenya and Ethiopia where there are efforts to develop high-yielding, stem borer and diseaseresistant maize varieties.All hybrids including the check were resistant to GLS and common rust. However, 14 of the 30 hybrids were susceptible to MSV. The fact that the present hybrids possess genes for resistance to stem borers and are also resistant to attack by foliar diseases (GLS, rust, MSV) makes them suitable for growing across a wide range of agro-ecologies in east Africa. The correlation of stem borer-resistant hybrids to disease resistance in maize needs further study. However, Tefera et al. (2011) also reported that some maize hybrids resistant to stem borers were also partly resistant to foliar diseases. Gray leaf spot and leaf blight are cosmopolitan fungal diseases, occurring world-wide (Pratt and Gordon, 2006) and maize streak virus infects maize throughout sub-Saharan Africa (Bosque-Perez, 2000). These diseases may occur simultaneously, and recurrent epidemics are common when favored by weather conditions, the planting of susceptible cultivars and continuous maize cropping (Bigirwa et al., 2001;Pratt and Gordon, 2006).The GGE biplot software helped in identifying the least and the most discriminatory locations. Thus, the GGE biplot methodology is a useful tool for identifying locations that optimize cultivar performance and for making better use of the limited resources available to the testing program. In the GGE biplot, the cosine of the angle between two vectors represents the correlation between them, and the vector length corresponds to discriminatory ability (Yan and Kang, 2003). The acute angle between Kakamega (in Kenya) and Bako (in Ethiopia) indicates a positive correlation between them, implying that hybrids which performed well in one location also performed well in the other location. Kakamaga and Bako are at a midaltitude elevation, receive annual rainfall > 980 mm and are considered areas with a high potential for maize production. Yan et al. (2000) indicated that the ideal environments for testing should have a high PC1 value and be of the same sign (for better hybrid discrimination) and a PC2 score near zero (more closely representative of the environment mean). In our study, Sangalo, Alupe and Elgon Downs were close to the ideal location as they had a high PC1 score and a near-zero PC2 score.An ideal goal for any crop improvement program is to get stable and high-yielding cultivars. Thus, the GGE biplot is recommended where the location portion in multi-location trials is known to be the largest among all sources of variation (Yan and Kang, 2003) as seen in the present study where location variance accounted for 58 to 90% of the total variance for all traits studied (Table 3). Crossa et al. (2002) and Yan et al. (2000) reported that in the two-dimensional biplot, a genotype with a larger PC1 score has a greater average yield, and its performance varies across environments in direct proportion to the PC1 score of its environment. Three hybrids (9, 10 and 12) were close to the ideal genotype described by Yan and Tinker (2006) because they had a high yield (a large PC1 score) and were stable across environments (a PC2 score near zero). This might be due to the fact that two of the parents used in the hybrid formation were welladapted CIMMYT released lines (CML395, CML312, and CML444). These lines proved useful in hybrid formation for subtropical and mid-altitude environments and have been used in many hybrids in CIMMYT and SSA national maize-breeding programs.","tokenCount":"3047"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8b42053ef10ef85fba96c361eaa8f550","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b2ec89d-a605-4b7a-8466-63f6bd480cb0/retrieve","id":"1566854472"},"keywords":["Improved potato variety","Adoption","Nutrition security","Endogenous switching regression model","Propensity score matching","Tobit model","Northern Ethiopia"],"sieverID":"4feb72c3-6121-41b8-a38a-7a56b0adfb97","pagecount":"119","content":"Africa RISING program. Africa RISING is aligned with research programs of the CGIAR. Lastly, my special thanks goes to Kagnew Kassahun (Africa RISING driver), for his kind assistance by implementing different field assignment and errands while I was attending the class, transporting enumerators and facilitating the data collection work.Above all, it is a gift of Allah, the cherisher and the sustainer of the world, who bestowed on me the divine guidance, enough courage, and patience to complete my thesis work in difficult conditions and workload. Had it not been for His gracious assistance, it would have been impossible to overcome the challenges of the MSc rigorous work, and without His willingness and mercy I would have not reached this stage, great thanks be to Him forever.The cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) originated in South America where it has been used for food for over 10,000 years (CDC, 1999a) and globally, potato is a crop of world's major economic importance and number one non-grain food commodity (Rykaczewska, 2013). It is the third most important food crop in terms of consumption after rice and wheat (Hielke et al., 2011;Birch et al., 2012;Hancock et al., 2014). Potato cultivation is exceeding 18.6 million hectares of land in more than 157 countries in the world with an estimated annual production of 330 million tons (Singh, 2008;FAO, 2009FAO, , 2010)).According to FAO (2008) potato is a good source of income, and employment opportunity in developing countries and it is a good source of dietary energy and some micronutrients, and its protein content is very high in comparison with other roots and tubers. Due to its correct balance between protein and calories, it is considered as a good weaning food and these traits make it an efficient crop in combating world hunger and malnutrition (Berga et al., 1994).The commercial value of potatoes has increased considerably when it is processed into edible products (Kirkman, 2007). Potato consumption has increased in the developing world, and over the last decade world potato production has increased at an annual average rate of 4.5 percent Furthermore; Kirkman (2007) has estimated that global consumption in its processed form will increase from 13% of total food use in 2002 to nearly 18% by 2020.According to Mazengia (2016) potato has multiple benefits for low-income households where the land shortage is a constraint. It grows quickly, has a high yield, and contains more energy and protein per unit area when compared to cereal crops. Therefore, Potato can provide nutritious food for the poor and hungry in the developing countries and it is the most important crop to address food and nutrition security (Hussain, 2016), which is a major concern for countries like Ethiopia. High potato yield at critical food shortage periods could help households to get cash from the sale of potato and spend on a diversity of food types Mugisha et.al. (2017). Thus, potato production could increase the food availability and diversity. According to (FAO, 2008), potato has been declared as a Future Food crop and the United Nation during the international potato year (2008), call the crop a \"hidden treasure\" (Hussain, 2016).In Ethiopia, potato has been cultivated for over 150 years (Kolech et al., 2015); currently it is grown in many parts of the country. The production area has reached 59,504 ha cultivated by over one million households in the main cropping season of 2011 (CSA, 2012). There is a high potential to expand the cultivation area of the potato crop, as most arable land is in principle suitable for cropping potato. Joshi, et al. (2009) indicated that the potential yield of potato in Ethiopia can reach up to 50 t/ha, but the average national potato production is 10.5 tones/ha, while progressive farmers who use improved agronomic practice attained yields of 25 tones/ha. According to CIP and ILRI (2016), improved potato varieties and with improved agronomic practice provided better tuber yields; Belete, Jalene, Gudene, and Gera varieties provide 46.93, 40.01, 38.93, and 32.98 tones of tuber yield per hectare respectively while the local variety provides only 14.4 t/ha. The results of the partial budget analysis also revealed that the use of improved potato varieties with its packages resulted in the net benefit of 122,535 birr/ha compared to the use of local variety and practice 43,920 birr/ha.The production problems that account for low yields and tuber quality are similar to the problems that were identified in many developing countries including Ethiopia. Limited supply of high-quality seed tubers (Gildemacher et al., 2009), inappropriate agronomic practices and inadequate storage (Tekalign, 2005), poor knowledge of seed tubers selection (Adane et al,.2010) are reported as much contributing factors to the low yields and poorquality seed tubers production. According to Berga and Woldegiorgis (1994), one of the major factors attributed to the low productivity of potato is limited access to improved varieties. The main constraints to access improved varieties are shortage of improved and quality seed, damaged and spoiled seed due to poor transporting and handling (Emana & Ngussie, 2011).The available set of local varieties has been developed through a constant process of farmer experimentation, evaluation and selection of introduced varieties or clones from outside sources. Varieties previously selected by farmers referred to as \"local varieties\"; while varieties developed by the research system over the past 28 years since their first release in 1987 referred to as \"new varieties\" (Kolech et al., 2015). Improved potato varieties are obtained through breeding process for disease resistance, drought tolerance, good yield, attractive color, size and shape, good cooking quality and other desirable characteristics (Asakaviciut et al., 2008).In Tigray, the production of potato as food security crop and source of income has long a history. Starting 2013 the potato tuber seed multiplication and demonstration of new varieties both at seed producer cooperatives and model farmers' field was started in southern Tigray, particularly in Emba Alaje, Ofla and Endamehoni woreda supported by Government organization (Office of Agriculture) and different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as, Africa RISING, CIP (International Potato Center), and Graduation with Resilience to Achieve Sustainable Development (GRAD). However, the seed tubers and varieties promoted and delivered by these organizations were not sufficient for the areas due to the high increase of demand from farmers (Getachew, 2016).Farmers in Emba Alaje wereda produced Gudene, Jalene and Belete potato varieties. These varieties provide different yields, varying from farmers to farmers. This is mainly because of the differences in adoption of potato production technology packages; recommended seed rate and seed size, spacing between plant and row, fertilizer rate, chemical application to control fungal disease and storage facilities (Getachew, 2016). Therefore, raising the efficiency among the growers is essential element for getting the desired return from the potato cultivation.In Ethiopia few studies are conducted in SNNP, Oromia and Amhara region on adoption of potato varieties; ketema et al. (2016), Tesfay et al. (2006), andEndris (2003) studied the adoption rate and intensity of potato varieties, and other socio economics characteristics of farmers that affect the adoption of potato varieties and production packages. However, these studies did not address the impact of adoption of potato varieties on households' food security and nutrition. In Tigray region there was no adoption study carried out on potato and related production technologies. The adoption and intensity of use of improved potato varieties and its impact on household nutrition were not analyzed well. Hence, this study investigated the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of farmers that influence the probability and level of adoption of improved potato varieties, and assess the impact of adoption of potatoes varieties on farm household nutrition in through household dietary diversity score, food consumption score and food security scale. Using this multiple food and nutrition security indicators, this study measures the quality, diversity and quantity aspects of households' food consumption.Increasing population pressure, soil nutrient loss, land degradation, and shrinking land holdings necessitated intensification of production practices to meet the increasing food demand of the population. The agricultural sector suffers from poor cultivation practices and frequent drought. CAADP (2016) indicated that the Joint efforts by the Government of Ethiopia and donors have strengthened Ethiopia's agricultural resilience, contributing to a reduction in the number of Ethiopians threatened with starvation. However, the number of food insecure people in the country increases from time to time; estimated to 2.9 million in 2014 and 4.5 million in August, 2015 and by the end of the same year this figure had more than doubled to 10.2 million. Consequently, 27 million Ethiopian became food insecure as a result of 2015 El Niño drought and 18.1 million dependents on relief food assistance in 2016 (Abdulselam, 2017).Under nutrition has long history and remains one of the major and most pressing health problem in Ethiopia. Nearly 40% of the rural farm family cultivate land less than half a hectare from where they produce only half of their annual food demand. Moreover, these farm family do not have enough purchasing power to buy from the market and children who have come from such a family member are almost malnourished (CAADP, 2016).High yield potential, early mature, and drought and disease resistance improved crop varieties play a vital role to increase the food crop production in the changing environment. One of the greatest advantages of potato production is high productivity per unit of area. Potato is one of the most productive food crops in terms of yields of edible energy and good quality protein per unit area and per unit of time fitting into, intensive cropping systems (Rizov et al., 2018).According to Joshi et al. (2009) Potato can yield maximum tuber yield 50 t/ha and compared to cereals it is short duration crop which can be harvested from 3-4 months (Endale et al., 2008b). In Emba Alaje potato reach for harvest at critical food shortage period, when the other food crops are finished from the storage and not matured in the field, usually at the end of September and October.Emba Alaje is one the chronically food insecure woreda targeted by the Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). The program started in 2005 with 23780 beneficiaries and currently number of PSNP beneficiaries raised to 30498. The figure shows an increase of 6718 beneficiaries. Thus, potato is a very important crop for the study areas where population pressure, food and nutrition insecurity are increasing. In addition, the study area has good climatic and edaphic conditions for higher potato production and productivity.According to MOA (2012), in Ethiopia 29 improved potato varieties have released to enhance its productivity. However, in the highlands of Southern Tigray Zone, particularly in Emba Alje woreda only four improved potato varieties were introduced and promoted by government and non-governmental institutions in limited number of kebeles kebeles. Even though potato is a good pathway for enhancing food and nutrition security Mugisha et.al. (2017), in the study areas the adoption of the improved varieties is very low. No in-depth studies have been carried out on the factors and level of adoption of potato varieties and its impact on households' nutrition. Therefore, this study was to generate evidence on the major factor of the adoption and level of adoption of improved potato varieties, and its impact on households' nutrition.The overall objective of this study is to analyze the adoption of improved potato varieties and its impacts on smallholder farmers' nutrition in the study area.The specific objectives of the study are: i. To identify socio-economic determinant factors that influence the probability and level of adoption of improved potato varieties ii. To analyze the impact of improved potato varieties on households' nutrition by using food security scale (FSS), food consumption score (FCS), household diet diversity score (HDDS).i. What are the socio-economic determinant factors that influence the probability and level of adoption of improved potato varieties by smallholder farmers?ii. What are the impacts of improved potato varieties adoption on households' nutrition?The findings of this study are expected to provide a comprehensive understanding on the level of adoption of improved potato varieties and farmers characteristics which determine the adoption of potato varieties and its' impacts on the farming household nutrition. The study findings could be used for policymaker, agricultural extension service providers, researchers, NGOs, farmers and potato seed producer cooperatives to design appropriate strategies and enhance the potential benefits from potato production and utilization. The results of this study would assist development activities underway and to be planned in the future in areas of potato. Extensions and other development practitioners would use the information to develop the appropriate extension agendas and to raise the awareness level of farmers on potato production and its role in food and nutrition security, employment and income generation.The results could be a basis for further investigation and setting of research agendas.The study was carried out by surveying a sample of randomly selected farm households from two kebeles (the lowest administration unit) of Emba Alaje woreda where the improved potato varieties have been widely produced. Since improved potato grower farmers were few in number as compared to the non-producer groups and to increase the share of producer farmers an equal number of samples were selected randomly from both groups. There are seasonal differences in dietary patterns and for a more complete assessment of usual diet, dietary diversity should be measured in different seasons. Due to time and budget constraints, the study was limited geographically to one woreda and collected cross-sectional data.However, the results of the study are applicable to other areas with similar physical and socioeconomic settings.In this chapter, the concept of adoption, food and nutrition security, dietary diversity and impact evaluation are explained. In addition, the past research works are critically reviewed in relevance to the present study objectives and the evidences from the reviews enables better understanding of the subject.Adoption is defined as a decision to apply an innovation and to continue to use it over a reasonably long period of time (Ban and Hawkins, 1996) and according to Feeder et al.(1985) defined adoption as the degree of use of a new technology in a long run equilibrium when a farmer has all of the information about the new technology and its potential. Ban and Hawkin, (1985) further noted that adoption is not a permanent behavior. An individual may decide to discontinue the use of innovation for a variety of personal, institutional, or social reasons, one of which might be the availability of an idea or practice that is better in satisfying his/her need. Therefore, adoption at the farm level describes the realization of a farmer's decision to implement a new technology.If innovations are modified periodically, however, the equilibrium level of adoption will not be achieved. This situation requires the use of econometric procedures that can capture both the rate and the process of adoption. As the new technology is introduced, some farmers will experiment with it before adopting.The \"rate of adoption\" is defined as the proportion of farmers who have adopted a new technology at a specific point in time (e.g., the percentage of farmers using fertilizer). Nkony et al. (1997) also defined the rate of adoption as the level of adoption of a given technology. Furthermore, the \"intensity of adoption\" is defined as the level of adoption of a given technology, for example, by the number of hectares planted with improved seed or the amount of fertilizer applied per hectare (Degu, 2000). Markee (1992) defined adoption as the process of spreading of a new technology within a region, diffusion represents the cumulative process of adoption measured in successive times. Fliegel, (1984) noted that the rate of diffusion depends, among other things, on extension communication and the extent to which farmers discuss agricultural issues among themselves routinely. According to Amit et al.(2017), the adoption process is the mental process through which an individual pass from first hearing of an innovation to its final adoption, while adoption is a decision to continue the full use of an innovation. Generally, the farmers do not adopt package of practices fully. There is only a partial adoption by them. As a result, the gap always appears between the recommended production technology and their use at the farmer's field.Food security is a concept that has evolved considerably over time and its definitions developed and diversified by different researchers, scholars and organizations (Abdulselam, 2017). Food security is a situation that achieved at the individual, household, national, regional and global levels when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2008). Hussein (2013) defined food security as adequate availability of and access to food for households to meet the minimum energy requirements as recommended for an active and healthy life.Micronutrient deficiencies in diets are widespread and have long-term consequences, reflected in a wide range of health outcomes, including stunting, cognitive abilities and noncommunicable diseases. Yet, unlike insufficient energy intakes, which translate quickly into sensations of weakness and hunger, these deficiencies are not immediately apparent and are therefore often referred to as 'hidden' hunger (Kennedy et al., 2003). For the most foodinsecure households, some of the most widespread deficiencies involve inadequate levels of vitamin A, iron and zinc, but many important micro-and macro-nutrients may be insufficiently (Lele et al., 2016).Ethiopia is facing a massive drought and food insecurity crisis over the years. According to ADB (2014), Ethiopia is one of the most food-insecure and famine affected countries.Drought, recurring food shortage and famine are great challenges faced by Ethiopian people.A large portion of the country's population has been affected by chronic and transitory food insecurity. According to Care Ethiopia (2014) findings chronic and acute food insecurity are prevalent, especially among rural populations and smallholder farmers. The findings indicated that about 10 percent of Ethiopia's citizens are chronically food insecure, and this figure rises to more than 15 percent during frequent drought years. The El Nino -driven drought has greatly expanded food insecurity and malnutrition, and devastated livelihoods of the poorest and vulnerable people across the country (FAO, 2016).Food Security and Hunger/ Undernourishment Multiple Indicator Scorecard indicated that, Ethiopia ranked as first in having the highest number of people in state of undernourishment/ hunger which is 32.1 million people. This makes it, the fourth African country scoring (37.1%) of the population being undernourished/ in hunger.According to VAM (2008) there is no single way to measure food security, the concept itself being rather elusive. Food consumption measured in kilocalories is the gold standard for measuring consumption, and often considered to be one of the gold standards for food security. The food consumption score (FCS) as score which able to capture both Dietary Diversity and Food frequency.The term of nutrition security emerged with the recognition of the necessity to include nutritional aspects into food security. Nutrition security as a condition when all people at all times consume food of sufficient quantity and quality in terms of variety, diversity, nutrient content and safety to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life, coupled with a sanitary environment, adequate health and care (Belton and Thilsted, 2014) Ethiopia has shown some progress in reducing under nutrition in recent years. The EDHS (2011) indicated that nationally, 44% of children under the age of five are found to be stunted, 33% are underweight, and 12% are wasted (measures the more immediate effect of malnutrition). However, it is still a major public health problem and remains a serious concern and a drawback to its rapid economic development. According CAADP (2013), to under nutrition has long history and remains one of the major and most pressing health problems in Ethiopia. Chronic under nutrition as measured by stunting and underweight, anemia, iodine, zinc and vitamin A deficiency indicates major nutritional problems of Ethiopia. The childhood deaths associated with malnutrition reaches 57%.According to IFPRI (2002), dietary diversity is the number of different foods or food groups consumed over a given reference period. Dietary diversity is a qualitative measure of food consumption that reflects household access to a variety of foods and is also a proxy for nutrient adequacy of the diet of individuals (FAO, 2010). The rationale for emphasizing dietary diversity in developing countries stems mainly from a concern related to nutrient deficiency and the recognition of the importance of increasing food and food group variety to ensure nutrient adequacy. Lack of dietary diversity is a particularly severe problem among poor populations in the developing world, because their diets are predominantly based on starchy staples and often include little or no animal products and few fresh fruits and vegetables (IFPRI, 2002).Potatoes are prepared by consumers in variety of means. Potatoes are usually eaten cooked, and most often eaten boiled and unpeeled in many regions of the world. Baking, boiling, dehydrating, and frying are employed world-wide. According to Englyst et al. (1992) cooking or processing of potatoes greatly improves the digestibility of potato starch, which has very low digestibility in the raw state since potato starch granules have a β-crystalline structure that is resistant to amylase digestion. Unpeeled potatoes that undergo cooking have better nutrient retention than do peeled potatoes and size reduction brings about further losses. Mary et al. (2009) indicated that boiling cut or peeled potatoes leads to loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals due to their leaching out into the cooking water but baking, roasting, and frying generally result in lower losses of vitamins than boiling. On the other side baking cause's slightly higher losses of vitamin C than boiling, due to the higher oven temperatures, but losses of other vitamins and minerals during baking are lower (FAO, 2008).According to FAO (2008) Potatoes, nutrition and diet report freshly harvested potato contains about 80 percent water and 20 percent dry matter. About 60 to 80 percent of the dry matter is starch. On a dry weight basis, the protein content of potato is similar to that of cereals and is very high in comparison with other roots and tubers. In addition, the potato is low in fat content. Potatoes are rich in several micronutrients, especially vitamin C -eaten with its skin, a single medium sized potato of 150 gram provides nearly half the daily adult requirement (100 mg). The potato is a moderate source of iron, and its high vitamin C content promotes iron absorption. It is a good source of vitamins B1, B3 and B6 and minerals such as potassium, phosphorus and magnesium, and contains folate, pantothenic acid and riboflavin.Potatoes also contain dietary antioxidants, which may play a part in preventing diseases related to ageing, and dietary fiber, which benefits health. In order to keep glycol-alkaloid content low and to insure healthy eating, potatoes should be stored in a dark and cool place.Under exposure to light potatoes turn green in color due to increased levels of chlorophyll.Since glycol-alkaloids are not destroyed by cooking, cutting away green areas and peeling potatoes before cooking ensures healthy eating (FAO, 2008).Limited dependent variable model provides a good framework to study adoption behavior of farmers. The most commonly used qualitative models to study the adoption behavior are the logit and the probit models (Feder et al., 1985). These models specify a functional relationship between the probability of adoption and various explanatory variables (Bekele et al., 2000). However, this approach does not capture intensity of adoption. The tobit model overcome this problem by measuring both adoption and intensity (Mazvimavi &Twomlow, 2009). Intensity of adoption of potato varieties is the average size of land occupied by improved varieties, whereas the adoption rate of improved potato varieties is the percentage of farmers growing potatoes varieties (Tesfay et al., 2006).Logit model: Logistic regression sometimes called the logistic model or logit model, analyzes the relationship between multiple independent variables and a categorical dependent variable, and estimates the probability of occurrence of an event by fitting data to a logistic curve. There are two models of logistic regression, binary logistic regression and multinomial logistic regression. Binary logistic regression is typically used when the dependent variable is dichotomous and the independent variables are either continuous or categorical.Tobit model: Tobit is appropriate model to deal with such censored data and used to analyze the intensity of use of improved varieties in preference to multiple regression model, when significant number of observations on dependent variable having a value zero (Endris, 2003).Area planted with improved variety of potato represents a censored distribution since half of the sample farmers assume a value of zero for not adopting (non-users). Accordingly, there is a cluster of households with zero adoption of the improved technology at the limit. The application of Tobit analysis is preferred in such cases since it employs both data at the limit as well as those above the limit (Gairhe et al., 2017).According to Amare et al. (2012) estimation of the impact of technology adoption on household welfare outcome variables based on non-experimental observations is not trivial because of the need of finding on counterfactual of intervention. The observed one is the outcome variable for adopters, in the case that they did not adopt. That is, we do not observe the outcome variables of households that adopt, had they not adopted (or the converse).Improved varieties are not randomly distributed to the two groups of households (as adopters and non-adopters), but rather to the household itself deciding to adopt given the information it has, therefore the two group may be systematically different. Estimation of impact of improved potato varieties adoption on farm household nutrition based on non-experimental observations is significant because of the need of finding counterfactual of intervention. To address this missing counterfactual Khonje et al. (2015) use propensity score matching (PSM), endogenous switching regression (ESR), and inverse probability weighting (IPW) models used for impact analysis.Propensity score matching: is an alternative method to estimate the effect of receiving treatment when random assignment of treatments to subjects is not feasible (Rizov et al., 2008). Propensity score matching is the most widely used type of matching, in which the comparison group is matched to the treatment group on the basis of a set of observed characteristics or by using the \"propensity score\" (predicted probability of participation given observed characteristics); the closer the propensity score, the better the match. The method tries to pick an ideal comparison that matches the treatment group from a larger survey. A good comparison group comes from the same economic environment (Baker, 2000). PSM tries to create the observational analogue of an experiment in which everyone has the same probability of participation. The difference is that in PSM it is the conditional probability (P(Z)) that is intended to be uniform between participants and matched comparators, while randomization assures that the participant and comparison groups are identical in terms of the distribution of all characteristics whether observed or not.PSM does not require a parametric model linking outcomes to program participation. Thus, PSM allows estimation of mean impacts without arbitrary assumptions about functional forms and error distributions (Ravallion, 2005).Endogenous switching regression model: Endogenous switching regression model use when both observable and unobservable characteristics are accounted for, thus controlling for a 'hidden bias' which can arise when unobservable variables are not taken into account.Ignoring the endogeneity of adoption of improved potato varieties would result in biased estimated parameters (Wabwile et al., 2016). According to Khonje et al. (2015) the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) computes the average difference in outcomes of adopters category with and without a technology. Most commonly used methods to calculate ATT such as PSM ignore unobservable factors that affect the adoption process, and also assumes the return (coefficient) to characteristics to be same for adopters and non-adopters.The differences in welfare outcome variables between those farm households that did and those that did not adopt improved technology could be due to unobserved heterogeneity. Not distinguishing between the casual effect of technology adoption and the effect of unobserved heterogeneity could.Endogeneity of the adoption decision could account (that is, for the heterogeneity in the decision to adopt or not to adopt new technology and for unobservable characteristics of farmers and their farm) by estimating a simultaneous equations model with endogenous switching by full information maximum likelihood estimation (Solomon et al., 2010). The ESR framework proceeds in two stages: the first stage is the decision to adopt improved varieties, and this is estimated using a probit model; in the second stage an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression with selectivity correction is used to examine the relationship between the outcome variable and a set of explanatory variables conditional on the adoption decision (Khonje et al., 2015).The adoption process is conceptualized to include several mental stages through which an individual pass after first hearing about an innovation and finally deciding to accept or reject it. This process generally includes five stages: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption (Endris, 2003). Feder et al. (1985) noted that farmers are classified according to their tendency to adopt an innovation as innovators, early adopters, followers, and laggards.As noted by Feder et al. (1985), a complete analytical framework for investigating adoption process at the farm level should include farmer's decision making model determining the extent and intensity of use of a new technology at each point throughout the adoption process and a set of equations of motion describing the time pattern of parameters which affect the decision made by the farmer. Ban and Hawkins (1996) indicated that people who are quick to adopt an innovation may be characterized by having many contacts with extension agents, active participation in many organizations, being well educated, and having a relatively high level of income and standard of living.The intensity of adoption of new technologies that are divisible (such as high yielding varieties or new variable inputs) can be measured at the individual farm level in a given time period by the amount or share of farm area utilizing the technology (Feder et al., 1985).According to Patel et al. (2012), farmers do not adopt a package of practices fully. There is only a partial adoption by them. As a result, the gap always appears between the recommended production technology and their use at the farmer's field. Endris (2003) on his Adoption of Improved Sweet Potato Varieties revealed that; experience, the value of livestock, farmer's perception of yield, earliness in maturity and establishment performance of the improved varieties and extension contact positively influenced the probability of adoption and intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties.On the other hand, marginal changes in farm size and distance from the research center to the farm negatively influenced the adoption and use intensity of improved sweet potato varieties.For instance, if farming experience increased by one percent adoption and intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties would increase by about 0.009% of which 0.005% is attributed to the increase in the intensity of use of improved varieties by those farmers already adopted new varieties. One percent increase in farm size decreases the probability of adoption and intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties by 0.21% and 640.30%, respectively.The estimated increase in the probability of adoption and intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties resulting from a one percent change in the value of livestock owned is 0.00004% and 0.00005%, respectively, which were very small as compared to the changes resulting from other significant variables.A change in the perception of the farmer on the yield of improved variety to be higher than that of local variety (i.e. a change from 0 to 1) brings about 0.20% increase in the probability of adoption and 0.29% increase in the intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties.Farmer's perception of the earliness of the improved varieties increases the probability of adoption and intensity of use by about 0.095% and 0.14%, respectively.Establishment performance of improved variety being better than that of local variety brings about 0.07% increase in the probability of adoption and 0.10% increase in the intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties.A marginal change in extension contact increases of the probability of adoption and intensity of use of improved sweet potato varieties by about 0.14% and 0.20%, respectively.A one percent increase in the distance from research center to the farm reduces the probability of adoption and intensity of use of improved varieties by about 0.005% and 0.002%, respectively. Mwanga et al. (1998) in Tanzania has indicated that household size, farm size and education level significantly affected the adoption of improved wheat varieties. They indicated that the adoption of fertilizer was significantly affected by the number of livestock owned, farm size, extension contact, hired labor and credit availability. Other studies on the adoption of improved technologies at farm level have been conducted in Ethiopia by Legese (1992) indicated that profitability is a function of elements of agro-climatic and socioeconomic environments and these factors indirectly affect the adoption patterns. He has pointed out that the probability of adoption of improved varieties and intensity of adoption of fertilizer and herbicide was influenced by experience, credit, cash down payment, participation in farmer organization as a leader and close exposure to technology. Yohannes et al. (1990) reported that debt had a negative effect on the adoption of fertilizer and pesticides. Itana (1985) explained that distance to the extension center, education, farm size and adequacy of rainfall as major factors that affect the adoption of fertilizer and improved variety. Alene et al. (2000) confirmed the importance of farmers' access to resources, extension services, and the availability of improved seed. Creating more opportunities for off-farm employment and income will enhance the financial ability of smallholder farmers to acquire external inputs. The fact that extension services are making a difference, it follows that policy makers need to focus on targeting resource-poor farmers who represent the farming communities in many areas of the country. At the same time, the availability of improved seed proved to be a major constraint for adoption, a fact that calls for improvements in improved seed delivery to effectively cope with the demands of small farmers.The results of research by Legesse et al. (2001) showed that it is structural factors, in particular, oxen ownership and distance to market, that determining the adoption and intensity of use of technologies compared to personal characteristics, extension activity, attitudes to prices or risk.Farm size and farmers' perception of input prices were found to be significant with positive and negative effects, respectively, but these effects were not particularly robust across technology or crop mixes nor across model they specified. Farm income is another significant factor differentiating users from non-users and hence has implications for changing the existing input credit scheme (Alene, et al., 2000).These adoption studies undertaken in Ethiopia have extensively examined the factors that influenced adoption of improved technologies in few localities and most of them are centered on the adoption of new varieties of cereal crops, pesticides and fertilizer. No attempt has been made to study the adoption of root crops that feed many populations in Ethiopia (Endris, 2003).According to Ketema et al. (2016), access to irrigation, extension contact frequency, farm size, membership to cooperatives, and annual income were found significantly determining the adoption of the potato technology package.Farm size was hypothesized to positively influence the adoption of the potato technology package. However, the current result is against this expectation. The result shows that farm size was negatively affecting adoption of potato technology package. This could happen as the production of potato, unlike other crops, requires more intensive production managements that fit into smaller farms. This intensive management could in turn result in relatively higher productivity that further intensifies adoption of the package.Membership to cooperative institutions was found positively driving the adoption of the potato technology package. This could happen given the fact that cooperatives are among the strongest social institutions that play an important role in the adoption of technologies.Irrigation is an important factor that explains the production of potato. Farmers in the study area utilize irrigation for potato production and hence it enabled them to fetch a higher price on the market. In line with this, farmers who used irrigation were found to be better adopters of potato technology package as compared to those who are not using irrigation. Alene et al. (2000) on his adoption of recommended potato production technology study indicated that education, experience in potato cultivation, Social participation, land holding, annual income, irrigation facilities, extension contact, mass media exposure, participation in extension activity, economic motivation, scientific orientation, risk orientation, and knowledge levels are important factors in determining the adoption level of potato production technologies.  Emba Alaje is among one of the highlands districts in Tigray having an average altitude of 2400 m.a.s.l. The Woreda is one of the densely populated areas and thus, small land-holding similar to most highlands of Ethiopia. According to the WARDO ( 2009) the area lies within three agroecological zones including highland (72%), mid-latitude (21%), and lowland (7%).The Woreda has bimodal rain fall pattern, summer is the main rainy season June to August (with its peak in July) and short rain season in from February to April. Moreover, rain falls has almost the same coverage in the districts sub districts with an average of 380 mm annually .The maximum temperature ranges from 24-degree cent grade to 36-degree cent grade while the minimum temperature ranges up to-6-degree cent grade on the peaks of EmbaAlage mountain (the second biggest mountain in Tigray with an altitude of 3956 m.a.sl. (Haylu, 2014). Woreda is projected around 145746, from these 71331 are males and 74414 of them are females. In addition to this, the report showed that, there are about 33427 households, with an average family size of 4.36. Furthermore, 98. The survey was conducted on Emba Aleje Woreda, where potato varieties are relatively widely produced. Two Sample kebeles namely, Tekiha and Ayba were selected based on potato production potential and accessibilities of sub-kebeles. The number of improved potato varieties producer households are very few as compared to the non-producers (households who did not produce any types of potato varieties). The total number of households in Tekiha kebel are 1837, out of this only 182 households were only producing potato, whereas in Ayba Kebele the total number of households are 1835, but only 200 households were improved potato producer in 2018. Therefore, instead of following proportional sampling for each group, the researcher has found it more useful to take a sample size of 50% from Improve potato producer and 50% from non-producer, which was done to increase the share of improve potato producer in the sample for the analysis. Since the majority of potato producers use improved varieties, the control groups were selected from non-producer households. Farmers in each kebeles were further stratified in to two groups, potato producer and non-producer. For each stratum, the sampling frame was prepared, and sampling units selected randomly. During the analysis, the sampling proportion was corrected by applying corresponding sampling weights for all observations. The assigned weights are calculated for each observation based on the calculation of quotient of percentage in the population and percentage in the sample. Accordingly, the improved potato user received a weight of 0.198( ) and 0.218 ( ) in Tekiha and Ayba kebeles, respectively. Using similar procedure, the non-producers receive weights of 1.8 ( ) and 1.78 ( ) .Since STATA has an advantage of incorporating the weight option, the corresponding sampling weights have been included during the analysis of impact estimation. Primary data was the main source of data for this study. The required data was collected through farm household survey using structured questionnaire. The survey was conducted on May 2018 when most farmers had enough time for interview. Experienced enumerators were recruited and trained in the class on each parts and questions for common understanding of questions and ethical issues during before and interview. Structured questionnaire was prepared and pre-tested, and the necessary modifications were made before it was used for the actual survey. Trained enumerators under the supervision of the researcher interviewed the sample farmers. The supervisor was responsible for the spot data editing and crosschecking to control the data quality. The interview also was supplemented by key informant interview and focus group discussion to obtain in-depth information. In addition to the primary data, secondary data were collected from review of different document which include research works and reports from the woreda office of agriculture, GRAD and Africa RISING projects.Descriptive and econometrics analysis were employed to analyze the collected data by using SPSS and STATA software. The most econometrics models commonly used in adoption and intensity of adoption are qualitative choice models including the linear probability function, logistic distribution function (logit), and normal distribution function (probit) and the Tobit model (Degu, 2000). In this study, Tobit model was applied to identify factors affecting the adoption and intensities of use of improved Potato varieties since advantage over other adoption models in dealing with a dependent variable with censored distribution and generating information for both probabilities of adoption and intensity of use of the technology (Endris, 2003). Half of our sample households had zero value both in adoption probabilities and percentage of areas covered with improved potato varieties. To analyze the impact of improved potato varieties on households' nutrition propensity score matching and switching regression model. Household dietary diversity score (HDDS) and food consumption score (FCS), food security scale (FSS) outcome variables were used to measure the impact on nutrition as nutrition cannot be measured directly.Descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage and standard deviation were used to characterize the farming system of the areas and analyze farmers' responses and their implications for adoption of improved potato varieties, proportion of households who consume a particular food group or nutrient-rich food, and the food consumption group (FCG). The frequency of DDS, FCS and FSS categories were also used to make comparisons between improved potato producer and no-producers. The t-test was employed for the comparison of different continuous variables or characteristics of farm households. Whereas, chi-square was used to compare categorical or dummy variables among IPV adopter and nonadopter households.According to FAO (2010) the HDDS provide an indication of household economic access to food and it was calculated by summing the number of food groups consumed in the household respondent over the 24-hour recall period. Respondents were asked whether they consumed the 12 food groups and their \"yes\" responses were coded as 1 and the negative response \"no\" coded as 0. The next step is summing the dietary diversity variable values of all new food groups and, the potential score ranges from 0 to 12 for HDDS. The higher score indicated that households consumed more diversified food groups. The HDDS of ≤3, 4-5 and ≥ 6 implies low, medium and high dietary diversity respectively (FAO, 2010). According to Bickel, et al. (2000) the full range of food insecurity and hunger cannot be captured by any single indicator. Instead, a household's level of food insecurity or hunger must be determined by obtaining information on a variety of specific conditions, experiences, and behaviors that serve as indicators of the varying degrees of severity of the condition.Food insecurity cannot be measured directly. Therefore, to measure the food insecurity and hunger the 18 food security questions found to provide the statistically strongest set of indicator items for constructing a 12-month measurement scale. The sum of affirmative (\"Almost every month\", \"Often true\", \"Sometimes true\", and \"Yes\" coded as 1) and negative responses (\"Never true\", \"only one or two months\", \"No\", and questions that a household does not answer because it has been screened out, coded as 0) provide the FSS. According to Price et al. (1997)   Where Y = the observed dependent variable, in this case the proportion of area under improved potato varieties in the total cultivated areas since farmers in the study areas totally replaced the local varieties.Y* = is the latent dependent variable, which is not observable, X = explanatory variable, \uD835\uDEFD= a vector of Tobit maximum likelihood estimates, μi = an independently and normally distributed error term with mean zero and constant variance.According to Tobin (1958), the expected value of use intensity of improved potato varieties across all observations was estimated by:Where \uD835\uDC39 and , f( ) are the cumulative normal distribution function and the value of the derivative of the normal curve respectively., ( ) represents the normalized index at the mean values of all explanatory variables and the Z-scores for the area under the normal curve.\uD835\uDEFD and σ represents are the Tobit maximum likelihood estimates and the standard error of the error term respectively.The marginal effect of an explanatory variable on the expected value of the dependent variable (proportion of area under improved potato varieties) is:The change in the probability of using a technology as independent variable Χi changes is:To address the second research objective, the Propensity score matching method was applied.In an experimental design, randomization ensures uniform/equal distribution of all relevant characteristics between treatment and control group and, because of this, the difference in mean outcomes correctly estimates the impact of the intervention. In the absence of randomization, however, the groups may differ not only in their treatment status, but also in their values of socioeconomic characteristics. In this case, it is necessary to account for these differences to avoid potential biases. Therefore, to avoid this potential bias PSM were applied and this method allows to create the comparable nonparticipants or counterfactuals to participants (Heinrich et al., 2010). The counterfactual was be identified by matching participant (improved potato grower) with nonparticipants (non-grower) which have similar pre-intervention characteristics, it is equally valid to match on the propensity score. The Method measures the impact of the intervention as the difference between the potential outcome in case of treatment and the potential outcome in the absence of treatment- (Heinrich et al., 2010). For this study, the outcomes variables are HDDS, FCS and FSS.According to Heinrich et al. (2010) to apply the PSM for estimating the impacts of the intervention, in this case adoption of improved potato varieties, the following four procedures was used, these are:(i)The propensity score is estimated using various socio-demographic characteristics of farmers.These scores are probabilities that represent the households for adopting improved potato varieties given characteristics (X). The probability of participation summarizes all the relevant information contained in the X variables and as it allows for matching on a single variable (the propensity score) instead of on the entire set of covariates (Heinrich et al., 2010).According to Gujarati (2003), the propensity score matching was generated using logit model and the model mathematically specified as follows:Where, p is the probability of participation in improved potato varieties production The probability that a household belongs to non-improved potato producer is:As indicated above, using the explanatory variable the logit model for this study was specified as follows.Yi=α+β1Sex +β2Age +β3EduHH +β4HHsize +β5Sizeofland +β6TLU +β7FarmexprThe idea of matching is identifying control and treated individuals with the same or similar propensity score. Once an estimated propensity score is obtained, different matching algorism was used to match comparison units with treated units. The most commonly employed matching algorisms are the nearest neighbor, kernel matching, stratification matching, caliper matching and radius matching (Heinrich et al., 2010). For this study, the PS of treated households (user) was matched with counterfactual households (non-user) using the nearest neighbor, kernel, caliper and Radius matching estimator methods. To do the matching, three important tasks should be done first. The first task is, generating propensity score (probability of participation) based on the selected covariates. The second task is imposing the common support condition on the propensity score distribution of the sample households. The common support region is region between the higher value of the minimum and the lower value of maximum propensity score of the treated or control groups. The last task before matching is discarding observations whose propensity score is outside common support region.Nearest neighbor matching -one of the most straightforward matching procedures. An individual from the comparison group is chosen as a match for a treated individual in terms of the closest propensity score (or the case most similar in terms of observed characteristics).The nearest neighbor matching with replacement methods was used to match untreated individual more than once as a match. Using nearest neighbor ensure the use of the most similar observation to construct the counterfactual.Kernel matching -compare the outcome of each treated person to a weighted average of the outcomes of all the untreated persons, with the highest weight being placed on those with scores closest to the treated individual. One major advantage of this approach is the lower variance, which is achieved because more information is used.Radius matching -specifies a \"caliper\" or maximum propensity score distance by which a match can be made. It uses all of the comparison group members within the caliper.According to Heinrich et al. (2010) to estimate the impact of a program correctly; PSM requires two main conditions, the conditional independence assumption and the common support condition.The assumption assesses the quality of matching to perform tests that check whether the propensity score adequately balances characteristics between the treatment and comparison group units. It verifies the treatment is independent of unit characteristics after conditioning on observed characteristics: D X | p(X). After the application of matching, there would not be statistically significant differences between covariate means of the treatment and comparison units. The inclusion of the variables is based on the conditional independence assumptions. Relevant variables related to the intervention and outcome were considered in the propensity score function (Heckman et al.,1997).According to Caliendo and Kopeinig (2005), the inclusion of non-significant variables would not bias the estimates or make them inconsistent. On the other hand, including the full set of covariates in small samples might cause problems in terms of higher variance, since either some treated have to be discarded from the analysis or control units have to be used more than once.The Common Support Condition Assumption: It helps to investigate the validity or performance of the propensity score matching estimation to verify the common support or overlap condition. The assumption is critical to estimation, as it ensures that units with the same X values have a positive probability of being both participants and nonparticipants: 0Checking of the overlap or region of common support between treatment and comparison groups was done by using visual inspection of histograms or density-distribution plots of propensity scores before and after matching for both groups.Testing the matching quality: The basic idea of all approaches is to compare the situation before and after matching and check if there remain any differences after conditioning on the propensity score (Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005). In impact estimation using propensity score matching, we do not condition on all explanatory variables rather on the propensity score.Hence before proceeding to impact estimation we have to check if the matching procedure is (iii) Estimate the average treatment effect (ATT)The main aim here is to compare the level of change of HDDS, FCS and FSS as a measure of food and nutrition security per household heads between improved potato user and non-user farmers. Let Yi =1 and Yi =0 be the HDDS, FCS and FSS for treatment group (improved potato varieties producer) and control group (non-producer households) respectively.The impact of a treatment for an individual is the difference between the potential outcome in case of treatment and the potential outcome in absence of treatment.Where, ∆I is impact of treatment for i th household, Y1i is outcome of the i th treated household and Y0i is outcome of the i ht untreated householdThe mean impact of the intervention obtained by averaging the impact across all the individuals in the sample population. This parameter is known as average treatment effect or ATE:Average Treatment Effect on the Treated, or ATT measures the impact of the program on participant household.The Average Treatment Effect on the Untreated (ATU) measures the impact that the intervention for untreated household if they would have treated (participated).. eq( 4) (iv) Sensitivity AnalysisIn the application of PSM sensitivity analysis is the last step. The estimation of treatment effects with matching estimators is based on observable characteristics (Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005). According to Becker and Caliendo (2007) matching based on conditional independence assumption, states that all variables simultaneously influencing the participation decision and outcome variables should be considered. Treatment effect estimation based on the observable may result the hidden bias if unobservable variables which affect both the participation and the outcome variables simultaneously are not considered.Estimating the magnitude of bias with quasi-experimental data is not possible and the matching estimators are not robust against hidden biases. Hence, to check whether the average treatment effect is altered by the hidden bias or not Caliendo and Kopeinig (2005) suggested the sensitivity analysis. To check the sensitivity of the estimated AverageTreatment Effect (ATT) the Rosenbaum bounds were calculated for treatment (IPVs in our cases) effects that are positive and significantly different from zero (Rosenbaum, 2002). The P-critical value or upper bound of Wilcoxon significance level -Sig+ significance was checked. The significant P-critical value indicates the inclusion of all-important covariates that affect both participation and outcome variable, and the estimated ATT would be the pure effect of the treatment.In impact estimation, propensity score methods are not consistent estimators in the presence of hidden bias. The method does not depend on functional form and distributional assumptions. It compares the observed outcomes of technology adopters with the outcomes of counterfactual non-adopters (Heckman et al., 1998). Propensity score matching does not help much when there are unobservable factors affecting the improved potato varieties adoption decision and the outcome variables, FSS, FCS and HDD in our case.The welfare outcome of the treatment is not observed for adopter groups if they had not adopted and for non-adopter groups if they had adopted. Improved technology is not randomly distributed to the two groups of the households (adopters and non-adopters), but rather the households themselves deciding to adopt or not to adopt based on the information they have. Under the existence of such selection problem, the effect of the treatment on the outcome variables might be biased (Jaleta, 2016). Analysis of data that is nonexperimentally collected, the selection into the treatment could not be independent of the error terms of the outcome equations (DiPrete and Gangl, 2004). Under this circumstances, the treatment variable is endogenous, and the estimate obtained from matching methods would be biased.PSM deals the structural difference based on the observed variable and it assumes the return (coefficient) to characteristics to be same for adopters and non-adopters. However, the difference between adopters and non-adopters might be more systematic due to the potential interaction between IPV adoption decision and outcome variable (Solomon and Shiferaw, 2010) Application of ordinary least squares to examining the impact of adoption of technologies on welfare outcomes might yield biased estimates. Because OLS assumes that adoption of improved technology is exogenously determined while it is potentially endogenous. The adoption decision is voluntary and may be based on individual self-selection.Thus, for this study to consider the structural difference and selection bias (Seng, 2016), and to complement the PSM techniques and assess consistency of the results with different assumptions, endogenous switching regression techniques was applied (Solomon and Shiferaw, 2010).Therefore, to correct the section bias and control unobserved farm and household characteristics Endogenous switching regression is the most appropriate methods.Let Ai*= be the latent variable that capture the benefit from adopting IPV by i th farmers and specified as follow.Where Ai is a binary variable equal to 1 if a farer adopts IPV and 0 if not. Z is a vector of plot, household, and village level variable that affect the decision to adopt or not to adopt IPV, and\uD835\uDF00 is an error term normally and independently distributed with mean 0 and variance \uD835\uDF0E . TheThe first stage equation capture factor governing participation in IPV production and used to construct the selectivity term known as \"mills ratio\", which is added to the second stage equations. Here, the first step is getting the Probit estimation of IPVs adoption decision factors and generating the mills ratio for both adopter and non-adopter groups. Since the Probit model assumes that the error term follows a standard normal distribution, the inverse Mills ratio should be generated from the estimation of a Probit model.The welfare outcome of the household expressed asWhere X is a vector of the plot, household, farm and village level variables that affect the FSS, FSC and HDD. \uD835\uDEFE Capture the effects of IPV adoption on the welfare outcomes.However, both the decision to adopt IPV and plot allocation to IPV are not random, rather selected by the farm households and dummy variable \uD835\uDC34 * cannot be treated as exogenous. In such self-section problem, the estimates of \uD835\uDC34 * might be biased and leads to over or underestimate of the IPV adoption on the welfare outcomes. Inclusion the mills ratio in the second stage equations helps for controlling bias due to sample selection (Heckman, 1979).According to Zaman (2001) the inclusion of extra term the \"mills ratio\", the coefficient in the second stage 'selectivity corrected' equation is unbiased.According to Solomon and Shiferaw (2010), to account the selection biases, we could adopt an endogenous switching regression model of welfare outcomes, (i.e. FSS, FCS and HDD)where households face two regimes (1) to adopt, and ( 2) not to adopt defined as follows:Regime 1: \uD835\uDC4C = \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDEFD + \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC53 \uD835\uDC34 = 1 (3\uD835\uDC4E)Regime 2: \uD835\uDC4C = \uD835\uDC4B \uD835\uDEFD + \uD835\uDF07 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC53 \uD835\uDC34 = 0 (3\uD835\uDC4E)Where Yi is FSS, FCS and HDD in regimes 1 and 2, Xi represent a vector variable that influence the welfare outcome variables.If a correlation exists between the error term of the outcome equation ( 3a) and (3b) and the adoption equation ( 1), estimating (3a) and (3b) without accounting leads to a biased estimate (Jaleta et al., 2016). Thus, for IPV adopter and non-adopter, the outcomes equation (FSS, FCS and HDD) corrected for endogenous adoptions as is given as:Regime 1: \uD835\uDC4C = \uD835\uDEFD \uD835\uDC4B + \uD835\uDF0E \uD835\uDF06 + \uD835\uDF02 , \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC53 \uD835\uDC34 = 1 (4\uD835\uDC4E)Regime 2: \uD835\uDC4C = \uD835\uDEFD \uD835\uDC4B + \uD835\uDF0E \uD835\uDF06 + \uD835\uDF02 , \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC53 \uD835\uDC34 = 0 (4\uD835\uDC4F)The theoretical model of this study considered several research questions related to adoption of improved potato varieties include farm, farmer, technology specific characteristics and the impacts of the technology (IPV). The adoption model assumed that the dependent variable to be defined participation in growing of improved potato varieties and, HDDS, FCS, and FSS outcome variables which depends on the following explanatory variables: age of household head, education of the household head in years of schooling, gender of the household head, involvement of the household in off farm activities, farming experience of the household head in years, dependency ratio, total farm size owned in hectare, number of fertile plot owned, number of plot with recommended fertilizer rate, value of livestock owned in TLU, farmers' perception of varietal characteristics such as yield, earliness or maturity period, extension service, distance of the plot from the homestead, availability of neighbor adopter and, access of irrigation.The dependent variables for this study are participation in growing of improved potato varieties (selection dependent variable), Percentage of area under improved potato varieties and nutrition security indicator (FSS, FCS and HDDS variables).Participation in growing of improved potato varieties: It is a binary dependent variable with a value of 1 for improved potato variety producer and 0 for non-producer households.Intensity of improved potato variety adoption: It is a continuous variable measured interim of percentage, which refers to the proportion of area of land allocated for improved potato varieties to the total cultivated land areas.\uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC66 \uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC53 \uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC49 \uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC5B = \uD835\uDC34\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC4E \uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC5F \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC63\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC5D\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC5C \uD835\uDC63\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC47ℎ\uD835\uDC52 \uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC5C\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC59 \uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC63\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC61\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC59\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC51 \uD835\uDC65100Household dietary diversity Score (HDDS): is meant to reflect, in a snapshot form, the economic ability of a household to access a variety of foods. It is meant to reflect, the economic ability of a household to consume a variety of foods (FAO, 2010). The variable values range from 0-12.Food Consumption score (FCS): is a proxy indicator for food security which able to capture both Dietary Diversity and Food frequency. It is continuous variable in which its value ranges from 0-112.Food security scale (FSS): is a variable which measure the household's level of food security or insecurity in terms of a numeric value that ranges between 0 and 10.The following explanatory variables are hypothesized to determine adoption and use intensity of improved potato varieties of the household in the study area.Sex of the household head: It is dummy variable which takes 1 if the household head is male and 0 if female. Male headed households are expected to be the better adopter, since potato needs intensive management practices. Lavison (2013) indicated male farmers were more likely to adopt organic fertilizer unlike their female counterparts.  Land holding size: it is Continuous variable. It refers the size of the lands that the household currently own and cultivate (measured in hectare). The larger plot size allows farmers to diversified crops, and to reduce fear of crop loss. Thus, land size was hypothesized to affect the IPV production participation positively. Small holder farmers are highly risk averse to apply innovation due to limited holding and uncertain outcome of technology (Mesay et al.,Livestock holdings: it is Continuous variable. It refers the number of livestock the household own currently, and livestock size is important factor to access cash and purchase inputs.However, households with a higher livestock size prefers to produce cereal crops for its residue to feed their animals. Crop residue is the major source of livestock feed in dry season (Tilahun et al.,2016), and households with large number of livestock produce needs high biomass crops. As result, increase in size of livestock holding reduces the participation in production of IPV.Farming experience: it is a continuous variable measure in years. Households with better farming experience is expected to be better in adoption and use intensity of technologies.Ainembabazi and Mugisha (2014)  Farmers' perception on tuber yield: it is dummy variable 1 if the farmer thought the improved variety was superior to local varieties in terms of tuber yield and 0 otherwise. The positive perception on tuber yield and participation in IPV production expected to have positive relationships.Farmers' perception on maturity period: it is dummy variable 1 if the farmer thought the improved variety was superior to local varieties in terms of short maturity period and 0otherwise. The positive perception on short maturity and participation in IPV production expected to have positive relationships. The characteristic of the technology plays an important role in farmers adoption decision process. Farmers who perceive the technology being consistent with their needs and compatible to their environment are likely to adopt since they find it as a positive investment (Mignouna et al., 2011). In this chapter we presented the main results and discussion of the study. The data analysis performed in two main steps. In the first section, description of the sample household socioeconomics characteristics comparing adopter and non-adopter of IPVs is presented and, the second section presents the econometrics estimation results on the impacts of improved potato varieties adoption on household welfare outcomes (FSS, FCS and HDD). From the finding of this study, in the study areas out of the 3672 total households 382 of them were only produced improved potato varieties. There is no local potato variety producer. This is because of the drawback of the local variety and other social and environmental factors farmers were replaced it by improved varieties.Family size: The average family size for adopter and non-adopters almost similar, 5.84 and 5.58 respectively. The statistical association between family size and adoption of IPV is negative but insignificant.Land holding size: Table 3 indicated that land size per household is very small, the average holding land size is 0.73 hectare. Improved potato adopter had relatively larger plot (0.82 hectare) and IPV non-adopter had smaller land holding size (0.654 hectare). The minimum and maximum land holding size were found 0.125 and 2 hectares respectively. The relationship between land holding size and adoption of improved potato varieties is negative but significant at 1% significance level both for IPV adopters and non-adopters.Plot distance: Improved potato adopter had relatively closer plot on average than the nonadopter categories, which is 1.2 and 18.5 minutes respectively for adopter and non-adopter. The t-test result sows that there is positive and significant at 1% significance level.Livestock holding: Number of animals owned in tropical livestock unit was 3.4, 3.7 and 3.06 for IPV adopter and non-adopter respectively. There was negative and significant relationship between livestock holding size and adoption of IPV at 5% significance level. Extension service: Table 4 below presented about, 87% and 34.6% of adopter and nonadopter, while from the total sample, 60.6% of the households had got extension advice. There were positive and significant relationships between extension advice and adoption of IPV at 1% significance level.Irrigation access: Access to irrigation is another important characteristic of the farming households, on average 58.1 of the sample households had irrigation access. The 66.5 and 49.7% of participant and non-participant household had irrigation access respectively. The mean difference of irrigation access between the participant and no-participant groups is significant at 1% significance level. The relationship of irrigation access and adoption of IPV is also positive.Neighbor adopter: About, 91% of the adopter farmers had neighbor adopter. The relationship between neighbor adopter and IPV adoption is positive and significant at 1% significance level.Perception on maturity period: Table 3 shows the mean difference between adopter and nonadopter was significantly differ in perception of IPV maturity period at 1% significance level.About, 80% and 55.5% of adopter and non-adopter farmers respectively perceived IPV mature in shorter period than the local varieties.Perception on tuber yield: As indicated in table 3 there was a significant mean difference between adopter and no-adopter in perception of IPV tuber yield potential at 1% significance level. The 86.5 % and 38.4% of adopter and non-adopter perceived IPV provided better tuber yield than the local variety. Table 5 shows that, the mean differences between the adopter and non-adopter were highly significantly different in household dietary diversity, food consumption and food security categories. The 11.9%, 32.4%, and 55.7% of adopter households are under low, medium and high food diversity categories respectively. Majority of the non-adopter farmers (48%) are under medium food diversity categories, while many of the adopter farmers (56%) are under high diversity category. Around 76% and 55% of adopters and non-adopter had acceptable level of food consumption respectively. More than 60% of adopters were food secured and 39% of them were food insecure without huger, which is consistent with CAADP report (2016). The 66 % of non-adopters were food insecure without hunger and 32% them are food insecure with moderate hunger. There were attempts to include all theoretically important variables in the model, however we excluded those variables which had week influence on adoption of improved potato varieties.Since R-squared represents the improvement in the goodness-of-fit, the increase in R-square when each variable is added to a model was considered for variable inclusion. The result in table 6 shows that, extension advice, availability of neighbor adopter, closeness of the plot from the homestead and positive perception on the maturity periods are highly significant (significance at 1% significance level) and the relationship with adoption of IPV is positive except the closeness of the plot. Positive perception on tuber yield potential and the size of farm owned were also significant at 5% and 10% significance level.The farm size was positively related with adoption of improved potato varieties and its coefficient was significant at 1% probability level. On average each additional hectare of land increases the probability of adoption of IPV by 16%. The reason for this could be, farmers primarily allocate their land for main staple foods crops and a larger land size may allow farmers to allocate their plot for different food and other cash crops, such as potato and vegetables. The shows that, the positive and significant relationship between land size and adoption of improved potato varieties. The result of this study was consistent with prior expectation and Beriso (2017) report on his Adoption of improved potato varieties.Distance of the plot from the homestead was negatively related with adoption IPV and found to be significant at less than 1% probability level. A minute increase in the walking distance to the nearest plot reduces the probability of adoption of IPV by 0.7 percent. This could be because, farmers frequently visit, manage, apply organic matter and conservation practice at the nearest plot and in most case the closest plot has better soil fertility (e.g. backyard). Potato in nature needs more fertilizer, 195kg dap and 165 urea per hectare (Ketema et al., 2016).Potato provides high tuber yield at more fertile plots. In addition, potato needs frequent hoeing and earthing up. As a result, the proximity of the plot is a highly significant factor for adoption of improved potato varieties.For most farming households, extension advice is the main sources of information on agricultural technologies. The result of this study indicated that, access to extension advice about improved potato varieties is significant at less than 1% probability level and increase the probability of adoption of IPV by 22.4 %. This suggested that access to extension advice helps farmer to be aware and drown interest for new technologies, and thereby to foster  The size of cultivated land was significantly, and negatively affecting the proportion of land allocated for improved potato varieties at 5% level of significance. The results of this study in table 7 indicated that, on average each additional hectare of land decrease the proportion of In addition to the model result, the focus group discussion and key informant interview were conducted for in-depth analysis of improve potato varieties production constraints and its' contribution of IPVs adoption towards nutrition security. The qualitative analysis indicated that, the following important problems in improve potato varieties production.Weak extension system and seed shortage: the woreda extension system is very week in potato production. There is no established seed system. Only NGOs with few cooperatives were the sources of seed. Due to early generation seed shortage, cooperatives are not producing and supplying quality planting materials for the last two years. Unlike the cereal's crops, the woreda extension did not supply quality improved potato seed. Potato needs high seed rate (1.8-2 tone of seed per hectare) and farmers have not enough seed access to cover the larger plots.   As indicated in table 9 below, the propensity distribution for sample household is 0.0126956 and 0.9997798. The propensity score varies between 0.1697312 and 0.9997798 for improve potato adopter and, between 0.0126956 and 0.9578436 for non-adopter households. Based on the 'minima and maxima criterion' the common support region lies between 0.1697312 and 0.9578436. Households which lie outside this region are discarded from analysis and because of this restriction, 26 control and 3 treated households were excluded from analysis.   As indicated in table 10 the performance of different matching estimators, the balancing test and pseudo-R 2 is the same for all matching estimator. The matched sample size is 341, except caliper 0.01 and Kernel (bw 0.01) which is 322.  The low R 2 indicates the absence of systematic differences in the distribution of covariates between treated and control groups (Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2005). The chi-square test result bellow shows, the distribution of mean of covariates was significantly different before matching; but after matching the distribution is the same (no significant difference). All the above tests result confirmed nearest neighbor (3) matching estimator is relatively the best matching methods and could be used to calculate the average treatment effect improved potato varieties on FSS, FCS and HDD welfare outcomes. This section provides evidence on the impact of improved potato varieties on households' dietary diversity, food consumption and food security welfare outcomes.Accordingly, the average treatment effect (ATT) calculated by applying PSM with nearest neighbor (3) matching method is presented in table 13. Based on the model result, the effect of IPVs adoption on the households FSS was 1.79 points on average. This indicates, the average treatment effect on adopter households is 1.79 less points in FSS compared to the non-adopter households with similar covariates. The FSS difference between the two groups of households was negative and statistically significant at 1% level. The negative ATT on FSS indicated that, the higher and lower food insecurity scale value for non-adopter and adopter households respectively. This result is in lined with Victor et al. (2016) findings on the Effect of the improved sweet potato varieties on household food security.The other nutrition status indicator is the households' food consumption score, which measure the quantity, the diversity and relative nutritional importance of the household's food. The PSM model result indicated, the average treatment effect on the households' FCS 6.65. The positive value of ATT shows, the treatment effect on adopter households are higher than their counterfactual non-adopters. The FCS difference between adopter and non-adopter groups is statistically significant at 1% level.The third important variable to measure the nutritional status of the households' is the household dietary diversity score. The average effects of IPVs adoption on HDDS is 0.86 points. The positive ATT value indicated treatment effect was higher for adopter households than similar non-adopter households and the difference is statistically significant at 1 % probability level. Here the basic question to be answered is, whether the estimation of the treatment effects are affected by unobserved factors or not. Thus, to answer this question sensitivity analysis was conducted for food security scale, food consumption score and households' dietary diversity and outcome variables. \uD835\uDC52 =2 FSS 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 FCS 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 1.1e-16 HDD 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000As presented in table 15 below male headed households has a significant and positive correlation with FCS and HDDSs for participant farmers only. The result justifies, maleheaded households could participate in labour-intensive income generating activities and earn better to diversify their food.The household size negative correlated with FCS and the correlation is significant at 5% and 1% level for adopter and non-adopter groups respectively. For adopter groups households' size was negatively corelated with HDDS at 10% significance level. This suggests the larger household size reduces the household food diversity. The result is consistent with Seng (2016) finding on Effects of market participation on farm households' food security.The household head's education level was positively correlated with FCS and significant at 5% level. They effect are likely to be greater among adopter farmers, since the coefficient of adopter is higher than non-adopter. The coefficient of household education was highly significantly and positively associated with HDDS for both the IPV adopter and non-adopter households. This is because, the better educated households may have better knowledge on the food diversification for nutrient adequacy. Mugisha et al. (2017) on their FactorsEnhancing Household Nutrition Outcomes in Potato Value Chain study found that education level of household head has a positive and significant influence on HDDS.Farming experience has significant and positive association with HDDS at 5% significance level for adopter groups only. Suggesting that households with higher farming experience may have better experience in diversified food crop production and consume more diversified food groups.Dependency ration was negatively corelated with both FCS and HDDS, but the association is significant only with HDDS for non-adopter categories. The effect of dependency ration on HDDS for adopter categories is lower, suggesting household who adopt IPV enjoy higher HDDS then non-adopters.The size of livestock owned was highly significant and negatively correlated with FSS for adopter groups. FSS is the scale the food insecurity cores, the negative association with FSS indicates the positive association with food security status. Households with greater number of livestock are the better in consuming animal products and to access cash to purchase diversified food items, suggesting adopter households with higher number of livestock enjoy lower food insecurity.The size of livestock has also significant and positively correlation with FCS and HDDS in both groups of households. The coefficients are larger in adopter groups, indicating the effect of livestock holding size on FCS and HDDS was greater amongst IPV producer. Mugisha et al. (2017) found that positive and significant relationship between the size of livestock holding and HDDS.The coefficient of landholding is significant and negative for FSS of the non-adopter households, indicates that land area has positive influences on the household food security.Land size has highly significant and positive influence on FCS. Mugisha et al. (2017) reported that land size has positive and significant effect on both food security and household dietary diversity.Access to irrigation has negatively and significantly corelated with FSS for adopter and nonadopter groups at 1% and 5% level respectively. The coefficient for adopter categories is larger, this indicates the effect of irrigation is greater for the adopter group. Access to irrigation further has highly significant and positive correlation with FCS and HDDS for adopter households. For both FCS and HDDS coefficients are much larger for adopter categories, which further shows the effect of irrigation greater for adopter households. This is mainly because irrigation helps farmers to produce crops more than per years and to produce cash crops, which in turn helps to purchase other food groups and diversify their diet.Number of plots with recommended rate of fertilizer rate and FSS corelated negatively and significantly for non-adopter households. Application of recommended fertilizer increases farmers production and could reduce the amount of cash spend to purchase similar crops and households could purchase other food groups with cash from different sources. The number of fertile plot that the households were cultivating and FSS positive correlation. The association is significant at 10% and 1% respectively for adopter and non-adopter groups.Similarly, there is a positive and significant correlation at 10% level between number of plots fertile plots and FSC of non-adopter categories.Amount of off-farm income earned and FSS has highly significant and negative association for non-adopter households, suggesting households with higher amount of off-income are likely to enjoy better household food security. The amount of off-farm income also positively corelated with FCS of non-adopter group and HDDS at 10% and 5% level respectively.  households was less of 2.05 in FSS and higher by 6.13 and 1.48 points in FCS and HDDS respectively compared to their counterfactuals. Similarly, IPVs non-adopter were placed into the status of adopter, their FSS would be less of 2.0485 and their FCS and HDDS would be increase of 5.745 and 1.099 points respectively. The result of this study is consistent with other prior studies. Abadi (2018) found the positive and significant effect of adoption of sweet potato on household's food consumption and similarly Kilui (2016) reported the positive effect of adoption of improved sweet potato varieties on household's dietary diversity.The transitional heterogeneity effect is positive for FCS and HDDS, and negative for FSS outcome variables, meaning IPVs adoption effect is higher for adopter households. The ESR model result indicated that, the difference in the mean value of food consumption score and households' dietary diversity score between the improved potato adopter and non-adopter households were positive, whereas the difference in the mean value of FSS was negative.Statistically, these were found to be significant at 1% significance level. The result consistence with Mugisha et al. (2017).The focus group discussion confirmed indicated that, improved potato varieties provided very high tuber yield from smaller plot of land (up to 5 time higher as compared to the cereals) and mature at critical food shortage periods. Income from the sale of potato helps households to purchase diversified food items. Potato producer consume potato from their plot by using delayed harvesting storage mechanisms usually in the form of sauce for adults and both in the forms of sauce and boiled for children's. Potato producer farmers had better in consuming potato and other vegetables than the non-producer households. Thus, FDG result confirmed the econometric model result that is IPVs producer had better nutrition status as compared to the non-producer. Increasing population pressure, land degradation, and shrinking the land holdings necessitated intensification of production practices to meet the increasing food demand of the populations. To meet the continuous increase of food demand, there is a need to produce more food crops from the existing plot of lands using improved crop varieties and practices.In this regard, potato has multiple benefits for low income households and where land shortage is a constraint. Thus, potato plays a great role towards ensuring food and nutrition security which is a major concern for the country. In Emba Alaje woreda, few potato varieties technologies were introduced and promoted by government and non-governmental institutions. However, the rate and level of adoption, and its impact on the households' nutrition security were not analyzed. Therefore, this study aimed to identify factors affecting adoption probability and use intensity of IPV and the adoption effect IPVs on household's nutrition security.The primary data for this study was collected from 185 IPVs grower and 185 non-grower farming households' using structured questionnaire.  There is the presence of structural differences between the adopter and non-adopter groups;for example, landholding has positive effects on the IPV producers' households' food insecurity but negative impacts on the non-producer households' food insecurity. Similarly, farming experience has positive effects on IPV adopter farmers' HDDS and negative effect for non-adopter households' HDDS. To account the self-selection bias and systematic differences we applied endogenous switching regression model. Our ESR model result confirmed that, improved potato varieties adoption decreases the household food insecurity and increase both food consumption and the food dietary diversity significantly. This is mainly because, in the study area improved potato reach for harvesting at critical food shortage period, usually at September and October were neither the food crop at storage not available nor matured at the filed. As a result, potato can contribute to mitigate seasonal gaps in food availability and uses as source of cash to purchase other food items to diversify and complement the available food for home consumption.The focus group discussion similarly confirmed that, IPVs provided very high tuber yield from small plot of land and income from the sale of potato used to purchase different food items. In addition, potato producer farmers had a better habit in consuming potato and other vegetable than the non-producer farmers.In general, our finding revealed IPV potato variety adoption improve the food security status, food consumption and dietary diversity of the households significantly. These three outcome variables provided the quantity, quality, diversity, relative importance and the behavior of the households on food security which together indicate the betterment in nutritional status.Our study result indicated, participation in improved potato production has statistically significant and positive impact on household's food security, household's food consumption and household's dietary diversity, there by contributes to nutrition security. Hence, the following recommendation are forwarded households to improve their nutrition status through potato production.The study found that, the distance of the nearest plot affects household potato production participation negatively and significantly. Since organic matter is bulky in nature to transport, in most case, households apply organic matter at the closer plot and got a good return from potato production. Therefore, we recommended households to apply recommended rate of inorganic fertilizer and produce potato including the far plots or to exchange plots for to reduce the distance from the homestead.Our finding revealed that access to extension advice is one of the significant factor in determining the household's participation in IPV production. Thus, to improve the food and nutrition security situation, households should maximize their produce through improved potato varieties production. Therefore, government should give due emphasis for potato production and extension service need to be strengthen since it is the main sources of information for farming households about new technologies.Our analysis result shows, existence of neighbor adopter has a highly significant effect on potato production participation. This is because farmers learn more and build trust on the performance of the technology from their neighbor. Therefore, to enhance the adoption process research centers and extensions should promote improved varieties through participatory varieties selection trials approach to show the performance of new varieties at farmers field.Because of the IPV high yielding and early maturity traits farmers were replaced the local variety. However, unlike the local potato variety the late generation IPV did not provide the potential yield continuously. Thus, the result of this study suggests farmers not to replace the local varieties totally with improved varieties unless the strong and efficient seed system is established.To deal with shortage of early generation seed and potato disease problem, it is necessary to create strong linkage between research, seed producer cooperatives and farmers. Our finding suggested research institute continuously to supply disease resistance varieties and early generation planting material and, link with seed producer cooperatives for multiplication.In the study area households usually consume potato in the form of sauce. Hence, it is important to raise farmers awareness through different capacity building activities on potato production and consumption including food demonstration.Start with her/his spouse, children (ranked from old to young) and lastly other household membersinclude only members who live with the household sharing the same Household resources at least for the last 3 months. Fish and other sea food Any fresh or dried fish or shellfish? 4In the past 12 months, did you or any of the HH member could not afford to eat balanced meal, how often did this happen?6. Often (>6 month) 7. Sometimes (3-5 months) 1. Never true 5In the past 12 months, did you relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed the children because of shortage of money to buy food, how often did this happen? If yes, to Q. 12, How often did this happen? 1. Almost every month 2. Some months but not every month 3. In only one or two months 13In the last 12 months, did you ever cut the size of any of the children's meals because there wasn't enough money for food?0= No 1= Yes 14 In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip meals because there wasn't enough money for food? 0=No (skip Q15) 1= No 14a If yes, to Q. 14, How often did this happen? 1. Almost every month 2. Some months but not every month 3. In only one or two months? 15In the last 12 months, were the children ever hungry but you just couldn't afford more food?0= No 1= Yes 16 In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn't enough money for food?Thank you for your attention and response!In case we want to talk to you, please can we have your mobile number? _______________ Time the interview time ended: (HH:MM) __________________________","tokenCount":"14400"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1b5fe2172340b19209e40957daa1e3d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1fc8d0f6-fe60-4266-9378-738d55890a03/retrieve","id":"543950514"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"96fd72f9-5f59-40db-b4c2-61ac839be498","pagecount":"17","content":"A survey oC nearly 1500 households in the high-polential productíon system (HPPSs) ofthe Chítwan and N.walparasi districts ofNepal showed gre.t physical and socíoeconomÍc diversíty. Vanetal diversity was low in all Ihe craps studied and vaned according lo loealion in main-season nce. Masuli was the predominanl main-season nce vanety, occupying over 65% of the area in Ihe surveyed vilJages. Seventeen modem vanelies ofmain-season nce were introduced to farmers lo test in collaboratíve tnals. Farmers identified 10 ofthe new nce vaneties as having useful teaits, and seven were adopted to a significant extent within three .easons. The new varietíes occupied abou! 13% of over 800 ha of main-season rice in eight study vilIages and increased on-mrm vanetal diversity by partly replacing predominant varieties. The accepted vaneties offered, on average, an 18% yield advantage without any requirement lo change agronomy or increase inputs. Other advantages of Ihe new varieties were their early maturity, drought tolerance, disease and inseet tolerance, and better adaptation to dífferent ecologieal niches such as areas of shallow water. Despite Ihe cornrnonly assumed uniformíty of hígh-potential production systems, the new vaneties oecupied specific niches in the farrning system from irrigated land witb varying duration of retained standing water, and from partially irrigated to rainfed lowland conditions. Farmem preferred specífic vatietíes Cor different níches, which snould help lo inerease and maintain biodíversity on Ibe farm. Overal! production is expected to increase as cach nicho becomes occupied increasingly by Ihe best-adapted vanety. Participatory approaches are simple, powerful method. for identífying superior vaneties and deploying them in specific niches for increasing food production in high-potential producti on systems.are medium taIl (110 to 120 cm) and ears are ín-curved with six to eight fingers per ear. PR 202 has a good threshing ratio, and its orange-brown grains are medium bold (1000 graíns weigh 2.8 g). However, PR 202 is highly susceptible lo blast-a major disease of finger millet, and farmers wanted an altemative lO this variety.Following the baseline survey, a search was undertaken to find varieties thal would best match the farrners' selection eriteria. Six varieties were choscn for Icsting by farrners in a participatory varietal selection programo Tbree of the selected varielÍes were released varieties, or identified for future release, Le., GPU 28 and GPU 26 (released for Kamataka in 1998and 1999, respeclÍvely), and VL 149 (nationally released in 1994). The other three varieties, VL 305, GPU 46, and 9002, were promising enlríes in advanced AH-India co-ordinated finger-mi!let iríaIs.AH the ISO farrners sampled in the baseline survey were involved in the conduc! of farmer-managed participatory-research (FAMPAR) trials during the raíny season of 1999. There were two types of trials.The 150 farrners were divided into six groups of 25 each across the seven selected viHages; the number of participating farrners varied across vil!ages. Each group was given one cultivar to grow side by side with their local variety in the sarue field under farrner-managed conditions, so there were 25 replicate-farmers for each variety. Each participatíng farmer was supplíed with 1 kg of seed ofthe new variety (table 2). Two farrners in each village were given seed of all six varieties for growing together with the local variety in the sarue field in a single-replicate lríal. These iríaIs served two purposes: to compare the performance of al! varieties and to serve as foci for demonstration and focus-group discussions. A two-way analysís of variance with varieties as one factor and locations (villages) as the ofuer provided significance of differences among loeation, varieties, and interaction of varieties with locations.F armers took a great ¡nterest in experimentation since only four F AMP AR Iríais out of 150 were unsuccessful. The variety GPU 28 yielded more than al! othervarieties in all c1usters (table 3). Only variety GPU 46, in clusters l and 5, and variety GPU 26, in clusters 2 and 5, yielded on a par with GPU 28. Al! other varieties yielded less lhan GPU 28 in al! five clusters. Farrners' perceptions were recorded in pre-and postharvest focus-group discussions (FGDs). Nine trails were scored in fue FGDs: grain yield, stover yield, grain size, grain density, grain color, ear type, cooking quality, days te flowering, and disease resistance. The cultivar GPU 28 closely matched farmers' eriteria for a variety lo grow under normal sowing in tbe second week of July.Early-maturing GPU 26 was the most preferred variety for late sowing. A nonrecomrnended variety, VL 305, was preferred by farmers for its 9% higher yield fuan fue control and its extra-early maturity in 85 days, which allows it 10 fil in a double-cropping sequence. It can be sown in September after a crop of sesame or cowpea.In fue presenl study, farmers of Chitradnrga district did not prefer fue national!y recomrnended variety, VL 149. On fue olher hand, varieties GPU 26 and GPU 28, re/eased by Kamataka state were accepted by farrners, although they stilllacked the earcharacteristics preferred by farmers. An important resul! offarrner-participatory varietal selection was ¡he identificatíon ofvariety VL 305 for growing in very specific niches as a second crop after sesame or cowpea. Farmers preferred fuis varíety beca use of its earlíness even though this results in lower productívity compared lo later-maturing varíeties.Participatory varíelal selection in finger millet has been successful in identifYing varieties for specific agroecosystems, which are difficult lo reproduce on research stations. Our results confirm those ofvarious workers in other crops and agroecological systems: farmers prefer lo adopt varíeties trom a basket of choices irrespective of their recornmendation domains (Sthapit, Joshi, and Witcombe 1996;Joshi andWitcombe 1996, 1998;Virk, Bhasker Raj, and Witcombe 1996;Thiele et aL 1997). The participatory approach is more effeetive than conventional on-farm adaptive research (Gowda et al. 2000) because it provides farmers multiple choices from among varietíes that are selected for farmer-preferred traits.The PVS approach in finger millet was a use fui tool for the following reasons:• understanding farmers' erítería for selecting a variety• analyzing reasons for nonadoption of a released variety• identifYing varieties for different sowing times and cropping systems from a basket of choices• decreasing the gap between recornmendation and adoptionFavorable agricultural environments, known as high-potentíal production systems (HPPS), produce most ofthe world's grain. In the developing world, HPPS are ofien intensively cultivated irrigated areas. The terai ofNepal (the alluvial, low-altitude flat land on the southem borders ofNepal at about 150 m altitude) has seasonal or perennial irrigatíon, high crop yields, and produces 57% of the total cereal production ofthe country (AMDD 1994/95). For Nepal to feed its ever-increasing population without increased reliance on imports, higher production is required in the terai.The study area is located in the south ofNepal at a latitude of 27° N. The climate is subtropical to tropical, with warm, humid summers (max. 40°C) and cool, dry winters (min. 8°C). About 90% of the annual total rainfall of about 2000 mm falls between June and September. The research was carried out in 18 víllages comprising 3000 households. The víllages were located in parts of two districts, Chítwan and Nawalparasi, and grouped into three c1usters of six villages in East Chitwan, West Chitwan, and Nawalparasi, The villages were selected for the study using several criteria, such as having >80 households, good irrigation facilities, land suítable for double rice cropping, and good access to agricultural markets, There are more than 53,000 ha of cultivated land in Chitwan and over 64,000 ha in Nawalparasi.Both districts have more than 72,000 ha of main-season rice, About 22% of the land is irrigated in Chitwan and about 36% in Nawalparasi. Fanners grow two or three crops per year. Main-season rice is lhe major crop in June lo October and covers about 1600 ha in the study villages. Rice is followed by lentíls or wheat in lhe winter, followed by maize and chaíte rice in the spring. There is diversity in soil type, irrigation facilities, and production potential. Productivity is generally higher in East and West Chitwan than in Nawalparasí. There are also variations in the fanning systems within clusters, e,g\" sorne farmers in Chitwan grow maize and vegetables in the winter instead of wheat and lentils, A survey of 1487 households in Chitwan and Nawalparasi conducted in 1997 showed high diversity in physical and socioeconomic conditions, In the study arca, 23% of farmers were resource rich, 34% were c!assed as having average resources, and 43% were resource poor (Ram et al. 2000). There was wide variatíon in lhe size ofland holdings, access to irrigation, and lhe use of production inputs, which has resu!ted in different cropping pattems: rice-vegetables-maize or ricemaize-vegetables and rice-wheat-maize in East Chitwan and mostly rice-wheat-rice, rice-fallowrice, or rice-lentil-maize in West Chitwan and Nawalparasi. There is wide variation in lhe rice ecosystem, from perennially irrigated land with varying durations of retained standing water, to seasonally irrigated land, to rainfed lowland conditions.The productíon potential is high. Yields of themost cornmonly grown main-season rice variety were measured in fanner-managed particípatory research (FAMPAR) trials in 1997. The average yield ofthe predominant main-season rice cultivar, Masuli, was 4.2 t ha-t (Joshi et al. 1999),Two approaches-participatory varietal selection (PVS) and informal research and development (IRD}-were used lo provide a choice ofvarieties to farmers in Nepal. In PVS, introduced varieties were tested in intensively evaluated F AMPAR trials using lhe melhods described in Joshi and Witcombe (1996), lRD uses less intensive evaluation and has been proven to be effective for popularizing new varieties by lhe LurnJe Agricultura! Research Centre, Nepal (Joshi and Sthapit 1990).In each cluster of six villages, F AMP AR tria!s were conducted in three and lRD trials in three. In the lRD trials, lhe same ranges of varieties were used but there was no monitoring or participatory evaluatíon during lhe growing season. Instead, fanner's perceptions were evaluated after harvest by informal interviews wilh a sample of farmers, Data were collected on subsequent adoption and fanner-to-fanner seed dissemination. There were 536 F AMPAR and 5461RD trials from 1997 to 1998.Twelve new varieties of main-season rice were fust offered to farmers to experiment with in lhe main season of 1997 and five more varieties were given out in 1998 (table 1). In each village, for each variety a l-kg bag of seed was given to two fanners ineach ofthree weallh categories (see below). Plot sízes varied because of differences in nursery raising practices. Planting melhods. use of manure and fertilizers, and intercultural operations were unchanged. The fanners grew lhe new variety alongside their existing variety, usualIy MasuJi, as a control. CaTe Was taken to avoid any chance of mixing the new variety wilh Ihe existing farmer' S variety from seed sowing through to post-harvest assessment. The area of Ihe trial plots was measured by researchers, while farmers measured yield in local volumetric units, which were later converted to metric units. A paired !-test was used to test the significance of the difference for yield between Ihe test entry and the existing rice variety,To conduct Ihe trials, each trial site was joint1y identified and demarcated by Ihe participating farIIlers and researchers. There were regular visits by researchers to the trial plots with Ihe participating farmers to see Ihe performance of the variety at different growth stages, A farm walk was orgaruzed in which researchers, participating farmers, and olher interested farmers saw Ihe standing crop in al! or most of Ihe plots when Ihe crop was near to rnaturity. Immediately after each farm walk, a focus-group discussion was held, which included preparing a narrative summary of each rice variety, describing al! its positive and negative traits, and preparing an overall preference ranking of al! Ihe varieties. A post-harvest evaluation ofthe rice varieties was done on Ihe basis offarmers' perceptions two to three monlhs afier the harvest of Ihe crop, This gave the farmers enough time to assess post-harvest traits. A structured questionnaire was used, which included questions on grain quality, market preference, and the farmers' intentions on whether to adopt or reject Ihe variety, Questions were also asked on Ihe distribution of Ihe seed of the variety by fanners to monitor the adoption and spread of Ihe new rice varieties through 1997 to 1999. In 1999, households that receíved seeds in 1997 and 1998 were visited first (purposive sampling) and then new adopters were interviewed based on the distribution list provided by each farmer.The project mobilized existing farmers' groups in the project villages. These groups had been formed for different purposes, including agriculture, livestockldairy, and water use. Dístribution of the seed of the new varieties was done following discussions with the groups. Participatory well-being ranking was done to identiIY farmers from dífferent resource categories, Through group consensus, an equal numberoffarmers from all tbree well-being categories were selected to participate in the trials. A brief overview of all the varieties included in the trials was gíven to farmers.The baseline study showed that varietal díversity was low in chaite rice, wheat, and maize (Rana et  al. 2000). In chaile rice, CH 45 covered over 97% ofthe chaite rice area in the project villages. In maíze, varieties Arun 2 and AIUn 4 occupied ahout 70% ofthe area, and Rampur Composite about 30%. In wheat, two varieties, UP 262 (50%) and RR 21 (20%), occupied most ofthe area.For main-season rice, the greatest varietal diversity was in the East Chitwan cluster (ECC) of víllages where 11 different rice varieties were grown by the farmers, ofwhich Masuli and Ekhattar'(a sister line ofSabitri) together occupied two-thirds ofthe rice area (figure 1). Six differem rice varieties were grown by the furmers in the West Chitwan cluster (WCC) but Masuli alone covered 98% ofthe total rice area (figure 2). The narrow varietal diversity in this cluster could be attributed to a more uniform physical environment as the majority of the area is low lying and retains standing water during most of the rice-growing season. Another reason is that in WCC, in contrast to ECC, few vegetables are grown. Vegetable growing promotes diversity because farmers grow rice varieties of shorter duration than Masuli to allow timely sowing of the vegetable crops. The varietal díversíty at the Nawalparasí cluster (NPC) is closer to WCC than to ECC. The main differences are that in N awalparasi there is more Masuli and Sabítri and no Ekhattar at al! (figure 3). The distribution ofvarieties over time is dynamic, as new varieties are adopted and old and obsolete varieties are dropped, How dynamic the system is can be quantified by measuring temporal diversíty. A dynarnic sítuatíon ís found not only in high-potential systems with modem varieties, it also occurs in marginal areas and even for Iandraces (Joshi and Witcombe, this volume). As a result of the introduction of new varieties by PVS, most farmers indicated that the new varieties they were adopting would replace Masuli. Other varieties also likely lo be replaced were Kanchhi Masuli, Radha 4 (also known as Chaurasi or Bammorcha) and Sabitri. Twenty varieties were listed as likely to be replaced, but 16 ofthem accounted for only 18% ofthe total varietal replacement indicated by farmers.The introduction of new modern varieties contributed lo an increase in on-farm varietal diversity when diversity is measured simply as the number ofvarieties grown in each village (figure 4).  The existing varietal diversity in main-season rice was low in general and very low in the West Chitwan cluster. The differences between clusters reflected their physical and agronomic diversity.Because the dominant crop varieties grown by the fanners in the villages of the study area were 30 to 35 years old, fanners were not benefitting from several decades of progress in plant breeding, and because ofnarrow varietal diversity, these systems may be more vulnerable to pests and disease attacks, which contribute to instability in food production.The participatory varietal selection program was successful in thÍs high-potential production systemo F anners identified and adopted seven new rice varieties from the 16 given in PVS, Some of these, such as Swarna, PNR 381, PR 1 03, and Pant 10, had a distinct yield advantage over the varieties fanners were currently growing. Others were preferred for therr early maturity, lower water and nutrient requirements, or berter grain quality. New varieties were adapted to specific niches. For example Swarna is suitable for fields where the water stands for nearly all ofthe growing season; Pant 10, PNR 381, and Sarwati are suited to conditions ofpartial irrigation and medium fertility; and PR 103 and PR 106 were adopted for more fertile, higher yíelding environments. Radha 11 was found to be suitable for late planting conditions and for transplanting when the seedlings are more than one and one-half months old. This is an important trait for areas where rice transplanting is dependent on unpredictable monsoon rains.Varietal diversÍty can be quantified but such quantification is scale sensitive. Diversity estimated overall the FAMPAR villages as one unit gíves differentresults Ihan ifit's estimated on the basis of clusters. The varietal diversity in the WCC increased far more than in the other two clusters, whích both had higher inirial varietal diversity. From the viewpoinl of diversity deployment to enhance food security, increasing diversity in the most vulnerable arcas is not only important for the communities in those areas, but it also reduces the vulnerabílity of the system as a whole. The PVS approach in main-season rice has helped enhance varietal diversity on-farm in the same way that it has for other crops and areas (11alhi et aL, this volume;Virk el aL, this volume;Witcombe 1999aWitcombe , 1999b;;Joshi et aL 1997).Participatory varietal selection was effective in increasing production in HPPSs by matching agroecological niches 10 the most appropriate varieties. Such increases in production are essential if the deve10ping world is 10 feed its rapidly growing populations.Fanners in high-potential production systems (HPPS) of the Indian subcontínent adopted modero Green-Revolution cultivars in the 1960s and 1970s. Indigenous cultivars were quickly replaced with CIMMYT wheat and IRRI rice varieties. Rates of adoption of modero varieties have since slowed. For example, in India the average age of cultivated varieties is between lOto 27 years for most cultivated crops (Virk, Packwood, and Witcombe 1997). SIow tumover mtes of cultívars mean that fanners are growing older, and therefore inferior, genetic material.The extent of adoption of new varieties by farmers depends on multiple factors, including agronomic and socioeconomic constraints. We used a holistic approach to partícipatory crop improvement in wheat in the Lunawada subdistrict in Gujarat, India, to anaIyze constraints, provide new opportunities, and monitor the adoption of new cultivars chosen by farmers.   Trends in wheat productivity. In comparison to the previous three years, a majority of farmers perceived that wheat yields had íncreased. However, the perceived increase was rnore •common with the upper-(73%) than the medium-(65%) and lower-category (58%) fanners in lhe three villages (Kothamba, Ladvel, and Thanasavli) of the Lunawada subdistrict. This recent íncrease in wheat yields reflects an ímprovement in agronomic practices rather than the replacement of old varietíes with more recent ones (see below).Cost of production and profits. Over all categories of fanners, the most expensive components of the total cost ofwheat production were lhe cost of seed and sowíng operations (24% oftotal cost), land preparation (23%), and fertílizer (23%). Harvesting and threshing together also accounted for a high proportion (21 %) of lhe cost of productíon. The other minor components were irrigation (4%), fannyard manure (4%), and weeding (1%).The net benefit from wheat cultivation is proportional to the status of fanners, the upper-category fanners benefitting the most, with a benefit-cost ratio of 101 % in comparison to 77% for mediumand 38% for lower-category farmers.Trends in scheduling ofwheat sowing. Wheat sowing in Lunawada starts around the second week ofNovember (figure 2) and progresses very slowly until the first week ofDecember; most is sown in the second week ofDecember. Wheat sown in December matures in mid-March. Because temperatures rise fast in February, adversely affecting grain formation, late-sown wheat produces lower yields. However.late sowing is prevalen! in Lunawada because rice varieties grown by fanners mature too late to allow the fields to be prepared in time for early sowing ofwheat. November i5 also a festival season in Gujarat, and wheat sowing only starts when the festivíties are overo  Participatory varietal selection (PVS). Participatory varielal selection (J05hi andWitcombe, 1996 and1998) in wheat was carried out in six F AMP AR villages with fanners from al! wealth calegories. Because lhere were many new varieties, Le., 13 varieties ofwheat, a more complex system ofF AMP AR trials was tried. Each fanner was given two varieties to test along with the local check, ínstead ofthe one variety provided in marginalareas (Virk et aL 1997). The results showed thatthe 12 introduced varieties of wheat yielded significant1y more than the local check, Lok 1, by 7% to 17% (figure 3). (Variety Raj 3765 failed to yield significantly more because oflhe smaIl sample size ofthree fanners, although it had 17% higher yield tban the local variety.)In addition, fanners in tbree IRD villages conducted, on theirown, trials as complex as lhose conducted in PVS villages.PVS tríals lhat inc1uded new test varietíes were contínued in later years. The mos! preferred variety tested in lhe second year was K 9107 from Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. Varieties lhat were preferred and adopted by fanners over tbree years were PBW 343 (Punjab), PBW 206 (Punjab), K 9107 (Uttar Pradesh), UP 2338 (Uttar Pradesh), Raj 3077 (Rajaslhan), and GW 496 (Gujarat). The demand for seed from the fanner-preferred varietíes in lhe project and nonproject villages was tremendous. RelalÍves and friends offanners in villages far from lhe project area, who had seen lhe trials or had had discussions with the project fanners, also asked for seed from lhe new varieties. Consequently, large quantities ofseed, up to 1 tonne for a variety, were sold each year. However, there was lower seed demand in the project villages because fanners had fann-saved the seed ofthe new varieties. The quantity of seed sold, all at the full price of certified seed, was limited by supply and not by demando A second survey in 1999 revealed that fanners had adopted project-provided varieties in lhe project viUages. An example of significant change in lhe varietal spectrtim in tbree F AMP AR villages shows significant replacement oflhe most popular, but old, variety, Lok 1, which fell from occupying nearly 90% oflhe area in 1997 to less lhan 50% in 1999 afier tbree seasons ofPVS (figure 4). Patterns of adoptíon did not <liffer across weallh categories, with lower-category fanners benefitting as much as ¡he upper category fanners. The fol!owing important facts emerge from lhe parterns of adoptíon ofPVS varieties:   UP2338 (1995) and 1% Sonalika [1967]; and for LCF, 3% WH147 [1979], 2% Raj 3077[1989) and 1% GW173 [1993].)","tokenCount":"3739"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c50da66f6cf5872ccba5d3ff7e9226aa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ceab8e57-bcb3-48bf-af0d-aad9c175d5e4/retrieve","id":"-474283121"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"362c6164-c1d4-45d2-a949-234aa61d929a","pagecount":"4","content":"¿Cómo colaborar con las y los agricultores en la toma de decisiones para manejar las plagas agrícolas de forma efectiva y adaptada al clima?El software ILCYM 4.0 La evidencia demuestra que la mayoría de tratamientos químicos realizados en la producción agrícola son innecesarios, ineficientes y, en un cierto porcentaje, tardíos. Para tomar mejores decisiones, el productor necesita más información sobre el estado real del desarrollo biológico de la plaga y el riesgo real que conlleva (Figura1). Hoy en día, el productor agrícola dispone de herramientas que lo ayudan a ser más eficiente en el manejo de plagas y enfermedades de sus cultivos, como el software ILCYM 4.0 (Insect Life Cycle Modeling), que permite determinar las zonas de alto riesgo de propagación de una plaga, y generar un sistema de alerta mediante los indicadores de riesgo diarios que genera este programa.¿Cuáles son las razones para utilizar ILCYM 4.0 en el pronóstico de plagas?• Porque proporciona información que facilita la toma de decisiones eficientes.• Porque permite realizar los tratamientos sólo cuando son necesarios.• Porque numerosas plagas son vectores de enfermedades virales. Por lo tanto, controlando eficientemente al vector se reduce en gran medida el riesgo de que los cultivos sufran la enfermedad.• Porque ciertas plagas, caracterizadas por explosiones de población que resultan incontrolables, pueden ser controladas en los estados larvarios de sus primeras generaciones.• Porque los cultivos se pueden proteger a tiempo en los estados de crecimiento más críticos.• Porque al reducir el número de tratamientos químicos se mejora la calidad de producto, y por tanto se reduce la cantidad de residuos en las cosechas, especialmente de frutas y hortalizas.• Porque los agricultores disponen hoy en día de menos productos para realizar tratamientos, y al mismo tiempo se ven en la necesidad de aplicar menos tratamientos debido a razones económicas y legislativas.Según la disponibilidad de datos de temperatura (data colectada de sensores de temperatura), ILCYM puede calcular los índices que determinan el riesgo de establecimiento o incremento poblacional de una plaga ya sea para toda el área (una comunidad, por ejemplo), o de manera más específica para parcelas donde se tengan los sensores de temperatura. Estos resultados deben ser contrastados con el conocimiento del insecto en estudio (ecología, biología y manejo). Para calcular estos índices de riesgo se debe tener desarrollado el modelo fenológico o de ciclo de vida del insecto basado en la temperatura, con ayuda de esta herramienta analítica (Figura2). En base a las predicciones de riesgo (curvas fluctuantes o mapas, Figura 3), ILCYM ayuda en la toma de decisiones sobre el tipo de manejo o tratamiento a usar y cuándo hacerlo de forma efectiva (por ejemplo, uso de tecnologías como las barreras de plástico para el manejo del gorgojo de los Andes, Figura 4). La utilización de estos modelos de información para la toma de decisiones en el manejo de plagas y enfermedades permite una reducción del 30% al 50% del número de aplicaciones de insecticidas químicos. Figura 2. Requerimientos para poder hacer el cálculo de los índices de riesgo desarrollados por ILCYM.Más alto más riesgo ¿Se puede determinar cuál es la plaga que genera mayor daño en un cultivo específico?Para identificar qué plaga genera mayor problema de propagación y posible pérdida de producción en los cultivos se hace la simulación con los datos de temperatura obtenida de los sensores o por alguna otra fuente de datos como 'Nasa Power' , donde se observa la relación de crecimiento o decrecimiento de los individuos con riesgo de infestación variante en el tiempo (Ro: Tasa neta de reproducción) (Figura 5,6 y 7).Figura 4. Uso de barreras de plástico, tecnología que ha demostrado ser tan efectiva como la aplicación de insecticidas, con la ventaja de ser económica y amigable con el medio ambiente.   ¿Qué tan fácil es el uso del ILCYM y quienes podrían sacar provecho de este programa?ILCYM 4.0 está desarrollado bajo una plataforma web interactiva ofrecida por el paquete 'Shiny' el cual se conecta con el software estadístico 'R' para realizar todos los procesamientos (Figura 8). Es una versión portable y fácil de ejecutar desde cualquier lugar y sin necesidad de un conocimiento profundo en estadística; está dirigido a especialistas o técnicos que trabajan en alerta temprana de riesgos y en transferencia de tecnología.El ILCYM ha sido validado en las condiciones de campo y de las cuatro plagas importantes que afectan la producción de papa en Ecuador, Perú y Bolivia a través del proyecto \"Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima: Generando sinergias entre los saberes locales y científicos para lograr resiliencia y capacidad adaptativa en los altos Andes\", financiado por la Cooperación Española.A través de este proyecto se ha capacitado en el uso de la herramienta a técnicos de organizaciones de investigación, de la academia y técnicos de gobiernos locales de servicios de transferencia de tecnologías, predicción climática y alerta temprana. Los logros alcanzados y las perspectivas de los actores involucrados sientan las bases para la consolidación y expansión de los resultados y, sobre todo, para escalar el uso del ILCYM como innovación tecnológica para elevar la resiliencia de los sistemas agroalimentarios andinos, fortaleciendo el funcionamiento de los servicios de transferencia de tecnologías y de alerta temprana de introducción y diseminación de plagas, para lograr un uso sostenible de la agrobiodiversidad y la producción sostenible de alimentos. ","tokenCount":"876"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2cd77b7214426f4730a6b8fd800b85de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/56edd571-0f6a-467e-87e0-ce9afd7cc85e/retrieve","id":"-1304024138"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f70baff7-84b5-479d-8170-b835c5ce1e5a","pagecount":"6","content":"• Consumers, mostly from richer households, are willing to pay a price premium for sustainable beef products.If they are provided with information on the negative environmental effects of conventional cattle systems, the price premium they are willing to pay increases.• The COVID-19 pandemic has, however, led to reduced household incomes and thus, in a certain way limited the development and spread of differentiated products.• Nevertheless, efforts have continued regarding the development of sustainability certificates. The Aval GANSO, a sustainability certificate launched during the pandemic, is one example for a successful collaboration among science, NGOs, farmers, and the private beef sector. It also shows that obtained price premiums can be shared among the involved actors and reach the primary producers.The brief gives an overview on consumer studies conducted for the beef sector in Colombia that have helped inform stakeholders on the possibilities of product differentiation and price premiums. This includes analysis of changes in consumer preferences during the COVID-19 pandemic and how these changes might affect product differentiation efforts.Emphasis is on how the generated scientific evidence can be put into practice by describing one particular case of product differentiation for sustainable beef, the so-called Aval GANSO, which is a certification scheme for sustainable beef products sold at a price premium in the larger cities of Colombia. This example shows how product differentiation can be beneficial to all involved, and how sustainable intensification can be incentivized at a larger scale.While a variety of factors contribute to rising temperatures and loss of biodiversity, food production has a high share of responsibility. Supply chains are increasingly associated with environmental and socioeconomic effects-from production to distribution, consumption and waste generation. The agricultural sector contributes to climate change by generating approximately 30% of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It also uses 70% of the global freshwater, causes 80% of the global deforestation and is responsible for the loss of 70% of the terrestrial and 50% of the freshwater biodiversity.In particular, beef production is associated with generating high amounts of GHG emissions, negatively impacting climate change and causing loss of forest area and biodiversity.Environmental problems have awakened people's consciousness in recent decades. This has given rise to socially responsible consumption whereby consumer's choose products and services not only on their quality or price but also their environmental and social repercussions, as well as the behavior of the companies that offer them.To understand and respond to changes in consumer attitudes and behavior, research organizations and the private sector across the globe carry out studies that serve as inputs for adjusting production models (the way how food is produced and processed) and product marketing (e.g. differentiation, labeling) to new realities and demands. As a result, food system actors are transitioning to a bioeconomy model, which contributes to the mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, management of natural resources, preservation of biodiversity and forests, economic growth and employment.In the cattle sector, the concept of sustainable intensification is focused on increasing productivity while generating ecosystem services (such as reducing the carbon footprint, improving soil quality, reducing sedimentation and erosion) and social and economic benefits for those involved in the sector. Focus is on the primary producer to increase the efficiency of their system (more product on less area and with less environmental footprint) through the implementation of alternative production models (e.g. silvo-pastoral systems, grazing management). Although the alternative production models are highly profitable compared to the traditional ones, substantial investment is needed to establish them and adoption is often limited due to the financial burden for smallholder producers. Financial support, including subsidies, special credits, tax reliefs, development projects and product differentiation, is needed to encourage implementation.Compared to the other options, product differentiation efforts are not external incentives or support mechanisms facilitated at the macro-level, but are internal changes facilitated by the value chain actors that respond to a changing consumer demand. This means that the consumer directly pays for changing the production system and associated value chains according to their demand. Usually, product differentiation goes together with price premiums, which can incentivize large-scale changes at the primary producer level.One approach to product differentiation is the development of food labels or seals. The development of sustainability labels enable consumers to consider environmental and ethical aspects when choosing their products. Such labels are already in use across Europe and in the United States, and are increasingly being used in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). For the LAC cattle sector, there are already some sustainability seals in use (e.g. Carbon Neutral Beef (Brazil) and Carne del Pastizal (Argentina)), but most of them are still under development or in the piloting phase, i.e. in Colombia.The objective of this brief is to provide insights into how the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) have contributed to the development of a sustainability label for the Colombian cattle sector, named Aval GANSO, by (i) generating and sharing scientific evidence on changing consumer demand and willingness-to-pay, (ii) establishing dialogue with those organizations responsible for supporting cattle producers in the transition towards sustainable production systems (GANSO) and the private sector (one of the largest retailers in Colombia), (iii) advising on the development of the label (indicators, monitoring), and (iv) assisting in the dissemination of information to spread word of the label and its benefits. Are consumers in Colombia willing to pay more for sustainable beef and animal welfare?How is COVID-19 affecting consumer preferences and choices?In 2016, a study was conducted with Colombian food consumers (Charry et al. 2019) to determine the characteristics of a potential market segment for sustainably produced beef (contingent valuation exercise) and estimate marginal willingness to pay (MWTP) for potential labels for sustainably produced beef and animal welfare (discrete choice experiment). The effect of information on the consumer's MWTP for sustainably produced beef was also estimated.The results from the contingent valuation exercise revealed that education and income increase consumers' MWTP for sustainably produced beef. A significantly lower MWTP for this attribute was determined for consumers who prefer beef over other meat alternatives. This could represent an important obstacle for market penetration since the largest number of consumers are less willing to pay for sustainably produced beef.No significant effects of various behavioral or sociodemographic characteristics were found on the MWTP for sustainably produced beef (such as household size, gender, presence of children in the household, per capita beef consumption). This demonstrates that environmental concerns may no longer be niche issues but instead are becoming social norms, a trend already identified in wealthier countries. Interestingly, 70% of the sample stated a willingness to pay for sustainably produced beef across varying levels of income and education.Based on the results of the discrete choice experiment, it was found that consumers from higher education and income segments are willing to pay a price premium of 40.2% for beef with ethical and environmental differentiation, with similar values to those found in the context of developed countries. We found that information on the negative impacts of the cattle sector on the environment, even in a brief format, managed to substantially increase the MWTP for sustainably produced beef. This suggests increasing consumer awareness can substantially stimulate the local demand for more sustainable products and might widen the consumer base for sustainable beef labels. The proposed label description for animal welfare was fully based on current regulations, so there is no need to include stricter practices or regulations.In 2020, a study was conducted on the potential impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cattle sector in Colombia (Burkart et al. 2020), which focused on describing potential changes in food consumer demand and their influence on the sector's transition towards more sustainability. Before the pandemic, the offer of sustainable food products in Colombia, including beef and dairy products, was rapidly developing in response to increasing demand (i.e. by wealthier consumers) and willingness to pay (Charry et al. 2019), creating opportunities along the value chains (Charry et al. 2018).It is expected that the crisis will cause two opposing effects regarding product differentiation efforts. First, substitution effects could lead to even less demand for differentiated beef and dairy products, since they are generally more expensive than conventional ones, and negatively affect the development of sustainable value chains (short-term perspective). Second, the crisis could lead to a change in consumer perceptions and cause a shift towards more sustainability and animal welfare once the financial means are available, leading to a boost in the development of sustainable value chains (long-term perspective).The crisis has shown that consumers have lost confidence in the food system and there is a stronger focus on healthier diets. An increase in demand for more food safety, hygiene, traceability and sustainability is expected, particularly in the livestock value chain, which could lead to higher investments by the industry (Burkart et al. 2020).A consumer household survey was conducted during the strict lockdown in Colombia in 2020, to measure the effects of the pandemic on beef consumer preferences and beliefs (Ramirez et al. 2021). Through logit regression models, the following issues were evaluated (i) the effects of sociodemographic variables on changes in food consumer preferences for a set of selected attributes, such as animal welfare and environmental sustainability (ii) consumer's decision on beef consumption in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic.Results show that the effect of the pandemic in Colombia has not considerably changed consumer beliefs regarding various attributes, such as animal welfare, environmental sustainability, information on the origin and manufacturing of food, food appearance, food price, fair payment to the producer and food packaging. Although this result is different from what was expected (Burkart et al. 2020), consumer beliefs might still change if the pandemic continues.However, consumption preferences have been affected by the pandemic as evidenced by the decline in beef consumption, i.e. amongst lower-income households or households that faced income reductions due to the pandemic (83.3% of the surveyed consumers). As expected (Burkart et al., 2020), this could affect the pre-COVID-19 efforts of the cattle sector in Colombia, which were strongly oriented towards the development of sustainable products with price-premiums (Charry et al. 2019;Charry et al. 2018;Ruden et al. 2020).The results of these studies suggest that to preserve the achieved progress and to take advantage of new opportunities, stakeholders at all levels (e.g. public policy, markets, primary producers) should increase their support and investment in sustainable products and production processes, despite the mentioned setbacks caused by the pandemic. This represents a major opportunity with various confluent demands of the local population, such as increasing food security and sovereignty, ensuring incomes and livelihood of the most vulnerable and affected population, promote rural justice and redistribution, and address the national and international commitments of environmental protection, climate change mitigation and adaptation (Burkart et al. 2021). A positive example for this is the development of the Aval GANSO label for sustainable beef launched during the peak of the pandemic in 2020.The study results have been shared with stakeholders in both the private and public sector of the cattle industry to inform them of the identified opportunities that come along with changing consumer demand. The most important platform for sharing the results was the Colombian Roundtable for Sustainable Beef (MGS-Col), a national level roundtable consisting of over 75 members from the public and private cattle sector, academia, research, and Non-Governmental Organizations, as well as thirteen regional roundtables representing the main cattle regions in Colombia.Results were presented, discussed and validated with member institutions at various bi-monthly meetings and workshops between 2016 and 2021. In 2020, the results were presented during the 4-month virtual seminar series on sustainable cattle organized by MGS-Col, which was accessed by over 23,000 people from more than fifteen countries. Results were also shared at scientific conferences and other events, during meetings with key stakeholders from the sector, or sent to interested institutions, mostly from the private beef sector. The collaboration with GANSO and Grupo Éxito GANSO (\"Ganadería Sostenible\", which means Sustainable Livestock) is a technical assistance and financing facility that supports farms in their transition from inefficient cattle ranching activities to sustainable and diversified production systems through integrating the elements of intensification of cattle production (with trees and improved forages), ecosystem conservation and restoration. GANSO's objective is to support the development of scalable businesses at the farm level that help reduce pressure on natural ecosystems, while supporting local economic and social development in areas occupied by inefficient livestock production systems. GANSO was founded in 2018, supported by Climate Focus -an international climatic and advisory company -and the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT. GANSO is based in Villavicencio in the Meta Department of Colombia and works along the Orinoco region, located in the eastern plains of the country.The Grupo Éxito, Colombia's largest meat and general grocery retailer, approached GANSO for expert advice to certify, through satellite imaging, their beef farm suppliers for deforestation. After all suppliers were assessed, Grupo Éxito and GANSO expanded their engagement into developing a sustainability certification program for cattle farms in Colombia, called Aval GANSO (Ruden et al. 2020).The Aval GANSO certification or seal was created by the two founding institutions and drawing on the experience of professionals from the beef value chain, who chose the most important pillars of sustainability in cattle production for the certification scheme, such as zero deforestation within the last ten years.Aval GANSO is a voluntary assessment tool for cattle producers and processing companies interested in assessing their production system and management, and a guarantee mechanism for consumers interested in purchasing sustainable beef. The tool was created to respond to the demand to establish a system to qualify and quantify the level of commitment and compliance of cattle farms with sustainability criteria. These criteria were classified in four pillars: environment, social, animal, and system management. Aval GANSO allows for three levels of progress, according to the results of the assessment carried out by an independent third party. This endorsement is applied at the farm level and to the product that leaves the farm.A price premium of up to 5% is paid to the certified producers by Grupo Éxito depending on the level of compliance with the sustainability criteria: (i) GANSO Inspired: 50% compliance with the assessed sustainability practices (ii) GANSO Committed: 51-80% compliance with the assessed sustainability practices (iii) GANSO Responsible: >81% compliance with the assessed sustainability practices GANSO's technical team is responsible for this evaluation through a checklist with a consulting firm that guarantees impartiality. The cattle producer receives a report of his evaluation and is given technical support to improve his system and scores if needed.The GANSO monitoring program has been monitoring 140 farms with approximately 40,000 hectares of productive land and 11,000 hectares of forest for conservation. Of these, the Aval GANSO endorsed seven farms by 2020 covering more than 10,000 hectares of productive land, over 1,000 hectares of forest for conservation and monitoring over 15,000 cattle. Meat from the endorsed farms is being sold by Grupo Éxito and the number of farms working with GANSO has doubled in 2021. There is huge growth potential for the coming years.Business model brief / Business opportunities along sustainably intensified beef and dairy value chains -5The generation of scientific evidence has helped to inform the private sector on the possibilities of product differentiation for the beef sector in ColombiaThe collaboration among actors from science, financing, processing and the commercial sector has helped develop a sound certification scheme for sustainable beef It is possible to transfer parts of the price premium obtained in the niche market to the primary producer and by this, incentivize the sustainable intensification of the production system It is necessary to involve a third party in the certification and monitoring process to guarantee impartiality Although COVID-19 has had effects on beef consumption and the beef value chains, the Aval GANSO was launched during the first lockdown in Colombia, sending a clear signal on the importance of such efforts even in difficult timesThis brief shows how product differentiation efforts can work through an integrated approach, which includes the generation of scientific evidence and its dissemination, the development of a monitoring and certification scheme based on scientific evidence and the constant collaboration among different stakeholders.The practical example we provided on the Aval GANSO shows that obtained price premiums can be shared among the involved actors and reach the primary producers. This will, in the medium-to long-term, help incentivize cattle producers to invest in improving their systems and undergo product certification. Everyone can benefit: a) cattle producers increase their income, livelihoods and resilience, b) benefits for the environment occur through sustainable intensification and monitoring, and c) the growing consumer demand for sustainable beef can be satisfied.Right now, the provision of differentiated beef is oriented towards a very small niche market, which satisfies the demand of rather wealthier and well-educated consumers from the large cities of Colombia. The planned scaling efforts should have this in mind and through economies of scale try to satisfy a larger market of interested consumers.","tokenCount":"2818"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54cfb19caddc2780d04dc132523a35db","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c4d6644-1f09-4ab8-accb-ebf5bb560c3e/retrieve","id":"-1296169331"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b8b892f0-a195-43ce-9f36-cdc64ee381db","pagecount":"18","content":"Este documento se publica bajo la licencia de Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licencia Internacional. Este trabajo puede ser copiado, adaptado, y distribuido, dando los respectivos créditos y un enlace a la licencia dada, indicando si se han realizado algunos cambios.Las radiografías de los países son una descripción de la situación de referencia de los sistemas de mercado principales para el café y el cacao en los países MOCCA a nivel nacional, en función de las evaluaciones rápidas realizadas en cada país 1 .El nivel de detalle presentado es, en cierta medida, un reflejo de la complejidad y madurez del sector en cada país. No se esperaría que el sistema de mercado para un nuevo cultivo en un sector pequeño y en un país pequeño, sea necesariamente tan desarrollado como el de un cultivo histórico en un sector grande y en un país grande. Las Radiografías de País se encuentran disponibles para los sistemas de mercado de café y cacao en El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, y Perú, y para el sistema de mercado de cacao en el Ecuador. A continuación, se describen las tablas y figuras en el orden que se encuentran en las radiografías.Figura: Mapa -el mapa del país al comienzo de cada radiografía muestra sombreadas las principales áreas productoras de café o cacao del país a nivel de departamento/provincia. Tabla: Cacao o Café en País -proporciona estadísticas nacionales de alto nivel sobre el sector para proporcionar al lector una contextualización básica de los diferentes casos, por ejemplo, el tamaño del sector y la importancia económica relativa para el país. Las fuentes de datos se describen en el anexo. Se utilizaron fuentes para las cuales había datos similares disponibles para todos los países. En algunos casos, particularmente para los datos de cacao de Guatemala, no fue posible encontrar datos consistentes en las fuentes oficiales.Figura: El mapa del mercado (Sistema de Mercado Principal para Cacao o Café en País) -El mapa del mercado tiene tres partes. 1) El centro muestra la cadena de mercado y sus principales canales competidores. La cadena de mercado es la cadena de actores (participantes) económicos que poseen un producto a medida que pasa de productores primarios a consumidores. Las flechas representan el flujo de dinero, de izquierda a derecha, ya que el producto es comprado de un actor por otro. Siempre que fue posible, se mapearon para diferentes calidades de café/cacao, y se agregó un número de actores o participación de mercado donde esté disponible. Esta sección ayuda a comprender la estructura de la cadena y a pensar en la eficiencia sistémica. La parte superior muestra las reglas y el entorno empresarial, incluidas las políticas e instituciones (influyentes) que dan forma al sistema de mercado. Estos se organizan de izquierda a derecha según el año en que se convirtieron en una influencia en el sistema de mercado, con el más reciente a la izquierda y el más antiguo a la derecha. Esta sección ayuda a identificar políticas o instituciones que influyen en el funcionamiento de la cadena. La parte inferior muestra los servicios, por ejemplo, servicios comerciales y de extensión, que respaldan la operación de las cadenas de mercado en cualquier punto de la cadena. Estos se organizan -tanto como sea posible-en función de los actores o parte de la cadena a la que prestan un servicio, con servicios en el extremo derecho más relacionados con la producción, y aquellos en el extremo izquierdo más relacionados con las exportaciones. Esta sección ayuda a identificar servicios clave o servicios faltantes, y a vincular servicios con usuarios dentro de la cadena.Figura: Sistemas de Mercado de Soporte Priorizados -estos diagramas en forma de dona del sistema de mercado desglosan algunas de las funciones de apoyo para los sistemas de mercado de café y cacao identificados como áreas de intervención en la teoría de cambio de MOCCA, que incluyen asistencia técnica, investigación, material genético y servicios financieros. La gráfica en forma de dona es un mapa de mercado simplificado donde el centro muestra una función genérica de oferta y demanda para el servicio de soporte de interés. La parte superior de la dona muestra los servicios que respaldan la prestación del servicio principal, y la parte inferior muestra las reglas que dan forma a la prestación del servicio principal. Cuando este servicio o función reguladora se asocia predominantemente con uno o pocos actores, y existe el suficiente espacio, estos se nombran. Utilizando la \"asistencia técnica\" como ejemplo: la asistencia técnica brindada a los agricultores se encuentra en el centro del diagrama en forma de dona, y se describe brevemente en el texto debajo del diagrama en términos de quién brinda el servicio, quién lo paga, la naturaleza del servicio y las funciones y regulaciones de apoyo clave. En la parte superior del diagrama, se señalan las funciones de apoyo identificadas que permiten brindar asistencia técnica a los agricultores, incluida la capacitación de agentes de extensión, la financiación de la asistencia técnica, la producción de contenido, la investigación, entre otros. En la parte inferior del diagrama, se señalan todas las normas, reglamentos, e instituciones que influyen en la forma en que se brinda asistencia técnica a los agricultores, p.ej., una entidad que certifica a los proveedores de asistencia técnica o dicta el contenido o la metodología utilizada para proporcionar asistencia técnica a los agricultores.La mayoría del cacao hondureño se vende al mercado centroamericano como cacao no fermentado, sin embargo, un porcentaje creciente se fermenta y se exporta a Europa y a Estados Unidos. Al igual que Nicaragua, el sector del cacao hondureño está resurgiendo después de la crisis de precios y el ataque de monilia a fines de los años 90. Impulsado por la presencia de Chocolats Halba en la parte norte de Honduras, el sector se ha reorientado hacia el cacao fermentado, el material genético fino y de aroma, y la producción orgánica en busca de precios más altos. Las exportaciones siguen siendo muy bajas, al igual que los rendimientos, pero ha habido importantes inversiones recientes y en curso para renovar, rehabilitar y expandir las plantaciones de cacao, con un enfoque en el mercado de productos fino de aroma, por lo que las áreas sembradas y los volúmenes deberían aumentar significativamente en los próximos años. La presencia de Chocolats Halba más los premios ganados en Cocoa of Excellence en 2015, ha ayudado a construir la reputación de Honduras en el mundo del cacao fino de aroma.El gobierno ha dado una importancia creciente al cacao a lo largo de los años y, aunque tienen muy pocos expertos, actividades o programas, ha realizado un trabajo importante bajo el Programa Nacional de Desarrollo Agroalimentario (PRONAGRO) con fondos del USDA y COSUDE, en la coordinación del sector, la promoción del diálogo entre los actores y el desarrollo conjunto de acuerdos e instrumentos de políticas 2 Para las fuentes de datos ver Anexo. para apoyar al sector, incluida la certificación de material genético, estándares de producción orgánica, desafíos fiscales, problemas de titulación de tierras y otros.El sector privado tradicional ha sido dominado por solo tres intermediarios clave que exportan grandes volúmenes de cacao a El Salvador y Guatemala. Aproximadamente desde el año 2007, se han realizado pequeñas iniciativas con compradores para desarrollar la producción de cacao fino de aroma, comenzando con Xoco, desde 2009 Chocolats Halba se ha comprometido con el sector, apoyando el desarrollo de suministros para sus operaciones de chocolate en Suiza. Junto con la Asociación de Productores de Cacao de Honduras (APROCACAHO), la Fundación para el Desarrollo Empresarial Rural (FUNDER), la Fundación Hondureña de Investigación Agrícola (FHIA) y otros, y la importante financiación de COSUDE bajo PROCACAHO, Chocolats Halba ha aumentado constantemente su oferta de cacao de Honduras, impulsando cambios importantes en la producción, así como la gestión posterior a la cosecha que han aumentado la conciencia sobre las oportunidades del mercado del cacao. Good King Cocoa ha establecido proveedores en Honduras, junto con otros, como Cacao Fino y Maderables. En los últimos cinco años se han establecido al menos cuatro instalaciones de procesamiento para hacer chocolate y otros productos, incluida una propiedad de una organización de agricultores, mientras Chocolates del Caribe cerró su gran planta de procesamiento en Honduras. Dinant, una compañía conocida en la región en varios cultivos por su esquema de producción y agricultura por contrato para procesar para el mercado regional, ha establecido 200 ha de cacao con planes de alcanzar 1.000 ha, más 1.000 ha de pequeños productores bajo este esquema de acopio para el procesamiento en Honduras. A muchos en el sector, en particular a los actores del sector privado hondureño, les gustaría ver que el sector evolucione hacia un mayor valor agregado en el país, y el crecimiento de PYMEs y marcas que producen productos a base de cacao ha proliferado en los últimos cinco años.El sector del cacao en Honduras puede ser el mejor organizado de la región. APROCACAHO ha jugado un papel importante organizando y haciendo incidencia en el sector a favor de los pequeños agricultores, y recientemente formó la Federación Nacional de Productores de Cacao de Honduras (FENAPROCACAHO) para fortalecer esta función. SAG ha desempeñado un papel importante al unir al sector bajo el Comité Nacional de la Cadena de Cacao coordinado por PRONAGRO, y ahora están en su tercer acuerdo para mejorar la competitividad dentro del sector 3 (1), negociado con la participación de una amplia representación de actores. Se creó un sistema formal para coordinar la asistencia técnica para el sector, a través del Sistema Nacional de Asistencia Técnica para el Sector Cacaotero (SINATEC). La FHIA ha desempeñado un papel importante en la investigación y el apoyo técnico para el sector de producción, material genético y postcosecha/calidad. El nivel de cohesión y compromiso entre los actores es notable.Las principales preocupaciones en el sector incluyen la productividad, el material genético, la diversificación del mercado, la sostenibilidad de la asistencia técnica y las nuevas zonas de producción de cacao. Existe un consenso general sobre la necesidad de renovar las plantaciones existentes y las nuevas áreas bien plantadas para mejorar la productividad, pero aún existe un gran debate sobre qué material genético se debe usar y cuáles son las compensaciones financieras entre productividad y calidad. Una preocupación mayor es garantizar la trazabilidad del material genético a través de una mayor regulación de los proveedores de plántulas, para asegurar que las plantaciones nuevas o renovadas sean de material genético conocido y productivo. Existe una tensión entre aquellos que desean diversificar los compradores y agregar valor al cacao en el país, y el reconocimiento de que Chocolats Halba ha invertido en el sector y necesita recuperar esa inversión. Esto se complica por los diferenciales con los precios del mercado local que no parecen justificar el costo adicional del procesamiento y las certificaciones posteriores a la cosecha. La asistencia técnica, junto con muchos servicios para el sector, han sido fuertemente subsidiados por subvenciones para el desarrollo y existen serias dudas sobre cómo se mantendrá esto en el futuro y sobre las distorsiones que se están creando hoy en día. Finalmente, se está promoviendo la producción de cacao en varias áreas que no han sido áreas de producción comercial, como La Mosquitia, Olancho y El Paraíso. Los agricultores en estas áreas no tienen conocimiento previo del cultivo, lo que hace que la asistencia técnica sea una función de apoyo crucial para estas áreas, que el sector necesita para mantener los proyectos posteriores.enfoque dentro del sector desde finales de la década del 2000 se ha centrado en reactivar la producción, por lo que gran parte de los esfuerzos han estado enfocados en apoyar la renovación del material genético a través de nuevas plantaciones o injertando material genético nuevo en árboles viejos. Varios proyectos han establecido nuevas áreas utilizando diferentes diseños de sistemas policlonales y agroforestales. Entonces, si bien todavía hay áreas para renovar o rehabilitar, también hay áreas importantes recientemente sembradas, renovadas o rehabilitadas. Recientemente, la Mesa Nacional estimó que existen 6.875 ha de cacao, 3.000 ha de las cuales son áreas recién sembradas 4 (1), un salto considerable respecto a las cifras oficiales de 2017 mencionadas en la tabla anterior. Será importante monitorear las plantaciones establecidas para asegurar el reemplazo de plantas improductivas o faltantes, y evaluar la productividad de los materiales genéticos y las combinaciones introducidas.Los agricultores con apoyo o asistencia técnica de los proyectos están renovando las áreas por lotes, o están introduciendo nuevas plantas en las plantaciones más antiguas, y luego están eliminando los árboles más viejos a medida que crecen los nuevos árboles. El último sistema permite una mayor continuidad de la producción, pero complica el establecimiento de la nueva plantación siguiendo las pautas de distancias de siembre recomendadas, debido a que las plantas más viejas se interponen. Algunos proyectos están proporcionando plantas donadas o plantas subsidiadas, tales como CAHOVA. FUNDER, bajo PROCACAHO, proporcionan crédito para adquirir plantas. La mayoría de los proyectos están adquiriendo sus plantas de organizaciones de agricultores que tienen jardines clonales y viveros. Las semillas provienen de los agricultores, pero el material injertado proviene de varetas originarias de las colecciones en FHIA o del Centro Universitario Regional del Litoral Atlántico (CURLA), y materiales introducidos de CATIE. Las organizaciones de agricultores juegan un papel importante en el acceso a las plantas y el apoyo a la R&R. Los agricultores que no reciben apoyo de un proyecto continúan produciendo sus propios viveros por semilla y utilizando densidades de siembra sub-óptimas. A menudo se renuevan reemplazando árboles viejos dentro de una plantación existente. Los participantes de los grupos focales comentaron la marcada diferencia entre los agricultores asociados con organizaciones que reciben apoyo de proyectos de desarrollo, y los agricultores no asociados, sin este tipo de apoyo, en relación a su forma de siembra (por semilla o por plántulas injertadas), densidades de siembra y árboles asociados.Una forma relativamente común de rehabilitación en Honduras promovida por proyectos ha sido injertar plantaciones de forastero más antiguas con varetas de variedades trinitarias. De esta manera logran un cambio en la genética de su plantación, evitando muchos de los costos asociados con el establecimiento de una nueva plantación. Algunos agricultores también identifican plantas improductivas e injertan material nuevo en ellas. Las organizaciones de agricultores desempeñan un papel importante en apoyar a agricultores miembros para hacer R&R a través del suministro de material genético, la AT enfocada en R&R y el suministro de insumos, además de comercializar cacao.Hay dos canales principales de mercado para el cacao en Honduras, bastante diferenciados con respecto a los actores participantes, los tipos de cacao y los tipos de agricultores, con un cierto cruce entre los dos. El primer canal comienza con intermediarios que exportan cacao dentro de Centroamérica, dominado por tres intermediarios principales (Marvin Handal, Miguel Reyes, y Fredy Ayala). Compran su cacao de intermediarios locales o directamente de agricultores individuales. Los intermediarios transportan, secan y limpian el cacao. El segundo canal dominante es Chocolats Halba, que compra principalmente cacao fermentado certificado de cooperativas de agricultores que fermentan el cacao comprado a sus asociados.A pedido de las cooperativas, Chocolats Halba comenzó a comprar todo el cacao a sus proveedores, y el cacao de grado comercial lo re-vende a los intermediarios grandes. Hay una pequeña cantidad de cacao especial que se compra a través de cooperativas o directamente de los agricultores, donde se han establecido relaciones comerciales más directas, por ejemplo, COAGRICSAL o Xoco, y hay una pequeña cantidad de cacao que se queda en el mercado interno.Existen bastantes acuerdos o reglamentos específicos del sector, que otorgan cada vez más importancia al sector. Los más importantes incluyen los acuerdos marco para la competitividad del sector desarrollados en el contexto del Comité Nacional de la Cadena de Cacao desde 2010, y las regulaciones más recientes (desde 2016) relacionadas con el uso y comercialización de material genético. Las certificaciones son otra norma importante, especialmente la orgánica y más recientemente, el comercio justo. Los servicios de apoyo están bastante desarrollados, pero son posibles principalmente por las inversiones y gestión por parte de los proyectos en el sector. La asistencia técnica, la provisión de material genético, los servicios financieros, los insumos y la coordinación están presentes en mayor o menor medida debido a los incentivos proporcionados por proyectos.Figura 2 Sistema de mercado principal para cacao en HondurasFigura 3 Sistema de mercado de soporte: Asistencia técnica para cacao en HondurasLa asistencia técnica es proporcionada por organizaciones de agricultores y ONGs internacionales (Helvetas, Heifer, Ayuda en Acción-AeA) y nacionales (FUNDER, CASM), todas con fondos de donantes internacionales (COSUDE, UE, BID). Los compradores apoyan la asistencia técnica para el manejo de la calidad postcosecha. La asistencia técnica se proporciona a través de organizaciones de agricultoresdonde existen-, contratando proveedores de asistencia técnica para trabajar dentro de las cooperativas. La metodología ECA es ampliamente utilizada, basada en guías desarrolladas por CATIE PCC (Proyecto Cacao Centroamérica), junto con el contenido de la aplicación Cacao Móvil. Si bien esto es dominante en la parte norte del país, no está claro cuánto ha permeado en las nuevas áreas de cacao. La renovación con nuevo material genético, injertos, combinaciones de clones y podas, son partes importantes del contenido de la AT. Las prácticas orgánicas y la nutrición son vacíos existentes.Honduras cuenta con sistemas sólidos para capacitar a los proveedores de AT, que incluyen capacitación académica (CURLA, UNAH), cursos, materiales, visitas y resultados de investigación (FHIA), y materiales de capacitación para agricultores y agentes de extensión, mencionados anteriormente, que ayudan a armonizar las metodologías y el contenido. Las tecnologías digitales, incluidos los grupos de WhatsApp, son importantes para la difusión de información. Falta un modelo de financiación sostenible para la AT, ya que ha sido financiada en gran medida por donantes.SINATEC es un grupo de trabajo que ayuda a armonizar la AT en el cacao entre los proveedores de AT y entre los proveedores y consumidores del servicio, para garantizar que el contenido se base en evidencia y sea relevante para el sector. SINATEC regula la asistencia técnica tanto en términos de contenido como de enfoque, pero también respalda la AT mediante la coordinación del subsector. SINATEC puede ser un fuerte aliado para desarrollar y difundir el contenido de R&R.Figura 4 Sistema de mercado de soporte. Investigación en cacao en HondurasLa investigación en cacao en Honduras se lleva a cabo en gran medida por la FHIA y las universidades regionales, junto con algunas ONG (Helvetas, Rikolto, WCF) con fondos de donantes (COSUDE, UE) y fondos propios de la FHIA. FHIA tiene la infraestructura de investigación más grande, ya que ha realizado investigaciones durante varias décadas, incluida una colección internacional de germoplasma, un ensayo agroforestal a largo plazo y, más recientemente, ha construido laboratorios de investigación sobre postcosecha y calidad. La FHIA también ha capacitado a investigadores en cacao. Sin embargo, los resultados de la investigación no siempre se difunden en forma sencilla y comprensible para los agricultores y la participación de la FHIA depende de los fondos de los donantes. Las universidades regionales (CURLA, UNAG) acaban de comenzar a realizar investigaciones con pequeños fondos universitarios. La investigación tiene vacíos en temas como: la nutrición del cacao, el rendimiento del material genético en diferentes regiones y la producción orgánica. Los servicios de apoyo incluyen colaboraciones con centros de investigación internacionales, incluidos CATIE y WCF, y alianzas con Universidades en Suiza. La conexión dentro del sector de investigación del cacao en Honduras y con la investigación del cacao a nivel regional necesita ser fortalecida, así como la diversificación de los actores involucrados en investigación.El Acuerdo Marco para la competitividad del sector describe las prioridades de investigación para el país, y SINATEC desempeña un papel en la priorización de temas, así como punto de entrada para entidades internacionales de investigación que desean involucrarse en el sector.Figura 5 Sistema de mercado de soporte: Material genético para cacao en HondurasEl material genético para pequeños agricultores relacionados con proyectos de desarrollo es proporcionado por ONGs u organizaciones de agricultores, y es subsidiado por fondos de donantes. FHIA y Asesoría y Servicios en Producción Agroindustrial (ASEPRA) tienen la mayor capacidad para la producción de plantas. ASEPRA se formó para proporcionar servicios especializados que incluyen el suministro de semillas, plántulas, varetas y servicios de injertación. Las cooperativas también han recibido apoyo desde el año 2007 (CATIE PCC) para administrar jardines clonales y producir plantas para su distribución a los agricultores. La mayoría de los agricultores asociados obtienen las plantas de su cooperativa. Con base en una regulación de 2016, SENASA está trabajando para registrar proveedores de material genético para el cacao. Se identificaron veintidós jardines clonales; solo la FHIA ha completado el proceso que documenta el origen de los materiales. Catorce viveros han sido certificados. A pesar de la creciente conciencia de la importancia de sembrar plantas injertadas, muchos agricultores, no apoyados por iniciativas de desarrollo, continúan sembrando por semilla, dado el costo significativamente menor (1/3 del costo).Los servicios de apoyo incluyen una red de injertadores capacitados, jardines clonales registrados por SENASA y certificación de mejores prácticas/competencias para viveros, administradores de viveros e injertadores. Hay diferentes modelos financieros disponibles para ayudar a los agricultores a comprar plantas, y la investigación sobre caracterización e intercompatibilidad de materiales genéticos y arreglos policlonales ayudan a guiar la selección de materiales.Existen regulaciones generales y específicas del cacao para respaldar la trazabilidad y la calidad en los proveedores de semillas, varetas y plántulas, y están comenzando a aplicarse.Figura 6 Sistema de mercado de soporte: Servicios financieros para cacao en HondurasEl sistema financiero formal en Honduras no ofrece servicios financieros a los productores de cacao, dadas sus características y las del cultivo, la cual es poco conocido, de largo plazo y no particularmente rentable. Muchos productores de cacao no tienen títulos de propiedad que puedan servir como garantía. PROCACAHO, a través de un acuerdo entre FUNDER, Cajas Rurales y varias instituciones financieras (Banrural, Atlántida, FINCA, Cooperativa Ceibeña, Chorotega), ha creado líneas de crédito para el cacao. Los agricultores con garantías piden prestado en la banca comercial, mientras que los agricultores sin garantías pueden pedir prestado a través de una Caja Rural con la que estén asociados. Actualmente tienen 70 millones de lempiras en 2.500 préstamos activos, un promedio de alrededor de $1.000/préstamo. El reembolso comienza después de 2,5 años. Los productos crediticios incluyen el establecimiento de nuevas áreas, costos de mantenimiento, comercialización, e incluso la compra de infraestructura y terrenos.Las funciones de apoyo para los servicios financieros en el cacao incluyen la intermediación de FUNDER (bajo PROCACAHO) con diferentes instrumentos e instituciones financieras para establecer una oferta de productos financieros para el sector. PROCACAHO también está apoyando la titulación de tierras a través de INA, la entidad competente, para usar como garantía con el propósito de facilitar el acceso a la financiación.Las reglas que influyen en la provisión de servicios financieros incluyen las de los prestamistas de segundo nivel, la ley que rige las instituciones financieras y, en particular, las cooperativas rurales de ahorro y crédito, las regulaciones del fondo de crédito PROCACAHO y la Estrategia Nacional de Inclusión Financiera del gobierno.• Programa de Mejoramiento de Ingresos y Empleos para familias productoras de Cacao PROCACAHO, Café Resiliente en Centroamérica, $ 11,6 millones, 2015-2021, FUNDER, APROCACAHO, COSUDE, y Chocolats Halba: este proyecto se encuentra ahora en su segunda fase y se centrará en fortalecer la organización de agricultores bajo FENAPROCACAHO para asegurar la voz de los agricultores en las políticas relacionadas con el sector; asistencia técnica para mejorar la productividad y el fortalecimiento organizacional/comercial para cooperativas, para así fortalecer el acceso al mercado y el valor agregado. Este programa se enfoca en aproximadamente 2.000 productores de cacao en la región norte, incluyendo a Cortés, Atlántida y Colón en términos de impacto; sin embargo, el proyecto también se está alineando y apoyando el desarrollo del sector a nivel nacional, incluyendo la abogacía de los agricultores en las políticas y las relaciones de comercialización, y el compromiso de múltiples partes interesadas, para mejorar la competitividad de la cadena y los beneficios para los pequeños agricultores. La producción de cacao orgánico será un componente importante. Esto ha incluido temas de acceso al financiamiento, promoción de calidad y exportaciones, incluso títulos de propiedad y desafíos fiscales. • Fortaleciendo la Cadena de Valor de Cacao de Calidad en el Departamento de Olancho, 5,4 millones, 2017-2021, Helvetas, Rikolto, Chocolats Halba, y UE: Con fondos de la UE, este proyecto trabajará con agricultores asociados con APROSACAO para mejorar productividad y calidad, aumentar las áreas de cacao y construir modelos sostenibles de producción y negocios para una mayor inclusión en la cadena de valor del cacao en Olancho. El enfoque estará en el cacao orgánico y otras certificaciones. • Planta de chocolate COAGRICSAL: Cooperativa Agrícola Cafetalera San Antonio Limitada (COAGRICSAL) es una cooperativa de café grande y bien establecida que ha estado creciendo lentamente en cacao, apoyando el establecimiento de nuevas áreas con miembros, instalaciones de fermentación, y más recientemente, en 2019, inauguraron una planta de fabricación de chocolate. Las infraestructuras que COAGRICSAL tiene para el procesamiento posterior a la cosecha y la transformación del cacao en productos de valor agregado, incluso en el turismo de cacao, son un activo para el sector. COAGRICSAL exporta directamente cacao a por lo menos dos compradores con demandas de calidad muy específicas. Esta cooperativa, además, deberá evaluar cómo su nueva fábrica de chocolate se vuelve sostenible financieramente, y ayuda a capturar el valor de los compradores. Habrá oportunidades importantes para aprender de las experiencias de COAGRICSAL. Formaban parte del Mapa de Sabores, pero no han utilizado los protocolos desde entonces, asimismo formaron parte de la iniciativa para producir pequeños granos de cacao para bocadillos, y continúan exportando también a Good King Cocoa. La cooperativa ha desarrollado una marca y una diversidad de ofertas para sus productos a base de cacao. • NCI para el cacao: dada la estructura actual del sector del cacao, el nivel de apoyo de los donantes que incluye el apoyo a la gobernanza y la reciente creación de FENAPROCACAHO, existe una oportunidad para que MOCCA apoye las estructuras de gobernanza del sector emergente. La gobernanza actual tiene un gran peso de cooperación para el desarrollo, representación de agricultores organizados, especialmente del norte, y el sector privado representado por Chocolats Halba. Las posibles áreas para fortalecer son la vinculación de agricultores no asociados, que representan aproximadamente la mitad de los productores de cacao en el país otros compradores, y las conexiones con otras regiones productoras de cacao en Honduras. La existencia de IHCAFE y las instituciones asociadas brinda la oportunidad de aprender entre sectores, a pesar de la gran diferencia de alcance entre estos dos sectores. • Productos financieros para el cacao: aparentemente Funder ha desarrollado un conjunto diverso de productos financieros y los está aplicando con éxito tanto en bancos comerciales como en asociaciones comunitarias de ahorro y préstamo, obviamente con importantes incentivos proporcionados por el proyecto. Esta es una oportunidad interesante para comprender cómo funcionan estos diferentes productos financieros, y qué se necesitaría para mantener estos servicios después del proyecto, para así comenzar a crear las condiciones para sostener eso. Esto también podría proporcionar lecciones aprendidas para otros países MOCCA. • Fortalecimiento de la investigación y la difusión: si bien la FHIA es un gran activo y ha dominado el panorama de la investigación en Honduras, existe la oportunidad de conectar el sector (y la FHIA) con actores de investigación adicionales y viceversa. El nivel de organización, particularmente la existencia de SINATEC, proporciona una plataforma para la priorización de las necesidades de investigación, la difusión de los resultados de la investigación e incluso la incorporación de nuevos conocimientos en los programas de extensión. El nivel actual de actividad en el cacao en el país ofrece una plataforma emocionante y socios con los que participar en la investigación, lo que lo hace atractivo para la comunidad investigadora. Al mismo tiempo, la falta de conciencia, acceso y uso de la investigación mundial sobre el cacao brinda la oportunidad de aportar nuevos conocimientos a la mesa.1. Comité de Cadena de Cacao. Acuerdo Marco Para la Competitividad de la Cadena Agrolimentaria del Rubro de Cacao Entre La Secretaría de Estado en los Despachos de Agricultura y Ganadería, y el Sector Privado (2019 -2022). San Pedro Sula : s.n., 2019.","tokenCount":"4688"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"41b467b568e5b47f2b92b12529a56029","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9ce81628-b66e-41a0-8498-51a27a126c01/content","id":"-1052239971"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f3397875-fa95-4dba-904d-3adb9fdf427c","pagecount":"8","content":"The twin goals of achieving food and nutrition security in Eastern and Southern Africa remains urgent. These goals are particularly challenging now because they must be achieved at a time of unprecedented global changes including climate change and dwindling land and water resources. The solutions to these problems can come from either increasing food production by bringing more land into agriculture or implementing a long-term strategy of increasing yields on existing agricultural land while protecting the natural resource base and environmental services.The first choice of simply bringing more land into agricultural production may look straightforward on the surface but is problematic because the supply of suitable land has dwindled in many parts of the world. Secondly, the need to protect the capacity of (mostly) fragile ecosystems and biodiversity further limits the supply of new agricultural land. Therefore, choosing the path of 'sustainable intensification' of agriculture provides the most balanced approach that promises to increase crop yields without impacting too negatively on the environment and the resource base upon which agriculture depends. Yet the technological and agronomic improvements needed to achieve sustainable agricultural intensification are not easy for many farmers to implement due to knowledge, labour and resource constraints. This brief report on what is needed to promote diffusion of farming practices that can contribute to sustainable agricultural intensification.To achieve sustainable agricultural intensification will require widespread adoption of production practices that enhance crop yields and contribute to reducing the environmental risks. Among others the most cited farm management practices which contributed to sustainable agricultural intensification are soil-conserving tillage methods, crop diversification and adopting stress tolerant but high yielding crop varieties.The benefits of sustainable agricultural intensification are clearly apparent but the practice requires major policy reorientation. Part of this reorientation will require that both at the farmers' level and at the level of investments in natural resources management and high standards of agronomy. Practices such as soil and water conservation and integrated soil fertility management are crucial for sustainable intensification. This should then be accompanied by concomitant and strong investments in agricultural input and output value chains.▪ Food insecurity and malnutrition are still harsh realities for many African citizens with 49% living on less than $1.25 per day.▪ Agricultural yields in Africa are some of the lowest in the world. For example, maize yields average 2 tonnes/ha compared to an average of 19 tonnes per ha among the world's top ten performers in maize production.▪ The need for a sustainable agricultural intensification can help meet these challenges and as a result avoid some pitfalls of resource and environmental degradation is urgent.▪ The Sustainable Intensification of Maize and Legume Systems in Eastern and Southern Africa (SIMLESA) project was designed to test conservation agriculture based practices in the region based on the principles of conservation tillage, soil surface cover, crop diversification through new stress tolerant maize and legume crop mixes.▪ Research done under SIMLESA and adjunct projects that dealt with analysing technology adoption pathways, smallholder mechanization using small machines and crop-livestock intensification has confirmed that for many rural households, food security requires enhancing maize productivity through use of improved varieties, integrating legumes for cash and food and applying targeted sustainable intensification practices such as minimized tillage, continuous soil covers and maize-legume diversification as a package.In this brief, we summarize four areas in which research under SIMLESA and related projects have shown that the achievement of sustainable agricultural intensification at the farm level will require the confluence of several factors in addition the achieving widespread adoption of composite of multiple sustainable agricultural intensification practices. The following are a summary of four broad policy messages that have been generated from SIMLESA research:The need to support integrated approaches to technology development, extension and adoptionResearch under SIMLESA and related projects has shown that the best outcomes in terms of crop income were related to simultaneous adoption of combinations of sustainable agricultural intensification practices.In the example shown in Figure 1 it is apparent that crop incomes are more than twice in Ethiopia when combinations of practices are adopted compared to when only one practice was present. Figure 1 illustrates that when the number of practices in a combination of sustainable agricultural intensification increases, income from such plots is higher compared to the case where the number of practices were only a few. For example, when the only improvement on a farm or plot was crop diversification with maizelegume intercrops or rotations, crop income is about $100/ha. This increases nearly threefold when the crop diversification is combined with minimum tillage practice and by adopting improved varieties on the same plot. The lesson is that promotion of better agronomic practices and crop varieties should be done as a package in designing future research, developing extension messages and in prioritizing policies to support adoption of sustainable agricultural intensification. In each case, specific packages suitable for particular locations and groups of farmers should be researched, disseminated and supported. The need to increase investments in extension services with minimum targets Sustainable agricultural intensification requires that farmers' agronomic and resource management skills are improved by/through strong, consistent and high quality extension services. One of the research reviews done as a part of the SIMLESA found that there were 33 frontline extension workers for every 10,000 farmers which were not enough to have an effective reach to the farmers. The availability of extension services had some of the strongest effects in predicting the adoption of better agronomic practices. An example of this effect was an eight-percentage point increase in the adoption of CA-related practices in Tanzania (and similarly a 13-percentage point increase in Malawi, see Figure 2). The proposal from this set of research was that agricultural policies related to extension and information delivery to farmers should focus on increasing both the amount of agricultural information available to farmers, make these messages as site specific as possible and ensure they are delivered with regular frequency to ensure they are up to date. This goal may require involving a diverse array of actors in providing extension services.  The need to improve market access, lower costs of inputs and make inclusive finance availableHigh cost of inputs is a deterrent to the adoption of good agricultural practices and technologies. An example of the impact of costs on technology adoption relates to subsidies. The research has shown that input subsidies have powerful effects in the adoption of sustainable intensification agricultural practices. Setting input subsidy expenditures at levels comparable to those recently observed in Malawi, increased adoption by more than 100-pecentage points in Ethiopia and Kenya, and by about 70% in Tanzania (Figure 3).Taking account of the huge budgetary allocations to input subsides and competing development needs, continued reliance on subsidies will be problematic in the long run despite their popularity and costreduction benefits to recipients. In order to achieve sustainability in cost reduction and enhance farmers' access to inputs, the following principles should be considered. In the short term, innovative implementation of smart(er) subsidies that make use of mobile money platforms and e-vouchers can be considered. In the medium term, improved targeting of subsidies (often called \"smart\" subsidies) can be built around reasonable conditional requirements. These requirements can be aligned with social goals such as verifiable adoption of resource and environmentally conserving practices on farmers' fields. Other options may include participating in community projects that promote environmental and resource conservation.In the long run, improving infrastructure networks into rural areas, supporting agribusiness finance will help improve input supply chains in ways that are likely to be more effective and long lasting. Given the policy makers concerns about rural poverty and weak purchasing power, considerations can be given of providing more general safety nets. Illustrating the importance of some form of safety nets, one research finding was that when farmers expected or received support from government, they were more likely to try out new technologies due to the insurance provided by such support. This finding suggests that providing safety nets can help build farmers' sense of safety to take risk and try new crop varieties and agricultural practices, knowing that there is a fall back option if the new practices do not go as well as they planned.  The need to harness the power of ICT and mobile technologies for agricultural developmentArguably, the high mobile penetration in several countries in Africa means that mass communication with many communities that were previously off-grid can now occur. The widespread availability and use of mobile phones in this way presents exciting opportunities for information delivery to farmers. To explore this opportunity, the project created the SIMLESA-SMS platform. A number of valuable lessons have been leant in the testing of SIMLESA-SMS. First, despite their great potential, the use of mobile phones beyond voice calls is not necessarily straightforward among rural mobile phone users. Due to low literacy levels in rural Africa and due to the fact that most phones owned by farmers are older feature phones, the use of voice messages may be the most feasible in many areas of rural Africa for the time being. For example, the agricultural transformation agency in Ethiopia overcame the limitations of text messages by providing an automated voice recording service in multiple languages for Ethiopian farmers. As at the time of writing, the service had 5 million subscribers. These mobile and ICT services, like traditional forms of extension will work best when they serve local community needs. While localizing these systems will likely be more costly, these extra costs may well be justified when weighed against the greater effectiveness of such systems.","tokenCount":"1583"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3c1ef9e068b53b238ee423cebc561f59","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/afee9154-507d-4149-a57d-eb6c6bf66b6f/retrieve","id":"778688168"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f1b00c3c-93a8-4c6d-b31b-02f863c668fb","pagecount":"19","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Small ruminants are the main source of livelihood for millions of smallholder pastoralists/farmers in Ethiopia. Production diseases are among the major constraints to small ruminant production. Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is one of the diseases that affect goat production having huge economic implications. Good management plays a significant role in control and prevention of the disease. However, smallholder pastoralists/farmers have limited awareness and knowledge of the disease and the prevention measures. Raising their awareness and knowledge through experiential training can help reduce disease incidence resulting in decreased economic losses.The overall objective of the training is to increase the awareness and knowledge of pastoralists/farmers about the causes and transmission of CCPP disease so that they can take appropriate measures to prevent and control the disease and reduce its economic impact.Specifically, the training aims to:• Explain the cause and socio-economic impacts of CCPP.• Describe the transmission of CCPP infection.• Identify the clinical signs of CCPP.• Discuss CCPP prevention and control measures.Training contentThe training adopts a participatory, interactive and gender sensitive approach drawing on pastoralists/farmers' knowledge and experiences. The intrahousehold impact of animal diseases and the roles of different household members in the prevention and control of diseases will be explored.The training will use a mixed and couple's training approach to ensure knowledge application and increase outcomes. Involving development agents in community based training events will ensure better articulation of pastoralists/farmers' problems and contextualization of the training content. This will help facilitate training application (outcomes) as the development agents continue mentoring and supporting the pastoralists/farmers after the training. The participation of couples (both wife and husband) in farmer/pastoralist training events will also increase training application at the household level.Training methods and materials A complete grasp of the training content will take one day. It will be delivered in community centres to create easy access to participants. The training can be delivered in half a day session to allow pastoralists/farmers time for reflection and catering to farm and household activities (particularly women livestock keepers).In this section, pastoralists/farmers will learn about what CCPP is, the causative agent of the disease and socio-economic importance of the disease.By the end of the session, pastoralists/farmers will be able to: Then, explain the training objectives and expected outcomes.In an interactive discussion, ask participants to identify common goat diseases. Explore what they think causes the diseases they have identified.Show the image below and ask participants to discuss it in pairs or trios.• What do you see in the picture?• What is the problem?• What causes the problem?• How does it reflect the situation in this community?Find out the local term for 'CCPP' and why it is named like that.Then, explore what participants think CCPP is and what causes the disease. Ask: What causative agent and conditions can expose goats to CCPP infection?Then, communicate the following points to supplement their understanding using the translated CCPP training PowerPoint and disease leaflet:Main learning points:• Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a severe respiratory disease affecting goats.• CCPP is highly contagious, rapidly spreading and seriously fatal disease in goats.• It causes a severe and devastating acute respiratory disease with high morbidity and mortality in goats in the native population.• CCPP is caused by a microorganism called Mycoplasm.Ask pastoralists/farmers to mention what they think are the impacts of CCPP on goat production and their livelihood.Use the following discussion questions:• What is the effect of the disease on goat production?• What is the effect of the disease on your livelihood?Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=27L-Y2umnPE Source: https://www.ivis.org/library/recent-advancesgoat-diseases/contagious-caprine-pleuropneumonia• How does the disease affect men and women differently?Building on participants' understanding of the impacts of CCPP on goat production and their livelihoods, communicate the following points.Main learning points:• CCPP has a considerable socio-economic impact in infected territories and causes severe financial losses to the pastoralists/farmers.• The financial losses due to CCPP emanated from:°High mortality rate from the disease.°Production losses due to morbidity (reduced milk production) and the costs for treatment and vaccination.In this session, pastoralists/farmers will learn about the transmission of CCPP infection. They will learn about the sources and routes of infection and the conditions that expose goats to CCPP infection.By the end of the session, pastoralists/farmers will be able to:• Identify the sources of CCPP infection Ask them:• Where do you think goats get CCPP infection?• What is the seasonality of CCPP infection?On a flipchart, write down farmers' expectations and intentions to apply the training.Discuss the following points to supplement their understanding of the sources of CCPP infection.• Commonly the infection is brought into the flock by a carrier or infected animal.• Aerosolized infected respiratory droplet from the carrier or infected animal is the major source of the disease (direct contact with those animals).• The organism does not survive for long outside the animal body and transmission requires very close contact (contagious).Building on the previous activity, ask pastoralists/farmers what they think about how the CCPP infects goats.Show the image below and ask:• What do you see in the picture?• What is happening in the picture?• Why is it happening?Key messages:• The disease is readily transmitted by inhalation.• Inhalation of infected aerosols is the main route of transmission.Find out what pastoralists/farmers think can expose goats to CCPP infection. Explore their understanding of the interdependence between the host, agent and the environment.Show the image and ask:• What do you see in the picture?• What is happening in the picture?• Why is it happening?Then, discuss the predisposing factors for CCPP transmission.Explore farmers/pastoralists' goat management practices including housing, hygiene, herd size and isolation of sick animals.Discussion questions?• What host related factors can predispose CCPP transmission?• What is the condition of housing for goats? Does it have adequate space?• Do you isolate sick goats from the flock? If yes, how and for how long?• Do you prevent your flock from mixing with others at watering point?• Do you quarantine new goats before mixing them into the flock? If yes, how and for how long?• What is the seasonality of CCPP incidence? In what season of the year is a higher incidence of CCPP? Why?• Do you vaccinate your flock against CCPP? If yes, how many times per year?Key messages:• Host related factors:°Herd size (rapidly spread in the dense herd)°Vaccination status of the animal (high in native population)• Environment: season of the year (high in the rainy season and cold environment)• Husbandry practice: By the end of the session, participants will be able to:• Monitor the health condition of goat flock.• Identify clinical signs of CCPP.• Clinical symptoms of CCPP• Pictures • What is happening in the picture?• Does this happen in your goat flock?On postmortem examination, the lung of goat affected with CCPP shows fibrinous covering over the lobes, consolidation and discolouration (appear grey).Main learning points:The clinical findings in CCPP are restricted to the respiratory system and include:• Fever• Anorexia and loss of body condition • Nasal discharge (serofibrinous straw coloured to thick mucopurulent)• Dyspnoea (shortness of breath)• Lagging and lying down a lot (but the animal can stand and walk)• In the terminal stages: mouth breathing, tongue protrusion and frothy salivation with death in 2 or 3 days.• Under adverse climatic conditions, the disease may occur in a septicemic form with little clinical or post-mortem evidence of pneumonia (sudden death).In this session, pastoralists/farmers will learn about prevention and control measures for CCPP infection.By the end of the session, participants will be able to:• Isolate sick animals from the flock.• Seek professional advice on CCPP treatment options.• Regularly vaccinate the goat flock.• Separate own goat flock from other flocks at watering points.• Regular vaccination and veterinary advice • What is vaccination and how does it work?• Do you think vaccination treats sick goats?• When should goats get vaccinated against CCPP?• Do you contact the local veterinary office when you observe any disease symptoms in your goat flock?Building on participants' experiences, communicate the following points.Main learning points:• Vaccination with an inactivated mycoplasma F38 vaccine induces an immune response that is effective in reducing morbidity and mortality rates.• Immunity is generally short lived and needs annual revaccination.• Maternal antibodies may interfere with the development of immunity and kids born to does that have been vaccinated while pregnant should themselves not be vaccinated prior to 3 months of age.• Vaccine produced by NVI is available in 100 ml vials for 100 doses.• Vaccinate 1 ml/goat subcutaneously (thoracic wall area is advisable).Find out participants' practices regarding herd biosecurity including isolation of sick animals, quarantine new animals, hygiene and watering practices. Encourage participants to share their experiences.Discussion questions:• How do you isolate sick goats, newly purchased goats and goats returned from market unsold?• Do you separate your goat flock from other flocks at watering points?• What is the housing condition for your goats?Then, communicate the following main points.Main learning points:• Prevent close contact with another flock at the watering point• Prevent close contact with infected animals• Prevent close contact with wild angulates (animals)Activity 3. ChemotherapyFind out the treatment practices of pastoralists/farmers for CCPP cases.Discussion questions:• Do you self-treat your animals?• Do you procure drugs on your own?• What steps do you take to treat sick animals?","tokenCount":"1545"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9a1b0cdb3cf42565c0d741c4149d6893","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4e5e17eb-ca1b-4540-85bb-17d74c135804/retrieve","id":"-1968563239"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4691fdca-4c4a-4b76-992a-01c718de6734","pagecount":"12","content":"the ability to make strategic choices in their lives and to act upon them, when they previously could not. It is a complex, intangible, political, context-speci c and multidimensional concept that entails changes at multiple (individual, relational, environmental) levels.-Even if assessments of empowerment are imperfect, they can contribute to stronger and more accountable programs and policies.-Qualitative and quantitative methods can both yield valuable information for assessing empowerment; combining them can yield comprehensive information that cannot be acquired by using any method alone. Understanding empowerment requires research to embrace and address complexity, to unearth the structural barriers that cause inequality.-Our review of 15 tools for measuring women's empowerment shows that all tools explore agency, but most neglect structural causes of disempowerment.-Future research on women's empowerment should seek to better understand the links between empowerment and agriculture, decision-making processes and situations where positive changes in some dimensions of women's empowerment can cause setbacks in others.-Defining women's empowerment can support change, yet is difficult 'Empowerment' is central to Sustainable Development Goal 5: \"Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.\"The struggle for women's empowerment is both historical and contemporary (https://www . jstor. org/stable/25548253) . It crosses all geographical borders. It is a collective push against patriarchal structures, and intersecting relations of class, ethnicity, caste, and race that (re)produce discrimination, marginalization and inequality.However, the original concept of empowerment (https://doi. org/10. 1111/1467-7660. 00125) has been diluted since its initial uptake by those involved in international development. Some The challenge for projects designed to support women's empowerment is to transform the underlying societal structures causing disempowerment.Understanding the dimensions of empowerment to identify the factors that need to be assessed Empowerment is the process by which people gain the ability to make strategic choices (https://doi. org/10. 1111/1467-7660. 00125) in their lives and to act upon them, when they previously could not. It emphasizes people's freedom (https://scholar. harvard. edu/sen/publications/development-freedom) to de ne and lead a life they have reason to value (https://doi. org/10. 2307/2026184) .People's ability to make and pursue important decisions hinges on three dimensions that we can assess: resources available now and in the future -social, material and human agency -to make or negotiate decisions -These dimensions interact. For example, resources increase people's abilities to make choices, and increased agency can lead to achievements as well as increase access to resources.Agency-a person's ability to de ne and act upon one's goals-is at the heart of the concept of empowerment, and is di cult to measure.People can (https://doi. org/10. 1016/j. worlddev. 2019. 06. 018) have individual or 'intrinsic' agency ('power within') and group or 'collective' agency ('power with')(https://doi. org/10. 2499/p15738coll2. 133060) to act to realize their goals ('power to').Changes in empowerment can take place at different levels:Assessing empowerment can lead to stronger programs and policiesThe eld of agricultural research for development (AR4D) increasingly aims to increase women's empowerment -for its intrinsic value and/or because of its important links with health and nutrition, productivity and resource management outcomes.However, many projects which claim to advance women's empowerment do not de ne Assessing changes in empowerment needs to be done over time and at different levels Assessing empowerment is challenging. There are issues that relate to ethics (https://www . awid. org/publications/capturing-change-womens-realities) and how knowledge is produced (https://www . fsnnetwork. org/resource/measuring-gender-transformative-change-reviewliterature-and-promising-practices) in this area, including asking who should assess empowerment and why.Current development programs and policies tend to favor quanti able, 'objective' indicators such as economic measures. While these are very important, they are only one part of a holistic assessment. Qualitative analyses (http://hdl. handle. net/10986/7441) that examine social, emotional, and other changes in women's lives -especially as expressed in women's own words -are also critical for understanding empowerment processes.Assessing empowerment as a process is challenging because it is often attempted at a single point in time, but needs to capture changes over time, often dating back to an earlier reference period.Many measures are at the individual level, but it is also important to maintain a focus on collective responsibility and political engagement (https://www . fsnnetwork. org/resource/measuring-gender-transformative-change-review-literature-andpromising-practices) -including considering how formal and informal rules, including norms, in uence empowerment through households, communities and markets.Ideally, an analysis of change should consider the different levels of empowerment described above (individual, relational, environmental).Research on empowerment will bene t from respecting different forms of knowledge and ways of knowing the world, embracing various methodologies, and reaching across disciplines.This means moving past the AR4D preference for quantitative data and experimental designs and being open to change which is non-linear (https://gender. cgiar. org/publicationsdata/measuring-gender-transformative-change) , less visible, intangible and less predictable, including recognizing unintended negative outcomes. This shift calls upon many researchers to change the way they think about and do research (https://doi. org/10. 1002/jid. 3210) . Although this type of research is more complex and 'messy', it can help unearth the structural barriers that create privilege and opportunity for some, and constraints, exclusions and disempowerment for others.Combining qualitative and quantitative methods to assess empowerment How researchers assess empowerment, and the methods and tools they use, depends on the purpose of their research. It may be useful to compare measures of empowerment across space and time, but assessments must also recognize that empowerment is deeply contextual.Qualitative methods are valuable for understanding context, experiences and processes of change (i.e. explaining how and when change happened), and for eliciting perspectives on empowerment in participants' own words.But these methods provide data that are less easily comparable than data from quantitative methods -and decision-makers often seek the informative trends, numbers and comparisons that quantitative methods can provide.Qualitative and quantitative methods can be combined to create more effective assessments and analysis. Several tools even use qualitative methods to develop quantitative measures. Using both types of methods can yield comprehensive information that cannot be acquired by using any method alone.In a recent review (https://www . ifpri. org/publication/advancing-gender-equality-through-agriculturaland-environmental-research-past-present) (Chapter 9 (https://www . ifpri. org/publication/assessingwomens-empowerment-agricultural-research) in Advancing gender equality through agricultural and environmental research: Past, present, and future (https://www . ifpri. org/publication/advancing-gender-equality-through-agricultural-and-environmentalresearch-past-present) ), we, along with our colleagues Steven Cole (https://www . iita. org/iitastaff/cole-steven/) , Agnes Quisumbing (https://www . ifpri. org/pro le/agnes-quisumbing) , Ana Maria Paez Valencia (https://www . worldagroforestry. org/staff/ana-maria-paez-valencia) and Jennifer Twyman (https://expert nder. cgiar. org/display/msracad-1983379059) , investigated 15 quantitative and qualitative tools used to assess women's empowerment.We analyzed them based on which dimensions (resources, agency, achievements) and levels (individual, relational, environmental) of empowerment they examine, who they are meant to collect information from (local women, men and so on), whether they consider gender parity in empowerment, and whether they focus on the perspectives of those whose empowerment is being assessed ('emic' perspective) or of others/outsiders ('etic' perspective).The tools roughly clustered into four groups (see Table 1 for more detail):Tools that measure one dimension of empowerment at one level -mainly agency as decision-making within the household: 5 Dimensions, WEI (IRRI) -Tools that focus on one dimension (agency), but at multiple levels, including attention to some structural/environmental reasons for (dis)empowerment: Ladder of Power and Freedom, WDI-GAI -When selecting a tool, researchers need to consider their appropriateness, scope, limitations and adaptability, as well as how data collected using the tool will be competently interpreted.Tools that measure empowerment across more than one -but not all -dimensions and levels: A-WEAI, GEI-CSV, Pro-WEAI, WEAI, WEFI, WEI (CARE), WEI-(Oxfam), WELI, Empowerment pro les -Tools that explore all dimensions of empowerment at all levels: GIMT, Well-being timelines -Table 1: After analyzing 15 quantitative and qualitative tools, we found they clustered roughly into four groups.  Empowerment means focusing on women's capacities to make choices instead of their agricultural productivity Despite much effort and many advances in how we measure women's empowerment, there is still much progress to be made.Many times, programs seek to support women's empowerment assuming that it will lead to better agricultural production (http://www . fao. org/3/i2050e/i2050e00. htm) . However, that may not always be the case. Efforts to support empowerment should recognize the value of empowerment in its own right, and not only as a means to achieving other desirable outcomes.-Agriculture may not always be an empowering pursuit. Empowerment depends on women's aspirations, which will sometimes include exiting agriculture.-Because empowerment challenges (https://www . jstor. org/stable/1395556) power structures, it can create resistance among those (a spouse, for example) who feel they are losing power (https://doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5) . This can create backlash, such as in the form of gender-based violence, which may appear as ineffectiveness on behalf of the projects or programs supporting empowerment. Measures of empowerment must be able to detect such situations, where advances in some dimensions of empowerment lead to setbacks in others.-Decision-making is sometimes shared among spouses or family members, and individuals may not wish to be involved in some types of decisions. As such, the link between autonomy over decision-making and empowerment is not always straightforward. Assessments of empowerment should seek to capture the nuances of decision-making, and not assume that women's independent decision-making necessary indicates empowerment. ","tokenCount":"1473"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7f47d344517f85c391aee861b496aa78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/94e86b7e-76cf-40f6-beb8-af639536811e/content","id":"-485887864"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"43a67664-508f-4f5b-96a4-b11b2efe94ce","pagecount":"45","content":"La concentración de clorofila, carotenoides, agua y celulosa son los principales factores que determinan la reflectancia en la hoja.Nuevas estrategias en el mejoramiento genético y manejo de los cultivos Objetivos:-Ganancia genética para rendimiento -Resistencia a enfermedades -Calidad -Reducir el ciclo para obtener nuevas variedades-Rendimiento -Resistencia a enfermedades -Altura -FenologíaFitomejoramiento fisiológico (premejoramiento)-Biomasa -Fotosíntesis -Eficiencia de uso del agua/ luz -Desarrollo radicular -Fenología -Rendimiento-Mejorar la adaptación al estrés abiótico y el rendimiento potencial en el contexto del cambio climático.-Incorporar características relevantes al ciclo de mejoramientoFenotipeado Fenotipeado: un paso escencial en el mejoramiento genético del trigo Uso de modelos conceptuales como estratégica para aumentar la ganancia genética en el rendimiento. •Fertilidad de espigas •Llenado de grano •Acumulación de carbohidratos en el tallo y removilización•Morfología de la hoja Los programas de mejoramientos estan limitados por la capacidad de evaluar y monitorear los recursos genéticos disponibles.Disminución de errores durante las mediciones: repetitividad Nuevos sensores mejoran la sensibilidad y precisiónQué es la Percepción Remota (PR)?Captación de patrones de energía reflejada o emitida por un objeto.La radiación que llega a la superficie de una hoja-planta puede ser reflejada, absorbida (para utilizarse en procesos metabólicos) y transmitida.Las plantas también emiten radiación: infrarrojo y fluorescencia.Los patrones espectrales de la absorción, transmisión y reflejo de radiación están primeramente determinados por los pigmentos, constituyentes y estructura de la hoja.Cómo utilizar el espectro electromagnético para obtener información de la vegetación.Reflectancia:• Propiedad intrínseca del objeto observado. • No depende de las condiciones de iluminación.Cómo utilizar el espectro electromagnético para obtener información de la vegetación.• Rangos del espectro asociados a características de la vegetación. • Estos rangos pueden involucrar una sola longitud de onda o un rango amplio de longitudes de onda. • Una forma de utilizar esta información es a través de los Indices Espectrales de Vegetación.Cómo utilizar el espectro electromagnético para obtener información de la vegetación.redCombinación matemática de los valores de reflectancia en 2 o mas longitudes de onda. Buscando la mejor combinación de bandas para estimar fAPAR: gráficos de correlaciones.• Análisis de todo el espectro utilizando estadísticas multivariante: regresiones lineares multivariantes, análisis de componentes principales, support vector machine (SVM), etc.Temperatura de la planta/dosel CT esta asociado al rendimiento de trigo bajo condiciones de sequía y calor.CT esta potencialmente asociado al la estructura de raíces y su capacidad de exploración del suelo. • Parámetros/índices relacionados con:-Biomasa (water index y LIDAR) -Características estructurales ( reconstrucción en 3D y LIDAR) -Estimación de la eficiencia de uso del agua -Estimación de la eficiencia de uso de la radiación (sun-induced fluorescence) -Fenología (e.g. espigamiento; RGB) -Densidad de espigas (RGB y LIDAR)• Calibración y validación de métodos • Automatizar la línea de procesado • Sistema para revisar la calidad de los datos tomados • Administración de datos • La PR ayuda en el proceso de mejoramiento:• Potencialmente reduce el tiempo del ciclo de mejoramiento • Mejora la eficiencia de selección • Flexibilidad para fenotipear en distintos ambientes • La PR ayuda en el fitomejoramiento fisiológico:• Permite la evaluación de características fisiológicas y morfológicas relevantes de las plantas • Facilita la exploración de los recursos genéticos disponiblesContacto: fr.pinto@cigar.org","tokenCount":"510"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"71a85c42915635fc28230176fdc6abea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_16546.pdf","id":"-2067657109"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"98d80767-c614-4c0a-b56f-90565cf351d0","pagecount":"72","content":"Pakistan and Review of Applications . Ch. Muhammad Shafi' * Regulation and GPM Software * Irrigation Management Information System-used by IlMl for pilot study Analytical and simulation tools * Equilibrium Software (EQ-to calculate different flow parameters under equilibrium conditions CFLOW Water Sediment Balance Mode!-developed by Delfl Netherlands MISTRAL Hydraulic Simulation Model-developed by the French institute SOGREA SIC Hydraulic Simulation ModeMeveloped by CEMAGREF * *AFTER ONE YEAR of existence, the ITlS (Information Techniques for Irrigation Systems) Network has gained some momentum and is now moving from a phase of establishment to a phase of more mature forward looking development. The ITlS Network can be characterized by five elements:1. An IIMCCEMAGREF (International Irrigation Management Institute-Centre National du Machinisme Agricole du GBnie Rural des Eaux et des Forets [France]) Coordinating Committee.2. A database of individuals and institutions.A database of irrigation systems.4. A newsletter.5. An annual meeting.The Coordinating Committee is responsible for publishing the newsletter, organizing the annual meeting, faciltating the contacts between Network members and raising funds.The list of individuals and institutions affiliated to the Network (which basically means receiving and contributing to the newsletter and, for some, attending the annual meeting) comprises of irrigation managers, researchers, donors andlor their parent institutions who have been identified as having an interest in the Networks thematic field: information techniques for irrigation systems.The irrigation systems of special interest to the ITlS Network are those where a specific experience on DSS (Decision Support Systems) has been conducted, shared and discussed within the Network (through direct research by IlMl or CEMAGREF, through a presentation in the newsletter or during the annual meeting).The newsletter is published by IlMl at a rate of two issues per year (MaylDecember). Its present format comprises 6 sections, namely: I. Forum (general articles) 2. Backflow (readers' feedback and suggestions).4. Tools and techniques (progress made in measurements, transmission of data and Software). The annual meeting permits the discussion and synthesizing of the advances made during the previous year by the irrigation community in the field of the application of information techniques. The meeting is organized around three main sessions:1. Presentation of specific field experiences by irrigation managers.2. Field visit and case study by the participants in a system of interest in the host country.3. Special session on a topic of generic interest prepared in advance by a group of Network members (state of the art in one field, reviews, methodologies, etc.).Proceedings of the Network meeting are made available to all participants.The ITlS Network has a light and flexjble structure. As demonstrated in Lahore this year, its mandate is to help crystallize the thinking and experience of practitioners of the irrigation community in a field with immense potential for the improvement of their business: generating and using better information for decision making.The first part of the Monday session (day 1) was dedicated to generalities on DSS. Different aspects of the problem were tackled. The complexity of the irrigation systems was first identified as a major challenge in modeling. The dynamics of the different flows, i.e., downward flow of water, upward flow of information, downward flow of decision, time gap between decision and effect, gap between information treatment and acquisition, and fanner behavior are some of the critical points that need to be taken into account. A well-balanced DSS is probably a combination of an information system and simulation models. The nature of the models depends on the goal of DSS. DSS benefts from the rapid development of computer science, but this contains at the same time a threat. as the balance in adequacy between goals and means and between means and resources can be easily disturbed. In other words, we must use the tools appropriately and not be controlled by the tools. This warning is especially appropriate for the new generation of tools that are powerful, convivial and expressive (full of colors). With this in mind, there is obviously an interest in testing new techniques in Some particular irrigation systems, e.g., GIS (geographic database), or expert systems such SICODE which has been developed in Mexico (presented during the Monday session).The second part of the Monday session was on site specific experiences. Four different national approaches were presented and discussed with the participants. In Pakistan, IlMl in joint collaboration with CEMAGREF. is leading a project on the Chistian Subdivision-the downstream portion of the Fordwah Canal. The project aims to investigate the canal operational rules and suggest possible improvements. Variability in discharge occurs very often, especially at the downstream end of the canal. Furthermore, these perturbations are usually amplied by the gate operators themselves adjusting the gates too frequently. The research project combined an irrigation management information system (IMIS) to monitor the state of the system and a simulation model (SIC) to test and work out new operational rules to attenuate the variability effect. Some simulated rules and management scenarios had already been drawn, reducing the number of gate operations at cross structure from 15 to 2 per day. In 1995, the Chistian Subdivision Authority (Punjab Irrigation Department), IlMl and CEMAGREF will test these new operation rules in the field.In Mexico, the presentation focussed on the automatization of the Yaqui Canal Alto in Sonora. The project is carried out by IMTA (Instituto Mexican0 de Tecnologia del Agua), in the context of the privatization of irrigation systems. The goal is to provide new or future management associations with pertinent flow control methodologies. The idea of evolving towards a more user-driven system with more flexibility, is also a great motivation for the development of new methodologies.In Malaysia, the Muda Irrigation Scheme has a long history of using information systems. The system's 97,000 hectares (ha) of rice fields are supplied by different water sources (50% direct rainfall, 30% remote reservoirs, 15% river flow and 5% recycled drainage). Since completion, water management at the two upstream dams (two days of transfer) has always had to take into account real-time information from the irrigation district (demand) and from the other sources (supply). In 1988, the information system was improved to better assess the water demand from the districts, taking into account the high spatial variability of the rainfall, to better transmit the information using wireless means, and to better process the data including an evaluation pmcedure.In Sri Lanka. the Irrigation Department in conjunction with the Irrigation research Management Unit (IRMU), is now conducting a comprehensive program to develop and disseminate generic methods for applying decision support systems. This program has been built to improve the operation and management of irrigation systems in Sri Lanka. It follows a decade of experiences in introducing computer tools and modern data systems (collecting and processing), which had been conducted independently (e.g., Gal Oya) orjointly with other organizations (e.g., with IlMl and CEMAGREF in Kirindi Oya). The program focusses on four selected systems with the goal of building in each an information system. The preliminary study, the establishment of a measurement Network, the operationalization of a data collection process and the introduction of computer models, are the main points on which the program supports the selected system managers. The program also attempts to synthesize and disseminate the findings through meetings, workshops, and initial and ongoing training for irrigation Staff.Following the outcomes of the 1993 meeting, the participants focused their presentations on DSS in support of water distribution, as this was judged an area that needed more attention. The 1993 meeting also stressed the need for simple (minimal hardware requirements) and fast and explicl (refusal of black box approaches) tools, which guided the 1994 workplan of the participants and was reflected in this year's presentations. Cost efficiency was another issue that was prominent in the previous year's discussions. This featured much less in this year's presentations, mainly because the case studies in the different countries are all based on relatively cheap methods of data processing and especially data collectionnransmission. The Mexican case is a good example, as all the DSS tools are sold to the +en (in this case farmer organizations). It was stressed in 1993 that a better understanding of exibting decision making processes in irrigation systems was required before implementing DSS. The Network addressed this issue on days 2 and 3 of the meeting when the Pakistan case was discussed. More news on this would be disseminated in 1995 through the ITlS Newsletter.Finally, it was concluded during the previous year that a sustained interest of policymaken in DSS could be generated by a quantification of performance improvements through interventions. Most of the tools presented included an evaluation module, although there is much room for improvement. In Muda, for instance, evaluation can be carried out on a seasonal basis only at present and there appeared to be a need to do this more often. Policymaken have not been involved in the Network so far, but once firmly established, the Network will attempt to create more significant links between policymaken and irrigation managerslresearchers. ' In the discussion, the participants stressed the need for a classification of tools, to make these tools accessible to researchers and managers working in irrigation systems.This section is based on the (group) discussions that were held on day 3 (Wednesday) in Bahawalnagar, and on the individual responses of participants to questions formulated in a questionnaire that was distributed affer the site visit on day 2 (Tuesday).Three groups were formed to discuss the following questions:1. Strengths and weaknesses of water management of the Fordwah System.  5. Adequate operation and maintenance (O&M) funds.The following were mentioned by one of the groups:1. Irrigation extension service.2. Enforcement of existing rules. collaboration.Before the f i el d visit, forms were distributed asking for the need of a DSS in the Fordwah System. The following questions were posed:1. Key points to be addressed by a DSS in the Fordwah System.2. Suggested DSS in the Fordwah System.3. Workplan for implementation in the Fordwah System.1. The respondents indicated that the quality of service to the users was the most important issue to be addressed by a DSS, while the second issue was variability. Other issues that were mentioned were maintenance, financial evaluation, communication and equity. Operation was considered to be more important than maintenance.2. The Fordwah System needs to be partitioned (scale, level of decisions). The data need to be centered as the objectives are centralized (equity). The respondents stressed the need for simplicity and building on the existing system.3. The concept of a clear, agreed pilot study was indicated. For this, the objectives of the System need to be clarified. A way should be found to include a study on groundwater (conjunctive use).Finally, the evaluation of the pilot study should be based on objectives with user feedback and the participation of field staff.Based on the group discussions and the individual responses to the questions pertaining to the implementation of a DSS in the Fordwah Irrigation System, the following conclusionslrecommendations were formulated:a. The general objective of the operation of the canal system needs to be agreed upon (e.g., equity, steady flow, etc.).b. The means to achieve the objective is to implement a rotational plan (perenniallnonperennial). a. At all levels including users on collection, transmission and processing of data.Needs: Coordination improved between PID and IIMI.This section is based partly on the (group) discussions that were held on the fourth day (Thursday) and partly on the response to questions posed in forms that were filled in by the participants. Every participant of the meeting was asked to answer three questions, prioritizing keypoints presented during the meeting and identifying the gaps and needs for future research or actions. The key points have been grouped following the 1993 classification:1. Tools.2. Implementation methodology.1. There is a need l o make a database of available tools: this database should include the experiences that users have had with a particular tool.2. Tools that are developed should be as generic as possible; however, they need to be adapted l o site specific situations.Tools need to be as transparent as possible; simplicity in using the tool was stressed.4. A DSS is considered as a chain, and the data collection (measurements) appears to be the weaker link. It is followed by data transmission and then the data process (software). The needs for improvements are accordingly acknowledged, and simplicity and reliability are keywords regarding the future developments identifed by the participants.1. The success in implementing a DSS within an irrigation scheme is largely attributed to a good preliminaty diagnosis and the possibility of referring to pilot studies.3. There is a need for a good system l o monlor and evaluate pilot studies as well as the implementation of DSS with appropriate indicators.4. Funds need l o be set aside for pilot studies as well as the implementation of DSS 5. There is still a need to gather and improve the knowledge on information systems dedicated to irrigation schemes (diagnosis, implementation, evaluation). Training of staff needs to be undertaken; this training needs to be focussed and consistent with the global objectives of DSS implementation.Need for coordinating committees, in which managers and farmers participate.The consistency of the approach is seen as the keypoint to success. It ranges from the definition of clear global objectives for agriculture and water management to users' acceptance of the project.6. Finally, it is a matter of facilitating the knowledge flows: production and storage of data (what knowledge), allocation (for whom, e.g., local managers), and distribution (how to train and disseminate).Following the discussions during the workshop, a number of practical proposals were put forward by the participants, which need to be realized in 1995. c. Specific topic of generic interest (e.g.. tools, implementation methodologies, instiiutional arrangements). In the Mexico meeting the theme will be DSS soffware.A review of DSS methodologies and tools used in irrigation management will be carried out by IIMVCEMAGREF.Chris Perry' Decision support systems: A set of fools and procedures which, if used by the management of a PaffiCUlaf system, would enhance the qualify of the decision making process in the system.On 13 November 1994, the Government of Sfi Lanka was due to induct a new cabinet, following the presidential elections held earlier in the week. The inducfion ceremony was delayed until 14 November, because ashologers advised the incoming president that this would be a more auspicious date.The two statements recorded above are related: the first a general definition of DSS, and the second one practical example. While the example chosen may strike some as extreme or unusual, it allows us to recognize some important characteristics of DSS, and also shows that the range of DSS is sufficiently large that we may need to be very specific in defining words such as \"enhance\" and \"quality.\"The purpose of this introductory paper is primarily to set out some notes of caution that might help False Clarity-Never Mind What We Are Seeing, What Are We Looking For?There is something beguilingly persuasive about \"modem\" digital analysis, and its associated laserprinted, 300 dots per inch output, with multiple pages of supporting calculations, and three dimensional graphics. (The reader is probably taking this paper more seriously in its printed form than if it were handwritten). \"Modem\" information is oflen challenging in both scale and detail (we can correlate anything against anything, in a matter of seconds). This ease of processing and presenting data encourages analysis without purpose, and reduces the preliminary effort that the analysts should put in before running the models, to clarify the hypotheses they are testing, the linkages being explored and the mechanisms underlying those linkages. IlMl is perhaps much closer to having tested Cfly performance indicators in one project than one indicator in fifty projects.False Precision-And the Unpopularity of IgnoranceAn internal World Bank paper with the title \"Estimates of Poverty\" (or \"The Poverty of Estimates\") argued in the late 1970s that existing data on, and indicators of poverty were an inadequate base for policymaking. The paper pointed to many methodological diftkulties-definitions, measurements, trends-and complicating factors of local preferences, non-quantifmble social and environment issues, and how to compare four bowls of rice in 1920 with three bowls of rice plus color coverage of international cricket in 1980. The conclusions were neither accepted nor popular. Analytically oriented people do not like ignorance, and prefer to move at least into a probabilistic mode, from which it is a short step to approximate, then presumed, certainty.False Measurements-How t o Ensure a Perfect Concrete Mix Every Time Any measurement may be wrong, and techniques exist to safeguard against genuine errors and random events. But it is not only in quantum mechanics that links exist between observers and experimental results.In a recent large construction project, observations of concrete slump tests (the amount by which a moulded cone of wet concrete compresses when left freestanding) indicates that extraordinary consistency was being obtained in the results, and by implication the concrete mix. On checking, it was found that the mould was undersize to precisely the amount needed to indicate a perfect mix. This helped the checker (no bad news to report); the mixer (no rejected samples); the contractor (smooth progress of work); and the construction supervisorj (lots of records of successful tests).The Cosy World of Models-The Complexity of Reality, and the Collapse ofthe Strawberry Market Modelling is intellectually demanding, but at least we have control of our environment. We set the rules, define the relationships, specify the indicators, and activate the perturbation to be examined, or the objective to be fulfilled.But our models are only as aware as we an?: if we have never experienced a pest attack, or an unexpected delivery of PL480 wheat, our model will not face such problems either, and our simulated farmers will make their simulated decisions in ignorance of such threats. That their decisions may vary from those of the real farmers should therefore come as no surprise, and indeed should be a cause for concern at our own ignorance, not theirs.Most of us will have built linear programming models that predict every fanner will grow strawbemes-the best use of available resources. The process of \"calibrating\" the model to satisfactorily predict the present is daunting as one realizes that models with thousands of constraints have failed to under vegetables, for example-which are intellectually dishonest since they act as a proxy for many other constraints which could be captured in the modelling framework. More wonyingly, due to their inappropriate formulation, such constraints disguise \"real\" results as we move towards analysis of new situations (better water management, for example) that might actually allow a relaxation of the observed limit-and the production of more strawberries.. meet this basic challenge. The solution all too often is \"flexibility\" constraints-no more than 10 percent .Decision support systems by definition can only exist where objectives have been defined (use less water), or targets specified (deliver Xm3/ha). In the absence of such targets it is hard (impossible?) to formulate a DSS.Many irrigation systems run without formal rules ortargets. and indeed where such targets nominally exist, they may be ignored. While this situation may limit the application of DSS, the discipline which DSS requires in translating rules and procedures into mathematical formulations will undoubtedly be an important benefi of the approach. Wriers on irrigation have noted that the various actors in the sector (state and national governments, irrigation and agricultural departments, system managers, farmer organizations, individual farmers, etc.) have differing sets of objectives-some of which are complementary, and others conflicting. The formulation of DSS requires careful attention to such issues, An \"enhanced\" decision for one group may be disaster for another-for example, if water to one area is cut off to ensure maturity of the crop in another area which is chosen for its social backwardness. This is not to say that such decisions are wrong, or do not need to be made. But the mechanism underlying the decision must be clearly elaborated in the DSS, and the priorities underlying weightings subjected to careful review from the perspectives of all effected parties.The problems set out above are relatively simple. No doubt all the approaches we shall be discussing embody clarity of purpose, precise information accurately recorded and realistic model formulations, in the contekt of clearly specified rules and properly weighted concerns. Other problems seem leSS tractable.Irrigation systems are complex living organizations and as such respond to their environment in sophisticated ways. Assuming the problems noted above are resolved, and we have at least a clear indicator for \"enhancement\"-say gross project value of production--what kind of responses can we expect?First. we should hope for a simple shim along the existing production function-more yield per unit of input (land, water labor, or whatever) from the existing technology. But we know that fanners are rarely behaving \"rationally\" in relation to the existing technological options-planting too late, applying too l i l e fertilizer, not weeding optimally, etc. This gives cause for concern even in respect of the static response. Perhaps the farmers will follow a completely different path as they perceive a changed environment.The dynamic response-a shifl of the production function-is even more difficult to predict and contains more worrying uncertainties. Note for example the case of the Pakistani system of canal rostering and warabandka completely mechanistic and transparent approach to canal operation.A combination of rainfall and unexpected shortages may lead to a situation where one canal group has clearly suffered in relation to other groups, and reallocating water to them would appear rational and equitable. Such an action might have unpredictable effects on the future response of fanners to the system. Irrigation exists to protect against uncertainty, and the (crude) certainty embodied in the warabandi system has led to many sophisticated responses on the part of the farmers: planting larger areas than can be fully irrigated to maximize beneffis from rainfall, cropping mixes of water sensitive and water insensitive crops that directly mirror the expectations of different irrigation availability, and field technologies to encourage deeper rooting in the early growth stages. These important techniques are a response to a known system, and indeed have not developed in systems with higher levels of water availability, but less transparent systems of allocation. DSS which are viewed by fanners as unfathomable black boxes risk losing all that innovation.The range of DSS is huge. The Romans watched the sky to see whether birds would appear first from the \"sinister lefl-a sign of bad luck. Modem neural networks observe and leam from humans. In between are improved measuring and reporting systems (management information systems) which to the extent they interpret and present processed data, increasingly occupy a grey area between management information systems and decision support systems.Recent experiences from neural networks present new opportunities. or new threats, depending on the interpretation. It was reported in a recent New Scientist that neural networks were being used to identify and classify ancient stone artefacts. Slowly the performance of the neural system improved, and eventually surpassed that of the experts in speed and accuracy. The experts were unable to figure out how the neural networks performed this feat-apparently the system identified variables which the humans were either not using or were using subconsciously. while this holds great promise for DSS in one sense, it perhaps casts doubt on our human ability to provide an appropriate counterpoint (as system operators, planners, constructors. and farmers) to the artificial expert in charge.   The modern capacity to collect, distribute and analyze large volumes of data presents irrigation managers with opportunities to improve the performance of their systems, subject to a number of constraints. When we are clear as to the quality of the data, the appropriateness of the analysis, and the location of the goals we are seeking, digital processing is indeed a valuable additional tool. Such situations will mostly occur when systems are operating close to an identified constraint: schedules need to be calculated more quickly or precisely; inaccurate gate operations result in hydraulic instability, etc. Where constraints to better operation are not well identified, DSS may have little to offer, and indeed may prove misleading.Particular care is needed in two areas. First, irrigation performance is the result of dynamic interaction between system operation and farmer response: Our understanding of what affects farmer response is limited. Second, many \"rules of thumb\" embody the knowledge of generations. Translating this into digital black boxes requires that we be able to fully articulate that knowledge.. . The project area is divided into four districts which are further subdivided into 27 localities. For the purpose of water management, the entities are 173 irrigation blocks.The water resources available for irrigation are as follows:1. Direct rainfall on the rice field (51%).2. Controlled supply released from two dams, namely the Pedu and the Muda dams (29%).3. Uncontrolled river flow from the catchment downstream of the dam (15%)The distance between Pedu Dam and the Muda area (rice growing area, is 67 kilometers [km]). In view of the distance and the limited storage capacity of the service reservoir adjacent to the Muda area, a computerized water monitoring and control scheme was established to maximize utilization of rainfall and uncontrolled river flow (see Figure 1 for a general plan of the Muda Irrigation Scheme and Figure 2 for the water distribution chart of same).A Control Scheme was set up during the implementation of the Muda Irrigation Project. The functions were as follows:1. To assess the irrigation water requirement and available storage capacity in the rice field. The hardware of the scheme consisted of a telemetry network monitoring discharge from the Pedu Dam, rivers and main canals; a telex system for communication from the districts regarding irrigation demand and a 16 kilobytes IBM 11/30 computer for the computation of demand.The status of water levels and gate setting of the main regulators were scanned hourly from the Control Center located at the Headquarters through the telemetry system. The release from the Pedu Dam, the water levels in the main rivers and the water levels and gate settings of the main regulators were displayed on a mimic control panel for monitoring in the Control Center.The four districts in the Muda area submitted daily field condition data reports to the Control Center via the teleprinter systems provided after the irrigation staff had inspected and assessed the situation at the relevant rice plots. Each district also sent in an average daily rainfall value. The Control Center then fed in the relevant data from paper tape into a Data Processing Unit which evaluated and updated the information received. The Control Center also received stream flow data from the telemetry river stations and water levels, and gate openings and discharge data from the telemetry outstations at the main regulators along the primary canals. The water requirement for rice fields was computed strictly based on the reported water depth status-\"more, enough, less.\" After processing the water requirement of the rice fields, it then arranged for the release of water from Pedu Dam if necessary and at the same time allocated the required discharge to each secondary offtake. The Control Center operated the main regulators and offtakes for bulk deliveries to the districts which in turn operated all offtakes of the distributaries (secondary canals), feeder pipes and other imgation control structures.Each district was given the authority to redistribute the water given according to the situation and condition of the rice fields or distributaries at that time. The Senior Control Engineer was responsible to vet the printout by the computer and was empowered to override any instruction given by the computer, if necessav.For effective communication, the irrigation field staff at the districts and the Control Center were given VHF communication equipment. This had greatly facilitated the operation of the irrigation system as well as flood routing and warning of operations when most of the landlines were damaged by fallen tree branches, etc.The Major Drawbacks of the Old Control Scheme 1. The computation of water demand based on observation of the water depth in the field which was classified as \"less\", \"enough or \"more\" and the rate of supply was given according to the status of water depth irrespective of cultural practice and the stage of growth of rice. Rainfall data were not used in the calculation of water demand. Instead, the observation of water depth in the field was thought adequate. These led to inaccuracies and often, overassessment of . . .water demand occurred as the field staff would often report \"less,\" especially when they were under pressure from the farmers.2. The telemetry landlines employed in the Control Scheme were subjected to constant damage, lightning surges and interference, resulting in either complete breakdown or corrupted data being transmitted to the Control Center. The system as a whole was so technically advanced and delicate at that time that there was a lack of competent backup service in the region, to enable the effective maintenance of these sophisticated equipment. Hence, the telemetry system was very expensive to maintain and hardly functioned as a total system.No feedback of flow from each distributary canal to the Control Center was made. The Constant Head Orifice (CHO) though capable of measuring fl ow rate, was only used to set the allocated flow for the day. Hence, the Control Center was not aware of how much irrigation water had been supplied to the irrigation blocks.4. There was lack of participation of field staff in the scheme as their only job was to report rice field water depth status.5. The Control Scheme did not have a feedback and evaluation system for both the field staff and the staff at the Control Center.The present scheme is called the Water Management and Control Scheme (WMCS) as it is thought that the scheme's objective is not merely to control the flow of water but also, more importantly, to establish a system whereby, monitoring, control, management and evaluation of the water resources utilization in the Muda Scheme can be effectively and efficiently carried out. In developing the present scheme, we took cognizance of the reasons for the shortfall of the previous scheme and hence were pragmatic in our goals. The tremendous advances in computer and telecommunication technology which made possible voluminous data to be collected, transmitled and processed speedily has definitely made the planning of the scheme a less formidable task. Basically, an Information System which collects, transmits, processes and analyzes the various water management data forms the backbone of the WMCS.A new Telemetric Hydrological Network which employs wireless transmission has been installed to replace the landline telemetry system. It consists of the following:1. Sixty one rainfall stations evenly distributed over the whole Muda area and also the dam catchment areas. In addition, 6 rainfall-cum-water level stations were Installed at strategic locations in the major tributaries to the project area. All these stations are equipped with automatic recorders and telemetry slave controllers.2. A Telemetry Master Controller in the Control Center at the Headquarters enables the remote stations mentioned in (1) above to be scanned.A Repeater Station to relay data between the telemetry master and slgve controllers.4. A data retrievingltransfemng system to transfer data from the master controller to the mainframe computer.This telemetry system has enabled MADA (Muda Agricultural Development Authority) to acquire realtime rainfall data and uncontrolled flow data. Immediate action, if necessary, could then be taken to adjust the dam discharge, taking into consideration the available uncontrolled flow and the rainfall distribution pattern. Flood routing is also effectively carried out with the available real-time flood data from the telemetry system.Three voice channels are leased from the Telecom Department. There are 104 VHF transceivers installed at the locality offices, district offices and major control structures throughout the project area and the Control Center. These voice channels enable effective communication between the irrigation field staff at the districts and the Control Center.A Fujisu 340-R mainframe computer is situated in the Headquarters and linked to dummy terminals in the district offices by modems. This setup enables more efficient communication of field data and the sending of daily water management reports than the previous punch-card type of telex system.Together with the purchase of the computer, MADA also leased a Statistical Analysis System (SAS) and a General Purpose Contouring Program (GPCP) which help a great deal in producing a versatile water management system.Water management is based on a reasonably accurate water balance model. This requires detailed field data such as the available water resources (rainfall, uncontrolled flow); crop demand (agronomic practice. management and for the control scheme to be operationaliied We have taken another step forward from the old \"less-enough-more\" operational rule.The various types of data collected are as outlined in Table 1, These data are essential for good water I There are three main modes of data transmission from the field to the Control Center in the Headquarters:a. The telemetly system which transmits rainfall and water level data in the form of radio = Hour@).Tele.= Telemetric. Some Problems in the Present Information System 1. The radio channels which are leased from the Telecom Department sometimes corrupt the telemetric data and interrupt the VHF voice communication. Preliminary findings show that it is due to the aged repeater station. Manual reading of the rainfall and water level data parallel to the telemetry system is therefore still required to avoid loss of valuable hydrological data, should the telemetric data be corrupted.2. The E-pan data are still collected manually. It means that the hydrological stations concerned still need to be manned.3. The present mainframe computer used for the water management program is outdated and not user friendly.4. The WMCS computer program also needs updating due to changes in cultural practices.5. There are weaknesses in the database management. Beside the major types of data collected for the WMCS. there are also miscellaneous data collected arising from specific needs. The various types of data collected are not very well organized and needs quite a bit of effort to retrieve for further analysis. Furthermore, there is no link to the agronomic data collected by the Agriculture Division.6. There are no performance evaluation tools in the WMCS, except computing the overall irrigation efficiency at the project level using the actual supply and allocated supply data at the end of the season.As a remedial action to the problems outlined in the above section, the following suggestions to upgrade and enhance the existing WMCS have been proposed:1, Install own repeater station to overcome the problem of unreliable transmission of telemetric data via the leased radio channels. If proven reliable afler a period of observation, the manual reading of rainfall and water levels for all the telemetric stations can be discontinued.Replace the manual E-pan with automatic evaporation recorders which can be incorporated into the existing telemetry system. Together with suggestion 1 above. all the telemetry stations can then be fully automatic and need not be manned.Upgrading of the telemetry system to collect additional operational data as follows: C.Operational data for the major regulators and tidal gates such as gate opening and upstream and downstream water levels. A pilot project for the remote control of gate operation is already being planned.Monitoring and control data of the recycling pump stations.Rainfall in the fringe areas and dam catchments for more accurate forecasting of the uncontrolled flow and dam inflow, respectively.A new PC (personal computer) networking system based on the \"open system\" concept is proposed to replace the old mainframe computer. Two main applications with the new system will be the GIS application and the establishment of \"distributed databases.\" The new system is more user friendly, hence would encourage greater parlicipation of the lower rung operational staff in the WMCS. The GIS package can be used to establish a graphic database and also a planning and monitoring tool for operational purposes.The existing WMCS computer program will be modified or redeveloped using the new computing facilities. A database framework will also be set up to reorganize the existing data bank to enable easier retrieval in the future. The raw data would be processed into a readily usable format for analysis work later on.Despite the problems outlined above, the information system plays an important role in ensuring the effective use of the scarce water resources in the Muda Irrigation Scheme for double cropping of rice to be carried out. This is through timely data feedback which enable prompt decision making, and hence a more effective WMCS. W#h further fine-tuning of the information system and the WMCS, it is hoped that a more efficient usage of water could be achieved in the future.A lesson we learn from the evolution of the WMCS is that in this world where new technologies emerge every day, it is essential for any development work to provide for future expansion and upgrading, othervvise the entire system will be rendered obsolete in a very short time and expensive remedial or upgrading works would be required. Daniel Burrus in his book Techno Trends (1993) remarks, \"When it works, it's obsolete!\" It is therefore a dynamic process to keep pace with the fastmoving technology.As a result of the workshop. a meeting was held on 17 August 1993 by the IRMU to discuss a work plan for implementing the recommendations of the workshop. At this meeting a decision was made to conduct a pilot study using selected computer models (preferably locally developed) to test the feasibility of using them for operation and management of irrigation systems more efticiently.At present, in many irrigation systems in Sri Lanka the productivity of water can be improved. This gap in productivity can be attributed to the suboptimal use of irrigation water due to many technical, social and economic reasons. The less efficient conventional methods used for allocating, scheduling and distributing water from the source to farmers' fields are the most important among the main technical constraints paving the way for this situation.The use of computer models in Sri Lanka for irrigation water management was begun in 1984 in the Gal Oya Irrigation System. Since then, a number of models have been used in different schemes mainly where rehabiliation and improvement projects were undertaken. In some cases the use of computer models was attempted by individuals because of their own interest or because of the availability of resources, both financial and human, for this type of activity. However, results of most of these attempts are not well documented and only a few publications are available.The Gal Oya model has been mainly used in the Lefl Bank of the Gal Oya Irrigation System since 1984 for system operation and water management in a cultivated area of about 16,000 hectare (ha). The model computes irrigation water requirements at each off-take level, based on soil crop water demands. It is also capable of computing the diversion requirement at each key point taking into account the off-take requirements and canal losses. The model has been used for irrigation scheduling and has eliminated the difficulty of manual computation of water allocation for this large irrigation system. The model helps to achieve smooth operation of the system throughout the cultivation season and increases the confcience of the farmers as far as the reliability of the supply is concerned. The main findings derived from the Gal Oya experience are as follows:5 1. For large systems, the use of a computer for system operation is effective 2. The need and effectiveness of computer models are more significant in water shortage situations and water short systems.The use of a computer-operated model has helped to guide system operation and eliminate the large operational water losses caused by ad hoc water management practices.. . In the Kirindi Oya Irrigation System, a scheduling model' developed by ID has been used since introduced along with a comprehensive monitoring network. The main findings derived from the Kirindi Oya experience are as follows:. 1987. More recently (1991), a management information system package'developed by IlMl and ID was 1. Standard packages (LOTUS 123, dbase Ill+) can be effective platforms for model developments.2. A good monitoring network can be implemented by ID at a reasonable cost. A key role was played by messengers carrying data ftom the field to the manager's office.Experiences of the other attempts of the use of computer models in Hakwatuna Oya, Kantalai, Polonnaruwa Irrigation Systems Management Project, Sri Lanka ((ISMP]) and Uda Walawe (MEA) are available in detail in the workshop proceedings.A significant number of officers of ID and MEA have been trained in this field both locally and overseas, and there is an increased demand from system managers to apply these new techniques to increase the efficiency and performance of the irrigation systems they manage.Even though there are successful results available since 1984 concerning the use of computers for improved water management, the diffusion of this technology to other systems has not taken place in general. It is expected that in the future. IRMU can play the role of facilitator by influencing policy makers and disseminating technologies. IRMU. through its research program, can help in evaluating the models used, in promoting the testing of new models and in selecting the appropriate and cost-effective models usable by the implementing agencies.The problems raised by irrigation water management are relatively well-known and various alternative solutions and tools can be envisaged to assist system managers. The use of personal computers for this purpose can bring significant improvements in performance. The rapid expansion of the modern computer industry and the availability of a wide range of off-the-shelf software packages provide tremendous potential for using personal computers. This technology can now be introduced at an affordable cost and is widely acceptable to the managers of irrigation systems.It is now a realistic vision to consider that each Sri Lankan irrigation engineer in charge of a few irrigation systems in a division will, in the near future, handle most of his technical, administrative and financial tasks with the support of a personal computer.Objectives 1.Assist the system managers in some selected pilot irrigation systems to introduce computerized decision support systems and to monitor the consequences of introducing such a new technology.2. Based on pilot studies, develop and test a methodology and training modules for installing data collection networks with the view of establishing computerized decision support tools for the system managers.Based on pilot studies, test existing/develop appropriate generic computerized decision support tools for seasonal planning, scheduling and system operation, develop training modules and make recommendations for dissemination.The study includes the following principal components:Assist the management at each of the selected pilot systems to identii the minimal set of data required for better water management decisions. This activity is based primarily on field observations and studying system plans, issue trees, etc.In the selected systems, prioritize and undertake the essential improvements in existing structures for the purpose of measurement and when necessary, incorporate simple and cost-effective measuring devices.In the selected systems, develop formats, procedures and mechanisms for data collection, transmission and preliminary processing. Set up mechanisms for evaluating the performance of the systems.Study the existing computer tools and modify them if necessary. and/or develop new tools in the form of generic models. Such models will be developed as decision support tools for seasonal planning, . , scheduling and system operation and will be field tested in the selected schemes,Conduct meetings and workshops for deriving generic methods, tools and recommendations from the pilot studies.Initial and ongoing training of the personnel involved in the study will be undertaken, depending on the needs.The study is progressing on schedule in three pilot schemes selected on the basis of the type of scheme, i.e., whether diversion or reservoir, and the size. The project sites are as follows:1. Rajangana System-a major reservoir schemeButtala System-a medium diversion scheme.Badagiriya System-a medium reservoir scheme.Measurement networks have been established and a data collection process has been operationalized to a reasonaMy satisfactory level in these project sites. An important feature in the measurement network is the utilization of the existing structures for measurement af&er calibration. It has been found that most of the time, the predicted behavior by structure formula holds good with marginal deviations in the discharge coefficient.Initial results indicate that there is inequity and overall overuse of water in general, and hence there is potential for improvement.A database for IMlS and SIC models has been created in one system while in the other two this work is in progress. Other locally developed models are to be tried for water scheduling during this season.It has been realized that the performance of most of the irrigation systems in terms of equity, efficiency and productivity are below their potential. In addition, there is also an urgent need to increase the present production potential of them, as not much new land will be available to put under irrigation to meet the ever increasing demand for food.Hence, the introduction of improved management practices and new technology has become very essential at this juncture if we are to solve at least a part of the problem.To face the challenges ahead in this regard, ID is currently undergoing major structural changes placing more emphasis now on intensive irrigation management. The institutional changes being implemented include among other things: the creation of separate subdepartments for Irrigation Management and Human Resources Development, the establishment of IRMU, the formation of Irrigation Management Cells (IMAC) at regional level, and the strengthening of the Irrigation Training Institute (ITI).The main objective of IRMU established in 1992 supported by the ongoing National Irrigation Rehabilitation Project (NIRP), is to identify research needs on a priority basis: carry out, collaborate or contraci for research: evaluate results; and adopt them for implementation. Technical assistance will initially be provided by IlMl for the formation and functioning of the unit.The IT1 will assist in disseminating and adopting the research results while some of the training staff too are actively involved in some selected research. Research findings which will help improve system performance will be implemented through the IMAC (Irrigation Management Cell) which is responsible for system management at the regional level. Agriculture is the main stay of Pakistan's economy. Agriculture produces most of the country's food, accounts for 26 percent of GDP (gross domestic product) and employs 54 percent of the labor force.Agriculture has also important linkages with other sectors of the economy. It is the source of raw material for major domestic industries, particularly those producing cotton-based products and accounts for 80 percent of the overall value of exports. It is also important because of its relationship to both poverty alleviation and private sector development. The chief input for assured agricultural productivity is water.Historically, irrigation in Pakistan was confined to small strips of land along the river banks. However, the first weir-controlled canal (Western Jamna Canal, off-taking from Jamna River at Tajewala Headworks in India) was completed and commissioned in 1825. Based on the successful experience of this canal, the network of canals in Pakistan was developed over about 100 years, progressively bringing more and more land under cultivation.The existing canal network in Pakistan is a closely interconnected system with limited flexibility. The system comprises 43 main canal systems in the four provinces of Pakistan with an aggregated length of about 38,000 miles (60,000 km), delivering canal water to the cultivated lands through about 107,000 outlets. The system is designed as a gravity flow on run-of-the-river basis to support subsistence agriculture at a low designed cropping intensity of 50 to 75 percent. The system is also designed to sewe as large an area as possible and to beneffi as large a rural population as possible at low cost and staffing levels, and to ensure equitable distribution of canal water with minimum human interference.Prior to independence of Pakistan in August 1947, the available river supplies were distributed amongst the various canals by the various commissions and committees appointed by the then Brilish Government of India. However, after pariiiin of the Indo-Pak Subcontinent in 1947 into independent and sovereign states of India and Pakistan, a serious dispute arose between the two countries regarding the distribution of the lndus Basin river waters. This dispute was resolved through the good offices of the World Bank after prolonged negotiations and the lndus Waters Treaty was signed between the two countries in September 1960. The Treaty inter alia provided that:1. All the waters of the eastern rivers (Sutlej, Ravi and Beas) shall be available for the unrestricted use of India.2. Pakistan shall receive all waters of the western rivers (lndus, Jhelum and Chenab) except for some specified uses from these rivers by India.Pakistan shall construct suitable replacement works to meet requirements of its eastern river canals from the westem rivers by inter-river transfer, by constructing storage in order to offset the effect of assignment of three eastern rivers to India.As a consequence of the lndus Waters Treaty, water for the areas lying on the eastem rivers had to be carried from western rivers across the width of the Punjab Province. As a result, besides the remodelling of a number of existing works, an impressive number of replacement works were constructed to replace the supplies of the eastem rivers with waters of the westem rivers. Two dams, Tarbela on the river lndus and Mangla on the river Jhelum provided storage for the canal system. Also, six barrages and seven link canals were constructed to transfer supplies from the western to the eastem rivers. This was in addition to three link canals that had been conceived earlier. All these works were completed within a period of 10 years (1960-1970).In the post-Treaty arrangements the canal systems in Pakistan were grouped into two zones for the purpose of regulation, namely Mangla command canals (or Jhelum Chenab Zone) and Tarbela command canals (or lndus Zone)..A total number of 13 canals in the Punjab Province are located in this zone, covering a culturable command area of 13.34 million acres with an aggregate diversion capacity of 78,400 cusecs of water during kharif (summer).Twenty eight canal systems were included in this zone to receive flow-cum-storage supplies from lndus and Kabul riven and TarbelaKhashma resewoirs. Two in the North-West Frontier Province, 11 in the Punjab and 15 in Sindh. The lndus Zone canals cover about 22 million acres of culturable command area and have an aggregate diversion capacity of about 181,000 cusecs of water during kharif.In the post-Treaty period, ad hoc arrangements were made by the Pakistan Government to distribute the available flow-cum-storage supply in the canals of the four provinces. Pending finalization of the apportionment of lndus waters, the provinces were not allowed to undertake any new canal irrigation schemes. Thus, the further development of canal irrigated agriculture in Pakistan remained suspended.Appreciating the need for early apportionment of the waters of the lndus River System the Government of Pakistan with the consensus of the four provinces approved the apportionment of the lndus waters in 1991. This accord not only apportions the river water for the existing canal systems but it also distributes the surplus flood flows amongst the provinces for future development of irrigated agriculture. To fully utilize the share of flood flows, provinces are undertaking feasibility studies of new irrigation projects to bring about 0.60 million acres of new area under irrigation.The regulation of Pakistan's canals is planned for each crop season separately. i.e.. kharif crops or summer crops and rabi crops or winter crops. The forecast of anticipated availability both for the flow and storage supplied is prepared at the beginning of each crop season. Efforts are made to run all the channels according to full capacity. However. if the anticipated availabiliiy is less than the full capacity of canals, the channels are run according to or in proportion to the 10-daily allocation approved in the Water Accord. The regulation is done on a ID-daily basis and the discharges are adjusted to remain within the sanctioned allocations/provincial shares.The regulation program for each crop season and for all the canals is prepared on ID-daily basis in the Irrigation and Power Departments. These programs are notified to the public to facilitate the farmers to plan their sowing. The actual running of canals is monitored in the Central Regulation Directorate at provincial level where a proper Water Account of each canal system is prepared and maintained.In a canal system the indents of supply required are placed by the Subdivisional Officer (SDO) of the tail end subdivision with the SDO ofthe upper subdivision, who, adding his own requirements, places his indents with the SDO of the next (upstream) subdivision until these indents reach the SDO incharge of the headworks. The supplies released in the channels from the headworks are in accordance with either these indents or with allocations made by the Central Regulation Directorate, whichever quantity is less. The Chief Engineer and the SDOs keep a strict watch on the regulation of supplies in their respective areas and immediately inform the Central Regulation Directorate at the provincial level if there are any variations in the supply over their indents or allocations.The lndus River System Authority (IRSA) is established under the Water Accord to distribute the available river supplies to the various canal systems in accordance with the Accord allocations and monitor the actual flows in each canal system. An Advisory Committee comprising Secretaries of the Irrigation and Agriculture Departments as well as WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority, Pakistan) is constituted under the provisions of the Water Accord. This Advisory Committee normally meets twice a year before each crop season to advise IRSA regarding the distribution of the available river supplies and the operation of the storage reservoin. The Advisory Committee has also constituted a Subcommittee to hold monthly meetings to review the operation of canals and resolve any questions that may arise regarding the distribution of the available river supplies between the provinces. IRSA also maintains water accounts on 5-daily basis to ensure distribution of the available river supply strictly in accordance with the provisions of the Accord.RIVER WATER is diverted by barrages and weirs into main canals and subsequently into branches, distributaries and minors. The water is delivered to the farmers through watercourses from the distribution system through !he outlets. The system is based on gravity and is supply based. WAPDA (Water and Power Development Authority, Pakistan) is responsible for the operation and maintenance (OBM) of resetvoirs. The 0BM of the rest of the canal system is the responsibility of the Irrigation Department (ID), and farmers are responsible for the maintenance of watercourses.The Canal and Drainage Act of 1873 is the main law regulating the levy of water dues and the 0BM of !he channel system. The act was passed when irrigation in the area was in its infancy. It has been revised subsequently, and the latest revision was done in 1975. Superintending Engineers. Executive Engineers and Subdivisional Officers are vested with the power of canal officers. For discharging their functions as canal oficen they seek !he assistance of Commissioners, Deputy Commissioners as well as Collectors and Assistant Commissioners.Besides the Canal Act, the Irrigation Department has prepared books on various subjects for the OBM of this large and unique system. Practices have been codified. The Manual of /miation Practice is the main book which documents the technical aspects of the system. The Revenue Manual is a book which contains instructions regarding the assessment procedure and the duties of the assessing staff.Main and branch canals have mostly been designed on Lacey's silt theory with the concept of non-sitting. non-scouring velocity. Banks have been designed to cover hydraulic gradients of 1:4 to 1%. The width of the patrol (inspection) bank including dowel is kept at 25 feet with a free board of 3 feet. Similarly distributaries are also designed with Lacey's theory with a bank width of 4 to 8 feet, depending upon the discharge, with the provision of pushta for coverage of hydraulic gradient. Free board for distributaries and minors is 1.5 feet. The banks generally require strengthening after a period of 5 to 10 years and desining is also to be done in the tail portion periodically where the slopes are inadequate. In order to execute strengthening works and to maintain the inner section of the channel to the designed condition, funds are provided under the OBM grant. The following yardsticks have been approved by the Government during 1992 for maintenance funds for main canal branches, distributaries and minors.. .On the request of cultivators warabandi programs (water distribution programs) are prepared for individual outlets. This is done under Section 68 of the Canal Act by the Subdivisional Canal Officer or equitable share afler a period of 7 days. The warabandi programs are changed every year with an offset of 12 hours so that a cultivator who has been getting his turn of water during night time during the current year would get his turn during the day time during the following year. The appeals against the orders of the Subdivisional Canal Officers are heard by the Divisional Canal Officers.I the Deputy Collector. The warabandi are prepared for a 7-day period and each cultivator gets an Theft of Water An important issue in the distribution of canal water to cultivators is the prevention of unauthorized use of canal water or water thefl. There are a number of ways in which these practices are indulged in by the cultiiators, such as through cuts in channels, damage to outlets to increase their capacity. syphoning away water by use of rubber pipes and other similar malpractices. There is no doubt that these cases ought to be detected promptly. Special charges are levied under Sections 31 and 33 of the Canal Act by the Divisional Canal Officers of the area in which water is used in an unauthorized manner.Cases of the change of source of area from one outlet to another, the change of site of outlet, or the change of site of watercourse and the inclusion of new area into the culturable command (CCA) are the common factors which require changes in the cbakbandi ofthe outlet. The chakbandi cases are decided by the Executive Engineer (Divisional Canal Officer) under Section 20 of the Canal Act, and are subsequently confirmed or modifed by the Superintending Engineer (Superintending Canal Officer). The change of chakbandi requires a change in size of outlet if the increase or decrease of the area is more than 10 percent. The changes in the size of the outlet so needed are done at the expense of the cultivator.During summer, reclamation supplies are allowed in the areas where the salts need to be suppressed. Such supplies are run in addition to the normal supplies. The duration of such supplies is generally from 1 June to 30 September. In case surplus supplies are available in the river more food supplies are also run in the channels. These surplus food supplies are meant for areas which have not been provided with any kind of Irrigation facilities. Garden supplies to the extent of 2.5 percent of the total outlet capacity of a canal system are also allowed for the propagation of the growth of fruit trees. Initially, such garden supplies are exempted from assessment for a period of 4 to 5 years. In order to promote fish culture an area comprising of 24 acres of fish farm is also allowed for extra supplies on a canal system.Booking of the area cultivated by each cultivator is made at the start of a crop season. When the crop reaches its maturity the final measurements are made. The measurements are made by canal Patwaris (Irrigation Record Keepers). There are in-built systems to check Patwaris' work and a certain percentage of area has been specified for each canal system to be checked by the Si//adar (a Canal Officer who supervises the work of about ten Patwaris), the Deputy Collector, the Subdivisional Officer and the Executive Engineer. In order to ensure that the system of booking goes on properly, a staff officer, i.e., a Canal Collector in the office of the Chief Engineer also oversees revenue work in the field. At the end of each crop, a demand statement, i.e., a bill for the service chargeshater charges is prepared by the Deputy Collector and the Assessment Clerk. The demand statement is then submitted to each Tehsil (smallest administrative unit-a town and surrounding countryside) by the Executive EngineedDivisional Canal Officer. The Deputy CommissionedCollector and his staff are responsible for the recovely of the water charges from the cultivators. The actual recovery is made through the agency of Lambardars (Village Representatives who coordinate collection of water charges and liaise with government officials and villagers) who are provided remuneration charges of 6 percent each for collecting the amount and depositing it in the Government Treasury. The Lambardar is also required to help the Irrigation establishment in the booking process.The following types of community services and irrigation facilities are exempted from water charges:1. Filling of tanks in villages for drinking purposes of the villagers as well as cattle. 5. There is a tax holiday equal to 25 percent of the abiana (water rate, i.e.. rate charged for canal water supplied for the purpose of irrigation, also interpreted as the occupier's rate) if the supplies are augmented by the Cultivator with the private tubewell supplies.Trees grown along the ridges of fields in villages and along village roads are free from water charges.In case the crop does not reach its maturity or the yield is less than the scale fixed in the assessment of a district, the cultivator is granted a remission of water charges. Such remissions are granted by the Divisional Canal Officer. In case of calamity and crop diseases, such remissions are granted suo mot0 by the Department in collaboration with the Revenue Department.The main idea behind the assessment system is that those areas are liable for assessment where the crop has reached its maturity and its yield is not less than the prescribed limit.of the improvement suggestions for the Department, the problem will be tackled and better transport facilities will be available.Most of the channels in the irrigation system of the PakistanlPunjab area are earthen in nature.Breaches occur in the channels off and on resulting in a lot of damage being caused to the property, in addition to the waste of valuable irrigation water and standing crops. To close the breaches within the shortest possible time is impossible without modern machinery and equipment. Thus, the necessity of having breach closing squads equipped with modem machinery and tools like dozers, dumpers, tractors. etc., has been felt badly. The proposal in this respect is also under review and is likely to be sent to the Department in a few months.In addition to these breach dosing squads the necessity of the construction of escapes in the irrigation system is also to be considered. These escapes, in addition to reducing the damage from breaches, would also help in the closing of breaches within the shortest possible time.With the construction of reservoirs for irrigation water the supplies coming from these reservoirs are free of sediment and as a result clear water flows in the system. The weed growth has been observed in the channels to be resulting in inefficiency of the system and occurrence of operational problems in regulating supplies.The Government of the Punjab Irrigation and Power Department is seriously working on a project which will include the lining of almost all the channels which will in addition to saving water will increase the efficiency of the Irrigation system, and better ensure the water supply to the tails of the channels.  These data are preserved in registers and design sheets. The information collected by ID relates to canal and structure design. operation and maintenance. A good communication system was provided at the inception of the canal system, to transfer infonation from field to subdivisional and divisional offices, and vice versa. Today, this communication system no longer functions the way it was supposed to and is incapable of handling present day communication requirements.Only recently, computers have been introduced to PID, where they are mainly used in central offices for documentation and report writing purposes. The use of computer tools for water distribution and management at field level is still non-existent. Only consultants and research organizations (e.g.. IIMI) have used standard soflware for data storage and analysis in Pakistan, and have developed computer packages for design and other studies. These limited experiences have not been transferred or adopted by the Irrigation department upon completion of projects. A list of computer tools that have been used in Pakistan is given in Table 2.The present study aims to facilitate the transfer of modem technology to irrigation managers for routine tasks in the operation and maintenance of the irrigation system.   IMIS has been adapted to the local requirements of the Fordwah Branch Canal and installed in the office of the Irrigation Manager of the Chishtian Subdivision (Subdivisional Officer ISDO]). Permanent (e.g., structure dimensions, reference levels) and dynamic (water levels, discharges) files were made to match the existing data collection/processing system of PID. In the present setup, for instance, a lot of information is available with the field staff, so that they can intervene in case of emergencies. This setup was left intact.   While a value of one for the adequacy indicator means that for the entire time period a distributary was getting the target (or higher) discharge, the efficiency indicator quantifies the amount of water that was supplied in excess of the target value. Seven out of fourteen distributaries received (occasionally) more than the target discharge. The dependability indicator gives more evidence of the large differences in variabiliy for the distributaries. A comparison between ratios of actual flows (weekly average) with respect to design and indent shows the difference between indent and design. Those cases are interesting when the values of adequacy and RAP indicate different trends, as in the case of Jagir and 5-L; average supplies of the week were quite good in these cases but there have been daily variations. Equity along the main canal is shown at the cross regulators and at the end of each Unit. The tail water depth (TAIL) is a traditional indicator for the water distribution at secondary canal level. If discharges at the head are at design value, the tail water indicator should be one foot. Masood and 5-L, for instance. were getting good supplies at the head but their tails were short of water.While a performance analysis, like the one carried out above, reveals a number of weaknesses in the distribution of water, it leaves us with a number of questions at the strategic and tactical levels of water distribution. How are the system objectives translated into actual operational targets and how do local operators try to match actual supplies with these targets? Following the performance analysis, a more detailed (hourly) monitoring was carried out for a ten-day period. Analyses were carried out and operational scenarios, changing the present water distribution patterns, were formulated. These scenarios were simulated in a hydro-dynamic model (SIC-Simulation of irrigation canals) to estimate the scope for improvement, The results of this analysis have been documented more comprehensively in another ~a p e r , ' ~ but are synthesized here in order to have a more complete review of IIMl's experiences in Decision Support Systems.Two possible approaches of stabilizing the water levels in the main and secondary canals have been formulated and tested. The first scenario assumes that the gauge readers remain as decision makers to make gate adjustments to meet targets. Their decisions are based on local variables, but will be optimized to demonstrate the potential for improvement. This scenario will be referred to as \"improved localized control.\" The second scenario goes away from the present setup and assumes a tighter control of the system managers on operations in their (sub) division. Also, it is assumed that the managers have an intimate hydraulic knowledge of their system that enables them to predict changes in the hydraulic state of the canal when they instruct a change in gate settings at a certain location. This type of control will be referred to as \"centralized feed-forward control.\"For this option, regulation point RD 245 (first distribution point of the subdivision) is studied to demonstrate the potential of the hydraulic stabilization virtue of local improved control. Figure 1 above, shows the actual water levels and gate operations for the cross regulator, RD 245. The hourly data for 10 days indicate that the gate operator has achieved the target of keeping level fluctuations at a minimum but wkhout any improvement in discharge variations.The following changes will be made in the present operations at the regulating point:1. Large gate adjustments, which are presently usually followed by successive corrective changes in gate settings, will be avoided.2. Gates will not be operated when the discharge to offtaking distributaries is within the range Of 85 to 110 percent of the target.Operations that do not seem to be justified hydraulically will be eliminated.4. Discharge tables will be based on the structure (gate) formula.\"The operations at the regulating point were reduced according to the above mentioned criteria. Both actual and reduced operations were simulated in SIC to quantify the effect of the operation of the cross-regulator on the local hydraulic conditions. Figures 2a and 2b show the actual and modified gate operations and the resulting discharge that is passed on downstream. Two waves are received during the simulation period from the upstream regulation point (D 199), which will have to be passed on downstream of D 245, as Daulat Distributary is in first preference. However, the figures show that in the present (actual) situation, there are many other significant perturbations passed on downstream of D 245, which can be attributed to operations at this regulation point. These are the perturbations that are addressed in the modified scenario. The operator changes the gate settings of the regulator 19 times during the period of simulation, while for the modified scenario only 7 operations were made on the cross-regulator. Many of the actual perturbations passed on downstream in actual condilions are smoothed out.A closer look at offtaking Daulat explains much of this. The operator attempts to achieve the target discharge for Daulat and succeeds at least once a day. He needs a lot of operations on the cross-regulator to achieve this, which obviously will create many perturbations in the main canal. If a more stable discharge is supplied to Daulat (deviation from the target is about E%), many of these gate operations would become unnecessary. The difference in total delivered volume to Daulat for both cases is only about 5 percent. This scenario presumes that future targets are known and the System Manager is aware of future perturbations (e.9.. a change in discharge at the head of the Fordwah Canal). The Manager also knows, because of an intimate hydraulic knowledge of the system, the effect of specific operations on the global water levels and discharges. In industries, this system usually goes hand in hand w l h a feedback loop, which gives Managers direct feedback on the effect of their operations so that adjustments can be made if necessary. A similar loop can be easily pictured in the case of canal operations where information on water levels and discharges are not dimcult to obtain. However, the scenario presented in this section will not take the feedback loop into account and only the feed-forward loop will be analyzed. The analysis was conducted by carrying out simulations with SIC for the ten-day period studied. The following information is assumed to be known:1. The discharge at the head of the system 2. Target discharges to offtaking distributaries.A training period to gain an understanding of the hydraulic behavior of the system is simulated by carrying out a steady flow simulation.This module computes all required gate settings at cross-regulatocs and offlaking (gated) distributaries (opening computation mode) in order to meet the targets. All flumes, except Soda, are switched to the discharge computation mode. Upstream targeted water levels at cross-regulators are then adjusted by trial and error to correctly feed offtaking flumes. Water levels and discharges for Soda flume are calculated in the crest level computation mode, as the operator uses wooden stop logs (kames) to regulate this distributary. Azim is particular in the sense that it is defined as the downstream boundary condition in SIC and can, therefor not be computed in the opening computation mode. When Azim has priority, the targeted discharge of further upstream located distributaries is adjusted (by trial and error) to feed Azim. An operational print of SIC synthesizes the results of the steady flow computation, which will form the basis of the unsteady flow simulation for the 1 0-day period.In the unsteady flow simulation, all structures are operated once a day, at 6 a.m. Figures 3a and  3b show that the obtained results are very satisfactory with very little water level and discharge fluctuations. The maximum difference between supplied discharge and indent is around 10 percent. The calculated gate settings and obtained results are validated by the good calibration of the model. yn\" -IM.","tokenCount":"12093"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"671c4e50858d8db05a34c9c71f441571","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a8da7456-e664-4152-a125-7c280b9d76c2/retrieve","id":"-1552707144"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9b1efc80-3749-4877-beb4-9d03f5ed60be","pagecount":"28","content":"Preparatory scoping visits are good practice in research where the research seeks to engage with people in a specific case study location and context. They also have particular value for research that is sensitive. Farmer-herder conflicts fall under the latter category. Scoping visits in this case serve a number of purposes. They help gain insights on context, particularly those which may not be available or readily apparent in the existing literature, they introduce the research and researchers ahead of time to build rapport and trust, and they help the research team assess how best to ensure the right people participate in the qualitative aspects of the research. This scoping report combines findings from a scoping visit to the case study location with a review of the literature that describes salient features of the political economy in Sudan.The purpose of this report is to document findings as a contribution to and as preparation for fieldwork on farmerherder conflicts.The scoping visit to Azaza Sogora Village in Gadarif State, Sudan was conducted on 3-6 November 2023. A second gapfilling visit was undertaken shortly thereafter. The purpose of the scoping visit was to gain a broad understanding of local conflict, the local political economy and local farming and pastoral food production systems ahead of the main fieldwork.Thirteen key informant interviews were conducted with seven informants from Azaza Sogora Village (four men and three women), five pastoralists (four men, one woman) and the director of the Mechanized Farming Corporation. Informants included local leaders, people engaged in conflict resolution and women and youth active in the community.Table 1. Farmer-herder conflict cases in Azaza Sogora Village (2021-2023). Aside from farmers and pastoralists, other actors involved in local farmer-herder conflicts are the local crop assessment committee at the village level, the crop assessment committee at locality level, the local police, local farmer and pastoralist leaders and the director of the zaribat elhawamil (enclosure where trespassing animals are held until a resolution is reached). The Local Crop Damage Assessment Committee and the local leaders are the most important actors. Other external actors are the state juridical system, the Executive Director of the Locality, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Mechanized Farming Corporation, and the Forests National Corporation. Their roles are described in Table 2. Local crop damage assessment committeeVisit the livestock-damaged field upon request from the police station in the village to estimate the affected area and then estimate the expected yield from the area.Enclose the trespassing animals and look after them.Mediate the two parties upon request from one of the two sides in the conflict. The aim is to reach conciliation, agree on compensation or both. Issue temporary land leases for farming inside state-owned forests.The national state juridical courts judge the case should it reach that level.Source: Author's creation.Case Study | 7Women and YouthFarming women are not involved in conflict resolution mechanisms or processes. Their links to conflict are through their food production system. For example, women farmers are affected when pastoralist animals destroy crops or trespass on their farms. When this happens, women tell the male members of the household to deal with the issue or they take the case to the police station accompanied by a male family member. They also have the right to accept or refuse conciliation or compensation. No information emerged during the scoping visit on how conflict affects pastoralist women or whether they are involved in conflicts or not. Male youth may be involved in a conflict and their role is considered no different to that of older men. or a topic of contention in the area. Ethnic groups who identify as farmers in the village include Fur, Zaghawa, Bulala, Salamat, Kajaska, Masalit, Burgo, Tama, Tunjur and Misseriya (Figure 1).There has been in-migration to the village during various periods. The biggest population increase was experienced following the major droughts of the 1980s when there was a significant influx of people from Darfur and Chad in particular but also from the Nuba mountains and South Sudan.  Case Study | 11Many pastoralist groups pass Azaza Sogora during their seasonal migration. This includes the Lahawin, Rufaa, Fallata (also known as Fulbe or Fulani), Kinana, Beni Amer and Rashayda ethnic groups. The majority of passing pastoralists are Fallata.The main livestock corridor near Azaza Sogora is Corridor Number 7, which passes directly alongside the village (Figure 1). This route extends in a north-south direction for about 290 km and is 150 m wide. The typical annual migration of pastoralists is between the Butana communal rangelands in the north during the rainy season, where they take advantage of the brief growth of annual grasses and the southern areas of the state where there is better availability of water and fodder during the dry season. The northern and southern areas are connected by officially demarcated corridors where both animals and pastoralist households move. Each year, from October to November, pastoralists pass by Azaza Sogora on their way to their summer camping areas.Overall, there are eight livestock corridors in Gadarif State that range in length from 66 to 290 km and in width from 150-300 m. Formal demarcation of livestock routes began in the mid-1990s and the process took about seven years. Most routes were already there and historically known, but formal demarcation took place to give them official legal status and to protect them from encroachment by farming activities. Interconnectivity between routes is missing from the current design of the corridors. This means that if a pastoralist group has decided to use one corridor it is not possible to cross to another. This reduces the flexibility of the migratory pattern and also hampers access to resources, for example, markets and veterinary services. Not surprisingly, farmer-herder conflicts have intensified along these corridors.Pastoralists use the corridors at least twice; once to access the Butana communal lands in the north during the rainy season and again to return to their summer camping areas in southern Gadarif State. The southward journey begins in late October. Before entering the corridor, some pastoralists have to make important decisions, such as transporting their families together with small animals in advance to the nearest rest place by vehicle and also to separate camels and cattle from sheep and goats. They make these decisions due to the lack of suitable resting places along the routes. The few officially demarcated rest places along the routes are small and almost bare.Mobility for many pastoralists has been hampered, mainly due to insecurity and the spread of mechanized farming in the northern Butana area, and to increasing difficulties using the official migratory routes. Migratory routes are poorly serviced, too narrow to accommodate large numbers of livestock, are encroached upon by farms, and no mechanisms are in place to allow pastoralists to move horizontally from one corridor to the other. These difficulties have caused increased numbers of pastoralists to concentrate in the southern areas during the rainy season (the time they would normally spend in Butana) and to settle. Most pastoralist settlements are in southern Gadarif (outside the study area) with the exception of the three pastoralist groups that have settled in the forest near the village. Mobility patterns have also generally changed in the last twenty years from long-to short-range.A main non-asphalt road was completed in the 1980s connecting Azaza Sogora with Gadarif City, improving access and transport between the village and the state capital. Other infrastructure and services in the village include:Two primary schools; one for boys and one for girls, which are attended by children from the settled community; secondary schooling and higher education must be sought outside the village in the state capital or elsewhere.A local health centre and market.A hafi 1 used for drinking, for home use and watering village livestock. In good rainy seasons when water is sufficient, pastoralists are also allowed to water their herds from the village hafir.A local police station.The main economic activities in the village are linked to agricultural production (both crop production and livestock rearing) and the main livelihoods in the village are smallholder rainfed crop farming, livestock rearing, agricultural wage labour and tapping gum Arabic. Rain fed farming and livestock rearing are the main livelihoods.The main economic activities and livelihoods have not changed significantly since the village was established. However, more people, including men, women and youth, are participating in agricultural wage labour due to the general economic deterioration and high inflation in Sudan. While many people are contracted as wage labourers on a day-to-day basis and return home at the end of the day, some move to camps on large-scale agricultural schemes for a few weeks or months. This is mainly done by male youth and sometimes whole households. Tapping gum Arabic has also decreased, given the clearance of hashab trees (Acacia senegal) and the low price for gum.Rainfed crop farming is home gardening and farming on agricultural fields. Most agricultural production in the village is to cover household food needs, with sales of surplus to cover basic expenses. Home gardens are located on a few square meters within the household compound and are the responsibility of women. They mainly grow sweet sorghum, okra, molokhiya, arugula, cucumbers and chilli. Men, as heads of households, are the primary managers and organizers of farming on agricultural fields.However, all members of the household participate in all steps of production (e.g. planting, weeding, harvesting.). Main crops cultivated are sorghum, sesame, millet, okra, groundnut, hibiscus and, more recently, cotton and melon seeds (tasali, a popular snack). When household labour is insufficient, agricultural wage labourers are hired.Most agricultural production is smallholder production using largely non-mechanized means with some mechanized ploughing and seed sowing. These small-scale plots range from five to 20 ha. Ten farmers in the village are classified as large-scale mechanized farmers, holding plots of 240 ha or more.1 Artificially created pond for the storage of rainwater during the rainy season.Livestock rearing is also an important activity and has been practiced more since the 1970s. The main types of livestock owned are sheep, goats and cattle. Most farmers own a small number of livestock.However, 60 farmers own larger flocks of sheep and six own large herds of cattle.Farmers tend to rear their livestock cooperatively. They will combine the small number of animals they own into one herd and send it away to communal grazing lands in the northern part of the state during the rainy season. They hire a herder from one of the pastoralist groups in the area to take care of the herding. The herd returns after about three months, near the end of the harvest season, at which time each farmer collects his animals. This way, nutritious fodder is secured for the animals during the rainy season while also ensuring the animals are not near farms during the cultivation season to avoid crop damage.Gender norms in Azaza Sogora are the typical norms of rural farming communities in Sudan, where men are the leaders and decision-makers and women are responsible for tending to home life and caring for the household.However, some radical changes have occurred in the last 14 years or so, when women began to have access to finance and loans. This was started by NGOs working for women's economic empowerment and connected women to banking and lending institutions. Loans are given to individuals as well as to groups registered as cooperative societies (all of which are women's cooperatives in Azaza Sogora) and are mainly in the form of agricultural inputs and cash. Currently, hundreds of local women are getting loans from banks in Gadarif City 2 . These loans have enabled women to become more involved in crop production (75% of women in the village now have their own farm plots) 3 , have expanded their activities from food crops to cash crops for income (mainly sesame and groundnut), have increased the number of livestock they own and contribute to household expenses. Women attend to their own piece of land only after they have fulfilled their responsibilities on the family farm plot. Informants agree that banks prefer to give loans to women because they are more committed to paying back loans after harvest.The attention paid to women in the village by NGOs has increased women's visibility, participation and power within the community. Besides women heading all the local registered cooperatives, in November 2022, the Locality Executive Director issued an order that the water facilities in Azaza Sogora should be under the administration of a women's committee.Around 50% of male youth in the village have their own farming activity. After participating in the family farm plot, they cultivate their own land. The main crop grown is sesame, as it has a short growing season and can be sold quickly. The main job undertaken by unmarried girls, other than participating in family farming activities, is to work as agricultural labourers.Livestock rearing is the main economic activity for pastoralists, although rainfed crop farming is becoming an attractive option, including for Fallata pastoralists as a result of pressures on the pastoral livestock system. Pastoralist farming plots are mainly in the southern parts of Gadarif State (outside the case study location) and the main crop is sorghum. Pastoralists rear mainly sheep, goats, cattle and camels. The Fallata are mainly cattle herders who, in the last three decades, have begun to raise sheep.In the last five years, banks have also started to provide loans to men. 3Women had their own plots in the past but this increased with access to finance.Both partially settled as well as mobile pastoralist groups are involved in crop production. They have also worked as agricultural wage labourers (both men and women) in large-scale farming schemes, mainly to help cover living expenses and to reduce the pressure from their animals.Fallata women have clear ownership of their own livestock and their husbands cannot sell them without the woman's permission. They are also responsible for livestock near the homestead, including young and sick animals, and participate in local and urban markets selling ghee and milk products.The main local food production systems in Azaza Sogora and its surroundings are crop farming and pastoralism. The two systems are interconnected and interact in many ways. With the exception of the few large-scale farms in the village, crop farming in Azaza Sogora is rainfed and mainly for household consumption, with any surplus marketed to cover living expenses. Priority is given to growing staple cereal crops such as sorghum and millet and then edible oil crops such as sesame and groundnut.Okra is another important diet crop. The main factors affecting production under rainfed conditions are rainfall shortages and fluctuations. Pest infestations are another limiting factor. Economic incentives have encouraged local farmers to introduce new cash crops such as cotton and melon seeds (tasali).Farmers store their harvest inside their household compounds in huts. They sell from the harvest in small quantities according to their needs. They continue to do so until the approach of the next cultivation season, at which time they sell the remainder of the stored harvest, holding back enough to Another relatively new land use in the area is smallholder crop farming inside the nearby forests.Previously, this was carried out by farmers from Azaza Sogora and was mainly carried out in empty patches of forest. Newly settled pastoralists inside the forest have rapidly expanded this activity. Land conversion is degrading the forest, according to informants.Case Study | 15Changes have occurred in the credit system in Azaza Sogora. People have shifted from the traditional system of shail to the modern banking system. In the shail system, merchants, mostly from outside the village, offer farmers loans to cover inputs and living costs at the start of the crop season in return for the right to buy crops during harvest at a discounted price. As market prices increase, this discount is ever greater and farmers complain the system is unfair. Informants have said that bank loans are far better.The Mechanized Farming Corporation is the agency responsible for land registration. Currently, there is an increasing trend among farmers in Azaza Sogora to officially register their agricultural land. This lets them use the document as collateral when applying for loans. Almost all registrations are done by male members of the family as heads of household. Women are excluded from this right.The Fallata are the main pastoralist group interacting with the Azaza Sogora community. They mainly raise cattle and sheep. Like many pastoralist communities in Africa, they keep livestock for a combination of social, cultural and economic purposes and to meet living expenses. They began to raise sheep because they are easy to sell, fetch good prices and mature quicker than cattle. The trend of focusing on sheep is more prominent among youth. The Falatta are well connected and interdependent. One of their main solidarity practices is nanginaya. In this practice, poor members of the extended family are gifted female animals from their relatives. After the animal gives birth two or three times, the animal is returned to its owner. Sheep are mainly used for this practice but also cattle and goats. Some Fallata pastoralists also work as livestock traders in the weekly markets. Their main practice is to collect animals from their owners based on an agreed price. After the sale, the trader pays the owner. This practice of livestock trading, while not new, is currently flourishing, especially among male youth.More recently, some Fallata have started cultivating crops. This practice began three decades ago when they settled in the southern parts of Gadarif State. They mostly rent farmland from people in the settled community. Some have even begun to purchase land. The main crop is sorghum for personal consumption. If the cultivators are nomadic pastoralists, they store their harvest with farmers in the village against payment and return from time to time to take from the harvest. They do this because it is difficult to carry the harvest as they move with their livestock. Settled pastoralists store their harvest inside their household compounds like settled farmers. The Fallata do not deal with loan institutions.Women from among the settled Fallata will work as wage labourers on agricultural farms, mainly weeding and harvesting. This practice is relatively new and started about 15 years ago. They said they do this for additional income and it helps reduce pressure from their herd. Besides selling animal products in the market, Fallata women are also responsible for milking, taking care of sick animals kept near the home and looking after newborn and young livestock. They share this responsibility with young boys and girls.Fallata pastoralists sell small numbers of their livestock in local markets. Larger numbers are trekked to nearby markets or are transported using trucks to major markets such as in Gadarif City. The majority of sold livestock are sheep, followed by goats. If a large amount of money is needed, for example, to pay for a wedding ceremony, to buy crop residues from large-scale schemes or to pay a large fine for crop damage, they will sell a bull. If a cow or a bull is injured, they sell it to local butchers.Case Study | 17Land TenureThere are two types of land tenure regimes in Azaza Sogora Village, registered and unregistered private ownership. The houses within the village are on officially registered land. Agricultural land used to be unregistered private ownership. However, in the last 15 years, people began to formally register their land because it is a requirement by some institutions to access agricultural inputs and loans.Pastoralist communities rely on a combination of open-access communal rangelands, government-owned land and privately owned land and water. The Butana rangeland in the north, where pastoralists normally spend the rainy season, is considered a typical open communal rangeland where all pastoralist groups have equal rights. Pastoralists also take their herds to forests registered with the Forest National Corporation as state-owned property, where grazing is allowed by law (this includes the forest near Azaza Sogora).During the dry season, most Falatta pastoralists rely on crop residues in agricultural fields and schemes owned by farmers. They have to pay to use the residue. Also during the dry season, they depend mainly on privately owned water resources to water their animals.Commonly used governance rules and systems of authority used in Azaza Sogora and the pastoralist groups interacting with them are a combination of customary norms and state laws. Within the village community and among the Fallata pastoralist group, the main governance system is based on local norms and traditions and is led by traditional male leaders.The preferred means to resolve issues and disputes is through direct reconciliation and the ajawid. The ajawid is a traditional dispute resolution mechanism where respected members of the community and traditional leaders, usually elders known for their knowledge of communal and customary norms, get involved to reconcile the parties through compensation or forgiveness. The final decision is in the hands of male members of the community.The ajawid is also the main mechanism for solving farmer-herder conflicts. In such cases, the dispute is solved without state involvement. If this does not work, the second level is to take the case to the Local Crop Damage Assessment Committee. Normally, the committee detains the livestock that have trespassed onto farms in special enclosures called zaribat elhawamil. Thereafter, both sides negotiate the ransom that should be paid to the farmer. If they agree, the case ends there. If there is no agreement, the case is taken to the official formal state juridical system. The starting point at this level is to officially report the case to the police station in the village. In some cases, the official formal process involves arresting the owner of the trespassing animals at the police station in addition to detaining some of the animals in a zaribat elhawamil. The official formal state juridical process also involves the Locality Crop Damage Assessment Committee. This is the least preferred mechanism because it involves a lot of bureaucracy and is time-consuming, especially for pastoralists. Some of the cases may extend to three or four months. Throughout the process, the arrested pastoralist may remain in jail.The main decision-maker in farmer-herder conflicts is the Local Crop Damage Assessment Committee.It consists of five members selected by the locality authority. None of these is a pastoralist. Pastoralists, therefore, complain that the committee is biased towards farmers and always overestimates crop damage. In terms of power, the Locality Crop Damage Assessment Committee is the most powerful conflict resolution body in the state juridical system, although it only comes into play if the conflict is not solved at the local level. It consists of government authorities at locality level and involves technical staff from the Ministry of Agriculture to assess the damage. Traditional leaders are not involved at this level. Still, farmer and pastoralist leaders play a significant role in mediation and negotiation to resolve farmer-herder conflicts.Wider conflict and insecurity are hampering mobility. Due to the fragile security situation associated with the ongoing war in many parts of Sudan, this season many pastoralist groups in Gadarif State have decided to stay in the dry season camping area in the south, which is more secure. This means most will stay within the farming zone for the whole growing season, which likely means more friction with farmers. Informants said that this season more cases of farmer-herder conflict have been reported in Azaza Sogora.There have been changes within the village in terms of political power. The old staff and bodies of the former regime were dissolved and replaced by new faces. For example, the Change and ServicesCommittee in the village is led by youth (four men and two women) and is currently the most politically powerful body in the village. There are no observed changes in decision-making and power relations among Falatta pastoralists.Case Study | 19Economic hardship and price rises are influencing local decision-making. Informants said that the price of many food items has doubled since 2019 due to the economic crisis all over Sudan. This is influencing consumer behaviour and market trends.Climate variability and extreme climatic events are affecting production. Informants said that heavy rains flooded agricultural land in 2020. This was followed by a shortage of rain in 2022. Informants consider the current season the best they have had in the last six years. Farmer-herder conflict has been politicized in Sudan. Rather than addressing the root causes of these conflicts and investing in better governance, successive Sudanese governments support one side against the other, thereby exacerbating competition between farmers and herders over land and water (Rottenburg 2008).A main government strategy has been to take power away from the local level and the peripheries by issuing laws and orders that have allowed the state to control resources, especially land. A clear example is the 1970 Unregistered Land Act. The act allowed the Sudanese government to control about 90 percent of the total area of the country. This includes communal land used for grazing by different pastoralist groups across the country, without taking into consideration their historical land rights. The act also gave government the right to evict local land users (Abukashawa 2021;Komey 2009). Therefore, the question of land remains one of the major root causes of conflict. To pave the way for top-down state land acquisitions, the central government issued additional laws that eroded customary institutions governing local land tenure systems (Komey 2009). Although conflicts in Sudan have many elements, it is notable that most of the violence has taken place in pastoral and agro-pastoral areas (Helland and Sørbø 2013).The main reason given for centralizing control is to expand large-scale farming, the view being that smallholder crop farming and pastoralism are outdated food production systems. Thereafter, land was allocated by the state for large-scale mechanized farming (Sulieman 2015).This bias started during the colonial period in the 19th Century when the government at the time began to establish large-scale farming on land used by local traditional users. The government policy stated that the rights of the cultivator should be considered above those of nomadic pastoralists (SCC 1944). This policy of favouring farming at the expense of pastoralism has continued up to now. It has created a hostile environment and worsened the relationship between farmers and pastoralists, who in most cases belong to different ethnic groups. Due to a combination of these factors, many farmer-herder clashes in areas like Kordofan and Darfur have worsened and turned violent, with many lives lost and assets damaged.In Gadarif State, large-scale mechanized agriculture was started on a few hundred hectares in the 1940s and now covers more than a million hectares. This expansion was at the expense of natural vegetation cover. The horizontal expansion of farming activities rather than the vertical improvement of crop productivity made it one of the hotspots of deforestation in Africa (Sulieman and Elagib 2012). Moreover, one of the major consequences of the rapid expansion of mechanized farming is the creation of inequality in land distribution resulting from the appropriation of land by a few influential elites (Sulieman 2015).Based on a top-down approach to economic transformation, Sudan since the 1970s emphasized the vast expansion of large-scale agriculture through major state-owned national projects and privately owned schemes. This transformation was promoted as an instrument for economic growth and fostering export revenue. The ultimate goal was to make the country a 'breadbasket' for the Middle East (O'Brien 1981).About one decade later, when the drought of the mid-1980s hit the country, it was the food aid coming from outside the country that saved lives (O'Brien 1985). The drastic consequences of the drought were due to a complex combination of political, economic and environmental factors (Cater 1986).Sudanese policymakers, however, did not learn from the lessons of the drought. This became clear after the fertile soil of the central plains was fully occupied after allowing large-scale mechanized farming to expand into northern marginal areas, despite laws prohibiting large-scale farming in marginal areas due to soil fragility and insufficient and erratic rainfall (Babiker 2012).The Butana rangelands are a case in point, where large-scale mechanized agriculture has drastically expanded over the last three decades. According to the Mechanized Farming Corporation, the northern frontier of large-scale mechanized agriculture has expanded approximately 300 km to the north. This frontier was put in place because the lands further north are marginal since precipitation does not support sustainable crop cultivation. However, these are excellent rangelands and home to significant groups of agro-pastoralists and transhumant populations (Sørbø 1985). Nevertheless, the Gadarif State Ministry of Agriculture issued an act in 1996 that pushed the frontier for mechanized farming further north (Figure 1). Similar developments have been reported elsewhere in the country, such as in North Kordofan State (Babiker 2008). The northern border for mechanized agriculture in North Kordofan, as defined by law. However, vast areas north of here are tractor-ploughed, a process that is environmentally unsustainable and destructive.Large-scale farmers in communal rangelands are mainly educated elites, retired civil servants and military officers and traders from the big urban settlements in the region (Bascom 1990). They get access to land through alliances with power holders at the state and local levels (Egemi 2006). In addition, the Sudanese state offers a range of incentives and support to large-scale farmers.Case Study | 23They have access to land at minimal rates, credit at interest rates below inflation, subsidized foodstuffs and subsidized tractor fuel and spare parts (Kadouf and Bruce 1986;Bascom 1990;Elhadary 2010). Bascom (1990) says that large-scale farmers have not been forced to comply with Mechanized Farming Corporation regulations such as establishing shelter belts, following the recommended crop rotations or abiding by regulations that prohibit them from selling, renting, or sharecropping the land. From 2010 to 2012, the head of the Farmers' Union was elected as Governor of Gadarif State while keeping his position in the union. Before being elected as state governor, he was also the President of the Gadarif State Legislative Assembly, which is dominated by large-scale farmers.The predominance of large-scale farmers' interests in state politics has meant that measures intended to maintain the rights of smallholders and pastoralists are not being considered. It is also clear that the abolition of the Native Administration and Tribal Homelands in 1970, combined with the trend of privatization that has benefited well-connected elites, has led to changes in the way people access land in Sudan (Assal 2009). Therefore, contemporary debates on land grabbing draw attention to the continuing difficulty of politically marginalized communities to access resources, including land (Babiker 2012).Violations of local rights in the name of promoting agricultural investment are triggering endless conflicts in Sudan (Sulieman 2013;Shazali and Ahmed 1999;Helland and Sørbø 2013).In Major Market Trends that Influence Consumer Preferences Sudan has been politically and economically unstable since the revolutionary transition in 2019. The economy is suffering from extreme inflation coupled with a high rise in the price of all commodities and services. In response, people are reducing the number of meals per day, cutting out costly foods and trying to earn more by taking on more work (Wiggins et al. 2023). Compared to the scale of hardship created by high prices, responses from actors such as government, donors and NGOs are limited (Wiggins et al. 2023).Conflicts broke out in Khartoum and several other cities across Sudan in April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces. This conflict has displaced nearly three million inhabitants internally and across borders and has doubled the number of people experiencing acute food insecurity to 20.3 million, more than 42% of the country's population 4 .Since the 2019 revolutionary transition, the subsequent military coup in 2021 and the current war in Khartoum and other parts of Sudan, massive political changes have taken place. The situation has crippled national and local formal governments and has encouraged some land grabbers in Gadarif State to take advantage of the volatile situation by trying to push state authorities to issue them land leases to legalize their situation in areas like Butana or the state-owned forests 5 . It is likely that the current political situation will enable even greater rates of land grabbing.","tokenCount":"5318"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e4894ea6a39ff01c6ec5b120a4dde019","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dab31415-8209-49cf-b381-f3c2315ddb87/retrieve","id":"-516140887"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4e2ac096-fe90-46d7-a5f9-07a0131fb3c9","pagecount":"1","content":"P356 -Evidence that counts for zoonoses Description of the innovation: The computer-based health-education tool 'The Vicious Worm' was developed to create awareness and provide evidence-based health education as a specific measure in control strategies. To increase the reach of the tool, a new version in Swahili was developed and can now be downloaded for free from http://theviciousworm.sites.ku.dk. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Production systems and Management practices Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Regional Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Region: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: The computer-based health-education tool 'The Vicious Worm' was developed to create awareness and provide evidence-based health education as a specific measure in control strategies. To increase the reach of the tool, a new version in Swahili was developed and can now be downloaded for free from http://theviciousworm.sites.ku.dk. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: <Not Defined> Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: <Not Defined> Milestones: No milestones associated","tokenCount":"168"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"53919191223bf8c5c72f8c5fe6ce5533","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8691f0a7-a7d9-4a63-81e8-11d04354860d/retrieve","id":"1885226970"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aa6c6a08-a889-4e11-8dbd-0c1f30328ac3","pagecount":"48","content":"Publications in this working document series include methodologies for, as well as preliminary results of, market-oriented smallholder dairy research conducted by ILCA scientists and their collaborators. This series is published informally to enable early dissemination of research outputs. It has not been prepared in accordance with the formal publication procedure of ILCA. Comments are welcome.G. Mullins and B. Shapiro are ILCA agricultural economists. S. Nokoe is former Head of ILCA's Computer and Biometrics section. B. Rey is a livestock system specialist from CIRAD/EMVT on secondment to ILCA.ILCA's Conceptual Framework for Market-Oriented Dairy Research (CF) was developed in response to the need for a practical methodology, grounded in experience and applicable by national agricultural research systems (NARS). Multi-disciplinary in design, the CF takes a production-to-consumption approach to the analysis of a dairy system, which in the context of the CF comprises the production, processing, marketing and consumption sub-systems. Development and implementation of research activities is phased, the information generated by each preceding phase determining subsequent directions and activities. Phase I is the typification of the dairy system with respect to its representativeness within and across sites. Phase II of the CF is the characterisation phase. Phase II entails \"the detailed characterisation of dairy systems which includes quantification of their sub-systems, components and sub components, at the household level for consumption, and at the firm or individual level for production, processing and marketing\" (Rey et al, 1994). The objectives of this research phase are to:1. Provide baseline data on the status of the consumption system; 2. Identify and understand factors influencing dairy product consumption, the constraints and opportunities to increased consumption, consumer rationale and objectives; 3. Understand linkages between the consumption system and the production, processing and marketing systems, and their influences on consumption; and, 4. Identify and prioritise researchable issues which can be expected to make an impact on dairy system development.This document on characterisation methodology specifically refers to the dairy consumption system. The methodology developed and presented herein aims at guiding the activities of scientists who wish to investigate the dairy consumption systems at or around a specific site. Data collected and analyzed following this format will allow drawing conclusions about a particular location and its consumption system. It will also facilitate planning future research and development activities. By applying the same data-collection methodology across different sites, researchers and developers will derive additional benefit as they will be able to compare individual sites or to merge data for groups of sites regardless of location.Some characterisation of dairy product consumption has been conducted at most ILCA zonal sites (Table 1). Pursued by different scientists at different times and places, a variety of methodological approaches have been employed in conducting these studies. This document is based upon ILCA's experiences at its zonal sites and incorporates the methodological lessons learned in the course of these studies. In particular:1. Locations and samples should display readily identifiable characteristics; and, 2. While samples should be adequately large for sound statistical inference, the methodologies used for sample stratification, selection and data collection should not make inference complicated.The development of instruments for characterisation of any system is an exercise that needs to be carefully undertaken. The steps below have been followed in constructing the Conceptual Framework instruments and in specifying the analytical methods. Experience has shown that following these steps will ensure maximum efficiency in data collection and analysis. Sources: Jabbar and di Domenico (1992); Jansen (1992); Mullins (1992); Sissoko et al (1992).Step:1. Formulate the questions and hypotheses to be answered or tested in this phase. 2. Determine the analytical methodology to be used to answer the formulated questions and to test the hypotheses, and define the data needs. 3. Define the sources of this data. 4. Determine the method of data collection most appropriate for these sources, and, 5. For primary data collection, design the survey including the sample design and questionnaires to be used.These steps are first discussed in general terms before describing their specific application to characterisation of the consumption system.Finding the correct solution to a problem requires that the problem be clearly identified and defined. It is a mistake to assume that everyone involved in a research effort has the same perception of the research problem. Divergent perceptions will also give rise to different beliefs or hypotheses about the problem. Members of the research team should specify the questions and hypotheses they perceive are critical to answer or test. By doing so at the outset, one will avoid the costs of changing research plans after they are already under way or repeating exercises due to missed information.The schematic diagram in Figure 1 depicts the relationships between functional parameters, performance indicators, and conditions which compromise system performance, thereby thwarting achievement of consumption goals. The analytical framework is intended to stimulate thinking about these relationships, generate questions and hypotheses about the system under study, and to suggest starting points for data analysis.  Because the method of analysis influences the type of data to be collected, they must be determined before embarking upon data collection.While it has been stated that characterization of a dairy system entails quantification of various parameters and performance indicators, in many instances descriptive statistics such as percentages, frequencies, means and variances will be adequate. Hypothesis testing will, however, require more advanced statistical techniques such as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Regression analysis may be employed to evaluate the relationships between particular variables and their statistical significance. Based upon the methods of analysis to be used, specific data requirements can be identified.Unfortunately, too many questionnaires have been based on the premise that, while in the field, it is best to gather as much information as possible with hopes that the use and relevance of the data will appear during analysis. Experience has shown the shortcomings of this approach:1 . Respondent-fatigue from long interviews leading to poor data quality and unwillingness to participate in subsequent surveys; 2. Overloading the survey instrument. This particularly becomes a problem when relevant information omitted is; and, 3. Analysis makes use of only 35-50% of the data collected!The objective pursued here is that at least 80% of the information collected should be relevant and useful in answering the specific questions or testing the hypotheses of this phase. To achieve this level of efficiency, efforts have been made to define a minimum data set on dairy consumption which will characterise the system and permit its assessment. This assessment forms the basis for setting priorities with respect to researchable consumption issues. The information to be collected belongs to three categories:1 . Functional parameters: These are key descriptors of how the system functions, e.g. number of dairy products consumed, frequency of consumption, places where dairy products are eaten etc. 2. Performance indicators: These parameters allow assessment of the efficiency of the performance of the system and/or its components, e.g. LMEs/consumer unit/day1, the ratio of standardised to non-standardised products etc; and, 3. Data essential for testing the hypotheses of this phase.The next step is to define the best sources of the information necessary for characterising the consumption system. Quality of a data source takes into consideration both the reliability and the accuracy of data. Potential sources for data on the consumption system are: 3. Consumers: In the broadest sense, this would include any individual who is the final user of any dairy product at any time of the year. It may be desirable, however, to establish a threshold only above which an individual would be considered a consumer; and 4. Consumption unit: The \"unit\" is determined by the level at which decisions on consumption are made, e.g. regarding product type, quantities or forms consumed etc. The consumption unit could be an individual, a group of individuals, most commonly a household, or a food institution such as a restaurant.Several information-gathering techniques are recognised as particularly useful for the characterisation of a consumption system. After the definitions used by Mettrick (1993), these are:Informal survey: A systematic, but semi-structured activity carried out in the field by a multidisciplinary team, and designed to quickly acquire new information on, and new hypotheses about, rural life. Appropriate when the need is understanding rather than quantifying, it can be followed by a small-scale, focused verification survey to improve credibility;Formal survey: A questionnaire-based survey of a sample of respondents who are representative of a particular population. Formal surveys are indicated when valid statistical inferences are needed. Sample size should be sufficiently large to allow making these inferences;Case study: Detailed study of a small number of units, selected as representative of the target group(s) relevant to the issue under consideration, but not necessarily representative of the population as a whole (Casley and Lury, 1982). Appropriate when a detailed understanding of complicated relationships is considered more important than ensuring data representativeness;Group interview: Open-ended discussion with a group of respondents sharing resources or activities, useful for tapping the collective wisdom or memory of a community.The method for collecting the required information will, in part, be based upon the consumption unit selected. For example, one would not ordinarily use a group-interview technique if the consumption unit identified was at the food-institution level. Data-collection method will also be determined by such factors as the time, manpower and financial resources available, and the precision and representativeness required to make inferences about a population.The concept of consumption may be understood to have either of two related meanings, both involving the notion of an object's \"disappearance\" or transformation. In economic terms, consumption of an object may be considered to have occurred when it has been removed from the market by some exchange mechanism, such as when a transfer takes place between a seller and a buyer of a good. The more commonly understood meaning of consumption is its physical meaning of having been eaten. It is this latter meaning which applies in this characterisation methodology. Some other important definitions are:Dairy product: A dairy product shall be defined as milk or any product derived from milk. Within the general class of dairy foods, different products will be differentiated by their physical composition or form, or where the market or consumer differentiate them.Consumption pattern: The combination of products consumed, the frequency of their consumption and the quantities consumed.Mode of consumption: The manner in which the dairy product is consumed or used, e.g. milk may be taken directly or in tea and either cold or warm; butter may be used as a cooking fat, an edible spread, or a cosmetic.Regulated market: A market in which government exercises control, for instance through price regulations, mandatory standards of hygiene, location-specific marketing licenses, etc. Conversely, an unregulated market is here defined as one which effectively operates beyond the control of government and is for all practical purposes \"self-monitored\", such as in dairy markets dominated by \"over-the-fence\" sales to neighbours.The information necessary for the characterisation of the consumption system derives from three sources: i) the functional parameters necessary for the description of the system, ii) the performance indicators required for assessing the effectiveness of the system, and iii) the hypotheses to be tested in the characterisation phase of the Conceptual Framework.Table 2 sets out the hypotheses contained in the Conceptual Framework which directly relate to the consumption system.In summary, they postulate that dairy product consumption is dependent on household location, consumer purchasing power, and consumer tastes and preferences. Also listed in the table are the data required to test each of the hypotheses. Not all of the hypotheses advanced will be tested during the characterisation phase but some will more appropriately be addressed at a later stage in the research process. The hypotheses in Table 2 have been identified as \"core\" hypotheses, and are considered essential for elucidating the forces underlying current dairy-consumption trends. Given, however, that consumption systems in different areas will exhibit their own unique characteristics, researchers are encouraged to formulate additional hypotheses, the testing of which will add to the collective understanding of dairy consumption systems.Note that it is important at this stage to identify potential sources of the needed data. Not only will the identification process assist in evaluating the testability of the hypotheses, but it is also necessary for selecting the techniques to be used for gathering this information. Identifying the information sources and data-collection methodologies will furthermore facilitate organising the research.  Table 3 indicates the key functional parameters and performance indicators for the description and evaluation of the consumption system. These data, together with those required for testing the hypotheses associated with Phase II, generate the minimum data set necessary for the system's characterisation. Table 4 states explicitly the information to be collected. The table also identifies the origin of the data need, and in the far right column, notes the specific question(s) in the household questionnaire which will generate the data.Table 4 is a compilation of the information needs identified in Tables 2 and 3 as interpreted at the level of the consumption unit. As can be seen from the table, the consumption unit in this case is the household, and it is at this \"level of observation\" that consumption data are collected, i.e. the focus is on the consumption behaviour of the household members as a group rather than on the behaviour of any particular individual. For current purposes, the household shall be defined as being comprised of those individuals who take at least one meal a day at home. To maximise data accuracy, attempts should be made to collect consumption information from the individual who is responsible for acquiring food for the household, referred to here as the \"food budget manager\". While it is assumed that the majority of households will be purchasing the dairy products they consume, many households may also be dairy producers. This, however, should not prejudice the data collection. Similarly, it is expected that consumption of dairy products outside the household will vary across sites. Key informant surveys should provide insights on consumption of dairy products outside the household and thereby indicate whether or not a survey of food institutions is in order.Although the household is identified as the primary level of observation, it is still important to consider using secondary data sources. Key informants are often reliable and accessible sources of information on population descriptors, income range, dairy products generally available and consumed, and cultural practices. Published statistics can also be valuable sources of information on distribution of income, retail prices, urban population density and population growth rates, and imports of dairy products.For collection of information on household consumption, the method proposed is a formal survey of a representative sample of households within the dairy shed2 under study. The characterisation survey is a single visit survey with a reference period of the last one week.Based on previous household level survey experience, information collected in this manner is sufficient for characterisation of the consumption system. Notice must be taken, however, of variation in consumption during the year, i.e. intra-annual consumption variation, due to such factors as production fluctuations between rainy and dry seasons, seasonal off-farm labour demand, and religious or traditional festivals, e.g. Ramadhan, Christmas etc. Unless there is special interest in consumption during high or low peaks, surveys should be planned so as to avoid these periods.At sites where there is evidence of strong seasonal consumption, repeat visits to the same household will permit better characterisation of the consumption system. Where feasible, repeat visits will also benefit survey efforts by permitting corroboration of previously collected data and improving estimates of consumption.Necessarily, the representative household sample must include non-consuming as well as consuming households, and the sample is therefore selected from the household population in the dairy shed. The households may be situated in urban, peri-urban or rural environments. Among the consuming households, however, the sample is intentionally restricted to those households which consume dairy products on a regular basis, which for purposes of the characterisation survey shall be any household having consumed any dairy product in the last week, excluding holidays or other special occasions. Because the size of this population of consumers is unknown in advance, the sample of households to be interviewed cannot be randomly chosen with a given sampling intensity. Based on previous sampling experience andThe \"dairy-shed\" concept applied in this working document series has both a geographic dimension and a specific market orientation.The dairy systems with which this methodological series is concerned are focused on supplying dairy products to urban consumption centres. Geographically, the dairy shed extends to that local area supplying dairy products to the urban area under consideration. resource considerations, however, a sample size in the range 120-150 households is proposed.The sampling methodology recommended for identifying the sample households is the adaptive cluster procedure (Thompson, 1992), a modified application of traditional cluster sampling (Cochran, 1963). Adaptive cluster sampling is appropriate in situations where the population size is unknown and is particularly useful for adoption or impact studies. The final sampling unit is a cluster of elements, in this case, a group of households. Depending upon the sample size to be drawn and the data required to test the postulated hypotheses, it may be desirable to stratify the population using pre-determined or naturally defined groups.To begin the sampling process, individual households are randomly selected from the total list of household units. These households serve as the starting points for the formation of household clusters (see Figure 2) of sizes 1 to n (defined later). Sampling continues from these points according to specific rules. Two types of household units are definedconsuming units and non-consuming units. Eligibility rules of the adaptive cluster procedure for sampling of the consumption system are as follows:A household is eligible for observation if:1 . it is part of a selected cluster, and; 2. it has consumed any dairy product during the past seven days, apart from festivities or holidays; or, 3. it constitutes an edge unit3, i.e. a non-consuming household bordering a cluster of consumers; 4. it is a consuming household outside a selected cluster but does not lead to a subsample size greater than 5% of the total sample size; and, 5. the household is less than 1 km from the preceding household.Bearing these rules in mind, the sampling procedure may then be described as follows: 1 . Determine the number of primary consuming households, n, required (a sample of size n> =25 is suggested) [this defines the number of clusters]; 2. If stratification4 is to be applied, allocate the clusters to each stratum, e.g. urban, periurban or rural household clusters, in proportion to the size of that stratum in the population if known, i.e. if a particular stratum represents 50% of the population then it should be allocated 50% of the total sample clusters; 3. Sampling will be without replacement, i.e. a cluster will be surveyed only once, and only households having the desired attributes specified under eligibility rule 1 (specified above) will be interviewed. Households selected randomly that do not possess these attributes will not be interviewed; and 4. For each of the initially selected primary households, all surrounding household units will be interviewed that also meet the observation criteria. Terminate the cluster formation when an edge unit is encountered or a maximum 5% total sample size is attained.3Whether an edge unit is merely an infrequent consumer of dairy products or a complete nonconsumer, there is still valuable information to be gathered from these households that will contribute to our understanding of determinants of dairy consumption. Information on household composition, education and income level, consumption constraints, food budgets and food consumption patterns may provide important insight into household consumption behaviour. The questions to be posed to edge units are designated in the proposed household consumption questionnaire found in Annex 2.For further comments on stratifying samples see Annex 4The adaptive cluster method will lead to the formation of a maximum of n clusters varying in size from 1 (where the first household sampled fails to meet the interview criteria) to 0.05 x n. Figure 2 below illustrates the adaptive cluster sampling procedure. Details of computing the mean and variance of data values collected using this methodology are given in Annex 5.3.4 Field Instruments 3.4. 1 Dairy-shed level As a preliminary step to collecting information on the consumption system, secondary sources should be reviewed and discussions held with knowledgable key informants. Information supplied by the key informants will, in some cases, fill data requirements of the characterisation process; in other instances, information from key informants will be needed to properly design the household survey instrument and to guide cluster sampling. Annex 1 describes the information which should be collected through key informants at the dairy-shed level. The example form presented in the annex suggests how the data collection can be organised to facilitate efficiency.It is anticipated that much of the information required for characterisation of the consumption system will be gathered through primary data collection at the household level. In the preceding sections, the methodological background, hypotheses, minimum data requirements and sampling technique underlying this data collection have been described. The survey instrument, here a household questionnaire, brings these components together into a single, logically constructed document, the administration of which will generate the required data, it is expected, in an efficient manner. While there always exists the possibility of generating poor-quality data due to improperly worded questions, unskilled enumerators and other sources of non-sampling error, this possibility can be greatly reduced by closely following the preceding steps. Doing so will also result in the minimum number of questions that need to be asked. The probability of poor or unuseful data can be further reduced by ensuring that questions are to the point and unambiguous in their meaning. A proposed household level questionnaire developed according to the minimum data set (Table 4) is presented in Annex 2. In addition, ILCA will, upon request, furnish to users of the characterisation methodology, computer diskettes containing screen designs for data entry and a limited number of programmes for generating the functional parameters, performance indicators and hypothesis tests.Between 1 99 1 -92, scientists from ILCA and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) undertook a characterisation study of dairy consumption in the dairy shed surrounding the coastal city of Mombasa.Using the enumeration areas demarcated during the 1989 population census, the Mombasa dairy shed was stratified into rural, urban and peri-urban areas. An estimate was made of the overall sample size needed for statistically valid data analysis. The overall sample size was then proportionally allocated among the location strata, thus yielding the number of clusters to be sampled in each area. The clusters to be surveyed were then randomly selected. The household was determined as the consumption unit and primary level of observation. Four households were randomly selected from each identified cluster, producing an overall household sample size of 630 households5. Adopting a formal survey technique, a structured questionnaire such as that proposed in Annex 2 was administered to the food budget manager of each household.Figure 2. Household selection following the rules of adaptive cluster sampling methodology.Non-consuming unit X consuming unit ® or ® initially randomly selected unit corresponding to non-consuming or consuming 6In this particular instance, the size of the population from which a sample was to be drawn was known, and for this reason it was possible to use traditional cluster sampling rather than the adaptive cluster methodology. However, because this situation is not often encountered, the Conceptual Framework proposes the adaptive cluster methodology for drawing samples.Presented below are selected results from the Mombasa dairy consumption characterisation study (Mullins, 1992). These are examples of useful data analyses which can be carried out at the characterisation phase based on the CF's recommended minimum data set. The examples are cross-referenced with the questions in the proposed household survey (Annex 2) which produce the data used in the analysis. The information generated is related to the functional parameters, performance indicators and hypotheses previously identified in the methodology. New hypotheses are developed about the relationships between households of different strata and their dairy consumption choices. Finally, research issues are identified.4.1 Products consumed (Question 24) Functional parameters. The consumption system of coastal Kenya is characterised by considerable product diversity (Figure 3). Unprocessed and processed, local and standardised dairy products appear among the items consumed. Milk consumption is, however, virtually exclusively cow's milk. Consumption of processed dairy products is observed even less frequently among rural and low-income households, indicating that the majority of the population do not consume processed products to any substantial degree.Hypotheses. Analysis of consumption data stratified by household location suggests that location exerts a strong influence on the types of dairy products consumed. While strengthening the hypothesis that there is a relationship between household location and dairy consumption, it is not possible, however, to conclude that location is a more influential determinant than household income as hypothesis C1 purports.Researchable issues. Further research is indicated investigating the reasons which underlie non-consumption of particular processed dairy products. Non-consumption may be related to higher prices associated with these products. Alternatively, it might reflect a location-specific group of consumers without access to the product in question, which would suggest inefficiencies in the marketing system. It may also be due to lack of product appeal among particular groups. Perishability, storage and packaging may be additional factors.Frequency of consumption is another step in the process of identifying patterns among dairy product consumers. Although a group of households consumes the same set of dairy products, they may consume individual products with quite different frequencies. Functional parameters. Consumption frequency of the two fresh milk products, raw milk and KCC pasteurized milk, displays a bi-modal distribution pattern, i.e. consumption frequency tends towards the extremes of either daily or never, with few respondents in between. The frequency distribution of UHT milk consumption is more even, although many respondents indicate that they do not consume UHT milk at all. Fermented milk is consumed with high to moderate frequency, but the processed dairy products, butter and cheese are regular parts of the diets of only a few households.Researchable issues. The issue of non-consumption of dairy products is again highlighted. But, the bi-modal distribution of consumption frequency of raw and KCC pasteurized milk strengthens the hypothesis that separate markets exist for these products. The separation of the two product markets could result from bi-modal income distributions, marketing constraints, market interventions, or a combination thereof, and is an issue for research.4.3 Levels of Consumption (Questions 22, 23, 24 and 25)The quantity of dairy products consumed per individual per year is frequently used to summarise the status of dairy consumption at a point in time. The number of kilograms of milk consumed per capita per year can be used to: i) draw comparisons between groups of dairy consumers; ii) estimate overall consumption of dairy products in an area; and iii) identify determinants of dairy demand. Obtaining information on consumption levels is, however, not an easy task. There are difficulties in acquiring good measurements of consumption and problems in combining quantities of different products, e.g. milk and butter, into a single figure. An additional computational problem arises from the fact that products are consumed at different frequencies and that this consumption may vary considerably over the year. Overcoming these problems and arriving at reliable consumption estimates requires collecting the separate pieces of information, standardising products, quantities and frequencies, and then computing the estimates. Details of how dairy products may be standardised, consumption frequencies reconciled, and household members of different ages and sex converted to consumer units are provided in Annex 3. Table 6 presents estimated dairy consumption levels based on these standardization procedures for households in the Mombasa characterisation study. Performance indicators. Quantities consumed are generally less than a liter of liquid milk equivalent per consumer unit per day, however, there is considerable range across income classes and geographic locations, with the highest consumption level (urban/high income) being more than twice that of the lowest (peri-urban/low income). There is also notable variation in consumption within the defined strata as indicated by standard deviations which are equal to or greater than the means.Hypotheses. The data support acceptance of hypothesis 20: \"Consumption levels of dairy products are positively correlated to population concentration\". Consumption levels increase as one moves from the sparsely populated rural areas to the densely populated urban areas, even within the same income classes.Researchable issues. Assuming that the observed variations in consumption levels are not due to consumer preferences, there appears to be considerable scope for increasing the quantities and diversity of dairy products consumed, particularly among middle and low income households in peri-urban and rural locations. Subsequent research should therefore determine the respective influences of household income and product availability as constraints to dairy consumption. Answering this question will assist in allocating research resources between development of cost-reducing production technologies, and the design of more effective and efficient marketing systems.At the household level the consumption pattern is defined as the combination of the types, quantities and frequencies of dairy product consumption. Where dairy products are numerous and widely consumed, discerning consumption patterns may become complicated. Below are some of the more distinct consumption patterns identified in the coastal Kenya study. These results have lead researchers to examine more closely the consumption patterns of peri-urban households, some of which exhibit patterns resembling those of rural households while yet others display consumption patterns similar to urban households. Understanding the sources of these differences will yield important information on (1) the changing patterns of food consumption as populations relocate to peri-urban areas, and (2) the determinants of dairyproduct demand.Functional parameters. Twelve per cent of the households surveyed were not, or only on special occasions, consuming any dairy products. The coastal Kenya households which consume dairy products may be characterised as belonging to either of two broad categories: those consuming only liquid milk products 42%, and those which, in addition to milk, consume more highly processed products (58%). Within these two groups are subclasses of consumers differentiated by their intensity of consumption. Although only a small minority of the consuming households (three per cent) are classified as \"very high\" intensity consumers, 47 per cent are considered as \"high\" intensity. Highest intensity consumption is associated with households of Asian and Swahili ethnic and cultural backgrounds.As earlier identified, levels, range and frequency of dairy consumption -the combination of which determine consumption pattern -are closely linked to household location and income class. Analysis also reveals, however, the important role of ethnicity and cultural attributes in determining consumption patterns. It is therefore critical that system performance be set in its social context for proper evaluation as performance measures are likely to differ according to ethnic and cultural expectations.Hypotheses. Among other factors, prices, household income and location, tastes and preferences, cultural beliefs and taboos, and personal attributes of the food budget manager are hypothesised as determinants of dairy consumption. Of these, the latter three in fact reflect the ethnic and cultural background of the household. Separate testing of hypotheses will provide statistical evidence of the role of ethnicity and culture in determining dairy product consumption. Initial analysis of consumption patterns strongly suggests, however, that these social characteristics are significant consumption determinants and substantially mitigate price, income and location factors. Researchable issues. That the unique food habits of many ethnic groups persist despite long residence outside their native countries or regions, demonstrates the strength of \"food cultures\". Still, there is also evidence among the data from coastal Kenya that food habits have been adapted. Little information is available, however, on the process of changing food habits in coastal Kenya or other areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Research into this process could be expected to yield information of value for future agricultural research planning, market development, human nutrition, and government policy-making. This information also underscores the need to include socio-cultural considerations in research design and social scientists, e.g. anthropologists and sociologists, in the multi-disciplinary research team.Data on consumer preferences highlight production and marketing opportunities. Table 8 presents some of the results related to consumer preferences. Functional parameters. Among the liquid milk products, a clear preference exists for unprocessed (raw) whole milk. This is true irrespective of household location or income class.Performance indicators. Figure 4 comparing consumer preferences with actual consumer behaviour reveals that the two patterns do not coincide. The divergence implies that households are not consuming their preferred dairy products but rather are forced to choose among whatever products the market is offering. Hypotheses. While applicable, testing hypothesis 21 (\"Tastes and preferences are more important determinants of dairy consumption than household income\") with this data set will not yield valid results because consumption structures do not reflect consumer preferences.Researchable issues. It can be hypothesized that the discrepancy between consumption preferences and consumer behaviour results from supply factors such as lack of appropriate technology to increase production of raw milk, or, market failure. Market failure may result from government interference in the form of fixed prices, marketing restrictions, etc. which distort or impede the flow of goods and information between producers and consumers. Markets may also not be functioning well due to non-interventionary causes such as lack of infrastructure and technology.4.6 Constraints to and Opportunities for Increased Dairy Product Consumption (Questions 9,24,25,26,31,32) Improvement in the performance of consumption systems can be achieved through either removal of constraints on consumption or by capitalizing on previously unexploited opportunities. It is important in the course of research to remain aware of both avenues. Oftentimes, consumers know -or at least have firm opinions about -what prevents them from fully realising their consumption goals. In such cases, uncovering constraints may be as easy as asking consumers directly about their objectives and their problems in attaining them. However, when constraints occur within the marketing system, or at the level of production, consumers may only partially understand the nature of the problem. They are capable of describing the symptom, e.g. unavailability of fresh milk on the market, but are in fact unaware of the \"illness\", e.g. no milk collection service. Consumers obviously can only speak from their individual experience and are poorly placed to see new opportunities. Researchers, who will generally have more information on such a problem, are better situated to perceive new opportunities. However, in attempting to discover the constraints to and opportunities for improving consumption systems, researchers must not only look for direct and obvious problems but also discern the indirect and subtle issues. That consumption constraints are here gleaned from a series of six questions illustrates the numerous ways in which performance of the consumption system may be impaired. Researchable issues. The stated constraints may be described as fundamental, and based on the size and uniformity of household response, they constitute substantial problems to be overcome. Household real income can be increased by reducing the prices of dairy products. Reducing dairy product prices relative to their substitute goods will in addition make them more price competitive.Research is therefore needed to isolate the principal cost components of dairy products with a view towards reducing them. Policy analysis should not be overlooked in this process as fixed price policies can create price floors that bolster prices above competitive market levels. Consumers' comments on the unavailability of dairy products underscore the discrepancy between their consumption behaviour and their stated preferences which has been described previously, as well as research activities needed to investigate the issue of market failure.The preceding analysis has revealed three principal determinants of consumption among coastal Kenya households; ethnicity and cultural traditions, household income and household location.Household location influences structure of consumption by influencing the availability of dairy products. Essential for realizing household consumption goals, household income has a more direct effect on dairy consumption. The relative effect of income and location will, however, vary depending on the aspect of dairy consumption under consideration, i.e. whether one is investigating determinants of levels of consumption or types of products consumed.Income appears to predominate over household location as a determinant of dairy consumption (hypothesis C1). Still, where household income is a less binding factor, ethnicity and cultural attributes, and household location (the product availability issue) play a substantial role in determining dairy product consumption patterns (hypotheses C1 and 21 ). Analysis of the data from coastal Kenya refutes hypothesis C7: \"Low per capita dairy consumption in SSA is by conscious choice rather than the result of imposed constraints.\"Low levels of dairy consumption among the majority of coastal Kenya households and the high incidence of income and availability constraints indicate that even small changes in these areas could result in significantly improved performance of the consumption system. Costreducing dairy production technologies, and increased supply of dairy products through market development and marketing policy reform are identified as priority areas of future research aimed at improving performance of the dairy consumption system in coastal Kenya.Based on ILCA's extensive experience, the foregoing methodology provides NARS and other institutions responsible for conducting dairy research with a general methodology for characterising consumption systems. The working document begins with the identification of functional parameters, performance indicators, and the formulation of core hypotheses, and then sets out methods of analysis, data requirements and potential data sources for filling these information objectives. Sample design is discussed, alternative methods of data collection are examined, and a household survey instrument is provided as a model for the collection of household consumption data. Screen designs for entry of data collected using the household survey instrument and a limited number of programmes for analyzing the data are made available to users of the methodology upon request to ILCA. The latter section of the document provides examples of useful analyses which can be undertaken using only the defined minimum data set. Finally, detailed attention is given in the annexes to a number of technical considerations important for those employing the consumption characterization methodology.The consumption methodology will yield results of local application, in particular, in assisting research institutions to prioritize constraints to and opportunities for improving the performance of dairy consumption systems. While important in its own right, the clarification of research priorities will be of considerable assistance as well in management of research and the resources allocated to it. But moreover, it is hoped that by providing a generally accepted methodology for dairy system research, greater consistency will emerge in the research conducted at different sites, and that over time a substantial body of data will accumulate that will permit cross-site comparative studies. This ability would be of major significance in furthering the knowledge and understanding of consumption systems.     Enumerator note:Survey Code [ 'EDGE UNIT\" HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIREThe following shortened questionnaire is to be used for \"Edge unit\" households, ie. those households which have not consumed any dairy product in the last 7 regular days. Procedures for standardising product measures and consumption frequencies, and calculation of consumer unitsIn the unregulated, informal markets that predominate in many rural areas, dairy products are sold or traded in many forms and measures, some of which can be highly location-specific. Nevertheless, these measures are usually well understood by local consumers and are regarded as legitimate standards of measure. It is recommended that data collection involving quantities be gathered using local standards of measure. Doing so will have the twofold advantage of allowing respondents to use quantities with which they are familiar and can estimate accurately. In turn, this will facilitate collection of more accurate data and reduce the chances of non-sampling errors. It does, however, complicate the work of the researcher who must convert the local measures into standards which are widely recognised, such as litres, kilograms etc. This is not so difficult if the local measures are some form of commercially marketed container on which the volume is indicated. However, if the local measure used is not one of these, say for instance a calabash, then it will be necessary to calculate the volume or weight of the measure by emptying the contents into a calibrated container or weighing a reasonable number of samples and obtaining an average value. Furthermore, this will be necessary for each of the different dairy products as densities, and hence weights, will vary.There still remains the problem of expressing total quantity of dairy products consumed: how does one add together products which are not of the same form, such as milk and butter? To resolve this problem, and to account for the fact that making a kilogram of butter requires an estimated 6.6 litres of milk, the concept of liquid milk equivalents (LME) is introduced. Quite simply, the LME of a dairy product is that quantity of whole liquid milk which is required to make the dairy product in question. Normally, LMEs are expressed in kilograms. Table 9 lists LME conversion factors calculated by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation for various dairy products. The CF follows these conversion factors. Similarly, respondents should be allowed to answer questions using the time reference best known to them, i.e. daily, weekly, monthly etc. It will then be necessary to standardise these time references prior to analyzing the data .From the standpoint of nutritional assessment, it is important to recognise that caloric requirements differ according to the age and sex of an individual. For this reason, the preferred human unit of measure is the consumer unit. Table 10 provides conversion factors for translating per capita consumption into consumer units. This assumes, of course, that Annex 4. Sampling stratification: guidelines and commentsIn applying the foregoing methodology, one will have formulated hypotheses regarding household consumption behaviour and its determinants. These hypotheses speculate on relationships between dairy consumption and various household attributes such as income, ethnicity, location and others. In order to properly test the hypotheses, it is important that the household sample drawn adequately displays the full range of these attributes, i.e. it is representative of the household population. Careful stratification will increase the likelihood that the household sample selected will reflect the variation of the desired attributes in the household population.Key variables of interest are specified in the stated hypotheses. Begin the sample design by obtaining through key informants and secondary sources as much information as possible regarding the geographical distribution of these characteristics.Determine if these characteristics are distributed with any clear patterns. If they are, then these patterns should be taken into account when selecting the sampling clusters. For example, if income is hypothesised as a key determinant of dairy consumption, ensure that households of al| income levels are represented in the sample to be surveyed. Moreover, to ensure that a particular income group is not over-or under-represented, apportion the clusters to be sampled in accordance with each group's occurrence in the population. Sometimes this information will be available from government sources such as the Central Bureau of Statistics, or possibly it may be extracted from previous surveys. Accord each group or stratum its appropriate number of clusters from among the total number of clusters to be sampled in the dairy shed. From the subtotal of clusters belonging to the given stratum, draw at random that number of clusters which has been apportioned to it. Continue in this fashion for the other strata to be sampled. The resulting stratified sample should reproduce the population mixture. Following this procedure will increase the likelihood of capturing key consumption determinants as well as ensuring the representativeness of the survey results. However, to avoid sampling errors and to ensure comparable data sets, it is imperative that identical stratification criteria are used across sites. The table below illustrates how, by careful definition, stratification can be uniformly applied. There is feasible access to a town or city for a commuting (i.e. daily) work force Some households maintain farms but it is not a farming-based community Rural Fails to meet the foregoing tests for urban or peri-urban locations N.B. In order to be classified as an urban or peri-urban location, it is required that the area under consideration meet a_N of the criteria specified for that location type.","tokenCount":"7283"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8af5463d15a435def93717a706ccbd14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/acb034c1-ff5b-4746-ad16-4a4c37fa9127/content","id":"710484392"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"01b6d200-e7d9-470e-88de-a0ab94360b2e","pagecount":"292","content":"En este trabajo se analiza el progreso alcanzado en el desarrollo de híbridos de maíz en Centro América utilizando los datos de 51 ensayos uniformes del PCCMCA entre 1988 y 1990. Se utilizó una metodología que determina la confiabilidad de respuesta (RN, o probabilidad de respuesta normalizada superior a cero) de los cultivares superiores con respecto a un cultivar testigo. . En este estudio se determinó la confiabilidad de los cultivares H883, H885, H30, HA46, Dekalb 8833, Pioneer XLH53, HRI7, MAX307, H33 y TACSA 203, como una medida que integra tanto la magnitud de respuesta como la variabilidad en rendimiento con respecto al testigo H5. Los genotipos evaluados se clasificaron en tres clases con respecto al H5:EI Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) para Centro America y EI Caribe es una red de investigacion con enfasis en el desarrollo de germoplasma mejorado y el manejo agronomico del cultivo del maiz. La red esta constituida por 9 Programas Nacionales de Investigation Agricola (PNIA's) del area de Centro America y EI Caribe y el Centro Intemacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT). El Programa Regional de Maiz incluye actualmente los paises de Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Pana:ma y Republica Dominicana. EI PRM tiene su origen en 1975, cuando el Programa Regional de CIMMYT para Centro America y El Caribe, inieio la evaluaci6n y selecci6n de germoplasma de maiz en colaboracion con los Institutos de Investigaeion de los paises. EI Programa Regional de Maiz esta actualmente conformado por tres comites y una oficina regional. El Comite Regional Permanente (CRP) conformado por los coordinadores de los programas de maiz de cada uno de los paisesy el CIMMYT; el Comite Tecnico (CT) conformado por el personal cientifico del CIMMYT y los distintos lideres y colideres de los distintos proyectos colaborativos; son los encargados de aprobar el contenido tecnico de las actividades y proyectos del PRM; el Comite de Arbritaje (CA), organa que solamente se utilizara para resolver conflictos de orden mayor y esta conformado por un representante de COSUDE, uno de CIMMYT y un el presidente del CRP; El Coordinador Regional (CR) administra a tiempo completo al PRM Y es responsable de darle seguimiento y velar por el cumplimiento de las actividades comtempladas y aprobadas en los POA's anuales. El Ing. Roger Urbina cumple actualmente esta funcion. La Cooperation Suiza at Desarrollo (COSUDE) es la agencia que proporeiona el fmanciamiento del PRM en su fase actual.El Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT) es una institucion internacional de investigacion cientifica y capacitacion, sin fmes de lucro. Desde su sede Mexico opera en 20 otras localidades a traves del tercer mundo, el centro opera un programa global de mejoramiento de maiz, trigo y triticale. Tambien investiga aspectos economicos relacionados a estos cultivos y da apoyo a mas de 100 Programas Nacionales de Investigacion Agricola (pNIA) responsables por estos cultivos en los paises en desarrollo. El CIMMYT es una de los 13 Centros de Investigacion Agricola Internacional (IARC) patrocinados por el Grupo Consultivo para la Investigacion Agricola Internacional (CGIAR), el cual es co-patrocinador por la Organizacion para la Agricultura y la Alimentacion (FAO) y las Naciones Unidas, el Banco Mundial y el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (UNDP). El CGIAR es un consorcio de mas de 40 paises donantes, organizaciones intemacionales y fundaciones privadas. El Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) es el Unico responsable de esta publicacion.Cita correcta: Jorge Bolafios, Gustavo Sain, Roger Urbina y Hector Barreto (Editores), Sintesis de Resultados Experimentales del PRM 1992, Vol. 4 (1993), CIMMYT-PRM, Guatemala.  DescriptORS AGROVOC: Zea mays; germoplasma, htbridos, variedades, ensayos de variedades, seleccion, resistencia a agent~daiiinos, produccion, factores de rendimiento, anaIisis economico, adopcion de innovaciones.Codigos de categoria AGRIS: F30, EIO.Clasificacion decimal Dewey: 631.523. Impreso en Guatemala.La Síntesis de Re~ultados Experimentales del PRM 1992 presenta los resultados más sobresalientes del Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) para Centro América y El Caribe durante 1992. El PRM es una red colaborativa de investigación con énfasis en el desarrollo de gennoplasma mejorado, en la generación de tecnologías para un manejo agronómico sostenible del cultivo del maíz y la evaluación de adopción e impacto de las tecnologías generadas. La red está confonnada por 9 programas nacionales de investigación agrícola y el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) y es financiada por la Cooperación Suiza al Desarrollo (COSUDE).Este ejemplar representa el volumen 4 de la publicación conocida corno el Libro Gris, una serie que se viene publicando anualmente desde 1989 por la oficina de Coordinación Regional del PRM. Su objetivo es dar a conocer los resultados experimentales más sobresalientes de los proyectos colaborativos de investigación en maíz. Sobra decir que el producto de estas investigaciones pertenece a todos y cada uno de los participantes del PRM. >= RN, < 0.8). Dado que la selección de un testigo regional surge de la necesidad de proveer tanto al fitomejorador como al productor de un término de referencia común para comparar nuevos genotipos, se requiere que este tenga un comportamiento estable y que posea un nivel adecuado de producción. Estas dos características se pueden obtener de los análisis presentados ya que los genotipos estables presentan pendientes de regresión entre las diferencias de rendimiento Y,-YH' contra la media ambiental, que no difieren significativamente de cero (P < 0.05) y tienen RN,> 0.8 con respecto al H5. Entre los genotipos que mostraron mayor potencial como testigos regionales se encuentran el H885 y H883. Se concluye que se necesitan mayores estudios para correlacionar el uso de lá confiabilidad con otros métodos para determinar la estabilidad genotipica.A partir de la década de los 1980, la evaluación experimental del maíz híbrido en relación a las variedades de polinización libre (VPLs) ha recibido mayor atención por los fitomejoradores del área Centroamericana en la búsqueda continua de alternativas para aumentar la producción de maíz, particularmente en ambientes favorables. La generación de híbridos con alto potencial de rendimiento y amplia adaptabilidad a los diferentes ambientes de producción requiere en primera instancia de un programa de mejoramiento con 3 objetivos precisos y de una eficiente infraestructura para la producción de semilla. Así mismo se reconoce que para explotar el potencial genético de los híbridos, los aspectos agronómicos de manejo del cultivo (e.g. densidad, fertilización, etc.) revisten una importancia aún mayor que en las VPLs. El desarrollo de híbridos estables y de alta producción ha facilitado la incorporación de otros componentes (fertilizantes y herbicidas) a los sistemas de producción, contribuyendo así al aumento de la productividad del cultivo del maíz de la región.Durante el período 1966-1980, las VPLs representaron más del 70% del germoplasma producido por los programas nacionales de investigación de maíz de Centro América y El Caribe (Morris y López-Pereira, 1991). Para el período [1980][1981][1982][1983][1984][1985][1986][1987][1988][1989][1990], se observa una tendencia mayor al desarrollo de híbridos (Córdova, 1991;López-Pereira, 1993).Entre los factores importantes que afectan el énfasis actual de la investigación en fitomejoramiento de maíz en la región de México y Centroamérica, López-Pereira y Espinosa (1993) mencionan la productividad del híbrido, rendimiento de las líneas progenitoras, el grado de eficiencia en las diferentes etapas de proceso de producción de semilla, y el impacto de las políticas agrícolas. Córdova (1989) resalta la necesidad de una mayor integración de los programas de mejoramiento genético a los sistemas de generación, prueba y transferencia de tecnología para una eficiente diseminación de los genotipos generados en la región. López-Pereira (1993) reportó una relación inversa entre el precio relativo y el uso de semilla híbrida por los agricultores en países en vías de desarrollo.El ensayo uniforme de cultivares de maíz del Programa Colaborativo Centroamericano para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos y Animales (PCCMCA) se inició en 1956, como un instrumento colaborativo para la evaluación sistemática de'cultivares desarrollados por los programas nacionales y las empresas privadas que operan en la región. La experiencia acumulada ha permitido fortalecer las técnicas de campo para la realización de experimentos así como el análisis e interpretación de los resultados mediante el uso de metodologías apropiadas para lograr conclusiones acertadas. La base de datos histórica de los ensayos colaborativos ha permitido a los programas nacionales tomar decisiones y reorientar los sistemas de mejoramiento del maíz en la región. La mayoría de los cultivares de maíz en producción comercial en la región han tenido como base experimental para su liberación el ensayo del PCCMCA, desde los híbridos H3 y H5 liberados en El Salvador en 1963-1965 hasta los híbridos HB83M y HB85 liberados en Guatemala en 1989. En síntesis, el ensayo colaborativo PCCMCA ha probado ser un instrumento efectivo para la evaluación experimental de los mejores materiales disponibles en el mercado de semilla de la región. El Programa Regional de CIMMYT para Centro América y El Caribe estableció un proyecto colaborativo regional encaminado a la generación de híbridos en 1986. En 1989 se inició la evaluación experimental a nivel regional a través del ensayo colaborativo del PCCMCA. Los primeros híbridos resultantes de este esfuerzo culminaron con la liberación de nuevos materiales en Panamá y Costa Rica en 1990 y 1991, respectivamente. El progreso fitogenético y la amplia adaptabilidad a ambientes de producción de los híbridos generados en Centro América durante 1986-1990 han sido documentados por Córdova (1991).Específicamente, Córdova (1991) en una revisión de los resultados experimentales de los ensayos del PCCMCA 1988PCCMCA -1990, indica que los híbridos HB85 y HB83 superaron al testigo histórico H5 en forma concluyente. Además indica que existen híbridos de maíz generados por las compañías privadas que pueden competir con los materiales desarrollados por los programas nacionales de investigación.Las conclusiones de estos análisis con respecto a la interacción genotipo-ambiente permiten: 1) asumir una adaptabilidad amplia (regional) de algunos de los genotipos y 2) una evaluación del progreso genético alcanzado en los últimos años. Sin embargo, se hace necesario realizar un inventario apropiado de la magnitud y variabilidad de respuesta observada en genotipos selectos con el fin de incorporarlos en forma eficiente a los paquetes tecnológicos disponibles en la región.Los objetivos de este trabajo son:Cuantificar la probabilidad de ganancias específicas en rendimiento de diez híbridos de maíz en comparación al testigo histórico H5. 4 2.Plantear algunas consideraciones para la selección de testigos a ser utilizados en comparaciones a nivel regional en estudios de impacto y ganancia genética.Introducir la metodología de confiabilidad de respuesta contra un testigo para caracterizar genotipos.Las localidades y la técnica experimental de los ensayos colaborativos PCCMCA utilizados en este trabajo han sido descritas por Córdova (1991). Para este estudio se utilizaron ensayos efectuados en 51 localidades como parte del proyecto colaborativo de evaluación de híbridos del PRM a través del PCCMCA, de estos se seleccionó un juego de genotipos comunes evaluados durante los años [1988][1989][1990]. Sin embargo, algunos genotipos no fueron evaluados en la totalidad de sitios. Los genotipos considerados, su origen y el número de localidades consideradas se presentan en el Cuadro l.Los genotipos seleccionados representan un grupo de materiales comúnmente utilizados en la región y comprenden tanto materiales generados por los programas de mejoramiento de los países del área en colaboración con el CIMMYT, al igual que algunos materiales representativos del germoplasma generado por la industria semillerista privada. Cuadro 1. Nombre del híbrido, origen, color de grano y número de localidades de evaluación en Centroamérica, 1988 Para determinar la confiabilidad de respuesta de un genotipo cualquiera (i) con respecto al testigo histórico H5 se utilizó una modificación del método de Eskridge y Mumm (1992).La confiabilidad de respuesta del i-écimo genotipo se determinó a partir de los diferenciales de rendimiento con respecto al testigo H5 (d¡). La hipótesis a probar en este caso es si el valor promedio de d¡ es mayor que cero, o sea: Para probar esta hipótesis se calculan los valores promedio de d¡ y la desviación estándar de las diferencias a través de todos los sitios (Sd¡). Luego se determina el valor estandarizado (d/sd¡) al cual se le determina la probabilidad normal estandarizada (usando la tabla de Z normal de una cola). A esta probabilidad se le denomina Confiabilidad Normalizada con Respecto al Testigo (RN¡). La confiabilidad se calculó para cada comparación de interés y se procedió a ordenar los genotipos en términos de esta probabilidad (de mayor a menor).Los valores de RN¡ para cada genotipo representan la probabilidad de que un genotipo supere en promedio el nivel de producción establecido por el híbrido adaptado H5. Si, para un genotipo i, esta probabilidad es baja (0.5 > RN¡ <= 0.6) quiere decir que, en promedio, dicho genotipo no supera en términos probabilísticos al testigo adaptado por lo que su adopción como tecnología alternativa no es recomendable. Por el contrario, si el genotipo i tiene un valor de confiabilidad alto (e.g. RN¡ > 0.8) quiere decir que se espera, en 8 de cada 10 casos en promedio, una respuesta de rendimiento del nuevo genotipo que es superior al testigo adaptado y por lo tanto su adopción por los agricultores puede ser recomendable.Cabe destacar que la medida de confiabilidad aquí presentada no cuantifica la magnitud de la superioridad (en términos de ganancias en rendimiento) del nuevo genotipo con respecto al testigo. Es decir, RN¡ no incorpora ningún factor económico asociado al cambio tecnológico.Esto es una consideración importante ya que los incrementos en rendimientos representados por la adopción de una nueva tecnología (en este caso un nuevo genotipo) no siempre compensan económicamente dicha adopción. Por ejemplo, una ganancia promedio en rendimiento de 250 kg/ha del genotipo i con una desviación estándar de 500 kg/ha de 5 la muestra de diferencias sobre el testigo, se asocia a una confiabilidad de 0.69, la cual no necesariamente implica la necesidad de un cambio tecnológico.La incorporación del factor económico asociado al cambio tecnológico propuesto (de H5 al nuevo híbrido) se puede realizar considerando que la diferencia promedio d¡ supere un determinado nivel de costos. Este nivel estaría relacionado al incremento en rendimiento necesario para cubrir y/o superar los costos del cambio tecnológico (los costos c, expresados en las unidades de medida del rendimiento). De esta manera la adopción de un nuevo genotipo sería recomendable solo si d¡ > c. Las hipótesis de interés son:Ha:d¡ -c> O Esta probabilidad se obtiene de la variable normal estandarizada Z de una cola y se le denomina ERN¡. De esta forma los genotipos se ordenan de acuerdo a sus valores de ERN¡ para cada genotipo y costos asociados con un cambio tecnológico en particular.El método propuesto está basado en la premisa de que el proceso de decisión sobre selección de un genotipo, sea por los fitomejoradores o por los productores, esta fuertemente influenciado por el nivel de cp.rteza estadística que se tenga sobre el potencial de los nuevos cultivares de tener una alta probabilidad de superar a un cultivar testigo en~na localidad determinada (Nuland y Eskridge, 1991~. Eskridge y Mumm, 1992) y de cubrir o superar los costos del cambio tecnológico. En este sentido, se define a un genotipo como de confiabilidad económica superior como aquel que tiene una alta probabilidad de sobrepasar en comportamiento al testigo dentro del rango de costos de producción asociados al cambio tecnológico. El cultivar con la confiabilidad más alta dentro de un rango de costos dado es el mejor cultivar. Entre más pequeña y cercana a 0.5 sea la confiabilidad económica, existe un mayor riesgo asociado al comportamiento del genotipo de prueba con respecto al testigo.   o Figura 1. Diagramas de dispersión de las diferencias de rendimiento y la estabilidad relativa de cuatro híbridos de maíz con respecto al testigo histórico 85 évaluados en Centro América durante 1988-1990. Los diagramas de dispersión y regresión lineal de las diferencias de rendimiento con respecto al H5 de los diez híbridos considerados en este estudio en relación a la media ambiental se presentan en las Figuras 1-3. Las confiabilidades calculadas para los diferentes genotipos evaluados se presentan en el Cuadro 2. Los genotipos (H30 y HB85) presentaron confiabilidades por encima de 0.90, las cuales se consideran superiores. La probabilidad normalizada de estos dos genotipos sugiere una repuesta diferencial en rendimiento mayor que cero con respecto al H5 en 9 de cada 10 instancias.El híbrido H5 ha sido tradicionalmente utilizado como un comparador para medir el progreso genético de los nuevos cultivares de maíz híbrido en la región de Centro América y El Caribe (Córdova, 1991). El H5 fue inicialmente desarrollado e introducido a los agricultores alrededor de 1963de -1965de (Walker, 1980)), por lo que establece un punto de referencia histórica. A pesar de algunas Iimitaci0lWs con respecto a la susceptibilidad de este material con respecto a estreses, particularmente bióticos (e.g. achaparramiento), su potencial de rendimiento y difusión entre los agricultores lo han convertido en un verdadero caballo de batalla en la lucha incesante para aumentar la producción de maíz en la región Centroamericana.Sin embargo, para el agricultor el cambio tecnológico de pasar de un genotipo a otro involucra costos, sean estos directos (semilla más costosa) o indirectos (costos de infraestructura para la producción de nueva semilla y/o subsidios a la semilla). Mediante una modificación al método propuesto por Eskridge y Mumm (1992), se evaluó el cambio en la probabilidad de respuesta a medida que los costos incurridos en el cambio tecnológico (H5 a híbrido nuevo) aumentan. El Cuadro 2 ilustra este efecto para los genotipos evaluados bajo diferentes escenarios de costos (en unidades de rendimiento, 0.25, 0.50 Y 0.75 t/ha) asociados con el cambio tecnológico. Los genotipos se agruparon en tres grupos de acuerdo a su confiabilidad (RN¡): confiabilidad superior (H30 y HB85 0.9 >= RN¡ <= 1.0), confiabilidad buena (HB83, HA46, DekB83, XLH53, 0.8 >= RN¡ < 0.90) y confiabilidad promedio (HR17, MAX307, H33, 0.6 >= RN¡ < 0.8). El genotipo TACSA-203 presenta una confiabilidad por debajo de 0.6 y por lo tanto representaría en promedio un riesgo relativamente similar para el agricultor con respecto a la utilización del H5.         ..c\"\" 4Figura 2. Diagramas de dispersión de las diferencias de rendimiento y la estabilidad relativa de tres hfbridos de malz con respecto al testigo histórico H5 evaluados en Centro América durante 1988-1990.Media ambiental (t/ha) Figura 3. Diagramas de dispersión de las diferencias de rendimiento y la estabilidad relativa de tres hfbridos de mafz con respecto al testigo histórico H5 evaluados en Centro América durante 1988-1990.Cuadro 2. Promedios de diferencias en rendimiento, desviaciones estándar y contiabilidad económica a diferentes niveles para 10 hfbridos de malz con respecto al H5 en evaluaciones a través de Centroamérica, 1988de Centroamérica, -1990 De la información en Cuadro 2 para los genotipos de confiabilidad superior se observa claramente que si los costos de cambio tecnológico son cero (lo cual es dudoso) el hlbrido H30 presentarla una pequeña ventaja sobre el HB85. Sin embargo, a medida que los costos aumentan por encima de 0.5 tlha (expresados como toneladas de malz/ha), el HB85 se hace relativamente más confiable. Esto se explica en función del mayor diferencial de rendimiento del HB85 sobre el H5 a pesar de una mayor varianza con respecto al H30.En forma similar para los híbridos de confiabilidad buena, el HB83 representa la alternativa más adecuada pues la probabilidad de respuesta. aún a costos de hasta 0.5 tlha, permanece siempre por encima de la de los otros materiales.Para los híbridos de confiabilidad promedio, sí los costos del cambio tecnológico son bajos (e.g. < 0.2 tlha), la opción obvia sería el HR17 (RN¡ = 0.76); sin embargo, si los costos se aumentan por encima de este nivel, la con fiabilidad de respuesta para todos los híbridos de este grupo se aproxima a 0.5 y por lo tanto el cambio tecnológico tiene un mayor riesgo en comparación al H5 (e.g. una probabilidad de 0.5 indica que se tiene tan solo una probabilidad de 1: l o 50% de que el híbrido rinda por encima del H5).Con respecto a la estabilidad de los genotipos evaluados a través de ambientes, Eskridge y Mumm (1992) demostraron que la confiabilidad es una medida que está relacionada a otros parámetros de estabilidad genotípica. Entre los parámetros de estabilidad que han demostrado estar en estrecha correlación se incluyen el coeficiente de regresión de Finlay y Wilkinson (1963), la desviación del cuadrado medio de Eberhart y Russell (1966) y la varianza de estabilidad de Shukla (1972). En este sentido, la confiabilidad es una medida que evalúa tanto las ganancias en rendimiento con respecto al testigo así como la variabilidad de respuesta (Figura 4).La caracterización de la estabilidad de los genotipos evaluados en este estudio utilizando la metodologla de Eberhart y Russel (1966) y el modelo multiplicativo AMMI (Gauch, 1988), han sido documentados por Córdova (1991). Sin embargo, las correlaciones de estos resultados con el método de evaluación propuesto no se incluyen en el presente trabajo y constituyen una área futura de validación del método.  0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0Diferencio observado (t/ha) Desviación estandar de los diferencias (t/ha) Figura 4. Relación de la confiabilidad con la magnitud de las diferencias en rendimiento, y la desviación estándar de la muestra de diez híbridos de maíz evaluados en Centro América durante 1988-1990. Una manera alternativa de obtener una medida de la estabilidad de los materiales evaluados en este trabajo con respecto al testigo histórico es utilizando la modificación del análisis de estabilidad de Finlay y Wilkinlson (1963) propuesta por Raun, et al., (1993). Mediante esta es posible caracterizar la estabilidad relativa de los diferenciales de rendimiento (d¡) de cada genotipo con respecto a la media ambiental utilizando regresión lineal.Los resultados del análisis de regresión se presentan en el Cuadro 3. En este último método, la estabilidad de los genotipos con respecto al testigo se caracteriza en función de la pendiente lineal, su signo y la probabilidad de que sea diferente de cero. En este contexto, un genotipo estable con respecto al testigo, se define como aquel en el que la pendiente no es significativamente diferente de cero. Un genotipo caracterizado como inestable con respecto al testigo (aquel con pendientes fuertemente positivas o negativas), no implica que deba ser excluido o que sea inferior, sino simplemente indica que los diferenciales de rendimiento en relación al testigo se comportan con un grado relativamente alto de interacción con el ambiente.Los genotipos HB85, HB83, HA46, Pioneer XLH53 y HR17 mostraron estabilidad relativa con respecto al H5. Los genotipos H30 y Dekalb B833 demostraron inestabilidad relativa de tipo positivo, mientras que los genotipos MAX307, H33 y TACSA203 demostraron inestabilidad relativa de tipo negativo con respecto al H5 en ambientes favorables, pero compensaron en alguna manera por su comportamiento sobresaliente en ambientes de menor potencial de rendimiento (Figuras 1-3). Cuadro 3. Pendientes de regresión lineal y prueba de t para pendiente diferente de cero para las diferencias de rendimiento con respecto al H5 y la media ambiental en evaluaciones a través de Centroamérica, 1988de Centroamérica, -1990 @: Indica hibndos con alto grado de IIlteracclón con el ambiente respecto al testigo H5.9Las pendientes de regresión para los genotipos clasificados como estables e inestables se presentan en el Cuadro 3. Los genotipos clasificados como estables (en términos relativos) con la presente metodología también lo fueron en términos absolutos en los estudios de Córdova (1991) utilizando la metodología de Eberhart y Russel (1966) Y el modelo multiplicativo AMMl (Gauch, 1988).La identificación de un testigo en un programa de mejoramiento de carácter regional, cuyo enfoque está orientado al desarrollo de genotipos adaptados a ambientes contrastantes que incluyen factores adversos (bióticos y abióticos) a la producción, es un paso esencial para poder determinar las ganancias genéticas relativas a través del tiempo. Córdova (1991) indica que en un programa de mejoramiento avanzado se debe mantener también un testigo histórico que para la región de Centroamérica lo constituye el H5. Por lo tanto se recomienda su continua inclusión en los ensayos colaborativos PCCMCA.En su presentación del método, Eskridge y Mumm (1992) advierten claramente y con justa razón sobre los riesgos de utilizar un genotipo testigo que no se encuentre bien adaptado a los ambientes de prueba, debido a que podría proveer estimados de confiabilidad no realistas. En nuestro caso la selección del H5 como testigo está justificada en virtud de la amplia difusión de este material entre los agricultores de la región de Centro América y El Caribe. Por otra parte, para poder medir el progreso genético de los nuevos materiales se hace necesario seleccionar un testigo con características sobresalientes y poca interacción con el ambiente. Los resultados de este trabajo sugieren a los cultivares HB85 y HB83 como genotipos que reúnen características adecuadas para ser testigos regionales en evaluaciones futuras de ganancias en rendimiento e impacto a nivel Centroamericano.Algunos otros problemas adicionales que afectan la selección de un testigo regional son: 1) El potencial de los nuevos genotipos de sobrepasar en rendimiento en forma consistente al genotipo testigo a través de ambientes y años y 2) La capacidad de la industria semillerista de proveer semilla en cantidades suficientes de los materiales sobresalientes. En primera instancia, para poder declarar que un genotipo es superior a otro como testigo se hace necesario demostrar no sólo que rinde substancialmente más, pero también se hace necesario calificar su estabilidad en comportamiento a Una manera alternativa de obtener una medida de la estabilidad de los materiales evaluados en este trabajo con respecto al testigo histórico es utilizando la modificación del análisis de estabilidad de Finlay y Wilkinlson (I963) propuesta por Raun, et al.. (1993). Mediante esta es posible caracterizar la estabilidad relativa de los diferenciales de rendimiento (di) de cada genotipo con respecto a la media ambiental utilizando regresión lineal.Los resultados del análisis de regresión se presentan en el Cuadro 3. En este último método, la estabilidad de los genotipos con respecto al testigo se caracteriza en función de la pendiente lineal, su signo y la probabilidad de que sea diferente de cero. En este contexto, un genotipo estable con respecto al testigo, se define como aquel en el que la pendiente no es significativamente diferente de cero. Un genotipo caracterizado como inestable con respecto al testigo (aquel con pendientes fuertemente positivas o negativas), no implica que deba ser excluido o que sea inferior, sino simplemente indica que los diferenciales de rendimiento en relación al testigo se comportan con un grado relativamente alto de interacción con el ambiente.Los genotipos HB85, HB83, HA46, Pioneer XLH53 y HR17 mostraron estabilidad relativa con respecto al H5. Los genotipos H30 y Dekalb B833 demostraron inestabilidad relativa de tipo positivo, mientras que los genotipos MAX307, H33 y TACSA203 demostraron inestabilidad relativa de tipo negativo con respecto al H5 en ambientes favorables, pero compensaron en alguna manera por su comportamiento sobresaliente en ambientes de menor potencial de rendimiento (Figuras 1-3). Cuadro 3. Pendientes de regresión lineal y prueba de t para pendiente diferente de cero para las diferencias de rendimiento con respecto al \"5 y la media ambiental en evaluaciones a través de Centroamérica, 1988de Centroamérica, -1990. @: IndIca hibndos con alto grado de mleracclón con el ambiente respecto al testigo H5. 9Las pendientes de regresión para los genotipos clasificados como estables e inestables se presentan en el Cuadro 3. Los genotipos clasificados como estables (en términos relativos) con la presente metodología también lo fueron en términos absolutos en los estudios de Córdova (I 991) utilizando la metodología de Eberhart y Russel (1966) y el modelo multiplicativo AMMI (Gauch, 1988).La identificación de un testigo en un programa de mejoramiento de carácter regional, cuyo enfoque está orientado al desarrollo de genotipos adaptados a ambientes contrastantes que incluyen factores adversos (bióticos y abióticos) a la producción, es un paso esencial para poder determinar las ganancias genéticas relativas a través del tiempo. Córdova (1991) indica que en un programa de mejoramiento avanzado se debe mantener también un testigo histórico que para la región de Centroamérica lo constituye el H5. Por lo tanto se recomienda su continua inclusión en los ensayos colaborativos PCCMCA.En su presentación del método, Eskridge y Mumm (I992) advierten claramente y con justa razón sobre los riesgos de utilizar un genotipo testigo que no se encuentre bien adaptado a los ambientes de prueba, debido a que podría proveer estimados de confiabilidad no realistas. En nuestro caso la selección del H5 como testigo está justificada en virtud de la amplia difusión de este material entre los agricultores de la región de Centro América y El Caribe. Por otra parte, para poder medir el progreso genético de los nuevos materiales se hace necesario seleccionar un testigo con características sobresalientes y poca interacción con el ambiente. Los resultados de este trabajo sugieren a los cultivares HB85 y HB83 como genotipos que reúnen características adecuadas para ser testigos regionales en evaluaciones futuras de ganancias en rendimiento e impacto a nivel Centroamericano.Algunos otros problemas adicionales que afectan la selección de un testigo regional son: 1) El potencial de los nuevos genotipos de sobrepasar en rendimiento en forma consistente al genotipo testigo a través de ambientes y años y 2) La capacidad de la industria semillerista de proveer semilla en cantidades suficientes de los materiales sobresalientes. En primera instancia, para poder declarar que un genotipo es superior a otro como testigo se hace necesario demostrar no sólo que rinde substancialmente más, pero también se hace necesario calificar su estabilidad en comportamiento a través de ambientes. La Figura 4 presenta la relación observada entre magnitud de la diferencia con respecto al H5 y la confiabilidad de respuesta de los genotipos evaluados.Es claro, que a mayor diferencial de rendimiento existe una mayor confiabilidad y que en general alrededor de 0.8-1.0 t/ha la confiabilidad es alta (>0.8). La variación en confiabilidad para los genotipos dentro de un diferencial de rendimiento dado, se debe fundamentalmente a la diferente magnitud de las desviaciones estándar a través de localidades (Figura 4). Un testigo regional debe proveer tanto al mejorador como al productor un término de referencia común para comparar nuevos genotipos. Por lo tanto se requiere que su comportamiento ante todo sea estable y que tenga un nivel adecuado de producción. Estas dos características se pueden obtener de los análisis presentados, ya que los genotipos estables presentan pendientes de regresión de las diferencias de rendimiento (con respecto al testigo) que no difieren significativamente de cero y la confiabilidad caracteriza la probabilidad normal de que la respuesta en rendimiento sea superior al testigo. CONCLUSIONES 1. En este trabajo se determinó la confiabilidad de los cultivares HB83, HB85, H30, HA46, DekB833, XLH53, HR17, MAX307 y H33 como una medida que integra tanto la magnitud de respuesta y la variabilidad en rendimiento con respecto al testigo H5. Los genotipos evaluados se clasificaron en tres clases con respecto al H5: Genotipos de confiabilidad superior (H30 y HB85 0.9 >= RN¡ <= 1.0), confiabilidad buena (HB83, HA46, DekB833 y XLH53, 0.8 >= RN¡ < 0.90) y confiabilidad promedio (HRI7, MAX307 y H33, 0.6 >= RN¡ < 0.8).2. Se identificaron dos genotipos (HB85 y HB83) que poseen características deseables que los califican para su inclusión como testigos regionales en el ensayo del PCCMCA: 1) estabilidad con respecto al testigo histórico H5 y 2) alto potencial de rendimiento en diferentes ambientes de evaluación.3. El genotipo H5 se debe continuar usando como testigo histórico en los ensayos del PCCMCA dada la amplia difusión de este material entre los agricultores de Centro América y El Caribe. 4. Se necesitan mayores estudios para correlacionar el uso de la confiabilidad con otros métodos para determinar la estabilidad genotípica. lO REFERENCIAS Córdova, H.S. 1991. Respuestas diferenciales para rendimiento de híbridos de maíz evaluados en ambientes contrastantes de Latinoamérica, PCCMCA 1990. En: Desarrollo y Mejoramiento de•Gerrnoplasma para Resistencia a Factores Adversos Bióticos y Abióticos 1990. PRM. P15-33. Bases Fisiológicas del Progreso Genético en Cultivares del PRMI Jorge Bolaños 2 RESUMEN El desarrollo de gennoplasma ha sido ,mo de los logros más sobresalientes del PRM. El objetivo de este trabajo es detenninar parámetros flsiológicos, fenológicos y moñológicos estándares que expliquen las bases de la elaboración del rendimiento en los cultivares de maÍZ más hnportantes del PRM e hldagar sobre las bases del progreso genético obtenido. Se establecieron ensayos con 9 cnltivares (4 lúbridos y 5 variedades de polinízación libre, VPLs) en bloques completos al.azar en 3 repeticiones a través de 11 diversos ambientes de la región. Los lúbridos rindieron consistentemente 1.0-1.5 tonlha por encinla de lps VPLs a través de todos los ambientes evaluados. La base de estas diferencias parece radicar en un mayor crecÚlúento diario de la mazorca en los Iúbridos (2.7 g/día) que en las VPLs (2.3 g/día).El rendimiento final de cada cultivar es el producto de esta eficiencia por los días de llenado. Dentro de los Iúbridos y VPLs respectivamente, las diferencias en rendhniento dependen de la duración de la fase de llenado de grano y no de la eficiencia. Los lúbridos IIB-85 y CB-IIS7 prolongan 6 días más el llenado de grano que P-8916 y 11-5, Y el SÚlt.Sequía tiene 3 días más de llenado de grano que las otras VPLs. También se detectó Wla fuerte relación negatíva entre la duración del llenado y la madurez, sugiriendo que a medida que el genotipo se hace más precoz pasa menos tiempo produciendo hojas y más tiempo llenando grano. Cousistente con estos datos, los lúbridos tienen Wl mayor úullce de cosecha qne las VPLs. Estos datos sugieren que prolongar la fase (le llenado de grano es IUlmétodo efectivo para hlcrementar el rendhníento. Se sugiere qne los esqnemas de mejorauúento contemplen estos criterios de selección.El desarrollo de gerrnoplasma mejorado de maíz ha sido la actividad más importante del Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) desde sus inicios hace más de 15 años. En tan sólo los últimos 3 años (1989-1991) el PRM ha liberado más de 20 cultivares de maíz incluyendo híbridos y variedades de polinización libre (VPLs) en la región con tolerancia a diversos factores bióticos y abióticos (Córdova, 1991). Se estima que el PRM ha venido obteniendo ganancias genéticas en sus programas de desarrollo de gerrnoplasma cercano al 2% por ciclo de selección (Córdova, 1991). Esta tasa se compara favorablemente con la obtenida por otros en gerrnoplasma de maíz tropical (pandey et al., 1987;Patemiani, 1990;Pandey y Gardner, 1992).1PRM, Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y el Caribe. 2Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, 'CIMMYT, Guatemala.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 11-19. 11Existen varias avenidas para incrementar la productividad (fracción cosechable) de un cultivo: (a) un incremento en la duración de la siembra a la cosecha del cultivo o en la proporción de la fase de llenado de grano dentro del total; (b) un incremento en la producción de materia seca por unidad de área, y por consiguiente una mayor producción de grano; (c) un incremento en la proporción de la materia seca destinada a la fracción cosechab1e (mazorca) reflejando una mejoria en el índice de cosecha; y (d) una mejoria en la tolerancia a alta densidad de población, capacidad que también está asociada a la capacidad de tolerar estreses ambientales (Fischer y Palmer, 1984;Bolaños y Edmeades, 1993a).Por ejemplo, estudios en gerrnoplasma de maíz tropical con genealogías similares a los cultivares del PRM indican densidades óptimas por debajo de 50 mil pllha, índices de cosecha menores a 0.40 y menos del 50% de la duración del cultivo en llenado de grano (Fischer and Palmer, 1984;Patemiani, 1990;Pandey y Gardner, 1992). Ganancias en rendimiento en maíz tropical, caracterizado por ser alto, de excesivo follaje y tardío, han resultado de cambios en la distribución de la materia seca y consequentes aumentos en el índice de cosecha a medida que la altura de planta, el follaje y la madurez se han reducido (Fischer y Palmer, 1984;Pandey y Gardner, 1992;Bolaños and Edmeades, 1993a). Asociado a estos cambios ha aumentado también la tolerancia a densidad (Fischer y Palmer, J984; Patemiani, 1990).En contraste, los híbridos de maíz disponibles actualmente en la zona maicera de los Estados Unidos tienen una densidad óptima de siembra que excede 70 mil pllha, índices de cosecha que exceden 0.55 y la fenología del cultivo dedica más del 60% del tiempo al llenado de grano (Duvick, 1977;Russell, 1984Russell, , 1985)). Las ganancias genéticas en los cultivares de maíz de las zonas templadas ha dependido principalmente del alargamiento del llenado de grano y mantenimiento del área foliar verde (staygreen) (Duvick, 1977;Russell, 1984Russell, , 1985)). A pesar que existen caracterizaciones generales sobre maíz tropical, las bases fenológicas, morfológicas y/o fisiológicas de la elaboración del rendimiento y posibles avenidas de ganancias genéticas de los cultivares más importantes del PRM se desconoce. El MATERIALES Y METODOS objetivo de este ensayo es caracterizar parámetros estándares explicativos del rendimiento y su elaboración (Fischer y Palmer, 1984;BolOOos y Barreto, 1991;BolOOos y Edmeades, 1993b) en los cultivares más importantes del PRM. Se espera que la información sirva de base para entender mejor las bases del progreso genético y sus limitaciones. Cuadro 1. Localidades, fecha de siembra y manejo de los ensayos. Cuadro 2. Descripción de los cultivares de maíz evaluados en el ensayo. Se establecieron un total de 11 ensayos con distintos manejos y en diversos ambientes de Centro América, el Caribe y México. Todas las localidades fueron estaciones experimentales normalmente usadas por los investigadores de las instituciones colaboradoras en la conducción del ensayo (Cuadro 1). Algunas de éstas también llevaron tratamientos y condiciones especiales. Los ensayos se establecieron usando semilla fresca proveida por los Programas Nacionales de Maíz y casas comerciales participantes. Se evaluaron 9 cultivares (4 híbridos y 5 VPLs) seleccionados en base a su representatividad dentro de los distintos proyectos de mejoramiento del PRM, relevancia comercial y/o histórica (Cuadro 2). Dentro del grupo estaban representados los cultivares que sirven de base a los esquemas de selección regionales del PRM, como el desarrollo de híbridos y tolerancia a sequía, achaparramiento y pudrición de mazorca.Se utilizó un diseño de bloques completos al azar con 3 repeticiones (excepto el ensayo 11 que tuvo solamente 2 reps) en parcelas de 5 surcos de 8 m de largo (aunque varió de tamOOo en al~as localidades) a una densidad de 5.0 a 5.3 pI/m sembrándose 2 semillas (para ralear a 1 planta por golpe) cada 0.25 m en surcos que variaron de 0.75 a 0.85 m según la localidad. En las localidades 5 y 6 se establecieron densidades de 3.5 y 7.0 pl/m 2 para superimponer también una evaluación de la respuesta a densidad de estos cultivares (BolOOos et al., 1993). Los ensayos se manejaron con manejo adecuado bajo condiciones óptimas (150 kg Nlha, 40 kg P205/ha, control de plagas, enfermedades y malezas), con excepción de los ensayos 10 (donde se impuso estrés de sequía suspendiendo el riego del cultivo a los 35 días en un ambiente árido) y 11 (donde se impuso deficiencia de N usando un bloque manipulado por más de 6 OOos para mantener niveles mínimos de N). La localidad 2 también sufrió de estrés reduciendo el rendimiento potencial.Para las mediciones solamente se usaron plantas en los 3 surcos centrales sin usar las 2 plantas en los bordos extremos. A los 5-10 días después de la germinación, cuando la hoja #5 era aún reconocible, esta se marcó en 12 plantas por parcela de una manera que seria reconocible posteriormente (pintura o corte de tijera), y posteriormente se hizo lo mismo con la hoja #10. Después de la floración, se contó el número final de hojas por planta (NFH), contando desde la antes marcada hoja #10, así como el número de la posición de la hoja de la mazorca (NHMZ), el número de ramas primarias en la espiga (NRPE), el largo y ancho máximo de la hoja de la mazorca, y el número de hojas verdes por debajo de la mazorca (NHV).Antes de la floración y después que el 10% de las espigas eran visible, se visitó la parcela cada 2-3 dias y se determinó la fecha a 50% floración masculina y femenina (DAFM y DAFF). El intetvalo entre la antesis y la emisión de los estigmas se calculó como la diferencia entre DAFF y DAFM. Con el mismo procedimiento de visitas continuas antes de la cosecha se detenninó también los días al 50% de madurez fisiológica (DMF) obsetvando la presencia de capa negra en plantas de los surcos bordo (se hizo sólo en 4 localidades). La duración de llenado de grano se calculó como la diferencia entre DMF-DAFF.A la cosecha, 12 plantas al azar se cosecharon para biomasa total y peso de mazorca. El índice de cosecha (lC) se calculó como la proporción de grano en la biomasa total. Todas las plantas restantes en la parcela útil (10-12 m 2 ) se cosecharon a mano y se determinó el peso de campo de las mazorcas. En 12 mazorcas al azar, se determinó el índice de desgrane, el número de hileras por mazorca y el número de granos en 1 hilera para estimar el número total de granos por mazorca. Se determinó el peso y humedad de 200 granos. El rendimiento de grano se uniformizó a un contenido de 15% de humedad. Se calcularon los componentes de rendimiento estándares (Bolaños y Barreta, 1991). La eficiencia de llenado de grano de la mazorca, o el rendimiento efectivo por día de llenado se calculó al dividir el peso promedio de grano por planta (g/planta) entre la duración del llenado de grano.En el ensayo 9 (Tlaltizapán) se efectuó un estudio para caracterizar el desarrollo de la línea de leche del 13 grano durante su maduración. Para esto, comenzando unos 45 días después de la floración y en intetvalos de 3 a 4 días hasta llegar a la madurez fisiológica, se cosecharon 4 mazorcas en los surcos laterales de cada parcela y se usaron 2 granos del centro de cada mazorca para calificar el desarrollo de la línea de la leche con una escala de: Opara granos aún sin línea de leche (todo lechoso); 1 para granos con la línea en el 25% superior del grano; 2 para granos con la la línea entre el 25 y 50% superior del grano; 3 para granos con la linea entre el 25 y 50% inferior del grano; 4 para cuando la línea ya no es visible pero aún se puede exprimir leche; y 5 para la presencia de capa negra cuando no se puede exprimir leche (Bolaños y Edmeades, 1993b). Las mazorcas fueron posteriormente desgranadas para determinar el porcentaje de humedad y peso de grano.Se efectuó análisis de varianza de los datos por cada localidad individual y combinado a través de las todas las 11 localidades, los genotipos considerándose como efectos fijos, y las localidades como efectos al azar. Se hicieron contrastes ortogonales apropiados entre híbridos y VPLs. Se utilizó el método de estabilidad de Eberhart y Russell (1966) para la presentación comparativa del rendimiento de grano en resultados gráficos.A través de las 11 localidades, los híbridos rindieron consistentemente por encima de las VPLs, las diferencias aumentando con el potencial ambiental (Figura 1). Debido a esto, se detectó una interacción significativa genotipo por ambiente en rendimiento, pero sin detectar cruzamiento significativo entre los cultivares.El híbrido CB-HS7 superó a todas las demás entradas, mostrando rendimiento superior aún en las lo\\:alidades bajo estrés de sequía y deficiencia de N (locs 10 y 11). Los híbridos HB-85 y P-8916 ocuparon el segundo y tercer lugar, respectivamente. El híbrido H-5 mostró el comportamiento más pobre entre los híbridos, y en muchos de los casos fue superado por las VPLs. Dentro de las VPLs, el Sint. Sequía rin~ló consistentemente por encima de las otras (más de 0.4 ton/ha) y RPMxC17 mostró el Figura 1. Lineas de regresión entre (a) el rendimiento de los 9 cultivares evaluados y el rendimiento ambiental, definido como el promedio de todos los cultivares en cada localidad; y (b) el rendimiento promedio de los híbridos (ent 1,3,4) y las VPLs (ent 5,6,8,9) contra el rendimiento ambiental. comportamiento más pobre. Los cultivares B-l, Cesda-88 y el Sint. P73 tuvieron un comportamiento similar en rendimiento a través de los ambientes evaluados (Figura 1). Una comparación entre híbridos y VPLs (excluyendo el H-5 y RPMxC 17 debido a su comportamiento pobre) muestra claramente la superioridad de los híbridos a través de todos los ambientes evaluados (Figura 1). Aún en ambientes con potencial de rendimiento inferior a 1.0 tonlha, los lubridos superan a las VPL's en más de 0.3 tonlha, y esta diferencia aumenta a casi 1.5 tonlha en ambientes con potencial de rendimiento de 6.0 tonlha. Los parámetros de regresión del modelo Eberhart y Russell (1966) se presentan en el Cuadro 3. Como se puede notar, en promedio los híbridos tienen coeficientes de regresión (pendientes) de 1.16, mientras que las VPLs de 0.93.El Cuadro 4 presenta las medias y descriptores estadísticos de los parámetros fisiológicos, fenológicos y moñológicos evaluados en los cultivares a través de los 11 ambientes. Por razones de espacio, no se presentan los análisis individuales por localidad. En promedio, los híbridos rindieron 1.1 tonlha más que las VPLs, principalmente debido a un mayor peso de mazorca (17 g/mz más que las VPLs), un mayor número de granos por mazorca (48 granos/mz más que las VPLs debido a 1.2 hilera adicional por mazorca pero no a un mayor número de granos por hilera), un mayor número de mazorcas por área (5 mil rnz/ha adicionales), y un mayor índice de cosecha (36% vs 33%).  Los parámetros fenológicos y morfológicos (número final de hojas, nlÍmero de la hoja mazorca, número ramas primarias de espiga, tamaño de la hoja de la mazorca, etc.) muestran pocas diferencias significativas entre los híbridos y las VPLs como grupos de germoplasma.Es de notar también la superioridad de los híbridos, en especial CB-HS7 y HB-85, en comparación con las VPLs en algunas características agronómicas. Los híbrídos mostraron 13% menos pudrición de mazorcas y 11% menos de acame que las VPLs (Cuadro 4). Muchas de las VPLs mostraron altos porcentajes de acame y pudrición de mazorca.El cultivar RPMxCI7, con supuesta tolerancia a pudrición de mazorca, y población base del proyecto del PRM para tolerancia a pudrición de mazorca, mostró uno de los porcentajes más elevados. pesar de grandes diferencias en rendimiento y duración del llenado entre los híbridos y las VPLs, es sorprendente la similaridad en la tasa de crecimiento de la mazorca por día dentro de cada gmpo de germoplasma (Fig. 2b). Los híbridos distribuyen cerca de 2.7 g a la mazorca por cada día de llenado de grano, mientras que las VPLs solamente 2.3 g/día (este número solamente incluye el crecimiento del grano, excluyendo el olote y las hojas de la mazorca). Es importante recalcar la similitud en esta eficiencia dentro de cada grupo de gennoplasma, ya sea dentro de híbridos o dentro de las VPLs. Estos datos, si se confinnan también en otros cultivares, sugieren que quizás la base fisiológica de la heterosis obtenida ep la generación de híbridos está relacionada con su eficiencia del llenado de grano.Hibridas Variedades a () (/) (/) ;o () (l)   ro \"'U (/) \"\"O rTJ I I ....¡ rTJ ¡¡:: Sin embargo, hay diferencias notables en algunos cultivares. Por ejemplo, los híbridos H-5 y P-89l6 son más tardíos que los otros cultivares, tienen el mayor número final de hojas, mayor altura de planta, menor índice de cosecha y menor duración de llenado de grano dentro de los híbridos. El P-89l6 tiene también el mayor número de ramas primarias de espiga. El Sint. Sequía, basado en Tuxpeño C6 Sequía, tiene historia de selección para sincronía floral bajo estrés. Estudios por Bolaílos y Edmeades (1993a) mostraron una correlación entre la sincronía floral bajo estrés y una mayor distribuición de la materia seca hacia la mazorca. Este cultivar tiene el menor número de ramas primarias de espiga, la menor altura de planta, la mejor sincronía floral, el mayor número de mazorcas por planta e índice de cosecha en las VPLs. El hecho que el Sint. Sequía rinde consistemente superior a las otras VPLs confirma los resultados obtenidos por Bolaños y Edmeades (1993a) sobre la eficacia de la selección bajo estrés para el mejoramiento en maíz tropical. El B-I representa germoplasma con genealogía similar al Sint. Sequía liberado a fines de los 1970's. Comparaciones entre ellos pueden ofrecer pautas de las ganancias genéticas adquiridas en los últimos años con un esquema de selección bajo estrés (Bolaños y Edmeades, 1993a).El rendimiento final de cada cultivar es el producto de la tasa diaria del llenado de grano por el total de días de llenado. La Figura 2 (a,b,c,) muestra la relación entre rendimiento, tasa de crecimiento de la mazorca por día de llenado, y la duración del llenado de grano para los distintos cultivares del PRM. A Figura 2. Relación entre (a) duraciún del llenado de grano en dias, (h) el crecimiento diario del grano de la mazorca por cada dia de llenado (g/dia), y (c) el rendimiento por hectárea (ton/ha) de los cultivares evaluados del PRM. Los datos son de San Jerónimo (Guatemala), Río Hato (panamá) y Tlaltízapán (México) durante 1992. Dentro de los híbridos, el progreso genético obtenido a la fecha parece descansar en un alargamiento efectivo del llenado de grano y no de cambios en la eficiencia. Los híbridos CB-HS7 y HB-85 llenan grano 6 días más que el H-5 y el P-8916. El H-5 refleja el progreso genético existente en la región en los 1960's, cuando fue liberado, pero aún se siembran más de 100 mil ha por año. Sin embargo, el híbrido P-8916 aún tiene características de madurez tardía, excesivo follaje, espiga grande, duración corta de llenado de grano y bajo índice de cosecha. Estos datos son consistentes con los ensayos uniformes del PCCMCA, conducidos anualmente por el PRM, donde los híbridos amarillos rinden consistentemente por debajo de los blancos (Quemé y Fuentes, 1992;Urbina, 1993).El rendimiento inferior de las VPLs en comparación con los híbridos depende de una menor eficiencia de llenado de grano y no solamente de la duración del llenado.Todas las VPLs tienen duraciones de llenado de grano entre 56 y 59 días con pocas diferencias entre sí (Fig. 2a). El Sint. Sequía sobresale por tener la mayor duración de llenado de grano.Una gráfica entre la duración del llenado de grano, días a floración y número final de hojas muestra una relación negativa significativa entre madurez, número final de hojas y el llenado de grano (Figura 3a. 3b). Estos datos sugieren, por lo menos dentro de este grupo de cultivares, que el aumento en la duración del llenado de grano está relacionado con el proceso de una selección efectiva para maíces más precoces en días a floración pero con alto rendimiento. Muchos autores han encontrado que los maíces precoces son más eficientes con mayores índices de cosecha (patemiani, 1990;Pandey and Gardner, 1990). Los resultados indican que prolongar la fase de llenado de grano parece ser un método efectivo para incrementar el rendimiento. Asumiendo una población de 50 mil m:zJha y una tasa promedio de llenado de 2.5 g/día, se puede estimar que el rendimiento aumenta en 125 kglha por cada día adicional de llenado de grano.Es poco probable que víveros de selección con más de 200 entradas con varias repeticiones puedan examinar en detalle la duración del llenado de grano directamente. Datos de humedad de grano y calificaciones del desarrollo de la línea de leche tomados en el ensayo 9 muestran una correlación importante entre el desarrollo de la madurez fisiológica y la humedad de grano independiente del cultivar (Figura 4a,b). 17 Los datos muestran que la humedad de grano puede ser un fácil indicador para monitorear la madurez fisiológica (alcanzada con calificación de 4.5 en la escala usada). La capa negra parece formarse cuando la humedad del grano se acerca al 30% (Fig. 4a), lo cual ocurre de 60 a 70 días después de la floración femenina, según el cultivar (Fig. 4b).Cosechando cerca a la madurez fisiológica, o sea, con humedad de grano alrededor de 30%, y con el análisis juicioso de los datos de madurez (días a floración), de humedad de grano (para identificar llenado corto o llenado largo) y de rendimiento (tamaño grande de mazorcas reflejando altas tasas de llenado), se puede integrar un indice para identificar materiales precoces, con largo llenado de grano y alto rendimiento. Es muy factible integrar estos criterios en los programas actuales de selección dentro del PRM, ya sea en los esquemas de selección recurrente o los de endocriamiento y generación de lineas para su posterior hibridización. Figura 4(a,b). Relación entre humedad del grano y: (a) una calificación visual de la línea de leche (escala de 0-5,5 siendo madurez fisiológica); y (b) tiempo después de la floración femenina (días), durante la fase del llenado de grano para los cultivares del PRM. Los datos son de Tlaltizapán (México) durante 1992. CONCLUSIONES 1. Dentro de los cultivares del PRM evaluados, los híbridos rinden consistentemente de 1.0 a 1.5 ton/ha por encima de las VPLs, aún en ambientes con bajo potencial de rendimiento.2. Los híbridos CB-HS7 y HB•85 mostraron el mejor comportamiento a través de todos los ambientes muestreados. Dentro de las VPLs, el Sint. Sequía superó a las demás, en particular en ambientes con estrés de sequía y baja fertilidad. El híbrido H-5, liberado en los 1960's, fue superado por la mayoría de las VPLs, y el cultivar RPMxC 17 tuvo un comportamiento muy pobre. Las VPLs restantes, B-l, Cesda-88 y el Sint. P73 mostraron un comportamiento similar.3. Las diferencias en rendimiento entre los distintos cultivares se deben a una combinación de mejor eficiencia de llenado (híbridos versus VPLs) y una mayor duración de la fase de llenado de grano. La mazorca crece 2.7 g/día de llenado en los híbrídos, pero solamente 2.3 g/día en las VPLs. Los híbridos CB-HS7 y HB-85 prolongan el llenado de grano más de 6 días que los demás cultivares. El rendimiento fmal de cada cultivar es el producto de esta eficiencia por los días de llenado.4. Se detectó una fuerte relación negativa entre la madurez y la duración del llenado de grano, 18 sugiriendo que a medida que el genotipo se hace más precoz pasa menos tiempo produciendo hojas y más tiempo llenando el grano. Se recomienda que, los esquemas de mejoramiento del PRM contemplen estos criterios de selección. La humedad de grano puede servir como indicador fácil para identificar la duración del llenado de grano en los programas de mejoramiento.Se agradece a Carlos Pérez, José Luis Quemé, Salvador Castellanos, Fidencio Guerra, Luis Brízuela, Pedro Campos, Róger Urbina, Marvin Obando, Ismael Camargo, Alfonso Alvarado, Rodolfo Pierre, Richard Ortiz, Reneé Lafitte, Greg Edmeades, Mariane Bazinger y muchos otros, por conducir estos ensayos en las distintas localidades y a Edith Tello por la paciente labor de entrada de datos. REFERENCIAS Bolaños, J., Y H. Barreto. 1991. Análisis de los componentes de rendimiento de los ensayos regionales de maíz de 1990. pp. 9-27 en: Análisis de los Resultados Experimentales del PRM 1990, Vol. 2, CIMMYT, Guatemala. Bolaños, J. and G.O. Edmeades. 1993a. Eight cyc1es of se1ection for drought to1erance in tropical maize. 1.J. Bolaños 2 , M. Obando\\ R Urbina 3 y M. Mendoza 3   Una buena parte de las ganancias genéticas obtenidas en maíz se deben a una mayor tolerancia a densidad de población. Este trabajo tiene por objetivo caracterízar la respuesta a densidad de los cultivares más importantes del PRM Se evaluaron 9 cultivares (4 lúbridos y 5 variedades de polinízación libre, VPLs) en dos tipos de ensayos. En el verano de 1992 (Jwl-Sep) los cultivares se evaluaron bajo 2 densidades (3.0 y 7.5 pllm 2 ) en 3 repeticiones cada una, y en el invienlo de 1992/93 (Oct-Feb) se estableció un diseño logarltmico con 4 repeticiones donde la distancia entre golpes dentro de la parcela variaba sistemáticamente produciendo un rango de 2.5 a 15.0 pllm 2 en 5 m de largo. En ambos ensayos la respuesta a densidad se analízó por regresión lineal entre el logaritmo del rendinuento por planta y la densidad. En el rango de densidades agronónucas (3.0-6.5 pllm 2 ), los lúbridos rindieron cerca de 1.0-1.3 tonlha por encima de las VPLs, con excepción del H-5, que rindió muy por debajo de los demás. Dentro de las VPLs, el Sud. Sequia superó a todas las demás. El renduluento fue mayor en verano que en ÍJlvierno, pero las diferencias relativas l(ntre los genotipos se mantuvieron a través de ambos ciclos. La densidad óptuna osciló entre 3.5-4.0 pllm 2 en verano, 4.5-5.0 pllm 2 en ulvierno y cerca de 4.0 pllm 2 a través de ambos ambientes, pero SUl detectar diferencias significativas en la tolerancia a densidad entre lubridos y VPLs. En base a los resultados, el método de 2 densidades (3.5 y 7.0 pllm 2 ) resultó adecuado para evaluar la respuesta a densidad del maíz, y es menos complicado en su diseño y análisis que el método logaritnuco.La tolerancia a densidad ha sido una de las causas del aumento en rendimiento de los cultivares de maíz modernos (pandey and Gardner, 1992). Mientras que los híbridos disponibles en la zonas templadas tienen densidades óptimas mayores a las 7.0 pl/m 2 (70 mil pllha), los cultivares tr0ficales de maíz las tienen aún por debajo de 5.0 pllm (Fischer and Palmer, 1984). Densidades bajas de poblac'ión son una de las razones fundamentales de los bajos rendimientos de maíz encontrados en los trópicos (Bolaños y Barreto, 1991;Bolaños el al., 1993).La evaluación de la respuesta a densidad de cultivares locales ha sido un tema común en la investigación local y regional. En ensayos con NB-6 1PRM, Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y el Caribe. 2Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala. 3Investigadores, Programa de Maíz, Centro Nacional de Investigación en Granos Básicos (CNIGB), Nicaragua.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 20-26. 20 en la zona del Pacífico de Nicaragua, Ponce (1992) no encuentró diferencias significativas entre 6.4 y 8.6 pllm 2 , pero ambas fueron superiores a 4.2 pllm 2 . Más de 3 años de ensayos evaluando la respuesta a densidad en NB-6 en más de 15 localidades no lograron concluir con precisión sobre la densidad óptima, pero parece oscilar entre 4.2 y 6.6 pllm 2 (MAG, 1991). Bruno y Urbina (1990), reportaron rendimientos de 3.9, 4.9, 6.7 Y 7.2 tlha cuando la densidad varió de 3.3, 4.4, 6.6 Y 8.8 pllm 2 , respectivamente, comparando NB-12 con un criollo local. En Panamá, Gordón el al. (1991) evaluando 2 híbridos a 4 densidades (5.0, 5.3, 5.7, 6.2 pllm 2 ) no logró detectar diferencias significativas para densidad, con rendimientos de 5. 45, 5.38, 5.25 Y 4.95  tlha, respectivamente. Escobar el al. (1991) en un factorial de 3 niveles de densidad x 3 niveles de N x 2 niveles de P con el híbrido HE-104 en El Salvador tampoco encuentra diferencias significativas en rendimiento a niveles de 4.0, 5.0 Y 6.0 pllm 2 . Quiroz el al. (1989), usando 27 niveles de densidad (de 2.7 a 5.3 pllm 2 ) no logró detectar düerencias significativas al evaluar la respuesta a densidad de un maíz criollo en Panamá.Normalment~la respuesta a densidad de cultivares se ha evaluado estableCiendo de 4 a 5 niveles de densidad (en intervalos de 0.5 a 1.0 fllm 2 ) con varias repeticiones en parcelas de 15-20 m y algunas veces en combinación factorial con otro factor (típicamente niveles de N, potencial ambiental, estrés hídrico, etc.), por lo que tradicionalmente son ensayos muy grandes y costosos. Los datos se han interpretado analizando rendimiento por hectárea como una función cuadrática de la densidad, o alguna otra función curvilínea. En muchos de los casos, la alta variabilidad, dificultad en mantener la densidad teórica en el campo, y otros factores no han permitido precisar la respuesta a densidad de los cultivares evaluados.Otra manera de evaluar la respuesta a densidad ha sido el uso de diseños .sistemáticos de espaciamiento (Nelder, 1962; Bleasdale, 1967). En estos la densidad se establece variando la distancia y arreglo entre surcos (radiales, rectangulares) y entre golpes (fijos, variables). La respuesta a densidad se analiza por regresión. Dyson y Douglas (1975) encontraron buena concordancia en maíz entre un diseño sistemático con surcos radiales y espaciamiento tradicional en bloques Modelo de Duncan log (rend/pl) = a -b (dens) (1) y dado que el rend/ha es el producto del rend/pl por la densidad: donde a y b son el intercepto y pendiente generadas por la regresión, por lo que,Se utilizó semilla fresca proveída por todos los Programas Nacionales participantes para el ensayo. Se evaluaron 9 cultivares: 4 híbridos (HB-85, H-5, P-8916 Y CB-HS7) Y 5 variedades de polinización libre (VPLs) (Sintético Regional Pobo 73, Sintético Regional Sequia, RPMxCI7, Cesda-88 y B-l). Estos ensayos de densidad fueron parte del esfuerzo de entender las bases fisiológicas del progreso genético en los cultivares del PRM (Bolaños, 1993).permiten una estimación adecuada del rendimiento en el maíz.El objetivo de este trabajo es caracterizar la respuesta a densidad de los cultivares del Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM), dentro del contexto de una caracterización más completa de algunos parámetros fisiológicos, fenológicos y morfológicos estándares en la elaboración del rendimiento en estos cultivares (Bolaños, 1993).Otro objetivo secundario era comparar 2 métodos para estimar la respuesta a densidad en maiz: a) el método de las 2 densidades, y b) un método de siembra logarítmica.(2) rend/pl = e (a -b(dens)) Duncan (1958) mostró que el rendimiento por planta (rend/pl) en maíz decrece exponencialmente con la densidad (pl/m 2 ). El rendimiento por planta se se calcula dividiendo el rendimiento por hectárea entre la densidad (rend/pl = rend/ha / pllha). Esta relación tiene una base teórica sólida y ha sido ampliamente validada y documentada en la literatura con muchos cultivares y en diversos ambientes (Fery y Janick, 1971;Duncan, 1984). En términos prácticos, se hace una regresión lineal entre ellog (rend/pl) y la densidad: completos al azar. Estos métodos han sido populares por el ahorro considerable de espacio, pero añade muchas dificultades en la implementación y el análisis de los datos.rend/ha =dens * e (a -b (dens)) (3) y resolviendo esta ecuación para la densidad óptima (donde la derivada es igual a O):Con los parámetros a y b de la regresión se puede entonces establecer la respuesta a densidad (ecuación 3), la densidad óptima (ecuación 4) y el rendimiento a esta densidad óptima. Una de las conclusiones del método de Duncan (1958) posibilita evaluar la respuesta a densidad de cualquier cultivar de maíz con solamente 2 niveles de densidad, ya que solamente se necesitan 2 puntos para establecer una relación lineal. La solidez de la relación dependerá de la solidez de los 2 puntos obtenidos. Para mejor interpolación a nivel agronómico, normalmente estas 2 densidades se establecen para que estén a ambos lados del nivel óptimo pero aún dentro de un rango apropiado agronómicamente. Por ejemplo, si la densidad óptima es cercana a 5.0 pUm 2 , dos niveles convenientes son el uso de densidades de 3.0 a 3.5 pl/m 2 para el nivel inferior y de 7.0 a 8.0 pllm 2 para el nivel superior. Ambos niveles son agronómicamente relevantes y dens (óptima) = -1/ b (4)En Junio de 1992, en la estación experimental de San Cristóbal, CNIGB, Nicaragua, como parte del ensayo para evaluar las bases fisiológicas del progreso genético de los cultivares del PRM, se establecieron ensayos en un diseño de bloques completos al azar con 9 cultivares y 3 repeticiones a 2 niveles de densidad. Se sembraron 2 semillas por golpe (para ralear posteriormente a 1) a 0.33 y 0.17 m entre sí en surcos de 0.8 m para obtener densidades aproximadas de 3.5 y 7.0 pllm 2 , respectivamente, en parcelas de 5 surcos de 8 m de largo.Para lás mediciones solamente se usaron plantas con bordo adecuado en los 3 surcos centrales de la parcela. El ensayo recibió fertilización y manejo adecuado (150 kg Nlha, 40 kg P2051ha, control de malezas, plagas y enfermedades), pero el cultivo sufrió altas temperaturas, fuertes vientos y estrés de sequía cerca a la floración.A la madurez, se cosechó un área útil de 12 m 2 por parcela, determinando todos los parámetros estándares de cosecha, como número de plantas, de mazorcas, peso de grano, humedad de grano, etc. El rendimiento de grano se calculó después de estandarizar a 15% de humedad y descontar el olote. Se calcularon los parámetros estándares de cosecha, como pllm 2 , rnzIm 2 , peso de mazorca, rnz/pl, etc. El rendimiento por planta (rend/pl) se calculó dividiendo el rendimiento por área entre la densidad. La respuesta a densidad de cada cultivar (3 reps en 2 densidades) se analizaró por regresión lineal entre el log (rend/pl) y la densidad (pI/m 2 ). En base a estos parámetros de regresión se calculó la densidad óptima y el rendimiento máximo.En Octubre de 1992, se estableció otro ensayo con los mismos 9 cultivares en la estación experimental de Santa Rosa (a 4 km de San Cristóbal, pero clima más benigno). El ensayo recibió fertilización y manejo adecuado (150 kg NIha, 40 kg P205/ha, control de malezas, plagas y enfermedades). Se usó un diseño logaritmico de siembra en bloques completos al azar en 2 repeticiones, en parcelas de 5 surcos de 9 m de largo y 0.8 m de ancho. En cada parcela, la distancia entre golpes se redujo sucesivamente desde ambos extremos de la parcela hacia el centro, formando imagenes espejas (Cuadro 1).Cada distancia entre golpes se reducía sucesivamente en 10%, creando una gradiente logaritmica de la densidad en cada golpe sucesivo. Las distancias entre golpes fueron las siguientes: 0.50, 0.45, 0.41, 0.36, 0.33, 0.30, 0.27, 0.24, 0.22, 0.19, 0.17, 0.16, 0.14, 0.13, 0.11, 0.10, 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, 0.06, Y 0.05 m (desde 2.5 pI/m 2 en los extremos a 22.5 pI/m 2 en el centro), para aumentar paulatinamente en forma inversa hasta terminar en 0.50 m de distancia entre golpes al otro extremo, para un total de 45 golpes.Cuadro 1. Mapa de las parcelas experimentales del ensayo logarítmico (5 surcos de 9 m de largo). Cada cruz representa 1 planta dentro del diseño sistemático de variación de densidad dentro de la parcela.+ + +-+-+-+ + + + +++++tttl----t+t+++++++ + + + + + + + + + + + .. + + + + + + +++++Hi....---ttftt++++ ++ + + + + + + + + t + + t-t-+ t t t-t-tt+t+ttt----ttttttt+++t ..... t-+ + + t + + + + + + + + t + ++++++++t----+t-ttt++++ + + + + + + + + + + o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 metros de largo 22 Al momento de la cosecha, se eliminaron las áreas del centro de cada parcela donde las densidades eran mayores a 15 pI/m 2 (distancias entre golpes inferiores a 0.10 m) debido a la pérdida de muchas plantas por estrés y una densidad mucho más baja que la teórica. Problemas de mal establecimiento y malezas afectaron fuertemente la población de plantas deseada también en otras partes del ensayo, causando alteraciones importantes en las densidades efectivas por golpe y el diseño sistemático continuo. En base a la población efectiva de plantas por golpe, se calculó la densidad real ajustando por la presencia de las 5 plantas de cada surco, así como la presencia de las plantas de los golpes adyacentes. Para el análisis, se eliminaron todos los golpes que tenian más del 50% de plantas faltantes, o aquellos que estaban bordeados por golpes con más de 50% de plantas faltantes.Se determinó el rendimiento en los 3 surcos centrales de cada parcela por golpe individual, comenzando desde los extremos (golpes a 50 cm). Los datos se analizaron por regresión lineal entre el log (rend/pl) y la densidad en cada lado de cada parcela (2 lados en cada uno de los 2 reps), para establecer 4 regresiones por cultivar.A los parámetros de regresión se les efectuó un análisis de varianza combinada a través de 4 repeticiones. Solamente se analizó la variable rendimiento de grano, sin determinar los componentes estándares de rendimiento. Con los parámetros de regresión, se calculó la densidad óptima, el rendimiento máximo y la respuesta a densidad.Las densidades [males obtenidas en el ensayo de verano (ensayo de 2 densidades) fueron de 3.65 y 7.38 pI/m 2 , con rendimientos asociados de 4.31 y 3.33 t./ha, respectivamente (Cuadro 2). La alta densidad redujo tanto el número de mazorcas por planta (de 0.95 a 0.66) y su peso promedio (de 124 a 67 g/rnz). Esta reducción en el peso promedio de mazorca es la base de la relación exponencial de Duncan (1958).En contraste, el ensayo logaritmico se estableció en siembras de postrera bajo riego controlado, sin embargo, un poco fuera de su época normal. Debido a problemas de establecimiento y estrés, muchos de los golpes en el ensayo mostraron fallas al momento de la cosecha.La pérdida de plantas en un diseño sistemático como el usado en este trabajo presentó problemas serios en el análisis de los datos.Parámetros de regresión entre el log (rendlpl) y densidad para 9 cultivares del PRM para el ensayo de 2 densidades y el ensayo logaritmico. Cuadro 2. Componentes de rendimiento en los ensayos de baja y alta densidad pan estimar la respuesta a densidad de 9 cultivares de maíz en el verano de 1992 en San Cristóbal, Nicaragua.La Figura 1 muestra las respuestas a densidad de los 9 cultivares evaluados en base al análisis de regresión entre el 10g(rend/pl) y la densidad para ambos tipos de ensayos, el de 2 densidades (Fig. la) y el logaritmico (Fig. lb). Las gráficas muestran los datos reales así corno la respuesta predicha por la regresión.En algunos casos existe mucha variabilidad, los datos reales (rendlha) mostrando poca relación aparente con la densidad. El Cuadro 3 presenta los parámetros de regresi6n obtenidos de ambos métodos para los cultivares evaluados, ecuaciones que sirven de base a las respuestas predichas a densidad.   Figura 1. Rendimiento de grano (tonlha) en función de la densidad de plantas (pl/m l ) de los 9 cultivares en (a) el ensayo de las 1 densidades (3.5 y 7.0 pl/m l ) y (b) el ensayo de diseño logaritmico. Las curvas representan la respuesta a densidad predicha analizada según el modelo de Duncan (1958).Una comparación más clara entre los cultivares se observa en la Figura 2 (a,b). En ambos tipos de ensayos los híbridos CB-HS7, HB-85 y P-8916 superaron a todos los demás cultivares. El hIorido H-5 mostró un comportamiento muy pobre, por debajo incluso de las VPLs. El Sint.Seq. muestró muy buen comportamiento por encima de las demás VPLs. Las VPLs B-l, RPM, Sint. P73 y Cesda mostraron comportamiento similar, muy por debajo de los hIoridos. A través de todas las densidades, los híbridos rindieron consistentemente cerca de 1.5 a 2.0 tlha por encima de las VPLs. La densidad óptima predicha fue cerca de 3.5 pllm 2 ~ara el ensayo de verano, y entre 4.5 y 5.0 pllm para el ensayo logarítmico, pero sin mayor interacción cruzada entre los cultivares a través de los ciclos. Estas diferencias entre el ciclo de verano e invierno pueden deberse a distintos potenciales de rendimiento en ambos ambientes, al alto grado de incertidumbre en el ensayo logarítmico, o a alguna interacción entre los 2 tipos de métodos para evaluar la respuesta a densidad.El Cuadro 4 presenta las densidades óptimas y el rendimiento máximo calculadas en base a los 2 tipos de ensayos, existiendo buena concordancia entre los cultivares para ambos métodos, a pesar de algunas pequeftas interacciones. Ambos identifican a los híbridos CB-HS7, H-5 y P-8916 como los más rendidores, así como la inferioridad de las VPLs y del híbrido H-5. Cuadro 4. Densidad óptima y rendimiento máximo en base a los parámetros de regresión lineal entre log (rendlpl) y densidad para 9 cultivares de maíz en base al ensayo de 2 densidades (3.5 y 7.0 pl/m2) y el ensayo de diseño logarítmico de siembra.Los datos son de Nicaragua en 1992.  Un promedio entre los híbridos superiores (CB-HS7, HB-85 y P-89l6) Y las VPLs superiores (p73, Sequía, Cesda y B-l) muestra claramente la superioridad en rendimiento y mayor tolerancia a densidad de los híbridos en ambos ensayos (Fig 3a,b). Estos datos concuerdan con los resultados en la evaluación fisiológica de los mismos cultivares (Bolaños, 1993).Existe una aSOClaClon débil entre mayor rendimiento y mayor tolerancia a densidad en los cultivares del PRM evaluados. En el ensayo de 2 densidades no se detectaron diferentes densidades óptimas para híbridos y VPLs, pero sí en el ensayo logaritmico. Los resultados obtenidos no soportan claramente la hipótesis de una ganancia en la tolerancia a densidad asociada a los cultivares del PRM. CONCLUSIONES 1. Se usó el método de Duncan (1958) basado en el decrecimiento eXl'0nencial del rendimiento por planta con aumento en la densidad para analizar 2 tipos de ensayos para evaluar la respuesta a densidad en cultivares del PRM. 3. La densidad óptima fue cercana a los 3.5 pllm 2 para híbridos y VPLs en el ensayo de verano. En el ensayo de invierno, fue de 4.5 pllm 2 para las VPLs y 5.2 pllm 2 para los híbridos.Estas diferencias pudieron deberse quizás debido a un mayor estrés ambiental y menor potencial de rendimiento en el verano que el invierno.Debido a la sencillez del método de las 2 densidades, y las dificultades inherentes a diseftos sistemáticos, se recomienda usar el método de las 2 densidades para evaluar preliminarmente la respuesta a densidad de cultivares de maíz. Se recomienda el uso de la regresión lineal entre el log (rend/pl) y la densidad para establecer las respuesta a densidad de cultivares de maíz.Se agradece a Julio Pérez y Rafael Obando por asistencia en la cosecha del ensayo, y a Edith Tello por la paciente labor de entrada de datos. Los programas de mejoramiento genético de maiz en la región de Centro América y El Caribe constantemente generan hibridos experimentales con la meta final de proporcionárselos a los agricultores. El ensayo uniforme del PCCMCA evalúa anualmente más de 30 hibridos de grano blanco y amarillo a través de diversos ambientes de la región.El objetivo fundamental de este trabajo es conocer el comportamiento de estos genotipos y su interacción genotipo-ambiente a través de diversas localidades de la región. En 1992, en 17 localidades de Centro América y México se evaluaron 17 hibridos de grano amarillo en un disefto de bloques completos al azar con 4 repeticiones, y 30 hibridos de grano blanco en un disefto de látice rectangular simple duplicado (Sx6) con 4 repeticiones. La medida de la interacción genotipo-ambiente se obtuvo por el análisis de efectos principales aditivos e interacciones multiplicativas (modelo AMM1). Los hibridos blancos que menos interactuaron con el ambiente (valores AMMI cercanos a O) fueron H-S3, HS-SGM, Y-1402 CW, C8-XHS-Sll y HN-913 (-0.07, -0.06, 0.07, 0.09 Y 0.08 puntuación AMMI) superando en rendimiento con 9, 12 Y 16% al testigo H8-83. La estabilidad fue menor en los hibridos amarillos que en los blancos, ya que únicamente el HA-SS y T-9 presentaron puntuaciones AMMI cercanas a cero (-0.07 y 0.09), sin embargo, sus rendimientos fueron inferiores al promedio global de los hibridos evaluados. Los hibridos amarillos XL-380 y HR-12 rindieron 35 y 41 % más que el testigo HA-46 y la magnitud de su interacción con el ambiente relativamente baja (-0.11 y -0.12 de AMMI), por lo que parecen promisorios. Los datos confirman que los Programas Nacionales de Maiz tienen hibridos blancos y amarillos con excelente comportamiento agronómico.La distribución del cultivo del maíz en Centro América y El Caribe, es sumamente dispersa y está expuesta a una amplia gama de ambientes. Los ambientes contrastantes se presentan tanto de un ciclo a otro, como entre localidades en un mismo año. La variabilidad ambiental acentuada por diferentes factores como clima, humedad, tipo de suelo, manejo agronómico del cultivo, etc., obliga a los fitomejoradores a utilizar metodologías de evaluación que permitan determinar la interacción genotipo ambiente; el cual es un fenómeno de gran importancia ya que permite conocer la respuesta diferencial de los 'Coordinador del Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) para Centro América y El Caribe, Apdo. Postal 6135, Managua, Nicaragua.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993) p. 27-38. 27 cultivares a través de los ambientes de prueba. Además de la evaluación de los rendimientos en sí, también interesa recabar información sobre la estabilidad y consistencia de los rendimientos de los cultivares.Ensayo Uniforme del PCCMCA Con el propósito de generar información del comportamiento productivo y conocer la interacción de los genotipos con el ambiente, cada afio los programas nacionales de investigación de maíz y las compafl.ías privadas productoras de semilla evalúan en ensayos uniforme en ambientes de Centro América, México y El Caribe, híbridos de reciente formación e híbridos destacados de amplio uso comercial en la región. La información que se obtiene en estas evaluaciones tienen carácter oficial y constituye una magnífica ayuda para tomar decisiones en la selección del germoplasma adecuado a la circunstancia de cada país; por lo tanto los resultados derivados de dicho estudio son de mucha utilidad para técnicos extensionistas, fitomejoradores, productores de semilla y agricultores en general. En 1992, le correspondió al Programa de Maíz del Centro Nacional de Investigación de Granos Básicos (CNIGB) de Nicaragua preparar los ensayos uniformes de híbridos de grano blanco y amarillo del PCCMCA, tabular la información y presentar el informe de los resultados. Márquez (1976), menciona que la interacción genotipo-ambiente es el comportamiento relativo diferencial que exhiben los genotipos cuando se les somete a diferentes medios ambientes. Córdova (1991), sefiala que los fitomejoradores frecuentemente enfrentan un problema de gran magnitud cuando seleccionan en presencia del fenómeno de interacción genotipoambiente (GxA). Para evitar esta interferencia se han diseñado modelos de estabilidad que contribuyen a disminuir el riesgo involucrado en la selección al realizar estimaciones empíricas imperfectas. Un modelo para analizar la interacci enotipo x ambiente es el modelo AMMI, (efectos principales aditivos e interacción multiplicativa) (Gauch y Zobel, 1989;Crossa et al, 1988). AMMI integra algunos modelos estadísticos comúnmente aplicados a series de ensayos de rendimiento, que incluye el análisis de varianza (ANOVA), cuyo modelo es aditivo, el análisis de componentes principales (PCA), el cual es multiplicativo y el modelo de regresión lineal de Finlay-Wi1kinson (Crossa et al., 1988). El modelo AMMI ajusta primero los factores aditivos de genotipo (G) y ambiente (A) usando ANOVA y que es la interacción GxA, y lo ajusta a través de PCA. Crossa et al, (1988), encontró que AMMI basado en 2 repeticiones es tan preciso en predicción cómo la media de tratamientos estimada con 8.61 repeticiones en un diseño de bloques al azar En el ensayo del PCCMCA de 1988, el modelo AMMI identificó 10 genotipos con baja interacción, de los cuales solamente H-30, H-29 y HB-85 presentaron rendimientos superiores a la media, (6.65, 6.56 Y6.43  t/ha y scores AMMI de 0.063, 0.163 Y -0.069, respectivamente). El 70% de los genotipos estables estuvieron abajo de la media de rendimiento (Córdova 1989). En la evaluación del PCCMCA de 1989, los híbridos que menos interactuaron con el ambiente fueron HB-33, P-88l2, P-8822 Y B-833, presentando rendimientos de 5.48, 5.27, 5.27 Y 5.23 t/ha superando a la media y al testigo H-5 (4.23 t/ha). Sin embargo, la mayoría de los genotipos identificados como estables por AMMl estuvieron abajo de la media de rendimiento (Córdova, 1990). Quemé y Fuentes (1992) señalan que los híbridos blancos HB-85, CB-XHS-507, H-53 y MAX-397 con rendimientos de 6.28, 6.20, 6.06 Y 6.01 t/ha y puntuación AMMI -0.26, 0.02, 0.03 Y 0.002 respectivamente, fueron los más estables del ensayo del PCCMCA de 1991, a la vez superaron al testigo HB-83M (5.42 t/ha, score AMMI -0.136) Y a la media general. El mismo autor identificó por medio del modelo AMMl los híbridos amarillos con menos interacción, siendo estos: Exp. 9122, Exp. 9120, 3078, HC-78 y H-l 04 los cuales superaron en rendimiento de grano al testigo HA-46 en 22, 15 Y 14%, respectivamente.En los ensayos uniformes de maíz del PCCMCA de 1992 se evaluaron 17 híbridos de grano amarillo y 30 de grano blanco generados por los programas nacionales y compañías privadas productoras de semilla. , El detalle de estos se encuentra en el Cuadro 1. Se prepararon 20 ensayos de grano blanco y 20 de grano amarillo, los cuales se enviaron a Centro América, República Dominicana, México y Estados Unidos.Hasta el momento de realizar este informe, se habían recibido únicamente datos de 16 ensayos blancos y 14 amarillos, recuperando 80% y 70% del total, respectivamente (Cuadro 2).Para la evaluación de los 30 híbridos de grano blanco se utilizó un diseño de látice rectangular simple duplicado 5x6; sin embargo los resultados reportados se analizaron como bloques al azar eliminándose una entrada que no germinó por mala calidad de semilla. Los 17 híbridos amarillos se evaluaron en una distribución de bloques completos al azar. Todos los ensayos tuvieron 4 repeticiones, sembrando 4 surcos de 5 m de largo por unidad experimental, siendo la parcela útil los 2 surcos centrales de 44 plantas teóricamente, tratando de obtener una densidad de población de aproximadamente de 53,000 pi/ha. Se registraron los días a floración masculina y femenina, altura de planta y mazorca, acame de raíz y tallo, mazorcas con mala cobertura, aspecto de planta y mazorca, enfermedades foliares y de mazorca, peso de campo de la cosecha y % de humedad del grano. El rendimiento de grano se calculó al 15% de humedad. En las localidades donde influyó el número de plantas cosechadas se realizó un ajuste por análisis de covarianza.Yij = ¡!+Ti+Rj+Eij Yij = Valor del carácter estudiado de la parcela con el i-ésimo tratamiento en la j-ésim a repetición.En ambos experimentos el análisis de varianza por localidad de la variable rendimiento de grano se efectuó con el modelo de bloques completos al azar.El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el rendimiento de grano, características agronómicas, y la adaptación de híbridos blancos y amarillos generados por los programas nacionales y compañías privadas en diversos ambientes de Centro América, El Caribe y México. Otro objetivo fue determinar la interacción de los híbridos en diferentes ambientes, con el propósito de identificar híbridos superiores y con buena estabilidad del rendimiento. Un tercer objetivo fue proporcionar a los programas nacionales, compañías privadas, fitomejoradores, técnicos extensionistas y agricultores en general la información obtenida, para que sirva de base en las decisiones de selección de los cultivares adecuados a las circunstancias de cada país y/o a nivel regional. Se calculó la diferencia significativa honesta (DSH) al 1% para desglosar la variabilidad del rendimiento de grano (separación de medias). Para medir la interacción genotipo-ambiente se efectuó el análisis de efectos principales aditivos e interacciones multiplicativas (AMMI), utilizando el modelo descrito por Crossa et al (1988)  Se calculó la diferencia significativa honesta (DSH) al 1% para desglosar la variabilidad del rendimiento de grano (separación de medias). Para medir la interacción genotipo-ambiente se efectuó el análisis de efectos principales aditivos e interacciones multiplicativas (AMMI), utilizando el modelo descrito por Crossa et al (1988) Desviaciones de las medias de ambientes N Es el número de PCA retenidos en el modeloEs el valor singular para el PCA Y gn Son los valores de vectores de los genotipos para cada PCA ()en Son los valores de los vectores para cada ambiente (PCA)En el análisis de varianza y AMMI (Cuadros 3 y 4), todas las fuentes de variación fueron altamente significativas. La alta significancia de la interacción Localidad x Híbridos indica que éstos presentaron un comportamiento diferencial influenciado por el ambiente. El PCAl captó el 39% de la suma de cuadrados de la interacción con el 14.8% de los grados de libertad. Los ejes PCAI y PCA2 en conjunto captaron el 63.9% de la suma de cuadrado de la interacción con 28.2% de los grados de libertad; sin embargo se escogió el primer eje (PCAI) para hacer la predicción, por captar éste la mayor proporción de la suma de cuadrados (Crossa el al, 1988).Las puntuaciones (scores) AMMI de los híbridos y las localidades asociados con sus respectivos rendimientos se muestran en la Figura 1 y el Cuadro 5.Análisis de varianza por localidad para rendimiento de grano (ton/ha) de 14 ensayos de híbridos de granoamarillo del PCCMCA 1992.   Rendimiento (t/ha) Figura 1. Diagrama de medias de rendimiento y puntuaeiones del primer eje del eomponente principal de 17 hfbridos de grano amarillo y 12 ambientes del ensayo uniforme del PCCMCA 1992.Tanto los hfbridos como las localidades presentaron diferentes patrones de interacci6n y rendimiento. De acuerdo a la puntuaci6n AMMI, los hfbridos T-31, T-9, HA-55, HR-12, XL-380 Y Exp. 9122 fueron los que menos interactuaron con el ambiente, y unicamente los tres ultimos tuvieron rendimientos arriba de la media. Los hfbridos mas estables superaron al testigo HA-46 (3.79 tlha) en 6, 5, 26,35,41 Y44%, respectivamente. En la Figura I, los hfbridos estables HA-55, HR-12, XL-380 Y Exp. 9122, con rendimientos superiores a la media aparecen agrupados horizontalmente cerca del valor cero.Estos superaron ampliamente al testigo HA-46 en rendimiento de grano en un rango comprendido entre 26 y 51%. Observando la densidad promedio de plantas cosechadas 4.25 pl/m 2 (Cuadro 7) del analisis combinado y comparandola con la poblaci6n te6rica inicial de 5.33 pl/m 2 ; se nota que hubo una disminuci6n de la poblaci6n del 20%, el cual se considera alta. En estas plantas perdidas se dej6 de producir en promedio 1.16 tlha de grano. EI fen6meno antes sefialado podrfa explicar en parte la expresi6n parcial del potencial productivo de los hfbridos evaluados. Cuadro 6. Rendimiento y caracteristicas agronomicas de los mejores hibridos de grana amarillo evaluados en 12 localidades. PCCMCA 1992.En el Cuadro 6 se presentan los mejores hfbridos y sus caracterfsticas agron6micas y el Cuadro 7 presenta el promedio de todas las caracterfsticas agron6micas a traves de todos los ambientes para todas las entradas. EI analisis de varianza (Cuadro 8) y el modelo AMMI (Cuadro 9) mostraron alta significancia para todos los componentes involucrados en el analisis. La interacci6n significativa Localidad x Hfbridos indica que el comportamiento de los hibridos no fue igual en todas las localidades; es decir estos presentaron rendimientos diferenciales obviamente influenciados por el ambiente. El primer eje de interacci6n PCA I capt6 el 28.3% de la suma de cuadrados de la interacci6n con el 11.6% de los grados de libertad. Estos resultados coinciden exactamente con los reportados por C6rdova (1991) en un estudio similar.Las puntuaciones AMMI de los hibridos y las localidades con sus respectivos rendimientos se muestran en la Figura 2 y Cuadro 10. S610 12 hibridos presentaron puntajes cercanos a cero (0.166 a -0.197) por 10 que se consideran estables por su baja interacci6n con el ambiente. Los hfbridos C381A, CB-XHS-511, Y-1402 CW, HN-913, HS-5GM, H-53, Y-1402 AW, C-343 YCB-XHS-525 por estar ubicados cerca del eje cero presentan similar estabilidad, pero difieren en los patrones de rendimiento (Figura 2). En el grupo de hfbridos estables s610 HB-30, HN-915 Y Max 311 rindieron abajo de la media. Sin embargo, los dos ultimos rindieron mas 0 igual que el testigo HB-83M (5.14 Y 5.05 tlha), pero con la diferencia que estos interacuaron menos con el ambiente.  En el ensayo de hfbridos blancos, el numero promedio de plantas cosechadas (4.58 pl/m2) fue 14% menos que la poblaci6n te6rica inicial (5.53 pl/m2) (Cuadro 12). En las plantas perdidas se dej'6 de producir 0.87 ton de grano, 10 cual es una cantidad considerable. La reducci6n de la poblaci6n del 14% exceden las perdidas normales ocurridas al cultivo, las cuales oscilan en un rango comprendido de 8 a 10%.Las diferencias de rendimiento de los mejores hfbridos blancos en relaci6n al testigo HB-83M fue menor que la presentada por los mejores hfbridos   Es importante recordar que la estabilidad de los genotipos implica en cierta medida adaptaci6n amplia y esta va en contra de rendimiento. Los resultados de este estudio coinciden con los reportados por Queme y Fuentes (1992), quienes observaron igual tendencia en la estabilidad de los cultivares. En los ultimos afios se ha encontrado mayor frecuencia de hfbridos con alto potencial de rendimiento y muy poca interacci6n con el ambiente. Estos dos reportes difieren con los de C6rdova (1989, 1990) quien senala que en estudios similares, la mayorfa de los genotipos identificados como estables por el modelo AMMI estuvieron abajo de la media del rendimiento. La evidencia anterior indica el progreso que han logrado en los ultimos afios los programas nacionales y compafiias privadas al generar 36 hfbridos blancos con alto potencial de rendimiento y poca interacci6n con el ambiente. Igual que en el ensayo de hfbridos amarillos, la localidad de San ler6nimo en Guatemala fue el ambiente mas productivo y el que mas interactu6con los genotipos (AMMI = 1.454), por 10 que se considera una buena localidad para evaluaci6n de genotipos.I. Se obtuvo buena recuperaci6n de la informaci6n de los ensayos uniformes del PCCMCA de 1992 (80% los ensayos de grano blanco y 70% los amarillos).2. Los hfbridos de grana blanco presentaron mejor comportamiento productivo que los hfbridos amarillos.3. La cantidad de hfbridos blancos con puntuaciones AMMI cercanas a cero (genotipos de baja interacci6n con el ambiente), fue mayor que la de los hibridos amarillos (12 versus 5).4. En terminos porcentuales los mejores hfbridos blancos superaron en menor magnitud al testigo HB-83M, en cambio los mejores amarillos superaron ampliamente al testigo HA-46 (basta 18% los blancos y 51% los amarillos).5. Los hfbridos que ocuparon los primeros lugares en ambos experimentos fueron generados por el Proyecto de Hfbridos del PRM, destacandose entre los blancos el Exp. 9101, H-53 Y HN-911 y los amarillos Exp. 9122, P-8812 YH-I04. Esta evidencia indica el avance en el mejoramiento logrado por los Programas Nacionales del PRM.6. Las perdidas considerables de plantas afectaron parcialmente el potencial productivo de los hibridos (reducci6n de la poblaci6n inicial te6rica del 20% en los amarillos y 14% en los blancos) y muestra fa importancia de examinar los componentes de rendimiento en maiz. RECOMENDACIONES I. Para que los nuevos hibridos puedan expresar al maximo su potencial productivo en los experimentos y/o en los lotes de producci6n comercial, se recomienda utilizar semilla de buena calidad y ademas proteger la plantaci6n en los primetos estadios de desarrollo del cuitivo.  2. Las instituciones de transferencia de tecnologia debenm promover en forma agresiva los hfbridos superiores, para que en corto tiempo esten en manos de los agricultores.3. Fortalecer los programas de producci6n de semilla con el prop6sito de abastecer las demandas de estas en cantidad y calidad.EI presente informe es producto de un trabajo cooperativo en el cual han participado entidades e instituciones de Centro America, El Caribe y Mexico, quienes igual que en otros atlos han participado con gran profesionalismo.Localidades de Panama, 1992Panama, -1993 A. Alvarado l , L Camargo 2 , D. Perez 2 , A. Gonzalez 2 , N. de Gracia 2 , J. Ruiz 2 , M. Moreno 2 , E. Quiroz 2 , C. Herrera 2 y R Gordon 3Con el objetivo de evaluar el cOlllportandento de 20 cultivares experimentales y comerclales de malz de granD amarillo se instalaron ensayos wdforllles de rendindento en 13 en ambientes contrastantes de Panama, conducidos por tecnicos del Progranrn Nacional. EI amilisis combinado para rendimiento indico una interaccion altalllente signiflcativa entre localidades y genotlpo x anlbiente. En este sentido las localidades que resultaron mRs favorables fueron Rio Hato, .EI Macano, Tres Quebradas y Siogui, con rendlndentos de 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, Y 5.4 tIha, respectlvamente. En la localidad de Llanito Verde por las condiciones adversas que presento, el rendimiento promedio fue nmy bajo (2.7 t/ha). Por otro lado, se destacaron por su buen rendindento y caracteristlcas agrononllcas los hibridos experimentales E-2416, ICTA 9122, E-216 B Y el cOlllercial P-8916, con promedios de 5.0, 4.9, 4.8 Y4.8 tlha, respectivamente. EI testigo X-304 C rindio 4.1 tlha. De acuerdo al aruillsis de estabilidad los genotipos mRs estables fueron ICTA-9122, E-616 B YX-3086, los cuales presentaronllledias de rendindento altas con Bi=l y Sbi=O.Tradicionalmente el programa de mejoramiento genetico de malz del Instituto de Investigacion Agropecuaria de Panama (IDIAP), efectua anualmente un ensayo uniforme de rendimiento en diferentes zonas maiceras; donde se evaluan 20 cultivares comerciales y experimentales de maiz de grano amarillo y blanco, desarrollados por el programa nacional y/o empresas privadas que comercializan semillas en Panama. Los resultados obtenidos en esta prueba constituyen la principal fuente oficial para el sector agropecuario en la toma de decisiones referente a la recomendacion de un determinado cultivar para su siembra a nivel comercial; basados en el comportamiento de los mismos en multiples localidades con ambientes contrastantes y a traves de afios de pruebas.Los objetivos de esta prueba Regional de maiz son: a) Determinar la adaptacion de cultivares de grano amarillo generados por el programa nacional y compaitias privadas bajo diversos ambientes de Panama; b) Determinar la interaccion de los genotipos en los diferentes ambientes, con el proposito de identificar superiores y con buena estabilidad de rendimiento; c) Brindarle a los extensionistas y agricultores la oportunidad de apreciar las bondades de los nuevos materiales geneticos. Vasal et al. (1991) argumenta que en el desarrollo de lubridos convencionales es importante identificar germoplasma con tolerancia a endocria y alta aptitud combinatoria; considerando los patrones con un alto Divel de respuesta heterotica para un desarrollo eficiente en el menor tiempo posible. En otro orden de cosas, sl el comportamiento relativo de los cultivares fuera poco influenciado por el medio ambiente, entonces, las pruebas conducidas en una sola localidad y por solamente un ano, serian suficientes para proveer informacion adecuada en la cual basar su recomendacion 0 su elirninacion; por eso el conocimiento de la magnitud relativa de la interaccion cultivar x localidad 0 cultivar x ano, es importante conocerla (Sprague, 1955). De alli que Cordova (1990) indique que la interacion genotipoambiente es de suma importancia en la evaluacion de cultivares desarrollados para diferentes ambientes de produccion, las diferencias entre ambientes y afios puede cambiar la magnitud de la respuesta relativa de los cultivares a ambientes contrastantes.Varios autores han estudiado la interacion genetico ambiental (Marquez, 1985); sin embargo, desde el punto de vista de variables observables, sin explicarlas en terminos de variables causales, 0 sea, de los efectos geneticos y ambientales que la determinan. Durante muchos afios los mejoradores han deseado producir materiales que interaccionen 10 menos posible con el ambiente (materiales estables), con la fmalidad de obtener una buena produccion por unidad de superficie. No obstante, la estabilidad de rendimiento de un genotipo particular depende de su respuesta fisiologica a diversos factores adversos en etapas criticas del desarrollo de la planta. Marquez (1985) sugiere que los parametros de estabilidad de hecho son parametros de la interaccion genetico ambiental.Se evaluaron 20 cultivares de maiz, que incluyen variedades de polinizacion libre, hibridos simples, triples y dobles generados por el Programa Nacional y empresas privadas (Cuadro 1). La evaluacion de efectu6 en 13 localidades de Panama distribuidos de la siguiente manera; 8 localidades en las provincias Centrales, principal zona maicera del pais, 3 en el Occidente Chiricano y las otras 2 localidades fueron el Sur de Sona (Los Polancos) y el area Oeste de la provincia de Panama (Llanito Verde).Cuadro 1. Cultivares de maiz de grano amarillo evaluados en 13 ambientes de Panama, 1992de Panama, -1993. . Las variables estudiadas fueron: dias a flor, altura de planta y mazorca, acame, pudrici6n de mazorca, ntunero de plantas y mazorcas cosechadas, aspecto de planta y mazorca, cobertura de mazorca, peso de campo, porcentaje de humedad y plantas con sintomas de achaparramiento. A todas las variables estudiadas se Ie efectuaron anaIisis de varianza por localidad, ademas del combinado. Para la comparaci6n de medias de rendimiento se estim6 la Diferencia Minima Significativa (DMS). La identificaci6n de los genotipos mas estables se realizo mediante la metodologia de Eberhart y Russell (1966).Se utilizo un disefto de bloques al azar con 4 repeticiones, donde la unidad experimental const6 de 2 surcos de 5 m de largo, separados a 0.75 my a una distancia entre postura de 0.5 m. La siembra se hizo manual y las malezas fueron controladas mediante la aplicacion de la mezcla GesaprirnlProwl a razon de 3 l/ha de producto comercial de ambos herbicidas. La fertilizacion inicial se hizo con formula completa de acuerdo a las recomendaciones para cada localidad; a los 30 dias se hizo una aplicacion suplementaria de nitr6geno y las plagas fueron controladas oportunamente.Cuadro 2. Estadisticos estimados en el analisis de varianza para rendimiento y el promedio por localidad de 20 cultivares de maiz evaluados a traves de 13 ambientes de Panama. 1992Panama. -1993. . U representan siugnifcancia a P<O.Ol.El Cuadro 2 presenta algunos estadisticos estimados en el anaIisis de varianza para la variable rendimiento y el promedio por localidad de los 20 cultivares de maiz evaluados. El coeficiente de variacion (CV's) fueron bajos indicativo de un manejo adecuado. En Parita, los cultivares mostraron un buen comportamiento y estadisticamente fueron similares. Entretanto, en las demas localidades observamos diferencias significativas (P < 0.05, 0.01). Las localidades que presentaron las mejores condiciones para el desarrollo del cultivo fueron Rio Hato, El Macano, Tres Quebradas, Siogui y Los Polancos, en consecuencia, observamos en estas, que los mejores promedios de rendimientos fueron 5. 83, 5.68, 5.50, 5.42 tJha, respectivamente. En Llanito Verde, Paris y El Pedernal las condiciones no fueron las mas favorables para el desarrollo del cultivo y como consecuencia los rendimientos se vieron afectados con promedios de 2.67,2.99 y 3.19 tJha, respectivamente. Esta influencia del ambiente en la expresion del potencial de los genotipos se refleja en el analisis combinado donde la interaccion localidad x tratamiento indica diferencias estadisticas; 10 cual sugiere una respuesta diferencial de los cultivares a los ambientes.Determinar la ganancia genetica obtenida con los nuevos ht'bridos, es preponderante en este tipo de estudio especialmente cuando se hacen comparaciones con los ht'bridos comerciales. El Cuadro 3 permite hacer comparaciones entre algunos hibridos experimentales y comerciales actualmente en uso en Panama por el Programa Nacional de IDIAP, ICTA Y Pioneer.Notese la similitud de los ht'bridos experimentales en cuanto a dias de floracion y altura de mazorca. En general estos hibridos presentaron valores relativamente bajos (menos de 10%) de porcentaje de mazorcas podridas y con mala cobertura, estos caracteres son importantes destacarlos, puesto que, se ha hecho mucho emasis en el mejoramiento integral de estas caracteristicas de incalculable valor econOmlCo. El promedio de estos cultivares experimentales fluctuo de 4.52 a 5.05 tlha; indicando el alto potencial de rendimiento. de los mismos. Los htbridos E-2416, ICTA 9122 y E-216 B fueron los mas sobresalientes en este grupo. Dentro de los comerciales se desteca que el htbrido H-203 resulto ser el mas precoz; en tanto que el X-3098 presento la mayor altura de mazorca con 132 cm; los demas materiales presentaron valores inferiores a 120 em.Los datos en porcentaje de mazorcas podridas y con mala cobertura fueron menores en el X-3078 con 5.3 y 5.6 % respectivamente; sin embargo presento el rendimiento tmis bajo en este grupo. Por el contrario, el htbrido nacional P-8916 presento el valor mas alto de mazorcas con mala cobertura (17%) perc su porcentaje de mazorcas podridas fue similar al resto. No obstante, el P-8916 presenta el rendimiento mas alto, seguido por el P-8916 B, que es una version 41 mejorada del P-89l6 para cobertura; los datos indican progresos satisfactorios para esta caracteristica.Si comparamos el comportamiento de los ht'bridos experimentales con los comerciales (Cuadro 3), en cuanto a la variable rendimiento, se observa que los htbridos experimcntales fueron superiores, practicamente todos estuvieron sobre la media de las 13 localidades (4.42 tlha).En tanto que los comerciales a excepcion de P-89l6 y P-89916 B con medias de 4.74 y 4.68 tlha, presentaron rendimiento por debajo de la media de las 13 localidades. Estos datos adquieren mayor importancia cuando los incrementos en rendimiento de los experimentales va acompafiado de buenas caracteristicas agron6micas y capacidad de adaptacion a los diferentes ambientes.La respuesta de los genotipos a los diferentes ambientes puede variar de acuerdo a las condiciones prevalecientes (Cordova, 1990), por ella, los programas de mejoramiento genetico tratan de desarrollar cultivares que presentan un comportamiento estable a traves de ambientes constrastantes; en este sentido, una herramienta util para el mejorador 10 representa el anaIisis de estabilidad. Uno de los modelos mas utilizados es el propuesto por Eberhart y Russell (1966), que considera a un cultivar estable cuando Bi=1 y Sdi=O Y con media de rendimiento alta. En el Cuadro 3, observamos las medias y los parametros de estabilidad del rendimiento de los cultivares de maiz evaluados en 13 ambientes de Panama; el mismo identific6 a los hibridos ICTA 9122, E-616B, P-8916B Y X-3086 como los mas estables. El ht'brido doble E-232 present6 el coeficiente de regresi6n mas alto, 10 cual 10 clasifica como un ht'brido que responden en ambientes favorables.En este tipo de estudio es importante determinar la ganancia genetica obtenida, especialmente cuando se hacen comparaciones con los htbridos comerciales. EI Cuadro 3 permite hacer comparaciones entre algunos ht'bridos experimentales y comerciales actua1mente en uso en Panama, generados por el Programa Nacional de IDIAP, ICTA Y Pioneer. El Cuadro 4 muestra los 8 cultivares mas sembrados en Panama. Un anaIisis restropectivo de 5 afios de evaluaci6n que abarca 57 localidades, sugiere que el X-304 C es superado por los ht'bridos de reciente introducci6n con un rango de 6.4% hasta 16.8% (Alvarado et aI, 1988(Alvarado et aI, , 1989(Alvarado et aI, , 1990(Alvarado et aI, , 1991)). La variedad Guarare 8128 ha igualado tambien al X-304 C a traves de los ailos.  Quebradas y Siogui los mas favorables.2. Los hibridos experimentales superaron en rendimiento a los comerciales ademas de poseer mayor tolerancia a la pudrici6n de mazorca y buena cobertura.3. La mayoria de los htbridos comerciales presentaron rendimiento por debajo de la media para las 13 localidades (4.42 t/ha).4. Dentro del grupo de los htbridos comerciales se destacan por su buen rendimiento el P-8916 y p. 8916B. E1 P-8916 a pesar de tener un mayor porcentaje de mazorcas descubiertas, mostr6 buena tolerancia a la pudrici6n de mazorca. Los htbridos leTA 9122, E-6116B, P-89l6B Y X-3086 fueron identificados como los mas estables en su rendimiento.5. Los datos obtenidos de 5 afios de continuas evaluaciones indican que el X-304 C, sigue siendo superado por los mejores htbridos del programa nacional y los htbridos importados X-3098 y XL-604. En Cuba se siembran entre 70 y 100 mil ha de maiz anualmente en el cicio de primavera, el 60% con hibridos y el restante con variedades de poJinizacion libre (VPLs). Sin embargo, se desconocen las diferencias entre los hibridos y VPLs wadas en el pais. Este estudio tiene por objetivos evaluar las diferencias y sus bases fisiologicas entre bibridos y VPLs disponibles en Cuba para la produccion nacionaJ. Se evaluaron 7 hibridos y 8 variedades de polinizacionlibre (VPLs) en el cicio de primavera en la estacion experimental EI Tomeguin. Los resldtados muestran que los bibridos rinden por encima de las VPLs en promedio en 1.43 tonlba. Estas diferencias se deben a un mayor peso de mazorca (120 versw 97 g/nlZ), un mayor niunero de mazorcas por unidad de area (4.42 vs 4.00 mz/m 2 ) y un incremento enla prolificidad (103 vs 97%). Los hibridos Cuba T-3, T-5, T-6, T-9 Y las VPLs Picbi1ingne 7928 y Gnarare 8328 mostraron buena adaptacion a las condiciones de Cuba. Se recomienda evalnar otros materiales para entender mejor las bases de las diferencias entre bibridos y variedades en Cuba.En Cuba, en la epoca de primavera se cultivan entre 70 y 100 mil ha de maiz para la producci6n de maiz tierno (elotes), de grano seco y de semilla, de las cuales el 60% aproximadamente se siembran empleando semilla de maiz hibrido y un 40% con semilla de variedades de polinizaci6n libre (VPLs). En la actualidad no se cuenta con una investigaci6n especifica dirigida a evaluar 0 identificar las diferencias de rendimiento existentes entre los hibridos y las variedades utilizadas en la producci6n nacional de maiz.En la literatura nacional e internacional un numero considerable de estudios y referencias bibliograticas muestran que las VPLs son de menor rendimiento que los hibridos resultando en la actualidad un hecho sin lugar a dudas. En un estudio comparando 4 hibridos y 5 VPLs del Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM),  Bolmlos (1993) reporta que los hibridos en promedio rindieron de 1.0 a 1.5 tlha por encima de las VPLs en un rango amplio de ambientes a traves de Centro America. Estas diferencias se deben a una mayor ICoordinador Nacional de Maiz e Investigador, Estaci6n de Granos El Tomeguin, Alquizar, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, La Habana, Cuba. DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 44-46. 44 eficiencia de llenado de grano, mejor indice de cosecha, y mayor peso promedio de mazorca (Bolaftos, 1993).Sin embargo, en Cuba no se han hecho muchos estudios de investigaci6n especifica para evaluar las diferencias de rendimiento entre los hibridos y las variedades comerciales y precomerciales de maiz recomendadas a la produccion en el pais, ni como tales diferencias influyen en la elaboraci6n y obtencion de mayores rendimientos.Las bases fenologicas, morfol6gicas y/o fisiologicas de las ganancias geneticas de los cultivares de maiz en Cuba se desconoce. La caracterizacion de estos parametros feno-morfo-fisiologicos en los cultivares de Cuba ayudara a entender las bases geneticas del progreso obtenido y proveera pautas para modificar las estrategias a seguir en el futuro. Por ~iemplo, en hibridos actualmente disponibles en la zona maicera de los Estados Unidos, la densidad optima de siembra excede 70 mil pllha, el indice de cosecha excede 0.55, y el cultivo dedica mas del 60% de su tiempo termal al llenado de grano.En contraste, estudios en germoplasma de maiz tropical similares a los cultivares del PRM indican densidades optimas cerca a los 50 mil pl/ha, un indice de cosecha de 0.40, y menos del 50% de la duraci6n del cultivo para el llenado de grano.Existen varias avenidas para incrementar la productividad (fraccion cosechable) de un cultivo: (a) un incremento en la duracion del cultivo 0 la proporcion de la fase de llenado de grano dentro del total; (b) un incremento en la produccion de materia seca por unidad de area, y por consiguiente una mayor producci6n de granD; (c) un incremento en la proporci6n de la materia seca destinada a la mazorca reflejando una mejoria en el indice de cosecha, (d) una mejoria en la tolerancia a la densidad y la capacidad de retener la mazorca en' condiciones de estres (Bolaftos, 1993).Los objetivos del estudio son identificar las bases fisiol6gicas de las diferencias de rendimiento entre los hibridos y las variedades de maiz utilizadas en la produccion en el pais.En la epoca de siembra hUmeda 0 de primavera se estableci6 un ensayo con 15 cultivares de maiz. Sus caracteristicas se presentan en el Cuadro 1. Se empleo un disefio experimental de bloques al azar con 4 replicas con parcelas de 9 m 2 de area de calculo para cada cultivar, cada parcela consta de 40 plantas para una densidad de poblaci6n de 44,444 pllha, siendo la unidad experimental de 2 surcos de 5 m de largo. La siembra se realiz6 en la Estaci6n de Granos El Tomeguin en suel0 rojo ferralitico hidratado a 50 msnm. Las variables a registrar fueron dias a floraci6n masculina, altura de la mazorca altura de planta, calificaci6n a enfemledades' mazorcas podridas, cobertura de mazorca, calificaci6d el aspecto de la planta y de la mazorca, acame de raiz y de tallo y rendimiento en grano.En la epoca de siembra humeda 0 de primavera con regadio el cultivo del maiz en Cuba es afectado por estreses hidricos, nutricionales y climato16gicos que ocasionan una disminuci6n en el rendimiento en comparaci6n con la epoca seca-frio siendo la fase de llenado del grana la mas afectada y la que mas contribuye a las diferencias de rendimiento observadas entre los hibridos y las variedades y entre epocas. Bajo estas condiciones climato16gicas de la epoca de primavera los rendimientos de los hibridos 45 son superiores al de las variedades. Esta caracteristica de los hibridos ha sido informada a nivel mundial por diferentes autores.El analisis general del experimento en cuanto a rendimiento y caracteristicas agron6micas importantes del conjunto de 15 cultivares se presentan en el Cuadro 2. El mayor rendimiento fue de 5.91 tlha con el hibrido dobre Cuba T-5 y el menor con la variedad Across 8126, con diferencias significativas estadisticamente entre si. La media general de rendimiento fue de 4.56 t/ha y solamente los hibridos la superaron (Cuadro 2).En cuanto a otras caracteristicas agrononucas importantes como son los dias a floraci6n masculina se aprecia que 6 de los 7 hibridos del experimento quedaron por debajo de la media general que fue de 53 dias. Solamente igualaron esta caracteristica 3 de las 8 variedades ya que 5 de eUas florecieron despues de los 53 dias. En relaci6n a la altura de las plantas tanto los hibridos como las variedades alcanzaron valores que no difieren del valor de la media que fue de 275 cm, excepto 3 variedades que alcanzaron menor altura (Cuadro 2).Podemos apreciar ademas de los resultados sefialados, la existencia de dos gropos bie~definidos entre los cultivares en estudio. Uno formado por las entradas correspondiente a los hibridos y otro por las variedades (Cuadro 2). En el gropo de los siete hibridos, se puede observar el rendimiento y caracteristicas agron6micas importantes de cada uno de eUos y la media general, el mayor rendimiento fue de 5.91 tlha hibrido Cuba T-5 y el menor 4.80 tlha hibrido HSV T-53 con diferencias estadisticas significativas entre si. La media general fue de 5.32 tlha (Cuadro 2). En el Cuadro 2 se presentan las ocho variedades de polinizaci6n libre con su mayor rendimiento que fue de 4.51 tlha Pichilingue 7928 y el menor que fue de 2.62 t/ha para el Across 8126 difiriendo significativamente entre si.La media general fue de 3.89 tlha.Haciendo comparaciones entre el hibrido de mayor rendimiento Cuba T-5 (5.51 tlha) y la variedad de igual caracteristica Pichilingue 7928 (4.51 tlha) se identifican diferencias de rendimiento de 1.40 tlha entre el hibrido y la variedad equivalente al 131% de productividad superior a favor del hibrido. Entre las medias de rendimiento de 5.32 tlha en los hibridos, y de 3.89 tlha en las variedades, tenemos una diferencia de 1.43 tlha a favor de los hibridos 10 que significa en este caso un 137% de rendimiento tambit~n a favor de los hibridos.Cuadro 2. Medias de rendimiento y caracteristicas agronomicas de los hibridos y variedades de polinizacion libre en el ensayo de promavera 1992. Letras iguales muestran similitud estadistica segtin Duncan a15% de probabilidad. En ambas comparaciones se identifican de fonna consistente diferencias numericas de rendimiento a favor de los htbridos del orden de 1.4 toneladas de grano por hectArea 10 que equivaldria a unas 14,000 tone1adas mas de produccion por cada 10,000 hectAreas cultivadas con semina de maiz htbrido tanto de los comerciales como de los precomerciales utilizados en este estudio. Los componentes de rendimiento que mas influencia tuvieron en favor de 1a mayor productividad de los htbridos fueron la prolificidad de produccion de mazorcas con un peso de grano de 120 grnmos en los htbridos y solo de 97 grnmos en las variedades. CONCLUSIONES 1. Se confmno que las variedades de po1inizacion libre son de menor rendimiento que los hibridos destinados a la produccion de maiz en Cuba.2. La influencia de la diferencia de rendimiento de 1.4 tonlha a favor de los htbridos equivalen a unas 14,000 ton mas de produccion por cada 10,000 46 hectAreas cultivadas con semina de maiz hibrido. 4. Se recomienda organizar la politica varietal y la produccion de semina de maiz en el pais tomando en cuenta las conclusiones de esta investigacion. Tambien se recomienda establecer como nonnativa oflcial en Cuba la evaluaci6n de las diferencias de rendimiento entre htbridos y variedades propuestos a generalizacion ya que sin esa informacion no se podcln incluir en la politica varietal de produccion de semina. Los mejoradores buscan nuevas frecuencias genicas que se expresen en mayores rendimientos a las variedades que se encuentran en elmercado. En 1991 en los eusayos regionales del PRM a traves de Centro America se identificaron 10 Iineas con buena aptitud combinatoria. En 1992 se confomlo un eusayo dialelico cuyas cruzas simples se evaluaron en 6 localidades de Centro America bajo los signientes objetivos: 1) estimar los efectos de aptitud combi.llatoria general y especifica (ACG y ACE), 2) realizar predicciones de renduniento de cruzas dobles a partir de Ia mfomlacion de las cruzas smlples (CS) y 3) generar hibridos para las diferentes regiones del PRM. Los resultados mostraron diferencias a1tanlente significativas para las CS evaluadas tanto a nivel uldividual como en el combulado, asi como la ulteracciQn genotipo-anlbiente uldicando que las CS tuvieron un comportandento diferente en cada localidad. Las mejores CS a nivel combinado fueron 1302 X 1308, 1306 X 1308, 1303 X 1305 y 1305 X 1306, con renduuientos de 7.16, 6.95, 6.92 y 6.90 tIha, respectivanlente. La mayor contribucion a la sImla de cuadrados de las CS se debio a la swna de cuadrados de ACE (73%). En cuanto a los efectos de ACG, las Iineas 1308, 1305, 1306 Y 1309 mostraron efectos positivos de 0.33, 0.24, 0.15 y 0.10 tJha, respectivamente. La mayoria de los cruces mostraron eCectos positivos de ACE, siendo las tres mejores cruzas 1302 x 1308,1302 x 1309 y 1303 x 1305 con eCectos de 0.57, 0.36 y 0.27 tJha. Tomando como base el rendiJuiento de las cruzas, aI realizar las predicciones por el metodo B de Jenkins (1934), se lograron precedir un grupo de 20 CnlZas dobles con renduuientos aceptables siendo las tres mejores (1302 x 1306) (1305 x 1308), (1302 x 1306) (1308 x 1309) y (1302 x 1303) (1308 x 1309) con rendimientos predichos de 6.96, 6.87 y 6.84 tJha. En base a estos resultados se han logrado identificar Crecuencias genicas que aI ser cnlZadas en fonna especifica pueden conducir a obtener hibridos superiores a los existentes dentro del PRM.En un programa de fonnacion de hibridos, influye Mucha el criterio del mejorador, asi como la metodologia que se utilice para explotar la variabilidad genetica con que se cuente, para llegar a identificar prgenitores que presenten valores altos de aptitud combinatoria general y especifica (ACG y ACE). Ademas se debe de tomar muy en cuenta los componentes de varianza a la hora de la seleccion, siendo importante para el mejorador la varianza que es controlada por la accion genica aditiva. Cuando se quiere obtener combinaciones especificas, como en el caso de los hibridos, la accion genica no aditiva sera 1 Investigadores de Maiz, leTA, Guatemala.Pub1icado en S1NTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 47-52. 47 de importancia.El merito de cualquier linea pura desarrollada es el comportamiento de sus combinaciones lubridas, tomandose en cuenta dos atributos: la diversidad genetica de la fuente de gennoplasma y la correlacion existente entre los caracteres de las lineas endocriadas asi como su progenie hibrida (poey et al., 1977). Un metodo para la seleccion eficaz de lineas son los cruzamientos dialelicos, donde se ensayan un numero de P(P-l)/2 cruzas Fl posibles para identificar aquellas que presenten mayores caracteres deseables. Hayman (1954) indica que los dialelos pueden ser todo el conjunto de apareamientos posibles. Griffmg (1956) describe cuatro tecnicas de poder realizar las cruzas dialelicas, siendo las cruzas~directas P(P-l)/2 (Metodo 4) las que mas se utilizan en maiz ya que no toma en cuenta los efectos maternos.Las estimaciones de ACE es un metoda por medio del cual se identifican los hibridos Fide mayor rendimiento de todas las cruzas simples posibles formadas a partir de n lineas (Brauer, 1980). Esto consiste en cruzar lineas en pares para fonnar cruzas simples permitiendo seleccionar cruzamientos especificos superiores, asi como los valores de heterocigosis. Los ensayos dialelicos son una fonna de hacer las cruzas e interpretarlos por medio de los metodos de Griffing (1956).Actualmente el Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) para Centro America y el Caribe ha generado lineas con alto grado de endogamia (86) con el proposito de encontrar hibridos convencionales con alto rendimiento con buena adaptacion a la zona trOpical baja entre 0-1000 msnm. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar las cruzas dialelicas de 10 lineas elite del PRM de grana blanco en 6 localidades de Centro America. Objetivos especificos eran: 1) Estimar los efectos de aptitud combinatoria general y especifica, 2) Realizar predicciones de rendimiento de cruzas dobles a partir de la infonnacion de las cruzas simples, 3) Generar lubridos con potencial de adaptacion a las diferentes regiones maiceras de Centro America.Dichas lineaS sirvieron de base en 1992A para formar un diale10 de 45 cruzas simples (CS) a ser evaluadas en 6 10calidades entre los 0-1000 msnm en Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua y Costa Rica en el cicIo normal de junio a oetubre de 1992. Los tratamientos consistieron en una serle de cruzas simples (CS) asi como una serle de testigos; en un disefto de hitice simple de 7x7 con tres repeticiones. Se hizo e1 control de malezas de acuerdo a cada localidad asi como un buen manejo agronomico, usando niveles de fertilizacion en general de 100-40-0 kglha. Los datos agronomicos recabados fue todo 10 relacionado a caracteristicas que puedan dar una idea del comportamiento de los diferentes genotipos, siendo estos los siguientes: dias a flor femenina, altura de planta y mazorca, acame de raiz y tallo, mala cobertuI'a, mazorcas podridas, rendimiento y el aspecto fitosanitario.El anaIisis de varianza para rendimiento fue conforme a un disefto de latice simple a nivel individual ya que se encontro que no existio homogeneidad de varianzas para realizar el anlilisis combinado. Tomando como base dichos anlilisis se procedio a realizar e1 anlilisis dialelico por el metoda cuatro de Griffmg (1956)  (Martinez, 1975), el cual ensaya P(P-1)/2 cruzas posibles en un solo sentido. Con los resultados de las cruzas simples se procedio a la prediccion de hibridos de cuatro vias basado en el metoda B de Jenkins (1936).El Cuadro 1 presenta las fuentes de variacion para rendimiento por localidad y combinado, donde se observa la significancia (a < 0.01) que existio para rendimiento a nivel individual, donde se puede inferir que el comportamiento de las cruzas simples fue diferente entre ellas a nivel de localidad, dando la idea que al menos un (unos) genotipo (s) tiene una expresion superior con relacion al resto de las cruzas. Basado en la significancia de los tratamientos (cruzas) del anlilisis general, se procedio a descomponer la fuente de variacion en ACG y ACE.En el Cuadro 2 se notan los resultados del anlilisis de varianza individual por el metoda cuatro de Griffmg. ObselVandose que la mayor contribucion al rendimiento se debe a la fuente de variacion de ACE ya que en cuatro de las seis localidades la suma de cuadrados de ACE fue mayor que los de ACG, puediendose inferir que el fenotipo obselVado de las cruzas de debe en mayor parte a efectos de varianza no aditiva (dominancia y epistasis).Resultados contrarios fueron reportados por Vasal et al. (1992) en un estudio con poblaciones de maiz en donde 1a tuayor contribucion relativa a la suma de cuadrados fue de ACG. Estos autores indicaron que la ACG para rendimiento de grano de 67%, tanto que para ACE de 33%. En este estudio se puede inferir que la suma de cuadrados de ACE es el que mas contribuye (73%) y 1a ACG solamente en un 27%. Lo anterior se puede deber a que se ensayaron genotipos con parentales con alta hemocigosis y es de esperarse que cuando los progenitores tienen niveles altos de endogamia 1a ACE es 1a que mas contribuye a la varianza de cruzas.Esto se debe intetpretar en luz que los efectos no aditivos son mas importantes a medida que avanza la endogamia de los padres involucrados debido a que existen mayor numero de loci en estado homocigoto (Crossa et al., 1990).El Cuadro 3 muestra las estimaciones de ACG. De las 10 lineas involucradas en este estudio solo 4 (1308, 1305, 1306 Y 1309) muestran una ACG positiva, en promedio de 0.33, 0.24, 0.15 Y 0.10 t/ha, respectivamente. En forma similar 10 muestra la ACE (Cuadros 4 a 9) donde la mayoria de las cruzas mueStran efectos positivos. Esto es esencial para identificar cruzas especificas que silVan de base para formar las nuevas combinaciones hibridas. Las cruzas con efectos positivos de ACE tambien mostraron rendimientos altos en las localidades de evaluaci6n. Tomando 10 anterior en cuenta y los rendimientos de las cruzas simples que mostraron estabilidad en rendimiento en todas las localidades (Cuadro 10) se procedi6 a seleccionar las mejores crozas para realizar las predicciones de hibridos en base al metodo B de Jenkins (1934) donde se identificaron un gmpo de 20 hibridos dobles predichos, mostrandose los mejores en el Cuadro 11, 49 asi como el porciento de heterosis sobre el testigo, notandose que existen ht1>ridos con rendimientos superiores al testigo que van desde 6.76 a 6.96 tIha, mientras que el ht1>rido HB-85 mostr6 un rendimiento de 6.07 tIha, esto significa que se han encontrado cruzas dobles con un porciento de heterosis de 111 a 115% con rendimiento para la C.S. hembra de 6.19 a 6.95 tlha (Cuadro 11) que sirvieron de base para formar los ht1>ridos dobles.Cuadro 10. Medias de rendimiento por localidad y combinada de las mejores cruzas simples de maíz de grano blanco.Rendimiento (Uha) Como parte de los esquemas de desarrollo de hibridos dentro del Programa Regional de Maiz, las lineas endogámicas que se identifican como superiores se evalúan en cruzas dialélicas para determinar su mérito relativo en la formación de hibridos. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar cruzas dialélicas de 10 lineas elite de grano amarillo, asi como determinar su aptitud combinatoria general (ACG) y especifica (ACE). Las lineas provenian de los programas nacionales de maiz de la región, los proyectos colaborativos y del programa de hibridos de CIMMYT. Se establecieron ensayos con 42 tratamientos (38 cruzas y 4 testigos) en un diseño látice simple de 6x7 a través de 4 localidades en Centro América.Se identificaron lineas promisorias procedentes en su mayoria de las Poblaciones 24, 27 Y36, como las lineas 1404 y 1409 del PRM, que deberian entrara a formar parte de las lineas elite del PRM. Se identificaron además cruzas simples que superan en rendimiento al mejor testigo~el Exp.9110, hasta en 20%, y se estimó la predicción de 4 hibridos experimentales que superan teóricamente hasta en 13% al testigo. Se sugiere evaluar estas cruzas en ensayos regionales para verificar los resultados.La producción de híbridos en base a líneas con alto nivel de endocría es considerada una de las mejores alternativas para aquellas áreas que presentan condiciones ambientales y posibilidades de manejo favorables. Híbridos convencionales de líneas endocriadas es la forma más eficiente de explotar la heterósis, en el cual se expresa un incremento de rendimiento en la generación F1 de la cruza entre líneas élite que tengan buena aptitud combinatoria sobre los materiales parentales. Cultivares híbridos de cruzas simples no son por ahora una buena alternativa para la mayoría de áreas maiceras de Centro América y El Caribe, ya que las condiciones de producción, comercialización y el tipo de agricultor usuario impiden poder absorber el alto precio de venta de la semilla certificada de estos cultivares. Para estas condiciones, el desarrollo de cultivares híbridos triples y/o dobles son la alternativa más accesible, y es la estrategia enfatizada por el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM).ICoordinador Programa de Malz rCTA; 2Técnicos Programa de Maiz, rCTA, Guatemala.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993). p. 53-56.Las series dialélicas de cruces son utilizadas en pruebas replicadas para determinar el mérito relativo de las líneas parentales en cruces (Hallauer el al., 1988). Citando a Schull (1909), \"el objetivo del mejorador de maíz no debe ser encontrar la mejor línea pura, sino que encontrar y mantener la mejor combinación híbrida\". Algunos investigadores han planteado que es de esperar que los híbridos dobles sean más estables que las. cruzas simples a través de una serie de ambientes, debido a una mayor homeostásis genética o amortiguamiento poblacional dado que ellos son genéticamente más heterogéneos (Lerner, 1958;Allard y Bradshaw, 1964). El objetivo principal de desarrollar líneas para hibridación con un alto nivel de endocría, es obtener genotipos cuya integridad genética pueda ser mantenida sin cambios durante las generaciones de reproducción (Hallauer y Miranda, 1988). Las pruebas de dialélicos de cruzas simples proveen información sobre la aptitud combinatoria general (ACG) de las líneas y aptitud combinatoria específica (ACE) de la líneas parentales para cruces específicos (Sprague y Tatum, 1942).El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar el potencial de rendimiento de los cruces dialélicos y estimar aptitud combinatoria de 10 líneas elite del PRM de grano amarillo para generar información que sirva de base para la predicción de cruces híbridos experimentales, triples y dobles, de alto potencial de rendimiento. .Las 10 líneas de grano amarillo que se involucraron en los cruces dialélicos de este estudio fueron adquiridas con endogamia parcial del Programa de híbridos del CIMMYT, y luego fueron seleccionadas y avanzadas por el proyecto de híbridos del PRM en Guatemala. Con estas lO líneas se lograron formar 38 cruces de los 45 posibles. Se incluyeron 4 testigos de referencia para un total de 42 tratamientos evaluados, lo que indica que no se conformo un dialélico completo por haber fallado 7 cruces que fue imposible realizar por razones de no coincidencia en floración de las líneas.Todas las líneas y sus cruzas fueron incrementadas en Cuyuta, durante el ciclo A de 1992. La descripción de la líneas y testigos involucrados es la siguiente: GellU'ogfa Los 42 tratamientos conformaron ensayos uniformes en un disef'lo de látice rectangular simple 6x7 con 4 repeticiones. La parcela experimental utilizada fue de 2 surcos de 5.5 m de largo, 0.75 m entre surco y posturas de 2 plantas separadas cada 0.5 m, lo que representa una densidad de población de 53,333 pl/ha. Se establecieron ensayos en las localidades de Cuyuta y La Máquina en Guatemala, Panamá y República Dominicana durante el ciclo de lluvias de 1992. Las labores culturales de manejo de los experimentos dependió de las necesidades y recomendaciones de investigación de cada localidad. De la evaluación se obtuvieron datos de rendimiento de grano y de características agronómicas, tales como: altura de planta y mazorca, % de mazorcas con mala cobertura, % de mazorcas podridas (Fusarium y Diplodia sp), % de acame y síntomas de achaparramiento causado por Spiroplasma sp. Con la información de rendimiento de grano al 15% de humedad se realizó el análisis de varianza individual y combinado. Además se calcularort estimaciones de aptitud combinatoria general (ACG) y específica (ACE) de las lineas y cruzas involucradas, donde: ACG es la media de las cruzas de una linea media general de todas las cruzas y ACE es el rendimiento de una cruza media general de todas las cruzas•ACG de un padre-ACG del otro padre de la cruza.Finalmente se realizaron predicciones de híbridos dobles y triples en base a la fórmula de predicciones de Jenkins (Hallauer y Miranda, 1988).Trat. En general las cruzas superiores en base al análisis combinado no fueron las mejores a nivel de localidad, reflejándolo el análisis de varianza que mostró una interacción significativa de localidades x tratamientos.Al analizar el origen de las líneas que conforman las 10 cruzas superiores, se observo que el patrón heterótico prevaleciente fueron líneas derivadas de la Pob.27 por líneas de la Pob.24, por lo que dicho patrón debiera de tomarse en cuenta para proyectos de hibridación con adaptación a áreas de condiciones ambientales similares.De igual forma se puede observar que en las 10 cruzas superiores participaron todas las líneas involucradas. También se observa que en estas cruzas nunca se involucraron dos lineas derivadas de la misma población, lo que puede inferir que la probabilidad es baja de encontrar cruzas emparentadas de buen potencial. Este tipo de interpretaciones nos lleva a la reflexión de poner mayor atención en el concepto de patrones heteróticos superiores cuando se estructuren este tipo de estudios, lo que nos simplificaría el trabajo y posiblemente nos aumentaría la eficiencia al evitar la evaluación de cruces que tienen bajas posibilidades de éxito.En el Cuadro 4 se observan los 4 mejores híbridos predichos en base a la información obtenida de la evaluación de los cruces dialélicos. Estos híbridos predichos experimentales superan en teoría al mejor testigo, Exp. 9110, en un rango de 13 a 10% en rendimiento.Los cuatro híbridos experimentales están conformados como híbridos dobles, observándose que a diferencia de las 10 cruzas simples superiores descritas en el Cuadro 3, en estos híbridos sí aparecen involucradas 4 cruzas simples derivadas de la misma población, lo que podría tomarse en cuenta para decidir que cruza simple estaría participando como hembra en la producción de semilla.En este Cuadro se presentan únicamente los 4 mejores híbridos predichos, sin embargo se estarán prediciéndo al menos los mejores 12 ó 15, para luego determinar su potencial real a través de evaluaciones extensivas en varios ambientes de Centro América y El Caribe, donde el PRM tiene su área de influencia. CONCLUSIONES 1. Se identificaron líneas como la 1409 y 1404 que expresaron estimados considerables de ACG (0.63 y 0.48 t/ha), por lo que debieran considerarse como germoplasma élite del PRM, e involucrarse tanto en la predicción de híbridos basados en este estudio, como en cruces con otras líneas élite que el Proyecto ha desarrollado.2. Se identificaron cruces simples con estimados considerables de ACE, los cuales podrían considerarse en cruces dirigidos con otras líneas o pedrigrees del proyecto.Cuadro 3. Rendimiento (tlha) de cruzas simples superiores en la evaluación de dialélicos entre lO lineas de mafz de grano amarillo en cuatro localidades, 1991. Como parte de los esquemas de desarrollo de hibridos dentro del Programa Regional de Maiz, constantemente se evalúan lineas endogámicas para determinar su adaptación en diversos ambientes de Centro América y potencial de ser utilizadas en los programas de hibridación. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el comportamiento agronómico de 144 lineas de grano blanco de maiz con diferentes niveles de endogamia y origen a través de 6 ambientes de Centro América hajo distintos estreses ambientales y condiciones. Las lineas provenian de los programas nacionales de maiz de la región, los proyectos colaborativos y del programa de hibridos de CIMMYT. Se identificaron 42 lineas promisorias procedentes en su mayoria de las Poblaciones 73 (con tolerancia al achaparramiento), 21 (base del Tuxpefto Sequia C6 x BS19 e ICTA Bl), Pool Diplodia (para resistencia a pudrición de mazorca), asi como lineas elite de CIMMYT (CML).La selección se basó en rendimiento, pudrición y cobertura de mazorca, acame, altura de planta y mazorca, asi como los dias a Ooración considerando [a posibilidad de formación de cruzas. Estas lineas superiores se evaluaran en combinación con distintos probadores y en dialelos para evaluar su aptitud combinatoria y uso potencial en los programas de hibridación de grano amarillo de la región.En la generación de híbridos de maíz, los progenitores desempeñan un papel importante. El valor de los progenitores puede estar definido en cierta medida por su aptitud combinatoria, así también como por su comportamiento per se a través de diferentes ambientes. Esto nos permite identificar progenitores con buen rendimiento, estabilidad y con característica agrónomicas deseables, como el acame, la cobertura y pudrición de mazorca, lo cual influye no sólo en la genera'Ción de los híbridos, sino también en la producción de la semilla, principalmente cuando en dichos ambientes se está interesado en la formación de los híbridos. El Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) concentra parte de sus actividades en la generación de híbridos de maíz. El objetivo general del proyecto es desarrollar híbridos de maíz de grano blanco, con alto potencial de 'Investigadores del Programa de Maiz, ICTA; 2Coordinador del Programa de Maíz, ICTA.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 57-60. 57 rendimiento, buenas características agronómicas y con adaptación a la zona maicera de Centro América y El Caribe. Dentro del PRM, el liderazgo de la generación de híbridos está a cargo del Programa de Maíz del ICTA.Tanto en ICTA, los programas nacionales de maíz que conforman el PRM, así como en CIMMYT, existen diversos grupos de líneas endogámicas que no se les conoce su comportamiento en los diferentes ambientes de influencia del PRM. Por tanto, el objetivo de la presente investigación es evaluar el comportamiento per se de 144 líneas elite de grano blanco en seis diferentes ambientes de Centro América.Los objetivos específicos son determinar la estabilidad y potencial de rendimiento, tolerancia a enfermedades foliares, pudrición de mazorca, días a floración y otras características agronómicas de interés para seleccionar las líneas superiores, para que pasen a formar parte de híbridos ya existentes, o para generar nuevos híbridos.El material genético estuvo constituído por 144 líneas que el Programa de Maíz del ICTA ha venido desarrollando a través del PRM, y líneas provenientes de CIMMYT. Las 144 líneas se agruparon en 11 grupos de acuerdo a la procedencia de las líneas, dichos grupos se describen a continuación: 1) 20 líneas de la población SR-8073. 2) 11 líneas de H-233.3) 11 líneas de La Posta Sequía. 4) 15 líneas de la Pob 73 (PRM) 5) 1 línea de Pob 2lC5HC205. 6) 8 líneas del Pool 23TSR-15 7) 6 líneas de 29-244 x 28 8) 6 líneas del Pool 23 y Pool 24 x HFD (Cogollero) 9) 18 líneas de Pool Diplodia C. 10) 32 líneas élite de CIMMYT (CML). 11) 5 líneas testigos.La evaluación se realizó en el período de lluvias (ciclo B) de 1992. Se establecieron 6 ensayos: San Jerónimo, Cuyuta y La Máquina (Guatemala); San Andrés (El Salvador), San Cristóbal (Nicaragua) y Fabio Beaudrit (Costa Rica).Todas estas son estaciones experimentales normalmente usadas por los programas nacionales de maíz. Se usó un disefio experimental de látice simple 12x12 (144 entradas) con 2 repeticiones por localidad. La unidad experimental estuvo constituída por 1 surco de 5 m de largo, tratando de obtener una densidad de población teórica de 53,333 pl/ha. Se registró el peso de campo de las mazorcas, el porcentaje de humedad del grano, los días a floración masculina y femenina, la altura de planta y de mazorca, el acame de raíz y tallo, el pocentaje de mazorcas descubiertas y podridas, calificación de enfermedades foliares, y componentes de rendimiento estándar. El rendimiento se ajustó al 15% de humedad.Se procedió a hacer el análisis bajo un disefio de bloques completos al azar, realizando un análisis de covarianza, donde se tomó como variable el rendimiento y como covariable el número de plantas cosechadas. Los análisis de varianza se realizaron por localidad y a través de localidades, finalmente, para medir la interacción genotipo ambiente se utilizó el modelo AMMI (Crossa el al, 1988).Para las localidades de San Jerónimo, Cuyuta y La Máquina, el número de plantas cosechadas influyó significativamente sobre el rendimiento de grano, por lo tanto, el rendimiento fue ajustado de acuerdo al análisis de covarianza, pero este análisis no se realizó para la localidad F. Baudrit. Para este escrito no se tomaron en cuenta los resultados de El Salvador y Nicaragua, ya que los ensayos fueron afectados por el ambiente y los datos mostraron demasiada variación y pérdida de plantas.Pob21 C5H205, grupo testigo, Pool Diplodia C, Pobo 73 (PRM), líneas élite del CIMMYT (CML) y Santa Rosa 8073, con rendimientos de grano limpio que oscilaron de 1.30 a 1.50 t/ha. De estos seis grupos y el grupo H-233 se seleccionaron 42 líneas superiores a las cuales se le determinará posteriormente su aptitud combinatoria general (ACO). De todos los grupos, el peor fueron las líneas de La Posta Sequía (0.70 t/ha).En el análisis AMMI, el primer eje de interacción (PCA 1) captó el 69% de la suma de cuadrados de la interacción localidades x líneas, también se obtuvieron las puntuaciones AMMI para las 144 líneas evaluadas, seleccioI)ando aquellas con valores cercanos a cero, ya que éstas se consideran de baja interacción con el ambiente (Figura 1). En el Cuadro 1 se conjunta el rendimiento, características agronómicas y puntuaciones AMMI de las 12 mejores líneas, también se incluyen las medias de las 42 líneas seleccionadas y de la población (144 líneas).Además, se identificaron 10 líneas procedentes del CIMMYT (Cuadro 2) las cuales su valorización es completa, ya que tienen buen comportamiento per se, valores AMMI cercanos a cero y con buena ACO esta última característica es información del CIMMYT (Vasal el al., 1992).En el cuadro 3 de describen las genealogías de las 42 líneas seleccionadas de acuerdo al rendimiento, características agronómicas y con poca interacción con los ambientes. Figura 1. Medias de rendimiento y valores del primer eje de interacción (peAl) de 42 líneas de maíz de grano blanco, 1992.  .. . Según el análisis de varianza en las cuatro localidades y a través de ellas existió alta significancia para las fuentes de variación líneas y líneas x ambientes, lo que indica que, por lo menos, una de las 144 líneas fue diferente a las demás y que éstas fueron influencias de manera diferente por el efecto ambiental. Los rendimientos promedios para San Jerónimo, Cuyuta, F. Baudrit y La Máquina fueron de 2.46, 1.78, 1.31 Y 0.37 t/ha, respectivamente. Se observó también pudriciones de mazorca de 20, 22, 4 Y 21 %, respectivamente. En cuanto al porcentaje de plantas afectadas con virus fue la localidad de La Máquina que presentó daño significativo con una media de 36%.Los seis grupos que ocupan los primeros lugares en cada localidad y a través de localidades fueron: Cuadro 1. Medias de rendimiento y características agronómicas de interés de la fracción supeior de 144 líneas de grano blanco evaluadas en cuatro localidades de Centro América, 1992 El rendlmlentoes promedIo de las cuatro locahdades.•• Información del CIMMYT.Cuadro 3. Genealogia de las 42 lineas de grano blanco seleccionadas según la evaluación a través de cuatro ambientes de Centro América 1992.Ent Genealogia Evaluación de Líneas de Maíz de Grano Amarillo en Seis Ambientes de Centro América, 1992C. Pérez, L. Larios, J.L. Quemé, M. Fuentes y S. Castellanos lComo parte de los esquemas de desarrollo de hibridos dentro del Programa Regional de Maiz, constantemente se evalúan lineas endogámicas para determinar su adaptación en diversos ambientes de Centro América. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el comportamiento agronómico de 81 lineas de grano amarillo de maiz con diferentes nivel de endogamia y origen a través de 6 ambientes de Centro América bajo distintos estreses ambientales y condiciones. Las lineas provenian de los programas nacionales de maiz de la región, los proyectos colaborativos y del programa de hibridos de CIMMYT. Se identificaron 6 lineas promisorias procedentes en su mayoria de las Poblaciones 24, 26 Y 36 de CIMMYT, y otras de Cuba y Guatemala. La selección se basó en rendimiento, pudrición y cobertura de mazorca, acame, altura de planta y mazorca, asi como los dias a floración considerando la posibilidad de formación de cruzas. Estas lineas superiores se evaluaran en combinación con distintos probadores y en dialelos para evaluar su aptitud combinatoria y uso potencial en los programas de hibridación de grano amarillo de la región.En la formación de híbridos de maíz los progenitores sonde vital importancia, tanto por su comportamiento per se en diferentes ambientes así como por su aptitud combinatoria, 10 que nos permite conocer e identificar progenitores con características deseables lo cual es imperante para tener la certeza de formar híbridos y producir semilla. El Programa de Maíz de ICTA, como líder dentro del proyecto de híbridos del Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM), tiene la responsabilidad de evaluar el comportamiento en diferentes ambientes de Centro América de líneas endogámicas de posible uso por el PRM.El objetivo del presente estudio es determinar el potencial de rendimiento y características agronómicas per se de 81 líneas de grano amarillo de diverso nivel de endogamia y origen bajo un rango de ambientes de la región de Centro América. Todos los ensayos se establecieron en la época de lluvia. El material genético está constituido por 81 líneas amarillas de diferente origen y en diferente grado de endogamia, desarrolladas a través del Proyecto Regional de Híbridos del PRM y/o CIMMYT. Todas las evaluaciones se realizaron en la época de lluvias en las estaciones experimentales de Cuyuta y La Máquina en Guatemala (2), Panamá (1), República Dominicana (1), Cuba (1), Costa Rica (1) y Haití (1). Se utilizó un diseño de látice simple 9 x 9 (81 tratamientos) con 2 repeticiones en parcelas de 1 surco de 5 m de largo a distancias que permitieran una densidad de población de 53,333 pl/ha según la distancia entre surcos de cada localidad. Se sembró una planta por golpe. Los ensayos recibieron fertilización adecuada según las recomendaciones de cada localidad, la semilla recibiendo tratamiento contra las plagas del suelo para mantener la densidad teórica del ensayo. En cada parcela se registró los días a floración, altura de planta y mazorca, acame de raíz y tallo, y los componentes de rendimiento estándares, como peso de campo de las mazorcas, humedad del grano, y el porcentaje de mazorca descubiertas, pudrición de mazorca y prolificidad.A pesar de usar un diseño de látice simple de 9x9, el análisis de varianza se realizó bajo un diseño de bloques completos al azar debido a que algunas entradas no germinaron. Se hizo análisis de varianza por localidad individualmente y combinado para la variable rendimiento y se tabularon las medias de las características agronómicas, para hacer seleccionar las mejores líneas.Se usó el índice de selección desarrollado por Barreto et al. (1990) para la selección de las líneas superiores.En los análisis de varianza por localidad las líneas fueron altamente significativas, también a nivel de análisis combinado respecto a la variable rendimiento de grano. El Cuadro 1 presenta la genealogía de las líneas superiores identificadas para distintas características agronómicas y rendimiento. Medias de rendimiento y características agronómicas de las líneas superiores de maíz de grano amarillo evaluados en los diferentes ambientes.Los rendimientos variaron en cada ambiente, siendo la localidad de Cuyuta (Cuadro 2) donde las líneas expresaron los mayores rendimientos que van de 2.96 a 3.87 t/ha. La Máquina y Panamá presentaron rendimientos promedios similares con un rango de 1.66 a 1.95 t/ha.El Cuadro 2 también presenta el rendimiento promedio y características agronómicas tomando las localidades de Cuyuta, La Máquina y Panamá a nivel combinado.Las mejores líneas fueron las entradas 77,6,68, 7,61 Y 74, Y su genealogía se encuentra descrita en el Cuadro 1, con rendimientos de 2.01 a 2.30 t/ha. Además del rendimiento de grano se presentan las características agronómicas de las mejores líneas, las cuales se expresan en el siguiente rango: para porcentaje de mazorca descubierta va de 1 a 18%, para porcentaje de mazorcas podridas de 4 a 28% así como la expresión de prolificidad fue de 67 a 117%. La sequia es un factor que limita la producción de maiz en el aréa de Centro América. El Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) está mejorando germoplasma de maiz para mejor adaptación bajo condiciones de sequia. Durante el allode 1992, 225 lineas S, de la población Tuxpello Sequia C6 x 8S-19 fueron evaluadas bajo 4 niveles de estrés de sequia en El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras. En El Salvador y Honduras las siembras fueron bajo condiciones de temporal en primera, pero en Guatemala las siembras fueron en noviembre bajo riego controlado bajo dos niveles de estrés, riego normal y sequia severa. Esta evaluación se completa el tercer ciclo de selección de lá población por el sistema de selección recurrente. Se utilizó un disello látice simple de 15xl5 con dos repeticiones por localidad. En las cuatro localidades hubo alta diferencia significativa (P>0.01) con relación al análisis de varianza para rendimiento, dias a floración masculina y femenina, altura de planta y mazorca.En Choluteca el diferencial de selección para rendimiento expreso mayor diferencia con 0.36 t/ha entre la fracción seleccionada y la media de la población, luego en segundo lugar resultó la localidad de Zacapa con 0.26 t/ha para la fracción seleccionada bajo las condiciones de estrés. En condiciones óptimas de riego, en la localidad de Zacapa y condiciones de temporal en San Andrés, fue minima la diferencia entre la fracción seleccionada y la media de la población (0.10 y 0.15 t/ha). Se seleccionaron 40 lineas, de acuerdo a un indiee de selección en base a los cuatro niveles de estrés para continuar con el programa de mejoramiento. Asi mismo seleccconaron las mejores 8 lineas para formar el tercer sintético del proyecto. Los resultados indican que se ha logrado un avance significativo en el mejoramiento para tolerancia a sequia en la población.En el istmo Centroamericano la mayor parte de aréa destinada a la producción de maíz esta en .condiciones adversas ya sea de suelo o de clima. Los rendimientos promedios en esas zonas marginales son bajos de 0.3 a 0.7 t/ha. El desarrollo de tecnologías como la labranza de conservación en esas áreas ha beneficiado, ya que se mantiene un mantillo superficial sobre el suelo aumentando la disponibilidad hídrica. Sín embargo el manejo agronómico únicamente es una parte de la alternativa para elevar la producción, ya que la parte complementaria es el material genético, que se 'Coordinador dq1 Programa de Maíz, S.R.N. Honduras, 2Técnico del Programa de Maiz, ICTA, Guatemala, 'Coordinador Programa de Maiz, CENTA, El Salvador, 'Técnico del Programa de Maíz, S.R.N., Honduras, 'Agrónomo Regional del CIMMYT, Guatemala.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p.63-66. 63 adapta a esas condiciones adversas. Las relaciones planta-agua de cualquier cultivo agrícola son bastante complicadas, involucran aspectos de fisilogía vegetal, física de suelos, pero sin duda, dos son los factores más importantes para un crecimiento vegetal adecuado (Teare and Peat, 1983).El PRM viene mejorando maíz para tolerancia a sequía desde hace varios años. El proyecto de sequía del PRM está ejecutando una serie de trabajos para que el pequeño agricultor de esas zonas marginadas disponga de un cultivar superior en cuanto a rendimiento bajo condiciones desfavorables en comparación con el que ha usado por muchas generaciones. Los logros del proyecto son evidentes en reportes de Brizuela el al. (1987), quienes evaluaron una serie de sintéticos los cuales superaron al testigo del agricultor en 37 y 13%, respectivamente en 17 localidades de Centro América. Zea el al. (1989) reportaron que en las evaluaciones de las líneas del proyecto se idenficaron genotipos que únicamente perdian un 36% de rendimiento en condiciones de estrés al compararlos bajos condiciones óptimas. Brizuela el al. (1992) reportaron que la variedad sintético regional del último ciclo de selección superó al testigo en un 37% en seis localidades de Centro América.Los objetivos de este estudio son seleccionar un 20% de las líneas de la Población Tuxpeño Selección Sequía X BS-19 para completar el tercer ciclo de selección y seleccionar el 2-3% de las líneas superiores en base a las tres localidades de Centro América y así poder formar un sintético experimental.El presente trabajo se realizó en tres localidades de Centro América, San Andrés (El Salvador), Zacapa (Guatemala) y Choluteca (Honduras), se evaluaron 225 líneas SI de la población Tuxpefio Selección Sequía C6 x BS-19 en un diseño de látice simple 15x15 con dos repeticiones por localidad. La parcela experimental consistió de un surco de 5 m de largo con una parcela útil de 4.95 m 2 , bajo una densidad de población de 53,000 pllha. En San Andrés y Choluteca la evaluación se realizó bajo condiciones de temporal con siembras de primera, sin embargo, en la localidad de Zacapa se evaluaron bajo condiciones óptimas de riego y bajo estrés con siembras fuera de época.La siembra se realizó en una forma manual depositando 1 y 2 semilla alterna cada 0.25 m para luego a los 12 a 15 días se raleó dejando únicamente 22 plantas en cada surco; el control de malezas se hizo químicamente utilizando Gezaprin 80 + Prowl 500; en ciertas localidades se hizo uso de Volaton al 1% para el control de cogollero Spodoptera jrungiperda. Al momento de floración se realizó una evaluación en las líneas, para identificar los mejores materiales en cuanto a la floración masculina y femenina. Al momento de la cosecha se hizo el conteo de plantas, mazorcas y el peso de campo en kg/parcela útil.Se registraron días a flor masculina y femenina, altura de planta y mazorca (cm), acame de raíz y tallo (%), índice de sequía (1 -5), mazorcas podridas, rendimiento t/ha. En cada variable registrada se realizó análisis de varianza por localidad, no se realizó ninguna transformación de la variable en donde se utilizó porcentajes. El análisis combinado se hizo a través de los cuatro ambientes de estrés y se ejecutó el indice de selección (Barreto et al., 1990) para poder seleccionar las mejores 40 líneas, para continuar con el mejoramiento de la población y seleccionar las mejores 8 líneas para formar el tercer sintético del proyecto de sequía.Las líneas evaluadas bajo condiciones de estrés en Zacapa (Figura 1), la media de rendimiento de las líneas que formaran la variedad experimental superó a la media de la población en un 217%, estos resultados del proyecto coinciden con los de Bolaños y Edmeades, (1988) en donde se concluyó que la sequía que ocurre en el período de floración del maíz es la más determinante para el rendimiento de grano.En los resultados de esta evaluación 32% de la líneas no llegaron a la floración femenina, de estos un 25% no lograron producir ningún tipo de flor. Este factor es uno de los más importantes para seleccionar genotipos con tolerancia a sequía. oCuadro 2. Ganancia en la población de sequía para diferentes características agronómicas a través del índice de selección.En el Cuadro 2 se describe el índice de selección donde el diferencial de selección se considera como la ganancia durante el ciclo. La mayor ganancia se obtuvo en la localidad de Choluteca con 347 kg/ha, además se hizo ganancia en reducción de porcentaje de acame y pudricción de mazorca. Las líneas seleccionadas para la formación del sintético experimental (Cuadro 3) se representa el rendimiento de las líneas, en condiciones de riego óptimo y bajo estrés, puede observarse que las líneas poseen alto potencial de rendimiento con un rango de 3.0 t/ha; además en las tres localidades se detectaron un alto porcentaje de líneas que toleran la sequía. CONCLUSIONES l. De acuerdo a los diferenciales de selección en cuanto a rendimiento y otras características se determinó que la población aún mantiene alta variabilidad genética para continuar mejorándola.2. Se logró seleccionar el 20% de las mejores líneas para recombinar la fracción superior y así poder continuar con el programa de mejoramiento de la población sequía Tuxpeño Sequía C6 x BS-19.3. Se logró seleccionar las 10 mejores líneas para formar el tercer sintético experimental del proyecto de sequía 4. Para 1993, se hará la recombinación de la fracción superior de (40 líneas) y la formación del sintético experimental el cual antes de evaluarlo a nivel de finca se pasará de F. a F 2 para su estabilidad en rendimiento. Cuadro 3. Características agronómicas de la variedad experimental de las mejores 10 líneas de la evaluación del proyecto de sequía bajo condiciones de estrés.Rend A través de seis ambientes de Centro América, con presión de la enfermedad y en ausencia de ésta, se evaluaron ocho cultivares de maíz con el propósito de determinar su reacción al achaparramiento y la estabilidad del rendinúento bajo presión de la enfennedad. Se incluyeron 3 sintéticos experimentales de los últimos ciclos de selección de la población 73 y 76 para tolerancia al achaparranúento, los cultivares tolerantes NB-6, NB-12 Y H-53, Y dos lúbridos susceptibles como testigos (Dekalb B-833 y HN-879). Los cultivares tolerantes fonnaron dos grupos homogéneos diferentes estadisticamente a los cultivares susceptibles B-833 y HN-879, destacándose por su rendimiento y salúdad el Sint. C3P73Nic. El cultivar NB-6 liberado comerciabnente en Nicaragua hace 8 míos se ubica en el iJltimo lugar en el grupo homogéneo de cultivares tolerantes, siendo superado por los sintéticos Ile los últimos ciclos de mejoranúellto en 15.5% y 11.7% en rellllimiento de grano y con 17.1% y 20.5% menos plantas y mazorcas afectadas. Este comportanúento indica claramente el avance logrado en los itltimos ailOs a través del lnejoranúento genético.En ambientes sin presión de la enfennedall, los cIJltivares tolerautes se comportaron sinúIar estadisticamente a los lúbridos B-833 y HN-879; lo cual indica que el progreso logrado ha sido sin sacrificar el potencial de rendinúento, puesto que son capaces de producir rendinúentos aceptables en ambIentes con y sin presión de la enfennedad. El comportanúento más destacado de los cIJltivares de los últimos ciclos de mejoranúento para resistencia al achaparranúellto lo obtuvieron en los ambientes desfavorables (bi<I).El achaparramiento del maíz se ha establecido en algunos países como una enfermedad endofítica. En el Pacífico de Nicaragua, el achaparramiento alcanzó niveles críticos en 1986-1987, cuando afectó a 28 mil ha de maíz, con pérdidas estimadas de 30 mil ton de grano de maíz con un valor de U$ 3-4 millones de dólares (DGB-MIDINRA, 1986). En el ciclo 1992-1993, en la región de Azuero en Pananlá, se detectó un fuerte ataque de achaparramiento en toda la región, reportado en este volumen por Gordón el al. (1993). Condiciones de siembra tardía, precipitación escasa, baja humedad relativa y altas temperaturas son favorables para el desarrollo del vector de la enfermedad, Dalbulus maidis.1IDirector Programa de Maíz CNIGB'3 Nicaragua; 2Investigador Programa de Maíz CNIGB, Nicaragua; Coordinador Programa de Maíz CENTA, El Salvador; 4Subdirector del IDIAP, Panamá. DELPRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 67-72. 67 Para enfrentar este problema y con el propósito de asegurar una producción sostenida de maíz en las regiones donde el achaparramiento constituye una amenaza potencial, el Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y el Caribe (PRM) está realizando actividades de m~joramiento genético tendientes a desarrollar cultivares con tolerancia al achaparramiento desde hace varios años. La población 73 y 76 están siendo m~joradas en esquemas de selección recurrente para tolerancia al achaparramiento (Urbina el al., 1989;Aguiluz y Urbina, 1992). La Pob.73 ha dado origen a las variedades existentes en la región con mejor tolerancia al achaparramiento. En Nicaragua, la variedad NB-6 se liberó en 1985 derivada de Santa Rosa 8073 (de León el al., 1984). Evaluaciones mostraron que Santa Rosa 8073 (NB-6) fue el cultivar más rendidor (6.0 t/ha) con parámetros de estabilidad bi==1.2 (ns) y S 2 di==0, superando a los testigos Poza Rica 7822 (NB-4) Y al X-107A en 22 y 31%, respectivamente (Urbina, 1982)  , 1992).Los objetivos del presente estudio son evaluar la sanidad y el rendimiento de grano de cultivares de maíz desarrollados en los últimos ciclos de mejoramiento genético para resistencia al achaparranliento y determinar la estabilidad del rendimiento y reacción al achaparramiento de los cultivares, a través de ambientes con diferentes niveles de incidencia de la enfermedad.Los ensayos se sembraron en estaciones experimentales de las instituciones participantes, 2 en primera (ciclo A) (San Cristóbal, Santa Rosa, en Nicaragua) y 4 en postrera (ciclo B), (San Cristóbal, Santa Rosa, en Nicaragua; Río Hato, en Panamá; y Santa Cruz .Porrillo, en El Salvador). Se evaluaron sintéticos tolerantes al achaparramiento provenientes de los últimos ciclos de selección de las poblaciones 73 y 76 contra conocidos testigos tolerantes y succeptibles para 8 entradas: SC3P73N, SC2P76N, SC3P73R, NB-6, NB-12, H-53, HN-879 Y Dekalb B-833. Se usó un diseño de bloques completos al azar con 4 repeticiones en parcelas de 4 surcos de 5 m de largo a 0.76 m entre sí con 2 plantas por golpe cada 0.5 m. Sólo se usaron para las mediciones los dos surcos centrales. Los experimentos se fertilizaron a razón de 104-39-13, y se aplicó 25 kg/ha de carbofuran 5% en el fondo del surco al momento de la siembra para prevenir el daño de las plagas del suelo. Las malezas se controlaron mecánicamente y el control de las plagas del follaje se inició a los 35 días después de la emergencia. Esta labor se realizó en esa época con el propósito de que durante los primeros 30 días, las plantas estuviésen expuestas a la mayor cantidad de Dalbulus maidis para lograr una segura inoculación.La evaluación de la sintomatología de la enfermedad en el follaje se realizó a los 75 días después de la siembra (o sea 15 días después de haber concluido la floración del cultivar más tardío); mediante un conteo de las plantas con síntomas de la enfermedad en cada una de las parcelas. Se usó una escala de calificación de 1 a 5, donde 1=resistente y 68 5=susceptible, 1 indicando que todas las plantas de la parcela están completamente sanas y 5 todas las plantas enfermas. Al momento de la cosecha se contabilizó en cada parcela el número de mazorcas afectadas por el achaparramiento. Se registraron las caracteristicas agronómicas, número de plantas y mazorcas afectadas por el achaparramiemo y rendimiento de grano.Con la variable rendimiento de grano se efectuaron análisis de varianza individuales para cada localidad, análisis de estabilidad mediante el modelo de Eberhart y Russell (1966), desglose de la variabilidad a través de la prueba de Tukey al 5% de probabilidad. El índice de resistencia al achaparramiento (IRA) se calculó como 1 menos la pérdida de rendimiento por achaparramiento en referencia al rendimiento de un tratamiento control de la siguiente manera:Rendimiento en ambiente favorable Y2Rendimiento en ambiente desfavorableEl Cuadro 1 muestra las fuentes de variación para rendimiento en el análisis combinado a través de las localidades. Todas las fuentes de variación del análisis combinado resultaron significativas. La interacción genotipo x ambiente fue significativa, indicando un comportamiento relativo diferente a través de los ambientes evaluados. Las medias de rendimiento por cada localidad se presentan en el Cuadro 2, junto con los parámetros estadísticos del análisis combinado y los parámetros de estabilidad. Los 2 ambientes de ciclo de postrera de Nicaragua (SCrist y SRosa 91B) presentaron los Cuadro 2. Medias de rendimiento e índices ambientales de cultivares de maíz evaluados en ambíentes de Nicaragua, Panamá y El Salvador, 1991 A. Los mismos resultados se presentan más claramente en la Figura l y 2. Estas muestran las gráficas de estabilidad de los cultivares a través de todos los ambientes evaluados. El potencial de rendimiento de cada ambiente varió de 2.0 a 5.0 tJha principalmente por variación en la incidencia de la enfermedad. Los sintéticos local y regional del C3 de la Pob.73, el sintético del C2 la Pob.76, y la variedad NB-12 superaron en más de 2.0 tJha al rendimiento de los materiales susceptibles en ambientes con estrés de achaparramiento (Figura 1).Sin embargo, en ambientes sin presión de la 69 enfermedad, los sintéticos experimentales rindieron casi igual que los híbridos susceptibles de alto potencial de rendimiento. Los cultivares NB-6 y H-53 mostraron un comportamiento medio entre los resistentes y susceptibles. La interacción significativa entre genotipo x ambiente que se detecta en el Cuadro 2 se debe a la respuesta diferencial de los cultivares, pero sin detectar ningún cruzamiento significativo.Al desglosar la variabilidad del rendimiento promedio de los cultivares a través de los seis ambientes, se logro establecer tres grupos homogéneos. En el primer grupo están los últimos sintéticos SC3P73R, SC3P73N, SC2P76N y NB-12; en el segundo grupo NB-6 y H-53; Y los híbridos susceptibles, B-833 y HN-879, los cuales están en el tercer grupo. En relación al testigo tolerante NB-6, los cultivares SC3P73N, SC2P76N y SC3P73R lo superaron en rendimiento de grano en 15% y 11%, a su vez presentaron de 11.7 a 15.5% menos plantas afectadas y 17.1 a 20.5% menos mazorcas afectadas. Obviamente la superioridad de los sintéticos respecto al testigo B-833 fue mayor. El mejor sintético (SC3P73N) superó en rendimiento de grano el B-833 en 41%, además tuvo 40.3 y 51.1% menos plantas y mazorcas enfermas en ambientes con presión de la enfermedad.SIN1ESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DELPRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993) Rendimiento (t/ha) híbridos Dekalb B-833 (bi= 1.779 **, S 2 di= 0.788 **) Y HN-879 (bi= 1.749 **, S2di= 0.814 **) por sus coeficientes y desviaciones de regresión mayores que 1 se clasificaron como genotipos inconsistentes y que responden mejor en buenos ambientes. Estos materiales mostraron mucha susceptibilidad al achaparramiento.Estos datos muestran que se han obtenido ganancias en rendimiento y tolerancia al achaparramiento en las Pobo 73 y 76 bajo mejoramiento por el PRM para resistencia al achaparramiento. Los datos muestran que se ha obtenido ganancia en rendimiento bajo presión de achaparramiento sin sacrificar mucho el potencial de rendimiento de los cultivares. El esquema de selección utilizado ha posibilitado mantener ganancias significativas en rendimiento bajo estrés pero sin reducción del potencial de rendimiento (Figura 1).Se detecta una ganancia en rendimiento superior a 1.0 tIha en ambientes con mucha presión de la enfermedad de los últimos sintéticos experimentales del esquema de mejoramiento para tolerancia a achaparramiento en comparación con el NB-6 y H-53, materiales que sirven como indicadores del punto de partida de la selección. Esto significa que se ha venido obteniendo ganancias en rendimiento cercanas a 0.3 tIha por cada ciclo de selección en ambientes con potencial de rendimiento bajos por la presión de la enfermedad. Aguiluz y Urbina (1992) reportan una reducción de 75 g de rendimiento por cada planta afectada por hectárea. Usando esta proporción, se puede estimar una tasa de 4,000 pllha por ciclo en sanidad con la selección. El comportamiento de los ht'bridos en el presente estudio es similar a otros reportes (Urbina, 1982;Aguiluz el al., 1990;Córdova el al., 1990). Claramente se nota que los sintéticos seleccionados bajo presión de enfermedad poseen mayor tolerancia y respondieron mejor en ambientes pobres; en cambio los híbridos sin selección previa a la enfei-medad se adaptaron muy bien a los ambientes óptimos donde no se presentó ningún tipo de estrés. a::: Figura 2. Estabilidad de cultivares de maíz tolerantes al achaparramiento a través de diversas localidades en Centro América, 1991. Figura 1. Lineas de regresión de ocho cultivares de maiz evaluados a través de 6 localidades con alta y baja presión de achaparramiento en Centro América, 1991.  El Cuadro 5 presenta el índice de resistencia al achaparramiento (IRA) de los distintos cultivares evaluados, fundamentalmente expresando la proporción del rendimiento. bajo estrés en comparación con ambientes óptimos. El SC3P73R fue el cultivar que presentó el menor porcentaje de reducción del rendimiento (23.8%) comparando los rendimientos obtenidos en el Ciclo B bajo estrés con los del Ciclo A sin estrés.La Figura 3 muestra los cultivares según su relación entre el índice de achaparramiento y la escala promedio de calificación contra la enfermedad (1 a 5) y su clasificación como susceptibles, resistentes y tolerantes (Carballo y Márquez, 1970). En las regiones donde el achaparramiento se presenta como una enfermedad endofitica, se puede sembrar el SC3P73R y NB-12 ya que mantienen rendimientos altos bajo presión. Debido a los altos niveles de virulencia adquirido por el achaparramiento en los últimos afios en Nicaragua; el testigo comercial NB-6 presentó una tolerancia media y el H-53 tolerancia baja con tendencia a la susceptibilidad.Los sintéticos desarrollados con presiones altas de la enfermedad fueron los cultivares más resistentes; destacándose el SC3P73R y NB-12 cuyos comportamientos son comparables. 2. Los cultivares desarrollados en los últimos ciclos de mejoramiento para resistencia al achaparramiento presentaron mejor respuesta en los ambientes Marvín Obando y Róger Urbina lLa enfcrmcdad dcl achaparramicnto dcl maiz pucde alcanzar niveles criticos de incidencia sobre la producción cuando se prcsentan factores favorables a la enfermedad como escasez de lluvia, altas temperaturas, baja humedad rclativa y fechas de sicmbra fuera de época. El Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) para Centro América y El Caribe viene efcctuando mejoramiento gcnétieo para tolerancia al achaparramicnto en maiz cn las poblaciones 73 y 76 dcsde varios allos atrAs. El objetivo de cste trabajo fue evaluar la reacción de 225 familias de hermanos completos de la población 76 (TLWF) dcl segundo cielo de selección recurrcnte bajo ambientes contrastantes de incidencia de la enfcrmedad. Las siembras se efcctuaron en los meses de julio y scptiembre en el Campo Expcrimental de Sta. Rosa, Managua. Se utilizó un discilo cxperimental de látice 15 x 15 con 2 repeticiones. La media de rendimicnto de la fracción seleccionada (50 familias) superaron a la media de la población y de los testigos NB-12 y B-S33 cn 105 dos ambicntes de prueba. En relación a los porcentajes de plantas enfcrmas. en la población fueron de 4S.3 y 40.9% Yen las fracciones seleccionadas de 34.S y 40.9% respectivamente, e inferiores a los testigos NB-12 (tolerante) y 8-S33 (susceptible). Se encontró una correlación negativa altamente significativa entre porecntajes de plantas y mazorcas afectadas por la enfermcdad y el rendimiento de grano (-0.20S••, -0.303••). Los ambientes de scleeeión permitieron identificar familias superiores en rendimiento y reacción al achaparramiento. Existen ganancias en rendimiento de grano y disminución de la sintomatologia de la enfermedad cn plantas y mazorcas producto de la agrupación de alclos favnrables condieionadores dc la resistencia.La enfermedad conocida como el achaparramiento puede reducir fuertemente los rendimientos de maíz en la región de Centro América y el Caribe. La enfermedad puede alcanzar niveles críticos de incidencia sobre la producción principalmente en aquellas regiones y áreas donde las condiciones climáticas son favorables para el desarrollo del vector (Dalbulus maidis) de la enfermedad; tales como la escasez de lluvia, altas temperaturas, baja humedad relativa y siembras fuera de época (Urbina el al., 1989;Aguiluz el al., 1990).En 1986 se cuantificaron los efectos de la enfermedad en el Pacífico de Nicaragua (Anónimo, 1986). De las 40 mil ha de maíz sembradas se perdieron por achaparramiento cerca de 27 mil ha, lo que ocasionó una pérdida de 24.000 ton de grano (Anónimo, 1986).En estos países lo mejor es sembrar cultivares con altos niveles de resistencia a la enfermedad. El germoplasma con éstas características se está obteniendo a través del Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) y sus esquemas colaborativos de mejoramiento genético (Urbina el al., 1989;Aguiluz el al., 1990). En Nicaragua, el programa nacional de maíz ha liberado las variedades comerciales NB-6 y NB-12, derivadas de las poblaciones 73 y 76, respectivamente, con altos niveles de tolerancia al achaparramiento.Los objetivos de este estudio son evaluar la reacción al achaparramiento y el rendimiento de grano de 225 familias de hermanos completos del segundo ciclo de selección en la población 76 en en ambientes normales y de alta incidencia de la enfermedad.El germoplasma estuvo constituido por 225 familias de hermanos completos provenientes del Ciclo 2 de la población 76 (TLWF), más los testigos NB-12 y B-833. Se utilizó un diseño experimental de látice 15 x 15 con 2 repeticiones. La parcela fue de un surco de 5 m de largo con distancia entre plantas y surcos de 0.5 y 0.76 m, con 2 plantas por postura. Las siembras se real izaron en ju Iio (postrerón) y septiembre (postrera) de 1991 en el campo experimental de Sta. Rosa, Managua. En los experimentos se recolectaron datos de las principales características agronómicas; los cuales se tabularon para presentar los valores promedios correspondientes a cada entrada.En cada siembra la fertilización. el control de plagas y malezas se hizo de acuerdo a las recomendaciones que se utilizan en el cultivo del maíz.Cuadro l. Estadísticos de 225 familias de hermanos completos de la Pob.76, Ciclo 2; para cada carácter usado en la selección para resistencia al achaparramiento. Sta. Rosa, Nicaragua 1991 A.Los Cuadros 1 y 2 presentan los principales estadísticos (medias, desviación estándar, coeficiente de variación, análisis de varianza) de la población, fracción seleccionada (50 familias) y testigos; para seis características agronómicas, en las dos épocas de evaluación Gulio, septiembre).Las medias de rendimiento de las fracciones seleccionadas superaron a las medias de la población, asímismo a los testigos NB-12 y B-833 en los dos ambientes de prueba.Con la variable rendimiento de grano al 15% de humedad se hizo un análisis de varianza de cada ensayo y en conjunto; el desglose de la variabilidad se hizo mediante la prueba de Duncan al 0.05. También se realizaron análisis con el programa SELINDEX (Barreto et al., 1990) para seleccionar las mejores familias, en base a las características de importancia agronómica. Así mismo se hicieron correlaciones simples entre las características agronómicas y rendimiento de grano.Rend.Ahcaparramiento kg/ha %Ptas Af. %Mza Af.El Cuadro 3, presenta las correlaciones simples, de la siembra de julio. Se detectó una correlación negativa altamente significativa entre porcentajes de plantas y mazorca afectadas por la enfermedad y el rendimiento de grano (-0.208**, -0.303**); esta correlación indica que el rendimiento disminuye cuando hay mayor cantidad de plantas y mazorcas enfermas.Los porcentajes de plantas achaparradas en la población fueron de 48.3% y 53.6% Y en la fracción seleccionadas de 34.8% y 40.9%, si comparamos estos con los porcentajes de NB-12 (tolerante) 76.2% y 54.6% podemos afirmar que la población presenta niveles aceptables de tolerancia al achaparramiento al compararse con el testigo tolerante. También se observó alta incidencia de la enfermedad en el testigo B-833 (Susceptible) con 100% y 97% de afectación.Cuadro 2. Estadísticos de 225 familias de hermanos completos de la Pob.76, Ciclo 2; para cada carácter usado en la selección para resistencia al achaparramiento. Sta. En cuanto a la fracción seleccionada (50 familias de la evaluación de julio y 36 familias de la evaluación de septiembre, quedaron incluidas en la fracción seleccionada, obtenida a través del Indice de Selección.Dos indicadores del aspecto fenotípico (altura de planta y mazorca) se correlacionaron positivamente con el rendimiento (0.314\"'*, 0.288\"'*), por el contrario éstos caracteres se correlacionan negativamente con la sanidad de las plantas y mazorcas (-0.245**, -0200\"'*). .CONCLUSIONES 1. En la fracción seleccionada se observan ganancias considerables en rendimiento de grano y disminución de la sintomatología de la enfermedad en plantas y mazorcas, producto de la capitalización de alelos favorables condicionadores de la resistencia.Resistencia al Achaparramiento J. Ortiz, F. Navarro y R. Celado RESUMEN El Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) viene efectuando mejoramiento genético en la población 36 para resistencia al achaparramiento desde 1985. Este trabajo describe la formación de un nuevo ciclo de selección recurrente por progenies SI en la población 36 para resistencia achaparramiento. Cuarenta familias SI fueron seleccionadas sobre dos ambientes para reconstruir la población base del Sto ciclo de mejoramiento y diez para la formación de una nueva variedad sintética. El diferencial de selección presentado por la nueva selección fue -8.07% y 0.91 tonlha para achaparramiento y rendimiento respectivamente.La enfermedad conocida como achaparramiento del maíz puede producir bajas importantes en la productividad de este cultivo en la región de Centro América y El Caribe. Una estrategia es la generación de cultivares de maíz con alto nivel de productividad y resistencia a la enfermedad. Grogan y Rosenkranz (1968) reportaron que la herencia de la resistencia al achaparramiento no era dominante, sino que un carácter controlado por pocos genes aditivos no epistáticos y que un programa de selección recurrente debería ser adecuado para transferir la resistencia a materiales susceptibles. Scott y Rosenkranz (1974) probaron que este esquema de mejoramiento era útil para desarrollar poblaciones resistentes al achaparramiento. El Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y El Caribe (PRM) viene seleccionando maíz para tolerancia al achaprramiento desde fines de los 1970's. De este proceso se han formado las variedades experimentales Santa Rosa 8073 y 8576, que han culminado en la liberación en Nicaragua de variedades comerciales como NB-6 y NB-12, las cuales exhiben tolerancia al achaparramiento.Los trabajos de búsqueda de resistencia a achaparramiento han sido reactivados en la segunda parte de la década de los 1980's tanto en maíces blancos como amarillos. A través de varias evaluaciones de progenies bajo presión  al. (1988, 1989). Sin embargo a partir del ciclo 3 se decidió continuar solo con la Pobo 36 por el alto grado de susceptibilidad presentado por la Pobo 28. Como resultados de estos trabajos se ha liberado ya una variedad sintética, CESDA•88, la cual está siendo producida comercialmente en la República Dominicana y tres sintéticos experimentales, uno proveniente del segundo ciclo y dos provenientes del tercer ciclo están en la fase de multiplicación y prueba.En este ciclo se evaluaron progenies SI en San Cristóbal, República Dominicana y Damien, Haiti del ciclo 4 de mejoramiento de la Pobo 36. Los objetivos específicos de este trabajo son: a) seleccionar familias para formar una variedad con mayor adaptación para cada una de las localidades usadas en la evaluación, b) formar una variedad con adaptación a través de esas localidades, y c) mejorar la Pobo 36 de manera tal que sirva como fuente de germoplasma resistente al achaparramiento y como base de nuestro próximo ciclo de selección.Se evaluaron 320 líneas SI generadas del ciclo 4 de mejoramiento de la población 36 para achaparramiento.Este ciclo 4 fue formado recombinando las mejores 40 líneas SI de una evaluación de 280 líneas S, del ciclo 3 de la Pobo 36 en 1989. El diseflo experimental fue anidado de bloques en repeticiones, con 16 bloques de 20 entradas cada uno, dos repeticiones y tres localidades (dos en San Cristóbal, República Dominicana y una en Damién, Haití).La parcela útil fue de un surco de 5 m y 0.8 m entre surcos, con 2 plantas por golpe a 0.5 tn entre si, para una densidad teórica de 22 plantas por surco. Se evaluaron las variables días a la flor, altura de planta y mazorca, acame de raíz y tallo, % mala cobertura de mazorcas, % mazorcas podridas, aspecto de mazorca, % achaparramiento, incidencia de achaparramiento (1-5), rendimiento de grano e índice de resistencia al achaparramiento (IRA):Yl = Rendimiento en ambiente favorable. Y2 = Rendimiento en ambiente desfavorable.La presión de selección utilizada fue de 12.5% para la recombinación de la población original, a través de la selección de 40 familias SI y 3% para la formación de los sintéticos correspondientes a este ciclo.El Cuadro l presenta los estadísticos para las 320 líneas evaluadas. Solamente se presentan datos de 2 localidades, y en 1990 sólo se presentan datos de 300 entradas ya quese decidió eliminar un grupo de veinte entradas por problemas de suelo en ese bloque incompleto. El uso del diseño jerárquico de bloques en repeticiones permitió el cálculo de los análisis de varianza para ese caso sin mayores problemas.Comparando el Cuadro l se nota que la prueba de progenies llevada a cabo en 1990 tuvo mayor rendimiento medio, una mayor altura de planta y mazorca y menor achaparramiento con respecto a la prueba llevada a cabo en 1991.Estos estadísticos definen el ambiente de la prueba de 1990 como favorable y la del 1991 como desfavorable.Basado en la información de los ensayos sobre los dos años se realizó una selección de 40 líneas SI para la formación de la población original base del ciclo 5 de mejoramiento. Sus estadísticos y los diferenciales de selección obtenidos se presentan en el Cuadro l. La selección de estas 40 líneas SI fue mayormente basada en la reducción del % de achaparramiento y el aumento del rendimiento y un índice de resistencia a achaparramiento cercano a 1 o mayor que l. Para el porcentaje de achaparramiento el diferencial de selección obtenido fue de -8.07%, mientras que para rendimiento, el diferencial de selección fue de 0.91 t/ha (Cuadro 2).Igualmente se seleccionaron 10 líneas SI para ser recombinadas y formar una variedad sintética de este ciclo de mejoramiento.Las estadísticas de estas selecciones se encuentran en el Cuadro 2.El mayor énfasis para la selección de las 10 líneas para la formación de la variedad experimental fue hecho, también para reducir el % de achaparramiento y aumentar el rendimiento de la población. El diferencial de selección para achaparramiento fue 13.71%, con una media de infestación igual a 22.60%, mientras que para rendimiento el diferencial de selección fue 1.18 tm/ha, con un promedio de rendimiento de las 10 líneas igual a 5.04 tm/ha. Se espera que estas fracciones seleccionadas produzcan una población y variedad experimental sintética superiores a las del ciclo 4 de mejoramiento. 2. Cuarenta (40) líneas SI fueron seleccionadas sobre dos ambientes para la formación de la población base del 5 10 ciclo de mejoramiento y 10 líneas para la formación de una variedad experimental correspondiente al 4 10 ciclo de mejoramiento. Las familias seleccionadas presentan un diferencial de selección para achaparramiento y rendimiento (variables base de la selección) de -8.07% y 0.91 ton/ha respectivamente.3. Se destaca la facilidad en la selección de las familias a recombinar utilizando indices de selección con el programa SELINDEX facilitado por el Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y El Caribe (Barreto el al., 1991).Aguiluz, A el al J988. Avances en el segundo ciclo de mejoramiento para resistencia al achaparramiento en dos oblaciones de maíz (Zea mays L. José Ortiz y Félix Navarro lEl achaparramiento lIel maíz puede causar bajas importantes en la productividad del cultivo en la región de Centro América. El PRM vicne efectuando mejoramiento genético para tolerancia al achaparramiento en la Población 36 desde hace varios años. La varicdad CESDA-88, formada por cruzas de las poblaciones 24,26 Y28 por Francés Largo, ha mostrado buen potencial como fuente de resistencia. En este estudio se evaluaron 200 familias S 1 del ciclo 5 de selección dc la Pobo 36 y del CESDA-88 en dos localidades de República Dominicana bajo nivcles contrastantes de enfcrmedad. Se seleccionaron las mejores 10 familias para formar variedades sintéticas que se esperan que sean superiores a las poblaciones base.El achaparramiento del maíz es una de las principales limitantes de la productividad del maíz en la región de Centro América y el Caribe. Desde hace varios años el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) viene mejorando varias poblaciones de maíz para tolerancia al achapa,rramiento. En 1985, se comenzó un programa de mejoramiento bajo selección recurrente de líneas SI en las poblaciones 28 y 36 (Navarro el al., 1987). En este primer ciclo se evaluaron 400 y 350 líneas SI generadas de ocho variedades de la Pobo 28 y 7 variedades de la Pobo 36, respectivamente. También se incluyeron 50 líneas SI de la Pobo Compuesto 24, 26, 28 x Francés Largo (material criollo).Así se seleccionaron 40 líneas de cada población para formar las poblaciones bases del ciclo 2 y con las mejores 6 SI del Compuesto 24, 26, 28 x Francés Largo se formó el sintético STR-C 1.De esta última población se seleccionó posteriormente la variedad CESDA-88.En el segundo ciclo de selección se usó un diferencial de selección de 950 kg/ha para rendimiento y 20.4% para achaparramiento en la Pobo 28, y de 1094 kg/ha para rendimiento y 24.5% para achaparramiento en la Pobo 36 (Celado el al., 1989).El tercer ciclo de selección en la Pobo 36 se basó en un diferencial de selección de 141 kg/ha y 22% para 79 rendimiento y % achaparramiento respectivamente. Esto indicó que el fuerte de la selección fue contra achaparramiento (Celado el al., 1990). En este ciclo se decidió proseguir el mejoramiento sólo de la Pob.36 ya que la Pob.28 mostró poca fuente de resistencia al achaparramiento (Celado el al., 1990). El ciclo 4 de mejoramiento en la Pob.36 se reporta en este volumen (Ortiz el al. 1993a), así como una evaluación de cultivares amarillos y el progreso obtendio en la Pob.36 (Ortiz el al., 1993b). En el mismo estudio, CESDA-88 mostró el mejor comportamiento a través de las local ¡dades evaluadas como fuente de resistencia al achaprammiento.Los objetivos de este trabajo son comparar la repuesta de la poblaciones CESDA-88 y la Pob.36 en diferentes ambientes y seleccionar familias élites de ambas poblaciones para formar variedades sintéticas correspondiente al ciclo I del CESDA-88 y ciclo 5 de la Población 36 mejoradas por el método de selección recurrente entre líneas SI' MATERIALES y METODOS Como parte del esquema de selección recurrente por familias SI' 200 familias SI de la Población CESDA-88 y Pob.36, respectivamente, fueron sembradas y evaluadas en un diseño de látice simple 20 x 20 con dos repeticiones en el invierno 1992. Las localidades utilizadas fueron San Juan de la Maguana y San Cristóbal en la República Dominicana. En San Cristóbal sólo fue cosechada una sola repetición. Criterios importantes para la evaluación fueron presencia de achaparramiento y rendimiento en grano.En el Cuadro 1 se presentan los resultados de los análisis de varianza realizados para tres repeticiones (dos en San Juan de la Maguana y una en San Cristóbal). El análisis mostró diferencias significativas (a=O.OI) entre las familias de cada población a través de las localidades evaluad.:s para las variables bajo estudio.San Juan. presentó el mayor estrés de achaparramiento (Cuadro 2). Cuadro 1. Cuadrados medios de las variables evaluadas a través de localidades.Rndimiento (t1ha) % Achaparra.El efecto del achaparramiento en las líneas SI probadas y su influencia en el rendimiento fue inferido a través de análisis de regresión utilizando las medias de las tres repeticiones de las familias en cada población para San Juan de la Maguana y San Cristóbal respectivamente.Cuadro 2. Medias de variables evaluadas a través de localidades.En este estudio el rendimiento medio de las familias SI de la Población 36 fue superior al CESDA-8, sin embargo, la Población 36 fue más afectada por achaparramiento, Cuadro 3.La Figura 1 muestra la regresión de los datos promedio para las tres repeticiones. Las pérdidas en rendimiento por achaparramiento son casi el doble en la Pob.36 que el CESDA-88. El CESDA-88 muestra una pendiente de repuesta mucho menos sensitiva a medida que el estrés de achaparramiento aumenta.En la localidad de San Juan de la Maguana para CESDA-88 la regresión no fue significativa, lo cual implica que el rendimiento de las familias no fue severamente afectado por la incidencia de achaparramiento. Para la Pob.36, el coeficiente de regresión fue diferente de cero lo cual implica un mayor efecto del achaparramiento sobre el rendimiento de las líneas SI evaluadas respecto a las del CESDA-88.En la localidad de San Cristóbal el coeficiente de regreslOn para ambas poblaciones no fue significativamente diferente de cero al 5% de probabilidad. Esto es en parte debido a una menor incidencia de la enfermedad para esta localidad (19.7%). Los resultados de este trabajo confirman lo expresado por Ortiz el al., (1993 b) sobre la necesidad de hacer evaluaciones de progenies en varias localidades, ya que la Pob.36 que sólo ha sido seleccionada y formada en San Cristóbal, respondió particularmente bien en esta localidad si es comparada con los resultados de San Juan de la Maguana.   La variedad CESDA-88 resultó ser la variedad más promisoria para achaparramiento en una evaluación de varios sintéticos de la Pob.36 (Ortiz el al., 1993b). Debido a estos resultados, se ha decidido avanzar las familias S( de la población CESDA-88 a S2 con el objetivo de capitalizar con mayor efectividad los efectos aditivos en las familias selectas de la población. La Pob.36 será mantenida bajo un esquema simple de selección fenotípica de medios hermanos.La selección de la fracción seleccionada para formar una variedad sintética correspondiente al ciclo 1 para CESDA-88 y ciclo 5 para la Pob.36, se realizó con una presión de selección del 5% (10 familias) cuyas medias y diferencial de selección se muestran en el Cuadro 4.  , 1992, , Vol. 4 (1993), p. 76-78. ), p. 76-78. Ortiz, R, F. Navarro, R Celado, R. Pierre, y F. Guerra. 1993b. Evaluación de cultivares amarillos de malz (Zea  mays L.) para achaparramiento. En Síntesis de Resultados Experimentales del PRM, 1992, Vol. 4 (1993), p. 82-84.Evaluación y Mejoramiento de Cultivares Amarillos de Maíz (Zea mays L.) para Achaparramiento J. Ortiz, F. Navarro, R. Celado, R. Pierre y F. Guerra!Ocho cultivares de maíz amarillo generados por el proyecto de achaparramiento de maíz fueron evaluados en cinco ambientes de Centro América y El Caribe. Los objetivos especificos eran evaluar su grado de tolerancia al aehaparramiento, cuantificar el progreso logrado a través de la selección e identificar la población amarilla más promisoria. CESDA-88, población obtenida por el Programa de Maíz y Sorgo del CESDA, fue la variedad con menor porcentaje de achaparramicnto (15.6%) y obtuvo buen rendimiento. Ganancias por selección fue obtenida en la población 36 sólo en una localidad. El análisis de regresión mostró que el rendimiento no fue afectado significativamente por el porcentaje de achaparramiento. Por los resultados de este estudio nuestro Proyecto ha decidido aumentar sus esfuerzos en la población 'CESDA-88'.El achaparramiento del maíz es una de las principales limitantes que contribuyen a la baja productividad del maíz en algunos países de Centro América y El Caribe. El Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) para Centro América y El Caribe ha estado buscando tolerancia a esta enfermedad en algunas poblaciones amarillas desde hace varios años. Actualmente la población 36 se encuentra en su Sto ciclo de selección, y se ha liberado la variedad CESDA88, producto del cruce de las poblaciones 24,26 Y 28 de CIMMYT con la variedad local Francés Largo (Ortiz y Navarro, 1993). CESDA88 fue mejorada en un principio por el método de selección fenotípica de mazorca por surco, en la actualidad se mejora con el esquema de selección de progenies S2' en espera de aumentar las ganancia por selección.El presente estudio persigue los siguientes objetivos: a) evaluar la tolerancia al achaparramiento de algunos materiales amarillos, b) estudiar el progreso por selección en la población 36, y c) seleccionar la población amarilla más promisoria. Ocho variedades de polinización abierta con cierto grado de tolerancia al achaparramiento, Cuadro 1, se distribuyeron en un diseño de bloques al azar con cuatro repeticiones. Las localidades utilizadas fueron Baní, San Cristóbal (Se), San Juan de la Maguana (SJM), y Luperón (LU) en la República Dominicana y San Andrés (SA) en El Salvador en el invierno 1992.Para el análisis del achaparramiento se evaluaron tres localidades de las cinco reportadas, ya que, en una de ella no se contabilizó las plantas establecidas por parcela y en la otra fue imposible el conteo de plantas afectadas. Diferencias significativas fueron detectadas para las variables rendimiento, % achaparramiento y floración para los efectos de local idades, variedades y la interacción localidad por variedad, Cuadro 2.En el Cuadro 3, se muestra el ambiente más rendidor que correspondió a San Cristóbal, superando en un 25% a San Andrés. En San Juan y San Cristóbal se registraron las mayores presiones de achaparramiento. El bajo rendimiento comparativo en San Juan se atribuye a que el trabajo se condujo fuera de época. En Baní las variedades fueron, más precoses.CESDA88 fue la variedad con menor porcentaje de achaparramiento, superando en 44% al mejor sintético de la Pob.36, y se encuentra entre las variedades que presentaron mayor rendimiento, Cuadro 4.La ecuaclOn de regreslon simple Y= 5.40 -0.028X, trata de explicar el rendimiento en función del % de achaparramiento, sin embargo. esta no mostró diferencias significativas.Ambas variables son esenciales en nuestro Programa de Mejoramiento. Progreso en selección en rendimiento contra achaparramiento fue obtenido del ciclo 3 al 4 de la población 36, Cuadro 5, en la localidad de San Cristóbal, donde se evaluaron las familias que formaron el 4to. ciclo, en las demás localidades no se logró avance significativo. \\ Avanees en selección se observó en la población 36 sólo en la localidad de San Cristóbal. sugiriendo esto que es imprescindible la evaluación de las familias en el mayor número de localidades posibles.4. De acuerdo a los resultados anteriores el Proyecto de Achaparramiento en maíz amarillo ha decidido continuar sus actividades con la población CE8DA-88.Ortiz, J., F. Navarro y R. Celado. 1993 Durante el año de 1991 en las localidades de Danli, Honduras y Guápiles, Costa Rica se evaluaron 225 lineas S. de las poblaciones RPM x Tuxpeño C17 y Los Diamantes 8043. El objetivo de esta evaluación consistió en determinar el progreso durante tres ciclos de selección recurrente en lineas S, para especificar rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca. También reducir altura de planta, tallo y raiz y otras importantes poblaciones tales como Los Diamantes 8043 y RPM Tux~e?o C17.Se diseñó un látice simple de 15 x 15 con 2 repetiCIOnes y densidad de 53.333 pllha fueron usados. Los resultados obtenidos de este análisis combinado de rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca en ambas localidades, indicaron que el rendimiento se incremento anualmente en un promedio de 261 y 385 kglha para las poblaciones de Los Diamantes 8043 y RPM x Tuxpe~o C17, respectivamente y pudrición de mazorca se ~eduJó anualmente en un promedio de 4.3% para ambas poblacIOnes.Las regiones del Litoral Atlántico de Centro América reciben precipitaciones anuales que exceden los 3000 mm anuales.En dichas regiones las precipitaciones arriba descritas favorecen el desarrollo de hongos que ocasionan una alta incidencia de la enfermedad denominada pudrición de la mazorca, que es provocada principalmente por Diplodia y Fusarium sp. Esta situación ocasiona grandes pérdidas en la producción de maíz y puede ser nocivo para la salud humana porque produce micotoxinas (Jiménez el al., 1989). Para resolver el problema en forma parcial se esta mejorando las poblaciones RPM x Tuxpefio C17 y Los Diamantes 8043, las cuales poseen un grado aceptable de tolerancia a pudrición de la mazorca, para conformar cultivares tolerantes a esta enfermedad, ya que se constituye en un factor de importancia económica por ocasionar pérdidas post-madurez fisiológica.El objetivo de este trabajo fue de evaluar líneas SI de las dos poblaciones arriba indicadas, en dos ambientes para determinar ganancias anuales y otros aspectos genético-ambiental que sirvan como criterio para afinar la metodología que se esta usando.IFi!omejoradores de maíz, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, Costa Rica; 'Investigadores de la Universidad de Costa Rica. DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 85•88.Los materiales genéticos usados fueron líneas S. provevientes de las Poblaciones RPM x Tuxpefio C17 y Los Diamantes 8043, del tercer ciclo de mejoramiento para tolerancia a la pudrición de mazorca. El método de mejoramiento usado en las poblaciones arriba citadas, es el de selección recurrente de líneas SI' Como criterio de selección se utiliza un índice de selección aditivo (Barreto el al, 1991). Se aplicó una presión de selección del 20% y del 3.5%, para continuar con el proceso de mejoramiento y para formar variedades sintéticas, respectivamente.El 20% de presión de selección de líneas SI es utilizado para implementar la etapa de recombinación. Se generan (Est. Exp. Fabio Baudrit Moreno, Costa Rica, VCR) alrededor de 300 familias de hermanos completos. Para ello se siembran surcos de 5 m de largo, separados por 0.75 m, con espaciamiento entre plantas (2 por golpe de siembra) de 0.5 m. Se cosechan 300 mazorcas de un mínimo de 300 granos, que constituyen una muestra representativa de las líneas sembradas y por ende de las poblaciones que representen.Las 300 familias de hermanos completos sirven para generar (Est. Exp. Fabio Baudrit Moreno, Costa Rica, VCR) 225 líneas SI' Las 225 líneas SI son utilizadas para llevar a cabo la etapa de evaluación. Se utiliza un disefio de látice simple de 15x15, con dos repeticiones por localidad (Danlí, Honduras, SRN y Est. Exp. Los Diamantes, Costa Rica, MAG). Se siembra un surco por línea. Cada surco consta de 5 m de largo; la separación entre surcos es de 0.75 m; se separan los golpes de siembra (2 plantas por golpe) por 0.5 m, obteniendo de esta manera una densidad de siembra de 53,333 pi/ha. Para cada población se hizo un análisis de varianza para las variables de interés, por localidad y combinado. Las variables de interés para este estudio, fueron: pudrición de mazorca y rendimiento de grano ajustado al 15% de humedad (no obstante se mejoran simultáneamente días a flor-antesis, acame de raíz y tallo, altura de planta, cobertura de mazorca y otras enfermedades económicas).Los cuadrados medios de los genotipos y del error intrabloque fueron utilizados para hacer análisis más profundos e inferencias sobre los mismos. En base a ellos, para las dos poblaciones,se calcularon varianza genética y fenotípica, heredabilidad en el sentido amplio, y ganancias por afto para las variábles de interés en este estudio.En los Cuadros 1 y 2, los cuadrados medio de rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca son significativos al 0.01 de probabilidad para las variables genotipos e interacción genotipos x localidades. En base a lo indicado en el párrafo anterior se puede inferir que los genotipos de las dos poblaciones tuvieron un comportamiento diferencial en los ambientes donde fueron evaluados de manera que estas diferencias facilitan la selección de los genotipos superiores o sea que se logra discriminar en contra de genes recesivos-deletereos. Estos resultados concuerdan con lo que indican Salas y liménez (1983( ), Pixley (1984( y 1989)), Sanchez (1990) y Hallauer y Miranda (1981). más de tres ciclos de mejoramiento para este caracter, por lo tanto la diferencia de rendimiento enmarcado en los Cuadros 1 y 2, no se debe en su totalidad a la mejora a que estan sometidas estas poblaciones, sino que una población es genéticamente mas rendidora que la otra. Al confrontar el porcentaje de pudrición de mazorca de las dos poblaciones (Cuadros 1 y 2), se infiere que RPM x Tuxpefi.o C 17 es mas tolerante a la pudrición de mazorca que Los Diamantes 8043. Este comportamiento es correspondiente, ya que se ha estado mejorando el RPM x Tuxpefto Cl7 a base de líneas S. por un número mayor de ciclos de selección que Los Diamantes 8043, El mismo comportamiento indica la bondad de utilizar una metodología que involucra endogamia (Córdoba, 1986;Hallauer y Miranda, 1981).Los Cuadros 3 y 4 muestran una alta varianza genética y fenotípica estimadas para rendimiento de las dos poblaciones.      Para la variable genotipos x localidades, los cuadrados medios para rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca tuvieron una signiflcancia al 0.01 de probabilidad. Esto indica que los ambientes donde fueron evaluadas las familias son contrastantes de manera que la varianza genética se disminuye favoreciendo un incremento en la varianza de la interacción genotipo x medio ambiente (Comstock and Moll, 1963). Esto concuerda con la signiflcancia al 0.01 de probabilidad de los genotipos e indica que hubo respuestas diferenciales de los mismos. Es importante seftalar que se puede avanzar rápido, según Según Comstock y Moll (1963), y obtener gananacias superiores al haber mayores interacciones entre genotipo y medio ambientes, de manera que seria conveniente evaluar en un mayor número de localidades que las actuales, ya que de acuerdo a DeLacy el al. (1990), se produce mucha variabilidad para rendimiento. Por otro lado según Weber y Wricke (1990), cuando existe interacción GxE, se explota la acción epistática en detrimento de la aditiva para el carácter rendimiento. Esto es un factor adicional que favorece la selección de genotipos superiores.Al comparar las medias de rendimiento se interpreta que Los Diamantes 8043 es de mayor producción queRPM x Tuxpefto C17. La población Los Diamantes 8043 tiene tres ciclos de mejoramiento para rendimiento, mientras que RPM x Tuxpefto C 17 tiene Esta respuesta corresponde a uno de los objetivos de la selección recurrente que consiste en mantener una buena variabilidad genética a traves muchos ciclos de practicar esta metodología (Hayes y Garber, 1919). Sin embargo la diferencia entre la varianza genética estimada de Los Diamantes 8043 es mayor que la correspondiente a los mismos parámetros de RPM x Tuxpeño C 17.Cuadro No. 3. Estimados de varianza genética (o/) y fenotípica (u/), heredabilidad (H) y ganancia por año (ó y ) para rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca de la Población Los Diamantes 8043. Danlí, Honduras y Est. Exp. Los Diamantes 8043. 1991. pero para el segundo caso hubo menos interacción de los genotipos con el medio ambiente, por lo que no se marcó mucha diferencia ~ntre ambos parámetros (Comstock y Mol1, 1963).Esta respuesta permite seleccionar genotipos superiores con mayor facilidad en la Pobo Los Diamantes 8043 que en la Pobo RPM x Tuxpeño C17 (Pooni, 1990). Estos comportamientos tuvieron su efecto en la heredabilidad ( varianza genotípica dividida entre la varianza fenotípica) siendo esta más pequeña en Los Diamantes 8043 que en RPM x Tuxpeño C 17 y se refleja también en las ganancias anuales estimadas, respectivamente.Aún asi estas ganancias son relativamente buenas.Parámetro Para pudrición de mazorca (Cuadros 3 y 4) Y las varianzas genotípicas y fenotípicas estimadas, muestran grandes diferencias y como la varianza fenotípica fue mucho mayor que la varianza genotípica la heredebilidad de este carácter fue muy baja, por esta razón es importante involucrar endogamia en el proceso (Hal1auer y Miranda, 1981;Córdoba, 1986). Esta metodología ha permitido reducir la pudrición de la mazorca y por ende aumentar la tolerancia al embate de esta enfermedad. Esta reacción puede deberse a que hubo una mayor interacción de la primera población con el medio ambiente que con la segunda población, de manera que en el primer caso la varianza genética estimada se redujo en beneficio de la varianza fenotípica estimada, 87 CONCLUSIONES l. Se esta incrementando el rendimiento a un ritmo anual de-261 y 385 Kg/ha, para las Pobs. de Los Diamantes 8043 y RPM x Tuxpeño C 17, respectivamente.2. Se esta reduciendo la pudrición de mazorca a razón de 4.3 porciento anual en ambas poblaciones.3. Para explotar en mayor grado la interacción genotipo x ambiente, que favorecería avances más rápidos, se debería considerar evaluar en por lo menos dos localidades en Honduras y en Costa Rica. Como las heredabilidad de pudrición de mazorca es baja se podría pensar en evaluar sobre líneas S2 en lugar de SI' para lograr de esta manera mayores ganancias en la reducción de este carácter.Otra posibilidad es introgresar los extractos superiores de ambas poblaciones, lo cual ofrecería mayor rendimiento como aporte de Los Diamantes 8043 y grados superiores de tolerancia a la pudrición de ma7..orca, aportado por RPM x Tuxpeño C17.Pudrición de Mazorca en Once Localidades de Centro América La pudrición de mazorca causada por Diplodia y Fusarium sp. es un factor adverso biótico que causa grandes pérdidas en rendimiento en Centro América. La resistencia genética es una alternativa para evitar parcialmente esas pérdidas. A través del Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y El Caribe (PRM) se viene efectuando mejoramiento genético basado en la selección recurrente de líneas S, en dos poblaciones de maíz. Durante los dos últimos ciclos se han generado variedades sintéticas de Los Diamantes 8043 y RPM x Tuxpeilo C17. En 1991 se evaluaron 10 cultivares en II10calidades de Centro América: 8 variedades sintéticas de esas poblaciones, una enviada por el CIMMYT y el híbrido B-833 como testigo, todos de endosperma blanco. Se utilizó un diseilo de bloques completos al azar, en donde las principales variables estudiadas fueron: rendimiento, porcentaje de pudrición de mazorca y mazorcas descubiertas, dlas a flor, porcentaje de acame de raiz y tallo. E.I análisis combinado mostró diferencias significativas al 0,01 de probabilidad para rendimiento, pudrición de mazorca, mazorcas descubiertas, dias a flor y acame de ralz. En rendimiento se encontró un comportamiento similar del B-833 (5.17 t/ha) con las siguientes variedades sintéticas: Sintético Diamantes (1990, Loc. Honduras), Sint. RPM x Tuxp CI7 (1990, 310cs, 2 de Costa Rica y 1 de Honduras), Sint. RPM x Tuxp CI7 (2 loc. de Costa Rica), Sint. Honduras, Sint. Diamantes (1990, 3 locs, 2 de Costa Rica y 1 de Honduras) y Sint. Diamantes (Loe. Honduras) con 5. 33, 5.09, 4.91,4.89,4.88 Y 4.87 t/ha, respectivamente. En el porcentaje de pudrición de mazorca el B-833 tuvo el valor más bajo (8.3 %) Y con un valor similar el Sint. RPM x Tuxp CI7 (2 locs. de C.R) (9.0%). Para las localidades se presentaron altos valores de pudrición de mazorca en: San Andrés A (San Salvador), Gull.piles (Costa Rica) y Barú (Panamá) con 24.2, 23.4 Y 19.1%, respectivamente.En la Costa Atlántica de muchos países de Centro América, los agricultores siembran maíz bajo condiciones de alta precipitación y lo dejan en el campo por largos períodos, después de haber alcanzado la madurez fisiológica. Lo anterior ocasiona deterioro de la producción causado por la pudrición de mazorca por Diplodia y Fusarium sp. (Córdova 1991), con pérdidas anuales hasta de 20%.La pudrición de mazorca puede presentarse en el campo en pre-cosecha El Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) desde hace varios años viene mejorando el maíz para tolerancia a la pudrición de la mazorca. Este proyecto se inició con dos poblaciones: Los Diamantes 8043 y RPM x CI7, utilizando el método de selección recurrente de líneas SI' La selección de materiales resistentes constituye un paso fundamental hacia la definición de factores apropiados de control de esta enfermedad, además la selección recurrente permitió identificar familias que coincidieron en sus atributos agronómicos de perfecta cobertura y pudrición de mazorca y alto rendimiento, los cuales dieron origen a sintéticos que podrán ser utilizados como variedades de polinización libre o como fuentes de buena cobertura y resistencia. Jiménez el al. (1990) obtuvieron un diferencial de selección para pudrición de mazorca de 139 y 141% en RPM x Tuxp C 17 Y Los Diamantes 8043, respectivamente. Córdova (1990) encontró correlación negativa (r=0.48) entre rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca. No existió asociación entre rendimiento y cobertura de mazorca en híbridos de maíz para 15 ambientes de Centro América. Las variedades síntéticas son más adaptables a las condiciones del medio ambiente en zonas marginales que los híbridos simples y dobles, debido a su mayor variabilidad, por lo tanto pueden tener mayor adaptabilidad que los híbridos en áreas de precipitaciones y suelos de gran variabilidad.Se espera que los resultados nos darán variedades sintéticas e híbridos de buena cobertura y tolerancia a pudrición de tallo y mazorca. Con base en esto el objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar el comportamiento respecto al rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca, de las variedades sintéticas generadas en 1988-1991 por el PRM.Para este estudio se evaluaron dos variedades sintéticas del primer ciclo y 6 del segundo ciclo de mejoramiento para resistencia a pudrición de mazorca en Los Diamantes 8043 y RPM x C 17 ádemas de una RESULTADOS y DISCUSION Cuadro 1. Sintéticos tolerantes a pudrición de mazorca evaluadas en Centro América durante 1991.En pudrición de mazorca hubo respuestas satisfactorias para todas las localidades excepto la de Se cálculo el análisis de varianza de todas las variables de illterés (por localidad y en base a un combinado a través de las localidades). Para las comparaciones entre medias se utilizó la prueba de rango múltiple de Duncan al 5% de probabilidad. Los promedios de las variables estudiadas por localidad se presentan en el Cuadro 3. Las localidades que tuvieron un mejor rendimiento fueron: Guanacaste (Costa Rica) y Alajuela (Costa Rica) con 6,607 y 6,305 kg/ha, respectivamente. Guápiles, Costa Rica; San Andrés A, El Salvador y Barú. Panamá, en donde se superó el 12.5% considerado como máximo permisible. Estos resultados cónciden con lo encontrado por Córdova, 1990. En pudrición de mazorca las localidades de mayor incidencia fueron: San Andrés (El Salvador), Guápi les (Costa Rica), y 8arú (Panamá) con 24.18, 23.41 Y 19.14 %, respectivamente. En el Cuadro 4, se presentan los estadísticos estimados en el análisis de varianza combinado para rendimiento y otras caracteristicas agronómicas que fueron consideradas de interés en este trabajo.Cuadro 2.Estadísticos estimados en el análisis de varianza para rendimiento en 10 cultivares de maíz en 11 localidades de Centro América. 1991 Las variables experimentales evaluadas fueron: rendimiento (kg/ha), porcentaje de pudrición de mazorca, porcentaje de mazorcas descubiertas, porcentaje de acame de raíz y tallo y días a flor.En el Cuadro 2 se presentan los estadísticos estimados en el análisis de varianza para rendimiento y pudrición de mazorca por localidad. Respecto al rendimiento, la localidad que obtuvó el coeficiente de variación más bajo fue Alajuela, Costa Rica, con 9.69 % Y en pudrición de mazorca Guanacaste, Costa Rica, con 16.50 %, que estuvieron dentro del rango de confiabilidad. Para rendimiento las medias reflejan un comportamiento ~ceptable para todas las localidades excepto la de Guácimo, Costa Rica y la primera época de siembra de San Andrés, El Salvador, posiblemente hubo estas respuestas por la presencia de una alta incidenCia del inóculo en estas localidades.La interacción tratamiento x ambiente, fue altamente significativa para rendimiento, pudrición de mazorca, acame de raíz y días a flor, lo que indica que se presentó una diferencia de respuesta en el comportamiento de estas variables en algunas localidades (Jugenheimer, 1985 y Weber y Wricke, 1990).Para las variables mazorcas descubiertas y acame de tallo las diferencias fueron significativas al 0.05 de probabilidad. Cabe recalcar que las medias obtenidas para mazorcas podridas, mazorcas descubiertas, acame de raíz y tallo fueron bajas, lo que indica que no constituyen un problema serio en estas variedades sintéticas.En el Cuadro 4, se presentan las medias de los 10 genotipos y los valores de sus características agronómicas evaluadas en los once ambientes. En rendimiento sobresalieron seis variedades sinteticas: Sint. Diamantes 8043 (1990, Loe Honduras)  (Jenkins, 1940, Hallauer y Miranda, 1981y Córdova et al, 1985). En acame de raíz el Sint. RPM x Tuxp C17 (1990 3 loc.) presentó el valor más alto con 15,53 %, seguida de el Sint. RPM x Tuxp C17 (2 loc de C.R.) con 13.11%.En el Cuadro 5 se presentan las comparaciones por localidad de rendimiento y de pudrición de mazorca de las mejores variedades sintéticas por localidad con el híbrido B-833. Lo que se destaca aquí es que las variedades sintéticas no fueron superadas por el híbrido comercial B-833 en rendimiento. CONCLUSIONES l. Esta evaluación permitió determinar 6 variedades sintéticas de buen rendimiento para las once localidades estudiadas, con similar rendimiento el testigo (B-833). Una de ellas Los Diamantes 8043 (1990, 2 loe. de C.R.) presentó altos valores de pudrición en Guápiles (Costa Rica) y Cuyuta (Guatemala).2. Los valores promedios obtenidos en pudrición de mazorca a través de las once localidades fueron bajos, el sintético RPM x Tuxp Cl7 (1990, 2 loc de C.R) 92 resultó tener el valor más bajo (8.29%) y el más alto Los Diamantes 8043 (1990, loco Honduras) con 12.06%.3. En tres localidades se presentó alta incidencia de pudrición de mazorca a saber: Barú (Panamá), Guápiles (Costa Rica) y San Andrés A (El Salvador).4. Se recomienda evaluar estas variedades sintéticas junto con las del tercer ciclo de selección para determinar si hay avances. REFERENCIAS Córdova, H.S. 1990.Respuesta diferenciales para rendimiento de híbridos de maíz evaluadas en ambientes contrastantes de Latinoamérica XXXVI Reunión Anual del PCCMCA Panamá. Córdova, H.S. 1991.Desarrollo y mejoramiento de germosplasma para resistencia a factores adversos bióticos y abióticos, producción de semilla estratégicas y logros 1986-1991. Programa Regional de Maíz para Centro América y el Caribe. 113 p. Jugenheimer, W. R. 1985. Maíz, variedades mejoradas, métodos de cultivo y producción de semillas. Editorial Limusa, 841 p. Jiménez, K., el al. 1991. Avances del proyecto colaborativo regional de mejoramiento integral para cobertura, pudrición de mazorca y rendimiento en maíz. Costa Rica. Programa Regional para Centro América, Panamá y El Caribe. 113 p. No cabe duda que la inserción de leglUllinosas como abono verde dentro de los sistemas de producción de maíz es benéfica. El PRM ha velúdo evaluando tecnologías para intercalar simultánamente leglUllinosas dentro del cultivo del maíz. Canavalia ensiformis ha mostrado buena adaptación para este tipo de asocio, reduciendo poco el rendinúento en comparación con monocultivo, pero compensando con producción de bíomasa y fijación de N. Dentro de este contexto, en 1992 se establecieron 8 ensayos en diversas localidades de Centro América para evaluar distintas prácticas de asocio. Se evaluaron arreglos con 2 densidades de maíz (4.4 Y 6.6 pI.m'), 3 fechas de siembra de canavalia (O, 30 Y 60 días después de siembra del maíz, dds) y 2 densidades de canavalia ( 4.4 Y 8.8 pI/m') en un arreglo factorial incompleto con 3 repeticiones y otros tratamientos de interés local. Todos los tratanúentos recibieron 100 y 40 kg/ha de N y P 2 0 5 1ha. A pesar que todos los tratamientos específicos variaron un poco de pais a pais, el análisis combinado permitió evaluar la respuesta a densidad de maíz y a la fecha de siembra del asocio, así como sus interacciones.Los resultados muestran lUta reducción neta de -0.25 tlha sobre el monocultivo por el asocio sinlultáneo, pero IÚngún efecto en las siembras tardías. El efecto neto de alUnentar las densidades de maíz (6.6 vs 4.4 pI/m') fue positivo para monocultivo (+0.6 tlha) y asocio tardío (+0.6 tlha) pero negativo en asocio simultaneo (-1.41 t/ba). Densidades de 8.8 pl/n12 de canavalia tienen poco efecto con fechas de siembra tardías, en particular a los 60 deis. Los resultados sugieren que aumentar la densidad de maíz e hltercalar canavalia en asocio tardío tendrán lUI hllpacto positivo en la productividad de los sistemas de producción de maíz de la regiólL No cabe duda que el asocio de leguminosas con cereales es una práctica benéfica desde muchos puntos de vista (pieters, 1916;Ofori and Stem, 1987). En Centro América, la tradicional siembra de la milpa (maíz en asocio y/o relevo con Phaseolus) por pequeftos productores constituye una variante de esta práctica muy extendida en la región. Con el asocio de varios cultivos, se procura disminuir riesgos, tener una mayor disponibilidad de alimentos por unidad de área, mejorar el control de la erosión del suelo y a la vez aumentar los ingresos en condiciones de baja tecnología. Los estudios en este campo destacan la Ilnvestigadores de Maíz, SRN, Honduras; 2lnvestigadores de Maíz, ICTA, Guatemala; 3lnvestigador de Maíz, CNIGB, Nicaragua; 4lnvestigador de Maíz, IDIAP, Panamá y 5Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DELPRM 1992, VOL 4 (1993), p. 97-101. 97 importancia de la época y densidad de siembra así como del arreglo espacial (Aidar y Vieira, 1975;Couto, 1976;Ofori and Stem, 1987).Los beneficios del asocio de cereales con leguminosas incluyen aportación de nitrógeno por fijación directa, aprovechamiento de la radiación desaprovechada por el cultivo principal para producción de biomasa para abono verde, reducción de la erosión al mantener una mayor cobertura del suelo, reducción en la incidencia de malezas, preservación y mejora en las propiedades fisicas y químicas de los suelos y una posible reducción de plagas y enfermedades (Wade y Sánchez, 1983;Smyth el al., 1991;Zea, 1992aZea, ,1992b)).Desde 1989 el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) ha realizado experimentos regionales para evaluar el asocio, relevo y/o rotación de leguminosas de cobertura (abonos verdes) dentro de los sistemas de producción de maíz. Datos obtenidos en 24 ensayos uniformes durante 1989 y 1990 indicaron una tendencia marcada de las leguminosas de reducir el rendimiento de maíz en comparación con monocultivo cuando estas se siembran simultáneamente con el cultivo (Zea, 1992a,b;Barreto el al., 1991). De las leguminosas evaluadas en asocio temprano, Canavalia ensiformis presentó características agronómicas sobresalientes como siembra intercalada con maíz por su menor competencia con el maíz y menor variabilidad a través de los ambientes evaluados en comparación con mucuna y vigna (Slizolobium deerengianum y Vigna unguiculala) bajo las mismas condiciones (Zea, 1992a,b;Barreto el al., 1991). Dado su hábito de crecimiento así como sus características morfologicas la canavalia es menos competitiva al intercalarla con el maíz, y además tiene una reputación de soportar ambientes con precipitacion errática (Bernal y Jiménez, 1990).En estos ensayos las evaluaciones se hicieron a densidades teóricas de maíz de 4.4 pllm 2 (Zea, 1992a). Sin embargo, dado los resultados encontrados por Bolaftos y Barreto (1991) sobre la importancia de de las bajas densidades de siembra en los componentes de rendimiento, una alternativa importante a evaluar era el asocio de leguminosas bajo una mayor densidad de maíz, asi como la variación en la fecha y densidad de inserción de estas dentro del maíz. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el efecto de épocas de inserción de la canavalia dentro del maiz en referencia a la siembra del maíz (simultáneo y tardio), densidades de siembra de la canavalia (1 o 2 surcos en medio de los surcos de maiz~y densidades de siembra del maiz (4.4 y 6.6 pI/m ) en comparación con el sistema de monocultivo bajo las mismas condiciones.Los ensayos se establecieron en la estación experimental del JCTA en Jutiapa y La Máquina, en Guatemala; en campos de agricultores en Cuyamapa y Siguatepeque, en Honduras; y en las estaciones experimentales del CNJGB de Santa Rosa y San Cristobal, en Nicaragua. Se usó un diseño de bloques completos al azar con tres repeticiones. Cada ensayo consistia en un corazón de 6 a 8 tratamientos en común, con la adición de 2 o 3 tratamientos adicionales de interés local. Los tratamientos variaron un poco en ciertas localidades, pero están arreglados en un diseño de factorial incompleto incluyendo dos niveles de densidad de maiz (4.4 y 6.6 pl/m 2 ), fechas de siembra de la leguminosa dentro del maíz (O, 30 Y 60 días después de siembra del maiz, dds), y densidad de leguminosa (1 o 2 surcos para 4.4 o 8.8 pl/m 2 ).Las parcelas se establecieron en surcos de 0.9 m entre si y 2 plantas por golpe a 0.5 y 0.33 m para densidades de 4.4 y 6.6 plantas de maiz por m 2 , respectivamente. La canavalia se sembró en medio de los surcos de maíz en uno o dos surcos con 2 plantas por golpe cada 0.5 m para densidades de 4.4 y 8.8 plantas de canavalia por m 2 , respectivamente. El tamaño de las parcelas fue de 6 surcos por 8 m de largo. Todos los tratamientos recibieron 100 kg de NIha y 30 kg P205/ha, la mitad del N a la siembra y la otra mitad a los 35-40 dias después de siembra (dds), y el P todo aplicado a la siembra localizado. La semilla se trató químicamente contra plagas del suelo al momento de la siembra para asegurar la densidad teórica del ensayo. Se realizaron controles manuales de maleza al requerirse.Durante el ciclo, se determinó la cobertura del maiz y la canavalia usando un cuadro de 0.7 x 0.7 m y una matriz de 49 cuadrados. El porcentaje de cobertura se estimó como la proporción del número de cuadrados cubiertos por maíz o canavalia en este 98 cuadro. Se determinó rendimiento de maiz y sus componentes de rendimiento en los 4 surcos centrales de cada parcela. En 12 plantas al azar, se cortaron al pie de la base y se determinó su peso seco. Se asumió que la biomasa seca del maiz se encontraba a 15% de humedad para cálculo del peso seco y la biomasa equivalente por unidad de área. El indice de cosecha se calculó como la fracción del grano en la biomasa total después de descontar el olote y estandarizar a 0% humedad. El peso de materia seca de canavalia se calculó despues de la cosecha del maíz y en tres localidades. A la cosecha del maíz, se tomaron 3-4 mqestras de 1 m 2 de canavalia, se cosecharon al pie de la base de cada planta, se determinó su peso fresco, y en una sub-muestra su porcentaje de humedad. Con estos datos se calculó la biomasa producida por la canavalia. Se tomaron muestras de maíz y canavalia para sus respectivos análisis químicos de contenido de nitrógeno.Los datos se analizaron por localidad usando análisis de varianza. Debido a que los tratamientos variaron un poco en cada localidad, los resultados se combinaron usando el método de diferencias apareadas entre tratamientos de interés. Para ciertas comparaciones, se incluyeron datos de tratamientos especificos de experimentos del PRM en 1991. Las respuestas se analizaron graficando el efecto neto o el diferencial de rendimiento entre los tratamientos del asocio menos el tratamiento con maiz bajo monocultivo bajo las mismas condiciones experimentales de densidad, fertilización y manejo versus la media ambiental para cada localidad.El Cuadro 1 muestra las medias de rendimiento y estadisticos asociados para las 6 localidades evaluadas en 1992, asi como tratamientos en común de 3 localidades de Panamá reportadas en este volumen por Gordón el al. (1993). El análisis a continuación se basa en el uso de gráficas mostrando el efecto neto de los distintos ensayos en contra del potencial ambiental, deftnido este como el promedio de la variable de interés a través de las localidades incluidas. Debido que ninguno de los parámetros muestra ninguna obvia relación con el promedio ambiental, estos se resumen con su media y desviación estándar. Cuadro 1. Rendimiento de grano (tlha) de tratamientos de asocio maiz con canavaHa a través de diversos ambientes de Centro América. Datos son de 1992. La Figura 1 muestra el efecto neto del asocio simultáneo de canavalia a 2 densidades de maíz en comparación con el monocultivo de los distintos ensayos efectuados. En promedio, el asocio simultáneo de 1 surco (4.4 pVm 2 ) de canavalia redujo el rendimiento de maíz en 0.25 y 1.41 tlha bajo denSidades de 4.4 y 6.6 pVm 2 de maíz, respectivamente. La reducción del rendimiento de maíz en monocultivo por 0.25 tlha por el asocio simultáneo de canavalia es similar, aunque un poco menor, que la reportada por Zea (1992a) a través de 24 ensayos regionales en Centro América.Sin embargo, a densidades altas de maíz de 6.6 pl/m 2 , la inserción de canavalia reduce el rendimiento bastante más, en 1.41 tlha. O sea, la reducción en rendimiento por el asocio simultáneo fue bastante mayor a altas densidades de maíz que a bajas, posiblemente debido a una mayor competencia. Estos datos sugieren que la inserción de canavalia en siembra intercalada dentro del maíz será más favorable en sistemas de producción tipificados por bajas densidades de población de maíz. Los componentes de rendimiento muestran las causas de la baja en rendimiento por el asocio simultáneo de canavalia (Figura 1). En resumen, la caída en rendimiento se debe a un efecto insignifcante del asocio en la densidad ftnal de plantas (pVm 2 ), pero sí una reducción en el número de 99 mazorcas por m 2 , el número de mazorcas por planta y el peso de mazorcas. En todos estos componentes, el efecto negativo del asocio fue mayor bajo densidades altas de maíz.Estos resultados ponen de relieve la importancia de la investigación realizada por Gordón et al. (1993), reportada en este volumen, sobre la posibilidad de insertar simultáneamente canav~ero a densidades menores, en surcos alternos de maíz. En este caso, la densidad baja de canavalia (2.2 pVm 2 ) no reduce significativamente el rendimiento de maíz en monocultivo, pero aún produce suftciente cantidades de biomasa a usarse como abono verde.El efecto neto del asocio tardío (30 y 60 dias después de la siembra del maíz) no tuvo un efecto consistente sobre el rendimiento de maíz (Figura 2). En promedio el efecto fue casi cero para densidades bajas y altas de maíz. Estos datos sugieren que se puede intercalar canavalia en maíz después de los 30 dds sin esperar reducciones significativas en el rendimiento en comparación con el monocultivo, tanto a densidades altas y bajas de maíz. En sistemas de monocultivo que no tienen un cultivo relevo, esta practica podrá ayudar a la sostenibilidad del sistema.  Efecto neto de intercalar simultáneamente 1 surco de canavaJia (4.4 pllm 2 ) en medio de 4.4 o 6.6 pllm 2 de maíz en comparación con maiz en monocultivo bajo las mismas condiciones en función del promedio ambiental para: a) densidad de plantas, b) densidad de mazorcas, c) mazorcas por planta, d) peso de mazorca, y e) rendimiento de grano. Las Jineas punteadas reflejan el promedio de las 2 densidades de maíz. Promedio Ambiental (tjha) Figura 3. Efecto neto de incrementar la densidad de maíz de 4.4 a 6.6 pllm2 en sistemas de monocultivo, asocio simultáneo (O dds) y asocio tardio (30 dds) con canavaJia intercalada en medio de los surcos del maÍZ. Datos son de 1992.Figura 2. Efecto neto de la siembra tardía (30 dds) de canavaJia intercalada en medio de los surcos del maíz en com~aración con el maíz en monocultivo a 4.4 y 6.6 pllm de densidad de maíz. La canavalia se sembró a una densidad de 4.4 pllm 2 .Los datos indicaron que incrementar la densidad de maiz en asocio temprano, redujo los rendimientos drasticamente en 1.41 tlha (Figura 1). Sin embargo, para monocultivo y asocio tardío el efecto fue positivo en promedio en 0.72 y 0.51 tlha, respectivamente. Estos datos corraboran la hipótesis planteada por Bolaños y Barreto (1991) que las densidades de plantas de maiz son una limitante a la productividad. Estos datos muestran que la siembra de 6.6 pllm 2 de maíz en comparación con 4.4 pllm 2 de maiz tienen un efecto significativo sobre el rendimiento consistente a través de un rango de potencial ambiental (Figura 3).Promedio Ambiental (t/ha) . . -Figura 4. Producción de biomasa de canavalia para los distintos tratamientos evaluados a través de varios ambientes de Centro América. 44m se refiere a la densidad de maíz, O y 30 dds se refieren a la fecha de inserción de la canavalia, y 44 Y 88c se refieren a densidades de canavalia de 1 y 2 surcos, respectivamente.La Figura 4 muestra la producción de canavalia promedio para los distintos tratamientos. El asocio simultáneo produce más de 4.0 tlha de biomasa y el asocio tardío entre 1.0-2.0 tlha. Análisis de laboratorio muestra que la canavalia tiene un poco más de 2% de contenido de N, lo que sugiere que el asocio puede aportar entre 30 y 80 kg Nlha, según la época de inserción. p.9-26 en Análisis de los Ensayos Regionales de Agronomía, PRM-CIMMYT, Guatemala.Couto W.S. 1976 Estudos de sistemas culturais de milho-Feijao no municipio de Vicosa, Minas Gerais. UFV. Imprensa Universitaria 32p, Tese de M.S.. Gordón, R., N. de Gracia, J. Franco, A. González y J. Bolaños. 1993. Asocio del maíz con canavalia a distintas épocas y arreglos de siembra en Azuero, Panamá, 1992-1993. p. 102-106 en Síntesis de Resultados Experimentales del PRM 1992, Vol. 4, CIMMYT-PRM, Guatemala.Ofori, F. and W.R. Stern. 1987. Cereal-1egume intercropping systems. Adv. Agron. 41:41-89. CONCLUSIONES 1. Se obselVó un efecto neto positivo de aumentar la densidad de maíz de 4.4 a 6.6 pl/m 2 de 0.71 tlha en monocultivo. El asocio simultáneo de 1 surco de canavalia redujo el rendimiento en 0.25 y 1.41 tlha a densidades de 4.4 y 6.6 pl/m 2 , respectivamente. Los componentes de rendimiento más importantes en esta reducción fueron maz/m 2 , ma:zJpl y peso de mazorca, pero no la densidad de plantas.2. El asocio tardío de canavalia (30 y/o 60 dds) no tuvo ningún efecto sobre el rendimiento de maíz en monocultivo a ambas densidades de maíz. Zea, 1.L. 1992a. Efecto de intercalar leguminosas con diferentes dosis de P sobre el rendimiento de maíz (Zea mays L.). Agronomía Mesoamericana 3:16-22. Zea, J.L. 1992b. Efecto residual de intercalar leguminosas sobre el rendimiento de maíz (Zea mays L) en nueve localidades de Centro América. p 97-103 en Sintesis de resultados experimentales 1991, CIMMYT, Guatemala.Siembra en Azuero, Panamá, 1992-93 R. Gordón l , N. de Gracia 2 , J. Franco 2 , A. González 2 y J. Bolaños 3No cabe duda que el asocio de legunúnosas con maiz tiene efectos benéficos para la sosteJÚbilidad del sistema a largo plazo. Con este objetivo se realizaron ensayos para evaluar los efectos de diferentes asocios de canavalia con maíz en tres localidades de Azuero, Panamá, durante el ciclo agricola 1992/93. Los tratamientos b1cluyeron maiz en monocultivo, siembra mtercalada de canavalia en cada surco a razón de 2.2 plantas/m 2 a los O, 15 Y 30 dias después de la siembra (dds) y asocio a los O dds con la canavalia en surcos altenlOs (1.1 plantas/m 2 ) en 101 disefio de bloques completos al azar con cuatro repeticiones. Todos los tratanúentos recibieron 227 kg/ha de 15-30-8 y 227 kglha de urea a los 30 dds. El análisis combblado mostró que el efecto negativo del asocio sobre el rendb1úento en monocultivo era menor núentras más tardía la fecha del asocio o el 1úvel de competencia. En comparación con monocultivo (3.97 tlha), el asocio con canavalia en cada surco a los O, 15 Y 30 dds redujo el rendimiento de maíz en 0.54, 0.16 Y 0.03 tlha, respectivamente y el asocio sbuultáneo en surcos alternos en 0.18 tlha. Los efectos negativos del asocio sobre el monoculltivo se explican por lUla combblación de lU1 menor número de plantas, mazorcas y 101 tanlafio menor de éstas. Los res1dtados b1dican que núentras más temprano y mayor la densidad del asocio, mayor es la producción de biomasa por las leglU1Úllosa. El asocio a los O, 15 Y 30 dds produce 3.45, 2.52 Y 1.01 tlha de biomasa de la canavalia a la fecha de la cosecha del maíz, y la siembra sbuultánea en surcos a1ten1os produce 2.08 tlha. Los bajos 1úveles de biomasa por el asocio a los 30 dds puedeu deberse a que el establecb1úento de la canavalia en esa fecha es muy tardío para la distribución de lluvias en la región. Los resultados sugieren que el asocio sbuultáneo en surcos altenlOs de canavalia coumaíz es lUla buena a1tenlativa para la región de Azuero por: 1) La poca reducción en comparación con el rendinúento del maíz en monocultivo y 2) el aporte de cerca de 2.0 tlha de canavalia al sistema. Si asllllÚll10S llIl conte1údo de 3.63% de N en la biomasa de la canavalia, esto sigllifica llIl equivalente de 70 kg N/ha. Se sugiere validar esta a1tenlativa en campos de agricultores.La Academia Nacional de Ciencias (1984) infonna que existen 600 especies de leguminosas poco conocidas y utilizadas, de éstas, por lo menos unas 200 pueden ser de mucha utilidad para países en vías de desarrollo. En Panamá existen trabajos de asociaclOn de maíz con varias especies de leguminosas, entre las que podemos mencionar ICoordinador Nacional Programa de Maíz, IDIAP, Azuero. 2Investigadores de Maíz, IDIAP, Azuero. 3Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala.  (González et al. 1989a;1989b;Gordón, 1992). Se tienen infonnes del uso extensivo de la Mucuna o frijol de terciopelo (Stizolobium deeringianum) como cultivo de cobertura en maíz en la zona del litoral Atlántico de Honduras, así como en algunas áreas de Guatemala y México (CIDICO, 1990). Debido a la baja calidad de los forrajes para el ganado en la época seca, la práctica de siembras intercaldas de leguminosas con maíz puede ser una buena alternativa para esta región, así como para reducir la erosión en terrenos con pendientes mayores del 10%.El maíz en la reglOn de Azuero es predominantemente de tipo monocultivo. El otro factor que se involucra es el ganado, el cual pastorea el rastrojo durante la época seca, de enero a mayo. Otra de las características es la siembra en áreas relativamente planas (con pendientes menores de 20%), pero la presión de población así como la alternativa de siembra de otros cultivos, han ido presionando poco a poco al cultivo en zonas de mayor pendiente. Esto ha ocasionado que el problema de erosión haya crecido en importancia en los últimos aftoso Dado que el problema de erosión es considerado uno de los principales problemas en las zonas productoras de maíz del resto de los países de Centro América, los técnicos de la región han considerado el cultivo de leguminosas intercaladas como una de las posibles alternativas de estudio para reducir las pérdidas del suelo ocasionadas por la erosión hídrica. Otro de los problemas de esta región es la escasa y pobre alimentación del ganado durante la época seca.Hasta el presente, la siembra de leguminosas se ha utilizado en parcelas puras como bancos de proteínas por los ganaderos. Otro de los usos de las leguminosas es la siembra de parcelas, con el fin de incorporarlas al suelo en fonna de emniendas o abonos verdes. Es bien conocido el aporte de materia orgánica, mantenimiento de la fertilidad, el mejoramiento de la retención de humedad y estructura del suelo con aplicar este tipo de práctica.El presente trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de cuantificar y caracterizar las diferencias en producción de un sistema intercalado de maíz con canavalia en comparación con un sistema en monocultivo, y estimar la m~jor época de siembra de canavalia dentro del maíz, tratando de maximizar la producción de materia seca de la leguminosa y minimizar las pérdidas de rendimiento del maíz.Se realizó un experimento en la región de Azuero, Panamá, de agosto a diciembre de 1992 (época lluviosa) en las localidades de Las Tablas, Parita y La Honda bajo un diseño experimental de bloques completos al azar con 4 repeticiones. Las unidades experimentales fueron parcelas de 6 surcos por 8 m de largo. La densidad de maíz fue aproximadamente 45 mil pllha sembrándose 2 plantas cada golpe a 0.5 m entre sí en surcos a 0.9 m de ancho. Se usó el híbrido P-88l2 y la semilla se trató a razón de 10 g i.a./kg de semilla con el insecticida furatiocarb.La siembra de la canavalia se realizó en tres épocas distintas ,con referencia al maíz, al momento de la siembra (O días después de la siembra, dds), a los 15 y a los 30 dds en el medio de los surcos de éste. También se incluyó en el diseño la siembra de la canavalia al momento de la siembra del maíz, pero en surcos alternos y una parcela de maíz en monocultivo. La siembra de esta leguminosa se realizó a 0.5 m entre golpes en medio de la hilera del maiz. Este arreglo dio por resultado una población para los primeros tres tratamientos de 22,500 pllha y para los surcos alternos de 11,250 pllha de canavalia.A todas las parcelas se les aplicó 227 kglha de la formula 15-30-8 al momento de la siembra más 272 kglha de urea a los 35 dds. El control de malezas se realizó con la aplicación de paraquat antes de la siembra y con posteriores limpias manuales según necesario. El sistema de siembra en las tres localidades fue el de labranza cero.Al maíz se le tomaron los datos de rendimiento, número de plantas cosechadas, número de mazorcas, rendimiento de materia seca del rastrojo y el porcentaje de humedad del grano a los tres surcos centrales (parcela efectiva). También se midió el peso de materia verde de las leguminosas al momento de la cosecha del maíz y luego se tomó una muestra para determinar la humedad y determinar el peso seco de cada parcela. Para el rendimiento de materia seca de rastrojo por hectárea se tomaron dos surcos centrales, a excepción del tratamiento con surcos alternos, en donde sólo se le tomó el rendimiento de un surco. Se midieron los registros de precipitación pluvial de las parcelas, pero no se presentan. Los datos obtenidos fueron analizados por cada localidad y se realizó un análisis combinado de las localidades.En el Cuadro 1 y 2 se presentan los parámetros estadísticos y los promedios del rendimiento de maíz, leguminosas, rastrojo y otros componentes de rendimiento. Los resultados del análisis indican que hubo una diferencia significativa para la variable de rendimiento de canavalia (Cuadro 1). Se observó que la reducción del rendimiento de maíz es menor a medida que la leguminosa se introduce posterior a la siembra del cultivo o el nivel de competencia. Los rendimientos de maíz obtenidos fueron de 3.97, 3.79, 3.43, 3.81 Y 3.94 tlha, para la parcela en monocultivo, O dds surco alterno, O, 15 Y 30 dds (surcos contínuos), respectivamente (Cuadro 2). La reducción del rendimiento por parte del asocio con la leguminosa se debió por la combinación de varios factores, entre los principales tenemos la pérdida de plantas, mazorcas y un tamaño menor de éstas (Figura la). Esta reducción fue del orden de 0.54, 0.16 Y 0.03 tlha para el asocio en cada surco a los O, 15 Y30 dds, respectivamente.En relación a la producción de biomasa de la leguminosa, todos los asocios producen en relación al arreglo, pero mientras mas temprano y mayor la densidad del asocio, mayor es la producción (Figura lb). El porcentaje de nitrógeno en la canavalia fue de 3.63% según el análisis de laboratorio a 6 muestras de la leguminosa. La siembra a los 30 dds es el arreglo que tuvo el menor rendimiento de materia seca (1.01 tlha). Esta siembra es muy tardía para la distribución de las lluvias de la región, la cual es bastante escasa, aunado al hecho que el sombreado por el maíz después de los 30 dds es mucho mayor, formando un ambiente de poca radiación disponible para intercepción por la canavalia en asocio.La siembra en surcos alternos se presenta como 104 buena alternativa, es decir, poca reducción del rendimiento de maíz (180 kglha) y una adición de 2.0 t/ha de canavalia, o sea 72 kglha de N al sistema. En relación a la siembra de la canavalia en surcos contínuos, la época que presenta mejor alternativa es la de 15 dds, ya que, al igual que la siembra en surcos alternos, reduce poco el rendimiento de maíz (160 kglha) y produce 2.5 tlha de canavalia, lo cual aportaría 90 kg de Nlha al sistema. El tratamiento de siembra a los Odds en surcos continuos, fue el asocio que más biomasa produjo (3.45 tlha de canavalia) obteniéndose por ende el mayor aporte de N al sistema (125 kg Nlha). Asumiendo que la mitad de este N que contiene la canavalia en su biomasa fue fijado y la otra mitad reciclado del disponible en el suelo, esto significa un aporte neto desde 35 a 70 kg Nlha al sistema. Además del aporte de N al sistema, el asocio de maíz con canavalia es una mejor alternativa que el maíz en monocultivo en zonas ganaderas, ya que, mejora la calidad del rastrojo en la época seca, dado que, el rastrojo de maíz es de muy baja calidad.El rendimiento del rastrojo del maíz no presentó diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos. Aunque el menor rendimiento se obtuvo con el tratamiento a los Odds en siembras de surco continuo. Al realizar una correlación entre el rendimiento y los otros componentes del rendimiento, se encontró que a mayor producción de la canavalia el índice de cosecha del maíz fue menor (r=-0.85, Prob< 0.01).González, A., E.Vargas, R.Gordón y N.De Gracia. 1989a. Evaluación de leguminosas intercaladas en el cultivo de maíz. En: Trabajos presentados de los Proyectos Colaborativos en Agronomía, Desarrollo y Mejoramiento de Gennoplasma en Maíz (Zea mays L). pp. 214-218.3. La producción de biomasa de la leguminosa es mayor mientras más temprano se siembra la canavalia y mayor es su densidad. La siembra a los 30 dds es muy tardia para la región, debido a la distribución de las lluvias.Gordón M., A. González, N. De Gracia, J. Franco, D. 2. La siembra simultánea de la canavalia en surcos continuos, es el tratamiento que mas reduce los rendimientos de maiz, mientras que, la siembra en surcos alternos es una alternativa, ya que, reduce poco el rendimiento de maiz y aporta 2.0 tlha de materia seca.CIDICO: Centro Internacional de Infonnación sobre Cultivos de Cobertura. 1990. Carta trimestral N°1. Apdo postal 3385. Tegucigalpa, Honduras. l. El efecto negativo del asocio sobre el rendimiento en monocultivo es menor mietnras más tardia es la fecha del asocio o mayor densidad de la leguminosa. Se realizó un experimento para evaluar la respuesta del maíz a tres dosis de N (O, 75 Y 150 kg N/ha), bajo tres sistemas de siembra en rotación del maíz con las leglUnÚlosas Canavalia ensifomús y Stizolobium deeringianlUn (MnclUla), además de Wla siembra sin leglUnÚlosas. Las leglUninosas fueron sembradas al inicio de la época lluviosa (mayo/1992) y el maiz en septiembre del núsmo año. También se evalnaron dos tipos de labranza lUlO consistió en incorporar las leglUninosas y malezas antes de la siembra y el otro en dejarlas sobre la superficie del suelo. Se utilizó un diseño de parcelas snb-dividillas (leglUninosas / labranza / N) en bloques al azar con tres repeticiones. Se encontró que hubo lUla respuesta altamente significativa por el efecto residual de las legmninosas, siendo más alto con CallaVaUa, luego con IlUlClUla y por ílltimo la parcela SÚl leglUninosa con rendimientos de 4.09, 3.09 Y 2.24 tlha, respectivamente. Esto nos indica que la siembra de las legumÚlosas favoreció el cultivo. La respuesta de la aplicación del N fne altamente sigJúficativa (2.44, 3.37 Y3.61 tilla) asi como la interacciónleglUninosas por dosis, ya que, en la parcela de mUCWla con rendinúentos de 2.21, 3.36 Y 3.70 tlha y sinlegwninosas 1.18,2.58 Y 2.95 tilla (para O, 75 Y 150 kgfN) la respuesta fue alta, núentras tlue con canavalia no (3.93, 4.16 Y 4.18 tilla, para los núsmos lúveles). En relación con el sistema de labranza el núsmo no mostró diferencias estadisticas aWlque el promedio de la parcelas SÚI úlcorporación de residuos fue mayor que las parcelas úlcorporatlas (3.26 y 3.02 tilla, respectivamente), esto se debió a que eu el área se presentó una seqnia durante el desarrollo del cultivo, lo que favoreció que en las parcelas con residuos se conservara mejor la poca hunledad existente. Se realizó un análisis econónúco para detemÚllar el óptúno, el cual varió segím el sistema. Para canavalia, nmcuna y sin legunúnosa la dosis ópwua de N fue de 54, 123 Y 139 kg/ha, respectivamente.El uso de leguminosas como abonos verdes es un método que se viene utilizando desde hace muchos años. Trabajos realizados por muchos investigadores informan de los beneficios de incorporar leguminosas de cobertura con el fin de incorporar N al sistema mediante la fijación biológica (Wade y Sánchez, 1983, Yost el al., 1985, Barreto el al., 1992). Bouldin el al. (1975) encontró que se pueden sustituir hasta 1 Coordinador Nacional de Maiz, IDIAP, Azuero. 2Investigadores de Maíz, IDIAP, Azuero. 3Socioeconomistas, IDIAP, Azuero. 4Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala. DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 106-110. 106 170 kglha de N, utilizando leguminosas de cobertura. El uso de la canavalia y la mucuna como aQono verde fue estudiado por Barreto el al. (1992), ellos reportan el factor que peritió relacionar la respuesta a N, bajo sistemas de abono verde fue la cantidad de N almacenado en la biomasa superficial de cada una de las leguminosas estudiadas.Este trabajo se realizó con el objetivo de determinar el valor de sustitución de N del aporte de abono verde de leguminosas sembradas 4 meses antes de la siembra del maiz en septiembre bajo dos tipos de labranza (incorporando la leguminosa o dejándola sobre la superficie del suelo como mantillo superficial bajo cero labranza) y evaluar la dinámica del N. Otro objetivo era evaluar los requerimientos de N en forma de urea para la producción del maiz en monocultivo bajo el sistema descrito.Se realizó un ensayo en la finca Río Hato Sur, en la provincia de Coclé, República de Panamá, a 25 m.s.n.m. El terreno era un suelo franco arcilloso con aproximadamente 5% de pendiente y con fertilidad de media a baja. El Cuadro 1 muestra las caracteristicas del suelo, y la Figura 1 la distribución mensual de la precipitación en la época del ensayo.Se evaluó la respuesta del maiz a 3 dosis de N (O, 75 y 150 kglha) en rotación con Canavalia ensiformis (canavalia) y Slizolobium deeringianum (mucuna) además de un tesigo sin leguminosas bajo dos tipos de labranza. Las leguminosas se sembraron al inicio de la época lluviosa (mayo 1992) y el maiz a fmes de agosto del mismo año 15 días después de chapearse las leguminosas y malezas presente. Los dos tipos de labranza consistieron en la incorporación con labranza convencional del rastrojo de las leguminosas y malezas presentes antes de la siembra del maiz, y el otro en dejar el rastrojo de la leguminosa como mantillo sobre el suelo bajo labranza cero. Los niveles de N se instalaron a fmes de agosto sobre las mismas parcelas usándose el híbrido de maiz P-8812.  El control de malezas se realizó con la aplicación de la mezcla de atrazina más pendimentalina a razón de 2.0 + 2.0 l/ha, con posteriores limpias manuales, por escapes del control de algunas malezas.La fertilización consistió de la aplicación de 60 kglha de P205 más 20 kglha de S (CaS04 como fuente de S) más la mitad del N al momento de la siembra (menos en la parcela de O kg de NIha), el resto del N aplicándose en forma de urea 35 dias después de la siembra (dds). Se tomaron datos del peso de las leguminosas al momento de chapearlas, contenido de N en la hoja de la mazorca al momento de la floración, número de plantas y mazorcas a la cosecha, rendimiento y porcentaje de humedad del grano.ArILimlArc se refiere a porcentaje de arena, limo y arcilla; Al, P, Mn, Fe, Zn y Cu expresados en uglml; K, Ca y Mg en meq/IOOg. M.O. se refiere a materia orgánica (%).Precipitación en Rio Hato desde agosto hasta diciembre de 1992 (mm/mes).El diseño experimental utilizado fue el de parcelas sub-sub-divididas en bloques al azar con tres repeticiones. La parcela principal lo contituyó el tipo de leguminosas, la sub-parcela fue el tipo de labranza (convencional y conservación), mientras que las subsub-parcelas los niveles de N: La parcela de labranza convencional consistió en una parcela que se le procedió a dar tres pases de un monocultor. La parcela de labranza de conservación consistió en una parcela que no se preparó, sólo se chapeó la leguminosa y/o maleza (según la sub-parcela) y posteriormente se le aplicó un herbicida quemante como el paraquat a razón de 2.0 lIha. Las unidades experimentales fueron de 4 surcos de maíz de 5 m de largo, separados a 0.75 m entre hileras 107 Adicional al análisis agronómico se le realizó un análisis económico continuo, a través de una función de respuesta cuadrática del rendimiento a la aplicación de diferentes dosis de N, incorporando tres variables \"dummy\" para medir los efectos de la mucuna y canavalia (dI y d2) y del tipo de labranza (d3).Los resultados del análisis estadístico y promedios del rendimiento de grano de maíz, peso de mazorcas y mazorcas por planta de los 18 tratamientos se observa en el Cuadro 2 y 3. Los resultados del análisis estadístico indicaron de que hubo una diferencia altamente significativa para todas estas variables. Cuadro 2.Análisis de varianza de las variables rendimiento de grano, número de mazorcas por planta y peso de mazorcas, Rio Hato, Panamá 1992-93. El resultado del análisis de laboratorio indicó un contenido de 2.93% y 3.63% de N en la mucuna y canavalia (tallos más hojas) al momento del chapeo en agosto, con una producción total de materia seca de 1.96 y 4.07 tlha, respectivamente. Esto indica un total de N aportado de 57 y 147 kg/ha, respectivamente. La canavalia produjo bastante materia seca más que la mucuna y tenía casi 0.5% de N adicional en su materia seca. La mejor adaptación de la canavalia posiblemente se deba a la escasez de lluvia que se dió en el período de crecimiento de las leguminosas, ya que la canavalia tiene reputación de tolerar muy bien la sequía, mientras que la mucuna es favorecida por ambientes muy lluviosos.Se encontró que hubo una respuesta altamente significativa por el efecto residual de las leguminosas. El rendimiento más alto de maíz se obtuvo en rotación con canavalia, luego con mucuna y por último en la parcela sin rotación con leguminosas. Los rendimientos promedio a través de dosis de N y tipos de labranza fueron 4.09, 3.09 Y 2.24 tIha, respectivamente. Este mismo orden se observó en los componentes del rendimiento peso de mazorca y número de mazorcas por planta, siendo sus diferencias 108 significativas al 5 y 10%, respectivamente, en el análisis combinado.La rotación de maíz con leguminosas favoreció el rendimiento del cultivo.La respuesta de la aplicación del N fue altamente significativa, con promedios a través de tipos de labranza y rotación de 2.44, 3.37 Y 3.61 tlha, para O, 75 Y 150 kg Nlha aplicado, respectivamente. En relación al peso de las mazorcas se observó que a medida que se reduce la cantidad de N el tamafio de la mazorca es menor. El nível de cero N es el factor que reduce más el número de mazorcas por planta, alrededor de un 20% de plantas abortaron las mazorcas, en comparación con los niveles de 75 y 150 kg con un 3 y 4% de aborto (Cuadro 3).También se observó que la interacción leguminosas x dosis de N fue signíficativa, ya que, la respuesta a N fue alta aún en la parcela bajo rotación con mucuna, en donde se obtuvieron rendimientos de 2.21, 3.36 Y 3.70 tlha y sin leguminosas 1.18, 2.58 Y 2.95 tlha, para las dosis de O, 75 Y 150 kgIN, respectivamente. La siembra en rotación con canavalia no presentó respuesta significativa a N con rendimientos de 3.93, 4.16 Y4.18 tlha, para los mismos niveles (Figura 2).  En relación con el sistema de labranza el mismo no mostró diferencias estadísticas aunque en promedio el rendimiento de la parcelas sin incOIporación de residuos fue mayor que en las parcelas incorporadas (3.26 y 3.02 t/ha, respectivamente).Esto posiblemente se debió a una sequía que se presentó durante el desarrollo del cultivo, lo que favoreció que en las parcelas con residuos se conservara mejor la poca humedad existente. Costa et al. (1990), encontraron que en parcelas en donde no se incorporaban las leguminosas rendían menos en las que si hubo incorporación, debido a que en en las primeras había mayores pérdidas de N.Se realizó un análisis de regresión entre el rendimiento y el porcentaje de N al momento de la floración, mostrando una relación positiva (Figura 3). No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre la interacción lineal y cuadrática del tipo de labranza con las dosis de N así como las interacciones cuadráticas del tipo de leguminosas y los niveles de N.N aplicado (kg/ha) Figura 2. Respuesta a N aplicado (kg/ha) promediados a través de tipos de labranza para rotación con canavalia, mucuna y un testigo sin leguminosas en Rio Hato, 1992. La parte (b) muestra la respuesta promedio.Reemplazando los valores de los parámetros estimados del modelo económico utilizado, se obtuvo la siguiente ecuación: De este modelo se obtuvieron seis funciones que explican las respuestas del N con los diferentes tipos de leguminosas y bajo los dos tipos de labranzas, permitiendo estimar los óptimos económicos. En la siembra del maíz sin rotación de leguminosas el óptimo ascendió a 139 kg de N/ha en tanto que para la rotación con mucuna y canavalia el mismo fue de 123 y 54 kg de N/ha, respectivamente. Esto representó un ahorro de 85 kg de N/ha entre las siembras con canavalia en comparación de las sin leguminosas (Herrera, et al. 1993). Esto se reflejó en un incremento de B/.316.49 en los beneficios netos asociados con la alternativa de aplicar N en rotación con canavalia sin incorporar, respecto a la alternativa de no rotar con leguminosas. A pesar de que la aplicación de N no interactuó con el tipo de labranza y por tanto no modifica los óptimos económicos; no obstante, los beneficios netos aumentaron entre un 6 y un 10% sin incorporar los residuos vegetales (leguminosas y/o malezas), respecto a incorporarlas. Para canavalia, mucuna y sin leguminosa la dosis óptima de N fue de 54, 123 Y 139 kg/ha, respectivamente. a:::1.La respuesta por el efecto residual de las leguminosas fue altamente significativa, Se obtuvieron rendiminentos de maíz de 4.09, 3.09 Y2.24 tIha en rotación con canavalia, mucuna y un tesigo sin leguminosa, respectivamente.2. La respuesta de la aplicación del N fue altamente significativa para los niveles de O, 75 Y 150 kglha (2. 44, 3.37 Y3.61  G. López', S. Rivera', S. Lozano' S. de Licona l y J. Bolal\\os1 RESUMEN En el Litoral Atlántico de Honduras los agricultores han adoptado la s.iembra de mucuna como frijol de abono dentro de sus sistemas de producción. Sin embargo, en otras regiones de Honduras con otras condiciones socioeconómicas y climáticas, la adopción de leguminosas de cobertura como abono verde ha sido lenta. El objetivo de este trabajo era evaluar varias alternativas de inserción de mucuna en los sistemas de producción de malz del área de Yoro, Honduras. En 1992 se instalaron 2 ensayos (Cuyamapa, Yoro) para evaluar el efecto sobre el malz en monocultivo (4.4 pVm 2 ) de asocio con mucuna a los O, 30, 60 Y90 dIas después de la siembra (dds). Debido a que el efecto del asocio es menor mientras más tardla la siembra, la densidad de mucuna fue de 2.2 pl/m 2 para los Odds, 4.4 pVm 2 a los 30 dds, 6.6 pVm 2 a los 60 dds y 8.8 pl/m 2 a los 90 dds. Se incluyó un testigo adicional de monocultivo con 6.6 pl/m 2 de malz. Todos los tratamientos recibieron 100 kg N/ha y 30 kg P20.,'ha, y se usó un disefto de bloques completos al azar con 3 repeticiones. Los resultados muestran un efecto neto promedio de 0.3 tlha por el uso de 6.6 pl/m 2 de malz versus 4.4 pVm 2 en monocultivo. Dentro de los asocios, en general, mientras más tardlo el asocio menor el efecto sobre el rendimiento de monocultivo. El asocio simultáneo redujo en promedio el rendimiento del monocultivo en -0.15 tlha, pero produce más de 2.5 tlh~de biomasa de mucuna allinal del ciclo del malz. Esta biomasa de mucuna contribuye al control de malezas y aporta materia orgánica y nitrógeno (más de 40 kg Nlha) para los siguientes ciclos. Se recomienda seguir evaluando estas alternativas asl como su efecto residual.La competencia entre plantas por espacio, luz, agua y nutrientes depende de la densidad y época de siembra, del arreglo espacial y de la interacción genotipo-ambiente. El efecto de competencia es más drástica cuando el aprovisionamiento de recursos disponibles es menor al de las necesidades de los cultivos en asocio (Vieira, 1985).Algunos estudios sobre el asocio simultáneo de mucuna (Slizolobium deeringianum) con maíz, reportan un efecto reductor en los rendimientos de 0.63 t/ha en comparación al sistema de monocultivo. En estas experiencias no se indica la realización de podas o despuntes a la leguminosa y al intercalarlas se utilizaron poblaciones iguales a las usadas en monocultivo (Zea el al., 1991;Lara el al., 1989).IInvestigadores de Malz, SRN, Honduras. 2Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala. La introducción de mucuna como abono verde en zonas bajo condiciones ambientales diferentes a las de bosque húmedo tropical, requiere de la identificación de la mejor época y densidad de siembra al asociarla con maiz. Ello es así porque la mucuna demanda para su óptimo establecimiento y desarrollo de abundantes lluvias durante los primeros meses después de la siembra. Así, el presente trabajo tuvo como objetivos evaluar el efecto de asociar mucuna a diferentes épocas y densidades de siembra sobre el rendimiento de maíz y sus componentes, estimar la cobertura del suelo y producción de biomasa de la leguminosa.Los ensayos se instalaron en las localidades de Cuyamapa y Los Homitos del Departamento de Yoro el 19 de junio y el 2 de julio de 1992, respectivamente. Se usó el disefio experimental de bloques completos al azar con 3 repeticiones. Se sembró la variedad HB-l04 a 0.9 m entre hileras y 0.5 m entre posturas. En el Cuadro 1 se describen los tratamientos evaluados.La densidad de maíz de 66,000 pl/ha se obtuvo dejando 6 plantas por metro lineal. La mucuna se sembró en medio de las hileras del maíz a una y dos plantas por postura cada 0.5 m para obtener las poblaciones de 22,000 y 44,000 pl/ha, respectivamente. La densidad de 66,000 pl/ha se logró sembrando una hilera de mucuna a 2 plantas por postura cada 0.33 m. Sembrando dos hileras de mucuna a dos plantas por postura cada 0.5 m se obtuvieron 88,000 pl/ha. Se realizaron controles de malezas manuales uno por localidad a los 30 días después de la siembra del maíz. En el Cuadro 2 se presenta el resultado del análisis de suelo de la localidad de Los Homitos.Los tratamientos recibieron una dosis equivalente a 100-30 kg/ha de N-P205. El fósforo se aplicó junto con el 50% de N a la siembra con chuzo. La diferencia de N se aplicó a los 30 días después de la siembra del maíz. La cobertura del suelo por la leguminosa se calculó cada 30 días después de su siembra hasta los 90 días mediante un marco de madera de 70 x 70 cms. En ambas localidades y por ocasión de la cosecha del maíz solamente fue necesario una chapia manual (poda) al tratamiento maíz y mucuna simultánea. Las variables en estudio fueron: rendimiento de maíz y sus componentes; cobertura, peso de biomasa seca de la leguminosa a los 140 días después de la siembra de maíz.Se realizó un análisis de la parte aérea de la mucuna, muestras tomadas a los 120 días despué~de sembrado el maíz. Los resultados del rendimiento en maíz se sometieron a un análisis económico por presupuesto parcial (CIMMYT, 1988).En el Cuadro 3 se observa que no hubo efectos significativos sobre el rendimiento del maíz por el asocio de mucuna en cualquiera de las épocas de siembra. Estos resultados sugieren que es posible el asocio simultáneo de maíz con mucuna, a bajas densidades de siembra de la leguminosa. La mayor producción de biomasa se obtuvo con el asocio simultáneo en Los Homitos y la siembra de mucuna 60 días después del maíz en la localidad de Cuyamapa con valores de 2.9 y 3.1 t/ha respectivamente.En el Cuadro 4 se presenta el contenido de nutrientes en la parte aérea de mucuna observándose valores diferenciados para fósforo y calcio por efecto de las diferentes épocas de siembra. Para los demás elementos no se observaron diferencias sobresalientes. Cuadro 3.-Medias de rendimiento t/ha y sus componentes por efecto de intercalar maíz y mucuna en diferentes épocas y densidades de siembra.Rend De los componentes de rendimIento se observaron diferenCIas para plantaSlm2 y mazorcaslm2. Este resultado se exphca por el hecho de haber diferencias de población de maíz en la parcela de monocultivo y en los asocios con mucuna. ILos Homitos. 2Cuyamapa.Porcentaje (%)Cuadro 4. Contenido de nutrientes de mueuna (hojas mas tallos) en diferentes épocas de siembra. Promedio dos repeticiones. Cuyamapa, Yoro.* En los Cuadro 5 se presentan los resultados del análisis económico.Para ambas localidades, la práctica de intercalar mucuna resultó más costosa inicialmente al compararla con el testigo maíz monocultivo. Sin embargo por tratarse de una tecnología que mostrará sus bondades a mediano plazo, es de esperar que en el ciclo residual, tanto el aporte de nutrientes así como su efecto sobre las propiedades fisicas del suelo y la población de maleza, reducirá los gastos en preparación de suelo y aplicación de fertilizantes químicos (Pascua, 1992) 3.93.53.9 CONCLUSIONES l. Estos resultados evidenciaron que es viable el asocio simultaneo de mucuna con maíz, utilizando baja densidad de siembra de la leguminosa sin reducir los rendimientos de maíz.2. La mucuna logró cubrir un 38% de suelo a los 60 días después de la siembra de maíz, en el asocio simultaneo.3. La parte aérea de mucuna aportó en promedio un 2.3 % de N; 0.48% de P; 0.15 de K; 2.4 % de Ca y 0.48 % de Mg 4. La práctica de asociar mucuna entre los cero y sesenta días después de sembrado el maíz produjo entre 2 y 3 Ton/ha de biomasa seca de la leguminosa.5. Inicialmente asociar mucuna en cualquier época después de siembra del maíz, resultó más costoso que el maíz en monocultivo. No cabe duda que proteger el suelo con los residuos del cldtivo anterior es lma práctica benéfica para la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agricolas en ladera. Durante 1991-92 se instalaron 10 ensayos en suelos de ladera con pendientes mayores al 30% y problemas de erosión y baja fertilidad en fmcas de agricultores de Opico, Texistequeque y Guaymango, El Salvador. El objetivo fue evaluar el efecto de O, 10, 20 Y 30 t/lla de residuos del ciclo anterior como mantillo sobre el rendinúento del sistema (maizmaicillo o maiz-frijol) en comparación con la práctica del agricldtor, tipificando los niveles predominantes de rastrojo. Los sistemas de maiz-maicillo y maiz-frijol dejan cerca de 8-10 y S-6 tJlta de resilluos, respectivamente. Todos los tratanúentos recibieron ISO kg N Y30 kg P 2 0 S /ha pero se estableció Wl testigo del agrictdtor con lOS kg N Y 60 kg P 2 0 S /ha, y se usaron los Iúbridos H-S3 de maiz, el maicillo 'Corona' y el frijol 'Rojo de Seda'. Se usó 1m diseño de bloques completos al azar con 3 repeticiones. Los rendinúentos de maiz a través de las 10 localidades fueron de 3.83, 4.0S, 4.1S y 4.19 tonllla para 0,10,20 Y30 tonllla de mantillo, respectivamente. El análisis por gráficas de estabilidad muestra que 10 y 20 tonlha de mantillo aumentan el rendinúento de maiz en 0.2S y 0.30 tonlha sobre el tratanúento sin mantillo a través de todos los ambientes evaluados. Niveles de 30 tonlha de mantillo mostraron lUla últeracción significativa de tratanúento*Iocalidad, telúel1l10 un efecto negativo en ambientes con alto potencial de rel1llillúento. No se detectó lUl efecto siglúficativo sobre el rendinúento de maicillo o frijol. Los lúveles de mantillo tuvieron efecto en peso de mazorca, pero no en pllm 2 , JllZ/m 2 o JllZ/pl. El testigo del agrictdtor (a ISO kg N/ha) riJldió sÚlúlar al trataJlúento con 10 ton/ha de mantillo, y 0.40 tonlha por arriba del núsmo trataJlúento con solamente lOS kg N/ha, mostrando lUla respuesta positiva a aplicaciones adicionales de N. La respuesta positiva en rendúlúento de maiz a lúveles de mantillo se debe últerpretar tomando en consideración los altos niveles usados de N (ISO kg/ha). Debido a que los residuos tienden a úunobilizar parte del N dispOlúble, aplicaciones de mantillo en sistemas con poca dispOlúbilidad de N pueden tener un únpacto negativo en la productividad del sistema.El Salvador ha sido pionero en la adopción de la labranza de conservación para la producción de maíz en laderas. En el área de Metalío-Guaymango, el uso de la labranza de conservación en un sistema de maízmaicillo, con manejo de rastrojos y la no-quema, ha sido adoptada y ampliamente difundida entre los los agricultores desde hace aproximadamente 15 años en 1 Investigador del Programa de Maíz, CENTA, El Salvador, 2 Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p.114-118. 114 unas 3 mil hectáreas de maíz en zona de laderas (Calderón el al., 1991). La efectividad de la practica de dejar el rastrojo como mantillo superficial para controlar la erosión y mejorar el balance hídrico se debe parcialmente al tipo de sistema de producción dominante en la zona. El sistema maíz-maicillo produce más de 10 tlha de rastrojo, 10 que permite un cierto pastoreo durante el verano dejando todaVÍa suficiente para proteger el suelo (Calderón el a/., 1991). La poca biomasa disponible y las necesidades de pastoreo en la época seca son las principales limitaciones a la adopción de esta practica en otras zonas.Existe una conciencia bastante generalizada que el manejo inapropiado e intensivo de los suelos de ladera ha tenido consecuencias severas en términos del deterioro del recurso base suelo. Se estima que más del 60% del maíz se siembra en condiciones de ladera en la región de Centro América y el Caribe. Existen reportes de tasas anuales de pérdida de suelo de más de 100 tlha/año en sistema maíz-frijol en suelos con pendientes de 30% en El Salvador (Sheng, 1982), y otros con niveles de 200 a 3600 tlha/año en laderas cultivadas en Guatemala (NRC, 1991).No cabe duda que proteger el suelo con los residuos del cultivo anterior es una práctica benéfica para la sostenibilidad de los sistemas agricolas en ladera dada su efectividad en controlar la erosión (Lal, 1984). Estudios diverso&. han mostrados que el mantenimiento de por 10 menos 60% del suelo cubierto por un mantillo vegetal reduce considerablemente el potencial de erosión (Stocking, 1988). Sin embargo, el manejo de los residuos como mantillo superficial del suelo requiere entendimiento de los procesos de descomposición del residuo y las relaciones C:N del residuo (Barreto, 1989). Aplicación de residuos con relación C:N altas pueden inmobilizar parte del N disponible (Barreto, 1989).Los objetivos de este estudio son evaluar el efecto de niveles de mantillo sobre el rendimiento del sistema maíz-maicillo y maiz-frijol en comparación con la práctica del agricultor.Los experimentos reportados se instalaron durante 1991 y 1992 en suelos de ladera con pendientes mayores al 30% y problemas de erosión y baja fertilidad en fincas de agricultores de Opico, Texistequeque y Guaymango, El Salvador, en. las áreas de influencia de las agencias del Ministerio de Agricultura (MAG). En 1991 se establecieron 6 ensayos (reportadas por Sosa el al., 1992), manteniéndose 4 de estas localidades con el mismo esquema de tratamientos en 1992 (Cuadro 1).Se evaluaron 6 tratamientos en un diseño de bloques completos al azar con 3 repeticiones por localidad. Se establecieron 4 niveles de mantillo: O, 10, 20, 30 Y el testigo con el nivel de mantillo dejado por el sistema a 150 kg Nlha y 30 kg P205fha, y un sexto tratamiento con la práctica del agricultor (nivel residuo del sistema con 105 kg Nfha y 60 kg P205fha). Se usó el residuo de maíz-maicillo del ciclo anterior fuente para los ensayos. Previo a la siembra se pesaron las cantidades de rastrojo necesario para los tratamientos de O a 30 tlha de mantillo. Se efectuó una cuantificación de los niveles de rastrojo en cada uno de los sitios experimentales para establecer los 2 tratamientos con estos niveles. Los sistemas de maíz-maicillo y maíz-frijol en Guaymango, Texistepeque y Opico dejan cerca de 8-10 Y 5-6 tonlha de residuos, respectivamente). Los rastrojos se aplicaron sobre la superficie limpia del terreno en las cantidades medidas. Al momento de la siembra se aplicó la mitad del N y todo el P (57 kglha P205), utilizando como fuente urea y la formula 16-20-0. A los 35 días después de la siembra se efectuó la segunda fertilización usando sulfato de amonia.Cuadro 1. Descripción de las localidades de los ensayos de niveles de mantí1lo en 1991-1992, El Salvador.Nombre Localidad SistemaPara el control de malezas se usó paraquat a una dosis de 1.2 kg i.a.fha. Las plagas del suelo fueron controladas con aplicaciones de Lorsban 2.5 g en una dosis de 32 kglha y las plagas del follaje con Tamaron 600 a razón de 1 ltlha. Se usaron los híbridos H-53 de maíz, el maicillo 'Corona' y el frijol 'Rojo de Seda'. Cada parcela fue de 10 surcos de 6 m de largo, sembrado a densidades promedios de 5.0 pUm 2 con 0.8 entre surcos y 0.4 m entre posturas con 2 plantas por postura. Se cosecharon los 8 surcos centrales para un área útil de 29 m 2 .Al momento de la cosecha, se determinó el número de plantas, mazorcas sanas y podridas, y se determinó el peso de campo y humedad de grano del maíz. Se estimaron los componentes estandares de rendimiento. Se tomó una muestra de 24 plantas al azar, cortándose estas al pie de la base, y determinando su peso para estimación de biomasa. El índice de cosecha se determinó como la proporción del grano en la biomasa después de descontar el olote. Se cosechó además el frijol y maicillo.Los experimentos para los cultivos de maízmaicillo y/o maíz-frijol se instalaron sobre-impuestos usando las mismas aleatorizaciones y planos de campo empleados en la fase maíz. El maicillo se sembró cerca de la floración del maíz a una densidad de 15 pUm 2 , y el frijol después de la dobla del maíz a una densidad de 20 pUm 2 dentro de los surcos del maíz a chuzo (una hilera con maicillo y dos hileras con frijol). El maicillo y frijol recibieron la fertilización del agricultor de 70 kg Nfha para maicillo y 40 kg Nfha para frijol. En ambos cultivos se usó urea como fuente, pero en el maicillo se aplicó la mitad a la siembra y la otra mitad a los 30 días, mientras que en el frijol se aplicó toda a la siembra. En el maicillo, se determinó número panojas y plantas, humedad y peso de grano. En frijol, se determinó el número de plantas, humedad de grano y peso de grano. Se realizó análisis de varianza por localidad y combinado. Se utilizó además un método gráfico de estabilidad basado en la regresión entre la media de cada tratamiento contra la media ambiental para ciertas variables. También se utilizó diagramas de dispersión del efecto neto haciendo comparaciones apareadas de interés. En cada sitio experimental se tomó una muestra de suelo a una profundidad de 0-10 cm para análisis de laboratorio de pH,. materia orgánica, textura, P, K, Yelementos menores.El Cuadro 2 muestra las medias de rendimiento y sus componentes para maíz, así como el rendimiento del cultivo relevo, maicillo y/o frijol a través de las 10 localidades. El rendimiento promedio de maíz fue de 3.83,4.05,4.15 Y4.19 tIha para niveles de O, 10, 20 Y 30 tlha de mantillo, sin detectarse una interacción trtatami~to x localidad significativa en el análisis combinado. No se detectó ningún efecto significativo del mantillo en la densidad dellantas o mazorcas ni en la prolificidad (pVm 2 , rnzIm o rnz/pl) pero sí en el peso promedio de mazorcas, que es una variable calculada dividiendo el peso de campo ajustado a 15% de humedad y descontando el olote entre el número total de mazorcas en la parcela. El pesrnz aumenta de 81 a 89 g/mz, o sea, 8 g/mz adicionales, que a una densidad de cosecha de 4.5 rnzIm 2 , significa un aumento en rendimiento de 0.36 tlha.La biomasa total del maiz combinada a través de las 10 localidades aumenta a medida que se aumenta el nivel. de mantillo aplicado, con una producción adicional de biomasa de más de 1.0 tlha con 30 tlha de mantillo en comparación en el testigo sin mantillo. No se detectan diferencias significativas en el rendimiento de maicillo y/o frijol residual. El testigo del agricultor (a 150 kg NIha) rindió similar al tratamiento con 10 tlha de mantillo, y 0.40 tlha por arriba del mismo tratamiento con solamente 105 kg NIha, mostrando una respuesta positiva a aplicaciones adicionales de N de los usados por los agricultores. La Figura 1 muestra un diagrama de dispersión del efecto neto sobre el rendimiento de maíz (tIha) de aplicaciones de 150 kg Nlha en comparación con 105 kg NIha a niveles de mantillo testigos del sistema del agricultor. En promedio, el rendimiento aumenta 0.40 tlha con una desviación estándar de 0.65 tlha con aplicaciones adicionales de 45 kg de NIha. Asumiendo un precio relativo de maíz/nitrógeno de 4 a 1, 45 kg/ha adicionales de N costarian el equivalente de 180 kg/ha de maíz, bastante por debajo del beneficio adicional de 400 kglha de maíz.El análisis gráfico muestra el efecto de niveles de mantillo sobre el rendimiento del maíz más claramente (Figura 2a,b,c). Solamente se muestra el efecto sobre rendimiento de grano, peso de mazorca y biomasa total de maíz. Promedio por localidad (tjha)      Sin embargo, la biomasa total del maíz parece aumentar consistentemente con 10, 20 Y 30 tJha de mantillo (Figura 2c). El hecho que la biomasa aumenta consistentemente con aplicaciones de O a 30 tlha de mantillo, pero el rendimiento de grano muestra interacción con el ambiente, sugiere que el índice de cosecha es el componente de rendimiento que muestra las interacciones.En estos ensayos, dada la aplicación de 150 kg N/ha, la variación en el potencial ambiental se debe fundamentalmente a problemas de balance hídrico y períodos de sequía. El hecho que la biomasa del maíz aumenta consistentemente con niveles de mantillo sugiere una mayor captación de agua por los niveles de 30 tlha de mantillo. Si asumirnos una eficiencia de producción de maíz por unidad de agua de 25 kg de biomasa por mm de agua transpirada, esto sugiere una captación adicional de 40 mm de agua en comparación con el testigo sin mantillo.Para rendimiento de grano, en el rango de ambientes evaluados (de 2 a 6 tlha de rendimiento potencial), adiciones de 10 o 20 tlha de mantillo aumentan el rendimiento de maíz en 0.25 y 0.30 tJha, respectivamente, sobre el testigo sin mantillo, sin interacción con el potencial ambiental (Figura 2a). Niveles de 30 tJha de mantillo sobre el testigo sin mantillo muestran una interacción con el potencial ambiental, aumentando el rendimiento casi l.Otlha en ambientes de bajo potencial de rendimiento, pero disminuyendolo en -0.3 tlha en ambientes con potencial superior a 5.0 tJha (Figura 2a).La Figura 2b muestra la misma relación para la variable peso de mazorca, mostrando que el efecto de niveles de mantillo sobre rendimiento es a través de mazorcas más grandes, sin cambios significativos en pVm 2 , mzJm 2 o mzJpl (datos no mostrados). Esta ganancia en tamañ.o de mazorca puede darse por un número mayor de granos o un mayor peso de grano. Al igual que con rendimiento, el peso de mazorca muestra las mismas ausencias de interaccción con el potencial ambiental para niveles de 10 Y 20 tlha, Yuna interacción significativa para los 30 tJha de mantillo.La Figura 3 muestra los componentes de rendimiento para las 10 localidades evaluadas durante 1991 y 1992. El rendimiento tuvo un rango de 2.0 a 5.0 tlha, asociados principalmente a variación en el peso de mazorca y en menor escala al número de mazorcas cosechadas (Figura 3). La densidad final de plantas se mantuvo relativamente constante por arriba de 5.0 pVm 2 , la densidad teórica buscada en los A niveles de 150 kg Nlha, el rendimiento de maíz se incrementa de una forma constante con niveles de 10 Y 20 tlha de mantillo en comparación al testigo sin mantillo, pero muestra interacción con niveles de 30 t/ha de mantillo.A estos niveles elevados, el rendimiento aumenta en ambientes con potencial de rendimiento bajo, pero disminuye en ambientes con alto potencial. Niveles de mantillo de la práctica del agricultor a 150 kg Nlha se asemejan a 10 t/ha de mantillo a la misma dosis de N.Se detecta un aumento significativo de 0.4 tlha con aplicaciones de 150 kg Nlha en comparación con 105 kg Nlha a niveles testigos de mantillo del sistema del agricultor. Esta respuesta física en rendimiento es rentable.REFERENCIAS Barreto, H. 1989. Cambios en propiedades qUlmlcas, patrones de fertilización y encalamiento en suelos bajo labranza cero. p. 43-70 en: Barreto et al. (eds) Labranza de conservación en maíz, CIMMYT-PROCIANDINO, México.Calderón, F., H. Sosa, V. Mendoza, G. Saín y H. Barreto. 1990. Aspectos institucionales de la adopción y difusión de la labranza de conservación en Metalío-Guaymango. En: Análisis de los Ensayos Regionales de Agronomía, ClMMYT, Guatemala. Lal, R. 1984. Soil erosion from tropical arable lands and its control. Adv. Agron. 37: 183-247. National Research Council. 1991 Sosa H. 1992. Efecto de la cantidad de mantillo en el rendimiento de los sistemas maíz-sorgo y maíz-frijol bajo labranza cero, El Salvador, 1991. pp. 105-114 en Síntesis de Resultados Experimentales del PRM 1991, Guatemala. Figura 3. Rendimiento de grano (t/ha), peso de mazorca (g/mz), número de mazorcas y plantas por m 2 promedios a través de tratamientos experimentales para las 10 localidades con ensayo de niveles de mantillo en 1991 y 1992, El Salvador. El número de la localidad se identifica con la descripción dada en el Cuadro 1.H.Sosa 1 , J.Pérez 2 , J.L. Zea 3 , M. Fuentes 3 , G. López 4 y J.Bolaños 5 RESUMEN En la región de Centro América cerca del 60% del maíz se siembra en suelos de ladera, tipicamente con métodos que erosionall rápidamellte los suelos. Ante este cOlltexto, el PRM ha impulsado investigación sobre la labranza de conservación usando de los residuos del cultivo anterior como mantillo superficial. Debido al potencial de iwuobllizaCÍón de parte del N dlsp0lÚble por la descomposición delmautillo, el objetivo de este trabajo era enfocarse en esta interacción. En 1992 se úlstalaron 8 ensayos regionales con dlstúItos IÚveles de mantillo (O, 5 Y 10 ton/ha) a varias dosis de N (O, 100 Y 150 kg N/ba en Honduras y Nicaragua y O, 75 Y 150 kg Nlba en Guatemala). A pesar que los tratanlÍentos específicos variaron un poco en cada pals, el análisis permitió evaluar la respuesta a mWltillo en flUlción de la dosis de N aplicada. Se encontró Wla fuerte relación Ilegativa entre el efecto neto delmwltillo y el potencial ambielltal, y aplicaciones de 5 o 10 ton/ba de mantillo tuvieron un efecto sÚlillar a iguales dosis de N. El efecto neto del mantillo (5 o 10 tOIl/ba) sobre el rendúllÍento del maÍZ (cero mantillo) varió en fWlción de la dosis de N y del potencial ambiental. Con bajas dosis de N (O Y 75 kg Nlba) este fue de Y=-0.04-0.22*X, y con altas dosis de N (100 Y 150 kg N/ba) esta fue de Y=0.63-0.11*X. En wllbientes con potencial ambiental de 2.0 a 3.0 ton/ba, usar mantillo con bajas dosis de N reducen el rendúllÍento cerca de -0.60 tonlba, pero usarlo con altas dosis de N úlcrementan el rendÚllÍento cerca de 0.35 ton/ha. En ambientes de 4.0-5.0 ton/ba, usar mantillo con bajos niveles de N reduce el rendinlÍento más de -1.0 ton/ba y con altos IÚveles de N lo aWllenta ell 0.15 ton/bao Los resultados sugieren que recomendar el uso de mWltillo SÚl considerar la dosis de N puede tener bnpactos negativos ell el rendÚllÍento del maÍZ.En la región de Centro América cerca del 60% del maíz se siembra en suelos de ladera, típicamente con métodos que degradan y erosionan rápidamente los suelos. Ante este contexto, el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) ha impulsado investigación sobre la respuesta del maíz a la labranza de conservación usando de los residuos del cultivo anterior como mantillo superficial (Sosa, 1992;Sosa y Bolaños,. 1993). Existen esfuerzos de transferir el manejo de rastrojos como mantillo superficial a otras regiones de la región.1 Investigador de Maíz, CENTA, El Salvador. 2 Investigador de Maíz, CNIGB, Nicaragua. 3 Investigadores de Maíz, ICTA, Guatemala. 4 Investigador de Maíz, SRN, Honduras. 5 Agrónomo Regional para Centro América y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala. Sin embargo, la aplicación de niveles de mantillo al suelo puede alterar profundamente muchos procesos (Barreto, 1989). Los cambios en las relaciones de mineralización e inmobilización del N como resultado de la acumulación diferencial, en el perfil del suelo, de la materia orgánica bajo labranza cero, han sido documentados, y en general indican que el potencial de inmobilización bajo labranza cero es mayor (Barreto, 1989). En muchos casos, más de la mitad del N aplicado en el fertilizante se inmobiliza bajo labranza cero en comparación con la labranza convencional (Barreto, 1989). Estos mismos reportes indican que la inmobilización se da en los primeros 7-10 días después de la aplicación del fertilizante, implicando que la toma de nutrientes por el cultivo puede verse afectada en los estadios iniciales del desarrollo, con impactos negativos en la productividad.Es importante resaltar la importancia de la relación C:N del rastrojo para entender la mineralización de los residuos vegetales y la disponibilidad de N bajo labranza cero (Barreto, 1989). La relación C:N del residuo de maíz-maicillo oscila entre 60-80, en comparación con los residuos de leguminosas de cobertura, que tienen C:N entre 15-20. Cuando los residuos tienen C:N altos, la descomposición de estos tiene una demanda fuerte de N, 10 que puede causar una inmobilización del N disponible en el suelo. Aplicaciones de residuos con C:N inferiores a 20 resultan en una mineralización neta de N durante la descomposición de estos. Debido a que los residuos de maíz-maicillo tardan más de 6 meses en descomponerse, esto significa una inmobilización importante del N disponible para el cultivo de maíz. Estudios a largo plazo sugieren que la baja disponibilidad del N causada por la inmobilización es temporal estab1eciendóse un nuevo equilibrio en las relaciones de mineralización e inmobilización del suelo (Barreto, 1989). Por tanto, el objetivo de este trabajo es enfocarse en la interacción entre niveles de mantillo por niveles de N a través de distintos ambientes de la región. Otro objetivo es examinar las bases agronómicas y fisiológicas de la posible interacción entre mantillo y dosis de N.Se establecieron ensayos en las localidades de Jutiapa y La Máquina en Guatemala, 2 ensayos en Texistepeque en El Salvador, Yoro en Honduras, y San Cristóbal y Masatepe en Nicaragua en 1992. Los ensayos de Jutiapa, La Máquina y San Cristóbal se establecieron en campos experimentales, mientras que los de Texistepeque, Yoro y Masatepe en campos de agricultores. Se evaluaron varias dosis de N (O, 100 Y 150 kg Nlha en Honduras y Nicaragua; y O, 75 Y 150 kg Nlha en Guatemala, y solamente O y 150 kg NIha en El Salvador) en un arreglo factorial incompleto con dosis de mantillo (O, 5 Y 10 tlha para todos los ensayos) (Cuadro 1). A pesar que los tratamientos específicos variaron un poco en cada país, el análisis permitió evaluar la respuesta a mantillo en función de la dosis de N aplicada, y vice versa. Todos los tratamientos recibieron 30 kg P2051ha. Se utilizó la fuente de fertilizante común en cada localidad. Cada parcela fue de 6 surcos de 5 m de largo en surcos a 0.8 m y posturas a 0.4 m con 2 plantas por postura para una densidad teórica de 5.3 pIJm 2 . A la cosecha solamente se usaron los 4 surcos centrales. Se usó la variedad de maíz recomendada para cada localidad, tratándose la semilla para control de plagas de suelo, y manteniéndose el cultivo libre de malezas, plagas y enfermedades, según el caso. Al momento de la cosecha, se determinó el número de plantas, mazorcas sanas y podridas, el peso de campo y la humedad de grano. Se estimaron los componentes estandares de rendimiento. Se tomó una muestra de 24 plantas cortándose al pie de la base, y determinando su peso seco para estimación de biomasa. El índice de cosecha se estimó como la proporción del grano en la biomasa total después de desontar el olote.Se realizó análisis de varianza por localidad. Se extractaron los tratamientos en común para un análisis combinado. Sín embargo, se usó el análisis gráfico de diagrama de dispersión de diferencias entre tratamientos apareados de interés. Se incluyeron además los tratamientos apareados de interés de los ensayos reportados por Sosa y Bolaños (1993) sobre el efecto de dosis de mantillo sobre el rendimiento de maíz-maicillo y maíz-frijol en 10 localidades de El Salvador en 1991-1992. El Cuadro 2 presenta la estructura de tratamientos de estos ensayos. El Cuadro 3 resume las comparaciones apareadas que incluye el análisis gráfico. Se hicieron comparaciones apareadas entre los siguientes tratamientos: a) efecto de 10 tlha de mantillo en comparación con OtIha de mantillo a 150 kg N (trt 2 -trt 1 en 10 loes del Cuadro 2), (trt 3 -trt 1 en 2 locs en Texistepeque del Cuadro 1), 2 loes en Guatemala en 1992), a 100 kg N/ha (3 localidades en Nicaragua y Honduras en 1992), y a Oy 75 kg N/ha (2 localidades en Guatemala en 1992). b) Efecto de 5 tlha de mantillo en comparación con O tlha de mantillo a 150 kg N (10 localidades de 1991-1992 (trt 5 -trt 1 en 10 locs del Cuadro 2), (trt 2 -trt 1 en 2 loes en Texistepeque del Cuadro 1), (trt 6 -trt 3 en 2 locs en Guatemala en 1992), a 100 kg N/ha (trt 4 -trt 2 en 3 localidades en Nicaragua y Honduras en 1992), ya O y 75 kg N/ha (trt 5 -trt 2 Ytrt 4 -trt 1 en 2 localidades en Guatemala). Estas comparaciones se hicieron para rendimiento de grano de maíz y los componentes de rendimiento.A pesar que los tratamientos específicos variaron un poco en cada país, el análisis por diferencias permitió evaluar la respuesta a mantillo en función de la dosis de N aplicada. La Figura 1 muestra el efecto neto de aplicar 5 o 10 tlha de mantillo en comparación con maíz sin mantillo a dosis altas de N (lOO o 150 kg N/ha) o dosis bajas de N (O o 75 kg N/ha) para rendimiento, pllm2, mzJm2, mzJpl, peso de mazorca y biomasa total a través de diversas comparaciones apareadas en 17 ensayos en Centro América en 1991 y 1992. En la mayoria de los casos, no hubo grandes diferencias significativas entre los niveles de 5 o 10 tIha de• mantillo, a pesar que la Figura 1 muestra distintos símbolos y regresiones para cada nivel de mantillo para ilustración del lector. Sin embargo, existieron grandes diferencias con dosis de N, clasificadas en bajas (O y 75 kg N/ha) y altas (100 y 150 kg N/ha) (símbolos abiertos vs. cerrados).A pesar que en la Figura 1 se incluyen símbolos y regresiones para 5 y 10 tlha y dosis altas y bajas de N, debido a la dispersión de los datos quizás la media y la desviación estándar son estadísticas descriptivas más apropiadas que la linea de regresión. El Cuadro 4 presenta la media y desviación estándar del efecto combinado de 5 o 10 tIha de mantillo a ambas dosis de N para las variables estudiadas, debido a que el efecto de 5 y 10 tlha no presentan diferencias. 121 Cuadro 4. Media y desviación estándar para el efecto neto de las comparaciones apareadas entre 5 o 10 tlha de mantillo sobre maíz sin mantillo a dosis bajas (O, 75 kg N/ha) y altas (100, 150 kg N/ha) de N a través de 17 ensayos en Centro América, 1991América, -1992 Para rendimiento, dosis de 5 o 10 tIha de mantillo a niveles altos de N tuvieron un efecto promedio positivo de 0.19 tIha, pero decreciente a través de un rango de potencial ambiental de 2 a 6 t/ha. En ambientes de 2 tIha, el efecto es neto de 0.52 t/ha, pero en ambientes de 6 t/ha, el efecto es casi cero (Figura 1, Cuadro 4). En contraste, con niveles bajos de N, el efecto del mantillo fue en promedio negativo de -0.81 tlha en comparación con maíz sin mantillo a dosis equivalentes de N, y este efecto negativo se incrementó a medida que el potencial ambiental aumentó.En ambientes de bajo potencial de rendimiento, mantillo con bajas dosis de N pueden reducir el rendimiento en ..(J.7 t/ha (cerca de 30%), y más de 1.0 tlha en ambientes con rendimientos superiores a 5.0 tIha (25%).Un análisis de las causas en los componentes de rendimiento sobre el efecto neto del mantillo revela hechos interesantes (Figura 1). A altas dosis de N, el mantillo no afecta la densidad ¡mal de plantas (pllm 2 ), de mazorcas (mzJm 2 ) ni el número de mazorcas por planta (mzJpl) significativamante. Adiciones de mantillo a dosis bajas de N sí reducen considerablemente la densidad ¡mal de plantas (..(J.49 pllm 2 ) y de mazorcas (-0.57 mzJm 2 ), pero sin afectar el número de mazorcas por planta. En algunos casos, se pierde hasta más de 1.0 pllm 2 o mzJm 2 (lO mil pllha Y mzJha) con adiciones de mantillo a dosis bajas de N, en especial en ambientes de bajo potencial de rendimiento. Es de notar que estos ambientes ya de hecho se encuentran limitados por una baja densidad de población, y el efecto del mantillo aún reduce más la densidad fmal. En el caso de la prolificidad, es interesante notar que el mantillo no afecta consistentemente a esta variable a distintas dosis de N. En el caso de muchos otros estreses ambientales, como la sequía, baja fertilidad, etc., este parámetro es muy sensitivo (Bolaños y Barreto, 1990). Se nota un efecto 'muy marcado del mantillo a distintas dosis de N sobre el peso promedio de las mazorcas.En promedio, adiciones de mantillo a dosis bajas de N reducen el peso promedio de mazorcas en -5.1 g/mz, mientras que lo aumenta 3 g/mz a dosis altas de N.En el caso de la biomasa total del maíz, el efecto neto de mantillo a dosis altas de N es positivo, pero decreciente, a medida que aumenta el potencial ambiental. En ambientes de bajo potencial ambiental, el mantillo a dosis altas de N aumenta la producción de biomasa en más de 1.0 t/ha. A dosis bajas de N, el mantillo tiene un efecto bastante negativo sobre la productividad, al ib'Ual que con rendimiento y muchos de los componentes de rendimiento. En ambientes con potencial superior a 5.0 t/ha, el efecto neto del mantillo sin N puede reducir la biomasa en más de 2 t/ha. En promedio, el mantillo a dosis altas de N aumenta la biomasa en 0.40 t/ha, pero la reduce en 1.73 t/ha a dosis bajas de N. El efecto del mantillo sobre el índice de cosecha es menor, a dosis altas aumentandolo en 0.5% y disminuyendolo en -0.5% a dosis bajas de N, consistente con la ausencia de efecto sobre el índice de prolificidad (Cuadro 4).Un análisis de los efectos netos del mantillo penniten especular sobre los posibles mecanismos que controlan la interacción entre mantillo y dosis de N. En ambientes con alta aplicación de N, el sistema se encuentra limitado por otros factores, posiblemente el balance hídrico. El incremento detectado en la biomasa total sugiere un aumento en la captación hídrica. Las dosis altas de N superan las posibles limitaciones impuestas por una inmobilización del N disponible en el sistema. Sin embargo, a dosis bajas de N, el efecto neto del mantillo es negativo por -0.81 t/ha, efecto que parece aumentar a medida que aumenta el potencial ambiental. A bajas dosis de N el mantillo reduce fuertemente el número de pl/m 2 y por ende el número de mz/m 2 (5 mil mz/ha menos). Sin embargo, hay poco efecto del mantillo a dosis bajas de N en el peso de mazorcas, en la prdlificadad (mz/pl), o en el índice de cosecha. Es notorio el marcado efecto neto negativo en la producción de biomasa promedio de -1.73 t/ha por adiciones de mantillo a bajas dosis de N. Este efecto sugiere una 123 reducción marcada en la eficiencia fotosintética del cultivo y su tasa de crecimiento, ya que el mantillo aumenta la captación hídrica del sistema.En ambientes de 2.0 t/ha de potencial de rendimiento (5.0 a 6.0 t/ha de biomasa), el maíz requiere de 100 a 120 kg N/ha para sostener el 2% de contenido de N en su biomasa. Si asumimos que el suelo puede mineralizar de 60 a 80 kg/ha naturalmente, el fertilizante aplicado con dosis altas (más de 100 kg N/ha) es suficiente para sostener la descomposición del rastrojo además de la demanda por el cultivo. Sin embargo, a dosis bajas de N el sistema se vuelve limitado por la baja disponibilidad de N. En ambientes con potencial de rendimiento aún mayor, por ejemplo, cercano a 5.0 t/ha de grano (biomasa de 10 a 12 t/ha), el cultivo tiene una demanda total de N de 200 a 240 kg/ha. Adiciones de rastrojo con bajas dosis de N en sistemas con tal demanda de N se verán fuertemente limitados por la disponibilidad de N, con consecuencias en la productividad. alcanzable.A'-estos balances preliminares hay que añadir la demanda de N por el cultivo de relevo, presente en muchos de los sistemas estudiados. Aquí el sistema se ve limitado por los bajos niveles de N, además de las posibles limitaciones por efectos hídricos. Barreta, H. 1989. Cambios en propiedades químicas, patrones de fertilización y encalamiento en suelos bajo labranza cero. pp. 43-70 en H.J. Barreta et al., (Eds), Labranza de Conservación en Maíz, PROCIANDINO-CIMMYT, México. Bolaños, J. YH. Barreta. 1990. Análisis de los componentes de rendimiento de los ensayos regionales de agronomía, 1991. pp. xx en Análisis de Resultados Experimentales de Agronomía, 1990, Guatemala. Sosa, H. 1992. Efecto de la cantidad de mantillo en el rendimiento de los sistemas de maíz-sorgo y maíz-frijol bajo labranza cero, El Salvador, 1991. pp. 105-114 en Síntesis de Resultados Experimentales del PRM 1991, Guatemala.Sosa, H. YJ. Bolaños. 1993. Respuesta del maíz-maicillo y maíz-frijol a distintos niveles de mantillo bajo labranza de conservación. p. 114-118 en Sintesis de los Resultados Experimentales del PRM 1992, Vol. 4, Guatemala.y Azufre en la Región de Azuero, Panamá 1989-1992 R. Gordón l , N. De Gracia\\ A. González\\ J. Franco l , A. de Herrera 2 y W. Raun 3   Durante los últimos cuatro allos se han realizado en la Región de Azuero en Panamá, 39 ensayos exploratorios de malz, para observar la respuesta a P variando fuentes, métodos de aplicación y dosis. Además se evaluó la respuesta de la aplicación de S. El disello experimental usado fue el de bloques completos al azar con tres repeticiones. Los tratamientos evaluados consistieron de tres fuentes de P (Roca Fosfórica, Super Fosfato Triple y Fórmula), dos métodos de aplicación (chuzo y voleo) y diferentes dosis de aplicación de P. Se incluyeron otros tratamientos, para evaluar el efecto de combinar yeso con P juntos en una misma banda y la respuesta de la aplicación de S. La ganancia promedio en rendimiento calculada a través de los 11 experimentos del Ciclo A, utilizando 30, 60 Y 90 kg P,O/ha fue de 0.52 ± 0.64,0.79 ± 0.81 y 0.48 ± 0.55 tlha, respectivamente. En el Ciclo B y C las ganancias de la aplicación de P fueron menores que en el primer ciclo. Analizando la respuesta de P en los ensayos nacionales se observa que la mayorla es positiva en todos los niveles evaluados, lo que comprueba que el cultivo responde a la aplicación de este elemento. La respuesta al P usando como fuente la RF fue superada por el SFT en el primer ciclo de evaluación (Ciclo A). En el Ciclo B se observó que la tendencia de las respuestas es lo contrario, la RF supera al SFT en la mayorla de las localidades. La aplicación de P junto con yeso en una misma banda no fue significativa en el Ciclo A, en comparación con la aplicación de ambos elementos por separados. En el tercer ciclo (Ciclo C) se observó los beneficios de aplicar el yeso y el P juntos en una misma banda. Se encontró que la ganancia promedio de aplicarlos juntos fue de 0.28±0.34 t/ha Se encontró respuesta a la aplicación de P en el cultivo de malz. El 82, 91 Y 100% de los ensayos mostraron respuestas fisicas o positivas en rendimiento a las aplicaciones de 30, 60 y 90 kg/ha utilizando como fuente el 8FT respectivamente, sin embargo, la proporción de respuesta económicas fue de 64, 73 Y 37% a las mismas dosis, por lo que se recomienda su aplicación entre 30 y 60 kg P,Oslba. La respuesta a la aplicación de S fue significativa, es menor de 0.5 tlha pero consistente a través de todos los allos y localidades.Según estudios realizados en el Instituto de Investigación Agropecuaria de Panamá (IDIAP), se ha podido determinar que la mayoria de los suelos en Panamá tienen niveles bajos de P y se espera que muestren una respuesta positiva a la aplicación de este elemento (Name y Cordero, 1987). De igual forma se tiene evidencias de la respuesta del cultivo de maíz a la aplicación del S en los suelos de la Región de Azuero (Gordón el al, 1989a, 1989b, 1991). Sin embargo, la 'Agrónomos, 'Economista IDIAP, Centro Regional de Azuero, Panamá y 'Profesor Asistente Oklahoma State University, USA.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL 4 (1993), p. 124-136. 124 evaluación de métodos de aplicación de P en combinación con otros nutrientes no han recibido mucha atención, especialmente las aplicaciones consolidadas en banda, bajo el sistema de labranza de conservación, con uso de residuos como mantillo.Los trabajos de Lindsay (1979) indican que la inclusión de cationes tales como NH/, K+, Ca++ y Mg++ en los fertilizantes facilita que entren a formar parte de los productos iniciales de reacción con el fertilizante fosfórico. El fosfato monocálcico (Ca(H2P04)2.H20) la fuente principal de P en super fosfato simple (SFS) y Super fosfato triple (SFn contienen suficiente Ca para precipitar la mitad del P como fosfato dicálcico (FD) o fosfato dicálcico dihidratado (FDD) (Lindsay, 1979). La solubilidad del FD se incrementa cuando el sulfato de amonio se aplica junto con una fuente de P-ortofosfato (Starostka y Hill, 1955). Miller el al. (1970) demostraron que la disminución del pH en la rizósfera como resultado de la absorción de NH/, podría aumentar la relación de H 2 P0 4 '/HP0 4 ~Yasí incrementar la disponibilidad del P en el suelo.La RF presenta ciertas ventajas en suelos ácidos, principalmente una mayor disponibilidad debido a su mayor solubilidad bajo condiciones ácidas. La acidez del suelo es el factor principal que determina la disponibilidad del P a partir de la RF, ya que, a pH bajo se favorece la disolución del apatito (Joos y Black, 1950). Otra ventaja que existe en algunas áreas es que el precio de la roca es de 50 a 75 % más barata que otras fuentes tradicionales de P. Aún al considerar el pH como el factor mas importante con relación a la disponibilidad de RF en el suelo, trabajos realizados por Chu el al. (1962), demostraron que la textura y la cantidad de Fe en los suelos afectaba la eficiencia del uso del P a partir de esta fuente.En 1988, se iniciaron ensayos de fertilidad de suelos por el Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) con el objetivo principal de estudiar la respuesta a aplicaciones de distintas fuentes y dosis de P y S, Y desde 1990 el Programa de Maíz del IDIAP incluyó evaluaciones de diferentes dosis de P y S en este cultivo.De manera general los objetivos de estos trabajos fueron: 1) Evaluar la respuesta del maíz a diferentes dosis/ha de P y S; 2) Estimar el efecto de aplicar S como sulfato de calcio (yeso) junto con el P en forma localizada en comparación a P localizado y al S aplicado al voleo; 3) Evaluar la roca fosfórica (RF) como una fuente alternativa de P; 4) Estimar diferencias en la eficiencia del uso de la RF en relación al SFT; y S) Evaluar la respuesta del maíz a aplicaciones de S como Sulfato de Calcio.En 1989, 1990 Y 1991 se realizaron 3, 4 Y 4 experimentos respectivamente, para evaluar la respuesta a P en el cultivo de maíz (Ciclo A). De estos 11 experimentos 8 (2 de 1989, 3 de 1990 y 3 de 1991) pasaron a ser evaluados en ensayos residuales de segundo ciclo (Ciclo B). Luego a 4 de ellos se les evaluó en un tercer ciclo residual (Ciclo C) (3 de 1990 y 1 de 1989).La descripción de los tratamientos se presenta en el Cuadro 1. Estos\",tratamientos se aplicaron en el primer ciclo del cultivo (Ciclo A). Las fuentes de P evaluadas fueron: la roca fosfórica (RF) (0-30.S-0), la fórmula común utilizada en el país (FOR) (15-30-8) y el super fosfato triple (SFT) (0-46-0). Las dosis de 30 y 60 kg de P20S/ha y la dosis de S se evaluaron con dos métodos de aplicación, uno al voleo en forma superficial sobre la hilera de maíz (sin incorporación) al momento de la siembra y otro aplicado en chuzo (banda) también a la siembra. En los dos últimos años se incluyó la dosis de 90 kg de PzOs/ha. Todos los tratamientos llevaban 40 kg (1989) Y 20 kg de S/ha (1990 y 1991, respectivamente) en forma de yeso (CaS0 4 ). Todo el yeso fue aplicado chuzeado junto al P y/o al voleo. Se aplicó 100 kg N/ha un SO% al momento de la siembra y el resto a los 35 días después de la siembra (dds).En los ciclos residuales (Ciclos B y C) a todos los tratamientos se le aplicó únicamente nitrógeno, a razón de 100 kg/ha en forma de urea, a excepción del testigo del agricultor (TAGR), el cual llevaba todos los años la dosis de 227 kg de 15-30-8/ha más 227 kg de urea. En el Cuadro 2 se reporta el análisis del suelo de las localidades en donde se realizaron estos ensayos y la descripción taxonómica de estos.  El diseño experimental utilizado en estos años fue de bloques completos al azar con 3 repeticiones por localidad. El tamaño de las parcelas fue de 4 (1989), Y 5 surcos de 5 m de largo (1990 y 1991). La población de maíz fue aproximadamente 53,000 plantas/ha; ésto se consiguió con una distancia de siembra de 0.75 m entre hileras y 0.50 m entre golpes con dos plantas por golpe. La semilla fue tratada con el insecticida furatiocarb a razón de 8 g La.lha. Se realizó un control adecuado de malezas en cada ensayo con una aplicación de una mezcla de atrazina más pendimentalina en dosis de 2 + 2 l/ha, con posteriores limpias manuales, por escapes del control de algunas malezas.Se realizaron 16 experimentos en la Región en el período de 1990 a 1992 (3 en 1990, 7 en 1991 y 6 en 1992) en diferentes localidades de Herrera y Los Santos. El diseño experimental utilizado fue el de bloques completos al azar con tres repeticiones. La dosis de P evaluadas en 1990 fueron de 50 y 100 kg/ha. En 1991 se evaluaron las dosis de 30, 60, 90, Y 120 kg P20/ha. En el 92 las dosis fueron de 20, 40 60 Y 80 kg P 2 0/ha. El tamafto de las unidades experimentales consistió de una parcela de cuatro surcos de 5.5 m de largo. La población de maíz fue de aproximadamente 53,000 plantas/ha.En el análisis de los experimentos se utilizó la diferencia en rendimiento entre los tratamientos de fertilización y el testigo sin P, graficado en función del potencial de rendimiento ambiental (media general del 126 ens~yo en esa localidad). Una respuesta positiva (ublca~a en la parte superior del eje cero) indica que el tratar~llento con fertilización superó al testigo en la localidad evaluada. Una diferencia con valor cero indica que los dos tratamientos rindieron igual en esa localidad. A la muestra de diferencias para cada dosis de fertilizante se le determinó el promedio y su desviación estándar para poder cuantificar la probabilidad de respuesta económica normalizada con respecto a la no aplicación, utilizando la metodología descrita for Eskridge y Mumm (1992), citada por Córdova et al., (1993).Un primer nivel de análisis consistió en evaluar la consistencia de los efectos experimentales en términos económicos. Para esto se determinó el porcentaje y cuantificó la probabilidad de encontrar respuestas que están por arriba de un aumento crítico en rendimiento para las diferentes dosis de P fertilizante.Este es el incremento mínimo en rendimientos de maíz necesario para compensar el aumento en costos totales implicados por el cambio tecnológico de fertilización con P. El incremento en rendimiento mínimo para cada dosis se calculó de la forma siguiente: Donde Q es la cantidad de nutrimentos (P O) por unidad de área; rp es la relación de precios ~elativos entre el nutrimento (P 2 0 S ) y el producto (maíz). La relación de precios relevante se calcula como (Jauregui y Sain, 1990).Donde P p es el precio de campo del P 2 0 S (0.79$ /kg); CA es el costo de aplicación (0.05$ /kg); R es la tasa mínima de retomo (15 %); PCm es el precio de campo del maíz (0.19$ /kg) Y oc es el porcentaje de ajuste estimado en los rendimientos experimentales (10 %) Un segundo nivel de análisis consistió en la evaluación económica de las diferentes alternativas tecnológicas, utilizando la técnica de presupuesto parcial y el análisis marginal, que relaciona los beneficios netos y los costos que varían asociados a cada tratamiento. Este análisis se efectuó de manera parcial tomando algunos tratamientos que fueron repetidos por varios aftoso Consistió básicamente, en comparaciones específicas, por ejemplo: entre fuentes de P, dosis de 8FT, y entre la mejor dosis de P y la práctica del agricultor (TAGR).De acuerdo a la identificación realizada, los suelos en donde se realizaron estos ensayos indican que son del orden Alfisol sub-orden ustalf. De todas las localidades, La Honda es la que presenta más baja precipitación con menos de 300 mm por afio, a excepción de 1990. En las otras localidades la precipitación osciló entre 300 y 800 mm por afio. En el afio 1991 los rendimientos se vieron drásticamente reducidos por la intensa sequía que se observó en la región. Durante el afio 1992 se observaron períodos de escasa precipitación (Cuadro 3). El análisis del suelo de todos estos ensayos indica que son suelos que van de ácidos a ligeramente ácidos (pH 5.6 a 5.9). El contenido de P es variable observándose valores que van de 1.2 a 5.7 J.lg/ml, lo que podría explicar el porqué en ciertas localidades la respuesta a este elemento es mayor que en otras. En general son suelos con muy baja toxicidad de aluminio y bajo contenido de materia orgánica. (Cuadro 2)Los promedios de rendimiento para los tratamientos en común y las diferentes localidades en cada experimento se presentan en el Cuadro 5. El análisis estadístico preliminar indicó que el SFT a las diferentes dosis evaluadas fue el fertilizante que presentaba la mayor consistencia en las respuestas a través _de los diferentes ensayos en donde se evaluó el primer ciclo (Ciclo A) y por esta razón se uso para ilustrar la respuesta al P. En todos los afios la respuesta a la aplicación de P fue altamente significativa, observándose incrementos hasta 2.0 t/ha, dependiendo de la localidad.La ganancia promedio en rendimiento calculada a través de los 11 experimentos del Ciclo A, utilizando 30,60 Y90 kg P 2 0/ha fue de 0.52 ± 0.64,0.79 ± 0.81 y 0.48 ±0.55 t/ha, respectivamente. Estas respuestas mostraron una relación algunas veces lineal y otras cuadrática cuando fueron analizadas estadísticamente con el uso de contrastes ortogonales. En el Ciclo B y C las ganancias de la aplicación del P fueron menores que en el primer ciclo (Figura 1). La dosis de 90 kg P20/ha fue la que mantuvo un porcentaje alto de respuestas positivas en los dos ciclos siguientes (42 y 67%, respectivamente).La respuesta a la aplicación del P varió de acuerdo a la presencia del S. En el Ciclo A la respuesta en presencia de 20 kg S/ha fue de 0.39 ± 0.44, 0.68 ± 0.65 y 0.53 ± 0.46 t/ha para los niveles de 30, 60 Y 90 kg de P/ha, respectivamente. La respuesta en ausencia de S, para estos mismos niveles fue 0.40 ± 0.31, 0.42 ± 0.47 y 0.83 ± 0.98 t/ha (Figura 1). Analizando la respuesta del P en los ensayos nacionales (Figura 2) se observa que la mayoría es positiva en todos los niveles evaluados, lo que comprueba que el cultivo responde a la aplicación de este elemento. También se encontró que al analizar estos datos la respuesta fue cuadrática (y=2,324 + 19.689 P -0.092p 2 ). Cuadro 3. Precipitación pluvial ocurrida durante el período de crecimiento del cultivo (septiembre-diciembre) en los cuatro aftos de evaluación de la respuesta a P y S, Azuero, Panamá 1989-1992   Media Ambiental ton/ha Figura 2. Respuesta del maíz a la aplicación de diferentes dosis de P con O y 20 kg de S, Azuero, 1990Azuero, -1992.La respuesta a la RF fue superada por el SFT en el primer ciclo de evaluación (Ciclo A). Se encontró que el 64 y 86% de las diferencias fueron con signo negativo (por debajo del nivel cero), para las dosis de 30 y 60 kglha, respectivamente. En el Ciclo B se observó que la tendencia de las respuestas es lo contrario, la RF supera al SFT en la mayoría de las localidades. En este ciclo el 63 y 80% de las diferencias fueron positivas para ambas dosis, respectivamente. Este resultado se puede explicar porque la RF es de disolución lenta en suelos con pH entre 5 y 6, mientras que el P en el SFT estuvo más disponible en el primer ciclo. Sin embargo, debido a que la dosis de RF no se incorporó con el suelo subyacente en los ensayos realizados bajo labranza cero, la disponibilidad de P para el cultivo en el primer Ciclo de evaluación, podría haber sido limitante a causa de su baja solubilidad además por ser un nutriente inmóvil. Ya para el segundo ciclo, al estar más disponible el P de la RF, se encontró una mayor respuesta para esta fuente. En el Ciclo C no se observó un patrón definido en las diferencias (Figura 3).La respuesta de la RF para las tres dosis evaluadas con respecto al nivel de cero fue de 0.58 ± 0.47, 0.35 ± 0.42 y -0.01 ± 0.35 t/ha para las dosis de 30, 60 Y90 kg P20s/ha respectivamente. Se observó que el mayor rendimiento se obtiene con el nivel de 30 kg de P 2 0s/ha y luego el mismo va bajando hasta el nivel de 90 kg. Una de las desventajas para su uso comercial está en la dificultad de aplicarla en el campo (voleo), ya que aumenta los costos y su aplicación resulta más difícil que la del SFT. De acuerdo a los resultados obtenidos, una alternativa del manejo de la fertilización con P en estos suelos sería la aplicación conjunta de las dos fuentes, dado la respuesta diferencial observada a través de ciclos.La aplicación del P junto con el yeso en una misma banda no fue significativa en el Ciclo A, en comparación con la aplicación de ambos elementos por separados. Se observó una gran dispersión de los valores de la diferencia entre los dos métodos (-0.009 ± 0.374 t/ha). En el segundo ciclo de evaluación se encontró que la mayoría de los valores se encuentran cerca del nivel cero, sin diferencia entre los dos métodos. El promedio de la respuesta en este ciclo fue de -0.086 ± 0.134 t/ha. En el tercer ciclo (Ciclo C) es que se observaron los beneficios de aplicar el yeso y el P juntos en una misma banda. Se encontró que la 130 ganancia promedio de aplicarlos juntos fue de 0.289 ± 0.346 t/ha (Figura 4).El efecto positivo observado en el tercer ciclo de siembra, se pudo deber a que el yeso es poco soluble y la disociación lenta del mismo, favoreció la formación de los compuestos FDD y FD, los cuales se mantuvieron disponibles para la planta, proporcionándole el P que éstas necesitaron en este ciclo.A pH bajos los precipitados de FDD y FD serían lentamente solubles y de esta manera se reduciría la cantidad de P que pudo estar en contacto con los óxidos e hidróxidos de Fe y Al, lo que disminuiría su fijación. Savant y Racz (1973) han discutido la importancia de los productos de reacción del P, particularmente los productos intermedios metaestables, los cuales pueden estar lentamente disponibles a través del tiempo. La aplicación de los dos elementos por separado implica mayores costos de producción, respecto a la aplicación conjunta. Esto indica que la aplicación del S en los casos que sea necesario, puede hacerse en forma conjunta con el P, con los posibles beneficios de formación de fosfatos de calcio metaestables lentamente disponibles (Lindsay, 1979;Raun y Barreto, 1991).Se realizó una comparación entre el tratamiento del agricultor (TAGR) Y el tratamiento de 60 kg de P 2 0s/ha usando como fuente el SFT más 20 kg de S, en los tres ciclos de cultivo. Se observó que en el primer año no hubo diferencias entre los dos tratamientos (promedio fue de 0.001 ± 0.581 t/ha) y el 55% de las respuestas positivas fue a favor del TAGR. En el segundo y tercer ciclo (Ciclos B Y C) a pesar de que al TAGR se le aplicó en cada ciclo 227 kg de 15-30-8 y 227 urea/ha siendo el promedio de las diferencias fue de 0.225 ± 0.550 y 0.230 ± 0.559 t/ha, respectivamente.En comparación con el de 60 P + 20 S que sólo llevaba 100 kg de N/ha en cada ciclo residual (Figura 5).La respuesta a la aplicación de S en general, es de pequeña magnitud pero consistente (Figura 6). En el primer ciclo, se encontró respuesta positiva en 8 de las II localidades. La respuesta a S en ausencia de P produjo un efecto positivo de 0.06 ± 0.43 t/ha. Cuando se evaluó en los mismos años la respuesta al S para los tratamientos con presencia de P (SFT aplicado a 30, 60 Y 90 kg P 2 0s/ha), el efecto de S fue de 0.094 ±0.583, 0.324 ± 0.232 y -0.117 ± 0.331 t/ha, indicando una una posible interacción de P y S. En general, en los tres afios se observaron respuestas positivas y consistentes, pero menores de 0.50 t/ha, a la aplicación de S. Media Ambiental ton/ha  En los experimentos de 1990 y 1991 se observó que la respuesta fue mayor en ambientes con mayor potencial de rendimiento. En el segundo ciclo de evaluación se observó el efecto positivo de aplicar el S, pero no así la interacción en presencia del P. Los promedios encontrados para la respuesta a S con O, 30, 60 Y 90 kg P 2 0s/ha fue de 0.235 ± 0.527, 0.291 ± 0.608, 0.242 ± 0.457 y ±0.288 t/ha, respectivamente. En el Ciclo C aún se encuentran respuestas positivas por aplicar S al cultivo, pero la misma no es muy clara.Para la estimación económica del efecto de dosis de P se concentró en SFT como fuente de P, dado que se tenía una mayor cantidad de datos a través de los tres ciclos. Utilizando el primer nivel de análisis se calculó la relación de precios relativos. Esta relación fue de 5.67 kg maíz por kg P 2 05. Tomando este precio relativo, el incremento en rendimiento de maíz para las dosis de 30, 60 Y90 kg de P 2 0s/ha, en un primer ciclo, que recompensa el incremento de los costos que varían fue de 170, 340 Y510 kg de maíz/ha. El 82, 91 Y 100% de los ensayos mostraron respuestas físicas o positivas en rendimiento a las aplicaciones de 30, 60 y 90 kglha respectivamente, mientras que la proporción de respuesta económicas fue de 64, 73 Y37% a las mismas dosis (Cuadro 6). La confiabilidad de respuesta normalizada indica que en promedio la aplicacion de fosforo como SFT a dosis de 30-90 kg pps/ha tiene una probabilidad de 0.82 de superar en rendimiento al testigo sin fertilización. Sin embargo, cuando se incluyen los costos del fertilizante y su aplicación, la confiabilidad disminuye a menos 0.5 para la aplicación de 90 kg P 2 0slha (Cuadro 4). Esto sugiere que el SFT a dosis mayores a 60 kg P 2 0s/ha no resulta económicamente favorable dentro del rango de rendimiento observado en estos ensayos (1.15-6.68 tlha, Cuadro 7). La alta probabilidad de obtención de respuestas físicas para las dosis de 30 y 60 kg P 2 0slha combinadas con una probabilidad de 0.68 de obtener una ganancia en rendimiento superior a los costos que varían, sugiere que dentro del rango de 30 y 60 kglha podría encontrarse el nivel óptimo para la fertilización con P en maíz, cuando se utiliza el SFT como fuente. En los ciclos residuales el porcentaje de respuestas físicas positivas coincide con las económicas, ya que, no se incurre en costos por aplicación de P.La evaluación económica de la aplicación de P usando el SFT y el S, tanto de los ciclos individuales como de los tres ciclos en conjunto, incluyendo los efectos residuales, demostró que es rentable. 134 La tasa marginal de retorno de pasar de la no aplicación de P al de 30 kglha fue de 558%; en tanto que la aplicación de 60 kg/ha reportó el mayor beneficio neto (B/ l ,821/ha en los tres ciclos) y una alta TMR (1014%). La aplicación de 90 kg/ha es una alternativa económicamente dominada por las otras dos dosis, esto es aplicar menos dosis de P, implica mayores beneficios netos a menores costos. La comparación económica del uso de RF versus SFT como fuente de P, demostró que a la dosis de 30 kglha, la RF en un primer y segundo ciclo independiente, y en la evaluación conjunta de los tres años, fue superior al SFT. Sin embargo, a la dosis de 60 kg/ha el SFT superó en todos los ciclos a la RF. La práctica del agricultor fue superada por la aplicación de 60 kg SFT/ha en todos los ciclos individuales y en la evaluación conjunta. l. Se encontró que el cultivo de maíz presenta una respuesta significativa tanto física como económica a la aplicación del P en los suelos de la región de Azuero.2. Cuando la fuente de P fue SFT, la dosis óptima fue de 60 kg PPslha, mientras que cuando la fuente fue RF, la dosis óptima fue de 30 kg P 2 0slha.3. En el primer ciclo de siembra (Ciclo A) el SFT superó a la RF, pero al realizar el análisis en el ciclo residual la RF supera al SFT.4. La ganancia de aplicar el P junto al yeso en una misma banda se observó en el tercer ciclo de evaluación.5. Una alternativa del manejo del P en estos suelos podría ser la aplicación conjunta de las dos fuentes, dado el hecho que el SFT es más disponible en el primer ciclo y la RF en el segundo.6. La respuesta del cultivo a la aplicación del S fue significativa.Tito Montenegro y Erie Borbón lEl Programa.Nacional lle ,lnaíz del CENTA, en un esfuerzo conjwlto con el CIMMYT, para resolver los problemas limitantes de producción de maíz han venido desarrollando y evaluando el material conocido como R-57. El material se evaluó durante los aftos 1989 y 1990, Y a partir de este último año se iniciaron las cruzas. Entre sus principales caracteristicas agronómicas está el alto potencial de rendinúento y su tolerancia al achaparranúento. El presente estudio pretende conocer la opiJúón sobre el R-57 que tienen los agricultores que colaboraron con el Programa de Maíz de El Salvador, en la etapa de validación. En témÚllos generales se puede decir que el material tiene buena aceptación, tanto por sus caracteristicas agronónúcas, factores de conswno y comercialización. Segím los datos a lúvel experiJnental el R-57 logra rendinúentos alrededor de 6.0 tlha, siJI embargo, debido a problemas de seqlúa en el periOllo de estudio sólo se logró alcanzar los 4.2 ti ha. A pesar de esto, para la siembra de 1991, las estimaciones de rClllliJlúento para el R-57 superaron en 1.8 tIlIa el rendiJlúento obtelúdo por las variedades criollas. Los agricultores están de acuerdo en segnir sembrando la variedad, siempre y cuando se asegure la lliSpOlúbilidad de senúlla para las futuras siembras.Desde 1979 el CENTA decidió incluir a los agricultores como participantes en la evaluación de las nuevas tecnologías, esto con la idea de que sean ellos mismos quienes dirigan en buena medida los esfuerzos del Programa, ya que al fin y al cabo son ellos mismos los principales usuarios de las nuevas tecnologías generadas. En El Salvador, el cultivo de maíz solo o en asocio alcanzó para el periodo 1991-1992 una superficie de 300 mil hectáreas, con una producción de 504 toneladas métricas.El Programa Nacional de maíz del CENTA, en un esfuerzo conjunto con el CIMMYT, para resolver los problemas limitantes de producción de maíz ha venido desarrollando y evaluando el material conocido como H-57. El material se ha estado evaluando durante los años 1989 y 1990. A partir de este último rolO se iniciaron las cruzas.Entre sus principales características agronómicas está el alto potencial de 141 rendimiento y su tolerancia al achaparramiento. El Departamento de Economía Agrícola dentro del Plan de Investigación Agrícola del CENTA, planteó la necesidad de realizar un estudio de preaceptación del material H-57 entre aquellos productores que han colaborado en las parcelas de validación; en todo el territorio nacional en los años 1990 y 1991.El presente estudio tiene como propósito, conocer la opinión sobre el H-57 que tienen los agricultores que colaboraron en las parcelas de validación en el año 1991. El presente trabajo persigue los siguientes objetivos: 1) Evaluar las razones expuestas para aceptar y/o rechazar el material H-57 entre los agricultores cooperadores que participaron en la validación (1991); 2) Conocer el efecto sobre la productividad del híbrido H-57 respecto a otras variedades alternativas y 3) Evaluar las opiniones de los agricultores sobre las ventajas y desventajas que presenta el H-57.A partir de 1989 el Programa Nacional de Maíz inició las cruzas. En 1990 y hasta 1991 se montaron las primeras parcelas regionales. A su vez en el año 1991 se inició el proceso de validación y en 1992 se inició la siembra de parcelas demostrativas. El Programa Nacional de Maíz produjo el híbrido H-57 con materiales provenientes del CIMMYT como un esfuerzo en la búsqueda de generar nuevos materiales de maíz que superen los rendimientos actuales y a la vez posean características agronómicas deseables. En los Cuadros 1 y 2 se presentan algunas características de los principales materiales obtenidos por el Programa Nacional.Este material genético fue originalmente derivado de la población 21. Se puede definir como un maíz tropical blanco dentado. Para su obtención fue sometido a diferentes metodologías de selección por especialistas en fisiología y fitomejoradores para incorporarle buenas características agronómicas. En el Cuadro 3 se resumen las principales características del H-57. Para realizar el presente estudio se hizo uso de diferentes fuentes de información, tanto de infonnación secundaria como primaria. Como fuentes de infonnación secundaria se revisaron diferentes documentos del material H-57; generados por investigadores y validadores que venian trabajando con el material, para poder documentar las principales caracteristicas del mismo. A su vez se trató de identificar el proceso de origen del material, y los involucrados en el proceso de validación en el afio 1991. Para la obtención de la información primaria se Para realizar el presente estudio se hizo uso de diferentes fuentes de información, tanto de infonnación secundaria como primaria. Como fuentes de infonnación secundaria se revisaron diferentes documentos del material H-57; generados por investigadores y validadores que venían trabajando con el material, para poder documentar las principales earacteristicas del mismo. A su vez se trató de identificar el proceso de origen del material, y los involucrados en el proceso de validación en el afio 1991. Para la obtención de la información primaria se procedió a diseñar y ejecutar una boleta formal. La boleta fue dirigida a 31 productores cooperadores distribuídos en 20 cantones a través de toda la República de El Salvador. Una vez obtenída la información se procedió a la tabulación y análisis estadístico de los datos.Ubicación del Estudio de mayo. El 19.4% realiza sus siembras entre el final de mayo y principios de junio y solo el 16% siembra con las lluvias ya establecidas. El 67.7% de los agricultores cooperadores realizaron sus siembras del maíz H-57 en asocio con sorgo, el cual parece ser el sistema predominante. Un 25.8% prefirió realizar su siembra en relevo con maíz, y solo el 6.5% afirmó realizar su siembra en monocultivo (Cuadro 5).Cuadro 4. Localizacion de las parcelas de validacion del material h-57 (1991).En el Cuadro 4 se detallan los murnclplos y caseríos donde fueron instaladas las parcelas de validación del materíal H-57 en 1991, así como el número de agricultores cooperadores que participaron en la evaluación.Depto.Los rendimientos obtenidos por parte de los agricultores cooperadores en las parcelas de validación para la siembra de 1991 alcanzaron en promedio los 4.2 t./ha superior en 2.6 t./ha al rendimiento obtenido por los materiales criollos. Sin embargo esta diferencia estaría condicionada por las condiciones de sequía que imperaron en el período; las que no permitieron que el H-57 pudiera expresar su potencial de rendimiento al máximo.En el 93.5% de los casos, los agricultores entrevistados dijeron conocer el material con el nombre de maíz H-57, dado que al momento en que se les distribuyó ese fue el nombre que se les dió. El 6.4% no recordaron el nombre del material.En el Cuadro 6 se presentan las ventajas del híbrido H-57, en concepto de los agricultores que cooperaron en las parcelas de validación. Como se observa en el Cuadro las ventajas encontradas al híbrido H-57 fueron muchas y de diferente indole. Para el caso del grano propiamente dicho, grano \"fino\", \"buen peso\" y \"germinación\" fueron las características predominates.En el caso de la mazorca, \"buen tamañ.o\", y \"buen peso\" fueron las características más resaltadas por los agricultores, mientras que en lo referente a la planta el \"grosor de la caña\",y una \"buena altura\" sobresalieron entre las caracerísticas resaltadas. Aproximadamente la Inítad de los agricultores consideraron que el H-57 era resistente al acame. A pesar de que la resistencia a plagas no es una característica que lograra porcentajes altos en la eval~ción por parte de los agricultores cooperadores, nínguno de ellos definíó en concreto el ataque de alguna plaga específica que hubiera mermado en buena medida el rendiIníento del material.De los 31 cooperadores que participaron en la validación del híbrido H-57, se puede decir que el 100% considera el material H-57 como duro al momento de desgranar manualmente. Sin embargo, 48.4% manifestó que el problema se eliminaba si el desgrane se hacia en forma mecánica. Al parecer esta fue la única desventaja generalizada encontrada al material. Si se calcula en base a la densidad de siembra y la cantidad de semilla utilizada en las parcelas, ésta resulta en 25 kg/ha. La cantidad total de semilla distribuída entre los 31 agricultores para el total de las parcelas fue de 47.3 kg. Para la mayoría de los agricultores el mes de mayo es el preferido para las siembras, ya que en este mes se inician las lluvias. En el caso de los agricultores cooperadores, el 32.3% prefiere realizar sus siembras en el mes de mayo, el Inísmo porcentaje dice sembrar con el inicio de las lluvias, las cuales generalmente coinciden con el mes El 25% manifestó que el material se pica rápido y el 6.5% mencionó que no cubre bien la mazorca. Como dato curioso la resistencia o susceptibilidad a enfermedades no fue mencionado por ninguno de los agricultores cooperadores.En la mayoria de los casos la producción obtenida de las parcelas fue destinada al autoconsumo, debido a que la producción obtenida fue poca. A pesar de esto algunos agricultores vendieron parte de la producción; quienes aftrmaron no tener problemas a la hora de la venta, logrando los mismos precios que las otras variedades que se vendían en el mercado. Un 64.5% de los agricultores cooperadores almacenó parte del grano como semilla para futuras siembras.La semilla guardada la escogieron de las plantas que presentaban mayor vigor.Así mismo los agricultores hicieron escogencias de las mazorcas más robustas. El resto de los agricultores que no guardaron semilla dijeron que la producción fue muy poca, por lo que decidieron dedicarla toda al consumo.El 100% de los productores cooperadores consumió parte de la producción del htorido H-57. El consumo del grano 10 hicieron en forma seca (tortillas), manifestando que el sabor, suavidad y color era igual a las otras variedades. Ninguno consumio el htorido en forma tierna (mazorca), atol, tamal de elote u otra forma en que el maíz deba estar tierno.El 64.5% de los cooperadores han seguido sembrando el maíz H-57, por lo que se podría decir que hay una buena aceptación de este material entre todos los agricultores del área que participaron en la validación. El 35.5% restante no la va a seguir sembrando porque se le picó el grano que guardaron para seguir sembrando (9.6%), no encuentran semilla para continuar sembrando (6.5%), o porque es duro para desgranar (12.4%).En este momento no se puede hablar de un verdadero proceso de difusión del híbrido H-57, ya que como se ha expuesto en el presente estudio apenas se encuentra en la etapa de validación, en áreas relativanlente pequeñas y con pocas cantidades de semilla. A pesar de esto el H•57 se ha difundido en algunos cantones de El Salvador donde los agricultores que participaron en la validación, regalaron semilla entre sus amigos y vecinos cercanos a sus áreas de siembra. Los cooperadores que regalaron semilla fueron 12 de los 31 cooperadores y la cantidad de semilla que regalaron fue de 55 kg.La variedad es conocida por un 93.5% de los agricultores cooperadores como Maíz H-57. No 145 tiene problema para la venta. Respecto a su consumo en tortilla, el H-57 presenta el mismo sabor que las otras variedades. La disponibilidad de semilla de H-57 entre los agricultores cooperadores es muy poca. En cuanto a las características agronómicas las ventajas encontradas por los agricultores fueron muy variadas, siendo el grosor de la cafia, la altura de la planta, el buen peso y fmeza del grano las ventajas que lograron los mayores porcentajes. La única desventaja encontrada fue la dureza que presenta el materíal a la hora del desgrane que hace que esta labor se dificulte en especial cuando se hace en forma manual.Para acelerar el proceso de difusión del H•57 se recomienda lo siguiente: i) Asegurar la disponibilidad de semilla para la venta; ii) Que las parcelas de validación lleven registros para un mejor control de los costos de producción; iii) Aumentar el área de las parcelas de validación; iv) Realizar estudios de difusión dellubrido H-57 a nivel nacional; v) Hacerle una mayor publicidad al material. En el Litoral AOántico de Honduras se ha difundido Wl sbtema de rotación de maiz con mucuna sp. conoddo por los agricultores con el nombre de abonen. Debido a que poco se conoce sobre los factores que infiuyen en.el proceso de adopción de esta práctica se planteó el presente estudio con el propósito de Identitlcar estos factores, asl corno detemdnar la rentabilidad del sbtema tanto en el corto como en el largo plazo y a la vez establecer los factores y mecanismos que afectan esta rentabilidad. El estudio se llevó a cabo en el departamento de AOántida y comprende parte del municipio de La Celba y los municipios de Jutiapa, San Francisco y Tela. Para evaluar la rentabilidad se empleó como herranuenta Wl8 expansión del análisis de presupuesto parcial y anállsb incremental para Wl periodo para tener en cuenta los efectos a través del tiempo. Para el análisis se tomó seis años como la vida media de la abonen. Al evaluar económicamente el sistema se encontró que el sistema de abonera resulta más rentable que el tradicional a partir del 2do. all0 en adelante. SI el criterio de rentabilidad es el retomo a la mano de obra familiar, el sistema de abonera también resulta más rentable a partir del segmJdo año y asi permanece por todo el periodo.:::' ::1 /\"150.00 j\"-.: / 100.00 --~----------7------Figura 1. Patrón estacional de las lluvias (mm/mes) en el Litoral Atlantico de Honduras (1972)(1973)(1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990).Ciclo agrf cola 90191 87188 84185 81182 78f79 0.00 +--_t_-+---t----t---;-----t-t---t---t--+---t---+---;-----t-75f76 La estación de primera o primavera fue tradicionalmente la más importante en 10 que a producción de maíz en el Litoral Atlántico se refiere. A inicios de la década de los 80 el 65% de la producción total de la región se producía en primera; sin embargo, la situación se ha revertido ya que la participación relativa de la postrera en la producción ha crecido en los últimos 15 años a razón de casi 1% anual hasta alcanzar más del 50% de la producción total en las últimas tres campañas (Figura 2). Figura 2. Evolución y tendencia de la importancia relativa de la superficie cultivada con maíz en postrera en el Litoral Atlántico de Honduras, 75176-90/91.En el Litoral Atlántico de Honduras la producción agrícola ocurre en dos épocas bien defmidas: la primera, también llamada de primavera y la postrera o de verano. En gran medida la capacidad para producir en cada época está determinada por el régimen estacional de lluvias predominantes. En el Litoral Atlántico, el régimen de lluvias es tal que permite la siembra y cultivo de ambas estaciones con diferentes grados de éxito (Figura 1). Las lluvias inician su ciclo ascendente en el mes de mayo y continuan en ascenso hasta llegar a noviembre que es el mes más lluvioso del año.A partir de allí comienzan su fase descendente hasta llegar al mes de abril. Los ciclos productivos de primera y postrera se acomodan a este régimen. La siembra de primera del maíz comienza generalmente en junio-julio para ser cosechado en setiembre-octubre, mientras que la siembra de postrera se realiza en diciembre-enero para ser cosechado en abril-mayo.1G. Saín y E. Borbón son economistas del Programa Regional para Centro América y el Caribe del CIMMYT, 1. Ponce es economista de la Secretaria de Recursos Naturales de Honduras. DELPRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 146-156. Aunque ambas épocas tienen a juicio de los agricultores, ventajas y desventajas para la producción de maíz, la siembra de postrera presenta dos ventajas bien definidas. En primer lugar la cosecha de postrera ocurre en los meses más secos del año (abril-mayo) por lo cual el maíz tiene una mejor sanidad que en primera donde se cosecha con mucha lluvia y existe el problema de pudrición de mazorca. Una segunda ventaja de la siembra de postrera es que permite aprovechar el marcado ciclo estacional que se observan en los precios de venta del maíz y la cosecha ocurre cuando los precios están por arriba del promedio anual.El aumento de la importancia relativa de la producción de postrera se debe principalmente al incremento del área cultivada el cual está asociado a la difusión de la siembra de maíz con frijol de abono (Mucuna aterrima sp.) en el sistema llamado \"abonera\". El uso del frijol de abono muestra un significativo incremento en el área de la década de los 80 y su difusión ha sido recientemente sujeto de estudio de varios trabajos (Avila y López, 1990;Buckles et al., 1991Buckles et al., , 1992)). Mientras que en 1980 menos del 5% de los agricultuores utilizaban el sistema, en 1989, este porcentaje superaba el 60%. La curva de difusión del sistema de abonera en el Opto. de Atlántida mostró que entre 1981 y 1990 la difusión fue casi lineal a una tasa de crecimiento anual de casi 7% (Buckles et al., 1992).Varias ventajas han sido asociadas al sistema de abonera por los agricultores (Flores y Licona, 1985;Avila y López, 1990;Buckles et al, 1992). Entre ellas se pueden mencionar: 1) El ahorro de mano de obra en la preparación del terreno para la siembra. 2) Un ahorro de mano de obra en el control de malezas, ya que el frijol de abono disminuía la incidencia de éstas; y 3) Un ahorro en capital de tr\"bajo en términos de fertilizantes, ya que el maíz en abonera no necesitaba la aplicación de fertilizantes inorgánicos para obtener el mismo rendimiento que con la aplicación de este tipo de fertilizantes. Este efecto también puede ser visto como un incremento en los beneficios brutos por aumento en los rendimientos respecto al maíz cultivado sin abonera y sin fertilización inorgánica.De acuerdo, entonces a la percepción de los agricultores el efecto neto del sistema de abonera es de una reducción en los costos de operación, al menos cuando la abonera ya está implantada. Esta reducción se realiza esencialmente por un ahorro de mano de obra necesaria para la preparación del terreno (chapia) y control de malezas.Adicionalmente el uso del frijol de abono a nivel del sistema de finca permite el incremento del área en la siembra de postrera lo que permite al agricultor aprovechar las ventajas ya mencionadas de cosechar maíz en una época donde la precipitaciónes son mínimas y los precios de maíz son estacionalmente altos.No cabe duda que la rentabilidad de corto y largo plazo del sistema en relación con el uso alternativo del suelo juega un papel importante en la decisión de adoptar una práctica de conservación del suelo. En este trabajo se estima la rentabilidad del sistema de abonera en relación con el sistema tradicional, tanto en el corto como en el largo plazo; y se analizan los factores y mecanismos que afectan esta rentabilidad, en especial el impacto que la adopción del sistema de abonera tiene sobre el uso de mano de obra. En el Litoral Atlántico predominan fmcas de tamaño pequeño siendo la mayoría de los agricultores dueños de la fmca. El 74 % de la población de agricultores productores de maíz en el Litoral Atlántico de Honduras poseen alguna de las parcelas que trabajan en propiedad pudiendo en caso de necesitar alquilar tierras a terceros para su explotación. Los agricultores que poseen tierras, tienen un tamaño de fmca promedio de n.o has., mientras que aquellos que no poseen tierra, el tamaño promedio de la fmca es de 2 has.Aproximadamente el 30% de la superficie de una finca típica o modal de aquellos agricultores que son dueños de sus tierras, se destina a los cultivos mientras que el restante 70% se destina a pastos y a descanso (guamil). El cultivo más importante tanto en primavera como en postrera es el maíz, pero también se cultiva arroz, y frijol en diferentes épocas del afio.(Cuadro 1). Cuadro 1. Uso de la tierra de acuerdo al sistema. agricultores con tierra, Litoral Atlántico de Honduras. El 71% de los agricultores propietarios siembran maíz en postrera bajo el sistema de aboneras mientras que sólo 29% de ellos los hacen bajo el sistema tradicional. Tal como es de esperarse en caso de tecnologías de conservación, el 87% de aquellos que siembran en abanera 10 hacen en terrenos propios.Sin embargo la evidencia encontrada en el Litoral Atlántico, indica que éste no es el caso. Por un lado existe alrededor de un 35% del total de la tierra en el sistema de fmca típico del agricultor que se encuentra en descanso. Además la expansión del sistema de abonera se ha realizado en gran medidad mediante la expansión del área sembrada y no mediante Si la disponibilidad de tierra fuera un factor limitante, el sistema de abanera y el tradicional deben verse como mutualmente excluyentes . Es decir, el agricultor puede usar la parcela bajo el sistema tradicional por tres ciclos (un año y medío) y luego dejarla en descanso por 4 años y medío o alternativamente implantar un sistema de abonera por ese mismo período.Además de las actividades realizadas en tierra propia los agricultores pueden alquilar tierra a terceros para realizar alguna actividad. Esta modalidad se da principalmente con el maíz de postrera donde la mitad de los agricultores alquilan una manzana adicional para su siembra.Este comportamiento podría explicar, al menos parcialmente, el incremento de las siembras de postrera y la difusión de abaneras ya que podría pensarse que los agricultores implantan la abonera en parcelas propias y siembran una o más parcelas adicionales bajo el sistema tradicional en tierras prestadas o alquiladas. Otros cultivos como yuca, plátanos, etc. usualmente son sembrados en el solar y destinados al autoconsumo. Casi la totalidad de los agricultores mantienen gallinas y la mayoría bestias de carga destinadas a transportar la producción de las parcelas hacia la casa o hacia el lugar de venta.La siembra de maíz en abanera es un sistema de rotación del maíz de postrera con el frijol de abono. Para implantar una abanera se siembra el frijol de abono en forma intercalada alrededor de los 40 a 50 días depués de la síembra del maíz de postrera. Este se cosecha entre marzo y abril dejando el frijol de abono que se desarrolle hasta fines de noviembre cuando produce semilla. En ese momento el agricultor comienza la preparación de la siembra del maíz chapeando la mucuna y sembrando el maíz a chuzo unas semanas más tarde. Este ciclo se repite por varios años. La Figura 3 muestra la distribución de frecuencia de l~edad de las aboneras en el Litoral Atlántico como también los parámetros de esa dístribución. Tal como era de esperar, la distribución de esta variable se concentra a la izquierda de la edad promedio de 6 años, lo que indica que la mayoría de las abaneras son jóvenes respecto al promedio, reflejando la tendencia expansiva del fenómeno. de postrera y sólo una de primavera, tal como lo coIlÍmnan los datos encontrados en la encuesta (Cuadro 2).Cuadro 2. Número de parcelas de maíz sembradas en postrera y primavera de acuerdo al sistema.Agricultores con tierra. Litoral Atlántico de Honduras. Es decir que a nivel de finca, la incorporación del sistema de abonera en el sistema ha permitido aumentar el área cultivada con maíz en postrera mediante la incorporación de una parcela adicional. El Cuadro 4 muestra en forma esquemática como afecta el uso de la tierra la incorporación de la abonera. Al cabo del ciclo de 6 años, en el sistema tradicional se ha cultivado 12 unidades (manzanas, has.,etc) de maíz utilizando cuatro parcelas, en el sistema de abonera en ese mismo periodo se cultivan 18 unidades (un aumento del 50%) utilizando sólo 5 parcelas (un aumento del 25%). La incorporación de la abonera permite 6 cosechas de maíz adicionales usando sólo una parcela más. Nótese que en el caso del sistema de abonera existirán dos parcelas de maíz Cuadro 4 . El uso de la tierra bajo los dos sistemas de cultivo. 5 Siembra Cuadro 5. Costos de producción de maíz en una parcela el año de implantación de la abonera.l. El precio de la semilla de malz se toma como .el costo de oportunidad del precio del malz en noviembre-diciembre para postrera y junio-julio para primavera resultando en 0.32 y 0.52 Ukg. respectivamente. El precio de la semilla de frijol de abono en el área es de 0.71 Ukg.aboneras en parcelas que han pennanecido en descanso por un perlodo de aproximadamente 6 aftoso Posterionnente, durante el perlodo de producción, la preparación del terrene se facilita en el sistema de abonera ya que la chapea del frijol de abono requiere un número significativamente menor de jornales que el sistema tradicional. En 10 que a la siembra de maíz se refiere, las düerencias de costos entre ambos sistemas se atribuyen a la diferencia en los costos de oportunidad de la semilla de maíz debido a la estacionalidad de los precios de este producto. En el caso del frijol de abono, sólo se considera el costo de semilla y siembra del frijol en el afto de implantación ya que una vez establecida la abonera la mayor parte de los agricultores dejan que el frijol de abono se resiembre solo; por 10 que no se consideran costos de siembra en los aftos de producción.El análisis económico del sistema de abonera parte del manejo que el agricultor realiza del sistema tal como se ilustra en el Cuadro 4, en donde se incorpora una parcela adicional para sembrarla bajo el sistema de abonera. En este caso se considera que el uso alternativo de esta parcela adicional seria intervenir como una parcela más en una rotación tradicional, por ejemplo como parcela 1 en el Cuadro 4. Bajo esta circunstancia, el uso de la parcela en el sistema tradicional genera un flujo de costos y beneficios durante los tres primeros ciclos debido al cultivo del maíz y un monto final al término del periodo debido a la producción de leila. La parcela en abonera, en cambio genera un flujo de beneficios constante a 10 largo de los seis mIos. Al finalizar el ciclo el agricultor quema la abonera y el ciclo se repite.En el afto de implantación, la estimación de los costos de preparación del terreno considera que el agricultor chapea un guamil de 5 o más aftos edad para la siembra de primavera (ciclo tradicional) o en la postrera para la implantación de la abonera. La mayoria de los agricultores (60%) comienzan lasPreparación del terreno LA RENTABILIDAD DE LA ABONERA Los presupuestos se confeccionan para la tecnología dominante en 1991 de acuerdo con los datos arrojados por la encuesta realizada por la SRN y CIMMYT en 1992 (Buckles et 01.,1992). Los coeficientes técnicos y los precios de insumos, mano de obra y servicios utilizados fueron también los predominantes en ese afto a nivel de agricultor y se obtuvieron mediante una encuesta infonnal especialmente diseílada y ejecutada para ese propósito por la SRN y CIMMYT en 1992.Para el cálculo de los costos que varían entre ambos sistemas se reconocen dos periodos: Un primer afto de implantación y cinco aftos subsecuentes de producción para completar los seis aftos del ciclo medio de la abonera. El Cuadro 5 muestra los costos que varían el afto de implantación de la abanera mientras que el Cuadro 6 presenta los costos en un afto de producción. A partir del segundo afto el ciclo de costos del sistema de abonera se repite cada afta a 10 largo de la vida útil promedio de la abonera. A continuación se describen los principales rubros que componen el flujo de costos tanto para el afto de implantación como para aquellos de producción.Beneficios brutos de los sistemas Cuadro 6. Costos que varían en un año de producción de maíz bajo el sistema tradicional y de abonera en el Litoral Atlántico.Esta es otra operación donde existen diferencias entre sistemas debido en primer lugar a que las malezas son más agresivas en primavera que en postrera, y en segundo porque la abonera ejerce un control sobre el desarrollo de las malezas.Se considera que en el año de implantación no existen diferencias entre el maíz de postrera con y sin abonera dado que el frijol de abono se siembra cuando ya han ocurrido los dos controles que normalmente se realizan en el cultivo. Sin embargo, a partir del segundo año el control de malezas en el maíz en abonera requiere menos mano de obra que el maíz sin abonera debido al control natural del frijol de abono. La abonera implica un ahorro en los costos para el control de malezas de aproximadamente un 10% respecto al control requerido por el maiz sin abonera (Cuadro 5). Tornando los promedios ponderados del Cuadro 7 corno base, y asumiendo que los rendimientos de maíz no se ven afectados en los dos primeros años de implantada la abonera se obtiene el flujo anual de rendimientos bajo los sistemas alternativos tal como se muestra en el Cuadro 8. En el caso del sistema tradicional, se estimó que después de tres años y medio de descanso el guarnil produce un promedio de 188 cargas de lefia por hectárea (una carga tiene 100 leños). Para obtener el flujo de beneficios brutos se ponderan los rendimientos por el precio de campo de los productos que en este caso consisten de: maiz de primavera, maíz de postrera, y leña en el caso del sistema tradicional.Cuadro 7. Rendimientos promedios del maíz cultivados bajo diferentes sistemas de acuerdo a tres sondeos en el área del Litoral Atlántico de Honduras Para calcular el flujo de rendimientos se debe considerar que el rendimiento del maíz en abonera es dependiente de la edad que tenga este sistema. Se espera que en el primer año o sea el año de implantación del frijol de abono, los rendimientos de maíz no se vean afectados significativamente ya que la mayoria de los agricultores siembra el frijol de abono a la floración del maíz. Aunque es probable que los rendimientos aumenten en alguna medida el segundo año de sembrado el frijol de abono, no es hasta el tercer año en que los agricultores afirman que las aboneras comienzan a producir más. se observa una considerable variación entre ellas, es posible observar que existe cierta consistencia en las diferencias entre sistemas. Los rendimientos del maíz en abonera superan en todos los casos a los rendimientos medios del maiz bajo los demás sistemas. Los rendimientos del maíz de primavera supera a aquellos obtenidos por el maíz de postrera cultivado sin abonera. El Cuadro 7 presenta los promedios de los rendimientos obtenidos por los agricultores en sus parcelas de maiz durante la postrera y primavera de acuerdo con tres fuentes de información. Aun cuando Este ciclo estacional a nivel de precios al mayorista se repite a nivel de agricultor. Aunque no se dispone de una serie de precios mensuales tan completa como aquella de los precios a nivel de mayorista, la estacionalidad de los precios a nivel de fmca para el periodo 1990-1991 presenta el mismo patrón estacional que a nivel mayorista con los precios de postrera superando al promedio en 23% mientras que para la siembra de primavera se encuentran un 25% por debajo. l• Se debe considerar que para sostener el rendimiento de maíz por un período de 6 alios sin abonera se debe cultivar una nueva parcela cada 1.5 años. Para más detalles vease el texto.Dada la naturaleza de los sistemas que se evaluan es necesario obtener precios de tendencia o de largo plazo de los productos. Dado que a partir de 1988 el Gobierno de Honduras, cambia la política económica dentro de un programa de ajuste estructural y comienza un ajuste de precios relativos, se toma como precio de largo plazo del maíz el promedio de los precios durante el periodo 1987-1991.Este precio refleja sin embargo un promedio anual y debe ser ajustado para tener en cuenta la estacionalidad predominante en los precios del maíz. El exceso estacional de oferta hace caer los precios al por mayor durante los meses de octubre, noviembre y diciembre, época de cosecha de la primavera. A partir de enero los precios comienzan a subir hasta alcanzar un pequeño pico en abril, a partir de ese momento descienden a medida que ocurre la salida de la cosecha de postrera en mayo-junio pero de todas maneras se mantienen por arriba del promedio anual (Figura 4). Una vez estimados los precios de tendencia ajustados por la estacionalidad se estima el precio de campo del maíz el cual se defme como el precio de venta, menos el total de costos proporcionales al rendimiento. El Cuadro 9 muestra, en su primera linea los precios de venta de tendencia para el maíz de postrera y de primavera. Para obtener el precio de campo se sustraen de estos precios los costos proporcionales al rendimiento como son aquellos de dobla, cosecha, desgrane y acarreo. Algunos de estos costos difieren entre sí de acuerdo al sistema que se trate, por ejemplo en primera el maíz se dobla mientras que en postrera no. También, la cosecha requiere más mano de obra si se trata de una abonera. La última fila del Cuadro 9 muestra los precios de campo de largo plazo encontrados. Para fmes del cálculo del flujo de beneficios en la próxima sección se toma 0.44 Llkg como precio de largo plazo para ambos sistemas en postrera. En el caso de la leña, no fue posible obtener una serie temporal de precios de la carga de leña para así obtener un precio de tendencia, por lo que se toma el promedio de los precios reales de los años 1990 Y 1991 que resulta en 3.65 L/carga, para calcular los beneficios brutos de este subproducto del sistema tradicional.Cuadro 9. Precio de venta, costos proporcionales al rendimíento, y precio de venta para el maíz bajo tres formas de siembra en el Litoral Atlántico de Honduras. Varios indicadores pueden ser utilizados para evaluar la rentabilidad de largo plazo de los sistemas en ténninos de los retornos al capital (Harrington). En este trabajo se emplea el valor presente neto (VPN) del flujo incremental de beneficios netos de las alternativas (Steiner, 1980). El VPN no es más que la c1üerencia entre el valor descontado de beneficios menos el valor descontado de los costos. Si el valor calculado del VPN del flujo incremental es mayor que cero, significa que los beneficios descontados son mayores que los costos por lo que la alternativa es economicamente viable.El Cuadro 10 muestra la evolución, para ambos sistemas, de los flujos anuales de costos que varían, donde se ha incluido el costo de cosecha, confección y acarreo de las cargas de leña en el sexto año del sistema tradicional, como asi también el flujo de los beneficios brutos anuales el cual sigue el patrón de los rendimientos de maíz a excepción del último año en donde se considera el valor de la producción de leña como un subproducto del sistema tradicional.Sustrayendo el patrón de costos anuales de los beneficios brutos, se obtiene el flujo anual de beneficios netos para ambas alternativas (Cuadro 10). Se observa que con excepción del primer año (implantación), los beneficios netos del sistema de abonera superan a los obtenidos por el sistema tradional. El Cuadro 10 presenta también en su última columna, el flujo de beneficios netos incrementales.Como el uso de la tierra en abonera ahorra costos al comienzo del ciclo, el incremento se estima sustrayendo los beneficios netos del sistema tradicional de aquellos que se obtendrían usando la tierra en abonera. De esa manera la última columna del Cuadro 10 representa el flujo de beneficios netos adicionales que resultarían de usar la tierra bajo el sistema tradicional en vez de usarla bajo el sistema de abanera.El Cuadro 11 presenta los valores encontrados del VPN para diferentes años de vida de la abonera. Para el cálculo del VPN se toman como base dos tasas de descuento extremas: una de 40% que representa aproximadamente el costo real del dinero para los agricultores del área y una del 10% que refleja el interés real de los préstamos al sector agropecuario durante el período 1984-1988. Se realiza además un análisis a una tasa intermedia del 20%.Cuadro 11. Indicadores de la rentabilidad relativa del sistema de siembra de maíz en abonera, Litoral Atlántico, Honduras, 1991. Para el calculo se estima una tasa de interés anual promedio de 75% menos un 35% de inflación. Hasta 1987, la tasa real anual de interés se mantuvo estable alrededor de 6 a 8 % anual, pero a partir de 1988 la tasa anual de crecimiento de la inflación supera a una estancada tasa de interés nominal con 10 cual las tasas reales declinan hasta hacerse negativas en los dos últimos años del periodo. Dado que estas últimas tasas no son sostenibles y resultan de un descontrol coyuntural de las tasas de inflación, no se consideran en el cálculo de la tasa real promedio.Los resultados muestran que independientemente de la tasa de descuento que se use, a partir del segundo año el uso de la tierra para cultivar maíz en postrera bajo el sistema tradicional no resulta rentable. Esta alta rentabilidad del sistema de abonera estaría explicando parcialmente la rápida difusión del sistema en la región. Sin embargo, el sistema de abonera requiere de un periodo de inversión inicial de un año durante el cual el sistema tradicional de uso de la tierra sí resulta más atractivo. Es decir que para aquellos agricultores que sólo consideren usar la tierra un año (dos ciclos) como podrían ser arrendatarios o otras formas precarías de cultivar la tierra, no les resulta rentable instalar la abonera.El análisis de los retornos al capital es un indicador parcial de la rentabilidad de una tecnología, existen otras medidas de la rentabilidad que pueden ser más relevantes para pequefias fincas, como es el cálculo del retomo a la mano de obra familiar (Low, Barlett). Dvorak (1993) muestra la importancia de la mano de obra en la economía de la agricultura migratoria entre agricultores pequeI1os. Por este motivo y dada la percepción de los agricultores sobre la importancia del ahorro de mano de obra del sistema de abonera sobre el tradicional en la próxima sección se examina en detalle el impacto del sistema de abonera sobre el patrón de uso de la mano de obra en la fmca y se estiman los retornos sobre la mano de obra familiar bajo los dos sistemas.La introducción de la abonera en el sistema de fmca modifica no solamente la forma de producción de maíz de postrera sino que implica una reacomodación del uso de tierra y de la mano de obra en la finca. El aumento en la superficie cultivada con maíz en postrera es posible porque la abonera una vez en producción requiere poco uso de mano de obra en la preparación del terreno.Si se consideran las necesidades de mano de obra para cultivar maíz con abonera con aquellas requeridas para cultivar sin abonera o para el maíz en primavera en un año determinado (producción) las düerencias muestran que el sistema de abonera representa un ahorro del 8% respecto al maíz en postrera y de 40% respecto al maíz de primavera cuando se necesite abrir un guamil para sembrarlo. La eficiencia de uso de tierra y mano de obra del sistema de abonera se pone en evidencia si se considera no un año aislado pero el ciclo completo de vida de la abonera de 6 años. En este ciclo la abonera no sólo permite un aumento en el área cosechada del 50% con un aumento de sólo 25% en el número de parcelas usadas sino que requiere un aumento de 183 jornales que representa un aumento del 45% sobre el total de mano de obra requerida por el sistema tradicional.La Figura 5 muestra los requerimientos mensuales de mano de obra total y por hectárea cultivada en una fmca que cultiva maíz sin abonera comparada con una finca con abonera. A pesar de que esta última tiene una superficie cultivada mayor en 28% no se registran diferencias significativas en términos de los requerimientos totales a excepción del mes de julio cuando se superponen las limpias del maíz de primavera, del arroz y la cosecha del frijol de mayo. Noviembre es otro mes que representa altos requerimientos de mano de obra debido principamente a las cosechas y acarreo del maíz de primavera, del arroz, del control de malezas del frijol de octubre y de la chapia para la siembra de frijol de febrero. En términos de los requerimientos por unidad de tierra, la fmca con abonera representa un importante ahorro de mano de obra en el crítico mes de noviembre y en diciembre.La Figura 6 muestra la distribución de frecuencia de la disponibilidad de mano de obra en las fmcas del Litoral Atlántico en términos de unidades de trabajo por mes. Para el cálculo se uso la convención de la FAü donde se adjudica 1 unidad a un adulto varón, 0.7 de unidad a una mujer adulta, 0.50 a un adolescente o una persona mayor independiente de su género y 0.25 de unidad a un nifio entre 11 y 15 años independiente del género (Murphy and Sprey). La distribución se centra en un valor de 69 UT/mes y se toma ese valor para determinar a julio y noviembre como los meses criticos respecto a mano de obra en ambos sistemas. Los retornos a la mano de obra fanúliar, se estiman como la relación entre el valor presente de los beneficios netos por unidad de mano de obra fanúliar utilizada en la producción de maíz bajo los dos sistemas alternativos. En este caso los costos que varían no contabilizan aquellos generados por el uso de la mano de obra fanúliar pero si incorporan el costo del capital en efectivo. Dado que las fmcas del área usan una combinación de mano de obra fanúliar y contratada para las labores de preparación del terreno y siembra se asume, para fmes del cálculo, que esas labores se realizan con una proporción de 50% de mano de obra fanúliar y 50% con mano de obra contratada. Las restantes actividades se realizan con mano de obra fanúliar. El costo del capital se toma como 40% anual. ¡¡¡]) Con aborera en Produ::ci61El Cuadro12 presenta la tabla de retornos netos sobre la mano de obra familiar bajo ambos sistemas. Los resultados bajo este criterio confmnan aquellos obtenidos mediante el cálculo de los retornos al capital: después de un afto inicial de inversión la abanera se vuelve más rentable que el sistema tradicional al segundo afta y así permanece bajo todo el periodo. Más aun, bajo este criterio la abanera y el sistema tradicional rinden igual aun en el afta de implantación. Nótese también que para las tres tasas de descuento los retornos a la mano de obra fanúliar bajo ambos sistemas superan holgadamente al salario real de largo plazo de 4.38 L/jornal. Figura 5. Requerimientos mensuales de mano de obra total y por hectárea a nivel de finca.  El impacto del sistema de abanera sobre el valor de la tierra Figura 6. Distribución de la disponibilidad mensual de mano de obra en las tincas del Litoral Atlántico La introducción del sistema de abonera en el sistema de fmca modifica significativamente el valor de la tierra una vez que se encuentra establecido en una área, y que los agricultores reconocen las bondades del sistema en la generación de una mayor rentabilidad del cultivo.Este reconocimiento se expresa en el área del Litoral Atlántico a través de la disposición a pagar mejores precios por el alquiler de la tierra para el cultivo del maíz de postrera.La información suministrada por los sondeos realizados en el área permitieron identificar una diferencia significativa entre el precio del alquiler de la tierra para la siembra de maíz en postrera si es que la parcela estaba o no en abonera (Cuadro 13). de acuerdo con los valores más frecuentes (moda) encontrados, los agricultores estarían dispuestos a pagar un sobreprecio de 50 lempiras/ha. por el derecho de cultivar maíz en una parcela en abonera en vez de hacerlo en una que ha estado en descanso. Este sobreprecio refleja la percepción de los agricultores de la mejor capacidad productiva de la tierra que se encuentra bajo el sistema de abonera. Este valor es bastante inferior a las diferencias entre beneficios netos que se obtienen con ambos sistemas que equivale aproximadamente a 350 lempiras por hectárea cuando la abonera tiene más de tres años.Cuadro 13. Distribución del valor de alquiler de la tierra de acuerdo a su uso, Litoral Atlántico, Honduras,1991. El Programa Regional de Malz de El Salvador inició en 1989 Wl programa de investigación destinado al desarrollo de tecnologias allecuadas para suelos de laderas, frágiles, de baja fertilidad o bajo Wl sistema de agricultura de subsistencia con el propósito de reducir la degradación de estos suelos y asi ayudar a mantener la sostenibilldad de los sistemas de producción en estas áreas. Para la zona de Opico-Quezaltepeque se evaluaron agronómica y económicamente en los ciclos 91-92, dos legWlwlosas para ser intercaladas con el malz a saber: Vlgna unguiculata L y Callavalia ensiformis L.La hipótesis prevaleciente para la evaluación económica se basó en el rol de las legWlMosas en: a) Por el lado de los costos, en la reducción del rendbuiento en el pmuer ciclo por efecto de la competencia por nutmuentos yagua; y b) Por el lado de los beneficios, la reducción de los costos en el control de malezas y el aporte de nitrógeno (N) al sistema de cultivo; medido por el efecto residual sobre el rendbldento del cultivo posterior. Los resultados mostraron que en el pmuer año los rendindentos de malz disnMuyeron y a la vez hubo IDI efecto residual sobre los rendindentos delmalz del ciclo sigldente. Sbl embargo, el análisis econóndco actualizado mostró que este blcremento no fue suficiente, a los precios domésticos, para compensar la disnwmción del pmuer mío.En el área de Centro América y el Caribe una gran proporción del maíz se siembra en zonas caracterizadas por suelos de baja fertilidad, frágiles, en laderas, y bajo una agricultura de subsistencia de bajos insumos. Debido a su ubicación en laderas y a un manejo inadecuado los suelos en estas zonas sufren de un potencial de erosión alto, y han sufrido una degradación severa en sus propiedades fisicas, químicas y biológicas. El Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) inició en 1989 un programa de investigación destinado al desarrollo de tecnologías adecuadas a la reducción de la degradación de estos suelos y así ayudar a mantener la sustentabilidad de los sistemas de producción de maíz en estas áreas marginales.El Programa consideró la evaluación en diferentes ambientes de 157 Centro América sobre el uso potencial de distintas leguminosas intercaladas con el maíz. Las hipótesis prevalecientes para esta evaluación se basaron en el rol de las leguminosas en: a) reducir la erosión por efecto de una mejor cobertura del suelo, b) reducir la incidencia de las malezas, c) aportar nitrógeno (N) al sistema de cultivo mediante la fijación del N atmosférico; y (d) mejorar la estructura del suelo mediante un mayor aporte de materia orgánica.Se reconoce, sin embargo, que en el corto plazo el efecto de intercalar la leguminosa en el sistema trae aparejado una reducción en el rendimiento por efecto de la competencia por nutrimentos, agua, y luz (Francis, 1989). Este costo se ilustra en la Figura 1, donde se muestra una de las posibles curvas de transformación para una superficie dada de tierra y para un cierto nivel tecnológico.El costo por competencia que surge de intercalar la leguminosa con el maíz en el primer ciclo, está dado por el valor de la reducción en rendimientos en maíz respecto al sistema en monocultivo: Pm (Ym¡-y mo), menos el valor de la producción de la leguminosa: PI (Yn). Donde P m y PI son los precios de campo del maíz y de la leguminosa respectivamente; Ymo y Yl o son los rendimientos en monocultivo para el maíz y la leguminosa respectivamente y YmI y Yn son aquellos obtenidos después del intercalado. Se estima sin embargo, que en el mediano o largo plazo estas desventajas sean neutralizadas por los efectos positivos mencionados anteriormente. El control de malezas, por ejemplo ha sido reportado como uno de los componentes más importantes de los costos de producción de maíz al representar una elevada demanda de mano de obra. Se espera que la rápida cobertura del suelo de algunas leguminosas produzcan una reducción importante en este costo por disminución en la incidencia de las malezas. Lo mismo se puede decir respecto al fertilizante que generalmente representa uno de los costos en efectivo más importantes. o YIl Ylo Rendimiento leguminosa (YI) Figura 1. El costo de intercalar una leguminosa en el cultivo de maíz.Con estos antecedentes el Proyecto se concentró en la evaluación agronómica y económica del impacto de intercalar tres leguminosas: Stizolobium deeringarum, Vigna ugniculata y Canavalia ensiformis con el maíz en una gran variedad de ambientes a través de la región centroamericana.Estas tres leguminosas fueron elegidas como las más promisorias de acuerdo a una serie de ensayos previos, en donde se evaluaron diferentes criterios; tal como la adaptación al crecimiento bajo las condiciones de sombra que establece el maíz. Los resultados obtenidos durante los ciclos de 1989, y 1990 permitieron ajustar los tratamientos a las condiciones prevalecientes en los sistemas de producción locales. En el caso del sistema maíz-frijol predominante en el área de Opico-Quezaltepeque de El Salvador, se decidió eliminar el tratamiento correspondiente al intercalado de Stizolobium deeringarum. De esa manera en 1991 se comenzó un ciclo experimental con las dos leguminosas restantes. Trabajos previos han reportado cantidades de N fijados por Canavalia ensiformis y Stizolobium deeringarum en el orden de los 190 y 157 kglha/afto respectivamente (Mello, 1978).El objetivo del presente trabajo es el de evaluar el potencial económico de cada una de las dos leguminosas para ser introducidas en el sistema de siembra del maíz prevaleciente en el área de Opico-Quezaltepeque. Para ello, se procede primero a caracterizar el sistema de producción prevaleciente, 158 para luego realizar la evaluación socioeconómica propiamente dicha. Para concluir se presenta un conjunto de conclusiones, así como las necesidades de estudios posteriores.El método propuesto es el de presupuesto parcial y análisis incremental (CIMMYT 1988) extendido para incorporar los efectos residuales tal como es explicado en Saín et al.,1991. En adición, las posibles interacciones con el sistema del agricultor de cada leguminosa se tratan como costos o beneficios, en ese sentido se trata de un análisis económico normativo es decir, que pasaría si el agricultor incorporara ll eguminosa en su sistema.La información para la caracterización del sistema agrícola se obtuvo de un sondeo estructurado llevado a cabo con los agricultores del área, los rendimientos fueron obtenidos de los resultados de los experimentos ejecutados en 1991 y 1992. Esta información se complementó con datos obtenidos de información secundaria.El área conocida como Opico-Quezaltepeque se ubica a unos 34 kms al Noroeste de San Salvador tiene una extensión de 344 km 2 (34,400 ha.) ; comprende los municipios de San Juan Opico y Quezaltepeque, ambos del departamento de La Libertad.En la zona se presentan dos tipos principales de topografia, por un lado terrenos alomados con pendientes por arriba del 30% y los terrenos planos con pendientes menores al 30%. Las elevaciones oscilan entre los 300 y 1000 metros sobre el nivel del mar.El régimen de lluvias en la zona es de tipo monzoico es decir seis meses de lluvia y 6 meses secos, existiendo una precipitación promedio anual de 1700 mm, siendo los meses más lluviosos julio y setiembre. (Cuadro 1). La temperatura varía entre los 17.5 y 32.9 oC, con un promedio anual de 23.8 oC. Siendo los meses de noviembre, diciembre y enero los de más bajas temperaturas y abril y mayo los de temperaturas más altas. agricultores del área manifiestan que los meses más difíciles para conseguir mano de obra para desarrollar labores culturales en el sistema maíz-frijol son los meses de mayo, agosto y noviembre y en algunas ocasiones junio y julio ya que en estos meses se realizan las labores de siembra, control de malezas, dobla, y cosecha.El área promedio de las fincas que siembran maízfríjol es de 1.05 ha y en su mayoría el sistema de maíz y fríjol en relevo es el predominante (solamente un 7% poseen otros cultivos como sorgo y arroz). Casi la mitad (43%) de los agricultores encuestados pertenecen al decreto 207 2 y únicamente el 11% pertenecen a cooperativas del sector reformado (cooperativas de San Andrés y La Virtud). Una quinta parte (18%) ha tenido experiencias satisfactorias en el cooperativismo y solo el 14% de los encuestados manifestó que le gustarla pertenecer a una cooperativa. Dentro de los beneficios y/o servicios que esperan de las cooperativas se encientran el de gozar de facilidades de crédito, la compra de insumos a menor precio y que los insumos sean proporcionados en la época adecuada. La siembra de maíz se realiza en el mes de mayo y la de frijol en el mes de agosto. Tres cuartas partes (75%) siembran superficies de maíz y frijol menores de 1 hectárea. Los rendimientos de maíz oscilan entre 3.5 y 4.5 tlha y los de frijol fluctúan entre 0.7 y 1.2 tlha.Como se observa en el cuadro 2, de acuerdo al Censo Nacional Agropecuario de 1971, cerca del 67% de las explotaciones se realizan en terrenos propios o se realizan en terrenos arrendados. Los cuadros 3, 4 Y 5 muestran a su vez la distribución del uso de la tierra por categorías. Como se observa en el cuadro 5, el cultivo permanente más importante es el café con el 92% del área, seguido por la siembra de naranjos. El resto del área está sembrado de otros cultivos, sin que ninguno logré una participación porcentual destacada.Muy pocos (11%) de los agricultores que cultivan maíz-frijol realizan obras de conservación de suelos; encontrándose con mayor frecuencia las barreras de piedra y barreras vivas. Pero la mayoría (71 %) efectúa la siembra siguiendo las curvas a nivel. Los 2 El Decreto 207 permitió el traspaso de tierras a quienes las cultivaban bajo cualquier forma de arrendamiento, son tierras no mayores de 7 hectáreas, (MAG-OSPA-PERA, 1987) En el ciclo inicial los beneficios netos del maíz en monocultivo superan ampliamente a aquellos obtenidos con maíz y canavalia y levemente a los de maíz con vigna. Este último resultado depende de la posibilidad de venta de la producción de grano de vigna. En cuanto a los efectos residuales no se encontró un impacto sobre el cultivo inmediato de frijol, pero si en el segundo ciclo residual correspondiente a la siembra de maíz de 1992 (Cuadro El cuadro 6 muestra en su primera parte los presupuestos parciales para el ciclo inicial de maíz, y el ciclo residual de frijol para el año 1991, a continuación se presentan los ciclos residuales de maíz y frijol correspondientes al año 1992. Se debe notar que para este análisis se toma como costos aquellos relacionados con la disminución de rendimientos de maíz por efecto de la competencia de la leguminosa y aquellos correspondientes a su implantación. Por el lado de los beneficios solo se contabilizan la disminución de costos de control de malezas en el ciclo inicial y los efectos residuales en los ciclos posteriores. % Area(ha) Uso de la tierra en cultivos pernlanentesEl 61 % de los agricultores encuestados manifiestan haber recibido asistencia técnica de los cuales, el 88% recibió ésta del CENTA, y un 6% del BFA. De los agricultores que recibieron asistencia técnica, una cuarta parte manífiestó que es visitado una vez al mes y una 21% que la frecuencia es de dos veces por més. Además de las visitas, casi una tercera parte (28%) de los agricultores participó en reuniones, un 4% asistió a demostraciones y un 11% participó en giras demostrativas. El 88% de los agricultores que reciben asistencia técnica manifiestan que la reciben para el El 36% de los agricultores manífiestaron que el crédito les permite aumentar el área de siembra, ya que les da facilidad para conseguir insumas. En contraposición un 43% de ellos manifiestaron que aunque logren tener crédito, no es posible aumentar las áreas de siembra debido a que hay escasez de tierra para la siembra. El principal problema que se presenta cuando el agricultor no adquiere crédito es el de la compra de insumos.El crédito es común en la zona ya que el 82% de los agricultores que cultivan maíz ó frijol trabajan con crédito. El principal proveedor de crédito es el Banco de Fomento Agropecuario (64%), seguido por las cooperativas (11%) y por Cajas de Crédito Rural (4%). De los agricultores que reciben crédito un 36% solicitaron crédito para áreas menores a 0.7 hectáreas, un 29% para áreas comprendidas entre 0.70 y 1.40 ha y unicamente el 18% de los agricultores solicitaron crédito para áreas entre 1.40 y 3.50 ha. Los montos del crédito oscilan entre 1000 y 5000 colones (36%) mientras que el 29% obtuvo montos menores a 500 colones. El plazo del crédito es por un año, con una tasa de interés del 13% anual, aunque la mayoría de los agricultores mencionó desconocer la tasa de interés que se aplicaba al crédito. El crédito otorgado incluye dinero e insumos y la mayoría de los agricultores (68%) manifiestaron que el crédito lo reciben en forma oportuna.Cuadro 5.Distribución del área con cultivos sistema maíz-frijol y un 12% solamente para maíz. __ p_er_m_an_e_n_te_s_. _O..;;p_i_co_-...;Q;.,u_e_za_l_te..;;p_e..;;q_u...;e,_E_l_S_a_lv_a_d_o_r._l_9_8_3_.__ Las recomendaciones más frecuentes fueron sobre el control de plagas de follaje y del suelo y sobre fertilización. El 90% de los agricultores que recibieron estas recomendaciones manifiestaron ~C:-ati=e-----------~4~19~9:-----~9~1~.8~0-haberlas puesto en práctica y que le produjeron En este último caso los beneficios netos correspondientes a los efectos residuales de Canavalia incrementaron en un 62% respecto al monocultivo mientras que en el caso de vigna este incremento fué de 34%.El análisis marginal actualizado usando una tasa de descuento del 15% mostró sin embargo que a esta tasa los efectos residuales no fueron suficientes para compensar los costos iniciales de intercalar las leguminosas. Aunque la leguminosas reducen los costos totales que varian, la reducción en rendimientos del primer ciclo fueron demasiados extremos. Se debe tener en cuenta sin embargo que no se han tenido en cuenta en el análisis beneficios de largo plazo del intercalado de la leguminosas tales como una mejora en la calidad del suelo y un mejor manejo del agua. También se debe notar que Wla tasa real de descuento del 15% es exigente para tecnologías de conselVación. De todas maneras se debe investigar más sobre formas de reducir los costos iniciales de competencia para hacer la técnica más atractiva al agricultor en el corto plazo.Cuadro 6. Presupuesto parcial para el cultivo del maíz. Siembra de 1991. El Salvador. El ICfA bdció en 1989 un programa de Úlvestigación destinado al desarroDo de temologfas adecuadas para suelos de laderas, frágiles, de baja fertiDdad o bajo un sbtema de agricultura de subsistencia con el propósito de reducir la degradación de estos suelos y asi ayudar a mantener la sostenibilldad de los sbtemas de producción en estas áreas. Se evaluaron agronómica y económicamente tres legwnlnosas para ser intercaladas con el nuúz a saber: V\"¡gna unguiculJJta y Canavalia enslformis y Mucuna en dos áreas de Guatemala: Cuyuta (ciclos 1989-1990); y Zacapa (ciclos 1990-1991). La hipótesb prevaledente para la evaluación económica se basó en el rol de las legwninosas en: a) Por el lado de los costos, en la reducción del rendimiento en el printer ciclo por efecto de la competencia por nutrintentos yagua; y b) Por el lado de los beneftcios, la reducción de los costos en el control de malezas y el aporte de nitrógeno (N) al sistema de cultivo; medido por el efecto residual sobre el rendimiento del cultivo posterior. Los resultados mostraron que en el printer afto los beneftcios netos disminuyeron por efecto del Últercalado de las leguminosas y a la vez hubo un efecto residual sobre los rendimientos del nuúz del ciclo siguiente. Sin embargo, el bnpacto fue diferente por localidad. En Zacapa, el incremento en beneftcios netos no fue suftciente, a ninguna tasa de descuento razonable para compensar la disminución del printer afto y el sistema de monocultivo fue el más rentable. En Jutiapa, con rendimientos mucho más altos, el intercalado con Canavalia resultó rentable a tasas de descuento relativamente bajas (5% o menos).En el área de Centro América y el Caribe una gran proporción del maíz se siembra en zonas caracterizadas por suelos de baja fertilidad, frágiles, en laderas, y bajo una agricultura de subsistencia de bajos insumos. Debido a su ubicación en laderas y a un manejo inadecuado los suelos en estas zonas sufren de un alto potencial de erosión y han sufrido una degradación severa en sus propiedades fisicas, químicas y biológicas. El Programa Regional de Maíz (PRM) inició en 1989 un programa de investigación destinado al desarrollo de tecnologías adecuadas a la reducción de 1Investigador del Programa de Socioeconomia del ICTA y Economista Regional de CIMMYT para Centro América y el Caribe, San José, Costa Rica. 163 la degradación de estos suelos y así ayudar a mantener la sustentabilidad de los sistemas de producción de maíz en estas áreas marginales.El Programa consideraba la evaluación en diferentes ambientes de Centro América del uso potencial de distintas leguminosas intercaladas con el maíz.Se reconoce, sin embargo, que en el corto plazo el efecto de intercalar la leguminosa en el sistema trae aparejado una reducción en el rendimiento por efecto de la competencia por nutrimentos, agua, y luz (Francis, 1989). Este costo se ilustra en la Figura 1, donde se muestra una de las posibles curvas de transformación para una superficie dada de tierra y para un cierto nivel tecnológico.El costo por competencia que surge de intercalar la leguminosa con el maíz en el primer ciclo, está dado por el valor de la reducción en rendimientos en maíz respecto al sistema en monocultivo: P m (Yml-Ymo), menos el valor de la producción de la leguminosa: PI (Y11)' Donde P m y PI son los precios de campo del maíz y de la leguminosa respectivamente; Ymo y Yl o son los rendimientos en monocultivo para el maíz y la leguminosa respectivamente y YmI y Yl1 son aquellos obtenidos después del intercalado.Se estima sin embargo, que en el mediano o largo plazo estas desventajas sean neutralizadas por los efectos positivos mencionados anteriormente. El control de malezas, por ejemplo ha sido reportado como uno de los componentes más importantes de los costos de producción de maíz al representar una elevada demanda de mano de obra. Se espera que la rápida cobertura del suelo de algunas leguminosas produzcan una reducción importante en este costo por disminución en la incidencia de las malezas. Lo mismo se puede decir respecto al fertilizante que generalmente representa uno de los costos en efectivo más importante. Trabajos presentados por Mello Dado que los rendimientos de este ensayo fueron bajos por efecto de la sequía, se consideró conveniente realizar un análisis económico similar en un ambiente de rendimientos mas altos. Para ello se tomó el ensayo de leguminosas intercaladas que se realizó en el área de Cuyuta con ciclo inicial en 1989 y ciclo residual 1990. La estructura de tratamientos fue similar al experimento ya analizado pero en este caso el rendimiento promedio del ensayo fue de 5.6 t/ha. El Cuadro 2 muestra los presupuestos parciales para cada ciclo y el análisis marginal actualizado.En esta sección se presenta el cálculo de la rentabilidad de los cuatro tratamientos involucrados en el experimento. El ciclo inicial, es decir cuando se intercaló la leguminosa con maíz ocurrió en el ciclo 1990 mientras que el residual ocurrió en 1991. El Cuadro 1 presenta el análisis de presupuesto parcial para ambos períodos y el análisis incremental actualizado. Se debe notar que con el [m de aislar los efectos residuales de aquellos efectos debidos a fluctuaciones anuales en los precios del maíz, el presupuesto parcial se realizó considerando un precio promedio del maíz pagado al agricultor en el área de 125.7 US$/ton. para ambos períodos.Se debe observar también que los costos que varian en el ciclo residual son nulos debido a que todos los tratamientos recibieron un tratamiento uniforme por lo que las diferencias en rendimiento se deben a los efectos residuales del ciclo anterior.Los resultados muestran que en el primer año los rendimientos de maíz disminuyeron sustancialmente por efecto del intercalado provocando una disminución de alrededor del 60% en los beneficios netos en relación con el monocultivo. El efecto residual sobre los rendimientos del maíz del ciclo 1991 aunque positivos no fueron suficientes para compensar la pérdida en el primer ciclo, los beneficios netos registraron aumentos en este ciclo que oscilaron entre 26% para la Mucuna y 3% para la Vigna. Como consecuencia el análisis incremental actualizado muestra al monocultivo como la alternativa más rentable para el agricultor. sistema del agricultor de cada leguminosa se tratan como costos o beneficios, en ese sentido se trata de un análisis económico normativo, es decir, que pasaria si el agricultor incorporara la leguminosa en su sistema.YIl Ylo o Ym El método propuesto es el de presupuesto parcial y análisis incremental documentado en el Manual del CIMMYT (1988) pero extendido para incorporar los efectos residuales tal como es explicado en Saín el al., (1991). En adición, las posibles interacciones con el El objetivo del presente trabajo es el de evaluar el potencial económico de cada una de las dos leguminosas para ser introducidas en el sistema de siembra del maíz prevaleciente en el área de San Diego, Departamento de Zacapa. Para ello, se procede primero a caracterizar el sistema de producción prevaleciente, para luego realizar la evaluación socioeconómica propiamente dicha.Con estos antecedentes el Proyecto se concentró en la evaluación agronómica y económica del impacto de intercalar tres leguminosas: Stizolobium deeringarum (mucuna), Vigna ugniculala (vigna) y Canava/ia ensiformis (canavalia) con el maíz en una gran variedad de ambientes a través de la región centroamericana.Estas tres leguminosas fueron elegidas como las más promisorias de acuerdo con una serie de ensayos previos, en donde se evaluaron diferentes criterios; tal como la adaptación al crecimiento bajo las condiciones de sombra que establece el maíz. Los resultados obtenidos durante los ciclos de 1989, y 1990 permitieron ajustar los tratamientos a las condiciones prevalecientes en los sistemas de producción locales.Cuadro 1. Presupuesto parcial y analisis incremental del Cuadro 2. Presupuesto parcial y analisis incremental del experimento de leguminosas intercaladas en San Diego, experimento de leguminosas intercaladas en Cuyuta, 1990Cuyuta, -1991Cuyuta, . 1989Cuyuta, -1990.Monoc C-2) Tasa de descuellto de 10\".4Aunque el patron temporal de costos y beneficios es similar al caso anterior, la magnitud de estos efectos es diferente con efectos residuales mas fuertes en este caso que llevan a que el tratamiento con Canavalia sea mas rentable a una tasa de descuento de 5% mientras que el maiz en monocultivo 10 es a la tasa de 10%.Este ultimo resultado resalta la importancia de la seleccion de una tasa de descuento adecuada para la evaluaci6n econ6mica de altemativas tecnol6gicas que involucren conservacion de recursos naturales. Amilisis Economico a la Aplicacion de Nitrogeno en Maiz en Rotacion Con Leguminosas bajo dos Tipos de Labranza, Rio Oato, Panama, 1992-93A.P. de Herrera 1 , R. Gord6n 2 , J. Franco 2 , N. de Gracia 2 , L. Martinez 2 , A. Gonzalez 2 y G. Sain 3   RESUMEN   Se realizo WI experimento para evaluar la respuesta delmaiz a tres dosis de nitrogeno (0, 75 Y 150 kg N/ba), bajo tres sistemas de siembra en rotacion delmalz con las leguminosas Canavalia ensifonnis y Stizolobium deeringianum (MuClllla), adenuts de una siembra sin leguminosas. Tanlbien se evaluaron dos tipos de labranza; WIO consistio en incorporar las legwninosas y malezas antes de la siembra y el otro en dejarlas sobre la superficie del suelo. Se efectuo WI anslisis economico continuo a traves de wla fWlcion de respllesta cuadratica del renduuiento a la aplicacion de diferente dosis de N, ulcorporando tres variables \"dwlUny\" para medir los efeetos de la mUCWla y canavalia (dl y dZ) Y del tipo de labrallZa (d3). Z611.4ZD Z -Z33.00D 3 -1.91D 1 N -10.13D Z N. De este modelo se obtuvieron seis fllllciolles que explicanlas respllesta del nitrogeno con los diferentes tipos de leguminosas y bajo los dos tipos de labranzas, pennitiendo estunar asi los optunos economicos. En la siembra del ntaiz SUl rotacion de legunwlosas el optimo ascendio a 139 kg de N/ba en tanto que para la rotacion con mllcuna y canavalia el mismo fue de 123 y 54 kg de Nlha, respeetivamente. Esto represento Wl Morro de 85 kg de N/ba entre las siembras con canavalia vs sin leguntblosas. Esto se reOejo en un incremento de B/.316.49 en los beneficios netos asociados con la altemativa de aplicar N en rotacion con canavalia SUl incorporar, respeeto a la altentativa de no rotar conleglUlwlosas.La utilizaci6n de las leguminosas como abonos yerdes es una practica que se realiza desde hace afios y es objeto de investigaci6n por parte del Programa Regional de Maiz, a nivel de centroamerica y el Caribe. En Panama, Gord6n et al. (1992), realizo un experimento para evaluar la respuesta del maiz a tres dosis de nitrogeno (0, 7S Y ISO Kg Nlha), bajo tres sistemas de siembras, en rotaci6n del maiz con las leguminosas Canavalia ensiformis y Stizolobium deeringianum (mucuna), ademas de una siembra sin leguminosas. Las leguminosas fueron sembradas al IEconomista, 1D1AP, Azuero, Panama. 2Investigadores de Mm, 1DIAP, Azuero, Panama. 3 Economista, C1MMYT, Costa Rica. DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 167-169. 167 inicio de la epoca lluviosa (mayo/1992) y el maiz en septiembre del mismo afio. Tambien se evaluaron dos tipos de labranza, uno consisti6 en incolporar las leguminosas y malezas antes de la siembra y el otro en dejarlas sobre la superficie del suelo. Se utiliz6 un disefio de parcelas sub-sub-divididas (leguminosas / labranza / N) en bloques al azar con tres repeticiones. A partir de este experimento se planteo como objetivo general, evaluar el aporte econ6mico de incolporar las leguminosas en rotaci6n con el maiz, y como especificos los siguientes: determinar las dosis 6ptimas economicas de N aplicadas al maiz en rotacion con leguminosas, en comparaci6n con el sistema tradicional del productor, y estimar los beneficios netos asociados con esta alternativa.La metodologia utilizada consistio en un analisis economico continuo a traves de una funcion de respuesta cuadnitica del rendimiento del maiz a la aplicaci6n de diferentes dosis de N, incolporando tres variables dummy para medir los efectos de la mucuna y canavalia (d1 y d2) y del tipo de labranza (d3). La variable dl toma el valor de 1 para la rotacion con mucuna y de 0 para sin mucuna; la d2 es igual a 1 para la rotacion con canavalia y 0 sin canavalia; y d3 es igual a 1 para la incolporacion de las leguminosas y malezas, en tanto que es 0 para la no incolporaci6n. El modelo general propuesto fue el siguiente:Para el caIcul0 de los optimos economicos se utilizo la siguiente f6rmula (Byerlee y Harrington, 1981;Jauregui y Sain, 1991):donde N corresponde a la cantidad de nitr6geno/ha optima; rn es la relacion de precios de nitrogeno a precios a precios del maiz y se obtiene a traves de la Cuadro 1.Estimacion de parametros y nivel de significancia en la evaluacion de la respuesta del maiz a la aplicacion de N en rotacion con leguminosas, Rio Bato, Panama, 1992-93. siguiente f6nnula: --------------------Po (I-a)Parametro Estimado Nivel de Significancia 1. Funci6n de respuesta sin leguminosa y sin incorporaci6n de las malezas:Oel modele general se obtuvieron 6 funciones que explican la respuesta de N con los diferentes tipos de leguminosas y bajo los dos tipos de labranza, y las cuales fueron utilizadas para el c3lculo de las dosis 6ptimas.donde (Pn + CA) es el precio de mercado del nitr6geno mas el costo de aplicaci6n; R es la tasa minima de retorno de los productores durante el cicIo del cultivo; Po es el precio de campo del maiz y a es un porcentaje de ajuste de los redimientos. Se utiliz6 como precios promedios tanto para N (incluyendo su costo de aplicaci6n) como• para el del maiz, el correspondiente al promedio del periodo 1982-91, de B/ 0.73/kg y B/ 0.20/kg, respeetivamente; y una tasa minima de retorno por el cicIo del cultivo de 15%. Los beneficios netos fueron estimados utilizando la siguiente f6nnula:BN=pOY -PnN donde Y es la funci6n de respuesta del maiz a la aplicaci6n de N. Oel modelo de regresi6n propuesto se obtuvo una respuesta altamente significativa por el efecto residual de las leguminosas, a la aplicaci6n de N, asi como a la interacci6n leguminosas por dosis. Con relaci6n a la respuesta del tipo de labranza se encontr6 diferencia significativa al 10% de probabilidad. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre la interacci6n lineal y cuadnltica del tipo de labranza con las dosis de N, asi como las interacciones cuadnlticas del tipo de leguminosas y los niveles de N, (Cuadro 1). Esto redujo el modele propuesto al siguiente:. 2. FlUlci6n de respuesta sin leguminosa y con incorporaci6n de las malezas: Y2 = 1,124.97 + 20.90N -0.06N2.3. FlUlci6n de respuesta con mUClUla y sin incorporaci6n de la mUClUla y malezas: Y3 = 2,353.64 + 18.99N -0.06N2.4. FlUlci6n de respuesta con mUClUla y con incorporaci6n de la mucuna y malezas: Y4 = 2,120.64 + 18.99N -0.06N2 5. Funci6n de respuesta con canavalia y sin incorporaci6n de la canavalia y malezas: Y5 = 3,969.39 + 1O.77N -0.06N2 6. Funci6n de respuesta con canavalia y con incorporaci6n de la canavalia y malezas: Y6 = 3,736.39 + 10.77N -0.06N2Se obtuvo que las dosis 6ptimas econ6micas de aplicaci6n de N para la siembra del maiz sin rotaci6n Cuadro 3. Analisis de sensibilidad de las dosis optimas de N ante cambios en las relaciones de precios.Cuadro 2. Beneticios netos de la respuesta del maiz a la aplicacion de N en rotacion con leguminosas, bajo dos tipos de labranza, Rio Hato, Panama, 1992-93. Byerlee, D. and L. Harrington. 1981 Frente a la tendencia de incrementar los precios de los fertilizantes relativos a los del maiz, la alternativa de incorporar leguminosas representa un mayor aporte de nitrogeno al sistema respecto a menores precios relativos de los fertilizantes, permitiendo mayor sostenibilidad al sistema de produccion de maiz.Dado que las dosis 6ptimas dependen de las relaciones de precios entre el precio de N y del maiz, se efectu6 un amilisis de sensibilidad considerando inicialmente un incremento y luego una reducci6n en el precio del maiz correspondiente a un 25 y 50% sobre el precio promedio considerado en el estudio. Un incremento en el precio del maiz implica que el N se hace mas barato respecto al maiz y una reducci6n significa 10 contrario. Los cambios en las relaciones de precios modificaron los 6ptimos econ6micos calculados (Cuadro 3), obteniendose (a medida que la relaci6n de precios de N al de maiz aumenta), un rango de variabilidad del optimo economico desde 66 hasta 20 kglha de N utilizando la canavalia en rotacion, respecto al rango de 151 hasta 104 kglha de N cuando no se utiliza leguminosa. EI an3.lisis de sensibilidad demuestra que, ha medida que la relacion de precios aumenta, es mayor el aporte relativo de N de la canavalia para alcanzar el maximo beneficio respecto a las dosis optimas sin leguminosas (56% versus 81%, de un cambio en la relacion de precios de 2.80 a 8.40, Cuadro 3). La utilizacion de la canavalia en rotacion, ademas de mejorar la rentabilidad del sistema, mejora su sostenibilidad al reducir la dependencia del sistema de insumos externos cuyos precios relativos a los del maiz han mostrado una tendencia a incrementarse en los ultimos afios.de leguminosas ascendi6 a 139 kg/ha de N; en tanto que, para la rotaci6n con mucuna y canavalia la misma ascendi6 a 123 y 54 kglha de N, respectivamente. Esto implica que, la pnictica de rotaci6n del maiz con canavalia represent6 un ahorro de 85 kg de N/ha, versus la siembra sin leguminosas. Esto se reflejo en un incremento de BI 316.49 en los beneficios netos (Cuadro 2) asociados con la alternativa de utilizar la canavalia en rotaci6n con el maiz. A pesar de que la aplicaci6n de N no interactu6 con el tipo de labranza y por tanto no modifica los 6ptimos econ6micos; no obstante, los beneficios netos aumentaron entre un 6 y un 10% sin incorporar los residuos vegetales (leguminosas y/o malezas), respecto a incorporarlas en la alternativa de utilizar la canavalia en rotaci6n con el maiz.La siembra del maiz en rotacion con leguminosas (principalmente canavalia) reduce significativamente las dosis optimas de fertilizante nitrogenado, representando un ahorro de 85 kglha de N entre 1a siembra con canavalia versus sin leguminosas, y un incremento significativo en los beneficios netos de B/.316/ha. Evaluacion Economica de Uso de Rastrojo de Maiz en Asocio con Canavalia ensiformis, Azuero, Panama, 1992-1993 A. de Herrera l , D. Herrera 2, R. Gordon 2 y G. Sain 3Durante los Iiltimos al'ios el Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) viene impulsando el asocio de leguminosas de cobertura en el cultivo de maiz. En la region de Azuero se produce una parte importante de la produccion de maiz del pais. Este estudio examina la respuesta economica de intercalar canavalia (Canavalia ensiformis L.) con maiz para uso del rastrojo en alimentacion animal eomo pastoreo. Se sembraron 2 ha de maiz, la mitad en monocultivo y la otra mitad en asocio con canavalia en la estacion experimental de EI Ejido, Azuero. Los resultados indican que es rentble asociar canavalia con maiz en Azuero cuando se considera el uso del rastrojo de maiz para la alimentacion animal cuando suplementado por rastrojo de canavalia. EI costa de oportunidad para el agricultvr que alimenta su ganado en la epoca seca con rastrojo de maiz se ve aumentado con la insercion de canavalia eon mafz.En conclusion, en la region de Azuero, es rentable insertar la canavalia dentro de los sistemas de produccion de maiz.Durante los ultimos afios el Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) a traves del IDIAP, ha venido desarrollando investigaciones en el cultivo de maiz en asocio con leguminosas, con el prop6sito de mejorar la estructura y cobertura del suelo, aprovechar la capacidad de las leguminosas en la fijaci6n de nitr6geno, reducir la incidencia de las malezas, e incrementar la producci6n y calidad del forraje. La regi6n de Azuero concentra parte importante (aproximadamente 50%) de la producci6n nacional de maiz que entra a los canales de comercializaci6n, y es tambien una de las areas ganaderas importantes del pais. Esta regi6n se caracteriza por un intenso periodo de sequfa que se extiende desde diciembre hasta abril, durante el cual una de las principales y mas econ6micas fuentes de alimentaci6n para el ganado la constituye el rastrojo de maiz. Generalmente el productor de maiz es tambien ganadero, y cuando no 10 es, tiene la altemativa de alquilar su parcela de rastrojo de maiz, ya que existe un mercado bien definido de compra-venta de rastrojo en el area. 'Lie., M.Sc., Economista, 2 Ing. Agr6nomo M.sc., del Instituto de Investigaci6n Agropeeuaria de Panama (IDIAP), Centro Regional Agropecuario de Azuero y 3 Economista Regional, CIMMYT, Costa Rica.Publicado en SINTESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 170-175. 170 La alternativa de asocio de las leguminosas con el maiz, ademas de las ventajas arriba seffaladas, a corto plazo tiene el efecto de reducir el rendimiento de maiz por efecto de la compentencia por nutrimentos, agua y luz, e implica costos adicionales por siembra de la leguminosa. No obstante, el asocio del maiz con una leguminosa como altemativa para incrementar y mejorar la calidad del forraje produce beneficios a corto plazo que no han sido medidos. En efecto se desconoce el potencial de producci6n de came del rastrojo de maiz mejorado con la incorporaci6n de una leguminosa, asi como los beneficos econ6micos que esto representa para el sistema de producci6n maiz-ganaderia.En la epoca 1992-93 se efectu6 un estudio de evaluaci6n bioecon6mica del uso del rastrojo de maiz en asocio con la leguminosa Canavalia ensiformis, en la finca experimental de El Ejido, Los Santos, Panama.El objetivo general de la investigaci6n fue evaluar los beneficios y costos asociados con la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia versus la siembra del ma\\z en monocultivo. Los objetivos especificos fueron: determinar el potencial de producci6n de carne del rastrojo de maiz cultivado solo o en asocio con la canavalia; y determinar los beneficios econ6micos generados por la utilizaci6n del rastrojo de maiz en asocio con la canavalia en la alimentacion animal durante la epoca seca.Se sembr6 una parcela de maiz de aproximadamente 2.0 ha en la eual a una heetarea se Ie intercal6 en surcos alternos la leguminosa Canavalia ensiformis de uno a tres dias despues de la siembra del maiz; y en el resto de la parcela se sembr6 el maiz en monocultivo. La canavalia fue sembrada en surcos altemos al del maiz, a 0.5 m entre plantas y una semilla por golpe. Para el uso del rastrojo en la alimentaci6n animal se utiliz6 un diseffo completamente al azar, con 3 repeticiones y cuatro tratamientos: rastrojo de maiz solo; rastrojo de maiz solo mas un suplemento; rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia y rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia mas un suplemento. La composici6n del suplemento consisti6 en 75% de melurea y 25% de grana de canavalia, suministrado a un nivel de 1.5 kg por animal/dia. Cada repetici6n estuvo integrada por un animal (novilla cruzada con un peso promedio de 206.8 kg) manejado en corrales individuales. El periodo de evaluaci6n correspondi6 a 70 dias.Una mayor explicaci6n del manejo experimental del ganado puede encontrarse en Herrera et al. (1993).La metodologia utilizada en la evaluaci6n econ6mica consisti6 en eI presupuesto parcial y analisis marginal (CIMMYT, 1988).Siguiendo esta metodologia se analizaron todos los beneficios y costos variables vinculados con la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia en comparaci6n con el maiz en monocultivo. En la evaluaci6n econ6mica s610 se consideraron estos dos tratamientos, atendiendo a los objetivos del presente estudio.Como parte de los beneficios brutos se incluyeron dos aspectos: el valor de la producci6n de maiz en grana (que incluye el efecto de incorporar la leguminosa), y el valor del rastrojo. El valor de la producci6n de maiz se obtuvo al multiplicar eI precio de campo del maiz (precio de venta menos costos proporcionales al rendimiento 0 cosecha) por el rendimiento ajustado obtenido. El valor del rastrojo se obtuvo de la siguiente manera. Se estim6 el precio sombra 0 costa de oportunidad de una tonelada de rastrojo de maiz mas canavalia, como el valor del incremento en kilogramos de carne que puede obtenerse al utilizarse el rastrojo durante el perfodo en estudio. Esto puede expresarse a traves de la siguiente f6rmula:Psr, es el costo de oportunidad de una tonelada de rastrojo de mafz mas canavalia; Pc, es el precio de mercado que recibe el productor por un kg de carne; ~C/ ~R es el aumento en kilogramo de carne que provee cada tonelada de rastrojo de maiz mas canavalia.En el caso del rastrojo de maiz solo, se tom6 como referencia el precio por hectarea de mercado del mismo. Respecto a los costos variables se consideraron, ademas de la reducci6n del rendimiento de maiz 171 (medido en la secci6n de beneficios brutos del presupuesto parcial), los costos de semiIla y de la siembra de la canavalia, como unicos costos adicionales.La alternativa de asociar el maiz con la canavalia, reduce el rendimiento de maiz, perc implica tambien el aumento de la calidad y cantidad del forraje que se utiliza en la alimentaci6n del ganado, ademas de las otras ventajas vinculadas con el uso de leguminosas. Esto implica que para evaluar a corto plazo la rentabilidad del sistema de la producci6n de maiz en asocio con canavalia, utilizando el forraje mejorado en la alimentaci6n del ganado, debe considerarse el sistema integralmente. Es decir, evaluando por un lado, los ingresos tanto del maiz como del forraje, y los costos asociados con la incorporaci6n de la leguminosa.En Azuero, se han efectuado evaluaciones para determinar epocas y el arreglo espacial maiz-canavalia que reduzca en menor grado los rendimientos del maiz y tenga mayores posibilidades de adopci6n por parte de los productores (Gord6n et al., 1993) En este sentido, los resultados obtenidos del presente estudio demostraron que la siembra de la canavalia en surcos alternos al maiz, redujo los rendimientos de maiz en 0.23 t/ha, esto es aproximadamente B/.43.70/ha (Cuadro 2), 10 que representa a su vez el principal costo de incorporar la leguminosa al sistema (aunque esta considerado en la secci6n de beneficios brutos del presupuesto parcial). Los otros costos asociados con la introducci6n de la canavalia, y los cuales corresponden a los costos que varian en el presupuesto parcial, son los costos de la semilla de la canavalia, y dos jornales/ha requeridos para la siembra de la leguminosa. No existe un mercado definido para la venta de semilla de la canavalia; no obstante, se tom6 el precio de venta de la semilla por parte de IDIAP.En Azuero el rastrojo de maiz se utiliza en la alimentaci6n del ganado en la epoca seca y aunque es una practica que no permite el mantenimiento del ganado, ya que se encontr6 en el estudio que los mismos perdieron peso; no obstante, es la altemativa mas accesible y mas barata, en comparaci6n con alternativas de suplementaci6n alimenticia. Los animales alimentados con rastrojo de maiz solo, registraron un consumo de materia seca por animal pordia de 3.33 kg, Yuna perdida de peso de 134 gramos por animal por dia. Relacionando el forraje total consumiblelha (rendimiento de rastrojolha menos el rechazo del forraje ofrecido) con el consumo por animal, para obtener la capacidad de cargalha, y el cambio de peso del animal por dia, se obtuvo una perdida de peso por ha de 148.18 kg (Cuadro 1). . Hay un mercado bien establecido de compra venta del rastrojo de mafz, cuyo preciolha asciende a B/.50.00, 10 que equivale a B/. 10.18 por 172 tonelada tomando en consideracion el rendimiento de rastrojo de maiz obtenido en el estudio de 4.91 tlha.La alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia aumento la produccion total de forraje respecto al cultivo de maiz solo, ascendiendo a 6.35 t/ha. Los animales alimentados con rastrojo de maiz mas canavalia resgistraron ganancias de peso de 90 gramos por animal por dia, explicado principalmente por el mayor consumo de materia seca (4.39 kg de MS/animal/dia) y por ende consumo total de nutrientes digestibles, respecto a los animales alimentados con rastrojo solo (Cuadro 1).La relacion del forraje total consumible de 4.76 tlha, con el consumo de rastrojo por animal, permitio obtener la capacidad de carga/ha en un dia 0,085.6 animales) y determinar la ganancia de peso totallha de 97.7 kglha, Cuadro 1.El uso del rastrojo de maiz mejorado con canavalia implico un incremento de 245 kg de came/ha respecto al uso de rastrojo solo (diferencia absoluta entre la ganancia de peso por el uso de rastrojo mejorado y la perdida de peso por la utilizacion de rastrojo de maiz solo) (Cuadro 1). El incremento de carne/tonelada de rastrojo mejorado fue de 38.7 kg, 10 que valorado al precio de B/.0.88/kg de came asciende a B/.34.07 (Cuadro 2).Este valor corresponde al costo de oportunidad de una tonelada de rastrojo mejorado, medido a traves del valor del incremento de came por el uso de dicho rastrojo. La diferencia entre este costo de oportunidad y el precio de mercado de una tonelada de rastrojo -de maiz solo, que equivale a B/.23.89, y puede ser un indicador del precio 0 costo de oportunidad de una tonelada de canavalia, ya que representa el aporte de la canavalia al incremento de carne obtenida del uso del rastrojo mejorado.El Cuadro 2 presenta el presupuesto parcial, que asocia los beneficios y costos, de la alternativa de utilizacion del rastrojo de maiz en asocio con canavalia versus el maiz en monocultivo. La sumatoria de los beneficios brutos totales (valor del grano mas el valor del rastrojo) ascendio a B/.864.25 en la alternativa de maiz mas' canavalia, esto es, un incremento de 16.5% respecto al cultivo de maiz solo. Los beneficios netos obtenidos para la alternativa del maiz en asocio versus el maiz en monocultivo fue de B/.843.25 y B/.741.60, respectivamente.Cuadro 2.Presupuesto parcial por hectarea en la evaluacion del uso de rastrojo de mafz en asocio con Canavalia ensiformis, Panama, 1992-1993. Tratamientos maiz con canavalia (Cuadro 3). Esta tasa esta muy por encima de la tasa minima de retorno estimada para los productores de la regi6n de Azuero. Se evalu6 tambien (Herrera et al., 1993) los efectos de la suplementaci6n de los rastrojos de maiz (solo y asocido con canavalia), encontrandose que la utilizaci6n del rastrojo de maiz solo suplementado fue una alternativa dominada econ6micamente por las alternativas del uso de rastrojo de maiz mas canavalia con y sin suplementaci6n. Ambas alternativas son rentables, y la suplementaci6n del rastrojo de maiz mas canavalia report6 los mayores beneficios netos y una tasa marginal de retorno de 131 %, respecto al uso del rastrojo de maiz mas canavalia, basicamente proque se utiliz6 como fuente proteinica el grano de canavalia que produce el mismo sistema.Se efectu6 un analisis de sensibilidad, considerando alzas y bajas en los precios de la carne de 15 y 30%. Un incremento del 30% respecto al precio/kg de carne de hembra (utilizada en el estudio), corresponde muy cercanamente al precio actual de un kg de carne de macho. El Cuadro 4 presenta la variaci6n en beneficios netos y en la tasa marginal de retorno al efectuar cambios en los precios, encontrandose un rango que oscila desde B/. 779.00 hasta B/.907.00/ha. Se observa que aun con disminuciones del 30% en el precio de la carne, se obtiene una alta tasa de marginal de retorno (180%) al utilizar la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia versus el cultivo de maiz en monocultivo.Lo anterior implica que los beneficios obtenidos a traves del incremento de carne por el uso del rastrojo mejorado superan ampliamente los costos que a corto plazo implica la incorporaci6n de la canavalia al cultivo de maiz. Esto se refleja tambien en la alta tasa marginal de retorno, 484%, obtenida al cambiar la altemativa de maiz en monocultivo por la de asocio del La evaluaci6n econ6mica ha demostrado que es rentable la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia, sobre la base de que el costo de oportunidad (a traves del valor del incremento de carne) de utilizar el rastrojo mejorado en la alimentaci6n del ganado es alta, respecto a la practica actual del ganadero de utilizar el rastrojo de maiz solo, que no permite ni siquiera el mantenimiento del animal. Cuadro 3. Analisis marginal en la evaluacion del uso de rastrojo de malz en asocio con CanavaJia ensiformis, Panama, 1992-1993. Cuadro 4. Beneficios netos y tasa marginal de retorno (TMR), ante variaciones en el precio de la carne, en el uso de rastrojo de mafz en asocio con Canavalia ensiformis.Beneficios TMR BlJkg de Carne Netos % B/Jha aproximadamente 12,000 ha comerciales de maiz sembradas en el ultimo cicIo agricola en la regi6n de Azuero, se tiene un incremento total de B/.I,219,000.00, respecto ala practica actual de utilizar el rastrojo de maiz solo. Los beneficios totales para la regi6n de Azuero, son mayores que los estimados, ya que las cifras de superficie sembrada de maiz utilizadas excluye la producci6n que no entra a los canales de comercializaci6n (y de los cuales no se tienen registros adecmftlos) y que tambien es utilizada en la alimentaci6n del ganado durante la epoca seca.Esta rentabilidad del sistema a corto plazo tiene implicaciones importantes a nivel de las posibilidades de adopci6n de la utilizaci6n de la canavalia con prop6sitos de conservaci6n del suelo. Del porcentaje de rechazo (25%) del consumo ofrecido obtenido del estudio, se infiere que el ganado deja aproximadamente 1.2 toneladas de rastrojo de maiz solo en el campo, antes de la siembra, 10 que implica una cobertura del suelo aproximadamente de 20%. Esta cantidad de rastrojo despues que el ganado sale del campo, coincide con los resultados obtenidos a nivel de un sondeo realizado a productores recientemente en la regi6n de Azuero. En este sistema de asocio de maiz mas canavalia y la utilizaci6n del rastrojo en la alimentaci6n animal, los beneficios de la siembra de la canavalia sobre la conservaci6n del suelo, serian limitados basicamente al periodo de cultivo del maiz. Por otro lado, la mayor producci6n de forraje respecto al maiz en monocultivo, no garantiza una mayor cobertura antes de la siembra, ya que la misma dependera de la presi6n de pastoreo que imponga el ganadero.Del estudio se obtuvo que la carga animal/ha , durante el periodo de 70 dias (que puede ser representativo para el periodo mas critico de sequia en el area) fue de 15.8 y 15.7 animales (de 206.8 kg de peso) para el sistema de cultivo de maiz en monocultivo y maiz mas canavalia, respectivamente. A pesar de que el maiz asociado con canavalia aument6 significativamente la producci6n de rastrojo, la carga animal fue similar a la del rastrojo de maiz solo, explicado por el mayor consumo por animal alimentado con rastrojo mejorado. No obstante, a pesar de que la carga animal fue similar en los dos sistemas, los beneficios econ6micos para la regi6n de Azuero al utilizar la practica del asocio del maiz con canavalia pueden estimarse de la siguiente manera. Extrapolando el incremento de beneficios netos/ha, de B/.101.65, que implica la utilizaci6n del rastrojo de maiz con canavalia respecto al uso de rastrojo de maiz solo, por las 174 CONCLUSIONES I. La altemativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia resulta econ6micamente rentable para los agricultores en la regi6n de Azuero en Panama, cuando se considera el uso del rastrojo mejorado con canavalia para la alimentaci6n animal con respecto al rastrojo de maiz solo.2. Una consecuencia de esta alta rentabilidad para el potencial de la adopci6n de la labranza de conservaci6n es que se incrementa significativamente el costa de oportunidad de la tonelada de rastrojo usado como mantillo para proteger el suelo. Es decir, que resulta mas costoso para el agricultor dejar en el suelo un mantillo enriquecido con canavalia que un mantilla compuesto de maiz solo.Esta alza en el costa de oportunidad de usar rastrojo enriquecido como mantillo debe pesarse con respecto a los efectos residuales del mantillo sObre el cultivo siguiente. Por ejemplo, el trabajo de Pereira de Herrera et aI., 1993, muestra que la rotaci6n con canavalia reduce significativamente las dosis de fertilizante nitrogenado en 85 kg/ha en el cultivo de maiz del ciclo siguiente. Esta reducci6n incrementa los beneficios netos en B/.316.00/ha. 4. La siembra del maiz en asocio con la canavalia aumenta la rentabilidad del sistema de producci6n maizganaderfa. RESUMEN EI Programa Regional de Maiz(PRM) viene impulsandoel uso de leguminosas de cobertura en asocio con maiz en los sistemas de produccion de la region. La mayoria de la produccion nacional de maiz de PanamA se concentra en el Area de Azuero, donde los agricultores dejan los residuos de las cosechas de maiz para el pastoreo del ganado en la epoca seca. Este estudio analiza la rentabilidad bioeconomica del uso de rastrojo de canavalia (Canavalia ensiformis L.) con maiz para la alimentacion animal. Los resultados indican que el rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia mejoro el consumo de Corraje y las ganancias en peso en comparacion con el malz solo. EI suplemento proteinico de la canavalia incremento eI consumo total de materia seca por el ganado. La evaluacion economica mostro que la alternativa de asociar maiz con canavalia y su utilizacion para pastoreo en la epoca seca aumentola rentabilidad del sistema.El rastrojo de maiz es un residuo de cosecha que se caracteriza por su bajo contenido de proteina cruda bajo y alto contenido de fibra cruda. En la regi6n de Azuero el mismo es utilizado para la alimentaci6n del ganado especialmente durante la epoca seca. La capacidad productiva de este recurso es muy baja, por 10 que su uso como (mica fuente de alimento debe limitarse a aliviar el hambre del animal 0 lograr su sobrevivencia temporal.Sin embargo, cuando se complementa con una fuente proteinica, la respuesta animal alcanza niveles de mantenimiento 0 ligeras ganancias de peso debido a un mayor consumo y utilizaci6n de la energia (Ruiloba, 1987).Una soluci6n a este problema ha sido el uso de suplementos proteinicos a base de fuentes como la urea, gallinaza, harina de pescado, pasta de soya, harina de carne y hueso, entre otras; sin embargo, esta tecnologia no se ha adoptado en forma masiva, quizas por razones de costa y manejo. Otra altemativa es el uso de leguminosas, que constituyen una fuente de proteina que se pueden producir en la propia finca. 176 Son diversos los estudios que muestran las bondades del uso del rastrojo de maiz en asocio con leguminosas (Espinosa, 1983;Sinclair et al., 1992). Al respecto Sinclair y Rush (1987) indican que la siembra de maiz en asocio con leguminosas, incrementa la producci6n de materia seca y proteina cruda del rastrojo. Por su parte Zea et aI., 1991, indican que la Canavalia ensifarmis presenta caracteristicas sobresalientes para la siembra intercalada con el maiz por su menor competencia, Mbito de crecimiento arbustivo y raiz pivotante profunda. En tanto que Gord6n et al., (1993) sefialan que la siembra de maiz en asocio con canavalia en surcos altemos constituye una buena altemativa, es decir, poca reducci6n del rendimiento de maiz (0.18 t/ha) y una adici6n 2.0 t/ha de materia seca de canavalia. Sin embargo, no se tiene informaci6n sobre el uso de de este rastrojo en la alimentaci6n animal durante la estaci6n seca.El presente estudio persigue los siguientes objetivos: I) Evaluar biol6gicamente el uso del rastrojo de maiz solo 0 en asocio con canavalia, con y sin suplemento, en la alimentaci6n del ganado durante la epoca seca y 2) Determinar los beneficios y costos asociados con las diversas altemativas de uso del rastrojo de maiz.El presente estudio se desarro1l6 en la Finca Experimental El Ejido, provincia de Los Santos, Panama, (70 53' Ny 80°23' 0), situada a 26 msnm, con 27.3°C de temperatura media anual y 1122 mm de precipitaci6n media anual, donde la epoca seca se extiende desde diciembre a mayo.Se sembr6 una area de 2 ha de maiz, durante la segunda epoca del alio agricola 1992-93, con maiz en monocultivo y la otra asocio con canavalia. En ambos sistemas, la preparaci6n del suelo se hizo en la forma convencional, la densidad, fertilizaci6n, control de malezas y cosecha del grana fue similar para ambos sistemas. La siembra del maiz se hizo en forma mecanizada, con una densidad de 50,000 pl/ha. Se fertiliz6 con 225 kg de 15-30-8/ha al momento de la siembra y 180 kg de urea a los 35 dias despues de la siembra. El control de malezas y la cosecha del grano tambien se hizo en forma manual.La canavalia se sembr6 manualmente de 1 a 3 dias, despues de la siembra del maiz, en surcos alternos, a 0.5 m entre plantas con una semilla por golpe.Se estudiaron dos tipos de rastrojos como fuente de forraje (rastrojo de maiz solo y rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia) y dos niveles de suplementaci6n (Cuadro 1), en raciones para novillas en crecimiento. Los cuatro tratamientos evaluados fueron los siguientes: rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia; rastrojo de maiz solo; rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia + 1.5 kg de suplemento/animalldia; y rastrojo de maiz solo + 1.5 kg de suplemento/animalldia. Se utiliz6 un diseno en bloques completamente al azar, con cuatro tratamientos y tres repeticiones. Para la comparaci6n de las medias se analizaron los siguientes contrastes: rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia vs rastrojo de maiz solo; rastrojo de maiz solo vs rastrojo maiz solo mas suplemento; rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia vs rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia mas suplemento; rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia mas suplemento vs rastrojo de maiz solo mas suplemento.Se utilizaron 12 novillas cruzadas, con un peso inicial de 206.8 kg ± 21.8 kg. Los animales se alojaron en corrales individuales, los cuales tenian una superficie de 30 m 2 cada uno, estaban provistos de comedores individuales que permiti6 cuantificar el consumo y rechazo del alimento de cada animal.Cuadro 1. Composicion porcentual del suplemento en base seca.Al inicio del ensayo los animales fueron desparasitados externa e internamente, y se les aplic6 vitamina ADJ-E. Durante todo el periodo experimental los animales tuvieron libre acceso a sal mineral y agua. Los animales fueron pesados al inicio del ensayo y posteriormente cada 14 dias, hasta finalizar el ensayo, que comprendi6 un periodo de 70 dias.Despues de la cosecha del maiz, el rastrojo permaneci6 en el campo hasta efectuar el corte del mismo, el cual se realiz6 semanalmente (del 10 febrero al 21 de abril), de acuerdo a las necesidades de forraje. De igual forma, el rastrojo se pic6 cada semana en una maquina estacionaria, a un tamano que vari6 entre 2 a 6 cm y luego se almacen6 para su uso posterior. A nivel de campo se midi6 la disponibilidad de rastrojo, a traves de muestreos y ademas se determin6 en la parcela asociada la proporci6n de rastrojo de maiz y de canavalia.Las raciones se suministraron diariamente y se control6 a base de pesadas diarias. La cantidad de forraje ofrecida fue dividida en dos porciones, las que se suministraron en la manana y en la tarde. Mientras que, el suplemento se suministr6 unicamente durante la manana. Por otro lado, el rechazo se retir6 cada tres dias, registrandose el peso del mismo. Se tomaron muestras del rastrojo y suplemento ofrecido, asi como del rechazo, para sus respectivos analisis de laboratorio. A los animales se registraron los cambios de peso vivo y consumo de materia seca.La metodologia utilizada en la evaluaci6n econ6mica consisti6 en el presupuesto parcial y analisis marginal (CIMMYT, 1988). Siguiendo estametodologia se analizaron todos los beneficios y costos variables vinculados con las diversas alternativa de uso del rastrojo evaluadas.Como parte de los ~beneficios brutos se incluyeron dos aspectos: el valor de la producci6n de maiz en grano (que incluye el efecto de incorporar la leguminosa), y el valor del rastrojo. El valor de la producci6n de maiz se obtiene at multiplicar el precio de campo del maiz (precio de venta menos costos proporcionales al rendimiento 0 cosecha) por el rendimiento ~ustado obtenido. El valor del rastrojo se obtuvo de la siguiente manera. Se estim6 el precio sombra 0 costo de oportunidad de una tonelada de rastrojo mejorado, como el valor del incremento en kilogramos de carne que puede obtenerse al utilizar el rastrojo mejorado (en cada altemativa) respecto al rastrojo de mafz solo durante el periodo en estudio. Esto puede expresarse a traves de la siguiente f6rmula: Psr = Pc. l:.C l:.R donde:Psr, es el costa de oportunidad de una tonelada de rastrojo; Pc, es el precio de mercado que recibe el productor por un kg de came; l:. C/ l:. R , es el aumento en kilogramo de came que provee cada tonelada de rastrojo de mafz mejorado respecto al rastrojo de mafz solo.En el caso del rastrojo de maiz solo, se tom6 el precio de mercado del mismo. Respecto a los costos variables se consideraron, ademas de la reducci6n del rendimiento del maiz (medido en la secci6n de beneficios brutos del presupuesto parcial), los costos de semilla y de la siembra de la canavalia, asi como los costos de la suplementaci6n.En el Cuadro 2 se presentan los rendimientos de materia seca y proteina cruda de rastrojos de maiz, sembrados en monocultivo y asociado. La producci6n de rastrojo de maiz se redujo en un 26.7%, cuando el maiz fue sembrado en asocio con la canavalia, en comparaci6n a la siembra en monocultivo. Sin embargo, al cuantificar la producci6n total de forraje, se encontr6 que la parcela sembrada en asocio super6 en 1.44 tm de ms/ha a la parcela sembrada en mon6cultivo, equivalente a 29.3%. Resultados similares fueron reportados por Gord6n, R et al. 1993, donde (mcontraron una mayor producci6n de materia seca al intercalar la siembra de maiz y canavalia. Cuadro 2. Rendimiento de materia seca y proteina cruda de rastros de maiz sembrarlos en monocultivo 0 asociados En el Cuadro 3 se presentan los promedios de consumo de materia seca y cambio de peso vivo, seg6n el tipo de rastrojo. El consumo de materia seca total fue superior (P < 0.02), en los animales alimentados con rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia en comparaci6n a rastrojo de maiz solo. Se logr6 un incremento de 25% equivalente a 0.41 kg de MS/lOO kg de peso vivo/dia. Las diferencias observadas en el consumo de forraje pueden deberse principalmente al mayor contenido de proteina cruda del rastrojo de maiz en asocio con canavalia (6.36 vs 2.62%); en concordancia a los resultados obtenidos por Lippke (1980), donde encontr6 una alta correlaci6n entre el consumo de materia seca y materia organica digestible con el contenido de proteina cruda. El nivel de consumo de materia seca total del rastrojo de maiz solo, fue ligeramente inferior al obtenido por Espinosa (1983), debido posiblemente al menor contenido de protefna cruda del rastrojo de mafz utilizado en este estudio. En tanto que el nivel de consumo de materia seca del rastrojo de mafz en asocio con canavalia fue similar a los reportados por Espinosa (1983), con rastrojo de maiz asociado con Dolichos lablab e inferior al consumo de rastrojo de mafz asociado con Pueraria phaseoloides, Centrosema plumieri y Centrosema pubescens. Estas diferencias en consumo pueden deberse principalmente a la calidad de los rastrojos utilizados.Efecto de la fuente de rastrojo sobre el consumo de materia seca y ganancia de peso.Por otro lado, se encontr6 que la producci6n de protefna cruda se increment6 significativamente en la parcela de maiz sembrada en asocio, donde la canavalia aport6 el 76.6% .El mayor aporte de proteina cruda por parte de la canavalia, obedece principalmente a su mayer contenido de proteina cruda (11.25%) Y alto rendimiento de materia secalha (43.3% del rendimiento de materia seca total del rastrojo). Cuadro 5. Efeeto de la suplementaei6n sobre el eonsumo de materia seea y ganancia de peso en novillas alimentadas a base de rastrojo de maiz en asoeio con canavalia En el Cuadro 5 se presenta el efecto de la suplementaci6n sobre el consumo de materia seca y ganancia de peso en novillas alimentadas con rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia. Se observ6 que el consumo de materia seca fue mayor (P < 0.04) en los animales suplementados, en comparaci6n a los animales no suplementados, y el consumo de rastrojo no fue afectado por el suplemento (P < 0.15). De igual forma se encontro que las ganancias de pesos fueron superiores (P < 0.04) en los animales suplementados, en respuesta a un mayor consumo de materia seca y por ende de nutrientes. Consumo total de MS (kg de MS/IOO kg de pv/dra) Consumo total de MS kg/An/dra Ganancia de peso, g/An/dra EI tipo de rastrojo afecto significamente la ganancia de peso (P < 0.05), observandose que los animales que consumieron rastrojo de maiz en asocio con canavalia presentaron ligeras ganancias de peso (90 gramos/An/dfa); mientras que los animales alimentado con rastrojo de maiz solo, sufrieron perdidas de peso (134 gramos/An/dia). Estas diferencias observadas entre ambos tratamientos se debieron principalmente a la diferencia en el consumo de materia seca y por ende en el consumo total de nutrientes digestibles. Las ganancias de peso obtenidos en este ensayo, son inferiores a las reportadas por Sinclair, et al. (1992), al evaluar la ganancia de peso en novillos alimentados con rastrojo de maiz solo y asociado con Lablah purpurens bajo pastoreo y corte. Sin embargo, los cambios de peso vivo obtenidos en este ensayo se encuentran dentro de los rangos esperados. Ruiloba (1987) sefiala que cuando se utiliza el rastrojo de maiz como (mica fuente de forraje, los animales presentan ligeras perdidas de peso vivo.Las ganancias de peso presentaron diferencias significativas entre tratamientos (P < 0.03), encontrandose que los animales suplementados superaron en 245 gramos/An/dia, a los no suplementados.Lo que demuestra que la suplementacion tuvo un efecto positivo sobre la ganancia de peso.En el Cuadro 4 se presenta el efecto de la suplementacion sobre el consumo y ganancia de peso en novillas alimentadas con rastrojo de maiz. Se encontro que los animales suplementados presentaron un mayor consumo de materia seca total (rastrojo de maiz mas suplemento) (P < 0.08), que los animales no suplementados; sin embargo, el consumo de rastrojo demaiz fue superior (P < 0.05) en los animales no suplementados, 10 que muestra que la suplementacion tuvo un efecto sustitutivo sobre el consumo de rastrojo de mafz. Contrario a 10 esperado, ya que se indica que la suplementacion con nitrogeno mejora el consumo de los forrajes toscos. Existe suficiente evidencia donde se demuestra 10 indicado, Elliott (1967) encontraron una relacion positiva entre el contenido de nitrogeno en forrajes de baja calidad y el consumo voluntario. 'fambien Weston (1971), observo que el consumo de forrajes '[ue mayor para las dietas que contenian mas proteina cruda. Por su parte Redman et al., (1980) encontraron que la suplementacion nitrogenada incremento el consumo de forrajes de baja calidad y el consumo voluntario.Cuadro 6. Efecto de la fuente de rastrojo sobre el consumo de materia seca y ganancia de peso en novillas suplementadas con melurea y harina de canavalia.En el Cuadro 6 se presenta el efecto de la suplementaci6n sobre consumo de materia seca y ganancia de peso en novillas alimentadas con rastrojo de maiz solo 0 en asocio con canavalia. Se encontr6 diferencias altamente significativas en el consumo de materia seca total (P < 0.01) Y consumo de rastrojo (P < 0.006), siendo superior en el tratamiento con rastrojo de maiz en asocio con canavalia. Tambien se encontr6 diferencias significativas en la ganancia de peso (P < 0.6), obteniendose las mejores ganancias de peso en los animales que consumieron rastrojo de maiz en asocio con canavalia mas suplemento. La diferencia en ganancia de peso entre ambos tratamientos, se debi6 principalmente al mayor consumo de rastrojo de maiz en asocio con canavalia, ya que el nivel de suplementaci6n fue similar para los dos tratamientos. Para el amllisis econ6mico de las distintas altemativas de uso del rastrojo evaluadas, se utiliz6 la base de datos expuesta enel Cuadro 7. Se observa en el Cuadro 8, que la suplementaci6n del rastrojo aumenta los costos variables de manera significativa en el rastrojo de mafz solo, respecto al rastrojo de mafz mas canavalia. Esto se explica porque al no producir el mafz en asocio con la canavalia, se utiliz6 como costo altemativo del grano de canavalia utilizado en la suplementaci6n, el equivalente al precio de la pasta de soya (en forma proporcional al contenido de protefna cruda en relaci6n con la canavalia). En tanto, la suplementaci6n del rastrojo de mafz mas canavalia se Ie imputa solamente el costo de cosecha y molida del grano.Llama la atenci6n tambien los bajos costos variables vinculados con la altemativa de asociar el mafz con canavalia y su utilizaci6n sin suplementaci6n, ya que solamente se incurre en el costo de la semilla y siembra de la canavalia; y la reducci6n del rendimiento del mafz como el costo mas importante de incorporar la canavalia al sistema, y el cual se refleja en la secci6n de los beneficios brutos del presupuesto parcial.Por otro lado, con referencia a los beneficios brutos procedentes del uso del rastrojo, medidos a traves del valor del incremento de came respecto a la altemativa de utilizar el rastrojo de maiz solo; se muestra en el Cuadro 8, un mayor costo de oportunidad por tonelada de rastrojo cuando se suplementa tanto el rastrojo de maiz solo, como el rastrojo de mafz mas canavalia.Cuadro 8. Presupuesto parcial/ha en la evaluaci6n de diversas alternativas de uso del rastrojo de maiz, Panama, 1992-93. lCorresponde al precio de mercado de una ha de rastrojo en el area; 2Se refiere al precio de venta de la semilla de canavalia en IDIAP; 3Se refiere al costa de cosecha y molida del grana de canavalia; 4Corresponde al precio de la pasta de soya, proporcional al contenido de proteina cruda en relaci6n con la canavalia.Sin embargo, cuando se analizaron los beneficios netos (beneficios brutos menos costos variables) de todas las alternativas y se compararon con los respectivos costos variables, Cuadro 9, se tiene que la alternativa de cultivar maiz solo y suplementar el rastrojo resulta dominada econ6micamente, esto es, a menores costos variables (como son las alternativas de mafz mas canavalia, y maiz mas canavalia mas suplemento) se obtienen beneficios netos mas altos.El Cuadro 9, muestra que es altamente rentable la alternativa de asocio del maiz con canavalia (TMR de 484 %), respecto a la practica comun del productor de sembrar el maiz en monocultivo y utilizar el rastrojo de maiz solo en la alimentaci6n animal. Por otro lado, la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia y suplementar el rastrojo produjo los mayores beneficios netos de las alternativas evaluildas, y una tasa marginal de retorno (131 %) que supera la tasa marginal de retorno minima del area. Esto se explica porque una de las fuentes de suplementaci6n utilizadas, el grana de la canavalia, proviene del mismo sistema de producci6n (maiz en asocio con canavalia) 10 que abarata su costo, al considerar solamente el costo de cosecha y molida del grano. La evaluaci6n econ6mica ha permitido demostrar que la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia (con y sin suplementaci6n) aumenta la rentabilidad a corto plazo del sistema de producci6n maiz-ganaderia, el cual tiene que evaluarse de manera integral, con especial enfasis en la regi6n de Azuero. CONCLUSIONES 1. EI rastrojo de maiz asociado con canavalia mejor6 el consumo de forraje y por ende las ganancias de peso en comparaci6n al rastrojo de maiz solo.2. La suplementaci6n energetica protefnica increment6 el consumo total de materia seca y las ganancias de peso tanto en novillas alimentadas con rastrojo de mafz solo, como en rastrojo de mafz asociado con canavalia.3. La evaluaci6n econ6mica indic6 que la alternativa de asociar el maiz con canavalia y la utilizaci6n de este rastrojo (can y sin suplementaci6n) aument6 la rentabilidad del sistema mafz-ganaderfa, en comparaci6n con la alternativa de uso del rastrojo de mafz solo, incluso con suplementaci6n REFERENCIAS Centro lntemacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), 1988. La formulaci6n de recomendaciones a partir de datos agron6micos: Un manual metodol6gico de evaluaci6n econ6mica. Edici6n completamente revisada. Mexico D.F. Mexico: CIMMYT. p. 79. Elliot, R.C. 1967. Voluntory intake of low-protein diets by ruminants. I. Intake of food by cattle. J. Agric. Sci. Comb. 69:375. Cuadro 9. Analisis marginal en la evaluaci6n de diversas alternativas de uso del rastrojo de maiz, Panama, 1992de maiz, Panama, -1993  Los rendbuientos promedios de maiz en la region de Centro America son de 1.5-2.0 tJIm, 10 que implica WI bajo mlmero de plantas y/o mazorcas cosechadas por area. Se efectuo un monitoreo dinwuico para examinar los procesos de elaboracion del rendimiento y sus componentes en 28 campos de agricldtores o parcelas de validacion de nmiz de Ia regiolL Se monitorearon 5 o 10 estaciones lineales de 3 0 5 m de largo dentro de un area preestablecida de 100 m 2 en cada campo. Com~araciones entre las parcelas lineales con la fmal de 100 m bldicaron sobreestbllaciones de 10% en las parcelas lineales para la densidad de plantas (pllm 2 ) y el rendimiento. EI CV se mantuvo constante cercano al 20% para el rango de pllm2 observado, pero decrecio de 60% en rendimientos bajos a 20% para rendbnientos superiores a 2.0-2.5 tJIla. La densidad promedio de siembra fue de 5.30 pllm 2 , con una perdida de 20% de las plantas en los primeros 20 dias para Wla densidad de 4.14 pllm 2 al establecillliento, Wla densillad fmal de 3.80 pllm 2 (6% reduccion adicional), cosechandose 3.26 mZ/m 2 (para 0.87 mz/pl) con WI peso de 81 g/nlZ para WI rendbniento promedio de 2.70 tJIla. Se encontro una fuerte dependencia lineal entre el rendimiento y el milllero de nlZ/m 2 , el peso de mazorca y la biolllasa fmal. Se detecto que rendimientos blferiores a 2.0-2.5 tlha parecen estar asociados con WI bajo muuero de nlZ/pl y bajo indice de cosecha. No se detecto ninglUla explicacion causativa para la perdida uucial de plantas en base a calificaciones visuales de Iinutaciones y deficiencias bioticas y abioticas. Se encontro Wla relacion positiva entre el 1ll1mero de hojas verdes por debajo de la Illazorca a la Ooracion y el peso de grano. Mas del 70% de los agricultores muestreados tnvieron rendinuentos inferiores a 2.5 tJIta.Los diagnosticos confinnan la importancia de los componentes de rendinuento para entender las Iinutaciones al rellllinuento dentro de los sistemas de prodnccion de maiz de la region.Se estima que los rendimientos promedios de maiz de la region de Centro America oscilan de 1.5 a 2.0 tlha (Schmook, 1989;Rodriguez y Miranda, 1990). Desde el punta de vista agronomico, el rendimiento por unidad de area de un cultivo de maiz depende del numero de mazorcas cosechadas por hectarea (mz/ha) y su peso promedio (Bolaftos y Barreto, 1991). Dado que una mazorca de maiz puede pesar 100 g, esto significa que en promedio los agricultores solamente 1Agronolllo Regional para Centro America y el Caribe, ClMMYT, Guatemala; 2lnvestigador de Maiz, eNlGB, Nicaragua; 3Investigadores de Maiz, lCTA, Guatemala; 4lnvestigadores de Maiz, SRN, Honduras. DELPRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 187-197. 187 cosechan de 15 a 20 mil mz/ha para obtener esos rendimientos promedios. Si la densidad optima de siembra es de 50 a 60 mil pl/ha, esto significa que muchas plantas no llegan a producir mazorca 0 mueren durante el cicIo.La baja densidad de poblacion al momenta de la cosecha esta cIaramente asociada a los bajos rendimientos en la region (Rodriguez y Miranda, 1990; Bolaftos y Barreto, 1991;Beauval, 1992a).Usando datos experimentales de 34 ensayos diversos de agronomia en la region de Centro America localizados en campos de agricultores y estaciones experimentales, Bolaftos y Barreto (1991) mostraron la fuerte dependencia del rendimiento con el numero de mz/ha cosechadas y el peso promedio de estas independiente de los tratamientos experimentales impuestos. A pesar que no detectaron una relacion significativa entre rendimiento y pllha directamente, el numero de mz/ha estuvo lineal y directamente relacionado con el numero de pllha (Bolaftos y Barreto, 1991). EI rendimiento promedio de los 34 ensayos fue de 3.73 tlha, con una densidad a la cosecha de 4.30 pl/m 2 y 3.94 mzlm 2 (mzlpl de 0.92) y un peso promedio de mazorca de 93 g/mz. La poblacion de plantas a la cosecha fue 15% menor que la densidad teorica establecida en los ensayos, ailn con tratamientos especificos para mantener la densidad deseada. Parcelas con bajos rendimientos estaban asociados con bajo numero de pllha, mz/ha, mzlpl 0 peso de mazorca (Bolanos y Barreto, 1991). Turrent (1983) analizo los componentes de rendimiento en II campos de maiz de agricultores de Las Tuxtlas (Mexico) en siembras de secano encontrando una fuerte relacion entre el rendimiento y el numero de mzlm 2 cosechadas (0 el numero de granos por m 2 ) y el peso promedio de estas (0 estos). En estos diagnosticos, los rendimientos promedios fueron 1.54 ± 0.9 tlha, la densidad inicial de siembra fue 4.42 p11m 2 , la densidad final fue de 2.99 pl/m 2 (32% de perdida) y se cosecharon 2.69 mzlm 2 (mzlpl de 0.90) de 57 g/mz. EI autor concluyo que la variacion en rendimiento en los 11 campos de agricultores dependio mas de la variacion en la poblacion final de plantas y/o mazorcas que del tipo de variedad usada\" del numero de granos por mazorea o del peso final de grana (Turrent, 1983). Beauval (1992a), con datos de 9 pareelas de maiz en Baja Verapaz (Guatemala) report6 densidades promedios de 5.39 pllm 2 con una perdida de plantas de 19% de la siembra al establecimiento. En otro estudio en 2 fmeas de maiz en la misma zona, del estableeimiento a la eoseeha se perdieron 19 y 28% de las plantas, principalmente por plantulas sin vigor y ataques de gusano eogollero y gallina ciega. En estas 2 pareelas, la cosecha fmal fue de 3.60 y 4.40 mz/m 2 para rendimientos de 4.65 y 7.60 t/ha (Beauval, 1992b).Estos estudios sugieren que rendimientos de maiz inferiores a 2.0-2.5 t/ha estan asociados a un bajo nUmero de pl/ha, mz/ha y mz/pl (plantas infertiles), y por ende bajos indices de eosecha. Un bajo numero de pl/ha se puede deber a una baja densidad de siembra 0 a una perdida de plantulas por estreses, en especial problemas de plagas. Un bajo numero de mzlpl (0 numero de granos por mazorca) se puede deber a estreses durante la floraci6n, y estreses durante el llenado de grana afectan el peso final de grano. Es importante entender como a 10 largo del cicio del eultivo se forman sincr6nicamente y sucesivamente los componentes de rendimiento (Bolail.os y Barreto, 1991; Bolail.os y Edmeades, 1993).Los objetivos de este estudio son entender los procesos de formaci6n del rendimiento y las causas de la variabilidad en sus componentes a traves del cicIo del maiz y sus limitantes en campos de agrieultores tipicos de las areas de influencia del PRM.Estas actividades y/o ensayos no envolvieron el establecimiento de ensayos con tratamientos experimentales especificos 0 diseiios estadisticos como en la experimentaci6n tradicional. En estos, se efectu6 un diagn6stico agron6mico dinamico en 28 campos de agricultores y/o parcelas de validacion de maiz representando diversos ambientes, condiciones socioeconomicas, practicas culturales, variedades, etc, para monitorear los procesos de elaboracion del rendimiento en los sistemas de produccion de maiz tipicos de la region de Centro America. La Figura 1 muestra la localizacion geogr:ifica de cada parcela dentro de un mapa de la region. 188 Figura 1. Mapa de Centro America ilustrando las localidades donde se efectuaron los diagnosticos dinamicos en 1992. Simbolos son: LM (La Maquina), SM (San Miguel Chicaj), JU (Jutiapa), SI (Siguatepeque), TE (Tela), EB (EI Brasil), SC (San Cristobal), y CA (Carazo).Los detalles de cada localidad se encuentran descritos en el Cuadro I. Las localidades de San Miguel Chicaj (1 a 4), Jutiapa (5 a 8), La Maquina (9-10), El Brasil (10 a 13), Carazo (14-15), Siguatepeque (16-17-21-22) y Tela (27-28) representan diagnosticos agron6micos dinamicos en campos de agricultores representativos del PRM. Las localidades 18, 19 Y 20 reflejan tratamientos experimentales apareados en parcelas de 100 m 2 cada uno sobreimpuestos en la parcela del agricultor 17. La numero 18 representa el testigo (similar a la l'7), la 19 representa adicion de rastrojo de maiz suficiente para cubrir completamente el suelo como mantilla superficial (cerca de 6 t/ha), y en la numero 20 se duplico la densidad inicial de siembra a 88 mil pl/ha. En ninguna de estas se vario ningUn otro factor experimental 0 cultural excepto los mencionados. Las localidades 18, 19 Y 20 permite comparar los efectos de ail.adir rastrojo como mantilla y/o duplicar la densidad de siembra contra el testigo del agricultor. En estas no se efectu6 diagnostico dinamico solamente efectuandose la cosecha final. Las localidades 23 al 26 representan parcelas grandes de validacion (250 m 2 ) de variedades tolerantes al achaparramiento en Nicaragua sembradas en la estacion experimental de San Crist6bal en postrera de 1992, por tanto bajo buenas condiciones de manejo. Las localidades 27 y 28 representan sistemas de maiz en rotaci6n con mucuna, tipicos de las aboneras en uso en el Litoral Atlantico de Honduras. Cuadro 1. Descripcion de los 28 campos de agricultores 0 parcelas de validacion de maiz muestreados. Dentro de cada parcela seleccionada, se escogio un area relativamente homogenea de 10 x 10 m donde se efectuo el diagnostico dimimico visitandose la parcela 6 veces en total: siembra (visita I), establecimiento (visita 2), fase vegetativa (visita 3), floracion (visita 4), llenado de grano (visita 5) y cosecha final (visita 6). Dentro de esta area de 10 x 10 m, se marcaron 5 estaciones de I surco de 5 m lineales donde se efectuo un monitoreo continuo y repetitivo del cultivo. En cada visita tambien se escogieron al azar 5 estaciones adicionales de I surco de 3 m lineales, pero afuera del area marcada de 10 x 10 m pero au.n dentro de la parcela del agricultor. En estas otras estaciones se efectuo el mismo diagnostico que en las 5 estaciones pennanentes en el area marcada. En cada estacion se usaron todas las plantas presentes.En cada visita tecnica y en cada estacion lineal, se evaluaron: la densidad y arreglo espacial de la poblacion (el ancho promedio de surco y el numero total golpes, plantas y mazorcas), el estadio fenologico (escala VI-VT RrR6) (Lafitte, 1991;Bolafios y Edmeades, 1993), la altura promedio de planta, el porcentaje de cobertura del suelo (intercepcion de radiacion) (Bolafios, 1992) y la severidad de limitaciones de distintos factores bioticos y abioticos (densidad, malezas, enfennedades, insectos, sequia, deficiencias nutricionales, acame) (Ortega, 1987; de Leon, 1984). La escala usada para calificar las limitaciones fue: 0 para el cultivo en condiciones optimas sin limitaciones, I para factor presente pero sin causar mayores dafios, y 2 para factor causando limitaciones severas. Durante la visita a la siembra (visita 1) se colecto una muestra de la semilla usada para estimar su pocentaje de genninaclOn. Durante la visita a la floraci6n (visita 4), en 12 plantas al azar se midi6 ellargo (L) yancho maximo (A) de la hoja de la mazorca y se estim6 el area foliar como L x A x 0.75, se cont6 el numero de hojas verdes (NHV) presentes debajo de la mazorca, y en 12 jilotes al azar se determin6 el numero de hileras y el nUmero de granos por una hilera.Se recopil6 un calendario de las actividades culturales realizadas por el agricultor en la parcela, y las herramientas, los insumos y el trabajo (jomales) para su realizaci6n. Para cada localidad, se tratara de conseguir toda la informaci6n meteorol6gica disponible (lluvia, temperatura, humedad, radiaci6n). Se tomaron muestras de suelo para amilisis quimico y con un barreno se examin6 el perfil de suelo notandose su textura, estructura y profundidad. Se determin6 la pendiente del sue10 y su inelinaci6n-orientaci6n (00=N,90 0 =E,180 0 =S,270 0 =O). Se tomaron muestras foliares (lamina de hoja de mazorca) ala floraci6n y muestras de rastrojo y grano a la cosecha del cultivo para determinaci6n de contenido de N, P Yotros elementos.AI momento de la cosecha, se determin6 el rendimiento fmal y sus componentes en todas las estaciones lineales y en el area marcada de 10 x 10m. En las 5 estaciones fijas de 5 m, en 5 estaciones a1 azar de 3 m, y en la parcela de 10 x 10m, se determin6 1 distancia promedio entre surcos y se cont6 el numero total de plantas en la estaci6n, el nUmero total de plantas con acame, el numero total de mazorcas, el nUmero de mazorcas podridas, y el peso de campo respectivo. En 12 mazorcas al azar, se determin6 el indice de desgrane, la humedad de grano por Dickey-john, el nUmero de hileras y nUmero de granos por hilera y el peso de 200 granos.Se cosecharon 24 plantas al azar al pie de cada base determinandose su peso fresco.Con una estimaci6n de humedad obtenida en una submuestra de 6 plantas se determin6 el peso seco, sUlll3ndosele 20% para contabilizar un estimado de las hojas perdidas durante el cielo. El indice de cosecha (IC) se calcul6 como la fracci6n de grana de la biomasa total despues de descontar el olote. Con los datos de la cosecha se ca1cularon los componentes estandares de rendimiento (Bolafios y Barreto, 1991).Los datos se promediaron por agricultor y por 190 visita. Debido a la diferencia en dias a cosecha y en la densidad inicial de siembra entre los distintos agricultores, los datos se estandarizaron en una esca1a temporal de 100 desde la siembra (0) a la cosecha (l00). La relaci6n de la densidad de plantas (pllm 2 ) y mazorcas (mzJm 2 ) a traves del cicIo del cultivo se analiz6 por regresi6n lineal con esta medici6n temporal estandarizada.Se efeetu6 anaIisis de correlaci6n y regresi6n entre los datos segUn su pertinencia.Los diagn6sticos en las parcelas lineales (fijas y al azar) en general tendieron a sobreestimar rendimiento, pllm 2 y mzlm 2 en 10%, en base a regresi6n entre los datos obtenidos en ambos tipos de parcelas (datos no mostrados). En las grMicas ! cuadros que siguen, los datos de rendimiento y pllm a la cosecha reflejan el area de 100 m 2 y no las estaciones lineales. Sin embargo, 1a densidad inicial, la tasa de perdida de plantas, y los componentes de rendimiento estan basados en las estimaciones en las parcelas lineales. Por tanto, en algunos casos, se encuentran ciertas discrepancias en los componentes de rendimiento mostrados.El Cuadro 2 muestra la densidad inicial de siembra, la densidad fmal, la tasa de perdida de poblaci6n durante el establecimiento y a traves del cicIo, el rendimiento y sus componentes (mzJm 2 , mzlpl, numero de granos por mazorca, peso de 1 grano, peso de mazorca, rendimiento), la biomasa y el indice de cosecha, el porcentaje de pudrici6n de mazorca y de acame, el numero de hojas verdes por debajo de la mazorca y el area de la hoja de la mazorca para los 28 agricultores muestreados.Los agricultores muestreados en las localidades de San Miguel Chicaj (1-4), El Brasil (10-13), Siguatepeque (17-20) tuvieron rendimientos inferiores a 2.0 tIha. Muchos de estos estaban en localidades con poco potencial de rendimiento por sequia (San Miguel Chicaj y E1 Brasil) 0 por condiciones de subsistencia (Siguatepeque). En estos, el uso de materiales criollos y materiales mejorados degenerados (Rocamex, Honduras Planta Baja) predomin6. En e1 caso del agricultor 17, la adici6n de rastrojo (agr 19) redujo dnisticamente el rendimiento de 1.12 a 0.37 tlha, principalmente debido a una reducci6n en el peso de mazorca de 59 a 26 g/mz Cuadro 2. Densldad de plantas (p1lm2) a Ia slemhra y _eeba m las estaclones Uneales, so tasa de pirdida calculada por regresl6n, Ia pinUda de Ia siemhra aI estahleclmiento (vi a v2), eI nlimero de plantas (p1lm2) Ymazorcas (mzIm2) mel area de 10 l[ 10 m, el nlimero de mazorcas lOr planta (rnzlpl), eI peso de muorca promedio (pmz), eI indlce de desgrane (Jnd desg), eI peso de 1 grano (pIg), el nlimero de granos por mazorea (ng/mz), Ia hWlledad del granD ('Yo), el rendimiento de granD sano, el rendimiento de rastrojo y Ia hiomasa total (tIha), eI indlce de cosecba, el rendimiento podrido (tlha) y el porcentaje fmal Wo) de mazorcas podrldas y acame, el area de Ia boja de Ia mazorca (cm2) y el nmnero de bojas verdes denjo de Ia moorea a Ia Ooracl6n (nbjv) en 28 cliagn6sticos dlnilmicos efeduados en 1992.    (Cuadro 2). Esta reducci6n en rendimiento por adiciones de 6.0 tlha de rastrojo de maiz es consistente con los resultados, mostrados por Sosa et al. (1993), donde muestra claramente que adiciones de rastrojo sin considerar aplicaciones adicionales de N para superar e1 efecto de inmobilizacion puede reducir . el relldimiento de maii, especialmente en ambientes con poco N disponible y suelos marginales. Para el agricultor 17, dob~ar la densid<ldd¢ siembra(agr 20) increment6 un poco el rendimiento al aumentar de 4.17 a 6.56 el numero de rnzIm 2 a la cosecha, perc reduciendo el peso de mazorca de 59 a 23 g/rnz (Cuadro 2).Agricultores de La Maquina (8-9), los ensayos de validacion en Nicaragua (23-26), Siguatepeque (16,21,22) tuvieron rendimientos entre 2.0 y 3.0 tlha. Los rendimientos superiores a 3.0 tlha fueron obtenidos por agricultores en Jutiapa (5-7), Carazo (14-15) y Tela (27-28). En estos predomino el uso de variedades mejoradas (NB-6, B-1) e hibridos (HH-19 y HB-83), asi como niveles de insumos adecuados.Los ensayos de validacion mostraron un rendimiento bastante bajo para las condiciones establecidas, dentro de una estacion experimental y bajo altos niveles de manejo agronomico.Sin embargo, muestras de germinaci6n mostraron una fuerte perdida de vigor debido a cortes de electricidad en Nicaragua en las bodegas de almacenamiento de semilla (datos no mostrados).La Figura 2 muestra los mismos datos en forma gnifica, ensefiando para los agricultores muestreados la ~stribucion de frecuencias relativas para las variables de rendimiento y sus componentes (pVm 2 , rnzIm 2 , m:zJpl. ~lg, pesmz). La densidad de plantas y mazorcas (pVm y m:zJm 2 ) y el peso de 1 grana (pIg) muestran patrones de frecuencia caracteristicos a la distribucion normal. Las estadisticas descriptivas para pVm 2 , m:zJm 2 y pIg fueron, respectivamente, J1 = 3.80 ± 1.09, J1 = 3.26 ± 1.02, Y J1 = 0.29 ± 0.07. Es interesante que las desviaciones estandares de pVm 2 y m:zJm 2 son similares y cercanas a 1.0 (10 mil unidades por ha). 0 sea, 66% de los agricultores de la region estaran en densidades de coseCha entre 3.0 y 5.0 pVm2, aoo por debajo del 6ptimo mostrado para los cultivares de maiz disponibles. Asimismo, parece que el cultivo de maiz no logra producir granos que pesan menos de 100 mg y en ningUn caso el peso de grano sobrepasolos 400 mg (Figura 2, Cuadro 2).De los componentes de rendimiento, solo la distribucion de mazorcas por p1anta (m:zJpl) se muestra asimetrica cargada a la izquierda, dado que el 192 maiznormalm~te produce 8010 1 mazorca por planta, y la curva refleja la perdida del Potencial de 1 m:zJpl en muchos de los campos examinados. Solamente 3 de los 28 'muestreados-presentaron un promedio superior a 1 m:zJpl, perc 5 mostraron m:zJpl inferiores a 0.75 (Cuadro 2, Figura 2). . 'Sin embargo, a pesar que los componentes individuales derendimiento' (pVm 2 , m:zJm 2 ' . m:zJpl y pIg) muestran distribuciones normales de frecuencia, el relldimiento y el peso promedio de mazorcas (pesrnz) muestran distribuciones que aparentan caracterizar 2 poblaciones distintas de sistemas de produccion de maiz.Pesmz refleja la misma tendencia que rendimiento debido a que es una variable calculada entre el rendimiehto y el numero de mazorcas por unidad de area. Una de las poblaciones agrupa a mas del 70% de los casos perc tiene rendimientos y pesrnz muy bajos (inferiores a las 2.0 tlha y 5b g/rnz), mientras que la otra, con una muy pequefia proporcion de los, casos, tiene rendimientos y pesmz superiores a 6.0 tlha y los 150 g/rnz (Figura 2). Lo interesante es la apatente ausencia de agricultores de rendimiento medio dentro de los seleccionados en estos diagnosticos. En el caso de rendimiento y pesmz, esta claro que la media y la desviacion estAndar mostradas no son 10sestadisticos apropiados para defmir a la poblacion (Figura 2).Es interesante especular sobre las posibles causas y explicaciones de esta aparente discrepancia entre las distribuciones relativas de frecuencia entre rendimiento y sus componentes.A pesar de distribuciones normales para los componentes individua1es de rendimiento, este muestra junto con el peso de las mazorcas una aparente discontinuidad en su distribucion, enfatizando la aparente existencia de 2 poblaciones distintas de sistemas de produccion de maiz.La Figura 3 muestra la relacion entre rendimiento y sus componentes (pVm 2 , m:zJm 2 , m:zJpl, biomasa, indice de cosecha) de los 28 agricultores muestreados. En las graMicas se muestra con linea punteada regresion lineal 0 curvilinea entre las variables, aunque en algunos casos 1a regresion no es la mejore representacion de los datos.En caso de las regresiones lineales, estas se forzaron a pasar por e1 origen, ya que sin plantas no hay mazorcas, y por tanto no hay biomasa ni rendimiento. El rendimiento mostr6 una re1acion lineal con e1 peso de mazorca Figura 2. Distribuicion de frecuencias para rendimiento de grano, densidad final de plantas y mazorcas a la cosecha, el numero de mazorcas por planta, el peso de 1 grana y el peso promedio de mazorca para diagnosticos dinamicos agronomicos efectuados en 1992 en 28 campos de maiz en Centro America (JI. se refiere a la media y s la desviacion estandar). . \",.We ,t    ) y mazorcas (mz/m 2 ), el numero de mazorcas por planta (mz/pl), el peso promedio de mazorcas, la biomasa final y el indice de cosecha para diagnosticos dinamicos agronomicos efectuados en 1992 en 28 campos de maiz en Centro America. Las Iineas reflejan las regresiones usadas en cada caso.(r 2 =O.85), con mzlm 2 (r 2 =0.49) y biomasa fmal (r 2 =0.80). Aunque la densidad fmal mostro una relacion pobre con rendimiento, si 10 hizo con mzlm 2(r 2 =O.90, datos no mostrados). La relacion entre rendimiento y mz/pl e indice de cosecha mostro una relacion curvilinea con un punto de curvatura cercano a los 2.0-2.5 tIha.Datos tornados en 5 0 10 estaciones lineales permiten hacer estimaciones de la variabilidad intema de algunos componentes de rendimiento en las parcelas de maiz muestreadas.Num hojas verdes bajo maz Dias despues de siembra Figura 4. Dinamica promedio de la densidad de plantas y mazorcas a traves del cicIo del maiz para los 28 agricultores muestrados en 1992. Para comparacion, las mediciones fueron estandarizadas a la misma escala temporal con O=siembra y 100=cosecha. .gEs aparente que rendimientos superiores a 2.0-2.5 tIha son alcanzables con m:zJpl por encima de 0.85 0 indice de cosecha superior a 0.35. Rendimientos inferiores a 2.0-2.5 tlha dependen fuertemente de una proporcion alta de plantas infertiles y por ende una caida dnistica 'en el indice de cosecha.Estas relaciones parecen sugerir que existen dos aparentes poblaciones de sistemas de produccion de maiz, una representando a la gnm mayoria pero con rendimientos inferiores a 2.0 tIha, caracterizados por una baja densidad de plantas y mazorcas y en especial por una proporcion alta de plantas infertiles (mzlpl por debajo de 0.80) y por ende con bajo indice de cosecha (inferior a 0.30).La Figura 4 muestra la dinfunica promedio de poblacion de plantas y mazorcas a traves del ciclo usando una escala de tiempo estandarizado de 0 a 100 (O=siembra, 100=cosecha). El numero de pVm 2 cae fuertemente 20% de la siembra al establecimiento (VE) de 5.30 a 4.21. No se logro detectar ninguna correlacion significativa entre esta perdida y las distintas calificaciones de limitaciones hechas durante estas etapas en los diagnosticos (datos no mostrados). Despues del establecimiento, la densidad de plantas decrece hasta la cosecha, pero a una tasa lineal y lenta. El nnmero de mzlm 2 tambien decrece a la misma tasa promedio que la densidad de plantas.Se encontro una relacion significativa entre el nnmero de hojas verdes por debajo de la mazorca a la floracion y el peso fmal de gnmo (Figura 5). Un nnmero de hojas inferior a 4-5 parece ser indicativo de limitaciones al llenado de gnmo.Estos datos muestran que el nnmero de hojas verdes puede ser un indicador util para diagnosticos temprano en el desarrollo del cultivo, ejemplo a la floracion. Otros autores han encontrado relaciones fuertes y significativas entre la senescencia de las hojas y el estres sufrido por el cultivo (Wolfe et al., 1988;  Bolaiios y Edmeades, 1993). Figura 5. Relacion entre el numero de hojas verdes por debajo de la mazorca a la Doracion y el peso final de grano en 28 campos de maiz en Centro America.Las Figuras 6 y 7 muestran la relaci6n entre la desviaci6n estandar y el coeficiente de variaci6n (CV %) con el promedio para pllm 2 y rendimiento para los 28 agricultores muestreados. Para la densidad de plantas la desviaci6n estandar aumenta linealmente con la densidad. Sin embargo, el CV no mostr6 ninguna relaci6n obvia a traves de un rango de 1.5 a 5.5 pllm 2 con la densidad, manteniendose relativamente constante alrededor del 20% (Figura 6). Para rendimiento, la desviaci6n estindar tambien aumenta linealmente con el potencial ambiental. Sin embargo, el CV muestra unafuerte relaci6n curvilinea con el potencial de rendimiento (Figura 7). En ambientes con rendimientos bajos, el CV es muy alto, entre 40-60%, pero se reduce drasticamente aproximadamente al 20% con rendimientos superi.ores a 2.5-3.0 tlha. Barreto y Raun (1990) encontraron una reducci6n lineal del CV con el rendimiento con datos de 55 ensayos de agronomia y mejoramiento de maiz en Centro America (r=0.76**). Crossa et al. (1993), con datos de 2067 ensayos internacionales de maiz de CIMMYT, reportan una relaci6n curviHnea entre CV y rendimiento muy similar a la Figura 7.Nuevamente, parece existir una distinta relaci6n que gobiemalos rendimientos inferiores a 2.0-2.5 tJha que aquella que gobierna a rendimientos superiores a este nivel, tanto en sus camcteristicas agron6micas como estadisticas.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1.5 -a 0.6Figura 6. Relacion entre la densidad final de plantas (pllm 2 ) promedio y la desviacion estandar (Uha) y coeficiente de variacion (%) (CV) respectivos en base a muestreos de 5 0 10 estaciones lineales de 1 surco de 3 0 5 metros en 28 agricultores en Centro America.Figura 7. Relacion entre el rendimiento (Uha) promedio y la desviacion estandar (Uha) y coeficiente de variacion (%) (CV) respectivos en base a muestreos de 5 0 10 estaciones lineales de 1 surco de 3 0 5 metros en 28 agricultores en Centro America.1. EI monitoreo diruUnico commn6 los datos encontrados en 1990 en parcelas experimentales en campos de agricultores en los ensayos regionales de P y S y leguminosas intercaladas (Bolafios y Barr~to, 1991). Se encontr6 una fuerte dependencia del rendimiento ftnal con la densidad ftnal de plantas y mazorcas, con el peso de mazorcas y con la biomasa ftnal.2. Los componentes de rendimiento pllm 2 , mzJm 2 , mz/p1 y peso de 1 grano mostraron distribuiciones de frecuencia normales, siendo descritas adecuadamente con la media y la desviacion estilldlir. 3. Sin embargo, el rendimiento y el peso de mazorca mostraron aparentemente la existencia de 2 poblaciones distintas de agricultores, uno de mayor proporci6n pero bajos promedios, y otra de menor proporci6n pero promedios elevados.Los datos sugieren que parece existir un rendimiento cntico cercano a 2.0-2.5 tlha que separa estas 2 poblaciones. Rendimientos inferiores a 2.0-2.5 tIha estill asociados con una proporci6n alta de plantas infertiles, bajo numero de mazorcas por planta y por ende una caida dnistica en el indice de cosecha. Rendimientos superiores a este nivel critico tienen cerca de 1 mz/pl e Ie superiores a 0.35. 5. La densidad de plantas y mazorcas decrece casi linealmente a medida que eI cicIo del cultivo avanza. La densidad promedio de siembra fue de 5.30 pllm 2 con una perdida de 20% para 4.20 pllm 2 al establecimiento (estadio VE) y 6% de reduccion adicional basta la cosecha, para 3.80 pllm 2 al fmal. Tambien se detect6 una reducci6n de mazorcas de 3.8 mzJm 2 a la floraci6n a menos de 3.3 mzJm 2 a la cosecha fmal. 5. E1 estudio comtmla la importancia de analizar los componentes de rendimiento para entender las limitaciones a la productividad del maiz en los sistemas de producci6n de la regi6n.Se agradece a Edith Tello por la paciente labor de entrada de datos.Cambio Tecnol6gico e Investigaci6n en Fincas en el Departamento de Athintida, HondurasGustavo Sain y Reina Matute lRate trabaJo reaIIza Wi anau.ta comparafivD del camhio tecnologico ocurriclo en La Ceiba, Honcl1l1'U entre 1981-1991. En parfimlar .e anaUzan: 1. EI cambio en hi bnportanda relattva de bu fpoeu de proclucdon de mafz; 2. La cIiIluIon del mtema de proclacdon de mafz en reladon con MIICIIIUI; 13. El cambio en bu tknicu de producdon de mafz tanto en primera como en poItrera. El incremento en bnportanda relafiva de Ia liembra de poItrera pareee estar asodado con Ia cIiIluIon del mtema de aboneral el cuaI pennite a 101 agricultores aumentar sa ingreso neto medio y cIlsminuir los rlagOl de proclacdolL Lo. cambiOl en bu tfcnicu de proclacdon de mafz reneJan: 1. Qae los agrleultores reducen lUI co.tos de prodacdon aJustando bu tknicu de amerclo a bu varladoDa en los preclos relafivOl de los insumos y senidos; 2. Las tknicu recomendadas pur los Idstemas de invesfigad6n y eItensl6n no Ie adaptaron a 101 cambiOl relafivos en preclos 10 que parcee haber Umitado sa acIopdon a solo Wi sector de agricultores; y 3. Por 10 anterior resulta que las tasas de retorno a Ia inverlion en investJgad6n apicola osdlaban entre el8 y 160; •. EI Departamento de Atlantida uno de los cuatro que confonnan el Litoral Atlantico de Honduras. Aunque globalmente el Litoral At13ntico no es una de las regiones mas importantes en 10 que a producci6n de maiz se refiere (su contribuci6n a la producci6n nacional en los Ultimos 5 afl.os fue del 12%), su importancia radica en el hecho de que es una de las tres regiones que en Honduras produce cantidades importantes de maiz en la q,oca de postrera (Diciembre-Abril) en donde la escasez de lluvias reduce significativamente 1a producci6n nacional de este cultivo. Asi, durante el mismo periodo el Litoral At13ntico produjo el 23% del total nacional del maiz de postrera.Este trabajo analiza un conjunto de cambios en los patrones de cultivo de maiz ocurridos en los Ultirnos 10 afl.os en el Departamento de At13ntida. Examina sus posibles causas y consecuencias a la luz de los carnbios ocurridos en las circunstancias socioeconomicas y estima los retomos economicos 1 o. Sain es economista regional para Centro America y el Caribe del CIMMYT y R Matute es economista agricola de la Secretarla de RecursOI Naturales de Honduras.. DELPRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993),p. 198-211. 198 atribuibles al prograrna de investigaci6n en fmcas que tuvo lugar en la region durante el periodo 1981 -1986.Durante la decada de los 80 1a regi6n experirnenta carnbios irnportantes en 10 que se refiere al sistema de producci6n de maiz. En este trabajo se analizan: 1) EI cambio en la irnportancia relativa de las q,ocas de produccion de maiz, 2) La difusion de un nuevo sistema de produccion de maiz en rotaci6n con Mucuna y 3) EI cambio en las tecnicas de producci6n de maiz tanto en primera como en postrera.En 10 que hace al cultivo del maiz, existen en el area dos q,ocas de producci6n bien defmidas: La primera, tambi6t llamada de primavera y la postrera 0 de verano. En gran medida la capacidad para producir rnaiz en cada q,oca esta determinada por el regimen estacional de lluvias predominantes. En el area el regimen de lluvias es tal que permite la siembra y cultivo de arnbas estaciones con diferentes grados de exito. La Figura I muestra el indice estacional de lluvias durante los Ultimos 20 afl.os (1972)(1973)(1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990). Las lluvias inician su cicio ascendente en el mes de mayo y continuan en ascenso hasta llegar a noviembre que es el rnes mas lluvioso del afl.o. A partir de alIi comienzan su fase descendente hasta llegar al mes de abril. Los ciclos productivos de primera y postrera se acomodan a este regimen. La siembra de primera del maiz comienza generalmente en junio-julio para ser cosechado en setiembre-oetubre, mientras que la siembra de postrera se realiza en diciembre-enero para ser cosechado en abril-mayo. La estaci6n de primera 0 primavera fue tradicionalmente la mas importante en 10 que a producci6n de maiz en el Litoral Atl<intico se refiere, a mediados de la decada de los 70, principios de los 80 solo el 35% de la producci6n total de la regi6n se producia en postrera (Cuadro I). Sin embargo, la situaci6n ha tendido a revertirse ya que la participaci6n relativa de la postrera en la producci6n ha crecido en los ultimos 15 aiios a raz6n de casi 1% anual hasta alcanzar mas del 50% de la producci6n total en las ultimas tres campaiias ( Cuadro 1 y Figura 2). A-unque ambas epocas tienen a juicio de los agricultores, ventajas y desventajas, la siembra de postrera presenta dos ventajas bien defmidas. En primer lugar la cosecha de postrera ocurre en los meses mas secos del aiio (abril-mayo) por 10 cual el maiz tiene una mejor sanidad que en primera donde se cosecha con mucha lluvia y existe el problema de pudrici6n de mazorca.Una segunda ventaja de la siembra de postrera es que permite aprovechar el marcado cicIo estacional que se observan en los precios de venta del maiz. La Figura 3 muestra el indice estacional de los precios del maiz a nivel de mayorista caleulado para el periodo 1970 -1991. 0.00 -I--+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-----< 75n6 nn8 79180 81182 83/84 85186 87188 89190Figura 2. Importancia relativft de la superficie cultivada en postrera respecto a la superficie total cultivada con maiz en el Litoral Atlantico de Honduras,  EI exceso estacional de oferta a Divel nacional bace caer los precios al por mayor durante los meses de oetubre, noviembre y diciembre, q,oca de cosecba de la primavera, a Diveles basta de un 20% por debajo del promedio anual. A partir de enero los precios comienzan a subir basta alcanzar un pequefio pica en abril, a partir de ese momento descienden a medida que ocurre la salida de la cosecba de postrera en mayo-junio pero de todas maneras se mantienen por arriba del promedio anual. La amplitud del cicio estacional a .Divel de mayorista es de un 25% para el perlodo considerado.Este cicio estacional a Divel de precios al mayorista se repite a Divel de agricultor donde la estacionalidad es mas marcada ya que una de las fonciones del proceso de comercializacion es justamente la reduccion de la estacionalidad de precios a traves del arbitraje estacional asociado con el almacenamiento. Aunque no se dispone de una serle de precios mensuales tan completa como aqueHa de los precios a Divel de mayorista, la estacionalidad de los precios a Divel de fmca para el periodo 1990-1991 presenta el mismo patron estacional que a Divel mayorista con los precios de postrera superando al promedio en 23% mientras que para la siembra de primavera se encuentr'an un 25% por debajo.La desventaja de la siembra de postrera esta asociado a la distribucion y manejo del agua que afecta tanto a los niveles de rendimiento y a la posibilidad de fracaso de la cosecba. Sin embargo el aumento de la importancia relativa de la produccion de postrera se debe principalmente al incremento relativo del area cultivada mas que a aumentos relativos de la productividad ( Cuadro 1).El aumento relativo del area cultivada en postrera es causado por la difusion de la siembra de maiz con frijol de abono (Mucuna aterrima sp) en el sistema Hamado \"abonera\". El uso del frijol de abono en el sistema Hamado de abonera muestra un significativo incremento en el area en la decada de los 80. Asi por ejemplo, en 1980 menos del 5% de los agricultores utilizaban el sistema, mientras que en 1989, este porcentaje superaba el 60% (Buckles et aJ., 1992) La curva de difusion del sistema de abonera en el Dpto. de Atllintida muestra que entre 1981 y 1990 la difusion fue casi lineal a una tasa de crecimiento anual de casi 7%.EI sistema de abonera Ie posibilita al agricultor del area realizar un cultivo de postrera mas segura y mas rentable debido a un mejor manejo de la humedad, al 200 incremento de la fertilidad natural del suelo y a un ahorro de mano de obra en la preparacion del terreno. A nivel de tinca, la incOIporacion del sistema de abonera Ie ha permitido al agricultor aumentar considerablemente el area cultivada con maiz en postrera ya sea aumentando elarea de la parcela como el nfunero de parcelas de maiz cultivadas. AqueHos agricultores que tienen abonera en sus fmcas siembran 2 parcelas de maiz en postrera mientras que aqueHos que no 10 tienen solo cultivan una parcela. EI tamafio promedio de la parcela tambi61 registro diferencias significativas entre ambos grupos de agricultores. AqueHos con abonera cultivan un promedio de 2.6 bas. de maiz en postrera comparado con solo 1.9 has. que cultivan aqueHos que no han adoptado el sistema de abonera (Sain et al., 1992).Dado que a comienzo de la decada de los 80, la estacion de primavera era la mas importante en tenninos de volfunenes de produccion, los esfuerzos de investigacion se dirigieron a aliviar los problemas predominantes en este cicio productivo.. En 1982 la Secretaria de Recursos Naturales (SRN) y CIMMYT inician un programa colaborativo de investigacion en fmcas cuya sede central se ubico en la Agencia de Extension de Jutiapa.. El area de trabajo comprende el Municipio de Jutiapa localizado al este del Departamento de Atllintida. EI programa colaborativo prosiguio durante el periodo 1983-1986. A partir de 1987, los programas de investigacion y extension continuan bajo elliderazgo de la SRN.EI analisis del cambio en las tecnicas de produccion de maiz de primavera se realiza en forma comparativa entre 1981 y 1991 usando la informacion recopilada en las encuestas de 1982 y 1992 para el area de Jutiapa solamente.Los cambios mas significativos en las tecnicas de produccion de maiz se registran en: I) La forma de preparar el terreno, 2) La densidad y forma de siembra, 3) Las varledades usadas, 4) La forma de controlar las malezas; y 5) La fertilizacion del cultivo. EI Cuadro 2 muestra los cambios principales en terminos del porcentaje de agricultores que las realizan.Se observa una significativa disminucion en las quemas, como tambien un aumento en el uso de heroicidas quemantes(Gramoxone) a la siembra. Se observa tambi61 que en 1991 aumento considerablemente la siembra en hilera, se ajusto la Cuadro 2.Principales cambios en la tecnica de produccion de maiz ocurridos en el periodo 1981-1991 en Jutiapa, Honduras. que se hace. En general los agricultores adelantaron la epoca tanto del primer control (Figura 4) como la del segundo control en el caso que este se realice. En cuanto a la forma de control se debe apuntar en primer termino que el porcentaj e de agricultores que realizaron un solo control aument6 en 1m 16% y en segundo lugar la sustituci6n en el uso de herbicidas. En 1981 el control quimico se realizaba con base en la aplicaci6n de herbicidas hormonales especificos para malezas de hoja ancha (2,4-D), mientras que en 1991 la fOIDla predominante se basa en la aplicaci6n de herbicidas quemantes (Gramoxone). Finalmente la fertilizaci6n maiz es un componente que tambicn ha sufrido un cambio relativo. En 1981 el porcentaje de agricultores que aplicaban fertilizantes era practicamente nulo, mientras que en 1991 casi 25% de los agricultores aplicaban nitr6geno al maiz de primera en una dosis promedio de 30.0 Kg Nlha. La raz6n principal para no usar fertilizantes fue el alto costa (76% de los que no usaron) y solo un 17% consider6 que no era necesario aplicar fertilizantes.Con el fm de caracterizar el proceso de cambio tecno16gico, se definen dos tipos de tecnologias de producci6n. La tecnologia modal, compuestas por las pnicticas que se usan con la mayor frecuencia tanto en 1981 como en 1991, y la tecnologia avanzada, compuestas por las pnicticas recomendadas por los servicios tecnicos y de extensi6n en el area durante el periodo 1981-1991. El Cuadro 3 muestra las tecnicas de producci6n quecomponen la tecnologia modal en 1981 y 1991, Y la tecnologia avanzada en 1991.El control de malezas es otro componente tecnico que ha sufrido cambios sustanciales no solamente en la forma en que se realiza sino tambien en la epoca en distancia y cantidad de semilla por golpe y como consecuencia la densidad promedio de siembra aument6 en un 37% (aproximadamente 10,000 plantaslha) durante el periodo. Tambien el porcentaje de agricu1tores que siembran materiales mejorados se increment6 en 18%. Sin control FERTILIZACION y sus causas (Figura 5). El programa concentr6 sus esfuerzos en la bmqueda de soluciones tecno16gicas para cuatro componentes de corto plazo: 1) Competencia de malezas; 2) Arreglo espacial y d~idad de siembra; 3) Deficiencia de nitrogeno, y 4) Vanedades; y para dos componentes de largo plazo: a) La baja intensidad en el uso de la tierra y b) la erosi6n del suelo. En la planificaci6n de la estrategia experimental se consider6 que los cuatro componentes, competencia de malezas, deficiencia de nitt:6geno, baja densidad y arreglo espacial, y vanedades de baja productividad, podian ser incmporados en un programa experimental tendiente a obtener resultados en un periodo relativamente corto.A su vez, estos resultados debian ser compatibles con el objetivo de largo plazo de disminuir la erosion y mejorar la intensidad de uso de la tierra.La estrategia experimental pretendia: 1) Reducir las quemas y sembrar en limpio mediante el uso de herbicidas quemantes (Gramoxone), 2) Aumentar la densidad de siembra y disminuir el numero de semillas por golpe, 3) Obtener una recomendaci6n para nitr6geno que fuera rentable para el agricultor; y 4) Reemplazar las variedades criollas por variedades mejoradas que fueran aceptables para el agricultor (Flores y Licona, 1985).El Cuadro 4 resume estos componentes tecno16gicos, la pnictica del agricultor al comienzo del programa de investigaci6n, los resultados principales de la investigaci6n y las recomendaciones generadas y difundidas por el programa. Variedades crioUas Varledades crioUas Dos procesos fundamentales pueden ser asociados a los cambios ocurridos en las tecnicas de produccion del maiz. Por un lado el proceso de investigacion y extension que la Secretaria de Recursos Naturales mantiene en el area a traves de diferentes programas y por otro los procesos de investigaci6n y extension informales que mantienen los agricultores en respuesta a problemas y oportunidades percibidos.En particular, los cambios en los precios relativos de factores e insumos que inducen a los agricultores a buscar aquellas tecnicas que minimizan el costo de produccion y de esa manera determinan el sentido e intensidad de factores del cambio tecnologico. Tambien, la oportunidad de producir en postrera cuando los precios del maiz son mayores, y de mejorar la fertilidad del suelo -volver valiente la tierra cobarde en la terminologia campesina-han inducido el proceso informal de experimentacion y difusion de la mucuna en el sistema de abonera.El programa de investigacion y extension que se llevo a cabo en el area de Jutiapa entre 1981-1986 distinguio entre componentes tecnologicos de corto y de largo plazo de acuerdo .a los problemas principalesLas tendencias de los precios relativos de productos e insumos tomando al maiz como numerario durante la decada de los 80, indican que tanto la mano de obra como el Gramoxone se han abaratado en terminos absolutos en 44 y 35% respectivamente, Cuadro 5. Esto es consistente con los cambios en las tecnicas de producci6n registradas en el periodo. Por ejemplo, atin cuando el 2,4-0 se abarat6 respecto al maiz se encareci6 respecto al Gramoxone, este cambio en la relacion de precios aunado a las recomendaciones tecnicas podrian explicar el alto grado de sustitucion entre ambos herbicidas. Mientras que la draIruitica caida del precio del jomal explicaria el aumento del control manual. Baja productividad tie Bajos niveles de ingreso Baja intensidad d~-------1 uso de la tierra Altas tasas de erosion del sueloIntensidad de las precipitaciones Preparacion del suelo: chapia y quema.Oensidad siembra arreglo espacial Variedades Oesconocimiento de otros herbicidas genetico empleado Control con 2,4-0 Control manual suplementario Figura 5. Esquema de problemas y causas posibles identificadas en la planificacion del Programa de Investigacion en Fincas. Jutiapa, Honduras. Criollas: Tusa Morada y 010000Nose aplicaba fertilizante al cultlvo de matz.Diferentes metodos de control sin diferencias signUlcativas en rendimientos.Se busca: menor costo.Alta rentabilidad al aumentar la densidad de siembra a 50000 pltslha. cambiando la fornta de siembra.BUelta respuesta de variedades mejoradas adaptadas a condiciones locales: Guaymas B-l0l, Planta Baja, y Sintetico Tuxpeiio. lnteraccion variedad x nitrogeno significatlva Respuesta de variedades criollas y mejoradas ala fertilizacion con nitrogeno Experimentacion mezclada con control de malezas.RecoDlendaciones generadas y dlfundidas.1) Siembra enlimpio. Aplicar Gramoxone a la siembra si fuera necesario 2) l er control con Gramoxone 15-20dds.3) 2 do control chapia ligera si fuera necesario.Siembra en hilera a 0.8 xO.6 mts.x 2-3 semillas por golpe.Variedades mejoradas: Guaymas B-l0l, Planta Baja, y en especial Sintetico Tuxpeiio por su buena aceptacion dada su coberiura de mazorca y textura del grano. Fertilizacion: vermas abajo.Aplicar 60 kg NIha. en forma de urea (130 kglurealha.). El N proveniente de la urea tambien se abarat6 significativamente respecto al maiz. La poca difusi6n de la fertilizaci6n nitrogenada a pesar de este hecho y de la recomendaci6n t6cnica de hacerlo se puede explicar por la escasez de efectivo 10 que explicaria el porqu6 1a dosis promedio de N aplicada es la mitad de la recomendada. El uso de semillas mejoradas se ve tambi6n facilitado por una reducci6n en sus precios relativos al de maiz de casi 10%. La falta de una mayor difusi6n se podria deber a cuellos de botellas en el mercado local de semillas y a la falta de efectivo por parte de los agricultores.El Cuadro 6 muestra la estrnctura de costos de producci6n del maiz de primavera en moneda constante para las estrncturas tecno16gicas modales de Cuadro.6. Estructura de eostos de produccion de maiz de primera por unidad de tierra bajo diferentes regimenes tecnologicos en 1981 y 1991. Jutiapa Dpto. Athintida, Honduras. Como consecuencia la relacion capitaVtrabajo se mantiene a un nivel de 0.10 para la tecnologia modal en ambos periodos y aumenta a 0.80 para la tecnologia avanzada en 1991. La intensidad de uso de capital tambien se manifiesta cuando se mide el capital por unidad de producto, relacion que es mayor para la tecnologia avanzada en 165% respecto a la tecnologia modal en 1991.El Cuadro 7 muestra la intensidad de factores trabajo y capital por unidad de tierra y de producto usados por los diferentes niveles tecnologicos. Es de remarcar el aumento en el uso de la mane de obra por unidad de tierra que experimenta la tecnologia modal entre 1981 y 1991, Y el aumento en el uso de capital por unidad de tierra que hace la tecnologia avanzada.1981, 1991 Yla de avanzada en 1991. La mayoria de los agricultores, representados por la moda, ajustaron su tecnologia de manera de reducir el total de costos variables en un 23%, mientras que aquellos que adoptaron la tecnologia avanzada los aumentaron en un 8%. En terminos de rentabilidad, la tecnologia avanzada muestra beneficios brutos y netos significativamente superiores a aquellos representados por la tecnologia modal. La tasa marginal de retorno (TMR) de pasar de la modal a la avanzada es de 3.17 o 317% 10 que indica que debe haber Iimitantes externos para la adopcion de este nivel tecnologico.Estas relaciones parecen indicar distintos patrones de adopcion en el area tal como se ilustra en la Figura 6. Los agricultores se encontraban en el punta A con una relacion de factores capitaVtrabajo igual a 0.1 y un costa dado por Co. Dado el cambio en las relaciones de precios, la mayoria ajusta su tecnica y se mueve al punto B manteniendo la relacion de factores perc reduciendo el costo a Cl <Co. Algunos, sin embargo adoptan la tecnologia recomendada, . represelltada por el punto C, que tiene una relacion de factores mas intensiva en capital y un costo C2 >Co y >C1. Es probable entonces, que la adopcion de tecnologia avanzada estuvo Iimitada por el encarecimiento de los insumos relativo a la mana de obra y a una mayor restriccion al acceso al mercado de capitales. Es decir la adopcion ocurre en un sector de agricultores con acceso a fuentes de capital que pueden aprovechar la alta tasa de rentabilidad que otorga la tecnologia. L requisitos mencionados de causalidad. La tecnologia de avanzada en 1991, responde claramente a las dos primeras condiciones. En cuanto a la tercera condicion se debe notar que la investigaci6n campesina estuvo concentrada en desarrollar altemativas para posibilitar la produccion en postrera y conservar el suelo mediante el desarrollo del sistema de abonera (Buckles et aI., 1993). Mas aful, la tecnica de produccion modal en 1991, tambien puede atribuirse a una adaptaci6n natural del empresario campesino a las sefiales del mercado.Los beneficios netos por unidad de tierra asociados a los componentes tecno16gicos se calculan como:La evaluaci6n de los impactos econ6micos de la investigaci6n en componentes agron6micos requieren que se cumplan tres condiciones necesarias para que los cambios en las pnicticas 0 tecnicas de producci6n a mvel del agricu1tor puedan ser atribuidos a los resultados de un programa experimental (Traxler, 1990;Harrington et al. 1992). Estas tres condiciones son: a) La investigaci6n debe haber llevado al desarrollo 0 descubrimiento de una pnictica de manejo mejorada inc1uida como parte de la recomendaci6n, b) Los cambios en las pnicticas por parte de los agricu1tores deben ser consistentes con los cambios promovidos por la recomendaci6n; y c) Debe existir alguna evidencia que apoye la causalidad entre el cambio en la pn\\ctica por los agricultores (adopci6n) y la recomendaci6n del programa (Traxler, 1990).En caso de esta Ultima condici6n, Traxler sugiere tres criterios para juzgar la causalidad: i) La pnictica recomendada y la pnictica del agricu1tor debe haber cambiado de la misma manera durante el periodo bajo estudio, ii) la diseminaci6n de la recomendaci6n debe preceder en el tiempo al cambio de pnictica por los agricu1tores; y iii) debe resultar improbable que los agricultores hubieran desarrollado el cambio en las pnicticas sin los resultados del programa de investigaci6n. (Harrington et al., 1992) En el caso del programa de investigacion en fmcas de Jutiapa no cabe ninguna duda que el desarrollo de la tecnologia de avanzada cumple con los tres 206 donde ~Ri Y ~Ci representan el incremento en rendimientos del maiz y en costos que varian por unidad de tierra inducidos por la adopcion de la altemativa i-esima y Pm es el precio del maiz. Hi representa la proporcion neta de la superficie total de maiz dentro del dominio de recomendacion (s) que es cultivada con la altemativa i-esima. Para aquellas altemativas que ahorran costos sin modificar los rendimientos ~Ri=O por 10 que los beneficios netos se reducena: La proporci6n de la superficie de maiz cultivada con la altemativa i-esima se debe estimar en forma neta de aquella proporci6n que hubiera existido si el programa de investigaci6n no se hubiera llevado a cabo. El criterio adoptado en este trabajo sigue los lineamientos de Lu (1981), y Martinez y Sain (1983) y se ilustra en la Figura 7.Dada una curva de adopci6n estimada y una hipotetica sin el programa, la proporci6n neta atribuible a los efectos del programa esta dada por las areas A, B, Y C. Dado que no es posible observar estas areas, ellos se a~roximan mediante la eleccion de un punto de corte T y la estimaci6n de las areas A yD. En este caso la proporci6n neta Hi se calcu1a como: % de adapci6n K/-----------=_\"T\":';\"-=_ por unidad de tierra, y del componente malezas que impacta a traves de una reduccion en costos que varian. Los aumentos en rendimientos de maiz para los tres primeros componentes se calcularon de los rendimientos experimentales promediados a traves de sitios y afios. Los promedios se ajustaron hacia abajo por un 10% para reflejar los rendimientos que se pueden esperar a nivel de agricultor. El incremento medio de rendimientos de los componentes foe de 360, 460 Y 505 kgllla. para la densidad, variedad y nitrogeno respectivamente.Tanto los niveles absolutos como los incrementos son razonables a nivel del agricultor.Figura 7. Estimacion del patron neto de adopcion de una nueva alternativa tecnologica. donde h(t) Y h(tl) es la proporcion de la superficie total cultivada estimada para el afio t y para el afio en que se inicio el programa respectivamente. El Cuadro 8 presenta los valores de los panimetros y las curvas de adopcion estimadas para los componentes tecnologicos que pueden atribuirse al programa de investigacion y extension. El maximo porcentaje de adopcion esperado de cada alternativa se estimo conservadoramente en un 50% del total de la superficie de maiz en ellirea. Para estimar los valores de Hi se toma como punto de corte e1 afio 1993, es decir los beneficios se calculan solamente hasta ese afio.El Cuadro 9 resume los presupuestos parciales para los tres componentes que incrementan los rendimientos a traves de un aumento en la inversion Cuadro 8. Parametros de adopcion estimados.Para la obtencion de los beneficios netos se emplearon precios de tendencia de largo plazo ajustados cuando corresponada para reflejar la amplia estacionalidad de los precios del maiz . Todos los precios se deflacionaron por el Indice General de Precios al Consumidor (IGPC). Los precios de tendencia se tomaron como el promedio del periodo 1987-1991, periodo en el cual la politica economica de Honduras cambia bajo la influencia del ajuste estructural. El precio de tendencia en moneda nacional (Lempira) se convierte a dolares a una tasa de cambio de 4.14 Lemp/l$ que es el promedio de la tasa de cambio en el mercado libre para el periodo 1987-91. Los precios de insumos comprados reflejan precios reales de largo plazo a nivel de campo. Los insumos no comprados asi como los servicios reflejan los costos de oportunidad.  (CIMMYT, 1988). Ademas se 10 ajusta para tener en cuenta la estaeionalidad de los precios de maiz a nivel de agricultor (Sain et 01., 1992).Cuadro 10. Con las proporciones netas de adopci6n y los beneficios netos por unidad de tierra se procedio a estimar el flujo de beneficios netos del programa, considerando que dentro del area de influencia de la Agencia de Jutiapa se cultivan entre 2 000 Y 3 000 has. de maiz de primavera. El Cuadro 10 muestra el flujo anual de beneficios netos para cada componente y el total para el programa estimado como la suma de los beneficios netos atribuibles a los componentes individuales tomando como superficie total 2 000 has., el minimo del rango mencionado.Los Costas Asociadas a/ Programa de Investigaci6nLos costos asociados al programa de investigaci6n en frncas de Jutiapa, pertenecen ados categorias: Costos operativos y salarios del personal t6cnico implicado. Los costos operativos cubren todos los costos de sembrar, mantener, cosechar y analizar un ensayo. Los costos inc1uyen materiales, combustibles, mano de obra no calificada, y otros costos miscelaneos.En el caso de experimentos de verificacion 0 demostracion el costo tambien inc1uye el 0 los dias de campo realizados en el sitio experimental. Para calcular estos costos operativos se toma el promedio de los costos internacionales por experimento presupuestados por el Programa Regional de Maiz (PRM) durante los aftos 1991 Y 1992, ajustfuldolos por un indice de inflacion del 3% anual para IIevarlo a 1985. El costo de conducir un ensayo experimental fue calculado en 425 USS, mientras que el costo de un ensayo de verificacion fue de 287 USS.Los salarios del personal tecnico involucrado en el programa (Cuadro 11), incluyen aquellos de los extensionistas en la Agencia de Jutiapa, investigadores de La Ceiba y Jutiapa y el cooordinador de Investigacion con sede en La Ceiba. Dado que el personal tecnico tiene otras obligaciones laborales ademas del cultivo de maiz, los salarios se prorratearon de la siguiente manera: Investigadores y extensionistas 50%, coordinador y jefe de agencia de Jutiapa 30%. Los salarios nominales se deflacionaron por el IGPC para ponerlos en terminos reales en Lempiras de 1985 y se convirtieron a dolares a la tasa de 4.14 Lempll USS.Cuadro 11. Personal teenico involuerado en el Programa por ano y eategoria.IIevados al periodo base. Finalmente i es la tasa de descuento usada para llevar los flujos al periodo base. EI Cuadro 12 muestra el flujo estimado de costos para el periodo 1983-1993. A partir de 1987 tal como es costumbre, se estima un costo de mantenimiento del 10% del costo anual del ultimo afto del Programa.Se fija 1986 como periodo base, la tasa de descuento fue estimada enl0% que es la tasa real de interes para los creditos del sector agropecuario prevaleciente durante los UItimos 10 aftos. Sin embargo para medir la sensibilidad de los indicadores de rentabilidad a cambios en la tasa de descuento, estos se estiman para tasas de descuento de 5, 10, Y 15 %anual.De acuerdo a los resultados ilustrados en el Cuadro 13, la inversion en el programa de investigacion en fmcas resulta en tasas de retorno ligeramente superior a la tasas de descuento usadas por 10 que se considera que el programa es rentable b~o las tres tasas de descuentos consideradas. EI punto de equilibrio entre costos y beneficios resulta a una tasa de descuento superior alI5%. Para estimar los retornos economicos del Programa se calculo la relacion beneficio costo (B/C) y la tasa de retorno (R) de acuerdo a la fonnulacion siguiente (Griliches, 1958;Kislev y Hoffman 1978;Martinez y Sain, 1983): Estos resultados deben ser considerados como conservadores debido en primer lugar a que los costos de los experimentos estan inflados debido al proceso de asignaci6n de recursos entre paises existentes en las redes de colaboraci6n tecnicas regionales, y en segundo termino, la superlicie total de maiz considerada para este c31cu1o fue la mas conservadora de varias estimaciones. Por ejemplo, Flores y Licona (1985) estimaron el area de influencia de la Agencia sembrada con maiz en 3.000 ha. Es posible ademas que exista una externalidad positiva sobre la fonna de cu1tivar el maiz en postrera ya que la mayor parte de los componentes tecnol6gicos difundidos pueden ser aplicados tanto en primera como en postrera.Finalmente se debe recalcar que tampoco se han considerado los beneficios derivados de la disminuci6n de la no quema. Estos beneficios deben ser considerables tanto para el agricultor en terminos de menor erosi6n y mejor manejo del agua en el suelo, como tambien socialmente por una menor sedimentaci6n en rios y otras fuentes de agua.Cambios importantes ocurrieron en el sistema de producci6n de maiz de los agricu1tores del Litoral Atlantico de Honduras. Estos cambios ocurrieron como respuesta a tres procesos fundamentales. Por un lade los cambios en los precios relativos de insumos y servicios hicieron que la mana de obra se abaratara en terminos relativos a los insumos 10 que llev6 a que los agricultores ajustaran la fonna de producir maiz. Por otro lado, la investigaci6n y transferencia infonnal de campesino a campesino permiti6 la difusi6n del sistema de abonera 10 que a su vez trajo el incremento de la superficie cultivada de maiz en postrera y mejorando asi el ingreso de los agricultores del area. Finalmente, la investigaci6n y extensi6n fonnal a traves del programa de investigaci6n en fincas difundi6 un conjunto de reeomendaciones tecnicas con un grado de exito relativo.Los resultados alcanzados muestran que la inversi6n realizada en el programa de investigaci6n en fmeas en el area de Jutiapa fue rentable con tasas de retomos qu('l oscilan entre el 8 y 16%. Estas tasas no son tan elevadas como aquellas eneontradas en otras evaluaciones de los retomos a la investigaci6n que muestran tasas del orden del 50% 0 aun mayores. (Traxler, 1990; Harrington et al., 1992; Martinez y Sain, 1983).   210   Es posible enumerar algunos faetores que indudablemente influyeron para que el programa de investigaci6n no tuviera un exito mayor: 1)-La discontinuidad institucional que acompa.d6 al Programa con respeeto a la inestabilidad del personal tecnico involucrado, 2)-Como una consecuencia de 10 anterior, el Programa se interrumpe en su fase de investigaci6n en 1986, 3)-Las dificu1tades tecnicas intrinsicas de la zona llevaron a una baja eficiencia en la ejecuci6n de los ensayos, especialmente en los dos Ultimos afios del Programa; y 4) La falta de adaptaci6n de las recomendaciones al cambiante ambiente econ6mico que lleva a recomendar tecnologias intensivas en faetores que se habian encarecido en terminos relativos.Es decir que aunque el Programa tuvo un buen diagn6stico y una planeaci6n estrategica experimental correeta, su ejecuci6n present6 problemas principalmente de indole institucional que afeetaron su rentabilidad como proyeeto de investigaci6n. Los componentes tuvieron rentabilidades bajas, con tasas de adopci6n tambi6n relativamente bajas comparadas, por ejemplo con aquellas obtenidas en la misma area por el sistema de abonera que podria considerarse una altemativa tecnol6gica generada y difundida de campesino a campesino (Buckles et a!., 1992). Tambien se debe recalcar la importancia de la dinamica de las recomendaciones en un programa de investigaciones. Toda vez que se produzcan cambios importantes en las circunstancias que enfrentan los agricu1tores, los investigadores deben revisar el conjunto de recomendaciones para verificar su validez a la luz de las nuevas circnstancias. De no hacerlo asi puede suceder, tal como se vi6 en el caso de Jutiapa, que las recomendaciones no sean las mas adecuadas para la mayoria de los agricu1tores del dominio de recomendaci6n. En los sistemas de produccion de ntaiz prevalecientes en las laderas de EI Salvallor la interaccion del sistema agricola con el ganadero es de suma bnportancia para entender la decision de los agricultores de adoptar la labranza de conservacion. Aunque en estos sistemas los agricultores Ie dan diferentes usos a los residuos de maiz, sorgo y frijol tales como consumo anbnal, conservacion de suelo, fuente energetica y para elaborar algunos objetos del hogar como son puertas y tapescos, el uso de los residuos del sistema como albuento para eI ganado en los meses de verano es elmas importante en terminos de esta interaccion. En aquellos sistemas donde si ha habido adopcion del uso de los residuos como mantillo, tal como es el caso de Guaymango, la cantidad de biomasa que deja el sistema es 10 suficientemente grande como para pennitir un uso de doble proposito de los residuos, como mantillo y como forraje. Es decir que la productividad del sistema debe ser 10 suficientemente alta para pennitir este doble uso como Wla condicionnecesaria para que exista adopcion de la labranza de conservacion. La comercializacion del rastrojo en las tres areas investigadas Ita comenzado a tomar importancia entre los agricultores. AWlque 10 canales de comercializacion no estan todavia bien defmidos; si se identifica que las fonnas de comercializar los residuos dependen de la posibilidad de exclusion del ganado mediante cercas.En El Salvador los cultivos maiz, sorgo, frijol son sembrados por pequefios agricultores diseminados por todo el territorio nacional con el proposito de obtener alimentos e ingresos. En los sistemas de fmcas predominantes, el grano no es el Unico producto con un valor economico sino que los agricultores tambien utilizan los rastrojos del maiz, del sorgo, y del frijol ya sea internamente en la finca como un producto intermedio 0 como producto fmal vendiendolo afuera de la fmca. Los diferentes usos que los agricu1tores Ie dan al rastrojo dependen de sus necesidades y su situacion economica. Aunque se ha encontrado una cierta diversidad de usos de los residuos tales como su utilizacion en la construccion de casas, tapezcos, puertas y como fuente energetica, los tres usos mas importantes en terminos de su volumen e importancia economica son: 1) El uso como proteccion del suelo, donde los residuos forman un mantilla que ayuda a disminuir la erosion y a conservar la humedad; 2) El uso como fuente para el consumo animal en los meses de verano, y 3) La venta fuera del predio para conseguirun ingreso extra en efectivo (Figura 1).El agricu1tor debe tomar una decision importante respecto a cuanto rastrojo debe dejar como mantillo para proteger el suelo y cuanto debe usar en los otros dos usos alternativos. Se trata de una eleccion entre ingresos en ellargo plazo a traves de un impacto sobre la fertilidad natural del suelo versus ingresos en el corto plazo a traves de la ganancia de peso de los animales 0 alternativamente de la venta del rastrojo en el mercado. El costa de oportunidad resultante de usar los rastrojos como mantilla es un factor importante en la adopcion de esta pnictica de conservacion por parte de pequefios agricultores ya que la mayoria de ellos usan sistemas mixtos de produccion en donde el componente ganadero juega un papel importante.La subsistencia de este componente animal depende de la duracion e intensidad de la estacion seca, de la cantidad de los residuos de las cosechas, y de la intensidad del pastoreo. De am la importancia de entender los costos y beneficios que implica el uso de estos residuos como proteccion del suelo si se quiere introducir su uso como tal.En El Salvador no se han realizado hasta el presente estudios que traten el tema de la disponibilidad y el manejo de los rastrojos en diferentes sistemas de cultivos, sus usos, formas de venta, precios, etc. Esta informacion es importante si se quiere difundir el uso de los residuos como una forma de conservacion del suelo ya que el agricu1tor deja de percibir un cierto ingreso si decide usar el rastrojo de esa manera (Calderon et at., 1991).En este trabajo se analiza la disponibilidad de rastrojo y sus usos alternativos en dos sistemas y tres areas de produccion de maiz de El Salvador: Guaymango, Texistepeque y San Juan Opico. Las dos primeras con un sistema de maiz-sorgo y la tercera con un sistema de maiz-frijol.Los objetivos especificos del estudio son: 1) Entender mejor los sistemas de produccion basados en el cultivo de maiz en cuanto a su produccion de grano y rastrojo y su interaccion con el componente ganadero; 2) Identificar los costos de oportunidad del uso del rastrojo como mantilla y los factores que podrian estar condicionando el potencial de adopcion de la labranza de conservacion; y 3) Identificar temas de investigacion futuros.Para el presente trabajo se utilizaron varias fuentes de informacion.En primer lugar se empleo informacion secundaria para caracterizar las areas de estudio, en segundo lugar, se usaron los resultados de un sondeo a agricultores, ganaderos y extensionistas en cada una de las tres areas. Este sondeo estuvo dirigido a caracterizar las formas deconsumo y venta del rastrojo en cada una de elIas. La informacion sobre disponibilidad de rastrojo en el sistema se obtuvo de entrevistas y mUt;lstreos directos tomados al azar en los distintos sistemas en tres epocas diferentes del periodo de pastoreo. La primera muestra se realizo al inicio del ciclo de pastoreo (mediados de enero), la segunda en marzo y la tercera al fmal del ciclo de pastoreo (abril). Los datos obtenidos de los muestreos se compararon con aquellos obtenidos en los experimentos sobre labranza de conservacion y fertilidad nitrogenada lIevados a cabo durante los ciclos 1991 Y 1992.El maiz en El Salvador se siembra en 2 sistemas principales determinados fundamentalmente por el regimen de lIuvias: Maiz en relevo con frijol cuando existe suficiente lIuvia para este segundo cu1tivo, y maiz en relevo 0 asocio con sorgo cuando existen restricciones de humedad. Este trabajo se concentra en tres areas de El Salvador que representan ambos sistemas. El Cuadro 1 presenta algunos parametros generales de cada una de las areas involucradas.El Cuadro 2 resume algunas caracteristicas de los sistemas de cu1tivo en donde interviene el maiz para cada una de las areas bajo estudio. En San Juan Opico predomina el sistema maiz-frijol en relevo, en Texistepeque el sistema es de maiz en relevo con sorgo mientras que en Guaymango el sistema es maiz en asocio con sorgo. Usos alternativos del rastrojo de los sistemas maiz/sorgo y maiz/frijol a nive! de finca identificados en tres areas de El Salvador. 1992.Monografias de los departamentos de La Libertad, Ahuachapan y Santa Ana.Cuadro 1. Caracteristicas geogridicas de las areas de San Juan Opico, Te.dstepeque, y Guaymango.Dado que en el pais no hay infonnaci6n reciente, para caracterlzar el uso de la tierra en cada una de las areas se tomaron los datos del tercer Censo Nacional Agropecuario de 1971 (Cuadro 3). En este cuadro la categoria \"tierra de labranza\" incluye los granos Como se explico anterionnente, el rastrojo es un producto conjunto del sistema de producci6n predominante en las areas bajo estudio sobre cuyo destino fmal el agricultor debe tomar decisiones sobre la forma mas adecuada a sus circunstancias. La dimimica de este proceso implica una serle de decisiones cuyas consecuencias tienen implicaciones tanto para el corto plazo, cuando se usa como alimento animal 0 venta, como para el largo plazo cuando se usa como mantillo. basicos tales como maiz, frijol, sorgo y arroz. En cuanto a la producci6n agropecuaria existe informacion relativamente mas reciente. El Cuadro 4 muestra la distribucion de tierras por cultivo mientras que el Cuadro 5 muestra la composici6n de la existencia de animales por categoria en los tres Municipios considerados para el ano 1982. Hay una pequefia discrepancia entre la superficie total en cultivos registrada en el Cuadro 4 y aquella registrada en el mbro \"tierra de labranza\" (superficie cultivada) en el Cuadro 3, la que puede atribuirse parcialmente a cambios en el area con cultivos producidos entre 1971 y 1982 y a errores de la informacion. EI Cuadra 6 muestra la presion de pastoreo medida por el numero de bovinos, equinos y mular por hect3rea en tres categorias de tierra: labranza, pastos y labranza mas pastos. Texistepeque muestra la presi6n de pastoreo mas alta por unidad de tierra en labranza como tambien cuando se consideran los pastos tanto naturales como artificiales. Guaymango muestra una presi6n de pastoreo alta si solo se considera la tierra en cultivos pero gracias a una alta disponibilidad de pastos, alcanza una presi6n de pastoreo global baja (0.7 animales/ha tierra en labranza y pastos). Esta diferencia en el sistema se refleja en las epocas de siembra y cosecha del sorgo, tal como se observa en cl Cuadro 2 y en nivel de los rendimientos de grano de maiz como se vera mas aetelante. Otra diferencia entre Texistepeque y Guaymango se refiere al uso del mantillo. En Guaymango existe ~tradici6n de aproximadamente 15 a 20 anos de usar los rastrojos del sistema como mantillo para conservar el suelo (Calder6n et al., 1991)  La productividad del sistema en un afio cualquiera medida por la cantidad de grano y rastrojo que produce por unidad de tierra esta condicionada por la calidad del suelo y el nivel tecno16gico usado.AI fInal del periodo productivo, comienza en las areas bajo estudio, la epoca de verano 0 de pastoreo. En este momento es que el agricultor debe tomar la primera de las decisiones referentes al manejo del rastrojo: usarlo como alimento para el ganado 0 dejarlo como mantillo en el suelo (Figura 2). Obviamente la decisi6n puede ser una estrategia mixta entre ambos usos. En esta decisi6n entran en juego factores como la importancia (cantidad) del ganado en el sistema, la disponibilidad de fuentes alternativas de 2.93 2.41 alimento para el ganado, los precios del ganado, los precios del rastrojo (si es que existen), el valor que tenga para el agricultor el rastrojo como medio para evitar la erosi6n, etc. AI fmal del cicIo de pastoreo y comienzo del pr6ximo cicIo del cultivo se encuentra una cantidad de rastrojo denominada en la Figura 2 rastrojo ftnal (Rf) cuya magnitud depende de la cantidad inicial (Ri) producida por el sistema y de la desaparici6n (0) durante la epoca de verano. La desaparici6n a su vez es una funci6n del tipo 0 composici6n del rastrojo, de los factores climaticos predominantes y principalmente del manejo hecho del rastrojo. El rastrojo fInal es importante ya que debe proveer una cantidad minima si es que se quiere usar como preventivo de la erosi6n en el siguiente cicio de cultivo. AI comienzo del cicio productivo e1 agricultor debe tomar la decisi6n de c6mo manejar el rastrojo en la preparaci6n del suelo: 0 10 quema, 10 deja como mantillo protector 0 10 incolpora mediante laboreo mecamco.Aqui tambien entran en juego variables econ6micas tales como los costos de una u otra altemativa y el valor de la conservaci6n de suelo para Figura 2. La dinamica de la produccion y la utilizacion del rastrojo.En, e! resto de la secci6n se .analizaD. en. foc omparativa algunas de estas relacionestecnicas' y economicas que condicionan. las decisiones del agricultor sobre el uso del rastrojo y se tratan de explicar las diferencias regionales..La disponibilidad inicial' de los resi4uos varia de acuerdo a1 sistema y a su produetividad. AI momento de la cosecha, en que el agricultor debe defmir el uso del rastrojo inidal, la disponibilidad es mAxima. A partir de ese momento la disponibilidad disminuye ya sea por descomposici6n 0 por pastoreo 0 ambos hasta llegar al momenta de la preparacion del terreno para el siguiente cicIo agricola cuando se tiene la disponibilidad fmal. En ese momenta el agricultor debe decidir el uso de este rastrojo. El Cuadro 7 muestra los promedios de producci6n de los sistemas en termino de rendimiento de grano y rastrojo asi como tambien la evoluci6n de la disponibilidad durante la epoca de pastoreo hasta llegar a la disponibilidad fmal en los tres sistemas considerados.Los rendimientos de grano de los sistemas se obtuvieron de los promedios experimentales del ailo 1991-1992(Sosa, 1992)). Los rendimientos de rastrojo a la cosecha se calcularon con base en los rendirnientos de grana y tornando un indice de cosecha (partici6n entre grano y biomasa) promedio de 45%, 35% Y 50% para el matz, sorgo y frijol respectivamente. La evolucion de la disponibilidad se obtuvo mediante muestreos secuenciales en campos de agricultores. Para ello se eligieron agricultores al azar en cada zona y se muestre6 el lote principal de rnaiz en tres epocas diferentes. Los altos rendimientos de rnaiz en Opico se pueden explicar por la mejor calidad de los suelos (suelos mas profundos) respeeto a las otras dos areas. La diferencia entre los rendimientos de Texistepeque y Guaymango podria explicarse en termino de la diferencia en que se incorpora el sorgo en el sistema, asociado en Guaymango y en relevo en Texistepeque. Los resultados muestran a Texistepeque con mayor disponibilidad inicial de rastrojo (casi 11 ton/ha), perc tambi6n presenta 80% de desaparicion llegando a una disponibilidad fmal de uti poco mas de 2 tonlha. En segundo lugar respeeto a la disponibilidad inicial se encuentra Guaymango con casi 10 tonlha perc con solo 30% de desaparicion, llegando asi a tener la mayor disponibilidad fmal de las tres areas con casi 7 tonlha.Finalmente Opico presenta la mas alta productividad en terminos del maiz perc por el tipo de Cuadro 7: Rendimientos promedio de granD y disponibilidad del rastrojo en las tres areas consideradasCoseeha~1 ----:I~e\"..t----::2:\"l'd\"'a,....---~3::\"1t\"\"ar--- 2.4 (n=6) !JRendimientos experimentales segim Sosa 1992. YCalculados de acuerdo a los siguientes indices de cosecha: maiz: 0.45; sorgo: 0.35; y frijol: 0.5. lILa diferencia con el rastrojo calculado de acuerdo al indice de cosecha se debe a que de acuerdo a la costumbre en el area la cana del sorgo todavia esta en pie, por 10 que en el pesode enero y maTZO no considera este componente. sistema maiz-frijol tiene la menor disponibilidad inicial de rastrojo, casi 7 ton/lla y 60% de desaparicion. De esta manera Opico y Texistepeque llegan al fmal de la epoca de pastoreo con solo 2 tonlha de rastrojo, cantidad que parece insuficiente para tener un control efectivo de la perdida de suelo por erosion hidrica.Estas cifras son consistentes con aquellas que reflejan la presion de pastoreo a nivel agregado (Cuadro 6) en donde Texistepeque y Opico presentan la lllayor presion con 1.1 y 1.0 animales/ha de tierra de cultivos y pastos respectivamente, y Guaymango que presenta la menor presion con 0.7 animales/ha. Tambien son consistentes con el manejo que se Ie da al rastrojo en cada una de las areas. Las diferencias en disponibilidad inicial son importantes ya que la poca disponibilidad inicial restringe las opciones que tiene el agricultor en cuanto a la posibilidad de compromisos entre usos altemativos del rastrojo: Como alimento para el ganado y como mantilla para proteccion del suelo.Tanto la magnitud como la tasa de desaparicion del rastrojo estan directamente relacionadas no solamente con la cantidad inicial y consecuentemente con la productividad del sistema, sino tambien con la composicion del rastrojo y con el manejo que el agricultor haga del rastrojo.En las areas de Guaymango y Texistepeque el rastrojo est! formado por los residuos del sistema mai:z/sorgo mientras que en San Juan Opico (Lomas de Santiago) 10 componen 217 los residuos del sistema mai:z/frijol que son lllaS susceptibles a la descomposicion. Sin embargo las diferencias en la desaparicion del rastrojo deben ser atribuidas fundamentalmente a la diferencia en el manejo del rastrojo durante el verano el cual varia marcadamente entre las areas de estudio.A continuacion se describe las formas de manejo del rastrojo en las diferentes areas.Las observaciones de campo realizadas en el area de San Juan Opico permitieron advertir que despues de la cosecha del grano, los residuos de maiz quedan esparcidos por todo el terreno entre abundantes malezas vivas. AI fmal de la epoca de pastoreo del rastrojo, el ganado ha comido casi todo el lllaterial tiemo (hojas) dejando solamente las caftas secas de maiz como protecci6n al suelo.En la zona de Texistepeque, el 90% de los agricultores realizan la cosecha de maiz en el mes de noviembre. En ese momenta es retirada la mazorca y se tira la planta seca al suelo, luego en los meses de diciembre y enero se cosecha el sorgo. En este caso se corta la panoja pero la calla permanece en pie ya que la variedad de sorgo que siembran CENTA Texistepeque es de porte bajo y les da la facilidad de cortar la panoja sin tumbar la planta. En esta area durante los primeros meses del verano, el rastrojo de maiz esta completamente seco en el suelo mientras que el de sorgo se encuentra en pie. Este Ultimo es volteado al suelo al momento de la preparaci6n del suelo para la siembra de maiz a finales del mes de abril, 0 sea cuando comienzan las primeras lluvias.En Guaymango la cosecha de maiz se rea1iza durante el mes de noviembre. Una vez rea1izada la cosecha de matZ, se voltea el resto de la planta sobre la superficie del terreno. En los meses de diciembre, y enero se procede a 1a cosecha del sorgo para ello se corta el tallo a una distancia de 30 em. del suelo, quedando las plantas con su panoja en el suelo para que continue el secado de los granos. Despues de ocho dias se corta la panoja, y se deja el rastrojo del sorgo junto con el del matz sobre la superficie del suelo. Lo Wrico que queda en pie es la base de la planta de sorgo, la cual sirve de guia para la proxima siembra de maiz.La altemativa mas importante al uso del rastrojo como mantilla resulto ser en las tres areas bajo estudio el uso en la alimentacion del ganado. El agricultor puede asumir una de las tres posiciones respecto a este uso: 1) puede vender el rastrojo para la alimentacion de animales de terceros ya sea en su parcela 0 fuera de ella, 2) puede comprar rastrojo para procesar 0 alimentar ganado propio, y 3) puede usarlo para alimentar su propio ganado.Los resultados del sondeo mostraron que para las tres areas la participacion del agricultor en el mercado de rastrojo depende de dos caracteristicas: la forma de tenencia de la tierra, y la posesion 0 no de animales propios.Si el agricultor tiene ganado propio invariablemente usa parte 0 todo el rastrojo para alimentar su ganado pudiendo comprar cantidades adicionales si fuera necesario. Si por el contrario, el agricultor no tiene ganado propio entonces participa en el mercado como vendedor, arrendatario 0 propietario de la tierra.Sin embargo existen caracteristicas que permiten distinguir entre las tres areas como 10 son el tamaiio de fmca, tamaiio del hato, la presion de pastoreo, el myel de acceso al rastrojo y myel de desarrollo del mercado de rastrojo. El Cuadro 8 resume estas caracteristicas para cada una de la areas.Texistepeque es el area que presenta un tamaiio promedio de fmcas significativamente mayor que las otras dos areas (Cuadro 8). El tamaiio del hato ganadero estci directamente relacionado con la superficie de la fmca, por 10 que tambifu aqui se encuentran las mayores existencias de animales por fmca. Sin embargo si se estima la relacion entre ambas variables las diferencias no son tan notorias: Texistepeque registra un promedio de 2 animales por hectcirea, Guaymango 1.6 y Opico registra la menor relacion con 1.3 animaleslha (Cuadro 8). Estas figuras confmnan aquellas a myel agregado (Cuadra 5) que remarcan la importancia del subsector ganadero en Texistepeque. Si se toma en cuenta el periodo de pastoreo se puede estimar la presion por unidad de tierra y por semana.Los resultados muestran a Texistepeque y Guaymango con una presion de 0.2 animaleslha/semana, mientras que en Opico alcanza a solo 0.13 animaleslha/semana. Esta diferencia puede explicarse por el tamaiio de la fmca y el tipo 0 c1ase de rastrojo que en Opico estci formado por residuos del maiz y frijol mientras que en las otras dos areas se compone de residuos de maiz y sorgo.El 90% de los entrevistados respondieron que el ganado alimentado con los residuos de los diferentes cultivos en los meses secos, solo mantiene su peso, reduciendo un poco la produccion de leche. Cuadro 8 .Principales parametros de manejo de los rastrojos durante la epoca de verano en las tres areas bajo estudio se mantiene tanto si el consumo se realiza dentro 0 fuera de la parcela.Teniendo en cuenta los rendimientos promedios de rastrojo inicial en Texistepeque (Cuadro 7), el precio por kg de rastrojo resulta en 0.02 collkg. (Cuadro 9). La cantidad fInal de rastrojo que debe quedar en el campo despues del pastoreo, se establece en terminos porcentuales. Existe una diferencia signifleativa en el caso de Guayrnango donde el uso como mantilla se encuentra ampliamente difundido. En esta area el En cuanto a la fecha de entrada al pastoreo, para Guayrnango y San Juan Opico comienza en las dos primeras semanas de enero mientras que en Texistepeque comienza a tin de enero principios de febrero (Cuadro 8). En las tres areas se retim el ganado a mediados de abril cuando 'comienza el periodo de preparaci6n de las tierras para la siembm. . Es decir que el periodo de pastoreo tiene una dumci6n de alrededor de 10 semanas (Cuadro 8). En OtroS casos el precio se determin6 por animal y por unidad de tiempo en 25 a 30 colones por eabeza y mes con un promedio de 27.5 coVcabeza/mes. Teniendo en cuenta el nu.mero de animales promedio por tinea en Texistepeque (Cuadro 8), un periodo de pastoreo de tres meses, y el rendimiento de rastrojo en el area el precio por kg. de rastrojo con esta modalidad tambi6n es de 0.02 collkg. Aunque no se tiene informaci6n sistematizada sobre el precio del rastrojo en Opico y Guayrnango la informaci6n existente indiea que los precios del rastrojo se encuentmn dentro de los mngos mencionados en e1 area de Texistepeque. AdemAs del precio, compmdor y vendedor arregIan una 0 mas de las siguientes condiciones: Las fechas de entrada y salida, el nu.mero de animales y la cantidad de rastrojo que debe quedar en e1 terreno.Es decir que la presi6n de pastoreo es tal que s610 pennite a los propietarios de ganado mantener a los animales evitando una perdida de peso y por ende una perdida econ6mica.La venta del rastrojo se efeetUa bajo dos grandes modalidades. En la primem, el agricultor vende el rastrojo en la parcela, bajo ciertas condiciones previamente estipuladas, que incluyen: El nu.mero de cabezas que est! pennitido entrar, fecha de entrada y salida del ganado (dias, semanas 0 meses), y forma de pago (dinero en efectivo, insumos 0 dAndole otra parcela para futuras siembras).En la segunda modalidad el agricultor vende la producci6n de rastrojo fuem de la parcela. En este caso, el agricultor puede recoger el rastrojo procesarIo y llevarlo al punta de venta. Alternativamente, el puede arreglar que esta opemci6n la realice el comprador, en este caso, tambien existen algunas condiciones, como la cantidad de rastrojo que debe quedar en el suelo.La importancia del sector ganadero en un area juega un factor importante en ellado de la demanda para el desarrollo de un mercado de rastrojo. Otro factor de vital importancia es la capacidad de exclusi6n, es decir que exista la posibilidad de excluir a los animales de los agricultores que no paguen por su uso. Esto es posible si existen alambmdos u otra forma de exclusi6n. De las tres areas considemdas, Texistepeque es la que tiene un mercado de rastrojo mas desarrollado debido a que es la regi6n donde ambos factores son mas robustos. La existencia de alambmdos y la importancia de la ganaderia en Texistepeque puede explicarse por el tipo' de explotaciones (grandes haciendas) predominantes en el area previo a la reforma agmria. En Guayrnango y San Juan Opico, el desarrollo del mercado es incipiente debido principalmente a la inexistencia de formas de exclusi6n. En ambas areas el ganado pastorea libremente dumnte los meses de vemno y aunque existe una modalidad de venta y un precio por el rastrojo no es muy claro como se regulan las estipulaciones que se imponen.Texistepeque, donde el mercado se encuentra mas desarrollado, mostraron que los precios varian de acuerdo ala modalidad de venta (Cuadro 9). Para el rastrojo en bruto este precio varia entre 143 y 286 collha dependiendo de la cantidad y calidad de rastrojo con un promedio de 214.5 collha. Este precio agricultor exige que casi la mitad del rastrojo permanezca en el campo mientras que en Texistepeque esta cifra baja a una quinta parte. (Cuadro 8). . Esto significa que el agricultor en Guaymango tiene 4 tonJha de rastrojo al comenzar el siguiente cicIo agricola mientras que en Opico y Texistepeque solo tiene 2 tonJha (Cuadro 8). Estas cifras son consistentes con aquellas encontradas en los muestreos en el campo al final del cielo de pastoreo donde se midieron casi 6.5 y 2.0 tonJha de rastrojo en Guaymango y las otras dos areas (Cuadro 7).una estimacion precisa en el area de Texistepeque sin embargo es probable que el porcentaje de agricultores que queman los rastrojos enesta area• sea igual 0 mayor. De todas maneras no resulta elaro si aquellos agricultores que no queman 10 hacen porque la cantidad (2 tonJha) y calidad(canas) del rastrojo fmal no facilita la quema 0 por la adopcion de una pnictica de conservacion. Otra de las modalidades del mercado en Texistepeque que pnicticamente no existe en las otras dos areas, es la comercializacion del rastrojo molido. En general los compradores de rastrojo son pequeiios ganaderos cuya demanda por alimento supera su propia disponibilidad por 10 cual se yen obligados a comprar afuera de su finca. Ellos almacenan los residuos molidos para los meses de escasez en el verano.Se estimo el costa del procesamiento del rastrojo para obtener el precio minimo de venta del rastrojo molido conocido como \"harina\" por los agricultores del area. El Cuadro 10 muestra los caIculos de este costa que resulta en 0.38 colones por kilogramo de producto molido 0 sea US$0.05/kg a la tasa de cambio vigente.. Este valor es muy similar al encontrado en Mexico (Tripp, 1993).Tambien se calcularon los costos e ingresos de un productor de maiz y sorgo (con tecnologia modal) que vende el rastrojo en bruto. (Cuadro 11). El rastrojo contribuye con un poco menos del 5% del ingreso provisto por la produccion y venta de grano. La rentabilidad del sistema medida por el retorno a la tierra y la administracion muestra una tasa de retorno de 24% que resulta ligeramente inferior al interes anual cargado por el capital al agricultor (27%/ ano).En Guaymango los agricultores dejaron de quemar los rastrojos del sistema desde hace 15 a 20 anos y adoptaron un sistema de cultivo consistente en dejar los residuos del sistema esparcidos en el sue10 para asi evitar la erosion y tener un mejor manejo de 1a humedad (Calderon et al., 1991).En las otras dos areas el manejo es mixto. En el area de San Juan Opico el 54% de los agricultores entrevistados manifestaron que no quemaban los residuos mientras que el 46% si 10 hacian. No se tiene 220 RUBRO Costos de produccion de malz (excIuidos tierra y administracion) Costos de produccion de sorgo (excIuidos tierra y administracion) Costos totales (excIuidos tierra y administracion) Ingresos RUBRO 3.2 tonlha de granD de malz @ 1210col/ton 2.6 tonlha de granD de sorgo @ 1100 col/ton Rll8trojo del sistema blgreso Bruto total blgreso Neto Retorno sobre tierra y administracion EI 80% de los agricultores de Opico que queman necesitan amontonar los rastrojos primero para poder asi proceder a su quema. Mientras que casi la mitad de los agricultores que no queman el rastrojo 10 dejan esparcidos sobre la superfice, un tercio 10 acomoda en hileras y el resto 10 incolpora al suelo. Las razones expuestas por los agricultores para no quemar los residuos enfatizan el uso del rastrojo como un mejorador de la calidad del suelo: Un 60% no quema porque es \"abono\" y un 40% para evitar la erosion. Por el contrario los que queman apuntan razones asociadas con reduccion en costos: Un 55% dice que facilita las labores de preparacion de la siembra y un 45% para evitar las plagas.En los sistemas de produccion de maiz prevalecientes en las laderas de EI Salvador la interaccion del sistema agricola con el ganadero es de suma importancia para entender la decision de los agricultores de adoptar la labranza de conservacion. Aunque en estos sistemas los agricultores Ie dan diferentes usos a los residuos de maiz, sorgo y frijol tales como consumo animal, conservacion de suelo, fuente energetica y para elaborar algunos objetos del hogar como son puertas y tapescos, el uso de los residuos del sistema como alimento para el ganado en los meses de verano esel mas importante en terminos de esta interaccion.En aquellos sistemas donde si ha habido adopcion del uso de los residuos como mantillo, tal como es el caso de Guaymango, la cantidad de biomasa que deja el sistema es 10 suficientemente grande como para permitir un uso de doble proposito de los residuos, como mantillo y como forraje. Es decir que la productividad del sistema debe ser 10 suficientemente alta para permitir este doble uso como una condicion necesaria para que exista adopcion de la labranza de conservacion. Por el contrario, el solo hecho de no quemar los residuos no significa necesariamente que exista adopcion tecnica de la practica de la labranza de conservacion. Puede suceder que el uso como alimento del ganado es tal que la cantidad de rastrojo en el suelo al momento de la preparacion del terreno no es suficiente tanto cuantitativa como cualitativamente para permitir su quema, tal como ocurre en el area de Opico.La comercializacion del rastrojo en las tres areas investigadas ha comenzado a tomar importancia entre los agricultores. Aunque 10 canales de 221 comercializacion no estan todavia bien defmidos; si se identifica que las formas de comercializar los residuos dependen de la posibilidad de exclusion del ganado mediante cercas.Hasta el presente no se conoce la demanda de rastrojo en el area en terminos de las cantidades demandadas, quienes son los usuarios que consumen estos residuos, las formas de comercializacion,'y los diferentes precios que se pagan. Para obtener mas informacion sobre el tema se inicio la creacion de una base homogenea de recopilacion de informacion sobre el manejo y el costo (precio) de el rastrojo en diferentes areas de America Central.Esta informacion complementara aquella obtenida a nivel experimental sobre el valor del rastrojo simple y enriquecido con la inclusion de una leguminosa (pereira de Herrera et al., 1993).Los autores desean agradecer los comentarios y sugerencias de Robert Tripp, Larry Harrington, Hector Barreto, Miguel Lopez P, Henry Hocde, y Martien van Nieuwkoop a versiones preliminares de este trabajo.Calderon F., H. Sosa, V. Mendoza, G. Sain Y H. Barreto. 1991 Pereira de Herrera A., D. Herrera, B. Guerrero, o. Vergara, R. Gordon y G. Sain. 1993. Evaluacion bioeconomica del uso del rastrojo de maiz con Canavalia en la alimentacion animal. Panama 1993 Diagn6stico de la Industria de Semilla Certificada de Maiz en Centro America Carlos Valladares y Gustavo SainiEste trabajo presenta un IUIliIisls general del Mercado de semillas mejoradas de mab en los paIses Centroamerlcanos pero con especlal enCasls en Guatemala. Se muestra que exlste todavia una gran brecha entre la demanda potenclal por este buportante Jnswno y los niveles actuales de producdon. Solamente El Salvador y Guatemala tienen una actividad bnportante en la producdon y comerclalizadon de semillas mejoradas negando a exportar semillas a otros paIses del Isbno. La producdon de semillas mejoradas es una actividad rentable en Guatemala a los niveles actuales de predos y rendimientos.Este trabajo analiza aspectos generales vincuiados con la industria de semilla certificada en Centro America. Pretende describir en lineas generales el comportamiento de la semilla mejorada de maiz en los mercados de cada pais de la region Centroamericana, con especial enfasis en Guatemala por la disponibilidad de informacion.En Centro America, la necesidad alimentaria constituye una prioridad por cuanto el ingreso per capita de la poblacion es bajo y porque la mayor proporcion de este ingreso se destina bacia la compra de alimentos. Entre los alimentos de primer orden se encuentran los granos basicos (especialmente el maiz) que constituye la base alimentaria de la poblacion. El cultivo de maiz absorbe el mayor porcentaje del area cultivada, los rendimientos obtenidos por los agricultores se caracterizan por ser relativamente bajos, 10 que implica incOlporar en el proceso productivo un factor que contribuya a mejorar los incrementos en la produccion y productividad en tal sentido, la semilla constituye un importante elemento que coadyuva a mejorar los rendimientos en el cultivo.Aunque existen diferencias menores en cada uno de los paises del area, el proceso de produecion de I Tecnico de la Unidad de Socioeconomia deliCTA, Guatemala. y Economista Regional de CIMMYT, San Jose, Costa Rica.. DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 223-229. 223 semilla certificada sigue, en lineas generales, los siguientes pasos: 1) El semillerista debe estar inscrito y registrado en el Departamento de Control y Certificacion de Semillas y/o en la Agencia Regional de Semillas; 2) El semillerista debe utilizar en sus campos para la siembra, semilla de fundacion y demostrar ante las agendas mencionadas, el origen y cantidad de la semilla que utilizara para la siembra; 3) El semillerista debe contar con la asesoria tecnica en la produccion de semillas; 4) El semillerista debe llenar los requisistos de aislamiento y otros que determinan los reglamentos y solicitar la inspeccion de campo al Departamento de Control y Certificacion de Semillas y/o la Agencia Regional de Semillas; 5) El semillerista debe cosechar, procesar y envasar la semilla con equipos adecuados y evitando mezclas con semillas de otras variedades. Debe ademas, notificar al Departamento de Control y Certificacion de Semillas y/o Agencia Regional, en cuallugar sera procesada y envasada la semilla; 6) El semillerista debe solicitar ante el Departamento de Control y Certificacion de Semillas, el numero de etiquetas y marchamos; 7) La inscripcion como semillerista, debera efectuarse y renovarse anualmente y presentar la solicitud de inscripcion del campo al Departamento de Control y Certificacion de Semillas.En el Cuadro I se puede observar la produccion de semilla de maiz total y certificada. En 10 que respecta a la produccion total, esta presenta una tendencia ascendente desde 1980 hasta 1984 donde se alcanzo una cantidad maxima de 15,900 tlaiio. A partir de ese ano la produccion vuelve a disminuir y se mantiene alrededor de las 13,000 tlano. En 10 que respecta a cantidad de semilla certificada, la tendencia muestra un comportamiento creciente no solo en terminos absolutos sino tambien en terminos relativos llegando a alcanzar en 1984 el 25% del total de semilla producida.Cuadro 1. Produecion de semma de maiz total y eertifieada, Guatemala (toneladas).Tres instituciones del sector publico agricola se constituyen en coejecutores del Proyecto PROGETTAPS, el cual contempla un componente relacionado con la producci6n de semina, el cual es ejecutado a traves de ICTA-DIGESA. El Cuadro 2 muestra los v6lumenes de producci6n de semilla certificada de maiz que durante un quinquenio se han obtenido a traves de este proyecto. La producci6n de semilla a traves de este Proyecto, ha obtenido un significativo impacto en la actividad agricola del pais, toda vez que se ha logrado incrementar los vol-umenes de oferta, poniendo a disposici6n de los pequefios agricultores, material vegetativo que les garantiza mejorar sus niveles de producci6n y productividad. Es importante sefialar que otro de los impactos obtenidos es haber reducido las importaciones de semina mejorada de maiz, especialmente los htbridos que provenian de El Salvador. En Guatemala, la semina certificada es producida por agricultores particulares y por el ICTA. Se cultiva en campos cuya 10calizaci6n obedece principalmente a condiciones agroclimaticas de los cultivos y economias extemas (transporte). El Cuadro 3 presenta las principales areas productoras de semina certificada en Guatemala. Es importante resaltar el incremento que se observa de 1987 a 1991. El Departamento de Escuintla (Costa Sur), se constituye en la principal area del pais donde se concentra la mayor cantidad de campos productores y a la vez la mayor extension territorial destinada a la produccion de semina certificada de maiz; al respecto se debe tener presente que el agricultor de la franja costera del Pacifico se diferencia de las restantes zonas, especialmente por poseer los suficientes factores de la produccion (tierra y capital) necesarios para producir semina. En dicho cuadro tambien se observa que existe alta dispercion de los productores de semina en todo el pais (en el 73% del area de Guatemala), por 10 que no se toman en consideracion las ventajas comparativas existentes.En El Salvador, la produccion total de semina de maiz durante el periodo 1980-1987, sigue un comportamiento casi constante sin variaciones significativas con una tasa de crecimiento de 1.16% por afio. Sin embargo la produccion de semilla certificada, presenta una tendencia decreciente a una tasa anual de 15.27% (Cuadro 4). Cuadro 4. Produccion de semilla de maiz total y certificada en EI Salvador.En 10 que respecta a los tipos de semilla que se producen, las semi1las de variedades de polinizaci6n abierta de maiz presentan una tasa de crecimiento del 66%; mientras que las semillas de materia1es hibridos decrecen en el periodo (-30.4%) 10 que demuestrn el poco interes por estos materia1es en los Ultimos 6 afios. primero de los aftos analizados. EI 86% de este volumen fue originario de paises ajenos al Mercado Comlin Centroamericano (especialmente Estados Unidos); en tanto que en 1987, el 76% de la semilla importada se rea1iz6 entre los mismos paises del area. En Centroamerica, Guatemala se ha identificado por ser un exportador neto (exportacionesimportaciones) de semilla de maiz. El Cuadro 7, muestra una serie hist6rica de seis afios, donde se observan las importaciones y exportaciones de semilla de maiz que el pais realiz6 durante este periodo. En general las exportaciones netas de importaciones han declinado durante el mismo. Dos afios merecen destacarse: 1987 con uri record en las exportaciones y 1989 donde se registra un volumen de importaciones superior a las exportaciones. La cifras en el primero de estos afios se podria deber a que en dicho afto el Proyecto PROGETTAPS alcanz6 su maximo nivel de producci6n de semilla certificada de maiz ( ver cuadro 2). En cuanto a 1989 ingresaron al pais un total de 100.7 tm. aproximadamente el 75% provino de los demas paises del area Centroamericana y el restante porcentaje (25%) del mercado de los Estados Unidos. Con excepci6n de El Salvador y Guatemala, los paises Centroamericanos, se caracterizan porque la seInilla de maiz utilizada es importada. EI Cuadro 8 presenta los volumenes importados y exportados de los paises del itsmo durante 1986 y 1987. En esos afios el volumen importado ascendi6 a 121 t., en el Para cuantificar la rentabilidad que obtendria un agricu1tor productor de semilla certificada, se calcu1aron los costos e ingresos que se presentan en el Cuadro 9. EI costo por kg de semilla se obtiene dividiendo el costa total por ha entre el rendimento. Tomando un rendiIniento de 2841 kglha. el costa por kg. de semilla es de 1.95 Qlkg. Con este nivel de productividad IlSica, y tomando 4.18 Qlkg como precio de venta de la seInilla la rentabilidad promedio resultante de producir una hectarea es de 114 %. Es decir que la producci6n de semilla mejorada de maiz en Guatemala a este nivel de productividad y precios es una actividad con una excelente rentabilidad econ6mica.AI relacionar los costos directos con los indirectos, los primeros representan el 71% de los costos totales y Expol1aclolles lIetas Expol1aclolles Impol1aclolles Alios Cuadra 9. Estimacion de los costas de produccion de semillas certificada de maiz en Guatemala. los segundos el29 %. En cuanto a los costos directos, los mbros de mayor significancia se concentran en las pnicticas cultura1es (pago mana de obra por la aplicaci6n de fertilizantes, insecticidades, herbicidas, limpias y riego) y en la cosecha (procesamiento y almacenamiento), ambos representan el 64% de este tipo de costos. Ninguna semina agricola podni ofrecersele al publico como semina certificada, si no neva etiqueta respectiva conteniendo la siguiente informaci6n: a) Nombre y direcci6n de la persona que etiquet6 la semina 0 que vende la semina. b) NUmero de registro; c) Clase y variedad; d) Origen; e) Porcentaje de peso de semina pura; f) Porcentaje de peso de materia inerte; g) Malezas secundarias y nUmero de seminas presente, por onza 0 por libra y h) Porcentaje de germinaci6n y fecha en que se efectu6. En igual forma no podni venderse ninguna semina agricola, si no han transcurrid6 seis me8eS de haberse efectuado la ultima pmeba de germinaci6n, para realizar la venta, se debe efectuar otra pmeba de germinaci6n.El precio de la semina certificada de maiz en Guatemala se caracteriza por no ser objeto de una regulaci6n estata1; actua1mente el precio se fija por las libres fuerzas del mercado. Se puede decir que en el mercado de seminas existen basicamente dos precios: I) EI precio fijado por ICTA en donde esta instituci6n se convierte en un oferente mas en el mercado, dicho precio se caracteriza por ser relativamente inferior al ofertado por la iniciativa privada y 2) EI precio fijado por la iniciativa privada, este generalmente es mas elevado que el anterior.En el Cuadro 10, se presenta una serie hist6rica de varios alios que corresponden a precios fijados por el ICTA, para semina certificada de maiz de variedades (altiplano y tropical) e hibridos. AI analizar el precio de las variedades del altiplano y el tr6pico y los lubridos, es notorio un incremento significativo que obedece a varios factores, especialmente al incremento en los insumos incotporados al proceso productivo, el valor de la mano de obm, asi como los costos de transporte, secado, procesamiento, almacenamiento, etc. Las variedades del altiplano se incrementaron desde 1980 hasta 1992 en un 483%; las del tr6pico en un 566% y los lubridos 494% La mayor variaci6n en los precios ofertados por el ICTA, tanto para variedades como lubridos se observaron a partir del alio 1992. EI Cuadro II presenta los precios de diferentes casas comerciales que ofrecieron semina certificada de maiz a diferentes precios durante el mes de abril de 1991.,.Cuadro 10. Precios de semilla certificada de maiz comercializada por ICTA, Guatemala.Politica sobre la Industria de Semilla en GuatemalaEn el agro guatemalteco no se puede hablar de una politica como tal sobre la industria de semillas~a pesar de esta debilidad el sector publico agropecuario ejecuta a traves de sus instituciones un progrnma de seguridad alimentaria, orientado a asegumr el abastecimiento de alimentos a la poblaci6n, asi como mejorar y fortalecer los patrones alimentarios. Dentro de este progrnma se contempla el rubro de semilla certificada para gmnos basicos. La Direcci6n Tecnica de Semillas de DIGESA, considem que las limitaciones principales que obstaculizan el desarrollo de la producci6n de semillas son entre otras: 1) Falta de defmici6n de politicas~2) Falta de una ley de semilla aetualizada; 3) Insuficiente capacidad de las instituciones del sector publico agricola que se vinculan con aspectos de semillas; y 4) Falta incentivos para el desarrollo de una industria semillista en el pais.La organizaci6n de la producci6n de semillas en Guatemala, basicamente se realiza bajo tres macro etapas:Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo. (CIMMYT).1987. Hechos y tendencias mundiales relacionados con el maiz. Aspectos economicos de la produccion de semilla de variedades comerciales de maiz en los paises en desarrollo. Mexico D.F. a) Producci6n: La producci6n es realizada a traves de ICTA y el sector privado. El ICTA, genem y a la vez produce material basico; y la iniciativa privada genera y produce material y semilla comercial. Davila, lA. 1977. Diagnostico de la Certificacion de semilla de granos blisicos en Guatemala. Tesis. Facultad de Agronomia. Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala. Guatemala. b) Certificaci6n: La instituci6n en Guatemala encargada de certificar semilla, es la Direcci6n Geneml de Servicios Agricolas -DIGESA-a traves de la Direcci6n Tecnica de Semillas y de las Agencias Regionales, quienes realizan el control de calidad de la semilla a nivel de campo y de labomtorio. c) Comercializaci6n: Esta etapa es realizada a traves delICTA e iniciativa privada. El ICTA, comercializa aproximadamente el 2% de la semilla certificada que demanda el mercado, en igual fonna oferta otros materiales de semillas (Fundaci6n, Genetica, Registrada). Es importante destacar que tambien el ICTA brinda a los semillistas el servicio de procesamiento. El Sector Privado, oferta en el mercado semilla certificada de maiz producida localmente y material importado. CIMMYT. Prograrna Regional de Maiz para Centro America y el Caribe. Panama.Carlos Valladares l RESUMEN En este trabajo se reaUza un anlllisis descrlptivo de Ia industria y comerdaUzaeion de los fertiUzantes qubnicos en GuateJnahi. Aunque Ia oferta de fertillzantes ha declinado en el periodo bajo estudio, las importaciones, especlalmente de fertiUzantes nitrogenados, han aUDlentado considerablemente. Los preeios de los fertiUzantes al produdor se han incremep.tado a tasas superiores a aquella de Ia inOaeioIL Esto se debe probablemente a que Ia mayoria de los fertiUzantes son hnportados, y las politicas economicas seguidas en el periodo han encareeido las hnportaciones. Se debe realizar un anaJisis mas prof\\mdo de las estmduras de comereializaeion interna del fertiUzante a ftn de hacer este hnportallte insUDlO mas facllmente asequible a los pequeftos agriculores de granos basicos de Guatemala..La agricultura en Guatemala, constituye uno de los mbros de mayor importancia, si se analizan ciertas variables macroeconomicas como son el Producto Interno Bruto -PIB-, la generacion de poblacion economicamente activa -PEA-y en especial el ingreso de divisas, a la economia del pais via exportaciones. En tal sentido, dentro del Sector Agricola de Guatemala, se deben adoptar Politicas Tecnologicas tendientes a la bUsqueda de un mejor desarrollo del agro.Dentro de estas politicas juega un papel importante los insumos que se incorporan al proceso productivo y que pueden contribuir a mejorar el nivel de rendimiento de los diferentes cultivos, dentro de esos insumos los fertilizantes juegan un papel preponderante. AI mencionar politicas tecnologicas, se esta involucrando dentro de las mismas, el rol que desempefia el mercado como oferente de los distintos insumos que los agricultores demandan.En el presente trabajo, se hace un anaIisis de las caracteristicas que muestra el mercado de fertilizantes en Guatemala; dicho estudio se sustenta en informacion secundaria y en el se incluyen aspectos como son la produccion nacional de fertilizantes, los volfunenes importados de fertilizantes nitrogenados, fosfatados y poUisicos; y las pequefias exportaciones que Guatemala hace a otros mercados. En igual IInvestigador de la Unidad de Socioeconomia, leTA, Guatemala. DEL PRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 230-238. 230 forma se incluye la fonna de comercializar los fertilizantes en cada una de sus fases; y fmalmente con la escasa informacion estadistica que se logro obtener, se estimo el consumo aparente de fertilizantes durante los afios 1980 a 1987.Los objetivos que orientaron la investigacion estuvieron en funcion de: caracterizar el mercado Guatemalteco en termmos de disponibilidad (oferta) actual y futura, precios a los agricultores, margenes de comercializacion, ventas, etc. La metodologia se sustento en los aspectos siguientes: Revisi6n biliognifica sobre topicos afmes al tema; recopilacion de datos con infonnantes claves; recopilaci6n de informacion con empresas localizadas en el interior del pais; recopilacion de informacion en instituciones nacionales, regionales, intemacionales y tabulacion y anaIisis de la infonnacion recopilada.Finalmente es importante resaltar 10 dificil que resulto la bUsqueda de informacion de datos estadisticos actualizados a nivel de mayor detalle; al mismo tiempo las empresas comercializadoras de fertilizantes en el pais no brindan la informacion necesaria como para realizar un mejor anaIisis de la situacion.La produccion de fertilizantes en Guatemala, constituye uno de los elementos :mas importantes que integran la oferta, conjuntamente con las importaciones que el pais realiza. En el Cuadro 1, se presentan la cantidad y el valor de la produccion de fertilizantes en el pais durante el periodo 1980-87. Por falta de informacion no se separan las fonnulas de fertilizantes producidos en el pais.Los datos presentan una tendencia decreciente del orden de -0.11% en termmos generales sin embargo, es importante destacar la serle de 1980 a 1985, donde los niveles de produccion adquirieron un comportamiento significativo, si se toma en cuenta el escaso grado de desarrollo tecnologico que Guatemala tiene en la producci6n de fertilizantes. Dicha tendencia encuentra algunas de sus explicaciones, especialmente en el incremento en el costo de los insumos necesarios para la fabricacion de fertilizantes, los cuales son importados en su mayor porcentaje.Es importante destacar que a partir de los aiios 80s a nivel centroamericano; Guatemala adquiri6 cierta importancia como productor y formulador de ciertos fertilizantes, especialmente por la ventaja comparativaBl desarrollo de la actividad agricola guatemalteca y el pais como tal, se ha caracterizado por ser un importador neto de los diversos fertilizantes que en el mercado se demandan. En el Cuadro 3, se presentan cifras estadisticas para un periodo de ocho aiios (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987), en concepto de volumen y valor monetario.En cuanto al vo1umen importado, en la serle considerada se observa una tendencia creciente; siendo el aiio 1987 donde se presenta los vol-umenes mas significativos con 402.5 miles de TM. Es tambien importante observar, 10 que signific6 esa importaci6n de fertilizantes en aspectos monetarios, en donde fue necesario contar con la cantidad suficiente de divisas para hacer frente a dicha importaci6n.Cuadro 2. Cantidad y valor de la production de fertilizantes por tipo de producto (aiios 1988-90) (expresado en TM y Quetzales). En Guatemala 1a demanda de fertilizantes potisicos, se logra satisfacer a traves de la importaci6n total de dichos insumos. En el Cuadro 6, se presenta una serle hist6rlca (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987) que muestra e1 comportamiento de las importaciones, tanto en volumen como su representaci6n en valores monetarios. En cuanto a vollimenes, se observa en los aftos considerados una tendencia ciclica, en donde las importaciones pica se presentaron en 1981, 1984 Y 1986. Entre los principales fertilizantes potisicos importados se encuentran Muriato y Sulfato de Potasio.Entre los principales mercados que proveen a Guatemala de este tipo de fertilizantes, cabe sefialar el de los Estados Unidos, que durante el perlodo estudiado represent6 el 67% de los diversos fertilizantes fosfatados que se demandaron en el mercado guatemalteco. En igual forma, en un segundo orden de importancia se destacaron los mercados de Rumania y Los Paises Bajos (Rolanda) con el 18% y 12% respectivamente.Los principales mercados proveedores para Guatemala, en 10 que respecta a fertilizantes potisicos, en la serle estudiada (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987), fue el mercado de los Estados Unidos el que represent6 e1 mayor porcentaje con un 44% a pesar de que durante 1983 a 1987 los porcentajes se vieron fuertemente disminuidos.Otros de los mercados de gran re1evancia fueron Alemania Federal con un 17.3%, basicamente en los aftos 1984, 1985 Y 1986 y Canada, y 17%, en los aftos 1986-1987, cabe sefialar a este pais como el mayor proveedor para el bienio antes mencionado de fertilizantes importados en e1 orden de 23 005 1M de 1980 a 1987, 10 cual puede contribuir a formarse una idea, que este tipo de insumo se comienza a fabrlcar en el mercado nacional. La disminuci6n es tambien notable en la cantidad de divisas necesaria para realizar las importaciones.De acuerdo con la serle estadistica analizada en el Cuadro 7, se observa que los vollimenes (TM) exportados de fertilizantes, presentan una tendencia creciente en los prlmeros dos aftos de la serle. En Guatemala, 1a demanda de fertilizantes nitrogenados, es satisfecha a traves de 1a importaci6n de estos insumos. En el Cuadro 4, se presentan los vohimenes ingresados al pais, asi como 1a representaci6n monetaria que esas importaciones han significado. Al respecto, se sefiala que el 99% de los fertilizantes nitrogenados proceden de mercados fuern de Centroamerlca.Dentro de los principales proveedores en el perlodo estudiado, ocupan gran importancia e1 mercado de los Estados Unidos y e1 de los Paises Bajos, como los prlncipales proveedores del mercado nacional.Los mayores vohimenes de fertilizante importado, fueron llevados a cabo en el afto 1987 (315 707 TM), en donde el precio ascendi6 a un valor Cif aproximado de SCA 10.76/qq. En Guatemala 1a demanda de fertilizantes fosfatados, es satisfecha a traves de las importaciones de estos insumos. En e1 Cuadro 5, se presentan los vo1umenes de importaci6n y e1 respectivo valor monetario.Como puede observarse el comportamiento de las importaciones en e1 perlodo analizado presenta una tendencia decreciente tanto en los vo1umenes como en los va10res monetarios En dicho cuadro, se observa disminuci6n en e1 vo1umen Cuadro 3.Volumen y valor monetario de las importaciones de abonos manufacturados, 1980-1987, Guatemala (en TM y SeA).A partir de 1983, la tendencia asume un comportamiento decreciente en una fonna significativa. 19ual comportamiento se observa en el caso de los valores monetarios ingresados a la economia del pais, por concepto de exportaciones de fertiliz:mtes.Las mayores exportaciones de fertilizantes que Guatemala realiz6 en la decada de los anos 80s fue en concepto de produetos nitrogenados. En el Cuadro 8, se puede observar que los volumenes exportados si se comparan el ano 1980 ( 28,203 tm ) con los siguientes ados se nota un crecimiento significativo; sin embargo, a partir de 1981 a 1985 las cantidades exportadas no presentaron mayor cambio, ya que se continuo con los mismos vo)(unenes.Es necesario sei1alar que mientras los vohlmenes asumen un comportamiento casi constante, en cuanto a cantidades exportadas se refiere, el ingreso de divisas se ha visto disminuido. En 1980 representaron SCA 5044000.00 y en 1985 SCA 3295000.00, 10 que significa una disminucion de S CA 1749000.00. Aproximadamente el 98 % de las exportaciones de fertilizantes nitrogenados, tienen como destino mercados fuera de Centroamerica, especialmente Mexico; en menor proporcion a los paises centroamericanos.Las exportaciones de fertilizantes fosfatados, en terminos generales para el periodo analizado se considera de baja significancia, tanto en volumen como en el ingreso de divisas a la economia del pais. El mayor porcentaje de estas exportaciones se canalizan a Mexico.En el Cuadro 9, se presentan las estadisticas que reflejan el comportamiento de las exportaciones de esta c1ase de fertilizantes tanto en volumenes como en cantidades (Tm) Los datos recabados muestran a los MOS 1982, 83 Y86, como los mas representativos; y al mercado de Mexico como el principal demandante. Los afi.os que muestran datos estadisticos, se alcanzo un nivel de exportacion de 2756 Tm, 10 que significo un ingrcso de divisas de SCA 470.000.00.En el Cuadro 10, se presenta una serie historica de cuatro ai10s, donde se puede observar los volumenes exportados y las cantidades de divisas que ingresaron al pais. El mercado salvadoredo, se constituyo en el principal demandante de los fertilizantes potasicos especialmente en los alios 1983-84. El volumen exportado durante el periodo ascendio a 469 Tm , 10 que represcnto en divisas a la economia del pais SCA 168.000.La estacionalidad de la demanda de fertilizantes en Guatemala, hace que sea dificil mantcncr cantidades considerables cn almacenamiento primario y secundario para una distribucion mas diversificada.En el pais bflsicamente existen dos temporadas que rcpresentan la mayor demanda de fertilizantes. Cuando existen dos temporadas de consumo, la capacidad maxima de almacenamiento es de aproximadamence 40% del consumo anual. La mayor parte de la acumulacion de existencias por parte de las empresas proveedoras, se localiza en lugares estrategicos para su posterior distribucion (al por menor -al por mayor). Uno de los problemas mas importantes que han afrontado las empresas que se localizan en el mercado nacional de fertilizantes, es 10 relacionado al empaque, el cual se ha resuelto con el empleo de sacos de plastico.La disponibilidad de eficientes medios de transporte, pueden constituirse en elementos importantes para mejorar el mercadeo de los fertilizantes; por el contrario un deficiente sistema de comunicaciones puede constituir el principal obstaculo para la organizacion de la venta de los fertilizantes. E1 costa del transporte en el pais, se constituye en el determinante principal del precio final de los fertilizantes para el usuario, especialmente por las distancias que se deben recorrer para ponerlos a disposicion de los agricultores.Los precios varian de una reglOn a otra. Aproximadamente el precio promedio por quintal transportado de la ciudad capital hacia el interior, oscila entre 5 y 15% del precio al por menor. Es importante destacar, que las empresas mas fuertes proveedoras de fertilizantes en el mercado h'Uatemalteco, estrategicamente tienen ubicadas bodegas en las diferentes regiones agricolas del pais donde se concentra la mayor demanda de estos insumos.Las caracteristicas mas importantes en un sistema de mercadeo competitivo, consiste en que puedan entrar en el negocio de distribucion de fertilizantes, nuevas empresas 0 personas, mayoristas, segim se estime conveniente.Esto significa que si un distribuidor de fertilizantes establece un precio demasiado alto 0 un servicio deficiente, otra(s) empresa(s) es libre de competir con este distribuidor y, atraer alguna de su clientela. EI demandante estara en posibilidad de elegir entre multiples abastecedores que Ie ofrecen el mejor servicio por el minimo costo. Cuadro 9.Guatemala: exportaciones de fertilizante fosfatados, superfosforados y la escoria basica de la En la decada de los illlOS 70s en Guatemala, era notorio observar un mercado monopolistico, donde una empresa presentaba un pleno dominio (FERTICA). A partir de los anos 80s se da una apertura en el negocio de los fertilizantes y empiezan a surgir un conjunto de empresas (DlSAGRO, NORDIK, UXSA, INCISA), con operatividad a nivel nacional; esto viene a representar ventajas comparativas para el agricultor consumidor de fertilizillltes, especialmente en aspectos de precios y existencia de los productos.En Guatemala a partir del ano 1986 se pone en ejecucion un sistema de politica economica abierta, en donde el Estado en el caso particular asume un papel participativo en el sistema de distribucion de fertilizillltes; dicho papel significo un impacto positivo entre los demillldantes de estos insumos, pues les permitio acceso, estabilidad en los precios, reduccion 235 de los costos de produccion, incremento en la eficiencia y productividad de la tierra y fmalmente mejorar el nivel de vida de la poblacion rural.En el ano 1985-86 los fertilizantes quimicos en el mercado mundial experimentaron un incremento considerable en su precio; 10 cual obviamente afecto el desarrollo agricola de Guatemala.Ante esta situacion el Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacion, planteo las estrategias para contribuir a regular el precio de tales productos. En tal sentido, se formulo un proyecto orientado a la compra de fertilizantes por parte del gobiemo y venta de los mismos a los pequeiios agricultores a precios razonables y al estricto contado, sin que esto constituyese un subsidio por parte del Estado, ni se pretendia por 10 tanto, substituir la actividad comercial del sector privado en este campo.El proyecto tuvo cobertura nacional, con atencion especifica a los pequeiios agricultores, productores de articulos de la canasta basica familiar. Se inieio en 1986 habiendo distribuido en una primera fase 360.000 quintales. EI precio de venta fue de 15.00 quetzales por quintal, los principales fertilizantes ofertados fueron IS-IS-IS, 20-20-0 Y urea. Durante ese mismo ano y como complemento a la primera fase, se obtuvo por parte del Gobierno de Italia una donacion de 220.000 quintales de fertilizante 15-15-15, sulfato de amonio y urea, los cuales fueron entregados a grupos organizados (cooperativas, asociaciones, etc ), el precio para sulfato de amonio fue de Q 12.10/qq Y QI7.60/qqpara la formula IS-IS-IS Yla urea.En 1987 en una segunda fase se compraron 700.000 quintales de urea, 15-15-15 y 20-20-0, con una inversion de 12228000.00 los precios para ese aIio fueron de Q 18.50/qq el IS-IS-IS, Q 18.50/qq el 20-20-0 y Q 15.50/qq la urea. En forma directa se beneficiaron a 460.000 familias que recibieron directamente el fertilizante en 1986-87, en igual fornla indirectamente tambien se favorecieron todos los guatemaltecos que obtuvieron alimentos a precios mas accesibles.Este sistema gubernamental de distribucion, no consistio en una competencia desleal con el sector comercial privado que se decia a este tipo de actividades, puesto que de 11808432.00 quintales de fertilizantes que el pais importo en esos periodos, el Ministerio de Agricultura logro comercializar 640.000 quintales (entre 1986-1987), 10 cual representa un 5.4% del consumo total antes indicadoLa diferencia entre el precio de fertilizaIlte en fabrica y 10 que se cobra al agricultor, esta en funcion de los costos iniciales y margenes retirados por los manipuladores en el intervalo. Los margenes de las distintas empresas proveedoras de fertilizantes ubicadas en el mercado guatemalteco, estan constituidas por las diferencias entre el precio impuesto en cada fase del mercadeo, entre el fabricante 0 el importador y mayorista, entre el mayorista y el minorista, entre el minorista y el agricultor, por 10 taIltO, existin\\n margenes de beneficio entre los precios que se establezcan en las sucesivas fases de la distribucion de fertilizaIltes. Precios En el Cuadro 11 se presenta una serie historica de trece aIios, donde se puede observar el comportamiento adoptado por el precio de los cinco fertilizaIltes de mayor demaIlda en el pais. EI analisis 236 se divide en tres fases: a) -De 1980 a 1985: Los precios de los cinco productos, en terminos generales permanecieron sin mayores variaciones; b) -De 1986 a 1989: En esta segunda fase, los precios presentaron una tendencia a incrementarse aproximadamente en un 100% con respecto a la primera fase, dicho aumento fue motivado especialmente por el alza del precio de los fertilizantes en el mercado mundial; y c) -De 1990 a 1992: EI comportamiento de los precios continua su tendencia creciente en forma acelerada. Los precios de 1980 comparados con 1992, segiln tipo de fertilizante 16-20-0, IS-IS-IS, 20-20-0, Sulfato de Amonio y 46-0-0, manifestaron incrementos en el orden de 370%, 438%, 427%, 256% y 350% respectivamente.Cuadro 11. Precio promedio anual de fcrtilizantes, 1980-1990, Guatemala (exprcsado  En Guatemala, existen empresas que basicamente tratan de comercializar los fertilizantes al por mayor. Estas son por 10 general empresas nacionales que cuentaIl con agencias ubicadas en mercados estrategicos en toda la republica, en donde las traIlsacciones de compra-venta se realiZaIl en gran escala. Las empresas comerciales que realizan este tipo de venta, sustentan sus decisiones especialmente en: Facilidades de transporte y que existan condiciones favorables de comunicacion con las salidas al por menor. Los mayoristas en el pais, se caracterizan por poseer eficiencia en el negocio de los fertilizantes, ofrecen al minorista el asesoramiento tecnico necesario y efectuan para ellos algunas promociones de ventas.La efectividad en la promoci6n de ventas de las empresas guatemaltecas, en cuanto al uso de La oferta de fertilizantes en el mercado Guatemalteco en el periodo analizado, presenta una tendencia decreciente, especialmente por la baja en los niveles de producci6n naciona!, caso contrario con las importaciones, las que manifestaron un incremento de aproximadamente un 80% de 1980 a 1987. Los fertilizantes nitrogenados se constituyeron en los de mayor significancia.fertilizantes por parte de los agricultores radica especialmente en el enfasis que estas han puesto en la creaci6n de una Red Descentralizada de Proveedores, que abastecen flexiblemente a los minoristas en la q,oca cuando la demanda alcanza su punto mas alto.. En el pais el mercado de fertilizantes a nivel de minoristas, es generalmente parte de un negocio en donde se involucran a otros insumos agricolas, como insecticidas, herbicidas, semillas, fungicidas, etc., los cuales se manipulan junto con otros articulos de demanda popular en areas rorales.La estructura y magnitud de las empresas Guatemaltecas de fertilizantes que comercializan al por menor estos insumos, guarda estrecha relaci6n con el regimen de. su clientela. Generalmente la clientela, esta fonnada por una demanda ampliamente distribuida para volumenes relativamente pequefios de fertilizantes, ademas de algunos compradores de unidades de producci6n agricolas grandes.En el sistema de ventas al por menor en Guatemala, se distinguen los siguientes tipos de salida: a) Minoristas que venden exclusivamente fertilizantes; b) Minoristas cuyo producto principal son los fertilizantes; c) Minoristas para los cuales los fertilizantes representan una proporci6n significativa en las ventas; y d) Minoristas que manipulan los fertilizantes como una actividad colateral.Los volUmenes (Tm) de fertilizantes exportados durante el periodo 1980-87, manifestaron al inicio una tendencia creciente, luego una estabilizaci6n relativa y fmalmente una caida considerable. AI respecto es importante sefialar que de los fertilizantes exportados, los nitrogenados se caracterizaron por ser los mas representativos, con un comportamiento unifonne, su destine principal fue el mercado de Mexico Consumo Aparente de Fertilizante Dada la poca disponibiidad de infonnaci6n estadistica desagregada por diversos tipos de fertilizantes, las estimaciones de consumo aparente que se presentan en el Cuadro 12, se sustentan en el concepto fertilizante en tenninos generales. Los datos presentados reflejan una tendencida decreciente significativa en el consumo aparente de fertilizantes en el mercado Guatemalteco, y como resultado una disminuci6n en los volumenes importados, una de las .fundamentales causas fundamentales de esta disminuci6n fue el alza de precios en el mercado mundial en los afios 1986-87. El comportamiento que se observa muestra por 10 tanto, una baja en los volumenes demandados de fertilizantes en esos afios por parte de los consumidores potenciales (agricultores).Al analizar el precio de los cinco fertilizantes de mayor demanda en el mercado nacional, se observ6 una tendencia a incrementarse en fonna acelerada en elvalor de los mismos, no acorde a los indices de inflaci6n que se reportan para los afios 1985 a 1992. Dicho comportamiento alcista, presenta efectos negativos en el desarrollo agricola del pais, toda vez que la demanda de fertilizantes tiende a disminuir, especialmente en los pequefios y medianos agricultores La comercializaci6n de fertilizantes y dentro de estas basicamente el precio, constituye una de las barreras mas dificiles de sortear por parte de los consumidores potenciales, toda vez que dichos insumos en un 80% son importados de otros mercados especialmente Estados Unidos y Alemania; esto contribuye a que constantemente se manifiesten incrementos en el valor de la producci6n.El Gobierno de Guatemala ha puesto en ejecuci6n un Programa de Distribuci6n de Fertilizantes que pennita al demandante, estabilidad en los precios, reducci6n en los costos de producci6n del agricultor, eficientizar Ia producci6n e incremento en la productividad de Ia tierra.La estructura de ventas en el mercado de fertilizantes basicamente es al por mayor, las empresas que aqui se localizan poseen ventajas comparativas como son las economias externas (bodegas, transportes,. tecnicos especializados en mercadeo, redes descentraHzadas de proveedores, etc.). Este tipo de empresas sustentan su filosofia en crear todas las condiciones (especialmente de precios) que les pennite absorver a los minoristas).  Durante la presente epoca de siembra del maiz (agosto a diciembre de 1992) se presento en vadas parcelas de productores una enfenlledad en el cllltivo. La misma resulto ser la enfenlledad cOllocida como achaparramiellto del maiz, causada por espiroplasl1las y micoplasmas, y transmitida por el DalbulWl maydis. Se realizo lUI muestreo a 67 parcelas en siete areas de la region (San Jose, Pocri, Candelaria, Las Tablas, Guarare, Los Santos y Parita). Tambien se realizo 1Il1 muestreo a todas las \"Pruebas Regionales de Maiz\" que ejecuta el IDIAP en la Region. Para el anaIisis se dividio las siembras en cuatro epocas 1 al15 de agosto (primera) 16 al 31 de agosto (segunda) 1 al 15 de septiembre (tercera) 16 al 30 de septiembre (cuarta). Los resultados del nmestreo indicaron que en todas la areas de la Region esta presente la enfemledad, pero no con la misma intensidad. Se encontro que el ataque es mayor en la parte sur de la Peninsula. En la localidad de San Jose se presenta el mayor dafio (74.35%), mientras que en Parita allllomento de realizar el llluestreo casi no se observa el dafio (0.47% de plantas enfemtas). La epoca de siembra parece ser el factor que nulll inOuyo en este problema. La prinlera epoca fue la mas afectada (75.36%) y el porcentaje de plantas enfemlas fue disminuyendo a medida que las siembras se realizaron mas tarde 36.84% (segunda), 11.66% (tercera) y 6.06% (cllarta). Todos los ltibridos sembrados en la region son afectados por la enfennedad. Los hibridos nacionales P-8812 y P-8916 presentaron los valores mas altos con 38.79 y 60.40% de plantas enfennas, ndentras que para el X-304 C (13.68%) y el H-203 (4.17%) los porcentajes son bajos. El eCecto de epoca de siembra y la localidad inOuyo en el anaIisis de los cultivares, ya que los hibridos nacionales por estar a disposicion de los productores, se sembraron nulll en la prinlera epoca. Los resultados encontrados en la Prueba Regional coinciden con los datos de la encuesta tanto en la epoca de siembra, como en la intensidad de la enfennedad en las distintas localidades. Se observo llll grupo de cultivares que presentaron una mayor SWIceptibilidad a la enfemledad (E-12416, XL-604, X-3098, X 3086, E-216 B y Alanje). Mientras otro grupo Cue menos 'W1ceptible (X-304 C, X-3078, ICTA 9122 Y H-203).Durante la presente epoca de siembra del maiz (agosto a diciembre de 1992) se presento en varios parcelas de productores un problema en el cultivo. En un principio este se presento mas en los hibridos nacionales (p-8812 y P-8916) y con Menor intensidad en los cultivares importados. Preocupados por esta situacion los tecnicos del Secto~Publico Agropecuario (IDIAP, MIDA, BDA, ISA, CNS) realizaron una serle de giras por los campos afeetados para identificar cual era el problema y sus posibles causas. Despues de observar detenidamente la sintomatologia observada en las plantas se llego a la conclusion de que la misma es una enfermedad causada por micoplasmas y/o espiroplasmas denominada achaparramiento del maiz.El achaparramiento fue reportada por primera vez como una enfermedad nueva del maiz en Rio Grande, valle de Texas en 1956.El complejo del achaparramiento est! compuesto de 3 agentes casuales: a) Spiroplasma kunkelii (0 raza Rio Grande, com stunt spiroplasma CSS), que causa bandas c1oroticas comenzando de la base de las hojas y 1a pro1iferacion de mazorcas; b) micop1asmas (maize bushy stunt micop1asm MBSM) que producen e1 tipico sintoma de enrojecimiento de las hojas; y c) e1 virus del rayado fmo, que causa tipicas bandas c1oroticas en las hojas (Nault and Bradfute, 1979).Este complejo del achaparramiento es transmitida por el insecta Dalbulus maydis (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), reportada en Estados Unidos, Centro America, el Caribe y Sur America. El principal hospedero de este insecto es el maiz, pero puede sobrevivir en plantas de teosinte (Zea spp), Tripsacum e inc1uso sorgo (Nault and Bradfute, 1979;Sveinhaug and Jorgensen, 1988). El cicIo de vida de este insecto desde huevo hasta adulto es de 23 dias. El huevo eclosiona en 5 dias y el estado ninfal dura aproximadamente 15 dias (con 5 estados ninfales) (Nault and Bradfute, 1979). Los adultos de esta especie son muy sedentarios. Los movimientos y dispersion de los adultos se debe a cambios en la temperatura 0 disturbios mecamcos. Las hembras son mas moviles que los machos y requieren mas nutrientes para la para la produccion de los huevos (Nault and Bradfute, 1979). Climas caIidos, baja humeadad relativa y escasa precipitacion son favorables para el desarrollo de altas poblaciones del vector. En Nicaragua, Sveinhaug y Jorgensen (1988) encontraron que las poblaciones de Dalbulus se incrementaron a partir de septiembre, mientras que las mas bajas se dieron en los meses de julio a agosto.Se realiz6 un muestreo a 68 parcelas de maiz en siete localidades del area de Azuero. El muestreo consisti6 en contar al azar el nUmero de plantas sanas y plantas con el sintoma de la enfermedad. Estas Ultimas incluian tanto las plantas que solo presentaban el sintoma sin afectarles el rendimiento, como las plantas que el rendimiento se verla afectado por la enfennedad. El nUmero de muestreos rea1izados en cada parcela dependi6 del tamafio de la misma, cuando el tamafio de la parcela era mayor de 10 ha se rea1izaron cinco muestreos, en aquellas en que el area fue menor, se rea1izaron tres muestreos. Cada muestreo consisti6 en dos surcos continuos de 10 m de largo. En la encuesta se tomaron los datos del nombre del productor, ubicaci6n de la parcela, tipo de cultivat sembrado, fecha de siembra, historia de la parcela (cultivo anterior y cultivos colindantes), tipo de labranza, cantidad de abono completo y urea aplicada, si rea1izo control de insectos y distancia entre surcos. Las localidades en que se realizo dicho muestreo fue en San Jose, Pocri, Candelaria, Las Tablas, Guarare, Los Santos y Parita.Para el analisis se dividio las fechas de siembras en cuatro epocas: primera (del I al 15 de agosto); segunda (del 16 al 31 de agosto); tercera (dell al 15 de septiembre); y cuarta (del 16 al30 de septiembre).E1 Instituto de Investigacion Agropecuaria de Panama (!DIAP) realiza ano tras ano una pmeba en \"arias 10calidades donde se evaluan todos los cultivares de maiz que produce la institucion asi como los cultivares mas promisorios de las casas comerciales. En el presente ano (1992) se sembraron siete ensayos en la region de Azuero y uno en Rio Hato con 20 cultivares en un disefio de bloques al azar en 4 repeticiones (Cuadro 6). Cada unidad experimental consta de dos surcos de 5.0 m de largo, separados a 0.75 m entre hileras y 0.50 m entre golpe (dos plantas/golpe). Estas pmebas fueron evaluadas por tecnicos del Programa de Maiz de IDIAP para su reaccion al achaparramiento. Cada parcela se califico contando el mimero de plantas sanas (libres de la enfermedad) y con sintomas tanto en planta y mazorca con rendimiento reducido.Estos valores se transformaron respectivamente en % de plantas sanas, con sintoma y con dano. Para e1 analisis estadistico se utilizo la transformacion de la raiz cuadrada mas 0.5 del porcentaje de las plantas con el sintomas y plantas condanos.EI resultado de todas las encuestas se analiz6 para determinar el efecto de cultivares, localidad, epoca, labranza e insecticidas, pero por razones de espacio estos datos no se muestran. En el Cuadro 1 se analiza el efecto de la Localidad, este indica que en todas la areas de Azuero esta presente la enfermedad, pero no con la misma intensidad. EI ataque es mayor en la parte sur de la Peninsula (San Jose, Pocri, Candelaria). con el mayor dano en San Jose (74.5%) mientras que en Parita.al momento de realizar el ttl.uestreo casi no se observa el dano (0.47% de plantas enfermas).La epoca de siembra parece ser el factor que mas influyo en este problema. La primera epoca fue la mas afeetada (75.36%) y el porcentaje de plantas enfermas fue disminuyendo a medida que las siembras se rea1izaron mas tarde 36.84% (2nda), 11.66% (3era) y 6.06% (4ta). Este efecto de epoca fue el mismo para todos los bl'bridos. Para el P-8916' se observa como el % de plantas con sintoma va disminuyendo de 75.4 a 61.4 a 25.5% en la, 2 a y 3 a epoca, respectivamente.Lo mismo ocurre con el X-304 C (20.2, 8.2 Y 11.4%) Y el H-203 (10.2, 3.3 Y 0.7%) en 2 a , 3 a y 4 a epoca, respectivamente (Cuadro 2).En el Cuadro 3 se analiza el efecto de los cultivares, este indica que todos los hfbridos sembrados en la region son afeetados por el achaparramiento. Los hfbridos nacionales P-8812 y p. 8916 fueron los mas afeetados con 38.8 y 60.4% de plantas enfermas, mientras que el X-304C (13.7%) Y el H-203 (4.2%) mostraron pocos sintomas. Se debe sefialar que el efecto de epoca de siembra y la localidad influyen en la interpretacion de los datos, ya que, el promedio por ht'brido incluye el efecto de ambos. Por ejemplo el P-89 16 es e1 Unico hibrido que tiene datos de la la epoca (dos valores) y no tiene datos de la 4 a , entonces su promedio es alto, ya que, la primera epoca es la mas afeetada y la .cuarta la menos danada. Ademas, observaremos que en San Jose, Candelaria y Las Tablas los valores de la la, 2 a y 3 a epoca son altos, mientras que en Parita el porcentaje de plantas enfermas fue cero en la 2 a epoca (Cuadro 4). El ht'brido P-8812, a pesar de estar muy afeetado en campo, el muestreo indico que estaba menos afeetado que el P-8916. Esto se debe a que, a pesar de ser sembrado en la 1a epoca, en el muestreo no se incluyo ninguna parcela de este periodo y sf 8 y 4 campos de la 2 a y 3 a epoca, respectivamente. Cuadro 4. Erecto de la interaccion localidad x cpoca x cultivar en el muestreo a 68 campos comerciales de maiz en la region de Azuero, 1992de Azuero, -1993 Si analizamos el caso del X-304 C; al no estar disponible su semilla para la primera epoca de siembra, la mayoria de sus datos provienen de la 2 a , 3 a y 4 a epoca y su promedio es de 13.68% (Cuadro 2 y 3), 10 cual ha dado lugar, a que se interprete que es un cultivar mas tolerante que los lu'bridos nacionales. Pero, debido a la interaccion Epoca x Cultivar x Localidad, obselVaremos que en San Jose en donde la presion fue alta el porcentaje de plantas enfermas fue de 63.66, 26.84 Y 14.95% para la 2 a , 3 a y 4 a epoca, respectivamente, 10 cual 10 calificaria como un cultivar susceptible. En cambio si obsevamos en Las Tablas el daiio es de 12.09 y 8.20% para la 2 a y 3 a epoca, respectivamente, 10 cual 10 calificaria como tolerante. Es mas en Guarare, no se obselVo sintomas de la enfermedad en este cultivar, 10 cual 10 calificaria como resistente (Cuadro 4).En el caso del hibrido H-203 se obselVa que su promedio es bajo (4.17%), 10 que haria pensar que es tolerante. Pero hay que sefialar que este cultivar no fue sembrado en ninguna de las localidades de mayor incidencia (San Jose, Pocri, Candelaria y Las Tablas). En cambio en la unica localidad en donde el porcentaje de plantas enfermas fue considerable y el mismo fue sembrado (Los Santos, 23.38%), el porcentaje de afectacion del mismo fue de 20.35% (Cuadro 4).Los otros lu'bridos considerados en el muestreo (X-3098, H-lOl Y XL-604) no se discuten debido a la poca cantidad de muestra de los mismos (uno, uno y tres muestras, respectivamente). Otra de las variables analizadas 10 fue el tipo de labranza, pero en ella no se ObSeIVO ninguna tendencia, ya que, los promedios fueron bastante iguales con 22.60% en el caso de la labranza convencional y 22.06% en la labranza minima. En las parcelas en donde se realizo la aplicacion de insectidas al momenta de la siembra 0 el tratarlas con algUn insecticida (p.e. Counter, Furadan y Fromet), presentaron un porcentaje mayor de incidencia de la enfermedad 39.33% en comparacion con aquellas en donde no se aplico nada (Cuadro 5). Este resultado parece contrario a 10 esperado, pero las areas en donde mas se utilizo esta practica (13/19) fueron en Pocri, Candelaria y Las Tablas. Ademas tenemos que estos insecticidas protegen a la planta entre los 15 a 20 dias despues de la siembra y de acuerdo a los daiios obselVados, el ataque del insecta en estas areas fue mas tarde.Cuadro 5. Efecto de la labranza y la aplicacion de insecticidaa en el muestreo a 68 campos comerciales de maiz en la region de Azuero, 1992de Azuero, -1993 Labranza % Evaluaci6n de la Prueba Regional de MaizEn el Cuadro 6 se obselVa el % de plantas con sintomas para los 20 cultivares y las 8 localidades. La intensidad del sintoma vario entre las localidades y se obseIVaron diferencias significativas entre ellas. San Jose y Las Cocobolas (Las Tablas) fueron las de mayor incidencia con 17.72 y 15.96% de plantas enfermas, mientras que en La Honda y los Gurnllos de Parita fue donde se encontro los porcentajes mas bajos. Estos datos coinciden con el muestreo de las parcelas comerciales del trabajo anterior. Cabe sefialar que todos estos experimentos fueron sembrados entre el 9 al 18 de septiembre. El porcentaje general del sintoma de las 8 localidades fue de 8.39%. Este coincide con el encontrado con el promedio de la 3 a y 4 a epoca de siembra del muestreo a las 68 parcelas. Se obselVo un grupo de cultivares que presentaron una mayor susceptibilidad ala enfermedad (E-2416, XL-604, X-3098, X 3086, E-216 B Y Alanje). Mientras otro grupo fue menos susceptible, entre los que podemos mencionar el X-304 C, X-3078, ICTA 9122 Y H-203. El resto de los cultivares estan entre valores intermedios. El an:l1isis estadistico realizado a carla localidad mostro diferencias significativas utilizando como estadistico la Prueba de Tukey's. Se encontro diferencias en las localidades de Cocobola, San Jose, Paris y Rio Hato (Cuadro 7).El hecho de que todos los ensayos fueron sembrados en una epoca donde la intensidad del daiio fue relativamente bajo (menor de 20%), puede causar confusion en la interpretacion de los datos. Ya que, de acuerdo a comentarios realizados por el Ing. Roger Urbina de Nicaragua (Urbina, 1993, comunicacion personal), cuando se realizan selecciones en este tipo de ambiente, algunos cultivares presentan una tolerancia aparente, la cual se pierde cuando son evaluados a lugares con estreses mayores, es decir en donde la enfermedad es endemica. 1. En todas la areas de la region de Azuero estA presente la enfennedad, pero no con 1a misma intensidad. Se encontr6 que el ataque es mayor en la parte sur de la Peninsula.2. La epoca de siembra es el factor que mas influyo en la presencia de la enfermedad. La primera epoca fue la mas afectada (75.4%) y el porcentaje de plantas enfennas fue disminuyendo a medida que las siembras se realizaron mis tarde 36.8% (segunda), 11.7% (tercera) y 6.1% (cuarta). La Fenologia del Maiz 1Jorge Bolaiios 2 yGregory o. Edmeades 3   RESUMEN   Para cualquier cwtivo, el entendindento de los eventos Cenologicos es importante porque establece el marco temporal donde se Conna el rendindento y sus componentes. Elmaiz es una planta annal y detemtinada con los eventos cardinales de la gemdnadon, la iniciacion 80ral, la 80racion y la madurez fisiologica. La duracion de cada una de estas Cases depende del genotipo, el Cotoperiodo y la tenlperatura. Fotoperiodos en exceso de lUI valor critico retardan el progreso a la 80racion. Dentro de cada Cotoperiodo, el avance a cada evento Cenologico es una acunl1llacion Ihleal de tielllpo temtal (l'T), calculado como la sunla cunlwativa a traves del tielllpo de los °c por encinla y/o por debajo de niveles base (l'base) y optinlo (l'opt), respectivamente ~Cd). Tel11peraturas por encinla de Topt se reducen la tasa de progreso basta Degar a un nivel critico (l'crt) donde el progreso es O. En maiz tropical, Tbase es de 8 a 10 °c, Topt de 30 a 34 °c, y Tcrt de 40 a 44 0c. La gemdnaci6n toma de 50 a 150 °Cd, la iniciadon y aparici6n de hojas suceslvas 25 y 40 °Cd, respectivamente, la iniciacion 80ralmasculina de 300 a 400 °Cd, la iniclacion del jilote superior de 400 a 500 °Cd Yla 80raci6n de 500 a 700 °Cd para maices precoces y de 900 a 1100 °Cd para los tardios. Despues de 4-5 dias en wla Case de arresto, el jilote produce cerca de 50 6vldos por dia por 12-14 dias para producir de 500 a 600 6vldos por l11azorca. Unos 4-5 dias antes de la 80racion, los 6vldos entran en wla Case de ripido crecindento que culudna con la endsion de los estigl11as para la Certilizacion. 8i el jilote no logra alcanzar lUI peso mudlllo de 1 g/pl se retrasa la endsion de los estigl11as reduciendo el rendindento 10% por cada dia de retraso. Despues de la 80raci6n y la Certilizacion de los estigmas, la planta. entra a la Case de Denado de grano. Despues de 10-12 dias de arresto, el grano pasa a una Case lineal de crecindento de peso, con tasas de hasta 6 a 7 IIlg/dla de Denado. La hunledad del grano es WI excelente uldicador del desarroDo Cenologico del grano durante esta Case. La madurez fisiologlca se alcanza cuando se Comla IUla capa negra uldicando la abcision del grano y su nllixinio peso seco. Las Cases Cenologicas se discuten en IllZ de la elaboracioll del rendindento dellllaiz.E1 maiz (Zea mays L.) es uno de los cultivos de mayor variabilidad genetica y adaptabilidad ambiental, sembr::indose en latitudes desde 55 ON a 40 oS y del nivel del mar hasta 3800 m de altitud. Existen cultivares de menos de 1 m de altura, 8-9 hojas y una madurez de 60 dias, y otros con mas de 5IEste documento esta basado en el documento de capacitaci6n 'La Fenologia y Fisiologia de Maiz' por 1. Bolanos, material usado para fmes exclusivos de capacitaci6n en cursos de CIMMYT y/o PRM. :2Agr6nomo Regional para Centro America y el Caribe, CIMMYT, Guatemala. 3Uder en Fisiologia-Agronomia de Maiz, CIMMYT, Mexico.Publicado en SIN1ESIS DE RESULTADOS EXPERIMENTALES DELPRM 1992, VOL. 4 (1993), p. 2,51-261. 251 m de altura, 40-42 hojas y una madurez de 340 dias (Fischer y Palmer, 1984).Mesoamerica es considerada su centro de origen, donde se cultiva desde las Cpocas pre-colombinas. Hay mas de 250 razas clasificadas y el Banco de Germoplasma de CIMMYT cuenta con mas de 10 mil entradas.El maiz es una monocotiledona perteneciente a 1a familia Graminea, Tribu Maydae, con dos genera: Zea (2n=20) y Tripsacum (2n=36). El genero Zea tiene ademas de Z. mays (maiz) 4 otras especies conocidas vulgarmente como teosinte (Z. mexicana, Z. /uxurians, Z. dip/operennis y Z. perennis) (Fischer and Palmer, 1984). Es una graminea anual, robusta, de 1-4 m de altura, determinada; normalmente con un solo tallo dominante pero puede producir hijos fertiles; hojas altemas en ambos lados del tallo, pubecentes en parte superior y glabrosas en parte inferior; monoeica con flores mascu1inas en espiga superior y flores femeninas en jilotes laterales; protandrica con la floraci6n mascu1ina ocurriendo normalmente 1-2 dias antes que la femenina; polinizaci6n libre y cruzada con exceso de producci6n de polen: 25 a 30 mil granos por 6vulo; granos en hileras encrustados en el olote; mazorca en su totalidad cubierta por hojas; grano cariopsis; metabolismo fotosintetico C 4 (Kiesselbach, 1949;Purseglove, 1972;Fischer and Palmer, 1984).El grano de maiz es una frota completa (cariopsis) con una semilla.La semilla, que consiste fundamentalmente en el embri6n y el endosperma, se encuentra incrustada en el pericarpio, que es parte del ovano. En promedio, el pericarpio ocupa 5.5%, el endosperma 82%, el embri6n 11.5%, y el pedicel solamente 1% del total, respectivamente. El grano contiene alrededor de 1.5-1.6% de N, 0.3% de P, 0.35% de K, 0.03% de Ca, 0.12% deS, 0.17% de Mg, correspondiente con 75% de carbohidratos, 10% de proteina, 5% de lipidos y 10% de agua (Kiesselbach, 1949;Pursegolve, 1972;Amon, 1974). En terminos de los costos de biosintesis, 1a planta produce 0.78 g de grana de maiz COB 1 g de glucosa (valor de producci6n) (Fischer and Palmer, 1984).La aleurona es la capa exterior del endosperma y contiene las enzimas y metabolitos para iniciar la germinaci6n. EI endosperma (3n) consiste de celulas llenas de almidonque sirven como fuente alimenticia durante la germinacion. EI embri6n (2n) contiene un eje central terminando en ambos extremos con el plUmulo y la radicula como los meristemos primarios del tallo y de la raiz. Aful dentro del embrion, el plumulo contiene ya 5-6 internodos con hojas formadas. La primera hoja (escutelo) nunca funciona como follaje pero 10 hace como reserva de aceite (35-40%). La segunda hoja (coleoptilo) protege al plumulo durante la germinaci6n. La elongaci6n rapida del primer internodo (escutelo-cole6ptilo) es responsable por la emergencia durante la germinaci6n (Kiesselbach, 1949).LA FENOLOGIA DEL MAIZ Y LA ELABORACION DEL RENDIMIENTO Para cualquier cultivo, el entendimiento de los eventos fenologicos es importante porque establece el marco temporal donde se forma el rendimiento y sus componentes.EI maiz es una planta anual y determinada, con los puntos cardinales de la germinacion, la iniciacion floral, la floracion y la madurez fisiologica; delineando respectivamente las fases vegetativa, reproductiva y de llenado de grano. La duraci6n de cada una de estas fases depende del genotipo, del fotoperiodo y de la temperatura (Fischer and Palmer, 1984;Edmeades et aI., 1992a). Es importante entender como a 10 largo del cicIo del cultivo se elaboran sucesiva y sincr6nicamente los diferentes componentes de rendimiento (Bolanos y Barreto, 1991). Los Cuadros 2 y 3 al fmal del trabajo resumen los aspectos fisiologicos y agron6micos mas importantes de los estadios fenol6gicos del maiz (Ritchie and Hanway, 1984;Edmeades et aI., I 992a).La Figura I presenta una esquematizaci6n del desarrollo fenol6gico de la poblacion Tuxpefio en un ambiente tropical representativo de Centro America, con una temperatura promedio de 23 a 25 °c. En este cIima, la poblacion Tuxpeno cesa la iniciaci6n de hojas y el meristemo apical se convierte en la infloresencia masculina (espiga) a los 28 dias desputs de siembra (dds). Aqui pasa de la fase vegetativa a la fase reproductiva. La inflorescencia femenina superior (jilote) se forma a los 38 dds, aproximadamente 10-11 dias desputs de la iniciaci6n de la espiga. La antesis y la emisi6n de los estigmasocurre cerca de los 55-60 dds y la madurez fisio16gica a los 110-115 dds. Este cultivar produce 22 hojas, mas de 600 ovulos por mazorca a la floracion, pero solo se cosechan 450 granos con un peso de 400 mg por grano. La variedad necesita 350 °Cd (grados C x dia, unidades de tiempo termal) para la iniciaci6n de la espiga, 950 °Cd para la floracion y 1650 °Cd a la madurez fisiologica (Fischer and Palmer, 1984;Bolanos and Edmeades, 1993a,b;Edmeades et al., 1992aEdmeades et al., , 1993)). REPUESTA A FOTOPERIODO Dentro de cada fotoperiodo, e1 avance a cada evento fenol6gico es una funci6n lineal de 1a acumulaci6n de unidades de calor (UC) 0 tiempo teffila1 (IT). Un concepto importante en la feno10gia es distinguir entre el tiempo requerido para 1a ocurrencia del evento (ej., 60 dias ala floracion) y 1a velocidad de progreso feno16gico, 0 sea, la ve10cidad con la que organismo se acerca a 1a ocurrencia del evento. Esta ve10cidad del progreso fenol6gico esta relacionada con el inverso del tiempo (l/tiempo) (Roberts and SU111l11erfle1d, 1987;Edmeades et al., 1992a,b).TIEMPO TERMAL Y FENOLOGJA EI fotoperiodo es efectivo en retardar la iniciacion floral solamente durante el periodo inductivo, estimado como 4 dias antes que la iniciacion de la espiga (IE) (Edmeades et al., 1992a). En e1 tropico (comprendido entre 0-30 0 latitud), e1 fotoperiodo varia de un minima y mciximo de 11.6 y 14.4 horas a traves del ano (Gates, 1980). En estos ambientes tropicales e1 efecto del fotoperiodo enla feno10gia del maiz no es muy importante.Existe amplia diversidad en la sensitividad a fotoperiodo, esta pqede variar desde insensitivo (no hay retraso con fotoperiodos largos) hasta muy sensitivos (hay un retraso de 2 a 3 dias a 1a inciacion de la espiga por cada hora extra de fotoperiodo en exceso del valor critico) (Edmeades et al., 1992a,b).Los materiales temp1ados tienen poca sensitividad a fotoperiodo. Para maices tropicales, 1a sensitividad a fotoperiodo sigue el siguiente orden de mayor a menor sensitividad: maiz tropical > maiz subtropical > maiz de altura> maiz temp1ado (Edmeades et al., 1992b). La mayoria de los rnateriales tropicales tienen mucha sensitividad a1 fotoperiodo. Edmeades et al. (1992b) encontraron por cada hora adicional de fotoperiodo de 2 a 10 dias (equivalente a 29-149 °Cd) de retraso en la iniciacion de la espiga, de 1.5 a 3.6 hojas adicionales, y de 3 a 13 dias (equivalente a 42-218 °Cd) de retraso en la floraci6n mascu1ina en 48 cultivares de maiz evaluados, concluyendo que 1a respuesta a fotoperiodo en retardar 1a iniciaci6n de 1a espiga, los dias a floraci6n y aumentar e1 nilmero de hojas estan altamente corre1acionados. Debido a las dificultades en medir 1a iniciaci6n floral (disecciones), estos datos sugieren que se puede evaluar la respuesta a fotoperiodo midiendo solamente los dias a antesis 0 el numero fmal de hojas (Edmeades et al., 1992a,b). Figura 2. Respuesta esquematizada de la floracion (dias a antesis) al fotoperiodo en maiz. La gnifica presenta una variedad sensitiva al fotoperiodo. EI fotoperiodo critico esta representado por FP critico, Yla sensitividad a fotoperiodo como la pendiente de la curva. Grafica tomada de Edmeades et aI., 1992a. En la fase vegetativa la semilla gemlina y se establecen las plantulas, se expande el follaje y se fOffila la capacidad fotosintetica del cultivo, la cual controla la produccion de biomasa. La biomasa total producida por el cultivo nOffilalmente esta altamente correlacionada con el tama1'lo final de la mazorca ya que esta ocupa cerca del 40% del peso total (Bolanos y BarretCJ' 1991). La fase reproductiva deteffilina la fOffilacion de la mazorca y por tanto el numero de mazorcas por planta (MZIPL) y elnumero de granos por mazorca (NGIMZ), 0 sea, la fraccion cosechable de la biomasa. La fase delllenado de grano comienza despues de la polinizacion y detemlina el peso final del grano y de la mazorca. EI peso de grana esta correlacionado con la duracion y la cantidad de radiacion interceptada durante esta fase, y es afectada por estreses hidricos y nutricionales (Fischer and Palmer, 1984). .õEI maiz es una planta detenllinada cuantitativa de dias cortos (Fischer and Palmer, 1984;Edmeades et aI., 1992a). Esto significa que el progreso hacia la floracion se retrasa progresivamente a medida que el fotoperiodo excede un valor critico minimo. La Figura 2 esquematiza la respuesta a fotoperiodo para una variedad sensitiva de maiz. Para la poblacion Tuxpefio el fotoperiodo critico es de 13.5 h (Fischer and Palmer, 1984), Y para la mayoria del geffiloplasma de maiz es entre II y 14 h (Edmeades et aI., 1992a).La tasa de progreso fenologico depende de temperaturas cardinales especificas para cada cultivo. La Figura 3 esquematiza la dependencia del progreso fenologico sobre la temperatura para maiz tropical y maiz de altura. En la temperatura considerada base (Thase) hay un completo arresto metabOlico y la tasa de progreso fenologica es 0 (el tiempo para que ocurra el evento es infmito). En la temperatura optima (Topt) el desarrollo fenologico es maximo, y tiene un valor relativo de 1. En la temperatura critica (Tcrt) la tasa de progreso decrece nuevamente a 0 por efectos negativos del excesivo calor. Las temperaturas cardinales de los eventos fenologicos se calculan usando datos experimentales y haciendo una gr3fica entre el inverso del tiempo (1/dias a iniciacion de la espiga, 0 1/dias a floracion) versus la temperatura promedio usada en el ensayo. Los interceptos con 1/t=O producen Tbase y Tcrt, respectivamente (Roberts and Summertield, 1987;Edmeades et al., 1992a,b).El rango de las temperaturas cardinales reportadas en maiz a traves de muchos experimentos es: de 6 a 10 0c para Tbase, de 30 a 34 °c para Topt y de 40 a 44 °c para Tcrt (Edmeades et al., 1992a). El modelo CERES de simulacion del crecimiento del maiz usa respectivamente 8, 34 Y44 °c para Tbase, Topt y Tcrt (Jones y Kiniry, 1986). En contraste, el maiz de altura parece tener Tbase de 7 °c, Topt de 21 a 25 °c, y Tcrt de 35 °c (ClMMYT, sin publicar). Figura 3. Temperaturas cardinales para maiz tropical y maiz de altura. Basado en Edmeades et al., 1992b. El tiempo termal (TT) se caicula como la suma cumulativa de los grados °c diariamente por arriba de Tbase y par debajo de Topt y tiene unidades de °c 254(temperatura) x dia (tiempo) (oCd El tiempo termal (IT) para distintos eventos fenologicos del maiz ha sido evaluado en muchos cultivares bajo distintos ambientes, pero a-un existen muy pocos datos sobre maices tropicales (Edmeades et al., 1992a). Materiales precoces requieren menos IT para alcanzar los eventos fenologicos (iniciaci6n floral, floracion, madurez fisio16gica) que materiales mas tardios. Edmeades et al. (l992a) resumieron los IT para distintos eventos fenologicos (sin efecto de fotoperiodo). La germinacion y emergencia toma de 50 a 150 °Cd; la iniciacion de cada hoja sucesiva ocurre de 21 a 24 °Cd; la aparicion de la punta visible de la hoja (desde el cogollo) toma de 36 a 44 °Cd; Y la floracion toma de 500 a 700 °Cd para maices precoces, de 700 a 900 °Cd para intermedios, y de 900 a 1100 °Cd para tardios. La duracion delllenado de grano puede tomar de 500 a 1100 °Cd (Derieux et al., 1983;Edmeades et al., 1992b;Ellis et al., 1992;Chapman and Edmeades, 1992). En estudios con maices tropicales de CIMMYT de amplio uso en la region de Centro America, Chapman (1993) reporta tiempos termales de la siembra a la floracion femenina de 1000 a 1100 °Cd para las poblaciones consideradas precoces (pob. 30, 31 Y 49) Yde 1200 a 1300 °Cd para poblaciones consideradas intermedias o tardias (pob. 21, 22, 27, 28, 36 Y43).Mientras mas frio es e1 ambiente, tomara mayor tiempo alcanzar el mismo IT. Por ejemplo, una variedad que requiera 900 °Cd para llegar a la floracion tomara 45 dias en un ambiente de 30 °c (acumulando 20 °c por dia necesita 45 dias para acumu1ar las 900 °Cd), pero en un ambiente de 20 °c, esta variedad necesitara 90 dias para llegar a la floracion (acumu1ando 10 °c por dia necesita 90 dias para acumular las 900 °Cd).La dependencia de la fenologia sobre la temperatura implica claramente que en los tropicos el rendimiento esta limitado por el poco tiempo para interceptar radiacion dictado por las temperaturas calidas que aceleran la fenologia del cultivo. Hay poca unidad de luz por tiempo termal (Fischer y Palmer, 1984). Por ejemplo, un cultivar de maiz que necesite 1500 °Cd para la madurez, tomara 150 dias a la cosecha en un ambiente de 20 °c, pero solo 75 dias en uno de 30 °C. Esto significa que el cultivo en un ambiente calido tendd disponible menor radiacion debido a la mayor velocidad de desarrollo fenologico. En algunas situaciones, la temperatura aumenta a fines del ciclo, ace1erando la fase de llenado de grana y 1a senescencia de hojas, limitando severamente el rendimiento. La alta productividad del maiz en climas frescos se explica por e1 lento desarrollo fen01ogico y 1a capacidad de interceptar radiacion por mayor tiempo.El numero de hojas (NH) se pueden contar despues de la floracion al fmal (NHF 0 NH Final), 0 cuando tienen la punta visible mirando desde arriba (NHV 0 NH Visib1es), 0 cuando ya estan totalmente expandidas con el collar visible (NHM 0 NH Maduras). Existe una relacion entre NHV y NHM, aunque despues de la floracion ambos son iguales al numero final NFH. Hay una estrecha relacion entre el numero de hojas totalmente expandidas (NHM) (con el collar visible, base del metodo de Hanway y Ritchie, 1984) y el tiempo termal (Muchow and Carberry, 1989;Chapman y Edmeades, 1992). El intervalo en dias para la iniciacion de hojas sucesivas 255 se ha defmido como el plastocron. En promedio, se necesitan 25 °Cd para iniciar cada hoja sucesiva en maiz (Edmeades et al., 1992a). En un ambiente de temperatura promedio de 25 °c (15 unidades de calor por dia), cada hoja sucesiva se inicia cada 1.7 dias.La semilla trae 5-6 hojas iniciadas antes de la germinacion. Entonces, si el nlimero final de hojas de cierto genotipo de maiz es 22 (NHF=22), entonces, se puede calcu1ar los dias a iniciacion de la espiga. La planta debera iniciar 17 hojas (22-5) y cada una toma 1.7 dias, por 10 que la iniciacion de la espiga oeurrini (17 x 1.7 = 28) a los 28 dds. 0 sea, un cultivar con 22 hojas totales a una temperatura promedio de 25 °c tomara 28 dias para iniciar la espiga y pasar a la fase reproductiva. Genotipos tardios inician un nlimero mayor de hojas que precoces y fotoperiodos largos al retardar la iniciacion de la espiga producen un mayor numero de hojas.El phyloeron se ha defmido como el intervalo para la aparicion de hojas visibles, 0 sea, desde la iniciacion hasta la aparici6n de la punta visible (NHV). En promedio esto toma 40 °Cd por hoja, y a una temperatura promedio de 25 °c esto significa que la aparicion de la hoja ocurre cada 2.7 dias (Edmeades et al., 1992a).El area foliar de cada hoja sucesiva erece hasta alcanzar un maximo y luego deerece, semejante a una parabola (Wolfe et al., 1988;Muchow and Carberry, 1989;Chapman y Edmeades, 1992). Estreses ambientales reducen e1 area de cada hoja y el area total por planta, pero no afectan la forma de parabola del area de cada hoja en 1a planta (Wolfe et al., 1988). En base a la relacion entre el nlimero de 1a hoja, el numero fmal de hojas, y el area maxima, se han desarrollado relaciones empiricas de regresi6n para calcular el numero de la hoja mas grande, el area de cualquier hoja (nlimero n), y el area de la hoja mas grande (Muchow and Carberry, 1989;Chapman and Edmeades, 1992). Tipicamente la hoja de la mazorca es muy cercana a la hoja mas grcm.de. El area foliar de hojas verdes por planta (m 2 follaje por planta) multiplicado por la densidad de siembra (plantas por m 2 de suelo) produce el indice foliar (leaf area index) (solamente se usa el area foliar de un lado de las hojas en el caIculo del indice foliar). La fracci6n del area foliar muerta (no-verde) 0 de senescencia se incrementa con la acumulacion de IT, pero especialmente despues de la floraci6n. El estres aumenta drasticamente la senescencia de las hojas (Wolfe et aI., 1988). La duraci6n del area foliar depende del genotipo y del fotoperiodo, la temperatura y las condiciones del cultivo. Existe una relaci6n muy fuerte entre la productividad y la duraci6n del area verde, obvio porque las plantas producen materia seca a traves de la fotosintesis y la captura de radiaci6n por las hojas verdes.El incremento en la duraci6n del area verde ha sido una de las avenidas mas importantes en la mejoria del germoplasma a traves del mejoramiento (Fischer y Palmer, 1984).En la fase reproductiva se elaboran el 6rgano de interes desde el punto de vista de la cosecha: la mazorca y/o los !,rranos. El maiz es unico dentro de los cereales debido a su inflorescencia ya que es una planta monoica: produce las flores masculinas y femeninas en distintos 6rganos de la misma planta. Las flores masculinas se encuentran en la infloresencia temlinal (espiga) y las flores femeninas en las axilas laterales Oilotes). Esto significa que hay tanto una separaci6n espacial (el polen tiene que viajar mas de 1 metro de distancia para fecundar los estigmas) y temporal (1-2 dias entre la antesis y la emisi6n de los estigmas) en la floraci6n. Esta separaci6n tanto espacial como temporal entre la floraci6n masculina y femenina hace que la fertilizaci6n y la producci6n de granos sea una fase extremadamente sensitiva en el maiz a los estreses ambientales (Bola1'ios y Barreto, 1991;Bolanos y Edmeades, 1993a,b).SegUn el fotoperiodo y temperatura, el meristemo terminal d~ja de iniciar hojas y se convierte en un inicial floral masculino. Para Tuxpefio, la iniciacion de la espiga (IE) ocurre a los 28 dds en un ambiente tropical de 25 0c. La primera indicacion es la elongaci6n del domo meristematico y cuando excede 1 rom de largo la espiga se considera iniciada (Siemer et al., 1969). La espiga crece exponencialmente hasta la antesis, cuando alcanza su peso maximo. Este puede llegar a ser el 10% de la materia seca total de la planta a la floracion (Bola1'ios and Edmeades, 1992b). Se estima que cada espiga puede producir mas de 20 millones de granos de polen (mas de 30 mil por cada estigma a fertilizar) (Kiesselbach, 1949;Fischer and Palmer, 1984). 256 Cerca a los 38 dds, el Tuxpefio comienza a desarrollar meristemos laterales en las axilas de las hojas en sucesi6n basipetal (de abajo hacia arriba). Estos se convierten en iniciales de la flor femenina Oilote) en sucesi6n acropetal (de arriba hacia abajo). Generalmente se inician meristemos en todas las hojas excepto las ultimas 6 a 8 hojas debajo de la espiga. Casi todos estos senin abortados durante el desarrollo, quedando solamente los 1-2 superiores. Los meristemos laterales en hojas inferiores pueden desarrollarse en hijos fertiles 0 infertiles. La producci6n de florcillas cesa en los jilotes inferiores primero que en los superiores, por 10 que normalmente el jilote superior tiene la mayor cantidad de florcillas. Despues de su iniciaci6n, el jilote pasa por 3 fases de desarrollo. La Figura 4(a,b) muestra datos de Tuxpefto Sequia Co y C8: a) una fase inicial de arresto de 4-5 dias despues de la iniciaci6n del jilote, b) una fase lineal de rapida de producci6n de florcillas 0 6vulos (cerca de 50 florcillas por dia) que dura entre 12-14 dias para producir un total de 600-700 6vu1os por jilote, y c) una fase de crecimiento de los 6vu1osestigmas, despues que ha terminado 1a fase de producci6n de florcillas (Edmeades et al., 1993).La tasa de crecimiento del jilote es casi nula hasta los 20 dias despues de la iniciaci6n, coincidente con la fase de iniciaci6n de 6vulos. Las florcillas femeninas (6vulos) solamente comienzan a acumular peso seco rapidamente hasta despues de fmalizada la fase lineal de producci6n de florcillas potenciales (fase b), durante la fase de crecimiento (fase c) (Figura 4b). En el desarrollo del jilote, el numero de hileras se forma inmediatamente, pero no el niImero de granos por hilera, que depende de la duraci6n de la fase de producci6n lineal de 6vu1os (fase b). Normalmente existe una buena correlaci6n entre el numero final de 6vulos y la duraci6n del desarrollo del jilote (Derieux et aI., 1985).La floraci6n en maiz se reconoce por el derramamiento de polen de las anteras de la espiga (antesis) y la emisi6n de los estigmas del jilote. La antesis normalmente ocurre 1-2 dias antes que la emisi6n de los estigmas, pero con estres la emsisi6n de los estigmas se retrasa.1. El maiz es una planta cuantitativa de dias cortos, fotoperiodos largos retardando el progreso de los eventos fenologicos en gennoplasma sensitivo. Dentro de cada fotoperiodo, el avance de los eventos fenologicos depende de la acumulacion de tiempo tennal. Para maiz, las temperaturas cardinales son: Tbase=8 a 10, Topt=30 a 32, Tcrt=40 a 45 °c.Los Cuadros 2 y 3 presentan un resumen de los eventos fenologicos mas importantes del maiz, los eventos fisiologicos asociados y el manejo agronomico relevante en ese estadio de desarrollo. En resumen:3. La fase de llenado de grano determina el peso final del grano. La tasa diaria de acumulacion puede alcanzar 5-6 mg por grano.El potencial de rendimiento depende en parte de las duraciones fenologicas de las distintas fases de desarrollo de la planta de maiz. Estas bases feno16gicas proveen el marco temporal para la elaboracion del rendimiento y sus componentes.2. El maiz es tinico en los cereales por poseer una separacion temporal y espacial en la flor masculina y femenina. Esto provee una base fisiologica para explicar la sensitividad del rendimiento a los estreses ambientales durante el desarrollo floral. Despues de la iniciacion del jilote, este pasa por tres fases de desarrollo. El mimero de ovulos se determina en esta fase. Si el jilote no alcanza un peso critico de 1 g/pl, la emision de los estigmas se retrasa, y el rendimiento se reduce en aproximadamente 10% por cada dia de retraso. acumulacion 1enta tenninando en 1a capa negra y madurez fisio1ogica. Tuxpefio necesita 700 °Cd desde 1a fertilizacion hasta 1a madurez fisio1ogica, usando solamente 460 °Cd para 1a fase lineal del llenado (Fischer y Palmer, 1984). 0 sea, solamente el 27% del tiempo tennal del Tuxpefio se usa para llenar el grano. La tasa promedio de acumulacion de peso por el grano (pendiente de fase lineal) es cerca de 6.5 mg por ovulo por dia. La fase final puede ser de 7-14 dias (Fischer y Palmer, 1984). En esta fase, la humedad de grano es un excelente indicador del estadio fenologico (Brooking, 1990). La madurez fisiologica se alcanza cuando el grano se acerca a los 35-32% de humedad (Ritchie y Hanway, 1984;Brooking, 1990). Despues de la fertilizacion, el grana entra a la fase deillenado en trcs fases: a) fase de arresto (lag phase) que puede durar de 12-20 d, b) fase lineal de acumu1acion de materia seca con tiempo, y c) fase de En base a los datos obtenidos con Tuxpefio, Bolanos y Edmeades (l993b) han propuesto que si el jilote no logra alcanzar un peso seco de 1 g por planta (cerca de 0.8 mg por florcilla por jilote) para la antesis, la viabilidad de la mazorca y el mimero de granos se ve aItamente reducida. El mimero de plantas sin mazorca y el intervale entre la antesis y la emision de estigmas (lEAEE) aumenta drasticamente cuando el peso seco del jilote es inferior a 1 g/pl. Si hay estres 0 competencia durante esta fase, la acumulacion de materia seca por el jilote en desarrollo se ve reducida.Bolailos y Edmeades (l993b) han desarrollado la teoria que por cada dia que se retrasa la emision de los estigmas en referencia a la antesis, el rendimiento se reduce en aproximadamente 10% por dia, reduciendo el mimero de granos por planta, el mimero de mazorcas y el indice de cosecha. Meristemo apical debajo de Ia supertlde delsuelo. EI crecillliento de las raices seminales decrece y comienza el desarrollo de raices nodales ennodos inferiores.Meristemo apical aun debajo de Ia superficie llel suelo. EI crecimiento de las raices selll.lnales cesa, y se acentua el de raices nodales. Se inician hojas cada 1.5 dias (25 °Cd). Planta aim inductiva al fotoperiodo Meristemo apical arriba de Ia supertlde del suelu. Trallsiciim de la fase vegetativa a la fase reproductiva. Meristemo se convierte en tIor masculina. Ya casi todas las hojas ya se encuentrau illicillllns, pero aUn no visibles. Tallo comienza fase de ripida elongaciolL Raices nOliales ellnodos blferiores. Degenerucion y perdida de las 2 hojas inferiores lilor nmsculina en ripido crecimiento. Iniciaciim en orden acropetal de meristemos laterales en axilas de hojas inferiores y conversion de meristemos laterales en jilotes en orden basipetal. Rilpillu crecimiento del cultivo, expansion del follaje y captura de un cada vez mas alto pO\"centaje de la radiacion disponible. Desarrullo de raices nodales ennodos adicionales..Tilotes en fase de iuiciacion de ovulos. Espiga en ripido crecimiento y en cOlllpetencia por recursos con los jilotes. Follaje y c\\dtivo en ripida expansiolL Capturn casi total de radiacion disponible. Jilotes inferiores abortan. Espiga a plmto de emergencia. Fnse ripida de crecillliento de ovulos en jilot.es iniciados. Expansion follaje casi cesa y la cobertura del suclu es casi completa. Rakes nodales crecen ellnodos arriba de Ia superficie del suelo.Preparacion suelo para garautlzar buena emergenda con humedad y temperatura adecuadas. PIantula muy sensitiva al microambiente. Absorcion nutrientes ocurre solo con raices sem.lnales.Temperatura supertlcial cridca pI pIantula. Daiio al follaje no afeda a1merlstemo apical ya que aun esta bajo suelo. EI buen establec.lndento de las pIantulas es vital pi control malezas y obtencion de Ia densidad deseada Ternlina fase inicial de lenta acumuladon de biomasa. Condenza fase acelerada de credmiento del cultivo con expansion del follaje, captura de radiacion y absorcion de nutrientes. Cultivo solo bltercepta cerca del 40% de radiacion disponible. Raices nodales explorau volumen extenso de suelo. Aporque y fertillzacion adicional de N.Tasa de crecimiento del cultivo ann mayor debido a mayor bltercepdon de radiadon (60%). Expansion ripida del follaje y absorcion de nutrientes. IIdciacion de ovulos en jilotes (n-umero por hilera). Aporque y fertilizacion adicional. EI follaje captura casi toda Ia radiacion y la acumulacion de biomasa entra ala fase lineal. Estreses ambientales reducen el n-umero de ovulos y mazorcas por planta. Potencial de rendblliento relacionado ala duracion de fases fenologicas del jilote. Alta demanda de nutrientes y humedad por cultivo.Fase de desarrollo del jilote muy sensitiva a estreses ambientales. Altos requerindentos de nutrientes y hWlledad. EI estres afecta mas a Ia tIoracion femenina, retardando la enlision de los estigmas y reduciendo el rendindento.Cuadro 6 (cont). Descripcion de los estadios de desarrollo fenologico del maa segun Ritchie y Hanway (1984). Estigmas emeJ'len para ler poIInIzados. EI grano de polen toms 24 h para Cenmzar ovalo.EI endospemla estA Reno de liquldo claro y el grana parece una ampolla. Se puede obsenar el embrion. Este tiene 101 memtemos apicales y la primers hoJa Coml8da. Estigmas se oscurecen y degeneran. Comienza Case lineal de acumulacion en grano.Liquido claro lechoso en endospeJ1lllL Concentrscion alta de azucares. EI embrion condenza a crecer rapidamente y temdna la division celular. Estigmas muertos.Grano se Rena con sustancia blanca pastosa. Embrion tlene 4 hoJas y ha creddo mucho deR3. AClmmlacion de alnddon en endospeJ1lllL Ablddon seco 0 endurecido se deposita de la COrOlla hacia la base del grana COml8Jldo la linea de leche. DesarroRo de la linea de leche bldicador del estadio fenologico.La parte superior del grana se Rena con alllddon seco.Los granos alcanzan su peso nll1xbllo. La linea de ablddon seco ha avanzado hasta la base fonuwldo la capa negra y esta es visible. La planta se auto-destruye.E:l rendindento es muy suceptible al estres ambientaL 0vul0ll en estado rapido de credmiento. FoRaJe intercepts geW. de ]a nuUadon.Tass m8xbna de credmiento del cultivo.E:1 nDmero de OvalOll fertllizadoa ,or JRote Ie detennina.E:stres causa polinizad6n ,obre y baJo nt'imero de granOll por plants. Absordon de K cesa despue. de Rl. E:l alnddon condenza a acumulane en lOll granol.Redistrlbudon del N y P hacia el grano ocurre de otras partes de la plants. Senecencia de hoJas inferiores. Grano con 85\"10 humedad.Condenza la Case lineal de Renado de uano con tasa cerca de 5-6 me por dis.Grano con 80\"10 humedad.RenlObillzadon de nntrientes de la plants hacia 101 granos. Senecencia rapida de las hoJas. Nt'imero final de granos detemdnado. Grano con 70\"10 humedad.Remobillzadon de nutrientes de la planta llacia 101 granol. Senecencia mas rapida de las hoJas. Grano con 50-60\"10 humedad. En este trabajo se demuestra el uso de modelos de simulaci6n en computador para determinar el potencial de adaptaci6n de los genotipos de maiz en diferentes localidades de Centro Amirica y Mhico. Para todos los aolilisis presentados se utiliz6 un genotipo de 18 hojas cuya descripci6n es adecuada para un material subtropical de madurez intermedia 0 un material tropical de madurez precoz a intermedia. EI modelo de simulaci6n presentado en este trabajo ilustra la variabilidad en la fecha de antesis que puede resultar de la variaci6n inter e intra anual en c1ima. Este aDlilisis demuestra que los modelos de simulaci6n pueden proveer una manera flicil y eficiente de examinar interrogantes a nivel fenol6gico.Los fitomejoradores del programa de maiz del CIMMYT estan muy familiarizados con la fecha aproximada de floraci6n del germoplasma cuando este se cultiva en las estaciones experimentales de CIMMYT. Sin embargo, la variaci6n climatica ano con ano, probablemente ocasionan cambios mayores que 10 que nos imaginamos. Los modelos de simulaci6n de cultivos proporcionan un metoda simple para integrar informaci6n sobre el clima y a la vez permiten examinar la variabilidad por largos periodos, mediante el uso de informaci6n hist6rica del clima para una localidad dada. Tambien es posible analizar los efectos de diferentes fechas de siembra y genotipos. De otra manera, esta informaci6n solo podria obtenerse sembrando los genotipos de interes en las fechas deseadas para cada temporada en que las estaciones han sido utilizadas.Se incluye un ejemplo adicional para demostrar el uso de modelos de simulaci6n y determinar el potencial de adaptaci6n de los genotipos, pues a menudo tenemos una percepci6n razonablemente correcta de las caracteristicas del germoplasma cuando ha sido cultivado en las estaciones del CIMMYT, pero no de como cambian las caracteristicas fenol6gicas cuando un genotipo se cultiva en otra localidad. El 262 ejemplo que se presenta utiliza la fecha de antesis para determinar el potencial de adaptaci6n de un genotipo a otras regiones.Los registros climaticos para las estaciones de Poza Rica y Tlaltizapan se encuentran disponibles desde 1973. Para la simulaci6n espacial de la fecha de antesis en el norte de America Latina (Mexico hasta Panama) usamos la base de datos desarrollada por Peter Jones en CIAT, Colombia. Esta base de datos consiste de informaci6n sobre temperatura y precipitaci6n interpolada a largo plazo para cada estaci6n meteorol6gica dentro de celdas de lOx 10 minutos. De esta se extrajo una porci6n de 6542 celdas con informaci6n para America Latina (Corbett 1992). Para cada celda, la base de datos contiene los valores promedio mensuales de la temperatura maxima y minima y el promedio de la precipitaci6n mensual.Un modelo de intervalo de tiempo diario para simular la fenologia de maiz ha sido convertido a FORTRAN (Lahey F77L) del c6digo BASIC del modelo de Muchow et al. (1990). El modelo hace una aproximaci6n de las fechas de emergencia, antesis y madurez a partir de las entradas de temperatura maxima y minima y el numero de hojas del genotipo. En esta simulaci6n se asume que el efecto de fotoperiodo es minima ya que el modelo no tiene en cuenta este efecto.El modelo acumula tiempo termico (OCd) para cada dia usando un tipo de modelo de \"broken-stick\" con una temperatura base de goc. Cuando la temperatura diaria maxima excede los 34°C, el tiempo termico acumulado (y por 10 tanto la tasa de crecimiento) disminuye de acuerdo a la temperatura diaria. En analisis preliminares de la informaci6n recopilada para el germoplasma de CIMMYT, estas temperaturas son apropiadas para la mayorfa de los materiales con excepci6n de los genotipos de valles altos. Mientras que en estos amilisis se utilizaron temperaturas de 8°C a 34°C, pensamos que 7°C y 30°C pudiesen ser mas apropiadas.La emergencia ocurre despues de la acumulaci6n de 87°Cd. La fecha de antesis depende de la entrada inicial del nu.mero de hojas. El nu.mero de hojas se calcula cada dia de una relaci6n exponencial contra el tiempo termico. Por esta raz6n, en este modelo simple despues de la aparici6n de 18 hojas ocurre la antesis. Despues de la antesis se usa una temperatura base de O°C y la madurez ocurre cuando se acumulan 1300°C d despues de la antesis. Este modelo no toma en cuenta el efecto de helada, fertilidad de suelo, suministro de agua 0 dat\\o por insectos.Para todos los analisis presentados se utiliz6 un genotipo de 18 hojas. Esta descripci6n es adecuada para un material subtropical de madurez intermedia 0 un material tropical de madurez precoz a intermedia. Para cada estaci6n experimental en ambos ciclos se corrieron simulaciones para 5 fechas de siembra durante cada at\\o desde 1973 a 1990 (Cuadro 1). Las fechas de siembra se distribuyeron alrededor del tiempo normal de siembra para cada estaci6n en cada cicIo.Para la simulaci6n espacial, el modelo se corri6 para cada una de las celdas en la regi6n del norte de America Latina (Mexico hasta Panama). Nuevamente, se usaron genotipos de 18 hojas, pero la fecha de siembra fue el 15 de abril. Para cada celda, se cre6 un archivo climatico diario del promedio mensual y el modelo se utiliz6 para predecir la fecha probable de antesis.La informaci6n resultante se produjo en un form~to adecuado para usarse en el sistema de informaci6n geografica (SIG) IDRISI (Universidad de Clark, Massachusetts, USA). El sistema SIG se us6 para agrupar las fechas de antesis para pudiesen ser mapeadas mas facilmente.Para los prop6sitos de este trabajo, las fechas de antesis de 70 dias 0 mayores se consideraron como el limite maximo de adaptaci6n feno16gica de este genotipo. Se podrian usar otros criterios para obtener resultado similares como por ejemplo fecha promedio de la primera helada.Variacion Feno16gica en las Estaciones de CIMMYT Dentro de una estaci6n y cicIo, las fechas de emergencia variaron poco a traves de las fechas de siembra (Cuadro 2). El rango mayor (2-3 dias) en la fecha de emergencia fue entre la primer y ultima fecha de siembra en el cicIo A (inviemo) en Poza Rica y Tlaltizapan.La fecha de antesis a traves de los at\\os examinados fue menos variable (desviaci6n estandar baja) durante el cicIo B (verano) en Poza Rica y Tlaltizapan. En Poza Rica en este cicIo, casi no hubo cambio en la fecha promedio de antesis en relaci6n a la fecha de siembra (Cuadro 2, Figura la), y solamente un pequeffo cambio en la fecha de madurez. Sin embargo, en Tlaltizapan la fecha de antesis vari6 de 54 dias (1979, 1983) a 62 dias (1977) para la siembra de junio 1 (Figura 1b). La Figura 1b muestra claramente las interacciones de la fecha de siembra para cada estaci6n. Por ejemplo, en 1986 el rango de la fecha de antesis con respecto a las fechas de siembra fue solamente de tres dias mientras que en 1989 el rango fue de nueve dias. Cuadra 1.Fecha de siembra usada en simulaci6n de siembra en las estaciones de CIMMYT   Fecha pronosticada de antesis para un genotipo de 18 hojas sembrado e1 20 de abri1 en e1 norte de America Latina.4. Si hemos caracterizado algunos de estos medio ambientes con modelos, podemos usar las extensas bas~s de datos disponibles ligadas a sistemas SIG, para determinar 1a extensi6n de los megambientes en terminos de experiencias sobre el cultivo y no solamente como informes sobre clima y suelo. La descripcion fenolOgica apropiada de los materiales de malz, el acceso a la informacion sobre c1ima, y el uso de modelos fenologicos de simulacion en computador, han permitido a los cientlficos lograr un mejor entendimiento de la variabilidad en comportamiento de los genotipos cuando se desarrollan en ambientes diferentes a los de las estaciones experimentales. En este trabajo se propone un sistema de c1asificacion del germoplasma subtropical y tropical del CIMMYT de acuerdo al tiempo t~rmico para emision de estigmas. EI sistema propuesto tiene 8 c1ases actualmente, que se deben considerar como propuestas tentativas, por 10 que estamos solicitando retroalimentacion de los mejoradores de malz de la region para ajustarlas y asl mejorar el sistema de c1asificacion.El subprograma de Fisiologia/Agronomia de CIMMYT, Mexico ha estado conduciendo experimentos orientados a caracterizar los efectos ambientales (I.e. temperatura y fotoperiodo) en el desarrollo fenol6gico de las variedades y poblaciones de maiz del CIMMYT. Una definici6n adecuada de la respuesta ambiental nos permitini caracterizar la fenologia de los materiales en terminos de unidades termicas para pronosticar su adaptabilidad a diferentes localidades. El uso de unidades de tiempo termicas puede ser valioso cuando se trata de fijar fechas de siembra y obtener sincronizaci6n de floraci6n entre lfneas endogamicas.El metodo de unidades de calor acumuladas por dia (GDD) se usa rutinariamente para caracterizar la fenologia del maizde zonas templadas. Sin embargo, se ha observado que a menudo este metodo no es adecuado para el maiz tropical por dos razones importantes:1.La sensibilidad al fotoperiodo del maiz tropical es mas alta que la del templado (I.e. el fotoperiodo necesita ser considerado cuando se siembran materiales de CIMMYT en longitudes de dia mayores a las 14 horas). Los materiales tropicales de maiz de valles altos no tienen la misma respuesta a la temperatura que otros materiales (tempi ados y tropicales/subtropicales).Aunque todavia estamos trabajando en los parametros finales de la descripci6n fenol6gica de los materiales de maiz de CIMMYT, el acceso a la informaci6n sobre clima y el uso de modelos fenol6gicos de simulaci6n nos han facilitado el analisis de las respuestas. Se ha desarrollado un programa de computadora (CIMMEn diseflado para resumir la informaci6n meteorol6gica y el calculo de varios tipos de sumas de tiempo termico para las estaciones de CIMMYT en El Batan, Poza Rica, Tlaltizapan y Toluca. Para la elaboraci6n de este documento, usamos este software con el fin de caracterizar el germoplasma de CIMMYT.Para efectos de analisis calculamos cuatro tipos de modelos de tiempo termico (Figura I): (1) Temperatura base unicamente (la tasa de crecimiento aumenta con la temperatura).(2) como en (1) con una respuesta plana sobre una temperatura 6ptima.(3) como en (2) con una disminuci6n en porcentaje de la tasa de crecimiento sobre una temperatura 6ptima.(4) CERES-MAIZ (como en 3, pero dividida en intervalos de 3 horas durante el dia).Las temperaturas maxima y minima para cada dia se usan con cada uno de estos modelos para calcular el grado de desarrollo para un dia, el cual es multiplicado por (Topt-Tbase) para darnos unidades de calor que luego se suman para cada dia.Considerando factores extemos como constantes, los tiempos termicos sedan los mismos para todas las entradas de una poblaci6n en todas las fechas y localidades de siembra. .Sin embargo, fuentes potenciales de error (algunas asociadas con las fechas de floraci6n) incluyen: I.El uso de la fecha real de siembra, si esta no es la misma que la fecha de riego, 0 el uso de la fecha de riego si el suelo estaba hUmedo cuando se sembr6.Figura 1. Modelos para el dlculo del tiempo termal de acuerdo a la temperatura.Errores en el calculo de la antesis y fecha de emisi6n de estigmas como dias despues de la siembra.Para cada modelo, el usuario puede modificar las temperaturas cardinales. EI modelo basico es del tipo (3) con temperaturas cardinales de 7°,30°Y53°C. Para materiales de valles altos, 30°C se cambia por 26°C. No esperamos necesariamente que estas temperaturas sean las mas adecuadas para el germoplasma de CIMMYT pero al momenta representan nuestros mejores estimados. Se debe notar que actualmente, el fotopedodo no se usa como modificador en ninguno de los modelos de fenologia utilizados.Usando la base de datos CIMMYTIMSU (prototipo de prueba) para almacenamiento de datos de Ensayos Intemacionales del CIMMYT, se extrajo la informaci6n para todas las entradas en ensayos desarrollados en Poza Rica, Tlaltizapan y El Batan durante 1989-91. Se suprimieron los ensayos que les falt6 la fecha de siembra 0 antesis y/o la fecha de emisi6n de estigmas. La informaci6n de los archivos se registr6 en una forma adecuada para su procesamiento con el programa de computadora CIMMET. El Modelo 3 con temperaturas de 7°C, 30°C y 53°C se utiliz6 para calcular el tiempo termico para la antesis y para la emisi6n de estigmas. EI archivo del genotipo se proces6 y se clasific6 por numero de poblaci6n 0 pool. Los promedios de la fecha de emisi6n de estigmas y tiempo termico se calcularon para cada poblaci6n.Los resultados muestran la pequei'la variaci6n observada dentro de las poblaciones a la vez que ilustran las diferencias marcadas entre poblaciones. Los promedios de las poblaciones variaron entre 930 a 269 3.La tendencia en las fechas de floraci6n a mostrar cierta variaci6n como resultado de la selecci6n.Los efectos de fotoperiodo (especialmente en inviemo a verano).El ajuste imperfecto del modelo utilizado.La Figura 2 indica el rango de las poblaciones de CIMMYT basado en los promedios calculados de tiempos termicos a la fecha de floraci6n. Las columnas sombreadas son las poblaciones tropicales.En el Cuadro 1 esta informaci6n se presenta junto con la clasificaci6n de la madurez de cada poblaci6n tal como se proporcion6 en el reporte final de 1991 de Ensayos Intemacionales. En ellado derecho se re-clasificaron en 6 clases de madurez posibles de acuerdo al tiempo termico a la floraci6n.Asimismo se indica que para algunas poblaciones la clasificaci6n de CIMMYT no esta de acuerdo con la clasificaci6n de acuerdo a tiempo termico.En el Cuadro 2, se propone un sistema de clasificaci6n del germoplasma subtropical y tropical de CIMMYT de acuerdo al tiempo termiCo para emisi6n de estigmas. Este sistema tiene 8 clases actualmente, que se deben considerar como propuestas tentativas, por 10 que estamos solicitando retroalimentaci6n de los mejoradores de maiz para ajustarlas y asi mejorar el sistema de clasificaci6n.  La variaci6n en los dias a emisi6n de estigmas es una funci6n del sitio en el eual los genotipos se desarrollan en las loealidades de ensayos internaeionales. Sin embargo, mientras continuemos eonfiando en las deseripeiones tradicionales de la feeha de floraci6n, no podremos comparar razonablemente la adaptabilidad relativa de varias poblaciones a diferentes loealidades, particulannente para las zonas de transici6n. La descripci6n de las poblaciones de CIMMYT se puede mejorar al incluir un numero mayor de ensayos internaeionales, partieulannente en diferentes localidades. Esto nos pennitiria definir un modelo termico mas adecuado y tener mas confianza en el muestro de la variabilidad poblacionaI. Este documento introduce un modulo en Espallol que facilita e integra el uso del software disponible para la generaci6n y analisis de disellos alfa-Ilitice. Como introducci6n se presentan algunas consideraciones te6ricas sobre el uso de los disellos de bloques incompletos para la evaluaci6n de genotipos y tambi~n su uso potencial en ensayos de agronomia. Se espera que este tipo de modulo de software de facil utilizaci6n ofrezca un recurso adicional para aumentar la eficiencia de la investigaci6n agricola por parte de los Programas Nacionales de habla hispana.El disefio tradicional para la evaluaci6n experimental en agricultura es aquel en donde las unidades experimentales estan agrupadas en bloques completos donde cada uno contiene todos los tratamientos. En este tipo de disefl.o se asume que la variaci6n entre unidades dentro del bloque es menor que entre unidades en bloques diferentes, de tal manera que la precisi6n del experimento se incrementa en virtud del control del error (Steel y Torrie, 1980). Asimismo, en este tipo de disefl.o cada tratamiento ocurre en igual frecuencia en cada bloque por 10 que se dice que los bloques y los tratamientos son ortogonales entre sf. Esta propiedad de ortogonalidad facilita los calculos aritmeticos necesarios para producir un analisis de varianza. El Cuadro I presenta una clasificaci6n general de los principales disefl.os experimentales de uso comoo en agricultura. Cuando el numero de tratamientos es grande el disefl.o de bloques al azar 0 el cuadrado latino es generalmente inadecuado dado que el tamafl.o de bloque se incrementa. El resultado es una mayor heterogeneidad, que puede dar lugar a que la variaci6n dentro de bloques sea mayor que la variaci6n entre bloques. Esto tiende a aumentar el error experimental y disminuye la habilidad del investigador En un disefl.o de bloques incompletos (e.g hltice) el nUmero de tratamientos por bloque es menor que el numero de tratamientos totales (e.g. genotipos). Un disefl.o de bloques incompletos se considera resoluble si las unidades de bloque estan organizadas en repeticiones completas (al juntar los bloques de una repetici6n se obtiene un juego completo de todos los tratamientos).En la organizaci6n de campo un disefl.o de bloques incompletos es indistinguible de un disefl.o de bloques completos al azar. Sin embargo, consideraciones de tipo practico hacen que todos los disenos latice utilizados en agricultura sean resolubles. Esta propiedad de los latices hace que estos nunca puedan ser menos eficientes que un diseno de bloques completos.La calidad de un diseno de bloques incompletos se juzga por el factor de eficiencia de la media arm6nica (FEMA), que es la relaci6n entre la varianza promedio con la que un diseno de bloques completos estimaria las diferencias entre tratamientos, y la varianza promedio con la cual el diseno de bloques incompletos estimarfa estas diferencias si los cuadrados medios del error fuesen iguales en ambos casos. EI valor de FEMA es siempre mayor de 0 y menor de 1. La diferencia simplemente mide el grado de confusi6n (confounding) entre tratamientos causados por el uso de bloques incompletos. Sin embargo, durante la implementaci6n del experimento 0 en el campo debemos tratar de lograr la maxima homogeneidad posible dentro de cada bloque incompleto en funci6n de las condiciones de suelo, gradientes de fertilidad, humedad, pendiente, etc. Una regia general para la selecci6n del tamano de bloque incompleto (k) es tomar un valor igual 0 mas pequeno que la raiz cuadrada del numero total de tratamientos (k<=vv). Para juzgar si definitivamente el arreglo en bloques incompletos ha sido mas efectivo que el diseno de bloques completos debemos esperar a que el experimento ha sido terminado y comparar los errores experimentales respectivos. La eficiencia relativa (ER) para un diseil.o latice se define como la relaci6n entre la varianza promedio de las diferencias entre tratamientos(ignorando el uso de los bloques incompletos y asumiendo que las repeticiones fueron bloques completos) y la varianza promedio de las diferencias entre tratamientos en el diseil.o de bloques incompletos (incluyendo recuperaci6n de la informaci6n entre bloques). La raz6n ER es analoga a la definici6n de FEMA pero en la primera se utilizan los estimados observados del error experimental. Si el efecto de bloque fue efectivo en remover variabilidad (e.g. la reducci6n del cuadrado medio del error compensa el efecto de confusi6n causado por los bloques incompletos), entonces ER sera mayor que uno. Como se indic6, la propiedad de los latices de poder revertirse a un diseil.o de bloques completos en caso que la eficiencia sea menor de 1.0, garantiza que los latices nunca pueden ser menos eficientes que un diseil.o de bloques completos. El Cuadro 2 resume los tipos principales de latices cuadrados y rectangulares.El Cuadro 3 ilustra algunos de los eventos hist6ricos de importancia en el desarrollo del diseil.o experimental incluyendo el desarrollo de los diseil.os alfa por Patterson y Williams en 1976. Estos son diseil.os de bloques incompletos del tipo (0, I). La nomenclatura en parentesis indica el tipo de restricci6n que la combinaci6n de pares de entradas tienen con respecto al arreglo de bloques incompletos. En el caso de un diseffo alfa llitice (0, I), el primero y segundo dfgito indican respectivamente que dos tratamientos cualquiera nunca estan juntos (0) 0 estan juntos en un solo bloque del experimento (I). Para un ntunero de tratamientos (v), de tamaffo de bloque (k) y ntunero de repeticiones (r), existen muchas varlantes de diseffos alfa-latice para esta combinaci6n; sin embargo, solo algunas tienen un FEMA suficientemente alto mientras que la gran mayorfa son inaceptables. El mejor diseffo alfa-latice para una combinaci6n especifica de repeticiones, bloques y tratamientos se obtiene a partir del algoritmo desarrollado por Paterson y Patterson (1984), el cual constituye la esencia del programa ALPHAGEN.En el programa de mafz de CIMMYT los diseffos alfa-latice se han utilizado desde 1986, particularmente en la unidad de fisiologia-agronomfa para evaluaci6n de ensayos con mas de 200 genotipos, generalmente en parcelas de 2 surcos x 5.5m de largo. En estos se han observado eficiencias relativas que van de 1.0 a 2.0, pero su uso ha estado restringido a ensayos de evaluaci6n de genotipos. Sin embargo, no existe informaci6n sobre el uso de alfa-latices en experimentos de caracter agron6mico en CIMMYT. En ensayos de agronomfa el uso de estos disefios podria ser utH cuando no existe una relaci6n de tipo factorial entre tratamientos, el numero de tratamientos es grande (e.g. >16) y la heterogeneidad de suelo del sitio experimental es alta.En estos casos se sugiere el uso de un disefio de bloques incompletos, con el fin de controlar mejor la variabilidad aleatoria mediante un uso eficiente de las herramientas del disefio experimental.A pesar de contar con el acceso a los programas de computo para generar el disefio y analisis de los experimentos alfa-latice, su utilizaci6n ha permanecido relativamente desconocida por parte de los investigadores de los Programas Nacionales de Latinoamerica. Entre las razones mas importantes estan la ausencia de una interfase de software en Espaffol para captura y creaci6n de archivos de entrada, la dificultad de manipulaci6n de la informaci6n en un formato de uso comun por los investigadores de la regi6n, y la falta de integraci6n con otras herramientas de analisis (graficas, algoritmos de selecci6n, regresi6n, etc).Este documento tiene como objetivo introducir un modulo de software en Espaffol que facilita e integra el uso de los programas ALPHAGEN y LATANOVA (Scottish Agricultural Statistics Service, Edinburgh) 275 para el diseffo y analisis de diseil.os alfa-Iatice (0,1) en las disciplinas de fitomejoramiento y agronomfa.Actualmente se utilizan en CIMMYT los programas ALPHAGEN para generar aleatorizaciones y ALPHANAL para el analisis de varianza en experimentos con disefl.o alfa-hltice. Estos dos programas fueron desarrollados originalmente por el Scottish Agricultural Statistics Service, Edinburgh, en lenguaje FORTRAN y fueron trafdos en c6digo nativo al CIMMYT en 1986 por el Dr. Carlos Gonzalez para su uso en la computadora VAX. Posteriormente, ALPHAGEN fue modificado por personal de Servicios de C6mputo del CIMMYT para producir una salida en forma de libro de campo y fue adaptado para su utilizaci6n en micro-computadoras IBM compatibles. Asimismo, el programa ALPHANAL fue modificado por el Dr. G. O. Edmeades para incorporar las estadfsticas de disefl.o de bloques completos al azar y su nombre cambi6 a LATANOVA Posteriores modificaciones a los programas, particularmente para mejorar el formato de salida de los resultados, han sido realizados por los Drs. S. C. Chapman y G. O. Edmeades del Programa de Mafz de CIMMYT.A continuaci6n se presentan algunas de las caracterfsticas generales de los dos programas de computo en su implementaci6n actual para uso en microcomputadoras IBM y compatibles.ALPHAGEN.EXE genera la aleatorizaci6n y el plan de campo para diseil.os alfa-latice (0,1). Los limites actuales del software son: maximo numero de repeticiones = 6; maximo numero de entradas = 300. El programa recibe informaci6n del usuarlo y despliega el plan de aleatorizaci6n en la pantalla 0 10 almacena en un archivo en disco. Los resultados incluyen el plan de campo, el c6digo de repetici6n, bloque, entrada y el valor de FEMA. La manipulaci6n posterior de esta informaci6n, utilizando un procesador de palabras, ha sido un requisito para poder utilizar el programa de analisis.LATANOVA.EXE realiza el analisis de varianza y produce las medias ajustadas por latice. Los promedios ajustados pueden ser luego utilizado en analisis posteriores pero tienen que ser extraidos del archivo de salida utilizando un procesador de palabras en formato ASCII. Este programa tiene requisitos estrictos con respecto a las caracteristicas de los archivos de entrada (3 diferentes archivos), 16 que ha dificultado, en cierta medida, su utilizaci6n. Este programa no perrnite el analisis en presencia de observaciones faltantes.Con fines de capacitaci6n, el programa de maiz de CIMMYT desarro1l6 programas de conversi6n de datos con el fin de facilitar el uso de los programas de generaci6n y analisis. Posteriorrnente estos se integraron en un sistema de software en el que se asume que toda la inforrnaci6n esta centralizada en archivos del MSTAT (Michigan State University). Este paso ha facilitado la manipulaci6n de la inforrnaci6n dado que el MSTAT es un programa que se utiliza frecuentemente en los programas nacionales para la captura de datos y el analisis de resultados experimentales en fitomejoramiento y agronomfa.Para iniciar el sistema el usuario debe cargar los programas del disco de distribuci6n en un subdirectorio en el disco duro y luego...activa el software ALFA desde el sistema operativo.La Figura 1 ilustra el menu de opciones disponibles para el analisis de experimentos con disef'io alfa-latice.El usuario selecciona la opci6n deseada localizando el cursor sobre esta 0 simplemente presionando la letra que describe la opci6n.Las opciones en este menu principal incluyen:1. Generaci6n de nuevas aleatorizaciones 2. Analisis de varianza y obtenci6n de medias ajustadas por latice 3. Asistente de selecci6n 4. Editado y transforrnaci6n de archivos.Cada una de las opciones cuenta con un subprograma especffico que captura la inforrnaci6n necesaria para ejecutar la opci6n deseada. Las preguntas para las opciones de generar nueva aleatorizaci6n (I) Y an3.lisis de varianza (2) se presentan en las Figuras I y 2, respectivamente. La descripci6n de la opci6n del Asistente de Selecci6n no se presenta en este documento puesto que existe un instructivo en Espaf'iol que detalla su utilizaci6n (Barreto et aI., 1991). La opci6n de editado y transforrnaci6n de datos en archivo (4) se ilustra en la Figura 3. Para esta ultima, el programa utiliza las convenciones de software descritas en el programa Asistente de Datos MST (Barreto y Raun, 1988).  Creaci6n / Lectura de Archivos Nombre de archivo de datos I A continuaci6n se describen en detalle las preguntas de las opciones I y 2 para generaci6n y anaIisis de diseftos alfa-Iatice, respectivamente.Opci6n I: Generar Nueva Aleatorizaci6n Numero de repeticiones en diseno N6mero de repeticiones por tratamiento.EI nfunero total de entradas 0 tratamientos incluyendo testigos.Esta pregunta defme el tamaf\\o de bloque. La versi6n actual del software s610 permite un tamaf\\o de bloque siempre y cuando sea un n6mero entero mitltiplo del total de entradas.Por ejemplo, si el n6mero de entradas total es de 33, los posibles tamafl.os de bloque solo pueden ser II 0 3.Cuando el usuario desea que la primera repetici6n no este aleatorizada sino en orden de entrada (10 cual no es aconsejable), se debe responder a la pregunta con N.Si el usuario desea incluir un cierto n6mero de cultivares como testigos, el programa ALPHAGEN intenta colocar cada testigo en bloques distintos. En la aleatorizaci6n los testigos utilizan los nitmeros de entrada de I hasta el n6mero especificado de testigos. Los valores superiores describen las entradas bajo evaluaci6n.Este es el archivo maestro (formato MSTAn generado por la opci6n I del programa, el cual debera ser utilizado para la entrada de datos de las variables a ser analizadas, y para la utilizaci6n del programa de anaIisis (opci6n 2). Sin embargo, el programa de la opci6n I genera archivos intermedios en formato ASCII, con el mismo nombre pero con diferentes extensiones y que contienen toda la informaci6n producida por ALPHAGEN.Estos archivos son: Extensi6n .FOS contiene toda la informaci6n de salida incluyendo el FEMA. Extensi6n .OSN contiene el libro de campo en formato ASCII (Rep, Bloque, Parcela y Entrada, en ese orden). Se debe recordat que la informaci6n del disefto en formato MSTAT se encuentra almacenada en los archivos con las extensi6n .TXT y .OAT.Opci6n 2: Analisis de Varianza Alfa-UticeEste es el archivo MSTAT generado por el programa de disefto (opci6n 1), al cual se Ie han afl.adido variables con los datos que se desean analizar (e.g. rendimiento, fechas de floraci6n, ASI, etc).Variable con numero de repeticion EI n6mero de la columna en el archivo MSTAT que contiene el c6digo de repetici6n para el disei\\o alfalatice generado por ALPHAGEN.Variable con numero de bloque EI n6mero de la columna en el archivo MSTAT que contiene el c6digo de bloque para el diseflo alfalatice generado por ALPHAGEN.Variable con numero de parcela EI nfunero de la columna en el archivo MSTAT que contiene el c6digo de parcela para el diseflo alfahltice generado por ALPHAGEN.Variable con numero de entrada EI nitmero de la columna en el archivo MSTAT que contiene el c6digo de entrada 0 tratamiento para el disefto alfa-hltice generado por ALPHAGEN.Nitmeros de columnas en el archivo MSTAT que contiene las variables a ser utilizadas en el analisis de varianza. EI software tiene un maximo de 10 variables que pueden ser analizadas a la vez. Estas se especifican con su nitmero de columna respectivo separadas por espacios (e.g. 3 4 5) 0 utilizando notaci6n de gui6n (e.g. [3][4][5].Caso inicial del archivo MSTAT a ser incluido en el anaIisis.Caso final del archivo MSTAT a ser incluido en el anaIisis.Nombre de archivo provisto por el usuario, a ser utilizado para almacenar las medias ajustadas por latice, para su posterior utilizaci6n con el Asistente de Selecci6n. El nombre debera ser diferente al del archivo maestro que contiene los datos originales.Este valor de FEMA 10 genera ALFAGEN y se encuentra registrado en el archivo con extensi6n .FDS y en el archivo MSTAT generado por la opci6n 1 (como parte del descriptor de archivo).Este es simplemente un descriptor opcional defmido por el usuario para identificar el trabajo en el programa de analisis. Este aparece como un titulo en la parte superior de cada anaIisis de varianza.Para poder ser utilizado en forma integrada el sistema de software requiere de una computadora IBM compatible (8086, 286, 386 0 486 con 0 sin coprocesador matematico), equipada con minima de 640 K de RAM, un disco duro con minimo de 2 Megabytes de espacio disponible, y bajo el sistema operative MSDOS 3.3 0 mayor. Sin embargo, en equipo 8086 y 286 sin coprocesador, el tiempo de ejecuci6n particularmente para analisis de varianza es considerablemente mayor.La cantidad de memoria disponible al programa despues de cargar el sistema operativo debera ser al menos de 590K para ejecuci6n del prOgrama ALPHAGEN. Las otras opciones tienen requerimientos de memoria menores (512K). La cantidad de memoria disponible se puede obtener mediante el comando Como se indic6 anteriormente, la opci6n 1 produce una serie de archivos en formato ASCII y binario que contienen la aleatorizaci6n y informaci6n adicional sobre el disefto alfa-lAtice. Estos archivos comparten el mismo nombre (definido por el usuario) perc difieren en sus extensiones. De acuerdo a su extensi6n cada archivo contiene: Archivo ALPHAGEN.IN : Este archivo contiene la informaci6n necesaria para ejecutar el programa ALPHAGEN.EXE utilizando redirecci6n de entrada 0 piping (e.g. ALPHAGEN <ALPHAGEN.IN). Este paso es transparente al usuario dado que ALPHAGEN es ejecutado directamente desde la opci6n 1. El archivo esta en formato ASCII y contiene las respuestas a las preguntas requeridas por ALPHAGEN.EXE, con una respuesta por linea incluyendo los niJrneros aleatorios (random seeds) utilizados para generar la aleatorizaci6n (estos son provistos automaticamente por el programa de la opci6n 1). Dado que el nombre de este archivo es siempre el mismo (yes recreado cada vez que se utiliza la opci6n 1), el archivo que se encuentra en disco corresponde siempre a la ultima aleatorizaci6n realizada.Archivos con extensi6n .FDS : Informaci6n de salida (formato ASCII) que incluye el FEMA, niJrnero de repeticiones, bloques, y entradas (incluyendo testigos) y el libro de campo con la aleatorizaci6n en orden de parcela y con encabezamientos en cada columna (Cuadro 4 y 5). Archivos con extensi6n .DSN : Contiene el libro de campo en formate ASCII (Rep, Bloque, Parcela y Entrada, en ese orden) perc sin encabezamientos. Este archivo puede ser utilizado para generaci6n de libros de campo utilizando un procesador de palabras. Archivos con extensi6n .TXT y .DAT: Archivos binarios de MSTAT que contienen el plan de campo ordenado por niJrnero de parcela. Este archivo aparece listo para ser editado por el usuario al final de cada sesi6n de la opci6n 1. El usuario debera entrar las variables de interes utilizando el editor de datos provisto que Ie permite al usuario aftadir variables (columnas) y realizar transformaciones entre variables utilizando las convenciones'Cletalladas en el Asistente de Datos MST (Barreto y Raun, 1988). Cuadro S. Explicaci6n de un archivo generado por ALPHAGEN.EXE para un experimento hipotetico con 2 repeticiones, 24 entradas y 4 bloques incompletos de 6 parcelas cada uno.Este es un archivo de texto con cuatro secciones principaLes. Las Unicas secciones importantes son La A V D. Entradas en cada una de Las repeticiones V bLoques. Las entradas en La primera repetici6n se presentan siempre en secuencia. Esta secci6n es de uso mfnimo.Esta es La secci6n m6s importante va que incLuye La aLeatorizaci6n en formate que puede ser uti Lizado para preparaci6n de Libros de campo 0 para eL uso con LATANOVA Vlo eL MST.Opci6n 2: AmUisis de Varianza Alfa-Utice La opci6n 2 realiza el anaIisis d~varianza del diseft.o alfa-ll'ltice a traves de la ejecuci6n del programa LATANOVA.EXE. Esta opci6n tiene como requisito blisico que los datos a ser analizados se encuentren en formato MSTAT. Durante el proceso de analisis la opci6n 2 realiza un numero conversiones de archivos para facilitar al usuario el uso de LATANOVAEXE. Entre estos se cuentan la creaci6n de archivos en formato ASCII con el plan de campo de diset'io, los datos a ser analizados y el almacenamiento de medias ajustadas por latiee en un arehivo binario de MSTAT. Al igual que la opci6n anterior los archivos de salida comparten el mismo nombre definido por archivo de entrada pero difieren en sus extensiones. De acuerdo a su extensi6n eada archivo de salida contiene: Archivo LATANOVA.IN : Este archivo contiene la informaci6n necesaria para ejecutar el programa LATANOVAEXE utilizando redirecci6n de entrada 0 piping (e.g. LATANOVA <LATANOVA.IN). Este paso es transparente al usuario dado que LATANOVA es 281 ejecutado directamente desde la opci6n 2. El archivo esta en formato ASCII y contiene las respuestas a las preguntas requeridas por LATANOVA.EXE, eon una respuesta por linea. Dado que el nombre es el mismo (y es recreado cada vez que se utiliza la opci6n), el archivo que se encuentra en disco corresponde siempre al ultimo analisis realizado eon la opci6n 2. Archivos con extensi6n .DSN : Contiene ellibro de campo en formato ASCII (Rep, Bloque, Parcela y Entraqa, en ese orden) pero sin encabezamientos. Este archivo puede ser utilizado para generaci6n de libros de campo utilizando un procesador de palabras. Archivos con extensi6n .LAD : Datos a ser analizados (formato ASCII) que incluye el nUmero de pareela y las variables de datos separadas por espacios sin con encabezamientos en cada columna. Archivos con extensi6n .VAR : Formato de lectura de FORTRAN para cada variable y nombres de las variables a ser analizadas. Cuadro 6. Ejemplo de archivo de salida de LATANOVA (.AOV) con cuadros de analisis de varianza y medias sin y con ajuste por latice para una variable (AD).    -----------------------_   Archivos con extensi6n .AOV : Archivo de salida de LATANOVA.EXE en formato ASCII que contiene los cuadros de amllisis de varianza para cada variable analizada y las medias sin y con ajuste de 1l1tice (Cuadro 6). Archivo de Promedios ajustados con ext~nsiones .TXT y.DAT: Archivo en formato binario de MSTAT que contienen las medias ajustadas por llitice para las variables de anaIisis seleccionadas en la opci6n 2. El archivo siempre contiene la primera variable con el nUmero de entrada (tratarniento) y la ultima variable denominada INDICE. Esto facilita el uso de este archivo con el Asistente de Selecci6n (Barreto et aI., 1991). Este archivo puede ser modificado con el editor del Asistente de Datos MST (Barreto y Raun, 1988).El Cuadro 4 presenta un ejemplo de una aleatorizaci6n para un archivo con 24 entradas en bloques incompletos de tarnaiio 6 y dos repeticiones. El archivo que se presenta corresponde a aquel con extensi6n .FDS (diseno completo). El Cuadro 4 presenta notas en la margen derecha en donde se detallan las secciones importantes de este archivo de salida. El Cuadro 5 tiene describe brevemente cada una de las secciones del archivo de salida con extensi6n FDS.Opci6n 2: Amilisis de Varianza Alfa-Latice EI Cuadro 6 ilustra un ejemplo de archivo de salida (extensi6n .AOV) producido por LATANOVA. En la margen derecha se presentan las descripci6n en Espaiiol de cada uno de los parametros estadfsticos y elementos de analisis.","tokenCount":"105736"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a802287ecaa5d4dc986089ab359124dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Reports/GML-VPA-Synthesis-Report-FR.pdf","id":"-1337875902"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1725188d-50c4-40dc-8484-eee34f93b711","pagecount":"69","content":"Part de la contribution de l'APV à une plus grande cohérence du cadre juridique et réglementaire 12 Part de la contribution de l'APV à une plus grande reconnaissance des droits de propriété des CL et PA 12 Part de la contribution de l'APV à rendre les sanctions plus crédibles 12 Part de la contribution de l'APV à placer plus efficacement les pouvoirs publics devant leurs responsabilités 12 Évolution du degré d'application des sanctions et contribution de l'APV à cette évolution 12vi Paolo Omar Cerutti, Tatiana Goetghebuer, Nastassia Leszczynska, Jean Newbery, Bruna Almeida, Raphael Tsanga, Romain Fourmy et Luisa van der Ploeg viii Paolo Omar Cerutti, Tatiana Goetghebuer, Nastassia Leszczynska, Jean Newbery, Bruna Almeida, Raphael Tsanga, Romain Fourmy et Luisa van der PloegLa présente étude constitue une synthèse des données  En somme, nous avons cherché les domaines où l'impact de l'APV était le plus marqué grâce aux données sur la perception et à un outil de sondage intuitif et convivial.Nous avons ainsi comblé un vide là où les informations sur les impacts de l'APV étaient non seulement limitées, mais également rendues opaques par l'exploitation illégale. 4Les « surveillance » (Figure 2). Ces tendances observées, qui   Dans le cadre général du développement économique, une grande majorité des personnes interrogées s'accorde sur le fait que l'engagement au, ou la réalisation du processus APV, renvoie une image positive du pays en tant que partenaire commercial fiable (Figure 7).Cameroun et au Honduras), le sentiment que la volonté politique donne autant la priorité au développement du secteur forestier qu'aux autres secteurs ressort fortement (Figure 9).    Les observations qui précèdent découlent de divers résultats Cette partie aborde le premier impact attendu du processus APV : l'effet d'entraînement de la gouvernance (Figure 5). En remontant de la zone « impact » vers la zone « résultat », le parcours de cause à effet est le suivant :           Selon la logique de la ToC, la participation de divers groupes de parties prenantes et le renforcement de leurs capacités sont des ingrédients indispensables pour obtenir un engagement effectif des parties prenantes. À son tour, cet engagement devient nécessaire pour poursuivre le chemin vers l'impact.Les résultats de plusieurs indicateurs sélectionnés sur l'effet d'entraînement de la gouvernance corroborent cette logique, comme expliqué ci-dessous.A. Un engagement effectif des parties prenantes                toutefois un sentiment dominant que, au démarrage de la mise en oeuvre, ces opportunités sont réelles (Figure 37).Cette partie porte sur l'impact de l'APV visant à réduire l'abattage illégal d'arbres et leur commerce (Figure 38). À l'identique de la partie précédente, en partant de la zone « impact » vers la zone « résultat », le parcours de cause à effet est le suivant : Un  La proportion de la production nationale de bois d'oeuvre exploitée avec un permis en règle a légèrement augmenté dans tous les pays, et l'APV a favorisé cette augmentation, surtout en Indonésie (Figure 41).    Cette partie s'intéresse à l'impact de l'APV dans le cadre de l'amélioration de l'état des forêts (Figure 46). Les parcours de cause à effet sont les suivants :• L'état des forêts s'améliore avec l'adoption de pratiques de GDF sur l'ensemble du territoire national, dans le but de réduire la déforestation et la dégradation forestière.    Cette partie porte sur un impact attendu du processus APV, bien que moins direct, sur le développement économique (Figure 54). Les parcours de cause à effet sont les suivants :      Dans la plupart des pays, une demande pour du bois légal est ressentie à la fois sur les marchés export et nationaux (Figure 63). Au cours des discussions de groupe cependant, Cette partie aborde le dernier impact attendu du processus APV : les moyens de subsistance et la pauvreté (Figure 65).Les parcours de cause à effet sont les suivants :   Le remplissage du questionnaire dans le pays constituait    • Le panel d'experts identifiés et interrogés s'est avéré très bien ciblé pour l'étude, puisque l'ensemble des personnes interrogées présentait une expérience moyenne de 17 ans dans le secteur forestier, avec un niveau de connaissances élevé sur les secteurs abordés au cours de l'enquête (par ex. la société civile, les communautés locales et autochtones, le secteur privé, etc.).• Les différentes catégories du panel des participants étaient équilibrées : artisanal (32 %), société civile (29 %) et administration publique (10 %).• Une forte proportion des personnes interrogées était impliquée dans des activités liées à l'APV-FLEGT (84 %), et la plupart avaient participé aux volets d'application de la loi et de développement de l'APV.• Les femmes étaient plutôt bien représentées (18 %).     • 85 % des personnes interrogées étaient des hommes et 15 % des femmes.• Les personnes interrogées se sont elles-mêmes classées dans les secteurs suivants : administration publique           La Figure 102  • La participation des personnes interrogées dans des activités en lien avec l'APV-FLEGT était élevée (91 %), parmi lesquelles deux tiers travaillaient sur la définition et la mise en oeuvre du SVL, et près de la moitié sur la dynamique du dialogue multipartite.• Les femmes étaient plutôt bien représentées (19 %).     ","tokenCount":"830"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d5e3997b8eb0936dae46e3bbccf4a70a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/501ab718-b8bd-4249-a6fc-e5286f686237/retrieve","id":"-1650296393"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e06d9c3e-a7b2-4c6a-81bf-e4db5d3d00ec","pagecount":"9","content":"A farmer from Bangladesh describes crop diversity in her fields and gives the reasons tor encouraging diversity versus mono-cropping.I am trying here to explain the soU type, the problems associated wilh the soil in my area. You will find a 101 of stones there. so farming is very difficul!. The soil is black and you can see the amount of stones. In the areas where lhere ís red soil, lhe depth is very shallow-not more Ihan five lo six inches-and below II there Is a complete sheet of rock. So keeplng in mind Ihe soil types and Ihe problems associated wlth ralnfed agriculture in my area, the women try to grow a lot of crops in a given area so ¡hat they can be sure of getting at leas! one crop in the crop season.We slore different types of seeds of differen! crops and mix all these crops. Women, especially, playa vital in this mixing. Keeping In view lhe soil fertility, we observe the soil-which type of crop can be grown in a certain patch of land the woman owns. So women playa vital role and they mix al! the different types of crops that can give foed. fadder, and add to lhe fertility of Ihe soll.We grow a range of crops-al leasl eighl lo 10 crops in a year in a given area: you can see crops like jowar (sorghum), red gramo field beans, and cow peas. We grow Ihis many crops lo gel so me of Ihe crops al one time and others at anolher time. So me crops will mature first. so they are harvested first. so we get toad when we are hungry.The maln reason behind growing so many crops in a glven period is lhat even if. due lo any reason, some crops fail, we are sure of getting something. So we will be harvesting differenl crops over a periad of a season of six months. Every time we go to Ihe field, we will gel something to lake back to our homes to cook. At the same time, there won't be much work because during the periad of six months, one crop will be coming al one time and anolher Ihe nexl lime and anolherlhe nex!o So the load is spread evenly on the women and not all at one time.The second reason is lhat lhere are different varieties of jowar-compact-headed and loose ones. In our area, we sometimes gel rain at lhe harvesting stage. When we gel rain al lhis time, Ihe compact-headed seeds germinate in the head itself. So we also grow lhe loose-headed variety. Even if there is drizzle for two or lhree days, lhis variety can overcome that problem. Unless there is a big drizzle tor one week, I am sure of getting at least some jowarfor consumplion.Keeping in mind lhe soil fertility, I also mix legume crops like field beans and jowar. We grow jowar also because of the fodder requirements of the animals we own.Cow peas and field beans may nol be importan! to you, and although we sow lhese crops in jusi a few rows, they are very importan! to us because they take care of the soU fertility and we also gel very good nutrilious food out from them. So lhey are importanl lo us even though they are grown in small quantitíes. Now I will explain about lhe multiple uses of crops like red gramo We use lhe pulse for dhal, a curry Iha! we eat wilh our bread and rice. We use the stalks of red gram for fuel wood and for thatching. This crop is very important lo us; il is useful to us in a number of ways.In Ihe rabí (winter) season, we also grow a range of crops. We grow mus!ard wi!h whea! for pest control because some insects thal a!tack wheal will be atlracted to mustard, and in this way pesls will be conlrolled.Foxtaíl millet is the firsl crop of the season in our area. When we don't have anything to eat in our homes, Ihis is the firs! crop thal will meel our hunger needs because most of the !hings stored from the earlier season will have been used up.When we grow crops, we also keep in mind the fodder requirements of the animal s we own. Thal is the reason we grow some varieties that will give more fodder for our animals.One agricultural practice in our area is this: after harvesting red gram, the farmers plow back lhe land, so lhal whatever leaf-fal! Ihere is from Ihe red gram will immedialely go back lo the 50il. We are consciou5 of whatever we exlracl from Ihe soíl and we Iry lo give back Ihe same amounl of Ihings Ihat we are extracting from Ihe soil. This is very important lo usoThe more crops we grow, Ihe more the load will be evenly spread on us for harvesting them. More lhan that, we will al so get more employment. The greater lhe diversíty of crops, lhe more harvesting lhere is for differenl crops at different times; people in lhe víllage will gel more employment when there is more diversity.Women in our area do not prefer mono-cropping. The grealer lhe diversity, lhe fewer the grains of each crop, so lhe women won't want lo seU lhís smaU quantity of grain in Ihe market. Neilher will the men bother because of the small quantity; they will lhink Ihal \"even if I take this lo Ihe market, wha! is it lha! I am getting?\" When you see each crop individually, il will be very small, bu! when we compare the grain produetion for all of lhem, lhere will be more grain in total. If we have a range of different crops in our homes, lhen whenever we feel hungry, we can consume them. Wilh a single crop, we may or may nol get a good yield. If the crop fails, we will slarve for most of the year. You may Ihink Ihal if you gel good crop, you may purehase some of Ihe grains of different crops lo eat, but even if you can gel it in Ihe market, poor women will defini!ely no! buy so many different crops. They would ralher spend Ihe money on olher !hings Ihan food. If we have grains in our own homes, Ihe satisfaelion is different than when we buy il from Ihe market. Even if you want lo eat, you may nol have the money, and even buying from the market, we will eal less and lhe satisfaction will not be Ihere. If we grow a range of erops and have the different grains in our homes, then whenever children ask, we can cook different recipes from lhe differenl grains and provide them with nutritious food al Ihe sama time. whieh is no! possible when we grow a single crop.Ourfood, our knowledge, and whateverwe are doing should nol be a Ihreat lo diversity, bul should enhance diversity. The types of food we eat now should also help in inereasing diversity.•Women organized a biodiversity feslival (called a jatra). Farmers from 75 villages atlended Ihis jatra. Using alllocal malerials, lhere were exhibils of different traditionallandraces and how they were used-whieh part of the planl is used for whal purpose, like Ihatching, ele. Many farmers were inspired by lhis and have collected nearly 72 traditional landraces. They are extending all lhese seeds in 75 víllages. Now they can crop al least 2000 acres of land with lhese 72 Iraditional landraces. After seeing Ihis biodiversity festival, many farmera left !he area understanding the importance and uses of Ihe differenl crops. They are coming forward to culliva!e lhe landraees, and in each village 20 farmers are eultivating these 72 different landraces.Whatever inputs we are using for farming. Ihe resources should be avaílable loeally and the farmer should not depend on any external resources. We want lo use our own products; we want to use some of the green-Ieaf manuring crops. We give a 101 of importance to soil fertility management. Whatever variety you may grow, unless lhe soU is fertile, we cannot achieve anythíng; we eannot achieve the potential yield even though Ihe genelie potential may be lhere. So soil fertility is one of Ihe mos! important lhings we are trying lo address.Our way of looking at lhe productivity of a farm is different. We generally don't look al yield only or yield per unil of land only or only general yield. There are many things we getfrom lhe farm, like uncultivaled greens, medicinal planls, vegetables, fodder. So ifyou monitor all these things, Ihey will be more lhan wha! you would get from a single crop. Everything is equally important in this whole farming system, so we look at different things in farming and nol at a single lhing.Raksya Begam Woman (armer from Bang/adeshA farmer trom Bangladesh describes her experiences growing a modem rice variety.I'm trom Bangladesh and my name is Rabia. 1 am here to talk about our experiences. The scientists told us, lhe farmers, tha! you can lake a variety and planl il in your fields and you will gel plenty-20 mounds of rice per acre. We were very simple; we believed il and were very happy lo hear the news. We actually planted Ihis variety. It was a dwarf variety, and the kind of straw we gol from lhese planls was the type Ihal if there was rain lhen alllhe straw gol rolten and was no good for fodder for liveslock, nol even as fodder for the scavenger chicken. Allhough the straw mixed with cow dung created many insects. which were useful for chickens to ea!. We also had lo use pesticides and fertilizers and soon the whole land became hard like rock.Previously we used to cultivale Ihe local rice varieties of Aaush and Aamon. The slraw of Ihese varietíes was long-taller-and was very good for fodder. 1I ensured thal we could keep livestock and poullry.Now, Ihe scientisls have always made claims. They showed us Ihe profil_hat we will gel trom Ihe production of Iheir varlelies-bul they never actually calculated the losses, the olher losses thal lhe farmers have lo pay the cosl foro Now we, the farmers, have realized these other costs.The situation right now is that Ihe soll has become just like rock and the fertllity is not the same as il was before. Now il also requires a lot of money to cullivate paddy or to remain in agriculture and the relums lo Ihe farmers are very peor.Previously, Ihe kind ofvariety we used to cullivate was laslier, compared lo Ihe modem varielies.lt was also not a source of disease: il did not conlain any pesticide or pesticide residues. After consuming thase new rice varieties, we are now suffering trom many diseases, so lhere are health problems along with the olher problems. There are health problems in the livestock and poullry also, so the managemenl of lives!ock and poultry is more difficult now.On Ihe olher hand, uncultivated food is not available any more, al leasl il has really become scarce. But the scientists never calculated lhis serious cast to Ihe tarmers. So we tarmers have now realized !hal we have had to pay too much for !hese new varieties and il is lime lo realize !ha! we need lo gel away from Ihem.The older varielies had many other uses. We could use Ihem as sources of energy and also as a kind of organic fertilizer. The dwarf--or modem--variety is no! useful as the older varie!ies.There ís a proverb in Bengal, \"Don't go lo lhe field in the ea s!. \"This is a local saying, which means, \"Don't go lo a place where you will hear bad informalion; il looks like !he sun bul it is no! the sun.\" Now we realize thal to the scientists, Ihe farmers were not lheir objective-their main focus was nol really lo serve the interests of !he farmers.15 There an Imminent Crisis in Agriculture?Abstract A farmer from Bangladesh, with 22 years of experience, predicts an imminent crisis in agriculture, I have been practicing modern agriculture for quite a long time and received the Presidential Award twice. I am here lo share some of my experiences wi!h the different varieties, especially !he modem varieties, tha! I have planted on myown farmland.ln terms oflhe productivityof a single crop, I have been able to demonstrate that some of the varieties performed well, but economically, I did nol galn. In my 22 years as a farmer planling modem varieties, one Ihing I would like lo say is Ihat we are heading for an imminen! crisis in agriculture. And we need the collaboration of the government and the scientists with the farmers. As scientists have noticed, the organic maller is very low, now it is 0.50 (the lowest) and 1.63 (lhe highest). This is the range in one area. We can talk about plant breeding or talk about Ihe inlroduction of modern varieties, bul unless we take care of Ihe problems of organic maller in the sOI', we will not be able lo resolve Ihe crisis in agriculture, On my farmland, I am Irying lo make available more organic maller from my farm and I am also reducing Ihe use of pesticides. Despile the fac! that many people are aware of the dangers of pesticides, the use of pesticides Is increasing, partly because of the companies' aggressive marketing techniques. Farmers are somellmes confused with Ihis type of aggressive markeling and eventually they pay Ihe cost of using pesticides, In my experience and from Ihe literature available lo me, none of the pesticides I am familiar with can reduce Ihe allack to 50% or 60%, In conlrast, partly from my own experience, from my own practice, and al the same time from some of Ihe training I got for inlegrated pes! management (IPM), I have been able to reduce the attack of pests by 80%-90%.Al the same time, seed is a very vital issue. You have lo have good-quality, healthy seeds for Ihe farmers. So this is a very sensitive area for the farmers. You have to have good-quality seeds for the experiments that we are trying.And now there is more promolion of hybrid seeds around the world. They say thal the hybrid cannot contribute lo the interests of the farmer because they cannot keep Ihe seeds. The farmers will not know the characteristics of the seeds the way they know the lraditional varieties, So eventually i! canno! be good for the welfare of the farming community,'My general feeling aboul the technology is thal when you prom ate a technology, it is very importan! to understand the nature ofthe technology, whose interests il is serving, and how it is good for the farmer, or for thal maller, who the consliluencies of Ihe technology are. Unless you know very c1early about that, !hen eventually the technologies will not be very fruitful.When we decide about technology, certain characleristics are very important. One is Ihat jt should no! be costly or it should be al leas! wilhin Ihe reasonable reach of farmers. Second, il should be verified by scientific procedures and by an indication !ha! it can perform as they are claming it Is going lo perform. Third, it should be gainfullo Ihe farmer-the recipient who is receiving it. 1I should be sustainable and also should be used by a large number of farmers.So I appeal to Ihe scientists lo note what I ha ve said. I hope you will take it as coming from the farmers and that you will take interest in Ihese issues.l. Translator 's commenL He (the farmer) is emphasizing the question ofwhether the farmers can really keep these seeds in me ","tokenCount":"2616"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"545d607d09948908ebc9d92957a1303c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/316d9382-5324-408e-9e7e-4bd4d06e076e/retrieve","id":"469880609"},"keywords":["Mitigation","GHGs","agriculture","forestry","land use","AFOLU","Mexico"],"sieverID":"3b8b83c2-9b90-4be5-96b8-4c96bf85be21","pagecount":"15","content":"Countries often lack methods for rapidly, but robustly determining greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation actions and their impacts comprehensively in the land use sector to support commitments to the Paris Agreement. We present rapid assessment methods based on easily available spatial data and adoption costs for mitigation related to crops, livestock and forestry to identify priority locations and actions. Applying the methods for the case of Mexico, we found a national mitigation potential of 87.88 million tons (Mt) CO 2 eq yr À1 , comprising 7.91, 7.66 and 72.31 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 from crops, livestock and forestry/agro-forestry, respectively. At the state level, mitigation potentials were highest in Chiapas (13 Mt CO 2 eq) followed by Campeche (8 Mt CO 2 eq). Eleven states had a land use mitigation potential between 2.5 to 6.5 Mt CO 2 eq, while other states had mitigation potentials of less than 2 Mt CO 2 eq. Mitigation options for crops and livestock could reduce 60% and 6% of the respective emissions. Mitigation options for forestry could reduce emissions by half. If properly implemented, mitigation potentials on cropland can be realized with net benefits, compared to livestock and forestry options, which involve net costs. The method supports science-based priority setting of mitigation actions by location and subsector and should help inform future policy and implementation of countries' nationally determined contributions.Agriculture and related land use change contributed about 23% of the world's anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2016 (12.0 ± 3.0 Gt CO 2 eq yr À1 ) [1] and further expected increase in future as food production will need to increase to feed rising population [2]. Climate change mitigation in agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) is critical to achieving the 2 C limit of the Paris Agreement [3]. Recent analyses indicate that land-based mitigation, which includes both carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) removal and GHG emission reduction, can contribute $30% of the reductions needed to reach 2030 targets [4]. Despite its critical role in future emissions, action to reduce AFOLU emissions has lagged behind other sectors. Furthermore, land and its ecosystem management are critical for livelihoods in that they constitute the basis of net primary productivity, the supply of food and feed, fresh water, biodiversity and multiple other ecosystem services. Technological options for reducing GHGs through sustainable land management, together with enabling policies, are poorly understood. Specific, country-level recommendations for actions to increase sinks through improved land stewardship and reduced emissions from land use are generally lacking.Mexico is one of the top-ten GHG emitters in the world and therefore has a significant role to play in reducing global emissions and determining the future climate. The AFOLU sector is responsible for 14.5% of total national GHG emissions in Mexico [5]. In Mexico's agricultural sector, methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions arise from livestock activities (enteric fermentation and manure management), as well as those from agricultural activities (soil management and field burning of crop residues). For land use, CO 2 emissions and removals are a result of changes in forest lands, pastures, agricultural land, wetlands and settlements [5]. The government of Mexico has included agriculture and other land uses as one of the priority sectors for GHG reduction in its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [6]. Many practices in crop production, livestock and forestry management (e.g. enhanced nitrogen use efficiency, conservation agriculture, laser land levelling, biodigesters, enhanced manure management, zero deforestation and the role of carbon markets) can reduce GHGs emissions without compromising productivity. Spatial determination of emissions hotspots together with major contributors to emissions and identification of mitigation options and their potential help countries prioritize and incentivize mitigation actions based on their mitigation potential, cost of adoption, institutional capacity and market context consistent with their food security and environmental goals.Here we present a rapid country-level assessment of some GHG mitigation options for the AFOLU sector in Mexico, together with the costs of their adoption. We also analyze the risks associated with adoption of proposed mitigation options and possible coping strategies. Science-and databased estimation and mitigation potential help countries prioritize and incentivize mitigation actions based on their mitigation potential, cost of adoption, institutional capacity and market context consistent with their food security and environmental goal.The key starting point for assessing the mitigation potential of any economic sector is to quantify baseline emissions and analyze the major sources of emissions. Here, we employed a bottom-up approach using spatially explicit activity data for local production systems together with local soil and climate conditions to quantify baseline as well as business-as-usual (BAU) emissions. Mitigation potential can be estimated relative either to baseline emissions or to BAU emission scenario. In this analysis, we estimated mitigation potential relative to BAU scenario. For this we estimated GHG emissions under BAU and mitigation scenario for crop production, livestock production and the forestry and other land use (FOLU) sector and determined the mitigation potential for each sector as the difference in emissions under the BAU and mitigation scenarios. We then summed the sectoral estimates to obtain their combined mitigation potential. We analyzed emission and mitigation potential by jurisdiction (state level) because (i) activity data in Mexico are available for jurisdictions, (ii) ecological zones may vary by subsector and combining emission and mitigation data from all subsectors would be a challenge, and (iii) government decisions are taken at the jurisdiction level, so the jurisdictionlevel mitigation potential will be useful for government action. Finally, we reviewed key policy documents and strategic plans to understand risks of adoption, institutional capacity, and the policy environment and to then suggest a possible roadmap for implementing mitigation options. See Sapkota et al. [7,8] for similar analytical approaches.We used activity data from year 2017 to estimate emissions from crop and livestock production and from 2015 for FOLU. See Supplemental Materials for crop, livestock and FOLU data sources. For the database under BAU and mitigation scenarios, we took baseline data and applied growth assumptions for factors such as input consumption, technological development, area under various land uses and livestock populations as well as adoption of various mitigation options as described in \"GHG emissions scenarios\" section.The same approach was used to determine spatially explicit emissions under baseline, BAU and mitigation scenarios, with mitigation potential calculated as the difference in emissions between the BAU and mitigation scenarios. GHG emission from crop production were estimated using the Mitigation Options Tool (CCAFS-MOT) of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) [9]. CCAFS-MOT combines several empirical models to estimate GHG emissions from different land uses and considers specific factors that influence GHG emissions, such as soil and climate, production inputs and management practices (See Feliciano et al. [9] and Sapkota et al. [8] for details).Emissions from livestock production in Mexico were calculated according to the Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gases Inventories, Volume 4, Chapters 10 and 11 from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology [10]. We calculated emissions from enteric fermentation for dairy and beef cattle using a Tier 2 emissions factor developed for Animal under Grazing Management (AGM) (95.  . For swine production related emissions we used a developed country emissions factor (1.5 kg CH 4 head À1 yr À1 ) for Intensive Production (SIP) system and developing country emissions factor (1.0 kg CH 4 head À1 yr À1 ) for subsistence production system [10].To estimate manure and manure storage (M&MS) emissions from dairy farming under AGM, we developed factors for CH 4 and N 2 O emissions under grazing conditions and, for ACM under liquid, uncovered lagoon and biodigester conditions, according to the description in the INECC 2018 [11] national inventory. For AGCM we assumed 50% grazing and 50% confinement time, applying the emissions factors for CH 4 and N 2 O developed for the other two groups.To estimate M&MS emissions from beef under AGM, we developed CH 4 and N 2 O emission factors for grazing conditions and, for ACM a factor for the same gases under dry lot and solid storage conditions, according to the description in the INECC national inventory. For AGCM we assumed 50% time under grazing and 50% under confinement and used the emissions factor for CH 4 and N 2 O developed for the other two groups.For M&MS emissions from swine under SIP, we developed CH 4 and N 2 O emissions factors for pit storage, anaerobic lagoons and biodigesters, following the INECC description for the 2018 national inventory. For swine under Familiar Production, we developed emissions factors for CH 4 and N 2 O under grazing conditions.The baseline scenario models and assumptions underlying calculations of FOLU emissions and removals are based on the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, under the approach \"Stock differences.\" The activity data for the baseline calculation includes a group of unbiased statistical estimates for each IPCC category and sub-category of land use, which were derived from uncertainty assessments carried out using other data from the geospatial union of the original inputs (Series II, III, IV, V and VI of the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) on the land use and vegetation chart, scale 1:250,000).Certain statistical estimates lack geographical explicitness; that is, the data are spatially referred but not spatially explicit. The Comisi on Nacional Forestal (CONAFOR) has carried out this process for the entire country including Campeche, Chiapas, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo and Yucat an. We obtained baselines for the other 26 states of Mexico by subtracting national emissions from available states and multiplying those values by the percentage of forest area for each state relative to the total forest area of the remaining 26 states.After all GHGs (CO 2 , CH 4 and N 2 O) were calculated, they were converted into CO 2 eq using global warming potentials over 100 years of 34 and 298 for CH 4 and N 2 O, respectively [12].Crop-production-related mitigation options were derived from literature review, through stakeholder consultations carried out in El Batan, Mexico and expert opinions. For example, in high input cropping areas, farmers apply nitrogen (N) fertilizer at supra-optimal rates resulting into low N use efficiency (NUE; defined as crop N harvested relative to N input) and substantial excess N leached or emitted to environment. Improving NUE through adoption of various precision nutrient management technologies would lower N 2 O emissions [13] in such production environment, while helping to reduce fertilizer rates without compromising yield, so these technologies were considered important mitigation options.Conventional tillage tends to promote soil carbon (C) losses through enhanced decomposition and erosion of soil organic matter. Zero-tillage, a key component of conservation agriculture, often increases soil C stock, although the permanence of C sequestered this way is questionable [14]. The potential of C sequestration through adoption of zero-tillage were estimated using tillage factors for different climate zones [15]. Furthermore, reduced energy requirements due to minimum or nonrequirement of tillage under reduced or zero-tillage are linked to savings in fuel, which was taken from CIMMYT's experimental data in Obregon research station. Precision levelling of crop fields can help to lower GHG emissions by reducing cultivation time and improving the efficiency of fertilizer and irrigation water. Therefore, emission reductions from the adoption of land levelling were calculated indirectly by estimating savings in cultivation energy, fertilizer and irrigation.Mexico's NDC for livestock includes farm biodigesters and recovered grazing areas [16]. This study did not consider mitigation options for recovered grazing areas because related actions are not well documented and activities under the IPCC Guidelines for National Inventories do not include mitigation for livestock. We estimated mitigation potential of farm biodigesters for dairy and swine according to technical indications from FIRCO-SAGARPA [17] and for intensive production based on data from the national inventory report [11]. To establish the need for a biodigester, we considered technical conditions and the minimal number of farm heads required to generate electricity, in accordance with Eaton et al. [18]. Biodigester costs included the purchase of generators and related equipment. We included composting plant for beef production with manure management under dry lot and solid storage. Cost data and technical parameters were according with Granollers [19].The potential beneficiary population for the FOLU mitigation option represents the number of people living in areas with forest conservation, protection and restoration activities established in Mexico between 2010 and 2017 through the CONAFOR programs and from 2019 and 2020 through the \"Sembrando Vida\" program of the Secretar ıa de Bienestar. Therefore, the Mexican government has already delivered financial and in-kind subsidies to farmers to establish these areas. To obtain certification, owners and holders of forests and preferably forestlands for conservation, restoration and forest management actions are expected to show C sequestration potential and results through the related projects that meet a national or international standard.The main implementation costs for FOLU mitigation measures are for developing national capacities, paying for technical advice, establishing site-level monitoring, reporting and verification systems (MRV) and contracting external verification services. Certified owners and holders of the benefited lands are expected to offer offsets in C markets, thereby adding to NDCs while diversifying and improving their incomes.We estimated GHG savings through various options against 2030 BAU emissions, which were estimated based on AFOLU sector growth assumptions for factors such as input consumption, technological development, area under various land uses and livestock populations. These expected changes were validated through expert consultation and a stakeholder workshop.Business-as-usual scenario. The BAU scenario for cropland considered that over the last 10 years, N fertilizer use increased 48% [20] and maize production increased by 28%. Extrapolating N fertilizer use to 2030 gave an expected increase of 50% over 2017 levels. Analyzing this trend and the expected food deficit (projected demand minus projected production) for 2030 gave an expected increase in N fertilizer use of 50% in irrigated and high-rainfall rainfed areas and of 20% in low-rainfall rainfed areas with dry climates. In areas where current N fertilizer is equal to or greater than 400 kg ha À1 , we assumed no increase. The projected N fertilizer use trends were applied in maize, wheat and sugarcane production.The government of Mexico has introduced a price support program to protect farmers from market failures that incentivize increasing the area under crops, as well as the \"Sembrando Vida\" program which encourages farmers to dedicate land for forestry, agro-forestry and \"milpa,\" the traditional maize-bean-squash intercrop. Based on these factors, we assumed a 7% increase in maize area. Based on the stability of Mexico's wheat area since 2004, we assumed no change in wheat area to 2030, whereas the area under sugarcane has increased 25% during 2004-2018 and is expected to increase from 10-15% between now and 2030, so we assumed a 12.5% increase of sugarcane area between now and 2030 in sugarcane producing states.We estimated the BAU scenario for livestock using historical information about animal populations, production and weights from Agroalimentary Information System (SIAP, Sistema de Informaci on Agroalimentaria y Pesquera) database [21]. For cattle's BAU, we considered 2011-2020 projections for the agri-food sector from the agriculture ministry [22] and for swine, pig production projections [23]. Historical information was used to identify drivers and Average Annual Growth Rate (AAGR) for swine, dairy and beef. The AAGR were used for BAU and to estimate total livestock GHG emissions to 2030.The BAU scenario for FOLU assumes that no new measures will be implemented to mitigate climate change and that recorded emission/removal trends will continue as reported in the INEGYCEI_USCUSS 6a_CN [5]. The scenario was developed in four steps: (i) collection and systematization of historical area information; (ii) future projection of areas using statistical models and/or explanatory variables (drivers); (iii) projecting parameters and emission factors to 2050; and (iv) estimating projected emissions and removals to 2050 [11]. The BAU scenario was projected to 2050, even though our sources report the estimated emission and removal values to 2030. BAU scenario to 2030 was taken from developing implementation pathways for the NDCs to greenhouse gas and compounds mitigation in the land use and forestry sector.Mitigation scenario. To estimate emissions under the mitigation scenario, we applied all possible mitigation options and their mitigation potential, together with the scale of their adoption, over the BAU scenario. For high-input areas of Mexico where farmers over-apply N fertilizer and much N is lost, we calculated plot-level NUE using yield and applied N, assuming respective N contents of 1.58% and 1.99% for maize and wheat grain and 0.13% for sugarcane stalks [9]. For all areas where NUE was less than 50%, the optimum N rate was estimated assuming NUE of 50% following the equation below.where kg N removed at harvestWhere NUE was <50%, we calculated balanced N to raise NUE to 50%; where NUE was >50%, we added N to increase yield by 20%. The N balance thus calculated was used to modify input data and emissions under the mitigation scenario.Similarly, the area under conservation agriculture for maize, wheat and sugarcane in the mitigation scenario was estimated to be 80,000, 10,000 and 10,000 ha, respectively. We speculated that conservation agriculture will be adopted mainly in the states of Chiapas, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Sonora and Michoac an. The estimated crop area under precision levelling, about 30% at present, is projected to increase by 40% and 50% under the BAU and mitigation scenarios, respectively.Livestock facilities are a key factor for emissions estimates in the mitigation scenario. To project adoption of biodigesters, we did not consider AGM, family or beef production. We also set a minimum animal population for a biodigester to produce energy. To estimate the benefits of composting in beef production, we considered the numbers of heads under dry lot and solid storage manure management, along with the number of heads required to produce one ton of manure per day, following Granollers [19].To estimate the mitigation benefits of changing from anaerobic lagoons to biodigesters, we developed and compared Tier 2 emission factors by state and municipality for both technologies. Similarly, to estimate mitigation benefits of adopting a composting plant, we developed and compared Tier 2 emission factors for solid storage and composting. Finally, for each technology we considered maximum mitigation potential, based on technical necessities and livestock data in the 2017 national agricultural survey [24].In the forestry and other land use, Government of Mexico has set three goals, i.e. zero percent net deforestation by 2030, sustainable forest management and management of natural protected areas ( Areas Naturales Protegidas, ANP) to reduce GHG emissions. Associated objectives and courses of action for these goals are summarized in Table S1. The mitigation potential of these three goals has been evaluated by INECC up to 2050, based on the results of two public policy initiatives: (i) the National REDD þ Strategy, which targets 0% deforestation by 2030, and (ii) the National Strategy for Sustainable Forest Management to Increase Production and Productivity, 2014-2018, which sought to raise total biomass stocks under sustainable forest management ecosystems.As part of this study, a new mitigation strategy was added to the preceding three goals: including the Mexican forestry sector in C markets. We followed a traditional empirical model to design the requisite public policies, based on an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT; see Annex FOLU S1). Based on the analysis, we identified the following populations as the basis for estimating C capture (CONAFOR 2015):1. Potential population: population representing the need or problem addressed in the program objectives, which could therefore be eligible for its attention. For the purposes of this project, hereafter referred to as \"potential area.\" 2. Target population: potential population zone that requires more urgent and strategic attention. 3. Population served: target population attended by the program per year based on available resources.To estimate mitigation potential, we calculated C stocks in aboveground and underground biomass managed by the population served, using the IPCC \"Differences in stocks\" approach with the IPCC emissions formula ¼ (Activity Data) à (Emission Factor). This approach requires calculating C stocks at least twice: once for the year in which the area is incorporated into the program and once for 2030. The difference between the two represents the associated mitigation potential.The emission factors and maximum C densities are specific to the country's ecosystems and developed by the Specialized Technical Unit for Monitoring, Reporting and Verification of the National Forestry Commission for the INEGYCEI compilation from 1990 to 2015. To estimate the mitigation potential of this, we set up a series of assumptions for the three populations described above to determine C stocks at the moment each population enters the program and for 2030 (Annex FOLU S1). The mitigation potential of each option equals the difference in emissions under the BAU and mitigation scenarios.The mitigation potentials of various mitigation options were combined to obtain the mitigation potential of state-level mitigation packages. This calculation was strictly additive; we did not attempt to calculate possible synergies. The costs and/or benefits of adopting mitigation options were calculated using the unit prices of adoptionrelated inputs and outputs, using current market prices in Mexico for commodities such as fertilizer, fuel, electricity and harvested products.Based on this rapid analysis, we estimated total emissions from crop and livestock production in Mexico at about 147.45 Mt CO 2 eq and C sequestration from the FOLU sector of about 148.35 Mt CO 2 eq, resulting in a net sequestration of about 0.90 Mt CO 2 eq (Figure 1). Crop and livestock production respectively accounted for 9% and 91% of total agricultural emissions. Figure 1 shows total national emissions from crop and livestock and total sequestration from FOLU sector together with the contribution from major crops and livestock species. State-wise emission from crop, livestock and sequestration for FOLU sector together with the combined effect of crop, livestock and FOLU is shown in Figure 2a.Crop production in Mexico accounted for some 13.17 Mt of CO 2 eq in 2017 (Figure 1). This is similar to reported crop production emissions in 2015 (16 Mt CO 2 eq) [25]. Total emissions from crop production were highest in Jalisco (11.5%) and Sinaloa (11.24%), followed by Veracruz (9.5%) and Michoac an (8.63%). Maize contributed over 72% of total crop-related emissions, followed by sugarcane (15%) and wheat (11%). Emissions from maize production were highest in Sinaloa, characterized by larger-scale commercial maize farms, followed by Jalisco and Michoac an (Figure 2b). Maize-related emissions were also high in maizegrowing states such as Chiapas, Guerrero, Guanajuato, Mexico, Puebla, Veracruz, Tamaulipas and Oaxaca. The state of Sonora was responsible for about 39% of wheat-related emissions, followed by Michoac an (17%), Jalisco (11%) and Baja California (9%). Emissions from sugarcane were highest in Veracruz (37%), followed by Jalisco (16%); other states together accounted for less than 7% of sugarcane-related emissions.Emissions from livestock production in 2017 were estimated at 134.29 Mt CO 2 eq (Figure 1), almost double the reported value in Mexico's sixth National Communication for the year 2015 (85.29 Mt CO 2 eq) [5]. Major emitters were the states of Veracruz (11.8% of total livestock emissions), Jalisco (9.1%), Chihuahua (6.8%) and Chiapas (6.8%) (Figure 2c). Beef production accounted for the bulk of total emissions from livestock, contributing 113.74 Mt CO 2 eq. Livestock emissions under the BAU scenario are projected to reach 156.69 Mt CO 2 eq by 2030. Implementation of mitigation efforts, including composting plants for beef production and biodigesters for dairy and swine would reduce total livestock emissions in 2030 to 149.02 Mt CO 2 eq; 9.5% less than under the BAU scenario (Figures 1 and S3).Total emissions in FOLU. In 2015, emissions from the FOLU sector were 20.26 Mt CO 2 eq and sequestration of 168.61 Mt CO 2 eq, resulting in a net balance of À148.35 Mt CO 2 eq (Figure 1). Buira et al. [26] and Dittmer et al. [27] report similar levels of C sequestration in the FOLU sector at 139 and 148 Mt CO 2 eq, respectively, in 2015. The net absorptions of the FOLU sector offsets 22% of Mexico's total emissions. Chiapas had the highest emission intensity (5.03 Mt CO 2 eq) for this sector and Quintana Roo the highest sequestration (-27.25 Mt CO 2 eq). The five states with the most favorable highest net balance (capture minus emissions) were Oaxaca (-25.81 Mt CO 2 eq), Chiapas (-13.87 Mt CO 2 eq), Jalisco (-10.72 Mt CO 2 eq), Sonora (-10.50 Mt CO 2 eq) and Chihuahua (-9.62 Mt CO 2 eq) (Figure 2a).The trend scenario or BAU suggests the FOLU sector will continue to provide an important CO 2 sink through 2050, though it will diminish from an average 128 Mt CO 2 eq of sequestration during 1993-2013 to 108.96 Mt CO 2 eq by 2030 (Figure 1) and 91 Mt CO 2 eq by 2050 (Figure S4). Our estimated mitigation potential in FOLU sector is much higher (47.96 Mt CO 2 eq additional mitigation potential than governmental target) than the mitigation goals of Mexican government, i.e. À31.37 Mt CO 2 e [11], À16.60 Mt CO 2 eq and À0.09 Mt CO 2 eq for the 0% deforestation target rate, increasing C stocks and management of ANP, respectively (Figure S5).Under the BAU scenario with no mitigation, GHG fluxes from crop and livestock production are projected at 172.45 Mt CO 2 eq by 2030, while the FOLU sector is expected to capture 108.96 Mt CO 2 eq, resulting in net emissions of 63.49 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 from the AFOLU sector (Figure 1). Emissions from crop and livestock production under mitigation scenario are estimated at 156.88 Mt CO 2 eq, with a GHG capture by the FOLU sector of 181.27 Mt CO 2 eq, resulting in net negative emissions; that is, 24.39 Mt CO 2 eq would be sequestered each year. Thus, the assumed levels of adoption of the mitigation options identified for crop and livestock production and the FOLU sector in Mexico would result in a total mitigation of 87.88 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 (Figures 1 & 4), comprising 7.91, 7.66 and 72.31 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 from the crop, livestock and FOLU sectors, respectively. Among crop and livestock production, maize and swine offered the highest technical mitigation potentialnearly 5 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 component À1and wheat production offered the least mitigation potential. Buira et al. [26] show crop, livestock and land use emissions of approximately 20, 60 and À150 Mt CO 2 eq in 2030 based on the deep decarbonization pathway that identifies a set of sectoral trajectories potentially consistent with meeting the Paris Agreement.Total mitigation potential from AFOLU sector was the highest in Chiapas ($13 Mt CO 2 eq) followed by Campeche ($8 Mt CO 2 eq) (Figure 3a).Eleven states (i.e. Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Yucatan, Jalisco, Sonora, Veracruz, Durango, Chihuahua, Puebla, Michoac an and Guerrero) had total AFOLU mitigation potential between 2.5 to 6.5 Mt CO 2 eq, other states have AFOLU mitigation potentials of less than 2 Mt CO 2 eq.Figure 4 shows the magnitude of GHG savings per year through adoption of various mitigation measures from the AFOLU sector in Mexico together with the abatement cost per unit of CO 2 eq abated. Many of the mitigation measures employ currently available technologies and can be implemented immediately. The cost-beneficial measures have negative cost and appear below the x-axis on the left-hand side of the graph, whereas the cost-incurring measures appear above the x-axis, on the right-hand side of the graph. Of the total technical mitigation potential of 87.88 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 , about 6.33 Mt CO 2 eq was accounted for by measures that have a cost saving associated with adoption.The crop production sector in Mexico has a total mitigation potential of about 7.91 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 with the additional benefit of 19.41 billion MXN. Crop mitigation potential was the highest in Veracruz, Jalisco and Michoac an and intermediate (between 0.4 to 0.6 Mt CO 2 eq) in the states of Chiapas, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, Mexico and Guerrero (Figure 3b). Other states had crop mitigation potentials of less than 0.4 Mt CO 2 eq. GHG mitigation in the crop sector could be obtained through better N management, preventing crop residue burning and adoption of conservation agriculture and laser land levelling. In crop production, better N management to improve NUE contributes the highest mitigation potential ($6 Mt CO 2 eq) followed by prevention of crop residue burning ($1.57 Mt CO 2 eq), whereas adoption of conservation agriculture and laser land levelling provide nominal mitigation potential (Figure 4). Adoption of these mitigation packages (i.e. improved NUE, prevention of residue burning, adoption of conservation agriculture and laser land levelling) in five major states of Mexico (i.e. Veracruz, Jalisco, Michoac an, Chiapas and Sinaloa) would deliver about 50% of total crop production related mitigation potential. Mitigation effect of better N management was highest in the states of Jalisco, Michoac an, Sinaloa, Veracruz and Chiapas whereas that of preventing residue burning was the highest in Veracruz, Jalisco, San Luis Potosi, and Oaxaca.Total mitigation potential for livestock is 7.66 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 and with the estimated investment of  The area (height à width) of the bar represents the total cost of the action, i.e. how much it would cost altogether in order to deliver all of the CO 2 eq savings from the action. NUE ¼ nitrogen use efficiency; LLL ¼ laser land levelling; CA ¼ conservation agriculture.14.92 billion MXN. Livestock mitigation potential was the highest in Jalisco and Sonora and intermediate (between 0.4 to 0.8 Mt CO 2 eq) in the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Guanajuato, and Yucatan. Other states have livestock mitigation potentials of less than 0.3 Mt CO 2 eq (Figure 3c). The highest potential options found that the use of biodigesters on swine farms had the potential to mitigate 5.18 Mt CO 2 eq. 1,364 installed biodigesters with a capacity to receive liquid manure from 5,500 adult animals are necessary. Biodigesting of dairy cattle manure and composting of beef cattle manure together would have a total mitigation potential of about 2.5 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 with a total investment requirement of 11.72 billion MXN. While several options exist for reducing livestock emissions (i.e. improved breeding and feeding, feed additives, grazing and pasture management, manipulation of rumen), the impacts are not always easy to estimate, can be highly context dependent or may not be an option as cost remains a barrier [28,29].The FOLU sector has a total mitigation potential of 72.31 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 to 2030 with an estimated investment of 23.82 billion MXN. The highest mitigation potential from the FOLU sector was estimated to be from Chiapas and followed by Campeche, Oaxaca and Quintana Roo (Figure 3a). The highest mitigation potential in the FOLU sector comes from a zero-deforestation program (31.36 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 ) followed by a C offset in the C market (24.26 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 ). However, mitigation through C offset in the C market was estimated to have the highest abatement cost (Figure S4). The five states with the greatest mitigation potential under an intermediate C market scenario (considering that it is the most likely) are Quintana Roo (-2.68 Mt CO 2 eq), Chiapas (-2.25 Mt CO 2 eq), Campeche (-1.54 Mt CO 2 eq), Veracruz (-1.44 Mt CO 2 eq) and Durango (-1.43 Mt CO 2 eq).These estimates should be interpreted in light of uncertainties associated with activity data, emission factors and models used in the Cool Farm Tool. Similar studies [7], calculated 95% confidence interval as a measure of uncertainty due to activity data such as crop or livestock management practices. Given the use of census data for crop area, livestock populations, farm management and corresponding soil and climatic information in this study, we believe that the level of uncertainty in our estimation is greatly reduced. Further, result of this rapid analysis should be used as decision support rather than as a precise and definitive predictor of GHG emissions and mitigation potential.To help meet the target of maintaining global warming at or below 2 C above pre-industrial level, Mexico's estimated GHG reduction in agriculture will need to be 7-18% of 2030 emissions. Based on this analysis, crop and livestock sector mitigation options could reduce emissions within sectors by 60% and 6%, respectively. Similarly, mitigation options in the FOLU sector will result in a reduction of an additional 50% of the sectoral GHG reduction.For wheat and maize, irrigated and high-rainfall areaswhich typically feature more intensive use of inputs, including N fertilizeroffer the best mitigation opportunity through better N management and particularly, given the low NUE in such cropping areas, for moderating N application rates to reduce N 2 O emissions without affecting yields [13,30] or national food security targets. Marketing and price support to maize and wheat farmers (\"Programa de Apoyos a la Comercializaci on,\" which farmers in irrigated and high-rainfall areas received) from previous federal administrations had no strings attached. Targeted subsidies to the farmers following sustainable and climate-responsive practices under the new national development plan (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo) could be conditioned to push farmers to apply new technologies for improved NUE, conservation agriculture or land levelling.Biodigesters represent an excellent option to reduce emissions from manure on livestock farms [18]. Mexico has an official supplier and the capacity to install biodigesters; 461 were installed between 2010 and 2014 [5]. However, there is currently no official program or financial support for any mitigation option for the livestock sector. On some farms, biodigesters have been so successful that additional ones have been installed; in contrast, failed cases have represented a big problem in farm operations, and this has typically resulted from inadequate maintenance and the need for specialized operators.The mitigation potential of sequestration in Mexico's forestry sector was estimated for high-end (54.88 Mt CO 2 eq), intermediate (24.26 Mt CO 2 eq) and low-end scenarios (15.86  The additional public funding needed to achieve the aforementioned forestry sector mitigation outcomes would be on the order of USD 71 million (high-end), USD 59 million (intermediate) and USD 47 million (low-end) and would cover 100% of the expenses associated with technical assistance (C1), baseline inventories (C2), georeferencing (C3), and initial external supervision (C4). Comparing costs versus expected revenues from C sales, mitigation measures appear profitable.Priorities of the current national government do not align with actions to meet either the three previously-set official mitigation goals for FOLU in Mexico or the new measure proposed in this study, and in fact have constrained the provision of human, material or financial resources to institutions viewed as addressing \"non-priority issues\" such as meeting NDC goals. Current political discourse provides no clear indication of whether or not the programs established to comply with the national goals are currently enforced. Emerging policy directions appear to favor support for community forest development, which in theory will raise productivity, but the lack of clarity regarding the validity and continuity of the original strategies raises questions about the possible fulfilment of the related goals.For the new mitigation activity, technical and financial barriers are identified, since it will be necessary to develop national capacities at all levels in all sectors (professional, official, academy, etc.) to support development of C projects that meet the chosen standards, as well as having access to funding for technical assistance, the MRV systems, external supervision and the operating costs of the standard. In any case, Mexico has extensive experience in using subsidies for technical studies and forest certification. The fact that C titles are traded abroad represents both a risk and an opportunity to strengthen forestry relative to other competing land use activities. Incentives for deforestation by target users encourage them to participate in programs such as \"Sembrando Vida\" is another risk.Irrespective of cost-effectiveness, realization of estimated mitigation potential depends on the adoption of the mitigation options to the extent assumed under mitigation scenarios. Based on the costs used here, public finance, incentive mechanisms will be necessary to realize those targets. The states with high FOLU or livestock mitigation potentials, e.g. Jalisco and Chiapas, respectively, should incentivize the adoption of mitigation options through appropriate policy interventions. To identify the feasibility of actions, the next step would be to engage policy makers and stakeholders in priority states.In the states with high mitigation potentials, the government has a range of options to encourage wider adoption of the identified mitigation options and realization of mitigation potential. Activities identified as part of mitigation for the crop production sector include: (i) in the case of N, avoid fertilizer subsidies, since those tend to result in inefficient use of N. N use could be reduced without compromising yield through policy by providing subsidies to farmers that adopt more efficient N management practices; (ii) in land levelling, provide a subsidy as an incentive for the adoption of this technology, which in addition to reducing GHG emissions should increase productivity; and (iii) in conservation agriculture, also through policy, provide subsidies to farmers that adopt this technology. Particularly in rainfed areas, the adoption of this technology will result not only in a reduction of GHG but also will improve productivity.Mitigation options identified in the livestock sector include: (i) create official program and financial support; (ii) training and articulation between environmental and agriculture government institutions and stakeholders; (iii) correct design and maintenance according to farm; and (iv) articulation to the energy sector.Lastly FOLU sector mitigation options identified include: (i) ensuring that the forestry sector is within the sectors approved by the Mexican Emissions Trading System (ETS); (ii) conducting capacity development at all levels in all sectors (professional, official, and academic); (iii) strengthening and concluding the NMX-173 Mexican regulation commissioning process in all its components to make it operational and (iv) including support programs within CONAFOR subsidies for developing C forest projects, including costs for technical assistance and external supervision.This study used minimal and readily available country-specific spatial data to produce a rapid analysis that enabled prioritization of AFOLU mitigation options at the subnational jurisdictional level. This is an improvement over existing country emissions inventory that were based on emission factors and activity data. Our results show substantial mitigation potential of $88 Mt CO 2 eq in 2030 in the AFOLU sector, which is about 12.5% of the total GHG emission in Mexico. To demonstrate this, other studies have showed AFOLU mitigation potentials in 2030 of 33.3 Mt CO 2 eq in Thailand (10.6% of total national emissions in 2013) [31] and 19.6 Mt CO 2 eq in Nepal (36.3% of total national emissions in 2011) [32] at the highest carbon price of $500 per t CO 2 eq. Hoa et al. [33] showed a mitigation potential of 48 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 (14.9% of total national emissions in 2014) in Vietnam in the case of full application of countermeasures (i.e. best technical practices) in 2030.The state-wide and total magnitude of mitigation was the highest from the FOLU sector ($72 Mt CO 2 eq) relative to the agriculture sector across Mexico, albeit at higher abatement cost. At the state level, AFOLU technical mitigation potentials were highest in Chiapas ($13 Mt CO 2 eq) followed by Campeche ($8 Mt CO 2 eq), indicating that these states are priorities for mitigation based on overall technical impacts. An additional 11 states (Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Yucatan, Jalisco, Sonora, Veracruz, Durango, Chihuahua, Puebla, Michoac an and Guerrero) were identified as medium priority with mitigation potentials of 2.5 to 6.5 Mt CO 2 eq. The remaining 19 states were low priority, having mitigation potentials less than 2 Mt CO 2 eq. However, only cropland mitigation potentials (7.9 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 ) can be realized with net benefits, compared to livestock (7.7 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 ) and FOLU (72.3 Mt CO 2 eq yr À1 ) options, which involve net costs, based on use of current technologies. Indeed, if properly implemented, mitigation potentials on cropland can be realized with the additional benefit of 19.41 billion MXN, whereas net costs are incurred for livestock and FOLU options at 14.92 and 23.82 billion MXN, respectively. States for which cropland mitigation potentials are highest are Veracruz, Jalisco and Michoac an and intermediate (between 0.4 to 0.6 Mt CO 2 eq) in the states of Chiapas, Sinaloa, Guanajuato, Mexico and Guerrero.Rapid assessment of mitigation potentials can support discussions in government and among stakeholders about priority actions for reducing emissions. Our data driven and evidence-based results help the government of Mexico refine its national GHG inventory and NDC target as well as monitor progress towards it. This analysis further provides an example of a methodology and results that can help inform future efforts in other countries.","tokenCount":"6760"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"27656b57c8b68e7165f1126f362a6e6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1ed4d26a-63a0-405b-b0f2-e6f39ce3f6d5/retrieve","id":"604244232"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"01bf7607-ee68-4a73-b9bc-a235b85c8316","pagecount":"2","content":"Dietary diversity is a strong predictor of micronutrient adequacy and overall diet quality. Increasing availability and access to a nutritionally diverse range of foods within and across different food groups is key to ensure adequate intake of essential nutrients required for healthy, productive lives. 1 Understanding the seasonality of nutrientrich food supplies-when and how long they are available during the year-plays an equally important role toward adequate intakes.However, getting people to eat more nutrient-rich foods and fewer staples is very challenging, especially in resource-poor settings where access, availability, and affordability are constrained. Purchasing decisions related to food are driven by income, culture, and personal preference, and have also been shown to be price sensitive. In Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, for example, food staple consumption remained completely unchanged between 2007 and 2008 in spite of a 53 percent increase in price. People maintained their consumption of staples but consumed fewer nutrient-rich fruits and vegetables (-31 percent), dairy products (-21 percent), and meat and poultry (-18 percent). 2 Data from the Philippines clearly shows that food staple consumption remains constant across quintiles of income. 3 As income goes up, dietary diversity improves as more diverse and expensive foods are added. Some 2 billion people suffer from hidden hunger caused by infections and diets lacking in essential micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron, and zinc. This is particularly the case in the developing world, where diets mainly consist of starchy staples and not enough nutrient-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, beans and pulses, and animal source foods. But what if those food staples that people eat regularly were made to work toward better nutrition? And how does that fit with the need for dietary diversification?October 2015 | Dietary Diversity and Biofortification: Closer Than You ThinkHowever, incomes of the poorest would have to increase by ten-fold or more to achieve adequate mineral and vitamin intake levels. Entire generations would continue to suffer from micronutrient deficiencies before that magnitude of increase in income could be achieved.In some cases, increased spending on food does not translate into nutritional gains at all as the consumption of empty calories-calories which provide no additional micronutrients, such as those coming from soft drinks, sugar and some processed foods-also typically increases with higher incomes. This highlights the essential role of nutrition education and promoting the health benefits of nutritionally sound food choices.Because food staples are consumed regularly in large quantities, biofortification is an efficient and cost-effective way of bringing more micronutrients to the diets of the poor. It contributes to improving the diet quality of populations, and can be viewed as integral to dietary diversity. Biofortification is not promoted to increase consumption of staples. Rather, it is used to substitute some or all of the non-biofortified equivalent staples from the diet with better and more micronutrient-rich varieties. Such a strategy recognizes that there are limits on how much energy should be derived from carbohydrates, and does not encourage people to solely rely upon, or increase, the consumption of biofortified staples as they cannot provide the full array of nutrients.In some instances, as successive waves of biofortified crops with increased levels of vitamin A, iron or zinc become available in countries, people will be able to get the same amounts of the micronutrient of interest with decreasing consumption of biofortified staples.The long term goal is for diets to become more nutritionally diversified as combinations of foods have interactions and benefits beyond supplying single micronutrients. Reviving the importance of locally available nutrient-dense foods such as fruits, vegetables, and beans and pulses within food systems and ensuring greater market access are key strategies to achieve a more diversified diet. This can be accomplished through supportive policies at national level and locally developed solutions, including integrated homestead food production and greater integration of locally available nutrientdense foods into market systems that can reach urban consumers. 4 Diversification strategies that include nutrition education components, understand the local context, and work directly with women farmers have been some of the more successful approaches. 5 Biofortified crops present a huge opportunity to provide basic missing nutrients, but also to educate consumers about the benefits of a diverse diet and to promote other locally available nutritious crops. Such efforts are already being deployed at scale in countries such as Uganda, where the promotion of vitamin A orange sweet potato (OSP) and iron beans is accompanied with nutrition education on other good sources of these micronutrients in the local diet. When caregivers are educated on the benefits of nutrients, they are willing to incorporate food sources for those nutrients into their diets. For example, in the case of vitamin A, that means swapping white sweet potato for OSP, but also eating vitamin A-rich foods such as mangoes when they are in season or leafy green vegetables and certain animal source foods when available through local production or purchase. This example illustrates how biofortified foods can be an important component of a holistic approach to dietary diversity: a food-based solution using sustainable locally produced foods to help individuals come closer to meeting their nutritional requirements.Researchers have started to analyze how biofortification can contribute to dietary diversification through a food basket approach where a variety of biofortified foods can be combined with other locally available foods to maximize their respective benefits. This evidence can help shape policies and programs in order to combine biofortification and dietary diversification into a more unified strategy. Biofortified crops will also be introduced into dietary diversification interventions to figure out which approaches and context-specific set of activities yield the best results in the field. Biofortification should not be seen as a rival or even a complement to dietary diversification, but as an integral component of food-based solutions to improve nutrition and public health by providing people with an array of healthier food choices.","tokenCount":"965"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"876b58e51c24a25c357e93a80f0298b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2d160c1d-2be9-4916-a53c-796dfc8579e6/retrieve","id":"843874979"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cac12e59-cfbf-4440-9e4e-cf262643676f","pagecount":"34","content":"is openly shared as an output of the Drought Index-Insurance for Resilience in the Sahel and Horn of Africa (DIRISHA) project, led by ILRI. However, the content might still be updated.Vegetation growth profiles for IBLI-suitable clusters 20Unimodal seasonality rangeland profiles 20Tables Table 1: Satellite data products used in the study    IBLI is an asset protection insurance coverage aimed at providing payouts when agricultural drought is detected 1 (i.e. at the end of a wet season) to support pastoralists in protecting their livestock. When relative forage availability over a certain insurance unit falls below a pre-defined threshold, insurance payouts are triggered. To assess the relative forage availability, the IBLI index is designed from time series of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) satellite imagery, which are obtained from 10-day composites at 250m spatial scale from the pre-processed EROS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (eMODIS) data available since July 2002. NDVI is an indicator of vegetation greenness and can be used as a proxy for the amount of green forage available for livestock in rangelands. To obtain the seasonal forage availability index used for IBLI (henceforth in this document, the IBLI index), NDVI is aggregated over spatial units, averaged seasonally, and compared to long-term averages to assess seasonal anomalies (Vrieling et al. 2016).This study presents a new methodology for an IBLI feasibility assessment at regional level, incorporating lessons learned from recent national-level feasibility studies conducted by the International Livestock Research Institute.In recent technical assessments at national level (e.g. Fava et al. 2018;Kahiu and Fava, 2018), the NDVI data were first spatially aggregated to administrative units before the feasibility analysis was undertaken. However, this reduces flexibility of the approach to adapt to other unit definitions, which can be problematic given that the existing administrative units may not be optimal for effective insurance design. Therefore, the new methodology uses pixel-level analysis instead, which is more computationally intensive but improves the flexibility and makes the assessment more comparable between multiple countries (i.e. the way administrative units are defined changes between countries and can influence the result of the assessment). In fact, the pixel-level analysis can also provide valuable input for delineating the insurance units with local stakeholders, a critical step to be undertaken for design and implementation of the IBLI product in the region (Chelanga et al. 2017).The new approach involves two critical steps: (i) the identification of areas where IBLI seems feasible to implement, and (ii) the characterization of the vegetation productivity and seasonality in these areas to better inform future product design. The methodology combines multiple indicators derived from satellite remote sensing and ancillary geospatial datasets. Pre-conditions for feasibility are determined using a rangeland cover map, phenology and NDVI intensity. Subsequently, stepwise classification and thresholding techniques are applied on multiple NDVI-based indicators (cumulative seasonal NDVI, NDVI amplitude, NDVI variability) for classifying the areas where the pre-conditions are met into broad clusters of vegetation production and phenology. Finally, spatial statistics are used to summarize the extent of the areas which are deemed feasible for IBLI and, based on an existing gridded livestock map, the livestock density within those areas is obtained. It should be noted that the feasibility analysis provides a preliminary assessment of areas where the IBLI product design could be potentially implemented. The assessment, however, needs to be followed by an in-depth review and discussion with local stakeholders during the early implementation stages of any initiative aimed at launching an IBLI product.The identification of areas for which an IBLI product is deemed feasible is structured across three consecutive steps: (i) selection of areas where the NDVI signal is sufficient to design the IBLI index (i.e. high NDVI intensity thus valid forage production areas); (ii) extraction of areas dominated by rangelands; and (iii) clustering of the retained areas into classes of similar production and phenology. Figure 1 provides an overview of the methodology. Proba-V land cover (discrete and fractional cover classification) The analysis combines multiple remote sensing and geospatial datasets. Table 1 provides details of the datasets used for the analysis, which are all freely accessible and publicly available. The dataset used for extracting the NDVI time series is similar to the one used for the IBLI product implemented in Kenya and southern Ethiopia. For land cover analysis, the Copernicus 2 land cover map was selected: the map is provided together with vegetation continuous field layers that provide fractional cover estimates for several land cover types including grass, shrubs, trees and bare soil. Although other land cover products exist, the merged Copernicus land cover discrete map with continuous field layers was selected due to its high temporal stability across years, higher spatial resolution compared to other products, good representation of rangeland ecosystems (based on our expert knowledge, and a key input in the analysis), as well as its relevance as an up-to-date product which will be available annually (Buchhorn 2020). The phenology metrics are extracted from freely available products distributed by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre.Because the data cover different geographical domains and have different spatial and temporal resolutions, they were first subset to the IGAD extent, and then resampled to a 5-km spatial resolution to reduce data dimensionality for easier processing. Notes: FAO -Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.2.Copernicus is the European Union's Earth observation programme. The land cover map is obtained from Copernicus Global Land Service (https://land.copernicus.eu/) global/products/lc), described in table 1.The IBLI product design depends on a clear seasonal vegetation signal that can be observed by optical sensors onboard satellites to determine relative forage availability. Areas with limited NDVI variability correspond either to non-vegetated areas or evergreen forests, while negative NDVI values represent (temporal) waterbodies or submerged vegetation. Following Vrieling et al. (2016), we masked non-land areas if the smoothed NDVI time-series data comprised <60% positive NDVI values. In addition, to remove areas with limited NDVI signal and variability, we extracted per-pixel the 5 th and 95 th percentiles of the time-series data from July 2002 to July 2020. A pixel was masked out if the difference between the 95 th and the 5 th percentiles was <0.1. It should be noted that the IBLI coverage is designed to detect forage availability during the rainy season, when some forage is generally available unless in the case of severe drought. Areas excluded by this procedure are largely barren/unproductive lands of minimal importance for livestock nutrition. This does not necessarily imply that livestock are never present in those areas, because they might be crossed during migration.The implementation of IBLI also assumes a clear seasonality in vegetation growth, with distinct dry and wet periods, a typical feature of rangelands in dryland areas. Seasonality is also critical in IBLI as it informs key design parameters of insurance policy, such as the coverage period, sales windows and timing of payouts. To assess seasonality, we used phenological metrics that were derived by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre from MODIS satellite data, as described in Table 1. These included spatial layers for the number of growing seasons per year (Figure 16) and the start and end of the vegetation season (start of season and end of season, respectively).An important pre-condition for IBLI product implementation is the dominance of rangelands, comprising arid and semiarid lands characterized by tree-shrub-grass systems. Rangelands are a key component of extensive pastoral livestock systems (i.e. the target of the IBLI product), and the dominance of rangelands is also important to avoid the NDVI signal being influenced by other land covers with no value for livestock herding.To determine rangeland extent, the Copernicus discrete land cover (Figure 2) and fractional cover products for 2019, available at 100 m spatial resolution, were used. We did not use the fractional shrub and grasslands layers of the Copernicus product directly because, after summing them to produce a savanna layer, we found the extents were too restrictive for a definition of rangelands in the region based on our expert knowledge. Therefore, the discrete land cover classes were used coupled with the continuous field layers (i.e. proportional cover) of builtup area and croplands (here both referred to as human landscapes), tree and bare-land fractions, in a decision tree classification approach to create an ad-hoc rangeland layer (Figure 3). In the decision tree classification, we first defined the savanna areas from the discrete classes map by merging the shrubs, herbaceous vegetation and herbaceous wetland classes as savannas, then identified savanna areas with the following conditions for the fractional covers: human landscapes <=40%, tree cover <=25% and bare land cover <=20%. This resulted in a binary layer of rangeland and non-rangelands.  The retained pixels for which the NDVI signal and rangeland dominance were deemed sufficient for IBLI design were further classified into ecological strata by clustering pixels with similar NDVI-based long-term vegetation dynamics. Unsupervised classification using the commonly applied Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique (ISODATA) algorithm was done to create land clusters according to their ecological characteristics. The ISODATA clustering technique uses the statistical differences or similarities of the image data to group pixels into discrete classes. The algorithm iterates until a convergence threshold is reached, resulting in the final discrete classes. Here, the ISODATA algorithm was applied in Python (Herranz and Tita 2013) with a predefined number of initial classes set at 1,000 for 200 iterations and 20 cluster pairs that could be merged, and a minimum number of 10 pixels in each cluster.As input to the ISODATA classification, we extracted various metrics from the NDVI time series for the period July 2002 to December 2019 at the 5-km pixel level, each representing relevant information on vegetation characteristics for insurance purposes. These comprised the following:Cumulative NDVI as a measure of seasonal productivity (henceforth referred to as NDVI intensity). This was extracted from the 10-day-median NDVI profile integrated between the start and end of season using the European Commission's Joint Research Centre phenology metrics (Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6).(ii) NDVI amplitude as a measure of seasonal dynamics, calculated as the difference between the seasonal maximum NDVI and the NDVI at the start of season, based on the median dekadal NDVI profile (Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9).(iii) NDVI variability corresponding to seasonal vegetation cycles in response to precipitation, the principal limiting climatic factor in vegetation productivity in the tropics, thus informative of drought characteristics of an area. This was calculated by determining the multi-annual seasonal cumulative NDVI (from start of season to end of season) then extracting the multi-annual 20th percentile value divided by the 50th (median) percentile value (Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12).(iv) Length of the growing season, referring to the number of days when plant growth takes place, which can be used to determine the type of plants that can grow in an area and their productivity. The average length of growing season was determined by counting the number of dekads (10-day intervals) from start of season to the end of season (Figure 13, Figure 14 and Figure 15).      The ecological clustering was performed separately for unimodal and bimodal production regimes. As a result, the clustering for unimodal areas comprised four layers, while the one for bimodal areas, eight: four for each of the seasons.     Figure 15: Average season length in 10-day periods (dekads) used as input for the clustering of the IGAD area where IBLI is feasible -bimodal production regime for October-December/January in IGAD region countries.In the southern parts of the IGAD region, the NDVI amplitude was sufficiently large to discern a clear seasonal vegetation signal except for some locations with low vegetation production in northern Kenya (Marsabit and Turkana). In the north, the NDVI amplitude becomes too small -i.e. in the Sahara Desert (mainly in Sudan) as well as in some areas of northern Somalia, Djibouti and Eritrea (Figure 16) -consistent with the rangeland map. The IGAD region is characterized by both bimodal and unimodal precipitation regimes (Figure 17), thus resulting in two distinct vegetation growth seasons in most of the region. The southeast of the IGAD region mainly experiences a bimodal vegetation growth pattern with two distinct wet and dry seasons every calendar year, whereas the northwestern areas towards the Sahara Desert have a unimodal vegetation growth pattern. Large parts of low-productivity rangelands in northern Somalia, Djibouti and central/southern Eritrea are indicated to have limited seasonality in the European Commission's Joint Research Centre seasonality mask. However, from a qualitative review of the mask with local mapping products, several areas used by pastoralists were identified. As such, if for a given pixel both the validity and rangeland maps indicated feasible condition, the area was considered feasible even if the phenology layer suggested otherwise. Based on the rangeland map, rangelands dominate the eastern and southern parts of Kenya and Ethiopia, southern part of Sudan, northeastern South Sudan and Uganda, northwestern Eritrea and almost all of Somalia (Figure 18). Only small portions of Djibouti within the central areas of the country have scattered rangelands, while bare lands dominate the country. Based on NDVI validity (forage production areas) and rangelands dominant maps, we classified the region into areas suitable and unsuitable for implementation of IBLI (Figure 19). The suitable class comprises areas that meet the IBLI conditions of seasonality, NDVI intensity and rangeland dominance. This class is further subdivided into unimodal and bimodal suitable rangelands . The unsuitable class comprises areas lacking sufficient NDVI signal and where rangelands are not dominant.   A similar approach was adopted for the bimodal clusters, whereby classes 0-4 were low forage production areas, 5-9 were moderate production and 10-20 were high production classes (Figure 22 and Figures 5-8 in the appendix). A fourth class which includes the very low production areas for unimodal and bimodal regimes was defined using the rangeland and valid NDVI masks only (see Section 3.1 and Figure 16, Figure 17 and Figure 18). These areas need to be carefully reviewed during the product design stage to confirm that they are effectively used by pastoralists and that seasonality could be defined by alternative approaches. Overall, for 53.8% of the land area of the IGAD region, conditions are favourable for IBLI product design (Table 2). Sudan has the largest area suitable for IBLI across the IGAD region (12.7%), closely followed by Ethiopia (12.4%). At national level, Sudan has the least country area fraction suitable for IBLI (35.4%), followed by Djibouti and Uganda (both 40.5%).On the other hand, Somalia has the largest area suitable for IBLI (82.5%), followed by Kenya (72.9%), Eritrea (62%) and South Sudan (59.1%) (Table 2). It is noteworthy that for the very low production areas (Figure 22), although included in the statistics, there is need for further analysis to ascertain if their forage production characteristics allow for effective pastoral use. These areas form a significant portion of the rangelands for countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia, as shown in Figure 22 and Table 2. We also assessed livestock distribution and total tropical livestock units (TLUs) 3 within the areas suitable for IBLI by country (Table 3). Here we used Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) 2015 ruminant TLUs data (Gilbert et al. 2018) for livestock distribution; while for total TLUs we used the most recently available FAO statistics (FAOSTAT 2020). Although these data must be read with caution given the potential inaccuracy in the livestock distribution map, they provide a general overview of the proportion of the livestock herds that can be potentially covered by IBLI. This study assesses the technical feasibility for IBLI solutions in the IGAD region. To adapt the assessment to a regional (and potentially continental) level analysis, a new methodology has been developed. The methodology combines multiple remote sensing datasets in a sequential classification approach to (i) define the overall suitability or nonsuitability for IBLI solutions at a 5-km spatial resolution, and (ii) characterize the suitable areas based on agroecological criteria (i.e. production and phenology). The main advantage of the newly proposed method compared to previous technical feasibility studies for IBLI is that no prior spatial aggregation to administrative units is required, but the analysis is performed at the NDVI pixel level, making the assessment more flexible. The choice of the insurance units can therefore be made during the product design and customization stages, with country stakeholders benefiting from the rangeland characterization made during this assessment, which could inform the customization of product design for the target location.The overall results indicate that IBLI product design is feasible in about 54% of the IGAD region, and that about 51% of the total livestock in these countries could be covered. With reference to the IGAD land area, Ethiopia and Sudan have the highest proportion of suitable area (23% and 24%, respectively) followed by Somalia (18%) and Kenya (15%). In absolute terms, the same countries have the largest number of TLUs that could be covered, with Ethiopia first (26.9 million TLUs) and then Sudan (23.7 million TLUs). However, in terms of the proportion of the national herd that could be covered by IBLI, Somalia has the largest share (85%), followed by Eritrea (75%) and South Sudan (62%) (Table 3).  Bimodal seasonality rangeland profiles  ","tokenCount":"2834"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"13a1ff3ab1fc81201a819f9c2772ffb3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88ec26f1-04cf-4179-b393-0375f1560f37/retrieve","id":"-1684631138"},"keywords":["antioxidant activity","bioactive constituents","glycaemic index","starch-digesting enzymes","traditional products","yellow-fleshed cassava"],"sieverID":"cc0c706d-3b15-4887-9289-50acae9bd765","pagecount":"11","content":"and starch-digesting enzymes inhibitory activities and the least glucose responses. Hence, lafun may be a promising dietary intervention targeting oxidative stress, hyperglycaemia, and their resultant type diabetes.Yellow-fleshed cassava root (YFCR) is processed into traditional products that may influence its bioactivities. In this study, the antioxidant and anti-hyperglycaemic activities of three traditional products (lafun, fufu and gari) from five genotypes (IITA-TMS-IBA , , , , ) of YFCR were evaluated. The YFCR genotypes were grown at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) research field, Ibadan. The bioactive constituents (total carotenoids, total phenolics, tannins and total flavonoids), antioxidant [ , -azinobis ( -ethyl-benzothiazoline--sulfonic acid) radical cation (ABTS •+ ) and , -diphenyl--picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH • ) scavenging capacities, and reducing power], and starch-digesting enzymes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) inhibitory activities of the products were determined using standard laboratory methods. The glucose response of the products was assessed in human subjects. The concentrations of the bioactive constituents of the products from di erent genotypes varied significantly (p < . ). The ABTS •+ and DPPH • scavenging capacities and the reducing power of the products also di ered significantly (p < . ), such that the lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA , IITA-TMS-IBA and IITA-TMS-IBA had the strongest ABTS •+ and DPPH • scavenging capacities, and reducing power, respectively. The α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of the three products di ered significantly (p < . ), with the lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA and IITA-TMS-IBA having the strongest α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, respectively. Also, the lafun from IITA-TMS-had the least glucose response, while the fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA had the highest glucose response. Overall, the lafun from di erent genotypes of YFCR had the most potent antioxidantThe prevalence of complications associated with hyperglycaemia, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), cardiovascular diseases, is significantly increasing worldwide. According to IDF (1), these complications are may become global pandemic by 2030. In Africa, especially in Nigeria, It is speedily becoming a problem in poor economies, where people may still be malnourished (1,2). Lifestyle and diet have been reported as drivers of hyperglycaemia-associated complications (3). Foods that are rich in carbohydrate contents have been known to increase the postprandial hyperglycaemic level of the blood (4). The consumption of low-fiber and ultra-processed foods are also established contributory risk factors.Consequently, the association between plant food intake and reduced incidences of complication associated with hyperglycaemia is currently the main focus of some scientific investigations in recent years. This becomes more imperative as the currently available drugs for the treatment and management of some of these complications have been proven to have certain limitations. For example, the clinical use of acarbose for the treatment of T2D is associated with abdominal distention and flatulence in some patients (5).Provitamin A carotenoids-biofortified (yellow-fleshed) cassava varieties, produced from the biofortification process, serve as a source of energy and important dietary intervention for alleviating vitamin A deficiency, particularly in developing countries (6). Apart from their vitamin A activity, carotenoids and polyphenolics are well-known for their antioxidant properties and protective effects against chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) like heart diseases (7), cancer and other complications associated with hyperglycaemia (8,9). In developing countries, cassava is traditionally processed into different products, including gari, fufu, boiled and unfermented flour (10). As the report of Maziya-Dixon et al. (11) indicated, processing methods reduce the levels of carotenoids in provitamin A-biofortified cassava varieties. Thus, identifying the yellow-fleshed cassava roots (YFCR) genotype(s) and the traditional products with potent antioxidant and starch-digesting enzymes inhibitory activities, and a low glucose response could make biofortified cassava a cost-effective dietary intervention for postprandial hyperglycaemia and oxidative stress.Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of traditional processing on the antioxidant, starchdigesting enzymes inhibitory activities and glucose response of YFCR genotypes.Samples of five YFCR genotypes (IITA-TMS-IBA182962, 183044, 182961 and 182986), were collected from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture's (IITA) research farm in Ibadan, Nigeria, from the institute's cassava breeding unit. Each genotype's roots were thoroughly washed with water to remove all dirt and adherent sand particles, and then divided into three 5 kg portions. Each portion was then processed into fufu, lafun, and gari.A flow chart for traditional processing of cassava to gari, fufu and lafun is shown in Figure 1.The traditional processing method described by Sanni et al. (12) was modified slightly to produce fufu. YFCR that were freshly harvested were peeled and thoroughly washed with tap water to remove any adhered sand. Approximately 5 kg of peeled YFCR was cut into ∼15 cm-long chunks with a stainless-steel hand knife and steeped in 5 liters of water in a plastic bowl for 3-5 days at ambient room temperature (28-32 • C) for retting. The retted roots were manually broken and the fibers were sieved out. The mash was manually sieved using a mesh cloth sieve. In a large plastic bowl, sieved mash samples were allowed to sediment for 24 h. Following sedimentation, the water was decanted and the sediment was washed with additional water. The sediment (fufu mash) was dewatered by placing it in Hessian sacks and pressing it with a hydraulic press to remove excess moisture. The pressed mash was then dried for 8 h at 65 • C in a cabinet dryer, before being milled in a stainless-steel hammer mill. Lafun was processed according to Cassbiz (13) method, with a few modifications. YFCR was peeled, washed, and soaked in a bowl for 4 days before being crushed by hand and dewatered using a hydraulic press. The crushed product was dried at room temperature for 3-4 days before being milled and sieved to remove fiber. The resulting powder was cooked in boiling water for 5 min to form a stiff paste.The YFCR was processed into gari according to the procedure described by Abass et al. (14). The roots were washed, peeled, and grated into mash as soon as they were harvested. The mash was packed into sacks and left to ferment for 2 days in a fermentation trough. The fermented mash was dewatered by passing it through a hydraulic press. The fibrous materials were pulverized and sieved to separate them from the dewatered cakes. The flour was roasted at 125 • C for 25 min, stirring constantly, until the granules became creamy and free-flowing.Methanolic extract of each of the three products was prepared according to Chan et al. (15) method with a little modification. Methanol (25 mL) was added to 0.5 g of the sample in a covered centrifuge tube (50 mL) for 12 h. The mixture was shaken for 1 h using a mechanical shaker, after which it was spinned in a centrifuge at 3,000 g for 10 min. Then the supernatant (methanolic extract) was stored at −4 • C until analysis.The total carotenoid concentration in lafun, fufu and gari was quantified by adopting the protocol reported by Maziya-Dixon et al. (11). The carotenoid analysis was performed under dim light, and the extracts were collected into an aluminum foil-wrapped vial to prevent the degradation of the carotenoids.The concentration of tannin in the products was determined using the method described by Joslyn (16), with a little modification. A portion of the sample (0.5 g) was dissolved in 5 mL of 1% HCl in methanol for 15 min. The mixture was vortex and centrifuged at 3,000 g for 10 min, following which 0.1 mL of the supernatant was addedto 7.5 mL of distilled water in a test tube. Next, 0.5 mL of Folin-Dennis reagent and 1 mL of Na 2 CO 3 solution were added to the mixture, and the volume was made up to 10 mL with 0.9 mL of distilled water. The mixture was incubated for a period of 30 min at room temperature, and the absorbance was read at 760 nm. The tannins concentration of the sample, presented as tannic acid equivalent (TAE) in m/g was calculated from a tannin calibration curve.The Folin-Ciocalteu method reported by Chan et al. (15) was employed to assay the total phenolic concentration of the methanolic extract of each product. A 300 µL portion of each product's methanolic extract was dispensed into a test tube. Next, 1.5 mL of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (diluted 10 times with distilled water) and 1.2 mL of Na 2 CO 3 solution (7.5% w/v) was added. The reaction mixture was shaken and incubated at room temperature for a period of 30 min before the absorbance (at 765 nm) was measured against a blank prepared by dispensing 300 µL of distilled water in place of the sample extract. The total phenolic concentration was presented in mg/g as gallic acid equivalents (GAE).The protocol described by Asha et al. (17) was used to determine the total flavonoids content of the products' methanolic extracts. The extract (0.5 mL) was mixed with methanol (1.5 mL), 10% aluminum chloride (0.1 mL), 1M potassium acetate (0.1 mL) and of distilled water (2.8 mL) were added. The mixture was incubated for a period of 30 min at room temperature, before the absorbance was read at 514 nm. The total flavonoids content of the extract was expressed as quercetin equivalent (QE) in mg/g.The ABTS •+ scavenging capacity of the products' extracts was carried out following the method reported by Re et al. (18). To prepare the working solution of ABTS •+ reagent, aqueous solutions of 7 millimoles/L ABTS •+ and 2.45 millimoles/L K 2 S 2 O 8 were mixed in the same proportion (v/v) and incubated for 16 h at room temperature in a dark enclosure. After that, the absorbance reading of the ABTS •+ working reagent at 734 nm was adjusted to 0.70 ± 0.02 by diluting with ethanol (95%). A portion of of the ABTS •+ reagent (2.0 mL) and the extract (0.2 mL) was dispensed in a test tube, mixed well and incubated in a dark enclosure for a period of 15 min at room temperature, after which the absorbance reading was taken at 734 nm. ABTS •+ scavenging capacity of each extract, presented in trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), was calculated using a trolox calibration curve.The DPPH • scavenging capacity of the products' extract was conducted by adopting the procedure described by Cervato et al. (19). Vitamin C was used as a positive control in this assay. A mixture of different concentrations (totaling 1 mL) of the extract (or ascorbic acid) and DPPH • solution (3.0 mL, 60 µM) was incubated in a dark enclosure at room temperature for a period of 30 min. Thereafter, the absorbance reading at 517 nm was taken and the DPPH • scavenging capacity of the extract, presented as SC 50 (extract concentration that scavenged 50% of DPPH • ).The protocol reported by Oyaizu (20) was adopted to determine the ability of the products' extracts to reduce FeCl 3 solution. The sample extract (2.5 mL) was mixed with 2.5 mL of 200 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.6), and 2.5 mL of 1% potassium ferricyanide. The mixture was incubated at 50 • C for a period of 20 min, following which 2.5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic acid was added. The mixture was spinned at 650 × g for a period of 10 min, and the supernatant was divided into 2.5 mL portions in different test tubes. Next, distilled water (2.5 mL) and 0.1% ferric chloride solution (1 mL) were added to the content of each test tube, and the absorbance reading at 700 nm was taken. The reducing power of the extracts, presented as gallic acid equivalent in mg per gram, was calculated using a gallic acid calibration curve.The inhibition of alpha-amylase by the products' methanolic extract was determined using the method described by Kwon et al. (21). In this assay, porcine pancreas -amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) and soluble starch (substrate) purchased from sigma, st louis, USA were used. A mixture of 500 µL of different dilutions of the product's extract and 500 µL of 0.02 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.9 with 0.006 M NaCl) containing 0.5 mg/mL αamylase solution was subjected to incubation at 37 • C for a period of 10 min. After that, 1% starch solution in 0.02 M sodium phosphate buffer (500 µL) was added. The reaction mixture was subjected to incubation at 37 • C for a period of 15 min, followed by 1.0 mL of DNSA color reagent (1% 3, 5dinitrosalicylic acid and 12% sodium potassium tartrate in 0.4 M NaOH) to terminate the reaction. Next, the reaction mixture was incubated for 5 min in a boiling water bath, and diluted with 10 mL of distilled water, after which it was left to cool to room temperature. The absorbance was read at 540 nm, and the percentage α-amylase inhibition was calculated using the following equation:Where AR is the mean absorbance reading of the reference; AS is the mean absorbance reading of the sample.The protocol described by Kim et al. ( 22) was adopted to determine the capacity of the products' extract to inhibit the starch hydrolytic activity of α-glucosidase. In this assay, 50 µL of α-glucosidase (5 units) was incubated with 50 µL of different concentrations of each product's extract at 37 • C for a period of 15 min. Next, 3 mM of the substrate (para-nitrophenylglucopyranoside, PNPG) dissolved in 20 mM phosphate buffer, pH 6.9, was added to initiate the α-glucosidase-catalyzed hydrolytic reaction. The hydrolysis of PNPG occurred for a period of 20 min at 37 • C, following which it was terminated by adding 0.1 M Na 2 CO 3 (2 mL). The absorbance of the yellow p-nitrophenol released from the hydrolysis of PNPG was read at 400 nm. The percentage α-glucosidase inhibition was calculated using the following equation:Where AR is the mean absorbance reading of the reference; AS is the mean absorbance reading of the sample.Ethical clearance (MOH/KS/EU/777/497) to conduct the glucose response experiment was obtained from Kwara State Ministry of Health, Ilorin, Nigeria. Nineteen apparently healthy, non-diabetic and non-obese subjects, comprising 8 male and 11 female students of Kwara State University, Malete, Ilorin, Nigeria, aged 18-25 years, volunteered to participate in the study. Informed consent was obtained from the volunteers.All the volunteers were first subjected to an oral glucose challenge after overnight fasting by drinking 50 g of glucose in 25 mL of potable water. Their blood glucose level was measured at 0, 30, 60, and 90 min using a glucometer (Accu-Chek Active). After that, they were randomly distributed into groups of three volunteers per sample (fufu, lafun and gari). Next, 50 g of reconstituted fufu/lafun/gari was served (on different days) with an equal portion of ewedu soup and fish. The formula and mode of cooking the soup were consistent throughout the study.Data of replicate experiments were subjected to one-way ANOVA, followed by Duncan multiple range test at 95% confidence interval, using SPSS statistical software (version 17). In addition, GraphPad Prism 5 for Windows, GraphPad Software, San Diego, California USA, www.graphpad.com was used to plot the histograms.The bioactive constituents (total carotenoids, total phenolics, tannins and total flavonoids contents) of the fufu, lafun and gari processed from the five YFCR genotypes (IITA-TMS-IBA182962, 183044, 182961 and 182986) are presented in Table 1. Overall, the total carotenoid level ranged from 0.38 to 10.16 µg/g in gari from IITA-TMS-IBA070337 and fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA182986, respectively. Further, the total carotenoid content of fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA182986 was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those of fufu, lafun and gari from the other four genotypes (IITA-TMS-IBA070337, IITA-TMS-IBA182961, IITA-TMS-IBA182962 and IITA-TMS-IBA183044). The total phenolics level ranged from 0.1 to 0.38 GAE mg/g in lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA182986 and gari from IITA-TMS-IBA182962, respectively. Tannins content was in the range of 0.003-0.019 TAE mg/g in fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA070337 and lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA182962, while the total flavonoids ranged from 0.03 to 0.24 QE mg/g in fufu and lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA070337 and gari from IITA-TMS-IBA182961, respectively. Generally, the levels of the bioactive constituents of the products varied significantly (p < 0.05) across the genotypes.The in vitro antioxidant activity of fufu, lafun and gari processed from five YFCR genotypes are presented in Table 2. The ABTS •+ scavenging ability ranged from 5.96 to 8.82 TEAC mmol/g in fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA182961 and lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA182962, respectively. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the ABTS •+ scavenging ability of the three products across the genotypes. The reducing power The α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of extracts of the fufu, lafun and gari from the five genotypes of YFCR are shown in Table 3. The α-amylase IC 50 differed significantly (p < 0.05) among the three products from the different genotypes and ranged from 24.57 to 83.88 mg/mL in lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA070337 to lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA182962, respectively. On the other hand, the αglucosidase IC 50 ranged from 32.36 to 62.56 mg/mL in lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA07033 and lafun from IITA-TMS-IBA182961, respectively.The blood glucose responses resulting from the consumption of the fufu, lafun and gari from the YFCR genotypes are shown in Figures 2-6. Overall, the lafun from different genotypes had the lowest glucose response, increasing the blood glucose by +5 mg/dl at the end of 19 min.The total carotenoid contents of the fufu, lafun and gari from the five genotypes of YFCR in this study varied among the products. This agrees with the report of Maziya-Dixon et al. (11), which indicated that the total carotenoids content of yellowfleshed cassava genotypes was affected by traditional processing methods. The range of total carotenoid concentration (0.79-10.16 µg/g) in fufu from the five YFCR genotypes in this study is within the range of total carotenoid concentration (5.82-18.23 µg/g) previously reported for uncooked fufu produced from three genotypes (TMS 94/0006, TMS 01/1235 and TMS 01/1371) of yellow-fleshed cassava (11). Similarly, the range of total carotenoid (0.38-9.31 µg/g) obtained in gari from the five YFCR genotypes in this study agree with the mean total carotenoid concentration (9.22 µg/g). Maziya-Dixon et al. (11) reported for TMS 94/0006, TMS 01/1235 and TMS 01/1371. However, relative to the total carotenoid concentrations reported by Oliveira et al. (23,24) for fresh roots of bitter yellow cassava and sweet yellow cassava cultivars (3.65-18.92 and 2.64-14.15 µg/g, respectively) the total carotenoid levels of the traditional products from the five yellow-fleshed cassava genotypes in this study are low, suggesting a possible loss of carotenoids. Different processing methods have been reported to have different impacts on carotenoids composition of processed food (23). Aman et al. (25) reported that food processing could cause losses of the carotenoids composition of food due to degradation, isomerization, and oxidation. Also, processing can disrupt the plant matrix, including the cellular compartments and binding proteins that protect and stabilize the carotenoid pigments. The relatively high carotenoid contents of the different products after processing to various traditional products as revealed in this study support the prospect of yellowfleshed cassava roots as a viable staple for alleviating vitamin A deficiency and oxidative stress. Carotenoids compounds have been reported to have several health-related properties such as enhancement of immune function, blockade of mammary tumor growth, and protection against blindness caused by age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (26,27).As observed in this study, the low total phenolics, tannins, and total flavonoids levels in the cassava products can be attributed to the effect of different processing methods such as boiling, fermentation and roasting on polyphenolics (28). Tannins and flavonoids as phenolic compounds, have been reported to possess antioxidant activities, conferred by their redox properties, which enable them to act as singlet oxygen quenchers, hydrogen donors and reducing agents (29). These compounds also possess digestive enzymes inhibitory activity, due to their high affinity for proteins via hydrogen and hydrophobic bonding, enabling them to inhibit enzymes (30,31). Other health benefits attributed to phenolic compounds include anti-obesity, anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive, anti-carcinogenic and antimutagenic potentials due to their antioxidative property (32). In particular, different subclasses of flavonoid were reported to structurally exhibit antihyperlipidaemic and antidiabetic activities by mitigating the metabolism of lipid and glucose in metabolic syndrome (33).The ability of fufu, lafun and gari to scavenge DPPH • and ABTS •+ represent their free radicals-scavenging capacity and ability to serve as antioxidant foods. DPPH • is known as a stable free radical, and its reaction with antioxidant substances convert it to α,α-diphenyl-β-picryl hydrazine. In contrast, ABTS •+ are less stable and more reactive than DPPH radicals. Unlike the reactions with DPPH radical, which involves H atom transfer, the reactions with ABTS radicals consist of an electron transfer . Mean values with di erent letters are significantly di erent at p < . . process (34). Thus, the ability of the lafun, fufu and gari from the five genotypes of YFCR evaluated in this study to scavenge DPPH • and ABTS •+ suggests that they have the potential to prevent the cellular production of free radicals and/or mopping them up in the cell when consumed (35). The reducing power (from Fe 3+ to Fe 2+ ) of the fufu, lafun and gari suggests that they may help alleviate the Fe 2+ -mediated generation of hydroxyl radical (OH • ) from hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) (36), and Fe 2+ -catalyzed lipid oxidation (37), thereby protecting against oxidative stress.   . Mean values with di erent letters are significantly di erent at p < . . Among the three products, lafun had the strongest antioxidant activity, while fufu had the weakest antioxidant activity. The variations in the antioxidant activity of the products from different the YFCR genotypes might be attributed to their different processing methods (28) and genotypic differences (38). The ability of lafun, fufu and gari to scavenge free  The inhibition of dietary starch-digesting enzymes (αamylase and α-glucosidase) is a well-established strategy for determining the ability of food products to lower postprandial blood glucose response. It is indicative of the anti-hyperglycaemic activity of the food (31). Alpha-amylase and α-glucosidase are responsible for digesting dietary starch. Alpha-amylase catalyzes the initial step during the starch hydrolysis process. Therefore, the catalytic activity of α-amylase decides the rate of starch digestion to a large extent. On the other hand, alpha-glucosidase hydrolyzes the initially digested products of starch, including maltose, maltotriose, and dextrin, into final absorbable monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose (40).The α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory ability of the three products differed, with lafun having the strongest inhibitory effect on both α-amylase and α-glucosidase. As explained for the antioxidant activity of the products, this variation may be due to the impact of their different processing methods. Reducing the hydrolysis rate of starch through the inhibition of digestive enzymes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) is an important strategy for relieving postprandial hyperglycaemia (41). Thus, the stronger inhibitory activity of lafun over fufu and gari on α-amylase and α-glucosidase suggests that it may be beneficial for retarding the release of glucose from dietary starch sources and its subsequent absorption into the bloodstream (42).The functionality of foods in preventing and managing nutrition-related non-communicable diseases such as T2D is increasingly gaining attention. This attention stems from the evidences proving that the consumption of low GI foods over time can improve blood glucose control in people with diabetes and improve insulin sensitivity in glucose intolerance (4). The results from this study revealed that there was a significant variation in the blood glucose responses of the fufu, lafun and gari investigated in this study. Lafun from IITA-TMS-182986 had the least blood glucose response, increasing blood glucose concentration from 79 to 84 mg/dl in 19 min. However, the fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA070337 had the highest glucose response, increasing blood glucose concentration from 68 to 89.33 mg/dl in 9 min. Thus, from this study, the order of blood glucose response for the traditional cassava-based products was fufu > gari > lafun. This supports the contribution made by Taiwo (43) that certain carbohydrates are digested rapidly, releasing their glucose into the bloodstream. However, the blood glucose responses of fufu, lafun and gari were significantly (p < 0.05) lower compared to that of the standard glucose. The variation in the glucose response of these different products also agrees with a previous report that different processing methods increased the digestibility of starch in cell walls and plant polysaccharides and conversely reduced their resistance to enzymatic action during digestion (44). Raigond et al. (45) reported that fermentation and heat processes could modify the physical form of carbohydrates through gelatinization and retrogradation of starch, and these modifications can bring about variations in postprandial glucose and insulin response. Kouassi et al. (46) also reported that genotype and different processing methods affected the blood glucose response of root and tuber crops such as cassava.The fufu, lafun and gari processed from five genotypes of yellow-fleshed cassava roots (YFCR) displayed appreciable antioxidant and starch-digesting enzymes inhibitory activities in vitro. Overall, the lafun from different genotypes had the strongest antioxidant, α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. The lafun from IITA-TMS-182986 also had the least glucose response, while fufu from IITA-TMS-IBA070337 had the highest glucose response. Therefore, lafun may be a preferred traditional product of YFCR genotypes for dietary intervention, targeting oxidative stress and postprandial hyperglycaemia. Further study is recommended to ascertain the mechanisms and interactions of the various bioactive constituents in lafun in mediating the antioxidant and anti-hyperglcaemic activities observed in this study.","tokenCount":"4165"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"535c3e1f42b9d6fbc22cf2a954164a29","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/68d6118e-e791-44ba-8c71-c31fdc1a38f5/content","id":"-214207366"},"keywords":["Chassaigne-Ricciulli, A.A.","Mendoza-Onofre, L.E.","Córdova-Téllez, L.","Carballo-Carballo, A.","San Vicente-García, F.M.","Dhliwayo, T. Effective Seed Yield and Zea mays L.","single-cross female","growing degree days","hybridization","seed production"],"sieverID":"536c5d00-cefc-4ac6-88c7-d03d370c667f","pagecount":"19","content":"Genotype, environmental temperature, and agronomic management of parents influence seed yield in three-way cross hybrid maize seed production. The objective of this research was to generate information on the seed production of six three-way cross hybrids and their progenitors, adapted to tropical lowlands. Data on days to-and duration of-flowering, distance to spike and stigmas, and seed yield of five female single crosses and five male inbred lines were recorded for different combinations of four planting densities and four sowing dates in Mexico. The effect of planting density was not significant. The male inbred line T10 was the earliest and highest seed yield and T31 the latest, occupying second place in yield. The single crosses T32/T10 and T13/T14 were the earliest and had the highest effective seed yield. At the earliest sowing date, the females were later in their flowering, accumulated fewer growing degree days (GDD), and obtained higher yields since the grain-filling period coincided with hot days and cool nights. To achieve greater floral synchronization and therefore greater production of hybrid seed, differential planting dates for parents are recommended based on information from the accumulated GDD of each parent. The three-way cross hybrids were classified according to the expected seed yield of the females and the complexity in the synchronization of flowering of their parents.In 2011, the International Maize Improvement Consortium for Latin America (IMIC-LatAm) was created in Mexico within the Sustainable Modernization of Traditional Agriculture Project (MasAgro) agreement between the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA). National research centers and Mexican seed companies participate in the Consortium, with the purpose of improving the productivity of maize (Zea mays L.) and increasing the size and competitiveness of the seed-producing sector in Mexico and other Latin American countries [1,2]. The Consortium's activities include, among others, research, development, and training in seed production technology [2].It was estimated that 5% of the hybrid maize seed sown in Mexico came from national seed companies in 2009 [3]. The participation of national companies in the market increased from 24% in 2011, to 31% in 2016; sales grew by 75% in that period, and the seed companies that participated in MasAgro represented 85% of national company sales in 2016 [2], which showed the impact of the MasAgro Program in Mexico's maize seed sector. However, the potential impact of this program may be greater since in Mexico 38,235 tons of certified maize seed were produced in the autumn-winter (A-W) 2018-2019 cycle and 46,682 tons in the spring-summer (S-S) cycle in 2019 [4][5][6]. With this amount of seed, 60% of the 7.2 million hectares planted with maize in Mexico could have been supplied [7].It was estimated that seeds of improved varieties and maize hybrids are sown on 2.3 million hectares in rainfed conditions and there are an additional 3.7 million hectares where new users of hybrids could be found [2]. The native maize planting areas will be preserved as part of the traditions and customs of the native people and because, in many cases, the hybrid grain does not have the organoleptic characteristics or suitable adaptation for those regions.In the lowland tropics of Mexico, specifically in eight states in the south and southeast of the country (Guerrero, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Campeche, Veracruz, Tabasco, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo), 19% of the national maize grain was produced in 37% of the harvested area in 2019, with the average yield of 1.99 t/ha, while the national average yield was 3.80 t/ha [7]. The lower yield in this region is mainly attributed to abiotic factors such as water deficit and biotic factors such as the Tar Spot Complex disease, in addition to the little use of improved varieties and inefficient crop management practices. A similar situation occurs in countries of Mesoamerica and northern South America. However, the maize hybrids developed by CIMMYT have shown resilience to these limitations and are an alternative for seed and grain producers [8]. To achieve the expected impact, it is necessary that the seed of these hybrids be produced and distributed to farmers in these areas.The commercial production of hybrid maize seed requires technical information on agronomic management; optimal adaptation areas; appropriate sowing dates, flowering differential, and female:male row ratio; correct way of detasseling; proper planting density; conventional fertilization; and acceptable response to biofertilizers, among other practices that allow obtaining the maximum yield of high-quality seed. It is also necessary to know the environmental requirements of the parents for their development. For example, temperature affects productivity, as it influences the growth rate and phenological development of plants [9][10][11]. Cultural practices such as sowing date influence maize yield through the growing degree days (GDD) of the crop [12].The three-way cross hybrids (TWH) selected for this research have stood out for their grain yield and adaptation to tropical environments in Mexico and potentially in Mesoamerica and some countries in South America. These hybrids and their progenitors are registered in the National Catalog of Plant Varieties [13] and some Mexican companies already produce and sell certified seed [4][5][6]. However, few national companies have the technical and physical infrastructure to carry out research and implement the seed production technology for these hybrids. Consequently, most companies apply a generic management package for all hybrids, which results in a decline in the seed yield potential of each particular hybrid.Given the need to generate a research model for seed production technology useful for developing seed companies, the present research was proposed with the objective of evaluating the progenitors of six tropical TWH for seed production purposes and generating planting recommendations for the best synchronization of flowering among their parents.Ten parents of six three-way cross hybrids adapted to tropical lowlands were evaluated. The female parents were five single crosses (FSC or females hereinafter) and the male parents were five inbred lines (ML or males hereinafter). In all cases, the inbreeding of the males and the parents of the females was higher than seven selfed-generations (>S7) (    Genotypes were evaluated in three groups of experiments. The purpose of the first and second group was to develop TWH parental seed production technology, with the same planting density for males and with three different planting densities for females. The objective of the third group of experiments was to generate information on the floral phenology of the parents, for which both were sown at the same planting density and sowing dates, which would allow specifying the strategies to achieve greater synchronization between the male flowering of ML and the female flowering of FSC that increases the hybrid seed yield of the TWH.In the first group (Exps. 1, 2, and 3), four males (T7, T11, T27, and T31) were evaluated on three sowing dates at a planting density of 71,111 plants/ha (24 plants/row), while the five males (including T10) were evaluated only in Exp. 1. Inbred line T10 was not evaluated in the other experiments because of an error in the manual filling of the seed envelopes, which was not detected until the advanced stages of the development of the plants. The sowing dates were 23 November 2017 (SD1), 29 November 2018 (SD3), and 5 December 2018 (SD4) for Exps. 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Table 2). In the second group of experiments, the five females were evaluated in two experiments (Exps. 5 and 6), and only four females in Exp. 4, in which T34/T31 was not included. These experiments were planted in three population densities: PD1, 82,667; PD2, 93,333; and PD3, 101,333 plants/ha (31, 35, and 38 plants/row, respectively), on each of three sowing dates: SD2: 16 December 2017, SD3: 29 November 2018, and SD4: 5 December 2018, for Exps. 4, 5, and 6 (Table 2). These same females were evaluated in a third group of three experiments (Exps. 7, 8, and 9) at the same planting density, 71,111 plants/ha (24 plants/row), and on the same planting dates (SD1, SD3, and SD4) as the males (Table 2).In all the experiments, a randomized complete block design with factorial arrangement and three repetitions was used. In the first and third group of experiments, the genotypes were the main plot and the sowing dates subplots; in the second group, planting densities were included as a sub-subplot. The experimental plot consisted of four rows (13.5 m 2 ). Data were collected from the two central rows.In both crop growth seasons, the experiments were sown side by side at a distance of 5 m. Sowing was manual and irrigation and fertilizer were applied by a drip-irrigation system. Agrochemicals were applied following standard practices for the experiment station.On each parent, data collected included number of days from sowing to male and female flowering at 0% (first plant flowering), 10%, 50%, and 90% of male plants shedding pollen (days to anthesis, DTA) or female plants with visible stigmas (days to silking, DTS); duration of male flowering or pollen shedding period (PP) based on the difference DTA 90%-DTA 0%; and duration of female flowering or silk exposed period (SP) based on the difference DTS 90%-DTS 0%.Per plot were collected from five plants the distance from the ground to the uppermost tip of the ears where silks extrude (DS) from the upper female ear and plant height as the distance from the tip of the tassel to the ground (distance to tassel, DT).The experiments were harvested when grain moisture averaged 18% across all entries (moisture monitored periodically using the outer two rows of the plot). All ears of the two central rows of each plot were harvested, shelled, and weighed to obtain seed yield per plot (SYP) in kg/plot. Exps. 1 and 7 were harvested on 23 April 2018; Exps. 2, 4, and 8 on 25 April 2019; and Exps. 3, 6, and 9 on 13 May 2019.Seed yield per hectare (SY) in kg/ha was calculated at 12% moisture content using the following formula: SY = SYP × 10,000 plot area in m2 × 100 −% moisture. The seed yield of the female single crosses was adjusted to a 6:2 female to male row ratio [14]; hence, their effective seed yield (ESY) in kg/ha was calculated as 75% of SY.Temperature data were recorded at a weather station (Davis Vantage Pro 2) located 260 m (straight line) from the experiments. These data were used to calculate growing degree days (GDD) according to the formula GDD = (Tmax + Tmin)/2 − Tbase, where Tmax and Tmin = daily maximum temperature (if temperature was greater than 30 • C, the value of 30 was recorded) and daily minimum temperature (if the temperature was less than 10 • C, the value of 10 was assigned), respectively; and Tbase = base temperature, 10 • C [15,16].A residual analysis was conducted, thus facilitating assessment of the homogeneity of variances.For male inbred lines, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) for Exp. 1 was performed in which the five males participated, along with an ANOVA combining Exps. 1, 2, and 3 with four males in which the source of sowing date variation was incorporated. In the case of female single crosses, an ANOVA included the five females, three planting densities, and two sowing dates combining Exps. 5 and 6; also, another ANOVA was performed with four females for Exps. 4, 5, and 6. In the same way, we proceeded with the experiments in which the same sowing density (Exps. 8 and 9; and Exps. 7, 8, and 9), respectively, was used.The analysis of variance was performed using Proc GLM of SAS (version 9.4), and the means were compared using Tukey (p ≤ 0.05).The results of the ANOVA combined for Exps. 1, 2, and 3 (with four males and three sowing dates) indicated that the two sources of variation effects were significant (p < 0.01) for all variables except for pollen shedding period (PP). The effect of SD × ML interaction was not significant (p < 0.01) for the variables related to the phenology of male flowering, but it was for the distance to tassel (DT) and seed yield (SY) (p < 0.01) (Table 3). Advancing the sowing date by 6 and 12 calendar days in the growing cycle 2017A vis-à-vis 2018A (SD1 vs. SD3 and SD1 vs. SD4) delayed DTA at the beginning of flowering in Exp. 1 by 7 days and by 5 days with respect to Exps. 2 and 3, respectively. In the 2018A cycle, even though the difference in sowing dates between SD3 and SD4 was 6 days, the difference in DTA was only 2 days (Table 4).  Between sowing dates, it stands out that in both the ANOVA (Table 3) and the comparison of means (Table 4), a parallel was observed in the responses of the sources of variation for the variables 0% (beginning), 10%, 50%, and 90% of DTA, so variables 10% and 50% of DTA are not included in the subsequent tables. The four ML showed on average 17% more SY in SD3 than the average of the other two sowing dates.Male inbred line T31 was the one with the highest SY for the average of the three experiments, although it flowered later than T7 and T11, but with a similar distance to the spike as the other two. The inbred line with the highest height of the tassel was T27 and it surpassed the other three (which averaged 200 cm) by 35 cm. In general, these male lines with tassels at 2 m height guarantee that pollen will spill onto the stigmas of any female parent included in the present study. The male flowering of T27 was similar to that of T31, with a seed yield similar to that of T11 and higher than that of T7 (Table 4).T10 participated only with the other four male inbred lines in Exp. 1. In the ANOVA (Table A1), it is observed that the effect of genotypes was significant for seed yield and the beginning and end of flowering (p ≤ 0.01) but not for distance to tassel and duration of flowering (p > 0.05). T10 seed yield (8.0 t/ha) was superior to that of the other male inbred lines, whose yield varied from 3057 to 6786 kg/ha. Furthermore, T10 was the earliest, T7 and T11 had intermediate flowering, and T27 and T31 were the latest. The pollen shedding period was similar among the males (Table 5). When comparing Tables 4 and 5 results, some differences are observed in the magnitude of the seed yield, but not in their order (i.e., T27, T11, and T7 were the male inbred lines with the lowest SY). The same happened for DTA: both early and late male inbred lines kept the same order. The number of days from the beginning of pollen shedding to 90% of plants flowering was 4 to 5, estimating 7 days for the total pollen shedding duration for these male inbred lines. Westgate et al. [17] indicate that pollen release can take 5 or 6 days, although MacRobert et al. [18] point out that, when the days of very low pollen emission are included, pollen shedding and stigma emission can occur over a period of 7 to 14 days. In CIMMYT, in evaluations of tropical inbred lines over the past seven years, the pollen shedding period ranged from 4 to 7 days (unpublished data), which is considered to be ample time to pollinate female single crosses.The five females were included in the two sowing dates in the 2019A cycle (SD3: Exps. 5 and 8; SD4: Exps. 6 and 9). Similar to the results for the male inbred lines regarding the ANOVAs and comparisons of means, a parallel was observed in the responses of the sources of variation for the variables of 0 (beginning), 10%, 50%, and 90% of DTS, so in the following tables the variables 10% and 50% are not included. Table 6 shows that the main sources of variation, SD, FSC, and PD, were significant for all variables (p < 0.01), except in the ESY for SD, but not for SP in the factors FSC and PD (p > 0.05). Most of the first-and second-order interactions were not significant. In Exps. 8 and 9, the results were similar except that there were no differences for SD between sowing dates nor SD × FSC interaction in any variable (Table 7).The mean yield of the five females was similar for both sowing dates; however, on the second date, the beginning of female flowering was 4 days later, with 1 more day of stigma exposure, while stigma height did not show agronomic differences between the sowing dates. Females T34/T31, T4/T6, and T7/T1 were on average 5 days later and 16% lower in ESY than the average of T32/T10 and T13/T14 (Tables 8 and 9).   The ANOVA of the response of the four females that were included in Exps. 4, 5, and 6 (Table A2) confirms the significant effect (p < 0.01) of the three main sources of variation for all variables. except for SD in ESY and PD at the start of DTS (0%), and the absence of significance of most of the interactions between such sources of variation. In the ANOVA of Exps. 7, 8, and 9, there were no differences for SP nor for SD × FSC interaction in any of the variables (Table A3).Comparing the data from Tables 8 and 10, it is observed that, by including in the analysis the information from Exp. 4 sown on 16 December 2017 (SD2), and considering the four common females at the three sowing dates, the statistical differences between sowing dates are of little magnitude and, therefore, have little agronomic importance in terms of seed production. Regarding the differences between planting densities, the highest ESY occurred in the lowest densities and, although the differences between 82,667 and 93,333 pt/ha are not considered relevant from the agronomic point of view, at 101,333 pt/ha, ESY declined 8% with respect to the lower density. It is recommended for future work to evaluate different topological arrangements by modifying the distance between rows and between female plants.  Interestingly, the ESY of the later flowering T4/T6 and T7/T1 females was 21% lower than the average of the earlier flowering T32/T10 and T13/T14, when in general the earliest flowering maize genotypes yield less than the later ones. In this regard, Jiang et al. [19] found that late hybrids in Texas yielded more than early hybrids in sowings from mid-May to early June (warmer). On the contrary, due to climate change an irregular distribution and a reduced amount of precipitation as well as a short crop cycle are more frequent, so it is not uncommon for early maize hybrids to outperform late hybrids in the central highlands of Mexico [20].Unlike the results from Group 2 of experiments, in Group 3, there is more than a week difference in DTS between the experiment sown in 2017 and those sown in 2018, but they agree that the early flowering females yielded more than the late ones (Table 11). Multiple factors influence the differential response of genotypes to environmental changes inherent to sowing dates. Among them, temperature stands out, especially that which occurs in the critical periods of flowering and grain filling. Male inbred line T31 and the females sown in SD1 required an average of one more week for the beginning of DTA and DTS, respectively (Table 4, Table 5, and Table 11) and required a lower number of GDD in comparison with the other sowing dates (Figure 1 and Table A4). Jiang et al. [19] found that, at later sowing dates (prevalence of colder temperatures during the growing season), hybrids required fewer GDD to reach DTS and were taller; however, contrary to this study, they produced less grain yield.Figure 2 shows that the GDD accumulation rate during the crop cycle of Exp. 4 sown on 16 December 2017 (SD2) resembled more the rates of the experiments sown on 29 November (SD3) and 5 December 2018 (SD4) than Exps. 1 and 7 (11.19 • C/day) sown on 23 November 2017 (SD1). It is also observed that, during the first 30 days after sowing (DAS), the accumulation of GDD was similar in all the experiments, but in the subsequent 30 days the accumulation of GDD in the experiments sown on SD1 and SD2 was lower than in those sown on SD3 and SD4, because, during that period in 2018, the temperature was lower than in 2019 (Figure A1). Finally, from 60 to 120 DAS, in the experiments planted on SD1, the plants developed under a lower temperature than in the other experiments, which maintained a similar behavior among them (Figure A1).Temperature affects the rate of the physiological processes, for example, high temperatures during two weeks prior to flowering increase the rate of foliar senescence (Zaidi et al. 2016)  [21]. In this study, the cooler temperatures before flowering in SD1 delayed the DTA of the males and DTS of the females, regardless of being late or early flowering, but did not modify the PP and SP, respectively (4-6 days).Studies in different latitudes found that the optimum maximum temperature for maize flowering varies between 29 and 37.3 • C [22][23][24]. Between the beginning of flowering and physiological maturity (80 to 100 DAS), plants sown on SD1 developed with a mean difference between the maximum and minimum daily temperatures of 16 • C while in the other experiments the mean difference was 11 • C. During this period, the females grew under warm daytime temperatures and cool nights (Figure A1) that could stimulate production and accumulation of photoassimilates (biomass), and this could be responsible for the highest ESY in Exp. 7. In Venezuela, the areas suitable for growing maize with a daily temperature range of 13.5 • C (20.5-34.0 • C) were determined [25], which guarantees the cool nights essential for adequate flowering and grain filling [26]. On the other hand, high night temperatures during pollination and grain filling reduce maize yield due to increased respiration and decreased rates of net dry matter accumulation [27], which might explain the lower ESY that was obtained for SD2, 3, and 4. It has been reported that temperatures during flowering and the early stages of grain filling for tropical lowland maize have an optimal threshold between 23 • C at night and 34 • C during the day [28]. It is therefore necessary to establish optimal sowing dates (windows) for specific locations in the tropics, where the ESY of the females and/or the SY of the males can be maximized depending on the case.The number of GDD required to complete the growth period of any maize genotype varies according to the environmental conditions [29,30] throughout the phenological stages of the crop [11]. Therefore, it is not only necessary to analyze the GDD from sowing to flowering, but during the entire crop cycle, for a better use of cultural practices that decrease the risk of too early or too late sowing [31].Based on the foregoing, our results indicate that it is convenient to sow single female crosses in November, so that the vegetative and reproductive phases will develop in the months of cool temperatures from December until the end of February; otherwise, late sowings in December, whose flowering will occur in March, increase the risk of poor pollination due to pollen sterilization [32] so grain filling will be incomplete [16]. In contrast, in temperate zones, late sowings may imply a sudden drop in temperature and solar radiation during grain filling that are associated with low yield [19,33].   It is also observed that, during the first 30 days after sowing (DAS), the accumulation of GDD was similar in all the experiments, but in the subsequent 30 days the accumulation of GDD in the experiments sown on SD1 and SD2 was lower than in those sown on SD3 and SD4, because, during that period in 2018, the temperature was lower than in 2019 (Figure A1). Finally, from 60 to 120 DAS, in the experiments planted on SD1, the plants developed under a lower temperature than in the other experiments, which maintained a similar behavior among them (Figure A1).  Temperature affects the rate of the physiological processes, for example, high temperatures during two weeks prior to flowering increase the rate of foliar senescence (Zaidi et al. 2016)  [21]. In this study, the cooler temperatures before flowering in SD1 delayed the DTA of the males and DTS of the females, regardless of being late or early flowering, but did not modify the PP and SP, respectively (4-6 days).Studies in different latitudes found that the optimum maximum temperature for maize flowering varies between 29 and 37.3 °C [22][23][24]. Between the beginning of flowering and physiological maturity (80 to 100 DAS), plants sown on SD1 developed with a mean difference between the maximum and minimum daily temperatures of 16 °C while in the other experiments the mean difference was 11 °C. During this period, the females grew under warm daytime temperatures and cool nights (Figure A1) that could stimulate production and accumulation of photoassimilates (biomass), and this could be responsible for the highest ESY in Exp. 7. In Venezuela, the areas suitable for growing maize with a daily temperature range of 13.5 °C (20.5-34.0 °C) were determined [25], which guarantees the cool nights essential for adequate flowering and grain filling [26]. On the other hand, high night temperatures during pollination and grain filling reduce maize yield due to increased respiration and decreased rates of net dry matter accumulation [27], which might explain the lower ESY that was obtained for SD2, 3, and 4. It has been reported that temperatures during flowering and the early stages of grain filling for tropical lowland maize have an optimal threshold between 23 °C at night and 34 °C during the day [28]. It is therefore necessary to establish optimal sowing dates (windows) for specific locations in the tropics, where the ESY of the females and/or the SY of the males can be maximized depending on the case.The number of GDD required to complete the growth period of any maize genotype varies according to the environmental conditions [29,30] throughout the phenological stages of the crop [11]. Therefore, it is not only necessary to analyze the GDD from sowing Controversy exists around the best model to calculate GGD in maize. When comparing eight models, those that did not consider supra-optimal temperatures (outside the range of 10-26 • C) and those that considered calendar days were not very precise; the most accurate was the one that involved the \"Crop Heat Unit\" function, which is estimated by separated functions for daytime and nighttime temperatures [34]. Thus, it is worthwhile in future studies to evaluate other thermal functions as well as to estimate the phenological phases of the TWH parents. It is also advisable to evaluate the option of continuing to use the GDD method (10-30) but with base temperatures that generate greater precision. It is concluded that, in order to estimate the sowing dates that optimize the periods of plant growth with the most adequate thermal requirements, it is necessary to complement the recommendations of calendar days with information on the thermal requirements of both parents.The period between male and female flowering is vital because pollination, fertilization, and eventually grain filling and grain yield depend on it [35,36]. That is valid in commercial sowings for the purpose of obtaining grains or in hybrid seed production. In these cases, technical recommendations often only indicate the days to flowering of the parents and, if applicable, differential plantings between females and males based on the number of days [20,[37][38][39][40]. Phenological characterization of parents based on GDD allows defining with greater precision the optimal sowing date to achieve floral synchrony [16,41]. In only a few publications on maize seed production, both days to flowering and the GDD necessary to reach this phenological stage are indicated. Similarly, agronomic recommendations for parental management such as localities, planting density, and sowing dates are scarce [16,42]. Private seed companies keep this information secret as part of their confidentiality policies.Stigmas are receptive by approximately 5 days after the beginning of female flowering and they senesce 8 days later if they are not pollinated [43], whereas pollen release can last 5 to 6 days [17]. This information coincides with the results of the present study, since both the mean period of pollen release of the male inbred lines as well as the period of exposure of stigmas of the female single crosses were 4 to 5 days (Tables 4, 5, 10 and 11, respectively). However, males, because of inbreeding, show less vigor than females, in which heterosis is present [16]. Therefore, it is recommended to sow males on at least two consecutive sowing dates, so that the pollination period of the males completely encompasses the receptivity period of the females [18].In the present study, the increase in the plant density of the FSC did not significantly increase seed yield, so the specific technology of seed production of the six three-way cross hybrids follows, based on the results of the experiments in Groups 1 and 3.Figure 3 shows the trend of the male flowering of T10 (red) and female flowering of T13/T14 (ocher) and T4/T6 (green) with data from Exps. 1 and 7, respectively. A single figure was generated since T10 is a common ML and participated only in Exp. 1.Agriculture 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20Even though T10 is the earliest of the males, the T13/T14 female is even 3 days earlier. For the studied location, in the autumn-winter cycle, to produce hybrid seed of CLTHW13002 in a 6:2 sowing row ratio, it is recommended to first sow one row of T10 and 3 days later (nearby 35 GDD) six rows of T13/T14 and the other row of T10. In this way, throughout the SP of T13/T14 (761-827 GDD), T10 will release pollen decreasing the risk of contamination with external pollen at the beginning of flowering of the female. Unlike T13/T4, T4/T6 was consistently later (827-894 GDD); therefore, to produce CLTHW14003, the six rows of T4/T6 must be sown first and 4 days later (47 GDD) the two T10 rows. In this case, there are 10 days difference between the female flowering of T32/T10 (745-813 GDD) and the male flowering of T27 (880-925 GDD) (Figure 4). This combination involves the earliest female with one of the two latest males in the study, so T27 must be sown on two planting dates, first one row and the second row 5 days later (61 GDD). The six rows of T32/T10 should be sown 10 days after the males' first date (126 GDD). A second date of males is sown, anticipating a lag with the first date due to some unforeseen rain during those 10 days until T32/T10 is sown.  Even though T10 is the earliest of the males, the T13/T14 female is even 3 days earlier. For the studied location, in the autumn-winter cycle, to produce hybrid seed of CLTHW13002 in a 6:2 sowing row ratio, it is recommended to first sow one row of T10 and 3 days later (nearby 35 GDD) six rows of T13/T14 and the other row of T10. In this way, throughout the SP of T13/T14 (761-827 GDD), T10 will release pollen decreasing the risk of contamination with external pollen at the beginning of flowering of the female. Unlike T13/T4, T4/T6 was consistently later (827-894 GDD); therefore, to produce CLTHW14003, the six rows of T4/T6 must be sown first and 4 days later (47 GDD) the two T10 rows.In this case, there are 10 days difference between the female flowering of T32/T10 (745-813 GDD) and the male flowering of T27 (880-925 GDD) (Figure 4). This combination involves the earliest female with one of the two latest males in the study, so T27 must be sown on two planting dates, first one row and the second row 5 days later (61 GDD). The six rows of T32/T10 should be sown 10 days after the males' first date (126 GDD). A second date of males is sown, anticipating a lag with the first date due to some unforeseen rain during those 10 days until T32/T10 is sown. In this case, there are 10 days difference between the female flowering of T32/T10 (745-813 GDD) and the male flowering of T27 (880-925 GDD) (Figure 4). This combination involves the earliest female with one of the two latest males in the study, so T27 must be sown on two planting dates, first one row and the second row 5 days later (61 GDD). The six rows of T32/T10 should be sown 10 days after the males' first date (126 GDD). A second date of males is sown, anticipating a lag with the first date due to some unforeseen rain during those 10 days until T32/T10 is sown.  Figure 5 shows a 2-day span between T7/T1 female flowering and T11 male flowering. In the seed production of CLTHY13002, to ensure complete coverage with pollen of T11 (880-925 GDD) during the female flowering of T7/T1 (813-867 GDD), a row of T11 should be sown first and 2 or 3 days later (35 GDD) six rows of T7/T1 plus another row of T11.Agriculture 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20Figure 5 shows a 2-day span between T7/T1 female flowering and T11 male flowering. In the seed production of CLTHY13002, to ensure complete coverage with pollen of T11 (880-925 GDD) during the female flowering of T7/T1 (813-867 GDD), a row of T11 should be sown first and 2 or 3 days later (35 GDD) six rows of T7/T1 plus another row of T11.Unlike the previous case, T31 was the second latest male (956 GDD); therefore, in seed production of CLTHY15013, the two rows of T31 should be sown first and 5 days later (75 GDD) the six rows of T7/T1. However, in Figure 5B, an 8-day span between T7/T1 and T31 is observed as opposed to the 5 days in Figure 5A and 5C. Thus, in this particular case, the GDD effect may affect T31 in different magnitude in relation to T11 and T7/T1, regardless the three parents were sown on SD3. Because of this inconsistency, it is advisable that T31 be sown preventively on two planting dates: first one row of T31 and 3 days later (35 GDD) the second row of T31, while the six rows of T7/T1 have to be sown 8 days later (100 GDD) than the first row of T31 to have pollen presence for as long as possible during T7/T1 female flowering. T34/T31 and T7 showed 1-day difference between their female and male flowering, respectively (Figure 6), so they can be sown on the same day. However, to avoid contamination with foreign pollen in the first days of female T34/T31 flowering, it is recommended to sow one row of T7 first and 2 to 3 days later (35 GDD) both the six rows of T34/T31 and the remaining row of T7. In all cases for which a second sowing date for the males is recommended, it is assumed that machinery is available to do the sowing, or, in the case of rains after the first Unlike the previous case, T31 was the second latest male (956 GDD); therefore, in seed production of CLTHY15013, the two rows of T31 should be sown first and 5 days later (75 GDD) the six rows of T7/T1. However, in Figure 5B, an 8-day span between T7/T1 and T31 is observed as opposed to the 5 days in Figure 5A,C. Thus, in this particular case, the GDD effect may affect T31 in different magnitude in relation to T11 and T7/T1, regardless the three parents were sown on SD3. Because of this inconsistency, it is advisable that T31 be sown preventively on two planting dates: first one row of T31 and 3 days later (35 GDD) the second row of T31, while the six rows of T7/T1 have to be sown 8 days later (100 GDD) than the first row of T31 to have pollen presence for as long as possible during T7/T1 female flowering. CLTHY15031 T34/T31 and T7 showed 1-day difference between their female and male flowering, respectively (Figure 6), so they can be sown on the same day. However, to avoid contamination with foreign pollen in the first days of female T34/T31 flowering, it is recommended to sow one row of T7 first and 2 to 3 days later (35 GDD) both the six rows of T34/T31 and the remaining row of T7.Individual information of the parents responses provided in this study is useful for seed producers' (public or private sector) with their own maize breeding programs that wish to access public germplasm to be crossed with their own parents. However, it is necessary to quantify the heterotic effects derived from combining parents for public use from CIMMYT with their own genotypes, which implies carrying out combining ability research, among others.CLTHW13002 (T13/T14//T10) is the best option for seed producers looking for both high-yielding female single cross and flowering synchrony of parents. In the literature review, scarce information is found on sowing recommendations for three-way-cross tropical maize hybrid seed production.From an agronomic point of view, planting density did not affect female flowering days, stigma height, or effective seed yield of female single crosses, so the lowest planting density should be used to save seed and inputs. Growing degree days affected parental phenology traits of the three-way-cross hybrids in the same way, so the recommendations on differential planting dates between parents are similar for each hybrid on the different sowing dates. Sowings in November favor the presence of days with lower temperatures during flowering and hot days and cool nights during grain filling, which is associated with a higher effective seed yield of female single crosses.It is necessary to monitor the accumulated GDD to detect on time temperature changes that may modify days to flowering, the detasseling schedule, as well as the grain-filling period duration, and therefore effective seed yield improvement. Our methodology allows the scientific community, farmers, and companies that are interested in seed production of maize hybrids to rank the difficulty level in producing seed of three-way-cross maize hybrids according to the effective seed yield of the females and/or the differential in flowering between both parents.The information generated in this study will enhance the use of CIMMYT's tropical parental single crosses as females and inbred lines as males, by breeders and seed producers working in both the private and public sector in the IMIC-LatAm influence region, but also in areas with similar environmental characteristics around the world.For hybrids to be adopted by farmers, hybrid combinations must first be accepted by seed producers. Maize breeders have to incorporate seed production technology criteria during parents selection process, so that seed production will be feasible and profitable.","tokenCount":"6442"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8060b83df1feebb1b3bee266c49d6488","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/090c4449-1e91-43f8-a10c-291129b86586/retrieve","id":"-322983557"},"keywords":["23.3 23.8 24.3 23.8 23.3 23.2 22.2 22.4 22.3 22.5 22.5 20.1 '/ , . r.• \\ , , : . . ~, , \" • r , ' / ' , ' , ~I >: \"'.' ', \" <~~.\\ \\ '.' :. \"\\ ~ \\.' • ,",".'-. . . . . . . 'pr', ... -. !o'\" ,~ .. , \" k:} ~","\" F .' 1•\"'c1Q'/(lo' . <\"4.",",-\".,.,-. -' . , . .,.. •. , ' ~ . >-\" '\" ~ '. -' ., ~"],"sieverID":"f5f3106a-245f-4a93-9324-e3fa936230f4","pagecount":"192","content":"Introduction 1 Baseline data collection and analysis 1 General weather conditions 3 Agroclimatic analysis S SoU and land characterization and evaluation 7 Socio~economic analysis 10 Land and soil management 10 Land clearing and development 11 Tillage systems and small tools development 21 Management of kaolintic Alfisols 28 Management of siliceous Ultisols 32 Cropping systems 32 Intercropping agronomy and meso/micro-climatic studies 36 Alley cropping 42 Live mulch systems 43 Weed biology and herbicide research 44 Plantain improvement 48 Eastern Cameroon Farming Systems Project 49 Small farms systems research (Atebubu District, Ghana) 51 Root and Tuber Improvement Program 5.1 Introduction 51 Cassava Genetic improvement Entomology Pathology Nematology Tissue culture and virus indexing Zaires National Manioc Program (PRONAM)T he year 1980 was one of financial uncertainty for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. A high rate of inflation, a doubling of the minimum wage, and a strengthening of the Nigerian naira against the American dollar had a very serious and negative impact on the real research capacity of IIJA.Research program budgets and staff had to be reduced, and a general belt tightening left the remaining scientists with insufficient supporting staff and operating allocations to enable them to work in a fully effective and productive manner.It was through a very generous special contribution of 1 million naira, equivalent to 1.9 million U.S. dollars, by the Federal Republic of Nigeria in December 1980 that this precarious financial situation could be redressed.Despite the disruptive economic conditions, HTA's research community produced a scientific product of commendable quality and quantity as reflected in this Annual Report.As in previous years, the 1980 Annual Report is a compendium of salient research conducted in cereal, root, tuber, and grain legume improvement programs, and in farming systems for the humid and subhumid tropics. This report and its sister publication, 1980 Research Highlights, together provide a comprehensive summary of findings for both the scientist and the generalist.This year a/so marks the first time the Annual Report is being published in French. Long overdue, we are confident it will be enthusiastically received by our Frenchspeaking colleagues.The structure of the Institute's research program remained unchanged in 1980, but the focus of the work was somewhat modified.Farming systems research was reorganized to focus on three major components-land clearance and development, post-clearance management, and cropping systems. The maize improvement program included some exploratory work on the development of hybrids. The development of lowland rice varieties and the problems of production in central and eastern Africa were given greater emphasis. Breeding for resistance to insect pests of cowpeas was intensified, and cassava research was concentrated on host plant resistance to the green spider mite and mealybug.In the resolution of the etiology of virus diseases, techniques of indexing the presence of sweet potato virus was developed. As a result, it is now possible to export virus-free sweet potato clones in tissue culture form internationally.Previously, the Institute's research was almost exclusively pointed toward the small, traditional, resource-poor African farmer. But because of increasing interest in commercial farming in many African countries, the Institute is devoting a greater share of its research effort toward the solution of problems encountered by medium and large-scale farming enterprises.We are sure you will find this Annual Report informative, and we will be pleased to respond to all requests for additional information about on-going research at the Institute. A listing of journal articles and IITA's scientific staff is appended to this report to assist you. and sustained production of food crops for the humid and subhumid tropics. Research is directed primarily at problem solving the constraints of small farmers, many of whom still rely on bush fallow systems for producing the bulk of the food in the humid and subhumid tropics of Africa and elsewhere. Emphasis is given to developing technologies that are scale neutral so that they can be used by a range of farmers.Because of the wide range of farming system forms in the humid and subhumid tropics, the program will not develop specific local blueprints for improved methods of land, soil and crop management; rather, the program's concern is to develop and make available preliminary technologies and sUbsystems that can be modified and adapted by national and regional organizations to the agronomic and economic as well as political conditions of their own areas. Considering the diversity of the farming systems in the Institute's mandate area, baseline data collection and analysis are undertaken to better deline- of May, about a full month later than normal (Fig. 2) with a corresponding delay in the start of the first cropping season.Precipitation remained quite regular through the first 2 weeks of June but tapered off again in the last third of the month and continued so through the first of July.Fig. 2. Weekly mean rainfall and evaporation (IITA, 1980).This spell of moisture deficit was followed by a period of excessive and persistent rainfall, which culminated in the highest monthly peak for the year and the third high• est on record (367.8 mm for August). A singular rain in• cidence on 31 August resulted in an unprecedented and catastrophic flood in the general area.With the failure of the 'normal' August break in the rains, first•season crops, with potential yields already de• pressed, suffered further damages through lodging, improper drying and delayed harvesting. The excessive moisture also caused considerable delay in land preparation and second season planting and persisted through September and October. The rainy season ended in early November. The cumulative total for the year was 1,549 mm or 22 percent above the long-term mean. Pan evaporation, on the other hand. was 7 percent less than its mean, totalling 1,483.09 mm.Sky condilions and solar radiation, January and Febru• ary were unusually cloudy, but solar radiation (Table 1, Fig. 3) was higher than normal. Cloudiness increased, particularly in the second half of April, In spile of the limited rainfall.liME Fig. 3. Weekly and monthly mean solar radiaUon (IITA, 1980).During the period May through August. which in effect covers the first cropping season. incident radiation dropped to a mean of 363.7 g-cal cm-2 day-lor 6 percent less than the multi annual mean for these 4 months. The rest of the year, except for the month of November, saw a return to higher than normal insolation regimes.Temperature and relative humidity. Higher temperatures prevailed on the average, mainly as a result of higher night-time temperatures, an apparent result of the more humid and cloudier conditions (Fig. 4). Monthly average minimum temperatures were record-high in many cases. Daytime hours were by contrast cooler. The only aboveaverage maximum temperature occurred in April (departure: +0.6'C), a month of subnormal rainfall. With the delay in the onset of the rains, soil temperatures remained rather high well into the month of April with a mean maximum of 41.3\"C at 5 cm.Observed relative moisture contents of air were also higher than normal, except for April (Fig. 5). These higher humidities evidently account, in part, for the lower values of evaporative demand.An unusual prevalence of southerly and southwesterly winds in January and February conslltuted the basis for the observed cloudiness noted earlier. In general, wind speeds also remained above average throughout the year. The incidences of gusts during the wet period, particularly in late July and in August, account for the con- siderable lodging and stalk breaking observed during the period.Dew/light precipitation. The contribution of dew to the water budget was much less than in the previous year. This is not surprising in view of the record high minimum temperatures and the high incidence of rainfall. The measured total for the year was 11.59 mm, ranging from a monthly maximum of 1.57 mm in November to 0.48 mm in August.To provide a uniform framework for research to facilitate the choice of priority areas and determine the range of applicability of research results, an agroclimatic zonation of West Africa was undertaken. It is based on the concept of water-balance and Franguin's method of interception of rainfall potential evapotranspiration cure.Months of positive water balance were defined as months with rainfall greater than or equal to potential evapotranspiration. On the basis of the number of the months determined for the network of approximately 88 stations over the region. 7 generalized agroclimatic zones were defined (Fig. 6).Commonly used terminologies were retained in describing these zones. It is believed that the basic definition used in this classification is not only more meaningful from the cropping point of view but also avoids complex indices and is, thus, easier for the user to follow.Crop water requirements.There is a scarcity of research information regarding the water requirements for tropical food crops. It is important, therefore, to define the optimum water requirements of these crops to maximize their productivity under different ecological conditions. previous sequential planting experiments (IITA Annual Report, 1976), a preliminary attempt was made to model cowpea yield using estimated evapotranspiration.Evapotranspiration estimates were obtained by assuming that the potential evapotranspiration is equal to Class A pan evaporation. and the actual mean weekly evapotranspiration is proportional to the ratio of the actual available soil moisture to the available soil moisture at field capacity. The 1976 results show a much better relationship than the 1977 results between the estimated evapotranspiration and cowpea yields (Figs. 7 and 8).  Fig. 8. Cowpea yield vs. evapotranspiration (1977).Dry seaSDn evaporative demand and cassava yields. Cassava planted in a given year normally grows through the dry season and is harvested at the beginning of the rains the following year or thereafter. Although the plant reduces its canopy during the intervening dry season, no sign of wilting is observed on the leaves of the remaining foliage. On the hypothesis that the plants probably achieve this only by drawing on reserve resources, it would appear that yields might tend to decline in proportion to the length and severity of the dry season. Using cumulative Class A pan evaporation (Ep) as a measure of the intensity of the dry season, an analysis was made to relate the reported decline in the average yield of the 10 Tentative quantitative limits of the \"soil condition modifiers\" have been defined, and refinement of these can be introduced in the future on the basis of further research information.It is proposed to integrate this soil evaluation system in the land types and agroclimatic information so as to establish comprehensive guidelines for land clearing and management for different regions of the tropics. Close collaboration with FAO and other development agencies and interested national soils research institutions will be fruitful in further development of the system.Field experiments have been established to directly monitor soil erodibility at 3 locations in Nigerla-Onne, Ikom and Jos. In addition, soil detachability and transportability measurements on 20 soils collected from different parts of Nigeria are being made with a laboratory rainfall simulator. The accumulative infiltration measured for 3 locations prior to establishing the runoff plots are described by the following equations: Field measurements of soil bulk denSity for 20 soils indicated a range of 0.70g cm\" for Ikom to 1.5g cm ' for Bakura and Tumu, Nigeria. Similarly, the soil-water transmissivity ranged from 236 cm/hr for Ikom to 1.4 cm! hr for Samaru, Nigeria. A plot of the accumulative infiltration vs. time for some Nigerian soils is shown in Fig. 9 Estimates of erodibility for some Nigerian soils by using the USDA Nomogram indicate a range of 0.05 liacre/footton for Ikom to 0.56 lIacre/foot-ton for steep lands near Abakaliki, Nigeria. A majority of the soils, however, have a low erodibility of about 0.1.A study was carried out to assess the quality and distri- gime. While hydromorphic soils mean the same to all soil scientists in terms of morphological and chemical properties, the different soil classification systems are still not very interchangeable because their respective concepts are based on different premises.According to U.S. Soil Taxonomy, hydromorphic soils have an aquic soil moisture regime. and they appear under the suborder as well as the subgroup levels of classification. The FAO/UNESCO soil classification emphasizes the concept of gleization, and G leysols and the \"gleyic' subunits constitute the major hydromorphic soils of the \"FAa Soil Map of the World.' For both the French and Belgian classification systems, the processes of gley and pseudogley play prominent parts in the definition of hydromorphism. Moreover, Vertisols in West Africa are also subjected to seasonal waterlogging (pseudogley) and should come under the realm of hydromorphic soils. From the agronomic viewpoint, wherever excess soil moisture is the most important feature in land use for crop production, soils in such areas will come under the realm of hydromorph ic soils.An approximate correlation of the hydromorphic soils among the 3 international sOil classification systems has been prepared at IITA.A preliminary inventory of some chemical and physical properties of hydromorphic soils from Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Liberia may be summarized as follows:Forest zone (Liberia, Sierra Leone and southern Nigeria). Hydromorphic soils occur in coastal, fresh-water swamps, inland swamps and small river valleys. Some areas are subject to deep flooding during the rainy season.Approximately 80 percent 0\\ the hydromorphic soils (excluding acid sulfate salls in this region) are acidic (pH below 5.0) and coarse-textured (loamy sand and sandy loam) with low P and K reserves and low clay activity (Tables 2 and 3). Such soils would require high fertilizer 6 inputs and good water control for intensive wetland rice production. More fertile -rice soils in terms of soil-texture and nutrient status comprise about 15-20 percent of the 37 soils studied (Tables 2 and 3). Wetland areas with such soils may be developed into productive rice land. More detailed and systematic soil surveys by national organizations are needed in order to determine the extent and distribution of the more fertile wetlands and their feasibility for rice production.  (1977), Manor River Union Soil Survey Report, Liberia (1979).Forest/savanna transition zone (soulhern Nigeria), Hydromorphic soils in the forest/savanna transition zone occur mainly in inland valleys and depressions. As the region is characterized by a rolling topography and quartzose-rich basement complex rocks, the wetland valleys or depressions are generally small, and the soil depths are shallow. All the same, they occupy about 10-15 percent of the total land surface. Most of the hydromorphic land in this region presently is not used for food crop cultivation.An extensive study on the soil and land characteristics of several inland valleys in the region was completed in 1979. In this study, groundwater regime throughout the year was used as an important criterion for the hydromorphic land quality evaluation. N deficiency and Fe toxicity associated with groundwater or seepage water were  (1974); Ministry of Agriculture and USAID Soil Survey Report for Liberia (1977), Manor River Soil Survey Report. Liberia (1979). also stressed. Utilization of these lands at traditional and improved levels of management for year-round crop production using wetland rice as the main season crop was proposed.Further inventory of properties of 17 selected soils from the region are given in Table 4. Again. the predominant hydromorphic soils in this region are coarse and medium textured. but their chemical quality IS slightly better than their counterpart in the high•rainfall region in terms of available Ca. Mg and K in the surface hOrizons. Available P status is invariably low although these soils have very low P fixation capacity.Savanna zone (central and northern Nigeria). Hydro• morphic soils in the savanna zone occur in a wide range of land forms such as inland depressions, river valleys and ancient and recent flood plains. The sedimentary plains of the Niger and Kaduna Rivers and their tributaries comprise a significant portion of potential rice land in central Nigeria, which is yet to be fully developed and utilized.The inventory of hydromorphic soils in this region is exploratory due to lack of soil survey information. A prelim• inary inventory of soil properties of 10 selected sites in central Nigeria (excluding Vertisols) is given in Table 4. Hydromorphic soils at these locations show wide vari• ability in texture, organic matter and soil reaction. Miner• alogical studies showed that many hydromorphic soils in 7 this region are montmorillonitic and, thus, of high clay activity. Hydromorphlc soils with more favorable clayey and silty texture are found in some extensive areas in the river basins of central Nigeria. But, because of generally low nutrient status and seasonal flooding, effective water management and fertilization are required in order to develop such areas for rice production.An estimate IS being made of the distribution of hydromorphic soils of selected areas of West Africa using LANDSAT imageries and a few large-scale soil maps that are available. The selected study areas include the wetland tracts along rivers of West Africa and inland swamps, such as those in Liberia and Sierra Leone and the wet sedimentary belts of southern Nigeria. Vertisols and the vertic subgroups are widely scattered but not fully documented on a national and regional basis.Labor utilizationLiterature was reviewed on labor utilization in cassava, yam. maize and upland rice production. Additionally, from short regional crop production surveys-prelimi• nary labor utilization data were derived for cocoyam and soybean production in Nigeria (Table 5).In 1980, further progress was made in the collection of time series data for food crop prices in West African countries. In addition to food crop prices in Nigeria and Cameroon, market prices were obtained from Ghana, Ivory Coast and Togo. An agroforestry field survey was undertaken in southern Nigeria to identify major types of landuse in traditional farming systems and establish the degree of integration between (a) forest and tree crop plantations and small holder tree crop farming and (b) traditional arable crop farming and livestock production systems. Economic woody species. both cultivated and noncultivated. and their association with traditional arable crop farming received particular emphasis during the survey. The 6 survey locations-Ezzamgbo. Umudlke. Onne. Ikom. Akamkpa and Uyo-are in the humid tropical zone. except Ezzamgbo. which is in the transition from the tropical wet to the tropical wet-and-dry climatic zone.Landuse in traditional tarming systems. Both traditional agriculture and rural settlements are largely confined to uplands with bottomlands seldom used for agriculture.All farmers in the survey areas have rain-fed upland farms. Only 23. 13 and 23 percent of the farmers In the derived savanna. lowland forest and coastal lowlands. respectively. have additional farms located in bottomlands. Permanent compound farm plots. common in the central zone of the region and in the settlement sites. are typically located on uplands or well-drained sites. The most common type of settlement is the dispersed homestead type. which is also correlated with the prevalence of permanent compound farms.Major types 01 traditional systems 01 agriculture and their landuse. The dominant and most widespread types of traditional farming systems are permanent compound farming. rUdimentary sedentary agriculture (with or without short fallow periods). bush fallow cultivation and traditional permanent tree crop farming. Shifting cultivation hardly exists. and taungya is hardly used in the region. Livestock is relatively insignificant. The bush fallow cultivation and the rudimentary sedentary agriculture are the most Widespread systems of land use. Permanent compound farming is comprised of tree and arable crop farming enterprises with livestock as a third and minor activity. Land allocation is essential for homesteads. and tree and arable crop farming with livestock is confined to homesteads and villages.Outside the permanent compound farms, except for retained (wild) economic tree crops such as oil palm. planted tree crops and arable crop farming are not spatially integrated. Hence. tree crops. once planted. occupy the land permanently while the arable crops are largely grown in the traditional bush fallow andlor rudimentary sedentary agriculture with a land use factor for uplands (L ~ Cc+ F) ranging from 2.5 to 3.6 (Table 6). Thus. outside the permanent compound farms and traditional permanent tree crop farms. the land use ratio (R ~ CC+ F x 100) in eastern Nigeria is less than 34 percent for uplands and 51 percent for bottom lands (Table 6).In terms of land allocation. planted tree crops (including plantains and bananas) accounted for about 67 percent of the cultivated land: tree and arable crops mixture for 7 percent; and arable crops for only 25 percent (Table 7). About 76 percent of the farmers had arable crop farms under 4 ha. 45 percent of which were under 2 ha. Similarly. about 56 percent of the farmers had tree crop farms under 4 ha. Tree and arable crop mixtures were largely confined to farmers with the smallest amount of cultivated land.Cultivated areas devoted to the important tree and arable crops grown were assessed for each survey location.Tree and arable crops most frequently grown with considerable acreage, in the order of importance for each group. were (a) oil palm. cocoa. plantain/banana. kola. rubber and citrus and (b) cassava, yam. maize and rice.  Okigbo and Green/and. 1977 for GlassifiGalion) , Fallow periods are often short and contain some cassava resulting in some short fallows being considered as cultivated plots by farmers. This has tended to put the total cultivated land slightly higher along with the problem of double counting of same plots due to intercropping and relay cropping.Small ruminant (goats and sheep) and poultry production is common with a general trend of more small ruminant production in areas of higher demographic densities where goats are more common and important in both humid and subhumid zones, while sheep and poultry are more important in the subhumid (derived savanna) zone. The number of domestic animals kept by each family IS small.Resource allocation to enterprises and production contraints, Family labor and arable land are the 2 principal resources. Farmers are dependent on family labor and only use hired labor during labor peak periods. A cropping calendar of the 13 most important tree and lB arable crops showed that upland tree and arable crop farming. as parallel systems of production, compete for farm labor during land clearing, preparing and weeding. It was observed that there is a better utilization of family labor by having both tree and arable food crops than by either alone, and the 2 enterprises fulfill both cash and food needs of the family. The competition for labor between the tree and arable food crop enterprises could be reduced, if not eliminated, if both are integrated on the same land and, when possible, simultaneously operated. However, the practice of burning the bush in land preparation induces the phYSical or spatial separation of the 2 enterprises and causes arable crops to be grown In distant farms away from the homesteads (Table 7).State ollree and arable crop larming. In general, there appears to be less expansion of tree crops on new lands. Any increase, especially in cocoa, kola and citrus, is due to rehabilitation and an increase in density of tree crops.Most farmers in the drier savanna and coastal lowlands, particularly under high-population conditions, thought tree crop farming to be declining. Major constraints to tree crop replanting and expansion were credit and lack of production inputs.Farmers' view loward larmlng, Many traditional farmers themselves view farming as a nonprofitable enterprise and will abandon it if given other options. Eighty-six percent olthe farmers stated that they will continue farming. Of these, 6B percent stated that they will continue because they have no other option available to them, 12 percent stated that they have great family responsibility that requires them to continue farming and 6 percent stated that they do not wish to buy foods from the market. Only 14 percent stated that they will continue farming because it is profitable. Those wishing to discontinue farming, especially arable crops farming. often gave old age as their main reason.9Proposed agroecologlcal regions of the survey area: a synthesis. A map at a scale of 1 :3,000.000 delineating agroecological regions has been prepared using the data of this survey (Fig. 10). Climate, geomorphology and soils, agricultural land use (farming systems), demographic conditions (density and settlement patterns) and the interaction of these have been considered in identifying these regions.Accordingly, 5 major agroecological regions were identified:I. Basement complex (cocoalforest) with 4 subregions. II. Sandstone and coastal sand complex (oil palm! root crop) with 5 subregions. III. Niger delta and coastal swamp complex with 2 subregions. IV. Upland moist savanna complex with 4 subregions. V. Mangroves and coastal sand complex. Region V was not surveyed, for it is considered a nonagricultural zone. Similarly, region III was not included in the survey because It is nonzonal in that land use is governed by the Niger River as the environmental factor. Only the lower part of Region IV was included in the survey. the derived savanna part, and this region. often referred as the middle belt is agriculturally (crop and livestock) important and is currently experiencing increased agricultural developments with a corresponding increase in population.Region I and II are the most important for rain-fed traditional farming. The major distinction between these is their difference in geology and soils. In general. soils of Region I are geologically better soils (mostly Alfisols) and can support both tree and arable crop farming. The zone is currently used for COCQa, kola, citrus. etc., and a great variety of food crops is grown. On the other hand, Region II has soils that are chemically poor but with good physical properties (mostly Ultisols) that make tillage easy. Both soils are erodable and easily degradable with intensive cropping, particularly soils of Region II where the situation is already serious.The agroforestry potentials (alley or strip cropping, planted fallows or taungya, multi-storey farming and agro-silvo-pastoral) are higher for Regions I and IV where such new or improved systems of land use may not be difficult to adopt. But, the same cannot be said for Region II.  Research on land and soil management includes the following areas: land clearing and development, tillage systems and small tools development and management of kaolinitic Alfisols and siliceous Ultisols.Hydrological investigations and characterization of soil physical properties as influenced by methods of land clearing and post-clearing soil management were continued in 1980 for cassava planted in the 1979 second season and harvested toward the end of 1980. North Eastern (Guinea) Savanna-Sandstone medium to low pop.Effect on soil bulk density. Deforestation resulted in a significant increase in soil bulk density (Table 8). and there were slight differences in bulk density among various methods of land clearing. Maize, being an open-row crop grown immediately after deforestation, increased soil bulk density (data of 1979), while cassava, being a close canopy crop, decreased soil bulk density. Moreover, tuber development just beneath the soil surface may have contributed to decreasing the bulk density of the layer above the tuber and increasing the bulk density of the layer below the tubers. Differences in soil bulk density were also reflected in the infiltration rate and penetrometer resistance.Effect on total water yield. Water yield from the cleared watershed treatment was 259 mm while the forested treatment was only 2 mm. Deforestation contributed to a significant amount of seepage or ground water flow. The intermittent stream with only traces of flow during periods of heavy rains is now a perennial stream with measurable flow throughout the year. The maximum surface runoff was observed in September; the subsurface flow in October was almost equal to surface runoff. Continuing flow through the dry season also indicates the possibility of sizeable ground water storage that may be important at least in analyzing the hydrological balance of a cleared watershed. Effect on surface runoff and erosion. Soil erosion and water runoff were lower for cassava than maize. Moreover, there were no significant differences among treatments either for runoff or erosion, except for the tree pusher-conventional tillage treatment. In spite of the protective cover of the cassava canopy, this treatment had 48 mm of water runoff and 4.2 tlha'annum of soil erosion (Table 9). In comparison to this, runoff and erosion from the shear blade-no-tillage cassava was 5.0 mm and 0.08 tlha. On the contra ny, runoff and erosion from the shear blade-no-tillage maize treatment was 53 mm and 1.9 tlhalannum, respectively. These results on the effects of methods of land clearing and post-clearing soil management have important practical agronomic implications. It seems that, in the long run, post-clearing soil management has the most important effect on soil erosion, runoff and decline of soil physical and chemical properties. This is not to say that the methods of land clearing are not important because a combination of harmful land clearing and post-clearing soil management methods, such as land clearing with tree pusher! root rake followed by conventional plowing and harrowing, results in the most losses in water runoff and soil erosion and in rapid degradation of soil physical and chemical properties.Effect on cassava growth and yield. Seedling mortality was about 50 percent in these treatments because of shading by trees in the traditionally managed plots and by maise in the no-tillage plots (Table 10). Since cassava was planted in no-tillage treatments through 6-8 weekold maize, row spacing was often more than 1 m (sometimes 1.5 m), which also contributed to a low plant population. Cassava tuber yield vaned by a factor of 2-2.5 among treatments with the lowest yield in the traditionally managed plots. Conventional tillage plots were planted at least 6 weeks later and harvested about a month after no-tillage plots. Tuber yield in conventional tillage plots would have been even more if they had been harvested 2-3 months later. Nevertheless, tuber and stalk yield from the no-tillage plots were comparable with those from the plowed and ridged plots.Table 10. Effects of land clearing methods on cassava growth and yield (liT A, 1980) G. Moldboard plowing followed by 2 harrowings (residue on the surface) . H. Moldboard plowing followed by 2 harrowings, followed by ridging (residue plowed in). The effects of these treatments were investigated for soil physical properties and crop response. Preliminary results indicated that for a sandy loam soil , tillage methods had no significent effects on grain yield (Tables 11 and  12). However, it will be useful to conduct a similar study for different soils and ecological condition s to provide guidelines for appropri ate tillage methods. Poor stand in conventionally tiIJed maize with water standing for up to 2 weeks atter rain because of compaction and low permeability.Maize grain yield declined sharply in a lield with its twelfth continuous crop of maize (2 crops per year). However, the rate of decline was much greater in conventional than in no-tillage plots (Fig . 11). Soil erosion has been a severe problem for yield decline in conventional-tillage plots while soil compaction has been a severe problem in no-tillage plots.  13). These differences in grain yield were attributed to the number of grains per row and the unit grain weight. The yields of cowpea and soybean also observed a similar trend . Effect 01 tillage on paddy rice production. In 1976. grain yie ld s of rice were similar in conventional and non-tillage methods. Yields were sign ificantly affected only by the level 01 N application . The yields were not affected by the tillage treatments lor about 3 years. Si nce 1979 , the plant height, tillers and grain and straw yield have been less in conventional-tillage than no-tillage for sandy soils (Table 14). In clayey soi l, the differences due to tillage treatments were not pronounced (Table 15). Comparisons 01 rice yield in Tables 14 and 15 indicate that an opti mu m level of N for rice for a clayey soil is about 60 kg N/ha; whereas, th e effect of N on rice yield in a sandy soil was not sig nificant. The adverse effect of no-tillage on rice may be due to many factors, including nutrient imbalance. In a sandy soil , leaching losses of applied fertilizer on an untilled paddy may be more than in a puddled soil.  ridged treatment. Table 16 shows that 20 percent more yam tubers were produced in mulched than unmulched plots with least tuber yield measured in the unmulched ridge treatment. The beneficial effects of residue mulch may partly be attributed to favorable soil temperature and moisture regimes. Observations on soil moisture content made 40 and 90 days after planting indicated that unmulched ridges had the least soil moisture reserves.Table 16.Length of tuber em Diameter of tuber cm Yield tihaEffects at tillage methods and mutches on yam production (Onne, 1980). with sides that eQuid be removed for monitoring root growth at different stages. Measurements on root growth were made for cassava cultivar TMS30572 at 48, 78. 108, 132 and 185 days after planting. Root density, measured as length and dry weight, was not significantly affected by the soil bulk density treatments investigated. Neither were there significant differences in plant height. leaf area nor shoot dry weight. Cassava can withstand soil compaction more than grain crops such as maize, cowpea or soybean. Nevertheless. the shoot: root ratio was generally higher at soil bulk density of 1.6 gcm ' than other densities (Table 17). The optimum density for the high feeding: tuberous root ratio was 1.6 gcm '. These results imply that effects of soil compaction on cassava may be highly dependent on soil texture as the latter affects both the intenSity and capacity factors for nutrient and water availability.Effects of tillage methods and mulches on soil temperature regime and its effects on crop production. Ther• mal diffusivity, the ratio of thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity, generally increases with an increase in soil moisture content up to a certain value. The exact relationship depends on soil texture. Thermal diffusivity measurements were made for 20 different soils, and the relationship between soil moisture content and thermal diffusivity for some soils is shown in Fig. 12. In general, thermal diffusivity is higher in coarse-textured sandy soils than heavy-textured clayey soils. The regression equations between sand, silt and clay on thermal diffusivity are given in Table 18.'\"\" ClOy 0 C   , SaMy co, LOQm \"   A knowledge of the thermal diffusivity is necessary in predicting the temperature profile of a soil under different systems 01 management. Soil temperature affects crop growth directly as well as indirectly through its interaction with soil moisture regime and its effects on root growth, biotic activity and plant nutrients. Soil temperature measurements at different depths and times can be cumbersome. With the knowledge of soil thermal properties, moisture regime and boundary conditions, the temperature profile of a soil can be predicted with a reasonable degree of accuracy. An attempt was made to compare the measured soil temperature with that estimated by the Fourier series solution and the Hanks model. The initial and boundary conditions were measured for the following treatments: bare flat, flat mulched with crop residue (ii. uUha, ridged and flat surface covered with transparent polythene.Soil temperature measurements were made for maize, cowpea and soybean. The predicted soil temperature at 20 cm depth under maize and cowpea was within 0.6°C of the measured soil temperature. Soil temperature can also be predicted from the air temperature (Table 19).The effect of canopy cover on diurnal fluctuations in soil temperature at 29 and 37 days after planting for a sunny and a cloudy day. respectively, is shown in Fig. 13.-The higher temperature under soybean compared to the lower temperature under maize and cowpea is partly attributed to poor stand because of a supraoptimal temperature regime during the periods of seedling emergence and establishment.The values of amplitude and phase angle for the first 3 harmonics of the temperature wave for ddferent surface conditions and crop covers are shown in Table 20. It is  obvious that 90-95 percent of the variability in soil temperature regime under bare, maize, cowpea and soybean covers can be explained by the first harmonic while 97-99 percent of the variability can be explained by the first 3 harmonics (Table 20). In general, the second and third harmonics represented 1.2-7 percent and 0.1-3.8 percent of the total variance, respectively. This implies that the first 2 harmonics alone can explain the diurnal fluctuation in soil temperature up to about a 30 cm depth. The third harmonic explains about 1 percent of the tolal variance.Runoff and erosion under root crops_ Table 21 shows the effects of canopy cover of tropical root crops at different growth stages on runoff and erosion. Cassava, although a closed canopy crop, takes a relatively longer time to provide a complete ground cover than maize or cowpea. Staked yams leave the ground surface exposed to raindrop impact even when the canopy is fully developed and, therefore, renders the soil more susceptible to erosion. Sweet potato, with qUick and effective ground cover, is a soil-conserving cover since it results in minimal runoff and erosion compared to cassava and yam (Table 21). Mixed croppings of maize with cassava, cassava with melon and maize with yam resulted in a significant decrease in both runoff and erosion. Simultaneous measurements of canopy cover made at different growth stages will provide necessary information for computing \"C\" values that can be used in the \"Universal Soil Loss Equation\" for predictive purposes.Weed control in no-tillage systemThe effect of residue management and tillage on maize production using chemical weed control was investigated on a I-year Eupatorium odoratum fallow. (Tables 22a and 22b). Maize yield was significantly lower in the no-tillage plot than conventional (plow and harrow) and reduced tillage (disc harrow) plot. Also, significantly more weeds grew at 4 weeks after planting where the residue was burnt off than where the residue was retained or raked off. The method of weed control affected grain yield but not lodging in maize. The maize yield was significantly lower in the unweeded than weeded plots (Table 23a). When plots were hand weeded, the crop yield was identical in the 3 tillage practices. However, when a preemergence herbicide was used for weed con- trol, the yield was significantly higher in conventional than no-tillage plots (Table 23b).Weed control in conventional and no-tillage cassava was evaluated in an Alfisol in a subhumid climate. The vegetation was a 2-year fallow conSisting of perennial grass, Panicum maximum; and broad leaves, Eupatorium adoratum, A/chamia laxiflora and Ficus spp. The fallow vegetation was first slashed in late February before the onset of rains, and its regrowth was then sprayed in April with 3.0 kg glyphosate/ha a. i. In the conventional-tillage section, the fallow vegetation was plowed under. and the cassava was planted at 1.0 m x 1.0 m spacing on the flat after harrowing. In the no-tillage section, the cassava was planted directly into sprayed regrowth. Cassava     24a and 24b). However, preemergence herbicides were more effective in conventional than no-tillage cassava. Crop yield was significantly higher in the hand weeded than in the chemically weeded plot under no-tillage. The hand weed plot under no-tillage compared favorably with the preemergence herbicide treatments under conventional-tillage. This is an indication that good cassava yield is possible under no-tillage conditions provided that weeds are controlled. The best weed control in cassava was obtained when a mixture of metolachlor and fluometuron was used. This yield did not differ significantly from that of the formulated mixture of atrazine and metolachlor, which has previously been shown to be safe for maize/cassava intercrops. Rolling injection planter. The rolling injection planter was modified to improve its performance in both the conventional and no-tillage systems. First. it was provided with a small metal cover to hold the seed on the metering wheel to prevent uneven distribution of seed.This cover holds the seed in the metering wheel until the seed is just over the opener, and the seed is dropped almost directly on the ground through the opener (Fig. 14). PreviOUSly, the cutoff device on the rolling injection planter had a tendency to pinch maize seeds in such a way that the seeds jumped out of the seed hole in the metering wheel. This happened just as the seed had almost completely passed under the cut-off device. Also, the vibration of the machine had a tendency to shake seeds out of the metering wheel prematurely. This  caused increased numbers of seeds in some hills and none in others. For crops requiring 3 or 4 seeds to be planted per hill , the small metal plate is not necessary. The seeds distribute themselves fairly evenly between the hole openers giving good crop stands.A simple guard was designed that covers the opening between the o~ener lever and the injection wheel to prevent trash from pa2.sing between. The guard does not add significantly to the cost or weight of the machine. Previously. the small pieces of wood left in the field after clearing fallow were found to catch in the hole opener lever and wedge between the injector wheel and the handles. This makes the planter almost impossible to push.The solution to the planter sinking in soft soil was to fi t a wider hole opener lever. This lever is 5 cm wide , adding 3 cm to the width of the previous hole opener lever. The extra width provides for more contact with the soil . thus , distributfng the weight over a greater area and keeping the planter from sinking . Finally, the requirement of planting in the row at other than 250 mm spacing has partially been solved. Seed rollers were made that give 2 and 3 seeds per revolution of the rolling injection wheel. This will give seed spacing of 500 mm (3-hole roller) and 750 mm (2-hole roller) . A single hole roller could be made to give 1,500 mm spacing . This development brings a much wider range of activities for the rolling injection planter, giving it adaptability to various crops.In an attempt to increase the rate of planting , different configurations of planters and fertilizer band applicators were also designed and tested as follows :(a) A 2-row rolling injection planter was designed to increase the field capacity and make a more stable planter by eliminating the sideways tipping of the machine. (b) A 2-row rolling injection planter with a fertilizer band applicator attached behind it acting as a press wheel worked very well . but lumpy fertilizer slows down the planting operation as the lumps must be broken up before being used .(c) A single-row rolling injection planter with a fertilizer band applicator attached behind it is too heavy to balance. (d) A single-row rolling injection planter with a fertilizer band applicator attached beside it acting as a row marker as well as placing basal fertilizer works very well and eliminates using strings or poles for marking the rows. This system does not work well on heavy mulch , which contains a lot of fine grasses or weeds and hides the fertilizer.Nei ther the single-row rolling injection planter with a fer• tilizer band applicator nor the 2-row rolling injection planter are able to work on traditionally cleared land that has stumps left standing more than 15 cm in height. This is because the amount of deviation from the row to be able to go around the stump is too great.The working rates of these machine combinations are shown in Table 25. Table 26 gives the amount of time to move row marker stakes when planting or spraying.Table 25. Rate of work of planter combinations (IITA, 1980). Table 26. Time fo r machine operator to move row mar ker stakes per hectare (IITA, 1980). Hole opener lever. Planter on left has 50 mm wide lever, planter on right a 25 mm wide lever.Single-row rolling injection planter with the fertilizer band applicator attached.All machines were designed to either push or pull. Operators generally chose to pull. When conditions made penetration a problem. it was improved if the planter was pushed. Other trials were carried out to judge the variability of the roiling injection planter in stand establishment with no tillage. This variability may be caused by the amount of mulch cover on the sailor by how well the seeds are covered. To determine whether the planter was covering seeds well enough. maize was planted with no tillage. Ten pairs of rows were selected at random. One of the pairs of rows was carefully dug up and the seeds counted, then carefully replaced in their holes and covered with soil. The next row was left and not counted. Out of the total number of rows tested. the average stand count for the seeds dug up was 82 percent. The count for the rows left alone was only 51 percent. It is clear from this test that more work is required on seed covering. It was also noted that the heavier the mulch cover. the lower the stand count when using the rolling injection planter. A test to determine the effect of the amount of mulch cover on the effectiveness of the rolling injection planter was carried out on small plots with maize and cowpea, separately, replicated 20 times.Tables 27 and 28 show that there is a consistent reduction in stand establishment as the amount of mulch cover increases 10r both maize and cowpea. This reduction in stand as mulch weight increased could be attributed to greater bird and rodent activity on the heavily mulched fields and/or shading from the mulch. 'The control seeds were planted by hand and well covered between the rows planted and the rolling injection planter. 'The control seeds were planted by hand and well covered between the rows planted by the rolling injection planter.In the cowpea plots, no mulch treatments were rotovated before planting. The control seeds, which were well covered. had the same germination rate as the seeds planted with the rolling injection planter. In the maize plots, the no mulch treatments were not rotovated before planting.The control seeds had 27 percent more germination than the seeds planted with the rolling injection planter.The results on the no mulch treatments for both maize and cowpea support the conclusion of the earlier test on covering of seed. When the seeds are well covered. there is higher germination. Ouring planting, it was noted that seeds are covered better when planting on soil with conventional than no-tillage. The soil falls back better onto the seed with conventional than no-tillage. On no-tillage planting. there is usually a small indentation above the seed where the opener is inserted. This may allow birds and rodents to find the seeds more easily and, thus, reduce the stand establishment. Further tests will be conducted to determine the causes of lower stands.The hole openers of the rolling injection planter were tested to know the maximum speed for pushing before seeds are left on the ground's surface and the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of hole openers.   CDA sprayer. A 2 head, hand-earned sprayer, which had been built previously at IITA, was modified to give more even flow between the heads. The original sprayer had 1 feed line from the bottle to the cross supporting the heads. The tube had a T placed in it at the cross support to feed each of the heads (Fig. flow in the 6 mm tubing would at times allow 1 head to take all the flow. leaving the other with no flow at all. This would happen normally when 1 head was higher than the other. This was mostly overcome by having a separate tube for each head coming from the spray bottle. The sprayer was set up with the spray heads 0.75 m apart to match the row width when working on standing maize stubble. This 2 head sprayer was used in conjunction with the 2-row planter with every other row of maize stover knocked down. The time required for using the 2 heads was approximately 0.6 of the single head. This increase in the rate of work would probably justify the extra expense of the 2 head machine, approximately 1.5 times the price of a single head machine. crop residue return resulted in an increase in soil bulk denSity and acidity and a decrease in soil organic matter levels, and, consequently, a reduction in CEe and exchangeable Ca and Mg status in the soil (Table 30).Penetrometer readings of the cropped plots after 8 years indicated a severe compaction of the surface horizons compared to the soils under grass and bush fallow (Fig. 17).Continuous no-tillage maize with crop residue returned as surface mulch twice a year was able to maintain soil organic matter (Le .. total N) levels comparable to that of bush fallow. But. the decline in soil pH, CEC, eXChangeable Ca and Mg levels and the increases in soil bulk density and penetrometer readings were considerable although to a much lesser extent compared to the no crop residue plots (Table 30). Moreover, properties of soils under continuous mulch, no-tillage maize for B years were by no means comparable to that under bush and grass fallow. Planted fallows such as Lucaena with both leaves and branches returned as surface mulch compared favorably to that of natural bush fallow; whereas, results of pigeon pea (bush type) were inferior. Tlie latter result is mainly due to severe disease problems that cause the crop to die off after 1 year. Lack of effective ground cover during or before the reestablishment of the new crop may have caused the loss of Ca, Mg and K from the surface soil by eroding and leaching.Effect on earthworm activity. There was a remarkable difference in earthworm activity between the fallow and cultivated plots. Earthworm activity monitored during a 4-day period in July, 1980 (Table 31). showed that the natural bush fallow plot had a significantly higher Hyperiodillus activity (columnar casts) than the 2 planted fallow plots (Leucaena and Guinea grass). The extremely low earthworm activity in the continuously cropped plots (8.5 years) is apparently due to many factors. Soil compaction, continued use of pesticides and herbicides and the decline in soil organic matter are probably among the important ones. The results of Eudrillus activity (granular casts) taken dUling the same period were less indicative. Although the difference among the fallow and cropped plots was not statistically significant, the Eudril-Ius activity under Leucaena was considerably greater than that under bush and Guinea grass as well as the cropped plots (Table 3t).Role of crop residue mulch on maize yield under notillage .ystem. Respectable grain Yields under a mulchno-tillage system on manually cleared land were maintained up to 4 years; but Yield declined steadily, thereafter, despite adequate fertilization and plant protection (Fig. 18). The reason for the yield decline is a complex one. The decline in soil biomass activity due to cultivation, soil compaction and possible Mn toxicity due to soil acidification are probably among the more important growth-limiting factors that cannot be simply remedied by conventional fertilization. The beneficial effect of crop residue mulch in the no-tillage maize system is evident, particularly in areas of ustic soil moisture regime and frequent incidences of dry spells during the early cropping season. These results suggest that to avoid permanent degradation of the \"superficially\" fertile Alfisols in the forest!savanna transition zone of West Africa, cultivated land needs to be returned to an effective fallow or resting period alter 4-5 years of cropping under recommended soil management practices, i.e .. the mulch notillage system. A small-scale, manual, land clearing project (0.25 hal was carried out to study the soil organic matter decomposition and nutrient release after forest clearing. A secondary objective of the experiment was to demonstrate whether improved soil and crop management practices at the small farmer's level could. in fact, increase the length of the period under cultivation before the land is returned to bush fallow. The improved practices included no burning, no tillage and the use of mulches, fertilizers, preemergence herbicides, pesticides and an improved crop variety. Soybeans were planted immediately atter land clearing during the 1979 second season followed by maize during the 1980 first season. Fertilizer was not applied to either crop. Excellent growth of both the soybean and maize was observed, and tissue analysis indicated no nutrient deficiency. Results of weekly monitoring of NO,-N and NH,-N in the surface (0-10 em) soil are given in Figure 19. Substantial amounts of soil organic N were mineralized during the onset of the rainy season. These data further suggest that, in spite of risking a drought stress, early planting of maize is preferred so that the crop can effectively utilize the high levels of mineralized N in the soil during the second season, both ~. the NO,-N and NH.-N content in the soil were low, indl' cating that a higher rate of N fertilization would be required for the second maize crop, There were significant changes in soil organic C, Nand P as well as bulk density 1 year after clearing (Table 32). The decline of soil organic C. Nand P is primarily due to mineralization as soil erosion and surface run-off on this carefully cleared plot (64 subplots) are minimal. The second season maize, however, suffered severe streak virus disease.Grain and dry matter yields of soybean and first season maize are given in   #Crop residues were removed after each harvest. The (main season crop) lollowed by cowpea (minor season crop) annual rotation was practiced during the last 6 years. Though P and N responses on the sandy loam Egbeda soil were observed, respectively, since the lirst and third years following land clearing, a significant response to K application on the maize crop was not observed until 1980, the ninth year after land clearing (Fig. 20).The significant response to an annual application of 40 kg Kiha was rather unexpected since the soil K-status with this treatment at the start of the trial in 1980 was more than adequate at 0.32 me Kil00g soil (Fig. 21). This may result from an early drought affecting the crop, which may have less effect on the crop receiving the higher K application.On the sandy textured Apomu soil, where significant K response was observed already in the fourth cropping year, the main yield response was observed to be consistently higher at 40 kg Kiha than 80 kg Kiha. Though no definite explanation can be given for this observation. it may in part be due to the higher acidity build up with the higher K rate, which could have an indirect negative effect on the maize crop. Data on the soil K-status with K application and cropping showed significant changes on both soil types (Fig. 21).The soil K-status showed faster depletion with continuous cropping compared to a bare uncultivated treatment, particularly on the Egbeda soil. Annual application of 80 kg Kiha was able to maintain the soil K-status of the Egbeda soil at a level comparable to that observed under bush fallow. However, on the Apomu soil, the K-status was observed to be lower than that observed under bush fallow even with an annual application of 80 kg K!ha.The effect of maize crop residue retention and removal with and without fertilizer application in this long-term trial, which initially did not show any particular trend on the maize grain yield in the last few years began to result in definite effects (Fig. 22). On the Egbeda soil, removal 01 the maize residue, particularly without fertilizer application, significantly reduced maize grain yield. On the Apomu soil, removal of maize residue significantly reduced maize grain yield, particularly with fertilizer application.The detrimental effect of continuous removal of maize crop residue with continuous fertilizing and cropping was observed to be more pronounced with the cowpea crop. In 1980, the cowpea variety used in the experiment was changed from VITA-4 to VITA-S. VITA-S gave a lower yield (Fig. 23) and is apparently more sensitive to Mn toxicity. With continuous application 01 NPK fertilizers, there was a significant soil pH depression with both the Egbeda and Apomu soils. The lower pH resulted in higher mobilization and extractable Mn levels, particularly on the Apomu soil, resulting in lower cowpea yields mainly due to Mn toxicity combined with K deficiency.Despite the importance 01 maintaining adequate soil organic matter under the traditional techniques of shi1ting cultivation or bush-fallowing, the plant residue during seedbed preparation is commonly burnt off. The longterm effect of this practice compared to plant residue management has not been adequately studied. A trial was, therefore, Initiated on an Allisol at Ikenne, Nigeria, to study the effects of burning and mulching of plant residue in relation to fertilizer application on the performance of maize. Results of the trials during 1978-80 are shown in Table 34. Though some responses to Nand P were observed following land clearing from fallow, significant responses to P and N were only observed, respectively, in the second and third years following cleari ng. The main response was to P application.Though the mean maize grain yields do not show any significant differences between burning and mulching of the plant residue during the 3 cropping years, some effects were observed among the various fertilizer treatments. Without fertilizer application, PK, NP and NPK treatments combined with mulching gave a higher maize yield, particularly in the third cropping year. However, with the NK treatment, burning gave a higher maize yield, which may be attributed to a quick release of P from burning of the plant residue.Despite the importance of no-tillage systems in soil conservation, little information is available on the best nutrient management aspects of the no-tillage system of  maize yields from the cantrol plots without N application were higher with conventional tillage than no tillage. thiS was alsa Observed dUring the first cropping year in 1979 (Fig. 24). However, maize yields with N application. particularly at high N rates, were higher with no tillage than conventional tillage.Use of Leucaena prunings. In looking at low cost allernatives to N sources, experiments were carried out using Leucaena leuocephala tap prunings. Leucaena not only can serve as a potential N source but also can supply fuel wood. In a trial carried out on an Apomu soil series at IITA, the effects of rate and placement methods of the Leucaena top prunings were compared to urea. Leucaena top prunings were banded Or broadcasted once at maize planting, while urea was banded twice. one-third N at maize planting and two-thirds N at 4 weeks after maize planting. Figure 25 shows that banding the Leucaena top prunlngs at 25 cm widths was most effective. and banding at rates of 5t or 10t was. respectively. 52 and 67 percent as effective as urea. Though the prunings can be used as an N source. application at planting time only was apparently not too effective. In-situ mulch from cover crops and fertilizer levels on maize yield. In-situ mulch from cover crop residue has been found to be a feasible method of establishing mulch for effective no tillage or mulch-conventional tillage production. Using Mucuna utilis as the cover crop, the effect of fertilizer and preemergence herbicide on maize yield in mulch-conventional tillage was evaluated. The design was a split plot in which main plots were (al no herbicide and (bl a basal application of 60 kg Nlha, 60 kg P/ha and 60 kg Klha with a side dressing of 30 kg N! ha at 4 weeks after planting; (iii a basal application of 60 kg P/ha with a side dressing of 30 kg Niha; (iii) a side dressing of 30 kg Nlha only and (iv) no fertilizer. The cover crop was killed with 2.0 kg glyphosatelha aj. Side dressing alone and no fertilizer were found to produce significantly lower Yields than a full application of basal with a side dressing and a basal application of P with a side dressing (Table 35). The preemergence herbicide had no significant effect on yield. The results indicate that some fertilizer is needed in mulch-conventional tillage with in-situ mulch from a leguminous cover crop. A preemergence herbicide is not necessary as weed suppression by the mulch is an effective weed control (Table 36).  37. On this plot, which is in the second cycle of continuous cropping, the fresh tuber yields of both vaneties, TMS 30555 and TMS 30572, showed a significant response to K ap-27 plication at the rate of 60 kg Klha. N application only slightly increased tuber yield. TMS 30572 also gave higher tuber yield than TMS 30555 at this particular location. There is no difference in the percentage dry matter yield between the 2 varieties. Differential P response of cowpea and soybean varieties. Investigati ons were carried out at Ikenne in the humid region of Nigeria to determine differences in the internal and external P requirements of 4 cowpea vari-   Maize-cowpea rotationA 5-year management trial at Onne shows that a productive maize-cowpea rotation system is possible on coarsetextured deep and permeable Ultisols (Typic Paleudult) on a predominantly flat to gently undulating coastal land form. Maize was sown in early March and cowpea in late September or early October. Maximum grain yield throughout the 5 years ranges from 3.5 to 4.5 tlha for maize and from 1.3 to 1.5 tlha for cowpea.A well•balanced fertilization scheme is required for the maize crop, N, P, K, S, Mg and Zn. and fertilization is generally not needed for cowpea in the second season as the residual fertility from the maize crop with residue return as surface mulch is adequate to support the cow• pea crop. Reduced tillage with residue mulch is recom• mended because the coarse•textured, kaolin-dominated soil may be easily compacted.It is important to point out that the maize, TZPB, and cowpea cultivars, VITA•l and VITA-4, tested are fairly tolerant to soil acidity. The critical level of exchangeable AI saturation, i.e., a level required to attain 90 percent of maximum yield, for the maize cultivar ranges between 30-45 percent depending upon the rate of chemical fertilizer used (Fig. 28). The critical level of AI saturation for both cowpea cultivars is as high as 60 percent when chemical fertilizer is not applied in the second season (Fig. 28). But, with moderate rate of fertilization, the critical level of AI saturation IS reduced considerably, and the 2 cowpea cultivars show differential response to soil acidity, i.e., 30 percent for VITA-4 and 43 percent for VITA-1 (Fig. 29). Thus, liming IS not necessary unless the exchangeable AI saturation of the soil has reached a level beyond the critical level of the crop to be grown, The critical level of exchangeable AI saturation in such coarse-textured, kaolinitic Ultisols depends to some extent upon the rate of fertilizer to be applied. The variability in the entical level of exchangeable AI saturation is because of the large increase in soluble AI in the soil solution after fertilization, Such effects have not been taken into account because soil sampling is normally done before planting.The effect of fertilizer salts on soil solution AI is shown in Table 38,Because lime is scarce in many parts of the humid tropics such as southeastern Nigeria, it is necessary to know what minimum rates of lime are needed for optimum crop production and what residual values may be expected. Results from an anne trial are summarized as follows:Relatively low rates of lime would be adequate to sustain crop yields under a maize/cowpea rotation system. It is interesting to point out that with balanced fertilization, respectable levels of maize and cowpea yields were maintained for 5 years in the unlimed plots (pH 4,3) where no severe AI toxicity effects were observed, Both cowpea cultivars nodulated well with indigeneous acidtolerant rhizobia, and nodulation was only slightly reduced without liming, Applied Ca in the form of lime leached readily from the surface layer. which IS accompanied by the subsequent reappearance of exchangeable AI (Table 39), The increase in CEC values due to liming is also short-lived, The downward movement of Ca has little effect on the subsoil pH and exchangeable AI. suggesting that Ca leached in the form of neutral salts, The vertical distribution of exchangeable Ca in the field profile measured 3 years after lime application follows the theory and formulation of ion-exchange chromatography (Fig, 30). This is In agreement with a previous laboratory leaching study using undisturbed soil columns, Over 90 percent of the applied Ca may be found between 0-90 cm depths 3 years after liming because of the strong subsoil acidity (pH 4,3 and greater than 50 percent AI saturation). Recovery of the subsoil Ca, however, would require deeprooting species tolerant to high exchangeable AI levels.Moreover, because a high lime rate in the surface soil has little effect on the subsoil acidity, there would be no advantage of applying a rate of lime more than required to reach the exchangeable AI levels for the crop to be   grown. Thus, it is recommended that for Ultisols (TYPIc Paleu dult) or for Ultisols with similar mineralogy and texture, annual rates of 200-400 kg/ha should suffice to maintain maize and cowpea yield. Under such circumstances. lime could be regarded as a form of fertilizer rather than a major soil amendment.Leaching 01 nitrate under maize.An experiment was established at Onne in 1980 to study the pattern of nitrate leaching under field conditions. Maize was planted in the first season and upland rice in the second season. Three methods of N application were used, 1 application at planting, 2 split applications. onehalf at planting and one-half at 4 weeks after planting and 3 split applications. one-third at planting, one-third at 4 weeks after planting and one-third at 8 weeks after plant I ng. A N rate of 150 kg/ha as calcium amonium nitrate was used. A bare fallow treatment was included.The experiment was a split-plot design with 4 replications. Lime and unlimed treatments were the main plot.Downward movement of inorganic N (NH,-N and NO,-N) in the soil was monitored periodically up to a 120 cm depth (Fig. 31). At the end of 4 weeks (129 mm rainfall), the pattern of nitrate movement when all N was applied at planting in the unlimed plots was similar to the bare fallow and the crop plots. The peak concentration occurred between 30-60 cm. At the end of 8 weeks (477 mm rainfall), the nitrate peak in the cropped plots occurred at a depth of 60-90 cm, but the nitrate peak in the bare fallow plots was considerably deeper and broader, indicating greater leaching. At the end of the first season (940 mm rainfall), the nitrate peak moved to a depth of 105-120 cm. Liming Increased the rate of nitrate leaching in both bare fallow and cropped plots. When N was split into 2 applications, nitrate peaks occurred in the upper layer between 0-30 cm both at 4 and 8 weeks after planting, indicating less leaching.Splitti ng N into 2 applications significantly increased grain yield and N-uptake by the plant (Table 40), but fur-NO,-N in Soil,).Jg/g o 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 \\ P' :' l• f /0 -\\/t»\\,XO   + + Corrected for mineral N (NH,-N and NO,-N) in soil (0-120 cm) from unfertilized bare fallow plot (190.2 kg/ha).\"Crop removal plus estimated fertilizer N in soil (0-1 20 cm) at harvest.ther splitting into 3 applications had no significant effect on yield though it reduced leaching loss.Estimated percentage recovery of applied N is also given in Table 40. Loss of applied N i n the form of calci um ammonium nitrate under cropping was not as high as expected although more reliable measurements on N recovery can only be obtained with N-15 tagg ed fertilizers.When N was applied in 3 split applications, nearly all the applied N could be accounted for by plant uptake and the amount present in the soi l (0-120 cm) at the end of season. At 2 split applications, about 80 percent of the applied N was recovered in plant and soil.It is important to point out that the unfertilized bare fallow plot contained 60-80 kg/ha of mineralized N (NH.-N plus NO,-N) in the surface 30 cm layer for both the unlimed and limed treatments. suggesting relatively high rates of mineralization during the early part of the cropping seaso n. It appears that application of N fertilizer may not be necessary at the time of planting during the first season if sufficient mineralized N is already present in the surface layer. Investigations on the K and Mg response of cassava variet ies TMS 30395 and 30211 were initiated on an Ultisol  42. In the second year of cropping , the soi l K-status even with K appl ication was very low. There was a distinct effect of Mg application in increasing t he soi l Mg status. The tuber yie lds of both varieties showed a more pronounced and significant response to K application . Despite the presence of Mg deficiency symptoms without Mg appli• cations, similar to t he first year results, there was no definite response of tuber yield to Mg application .In 1980, resea rch in cropping systems or crop manage• ment foc used o n the follow ing areas: mixed cropping , alley cropping, live mulch system and the role of agro• fo restry in food crop systems. The ultimate goals are to achieve high and stable c rop yields while maintain ing long-range soil productivity. Several projects were initiated to investigate the incl usion of leguminous cover crops and managed tree and sh rubs into food crop production systems in an attempt to find more efficient, lowenergy input and stable alternative systems to traditional bush fallow cultivation. Special emphasis was given to the prod uction system of plantain in the humid and per• humid regions.Intercropping agronomy and meso/micro-climatic studiesLight regime and productivity in mi xed crops. Competition for light and moisture are clearly 2 key factors in mixed croppi ng systems. As a follow up on previous studies showing or establishing a range of modifications that may be brough t about in the light regime in maize canopies th ro ugh modifications of planting geometry and density (IITA An n ual Reports 1978 and1979), studies were carried out in 1980 with the ai m of quantifying and standardizing some of these relationships partly to provide a basis for opti mal design in mixed cropping system s. Attempts were also made to relate the effects of the modified light climates withi n the established crop (maize) on the lower or slower growing intercrop (cassava) .Results show that at full development of the maize canopy in a maize/cassava mixture, the percentage of incident radiation depleted at cob height is a power function of the combined plant population . The relevant equation is as follows :where Y., is the amount of light intercepted (to cob level) , and X is the combined plant population (Fig. 32A). A similar relationsh ip was obtained at ground level (Fig . 32B) .As previously reported (IITA Annua l Report 1979), p lant populations in this experiment were varied from 10,000 plan ts/ha in the pure cassava to 80,000 plants/ha in the maize/cassava mixtures. The maize (TZPB) population varied from 10,000 to 70,000 plantslha by increasing the number of maize plan ts per stand from 1 to 7. Spacing was maintained at 1 m x 1 m with the p lants along the same row. Fo r the lower or slower growing cassava, which was shaded thro ugh much of the growth of the maize, the crop yields were very significantly affected by the amount of light reaching it through the maize canopy (Fig . 33) . Again, a si m ilarly li near relat ionship was ob• tained between the cassava yield and the total light transmitted through the combined maize/cassava canopy at full maize development (Fig . 34). These amounts of transmitted light can also be systematically related to the combined plant population as shown in Fig. 35. The relationship between the 2 factors is ex pressed:where Y, is the amount of lig ht transmitted through the canopy, and X is the combined plant population.  /'    Induced micro•climate and crop response. In a related experiment in 1980, using cassava of relatively prolific growth, plant populations were maintained constant in 3 treatments at 12,500 plants/ha (cassava 3001) and 25,000 plantsfha (maize: TZPB), In a fourth treatment, the maize population was increased to 40,000 plantslha, and the cassava population was reduced to 10,000 plants/ha, Pure cassava with 12,500 plants!ha constituted a sixth treatment, and pure maize at 25,000 and 50,000 plantsl ha were treatments 5 and 7, respectively, Analyses of the partial results show that the amount of light intercepted by the upper canopy of the maize (to cob level) is significantly related to yield, Observations on soil moisture and temperature in the experiment also show marked differences in both variables under the different crops and crop combinations, Fig, 36 compares the 6 weekly average mean relative soil moisture contents under the pure maize, pure cassava and maize/cassava combinations, respectively. Evidently, the presence of cassava in the mixture has a beneficial effect on the moisture available to the maize while maize helps reduce the soil temperature as a result of rapid canopy development (Fig, 37), Within the mixed crops, appreciable differences were observed with changes in planting geometry (Table 43), Similarly, air temperature and humidity as reflected by the wet bulb thermometer were also affected by the planting pattern (IITA Annual Report, 1979),    Partial mechanization of maize/cassava intercropping.Yields of maize planted mechanically on ridges were not affected by cassava planted on the same ridges at 0, 7, 14 and 21 days after maize (IITA Annual Report, 1979), Herbicide, however. depressed maize yield significantly at the 5 percent probability level. The effects on cassava show that delay of up to 21 days in planting cassava was not critical to cassava yield (Table 44), However, signifi-  45). De• spite the low grain yields, the sale and intercropped maize showed Significant responses to N application, As observed during the first year of cropping, intercropping with cassava had no effect on maize grain yield. In cas• sava, high tuber yields were observed with later harvest• ing (13 months after planting), but no significant response to N application was observed. This indicates that the N requirement is lower for the cassava than the associated maize. High N rates (120 kg N/ha) also tend to decrease the tuber yield of cassava.Effect of maize population on cassava yield. An experi• ment was conducted to determine effects of maize population on cassava development and yield in mtercropping where maize is planted in hills or clusters. It simulated farm situations where many seeds are placed in 1 pOSition, and the number of surviving plants depends on chance or are deliberately selected by the farmers. The maize was spaced at 100m x 100 m with Table 45. Effect of N application on yield of intercropped maize (variety TMS 30395) grown on Alagba 50;1 (Ox;c pa'euslalf) (1979•80).  1-7 plants/hili to give 10,000-70,000 plants/ha. Cassava was planted at 100 m x 100 m in the same rows as maize but spaced 50 m from the maize along the same row to give a population of 10,000 plants/ha. The land was plowed and harrowed but not ridged . The fertilizer recommendation used was for maize and consisted of a basal application of N.P.K. 15:15:15 at 400 kg/ha and a side dressing of 30 kg N/ ha as urea 4 weeks after planting of maize.The cassava growth was significantly affected by maize population with tuber yields being significantly lower at the higher maize populations. The marked differences between maize populations suggested that maize populations should not exceed 30,000 plantS/ha if good cassava yields are expected . The maize yield indicates no serious yield reduction of maize population if kept at 30 ,000 plants/ha. The results also support the practice of thinn ing maize to 3 plants/hili in maize/cassava intercropping in West Africa.Weed control in maize/cowpea intercropping, The effect   36Effect of N application on maize/Leucaena alley cropping, Results of a field experiment conducted at IITA on the effect of N application in the maize/Leucaena !eucocepha!a alley cropping system are shown in Fig . 39. Substantial Leucaena dry matter and N yields are produced with a total of 6 prunings. The total annual N yield of over 180 kg N/ha was quite remarkable.During this cropping year, there was a significant effect of the low N rates applied to the maize on the Leucaena dry matter and N yields. There was, however, only a slight effect from the high N rate applied .The effect of N rates and removal of Leucaena prunings on maize grain yield is shown in Figure 40. The resultsclearly show that despite the high amount of N yield , there was still a need for application of low N rates for obtaining high yields. Removal of the Leucaena prunings reduced the yield to about 54 percent. Without N application but with Leucaena prunings on ly, the total maize Pod of Leueaena leucocephala , a tree type legume being used for soil fertility restoration.Collecting leaves from Leucaena leucocephala, The dried leaves will be used as a source of plant nutrient and organic matter, the stems as stakes and firewood.grain yield was maintained at about 3.5 Uha for the 2 seasons (total yield in 1979 was 3.6 Uha.) The addition of the Leucaena prunings has a distinct effect on soil organic matter and N levels (Table 46.)Effect 01 legume species and alley width. Legumes established between maize did not reach sizes at which the quantity of leaves was regarded as sufficient to contribute significantly to soil nutrient levels. Alley width had no significant effect on legume development during early stages. The leaf yield and potential N co ntributions are shown in Table 47. The leaf and N yield is related to alley width .Because of the low potential N contribution, the plot was fertilized with 60 kg N/ha, 20 kg P/ha and 30 kg Klha after a soil test. The plot was Rome plowed and maize planted with a single-row rolling injection planter in the 225 em alley and with a 4-row rolling injection planter in the wider alleys. The spacing was 75 cm x 25 cm. The legumes were 75 cm from the nearest maize. Maize yields calculated with a correction for land devoted to legumes are shown in Fig . 41 . Neither alley width nor legume species had a significant effect. It would appear that it is too early to observe the effects of the different treatments.Selection and evaluation 01 woody species lor alley cropping systems, The usefulness of fast growing woody and herbaceous legumes in alley cropping systems is being evaluated on the Alfisols at IITA and on the <1 I f::     strongly acidic Ultisols at Onne. Emph asis is given to those species that are established easily and can be maintained through basal sprouts and coppices when cut back periodically. The screening and evaluation inclu des more than 30 woody specimens as listed below:(1) Planted and/or retained woody fallow species. such as Acioa barteri, Anthonatha macrophylla , A/- Acioa baterii, one of the shrubs being tested for im• proved bush fallow.Alrica, associated in natural bush fallow for soil fertility restoration.The results of the first 2 years 01 screening and evaluation indicate that, in general , the establishment and growth performance of the shrub species were better at IITA while the tree species were better at Onne (Figs.    Crops planted at less than 2 m Irom established Alchornea cordifolia will also suffer severely from shading. Reasonable performance can only be expected at distances 01 at least 3 m from the tree rows. Thi s is also true 01 Leucaenea leucocepha/a . The distance Irom Sesbania grandiflora can be reduced to 2 m and even 1 m for crops with a fair degree 01 shade tolerance . In general , for all the species, except the latter, cutting back after the first year of growth may be the on ly practical way of using them for alley cropping .Establishing leguminous trees or shrubs for alley cropping in the derived savanna •. Establishment and early maintenance costs appear to be major deterrents in the use of leguminous trees or shrubs for nutrient recycling in alley cropping . To overcome these problems, the legumes are being established by interplanting through maize. A trial evaluating the potential of this method in the derived savanna was initiated in 1980. In the interplanting , the legumes are spaced at 400 cm x 50 cm and the maize at 100 cm x 100 cm with 3 plants/hilI. Seeds were used for Tephrosia candida , Cajanus cajan and Leucaena leucocephala and cuttings for Gliricidia.Because of adverse rainfall during the first season, maize yields were lower than expected (Fig . 44) . The legumes had no significant effect on maize yield , and the maize had no significant effect on legume yield ; legumes planted without maize were the same size as those planted with maize.Twenty-month-old Albizia falcataria. Among the fastest growing trees in the world) they are suitable agro-Iorestry species in the humid lowland tropics for control of Imperata cylinderica grass as well as for site fertility improvement and in the derived savanna as a planted fallow species. .\" c Establishment of Tephrasia was very poor while that of the other legumes was good. Growth of both Leucaena and Gliricidia was poor even though adequate weed control was practised during the intercropping phase. By November (6 months after sowing), these 2 legumes were growing slowly with no marked effect on the adjacent vegetation . On th e other hand , Cajanus cajan grew vigorously and by November dominated the field. A well developed canopy shaded out weeds preventing many from flowering (Fig . 45). A closer between row spaci ng (about 300 cm) could produce better weed control although a closer spacing may hamper tractor drawn implements.The slow growth of Leucaena and Gliricidia suggests that these legumes may require more than 1 growing season to signi f icantly affect field ecology. Vigorous growing Cajanus cajan interplanted with maize in the ' ... early rain could provide an effective green ground cover, less prone to fire hazard, in the savanna regions. The plants can be eradicated mechanically with the residue providing mulch suitable for no-tillage cropping. The potential contribution of N to the soil and protein for human and animal consumption are other factors that warrant further investigation of CaJanus cajan in savanna cropping systems.On-farm trials-Leucaena-maize systemsThe main objectives of the long-term, alley cropping farm trials that began in 1980 are as follows:(1) to identify and enlist the cooperation of a set of participating farmers, representing a range of farming systems and farmer types involved in the production of yam and maize in Nigeria;(2) to instruct the farmers on the agronomy of the prototypical Leucaena-maize-yam alley cropping system; and (3) to see to the establishment of the Leucaena hedgerows as an understory intercrop with first season maize in preparation for use as live in situ yam vine staking next year.Trials were established on 9 plots at 6 different locations across the yam belt of Nigeria (Fig. 46). Periodic visits were made to each site to provide basic guidance and monitor progress. In all cases, the farmers were encouraged to feel free to modify the system to fit their needs. Information on such modifications provides for a better understanding of the working principles of appropriate alley cropping systems for smallholder conditions.\" \" First year trials have yielded a number of preliminary findings. Leucaena has been found to be a very hardy plant that established well even under extremely adverse conditions. A severe first season drought caused failure of the maize intercrop in most sites, but Leucaena growth continued at moderate levels. In order to cope with the economic effects of the drought, farmers attempted to substitute other intercrops such as cowpea and sorghum. Heavy shading under cowpea retarded Leucaena growth somewhat but from the standpoint of risk-aversive small farmers, suboptimal establishment growth of Leucaena appears to be a small price to pay for steps taken to obtain an economic yield from their fields in a bad year.Where mechanized yam culture is likely to be an attractive way to reduce the labor costs of yam production, the trials indicate that a 4 m between-row spacing for Leucaena may be more suitable than the experimental 2 m spacing. Wider spacing may also be preferred where farming traditions favor multiple vine support by fewer stakes such as in the \"tent staking\" system of Tawari, Nigeria. While allowing for such modifications, it seems advisable to maintain a sufficient population of Leucaena to provide adequate mulch material, firewood and other by-products to maximize overall returns. Where firewood scarcity is a problem, the wood yield may be a significant component of the net economic return from the alley cropping system. The possibility of a double Leucaena row in the 4 m spacings should be investigated.One The main results Indicate that under the conditions of smallholder production in the model, it is consistently more profitable to grow rice with N from Leucaena hedgerows than from either of the 2 mineral N sources. Furthermore, with labor as the limiting production factor, the 2 components of the Leucaena!rice alley cropping system always combine in the same economically optimal proportions of 0.37 ha (3,700 Imear meters) of Leucaena hedgerow to 1.28 ha for rice. grown in the alleys between the hedgerows, for an optimum field size of 1.65 ha.In order for rice production with urea or ammonium sulphate to become competitive with Leucaena-based rice production, subsidy levels of 97 and 99 percent, respectively, would be req uired.The results of this modeling exercise must be regarded as provisional until validated by field trials, but th e apparen t economic attracti veness of the hypothetical Leucaena/rice alley cropping system would seem to justify the research attention of agronomists.Live mulch crop production involves planting a food crop directly into a living cover of an established cover crop without tillage or destruction of the fallow vegetation . This incorporates the soil conservation features of organic mulch and no tillage and has the advantage of smothering weeds and contributing N in the case of a legum live mul ch.Weed competition, tillage and ground cover. Observations in 1980 showed marked differences in weed biomass due to the weed control method and ground cover type in maize. Although the field dry weight of maize stover used as ground cover averaged 10 tlha, this was not enough to completely eliminate weed growth . Weed biomass was identical in the unweeded check of the conventional and no-tillage plots, and these were significantly higher than in the unweeded check of the live mulch plots (Table 48).   Th e unweeded check, live mulch plots had fewer weeds at harvest than in each of the conventional and no-tillage and maize stover plots that were weeded twice. Uncontrolled weed growth significantly reduced the maize grain yield in the conventional and no-tillage and maize 42 stover plots but not in the live mulch plots. Th ese results confirm the finding of last year th at live mulch crop production has potential for minimizing the need to control weeds in maize. The highest maize yield was observed in a live mulch plot in which Psophocarpus palustris was maintained .High maize yields in th is live mulch cover were not related to weeding treatment. On the other hand , comparable yie ld s were obtained in no-tillage and maize stover plots that were weeded at least twice. Yield in the conventional-tillage plots was significantly reduced even when the plot was kept weed free .Ground cover and N fertilization, The effect of ground cover on the N fertilizer requirement of maize was investigated . All plots received a blanket application of 30 kg P,O, and K,O/ ha. Maize responded to varying levels of N fertilizer applied in the conventional and no-tillage and maize stover plots but not in the live mulch plot in which Psophocarpus palustris was the ground cover (Table 49). Without N fertilizer, the maize yield was twice as high in the live mulch plot In which Psophocarpus palustris was the ground cover as in the conventional-tillage plot.Maize yield in the no-til/age and maize stover plots without N fertilizer was as low as in the conventional-tillage plot. The advantage of no-tillage over conventional tillage under continuous cultivation is demonstrated only when N fertilizer was applied. Without N fertilizer, the maize yield was as poor in the no-tillage plot as in either the conventional-tillage or maize stover plots. Results of this study show that the best live mulch treatment eliminated the need for a fertilizer application, and the N contributed by the legume cover in the live mUlch maize was comparable to the 60 kg Niha in the no-tillage maize.The study of the live mulch production of maize shows that (a) continuous maize production is possible under the live mulch system without a bush fallow, (b) weed pressure can be minimized, and (c) the requirement for N fertilizer can be minimized or eliminated. These findings have far reaching implications among small-holder farmers who can neither afford the labor for weeding nor the chemicals for fertilizing. Live mulch is an attractive crop production practice that provides complete. yearround ground cover, thus minimizing so;1 erosion and soil structure loss.Little is known about the biology of weeds in relation to their control in tropical agricultu reo Some aspects of weed research focus on reasons for crop yield reductions caused by weeds. Allelopathy and other factors of weed interference have been investigated in selected tropical crops to develop effective weed control strategies.Allelopathy weeds vs, yams. Since previous observations have shown that yam (D. rotundata) is sensitive to weed interference, studies were carried out from 1978 to 1980 to assess the nature and extent of this sensitivity. A new method was designed and tested for assessing allelopathy in root and tuber crops closely simulating field conditions. Results of these studies show that full weed interference caused a 75 percent reduction in yam tuber yield (Table 50). When weed interference was limited to the above ground vegetative parts of both weeds and crops, only a slight Yield reduction was observed: but when the leachete from the roots of weeds was allowed to come in contact with the soil in which the yam grew, yam tuber yield was significantly reduced. This yield reduction caused by allelopathy was consistent for the 3 years in which this study was carried out.When moisture was not limiting and plants received a basal fertilizer treatment (30 kg N. P,O, and K,Olha), the major reasons for the yield reduction caused by weeds were allelopathy and other soil related factors. Each of these 2 weed interference factors accounted for over 30 percent of the total loss caused by weeds (Fig. 47). Keeping crops weed-free appears to be the only way to minimize the yield reduction caused by weeds.Weed interterence studies. A study showed that a significant decline in leaf area Index (LAI) and tuber yield of white yam occurred due to weed inference from 8 to about 16 or more weeks after planting in tubers planted at the onset of rains (Table 51).   Dry matter production in weeds peaked at 8-12 weeks and declined thereafter. indicating that the maximum competition occurred during this period. Decline in tuber yield was also most pronounced at this period (Fig. 48). WfED II',1ERFERENC~ (\\\\lAP) WEED INTER~ERE~E \\\"''''P)Fig, 48, Effect at weed interference on yield and yield components in yam,Field experiments were carried out at IITA and Onne to determine the persistence of some selected commonly used preemergence herbicides in the 2 ecologies, Atrazine, metalachlor and fluometuron were each applied at 44 3.0 and 6.0 kg/ha while pendimethalin was sprayed at 2.5 and 5.0 kgfha on a conventional-tillage plot using a knapsack sprayer calibrated to deliver 200 1/ha spray volume.Herbicide persistence was monitored by a bioassay method involving tomato seedlings for atrazine and fluometuron and rice seedlings for metolachlor and pendimethalin.Atrazine and metolachlor each at 3.0 kg/ha were less persistent than fluometuron and pendimethalin (Fig. 49). Generally, all herbicides were more persistent at IITA (rainfall 1,400 mm) than Onne (rainfall 2.400 mm). Atrazine at 3.0 and 6.0 kgfha was present in Salls at IITA at nonphytoxic levels at 8 and 12 weeks after treatment, respectively (Fig. 50). The persistence of metolachlor closely followed that of atrazine while fluometuron and pendimethalin showed pronounced perSistence at IITA at both low and high rates. Fluometuron, especially at a high rate, persisted beyond the test period in the IITA soil. Pendimethalin at 2.5 kg/ha persisted at high levels for more than 8 weeks after treatment, but existed at very low levels at 12 weeks after treatment.Persistence of atrazine in soils at Onne was very short and had declined to non-phytoxic levels by 8 weeks after treatment (Fig. 49). Doubling the rate of atrazine did not increase its persistence. Metolachlor applied at a high rate perSisted in Onne for more than 8 weeks after treatment. Fluometuron could not be detected In the top soil at Onne by 12 weeks after treatment. Persistence of pendimethalin was identical at both IITA and Onne, irrespective of rates used While an atrazine sensitive crop could be planted at /ITA and Onne locations at 12 weeks after treatment, a fluometuron sensitive crop could not be safely grown under soil and rainfall conditions at IITA within 12 weeks after treatment. All herbicides tested in soils at Onne were either nontox,c or had very low herbicidal activity at 12 weeks after treatment.Previous greenhouse trials indicated that growth regulators applied close to the meristem of young plantain (Musa sp.) suckers changed growth hormone balance and sucker development. This suggested the potential   ..J a..   In the first trial, the pseudostem of a 7-month-old mother plant was cut off and the apical meristem removed. The growth regulators: GA (Gibberillic acid, GA ~ NAA (Napthylene acetic acid), GA + cytokinin and ABA (abscisic acid); were applied on alternative days in 1 ml doses in concentrations of 10-' and 10' M. Five peepers per mother plant were treated at 2-4 weeks after detopping of the mother plant.Treatments with GAiNAA were not considered because the structure of the peepers seems to be changed. There were no significant differences in height and girth after 4 weeks among the peepers of the 16 treatments (2 durations x 2 concentrations x 4 hormones), except for the height of the GA 10-' M treated peepers. Peepers injected with ABA were not significantly different in their growth from the control.In the second trial, the mother plant was retained. Treatment began at 6 months after planting. Only 1 peeper per plant was treated. Treatments with GAiNAA and GAiNAA CYT were not considered because of abnormal changes in the peepers. Suckers injected with GA, GA + flurenol and GA + CYT showed, compared with the control, significant differences in height and girth after 6 weeks. Suckers injected with GA T CYT became significantly thicker.injection of 1 ml of H,O also repealed once after 5 days.Observations were on the mother planl, P\" P, and P, at the time of first injection and 6 weeks after the second injection (Table 52).The GA treated peepers developed faster than the first peepers on the same slool and the GA injection did nol significantly stimulate the growth of Ihe first and Ihird peepers. No effects could be observed on the main pseudoslem. This paints to a very localized action of GA on the treated suckers only, and an immediate change in the balance is enough to stimulate the growth. The H,Otrealed peepers did not show any difference in growth compared with Ihe peepers of Ihe neulral control, proving that lissue changes by the injection was not interferring wilh the development of a sucker.Flurenol is known to counteract the apical dominance. This effect on plantain was compared with the neutral control (no treatment) and decapitalion (Table 53). Flurenol was injected into the 4.5 month-old main pseudo-  5) 'Girth at soil level Also, there were no significant differences between durations, but there were between the 2 concentrations. As in trial 1, peepers injected with ABA did not differ significantly from the control. (1)The effects of GA on suckers in Trial 2 proved that the significant growth of injected suckers is not linked to the duration of the injection bul to the hormone concentration. In the next experiment, 1 ml of Ga 10-' M was injected into the second peeper (P,) at 10 days after emergence on 10 different plants. The injection was repeated once on the same peeper at 5 days after the first. The controls were no treatment (neutral control), and 'Girth at 50 em and 100 em height \"Number of peepers Means in the same row followed by (1) or (5) respectively, are significantly different for 1% and 5%. stems of 10 different plants and repeated a second time.Each time 2 ml was injected. Observations were made on the mother plant and the second peeper at the time of the first Injection and 6 weeks after the second injection.Flurenol treated plants did not show faster sucker development nor higher peeper production. Differences in the main pseudostem after 6 weeks are probably due to the selected plants in the beginning of the experiment. Thus, to counteract the apical dominance, repeated injections seem to be necessary to maintain the change in hormone balance. Decapitated plants gave bigger suckers (maiden suckers) as the control of Flurenol treated plants (peepers). Release from apical dominance was not stimulating higher peeper-number which suggests that the maiden suckers are dominating.Plantain in backyards are growing under optimal conditions because of high level of nutrients, as well as organic matter (Table 54.) In this experiment, the nutritional requirements of 2 varieties of plantain (medium and giant False Horn) were compared with that of a banana (Kparanta). It IS clear that in all cases fertilizer had strong positive effects on growth, whereas the effects of mulch appeared less pronounced. The combination of mulch and fertilizer showed positive interaction. As part of the effect to develop the Eastern provi nce of Cameroon in cooperation with Zap i-Est (Zone d'Actions Prioritaires Integrees de I'Est), the World Bank asked liT A to assist the then Cameroon National Office of Scientific and Technical Research in establishing a food crop research station in that province. One of the re-48 sponslbilities of IITA is to conduct an agronomic survey of existing farming systems to determine research priorities for the regional food crop research.Agroeconomic surveys. The agroeconomic survey was conducted with the following objectives: (1) to investigate and analyze existing farming systems, (2) to gather information on existing patterns of agricultural production and resource use, (3) to identify major constraints, and (4) to collect relevant information on marketing and output supplies. A report titled, \"Survey of food crop farming systems in the Zapi-Est, East Cameroon,\" was published.Field Irials. The field trials on varietal improvement, cultural practices and fertilization were initiated in 1980 at Bertoua in the savanna zone and at Doume in the forest zone. The varietal improvement was carried out with maize, groundnu\\, soybean, cowpea and upland and lowland rice. Grain yield of selected maize varieties was 3 to 4 times that of the local variety; TZB was the top yielder with 6.1 tlha. Streak is a major problem for maize production in the area.Among the groundnul varieties tested, Bertoua Blanche gave the highest yield of 2.1 tlha. Soybeans performed well in the area and yields ranged from 0.6 to 1.9 tfha.The top Yielder was variety 20-67 TB. Though cowpeas showed good growth, leaf diseases and insect damage were commonly observed after flowering. Grain yields varied from 0.2 to 1.4 tlha with TVx 1948-01E giving the highest yield. High yields of lowland rice were obtained with variety 1M 16 giving the highest yield of 7.0 tlha.On newly cleared land at Bertoua, grain yield of maize variety Ekona Mixed Color responded significantly to N and P applications at rates of 60 kg Nlha and 40 kg P,O,l ha. Positive N x P interactions were also observed. Regardless of level of fertilizer application, maIZe yield increased significantly as the plant density Increased from 33,000 to 66,000 plants/ha.Field trials with groundnuts showed significant responses to application of lime, Nand P (Fig. 51). N appli-Relative yield cation on long growth-duration rice variety 1M 16 showed that time of N application greatly influenced yield (Table 55). While basal application of 50 kg Nlha at 1 day before transplanti ng did not increase yield. application of 50 kg Niha at panicle initiation did. It appears that the best recommendation may be 50 kg Nlha basal applied and sidedressed with 50 kg Nlha at panicle initiation. Maize!groundnut intercropping has been extensively utilized by local farmers. A field trial was conducted during the second season to evaluate the potential of this system and investigate the factors affecting yields of crops when they are planted in association. Among the intercropping treatments, the treatment of maize at 40,000 hillslha seeded at 20 days after the seeding of groundnut at 133,000 hillsiha gave the highest monetary return (Table 56).In general, however, the yield of both crops is reduced when the crops are planted in association. The amount of yield reduction varies with the seeding time of the affected crop in relation to the seeding time of the associated crop. The yield of maize planted in association with groundnut. for example, was reduced in the following order: maize seeded at 20 days before the seeding of groundnut> maIZe seeded at the seeding of groundnut > maize seeded at 20 days after the seeding of groundnut. A similar trend was also observed with groundnut yield, and obviously both crops reacted negatively to late planting and intercrop competition.Small farms systems research (Atebubu District, Ghana)The small farms systems research is a component of the USAID sponsored project of Managed Inputs and Delivery of Agricultural Services (MIDAS). The MIDAS project is designed to organize and distribute all the inputs necessary for food crop production by small farmers of Ghana.The small farms system research is designed to assist the government In establishing an applied multidisciplinary small farms research capacity with the follOWing objectives in mind:(1) To obtain a sound knowledge of the existing farming systems, the socioeconomic environment and the positive and negative factors in services.(2) To conduct applied research that is relevant to these circumstances and responds to the needs of the small farmers.(3) To identify soil and farm management and production practices that eliminate constraints. (4) To increase small farmer production and income.The project was initiated in 1980 with an appraisal of the present food crop farming system practices in the region. For the survey, a group discussion approach was used that was supplemented by the visit to individual farmers and spot harvest checks. The survey covers 7 subdistricts-Atebubu, Amantiri, Abease, Prang, Kwame Danso, Kajajl and Yeyi.The survey was completed in t980 and a report tilled, \"An appraisal of the present farming systems of the Atebubu District of Ghana,\" was published. During 1980, preparations were also made in selection of a site for establishing the experiment station. Actual field experimentation, however, will be initiated in 1981.  The improved sweet potato varieties are resistant to the sweet potato virus disease complex (SPVD) and the African sweet potato weevil (Cylas puneticollis) and also high yielding and good in consumer acceptance quality and well adapted in a wide range of environments in many parts of Africa,The seed from the improved varieties and populations of cassava and sweet potato were distributed to agricultural centers in many countries in the tropics for evaluation and selection, Many promising clones were selected from the seedling populations after evaluation under the local conditions, Some of the clones were found to be of excellent quality and performance and were multiplied and released in various countries in Africa, including Cameroon, Gabon, Liberia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Seychelles, Tanzania and Zaire, New pests have recently become major problems on cassava in Africa. They are the cassava mealybug (Phe\"acoccus ma\"ihoti) and the cassava green spider mite (Mononychellus tanaioa). They are believed to have been introduced into Africa from Latin America. They have become widely spread and are limiting cassava production in some areas and are a threat to all of Africa, To mitigate the new pest problems, 2 research approaches have been adopted, host plant resistance and biological con- Newly improved cassava variety, TMS 50395, consistently out yielded the IITA improved standard variety. TMS 30572, Improved low cyanide clones were produced that are relatively high yielding and resistant to CMD and CBB,Resistance of cassava to cassava green spider mite (CGM) has been conlirmed, and it appears to be associated with pubescence of the top young leaves, A predator (Hyperaspis sp,) of cassava mealybug (CM) has been multiplied and released in an attempt to control the mealybug, The population of the predator tended to increase, The CM in Latin America, which was previously regarded to be Pheancoceus manihoti, has been identified as P. herreni,The fresh yields of 2 new IITA improved varieties, TMS 50395 and TMS 50207, significantly out yield the IITA improved standard variety, TMS 30572, which is being popularized by the National Accelerated Food Production Project (NAFPP) in Nigeria, TMS 50395 and TMS 50207were most promising among the 10 best varieties tested.The fresh root yields of a 12-month crop grown at IITA The most promising clones of the 1976 series are TMS without fertilizer were 33 and 30 tlha, respectively (Table 1).61469 and TMS 61242 (Table 2). They out yielded TMS 30572 and are resistant to CBB and CMD. Their gar! qual-The quality of their gari (a form of processed cassava) ity is also good; however, their dry matter percent and was ludged good by a taste panel as well. They are as garification rate were lower than TMS 30572. resistant as TMS 30572 against CBB and CGM but lessresistant to CMD and lower In dry matter percent and garifieation rate (the rate of the processed gari over theThe cyanide content of breeding clones has been evalutotal fresh tuberous roots in terms of weight).ated using an enzymatic assay. Low cyanide clones have  6.7 31.9 2.1 3.8 1.5 2.0 5.3 'HCN content of fresh tubers was tested using an enzymatic assay.been selected for their performance and evaluated for other agronomic characteristics. Low cyanide clones. LCN 6068, LCN 518, LCN 6065, LCN 30474 and LCN 3109-N-7, give relatively high fresh yields, dry matter percent and dry matter yields (Table 3).LCN 6068 and LCN 518 are relatively resistant to CBB and CMD. LCN 6068 showed very low total cyanide content with 3.3 mg per 100 g fresh tuberous root. TMS 30001 also has shown to be low in cyanide content, high yielding and resistant to CBB and CMD.Sixty promising clones in terms of yield were tested for CGM resistance in a replicated trial. CGM damage ratings of top, young leaves of each clone were made based on a scale of increasing severity from 1 to 5 (IITA Annual Report 1979). The average CGM ratings of the clones were significantly different and ranged from 2.0 to 5.0. The clones with low CGM ratings (scale 2.0-2.5) were TMS 40764, TMS 4(2)1425, LCN Ai5007B, TMS 61324, TMS 30017, TMS 60142, 5326X, 5032, TMS 63397 and TMS 61677.A broad sense heritability estimate of 71 percent was obtained for CGM resistance using damage ratings data of the 60 clones mentioned above. This high heritability indicates that selection of cassava breeding clones for CGM resistance can be effectively carried out at an early breeding stage.The fresh tuberous roots from the 26 clones tested in a uniform yield trial in the 19BO first season at IITA were processed into gari by the following steps: (1) peeling off the skin. (2) grating the peeled tuberous roots, (3) dehydrating and fermenting the grated tuberous roots, (4) sieving out the chaff, and (5) frying the pulp. The garification procedure adopted was fairly uniform in order to obtain reliable data of processed material. The results of processing fresh cassava tuberous roots are summarized in Table 4.The highest loss in the processing procedure was as much as 41 percent after peeling, followed by a water loss of 20 percent after dehydrating and 11 percent after grating.The correlation coefficients of percent rema~ning material at each processing stage with final gari yields are shown in Table 4. The best relationship of garification rate was observed with pulp weight after the fermentating and sieving procedures (r ~ 0.96), followed by its relationship with dehydrated tuberous roots (r ~ 0.94) and its relationship with dry matter percent (r ~ 0.78). Dry matter percent will be the best and simplest charac-teristic to predict the garification rate prior to processing fresh tuberous roots into gari.The relationship between dry matter percent (X) and garification rate (Y) was further studied, and the results are summarized in Table 5. It would be possible to predict roughly the garification rate (Y) with dry matter percent (X) using the regression equation: Y ~ 0.B2 + 0.09 X. Heritability of garification rate. A broad sense heritability of 87 percent was obtained for garlncation rate uSing the garification rate data of 26 clones mentioned above. This high heritability indicates that selection of cassava breeding clones for garification rate may be effectively carried out at an early breeding stage. Since garification rate is highly associated with dry matter percent of fresh tuberous roots, it would be possible to select cassava breeding clones for higher garification rate indirectly by selecting them based on higher dry matter percent. However, other gari quality characteristics need to be checked at an advanced stage of breeding.Heritability 01 dry mailer percent. A broad sense heritability of BO percent was obtained for dry matter percent using the dry matter percent data from the uniform yield trial. This high heritability indicates that selection of breeding clones for dry matter percent may be effectively carried out at an early breeding stage.Genetic correlation between dry mailer percent and garification rate. Significant genetic correlation coefficient (r, ~ 1.35) was obtained between dry matter percent and garification rate. This high genetic correlation  indicates that selection of cassava breeding clones based on dry matter percent may lead to a higher garification rate.However, the relationship between fresh tuberous root yield and dry matter percent needs to be studied with special reference to garificaton rate and final gari yield.IITA has phased down the multiplication of cassava for distribution in Nigeria, having successfully involved the Federal Department of Agriculture in an aggressive multiplication program involving the National Seed Service.During the year, 6,815 bundles or the equivalent of 1,363,000 planting pieces were supplied by this program to the Nigerian National Seed Service at Moor Plantation, Ibadan, and through them some of the Nigerian State Ministries of Agriculture.Additionally, IITA's cassava multiplication program supplied approximately 600,000 cuttings to the Nigerian private sector, and helped 4 'contract farmers' multiply cassava on their farms for distribution. Cassava green spider mite (CGM). Entomology work concentrated on finding resistance against CGM in cassava germplasm and breeding clones and seedlings. Twenty-seven germplasm clones and 228 seedlings were selected in April and May showing only mild CGM symptoms, scores 1 and 2 in a scoring system that ranges from 1 to 5 (IITA Annual Report 1979).The 27 germplasm clones were planted in April and September (5 plants per row with 2 replications) to confirm the resistance and monitor the mite population on older and younger cassava. This also provided information on the best age and time of planting for optimum screening conditions. The mite population was monitored on 1 finger of the first expanded leaf. Four leaf samples were taken per week per clone. On the sample, the total number of adults, first instar, older nymphs, eggs and males were counted. These detailed counts provided information on the population structure of each clone at any given time during the infestation period .In Fig. 1, the mean number of adults and eggs per leaflet is demonstrated for the early and late plantings. Rainfall and relative humidity are also included because it is believed that these influence the mite population development.In the early planting , natural mite infestation did not occur because of rain . Therefore. artificial infestation was carried out in June by putting infested shoots of infested plants on top of this planting . The mite population increased in spite of rain ; however, the symptom expression never exceeded 2-3. This shows that the rainy season is not suitable for screening.For optimal screening conditions, cassava shou ld be planted in Aug ust or September (rainy season: April-October). Also, young cassava is generally attacked more than old cassava (older than 7 months) . Mites need young , succulent leaves for a population buildup.In the late planting , natural mite infestation did occur, and the peak of the population correlated with severe symptom expression . In January,  ,.\"NO.of miles ond eQl\\ls!cm 2A second clone was called a tolerant type because it showed less infestation on the top leaves; but still. Infestation was high enough to be able to cause leaf reduction. A third clone was called a shoot-resistant type because it showed less infestation on the shoots. No leaf reduction occurred since the leaves could expand. A fourth clone was called a \"resistant type\" because the mite population showed an overall low infestation.Overall. the results showed that symptom scoring alone might result in selecting accidentally a plant type that harbors a high mite population. Since the mite sucks plant sap and causes wounds that lead to high transpiration, this situation should be avoided. To test this hypothesis. careful yield loss studies should be carried out on these 4 plant types.The results on the vertical mite distribution raised the question of the cause of this uneven distribution. In Tanzania and later in IITA. it was observed that nearly all cassava clones showing degrees of mite resistance had trichomes on the young top leaves. To see whether there was any relation between trichome density and resistance. the trichomes of the above mentioned 4 plant types were counted on each leaf (Table 7).The trichome numbers per mm' show that there is at least a clear difference between the susceptible type and the resistant type. Also. between the shoot resistant type and the tolerant type. trichome densities differ signifi- panded leaves. In this case, another factor contributing to low mite damage might be involved.To find out what the role of trichomes might be in relation to mite behavior, studies are presently going on .First observations indicate that trichome distances less than 0.3 mm make it difficult for the mite to rest along the leaf midrib . Trichome distances less than 0.2 mm make it difficult for the mite to feed and rest because the average length and width of the female mite is 0.3 mm and 0.2 mm, respectively. Detailed behavior studies are necessary to confirm this.was carried out at Abeokuta , Nigeria, where eM was present. Because of the long rainy season and cool harmattan weather in December, 1980, the spread of the CM in the test field was low. Therefore, artificial infestation was carried out with eggs. Th e CM population increased slowly.Based on observations at Abeokuta, it was found that some IITA improved varieties, TMS 30572 for example, were able to recover quickly from CM attack while local varieties were only able to recover slowly-they showed bunch top symptoms until June although the CM population had already vanished 2 months earlier.IITA has begun a biological control program to solve the CM problem. During the year, a major task was to explore the potential areas of origin of P. Manihoti in Central and South America for it and its natural enemies. The importation of natural enemies against the pest followed by bionomic studies. mass cultures , large-scale releases and monitoring operations are the procedures underlying this program.Exploration. An intensive search was carried out covering parts of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Venezuela and Colombia.Potential host plants for P. manihori, both cultivated and wild cassava , were investigated . Areas with the potential to bear P. manihoti extend between 30 degrees latitude Nand S.IITA's surveys of cultivated cassava and 13 species of rela ted manihoti species yielded more than 20 species of CM, many of which had not been described before, 8 thermore, the CM in Latin America, which was previously regarded as P. manihoti, has been identified as P. herreni.Mass culture of parasitoids. Failures in rearing parasitoids collected on the South American CM is explainedCassava plant with heavy mealybug infestation. When the terminal shoot (the preferred part) is completely destroyed, the cassava mealybug moves to the leaves.Note the development of a fungus on the mealybug honeydew on the stem.Predator mass culture. Daily check of predator development.by the specificity of the parasitiods for P. herreni (new name for the CM in South America). The parasitiod that will control the African mealybug have yet to be found.Mass culture of predators. Predators collected by the Commonwealth Biological Control Institute in South America were mass cultured in 80 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm wooded cages. Potted cassava plants infested with CM were placed in the cages. Some cages were \" breeding cages \" in which only adult predators were confined to reproduce . When the young predator larvae hatched , the plants in these cages were removed and placed in \" growth cages\" for larval development and pupation .More than 2,000 Hyperaspis sp. cocci nell ids were produced for releases. The culture will be extended for a production of up to 100,000 cocci nell ids per month in a first phase for research on biology and ecology and for releases around the year.Release of natural enemies. The first mass release of 2,000 coccinellids of Hyperaspis sp . was done in an experimental field in Abeokuta. Further releases will be made yea r around at a rate of up to 50,000 cocci nell ids per month. Two techniques of release were carried out : (a) release of 1,000 adult coccinellids on 12 sites in aV, ha cassava field ; (b) release of 1,000 adult coccinellids on 12 plants in small cages fixed on the terminal shoot in Y2 ha cassava field at 2-week intervals. Results of life table studies that are being carried out in the field to assess the population dynamics of CM and measure the impact of these releases wi ll be available next year.Bionomics, To carry out the program successfully, the details of life cycles , development thresholds, life spans, fecundity and behavior of both the CM and its natural enemies are important. Early findings on the CM are shown in Tables 8 and 9. The knowledge of the biological characteristics of each natural enemy will make earl y selection on species to be used under given ecological conditions possible. •Period of time between the moment females were placed on leaves and the removal of the eggs. \"Not available when the report was written .   10). From July to September, 3 cassava fields were sampled weekly in Abeokuta.ln each field, 10 rows were randomly chosen, and the total number of plants as well as the number of plants showing curled leave, i.e., presence of P. manihoti, were counted.Table 11 shows the total number of plants counted in each field and the number of plants with CM. The number of adult CM per infested plant ranged between 5-30.Over the period investigated, 5-15 percent of the plants exhibited CM-infestation symptoms. These observations show that the CM is able to maintain a relatively high population throughout the rainy seasons, an average of 9.76 ± 0.52 percent of the plants being infested. The CM present were well-protected from the rain under the cu rled leaves.Bunch-top symptoms persisted from the dry season through the rainy season. eM survives the rainy season in its normal life cycle; there are no quiescent or diapause stages.Effect 01 cultivar characteristics_ A trial was conducted to determine the frequency of CMD transmission by whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci). Test plants free of CMD symptoms (henceforth, referred to as CMD free) were generated by rooting Single node cuttings from seedlings of cultivars TMS 30395 and 60444. Each test plant was subjected to inoculation feeding by 25 CMD agent carrying whiteflies. For the whiteflies, the CMD agent came from the same source. The test plants were held under the same post-inoculation growing conditions of 25118'C (daylnight temperatures). The infection rate was determined 60 days after inoculation feeding byexpression of the characteristic CMD symptoms. The trial was conducted tWice.In TMS 30395, CMD symptoms were seen on 25 percent of the plants in trial 1 and on 19.4 percent in trial 2. In 60444, CMD symptoms were seen on 58.3 and 48.5 percent of the plants, respectively, for the 2 trials (Table 12). These results indicate that the transmission frequency to field-resistant TMS 30395 was significantly less (based on arc sin transformation of the data) than field-susceptible 60444. These vector transmission data compare favorably with a 2-year average field CMD incidence of The results Indicate that the CMO agent is localized in the basal part of the plant in seedlings resulting from cultivar TMS 30395 while it is continuous throughout seedlings from cultivar 60444 (Table 13).Table 13. Distribution pattern of CMD agent in basal, middle and apical cassava stem pieces (IITA, 1980),  was investigated over a period of 180 days after planting (Fig. 3). The data, based on a sample of between 130-200CMD-free plants at the onset of the trial, indicate that field CMD-infection rates at 30 days aiter planting range from 79.3 percent for TMS 30835 to 35.8 percent for TMS 30572. Field CMD-infection rates increase to between 90-100 percent aiter 180 days for all 5 varieties tested, except TMS 30395.Yield reduction from cassava mosaic disease. A comparison was made of sample means of fresh root weight and green foliage weight, respectively, per plant from 20randomly selected pairs of test plants from 7 improved cassava cultivars where each pair consisted of a plant established from a CMD-symptomless cutting and established from a CMD-infected cutting. The Yield comparisons were made at 7 months after planting (Tables 14   and 15).The differences in average green foliage weight between the paired plants was highly significant for 5 of the improved varieties tested. There were no significant differences in average foliage weight of CMD-free and CMD-infected TMS 30555 and TMS 30395 plants. The percentage reduction due to CMD ranged from 6.45 percent for TMS 30395 to 41.3 percent for TMS 30835.The differences in average fresh root weight between the paired plants was highly significant for 6 of the improved varieties tested. There was no significant difference in root weight of CMD-free and CMD-infected TMS 30157plants. The percentage reduction due to CMD ranged from 24.4 percent for TMS 30157 to 60.1 percent for TMS 30S35.  15). There were significant correlations between fresh root and fresh foliage yield differences for TMS 30835 and TMS 30572 (Table 16).Table 16. Simple correlations Ir) between tresh root and tresh toliage yield differences due to CMD in 7 cassava varieties (IITA, 1980). Cassava anthracnose disease (CAD)-epiphytic populations of Collectotrichum manihotis on cassava. Green symptomless cassava stem pieces collected from field grown plants were washed thoroughly in sterile water, air-dried and cut into 3 mm thick sections. The sections were surface sterilized in 95 percent ethanol and placed either on potato dextrose agar (PDA), bean pod agar (BPA), malt agar (MA), cassava leaf extract agar (LEA) or water agar (WA). Each test medium was put on 20 agar plates, each of which contained a stem section. The plates were incubated at 2rC for 6 days. The resultant mycelial growths on the incubated plates were transferred as small agar blocks from the margins of the plates to fresh PDA at 4-day intervals. Slide preparations made from the PDA cultures were examined under the compound microscope.Coilectotrichum manihotis conidia were consistently observed in slide preparations from a range of 20-60 percent of the stem pieces planted on the different media indicating the existence of epiphytic populations of the fungus in the field. The role of these epiphytic populations in the etiology and epidemiology of CAD disease IS under investigation.The available germplasm IS being systematically screened for resistance to root-knot nematodes. Rootknot nematodes are ubiquitous in cassava growing areas and readily at1ack the plant feeder roots and occasionally the storage roots.Stakes of 56 cassava lines were planted in the greenhouse in 23 cm diameter plastic pots in washed river sand. Six weeks later when new root growth was well developed, a first series was inoculated with MeJiodogyne incognita, race 2, and a second series was inoculated with M. lavanica. The inocula consisted of 15,000 eggs per pot.The plants were grown in the greenhouse in a controlled temperature table at 26 ± 1°C sand temperature. Plant tops grew at ambient temperature. After 5.S months exposure to root-knot nematode al1ack, the sand was sampled to determine the numbers of root-knot nematode juveniles in each pot. The roots were removed, washed free of sand and subjectively rated for the degree of root gall development. The nematode reproductive rate was estimated by an egg count from the roots of each plant. Eggs were separated from the roots using the sodium hypochlorite-agitation method and their numbers estimated by the dilution method.The IITA Block F groundbeds (10 m x 15 m) were each separately inoculated with 1 of the 2 species of root-knot nematodes and planted to tomato for nematode establishment and population increase. After 8 weeks, seeds of cassava were planted 45 cm apart in the row with 45 cm between rows. After 5 months growth, the plants were uprooted, the roots removed, washed free of soil and subjectively rated for root gall development.In the greenhouse. all cultivars were highly susceptible to 1 or both root-knot nematodes with exception of a single susceptible rating (Tables 17 and 18).As all the lines tested were susceptible (S) or highly susceptible (HS) to 1 or both of the root-knot nematodes, none of the germplasm is suitable as a source of resistance in a cassava Improvement breeding program.  Cassava as a suitable host for the root-knot nematode was best estimated by the number of eggs isolated from each plant (Tables 17 and 18). The root-knot index and the numbers of juveniles per plant showed extreme variations and should be used as susceptibility or resistance criteria in conjunction with the egg count (Tables 17 and  18).Root-knot index means and eggs-per-plant means show that M. incognita is more aggressive than M. javanica.(Table 19). In the ground beds, the feeder roots 01 seedling cassava proved difficult to collect, and the mean number of eggs per plant and the root-knot Index means of 232 plants for each of the 2 nematode species were inadequate to determine plant resistance or susceptibility status (Table 20).The experience with growing cassava seedlings in groundbeds for resistance testing shows that the plant can be screened easier and more reliably in the greenhouse. The etiology of CMD has not been fully resolved. It is, however, clear that: (a) symptom expression is good at 20-25°C, (b) virus can be isolated only from the tissue that expresses CMD symptom, (c) apical meristem does not usually contain the virus unlike the fully grown tissues, (d) heat treatment minimizes the IDeation of the CMD agent in the apical meristem and (e) the putative CMD agent is sap-transmissible to N. benthamiana.Using the above set of information, a CMD-indexing technique has been developed whereby it is possible to obtain \"CMD-free'• cassava in a tissue culture form. This procedure (outlined below) meets with the quarantine requirements of Nigeria and phytosanitary certificates have been issued to 4 clones so far determined to be CMD-free. It is planned to distribute these materials only within Africa in response to requests from national programs.To obtain the virus free cassava plants through meristem tip culture, cassava cuttings were planted in a growth chamber at 35'C for 1 month. Apical buds were excised and surface sterilized for 2 minutes in 70 percent ethanol and for 20 minutes in a 5 percent filtered solution of calcium hypochlorite. Meristem tips of about 0.3 mm were then asceptically dissected and cultured in 16 mm x 125 mm glass culture tubes containing 5 ml of Kartha and Gamborg medium additioned with myoinositol, 100 mg; Adenine sulfate dihydrate, 80 mg; thiamine HCI, 0.1 mg; pyridoxine HCI, 0.5 mg; nicotinic acid, 0.5 mg; and glycine, 2 mg; the pH was adjusted to 5.7 ± 0.1 before sterilization. After 4 to 6 weeks of growth in a culture room with white fluorescent lamps giving 5,000 lux at plant level at 29'C by day and 24°C by night with a photoperiod of 12 hours, plantlets reached the height of 3-5 cm and were then transferred to a mixture of sand and vermiculite in a humidity chamber. They were kept there for about 10 days and then transferred to an insect-freeThe temperature in the isolation room was kept between 20-25'C, which is favorable for symptom expression of CMD. If no symptoms were observed over a period of 8 months, they were considered virus free. An additional test was done by mechanical inoculation of sap from the apex of the cassava plant on Nicotiana benthamiana.The distribution is done in tissue culture to African national program for international testing. Single node cuttings of virus-free plants are cultured in plastic tubes containing 10 ml of the medium with the following composition per liter: Murashige and Skoog salts solution; sucrose, 30 g; mycinositol, 100 mg; thiamine Hel, 0.1 mg; pyridoxine HCI, 0.5 mg; nicotinic acid, 0.5 mg; glycine, 2 mg; and agar, 8 g. The pH was adjusted to 5.7 ± 0.1 before sterilization. The culture conditions were as described for the meristem tip culture.These plants can be transferred to soil when they arrive in the recipient counlry. The tubes are accompanied by the import permit, the phytosanitary certificate and a handbook with recommendations on the handling of the material.Seedling and clonal evaluations and yield trials were conducted at many localions in the Bas-Zaire, Bandundu and Kasai regions, and promising clones were identified. Clone A56 consistently produced the highest tuber yield with 20 tlha over 8 environments ( Not only are these varieties promising for their high yields but some for their resistance to CMD, CBB, CAD and 2 extremely important insects that cause severe yield reduction-CM and CGM-as well as now a suspected disease.eM resistant clones. New sources of resistance to CM have been identified in cultivated cassava. On the baSis of negative field screening of cassava seedlings, 123 plants with least CM damage were selected. Further screening of the clones established from the selected plants under artificial infestation with CM showed a clear difference between national program selections, 02864, and the CM-resistant seedlings. The scoring distribution of these selected seedlings against CM is presented In Table 22. Planted as a susceptible check, 02864 consistenlly showed a score of 4 and could be marked clearly in the field from a distance. About 13 percent of the selected plants maintained their resistance to CM. Furthermore, 21 out of 105 clones tested showed multiple resistance (scores 1-2) to CMD, CGM and CM.Fifty-five seedlings showing a score of 1-2 in the field were cloned and further tested for CM resistance in the greenhouse. After artificial infestation with CM, these clones were scored from 2 to 12 weeks with the lollowing results (Table 23).The greenhouse screening results confirm that certain clones possess CM resistance. It is, however, important 63 to mention that CM were present on the lower surface of the leaves of these resistant clones.CGM resistant clones. The seedling and clonal nurseries and the preliminary yield trial planted at different times in the Kasai region were screened against CGM. Early planted material (5-7 months old) had the least CGM damage, but late planted material (2-3 month old) showed variation in the degree of attack. Ten clones-PYT 6088214, PYT60965, 6096516, GPTMS 5146011, GPTMx 20949/6, TMS 50860/3, GPHS 5033114, S 097, KADO and KAlE-showed the best tolerance.Along with screening for resistance to CMD, CBB, CAD, CM and CGM, clonal evaluation and yield trials were conducted. Some levels of resistance were also detected for a disease that has as yet an unknown etiology. The disease symptoms begin with growing tissues on the tertiary branches from 5 to 6 leaves from the plant's tip. Later, the leaves above this site begin to drop off, and, finally, the stem begins to die. The last disease symptoms appear very much like tip dieback in severe CBB infestation. Unlike CBB, however, no gum exudation is observed on the stem.The disease appeared in an epidemic form in the Bas-Zaire and Bandundu regions. Scoring of clones in a preliminary yield trial showed the following results (Table 24). The results show that a majority of the clones are Susceptible to the disease. However. several clones showed resistance,Fifteen clones in the final yield trial were planted in the middle of December in 2 soil types. Scoring of these clones in the 2 areas showed that the disease is more serious under poor. sandy, soil conditions (Table 25).  At its 2 regional centers In Cameroon-Nkolbinsson and Nyombe-over 60,000 seedlings were raised in the Nkolbinsson region and 16,000 in the Nyombe region. Seedling and clonal evaluations and yield trials were conducted at many locations within the areas of these regional centers, and promising clones were identified.In the Nkolbinsson region, local cultivar Otele 1 showed the highest average yield with 61.5 tlha and a mean CMD infection of 1.49 (Table 28). Improving the yield, quality and storability as well as the resistance to virus, scorch and nematodes in yams is among the major concerns of IITA's yam research program.White yam (Dioscorea rotundata)Hybridization, evaluation and selection of white yam continued at 2 sites; IITA and Mokwa, Nigeria, in 1980.Staked and unstaked yield trials were grown at IITAwhile only unstaked yield trials were grown at Mokwa.A total of 600 seedlings out of 900 representing 66 families were selected from the nursery beds for the hill trials next year. Because of the limited population size, selection pressure was reduced.In   Table 30 shows the result of the staked advance yield trial where Nwapoko and TDr 821 were used as checks.The clones were planted at 1 m x 1 m spacing in a randomized complete block design with 3 replications and 10 plants per plot.The results indicate that 3 clones out yielded the checks. The performance of clones selected at Mbiri, Nigeria, tested at IITA are shown in Table 31. TOr 8-4002-9 showed a high resistance to scorch; they had high yields.The most promising 27 clones of water yam that flower and have high-scorch resistance were maintained in a crossing block. Many hand crosses were made at peak flowering, At the beginning of the dry season, they were 65  watered in an attempt to prolong growth duration. Some seeds were obtained.The multiplication of 3 of the leading water yam clones. TDa 291, TDa 310 and TDa 297, continued In 1980. Plans to distribute them to institutions were made.The result of the staked advanced yield trial of D. alata at IITA IS shown in Table 32. Although TDa 291 and TOa 297 showed high resistance to scorch, they were the lowest Yielders. TDa 251 and TDa 204 had the highest fresh tuber yield of 44 and 39 t/ha respectively. These clones will be multiplied next year.  The clones TOa 291 and TOa 310 have excellent tuber shape (rou nd and uniform), which is regarded to be important for mechanical harvesting and processing.  An experiment was co nducted in order to determine the effect of presprouting on water yam yield and number of tubers of TOa 291 . The setts were divided into 2 batches, presprouted and control , and were planted in a randomized complete block design with 6 replications.The control yielded 36 Uha of fresh tuber compared to 29 Uha for the presprouted. However, the number of tubers for the presprouted was more than the control , each giving 22 and 16 tubers, respectively.The etiology of the disease of D. a/ata generally described as \" anthracnose,\" \" scorch \" or \" lightening\" never has been adequately and convincingly determined .    (Table 36).The data indicate that under the conditions in which the test was done, foliar necrosis was independent of root necrosis.  Association between level of tuber matu rity and severity of foliar necrosi s in D. alata. T he degree of association between the level of tuber maturity and the severity of foliar necrosis in 3 D. alata clones was determined by the proportional reduction in error test. The data used were for tuber maturity at 6 months after planting and fo liar necrosis severity scores (0-5 scale of increasing severity) . The proportional reduction in error )'C/R for each clone was calculated (Table 37) .The data indicate no significant association between the 2 parameters for clones 1 and 3 and a possible slight association ().C/R ~ 0.4) in clone 2.   )'CIR is the relative improvement in predicting the foliar necrosis severity when degree of tuber maturity is known .)'CIR ~ 0, no association.).CIR ~ 1, complete association.evidence of tuber immaturity.Tabfe 39. Effect of shade\" on the prevalence and severity of foliar necrosis in D. alata (liT A, 1980).  indicates that there were no significant differences in the prevalence or severity of foliar necrosis due to shading in any of the 3 clones evaluated.Prevalence and severity of foliar necrosis in D. alata clones. The percentage of prevalence (percent of total number of leaves/plant and the severity rating 0-5 scale of increasing severity) were monitored in 8 D. alata clones duri ng their growth cycle up to 6 weeks prior to harvesting. The data ind icate that under field conditions at IITA, foliar necrosis prevalence ranged from 2.3 percent of the total leaves/plant with necrosis (TDa 297) to 53.7 percent (TDa 300) (Table 40). Both TDa 300 and TDa 310 were rated 3.5 on the foliar necrosis severity scale compared to a rating of 1.0 for clones TDa Sasa, TDa 297 and TDa 291 , respectively.   41-The prevalence of foliar necrosis at the start of the observation period was 2-7.7 percent (33/119) for the untreated plants compared to 29.0 percent (34/117) for the treated plants. The severity ratings (0-5 scale of increas-ing severity) were 1.73 and 1.18, respectively. At the termination of the Benomyl treatment, 90 days after the fi rst treatment, the incidence was 93.2 percent (1 11 /119) and 97.4 percent (114/117) for the control and Benomyl treatments, respectively , and the severity ratings were 2.13 and 2.21, respectively. Severity rating based on a 0-5 scale of increasing severity.These results indicate that under IITA conditions, Benomy I appli cation at 14-day intervals over a period of 90 days between June and August did not reduce the prev-    Hot water therapeusis for the contwl of plant-parasitic nematodes is a long established practice on several root, tuber, bulb, rhizome and runner propagation-type crops. For white yam tubers, time and temperature combination recommendations range from 46\"C to 52\"C with up to 60 minutes steeping . This investigation reports on the upper and lower time and temperature combinations and on tuber barn storage, sprouting and emergence after planting .Newly harvested white yam, cv Nwapoko, was exposed to hot water therapeusis (Table 44).  The water bath consisted of a 20-liter kettle with water temperature maintained by an electric hotplate. The water bath was over heated 3-5'C to allow for cooling by immersion of the room temperature tubers. Temperature was further adjusted and maintained by adding cool water or by heat from the hotplate. After treatment, the tubers were air dried and allowed to cool at room temperature. Control treatments were as follows: (1) a water steep at room temperature for similar times as hot water therapeusis, (2) an 8 hour water steep at room temperature and (3) a non treated dry control.Sprouts occurring in barn storage were cut 011 to conserve tuber moisture and energy. Tuber weight ranged from about 750 g to 1,250 g. Each treatment consisted of 5 tubers.Water steeping at room temperature from 10 minutes to 8 hours had no effect on the storabllity, sprouting or emergence of the tubers after planting. Hot water therapeusis at time and temperature combinations at or less than 55'C for 40 minutes had no effect on the storabillty, sprouting in storage or emergence after planting.An exception might be 45'C for 60-100 minutes, which had a higher number of tubers with sprouts in barn storage than other treatments. Hot water therapeusis at time and temperature combinations at or greater than 55'C for 60 minutes induced or aided tuber rot. Treatment at 60'C for 20 minutes had tubers with a 20 percent wet rot and an 80 percent dry rot. Below that time and temperature combination, tubers were lost to dry rot: above that, tubers were lost to wet rot. Dry rots were generally slow in acting (weeks or months) while wet rots destroyed all tubers involved in 2 weeks or less. The wet rot was most frequently initiated at the distal end of the tuber.The safe hot water therapeusis time-temperature combination for the white yam, cv Nwapoko, for control of the yam nematode is from 45'C for 40 minutes to 55'C for 40 minutes. The higher temperatures and shorter times would allow for more efficient use of equipment and labor.Other white yam cultivars should fall within these limits for safe hot water therapeusis, but small scale trial runs should be made first.The screening of germplasm for resistance to nematode parasitism in a food crop improvement program requires a diverse bank of germplasm and a source of nematodes with which to challenge the plants. Some groups of nematodes are rather easy to culture such as the root-knot nematodes that can supply 1 million or more eggs from a single tomato plant after 6-weeks growth. The yam nematode has a slower rate of reproduction, and the eggs are laid singly in a dispersed manner in sailor plant roots. Hence, the gathering of sufficient numbers of yam nematodes for a screening program becomes a first problem.The Foot technique consists of growing roots from tuber pieces or storage roots in sand in glass iars held in a dark place. White yam lev Ekpe) tuber pieces about 4 cm3 were surface sterilized in 1 percent sodium hypochlorite for 30 minutes. The tuber pieces were sealed in 250-ml glass jars on sterlized washed fiver sand. The jars 71 were held at room temperature in a dark place and examined periodically for root development. After 4 weeks, 9 tuber pieces out of 12 had produced some roots and each iar was inoculated with 15 yam nematodes. The tuber pieces were incubated a further 8 weeks and then examined for yam nematode population development.In the greenhouse, 6 pots each of sweet potato ITlb-4) and cowpea (Prima) in washed river sand were inoculated with 25 yam nematodes. After 12 weeks, sand samples were examined for nematode population development.In the Foot technique, all tuber pieces and developed roots had decomposed. No yam nematodes were recovered from the sand.From the sweet potato cultures in the greenhouse, a mean of 238 ± 62 yam nematodes per liter of sand were recovered. From the cowpea cultures, a mean of 178 ± 88 yam nematodes per liter of sand were recovered.The yam tuber does not appear to be a suitable energy source for root development for use with the Foot technique under the conditions of this trial. The culturing of yam nematode populations in pots in the greenhouse under sweet potato or cowpea would be feasible.Control of the yam nematode in white yam tubers is essential for the production of clean planting material in research and farming programs. Several chemical and hot water treatme nts were attempted for the control of this nematode.Newly harvested white yam, cv Nwapoko, were exposed to chemical and hot water therapeusis for the times, temperatures and combinations given in Table 45. Water bath conditions were those as given above. The tubers were planted in the microplots a few days after treatment in November. Each wounded tuber was shown to be infected With yam nematodes. Overall emergence for all treatments was 80 percent with nonemergent tubers randomly distributed throughout all treatments. Waterlogging during September and October evidently contributed to excessive tuber rot in the field (Table 46). None of the treatments gave 100 percent control of the yam nematode.The nonemergence of 20 percent of the yam tubers is well within the control loss and should not be attributed to treatment effect here. It is significant that the standard hot water therapeusis did not give 100 percent control of the yam nematode and combination treatments did not contribute to nematode kill (Table 46), The application of chemical compounds to plant foliage and roots has been shown to influence plant-parasitic nematode population development and later plant metabolism. The objective of this trial was to determine the infl uence of a plant growth regulator on nematode population development when applied to white yam.Stored white yams were exposed to trealment by the plant growth regulator, Ethephon (2-chloroethyl) phosphonic acid. in the preplant tuber form and as a foliar spray during the growing period. Ethephon concentrations ranged from 5 ppm to 320 ppm. Suitable control treatments were included. Tubers were steeped in a 20liter kettle for 4 hours and air dried before planting. Foliar spray with Tween 80 sticker-spreader was applied to the runoff point. Soil samples were taken with a soil tube to a 20 cm depth.Plant-parasitic nematodes were recovered from all microp/ot soils. The yam nematode was recovered from all soils. No trends were set, and between plot variations precluded any significant differences between populations.Screening for tuber total N levels Water yam (Dioscorea alata). Total N was determined in 72Fifteen clones of the water yam Dioscorea alata are kept In germplasm collections in vitro. Single node cuttings 1 cm long were taken from greenhouse-grown plants. surface sterlized and cultured in a medium with the following composition per liter: Murashige and Skoog salts solution; sucrose, 20 g; myoinositol. 200 mg; thiamine HCI.O.2 mg; pyridoxine Hel, 1 mg; nicotinic acid. 1 mg; glYCine. 4 mg; L-cysteme, 50 mg; benlate, 20 mg and agar. 8 g. The pH was adjusted to 5.7 ± 0.1 before sterilization.An agronomy trial was carried out in the Nyombe region to study the effect of staking and nonstaking on the yield of 3 cultivars of yam. Jakiri. Nuyuka and the local variety (Table 48).The problems of sweet potato production include low yield and poor storability as well as the sweet potato weevil, Cylas punctlcollis, and the sweet potato virus (SPVD). Some high yielding lines have been identified an~ encouraging progress is being made in improving reSistance to the weevil and SPVD.  49 and 50). In all the trials.TIS and TIS 8524. However, this was not always paralleled with the total dry yield . Among the 9 series, only 1 clone, TIS 9265, yielded more than TIS 2498, but again , the highest total dry matter yield was obtained by TIS 2498.The best clones will be advanced for further evaluation next year.From a prelimi nary yield trial , 269 clones were selected , based on yield and other root characteristics. These will be further evaluated for their response to viruses before being advanced to replicated yield trials.Over 1,000 selections were made from seedli ngs ; the sources were Argentina, Cameroon, Rwa nda, Solomon Islands, Tanzania and both hand and out crosses at IITA.These selections now will be advanced to the preliminary yield trial.Four crossing blocks with parents selected for desirable traits such as resistance to weevil and virus, high dry matter and good source or sink potentials were planted A disc method was developed to measure the amount of food intake by the larvae quantitatively. With a corkborer, discs from the feeding area and beside the feeding area were cut and dried to dry weight.The results shown in Table 52 and 53 clearly indicate that in all possible combinations Tlb 4 was preferred over TIS 2532 and TIS 3017 .technique with bags, based on an experimental design of 1979. was modified this year.Two tubers were placed in a cloth bag . Seven females and 2 males were put into the bag and allowed to lay eggs for 4 days. Then , they were removed and the bags with the infested tubers stored for 19 days. After 19 days, emerging adults were counted every 2 days for 12 days.The temperature was never lower than 25°C. Each clone was replicated 4 times.With this method , 387 sweet potato clones selected as less weevil infested from the preliminary yield trial were tested . In addition, 2 advanced second season yield trials were sc reened with the same method . 75   The 192 sweet potato clones determined to be susceptible or highly susceptible to 1 or both root-knot nematode species are listed in Table 56. The 194 sweet potato clones not shOWing the development of a high degree of a host-parasite relationship with the root-knot nematodes will be retested to confirm resistance.Table 56 illustrates the need to consider egg count in conjunction with the degree of root galling in establishing plant susceptibility. Extremes in egg count and the root-knot index are sometimes independent of the other and could lead to a faulty conclusion if relied upon singly. The M. incognita egg count mean was significantly greater than that of M. javanica. This is in line with observations on the cassava germplasm and other food crops. There was no significant difference in root gall development expression between the 2 species on sweet potato.Block CS-4 at IITA had been previously shown to contain a plant-parasitic nematode population density of about 20,000 nematodes per liter of soil. The root-knot, root lesion and spiral nematodes were more or less in equal numbers, The site was obtained for this trial after a further crop of rice followed by maize had been grown, Tlb 4 sweet potato vine cuttings were used as propagation material. D-D Mixture (1, 3-dichloropropene+ 1, 2dichloropropane) was applied 1 week before planting at the rate of 300 1!ha using hand equipment. Application depth was about 20 cm in the ridge, Aldicarb (2-methylcarbamoyl oxime) at the rate of 2.5 hg!ha, Oxamyl (methyl N; N'-dimethyl-N-[methyl carbamoyl oxyJ -1thiooxamimidate) at the rate of 2.5 kg/ha and Carbofuran (2, 3-d ihyd ro-2, 2-d i methyl-7-benzofuranyl methylcarbamate) at the rates of 2.5 and 10 kg/ha were applied as a band of granular material beneath the planting site and about 5 cm below the vine cutting and about 15 cm below the ridge surface, Ethephon [(2-chloroethyl) phosphonic acid] was applied to vine cuttings as a spray and a combined steep and spray. Vine cuttings were steeped for 3 horus at 50. 100 or 300 ppm, Foliar sprays at 50, 100 or 300 ppm were applied 2 and 5 weeks after planting the steeped vine cuttings, In other treatments, foliar sprays were applied 2, 5 and 8 weeks after planting at the rates of 200, 400and 600 ppm at each spraying, The sprays were applied to the runoff point, using Tween 80 spreader-sticker. Each treatment was replicated 6 times, Plants were 1 m apart in the ridge, and there was 1 m between ridges with 2 m separating the plots. There were 20 vine cuttings in each plot.None of the treatment yields were different at the 5 percent level of significance (Table 57). A phytotoxic reaction occurred with the D-D Mixture and the Ethephon steeps at 100 and 200 ppm as indicated oy the survival percentage and the June plant vigor rating ( Screening for leaf Total N levelsSince the top, you ng sweet potato leaves may be used as a preferred leafy vegetable In many countries in Africa, the leaves of 613 sweet potato clones were screened for Total N (percent dry weight) to estimate crude protein levels and make selections for superior lines with high protein contentOnly the young but fully formed leaves (fourth-seventh leaf from the top of the vine) were picked tor analysis, N levels in the leaves ranged from 2,08 to 4.42 percent. The bulk of the population (Fig. 5) fell in 1 category where N ranged between 2.5-3.  and similarly only 6 percent showed very low levels 01 N «2.5 percent).Out of these 613 clones, about 25 clones containing high N will be selected and reevaluated in replicated trials as the germplasm tested provided to replicates (there were only 4 plants/clone). Reproducibility 01 the above data, however, was checked by resampllng every twentieth sample in the lield alter 1 week intervals.Older leaves had less total N (percent dry weight) than the younger leaves on the same vine. However in some clones, older leaves had as much N as very young leaves.The implicity 01 this behavior of the N content 01 leaves on the N content 01 storage roots is yet to be determined.For a set 01 25 selected, high-yielding varieties 01 sweet potato, N was determined on both leaves and storage roots. N content in leaves varied from 3.26 to 4.0 percent but the N content in storage roots varied lrom 0.37 to 1.08 percent (Table 58).These 25 selected, high-yielding varieties were also subjected to a panel test lor their lood tasting quality.    The tissue culture material is as much as possible handcarried to shorten the time of transport and increase the efficiency of the distribution. Virus indexing has been improved by using, in addition to the grafting to the test plant, Ipomea setosa , serologically specific electron microscopy (SSEM) .The sweet potato germplasm in tissue culture now counts more than 300 clones. Some clones are kept for up to 19 months without transfer to fresh culture medium . To induce slow growth, the cul ture are kept at 20\"C by day and 17\"C by night, and mannitol (3 percent) was added to the culture medium.Over 20,000 seedlings were raised at Nkolbisson and 12,000 at Nyombe. Seed ling and clonal evaluation trials and yield trials were conducted at many locations in these regions. and promising clones were identified, some of which yield up to 35 Uha.Tables 60 and 61 show the best clones selected from 2 IITA seed introductions at Nkolbisson, and Table 63 shows the results obtained from multilocation trials atNyombe. l ib 1 gave the highest dry matter yield although clone 002 gave the highest fresh yield.Sweet potato w eevil. The sweet potato weevil (Cy/as punticollis) is the most important pest of this crop in south central Cameroon. It causes injuries to the vines as well as the tubers and strongly limits the sweet potato•s production and commercialization .Tables 61 and 62 show that the damage caused 10 Ihe vine is similar over the 2 cropping seasons. On the other hand , the damage caused to the tuber is more important during the second season, when dry weather and expanding tubers crack the soil. Weevil attacks are very rare and mostly limited to the tuber neck during the first season.No resistance could be identified , but relatively imporlant differences in the behavior of Ihe clones, grouped by family , could be observed (Table 62) .  63).However. during the 1979-80 dry season. the multiplication of the selected material was done by tuber plantation (for line purification reasons), and 36 percent of the clones showed virus infection even though they had never shown symptoms before.From this, 95 percent reexpressed symptoms during the 1980 first season in at least 4 localities of the multilocational trial even though the trials were set up from apparently clean vines.A preliminary acceptability test on the quality of selected clones was carried out with 20 persons at Nkolbisson in    required cultivation practices may be reduced (Table 65).% DM = Dry matter Several clones of Xanthosoma sagittlfolium and Colocasia escufenta maintained in the germplasm were chemically induced to flower and hand pollinated. Eight of the leading Xanthosoma clones are being maintained in a special crossing block for hand pollinations.Thirty clones of Xanthosoma planted in 3 replications in the preliminary yield trial were chemically treated with gibberillic acid (GA,) to promote flowering. Many hand pollinations were made on flowering plants. These plants also were evaluated for disease resistance and growth habit.The performance of 45 clones of Xanthosoma in a replicated preliminary yield trial was very good with fresh tuber yields ranging from 4-35 tlha. Twenty-six clones have been selected for further testing. The performance of the Cofocas/a clones was not as good as that of the Xanthosoma spp. Of the 47 clones tested, 12 have been selected for further testing.The hybridization program will be intensified in order to increase the population size from which further selections can be made.Cocoyam is a poorly documented but important food crop. The purpose of a survey was to collect information about the manner in which cocoyam is at present planted, cultivated, harvested and utilized in Nigeria. Specific questions were as follows: What are the planting practices? How do the farmers use the different varieties? With what other crops is cocoyam associated? What is the labor utilization for cocoyam? What are the harvest and storage practices? Which marketing and processing practices are important?The 2 highest cocoyam producing states in Nigeria-Anambra and Imo-were selected as well as Ondo State. the highest cocoyam producing state west of the Niger. for the survey. In each state, 3 or 4 villages where cocoyam was considered to be an important food staple 83were selected upon recommendation of local agricultural officers. In each of the villages, individuals in 6 or 7 households were interviewed. II turned out that in most of these, It was the women who grew cocoyam.The sampling method was aimed at providing general information about the systems in which cocoyams are grown rather than at testing specific hypotheses. The selection method of villages and households might be biased because of accessibility of villages, willingness of larmers to cooperate or personnel prelerences of local agricultural officers. However, the results provide a sufficiently general picture of cocoyam production in each of the 3 states so that relevance of the results can be claimed.The main results of this study were as follows:(t) The planting dates for cocoyam In Nigeria vary from March-April to April-May and seem to be dependent on the planting and the harvest dates for yam. As such, the cocoyam farming system is a component of a larger yam-based farming system. This is further conlirmed by the intercropping and rotation patterns that were reported. (2) The different cultivation methods for different varieties of cocoyam are not distinguished. All varieties are cultivated on well-drained, fertile, upland soils. The choice of variety seems largely dependent on the method of food preparation. Qualities as 'hard' vs. 'soft' and 'scratchy' vs. 'sweet' are important.(3) Sale crop 1arming of cocoyam IS rare. Mixed cropping with maize is the general mixture although the yam-cocoyam-maize association is very common. Intereropping with tree crops is also often practiced.(4) Cocoyam is a less labor intensive crop than cassava for field work. The labor utilization is estimated to be about 142 mandays/ha.(5) The most important storage methods are a shady place in the field, in huts or barns. in the houses and in pits. Successively, these methods protect the cocoyam better against pests, diseases and sun.(6) Forty percent of the farmers surveyed grow cocoyam as a cash crop, selling at least half of the yearly production. The taste of cocoyam is considered to be less than that of yam (wh ite or yellow) but better than the taste of maize and cassava.Pounding is the most common form of food preparation.(7) Ninety-two percent of the farmers surveyed have recently increased their eocoyam production indicating a growing popularity of this crop.It seems, therelore, that cocoyam is no longer a \"poor man's crop\" but rather a 'crop with promising economic value,\"In Nigeria, farmers are increasing their cocoyam production, for the crop is perceived to be less labor intensive than cassava. It can be easily cultivated in association with food or tree crops. Its nutritional value, taste, labor requirements in food preparation and market value give the crop an economic edge over cassava.    2) . No significant yield differences were observed between the 2 streak-resistant varieties and TZPB or TZB . The high yield advantage of the streakresistant populations under streak epidemic was previously described (IITA Annual Report 1979).   3 and  4). Based on yield , days to flowering , disease reaction and other agronomic characteristics, 50 half-sib fam ilies were finally selected from each population for the new cycle of selection. The data obtained for the selected families are encouraging . indicating that further improvement fo r yield potential and agronomic characteristics can be achieved.Remnant seeds of the selected 50 half-sib families were planted in the 1980-81 dry season for recombination (full-sib). Emphasis has been given to select plants with desirable plant height and low ear placement. The best 250 full-sibs will be selected from each population for international testing in cooperation with the national  Early•maturing, streak•resistant populations. MSV incidence is usually higher in planting in the second season in a bimodal, rain-distribution area and in late planting in the first season in a unimodal, rain-distribution area_ Therefore, streak-resistant, early-maturing varieties may be even more important than medium-maturing varieties. The program was initiated in the 1977 dry season by crossing early-maturing varieties, TZE 3, TZE 4, TZE 14 and TZE 15, with TZSR•W and TZSR•Y (Fig. 1).During 1980, 42 white and 94 yellow S\" streak-resistant lines were developed. These lines were recombined (half-sib) during the 1980 second season. The level of streak resistance of bulk seeds of the recombined families was confirmed in the screenhouse with viruliferous leafhopper infestation.Mid-altitude, streak-resistant populations. MSV is a major constraint for maize production in the mid-altitude ecology (700•1,400 m above sea level). Streak epidemic with more than 85 percent infection was observed during 1980 in Angola. Streak incidence is also high in Tanzania, Zaire, Uganda and Zambia. . .  (ARMP) were crossed with streak-resistant donors (Table 6) . Resistant seg rega nts will be grouped into the earl y and medi um maturity and mid-altitude populations. These sources of germplasm will be added in the fut ure for further widening of the genetic diversity of the streakresistant populations.   (IITA, 1980).Grain yie ld (t/ha) % yield reduction of  for streak-resistance breeding . FJ progenies will be tested next year in order to confirm the conclusion drawn in this study.National maize varieties for streak-resistant conversion. New, improved varieties are being developed by different national programs. These varieties have highyield potential and good adaptation to local conditions. However, they lack streak resistance. Attempts to develop streak-resistant varieties under natural streak infestation usually failed due to a high escape rate in the field. The following breeding procedure is being used to convert national maize varieties to streak resistance:National varieties are crossed with streak-resistant sources, and 5, lines are developed under artificial streak infestation. Seeds of the S, lines are sent to the national programs for adaptation tests, and remnant seeds are kept at IITA. Selected lines, based on the data from the national programs, are recombined at IITA and backcrossed to the original recurrent parental variety. A new 5, line will be developed under artificial streak infestation for the new improvement cycle. When sufficient levels of streak resistance and adaptation are achieved (2-3 cycles), the continuation of the improvement program will be done by the national programs (Table 9). IITAICIMMYT cooperative program for streak-resislanl conversion, Through the international breeding program, CIMMYT has identified population 43 (La Posta) and a number of experimental varieties with high-yield potential and adaptation for different countries in Africa.The purpose of the IITAICIMMYT cooperative project is to introduce streak resistance into these varieties. Ini• tially, full-sib families of population 43 and 1,200 plants of each of the experimental varieties were tested in the screen house with artificial streak infestation. Only a few plants were identified as having some degree of resistance. The same materials were planted in the field, and crosses were made wilh TZSR-W-1 and TZSR-Y-1.lt was decided to convert the experimental varieties to slreak resistance by the backcross method and transfer the center for international improvement of population 43 from CIMMYT to IITA with the major emphasis on streak resistance.Resislance breeding against stemborers, especially Sasamia ca/amistis, has been carried out at IITA for the last several years. Major screening procedures have been conducted under severe natural epibiotic conditions at Umudike, Nigeria. In 1980, selected stemborer-resistant lines were tested in a screenhouse under Sesamia larva 90 Infested conditions. Selected 195 recombined half-sib ears were tested at Umudike (planted on July 20)Dead heart percentage of the field was 87.5 percent indicating severe infestation of Sesamia. One hundred and four ears from 60 half-sib families were selected based on the Sesam;a ratings, clean ears against ear rot and ear insects and agronomic characteristics (Table 10).The selected ears are recombined in a half-sib isolated field. Average borer resistance ratings of the selected 60 families were 3.6 based on the 1 to 5 average score, which is significantly lower than the rating scale of the 5 can Ira I varieties (4.8)In addition, 127 borer-and streak-resistant families were also tested at Umudike. Fifty-Ihree ears were selected from 29 families (Table 10). These borers-streak resistant selected families are also included as female rows in the TZBR half-sib recombination field. Further accumulation of apparently minor genes will be carried out continuously under natural and artificial ,temborer conditions.Tabfe la, TZUT and TZUTSR, are also included in this program. In addition, progeny testing for specific adaptation was initiated in 1980 for TZPB in the high-rainfall areas and TZB in the savanna areas.TZB, Two hundred and eighty-eight S, lines were tested at 2 northern locations in Nigeria, Mokwa and Funtua.Thirly-six lines were selected based on yield and agronomic trails. Selected lines were recombined during the 1980-81 dry season. Further testing of half-sib families will be made at selected areas in northern Nigeria in 1981.TZPB, Two hundred and fifty TZPB half-sib families were tested with 3 replications for yield and agronomic traits at Onne. Thirty-six lines (14.4 percent) were selected, considering yield, ear-rot tolerance, tip cover, disease resistance, etc. The average yield of the selected lines was 5.5 tlha compared to 4.2 tlha for TZPB, which was used as a control. Selected families are being recombined during the 1980-81 dry season and will be tested again at Onne in 1981 . The major objective of th is popu• lation is to develop a high-rainfall adapted variety with high yield and good disease resistance, especially to ear rot and H. maydis. Next year, each recombined family also will be tested for tolerance to acid soil.TZUT. The major objective of U.S. x tropical crosses is to transfer the efficient plant architecture of the U.S.A. corn belt genotypes into tropically well adapted and disease-tolerant populations.Three hundred and twelve half-sib lines were tested with 2 replications at 6 locations in Nigeria ; IITA, Onne, Ikenne, Mokwa, Funtua and Gusau . Seventy lines were selected for high yields and good agronomic characteristics. Based on the results, the selected lines were separated into 2 populations, northern and southern. Each population has been recombined by the full-sib method .The selection cycles will continue separately in the humid and savanna ecologies, respectively .Bulk seeds of TZUT were tested for their yield and adaptation at 5 locations in Nigeria (Table 11). This population flowers in 53 days, 1 week later than TZE 4, and matu res in 100 days. 10 days later than TZE 4. The average yield was significantly higher than TZE 4 and other TZE varieties tested . Seed color is still segregating for both yellow and white.   National zonal maize variety trials, Nigeria. liT A cooperated with the national maize program in Nigeria by evaluating the most promising breeder releases In different environmental conditions.In the early-maturing variety trials. TZUT was the highest yielding variety. which performed particularly well in Funtua (Table 12). DMR-YEo developed at NCR I also performed well and had, on the average. 3.3 percent lower moisture content than TZUT. In the medium-maturing variety trials, TZSR-Y-I and TZSR-W-I were the best performing entries (Table 13).CIMMYT international trials. Two varietal t\"als, ELVT 18A and ELVT 18B ( TZUT. These varieties are of temperate x tropical background and did not seem adapted well enough to these environmental conditions.The major objective of IITA's hybrid program IS to develop a collection of elite inbred lines, mainly S,-S\" with adaptation to the different ecologies of Africa, disease and insect resistance. vigor and good combining ability.The best available tropical maize varieties, many of which are from CIMMYT, are being used for extraction of the lines with special emphasis of genetic diversity. These lines will be available to any country for a hybrid program. However, the lines can also be used for the development of better disease and Insect resistant synthetic varieties or for population improvement breeding (Fig. 3).     The efficiency of 2 distribution methods of viruliferous leathoppers under field conditions was compared: leafhoppers released in the field by cage and leafhoppers released by the newly improved method (IITA Annual Report, 1979) in which 3-4 leafhoppers are applied to each plant individually.Two maize varieties, TZPB (streak sensitive) and TZSR-Y-l (streak reSistant). were tested with and without the 2 infestation techniques. A split-plot design (varieties as main plots) with replications was used; each treatment was in 5 m x 5 m plots. Two border rows of TZSR-Y-l were planted a month before planting the experiment to minimize movement from plot to plot.The results clearly demonstrate the efficiency of the neWly-improved method compared to a random release of the same number of leafhoppers (Table 23). Unfortunately, the 2 border rows did not prevent the movement of leafhoppers: therefore, hig h infection percentages with streak were observed without Infestation in the streak-sensitive TZPB. This experiment also showed the high level of resistance achieved in TZSR-Y-l and the yield advantage of this variety under streak epidemic.  Volta, and seed will be available to national programs for on-farm testing and further multiplication next year.Regional uniform variety Iriol-2 (RUVT-2). Medium-maturing varieties from 4 national programs, SAFGRAD!IITA and CIMMYT were screened for the mean of grain yield and days to flower across 7 locations (Table 26). The earliest maturing varieties were Ferke (1) 7635, HN2 and BDS III, taking 56 days to flower. The highest yielding entry was IRAT 81, a complex hybrid, which flowered in 63 days, followed by Camp. 4, TZPB and TZSR-W. In Table 27, the test locations and the 3 highest-Yielding varieties at each location are presented. IRAT 81 was among the highest yielders at 5 of the locations. At all locations, some varieties could be identified that out yielded the local check in both RUVT-1 and RUVT-2.  New introductions. As a back-up activity for the SAF-GRAD regional trials, new promising materials obtained from different sources were evaluated for yield and other agronomic characters in replicated trials at 3 locations in Upper Volta: Farako-Ba, Kamboinse and Saria. Considering both earl mess and yield. Hungarian Composite, Population 31 (Amarillo Cristalino-2), Pool 18 and Pool 30, all of which originated from CIMMYT, were found to be promising. Seed of these materials is being multiplied during the 1980-81 dry season for further evaluation in the semi-arid region.High-quality prDtein maize, Two variety trials: EVT 15A and Special 0, trial, consisting of hard endosperm 0, materials received from CIMMYT; were conducted at Kamboinse. Unfortunately, both trials suffered severe drought Immediately after flowering, and, therefore. the real potential of these varieties was not realized. In the special 0, trial. Temperate White H.EO, gave the highest yield of the new varieties tested (4.2 tlha) and flowered in 45 days. In EVT 15A, yields were very low due to drought and no conclusions can be drawn.Breeding for earliness and high yield. Full-sib families were generated in 7 populations in 1980: TZE 7, TZE B. TZE 9. TZE 12, TZE 14, TZE 15 and TZE 16. These families will be evaluated for yield next year, and the best ones Will be combined into 2 composites, white and yellow.Early-maturing populations from other national and international institutions have also been introduced. Mass selection was practiced in promising populations received from CIMMYT, which will be tested in the regional trials next year.Breeding for disease resistance. With increasing maize cultivation, MSV may become important in the semi-arid zone. Therefore, 390 half-sib families of TZSR IW) were received from IITA and planted for evaluation and selection. Due to severe drought, only 133 pairs of full-sib ears could be selected. Their progenies will be evaluated during the next cropping season. Temperate x tropical crosses. Six promiSing temperate subtropical pools from CIMMYT were further evaluated. and the seed was multiplied in 1980. Also, promising lines of U.S. x tropical origin received from IITA were identified and increased for further evaluation next year.Research on insect pests of maize was started in 1979 Millipedes, termites and armyworms (Mythimna unfpuncta) were found to be the main problems. Infestation by millipedes and termites varied greatly among different locations and experimental plots. Infestation by borers was only noticed in early planted maize. In 19BO, experiments were designed to study the effect 01 planting dates on insect infestation and grain yield and to find out an effective chemical control of termites and millipedes.Effect Df planling date on insect infestation. Four planting dates. 5 June, 10 June, 10 July and 25 July, and 3 maize varieties, Jaine Flint de Saria IJES) and TZE 3, both early maturing, and TZPB, medium maturing, were studied under protected and unprotected conditions. Protection was done by application of 2.5 kg carboluran! ha a.i. before planting and 30 days after planting and 0.7 kg endosulfonlha a.i. at silklng.The infestation of all insects was very low. In general, protected plots had comparatively less infestation than unprotected plots, and higher damage for termites and armyworm was observed in the first planting date (Table 28). JFS was damaged sl ightly more than the other varieties by armyworms. Because of early drought, the crop was badly damaged, and, therefore, no reliable yield data were obtained. The major emphasis 01 the IITAiSAFGRAD maize agronomy program during 1980 was to identify simple management practices to improve the water balance in the 700-90 Omm belt. Twenty-three (20 Kamboinse and 3 at Saria) agronomy trials were planted in 1980 between 6 June and 16 August, and practices to minimize the risk of drought stress were identified.Tied ridge Irials. During 1979, tied ridges gave consistently higher yields than flat seedbed or single ridges even though there were no dry periods during the growing season. Therefore. in 1980, the research included looking into more specific tied ridge systems. Four tiedridge systems (Table 29 and 30) In a factorial combination with 2 N levels on both an upper-slope soil and a lower-slope soil (hydromorphic soil) were carried out. The trial was planted on 14-15 July with an early-maturing variety, TZE, (90 days to maturing). The rains ended 9 September.On the upper-slope soil (Table 29), there was a Significant increase in yield by using tied ridges. An average yield of 1,170, 1,970 and 2,520 kg/ha was obtained on flat soil, half of the ridges tied and all of the ridges tied, respectively. Both the number and weight of grains increased.On the lower-slope soil, there were no statistically signlf• icant differences in yield among the ridging systems.Plain ridges and all of the ridges tied gave similar yields, 1,250 and 1,290, respectively. However, the yields were achieved through different combinations of the yield components. There was higher grain number with lower grain weight in the plain ridges compared to the tied ridges. This indicates that the tied ridges may be exposed to water logging while the plain ridges to drought stress during the grain filling period in the lower slope. This is supported by the higher yields obtained when only half of the ridges were tied. The economics of the systems will be studied next year.Toposequence and planting date trials. Two maize va• rieties, TZE 4 and TZPB (90 and 110 days to maturity, respectively), were planted on 2 planting dates on land strips more or less perpendicular to the slope, from the upper slope to the lower slope.Grain y~elds increased markedly as maize was planted closer to the hydromorphic soils in the lower slope (Table 31). Mean yield was 585 kg/ha in the highest strip and 3,260 in the lowest strip. The crop received a high level of fertilizer and, therefore, the effect of crop position on the toposequence appears to be mostly a direct effect of better moisture conditions toward the lower slope. The planting date also had a very significant effect on mean grain yields: 2,780, 1,200 and 640 kg/ha for 14 June,S July and 17 July, respectively. But the effect of planting date was more marked for TZPB, medium maturing, than for TZE4 early maturing.The risk of drought stress may, therefore, be reduced by planting early, by planting early maturing varieties and! or by planting on the hydromorphic soils in the lower slopes. It is important to point out. however, that on the lower-slope soils, yields have been reduced, in some cases, by water logging or even flooding.  tor plowing gave the highest yeilds mainly because of deeper soil preparation and better water infiltration into the soil. Zero tillage was no better than the traditional farmer's method.Weeding trials. An experime\"t i\"volvi\"g a factorial combination of low-and high-fertility levels and 5 hand•hoe weeding systems crust was planted on 11 July using an early-maturing variety, TZE 4 (Table 32). They were controlled by either application of pre-emergent herbicide or periodic hand weeding or both. There was a consistent increase in grain yield when the number of weedings was increased from 0 to 1 and from 1 to 2. The increase I\" yield was greater at the high-fertility level. Treatment 4 involved late weedings, 4 and 7 weeks after planting, to evaluate the effect of early weed competition on maize 99 yield. Although this treatment received no preemergent herbicide, weed growth was not excessive (about 20-30 percent ground cover by weeds, less than 25 cm high) at the time of the first weeding. It seems that the negative effect of early weed competition, if any, was more than compensated by the positive effect of cultivation, 3,030 kg/ha vs. 2,080 kg/ha for treatment of vs. 2,080 kg/ha for the weeding treatment, and the timing of the weeding in relation to the rainfall pattern.Residue management trials. An experiment involving 3 crop residue managements, low-and high-fertility levels and 2 varieties was initiated in Kamboinse in 1979 (Table 33). Varieties at same residue management and fertility 507'Low: 40-23-14 (1979) and 37-23-14 (1980) High: 120-69-42 (1979) and 83-23-14 (1980).Crop residues were produced in 1979. and the residue management started in 1980. The land had been tractor plowed and disked early in 1979. Mean grain yields in 1979 were 2,230 kg/ha and 2,810 kg/ha for the low-and high-fertility levels, respectively.There was a highly significant effect of crop-residue management and fertility, and the Interaction between crop residue management and fertility was also statistically significant (Table 33). At the low-fertility level, there was no difference in mean grain yield between removing the residue and leaving it on the ground (1,000 kg/ha and 970 kg/ha, respectively). At the high-fertility level, the grain was higher with than without residue (910 kg/ha and 1,920 kg/ha, respectively). These results show the highly beneficial effect of crop residues on protecting the soil from the rainfall impact and increasing water infiltration and storage in the soil. The effect of crop residues is a combination of various reasons, including mulching, nutrition and biological activity. The termite activity was higher In the plots with more residue; and by decomposing and incorporating part of the residues and digging tunnels and galleries in the soil. they seem to greatly enhance water infiltration and penetration into the soil. It should be noted also that when the crop residues were removed. there was no response to the increase in fertility level (1,000 kg/ha and 910 kg/ha for low and high fertility, respectively); water was the limited factor Maize-cowpea rotation trials. A rotation trial involving maize and cowpeas that was started in 1979 at Saria was continued in 1980 (Table 34). There was a highly significant effect of crop rotation and a significant effect of fertility level. The grain yields of maize were significantly higher under maize following cowpeas than under maize following maize both under low-and high-fertility levels. The positive effect of preceding maize with cowpeas may not be due to nitrogen fixation by the legume because no apparent nitrogen deficiency symptoms were observed.In 1980, rice researchers at ItTA continued to focus their attention on the varietal improvement for free draining upland (dryland), near-saturated valley bottoms (hydromorphic) and irrigated/shallow flooded (swamp) conditions.Research on the development of plant type for dryland rice was stepped up by evaluating several varieties with contrasting plant characteristics under the 3 ecologies.Evaluating different methodologies for identifying drought resistant Gultivars was continued. Blast resistance was a major target during 1980 as in the past. Diseases such as sheath blight and leaf scald that appeared to increase in their incidence require more attention in the future. Superior dryland cultivars with resistance to major dryland stresses, such as drought. blast and panicle discoloration, were developed.Development of. hitherto, neglected hydromorphics was considered as a priority to raise the rice production in Africa. Varietal improvement needs for hydromorphics seem to be near to those for swamps. Because of these interlinks, the approach taken for this ecology is by testing of the superior cultivars identified for lowlands and shallow flooded swamps. EmphasiS on hydromorphic rice research will be increased in the future.100For irrigated/swamp rice, 3 improved semi-dwarf varieties were developed that have serious attributes required for their adaptability and acceptability in the region.Varietal nominations from IITA to the international testing programs of WARDA and IRRI and various national programs, particularly that of Nigeria, Republlque Populaire du Benin and Brazil, were increased.To facilitate the cooperation and simplify record-keeping of elite lines ITA accession numbers were assigned to advanced selections that are ready for testing by collaborators. Pedigrees for the list of cultivars mentioned in this report with ITA numbers are listed in Table 35. 'Selections from the material originating from CIA T.Organized multilocational testing was carried out for dryland rice in Nigeria at IITA, anne, Ikenne and Funtua in dryland conditions but also at IITA in hydromorphlc condition to estimate the potential yielding ability. The tiers of varietal testing were observational, preliminary, advanced and elite yield trials, and the entries were decided based on the previous years' performance.The incidences of drought and blast, which have been the frequent and predominant dryland stresses in the previous years, were rather low in 1980. However, the incidence of panicle discoloration prevailed while that of sheath blight and leaf scald increased, particularly at Onne. Observations indicated that entries having wide and droopy leaves were generally more susceptible to sheath blight and leaf scald.Significant progress was made in the genetic improvement for the major dryland stresses such as drought, blast and panicle discoloration. The resistance to lodg' ing is tligher in these improved cultivars than the local cultivar, OS 6. Many are intermediate statured while few are short statu red. The range of growth duration is 100• 120 days, and their grain yield under dryland ranges from 2 to 4 IIha. Table 36 shows the characteristics of the superior cultivars that are being tested widely by various national and international programs. Emphasis in the near future will be to increase yield potential and incor• po rate resistance to sheath blight and leaf scald. Efforts will also be to obtain short stature and narrow leaf types.Cultivars with a longer growth duration of 120•140 days will also be selected.Hydridizalion and early generation malerial for dryland rice. Several new crosses were made. Approximately 200 F2, 1,000 F3 and 1,600 F4-F6 lines were evaluated, and further selections were made ( Breeding lines of TO x 1006, TO x 1008 and TO x 718 performed well under savanna ecology at Funtua while TO x 503-1-52-1 and TOx 1011-4-2 and TOx 1011-4-1 per-formed well under wet forest and transitional zones at Agenebode and IITA, respectively.International Upland Rice Observational Nursery (IURON, 1980). Observations were carried out at IITA and Ikenne with a view to identifying sources of material for use as potential cultivars or parents in IITA's hybridiza• tion program. In general, sources from Asia. especially dwarf and semi-dwarfs, performed poorly on the highly leached and low nutrient status soils at IITA; whereas, the same cultivars performed better at Ikenne (Table 42). Blast-both leaf and panicle-was not severe at either location, but leaf scald and dirty panicle incidences were severe at both. Incidence of leaf scald was observed to be progressively severe from panicle initiation to harvest. The dirty panicle syndrome was more severe at IITA than Ikenne. Compared to entries from other sources, materials evolved from IITA and IRAT were found to be much more resistant to blast and dirty panicles. ITA 116 (local check) and ITA 117 were outstanding. Among semidwarfs. IR 5931-110-1 and IR 9690-1-1-1-7 were found to be the best entries with growth durations of about 130-135 days. Both are also resistant to blast, leaf scald, panicle discoloration, RYMV and have long grains with acceptable endosperm character.International Upland Rice Yield Nursery (IURYN, 1980). Twenty-eight varieties with ITA 116 as a local check were planted at Ikenne (Table 43). Tested entries matured in 108-140 days while ITA 116 matured in 116days.ITA 116 was the tallest, 148 cm, and lodged while entries tested were dwarf or semi-dwarfs. There was no long drought stress, and the moisture regime was quite favorable during the reproductive stage. Incidence of blast, both leaf and neck, was not severe so that blast scorings were low. Leaf scald and panicle discoloration were quite severe, in general; yet, there were many entries with low scores (tolerant) for leaf scald as well as panicle discoloration.There were 6 entries that yielded higher than ITA 116 (3.0 tlha). Among these, IR 5931-110-1 and BG 35-2 yielded 3.9 and 3.8 tlha, respectively. Also, IR 5853-118-5 and C171-136 had yields of 3.1 and 3.0 tlha, respectively.All are shorter than ITA 116 and resistant to lodging and leaf blast. IR 5931-110-1 and IR 5853-118-5 (IR 52) are long grain types with acceptable endosperm character.In the 1979 International Rice Blast Nursery (IRBN), these 2 entries had shown high levels of resistance to leaf blast in 90 percent of the testing locations, including locations in Liberia and Nigeria. They mature in about 120 days, which is qUite suitable for the transition zone. IR 9560-2-6-3-1, IR 9995-96-2 and Gama 318 mature in about 140 days, which may prove to be suitable to the high-rainfall zone of coastal West Africa with total annual precipitation of about 2,400 mm spread over 6 months. All are dwarfs with good blast resistance. Promising entries will be further evaluated in 1981.Fixed lines from IRRI. Twenty-five fixed lines (F5-F6) derived from crosses involving African land races, such as Lac 23, 63-83, Moroberekan and OS 6, were evaluated under dryland conditions at IITA. The nutrient status of the plot was low, and drought stress was experienced at the early vegetative and tillering phases followed by very wet weather during the reproductive phase. Leaf scald, panicle discoloration and sheath rot were quite severe. A moderate incidence of neck blast was also observed during the ripening stage. In general, entries performed poorly, except 2 lines-IR 6234-33-3 (MRC 172-9/63-83) and IR 7790-18-1-2 (IR 790-28-1-6163-831!IR 2035-290-1-1). They were resistant to blast and leaf scald having intermediate plant stature (105-110 cm), medium growth duration (120-125 days) good tillering ability and drought tolerance. They will be further evaluated in 1981.Observational nursery at Goiania, Brazil. Upon the request from the Centro Nacional de Pesquisa-Arroz. Feijao, Goiania, Brazil, seed for 20 IITA advanced dryland varieties were sent, which were evaluated in an observational nursery. The results show that while several selections were as good as the check variety, lAC 47, ITA 120 and ITA 116 were superior for blast resistance and grain yield (Table 44).WARDA•coordinated variety trials (upland) at IITA. Sixteen varieties in each of 2 yield trials of short and medium maturity groups were evaluated under dryland conditions at IITA. Check varieties for short, ITA 116 and ITA 117, and for medium, ITA 119 and ITA 130, were in- o a:,:,   Production potential for rice in Africa. particularly in hydromorphic and shallow swamp or irrigated lowland ecologies, is considered very high.Semi-dwarf (IR8) plant type for improved swamps with good water control and intermediate (IR5) plant type for hydromorphics and swamps with fluctuating water depths (not exceeding about 30 cm standing water) have generally been found suitable.Improved semi-dwarf cultivars with high yield and medium maturity (115-130 days) having tolerance to Fe toxicity and resistance to blast disease are now avai lable. Research is underway 10 incorporate tolerance to RYMV.Another objective. in addition to having the above desirable traits, is to develop cultivars with a wider range of maturity groups and good grain quality. In order to meet the demands of the highlands of Central and East Africa. cultivars tolerant to low temperatures will be initiated.The screening for general performance and adaptation of fixed lines is being done through multilocational tests in Nigeria in cooperation with NCRI and the ANIMO (World Bank) Rice Project, Nigeria. Screening and selection for blast resistance, RYMV tolerance and grain type is done from the early generations by IITA. The screening for Fe toxicity tolerance is being accomplished through cooperation with 2 institutes in Liberia, the Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARl) and WARDA. In addition, international testing is being accomplished through the testing programs of WARDA in West Africa and through IRRI worldwide.ITA 121, ITA 123 and ITA 212 were 3 high-yielding, semidwarf rice cultivars for improved swamps (Tables 45 an d  46).ITA 121 (Moroberekan/SE 363G , Ikong Pao) was initially selected in dryland environ ments up to the F3 generation and then selected in low nutrient irrigated paddies where it was superior to all the 120 other lines tested. Further, it exhibited good performance in well-managed paddies yielding up to 7.5 tlha.ITA 123 is a semi-dwarf mutant of OS 6. Although ITA 123 has thick and deep roots similar to OS 6, it is moderately susceptible to panicle discoloration under dryland conditions. However, under irrigated paddies, it has per-   Promising advanced lines for swamps. Among F5 lines and above that were evaluated , derivatives from TOx 498 and TOx 711 (IRS/Suakoko 8) of intermediate stature (120-135 cm) and from medium to long duration (130 days) were promising . Among the higher yielders, further selection was made for nonchalky grain character and their performance is presented in Table 47. All the advanced lines are also being screened for tolerance to Fe toxicity in Suakoko, Liberia.   Nursery-Early (IITA, 1980).\"\"-   To support the screening work on RYMV, an inheritance study on resistance to the virus was conducted from the F, and F, populations of 6852 x Lac 23.Plants were inoculated with RYMV at the maximum tillering stage (45 days after transplanting). Disease readings were taken at 3 weeks after Inoculation and at maturity.The F, population from 6852 (susceptible) x Lac 23 (resistant) were highly tolerant, indicating that resistance is controlled by complete dominant genes. Segregations in the F, population gave a 9:6:1 genetic ratio, suggesting that resistance in Lac 23 IS conditioned by 2 dominant genes (Table 51). Further studies on the populations of the F3 families and the backcrosses will confirm the above genetic ratio.  52. Curvularia and Nigrospora species were predominant followed by Helmlnthosporium and Rhynco-sparium species. However, Piricularia was not observed. Greater emphasis will be given in the future to these pathogenic fungi affecting both foliage and panicles,Rice in West Africa is mostly grown under upland conditions, including hydromorphic and dryland.Ideo-plant type for irrigated lowland rice has been extensively studied while that for upland rice has been limited mainly because of the difficulty in evaluating drought resistance. Little information is available on the growth habit of rice under upland conditions.An experiment was carried out to determine the plant traits limiting the grain yield under different ecologies.Sixteen cultivars were selected to cover a wide range of genetic background (Table 53). Cultivars are generally non-photoperiod sensitive and highly or moderately blast resistant, except IR 5.They were grown under irrigated lowland, hydromorphic and dryland conditions during the rainy season (June to October). Spacing was 25 cm x 20 cm with 1 plant per hill (20 plants per m'). The average moisture content in the soil was 25.4 percent and 9.9 percent In hydromorphic and dryland conditions, respectively, representing 80 percent or more of the field capacity during most of the growth stages. There was a severe incidence of blast on IR 5 under dry land conditions while the rest of the varieties were almost free in all ecologies.Growth duration and leal number. Growth duration from sowing to full maturity of cultivars used ranged from 110 to 150 days, and leaf number on main culm ranged from 11 to 18. These characters hardly changed in different ecological conditions. Plants did not exhibit any severe drought stress symptoms such as leaf rolling or poor exertion throughout the growth stages.Plant height. Plant height was tailer in the traditional upland cultivars than in the improved irrigated lowland cultivars (Fig. 4, left). The difference was greater under irrigated lowland or hydromorphlc conditions than under dryland conditions. Entry Nos. 1. 2. 3. 5. 7, 14 and 15Tabfe 52. Major fungi' on the leaf samples collected (Onne, December 1980).  irrigated lowland and dryland is much greater in improved irrigated lowland cultivars (Fig. 5).Tiller/panicle number. Panicle number was larger in the improved irrigated lowland cultivars than in either the traditional or improved upland cultivars (Fig. 4, right).The difference was greater under dryland than irrigated lowland conditions. The tiller number was larger shortly after sowing under dryland conditions Ihan irrigated lowland or hydromorphic conditions and attained a maximum before flowering when the difference belween 200,-----------------------.::!:Grain yield. Grain yield was 2.5-7.6, 2.0-7.4 and 0.6-2.9 Vha in irrigated lowland, hydromorphic and dryland conditions, respectively (Fig. 6). Improved irrigated lowland cultivars were higher yielders under irrigated lowland or hydromorphic conditions than under dryland conditions. Lowland Hydro Dryland morphic Yield potential of dryland rice is apparently limited In spite of large breeding efforts being done already. Hydromorphic rice holds greater yield potential, but this potential has not yet been fully exploited in Africa by way of land improvement or management. Ideo-plant type is essentially the same for hydromorphic and irrigated lowland rice.Dry matter production. The plant total dry weight was larger under dryland than Irrigated lowland conditions during early growth stages because of retarded plant growth (under irrigated lowland conditions) due to transplanting. especially with traditional upland cultivars (Fig. 7). Later. the plant dry weight was larger under Irrigated lowland and hydromorphic conditions than dryland conditions. The difference in dry weight between Irrigated lowland and hydromorphic conditions and dryland conditions was more pronounced after flowering to full maturity. Panicle dry weight was larger in irrigated lowland and hydromorphic conditions after flowering.Dry matter and grain yield. The total weight at harvest was from 0.81 to 1.67 kg/m'. from 0.86 to 1.96 kglm' and from 0.49 to 123 kgim' in irrigated lowland. hydromorph'lc and dryland conditions. respectively (Fig. 8).The larger dry weight of the plants seems to be associated with higher grain yield. Harvest index of cultivars used was generally lower. especially that of irrigated lowland cultivars when grown under dryland conditions.6869 was the only cultivar possessing a harvest index of nearly 0.5.Panicle number and panicle weight. The panicle number of most cultivars used was lower than that of highyielding type (Fig. 9). Only IR 5 and IR 1416-131-5 produced more than 200 panicles!m'. This is perhaps a reflection of the high pressure to select larger single panicles, consciously or unconsciously, given by the  number. Since panicle weight is contributed by the number of spikelets per panicle, percentage filled grain and grain weight further analysis of these yield components are still being made.The results obtained so far indicate that an optimum planting density for dryland rice is lower than that for irrigated lowland rice because of poor water holding ca-pacity and low nutrient status of degraded soils under tropical upland conditions. Studies on optimum density on dry/and rice is, therefore, essential for varieties with different tillering habits.Root character and drought. Root dry weight as well as proportion of root weight to total dry weight of upland cultivars were similar under different ecolog,es (Fig. 10) Those of irrigated lowland cultivars were significantly larger under dryland than irrigated lowland or hydro• morphic conditions.Scoring for root thickness was done in terms of the pro• portion of thick and thin roots during ripening (Table 55).  Traditional upland cultivars have a higher proportion of thick roots; whereas, the reverse is true in improved irrigated lowland cultivars. Root scores 01 newly released IITA cultivars range from 3 to 6 in a 1-9 system: 1 ~ roots thicker than 2 mm in diameter and 9 ~ roots thinner than 1 mm in diameter. In general, roots are thicker under hydromorphic conditions than under irrigated lowland or dryland conditions. No reasons are apparent as yet why root scoring was lower in hydromorphic and higher or similar in irrigated lowland and dryland.These results suggest that the root thickness plays a more Important role in drought resistance than the root volume or the proporlion of root to total dry weight.Thirty-six rice cultivars, including advanced dryland selections from IITA, OS 6 and IRAT 13, were evaluated during the dry season. Sprinkler irrigation was used to create 4 moisture treatments corresponding to the growth stages of OS 6, viz, (1) no drought, (2) 18-day drought at tillering, (3) 12-day drought at booting and (4) 18-day drought at tillering and 12-day drought at booting.Leaf water potential and stomatal conductance were measured with a pressure chamber and Delta-T automatic diffusion parometer, respectively, on the third leaf from the top. Dry weight of roots and shoots and root to shoot ratios were determined at the maximum tillering stage.The water potential measurements showed that ITA 122, ITA 119, ITA 169 and IRAT 13 maintained higher values than that of OS 6 under moisture stress at both the vegetative and reproductive stage (Table 56).The leaf diffusive resistance did not vary much among varieties, and no variety showed a high degree of stomatal contro\\. Root to shoot ratios were different among varieties and ranged from 0.11 to 0.41. those values and that of water potentia\\.High positive correlation at the 1 percent level was observed between grain Yield and 1.000 grain weight, weight per single panicle, harvest index, plant height, panicle number and panicle exertion, in that order (Table 57). The data suggest the extreme importance of the grain filling under drought stress. In contrast, 1,000 grain weight is the least variable yield component under irrigated conditions.Another important observation is that plant height and panicle exertion, which are morphological expressions of cell elongation, are correlated with grain yield. As such, good panicle exertion has been a major breeding objective for dryland rice improvement.Among several screening techniques to determi ne drought resistance, heat tolerance has been reported to be useful. particularly in sorghum. The relationship between drought and heat tolerance IS based on the observation that during moisture stress, the increase in stomatal resistance results in raising the leaf temperatures and causes leaf desiccation in susceptible varieties.The method principally measures cell membrane integ-CIty following heat stress. Heat tolerance is expressed as a percentage of extracted electrolytes at a specified temperature over total amount of electrolytes extracted when all the cells are destroyed by heat. The data on percentage Injury by desiccation of some culti'iars grown under irrigated lowland and dryland conditions is presented in Table 58. Varietal differences in percentage  first, to increase the seed size and improve the seed coat characters in high-yielding, disease-resistant lines; second, to incorporate resistance to bruchids. Research is also carried out on the sources of resistance to the other major insect pests of cowpea: flower thrips that cause flower bud shed; Maruca testu/a/is, a pod borer that damages stems and pods, and hemipteran pod-sucking bugs that can cause extensive damage within a short time.Cowpea breeding concentrated on increasing the seed size and improving the seed coat characters in the highyielding, disease-resistant backgrounds. Large 118-25 gl 100 seed), white, rough seed lines were taken from the germplasm collection and screened in the field for tolerance to diseases. The more tolerant lines were selected, but all were substantia\"Y less resistant to disease than the elite lines. Therefore, when these large-seed donors were used in a breeding program, special care was needed to maintain the yield and multiple-disease resistance of the elite lines.A large, white, rough seed with a small eye is strongly preferred in the West Africa savannah. The testa can be removed easily when the seed is soaked in water, which is the first step in the preparation of traditional recipes for korsai, akara and moi-moi. In parts of West Africa near the coast and in other regions of the world, colored During the year. additional sister lines from these 2 crosses were evaluated, and 4 we re identified that combined large seed, multiple-disease resistance and yield potential equal to the recurrent parent (Table 1). The selections will be included in an international trial next year.VITA-4 and VITA-5 have white seed and so do the large seed selections from them. VITA-5 and its progeny (the TVx 3671 series) have a rough seed coat. but VITA-4 and its progeny (the TVx 4291 series) have a smooth seed coat.In addition to the VITA-4 and VITA-5 backcrosses as a source of new lines with large seed , a number of large, white seed donors with moderate disease resistance were crossed with elite lines, most of which had small , colored . smooth seed. The reaction to disease of some of the large-seed donors and elite lines is shown in Table 2. Fi fty F,/F, selections from simple crosses and 1 backcross to the elite parent were evaluated in both an inoculated nursery and a uninoculated yield trial in the 1980 second season. Twenty selections with medium or large (14-21 g/100 seed) smooth seed , good disease resistance  and agronomic characters were multiplied in 1980 and will be included in an international trial next year. They include white, tan, red and black seeded selections.Other advanced lines with large seed, good disease resistance and agronomic characters were selected from crosses between elite lines (Table 3). These also will go into an international trial next year.New Fr Jines were formed from 3-way and simple crosses between donors of large seed and the large seed derivatives of TVx 4291 and TVx 3671 (VITA-4 and VITA-5 backcrosses, respectively) to increase seed size still further and combine it with a rough testa and small eye. Disease susceptible plants were removed in the F, generations, and then bulk selections were made by cross for seed more than 18 gil 00 seed. Other F, crosses were made to combine large, white, rough seed and photosensitivity into improved lines 10r the West Africa savannah.Bulk selection for large seed was made in the F, breeding nursery that contained crosses between elite lines. Seed had been bulked by cross in the F, to provide 115 F, entries, 25 of which were selected. The nursery also included 262 F, progeny rows derived from large seeded selections of F, and backcross F, plants of 12 crosses (6 elite x 2 donors of large seed, TVu 6203 and TVx 881-3G). Seed from each progeny row was harvested, bulked and then sorted for seed more than 18 gl100 seed. Further selection within the between bulks gave 66 lines with large, white seed. When both parents had white seed (e.g., crosses of VITA-5 (11-13g/100 seed) with TVu 6203 (22g/100 seed) and TV. 881-3G (25g/100 seed), the proportion of progeny rows with large, white seed was higher, and the back crosses to the large-seed donor gave a large proportion of large seed progeny (Table 4).There was evidence of genetic linkage among the white.rough testa and hilum-ring or small eye characteristic.Thus, 59 out of the 66 white seed selections had a rough or semi-rough testa, whether they were segregants within a line ( 23) or an entire line (36), and all but 6 showed hilum-ring or small eye. In contrast. none of the 33 lines with large but colored seed that were selected had a rough testa. Ten of the large, white seed selections from backcrosses had larger seed (24-27.3 gl100 seed) than the large-seed donor, TVu 6203 (22 g/100 seed).They also had a rough seed coat and small eye. Clearly selection for large seed appears to be more successful in the F3 and backcross F2 generations than in the earlier generations. A genetic study of the F, progeny of the 12 crosses indicated that the white, rough testa. hilum-ring and small eye characteristics are governed by recessive genes.Table 3. Agronomic and disease characters of large seed selections tram advanced trials (IITA and IIonga, 1980). In a genetic study of seed size in the F, and backcross F, generations of the same 12 reciprocal combinations, which generated the above F, and backcross F, progeny rows, broad sense heritability estimates ranged from 48 to 90 percent with a mean over crosses of 76 percent.The inheritance of white seed coat is governed by a recessive allele at 1 locus out of the 4 loci that control seed coat color. The hilum-ring or small eye that are preferred were shown to be controlled by recessive alleles at 2 or 3 loci but with epistatic interaction from a locus for color also occurring. The rough seed coat character either did not segregate or only at low frequency (4 percent) in 1 F, population of 300 plants involving semi-rough seeded (VITA-5) and rough seeded (TVx 881-3G) parents. A smooth seed coat occurred in 80-97 percent of F, segregrants. All these findings confirm the results of other workers and show that the comb',ned expression of the white, small eye and rough seed characters is likely to be hidden by the dominant colored, large-eye and smoothseed characters. The linkage between the preferred seed characters permits effective selection for them In the F, generation.Lines from preliminary and advanced tnals and diseaseresistant subpopulations were evaluated in the 1980 first season for resistance to humid-zone diseases. At Onne, cowpea golden yellow mosaic VirUS (CGYMV) and web blight (WB) were screened in the field; at IITA, cowpea yellow mosaic virus (CYMV), anth racnose (anth), protomycopsis (Proto) and fusarium root rot (Fus) were screened in the field while bacterial blight (BB), cowpea aphid borne mosaic virus (CAMV) and cowpea mottle virus (CMeV) were screened in the screenhouse. To select for resistance to the savanna-zone diseases, preliminary and advanced trials and selections from the disease populations were inoculated in the field at Funtua, Nigeria.The trials were assessed for resistance to Septaria (Sept), scab, colletotrichum pod blotch (Coil), BB and Anthr (Table 5).The incidence of diseases was lower In 1980 than 1979 with correspondingly larger variation in the data obtained from the trials.Ways to improve the methods of field inoculation and, hence, the reliability of field screening were studied.Comparisons were made between arrangement of spreader rows, inoculation methods and selection levels.The study was conducted on an F, population of crosses for resistance to CYMV and Anthr. Individual plants selected on the basis of the different selection levels applied were grown in progeny rows in the 1980 second season. The study is expected to provide useful information on which to base modifications to the present screening procedures, specifically these concern spreader row configurations in relation to test materials and level of selection intensity required for satisfactory resistance.Breeding for resistance to bruchidsThe only germ plasm accession found so far that has seed resistance to bruchids is TVu 2027. It is an unimproved local cultivar strongly photoperiod sensitive and extremely susceptible to CYMV. Elite lines and germplasm accessions with CYMV resistance were used in crosses from which selections were made for combined bruchid and vi rus resistance.In the 1980 second season, 25 F, derivatives selected for bruchid and CYMV resistance in F\" F, and F, generations were evaluated at IITA for agronomic characters. The most promising entries will be multiplied for wider testing next year. Their resistance to bruchids is similar to that of TVu 2027.The expression of resistance in the seed is governed mainly by the maternal genotype; thus, all seeds from an individual plant have similar resistance. However, there is some evidence of a paternal effect that indicates that the genotype of the embryo may also influence resistance of a seed. For screening early generations, samples of 20 seeds per plant were used in each of 4 replications. Each sample was infested With eggs by exposure to 2 pairs of bruchids for 105 hours. Subsequenlly, any undamaged seed in samples derived from resistant plants (no adults emergedfno eggs ~ < 0.2)were grown with remnant seed from the same plant to provide an adequate sample of the progeny. The viability of damaged seed from which even only 1 adult has emerged is low. Two of these selections, TVu 4031-6B-01C (TVu 1193-9F x TVu 2027) and TVu 4409-11B-01C (TVu 408-P, x 2027), show resistance similar to that of TVu 2027 on the basis of the number of adults emerged. the time taken to emerge and the rate of increase per Some F, plants of an improved virus and bruchid resistant line crossed with TVu 625 already combine large, white, rough seed and bruchid resistance. Further selection will be made to recover resistance to CYMV in the progeny.Cowpeas are commonly stored in the pods and threshed as the grain is needed. It cowpea pods do not dehisce, the pod wall serves as physical barner, which lowers the survival of Callosobruchus.In 1980, a study was completed that identified several cowpea lines possessing another mechanism of resistance to Callosobruchus. This mechanism is thought to be a toxin that the newly hatched larvae consume when penetrating the pod wall. Pods from the 1979 advance trials 1, 2 and 3 were screened lor pod-wall resistance.Ife Brown and VITA-5 were used as susceptible standards. To insure that bruchids reached the seed only through the pod wall, the tips of pods were dipped in paraffin to seal the opening left when a pod is removed from its peduncle. The pods were then placed in plastic containers (15 cm x 35 cm) with 15 pairs of adult bruchids. After 5 days. the adults were removed. the eggs counted, and the percentage that hatched recorded. All tests were replicated 6 times. Adults that emerged from the pods were collected daily. involving TVu 7133.The F3 and F4 progeny of these selections were evaluated in unreplicated progeny rows in the second season when the infestation of thrips was greater. Only 6 percent of the entries were selected. More progeny, 22 and 27 percent from 2 of the resistant parents. TVx 3236-01 G and TVx 5390-01 F, respectively, were selected than from other parents. Progeny from 3 of the elite lines, TVx 3218-030, TVx 1836-015J and TVx 3040-020, gave 10, 15 and 10 percent selections, respectively, but there was no close association with selection in the previous generation, which suggests that some of the selections may simply be escapes. Only 24 lines were selected, but their resistance remains to be confirmed.From more than 500 advanced lines evaluated for differ- Priority is being given to the development of better techniques for the screening of breeding materials for tolerance to thrips in the field and screenhouse. Foremost in this is the need for better methods to maintain thrips populations at predetermined levefs, to monitor the distribution of insects and prevent selection of escapes.In 1979, 650 cowpea germplasm lines were screened for thrip resistance. Every tenth entry in the test was IfeBrown, which was used as a standard, Twenty-nine entries were given a damage score of less than 2.5 on a 1-5 scale by all 4 evaluators. To overcome the problem of differential flowering, the lines were grouped into 4 cat- In the 198C second season, the 29 lines were screened in 3 replications. Ife Brown was used as a standard and TVx 3236 and TVu 2870 as resistant standards. VITA-1 and VITA-3 were used as susceptible standards in a test of late flowering lines. As predicted on the basis of probability of escapes, 9 lines gave scores of less than 3 when rated by 3 independent evaluators (Table 9). These 9 lines were as effective as the resistant standards in averting thrip damage. They are from widely different locations, which increases the probability that they possess different mechanisms of suppression.During the 1980 second season, an additional 630 germplasm lines were grown and evaluated for thrips resistance. As before, a standard was sown every tenth entry, lines were grouped according to the time taken to the first flower and a visual damage score (from 1 to 5) was assigned for each entry by 3 independent observers. A total of 44 lines were given scores less than 3; the standards averaged 4.6. In 1981, the 44 lines will be reexamined in replicated plots to verify the presence of mechanisms that suppress flower thrips.Laboratory and screenhouse evaluation_ Using a laboratory bioassay method described in the following Entomology section in which the number of feeding punctures on the pods of Ife Brown used as a standard is compared to the number on test lines, several hundred lines have been screened. Forty-five accessions in the germplasm collection and 33 elite lines, including some from the insect subpopulation, have been selected with 60 percent or less feeding punctures than Ife Brown (Table 10).Table 9. Germp/asm lines with confirmed levels of thrips suppression (IITA, 1980). The promising lines were then planted in replicated tests in a large screen cage (20 m x 40 m) and sublected to a known population of ClavigraJia tomentosicoJiis or Riptortus dentipes. Counts were made of insect numbers.Lines from the screen cage tests were then evaluated in replicated field plots. Table 11 shows the results of an independent test of the relationship of the different screening methods. This suggests that the laboratory screening method can be used to detect lines that will be useful in a host-plant-resistance study. Field evaluation. DUring the 1980 first and second seasons, 11 field tests of resistance to pod bugs were conducted at IITA. In the first season. Clavigralla shadebi was the only pod bug that appeared in significant numbers. This bug does not rep rod uce on cowpea. but adults migrate into the crop from unknown hosts. lines that reduced populations of C. tomentosieollis had no impact on C. shadebi. The adults were found dispersed in equal number on the entries being evaluated. The green stink bug, Nezarus viridula, was present in small numbers, but data suggest no difference between entries. Therefore, it would appear that cross reSistance does not occur between these species of pod bugs.'E lines-from 1977 and 1978 insect subpopulation.In the 1980 second season, 7 additional field tests were planted to evaluate selected lines against C. tomentosi- collis. The continuing rains suppressed the population until late in the season when the crop was approaching maturity. However, 2 tests did sustain damage. While the populations of pod bugs in the tests shown in Tables 12  and 13 were low, the accumulated damage did result in significantly different levels of damage. Pod bug damage was significantly reduced on TVx 3878-01C. but differences between it and Ife Brown are low, and differences would be obscured by high populations. However, when additional characters are found that reduce pod bug populations and then combined with TVx 3878-01C, the differences could be useful. The biology of cowpea bruchids on resistant and susceptible cowpea was studied over a period of 6 months. The total number of eggs laid per female, progeny produced and the time taken from egg to adult is shown in Table 14. The natural rate of increase on Ife Brown was 3 times that on TVu 2027. As explained previously, the rate of increase must be less than 2 if resistance is to be effective. There was no significant difference in the number of eggs laid per female, but there was a significant diUerence in the number of adults that emerged. The time from egg to adult was longer on TVu 2027 (31.2 days) than on lie Brown (24.0 days). During the 6 month period, there were 5 complete generations on TVu 2027 compared to 6 on Ife Brown. The cumulative increase in the number of F, progeny from the 2 varieties is shown in Fig. 1.Adults began to emerge sooner and more rapidly from Ife Brown than from TVu 2027. The average rate of emergence was 8.5 and 2.0 adults per day, respectively, with a maximum of 13.4 adults per day for lie Brown compared to 3.2 adults per day for TVu 2027. Fig_ 1_ Cumulative differences in bruchid adult emergence. Damage score and thrips population on lIe Brown at different locations lie Brown was planted at different locations. Data was collected on damage score and thrips per plant (Table 15). Thrips population varied considerably at the different locations in Nigeria. Highest populations were observed at IITA in the 1980 second season. Economic threshold studies for thrips Studies were begun in the 1980 second season to develop economic threshold studies of thrips by planting Ife Brown in large plots of 20 m x 30 m. Application of 0,25,50,75,100,125,150 and 175 g monocrotophos/ha a.l. at 32 and 38 days after planting obtained different levels of thrips per plant. Uniform protection was given against Maruca and pod bugs, and their populations were well controlled. Thrips populations were counted at 35 and 45 days after planting. Thrips per plant and cowpea yields were judged against the cost of application of insecticide, and gain from insecticide application was calculated (Table 16). Even at a low dosage of 25 g/ha a.i., gain from insecticide application was observed.A characteristic of field screening to recover plants or progenies that exhibit resistance to thrips has been by a high incidence of escapes, which suggests an uneven distribution of thrip population within the field. The observation that a high percentage of the lines selected was located on the margin of the fields supports this view.The border effect seemed to be independent of the distance from surrounding pigeon pea hedges, which were established to increase thrip populations. 'Monocrotophos applied at 32 and 38 days after planting.In the 1980 second season, 10 peduncles were collected from each of the plots of Ife Brown that had been sown every tenth entry through the germ plasm nursery, and the number of thrips present was counted on 2 dates. 10 days apart. On the first date, damage scores were also taken.Table 17 shows that the number of thrips present on the Ife Brown was variable, evidence that the population of insects was not uniformly distributed throughout the field.In another experiment, VITA-6 and VITA-? seeds were mixed in equal proportion and sown to observe the distribution of thrips in a mixed population similar to that of a segregating breeding nursery. VITA-6 has normal leaves and VITA-7 has strap leaves so the plants can be easily identified. Fifteen samples al each of 5 spots were taken 42, 46 and 50 days after planting and the number 125 of thrips per plant were counted. There were no flowers, only flower buds at 42 and 46 days after planting, but there were flowers at 50 days after planting. There was no significant difference in the number of thrips per plant at 42 and 46 days after planting, but at 50 days after planting, there was a difference in the numbers on the 2 varieties (Table 18). 42.9 ns t.91.9 22.9 24.6 ns 1.8 1.7 140.3 173.0 3.9 7.3 There were differences in the number of flowers per plant in the 2 varieties at 50 days after planting, and this is known to have affected the number of thrips per flower. The variation in the counts of number of insects per plant was much less than the variation in the number of thrips counted on 10 peduncles in the first experiment.Development of precise thrip screening procedures. A high priority has been given to the development of dependable screening procedures that would permit the recovery of resistant plants from segregating progenies. The procedure must be sufficiently precise and independent of seasonal variation in thrips population so that it serves throughout the year but simple to operate with available resources.Field observations indicate that Clavigralla tomentos;collis adults do not feed on the flower buds even though they are present in the field in large numbers prior to formation of pods. The feeding is restricted to the functional nectaries on the peduncles until pods are formed.Within a 4-day period, females laid 5 egg masses!m of row and averaged 17 eggs per cluster.An untreated cowpea field near Funtua had 29 C. tomentosicol/is and 3 Mireperus jaculus adults per meter of row plus hundreds of nymphs. While these populations may not be typical of the entire cowpea growing area, they do indicate the difficulty in designing control meth• ods against populations of this magnitude.A preliminary survey for wild hosts that may serve as reservoir plants for C. tomentosicoflis was negative, but M. jacufus and N. viridufa were observed feeding on a species of Cassia and on Oicrostochys cinaria.The pod bugs population was monitored in untreated plots during the 1980 first and second seasons at IITA. As shown in Table 19, C. shadebi accounted for 28 per• cent of the total population, which was measured 6 times dUring the pod formation period. However, during the second season, several species were involved, but As• pavia armigera predominated. Whether this represents an aberrant make up is not known but needs to be determined in order to establish realistic priorities.During the 1980 first and second seasons, the efficiency of the drop•cloth procedure and visual observations were compound for sampling pod bug populations. The drop-cloth procedure consists of placing a cloth 1 m long between 2 rows and vigorously shading the plants in order to deposit the insects on the cloth. As shown in Table 20, the drop-cloth procedure was more than 3 times as efficient as visual observations. In addition to being more efficient, the drop-cloth is faster and, therefore, it should be used whenever possible; however, it is difficult to use this method to monitor populations on indeterminate plant types that spread close to the ground.Pest populations fluctuate from season to season or from year to year. Therefore, It is important to know when damages resulting from thiS pest population are greater than the cost of the control measures.In the 1980 first season, a test was carried out to estab- Control II 2.9 .9 Cymbush 3.0.9 Dursban 2.5.7Mean bugs/m 3.53 1.05 S.E. (x) 0.73 0.22 lish economic thresholds for pod bugs. Thiodan (endosulfan) was used to obtain different population denSities Populations were monitored by the use of the drop-cloth procedure. The number of bugs present on 4 m of row in each plot were measured before and after treatment Nine population counts were totaled during the crop season.Table 21 shows that the thiodan dosages resulted in a pod bug population ranging from 3.88 to 2.06 bugim where losses ranged from 214-598 kg/ha. Based on the data presented in Table 21, it was estimated that the threshold level was about 3.0 bugs1m of row.In the 1980 second season, this test was repeated, but there were few pod bugs until the crop was nearing maturity, and they did little damage so that the effect of dursban on yield was small (Table 22).At Funtua, C. tomentosico/lis occurred in the IITA Yield trials. Insecticide treatments were applied whenever the insect concentration reached 2 bugsim and losses were kept low; whereas, in the 2 previous years, at very much higher populations. the crop was a total loss. A standardized technique for screening cow peas for resistance to the legume pod borer, Maruca testulalis, (IITA Annual Report 1979) was modified during 1980 to include some additional parameters, bringing the total number to 10 (Table 23) . These parameters were examined in several different ways . Based on the importan ce and reliability of the data, time and labor efficiency, the following were selected as most dependable in the eval- -number larvae per sample (usually 5•101 m•row) . PODS -percent infestation (25-50 pods per replication).-number of entryl exi t points per pod (same sample as above) . SEEDS -esti mation of seed damage from 5 plants random ly selected . 128 were used as resistant and susceptible standards, respectively. The increase in the population of Maruca lar• vae in these 2 cultivars had been studied already (Figs. 2  and 3). Results from the varietal evaluation tests are shown in Table 24, for the best 5 and the worst 5 entries only. TVu 946 was consistently better than other varieties in all but 1 measure while VITA-3 was the worst in all but 1 measure. This supports the choice of these cultivars as checks. Four other cultivars were selected as potentially important sources of resistance.These were TVu 1, Kamboinse local (Upper Voltan), TVx 3890-01 OF and VITA-S. An important parameter included in thiS year's study was the measure of actual seed dam• age. This was expressed as the seed damage index (Isd), computed as follows:Isd ~ Sd x P x 100where Sd is the number of seeds damaged by pod•borer larvae, P is the total number of plants and ST is the total number of seeds obtained from the plant. This index is important as a means of combining more than 1 parameter. VIZ, actual damage suffered by the seed and the productivity (in terms of seed number) of the cultivar. An assessment of seed damage is considered important since it affects economic yield.  An expression for estimating the index for overall plant resistance (Ipr) was developed, which combines all the measures of damage. It is computed as follows:Where E, M, T are weighted measurements of stem (E), flower (M) and pod (T). Seed damage assessment can be included in this equation and given a weight of 2. Weights given to other measurements are 1. 2 or 3 as shown.Table 25 gives some of the results obtained using this plant resistance expression. The plant-resistant index shows the same 5 cultivars to be best TVu 946. a parent of all the TVx lines, and TVx 3890-010F rank among the best 5 entries.Using the field screening technique described (IITA, Annual Report 1979), TVu 946 has been selected as the best resistant source to date and will be the basis of IITA's resistance breeding for the pod borer until other sources of resistance are found. The population of larvae in flowers in this test is shown in Table 26. Usually, of all the feeding sites, flowers have the highest number of eggs and larvae (IITA Annual Report, 1979). It is important that a measure of the population of larvae in flowers accompany every measure of resistance so that results can be compared. This screening technique is recommended only for nonsegregating lines. A bioassay IS being developed for the screening of segregating material. The amount of material to be screened may make a detailed evaluation impossible at first.Step 1 Assess damage to stems and pods only (large number of cultivars).Step 2. Eliminate most susceptible lines from further testing-negative screening.Step 3. Include flowers, pods and stems in second screening (with a more manageable number of entries).Step 4. Assess resistance of best lines in more controlled laboratory or screenhouse assays.Step 5. Use best lines from step 4 as parents in the breeding program.Management. If there is a flower thrips problem, all entries should be sprayed with 200 g nuvacron/ha a.i. Also, if pod bugs are a problem, all entries should be sprayed with nuvacron at pod seVpod fill.During the 1980 first season, a population of M. testulalis developed in an experiment that was originally designed to study pod bugs. The pod damage cause by Maruca was monitored throughout pod development. While the test was not designed as a Maruca threshold study, it provided information on damage and yield losses at different populations of Maruca.Table 27 shows that the Insect population and the yield loss varied with the amount of thiodan applied. Surprisingly, the yield loss in the untreated check was only 16.1 percent even though over 40 percent of the pods were infested with Maruca larvae. To examine losses more closely, 600 pods that were infested with Maruca, but did not show visible signs of being damaged, were collected and compared with 600 pods that were un Infested. The loss In weight of seed from pods that were infested was 49.3 percent.Maruca. However, more data is needed before economic thresholds can be established for this pest Available evidence suggests the threshold may be much higher than expected. Based on the variability in this experiment, it was calculated that 20 replicates would be needed to show differences of 10 percent between treatments while 6 replicates would be needed to show 20 percent differences.Improvement 01 local photosensitive cowpea varieties, Traditional varieties in a subsistence farming system are usually day length sensitive and specifically adapted to flower at the end of the rains in the locality where they are grown, but they are low yielding. Much larger yields can be obtained in the savanna and Sudan-sahelian regions of West Africa with early-maturing photoinsensitive varieties of cowpea. But to obtain the high yields, they must be protected with insecticides.In Upper Volta, cowpeas are grown in mixtures with maize, sorghum or millet, and they are usually planted at the same time as the cereal crop soon after the first rains.Photoinsensitive varieties planted early in this manner would mature in the middle of the rains, and even if farmers adopt them and spray insecticides, they could not grow them in their present crop production system. In other words, to adopt high-yielding, early-maturing varieties, farmers would have to adopt a cropping system in which cow peas are either planted late in an earlier established cereal crop or planted as a sale crop. Such change is not likely to take place quickly.Efforts are. therefore, being made to improve the traditional photosensitive cowpeas while retaining their good seed quality and adaptation. The main improvement aimed at IS the introduction of the seed resistant to bruchids from TVu 2027.Incorporation of insect resistance into promising varieties. Damage caused by insects is a major constraint in cowpea production. Aphids, flower thrips, Maruca and pod sucking bugs in the field and Callosobruchus in the store are the most important insect pests of cowpea in Upper Volta.The use of insecticides to control them is too costly and difficult for farmers to adopt. The alternative is to identify and incorporate genetic resistance into new varieties.Known sources of resistance to aphids (VITA-4 and S-27), Cal/osobruchus (TVu 2027-seed resistance, Worthmore-pod resistance) and Maruca (a local cultivar from Kamboinse) are being used as parents in the breeding program.Yield trials conducted at different sites in Upper Volta have shown that KN-1 will give high yields in areas where rainfall is more than 700 mm. Local Gorom-Gorom is the best line available for dry areas. Both the varieties are susceptible to damage caused by insect pests. The major objective of the program, therefore, is to incorporate resistance against important cowpea insect pests into these varieties.KN-1, Kamboinse local and local Gorom-Gorom have been crossed with sources of resistance to aphids, Maruca and bruchids (both seed resistance from TVu 2027 and in pod resistance from Worth more).The F, population of crosses involving KN-1 and Kamboinse local will be grown at Kamboinse and those involving local Gorom-Gorom will be grown at Gorom-Gorom. In the crosses for insect resistance, 2 of the parents, TVu 2027 and local Kamboinse, are photosensitive, and from the segregating populations a range of photosensitive insect resistant lines will be selected.Breeding cowpeas for dry climates. During the last 2 years, research results from dry areas in Upper Volta have consistently shown that matenal originating from southern latitudes does not perform as well as material originating from northern latitudes. Efforts are being made by liT A to understand the mechanisms of drought resistance in cowpeas and ensure that introduction of new lines does not erode the resistance of local varieties.In Upper Volta, work in 1980 included the evaluation of cowpea collections that originate from latitudes of 12'N and northward, together with evaluation of crosses between local varieties and improved selections. The work was carried out at Saouga, which is representative of the driest location in the country (latitude 14' 23'N, rainfall 371 mm).There were 80 germplasm lines, 68 of which came from IITA, 4 from Senegal and 8 from Upper Volta. Observations were recorded on 5 randomly selected plants In each plot for each variety. Twenty-one early flowering lines produced seed yield. They included all the entries from Senegal and Upper Volta, and 10 entries from IITA. All other lines either flowered after the rains stopped or did not flower at all. Yields of the 21 lines that did flower are presented in Table 28.There was large variation between lines in days to flowering, pod length, seeds per pod, seed weight, pods per plant and seed yield. Among the germplasm lines, TVu 7641 produced the largest seed yield (37.8 giplant). It also had the highest number of pods per plant (39.7).Other promising germ plasm lines were TVu 7650 127.6 g/ plant) and TVu 7608 (25.1 g/plant). Among the improved lines, TV. 1948-01F produced the largest yield 167.5 g/ plant). It also had a high number of pods per plant. Other lines that did well were VITA-4 148.8 glplant), TVx 1999-01 F 142.5 g/plant), TV. 1999-02E 128.0 glplant) and local Gorom-Gorom 127.0 g/plant). These are lines that have produced consistently good yields at Saouga in prevIous years. Seed of the promising lines will be increased for more extensive testing next year, Development of high-yielding, early-maturing cowpea varieties. From the beginning of the proJect, most of the research work has been devoted to the development and testing of high-yielding, early-maturing Iphotosensitive) cowpea varieties. Early lines give a harvest when food is scarce, and thiS has attracted interest in the drier parts a! the country. Several large scale farming projects have also shown interest in such varieties for use as a rotation crop. Whereas KN-1 has been recommended for cultivation in areas with adequate rainfall 1700 mm or more), others. notably TV. 1948-01 F and TV. 1999-02E, have been found to perform well in drier environmentsOther varieties that gave high yields across locations included TV. 33-81-02F, TV. 3337-015E, TVx 3385-029D, TVx 3337-1C-1K, TV. 3934-2E-1K. TV. 3934-3C-1K and TV. 3920-2C-1 K.Regional cowpea testing program. A regional cowpea variety trial was sent for the first time to 23 locations in 13 different countries participating in the SAFGRAD project. This extended the scope and the responsibilities of the cowpea program in Upper Volta.Research on insect pests of cowpea as a part of the SAF-GRAD project began in 1979. A survey conducted in 1979 indicated that flower thrips, M. sjostedtJ; pod borer, The number of thrips on flowers was significantly larger on the Kamboinse local variety.Survey of cowpea weevil infestation in cowpea in local market in Ouagadougou, Upper Volta. Samples collected monthly from the local market were observed for the percentage of infested grains and their weight. The infestation was lowest between October and December. This period coincides with the harvest. Infestation was greatest from June to September after a long period of storage.A SAFGRAD cowpea agronomy research program began in 1979. In the first year. a number of exploratory trials were conducted. From the results of these trials. it was possible to identify several research areas that appeared promising, and these were pursued in 1980.Time of planting. Results from a multilocational exploratory trial conducted in 1979 to identify factors limiting growth and yield in the semi-arid zone indicated that time of planting was a factor of great importance. To obtain more information on this factor, a regional trial was conducted in cOllaboration with SAFGRAD cooperators at 16 locations. The results show that for maximum yield. cowpeas shou Id not be planted later than 2.5 months before the end of the rains. Also, highest yields (3 t'ha) of VITA-4 (spreading plant type) and VITA-6 (erect plant type) were obtained with the earliest planting (4 months before end of rains). However. the yield was obtained over 150 days (planting to final harvest) and required 10 insecticide applications. The pattern of grain production over time shows that a practical production goal under these conditions would be 2t'ha produced in 90 days with only 3 insecticide applications. To achieve this, VITA-4 can be planted about 75 days before the end of the rains. Planting has to be earlier to obtain the same yield from VITA-6, 100 days before the end of the rains.Despite a difference of 75 days in planting dates. all plantings of IAR 1696 (photoperiod-sensitive local cultivar from northern Nigeria) reached inactivity within a 3week period. The highest yield of this cultivar (2 ttha) was obtained from the planting made 2.5 months before the end of the rains.This planting (and all other plantings of IAR 1696) reached inactivity after the rains had ended. In contrast, it does not appear possible to plant VITA-4 or VITA-6 at such a time that maturation will occur after the rains end and still obtain 2 tiha.The interval between flowering and the production of a 2t/ha grain Yield was approximately 3 weeks less for IAR 1696 than VITA-4 or VITA-6. Since the major field insect problems occur between flowering and harvest this could possibly be very Important in terms of insect control. It would appear that for varieties with a growth pattern like IAR 1696. the period during which insect protection is required and the time available for insect populations to build up is significantly less than for varieties like VITA-4 and VITA-6.Relay cropping maize and cowpea (planting cowpea into maize so that the 2 crops overlap for only a portion of their life cycles) appears to be a promising practice for the GUinea savanna. When planted 2.5 months before the end of the rains. IAR 1696 flowered 2.5 weeks later than VITA-4 and VITA-6. Thus, as a relay crop. a photo-133 period sensitive variety can continue vegetative growth after the maize is removed and before reproductive development begins. thereby. increasing the number of reproduction nodes eventually produced.SOil fertility. A multilocational exploratory trial conducted in 1979 to identify yield limiting factors showed P to be limiting at several locations. To determine the extent to which P and other nutrients limit yield, a regional fertility trial was sent to 13 locations. From the results of 5 locations. there was a response in growth and/or yield to 1 or more of the nutrients tested: P (10 kg P,05/ha). K (60 kg k,O!ha) and S (10 kg S!ha). Growth and grain yield increased with addition of Pat Kambo, Upper Volta, and Sotuba, Mali. At Koporokenie-Pe, Mali. P Increased yield but had Iiltle effect on growth.At Ina, Benin, yield increased with additions of both P and K. At Oipassi, Upper Volta. applications of both K and S increased growth, but these did not affect grain yield, probably because of drought at the end of the season.In addition, 1979 results had shown that the response to P (150 kg P,05/ha) depends on plant type. An erect variety shows an increase in yield; a spreading variety shows no response. and a local photoperiod sensitive and vegetated vigorous plant shows a reduction in yield. A trial was conducted to study. in more detail, the response to P of dilferent plant types. A range of soil solution P levels was established based on P adsorption isotherms. Plant growth (measured as fresh weight of whole plants 45 days after planting) of the spreading variety, VITA-4. and the local photoperiod sensitive variety, Kamboinse local, increased with increasing levels of P over the range of levels used. In contrast, the response of the erect variety. VITA-6, was significantly smaller, and it did not increase further above 0.08 ppm P.The effect on grain Yield was markedly different. The Yield of VITA-6 increased over the entire range of P levels although 90 percent of the increase was produced With 0.02-0.04 ppm P. The yield of VITA-4 also increased with increasing P up to 0.04 ppm but then declined, the yield at 0.32 ppm being the same as the control (0.01 ppm)The local variety showed a consistent decrease in yields with an increase in P levels,The balance between vegetative and reproductive growth clearly IS important in determining the effect of P on yield of different types of cowpea plants.Plant population, A trial was conducted at 3 sites in Upper Volta. Fanakoba, Saria and Saouga. to determine the effect of plant population on different plant types in different rainfall zones.VITA-6, VITA-4 and a local variety of the area (prostrate and photoperiod-sensitive, except at Saouga where it is probably relatively insenstive to photoperiod) were planted at densities ranging from 22.000 to 155,000 plants/ha. At Fanakoba, yield of VITA-6 increased With the plant population with an optimum population of between 100,000 and 150,000 plants/ha. At the same site, an optimum density for VITA-4 appears to be between 50,000 and 100,000 plantstha. IAR 1696 gave its highest yield at the lowest density. and it appears that the optimum is less than 22,000 plants/ha. At Saria. yields were low because the rain ceased early. and the effect of plant population on yields was small. at 8aouga.It may be that under the harsh, hot, dry environment of 8aouga, plant growth is limited more than in favorable environments and that when plants are sma\", yields increase with plant population.Position in toposequence. Some of the most important soil variables in the Sudan savanna are associated with position on the catenary slope from plateau to valley bottom. Soil depth over ironstone or compact subsoil, texture and water holding capacity all vary. To determine how position on the slope affects growth and yield of cowpea, 2 varieties, I<N-1 and Kamboinse local, were planted at 2 dates (July 14 and July 311, at 5 different positions in toposequence at Kamboinse. Very marked differences in yield were associated with position. These differences were probably caused by factors other than soil fertility since 75 kg P,O,lha was applied uniformly. The yield of KN-1 in the first planting increased progressively from BOO kg/ha on the upper slope to 2,400 kg/ha on the lower slope. The second planting of KN-1 and both plantings of Kamboinse local onl~ gave acceptable yields on the lower slope. The local variety showed no special adaptation to poor soils. The choice of location is clearly important. and it is only on the better parts of the slope that yields justify the cost of insecticide. Most cowpea trials tend to be sited on the middle and lower slope and to this extent. they may be representative of a large part of the production area, most of which corresponds more closely to the upper slope.Tanzania food crops researchCollection, evaluation and maintenance of germplasm, From the start, efforts were made to collect, evaluate and maintain cowpea germplasm lines from different sources. This local collection is used to develop new varieties. Most cowpea lines were obtained from IITA. However, a wide variety of land races are cultivated in Tanzania, and there are many naturaffy growing wild cowpeas. A systematic collection of them was organized and completed in 1979. To date, 1,636 cowpea lines have been collected, evaluated, and all are being maintained. 134 yield, closely followed by TK 3. These 4 varieties gave con of Ihe locations. The rema and TVx 33-IJ, showed mO yields averaged across sites relative ranking of varieties The trial at Hombolo gave th but the smallest in 1980. At mean yield was more than 1The variation in yield of the v 33). Based on this analysis, large mean yield and regres in which the slope is less deviations from the linear reThe cross of this early-matu variety was made at liT A Cross 1-6E-2 reached matu 1,5 to 1.9 t/ha, Large scale te ers• fields has been scheduTable 32. Seed yield (kg/ha) of promising cowpea breeding lines at differenl location in Tanzania (1979.80). these criteria, SVS-3 TVx 1948-01F, TVx 9-11D and TVx 9-16D appeared to show the most stable performance.The other varieties were more variable. They gave poor yields in poor environments and differed considerably in their response to good environments, Stability of yield is an important character for a variety to be released to farmers. It is associated with the Inherent capability of a variety to adjust to variation in the environment. SVS-3 is a variety widely grown in Tanzania. Apparently, it has been selected for Its stable performance.The other varieties show an interesting relation between parents and stability. SVS-3 was a parent in the crosses from which TVx 9-110 and TVx 9-160 were derived. Similarly, all the varieties with stable performance have SVS-3 or its relative as a parent. All less stable varieties were from crosses that involve exotic parents only.Even though SVS-3 has a high-yield potential and fairly stable performance, it is susceptible to major diseases and may suffer serious yield losses in years of disease epidemic. TKx 9-11 D and TKx 9-16-D are resistant to CAM V and moderately resistant to top necrosis. Similarly, TVx 1948-01 F is moderately resistant to CAM V Based on their superior performance and disease resistance, TKx 9-110 and TVx 1948-01 F were recently accepted for release as TK-l and TK-5, respectively, by the Seed Release Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture.Two hundred and fifty-two newly developed breeding lines, including SVS-3 as a check, were evaluated in 1 initial and 3 preliminary trials at lIonga and Miwaleni. Based on their yield and disease resistance, a number of lines appear to be better than SVS•3. The most promising were TKx 179-02D-2, TKx 14-010, TKx 169-35D, TKx 133-380-1, TKx 43-06E-2, 1 ET -120 and cross 3-16E-1. These lines will be evaluated further at several locations in the coming season. 1979 1980 1979 1980 1979 1980 1979 1980  or November and end in late December or in January depending upon the region. A dry period for about a month follows after which the main rains start and can• t,nue for about 75-90 days. Farmers plant maize or cowpea with the start of the short rains in October-November, but none of the varieties they possess of either crop are early enough to mature within the short rain period. Consequently, unless the short rains are unusually extended, the farmer loses his first crop. For this reason, extra early varieties of cowpea are being devel• oped that will be suitable not only as a crop for this short season but also as a relay crop to follow a main crop, usually of maize in areas where there is a Single, longer growing season. A number of new selections, including early lines from IITA, were evaluated in the short as well as the long rains at lIonga. The crosses 1-6E•2 and TKx 133-16D-2 were found to be most promising in terms of yield and maturity. They mature within 65 days and yield from 1.5 to 1.9 tlha. In addition, they are reSistant to top necrosis and CAMV. Flowers are all produced within a short period so that pods mature for a single harvest. They can be harvested by cutting the plants and beating or threshing them when dry like soybean. This reduces Significantly the labor of harvesting. Seeds of the vari• eties have been multiplied for village trials and farmer demonstrations.Breeding for disease resistance. A number of diseases attack cow peas in Tanzania. The most common are CAMV, top necrosis, bacterial blight and Phytophothora stem rot, II infection occurs in the seedling, any at these diseases can cause a complete crop loss. All the currently grown local varieties, including SVS-3. are highly susceptible to these diseases. Therefore, incorporation of reSistance into local varieties and new breeding (ines is a major objective.Cowpea germplasm lines, including the newly developed breeding lines, were screened for resistance. The important sources found are shown in Table 34. was also planted in the same block. The disease ap• peared in severe form about 5 weeks after planting. To ensure a uniform spread of the disease, a water suspension of spores from the diseased plants was sprayed on 2 occasions, 1 week apart, over the whole field. This caused almost a 100 percent infection of all the suscep• tible lines. The typical symptoms included large, watersoaked, light brown spots on the leaves followed by stem rot at the nodes. The susceptible plants died within 20-25 days of inoculation, From the 1.636 germplasm lines and 145 ICON lines. only 2 (Ku 235 and TVu 3861) were found to be moderately resistant. These lines did not develop any symptoms, even after the second inoculation. They were. therefore, sprayed with a high concen• tration of spores. About 1 week after the third inoculation, they showed a hypersensitive type reaction on the leaves and very slow rotting of the stems. The leaf spots were small compared to those found on susceptible lines and quickly became necrotic, preventing further spread of the fungus Interestingly, the growth habit and seed characteristics of both lines are similar, indicating these to be duplicates bearing different numbers. These lines will be further tested In the coming season and used as parents in a crossing program.Breeding for insect resistance. Many of the same insect pests that attack cowpea in West Africa are found also in East Africa and If not controlled by frequent sprays of insecticides, may cause complete crop loss. The most common insect pests in Tanzania are Ootheca beetles, foliage and flower thrips, Maruca, pod sucking bugs, 136 flower beetles, aphids and bruchids. The attack of fa• liage thrips and aphid is more severe in the dry seasons.Recently a new pest, a leaf miner (Liriomyza tritol/ii), has been observed in several parts of Tanzania, including Zanzibar. The larvae make serpentine tunnels in leaves and cause premature senescence.Insect resistant lines from IITA were evaluated at lIonga to determine whether they are also resistant to pests in Tanzania. Resistance to thrips and Maruca was done in field trials using thiodan and nuvacron to control populations of other pests. Preliminary data indicate a few cultivars are resistant to these pests. From the differential reaction of aphid resistant lines identified at liT A , it was found that lines resistant to strain A of aphids were resistant at Llonga which suggests that the aphids present may be the same at IITA biotype A, and not B.The field infestation of leaf miner during the dry season permitted screening of cowpea varieties for resistance to this pest. None of the varieties were free from leaf miner, but there was variation in their reaction. A bulk sample of wild cowpeas was also screened for insect resistance along with a number of cultivated cowpea lines in a replicated experiment conducted with dIfferential chemical protection. The reaction of wild types was similar to that of local variety SVS-3. Wild cow peas appear, therefore. to be as susceptible as SVS-3.Laboratory screening showed that wild cowpeas are more susceptible to bruchids (C. maculatus) than cultivated ones. The dry weight loss caused by bruchids 35 days after Infestation was 48.6 percent in wild cowpeas compared to 41.75 percent for SVS-3 and 9.81 percent for TVu 2027.Crosses between wild and cultivated cowpeas can be made almost as easily as crosses between cultivated forms. However, the F, plants show partial male and female sterility as shown by shorter pods and fewer seeds per pod than would normally be expected. The possibility for natural crossing between wild and cultivated cowpeas may permit limited introgression of genes in both directions.Though susceptible to major diseases and insect pests, the wild cowpeas thrive in nature, probably because plants are isolated and grow among natural vegetation.Elite lines selected from trials and nurseries conducted in the northeast of Brazil during the past 3 years are beginning to move into commercial production. A selection, 4R-0267-01F, from IITA's cowpea population improvement program is being multiplied for 1000/ha to be sown in Amazonas in September, 1981. It is planned that more than 10,OOO/ha of this variety will be grown on the alluvial soils of the Amazon valley around Manaus in 1982.In Ceara, the state government has multiplied seed of VITA-7 and TVx 1836-013J for commercial distribution under its own variety names of IPACE-I and IPACE-6 (IPACE ~ Institute do Pesquisas Agropequarias do Ceara).These accomplishments follow the placement of an IITA cowpea breeder in Brazil and the continuous and substantial support that EMBRAPA has given to the national cowpea improvement program since it began in 1978.IITA's soybean improvement program has concentrated on improving seed storability and developing varieties capable of nodulating with indigenous rhizobia. Unimproved varieties possessing these characters have been identified, and the breeding program has focused on incorporating these characters into genotypes with superior agronomic traits. Selection of promising material from these crosses continued in 1980. Numerous progenies were recovered that combine good seed stor-137 ability and promiscious nodulation with improved agronomic characters. Seeds of these selections (F 5 , F6 and F, generations) are being multiplied and will be tested for yield next year.Several new areas of research were initiated in 1980.Studies on methodology for predicting seed storability revealed that methanol stress (soaking seeds for 2 hours in 20 percent methanol) can be used to identify breeding lines with good inherent storability, but the method may cause the breeder to reject an occasional line that possessed good storability but is hypersensitive to methanol stress. Various methods for evaluating vigor of stressed seeds were investigated. Seedling emergence appears to be the most efficient method for breeding purposes Screening methodologies were refined for idenlifying genotypes resistant to field weathering-a serious problem if temperature and humidity are high during seed maturation. Several lines were selected from a germplasm screening that appear to be qUite reSistant to field weathering of seeds.F. and F5 lines derived from crosses of promiscuously nodulating parents, high-yielding parents. and, in some cases, with parents having good seed storability were tested at 4 locations In Nigeria for their potential and ability to nodulate with indigenous rhizobia. Many lines were identified that nodulated without inoculant at 2 sites in northern Nigeria-fewer lines nodulated well at southern sites.However, some lines nodulated well at all locations, and are being multiplied for multilocation yield testing next year.Management practices (trap cropping) that can be used to control pod-sucking bugs with the judicious use of insecticides were studied. The use of early-maturing soybeans or cowpeas as insect \"traps\" resulted in an 80-90 percent reduction in the amount of insecticides required for protecting the crop from stink bugs. Also, investigations were conducted on soybean varieties that cause nymph mortality to stink bugs-the major pod sucking pests of soybeans.Management trials were established to isolate the environmental factors responsible for large variation in plant growth in different regions of West Africa. In the Guinea Savanna region of West Africa, plant growth is often variable. P and K applications alone do not appear to alleviate the stress, but when applied in combination With secondary and micro-nutrients, growth is sometimes greatly enhanced. Good growth appears to be associated with areas where there is a relatively high-clay content in the subsoil, which may be a source of nutrients or water or both.Methodology for screening soybean varieties for tolerance to high levels of soil AI was refined. Genotypes tolerant to soil acidity were identified, and promising varieties witl be confirmed next year.Seed quality studiesVarietal evaluation for storability. Seed storability of breeding lines was based on seedling emergence after subjecting freshly harvested, unweathered seed to conditions of 40°C and 75 percent relative humidity for 6 weeks as previously described (IITA Annual Report, 1977, 1979). During 1980, 34,520 seed lots were evaluated. The majority of tests involved the screening of breeding nurseries for lines with superior storability in combination with other important traits, such as promiscuous nodulation, high yield and resistance to lodging and pod shattering (Table 35).Following seed storability tests, remnant seeds of the superior lines were sown in nurseries at Mokwa, Nigeria, to determine their agronomic merit and confirm their superior storability. From an unreplicated F, and F, nursery of 2,440 lines, 298 selections are being multiplied lor yield trials next year. Similarly, from a F, family nursery of 2.995 lines, 365 lines are being multiplied.The entries In the soybean uniform trials were evaluated for storability. TGm 618, TGm 120 and TGm 579 showed moderately good storage characteristics, except TGm 579 from Ikenne, Nigeria, that did not store well presumably because of severe web blight infection (Table 36).Seven parents being used extensively in the breeding program as sources of promiscuous nodulation were evaluated for storability to determine II lines from Single crosses involving these parents and high-yielding. U.SA materials are likely to give progeny with good storability (Table 37). These entries were harvested under very dry conditions in December, 1979, and seedling emergence prior to storage was very high. Twenty-five seeds were subjected to the hot-water, stress test (Seeds soaked at 70\"C for 70 seconds) (IITA Annual Report, 1979) and to 8 months of ambient storage at Mokwa and IITA. A check variety, TGm 737p (Indonesian), that was previously iden-!ified to have superior storability had a mean emergence score following ambient storage 01 66 percent; whereas. the best promiscuous lines, TGm 618 and TGm 119, had only 30 percent and 24 percent emergence, respectively.Although there appears to be varietal differences among the promiscuous parents for storability, none 01 the lines store as well as TGm 737p  To test this, the leachate conductivity and the 00 were compared for 2 varieties, black-seeded TGm 618 and yellow-seeded TGm 579. Removing seed coats caused a similar increase In conductivity for both the blackseeded and yellow-seeded varieties, suggesting that seed pigments in the leachate do not greatly affect conductivity scores. As expected, the seed pigments had a large effect on 00 readings, which increased when seed coats were removed from TGm 579 but decreased when seeds coats were removed from TGm 618. This indicates that for 00 assessment of leachate on varieties with different seed pigments. it would be necessary to remove seed coats, but this is very time consuming.To mimic the effect of differences in seed sIZe. the conductivity of the leachate was tested for the same 2 varieties over a range of seed numbers. Conductivity values were 119, 151. 189 and 203 u moh for 8.10,12 and 14 seeds, respectively. By dividing the conductivity score by seed number or by the weight of the seed In the test, then the values are similar. This suggests that to use conductivity for assessing seed vigor of varieties with differing seed size, the samples should be weighted before soaking for adjusting conductivity scores.To determine if varietal differences In the rate of seed imbibition can influence leachate conductivity, seeds of 5 lines that Imbibe water slowly and 5 lines that imbibe water rapidly were freshly harvested. Those lines with slow imbibition had lower conductivity scores than those with rapid imbibition (Fig. 5). Thus, to use either leachate Screening 01 soybeans lor resistance to lield weather• ing. Seventy-six germplasm lines were sown adjacent to a spreader row, which was sown 3 weeks earlier. The spreader row provides a source of a broad-spectrum of fungal pathogens involved in seed weathering. At the onset of pod-lill. overhead irrigation was used for 2 hours every afternoon to provide humid conditions for seed weathering. Each variety was harvested twice, once when 80 percent of its pods were dry and again 2 weeks later. Before threshing, plants were hung in a shed until all pods were dry. Seedling emergence scores were reo corded for 100 seeds for each of 3 replications. Some lines were very tolerant to the adverse conditions (    39. In addition to their high-Yielding potential.TGm 17-2G and TGm 182-1D are also very resistant to pod shattering.On-farm yield testing. Six varieties were grown with fer- the other entries. TGm 579 and TGm 119 performed relatively well, which is consistent with results on fields of small farmers in eastern Nigeria. TGm 252A-1-2 also yielded well but is very susceptible to pod shattering.Trap cropping for control of stink bugs At the initiation of IITA's soybean program 7 years ago, insects were not considered to be a major problem. However, during the last 2 years, pod sucking insects have been observed in sufficient populations to require insecticidal control. The most commonly observed pod sucking insects are stink bugs. Although the composition is complex, 3 stink bugs are frequently encountered in Nigeria, Nezara spp., Piezodorus guildinii and Aspavia sp. Nezara viridula appears to be the most common stink bug in the drier zones (Mokwa); whereas populations appear to be equally divided among Nezara spp., P. guildinii and Aspavia sp. in the wetter zones (Onne).Due to their importance in other areas of soybean production, the biology of the stink bugs, especially Nezara spp., has been extensively studied. The insects have a wide host range, and a reservoir population is maintained on many wild leguminous plants and other weeds. They normally migrate into a soybean field in relatively small numbers. but the population rapidly increases as eggs are deposited on the crop. One female can lay as many as 600 eggs, and the nymphs start feeding on soybean pods approximately 2 weeks later. The behavior of the Insect may lend itself to some novel methods of control.During 1980. experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of 'trap cropping' as an economical means of controlling stink bugs. This method is based upon directing the initial invasion of the insects. The migratory pattern may be influenced by providing a food source at a time when the main soybean crop does not have pods. Since the insect is attracted to a food source, it could be effectively trapped and the population controlled by spraying insecticides only on the trap crop.Early-maturing soybeans or other legumes, which form pods earlier than the main soybean crop, could be employed as a trap. This may reduce the amount of spraying; the trap occupies less than 20 percent of the field.The experiments consisted of 5 treatments and were planted at 2 locations in Nigeria: Mokwa and Onne. The treatments were as follows: 1) an unsprayed control, 2) a sprayed control, 3) an early-maturing soybean trap, 4) a cowpea trap and 5) a cowpea preference plot The trap of soybean and cowpea trap treatments were sprayed with an insecticide while the trap of cowpea preference treatment was not By the nature of the experiment, each treatment had to be separated by large distance (-300 mi. The plot size was large (-1.0 hal in order to Simulate a practical situation. Consequently, only 1 replicate of each treatment was sown at each location.Mokwa. The 5 treatments with plot sizes are shown in Table 42. Jupiter, which matures in approximately 110 days, and TGm 577, which matures in approximately 120 days, were used as the main soybean crop.The soybean trap was designed by planting 15 rows of TGm 686, which matures in approXimately 75 days, on 143 each side of the main crop (100 rows) on the same planting date as the main crop.The cowpea trap was planted like the soybean trap, except that 10 rows of cowpeas were planted on each side of the main crop and in the center. Since cowpeas have a short pod-filling period, 5 plantings were required in order to maintain fresh pods on the trap during the reproductive period of the soybean. The cowpea preference treatment was planted like the cowpea trap.The sprayed control was sprayed with 1.0 kg endosulfan/ ha a.1. at 67, 72, 77, 82, 92 and 97 days after planting. The soybean trap was also sprayed with 1.0 hg endosulfanlha a.i. at 50, 57, 63, 68 and 72 days after planting. Since cowpeas will not set pods unless thrips are controlled, 2 applications of a synthetic pyrethroid were applied to the cowpea trap and the cowpea preference treatment during the flowering period (40 and 47 days after planting). The cowpea trap was also sprayed with endosulfan at 50, 55,62,68 and 72 days after planting.Insect populations were evaluated using the drop cloth method at 2 stages of crop development at several sampling points (Table 42). Also, the number of aborted pods that feli on the drop cloth and the insect populations on the cowpea trap and cowpea preference treatment were counted. Large differences in the insect populations and number of aborted pods were observed in the various treatments at 77 days after planting (Table 43). At this stage, Jupiter was in the early pod fill period while TGm 577 was in the early pod formation period. The unsprayed conlrol had 4.1 stink bugs/2m row with equal populations in Jupiter and TGm 577. Based upon economic threshold studies conducted in the U.SA and Brazil, this insect populaton is at the economic threshold level. The sprayed control had no stink bugs as the crop had been treated 3 times with endosulfan.Both the soybeans and the cowpeas were effective traps; only 1.8 and 0.8 insectsl2m row were counted in the main soybean crops. respectively. The cowpea preference treatment was also an effective trap, 1.6 bugs/2m row were counted in the main soybean crop while 11.1 insects/2m row were counted on the cowpea trap.The insect populations and number of aborted pods were measured again at 91 days after planting the main soybean crop. At this stage, Jupiter was in the rapid bean fill period, and TGm 577 was in the mid-pod fill period. In the 2-week period between samples, the unsprayed control almost doubled its insect population, (Table 44).This insect population is also approximately double the economic threshold level. The sprayed control had no insects while the soybean and cowpea traps maintained the main soybean crop below the economic threshold level with 3.8 and 0.8 insects!2m row, respectively. The cowpea preference treatment had 6.5 insects!2m row.The first sampling of the cowpea preference treatment showed that the stink bugs had been trapped on the cowpea; however, the second sampling showed that all the cowpeas pods had been consumed by the stink bugs.Since the stink bugs were not killed, they proliferated tremendously, destroyed the entire trap and moved into the main soybean crop for food.Nymph populations also were observed to provide Infor• mation as to the source 01 the adult populations in the main soybean crop. The unsprayed control had 6.8 nymphs/2m row: whereas, the main soybean crop of the 2 trap treatments had few or no nymphs. This shows that the adult stink bugs in the main soybean crop in the soybean trap treatment moved in from outside of the plot: lew nymphs were inside, (Table 44). This also shows that the timing between the matu rity 01 the trap and the   28.9 (1.7) 20.1(1.9) 36.2 (1.6) main crop is important. If the trap matures too early, a secondary invasion of adults can occur and initiate a new population that could produce serious damage to the main crop. In this experiment, the soybean trap matured when the main soybean crop was starting to pod, which appears to be close to the optimum timing.The cowpeas in the cowpea preference treatment had more than 100 nymphs/2m row, Indicating that the cowpeas were the source of the adult populations observed in the main soybean crop. This illustrates a potential problem with the trap cropping concept. If the insect population IS not controlled on the trap, the trap serves as a breeding ground resulting in an uncontrolled population that would migrate Into the main crop once the food supply in the trap has been exhausted.As observed at 77 days after planting, the amount of pod abortion observed at 91 days after planting was generally in close agreement with the insect population (Table 44).Very little abortion was recorded in the sprayed control and the 2 trap treatments (Table 44). The insect populations in the unsprayed control and the cowpea preference treatment were about equal (7 insects/2m row), and pod abortion was similar. However, Jupiter conSistently aborted more pods than TGm 577 even though the insect population was lower in Jupiter. It appears that TGm 577 may possess more tolerance to stink bug damage (as measured by pod abortion) than Jupiter, but TGm 577 can still incur severe damage.Pods damaged by stink bugs normally do not fill if the bean is punctured during early development. In order to obtain an estimate of insect damage (besides yield). the number of unfilled pods was evaluated (Table 45). Sampling consisted of randomly selecting 3 plants at each sampling site at physiological maturity and counting the number of pods with and without seeds. In the unsprayed control,4 insectsl2m row at early pod fill and 7.4 insectsl 2m row at mid-pod fill resulted in 75 percent of the pods without seeds. The damage was higher on Jupiter (98 percent) than TGm 577 (58 percent). The effectiveness of the trap treatments is clearly shown; pod damage in the soybean and cowpea traps was equal to the sprayed control.Furthermore. the economic t~reshold values derived in the U.S.A. and Brazil of 2 and 4 insectslm row at early pod development and mid-pod fill respectively. are close estimates in these trials. Neither of the trap treatments exceed these values, and there was no measurable pod damage. However, pod damage in the cowpea preference treatment was severe (78 percent) and equal to the unsprayed control.Seed yield was determined on 3 rows each 5 m long at several sampling points. The yield data were generally in close agreement with the insect counts and pod damage estimates. The unsprayed control and the cowpea preference treatment suffered severe yield losses (85 percent) due to stink bug damage (Table 46). The 2 trap treatments gave yields equal to the sprayed control. Also, the sprayed cowpeas in cowpea trap treatment yielded, 1,564 kg/ha.Onne substation. The same 5 treatments were established at Onne in the second season. Due to the short season, early-maturing soybean, TGm 686, was planted as the main crop. The early-maturing soybean trap, TGm 686, was planted 27 days earlier than the main crop. Difficulties were encountered in establishing the cowpea trap and cowpea p reference treatments because of the early matu ration of the main soybean crop. Cowpea was planted 10 days later than the main soybean crop. However, this was too late to function as a trap. The cow peas did not form pods until approximately 10-14 days after the main soybean crop.The control was sprayed with 1.0 kg endosulfan!ha a.i. at 50, 55, 60, 65, 70 and 75 days after planting. The soybean trap was sprayed with endosulfan at 50. 55, 60, 65, 70 and 75 days after planting the trap. The last sp ray was Table 45. Evaluation of pod damage at phYSiological maturity of 2 soybean cumvars grown under various methods of insect control (Mokwa, 1980).Table 46. Seed yield of 2 soybean cultivars grown under various methods of insect control (Mokwa, 1980). Values are means followed by standard error of mean in parentheses.applied when the main soybean crop was 48 days old and initiating small pods. The 27 days difference in maturity between the soybean trap and the main soybean crop was similar to the soybean trap treatment at Mokwa. The cowpea trap was first sprayed with endosulfan at 54 days after planting the trap when the main soybean crop was 64 days old and already in mid-pod fill. The same lack of proper synchronization also occurred In the cowpea preference treatment. Even though it was evident that the cowpeas could not serve as a trap. insect counts were still taken on the treatments as the information could be useful to illustrate the effect of improper timing on establishing the trap. Also, these treatments could provide information on whether stink bugs have a preference for cowpeas.Insect populations and pod abortion estimated at 60 days after planting the main soybean crop are shown in Table 47. The unsprayed control had 3.8 insects/2 m row even at this early stage. The unsprayed control had no insects. The soybean trap treatment had only 0.9 insectsl 2 m row.The soybean trap had already matured and had not been sprayed for 2 weeks prior to these observations. Due to the late establishment of the cowpeas in the cowpea trap and cowpea preference treatments, the insects were not trapped, and the population of stink bugs in the main soybean crop for these 2 treatments was equal to the unsprayed control. Very few pods were present on the cowpeas at this sampling date, and endosulfan had not been applied to the cow peas in the cowpea trap treatment. The number of aborted pods of the main soybean crop varied according to the insect population. The amount of pod abortion in the soybean trap treatment was equal to the sprayed control, and the cowpea trap treatment and the cowpea preference treatments were similar to the unsprayed control. However, pod abortion of TGm 686 was consistently lower than the 2 varieties used in the Mokwa experiment.The stink bug population in the unsprayed control was 8.7 insectsl2 m row at 68 days after planting (Table 48).During the 8-day period between counts, the Insect population in the unsprayed control doubled. The soybean trap treatment maintained the population below the economic threshold level with 2.9 Insectsl2 m row. The cowpeas in the cowpea trap treatment were profusely podded at this sampling time and had been sprayed twice with 1.0 kg endosulfan/ha a.i. between 60 and 68 days after planting. No stink bugs were present on the  cow peas at 68 days after planting, but the population on the main soybean crop was 6.3 insectsl2 m row, which is well above the economic threshold level but less than the unsprayed control. The stink bug population on the soybean in the cowpea preference treatment was also above the economic threshold level but less than the unsprayed control.Nymph counts indicated that very little population buildup was occurring in the soybean treatment (0.5 nymphsl2 m row). Also. there were fewer nymphs in the cowpea trap treatment than the unsprayed control. This indicates that after the cowpeas formed pods, they were trapping some of the stink bugs that migrated into the field in the later stages of the crop development. The number of nymphs in the cowpea preference treatment was equal to the unsprayed control. Pod abortion at 68 days after planting was related to insect population.Pod damage was evaluated by counting the number of unfilled pods at phYSiological maturity (Table 49). Even though TGm 686 has an effective pod-filling period of only 20 days, severe damage occurred in the unsprayed control, cowpea trap treatment and cowpea preference treatment. Reduced damage occurred in the soybean trap treatment and sprayed control. Pod damage was generally consistent with the insect counts.Stink bugs are not considered a serious pest on cowpea in Africa, but data from the cowpea preference treatments at both Mokwa and Onne showed very high populations on the unsprayed cowpeas (Tables 50 and 51). Also, the data indicates that stink bugs as well as other pod sucking bugs may prefer cowpeas over soybeans.Conclusions. By spraying the early-maturing soybeans planted on the edges of the main soybean crop, the stink bug population can be maintained below an economic threshold level In the main crop as illustrated in experiments conducted at Mokwa and Onne. The differences At Onne, the same variety was used as the trap and main crop, but the trap was planted 27 days earlier. This procedure also was successful but required 2 plantings and may not be feasible on a large scale.Another important consideration is that the initial insect population that concentrates on the trap must be controlled. Failure to spray the trap properly can be devastating as the population on the trap multiplies and serves as a reservoir for invading the main soybean crop.There may be some advantage in using cowpeas as a trap. There is evidence indicating a preference by stink bugs for cowpeas over soybeans. The use of cowpeas as a trap may be a very economical method for growing cow peas. Cowpeas must be sprayed for control of pod sucking regardless of whether they are used as a trap or grown in monocultures. Consequently, by growing the cow peas on the edges of the soybeans, one is effectively controlling the stink bugs in the soybeans \" free of charge. \" Such a system produced yields of 1,564 kg/ha of cow peas and 1,679 kg/ha of soybean as compared to yields of no cowpea and 225 kg/ha of soybeans when not sprayed .  The practical use of nymph mortality under field conditions will be accessed next year. The mortality character of PI 227687 may significantly reduce stink bug reproduction. If this is the case , the nymph mortality gene(s) will be incorporated into material that possesses improved seed quality and the ability to nodulate with indigenous rhizobia .Egg masses for the nymph mortality studies were collected from several crops in the field at both IITA and the IITA Onne substation. A serendipitous finding was the presence of a parasitic wasp that hatched from eggs collected from Onne. Ninety percent of the eggs collected from Onne were parasitized, and few sink bug nymphs emerged. The potential use of the wasp for biological control of stink bug reproduction needs further investigation.Fe rtility trials Only in Lessel was there a marked response with both varieties to P applied alone (Table 55 and Fig. 6). This may be because the soybeans followed fertilized maize at Mokwa and Agenebode while only a portion of the field had contained fertilized tobacco in 1979 in Lessel. At Agenebode, TGm 579 responded to 25 kg P/ha, but  TGm 344 was unaffected by this P rate. At Mokwa. TGm 579 was unaffected by P rate while the yield of TGm 344 actually declined with increasing P. K applied with P had very little effect on yield. However, application of secondary and micronutrients in conjunction with P was beneficial at all locations. At Lessel and Agenebode, applications of secondary and micronutrients together with 50 kg P!ha increased yields 30-90 percent more than yields of plots receiving 50 kg Plha alone. At Mokwa. application of secondary and micronutrients mitigated the detrimental effect of P fertilization on TGm 344. This suggests that when secondary or mlcronutrients are limiting, P fertilizer alone may actually reduce yields. If P fertilizer is applied in large quantities on these soils. it appears that it should be supplemented with secondary and micronutrients.The effect of combining K with secondary and micronutrients and P was not consistent, and further analysis is required before conclusions can be drawn.A second trial was conducted uSing variety TGm 618 at Mokwa, Agenebode and Lessel to determine the effects of Ca. Mg and S on soybean yields. P, K and micronutrients. B. Mn, Zn, Mo. Cu and Fe, were applied uniformly to aU plots. Treatments were not significant; however.the trend at Lessel was for higher yields when secondary nutrients were applied in combination while the trend at Agenebode was the reverse; Ca. Mg and S tended to decrease yields when applied in combination. This phenomenon also has been observed to a lesser extent at Lessel and Agenebode. and soil samples have been collected to document this.Yields of 2 tlha and more in some plots at Mokwa, Agenebode and Lessel suggest that soybean production is feasible in the southern Guinea Savannah of Nigena. AliI 00 g soil (± 0.14.95 percent confidence interval) and 0.75 meq Cal100 g soil ('\" 0.09.95 percent confidence interval). In summary, in a 7-month period, the AI toxicity increased from 1.03 meq/100 g SOil (32 percent AI saturation) to 1.8 meqil00 g soil (56 percent AI saturation).The field was left fallow for 10 more months, which included another rainy season. In August, 1980, the aCidity levels in the acid strips were analyzed, and AI had increased to 1.98 meq/l00 g soil (62 percent AI saturation), and the Ca had decreased to 0.55 meqll00 g SOil. Also, the AI levels in the acid strips became more uniform reaching a level of t.98 meqll00 9 soil (± 0.12.95 percent confidence interval).In October, 1980, the entire field was fertilized with 300 kg 15-15-15/ha and 100 kg magnesium sulfatelha. A mixture of 500 kg hydrated lime/ha plus 1.500 kg dolomite limestone/ha was applied to the control strips. Each variety was planted across lhe 4 m aCid and limed slrips. Consequently. each cultlvar could be evaluated by comparing its growth in the adjacent limed strip. This made the evaluations easier and also reduced the variation due to factors other than acidity. The field was harrowed. and small ridges constructed across the field with 50 cm between ridges. A small ditch was made to separate the acid and limed strips. A total of 660 genotypes were planted. 433 entries had 3 replications, 149 had 2 replications and 178 entnes were planted only once. These entries represent IITA's tropical soybean germ plasm collection, which are varieties adapted to low altiludes of high temperature and neutral days. Generally, lhese varieties are lale maturing (Group VII-X) and photosensitive. Fifteen standard lines were planted after every 100 types with various degrees of tolerance (as reported in the literature) and assist in measuring field variation. Fifty days after planting, the entries were evaluated for acid tolerance. Acid tolerance was determined using both visual ratings and fresh weight measurements.Two types of visual ratings were recorded: the first based upon toxicity symptoms and vigor in the acid plots (absolute growth rating) and the second based upon a comparison between growth in the acid and the limed plots (relative growth rating). Absolute growth was rated using a 1-5 scale: 1 ~ severe toxicity symptoms with severely stunted or dead plants; 2 ~ toxicity symptoms only on lower leaves of stunted plants: 3 ~ no toxicity symptoms on leaves but plants were stunted: 4 ~ no toxicity symptoms and plants had vigor and 5 ~ no toxicity symptoms and plants were very vigorous.Relative growth was rated visually uSing a 1-5 scale: 1 ~ plants in acid plots were 20 percent as vigorous as the plants in the limed plots: 2 ~ plants in acid plots were 20-40 percent as vigorous as the plants in limed plots: 3 ~ plants in acid plots were 40-60 percent as vigorous as the plants in limed plots: 4 ~ plants in acid plots were 60-80 percent as vigorous as the plants in limed plots and 5 ~ plants in acid plots were 80 percent or more as vigorous as the plants in limed plots.Plant fresh weight and number of plants in the center 2 m of each plot was recorded at 50 days after planting.151Fresh weight in the acid strip as a percent of weight in the limed strip provided a quantitative measure of relative growth. The 2 visual ratings combined with the fresh weight determinations gave a subjective evaluation of acid tolerance and a quantitative measurement. Absolute growth ratings and fresh weight in the aCid plots are measurements of growth under acid conditions, which indicates general adaptability to low-altitude, tropical environments. Relative growth ratings and fresh weight as a percent of the limed plots are more precise measurements of acid tolerance. Consequently, combinations of these measurements allow for the identification of genotypes that are tolerant to high levels of soil AI and are also adapted to tropical environments.The distinction between acid tolerance and acid tolerance combined with adaptation is necessary in order to identify the most useful parents for a breeding program.There are nontropical environments where soil acidity is a problem. For these areas, genotypes that possess the genetic character for acid tolerance would have to be grown in the particular environment to identify the genotypes most agronomically suitable. If acid tolerant material is to be developed for tropical environments, it would be desirable to commence a breeding program using genotypes as parents that are tolerant to high levels of AI and also agronomically adapted to tropical environments.Results. The correlation matrix between visual ratings and quantitative measurements is shown in Table 56. Absolute growth ratings were highly correlated with fresh weight in the acid plots (r ~ 0.7). Usual relative growth ratings were also significantly correlated (r ~ 0.53) with fresh quantitative relative growth measurement plots. Significant correlation between the above 2 sets of variables would be expected as both are measurements of the same parameters, i.e., 1 visual and 1 quantitative.This illustrates that the visual ratings were reasonably accurate measurements of growth under acid conditions. This is important in that visual ratings are rapid and nondestructive, both of which would be required if breeding material were to be evaluated for acid tolerance.The standards did not exhibit differential tolerances as expected ITable 57). Earlier trials at Dnne indicated that TGm 2, TGm 344 and Jupiter may be tolerant; whereas, TGm 51 and TGm 119 were sensitive, but they all appear to be about equal. Likewise, standards developed at North Carolina State University, U.S.A., all appeared to react similarly to soil acidity. The data from the 15 standards planted at 23 locations in the field indicate that the field was not as uniform as the soil analysis indicated (Table 57). The coefficient of covariation was lower (24 percent) for the visual ratings and higher (35 percent) for both fresh weight per 2 m in the acid plots and fresh weight as a percent of the limed plots. The unaccountable variation in growth in the limed plots was 25 percent even though the plots were uniformly nonacid. It was estimated that about 30 percent of the random variation in the acidified strips was due to variance in soil acidity. As a result of the uncontrollable variation. more emphasis should be given to replicated entries.The reaction of the varieties to 1.98 meq Alll00 g soil fit normal distribution curves. especially forthe quantitative measurements (Fig. 8). Generally, the frequency distributions illustrate that the stress of 1.98 meq Alll00 g soil was adequate to separate cultivars for tolerance. The means for all entries was 2.4 for absolute growth rating, 2.3 for relative growth rating, 357 gl2 m for fresh weight in the acid plots and 35.8 percent for fresh weight as a percent of the limed plots. The percent of the population selected varied with the parameter used for evaluation.Entries were selected that had a relative or absolute rating of 3.5 or more, a fresh weight in the acid plots of 500 g/2 m or more and fresh weight as a percent of the limed plots of 50 percent or more (   The criteria for tolerance to 1.98 meq AI/100 g were defined as a relative growth rating of 3.5 or more combined with a fresh weight as a percent of the limed plots of 45 percent or more or a relative growth rating of 3.0 or more combined with a fresh weight as a percent of the limed plots of 50 percent or more. There were 14 entries that were planted in 3 replications that satisfied these criteria (Table 59). Ten entries with 2 replications and 11 entries with 1 repl ication also met 1he criteria for acid tolerance (Table 60).The second type of genotypes sought are entries that are acid tolerant and also adapted to low-altitude. tropical 153 environments. This character can be identified by taking into consideration the growth in acid strips. Entries that met the criteria for acid tolerance and had a fresh weight in the acid plots of 500 g/2 m or more were characterized as acid tolerant and environmentally adapted.There were 10 entries with 3 replications, 10 entries with 2 replications and 5 entries with 1 replication that appear to be acid tolerant and adapted to low-altitude. tropical environments (Table 61).Next year, the most promising mate\"al will be reevaluated in large plots with several replications. The most acid tolerant material will be made available to national soybean programs in other environments. The material that exhibits both acid tolerance and adaptation will be used as parents for developing acid tolerant material for tropical environments.Weed control in soybean is particularly difficult due to the lack of broad-spectrum selective herbicides and the slow Initial growth of the crop. Weeds in soybean must be controlled for at least 40 days at which time the crop forms a canopy and can successfully compete. There are many preemergence herbicides that give excellent control of grass weed species and are well tolerated by the crop. However, many broadleaf weeds are resistant to these herbicides and must be removed by mechanical or manual cultivation.The most difficult weeds to control at IITA are Euphorbia spp. and Commelina agraria. In 1980, 2 herbicides, RH-2817 and Blazer, that have been reported to control these weeds were evaluated for weed control efficiency and crop tolerance.RH-8817 was applied preemergence on the soil surface after planting at a rate of 3.0 and 6.0 kg/ha. The chemical gave acceptable levels of control for Euphorbia spp., but the crop was only marginally tolerant to these rates (Table 62). More research will be conducted to find the most optimum rate to control Euphorbia and determine the degree of crop tolerance.Blazer was applied postemergence at 2 stages of crop development and at 3 rates; 1.001ha liter or more was required to obtain adequate control, but 2.00/ha liter or more (Table 63) did not appear to increase control. Blazer is a contact herbicide; consequently, the efficiency of control depends upon good foliar coverage. More effective weed control IS obtained with high volumes of water and the use of a surfactant in order to increase foliar absorption.Soybeans appear to tolerate Blazer even though a noticeable amount of leaf burning is produced (Table 63). However, the crop completely recovered as the chemical is not translocated. Soybeans appear to be more tolerant in the earlier stages of growth (third trifoliate leaf stage). The application of 2.01 I/ha at the fifth trifoliate leaf stage resulted in severe leaf burning, and the crop did not completely recover. Also, Euphorbia appears to be more 154 In another trial, Blazer was applied at a rate of 0.75 I/ha between soybean rows when Euphorbia was in the third The microbiology work continues to exploit the legume Rhizobium symbiosis to optimize cowpea and soybean yields. Cowpea rhizobia were collected from many environments in order to select effective strains that can withstand the diverse constraints of the African continent. Inoculation trails with soybeans have shown that once introduced into the soil, rhizobia can survive a 2year fallow period and sustain good soybean yields after the fallow. Also, some strains of rhizobia were found to be more competitive than others. The screening on tolerance of rhizobia to acidity and high lemperature stresses continues.An important step toward maximizing cowpea production through improved N•fixation is to isolate the indigenous rhizobia and identify the most effective competitive strains for use as inoculants. In 1979, the cowpea-rhizobia symbiosis was studied at 3 locations selected to pro- Nodules collected from cowpea and soybean sown this year to identify the best cultivar and RhizobIUm combinations in poor soils provided 250 rhizobia isolates. Ten percent of IITA isolates, 29 percent of Onne Isolates and 87 percent of Maradi (Niger) isolates form pin point small (diameter < 2 mm) colonies that are usually dry after 7 days on yeast extract-mannitol agar. The remaining isolates form large colonies that are watery or gummy, usually translucent, confluent with irregular margins.The colony morphology type of 20 dry and 20 slimy isolates, 13 from IITA, 17 from Onne and 10 from Maradi, have been tested on plates containing mannitol, gluconate, glucose, sucrose or mannose as sale carbon sources.The following was observed:(1) All isolates that are dry on mannitol are dry on all other 4 carbohyd rates: (2) Maradi isolates that are slimy on mannitol are never slimy on glucose and sucrose but sometimes on mannose and often on gluconate: (3) IITA isolates that are slimy on mannitol are either slimy on all 4 other carbohydrates or only on mannitol and gluGonate and sometimes on mannose; (4) Onne isolates that are large and slimy on mannitol are slimy on all 4 other carbohydrates, but isolates that are small and slimy on mannitol are dry on glucose and sucrose.The significance of these different types of colonies in terms of N-fixation and adaptation to the environment was examined in detail. It has been observed that isolates that form dry colonies produce dark purple nodules on a number of cowpea cultivars in sterile sand and soil.Isolates that form slimy colonies produce beige nodules. Such distinctions may be useful in ecological work.In pot trials using sterile sand and soil from Onne and Maradl, seeds of 3 cowpea cultivars, ER 1, TVu 1811 and TVu 1957, were inoculated with a mixed suspension, consisting of equal numbers (5 x 10') of cowpea Rhizobium IRc 409A (purple nodule forming isolate) and IRc 409C (beige nodule forming isolate) or IRc 344A (purple nodule forming isolate) and IRC 344B (beige nodule forming Isolate). Less than 10 percent of the nodules formed were dark purple, indicating that the purple forming isolates were less competitive. In the field trials at Maradi (Table 65) where the frequency of dark purple nodules is the highest, 35 percent of the nodules in uninoculated plots of 6 cowpea cultivars were purple.In plots inoculated with about 10 6 rhizobia/seed of IRe 409A, 49 percent of the nodules were purple, but in plots inoculated with about 10 G rhizobia/seed of IRe 409C, only 14 percent of the nodules were purple. ThiS Indicates again that the slimy isolates forming beige nodules are more competitive (Table 65). Responses to P and/or N were evaluated by comparing the fresh weight of 10 shoots at low or intermediate fertility levels with the fresh weight of 10 shoots at higher fertility levels in corresponding plots of the same cultivar.Responses of soybean to fertilizers were not significant at IITA or Onne. Although germination was good, growth was extremely poor « 30 cm) at 6 weeks after planting at Maradi. The reason is not clear. Fresh shoot weight of cowpeas improved with high fertilizer levels at IITA and Maradi (Table 66). It was not significantly changed with high-fertilizer levels at Onne, probably because of an inadequate supply of P (78 ppm in Po plots) (Table 66). Significant increases in fresh shoot weight were recorded for TVu 151 and VITA-4 as a result of P fertilization at UTA Single superphosphate improved the growth of TVu 179, TVx 1952-01 E and Dan Haoussa at Maradi. Dan Haoussa responded more to P alone than urea alone. In terms of grain yield, some cultivars responded more to P than N, but a combination of P and N gave the highest grain yield (Table 66).From these observations. it is necessary to screen more germ plasm in order to identify effective cultivar-Rhizobium combinations in soils low in both P and N. It is also necessary to design cultural practices suitable for mini- Screening was initiated for effective Rhizobium japonicum strains that are tolerant to the following soil acidity factors: low pH and P and high AI.To screen large numbers of rhizobia for their ability to tolerate acidity factors, the defined Keyser and Munn's basal medium was used: Control: pH 6.8, P 1,000 fl-M Low pH: pH 4.5, P 1,000 fl-M Low P: pH 4.5, P 5 fl-M High AI: pH 4.5, P 5 fl-M, AI50 or 100 fLM , Twenty-one strains out of 84 tested (mostly from tropical soils) were highly acid tolerant (Table 67). Surprisingly, acid tolerant strains showed generally no close relation to the soil pH from which they were isolated: for in• stance, only 4 isolates out of 20 tested from the highly acid Onne soil were highly tolerant.These acid tolerant strains will be tested for symbiotic effectiveness on soybean in pot trials, and the highly effective acid tolerant strains will be used for field testing at Onne.Cowpea rhizobia were also selected. Small inocula of test strains were introduced onto agar plates containing Keyser and Munn's modified medium, and the plates 157  (IITA, 1980).IITA Culture Collection No.were incubated at 30'C. Growth was measured visually and microscopically over a 10-day period. Corroborative tests were then conducted in liquid media with selected strains.Early work at IITA showed that many cowpea Rhizobium isolates were more tolerant to acidity than R. Japonicum.Isolates that grew in acid media usually also grew in the presence of AI. Recent, detailed screening of cowpea Rhizobium isolates from IITA, Onne and Maradi has shown that 6 of the 16, 27 of 46 and none of 36 were tolerant from these locations, respectively. Four IITA iso• lates and 13 Onne isolates had higher tolerance,The factors that confer high tolerance to acidity and AI among rhizobia are unknown. Only some isolates from acid soils are tolerant. It was observed that all tolerant rhizobia form \"wet\" colonies although not all wet colonies were tolerant. No \"dry\" colonies were tolerant. Forty-four, 17 and 97 percent of the IITA, Onne and Ma• radi isolates formed dry colonies, respectively.Fields inoculated with selected RhizobIUm strains may be able to support good soybean Yield for several years without additional inoculum or N fertilizer. This would be a definite advantage over the N fertilizer that is expensive and necessary to be applied every year for conSistently good soybean yields of American•type cultivars. There• fore, an experiment was carried out at IITA in a field planted with inoculated seed In 1978, fallow for 2 years and replanted with uninoculated seed in 1980. For com•  In the first planting, soybean seeds, Bossier (TGm 80), Malayan (TGm 51) and 3H/1, were inoculated with each of 4 strains identified as being highly effective in the near neutral IITA soil. Two of these strains were marked with antibiotic resistance (spectinomycin or streptomycin) to enable subsequent identification. Two uninocuJated treatments were included, the first with N (90 kg N/ha) in 3 doses and the second without N.In the first planting, response to inoculation in terms of nodule weight, N content in shoots and grain yield was noticed only in Bossier (Table 71). In Malayan and 3H/l, the response was not significant due to effective nodu• lation by indigenous rhizobia in the uninoculated plots.In the second planting, response to nodulation was again noticed on~y in Bossier. but the introduced strains formed only 65 percent nodules in the second planting compared to 100 percent nodules in the first planting. Also, nodule mass was significantly reduced in Bossier during the second planting compared to the first planting.Although no reduction in nodule dry weight was noticed in Malayan and 3H/l between the 2 plantings, strains IRj 2114 str formed 50 percent nodules and strain IRj 2101 spc formed only 6 percent nodules in the second planting compared to 90 percent and 70 percent, respectively, in the first planting. No significant differences between the inoculated and uninoculated plots were noticed in shoot weight, N content in shoots or grain yield In all 3 cultivars. These results indicated lack of acid tolerance, poor survival and poor competitive ability of introduced rhizobia (Tables 71 and 72).Cowpeas nodulate with a wide range of rhizobia of the cowpea-cross inoculation group, which are abundant in most tropical soils. To confirm additional benefits, if any, of inoculant use to improve the grain Yield of cowpeas, 6 cowpea cultivars were tested for their response to inoculation with diverse rhizobia in the near neutral soils at IITA the highly acid soils at Onne and the semiarid conditions at Gusau and Maradi.In 1979 field trials at Onne, liming at 0,250,500, or 1,000 kg/ha had no effect on soil pH, the NH, extractable calcium levels or AI levels, indicating probably high base levels of calcium already existmg in the soil. Nodule dry weights in the inoculated treatments comprising strains from Onne, Maradi and Mokwa were significantly higher at some calcium levels compared to the uninoculated treatments. However, the mean values fa' all the inoculated treatments did not significantly differ from those for uninoculated treatments. Fifty kg N/ha reduced the nodule mass by 50 percent. Among cullivars, lie Brown had the highest nodule mass. There were statistically significant increases in shoot fresh weight in a few inoculant-host combinations; 50 kg N/ha resulted in significant increases.In terms of grain yield, inoculation showed no significant posi1ive response. Although large increases in shoot weight were noted with N fertilizer, no such increases in grain yield were noted even with the additional 50 kg NI ha at flowering.In 1980, the same experiment was conducted in soils that were under CUltivation for a longer period, but no responses to inoculation and/or liming were obtained in terms of shoot weight or grain yield.Experiments conducted at IITA and Gusau also did not reveal any significant response to inoculation in terms of plant growth and Yield (Table 73).   Differences between otlier means of uninoculated (-N and 100 N) and inoculated treatments at each location not significant.Using the ELISA technique, nodule typing was done for 2 strains In order to assess the extent of nodulation by introduced marked Rliizobium strains in the field trials at IITA, Onne and Gusau. Nodulation by introduced Rliizobium strains was poor at Onne and Gusau while fair at liT A. This may be due to the fact that both the marked strains were isolated from IITA (Table 74), and apparently they were competitive with Indigenous rhizobia only at IITA.   At IITA. the growth of VITA-4 inoculated with IRc 4620 was lower than with fertilization but higher than the uninoculated control. It was noted that for cowpea ER-l, N fertilization was not significantly better than the mixed inoculant consisting of IRc 409A and IRc 409C. This suggests that the mixed inoculant forms an effective symbiosis with cowpea ER-l.At Onne, only VITA-l responded positively to inoculation with cowpea Rhizobium IRc 462A and with a mixed culture of IRe 409A and IRc 409C. Increases were recorded in fresh shoot weight of more than 60 percent over the uninoculated control, but increases were similar to those obtained with N fertilization. There was no difference among treatments for TVx 1952-01 E. This may be an indication that, for this cultivar, indigenous and inoculant rhizobia are equally suitable for effective N-fixation.At Maradi, inoculation with mixed cultures of IRc 499A and IRc 499B was as beneficial to Dan Haoussa as N fertilizer; also, IRc 409C in symbiosis with this crop showed yield increases of 40 percent over the unlnoculated control. VITA-5 with IRc 383A, TVx 1952-01E with IRc 461 (unpublished data) and TVx 1850-01E with IRc 283 and IRc 383A yielded significantly higher fresh shoot weights than in the corresponding uninoculated treatments.These results based on fresh shoot weight indicate that some cowpea cultivars, such as VITA-4 at IITA, VITA-l at Onne and Dan Haoussa at Maradi, respond to inocu lation with specific cowpea rhizobia, at a particular location. Careful screening of the cowpea rhizobia may lead to identification of suitable strains for inoculant use with the high-yielding cultivars of cowpea such as the VITA lines as well as with farmers' varieties like Dan Haoussa.Rhizobium strain isolated at a particular location is not necessarily a better inoculant at that location than isolates from another, different environment. Emphasis was placed on the use of no tillage and cone seeders-to conserve the topsoil and reduce high labor costs, respectively.At IITA, a soil survey was carried out on all agricultural research blocks (280 hal to determine the degree of degradation resulting from up to 12 years of cultivation. This was to assess the need for fallowing. Soil depth and texture, organic matter, available P and K, soil pH and exchangeable Ca and Mg were sampled during this survey  was held with 10 successful trainees. Farm staff conducted many field tours and received numerous visitors who generally showed considerable interest in shear blade forest clearing and no-tillage farming.During the year, a second virology screenhouse was completed (IITA Annual Report 1979). The 6 conventional glasshouses at IITA, which are generally too hot to be suitable for virology research, are largely used for soil science pot experiments and germ plasm maintenance of vanous crops.The Genetic Resources Unit (GRU) continued throughout 1980 to collect, manage and preserve the germplasm of food legumes, rice and root crops from sub-Saharan Africa. In 6 plant collecting missions, 1,734 germ plasm accessions were gathered. 291 from western and coastal Kenya, 358 from southern Sudan, 763 from Madagascar (including 500 of rice from the national collection held at Tananarive), 211 from Togo, 360 from Malawi and 251 sions in 18 African countries and gathered 20,346 germplasm accessions (Table 1). The following are the countries explored and the number of missions to each: Nigeria (11), Togo (3) , Ivory Coast (1) , Tanzania (2) , Zambia (1), Benin (2) , Ghana (2) , Sudan (2) , Madagascar (1), Upper Volta (2) , Egypt (1) and Malawi (1) .Germplasm evaluation. The GRU evaluated 2,000 new accessions of cowpea and 1,500 new accessions of Asian rice for botanical characterization during the year. These data, together with information about the provenience of each accession , form the basic documentation of the collections. The evaluation of response to pests and pathogens is made by scientists of the crop improvement programs. For example , the cowpea pathologist studied the susceptibi lity of 2,000 cow peas from the germplasm collection to diseases in the forest zone at the IITA anne substation and in the savanna zone at Funtua , Nigeria ; 715 wild and cultivated cowpeas were evaluated at IITA for thrips infestation . Both disease and insect resistant or tolerant accessions were identified .The reaction of African and Asian rice germ plasm to blast disease and yellow mottle virus was studied by the GRU and the Cereal Improvement Program . Preliminary results indicated that 54 accessions of O. sativa out of 1,132 tested showed horizontal resistance to blast disease. On the other hand , very few O. glaberrima collections tested showed high susceptibility to blast : the majority showed hypersensitive reaction or no reaction .The yield potential of some of the O. glaberrima cultivars is comparable to O. sativa or better, particularly under low fertility levels. For example, O. glaberrima (Kolon Ka lan) yields 2.0 Uha against O.S. 6 check yield of 1.25 Uha .164 Rice germplasm collected in Africa and stored in IITA 's \"germplasm bank. JJ 10,375 accessions in the working collections. The total will quickly rise to around 20,000, some 13,000 of which will be of cowpeas, 1,500 of African rice and the rest of Asian rice.The first genetic resources training course for anglophone Africa was organized in February-March, 1980, in collaboration with the IBPGR and the Department of Plant Biology, University of Birmingham, England. There were 13 participants, and they represented Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Uganda.To facilitate the control of virus diseases causing eco-nomiC loss In the crops under investigation at IITA, the virology unit continued studies on the etiology of virus diseases in cassava, yam, sweet potato, cocoyam, maize, rice, cowpea and soybean. In addition, epidemiological studies as well as studies on resistance screening and indexing methods are aspects of work covered by this unit.Cassava mosaic disease (CMD). Further attempts to transmit the agent isolated from cassava mosaic disease (CMD) infected cassava back to cassava both by means of sap Inoculation or through the whitefly vector failed. Attempts to first mechanically transmit the virus from Nicotiana benthamiana to Jathropha podagrica and from this species back to cassava by means of approach grafting were also unsuccessful. Apparently, the agent does not infect J. podagrica.It was also found that approach grafting between the diseased and healthy cassava plants did not result in transmission. Transmission studies with CMD from diseased to healthy cassava plants and from diseased cassava to N. benthamiana involving the parasite plant CusGuta subinc/usa (dodder) also did not result in any positive transmission. This confirms findings elsewhere that whitefly-transmitted viruses are not dodder transmissible. These observations also confirm the poor distribution of the CMD agent in infected cassava plants (IITA Annual Report, 1979).Further attempts were made to purify biologically active virus from artificially Infected N. benthamiana and produce an antiserum. Higher yields of virus were obtained from infected roots than infected leaves. Purification was easier from roots than leaves since fewer plant constituents, which are usually contaminants in virus purification, coprecipitated with this virus. In spite of 4 injections into a rabbit, no detectable levels of antibodies were produced.Yam mosaic virus (YMV). Although clear virus symptoms are not visible all the time, Dioscorea rotundata (white yam) and D. cayenens;s (yellow yam) are apparently always infected with a virus belonging to the Poty-vlrus group. Three methods were compared for initial purification of the yam virus from N. benthamiana: The highest virus yield was obtained by the first method. Electron microscopic examination of purified preparations showed typical Poty-virus particles. Attempts also were made to purify the virus directly from field infected D. rotundata. The virus was successfully purified and produced the same symptoms on N. benthamiana, but the yield was very low.Sweet potato virus disease (SPVD). Work on the sweet potato virus disease (SPVD) involved further studies to confirm its Interdependent components (IITA Annual Report 1978Report , 1979)). To facilitate these studies. a set of 15 seedling clones from the highly susceptible cultlvar Tlb 8 were established and graft inoculated with the disease in order to obtain a susceptible clone persistently developing characteristic and prominent symptoms. This screening for high susceptibility was carried out using an approach graft technique.It was found that 11 of the 15 clones were susceptible to the disease, developing symptoms in various degrees of severity: whereas, most of the clones initially reacted with a more severe shock reaction. The initially severe symptom expression faded into a mild to absent symptom expression in most of the clones. Only 2 of the 15 clones persistently developed prominent symptoms, including extensive patchy necrosIs in the leaves and defoliation from the fifth to the tenth leaf onward.One of these 2 clones, Tlb 8 clone 9, because of ItS reliable symptom expression as observed over a period of 8 months, was selected as the test clone for further work. It also was selected and used as a test clone for indexing purposes.The interdependence mechanism of both components in sweet potato was further investigated by means of graft transmission studies. One part of Tlb 8 clone 9 was inoculated with the aphid-transmitted component and further propagated after positive infection had been confirmed by means of indexing to ipomoea setosa. Another part of the clone was graft infected with the whitefly-transmitted component. This component was earlier found to be present in a sweet potato seedling clone, which had been grown under non-insect-proof conditions, and had developed severe symptoms on mechanical Inoculation with the aphid-transmitted component (IITA Annual Report 1979).Neither part of Tlb 8 clone 9 revealed any virus particles on electron microscopic investigation of crude JUice samples; whereas, i. setosa grafted to the aphid-transmitted component infected part of Tlb 8 clone 9 revealed numerous Poty-particles and also showed the characteristic symptoms associated with the Poty component.The sensitive ELISA serological technique was applied using an antiserum to the aphid-transmitted component.No positive reaction was obtained when either part of Tlb 8 clone 9 was tested. Thus, interdependence is not absolute since in I. setosa, the aphid transmitted component can multiply and develop symptoms. Interdependence in sweet potato, however, exists to some degree since propagation to electron microscope and ELISA detectable levels of Poty-particles as well as symptom expression apparently depends on the presence of the whitefly-transmitted component.From sap inoculation experiments with the Poty-virus obtained and propagated in N. benthamiana (IITA Annual Report, 1979) to sweet potato , it could be concluded that infection does occur and is not dependent on the whitefly-transmitted component. This followed from a sap inoculation experiment involving 30 seedling clones of TIS 1499 origin. After 10 months and still being completely symptomless, these clones were indexed for positive infection by means of approach grafting to cuttings of a clone containing the whitefly-transmitted component. After 6 weeks, the ' first 2 clones started to develop symptoms, which means that infection with lhe Potycomponent had occurred . Also , it proves that indexing by means of approach grafting to single component infected parts of susceptible clones seems to provide a reliable method of indexing for both components individually.In 1979, the aphid-transmitted component was purified and an antiserum produced . Since sweet potato and I. setosa are very Slimy on grinding , the commonly used microprecipitin test is difficult to conduct even after clarification of the juice. Th erefore, ELISA was used as an alternative, sensitive test to identify the virus. Seedling plants of P. sel/oum were found to be unsuitable as a test plant for this virus since only about half of the plants in the population proved to develop some form of not very conspicuous and transient symptoms. Only about 2 percent of the plants developed severe chlorosis and distortion symptoms, which, like in the case of cocoyam. also tended to fade and fully disappear.It is reported that P. sel/oum is a good source for virus purification. Attempts were made to purify the virus from this host. Systemically infected P. sel/oum leaves approximately 2 weeks after inoculation were used as virus source. One hundred g of tissue were homogenized in a blender in 200 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.7) and 0.01 M EDTA, 0.001 M cysteine and 0.1 percent 2-mercaptoethanol. Fifty ml of chloroform and 50 ml of carbon tetrachloride were added . The homogenate then was centrifuged at 7,700 g for 10 minutes. The aqueous phase was separated and centrifuged at 20,000 rpm for 90 minutes. After another cycle of low-and high-speed centrifugations, the virus preparation was layered on a 10-40 percent sucrose gradient. The virus peak was collected and concentrated by centrifugation. The purified virus preparation was highly infective, and typical Potyvirus particles were observed under the electron microscope.Maize mottle/chlorolic slunl (MMCS). In greenhouse inoculation experiments, it was found that within the improved maize populations, TZB and TZPB, the maize mottle/chlorotic stunt disease (MMCS) syndrome may vary from a transient mottle of the young , unfolding , whorl leaves in most plants to severe chlorosis and complete growth check at an early stage in a few plants in the population . The latter leads to the young , emerging leaves sticking together in a tight bundle and becoming necrotic, which then leads to severe physical obstruction in further development of such plants, usually resulting in stem rots and complete die-back.On closer monitoring , this phenomenon also was found to occur in field grown maize at all developmental stages up to tasseling. Shoot bending and \"tailing \" was a typeSymploms of maize mottle/chlorotic stunl in sorghum producing many chlorolic and neucrolic Iillers.of symptom expression observed in infected plants in the greenhouse as well as field. Early infections occurred as transient mottle in the majority of the plants in the improved populations: In later stages of infection, varying degrees of severity of the \"poor-growth\" syndrome with progressively shortening internodes and a general deficiency-like interveinal leaf yellowing were observed.This disease occurred throughout the southern Guinea savannah zone in Nigeria. Where maize production was practiced on a large scale with improved but streak (MSV) susceptible varieties, the maize mottle incidence (pure, without streak) exceeded 10-15 percent in the later part of the growing season. MSV incidence in the same fields exceeded 50 percent. In many cases, however, double infection with these 2 diseases,transmitted by the same leafhopper vector, was observed.Some grasses in the vicinity of maize were commonly infected with streak (± 50 percent): whereas. those farther away were only occasionally infected. Obviously, epidemics of MSV in wild grasses can originate from maize crops nearby. Sorghum in farmers' fields around the maize was affected by a serious and epidemic disease of nearly 100 percent incidence. The disease manifesting itself solely in•tillers, and from the general appearance of the symptoms, the disease was thought to be a manifestation of maize mottle virus. Further evidence for this was later obtained from artificial inoculations of millet and sorghum seedlings about 2-3 weeks after inoculation: however, symptoms were completely transient and newly emerging leaves did not develop any further chlorosis/necrosis. Similar to the symptoms observed in the field were the symptoms that later developed in the emerging tillers of the sorghum plants that were artificially inoculated. Many tillers showing severe chlorosis, distortion, leaf tip and marginal necrosis developed at the later stages of growth.A disease of this kind in millet or sorghum in the major growing areas of these crops in northern Nigeria has not been reported yet. Large-scale introduction of a relatively new crop like maize into these areas, traditionally growing millet and sorghum. may in the future resulfin dramatic shifts in the ecology of the maize mottle disease, resulting possibly in a new disease similar to that observed in sorghum around large-scale maize production.In leafhopper cage inoculation experiments of millet, the Cicadulina population was shown to build up on this graminaceous crop species without streak infection. Thus, millet may be a more suitable vector rearing host than maize, which will make rearing and maintaining streakfree, leafhopper cultures possible. So far, this was not possible because continuous reinfection of leafhopper colonies proved to occur in several attempts to eliminate streak contaminations from the rearing cultures. Another advantage of millet as a vector rearing host over maize proved to be the inability of aphids (Rhopalosiphum maidis), a severe pest of maize, to build up.Maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV). Thirteen maize varieties and breeding lines were tested for resistance to an isolate of maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV). Some of these varieties and lines have resistances to other virus diseases, including MSV, maize rough dwarf virus and MDMV (Table 4).IITA's MSV resistant TZSR-white population, eariier found to be resistant to maize mottlelchlorotic stunt and maize stripe virus (IITA Annual Report, 1979), only developed relatively mild symptoms in about half of the plants inoculated. It can, thus, be considered moderately resistant to MDMV.IITA's MSV resistant TZSR-white population, thus, combines high levels of resistance to 4 different virus diseases of regional or continental importance in Africa.MDMV was purified as previously reported (IITA Annual Report, 1979). The preparations were emulsified with an equal volume of Freund's incomplete adjuvant and injected into a rabbit at weekly intervals. Five intramuscular injections were given, and 2 weeks after the last injection, bleedings were started at weekly intervals. An antiserum with a titer of 1/1024 was obtained as assayed by a microprecipitin test. Cowpea virus diseases (CYMV, CAbMV, CuMV, CMeV, CGMV, and CMMV). A simple separation and differentiation scheme, involving a few selected test plants, was developed to Identify cowrea mottle virus (CMeV), cowpea yellow mosaic virus (CYMV), cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CAbMV) and cucumber mosaic virus (CuMV) in mixed infections. Specific susceptibility and resistance (immunity) to these 4 most important saptransmissible cowpea viruses enables separation and preliminary identification (Table 5).By serial inoculation to 3 test plant species in various sequences, separation of most double or multiple infec- Susceptibility to CYMV was found to exist in 35 of the 55 introductions and at levels considered too high for these varieties to be safely grown in areas where CYMV occurs.Massive infection with CuMV, not earlier considered to be of sufficient importance to specifically screen for it, was identified in the cowpea variety Ife Brown at Mokwa, Nigeria, in the southern Guinea savannah.Preliminary attempts to purify CAbMV using different combinations of buffers and n-butanol did not yield any encouraging results. However, when the buffer and the solvents were changed, it was possible to get small quantities of virus. The following procedure was developed that gave satisfactory results: Infected leaves were homogenized in a blender with 0.25 M phosphate buffer (pH 8.5) and 0.5 percent Na,SO, and 0.1 percent 2-mercaptoethanol. The resulting extract was filtered through a double layer of cheese cloth and 25 percent chloroform and 25 percent carbon tetrachloride were added. The mixture was stirred for 2-5 minutes. The emulsion was broken by low-speed centrifugation. Virus particles were precipitated from the supernatant by addition of 6 percent polyethylene glycol (PEG). The precipitate was collected by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes The resulting pellet was resuspended in 0.01 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.7) containing 0.001 M EDTA and 0.001 M cysteine. After another cycle of low-speed centrifugation at 20,000 rpm for 90 minutes in a Beckman 30 rotor.the virus was resuspended in 0.01 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.7) containing 0.001 M EDTA. The virus was further purified by centrifugation through sucrose density gradient columns. It gave a single virus peak, which was infective on inoculation to cowpea seedlings.Cowpea aphid borne mosaic virus (CAbMV). CAbMV was transmitted through the seed of each of the 4 cowpea accessions (Table 6), all of which were known previously to be very susceptible to CAbMV infection. However, there appeared to be differences between accessions in the rate of seed transmission, ranging from a mean of 1.1 percent for TVu 37 to 12.0 percentfor TVu 54 following artificial inoculation.There was clear indication that seed-borne infection may lead to higher rates of seed transmission than artificial 169  6), and it seems probable that this is related to plant age at time of infection.There was some indication that CAbMV isolates may differ in their seed transmissibility (Table 7), but there was no evidence that isolates may become host-adapted since an isolate from the accession TVu 37 was transmitted at a lower rate through seed of that accession than were 2 other isolates from different sources. The significant differences in seed transmission rates among varieties suggest there is a potential for screening against seed transmission of CAbMV. Cowpea mild mottle virus (CMMV), Twenty-eight entries in the 1979 International cowpea trial, (see under soybean) all representing advanced breeding products, were tested for resistance to cowpea mild mottle virus (CMMV). None of the introductions developed any systemic symptoms, and no virus particles were found in any of the lines in electron microscope investigation.Twenty-five germ plasm introductions, representing a random cross section of cowpea genetic diversity were tested, and 4 introductions developed necrotic local lesions on the inoculated primary leaves, followed by systemic vein yellowing and/or necrosis. The vein necrosis reaction resulted in a prominent leaf curling and twisting, usually followed by abscission.Among these, TVu 1582 was found to be a suitable indicator plant for this virus , developing well defined brown , Nineteen soybean breeding parents with CMMV containing the severe component were tested ; only TGm 344 and TGm 662 were found to be resistant (hypersensitive reaction) to this isolate though latent infection with the ordinary type of CMMV proved to occur.These 2 introductions were tested with the new Potyvirus. and they were found to be susceptible developing the same prominent mosaic and leaf twisting symptoms as other introductions tested. Also, in the main growing season. another Poty-virus was isolated from soybean showing mosaic symptoms. On testing with antisera to soybean mosaic virus, positive reactions were obtained.This isolate was twice transmitted by aphids and electron microscopically checked for absence of the carlavirus. commonly found to occur In soybean.A purification procedure was developed after testing several methods. Leaves of artificially inoculated soybean plants were collected and chilled. They were homoge-nIZed in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.7) and 0.01 M EDT A and 0.001 M cysteine and 0.1 percent 2-mercaptoethanol. The extract was clarified by using 25 percent chloroform and 25 percent carbon tetrachloride. After low-and high-speed centrifugations, the pellet was resuspended in a 0.01 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.7) and 0.001 M EDTA. After another cycle of low-and highspeed centrifugations, the virus preparation was layered on top 01 a sucrose gradient. The single virus peak was collected, which was highly inlective. The virus preparations have been injected to rabbits, and an antiserum is anticipated soon.The Analytical Service laboratory provided a range 01 analytical services to support research in all programs during 1980.Assays routinely performed included chemical and phys- Besides the many consultations with IITA stall and students, the biometrician developed a theoretical approach to the use of the scores in selecting material for genetic improvement. It was stated that the technique is most useful in the case of large numbers of entries that must be screened for possible resistance to some pest or disease, Thus, work is In terms of a subjective probability, which may estimate and measure the belief 01 the scientists as to the closeness of any entry to the susceptible or resistant check. Finally, considerable headway was made in the analysis of long-range experiments on 5 crops and 22 mulches, which has lasted 5 years.pecial projects are extra-core funded, medlumterm projects (1-5 years) that contribute to the achievement of the Institute's research goals. Special projects fall into 3 categories: cooperative projects, training and collaborative research projects and core supplementary projects.Cooperative projects involve cooperation between the Institute, a national government or regional body that requests IITA's involvement and, when necessary, a funding agency. The national or regional agricultural research and development program will generate scientific and technical information of relevance to IITA's research mandate and will incorporate a training component to prepare appropriate staff to assume overall responsibility for the program at an early date. Sao Tome, IITA is assisting the Republic of Sao Tome and Principe (RSTP) in establishing a national food crop trials program involving rice. maize and grain legumes. IITA does not have a full time scientist assigned to RSTP, rather 2 Sao Tomeans have received concentrated training in establishing and evaluating food crop trials. and IITA scientists make several trips per year to Sao Tome to guide and evaluate the effort, which is funded under a contract with USAID. Sri Lanka, An IITA agricultural engineer is assigned to Sri Lanka to develop an agricultural engineering program focused on developing small tools and machinery for low resource food crop farmers in the tropics. Although part of a national effort. tools and machinery developed would be relevant to food crop farming systems throughout the tropics.Niger. Under a grant from IDRC, IITA is undertaking in collaboration with the Institute National de Recherches Agronomlques (INRAN) of Niger a study of drought tal• erance in cowpea.SAFGRAD. Under a contract with USAID, IITA is providing 4 scientists to participate in the Semi-Arid Food Grains Research and Development (SAFGRAD) project. The scientists, all based in Ouagadougou, are a maize breeder, a maize agronomist, a cowpea agronomist and an entomologist. The cowpea agronomist works closely with the IITA cowpea breeder assigned to the Upper Volta National Cowpea Improvement Program_ There are 24 African countries participating In the SAFGRAD effort. UNDP Nitrogen Contribution from Legume Rhizobia Grant. Funds from UNDP enable liT A to expand its research on N fixation by cowpea and soybean in order to determine the potential of the legume/rhizobia symbiotiC system and devise methods for manipulating this system to improve grain yields and N accretion to farming systems. The Boyce Thompson Institute (USA). Cornell University (USA) and the University of Western Australia are collaborating with IITA on this project. FAO African Rural Storage Center. This project's objective is to reduce on-farm, post-harvest, food crop losses in tropical Africa. The project is funded by the Danish Technical Aid Agency, DAN IDA, and FAa is the executing agent. IITA is not directly involved in the project's execution; rather, IITA provides facilities and professional advice as required.IORC Grain Legume Information Center Grant. Since 1974, IDRC has been provided funds to establish at IITA a specialized information center on cowpea and other grain legumes of interest to the Institute. USAID International Meloidogyne Project (IMP). With funding from USAID as administered by North Carolina State University (USA), IITA has been partiCipating since 1976 in a project designed to gain knowledge of plant parasitic nematodes in the humid tropiCS.tFAD Grant lor the Biological Control 01 Cassava Mealybug and Green Spider Mite, In May, 1980, IITA and IFAD entered into an agreement whereby IITAwili undertake over an initial 3.5 years, research and exploration missions aimed at the eventual biological control of 2 serious insect pests of cassava in Africa, the cassava mealybug and the green spider mite.The Inlernational Federation of Institutes for Advanced Study (IFIAS) Grant for Soil Degradation Studies. IFIAS is providing funds to enable IITA to estimate the extent of soil degradation at 3 sites in tropical Africa and investigate the constraints restricting the application of techniques designed to prevent such degradation.Texaco Grant for Cassava Mealybug and Green Spider Mite Research, Texaco Nigeria Limited has provided IITA a modest grant to enable IITA to expand its research on cassava mealybug and green spider mite control.IDRC Agro Forestry Project. Since 1978, IDRC has pro• vided funds to enable IITA to undertake research into tree crop/food crop farming systems in tropical Africa.International Mineral and Chemicals Corporation (IMCC) Grant for Fertilizer Studies. An IMeC grant has enabled IITA to support research by students undertaking fertilizer studies in tropical Africa.","tokenCount":"54746"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"17a8ddb1953681a5d2ffa7cd3de03404","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4f1321b2-77f5-4e86-9f86-a8118e839d8b/retrieve","id":"1089727763"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2198c24e-f1a1-4ec8-b16b-ed3d82af6002","pagecount":"27","content":"CIP publications contribute important development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send a copy to the Communications Department at the address below.Plantix is an agricultural app developed by a private company based in Germany which offers a diagnosis and advice for more than 30 crops. It has great potential as a new form of extension service complementing a traditional face-to-face extension service. The CGIAR Plant Health Initiative seeks to introduce the app as part of a package of innovations available for integrated pest and disease management to facilitate behavioral change among farmers. Plantix has been widely used in India but has not yet become very common in Vietnam.The aim of this pilot study was to test the usability of Plantix app for progressive rural vegetable growers in Don Duong District, Lam Dong Province, Vietnam. A group of 8 farmers (1 woman and 7 men) participated in the training on use of the app and provided feedback after a two-week trial.The results show that the farmers are very interested in using Plantix. Some of the male participants were already familiar with the symptoms of regular pests and diseases. The app can be very useful for them when they start growing new crops, when there are new pests and diseases, and when they have difficulties distinguishing one disease from others with similar symptoms. Some of the farmers suggested the need for additional information concerning the prediction of pests and diseases at a very early stage before spread in the community. They also suggested the need for information about new generation pesticides.Considering the gender division of labor and decision-making, the results show that men are usually responsible for pest and disease management, but women are also involved in decision-making to some extent. It will be interesting to observe how women's improved knowledge on pest and disease management obtained through Plantix will lead to change in household decisions on pesticide use.The participating farmers frequently use the Internet and mobile phones as a means of accessing information and exchanging knowledge. Male farmers learn new agricultural technologies through social networks within and outside their villages. However, the most trusted information source is input suppliers. Involving input suppliers in the introduction of the Plantix app could be the key to changing farmers' behaviors. The participants actively exchanged information from Plantix using another message app, Zalo, which can be used as a platform for facilitating communication among farming peers, researchers and other stakeholders.While this pilot study focused on progressive farmers, there are small-holder farmers from poor households in some remote areas in Lam Dong. Their needs and knowledge may be significantly different from those of progressive farmers. Introducing the app to different types of farmers can help us understand the diverse needs and priorities of farmers in the process of digitalization.Lam Dong Province is well known for horticultural produce, in particular, vegetables, roots, tubers, flowers, fruits, coffee and tea. The outskirts of Da Lat City offer a panoramic view of greenhouses covering hundreds of hectares of irrigated farmlands (Figure 1). The overuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has become a serious issue in Lam Dong Province (Houbraken et al., 2016;Nguyen et al., 2018;Nguyen et al., 2017). During the wet season, farmers spray as often as once every three days for prevention purposes (Houbraken et al., 2016). Each year, over 3,700 tons of plant protection products are used within the province, of which chemical products account for a staggering 92%, as opposed to 7.9% of bio-products. More than 280 companies produce, import and/or distribute 1,500 plant protection products in Lam Dong (Viet, 2022).Vegetable production is concentrated in particular parts of the province, such as Da Lat City, Don Duong District and Duc Trong District, which is one of the largest tomato production areas in Vietnam. The major vegetable crops include cabbage, tomato, chili, carrot, chayote, onion, potato and brassicas, and most of the vegetables are sold in Ho Chi Minh City (Lam Dong Crop Production and Plant Protection Department, 2021a-d;Nguyen et al., 2017).Several studies have reported overuse of pesticides in the horticultural sector in Lam Dong Province. According to a household survey of vegetable growers (n=150) in Lam Dong (Nguyen et al., 2017), various types of pesticides including highly toxic pesticides (WHO class II) are used. The majority of farmers (78%) spray more than seven times per cropping season during the rainy season. There is no statistically significant difference by gender in spraying practices. Some farmers (28%) stop spraying only 3-7 days before harvesting. Similar evidence was found in a household survey (n=40-60) conducted by the Lam Dong Crop Production and Plant Protection Department (2021a-d). For example, the majority of farmers spray cabbages and potatoes more than 10 times per cropping season, which amounts to over 30 ha/season. Some studies highlight farmers' inappropriate mixing of pesticides and disposal methods and ill-timed applications (Loveniers, 2019;Nguyen et al., 2018;Tran & Do, 2019).Farmers in Lam Dong use basic protective equipment such as gloves and face masks (Nguyen et al., 2018).However, around one third of farmers reported health symptoms such as dizziness, eye and nose irritation, headache or nausea. Almost all farmers are concerned about the effects of pesticides on their health (Nguyen et al., 2017).The provincial government and local organizations address the overuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers by promoting alternative approaches such as Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM), VietGap certification and biocontrol through extension programs (Hoi & An, 2015). The government also regulates agricultural chemicals through regular inspection and guidance (Lam Dong Crop Production and Plant Protection Department, 2021a-d).However, the adoption of alternative approaches remains very low, with only a small number of innovative farmers trying them. Several studies highlight the lack of awareness and training opportunities for farmers (Hoi & An, 2015). On the other hand, farmers choose chemicals based on their own and their peers' experience in terms of effectiveness rather than on information from experts, retailers and chemical pesticide labels (Houbraken et al., 2016;Loveniers, 2019). It is not clear if providing more information through traditional extension services can change farmers' behaviors.The objective of this pilot study is to explore the potential for using the agricultural app Plantix to reduce pesticide use among rural vegetable farmers, both women and men, in Lam Dong. This is the second pilot study in Vietnam, following the first pilot conducted in Gia Lam, Hanoi with small-scale urban vegetable growers (Bui et al., 2022).Plantix offers six services to users: 1) diagnosis and treatment advice; 2) fertilizer calculation; 3) farming tips; 4) disease warnings and prevention; 5) a farmer community and 6) agricultural weather forecasts. Currently, it offers instant diagnosis and treatment advice for 30 crops, vegetables and fruits.Plantix has been widely used by male vegetable growers in India. In this study, we test the app in the context of Vietnam with both male and female vegetable growers. In particular, we aim to establish gender-responsive participatory collective learning approaches targeting both women and men.This study also attempts to scale up Plantix following the scaling readiness approach (Sartas et al., 2020). In this first stage, we test the core innovation, seek possible complementary innovations appropriate to a given gender and social context, and identify stakeholders who can potentially facilitate scaling up of the app.The pilot study was conducted in Lac Lam Commune, Don Duong District in Lam Dong Province in August 2022.Lam Dong Province consists of 2 cities and 10 rural districts. Don Duong District (Figure 1) was selected as it is well-known for vegetable production. Don Duong District consists of 2 townships and 8 communes. Lac Lam Commune has ten villages, and we invited farmers from 3 villages from within this commune. The major vegetables grown in the study commune are capsicums and chilis, lettuces, tomatoes, onions, and leafy greens.Apart from vegetables, farmers also grow flowers. There is no rice production in the study area. According to our observations as well as information from the literature (Loveniers, 2019;Nguyen et al., 2017), the majority of farms in Lam Dong are managed by men. There is a small number of women-managed farms, and women may also, to some extent, be involved in crop protection on male-managed farms. We, therefore, intentionally tried to include women farmers in this pilot study. As in the pilot study in Gia Lam, Hanoi, many farmers in the study area use iPhones. This could be a major challenge for introducing Plantix in Vietnam.The research team consulted with the local authority to select participants based on three criteria: 1) farmers who grow vegetables for sale; 2) farmers who have android smart phones and data plans; and 3) farmers who are interested in learning improved methods on pest and disease treatment. We also requested to have a gender balance among the participants and to include young farmers, if available.A total of eight farmers who were android users (one woman and seven men) participated in the training. The majority of participants were young farmers with the youngest being 27 years old. However, only one woman attended the training, and she could not join the feedback session as she was caring for a sick family member.Most of the participants had large-scale farms of 1 hectare or more, with the smallest at 0.4 hectares and the largest at 5 hectares. The Plantix training was conducted on 20 August 2022. The training included an introduction to Plantix, downloading the app, a field trial and an initial feedback session. During the two-week trial on their own farms, we made phone calls to some farmers twice to assist them with solving technical issues, and to monitor their progress with Plantix.In addition, the training participants were connected with a communication message app called \"Zalo\" to facilitate their collective learning and exchange information during the trial. The research team also joined this group to monitor and facilitate the group's communication. After the two-week trial period, a focus group discussion was conducted to collect feedback from the participants. Only five men participated in the focus group discussion as two men and the female farmer could not attend this feedback session due to family matters. Two young women farmers who had heard about Plantix from one of the participants joined the feedback session. Although they had not used Plantix, we listened to their views and incorporated them in some general sections to represent the perspectives of women farmers.The focus group discussion consisted of seven topics: 1) the local crop calendar and seasonal differences in pests and diseases; 2) feedback on the content of the Plantix app; 3) behavioral change and information sharing; 4) potential constraints for some farmers in using this app; 5) gender roles in pest and disease management; 6) information sources; and 7) perceptions on pesticide overuse. A digital extension tool assessment framework was developed drawing on Coggins et al. (2022), who identified major constraints to using digital extension tools in the global south. They divided the constraints into three categories: 1) access to digital information; 2) the technical content of the tool; and 3) behavioral change. We applied these categories in our analysis with specific consideration of gender-and age-based constraints in this assessment framework (Table 1). 3 ResultsIn Vietnam in general, and in the study area in particular, smart phones are very common among both women and men. The pilot study confirms that the farmers are familiar with smartphone technologies and have good access to mobile networks, and all the participants quickly learned and enjoyed using the app. Some farmers had even installed the app and tested it before the training session.Plantix does not provide a service to iPhone users, which is the most significant constraint to disseminating the app.Plantix's website and some illustrations in the app use images of male farmers, mostly from India. We need to request Plantix to include images of women farmers from Southeast Asia that female users in Vietnam can identify with.There are six functions in the app: 1) diagnosis and treatment advice; 2) fertilizer calculation; 3) farming tips; 4) disease warnings and prevention; 5) a farmer community and 6) agricultural weather forecasts. Six of the eight participants used the diagnosis and treatment advice function. Only one male farmer used the agricultural weather forecasts, and none of the participants used the other functions.The participating farmers agreed that the app is very easy to use and that the recommendations are in line with their previous training and knowledge. Some farmers pointed out that the diagnosis was not 100% correct-the misdiagnosis was due to a photo angle-but this indicates the importance of training for farmers to build their trust and confidence in the app.Many male farmers have confidence in their pesticide and fertilizer use and their knowledge on how to grow crops. Mr Hoang (27) commented, \"The app is good for farmers who just established their farms and have little experience of cultivation… We are experienced, so when the symptoms are clear, we can recognize which pests/diseases are on our plants, and how to treat them. It will be much more helpful if the app can identify problems even when the disease is still at the early stage, before the damage becomes serious.\"Mr Dung (61) also commented \"It would be helpful to include local names, in addition to the scientific names of the diseases or problems, so that it will be more familiar to farmers.\"Most of the participants own large-scale farms, so \"hectare\" was comfortably used as the unit of area for the calculation of fertilizers or pesticides. However, when asked about their farm size, one smaller-scale farmer did describe it using the local term \"sao\" (equivalent to 1000 m 2 in the central highlands and southern Vietnam), so there might be benefits to including local Vietnamese metric units to better suit smaller producers.Mr Long ( 27) also suggested that \"The fertilizer calculation should be according to the growth stage of plants because small and grown plants have different needs for nutrients.\"Among the 12 vegetables which many farmers grow in the study area, only 7 vegetables are available in the app for diagnosis and treatment advice (Table 2). As shown in Table 2 above, pests and diseases are prevalent in August to September during the rainy season.Therefore, farmers had many opportunities for using the app during the pilot test.The farmers requested that the following crops also be included in the app: celery, spring onion, lettuce, beetroot, kohlrabi (popular in the area), and cauliflower, broccoli, carrot, spinach, sweetpotato, mustard green and asparagus (fewer growers).Apart from vegetables, farmers also requested a diagnosis and advice service for flowers, which are important income sources.August to September is pest and disease season in Lam Dong. Many photos were taken with the Plantix app by the participating farmers. They actively exchanged information obtained through Plantix among themselves during the two-week trial.However, they did not take further actions following the Plantix advice. There are a number of reasons on why they did not change their practice immediately.First, the targeted farmers are progressive farmers who have a high level of knowledge about pests and diseases.The farmers' knowledge was in agreement with the recommendations of the app. The farmers expressed a willingness to take action if the app provided new information that filled a gap in their knowledge. Mr Hoang remarked, \"The app provides useful advice and information on chemicals that I didn't know before. It would be very useful if the app also updates us on new generation chemical products and active ingredients on the market, because pests have become more resistant to old pesticides. Also, specific detailed instructions for each crop should be provided.\"Second, the recommended quantities of pesticides and fertilizers provided in Plantix are different from those they actually use, but the farmers still prefer to follow their own formulas which usually involves overuse. In the case of fertilizers, some farmers have been using more complex formulas than those advised by the app. Mr Dat explained, \"I am using my own formula of fertilizers, consisting of single fertilizers mixed at certain ratios depending on the age and health of crops. I have not yet used the fertilizers advice from Plantix.\" The participants reported that farmers still typically spray pesticides 2-3 times per week, sometimes even daily when it rains a lot, or during periods of serious pests or diseases. One farmer commented, \"The farmers here still use more than the recommended amount. The reason is that we want to see immediate results.\" Mr Hoang also commented on the overuse of pesticides: \"We would prefer to kill all the pests including natural enemies than miss some of the pests. But even doing that is sometimes not effective enough to control pests and diseases.\"Other farmers added that they have to spray more to compensate for a certain amount of chemical which is absorbed into the soil instead of plants due to the operation of high-pressure pump sprayers. The farmers also reported increasing the dose to reduce the number of times they need to spray and the associated labor.Third, farmers follow the example of their peers, as mentioned by a male farmer: \"Here, we often follow what other farmers are doing.\" Therefore, it may take some time before the hoped for outcomes that some individual farmers change practices following the Plantix recommendations, and then other farmers observe their success and follow them.Forth, farmers are closely connected with pesticide companies who offer gifts such as caps, raincoats, and pullovers with their logos as well as small bottles of pesticides. Strong incentives may be required for farmers to change to pesticides with unfamiliar brands.The farmers appear to be conscious of the negative effects of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on their own health and the environment. Mr. Hoang shared, \"When spraying, I have to wear a raincoat and cover myself the whole time, which is very uncomfortable and hot. After spraying, I am very tired. I feel like I have pesticide poisoning. I am nauseous the whole day, my appetite is gone and I don't want to eat anything.\" Other farmers also mentioned their concerns over the chemical contamination of water sources and soil.On the positive side, the farmers are also equipped with knowledge of alternative solutions such as biopesticides and biocontrol methods. Some of them are already using biopesticides and/or natural predators on their farms.Mr Dat reported, \"On my farms, we're using natural enemies, so we must follow the recommended dosage of pesticides, because excessive concentration of chemicals will kill beneficial organisms.\"When asked about other crops they would like to be added to the app, the farmers were enthusiastic and raised a great number of ideas, which indicates their eagerness to learn from the app. Some farmers said that they were willing to try Plantix's advice even if it goes against their experience. The farmers are also very open to new technologies, and they have been adopting various new technologies over the past years. This is a great indicator of potential behavioral change in the future, when the app can fill the knowledge gaps and address the farmers' specific needs.Some farmers introduced the apps to their friends and neighbors. Mr Dung introduced the app to a male farmer friend and a pesticide seller who downloaded it and tried it out. Another male participant introduced the app to two female friends. The participants thought that the app would be of interest to young farmers (less than 50 years old), vegetable dealers, pesticide sellers, as well as new farmers who need more farming experience. The participants confirmed that women can also be interested as they are also involved in agriculture. Two of the participants' wives work in vegetable production but the participants did not share the app with their wives.We formed a group with Zalo to facilitate communications, and the farmers used this tool to interact with one another. Some participants, both male and female, were actively participating in discussions by posting photos of the diseased plants and Plantix diagnoses to the Zalo group chat and asking questions. Other farmers also responded by sharing their knowledge on certain pests and diseases and how to treat them. These observations suggest that the app can work as an individual and a collective learning tool for both women and men.In this pilot study, we explored the gender roles and decision-making of the participants' own households.According to the focus group discussion, men are generally more involved in vegetable production as decision makers and laborers, while women do lighter work such as planting, weeding, monitoring, harvesting and selling.Women are more involved than men in harvesting.Regarding the work related to pest and disease management, we asked participants to nominate who in their household makes decisions about and carries out each respective activity (Table 3). Illustrations of a man and woman: © beelzebub2811@gmail.com Other illustrations: ©n.kawarazuka@cgiar.orgAmong the participants' households, the actual tasks of applying pesticides, disposing of containers and cleaning equipment are performed exclusively by men (either male participants themselves or hired male labor). Other activities such as buying and mixing pesticides, attending training and interacting with extension staff or pesticide company staff are also either performed and/or decided by men only in some households, or mostly by men in others. The only activity which is performed more often by women than men is washing pesticide contaminated clothing. However, these results also imply that women do play some, albeit smaller, roles in pest and disease management.Women are also involved in decision-making on purchasing pesticides and how much to use. This shows that women's improved access to knowledge through Plantix may have some impact on household decisions on pesticide investment and use.We identified the farmers' current major sources of information on agriculture (Table 4). The most commonly used information sources include peer farmers (from both outside and within the village, and more often men) and pesticide/input sellers. These information sources are consulted on a weekly basis.Internet sources and using their own experience are also common. Extension workers seem to be a minor source of information, and no participants mentioned TV or radio.When asked which sources of information they trusted the most, most participants selected \"pesticide/input sellers\" and \"own experience\". Interestingly, the female participants seem to place more trust on the former.Involving input suppliers in introducing the Plantix app could be a key strategy for changing male farmers' behaviors.Further studies are required to understand how women obtain information and which sources they trust.This pilot study confirmed that the participating farmers are greatly interested in using the Plantix app as a means to learning better practices to control pests and diseases, and improving the production and quality of their agricultural produce.Due to the limited number of female farmers, the gender aspects were not well explored. However, from our observations and the discussion with male participants and two young women who joined the feedback session, it is important to involve women in the introduction of the Plantix app as joint farm managers and decision makers.The information needs and the potential utilization of Plantix for progressive male farmers in Lam Dong are different from those of small-holder men and women farmers in Gia Lam, Hanoi whose knowledge on pests and diseases is relatively limited. If the Plantix app can meet different needs by offering different levels of information, it can attract diverse users in Vietnam.Among the 17 items of the assessment checklist, 7 items require adjustments to the local context (Table 5). How will the Plantix app be marketed? The farmer cooperative plays a key role in facilitating the introduction of the app. Agricultural input suppliers may need to be involved in the introduction of Plantix as they are the most trusted source of information for farmers. Can users easily share the app information? Yes, the farmers confirmed the app information is easy to share for both men and women below 50 years of age.Who can/can't access required devices? iPhone users (this could be more than 50% of farmers). Are accessible devices of sufficient quality to use DET (including operating software, durability, screen size, processing speed)? Yes, the farmers confirmed that there are no problems.Can farmers access electricity with limited monetary and travel costs? Yes, electricity is 100% available in all households and affordable.Is the Plantix app appropriate for the mobile network reliability, speed and affordability? Mobile networks work well on farms. Those who do not have mobile data (4G), cannot receive diagnosis and advice on the farm but they can later when they have Internet access. Insensitive to digital illiteracy Do farmers already use various apps in their mobile phones? Yes, the farmers did not need much guidance in downloading and using the app.Is reading or typing required to use the DET? Yes, some reading is required but both the men and women farmers confirmed that they have no problems. Unfamiliar language Can the Plantix app offer local terms and metrics? Needs to be adjusted (see the results Section 2.2) Slow to access How long does it take for users to access benefits? They receive some benefit instantly after taking a photo (obtaining new knowledge and information).Is the content visual (or at least visualizable)? Yes, farmers are more interested in functions with visual content than text-based content.Can the Plantix involve games, stories, humor, visuals or human interaction? No. However, the quick diagnosis and advice attracts farmers to keep using it. Plantix uses male farmers in images. Images of women farmers from various regions need to be included.Does the Plantix information include (or at least adapt to) users' preexisting knowledge? Some adjustments are required to include locally available pesticides and locally recommended IPM practices. Additional information such as new generation pesticide products and early warning messages may attract more progressive farmers to use the Plantix app.Are the Plantix app priorities (e.g., increased yield, reduced risk) set by users or others? Yes.Does the Plantix provide users with options? Unclear. Plantix seems to be more useful for farmers with limited knowledge. We need to investigate further what options Plantix provides and if the options can cover the diverse needs and interests of farmers in different socio-economic situations. Irrelevant to farm Can the Plantix be adapted to local soils, climates, agronomic practices and crop calendars? Some adjustments are required to include local crops and pests/diseases.Is the Plantix branding familiar and trusted? Although this is the first time using it, the farmers trust most of the information from the app. Some farmers do not fully trust the app. Information on the accuracy rate of diagnosis should be shared with farmers to increase their trust.Based on this pilot study, we request Plantix to make adjustments for the Vietnam context as follows:• Include female images of farmers from Southeast Asia;• Add a local unit \"sao\" (1 sao is 360m 2 in the north, 500m 2 in the central region, and 1000m 2 in the south);• Add local names of the pests/diseases;• Guides with diagnosis and advice for the following vegetables: lettuce, celery, spring onion; beetroot, kohlrabi, broccoli, cauliflower, carrot, spinach, sweet potato, asparagus, and mustard greens;• Provide fertilizer recommendations specific to each crop and stage of growth;• Include new-generation active ingredients and chemical products and companies available in Vietnam;• Include market information on agricultural inputs. Training materials (link)A questionnaire for focus group discussions (link)Original notes on focus group discussions (link)Original notes on farmers' feedback during the two-week trial period (link)","tokenCount":"4553"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2b4a9b66fcdeb7c949ccf6fcefb4686b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/98330094-9090-4248-9743-137de12f97d9/retrieve","id":"-1940555316"},"keywords":["citizen science","dietary patterns","digital data collection","USSD","Rwanda"],"sieverID":"8805dbdf-a2e4-4ea7-8c71-f747ac23cc57","pagecount":"14","content":"Diet quality is a critical determinant of human health and increasingly serves as a key indicator for food system sustainability. However, data on diets are limited, scattered, often project-dependent, and current data collection systems do not support high-frequency or consistent data flows. We piloted in Rwanda a data collection system, powered by the principles of citizen science, to acquire high frequency data on diets. The system was deployed through an unstructured supplementary service data platform, where respondents were invited to answer questions regarding their dietary intake. By combining micro-incentives with a normative nudge, 9,726 responses have been crowdsourced over 8 weeks of data collection. The cost per respondent was <$1 (system set-up, maintenance, and a small payment to respondents), with interactions taking <15 min. Exploratory analyses show that >70% of respondents consume tubers and starchy vegetables, leafy vegetables, fruits, legumes, and wholegrains. Women consumed better quality diets than male respondents, revealing a sex-based disparity in diet quality. Similarly, younger respondents (age ≤24 years) consumed the lowest quality diets, which may pose significant risks to their health and mental well-being. Middle-income Rwandans were identified to have consumed the highest quality diets. Long-term tracking of diet quality metrics could help flag populations and locations with high probabilities of nutrition insecurity, in turn guiding relevant interventions to mitigate associated health and social risks.The triple burden of malnutrition: undernourishment, micronutrient deficiencies, and over nutrition is a global challenge, with almost a billion people experiencing undernutrition and a further 2 billion currently overweight (Global Nutrition Report Independent Expert Group, 2020). Malnutrition has been linked to a multitude of factors, including socio-economic (Reinhardt and Fanzo, 2014), with undernutrition often associated with lower and middle-income countries and overnutrition with high income countries. However, this spectrum is increasingly blurred, with the different forms of malnutrition now observable in the same country, household, and even in the same person (Doak et al., 2000(Doak et al., , 2005;;Global Nutrition Report Independent Expert Group, 2018).In low-income countries, consumption of healthy foods is in decline, with simultaneous increases in unhealthy foods (Imamura et al., 2015). In lower-middle income countries (LMICs), increased consumption of both healthy and unhealthy foods has been observed (Imamura et al., 2015). These dynamic patterns are in many cases the manifestation of nutrition transitions, where wealthier and more urban individuals shift towards consumption of processed, sweetened, and salted foods (Popkin, 2015). In Africa, younger, increasingly urban, and wealthier populations have experienced major nutrition transitions over recent decades (Vorster et al., 2011;Steyn and McHiza, 2014;Kinyonki et al., 2020). In Rwanda, for example, 33% of the population remains undernourished (National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda and ICF, 2020), with nutritionally inadequate diets widely prevalent (Marivoet et al., 2020;Arsenault and Olney, 2021). Like many other LMICs however, nutrition transitions are evident in Rwanda, with people moving away from traditional plant-based diets of leafy vegetables, fruits, legumes, and grains. A consequence of such a transition is that the population of overweight children is larger than that suffering wasting (FAO, 2018;World Bank, 2019;Kinyonki et al., 2020).Global malnutrition and dietary transitions reinforce the need to promote innovative and nutrition-focused food systems (Gómez et al., 2013). To do so, Popkin et al. (2020) argue that new ways of designing and targeting nutrition programmes and policies are needed. These programmes would require concerted efforts to improve the availability, access, frequency, and quality of data on diets. Unfortunately, government and non-government agencies in LMICs generally do not have data collection systems needed for concerted high frequency data collection (Tuffrey and Hall, 2016). When available, data on diets are from small, fragmented, and temporally static samples and globally modelled data diverge dependent on the source and models used and are therefore limited in terms of actionability for program design (Beal et al., 2021).To address this, innovative systems and tools for dietary data collection are required that provide basic functionality to engage users, whilst having a back-end that can aggregate diet data and generate insights about dietary patterns across groups. Although diet quality tracking software are widely available for smartphone users (e.g., Ferrara et al., 2019). Unfortunately, similar applications are limited for simple phone (nonsmartphone) users, which dominate mobile phone ownership outside of advanced economies (Pew Research Center, 2019). Despite this, contextually sensitive technologies and methods exist (e.g., unstructured supplementary service data, interactive voice response, and computer assisted telephone interviews) to generate a sustained and high-frequency data flow from crowdbased data collection systems (Gibson et al., 2017;Lamanna et al., 2019). The harmonisation of these data collection systems with rapid and globally validated diet quality assessment tools (e.g., Herforth et al., 2020a,b), could provide an opportunity for developing and testing a system for high-frequency diet tracking and rapid diet quality assessment. Construction and testing of a crowd-based system constitutes an indispensable and promising step towards robust data-driven policies and interventions for food and nutrition security (e.g., Wells et al., 2019).We aim to develop a generic and widely applicable data collection system that leverages on the application of citizen science and digital tools for high frequency collection of diet data. Specifically, we look to provide learning from the development, testing, and application of this system in Rwanda, whilst providing provisional results on the trends in diet quality across Rwandan society. The goal of this system being to generate a robust system that is easily adapted to national dietary and technological conditions to generate insights on diet quality to support evidenced-based policy making and interventions.The piloting of this system was conducted in Rwanda (Figure 1), a Central African country of around 13 million people. The Rwandan population is largely below 40 years old (National Institute of Statistics Rwanda, 2021). In 2018, at least 17% of the population experienced moderate or severe food insecurity (National Institute of Statistics Rwanda, 2021). In 2016, 56% of the population was living below the international poverty line (National Institute of Statistics Rwanda, 2021), with median household incomes of $2.57 (World Bank, 2021a). Mobile phone penetration is high, with around 76 mobile phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants (Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority, 2020), with 3G mobile network being accessible to 94% of the population (Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Authority, 2019).To generate insights on diet quality across Rwanda, we applied the Diet Quality Questionnaire (DQ-Q) (Herforth et al., 2020a). The DQ-Q is already being applied globally, with the Gallup Polling organisation including it in diet module of their global polling (Herforth et al., 2020b).The DQ-Q captures consumption information for 26 food groups (including both healthy and unhealthy food items) by asking 29 binary questions. The DQ-Q requires respondents to answer either \"yes\" or \"no\" to whether they consumed, during the past 24 h, example food items presented in the corresponding question. For more information on the DQ-Q and its global application, please visit: https://www.globaldietquality. org/. To make the DQ-Q contextually relevant to Rwanda, it was adapted to national dietary conditions through identification of recognisable and widely available food items for each food group. To do this, we collaborated with the developers of DQ-Q and local governmental authorities. The DQ-Q was translated to Kinyarwanda (Rwanda's official language). The full questionnaire (in English and Kinyarwanda) is available in Supplementary Material 1.From the outputs of the DQ-Q, 12 indicators can be generated. The indicators reflect global dietary recommendations from international authorities (Table 1). These indicators were validated by Herforth et al. (2020a) against equivalent quantitative amounts to align with these global dietary recommendations. The outputs of DQ-Q can also be aggregated into three summary indicators (Global Dietary Recommendation score, Global Dietary Recommendation-Healthy score, and Global Dietary Recommendation-Limit score) which are constructed through the presence of relevant food groups (Table 1). For further information on the construction and validation of the indicators see Herforth et al. (2020a).We deployed the DQ-Q collection system using unstructured supplementary service data (USSD). USSD is a free, text-based protocol that allows for two-way exchanges of information (up to 140 characters in Rwanda). The text-based nature of USSD offers flexibility for deployment on both feature and smartphones and deployment in (almost) any country with Potential respondents for the DQ-Q were sourced from a toll-free information service database ( * 845#), maintained by VIAMO in collaboration with MTN Rwanda (a telecommunications company). The information service has been live for more than 4 years and provides information on agriculture, health, finance, legal aid, nutrition, youth, news, and weather. It can be accessed by all MTN Rwanda customers who have 8 free calls to the service each month.The 845-service database contains prospective respondents' mobile number, age, and sex. This information was collected during a voluntary registration process for the service, not related to this project. The information for more than 1.2 million verified individuals (∼9% of the Rwandan population) are held in the database, with around 80% consenting to be contacted for further information or to participate in surveys. Respondents from all districts (sub-national level-administrative level 2) of Rwanda are present in the database.To track spatial and temporal trends of diet quality, an initial schedule of 28 weekly data collections was developed starting in early August 2021. Data will be collected until February 2022. A representative sample of ∼2,500 respondents for each weekly   data collection was calculated (confidence interval of 1.96 and confidence limits of 95%). However, due to budget limitations, this was reduced to 1,800 individuals. Our experience of similar USSD-based surveys (e.g., Adewopo et al., 2021) has shown that most contacted individuals will not perform the survey, with response rates around 20% (Solano-Hermosilla et al., 2020).To address this and secure a representative sample, per data collection moment, 10,000 individuals were contacted in each weekly data collection moment.To ensure sex-balanced responses, a 50-50 split in responses was programmed. This meant that once 50% of the required respondents were received to be male or female, no further submissions from that sex group could be submitted. To ensure spatially distributed and representative responses, we implemented a populationbased weighting of respondents. To do this, the DQ-Q was sent proportionally to individuals in each district, based upon the population of that district, relative to the national.Once the required number of responses from each district was submitted, no further submissions from that district were accepted.The contacted cohort of 10,000 individuals was randomly selected per week, considering the following requirements: (i) respondents provided consent to be contacted; and (ii) respondents provided information on their sex and district when consenting to be contacted by the 845 service. Although there is the possibility that potential respondents may be shortlisted multiple times for the sample cohort, we do not track the same individuals intentionally. In this pilot, we are only looking to gain insights on diet quality metrics at an administrative aggregate level. Future iterations could easily track diet quality for the same individuals across time.The sample cohort of potential respondents were sent a preliminary information message via Short Message Service (SMS). This message informs the cohort to respond if they would like to perform the DQ-Q survey. Participants then have 7 days to respond to the questionnaire, with data collection opening on Monday morning and closing on Sunday evening. Reminder messages are sent daily to those participants who respond positively to the initial message, but do not complete the survey. Respondents can drop-in and out of the survey with their responses saved. Before submitting, respondents are required to provide their sector (sub district administrative unit) and their economic group. The Rwandan government implements a social stratification of households, classifying across five categories (A-E), based upon income and asset ownership (Table 2).A submission was only finalised when respondents answered all questions. Once the required number of respondents was achieved in each location and for each sex, submission of the questionnaire was no longer available. However, because USSD allows concurrent submissions, there is the possibility of exceeding the required sample-usually between 1 and 10 as the system will only close for new respondents, respondents already in the process of responding can continue till the end.Data collection started on the 9th of August 2021 (Week 1), with results for the first 8 weeks (27th September 2021-Week 8) presented. Data collection continues until early February 2022.To encourage engagement, we provided meagre, yet nonpromissory, reward incentives in the form of airtime. Each respondent who fully completed the questionnaire received 250RWF (∼0.25 USD) of airtime, sent via a digital and traceable payment platform. This incentive was sent en masse to all completed respondents on the Monday following their submission.An automated process of data curation, metric calculation, and visualisation was implemented using R (R Core Team, 2021).Approval for the data collection was received from the Rwanda National Ethics Committee (740/RNEC/2021) and the National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (2058/2021/10/NISR), based on extensive review of the substance and merits of the innovation to support initiatives and policy-action.The data collection system went live in early August 2021, with 8 weekly data collection moments so far completed. Within this period, 80,000 Rwandans were contacted, with 12,821 unique interactions recorded with the system (Figure 3A). The interaction rate fluctuated between 17 and 18%, excluding the early weeks of the project (Figure 3B). The completion rate, where interactions are submitted to the system, fluctuated between 60 and 90% (Figure 3D) with 9,726 submissions collected (Figure 3C). Completion of the survey took around 13 min (Figure 3E), with the most active day for submissions being the day of the first SMS message sent per data collection moment-Monday (Figure 3F). Subsequent daily reminders to respondents yielded diminishing returns of responses. Through preliminary data curation and analyses, we noted that a significant minority of respondents were trying to \"game\" the system, where individuals answer yes to all questions. We found that around 100 individuals each week were reporting in this manner. Although individuals may eat food items from 26 food groups, we assumed this unlikely and that these respondents were responding yes to complete the survey rapidly and receive the payment. To address this, we added a warning at the start of the survey announcing abnormal responses would not be accepted.Basic respondent information is provided in Table 3. The collected data shows a slight female bias, females (50.22%) and males (49.78%). The distribution of respondents' ages was found to be skewed towards younger individuals, with ∼70% (6,773) under the age of 24, with only 6% (581) over 44. The economic grouping of respondents shows a normal distribution, with 85% of respondents coming from the middle-income groupings. The poorest economic grouping only represents 3% of responses.In Figure 4, the presence of food groups in respondents' diets are displayed. The results suggest a core set of food groups: other vegetables (e.g., tomato, cabbage, and aubergine), tubers and starchy vegetables (e.g., potato, cassava, and plantain), dark green leafy vegetables (e.g., green amaranth, cassava leaves, and pumpkin leaves), other fruits (e.g., banana, watermelon, and pineapple), and legumes (e.g., beans and peas). These ubiquitous food groups were consumed by at least 70% of respondents. Invariably, these groups co-occurred in respondents' diets too (Supplementary Figure S1).To reduce the length of the Results section, we present only the results for the summary indicators from Table 1: Global Dietary Recommendation Score (GDR); Global Dietary Recommendation Healthy Score (GDR-Healthy); and Global Dietary Recommendation Limit Score (GDR-Limit). The results for the other 9 indicators (e.g., fruits and vegetables, dietary fibre, free sugars, and saturated) are presented in Supplementary Figures S2-S4. We disaggregate the results for the three focus diet quality metrics across sex, age, economic group (Table 3, Figure 5), and location (Figure 6). The preliminary results demonstrate that Rwandan female respondents have marginally better GDR scores (3.19), compared to their male counterparts (3.05) (Table 3, Figure 5A). Interestingly, Rwandan women were noted to have higher GDR-healthy (Figure 5B) and GDR-Limit (Figure 5C) scores. Deriving temporal trends from such a short time series is difficult, but nascent temporal fluctuations in both the healthy and limit metrics are apparent, with both peaking between Week 5-6 (mid-September 2021).We observed that younger respondents (<24) had the lowest GDR scores of all respondents (2.84 and 3.12-Table 3). As respondents get older their diet quality (GDR score) improves, with some weekly exceptions (Figure 5D). The diet quality of the younger respondents was limited by their high consumption of food items that should be limited (2.65 and 2.51; Table 3), far higher than other age groups who had GDR-Limit scores of <2 (Figure 5F). In contrast, elder groups were observed to have consistently lower GDR-Healthy scores (Figure 5E), with the eldest age group having average GDR-Healthy scores of 5.06, notably lower than the youngest group (5.50; Table 3). The relationship between economic category and diet quality highlights that individuals in the extreme categories are those with the lowest diet quality (Table 3). Individuals from the wealthiest category had especially low diet quality with a GDR score of 2.92, with individuals from the poorest category only having marginally better scores of 3.04. This pattern holds largely true throughout the data collection (Figure 5G). These GDR scores can be explained by wealthier individuals eating moderate levels of healthier foods (Figure 5H), but some of the highest amounts of unhealthy foods (Figure 5I). Individuals with the best diet quality were found in category D, with an average GDR Score of 3.22 (Table 3).In Figure 6, we map the mean GDR, GDR-Healthy, and GDR-Limit scores by district. These maps reflect the scores for all respondents from within each district. We found that the urban districts with the highest population densities (see Figure 1) are associated with the lowest GDR Score. Respondents in these locations also had the highest GDR-Healthy and GDR-Limit scores. Rural, less densely populated areas were found to have notably lower healthy and limit scores, for example in northeastern and southern Rwanda.Understanding diet quality across socio-economic groupings, location, and time is critical to guide policy decisions and nutrition interventions to support health outcomes. Popkin et al. (2020) suggest that this requires innovative systems and tools to generate insights about diet quality across domains. We have developed and tested a data collection system that crowdsources diet quality information from across Rwanda. Leveraging digital tools, we have directly engaged across socio-economic strata, age groups, and location for equitable representation of Rwandan diet quality realities in near real-time. The tool and approach reinforce the utility and benefits of digital data collection and crowd engagement and could be easily adapted to other national contexts.  Developing this novel data collection system reinforced both the benefits of digital data collection and, consistent with other researchers, its shortfalls (e.g., Trucano, 2014;Lamanna et al., 2019). One of the greatest benefits is that digital data collection can be highly cost-efficient (Zeug et al., 2017;Adewopo et al., 2021). Preliminary estimates place our cost per respondent at around $1, with this cost largely associated with the system setup and maintenance, with the incentive payment making up a small portion of the cost. There remains considerable scope for further cost-efficiencies as the system matures and automates, reducing the cost of each data collection moment. In contrast, an identical, but in-person application of the survey in Rwanda had a per respondent cost of $33 (staff costs, travel, car rental, and fuel). Further, the digital survey was more efficient in terms of time per response, taking around 15 min, compared to almost an hour for in-person application.As noted in the results, we identified a small (<100/week), but not insignificant, cohort of respondents who were suspected of taking advantage of the simplicity of the system to receive the incentive by providing a convenient response of \"yes\" to all questions. These respondents were excluded from further consideration in the data analyses. Similar instances of suspected gaming/hacking have been reported in other crowd-based data collection efforts (Solano-Hermosilla et al., 2020). To mitigate this challenge, warning messages were sent to respondents whose submissions were flagged as suspicious. Based on the consideration that it is unrealistic that a person would have consumed 80% (or more) of the food classes within a 24-hr period, submissions that showed response of \"yes\" to more than 80% of questions were excluded. This brings one of the major concerns about digital data collection into focus, the trustworthiness of the data. This is a subject of ongoing discourse in recent literature (Adewopo et al., 2021). Crowdsourced data can be susceptible to errors and bias due to absence of direct control or verification of each datapoint at the time and location of submission. This may be linked to various factors including the clarity of questions or data required and personality/profile of the respondents (including candour, educational level, perception, age, and mental retention/recall). Yet, the advantages of crowdsourced data systems usually outweigh these limitations, especially considering the volume of data that are often generated, with little or no direct contact with respondents. According to Solano-Hermosilla et al. (2020), the robustness of acquired data provides strong leverage for high-precision data filtering which allows noisy errors to be filtered out prior to detailed data analysis, and to generate meaningful insights.We also experienced lower response rates (18%), compared to previous similar data collection data where the response rate (or crowd engagement) hovered around 20% (Solano-Hermosilla et al., 2020). In this initial set-up and deployment, it is uncertain if the initial messaging to respondents could have significantly influenced the response rate or participation. One way to address this in future iterations would be to implement A/B testing, where sub-groups are provided different information (e.g., opening messages) or offered different incentives for completion. Previous examples of this testing mechanism have yielded results and improved the targeting and efficiencies of projects (e.g., Katmada et al., 2011;Arriagada et al., 2021).Another issue is the representativeness of the data collected. Although sex and location-based weighting was applied to the sampling, our results are largely skewed towards younger, middle-income respondents. Although Rwandan society (and the 845# dataset) is dominated by individuals under the age of 40 (National Institute of Statistics Rwanda, 2021), our respondents appear to be an extreme reflection of the younger population in Rwanda. The demographics of Rwandan society are not truly reflected in our results, where more than 84% of respondents are below 34. The age-based skew is somewhat consistent with other similar studies (e.g., Dabalen et al., 2016), where older respondents were noted to be less likely to respond. We also found that respondents were normally distributed across the 5 economic classes, consistent with the findings of Dabalen et al. (2016).We view these early problems as a learning curve and provide an exercise in improving the user experience and functionality of the system, rather than being a reflection of any fundamental flaws in crowd-based data collection. This learning can be used to develop and improve protocols for citizen-led, digital tool-based approaches for data collection in Rwanda and beyond.From the initial data collection a number of diet quality patterns were observed. The dietary composition of a \"traditional\" Rwandan diet emerged, with the virtual ubiquity (>70% of responses) of tubers and starchy vegetables, leafy vegetables, fruits, legumes, and wholegrains in respondents' diets. The consumption of these food items is independent of gender, location, age, or economic grouping, suggesting an almost exclusively healthy core to Rwandan diets. These findings are consistent with the findings of the Global Nutrition Report Independent Expert Group (2020), which found relatively high consumption of fruits and legumes in Rwandan diets. In contrast, we found far lower prevalence of processed meat, fatty foods, and higher prevalence of vegetables (Global Nutrition Report Independent Expert Group, 2020). We also note that dairy (excluding milk) products, processed meats, and fast foods were the least consumed food items. However, their consumption was observed to be high in younger, wealthier individuals, conforming with findings in other LMICs (e.g., Li et al., 2020).In general, Rwandan female respondents consumed better quality diets than male respondents. Female respondents were also observed to consume a greater diversity of both healthy and unhealthy food items, consistent with global studies (e.g., Imamura et al., 2015). However, female Rwandan respondents diverge from their counterparts in other countries, who were found to consume less unhealthy food items than men (Imamura et al., 2015;Abassi et al., 2019;Darling et al., 2020).We also note that diet quality improved with age, aligning with both Imamura et al. (2015) and Andrade et al. (2016). Respondents under the age of 24 were observed to have the lowest quality diets. Poor diet quality is widespread in adolescents (Akseer et al., 2017), driving alarming levels of obesity (WHO, 2021), and micronutrient deficiencies (Akseer et al., 2017). The impacts of low diet quality in early life have been welldocumented to have considerable health, mental well-being, and life opportunity implications (e.g., Florence et al., 2008;UNICEF, 2019).The curvilinear relationship of economic status and diet quality demonstrates that both economic extremes suffer from poor diet quality. These results reflect observed global dietary and nutritional transitions, where individuals become wealthier, shifts towards consumption of processed, sweetened, and salted food stuffs are noted (Popkin, 2015). In a recent global study, Popkin et al. (2020) observed that higher-wealth individuals have seen the greatest increases in obesity and overweight individuals in sub-Saharan Africa. These economic trends have been found to co-occur with geographical transitions, where urban populations move away from traditional diets (Steyn and McHiza, 2014).Although we found that, generally, urban respondents consume higher amounts of healthy foods, their overall diet quality tends to be worse than rural respondents.These early results reflect the dietary realities and point towards an underlying transition that may already be underway in Rwanda, evidenced by increased prevalence of childhood and adolescent obesity (Global Nutrition Report Independent Expert Group, 2020; Kinyonki et al., 2020). With Rwanda having one the fastest growing global economies (pre-COVID) (World Bank, 2021b), the country may be primed for continued reductions in diet quality, continued malnutrition issues, and increased prevalence of associated non-communicable diseases (GBD 2016Risk Factors Collaborators, 2017;Marivoet et al., 2020). However, Rwanda has repeatedly demonstrated itself as being an enabling environment for pioneering data-driven decision-making to support healthy diets (Wagenaar et al., 2017). Implementation of long-term tracking of diet quality metrics, as outlined here, could help flag populations and locations with low diet quality and potential malnutrition implications to guide the allocation of resources for effective intervention. The information generated from this novel data collection system feed a dashboard (https://www.dietqualitymap.org) providing in [near] real time information on diet quality across Rwanda.As data collection continues, we endeavour to identify mechanisms for improving efficiencies in the system. Envisioned content improvements include the deployment of a feedback system, where respondents become the recipients of tailored feedback to improve diet quality. This would represent a notable innovation in this field allowing respondents to be both data suppliers and information recipients. A powerful outcome of such improvements would be quantifying the extent to which dietary-based messaging can improve diet quality.The use of the Diet Quality Questionnaire provided a validated, easy to use, and agile survey. Beyond this, its application also allows for comparison with results from a wider body of research, with the DQ-Q currently deployed across ∼50 countries (Herforth et al., 2020b). Our implementation of the DQ-Q represents its first high frequency application and offers an invaluable opportunity to position our highly resolved (spatially and temporally) data for Rwanda, whilst simultaneously providing a learning opportunity for other researchers/ organisations wishing to implement similar high frequency data collection.We will also look to contextualise our results with those of other high frequency data collections, like that of the World Food Programme's World Hunger Map [World Food Programme (WFP), 2021]. The aim of which being to identify if any linkages between patterns of diet quality and malnutrition can be identified for Rwanda. Our work will further explore how socio-economic, geographic, and market factors contribute to diet quality.We will also investigate if any relationship between diet quality and weather conditions can be observed from high frequency weather data (Funk et al., 2015;Verdin et al., 2020). We hope to identify potential weather-based shocks and ascertain how, if at all, these affect regional and national diet quality.Finally, we demonstrate how an agile and adaptable data collection system can be deployed for high frequency diet quality data collection, at minimal cost. We believe the developed system could easily be adapted to the dietary and technological contexts of other countries and are investigating potential opportunities to scale activities into neighbouring countries in Central-East Africa.Innovation for food system development transcends the optimisation of on-farm production or prevention of postharvest losses. It must also focus on consumers. Understanding and tracking diet quality is critical to guide decisions and support health outcomes. We have developed and tested an innovative system that leverages digital tools to directly crowdsource diet quality information from across Rwandan society. In collecting dietary information from 9,726 Rwandans in 8 weeks, we demonstrate the benefits of crowd-based systems deployed on digital tools for high frequency data collection, at a reasonable cost. Our preliminary results conform to dietary realities in other LMICs. We observed that female, older, and middleincome Rwandans tend to have better quality diets. The outputs also point towards nascent dietary transitions across groups. These basic insights will be complemented with further data collection, more complex analytics, and contextualisation within global studies. The sustained data flow from the system setup constitutes an indispensable, scalable, and promising step towards robust data-driven policies and interventions for food security in LMICs. These advances are invaluable to researchers, policy-makers, and development actors who are interested in addressing diet quality and nutrition security at the most critical location(s) and time.","tokenCount":"4888"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"61850dad5d2d6857d1f9cbc0f2e58bd2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6f9acf0f-b66d-4af3-907b-4fc2c08e3d53/retrieve","id":"-934384338"},"keywords":["taro","Colocasia esculenta","taro leaf bight","Phytophthora colocasiae","resistance breeding","networks"],"sieverID":"3b095504-5709-4d21-89ca-36bf22f65eac","pagecount":"22","content":"Taro leaf blight (caused by the Oomycete Phytophthora colocasiae) is a disease of major importance in many regions of the world where taro is grown. Serious outbreaks of taro leaf blight in Samoa in 1993 and in the last few years in Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria continue to demonstrate the devastating impact of this disease on the livelihoods and food security of small farmers and rural communities dependent on the crop. The spread of the disease to new geographical areas also poses a major threat to neighbouring countries and taro growing regions still free from the disease. Past research, particularly in the Pacific, has demonstrated that management measures such as chemical and cultural control are largely ineffective and that breeding for disease resistance is the most sustainable approach to manage the disease. Recently, the Pacific and South-east Asian regional taro networks have made excellent progress in developing cultivars resistant to taro leaf blight through enhanced utilization of taro genetic resources and close collaboration between farmers and researchers in breeding programs. These programs haveTaro (Colocasia esculenta) a clonally propagated aroid, is grown largely in humid tropical areas of the world. The crop, first domesticated in South-east Asia, has continued to spread throughout the world and is now an important crop in Asia, the Pacific, Africa and the Caribbean [1]. It is the most important edible species of the monocotyledonous family Araceae. Almost all parts of a taro plant are utilized; corms are baked, roasted, or boiled as a source of carbohydrates, leaves are frequently consumed as a vegetable representing an important source of vitamins, and even petioles and flowers are consumed in certain parts of the world. Worldwide, taro ranks fourteenth among staple vegetable crops with about 12 million tonnes produced globally from about 2 million hectares with an average yield of 6 t/ha [2]. Most of the global taro production comes from developing countries, characterized by smallholder production systems relying on minimum external resource inputs. This makes this food crop very important for food security, especially among subsistence farmers in developing countries.Worldwide, it is believed that crop diseases reduce agricultural productivity by more than 10%, equivalent to half a billion tonnes of food every year [3]. The epidemics associated with these diseases reduce food availability, increase food prices and pose a danger to rural livelihoods and regional food security. According to Fisher et al. [4] more than 600M people could be fed each year by halting the spread of fungal diseases in the world's five most important crops alone. The overwhelming impact of plant diseases on human societies and food security is well illustrated by the effect of late blight disease of potato, caused by the pathogen Phytophthora infestans in Ireland during the 1840s, at a time when potato was an important staple food for the majority of the population. The disease was one of the factors that led to mass starvation, death and migration. There have been numerous other plant disease epidemics throughout agricultural history that have resulted in a major socio-economic impact; for example, the epidemics caused by coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) in Sri Lanka (1890s), brown spot of rice (Cochliobolus miyabeanus) in India (1940s), wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis) in north America (1960s), rubber leaf blight (Microcyclus ulei) in Latin America (1910s), and downy mildew of grape (Plasmopara viticola) in Europe (1880s) [5].The important but neglected taro crop is no exception and is subject to significant losses from diseases and pests. Taro is affected by at least 10 major diseases and pests in different parts of the world [6]. Of the various taro diseases, taro leaf blight (TLB) caused by the fungus-like Oomycete Phytophthora colocasiae Raciborski (P. colocasiae) is of prime importance because it can reduce corm yield by up to 50% [7][8][9][10] and leaf yield by 95% in susceptible varieties [11]. TLB can also deteriorate corm quality [12,13]. In addition to corm yield losses that occur as a consequence of the reduced leaf area [7] in diseased plants, a corm rot caused by P. colocasiae may also occur [5]. Under some circumstances the disease invades harvested corms and causes heavy losses during storage [14].Repeated outbreaks of TLB in the South Pacific, South-east Asia and recently in West Africa have signalled the urgency to find sustainable solutions to the disease. If uncontrolled, TLB poses a grave threat to food security and loss of crop genetic diversity, as well as impact on personal incomes and national economies. The devastation caused to the taro industry in Samoa (previously known as Western Samoa) as a result of the TLB outbreak in the early 1990s is an example of the destructive nature of the disease [15]. The disease caused serious economic hardship in rural areas, food insecurity and the loss of vital export earnings for the country. The introduction of TLB to the Caribbean in 2004 led to the annihilation of the taro crop in the Dominican Republic, Cuba and Puerto Rico [1]. Most recently TLB has been reported from West Africa in Cameroon [16], Nigeria [17] and Ghana [18] where it continues to decimate taro cultivation, and is impacting on the livelihoods and food security of rural communities. A number of other countries in West and Central Africa may face the same problem because the disease has the capacity to spread on taro planting material-the Oomycete has been reported to survive on planting tops for up to 3 weeks after harvest [19].This paper provides an overview of TLB, its symptoms, origin, distribution, epidemiology, management and global impact. The paper will focus on breeding strategies to address the challenges presented by the disease, and how countries vulnerable to its advance can take advantage of the experiences and outputs of previous initiatives that have had to deal with its devastation.There has been limited documentation of the impact of TLB on countries and communities affected by the disease apart from the Pacific region. In most cases, wherever the disease has occurred in the Pacific, for example in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, American Samoa and Samoa, the introduction of TLB has forced growers to abandon taro and grow other root crops [20].It is believed that TLB has been present in the Pacific region since the early 1900s [21]. The disease was first recorded in Guam (1918) and later in Hawaii (1920). Prior to the arrival of the disease in Hawaii, it was thought that there were more than 300 different taro varieties but only a few have survived the impact of the disease [22]. Similarly, in Guam, more than 60% of known varieties are believed to have been lost as a consequence of the disease [23,24].In Micronesia, TLB was reported during the Japanese occupation of Pohnpei [5]. Since then it is thought to have contributed to changes in the cropping system, which in turn has affected dietary patterns. Today, cassava has replaced taro as a major staple [25,26]. Most if not all the varieties that existed before the arrival of the Japanese are no longer present [22]. Taro now ranks behind yams, banana, rice, and breadfruit in Pohnpei [27].In Papua New Guinea, outbreaks of TLB over the years are believed to have led to the decline in taro production and its displacement by sweet potato [28][29][30]. Most likely, the disease spread there from Indonesia during the Second World War. The outbreak in Bougainville was said to have contributed to the death of at least 3000 people [31]. Possibly, the occurrence of war forced communities to vacate their villages and take to forests, and the loss of taro to sustain them resulted in hunger and malnutrition [23,32]. More recently, severe epidemics occurred on the island of Manus in 1976 and in Milne Bay in 1988 completely destroying the crop on each occasion [20]. In Solomon Islands, the disease first appeared in the Shortland Islands in 1946 [33] and within a few years it swiftly spread to most provinces. The disease contributed to a decline in taro production throughout the country [5]. As in Papua New Guinea, disease outbreaks led to sweet potato rapidly replacing taro as the staple food crop [34].The 1993-1994 epidemic of TLB in American Samoa and Samoa was catastrophic for taro production [35]. Before the disease introduction, taro was the main agricultural export of Samoa, but within six months there was little to trade [36]. Production fell from 0.4 million tonnes per year before the epidemic to less than 5 tonnes by the end of 1995 [37]. In 1993, the export value of taro for Samoa was US$3.5 million (about 58% of Samoa's agricultural exports) but by 1994 the value had declined to less than US$60,000 [38] or about 0.5% of the 1993 export figure. Within two years from the start of outbreak in the Samoas, only 200 farmers were growing taro; these were farmers who had the resources to purchase fungicides. Most other growers abandoned the crop and shifted to alternative though less preferred crops such as Alocasia, Xanthosoma, breadfruit, banana, sweet potato and cassava. By 1994, supplies of taro on the local market were only 1% of the supplies of the previous year [39]. In response, both countries increased rice imports resulting in large trade imbalances.In 2010, TLB spread to the West African nation of Cameroon where it caused harvest losses of up to 90% [16]. Not only are market prices very high for the little that is now available, there is a scarcity of planting material. The future is uncertain, as it is not clear if alternative food crops can fill the gap left by the demise of taro. Maize production in Cameroon has never met demand and plantains are usually very expensive. There is concern for food security and social unrest. The disease has spread rapidly to other countries in West Africa, including Nigeria and Ghana [17,18]. While it is too early to assess the impact of TLB on these countries, experience tells us that the disease has a potential to create a devastating cascade effect: reduction in food and household incomes, increased poverty and even starvation.As its name implies, the most obvious and frequent symptom is a blight of the leaf lamina, but P. colocasiae also produces a postharvest rot of the corms. A petiole rot is also seen in susceptible varieties [37]. Early leaf infections often take place where rainfall, dew, or guttation droplets accumulate. Initial infections form water-soaked lesions that rapidly expand to form large brown spots [11]. The development of these lesions follows a characteristic day/night pattern. During the night, the lesions expand by developing a 3-5 mm wide water-soaked margin. This margin dries out during the day and a newer water-soaked zone forms the following night [40]. This results in a zonate pattern most easily seen when viewed from the bottom of leaf. Masses of sporangia form on the expanding margin of the lesion during the night, imparting a white powdery appearance to the lesions.A conspicuous and characteristic feature of TLB lesions is the formation of droplets of amber, bright-orange, or reddish-brown exudate, oozing from the upper and lower surface of the water-soaked margins. These droplets dry out during the day to form crusty deposits on the surface of the lesion. It is common to observe lesions of different stages on the leaf. Lesions are also formed by sporangia that are splashed by irrigation, rain or wind-drive rain. As the lesion gets larger, the dead central area often breaks and falls out.Infected petioles are uncommon, but occur in susceptible varieties. The infections start as small, brown, elongated spots. In wet weather, the spots can expand and soften until the petioles are broken by the weight of their leaves [41]. During dry weather the rate of lesion expansion generally slows and lesions may change colour, turning tan to brown with dark brown margins. In some resistant taro cultivars, the centre of lesions become papery and break apart, which gives a conspicuous \"shot-hole\" appearance [11]. Leaves of susceptible varieties collapse in about 20 days compared to 40 days for non-infected plants [42,43]. Therefore, photosynthesis is greatly reduced in susceptible plants, leading to progressively smaller leaves and corms.Corm rots usually develop rapidly after harvest and entire corms can decay in 7-10 days. The rots usually start from areas damaged at harvest when the petiole bases and suckers are removed, especially during or after wet, warm conditions. In the early stages, the diseased tissue is light-brown, firm, and often has a distinct margin. In the advanced stages of corm rot, the decayed corm tissue may be invaded by Lasiodiplodia theobromae and turn black [14].Taro leaf blight was first described by Raciborski in 1900 [44] who named its causal pathogen P. colocasiae Racib. Information on the origin of P. colocasiae is limited [45] and the area of origin remains undefined [46]. Trujillo [9] speculated that the pathogen might have originated in South-east Asia, based on earlier reports of the disease in India. Ko [47] supported Asia as the centre of origin of P. colocasiae because of the coexistence of wild and cultivated varieties of taro in the region. According to Zentmyer [45], one of the indications of the centre of origin of an organism such as Phytophthora is the co-existence of A1 and A2 mating types with roughly an equal distribution in the same area. Based on this hypothesis, Ann et al. [48] screened about 800 isolates of P. colocasiae from Taiwan and all acted as A2 mating types, indicating that it is most likely not indigenous to Taiwan. Only the A1 mating type was previously reported from India [49] although recently A2 mating types from India have also been reported [50,51]. A further hypothesis of an Asian origin of P. colocasiae has recently come from China [46], where previously only A2 mating types were reported [52]. However, analysis of more than 200 isolates of P. colocasiae obtained from Hainan Island (an offshore island in the tropical region of southern China) recovered all three mating types, A0, A1 and A2 indicating that Hainan Island is likely to be inside the centre of origin of P. colocasiae from where it was dispersed. Fullerton & Tyson [53] reported only A2 mating type from Papua New Guinea, Hawaii and Guam, excluding these countries from the centre of origin of P. colocasiae. Tyson & Fullerton [51] further studied mating types of P. colocasiae from the Pacific region, South-east Asia and India and detected only A2 types, extending the A2 mating type list further to Indonesia, India, Philippines, Pohnpei, Thailand and Vietnam. Because of the apparently restricted distribution of the A1 mating type and the geographical separation from the areas in which it is found (Hainan Island, China and Northern India), the likelihood of the introduction of the A1 mating type to the Pacific region is considered to be relatively small [51].Trujillo [9] postulated that the disease spread into the Pacific region by three different routes based on a possible South-east Asian origin for the pathogen. The first dispersal route is to Hawaii via the Philippines, the second from Taiwan to Micronesia via the Philippines and the third to Fiji via Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. At that time, TLB was reported to be present in Fiji but that record was based on a misidentification [5,23,40]. Nevertheless, the movement of TLB to Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands would appear to be a separate route and is supported by only anecdotal evidence that the disease appeared after the Western Pacific Campaign of the Second World War [54]. Ooka [44] hypothesized that movement on the northern route went from Java to Taiwan, where the disease was reported in 1911. From Taiwan, it is believed to have moved to Japan and thence to Hawaii where it arrived in 1920 [21]. The disease was first recorded in the Philippines in 1916 and movement to Micronesia most likely occurred from there considering the disease was first recorded in Guam in 1918 [55]. There have been no studies on the distribution of mating types in American Samoa and Samoa that could indicate the likely sources of the pathogen, although it is widely speculated that the pathogen arrived in Samoa from Hawaii, probably through infected taro planting material [3].The pathogen is believed to be distributed by means of vegetatively propagated material, and possibly by soil movement. The Oomycete is now widely distributed geographically over almost all continents including Asia (Bangladesh, Brunei, China, India, Indonesia, Irian Jaya, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Peninsular Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand), Africa (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Seychelles), North America (USA), Central America and Caribbean (Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago), South America (Argentina), Oceania (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands) [17,18,56,57]. Some of these reports have not been verified and need confirmation. For example, the disease in Fiji is clearly an invalid record [40].Phytophthora colocasiae has limited host range [11]. The pathogen is known to infect primarily Colocasia spp. (C. esculenta, C. esculenta var. globulifer, C. antiquorum) and Alocasia macrorhiza (giant taro). Although Alocasia taro can be infected by the pathogen, the ability of the disease to become epidemic on this host is restricted by very low inoculum production [5]. Xanthosoma spp. (Xanthosoma saggittifolia) is immune [40]. Other reported hosts include Amorphophallus campanulatus (elephant-foot yam), Bougainvillea spectabilis (bougainvillea), Cantharanthus roseus (periwinkle), Dracontium polyphyllum (guapa), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber), Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), Piper betle (betel), Piper nigrum (black pepper), Ricinis communis (castor bean) and Vinca rosea (periwinkle) [58]. Many of the records from these hosts, however, need to be confirmed.The disease cycle of P. colocasiae is dependent upon environmental factors (rainfall, humidity and temperature) and host genotype. The primary reproductive unit of the pathogen is the sporangium which requires free water to germinate. Although taro leaves have a waxy surface, the tiny droplets of water that accumulate on leaves provide sufficient moisture for sporangia to germinate. Under cooler conditions (close to 20 °C), the cytoplasm within each sporangium differentiates into 15-20 zoospores (Figures 1 and 2), each oozing out through the terminal pore and moving through the water using their flagella. This is a rapid process and from the beginning of differentiation in the cytoplasm to zoospore release takes less than a minute. The zoospores settle onto the leaf surface within 10 min, lose their flagella and form a rounded cyst which soon germinates to form a germ tube. This mode of germination often referred as the \"indirect mode\" provides a strong ecological advantage to the pathogen as it generates up to a 15-fold increase in inoculum. New infections can be initiated within an hour of a sporangium being formed and P. colocasiae can continue sporulating and infecting during short periods of leaf wetness [40]. Under warmer conditions (about 25 °C), the sporangia germinate directly by germ tubes that can infect the leaves (Figure 1). This form of germination generally referred to as the \"direct mode\" is a slower process than zoospore production as it can take 5-6 h for a sporangium to germinate. The proportion of sporangia germinating directly is usually much lower than for those forming zoospores [59].  Infection can occur on both surfaces of the leaf [11] and most infections occur between midnight and dawn [59]. Daytime infections occur only during continuously wet conditions. During infection, germ tubes developing from either sporangia or encysted zoospores penetrate the epidermis directly or enter via stomata. After penetration, the Oomycete spreads intercellularly through the mesophyll. First symptoms usually appear within 24 h and the rate of symptom development is greatest at temperatures in the range 25-30 °C under cloudy and/or showery conditions. At 35 °C symptom development is suppressed.In wetland taro, sporangia can move with the water throughout a field and into adjacent paddies. The pathogen can also live for a time as mycelium in dead and dying plant tissues and in infected corms. During dry periods it can survive in the soil as encysted zoospores, or possibly as chlamydospores [60]. The life span of fungal mycelium in soils is usually short, surviving for less than five days. However, the encysted zoospores of P. colocasiae can endure for several months in the absence of a living host. Most sporangia in vegetative material (e.g., tops used for planting) seldom survive more than a few days though some have been shown to survive for up to 2 weeks [53]. Oospores and chlamydospores may operate as survival structures in infected plant tissues or sometimes in soils, but they are not frequently detected in the field (Figure 2) [11].P. colocasiae is a diploid heterothallic Oomycete, requiring opposite mating types (A1 and A2) for the formation of oospores [51]. Heterothallic species of Phytophthora readily produce oospores in pairings (intra-or inter-specific) of two compatible mating types [47] and different strains are likely to recombine and evolve rapidly depending on the frequency of A1 and A2 mating types. While oospore formation can be readily induced between opposite mating types in culture, there is no evidence that this event occurs regularly in nature.The extent of genetic variability in P. colocasiae is unknown but in other Phytophthora species, sexual reproduction is associated with increased genetic variation, including increased variability in virulence and aggressiveness [53]. The capacity for sexual reproduction in P. colocasiae [46,49] has already been documented. Recently, Lebot et al. [61] studied isozyme variation among isolates of P. colocasiae originating from South-east Asia and the Pacific region and the results indicated that throughout this vast geographic region, TLB is caused by a plethora of distinct and genetically variable isolates. Variations occur within and among countries. Because P. colocasiae is diploid and heterothallic, different genetically variable isolates are likely to recombine and evolve depending on the frequency and occurrence of A1 and A2 mating types. Lebot et al. [61] have demonstrated that all zymotypes are unique to each country and this might be an indication of rapid evolution within isolated populations. In some countries, for example, Thailand, the high level of genetic diversity might indicate that both migration and sexual recombination play important roles in the population dynamics of P. colocasiae. However, Fullerton and Tyson [53] argued that although pathogenic variability may be inferred from a high degree of variability determined by enzyme or molecular analysis, this has not yet been demonstrated.Favourable temperatures and regular periods of leaf wetness, particularly in the humid tropics promote TLB epidemics by favouring pathogen dispersal, infection, and disease development [62]. Outbreaks of the disease in new areas distant from known centres of infection probably result from the introduction of infected planting material. Within an infected area, the first lesions are due to infection from adjacent plants. Epidemics generally flourish when night temperatures are in the range 17-20 °C. The cool temperatures stimulate the release of infective zoospores, promoting multiple infections.Taro leaves have waxy hydrophobic leaf cuticles, which assist the wash-off of sporangia and zoospores from the leaves into soil, or their splash onto other leaves and petioles, particularly the lower older ones. However, in the absence of regular rainfall, conditions favourable to re-infection occur on most nights ensuring regular cycling and survival on infected plants thus making it endemic. Under conditions of endemic survival, the distribution of infected plants in an area, and the severity of symptoms on those plants are generally irregular; while some plants become severely diseased with continuous night time sporulation and localised re-infection, others immediately adjacent may have little or no disease [53]. Generally, older leaves or younger leaves lower in the canopy are most severely affected because of a number of factors: a constant supply of inoculum deposited by runoff water or dew from above; a more conducive microclimate for the Oomycete lower in the canopy; and also because the less waxy cuticles of older leaves tolerates better adhesion of spore-carrying water drops [53]. Under normal circumstances large numbers of sporangia are also washed from lower leaves into the soil. While most of these lyse within the first few days, a small proportion develops thick walls, forming chlamydospores that are able to survive in soil for up to three months [60]. The importance of soil borne chlamydospores in the epidemiology of the disease has not been established but they could allow survival of the pathogen between crops [53]. In situations where vegetative material dies off because of drought or cold conditions, the pathogen most likely survives between seasons as vegetative mycelium in the infected corms [63]. In wetland taro production, the movement of paddy water carries these sporangia and zoospores among plants and between fields. Because growers propagate taro vegetatively, they often unknowingly transport P. colocasiae between fields and over long distances by the movement of infected planting material [11].A number of cultural methods have been recommended for the control of TLB disease. Individually each may be of limited benefit, but collectively they may play an important role in an integrated approach to disease management. The main cultural practices include removal of infected leaves during the early stages of disease development, wide spacing of plants to reduce disease spread, selection of sites surrounded by forest as a barrier to disease spread, isolation of new crops from those that are diseased, and the use of planting material free from disease [11,23,43]. Putter [59] showed that the removal of infected leaves was highly effective in controlling the disease in subsistence taro gardens, particularly when plots were relatively well separated from one another. This strategy can be effective when the disease is in an endemic phase with a relatively low and restricted disease incidence. In contrast, when the disease is in an epidemic phase, the removal of all leaves with lesions may lead to almost complete defoliation of the crop with consequent effects on yield [43]. This was the experience of growers in Samoa [64] where sanitation was largely abandoned as a disease management strategy. In some situations, intercropping of taro with other crops may help in reducing disease. Disease severity was found to be consistently higher in taro monocrops than in a taro/maize intercropping system [23,65]. Foliar application of biological control agents has some potential to protect taro crops from infection. For example, significant reductions in the numbers of infected leaves and disease severity were observed in taro plants sprayed with the fungus Trichoderma [66]. In Phichit plain near Phitsanulok, Thailand, some professional taro growers avoid serious TLB infections by planting during the dry season (V. Lebot, personal communication 2012) [67].Successful control of TLB is possible with chemicals even in high rainfall areas. A range of protectant and systemic fungicides have been found to provide effective control of TLB [7,11,43]. Mancozeb (e.g., Dithane M45), copper (e.g., copper oxychloride), metalaxyl (e.g., Ridomil Gold MZ) and phosphorus acid (e.g., Foschek) are amongst those most commonly recommended. Mancozeb and copper have protectant activity only. Metalaxyl and phosphorus acid are generally specific for Phytophthora diseases with the former prone to the development of resistance by the organism [53]. In contrast Jackson et al. [43] found that Mancozeb did not control the disease in Solomon Islands suggesting that results with chemical control can be variable. Similarly, Trujillo [68] reported that copper gave little control in Hawaii. In Samoa, a research program to investigate chemical control [3] recommended that phosphorus acid (Foschek), which was shown to give good control of TLB, should be alternated with Mancozeb to reduce costs and minimise the possibility of the Oomycete developing resistance. It was also observed that there were no significant differences between phosphorus acid formulations (Foschek, Agri-Fos 400 and Foli-R-Fos) for disease control. In some cases, soils may be drenched with approved products such as MetaStar or Ridomil as a pre-plant treatment and provide initial protection against TLB for 4-6 weeks [11].The efficacy of fungicides is strongly governed by the severity of the disease at the time, and the prevailing weather conditions [53]. Generally, fungicides are most effective when disease incidence is low and timely applications reduce inoculum levels. When diseases enter an exponential phase, efficacy of disease control is reduced. Efficacy is also influenced by method of application, with motorised knapsack applications superior to conventional hydraulic machines [7,43], a fact related to improved coverage and speed of application especially in high rainfall situations. However, for most situations, the use of fungicides however applied is neither economically sustainable nor environmentally suitable.The use of resistant varieties offers the most sustainable management strategy against TLB in most production systems. Resistance can be classified as either vertical or horizontal. Vertical resistance (VR), also referred to as monogenic resistance is generally controlled by one or few major genes and provides complete control against certain races of a pathogen [69]. It is often characterized by a hypersensitive reaction in the host. In a number of cases a gene-for-gene relationship has been demonstrated [70]. Subsequently, new pathogen races evolve that are able to attack previously resistant plants. For this reason, VR is often referred to as non-durable resistance [71].The genetic control of VR against TLB may not be very complicated and simply inherited [72]. Although a number of genotypes have been shown to express a hypersensitive reaction when challenged by P. colocasiae, to date there is no evidence of breakdown of resistance by matching pathotypes [53]. However, it is an area little investigated. In contrast, horizontal resistance (HR) is controlled by a number of minor genes and does not involve a gene-for-gene relationship. It is considered effective against all races of a pathogen and has a reputation for durability, hence referred to as durable resistance. Unlike VR, this type of resistance does not give complete control but limits the spread of the pathogen within the plant and frequently reduces sporulation. The resistance mechanism in taro against TLB is considered to fall under the HR category based on several host-pathogen interaction models and genetic studies [69,70,73]. Because of predominant heterozygosity of taro genotypes, it is not easy to study the inheritance in a classical Mendelian fashion [74].The physiological and biochemical mechanisms of resistance and host defence responses have not been studied in detail in the taro and P. colocasiae pathosystem [75]. Characteristic defence response in taro like many other host species likely includes systemic events through signalling and possibly constitutive and hydrolytic enzymes, enzyme inhibitors and phytoalexins. It was, however, established by Ho and Ramsden [75] that peroxidase enzymes play no vital role in the defence mechanisms of taro and proteinase inhibitors were the most important components for resistance to TLB. Recently Sharma et al. [76] employed suppressive subtractive hybridization, cDNA libraries, Northern blot analysis, high throughput DNA sequencing, and bioinformatics to identify the defence-related genes in taro induced by P. colocasiae infection. Using these genomic tools, two putative resistance genes and a transcription factor among the upregulated sequences were identified. There was a higher overall expression of these genes in TLB-resistant genotypes than in those susceptible to the disease.Resistance in the majority of taro germplasm worldwide was previously considered to be limited globally. Recent evaluations, however, indicate that resistance in traditional cultivars exists in germplasm collections of several countries where TLB has been present for a long time, including the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and India [74]. Over twenty TLB-resistant taro varieties were also identified in germplasm from Palau. These genotypes also performed well in field trials in Hawaii [77,78] and many other Pacific Island countries. The genetic diversity of available resistance is, however, considered to be limited although germplasm from South-east Asia is considered to be more diverse than that in the Pacific [79][80][81]. The Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT formerly the Regional Germplasm Centre (RGC)) of the Secretariat of Pacific Community (SPC) maintains a collection of taro varieties with varying levels resistance to TLB. These varieties are the products of breeding programs in Hawaii, Papua New Guinea and Samoa. The CePaCT also has taro varieties from Asia, which have shown TLB resistance when evaluated in their countries of origin. In Hawaii, a new program collected almost 300 taro genotypes from Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Myanmar, China, Japan, and the Philippines, and from seven locations in Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Varying levels of resistance to TLB were noted [82]. Interestingly, 40% of 424 indigenous accessions at the Central Tuber Crop Research Institute of India were reported to show tolerance to TLB [83].Taro leaf blight control by breeding for resistance has proven to be an extremely cost-effective and environmentally acceptable approach [34,[84][85][86]. The success of breeding for resistance against TLB depends on the availability of genetic resources and the type of resistance they confer [74,87]. The use of polygenic or HR is one of the most effective means to control TLB [8,86]. This breeding strategy involves the systematic selection of the resistant individuals from a population followed by recombination of the selected individuals to form a new population (recurrent selection). The main advantage of this strategy is its ability to accumulate minor resistance genes, which individually would confer minimal resistance [86], but together are likely to be additive and provide durable disease resistance. Because HR is not pathotype specific, failure to identify different pathotypes is not a limiting factor to the strategy [70,86]. A major challenge however, is the reliable identification of the least susceptible individuals in the population for use in the next cycle of inter-crossing. With HR breeding strategies, it is normal to generate many progenies of good agronomic quality differing widely in their degree of disease resistance. Such a range of material provides the opportunity to match the degree of resistance to the potential risk of disease [53]. Taro breeding programs have been implemented at a number of institutes worldwide, with those in Hawaii, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Solomon Islands specifically focused on TLB.The Papua New Guinea taro breeding program is based on a modified recurrent selection strategy and gives high priority to TLB resistance. Cycle-1 was developed in 1994 by crossing the resistant base population with superior (high yielding and tasting) local taro varieties [88]. Some partially superior genotypes were recovered from cycle-1 from among a majority that retained undesirable wild characteristics. Cycle-2 was created in 1996 by inter-crossing these partially superior genotypes. Three new varieties (NT 01, NT 02 and NT 03) were released from cycle-2 in 2001 [86,89], and one variety (NT 04) was released from cycle-3 by inter-crossing selected cycle-2 genotypes [8]. The development of these high-yielding varieties of taro has helped to reduce the threat of TLB in Papua New Guinea. The varieties performed well in farmers' fields giving over 50% higher yields (about 9 t/ha) than the popular variety \"Numkowec\" (about 6 t/ha) used as a check [89]. These breeders' lines have been widely adopted in many areas of Papua New Guinea [90]. Other elite hybrids (with high yield, acceptable palatability and resistance to TLB) have been identified post cycle-3 and are being considered for official release.It is likely that those lines released from advanced cycles will be superior in their attributes, especially palatability, because of the polygenic breeding approach (accumulation of superior genes from cycle to cycle) adopted by the Papua New Guinea program. It appears from recent analyses that breeding selections have reached a plateau in terms of yield, and to make further genetic gains there is a need to cross local varieties with taro of different genetic backgrounds [91].The goal of the Hawaii taro breeding program is to improve commercial taro for pest resistance, including TLB, and to increase genetic diversity. At the earlier stages of the program, a single source of TLB resistance from Palau was crossed with Hawaiian taro [68,92]. Later, multiple sources of resistance were introduced from Micronesia, Palau, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Thailand and Nepal. In cycle-1, crosses were made between commercial cultivars and introduced genotypes. The resulting hybrids were evaluated for desirable agronomic traits, and elite hybrids selected for the next cycle. The breeding program is based on two approaches. The first approach is similar to the breeding program in Papua New Guinea, and involves crossing commercial taro with TLB-resistant wild varieties from Thailand and Papua New Guinea. In this process, additional breeding (modified backcrossing or rigid selection through an extra generation) is needed to produce elite hybrids. This requires at least four years. The second approach is to cross commercial taro with TLB-resistant taro from Palau and Micronesia. In this process, elite types can be selected in the first year. Several new hybrids were produced including hybrids \"99-6,\" \"99-7,\" and \"99-9\". These hybrids have greater tolerance to TLB, and yield 30% more than the industry standards, to which they are comparable in corm taste and colour [93].The Samoan taro breeding program is different from that in Papua New Guinea and Hawaii. A participatory approach to breeding was adopted from the outset, which involved researchers, farmers and extension staff [29]. The Taro Improvement Program (TIP) at the University of the South Pacific began in early 1999. The aim was to bring together taro farmers via crop-focused participatory appraisals and provide them with options for improving production and managing TLB [29]. TIP made good progress and farmers evaluated and selected clones derived from crosses between local (Samoan) cultivars and those from Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia [29]. Later, to broaden the genetic diversity of the breeders' lines, the program has made crosses using varieties from Asia to improve further TLB resistance whilst retaining the quality characteristics favoured by Samoans and the export market in New Zealand. To date, seven cycles of breeding have been completed. In 2009, the Ministry of Agriculture in Samoa released five TLB-resistant cultivars of which Samoa 1 and 2, identified from breeding cycle-5, are the most preferred for export [94,95].The Vanuatu breeding program is based on combining genotypes from the two major genepools to establish a wide genetic base [96]. Elite cultivars for desired agronomic characteristics have been identified, based on an eco-geographic survey of the genetic variation existing in the region and systematic characterisation using morphological, agronomic and molecular characters. The resultant selections have been exchanged between participating countries: the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu [79,97].After the serious outbreak of disease in Samoa in 1993, the occurrence of periodic epidemics in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, and the threat of introduction of TLB to disease-free countries, the Pacific islands sought a regional collaborative approach to deal with the problem. No one country has sufficient resources to tackle the problem alone. There is much to be gained by countries participating in a regional network which facilitates germplasm sharing and enhancement, and keeps countries informed of activities in the region and outside. This provides a mechanism whereby collaboration can be fostered to achieve a more strategic approach to TLB control and taro improvement generally. It was identified that major constraints for taro breeding programs including TLB resistance breeding are the lack of knowledge of the genetic diversity in the cultivars, the limitations in access to and knowledge of additional sources of disease resistance as well as the absence of information on the potential agronomic and processing value of genotypes [74].The crop network model was conceptualized with implementation of two regional collaborative projects. The first network, the AusAID-funded Taro Genetic Resources: Conservation and Utilization Network (TaroGen) re-activated the Papua New Guinea and Samoan TLB resistance breeding programs after a long dormant period, and linked them closely with other Pacific programs for the development of a core collection for Pacific taro and the safe sharing of virus-indexed breeders' lines and traditional cultivars [86]. To link the Pacific with South-east Asia, a second network, the EU-funded Taro Network for South-east Asia and Oceania (TANSAO) was established [98]. Through the collaborative research that developed, there were notable achievements, and in less than a decade high yielding progenies resistant to TLB were developed.Both TaroGen and TANSAO established networks incorporating local universities and research institutions, with regional and international organizations. Under TaroGen national collections (more than 2000 accessions) were assembled, characterized to identify a regional core representing the genetic diversity of taro in the region, and conserved [80,99]. Under TANSAO, a core sample was made that captured much of the genetic diversity from South-east Asia. Both networks successfully improved taro quality and resistance to TLB. They also achieved significant outputs in diagnostics for taro viruses, as well as initiated the establishment of regional genebanks in Fiji (SPC) and Indonesia (LIPI). The SPC genebank is now an international hub for the conservation and distribution of taro in Asia and the Pacific.The success of these two networks laid the foundation for the genesis of a new initiative, the International Network for Edible Aroids (INEA) which aims to link all the major taro genepools and promote the interchange of taro genetic resources worldwide (www.ediblearoids.org) [100]. In addition to many food security goals, this new network holds the potential to manage TLB, especially in West Africa where extensive epidemics have been reported recently.Taro leaf blight has been a particularly destructive disease in the Pacific and South-east Asia over many decades and has now reached West Africa. Food security of smallholder farmers has been threatened in all these regions, and in some cases economies put at risk, as the disease is difficult to manage by conventional means. The only solution has come through resistance breeding, but the difficulty in this approach has been a lack of a worldwide coordinated strategy. However, in recent years the success of regional interventions has given hope and shown that collaboration between countries is possible and has great merit. This success has largely come from the result of the networks built under TaroGen and TANSAO [91]. Genetic resources were collected and shared and used to breed for resistance. The key lessons learnt from TaroGen and TANSAO collaboration were: the need to use modern biotechnologies to solve crop improvement problems, linking countries, regional institutions and universities with centres of excellence outside the regions that specialise in DNA fingerprinting, virus indexing and conservation; that farmers must be involved in taro breeding from the outset; and that effective and efficient project co-ordination is required, ensuring interaction among national programs, other partners and funding agencies [101]. These are the strategies now being implemented by INEA to use taro and other edible aroids to build a model to improve clonally propagated crops of the tropics. INEA is a timely intervention, coming at a critical time for farmers in West Africa who are now suffering the consequences from the inadvertent introduction of TLB to that continent. The devastation caused there is a salient reminder of the potential of P. colocasiae to undermine food security and the need for lasting solutions.","tokenCount":"7076"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ad73caa20161072d187886bc9470bd5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc628246-f408-4a71-ad56-072c538b3b9b/retrieve","id":"-545582877"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e18214c2-0115-4971-8f37-cac22691c961","pagecount":"3","content":"In Bolivia and Malaysia, farmers are increasingly affected by drought, water logging and unpredictable weather patterns. To cope, they plant an array of traditional crops and varieties to spread the risk of crop loss, whether from pests, diseases or the weather. However for these farmers, agrobiodiversity is not just a way to insure against crop losses; it's an important source of cultural pride and value. Seventy three year old Don Victor, who farms at 4,100 metres above sea level in Colomi, Bolivia, maintains 39 varieties of native potato. \"These are like my family,\" he says, sharing his planting material only with those he trusts.With the growing impact of climate change, however, traditional varieties and land management practices may no longer suffice. Farmers also need access to varieties that can resist new threats and boost resilience in their farming systems. Hence, the Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research (PAR) has been working in the Bolivian Andes and in Sarawak, Malaysia, to improve the supply, exchange and conservation of traditional and improved planting material by building greater collaboration between communities and local genebanks. The aim is to support farmers' agrobiodiversity resources, knowledge and management practices in order to find solutions that are appropriate, affordable and sustainable.With support from The Christensen Fund, the project began by building a formal alliance between farmers and genebanks through a free prior and informed consent (FPIC) agreement developed with each community. Each agreement outlined clear working arrangements for the gathering and distribution of genetic material (seed), along with rights and protections regarding the use or sharing of traditional knowledge, practices and innovations.The agreements led to relationship-building and greater equity among farmers, genebank researchers, seed producers and other scientists, spurring information sharing and innovation. Farmers identified the crop traits they needed to cope with shifting climate trends. They also shared information about the traditional varieties maintained on their farms and methods they employed to adapt to changing climate pressures. In Bolivia, an important aspect of the initiative was to strengthen relations between potato farmers and seed producers. Warming temperatures had caused seed producers to move their plots to higher, colder altitudes to evade encroaching pests and disease, creating a greater physical distance from farmers and contributing to a decline in trust. By increasing contact and communication among farmers, seed producers and genebank researchers, the project was able to restore trust and build a more robust seed system. The genebank provided improved planting material to seed producers, boosting the availability of quality, resistant and highyielding potato seed. It also supported the exchange of improved and traditional varieties of native potatoes.In the Sarawak communities, seed exchange is practised only through family lineages or for special occasions, such as weddings. Community-scale collaboration is not acceptable, as villagers do not want to be compared with one another. Farmers proposed alternative solutions including varietal selection at household -rather than community -level. They also recommended that the formal genebank could provide a 'hotel service' for their traditional rice varieties, allowing farmers to preserve their planting material without having to engage in seed exchange. On seeing how their seeds were stored in the air-conditioned facilities, farmers in Sarawak expressed that while they had no money in the bank, it was a consolation to know that they owned something \"even more precious than money in the genebank.\"In both countries, scientists realised that they needed to change the way they viewed seed exchange. In these communities, it is not merely a means for geneflow within the farming system, but also a type of intellectual property right to be protected. But improving access to agrobiodiversity remains a major challenge. Farmers' needs must be fully included in research and development designs or innovation will not be adopted. Safe spaces where community members can express themselves are required if effective and efficient interaction between formal and informal knowledge and seed systems is to take place.  ","tokenCount":"643"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"43d89cb388318db309f9084e52a7b234","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0dcd2ce9-8b4d-40f4-b356-d645cceaa6d3/content","id":"300215692"},"keywords":["malnutrition","QTL mapping","GWAS-genome-wide association study","speed breeding","new breeding techniques (NBTs)","biofortification","genomic selection"],"sieverID":"3add09be-cdaa-4f14-8874-4eb63804f972","pagecount":"20","content":"More than three billion people worldwide suffer from iron deficiency associated anemia and an equal number people suffer from zinc deficiency. These conditions are more prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. In developing countries, children under the age of five with stunted growth and pregnant or lactating women were found to be at high risk of zinc and iron deficiencies. Biofortification, defined as breeding to develop varieties of staple food crops whose grain contains higher levels of micronutrients such as iron and zinc, are one of the most promising, cost-effective and sustainable ways to improve the health in resource-poor households, particularly in rural areas where families consume some part of what they grow. Biofortification through conventional breeding in wheat, particularly for grain zinc and iron, have made significant contributions, transferring important genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs) from wild and related species into cultivated wheat. Nonetheless, the quantitative, genetically complex nature of iron and zinc levels in wheat grain limits progress through conventional breeding, making it difficult to attain genetic gain both for yield and grain mineral concentrations. Wheat biofortification can be achieved by enhancing mineral uptake, source-to-sink translocation of minerals and their deposition into grains, and the bioavailability of the minerals. A number of QTLs with major and minor effects for those traits have been detected in wheat; introducing the most effective into breeding lines will increase grain zinc and iron concentrations. New approaches to achieve this include marker assisted selection and genomic selection. Faster breeding approaches need to be combined to simultaneously increase grain mineral content and yield in wheat breeding lines.Minerals are important components for physical and mental health development in humans. Malnutrition from micronutrient deficiencies, also known as \"hidden hunger,\" is one of the most challenging health issues globally and particularly in developing countries. Dietary deficiencies of zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), iodine, and vitamin A are most prevalent among children and women. Worldwide, more than three billion people are affected by zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and vitamin-A deficiencies (Raemaekers, 1988;Beal et al., 2017), with such nutrient deficiencies being particularly high among people in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Fe is an essential part of hemoglobin and myoglobin and being directly involved in oxygen transport, enzymatic functions, energy production and DNA synthesis. Fe deficiency causes anemia (https://www.who. int/health-topics/anaemia); children below 5 years of age (40%) and women at reproductive or lactating stages (30%) are more anemic. Likewise, Zn is a ubiquitous element for every living organism including human beings, acting as a co-factor for more than 300 enzymes and proteins at the cellular and sub-cellular levels during nucleic acid production, metabolism, cell division and differentiation, and the immune system. Zn deficiency impairs physical growth and development and the proper functioning of the immune and reproductive systems and mental acuity, as well as increasing child mortality. On average 20% of women and children are Zn deficient, with a high prevalence in low-and middle-income groups and even among adult men (Gupta et al., 2020b). Another study reported 31.3% Zn deficiency among the children of higher income groups in western Europe and no significant difference was observed between children of the different socio-economic groups (Vreugdenhil et al., 2021). Food supplements and fortification and more diverse diets can help to address micronutrient malnutrition. Iron and zinc supplements, for example, have substantially reduced diarrhea and anaemia in affected segments of the population (Gupta et al., 2020b). Food fortification for vitamin-A and iodine deficiency through pharmaceutical products and iodized salt have reduced related deficiencies, but such products may be unaffordable for lowincome families, particularly in developing countries. Reduced consumption of vegetables and fruits is observed due to lower purchasing power in many farm households in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa; now the COVID-19 outbreak substantially reduced the income of poor households that cut down on their intake of fruits, vegetables, and animal-based foods and increased their dependence on staple grains (Heck et al., 2020). In 2022, restrictions in the movement of farm produce, disrupted supply systems, and continued economic fall-out due to the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia-Ukraine conflict jeopardized food supply chains, including distribution to Central Asia and Africa, and triggered food prices, augmenting global hunger and malnutrition (https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/ brief/food-security-update). Increasing nutrient density and bioavailability in staple food crops, as well as their production and distribution at affordable prices, can greatly improve the nutrition of low-income groups.\"Biofortification\" refers to increasing essential mineral and vitamin content and bioavailability in edible parts of staple food crops, either through conventional breeding and/or biotechnological interventions, as well as through fertilizer. \"Golden rice\" is a successful example of improving the betacarotene content in rice through the transformation of three biosynthetic pathway genes: phytoene synthase (psy), phytoene desaturase (crtI) and lycopene β-cyclase (lcy) (Ye et al., 2000). Biofortification in staple food crops has progressed through initiatives such as Harvest Plus, the Grand Challenge in Global Health, the India Biofortification Programme, Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN), and Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), among others, and has gained global and local recognition. Numerous countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Colombia, India, Indonesia, Malawi, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia) have included biofortification in their national health and development policies (Virk et al., 2021). Efforts also have been made to speed the seed production and distribution of biofortified crop varieties to reach resource-poor farmers in remote areas. The government of India has proposed the inclusion of fortified wheat, rice, edible oil in mid-day meal programs, the public distribution system and integrated child development program (https://www.livemint.com/Politics/91RAsPJFJLykDywTPHRCeI/ Fortified-MidDay-meals-by-December-2019-to-fight-malnutriti. html).Wheat provides 25% of calories in human diets worldwide and 60% in Central and West Asian countries (Cakmak, 2008). The wheat endosperm is rich in starch but poor in minerals, particularly Zn, Fe, and vitamins (Cakmak and Kutman, 2018). Moreover, minerals and bioactive components of the wheat grain are concentrated in the aleurone layer, which is removed during milling, so the remaining flour generally contains only small amounts of minerals and vitamins. The average Zn concentration in the white flour is around 8 mg per kg, falling short of the daily recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of from 9-19 mg per day for adults (Cakmak, 2007;Gillies et al., 2012;Cakmak and Kutman, 2018). The low mineral contents in rice and wheat is due to the deficiencies of these substances, particularly of Zn, in the soils of most of the areas where the crops are grown. Finally, breeding for high yielding wheat genotypes since the mid-20th century has reduced genetic variation for grain Zn and Fe in modern cultivars from the levels found in landraces and genotypes released during Green Revolution (Debnath et al., 2021).Through agronomic and genetic interventions, mineral density can be enhanced (Cakmak, 2008). Genetic biofortification is the most sustainable and cost-effective approach to alleviate micronutrient malnutrition among lower-middle income consumers. Based on estimated average micronutrient requirements; average staple food crop intakes; mineral losses incurred during harvesting, processing, and storage; and micronutrient bioavailablility, a minimum target levels have been set for different minerals in staple food crops (Bouis et al., 2011). To meet out 30 and 40% of estimated average requirements for Fe and Zn, respectively for children and adult women, the target levels of 59 ppm for Fe and 38 ppm for Zn are set in wheat grain, considering the baseline of 30 ppm for Fe and 24 ppm for Zn. Large-scale screening of germplasm, identification of genotypes, mapping of underpinning genomic regions, and their use to develop high-yielding, disease resistant, biofortified wheat genotypes are the major focuses of genetic biofortification research. Wild relatives carry higher levels of Zn and Fe in their grain than cultivated wheat genotypes. The locus Gpc-B1 for grain protein, Zn, and Fe was detected and fine mapped in Triticum durum ssp dicoccoides and can serve as a source to enhance these traits in cultivated wheat (Uauy et al., 2006). Genome sequence information of T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (Mayer et al., 2014) and a highly annotated chromosome level genome sequence (Ref Seqv1.0;Appels et al., 2018) can be used for gene discovery, cloning, and functional analysis of genome targeting to grain Zn and Fe. In this article we review the status of wheat biofortification and how genomic resources can be used in breeding for biofortified wheat genotypes.Initial research on agronomic biofortification to increase grain Zn in wheat took place in Turkey (Cakmak et al., 1996;Cakmak et al., 1999). Mineral density can be modulated by soil Zn and Fe status and their availability for the crop. Soil zinc and iron availability depends on edaphic factors such as soil physical and chemical properties, micronutrient availability, pH, the status of soil moisture and organic matter, grain filling duration, and the timing of senescence (Cakmak and Kutman, 2018). Irrespective of this, wheat grain zinc and iron concentrations can be increased by applying these elements directly to wheat (Yilmaz et al., 1997). Zn and Fe can be applied in inorganic or organic forms but the most commonly used are ZnSO 4 and FeSO 4 , due to their ready availability and low cost. Soil and foliar applications of zinc fertilizer increase grain Zn density in wheat and can positively affect agronomic parameters such as the number of tillers, thousand kernel weight, chlorophyll content, and biological yield (Rizwan et al., 2018;Dimkpa et al., 2020). Hussain et al. (2012b) reported that soil applications of Zn increased whole grain zinc concentrations up to 95% and grain yield by 29%. However, foliar application was found to be more effective than soil application to increase zinc and iron concentrations in wheat. Foliar application is also advantageous under stress conditions, particularly drought, to avoid impairment of mineral uptake due to lack of soil moisture. Foliar applications of ZnSO 4 @ 0.5% and FeSO 4 @ 1% were more effective than applying to soil alone or both soil and foliar applications (Ramzan et al., 2020), and foliar application during grain filling resulted in a more effective translocation of zinc to the grain. Spraying zinc fertilizer at the grain development stage improved grain zinc concentration by 68% (Zhang et al., 2010). Unlike for zinc, iron fertilization of soils is not effective at increasing grain iron concentrations (Gupta, 1991), but in several studies the foliar application of iron increased grain Fe concentration up to 28% (Zhang et al., 2010); 21% (Pahlavan-Rad and Pessarakli, 2009), and 14% (Aciksoz et al., 2011b). Application of N-fertilizers along with FeSO 4 increased iron concentrations in shoots as well as in the grain (Aciksoz et al., 2011b;Singh et al., 2018). Previous reports showed that N application increased the secretion of phytosederophore that chelate Fe in the soil and Yellow Stripe 1 protein act as Fe transporter (Aciksoz et al., 2011a). Seed priming is another way to deliver minerals to plants. Zinc also improves coleoptile and radical growth and germination in wheat (Ozturk et al., 2006). The recent practice of applying nano particles (NP) to the soil is becoming popular as a cost effective, environmentally-friendly approach to reduce fertilizer losses and raise productivity and profitability. Applying ZnO-NP and Fe-NP in wheat enhanced grain yield, biomass, chlorophyll content, and drought tolerance (Dimkpa et al., 2020). Nano zinc and iron treatments significantly increased Zn and Fe concentration in the roots, shoots, and grain (Rizwan et al., 2018;Dimkpa et al., 2020). Applying ZnO-NP or Fe-NP alone or coated with NPK can reduce farmers' costs and, in case of zinc, it is cheaper than ZnSO 4 .Whereas, foliar and soil applications of Zn and Fe must be repeated in each crop cycle, genetic biofortification provides a longterm solution against micronutrient malnutrition. Genetic biofortification is complex, involving several physiological pathways and proteins right from soil uptake of minerals to their accumulation in the grain. Targeting the genes or proteins that play key roles in mineral sequestration may increase grain Zn and Fe. The two major approaches that may be used are selective plant breeding and transgenic breeding, to develop biofortified crop genotypes. Transgenic approaches and outputs are subject to stringent policies in many countries and their use is restricted or prohibited, so this paper focuses on selective breeding. Mainstreaming biofortification as a selection priority in breeding programs-along with yield, disease resistance, end-use preferences, and environmental adaption-is paramount, and includes the use of micronutrient dense parental lines and setting grain micronutrient target levels. The review consists of three major sections: the first section deals with physiological and molecular mechanism of uptake, translocation and grain sequestration of Zn and Fe; second section deals with breeding for grain zinc and iron including mapping of gene(s) and QTLs; and the third section deals with new breeding techniques which need to be adopted with conventional breeding.Complex physiological and metabolic processes are associated with the uptake and accumulation of Zn and Fe into the grain. Broadly, there are three kinds of mineral uptake mechanisms: 1) direct uptake of Zn 2+ and Fe 2+ molecules via the root system with the help of ZRT-IRT like proteins; 2) where Zn 2+ and Fe 3+ molecules are chelated first and then taken up through roots; and 3) a combination of 1 and 2. Cereals and millets (rice, maize, wheat, barley, pearl millet, among others) use mechanism 2 to extract Fe and Zn from the rhizosphere into the root system, where secretion of phytosiderophores (PS), proteins of the Mugineic acid (MA) family, help in chelating Fe and Zn and form a complex of Fe 3+ -MA or Zn 2+ -MA (Marschner and Romheld, 1994;Nozoye et al., 2015). The role of MA is well understood in Fe uptake and transport in rice and barley, but also showed its affinity towards molecules like Zn and Cu. In zinc-deficient wheat plants, more MA was released (Cakmak et al., 1994). Methionine acts as a precursor of MA synthesis, which is converted to S-adenosyl-Lmethionine (SAM) with the help of the enzyme SAM synthetase (Mori and Nishizawa, 1987). In a subsequent reaction, SAM is converted to nicotianamine (NA) by NA synthase (NAS) followed by 3″-keto acid and 2′-deoxymugineic acid (DMA) by NA aminotransferase (NAAT) and DMA synthase (DMAS), respectively (Shojima et al., 1990). In some species, DMA is further converted to MA. In graminaceous crops MA is commonly produced, whereas NA is most common in nongraminaceous crops. In wheat, MA producing genes such as TaNAS, TaNAAT, and TaDMAS were identified (Pearce et al., 2014). MA secreted in the root zone chelates iron along with zinc, manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu). The complexes of Fe 3+ -MA or Zn 2+ -MA are taken up by roots. This mechanism is well established for Fe uptake in rice, barley and maize, but little is known about the genetic mechanism of metal uptake and its transport in wheat. Using the knowledge of model crop species, it is possible to identify the candidate genes in wheat of potential use for breeding.The gene family \"transfer of MAs\" (TOM) plays important role in the uptake of soil iron and its translocation. TOM1 was first identified in rice and barley as facilitating MA secretions from roots to soil (Nozoye et al., 2011) and their transport. TOM2 and TOM3 are homologous to TOM1 and transport PS into the plant. Over expression of TOM2 using a GUS-promoter in rice allowed scientists to locate it in roots, shoots and seeds, with the highest expression in basal plant tissues (Nozoye et al., 2015). Several zinc-induced facilitator (ZIFL) genes have been identified and their role in zinc homeostasis assessed. ZIFL acts as an efflux transporter of vacuolar NA. In rice, ZIFL transports MA synthesized in the roots. In wheat, 15 TaZIFL proteins distributed on chromosomes 3, 4, and 5 have been characterized; genes like TaZIFL2.3, TaZIFL4.1, TaZIFL4.2, TaZIFL5, TaZIFL6.1, and TaZIFL6.2, were upregulated in roots under zinc and Fe deficient conditions (Sharma et al., 2019).Other than MA, nicotianamine is produced by roots that also help in chelating soil Fe and Zn. NAS increases the production of NA and DMA, which improves the uptake and translocation of chelated metals. Overexpression of rice nicotianamine synthase genes, the OsNAS2 gene in wheat, increases the uptake and translocation of grain zinc in shoots as well as the grain (Singh et al., 2017).A complex mechanism of metal transport, chelation and sequestration helps plants to avoid metal toxicity. Plants produce several transporter proteins varying in their substrate, expression, and locations. Colangelo and Guerinot (2006) provide a detailed discussion of the P 1B -ATPase family, the CDF family as metal efflux proteins, ZIP, yellow stripe-1 (YSL), the natural resistance associated macrophage protein (NRAMP), and the copper uptake proteins (COPT) as metal uptake proteins. Heavy metal transporting P type ATPase (HMA), a protein of the P 1B -ATPase family, act as a Zn, Cd, and Pb transporter. Arabidopsis mutants of hma2 and hma4 showed lower Zn uptake than the wild type (Hussain et al., 2004). HMA helps Zn to move from roots into shoots and plays a role in xylem loading and unloading. In wheat, 32 HMA protein-producing genes were detected on chromosomes 2A, 2B, 2D, 4A, 4D, 5A, 5B, 5D, 6A, 6B, 6D, 7A, 7B, and 7D (Zhou et al., 2019). Overexpression of the TaHMA2 gene in wheat increased the Zn concentration in the shoot as well as in the grain; however, grain Zn concentration was limited to the embryo and aleurone layer (Tan et al., 2013). Similarly, metal tolerance protein (MTP) is another transmembrane metal transporter protein of the CDF family located in the vacuole membrane of roots, shoots, and leaves and helps in Zn transport into the vacuole. Knocking out the mtp1 gene in Arabidopsis reduced Zn accumulation in various plant tissues (Desbrosses-Fonrouge et al., 2005). NRAMP is another protein located in the vacuole membrane and which takes active part in Fe transport. Eight homologues of TaNRAMP genes have been identified in wheat (Borrill et al., 2014). Other genes known as vacuolar iron transporter (VITs) genes help transport of iron into the grain and offer a potential target for iron biofortification. Wheat has two functional VIT genes, TaVIT1 and TaVIT2 on chromosomes 2 and 5, each with three homeologs from the A, B, and D genome. Overexpression of TaVIT2 increased grain iron 2-fold (Connorton et al., 2017).Several proteins belong to the yellow stripe (YSL) family, a complex of transporter proteins that help in the uptake of chelated metals in the soil into roots and their subsequent transport to stems, leaves, and grain. First detected in maize, YSL-1 is involved in the uptake of metals that form complexes with PS or NA and its role in Fe 3+ -MA transport has been well established (Curie et al., 2001). Rice genes OsYSL15 express in the seed and are involved in seed germination, while OsYSL2 plays an important role in phloem transport and transport into the seed (Nozoye et al., 2015). Likewise, zinc-induced transporter family (ZIP) proteins are involved in metal uptake and transport. In wheat, 14 and 19 members of YSL and ZIP gene families have been characterized in up and down regulation during senescence and which play key roles in metal transport from the cytoplasm to the phloem and the phloem to the grain (Pearce et al., 2014). Several YSL, ZIP, and NRAMP homologs are involved in the uptake, transport, and remobilization of Fe and Zn in wheat (Table 1). Overexpression of the specific transporter protein using a tissue-specific promoter could be a target area for research to increase the grain mineral concentrations.Minerals deposition in grain occurs through the direct uptake of Zn/Fe by roots at grain filling stage, or remobilization of stored Zn/Fe from leaves and stems. Studies in rice to understand the contribution through continued root uptake and remobilization of stored minerals into the grain observed that minerals are accumulated via both processes. Under conditions of adequate minerals in the soil, continued root uptake plays a major role in Zn/Fe deposition into the grain while, under mineral deficient conditions, remobilization of stored Zn/Fe from leaves and stems contributes more to rice grain mineral content (Sperotto, 2013). A similar result was observed for grain Zn accumulation in winter wheat by Liu et al. (2019a), also reported a critical value for soil Zn availability (7.15 mg kg −1 DTPA Zn concentration) for wheat, above which the direct uptake of soil Zn during grain filling is predominant and below which remobilization is the major source of Zn in the grain. Remobilization of Zn/Fe depends on the xylem to phloem loading and mobility. In rice, grain Zn concentrations depend on plants' ability to redistribute Zn from older leaves and stems, as well as phloem mobilization of Zn (Wu et al., 2010). Significant contributions of the flag and penultimate leaves to wheat grain yield have been observed (Roy et al., 2021a), but there are no detailed studies concerning the proportionate remobilization of Zn and Fe from different wheat plant parts. Uauy et al. (2006) observed an abundance of Zn, Fe and proteins in wheat flag leaves during grain filling, in plants carrying the Gpc-B1 locus.Micro elemental analysis revealed higher concentrations of Zn, Fe and other bioactive elements in the embryo and grain aleurone layer; achieving localized increases of mineral concentrations in the endosperm is challenging. To better understand mineral translocation and deposition in the grain, experiments in model crop plants identified key genes. Ferritin is a Fe storage protein located in the plastid and readily bioavailable. Enhancing FERRITIN gene expression is important for Fe-biofortification. Genetically transforming rice using the soybean FERRITIN gene under the seed-specific promoter gene Glu-B1 (Goto et al., 1999) and the pea FERRITIN gene under the Gt-1 promoter (Lucca et al., 1999) increased endosperm iron levels. The soybean FERRITIN gene under the control of the maize ubiquitin promoter was expressed in wheat, resulting in higher iron concentrations in both plant tissue and the grain, but with much higher levels in the former (Drakakaki et al., 2000). Wheat carries two ferritin genes, TaFer1 and TaFer2, located in chromosomes 4 and 5 and each with three homoalleles in hexaploid wheat. Overexpression of the endogenous TaFer1-A gene targeting the endosperm raised wheat grain Fe levels by 50%-58% (Borg et al., 2012).The endogenous vacuolar transporter (TaVIT2) gene using a promoter of the GLU-1D-1 gene achieved a more than 2-fold increase in Fe concentrations in white flour (Connorton et al., 2017). In another attempt, the constitutive expression in bread wheat of the rice OsNAS gene that produces chelators such as nicotianamine (NA) and 2′-deoxymugineic acid (DMA) improved grain Fe and Zn concentrations (Beasley et al., 2019). Effective genetic biofortification approaches for wheat should focus on increasing mineral uptake from the soil and translocation and remobilization into grains, combining genes for higher metal uptake and translocation (NAS, NAAT, DMAS, TOM, YSL, ZIP etc.) and genes that affect targeted transport to the endosperm (VIT, FERITTIN etc.). Singh et al. (2017) developed wheat transgenic lines using the rice OsNAS2 and bean PvFERRITIN genes separately and combining both genes and observed increased grain Zn and Fe concentrations in all three cases. The OsNAS2 gene was most effective; a grain of related transgenic wheat lines contained 93.1 ppm of Fe and 140.6 ppm of Zn (Singh et al., 2017) and there was a more than 2fold increase in grain Fe, compared to a 1.6-fold increase with the combined expression of both genes. This differs from the case for rice, where the combined expression of OsNAS2 and FERRITIN gave a 6-fold increase in grain Fe content (Trijatmiko et al., 2016), suggesting that the two genes may not be synergistic in wheat and the overexpression of endogenous genes in wheat could be an alternative for increasing endospermic mineral expression. However, the very low efficiency of transformation in wheat, compared with crops like rice and barley, and of transgene expression in hexaploid wheat needs to be considered.Minerals in cereal and legume grains are less bioavailable. The presence of phytic acid (PA), a phosphorus (P) storage protein in seed representing 65%-85% of seed P, acts as a chelator for cations of Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Zn 2+ , Mn 2+ , and Fe 3+ and reduces their absorption in the intestine (Bhati et al., 2016). Thus, the bioavailability of grain Zn and Fe depends on proportionate phytic acid content in the grain or diet. The molar ratio of phytate: Zn/Fe can be used as a determinant of mineral bioavailability; an increase in the molar ratio indicates lower adsorption of Zn and Fe. Morris and Ellis (1989) determined critical ratios of phytate: Fe > 1 (Hallberg et al., 1989) and phytate: Zn > 15. Genotypes with lower phytic acid lines of PA: Zn < 0.4 and PA: Fe < 5 or 5-10 are preferable for biofortification (Gupta et al., 2022). Assessment of phytic acid in wheat genotypes showed higher genetic variability. Average PA in wheat grain ranges from 7.1 to 11.1 mg g −1 , giving a molar ratio for PA: Zn from 24 to 41, in a set of 65 wheat genotypes from Pakistan (Hussain et al., 2012a). Another study involving 42 durum wheat genotypes showed PA variation from 0.462 to 0.952% and ranges for molar ratios of PA: Zn and PA: Fe of 16.9-23.6 and 12.1-29.6, respectively (Magallanes-Lopez et al., 2017). Wen et al. (2022) evaluated 330 wheat genotypes from CIMMYT, Mexico and reported 0.9%-1.72% range in PA content. Genome wide association studies revealed six stable genomic regions and the effect of four of the six region could reduce PA content from 1.21% to 1.13% which could potentially increase grain Zn and Fe bioavailability by 7%. In comparison, the PA content in T. monococcum, T. turgidum and T. aestivum was less in diploids than in tetraploids or hexaploids (Bilgrami et al., 2018). Seasonal variation of PA was also observed a significant difference in PA between tetraploids and hexaploids was recorded in the fall but was non-significant in the spring. Likewise, the PA: Zn molar ratio was less in T. monococcum (2.15), than T. turgidum (2.66) and T. aestivum (3.15) (Bilgrami et al., 2018). Understanding the physiological and metabolic pathways their underlying genes related to PA biosynthesis allow researchers to mitigate/reduce/control PA activity in grains. Phytic acid is produced during grain development and abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA) regulates its accumulation during seed maturation. PA is synthesized from glucose-6-phosphate through a series of phosphorylation reactions by several inositol phosphate kinases (IPK) proteins. Genes such as TaIMP, TaITPK1-4, TaPLC1, TaIPK1, TaIPK2 were identified as being involved in PA biosynthesis in wheat (Aggarwal et al., 2015). A protein, TaABCC13, acts as a PA transporter and showed a pleiotropic effect on seed germination and root development (Bhati et al., 2016). Improving mineral bio-availability is possible by reducing PA expression in grain and also can be achieved through overexpression of the phytase enzyme, which degrades phytic acid and release minerals.Approaches such as mutagenic treatment and transgenic development were adopted to develop low phytic acid mutant lines of maize, rice, barley and soybean. Maize low phytic acid mutants can be grouped into lpa1, lpa2, and lpa3 mutants; lpa1 affects transporter proteins that packages PA into vacuoles; lpa2 impairs the production of the inositol phosphate kinase enzyme (IPK1) that phosphorylates inositol-5-phosphate to PA and lpa3 impairs myo-inositol kinase that phosphorylates myo-inositol to inositol monophosphate (Singh et al., 2020). Plants with lpa mutations produced seeds with normal levels of phosphorus but greatly reduced PA bound phosphorus. Low phytic acid mutants of wheat showed a two-fold increase in grain Zn and Fe concentrations (Guttieri et al., 2004;Kenzhebayeva et al., 2019). In mutant lines, the distribution of grain P was altered, increasing the P content in the central endosperm and lowering it in the aleurone layer. But negative pleiotropic effects in lpa mutant line Js-12-LPA included reduced yield and height and weak straw, thus limiting the promise of lpa mutation for breeding (Guttieri et al., 2004).Increasing grain phytase activity can readily increase nutrient bioavailablility. Endogenous phytase is produced during seed germination and releases the P from the PA, but in dry seed and flour, digestive tract phytase activity is very low or absent. Overexpression of the Aspergillus niger phytase gene (phyA) resulted in a 4-fold increase in phytase activity in wheat (Brinch-Pedersen et al., 2000). Detailed studies about increasing phytase activity in wheat are not available. Orthologous genetic information from other related species can be used to identify the gene families involved in PA biosynthesis and degradation and facilitate their use to develop wheat cultivars whose grain features low levels of phytic acid.Breeding for improved grain zinc and iron content in wheat Genetic analysis of grain zinc and iron in wheatUnderstanding the nature of gene action and inheritance for micronutrient accumulation in the wheat grain is a prerequisite for improving the trait. Genetic analysis revealed the quantitative nature of inheritance for grain Zn and Fe contents, making improvement through conventional breeding is slow. Few studies exist regarding the nature of gene action for grain micronutrient content in wheat. One of the studies reported the predominance of additive gene action for grain Fe and dominance and duplicate epistasis for grain Zn in bread wheat (Amiri et al., 2020). Holasoua et al. ( 2021) reported additive gene action as being significant for both grain Zn and Fe. Higher heritability is paramount for increased genetic gains through selection. High heritability for grain Fe and moderately low heritability for grain Zn were reported by Amiri et al. (2020). Moderate-to-high heritability was detected in other studies (Velu et al., 2016a;Narendra et al., 2021). Low heritability for grain Zn and Fe content was also reported by Joshi et al. (2010). The existence of moderate-to-low heritability and the predominance of dominance and duplicate epistasis suggests advanced generation selection for the traits. High genotype × environment (G × E) interaction for grain Zn and Fe was reported under multilocation testing (Joshi et al., 2010;Velu et al., 2016a). Numerous factors affect grain Zn and Fe content, including soil nutrient availability (Alloway, 2009), soil moisture and organic matter (Cakmak, 2008;Pal et al., 2009), pH (Kirk and Bajita, 1995;Rupa and Tomar, 1999), tillage (Stipesevic et al., 2009), and soil N availability (Singh et al., 2018). Wheat grown under stress conditions showed higher grain Zn and Fe concentrations than crops grown under optimum conditions. Elevated temperatures and drought stress at post-anthesis increased grain Zn concentrations in wheat (Velu et al., 2016a;Narendra et al., 2021). This may be a result of the production of smaller grains and an increased aleurone: endosperm ratio under stress, particularly given that the overall Zn and Fe yield per unit area was higher in nonstressed environments (Velu et al., 2016a). For iron, there was no significant change in grain concentrations between genotypes grown under stressed or optimum conditions (Narendra et al., 2021).A significant association between grain Zn and Fe contents has been observed (Velu et al., 2016a;Velu et al., 2019;Narendra et al., 2021), indicating improvement in micronutrient levels of one will lead to improvement in the other. This may be due to commonly associated proteins and enzymes for Zn and Fe uptake and translocation to the grains. However, studies have also found a negative association of grain Zn and Fe with grain yield (Morgounov et al., 2007;Narendra et al., 2021). Velu et al. (2016a) reported a negative association of grain yield with grain Zn but no association with grain Fe content. Simultaneous improvement of both traits is challenging. The significant negative association of grain yield with mineral concentrations could be due to a dilution effect, where highyielding genotypes are contributing less grain Zn and Fe than photosynthates to the grain. In a study comparing modern wheat and rice cultivars with the cultivars released 50 years earlier, it was found that modern cultivars have less capacity to sequester Zn and Fe in the grain than earlier cultivars (Debnath et al., 2021). A study by Hao et al. (2021) found that wheat landraces carry higher grain Zn contents than cultivars and that landraces accumulated more grain Zn under foliar applications of the mineral.With intensive breeding efforts, high-yielding, mineral dense wheat genotypes can be developed. An example is BARI Gom 33, developed by CIMMYT and released for commercial cultivation in Bangladesh and which offers a 7-8 ppm Zn advantage (Velu et al., 2019), as well as resistance to wheat blast (Roy et al., 2021b). Identification of high-yielding wheat genotypes with higher root uptakes or with a higher capacity to remobilize stored minerals or both is important. Grain Fe was improved with the supply of N in soil and foliar application (Aciksoz et al., 2011b), indicating the presence of useful genes for a higher uptake of N and Fe. In addition, a significant positive association of grain protein content with grain Zn and Fe has been reported (Morgounov et al., 2007). The locus TaNAM-B1 was detected to correspond higher levels of grain protein, Zn, and Fe (Uauy et al., 2006).Interestingly, wild species, landraces and synthetic hexaploid wheats (SHW) are probable sources of grain iron and zinc in wheat. Monasterio and Graham (2000) evaluated around 3000 CIMMYT genotypes for grain Zn and Fe concentrations. T. tauschii genotypes had average and maximum iron concentrations of 76 and 99 ppm, with an average and maximum zinc concentrations of 50 and 68.9 ppm, respectively. T. monococcum had maximum iron and zinc levels of 70 and 131 ppm, respectively. T. dicoccoides and T. dicoccon showed zinc levels of 142 and 135 ppm. A core collection of Asian bread and durum wheat in the CIMMYT gene bank showed grain Zn levels ranging from 16.85 to 60.77 ppm and, for grain Fe, from 26.26 to 68.78 ppm (Velu et al., 2011). Ninety diploid and tetraploid wheat progenitors were screened for grain Zn and Fe content, few accessions of D and S genome species including Aegilops tauschii (D), Ae. kotschyi (US), Ae. speltoides (S), Ae. longissima (S) and Ae. bicornis (S) were found promising (Chhuneja et al., 2006). Grain Zn level up to 115.4 ppm (Syn43 [T. durum (Yuk) • Ae. tauschii (864)], 90.4 ppm (Ae. tauschii acc. 14,129) and grain Fe of 109.4 ppm (Ae. tauschii acc. 14,102) and 104.4 ppm (Ae. kotschyi acc. 3,573) were recorded. Another study reported non-progenitor wild species with S, U and M genome carrying 3-4 times higher grain Zn and Fe than the bread and durum wheat (Rawat et al., 2009b). Tetraploids showed higher concentrations of grain Zn and Fe than hexaploids, with ranges for Zn of 45-177 ppm in T. boeoticum, 20-159 in T. dococcoides, 29-89 ppm in T. monococcum and, for grain Fe, 41-92 ppm in T. boeoticum, 28-78 ppm in T. dococcoides, and 34-85 ppm in T. monococcum. This compared to 15-61 ppm for grain Zn and 24-51 ppm for grain Fe in T. aestivum and 18-50 ppm for grain Zn and 10-50 ppm for grain Fe in T. durum (Cakmak et al., 2000). Other studies have also reported the high genetic potential for grain Zn and Fe contents in diploid and tetraploid wild species such as T. monococcum, T. turgidum ssp dicoccoides, T. boeoticum, Aegilops tauschii and landraces (Cakmak, 2007;Velu et al., 2014). Grain Zn in T. turgidum ssp dicoccoides varied from 69 to 139 ppm; Fe concentrations from 44 to 88 ppm and protein from 164 to 382 g/kg (Peleg et al., 2007). A few accessions of T. turgidum ssp dicoccoides showed both high grain Zn and Fe concentrations. In most cases, the cultivated wheat genotypes showed lower levels of grain Zn and Fe. A range of grain Zn and Fe was 21-35 ppm and 22-34 ppm, respectively (Tang et al., 2008), 26-40 ppm and 35-56 ppm, respectively (Peterson et al., 1986), 29-46 ppm and 34-66 ppm, respectively (Ficco et al., 2009), 8-12 ppm and 29-38 ppm, respectively (Cakmak, 2000) were reported in the cultivated wheat genotypes.Genomic regions associated with higher micronutrient density can be transferred from wild relatives to cultivated varieties. Wheat secondary and tertiary gene pools can be used to broaden the genetic base for grain mineral density through pre-breeding or the production of synthetic hexaploid wheat useful for the breeders. Chromosome addition lines from Ae. peregrina, Ae. longissima and Ae. umbellulata have been found to carry genes for high Zn and Fe in the grain and roots and control the release of high levels of mugineic acid in the root zone (Neelam et al., 2012). Synthetic amphidiploids produced from T. aestivum (AABBDD) and Ae. kotschyi (UUS 1 S 1 ) carrying grain Zn and Fe more than double of the hexaploid parents (Rawat et al., 2009a).The addition of rye chromosomes 1R and 7R improved the Zn efficiency of wheat cultivars. Increased zinc concentrations and contents were found in the shoots of chromosome addition lines (Cakmak et al., 1997). One of the most significant achievements in wheat breeding is the addition to hexaploid wheat of the 1BL:1RS rye chromosome segment, which has proved an invaluable source of resistance to stem, leaf, and yellow rust and powdery mildew, as well as providing wide adaptation, enhanced yield, and abiotic stress tolerance (Kumar et al., 2003). Likewise, the 2NS segment from Aegilops ventricosa is associated with cyst nematode resistance (Williamson et al., 2013), lodging resistance (Singh et al., 2019), and resistance to wheat blast, one of the devastating diseases of wheat (Roy et al., 2021b;Singh et al., 2021;Phuke et al., 2022). A study using Ae. longissima × T. turgidum ssp durum crosses showed that amphidiploids received genes from Ae. longissima for higher grain Zn and Fe contents than their durum parents (Tiwari et al., 2008). Considering the importance of wild relatives as a source of important genes for cultivated wheat, CIMMYT started production of SHW during the 1980s and many of these synthetics provided enhanced resilience against biotic and abiotic stresses (Mujeeb-Kazi, 1995). SHW developed from crossed of T. turgidum ssp turgidum x T. tauschii, T. turgidum ssp durum x T. tauschii, and T. turgidum ssp dicoccoides x T. tauschii produced higher grain Zn and Fe than parental accessions (Zhao et al., 2017). SHW developed by CIMMYT using T. spelta, T. turgidum var diccocoides, and Ae. squarosa were found to be promising for grain mineral concentration (Calderini and Ortiz-Monasterio, 2003;Crespo-Herrera et al., 2016). Calderini and Ortiz-Monasterio (2003) reported SHW carrying 25%-30% higher grain Zn, Fe and manganese (Mn). Using SHW, several novel genes responsible for high grain Zn and Fe have been transferred into CIMMYT elite wheat breeding lines; some were tested in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan and released for commercial cultivation (Khokhar et al., 2018;Velu et al., 2018).Attempts to detect the genomic regions associated with variation for grain protein, zinc and iron in cultivated and wild relatives of wheat have identified the relevant chromosome locations. For grain protein content, the locus GPC-B1 was mapped on chromosome 6B (DIC-6B) in the durum wheat genotype LND, a D genome disomic substitution line of durum wheat variety LANGDON (LND) from T. turgidum var dicoccoides (accession FA-15-3) (Joppa et al., 1997). The DIC-6B allele encodes a protein specific to the NAC transcription factor family and was found to be similar to the Arabidopsis No Apical Meristem (NAM) protein; therefore, it has been named NAM-B1 (Uauy et al., 2006). The NAC transcription factor is associated with auxin signaling, responses under biotic and abiotic stress, and early leaf senescence. This pleiotropic gene also increases grain protein, Zn, and Fe and triggers early senescence in the plant. Cultivated wheat carries a non-functional allele of the same gene with a 1 bp insertion of thymine base at position 11 that caused a frameshift mutation (Uauy et al., 2006). The presence of the DIC-6B locus increased durum wheat grain Zn, Fe, and Mn levels by 12, 18, and 29%, as well as resulting in a 38% higher protein accumulation than occurs in durum wheat without the locus (Distelfeld et al., 2007). Discovery of high-throughput, tightly-linked markers for GPC-B1 facilitated the marker-assisted transfer into the cultivated wheat. Through marker assisted breeding, the GPC-B1 locus was transferred into the Indian wheat variety HUW 468; some derivative lines showed significantly higher levels of grain Zn, Fe, and protein (Vishwakarma et al., 2014). Use of the DIC allele was a breakthrough for quality improvement in wheat worldwide. Wheat varieties with more than 14% GPC using the DIC locus were developed in Canada (https://www.grainscanada. gc.ca/en/grain-research/scientific-reports/pdf/canadian-wheat.pdf) and Australia (https://seedworld.com/australian-researchersdevelop-high-protein-wheat/). Cultivars \"Lassik\" and \"Farnum\" in hexaploid wheat and \"Westmore\" and \"Desert King High Protein\" in durum wheat in United States; and \"Lallian,\" \"Somerset\" and \"Burnside\" in hexaploid wheat in Canada have been developed (Balyan et al., 2013). Recently, Indian scientists have developed a biofortified wheat variety MACS 4028 that contains 14.7% GPC and above 40 ppm zinc and iron (https:// dst.gov.in/scientists-ari-pune-develop-biofortified-high-proteinwheat-variety). Major constraints on the expression of GPC-B1 appear to be a genetic background and environmental conditions, particularly high temperatures (Carter et al., 2012), making breeding to develop high-yielding, biofortified genotypes using the locus is a challenge, particularly for areas where terminal heat and drought are constraints and may lead to early senescence.Selecting genotypes for highly quantitative traits that also show high G × E interaction is difficult through phenotypic assessment. QTL detection and their use through marker assisted selection can improve selection efficiency. The high environmental influence, narrow range of variation, and tedious phenotyping procedures for estimating grain Zn and Fe have made QTL mapping challenging. Phenotyping through inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (ICP-S) and, recently, use of energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (ED-XRF) has facilitated the screening of large samples, then the atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).Efforts have been made in the last two decades to dissect the genetic components governing grain Zn and Fe content in wheat. A number of QTLs associated with the genetic variation of grain mineral content have been detected. QTL mapping was performed on the diverse genetic backgrounds using bi-parental and association mapping population and several QTLs of major and minor allelic variations were detected (Table 2). Most of the QTL mapping studies have focused on the background of SHW or wild relatives of tetraploid or diploid species, due to the presence of higher levels of genetic variation. One early study has reported the GPC-B1 locus, which has been cloned and sequenced (Uauy et al., 2006). Peleg et al. (2009) used recombinant inbred lines (RILs) developed from T. durum (cv. Langdon) × wild emmer wheat (accession #G18-16) and identified 82 QTLs for different minerals, six of which were associated with grain Zn and located on chromosomes 2A, 5A, 6B, 7A, 7B, and 11 of which linked to grain Fe were found on chromosomes 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4B, 5A, 6A, 6B, 7A, and 7B. Using interspecific crosses between Triticum boeoticum (pau5088) × Triticum monococcum (pau14087), 2 QTLs for grain Fe were detected on chromosomes 2A and 7A and 1 QTL for grain Zn on 7A (Tiwari et al., 2009). Genes for enhanced grain Zn and Fe content were observed on chromosome 2S and 7U of Ae. kotschyi and substitution of 2S and 7U for the homoeologous A genome increased up to 117.4% grain Fe and 136% grain Zn over T. aestivum cv. WH 711 (Tiwari et al., 2010). A number of SHW were identified as potential donors and their underlying QTLs were detected. Using a SHW × T. spelta recombinant inbred line population, 12 QTLs for grain Zn and 7 QTLs for grain Fe were detected (Crespo-Herrera et al., 2017). The QTL Qgrain Zn.cimmyt-7B_1P2 for grain Zn on chromosome 7B, with a maximum phenotypic variation explained (PVE) of 32.7% and QTL Qgrain Fe.cimmyt-4A_P2 on chromosome 4A with 21.14% for grain Fe can be used in marker assisted breeding. Pleiotropic QTLs can be targeted through marker assisted selection for simultaneous improvement of multiple traits including yield. QTLs detected on chromosomes 2A, 5A, 6B for grain Zn were colocalized for high GPC and 5 loci on chromosomes 2A, 2B, 5A, 6A, and 7B for high grain Fe and GPC, indicating the potential correlated improvement for grain content of both minerals and proteins (Peleg et al., 2009). Other studies have reported common genomic regions. QTL for grain Zn content on 7B was co-localized with a QTL for grain Fe (Crespo-Herrera et al., 2017). Common genetic regions influencing high GPC, Zn and Fe contents were also found on chromosomes 2A and 5A (Peleg et al., 2009) and on 2A (Krishnappa et al., 2017). Although few, QTLs were detected in the hexaploid wheat background is advantageous, as they can be transferred through breeding without linkage drag, cross compatibility issues, or much time. Using RILs from a cross between a Chinese wheat line (with the lineage Hong Hua Mai/ . ../Blouk #1) and the commercial bread wheat cultivar Roelfs F2007, 10 QTLs for grain Zn, 9 for grain Fe, 5 for GPC, and 36 for agronomic traits were detected (Liu et al., 2019b). Pleiotropic QTLs for grain Zn and Fe content on chromosome 3D and for grain Zn, GPC and thousand kernel weight were detected on chromosome 2B. Shi et al. (2008) used a double haploid population derived from two winter wheat cultivars and mapped 4 and 7 genomic locations for grain Zn concentration and grain Zn content, respectively. Four QTLs on chromosomes 4A, 4D, 5A and 7A were identified for grain Zn concentration and content and may facilitate simultaneous improvement of grain Zn content and concentration. Surprisingly, collocated QTLs for grain Zn and phosphorus (P) were found on chromosomes 4A and 4D, TABLE 2 Mapping population, number of QTLs detected along with their percent of phenotypic variation explained (PVE%) and chromosome carrying the QTLs for grain zinc and iron in wheat. suggesting the potential for their correlated breeding improvement, even though the elements share an antagonistic relationship for plant uptake in soils. Genome wide association studies (GWAS) use potential natural variations to map significant marker trait associations (MTA), and provide the advantages of high resolution, high allele coverage over the bi-parental mapping population, and elimination of the disadvantages associated with RILs, where variation is confined within the two parental lines. Using GWAS in winter and red wheat cultivars, 161 MTAs were detected on 15 wheat chromosomes. The most significant regions were on chromosomes 3A and 5B and are related to transporter proteins such as those of the ZIP family and signal proteins of the MAPK family (Alomari et al., 2018). GWAS performed using a diverse panel of SHW develop from of T. durum, T. dicoccon, T. spelta, pre-breeding derivatives from T. polonicum, and landraces detected 39 QTLs for grain Zn on chromosomes 1A, 2A, 2B, 2D, 5A, 6B, 6D, 7B, and 7D (Velu et al., 2018). QTLs with large effects were detected on chromosomes 2B and 7B and are associated with transcription factors such as zinc finger motifs and metal ion binding protein (phosphatase), all of which has a role in the additional loading of Zn in wheat grains. Multiple studies have reported QTLs for high Zn and Fe concentrations on chromosomes 2A, 2B, 5A, and 7B (Srinivasa et al., 2014;Alomari et al., 2018;Alomari et al., 2019;Krishnappa et al., 2022). Transfer of these QTLs through marker assisted breeding will certainly improve mineral concentrations in wheat grains. However, detection of QTLs with major effects and stable expression across environments remains a constraint for marker-assisted breeding. Stable QTLs reported in some studies will be initial targets for breeding, but few QTLs were reported to be stable across years or locations. Based on across-location evaluations in India and Mexico, Velu et al. (2018) reported 39 stable MTAs (significant across at least three environments) for grain Zn. Crespo-Herrera et al. (2016) reported a QTL on 4BS that appeared across years governing 19.6% of the PVE for grain Zn and with pleiotropic effects on grain Zn and grain Fe. Alomari et al. (2018) reported a single MTA with minor effects on chromosome 3B and expressed in all 3 years of the study. Cu et al. (2020) reported five MTAs on chromosome 5B expressed over the season and having pleiotropic effects on grain Fe, Mn, Cu, and P contents. Recently, a meta-analysis using QTLs from seven different studies of diverse parental combinations (Shariatipour et al., 2021) detected meta-QTLs (MQTL) on chromosomes 1B, 2B, 4A, 5A, 7A, and 7B with MQTL-1, MQTL-5 and MQTL-7 on chromosomes 1B, 7A, and 7B, respectively, were detected with the highest number of initial QTLs. Functional analysis of candidate genes confined in the MQTL revealed that most of the genes were associated with Zn and Fe homeostasis. The meta-QTL analysis is a powerful tool to reduce the confidence interval for the QTLs by integrating information from independent QTL analyses performed by different authors and helps to identify more reliable QTLs. Wheat biofortification is challenging, an integrated approach needs to be constructed integrating conventional breeding, biotechnological tools, new breeding techniques, and agronomic measures for immediate soil remediation (Figure 1). In populations with diets heavy in staple crop foods and highly susceptible to micronutrient deficiencies, supplementation through pharmaceutical products and food additives may be required and need support through governmental policies.A number of wheat genotypes with higher grain Zn and Fe content have been developed and released for cultivation in Australia, Bangladesh, Bolivia, India, Nepal, Mexico, and Pakistan (Table 3). Constraints associated with selective breeding include limited genetic variation, low heritability, crossability barriers, and linkage drag, to name several. Yield gains through pure line varieties have plateaued and the development of pure line varieties is slow. Working in the joint Rockefeller Foundation-Mexican government Office of Special Studies in the mid-20th century, Nobel Peace laureate Dr. Norman E. Borlaug launched a \"shuttle breeding\" approach to speed wheat varietal development, allowing two breeding cycles per year and still used by CIMMYT. Double haploids represents another method to rapidly fix genotypes from gametospores of an F 1 plant, but are also associated with the flaws of a single generation of recombination and not exposed to diverse environments for hardening. Recently, speed breeding has emerged as an approach to the rapid advancement of generation. In this approach, plants are raised in growth chambers under controlled conditions with extended temperatures and photoperiods (Watson et al., 2018). Among other things, this modulates flowering genes to stimulate the early onset of flowering and, as a result, allows 5-6 generations to be grown in a year and the rate of genetic gains is greatly increased. For instance, genetic gain is ΔG = ihσ A /L, where i = selection intensity, h = heritability, σ A = standard deviation of additive genetic variance and L = length of breeding cycle interval or generation. Through modification in the selection intensity and accurate phenotyping, genetic advance can be enhanced to some extent. Rapid breeding cycles Frontiers in Genetics frontiersin.org multiple genetic variations that require genome-wide selection approaches, rather than targeting single QTLs. GS calculates genomic assisted breeding values (GEBVs) by estimating all available genetic variations in an individual. It uses the genomic best linear unbiased prediction (GBLUP) model and a multi-environment, linear mixed model to estimate correlated environmental structure, to predict the performance of individuals before phenotyping, based on genotyping and pedigree information. In GS, a set of individuals are genotyped and phenotyped as a training population for use to develop the prediction model (Juliana et al., 2018). The efficacy of GS has been tested for multiple traits in several crops, including wheat, for yield (Juliana et al., 2018), leaf rust and yellow rust (Juliana et al., 2017), spot blotch (Juliana et al., 2022b), and wheat blast (Juliana et al., 2022a). GS to improve grain mineral concentrations has been employed in maize (Mageto et al., 2020), rice (Rakotondramanana et al., 2022), and wheat (Velu et al., 2018), with reasonable prediction accuracies. Velu et al. (2018) reported prediction accuracies ranging from 0.331 to 0.694, with an average of 0.542, for grain Zn content and 0.324 to 0.734, with an average of 0.529, for grain Fe content, in the Harvest Plus Association Mapping (HPAM) panel.Prediction accuracy was higher in the environments with high heritability and soil available Zn. Genetic relatedness increases prediction ability and prediction ability sharply declines as relatedness between the training and testing population decreases (Crossa et al., 2010) and when evaluations are conducted in poor environments and with poor phenotyping (Velu et al., 2018). GS becomes more effective with higher prediction accuracies and applied in early generations of selection to retain lines with high breeding value and discarding those not expected to give higher genetic gains in advanced generations. GS can easily be incorporated with speed breeding to increase genetic gain. GS has not been studied in detail for increasing mineral density in wheat. A model has been proposed where GS was accumulated through speed breeding and predicted higher genetic gains over conventional breeding (Voss-Fels et al., 2019). It has been shown that the incorporation of GS with speed breeding can significantly increase grain yield, over conventional phenotypic selection.Genome editing is a powerful tool in the field of medicine, agriculture and the life sciences, allowing targeted changes in a genotype and avoided the random changes that occur in induced mutations. Genome editing can produce targeted genetic variation where none previously existed. Unlike the case of genetically modified crops, gene editing does not require the insertion of foreign DNA. Deletions, additions, single nucleotides or DNA segment substitution are used to change a target gene. Researchers have developed artificial site-specific nucleases, broadly classified as zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR-associated (Cas) nucleases that are designed to effect a targeted, double-stranded break in the DNA (Karmakar et al., 2022). ZFNs consist of a zinc finger DNA binding domain attached with nuclease FokI (Carroll, 2011). TALENs are engineered with a TAL effector binding DNA domain attached with FokI nuclease (Joung and Sander, 2013). CRISPR-Cas nuclease consists of a guide RNA and a Cas nuclease. Using the Cas9 endonuclease, CRISPR-Cas9 is the most extensively used system for genome editing, thanks to its simple design, cost effectiveness, high efficacy, reproducibility and engineering feasibility (Karmakar et al., 2022). A single guide RNA (sgRNA) hybrid consisting of a CRISPR-RNA and a transactivating RNA locate the binding and cleavage site for the Cas9 nuclease. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing is increasingly used to enhance disease resistance, tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, heat, salinity) and end-use quality in food crops. The role of genome editing in crop biofortification is being exploited for several traits including vitamin-A enrichment, targeted increases in grain zinc and iron, and reducing anti-nutritional factors in the grain (Kumar et al., 2022). Targeted knockout of the OsAAP6 and OsAAP10 genes using gene editing has reduced protein content in rice (Wang et al., 2020). The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to create novel OsBADH2 genes in nonaromatic rice lines and created aroma (Kumar et al., 2020). Targeted change in OsNRAMP2 gene enhanced iron remobilization and distribution in rice (Chang et al., 2022). In wheat, CRISPR-Cas9 mediated genome change in the α-gliadin gene resulted in low gluten wheat (Sánchez-León et al., 2018). Reduction in phytic acid levels through the disruption of inositol pentakisphosphate 2-kinase 1 (TaIPK1) improves grain Zn and Fe bioavailability in wheat (Ibrahim et al., 2021). In the future, numerous genes can be targeted through CRISPR-Cas to develop biofortified crops. To promote genome edited technology in crop improvement, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, India, and the United States have established regulatory measures separate from those applied for transgenic crops.The suppression of gene expression through antisense or RNAi technology is a powerful way to modulate biosynthetic pathways. RNAi is preferred over antisense technology, as it is more stable, efficient, and precise. Using a double stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecule, RNAi inhibits the expression of a gene at the transcription and translational levels. It has been used for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and nutritional quality improvement. RNAi mediated suppression of the inositol pentakisphosphate kinase (IPK1) gene involved in the phytic acid biosynthesis pathway reduced phytic acid level of 28%-56% in wheat (Aggarwal et al., 2018). Similarly, downregulation of the rice inositol triphosphate kinase (OsITP5/6K-1) gene through RNAi resulted in a 42% reduction in phytic acid in rice grains (Karmakar et al., 2020). This technology can be used to elucidate biosynthetic pathways and understand the roles of different genes in Zn and Fe sequestration.Advancement in next-generation sequencing platforms has enabled the development of a whole genome sequence for Triticum aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (https://www.wheatgenome. org/News/Latest-news/RefSeq-v1.0-URGI), which is the largest cereal genome. Genome sequence information of diploid (AA, DD genome) and tetraploid (AABB) progenitors are also available (Zhou et al., 2020). Sequence information for wheat wild relatives will elucidate the genetic mechanisms and variation for micronutrient levels in wheat grain, paving the way for structural genomics, functional genomics and metabolomics. Integration of multiple omics data with high-throughput techniques has elucidated the complex pathways of plant growth and their responses under biotic and abiotic stress. The availability of other omics technologies (mutagenomics, pangenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, ionomics, and phenomics) would provide new knowledge on complex biological systems. Huge amounts of data are generated using these technologies; advances in computing and integrated system-based analysis to use and manage data will expand our understanding of genotype and phenotype relationships, allowing wheat breeders to make targeted changes in the pathways of metal homeostasis and develop bio-fortified genotypes.The review updates about wheat biofortification research include conventional and molecular breeding. Mainstreaming biofortification is essential along with yield, disease resistance and other parameters. Being quantitative, limited genetic variations in the cultivated wheat varieties, improvement through conventional breeding is hard. Available genomic resources are needed to be utilized while breeding for high grain zinc and iron content wheat varieties. An integrated breeding programme including marker assisted selection, genomic approaches and gene editing tools will gear up development of biofortified wheat varieties.","tokenCount":"9545"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d1f3feb58e597a83fd49189850c9908","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/aff8b5df-710a-43b1-bf07-9d3d00d7fb62/content","id":"-1931379476"},"keywords":["agricultural biotechnology","crop genomics","plant breeding","agriculture","genome sequencing"],"sieverID":"942bb658-250d-44f2-880b-93811f0b1d2b","pagecount":"12","content":"Professor Rajeev K. Varshney's transformative impact on crop genomics, genetics, and agriculture is the result of his passion, dedication, and unyielding commitment to harnessing the potential of genomics to address the most pressing challenges faced by the global agricultural community. Starting from a small town in India and reaching the global stage, Professor Varshney's academic and professional trajectory has inspired many scientists active in research today. His ground-breaking work, especially his effort to list orphan tropical crops to genomic resource-rich entities, has been transformative. Beyond his scientific achievements, Professor Varshney is recognized by his colleagues as an exemplary mentor, fostering the growth of future researchers, building institutional capacity, and strengthening scientific capability. His focus on translational genomics and strengthening seed system in developing countries for the improvement of agriculture has made a tangible impact on farmers' lives. His skills have been best utilized in roles at leading research centres where he has applied his expertise to deliver a new vision for crop improvement. These efforts have now been recognized by the Royal Society with the award of the Fellowship (FRS). As we mark this significant milestone in his career, we not only celebrate Professor Varshney's accomplishments but also his wider contributions that continue to transform the agricultural landscape.Professor Rajeev Kumar Varshney (Box 1, Figure 1), popularly known by his colleagues as the \"Genomics Guru\", is globally recognized leader for his work on genome sequencing, harnessing genetic diversity, genomics-assisted breeding, seed systems, and capacity building in developing countries (Figure 2). Over his extensive research career spanning more than two decades, he has made significant contributions to improving food security in Asia and Africa by creating genomic resources and utilizing them for crop improvement in some major \"orphan\" tropical crops. Professor Varshney is deeply committed to equipping breeders with the tools and resources for genomics-assisted breeding, including the provision of training in cutting-edge techniques and enabling access to affordable genotyping and sequencing technologies. Furthermore, he has been the spearhead for major international initiatives that have delivered genomic resources and superior crop varieties for chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut to some of the world's poorest farmers.Recognizing these efforts Professor Varshney was recently (May, 2023) elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society (UK). In the esteemed 366-year history of the Royal Society, he is the fourth individual from India to be elected from the field of Agricultural This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.Sciences and Forestry, and one of just 13 worldwide. Additionally, he is the fifth from Western Australia to be elected from any discipline. As a tribute to Professor Varshney's and his career, this article traces his remarkable journey from the early days of resolving genetic polymorphism on gels, to cataloguing genome diversity and advancing plant biology, and finally to his recent accolades, thereby celebrating a life committed to pushing the boundaries of scientific exploration. As we, some of his former PhD students, post-docs, colleagues, and collaborators, look back over his career, we hope not only to appreciate the scientific accomplishments of Professor Varshney but also to draw inspiration from the spirit of perseverance and vision he embodies.Growing up in the agrarian landscapes of Bahjoi, Uttar Pradesh, India, Professor Varshney's education at Aligarh Muslim University in Uttar Pradesh, India, shaped his understanding of Botany, emphasizing genetics, plant breeding, and molecular biology.During his childhood and early student life, Professor Varshney was inspired by observations of smallholder farmers battling climatic and agronomic challenges, and generated an interest to do research for improving agriculture. Given his early interest in plant genetics, Professor Varshney pursued his PhD under the mentorship of distinguished geneticist Professor PK Gupta. Professor Gupta's example of hard work, commitment, and dedication established the foundations for Professor Varshney's future success (Figure 3). Following the completion of his PhD, Professor Varshney started his post-doctoral research at IPK, Gatersleben (Germany) under the mentorship of Professor Graner who instilled a passion for research, and the importance of creating a nurturing and supporting environment for all colleagues and collaborators, qualities that later became inherent to Professor Varshney's working style. It was during this time that Professor Varshney attended a scientific conference in Bologna (Italy) in 2003, where he heard a speech by Professor Norman Borlaug. Professor Borlaug's compelling message urging the next generation of scientists to create innovative and sustainable solutions to safeguard food security for the world's poor resonated deeply with Professor Varshney. Inspired by Professor Borlaug's vision, and motivated by his interactions with stalwarts of the Indian Green Revolution, including Professor MS Swaminathan,   CIMMYT, Mexico (2007-2013), Global Research Program Director -Grain Legumes (2013-2016), Global Research Program Director -Genetic Gains (2016-2021), and Global Research Program Director Accelerated Crop Improvement (2021-2022). Professor Varshney's significant contributions reached a plateau when he developed invaluable genomic resources for tropical crops. His exceptional work made him a sought-after scientist, and he was headhunted by several universities/institutes from the USA, the UK, Australia, Canada, and China.   Professor Swaminathan imparted critical insights on the importance of interdisciplinary research and collaboration in tackling the multifaceted challenges inherent in agriculture. These pivotal experiences and insights played a decisive role in shaping Professor Varshney's approach during his 17-year tenure at ICRISAT and continue to inspire his work at Murdoch University, Australia.Staple crops like wheat and barley, play a pivotal role in providing energy and protein for the rapidly growing global population. Professor Varshney's doctoral studies under the supervision of Professor PK Gupta primarily focused on enhancing the genetic and genomic resources i.e. development of microsatellte markers and their use for trait mapping in wheat to support markerassisted breeding programs (Gupta and Varshney, 2000;Kota et al., 2001;Varshney et al., 2000aVarshney et al., ,b, 2001)). During his time at IPK with Professor Graner, he played a significant role in the development of various genomic resources for barley, including expressed sequence tags (ESTs), molecular markers such as EST-SSRs, EST-SNPs, high-density genetic maps, and a transcript map (which involved integrating genes or transcripts with the genetic map) (Thiel et al., 2003;Varshney et al., 2004Varshney et al., , 2005aVarshney et al., ,b, 2006a,b, c),b, c). Additionally, he contributed to the generation of a physical map of barley (Varshney et al., 2005a). These genomic resources were utilized for mapping Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) for agronomic traits through linkage mapping and association mapping approaches, conducting comparative studies in cereals and functional genomics studies for drought tolerance and malting quality in barley. These resources provided a springboard for sequencing the barley genome at IPK.The pivotal role of genome sequencing in agriculture and crop improvement is now established. The genome sequence acts as the genetic roadmap for an organism, illuminating biological intricacies and evolutionary history, while also creating avenues for crop improvement. Recognizing the transformative power of genome sequencing, Professor Varshney began work to unlock the genetic secrets of crops crucial for food security and sustainable agriculture. In doing so, he led and/or contributed to the sequencing of more than 15 crop genomes, including chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.; Varshney et al., 2013), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan; Varshney et al., 2012), diploid progenitor species (Arachis duranensis, Chen et al., 2016, andA. ipaensis, Bertioli et al., 2016), and cultivated species (A. hypogaea) of groundnut (Zhuang et al., 2019), pearl millet [Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone, Varshney et al., 2017a], sesame (Sesamum indicum L., Wang et al., 2014) In 2012, Professor Varshney decoded the genome sequence of pigeonpea (Asha genotype). This landmark effort marked pigeonpea as the first orphan legume crop genome to be sequenced, second only to soybean in food legumes. By integrating the next-generation sequencing technologies with traditional bacterial artificial chromosome end sequences (BAC) based resources and a genetic map, his team mapped ~605.78 Mb of the 833.07 Mb genome and identified 48 680 putative genes. The availability of the draft genome sequence heralded pigeonpea improvement initiatives, setting a foundational step for future precision breeding efforts in the crop (Varshney et al., 2012). Building on this momentum, Professor Varshney continued his trailblazing contributions to genomics by leading sequencing initiatives for other important crops like chickpea (Varshney et al., 2013), and the A-progenitor of groundnut (Chen et al., 2016). In 2017, the genome of pearl millet was decoded by his team, providing a resource to develop modern genetic solutions to support over 90 million farmers spanning sub-Saharan Africa, India, and South Asia. The pearl millet genome (Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5) spanned approximately 1.79 Gb and was estimated to harbour 38 579 protein-coding genes. The expansion/contraction analysis of the predicted genes highlighted substantial enrichment for wax biosynthesis genes, which may contribute to heat and drought tolerance in pearl millet (Varshney et al., 2017a). Beyond the initial sequencing efforts, his team also utilized the state-of-the-art Hi-C sequencing approach to add another layer of refinement to these genomes, thereby increasing the accuracy and applicability of these genomes (Garg et al., 2022). Professor Varshney stands at the forefront of implementing advanced technologies. In one of his collaborative endeavours, near-gapless genome assemblies of two widely used soybean cultivars (Williams82 and Lee) were reported using long-read sequencing technologies (Garg et al., 2023a). All the genomic resources generated under Professor Varshney's leadership are publicly available, serving as a rich resource for the global scientific community. These resources have been integrated into breeding programmes worldwide, leading to the development and deployment of crop varieties with improved yields, better disease resistance, and greater adaptability to diverse environmental conditions.Following the successful decoding of reference genomes, Professor Varshney focused his efforts on resequencing projects, firmly establishing himself at the forefront of legume genomics. These efforts were aimed not only to unearth the rich genetic makeup of these important crops but also to understand how genetic variation could be harnessed to address pressing agronomic challenges. In the case of pigeonpea, whole genome resequencing (WGRS) of 292 diverse Cajanus accessions, including breeding lines, landraces, and wild species, led to the identification of 17.2 million variations (15.1 million SNPs, 0.9 million small insertions, and 1.2 million small deletions). By demonstrating the Central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh as the likely centre of origin of pigeonpea, the study helped resolve the long-standing ambiguity surrounding the centre of origin of the crop. The GWAS analysis of these variations highlighted the genomic regions affected by domestication and pinpointed loci associated with phenotypic variation for agronomically important traits relevant to pigeonpea breeding (Varshney et al., 2017b). Turning their attention to chickpea, Professor Varshney and his group re-sequenced 429 lines from 45 countries to generate a variation map of 4.9 million SNPs. This study provided: (a) discernible signs of selection during chickpea breeding, (b) Eastern Mediterranean as the primary centre of origin of chickpea, and (c) marker-trait associations and candidate genes, including TIC, REF6, aspartic protease, cc-NBS-LRR, and RGA3, for drought and heat tolerance (Varshney et al., 2019a). Subsequently, Professor Varshney led a team of 57 researchers from 41 organizations across 10 countries to further investigate the genetics of chickpea. The outcome of this work was a chickpea pangenome (592.28 Mb), developed from the genome sequencing data from 3366 diverse chickpea lines (encompassing 3171 cultivated and 195 wild chickpea accessions) spanning 60 countries. The analysis provided details on chickpea's origin and migration routes to various parts of the world, the divergence time of different chickpea species, and the genetic loads/burdens responsible for lowering crop performance. The study also provided superior haplotypes for agronomic traits for undertaking haplotype-based breeding and laid a foundation for genomic prediction and optimal contribution selection for developing superior varieties (Varshney et al., 2021a). This landmark study not only received recognition within the scientific community, but received broader attention from an interested public, featuring in prominent international media outlets, e.g., The New York Times, The Economist, and the BBC.The deployment of genomic resources within breeding programmes has been mostly constrained by technological limitations and high costs associated with genotyping. To harness the extensive genomic resources for breeding purposes, there was a critical need for cost-effective, high-throughput genotyping platforms to develop dense genetic maps and conduct QTL analysis. SNP genotyping platforms serve multiple purposes, including estimating genetic diversity, fine mapping, association mapping, foreground selection, genomic selection, and evolutionary research. Professor Varshney and his team at ICRISAT addressed this need by developing low-, medium-, and highdensity SNP arrays in three legume crops: chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut. Notable examples include the development of Affymetrix arrays like the AxiomâCicerSNP Array for chickpea (Roorkiwal et al., 2018), AxiomâCajanusSNP Array for pigeonpea (Saxena et al., 2018), and the AxiomâArachisSNP for groundnut (Pandey et al., 2017a), encompassing up to 58 000 SNPs. As a snapshot of the genome-wide variations, these arrays have laid a robust foundation for high-throughput genotyping, proving vital for foundational research and practical breeding applications. Additionally, to conduct cost-effective genotyping for implementing Genomic Selection (GS) in legume breeding, 5000 SNP panels were developed for chickpea and groundnut through a targeted sequencing methodology. To incorporate target SNPs into breeding programmes, GoldenGate and VeraCode assays were also devised to genotype several hundred SNPs in crops such as chickpea and pigeonpea (Roorkiwal et al., 2013;Varshney, 2016).Genotyping with high-density arrays can incur significant costs, especially when genotyping large breeding populations for purposes like marker-assisted selection (MAS), backcross breeding, and QC (quality control) of parental analysis. In applications where only a few markers are needed, cost-effective and highthroughput genotyping platforms are more suitable. To address this need, Professor Varshney, in collaboration with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), formulated a proposal that successfully secured $4 million in funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The High Throughput Genotyping (HTPG) project offered low-cost genotyping services at ~$1.5 per sample for genotyping with 10 SNPs, including DNA extraction (https://cegsb.icrisat.org/high-throughput-genotyping-projecthtpg/). This service now encompasses over 1000 SNPs for 100+ traits and 500+ QC SNPs. In partnership with Intertek, the project extended its services to eight CGIAR centres, 30+ NARS, and four private companies in more than 28 countries, covering over 18 crops (Bohar et al., 2020). Notably, the project significantly reduced costs for CGIAR and NARS by generating genotyping data at only a fraction (approximately one-third to one-fourth) of the original price. Furthermore, Professor Varshney also spearheaded efforts to develop cost-effective, 10 SNP panels in chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut to facilitate earlygeneration selection in breeding programs (Varshney et al., 2018). For instance, single-plex, cost-effective platforms like Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) assays are key for SNP genotyping in MAS applications. KASP assays have been developed for several thousand SNPs in chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut (Hiremath et al., 2012;Khera et al., 2013;Saxena et al., 2012). Some of these markers are currently being utilized as diagnostic indicators for critical traits, such as drought tolerance in chickpea (Barmukh et al., 2022a,b), high oleic acid and foliar fungal disease resistance in groundnut (Pandey et al., 2023) within breeding programmes.Under the guidance of Professor Varshney, advanced technologies like transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics tools have been adeptly utilized to study the intricate patterns of gene expression across various tissues, developmental stages, and biotic/abiotic conditions (Garg et al., 2023b). Analysis of these patterns, by Professor Varshney's team has unravelled the intricate genetic interactions that underpin vital physiological processes in legumes such as chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut. Focusing on chickpea, his team developed the Cicer arietinum Gene Expression Atlas (CaGEA) using the droughtresistant cultivar ICC 4958. A total of 816 million raw reads were obtained from 27 tissues spanning five major developmental stages. The transcriptome data analysis pinpointed genes that play a role in flowering, nodulation, and the development of seeds and roots (Kudapa et al., 2018). Similarly, in pigeonpea, he led the development of the Cajanus cajan gene expression atlas. This atlas facilitated the identification of two regulatory genes, a pollen-specific SF3 and a sucrose-proton symporter, with implications for improving agronomic traits, e.g., seed production and yield (Pazhamala et al., 2017). To understand the development process of groundnut, his team developed the Arachis hypogaea gene expression atlas (AhGEA) for the world's widest cultivated subsp. fastigiata. AhGEA unveiled mechanisms behind complex regulatory networks, including gravitropism and photomorphogenesis, seed development, and oil biosynthesis in groundnut. Additionally, the analysis identified candidate genes associated with allergens, which following functional validation, might be used to develop allergy-free, consumer-friendly groundnut varieties (Sinha et al., 2020).Understanding the intricate layers of biological systems demands a multi-modal approach. The integration of multi-omics approaches allows researchers to achieve a holistic perspective, unlocking the synergies between genes, transcripts, proteins, and metabolites. In this direction, Professor Varshney and his team employed multi-omics approaches to delineate the stress response in different crops. As an example, his team employed transcriptome, small RNA, and degradome sequencing to understand the resistance mechanism of chickpea against Ascochyta blight (AB), a significant factor limiting global chickpea production. Transcriptome sequencing identified 6767 DEGs, primarily linked to disease resistance, pathogenesis-related proteins, and cell wall biosynthesis. Small RNA sequencing pinpointed 651 miRNAs, with 297 exhibiting differential expression across genotypes and conditions. Integrating small RNA and transcriptome data revealed 12 contrasting miRNA-mRNA interaction pairs in resistant and susceptible genotypes, shedding light on the genes potentially involved in AB infection (Garg et al., 2019). Similarly, his team used transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to unravel complex mechanisms regulating drought response in chickpea. The integrated root-omics data identified key proteins (encoding isoflavone 4 0 -Omethyltransferase, UDP-d-glucose/UDP-d-galactose 4-epimerase, and delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase) and metabolites (fructose, galactose, glucose, myoinositol, galactinol, and raffinose) linked to various pathways crucial for drought response (Kudapa et al., 2023).Professor Varshney's group has also led and collaborated with partners from USA to develop mitigation approaches to reduce aflatoxin contamination in groundnut, using transcriptomics to explore both host-pathogen interactions and the responses of Aspergillus flavus to drought-related stresses. For example, Professor Varshney's group examined the transcription responses of seven groundnut lines with reduced aflatoxin contamination to A. flavus infection along with one highly susceptible line. This work identified several differentially expressed genes potentially associated with reduced aflatoxin including transcription factors, pathogenesis-related proteins, glutathione-S-transferases, resveratrol synthase, and chitinase (Soni et al., 2021). Additional transcriptome studies on the A. flavus pathogen were also carried out with Professor Varshney's group in collaboration with the USDA-ARS and the University of Georgia. These efforts resulted in the transcriptome sequencing of 62 RNA-seq libraries from six different A. flavus isolates with varying levels of aflatoxin production capabilities describing their responses to drought-related oxidative stress (Fountain et al., 2016a(Fountain et al., ,b, 2020a)). This identified a major role of fungal secondary metabolism, including aflatoxin production, in oxidative stress responses of this pathogen. This and other follow-up studies also informed the selection of isolates for use in the development of new chromosome-arm reference genome assemblies for comparative analyses in A. flavus (Fountain et al., 2020b).Over the past few decades, there has been a notable surge in the development of extensive genomic resources in legumes such as chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut. This progress can be attributed to the dedicated efforts of Professor Varshney and his team at ICRISAT. The group was crucial in generating several thousand SSRs and diversity array technology (DArT) markers for each of the three legume crops (Varshney, 2016). Additionally, in recent years, a substantial number of SNP markers, which were previously lacking in these legume crops until 2005, have been successfully developed, numbering in millions. This large-scale marker information, combined with the development of cost-effective marker assays (as mentioned above), was subsequently employed for trait mapping and gene discovery in the targeted crops.To maximize the utility of genomic resources in breeding efforts, Professor Varshney and his team conducted extensive trait mapping and developed over 50 genetic maps in various legume crops, particularly chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut. Using linkage mapping and association mapping approaches, they mapped more than 30-50 traits in each of the three legume crops. For example, to unravel the intricate nature of drought tolerance in chickpea and pinpoint markers associated with drought tolerance-associated traits, Professor Varshney led efforts in identifying a \"QTL-hotspot\" region on linkage group 4, harbouring 12 main-effect QTLs for drought tolerance-related traits, accounting for up to 58.20% of phenotypic variation (Kale et al., 2015;Varshney et al., 2014). Further, Professor Varshney and colleagues successfully identified genomic regions/candidate genes for resistance to sterility mosaic disease (Gnanesh et al., 2011), Fusarium wilt (Saxena et al., 2017), and various abiotic stresses that pose substantial yield constraints in pigeonpea. In the case of groundnut, his team successfully mapped QTLs associated with resistance to rust and late leaf spot (Pandey et al., 2017b), oil content (Shasidhar et al., 2017), and yield-related traits (Pandey et al., 2020;Vishwakarma et al., 2017).Professor Varshney has been at the forefront of introducing and advancing several pivotal concepts and methodologies that have fundamentally transformed the landscape of crop improvement through genomics. His contributions have significantly enriched the field of agricultural genetics and breeding, ushering in new paradigms and approaches.In 2005, Professor Varshney introduced the concept of \"Genomics-assisted breeding\" (GAB) in the 10th Anniversary Issue of Trends in Plant Science, titled \"Feeding the World: Plant Biotechnology Milestones\" (Varshney et al., 2005b). GAB revolutionized crop improvement by harnessing cutting-edge genomic tools, such as functional molecular markers, advanced bioinformatics, and enhanced knowledge of statistics and inheritance patterns. This approach significantly increased the efficiency and precision of crop improvement across the world. It was envisioned that GAB would be a transformative force in developing and disseminating improved crop varieties, including those with high yields and resilience against pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. The present-day success stories based on the improved crop varieties resulting from GAB are a testament to this vision. GAB has accelerated the pace of breeding progress across a diverse range of crop species, developing over 130 publicly bred cultivars worldwide (Varshney et al., 2021b). Notably, GAB has been pivotal in producing improved cultivars with heightened resistance to key diseases like bacterial blight and blast in rice, rust in wheat, and fusarium wilt in chickpea. Significant progress has been made in improving abiotic stress adaptation (such as tolerance against submergence, salinity, and drought) and enhanced nutritional quality (e.g., wheat varieties with higher grain protein content, groundnut varieties with elevated oleic acid content, intermediate amylose content in rice varieties, as well as quality protein maize cultivars) in different crops using GAB.The next chapter: Genomics-assisted breeding 2.0Recent innovations in genome sequencing, precise phenotyping, genetic diversity analysis, and genome editing technologies offer significant potential for identifying and aggregating superior alleles for target traits in crop improvement. Acknowledging this, in the 25th Anniversary Issue of Trends in Plant Science, themed \"Feeding the World: The Future of Plant Breeding\", Professor Varshney introduced a comprehensive approach, referred to as \"genomics-assisted breeding 2.0\" (GAB 2.0) or \"genomic breeding\", for shaping future crops (Varshney et al., 2021b). It involves fine-tuning crop genomes by accumulating advantageous alleles and removing detrimental ones to design future crops. In the years ahead, GAB 2.0 will help devise efficient strategies to breed climate-resilient crop varieties with high nutritional value while upholding sustainability and environmental conservation.A pangenome represents the complete set of genes found within a particular species, capturing the full spectrum of its genetic diversity. This vast genetic reservoir is pivotal for crop improvement as it allows researchers to identify beneficial alleles or allele combinations that can be harnessed to enhance crop traits. Traditionally, pangenomes were constructed mainly from the cultivated gene pools of a specific species, occasionally incorporating two or three closely related species. However, recognizing that a crop's gene pool includes a multitude of species, especially wild relatives with diverse genetic makeup, Professor Varshney and his team proposed extending the pangenome approach beyond cultivated pool by including accessions from all available species within a genus. The resulting \"Super-Pangenome\" traverses the full landscape of crop diversity for rapid and transformative crop improvement (Khan et al., 2020). Within a short span of time, this new approach has spurred a growing number of published literatures on building super-pangenomes in various crops including tomato, potato, and rice (Raza et al., 2023).Professor Varshney and his collaborators coined the 5G paradigm that calls for the need to make the best use of genome assemblies, germplasm characterization, gene function elucidation, genomic breeding, and gene editing for crop improvement (Varshney et al., 2020). Highlighting the imperative of robust genome assemblies and in-depth germplasm characterization, he advocates for sequencing-based identification of accurate breeding targets to enable optimized genomic breeding and geneediting methodologies. Although elements of the 5Gs are sporadically employed in global crop improvement initiatives, comprehensive 5G integration remains elusive, particularly in developing world. Professor Varshney and his collaborators underscored the potential of emerging technologies in sequencing, phenotyping, and data science to catalyse the global adoption of the 5G strategy and suggested that a fully realized 5G approach can significantly bolster breeding precision, yielding climate-resilient, nutritious varieties with accelerated genetic gains.To meet the demands of a rapidly growing global population, agricultural systems around the world must increase their outputs in a sustainable manner. Considering this challenge, Professor Varshney and colleagues introduced the \"Fast-forward breeding\" framework for accelerated crop improvement (Varshney et al., 2021c). This framework offers a comprehensive strategy for incorporating cutting-edge technologies in crop genome sequencing, high-throughput phenotyping, and systems biology, together with efficient trait mapping and genomic prediction, including machine learning and artificial intelligence, to expedite the availability of advantageous traits for breeding and research purposes. Approaches like haplotype-based breeding, genomic prediction, and genome editing, outlined in this framework, are anticipated to hasten the targeted integration of superior genetic traits into future cultivars. Additionally, emerging breeding techniques, such as optimal contribution selection, can enrich the genetic diversity of breeding programs while accelerating genetic advancements. Combining speed breeding with stateof-the-art genomic breeding technologies has the potential to overcome the longstanding bottleneck of protracted crop breeding cycles. The methods outlined in this framework and their integration are poised to accelerate the breeding process for enhanced crop improvement, ultimately contributing to a more food-secure world.With an objective to implement GAB in breeding programmes of chickpea, pigeonpea, and groundnut, Professor Varshney trained >500 breeders from 36 countries from Asia, Africa and South America and provided them access to high throughput and cost effective genotyping platforms. This collaboration enabled several Asian and African breeding programmes to successfully incorporate GAB, leading to development of numerous improved lines. Following stringent agronomic evaluations, many of these improved lines were recommended and delivered to farmers and several are in the advanced stages of the varietal release processes in countries like India, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Ghana, Mali, and others. For example, in the case of chickpea, introducing the \"QTL-hotspot\" region through the GAB approach led to the development and release of several drought-tolerant varieties for cultivation in India and Ethiopia over the past few years. This list of improved varieties includes Pusa Chickpea 10216, Pusa Chickpea 4005, IPC L4-14, Pusa Chickpea Shyam, and Geletu, among others (for details see Roorkiwal et al., 2020). Particularly noteworthy is \"Pusa Chickpea 10216\", the first GABled chickpea variety in India with enhanced drought tolerance and an 11% yield advantage over the recurrent parent (Bharadwaj et al., 2021). Similarly, several Fusarium wilt resistant chickpea varieties, namely, Super Annigeri 1, Samriddhi, Pusa Manav, were delivered to chickpea farmers in India. In pigeonpea, Professor Varshney and team contributed to the development of low-cost and rapid molecular marker assays to test the genetic purity of hybrids and parental lines along with genomic prediction tools to obtain high heterotic combinations, thus paving the way for a full-scale commercial hybrid breeding technology in pigeonpea (Bohra et al., 2020;Saxena et al., 2021). In the case of groundnut, high oleic groundnut varieties, specifically \"Girnar 4\" and \"Girnar 5\", featuring nearly 80% oleic acid content compared to the typical varieties with 40-50% oleic acid content, were developed through a collaboration between ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research in Junagadh and Professor Varshney's team at ICRISAT (Pandey et al., 2020). Furthermore, Professor Varshney also played a key role in the marker-assisted ª 2024 The Authors. Plant Biotechnology Journal published by Society for Experimental Biology and The Association of Applied Biologists and John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 22, 1504-1515 improvement of popular groundnut varieties for resistance to rust and late leaf spot. Several of these lines are in advanced stage of public release in India and many countries in Africa. These highyielding lines, with enhanced biotic/abiotic stress tolerance, underscore the potential of integrating genomics with breeding endeavours to develop superior, climate-resilient varieties.With an objective of creating a positive difference in the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, Professor Varshney led \"Tropical Legumes III\" (TL III, https://tropicallegumeshub.com/) project as a Principal Investigator, with a total budget of USD 25 million from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (Varshney et al., 2019b). Through collaboration with scientists from three CGIAR Centres (ICRISAT, IITA, CIAT) and 15 national programmes in target countries, TL III strategically targeted four cropscowpea, common bean, groundnut, and chickpeaacross seven regions, including Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, and the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Professor Varshney played a key role in providing strategic guidance and oversight for the development and accessibility of high-yielding varieties for farmers. TL III and its predecessor (TL II Phase I and Phase II projects), led directly by Professor Varshney, played a pivotal role in releasing 266 varieties, producing 497 901 tons of certified seeds that were planted on about 5.0 million ha in the 15 countries and beyond, producing about 6.1 million tons of grain worth USD 3.2 billion (Ojiewo et al., 2019). The project outputs have benefitted >23 million lives, especially women and children. As per an independent economic analysis by Evans School Policy Analysis and Research of the University of Washington, the average benefit-to-cost ratio for this project is 16 indicating massive social returns the project delivered. In recognition of this remarkable work and its positive effects on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in 13 African countries, Professor Varshney's previous organization, ICRISAT was honoured with the Africa Food Prize in 2021.  2012) and Genomics-Assisted Breeding workshop annually in PAG USA and many more. These workshops/conferences have served as platforms for fostering collaboration, exchanging ideas, and disseminating the latest advancements in genomics-assisted breeding and crop improvement. His unwavering dedication to nurturing talent and providing access to cutting-edge techniques has empowered countless individuals to contribute to the field of genomics and agriculture.Notably, Professor Varshney has also supervised nearly 50 PhD students and 70 post-docs many of whom have gone on to establish successful careers in their respective fields. His mentorship has not only shaped careers but has also been instrumental in strengthening the global research community's capacity to address pressing agricultural challenges. His legacy of mentorship and capacity building continues to inspire and guide emerging scientists in their pursuit of scientific excellence.By serving several organizations in the science leadership/management role for over 15 years, Professor Varshney has supervised large international teams representing a range of diversity in ethnicity, nationality, and gender. In these roles, Professor Varshney offered extensive proficiency in R&D management, product development, fostering innovative ideas, and championing an inclusive culture. He also actively encouraged an interdisciplinary and collaborative research environment, empowering team members to achieve high-performance and unlock their full potential as both team contributors and individual achievers.Due to his outstanding science contributions and his impactoriented research, Professor Varshney has remained a soughtafter research leader to be invited to various committees and agencies across the globe. Professor Varshney's pioneering research contributions have been recognized and celebrated nationally and internationally throughout his illustrious career. His accolades are a testament to his dedication, innovation, and work's profound impact (Figures 4  and 5). His esteemed standing is evident from his election as a fellow to more than 10 esteemed science and agriculture academies/societies spanning India, Germany, the USA, the UK, Italy, and Africa. His work has earned him over 40 prestigious    With an objective of advancing plant biology and agricultural science, Professor Varshney, since his master's degree, has been proactive in publishing scientific articles. He is a prolific scientific author and has published a large number of papers (>600) in various high-impact journals including Nature, Nature Genetics, Nature Biotechnology, Plant Biotechnology Journal, Trends in Plant Science, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, Molecular Plant, New Phytologist, Plant, Cell & Environment, and Journal of Experimental Botany. As of December 16, 2023, Professor Varshney boasts an impressive h-index of 124, with his work cited over 66 000 times. Due to the substantial impact of his research, Clarivate Analytics has consistently recognized him as a \"Highly Cited Researcher\" since 2014.Professor Varshney is not only a luminary in the scientific world of genomics and agriculture but also an ardent advocate for bridging the divide between scientific research and the public. Acknowledging the significance of making science both accessible and relatable, he has persistently strived to convey intricate scientific concepts in ways that resonate with a broader audience. A prime example of his outreach is his presentation on the TEDx stage, where his talk illuminated the complexities of genomics and its agricultural implications, making the topic both captivating and comprehensible to those outside the scientific community. Beyond public speaking, Professor Varshney's research has been featured in numerous international print and electronic media outlets, including The New York Times, The Economist, Forbes, BBC, ABC, Cosmos, Down to Earth, Mongabay, Doordarshan, and many others. His insights are highly sought after, and he utilizes these platforms to highlight the latest genomic advancements, their potential applications, and the forthcoming challenges. Embracing the digital era, Professor Varshney effectively utilizes online platforms to engage a wider audience. He maintains an active YouTube channel (https://www.youtube. com/@rajeevvarshney6803) to highlight videos that explore various facets of genomics and his research initiatives. Additionally, his commitment to effective communication is evident in his written contributions to his blog (https://rajeevkvarshney. wordpress.com/), where he regularly articulates insights into the scientific realm. Through his videos and articles, he imparts recent research developments and shares personal reflections on the odyssey of discovery. These platforms serve not merely as knowledge repositories but as catalysts that ignite curiosity, inspiring young enthusiasts to delve into the world of scientific discovery.While Professor Varshney's scientific accomplishments place him among the luminaries in legume genomics and agriculture, his persona is rich and multifaceted beyond academic achievements.Beyond the image of the distinguished researcher is a man with diverse interests, deeply engaged in his work and the wider world. A fervent reader, Professor Varshney's curiosity is not limited to his laboratory. His office shelves are adorned not only with scientific journals but with a myriad of books spanning across genres. This reading habit undoubtedly nourishes his vast appetite for knowledge and broadens his understanding of diverse topics. However, his inquisitiveness is not just confined to books. A movie buff at heart, Professor Varshney enjoys delving into the world of cinema, appreciating the art of storytelling from various cultures and perspectives. This love for movies offers him a refreshing escape, a way to momentarily disconnect from the scientific rigours and immerse himself in narratives far removed from the world of genomics. Despite the demands of his profession, he never misses an opportunity to revel in moments of fun and leisure. His fun-loving nature ensures that the atmosphere around him, whether at conferences or team meetings, is light-hearted, promoting creativity and camaraderie among his colleagues and students. In considering these dimensions, we perceive Professor Varshney holistically: as a trailblazing scientist, an avid reader, a cinema aficionado, and a source of joy in the often-demanding field of research. This equilibrium between professional dedication and diverse passions positions Professor Varshney as an inspiration inside and outside the laboratory.","tokenCount":"5901"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0c8c031ccb2d7c4cbb278c16de139ef6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/206dcb39-e77e-4287-90f6-2c5e12c744a6/retrieve","id":"-1667920915"},"keywords":["COLE, coefficient of linear extensibility","MIM, mobile-immobile","MLT, multistripe laser triangulation","PET, potential evapotranspiration"],"sieverID":"f981c737-0e50-4c7d-a230-38a31258c5bf","pagecount":"11","content":"Soil structure affects saturated hydraulic conductivity (K s ) by creating highly conductive macropores that preferentially transmit soil water. In this study, we explored the relationship between K s and macropores in an Oxyaquic Vertic Argiudoll in northeastern Kansas. Macropores were quantified from an excavation wall using multistripe laser triangulation (MLT) scanning. Soil water contents were measured at four depths within a soil lysimeter installed within 2 m of the MLT-scanned soil profile and adjacent to an Ameriflux tower monitoring precipitation, air temperature, and solar radiation. Selected hydraulic properties of soil horizons within the lysimeter were optimized to water content data using a Markov chain Monte Carlo technique in combination with the mobile-immobile water (MIM) model in HYDRUS-1D. Estimates of K s varied between 4198 cm d −1 in the A horizon and 0.6 cm d −1 in a 2Btss2 horizon with strongly expressed wedge structure. Approximately 87% of the variation in K s was explained by the geometric mean of the widths of pores quantified with the MLT technique and modified by the coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE). The use of the COLE allows the widths of the macropores obtained under dry conditions to be approximated at saturation. Two models that predict K s from either texture or water retention data resulted in K s estimates that were similar to each other but significantly lower than K s values predicted with MIM in horizons where structural pores dominate water flow. This technique shows a great deal of promise in better understanding and predicting the relationship of soil structure to water flow.that are representative of a soil horizon (Rawls et al., 1993;Lilly et al., 2008). The use of subjective and/or qualitative morphological information such as in situ visual estimations of aggregate sizes, shapes, and number and/or cross-sectional area of macropores (O'Neal, 1949;McKenzie and Jacquier, 1997;Lilly et al., 2008;Schoeneberger et al., 2012) has typically led to grouping of K s into classes (McKeague et al., 1982;Logsdon et al., 1990;McKenzie and Jacquier, 1997). By contrast, the use of objective measures of soil morphology such as macropore size measured in the field can lead to point predictions of K s (Rawls et al., 1993). The use of objective measures of soil morphology in predictive models of K s is more desirable, but a method to extract that information is lacking in the literature (Eck et al., 2013;Hartemink and Minasny, 2014).Recent work, however, has shown that a novel structured-light scanning technique-known as multistripe laser triangulation (MLT)-has the ability to quantify soil structure for an entire soil profile by capturing the geometric information of interpedal pore spaces in the field (Eck et al., 2013). With MLT, a laser scanner monitors the apparent deformation of parallel vertical laser stripes as they sweep across a surface and computes distances by detecting variations in the light intensity of the projected laser stripes (Knighton et al., 2005;Platt et al., 2010). The resulting digital data are a triangulated irregular network with areas of missing data where a return was not detected by the scanner. Eck et al. (2013) termed these areas of missing data scan surface gaps and used them to quantitatively characterize soil structure geometries. These scan surface gaps can be interpreted as macropores. Thus, MLT scanning opens up the potential for directly examining the relationship between macropores and K s . For instance, Eck (2014) conducted a dye study on an undisturbed core followed by splitting the sample and scanning the inside using MLT. The macropores determined using this technique visually matched the preferential flow pathways (Fig. 1).Considering the heterogeneity of soil morphology and related hydraulic properties near saturation, it is important to have measures of uncertainty associated with any estimate of K s and/or water retention. Inverse modeling using multiple data types has been proposed as a way to estimate hydraulic properties and their uncertainty (Mertens et al., 2005;Vrugt et al., 2009). This approach back-calculates the hydraulic properties needed to model a measured response to flow of water through soil, such as changes in soil water content, during a certain period of time (Mertens et al., 2005). The method is particularly powerful when the state variables used for inverse modeling are measured in the field. Soil water content measured in space and time is commonly used in conjunction with measurements of pressure potential (Wöhling and Vrugt, 2011) or with field or laboratory measurements of K s and water retention (Mertens et al., 2005;Verbist et al., 2009). The advantage of using field data for inverse modeling is that estimates of the hydraulic properties investigated are more in line with the scale or domain being modeled.The primary objective of this work was to investigate the relationship between MLT-derived pore metrics and K s . We derived estimates of K s by modeling measurements of water content made in a soil lysimeter using the mobile-immobile water (MIM) model in HYDRUS-1D run with the DiffeRential Evolution Adaptive Metropolis [DREAM (ZS) ] algorithm. The DREAM (ZS) algorithm is a Bayesian method based on a Markov chain Monte Carlo technique that approximates the probability distribution functions of the optimized parameters from a large sample generated by interactively running a numerical model, in this case HYDRUS-1D (Vrugt et al., 2009;Wöhling and Vrugt, 2011). The resulting probability distributions provide a measure of uncertainty of the estimates. Water contents measured at several depths in the lysimeter were supplemented with water retention data at corresponding depths measured in the laboratory. This approach allowed the estimation of K s values from each horizon present in the lysimeter together with a measure of their uncertainty. The relatively large volume of the lysimeter ensured that the estimated values were representative of the soil structure and at a similar scale to the pore metrics derived from MLT. 6 This study was conducted in eastern Kansas at the site described in detail by Eck et al. (2013). Briefly, the site is located on an upland topographic position in a tallgrass prairie and oak-hickory forest ecotone (Kettle et al., 2000) that has an average annual temperature of 13.3°C and receives an average of 937 mm of annual precipitation (Brunsell et al., 2014). The soil is mapped as a Grundy silty clay loam (a fine, smectitic, mesic, Oxyaquic Vertic Argiudoll;Soil Survey Staff, 2015) in the Nelson Environmental Study Area at the University of Kansas Field Station in Jefferson County, Kansas. This site was taken out of cultivation in the 1970s and used as a cool-season hay field until about 1987 (Foster et al., 2009;Brunsell et al., 2011). Currently, a combination of C 3 and C 4 grasses dominates the site, with a relatively minor amount of woody vegetation (Brunsell et al., 2011).An annular space was excavated at the site to a depth of 1 m around a column of undisturbed soil. The column was carefully hand carved to fit tightly into a 25.4-cm i.d. by 63.5-cm length stainless steel cylinder, which served as the divergence control tube for a passive capillary lysimeter (Drain Gauge G3, Decagon Devices). After reaching a depth of 75 cm, the undisturbed column was removed and a polyvinyl chloride drainage reservoir was installed beneath the original column location. The undisturbed column was repositioned on top of the drainage reservoir, with a thin layer of diatomaceous earth between the soil column and lysimeter wick to provide a good contact surface. Four soil water content and temperature sensors (5TM, Decagon Devices) were installed in the undisturbed column at depths of 5, 12, 35, and 55 cm within the lysimeter. These sensor depths corresponded to a depth within the upper horizon (5 cm), a depth at the top of the divergence control tube (12 cm), and the locations of two precut sensor slots in the divergence control tube (35 and 55 cm). Soil water content and temperature measurements were recorded on a datalogger (Em50, Decagon Devices) every 30 min using the manufacturer-recommended calibration curve. In addition, a suite of atmospheric variables, including air temperature, air pressure, solar radiation, and precipitation were also measured from an Ameriflux tower directly adjacent to the lysimeter installation (Brunsell et al., 2014). These data were used to calculate the potential evaporation (PET) from the net radiation and soil heat flux measurements using the Priestley-Taylor approach (Priestley and Taylor, 1972).Multistripe laser triangulation data collected by Eck et al. (2013) were used for this investigation. In that study, the soil pit was extended to expose a 1-m profile and described following Schoeneberger et al. (2002). To calculate the inputs needed for modeling water flux, the root distribution was converted to an index as follows. Within each horizon, the abundance of fine and very fine roots were summed and divided by 10 to scale the final root distribution values below 1. The abundance category described in the field as \"many\" (i.e., ³5 roots cm −2 on average determined from the excavation wall) was assigned a value of 5 cm −1 , \"common\" (i.e., between 1 and 5 roots cm −2 on average) assigned a value of 3 cm −1 , and \"few\" (i.e., <1 root cm −2 on average) assigned a value of 1 cm −1 corresponding to the lower, middle, and highest values in those categories, respectively, multiplied by the length of the assessment window (i.e., 1 cm). For example, in the 0-to 8-cm horizon, we observed many very fine and common fine roots, which were converted to a value of 0.8 cm −1 [i.e., (5 cm −1 + 3 cm −1 )/10].Artifacts produced during excavation of the profile were removed using a freeze method (Hirmas, 2013), and the profile was allowed to dry for 36 h to enhance the visible appearance of the soil structure (McKenzie and Jacquier, 1997;Eck et al., 2013). An MLT scanner (NextEngine Desktop 3D Scanner Model 2020i) was used to collect digital data from the profile surface as detailed by Eck et al. (2013). Triplicate bulk density samples were collected from each horizon using 3-by 5.4-cm i.d. brass rings (SoilMoisture Equipment Corp). Bulk samples and three fist-size soil clods were also collected from each horizon to analyze the particle-size distribution, organic C content, water retention, and coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE).The pipette method was used to determine the particle-size distribution from the bulk samples after pretreatment to remove organic matter (Gee and Or, 2002). Bulk density was obtained from the triplicate sampled cores following Grossman and Reinsch (2002) and used to convert gravimetric water content to a volumetric basis. Other morphological and physical data from this profile (e.g., organic C content and soil structure) were obtained from Eck et al. (2013, Table 1). For each horizon, duplicate soil clods were used to measure water retention using a hanging column at −15, −30, and −60 cm. Measurement of these three points took approximately 10 d to complete. Water retention at pressure potentials lower than −60 cm were measured using bulk samples, equilibrated for 2 mo at −1000, −3000, and −10000 cm on pressure plates (four replicates) following Dane and Hopmans (2002) and using a dew-point potentiameter (WP4C, Decagon Devices) at lower pressure potentials (Leong et al., 2003;ASTM, 2003). The COLE was measured in triplicate for each horizon using the rod method following Schafer and Singer (1976). Briefly, soil samples were extruded from customized syringes as saturated pastes to form straight cylindrical rods and allowed to air dry. The COLE value was calculated as the ratio of the change in rod length between the moist and dry states to the length of the dry rod. Measured values of water content and the corresponding pressure potentials were exported to SWRC Fit (Seki, 2007) and fit with the van Genuchten (1980) water retention function:where S e is the effective saturation, q s and q r are the saturated and residual water contents, respectively, q is the volumetric water content at equilibrium with pressure potential h, and a and n are fitting parameters. We used the common simplification that m = 1 − 1/n.One-dimensional water flow through the lysimeter column was simulated with the MIM model as implemented in HYDRUS-1D (Šimůnek et al., 2013). Field-scale estimates of K s for each soil horizon were obtained by running HYDRUS-1D with the DREAM (ZS) algorithm (Laloy and Vrugt, 2012;Vrugt et al., 2008Vrugt et al., , 2009)). The MIM model assumes a dual-porosity system in which the soil water is partitioned between a mobile region composed of interaggregate pores (or macropores) and an immobile region where water is retained by the soil matrix and is considered stagnant (Philip, 1968;van Genuchten and Wierenga, 1976). Water retention properties for the two regions are assumed to be identical and were modeled with Eq. [1] without considering hysteresis. At any given time, the soil water content q should fulfill the conditionwhere the subscripts m and im refer to the mobile and immobile regions, respectively. The water transfer rate G w [T −1 ] between the two regions is a function of the difference in effective saturation between the mobile, S e m , and immobile, S e im , regions:( )where w is a first-order rate coefficient [T −1 ].HYDRUS-1D with the MIM model simulates water flux by numerically solving the continuity equation, which can be expressed as (Šimůnek et al., 2003) ( ) ( )where t is time, z is the vertical coordinate, K is the hydraulic conductivity, and S(h m ) is a sink term assumed to be the root water uptake function. The water transfer rate can be expressed asThe hydraulic conductivity function was given by van Genuchten (1980) aswhere l is a pore-connectivity parameter.The simulation domain was the length of the lysimeter (75 cm) and contained 172 nodes with separation distances increasing linearly from approximately 0.1 cm at the surface to approximately 0.8 cm at the lower boundary. Roots were input using a relative scale by considering the abundance of fine and very fine roots as described above. The leaf area index (LAI) was obtained from MODIS satellite data at a 1-km resolution and processed to obtain the value for the pixel containing the study site (Knyazikhin et al., 1998(Knyazikhin et al., , 1999)). The satellite-derived values for LAI were 0.49 and 0.80, respectively, for the two calibration periods described below. Observation nodes were set at depths corresponding to the locations of the water content sensors (5, 12, 35, and 55 cm). The upper boundary condition was set to time-variable atmosphere conditions with runoff. Precipitation and PET data were obtained from Ameriflux tower measurements as explained above. The HYDRUS-1D Feddes root water uptake function, S(h m ), with parameter values from the pasture database (Wesseling et al., 1991), were used in this work. The lower boundary condition represented the interface between the soil and a thin layer of diatomaceous earth used to increase contact with the lysimeter wick and was modeled as a seepage face in HYDRUS-1D. Initial conditions were set as pressure potentials calculated from measured water retention curves and water content data at the start of the two calibration periods used. This was done to avoid discontinuities in water content at interfaces between layers.To reduce problems associated with non-uniqueness in the solution, we minimized the number of parameters to be optimized in HYDRUS-1D by fixing the values of five parameters: q r,m , n, l, q r,im , and q s,im . The parameters q r,m and l were set at 0 (Šimůnek et al., 2001) and −1 (Schaap and Leij, 2000), respectively, across all horizons. For each horizon, values for n and q r were obtained directly from the fits of the corresponding water retention curves with Eq. [1]. Furthermore, we assumed that q r was equal to the residual water content of the immobile fraction, q r,im , and we defined the saturated water content of that fraction, q s,im , as the water content at the inflection point of the water retention curve: q s,im = q inf . Using Eq. [1] as the water retention model, q inf is calculated as (Han et al., 2008) ( )The choice of defining q s,im = q inf is based on the observation that q inf separates micro-and macroporosity (Baver, 1939;Dexter, 2004), which implies that it constitutes the upper bound of water content for the immobile region. According to this definition, porosity greater than q inf belongs to the mobile region and may not be fully captured by measurements of water retention done in clods. Consequently, we optimized q s,m (Eq. [2]) along with a (Eq. [1]), K s (Eq. [5] and [6]), and w (Eq. [3]).Three Markov chains were used to run HYDRUS-1D with DREAM (ZS) , and their convergence was determined using a scale reduction parameter, R , of <1.2 for each of the optimized parameters (Wöhling and Vrugt, 2011). The DREAM (ZS) algorithm requires that distributions of possible values be defined a priori for each of the optimized parameters (prior distributions; Scharnagl et al., 2011). Although a prior distribution can speed up the convergence of the Markov chains, our experience with preliminary runs and information by Vrugt et al. (2008) indicate that the DREAM (ZS) algorithm is robust even with biased prior distributions. Averages and standard deviations for a and K s were selected from Schaap and Leij (1998, Table 4) based on the textural classes of each horizon and used to define the corresponding prior distributions, whereas mean values for q s,m were derived from the difference of measured q s and calculated q s,im with standard deviations of 0.1. For all horizons, values of w were assigned a mean value of 0 and standard deviations of 0.5. Wide ranges were originally assigned to each of the parameters to ensure inclusion of the entire optimized distributions. In most cases, the DREAM (ZS) algorithm was run until the criteria for chain convergence was met, which means that posterior distributions were consistently within their corresponding target distribution regions. In some cases, that implied modifying prior distributions, shifting the range of parameters, and rerunning the algorithm. This strategy was used to speed the chain convergence by adjusting the prior distribution of parameters close to the target distribution. For each optimized parameter, this procedure resulted in a distribution of optimized values (posterior distribution), which was characterized by its median value and values representing the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles of the distribution estimated from the cumulative distribution. The standard deviation divided by the mean value of the parameter distribution was used as a measure of the coefficient of variation (CV) and expressed as a percentage. Parameter optimization was performed using soil water contents at four depths, precipitation, and PET from two calibration time periods in April 2013 that received a total amount of precipitation of 166 mm over 9 d and 132 mm over 11 d, respectively. Because PET was similar for the two periods, they are identified based on the amount of precipitation received as period P166 (i.e., a slightly wetter period: 166 mm) and P132 (i.e., a slightly drier period: 132 mm). These relatively short periods were chosen to capture most of the range in field-measured water contents-taken just before significant rainfall events and allowed to return close to initial conditions-and to minimize temperature variation during the simulation period; Gribb et al. (2009) used two similarly short periods (8 and 5 d) to successfully estimate effective hydraulic parameters by inversion. Goodness-offit for both calibration runs were determined using r 2 and the root mean squared error (RMSE) estimated according to Šimůnek and Hopmans (2002):where Y i obs is the ith observation of soil water content, Y i sim is the ith simulated soil water content, w i is the weight of the ith observations, which for this study was always equal to unity, and ( )where N is the number of observations and M is the number of fitted parameters.As detailed by Eck et al. (2013), data collected from the MLT scans of the soil profile were processed and separated by horizon in ScanStudio HD (NextEngine Inc.) and analyzed in ImageJ (Research Services Branch, National Institute of Health). Scan data were binarized in ImageJ to exclude the solids, leaving only gaps in the digital data (referred to as pores) for analysis. Results of the image analyses were imported into R 3.0.2 (R Development Core Team) for statistical analysis, where composite metrics were calculated for each horizon following Eck et al. (2013). We excluded pores with areas <3.142 mm 2 (corresponding to the projected area of an individual coarse sand grain with a radius of 1 mm) from the analyses to separate noise from actual pores. Image metrics from each horizon were correlated with the DREAM (ZS)optimized K s .6Water retention data from each of the three methods used in this study (hanging column, pressure plate extractor, and dew-point potentiameter) followed a monotonically decreasing trend in water content with decreasing pressure potential, indicating that the measurements consistently characterized the water retention curve for each horizon (Fig. 2). The agreement between methods suggests that samples measured with the hanging column and pressure plate extractor technique reached equilibrium. The slight deviation from the monotonically decreasing trend in the 8-to 22-cm depth at approximately −23,000-cm pressure potential may be due to the higher imprecision from the dew-point potentiameter arising from increasing sensitivity to temperature at the wet end of its measurement range (Gubiani et al., 2013).The shapes of the water retention curves (Fig. 2) reflect the increase in clay content with depth in this soil, which increases monotonically from 22% in the surface horizon to 54% in the lowest horizon (Eck et al., 2013). Water retention data plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale tended to fall on a straight line, particularly for horizons deeper than 39 cm. Also, water contents measured by the pressure plate extractor and the dew-point potentiameter techniques tended to be greater in deeper horizons, which is also a consequence of the increase in clay content with depth. Water contents measured with the dew-point potentiameter in particular are likely not to participate in the flow process.On the other hand, water contents in the range measured by the hanging column method are influenced by a combination of soil texture and soil structure.Results of the DREAM (ZS) -optimized HYDRUS-1D model runs for the two calibration periods showed very close agreement with measured values (Fig. 3). The r 2 values for periods P166 and P132 were 0.990 and 0.995, and the RMSE values were 0.00017 and 0.00011, respectively, indicating that water flow in both time periods was predicted reasonably well with the selected and optimized parameter values (Table 1).The CV for almost all optimized values of q s,m , a, and K s were <10%, except for K s values from the Ap, Bt1, and Bt2 horizons during period P166, and the q s,m values from the Bt2 and 2Btss2 horizons during period P132 (Table 1).The parameter w exhibited the largest variations, with CV values in period P132 ranging between 6.2 and 104.4%. The average difference in the values of the optimized q s,m , a, and K s between the two periods used in this study was 27%, except for values from the Bt2 and 2Btss2 horizons that had an average difference of 67.8% (Table 1). The difference between w values of the two periods was >90% for all horizons Fig. 2. Water retention curves for all horizons. Measurements were obtained using hanging column (HC), pressure plate (PP), and dewpoint potentiameter (DP) methods. Solid lines represent van Genuchten (1980) functions with the a parameter and saturated mobile water content, q s,m , (i.e., q s = q s,m + q s,im ) optimized using the mobile-immobile water model (MIM) in HYDRUS-1D run by the DREAM (ZS) algorithm (VG-HYDRUS). All other water retention parameters were obtained by fitting the van Genuchten function to the measurement data using SWRC Fit (Seki, 2007). Fig. 3. Precipitation (top), potential evapotranspiration (PET, middle), and measured soil water content (q, bottom) at four depths in the lysimeter for the two calibration periods used in this study. Solid lines in the bottom panel represent mobile-immobile water model (MIM)-optimized soil water content results from the HYDRUS-1D calibration using the DREAM (ZS) algorithm. Table 1. Residual (q r ), saturated (q s ), saturated immobile (q s,im ), and saturated mobile (q s,m ) water contents, van Genuchten (1980) parameters a and n, transfer rate coefficient for the mobile-immobile water (MIM) model (w), saturated hydraulic conductivity (K s ), coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE), and minimum Feret diameter (d Fmin ) for each horizon. Values following a ± symbol represent 1 standard deviation. The hydraulic parameters q s,m , a, w, and K s were optimized with the HYDRUS-1D model using the DREAM (ZS) algorithm in the two calibration windows used in this study (periods P166 and P132). Other water retention parameters were obtained by fitting the van Genuchten function to measured data using the software SWRC Fit (Seki, 2007). Also shown are the values representing the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles, median, and coefficient of variation (CV) of each distribution of the DREAM (ZS) optimized parameters (OPs).  except the 2Btss2 horizon, which was 32%. Large variations in w were also reported by Šimůnek et al. (2001) in upward infiltration measurements that were repeated under different lower boundary pressure potentials on the same sample and by Köhne et al. (2004) in tracer displacement experiments done on two replicated columns. For horizons Bt1 and Btss1, values of q s,m were larger for period P132, which received less precipitation with similar PET values. Small differences were observed between the q s,m values of the two periods for either the Ap or A horizon, which were characterized by low COLE values (Table 1). This suggests that under relatively dry conditions, the porosity and K s of the mobile region increased, possibly because of soil shrinkage. The exceptions of horizons Bt2 and 2Btss2 may have been caused by the lack of observations at these two horizons and, in the case of the 2Btss2 horizon, by the uncertainty of the lower boundary condition. Most optimized parameters showed consistency between the two calibration periods despite difficulties in reaching convergence (Table 1), particularly for P132, where 2 out of 24 parameters had R values >1.20 ( R = 1.25 for K s of the A horizon and R = 1.22 for w of the 2Btss2 horizon). The variability of these distributions and the difference in values obtained in the two periods can be considered small and provide confidence in the accuracy of the optimized values from the Markov chain Monte Carlo approach used in this study.The K s values optimized from the two calibration runs shown in Fig. 3 are presented in Table 1. The high conductivities of the upper three horizons are reflected in the rapid rise in water content at the 5-, 12-, and 35-cm measurement depths in response to the two rainfall events occurring at approximately Days 2 and 4 in the calibration period P166 and Days 3 and 8 in P132. Water reached the 55-cm depth very slowly in both periods compared with the upper three measurement depths owing to the small K s of the Bt2 horizon directly above the sensor (Table 1). The Bt2 horizon, which showed the second lowest K s among the horizons studied (Table 1), contained weakly expressed prismatic structures, which were detected as relatively thin vertical pores in the analyzed image (Eck et al., 2013).Initial exploration of the image metrics revealed strong correlations between K s , pore width variables, and COLE (Table 1). We used the geometric mean of the minimum Feret diameter, d Fmin , measured on each pore as the metric describing pore width. The minimum Feret diameter is defined as the smallest distance between parallel lines around an object in two-dimensional space (Ferreira and Rasband, 2012;Fig. 4a). The COLE describes the potential for soil swelling by relating the change in lengths between dry and moist states to the dry soil length (Grossman and Reinsch, 2002;Soil Survey Laboratory Staff, 2004). These values increased with depth from 0.05 in the surface horizon to 0.12 in the lowest two horizons corresponding to the visible presence of slickensides in those horizons (Table 1). By contrast, d Fmin decreased from a surface value of 3.0 mm to <2.6 mm in the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons before increasing to 3.1 mm in the Btss1 horizon (Table 1). The COLE values for the uppermost and two lowest horizons correspond to the presence of moderately expressed granular and moderately to strongly expressed wedge structures, respectively, with clear and distinct pores in the MLT-derived images (Eck et al., 2013).McKenzie and Jacquier (1997) argued that because morphological descriptions are conducted under relatively dry soil conditions, the metrics of visible soil pores are not representative of those pores under saturated conditions for soils with moderate or large potential for swelling. Because MLT scanning was conducted on the dry excavation wall, we normalized 2 Fmin d by COLE to correct for the effect of soil swelling on pore area, as illustrated in Fig. 4b. Thus, the effective pore area index, A eff , corresponds to a COLE-adjusted flow cross-sectional area of the pore (Fig. 5):The effect of dividing the 2 Fmin d value by COLE is to reduce the effective pore area of the Bt2 horizon relative to the rest of the profile (Fig. 5). The COLE values of the lowest two horizons reduced the effective pore area despite the higher d Fmin of those horizons, bringing them in line with the trend observed in Fig. 5. Thus, the normalization of 2  by COLE appears to effectively adjust the flow cross-sectional area of the macropores to their areas at a saturated state.Figure 5 presents the optimized K s estimates (HYDRUS) from the calibration run as a function of A eff . A significant (P < 0.01) correlation between A eff and K s can be observed, and the high coefficient of determination (r 2 = 0.869) suggests that d Fmin from the MLT-derived image represents a useful proxy of mean macropore width. We also found a significant (P = 0.03) relationship between K s and 1/COLE, with an r 2 = 0.747, indicating that d Fmin explains approximately 12% of the variation in the K s of the horizons used in this study. The variation explained by d Fmin is considerably larger than improvements obtained by incorporating subjective measures of soil structure in the prediction of K s (Lilly et al., 2008) or water retention at −33 and −1500 kPa (Rawls and Pachepsky, 2002).Prediction models of K s include pedotransfer functions based on texture (e.g., Rawls et al., 1982;Schaap et al., 2001) and models based on water retention data (e.g., Mishra and Parker, 1990;Guarracino, 2007;Han et al., 2008;Nasta et al., 2013). To assess the performance of these models with data collected in this study, we estimated K s with the model ROSETTA (Schaap et al., 2001) based on texture and with the model proposed by Han et al. (2008) that uses water retention parameters, in this case those fitted to water retention data and optimized by DREAM (ZS) (Table 1). Han et al. (2008) defined macroporosity as the difference q s − q inf , which is equivalent to the mobile porosity defined from the water retention function in this study. Predictions with these two models provided reasonable estimates of the lowest K s values but failed to predict the large K s of the upper three horizons (Fig. 5), suggesting that the conductivity of these horizons is mostly driven by soil structure. These models invert the K s of the upper two horizons largely because of clay content, whereas the A eff for these horizons suggest that the A horizon should indeed have a larger K s than the Ap horizon. Although these results do not constitute a formal comparison among different approaches to predict K s , they highlight the value of quantifying soil morphology in enhancing understanding and prediction of hydraulic properties.This study utilized a field-based quantified description of macropores obtained from MLT scanning in combination with a set of soil hydraulic properties optimized with DREAM (ZS) to investigate the relationship between soil structure and saturated hydraulic conductivity. We found that the geometric mean of d Fmin derived from measurements made with the MLT scanning, when combined with COLE, was able to explain 87% of the variation in K s . The use of COLE allowed the MLT-derived pore width metric (i.e., d Fmin ), which was obtained under relatively dry conditions from the excavation wall, to be estimated at a saturated state appropriate for K s . The combination of COLE with d Fmin allows the estimation of an effective pore area index representing a COLEmodified pore area orthogonal to the presumed direction of flow. When we compared this with two models that predict K s from either texture or water retention data, we found that these models are able to reasonably estimate the K s in horizons with low A eff where structure has a more muted role at saturation. These models, however, significantly underpredicted K s in horizons with lower COLE values and larger pore widths where structural pores dominate the saturation-state hydraulic character of the soil. Although future work is needed to investigate the relationship of quantified macropore metrics to K s in a broader diversity of soil types, this technique shows a great deal of promise in better understanding and predicting the role of soil structure in soil water flow. ","tokenCount":"5570"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d4c21525a2184b0f639c07479fef0673","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/04bd7151-30c0-432e-8665-8535772041ca/retrieve","id":"-1866548256"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e0e9653f-9e50-4a58-96a7-21c3e4d420c2","pagecount":"74","content":"Sesión Inaugural Desafíos de desarrollo rural y retos de las políticas: síntesis de las problemáticas a nivel internacional Desafíos en desarrollo rural y agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe Política agropecuaria y crecimiento verde en Colombia Retos de desarrollo rural y políticas en América Latina y el Caribe: perspectivas de las agencias de cooperación Perspectivas desde la FAO Agenda del IICA Plataformas co-gestionadas: hacia una nueva generación de instrumentos de desarrollo agrícola y ruralLas zonas rurales de los países de América Latina y el Caribe enfrentan un sinnúmero de retos interrelacionados. El primero es poder alimentar a una población creciente con comida accesible y sana, y contribuir a la seguridad alimentaria de su población y la del planeta. A pesar de ser grandes exportadores de productos agrícolas, estos países enfrentan problemas de inseguridad alimentaria crónica debido a la falta de acceso a alimentos, y son escenario de crecientes problemas de salud pública relacionados con dietas desbalanceadas.La lucha contra la pobreza y las desigualdades es el segundo reto en la región. Si bien en la última década la región ha experimentado reducciones en sus niveles de pobreza, todavía existen situaciones críticas en ciertos países y territorios rurales. Las desigualdades entre territorios y entre hogares rurales son muy marcadas y, en ciertos casos, tienden a incrementarse aún más. La aceleración del crecimiento urbano ha traído consigo la creación de nuevas relaciones con el mundo rural (lo ruralurbano), las cuales están poniendo en entredicho los modelos de desarrollo de los territorios rurales, afectados a su vez por problemas crecientes de migración, desigualdad del ingreso respecto a la ciudad y el reto del relevo generacional asociado al envejecimiento de los agricultores dueños de fincas.La depredación de los recursos naturales constituye un tercer reto. A pesar de los discursos y compromisos internacionales, la región sigue siendo escenario de altos niveles de desforestación y de crecientes problemas de calidad de agua y erosión de la biodiversidad.Un cuarto reto es el de lograr hacer frente a los efectos ya visibles del cambio y la variabilidad climática, a la vez que se fortalecen las capacidades de adaptación y se contribuye a la reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero.Para hacer frente a estos retos, los países e instituciones regionales han desarrollado diversas políticas y acciones públicas, las cuales también se están viendo enfrentadas a nuevos retos. Algunos países tienen dificultades para estabilizar y/o asegurar el mantenimiento de sus sistemas democráticos y la implementación de políticas se hace más difícil debido aEl Seminario \"Políticas Públicas y Desarrollo Rural en América Latina: Balance y Perspectivas\" se realizó del 5 al 7 de septiembre de 2018 en la sede principal del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) en Palmira, Colombia. Este Seminario se realizó con el apoyo de la delegación de la Unión Europea y la Embajada de Francia en Colombia, el Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS), el Centro Internacional de Cooperación en Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo (Cirad) y el CIAT. Igualmente, contó con el apoyo del Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA), de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) y de la Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL).Este Seminario fue posible gracias al compromiso de centros de investigación y universidades de la región, tales como la Universidad Autónoma de México (UNAM), la Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica (UNA), la Universidad Javeriana (sede Bogotá), la Universidad de los Andes, la Universidad Nacional de Colombia (sede Palmira), la Universidad Federal Rural de Río de Janeiro (UFRRJ), la Universidad Nacional de Brasil (UNB), la Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), la Universidad de la República de Uruguay (UDELAR) y del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria de Argentina (INTA). la reducción de la capacidad del aparato estatal y a los problemas de coordinación entre entidades públicas y privadas, y entre actores nacionales y locales. Por otra parte, el tema de lo rural está perdiendo peso en la construcción de políticas, siendo cada vez menos prioritario para los gobiernos y viéndose afectado por un apoyo cada vez menor en términos de financiamiento público y de la cooperación internacional. Además, en muchos países, los movimientos sociales rurales se han debilitado y tienen dificultades para mantener su protagonismo en las reivindicaciones por el mundo rural y los actores marginalizados.Desde 2010, la Red de Política Pública y Desarrollo Rural en América Latina (Red PP-AL) (www.pp-al.org/es) busca articular los esfuerzos multidisciplinarios de investigadores de varias instituciones y de tomadores de decisión a nivel regional y nacional, para analizar la acción pública y proponer alternativas que fomenten políticas más equitativas y adaptadas a las realidades del mundo rural actual. En los últimos años, la Red ha trabajado sobre diferentes ámbitos de políticas, como las políticas de agricultura familiar y seguridad alimentaria; desarrollo territorial rural; conservación y promoción de servicios ecosistémicos; cambio climático; agroecología y agricultura orgánica; cooperación regional e innovación, investigación y extensión para el mundo rural.En medio de este panorama, la Red PP-AL organizó el seminario internacional denominado \"Políticas públicas y desarrollo rural en América Latina: Balance y perspectivas\", con el fin de generar un espacio de intercambio y reflexión para hacer un balance actual sobre las políticas existentes para enfrentar los desafíos del desarrollo rural, y para proponer planteamientos para fomentar acciones públicas más eficientes y equitativas.Partiendo de la pregunta central: ¿Cómo renovar la acción pública para enfrentar los múltiples retos del desarrollo rural de manera coordinada, eficiente y equitativa?, se organizó una agenda en tres tiempos. En el primero, se presentaron planteamientos sobre la situación rural en varios niveles y sobre los desafíos de las políticas, desde las perspectivas de los investigadores y las agencias de cooperación. En un segundo tiempo, se realizaron sesiones y mesas temáticas por área de políticas que afectan las trayectorias de los territorios rurales de la región. Finalmente, se desarrolló una sesión sobre problemáticas transversales de las diferentes áreas de políticas, como el reto de la articulación de políticas para el desarrollo rural, el escalamiento de experiencias y el rol de las políticas, o el papel de los análisis de políticas para los procesos de toma de decisión (ver programa en anexo).A continuación, se presentan los principales planteamientos y resultados de este Seminario, que contó con la participación de 75 representantes de centros de investigación, universidades y organizaciones de cooperación (ver lista en anexo).El programa detallado y las presentaciones están disponibles en: https://bit.ly/2MuPflLEmbajador de Francia en Colombia, resalta la importancia de la cooperación científica entre el CIAT y Francia por medio del Cirad. Frente a los desafíos de Colombia y de la región latinoamericana, subraya que los problemas y soluciones se encuentran principalmente en las zonas rurales, en un contexto donde las ciudades se pueden ver amenazadas por una migración descontrolada campo/ ciudad. Para enfrentar estos retos, las soluciones se deben buscar en el medio local y regional. En este sentido, destaca el rol de la Red PP-AL como un actor clave para generar investigaciones y fomentar intercambios académicos útiles para pensar las transiciones y los cambios necesarios en América Latina e invita a una colaboración estrecha entre la Red PP-AL y la Asociación Colombo-Francesa de Investigadores (COLIFRI) que fue creada recientemente con el apoyo de la Embajada de Francia en Colombia.Jefa Adjunta de Cooperación de la Unión Europea, resalta que la cooperación entre la Unión Europea y América Latina es una cooperación real de dos vías para lograr un crecimiento inclusivo y sostenible. Para enfrentar el gran problema de la desigualdad, la Unión Europea invierte en el desarrollo de las zonas rurales, y pone énfasis en tres temas prioritarios: la identidad de género, el desarrollo sostenible desde el uso y la conservación de los recursos naturales, y la valorización de la agricultura familiar.Director General del CIAT, subraya la escasez de recursos invertidos en agricultura de cara a los grandes desafíos para alimentar al mundo en un contexto de cambio climático. En América Latina, existen grandes distorsiones de políticas de estado que hacen que estos desafíos sean mucho más grandes, como las políticas macro económicas, de comercio y de inversión pública. En este contexto, se deben analizar las políticas y contribuir a procesos de incidencia de políticas que pueden causar los cambios institucionales necesarios. Si bien la investigación se focaliza a menudo en cambios tecnológicos y enfoques productivistas, la iniciativa de la Red PP-AL viene a cerrar una brecha entre investigación y reflexión sobre las políticas y los cambios institucionales.Coordinador de la Red PP-AL, agradece la amplia participación y compromisos de los miembros de la Red PP-AL a este evento, que busca generar intercambios entre grupos de investigadores que abordan las problemáticas rurales según diferentes perspectivas. Rescata el papel de redes como la Red PP-AL para generar información a fin de influenciar políticas públicas y cambio institucional. En este sentido, el Seminario constituye un encuentro de tipo híbrido que reúne a investigadores y representantes de organizaciones de cooperación involucrados en brindar apoyo para las políticas en los países de Latinoamérica.Representante del Cirad, rescata la importancia de las investigaciones sobre políticas públicas, como uno de los ejes estratégicos del Cirad, no solo como un objetivo, sino también como un objeto de investigación, buscando analizar cómo se generan, cómo se aplican. Rescata el papel de la cooperación entre socios por medio de la Red PP-AL para construir una inteligencia colectiva sobre el tema, análisis comparativos internacionales, crear nodos de conocimientos que integran actores.Nos encontramos en Cali y vale la pena recordar que los procesos que nos interesan tienen incidencia a diferentes niveles organizacionales: el mundo, el continente, el país, el territorio. De hecho, hablar de desarrollo sostenible nos obliga a establecer las conexiones que se tejen entre dichos niveles.Sin embargo, establezcamos primero aquello que a nivel mundial ocurrió en el año 2015, en donde pudimos presenciar el momento histórico en el que se acuerda un plan de acción sobre cambio climático que involucra a todos los países. Observando en detalle los temas tratados en la agenda a nivel internacional, y comparándolos de un ámbito intergubernamental a otro, se desprenden una serie de prioridades: la equidad, los asuntos ambientales y aquellos relacionados con el cambio climático, el papel que juega la tecnología, la importancia de los procesos de paz y de estabilidad política, las opciones que deben promoverse en el ámbito económico y, en particular, entre la protección nacional y la apertura internacional y, en fin, el papel que juegan el sector privado y las regulaciones financieras. Este análisis muestra a qué nivel de amnesia podemos llegar y hasta dónde nos podemos limitar, de manera que reaccionemos ante crisis y urgencias, en vez de solo anticiparlas.Anticipar es la última de las tres funciones que tiene el Grupo de Alto Nivel de Expertos en Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutrición (High-Level Panel of Experts of the UN world Food Security -HLPE/CFS) dentro de la identificación de los temas críticos y emergentes para la seguridad alimentaria mundial. Para efectos de este tema, los invito a consultar la segunda nota producida por el HLPE en el año 2017, en donde se especifica qué es un tema crítico o emergente. Sobre la base de una primera nota publicada en 2014, gracias a un proceso intensivo de consulta y de revisión entre pares, esta nota identifica nueve temas críticos y emergentes: (i) conexión entre urbanización y transformaciones rurales, (ii) conflictos, migraciones y seguridad alimentaria, (iii) desigualdades, vulnerabilidad y grupos marginados (iv) impacto del comercio, (v) agroecología en un contexto de incertidumbre y cambio, (vi) agrobiodiversidad, recursos genéticos y selección, (vii) seguridad alimentaria y enfermedades emergentes, (viii) promesa y conocimiento tecnológico, (ix) fortalecimiento de la gobernanza de los sistemas alimentarios. Cada tema se describe en la nota disponible en el sitio web del HLPE. 1   En este punto, me gustaría enfatizar en que la agricultura se encuentra envuelta en una compleja interacción que afecta a todos los sectores: medio ambiente, salud, nutrición, energía, seguridad alimentaria, empleos, ingresos, etc. Los ejemplos son numerosos y nos obligan a reconsiderar los destinos relacionados entre la agricultura y la alimentación. Debido al crecimiento de la población, en el siglo XX a menudo bastaba con aumentar la producción agrícola para mejorar la seguridad alimentaria. Hoy en día estamos de acuerdo con que esto no es suficiente y debemos reconsiderar el papel central de los sistemas alimentarios en el triángulo que une la salud de los ecosistemas, la salud humana y la justicia social. Por una parte, esto nos lleva a considerar a los sistemas alimentarios como una poderosa palanca de transformación para lograr los Objetivos del Desarrollo Sostenible. Por la otra, está el desafío de la transformación que estos requieren. En un artículo reciente (Caron et al., 2018), los autores proponen una transformación profunda de los sistemas alimentarios basada en cuatro componentes: (i) la necesidad de tener patrones saludables y sostenibles de consumo de alimentos; (ii) las modalidades de producción que tengan en cuenta la sostenibilidad de los ecosistemas; (iii) la consideración del cambio climático (ya sea en cuanto a mitigación o a adaptación) y finalmente (iv) el renacimiento de los territorios rurales. Dichos autores hablan de \"transformación\" en lugar de \"revolución\", con el fin de reflejar el hecho de que este proceso debe ser diseñado, organizado y controlado.De esta manera, los autores identifican tres grandes desafíos para realizar esta transformación. El primero es evaluar mejor las contribuciones de los sistemas alimentarios para alcanzar los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS), a través de métricas y herramientas relevantes y adaptadas. El segundo es poder generar un impacto a escala, sabiendo que la acción local es generalmente apropiada. Ello quiere decir que no existe un modelo único y universal y las experiencias locales rara vez son replicables; por ende, la noción de cambio de escala debe ser completamente repensada. El tercero es establecer los procesos de articulación y seguimiento necesarios para garantizar la coherencia entre las prioridades locales, nacionales y mundiales, a través de enfoques territoriales adaptados.El territorio se encuentra, por una parte, en el centro de las interrelaciones entre los procesos locales, regionales, nacionalesSíntesis de las problemáticas a nivel internacional Patrick Caron, Cirad, Presidente HLPE/CFS1 Para acceder a los informes de HLPE, visitar: http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/es/ y globales y, por la otra, entre la acción colectiva y la acción pública. El territorio no hace referencia únicamente a la escala local, no es solo \"lo pequeño\", no significa \"hacer sin el Estado\". En enero de 2018, el Cirad organizó en Montpellier una conferencia sobre el papel de los territorios en el desarrollo, que se denominó \"Living Territories\" (Caron et al., 2017). De Montpellier a Cali, los desafíos y fronteras son los siguientes: i) pensar en la multifuncionalidad de la agricultura y, en particular, en las funciones relacionadas con el empleo y el medio ambiente;(ii) reconsiderar el desempeño de la ley agrícola y alimentaria y su medición; (iii) pensar en el significado y la relevancia de los datos y los sistemas de información; (iv) organizar la conectividad entre lo rural y lo urbano jugando con la figura de las ciudades intermedias; (v) diseñar las transiciones, su convivencia y su gestión política; (vi) tener en cuenta los flujos y no solo los límites, con respecto al capital, mano de obra, migración, etc.;(vii) organizar la articulación entre territorio y cadena de valor para anclar políticamente la dinámica económica y regular los procesos de concentración.¿Y el papel de la investigación en todo esto? Por supuesto, la investigación es proveedora de técnicas y tecnologías, pero también es fundamental para generar el conocimiento que permita innovar, predecir y programar (evidencias y métricas) e imaginar posibles futuros mediante ejercicios de previsión orientados a esclarecer y comprender los desacuerdos. He aquí una nueva forma de relacionar la ciencia y la política, en la cual debe considerarse la complejidad del asunto y debe evitarse sucumbir ante los cantos de sirena de vendedores de certezas o de dudas, al instruir el debate político e incluso las negociaciones, sobre la base del conocimiento construido a partir de controversias fructíferas para la ciencia y el debate político.  En América Latina, uno de los temas más críticos en términos de desarrollo e inclusión son las enormes diferencias de pobreza y equidad entre zonas rurales y urbanas, e incluso entre territorios que se pueden considerar con entornos rurales o muy rurales. En general, se puede afirmar que los territorios rurales y la periferia presentan una mayor incidencia en términos de pobreza y de desigualdades, a pesar de los crecimientos económicos sostenidos de buena parte de estos países.La desigualdad es un fenómeno persistente en los países de la región. De acuerdo con datos de la Cepal (2018), los países de América Latina son los que presentan mayor desigualdad por ingresos y menores niveles de productividad. El PIB tiende a concentrarse en pocos países y dentro de estos existen enormes diferencias en sus regiones. Esta situación se confirma aún más con los resultados recientes del estudio que adelantó Rimisp (2017) a través del Informe Latinoamericano: Pobreza y Desigualdad, en donde persisten brechas territoriales en la mayoría de los indicadores asociados a los ODS. Además, en buena parte de estos países hay territorios específicos que se encuentran en trampas territoriales de pobreza: es el caso de México, en donde el 26,9% de los municipios está en esta condición, lo que representa el 8,6% de la población. En Perú, esta cifra alcanza el 25,1% de las provincias, lo que representa un poco menos del 10% de la población (Bebbington et al., 2016).El desarrollo económico y social de los países ha estado orientado a la consolidación de las zonas urbanas como medios eficientes y sostenibles para la superación de la pobreza y el crecimiento sostenible. Esto configura un escenario de atomización del crecimiento en zonas con atributos muy específicos, en los que los instrumentos de política son mucho más eficaces en términos de resultados de impacto versus zonas con rezagos importantes, que evidencian un desequilibrio importante en términos de logros y realizaciones sociales. De acuerdo con datos de la Cepal (2015), se puede afirmar que tres lugares concentran la mayor parte de la producción económica regional: el Estado de Sao Paulo en Brasil, que en 2010 aportó cerca del 13,9% del PIB de América Latina y el Caribe, el Distrito Federal de México, que aportó el 5,6% y la Provincia de Buenos Aires, que aportó el 4,2%. Por su parte, la mayor parte de la población en condición de pobreza, medida por ingresos, se concentra en el nordeste y sudeste de Brasil, y en el sur de México.Lo anterior pone en evidencia que a pesar de las tendencias de consolidación de las zonas urbanas como fuentes de desarrollo y las esperadas repercusiones territoriales, no ha sido posible que estos beneficios irradien de igual manera a la población rural y regional en términos de dotaciones y oportunidades. Esto implica que se requiere un abordaje más integral desde la perspectiva de las políticas públicas y sus instrumentos. Es necesario entender que lo rural va muchos más allá de lo sectorial agropecuario y que no se circunscribe al conjunto de hogares que viven en zonas de baja densidad poblacional.Los hallazgos anteriores nos llevan a una reflexión importante que busca poner al territorio como un foco específico de intervención. En este caso, es importante precisar que la literatura en general se orienta a un análisis del problema desde un enfoque sistémico, histórico y estructural (Cepal, 2015), sobre la base de que las interrelaciones entre cada uno de estos enfoques, en buena medida, se potencian o debilitan dependiendo de cómo las regiones se insertan en los mercados sobre la base de un conjunto de dotaciones y los mecanismos disponibles para aprovecharlas.Por tanto, la interpretación estructuralista del desarrollo y las desigualdades territoriales indican que es necesario un análisis conjunto de los territorios rezagados y de aquellos con mayores niveles de desarrollo; que existen un conjunto de condiciones estructurales de tipo productivo e institucional generadores y reproductores de desigualdades; que además existen factores endógenos de los territorios que pueden explicar procesos virtuosos de crecimiento y desarrollo, y que existen procesos de múltiples dimensiones que pueden contribuir o restringir las posibilidades de desarrollo de los territorios (Berdegué et al., 2014).Se afirma también que las desigualdades territoriales tienen costos muy altos para un país en su conjunto y no solo para las regiones o zonas donde estas se manifiestan (Bebbington et al., 2016). Se ha encontrado además que las trampas de pobreza se encuentran asociadas a la falta de cohesión social, a la debilidad institucional territorial y la prevalencia de economías de enclave que no logran articular encadenamientos que dinamicen diferentes sectores económicos.Sin embargo, se vienen presentando fenómenos que conviene tener en cuenta al momento de avanzar en las políticas públicas y en sus mecanismos de implementación. Las pequeñas y medianas ciudades empiezan a cobrar un rol muy importante en el desarrollo de los países. Para 2030, aproximadamente el 40% de la población vivirá en este tipo de asentamientos (United Nations, 2016), donde sin duda los sistemas agroalimentarios y los vínculos urbano-rurales y la diversificación del mercado laboral serán determinantes en el desempeño de estos territorios.Lo anterior pone sobre la mesa la necesidad de avanzar en una reflexión sobre la forma y los medios de intervención de las políticas públicas, así como de la institucionalidad utilizada para operar dichas políticas y sus instrumentos. Para ello, además de adaptar conceptualmente lo que significa la ruralidad, es necesario tener presente que hoy en día enfrentamos desafíos importantes en términos de gobernabilidad territorial, una mayor presencia de conflictos socioterritoriales y la presencia de actividades ilegales en buena parte de los países de América Latina y el Caribe.Por su parte, la agricultura se enfrenta a un entorno más globalizado, donde una porción importante de los agricultores no hace parte de este entorno. Adicionalmente, en los próximos 10 años la demanda de alimentos tendrá un crecimiento más lento, y si no se toman medidas, las brechas de productividad tenderán a profundizarse.Una de las primeras acciones que se vislumbran en este contexto es la necesidad de cambiar la tendencia del gasto público rural. Hoy en día, prevalece la asignación del presupuesto a bienes privados, que en países como Colombia, México y Brasil supera el 60% como promedio (Anríquez et al., 2016), y en donde el principal responsable de este gasto es el sector agropecuario. Ello requiere contar con mecanismos versátiles que faciliten la concurrencia de fuentes y la posibilidad de avanzar en mecanismos público-privados y de corresponsabilidad que permitan no perder la continuidad en las inversiones y que vinculen diversos actores en procesos colectivos de inversión.Igualmente, las políticas públicas sectoriales además de no ser espacialmente ciegas deben darle prioridad a aquellas intervenciones que favorecen el desarrollo de capacidades para aprovechar el potencial de las regiones, toda vez que el objetivo en sí no es la convergencia absoluta, sino avanzar en la igualdad de oportunidades territoriales. Para ello, se requieren mecanismos de intervención desconcentrados, y de procesos de descentralización más asimétricos que tengan en cuentan las condiciones institucionales y las capacidades para generar ingresos de los territorios.Finalmente, pero no menos importante, es clave que los nuevos modelos institucionales desarrollen metodologías de evaluación que permitan identificar qué tanto los efectos en términos de crecimiento y reducción de la pobreza en los territorios son atribuibles a las políticas que tienen en cuenta las condiciones territoriales, además de retroalimentar procesos de diseño de las políticas y contribuir a su escalabilidad. Esto se puede alcanzar con el desarrollo de paquetes de soluciones operativas para desafíos de implementación que consideren las diferencias territoriales y la capacitación de actores territoriales en seguimiento y evaluación para lograr ajustes y modificaciones oportunos y pertinentes.Productividad laboral y desigualdad en países de América Latina FIGURA 4.ALC es una región con desigualdades entre sus países. Los países de América Latina y el Caribe tienen altos niveles de desigualdad de ingresos de su población y bajos niveles de productividad laboral.Fuente: Cepal (2018).  La política agropecuaria en Colombia durante el gobierno Santos se concentró en cinco objetivos generales: (i) ordenar el territorio rural buscando mayor acceso, uso eficiente y seguridad jurídica de la tierra, incluyendo la implementación de los bancos de tierra definidos en los Acuerdos de Paz para darle acceso a los campesinos y a las personas que se quieran dedicar a las actividades rurales; ii) impulsar la competitividad rural a través de bienes y servicios sectoriales, para lo cual se necesita superar el mal uso de la tierra, los bajos niveles de productividad y la poca conectividad con los mercados nacionales e internacionales, dadas las grandes ineficiencias en la comercialización de productos agropecuarios;(iii) cerrar las brechas urbano-rurales por medio de la dotación de bienes públicos para pobladores rurales; (iv) contar con un arreglo institucional multisectorial, acorde con las necesidades de los pobladores rurales y (v) acelerar la salida de la pobreza y ampliar la clase media rural a través de la inclusión productiva. Hemos sido exitosos reduciendo la pobreza urbana en un 50% en los últimos 15 años. Sin embargo, los bolsones de pobreza más grandes se encuentran en las zonas rurales con menos presencia estatal. El nuevo gobierno, de acuerdo con sus anuncios, busca devolver la rentabilidad al productor mediante una reducción de costos de producción, mejorando carreteras terciarias, con nuevos paquetes tecnológicos que aumenten la competitividad y la productividad y con soluciones específicas a las dificultades de los procesos de comercialización. Será un enfoque más economicista que busque que las unidades productivas tengan una rentabilidad adecuada con base en cinco pilares que representan cinco grandes retos: (i) infraestructura para mejorar la conectividad de los territorios alejados del mercado nacional; (ii) legalidad, ya que el 93% de las unidades productivas agropecuarias opera de manera informal, es decir, no pagan seguridad social, no participan de régimen de pensiones y otros temas relacionados con narcotráfico y minería ilegal; (iii) equidad rural, ya que la baja productividad se refleja en bajos ingresos; (iv) fomento y apoyo al emprendimiento y (v) acelerar los procesos de modernización, que hasta el momento han sido muy lentos.Las migraciones internas generan un reto adicional: el aumento en la dependencia de la población rural, con pocas personas en edad productiva que permanecen en el campo.La pregunta permanente es cómo generar un desarrollo sostenible que sea incluyente, que preserve el capital natural de país y que asegure que seamos más resilientes a los desastres y al cambio climático.Se espera alcanzar estos objetivos con una oferta institucional basada en un conjunto estratégico de programas e instrumentos financieros: programas de desarrollo rural con equidad, formalización de la propiedad rural, construcción de capacidades empresariales rurales e instrumentos de crédito, de normalización de cartera y de gestión del riesgo. • Reduce impactos ambientales.• Mejora la eficiencia en el uso de recursos.• Reconoce un valor asociado al capital natural.• Promueve el crecimiento compatible con el clima.• Fomenta la inclusión social.• Desarrolla capital humano.• Genera empleos. El escenario es cada vez más complejo en América Latina y se ve reflejado en cinco puntos:• Disminución del ritmo de reducción de la pobreza y la extrema pobreza rural. • Mantención de las brechas entre el mundo rural y urbano.• Menores niveles de crecimiento económico y disponibilidad de recursos fiscales. • Desgaste de las políticas \"antipobreza\" predominantes en los últimos 15 años. • Economías territoriales que no son capaces de reducir la pobreza por su cuenta.La pobreza sin duda disminuyó en la región, tanto en lo urbano como en lo rural. Sin embargo, hay varios aspectos que considerar en esta situación: la pobreza rural sigue siendo alta y significativamente más alta que la urbana; el número de pobres y pobres extremos rurales sigue representando un porcentaje importante de la población; durante los años de reducción de la pobreza, la diferencia entre la pobreza urbana y la pobreza rural no cayó; a pesar de la reducción registrada en los últimos 15 años, hay territorios, colectivos y actividades rurales que fueron dejados atrás; en los años recientes, la reducción de la pobreza rural se desaceleró, se estancó o se revertió en gran parte de los países de la región. El resultado de todo ello es que el número de personas en situación de pobreza en áreas rurales ha aumentado.Urge retomar su reducción y redoblar los esfuerzos en las agendas de desarrollo de las ciudades. Es necesario identificar los territorios más rezagados, donde normalmente se encuentran los niveles más altos de pobreza y pobreza extrema.¿Por qué es urgente retomar el ritmo de reducción de la pobreza rural?• Para alcanzar los ODS y cumplir los compromisos de la Agenda 2030.Perspectivas de las agencias de cooperación Perspectivas desde la FAO Luis Carlos Beduschi, FAO, Chile• Para reducir la discriminación étnica.• Para proteger y aprovechar mejor los recursos naturales.• Para reducir la reproducción intergeneracional de la pobreza, especialmente en los territorios más rezagados. • Para reducir la violencia y las economías ilegales. La pobreza rural empuja a las personas a las actividades ilícitas. • Para mantener la paz social. Reducir la pobreza rural, fortaleciendo capacidades y organizaciones, permite contar con interlocutores legítimos para dialogar y articular.Desde la FAO, se proponen dos ideas principales: 1) Seguir innovando en políticas públicas. No es suficiente con lo que ya se está haciendo, hay que dar un nuevo empuje y 2) Revitalizar los territorios rurales, el dinamismo económico y la cohesión social son elementos fundamentales para erradicar la pobreza y ampliar la prosperidad en el mundo rural.La región ha mostrado que SÍ es posible reducir la pobreza de forma significativa a través de programas de transferencia condicionada de ingresos, acciones articuladas de protección social e inclusión productiva, infraestructura, orientación estratégica y mecanismos para el gasto público rural. Estas son dimensiones en las que la FAO tiene aprendizajes y conocimientos que se ponen a disposición de los gobiernos y actores sociales de los países interesados. Igualmente, la FAO ha logrado identificar algunas de las principales barreras que limitan la reducción de la pobreza rural en la región: la pobreza rural asociada a una baja presencia y calidad de servicios públicos, mercados laborales rurales incompletos, que discriminan a las mujeres y a los jóvenes y actividades rurales agrícolas de baja productividad y alta informalidad.Sin embargo, también hay oportunidades que aprovechar para retomar y acelerar la senda de reducción de la pobreza rural en la región: la agricultura familiar y sus vínculos con sistemas alimentarios saludables (salud, ambiente); el empleo rural no agrícola; las articulaciones urbano-rurales; la posibilidad de rentabilizar activos no tradicionales: recursos naturales, ambiente, diversidad (ambiental y cultural), potenciando las iniciativas para grupos específicos con base en lo que ya se conoce (jóvenes rurales, mujeres, pueblos indígenas, emprendedores rurales, asalariados). Es necesario integrar nuevas aproximaciones a la pobreza rural, como trabajar con abordaje de doble inclusión, mejorar los niveles de educación entre jóvenes rurales y vincularlos a redes de ciencia y tecnología. La existencia de un amplio abanico de políticas, aunque con poca coordinación y coherencia, así como la experiencia acumulada en la región también constituyen oportunidades. Ellas necesitan ampliar su escala y estabilidad, vinculándose más estrechamente a las ciudades intermedias y creando nuevas modalidades de inserción social y productiva en los territorios rurales.FIGURA 10. Evolución reciente pobreza y pobreza extrema.La alimentación y la agricultura están en el centro de la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible, ya sea para poner fin a la pobreza y el hambre, para responder al cambio climático o para conservar nuestros recursos naturales.En conjunto, todos estos elementos nos permiten ver la necesidad de una estrategia de revitalización de los territorios más vulnerables, entendiéndolos como laboratorios reales, útiles para identificar cómo encontrar caminos adaptativos que permitan generan aprendizajes colectivos y conocimientos disponibles para los tomadores de decisiones de cada país.Fuente: Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL), sobre la base del Banco de Datos de Encuestas de Hogares (BADEHOG). El IICA acaba de terminar un proceso de construcción de su agenda para los próximos años y el punto de partida en esta visión es la necesidad de generar un nuevo paradigma sobre el papel de los territorios rurales como potenciadores, ejes de transformación y sustento de pobladores que tienen un gran potencial de contribución efectiva al desarrollo de cada país. Esto implica una nueva visión, distintiva de lo rural y lo agropecuario, superando la visión de producción de bienes primarios por una en la que el eje transformador apunte hacia la industrialización de la biomasa y el aprovechamiento sostenible e inclusivo del conjunto de recursos del territorio.Al mismo tiempo, identificamos algunos de los grandes retos del sector: superar el debilitamiento de los mecanismos de gobernanza, especialmente lo relacionado al comercio internacional; consolidación del bienestar rural; enfrentar el cambio climático; fortalecer las instituciones públicas agropecuarias y rurales, y fortalecer los derechos de los pueblos indígenas e incorporarlos en una matriz que asegure el libre ejercicio de sus derechos. Estos retos representan hoy los objetivos del IICA, que han sido alineados a la Agenda 2030 de los ODS. Con base en ellos, se crearon cinco programas interdisciplinarios, con dos ejes transversales: género y juventud e innovación y tecnología:• Bioeconomía y desarrollo productivo • Desarrollo territorial y agricultura familiar • Comercio internacional e integración regional • Cambio climático, recursos naturales y gestión de riesgos • Sanidad agropecuaria, inocuidad y calidad de los alimentos El Programa de Desarrollo Territorial y Agricultura Familiar tiene dos ejes de trabajo:• Políticas públicas para el desarrollo de los territorios rurales, que incluye apoyo a los programas, mecanismos e instrumentos del Desarrollo Rural Territorial (DRT), y la incorporación de la perspectiva territorial en las políticas sectoriales. • Gestión social de los territorios, que en esencia propone que los territorios sean objeto de las políticas públicas, el aterrizaje coordinado y articulado de las políticas y programas sectoriales, enfatizando en el protagonismo de los actores sociales del territorio. • Alianzas y trabajo colaborativo. Además de la acción institucional propia del IICA, se propone un amplio marco de alianzas que potencien la capacidad intelectual, de conocimiento y acción conjunta, para lograr acciones y resultados significativos en beneficio de los países y los pobladores rurales.Aumentar las contribuciones del sector agropecuario al crecimiento económico y el desarrollo sostenible 1Mejorar el comercio internacional y regional de los países de la región Plataformas Co-gestionadas:Hacia una nueva generación de instrumentos de desarrollo agrícola y rural Octavio Sotomayor, CepalEl concepto de \"Plataformas Co-gestionadas\" busca connotar la necesidad de bajar los costos e incrementar la calidad de los programas públicos. Las restricciones fiscales que experimentan todos los países de la región justifican este nuevo enfoque, que es indispensable y urgente si queremos alcanzar los ODS 2030 definidos por las Naciones Unidas. También existen otros argumentos que validan este nuevo enfoque. Por una parte, es necesario elevar la pertinencia de muchos de estos programas, haciéndolos más adaptados a la realidad. Por otro, también es relevante la apropiación de dichos programas por parte de los agricultores. Ambos criterios -pertinencia y apropiación -son requisitos indispensables para mejorar la calidad de estos programas.A través de la idea de Plataformas, se busca una intervención integral de los organismos del Estado, la sociedad civil y los organismos privados. Se trata de desarrollar una batería coherente de servicios de apoyo (asistencia técnica, crédito, riego, fomento exportador, comercialización, otros) para abordar todos sus requerimientos. Dichas Plataformas deben ser co-gestionadas, porque se quiere que los productores se involucren en la gestión de esos servicios y políticas públicas.Las Plataformas Co-gestionadas así definidas integran diversas regulaciones, servicios e instrumentos públicos y privados que se aplican bajo una cierta secuencia lógica, asignándole un rol activo de los agricultores y a los otros actores relacionados, de modo que optimicen el uso de los recursos públicos disponibles y apalanquen nuevos recursos. En tal perspectiva, se propone operar según un nuevo principio, que denominamos \"Máxima Utilización de Recursos Locales\" (MURL): al diseñar un programa público, hay que asegurarse de haber aprovechado completamente todos los recursos locales que puedan ser movilizados para reducir los costos y elevar la calidad de dicho programa. En forma especial, esto implica movilizar todos los recursos cognitivos, económicos y materiales de los agricultores, así como los de otros actores locales (empresas, municipios, organizaciones, otros), para alcanzar los objetivos buscados. Este principio también implica movilizar un recurso adicional: la capacidad de sinergia y de colaboración entre actores.La aplicación del principio MURL abre la posibilidad de que muchas de estas iniciativas eventualmente puedan realizarse en forma autónoma, sin el apoyo del Estado. Es evidente que esa no es la mejor opción pues la intervención de las agencias públicas siempre tiene un impacto estratégico y operacional. Pero ante escenarios adversos, la aplicación del principio MURL también hace plausible plantearse la instalación de estas Plataformas con el apoyo de ONG, universidades regionales o empresas privadas, aunque sea a pequeña escala.Desde el momento en que pensamos en instrumentos de alto impacto y costos moderados, sin apoyo estatal, se abre una nueva perspectiva, pues la plataforma se hace multicéntrica, la provisión de servicios se fragmenta entre varios polos activos, la iniciativa puede ser tomada por múltiples actores. Se trata de un cambio cultural: necesitamos otra mirada para enfrentar el desafío del desarrollo, que supere el paradigma tradicional que existe desde la década del 50 del siglo pasado, en donde todo depende del Estado.La aplicación de este principio debe llevar a identificar una plataforma de servicios con dos tipos de programas de fomento: los instrumentos de fomento de impacto efectivo y costos moderados y aquellos de alto costo, que conllevan la realización de inversiones de mayor magnitud.Existen muchos ejemplos de instrumentos de impacto efectivo y costos moderados: asistencia técnica horizontal, mercados locales, aplicaciones informáticas, comunidades virtuales, giras tecnológicas locales, brigadas de servicios de poda, programas de etiquetas diseñadas por alumnos en práctica…). Algunas de ellas han sido sistematizadas (UDA CEPAL, 2018), pero con seguridad existen muchas otras experiencias que deberían recibir el mismo tratamiento. Esta discusión también debería dar cuenta de la línea de alto costo (riego, maquinaria, energía…), en donde es esencial un nuevo diálogo con la banca de desarrollo, las empresas privadas y los organismos públicos de fomento. De este modo, se podría generar una caja de herramientas que pueda ser ofrecida a los gobiernos y a las organizaciones de productores.Es de suma importancia medir el impacto de estas iniciativas, para lo cual también debiera aplicarse el principio MURL antes enunciado: evaluar con costos reducidos, apelando a una movilización de todos los recursos locales. Para ello, se requiere instalar bases únicas de usuarios, líneas base y sistemas de medición sencillos y de bajo costo, utilizando diversas fuentes y métodos. El tema de la medición de impacto es crítico para dimensionar la utilidad y el potencial de estas intervenciones.Si se pueden exhibir resultados, se puede ganar apoyo social para obtener nuevos recursos presupuestarios que refuercen las intervenciones con los agricultores.Se distinguen dos tipos de instrumentos de fomento:• El tema del financiamiento debería ser una de las primeras prioridades a trabajar. También la línea vinculada a RSE/Valor Compartido Para abarcar el tema de las políticas públicas, la Unión Europa ha asumido, desde hace 5 años, un enfoque renovado de apoyo presupuestario a través de contratos de reforma sectorial que reemplazan los tradicionales proyectos de cooperación bilateral. La idea es lograr la mayor alineación, apropiación y sostenibilidad con las políticas públicas del país que está recibiendo el apoyo de la Unión Europea. La esencia de un apoyo presupuestario es el diálogo de política pública y el diálogo político, conectando así de manera adecuada la información con quienes toman las decisiones. ¿Cómo funcionan? Estos apoyos son un programa de pagos por resultados. Se selecciona una política pública, unos indicadores y, si se cumplen las metas anuales pactadas entre las partes, se realiza el pago de estos apoyos.Este sistema de pago por resultados permite promover sistemas de monitoreo y evaluaciones reales a las políticas públicas. Sin embargo, la falta de información es un gran desafío, así como la falta de sistemas de monitoreo. Le Mesa tenía dos objetivos principales: (i) producir una síntesis de las investigaciones ya realizadas por la Red PP-AL y de los artículos del dossier para la revista Raízes, y (ii) identificar fuentes de financiamiento para la construcción de nuevos proyectos de investigación, ya sea conducidos por la Red PP-AL o en colaboración con otras instituciones y redes.En 2013, la Red PP-AL organizó un estudio sobre las políticas públicas y las agriculturas familiares en América Latina. El estudio tenía como objetivo estudiar la elaboración e implementación de diversas políticas públicas para examinar sus mecanismos y sus efectos, en particular en términos de transformaciones de las dinámicas de desarrollo rural y de la lucha contra las desigualdades.El estudio buscó caracterizar dos elementos complementarios en el subcontinente latinoamericano: (i) el surgimiento de políticas específicas para el sector de la agricultura familiar y (ii) la forma en que las políticas clásicas dirigidas al agro afectan a este sector. En 2018, la Red se encarga de organizar la publicación de un dossier en la Revista Raízes/Brasil con una actualización de la dinámica de las políticas para la agricultura familiar después de 2014, Año Internacional de la Agricultura Familiar.Los resultados de ambos estudios indicaron que: (a) En los países, hay una gran diversidad de definiciones de la agricultura familiar (pequeño productor agropecuario, agricultor familiar, agricultor familiar campesino, unidad agrícola familiar…). En algunos países, la noción de agricultura familiar ya es más conocida e institucionalizada y, en otros, la noción llegó junto con el Año Internacional de la Agricultura Familiar. (b) Aunque exista una definición de agricultura familiar, es importante considerar que la agricultura familiar, en cada país, abarca una gran diversidad de situaciones y de sistemas de producción. (c) Si bien la agricultura familiar está presente en todos los países, no todos tienen una política específica para la agricultura familiar. Algunos países han contado con políticas específicas desde hace varios años (Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Cuba, Uruguay), mientras que otros mantuvieron una única política para el sector agropecuario, dando un tratamiento más social y separando a los más pobres de la población rural. (d) A pesar de que las políticas específicas para la agricultura familiar son diversas, hay elementos comunes en materia de crédito (diferenciado o subsidiado), asistencia técnica y extensión rural, y capacitación y promoción de procesos organizativos. (e) Considerando el conjunto de los países y en una perspectiva de largo plazo, observamos tres generaciones de políticas: (i) políticas agrícolas generalistas, orientadas hacia la modernización de la agricultura, que afectan a todos los agricultores, incluyendo a ciertos tipos de agricultores familiares;(ii) políticas específicas, focalizadas en la categoría agricultura familiar y (iii) políticas temáticas o transversales, que afectan indirectamente la agricultura familiar. (f) En muchos países, la acción del Estado está marcada por la dualidad entre políticas para la agricultura familiar y políticas para el agronegocio, siendo que las relaciones de poder y de recursos son muy diversas entre estos dos grupos, prevaleciendo los últimos. (g) En virtud de cambios políticos, en los años recientes hay \"movimientos\" de revisión y disminución de la acción del Estado en algunos países (Argentina, Brasil, Paraguay, Nicaragua).La Mesa presentó un balance de la evolución de las políticas públicas para las agriculturas familiares desde 2014 (Año Internacional de la Agricultura Familiar).Rafael Zavala (FAO Colombia) presentó una charla sobre la relación entre la construcción reciente de políticas de agricultura familiar en Colombia y la agenda de investigación.La exposición de Claudia Schmitt (CPDA-UFRRJ, Brasil) se refirió a la relación entre los movimientos sociales y las políticas públicas de agricultura familiar y de seguridad alimentaria y nutricional en Brasil, en particular en términos de creación de espacios de participación desde la escala local hasta la federal.Pedro Arbeletche (UDELAR, Uruguay) mostró un ejemplo de evolución conjunta y paralela de políticas públicas a favor de la agricultura familiar y otras a favor de la agricultura empresarial en el seno del mismo ministerio, y de las eventuales interacciones entre las dos agendas.Existe un reconocimiento político y una legitimación socioeconómica de la agricultura familiar por medio de una definición clara y positiva de esta categoría, así como una institucionalización de políticas públicas específicas para este segmento (y de su planeamiento), básicamente en respuesta a la acción de los movimientos sociales. Sin embargo, ha habido un abandono de las políticas de reforma agraria y generalmente se han obtenido resultados desiguales y selectivos.Se observa una evolución de las políticas públicas para la agricultura familiar, con una diversificación de los instrumentos y una nueva generación de políticas capaces de atender segmentos específicos o de tratar temas globales (pobreza rural, territorio, medio ambiente, seguridad alimentaria, etc.). En particular, hubo en la región un proceso de territorialización de instrumentos y programas de desarrollo rural (intersectorial) por medio de espacios de consulta, de participación de la sociedad civil y de integración regional.No obstante, a pesar de estos avances, en los últimos años se observan rupturas y retrocesos con la llegada al poder de gobiernos conservadores y neoliberales. Hubo también dificultades de coordinación de esos conjuntos de políticas y recortes de los recursos presupuestarios, a causa de una reducción del crecimiento económico, confiriéndole más vulnerabilidad institucional a las políticas para la agricultura familiar. Por lo tanto, subsiste una fuerte asimetría de los apoyos públicos a favor de la agricultura empresarial exportadora (el agronegocio), en particular en términos de modelos técnicos de producción, de acceso a las tierras y financiamiento. Paralelamente, al ser tratadas con políticas sociales, se ha excluido a la agricultura familiar de las políticas productivas.• Analizar las interfaces entre las políticas públicas para la agricultura familiar y para la seguridad y soberanía alimentaria: como crear sistemas alimentarios sustentables y favorecer las interacciones entre los dos tipos de políticas. En particular, se trata de analizar las interacciones entre políticas públicas y circuitos cortos (compras públicas, ferias, otros); políticas de valorización de los productos locales y de alimentos saludables (socio-biodiversidad, recolección, producción ecológica, otros); políticas de abastecimiento alimentario (centrales de distribución, logística, reducción de pérdidas, valoración de desechos, otros) y relaciones entre políticas de salud y nutrición y la agricultura familiar. • Analizar las interfaces entre las políticas de agricultura familiar y políticas agrarias o de tierras (concentración y acaparamiento de la tierra, por ejemplo). ¿Cuáles son los procesos de actualización de la acción del Estado (en términos de políticas agrarias y de tierra)? ¿Cómo está afectando a la agricultura familiar? ¿Cuál es la relación entre políticas de tierra y políticas de desarrollo territorial rural? • Caracterizar la relación entre las políticas para la agricultura familiar, las políticas nacionales de desarrollo agrícola (incluyendo el sector empresarial) y las configuraciones de los Estados. • ¿Qué estrategias de desarrollo y qué concepciones del Estado orientan las acciones de los gobiernos y cuál es el tratamiento de la agricultura familiar en estas interpretaciones? • ¿Cuáles son los conflictos económicos, políticos y sociales que permean la construcción de las políticas para la agricultura familiar? • ¿Cómo estas dinámicas afectan a las agriculturas familiares, sus formas de acción colectiva y sus modos de hacer políticas públicas? • Caracterizar los vínculos entre las dinámicas de la agricultura familiar y las políticas de lucha contra la pobreza, y las políticas que tratan de las migraciones. ¿Cómo las políticas públicas de agricultura familiar tratan la diversidad existente? (ejemplo: con los grupos indígenas, los jóvenes, otros).Obviamente esas propuestas no agotan la temática de la agenda de investigación sobre políticas públicas y agriculturas familiares, pero reflejan algunas de las prioridades que fueron debatidas y muestran vacíos de conocimientos y análisis.Deissy Martínez-Barón (CIAT/CCAFS) y Jean-François Le Coq (Cirad/CIAT)En 2015, la Red PP-AL organizó un taller sobre políticas de cambio climático (CC), evidenciando la diversidad de formas como se inserta el tema de CC en las políticas nacionales. También se realizó una revisión sistemática de literatura académica, la cual evidenció los vacíos en la investigación sobre los enfoques trans-sectoriales, gobernanza multinivel, así como sobre las fases de adopción, implementación y evaluación de las políticas (Locatelli et al., 2017).El objetivo de esta sesión temática del Seminario era actualizar el estado del arte sobre las políticas de cambio climático e identificar ejes de investigación actualizados, tomando en cuenta el vínculo con la seguridad alimentaria y las dinámicas actuales.La sesión se inició con la presentación de Deissy Martínez-Barón, coordinadora del Programa de Investigación de CGIAR en Cambio Climático, Agricultura y Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS, por sus siglas en inglés) en América Latina, quien presentó el estado del arte de las políticas de cambio climático y agricultura en la región. Este estado del arte, basado en el inventario de los documentos de políticas de la región y en una revisión de la literatura gris reciente sobre el tema, proporcionó el análisis sobre la evolución de la formulación de las políticas de cambio climático en los últimos 20 años, con énfasis en mitigación y/o adaptación en relación a la agricultura en los países de América Latina, así como sus relaciones con las políticas sectoriales, teniendo en cuenta el efecto en las escalas local, nacional e internacional.El análisis mostró el rol de los actores internacionales para impulsar la agenda global de formulación de políticas e iniciativas de cambio climático, el cual es preponderante en temas de financiamiento y movilización de la agenda para el desarrollo de iniciativas y formulación de políticas a escala nacional. Bajo el impulso de los compromisos internacionales y la toma de consciencia de la importancia del tema con la ocurrencia de eventos climáticos extremos en los países de la región, se ha generado un gran desarrollo de políticas y herramientas institucionales para enfrentar los desafíos del cambio climático. Si bien todos los países ya tienen políticas para el cambio climático, existe una desarticulación significativa del sector agropecuario en relación con las políticas de cambio climático en las diferentes escalas y, por lo tanto, esto representa un gran reto a escala nacional. También se resaltó que es importante procurar la alineación de intereses y objetivos para lograr una implementación coherente y efectiva de las políticas, potencializando así mayores sinergias.Martínez-Barón manifestó que, a pesar de la creciente preocupación por investigar los procesos de política pública en materia de cambio climático y agricultura, existen grandes oportunidades para profundizar y generar conocimiento alrededor de estos temas, abordando los vacíos identificados y asumiendo nuevos retos. Algunos de los vacíos mencionados fueron: (i) la falta de literatura sobre el monitoreo, evaluación, efectividad y eficiencia de estas políticas;(ii) la poca profundización en los análisis comparativos entre países sobre estas políticas y (iii) la falta de publicaciones sobre los análisis de políticas públicas de cambio climático y agricultura en las revistas internacionales de alto impacto científico. Afirmó que los principales retos radican en un abordaje más holístico de las políticas de cambio climático, la necesidad de un mayor diálogo entre la investigación y los procesos de política pública, una mayor flexibilidad del sistema políticoinstitucional para adoptar e implementar políticas en contextos de transformación relacionados con los impactos irreversibles del cambio climático, así como mayores sistemas, metodologías o herramientas de medición de efectividad y eficacia de estas políticas para hacer frente a los retos globales y compromisos nacionales.FIGURA 17Temáticas abordadas en los documentos de política en América latina Documentos de políticas de cambio climático para agricultura• Los documentos de política referentes a cambio climático abordan en su mayoría tanto adaptación como mitigación.• A raíz del Acuerdo de París, hubo un incremento sustancial de documentos de política que abordan ambas temáticas.• La generación de documentos de política en cambio climático y agricultura tiene algunas particularidades sub-regionales.• La región centroamericana se caracteriza por ser más homogénea en el número de documentos de política generados.• Sería interesante profundizar sobre la relación entre el número de documentos de política y su efectividad por país.Fuente: CCAFS.Fuente: CCAFS.  En esta Mesa, participaron como ponentes Julie Lennox, de Cepal, quien presentó el estado de las políticas de cambio climático en Centroamérica y sus vínculos con los desafíos de seguridad alimentaria; Laura Meza, del IICA, quién analizó una experiencia sobre integración sistémica del cambio climático en las políticas, el caso de la Estrategia de Agricultura Sostenible Adaptada al Clima para la región del SICA (EASAC); y Carolina Milhorance de Castro, de la UnB-CDS-Brasil, quien expuso sobre la problemática de articulación de políticas climáticas y de desarrollo en Brasil.Algunas de las conclusiones principales de la Mesa fueron: (i) la adaptación es prioridad para los países de la región, pero debe ser sostenible e incluyente; (ii) existe poca posibilidad de disminuir las emisiones con los compromisos actuales adquiridos por los países; (iii) se debe articular la problemática de seguridad alimentaria de los pequeños productores en contexto de variabilidad y cambio climático con las políticas actuales de cambio climático y (iv) hay que reformular estrategias que integran el cambio climático en una perspectiva de sistemas alimentarios sostenibles, incorporando los agudos problemas de desnutrición y obesidad. Adicionalmente, se evidenció que la EASAC, que cubre a ocho países, es un gran ejemplo del abordaje regional respecto al cambio y variabilidad climática, ya que sostiene un entendimiento común de conceptos entre países que tienen desafíos similares. Finalmente, a partir del caso de Brasil, se mostró que el principal desafío respecto al cambio climático está relacionado con las importantes emisiones generadas por el sector agropecuario y el cambio en uso del suelo, los problemas de planificación e implementación de múltiples políticas que afectan los espacios rurales, y el conflicto por el acceso a recursos entre las agendas de mitigación y de adaptación.• Existen muchos modelos alternativos (agroecología, agricultura familiar, etc.) que pueden abordar los retos del cambio climático junto con pobreza, migración, entre otros. Sin embargo, la mayoría cubren la escala local, ¿cuál debe ser la escala de planificación a nivel macro? • Las métricas de medición para mitigación están mejor definidas que aquellas relacionadas con adaptación/ resiliencia, las cuales son las que más inciden en el desarrollo rural. La adaptación se ha medido principalmente a escala de finca, ¿cómo pasar a una escala mayor? • Desde una perspectiva de ciencia política, ¿cómo son las dinámicas de poder en los procesos de construcción de política? ¿Cómo hacemos un cambio institucional rápido para responder a los desafíos del corto plazo en un contexto de clima cambiante? ¿Cómo juega la legitimidad de los distintos actores? ¿Cómo se mueven los debates según los intereses? • Los tiempos de formulación de política son heterogéneos.¿Cuáles son los determinantes en el tiempo de la construcción de las políticas de cambio climático? • ¿Cómo se traducen las propuestas internacionales en políticas? ¿Cómo se traducen a nivel de implementación? • ¿Cómo se involucran los cambios socio-técnicos para lograr la transición a modelos más sostenibles?De la sesión surgieron algunos compromisos futuros por parte de los participantes: (i) realizar un análisis (comparativo) sobre procesos de formulación de política regional en cambio climático, caso de la EASAC en la región SICA y otros; (ii) apoyo a los esfuerzos de vinculación de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional con las políticas de cambio climático, teniendo como base las publicaciones de CEPAL y otros socios, y fortalecimiento de las capacidades regionales para gestionar las herramientas propuestas; (iii) convertir el análisis inicial sobre el estado del arte de las políticas públicas de cambio climático y el desarrollo rural de un esfuerzo individual a un esfuerzo colectivo y (iv) facilitar las conversaciones periódicas con miembros de la Mesa para hacer seguimiento y avanzar en las acciones propuestas. La Mesa tenía dos objetivos principales: (i) discutir los estudios realizados por la Red PP-AL y por otras redes sobre las políticas públicas para el desarrollo territorial rural en la perspectiva de sintetizar los avances, aprendizajes y elementos analíticos que permitan orientar el ajuste o formulación de políticas públicas con ese enfoque; (ii) elaborar un policy brief (documento de políticas en síntesis) para ser ampliamente divulgado en organizaciones públicas y organismos internacionales.La territorialización de la acción pública es el segundo eje temático de la estrategia científica de la Red PP-AL y trata, entre otras áreas, de asuntos relacionados con la descentralización, intersectorialidad, dinámicas de democracia participativa y representativa, gobernanza, planeación y nuevas escalas de la acción pública territorial. El balance realizado por la Red PP-AL en 2016 permitió identificar que en el período 2011-2015 fueron publicados un número significativo de estudios, 2 la mayoría de ellos realizados de manera individual por integrantes de la Red. También se contabilizaron muchas acciones de formación, principalmente en Brasil.El evento fundador de la Red PP-AL, cuyo nombre fue \"Análisis de Políticas Públicas de Desarrollo Territorial en América Latina\", realizado en Costa Rica en noviembre de 2011, es, de igual forma, el momento en el cual se da inicio a la identificación de temas a ser estudiados dentro de este eje temático. Uno de los resultados de este evento fue la identificación de proyectos de investigación en esta temática en particular, de los cuales, dos tuvieron mayor desarrollo. Uno de ellos estudió circuitos cortos y encadenamientos productivos en los territorios y el segundo investigó sobre la transferencia de políticas públicas de desarrollo territorial en América Latina. Junto con estos trabajos de mayor cobertura regional, se realizaron estudios específicos por país, con mayor énfasis en Brasil y Uruguay.Al hablar de territorialización de la acción pública, la Red PP-AL está haciendo referencia a un abordaje de política pública que valoriza las características y los recursos de cada territorio. Abordar esta problemática implica nuevos arreglos institucionales, o revisión de los actuales, que pudieran atender múltiples objetivos desde una perspectiva multisectorial. De igual forma, son programas fuertemente asociados a procesos de participación de la sociedad civil.Una de las conclusiones del estudio sobre la transferencia de políticas públicas de desarrollo territorial en América Latina, realizado por investigadores de la Red PP-AL, señala la necesidad de retomar las ideas claves que dieron soporte a este enfoque, pero se diluyeron en el camino de la implementación. Esto significa avanzar en la transición de acciones sectoriales para la intersectorialidad que favorecería el surgimiento de una política de tercera generación, donde dimensiones como la construcción de mercados y la sostenibilidad ambiental estuvieran presentes (Valencia et al., 2018).Los análisis hasta ahora elaborados concluyen que hay una apropiación de la retórica territorial, peor aún hay una importante distancia entre el discurso y la práctica. A pesar de esto, este enfoque continúa vigente como una alternativa a prácticas sectoriales y alejadas de la compleja realidad de los espacios rurales.La Mesa presentó los avances y nuevos retos de las políticas de desarrollo territorial rural. En esta presentación, se indicaron tres campos de observación para pensar una nueva generación de políticas públicas que avancen en la transformación de los espacios rurales, en el sentido de disminuir los indicadores de pobreza (multidimensional), las desigualdades y el impacto sobre los ecosistemas de la región. El primer campo es el contexto global y regional actual y su influencia en la dinámica de los espacios rurales. Es un hecho que el contexto actual es diferente a aquel que orientó las políticas públicas de desarrollo territorial rural de inicios de los años 2000. El segundo campo de observación tiene relación con las ideas que sustentan este enfoque, las cuales hacen un fuerte énfasis en la perspectiva relacional del desarrollo, representada en la multisectorialidad, las complementariedades entre los espacios rurales y urbanos y la participación de los diversos actores territoriales. Uno de los puntos a resaltar en el campo de las ideas es la tensión entre el territorio como concepto de análisis y el territorio como una noción instrumental y práctica, separación que finalmente lleva a que los instrumentos de implementación se alejen de las ideas centrales de este enfoque. El tercer campo es complementario a los dos anteriores y tiene relación con los instrumentos, el contexto y las ideas. Una de las afirmaciones más recurrentes en los estudios realizados sobre las políticas públicas para el desarrollo rural con enfoque territorial es el distanciamiento entre el discurso del enfoque territorial, sus ideas, con los instrumentos para su implementación.Arilson Favareto de la Universidad Federal de ABC discutió sobre el paso de los conceptos a las políticas a partir de las lecciones aprendidas de las políticas de desarrollo territorial en América Latina. Favareto destacó diversos resultados positivos de la implementación de las políticas con enfoque territorial: (i) la diseminación del discurso territorial, indicando que los territorios importan; (ii) la movilización social que se ha producido en torno a cientos de territorios; (iii) los aportes de recursos invertidos en territorios pobres y (iv) la generación de una base de conocimiento y articulación social. En relación a los límites de este enfoque, se señaló que hubo un sesgo sectorial social y periférico que llevó, en muchos de los casos, a generar incentivos (instrumentos) que no consiguieron alcanzar los objetivos propuestos. En las palabras de Favareto, hubo mucha participación y poca contractualización; muchos planes, poca estrategia consistente de cambio; muchas demandas e inversiones sectoriales, poca transformación; mucha conversación sobre territorios, poca intersectorialidad efectiva; mucha importancia asignada a la relación rural-urbana, pero poca inclusión de las ciudades en los planes.En la exposición de Agrosavia, Carlos Castilla, habló sobre la concepción del enfoque territorial desde la Ley del Sistema Nacional de Innovación Agropecuaria de Colombia.Juan Moreno, Presidente de la Corporación Procasur, expuso sobre la experiencia de los territorios de aprendizaje en América Latina. En ese marco, cuestionó la cobertura y calidad de los servicios de asesoría rural (empresarial, productiva, asociativa), su inestabilidad, indefinición, financiamiento limitado, poca sostenibilidad y altos costos de transacción. También analizó el Programa de Talentos Rurales promovido por Procasur, el cual se basa en el conocimiento, información y generación de capacidades para transferir conocimientos técnicos horizontales (campesino-campesino) para mejorar la productividad. Su apuesta es valorar y gestionar los activos locales de conocimiento disponibles en los territorios rurales.Hay un desplazamiento del sentido original de la idea de desarrollo territorial durante su aplicación en América Latina, lo que ocasionó resultados ambiguos, frágiles y puntuales de dichas políticas. A pesar de esto, la apuesta continúa siendo una alternativa válida para el futuro para las regiones rurales.Frente a esto se sugiere avanzar hacia una nueva generación de programas donde haya una triple coordinación: intersectorial, entre niveles de gobierno, y gobierno-sociedad-mercado. Es necesario romper con la reproducción de fórmulas o modelos establecidos, cambiar la institucionalidad y no solo añadir iniciativas periféricas para los pobres rurales. Hay que establecer la mejor forma de fortalecer la institucionalidad con competencias locales.Se sugiere involucrar al sector privado, especialmente cadenas productivas o de valor basadas en los territorios y promover la elaboración de estrategias de desarrollo territorial, con visión sobre proyectos de futuro, para ir más allá de la mera formulación de planes.Innovar en la coordinación de las nuevas oportunidades para un nuevo desarrollo rural, tomando en cuenta aspectos como el cambio climático, las ciudades intermedias, la necesidad de mejorar los niveles educacionales o la incorporación de nuevas tecnologías. La propuesta es pasar de planes y programas a una verdadera estrategia de desarrollo territorial con nuevas formas de inserción de los territorios en las dinámicas de desarrollo, más allá de la producción de bienes primarios.La investigación no ha generado evidencias claras sobre la efectividad de las soluciones locales y su potencial de escalabilidad. Conviene definir el rol de los investigadores en el ciclo de diseño e implementación de mejores políticas. Para esto, es necesario realizar la investigación en políticas involucrando activamente a los actores de la inversión pública (Estado, organismos internacionales, otros). Avanzar en procesos de co-producción de conocimiento, conduciendo acciones que permitan el escalamiento de buenas prácticas.El papel del Estado para el desarrollo rural es determinante. Papel que debe ser ejercido a partir de estructuras de gobernanza que garantizan la participación de diversos sectores y segmentos de la población en las diversas escalas del territorio.• ¿Cómo cambiar las características del modelo actual de desarrollo? • ¿Qué sucede cuando se termina un programa de Desarrollo Territorial Rural (DTR) o estos programas quedan sin financiamiento? • ¿Cuáles fuerzas sociales pueden impulsar el nuevo contrato social que se hace necesario por las múltiples funciones y significados actuales de las zonas rurales para las sociedades? • ¿Cuál es el peso de las normas y de la burocracia como limitantes de las capacidades de organización? • ¿Qué podemos aprender de los Territorios de la Paz en Colombia sobre la asociación entre tierras, DTR y políticas?• ¿Cuáles instrumentos de coordinación funcionan, y cómo?• ¿Cómo puede lograrse una transformación efectiva de la institucionalidad en los distintos niveles? • ¿Cuál es o podría ser el papel de inversiones públicas y privadas en el financiamiento del DTR, bajo las condiciones actuales y previsibles de las economías y finanzas públicas latinoamericanas? • ¿Cuál es la relevancia de las fuerzas estructurales en procesos de cambio territorial?Marie Gabrielle Piketty (Cirad-PUJ) y Driss Ezzine de Blas (Cirad)El tema de los instrumentos para la prestación de servicios ambientales ha sido bastante trabajado en la Red PP-AL durante los últimos años, a través de proyectos de investigación en campo y síntesis colectivas. Por ejemplo, un análisis de los esquemas y políticas de pago por servicios ambientales (PSA) en América Latina fue publicado por la Red PP-AL y la Universidad Ibero Americana de México (Ezzine de Blas et al., 2017). Este libro, basado en estudios nacionales en ocho países (México, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y Brasil) muestra la diversidad de las estructuras de gobernanza y de los estudios de impacto de los PSA en América Latina. Otras publicaciones permiten además tener un balance sobre los tipos de PSA en la región y en el mundo, sobre la diversidad de su gobernanza y sus impactos (Börner et al., 2016;Ezzine de Blas et al., 2016), así como sobre la eficiencia de los esquemas de PSA en términos de mitigación de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (Simonet at al., 2018). Aunque la investigación sobre los PSA sigue activa en la Red, se justifica evolucionar a la luz de los procesos actuales. Existen en particular dos elementos nuevos que llaman la atención.Primero, se están desarrollando nuevos mecanismos financieros para el medio ambiente, servicios ambientales y biodiversidad. Estos mecanismos representan nuevas esperanzas para financiar e incentivar prácticas amigables con el medio ambiente y en favor de la conservación. Este debate coincide con un momento en el que los PSA, que se habían presentado como una gran esperanza para renovar los incentivos ambientales y aumentar el financiamiento para la conservación, se ven confrontados a muchas interrogantes, en particular a su incapacidad para reducir totalmente la deforestación en el largo plazo, especialmente en zonas en las que deforestar es altamente rentable (Börner et al., 2017). Segundo, se han propuesto nuevas iniciativas para la conservación de los bosques, en particular a través de las declaraciones y acuerdos públicos y privados \"cero deforestación\", los cuales generan nuevas problemáticas y preguntas de investigación.De hecho, en los últimos años, han surgido muchas políticas públicas e iniciativas privadas a diferentes escalas para contrarrestar la expansión de la agricultura comercial para los mercados internacionales en detrimento del bosque, y en particular para productos como la palma de aceite, la soja o la carne. Se han desarrollado muchas iniciativas privadas y/o desde el consumo (consumer-driven) para lograr objetivos de deforestación cero, las cuales se concretizan a través de intervenciones al nivel de las cadenas de abastecimiento (supply chain) tal como moratorias sobre ciertos productos (commodities), códigos de conducta o políticas de abastecimiento (procurement policies) (Schmitz-Hoffman et al., 2014). Criticados por sus altos niveles de deforestación, los gobiernos también se han comprometido para reducir drásticamente su tasa de deforestación para 2020, de manera de lograr detener este proceso en un horizonte 2030. Es el caso en particular de los firmantes de la Declaración de Nueva York 2014 sobre los Bosques (New York Declaration on Forests -NYDF) (Climate Summit, 2014). Para América Latina, se comprometieron: (i) a nivel nacional: Chile, Colombia, Perú, Costa Rica, México, Ecuador y (ii) a nivel subnacional: el estado de Amapa, Acre y Amazonas en Brasil; los departamentos de Amazonas, Loreto, Huanuco, Madre de Dios, San Martín y Ucayali en Perú: y los estados de Campeche, Quintana Roo, Chiapas y Tabasco en México. Algunos países europeos (Dinamarca, Alemania, Noruega, Francia, Países Bajos y Reinos Unido) también firmaron recientemente (en el 2015) la declaración de Ámsterdam, con el objetivo de dar soporte para atajar la deforestación derivada de cadenas agrícolas para 2020.De esta manera, Deforestación Cero es considerado como un importante avance hacia la sostenibilidad de los bosques tropicales y la reducción del cambio climático. Sin embargo, las políticas públicas y las iniciativas de cero deforestación también pueden generar efectos no deseables en términos sociales y ambientales. El riesgo de exclusión de pequeños productores, debido a costos altos de cumplimiento, ya ha sido evidenciado en el caso de la producción de carne en la Amazonia brasilera (Gibbs et al., 2015). El estado degradado de los recursos naturales puede influenciar las dinámicas de los paisajes, y las metas de Deforestación Cero han sido identificadas como ineficientes para reducir la velocidad de la degradación de los bosques y recursos naturales (Piketty et al., 2017;Souza et al., 2013) que afectan negativamente a su estructura, a su biodiversidad y a los servicios ecosistémicos, generando a su vez un bajo nivel de resiliencia a los eventos climáticos (Barlow et al., 2016;Bourgoin et al., 2015).Para ir más allá de la intención de Deforestación Cero y permitir trayectorias hacia la sostenibilidad, se necesitan nuevos acuerdos institucionales públicos y privados. Estos acuerdos o arreglos deben promover transformaciones para garantizar la inclusión social y la intensificación del uso del suelo y bosques, y para evitar la degradación de los recursos naturales. Además, las sinergias o antagonismos entre la nuevas iniciativas públicas y privadas y entre estas y las ya existentes necesitan de estudios empíricos (Lambin et al., 2014).Bajo esta problemática, la Red PP-AL es una oportunidad para desarrollar un enfoque comparativo entre varios territorios involucrados en compromisos de cero deforestación en América Latina.En su presentación, María Alejandra Vélez (Uniandes) mostró cómo el proceso de titulación colectiva en la región del Chocó, en Colombia, ha tenido efectos positivos sobre la diminución de la deforestación y también ha permitido el aumento del ingreso en los hogares, apoyando así la disminución de la pobreza extrema a través de mayores inversiones en vivienda y tasas de asistencia de los niños a la educación primaria. Sin embargo, aunque la titulación colectiva de tierras crea una base de recursos naturales más segura para los hogares, no es suficiente para lograr la sostenibilidad financiera por sí sola por falta de oportunidades de mercados remuneradores.Dora Mondaca Rasmussen (ANDI) analizó el papel del sector empresarial en la gestión de la biodiversidad, en particular los resultados logrados por el proyecto público-privado Piloto Regional en la Cuenca Alta del Río Putumayo, con el objetivo de promover la conectividad de los ecosistemas andino-amazónicos a través de inversiones del sector privado ideadas en acuerdo con esquemas participativos de conservación, restauración y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad.René Poccard-Chapuis (Cirad) presentó los vectores, resultados y límites de los compromisos de deforestación cero en el municipio de Paragominas (Estado do Para, Brasil). Entre los límites, se destacan los riesgos de incremento de la ilegalidad, los impactos nulos sobre la agricultura familiar, la frustración de los actores locales debido a la falta de incentivos positivos y la emergencia de nuevos problemas ambientales como la contaminación de las aguas y la degradación forestal. Esta presentación mostró una iniciativa jurisdiccional actualmente en desarrollo para resolver estas limitaciones.Augusto Castro y Andrés Charry (CIAT) presentaron los trabajos en Guaviare y Caquetá (Colombia) sobre modelos y cadenas productivas de cero deforestación, en el contexto de los compromisos climáticos y del proceso de paz. Esta presentación señaló que las políticas públicas, los incentivos y las estrategias de mercado necesitan ser diseñadas de acuerdo con los potenciales y limitantes de las regiones, teniendo en cuenta los factores culturales de los productores.Isabel García Drigo (IMAFLORA) presentó los avances y los límites de cuatro arreglos de cero deforestación públicoprivados sectoriales (carne bovino y soja) en Brasil, destacando la necesidad de alinear las políticas públicas de comando y control con incentivos económicos, incluir a los proveedores indirectos de las cadenas y mejorar la transparencia del monitoreo a la escala de propiedades o grupos de propiedades.En su presentación por videollamada, Valentina Robiglio (ICRAF) presentó las iniciativas del sector cafetero del departamento de San Martín en Perú, mostrando las oportunidades y desafíos para limitar la deforestación, la falta de espacios formales para coordinar las acciones de las agencias gubernamentales, las restricciones de presupuestos y de capacidades locales para implementar las leyes, las dificultades para controlar a un sector altamente segmentado y el papel clave del liderazgo local.La Mesa permitió identificar temas comunes que podrían ser trabajados de forma comparativa alrededor de los compromisos públicos y privados de cero deforestación, en particular:• La necesidad de potenciar coaliciones público-privadas territorializadas y alineadas con los esfuerzos para ir más allá de la cero deforestación, incluyendo la intensificación sostenible y la inclusión social (equidad): ¿Cómo reforzar sus vínculos? ¿Cómo distribuir las responsabilidades entre los actores privados y públicos? ¿Cómo manejar juntos los recursos?• La concatenación de instrumentos económicos y financieros negociados a escala de una las coaliciones territoriales, como por ejemplo cadenas de valor apoyadas por PSA e incentivos de conservación que limiten la deforestación que podría venir ligada a estas cadenas. • El rol de los instrumentos financieros (créditos e inversiones) para crear trabajo y nuevos negocios que sean replicables a mayor escala (región/país). • La necesidad de integrar la vulnerabilidad climática -riesgos climáticos -en las estrategias de adaptación. • La necesidad de desarrollar proxys de unos pocos indicadores que sean claves para el seguimiento y evaluación de la implementación de las políticas y de los acuerdos públicoprivados.Agricultura urbana y periurbana (AUP): Realidades y potencialidades para las políticas alimentariasHéctor Ávila Sánchez (UNAM-México)La cuestión de las prácticas agrícolas en las ciudades se ha convertido en un tema emergente en los estudios rurales y territoriales. En general, se trata de un proceso que se manifiesta a nivel internacional, con diferentes sentidos y utilidades. En el caso de América Latina, la AUP está considerada de manera tangencial en las políticas territoriales y solo se han considerado en los últimos años (sobre todo en la escala municipal). Estas se hayan sujetas a temporalidades políticas y de ahí su débil institucionalización. Este fue el sentido que tuvo la discusión en la presente Mesa.En América Latina, la práctica de la agricultura urbana se realiza fundamentalmente para la incorporación de alimentos a la dieta de familias pobres, aunque también converge con una creciente demanda de alimentos sanos (demandada por sectores sociales con poder adquisitivo), vinculada a los problemas de salud pública (desnutrición, obesidad). Además de los aspectos relacionados con el consumo solidario, la instauración de los huertos urbanos fortalece el tejido social y, dependiendo de los distintos países, asume reivindicaciones de defensa del territorio y recuperación de los espacios públicos.En las presentaciones se llegó a un consenso sobre el rol marginal que tiene la agricultura urbana y periurbana en la definición de las políticas públicas para el desarrollo rural. Las causas son las siguientes:• Peso decisivo de los modelos productivos convencionales en las políticas macro de desarrollo rural. • Desconocimiento de los alcances y potencialidades de la AUP en las administraciones nacionales y municipales, en planificadores y en ONG. • Insuficientes mecanismos de financiamiento para el impulso de las prácticas agrícolas urbanas, pese a los mecanismos locales vecinales y las experiencias participativas con fondos gubernamentales municipales. • Volúmenes de producción muy bajos que no trascienden la escala local (abasto alimentario local). Difícil acceso a circuitos comerciales. • La mayor parte de los agricultores urbanos se encuentra pobremente organizados y operan informalmente.• Falta conciencia en los productores y consumidores sobre las potencialidades de estas prácticas. • Persisten los problemas y dificultades en cuanto al acceso a la tierra. Hay crecientes cambios en el uso del suelo y la calidad de las aguas a causa de la urbanización progresiva.En términos de ubicar la trascendencia y el papel emergente que desarrolla la AUP en América Latina, se discutieron experiencias de algunos países que registran procesos importantes en sus espacios metropolitanos. Se consideró que el contexto mundial tiene un poder determinante en las decisiones alimentarias que se realizan en las ciudades. El desarrollo de las ciudades y sus requerimientos ha generado debates y nuevos conceptos y teorías de interpretación de lo que ocurre en las relaciones urbano-rurales. De ahí que prácticas como la agricultura urbana y periurbana emerjan y generen cambios trascendentales en las formas de alimentación y deberían impactar a las políticas públicas (Jorge Albarracín, UMSA-CIDES).Por otro lado, desde las organizaciones regionales (FAO) para la promoción de la agricultura y la alimentación, se han planteado escenarios de los programas alimentarios. En la región de Medellín, mediante el esquema ciudad-región en torno al sistema agroalimentario, se reconoce no solo las necesidades de alimentar una población, sino también la obligación de generar equidad social, ambiental y económica entre los espacios geográficos que consumen y producen alimentos. Se materializa a través de los observatorios alimentarios y mesas de seguridad alimentaria, en los que participa la sociedad civil, a fin de lograr una producción basada en las Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas (Juan Zuluaga, FAO).Otro tema debatido es el referente al aporte y misión de la AUP, vinculado con la alimentación sana para atenuar los riesgos de salud pública. Se destacaron los problemas de inequidad y desigualdad social en Cali, que derivan en inseguridad alimentaria y en dificultades en el acceso al sistema educativo y de salud. La política pública de seguridad y soberanía alimentaria de Cali debe proponer como estrategia la promoción de la agricultura urbana en el municipio, beneficiando la buena alimentación de la población, además de contribuir a la producción sustentable de alimentos (Jenny Peña, CIAT).Se debatieron los pro y contras de experiencias exitosas, con apoyo oficial y con carácter de política pública, como el Programa de Agricultura Urbana en Quito y su entorno metropolitano, realizado por AGRUPAR-Conquito. Este programa realiza acciones que articulan la agricultura urbana con el desarrollo económico local, la seguridad alimentaria y la inclusión social frente a la dinámica del crecimiento demográfico, la urbanización, la pobreza, la provisión de alimentos y la gestión ambiental sostenible. Se focaliza en los sectores más vulnerables de la población como una estrategia de aporte a la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, además de generar empleo e ingresos familiares (Alexandra Rodríguez, AGRUPAR-Conquito).En el caso de México, se plantearon las limitaciones a las que se enfrentan las prácticas agrícolas en sus grandes espacios metropolitanos. Se enfatizó en la escasa importancia que guarda en las políticas públicas para el desarrollo rural. Aparece tangencialmente en planes y programas para enfrentar la pobreza, sin considerar acciones e intervenciones de largo alcance, con un sentido asistencialista y de atención coyuntural.Se trata de un hecho contradictorio en un país de una gran tradición agrícola, donde la práctica de la AUP existe más por iniciativas propias y por tradición, que por la acción de políticas públicas para el desarrollo rural (Héctor Ávila, UNAM-CRIM).Pese a los incipientes resultados en cuanto a sus aportes, la práctica de la agricultura urbana y periurbana puede desarrollar importantes funciones en la resolución de temas de seguridad alimentaria y la salud pública. Además, puede contribuir a fortalecer las metas de un Desarrollo Urbano Sostenible, fundamental en la resolución de las prácticas del buen vivir en los conjuntos urbanos.Una adecuada caracterización de esta actividad, fortaleciendo su carácter de política pública, contribuirá a enfrentar los retos de la pobreza e impactará en el fortalecimiento del tejido social, fomentando el desarrollo de la comunidad y la inserción laboral y social.Un aspecto que constituye un elemento central en las buenas prácticas de la AUP es el referente al fortalecimiento de las redes de productores, que ensancha los mecanismos de vinculación con las distintas instancias en la toma de decisiones, que derivarían en mayores niveles de incidencia de productores y sociedad civil.Vinculado a lo anterior, se encuentra la posibilidad de incrementar los grupos de consumo solidario, para los cuales la agricultura urbana y periurbana constituye un insumo central. Se requiere ahondar en el análisis de experiencias como las Asociaciones de Consumo Solidario (CSA) y de las AMAP. Cabe señalar que estas experiencias se desarrollan en contextos sociales precisos, distintos a los de América Latina, pero con experiencias valiosas que podrían ser analizadas para su posible viabilidad en contextos locales.Una buena práctica de la AUP requiere, asimismo, de un sólido aporte científico desde la academia, innovando en cuanto a los análisis de casos exitosos, las metodologías y los sistemas de información geográfica y estadística que optimicen el desarrollo de la actividad.Estos constituyen insumos básicos a partir de los cuales se podrían potenciar las prácticas agrícolas urbanas en las políticas públicas del desarrollo rural en los países de América Latina.Jean-François Le Coq (Cirad/CIAT) y Daniel Jiménez (CIAT)El propósito de esta Mesa era indagar las posibilidades de desarrollar una dinámica de investigación sobre el tema emergente del uso de Big data en la gestión pública. Los objetivos de esta Mesa fueron: (1) precisar los temas y preguntas de investigación referente al desarrollo de las iniciativas de gobiernos electrónicos y enfoque de Big data en el contexto del desarrollo agrícola y rural de América Latina;(2) Identificar socios y experiencias claves para desarrollar una agenda de investigación y proyectos específicos;(3) Sacar lecciones de experiencias para extraer condiciones de éxito del uso del enfoque Big data.Con la multiplicación de las fuentes de información (debido a las nuevas tecnologías de información, accesibilidad de los captores, difusión de los datos públicos gracias al gobierno electrónico) y el aumento de las capacidades de tratamiento de las informaciones, los métodos Big data han cobrado fuerza en estos últimos años en todo el mundo. Ya movilizado de manera creciente en muchos sectores como el transporte o la medicina, el enfoque y las metodologías Big data representan una oportunidad nueva para el desarrollo agrícola y rural.Sin embargo, el desarrollo de los enfoques Big data y las experiencias de gobierno electrónico generan nuevos debates (Bertot et al., 2014). Los marcos jurídicos referentes al uso de los datos, al derecho a la privacidad de los usuarios, así como el uso de las tecnologías de información con intenciones de control por parte de los gobiernos constituyen nuevos riesgos y limitantes en el desarrollo del uso de Big data. También estas tecnologías pueden generar nuevas brechas o profundizar brechas ya existentes en la población, según su acceso a información, conocimiento, tecnología, servicios, etc.Multiplicación de fuentes de información / nuevas fuentes Aumento capacidad de almacenamiento, difusión y tratamiento de datos• Nuevas tecnologías de información.• Captores, sensores, drones, imagenes satelitales.• Iniciativa de abertura de datos públicos en marco de dinámicas de gobiernos electrónicos.• Capacidades de banda ancha.• Capacidad de computadora.• Nuevos algoritmos, machine learning.x = 3V: Volumen, Velocidad, Variedad \"Gobierno electrónico es transformación del gobierno como cambio de paradigma en la gestión gubernamental, es un concepto de gestión que fusiona utilización intensiva de las TIC con modalidad de gestión, planificación y administración, como una nueva forma de gobierno\" (Nasser y Concha, 2011).América Latina y el Caribe no escapan a esta dinámica de desarrollo del enfoque Big data y de las prácticas de gobiernos electrónicos, ni a los debates que estos generan. La región parece particularmente interesante para estudiar este tema. Ya existen iniciativas regionales promoviendo el desarrollo de gobiernos electrónicos tal como la Carta Iberoamericana de Gobierno Electrónico (Fragoso, 2015). Muchos gobiernos han fomentado iniciativas de gobierno electrónico (México, Chile, Argentina, Brasil, Colombia, Costa Rica) (Lau et al., 2008;Concha y Naser, 2012;Naser et al., 2017). Se han desarrollado iniciativas y equipos de investigación, como la Plataforma de CGIAR para Big Data en la Agricultura, manejada por el CIAT. Algunas investigaciones especificas han sido desarrolladas en particular por socios de la Red PP-AL, tal como las experiencias de agricultura específica por sitios en CIAT y los estudios de política que exploran el uso de nuevos métodos y fuentes de información para analizar percepciones de actores o implementación de políticas (Cresi BigDataPol). Finalmente, existe un interés creciente por parte de los donantes y gobiernos para movilizar nuevos métodos para mejorar el apoyo a los procesos de desarrollo rural.La introducción de la Mesa realizada por Jean-François Le Coq (Cirad/CIAT) resaltó las tres problemáticas de investigación referente a Big data y políticas públicas. La primera considera Big data como herramienta para la renovación de políticas y cuestiona los cambios que pueden ocurrir en la acción pública gracias a la movilización de tecnología de información. La segunda consiste en el análisis de las políticas que incentivan el desarrollo de accesibilidad de datos y que regulan sus usos.La tercera consiste en movilizar los métodos Big data para el análisis de los procesos de políticas y sus impactos en el medio rural. Las presentaciones de la Mesa ilustraron estas diferentes problemáticas.Daniel Jiménez (CIAT) analizó el potencial de la Revolución Digital (considerada como la cuarta Revolución Industrial) en el sector agrícola, en particular en términos de extensión digital. La revolución digital puede generar un proceso de democratización de los datos, lo cual permite generar una mayor transparencia y medidas oportunas para definir líneas de acción para la acción pública. También tiene un enorme potencial para contribuir a la superación de los problemas técnicos en la agricultura. En países como Colombia, donde el 90% de los productores no reciben asistencia técnica, la extensión digital ofrece un enorme potencial. Las tecnologías también tienen un profundo impacto en la constitución del mundo social, construyendo nuevas relaciones organizacionales, laborales y sociales a partir de la interacción con dispositivos tecnológicos. Este autor concluyó que si técnicamente el Big data favorece la optimización de la producción y la tecnificación de los procesos, todavía existe un reto para que los datos sean realmente considerados como un bien público y que las dinámicas favorezcan la democratización del conocimiento, de manera que la Revolución Digital tenga beneficios inclusivos. Finalmente, también se consideraron las contribuciones de Big data como elemento facilitador de la coordinación entre instituciones, analizando la dimensión de poder en el desarrollo de estas tecnologías.Bryan King (CIAT) presentó la Plataforma de CGIAR para Big Data en la Agricultura y analizó algunas experiencias de uso de esta tecnología, tal como el sistema de asesoría interactivo desarrollado en India y de agricultura específica por sitio en Colombia. Se confirmó el desarrollo rápido de la accesibilidad a tecnología (teléfono) en zonas rurales de los países del sur y el gran potencial que presentan estas tecnologías para instalar sistemas de extensión digital.Catia Grisa (UFRGS-PGDR) presentó un análisis de las políticas en Brasil para la agricultura familiar, a partir de una base de datos única construida a partir de datos públicos disponibles en sitios web, recopilando datos de implementación de doce políticas relativas a la agricultura familiar en 5.570 municipios. Este estudio evidenció que solo cuatro políticas están llegando a la mayoría de los municipios, lo que demuestra que estas tienen una capilaridad diferenciada al nivel de los municipios.Luiz Barbosa (UNA-CINPE) presentó una herramienta para analizar políticas públicas, el análisis de redes sociales y su aplicación a un caso en Costa Rica. Con esta metodología se analizaron las interacciones entre organizaciones intermediarias de la innovación y aprendizaje y los grupos de productores de la cadena de la papa. Se subrayó el potencial de esta metodología para vislumbrar las instituciones centrales que tienen múltiples conexiones y funciones, entender las configuraciones de relaciones entre actores, derivar informaciones sobre las dinámicas de poder en la construcción de los sistemas de gobernanza, visualizar la confluencia de intereses particulares y generar escenarios para la incidencia y la articulación institucional.Las presentaciones y los debates confirmaron que la Revolución Digital ya está en marcha en los países de la región y que genera grandes oportunidades y nuevos retos para renovar la acción pública hacia los actores rurales y los productores agropecuarios. La extensión digital (la cual moviliza acceso a tecnología de los productores y métodos de Big data) es unos de los campos más promisorios para los pequeños productores en el contexto latinoamericano, de cara a los alcances y desafíos de los sistemas de extensión.Sin embargo, la Revolución Digital y el uso de nuevas metodologías para el análisis de políticas enfrentan dos problemas: la disponibilidad de datos y sus derechos de propiedad. Aunque ya existen leyes y marcos regulatorios en los países de la región, la disponibilidad real de datos sigue siendo un problema debido a la falta de implementación de estas leyes. Además, el derecho de propiedad de las informaciones y conocimientos que permiten levantar las tecnologías y los sistemas digitales constituyen un reto importante. Ante el riesgo de que las grandes empresas tomen el control de estas informaciones, es importante desarrollar investigaciones y modelos de gestión con las organizaciones que representan a los productores (gremios), así como fortalecer los procesos legales para velar por el respeto de las leyes existentes.Existe un gran potencial de desarrollo de investigación colaborativa entre los equipos involucrados en el desarrollo de tecnología Big data y los que analizan políticas públicas e instituciones. De hecho, en la región ya existen centros académicos y empresas con capacidades en ciencia de datos (Colombia, Brasil, etc.). Sin embargo, son poco conocidos por parte de los investigadores de la Red PP-AL y podrían facilitar los procesos de análisis de datos y de visualización que la Red PP-AL ha desarrollado.De forma más concreta, se identificaron varias áreas posibles de aplicación de Big data para el análisis de políticas, como el análisis de la percepción de la agricultura familiar en los países de la región y de la combinación de políticas que afectan a la agricultura familiar y los territorios; el entendimiento de los factores que conducen a los procesos de deforestación, la construcción de base de datos y la sistematización de las experiencias de agroecología; la visualización de las relaciones de poder entre actores en los territorios rurales. También se identificó la necesidad de desarrollar investigaciones sobre las implicaciones de las asimetrías de poderes en el desarrollo de uso de Big data, así como el efecto de la extensión digital en los cambios de las relaciones de poder.Sandrine Fréguin Gresh (Cirad) y Sara Mercandalli (Cirad)Con el objetivo de identificar y priorizar temáticas colectivas de trabajo acerca de las dinámicas de la migración rural y desarrollo, así como explorar esta área de investigación a corto y mediano plazo dentro de la Red PP-AL, la Mesa se organizó en tres fases: (1) un panorama de las dinámicas migratorias en la región, así como algunos de los desafíos relacionados (seguridad alimentaria, desarrollo local, reducción de la pobreza), con base en presentaciones de S. Fréguin-Gresh, L. Beduschi y L. Faret);(2) una fase de discusiones participativas abiertas durante la cual cada uno de los participantes escribió en cartulinas individuales sus ideas/propuestas de temáticas específicas prioritarias para dar forma a lo que podría ser una agenda de trabajo de la Red PP-AL; y (3) una última presentación (S. Mercandalli) sobre las dinámicas de la migración rural, sus factores causales, los desafíos demográficos y de empleo y el rol de la políticas públicas en África sub-sahariana. Esos elementos permitieron resaltar algunas problemáticas y temas de interés similares a los de las presentaciones y propuestas anteriores, con miras a discutir la posibilidad de trabajar en una agenda común entre América Latina y África.Sandrine Fréguin-Gresh (Cirad) -Migración y desarrollo rural en América Latina y en el Caribe. Problemática a analizar y políticas públicas. Después de haber ubicado a la migración como un tema transversal en las agendas públicas, se presentaron cifras sobre la importancia del fenómeno migratorio en la región (con base en las últimas cifras y estimaciones de CELADE). Estas cifras muestran que la migración corresponde a un doble fenómeno: emigración e inmigración a la vez. Si hay una evolución de las dinámicas y de los patrones migratorios, la tendencia general es la disminución de los flujos externos. Por otra parte, la migración interna es un fenómeno de mayor importancia, poco estudiado, que merece una atención específica, sobre todo por sus implicaciones para el desarrollo rural. Entre las migraciones internas, las migraciones rurales son el resultado de un proceso de estancamiento económico. Los fenómenos de éxodo rural hacia las ciudades, las migraciones rural-rural como respuesta a reestructuraciones del sector agropecuario -por ejemplo, emergencia de nuevos clústers y agronegocios, o de proyectos de turismo o minería -constituyen factores clave para el desarrollo local. El estudio de la migración de retorno ofrece también nuevas oportunidades para el desarrollo rural.Laurent Faret (Univ Paris VII -Diderot/CIESAS) -Migración internacional y desarrollo local: apuntes para el debate. Se presentaron los contextos migratorios contemporáneos y los retos para el análisis de la migración en la región (reconfiguración permanente de las dinámicas migratorias, diferenciación significativa en la construcción de trayectorias migratorias cada vez más complejas, existencia de \"sistemas de movilidad\" con sus diferentes formas y dinámicas, etc.). Luego se mostró cómo se vinculan la movilidad humana y las dinámicas territoriales, a través de los procesos de urbanización y metropolización, la dependencia de los espacios rurales respecto de dinámicas externas, la existencia de brechas territoriales en todas las escalas, lo que permite mostrar la paradójica hiper-conexión y fragmentación territorial. Se presentaron los elementos del debate complejo sobre la relación entre migración y desarrollo (local), haciendo un énfasis en el rol de las remesas familiares como \"palanca para el desarrollo\". Se hizo también un énfasis en iniciativas que vinculan organizaciones de migrantes y remesas comunitarias (ejemplo del programa 3 x 1 en México). En fin, se discutieron los retos para diseño de políticas públicas (sectoriales/ territoriales/transversales): necesidad de ir más allá del sesgo sectorial; posibilidad de tener políticas territoriales específicas en regiones de alta emigración; dificultad de aplicar políticas transversales con participación de actores locales (que a veces están ausentes); necesidad de acompañar la diversificación de las economías rurales y la ampliación de funciones del espacio rural.Después de haber presentado ¿Por qué gana relevancia el tema migración en FAO? (Declaración de Nueva York sobre Refugiados y Migrantes, elección del Director General de FAO como cochair del Global Migration Group para 2018 en conjunto con la OIM, Agenda 2030), se presentaron diferentes elementos para ver qué rol puede tener FAO en esta agenda. En particular, se analizó cómo se incorpora FAO al debate sobre migración (en particular durante el 2018), presentando diferentes iniciativas y publicaciones de la FAO en esta materia, con un énfasis particular en iniciativas realizadas en El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras y México. En todas ellas, la alianza liderada por la FAO propone apuntar a las causas de la migración de origen rural, estableciendo vínculos con la agricultura, la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y el desarrollo rural territorial, para definir un enfoque que guíe a las intervenciones que resultan de los análisis. También se destacaron diferentes iniciativas de nivel nacional en los países en los cuales la FAO interviene o propone intervenir.Sandrine Fréguin-Gresh (Cirad). Migración, agricultura, seguridad alimentaria y políticas públicas: Aportes del Proyecto SALIMA en Nicaragua para la reflexión de la Red PP-AL. Después de situar el punto de partida del Proyecto SALIMA (lo cual vincula a la vez la agricultura, la migración y la seguridad alimentaria) y su pregunta de investigación (¿Cómo la multilocalización familiar y las circulaciones asociadas intervienen en la seguridad alimentaria de los hogares agropecuarios?), se presentaron los principales hallazgos del proyecto que se implementó en Nicaragua entre 2015 y 2016. Primero, se mostró la necesidad de de-construir las unidades de análisis \"clásicas\" para elaborar un marco conceptual, capturando las estrategias complejas de abastecimiento alimentario familiar. Se presentó el enfoque mixto del proyecto, aplicado a diferentes escalas, en una región agropecuaria particular de Nicaragua. Los resultados evidencian la poca diversificación de la dieta, la prevalencia de la inseguridad alimentaria y las fuentes de alimentos y de dinero que permiten un abastecimiento a través de la diversificación a nivel económico y espacial de las familias. Se mostró que estas fuentes corresponden a flujos complejos y multidireccionales con enfoque de género, en donde los aportes de la migración y las políticas públicas son importantes, además de otras fuentes más conocidas (agricultura, trabajo asalariado local, intercambios o donaciones entre familias extensas y entre vecinos). Se analizó también la aplicación de dos herramientas de políticas públicas que influyen sobre los sistemas alimentarios de las familias encuestadas. Finalmente, se presentó un modelo que muestra los efectos de la combinación de estrategias de abastecimiento en la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, haciendo un énfasis particular en el rol de la especialización productiva, de la dotación en ciertos recursos y de las migraciones. A manera de conclusión y de recomendaciones para futuros trabajos de investigación de la Red PP-AL, se enfatizó en el hecho de que analizar las estrategias que permiten asegurar la seguridad alimentaria familiar implica un trabajo de investigación sistémico, costoso y complejo, pero muy necesario, ya que permite entender de manera integral las estrategias familiares que garantizan una mejora de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, así como las estrategias de acceso a las políticas públicas.Basándose en la presentación de resultados del Atlas \"Dinámicas y factores de la migración rural en África sub-sahariana\", 3 la ponencia sacó algunas reflexiones para las políticas públicas y el desarrollo territorial.La primera parte de la presentación sentó las bases del contexto demográfico y económico único de África sub-sahariana (ASS), en donde el Atlas analiza las dinámicas de migración y sus diversos factores. El análisis señala que ASS es la última región en cumplir su transición demográfica a nivel mundial: una transición masiva está en camino, ya que todavía se esperan unas 1.400 millones de personas adicionales en los próximos 40 años. Un segundo rasgo es que hoy un 60% de la población vive en zonas rurales, la cual será prevaleciente hasta 2045. Eso significa densificaciones rurales con presiones asociadas sobre los recursos naturales. Este crecimiento demográfico es un desafío mayor para el empleo de las próximas generaciones, con unos 380 millones de trabajadores rurales adicionales para 2050. La cuestión del empleo está en el centro de la agenda política porque ocurre en un contexto de pocas oportunidades laborales y donde la agricultura familiar y el sector informal son los principales sectores de actividad.La segunda parte se centró en las dinámicas migratorias de África. Un primer punto es la diferencia significativa entre África de norte y ASS: el 90% de los migrantes internacionales norafricanos residen fuera de África, cuando para ASS predomina la migración interna en el continente (70%). Además de la migración internacional, la migración interna supera la migración internacional en la mayoría de los países. Un segundo punto es la gran variedad y expansión de patrones, más allá de la migración rural-urbana tradicional: migración rural-rural, urbano-rural (definitiva o temporal) y migración circular. Un tercer punto es que esta diversidad de patrones, apoyados por mejores infraestructuras y el uso de TICs, consolida las relaciones entre áreas rurales y urbanas, a través de la circulación de flujos de bienes, dinero, ideas, competencias, etc., resultando en el fortalecimiento de nuevas dinámicas territoriales.En la tercera parte, se presentó un marco conceptual para el análisis de los factores de la migración rural. La búsqueda de oportunidades económicas, educación y agrupamiento familiar son los motivos más frecuentes y visibles de la migración como categorías comunes de las encuestas a hogares. Más allá de estas motivaciones individuales, hay una variedad de factores de nivel micro, meso y macro que influencian la decisión de migrar, contribuyendo al inicio o al mantenimiento de los flujos en el tiempo y en el espacio. No existe un factor único que determine la migración, sino que siempre esta responde a una combinación de factores en interacción. La estructura y la forma en que operan estas combinaciones de factores de migración rural son específicas de cada contexto. Este marco fue ilustrado con el caso de Senegal.En la cuarta parte, se compartieron algunas reflexiones a partir de los estudios de casos del Atlas, en cuanto a la relación entre los factores de migración, el desarrollo rural y las políticas públicas. Primero, las políticas migratorias per se (selección y control) tienen efectos más o menos directos sobre la migración rural a través de dos vías: (1) el desvío de las migraciones legales hacia otros canales a menudo de migración ilegal; y (2) la limitación de los retornos, interrumpiendo las circulaciones y flujos inversos. Segundo, las políticas \"no migratorias\" tienen un potencial efecto importante sobre la migración rural, ya que pueden influir en determinantes fundamentales de la migración, a nivel local, de la esfera familiar o individual. Existen diversas políticas \"no migratorias\" y ámbitos de acción pública, tanto en áreas de origen y destino, que se destacan por tener efectos importantes sobre las migraciones rurales, a través de su acción indirecta sobre medios de vida seguros, niveles de pobreza relativa, acceso a recursos y aspiraciones de las familias: (1) Políticas que afectan mercados de trabajo (rural y urbano): políticas de empleo per se con salario mínimo; políticas que promueven inversiones agrícolas a gran escala y que generan flujos de trabajadores motivados por la actividad asalariada; (2) Políticas que apoyan a sectores industriales y de servicios a través de zonas económicas especiales o Corredores de Desarrollo; (3) Políticas agrarias y extra-agrícolas; 4) Políticas de precios y competitividad del sector agrícola y 5) Políticas de ordenamiento territorial.Las presentaciones y los debates permitieron identificar y priorizar las siguientes temáticas de investigación como perspectivas de trabajo en la Red PP-AL:• Rol de las estrategias de desarrollo económico largo sensu sobre las dinámicas migratorias rurales y los procesos de desarrollo local/territorial: por ejemplo, analizar cómo las políticas nacionales y regionales apoyan la inversión pública y privada en el sector agropecuario, el turismo, la minería o la industria manufacturera, influyendo sobre las dinámicas migratorias rurales (tanto en términos de atracción como de expulsión de regiones de origen/destinos) y sobre las estrategias de las familias rurales. Este tema podría ser una prioridad en la agenda de trabajo de la Red PP-AL porque una gran parte de los miembros de la Red ya trabajan problemáticas asociadas a las relaciones entre el desarrollo del capitalismo y la agricultura familiar. Esto permitiría que los miembros de la Red contribuyan desde su trabajo temático, haciendo un énfasis nuevo en la migración. • Papel y efectos de las interacciones entre las políticas migratorias (control, selección) y otras políticas \"no migratorias\" (por ejemplo, las políticas de tierra, las políticas ambientales, las políticas de apoyo a la agroindustria, al turismo o a la minería), que afectan al sector rural y agropecuario y a la migración rural. Este tema se sitúa dentro de los recientes trabajos de investigación sobre los efectos de las políticas en los determinantes de la migración, todavía muy poco estudiados (especialmente en cuanto a migración rural). • Vínculos entre las políticas sobre cambio climático y la migración rural. Este tema es el enlace y extendería el trabajo de la Red en cambio climático. Esta temática responde a una atención creciente de parte de los donantes internacionales y se ha desarrollado bastante en los últimos años. • Papel de las organizaciones internacionales en la orientación de las agendas políticas nacionales (incluso la implementación y evaluación de programas y proyectos) en el tema de la migración (¿instrumentalización?). Esta temática, más especializada en enfoque de ciencias políticas, surgió como una de las más originales del debate. • Papel de los actores locales organizados (la sociedad civil organizada) como intermediarios entre la implementación de políticas públicas y actores individuales (incluyendo familias) implicados/afectados por la migración. Tanto en materia de migración como en otros temas, estos actores juegan un rol relevante en la definición de prioridades, formulación de propuestas y regulación de la implementación de las políticas, así como en la demanda de transparencia y en el control de los recursos. Considerando la especificidad de los contextos de emigración, cabe analizar el rol que pueden jugar estos grupos a través de clubes de oriundos (hometown associations) y grupos de inversión. Eso conectaría con otro tema analizado en el debate: el papel de la tecnología para hacer posible la participación a distancia y el desarrollo de otras formas de innovación relacionadas (basándose en el concepto \"un pie adentro, uno afuera\").Uno de los aspectos destacados de las discusiones en la Mesa fue resaltar algunas similitudes de la dinámica de migración rural en América Latina y África Sub-Sahariana (volúmenes, variedades de formas de circulación, procesos de diferenciación rural, cambios en las políticas públicas hacia la selección y el control, etc.), a pesar de los muy diferentes contextos socioeconómicos y demográficos. Los participantes de la Mesa estuvieron de Países con una tasa de migración neta que sigue negativa:•Caribe: República Dominicana, Granada, Guadalupe, Haití, Jamaica, Martinica, Puerto Rico, San Vicente y las Granadinas•Centroamérica: El Salvador, Nicaragua•Suramérica: Guyana El número de inmigrantes menos el número de emigrantes durante un período, dividido por los años-persona que vive la población del país receptor durante ese período. Se expresa como el número neto anual promedio de migrantes por cada 1.000 habitantes. Tasa neta de migración (por 1.000 habitantes) 1950-1955 1955-1960 1960-1965 1965-1970 1970-1975 1975-1980 1980-1985 1985-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010 2010-2015 América Latina y el Caribe Suramérica Caribe Centroamérica acuerdo en la relevancia de seguir un trabajo de comparación de las problemáticas a diferentes niveles, en vista del desarrollo de una investigación transversal entre los dos continentes. También se planteó que el tema \"Migración Rural y Desarrollo\" es un tema transversal a los diferentes temas y objetos desarrollados por la Red, que también responde al concepto de migración como un \"hecho social total\".Dinámicas y patrones migratorios Flujos de población entre y adentro de ALC muy dinámicos (en particular transfronterizos):• Restricciones y altos costos que supone la emigración a países del Norte La mesa de trabajo se adelantó a partir de un diálogo con base en la presentación llevada a cabo por Tito Contreras. A partir de una lluvia de ideas, cada persona hizo su planteamiento y se fueron desarrollando los temas de la siguiente forma:Primero, situación de las mujeres rurales. Esto derivó en las barreras que ellas enfrentan en relación a las políticas agrarias.Segundo, los desafíos. Con base en la experiencia de las profesionales del gobierno de la Dirección de Mujer Rural, de la asistencia técnica del programa Desarrollo Rural con Enfoque Territorial apoyado por la UE y el Punto Focal de Género, se fue estructurando cómo esas barreras generan unos retos para los implementadores de políticas agrarias.Tercero, posibles líneas de investigación. Teniendo en cuenta que el grupo de personas vinculadas en la mesa desarrollan su labor en la implementación de políticas, programas y proyectos que involucran mujeres rurales, las líneas que surgieron responden más a la acción que a la investigación.Existen muchos tipos de barreras que bloquean el desarrollo de las mujeres rurales: los imaginarios que invisibilizan el aporte de las mujeres rurales; la falta de acceso y control de los recursos como la tierra; la falta de valoración de las actividades que ellas realizan (por estar ligadas a actividades del cuidado); la falta de autonomía económica; la existencia de una normatividad excluyente que no responde a las condiciones de todos los contextos territoriales; y la ausencia de las mujeres en los espacios donde se toman las decisiones. Estas barreras se argumentaron así:• Las mujeres rurales no han podido acceder efectivamente a bienes productivos que les permitan lograr autonomía económica.• Faltan instrumentos para operacionalizar el enfoque de género en las políticas agrarias. En Colombia, las políticas públicas para el sector agropecuario no han incorporado el enfoque de género, pese a que existen las orientaciones dirigidas a la transversalización. • A parte del acceso a la tierra, las mujeres rurales también viven diferentes formas de violencia. Por un lado, los efectos del conflicto armado; por ejemplo, en la medida que las mujeres indígenas luchan por sus territorios, quedan expuestas ante los diferentes actores armados en disputa por el control territorial y llegan hasta a perder la vida. Por otro lado, la violencia basada en género, por las asimetrías en las relaciones de poder entre hombres y mujeres, en las comunidades y en las familias. • Existe una amplia normatividad, que es muy abstracta para las mujeres rurales, pues no tiene la suficiente difusión ni adaptación en el lenguaje que le permita ser accesible. • Las mujeres rurales en algunas ocasiones son vinculadas a los proyectos para cumplir requisitos planteados por los donantes, pero sin metodologías que les permitan lograr su empoderamiento. • Las mujeres rurales tienen poco acceso a la educación formal a nivel de escuela secundaria, técnica y universitaria. • Las mujeres sufren una alta dependencia económica, lo cual lleva a que en los hogares se presenten todo tipo de violencias (físicas, sexuales, psicológicas y patrimoniales). • Falta de autonomía, incluso frente al cuerpo. En las comunidades rurales (indígenas, afro y campesinas), las mujeres no tienen libertad para elegir el número de hijos que desean tener, ni el tipo de anticonceptivos a usar. • Dificultades para el acceso a la asistencia técnica agropecuaria y a la capacitación formal, debido a la alta carga de trabajo que tienen que soportar las mujeres rurales, con número de horas semanales excesivas. • Falta de valoración de las capacidades de las mujeres rurales por parte de sus parejas. • Es necesario tener claro el aporte de las mujeres rurales desde el trabajo no remunerado y del cuidado, lo cual es analizado desde la economía del cuidado. • Se hace necesario incluir las discusiones y estrategias sobre nuevas masculinidades en el trabajo con comunidades rurales, que permitan sensibilizar a los hombres sobre la importancia de la redistribución de las actividades del cuidado y mantenimiento del hogar no remuneradas. • Lograr integralidad en las intervenciones, lo que quiere decir que hay que reconocer el rol que juegan las mujeres en las actividades del cuidado de la familia (atención de niños, adultos mayores, preparación de alimentos, etc.) y generar mecanismos para que las mujeres puedan participar. • Es vital que los implementadores de políticas públicas se ajusten a las condiciones de las mujeres, para que ellas también puedan exigir de parte de las instituciones un esfuerzo adicional.• Los operadores de las políticas públicas deben trabajar para lograr confianza por parte de las mujeres rurales frente a la institucionalidad del Estado. • Promover la efectiva participación de las mujeres desde lo local en el proceso de elaboración, formulación, ejecución y control de las políticas públicas. • Encontrar alternativas para que las políticas públicas logren continuidad con los cambios de administración. • Avanzar en el empoderamiento de las mujeres rurales y la transversalización del enfoque de género en la implementación de las políticas.Los participantes de la mesa plantearon las perspectivas de acorde a tres tipos de derechos:• Derecho a gozar de integridad física y psicológica -Autonomía física. Goce efectivo de los derechos en salud, salud sexual y reproductiva, además de una vida libre de violencias con acceso a la justicia. • Derechos económicos -Autonomía económica y financiamiento para el desarrollo.Lograr la igualdad distributiva, que incluye la superación de la pobreza de las mujeres, tanto monetaria como de tiempo, la igualdad salarial, el fin de la discriminación en el mercado laboral y de los sesgos y déficits en la protección social. -Acceso a bienes y servicios públicos. Obtención de mejores condiciones en educación, vivienda, saneamiento básico, seguridad social, movilidad y vías de acceso. • Derecho a tener voz y participación en escenarios de poder -Participación y representatividad de la mujer rural en espacios de poder y toma de decisiones. Lograr autonomía en el poder y en los procesos de adopción de decisiones, en los que la presencia de mujeres es marcadamente insuficiente y no guarda relación con su peso demográfico ni con los aportes que realizan y el papel que cumplen en la sociedad. -Alineación institucional para la implementación de los lineamientos de la política pública de mujer rural, a partir de la articulación efectiva entre las organizaciones sociales y los servidores públicos. Esto se puede lograr a través de un trabajo mancomunado que fortalezca técnicamente a los actores claves. -Construcción participativa de la política pública. Este es el pilar fundamental para la validación de las experiencias de las organizaciones sociales frente a los criterios técnicos emitidos por la ley para la ejecución efectiva de la misma. -Articulación interinstitucional, centrada en la construcción de un diálogo de doble vía entre el nivel nacional, territorial y sectorial y los actores sociales. -Seguimiento, monitoreo y evaluación de la política pública, como instrumento clave del empoderamiento de las mujeres.Fréderic Goulet (Cirad/UFRRJ, Brasil)El estudio Polinco tiene dos objetivos, declinados sobre diez países de América Latina (Argentina, Brasil, Colombia, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, México, Nicaragua, Paraguay y Uruguay). El primer objetivo es caracterizar los sistemas de innovación dirigidos al sector agropecuario e identificar con más precisión el rol que juega el Estado en la conformación de estos sistemas de innovación. Se da por ejemplo una atención particular a los dispositivos públicos de investigación y extensión agropecuaria, caracterizándolos cualitativa y cuantitativamente y dimensionando la inversión pública de cada país, de modo de hacer comparaciones que hagan posible un análisis detallado de la situación de cada país.El segundo objetivo es identificar y caracterizar las políticas e instrumentos de acción pública que apuntan explícitamente a la noción de innovación. En este caso, la idea es rastrear los espacios institucionales que favorecen la innovación, analizar los instrumentos utilizados e identificar los contenidos y significaciones que se le da a la noción de innovación. A parte del caso nacional de los diez países, aplicamos también este enfoque a las institucionales internacionales que a nivel regional tratan de promover la innovación en el sector agropecuario (IICA, CEPAL, BID, FAO, FIDA).El trabajo sobre los casos nacionales empezó a finales del año 2017, teniéndose previsto finalizarlo en 2019, con la publicación de un libro y la organización de un seminario internacional en octubre o noviembre. A partir del trabajo ya realizado, se pueden identificar puntos transversales a los diferentes países.Byron Miranda (IICA)En un entorno de limitados recursos y de crisis de resultados en los programas de inversión pública, la coordinación, articulación e intersectorialidad aparecen como esenciales en las intervenciones para el desarrollo rural. No obstante, no es frecuente articular políticas para distintos aspectos de la realidad rural: Agriculturas Familiares, Cambio Climático, Seguridad Alimentaria, Territorios.Los términos coordinación, articulación e integración aparecen como los caminos generalmente aceptados como necesarios y se afirma que es el principal desafío para lograr resultados superiores. Usualmente nos referimos a estos términos como una gradiente de menor a mayor complejidad de las interacciones entre entidades (desde el simple intercambio de información hasta procesos integrados, compartidos, que avanzan hacia lo mutuo). En la literatura, se encuentran diversos conceptos y definiciones, que los refieren a procesos mediante los cuales se genera sinergia, otros los clasifican en niveles según el grado de intensidad de la coordinación o de acuerdo al nivel de involucramiento de las partes; pese a las diferencias en las definiciones y términos utilizados, la mayoría coincide en que la articulación entre diferentes actores o políticas es indispensable porque estimula el aprendizaje por interacción y mejora el desempeño de las políticas e inversiones para el desarrollo de los territorios rurales. Sin embargo, existe una demanda de conocimientos sobre articulación de políticas, hacen falta investigaciones que analicen los procesos y formas de articulación de manera sistemática, evalúen los costos de transacciones y los resultados que procuran.Varios factores obstaculizan la articulación de las políticas e intervenciones: sistema institucional fragmentado pese a objetivos compartidos; inercia estructural por la historia de actuación independiente de las instituciones, que dificulta la acción conjunta; aumento de la demanda social en magnitud y complejidad.Se pueden identificar cinco retos de la integración funcional. El primero es la integración sistémica y operativa. La integración sistémica se construye al nivel de las políticas (como la de desarrollo territorial rural, y sus relaciones con otras políticas agricultura familiar, cambio climático). La integración funcional de proximidad opera en el punto donde más se necesita, en los territorios y sus organizaciones, en las áreas de interacción e interdependencias: Agricultura Familiar, Cambio Climático, Seguridad Alimentaria.El segundo reto se refiere al diseño organizativo, se reconoce que la integración no ocurre en forma espontánea, se basa en la definición de responsabilidades y de autoridad, en el protagonismo por competencia entre las instituciones. Los incentivos es el aspecto medular para la actuación, integrada, por eso deben ser claros y precisos y ser considerados como inversión.El tercero es el reto de la cultura, referida a la organizacional y de los actores sociales, que requiere conocer y explicitar los valores y comportamientos existentes y precisar los deseados. La cultura de la integración se crea en torno a valores.El cuarto es el de financiamiento, reglas (aspectos normativos) y liderazgo colaborativo. El financiamiento es crucial para promover la integración funcional, se trata de asignar recursos en función de prioridades y de actuaciones complementarias y con base en valores e incentivos. Los aspectos legales y normativos son indispensables para facilitar la actuación integrada. El liderazgo colaborativo es una competencia esencial para conducir este tipo de procesos y lograr una visión y acción estratégica.El quinto reto es la gestión conjunta para la adecuada combinación de políticas y servicios. Se requiere el protagonismo de los actores sociales en la solución de los problemas que les afectan, para ello es menester reforzar sus capacidades organizativas, técnicas y políticas. Es clave el liderazgo del sector público en cuanto a su competencia esencial de convocar, concertar y orientar el proceso. También es vital el marco programático y de gestión para la actuación intersectorial y articulación entre los actores en los diversos ámbitos.Así, para lograr una verdadera integración sistémica y funcional, hay que reconocer que no surgirá en forma espontánea y necesita intencionalidad e inversión. Se necesita desarrollar investigación sobre procesos de articulación de políticas, diseñar intervenciones con cuidado y rigor con base en la identificación conjunta de problemas que requieren acción colectiva, capacitar al personal involucrado, llevar a la práctica el modelo de solución, y desarrollar sistemas de seguimiento y evaluación desde la perspectiva del usuario.• ¿Es relevante y posible realizar investigaciones en coordinación, articulación, integración de políticas? • ¿Cuáles son los temas prioritarios para animar una actuación articulada de políticas? • ¿En qué mecanismos institucionales focalizar la investigación?En el debate, se destacaron los siguientes puntos: Un reto de integración importante en políticas rurales es el de la inclusión del enfoque de género. Esta baja inclusión de las mujeres en las políticas rurales resulta de una falta de visibilizacion y de valoración de su aporte en el desarrollo rural y una fuerte inercia institucional. Por lo tanto, se necesitan investigaciones que evidencien el papel de la mujer y analicen la problemática específica de integración de género en las políticas de desarrollo rural.Referente a la fragmentación y la inercia institucional, podemos rescatar que se generan por los mismos mecanismos de planificación y mecanismos de medición de los funcionarios. La focalización en los marcos lógicos y el cumplimiento de indicadores de actividades (numero capacitación, inversión, hectáreas,…) se hacen en detrimento de la dimensión de la integración institucional. Se necesita valorar esta dimensión creando indicadores de integración en los planes y proyectos.La articulación no es solamente una cuestión técnica o de dependencia del camino, pues tiene una dimensión política. Por ejemplo, en Brasil los ministerios son manejados por diferentes partidos políticos, y a veces están presentes varias corrientes políticas dentro de los mismos ministerios. En esos contextos, la articulación transciende lo técnico: ¿Cómo hacer articulación cuando los actores no quieren o cuando tienen intereses y hasta visiones antagónicas en términos políticos?El problema de la articulación es un tema de construcción de cooperación entre actores que tienen visiones e intereses distintos. Existen casos a varios niveles donde se han dado estas coordinaciones entre actores con distintos intereses. Al nivel nacional se pueden rescatar casos tales como el programa de biodiesel en Brasil, donde con un impulso del Estado, se ha generado una articulación entre actores de diferentes sectores y partidos políticos alrededor de un interés compartido (empresarios, procesadores, pequeños productores). Al nivel local, no existe una problemática que genere esta dinámica. El reto, por lo tanto, es identificar para cada contexto cuál es la problemática que puede generar una articulación (mercado, infraestructura…). También existen experiencias como las experiencias boutique de PROCASUR, donde se logró una articulación desde proyectos con varias políticas y programas. Así, existe un potencial de casos a estudiar que pueden ser analizados y sistematizados para aprender de estos procesos de articulación.El tema de coordinación es un problema muy mencionado en las arenas y foros, existen problemas de coordinación, hay una tendencia a una excesiva autoflagelación. Es necesario desmitificar este concepto. Los problemas de coordinación son una característica de la democracia donde existen varios intereses, metas, objetivos, trayectorias institucionales. Es imposible lograr una coordinación perfecta, mas una híperarticulación no es necesariamente deseable. Si hay que combatir el exceso de descoordinación (duplicidades de acciones), un cierto nivel de desorden es inevitable en una democracia. El tema del escalamiento de experiencias de desarrollo rural en su relación con las políticas públicas remite principalmente a la idea del apoyo institucional o público a la expansión/ difusión de experiencias exitosas, de prácticas tecnológicas u organizacionales innovadoras, especialmente movilizada en el campo de la agricultura familiar y campesina.Las referencias sobre el escalamiento se han interesado más específicamente en la difusión por expansión/difusión o por cambio/ampliación de escala de innovaciones tecnológicas o de buenas prácticas. Desde los años 80 y 90, las organizaciones no gubernamentales de desarrollo se preocuparon por ampliar o escalar sus experiencias exitosas a nivel micro local, o han sido estimuladas a hacerlo por las agencias financieras. Muchos trabajos de índole metodológico, evaluativo o analítico están disponibles sobre escalamiento de buenas prácticas o de experiencias innovadoras. El análisis de algunos de ellos sugiere que la exigencia de apoyo institucional y técnico-académico es tal que la concepción del escalamiento a que corresponde no tiene nada de espontáneo o de difusión \"natural\".Un conjunto de experiencias monitoreadas, como el enfoque Community Driven Development en América Latina, el programa Campesino a Campesino en América Central, la asistencia técnica para beneficiarios de la reforma agraria en Brasil, las tecnologías adaptadas en los países andinos, muestran una serie de condiciones o de dificultades para realizar el escalamiento:• Las experiencias exitosas dependen de trayectorias, procesos específicos o de largo plazo, organizaciones locales (con funcionamiento y liderazgo efectivo), aprendizaje colectivo, conexiones con movimientos sociales de mayor escala, que, muchas veces, no son replicables en los horizontes temporales de las políticas de hoy, pues los plazos de los procesos no corresponden con los tiempos político-institucionales prevalecientes. • Las experiencias exitosas de nivel local a menudo corresponden a una concentración de recursos financieros y humanos por medio de cooperación internacional, ONG u organismos internacionales, que no es reproducible a gran escala con los recursos disponibles para la ejecución de políticas públicas nacionales (y sus presupuestos públicos asignados). Algunas preguntas de investigación sobre el papel de las políticas públicas para el escalamiento de experiencias• ¿Qué lecciones fueron aprendidas de los programas de escalamiento o de los programas que tenían una visión de escalamiento en América Latina y de su evaluación? • ¿Cuáles cuestiones no fueron todavía analizadas y respondidas? • ¿Qué tipo de investigación se adaptaría al análisis de políticas públicas para la ampliación de escala en desarrollo rural? • ¿Qué dispositivos de escalamiento de experiencias de desarrollo rural serían factibles para un seguimiento/ evaluación? • ¿Con cuáles métodos?Entre los diversos comentarios realizados, cabe destacar los siguientes elementos: Primero, fue argumentado que no existe escalamiento posible de los casos exitosos de buenas prácticas, porque son específicos de cada contexto y nunca se dispone de recursos suficientes para su replicación en un contexto diferente. Por lo tanto, se trata más de aprender e intercambiar que de replicar. En este sentido, cabe valorar si tiene sentido hablar más de aprendizaje y adaptación de prácticas innovadoras que de escalamiento.Segundo, en cuanto a los actores, se observó la necesidad de considerar el papel tanto de las políticas públicas como del sector privado, de las alianzas público-privadas, de las organizaciones locales y de las redes en procesos de escalamiento de prácticas innovadoras en los territorios rurales. Fue recomendada la co-construcción de agendas de investigación transdisciplinarias con actores no académicos del sector público y privado, sindicatos, cooperativas, etc. En casos en los cuales hay poco financiamiento, se necesita también una identificación/ inventario de innovaciones con potencial de escalamiento, que sean relativamente sencillas y de bajo costo.Tercero, en cuanto a la escala apropiada para el análisis de los procesos de escalamiento, se comentó que hay una multiescalaridad de los territorios, de los procesos de desarrollo territorial y de los procesos de innovación, lo cual puede llevar a repensar la cuestión del escalamiento o a lograr una mejor comprensión de las interrelaciones entre procesos de innovación que transcurren a distintas escalas.Cuarto, se requiere de espacios de inter-aprendizaje, de intercambios y aprendizaje colectivo.Quinto, se mencionó la importancia de incorporar una perspectiva de género en el análisis de las políticas públicas en general, y en lo referente al desarrollo territorial en particular.Finalmente, se concluyó que la investigación puede contribuir a una mejor comprensión de los procesos de innovación y apoyar su escalamiento vertical o ascendente (scaling-up) en ciertas condiciones: cuando realiza una sistematización como factor clave para el escalamiento; si existen recursos y capacidad de integración de los actores locales; cuando se aprovechan estudios de caso en los países para contribuir a procesos de decisión política; y cuando se colabora con los tomadores de decisiones para tener capacidad de influencia.Jean-François Le Coq (Cirad/CIAT)Las investigaciones sobre políticas públicas generan diversas expectativas por parte de las agencias de cooperación y de los investigadores en agronomía. Para las primeras, se espera cambiar los marcos de políticas y de la acción pública con el fin de generar impactos de mayor escala, a corto y más largo plazo. Para los segundos, las políticas son generalmente consideradas como un cuello de botella para la adopción de nuevas innovaciones tecnológicas.De hecho, las investigaciones sobre políticas públicas contribuyen a un mejor entendimiento de los procesos de diseño e implementación de las políticas, y de sus efectos en los procesos de desarrollo rural. Las investigaciones sobre políticas se diferencian en cuanto a la forma de realizarlas, dependiendo si son investigaciones académicas con propósito analítico o investigaciones cuyo propósito es contribuir a generar cambios institucionales.Un argumento importante y común para justificar la investigación sobre políticas es que un mejor entendimiento de los procesos de políticas (diseño, implementación, impacto) permite \"mejorarlas\" (su diseño, su implementación) y por ende contribuir a procesos de desarrollo rural más integrativos.Ya existe bastante literatura sobre el tema de las informaciones científicas, el rol de la investigación y de los expertos científicos en los procesos de políticas (e.g., Norse y Tschirley, 2000). Esta literatura ubica el rol de la información científica en los ciclos de políticas (Vogel et al., 2007) e identifica su rol en un conjunto de variables explicativas de cambio de políticas utilizando varios marcos analíticos: la información científica puede ser un recurso que fortalece las coaliciones de actores para influir sobre las políticas (Sabatier y Weible, 2007), puede contribuir a la toma de conciencia sobre un problema y a la apertura de una ventana de política (Kingdon, 1995), asimismo puede contribuir a procesos de aprendizaje y difusión de políticas. Otra rama de la literatura analiza más específicamente los dispositivos de interface y la relación entre ciencia y política, tal como los \"Policy Science Interface\" (Heink et al., 2015;Sarkki et al., 2013), subrayando el papel de ciertos actores \"intermediarios\" (policy y scientific brokers) que permiten la difusión de ideas y marcos de interpretación entre estas dos esferas (e.g., Cash and Moser, 2000). Otra rama de la literatura discute la importancia relativa de los resultados científicos (evidencias científicas) en los procesos y decisiones de políticas, apoyando o cuestionando el concepto de \"políticas basadas en evidencia científica\" (evidence-based policy) (e.g., Renkow y Byerlee, 2014).Sin embargo, el papel de la investigación científica específicamente dedicada al análisis de políticas públicas, tal como la que se genera en la Red PP-AL (análisis de procesos de políticas, difusión/ transferencia de políticas, análisis de implementación y de efectos de políticas a diferentes escalas) en los procesos de decisión política es poco analizada en la literatura.El objetivo de esta mesa es tener una discusión reflexiva desde las experiencias de la Red PP-AL con el fin de justificar mejor su utilidad, sus prácticas y su estrategia. Se propone realizar un análisis (global y reflexivo) sobre el papel de la investigación en políticas públicas rurales, alrededor de las siguientes preguntas:• ¿Qué tipos de investigación en análisis de políticas y qué modalidad de generación de conocimientos y de difusión son necesarios para generar cambios institucionales e impactar en la toma de decisión en las políticas públicas?• ¿Qué lecciones se han aprendido de los procesos de investigación en políticas (ejecutados por los investigadores de la Red PP-AL y más allá) en términos de capacidad de acompañar / influir en cambios institucionales y de políticas? • ¿Cómo rastrear el impacto de la investigación sobre políticas públicas en la toma de decisión sobre las políticas y, finalmente, sobre los procesos de desarrollo agrícola y rural?De los comentarios de esta mesa, cabe rescatar los siguientes puntos:La Red PP-AL, al involucrar a académicos y profesionales de agencias de cooperación, tiene un gran potencial para incidir en procesos de política. La Red PP-AL se puede beneficiar de una relación de doble sentido entre academia (que aporta elementos de reflexión) y cooperación (que está involucrada y participa en espacios de diálogo político). Además, la Red puede facilitar procesos de cooperación sur-sur, apelando a la posición de intermediarios (policy science brokers) de las agencias de cooperación. Con esta perspectiva, lo importante es no solo generar documentos de tipo \"policy brief\", sino preparar productos específicos para los procesos, ayudando así a construir espacios de diálogo a diferentes escalas. Se propone elaborar una propuesta de dispositivo que combine ciencia y política, y operacionalizar esta propuesta en algunos procesos concretos, como la definición de políticas de desarrollo territorial en Colombia y México, o a nivel latinoamericano, en la perspectiva de la década de agricultura familiar.En términos de modalidades de generación de ciencia, muchas veces se piensa una relación directa y lineal entre ciencia y política. Sin embargo, los cambios de políticas dependen de coaliciones amplias que integran varios actores (burocracia y tomadores de decisión, sector privado, movimientos sociales, organizaciones de productores, etc.), en las cuales la academia juega un papel para legitimar posiciones, que muchas veces están ya definidas. Para mejorar su utilidad, se tendrían que reforzar las relaciones y fomentar un diálogo sistemático con ciertos actores (burocracia de los gobiernos y sector privado) con los cuales las relaciones son a veces poco desarrolladas.Existe una posibilidad de someter algunas propuestas concretas de actividades de interfaces y diálogo ciencia-política ante el Instituto Interamericano para la Investigación del Cambio Global (IAI), cuyo objetivo es identificar agendas de investigación con actores no académicos, movilizando el concepto de transdisciplinariedad.Ya existen experiencias de análisis de construcción de política (como la Estrategia de Seguridad Alimentaria en Haití) que permiten rastrear los impactos de la investigación, así como la influencia del sector privado y otros actores en los procesos de construcción de políticas. La capacidad de análisis de estos procesos depende de las relaciones de proximidad que se logran generar entre academia y otros actores en las mesas de diálogo y construcción de políticas (funcionarios, donantes, etc.). Para aprovechar mejor el posicionamiento de la academia en ciertos procesos, se necesita elaborar y desarrollar metodologías para analizar los procesos y realizar estudios de casos de procesos de política en los cuales los investigadores de la Red PP-AL participan o en los cuales tienen una posición de observación y acceso a información.En términos de incidencia sobre procesos de políticas, se resalta que incidir en los procesos no es solo entregar productos (policy briefs, etc.), sino estar en espacios multi-actores donde se fortalezcan capacidades. Esto implica un diálogo y un proceso de interacción con los actores desde el inicio del proceso.Estas interacciones deben ocurrir no solamente en un ciclo, sino en varios ciclos, lo que requiere persistencia, flexibilidad, disponibilidad de tiempo y continuidad, aún cuando los actores claves de la política puedan cambiar.Se sugiere analizar cómo los estudios de casos y las experiencias en cada país pueden realmente fortalecer procesos de decisión política. La hipótesis es que no podemos mover proceso de política sin colaborar directamente con tomadores de decisiones. Experiencias tales como el sistema de desarrollo territorial en Brasil ofrecen un ejemplo de dispositivo específico consultivo que se basa en la relación entre medio académico y político, y que se creó a partir de una demanda de los actores para implementar la política de desarrollo rural.Jean-François Le Coq, Catia Grisa, Eric Sabourin y Doris Sayago Contexto actual: ¿Cuál es el balance sobre los procesos de desarrollo rural en América Latina?Una degradación de la situación rural con emergencia de nuevas problemáticasLas presentaciones y los debates durante el Seminario permitieron rescatar evoluciones preocupantes de la ruralidad. La situación en muchos territorios rurales se degrada con mayores tensiones y conflictividad, economías ilícitas, procesos migratorios, degradación del vínculo social y polarización. De hecho, los territorios rurales se caracterizan por la coexistencia de varios tipos de productores (familiar, campesinos, indígenas, agronegocio, etc.) y formas de agricultura (convencional, agroecológica, orgánica, etc.) muy distintas en sus visiones, intereses y capacidades. La heterogeneidad de los actores rurales en situación asimétrica de capacidades y poderes genera tensiones sobre los recursos, conflictos socio-ambientales y problemas de equidad. Aunque la pobreza se redujo en ciertas áreas, sigue siendo una problemática rural fuerte. Además, aparecen nuevos desafíos en términos de seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, tal como el desarrollo de la obesidad rural. En términos ambientales, aunque algunos países y territorios han reducido la degradación de los recursos naturales (deforestación), esta problemática se mantiene. De allí, la necesidad de reaccionar rápidamente frente a las tendencias actuales y a las consecuencias cada vez más visibles del cambio climático.Si bien la situación de los territorios rurales es preocupante, también se vislumbran algunas oportunidades. El desarrollo de las ciudades intermediarias constituye una nueva oportunidad de mercado de productos agrícolas, de empleo y de actividades económicas para los actores de los territorios rurales. Si los jóvenes en la ruralidad no se inclinan más por la agricultura y tienen tendencia a \"salir del campo\", estas nuevas generaciones de jóvenes rurales globalmente más capacitados que sus padres representan una oportunidad para desarrollar nuevas actividades rurales y proveer servicios para la agricultura. Aunque la brecha de tecnología de información (telefonía celular) sigue siendo importante entre territorios rurales y urbanos, se está reduciendo y las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación generan nuevas oportunidades para renovar los servicios de apoyo a la agricultura y crear nuevas actividades económicas en los territorios rurales. Si la falta de infraestructura (de transporte, de transformación, de mercados, de salud, etc.) sigue siendo problemática en muchos territorios rurales, se evidencian nuevas posibilidades de conectividad vía tecnología de información y movilidad de las personas.Desde la sociedad cada vez más urbanizada y no agrícola, las demandas hacia los territorios rurales son cada vez más amplias y apremiantes. Se le pide a los territorios rurales que cumplan con cada vez más objetivos (a veces contradictorios): producir alimentación en cantidad y calidad para ciudades, proteger los recursos naturales (bosque, agua) y generar servicios ambientales para la humanidad (biodiversidad, mitigación de gases de efecto invernadero, paisajes, etc.), generar empleo y regular los flujos de mano de obra. Las dinámicas agrícolas y rurales son cruciales para lograr muchos de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS).A estas demandas múltiples, se adiciona una cierta urgencia de la demanda de transformaciones de los sistemas de producción para resolver los desafíos globales, como los objetivos de cero deforestación o de mitigación del cambio climático.Frente a estas múltiples demandas de la sociedad y de la degradación de sus situaciones, las poblaciones de los territorios rurales se sienten abandonados, no perciben las acciones públicas y la implementación de las políticas. Este vacío de presencia del Estado contribuye al desarrollo de formas de economía ilícitas y genera un sentimiento de injusticia.Contexto actual: ¿Cuál es el balance sobre las políticas para el desarrollo rural en América Latina?Un desarrollo de múltiples marcos de políticas para lo ruralPara abordar los diferentes desafíos del mundo rural, se han desarrollado muchas políticas en las últimas dos décadas, muchas veces en línea con los objetivos internacionales. Sin pretender ser exhaustivo, pero focalizando sobre las políticas que se analizaron con más detalle durante el Seminario, se trata de políticas más focalizadas hacia ciertos tipos de grupos de la población agrícola (políticas de agricultura familiar), de políticas que promueven sistemas de producción específicos (agroecología, agricultura orgánica), de políticas con un enfoque más holístico intersectorial apuntando a territorios (política de desarrollo territorial rural) o que se enfocan en resolver desafíos ambientales (políticas de cambio climático, pago por servicios ambientales, lucha contra la deforestación).En sus procesos de construcción, estas políticas fueron grandes avances para visibilizar grupos o modelos de producción marginalizados, para poner problemáticas nuevas sobre la agenda y desarrollar nuevas herramientas para resolver los problemas de la ruralidad, buscando coherencia en el accionar público en relación con los compromisos internacionales (de desarrollo [ODS], de cambio climático [CCM] o de gestión de recursos naturales [e.g., cero deforestación]).A pesar de estas políticas, se observa un cierto descrédito de ellas y de la acción pública (en sentido estricto) asociada. Las políticas públicas y la acción pública son criticadas desde varias perspectivas. Los procesos políticos son criticados por su falta de participación de los actores meta, los problemas de integración y de coherencia entre problemáticas. La acción pública es criticada por su falta de transparencia (y los procesos de corrupción que eso genera), así como por su ineficacia, ineficiencia o su injusticia. Existen fallas para atender las demandas y necesidades de los actores de los territorios e incapacidad para hacer las rápidas transformaciones que son necesarias para responder frente a las múltiples demandas de la sociedad.Sin embargo, cabe rescatar que estas críticas no llevan a pedir menos políticas y acción pública, como fue el caso de los años noventa, en donde prevalecía una visión más liberal que reclamaba una reducción del Estado, aunque permanece esta visión en ciertos partidos de la región. Estas críticas buscan más bien \"mejores\" políticas, más acción pública y un Estado que juegue un papel más protagónico, precisamente para arreglar de forma coordinada los múltiples problemas que enfrenta la sociedad, velando por una mayor justicia. En breve, no es solo reducir el papel del Estado y substituirlo por los mercados, sino pensar un Estado capaz de reducir las tensiones, tomando en cuenta y atendiendo a la diversidad de demandas y de población meta a través de políticas diferenciadas.Una paradoja entre demanda y atención real de la política, entre intenciones e implementaciónLa situación de las políticas rurales muestra una gran paradoja: a pesar de las demandas crecientes y múltiples de la sociedad y de la generación de las políticas específicas a favor de lo rural, el sector rural está en una posición \"periférica\" en muchos países de la región, lo que se traduce en una reducción tendencial de las inversiones públicas en el sector agrícola y los territorios rurales. Esto implica una reducción constante de las capacidades de acción pública al nivel de los territorios (reducción de funcionarios, del financiamiento y de los incentivos económicos). Esta paradoja genera una brecha entre las intenciones presentadas en los documentos de política, los procesos reales de implementación de dichas políticas (intervenciones que empujan los procesos hacia los cambios esperados) y la evidencia de los resultados obtenidos.Dada la gran diversidad de políticas analizadas durante el Seminario, el balance en términos de su implementación y resultados revelan situaciones distintas.Aunque la agricultura familiar sigue siendo dominante en los territorios rurales y sigue enfrentando múltiples retos, las políticas que explícitamente buscan apoyarla, cuando existen, tienen muchas dificultades para mantener la continuidad de su implementación debido a la reducción de recursos o los cambios de orientación generados por los cambios de gobierno.El enfoque territorial ha logrado ser reconocido como paradigma para enfrentar los múltiples retos de lo rural de manera coordinada e intersectorial. Sin embargo, estas políticas siguen teniendo dificultades para romper de manera efectiva barreras institucionales, lograr generar una gobernanza intersectorial y siguen teniendo un rol subsidiario en comparación con las políticas sectoriales. Con ello, corren el riesgo de ser cuestionadas por su eficiencia y \"adicionalidad\" para realmente incidir en las dinámicas territoriales.En cuanto a la agenda ambiental (y en particular la problemática de deforestación), aunque los países han tomado nuevos compromisos (cero deforestación), las definiciones de estrategias concretas para lograr estos objetivos siguen pendientes, y de antemano, los objetivos parecen poco realistas.El Seminario permitió destacar las diferentes dimensiones del desarrollo rural. Estas políticas tienen retos y áreas de investigación en común.Primero, existe el reto de la coherencia entre las políticas y las acciones públicas para abarcar múltiples objetivos. Ello lleva a entender mejor los procesos de articulación de políticas, no solamente en sus procesos de formulación, sino también en sus procesos de implementación. Es necesario identificar los factores que permiten u obstaculizan estas articulaciones, de modo que faciliten analizar las formas de coordinación (a diferentes escalas y por diferentes actores) y evaluar sus capacidades para fomentar la intersectorialidad y la coordinación.Para ello, también es necesario desarrollar marcos analíticos que permitan superar las dicotomías clásicas en los abordajes analíticos de lo rural y sus políticas, como la dicotomía rural/ urbana, actividad agricultura/actividad de servicios y producción agrícola/conservación del medio ambiente.Esta problemática se decanta en tres retos y preguntas específicas. El primero consiste en identificar las formas de articulación innovadoras entre herramientas territoriales y de cadenas, y entre acción pública, privada y colectiva, para influir y orientar los comportamientos de los actores rurales hacia las metas determinadas. El segundo reto se refiere a la articulación entre políticas focalizadas y no focalizadas, en particular entre políticas sectoriales / políticas intersectoriales (como las de desarrollo territorial), entre las políticas focalizadas en un actor (agricultura familiar) o un sistema productivo (agroecología/ agricultura orgánica) y las políticas macroeconómicas (cambiaria, monetaria) de comercio (acuerdos internacionales) y sociales (remesas, migraciones). El tercero se refiere a la identificación de mecanismos de gestión pública que resuelvan las tensiones ligadas a la coexistencia de una diversidad de productores y actores con capacidades técnicas, económicas y cognitivas distintas.Si bien la integración y la coordinación se han transformado en una aspiración compartida por todos los actores que promueven un objetivo específico (desarrollo territorial, agricultura familiar, cambio climático, deforestación, etc.), se debe cuestionar la noción de integración y sus alcances (¿Hasta dónde es factible y eficiente coordinar todos los problemas en una política integral?). La integración de todas las problemáticas y objetivos es un ideal imposible de lograr. Por lo tanto, es necesario mantener una visión crítica, analizar los compromisos (tradeoffs) entre objetivos reales, entender las dinámicas entre los actores y de poderes que determinan finalmente los equilibrios y prioridades que prevalecen al momento de implementar las políticas. Y en este sentido, hay que hacer un mayor énfasis en el análisis de los arbitrajes y flujos financieros entre las políticas, como un indicador de las prioridades reales.El segundo reto tiene que ver con la eficacia y eficiencia de las políticas. En un contexto de recursos públicos escasos y de cuestionamiento sobre las políticas, es necesario generar más investigación para evaluar el desempeño institucional y los efectos de las políticas sobre determinados tipos de productores, modelos productivos y dinámicas territoriales.Este desafío se compone de varios retos específicos. El primero es generar evaluaciones de las políticas que tomen en cuenta la heterogeneidad de los efectos de las políticas sectoriales y macroeconómicas sobre los territorios rurales y la diversidad de los tipos de actores y productores dentro de estos territorios. Eso lleva a desarrollar nuevas metodologías de evaluación pluralista, así como explorar las posibilidades analíticas que ofrecen nuevas tecnologías y fuentes de información (Big data). También es necesario fomentar más colaboraciones entre equipos que manejan diferentes enfoques analíticos (análisis de impacto, análisis de procesos), métodos (cuantitativos y cualitativos) y temas de investigación (macroeconomía). El segundo reto es fomentar mecanismos de monitoreo y evaluación que permitan generar procesos de aprendizaje en la implementación de las políticas. En este ámbito, es relevante la identificación de métricas y criterios pluralistas de evaluación.La Red PP-AL tiene como especificidad tener una entrada de investigación desde las políticas públicas y la acción pública (entendido en un sentido amplio, lo cual puede incluir las interacciones y el accionar de los actores privados en la medida que contribuyen a generar instituciones que afectan las trayectorias rurales). A pesar de que el objeto de investigación de la Red PP-AL son las políticas, para ser pertinente en los análisis, es necesario tener una comprensión holística de los procesos de desarrollo rural (agricultura, servicios) y de sus consecuencias en términos de múltiples problemáticas (producción alimentaria, conservación de recursos naturales, deforestación, generación de empleo e ingresos, inequidad, etc.). Para este propósito, es preciso fomentar investigaciones pluridisciplinarias en ciencias sociales (sociología, economía, geografía, ciencia política), en alianza con ciencias biofísicas (agronomía, ecología), integrando investigadores con diferentes sensibilidades, visiones y campos de investigación sobre lo rural (agrícola, ambiental, social, etc.).El valor agregado de la Red PP-AL es poder atacar la complejidad de los procesos de desarrollo según varias perspectivas, generando un espacio para poder comparar situaciones y dinámicas entre países y territorios de la región. Con ello, es posible construir una visión sintética de nivel regional, movilizando a una diversidad de investigadores con perfiles y diferentes objetos de investigación y generando resultados que eviten el sesgo sectorial (silo thinking) para construir los análisis. Al tener un abordaje más holístico de los desafíos rurales, basado en la pluri-y trans-disciplinariedad, es posible abarcar diferentes tipos de territorios rurales, desde las franjas periurbanas hasta las fronteras agrícolas y los espacios forestales.El otro valor agregado de la Red PP-AL resulta de su naturaleza de espacio híbrido. Por ser un espacio donde participan académicos y representantes de organizaciones de cooperación regional, facilita un diálogo y un alineamiento entre las preocupaciones de los organismos de cooperación y desarrollo y de la academia. Además, crea una oportunidad para generar y difundir resultados de investigación que puedan influir en los procesos políticos en los cuales participan estas organizaciones de cooperación.El otro valor agregado es la generación de un espacio dinámico de aprendizaje, entre academia y organizaciones, entre diversos temas referentes al desarrollo rural, entre metodologías y puntos de entradas distintos. Esto genera un potencial para renovar los enfoques y preguntas de investigación sobre los diferentes temas como, por ejemplo, la integración de dimensiones de evaluación en los análisis procesales de construcción de políticas de apoyo a la agricultura familiar o de desarrollo territorial, o el análisis de los procesos de participación en los instrumentos ambientales.También la Red PP-AL permite evidenciar nuevas miradas sobre problemáticas rurales (como es el caso de las migraciones rurales, agricultura urbana o periurbana) y dinámicas emergentes (como agricultura y extensión a través de nuevas tecnologías de información y comunicación), así como identificar nuevos retos para interfaces de políticas, como la problemática de seguridad alimentaria y nutricional y la construcción de políticas para sistemas alimentarios sostenibles.","tokenCount":"24414"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"06bf5ceeb208d555138bb7b7cf2aa470","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7836a3a1-6f87-479e-b1f3-43c8e300abb7/retrieve","id":"1500893437"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"03293f75-1d8f-4e8e-8569-3e1f4d21cb5d","pagecount":"11","content":"• It was easter to achteve success m mcreasmg crop producttvtty and tmprovmg food secunty m an upland commumty than m mtroducmg mstttuttonal arrangements such asco managment of resources to ensure long term sustamabthty of hvehhoods• A commumty based approach to resource management should mvolve pohcy and dectston makers from the mceptton rather than when problems anse• Ltkewtse tssues such as tmprovmg the hvehhood ofthe poorest m the commumty and dtssemmatton of mformatton and successful technologtes to all Wtthm a commumty and to other commumttes needs to be addressed dunng the mceptton stage of a projectIntegrated Cassava based Croppmg Systems• In Thatland where farmers are conductmg eroston control tnals most have adopted the plantmg ofvettver grass contour hedgerows to control eroston A total of622 farmers have so far planted 123 km ofvettver grass hedgerows covenng an area of about 600 ha of cassava fields In Vtetnam where sorne 30 farmer eroston control tnals are bemg conducted m 13 sttes many farmers have adopted the plantmg of Tephrosza candzda vettver grass pmeapple or Paspalum atratum as contour hedgerows to control eroston others have adopted mtercroppmg and better fertthzatton practtces to mercase mcome and reduce eroston m thetr cassava fields• In Thatland farmers are testmg the use of an1mal manures and green manures to mamtam sml fertthty and tmprove the phystcal condtttons ofthetr sml m addttton to chemtcal fertthzers In Vtetnam more farmers are applymg chemtcal fertthzers htgh m N and K m addttton to ptg manure to thetr cassava crops markedly mcreasmg Yields and net mcome  ","tokenCount":"255"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1419aa33a9a3cbd6e8c5aee2a1677674","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ec858c0-13f4-4b98-8005-892ef4b02b12/retrieve","id":"945411053"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"509c3584-430c-4448-82df-44cb33c612da","pagecount":"7","content":"A network analysisThe main objective of this analysis is to quantify the underlying structure of the climate, socioeconomic and conflict system. Understanding how the three main themes (climate, conflict and socio-economic) are connected, is key to defining intervention and mitigating conflict. The main research question we aim to address is: What is the underlying structure of the climate, conflict, and socio-economic system in Zimbabwe?Using network analysis, a statistical model is built to quantitatively display the connections between several variables pertaining to climate variabilities, security threats and socio-economic risks, in order to identify the underlying structure of this complex system of relationships.Climate variables were compiled using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) data. Conflict data were gathered from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED). Socio-economic data were collated from the Demographic Health Survey (DHS).With increasing variations in temperatures and rainfall patterns over time, frequent droughts and occasional cyclones, climate change is a reality for Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe's economy depends heavily on natural resources 1 , thus, its high vulnerability to a varying climate. Additionally, Zimbabwe has been for a long time in a fragile socio-economic and political context 2,3 , making the climate change issue a complex problem, involving many aspects of the socio-economic landscape from food security risks to conflicts 4 . Among 38 variables, the network model retained 25 variables. Each category of variables is represented in the network model (different colours), suggesting the relevance of many sectors of the socioeconomic landscape to the climate-conflict nexus, for Zimbabwe 4 (Figure 1).Looking at our network we can see that variables within the same category (e.g., climate, employment and education, poverty and inequality risks) tend to be closely related. This is expected as these variables are strongly associated with one another. When we look at linkages between these categories however, we can delve into interesting structures. Firstly, if we look at the predominant link to conflict, we can see a strong and direct link between conflict is the ratio of poor to rich households. Under Robert Mugabe's leadership we saw increased dominance in the economy and gross inequality in income and opportunity. 5 There is no question then that Mugabe's leadership -as well as his resort to violence before and after the March 2002 elections 5 -is a determining factor in explaining Zimbabwe's current conflict crisis. This also means that an essential factor in reducing conflict outbreaks in Zimbabwe is through a reduction in inequality of earnings and targeted effort to reduce poverty. However, to reduce the current conflict outbreaks to inequality alone oversimplifies the current deepseated problems. Indeed, if we look at other direct linkages to conflict outbreaks, we also see direct relationship displayed between climate variabilities and conflicts, namely between the past 12 months maximum temperature anomalies (node 25) and the total number of strategic developments and conflicts (node 20 and 21), 12 months after the climate event. In Zimbabwe, the provinces of Bulawayo and Matabeleland North form the region that is most affected by climate extremes. 6 This region is also one that is suffering the most from political and socio-economic marginalization 7 with high risks of politically related conflicts. Thus, the direct relationships between climate variabilities and conflict risks that are observed in the network can reflect the overlap between climate extremes and political grievances in that region. Furthermore, in the future the country is predicted to suffer from increasing temperatures, as well as increasing rainfall variability. 8 These phenomena will heavily impact Zimbabwe's agricultural sector due to its high climate vulnerability and, therefore, potentially to more conflict.Although not all aspects of socio-economic vulnerabilities and conflicts show direct relationships with climate variabilities, indirect relationships (i.e. relationships mediated by other variables) are shown to also exist, reinforcing the complexity of the system. Agricultural land ownership (node 5) and wealth inequalities (node 4) are among the factors placed at the intersection of climate variabilities and conflicts. The distribution and ownership of lands has been at the centre of disputes in Zimbabwe since the government's implantation of the controversial land reform in 2000 (the Fast-Track Land Redistribution Program). 9 It was not rare that events of land appropriation and redistribution by the government, often portrayed as partial, resulted in conflicts, especially among land beneficiaries. 9 A poor and partisan management of the resources by the government 10 has amplified wealth inequalities especially in the agricultural and the mining sectors. 9 Extreme climate events such as cyclones and droughts have further exacerbated the already vulnerable agricultural sector of Zimbabwe, in which farmers often lack appropriate training and support. 9 Indeed, our network shows that 'the total number of households that own agricultural land' acts as an intermediate link between climate and conflict. To reduce conflict therefore we need to address inequality largely caused by past leadership as well as future increasing pressures from climate on a country that relies heavily on agriculture.We furthermore notice the existence of few nodes that are isolated from the rest of the network. These are variables related to deficit in education (node 15 and 17). Although increased cases of school dropouts have been noticed as resulting from extreme climate events in Zimbabwe 11 , our result suggests that education is the least important factor contributing to the climate-conflict nexus.We use a regularized partial correlation network 12 as part of Markov random fields, to model the climate-socio-economic-conflict relationships. A network is a graphical representation of the relationships (edges) between different entities (nodes). The variables, represented by the nodes, are categorized as (a) climate variables, (b) conflict variables, and (c) socio-economic risk variables which are further grouped into (c.1) poverty and inequality risk variables, (c.2) nutritional insecurity variables, and (c.3) employment and education variables. The edges between nodes, representing the partial correlation coefficients encode the remaining statistical association between two variables after controlling for all other information possible (conditional independence associations). These partial correlation coefficients were estimated from a matrix of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients for continuous variables. Polychoric correlations were used for categorical variables, polyserial and biserial correlations used between variables of different types. To eliminate non-significant relationships, the partial correlation network was regularized using a Lasso regularization 13 with an EBIC model selection. 14 Climate variables were compiled using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data (CHIRPS) for the period (1996-2016) 15 . Conflict data were gathered from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) for the period (1997-2015). Data on socio-economic vulnerabilities were collected from the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) from several rounds of surveys (1997,   2005, 2010-2015).CGIAR aims to address gaps in knowledge about climate change and food security for peace and security policies and operations through a unique multidisciplinary approach. Our main objective is to align evidence from the realms of climate, land, and food systems science with peacebuilding efforts already underway that address conflict through evidence-based environmental, political, and socioeconomic solutions.PHOTO @ DAVID BRAZIER/IWMI","tokenCount":"1151"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5d2730869ab996c244d81229d9a9dbb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BBaral2022-Bioenergy-08.pdf","id":"-2124511130"},"keywords":["forest fire","biodiversity","soil fauna","bioenergy","soil moisture","restoration"],"sieverID":"6561b347-aaca-4344-90f4-58b5c7420b5c","pagecount":"15","content":"Approximately 95 percent of peatlands in Indonesia have been degraded by forest fires or converted for cultivation. Forest fires release huge volumes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and have caused severe damage to Indonesia's ecosystems and biodiversity, particularly in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Even though understanding post-fire environmental dynamics and biodiversity changes would be highly beneficial in determining restoration processes, baseline analyses on biodiversity and soil moisture content in burnt and degraded peatlands remain limited. Consequently, this research explores and assesses soil macrofauna diversity and properties, and changes in soil fauna patterns in a burnt peatland area currently undergoing restoration with the establishment of a bioenergy plantation in Buntoi Village, Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Results from the study site show peatland fires causing hugely reduced numbers of soil mesofauna and macrofauna individuals, and bioenergy tree survival rates being higher in plots on unburnt than burnt peatland. Fauna species diversity, gauged using the Shannon diversity index (H), was lower in burnt than unburnt areas, though some orders -such as Hymenoptera -appear to adapt well to burned areas as we found them in both burnt and unburnt plots. Results show a significant correlation between peat fires and biodiversity. We also found that the more seriously fire damaged bioenergy trees were, the higher the likelihood of biodiversity decreasing. Generally, soil moisture and nutrient availability are key factors supporting higher soil invertebrate diversity in unburnt areas. However, results showed no significant correlation between soil moisture content and soil fauna diversity in our research site. In conclusion, understanding the severe impacts of fire on peatlands will make people more aware and less likely to use fire for clearing and preparing peatlands, thereby prolonging their use.Tropical peatlands play a significant role in global ecosystem dynamics by providing ecological, social and climate benefits (Harrison et al. 2019). Around 50-70% of the world's wetland areas are peatlands, which cover a total area of approximately 38 million hectares (ha). Many of these peatlands (14.9 million ha) are located in Indonesia, with provinces in Sumatra and Kalimantan having the highest proportions of peatlands at 34-43% and 28-32%, respectively (BBPPSDLP 2011). Southeast Asia's peatlands are recognized globally as reservoirs of biodiversity (Posa et al. 2011).However, peatlands have undergone drastic transformations and been critically degraded by forest fires and land conversion. Forest fires are a key driver of peatland deforestation and degradation, release huge volumes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and have caused severe damage to Indonesia's ecosystems and biodiversity, particularly in Kalimantan and Sumatra (Saharjo 2016). Severe peat fires on drained peatlands converted for cultivation in Indonesia have caused serious environmental and economic damage both locally and globally (Carmenta et al. 2017). Peat forests in Indonesia were degraded at a rate of around 2.6% per year between 2007 and 2015 (Miettinen et al. 2016), and only 4,000 km 2 (7.4%) of Kalimantan's 57,000 km 2 of peatlands remained in pristine condition in 2015 (Miettinen et al. 2016). More than 90 percent of Indonesia's peat swamp forests have been devastated or degraded (FAO 2012), accounting for the largest proportion of degradation among all forest types (Budiharta et al. 2014).Fires in forests and peatlands disturb and dry out soil, adversely affecting micro-and macroorganism populations and diversity. In forests and peatlands, soil biodiversity is essential and critical for improving and supporting soil quality (Barrow 1991;Saharjo and Nurhayati 2006;Suciatmih 2006;FAO 2008;Saharjo et al. 2011), ecological functions and ecosystem services (Anderson 1975;Usher et al. 1979;Giller 1996). Following a peatland fire, soil fauna require a significant length of time to recover, but also contribute to soil recovery and fertility, and improved properties and condition (Wasis et al. 2018) as they have both direct and indirect effects on nutrient cycling and litter decomposition (Winsome 2005). Even though understanding post-fire environmental dynamics and biodiversity changes would be highly beneficial in determining restoration processes, baseline analyses on biodiversity and soil moisture content in burnt and degraded peatlands remain limited. This research aimed to identify soil macrofauna diversity in a peatland area restored with bioenergy trees in Buntoi Village, Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia, and compare this diversity in burnt and unburnt peatland areas. Environmental indicators relating to soil properties were also assessed and compared between the burnt and unburnt peatlands. An objective was to establish baselines for faunal diversity, soil biology and change in pre-and post-fire peatlands restored with bioenergy trees. Kalimantan and Sumatra in Indonesia, which form parts of the Sundaland biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. 2000), are estimated to host up to 15,000 flowering plant, 37 endemic bird, and 44 mammal species (MacKinnon et al. 1996). IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) has classified 415 of the regions' species as threatened. The research site in Buntoi Village, Central Kalimantan Province is located at 2° 048' 059.4\" S and 114° 010' 47.3\" E (Figure 1) and has a humid tropical climate (BVG 2014). Larges areas of forest and peatlands in Buntoi Village were severely degraded as a result of fires in 2015. Since then, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) has established the area as one of the most important pilot project sites for planting bioenergy crops as a means for peatland restoration. In February 2016, CIFOR established two hectares of trial plots for the bioenergy tree species Calophyllum inophyllum, known locally as nyamplung, to measure its suitability for planting on degraded peatlands in Central Kalimantan. The trial plots were affected by fires twice in 2019. Trial Plot 1 was badly damaged during the first fire in July 2019, while the second fire in October that year affected trial Plot 2. The two plots in the twohectare trial plot area are separated by a canal.Nyamplung trees were planted on the two-hectare plantation area with a plant spacing of 8 m x 8 m. A canal separates the plantation area into two one-hectare plots. A random sampling method was used to collect soil fauna specimens (Goehring et al. 2002;Witmer et al. 2003;Mathews et al. 2004). Sampling was conducted twice. The first samples were collected in August 2019 following a fire in Plot 1, while the second samples were collected in November 2019 after another fire in Plot 2. Equal numbers of sampling points (12) were established in each plot. In Figure 2 below, L1 to L12 represent planting rows, while each box with an 'X' represents a single tree. To ensure uniqueness in data collection, three different sampling point positions were employed: near trees; between trees in the same row; and between trees in different rows.  This study focused primarily on soil mesofauna and macrofauna. Soil macrofauna comprises insects, earthworms, isopods, molluscs and Myriapoda above 2 mm in size, while mesofauna consists of arthropods, mites, enchytraeids and Collembola below 2 mm in size (Maftu'ah et al. 2005). The pitfall trap method (Domingo-quero 2010) was used to trap surface macro/mesofauna. Pitfall containers were positioned by digging holes measuring 15 cm deep and 7 cm in diameter at the selected sampling points. Containers were placed at the defined sampling points and labelled. The pitfall traps collected hypogean and epigean fauna that crawled over the surface. These traps, called wet traps/kill traps and equipped with killing-preservative liquid, were used for the study. Considering the hazardous effects of chemical preservation (Weeks and McIntyre 1997), liquid detergent mixed with water was employed as it reduced surface tension allowing captured fauna to sink (Domingo-quero, 2010). The traps were set for 24 hours, following which the trapped fauna was hand sorted in the field (Suin 1997;Maftu'ah et al. 2005). Once sorted, trapped individuals were preserved in vials filled with 95% alcohol (FAO 2008) and delivered to the CIFOR laboratory in Bogor for identification.For the first stage of identification, images of collected specimens were taken using a microscope fitted with a Leica MC170 HD camera operated with the help of Leica software (LEICA 2011). The Leica Application Suite (LAS) Version 4.4.0 used for this study provided easy-to-use research analysis with real-time, high-resolution images. Images focusing on key body parts (legs, wings/elytra) at different levels of magnification were necessary for identification at the order level. The second stage of identification employed a taxonomic system following morphological character according to Zhang (2011) by referencing the identification key for macro/mesofauna developed by Dr Antov Potapov from the University of Göttingen, Germany.Soil samples were collected from random sampling points at depths of 5 cm in August 2019 and November 2019 (Figure 2). Three replicate soil samples were taken from each sampling point and collected to examine their soil moisture content. In addition to soil moisture, the samples were collected to assess soil properties such as bulk density, soil temperature, pH, total micro-organisms, and water table depth in burnt and unburnt peat soils meeting standard criteria for environmental degradation under Republic of Indonesia Government Regulation No. 4/2001 (Wasis et al. 2019).Soil fauna biodiversity data was processed using a species diversity index (�) and calculated using the Shannon-Wiener index (Shannon 1948) to show species biodiversity level (Ludwig and Reynold 1988). Species richness and species evenness data were also generated by employing the Margalef index (Margalef 1958) and Pielou index (Pielou 1966), respectively. The gravimetric method (Reynolds 1970) was used to determine soil water content by drying soil samples at 105°C for 48 hours. Gravimetric water content (\uD835\uDF3D � ) is the water mass per dry soil mass. Measurements were taken firstly by weighing soil samples (\uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC61 ); dehydrating them, and weighing the resulting dried soil (\uD835\uDC5A \uD835\uDC51\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC66 ) (Bilskie and Scientific 2001). Similarly, soil pH was analysed by using a 1:2 ratio soil water suspension method (Jackson 1973).A total of 90 samples were collected from the four plot categories (A, B, C and D). Initially, research analysed correlations between variables with 95% confidence intervals to explore whether or not the different variables overlapped. Next, mean H and mean difference were calculated by category, by fire occurrence and by survival rate. STATA Version 14 was used to perform the data analyses.A total of 649 soil fauna individuals were trapped during the study; 554 individuals from the first sampling period and 95 individuals from the second. A total of 24 species were collected from the first sampling period and 12 species from the second. These were categorized by order for comparative analysis. Later, during the laboratory identification process, they were classified as 14 orders of soil fauna (Figure 3). The most prevalent order was Hymenoptera (Formicidae), which was found in every plot. Of the 14 identified orders, only two -Coleoptera (Staphylinidae) and Schizomida -were exclusive to the unburnt area. Numbers of individuals of every order in the burnt and unburnt areas as well as diversity indices for these areas are presented in Table 1. The Shannon diversity index showed greater species diversity (�) at sampling points where tree survival rates were higher than where they were lower (Table 1). Results show a significant correlation between peat fire occurrence and biodiversity (Table 2). We found the greater the fire damage to bioenergy trees, the higher the likelihood of diminished biodiversity. Further, peat fire had a detrimental impact on species richness.Note: A is the first sampling of Plot 1 (burnt), B is the second sampling of Plot 1 (burnt), C is the first sampling of Plot 2 (unburnt), D is the second sampling of Plot 2 (burnt)Table 1. Soil fauna species diversity, species richness and species evenness A is the first sampling of Plot 1 (burnt); B is the second sampling of Plot 1 (burnt); C is the first sampling of Plot 2 (unburnt); and D is the second sampling of Plot 2 (burnt).Average diversity index (\uD835\uDEE8 ) value was highest for category C, where no fire had occurred (Table 3). By comparing the mean \uD835\uDEE8 values of categories A and B, we concluded that diversity recovers with time. Diversity index (\uD835\uDEE8 ) values become higher as the level of damage decreases. Table 4 shows whether mean differences in diversity indices (\uD835\uDEE8 ) were significant.  * significant at a 90% confidence level; **highly significant at a 95% confidence level; *** very highly significant at a 99% confidence levelSoil moisture content for each category is presented in Table 5. Soil moisture content was higher during the second round of sampling than the first as rainfall was also higher. However, water table depth fell after fire. Table 5 shows the lower the survival rate, the lower the water level (water table depth). Higher species richness and species diversity were recorded from samples taken in the unburnt plot than in those affected by fire, clearly signifying that peatland fires have significant impacts on soil mesofauna and macrofauna communities. A similar study in Mount Walat Education Forest in Sukabumi District, West Java Province, Indonesia, showed forest and land fires resulting in a decrease in soil macrofauna by an order of 17.65% (Syaufina 2008). Peat fire impacts can be even more severe, resulting in soil fauna mortality of 100% (Wasis et al. 2019). Another study in Indonesia also indicated similar results, with the average diversity index for soil fauna being lower in a burnt plot (0.76) than an unburnt plot (1.76) (Syaufina and Ainuddin 2011).Burning peat increases soil porosity, decreases available water, increases soil permeability, and causes higher mortality in flora, fauna and microorganisms (Wasis et al. 2018). Burnt and dried peat soil is difficult to restore, and many lost soil fauna species are unlikely to return (Wibowo 2009). The presence of specific aboveground vegetation in unburnt areas helps in maintaining a greater diversity of soil organisms (Brennan et al. 2006). Unburnt habitats have displayed higher soil macrofaunal diversity in primary forest, palm oil plantation and industrial plantation forest ecosystems in comparison with burnt plots (Wasis et al. 2018), which supports the findings of this study.Of the 12 orders recorded in burnt plots in our study area, individuals of Order Hymenoptera (Formicidae), representing most ant species, were recorded in high numbers (Figure 3, A-B) and were well adapted (Figure 3, C-D). This is because invertebrates, such as some ants, beetles, termites and spiders, can adapt to burning regimes (Swengel 2001) and are more likely to survive and evade heat because of belowground activity. In addition, burning and other disturbances, such as logging, provide open habitats as more favourable environments for ants (Andersen et al. 2009).Soil moisture availability and related variables, including water table depth, are critical abiotic factors that affect soil animal communities and support soil invertebrates (York 1999;New et al. 2010;Keith 2012;Sylvain 2013). Soil moisture availability impacts soil fauna directly and indirectly by restructuring soil food webs and ecosystems (Sylvain 2013) -directly as fauna uses water for survival, and indirectly as soil moisture impacts the plants that fauna rely on (Xu et al. 2015). Given that burning and forest fires lead to topsoil moisture reduction and higher insolation levels (York 1999), we expected a negative response for fires on soil moisture. However, the study found no statistically significant correlation between soil moisture and peatland fires (Table 5). One possible explanation for this is that rainfall was higher in the burnt areas, resulting in more soil moisture (Table 5). Other reasons might be seasonal variables, soil nutrients, etc. In this regard, more comprehensive research into relationships between changes in soil conditions (nutrients, bacterial diversity, soil temperature, etc.) and soil fauna diversity is necessary.Fires in Central Kalimantan Province have degraded peatlands and changed their biodiversity patterns. The peatland fires on community land in Buntoi Village adversely affected biodiversity indices and survival rates, thus having significant impacts on soil fauna biodiversity. Water table depth fell following the fires. We were able to establish which species are resilient and which species are vulnerable to fires in peatlands (Figure 3 and Table 1).Overall, our results indicate that the changes in biodiversity and soil properties meet standard criteria for environmental degradation under Government Regulation No. 4/2001. Understanding the severe impacts of fire on peatlands will make people more aware and less likely to use fire for clearing and preparing peatlands, thereby prolonging their use.This research had a number of limitations: (1) soil fauna was only identified to the order level due to time constraints; (2) sampling was only conducted twice due to budget and time constraints; and (3) no comparative research was conducted in other peatlands with different soil properties.For more detailed insights into fire impacts on soil mesofauna and macrofauna communities, an intensive study with more replications and soil assessment considerations is recommended for future research. Comparisons of soil fauna biodiversity in different types of peatlands are also recommended for further study.","tokenCount":"2738"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8205b7c33f1c381d178ce3d6771958bd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c614bca-ac19-45dd-95af-3be1ca6389c3/retrieve","id":"1204082224"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1bf2b502-4ff3-4f12-a73d-8149ba99fec1","pagecount":"112","content":"3 to 32 x 10 -2). In the case of Salmonella, the respective probabilities of illness for healthy females eating at home and restaurants were (1.8 x 10 -3 to 9 x 10 -2) and (1.2 x 10 -3 to 6 x 10 -2), respectively while for healthy males they were (1.8 x 10 -3 to 9 x 10 -2) and (2.7 x 10 -3 to 13 x 10 -2), respectively. The risk of illness for immunosuppressed males and females from consuming contaminated beef is considerably higher. This analysis suggested a high and unacceptable risk of illness; for people consuming beef once a week, the most optimistic scenario suggested healthy adults have around a one in three chance of falling ill from toxigenic E. coli or Salmonella each year. Although results are preliminary and require further research, these initial findings confirm stakeholder concern over the importance of these two hazards in beef.xi: Comparing knowledge, attitude and practice of beef hygiene between men and women butchers .... Table 9:        4: Hypothesised scenario pathway by which the target population would be at risk from pathogens. ... Figure 5: The impact of the initial bacterial load on the concentration of E. coli in subsequent events. ............ Figure 6: The impact of the initial bacterial load on the concentration of Salmonella in subsequent events. .... Figure 7: Relative frequency of the probability of illness among females who are exposed at the restaurant. ..    The World Bank is preparing a project on Integrated Animal and Human Health Management for Nigeria. The project will have four components to be implemented by the Federal and State Departments of Veterinary Services and Public Health. The State Departments will implement community-level activities in selected Local Government Areas (LGA).The strategic framework of the proposed project has four objectives:1. Build capacity to search for, identify and prevent newly emerging diseases.organisms to humans. 3. Develop effective, integrated animal and public health management infrastructures (including smallfarm biosecurity, grassroots surveillance, rural food safety and sustainable health services) at the federal, state and LGA levels to minimize disease threats. 4. Reduce the impact of re-emerging livestock diseases that seriously affect the livelihoods of rural populations and thereby have a pro-poor objective.To provide a reliable basis for determining returns to investment in the proposed project, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) was invited to assist in investigating the extent of contamination along the meat chain in Nigeria and costs of food poisoning from consuming poor microbial quality meat. ILRI is a member of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research with a global mandate for research on livestock issues affecting poor people in developing countries. The study built on a series of logical steps starting with a stakeholders' workshop which was followed by an extensive review of available literature on key meat-borne hazards in Nigeria; with both activities indicating greater concern over the risk of consuming contaminated beef. Beef value chain and hospital surveys were then conducted for hazard identification, understanding the socioeconomic aspects of beef safety and determining costs associated with treatment of diarrhoea. Information from these primary and secondary sources fed into the quantitative risk assessment (QRA) model to estimate the risk of illness associated with the consumption of contaminated beef by people differentiated by sex, age class and health status. Finally and based on inputs from the foregoing, the cost of treatment and lost productivity was estimated using Monte Carlo stochastic simulation to take into account uncertainty and variability that might have been introduced by the quality of data. We then used data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) to estimate additional costs from loss of statistical lives based on the concept of Disability-adjusted life years (DALY).The study estimated the total cost associated with food-borne diarrhoea at US$3.6 billion; and the cost associated with beef-borne diarrhoea at US$156 million. DALY lost from diarrhoea are estimated at 67,712, corresponding to a statistical value of US$2.7 billion; while the DALYs lost from beef-associated disease correspond to 13,542 with a statistical value of US$542 million.We discuss the other aspects of cost of beef-borne illness which were not captured because of inadequate data but which are likely to be similar or greater to the costs calculated. Chronic and non-gastrointestinal illness associated with food-borne disease is less common than gastrointestinal illness but more severe, and experts consider it to have an equivalent cost. Other costs of beef-borne disease, which were not quantified, include reduced animal productivity, costs of control and trade impacts.This initial estimate suggests beef-borne disease is costing Nigeria US$854 million per year. Furthermore, a reduction of between 20-70% in beef-borne disease is feasible.Recommendations are then given on risk-based approaches for reducing beef-borne disease in Nigeria.• There is a lack of information on the risk to human health, cost of illness, the relative importance of different hazards, or risk factors for food-borne diseases in Nigeria. • However, evidence indicates there are high levels of zoonotic and food-borne disease in Nigeria, likely to impose a huge burden of health on consumers as well as all actors involved in food value chains. • It appears that bacterial pathogens are the biggest problem and the most important of these, as elsewhere in the world, are zoonotic. • There is a high and unacceptable risk of illness from toxigenic E. coli or Salmonella from beef consumption each year and a high level of consumer concern over the quality of the meat they buy. Consumers who have less concern are most likely to report gastrointestinal illness. • Information asymmetries between beef sellers and consumers may result in value chain failures in delivering safe meat. • Abattoirs appear to be a key point where contamination occurs.• Traditional approaches to food safety centred on infrastructure provision and command-and-control regulation have not led to sustainable improvements in food safety. • Newer approaches based on risk rather than hazard, and taking into account incentives for behaviour change as well as governance structures, are 'better bets' for sustainably improving the safety of beef value chains. • Because gender influences engagement in all aspects of the 'farm to fork' risk pathway, gender-aware strategies are likely to be more effective. • Marked and significant differences between regions implying food safety interventions should be targeted for regions.The first chapter sets out the justification for the study, describes the approach used (risk analysis and socioeconomic analysis) and sources of data.The second chapter describes the process of engaging stakeholders in the assessment and getting their perspectives on food-safety issues. An initial workshop confirmed that experts, academics and practitioners in veterinary public health, as well as the private sector are concerned over food safety in Nigeria. Beef was seen as an important value chain in all parts of Nigeria. Participants identified 21 important hazards (biological and chemical) and considered Salmonella spp., toxigenic Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium bovis to be key hazards. They also endorsed a risk-based approach to assessing, managing and communicating food-borne hazards. After the field work, a second stakeholder consultation was conducted and comments and suggestions incorporated in the final version of the report.Chapter 3 consists of a literature review on food-borne disease in Nigeria. The main conclusion was that in Nigeria, as in most developing countries, we lack accurate information on the prevalence and impact of foodborne disease. However, we know that diarrhoea, the most common manifestation of food-borne disease is a major cause of sickness and death. Studies agree that the most important causes of diarrhoea are toxigenic E. coli, Salmonella spp., rotavirus and Shigella spp. Bacterial causes of diarrhoea (most of which are zoonotic) appear to be of relatively high importance in Nigeria and diseases associated with toxigenic E. coli and nontyphoid salmonellosis are high and increasing confirming the identification of these as key hazards by stakeholders.Studies on hazards in food show high levels of contamination, with meat being particularly problematic. Abattoirs are extremely unhygienic and appear to be a critical point for contamination. Non-diarrhoea associated zoonoses which can be transmitted by food, or are occupational hazards, are also important. In particular, there is strong evidence that tuberculosis, brucellosis, leptospirosis, cystic echinococcosis, anthrax, Q fever and Rift Valley fever (RVF) are endemic zoonoses which impose huge burdens on human health and the livestock economy in Nigeria.While an extensive literature documents a wide range of hazards, there are few studies on risk to human health, cost of illness, the relative importance of different hazards, or risk factors. Moreover, most studies are local and little information exists on national prevalence.Chapter 4 describes a survey of meat safety with the objective of generating up-to-date and representative information on bacteriological quality and risk factors. We collected 200 samples of meat and meat products in two regions. The majority of meat samples (80%) contained unacceptable levels of one or both of the two key hazards surveyed (toxigenic E. coli and Salmonella spp.). Results suggested that the dynamics of the two pathogens are different and further investigation would be needed to undertand transmission and identify control strategies.Meat at the abattoir was highly contaminated and this is obviously a critical point for preventing contamination down the chain. Cooking is considered an important risk mitigating strategy, but although it halved the risk of contamination, the presence of pathogens was still unacceptably high (60% of samples were unacceptable despite cooking). An important finding was that a relatively small proportion of actors generated the majority of risk. This makes a risk-targeted strategy attractive where, by identifying the chains and actors where there is greatest potential for contamination, scarce resources can be allocated to where they will have most impact.x Chapter 5: Socio-economic aspects of beef safety In this chapter, two recent case studies looking at socio-economic aspects of beef safety in Nigeria are summarized. The first looked at the social determinants of meat quality and the link between meat quality and self-reported illness. This study showed the importance of butchers' associations and suggests they may be good entry points for interventions to improve food safety. It also found that even under difficult conditions some groups could achieve better food safety and better health outcomes. Women butchers reported better practices and groups with a high proportion of women had better quality meat. This study showed a high proportion of butchers reporting gastrointestinal illness in the previous two weeks (47%) and a clear relation between meat of poor microbiological quality and higher incidence of gastrointestinal disease (23% more illness in groups with poor quality meat).The second study looked at the knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of beef value chain actors in four sites (Abuja, Enugu, Ibadan and Kaduna). Risky practices were reported by only a minority of consumers but have potentially large impacts on health (e.g. eating cold left-overs; frying for less than 7 minutes; giving left-overs to animals; eating raw meat). False beliefs were common, for example, 88% of people believed that one can tell unsafe beef by its appearance and 96% that cooking beef makes it safe. Most customers (81%) had concerns about the meat they bought (especially hygiene and quality). Consumers who had concerns about safety reported much less illness, and those who believed price is more important than quality had much more. This study showed marked and significant differences between regions, implying food safety interventions should be targeted for regions.Risk enhancing practices of beef sellers include: selling meat over a long period; retaining meat for sale the next day; tasting raw meat; inadequate washing of surfaces; and negligible use of disinfectants. Beef sellers reported more diarrhoea than customers, suggesting they are an at-risk group but also providing an incentive for them to change behaviour. There are belief asymmetries, with most beef sellers agreeing that 'price is more important than quality to consumers' but most consumers disagreeing; moreover, 92% of beef sellers agreeing that 'customers will complain if there are problems with beef' but only 45% of customers agreeing with the same statement.This chapter reports an assessment of the potential risk of illness from the consumption of beef contaminated with toxigenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. in a subpopulation in Nigeria. In the study, we used quantitative risk assessment (QRA) to collate and analyze data from different sources to estimate the risk associated with the consumption of contaminated beef. The effect of uncertainty and variability of the different parameters used in the model on the predicted risk of illness was evaluated using Monte Carlo simulation.The probability of illness for a healthy female from consumption of beef contaminated with toxigenic E. coli at a restaurant ranged from 7 x 10 -3 to 28 x 10 -2 depending on the amount of beef consumed. However, the risk for the same female eating at home was less (5 x 10 -3 to 24 x 10 -2). The estimates of illness were three times higher for immunocompromised females exposed either at the restaurant or at home. We also evaluated the risk for healthy males being exposed at restaurants and their risk was higher than for females under a similar scenario (13 x 10  -3 to 44 x 10 -2 ). A similar trend of reduced risk was observed for men exposed at home (9 x 10 CHAPTER 1Food safety is a significant and growing public health problem in Nigeria and food-borne disease is an important contributor to the huge burden of sickness and death caused by diarrhoea. The Federal Ministry of Health reported 90,000 cases of food poisoning in 2007, which is certainly a gross underestimate. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 200,000 deaths from diarrhoea each year in Nigeria (WHO 2008), as many as 70% of which may be attributable to contaminated food and water.As elsewhere, animal-source foods are probably responsible for most of these cases of food-borne disease. Food safety is a problem from farm to fork. The national ruminant and pig herd and poultry flock have high levels of disease, some of which are transmissible through food. With the partial exception of large, commercial abattoirs, of which only a dozen exist in Nigeria, adequate meat handling practices at the country's thousands of village and town slaughter slabs are virtually absent. Most meat is sold fresh (warm) in markets with no refrigeration by butchers with no or inadequate training. At the consumer level, knowledge, attitudes and practices are not conducive to food safety.The Government of Nigeria (GoN) recognizes the need for improvement in the implementation of its national food hygiene and safety policy in several areas:• effective enforcement of the existing laws relating to food safety;• strengthening infrastructural and managerial capacity in risk analysis;• forging closer inter-ministerial collaboration, cooperation and coordination;• involvement of all stakeholders in policy formulation of the food safety program; and• strengthening the capacity of states and local governments to promote safe and hygienic practices by street food vendors and catering establishments.The World Bank is preparing an Integrated Animal and Human Health Management project for Nigeria. One of the four proposed components aims to address food safety through (a) upgrading biosecurity and meat hygiene in live-bird markets, and (b) upgrading slaughter practices and meat handling hygiene in slaughter facilities and meat markets. Activities include upgrading live-bird markets, state and village-level slaughter facilities and slabs, and meat markets. Upgrading these links in the food safety chain will ensure that entire, integrated chains are developed, safeguarding meat quality from slaughter to consumer.This study was commissioned by the GoN to summarize and generate evidence on the impact of food-borne disease associated with animal source foods.The overall objective of this study was to assess the costs associated with consumption of poor quality meat in Nigeria. Sub-objectives included assessment of:• major hazards associated with meat;• prevalence of meat-borne hazards in livestock, meat and humans;• KAP of meat value chain actors;• health burden of meat-borne disease and other burdens;• appropriate level of protection; and• recommendation of possible approaches to improving meat safety in Nigeria.This introduction provides an overview and summary of materials and methods used in the study; further details are given in the relevant sections.The over-arching methodology was risk analysis, which has been adopted by international and national organizations as the foundation for decision-making about food safety. Risk analysis has three components: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. This study is concerned with assessment of risk and communication of risk to decision-makers. Risk assessment offers a science-based, structured, transparent method for answering the key concerns of policymakers and the public alike: Is it safe? Is it a big and important risk? What efforts are appropriate to reduce the risk? A risk-based perspective informed the literature review and KAP survey and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was used to assess risks of two important microbial hazards namely toxigenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp.Most food produced and consumed in Africa escapes adequate inspection. Food safety policies and regulations have often been adopted from developed countries and proven difficult to translate into practice (Grace et al. 2008). In order to improve food safety, it is important to understand the factors that influence choices made by value chain actors; construct messages that they find both easy-to-understand and motivating; and develop regulations that will likely influence behaviour. We used KAP surveys to better understand the behaviour and motivation of value chain actors.Cost-of-illness studies measure the economic burden of a disease or diseases and hence the amount that could potentially be saved or gained if a disease were to be better controlled or eradicated. Cost of illness includes core costs resulting directly from the illness and other non-health costs. Within each category, there are direct and indirect costs. Direct costs are those for which payments are made, and indirect costs are those for which resources are lost. We used probabilistic modelling to assess direct and some indirect health-related costs.The major components of the study were:• Stakeholder consultation to understand their perspectives and get inputs into designing the studies • Literature review to identify major hazards associated with meat, review evidence on presence and prevalence of these major hazards, and assess the human health impacts associated with hazards • Assessment of knowledge, attitude and practices relating to meat safety and identification of risk factors and control points • Risk assessment to estimate the risks to human health associated with meat-borne hazards and appropriate level of protection (ALOP) • Cost-of-illness assessment to estimate the cost of illness in terms of work lost and health careFive major sources of data and information were used as follows:1. Expert consultations (workshop and key informant meetings) 2. Systematic literature review of published and grey literature 3. Re-analysis of previous ILRI studies on food-borne disease in Nigeria 4. Review of hospital records 5. Rapid assessment of meat value chains at producer, intermediary and consumer levels in four representative areas (Ibadan, Kaduna, Enugu and Abuja)The report is presented in eight chapters following the logical sequence of the major components of the study (as outlined in Section 1.3.2); with each subsequent chapter drawing from and building on previous chapters. After this introductory chapter (Chapter 1), Chapter 2 deals with the stakeholder consultation which considered the initial project design and offered directions including insights on data sources and the implementation of the associated field surveys, while Chapter 3 presents the results of the literature review.In Chapter 4, evidence on presence and prevalence of two major hazards, Salmonella spp. and toxigenic E. coli is assembled from primary surveys of the beef value chain in Nigeria. Based on a previous ILRI study and further evidence collected from field surveys, Chapter 5 examines socioeconomic factors affecting beef safety using the KAP approach. Chapter 6 models the human health impacts associated with the hazards identified, risk pathways and assesses the ALOP while Chapter 7 combines all the results from the foregoing with hospital survey information to compute the costs of illness associated with food-and meat-borne disease in Nigeria. As each chapter could be considered a standalone in some sense, a final chapter (Chapter 8) is included to summarize the overall findings and conclusions.Stakeholder consultation • Identification of hazards to be investigated • Scenario pathway through which the public in Nigeria would be put at risk • Parameters needed to perform the quantitative risk assessmentThe initial discussion focused on which food value chain to consider in the study and consensus was reached, after discussion with the ILRI staff present at the meeting, to focus the investigation on meat. Although information on the sources of food-borne disease is lacking in Nigeria, there was general consensus that animal-source foods (fish, eggs, meat and milk) are the most risky. And, as discussed later, this has been found to be the case for countries which keep detailed records on foods implicated in food-borne disease. Meat was selected because it is a major component of diets, and there was a more extensive literature on meat safety.Narrowing down further, it was agreed to focus on beef as this is consumed in all parts of Nigeria and has been implicated in several food safety outbreaks (ILRI 2009). Other food value chains also require investigation, but it was agreed that focusing on the beef chain would be an important first step, while the approaches and tools used could serve as models for investigating value chains of other types of food.The group further agreed on a systematic approach by which the perceived hazards would be listed, stratified by their nature (bacterial, parasitic, viral and chemical), and selected for further investigation in the proposed study. The identified hazards were streamlined by elimination using three criteria:1. Perception of importance among stakeholders 2. Availability of data on prevalence and impacts in animals and humans 3. Economic importance Application of the criteria to each hazard was based on consensus among stakeholders. The categories and list of perceived hazards are shown in Table 1.Among the pathogens listed, the following key hazards were suggested: Salmonella typhimurium and S. enteritidis, E. coli O157:H7, and Mycobacterium bovis. In addition, Campylobacter spp. was considered important but there was a concern that data at human level might not be available. The discussion focussed next on the value chains. The group came up with the following stratification scheme based on their perception on meat consumption based on agro-ecological zones:1. Humid: beef, chicken, pork 2. Sub-humid: beef, chicken, pork 3. Northern Guinea savannah: beef, chicken, mutton 4. Sudan savannah: beef, chicken, muttonIt is noteworthy that beef was considered important in all regions.A conceptual pathway model was then developed for the purpose of focusing the data collection efforts. Figure 1 outlines the process through which humans would be put at risk to specific hazards from the consumption of a particular type of meat. Data are needed at each event on the respective pathogen occurrence (P), concentration (C), and practices that exacerbate or inhibit occurrence and concentration of the pathogen. In addition, data are needed on the risk of the identified hazards at the human level. Such data would include the incidence of the medical conditions caused by these hazards, the food matrix associated with them, and the population at risk.The farm-to-fork pathway for meat in Nigeria.Stakeholders identified the sources of information to be consulted, including literature (published and grey), hospital records and project documents. Given the paucity of information, it was considered necessary to conduct a rapid appraisal to generate additional information. The group agreed that this rapid appraisal would adapt KAP questionnaires and checklists that have been tested in similar ILRI studies. It was agreed that the survey would target four regions (Abuja, Enugu, Ibadan and Kaduna) and include slaughterhouses (butchers), meat sellers, meat shops, restaurants and consumers.The stakeholder engagement confirmed that experts and practitioners in veterinary public health as well as the private sector are concerned over food safety in Nigeria. Beef was seen as an important value chain in all parts of Nigeria. Participants identified 21 important hazards (biological and chemical) and considered Salmonella spp., toxigenic E. coli and Mycobacterium bovis to be key hazards. They also endorsed a risk-based approach to assessing, managing and communicating food-borne hazards.CHAPTER 3This section presents an overview of the meat value chain with particular reference to beef and identifies major hazards associated with meat, especially those associated with microbiological (bacteria, protozoa, parasites etc.) contamination.We first review the literature on the importance and aetiology (cause) of food-borne disease. Food-borne disease is one of the most important health problems in Nigeria; most cases are due to bacteria and zoonotic bacteria are among the most common causes. We next review the presence of hazards in food in Nigeria, finding that very high levels are present. Then we review evidence on presence of food-borne hazards along the meat value chain, finding many problems at the point of slaughter and sale. Finally, we consider specific food-borne diseases, summarizing evidence for their presence in animals and people.Terms of reference were drawn up outlining the databases to be consulted, and the search terms to be used to identify relevant abstracts for retrieval. A database was constructed where key information from studies was summarized. In addition, a search was done in the libraries of Faculties of Veterinary Medicine of the following Nigerian universities to abstract all postgraduate work on meat hygiene:Abstracts from postgraduate theses were then synthesized with results of search of peer-reviewed and grey literature along four sub-themes namely:• food-borne diseases in people in Nigeria;• presence of food-borne pathogens in food;• animal processing plants in Nigeria; and• food-borne and other zoonoses in animals.The WHO reports indicate that illness due to contaminated food is the most widespread health problem in the world and an important cause of reduced socio-economic productivity. Food-borne infection is endemic in Nigeria. The 1997 Local Government Health System profile for Nigeria on reported leading causes of deaths in different zones showed that diarrhoeal cases accounted for 25% of mortality followed by malaria (21.0%) and accidents (9.8%) (FAO/WHO 2002).In Nigeria, as in most developing nations, there is no organized system for monitoring outbreaks of food-borne infections in humans (WHO 2007). Food-borne diseases in Nigeria appear to occur predominantly as isolated sporadic cases rather than taking the form of outbreaks and many, if not most, cases of food-borne infections are unrecognized, un-investigated and undocumented. Moreover, many patients do not seek help from hospitals but may rather engage in self-medication or use medicinal herbs. It is, therefore, difficult to determine the actual incidence of food-borne infections. However, diarrhoea is a good indicator of food-borne disease and better data exist for the prevalence and impact of diarrhoea in Nigeria.Worldwide, diarrhoea is the second biggest killer of children under five years of age, accounting for 1.3 million deaths a year. Almost half of all the deaths of children under the age of five occurred in just five countries, of which Nigeria is one. The concentration of child deaths in a small set of countries is striking (Taylor et al. 2010). This result is partly related to the large populations of children younger than five years in these countries, but also suggests that epidemiological, environmental and/or socio-economic conditions may underly the high burden of diarrhoea in Nigeria.The GBD study provides a comprehensive and comparable assessment of mortality and loss of health due to diseases, injuries and risk factors for all regions of the world (WHO 2008). The overall burden of disease is assessed using the DALY, a time-based measure that combines years of life lost due to premature mortality and years of life lost due to time lived in states of less than full health. The burden of diarrhoeal illness in Nigeria is 6,487,000 DALY and is further discussed in Chapter 7.In developing countries, typically 50-60% of diarrhoea cases are bacterial in origin. In Nigeria, the proportion may be higher at 65-80% (Ifeyeni et al. 2010). Most of the bacterial causes of diarrhoea are zoonotic, that is, transmissible between animals and humans.The most important bacterial zoonoses are: toxigenic E. coli infection, campylobacteriosis, cryptosporidiosis, Staphylococcus aureus infection, salmonellosis, listeriosis, toxoplasmosis, and Bacillus cereus infection.Important non-zoonotic bacterial causes of diarrhoea include typhoid and cholera. Some pathogens (such as S. aureus) have both a zoonotic and an anthroponotic transmission cycle. Others such as B. cereus may be environmental contaminants as well as zoonoses. This complexity makes it difficult to estimate the relative importance of infected animals, contaminated environments and infected people as sources of infection. In Nigeria, as in other developing countries, even if food-borne zoonotic pathogens are detected in humans they are often not traced back to the likely animal source.In some countries, viral causes of diarrhoea predominate but these appear to be less important than bacterial diseases in Nigeria. Worldwide, rotavirus is the most important viral cause of diarrhoea in children and is nonzoonotic. Other viruses implicated in diarrhoea include astrovirus, calicivirus and adenovirus.Parasitic infections are common in Nigeria but are less often implicated in diarrhoea. The most important parasitic zoonosis is caused by the protozoa Cryptosporidium parvum (which can cause diarrhoea). There is some controversy on the zoonotic status of Giardia lamblia, another protozoan parasite. Worldwide, Entamoeba histolytica, the cause of amoebic dysentery, is another important protozoan cause of diarrhoea (and zoonoses of non-human primates). However, it appears to be less important in Nigeria (Fadeyi et al. 2010). In Nigeria, the prevalence of human intestinal helminthiasis is high but these are usually acquired from the soil and not food. Echinococcosis and cysticercosis are important zoonotic parasitoses.Only a few studies have attempted to identify the relative importance of different pathogens responsible for diarrhoea in Nigeria (Table 2). These suggest toxigenic E. coli is the most important cause of diarrhoea, followed by rotavirus. Other important causes include Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Cryptosporidium parvum and Staphylococcus aureus. A larger number of studies have looked at specific pathogens or hazards. We summarise the findings for toxigenic E. coli and Salmonella spp. as these were considered the two priority meat-borne hazards by stakeholders.Toxigenic Escherichia coli (TEC) strains are important food-borne pathogens responsible for gastroenteritis with manifestations of crampy abdominal pains, bloody diarrhoea and kidney failure especially in children (Paton and Paton 1998). Cattle are important reservoirs of TEC and contaminated meat is a major vehicle for its transmission from animals to humans (Paton and Paton 1998). The incidence of TEC organisms in human cases of diarrhoea in Nigeria is said to be on the increase (Smith et al. 2009). Ogunsanya et al. (1994) found TEC more prevalent in diarrhoeic children (5.1%) than in the control non-diarrhoeic patients (3%). Olorunshola et al. (2000) investigated the prevalence of E.coli O157:H7 in 100 patients with diarrhoea by stool culture in Lagos, Nigeria. Six (6%) of the 100 samples examined were positive for TEC O157:H7. Five of the six patients were children below five years of age and one was a teenager. Local fast-food restaurants commonly referred to as \"bukkas\" were regarded as likely sources of infection. In southeastern Nigeria, seven TEC isolates belonging to serotypes O26, O111, O138 and O157 were isolated from 520 diarrhoeic faecal samples from patients with acute diarrhoeal disease in Enugu and Onitsha (Nweze 2009). In Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, bloody diarrhoea accounted for 31% of all cases of diarrhoea in humans (Akinjogunla et al. 2009). TEC strains were more prevalent in females (68.4%) than in males (30.6%). Incidence of TEC was high in people within age group 1 -15 years old (95%), 16 -30 years old (80%) and 46 -60 years old (70%) but comparatively low in people within age group 31 -45 (55%) and 61 years old and above (45%) (Akinjogunla et al. 2009). Smith et al. (2009) reported the prevalence of TEC O157 in human stool samples to be 31.6%. The prevalence in female in different age groups ranged from 0% in women aged 40-49 years to 19% in those aged 0-9 years. In males, the prevalence ranged from 0.0% in those aged 30-49 years to 11.9% in those aged 0-9 years (Smith et al. 2009). A significantly higher prevalence of TEC O157 was observed in Lagos (35.0%) with greater rate of meat consumption and more eateries than in Zaria (23.7%) which had a lower rate of meat consumption and fewer eateries (Smith et al. 2009).Salmonella: In many sub-Saharan African countries, community-acquired bacteraemia is a major cause of high morbidity and death among children especially those from resource-poor settings (Kariuki et al. 2006). Zoonotic non-typhoidal Salmonellae (NTS) account for a steadily increasing proportion of these infections and represent about 20-50% of cases. Most individuals infected with NTS experience mild gastrointestinal illness involving diarrhoea, chills, abdominal cramps, fever, head and body aches, nausea and vomiting. Infections are contracted through food poisoning and are usually self-limiting (Kariuki et al. 2006). In most cases, outbreaks of NTS infection are caused by Salmonella enterica serotype typhimurium (S. typhimurium) and Salmonella enterica serotype enteritidis (S. enteritidis) (Kariuki et al. 2006). A variety of foods have been implicated as vehicles transmitting salmonellosis to humans among which are meat and other animal products.Contamination can occur at multiple steps along the food chain (Kariuki et al. 2006). Ojeniyi et al. (1986)   (Akinyemi et al. 2007). Ezeaku (1994) reported an overall detection rate of 1.6% of Salmonella spp. in both diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic faeces from humans in Nsukka, Nigeria. The prevalence in non-diarrhoeic samples (5.2%) was higher than in diarrhoeic samples (0.7%). In Akure, 14 isolates of Salmonella enteritidis were obtained from 100 faecal samples comprising 60 from patients and 40 from apparently healthy pupils (Adegunloye 2006). Disseminated infections with Salmonella typhimurium, S. enteritidis, S. arizona, S. dublin and other NTS serotypes were recognized early in the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic (Smith et al. 1985). Six (3.0%) NTS isolates comprising four Salmonella typhimurium and two Salmonella enteritidis were recovered from 201 blood samples from HIV-positive patients while three Salmonella typhimurium (6.2%) were isolated from 48 stool samples (Adeleye et al. 2008).Assessing the presence and level of hazards in food is an important part of risk assessment and we summarize the findings of the literature review for Nigeria in Appendix 1. The conclusion of the review is that there are very high levels of biological and other hazards in foods sold in Nigeria and that meat is particularly risky.For example, Ukut et al. (2010) reported a high level of contamination of fresh meat from two major markets in Calabar, Nigeria. A total of 36 different bacterial isolates belonging to eight genera were detected. A study on beef found Salmonella serovars present at 2-8% (Orji et al. 2005), while a more recent study found 11% of beef samples were contaminated with Salmonella spp. (Okono et al. 2010). As summarized in the appendix, poultry, fish, dairy products, soups and prepared foods are also frequently highly contaminated.As a generality, those studies that look for hazards in food in Africa find them (Grace et al. 2008). However, it is often difficult to interpret and compare the studies as in many cases presence of pathogens is reported rather than concentration; and where concentration is given this is not related to national or international standards.Moreover, while contaminated food is always a hazard, the risk to human health depends on the riskenhancing and risk-reducing processes and practices along the 'point of sale' to 'point of consumption' risk pathway. For example, in parts of East Africa raw milk is highly contaminated with Brucella pathogens but because the practice of boiling milk is almost universal, the risk to consumers is low (Grace et al. 2008).In the past, food regulation and inspection were mainly based on the level of pathogens in food. It is increasingly realised that this is a blunt approach and that assessing the risk to human health is much more constructive and useful. An important concept from risk analysis is that there is no such thing as 'zero risk' and because risk reduction has costs there is an 'appropriate level of protection' which society is willing to support. For example, when the nutrition of many poor consumers is dependent on cheap food and the livelihoods of many poor producers are dependent on marketing animals, it may be unrealistic to demand highly costly standards of food safety.The abattoir environment and slaughtering processes play vital roles in determining the wholesomeness and safety of meat. Unhygienic practices in abattoirs and during post-process handling are associated with potential health risk to consumers due to the presence of pathogens in meat and environmental contamination (Abdullahi et al. 2006). Abattoir operations generate large quantities of waste which constitutes a major source of environmental pollution. Improper management of water is responsible for pollution of water bodies with an increased risk of water-borne disease in humans. Working in abattoirs can also result in occupational disease and injury.Many slaughterhouses in Nigeria are characterized by lack of potable water, proper waste disposal facilities, and sanitary inspectors (Okoli et al. 2006). Essential infrastructure and equipment are generally lacking. There is inadequate maintenance and surfaces and equipment are damaged and dirty. One study found 15-27% prevalence of Salmonella spp. on slaughtering tables, washing basins, butchering knives and workers' hands (Amaechi and Ezeronye 2006).There is typically no separation between clean and dirty areas and no practice of systems such as Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) which can reduce hazards. Animals are often slaughtered and eviscerated on the floor because of the absence of mechanical or manual hoists. This is a major source of contamination (Adeyemo et al. 2009). According to the report of Adeyemo (2002), meat safety and environmental sanitation measures at Bodija (Ibadan) abattoir are grossly inadequate thereby giving room for contamination and exposure of humans to pathogens. Animals are slaughtered and processed amidst heaps of waste materials such as bones and rumen contents accumulated from previous operations (Okoli et al. 2006).Veterinary inspection is often inadequate. At Bodija (Ibadan) abattoir, ante-mortem examination of animals to be slaughtered is not conducted. Animals are led straight to the slaughter slab after off-loading from the truck. Post-mortem examination is inadequate, perfunctory, limited to a very few number of carcasses, and often restricted to the offal and some lymph nodes.In most cases, water for meat processing is obtained from the same source to which animal wastes have been discharged. Awoseyi (2000) isolated Escherichia coli (55%), Klebsiella spp. (20%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (7.5%) and Proteus spp. (7.5%) from well water used for processing of carcasses at Bodija (Ibadan) Municipal abattoir.The abattoir attracts wild and domestic carnivores, rodents, flies and other insects that serve as vectors of diseases transmission to humans. Meat transport and storage facilities are inadequate and unhygienic.A study conducted on a comparative assessment of the Lagos State old and new abattoir sections (with better slaughter facilities) using a score-card designed by the South African Directorate of Veterinary Services showed the new abattoir section which is mechanized with modern facilities for meat processing, preservation and transportation had significantly better hygiene and management practices (Akano 2007).In Nigeria, most butchers are poor and have not received occupational training; there is no compensation if meat is condemned and butchers may strongly and even violently resist condemnation of diseased and unwholesome meat (Okoli et al. 2006). It has been observed that abattoir workers engaged in unhygienic practices which directly put consumers of meat at risk (Cadmus et al. 2008). For example, in the study in Ibadan, it was reported that butchers would put fresh blood on old meat to make the meat appear fresh.Most meat is sold in outdoor markets close to slaughterhouses. Meat-sellers are often inadequately and poorly dressed (Okoli et al. 2006). The humid tropical environment encourages the breeding of flies which swarm and perch on meat displayed for sale, form a major nuisance at these markets and aid in the spread of disease agents of significant public health importance (Okoli et al. 2006). Abattoirs and slaughterhouses are major sources of water and air pollution worldwide. Inadequate disposal technologies and high cost of waste management are responsible for the build-up of waste with adverse impact on the environment (Adeyemi and Adeyemo 2007).Many abattoirs in Nigeria discharge their effluent directly into streams or land which drains into surface water and leached into underground water (Adesemoye et al. 2006). In Rivers State, Nigeria, most abattoirs and slaughter slabs discharge the entire blood and gastrointestinal contents of slaughtered animals into nearby rivers (Aniebo et al. 2009). Important physico-chemical parameters of water quality such as pH, conductivity, total dissolved oxygen, temperature, total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, ammonia, heavy metals and nitrate are far above the recommended values (Sangodoyin and Agbawhe 1992;Ojo 2006;Osibanjo and Adie 2007;Omole and Longe 2008). Water is also contaminated by bacterial pathogens such as Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Micrococcus spp., Vibrio spp., Lactobacillus spp. and fungi including Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp., Saccharomyces spp., Penicillium spp., and Fusarium spp. (Adesemoye et al. 2006).Studies have shown that wells within abattoir vicinity were more contaminated by enteric bacterial than those outside the abattoir vicinity (Akoleowo 2002;Olokede 2005;Ojo 2006). Bacterial contaminants found in water collected from wells located around abattoirs were similar to those found in effluents generated from abattoir activities (Akoleowo 2002;Olokede 2005). These microorganisms include Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Proteus spp., Enterobacter spp., Escherichia coli, as well as streptococci and staphylococci (Akoleowo 2002;Olokede 2005).In Bodija (Ibadan) municipal abattoir, the main waste disposal practice is dumping at a site which has piled up to form a refuse hill (Adeyemi and Adeyemo 2007). This system is unsustainable, environmentally unfriendly and makes the meat processed and offered for public consumption unwholesome (Adeyemi and Adeyemo 2007;Ukut et al. 2010). Nwanta et al. (2010) studied the environment and public health implications of unhygienic sanitary condition at the abattoir and its environs as a consequence of poor waste disposal and management in Nsukka, Nigeria. A total of 194 kg of solid (rumen/stomach) wastes was generated daily without any clearly defined system of disposal and management. Microbiological testing showed that E. coli, Bacillus sp. and Staphylococcus sp. were most frequently isolated, followed by Streptococcus sp., Salmonella sp. and Campylobacter sp.Abattoir activities and management have direct and indirect impacts on the environment and the health of people living within the vicinity of the abattoir. Nearby residents consider the abattoir a nuisance, objecting to build-up of waste which include dung, bone and blood and pollution of surface and underground water.According to Bello and Oyedemi (2009), 66 different organisms belonging to seven genera of public health importance were detected in wells that supply water for domestic use in the abattoir neighbourhood. Flies and insects vectors of diseases such as mosquitoes were numerous in the neighbourhood. Burning of bones and hooves produced smoke which constituted air pollution. Bad odour from the abattoir led to impairment of air quality, limited outdoor recreation by children, prevented opening of windows facing the abattoir, affected breathing and caused respiratory ailments. The movement of cattle on the streets within residential areas caused traffic build-up. There was elevated level of headache, excessive coughing, shortness of breath, heartburn, diarrhoea/dysentery, general body weakness, fever and typhoid fever among residents in the abattoir vicinity (Bello and Oyedemi 2009).Observations made at animal control posts and subsequently at various slaughter points in Imo State, Nigeria showed that the welfare of animals destined for trade was not considered an important factor during their transportation (Okoli et al. 2006). Carcasses of cattle that died of suffocation during transit can sometimes be seen in lorries (Okoli et al. 2006). A large proportion of animals brought for slaughter at Nigerian abattoirs undergo stress due to rough handling during transportation and at slaughter (Okoli et al. 2006;Sanusi et al. 2007;Adeyemo et al. 2009).There are around 200 food-associated diseases but a much smaller number is responsible for substantive sickness and death (Perry and Grace 2009). While disease may be the result of biological or chemical hazards, the great majority of the health burden is due to biological hazards and this review will focus on these.Biological hazards Importance: Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic contagious debilitating disease cause by infection with certain species of acid-fast bacteria belonging to the genus Mycobacterium. In most cases, the lungs are affected (pulmonary TB); but extra-pulmonary disease is also possible. Tuberculosis is one of the most important infectious diseases in the world and is the leading cause of death due to a single infectious agent among adults (Cosivi et al. 2008). Nigeria has the world's fourth largest tuberculosis burden with more than 460,000 estimated new cases in 2007 (USAID 2010). In Nigeria, a prevalence of 9.2% has been reported with a case fatality rate of 12% (Salami et al. 2002;Salami et al. 2003).Aetiology: The great majority of cases are probably due to the non-zoonotic bacterium M. tuberculosis but an unknown proportion is zoonotic tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis of cattle origin. Tuberculosis in humans due to M. bovis is both clinically and pathologically indistinguishable from cases caused by M. tuberculosis (Wedlock et al. 2002) and is often under-diagnosed. However, M. bovis is more often associated with extra-pulmonary tuberculosis.Transmission: Infected cattle shed M. bovis in sputum and in faeces (as a result of swallowing sputum) so direct contact with infected cattle is hazardous. Occasionally mammary glands are infected and raw milk or dairy products are important sources of infection. The pathogen is rarely present in muscle meat, but organs may be infected and if food is eaten raw this is another possible transmission route.Prevalence in Nigeria in people: Studies dating from the 1970s and 1980s report the proportion of TB due to M. bovis was 10% in northern states and 4% in Lagos (Mawak et al. 2006). More recently, Cadmus et al. (2006) reported 5% in Ibadan and Mawak et al. (2006) found an incidence of 15% in the Jos Plateau. A study by Abubakar et al. (2005)   between 1991 and 2002; this was higher than the 0.6% reported in 1984 in the same area. Mycobacteria pathogens have also been isolated in fresh milk (nono) (Shalin 1989).Infection with M. bovis has also been confirmed in cattle slaughtered in abattoirs in Nigeria (Cadmus et al. 2004;Cadmus et al. 2008). Infected cattle can transmit M. bovis to other species of food animals reared together. Cadmus et al. (2009) detected M. bovis and M. tuberculosis in goats suggesting transmission of bovine and human tuberculosis from the primary hosts to goats.Importance: Brucellosis or undulant fever is a chronic disease characterized by headache, recurrent or continuous fever, sweating, joint pain, joint swelling, general body malaise or backache. Worldwide, brucellosis remains a major disease in humans and domesticated animals (Corbel 1997). In cattle it causes abortions, reproductive problems and lowered productivity and is a major impediment to trade. Prevention of human brucellosis depends on the control of the disease in animals (Corbel 1997).Aetiology: Four species of Brucella can cause disease in humans: Brucella melitensis, B. abortus, B. suis and B. canis. Brucella abortus is the predominant species in cattle in Nigeria (Corbel 1997). According to Ocholi et al. (2004), all 25 isolates of Brucella spp. from aborted foetuses, hygroma fluids, milk and vaginal swabs obtained from aborting cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and horses in Nigeria belonged to one species, Brucella abortus biovar 1. Brucella melitensis as well as B. sius have also been reported but at a lower prevalence (Corbel 1997).Transmission: Contact transmission may occur when broken skin contacts freshly killed meat, or when mucous membranes, such as lips, nose or conjunctiva of the eye, are contaminated with aerosols or droplets of animal tissue fluids. Infection by ingestion may occur by drinking raw milk, or eating undercooked meat and dairy products (cheese) from infected animals. In a slaughterhouse, nail biting and eating or smoking with hands contaminated by animal fluids are the main sources of infection by ingestion. Airborne transmission may occur when aerosols containing Brucella organisms are inhaled. Higher antibody titres are found among occupationally exposed people, including cattle herdsmen, abattoir workers and veterinarians, than the general population (Alausa and Awoseyi 1976;Alausa 1977).Prevalence in Nigeria in people: Over 55% of humans examined in different parts of Western Nigeria have positive Brucella abortus antibodies in their sera (Alausa and Awoseyi 1976) and Cadmus et al. (2006) also reported an infectious rate of 63.3% among butchers. However, it should be pointed out that infection does not necessarily result in clinical disease. Among prisoners in Sokoto, Nigeria the prevalence was 7% (Junaidu et al. 2008). Among patients with acute febrile illness, the sero-prevalence of Brucella infection was 7.6% in Makurdi Nigeria. Most of the infections (77.2%) were caused by Brucella abortus while the rest were by Brucella mellitensis. According to the authors, other hospital studies show sero-prevalences varying from 6-28%.The incidence and level of human infection are significantly higher among the northern population than those living in the west (Alausa 1977). The differences are related to many factors, including the number of cattle per head of population, the rate of active infection in the cattle herd, the system of animal husbandry and imported bovine infection from neighbouring countries (Alausa 1977).Abattoir workers, butchers, livestock and livestock product handlers are more affected (P<0.05) than other occupational groups (Ofukwu et al. 2008). In another study by Cadmus et al. (2006), brucellosis was found to be endemic among slaughtered cattle at the abattoir making it a source of occupational hazard to abattoir workers. Using Rose Bengal Test, 5.8% of cattle, 0.86% of goat and 63.3% of butchers were positive for Brucella infection. Most of the butchers screened complained of symptoms consistent with those of brucellosis which often are similar to those of malaria and therefore may be misdiagnosed. High incidence of brucellosis among butchers was suggested to be associated with poor state of meat inspection services and unhealthy practices by the butchers. Non-wearing of protective clothing and constant contact with infected materials are some of the identified risk factors responsible for high incidence of brucella infection among butchers.Prevalence in Nigeria in cattle: Numerous studies have shown that brucellosis is endemic in Nigerian cattle at prevalences varying from 0.2 to 80% (Cadmus et al. 2006;Esuruoso 1974;Falade 2002;Okoh 1980;Chukwu 1987;Ajogi et al. 1998;Ishola et al. 2001). Onunkwo et al. (2003) reported a seasonal variation of the disease with 3% incidence in the rainy season as against 1% in the dry season. Most of these studies are based on serological diagnosis (such as Rose Bengal test, Plate agglutinating test and ELISA).Importance: Leptospirosis is a contagious disease of animals and humans caused by the spirochaete Leptospira. In humans, leptospirosis can cause headaches, fever, chills, sweats and myalgia. Other symptoms may include lethargy, aching joints and long periods of sickness. Some highly pathogenic serovars may cause pulmonary haemorrhaging and death. While mild type leptospirosis is probably the most common form of infection, the disease can sometimes be acute. Leptospirosis is of increasing importance as an occupational disease as intensive farming practices become more widely adopted. Veterinarians, farmers, abattoir workers and meat inspectors are at particularly increased risk of infection from contact with contaminated urine.Leptospires can survive long periods in water, soil and mud. The spread of pathogenic leptospires can contaminate the environment and pose increased public health risks.Aetiology: There are around 20 species of leptospires. The primary hosts are wild mammals (mainly rodents) although farm animals can act as reservoir hosts for some strains transmissible to humans.Transmission: In many cases, infection occurs through mucosal contact with water or soil contaminated with the urine of infected animals. Consumption of improperly cooked kidney may thus constitute a risk of leptospiral transmission from carrier animals to humans.In Plateau State, Nigeria, antibodies to leptospiral organisms were detected in 18% human volunteers sampled (Ezeh et al. 1991). Abattoir workers were particularly at risk with a prevalence of 30%. Serological examination of sera from human volunteers in Enugu and environs in eastern Nigeria showed that leptospiral antibody titres of 1:100 and above were present in 89 (13.5%) of total 661 sera samples (Onyemelukwe 1993). Coal miners were most at risk with a prevalence rate of 41 (46%), followed by the butchers/abattoir workers 26 (29.2%), farmers 18 (20.2%) and hospital laboratory personnel 4 (4.5%) (Onyemelukwe 1993).Prevalence in Nigeria in cattle: Diallo and Dennis (1982) isolated leptospiral strains from 6.4% of bovine kidneys of cattle in Zaria, Nigeria. Agunloye (2002) evaluated the prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in sheep and goats by the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) using a total of seven leptospiral serovars. Of 575 animals tested, 17.7% were positive to leptospira by the MAT. The prevalence in sheep and goats was 23.5% and 13.1%, respectively. The highest reacting leptospira in both species was L. pomona with a rate of 25.9%. This was followed by L. icterohaemorhagiae (17.9%) and L. autumnalis (17.0%), respectively. RVF is mainly spread by mosquitos but infection can also occur by contacting fresh tissues or body fluids from an infected animal. There are many reports of abattoir workers becoming infected with RVF after contact with infected tissues. Home slaughter was also a risk factor in the recent outbreak in East Africa. No outbreaks have occurred in urban consumer populations. RVF is widespread in both livestock and people in Nigeria; most infections are sub-clinical. Sero-surveys have reported prevalences of 10% in cattle and 15% in people.Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii. Cattle, sheep and goats are the primary reservoirs of C. burnetii. Organisms are excreted in milk, urine and faeces of infected animals. Most importantly, during birth the organisms are shed in high numbers within the amniotic fluids and the placenta. The organisms are resistant to heat, drying and many common disinfectants. These features enable the bacteria to survive for long periods in the environment. Infection of humans usually occurs by inhalation of these organisms from air that contains air-borne barnyard dust contaminated by dried placental material, birth fluids and excreta of infected herd animals. Humans are often very susceptible to the disease and very few organisms may be required to cause infection. A sero-survey in Nigeria reported 11% prevalence in cattle (Addo and Schnurenberger 1977).Anthrax is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa. It is highly lethal to ruminants but in humans the most typical manifestation is skin lesions (malignant pustule). However, if spores are inhaled death may result. All parts of the carcass of an anthrax victim may be infective. An earlier study found 5% of carcass swabs from cattle and 10-20% of blood samples from slaughterhouse workers were positive and 6-30% of these workers also had malignant pustules (Okolo 1985).Campylobacteriosis is a leading cause of gastroenteritis in humans and animals all over the world. Campylobacter spp. is widely distributed among animal populations (especially poultry) and human infection can occur following transmission from animal reservoirs through consumption of contaminated food substances. Campylobacter enteritis is endemic in Nigeria as in most other developing countries of the world (Adegbola et al. 1990). Prevalence of Campylobacter enteritis ranges from 0.5% to 19.2% in different parts of Nigeria (Coker et al. 1994;Samuel et al. 2002;Adekunle et al. 2009). A correlation was observed among the common biotypes and serogroups of Campylobacter isolates from human and animal origins in Nigeria suggesting a possible animal-to-human route of infection (Adegbola et al. 1990). Campylobacter coli was established as a cause of diarrhoea in children in Nigeria (Adekunle et al. 2009). Cattle have been identified as a likely source of Campylobacter infection in humans (Elegbe 1983).Food is a gendered commodity and in Nigeria, men and women typically have very different roles in livestock production and processing with implications for food safety. Both men and women are more likely to rear smaller animals like goats and chickens, while men focus more upon larger animals like cattle and sheep.Women have some authority on decision-making for selling, slaughtering, consuming or control over income, especially over animals they rear. There are also notable differences between the north and south (Olowoye et al. 2006).A study in Ibadan looked at the role of men and women. Slaughtering cattle and dressing the carcass is considered an exclusively male occupation. Selling of meat and offal is done by both men and women, with men predominating in meat retail. Women are solely responsible for fetching of water. Women also have a predominant role in the cooking and selling of street food and a major role in preparation of food within the household. These different roles and responsibilities have implications for creation and management of risk (Grace et al. 2008).Our review suggests that the general public is at high risk of contracting food-borne pathogens through the consumption of contaminated animal products, and people working closely with animals are at even greater risk of exposure. However, because the number of consumers of meat is much greater than the number of people working closely with animals and their products, the greatest burden of health is borne by consumers.Prevention of many food-borne zoonotic infections in humans can best be achieved by reducing the infection rates in animal reservoirs. Epidemiological surveillance and periodic monitoring provide good understanding of the dynamics of food-borne pathogens in animal populations and help in the assessment of the factors that contribute to the distribution and persistence of the pathogens in animals as well as their transmission to humans.However, it appears that the slaughterhouse is a critical control point at which massive contamination occurs and diseased animals are not effectively identified. Adherence to hygienic principles during food processing, storage, marketing and preparation as part of the measures to promote good health and prevent the transmission of pathogens from animals to humans cannot be over-emphasized. Training of abattoir workers should be accompanied by provision of adequate and functional facilities that will limit meat contamination during processing, storage and transportation.Because of the enormity of the problem and the scarcity of resources, risk-based approaches are strongly recommended. These help prioritize interventions so the most important hazards are tackled first. Risktargeting allows identification of operations and practices that create most risk.Education and public awareness programs are important measures in sensitizing the general public and people at risk and the greatest improvements of meat hygiene have been deman-led, following on from public outrage over inadequate facilities. These are essential strategies to forestall outbreaks of food-borne infection and limit the spread of infection should outbreak occur.For this sub-theme an alternative tabular format has also been used to present some of the key findings organized in terms of the name of the disease, method of identifying the sick, any risk factors identified, method of laboratory test, and the prevalence or incidence of the disease (Appendix 1).This section draws from literature and assembles evidence from a survey of the beef value chain on presence and prevalence of two major hazards, Salmonella spp. and TEC. The results show that only 20% of meat samples had acceptable quality, that is, absence of hazards.Expert opinion was used to map the supply chain for beef passing from abattoirs to consumers. We estimated that the majority of meat is sold at the meat markets adjacent to the slaughterhouse and most beef is consumed in the home as shown in Figure 2. A rapid assessment of meat value chain was conducted at major abattoirs at Ibadan, Kaduna, Enugu and Abuja using structured questionnaire (according to the protocols in Appendix 2) and microbiological analysis done to determine hazards and cost of illness. A questionnaire was administered to a total of 400 respondents including slaughterhouse workers, butchers and consumers. Two hundred meat samples were collected for analysis, 100 each from Enugu and Abuja (Ibadan and Kaduna having been covered in a previous ILRI study) from abattoirs, meat sellers, meat shops, restaurants and consumers.The two locations selected purposively for meat samples were Enugu and Abuja. Two abattoirs (Ogbete and 82 Division) were visited in Enugu State. 82 Division is located along Abakpa-Nike road while Ogbete is along Ogbete market road. In both abattoirs, live cattle are purchased from all the northern states and transported to Garki cattle market which serves as the source of cattle for the two abattoirs. An average of 20 cattle are slaughtered in 82 Division, while in Ogbete 30 are slaughtered daily. The abattoir in Ogbete is enclosed with a covered roof, while that of 82 Division is an open space. The floor of the abattoirs is made of concrete and cattle dung is usually deposited near the slaughterhouse. The water used is clean and a veterinary inspection team is also present to monitor activities in the slaughterhouse. We estimated 220 meat sellers were present in Ogbete market and around 100 in 82 Division. Systematic sampling was used to select 15 and 10 meat sellers respectively from the two abattoirs.In Kaduna, Kawo abattoir is located along U'Dusa-Kawo road, Kawo in Kaduna State. Cattle are usually brought from neighbouring states (Katsina, Bauchi and Kaduna). The abattoir is an open space with a concrete floor. On average, about 20 cattle are slaughtered daily. The sources of water are borehole and tap. Cattle dung is deposited very close to the abattoir, with the drainage blocked. The abattoir is located about 200 metres away from the meat market. About 150 meat sellers were estimated to be present in Kawo market. Systematic sampling procedure was employed to select 25 meat sellers sampled in the market.A total of 200 meat samples weighing 50 grams each were collected from meat sellers in Enugu and Abuja, Nigeria (Tables 3 and 4). In Enugu, 31 fresh beef and 6 intestine samples were collected from 82 Division's abattoir in the morning between 0800 and 1100 hours. In the evening between 1600 and 1800 hours, 55 fresh beef and 6 intestine samples were collected from Ogbete market. Two ready-to-eat meat samples including one sample of barbecued meat (suya) from a vendor in the street of Independence layout and one sample of fried meat from a hawker within the 82 Division abattoir were also collected. In Abuja, 21 fresh beef and 16 intestine samples were collected from Karu abattoir between 0800 and 0900 hours. Fourteen fresh beef and 11 intestine samples were also collected from Karu market between 0930 and 1100 hours. Between 1530 and 1730 hours, 21 fresh beef and 4 intestine samples were collected from Nyanyan market. Two fresh beef samples were collected from two meat shops within Garki area of Abuja. In addition, ready-to-eat meat including eight barbecued meat and three fried meat samples were collected from street meat vendors in the Garki area.Sampling was done aseptically. Only one sample was collected from an individual meat seller. Each seller was asked to directly put the meat sample into a sterile sample container. The samples were properly labelled and preserved in a cooler with ice packs during transportation to the laboratory for microbiological analysis.Isolation of E. coli O157 Ten grams of each meat sample were weighed and homogenized in 90 ml of sterile distilled water. One millilitre of the homogenate was inoculated into sterile tryptic soy broth (TSB) (Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK) for preenrichment. The TSB culture was incubated at 37°C for four hours. From the TSB culture, 1 ml was inoculated into 9 ml of modified TSB (mTSB, Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK) supplemented with novobiocin (0.01mg/ml) for selective enrichment. The mTSB culture was incubated at 37°C for 18 hours. With 1 ml of the mTSB culture, a tenfold one-in-ten serial dilution was made in sterile distilled water. One millilitre from dilution 10 -7 was transferred into a sterile disposable Petri dish. Twenty millilitres of molten BCIG-sorbitol MacConkey agar (Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK) (prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions) supplemented with cefixime (5x10 -5/ml) and potassium tellurite (0.0025/ml) was poured into the Petri dish containing the diluted broth culture. The Petri dish was swirled for mixing, the agar left to solidify and incubated at 37°C for 18 hours. After incubation, straw coloured colonies on the plate presumptively identified as those of E. coli O157 were counted using a Coulter colony counter. Five of the identified colonies were tested biochemically using a biochemical test kit for oxidase-negative Gram-negative bacteria (Microbact GNB 24E ® , Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK) for confirmation of E. coli. Isolates that showed characteristics consistent with those of E. coli were identified serologically by latex agglutination test using dryspot E. coli O157 latex test kit (DR0120M, Oxoid, Basingstoke, UK).Salmonella organisms are very fragile organisms. To diminish the risk of obtaining false negative results, nonselective pre-enrichment of meat samples was carried out. Also, a combination of two selective enrichments and plating on two selective media was performed as follows:Day 1: Non-selective enrichment: Ten grams of each meat sample were weighed out using a weighing balance. The samples were transferred into a sterile mortar and homogenized in sterile distilled water at a ratio of 10 g of meat in 90 ml of sterile distilled water. One millilitre of homogenate was then aseptically transferred into 9 ml of prepared Buffered Peptone Water in sterile universal bottles. The bottles were agitated to thoroughly mix the contents. The mixtures were then incubated at 37°C overnight (16-20 hours).Day 2: Selective enrichment: One millilitre of the pre-enrichment broth was aseptically transferred with a pipette into aseptically prepared 10 ml tetrathionate broth. The solution was thereafter incubated at 37.0°C ± 0.5°C overnight (18-24 hours).Day 3: Selective agar plates (Pour plate): 10 test tubes were arranged on a test tube rack, each containing 9 ml of sterile distilled water for tenfold serial dilution of the tetrathionate broth. One millilitre of enrichment tetrathionate broth was taken with a sterile pipette and dispensed into the first test tube on the rack. This made up the volume of the content of the test tube to 10 ml (i.e. a 1 in 10 dilution). The solution was mixed thoroughly but gently by shaking the test tube. One millilitre of the solution in the first test tube was also taken with a pipette and transferred into the second test tube. The solution was thoroughly mixed and 1 ml taken from it and transferred into the third test tube. The process (serial dilution) continued for 1 in 1000; 1 in 10,000; 1 in 100,000 and so on, to the tenth test tube. The 1 ml solution taken from the tenth test tube was discarded into a disinfectant solution. 0.1 ml each from the sixth test tube of the serial dilution (i.e 10 -6) was then transferred into sterile petri dishes. Prepared molten Salmonella Chromogenic agar at 45-50°C was poured into the inoculated petri dishes and mixed. The petri dishes were allowed to solidify and then incubated at 37.0°C ± 0.5°C for 48 hours.Day 4: Sub-cultivation of Salmonella suspect colonies: Suspected colonies were identified. Salmonella spp. appeared as magenta coloured colonies on Salmonella Chromogenic agar. Suspect colonies were enumerated using a colony counter. Representatives of the suspected colonies were then picked and subcultured on Xylose Lysine Desoxycholate (XLD) agar plates. The XLD plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.Typical Salmonella colonies produce a slightly transparent zone of reddish colour and black centre; a pink-red zone was seen in the media surrounding the colonies in most cases. Salmonella growth on XLD was marked with + in the record sheets.Day 5-7: Biochemical confirmation: Single colonies from the surface of the XLD plates were picked and streaked on MacConkey agar plates. The plates were incubated for 18 hours at 37°C and then pure cultures inoculated into two separate tubes of media [Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) agar-smeared slope and stabbed butt and Urea Broth (UB) base (with added urea solution)]. The TSI and UB tubes were incubated at 35°C. The UB tube was examined after 5 hours and 18 hours. Tubes that showed red or pink colouration were discarded (this maybe due to urea hydrolysis by Proteus or other organisms). Where there was no urea hydrolysis, the TSI agar tubes were examined after 18 hours and 48 hours. Most typical Salmonella spp. produced acid (yellow) and gas in the butt and no change or alkaline (red) in the slant.Statistical analysis was used to compare different categories, using cluster weighted Chi square test (Donner and Klar 2000) to take into account clustering of samples within markets in the two locations (Abuja and Enugu). All calculations were performed with Stata®.Laboratory analysis revealed high levels of contamination with toxigenic E. coli O157 and Salmonella spp. International guidelines are that Salmonella should be absent from 10 g of meat and zero tolerance for E. coli O157; given our analysis methodology, we conclude that any detection of E. coli O157 or Salmonella is unacceptable. (This is a conservative assumption as the sample analyZed represented 0.1 gram of meat collected). By these criteria, only 20% of samples were acceptable. This finding is compatible with other results from Nigeria cited in the literature review.We also investigated the risk factors for presence of pathogens; Table 5 shows some comparisons. Abuja tended to have more acceptable samples than Enugu but this difference was not significant. E. coli O157 counts were significantly higher in samples collected in the morning but Salmonella counts were higher in the evening. Cooked meat was twice as likely to be free of pathogens compared to raw meat, and this was significant at p<0.1 despite the low power of the test. Cooking is an important risk mitigation strategy, and it was concerning to find that 60% of cooked meat samples were of unacceptable quality. This suggests that cooking is inadequate or (more likely) meat is being contaminated after cooking. Only two samples were taken from meat shops but these were of better quality; street-sold beef was also of better quality probably because it was cooked.Interestingly, there was a slight negative correlation (-0.09: 95% confidence interval -0.22-0.05) between contamination with E. coli O157 and Salmonella spp. suggesting that the source or means of contamination are different. There were also differences in trends of the two pathogens across food matrices and time, with Salmonella spp. highest at the abattoir and E. coli O157 at point of sale in markets.While the great majority of samples were unacceptable, the majority of contamination was clustered in a minority of samples (Figure 3). We considered samples with more than 100 colony-forming units (cfu) per gram to be high. Just 38 out of 200 respondents had high levels of E. coli O157 and these 19% were responsible for 81% of the E. coli contamination. In the case of Salmonella, 10% of respondents had high levels and these 20 people were responsible for 85% of the total contamination.  Looking more closely at these 'negative deviants' we find some strongly predictive risk factors (Table 6). In the case of E. coli O157, being in Enugu and in one market increases risk significantly while morning samples and abbatoir samples are less likely to be contaminated. For Salmonella, Enugu is also high-risk, and one abbatoir is significantly more likely to be contaminated. Morning samples and abattoir samples are more likely to be highly contaminated. One of the most important insights offered by risk-based management is that a small proportion of the actors are responsible for a large proportion of risk. With risk-based management, data and expertise are marshalled to pinpoint where along the production, distribution and handling chains there is the greatest potential for contamination and other problems. This allows appropriate amounts of resources and attention to be directed those high-risk areas and increases the chances of catching problems before they turn into widespread outbreaks.This study found the majority of meat sampled contained unacceptable levels of one or both of the important pathogens surveyed (toxigenic E. coli and Salmonella spp.). It suggested that the dynamics of the two pathogens are different and further investigation would be needed to understand this and identify critical control points. Meat at the abattoir was highly contaminated and this is obviously a critical point for preventing contamination down the chain. Cooking is considered an important risk mitigating strategy, but although it halved the risk of contamination, levels of pathogens were still unacceptably high (60%). An important finding was that a relatively small proportion of actors generated the majority of risk. This makes a risk-targeted strategy attractive where, by identifying the chains and actors where there is greatest potential for contamination, scarce resources can be allocated to where they will have most impact.CHAPTER 5This chapter consists of two case studies: one was drawn from a recently completed project by ILRI on meatassociated disease in Ibadan and the other from the rapid assessment carried out for the present study.Many studies have documented a high level of hazards in meat sold in wet-markets in Nigeria. However, there is much less information on the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) around meat safety; the gender and social determinants of meat safety; or the relation between hazards in meat and health outcomes in consumers of meat. This case study attempts to address these gaps.Study site: The study took place in Bodija market, the main market centre in Ibadan for livestock slaughter, processing and marketing. Ibadan is the capital of Oyo state in southern Nigeria. Data were collected between August 2008 and December 2009. The study population was processors and retailers of beef in Bodija market. These are self-organized into occupational groups (butchers' associations), which were the unit of observation for the participatory and qualitative studies. We identified 16 associations in the market and then randomly selected 201 meat processors/retailers from the list of members. In order to obtain more information on women workers, we subsequently randomly selected an additional 61 women. This brought the total sample size to 262.Data analysis: Qualitative methods consisted of focus group discussions held with four women's groups and four men's groups and six in-depth interviews with two sets of key informants: leaders of processing and marketing groups (4 men, 2 women) and government officials (1 man, 4 women). Interview guides were prepared. Participatory Appraisal tools used in the qualitative studies included community mapping to show spatial features; Venn diagrams to illustrate social organization patterns; and Problem Tree Analysis to allow groups to describe their perspectives regarding the causes and consequences of conditions.Quantitative methods consisted of KAP questionnaires combined with checklists administered to 262 meat processors (n=201 men and 61 women). Knowledge was assessed through 18 questions about food safety; attitude was assessed through a 30-item Likert scale; and practices through 12 questions about self-reported behaviour plus direct observation. Respondents were also asked about meat consumption and illness in the previous two weeks.A cross-sectional survey was carried out to assess meat bacteriological quality and presence of certain foodborne zoonoses (n=200 meat samples). Standard bacteriological methods were used to assess total aerobic counts, enterobacteriaceae counts and coliform counts. In addition we investigated the presence of five important zoonoses (Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Yersinia spp.) and eight bacteria associated with environmental contamination also associated with diarrhoea.Comparisons between continuous variables used the cluster-adjusted t-test and between categorical variables the cluster-adjusted chi-square test. Intra-cluster correlations were used to compare how similar members of a group were to each other as compared to non-members. Univariate analysis was used to investigate the relation between putative risk factors and self-reported gastrointestinal illness in the previous two weeks. Based on the univariate analysis and a causal diagram, we developed a logistic regression model to explore the relation between socio-economic factors and gastrointestinal illness. We used case-wise deletion in the case of incomplete data and robust standard errors with clustering on association. All statistical calculations were with STATA 10®.Cattle, small ruminants and pigs are slaughtered, processed and sold at Bodija market. This study focused on cattle. Around 250-300 cattle are slaughtered daily; more are slaughtered on weekends and fewer during Muslim holidays. Most butchers slaughter only one animal a day (participants estimate 75-90% of butchers fall in this category); butchers sell to retailers who have small kiosks in a different part of the market and sell directly to consumers (Figure 2). More rarely, a household buys an entire carcass for a ceremony: this only happens on weekends. Retailers are also mostly small-scale, typically buying a quarter of a carcass. A few have specialized by supplying boneless beef to hotels and fast food establishments or to institutions such as the University College Hospital, Ibadan. Most butchers consider themselves poor: they don't have money to buy an animal for slaughtering and obtain it on credit.Cattle are held in pens then moved to the slaughter slab. They are tied down at the slab and killed by cutting the throat. The dead cattle are then dragged on the ground to the abattoir area. This is a shed with a concrete floor and open sides. Processing, that is skinning, removal of the intestines and quartering, is done on the floor. Portions of the carcass are then carried to the adjacent butchers' stalls where they are sold. All parts of the animal have potential uses. Muscle meat and offal are sold for food. Bones are used to make bone meal for animal consumption as well as in the production of serving plates. The skin is used to make leather for bags, shoes and boxes or eaten. Horn is processed into buttons and decorations and can also be used for incantations. Hooves are used in the manufacture of buttons, while the teeth are soaked in water and used for treating people who have problems with their own teeth. The bile is swallowed raw by people in the belief it will strengthen them. Urine is used in treating convulsions in children. Blood is processed into blood meal used as animal feed. Gut contents and faeces are used for fertilizer. However, for the last four by-products (urine, bile, faeces and gut contents) supply exceeds demand and the greater part is piled as waste or allowed to run into gutters.The abattoir is under municipal management and officers collect tax and tariffs on each cow amounting US$ 1 per animal. The role of environmental sanitary officers is to inspect slaughter slabs and the general environment and ensure the area is clean. However, the filthy conditions of the market witness the challenges they face in carrying out their work. The veterinary department is supposed to check animals before slaughtering and inspect meat after slaughter, but many animals escape inspection and even when problems are found veterinarians find it difficult to ensure condemned meat is discarded. Most butchers kill only one animal a day, and if this is condemned by veterinarians as unfit for human consumption they lose their entire days earnings. Hence, they strongly resist attempts to condemn meat.Meat processing and retailing was the main livelihood strategy with around two-thirds of respondents reporting it as their only source of income. Both men and women are involved in beef processing and retailing, but among flesh processors (butchers), men predominate. Most processors/retailers had received had at least some primary education (men more than women). These data are summarized in Table 7. The qualitative study allowed a broad characterization how collective action and gender influenced work. The butchers' associations include the slaughterers who kill and section the animal but also cattle owners, marketers of live animals, those who bring the cattle to the slaughter slab, leg sellers, skin sellers, head sellers, offal sellers and meat sellers. Although self-organized, the associations are structured with executive members, regular meetings, registered names and linkages to other associations as well as to 'umbrella' organizations. Many of the associations have existed for over 25 years. Membership varies from around 20 to above 60. There are male only, female only and mixed associations. Most of the activities of processing and sale can be carried out by men or women. However, slaughtering of cattle is an exclusively male role and fetching water an exclusively female activity.The butchers' associations provide opportunities for apprenticeship and financial and social support, and represent members in interactions with officials and other associations. They have rules and regulations but these are essentially aimed at maintaining harmony among members rather than standard-setting e.g. \"Members must not steal from each other and members must not take each other's wife, except after divorce.\"Group membership is important for processors and retailers with 87% of men and 98% of women reporting regular attendance of meetings. Around one-fifth (22% men, 18% women) were committee members.Respondents belonged to other groups as well as butchers' associations. Women belonged to an average of 1.6 savings groups, significantly more than men. However, male members of savings groups contributed significantly more money per week than women (US$ 19.2 versus US$ 11.2: p=0.005).Most meat samples showed unacceptably high levels of aerobic bacteria, enterobacteriaceae and/or coliforms (98% of samples). Zoonotic pathogens were present in 67% of samples and environmental contaminants in 46%.Because meat quality was measured at the group level, but demographic characteristics and KAP at individual level, it was difficult to disentangle the relationship. While most butchers had positive attitudes towards meat safety, knowledge and practice scores were lower. Of the socio-demographic considered, gender was the strongest predictor of poor meat quality. Being of Yoruba ethnicity, single and with no formal education decreased the odds of poor meat quality but this is probably due to confounding with gender.Knowledge and practice had weak positive correlation and attitude had a weak negative correlation with practice, suggesting a gap between what people say and what they do. Women had significantly more good practices than men (Table 8), despite there being no significant difference in knowledge and attitude.  1997). Given that food-borne pathogens and contaminants are not highly contagious between animals, the moderate to high ICC suggests that group members had greater similarity to members of the same group than to members of other groups in terms of quality (Table 2). This evidence of intra-group similarity allowed us to divide groups into 'better quality' and 'worse quality' based on differences in average bacterial counts. We considered the five groups with highest total aerobic count, enterobacteriaceae and coliforms to be 'bottom-half' quality and the five with lowest to be 'top-half' quality.Moreover, although all had overall poor quality, two were considerably worse than others (considered 'worst quality') and two were considerably better (considered 'best quality').A significantly higher percentage of men than women belonged to a group with bottom-half quality (73% versus 53% respectively [p=0.028]). The effect was even stronger for belonging to groups with worst bacterial quality; they had 92% male and 8% female membership compared to 73% male and 27% female in other groups (p=0.007). Consistent with this, groups with the best bacterial quality were 59% male and 41% female versus 85% male and 15% female in non-belongers (p=0.001).There was no significant difference between men and women with regards to knowledge of food safety and attitude towards food safety. However, women had significantly (p=0.03) better practice of food safety.Ill health was very common among the meat handlers surveyed: 88% reported illness in the previous two weeks. Seventeen different problems were reported: the most common symptom was fever (79%) followed by backache (69%) and gastrointestinal symptoms (47%). Of these, 30% reported diarrhoea and the remainder constipation and/or vomiting. The majority of those reporting illness (89%) took medicine, suggesting most illnesses were non-trivial. Overall there was no significant difference in reported illness between women and men (89% and 87% respectively: p=0.749). However, men were significantly more likely to report backache (p=0.008) and neck pain (p=0.018) and women significantly more likely to report anorexia (p=0.021) and vomiting (0.058: marginally significant).We investigated meat consumption as a risk factor for self-reported gastrointestinal illness. Meat consumption was high: 97% of people had eaten meat in the previous two weeks. Overall, 52% of people consumed their own products while 42% of people bought meat. The remainder either did not consume in the previous two weeks or received meat as a gift. Women were more likely to buy meat than men (30% versus 18%) and less likely to eat their own produce (14% versus 33%): these differences were significant at p=0.019 and p=0.000, respectively. Beef, offal and chicken were the meat most consumed. Women were significantly more likely to consume offal (p=0.004). They were also less likely to consume beef and chicken, although this was significant only at p=0.1.The logistic model constructed to investigate the relation between risk factors and self-reported gastrointestinal illness showed eating beef was the strongest and most significant predictor of illness (increasing the odds of diarrhoea nine-fold (p<0.01). Belonging to a group with poor quality of meat; eating chicken; consuming one's own products; and eating offal were also strong and significant predictors of disease. Being male was protective; however, this effect was not significant when other confounding factors were taken into account.People who belonged to groups with bottom-half quality meat were significantly more likely to have had signs of gastrointestinal illness in the previous two weeks and to have sought treatment (see Table 4). These groups had 23% additional illness compared to the groups with better quality meat.The qualitative study showed the helplessness and total resignation of meat retailers to illness. Focus group participants considered they worked in an unhealthy environment but when asked what could be done to reduce the threat to their health, they responded that, \"Concerning diseases and illnesses, there is nothing we can do.\" The qualitative study also revealed another risky practice: although meat is usually well-cooked before consumption, retailers were sometimes observed to cut a small piece of raw meat and eat it, in order to convince the customer of the safety of their product.Our study confirms the results of many previous ones that conditions in Nigerian abattoirs and meat markets are very poor (Adeymo 2002;Cadmus et al. 2008). Food-borne infection is endemic in Nigeria. The 1997 Local Government Health System profile for Nigeria on leading causes of deaths in different zones showed diarrhoeal cases accounted for 25% followed by malaria (21%) and accidents (10%) (FAO/WHO 2002).The level of self-reported disease from meat retailers in this study is very high. Studies from developing countries have estimated episodes of diarrhoea in adults at 0.5 to 2 per year (Walker and Black 2010). In our study, meat retailers had a rate of 7.9 episodes a year. The extremely unhygienic work conditions and the practice of eating unsold (and even raw) products may contribute to this high rate. This leads to the interesting conclusion that meat retailers may be a sentinel community for detecting food safety problems.The importance of animal food consumption as a risk factor for diarrhoea is not surprising. In this study of beef retailers, consumption of beef was more strongly associated with illness than consumption of other meat, but again this may reflect the practice of eating unsold meat. Consumption of offal was also associated with illness, which may be due to more rapid spoilage or difficulty in cleaning. Women consumed more of the low-value offal than men who consumed more high-value muscle meat. Differential access to more expensive food is common and has been implicated in lower nutritional status of women (WHO 2008). To our knowledge, this is the first time differential access to food has been linked to higher exposure to food-borne disease.Our study found that women were involved in all aspects of beef processing and sale apart from slaughter of animals. An earlier study in Ibadan found a similar substantial involvement by women. However, a parallel study in Kaduna in northern Nigeria found much lower involvement of women (Olawoye 2006). Women meat retailers were quite similar to their male counterparts; their lower education and higher involvement in savings groups was predictable.Although women often have a key role in food processing, preparation and sale (Canet and N'diaye 1996), few previous studies have looked at how gender influences food safety among meat retailers. The finding that women had significantly better hygienic practice and groups with higher proportions of women had better quality meat was interesting.People belonging to the same butchers' association had similar qualities of meat. The study also showed the importance of butchers' associations in establishing norms and in interacting with officials and other associations. This suggests that associations may be a conduit for improving food safety through increasing access to information, by helping good practices take root and in lobbying for the infrastructure essential for hygienic meat processing and sale.Previous interventions have typically focused on municipal authorities and government officials. This study suggests that involvement of butchers' associations may be a useful complementary strategy in improving food safety. It was interesting that there were relatively few differences between men and women in their involvement with groups. Women's higher involvement in savings groups has been previously documented (Chowa 2006). African women are typically under-represented in government, parastatals and private companies (Losindilo et al. 2010). It was interesting that in these informal, self-organized associations the proportion of women in leadership posts was no different from that of men.An important finding was the clear link established between food safety practices, food safety microbiological outcomes and level of self-reported gastrointestinal disease.A questionnaire was administered to a total of 400 respondents based on a systematic sampling proportional to the population served by abattoirs in each city as follows (Ibadan 200, Kaduna 100, Enugu 50 and Abuja 50).The abattoir visited in Ibadan was Bodija market (see more in Sections 5.1.2 and 5.1.3). Systematic sampling procedure was used to obtain a total of 25 meat sellers. Three households were also interviewed per meat seller making a total of 75 households. Details of the sampling procedure are presented in Appendix 2.Enugu: Two abattoirs (Ogbete and 82 Division) visited in Enugu State have been described in Section 4.1.2 of this report. We estimated there were 220 meat sellers at Ogbete market and around 100 in 82 Division.Systematic sampling procedure was adopted with the selection of every fifteenth meat seller in Ogbete and every tenth in 82 Division giving 15 and 10, respectively, in both markets.Kaduna: Kawo abattoir in Kaduna State with about 150 meat-sellers has been described in Section 4.1.2 of this report. Systematic sampling procedure was employed with the selection of every sixth meat seller to make a total of 25 meat sellers sampled in the market. Three households were also interviewed for each of the meatsellers selected, making a total of 75 households.Abuja: Karo abattoir is located along Old Chief Palace road, Karo in Abuja. The total number of meat sellers in Karo market was estimated to be around 125. Systematic selection of every fifth meat seller, however, gave a total of 25 required samples of meat sellers in Karo market. Also, three households per meat seller were interviewed giving a total of 75 households.Beef was the most widely consumed meat by consumers with a weekly average consumption of 3 kg per household and 0.7 kg per capita (Table 9). This is considerably higher than the national per capita suggesting that urban customers at the sampled beef markets have high consumption levels. Household size in our survey was also somewhat higher than the national average (5 persons). Most consumers bought meat in the morning when temperatures were still low (Table 10). Interestingly, this pattern was reversed in Ibadan where the majority of people bought meat in the afternoon. This suggests a difference in timing of the main meal of the day (mid-day for most regions but evening for Ibadan). The very short time between buying and cooking meat (average 2.67 hours) is a powerful risk mitigation measure. Only 7.3% of consumers left meat for more than five hours before cooking and only 2.5% left meat overnight. Around three-quarters of all respondents reported storing meat in a fridge; this relatively high proportion strengthens our hypothesis (based on high household consumption of beef) that the respondents surveyed were relatively well-off. Fridge ownership was highest in Abuja (88.00%) followed by Ibadan (74.67%) with other regions equally (69.33%); the difference was significant (p=0.024). Respondents with fridges tended to keep meat longer than those without (2.8 hours versus 2.2 hours) but this was not significant when clustering was taken into account.Boiling was the most popular method for processing beef, being used by all 300 households (Table 11). The average boiling time was 32 minutes and the maximum 90 minutes; this is adequate to destroy most pathogens in meat. Frying emerged as the most risky practice; 39% of respondents used this method. Of those who did, 6% cooked for 6 minutes or less which is probably insufficient to inactivate pathogens. There was a striking regional difference with risky practices only reported from Ibadan and Kaduna (Table 12).(Of course, this may represent normative bias because if people are aware a practice is risky they may choose not to report it.) Of particular concern was the high level of consumption of raw beef in Kaduna, as this may expose people to a variety of pathogens. Throwing away leftover food or feeding it directly to animals may facilitate the transmission of pathogens between humans and animals. There were interesting and significant differences between regions with respect to their beliefs around beef safety. While most respondents believed that beef could cause illness (78%) only 19% reported experiencing illness after consuming beef (Table 13). There were significant differences between regions (p=0.011 and p<0.001, respectively). People are poor judges of what food was responsible for illness (Box 1). Only 28% of customers considered buying from a trusted source a way of ensuring beef safety. Regional differences were highly significant (p<0.01); interestingly in Abuja where respondents were less likely to buy from a trusted source, they were also less likely to agree with the statement that they would complain if meat was of poor quality (Table 14). Most people (88%) wrongly believed that one could tell if beef is safe to eat by its appearance (Table 15). There were significant differences across regions (p<0.01) Consumers are concerned with quality and safety Most consumers (81%) have concerns about the quality and safety of meat (Table 16). Interestingly, all consumers in Abuja, Enugu and Kaduna were concerned but only 23% of those in Ibadan (p<0.01). This may reflect the effect of the presence of an ILRI project during the previous five years in Ibadan meat market and abattoir, which seems to have both improved safety of beef and confidence of consumers and beef sellers.The main concerns are the generic 'meat is of poor quality' followed by the dirtiness of the environment in which meat is sold. Other concerns (not included in the table) include flies; use of dirty water; meat source and sale of meat from female animals. Interestingly, price was only mentioned as a concern by a minority. Similarly, 81% of customers disagreed strongly or very strongly with the statement \"Customers care more about price than about quality\". In all, 27% of respondents reported a health problem in the previous two weeks and 8.6% reported having diarrhoea in the same period (Table 17). This was significantly lower in Ibadan (p=0.056). Usually diarrhoea from a contaminated food does not start until at least 4-6 hours after having eaten that food and can last for as long as three days after consumption. So if you experience diarrhoea in less than four hours of eating it is most unlikely to be that meal which made you sick as a result of \"food poisoning\". You need to consider the previous meal or even food you ate the day before.The food which you throw up when vomiting is responsible for the illness Fact: The food material present when you vomit is not always an indication of the food responsible for your illness.The food responsible for your illness may have been consumed a day or so before the symptoms appeared.Myth 3: Food that makes you sick must smell or taste bad Fact: It is a common misconception that in order to get sick from food it must look, taste or smell bad or be \"off\". In fact, most food poisoning bacteria do not cause foods to appear bad. The reverse situation is also true: there are some types of bacteria that will spoil food but will not make you sick if you accidentally eat it.Fact: While cooking food well will kill many important pathogens, it will not deactivate all hazards. Some toxins and other hazards (e.g. antibiotic residues) survive cooking. Moreover, it is very easy for cooked food to be crosscontaminated.Univariate analysis of the relation between the 44 risk factors and reporting diarrhoea in the previous two weeks did not reveal many significant predictors (Table 18). Those who were concerned over quality had a much lower chance of reporting illness and those who thought that price was more important than quality were much more likey to be sick. In similar studies of traditionally marketed food, we have observed that where food bought is of relatively good microbiological quality, consumer practices (e.g. washing, cooking method, hygiene, storage) have a large effect on the likeliness of reporting illness. This is because consumer behaviour is the critical factor in allowing or preventing contamination. Conversely, where consumer practice has little influence on illness, this suggests that meat is already highly contaminated at purchase and hence subsequent consumer action is less effective in reducing risk. The findings from Nigeria are consistent with the second hypothesis.Beef-sellers were all male except in Ibadan where 4% where female. They had an average of 15.3 years working as a meat retailer, suggesting a stable population and that training meat-sellers is likely to be a good investment. Nearly half (48%) of started to sell beef between 0600 hours and 0700 hours and finished between 1700 hours and 1800 hours. Compared to other wet-market meat retailers, this is a long working day and will be risk enhancing. Apart from Ibadan, beef-sellers sold relatively small amounts of beef daily (Table 19). Ninety-six percent of the meat sellers were reported to have perfectly clean hands. However, a lower proportion (83%) was reported to have perfectly clean clothes. Ninety-one percent of the meat sellers were reported to have perfectly clean equipment whereas only 86% were reported to have perfectly clean surfaces. Given photographic evidence of poor hygiene and the low frequency of cleaning, this may reflect low standards on the part of the enumerators.All meat sellers reported cleaning the surfaces on which meat was placed. Most (80.4%) cleaned the surfaces once a day whereas 11.8%, 6.9% and 1% cleaned the surfaces 2-5 times a day, lees than once a day and more than 5 times a day, respectively (data not shown). People working with meat should clean equipment and surfaces before, during and after handling; cleaning once a day is quite inadequate for good hygiene. The meat sellers used an average of 35.2 litres of water (range 26-44 litres) per day for cleaning (Table 20). Majority of meat sellers sourced their water from water tankers (41.2%) and taps (36.3%) (Table 21). However, meat sellers from Kaduna and Enugu were likely to source water from water tankers and taps, respectively. In addition, a substantial proportion of meat sellers from Abuja and Ibadan were likely to source water from boreholes relative to other study sites. Water quality is crucial to satisfactory cleaning and the lack of clean, potable tap water represents a major constraint to maintaining hygiene. Approximately 80% of the interviewed meat sellers reported using a cleaning agent (Table 22). Majority (77%), however, used a detergent compared to either a bar soap (5%) or a bleaching agent (1%) (Table 22). Adequate cleaning is not possible without a soap and detergent, and cleaning without disinfection will not reduce pathogen loads. Of the agents mentioned, only bleach is a disinfectant. The meat-sellers' cooking methods were very similar to those of the consumers in the same regions. However, meat sellers were more likely to fry or roast beef (Table 23). Also, whereas 6% of consumers cooked meat for a dangerously short time, only 3.5% of meat sellers did so. One risky practice, which was reported by a worryingly high 11% of beef-sellers was consuming raw beef.Qualitative studies in Ibadan suggested that butchers did this as a way of convincing customers that the beef being marketed was safe to eat.An overall average of 40% of the interviewed meat-sellers reported a health problem during the previous two weeks with the overall difference with those who did not have a health problem across all study sites borderline insignificant (p=0.07) (Table 24). This proportion was relatively higher in Kaduna (75%) relative to other study sites. For these health problems, 22%, 58% and 11% of all respondents, respectively, reported diarrhoeic symptoms, fever and other problems. None of the respondents (n=8) from Enugu reported having diarrhoea. The difference between respondents who reported and who did not report diarrhoea and other symptoms was statistically significant (p<0.0001). However, the difference between respondents who reported and who did not report fever was not significant (p<0.23).The higher prevalence of reported diarrhoea in meat-sellers than consumers suggests that the former are a high-risk group because of poor working conditions and risky practices such as tasting raw meat and eating unsold products. Overall, 68% of the respondents reported that it was possible to get sick from consuming beef from each study site, with the difference who reported in the negative being significant (p<0.0003). The difference between respondents who sought treatment for diarrhoea and those who did not was not significant (p=1.000).A majority (56%) of beef-sellers strongly or very strongly agreed with the statement that 'customers care about price more than quality'. This is interesting given that 81% of customers strongly or very strongly disagreed with this statement. There were significant regional differences with beef-sellers in Ibadan most likely to agree strongly and those in Enugu most likely to disagree strongly.The great majority (95%) of butchers agreed or agreed strongly that 'you can tell beef is safe to eat by looking at it' and almost as many (92%) agreed or agreed strongly that 'customers will complain if there is a problem with beef'.Case study 1 In Nigeria, butchers' associations have an important role in the meat value chain. Members have some education and, for most, meat processing is their primary occupation. Slaughter, processing and sale of beef take place under unhygienic conditions and meat sold by association members is of unacceptable quality. However, some groups have consistently better quality meat and this is positively correlated with the proportion of women members. Given the two-week period previous to the interview as recall time, 85% of meat sellers reported illness and 47% reported gastrointestinal illness. Eating beef; eating chicken; eating offal; consuming one's own products; and belonging to a group with poor quality of meat were all strong and significant predictors of self-reported gastrointestinal illness.The study shows the importance of butchers' associations and suggests they may be good entry points for interventions to improve food safety. It also finds that even under the difficult conditions of Bodija market, some groups can achieve better food safety and better health outcomes. This study shows a clear relation between meat of poor microbiological quality and higher incidence of gastrointestinal disease (23% more illness in groups with poor quality meat).Self-organized groups play an important role in slaughtering, process and sale of meat in Bodija market, Ibadan, Nigeria. Slaughtering cattle is only carried out by men but women are involved in all other aspects of processing and sale although men dominate most activities. There is little difference in women's socioeconomic characteristics and group involvement compared to men; however, they do have better hygienic practice and better hygienic outcomes in terms of meat safety. Environmental conditions are very poor and meat quality low; however, some groups do obtain/have better quality meat and these also report less illness.Risky practices were reported by a minority of consumers but have potentially large impacts on health (eating cold left-overs; frying for less than seven minutes; giving left-overs to animals; eating raw meat). False beliefs were common, for example, 88% of people believed that one can tell unsafe beef by its appearance and 96% that cooking beef makes it safe. Most customers (81%) are concerned about the meat they buy (especially hygiene and quality) and 81% disagreed with the statement that customers cared more about low price than quality. Consumers who have concerns about safety report much less illness, and those who believe price is more important than quality have much more. This study showed marked and significant differences between regions implying food safety interventions should be targeted for regions.Risky practices of beef sellers include: selling meat over a long period; retaining meat for sale the following day; tasting raw meat; inadequate washing of surfaces; and negligible use of disinfectants. Beef-sellers report more diarrhoea than customers, suggesting they are an at-risk group but also providing an incentive for changing behaviour. There are belief asymmetries with most beef sellers agreeing that 'price is more important CHAPTER 6This section assesses human health impacts associated with the hazards identified, models risk pathways and assesses effects of processes e.g. temperature, time, cross-contamination along the pathway on decreasing or increasing risk. An assessment of the appropriate level of protection (ALOP) is also presented.1. Estimate the risk of illness associated with the consumption of beef contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 and identify factors that are likely to modify this risk. 2. Estimate the risk of illness associated with the consumption of beef contaminated with Salmonella and identify factors that are likely to modify this risk.A quantitative risk assessment approach was adopted to address the stated objectives. The approach was based on the model been suggested by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) through its Codex Alimentarius Commission. The hazards of interest in this study were E. coli O157:H7 and infectious strains of Salmonella. The hazard characterization is discussed in a different report. The focus in this report is on the exposure assessment and the risk characterization steps. Parameters used in the analysis were obtained from two sources: our own data and the literature.The conceptual framework for the approach consists of a traditional scenario delineating the pathway by which these two food-borne pathogens are likely to move from the sources to the susceptible host. The scenario is shown in Figure 4. We hypothesized that events would take place before humans would be at risk of the pathogens, as follows:-The animal will be presented to the slaughter slabs with certain bacterial (initiating event) infection probability that equals to the prevalence of shedding (P s ). Animals infected with a particular pathogen would shed the organism at a concentration of C s colony-forming units per gram (cfu/g).-At the second event, the animal would go through several processing steps inside the slaughter slab and different beef cuts would be produced. These cuts would be contaminated with a particular pathogen at a proportion of P p . The concentration of a respective pathogen in those meat cuts would increase by the ratio of increase between the shedding rate prior to slaughter (P s ) and detection rate post-processing (P p ).-The meat cuts would be transported to the market (third event). The meat would go through several stages of handling before being sold to a restaurant/food-stand or a household. At the market, the meat would be contaminated with a respective pathogen and that contamination rate would equal to the detection rate (P m ). The concentration of the particular pathogen in the meat at the market would change at the ratio of the change in the detection rate between the slaughter-slab and the market.-From the market, the meat cut would go either to the restaurant or to the household (fourth event). The meat would be roasted and this cooking process is likely to reduce the bacterial load on the meat. The contamination rate on the roasted beef (P r ) would equal to the detection rate of the pathogen on samples collected from this type of food. The reduction ratio would be equal to the ratio between the detection of the pathogen in the meat at the market and on the roasted beef (P m :P r ).-Consumers would be exposed to the pathogen through the consumption of contaminated roast beef.The probability of illness would be a function of the amount of beef consumed (D) or the individual exposed to the pathogen and the susceptibility of the host (r). This probability of illness is computed through the risk characterization process which captures the likelihood of the presence and concentration of the respective pathogen as well as the susceptibility of the host.There were no data provided on the prevalence of shedding of pathogens in slaughtered cattle in Nigeria. However data from around the world suggested a shedding rate between 5 and 9 % for E. coli; a report by Smith et al. (2009) indicated a prevalence of 15% for all Salmonella spp. We decided to use an estimate of 7% and 12% respectively in a stochastic distribution (Beta-binomial) which allows us to incorporate the prior absence of data (Table 25).Data are lacking on the concentration of shedding of pathogens in faeces. However, most of the acceptable detection techniques, i.e. immune-magnetic separation and polymerase chain reaction techniques have a limit of detection of 5 cfu. Since this pathogen is detected by either of these techniques, we assumed that that the minimum concentration that could be in the faeces is the limit of detection. We modelled this uncertainty using the Log-normal Distribution with mean of 5 cfu and standard deviation of 5 cfu (Table 25).We initially hoped to capture the dynamics of contamination of meat within the slaughter slabs. However, obtaining relevant data was a challenge. We used data from the survey that was carried out in this project to capture the potential variability in the contamination of meat after evisceration of the carcass and modelled this variability using the Beta Distribution (Table 25).Data on the concentration of pathogens on the carcass after processing were not available. We assumed that the changes in the concentration would be proportional to the change in the detection rate. The final concentration on the processed meat was then obtained by adjusting the concentration in faeces by a factor that was equal to the ratio of detection rate between meat and faeces (F s-f ) (Table 25).Detection of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella at the market Data on the occurrence of pathogens (P m ) in samples collected at the meat market were obtained from the survey. The survey reported that E. coli were detected in 73% of the samples and Salmonella in 36%. We assumed that the distribution follows the Beta-Binomial with the parameters being equal to the number of positive samples and the total number of samples that were examined (Table 25).O157:H7 or Salmonella contaminated beef samples. Several scenarios were evaluated using the same approach. The scenarios that are considered in this analysis are: (1) the risk of illness for a healthy female due to exposure at either a food-stand/restaurant or at the household; (2) the risk of illness for an immunocompromised female due to exposure at either a food-stand/restaurant or at the household; (3) the risk of illness for a healthy male due to exposure at either a food-stand/restaurant or at the household; (4) the risk of illness for an immunocompromised male due to exposure at either a food-stand/restaurant or at the household.Sensitivity analysis was performed to identify the impact of several inputs on the outcomes using the \"ifscenario\" approach. The rationale was to assess the impact of the uncertainty of some of the parameters in the risk of illness from pathogens due to the consumption of contaminated beef. This was accomplished by rank order correlation analysis because it makes no assumptions about the relationship of the composite of the distributions used. In some instances, it is illustrated by the use of tornado charts, where the longer bars have the greatest impact on the model's output.The amount of E. coli and Salmonella that a consumer in Nigeria is exposed to in a serving per day was computed as a function of the original number of cfu/g in the faeces of animal presented at the slaughter slabs and the subsequent effects of handling during transportation to market/retail stands and cooking. Estimates for the probability of sickness under two scenarios where the bacterial load in the faeces was 5 and 3 cfu/g are shown in Table 26. The impact of the change in the initial load on the probability of illness is shown in Figures 5  and 6. As one would expect, the concentration of the cfu/g drops along the events in the pathway under the scenario where the initial bacterial load in the faeces is at the lower level of 3 cfu/g. Using the assumptions described above, the probability of illness for females and males who are healthy or immunocompromised was estimated from the model. Estimates were obtained using the Latin Hypercube sampling with initial seed chosen randomly.The mean risk (probability) of illness from eating beef contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella for a healthy female eating roast beef at a restaurant was 0.28 and 0.09, respectively, with a relatively large variability. Although the mean risk of illness was relatively high, one should note that the distribution of the probability of illness was skewed. Five percent of the healthy female population would have a probability of illness from E. coli that was higher than 66% and only 1 % of the same population would have a probability of illness equal to or higher than 62% from the consumption of beef were contaminated with Salmonella. The mean probability was high because of the few extremely higher risk values, as apparent in the long tail in the relative frequency distribution shown in Figure 7. It appears that the risk of illness for a female at household was lower than the risk of eating at the restaurant, perhaps due to better hygiene in the household. Also, one of the factors that were significantly associated with the risk of illness was the efficiency of reduction in the bacterial load attributed to food preparation (roasting). We assume that household cooks are aware of the risks of eating contaminated beef and hence, roasting is more efficient. Another speculative explanation is that meat in the restaurant would be stored in relatively poor conditions that support the growth of bacteria and the concentration would increase. We did not have enough data on the length and temperature of storage to perform the analysis in support of this speculation.Our analysis showed that the risk of illness for immunocompromised females is significantly higher in comparison to healthy females; three times higher (0.86/0.38) in the case of E. coli and seven times higher (0.61/0.09) in the case of Salmonella. There was no difference in the risk illness between eating at the restaurant and at the house for immunocompromised women. In our simulation, we assumed that the immunocompromised individuals were 10 times more susceptible than the healthy individuals. Figure 8 shows the relative frequency distribution of the probability of illness among the female immunocompromised population which is skewed to the right. Ninety percent of the population will have a probability of illness greater than 48% and the median risk was 93%. The majority of the patients who are afflicted with an immunocompromised condition are at a very high risk of experiencing illness from the consumption of beef that is contaminated with E. coli. There is no surprise here because this finding, in addition to being expected, is consistent with the findings in the literature. However, as seen in Figure 8, a small proportion, less than 5%, would have a risk of illness of less than 0.48. One speculative explanation for the reason in the difference in the risk is the role of education among this minority of individuals who are health conscious.     (3x10 -3 -1.0)   1.8x10 -3  (1.5x10 -5 -9.3x10 -2 ) 1.8x10 -2 (1.5x10 -4 -1.5x10 -1 ) Probability of illness for female at the household 0.06 (6.7x10 -4 -0.97)   0.47 (0.01 -1.0) 0.04 (4x10 -4 -0.73)Risk of illness for male at the restaurantRisk of illness for male at the household 0.09Increase efficiency of roasting by Risk of illness for male at the restaurant 0.016 (2x10 -4 -0.50)Risk of illness for male at the household 0.011 (1x10 -4 -0.41) 0.17 (1.1x10 -3 -0.99) 0.006 (5.9x10 -5 -0.30) 0.06 (5.9x10 -4 -0.97)It appears that males have higher risk of illness in comparison to females (Table 26 and 27). However, the pattern of risk was similar to what we observed among females where the risk of illness for males eating outside the house was higher in comparison to those eating at home (0.44 vs. 0.32 and 0.13 vs. 0.09 for E. coli and Salmonella, respectively). The distribution of the probability of illness for men eating at restaurants was also slightly skewed to the left with the median value of 0.38 and 0.13, respectively. On the other hand, the distribution of the probability of illness for healthy males eating at home assumed a similar risk as for females and was more skewed to the left. The median probability of illness was 0.27 and 0.09 for E. coli and Salmonella, respectively (Figure 9). There was a low proportion of individuals, less than 5%, who were likely to have a high risk (probability of illness greater than 73%) of illness from the consumption of contaminated roast beef at home.  The risk of illness for immunocompromised males eating at restaurants in our analysis was significantly higher than for healthy males (Tables 26 and 27). The risk for the former was twice the risk for healthy ones (0.89/0.44 and 0.76/0.13, respectively). The data were skewed to the right and the median risk was 0.99 and 0.76, respectively. Similar risk was observed for immunocompromised males who eat contaminated beef at home; the mean probability of risk was 0.89 and 0.62, respectively. The distribution of this probability was also skewed to the right. Compared to the healthy male exposed at the household, the immunocompromised male had approximately three times the risk of illness (0.89/0.32 = 2.8) from E. coli and seven times the risk of illness (0.61/0.09 = 6.8) from Salmonella.We performed sensitivity/impact analysis for one of the uncertain parameters, the amount of beef consumed per capita in Nigeria. As indicated earlier, the estimate used in the analysis was obtained from the survey. However, other data indicated that the average amount of beef consumed per capita in Nigeria is between 3 and 6.4 kg/year. We converted these consumption data to amount consumed per day instead of per week. The risk of illness dropped significantly from 0.28 to 0.007 for healthy females eating at the restaurant/food stands for E. coli (Table 26) and from 0.09 to 0.0018 for Salmonella (Table 27). A similar drop in risk was obtained for other sub-groups in the population including the immunocompromised individual. Accordingly, the risk differed depending on which consumption data were used. It is possible that the consumption data in the survey were obtained from urban population while the data in the literature consisted of estimates for both urban and rural populations.Three variables/factors showed consistent correlation with the probability of illness from the consumption of contaminated beef with E. coli: the initial concentration in the faeces before the animal was processed, the rate of presence of the pathogen in roast beef (efficiency of roasting), and the susceptibility of the host. Table 28 shows the correlation and regression coefficients for the relationship between each of these three factors and the probability of illness for healthy females. This pattern is consistent for immunocompromised female, healthy male, and immune compromised male at both restaurant and at the household.Two variables/factors showed consistent correlation with the probability of illness from the consumption of contaminated beef with Salmonella under different scenarios: the contamination rate at the slaughter slabs and the efficiency of roasting. Table 28 shows the correlation and regression coefficients for the relationship between each of these two factors and the probability of illness for healthy males and females under different scenarios (eating at the restaurant/food-stand and household). This pattern was consistent for immunocompromised females, healthy males and immunocompromised males eating at restaurants and at the household.The initial count of bacteria in the faeces had the highest correlation with the risk of illness at either the restaurant or at the household. We assessed the impact of overestimating of the initial bacterial count in the faeces by reducing the count to 3 cfu/g. The results are shown in Table 26. Using an initial count of 5 cfu/g instead of 3 cfu/g, the risk of illness from consuming beef contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 would have been inflated on average by approximately 30%. This analysis indicates one possible critical control point to reduce the incidence of the disease burden in the population which is controlling the likelihood of shedding the pathogen in faeces by introducing intervention strategies at the production site. One factor to consider before implementing such an intervention is the cost of the strategy. For example, in some parts of the world vaccination against E. coli O157:H7 has been implemented to reduce the incidence of shedding of this pathogen. We are not sure that would be a strategy of choice in the Nigerian situation, irrespective of the economic assessment [free market (benefit cost ratio) or cost-effectiveness]. The susceptibility of the host was one of the factors that influenced the probability of illness from consuming beef contaminated with E. coli O157. We computed the susceptibility values (r i ) from the probability of E. coli in diarrhoeic patients for either gender as provided in the survey. As the regression coefficient indicates, the estimated probability of illness for healthy females in the analysis is likely to increase by 15% due to a unit change in the likelihood of isolating E. coli from diarrhoeic patients. Similar interpretations could be made for other sub-populations at risk using the respective regression coefficient (immunocompromised females and males). We realize that the estimate in the survey is likely to overestimate the true incidence because it focuses on diarrhoeic patients only and not all patients that were admitted to the hospital. This point notwithstanding, the analysis has provided another critical point of intervention to reduce the risk of illness from consuming contaminated beef, which is to reduce the incidence of diarrhoea in the population in general.A strategy like increasing awareness about the risk of illness coupled with education on improved sanitary and hygiene practice would decrease the risk of illness.In the case of Salmonella, our analysis demonstrated that there is a significantly high correlation between the risk of illness and the degree of contamination at the slaughter slab (Table 28). As the regression coefficient indicates, the estimated probability of illness for healthy females eating at restaurants in the analysis is likely to increase by 74% due to a unit change in the likelihood of isolating one cfu/g of Salmonella at the slaughter slabs. This is a critical insight in the analysis which sheds light in the importance of the improvement of sanitary practices at these slaughter slabs. It appears that education and improvement of the facilities is likely to have a major impact on reducing the incidence of illness from this food-borne pathogen. The impact of this intervention was significant at both restaurants and households for both genders (Table 28). We recognize that the estimate of the amount of beef consumed in the survey is likely to overestimate the actual consumption data; still the impact of reducing the contamination at the slaughter slabs, either by improving the facilities or through sanitary practice education program, would significantly impact the probability of illness. A strategy like increasing awareness about the risk of illness coupled with education on improved sanitary and hygiene practices would likely decrease the risk of illness.The efficacy of roasting was another factor in our analysis that appeared to influence the probability of illness from consumption of contaminated beef (Table 28). For example, reducing the bacterial count in roast beef by one log, through increasing the temperature or the time of cooking, is likely to reduce the risk of illness for healthy females by 15% (the regression coefficient is 0.15, Table 28). The pattern of reduction is consistent for all subcategories of the population. These results provide another option of a critical control point of intervention to reduce the risk of illness from consumption of contaminated beef. Such an intervention appears to be easy to implement through education on cooking, by increasing either the temperature or the time of cooking, or a combination of the two without compromising taste.Despite the uncertainties associated with the prediction of the risk of illness due to the consumption of beef contaminated with E. coli O157 or Salmonella, as a result of uncertainties in some of the parameters, the model provides a scientific basis for the awareness about the importance of the risk. In addition, the model provides the foundation for risk managers and public health professionals to better understand the prevention strategies against illnesses associated with the consumption of contaminated beef.Policy seeks to establish a balance between ensuring the safety of the food supply while maintaining the viability of the industries and communities engaged in that supply. In the developing-country context, food security is also a policy objective, and Nigeria specifically faces unmet demand for beef.In an attempt to achieve this balance, countries have developed approaches to standardize the methods by which food safety could be assessed and policies and recommendations could be made. The microbial risk assessment approach has been accepted as a method to assess the safety of food in relation to a particular hazard (CAC 2004). This has served developed countries well and helped both producers and policymakers design management strategies that ensure the safety of the food produced and control the associated potential public health hazard. The availability of resources, good data and a framework for collaboration between industry and policymakers have all played a positive role in instituting good management practices and policies. However, elements that contributed to the institution of safe food production practices and policies in the western hemisphere are largely lacking in developing countries.These challenges to the developing countries have been made more complex by their aspirations toward participation in international trade, and the complexity of the global food production system. It is possible to imagine a scenario where raw food material is produced at one site, in a developing country, and processed at another, in a developed country. International food trade volume has been estimated at US $300-400 billion, the majority of which is from developed to developing countries (FAO 2002). Harmonization of standards for food safety across countries would facilitate this trade. The World Trade Organization (WTO) has promoted the concept of equivalence (whereby compliance is required for food safety outcomes, rather than procedures) introduced in the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures (WTO 1995;2000).At the national level, acceptable level of protection (ALOP) and food safety objectives (FSO) are two concepts that have gained a lot of momentum among policymakers in the developed countries in the recent years. The concepts lend themselves to both development objectives and science-based policy. The WTO's SPS agreement uses the concept of ALOP and encourages nations to develop their own standards within the guidelines published by international agencies such as the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAO/WHO, for Food Safety. Consumer scares and disease outbreaks have heightened awareness, contributing to revision and strengthening of food safety systems for both international trade and domestic markets. For example, ILRI studies (Jabbar et al. 2010) have shown that developing-country consumers are well aware of safety risks in animal-source foods and further, that they modify their consumption and expenditures accordingly.ALOP as defined in the WTO/SPS agreement is \"the level of protection deemed appropriate by the member country establishing a sanitary or phytosanitary measure to protect human and animal or plant life or health within a territory\".FSO assists in translating the concept of ALOP into standards for food producers, for practical implementation. For example, this might be the maximum concentration of a microbial hazard in a food that would be considered tolerable for consumer protection at the time of consumption. The FSO could be interpreted as the maximum frequency and/or concentration of a hazard in a particular food matrix at the time of consumption which contributes to ALOP. By virtue of this interpretation the FSO became a subjective measure that the community or society is willing to tolerate or accept. In economic terms, this interpretation would translate to the costs that a society is willing to bear to achieve a specific degree of control and encompasses social, economic, ethical, medical and legal costs.Other interpretations and suggestions regarding the utility of FSO have also been advanced (Havlaar et al. 2004), addressing health as a private and public good. The obvious measure that public health officials use to assess FSO is the incidence of the disease due to a particular hazard. This incidence is a function of all the factors listed earlier in this report. In calculation or establishment of the FSO in a developing country, a difficulty is encountered in integrating the standpoints of both private and public health. However, the obvious level that all countries could operate with, and that reflects the operational level of the contributory factors, is the endemic level of the disease. As resources become more available to the officials, these resources could be allocated optimally to modifiable factors which influence the endemic level of the disease. Stringer (2005) summarizes discussion on the implications of the FSO for microbiological food safety.In the current study, we have used the risk assessment approach to examine the utility of these concepts in developing countries under traditional food production and marketing systems. One of the common practices in developing countries for the majority of food matrices is the cooking of the food before consumption. For such hazards the FSO is likely to be negligible or approaching zero. In the two scenarios developed in the current study, we demonstrated that increase in the cooking temperature significantly altered the risk of illness from exposure to contaminated beef. The only additional risk associated with such an intervention is the potential for cross contamination after cooking, either in the cooking area or after preparation and before consumption. In such scenarios of cross contamination, the FSO should incorporate hygiene and sanitary measures at the consumer and food serving levels in the function of the endemic level of diseases.In developed countries, the FSO has been translated to the producer in terms of the performance objective.Historically, these producers have used the microbiological criteria as an internal measure for quality assurance, largely in acceptance or rejection of food lots. Several sampling techniques have been developed to aid in the decision of acceptance or rejection. Microbiological criteria have helped producers to develop good hygiene practices (GHP), good manufacturing/management practices (GMP), and hazard analysis of critical control points (HACCP) plans.These concepts have potential applications in Nigerian conditions. As we observed, a reduction in the initial bacterial load from 5 to 3 cfu per gram in the faeces of animals at the slaughter slab would reduce the likelihood of illness from exposure to E. coli O157:H7 by more than 50%. If education and incentives are provided to producers then we would expect an impact (measurable in microbiological terms) in the shedding of this food-borne pathogen in beef cattle.Satisfaction of performance objectives undoubtedly adds to producers' costs, and several arguments traditionally surround their application. First, where surveillance is available, compliance is likely both to satisfy requirements (for example, an appropriate level of protection) and to do so at a level of cost that is the lowest possible across the industry. Notably, firms for which compliance costs exceed the benefits available at prevailing prices will be forced to exit the industry. Second and conversely, where surveillance is too expensive or subject to subversion (e.g. in corrupt environments), firms will be able to derive a cost advantage from noncompliance: industry exit is then more likely amongst complying than non-complying firms. The extent to which the first or second arguments prevail will rely partly on consumer sovereignty; where products are traceable to particular shops or processing plants then some degree of consumer surveillance can be brought to bear. Certification systems and retailers' trust by consumers represent basic versions of this effect in less developed markets. However, these are unlikely to reflect fully the performance objectives, and lack basic recourse to the risk analysis of the type presented above.A further challenge is the establishment of a reliable database upon which to set and pursue objective public health goals. Temptations include surrender to special-interest groups and retreat to the safety of the familiar through adoption of precautionary principles.The most logical alternative is to carry out a risk assessment for a particular hazard in a particular food matrix, and compensate for lack of (or uncertainty in) data through simulations. Such simulations can incorporate expert opinions and partial data; in many developing countries there are conveniently available studies that provide information for risk assessment. Such an approach would provide insight into the likely consequences of proposed recommendations.We carried out a study to assess the potential risk of illness from the consumption of beef contaminated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. in a subpopulation in Nigeria. In the study we used the quantitative risk assessment (QRA) methodology that allowed us to collate and analyze data from different sources to estimate the risk associated with the consumption of contaminated beef. In addition to estimating the risk, the QRA helped in identifying stages in the production system from farm to table that are likely to play a role in mitigating or exacerbating the risk of illness associated with the consumption of beef that is contaminated with these two pathogens. Knowledge gained on these critical stages through the QRA will help in focusing resources to devise cost-effective intervention strategies to mitigate the associated risk of the food-borne pathogens.We used primary data from a survey conducted on the target population and complemented the data with information from literature, applying a stochastic approach. Parameters from the collated data were applied to model the human risk associated with these food-borne pathogens in beef. In the model we predicted the human exposure and combined the exposure with the dose-response model to estimate the probability of illness. The effect of uncertainty and variability of the different parameters used in the model on the predicted risk of illness was evaluated using Monte Carlo simulation.The probability of illness for a healthy female from the consumption, at a restaurant, of beef contaminated with E. coli O157:H7 ranges from 7 x 10 -3 to 28 x 10 -2 depending on the amount of beef consumed. However, the risk of illness is lower for a healthy female eating contaminated beef at home (5 x 10 -3 to 24 x 10 -2). The estimates of illness are three times higher for immunocompromised females exposed either at the restaurant or at home. We also evaluated the risk for healthy males being exposed to contaminated beef at restaurants and their risk was higher than for females under a similar scenario (13 x 10  -3 to 44 x 10 -2). A similar trend of reduced risk was observed for men exposed to contaminated beef at home (9 x 10 -3 to 32 x 10 -2). The risk of illness due to this pathogen could be significantly reduced for either gender under different scenarios by increasing the efficacy of roasting of beef before consumption.The probability of illness for a healthy female from the consumption, at a restaurant, of beef contaminated with Salmonella spp. was much lower than the risk associated with E. coli-contaminated beef; the risk ranged from 1.8 x 10 -3 to 9 x 10 -2 depending on the amount of beef consumed. However, the risk of illness for a healthy female eating contaminated beef at home is lower (1.2 x 10 -3 to 6 x 10 -2). The estimates of illness are three times higher for immunocompromised females exposed to contaminated beef either at the restaurant or at home. We also evaluated the risk for healthy males being exposed to contaminated beef at restaurants and their risk was higher than for females under a similar scenario (2.7 x 10 -3 to 13 x 10 -2 ). A similar trend of reduced risk was observed for men exposed to contaminated beef at home (1.8 x 10 -3 to 9 x 10 -2). The risk of illness due to this pathogen could be significantly reduced for either gender under different scenarios by increasing the efficacy of roasting of beef before consumption.We caution the readers that the findings in this study are preliminary and are based on data that were collated from a single survey and from the literature. We attempted to capture the uncertainty of the parameters used in the model through the stochastic approach. The accuracy of the estimates depends largely on the validity of the survey and the reliability of parameters in the literature. However, the study has provided preliminary data on the potential risk associated with the consumption of beef contaminated with these food-borne pathogens.Before we invest resources on the cost-effective strategies to mitigate the risk of illness there should be more confidence in the parameters used in the model. In other words, additional studies are needed to validate the parameters used in this study and hence improve the estimates of the probability of illness.7.Cost of food-borne and beef-borne illness in NigeriaDiarrhoea is one of the top three killer infectious diseases in most poor countries, killing an estimated 1.4 million children a year (Black et al. 2010). In developed countries where relatively good information exists, we have reasonable evidence that:• Food-borne disease is a common cause of diarrhoea, being responsible for 33-90% of cases (Unnevehr and Hirschhorn 2000;Flint et al. 2006) • The great majority of cases (over 90%) are caused by bacteria and viruses not chemicals, although the latter are often of more concern to the public (Kafetstein et al. 1997) • Zoonotic pathogens are among the most important causes of food-borne disease (Thorns 2000;Schlunt et al. 2004), • Animal-source food is the most risky food (Adak et al. 2005;Lynch et al. 2006).Food-borne disease does not just result in diarrhoea and vomiting. The bacterial pathogens responsible for acute gastrointestinal disease can also cause chronic effects (including abortion, arthritis, developmental defects, paralysis, septicaemia and seizures) which are of similar impact to acute diarrhoea (Lindsay 1997). Other food-borne diseases do not cause gastrointestinal illness. For example, toxins may cause neurological deficits, cancer or malnutrition; parasitic diseases may cause cysts in body organs; and antibiotic resistance may lead to treatment failures in human patients.In developing countries, much less is known about the pathogens that cause diarrhoea, the prevalence of food-borne disease, the presence and prevalence of other food-borne diseases, high-risk foods, or the cost of illness (Kaferstein 2003). The first two questions are being addressed by a WHO Working Group and better attribution data should be available from 2011 (Kuchenmuller 2009).Food-borne disease has multiple burdens. The most obvious is sickness and death and this is well captured by the GBD metric of DALY which reflects years lost from death or disability. However, the GBD gives the burden associated with diarrhoea, not all of which is associated with food. Also, it does not give the non-diarrhoeal burden of food-borne disease. Finally, the GBD is based on national reporting which is plagued by problems of inaccuracy and under-reporting.Food-borne disease costs dollars as well as DALYs. People who are sick incur costs for treatment and also lost productivity because of ill health. Where treatment is obtained from public providers, the health facilities that treat them incur additional costs. Food-borne disease also results in costs to the livestock sector and veterinary public health as well as more intangible costs to ecosystems. Figure 11 attempts to summarize these costs. This study looks only at two aspects: DALYs and cost of illness to the individual and household. developing countries are believed to suffer on average three episodes each year (Kosek et al. 2003) and some studies have reported much higher rates [for example, 8.3 episodes per year for children in slums in Nairobi, Kenya (Magadi 2004)]. We conservatively assumed that the survey result (2.25 episodes) was most likely, with a lower limit of 0.92 episodes and upper limit of 3.28 from the groups in the studies with least and highest prevalence.There is little consensus on the importance of food-borne disease in the aetiology of diarrhoea with estimates ranging from 30 to 90% (Schlundt 2002;Flint et al. 2005). In some studies, foods of bovine origin have the highest case-fatality rates (Adak et al. 2005). In developed countries, there is often an age association with viral aetiology more important in infant diarrhoea. However, there is little evidence from developing countries on the proportion of diarrhoea attributable to food-borne disease in general or animal-source food in particular.Our literature review found a few studies have attempted to identify the relative importance of pathogens responsible for diarrhoea in Nigeria (see literature review in Chapter 3). These suggest toxigenic Escherichia coli is the most important cause of diarrhoea, followed by rotavirus, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Cryptosporidium parvum and Staphylococcus aureus. With the exception of rotavirus, all of these are zoonoses (or partial zoonoses) which are most commonly transmitted via food. This suggests that food (especially animal-source food) plays an important role in diarrhoea in Nigeria.Synthesizing the above information we assume 50% of the diarrhoea burden may be attributable to foodborne disease, with a lower limit of 33% and an upper limit of 90%.We considered that households consuming beef daily to weekly would be at risk of beef-borne pathogens. A data-set for urban household food consumption and expenditure patterns during one week in households selected from Abuja, Kaduna and Kano -three major cities in Nigeria -found 77% of households consumed beef (Ezedinma et al. 2006). Obayelu et al. (2009)  Synthesizing the above information we assume 33.1% of households consume beef at least weekly with a lower limit of 20% and an upper limit of 77%.In developed countries, animal-source foods are most frequently implicated in diarrhoeal illness. For example, in the USA, between 1998 and 2002 most (69%) food-borne disease outbreaks with an identifiable vehicle were caused by animal-source foods. Poultry was the food most often implicated (25%) but beef, pork, shellfish and finfish were also important, each causing over 10% of the total (Lynch et al. 2006). In the United Kingdom, a similar pattern is seen. In the four years from 1996 to 2000, most illness was attributed to eating poultry (30%), complex foods (27%) and red meat (17%).According to the literature review (Chapter 3), the majority of the pathogens responsible for diarrhoea in Nigeria are zoonotic and cattle are important reservoirs for many (including toxigenic E. coli; Salmonella spp.; Cryptosporidium parvum; Campylobacter spp. and Staphylococcus aureus).In our hospital study, of the cases examined 28.4% (33 cases out of 116) had a history of meat consumption shortly before the onset of symptoms. However, this may under-estimate the roles of meat in diarrhoea, (because not all patients were asked about consumption), or over-estimate such roles (because patients' attribution may be incorrect). In terms of meat consumption, beef is most commonly consumed in urban areas (Obayelu et al. 2009) and we would expect food safety problems to be greater in urban areas because of longer food chains and general unhealthy environment, which again would argue for beef being an important cause of food-borne disease.A study by ILRI (Chapter 4) among beef processors and retailers in Ibadan showed that beef consumption was associated with a nine-fold increase in the odds of experiencing diarrhoeal illness. Consuming beef of poor microbiological quality resulted in an additional four-fold increase in the odds of diarrhoea. Beef is the most commonly consumed meat in Nigeria, increasing its potential contribution to the food-borne diarrhoea burden.Synthesizing the above information we assume that, among people consuming beef, 20% of the food-borne disease burden may be attributable to beef (with a lower limit of 15% and an upper limit of 30%).In the value chain study, respondents were asked where they sought treatment and 31.3% of people reported visiting public health care facilities or hospitals.• A study in the UK (where treatment is free) found that only 17% of people with diarrhoea visited a doctor (FSA 2001); the same proportion was reported in Norway (Kuusi et al. 2003) while in the Netherlands only 5% of people experiencing diarrhoea saw a doctor (Wit et al. 2001). Given income constraints, it may seem implausible that 30% of Nigerians seek treatment at a health facility. Moreover, this equates to 63.2% of the population seeking hospital/health facility care for diarrhoea per year which seems high. • However, our results are compatible with other surveys from Nigeria. For example, a study on a university population found that 49% of respondents claimed to visit a public health facility when ill (Chukuezi and Anelechi 2009). In a study of market traders in Oyo, south-western Nigeria, 40% reported using public health facilities (Ige and Nwachukwu 2009) as did 45% of people randomly selected from a northern Nigerian town (Tanimola et al. 2009) and 64% of mothers of sick children (Oshikoyo et al. 2007). In a rural community in south-west Nigeria, 44% of respondents to the survey who were ill in the preceding six months visited a public health facility for treatment, while others relied on self-medication/self-treatment (Sule et al. 2008). On the other hand, in a rural area with poor health infrastructure in south-west Nigeria, only 0.5% reported consulting a physician for diarrhoea (Arikpo et al. 2010).• The only study we found on population attendance of health facility reported 58.1% of the population attended the hospital in one year (all causes) (Fatiregun et al. 2007) while in our study, 63% of the population attended health care facilities (hospitals and others) in one year. It is possible, therefore, that the participants in our study use hospital/health facilities at higher rates or that they are overreporting usage of hospitals (Chukuezi and Anelechi, 2009).• Ibadan metropolis has a population of 2 million, 21 hospitals and around 100 health facilities. In our study, there were 44 cases a month of which 70.7% were hospitalized. In the absence of detailed attendance data, if we assume the other health centres treat similar numbers this corresponds to 63,731 hospital/health facility visits per year in Ibadan. Extrapolating from consumer reports of hospital attendance, would imply 138,000 persons go to hospital per year. Interestingly, respondents in Ibadan reported significantly lower diarrhoea and hospital/health facility attendance than otherThe simulation suggested the following:• 173 million episodes of diarrhoea in Nigeria attributable to food These results are shown graphically in Table 31 and Figure 12 along with associated confidence intervals.  The relatively wide confidence intervals reflect uncertainty and variability in the model parameters. We conducted a sensitivity analysis on the estimate for beef-borne diarrhoea (Table 32). The regression coefficient was highest for costs of medical treatment per episode of diarrhoea for those who did not seek treatment at a health facility or hospital. This suggested that (1) improving the accuracy (reducing uncertainty) of this estimate would have greatest benefits in allowing more precise estimates of costs and ( 2) there was wide variation in treatment costs depending on the course of the disease (high variability). The next most important factor was the number of episodes experienced per year. The burden of diarrhoeal diseases in terms of human and sickness and death for Nigeria has been estimated by the WHO's GBD study (Table 35). This uses DALY, the standard method for measuring the burden of human disease which reflects life years lost from premature death and disability. The burden of diarrhoeal illness in Nigeria is 6,487,000 DALY and Table 35 gives the breakdown by age and sex as well as the associated mortality. However, the estimated lost DALY for Nigeria is based on heroic extrapolations. WHO categoriZes it as level 4, the lowest level of evidence, meaning country specific information is not available and estimates are predicted using models (WHO 2008).Making the same assumptions about the attribution of food-borne disease (that is, 50% is due to food-borne disease and 20% of this is due to beef: see Chapter 6 for the justification), given a total burden of diarrhoeal disease of 6,487,000 DALY, we calculate the disease burden of food-borne diarrhoea as 3,243,423 DALY and of beef-borne diarrhoea as 646,685 DALY.Health economics frequently employs cost-benefit analysis in identifying and planning health, particularly public health, interventions. This often entails assigning a monetary value to human health, specifically where suffering, disability or death result from inaction or in a baseline scenario. Although controversy surrounds both the ethics of such valuation and the practicality of methods used (Heinzerling and Ackerman 2004), the approach has gained acceptance largely due to the absence of alternatives. The Value of a Statistical Life (VSL) was developed to assess the impact of health, environmental, or work safety interventions. VSL is an estimate of the cost of saving an additional life. Often measured by willingness-to-pay survey or inferred from employment or expenditure behaviour, VSL embraces the controversial concept of valuing health based on differential income levels and strategies available to diverse income groups. The rationale for using economic valuation of health and life is that choices need to be made in the presence of constraints on public finance, knowledge and information, and in the presence of many competing uses of public funds (e.g. transport infrastructure, education, and national defense). To that end, decisions need to be informed regarding the benefits available from identified courses of action; comparisons of individuals' well-being are not implied. Miller (2000) draws on 68 studies from 13 different countries, finding income elasticities of the VSL between 0.95 and 1.00. Projecting beyond the range of his sample, he estimates the VSL at about US$ 40,000 for Nigeria in 1997, when gross domestic product per capita was about US$ 250 (both numbers are in 1995 dollars).Given the life expectancy in Nigeria of 47.9 years (HDI 2009), the DALY lost from diarrhoea correspond to 67,712 with a statistical value of US$ 2.7 billion while the DALY lost from beef-associated disease correspond to 13,542 with a statistical value of US$ 542 million. This is a considerable under-estimate as the VSL reflects 1995 data and given increases in GDP.For many years, food-borne illness was regarded as a common, but not especially serious, disease. This perspective is changing as diseases emerge or re-emerge which are untreatable (e.g. Cryptosporidium), deadly (e.g. tuberculosis) or both untreatable and deadly (e.g. new variant Creutzfeldt Jakob syndrome and avian influenza). The Food and Drug Authority of the United States Department of Agriculture estimates that 2 to 3% of people with acute food-borne illness go on to develop secondary long-term illness and the long-term consequences to human health and the economy may be more detrimental than the initial acute disease (Lindsay 1997).These non-trivial diseases include ankylosing spondylitis; arthropathies; renal disease; cardiac disease; neurological disorders; abortions and developmental abnormalities; and nutritional and other mal-absorptive disorders (incapacitating diarrhoea). We can reasonably assume that the costs associated with non-diarrhoeal symptoms of beef-borne disease are at least equivalent to those attributable to diarrhoea (Kimoto et al. 2006).If we combine the three costs (costs of diarrhoeal disease associated with beef, cost of non-diarrhoeal disease associated with beef, and value of lost statistical lives associated with beef) then the total is US$ 854 million per year.The Centers for Disease Control estimates that approximately 76 million new cases of food-related illnessresulting in 5000 deaths and 325,000 hospitalizations -occur in the United States each year. The most recent analysis estimates the total economic impact of food-borne illness across the nation to be a combined US$ 152 billion annually (Scharff 2010).Another study found the total cost to New Zealand society from food-borne Campylobacter, Salmonella, Listeria, E. coli, Yersinia and norovirus infections to be US$86 million (New Zealand has a population of 4 million compared to 153 million in Nigeria). Over 90% of the burden in New Zealand is due to zoonoses transmissible through meat and 90% of this cost can be attributed to lost productivity caused by workforce absence. The cost of food-borne illness in Australia is estimated at about US$ 487 million to US$ 1.9 billion per year. These studies did not take into account values of statistical lives.A large-scale study in Nigeria found that rural households spent 7% of their income on direct costs of illness; other experts believe that 10% of household income is spent on health care (Onwujeke et al. 2000;Russell 2002). From the World Bank (2009) Atlas method per capita income for Nigerians (US$ 1140), the number of households in 2010 (30,775,712) and the number of households members (5) (NMCP 2007), this equated to an annual income in Nigeria of US$ 175 billion. The total direct expenditure on health in Nigeria, which is 7-19% of this, accordingly, is US$ 12-$17 billion. Our model estimates the direct costs from diarrhoea at US$ 3 billion or 17-25% of the total costs from all illness. Given that diarrhoea is the most common sickness and the leading cause of death (see literature review in Chapter 3) this is at least within an order of magnitude of our estimates, though perhaps larger than anticipated. There are few studies on the relative importance of cost of diarrhoea; one from Burkina Faso found diarrhoea accounted for 9% of all household out of pocket expenditure on health care (Mugisha et al. 2002) which is somewhat lower than our estimate (17-25%).So, given the high population of Nigeria, and that developing countries suffer a higher burden of diarrhoeal disease than developed countries, our estimates are compatible with other international and national studies. However, several of the assumptions are based on relatively small sample sizes and further research is recommended to validate and improve the accuracy of model predictions.It should be noted that our calculations do not include some potentially important costs because there were insufficient data. These include:• Care-giver costs (for people who are ill): We did not include these as we could not find credible evidence on costs.• Costs of averting behaviour (boiling food for a long time etc.): In the absence of high levels of foodborne disease people would be able to reduce averting behaviour such as consuming beef soon after purchase and boiling beef for a long time. The associated saving was not evaluated. • Spillover benefits of averting behaviour (non-cross contamination of water and other products, improved animal health, enhanced industry returns from higher quality). • Costs to government of providing infrastructure (arguably Nigeria is under-provided so this should not be included because if there were fewer cases of diarrhoea, hospital infrastructure and personnel would shift to other problems). • Costs to the livestock sector in terms of reduced production: Many food-borne diseases cause few or no signs in the animal reservoir but others may be responsible for sickness and death (e.g. salmonellosis). • Costs to the meat industry: In developed countries there are large costs associated with assuring food safety and from recalls when food safety problems escape control; these may be less important in Nigeria given the low levels of traceability. • Other unassessed costs can be seen in Figure 11.An unpublished study by ILRI and partners among meat retailers in Ibadan gives an idea of what can be achieved by relatively simple and cheap meat safety interventions. In Ibadan, an interactive training workshop was held for representatives of butchers' associations who were selected to pass on information and training to their group. Meat hygiene KAP was assessed before and after the workshop (n = 63): After the workshop, participants significantly improved KAP in key food safety aspects, specifically, understanding sources of contamination and food-borne diseases, use of bleach and disinfectant, and hand-washing. Participants also shared information with an average of 18 other group members and improvements were seen in group members who did not attend. Microbiological quality of meat sold also significantly improved after the intervention with an average of 31% improvement in the number of samples failing microbial standards. This relatively cheap and simple intervention led to a 30% reduction in samples failing to meet microbiological criteria.In our study of meat samples from Enugu and Abuja, we found that Enugu had both higher quality meat and fewer reported cases of diarrhoea. An increase of one third in the number of acceptable meat samples corresponded to a decrease of 31% in reported cases of diarrhoea in the preceding two weeks.Several countries have succeeded in significantly reducing food-borne disease over relatively short periods. Between 2000 and 2005, the UK reduced food-borne disease by 19.2%. The main strategies were: targeting high risk value chains; improving slaughterhouse hygiene; private-sector targeted food management systems (HACCP based) and a food hygiene campaign (FSA, 2006). In Iceland, measures at production, retail level and in the household were introduced to prevent Campylobacter spp. transmission. Flocks were comprehensively tested and birds from positive flocks could only be sold frozen. This was accompanied by consumer education campaigns and improvements in hygiene and biosecurity on farm. Parallel declines (>70%) were subsequently observed in the Campylobacter in broiler flocks and in human infections (Stern et al. 2003). In Denmark, a focused and integrated program reduced Salmonella by up to 95% in eggs, poultry and pork, by monitoring herds and flocks, eliminating infected animals, and diversifying animals (animals and products are processed differently depending on Salmonella status) and animal food products according to the determined risk. Given experiences in Nigeria and other findings from interventions to improve food safety, we assume that between 20 and 70% of the beef-borne pathogen exposure is avoidable by achievable improvements in knowledge and practice and provision of infrastructure.We used data from a systematic literature review, value chain survey and hospital survey to estimate the cost of beef-borne illness in Nigeria. Cost of medical treatment and lost productivity was estimated using Monte Carlo stochastic simulation to take into account uncertainty and variability. The total cost associated with foodborne diarrhoea was estimated at US$ 3.6 billion; and the cost associated with beef-borne diarrhoea at US$ 156 million. We then used data from the GBD to estimate additional costs from loss of statistical lives. DALY lost from diarrhoea are estimated at 67,712, corresponding to a statistical value of US$ 2.7 billion, while the DALY lost from beef-associated disease correspond to 13,542 with a statistical value of US$ 542 million.We discuss the other aspects of cost of beef-borne illness which were not captured because of inadequate data but which are likely to be similar or greater to the costs calculated. Chronic and non-gastrointestinal illness associated with food-borne disease is less common than gastrointestinal illness but more severe, and experts consider it to have an equivalent cost. Other costs of beef-borne disease, which were not quantified, include reduced animal productivity, costs of control and trade impacts. This initial estimate suggests beefborne disease costs Nigeria US$ 854 million per year. Furthermore, a reduction of between 20-70% in beefborne disease is feasible.This chapter presents and discusses the overall key findings of the study including potential (risk-based) approaches to improve meat safety in Nigeria. We do this bearing in mind that the conventional solutionsprovision of infrastructure, control and command regulation, inspection and penalties -have self-evidently failed to deliver food safety, and provision of 'more of the same' is unlikely to have different outcomes.The study reveals a high cost of illness associated, in Nigeria, with food-borne disease in general (US$ 3.6 billion per year) and beef-borne disease in particular (US$ 854 million per year). It also reveals poor hygienic practices at slaughterhouse and during sale and preparation. These problems are typical of food in the traditional, self-organized food sectors in developing countries which account for the great majority (80-90%) of food sold. Other key findings of the study are as follows: i.There is a lack of information on the risk to human health, cost of illness, the relative importance of different hazards, or risk factors for food-borne diseases in Nigeria. In Nigeria, as in most developing nations, there is no organized system for monitoring outbreaks of food-borne infections in humans. Food-borne diseases in Nigeria appear to occur predominantly as isolated sporadic cases rather than taking the form of outbreaks and many, if not most, cases of foodborne infections are unrecognized, un-investigated and undocumented. Moreover, many patients do not seek help from hospitals but may rather engage in self-medication or use medicinal herbs. It is, therefore, difficult to determine the actual incidence of food-borne infections. However, diarrhoea is a good indicator of food-borne disease and better data exist for the prevalence and impact of diarrhoea in Nigeria. In developing countries, typically 50-60% of diarrhoea cases are bacterial in origin. In Nigeria, the proportion may be higher at 65-80%. Most of the bacterial causes of diarrhoea are zoonotic, that is, transmissible between animals and humans. ii.Evidence indicates there are high levels of zoonotic and food-borne disease in Nigeria, likely to impose a huge burden of health on consumers as well as all actors involved in food value chains.Our review suggests that the general public is at high risk of contracting food-borne pathogens through the consumption of contaminated animal products, and people working closely with animals are at even greater risk of exposure. However, because the number of consumers of meat is much greater than the number of people working closely with animals and their products, the greatest burden of health is borne by consumers. iii.It appears that bacterial pathogens are the biggest problem and the most important of these, as elsewhere in the world, are zoonotic. The most important bacterial zoonoses are: toxigenic E. coli infection, campylobacteriosis, cryptosporidiosis, Staphylococcus aureus infection, salmonellosis, listeriosis, toxoplasmosis, and Bacillus cereus infection. iv.There is a high and unacceptable risk of illness from toxigenic E. coli or Salmonella from beef consumption each year and a high level of consumer concern over the quality of the meat they buy. Consumers who have less concern are most likely to report gastrointestinal illness. The conclusion of the review is that there are very high levels of biological and other hazards in foods sold in Nigeria and that meat is particularly risky. This study found the majority of meat sampled contained unacceptable levels of one or both of the important pathogens surveyed (toxigenic E. coli and Salmonella spp.). It suggested that the dynamics of the two pathogens are different and further investigation would be needed to understand this and identify critical control points. Meat at the abattoir was highly contaminated and this is obviously a critical point for preventing contamination down the chain. Cooking is considered an important risk-mitigating strategy, but although it halved the risk of contamination, presence of pathogens was still unacceptably high (60%). An important finding was that a relatively small proportion of actors generated the majority of risk. This makes a risk-targeted strategy attractive where, by identifying the chains and actors where there is greatest potential for contamination, scarce resources can be allocated to where they will have most impact. Risky practices of beef sellers include: selling meat over a long period; retaining meat for sale the next day; tasting raw meat; inadequate washing of surfaces; and negligible use of disinfectants. Beef-sellers reported more incidences of diarrhoea than customers, suggesting they are an at-risk group but also providing an incentive for changing behaviour. v.Information asymmetries between beef sellers and consumers may result in value chain failures in delivering safe meat. Most beef-sellers agreed that 'price is more important than quality to consumers' but most consumers disagreed with this statement. Additionally, 92% of beef-sellers believed that customers would complain if there were problems with beef but only 45% of customers agreed. vi.Abattoirs appear to be a key point where contamination occurs. The abattoir environment and slaughtering processes play vital roles in determining the wholesomeness and safety of meat. Unhygienic practices in abattoirs and during post-process handling are associated with potential health risks to consumers due to the presence of pathogens in meat and environmental contamination. Abattoir operations generate large quantities of waste which constitute a major source of environmental pollution. Improper management of water is responsible for pollution of water bodies with an increased risk of water-borne disease in humans. Working in abattoirs can also result in occupational disease and injury. Most butchers are poor and have not received occupational training; there is no compensation if meat is condemned and butchers may strongly and even violently resist condemnation of diseased and unwholesome meat. Moreover, the QMRA model found that the rate of contamination at the slaughter slabs was consistently correlated to the risk of illness from consuming contaminated beef. vii.Traditional approaches to food safety centred on infrastructure provision and command and control regulation have not led to sustainable improvements in food safety. The study shows the importance of butchers' associations and suggests they may be good entry points for interventions to improve food safety. It also finds that even under the difficult conditions of Bodija market, Ibadan, some groups can achieve better food safety and better health outcomes.This study shows a clear relation between meat of poor microbiological quality and higher incidence of gastrointestinal disease (23% more illness in groups with poor quality meat). viii.Newer approaches based on risk rather than hazard, and taking into account incentives for behaviour change as well as governance structures are 'better bets' for sustainably improving the safety of beef value chains. Moreover, while contaminated food is always a hazard, the risk to human health depends on the risk-enhancing and risk-reducing processes and practices along the 'point of sale' to 'point of consumption' risk pathway. For example, in parts of East Africa raw milk is highly contaminated with Brucella pathogens but because the practice of boiling milk is almost universal the risk to consumers is low. In the past, food regulation and inspection was mainly based on the level of pathogens in food. It is increasingly realized that this is a blunt approach and that assessing the risk to human health is much more constructive and useful. An important concept from risk analysis is that there is no such thing as 'zero risk' and because risk reduction has costs, there is an 'appropriate level of protection' which society is willing to support. For example, when the nutrition of many poor consumers is dependent on cheap food and the livelihoods of many poor producers are dependent on marketing animals, it may be unrealistic to demand highly costly standards of food safety. ix.Because gender influences engagement in all aspects of the 'farm to fork' risk pathway, genderaware strategies are likely to be more effective. The study found that women had significantly better hygienic practice and groups with higher proportions of women had better quality meat. x.This study showed that marked and significant differences exist between regions, implying food safety interventions should be targeted for regions. Risky practices (e.g. eating cold leftovers; frying for less than seven minutes; giving leftovers to animals; eating raw meat) were reported by a minority of consumers but have potentially large impacts on health. False beliefs were common, for example, 88% of people believed that you can tell unsafe beef by its appearance and 96% that cooking beef makes it safe. Most customers (81%) were concerned about the meat they bought (especially hygiene and quality) and 81% disagreed with the statement that customers cared more about low price than quality. Consumers who had concerns about safety reported much fewer cases of illness, and those who believee price is more important than quality reported much more.The slaughterhouse is a critical control point at which massive contamination occurs and diseased animals are not effectively identified. Adherence to hygienic principles during food processing, storage, marketing and preparation as part of the measures to promote good health and prevent the transmission of pathogens from animals to humans cannot be over-emphasized. Training of abattoir workers should be accompanied by provision of adequate and functional facilities that will limit meat contamination during processing, storage and transportation.In Nigeria, butchers' associations have an important role in the meat value chain. Members have some education and, for most, meat processing is their primary occupation. Slaughter, processing and sale of beef take place under unhygienic conditions and meat sold by association members is of unacceptable quality. However, some groups have consistently better quality meat and this is positively correlated with the proportion of women members. Given the two-week period previous to the interview as recall time, 85% of meat sellers reported illness and 47% reported gastrointestinal illness. Eating beef, eating chicken, eating offal, consuming one's own products, and belonging to a group with poor quality of meat were all strong and significant predictors of self-reported gastrointestinal illness.Despite the uncertainties associated with the prediction of the risk of illness due to the consumption of beef contaminated with E. coli O157 and Salmonella beef, as a result of uncertainties in some of the parameters, the model provides a scientific basis for the awareness of the importance of the risk. In addition, the model provides the foundation for risk managers and public health professionals to gain a better understanding of the prevention strategies against illnesses associated with the consumption of contaminated beef.Four factors showed consistent correlation with the probability of illness from the consumption of beef contaminated with E. coli or Salmonella, namely,• initial concentration in the faeces before the animal was processed;• contamination rate at the slaughter slabs;• rate of presence of the pathogen in roast beef (efficiency of preparation); and• susceptibility of the host.Analysis indicates four related and potential critical control points to reduce the incidence of the disease burden in the population as follows:1. Controlling the likelihood of shedding the pathogen in faeces by introducing intervention strategies at the production site. One factor to consider before implementing such an intervention is the cost of the strategy. For example, in some parts of the world vaccination against E. coli O157:H7 has been implemented to reduce the incidence of shedding of this pathogen. We are not sure that would be a strategy of choice in the Nigerian situation, irrespective of the economic assessment [free market (benefit cost ratio) or cost-effectiveness]. 2. Improving abattoir environment and slaughter processes through an elective mix of publicprivate investment, stakeholder-centred and incentives-based risk management, targeted education and awareness creation. 3. Reducing the incidence of diarrhoea in the population in general. A strategy like increasing awareness about the risk of illness coupled with education on improved sanitary and hygiene practice would decrease the risk of illness. 4. Reducing the bacterial count in roast beef through education on cooking through either increasing the temperature, time of cooking or a combination of both, without compromising taste.The conventional solutions -provision of infrastructure, control and command regulation, inspection and penalties -have self-evidently failed to deliver food safety, and provision of 'more of the same' is unlikely to have different outcomes. However, the risk-based approaches which have emerged in the last few decades, and are now widely acknowledged as best practice, offer the potential of more sustainable solutions.Some over-arching principles are suggested below and these could be developed into more detailed strategies with inputs from stakeholders. Costing of implementation of chosen approaches needs to build in processes of engagement with the main people involved in the points identified and their present and future participation in change -conflict management and change management specialists are needed. A very specific example is the lack of adequate slaughter facilities where just building the right facility is unlikely to solve the problem. A process of engagement and discussion with butchers' and meat sellers' associations is required before an investment is made. There is a clear need to mix a good understanding of stakeholders with the ability to finance a change that both improves food safety and is acceptable to the local community.• Manage risks not hazards: In the past, food regulation and inspection was mainly based on the level of pathogens in food. It is increasingly realized that this is a blunt approach and assessing the risk to human health is much more informative. For example, milk may have high levels of hazards but if 99.9% of milk is consumed boiled in tea, then the risk posed to people is low. As a first step, food safety authorities should shift from hazard-based to risk-based management.While risk assessment can be resource-and time-consuming, ILRI is pioneering rapid and participatory methods for assessing risk at low granularity.• Risk targeting and targeted education campaigns: This study found that, as is typically the case, a small number of actors, chains and products are responsible for a disproportionate amount of risk. Education and public awareness programs are important measures in sensitizing the general public and people at risk; the greatest improvements of meat hygiene have been demand-led, following on from public outrage over inadequate facilities. These are essential strategies to forestall outbreaks of food-borne infection and limit the spread of infection should outbreaks occur. Identifying and then targeting persons with risky attitudes and practices and at-risk people will maximize the efficiency of risk management.• A farm-to-fork approach: Hazards enter the value chain at different points and increase or decrease as the result of conditions and practices. A pathway approach is needed to understand where and how to tackle key hazards. The importance of farm-level interventions is increasingly recognized. In many cases, multiple barriers are needed to reduce the risk to people.• Appropriate levels of protection: Zero risk is unobtainable and, as risk reduction has costs, there is an 'appropriate level of protection' which society is willing to support. Understanding the benefits of the traditional and informal food sector and the costs of food safety must inform the development of food safety objectives, which set out appropriate standards.• People-centered and incentive-based risk management: Our studies highlight the importance of institutions, norms, beliefs and traditional practices in mitigating and increasing risk. Working with existing institutions, understanding socio-economic determinants of current practices, and creating food safety systems that reward risk reducing behaviour at all levels is an essential component of improving food safety in Nigeria.• Mixed public-private investment: For investment to be sustainable, there is a need to involve the private sector from conception through to implementation. Nigeria can rely on its experience in the construction of model livebird markets to improve biosecurity and break the infection chain of the avian influenza virus and control the disease. For that project, fowl sellers' associations that accepted the concept contributed 15-20% of the construction cost and ran the model livebird markets on their own once completed and commissioned. The model livebird markets have been rated as satistfactory, successful and sustainable. This experience could be deployed to improve the abattoir environment as well as towards running transparent compensation schemes for condemned carcasses.• Monitoring and evaluation of pathogen load in the chain: Prevention of many food-borne zoonotic infections in humans can best be achieved by reducing the infection rates in animal reservoirs. Epidemiological surveillance and periodic monitoring provide good understanding of the dynamics of food-borne pathogens in animal populations and help in the assessment of the factors that contribute to the distribution and persistence of the pathogens in animals as well as their transmission to humans. This could be achieved through outbreak investigations. The culture of outbreak investigation improved markedly in Nigeria as a result of activities linked to avian influenza control. This needs to be further strengthened and institutionalized by incorporating ongoing monitoring of pathogen load in the chain at critical points and analysis aimed at evaluating the impact of change. Ready-to-eat meat, fish and vegetable foods.Standard isolation and characterisation procedures and testing for production of enterotoxins 62% with 48%of the isolates being enterotoxigenic (Sokari, 1991) Alfatoxin B1 Aspergillus flavus, A.niger and PenicilliumDetermination of moisture content, pH, fungal contamination and aflatoxin B1 by thin layer chromatography.The fungal colony forming units exceeded the tolerance levels. (Bankole and Mabekoje, 2004) Aflatoxin B1The seeds from the forest region had a higher moisture content, spoilage and aflatoxin levels than those from the savanna region.Isolation of moulds on potato dextrose agar and aflatoxin analysis by thin layer chromatography. ","tokenCount":"29197"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d6911270058fa76214d5c53f2524c67c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a45ccaa-a87f-442f-9828-2faa080b7c4c/retrieve","id":"232826811"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ededc0f7-c2f2-4ea4-a869-14563df613e8","pagecount":"228","content":"Établi à l'attention de l'Agence française de développement (AFD) du Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale ACP-UE (CTA)   du Fonds international de développement agricole (FIDA)Les appellations employées dans ce produit d'information et la présentation des données qui y figurent n'impliquent de la part de l'AFD, du CTA ou du FIDA aucune prise de position quant au statut juridique ou au stade de développement des pays, territoires, villes ou zones ou de leurs autorités, ni quant au tracé de leurs frontières ou limites. La mention de sociétés déterminées ou de produits de fabricants, qu'ils soient ou non brevetés, n'entraîne, de la part de l'AFD, du CTA ou du FIDA, aucune approbation ou recommandation desdits produits de préférence à d'autres de nature analogue qui ne sont pas cités. Les opinions exprimées dans ce produit d'information sont celles du/des auteur(s) et ne reflètent pas nécessairement les vues ou les politiques de l'AFD, du CTA ou du FIDA. L'AFD, le CTA et le FIDA encouragent l'utilisation, la reproduction et la diffusion des informations figurant dans ce produit d'information. Sauf indication contraire, le contenu peut être copié, téléchargé et imprimé aux fins d'étude privée, de recherches ou d'enseignement, ainsi que pour utilisation dans des produits ou services non commerciaux, sous réserve que l'AFD, le CTA et le FIDA soient correctement mentionnés comme sources et comme titulaires du droit d'auteur et à condition qu'il ne soit sous-entendu en aucune manière que l'AFD, le CTA et le FIDA approuveraient les opinions, produits ou services des utilisateurs.Toute demande relative aux droits de traduction ou d'adaptation, à la revente ou à d'autres droits d'utilisation commerciale doit être adressée par courriel àD'un point de vue financier, les récépissés d'entrepôt, utilisés comme garantie, peuvent d'une part faciliter l'octroi de prêts aux agriculteurs. D'autre part, le système de récépissés d'entrepôt permet aux entreprises de transformation de financer le stock nécessaire à leurs activités tout au long de l'année, et aux exportateurs d'optimiser le calendrier des ventes escomptées. Il offre en outre aux banques internationales un moyen de prêter à des taux d'intérêt qui tendent à être moins élevés que ceux proposés par les banques locales.Le système de récépissés d'entrepôt est une technique de financement très ancienne qui était déjà utilisée en Mésopotamie sur des tablettes d'argile. Il a joué un rôle important aux États-Unis et en Europe dans le financement de l'agriculture et de la transformation agricole. Il est utilisé dans un grand nombre de pays en développement, mais principalement pour le financement d'activités d'importation et d'exportation. Au cours des dernières années, les pouvoirs publics (soutenus par leurs partenaires de développement) ont multiplié leurs efforts pour étendre son utilisation aux chaînes de valeur alimentaires nationales. Cela s'est avéré difficile, notamment en raison des bailleurs de fonds locaux -les candidats les plus appropriés pour financer les flux commerciaux à l'échelle nationale et régionale -qui, en général, connaissent mal cette approche et se méfient des conditions réglementaires, légales et politiques relatives à son utilisation.À la fin de l'année 2013, l'Agence française de développement (AFD), le Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA) et le Fonds international de développement agricole (FIDA) ont lancé un appel d'offres pour la réalisation d'une étude visant à examiner l'étendue du financement par récépissés d'entrepôt en Afrique, et pour faciliter l'élaboration de politiques et de stratégies en vue de son expansion. La Plateforme pour la gestion des risques agricoles (PARM), financée par la Commission européenne, la Coopération italienne pour le développement, le FIDA et l'AFD, et hébergée par le FIDA, a également contribué à financer cette étude.Une importante équipe d'experts dans de nombreux domaines a évalué la situation sur le terrain dans neuf pays d'Afrique (le Burkina Faso, le Cameroun, la Côte d'Ivoire, le Ghana, Madagascar, le Mozambique, le Niger, le Sénégal et l'Ouganda) et identifié les obstacles à une plus grande utilisation des diverses formes de système de récépissés d'entrepôt, et présenté des propositions d'action. L'équipe était composée de spécialistes, notamment d'experts internationaux et locaux issus des neufs pays à l'étude, compétents dans les domaines juridique et bancaire ainsi que dans la gestion d'entrepôts. Ce document vise à devenir une étude de référence sur le système de récépissés d'entrepôt en Afrique pour les années à venir.Les auteurs du rapport se sont concentrés sur l'étude de quatre types de financement principaux :• Type A : Crédit stockage communautaire pour les petits exploitants, souvent soutenu par les institutions de microfinance (IMF) qui refinancent leurs opérations avec des banques commerciales. Les stocks sont généralement conservés dans un local verrouillé à double cadenas, dans des entrepôts communautaires ou des bâtiments résidentiels. La clé du premier cadenas est détenue par l'organisation de producteurs (OP) ou le groupe d'agriculteurs, et celle du deuxième cadenas, par l'IMF.• Type B : Entrepôts privés. Financement en contrepartie de marchandises stockées dans un entrepôt privé sous contrôle et responsabilité d'un gestionnaire de garanties. Il peut s'agir d'un entrepôt situé sur le terrain dans lequel les marchandises sont conservées dans l'entrepôt de l'emprunteur, lequel est temporairement loué au gestionnaire de garanties.• Type C : Entrepôts publics. Financement en contrepartie de marchandises stockées dans un entrepôt public. Il s'agit d'un entrepôt ouvert aux déposants du grand public, l'entrepôt n'appartenant pas forcément à l'État. En effet, la plupart des entrepôts publics sont des propriétés privées.• Type D : Prêts accordés en échange de l'assurance d'une production actuelle ou future. Dans ce cas, les agences de financement prêtent de l'argent en contrepartie de la garantie documentée de la production actuelle ou future, comme les Cedulas de Produtos Rural (obligations pour financer l'agriculture), souvent utilisées au Brésil.Toutes ces formes de financement sont adaptées à des buts spécifiques. Elles se complètent de bien des façons. (c) Type C : entrepôts publics. Financement garanti sur les produits de base stockés dans un entrepôt public. Cela ne signifie pas que l'entrepôt appartient à l'État mais qu'il est accessible aux déposants lambdas. La plupart des entrepôts publics sont d'ailleurs des propriétés privées.(d) Type D: Prêt garanti sur la production actuelle ou à venir. Les organismes de financement entendent par là un prêt octroyé en échange d'une sûreté, attestée par écrit, prise sur la production actuelle ou à venir, telle que les Cedulas de Produtos Rurais (reconnaissances de dette agricole) pratiquées au Brésil.En sus des types mentionnés ci-dessus, deux types de financement qui ne sont pas abordés dans le présent rapport : (a) un tiers assure le contrôle des stocks au nom du financier (dans le cadre de conventions de contrôle des stocks ou CCS) ; et (b) le financier assure lui-même le contrôle des marchandises. Ces types de financement présentent une relative sûreté, dès lors que l'emprunteur jouit d'une solide relation de confiance avec le financier, ou que le financier dispose de puissants moyens non juridiques de faire respecter ses droits par l'emprunteur. Le contrôle des stocks est étroitement associé au financement de type B (entrepôts privés), les contrôleurs étant le plus souvent les mêmes sociétés d'inspection qui jouent le rôle de tiers détenteurs, et qui parfois proposent ces deux services dans le cadre d'un seul et même contrat.La typologie ci-dessus correspond plus ou moins à la réalité : dans la pratique, les différents types se superposent partiellement. C'est la raison pour laquelle le lecteur doit appréhender le rapport dans son ensemble plutôt que de s'intéresser à un type particulier.La production de rapports nationaux pour chaque pays considéré a été confiée à des consultants techniques locaux. Ces documents sont présentés dans le Volume II du présent rapport. Il a été fait appel à des consultants juridiques au Ghana, en Côte d'Ivoire, en Ouganda, au Mozambique et à Madagascar 1 , et l'inventaire des lois et réglementations en vigueur dans chaque pays considéré est présenté dans le Volume III.1 Le consultant juridique de Madagascar détient une expertise sur l'ensemble des pays de l'OHADA, notamment le Burkina Faso, le Cameroun, la Côte d'Ivoire, le Niger et Sénégal.Le rapport étudie en premier lieu ce type résolument orienté vers les agriculteurs. Il s'agit d'un type de financement extrêmement décentralisé, principalement pratiqué à Madagascar sous l'appellation Greniers Communautaires Villageois (GCV), et dans quelques pays francophones d'Afrique de l'Ouest sous l'appellation warrantage communautaire (ci-après warrantage c.). Tel qu'il est pratiqué actuellement, ce type de financement permet aux agriculteurs d'une part de conserver leurs récoltes afin de répondre aux besoins alimentaires de la période de soudure et, d'autre part, de vendre les excédents à des prix plus élevés, évitant ainsi la survente de la production au moment de la récolte.Dans la grande majorité des cas, les stocks sont conservés avec préservation d'identité dans des sacs au nom des déposants/agriculteurs et, une fois le prêt remboursé, chaque déposant/agriculteur est personnellement responsable de l'enlèvement du produit. Les taux de remboursement constatés sont généralement proches de 100 pour cent.Le niveau de variabilité saisonnière des prix des céréales secondaires (maïs, millet, etc) et des légumineuses varie grandement d'un pays à l'autre, mais leur prix est généralement plus élevé qu'en République d'Afrique du Sud, pays africain doté du système commercial le plus développé et où les hausses saisonnières moyennes du prix du maïs se situent en dessous de 20 pour cent. Cette différence donne à penser qu'il est tout à fait possible de parvenir à une stabilisation des prix dans les pays considérés.Les GCV de Madagascar constituent une réussite exceptionnelle en matière de prêt garanti sur des produits de base, avec des dépôts annuels de l'ordre de 100 000 à 120 000 tonnes (généralement 1 à 2 tonnes par déposant), et des volumes en hausse. Plus de 90 pour cent du tonnage est constitué de riz paddy, et le reste essentiellement de riz blanchi -les clous de girofle et le café représentant aussi une part importante en termes de valeur. Les GCV représentent plus de 40 pour cent du portefeuille de prêts des deux principaux Financement de type A : crédit-stockage communautaire 2 réseaux d'IMF, lesquels, pour une majeure partie, se sont créés autour de cette offre de prêt. Les GCV ont pris leur essor avec d'autres IMF et représentent 25 pour cent du portefeuille d'un important réseau, plus urbain.Cette offre n'est pas dénuée de risques, en raison de l'intervention gouvernementale sur le marché du riz et des pratiques de certaines IMF (un réseau se serait ainsi récemment déclaré en faillite). Parallèlement, la mauvaise maîtrise de la manutention d'après récolte et de la lutte contre les nuisibles limite la diversification vers d'autres cultures. Remédier à ces lacunes ouvrirait d'importantes perspectives aux IMF participantes. On s'oriente actuellement vers la location de magasins davantage centralisés et plus spécialisés. Ce sont là de nouveaux enjeux pour les IMF et les banques de refinancement, enjeux qui donnent aussi l'occasion de développer l'activité d'entreposage au niveau national, avec des entrepôts publics (activités de type C) et un cadre réglementaire adéquat.Le warrantage c. s'est développé au Niger à partir de 1988-1989 et, dix ans après, contribue au financement d'environ 5 000 tonnes de produits de base variés (céréales, oléagineux, légumineuses) et de produits horticoles déshydratés appartenant à près de 12 500 déposants. Depuis, le volume de prêt semble avoir stagné en raison de mauvaises récoltes, de difficultés financières rencontrées par un des principaux prêteurs, de la rigidité du dispositif du double cadenas, de l'adoption d'un autre modèle de financement par une importante OP (la fédération Mooriben), de la fin de l'appui technique de la FAO et du manque d'entrepôts. On a tenté d'appliquer le warrantage c. au produit le plus exporté par le Niger, l'oignon, mais sans obtenir de succès à ce jour. La méthode a ensuite été appliquée dans plusieurs autres pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest : au Burkina Faso, où elle était en 2013 à l'origine du dépôt d'environ 3 400 tonnes de produits de base appartenant à près de 4 021 producteurs, et au Sénégal où une expérience pilote a été abandonnée.Il existe deux grands modèles de warrantage c. : un modèle décentralisé, avec une institution financière qui finance une OP selon les principes énoncés cidessus, et un modèle centralisé, intégrant une seconde organisation ou une organisation tierce de niveau supérieur (une union ou une fédération) qui coordonne plusieurs OP locales et les représente vis-à-vis des institutions financières. L'IMF délègue en grande partie son rôle de supervision à l'union ou à la fédération qui détient la clé du cadenas en son nom. Si le modèle centralisé n'est pas toujours avantageux, il peut simplifier les relations avec les institutions financières, réduire les coûts liés au crédit, et accroître les chances de viabilité institutionnelle. Une troisième méthode plus commerciale mettant en jeu la commercialisation collective des produits stockés a été adoptée par une société de tierce détention. Dans ce cadre, le type A tend à se rapprocher des types B et C.Le warrantage c. présente de solides éléments de durabilité : l'appropriation locale, la pression importante exercée par les pairs emprunteurs, la responsabilité vis-à-vis du prêteur, l'épargne forcée (ce qui rend plus aisée la gestion d'importantes variations saisonnières des prix), la gestion décentralisée, et pas d'obligation quant à de coûteux tiers détenteurs ou polices d'assurance. Certaines caractéristiques nuisent cependant à sa durabilité, en particulier : la rigidité de l'offre (des échéances généralement fixes pour le dépôt, l'emprunt et le remboursement) ; le manque de réelles IMF dans les régions où vivent les agriculteurs (contrairement à beaucoup de régions de Madagascar) ; la dépendance à l'égard de l'aide extérieure pour la construction d'entrepôts ; le besoin permanent et prolongé de moyens pédagogiques ; les interventions étatiques qui faussent les grands paramètres du marché et font perdre de l'argent aux déposants ; la capacité de spéculation restreinte des petits producteurs.Néanmoins, les externalités positives du warrantage c. peuvent justifier la poursuite de l'aide extérieure : les agriculteurs pouvant constituer des provisions alimentaires dans les zones rurales, la population devient plus résistante aux crises. Ce fait constitue en lui-même une étape décisive vers des formes d'organisation plus adaptées au marché. Les dépenses massives et persistantes pour promouvoir l'outil ne peuvent se justifier que là où existent des perspectives d'adoption à grande échelle et pérennes.Le warrantage c. est restreint par divers facteurs au Mozambique, tels que la médiocrité des services de microfinance (aggravée par l'effet perturbateur des « prêts » bonifiés du gouvernement qui n'imposent aucune sanction aux mauvais payeurs) et les capacités de gestion insuffisantes des OP. L'Étude a cependant abouti à la formation d'un groupe de travail qui prévoit de piloter un dispositif de crédit-stockage avec quelques groupements focalisés sur le marché. On relève quelques initiatives au Cameroun, et le rapport concernant ce pays propose de promouvoir cette activité au travers du projet PADMIR adossé au FIDA.Les aspects pratiques du warrantage c. (en particulier les procédures, la confiance et la pression des pairs) contribuent bien plus à la sûreté de la garantie que le cadre juridique, raison pour laquelle le régime juridique n'est pas considéré comme prioritaire pour encourager ce type de financement dans sa forme la plus décentralisée. Cependant, le financement de type A empruntant des caractéristiques aux types B et C, les aspects juridiques doivent être de plus en plus pris en considération. Il est en outre particulièrement nécessaire de procéder à un examen approfondi de la réglementation à Madagascar, étant donnée la part importante des GCV dans le portefeuille de prêts des réseaux d'IMF.Financement de type B : entrepôts privés 3Le financement de type B est pratiqué dans tous les pays considérés, à l'exception de Madagascar où les financiers préfèrent se charger eux-mêmes de la surveillance.La majeure partie de l'activité concerne l'importation et l'exportation de produits de base. Elle se concentre près des ports, bien qu'il existe des services plus disparates à l'intérieur des terres et dans les pays enclavés, le plus souvent comme complément à la transformation des produits agricoles. À quelques exceptions près, les petits exploitants agricoles n'ont pas énormément recours aux services d'entreposage privé. D'abord parce que les OP qui les représentent n'ont souvent pas les moyens d'embaucher un tiers détenteur (qui coûte généralement plus de 1 000 US$ par mois) et/ou n'obtiennent pas la confiance des financiers, sans compter que leur isolement géographique pose des difficultés aux financiers et aux tiers détenteurs. Néanmoins, l'utilisation bénéfique des conventions de tierce détention (CTD) et des conventions de contrôle des stocks (CCS) est décisive pour les agriculteurs puisqu'elles constituent les principaux éléments de la chaîne d'approvisionnement des produits agricoles dont ils dépendent. Le service est davantage utilisé par les exportateurs locaux africains et contribue à les mettre sur un pied d'égalité avec les entreprises multinationales en mesure d'obtenir des financements peu coûteux à l'étranger.On trouve parmi les tiers détenteurs un mélange d'entreprises internationales de gestion de crédit/d'inspection et de logistique, ainsi qu'un nombre croissant de gestionnaires locaux. Certaines sociétés d'inspection ainsi que certains pays ont été victimes d'escroqueries pendant l'entreposage. Cette situation a fait s'envoler le prix des assurances de responsabilité professionnelle et conduit certaines entreprises à abandonner leur activité ou à se consacrer à des services d'inspection et de stockage moins risqués.Dès lors que les tiers détenteurs font correctement leur travail, les financiers n'ont normalement aucun mal à obtenir un financement en échange de la CTD. Ils connaissent leurs clients ainsi que, le plus souvent, les acheteurs. Les prix sont généralement fixés dans le cadre de transactions structurées par le biais de factures et de lettres de crédit, et il est possible d'accéder à des informations précises relatives au marché pour la plupart des produits exportés -à l'exception notable des noix de cajou. Cependant, la perspective de travailler avec des gestionnaires de l'arrière-pays et des clients mal connus n'ayant pas l'assentiment des acheteurs suscite bien plus d'angoisse chez les financiers, lesquels ont tendance à privilégier d'autres garanties telles que les biens immobiliers ou le cautionnement personnel. Cette exigence dépend en partie des risques encourus et du manque d'expérience ou de préparation des financiers pour travailler avec les acteurs des chaînes de valeur locales, en lieu et place des négociants internationaux de produits de base avec lesquels ils réalisent la plupart de leurs opérations. Si les financiers souhaitent accéder à ce marché, ils vont devoir développer de nouvelles capacités internes en matière d'analyse historique de l'évolution des prix, de marges de sécurité variables, de suivi de l'évolution des prix sur le marché intérieur, de réévaluation en fonction du cours et des appels de marge. Cependant, étant données la taille réduite du marché potentiel et les appréhensions des financiers, ils sont peu nombreux à avoir investi dans ces domaines.Ce document examine le rôle des CTD et CCS à l'aide des deux cultures d'exportation que sont le cacao et le coton. Une étude des expériences ivoirienne et camerounaise avec le cacao montre qu'il existe un débat important concernant la stratégie la plus judicieuse à adopter en matière de développement des chaînes de valeur dans les pays qui ont libéralisé leur marché des exportations : il s'agit de savoir si les coopératives de producteurs doivent chercher à développer une commercialisation en aval, en ayant recours au financement sur récépissé d'entrepôt, ou si elles doivent s'attacher à s'associer avec des acheteurs internationaux dans le cadre de systèmes d'agriculture contractuelle. Le Cameroun vient de négocier une ligne de crédit internationale de 30 millions d'euros qui semble plutôt correspondre à la première hypothèse, et il paraîtrait que les Organismes de financement cherchent à suivre les résultats obtenus sur la durée.Le financement des régions enclavées avec des aliments de base et du fourrage est principalement entravé par la fragmentation de la production et le manque d'économies d'échelle qui rend l'emploi d'un tiers détenteur particulièrement coûteux. En dépit de ces obstacles, certains tiers détenteurs dans des pays enclavés (tels que le Burkina Faso et l'Ouganda) ont tenté de rapprocherCertains tiers détenteurs dans des pays enclavés ont tenté de rapprocher leurs services des agriculteurs et/ou des petits transformateurs leurs services des agriculteurs et/ou des petits transformateurs. Il existe désormais au Burkina Faso un consensus national sur l'importance du warrantage c. et de la tierce détention, et trois nouveaux tiers détenteurs (dont certains créés par des banques nationales et régionales) ont conçu des offres de prêt innovantes destinées aux producteurs, à la transformation artisanale et à la chaîne de valeur du riz. D'après le rapport pays consacré au Burkina Faso, le potentiel de développement est considérable, mais cette croissance rapide n'est pas dénuée de risques. Comme dans la plupart des pays, la pénurie d'infrastructures de stockage adéquates constitue un obstacle majeur.Il existe deux principaux domaines dans lesquels le régime juridique pourrait être amélioré : (a) la réglementation de la tierce détention ; et (b) l'élimination des obstacles à la prise de sûreté sur gage des produits de base. Parmi ces obstacles figurent l'obligation de payer un droit de timbre ad valorem sur les documents de sûreté, les difficultés propres à l'inscription des sûretés, et les formalités coûteuses pour constituer des suretés (notamment au Mozambique). La Côte d'Ivoire est le seul pays à avoir essayé de réglementer la tierce détention, mais cette législation ne s'applique qu'aux quatre principaux produits d'exportation (à savoir le cacao, le café, le coton et la noix de cajou). Les tiers détenteurs doivent présenter des garanties financières, mais ces dernières ne semblent pas suffisantes pour dissuader les candidats ne remplissant pas les conditions requises/les candidats inappropriés.Le financement de type C ne présente un intérêt que dans les pays qui ont appuyé, ou qui envisagent d'appuyer, l'implantation d'entrepôts publics. À la date de publication du présent document, il s'agit de la Côte d'Ivoire, du Ghana, du Mozambique, du Sénégal et de l'Ouganda. Les entrepôts publics servent également de points de livraison aux bourses de produits de base et sont indispensables à la création de ces bourses.L'Ouganda est le seul pays à avoir adopté à ce jour une loi d'habilitation de l'entreposage public. L'Ouganda a également mis en place un système électronique de récépissé d'entrepôt (e-SRE) relié au même serveur que celui utilisé par le système sud-africain de certificats des silos à grains. Une tentative d'appliquer le système aux céréales (au maïs essentiellement) a abouti à l'homologation de cinq entrepôts, à la participation de quatre banques et au dépôt d'environ 600 22 tonnes entre 2008 et 2013. Cela était cependant loin de correspondre au volume nécessaire pour couvrir les coûts de la plupart des entrepôts et de l'autorité chargée de la réglementation. Malgré ces problèmes, au moins deux entrepôts fonctionnent encore : l'un indique travailler avec 162 OP représentant 000 10 agriculteurs, et prendre en charge 8 000 tonnes de maïs par saison, achats comptant et stockage pour des tiers compris. Actuellement, le cadre réglementaire ne fonctionne néanmoins pas correctement.Au Ghana, une nouvelle association du secteur privé, le Conseil ghanéen des céréales (GGC), s'efforce depuis fin 2012 de faire fonctionner un SRE réglementé pour ses membres à jour de leur cotisation. Quelques 29 500 tonnes ont été déposées, dont 6 900 financées par l'intermédiaire d'une société dénommée CCH, en vertu d'un dispositif de prise en pension, qui canalise les fonds provenant des financiers. La forte implication de la CCH est liée à la nouveauté du dispositif, il est donc difficile de savoir à ce stade si la prise en pension sera plus attractive sur le long terme que le prêt direct assuré Financement de type C : entrepôts publics par les banques. Le véritable enjeu pour la CCH, et qu'elle s'attache à relever, est de transformer la prise en pension en instrument financier à court terme pour le vendre aux investisseurs institutionnels, ce qui pourra alors fortement réduire le coût du financement sur entrepôt au Ghana.Néanmoins, le principal événement intervenu dans la chaîne de valeur du maïs ghanéen est la mise sur pied d'un dispositif d'agriculture contractuelle pour le maïs, promu par les fournisseurs d'intrants que sont YARA et Wienco (le principal déposant dans le cadre du SRE du GGC) et qui, avec d'autres initiatives d'intensification, a massivement accru les excédents de maïs dans le Nord du Ghana. Parallèlement, le gouvernement ghanéen prépare un texte législatif pour réglementer un SRE et une bourse des produits de base (Ghana Commodity Exchange -GCX), le Ministère du Commerce assurant la promotion de la bourse et des huit entrepôts de 10 000 tonnes associés, avec l'entreprise Eleni et un groupe d'investisseurs nationaux et internationaux, dans l'optique de commencer les échanges de maïs en 2015.La Côte d'Ivoire a préparé un projet de loi sur le RE et prévoit de tester le système avec une seule culture, sans doute les noix de cajou, dès 2015. Le gouvernement du Mozambique a d'ores et déjà instauré une bourse des produits de base (la BMM), et esquissé un projet de loi sur le récépissé d'entrepôt. La BMM est en train de prendre le contrôle de 39 nouveaux silos d'une capacité d'environ 000 200 tonnes de céréales, mais l'entreprise semble loin de fonctionner à ce jour. La méthode est fortement impulsée par le gouvernement, contrairement à ce qui se passe en Côte d'Ivoire, où s'instaurent très progressivement un système d'entreposage public et une bourse des produits de base, moyennant une plus grande concertation avec les parties prenantes intéressées. L'élaboration d'une nouvelle loi sur les SRE pourrait être l'occasion pour le gouvernement de s'engager résolument à définir un cadre juridique et institutionnel pour les différents types de warrantage au Mozambique, y compris les CTD et CCS.Le rapport pays sur Madagascar recommande de s'appuyer sur la tendance à privilégier les entrepôts contrôlés par les IMF (par opposition aux GCV familiaux) afin de développer l'entreposage au niveau national, avec un cadre réglementaire adéquat. De fait, parmi les neuf pays considérés, c'est sans doute Madagascar qui présente les atouts les plus solides pour l'entreposage public : la suite dépendra de la volonté des IMF et de leur capacité à instaurer un dialogue avec le gouvernement, les banques et les autres acteurs de la chaîne de valeur.Ceux qui cherchent à instaurer un système réglementé se retrouvent contraints d'opter soit pour l'adoption d'un texte législatif (suivant ainsi les exemples de la Tanzanie, de l'Ouganda et de l'Éthiopie), soit pour la création d'un système fondé sur l'accord contractuel entre les parties concernées (suivant en cela les exemples de l'Afrique du Sud et, pour le moment, du Conseil ghanéen des céréales). L'une ou l'autre voie présente des embûches. La voie contractuelle implique que le secteur soit motivé, que les financements soient disponibles, et que les parties prenantes fassent preuve d'une forte organisation difficile à mettre en oeuvre, en ce qui concerne en tout cas les produits alimentaires locaux, étant donné la nature relativement fragmentaire de la production, de la distribution et même de la transformation en Afrique sub-saharienne (à l'exception de l'Afrique du Sud). Un système librement consenti présente aussi le risque juridique de recevoir des réclamations de la part de tiers ne faisant pas partie du système, bien que cela n'ait pas empêché une mise en oeuvre réussie en Afrique du Sud. La voie législative est elle aussi difficile, comme en témoigne le cas de l'Ouganda où les promoteurs locaux et internationaux du projet n'avaient pas la même vision de ce qu'ils essayaient de mettre en place. Le risque existe aussi que l'organisme chargé de la réglementation ne dispose pas des fonds nécessaires et/ou soit mal géré, ou que les gouvernements privilégient des objectifs politiques à court terme et découragent ainsi les acteurs privés.La voie proposée par la Bourse éthiopienne des produits de base (Ethiopia Commodity Exchange, ECX) offre une autre solution, tout comme ses variantes largement préconisées par les gouvernements d'Afrique. En suscitant l'adhésion enthousiaste des gouvernements et en obtenant le soutien massif des donateurs, institutions financières internationales, banques et fonds d'investissement, les promoteurs cherchent à atteindre une « masse critique » permettant de lever rapidement les obstacles réglementaires et instaurant dans la foulée la bourse et son système connexe d'entreposage public. Quelques écueils demeurent cependant, en particulier : la difficulté à transposer les conditions éthiopiennes aux autres pays d'Afrique subsaharienne ; le fait qu'on ne puisse pas imposer que les échanges de cultures consommées nationalement, telles que le maïs et le soja, s'effectuent par l'intermédiaire de la bourse (les possibilités de contournement sont infinies) ; Ceux qui cherchent à instaurer un système réglementé se retrouvent contraints d'opter soit pour l'adoption d'un texte législatif, soit pour la création d'un système fondé sur l'accord contractuel entre les parties concernées 5 s'agissant du Ghana, on ignore de quelle manière la bourse parviendra au point d'équilibre ; la méthode peut favoriser le court terme, flatter les tendances dirigistes des gouvernements, et s'avérer contre-productive ; enfin, les projets phares et de prestige risquent d'étouffer dans l'oeuf toute discussion sur les avantages et les inconvénients.Les auteurs ont étudié les arguments en faveur de la mise en oeuvre de textes législatifs sur les SRE dans l'ensemble des pays de l'OHADA. Ils sont arrivés à la conclusion qu'il s'agirait là d'une tâche difficile, en raison de l'unanimité qu'elle requiert parmi les pays votants. Chaque État membre peut néanmoins légiférer en matière de récépissé d'entrepôt dans le cadre du gage sur les stocks avec dépossession.Dans la plupart des pays africains, il ne serait pas réaliste d'attendre des financiers qu'ils acceptent un papier comme garantie de sûreté (selon le principe brésilien des reconnaissances de dette agricole), alors même que, dans bien des cas, ils sont peu disposés à octroyer un financement en échange de la sûreté réelle avec dépossession détenue dans les entrepôts. Le fait qu'il s'agisse de petits producteurs agricoles et la faiblesse des coopératives font que ce dispositif est difficilement envisageable. Il est néanmoins possible de tester cette offre en Côte d'Ivoire, auprès des producteurs commerciaux de caoutchouc, un secteur dans lequel les financiers accordent déjà des prêts aux producteurs en échange d'une garantie sur la récolte.Financement de type D : prêt garanti sur la production actuelle ou à venirLe warrantage et la tierce détention ne constituent pas des remèdes miracles. Ce sont plutôt des outils pouvant être combinés à d'autres pour contribuer au développement de la chaîne de valeur agricole. Le tableau n°1 met en évidence les principaux avantages et inconvénients des différentes méthodes examinées.Les facteurs d'échelle jouent un rôle déterminant quant à la réussite des différents types d'initiatives de W/TD. Dans le cas des opérations de type B et de type C, la nécessité d'échelle est due à des coûts fixes élevés induits par la gestion/tierce détention des entrepôts, auxquels s'ajoutent éventuellement ceux liés au cadre réglementaire. Les entrepôts de type A présentent des frais généraux peu élevés et, dès lors qu'un financier est trouvé, ils peuvent être exploités à une échelle beaucoup plus réduite dans des collectivités rurales. Cependant, étant données les dépenses importantes consacrées à la promotion de l'outil, son utilisation ne se justifie d'un point de vue économique que s'il y a bon espoir de le voir adopté de façon durable par un grand nombre de collectivités.La prise en compte des aspects économiques (demande et extensibilité) dans la réussite des initiatives d'entreposage et de tierce détention est indispensable. Ils sont néanmoins parfois négligés à l'heure de la conception du projet. Cela a été le cas avec le SRE réglementé de l'Ouganda qui a souffert d'un manque de clarté lors de la conception du projet. Les facteurs économiques ont également nui au projet pilote sur le riz mené dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal : les pouvoirs publics ont dû régler un problème politique délicat et persistant, à savoir trouver un compromis entre soutenir la production nationale et garantir un riz à bas prix pour la population urbaine.    On rencontre le type B (entrepôts privés) dans tous les pays, à l'exception de Madagascar. Il se concentre dans les pays côtiers, notamment autour des ports de Dakar (Sénégal), d'Abidjan et de San Pedro (Côte d'Ivoire), d'Accra/Tema et de Takoradi (Ghana), de Douala (Cameroun), de Maputo/Matola, de Beira et de Nacala (Mozambique). Un certain nombre de prestations sont disponibles dans les régions intérieures de ces mêmes pays, ainsi que dans les pays enclavés. À Madagascar, les banques ont choisi de se charger elles-mêmes de la surveillance plutôt que d'employer des TD, et il leur arrive de recruter des contrôleurs des stocks. Il faut néanmoins noter qu'en 2002 a eu lieu, à la suite d'une crise politique qui avait semé la confusion sur le marché intérieur du riz, une tentative officielle de mettre en place le type B, avec l'objectif de relancer la collecte et le stockage de produits agricoles. Le gouvernement, avec l'appui de l'USAID, a instauré le Fonds de Commercialisation des Produits Agricoles (FCPA) et a cherché à mobiliser les banques en faveur du financement des regroupements ruraux. Ce dispositif a cependant fini par être récupéré politiquement et mal géré ; l'incidence globale a été médiocre, et le fonds clos en 2009. Crédit-stockage communautaire (type A)Le financement de type A, extrêmement décentralisé, est essentiellement en usage à Madagascar, sous l'appellation de Greniers Communautaires Villageois (GCV), et dans quelques pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest francophone sous l'appellation de warrantage communautaire (warrantage c.), que l'on peut également appeler crédit-stockage communautaire. Tel qu'il est pratiqué actuellement, ce type de financement permet aux agriculteurs de conserver leurs récoltes pour répondre aux besoins alimentaires de la période de soudure et de vendre les excédents à des prix plus élevés, évitant ainsi de survendre la production au moment de la récolte. Le Tableau n°2 reprend les données présentées par les auteurs nationaux quant à la variabilité saisonnière des prix. Les GCV de Madagascar constituent une réussite exceptionnelle en matière de prêt garanti sur les produits de base. On a incité les producteurs à appliquer cette technique à des cultures non périssables en profitant de la variation saisonnière des prix (ce qui leur permet de réaliser un profit presque chaque année)Un des principaux inconvénients de ce type de prêt sur entrepôt est sa rigidité. Les prêts ne peuvent être consentis qu'une fois que l'IMF a garanti la constitution du stock par les producteurs : cela peut prendre plusieurs semaines au cours desquelles certains perdent patience. Il n'y a pas de gestionnaires d'entrepôt ou de TD (cela reviendrait trop cher), et une fois le prêt accordé en échange du stock, le magasin n'est ouvert que quelques fois par an afin de contrôler la qualité des produits et d'en retirer après remboursement. Les OP et les IMF se sont efforcées d'assouplir l'offre (à savoir en ayant recours à des fonds de garantie qui permettent d'octroyer des avances sans prise de sûreté sur les stocks, et en augmentant le nombre de constitutions de gage et de dégagements/retraits), mais les aspects liés à la sécurité et aux coûts restreignent les possibilités d'innovation.Les entrepôts utilisés pour cette activité ont généralement une capacité allant de 10 à 80 tonnes. Les OP en ont le plus souvent fait l'acquisition par l'intermédiaire d'aides aux projets, actuels ou achevés (à savoir la création de banques céréalières ou de boutiques d'intrants, ou encore des projets en faveur du warrantage c.), auxquels ils ont parfois participé en nature ou en espèces. Ils ont également la possibilité de louer des magasins privés. L'essor de cette activité se heurte à une autre contrainte, à savoir la dépendance à l'égard des donateurs pour poursuivre la construction d'entrepôts.On distingue deux grands modèles de warrantage c. : un modèle décentralisé, dans le cadre duquel l'institution financière finance une OP selon les modalités exposées ci-dessus, et un modèle centralisé, qui prévoit une organisation de deuxième niveau ou de niveau supérieur (une union ou une fédération) coordonnant plusieurs OP locales qu'elle représente vis-à-vis des institutions financières. Dans ce cas, l'IMF délègue l'essentiel de son rôle de supervision à l'union ou à la fédération, laquelle détient la seconde clé pour son compte.Les derniers chiffres concernant l'ensemble des prêts datent de 2009 et montrent qu'ils sont passés de 2 millions de FCFA en 1998-1999 à près de 600 millions de FCFA en 2008de FCFA en -2009. Il y a eu une interruption en 2003-2004, époque à laquelle les prêts se sont réduits de moitié par rapport à l'année précédente pour atteindre leur point le plus bas, soit 120 millions de FCFA. Ce montant a par la suite été multiplié par cinq. Les chiffres de 2008-2009 correspondent à environ 5 000 tonnes de produits de base. Bien qu'important, ce volume ne représente que 0,1 pour cent de la production nationale correspondante et une part infime de ce que les agriculteurs (notamment les grands producteurs) stockent à domicile. Environ 125 OP ont été impliquées, parmi lesquelles des unions ou fédérations représentant un grand nombre d'OP locales, et l'on a compté 12 500 pratiquants (à savoir des déposants individuels).Si les hommes sont prédominants, les femmes jouent néanmoins un rôle de premier plan pour certaines cultures, notamment l'arachide et le pois bambara. Malgré les nombreuses mesures prises pour que les femmes s'inscrivent dans cette activité, la propriété foncière et la répartition traditionnelle des rôles entre les hommes et les femmes restreignent leur participation. Néanmoins, la principale fédération de producteurs (la fédération Mooriben) relève que l'on compte davantage de femmes que d'hommes parmi les déposants (62 pour cent de femmes contre 38 pour cent d'hommes).On recensait environ dix prêteurs, parmi lesquels trois IMF de crédit direct ont fini par s'imposer suite aux résultats souvent médiocres des IMF mutualistes (coopératives d'épargne et de prêt), créées au Niger depuis les années 1990. Le secteur de la microfinance rurale est incontestablement anémique au Niger et, dans une écrasante majorité, la population rurale ne possède pas de compte bancaire.Deux des trois IMF de crédit direct (Asusu S.A. et Coopec-Kokari) ont maintenu, ou légèrement augmenté, leur niveau de financement. Asusu est implantée dans toutes les régions du Niger et prête aux OP décentralisées comme aux structures centralisées. Elle cherche à proposer de nouvelles offres, comme un dispositif de crédit-stockage pour les grands négociants. Coopec-Kokari ne se contente pas de proposer le warrantage c. : elle avance jusqu'à 50 pour cent de celui-ci, que l'emprunteur utilise pour constituer des stocks placés sous double cadenas et qui servent de garantie au prêt.La fédération Mooriben est la principale OP du Niger. Elle se compose de de 27 unions représentant 1 500 OP locales, soit 62 584 adhérents dont 61,3 pour cent sont des femmes. En 2009, elle était avec l'union Cigaba de Konkorido et la fédération Sa la première représentante de l'approche centralisée appliquée au warrantage c., et à l'origine de 20 pour cent des emprunts. Depuis, elle a conclu un accord de partenariat avec la nouvelle banque agricole publique (la BAGRI). Cet accord propose des crédits pour la production saisonnière ainsi que pour la commercialisation post-récolte en s'appuyant sur l'expérience de Mooriben et sur les fonds de garantie que Mooriben a constitués auprès de la BAGRI. Mooriben a donc peu eu besoin des dispositifs de warrantage c. et ses adhérents peuvent obtenir un crédit dès leur stock déposé dans l'entrepôt. Cette situation donne à penser que Mooriben a atteint un degré de maturité qui lui permet de traiter avec les banques avec une plus grande souplesse que celle autorisée par le modèle de warrantage c. Sa réussite dépendra de la solidité de la gouvernance et de la gestion de cette organisation complexe et à plusieurs niveaux.En 2009, l'union Cigaba de Konkorido était une des étoiles du warrantage c. nigérien, avec un montant de prêt qui culminait à 85 millions de FCFA (130 000 euros) en 2005-2006, et   Si on l'a plus particulièrement évoquée concernant le Sénégal, la question de la pérennité concerne tous les pays considérés. La propagande du gouvernement insiste sur les importantes avancées réalisées grâce à la politique bancarização menée par la banque centrale pour favoriser la pénétration des banques commerciales dans les zones rurales. Elle insiste également sur l'essor rapide des institutions de microfinance rurales, dont l'implantation est appuyée par le FIDA et le Programme d'Appui à la Finance Rurale (PAFIR), financé par la Banque africaine de développement (BAD). La bancarizção a abouti à une expansion spectaculaire du réseau des banques commerciales, mais son objectif premier était de mobiliser l'épargne rurale au profit des clients urbains, le crédit étant essentiellement restreint aux salariés. L'idée de créer un vaste réseau rural d'institutions de microfinance subventionnées a cependant été mal conçue, et la plupart des institutions fondées par le PAFIR ont fait ou sont sur le point de faire faillite (en raison d'une inexpérience en matière de gestion ou d'activités non pérennes).L'AFD a contribué à une initiative de microfinance ciblant les petits exploitants par le biais d'une entité désormais appelée CCOM dans la province de Cabo Delgado à la fin des années 1990. Elle a oeuvré à implanter dans des zones reculées des associations de groupements solidaires octroyant des prêts principalement destinés à la production vivrière (maïs), et remboursés grâce à l'argent provenant de la vente de coton. L'initiative a été reproduite par le programme RCRN financé par la SDC dans la province de Nampula. D'autres initiatives visant les petits exploitants ont pris forme, mais toutes ont périclité, à l'exception de celle de la CCOM qui bénéficie de subventions croisées provenant d'opérations urbaines. L'initiative qui, à une époque, promettait d'offrir des services financiers à de petits exploitants se révèle aujourd'hui victime de la rationalisation et de problèmes de pérennité. Le seul événement positif dans le domaine de la microfinance fut l'essor rapide de groupes communautaires d'épargne et de crédit (GCEC) aujourd'hui animés par près de 30 organisations.À ce stade, parmi les intervenants de la microfinance ou des banques commerciales hors IMF, la Banco Opportunidade de Moçambique (BOM) est la seule désireuse de s'investir sérieusement dans le financement sur récépissé Parmi les initiatives camerounaises de crédit-stockage figurent :(a) Un dispositif conçu pour les céréales et les intrants agricoles dans le nord du pays, impliquant les adhérents de l'Association de producteurs de coton Tableau n°3 : Questions juridiques relatives à la mise en place des financements de type ASi le dispositif est élargi au stockage dans des installations centralisées, l'identité du propriétaire de l'établissement revêt dès lors une importance. L'entrepôt peut être la propriété du financier ou de tierces parties. Lorsque des tiers sont en jeu, cela soulève des questions juridiques. Les obligations et droits du gestionnaire d'entrepôt vis-à-vis du déposant et du financier doivent en particulier être consignés par écrit (ou fixés dans un cadre réglementaire). Ces documents doivent préciser les circonstances dans lesquelles le gestionnaire d'entrepôt restituera les marchandises stockées et à qui. Les recours juridiques contre le gestionnaire d'entrepôt dans l'éventualité où les produits de base stockés seraient abîmés ou perdus doivent également être définis.Il faut aussi prendre en compte certains aspects non juridiques tels que le coût de l'entretien et de la gestion d'installations de stockage plus vastes, qui devrait normalement être couvert par les frais de stockage facturés à l'agriculteur. Certaines IMF malgaches facturent les frais de stockage bien en deçà de leur coût économique, et cela s'apparente à une subvention aux agriculteurs qui habitent près de l'établissement de stockage.De façon générale, il est possible pour les OP des pays considérés d'obtenir le statut de personne morale (c'est le cas des coopératives). Dans certains cas, les OP peuvent avoir un caractère plus informel et ne pas avoir de personnalité juridique. Dans tous les cas, il est important de comprendre quelle personne morale ou entité juridique est propriétaire des produits de base sous-jacents, et quelle personne morale ou entité juridique signe l'accord contractuel, quel qu'il soit.La perte potentielle des récoltes constituées en garantie sera toujours un risque concret. Plus le volume est important, plus l'on doit s'inquiéter de la protection contre ce risque. Cependant, toute réglementation en la matière doit être proportionnée afin de ne pas compromettre l'accès des petits exploitants agricoles au financement.L'Acte uniforme de l'OHADA impose d'assurer les stocks contenus dans tous les entrepôts, sans prendre en compte la possibilité qu'ont certaines organisations de producteurs bénéficiaires du crédit-stockage de mutualiser leurs risques. Heureusement, cette mesure n'est pas strictement appliquée. Il est par exemple tout à fait possible pour une union de 20 organisations de producteurs, disposant chacune de son propre magasin villageois, de mutualiser les risques d'incendie et de vol, puisqu'il est peu probable que plus d'un magasin subisse le même dommage au même moment.Prise de sûreté Lorsque les volumes de récoltes stockés et financés sont plus importants, le financier peut exiger une sûreté légale plutôt que de s'en remettre à la seule sûreté concrète. Il faut dans ce cas prendre en compte les diverses difficultés liées à la prise de sûreté sur des marchandises stockées dans les pays considérés. Si les agriculteurs sont représentés par une OP, il est important que la partie propriétaire des produits de base soit celle qui constitue la sûreté sur ceux-ci.Tel qu'il est pratiqué actuellement, le financement de type A concerne le plus souvent des petits groupements d'agriculteurs appartenant à la même collectivité et qui se connaissent bien. Lorsqu'il est pratiqué à une plus grande échelle, un appareil juridique aidant les financiers à correctement identifier les individus et les personnes morales, comme les coopératives, peut s'avérer utile.Nous n'avons pas pu recueillir beaucoup de données concernant le processus de résolution des litiges dans le cadre des financements de type A. Il met le plus souvent à contribution les comités locaux et les assemblées générales des adhérents au cours desquels ces questions peuvent être abordées. Lorsque le financement de type A est pratiqué à une plus grande échelle, des procédures de résolution plus formelles peuvent s'avérer nécessaires. L'instance compétente peut varier selon les différents types de conflits.Pour le moment, l'on dispose de peu de contrôle réglementaire des financements de type A dans les pays considérés. Cependant, comme évoqué dans la Section 3. Un entrepôt privé n'est pas accessible à la population générale : les dépôts ne se font que dans le cadre d'un accord contractuel. Il peut appartenir et/ou être géré par une tierce partie telle qu'un Tiers détenteur (TD), ou appartenir à un emprunteur mais être loué à un TD (ce qu'on appelle un entreposage de campagne). Dans les deux cas, l'entrepôt peut également servir à stocker des produits de base qui ne sont pas soumis aux mêmes modalités de financement, et/ou des produits de base qui appartiennent à d'autres parties.Le cadre contractuel habituel pour l'entreposage privé est une Convention de tierce détention (CTD), généralement un accord tripartite entre : (1) un prêteur, qui octroie un financement en échange des marchandises dans le cadre d'un récépissé d'entrepôt ; (2) un emprunteur propriétaire du stock constituant la garantie du prêt, et (3) un TD qui prend en charge la sûreté sous-jacente du prêt sous la forme d'un stock de produits de base. La CTD fixe les droits et obligations des parties quant aux marchandises gagées. Étant donnée l'importance du rôle joué par le TD, c'est généralement le financier qui a le dernier mot quant au choix de la personne. Le TD délivrera au prêteur des récépissés d'entrepôt en échange de toute marchandise que le prêteur déposera dans l'entrepôt, lui signifiant par là qu'il conserve les biens comme garantie. Contrairement à ce qui se passe avec les entrepôts publics (se reporter à la Section 5), la pratique courante dans les entrepôts privés en Afrique consiste à délivrer un récépissé d'entrepôt au prêteur, et non à l'emprunteur.L'entreposage de campagne présente des problèmes pratiques et juridiques particuliers (se reporter respectivement aux Sections 4. Au lendemain de la libéralisation des secteurs commercial et financier dans les années 1980 et 1990, de plus en plus de sociétés internationales d'inspection et de logistique se sont mises à proposer des services de contrôle des stocks et de tierce détention, en appui au financement des importations et des exportations. À cette époque, de nombreux nouveaux acteurs investissaient le secteur des importations et des exportations, et les banques avaient de plus en plus recours à ces services dans le but d'atténuer les risques encourus. Le nouveau millénaire a vu naître des sociétés locales qui se sont lancées dans cette activité, soit de façon indépendante, soit en s'associant à des acteurs internationaux.Un grand nombre de produits de base importés (en particulier le riz, le sucre, les engrais, le poisson surgelé et le ciment, plusieurs biens de consommation tels que le vin, les cigarettes et les sardines en boîte, ainsi que des articles comme des pièces détachées ou des barres d'armature) sont pris en charge par un tiers détenteur dans et autour des ports, et ce service aide les importateurs à financer les stocks avant leur diffusion ou leur vente dans les pays concernés. En ce qui concerne le Sénégal, on estime que 80 pour cent des céréales importées sont financées de cette façon (à savoir plus de 800 000 tonnes de riz et 100 000 tonnes de maïs). Ces transactions se sont révélées des moyens relativement sûrs et rémunérateurs pour les banques en termes de placement de capitaux.On procède de manière similaire avec de nombreux produits de base exportés, le plus souvent dans le cadre d'accords de financement structurés. Le niveau d'intérêt pour les produits de base exportés dépend : (1) du volume et du montant des exportations ; (2) de la libéralisation du marché pour ces produits de base dans les pays concernés, et (3) de la mobilisation des exportateurs locaux, par opposition aux multinationales. Nous allons examiner un par un chacun de ces points, en nous référant aux données comparatives sur les exportations de 2011 présentées dans les Tableaux n o 4 et 5. Nous avons dressé la liste des produits de base non périssables exportés vers le marché international, ce qui exclut les denrées périssables et les produits de base majoritairement destinés au marché régional (et donc non susceptibles d'être confiés à un tiers détenteur).Parmi les pays considérés, la Côte d'Ivoire et le Ghana sont les plus gros exportateurs, représentant respectivement 43 pour cent et 23 pour cent du volume des exportations, et 50 pour cent et 24 pour cent de leur montant.Les chiffres très bas du Niger s'expliquent par le fait que certaines de ses exportations ne sont pas enregistrées de manière officielle, ce qui est notamment le cas des exportations de souchets et de paprika qui passent par le Nigéria. En ce qui concerne les produits de base, les fèves de cacao ainsi que les produits dérivés du cacao représentent 46 pour cent du volume total et 59 pour cent du montant. Les autres principaux produits de base sont, par ordre décroissant de montant : le caoutchouc naturel, la fibre de coton, le café, les noix de cajou, l'huile de palme, le sucre, le tabac, les épices et les huiles essentielles, les graines de sésame, l'huile d'arachide et le thé.Les répercussions de la libéralisation/de l'absence de libéralisation Le secteur du coton francophone, partiellement libéralisé, a massivement recours aux sociétés d'inspection ; la politique de la Côte d'Ivoire a été de les employer pour le contrôle et la réduction des risques dans les lieux situés dans l'arrière-pays, et pour qu'elles assurent la tierce détention des balles de fibres de coton dans les ports.On estime que moins de la moitié des produits de base exportés est confiée à des tiers détenteurs. Madagascar n'a en effet pas du tout recours aux TD. Le service est d'abord destiné aux exportateurs locaux n'appartenant pas aux groupes internationaux et ne pouvant de ce fait pas avoir accès aux capitaux peu onéreux du marché international. Il n'y a pas de règle absolue, et les multinationales ont souvent à la fois recours aux services de tierce détention et de contrôle en vue de limiter les risques le long de la chaîne d'approvisionnement. Une fois que l'emprunteur a remboursé son prêt, le financier délivre au TD un certificat de décharge l'autorisant à restituer le stock à l'emprunteur ou à l'acheteur désigné. Dans certains cas, le financier délivre un reçu fiduciaire autorisant l'emprunteur à retirer les produits de base sans remboursement dans le but de les vendre. Néanmoins, au cours de cette période, l'emprunteur administre ces produits et leurs recettes pour le compte du financier.Dans ce cas, les marchandises sont stockées dans un entrepôt (appartenant à l'emprunteur ou une tierce partie) et contrôlées par une société d'inspection (ou par le financier lui-même). Les conventions de contrôle des stocks se distinguent de la tierce détention essentiellement sur les points suivants :(a) Un TD est responsable des produits de base 24 heures sur 24, sept jours sur sept. Alors qu'un contrôleur des stocks n'inspecte les marchandises que ponctuellement, à un rythme définie d'un commun accord, et en rend compte au financier.(b) Un TD est seul responsable de la restitution des produits de base au déposant (garantie de poids) et de toute perte des produits de base sous son contrôle. Le TD doit être pleinement assuré à cet effet. La responsabilité d'un contrôleur des stocks en cas de perte des produits de base sera limitée aux pertes directement imputables à sa propre négligence et/ou à des escroqueries.(c) Un TD est en possession des produits de base, ce qui signifie que la sûreté avec dépossession sur ces produits de base peut être constituée par le TD qui prend possession des produits de base au nom du financier (il s'agit d'une possession indirecte Dans le cadre d'une CTD, le TD fournira, dans l'idéal, une assurance tous risques couvrant l'entrepôt et son contenu contre l'incendie, les inondations, les tremblements de terre, la défaillance des employés et le cambriolage, ainsi qu'une assurance de responsabilité professionnelle supérieure au montant du prêt afin de couvrir ses obligations professionnelles et l'intangibilité de la sûreté en échange de laquelle le prêt est consenti. Les TD internationaux couvrent souvent leurs risques au travers de polices globales s'appliquant à toutes leurs opérations dans le monde. En ce qui concerne le Ghana, le coût cumulé des polices d'assurance varie généralement de 0,7 pour cent à 1,5 pour cent de la valeur assurée, en fonction des risques évalués par la compagnie d'assurance. Rien n'indique que les banques exigent une assurance décès de la part des principaux gestionnaires ou propriétaires de la société de crédit.Dans la pratique, il s'agit d'un domaine complexe, et les banques doivent être attentives aux conditions, au niveau de couverture et aux exclusions.Étant donnée la fréquence de l'escroquerie dans ce secteur, les composantes La responsabilité d'un contrôleur des stocks en cas de perte des produits de base sera limitée aux pertes directement imputables à sa propre négligence et/ ou à des escroqueries les plus coûteuses des primes d'assurance sont de loin la défaillance et la responsabilité professionnelle. En conséquence, un des moyens de réduire les coûts est d'abaisser les exigences dans ce domaine. L'auteur a rencontré un TD nigérien qui ne proposait pas d'assurance contre ces derniers aspects, mais qui vantait la solidité de l'organisation interne de sa société ainsi que ses compétences en matière de surveillance. En ce qui concerne l'Ouganda, nous avons appris que l'assurance contre l'incendie et le vol est considérée comme obligatoire, alors que l'assurance tous risques est largement utilisée, sans être toujours exigée par les banques. Cependant, au Burkina Faso, la plupart des TD déclarent contracter une assurance tous risques et une assurance responsabilité professionnelle.Si le stock de produits de base connaît une grande volatilité des prix, et/ou si le débouché commercial immédiat pour le stock est limité voire inexistant, la probabilité est forte qu'en cas de non remboursement du prêt les produits de base sous-jacents n'atteignent pas une valeur de vente forcée suffisante permettant le remboursement du prêt, ainsi que les intérêts courus et autres frais. Dans cette éventualité, les prêteurs ont recours à deux outils de gestion des risques : 1) une importante réduction de la valeur marchande du stock de produits de base à la conclusion de la convention de prêt, afin d'amortir la chute des prix ; 2) la constitution d'une sûreté secondaire sous forme d'immobilisations corporelles ou de liquidités dont la valeur excède le prêt, en sus du gage donné au prêteur par le récépissé d'entrepôt.Les méthodes employées pour estimer les produits agricoles stockés dans un entrepôt dépendent des contrats sous-jacents d'enlèvement, de la volatilité des prix du stock sous-jacent des produits de base, et de sa qualité marchande. Au Ghana par exemple, la plupart des banques qui financent les produits de base locaux par l'intermédiaire du crédit-stockage utilisent les prix du marché (référence d'Esoko, à Kintampo) comme étalon et appliquent une décote de 70 pour cent à 50 pour cent pour déterminer la valeur du prêt. Cependant, si un contrat d'enlèvement existe pour le maïs, c'est le prix mentionné dans le contrat qui sert de référence, escompté sur la base d'une évaluation du risque lié au contrat d'enlèvement et aux instruments de paiement.Le TD sera responsable de la restitution au déposant des produits de base stockés. C'est ce que l'on appelle la garantie de poids. Dans la pratique, les TD ont une approche du contrôle de la qualité et de la classification très différente de celle en vigueur dans l'entreposage public des céréales (Type C), tel que cela est généralement mis en place en Amérique du Nord, en Afrique du Sud et ailleurs -voire en Éthiopie, les produits de base stockés dans les entrepôts de la bourse des produits de base (ECX) et destinés à l'exportation. Résoudre ce problème suppose de les amener à relever le niveau en récompensant l'excellence et en prévoyant des sanctions en cas de dysfonctionnement Daniel Simon/Hyperion Global) une ligne de crédit renouvelable, d'un montant initial de 30 millions d'euros, qui doit être canalisée vers les IMF et les banques commerciales disposant de bons réseaux ruraux, ceci afin de financer la commercialisation du cacao et du café par l'intermédiaire des récépissés d'entrepôt. Les capitaux seront utilisés pour importer des intrants agricoles, se procurer des plantes résistantes aux maladies, accroître la productivité des plantations, ainsi que collecter et exporter des produits, et les services de gestion de crédit servant le cas échéant à réduire les risques sur le trajet entre l'arrière-pays et les ports. La priorité absolue consistera à veiller à ce que les TD/gestionnaires d'entrepôt participants fournissent un excellent travail en termes de gestion de la qualité, de sécurité et d'assurance. L'ONCC s'apprête à créer une filiale commune avec le fonds de capital-investissement cité cidessus afin de mettre en oeuvre ce projet 16 .Certaines parties mettent en doute l'accent mis sur la politique publique pour inciter les coopératives cacaoyères à devenir des entités autonomes et développer une commercialisation en aval. Abbott (2013) estime que plusieurs programmes sectoriels visant à proposer des crédits aux coopératives d'Afrique de l'Ouest ont échoué, les défauts de paiement étant extrêmement nombreux et les sanctions rares. Il constate que les organisations de producteurs ont la possibilité d'augmenter les revenus de leurs adhérents, mais qu'en raison de l'absence d'un réel marché de la location de services de transport, elles ont du mal à organiser le transfert vers les ports. Il poursuit :(a) Lorsqu'on rencontre des OP qui réussissent dans leur rôle de  La majorité de la production de coton de l'Afrique sub-saharienne est assurée par les pays francophones. Leurs systèmes de commercialisation, en grande partie contrôlés par l'État, a connu diverses réformes et une privatisation partielle, offrant parfois des occasions aux TD. Le gouvernement de la Côte d'Ivoire avait particulièrement besoin de tels services en 2008, après la guerre civile, afin que les égreneurs de coton puissent de nouveau proposer des prêts et fournir des intrants aux agriculteurs dans le cadre de contrats de production agricole, et afin de gérer les intrants tout au long de la chaîne de valeur, en sollicitant l'ACE comme TD, un contrôleur des stocks, et pour réduire les risques de façon générale. Ce dispositif semble avoir été très efficace, rendant possible la distribution d'intrants à crédit à un grand nombre de cultivateurs de coton ivoiriens, et avoir conduit à des progrès importants en termes de remboursement. L'exemple est étudié dans le rapport technique sur la Côte d'Ivoire.Au Burkina Faso, la SNTB, société appartenant au groupe Bolloré, a commencé à pratiquer la tierce détention du coton pour le compte de la société paraétatique d'égrenage SOFITEX, après avoir précédemment géré son transport de fret. Le Burkina Faso étant le principal producteur de coton de l'Afrique sub-saharienne, il s'agit sans aucun doute d'un important contrat lié aux activités de Bolloré dans les ports d'Afrique de l'Ouest.La tierce détention est aussi utilisée dans la région de production de coton du nord du Cameroun. L'étude technique sur le Cameroun mentionne un dispositif portant sur les céréales et les intrants agricoles dans le nord du Cameroun qui mobilise des adhérents de l'Association de producteurs de coton du Cameroun (APCC), l'IMF Crédit du Sahel, la société paraétatique SODECOTON, et la Banque islamique de développement (en tant que financier). Toutes les villes côtières africaines ont l'habitude de vendre le maïs sur le marché mondial, profitant d'un taux de fret maritime bas D'importantes difficultés demeurent pour rendre ce système vraiment efficace et pérenne : les problèmes de trésorerie de la société Vital qui a du mal à payer les agriculteurs en temps et en heure, les problèmes de gestion de la qualité, de capacité à réduire au maximum les charges financières (tierce détention et assurance connexe) tout en assurant une compétitivité. L'initiative a sans aucun doute entraîné une amélioration de la qualité, mais la rizerie a encore du mal à obtenir un approvisionnement régulier en riz de qualité uniforme. Le Sénégal continue parallèlement à rencontrer des difficultés à concurrencer les exportations à très bas prix de brisures de riz en provenance d'Inde, sous-produits de la gigantesque industrie indienne de minoterie du riz qui profite des mécanismes de subvention. Les difficultés de trésorerie de Vital interdisent d'augmenter davantage les volumes transformés pour le moment, et l'auteur du rapport technique (Idiakhoumpa, comm. pers.) estime qu'il serait bénéfique que les banques proposent un financement plus adapté au cycle commercial de Vital. Malgré ces difficultés, de réels progrès ont été accomplis, et des occasions existent pour reproduire le modèle avec d'autres rizeries.En dehors et au-delà des aspects purement techniques, la collaboration entre les différents maillons de la chaîne de valeur a constitué un élément essentiel de la réussite de ce modèle. On peut citer : la rizerie, l'agence d'irrigation (la SAED), les organisations de producteurs (les Unions Hydrauliques), les banques (CNCAS et BRM), et les distributeurs de riz.Au Burkina Faso, l'importance du crédit-stockage communautaire et de la tierce détention pour la sécurité alimentaire et le développement de la chaîne de valeur locale fait désormais consensus au niveau national. En 2013, le Ministère de l'Économie et des Finances, le Ministère de l'Agriculture et de la Sécurité alimentaire et la KFW ont lancé plusieurs initiatives, visant respectivement à proposer une réforme juridique nécessaire (en attente du rapport final) et à élaborer une stratégie nationale pour promouvoir l'activité. Parallèlement, l'activité des entreprises a été importante dans ce domaine.La tierce détention est mise en oeuvre avec des produits importés et exportés. Parmi les produits importés, on compte les engrais et le riz, tandis que les exportations englobent le coton, le sésame, la noix de cajou brute, l'amande de cajou, l'hibiscus et le maïs. Le financement est assuré par cinq grandes banques, en partenariat avec le groupe Bolloré (SNTB et SDV), SEGAS-BF, Expertis SA et Auxigages SA qui s'acquittent de la tierce détention.Plusieurs expériences de transformation ont été menées, notamment l'usinage et l'étuvage du riz (à Bagré), la transformation des graines de soja (broyées et grillées), et le broyage (extraction d'huile) des graines de coton. Ces expériences ont mobilisé les deux TD, SEGAS-BF et Expertis SA, ainsi que le financement de la BCB et de Coris Banque. Dans le cas de l'étuvage du riz, SEGAS-BF travaille avec une union de groupement de femmes qui dispose de ses propres appareils d'étuvage. Les tarifs semblent raisonnables (sachant que les rizeries paient à Expertis SA entre 1,5 pour cent et 3 pour cent du montant du financement octroyé par la banque). Ces services ont également été sollicités en faveur de l'élevage de volaille. La demande pour ces services laisse à penser qu'ils sont bien adaptés à la réalité des acteurs africains qui ne peuvent fournir de garantie sous la forme de biens immobiliers, mais qui sont prêts à payer pour la tierce détention de leurs stocks et la supervision de leurs activités en échange d'un accès au financement.La tierce détention de riz pratiquée à Bagré contribue à l'organisation de la chaîne de valeur locale. Elle est avantageuse pour les producteurs de paddy et de semences, pour les femmes qui interviennent dans l'étuvage et pour les petits transformateurs. L'auteur du rapport technique sur le pays estime que le potentiel de développement est considérable et que le modèle pourrait essaimer dans d'autres régions du pays telles que Bama, Banzon et Sourou, avec d'autres produits de base dont le maïs, le niébé et le soja.Le rapport pays précise que tous les TD exerçant leurs activités au Burkina Faso sont assurés contre l'incendie, les dégâts des eaux et le vol, et que la plupart possède une assurance de responsabilité professionnelle contre la fraude, les erreurs et les négligences. Ils sont contractuellement responsables de la quantité de produits restituée, mais pas de leur qualité.Comme évoqué dans la Section 3.4.3, une des trois sociétés de tierce détention du Burkina (SEGAS-BF) s'est également investie dans le crédit-stockage communautaire (financement de type A), intervenant sur près de 15 sites de stockage à travers le pays, en partenariat avec plusieurs OP et fédérations locales et deux IMF distinctes (la FCPB et URC.COM). L'approche de cette société est extrêmement novatrice et bénéfique, et sa réussite sur le long terme représente donc un enjeu important. L'entreprise n'est cependant pas dénuée de risques, raison pour laquelle l'une des premières recommandations de la présente étude est que la société bénéficie d'une aide spéciale sous forme d'un examen de ses activités, et d'un suivi prolongé par des personnes ayant l'expérience requise. Expertis SA et Auxigages SA, jeunes sociétés, méritent elles aussi de bénéficier d'une assistance technique. L'ambition du fondateur, M. Leonard Ouedraogo, est de construire un réseau dans le pays. Il a fait preuve de beaucoup d'initiatives en partant du moule classique des activités de tierce détention. Au lieu de ne s'intéresser qu'aux clients offrant des volumes/montants élevés dans les secteurs de l'exportation-importation et de la transformation agricole, il s'est efforcé d'asseoir une clientèle parmi les OP, en leur proposant une assistance globale en vue d'accroître leurs moyens d'existence. Preuve de sa réussite, les agriculteurs sont prêts à payer SEGAS-BF deux fois le tarif facturé par leurs propres OP pour des services de tierce détention sous dispositif de double cadenas. Il semble apporter une valeur ajoutée au système en veillant à la qualité et grâce à la plus grande souplesse et aux services complémentaires qu'il propose (fourniture d'intrants et recherche de marchés), et fait apparaître un niveau de demande pour les services de tierce détention bien plus élevé que ce qu'il semblait être au premier abord. Dans certains cas, il a créé de fait des entrepôts publics, ouvrant ses entrepôts à la population, selon le principe du premier arrivé premier servi. Ses clients sont de grands producteurs et des négociants.Si l'expérience semble probante, d'importants risques persistent. D'un côté, ce type de modèle économique risque de devenir non rentable en raison des coûts élevés de personnel et de supervision que représente la gestion d'un grand nombre de petits entrepôts (c'est-à-dire d'une capacité de 50 tonnes) dans tout le pays, ainsi que les frais de déplacement, de séjour et de communication que cela implique. Le rapport technique sur le pays observe que « l'ampleur des activités de tierce détention est encore très réduite par rapport au potentiel, et sans doute aussi du point de vue de la rentabilité. » D'un autre côté, les informations provenant d'un des lieux d'implantation de la société laissent à penser que la SEGAS-BF assume peut-être trop de rôles et que les responsabilités ne sont pas suffisamment claires. Dans ces conditions, la société prend le risque de perdre la confiance des agriculteurs et des financiers.Le rapport technique sur le pays met en évidence d'autres problèmes importants : le déficit de structures de stockage adaptées et disponibles pour le crédit-stockage communautaire et les initiatives de commercialisation et de transformation de produits en tierce détention, ainsi que la faible ampleur des activités de tierce détention. Pour ce qui est du premier problème, l'on remarque par exemple qu'après la récolte de la saison des pluies, la plupart des rizeries de Bagré sont contraintes de stocker leur riz blanchi dans les habitations des producteurs. Après la récolte de la saison sèche, elles le stockent sous des bâches à côté de leurs minoteries, ce qui est possible en raison de l'absence de pluie, mais peu sûr du point de vue des banques et des assureurs. Expertis SA invoque donc le manque d'infrastructures de stockage appropriées pour justifier le peu d'ampleur de ses activités.Le rapport pays met également en évidence les menaces que représentent les risques de prix et ceux liés à l'intervention des autorités publiques (notamment les restrictions commerciales infrarégionales).Deux sociétés implantées localement exerçaient jusque récemment la tierce détention en Ouganda : ACE Global Ouganda Ltd. et Coronet, selon une répartition respective de 70 pour cent/30 pour cent. De nouveaux acteurs sont cependant apparus sur le marché, tels que DCL. ACE prend en charge les produits agricoles, plus particulièrement auprès des égreneurs de coton et des exportateurs de café, ainsi que les produits de base importés tels que le riz, le sucre et le pétrole. Coronet a une clientèle assez différente qui comprend un nombre important d'organisations de producteurs, et assure la tierce détention de stocks sous douane de marchandises générales (vêtements de sport, articles de papeterie, pneus, matériaux de construction, textiles, sucre et autres).Le directeur général de Coronet, Chris Baine, a auparavant travaillé dans le secteur bancaire et collaboré avec le gouvernement et le Fonds commun pour les produits de base à la mise en place d'un système de récépissé d'entrepôt assez novateur. Depuis sa création en 2008, Coronet a collaboré avec 102 emprunteurs, plus particulièrement sur le financement du secteur agroalimentaire et des échanges commerciaux structurés, tout en accompagnant les PME de tous les secteurs (y compris l'agriculture) qui cherchent à obtenir un crédit abordable auprès des institutions financières. Dans le secteur agricole, Coronet a travaillé pour le compte de la NUCAFE, ainsi que d'autres coopératives, afin de garantir le financement de ses exportations de café. Dans le sous-secteur des céréales, la société a aidé les coopératives à garantir leur crédit à la production destiné aux intrants, à la main-d'oeuvre et à d'autres activités précédant la récolte. Elle réalise aussi des inspections préalables et des contrôles de qualité, propose un renforcement des capacités et des conseils sur le développement de la chaîne de valeur -les tests qualité nécessitant des appareils de laboratoire complexes (recherche d'aflatoxine) sont cependant sous-traités auprès d'intervenants spécialisés.Neuf banques nationales octroieraient des prêts en échange de stocks placés en tierce détention. Il y aurait très peu de défaut de remboursement des crédits concernant les produits agricoles locaux ou importés. Il est significatif que ce soit la tierce détention de stocks sous douane qui présente le taux le plus élevé de non remboursement, les banques saisissant les marchandises d'importateurs qui ont du mal à concurrencer les importations en provenance de Chine ou d'Inde, ou la production nationale.Les deux TD procèdent de la même façon. En matière d'assurance, deux polices sont largement répandues : la couverture contre l'incendie et le vol, considérée comme obligatoire, et la couverture tous risques, qui n'est souvent pas exigée par les institutions financières. D'après Baine, le principal obstacle à la mise en oeuvre de la tierce détention auprès d'une clientèle plus rurale (en dehors du coût du service) est la méconnaissance qu'ont les banques (et souvent aussi les TD) des risques transactionnels à ce niveau. C'est la raison pour laquelle il propose des programmes de formation destinés aux banques, aux clients ruraux et aux exportateurs (pour ces derniers, il s'agit de développer et/ou d'étendre leurs chaînes d'approvisionnement aux fournisseurs ruraux que les banques peuvent alors appuyer via les TD).Des CTD et des CCS ont été conclues au Mozambique, mettant à contribution quelque quatre banques qui financent des stocks de blé importé, de sucre et de noix de cajou produits localement, ainsi que plusieurs autres produits exportés. Ces denrées ont été produites dans le cadre d'un projet pilote de Corredor Agro proposant des contrats de production à des agriculteurs et petits exploitants commerciaux (agriculture contractuelle) pour le marché local et l'exportation. Banco Terra, qui s'occupe plus particulièrement du financement agricole des PME, a financé ce dernier dispositif. Bien que le projet pilote soit considéré comme une réussite et valant la peine d'être prolongé avec le même type de clients, l'arrivée de Cargill, géant des céréales et oléagineux, force Banco Terra à revoir sa stratégie de financement sur entrepôt. On s'attend à ce que Cargill octroie de nombreuses avances aux négociants sur leur seule bonne foi, évitant ainsi les complexités administratives du financement sur récépissé d'entrepôt. Il est significatif que le commerce des céréales soit déjà extrêmement concentré au Mozambique, puisqu'une grande société régionale, l'Export trading company, domine déjà le marché des céréales et oléagineux dans le nord du pays.Il est à noter que la BIM, la plus grosse banque du pays, ne joue aucun rôle dans le financement du commerce des produits de base, et n'a pas l'intention d'en jouer un à court terme. Un des freins relevé par les banques est la difficulté qu'ont de nombreux négociants (asiatiques en particulier) à accepter le principe d'une garantie constituée de produits de base entreposés en lieu et place des formes traditionnelles de caution que sont les biens immobiliers et le matériel. Parallèlement, on s'attend aussi, avec l'arrivée imminente de la Standard Chartered Bank, renommée pour son activité phare de financement commercial des produits de base, à une augmentation du financement sur produits de base stockés. Les deux principaux domaines dans lesquels le cadre juridique pourrait être amélioré sont les suivants : (1) la réglementation de l'activité de tierce détention et (2) la suppression des obstacles à la prise de sûreté avec dépossession sur les produits de base détenus par le TD. • Les e-Récépissés peuvent être scindés en plusieurs petits lots ;un titulaire peut rendre public son stock par voie électronique à l'attention des autres participants Plusieurs initiatives ghanéennes méritent d'être examinées, notamment le projet pilote de crédit-stockage commercial des années 1990, l'initiative du Conseil ghanéen des céréales (GGC) débutée en 2012, les mécanismes complémentaires de sous-traitance pour le maïs, l'élaboration d'un projet de loi sur le SRE et sur la bourse des produits de base, et l'initiative portée par la Bourse des produits de base du Ghana (GCX). Nous les aborderons successivement, en nous attardant davantage sur l'initiative du GGC, la plus aboutie à ce jour.(a) Le projet pilote de crédit-stockage commercial des années 1990. Wienco indique que le dispositif de sous-traitance a entraîné une augmentation considérable de la productivité, passée de 1,2-1,8 tonnes à 4-4,3 tonnes par hectare, et que la production globale s'élève à environ 60 000 tonnes 30 par an, dont la moitié est constituée de maïs jaune -réduisant du même coup l'intérêt du secteur avicole à recourir à l'importation de ce produit de base. La MAFA livre le maïs à Wienco qui le nettoie, l'ensache et le commercialise dans tout le pays (60 à 70 pour cent de la production est vendue à des fabricants d'aliments pour volailles, une partie à une minoterie de farine, et le reste à des négociants).L'important appui technique des pouvoirs publics a également contribué à l'augmentation de la productivité de la culture du maïs. Il est trop tôt pour anticiper la réussite à terme de l'entreposage public réglementé inspiré par le GGC au Ghana, mais il dispose de plusieurs atouts :(a) La nature du GGC lui-même, et en particulier le fait : (1) que ce soit une instance animée par les parties intéressées et dans laquelle les principaux membres ont investi énormément de temps et de moyens ;(2) qu'il adopte une approche pragmatique, sollicitant les/faisant appel aux capacités entrepreneuriales des intermédiaires du marché plutôt que de se limiter aux seules organisations/coopératives de producteurs ;(   Les organismes de financement doivent adopter une approche programme à long terme de valeur. Malgré les diverses difficultés auxquelles est confronté le Conseil ghanéen des céréales, nous nous félicitons à cet égard de l'appui que lui apporte l'USAID. Le Conseil a élaboré son expérience au travers d'un SRE régi par contrat, tout en plaidant en faveur d'un système national réglementé. Son expérience en tant que professionnel en fait un partisan plus prudent, doté d'une vision stratégique, et peut lui permettre d'orienter les processus officiels vers une issue positive.Du point de vue législatif, il est possible d'accomplir une réforme dans toute l'OHADA. S&W a rencontré la société ivoirienne Brizoua-Bi afin de mieux appréhender cette éventualité. L'Annexe 3, Section 12.5 (Présentation succincte des principales dispositions de l'OHADA) expose certains éléments historiques du régime juridique de l'OHADA et des lois existantes applicables au financement des produits de base.Le processus d'adoption de nouveaux Actes de l'OHADA est long et nécessite à terme l'unanimité des votants. L'application de textes législatifs sur le SRE dans toute la région de l'OHADA par l'intermédiaire d'un Acte uniforme serait manifestement une tâche difficile à réaliser. Forte de sa longue expérience en matière de dispositions législatives de l'OHADA, Brizoua-Bi émet néanmoins l'avis selon lequel il est possible d'encourager le financement sur entrepôt dans le cadre de la législation existante. L'Acte des sûretés stipule par exemple que la constitution d'un gage de produits de base sans dépossession peut donner lieu à l'émission par le RCCM d'un bordereau de gage des stocks qui atteste que la convention de gage en question a bien été enregistrée auprès du RCCM. Le bordereau de gage peut être endossé par un créancier gagiste au profit d'un tiers, lequel acquiert alors les droits d'un créancier gagiste concernant les marchandises gagées. Le bordereau ne transfère pas la propriété des biens, pas plus qu'il ne constitue un titre de propriété, mais le mécanisme d'endossement est un moyen pratique de transférer certains droits sur les produits de base sous-jacents.Le bordereau de gage n'est toutefois intéressant que dans le cas des gages inscrits sans dépossession. Les examens juridiques et techniques préalables laissent à penser que les gages avec dépossession non inscrits sont la pratique la plus courante, ce qui signifie que le bordereau de gage est d'une utilité pratique limitée pour le moment.Rien dans l'Acte des sûretés ne s'oppose à l'adoption, dans chaque État membre, de dispositions législatives propres concernant la possibilité d'émettre un instrument de type récépissé d'entrepôt lors de la constitution d'un gage de produits de base avec dépossession. En d'autres termes, en vertu de la législation actuelle de l'OHADA, chaque pays de l'OHADA a toute latitude pour légiférer en matière de récépissés d'entrepôt dans le cadre d'une constitution de gages de stocks avec dépossession. En admettant que le récépissé d'entrepôt offre une meilleure sûreté au créancier gagiste (par exemple, en lui fournissant, entre autres, une preuve de propriété sur les produits de base stockés dans l'entrepôt), Brizoua-Bi y est favorable dans les pays de l'OHADA, et en particulier en Côte d'Ivoire.Dans les pays considérés, de très nombreux prêts ont été consentis pendant longtemps en vertu d'accords de sous-traitance. Les principaux outils permettant de garantir le remboursement ne sont toutefois pas les sûretés légales prises sur la production agricole, mais les dispositifs de surveillance du prêteur et, pour certaines cultures encombrantes (telles que la cane à sucre) ou de grande valeur (comme les légumes transportés par avion), l'absence d'autres acheteurs dans le voisinage. Avec le dispositif de Wienco/MAFA étudié dans la Section 5.3.1, nous avons constaté que le prêteur avait recours à d'autres mesures radicales comme la police et les tribunaux pour veiller à la livraison des produits prévue au contrat. En Côte d'Ivoire, nous avons entendu dire que les banques consentent des prêts aux producteurs en échange d'une sûreté prise sur les cultures, et qu'en cas de non remboursement, elles peuvent très bien envoyer un prestataire extérieur récolter le caoutchouc au titre des dispositions contractuelles qui prévoient une cession de créances.Nous croyons toutefois savoir que les organismes de financement s'intéressent principalement au recensement des cas offrant la possibilité de créer de nouveaux instruments financiers tels que les reconnaissances de dette agricole du Brésil (cedulas de produtos rurais), les contrats à terme souscrits par une banque ou une autre partie et qui peuvent être financés ou même échangés sur une bourse des produits de base. Nos sondages sur ce point laissent à penser que, dans la plupart des pays africains, il n'est pas très réaliste d'attendre des banques qu'elles prennent une sûreté sur de tels documents, sachant qu'elles sont souvent peu disposées à financer en échange d'une sûreté réelle avec dépossession détenue dans les entrepôts. Le fait que l'on soit très majoritairement en présence de petits producteurs agricoles, contrairement au Brésil, et la faiblesse des coopératives représentent également un défi de taille.Nous avons toutefois eu un échange sur cette proposition avec un grand banquier ivoirien qui pense qu'elle serait envisageable avec les producteurs Prêt garanti sur la production actuelle ou à venir (type D) (b) Burkina Faso : nous observons ici l'essor récent d'activités de tierce détention au service de la transformation (souvent artisanale) des produits agricoles et des groupements de producteurs. Ces pratiques se distinguent nettement du modèle dominant de la tierce détention qui fleurit autour des échanges internationaux caractérisés par de gros volumes. Cette innovation (expérimentale) se caractérise principalement par la vision des choses, la prise d'initiative, et l'impulsion donnée par quelques-unes des principales parties intéressées (notamment les TD et les banques), lesquelles réussissent à travailler efficacement avec les organisations de producteurs et les petits transformateurs. L'expansion rapide de cette activité ainsi que l'expérience réduite des acteurs constituent toutefois une source de risques.(c) Niger : la généralisation du crédit-stockage communautaire doit beaucoup aux efforts et à la vision de personnes de premier plan qui ont promu l'offre sous l'égide de la FAO pendant près de dix ans, ainsi qu'à l'émergence de l'IMF de crédit direct qui a rempli le vide laissé par des IMF mutualistes (coopératives de crédit) en faillite. L'offre en elle-même présente des atouts et des faiblesses.(d) Sénégal : dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal, les rizières irriguées ont été mises en valeur grâce à une utilisation du contrôle des stocks et de la tierce détention à différentes étapes de la chaîne de valeur. L'initiative a réussi à surmonter bon nombre de difficultés traditionnelles qui empêchaient le riz sénégalais de concurrencer les importations en termes de prix et de qualité. Il reste toutefois des problèmes à résoudre dans ce domaine. Parmi les principaux facteurs de réussite, on peut relever les économies d'échelle (l'entreprise concerne des dizaines de milliers de tonnes de riz par récolte), et le fait que l'initiative soit conduite par les parties intéressées. Les pouvoirs publics ont fortement soutenu la production locale de riz par l'intermédiaire de l'autorité chargée de l'irrigation (la SAED), tout comme les partenaires du développement, mais il est nécessaire de renforcer le rôle de meneur de la société civile afin de résoudre les contradictions sous-jacentes des mesures prises.( (a) Les aspects économiques, à la fois en termes de demande et d'évolutivité, sont essentiels à la réussite des initiatives d'entreposage et de tierce détention. La réticence ou l'incapacité des promoteurs à s'en préoccuper dès le départ conduit parfois à des difficultés par la suite. C'est ce qui s'est produit avec le SRE réglementé en Ouganda, qui a pâti d'un manque de clarté au moment de l'élaboration du projet. Le projet pilote sur le riz dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal a, lui aussi, été pénalisé par des facteurs économiques, les pouvoirs publics étant confrontés à un problème politique délicat et persistant (à savoir trouver un compromis entre soutenir la production nationale et garantir un riz à bas prix à une population urbaine, dont près de 50 pour cent est devenue dépendante des brisures de riz, sous-produit des énormes rizeries asiatiques).Autres facteurs clés de réussite constatés :  Malgré l'orientation vers une approche programme, l'intervention des donateurs est essentiellement motivée par la nécessité de présenter des résultats pendant la durée de vie des projets, parfois au détriment des effets à long terme. Trente projets du FIDA comporteraient des volets sur les récépissés d'entrepôt, mais il ne semble pas exister de référentiel thématique dans lequel les chercheurs et les porteurs de projet pourraient puiser. L'étude technique sur le Sénégal rend compte d'une initiative de type A, appuyée par un projet de microfinance financé par la Belgique et par deux ONG, présentée comme une brillante réussite, mais sans qu'aucun élément ne puisse attester de sa pérennité au-delà du terme du projet.L'exemple du Burkina Faso met en évidence les limites des approches projets. Nous constatons que de grands projets financés par des donateurs (PICOFA et PAPSA) aident des OP locales à mettre en oeuvre le crédit-stockage communautaire grâce à une approche décentralisée, mais sans l'appui de structures de niveau supérieur qui les aideraient à régler les problèmes (telles que les négociations avec les IMF, la commercialisation des céréales, etc) lorsque le projet ne bénéficie plus d'aucun soutien. Nous constatons également qu'ils construisent et rénovent des entrepôts communautaires, mais seulement sur la durée du projet. Il n'existe pas de mécanismes permettant aux agriculteurs d'accéder à des capitaux pour la construction de ces entrepôts une fois le projet terminé : l'essor de cette activité est donc dépendant de la capacité des donateurs et des pouvoirs publics à poursuivre le financement de projets précis.Le rapport attire l'attention sur la nécessité de renforcer les capacités des parties prenantes participant au SRE et à la tierce détention en Afrique (se reporter au Tableau n°9).Tableau n°9 : Possibilités de renforcement des capacitésLes banques qui financent déjà le warrantage et créent même des sociétés de tierce détention, mais qui ont encore besoin de développer la gestion interne et le cadre du suivi de la commercialisation qui leur seront nécessaires pour accroître leur portefeuille de prêts dans ce domaine.4.4 4.5La CNCAS a besoin de renforcer ses capacités en matière de financement sur récépissé d'entrepôt. L'exemple de FEPROMAS souligne le besoin d'une formation appropriée des agriculteurs participant à des activités de warrantage.Niger Asusu et Coopec-Kokari, qui ont saisi les occasions de financement dans les villages ruraux reculés, le premier diversifiant son portefeuille d'offres.Les réseaux de microfinance mutualistes dans tout le pays qui pourraient prendre exemple sur leurs homologues malgaches et proposer bien plus de crédits-stockage.Burkina FasoLes sociétés de tierce détention nouvellement créées qui proposent des dispositifs novateurs dans les régions rurales, en développant la structure des chaînes de valeur, et en améliorant la place des petits producteurs et des PME dans celles-ci, mais qui auront besoin d'être accompagnées par des spécialistes qui les aideront à s'étendre et à limiter les risques associés.Ouganda Besoin de programmes de formation afin de familiariser les banques et la clientèle rurale aux activités du SRE, et d'inciter les exportateurs à développer ou à étendre leurs chaînes d'approvisionnement aux fournisseurs ruraux, que les banques pourront alors aider grâce à un SRE géré par un TD.4.6.5Besoin immédiat de formation à la manutention des produits de base et à une meilleure gestion du risque.La démarche de renforcement des capacités est présentée dans les recommandations ci-après.Ces dernières décennies ont été marquées par de nombreuses tentatives visant à créer des marchés en privilégiant les initiatives venant de la base, communautaires et coopératives, souvent financées par des IMF mutualistes inspirées du modèle européen de Raffeissen, avec des résultats divers allant de la réussite à l'échec retentissant. Les avis divergent souvent en ce qui concerne le niveau de réussite. C'est le cas pour deux des coopératives paysannes de commercialisation agricole les plus connues, Faso Jigi au Mali, et l'UGCPA-BM au Burkina Faso. Certains les considèrent comme des réussites quand d'autres, tout en reconnaissant les résultats obtenus, s'interrogent sur leur intérêt économique au regard des sommes considérables investies par les donateurs dans leur développement 41 .Le Burkina Faso constitue un exemple intéressant qui permet d'observer trois approches distinctes :(a) Le modèle du warrantage c., avec de petits entrepôts locaux et des stocks à identité préservée au nom de chaque agriculteur (b) Le développement de coopératives de services (ou d'autres types d'OP) telles que l'UGCPA et la FEPAB, qui ont privilégié l'achat d'intrants (parfois en échange de produits) afin d'accroître la production, mais cherchent désormais à créer une structure nationale de commercialisation dotée d'entrepôts qu'elles géreront pour le compte de leurs membres (c) Des innovations récentes de la part des banques et des prestataires de services spécialisés (tiers détenteurs) qui cherchent de nouvelles possibilités de prêts dans le développement des chaînes de valeur agricoles.Les démarches (b) et (c) ménagent une transition du financement de type A au financement de la chaîne de valeur pouvant mobiliser des financements de type B ou de type C. Chacun a ses propres atouts et faiblesses ; ils se chevauchent souvent, et il est impossible de savoir dans quelle mesure il vaut mieux en privilégier un au détriment d'un autre. Au Burkina Faso, les TD parviennent à offrir des services à une échelle beaucoup plus réduite que dans les autres pays considérés, mais reste à savoir jusqu'à quand. On pourrait aussi envisager la mise en oeuvre de dispositifs de caution mutuelle (DCM) par les pairs qui, s'inspirant de l'expérience française, permettraient aux membres d'accéder au financement à partir de déclarations de stock. Si l'on ne doit pas sous-estimer les difficultés que cela soulève, l'avantage potentiel de cette démarche est le suivant : se passer du recours à un tiers détenteur indépendant serait plus rentable à plus petite échelle que les financements de types B et C. Nous examinons le DCM à l'Annexe 4, en proposant qu'il soit mis en oeuvre au sein des coopératives de services et chez les producteurs de semences.Dans ce cas, les organismes de financement devraient s'efforcer d'adopter une approche souple, fondée sur l'acquisition de connaissances, afin de déterminer la meilleure voie à suivre, en commençant avec le Burkina Faso qui deviendrait ensuite une source d'informtions pour d'autres pays. Le Burkina Faso est un terrain idéal pour cela étant donnés le cadre politique globalement favorable au W/TD et le consensus existant parmi les parties prenantes privées, les pouvoirs publics et certains donateurs (notamment KFW) quant au rôle que jouent le crédit-stockage et les systèmes de financement sur récépissé d'entrepôt dans la sécurité alimentaire et le développement des chaînes de valeur agricoles. Nous reprenons cette idée dans les recommandations formulées pour le Burkina Faso dans la Section 8.2.2.Certains programmes intergouvernementaux et de donateurs ont choisi d'investir directement dans des bourses des produits de base et les activités d'entreposage qui leur sont liées. Nous mettons toutefois en garde contre cette pratique qui peut entraîner d'éventuels conflits d'intérêt avec le dernier des rôles que nous avons énumérés ci-dessus (à savoir capitaliser les expériences et les verser au domaine public). Nous estimons que c'est en partie ce qui s'est produit avec la Bourse éthiopienne des produits de base (ECX) et son modèle de système de récépissé d'entrepôt. Il a été ardemment promu dans toute l'Afrique comme un produit de marque reproductible que plusieurs gouvernements souhaitent mettre en oeuvre tel quel ou avec des variantes. C'est le cas du Mozambique (voir l'étude technique sur le pays), du Ghana (voir l'étude technique sur le pays), du Nigéria et du Malawi. Peu de fonds ont toutefois été consacrés à l'étude de l'expérience éthiopienne et aux leçons pouvant en être tirées et qui pourraient être utiles pour les pays désireux d'adopter ce modèle 42 . Dans le cas de la Bourse ghanéenne des produits de base (GCX), nous pensons qu'il faudrait accorder davantage d'attention aux besoins propres du pays, plutôt que de se référer à l'Éthiopie où le modèle a été conçu.Les différents moyens juridiques de parvenir à un système réglementé d'entreposage public sont examinés en détail dans la Section 5.5 du présent rapport. Les pays ont le choix entre une approche législative, une approche volontaire ou une approche de type big bang, allant de pair avec la mise en place d'une bourse des produits de base et des entrepôts associés, et inspirés du modèle éthiopien. Nous préconisons toutefois le plus souvent une approche progressive animée par les parties prenantes locales afin d'améliorer le fonctionnement des chaînes de valeur au sein desquelles ils interviennent, et aboutissant à des propositions législatives tenant pleinement compte des avantages et inconvénients.Les pays devraient également bien préciser la portée de la législation et de l'autorité de contrôle en évitant de confier à l'autorité une mission trop lourde, en termes de produits de base et de types d'entreposage à contrôler, qu'elle n'aurait pas les moyens d'honorer. Comme l'indique l'étude juridique sur l'Ouganda (Volume III), cela peut placer les entreprises dans une situation d'ambiguïté juridique.Trouver une autorité compétente et fiable n'est pas une tâche aisée, et l'expérience de certains pays (non considérés) montre que le choix de l'organe de surveillance peut être la source de graves dissensions interministérielles. S'il est en théorie logique de vouloir désigner l'organe peu de temps après avoir légiféré, il peut être plus judicieux dans la pratique d'adopter au préalable les textes stipulant les droits et obligations des parties avant de désigner une ou des autorités de contrôle ayant pour mission de réglementer certains produits de base.Quand il n'existe ni soutien ni infrastructure pour la mise en place d'un système réglementé, il est possible d'envisager des évolutions moins radicales du cadre juridique afin d'encourager le financement des produits de base. Sans intervention juridique, il n'est pas possible d'instituer des récépissés d'entrepôt reconnus comme des titres de propriété négociables. On privilégie dès lors le régime des sûretés et des mesures qui garantissent par d'autres moyens aux créanciers la prise de sûreté opposable et réalisable sur les produits de base stockés. L'élimination des obstacles financiers à la prise de sûreté, tels que les droits de timbre et les frais d'inscription, peuvent ainsi inciter les financiers à conclure des accords de financement garanti.On pourrait encore améliorer le régime des sûretés dans plusieurs des pays considérés en rendant les registres des garanties plus fonctionnels. Toutefois, et même si ces registres son efficaces sur le plan opérationnel, ils ne sont utiles que s'ils sont concrètement utilisés et qu'ils servent à notifier juridiquement aux parties l'existence d'une sûreté, et garantissent au détenteur la priorité sur les éventuels créanciers concurrents.Les pays où l'inscription des gages est actuellement exigée peuvent aussi supprimer cette obligation en vertu du fait qu'un gage suppose la possession des marchandises garanties. Étant donné qu'une seule partie peut être en possession réelle des marchandises à un moment précis, cela devrait conférer une protection juridique contre les prérogatives de tiers. Cette solution nécessite de bien réfléchir à la manière de traiter la question de l'ordre des sûretés concurrentes, y compris des sûretés sans dépossession. En règle générale, la sûreté sans dépossession est soumise à inscription : c'est le moyen le plus efficace d'attester des sûretés réelles auprès des parties tierces. Un gage (non inscrit) avec dépossession devrait rester grevé de toute sûreté sans dépossession antérieurement inscrite. Il faut donc veiller à une meilleure fonctionnalité des registres, même dans les cas où l'inscription des gages n'est pas requise. Les consultants juridiques dans la région de l'OHADA indiquent que l'inscription auprès du RCCM peut prendre jusqu'à 60 jours. De tels délais créent un risque supplémentaire dès lors que des sûretés réelles concurrentes peuvent être consenties en peu de temps.Les financiers auraient davantage confiance si cette initiative s'accompagnait d'une réglementation effective concernant les professions de gestionnaire d'entrepôt et de TD. Un financier doit en effet le plus souvent s'en remettre à la possession virtuelle conférée à ces parties tierces.Dans les pays de l'OHADA, deux méthodes permettent aujourd'hui de rendre un gage opposable : la prise de possession ou l'inscription auprès du RCCM. Dans le dernier cas, l'inscription donne lieu à la remise d'un bordereau de gage, outil qui peut se révéler utile pour le financement des produits de base. Toutefois, dans la pratique, les parties semblent délaisser l'inscription au profit de la prise de possession.Comme nous l'avons expliqué dans la Section 5.4.2, il peut s'avérer complexe d'adopter une législation pour toute la région de l'OHADA, en raison de l'unanimité requise. Il vaut peut-être mieux commencer par adopter dans un ou deux pays les textes de lois utiles au niveau national, et s'inspirer ensuite de leur expérience afin d'élaborer une législation pour toute la région. Étant donnés les économies d'échelle que permet la réglementation des entrepôts et le besoin de développer des échanges transfrontaliers, une approche suprarégionale peut se révéler pertinente à long terme. La Côte d'Ivoire pourrait constituer un bon point de départ, compte tenu de l'ampleur de l'activité de tierce détention dans le pays, de son expérience réglementaire, de la dynamique de création d'entrepôts publics, de l'approche constructive du gouvernement, et de la forte participation des parties prenantes.Nous présentons nos recommandations dans trois sections. La Section 8.1 formule aux trois organisations commanditaires une recommandation stratégique visant à mettre en place un programme commun propre aux produits agricoles. Dans la Section 8.2, nous proposons des initiatives à court terme (mesures simples) à mettre en oeuvre immédiatement. Enfin, dans la Section 8.3, nous suggérons d'autres initiatives à plus long terme.Les trois organismes de financement ont défini ensemble la mission de la présente étude. Notre principale recommandation est qu'ils étudient la possibilité de prolonger ce partenariat au travers de l'élaboration d'un Programme commun sur les produits agricoles (le Programme), visant à développer le financement garanti sur des produits de base et les innovations connexes de la chaîne de valeur en Afrique. Les fonctions du Programme comprendraient :(a) Des analyses et un appui indépendants aux organismes de financement. Il collaborerait de façon thématique avec les bureaux locaux et les projets de chaque organisme de financement, et procurerait des analyses et un appui indépendants aux initiatives de projets pertinentes dans le domaine de la commercialisation et du financement des produits de base.(b) Un renforcement des capacités par la formation, l'accompagnement, la mise en place d'atelier de travail, et la certification de la qualité. L'élaboration d'un modèle de financement des entrepôts devrait aller de pair avec un inventaire des expériences existantes (en privilégiant les cas les plus exemplaires), la consultation des spécialistes compétents, et une étude de la situation sur le terrain dans les pays où la mise en oeuvre est envisagée. Sans présager du résultat de ce processus, nous souhaitons cependant que les idées suivantes soient prises en compte :Nous aimerions que les fonds accordés soient équivalents au financement hypothécaire octroyé par les banques locales, avec l'objectif explicite de les voir s'impliquer davantage dans le financement à terme de ce type de structures. Les bénéficiaires seraient choisis en fonction de critères simples (à savoir : groupe cible, expérience du promoteur, systèmes de gestion interne), et en toute transparence. Il faudrait adopter quelques principes essentiels, tels que :• Les bénéficiaires contribuent en grande partie aux coûts du capital et du financement (à savoir à hauteur de 50 pour cent à 60 pour cent), bien que cette part puisse varier en fonction de la finalité de l'investissement (à savoir, la sécurité alimentaire locale, ou la commercialisation de la production excédentaire)• L'utilisation des entrepôts par les bénéficiaires répond à un ensemble de règles d'intérêt public, semblables aux dispositions du Conseil ghanéen des céréales (GGC) applicables aux entrepôts communautaires et de regroupement • Participation d'un plus grand nombre de fournisseurs à l'approvisionnement, au regard de ce que permettent les appels d'offre traditionnels. N'importe qui, y compris une OP ou un petit négociant, peut procéder à des dépôts dans un entrepôt public agréé. Les IMF et les acteurs du secteur agricole auront également besoin de se mobiliser en faveur de politiques de commercialisation du riz afin de se prémunir contre les revirements soudains des politiques d'importation qui font perdre de l'argent aux producteurs ayant recours aux GCV, comme cela s'est produit en 2013. Tout en développant ses fonctions réglementaires, de gestion du risque et de promotion, l'AFD devrait s'efforcer d'abandonner progressivement ses garanties de portefeuille, devenues inutiles avec une offre de prêt à faible risque et bien réglementée.Dans la Section 7. La priorité serait de réaliser un état des lieux actualisé du warrantage c. au Niger et un examen plus approfondi de certains cas (c'est-à-dire Taanadi et l'Union Cigaba de Konkorido). L'AP/SFD (Association professionnelle des systèmes financiers décentralisés) et l'ARSM (Agence de régulation du secteur de la microfinance) devraient être associées à ce processus de mise à jour et créer un outil de suivi simple pouvant être actualisé chaque année. (f) Une réforme législative simple en faveur du crédit sur entrepôt, afin de permettre notamment aux prêteurs de recouvrer les créances des débiteurs défaillants, en vendant le stock de gré à gré.Les organismes de financement devraient s'efforcer de travailler de concert avec le projet ADVANCE de l'USAID, qui fournit un appui essentiel au GGC. Grâce au stockage, les agriculteurs ne sont plus obligés de vendre leur production immédiatement après la récolte, et sont en mesure d'augmenter leurs revenus en fonction des variations de prix annuelles. Lorsqu'ils se regroupent pour s'impliquer dans la commercialisation et le stockage, ils peuvent bénéficier d'économies d'échelle et atteindre une « masse critique » leur permettant de renforcer leur pouvoir de négociation avec les commerçants, et d'obtenir ainsi des conditions de prix plus favorables. Le stockage permet également de réduire les pertes post-récolte. Il entraîne une classification et une certification des productions en fonction d'un ensemble de normes. Une telle pratique contribue à augmenter la valeur des productions et constitue une incitation pour en améliorer la qualité. De plus, cette normalisation assure une meilleure fongibilité des produits ainsi qu'une possibilité de débouchés sur des bourses des marchandises, ce qui favorise la compétitivité et la transparence du processus commercial.Cependant, le warrantage comporte également des risques et des inconvénients qui entravent le développement de cette pratique. Parmi les principaux inconvénients, on retiendra le fait que, dans la plupart des cas, le financement est obtenu après la récolte. Le financement des intrants et des autres investissements nécessaires n'est alors possible que lorsque l'apporteur du financement structure un montage financier qui s'appuie sur la chaîne de valeur et met en place des contrôles au cours du cycle de production (au niveau des intrants, du transport, des matières premières et des produits transformés  47, 48 ).Le consultant fera l'état des lieux des projets, expériences et études ayant abordé le sujet du warrantage (notamment les projets du FIDA ou de l'USAID -FARMAF -en cours dans les géographies étudiées).Le consultant fera également le point quant aux expériences passées (et leurs échecs ou réussites éventuels) ou actuelles dans le domaine de la tierce détention de produits agricoles (produits locaux ou importés). La rencontre avec des opérateurs du secteur des importations agricoles (SGS, Veritas, etc.), ainsi qu'avec des acteurs impliqués dans la mise en oeuvre de financements garantis à partir de productions locales sera d'une grande utilité.Dans chaque pays, le consultant examinera les politiques publiques susceptibles d'avoir un impact sur la mise en oeuvre d'opérations de warrantage et d'opérations de vente avec rachat (repos), et il déterminera si elles contribuent à la création d'un environnement favorable au développement de cette pratique.Le consultant examinera, plus particulièrement :• les réglementations en vigueur (coopératives, warrantage, tierce détention, sûretés, normes des produits agricoles, etc)• le statut des petits exploitants 49  • les conditions pour l'utilisation des récépissés d'entreposage électroniques• les conditions de mise en jeu de la sûreté constituée en faveur d'une institution financière à travers un warrant, correspondant au stock déposé par un producteur dans un magasin général. La possibilité de mise en jeu d'une telle sûreté sans avoir recours à une décision de justice sera plus particulièrement examinée 49 Le statut juridique d'« entreprenants » sous l'OHADA par exemple.• les assurances pour les produits stockés ou les assurances à la personne (assurances décès pour les prêts) Dans chaque pays intégré dans le périmètre de l'étude, le consultant :• procèdera à une évaluation de l'impact de cette pratique sur les revenus des petits producteurs pendant la période de soudure• étudiera les implications de cette pratique dans le domaine du genre, plus particulièrement la participation des femmes dans la mise en oeuvre d'opérations de warrantage ou d'opérations de vente avec rachat, l'accès des femmes aux avantages résultant de cette pratique, ainsi que les contraintes limitant une meilleure intégration des femmes dans le processus. • dans chaque pays inclus dans le périmètre de l'étude : (i) l'identification des productions agricoles relevant de petits exploitants susceptibles de bénéficier plus largement du warrantage, et (ii) les incitations nécessaires à impliquer plus fortement les partenaires financiers (banques locales, institutions de microcrédit) intéressés à développer une activité de warrantage• les recommandations pour parvenir à une plus grande implication des femmes dans les activités de stockage, de warrantage ou d'opérations de vente avec rachat (repos), et pour améliorer l'accès des femmes aux avantages découlant de ces opérations.Les consultants procèderont à une revue de la littérature existante ainsi qu'à des interviews des différents acteurs impliqués dans le warrantage ou les opérations de vente avec rachat (repos). On procèdera à une analyse des textes législatifs et réglementaires se rapportant aux différents aspects visés par l'étude.Dans chaque pays inclus dans le périmètre de l'étude, les consultants recueilleront des informations sur les pratiques locales du warrantage et des opérations de vente avec rachat (repos) auprès des différentes parties prenantes : banques, institutions de microcrédit, prêteurs non bancaires, propriétaires/gestionnaires de magasins généraux/entrepôts, coopératives et associations de paysans, organismes professionnels, ministères et administrations concernés. Les consultants effectueront des missions dans les pays inclus dans le périmètre de l'étude lorsqu'ils ne sont pas basés dans les pays concernés.Les travaux des consultants seront suivis par un Comité de Pilotage composé d'experts désignés par les différentes institutions participant au financement de cette étude. Ce Comité de Pilotage se réunira pour une réunion de lancement de l'étude, puis à l'occasion de la soumission du projet de rapport intérimaire et du projet de rapport définitif.Les consultants sont invités à coordonner leurs travaux avec ceux des consultants intervenant sur des missions de même thématique dans chaque pays intégré dans le périmètre de l'étude (plus particulièrement au Burkina Faso, dans le cadre des initiatives soutenues par l'Alliance pour une révolution verte en Afrique et la Banque mondiale).  La réforme législative pourrait résoudre les problèmes liés à la prise de sûreté sur des produits de base.Veuillez vous reporter à la cellule ci-dessus (Droits attachés aux récépissés d'entrepôt) concernant les problèmes soulevés par les réclamations de créanciers ne faisant pas partie du système.La législation établissant un SRE devra régler la question de l'ordre de priorité des créanciers concurrents. L'élimination des obstacles financiers à la prise de sûreté, tels que les droits de timbre et les frais d'inscription, peuvent ainsi inciter les financiers à conclure des accords de financement garanti.On pourrait encore améliorer le régime des sûretés dans plusieurs des pays considérés en rendant les registres des garanties plus fonctionnels. Toutefois, et même si ces registres sont efficaces sur le plan opérationnel, ils ne sont utiles que s'ils sont concrètement utilisés, servent à notifier juridiquement aux parties l'existence d'une sûreté, et garantissent au détenteur la priorité sur les éventuels créanciers concurrents.Les pays dans lesquels l'inscription des gages est actuellement exigée peuvent aussi supprimer cette obligation en vertu du principe qu'un gage suppose la possession des marchandises garanties. Étant donné qu'une seule partie peut être en possession réelle des marchandises à un moment précis, cela devrait conférer une protection juridique contre les prérogatives de tiers. Cette solution nécessite de bien réfléchir à la manière de traiter la question de l'ordre des sûretés concurrentes, y compris des sûretés sans dépossession. En règle générale, la sûreté sans dépossession est soumise à inscription : il s'agit du moyen le plus efficace d'attester des sûretés réelles auprès de parties tierces. Un gage (non inscrit) avec dépossession devrait rester grevé de toute sûreté sans dépossession antérieurement inscrite. Il faut donc veiller à une meilleure fonctionnalité des registres, même lorsque l'inscription des gages n'est pas requise. Les consultants juridiques dans la région de l'OHADA indiquent que l'inscription auprès du RCCM peut prendre jusqu'à 60 jours. De tels délais créent un risque supplémentaire dès lors que des sûretés réelles concurrentes peuvent être consenties en peu de temps.Pour fonctionner dans la pratique, ces mesures devraient s'accompagner d'une réglementation effective concernant les professions de gestionnaire d'entrepôt et de TD. Un financier doit en effet le plus souvent s'en remettre à la possession virtuelle conférée à ces parties tierces.Dans les pays de l'OHADA, deux méthodes permettent aujourd'hui de rendre un gage opposable : l'entrée en possession ou l'inscription auprès du RCCM. Dans le dernier cas, l'inscription donne lieu à la remise d'un bordereau de gage, outil pouvant se révéler utile pour le financement des produits de base. Toutefois, dans la pratique, les parties semblent délaisser l'inscription au profit de l'entrée en possession.On déplore dans l'ensemble des pays considérés la lenteur du processus judiciaire de résolution des litiges. Bien que l'examen juridique préalable ait révélé l'existence d'autres techniques de résolution des litiges dans les pays étudiés, rien ne prouve qu'elles soient beaucoup utilisées. Quelle que soit la forme de résolution des litiges choisie, il est important de parvenir à une situation permettant aux produits de base sous-jacents de continuer de circuler le long de la chaîne d'approvisionnement le temps que dure la résolution du litige en question.Cette section a été rédigée conjointement avec le cabinet Bilé-Aka, Brizoua-Bi & Associés (Brizoua-Bi). Le Traité vise à l'harmonisation du droit des affaires dans les désormais dixsept États membres (quatorze à l'époque), par l'élaboration et l'adoption de règles communes simples et modernes, adaptées à leur économie, grâce à la mise en place des procédures judiciaires nécessaires, et à la promotion de l'arbitrage pour le règlement des litiges contractuels.Les actes édictés pour l'adoption des règles communes prévues à l'Article 1 du traité de l'OHADA sont appelés les Actes uniformes.À ce jour, neuf Actes uniformes ont été adoptés et, pour certains, révisés. Les Actes uniformes portent sur les domaines juridiques suivants : Certaines dispositions des Actes uniformes prévoient des responsabilités pénales. En la matière, les États membres doivent déterminer les sanctions pénales correspondantes, les Actes uniformes se bornant à énoncer les infractions. (k) Les différents moyens de rendre un gage opposable soulèvent la question de la détermination de l'ordre des priorités entre deux créanciers ou plus qui détiennent chacun un gage sur les mêmes biens. Dans un tel scénario, il faut savoir quel gage a été rendu opposable le premier. Cela implique donc de vérifier si l'entrée en possession desdits biens a eu lieu avant la procédure d'inscription au RCCM. Il s'agit aussi de savoir si le créancier qui a pris le deuxième gage avait connaissance ou aurait raisonnablement pu avoir connaissance de l'existence du premier gage. Si le deuxième créancier en avait connaissance ou aurait pu raisonnablement en avoir connaissance, alors le deuxième gage vient en deuxième dans l'ordre des priorités.(l) La question du rang des priorités témoigne de la nécessité de procéder aux examens préalables appropriés lors d'une prise de sûreté sur des biens dans les pays de l'OHADA, y compris de consulter le RCCM (afin de vérifier si une sûreté antérieure a été inscrite), et de vérifier auprès du constituant du gage où se trouvent les biens, qui les détient, et si des sûretés non inscrites existent sur ces biens.Acte uniforme de l'OHADA portant sur le droit commercial général, adopté le 15 décembre 2010 et entré en vigueur le 16 mai 2011 (Acte commercial)L'Acte commercial de l'OHADA comprend des dispositions concernant les contrats de bail, et autorise un individu à louer une terre ou des locaux à des fins commerciales, industrielles, professionnelles ou artisanales. Les conventions d'entreposage de campagne peuvent s'inspirer des dispositions de l'Acte commercial relatives aux baux.L'Acte commercial (avec l'Acte uniforme de l'OHADA sur le droit des sociétés) prescrit certaines obligations relatives à l'immatriculation des sociétés.Acte uniforme de l'OHADA relatif au droit des sociétés coopératives, adopté le 15 décembre 2010 (Acte des coopératives)En vertu des dispositions de l'Acte des coopératives de l'OHADA, les sociétés coopératives jouissent de la personnalité juridique, sont capables de conclure des accords juridiques (accords de prêt, de vente, d'achat et accords de sûreté) en leur nom propre, et ont le droit d'ester en justice. Au titre de l'Acte des coopératives, ces dernières ont le droit d'entreprendre toutes actions dans l'intérêt supérieur de leurs adhérents. Les autres prérogatives d'une coopérative sont définies dans un document fondateur désigné sous le terme de « statuts ».L'Acte des coopératives exige que les coopératives nationales s'immatriculent auprès du registre des coopératives de leur propre pays.Acte uniforme de l'OHADA relatif au droit de l'arbitrage, adopté le 11 mars 1999 (Acte d'arbitrage)L'Acte d'arbitrage de l'OHADA porte sur la résolution des litiges par arbitrage, et s'applique à toutes procédures d'arbitrage au sein des États membres de l'OHADA. L'Acte stipule que l'arbitrage est accessible à toutes les personnes dotées de la personnalité juridique. L'existence de ce registre électronique, consultable par la population, permettrait de répondre à certaines préoccupations -à défaut des principales -concernant le système actuel d'inscription des sûretés et leur consultation par la population générale, et inciterait les parties à inscrire les sûretés.Ceci étant dit, et comme évoqué ci-dessus, la pratique la plus courante pour le moment est celle de l'entrée en possession (effective ou virtuelle) des biens, qui prime sur l'inscription des sûretés. Raison pour laquelle, si les autres problèmes liés au système d'inscription ne sont pas résolus, l'adoption de registres électroniques risque de ne pas avoir beaucoup d'incidence dans la pratique.Le principe mutualiste, selon lequel les villageois dans certaines installations de stockage sont solidairement responsables de leurs dettes vis-à-vis du financier, constitue la principale force du financement de type A, qui s'accompagne d'un taux de remboursement élevé et de risques de prêts moindres. Il serait sage de s'appuyer sur cette spécificité pour diffuser cette approche auprès d'autres collectivités, afin de la généraliser et la rendre plus compatible avec les lois du marché.L'Afrique dispose d'une certaine expérience en matière de dispositifs de caution mutuelle (DCM), également dénommés sociétés de caution mutuelle (SCM), par lesquels les membres, acteurs d'un marché particulier, cotisent à un fonds qui garantit les prêts individuels contractés auprès des institutions financières. Le DCM est constitué par un ensemble d'entreprises appartenant à un négoce particulier, doté de caractéristiques similaires et aux besoins semblables, qui cotisent à un fonds garantissant solidairement les prêts individuels contractés auprès des institutions financières. L'État peut apporter des fonds supplémentaires ou une contre-garantie. Selon la théorie qui sous-tend cette approche, une organisation composée de PME étroitement reliées, qui sont des homologues professionnelles, peut surmonter l'asymétrie de l'information qui existe souvent entre les banques et les emprunteurs, ainsi mieux maîtriser les risques de prêt, et permettre aux banques de prêter davantage à moindre frais. Le processus d'examen collégial peut être un mécanisme puissant de maîtrise des risques et être assimilé à de l'opportunisme. Les autorités nationales de surveillance financière, conformément aux recommandations de Bâle II, reconnaissent les sociétés de caution comme des garants si leur offre de garantie correspond aux exigences réglementaires, et permet de ce fait aux banques de réduire les fonds propres réglementaires sur leur portefeuille de prêts.  ","tokenCount":"19086"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"713c432c9948539ca89467acd88ececd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/21b1ced1-22c0-47e7-b4b3-044503e8b335/retrieve","id":"-622198449"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2379380f-04a3-4ec7-aa50-5dba095e0b3e","pagecount":"64","content":"September 2015We all have an obligation to protect our planet and to feed the world's population. All world leaders have committed to support communities that are most vulnerable to the changing climate and to work together to preserve our precious world for future generations. Extreme climate variabilities are evident, natural disasters are increasing from year to year, and human activities aggravate the impacts of climate change. These bleak scenarios bear significant impacts on food production. This Report intends to provide the Myanmar CSA strategy to cover the development of technical, policy and investment conditions to achieve a sustainable agricultural development for food security and nutrition through a climate-resilient agriculture. It also includes adaptation and mitigation strategies for agriculture especially for rice production. The relevant information, options and interventions mentioned here provide government officials, technical experts, and others stakeholders with a working framework around the concept of CSA.Our sincere thanks go to His Excellency Union Minister of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI), U Myint Hlaing, for his keen interest and continuous support to the successful conduct of the consultation meeting.We are grateful to Dr Leocadio Sebastian and Dr Rex Navarro, CCAFS SEA's Regional Program Leader and Communication Consultant, respectively, for the technical support, coordination and facilitation of the workshop and production of this Report. We also thank IRRI's Country Representative to Myanmar, Dr Madonna Casimero and her staff for their hard work in coordinating and facilitating the first consultation workshop.Permanent Secretary, MOAI Chair, Myanmar CSA strategy writing teamThe Government of Myanmar envisions to achieve a higher per capita income for the rural populace, whose major source of livelihood is agriculture, and to be abreast with developed countries. Towards this, the government has embarked on an ambitious economic, political and governance reform program since 2010. These reforms are starting to pay off, with Myanmar's economy growing at 7.3% in 2012 to 2013.However, these economic gains are being threatened by climate change. As global warming is felt all over the world, Myanmar is also suffering from the adverse effects of climate change (i.e., droughts, floods, natural disasters, land degradation, desertification and deforestation and severe land slide).The long-term effects of climatic change will have serious impacts on agriculture and food security, requiring substantive adaptation of agricultural systems over time, as agriculture also significantly contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To initially cope with the adverse effects of climate change, Myanmar mapped out a National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) covering eight sectors, namely: 1) agriculture, 2) early warning systems, 3) forests, 4) public health; 5) water resources, 6) coastal zones, 7) energy and industry, and 8) biodiversity. Agriculture, early warning systems and forests are given top priority.Notwithstanding the foregoing, Myanmar has yet to develop a comprehensive strategy on climate change adaptation and mitigation for the agriculture sector focusing on rice-based systems. Rice is the most important and dominant crop in the country. Hence, the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MOAI) is keen on developing such a strategy which will serve as a roadmap for national action as well a guide for international donors and development partners. Therefore, the development of a Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) strategy is indispensable in boosting agriculture and food security in Myanmar.Myanmar's CSA strategy should be socially, culturally and politically appropriate, environment-friendly and economically feasible to promote sustainable agriculture with maximized food security and nutrition, development, climate change adaptation and mitigation.x With the foregoing objective, I designated the Department of Planning, MOAI as the focal agency to work with the CCAFS SEA and various stakeholders locally and internationally to come up with a climate change strategy specific for agriculture and focused on ricebased farming systems. To move this forward, a series of activities were undertaken with the good assistance of CCAFS SEA, IRRI and Yezin Agricultural University (YAU). This CSA strategy document is the result of this dynamic collaboration.We profoundly thank CCAFS SEA, IRRI, YAU and our national and international partners in helping us come up with our CSA strategy. The MOAI will immediately translate this into action to further improve and sustain the country's agriculture under climate change.Minister, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar xi Agriculture contributes a lion's share to the national revenue and plays a key role in reducing poverty in Myanmar. However, climate change has been causing adverse effects to the industry and adding more burdens to the farmers. Late or early onset of monsoon season, longer dry spells, erratic rainfall, increasing temperature, heavy rains, stronger typhoons and flooding are common climate events that have been occurring more frequently in the recent decade. Deforestation, industrialization and increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are just some of the factors that cause climate change. Some agricultural practices, likewise, contribute GHG to the atmosphere.Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) seeks to optimize the benefits and minimize the negative trade-offs across food security, agricultural development and climate change adaptation and mitigation. The key elements of CSA include food security by increasing agricultural productivity, resilience of agricultural systems through adaptation, and mitigation by reducing GHG emission or enhancing carbon sequestration and managing interfaces with other land use management.The Myanmar CSA strategy encompasses the development of technical, policy and investment conditions to achieve a sustainable agricultural development for food security and nutrition through climate-resilient and sustainable agriculture. Myanmar has committed to apply CSA to contribute to regional food security and environmental protection during the 24th ASEAN Summit on May 10, 2014.Myanmar's agriculture is regarded by a number of special features that distinguishes it from other sectors, such as:• the sector's role in producing food and meeting the people's basic survival needs;• its context and agro-ecological nature that makes uniform tactics and solutions ineffective;• the vulnerability of the sector to being directly affected by climate change compared with other sectors; xvi• its adaptation needs and mitigation potential; and• its complex links to food security, and broader land use, fisheries, livestock, and forestry policies.Myanmar's population and the calorie intake, which expectedly will increase between 2015 and 2050 due to greater affluence rising demand on land for the generation of food and fuels, will require significant increases in agricultural productivity in the context of more constrained availability of resources. With agriculture contributing about 30% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) and providing employment to approximately 60% of the population, the impacts of climate change on agriculture would have repercussions on the livelihoods, food production and the overall economy of Myanmar. While at the same time, the agriculture sector holds significant potential to mitigate climate change through reduction of GHG emissions and enhancement of agricultural sequestration.Myanmar's CSA strategy should be socially, culturally and politically appropriate, environment-friendly and economically feasible to promote and attain sustainable agriculture, food security and nutrition, agricultural development and climate change adaptation and mitigation. Myanmar's CSA also aims to provide context and analysis for addressing agriculture in international climate negotiations to better inform climate negotiators and other stakeholders by identifying options and unpacking issues of interest.Myanmar has various ecological zones with rice as the main crop. Hence, the country's CSA strategy should be primarily focused on rice-based farming systems. While rice and other crops are the backbone of agricultural production, livestock and fisheries provide protein foods and contribute partially, if not fully, to livelihoods of the rural populations. In the past, hydro-meteorological hazards have affected rice production in many regions in Myanmar, and are probably the main triggers of food insecurity. In the most food insecure zones, drought is the major agricultural challenge. Climate change adaptation and mitigation in the agriculture sector will have to be pursued in the context of food security and nutrition.Although there are practices that hold great potential to address climate challenges, there is no national policy framework within which to build on and operate. Given this situation, early action holds great potential for Myanmar to take positive action in the short run that can inform national policy. The ability to act depends on improved measurement systems, tools and techniques for adaptation and mitigation.xviii Chapter 1: Introduction Myanmar is self-sufficient in food production at the national level. However, food and nutrition insecurity exists at the household level in some areas due to low income, constraints in food production, transportation, poor knowledge in feeding practices and poor caregiving. Myanmar's food and agriculture systems-including livestock and fisheries-determine the quantity, quality and diversity of food available for consumption. Therefore, food and nutrition security should focus on availability, accessibility, utility and stability.In addition to agriculture and food policies, the efficiency of agricultural production, markets and trade in Myanmar shape the relative prices of different food commodities. At the same time, nutrition education influences knowledge and food preferences. Currently, the rural poor, who constitute 35% -53% of the rural population, suffer from inadequate food, nutrition and essential nonfood items. Micronutrient deficiencies account for 4-6% of all deaths under five years old. Although Myanmar is a net food exporter, about 10% of the population is estimated to be below the official food poverty line, with many pockets of high level food and nutrition insecurity across various states, regions and villages. Food insecurity is generally higher in states than regions and higher in rural than in urban areas. Among the states and regions of Myanmar where food insecurity was found prevalent among the populace were: Chin state (40%), Shan (north) (21%), Shan (east) (20%), Shan (south) (12%), Kachin (14%), Magwe (13%), Rakhine (12%), Mandalay (11%) , Tanintharyi (11%), Ayeyarwady (10%), Sagaing (8%), Bago (west) (7%), Bago (east) (6%), Mon(4%), Yangon (5%) and Kayin (2%).In Myanmar agrees to apply the CSA approach, which would contribute to regional food security and environmental protection.Towards this, the MOAI and the MLFRD have laid down polices, objectives and strategies for the development of the agriculture sector, putting priority on food security and rural poverty reduction.These policies, objectives and strategies indirectly encompass mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change as they relate to the improvement of the agriculture sector in Myanmar.Aside from the foregoing, the government of Myanmar has taken several policy initiatives towards sustainable development, conservation of natural resources and disaster risk reduction. In July 2013, the Disaster Management Law which provides for the formation of disaster management bodies and their duties and responsibilities for all phases of disaster and the establishment of disaster management fund at the national and region/state level was enacted. The law also provides guidance to carry out measures of disaster risk reduction along with country's development plans. For the agricultural sector, MA21 has identified two priority areas namely, 1) to promote sustainable agriculture, livestock and fisheries development; and (2) to enhance food security. To carry out the sustainable agriculture and food security measures, some of the agricultural policies were laid down by MA21. These policies require to: 1) follow the code of good agricultural practice (CGAP); 2) ensure increased food production in a climate-friendly and resilient manner; and 3) improve livestock management and livestock feed. To formulate the first two agriculture policies identified in MA21, three key strategies were formulated in 1997, namely:1) improve paddy rice planting patterns and water management 2) promote organic farming 3) conduct research and development on crop varieties adaptable to climate changeAs climate change impacts could severely undermine economic growth in Myanmar, the formulation and implementation of policies that directly relate to climate change adaptation are vital for sustainable development.To identify and implement priority projects that would address urgent and immediate adaptation needs, Myanmar prepared the National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPA) in 2009. The NAPA Report was submitted in 2012 by the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).The NAPA prioritizes projects to address the urgent and immediate needs for adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change. Eight main socio-economic sectors were considered under the NAPA project: a) Agriculture; b) Early Warning Systems; c) Forest; d) Public Health; e) Water Resources; f ) Coastal Zone; g) Energy and Industry; and h) Biodiversity. Of the 32 top priority adaptation projects identified, four each are in the agriculture, early warning systems and forestry sectors.In the agriculture sector, the NAPA-proposed priority projects include the use of climate-resilient rice varieties, crop diversification, and CSA approaches to reduce climate change vulnerability of subsistence farmers. Being a non-Annex 1 country, Myanmar has no obligation of reducing GHG emissions. However, it needs to implement some obligations to participate in the global Climate Change Campaign.Along with food security policies, MOAI is implementing climate change adaptation measures for better soil and water conservation practices, more tolerant crop varieties, improved pest and weed control and appropriate use of irrigation to adapt to climate change. The MOAI currently carries out some climate change related measures such as cropping systems adjustment, use of stressresistant plant varieties and maximizing water use and efficiency. Due to MOAI's efforts and also the farmers' response to climate change, crop diversification practices and use of stress-resistant varieties are very common. The most extensively driven strategies that are related to climate change adaptation and mitigation are hybrid rice production technology, use of GAP for rice production including a modified system of rice intensification (SRI) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation technique. Moreover, drought resistant varieties in the dry zone and organic farming in vegetables and orchards are also practiced. Farmers are currently practicing some adaptation and mitigation measures based on their indigenous knowledge (IK).More specifically, the following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to improve agricultural productivity and ensure food security:• The Government implemented 129 irrigation projects between 1988 and 2002. These include the Thaphanseik Dam which is one of the largest dams in Southeast Asia.• In the Central Dry Zone, varieties of crops are cultivated using crop intensification farming systems: i) mixed/multiple cropping systems i.e. two or more crops in the same field to improve soil fertility, increase crop yield and act as insurance against crop failure; and ii) sequential cropping systems i.e. two or more crops in a time sequence in a year to reduce intercrop competition.• In the Ayeyarwady Delta, a range of rice varieties have been introduced for cultivation including traditional quality, salttolerant, deep-water, waterlogged and submerged rice varieties. The delta is renowned for its highly valued traditional quality rice namely, 'Pawsan Hmway' , 'Pawsan Baygyar' and 'Pharpon Pawsan' rice varieties that comprise about 20% of the delta region.The National Environmental Conservation Committee The sub-committees of NECC are: The Ayeyarwady Delta comprises the main arms of Pathein, Pyapon, Bogale, and Toe Rivers. It is the rice bowl of the region but challenged with intensification, flooding and high population density. Its famed fertility derives from the silt deposited by the Ayeyarwady River as it reaches the end of its 1,200 km (750-mile) journey from Upper Myanmar to the Andaman Sea, fraying like the end of an old rope into hundreds of narrow, sinuous channels. The coastal regions cover around 10-15% of the land area of Myanmar. The coastal regions have varied production systems, with high dependence on marine resources and a significant proportion of agro-industrial and tree crops (i.e. oil palm, eucalyptus and pulpwood). They are characterized by narrow coastal plains (<25 km wide) rising rapidly to coastal ranges at 500-2,000 m. Rivers tend to be short and steep, with small watersheds (<50 km 2 ). There are significant coastal floodplains on the Salween (Moulamein) and Rakhine Rivers, where the average annual rainfall is highest in Myanmar at 3,300 mm. 2) Flooding by the the Sittoung River in the Taungoo District, Bago Region for 6 days and 10 hours in 28 October to 4 November 2013, exceeding 113 cm above its dangerous level. This flood peak was the second highest water level since 1966.  According to a report of FAO ( 2008), rural households are supported by small-scale backyard gardens with fruit trees such as banana, mango, jackfruit, guava, cashew nut; vegetables and small-scale livestock such as pigs, ducks and chickens. Nearly one third of the communities surveyed, at least one household had a small home garden before Cyclone Nargis (Figure 2.2).   On the other hand, as the Dry Zone is located between two elevated regions-the Shan Highlands to the east, and the Rakhine Yoma and Chin Hills to the west-it is a lowland, plain area and favors agricultural activity. The longest river, Ayeyarwady, passes through the central dry land region; hence, irrigated cultivation is also possible alongside the river. Due to the advance and retreat of tropical storms, the precipitation pattern in the dry zone area can be characterized as double maximum (bi-modal), with an early wet season (pre-monsoon) and a late wet season (postmonsoon) occurring. The pre-monsoon starts from April to June and post monsoon extends from September to October. The bimodal rainfall pattern favors a double cropping system for dry land farming, meaning that farmers can grow crops twice on the same plot each year, and in which a second crop is planted after the first crop is harvested. In one cropping season, farmers may grow one or more crops by intercropping or mixed cropping in order to ensure production from at least one crop as insurance against unreliable rainfall. Varieties of crops are cultivated using crop intensification systems in the Dry zone to avoid the risk of erratic or scarce rainfall. These include: 1) mixed/multiple cropping systems, i.e., two or more crops in the same field to improve soil fertility, increase crop yield and act as insurance against crop failure; and 2) sequence cropping systems, i.e., two or more crops in a time sequence in a year to reduce intercrop competition.Normally, annual rainfall is 29.5 inches (40 inches-19 inches) and rainy days range from 62-41 days per year (1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978) and 21% of the Dry Zone townships (54 townships) were affected by drought every year (Saw Myint Tin 1990). Likewise, the probability of drought occurring in any given township is once every five years (Khin Moe Kyi 2012).According to the characteristics of identified droughts using rainfall series, the worse drought that hit the area was during 1979 and 1980.The second worse drought that hit lower Sagaing and Mandalay took place during 1982 and 1983. The third worse drought that hit the whole area of Dry Zone was during 1993 and 1994 (UNCCD 2000). Except for the interval between the second and third worst droughts of some 10 years, recurrence of droughts in the Dry Zone region seems to be showing up at shorter intervals of approximately three years (Yarzar 2012).The most significant drought occurred in 2010, the most severe in several decades. Extreme temperature also rose to 47.2 °C at the Myinmu station in the Dry Zone area on 14 May 2010. The temperature was higher during that year than in previous years and rainfall came in late, causing severe shortage of water in many parts of the region. Most of the wells dried up due to the depletion of underground water supply due to the late onset of the monsoon, and causing the scarcity of drinking water. A lot of crop failures also occurred due to this drought that year (Tin Yi 2011).Droughts mostly occur in the early monsoon period causing a shortage of soil moisture adversely affecting crop productivity. In the Central Dry Zone area, drought years have significantly affected the production of crops, leading to food shortages for both people and livestock.Drought years with moderate intensity were frequent in the 1980s and the 1990s   Although the region has long experienced drought, unusual changes have been occurring of late. On 22 October 2010, Cyclone Giri damaged the eastern Rakhine coast, which also affected and hit to some extent the Dry zone. Moreover, on 20 October 2011, Tropical Storm Two, which caused landslides near the Myanmar-Bangladesh border on 19 October, resulted in heavy rains (up to 100-150 mm per day) and subsequently triggered flash floods in Magway, Mandalay and Sagaing Regions of Myanmar. The Magway Region was the worst affected by the floods.Frequent cyclones result in heavy rains which, sometimes, trigger subsequent flash floods. The torrential rain of a tropical storm on 20 October 2011 triggered heavy flooding in Dry Zone that caused massive losses in the agriculture sector and other sectors, and killed many people. Eleven days after the storm, 161 were reported dead or missing and 2,657 households were left homeless. Among the seven townships, including Pakokku, four were worst-affected by the disaster with more than 26,000 people homeless and total damages amounting to approximately USD 271,000. In terms of rice production losses from July to October in 2011, heavy rains and flooding in Bago, which is part of Central Myanmar and Mon, Ayeyarwady, Rakhine Regions/States resulted in losses of about 1.7 million tons of rice (Yarzar 2012).   By 2030, there will be a high degree of regional cooperation among ASEAN countries, resulting in high foreign direct investment (FDI) in all sectors in Myanmar, especially in agriculture. There will be a large global market share of good quality agricultural products; hence, the country will become a regional green basket. Political stability with good governance will prevail, with the country benefiting national and regional harmony. There will be stable, inclusive and equitable economic growth, better quality education due to higher investments and good quality health care services with secure social safety nets. Overall, Myanmar will be transformed into an agroindustrialized country exporting high quality products, with a welldeveloped recreation services and eco-tourism industry and a safe and happy country in the region.By 2030, Myanmar will be a climate-resilient, food, and nutrition, secure country, with a globally competitive agriculture sector attaining high productivity through climate-smart good agricultural practices resulting in a higher standard of living especially in the rural areas.Chapter 4: Strategic thrusts and priority programs 4.1 Regional Thrusts (Ayeyarwady Delta, Coastal Regions and Central Dry Zone)In Myanmar, climate change has recently been a priority agenda of the government. The country's vulnerability to climate change became widely recognized after the catastrophic destruction and loss of lives and livelihoods brought about by tropical Cyclone Nargis in 2008. The adverse impacts of climate change in Myanmar are caused by incremental sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, loss of mangroves, higher incidence of drought, loss of biodiversity and ecosystems such as wetlands, and loss of land resources. Myanmar is already experiencing the adverse effects of climate change: a clear trend in rising temperatures, shorter monsoon duration, and greater frequency of intense rainfall and severe cyclones along Myanmar's coastlines (Drakenberg & Wolf 2013).In recognition of these variabilities and risks, Myanmar aims to develop the resilience of its agriculture sector against climate variability and extreme weather events.The most significant vulnerability of agriculture in the Ayeyarwady Delta and Coastal Regions are: (1) crop loss due to floods and cyclones and (2) intrusion of saline water due to sea-level rise.Hence, action programs for biotic and abiotic tolerance of crop varieties and their introduction are urgently needed. The introduction of improved climate-ready rice germplasm from other countries or agencies and hybridization and selection of early maturing, salt-and submergence-tolerant rice varieties with high yield and quality need to be produced and distributed to farmers.In situ and ex situ rice germplasm conservation from the three ecological zones of Myanmar will be done to get germplasm resources for crop improvement.Moreover, indigenous knowledge and practices should be recorded and integrated with climate-resilient technologies.In the Central Dry Zone, the most significant vulnerabilities of agriculture are: (1) severe crop failures due to scarce rainfall and drought;(2) soil erosion due to intense rains and storms; and (3) land degradation due to high temperature and erratic rainfall.As a remedial action, programs on crop improvement and development of resilient farming practices (e.g., use of droughtresistant varieties, diversified and intensified cropping system, intercropping with climate-ready crops, crops-tree system, croplivestock system, etc.) will be implemented intensively.Along with the foregoing, Myanmar will promptly promote the use of indigenous and locally-adapted plants and animals as well as the selection and multiplication of crop varieties adapted to adverse climatic conditions. The selection of crops and cultivars tolerant to abiotic and biotic stresses (e.g., high temperature, drought, flood, high salinity content in soil and water, pest and disease resistance), allows the harnessing of genetic variability in new crop varieties. Therefore, varietal improvement and seed systems are very important CSA strategies for Myanmar.Overall, the CSA strategy in the Central Dry Zone will be pursued through adaptation and mitigation programs.(For adaptation, three important initiatives will be prioritized and carried out immediately in the region.To increase tolerance and resilience to climate change, a diversity of climate-smart crop varieties will be developed in vulnerable areas like those that are flood or drought prone. For instance, developing new crop varieties including hybrids for commercial production area and open-pollinated varieties for remote areas is required through a climate-adapted crop development program.In this case, the DOA has a significant role in sharing knowledge and practices that promote crop improvement and climate-smart farming practices. Along with this, the DAR will release stressresistant varieties and distribute them to farmers through relevant local institutions.Likewise, by the coordinated efforts of DOA, DAR and the community, building village seed banks and promoting them locally will enhance and help farmers diversify crops.In agriculture, the adverse impacts of climate-induced disasters are crop failure and income loss. In reducing the vulnerability to droughts and floods, the use of more water-efficient and/or drought-tolerant crop varieties have a significant role in disaster risk management.In this context, DOA, Irrigation Department, WRUD and the DMH will undertake disaster risk management relevant programs and will train farmers in coordination with other line ministries such as the MOI and the Ministry of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement (MSWRR).Currently, there is no insurance program and policy for agriculture in Myanmar. Therefore, risk financing instruments and insurance schemes such as Remote Sensing Index based, Weather-based Insurance System and Crop Insurance System will be formulated in Myanmar to reduce climate-related risks in agriculture. In this regard, the Myanmar Agricultural Development Bank (MADB) will work with the DMH and DOA to establish a steering committee, including other appropriate institutions.(As a mitigation measure, reducing methane from rice fields is an essential program for irrigated rice growing countries like Myanmar.To reduce methane from rice fields, the following initiatives will be pursued:• Periodic draining of fields 2) Develop new high-yielding varieties and climate-smart management options for stress-prone environments.3) Evaluate and promote cultivation of special traditional rice varieties with natural tolerance for deep-water, prolonged flooding, or drought.4) Evaluate and promote integrated farming systems.5) Develop alternative seed flow systems for accessing quality seed to enhance efficiency, conservation and multiplication, and promote sharing and exchange of traditional, if applicable, adaptable and suitable varieties in remote areas.6) Conduct awareness campaigns and education programs and strengthen the weather information delivery and early warning systems. (MOAI 2015) In vulnerable areas of Myanmar, additionally, a community-based approach to climate-resilient sustainable agricultural development is critically required. Therefore, for Myanmar's CSA, the Climate-Smart Village (CSV) approach will be pursued. A CSV has the following key features:Weather Smart: For farmers, information of near-term weather events go a long way in planning for climate-resilient agricultural production. Farmers are linked to weather information and valueadded agro-advisories through radio broadcasts, televisions, newspapers and mobile phone voice messages. Farmers can use index-based insurance schemes to cover risks associated with changes in rainfall and temperature at different stages of crop growth.Water Smart: Resilient water management practices which enhance the efficiency and productivity of water are critical climatesmart interventions. These could include aquifer recharge, rainwater harvesting community management of water, mechanized land levelling, water conservation, drip irrigation and on-farm water management practices. For instance, drainage is important in places that are prone to waterlogging.Carbon Smart: Soil organic carbon helps mitigate climate change and improve soil fertility. Carbon content in the soil can be increased through agricultural practices such as agroforestry, crop-livestock system, crop-tree system, conservation tillage, diversified land-use systems and residue management.Nitrogen Smart: In the CSVs, farmers use leaf-color charts and site-specific nutrient management to decide on the most appropriate dosage of nitrogen fertilizers for their crops and livestock management. This saves on costs and also cuts down GHG emissions.Energy Smart: This involves the use of fuel-efficient agromachineries, residue management and reduced tillage as interventions to conserve energy and reduce GHG emissions. In some cases, biogas systems are promoted using manure slurry from intensive dairy enterprises as part of the portfolio of innovations.Knowledge Smart: Partner organizations arrange cross-site visits of farmers to analogue sites and to other areas practicing CSA in-country and the ASEAN region. An innovative approach of crowdsourcing seeds is used in CSVs. A large number of farmers are provided with seed packets of adapted varieties to evaluate those best suited to their local conditions. They provide feedback to researchers to help them develop better varieties (Aggarwal et al. 2013).For implementing such kind of CSA approach in Myanmar, the MOAI will collaborate with CGIAR-CCAFS and other development partners to formulate and evaluate efficient and effective CSA measures.Adaptation targets: (1) New varieties and improved farming systems resilient to drought and water stress Ecosystems play a key role in the global carbon cycle and in adapting to climate change, while also providing a wide range of ecosystem services that are essential for human's well-being. Hence, the management and conservation of natural resources in the ecosystem and biological diversity will support efforts to reduce the negative effects of climate change.As part of the CSA strategy, conservation agriculture, conservation of crop/ species diversity, integrated soil management, pest and disease management, agro-forestry, intercropping practices, improved water management and integrated crop-livestock management will be pursued in Myanmar.Conservation agriculture that combines minimum tillage and permanent soil cover and organic farming are promising adaptation options to be promoted in the Dry Zone. Aside from the three fundamental components of conservation agriculture (e.g., minimum tillage, crop rotation and the use of soil cover), other techniques that make use of labor saving tools, draught animal power or mechanical equipment will be utilized. Application of leguminous-based cropping system, crop rotation and intercropping practices are practiced in Myanmar. Application of cover crops and zero tillage or minimum tillage practices are common in certain areas of Myanmar. As growing cover crops and minimum tillage practices are effective measures in reducing soil degradation and soil erosion, these should be applied as CSA strategies in the Dry Zone. Therefore, these should be encouraged extensively for sustainable productivity and to reduce the negative impact of climate change.Moreover, improved water management including rainwater harvesting and AWD system is very important for the irrigated rice and is a practical way of reducing methane gas emissions from irrigated rice fields. The AWD method, however, is limited in the area where irrigation and drainage system is available.Conserved habitats can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, thus, helping address climate change by storing carbon. Moreover, conserving ecosystems such as mangroves can help reduce the disastrous impacts of climate change like flooding and storm surges. Coastal defense through the maintenance and/or restoration of mangroves and other coastal wetlands could reduce coastal flooding and erosion. Conservation of agro-biodiversity is needed to provide specific gene pools for crop and livestock adaptation to climate change.Although there are no particular agricultural policies for climate change in Myanmar, the policies and objectives laid down by MOAI, which are indirectly encouraging the mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change, are being implemented for national food security with strong political interest. More than this, CSA policies should be formulated and integrated with current agricultural policies and development plans in Myanmar. The main goal under this thrust is to mainstream CSA policies and fully integrate these in current agricultural development programs.Building coherent policies can be divided into two categories: climate change adaptation policy and mitigation policy. There are four key adaptation policy areas on CSA which can be integrated with current agricultural policies: 1) encouraging adaptive crop development and farming practices; 2) irrigation and water resource management; 3) disaster risk management and 4) crop and income loss risk management. Likewise, there are also four mitigation policy pillars for CSA: 1) conservation agriculture; 2) methane reduction in rice fields; 3) watershed and land management and 4) livestock management.Considering that adaptation and mitigation measures to climate change will be effective only if adopted widely by the agriculture sector, the MOAI shall promulgate and implement these policy instruments to ensure protection of farmers' rights and enhancement of their benefits by accomplishing rapid and wide adaptation.In implementing these policies, active collaboration among the DOA, DARID, WRUD, YAU, MADB under the MOAI and other relevant institutions such as the DMH, and international development partners like the CGIAR, CCAFS, IRRI, International Water Management Institure (IWMI), Worldfish, International Livestock Research Intitute (ILRI), Biodiversity, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), FAO, among many others, will be needed.The Government of Myanmar will be primarily responsible in leading the development and implementation of the country's CSA strategy and programs. Along with this, Myanmar's National Agricultural Research and Extension System (NARES) will be strengthened. At present, there are 11 departments under MOAI with specific programs supporting the mandate of the Ministry. Even with specific mandates, the functions and operations of these departments often overlap. Therefore, before implementing CSA strategies, there is a need to carry out institutional analysis to synchronize the functions, programs and activities of each department under MOAI, together with other institutional components of the NARES. This way, the human, financial and physical resources are optimized to attain the desired outcomes and impact of CSA initiatives in the country.Towards this, a NARES-CSA Coordinating Team will be established composed of stakeholders in the agriculture sector including concerned departments and representatives from state and regional governments. This body will guide the formulation of regional and local programs, activities and targets. An advisory body composed of senior experts drawn from the MOECAF, MOAI, MLFRD and DMH will be formed to advise the NARES-CSA Coordinating Team. A comprehensive NARES-CSA monitoring and evaluation system will be developed, which will include YAU, DAR, DOA and DAP and other relevant institutions.In formulating location-specific CSA strategies in Myanmar's ecological regions, there is a need to know the individual and farm level needs to determine climate change responses. Therefore, the assessment of the degree of climate change risk in the target areas will be conducted through Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) or Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). A multi-disciplinary team will carry out these exercises to identify challenges and constraints as benchmarks in mapping out location-specific CSA interventions.(d) Gender perspective on CSA Myanmar's climate information system will be established through the expertise and facilities of existing DOA weather stations located throughout the country. These facilities will be strengthened into local agro-meteorology stations to gather operational agricultural climate data in specific zones, which will then be shared with farmers in a timely manner.New products and services will be required in the transition to a green economy. Myanmar will need to adapt to the new market opportunities arising from efforts to mitigate climate change. These could also be opportunities to release additional resources investment to increase resilience to climate change and adaption to its impacts.While technology plays a crucial role in climate change mitigation, it is equally important to develop innovative technologies. In view of this, it is extremely relevant to focus on research and development in specified area of climate change. There is a significant role for private as well as public sectors to play in R&D efforts focusing on the development of short-term and long-term technologies.The following research areas will be undertaken along CSA in Myanmar:(i) Breeding and screening for climate-resilient rice varieties and other crops for early maturity; tolerance to drought, submergence and salt; limited as well as excessive moisture; low glyceamic index; and high carbon sequestration.(ii) Developing new livestock and fish breeds not only for climate-resilience and sustainable productivity, but also for improving farming practices that reduce GHG emission.(iii) Site-specific nutrient management and balanced nutrient application: there is a need for a good understanding of site-specific performance of conservation agriculture relative to (i) application of modest amounts of mineral fertilizer according to site-specific recommendations;(ii) improvement of nutrient retention through efficient use of organic and inorganic nutrient sources; and (iii) properly timed or split application of mineral fertilizers to the community.(iv) Water harvesting and use management: technologies for efficient and cost effective rainwater harvesting and storage ought to be developed and community-based watershed management shall be pilot-tested in selected areas.(v) Soil and water conservation: implementation of highly efficient micro-irrigation systems, harnessing water conservation structures on rivers, waterways, water-efficient management practices using localized irrigation, and the adoption of irrigation technologies on smallholder farmers' fields. Soil and stone bunds are structures commonly built to control run-off and thus increase soil moisture and reduce soil erosion.(vi) Food value chain development: Climate change will influence the quality, quantity and availability of food production globally. It is therefore important to understand how climate change will impact the value chain from inputs to consumers so as to assist agricultural business to make right decisions to address these impacts.As The provision of information relevant to the adaptation and mitigation needs of farmers, and technology advisory services will be undertaken under the NARES-CSA Coordinating Body. Farmers need help, and are looking for easily accessible one-stop source of information and advice on adaptation and mitigation technologies in general and in adopting profit-enhancing farming practices in particular. Sources of climate change information and advice on adaptation and mitigation technologies among farming communities are not generally available, hence, the establishment of climate change information and advisory services will be pursued.Recently, the telecommunication system in Myanmar has been developed and three mobile operators (MPT, Telenor and Oredoo) are providing services at affordable rates. While Myanmar has adopted the farming system research and extension approach, the introduction of farmer-to-farmer extension has been proven effective among smallholder farmers. Working with mainstream extensionists, sharing of CSA technologies will be done through farmer-to-farmer extension. The advantage of this approach is that the social and economic benefits of CSA technologies are readily understood by the fellow farmers.Extension services on CSA will be undertaken in full coordination by DOA with DAR, YAU, CGIAR, CCAFS, IRRI, NGOs and the private sector.For the CSA strategies, the following technologies will be shared with the community and individual farm level: (1) climate smart agricultural practices, (2) identification of alternative agriculture systems, (3) rainwater harvesting and storage, (4) AWD (5) farm drainage, (6) SRI, (7) balance fertilization, and (8) soil and water conservation.Resource generation is a critical pillar of Myanmar's CSA strategy.In the context of Myanmar's CSA strategy, resource mobilization encompasses raising funds from domestic and external sources and gaining non-monetary support from the national, local and community front in terms of time, volunteers, expertise and donations.Social and resource mobilization will be carried out through a comprehensive participatory process involving various sectors from the national to the local level. The successful implementation of CSA strategy is ensured by defining its funding mechanism and identifying approaches of getting broad, sustained support and strong ownership from key stakeholders. The identification of funding sources from traditional (e.g., government, regional and international donors, etc.) and non-traditional sources (e.g., foundations, philanthropy, private sector, etc.) and other innovative resource mobilization approaches. A National Alliance for CSA will be implemented by the CSA Coordinating Team. It will be a voluntary, farmer-led, multistakeholder, action-oriented coalition committed to the incorporation of climate-smart approaches within food and agriculture systems. The Alliance will seek to improve climate smart agricultural system by helping governments, farmers, scientists, businesses, and civil society, as well as regional and international organizations, to adjust agricultural practices, food systems and social policies so that they take account of climate change and efficient use of natural resources.Moreover, it will identify priorities for action with the aim of maximizing impact, according to needs and concerns of members.The work of the Alliance will focus on three initial action areas: knowledge, investment and enabling environment. Activities under these action areas include:-Voluntary adoption of national strategies for the practice of CSA, within the context of national strategies for agriculture, food security and nutrition;Development of systems that encourage all people to adopt CSA through accessing (a) expertise from other countries, (b) lessons from pilot studies and (c) resources needed to establish the necessary operating principles, extension services and farmer support schemes;Engagement of businesses, foundations, development agencies and inter-governmental organizations in support of this government-led agenda in ways that bring benefits to the people whose livelihoods are most threatened by climate change.Capacity building and strengthening at all levels relating to CSA will be undertaken as follows: (i) climate change negotiation, (ii) preparation of climate change projects for bilateral and multilateral funding, (iii) assessing the impacts of technological and policy measures for mitigation and adaptation, and (v) implementation of various multilateral environmental agreements, including the UNFCCC. The climate change information network will also be strengthened nationally/regionally and internationally. Capacity development in MOAI, other in-line ministries and local communities, the university and related institutions will also be undertaken intensively.Strengthening national, regional and international linkages 4.2.To create an enabling environment for the development and mainstreaming of CSA in the overarching national plan, there must be strong linkages among regional, national and international partners. The purpose is to establish a regionally-and nationallyowned mechanism that facilitates the integration of climate change adaptation into national and regional economic and development policies, processes and plans, strengthen linkages between adaptation and the sustainable development agenda in the region, and enhance institutional and research capacity in collaboration with a wide range of national and regional partners.The overarching goal is to ensure that MOAI is strongly linked with other climate change institutions and stakeholders in government, civil society and the private sector.Being aware of the threat of climate change to food security in Southeast Asia, and acknowledging its potential to strengthen the resilience of its people and ecosystem, and mitigating climate change through a coordinated response, the ASEAN have developed the concept note on a Multi-Sectoral Framework on Climate Change and Food Security (AFCC).As Myanmar is one of the ASEAN countries, it will actively coordinate and cooperate in the following components.As the climate change-related policies and actions should not be developed and implemented in isolation, Myanmar will actively coordinate and collaborate with ASEAN countries in this issue. Since climate change impacts will affect the economic and social development of countries and regions, responding policies and actions will be linked to and become part of the National Development Plans of Myanmar.(ii) Cooperation on the implementation of adaptation and mitigation measuresIncreasing population pressure and the resulting need for food and energy, additionally climate change impacts, will lead to increased competition for land and water resources in particular among the agriculture, livestock, forestry and other sectors. Aimed at sharing, promoting and cooperating towards the implementation of integrated climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in the agriculture, fisheries, livestock, and forestry sectors, including response to climate-related disasters, Myanmar will cooperate with ASEAN, Japan, China, Korea and other countries.(iii) Strengthening of national and regional knowledge sharing, communication and networking on climate change Information sharing and networking on the impacts of climate change, disaster management and response, as well as on tested practices for adaptation and mitigation offer ASEAN countries opportunities of mutual learning, of responding jointly or in a coordinated way, where possible, and of reducing costs when planning and implementing adaptation and mitigation measures.Myanmar is a resource-rich country with a strong potential to climate resilience in agriculture. Amidst the challenges, Myanmar has enormous opportunities and potentials to be tapped, including (1) rich natural resources and biodiversity, (2) potential for increasing yield and producing quality agricultural products which are also climate-resilient, (3) an active private sector participation in agriculture, (4) strong interest and presence of development and funding institutions and (5) a supportive policy environment towards CSA.With appropriate CSA strategies, the country will ultimately become climate-resilient, food and nutrition-secure and a regional green basket. Considering current constraints and challenges, the MCSA coordinating body will monitor and guide the government in prioritizing investments in CSA.Therefore, the government needs to substantially and sustainably invest on MCSA. The MOAI will lead, coordinate and facilitate the implementation of MCSA.The implementation of CSA strategies in Myanmar has three steps as follows:5.1 Short-term Steps ","tokenCount":"7314"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6dc20f3de81e384774c5a8f9c4935aab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H043772.pdf","id":"-1625116037"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f5730b49-0fb0-4df5-aa96-6820a23b2c4e","pagecount":"13","content":"Rapidly increasing trends of poverty, particularly in South Asia, have emerged as a major threat to the economic development of this region. Currently, over 500 million South Asians live in absolute poverty, while over 300 million are chronically malnourished. In Pakistan, vulnerable population of 45 million makes 25 percent of those living in poverty due to economic downturn. Although food production in the region has gained momentum during the past decade (per capita dietary energy supply in South Asia has increased), the incidence of poverty and absolute number of undernourished people in South Asia has gone up. This means that crisis of food insecurity in the region is mostly related to low access rather than low availability. The major reasons for this low access are poor targeting policies of the government and inefficient public distribution system. Therefore, to ensure food security, the government should improve accessibility and distribution of food to poor, particularly those in far-flung areas.Three quarters of the world's total irrigated area is in developing countries where smallholder agriculture still predominates. No wonder, then, that increased agricultural production is considered a key to poverty reduction in many developing countries. Irrigated agriculture is regarded to be vehicle for the provision of basic needs and reduction in vulnerability to food insecurity. Irrigation development can bring a range of potential benefits at regional and national level. Therefore, by advances in irrigation management, better understanding of the environment in which poor people live, right choices of irrigation technologies, better defining production functions and creating profitable markets can make a significant contribution to crop production and poverty reduction. This paper discusses illusions in different poverty estimates and introduces a framework to increase regional food security. The paper is also aimed at finding the ways to reduce poverty through improving irrigated agriculture.The existence of widespread poverty in the modest of global prosperity is undeniably the most serious challenge confronting the world today. It is an inescapable fact that at the start of the 21 st century, almost one fifth of human population or 1.2 billion people subsist on less than $1 a day. Around one third of the populations in the developing countries have a life expectancy of barley 40 years. About 800 million people do not have access to enough food and basic needs, and over 2 billion people cannot enjoy balanced diet. Majority of the world's poor are in Asia and sub-Sahara Africa. Out of 49 least developed nations, 34 are in Africa and nine in Asia. South Asia is one of the worst poverty hit regions with 44 percent people living below poverty line. Highest poverty in South Asia is recorded in Bangladesh where 45 percent people are living below poverty line, and lowest in India with 26 percent poor (Figure 1) (ADB 2002). Pakistan stands somewhere in the middle with 32 percent people affected by poverty. In Afghanistan, 3-4 million people are affected by poverty and other 8-12 million are under threat of famine and starvation (Qureshi 2002). Poverty is a complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon, which goes beyond the notion of income, and encompasses social, economic and political deprivations. Lack of such opportunities limits the abilities of the poor to secure gainful employment and bring about an improvement in their lives (GoP 2002). Poverty has different meanings for different people. Traditionally, poverty has been defined in terms of income and consumptions. The worst kind of poverty is where people do not have access to food and water to fulfill their basic physical needs. Another kind of poverty is where people may have more or less enough food but do not have access to basic needs such as adequate clean water for sanitation, health services, clothes, housing and education.New approaches recognize complexity and multi-dimensional nature of poverty. Amartya Sen defined poverty as the absence of the capability to lead a full life, which include many things and not merely an adequate consumption. Mother Teresa considered a person poor if he is deprived of love from the community at large (Vaidyanathan 2002).A person regarded poor according to one measure may not be poor in terms of another. Obviously, there are different dimensions to poverty and their level of importance would vary according to one's inclinations, and also for what purpose the information is used. For the statistician, this presents a dilemma, namely, how to quantify these different dimensions into meaningful categories. The answers to these questions depend upon the concept of well being (Vaidyanathan 2002). Well being is peace of mind, good health, safety, freedom of choice and action, dependable livelihood and a steady source of income, and above all, enough food.There are essentially four main concepts of well being found in the literature on poverty: (World Bank 1993;Ravaillon 1994;World Bank 2001):1. Well being is dependent upon the individual having enough resources or capacity to meet the basic needs. 2. Well being of the individual depends on the relative situation of the individual vis-à-vis others in the community. Here, the focus is on the inequality in income, consumption, or other attributes in the population. 3. Well being of an individual is dependent upon the vulnerability of the individual to risk of not meeting his/her basic needs in the present or in future. 4. Well being is subjective, based on the individual's perception whether he is meeting his basic needs or considers himself as poor.Vaidyanathan (2002) indicated that the underlying notion is that a person is poor when he/she does not attain the minimum level of well being set by the society. The minimum level is the poverty line. These concepts of well being can be applied to different dimensions of well being -consumption, income, education, other basic needs, and end up having numerous thresholds of poverty and numerous poverty measures. By determining individual's consumption, income, education, etc., and comparing them with defined threshold values, a person is regarded to be poor if he falls short in these parameters. Depending upon the parameter used and the threshold value adopted, the number of poor will differ. Depending upon the notion of well being adopted we get different poverty lines, for example the following:Absolute Poverty Line is based on a normative value such as one dollar a day or the cost of the minimum requirements of food items (food poverty line) or the minimum requirements of food and non-food items (general poverty line) (Ravallion 1994; Foster  et al. 1984; Moser 1996; Streeten 1994; Grootaert 1983; Grootaert 1988).Relative Poverty Line is based on the distribution of income or consumption fixing the poverty line as a proportion (usually 40 or 50 percent) of the mean or median income or consumption (Bilsborrow 1994).Subjective Poverty Line is based on the respondents' perception of their living standards and what they think as the absolute minimum standard of living, below which they regard themselves poor. This can be done by the construction of a poverty index using a range of qualitative and quantitative indicators (Hatch and Frederick 1998;Chung et al. 1997;Filmer and Pritchett 1998;Filmer and Pritchett 1999). The indicators can easily be adjusted to local conditions. The housing index focuses on a single dimension of poverty. To provide a complete picture, indicators should be drawn from at least four areas: human resource, housing, food security and household assets (UNDP 2000).These three approaches for defining poverty are being applied in different countries depending upon their preferences, purpose for which the analysis is made, availability of data, etc. (Vaidyanathan 2002). Poverty lines are generally drawn in absolute and/or in relative terms in Pakistan. Both of these measures are useful in their own right, but for comparison over the time, the absolute measure is more appropriate for the developing countries like Pakistan since it shows the extent to which deprivation of the poor is alleviated. The relative measures, on the other hand, shows position of an individual relative to the other and it is not possible to compare poverty level over time or across regions or counties (Arif 2002).Poverty in Pakistan, as is the case with most countries, is linked to overall growth performance of the economy. Periods of substantial and sustained poverty reduction -in Pakistan's case, notably, the late 1980s -also happen to be periods of sustained growth. Figure 2 clearly shows the historical trend of increasing in poverty in Pakistan (GoP 2002). On the other hand, uneven growth in the last decade has led to volatility, and on balance, stagnation of poverty measured in consumption terms. Most importantly, even when growth has occurred, resulting in reductions of income or consumption poverty, the gains have not translated into commensurate increases in capability, as measured by indicators of human development. Pakistan has poor health, education and fertility indicators for its level of per capita income. Moreover, comparing Pakistan with countries that grew at about the same rate (regardless of initial income level), it is evident that other moderate growers achieved more social progress than Pakistan for a given amount of growth. The failure to develop human capital, which can be described as a social gap as far as Pakistan is concerned, is one of the likely reasons for the slowdown in growth and poverty reduction in the 1990s. The ability to achieve sustainable growth and poverty reduction in future will, thus, require the addressing of shortcomings in human development, including the institutional factors that contribute to these failings (World Bank 2002). The most commonly used measure, the consumption aggregate, is defined as the monetary value of all food and non-food goods and services consumed by the households (Deaton and Zaidi 1998). It includes the value of goods and services received in kind. Non-food goods include clothing, footwear, housing and utilities, education, and imputed use-value of durable goods. The Planning Commission of Pakistan has decided that the official poverty line (National Poverty Line) for Pakistan will be estimated on 2350 calories per adult equivalent per day. This is based on an adult equivalent intake of 2150 calories in the urban areas and 2450 calories in the rural areas. Based on this, the poverty line for Pakistan for 1999 has been defined at Rs. 670 per capita per month (ADB 2002). This specification appears to be on the low side when compared with the assumptions used in all the earlier poverty measurement studies in Pakistan; or the physical energy requirements of a Pakistani male, particularly of a rural resident; or the assumptions used in the food-based poverty lines of other South Asian or East Asian countries (Nadeem 2002).No doubt, consistent use of the official poverty line will be an effective tool for monitoring poverty trends in future, and as such, there is an urgent need to examine the methodology and the caloric requirement before making it a benchmark for subsequent surveys. We may note that several recent studies on poverty levels for the 1990s (e.g., Amjad and Kemal 1997;Jafri 1999;Qureshi and Arif 2001;Jamal and Ghaus-Pasha 2000) have used poverty lines based on caloric norms different from the norms adopted in the official poverty line. Differences in results and some controversial remakes in constructing poverty line are given below:The basic question is how does the caloric norms affect the poverty estimates? The Federal Bureau of Statistics estimated poverty for the year 1998-99 using 2550, 2350 and 2150 caloric intakes criteria. The incidence of poverty based on 2550 caloric intake was 32.2 percent; it declined to 30.6 percent for lower caloric norms of 2350. It declined further to 28.2 percent for 2150 calories. This shows that change in average intake by 100 calories affect the poverty estimates by roughly 1.0 percent (Arif 2002). Table 1 summarizes the criterion used in different studies to estimate poverty in Pakistan based on the various calorie norms used (Arif 2002). Figure 3 shows a typical example of how poverty estimates for different studies using different criteria could vary for the same year (Amjad and Kemal 1997;Ali and Tahir 1999;Jafri 1999; World Bank 2000 as quote by Arif and Munir (2001); Arif 2002). All these studies used basic needs approach to determine the trends in poverty. The caloric intake level used by these studies is given in Table 2.The illusions about poverty estimates continue to persist in other studies. Arif (2002) reported that there was two percent increase in poverty (from 27.4 % to 29.6%) during 1993-94 to 1996-97, whereas Federal Bureau Statistics (2001) noted a three percent decrease in poverty (from 25.0% to 21.8%) for the same period (Figure 4). Interestingly, both studies have used the same criteria of 2550 calories.   Non-food based poverty was first developed by Orshansky (1965) and was discussed by Watts (1968), and Huppi and Ravallion (1991). Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) conducted non-food based poverty survey, based on Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES), to examine the structure of poverty by principal sector of employment and how the profiles changed during 1987-88 to 1993-94 (Haq and Bhatti 2002). A non-food share in total consumption expenditure was taken as a cutoff point. A significant variation was found between the foods and non-food poverty lines. Figure 5 compares the results of food and non-food based poverty estimates in urban area of Pakistan for the year 19987-88 and 1993-94. The results indicate that nonfood based poverty estimates are substantially lower than food based poverty estimates. This difference was about seven percent for 19987-88 and three percent for 1993-94. These differences clearly indicate the need to revisit poverty estimation criterion and methodologies in order to get true picture of poverty in Pakistan. This data is absolutely essential to do long term planning and formulation of effective policies for the reduction of poverty in Pakistan. Calories /per capita per month Based PovertyIrrigated agriculture is a vehicle for the provision of basic needs and the reduction of vulnerability to food security. Analysis of information in Asia shows that irrigation has helped in increasing the most crop yields by 100-400 percent (FAO 1996). This has continued to decrease food prices. These reductions have had a positive impact on the real increases of the urban and rural poor, who spend a large proportion of their income on basic food stuff.For sustainable rural development and to enhance food security, food production should be increased in a sustainable way. This will involve education initiatives, utilization of economic incentives and the development of appropriate and new technologies, thus ensuring stable supplies of nutritionally adequate food, employment and income generation and natural resources management and environmental protection (UNCED 1992).The development of irrigated agriculture brings a range of potential benefits at regional and national level. It contributes to economic growth by generating export crops, reducing imports and thus saving foreign exchange and increasing home food supplies, which may lead to lower prices. Irrigated agriculture contributes in income increase from production and employment, so that families can have access to schooling, health and welfare services.Figure 6 describes the key elements for assessing food security. Food security is basically governed by the balance between food demand and supply, both of which are primarily governed by the biophysical and socio-economic resources and constraints of the region. Food demand is a function of population size, its income and the diet used by the average person. On the other hand, regional food production depends on the agrotechnical feasibility of various land use types considering the regional resources and constraints. In combination with environmental impact assessment and socio-economic possibilities, gross food production is assessed. Together with food stock and possible food aid, net food supply can be determined (Aggarwal et al. 2001). An abundance of food at low prices in the world markets does not ensure food security at the country or household level, nor does it help countries to purchase imports to supplement national food supplies (World Bank 1996). The poor tend to spend a high proportion of their income, perhaps 50-80 percent, on food consumption and water (Lipton 1983;World Food Program 1995). Hunger and poverty are, therefore, closely linked. In order to alleviate poverty, poor people need adequate means to obtain food in the quantities and qualities needed for healthy life and generate access to skills, technology, markets and productive resources such as land and capital.Over the past 25 years, there has been progress in improving the living standards of the people in developing countries. However, even today when the world is producing enough food to provide every person with more than 2700 calories per day, there are still over 800 million people in the developing world who suffer from malnutrition.Severe inequality in land and income distribution prevents the poor from reaping the full benefits of food availability (IPTRID 1999).Although the overall per capita dietary energy supply in South Asia has increased from 2330 calories to 2400 calories per day, the absolute number of malnourished people has gone up. Currently, over 300 million people are chronically malnourished. The crises of food insecurity in this region are related to low access rather than low availability (HDC 2002).Availability of food for domestic consumption is also affected by food losses that occur during handling and storage processes. For instance, in Nepal, around 10-30 percent cereals, fruits and vegetables are lost during the handling and storage process (HDC 2002). In Pakistan, this percentage falls between 10-20 percent. Controlling these field losses can significantly contribute to the food availability to the rural households.Abundant food does not automatically mean people have access to it as well. Access to adequate food depends upon household income and food prices. For instance, in India and Pakistan, despite an increase in the total food availability from 1980 to 1999, the incidence of poverty has gone up, and in recent years, it has reached the alarming level.At present, about one third of the households in Pakistan are living below the income poverty line and are thus unable to meet their minimal nutritional requirements (HDC 2002). The access to adequate food for all segments of the population also depends upon the pattern of landholdings, income distribution and employment opportunities (Figure 7).An efficient distribution of food is as important as its production. At the national level, distribution system must be efficient in delivering food items to poor in far-flung areas.Even in the presence of excess supply, inefficient distribution among different segments of the society may lead to inadequate consumption and undernourishment. The basic food distribution system in South Asia is considered highly inefficient (HDC 2002).In order to secure adequate food for the low-income groups, the governments in South Asia should encourage food aid, food subsidies and low cost ration programs. These programs have not been very successful in the past due to their cost and wrong targeting. The price supports and regulations mostly favored consumers and harmed producers, which depressed the production of domestic food. The intra-household food security in South Asia is usually dictated by traditions, with women eating last and the least amount of food that is available to a household. The gender disparity in access to good food is evident from the fact that about 550 million women live below the poverty line (60 % of the world's rural population). This represents a 50 percent increase for women over the past 20 years, as compared with a 30 percent increase for men (IFPRI 1995). The gender bias in access to food is mostly due to perceived differences in social and economic benefits that families desired from boys and girls.In the end, some interventions are reminded here, which can help the smallest producers to improve their livelihoods and contribute towards future food production. Continued investments and extending participatory approach in irrigation will be central to future food production. India, for example, has not faced a serious famine since the early 1960s (IPTRID 1999). Strategy to investment in irrigation was key element to increase food production and maintain stable food prices. Furthermore, the involvement of smallscale farmer's support is needed to improve management and institutional structures so that poor smallholders benefit from reliable water supplies. Moreover, the initiatives that involve the landless gaining access to the benefits of irrigation require greater exposure. New concentrations of the poor in peri-urban areas and regions where water resources are scarce and risk-prone need to be targeted. The challenge will be to make the technology affordable and easy to maintain and operate through which equitable water distribution system especially in difficult and marginal areas, where the poorest live need much more attention in order to alleviate poverty.Consistent use of the official poverty line (National Poverty Line in terms of food i.e. 2350 calorie intake) will be an effective tool for monitoring poverty trends in future, and thus, there is an urgent need to examine the methodology (agreed criterion) and the caloric requirement before making it a benchmark for subsequent surveys in order to avoid further illusions. Irrigated agriculture is a vehicle for the reduction of vulnerability to food security. For sustainable food security, food production should be increased in a sustainable way. This can be achieved through the involvement of small-scale farmers and by the promotion and adoption of affordable agricultural technologies in the crop production function and also by creating profitable agricultural markets.In order to alleviate poverty, we have to gain self-sufficiency in food. Abundant food does not automatically mean people have access as well. Access to adequate food depends upon household income and food prices (assured price stability), and equity in food distribution could be achieved through food supplies in far-flung areas, food deficit districts, and through food distribution schemes.","tokenCount":"3562"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8eb78513aae1224717049c9b8cde2ffa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3d91253d-5623-4716-897b-8c418d773a95/retrieve","id":"-768402070"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"76df1682-2ad7-4ff1-9507-bafbee6a486a","pagecount":"36","content":"a mayor duración, más acumulación de diversidad genética duración de la domesticación divergencia de los acervos MI y MII divergencia de los acervos Andino y 'Mesoamericanos' divergencia de P. lunatus y otras especies Andinas adaptado de Serrano-Serrano et al. 2010 mi añosPor qué preocuparse de los silvestres y especies afines? (1) ?Qué debe conservar un banco de germoplasma? ? la diversidad morfológica es en gran parte ilusión! la domesticación sólo afectó una fracción de la diversidad genética 7/36Por qué preocuparse de los silvestres y especies afines? (2) ?cambio de paradigmas: avances en genómica anticipan el uso del genoma completo 2. Sectores enteros del genoma conservados de una especie a la otra 1. Genes de interés pueden ser marcados permitiendo la 'SAM' 3. Genes de interés pueden ser editados (e.g. CRISPR/Cas9) 8/36Por qué preocuparse de los silvestres y especies afines? (3) ? usar otras especies no como fuentes de genes a transferir, si no como modelos a copiar selección muy precoz de individuos portadores, selección fenotípica viene luego 'screening' de genotecas  bancos de germoplasma, antes de mejoramiento buscar homólogos de Arabidopsis en cultivos de interés (y todos los mutantes) según el caso, activar o silenciar un gen, mediante acción sobre los RNAs según el caso, insertar un fragmento de DNA foráneo en un gen alterando su expresión fuentes:  albinervus, augusti, jaliscanus, juquilensis, lignosus, lunatus, maculatifolius, marechalii, mollis, nodosus, pachyrrhizoides, polystachyus, rotundatus, salicifolius, scrobiculatifolius, sinuatus, smilacifolius, sonorensis, viridis Organización actual del género Phaseolus  • no hubo resultados en mejoramiento, pero sobre distancias entre especies Estudios de la exina de los granos de polen  Hipótesis explicativa hace 3 mi años un miembro de los Paniculati migra a los Andes hace 2.2 mi años arranca la especiación: P. lunatus andino, P. augusti, P. pachyrrhizoides hace 1.1 mi años P. lunatus se diferencia en los acervos A1, MI y MII 5 desde 1 mi años MI y MII recolonizan el trópico americano; se queda A1 ","tokenCount":"321"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"37d197791d73535a9e6e4bc463141ffd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/331c6dec-0348-4f21-b9c8-bd3e5dd89a6a/retrieve","id":"35102777"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1e73f61e-0d83-46ac-b76b-c682c9b31183","pagecount":"13","content":"Smallholder farmers in the Guinea savanna practise cereal-legume intercropping to mitigate risks of crop failure in mono-cropping. The productivity of cereal-legume intercrops could be influenced by the spatial arrangement of the intercrops and the soil fertility status. Knowledge on the effect of soil fertility status on intercrop productivity is generally lacking in the Guinea savanna despite the wide variability in soil fertility status in farmers' fields, and the productivity of within-row spatial arrangement of intercrops relative to the distinct-row systems under on-farm conditions has not been studied in the region. We studied effects of maize-legume spatial intercropping patterns and soil fertility status on resource use efficiency, crop productivity and economic profitability under on-farm conditions in the Guinea savanna. Treatments consisted of maize-legume intercropped within-row, 1 row of maize alternated with one row of legume, 2 rows of maize alternated with 2 rows of legume, a sole maize crop and a sole legume crop. These were assessed in the southern Guinea savanna (SGS) and the northern Guinea savanna (NGS) of northern Ghana for two seasons using three fields differing in soil fertility in each agro-ecological zone. Each treatment received 25 kg P and 30 kg K ha −1 at sowing, while maize received 25 kg (intercrop) or 50 kg (sole) N ha −1 at 3 and 6 weeks after sowing. The experiment was conducted in a randomised complete block design with each block of treatments replicated four times per fertility level at each site. Better soil conditions and rainfall in the SGS resulted in 48, 38 and 9% more maize, soybean and groundnut grain yield, respectively produced than in the NGS, while 11% more cowpea grain yield was produced in the NGS. Sole crops of maize and legumes produced significantly more grain yield per unit area than the respective intercrops of maize and legumes. Land equivalent ratios (LERs) of all intercrop patterns were greater than unity indicating more efficient and productive use of environmental resources by intercrops. Sole legumes intercepted more radiation than sole maize, while the interception by intercrops was in between that of sole legumes and sole maize. The intercrop however converted the intercepted radiation more efficiently into grain yield than the sole crops. Economic returns were greater for intercrops than for either sole crop. The within-row intercrop pattern was the most productive and lucrative system. Larger grain yields in the SGS and in fertile fields led to greater economic returns. However, intercropping systems in poorly fertile fields and in the NGS recorded greater LERs (1.16-1.81) compared with fertile fields (1.07-1.54) and with the SGS. This suggests that intercropping is more beneficial in less fertile fields and in more marginal environments such as the NGS. Cowpea and groundnut performed better than soybean when intercropped with maize, though the larger absolute grain yields of soybean resulted in larger net benefits.The Guinea savanna of West Africa is characterised by poor and declining soil fertility due to continuous cereal-based cropping systems without adequate soil nutrient replenishment (Dakora et al., 1987;Sanginga, 2003). The declining soil fertility coupled with an erratic unimodal rainfall regime has increased the risk of crop failure in sole cropping systems. Intercropping, the simultaneous or sequential growing of two or more crop species on the same piece of land (Willey, 1990), could mitigate risk of crop failure. For instance, in case the main crop (typically maize, Zea mays L.) fails to produce yield due to erratic distribution of rainfall within a season, the added grain legume provides food for the farm household (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2012). Consequently, farmers in the Guinea savanna commonly practise cereallegume intercropping to safeguard household food and income. The inclusion of grain legumes is essential for soil fertility sustenance as they contribute to soil fertility enhancement through biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 ) and N mineralised from legume residues (Giller, 2001). Legumes also provide grain rich in protein and minerals for household nutrition and income (Giller, 2001).The greater crop yields and productivity of intercrops relative to sole crops result from complementary use of resources for growth by the intercrop components (Willey, 1979;Ofori and Stern, 1987;Rao and Singh, 1990;Willey, 1990). Differences in acquisition and use of light, water and nutrients by the different intercrop components (Ofori and Stern, 1987;Willey, 1990) results in inter-species competition being smaller than intra-species competition (Vandermeer, 1989). The complementary effect can be temporal where peak demands for resources by component crops occur at different times or spatial where complementary resource use occurs due to differences in canopy and root structures (Willey, 1990). Complementarity is also likely as intercropped maize uses N from the soil for growth whilst the legume can rely more on atmospheric N 2 -fixation for growth. These can be influenced by soil fertility status, spatial planting arrangements and choice of intercrop components (Midmore, 1993). Weeds and diseases may be better suppressed in intercropping than in sole cropping although this may be influenced by the intercropping pattern and the resulting canopy structure (Liebman and Dyck, 1993;Trenbath, 1993).Spatial intercropping patterns have been studied in the Guinea savanna of northern Ghana (e.g. Agyare et al., 2006;Konlan et al., 2013) and Nigeria (e.g. Ajeigbe et al., 2010) mainly under controlled conditions. All these studies assessed the performance of different distinct alternate row intercropping patterns of maize and legumes. Rusinamhodzi et al. (2012) reported greater LER when the intercrops were planted in the same row rather than in distinct rows in Central Mozambique. Other studies (Agyare et al., 2006;Konlan et al., 2013) generally showed intercrop advantages over sole crops that declined as the width of adjacent strips of each crop was increased. For instance, Konlan et al. (2013) reported a larger LER for 1:1 alternate rows of maize and groundnut than for 2:2 alternate row intercrops. In some cases, sole crops were more productive than intercrops when two or more rows of intercropped maize were alternated with the same number of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) rows (Konlan et al., 2013).Knowledge on the ecological and economic performance of withinrow maize-legume intercrop pattern in relation to the distinct row intercrop patterns and sole crops is limited to controlled trials in the Guinea savanna region. Studies conducted in Turrialba, Costa Rica (Chang and Shibles, 1985) and Western Australia (Ofori and Stern, 1986) reported greater maize-cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) intercrop advantages under low soil N and P conditions. Searle et al. (1981) and Ahmed and Rao (1982) also observed larger maize-soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) intercrop advantages when soil N fertility was poor. As smallholder farms in the Guinea savanna vary widely in soil fertility status, a better understanding of the relative performance of intercrop in relation to soil fertility is required. We studied the effects of soil fertility status and different spatial maize-legume intercropping patterns and monocultures on grain yields, intercrop efficiency and productivity and economic profitability in contrasting sites in the southern and northern Guinea savanna agro-ecological zones of northern Ghana.The trials were conducted on farmers' fields in the cropping seasons of 2013 and 2014. The sites were Kpataribogu (9°58′ N, 0°40′ W) in Karaga District (southern Guinea savanna, SGS; 1076 mm mean annual rainfall) and Bundunia (10°51′ N, 1°04′ W) in Kassena-Nankana East Municipal (northern Guinea savanna, NGS; 990 mm mean annual rainfall) in northern Ghana. Both sites have a single rainy season which extends from May to October in SGS and from June to October in NGS. The soils at both sites are predominantly sandy soils classified as Savanna Ochrosol and Groundwater Laterites in the Interim Ghana Soil Classification System (Adjei-Gyapong and Asiamah, 2002) and as Plinthosols in the World Reference Base for soil resources (WRB, 2015).  At each site, three field types representing a highly fertile field (HF), a medium fertile field (MF) and a field low in fertility (LF) were selected and used for both seasons. Fields were selected using farmers' knowledge with the assistance of Agricultural Extension Officers, followed by soil physico-chemical analysis. The selected fields were under monocropping in the three preceding seasons, i.e. in the SGS site HF: soybeangroundnut-maize, MF: maize-soybean-maize, LF: groundnut-soybeancotton; in the NGS site HF: maize-maize-maize, MF: maize-groundnutfallow, LF: maize-maize-groundnut. Previously mono-cropped fields were selected to reduce within-field variability. Soils were sampled at 0-15 cm depth at each trial field prior to land preparation in 2013. All soil cores were thoroughly mixed and about 1 kg sub-samples per field were air-dried and passed through a 2 mm-mesh sieve. These were analysed for pH (1:2.5 soil:water suspension), organic C (Walkley and Black), total N (Kjeldahl), available P (Olsen), exchangeable K, Mg, and Ca (in 1 M ammonium acetate extracts) and texture (hydrometer method). Some of these soil physico-chemical analysis data presented in Table 2 are reported in Kermah et al. (submitted).Three grain legumes cowpea (CP), soybean (SB) and groundnut (GN) were intercropped with maize (MZ) in different spatial arrangements: (i) maize-legume intercropped within-row, (ii) one row of maize alternated with one row of legume, (iii) two rows of maize alternated with two rows of legume, (iv) a sole crop of maize and (v) a sole crop of legume. For the within-row treatments, a maize planting hill alternated two equally spaced cowpea or groundnut hills, or four soybean hills within the same row. An inter-row spacing of 75 cm was maintained for all treatments and crops. Intra-row spacing was 50 cm for intercropped maize within-row, 25 cm for sole maize and all distinct rows intercropped maize and for sole cowpea and sole groundnut. Soybean had an intra-row spacing of 12.5 cm in both the distinct row intercrops and the sole crop. Maize (intercropped and sole) and all legumes within-row treatments were sown at one seed per hill, while all distinct row and sole legume treatments were sown at two seeds per hill. The resultant plant sowing densities (plants ha −1 ), respectively for intercrops and sole crops were: maize (26,667 and 53,333), cowpea and groundnut (53,333 and 106,666) and soybean (106,666 and 213,332). The experiment was conducted in a randomised complete block design with blocks of treatments replicated four times per fertility level at each site. Treatments were randomised within blocks and a plot measured 4.5 m × 4.0 m.The land was ploughed with a tractor and ridged manually in the SGS and with a tractor in the NGS, reflecting the common practices at both sites. Sowing was done on the top of the ridges using locally preferred crop varieties: cowpea-Padi-tuya (SARC 3-122-2); soybean-Jenguma (Tgx 1448-2E); groundnut-Chinese and maize-Obatanpa (GH83-63SR). Groundnut variety, Samnut 22 was used in 2013 in the SGS. In 2013, all crops were sown simultaneously (July 1-2 in the SGS; July 16-17 in the NGS) due to the late onset of rains. Sowing in 2014 followed the recommended sowing times: maizegroundnut on June 13, maize-soybean on July 4 and maize-cowpea on July 17 in the SGS. All crops in the NGS were sown on July 15 due to the late onset of rains in 2014. Cowpea was sprayed twice at flowering and podding stages with lambda-cyhalothrin (in the SGS) and cypadem 43.6 EC (36 g cypamethrin and 400 g dimethoate per litre) (in the NGS) in the form of an emulsifiable concentrate at a rate of 0.75-1.00 l ha −1 for sole cowpea and 50% of that dosage for intercropped cowpea for each insecticide depending on the presence and population of pests (flower thrips: e.g. Megalurothrips sjostedti Tryb. and pod borers: e.g. Maruca vitrata Fab.). Soybean seeds were inoculated with Legumefix (LegumeTechnology, UK) Bradyrhizobium japonicum strain 532c (reisolated in Brazil from strain USDA 442 Wisconsin, USA) at a rate of 5 g inoculant per kg seed. All treatments received uniform applications of 25 kg P ha −1 as TSP and 30 kg K ha −1 as muriate of potash at sowing. Nitrogen in the form of urea was spot-applied to maize at 25 kg N ha −1 for intercrops and 50 kg N ha −1 for sole crops in two equal split doses at three and six weeks after sowing (WAS). All fertilisers were placed 5 cm from the plants at 3 cm depth. All fields were weeded twice with a hoe at 3 and 6 WAS.Daily rainfall during the season was measured with rain gauges installed at each site. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) interception was measured with AccuPAR LP-80 Ceptometer (Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, Washington). Measurements were made above and below the crop canopies in each plot at four randomly selected locations. Five successive PAR readings each above and below the canopy were taken and averaged per location with the Ceptometer placed across the crop rows. PAR measurements were made generally under clear skies between 10.00 and 14.00 h, at 10-15 days' intervals (depending on weather conditions). In the within-row intercrop plots, PAR a SED represents the standard error of differences between means and was calculated following the procedure described by Saville (2003). was measured by considering the whole canopy of the legume and maize components. In the 1:1 and 2:2 distinct row intercrop plots, PAR readings were taken separately across legume and maize rows and averaged.Legume biomass was sampled at the mid-pod filling stage from an area of 3.0 m × 1.0 m by cutting plants at the soil surface, separated into shoots and pods, and both total and sub-sample fresh weights taken in the field. Legume and maize grain yields were measured just after physiological maturity by harvesting a 3.0 m × 1.5 m area excluding the border rows. Maize ears and stalks were harvested and the sheaths were removed by hand. Fresh weights of all cobs and of sub-samples of ten randomly picked cobs were determined in the field. Total and subsample fresh weights of legume pods were taken in the field. Conversion factors for the different plant parts were derived from experimental data from trials conducted in the Guinea savanna of northern Ghana and Nigeria. Pooled means of the various treatments were taken and used to calculate the dry weights of the sub-samples (values given are dry matter fractions): Cowpea (mid-pod stage: shoot = 0.17, pod = 0.18; crop maturity: pod = 0.64, grain to pod ratio = 0.77), soybean (mid-pod stage: shoot = 0.29, pod = 0.31; crop maturity: pod = 0.69, grain to pod ratio = 0.71), groundnut (mid-pod stage: shoot = 0.22, pod = 0.31; crop maturity: pod = 0.66, grain to pod ratio = 0.64) and maize (crop maturity only: cob = 0.71, grain to cob ratio = 0.79). These conversion factors are reported in Kermah et al. (submitted). Grain yields are presented at 14% moisture for maize and 12% moisture for legumes; above-ground dry matter yields on dry weight basis.The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was used to evaluate resource use efficiency and the productivity of intercrops. LER values above one indicate that intercropping is more productive and efficient in using environmental resources than sole cropping, and values less than one that sole crops were more productive. Individual within-block values of maize or legume grain yields were used as the denominator values to calculate LER.where Y il and Y im are intercrop yields of legume and maize respectively while Y sl and Y sm are the sole yields of legume and maize (Mead and Willey, 1980).A partial budget analysis, accounting of the total variable costs and gross returns of a production system to determine a change (increase or decrease) in profit (Alimi and Manyong, 2000) was done. Net benefit used to determine the relative economic profitability of the cropping systems.Net benefit = Total revenue (TR) − Total cost (TC)(2)Total revenue was estimated as the product of grain yield (t ha −1 ) and grain price (US$ t −1 ). Grain prices were obtained from local market surveys at harvest time when most farmers sell their produce. TC was the sum of the costs of input (seeds, fertilisers and agro-chemical) and labour for the different field activities. Labour cost for each activity was based on the local daily wage per person to perform the activity ha −1 and multiplied by the total man-days required to complete the activity under sole maize and legume conditions. TC of the intercrop pattern was the sum of 50% of the TC of each sole crop. For the within row intercrops, the costs of sowing, urea application to maize and weeding were calculated as 68% that of the respective sole crops. This was based on the assumption that those activities require 18% more labour in an intercrop (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2012). Details of unit costs, grain prices and estimated labour requirements are presented in Tables 1a and 1b. Net benefits were estimated for each season and averaged.The percentage intercepted PAR (% IPAR) was calculated following Gallo and Daughtry (1986) as:where It is the PAR measured just below the lowest green leaves (lowest layer of photosynthetically active leaves) while Io is the incident PAR.The expected intercepted PAR (IPAR) by intercrops based on plant densities was calculated as: (0.5 × sole maize IPAR) + (0.5 × sole legume IPAR). The expected IPAR needed by intercrops to produce the observed combined intercrop grain yields if RUE is similar to that of sole crops was calculated as: {(Sole maize IPAR × (intercrop maize grain yield/Sole maize grain yield)} + {(Sole legume IPAR × (intercrop legume grain yield/Sole legume grain yield)}.Statistical analysis was conducted using GenStat (version 18.1, VSN International Ltd). The different maize-legume systems and sites were analysed separately initially, and then combined. Data were analysed with a linear mixed model with planting arrangement, soil fertility status and site (for cross site analysis) as fixed factors and replication as random factor to test for effect of planting arrangement, soil fertility and site on crop yields and intercrop productivity (assessed with LER). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to explain the sources of variation in above-ground dry matter and grain yields as well as land equivalent ratios were conducted using the general ANOVA structure with planting arrangement as a fixed factor, replication as random factor and measured total soil N and available P as covariates. For PAR interception, repeated measurements analysis was done with plots as subjects and measurement dates (presented as days after sowing, DAS) as time points. Measurement date × cropping system × soil fertility were kept as fixed factors with the models fitted for correlation within subjects across time using antedependence model order 1 since the intervals between different measurement dates were not equally spaced. The standard error of differences between means (SED) was used to compare treatment means at P < 0.05 significance level.The site in the SGS received more rainfall than the NGS in both seasons (Fig. 1). Total rainfall during the growing season was 598 mm in 2013 and 609 mm in 2014 in the SGS, and 532 mm in 2013 and 423 mm in 2014 in the NGS. The rainfall at both sites was below the long term mean seasonal rainfall values: 861 mm for the SGS and 807 mm for the NGS (Ghana Meteorological Agency, Legon, Accra).The SGS had relatively more fertile soils with values for pH, OC, N, exchangeable cations and clay content more favourable for crop growth than the NGS. Available P and exchangeable K were low at both sites. The relatively sandy soils in the NGS were likely to have a low moisture holding ability, while the low soil pH could reduce the availability of micronutrients. Soil OC was sub-optimal for good soil nutrient retention and soil N supply, and likely to limit crop growth at both sites. Exchangeable Ca and Mg were unlikely to limit crop growth at both sites.Soil chemical analysis largely confirmed the soil fertility classification by the farmers. In the SGS, pH, OC, ECEC and clay content were more favourable for crop growth in the HF field than in the MF field, while both fields had generally larger values of OC, P, exchangeable Ca and ECEC than the LF field (Table 2). In the NGS, the HF field had soil fertility characteristics more favourable for crop growth compared with the MF and LF fields, while the latter two were comparable in most cases (Table 2).Sole legumes intercepted more PAR than intercrops (P < 0.001; Fig. 2) whilst intercrops intercepted more PAR than sole maize. This was more evident after silking when maize leaves started senescing. Differences in intercepted PAR between intercrop patterns were not significant at the initial growth stages until flowering of legumes and maize. Thereafter, the 1:1 and 2:2 intercrops intercepted significantly less PAR than the within-row intercrop in most cases. These differences were clearest at early pod-set to late pod-fill stages of the legumes, particularly of cowpea. The actual PAR intercepted by the intercrops was comparable to the expected PAR interception, if calculated as the sum of 50% of PAR intercepted by each sole crop (Table 3). However, the actual PAR intercepted by the intercrops was 10-31% smaller in the SGS and 17-33% smaller in the NGS compared with the expected PAR interception by the intercrops based on grain yields and radiation use efficiency (RUE) in the sole crops (Table 3). The crops grown in the HF fields intercepted more PAR than the MF and LF fields (P < 0.001; Fig. 3). Soil fertility did not affect PAR interception at the initial growth stages, but did so from flowering to late pod-fill stages.Legume biomass yields at mid-pod fill were greater in the SGS than  in the NGS (P < 0.01) that received less rainfall during the growing season and had soils poorer in fertility (Table 4). Sole legumes had greater above-ground biomass yields than the associated intercrops at both sites (P < 0.001; Table 4). However, intercrop biomass yields were larger compared with 50% of the sole legume yields (which corresponds to yields from the same size of land and density as that of the intercrops) with the differences generally being significant only for the within-row intercrops. Cowpea and soybean biomass yields were significantly greater in within-row systems than in distinct rows intercrops, while those of groundnut were comparable. Biomass yields declined with decreasing soil fertility status, but this decline varied among legume species and sites (Table 4). In the SGS, only cowpea and soybean gave larger biomass in the HF field than in the LF field (cowpea: P < 0.001; soybean: P = 0.016) due to smaller differences soil N and P between the fields, which accounted for smaller variation in the biomass yield compared with variation attributable to planting arrangement (Tables 2 and 5). On the contrary, all the three legume species produced greater biomass in the HF field than in the LF field in the NGS (P < 0.001) as the larger differences in soil N and P status between the fields (Table 2) accounted for larger variation in biomass yields relative to variation due to planting arrangement (Table 5). Except for cowpea in the NGS, the legumes produced more biomass (P < 0.001) in the second season than in the first season at both sites. Cowpea grain yield was greater in the NGS than in the SGS (P = 0.008), while maize, soybean and groundnut yields were greater in the SGS (P < 0.01). Sole crops produced greater grain yields than intercrops at both sites (P < 0.001; Fig. 4). Intercropped maize and legume grain yields were larger compared with 50% of the associated sole yields in most cases (P < 0.001; Fig. 4). The within-row intercrop pattern in general provided larger maize and legume grain yields than the 1:1 and 2:2 distinct row patterns whereas the latter two had comparable yields. Grain yields differed with cropping season (data not shown). For instance, groundnut produced more grain yield in the second season at both sites (P < 0.001). Cowpea grain yield was not significantly affected by season (though the yields declined at both sites in the second season) while soybean grain yield declined in the second season at both sites but significant (P < 0.001) only in the NGS. The impact of season on maize grain yield was significant in all maize-legume systems in the NGS while in the SGS, the seasonal effect was significant only for the maize-groundnut system with more maize grain produced in the second season in each case. Combined intercrop grain yields (legume + maize yield) differed between the intercrop patterns only in the HF and MF fields. Grain yields declined with decreasing soil fertility at both sites (P < 0.001). This was more evident in the NGS where the differences in soil fertility between fields, (e.g. soil N and P) were larger between the fertile and poorly fertile fields and accounted for much of the observed variation in grain yields compared with that of SGS (Tables 2 and 6). Consequently, the clearer differences in soil fertility status between the fields in NGS were well reflected by grain yields, whereas the decrease in yields with poorer soil fertility was not as clear in the SGS (Fig. 4). The grain yields of sole maize were generally comparable or larger than the combined intercrop grain yields in the HF or MF fields. Mean LER for the different intercrop patterns were all greater than unity which suggested that intercropping led to a more productive use of land than sole cropping (Table 7). Partial LER values of maize were mostly above 0.5 at both sites (Fig. 5). Intercropped maize was more competitive than the legumes, particularly soybean and groundnut in the SGS (Fig. 6). The intercropped legumes performed relatively better in the NGS indicated by more partial LER values above 0.5 (Fig. 5a and  b) and reduced competitiveness of maize (Fig. 6a and b) compared with the SGS, especially in intercropping systems with soybean. This led to a 14% greater mean total LER in the NGS than in the SGS (P < 0.001; Table 7), with season having no significant effect on the total LER (a mean increase of 2% in SGS and a decline of 5% in the NGS in the second season compared with the first season). The impact of legume species on LER was significant (P < 0.046) in the SGS with cowpeamaize and groundnut-maize systems giving larger total LER values than soybean-maize systems (Table 7). This suggests that soybean is less suitable for intercropping than groundnut and cowpea. LER values were greater (P < 0.05, generally) in the within-row pattern than in the 1:1 and 2:2 distinct row patterns at both sites.Low soil fertility enhanced the performance of the intercropped legumes indicated by larger partial LER values of the legumes in the LF fields compared with partial LER values of legumes in the HF fields (Fig. 5c, d). This effect was more visible in the NGS (Fig. 5d) where the differences in soil fertility parameters (especially N and P) between the HF and the LF fields were stronger than in the SGS (Table 2) and seen in soil N and P being responsible for much of the observed variability in total LER in the NGS than in the SGS (Table 8). This led to greater total LER in the LF fields and the LER values declined with increasing soil fertility status with the values in most cases being smaller (P < 0.05) in HF fields (Table 7).  The crops in the SGS provided greater economic returns than in the NGS (Fig. 7). The lower net benefits in the NGS resulted from generally poor grain yields and slightly larger costs of production due to higher cost associated with the use of tractor for ploughing. In general, sole legumes were more profitable than sole maize except sole cowpea and groundnut in the SGS due to relatively low grain yields. High labour requirements to produce legumes (Table 1b) contributed to the smaller returns of sole legumes. The extra time needed for sowing, urea application to maize and weeding in the within-row intercrop system led to consistently greater TC than in the other cropping patterns (data not shown). The distinct row intercrops had larger TC than sole maize due to higher labour costs of legume cultivation. The TC of the distinct row intercrops was smaller than sole legumes which also had larger TC than sole maize (data not shown) due to higher labour requirements for legumes production (Table 1b). However, the greater grain yield in intercropping resulted in larger net benefits than in sole cropping of maize and legumes (P < 0.001), with the benefits generally larger with the within-row intercrops (Fig. 7a, b). The larger grain yields obtained by growing crops in the HF fields led to significantly (P < 0.001) greater net benefits, which declined with decreasing soil fertility (Fig. 7c, d).Soil nutrient concentrations were generally low at both sites (Table 2) in relation to critical values for sub-Saharan Africa (Fairhurst, 2012), and are representative for farmers' conditions in northern Ghana (Buri et al., 2010). The differences in soil fertility characteristics between the two sites may be attributable to differences in soil types, as well as past farmers' management. For example, crop residues were commonly retained in the field in the SGS, while they were often exported in the NGS to feed livestock or to be composted. The greater biomass and grain yields produced in the SGS compared with the NGS (Table 4; Fig. 4) were consistent with the differences in rainfall and soil fertility characteristics that were more favourable for crop growth in the SGS. The lower amount of rainfall received in the NGS (Fig. 1) and the predominantly sandy soils (Table 2) probably led to less water availability in the NGS, also contributing to smaller yields.The comparable maize grain yields in intercrops and sole maize in the LF field in NGS that had low soil N status corroborates the finding of Ahmed and Rao (1982) who also observed comparable yields for intercropped and sole maize grain under low soil N conditions. This might be because under low N conditions, there will be less competition for radiation between the intercrop components. Also, there could be a more marked impact of N 2 fixation of the intercropped legume on the maize component under low soil N conditions than under high soil N status. The greater grain yield of maize and legumes (both intercrops and sole crops) in the fertile fields compared with the poorly fertile fields mirrored the soil fertility gradient between the fields at both sites (Table 2; Fig. 4). In particular, the grain yield differences induced by the soil fertility gradient was remarkably consistent in the NGS where stronger differences in soil fertility between the fields were observed (Table 2; Fig. 4). Our results agree with the findings of other authors such as Oikeh et al. (1998) in the Guinea savanna of Nigeria and Ojiem et al. (2014) in Western Kenya who observed a consistent decrease in maize and legume grain yields in response to decreases in soil fertility among fields.LER values greater than one for the intercrop patterns (Table 7) indicate a more efficient and productive land utilization by intercrops compared with the sole crops (Willey, 1985). However, except for maize and soybean intercrops, the combined intercrop grain yields (maize + cowpea or groundnut) were smaller than that of sole maize, particularly in the HF and MF fields. This may be a disincentive for farmers in terms of meeting household food needs if maize is prioritised above the legumes. Given that our trial had a replacement intercrop design, testing of additive intercrops would be worth testing. While the   amount of PAR intercepted by the intercrops was comparable with that of 50% of each sole crop (Table 3), the combined intercrop grain yields were 26-43% larger than the sum of 50% of each sole crop yield. This suggests that RUE in intercrops was greater than in sole crops, as also observed in earlier studies (Reddy and Willey, 1981;Marshall and Willey, 1983;Willey, 1990;Keating and Carberry, 1993). Other authors (Awal et al., 2006;Gao et al., 2010) reported that intercropped maize and sole maize had comparable radiation extinction coefficients and radiation use efficiencies. By contrast, intercropped legumes, for example groundnut, had smaller extinction coefficients and greater radiation use efficiencies than sole groundnut (Harris et al., 1987;Keating and Carberry, 1993;Awal et al., 2006;Gao et al., 2010). The legumes in intercrops fixed 15-97 kg ha −1 of N 2 representing 67-71% of N 2 fixed by respective sole crop legumes (Kermah et al. submitted), and this may have improved soil N availability to maize in intercrops in the second season, relative to sole maize. Improved leaf N content and photosynthetic activity of maize in intercrops may have led to enhanced RUE (Sinclair and Horie, 1989;Gimenez et al., 1994) of the intercropped maize in the second season. We did not rotate the sole legume and sole maize treatments in the second season. With crop rotation, the maize would have benefitted from residual N of the legume from the first season. Rotating sole legume and sole maize could lead to avoidance of pests and diseases build-up relative to continuous intercropping of maize and legumes (Stevenson and Van Kessel, 1996). Intercropping, however, can result in better suppression of pests and diseases than continuous cropping of either crop alone (Trenbath, 1993). The different cropping sequences of the different fields could have led to differences in build-up of soil borne pathogens and insect pests that would confound the effect of soil fertility status on crop performance. However, we did not observe differences in pest and disease attack among the crops grown in the different fields which suggests that such effects were not important during the study.The within row intercrop was more productive than the other intercrop planting patterns, as previously reported in Central Mozambique (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2012). This suggests that the current recommendations of a distinct row intercrop pattern involving two rows of maize alternated with four rows of cowpea that is promoted in the NGS of Nigeria (Ajeigbe et al., 2010) needs to be revisited. However, the distinct row intercrop design is more amenable to mechanisation of some activities, such as sowing, weeding, fertiliser application, though these activities are currently performed manually by smallholders in the region. The larger productivity of the within row system may have been the outcome of a slightly better radiation capture (Fig. 2) coupled with an efficient use of the intercepted PAR resulting from the differing canopy architecture compared to distinct row systems (Reddy and Willey, 1981).Our results show that in maize-legume intercropping, the maize is more competitive than the legume under high soil N conditions as in the SGS leading to a relatively small contribution of legume (Table 2; Fig. 6a) to the total LER (Table 7). Under low soil N conditions such as in the NGS, the competitiveness of the maize is reduced and the intercropped legume gains in relative competitiveness (Table 2; Fig. 6b; Chang and Shibles, 1985;Midmore, 1993). This is largely due to the ability of legumes to fix N 2 (Kermah et al., submitted) and the apparent reduced competition for radiation between the intercrop components in poorly fertile fields leading to reduced shading of the legume by the intercropped maize crop. This resulted in a competitive balance (similar competitiveness and contributions of the intercrop components to the total LER (Yu et al., 2016)) between the maize and legume intercrop components in the NGS (Fig. 5d; Fig. 6b) resulting in a greater total LER, particularly in the LF field (Table 7; Ofori and Stern, 1986;Yu et al., 2016). Soils in the NGS had a poorer N status (Table 2) suggesting that LERs increase with decreasing levels of soil N, as reported by other studies (Searle et al., 1981;Ahmed and Rao, 1982;Ofori and Stern, 1986). Greater LERs in the poorly fertile fields, and in general in the NGS with more marginal growing conditions than in SGS (Fig. 1; Tables 2 and 4) indicate that intercropping is more advantageous under low soil fertility conditions.Greater grain yields in the within-row intercrop systems led to larger net benefits than distinct row intercropping systems, despite the higher labour input in within-row systems. The lower net benefits of sole maize in the NGS (Fig. 7b) were the outcome of relatively poor grain yields, making sole cropping of maize economically less attractive in the NGS and farmers may be better off intercropping maize with grain legumes, especially cowpea. Crop production in HF fields was more profitable than in MF and LF fields due to larger grain yields (Fig. 4; Fig. 7). This indicates that poor soil fertility leads to smaller net benefits, as reported for maize-legume intercrops in Western Kenya by Ojiem et al. (2014). This is a common feature in the Guinea savanna agro-ecology where smallholder farmers are trapped in a vicious cycle of poor soils leading to poor grain yields and consequently poor economic benefits.The observed advantage of intercrops over sole crops was associated with an enhanced radiation use efficiency (RUE) by intercrops. While legumes may have achieved a higher RUE in intercropping systems due to their ability to perform relatively well under low-radiation conditions, maize in intercropping may have had a higher RUE due to improved soil N availability in the second season. Intercropping of maize and grain legumes within the same row appears the most productive and lucrative pattern that can be exploited by farmers in the Guinea savanna, though distinct row intercrop patterns are also generally more profitable than sole crops. Benefits of maize-legume intercropping are greater under low soil fertility conditions, presumably due to reduced competition for light and possibly enhanced benefits from legumes' ability to fix N 2 . Nevertheless, overall cropping is more profitable in fertile fields due to larger absolute grain yields. Our results show a good potential for maize-legume intercropping for farmers in the Guinea savanna, particularly under more marginal conditions.","tokenCount":"6264"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"94b1e79b707331c8475866ed822a6d03","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/51b5d191-5ffb-4880-aa57-037185d0aa0f/content","id":"1683291934"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"75545d61-c95d-422b-9b68-52a79579521c","pagecount":"9","content":"The push-pull system, a stimulo-deterrent cropping strategy consisting of intercropping cereals with herbaceous legumes and surrounded by fodder grasses, is presented as a promising crop diversification strategy for smallholder farmers in Africa as it may contribute to maize stemborer Busseola fusca (Fuller) suppression, while improving soil fertility and providing feed for livestock. The push-pull system has often been assessed at plot level and as a package (e.g., Maize + Desmodium + Napier grass). However, it is unclear how the system performs in different landscape settings or when companion crops are changed to better meet household needs.Here we evaluate the potential of the push-pull system to suppress maize stemborer infestations in three landscapes in the Rift Valley region of Ethiopia along a gradient of landscape complexity. Within each landscape, experimental plots were established on four representative smallholder farms. At each farm we used a split-plot factorial design with main plots surrounded or not by Napier grass, and subplots consisting of sole maize, maizebean or maize-Desmodium. We assessed stemborer infestation level and maize grain and stover yields during two years, as well as natural enemies abundance and egg predation at two maize development stages in the second year. In the simple landscape, which was dominated by maize, all treatments had high stemborer infestation levels, irrespective of within-field crop diversity; the presence of Napier grass was associated with higher predator abundance, while egg predation rates were the highest in the maize-bean intercrop. In the intermediate complexity landscape, subplots with sole maize had higher stemborer infestation levels compared to maize-bean or maize-Desmodium. In the complex landscape, infestation levels were low in all treatments. However, none of these effects led to significant differences in maize grain and stover yields among treatments in any of the landscapes. The benefits of the push-pull system accrued from the companion crops (bean, Desmodium and Napier), rather than from stemborer suppression per se. Our findings highlight the importance of the surrounding landscape in mediating the performance of the push-pull system, provide new insights on the contribution of the different components of push-pull system and can guide the design of ecologically intensive agroecosystems.There is increasing interest in multipurpose cropping systems able to deliver a range of products and services to meet the multiple needs of rural smallholder families and that capitalize on ecological processes rather than external inputs. In large parts of Africa, maize (Zea mays L.) is an important staple crop providing food, feed and fuel (Shiferaw et al., 2011). However, maize production can be severely compromised by pests, diseases and parasitic weeds in many parts of the region (Reynolds et al., 2015). Maize stemborers Busseola fusca and Chilo partellus are considered to be the most damaging insect pests, causing variable but sometimes devastating yield losses. Stemborer infestation is severe in Southern Ethiopia, where maize production is further limited by declining soil fertility (Corral-Nuñez et al., 2014) and unpredictable rainfall (Muluneh et al., 2015). These factors, in combination with decreasing farm size, threaten food security, as well as household incomes (Mellisse et al., 2018). There is a need for affordable strategies that can reduce pest incidence below economic thresholds, while improving soil fertility and fodder production.Crop diversification strategies may offer scope for enhancing natural suppression of stemborers (Chabi-Olaye et al., 2008). While the use of chemical pesticides is a common control method across the world, it is not effective for stemborer control because of the cryptic behavior of the larvae in the stems. Moreover, chemical insecticides are often too expensive for smallholder farmers and often have adverse effects on non-target biota (including natural enemies), the environment and human health (Rusch et al., 2010). Crop diversification strategies may contribute to reducing crop losses by pests by limiting the pests' ability to locate host plants (Poveda et al., 2008), by repelling pests via plantmediated semiochemicals (Bakthavatsalam, 2016), or by stimulating the abundance and diversity of natural enemies that may provide topdown control of pests (Mailafiya et al., 2011;Pickett et al., 2014). However, the effectiveness of pest suppression potential depends critically on the compositionin terms of species and cultivarsof the cropping system (Zhang et al., 2013), while the crop assemblage should meet the requirements of the household in terms of food, feed and/or cash.The push-pull system is a crop diversification strategy based on intercropping maize with a legume species such as Desmodium spp., whose semiochemicals repel stemborers (´push´effect), bordered by a trap crop (e.g., Pennisetum purpureum or Brachiaria spp.), which attracts stemborers (´pull´effect) (Cook et al., 2007;Khan et al., 2010;Zhang et al., 2013). This system is also associated with enhanced suppression of the parasitic weed Striga, enhanced soil fertility through N-fixation by the legume Desmodium spp., and increased food and feed production (Cook et al., 2007;Belay and Foster, 2010). Perennial fodder crops alter the attractiveness of the crop habitat for potential natural enemies of stem borers in maize fields. For instance, Khan et al (2001) demonstrated that the parasitism of stemborers in push-pull systems is enhanced through attraction of parasitoids to molasses grass. Similarly, Mammo (2012) found that Napier and Sudan grass attractd predators of stemborers, such as ants, earwigs and spiders. The adoption of the pushpull system may be further stimulated by replacing the Desmodium spp., which can only be used for feed, by a multipurpose grain legume such as common bean, which is an important source of protein in local diets (Fischler, 2010). Beyond their ability to fix nitrogen, legume crops produce secondary metabolites as defense compounds against herbivores (Wink, 2013). Indeed, traditional maize/bean or maize/cowpea intercropping systems are less prone to stemborer infestations (Chabi-Olaye et al., 2002;Belay and Foster, 2010), and tend to provide higher maize yield than sole maize (Songa et al., 2007;Seran and Brintha, 2010). However, the push-pull system has often been assessed as a package and the contribution of each component is not clear. In addition, the performance of the push-pull system based on Desmodium spp. and other legume crops in different landscape contexts is not well known.Despite the considerable research effort on push-pull systems, most studies have focused on assessing the effectiveness of this system at the field scale, often in research stations, without considering the effect of the surrounding landscape (Midega et al., 2014;Eigenbrode et al., 2016). Landscape context can influence the pest and natural enemy interactions by providing resources and shelter (Eigenbrode et al., 2016). For instance, while maize fields function as reproduction habitats for stemborers, perennial crops may support natural enemies in maize-based cropping systems (Kebede et al., 2018). Landscape factors that drive stemborer and natural enemy population dynamics at relatively large spatial scales may interact with within-field crop diversity factors that moderate stemborer repelling and attracting effects at smaller spatial scales. It is yet unclear how such interactions unfold in African smallholder landscape settings. Moreover, the push-pull system based on Napier-Desmodium may not fulfil the needs of smallholder farmers without livestock. In these cases, replacing the feed crop Desmodium by common bean may be beneficial, and Napier, which is also used for feed, may be less desired by farmers. There is a need to assess the performance of the different crop combinations and system components in the push-pull cropping system to meet the needs of different production situations of smallholders while considering the landscape context (Eigenbrode et al., 2016).This paper has two objectives. The first objective is to assess the agronomic and pest suppression potential of push-pull systems in landscapes of increasing complexity, from landscapes dominated by maize to landscapes dominated by perennial crops and semi-natural vegetation. For this, we assessed the stemborer infestation levels in maize, the abundance of generalist predators, the associated predation rates, and maize grain and stover yields. Based on previous studies (Cook et al., 2007;Khan et al., 2008b;Pickett et al., 2014), we hypothesized that the push-pull system would suppress stemborers and result in higher maize yield, irrespective of the landscape setting. The second objective is to assess the performance of the alternative pushpull systems by varying or omitting one of the companion crops. We compared the performance of the traditional push-pull system based on Napier-maize-Desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum jacq) to the performance of Napier-maize-common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and Napier-maize, and also assessed the performance of these three cropping systems without Napier. We expected that replacing Desmodium with common bean and omitting the Napier trap crop would result in higher stemborer infestation levels and lower maize yields.The study area is located in the Hawassa region in the Ethiopian Rift Valley between 7˚03′11″ to 7˚08′4″ N latitude and 38˚15′17″ to 38˚38′47″E longitude (Fig. 1). The area is characterized by moist to subhumid warm subtropical climate. Annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 1200 mm in a bimodal distribution pattern, expected in March to April and June to August (Dessie and Kleman, 2007). Busseola fusca is the major maize stemborer species found in the area. The average land holding per household is below one hectare of arable land (Dessie and Kleman, 2007;Dessie and Kinlund, 2016). We selected representative landscapes in three districts: Hawassa Zuria, Tula and Wondo Genet along a gradient of decreasing annual/perennial crops ratio. We refer to these three landscapes as simple, intermediate and complex landscapes, respectively. Hawassa Zuria is dominated by maize, while Wondo Genet contains a substantial proportion of woody semi-natural habitat and the perennial crops khat (Catha edulis) and enset (Ensete ventricosum). Tula has an intermediate proportion of maize and seminatural habitat. Data on landscape composition and configuration were obtained by combining Landsat satellite images and focus group discussions with farmers (Kebede et al., 2018).Prior to the installation of the experimental plots we evaluated the performance of five Napier grass genotypes (4 genotypes of Pennisetum purpureum: 16 803, 16 786, 16 837 and 14 984, and one of Pennisetum riparium: Sodo 88) obtained from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Ethiopia. In the simple landscape we planted three rows of each genotype and replicated the experiment in three sites (Kebede, unpublished data). Based on the performance in terms of stemborer larvae density, leaf eating by stemborer and biomass productivity we selected the genotype 16 803 for the push-pull experiment (Appendix A). In each landscape, experimental fields were established on four farms, for a total of twelve fields. Each field was divided in two blocks separated by 5 m and surrounded by Napier grass or not (Fig. 2). Napier was planted a month prior to maize planting in 2014 at inter and intra-row spacing of 75 cm and 50 cm, respectively, using stem cuttings of Pennisetum purpureum (Genotype 16 803). Each block was divided in three plots (10 by 7.5 m) with an inter plot distance of two meters, the maximum distance possible given the small size of farmer's fields in the area. Three cropping systems were randomly assigned to each plot: sole maize, maize-silverleaf Desmodium uncinatum and maize-common bean (Fig. 2). The commonly used maize variety in the study area BH540 was planted at inter and intra-row spacing of 75 cm and 30 cm, respectively. We applied 100 kg ha −1 diammonium phosphate (DAP) at planting and top-dressed the crop with 100 kg ha −1 of urea, following national recommendation rates. In each landscape, the time of planting, weeding and harvest were as per farmers' practice.Maize infestation was assessed by randomly selecting twenty plants per plot at grain filling and maturity stages in 2014 and 2015. From each plant we recorded the number of holes in the stem, the stemborer tunnel length in the stem, the number of live and dead larvae, the number of pupae, and the proportion surface damage of the cob(s). Maize grain moisture (%) content was assessed using Dickey John portable grain moisture tester (http://www.dickey-john.com/product/ m3g/). Maize grain yield in tonnes of dry matter per hectare (t DM ha-1) was calculated at plot level by multiplying the fresh weight by the DM content and converted into tonnes per hectare. Maize stems and leaves were weighted in situ, and a sub-sample was oven dried during 48 h at 70 °C and maize stover yield (t DM ha-1) calculated. The yield of common bean was assessed by destructive harvesting of five sections of one meter of bean plants along the row and assessing the fresh and dry weight of grain and crop residues.The abundance of natural enemies of maize stemborers and egg predation were assessed in each of the 72 plots during grain filling and maturity in 2015. The arthropod community was sampled by placing yellow pans and pitfall traps at two locations within each sub-plot (Fig. 2) for three days as described in Kebede et al. (2018). Arthropod samples were sorted and generalist predators were identified at the order, or family level following the identification key of Polaszek et al. (1998) and Bonhof et al. (1997). Specimens belonging to the order Araneida, the families Forficulidae, Staphylinidae and Formicidae, and the genus Cheilomenes were considered as main predators of maize stemborers (Kfir, 1997). Parasitoid abundance was low and was not analyzed. To assess egg predation, we prepared cards with Ephestia kuehniella eggs by sprinkling the eggs uniformly on a standardized sticky area of 28.27 mm 2 using a hole punch and removed excess eggs that did not touch the sticky surface. Five egg cards were placed in each subplot in a Z-shape pattern in the plot interior, at least two meters from the plot border (Fig. 2). The egg cards were stapled at the top of maize plants in the leaf sheaths, which is the natural place where female stemborer deposit egg batches, and were left in the field for three days. The fraction of eggs removed by predators was assessed by comparing pictures before and after field exposure using ImageJ software (https://imagej.net/Welcome).The number of holes, number of larvae, proportion of cob damage and length of tunnelling were pooled for the twenty plants in each plot. To reduce the number of response variables associated with stemborer infestation we assessed the Pearson correlation between the number of holes, proportion of cob damage, length of tunnelling, and number of larvae. Since the four proxies were significantly correlated (P < 0.001; R = 0.74 or higher; Appendix B), we selected length of tunnelling for further analysis because this proxy captures information about stemborer infestation and crop damage throughout the growing season. The length of tunnelling was log(x+1)-transformed and the relationships between this transformed variable and landscape and crop diversity variables were analyzed using a linear mixed model (Eq. ( 1)):where, Y ijk represents the log(x+1)-transformed length of tunnelling, LN i is the landscape (simple, intermediate and complex), NP j is Napier grass (presence or absence), CR k is the cropping system (sole maize, maize-bean, maize-Desmodium) and where α, β, γ, λ, τ, δ, μ, and ρ represent regression coefficients for the main and interaction effects. \"Farm\" was nested in \"landscape\" and both \"farm\" and \"year\" were considered random effects. The same model structure and analysis was applied for the response variables maize grain and stover yields. The response variables \"generalist predator abundance\" and \"egg predation\" (fraction of the Ephestia eggs removed) were count and binomially distributed data respectively, and were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. For \"generalist predator abundance\" we tested a Poisson and negative binomial error distribution with \"farm\" as random factor and selected the negative binomial error distribution because this model had the lowest Akaike Information Criterion (AICc) value. For \"egg predation\", we used a logit link function. We used a similar model structure as presented in Eq. 1, but since these data were collected over a single year (2015) at two maize development stages (grain filling and physiological maturity of the maize), we adjusted Eq. 1 by removing \"year\" and adding \"maize development stage\" as a fixed factor. All analyses were conducted in R (R Core Team, 2012) and we used the chart.Correlation function from PerformanceAnalytics package for constructing correlation plots (Peterson and Carl, 2018), the lmerTest package for linear mixed models (Kuznetsova et al., 2017), and the GLMER function in the lme4-package for generalized linear mixed models (Bates et al., 2014) 3. ResultsThe length of stemborer tunnelling in maize stems was significantly influenced by the landscape context (P < 0.01; Table 1; Fig. 3) with the highest length of tunnelling in the simple landscape. However, there were also significant landscape by cropping system interactions in the intermediate landscape where the length of tunnelling was higher in sole maize (P < 0.05) compared to maize-bean or maize-Desmodium cropping systems. These interactions indicate that the stemborer suppression potential of push-pull systems may differ in different landscape settings.The interaction between landscape and the presence of Napier grass had a significant effect on the abundance of generalist predators, with the highest abundance in the simple landscape when Napier grass was present (P < 0.01; Table 2; Fig. 4A). In general, sole maize supported a low abundance of predators (P < 0.05), however, the interaction Fig. 2. Experimental design of the study. Four farms were selected in each of the three landscapes. In each farm a randomized block design was established, with two blocks (absence or presence of Napier grass) and three cropping systems randomly assigned within blocks (sole-maize, maize-common bean and maize-Desmodium).between cropping system and landscape had a significant effect on predator abundance, with higher predator abundance in sole maize plots located in the landscape of intermediate complexity. The generalist predator community was dominated by ants (Formicidae), followed by spiders (Araneae). The abundance of ants was high in the three landscapes, but relatively higher in the maize-Desmodium cropping system with Napier in the complex landscape (Fig. 5). However, the observed differences in predator abundance did not affect egg predation rates. In fact, egg predation was mostly affected by maize development stage with higher predation at maturity (P < 0.01; Fig. 4B) and was lower in maize-bean cropping system (P < 0.05, Table 2). In the landscape of intermediate complexity egg predation rates were highest in the maize-Desmodium cropping system (Fig. 4B), but differences were not significant.Maize yield was not significantly influenced by landscape, presence or absence of Napier grass and intercropping (Appendix C.1). Common bean grain yield in the maize-bean cropping system was 0.64 ± 0.10, 1.03 ± 0.10 and 1.15 ± 0.18 t DM ha −1 in the simple, intermediate and complex landscape, respectively (Appendix C.2); with significantly higher yield in the complex and intermediate landscape compared to the simple landscape (Appendix C.3). In the maize-bean-Napier cropping system, bean grain yield was 0.76 ± 0.09, 1 ± 0.18 and 1.4 ± 0.17 in the simple, intermediate and complex landscape, respectively (Appendix C.2), with significantly higher bean yield in the complex landscape compared to the intermediate landscape (Appendix C.3).While the push-pull system is relatively well studied and promoted in East Africa as a practice that can suppress stemborer and Striga infestations (Khan et al., 2008a), improve soil fertility (Khan et al., 2011) and generate higher economic returns than sole maize (Kipkoech et al., 2006;Khan et al., 2008b), this is the first studyto the best of our knowledgethat examines the performance of the push-pull system in farmers' field conditions along a gradient of landscape complexity. In addition, we assessed the effects of the \"push\" (Desmodium/bean) and \"pull\" (Napier) effects separately to explore opportunities to adjust the system to farmers' realities by changing companion crop species. Trap crops and repellent crops occupy space that many farmers would preferably allocate to food crops. We tested the impact of replacing Desmodium by common bean and removing Napier grass on the performance of the push-pull system (stemborer and natural enemy abundances). We observed that stemborer infestation levels were negatively associated with landscape complexity, while crop diversification (including or not a legume intercrop and Napier grass) did not influence stemborer infestation in both the simple and the complex landscapes. Yet, intercropping decreased stemborer infestation in the landscape of intermediate complexity. Generalist predator abundance tended to be lower in sole maize as compared to maize intercropped with legumes, but this was not the case in the landscape of intermediate complexity. Generalist predator abundance was positively associated Table 1 Determinants of log(x+1)-transformed length of tunnelling in maize plants using a linear mixed model. Landscape complexity (simple, intermediate, complex), napier (presence or absence), cropping system (sole maize, maizebean and maize-Desmodium) were fixed variables while farm was nested in landscape and year was taken as a random variable. The diverse landscape, the maize-Desmodium cropping system, and the presence of Napier, were reference variables. Significant effects (P < 0.05) are shown in bold.  with the presence of Napier grass in the simple, maize-dominated, landscape. Although the impact of stemborer infestation on maize yield was not significant, the yield of bean, Desmodium and Napier grass in the push pull plots represented net gains in terms of food and feed production. These findings provide new insights on the performance of the different components of push-pull in different landscape contexts and can guide the design of ecologically intensive agroecosystems. Underlying mechanisms are explored below.Stemborer infestation rates were higher in the simple, maizedominated, landscape of Hawassa Zuria than in the intermediate and complex landscapes (Figs. 1 and 3). Midega et al (2014) reported that increased grassland ratios within a radius of 400 m around push-pull and sole maize fields led to lower stemborer infestation and higher maize yields. Since grasslands are potential host habitat of stemborers, they may attract stemborers that would otherwise infest maize plant, and thus may reduce infestation in maize crops. However, maize remains the favourite host plant for stemborers and the positive association between proportion of maize in the landscape and stemborer infestation is demonstrated in this study.The 'intermediate complexity landscape hypothesis' postulated by (Tscharntke et al., 2005) predicts that biodiversity-based management actions are more effective in landscapes of intermediate complexity than in simple or complex ones. In simple landscapes, there is too little habitat to support effective natural enemy densities, such that management actions are not effective because of the lack of colonization of natural enemies from the surrounding landscapes. In complex landscapes, the densities of natural enemies may already be high, such that further improvement by habitat management does not lead to further improvement in natural pest regulation. In this study, in the simple and complex landscapes, both the trapping and repellent effects exerted by Napier grass and legume intercrops were not effective. In the simple landscape with a high stemborer abundance, female stemborers were easily able to locate maize plants for egg deposition, independent of the presence of legumes or Napier grass nearby. In contrast, in the complex landscape with few stemborer host plants, stemborer populations and the associated egg deposition were likely to be low, masking potential effects of crop diversification strategies. These findings suggest that further research and implementation of push-pull system should consider the composition of the surrounding landscape for an effective control of stemborer.The presence of Napier grass increased the abundance of generalist predators (mostly ants) in the simple, maize-dominated landscape. The presence of Napier in the landscape of intermediate complexity tended to increase the abundance of generalist predators (P = 0.098). Given the limited amount of semi-natural habitats in the simple landscape, Napier grass could be acting as a physical trap providing shelter for natural enemies (Shelton and Badenes-Perez, 2006). Generalist predators were less abundant in sole-maize crops. These findings are corroborated by previous studies, which showed higher abundance of generalist predators in a push-pull system compared to sole maize (Midega et al., 2004). Such higher abundance of predators is believed to be a result of the presence of associated crops (Midega and Kahn, 2003) and hamper host finding in the system (Eigenbrode et al., 2016), and not only a response to high stemborer abundance.Egg predation rate was influenced by the development stage of maize. Females of B. fusca lay eggs in the leaf sheaths where they are less vulnerable to predation. In the study area, two to three generations per cropping season can occur (Azerefegne and Gebre-Amlak, 1994). The position at which the eggs are found correlates with the developmental stage of the plant (Van Rensburg et al., 1987). With increasing plant age, leaf sheaths fit more loosely around stems making egg batches more visible and accessible to predators, which can explain the higher egg predation rate at maturity compared to grain filling maize development stage (Fig. 4B).Moreover, in the intermediate complexity landscape the presence of Desmodium increased egg predation rates slightly as compared to solemaize or maize-bean cropping systems (Fig. 4B). Common bean is harvested about three months after simultaneous planting with maize, leaving the ground bare in between maize rows, while Desmodium is a perennial plant that covers the maize inter-row throughout the season. Thus, at maize maturity, maize-Desmodium cropping systems present aEstimates of the model for the abundance of generalist predators with negative binomial distribution and egg predation with logit link function. The variables landscape diversity (diverse, intermediate, simple), napier (presence or absence), cropping system (sole maize, maize-bean and maize-Desmodium) and maize development stage (grain filling and maturity) were fixed variables. Farm was taken as a random variable nested in landscape. The diverse landscape, the maize-Desmodium cropping system, the presence of Napier, and the maize development stage maturity were reference variables. Significant effects (P < 0.05) are shown in bold.  Van Hamburg (2015) who demonstrated that Napier planted along two contours of maize fields (in order not to hamper mechanical operations in maize fields) was effective in the control of stemborers. These findings show the specific effect and contribution of the companion crops in the push-pull system in terms of supporting predator abundance and egg predation in contrasting landscapes, and demonstrate the merit of further context-specific optimisation of the design of push-pull systems.4.4. Push-pull had no effect on maize yield, but generated other benefits Maize grain and stover yields were not significantly influenced by stemborer infestation. This result contrasts with previous research in Ethiopia which reported average yield losses due to B. fusca between 12%-40% of the total production depending on agro-climatic zone, maize variety, cropping system, and soil fertility level (Kfir et al., 2002, Mgoo et al., 2006). The limited impact of stemborer on maize yield in our study can be explained in two ways. First, in our experiment, all plots received the recommended fertilisation for the region (100 kg ha −1 of urea and 100 kg kg −1 of DAP), which is higher than typically applied by smallholder farmers. The higher maize vigour may have allowed maize plants to compensate for crop injury caused by stemborers. Second, 2014 and 2015 were low infestation years with mean stemborer densities of less than 0.6 larvae per plant (Kebede et al. in prep). The low infestation level has most likely obscured the negative association between stemborer infestation level and yield.The adoption of the push-pull system by farmers has been limited in Kenya (Fischler, 2010), possibly due to farmers´reluctance to replace food crops, such as common bean, by a fodder crop, and the reluctance to reduce maize production area in favour of a companion trap crops.Our study shows that push-pull systems did not reduce maize grain yield, but rather increased the overall productivity of the system over two years (Appendix C). In the simple landscape, common bean was associated with a similar or higher generalist predator abundances and egg predation rates than Desmodium. However, in contrast to common bean, Desmodium produces highly effective inhibitory compounds against Striga (Hassanali et al., 2008). Therefore, a push-pull system with Desmodium may be advantageous in areas with Striga infestations, which was not the case of the study area.Farming systems in Ethiopia and most of Africa are small-scale integrated crop-livestock systems. However, feed production in these systems is often not sufficient to feed the animals throughout the year and the nutritional quality of the feed is often less than optimal (Tripathi et al., 2006). Napier grass can be very productive with 35-40 t DM ha −1 per year when nitrogen is not a limiting factor (Oliveira et al., 2014). Integrating Napier grass and Desmodium in farming systems can increase feed supply to support livestock production (Tittonell et al., 2009). This is even more pertinent for our study area where farm sizes are small (less than 1 ha) and communal grasslands waning (Kebede et al., 2018). Push-pull systems may not only impact stemborers, but also other lepidopteran pests of maize and other cereals (Hassanali et al., 2008). This is particularly relevant for the control of the invasive fall army worm Spodoptera frugiperda, which recently invaded Africa and poses a major threat to food security and livelihoods in large parts of the continent (Day et al., 2017). Our study suggests that Napier grass can potentially stimulate generalist predators, such as ants, but that this effect depends on landscape context. Since ants can be predators of fall army worms in Latin America (Perfecto and Sediles, 1992), diversified maize cropping systems which support ants may be less prone to fall army worm infestations.While experiments under farmers' fields aim at reflecting reality, the 5 m distance between the two Napier grass sub-treatments in our study (i.e., with or without Napier grass) may have been a limitation of the experimental design, since semiochemical interferences are plausible in the field within such short distances (Eigenbrode et al., 2016). However, since farmer's fields were often smaller than 1 ha, between block distances of more than 5 m were unacceptable for farmers as this would compromise food production and household income. Napier grass showed different levels of growth between the three landscapes due to differences in soil fertility and rainfall distribution. While in the diverse and intermediate landscape Napier grass reached up to 3 m or higher acting as a physical barrier to flying pests, it seldom exceeded 2 m in the simple landscape. In general, farmers were hesitant to provide land for the experiment. Farmers perceived the establishment of Napier grass in the middle of the field as a constraint due to the reduction of the area for their food crops and because Napier grass develops a dense and deep root system that can make ploughing more difficult (Van den Berg and Van Hamburg, 2015).Our study demonstrates the importance of the landscape context on the effectiveness of the push-pull system. Push-pull did not have an effect at decreasing stemborer infestation levels in simple or complex landscapes. However, push-pull contributed to decrease stemborer infestation in the landscape of intermediate complexity where neither host plants nor perennial plants providing habitat to natural enemies were predominant. In addition, we demonstrated that common bean was as efficient as Desmodium in repelling stemborer and may replace it in areas where Striga infestations is not a constraint. Common bean also offered additional benefits in the simple landscape, by increasing the abundance of general predators and egg predation rate (regardless of the presence or absence of Napier) compared with sole maize or maize intercropped with Desmodium. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating that landscape complexity can have an overriding effect on the different semiochemically-mediated components of the push-pull system, which has been so far mainly tested at plot level and as a package. ","tokenCount":"5163"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e06f396bb4252139418ba7e2992b671","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b146bac-0f0b-4166-95cd-88dab824faf1/retrieve","id":"-30065745"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"af59e99d-b160-4a0c-a6fa-f09fbc63fb28","pagecount":"174","content":"Devido a importancia dos graos do feijoeiro (Phaseo/us vulgarís L.) na alimenta~ao humana, esta cultura tem merecido a aten~ao de pesquisadores nacionais e internacionais para aumentar seus nfveis de produtividade, dentro dos padr6es sustentáveis, para suprir as necessidades dos consumidores que aproveitam esses graos como fonte básica e barata de proteínas e calorías, especialmente para as camadas sociais de baixa renda do perímetro urbano.A Embrapa Arroz e Feijao, juntamente com o Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), em colabora~ao com os Institutos Estaduais, Empresas Regionais de Pesquisa Agropecuária e Universidades, tem mantido trabalhos conjuntos para aumentar a produtividade, visando a sustentabilidade da produ~ao desta leguminosa de grao e a preven~ao dos futuros problemas de produ~ao .Havia urna grande carencia de um livro prático e sucinto, onde fossem discutidos os problemas abióticos que afetam o feijoeiro comum, e se pudesse comparar os problemas reais que ocorrem no campo com as figuras ou fotos e as tabelas, e obter sugest6es para seu controle.Este trabalho apresenta um resumo de 1 5 anos de experiencias dos autores, dedicados a busca de solu~6es para os problemas da cultura . Nesta batalha nao haverá, logicamente, vencedores nem vencidos, mas o espfrito de luta da equipe demonstra o esfor~o para elevar o nivel de produtividade obtido atualmente no Brasil, que é de 660 kg/ha por ano .O CIAT e a Embrapa Arroz e Feijao, parceiros da mesma jornada, conseguiram unir os esfor~os e trazar ao público alguns itens que podem ajudar os usuários da tecnología a continuar no oficio da produ~ao , pois nenhum mérito de pesquisa pode existir sem a demanda do públic o e do produtor. Apenas com o espirito de coopera~ao dos diferentes segmentos da agricultura pode-se caminhar, todos conseguindo o retorno desejado.Torrees produzidos em solo preparado com alto teor de umidade ......... . 136 Preparo de solo muito seco, com produc;ao de grandes torrees ............. 1 36 Compactac;iio do solo em camadas mais profundas devido ao uso freqüente de arado de disco ou de grade aradora (pé-de-grade) ............. 1 3 7 Efeito do preparo do solo realizado por grade aradora mal-ajustada, causando o adensamento das rafzes do feijoeiro na camada superficial. .. 1 37 Baixa taxa de germinac;iio causada por mal-ajustamento da p lantadora ... 138 Cultivo mecanizado do feijoeiro, tres semanas após a germinac;iio ......... 138 Capinadeira manual adaptada a trator de baixa potencia .. .... ................. 1 39 Reduc;iio da taxa de germinac;iio e m solos ácidos provocada pela aplicac;iio de altas do ses de fertilizantes ..    O feijao é um dos componentes mais importantes da cesta básica dos brasileiros. O consumo do feijao como alimento popular na refeicao diária constituí um hábito muito saudável porque esta leguminosa, além de contribuir com proteína, fornece também calorías, vitaminas e fibras. No momento, tem-se intensificado campanhas para aumentar o seu consumo em nfvel mundial, com propagandas que incluem desde o controle de anemia até a prevencao do cancer, fonte barata de proteína , Fe e Zn -elementos carentes da populacao urbana -especialmente para as mulheres.A populacao brasileira encontra-se em transicao, isto é, saindo do meio rural para o urbano. Garrett ( 1997) prevé que 70% desta populacao estará ocupando áreas urbanas até o ano 2.005. Para suprir a populacao de baixa renda das periferias dos grandes centros, o feijao pode ser considerado uma cultura sem concorrencia com qualquer outro tipo de grao . Considerando uma taxa de natalidade de 2,2%, significa que 4 milhoes de novos consumidores, equivalentes a uma cidade do tamanho de Belo Horizonte, estarao ingressando anualmente no mercado consumidor. A quantidade de graos para suprir este crescimento é de 56 mil t / ano, considerando u m consumo per capita de 14 k g/ ano, ou o equivalente a producao anual do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Uma alternativa promissora para suprir esta demanda é o uso de alta tecnología, para tornar a lavoura mais eficiente, isto é , produzir maior volume de graos por unidade de área.O cultivo tecnificado de inverno ou de terceira época constituí uma safda viável para estabilizar simultaneamente a producao e o preco do produto ao consumidor. Esta é a única alternativa para a ampliacao da producao sem a expansao da área tradicional de lavoura com a cultura . As derrubadas das matas nao sao mais aconselháveis no mundo moderno e o processo tradicional de derrubada e queima está próximo do limite de sua expansao.Nao se pode desprezar o surgimento do novo tipo de agricultor, de alta tecnología que, no momento, é uma minoría , capaz de produzir feijao de inverno com baixa incidencia de pragas e doen¡;:as atingindo rendimentos médios acima de 2 .000 kg/ ha. Com a utilizacao de alta tecnología, especialmente irrigacao suplementar, a producao transforma em uma atividade economicamente viável inclusive para a utilizacao de corretivos, aduba<;ao adequada, cultivares produtivas, controle de doen<;as, pragas e plantas daninhas. Sem irrigacao, o cultivo pode ser considerado de alto risco. O cultivo de inverno viria ocupar as áreas de pousio para expansao da cultura no Cerrado .Alta tecnología, infelizmente, está muito c riticada por ambientalistas que a consideram um meio de agressao ao meio ambiente. Em vez de considerá-la como solu¡;:ao, consideram-na como problema. Os químicos utilizados na lavoura tecnificada sao apontados como grandes poluidores do len¡;:ol freático, contribuidores para o efeito estufa devido ~ produ¡;:ao de dióxido de carbono e esgotamento rápido das reservas dos hidrocarbonetos oriundos dos fósseis organicos. Esta crítica, em certo grau, é válida apenas para os países desenvolvidos onde a aplica¡;:ao excessiva de aduba¡;:ao nitrogenada e fosfatada é comum. Nos países latino-americanos esta acusa¡;:ao encontra-se tora da realidade. O custo do fertilizante ainda é muito alto para ser usado indiscriminadamente. Por outro lado, quando o produtor está investindo em fertilizantes e corretivos, está protegendo o seu maior patrimonio que é a ferti lidade do seu solo. Solos nao corrigidos sofrem rápido empobrecimento até tornarem improdutivos. A associa¡;:ao de químicos em conjunto com adubos verdes no plantío direto constituí uma inova¡;:ao no controle de lixivia¡;:ao . O plantío direto está se tornando o meio de conscientizar o produtor sobre a necessidade de tecnifica¡;:ao sem agredir o meio ambiente.A área total ocupada pelo feijoeiro anualmente no Brasil está em torno de 5,5 milhoes de hectares considerando as tres épocas; águas, seca e inverno com irriga¡;:ao. Atualmente o feijao de inverno é cultivado em uma área em torno de 200.000 hectares e sua produtividade gira em torno de 1. 700 kg/ ha ou seja duas a tres vezes maior que a do cultivo das outras safras, equivalente a quase um milhao de hectares de lavoura de baixa tecnología.O custo de produ¡;:ao de alta tecnología é mais barato que o da produ¡;:ao familiar se forem considerados os salários da mao-de-obra. Com o aumento do cultivo de inverno em grande escala, aumenta a demanda por mao-de-obra, porque a maioria da colheita é realizada manualmente.A alta tecnología está baseada em quatro componentes na produ¡;:ao de feijoeiro, a saber: irriga¡;:ao, utiliza¡;:ao de insumos químicos, uso de cultivares responsivas a insumos e assistencia técnica.O apoio permanente das altas tecnologías sugeridas nestes sistemas visa assegurar o abastecimento do feijao sustentável e sadio para os consumidores brasileiros.A tarefa de diagnosticar os problemas abióticos nao é tao simples para o técnico poder chegar a uma conclusao imediata . É melhor omitir comentários que emitir sugestoes precipitadas e erradas, evitando, assim, a perda da con-fian¡;:a do agricultor. A palavra vale prata, mas o silencio vale ouro .A primeira parte deste livro destina-se ao uso da prática de produ¡;:ao e a segunda parte constituí uma pe¡;:a de apoio ao diagnóstico de campo.Qualquer crítica construtiva para o aperfei¡;:oamento deste livro será sempre bem-vinda, reservando aos autores a responsabilidade pelos erros contidos nesta edic;:ao.A implanta~ao de urna lavoura compreende o período que vai desde o preparo do solo até o plantío . Mesmo possuindo terras produtivas e pre~o bom do produto no mercado, deve-se evitar plantar feijao, cultivo após cultivo, na mesma área. Com isso, está se evitando o aumento da incidéncia de pragas e inóculos de doen~as comuns a cultura.Para o alcance de alta produtividade deve-se iniciar urna lavoura com a corre~ao do solo, tanto em termos de acidez mostrada .,. alo pH e concen-tra~ao de alumfnio, como pelas baixas concentra~óes dos nutrientes essenciais a cultura . As condi~óes de fertilidade do solo sao conhecidas através de análises químicas, cujos resultados sao mais confiáveis quando as amostras sao coletadas de acordo com algumas normas orientadoras, como : profundidade, número de amostras simples para se formar as amostras compostas, homogeneidade das glebas em rela~ao ao histórico de uso, topografía, vegeta~ao, cor e textura. A lavoura deve ser estabelecida utilizando-se cultivares recomendadas com alto potencial de rendimento, mantida sempre limpa, livre de pragas e doen~as e acompanhada, tecnicamente, desde o plantio até a colheita. A cultura nao deve sofrer estresses hfdricos e por isso recomenda-se amenizar os efeitos dos veranicos com irriga~ao suplementar, sempre que necessário. Durante a colheita do feijoeiro deve-se evitar a perda de graos causada por máquinas nao adaptadas ou inapropriadas ao arranquio, enfileiramento e trilha.Altos níveis de produtividade do feijoeiro sao assegurados a partir do conhecimento da fertilidade natural da área através de amostragem do solo. É essencial que os nutrientes sejam analisados em amostras compostas de solos provenientes de cinco ou mais amostras simples realizadas de O a 20 cm de profundidade .Para coletar amostras do solo, a área deve ser dividida em várias glebas, homogeneamente, de acordo com o histórico de uso, cor e textura, aspectos da vegeta~áo ou plantas daninhas dentro e em torno do terreno. Coletam-se amostras compostas de cada área que apresentam características mareantes, que diferenciam as diversas partes de urna mesma área.O resultado da análise do solo deve ser colocado em um mapa de campo, denominado mapa básico de levantamento 1:50.000, para facilitar a interpreta<;ao da fertilidade e a corret;:ao futura da área . A maior precisao de recomendat;:ao de calagens e adubat;:ao química é obtida de acordo com as informa<;:oes a respeito das deficiencias locais. É importante conhecer o histórico da área que se constitui em um bom parametro para recomendat;:ao de fertilizantes e previsao de custos da produ<;:ao .Alguns problemas podem surgir durante as amostragens, dentre os quais destaca-se a contamina<;ao durante as opera<;:6es manuais no campo que pode tornar-se na maior fonte de erro dos resultados das análises, no processo de avalia~;ao da fertilidade do solo. Todas as ferramentas e recipientes devem ser guardados limpos, os sacos de plástico devem ser novos, isentos de contaminat;:6es como residuos de fertilizantes, corretivos, inseticidas e fungicidas.Amostragens entre 20 e 40 cm, além daquelas retiradas superficialmente, sao muito úteis para determinar a acidez dos horizontes subsuperficiais e conhecer a forma<;:ao de pé-de-grade no solo arável. As análises físicas devem ser realizadas paralelamente as análises químicas, porque as plantas nao conseguem absorver normalmente os nutrientes quando há impedimentos físicos dos solos que também dificultam o arejamento e a movimenta<;:ao da água . Penetrómetro é um aparelho usado para indicar os níveis de adensamentos do solo. A subsolagem, quando necessário, é realizada antes de se fazer qualquer atividade de ara~;ao e gradagem.A quantidade de solo em cada amostragem deve ser de 200 a 500 g, o suficiente para sofrer peneiramento, secagem e moagem. As amostras devem ser etiquetadas com o nome do proprietário, endere<;:o completo , data de amostragem, profundidade da coleta, nome ou número das glebas e subglebas. Se a área já possui o mapa básico, nele devem constar as coordenadas cartesianas, isto é, as posi<;:6es exatas dos locais das amostragens, e o histórico da gleba como : cultivos anteriores, aduba<;:6es recebidas e corre~;oes.Devem-se manter as amostras em locais secos, frescos e sem luz solar para nao sofrer altera<;:6es nas características químicas do solo, atividade biológica, concentra<;ao de matéria organica, fósforo disponível e no pH. Mesmo no laboratório, a manipula<;ao das amostras deve ser realizada em locais sem possibilidades de contamina<;:ao.Comparando os dados obtidos de análises do solo com os das tabelas de recomenda<;6es pode-se determinar se há necessidade, ou nao, de colocar calcário e adubos químicos para adequar o suprimento dos nutrientes ao longo do ciclo vegetativo, ondea demanda varia coma idade de planta. O pique de demanda geral de nutrientes acorre na flora9ao, embora alguns sejam mais absorvidos durante o enchimento de vagens.Quando o pH (solo : água = 1 :2,5) está abaixo de 5,5 há necessidade de aplicar calagens em quantidades dependentes do Poder Relativo de Neutraliza9ao Total (PRNT) do calcário. Deve-se fazer a recomenda9ao apenas após a análise do solo.Aplica-se o calcário antes do período chuvoso, entre seis ou, no mínimo, um mes, antes do preparo do solo. Em caso de emergencia, a aplica9ao do calcário pode ser realizada um pouco antes do plantío, quando a umidade do solo estiver em torno da capacidade do campo. O calcário nao reage em solo seco, nao trazendo nenhum beneficio para o desenvolvimento da planta e produ9ao de graos.Este método é o mais utilizado no Brasil por facilidade de cálculo, embora com bastante imprecisao. Consiste em extrair o aluminio através do cloreto de potássio (Kamprath, 1970, modificado) e calcular a quantidade de calcário a ser aplicada através da fórmula : t calcário/ha = e.mg Al + 3 / 100cc, 100 mi ou 100 g de solo X f. t = 2 para culturas mais exigentes como o feijao e 1 , 5 para as menos exigentes.;áo baseada nas concentrat;6es de alumínio, cálcio e magnésio (Tabela 1 ). o -0,2 0,3 -0,5 0 ,6 -0 ,8 0 ,9 . , , 1 1,2-1.4 1,5 . 1.7 1,8 . 2,0   2,8 . 3,6 2,5 . 3,3 2,2 . 3,0 1,9 . 2 , 7 1,6 . 2.4 , ,3 . 2, 1 1,0 . 1, 8 3 ,6 . 4 ,2 3,3 -3,9 3,0. 3 ,6 2,7 . 3,3 2.4 -3 ,0 2,1 . 2,7 1,8 . 2.4 4 ,2 . 4 ,8 3,9 . 4 ,5 3 ,6 . 4 ,2 3,3 . 3 ,9 3,0 -3,6 2, 7 . 3,3 2,4 -3,0 4 ,8 . 5.4 4 ,5 . 5,1 4 ,2 . 4,8 3,9 . 4 ,5 3,6 . 4 ,2 3 ,3 . 3 ,9 3,0 -3,6 5.4 . 6 ,0 5, 1 . 5, 7 4 ,8 . 5.4 4 ,5 . 5 ,1 4 ,2 . 4,8 3,9. 4 ,5 3,6 . 4 ,2 6 ,0. 6,6 5.7 . 6,3 5.4 . 6 ,0 5,1 . 5, 7 4 ,8 . 5.4 4 ,5 -5 ,1 4 ,2 . 4 ,8 6 ,6 . 7,2 6 ,3. 6 ,9 6 ,0 . 6 ,6 5,7 . 6,3 5.4. 6,0 5,1 . 5,7 4 ,8 . 5.4 7 ,2 -7,8 6,9 . 7,5 6 ,6 . 7 ,2 6,3 . 6 ,9 6,0 . 6,6 5 ,7 . 6 ,3 5.4 -6,0 Obs : quando a quantidade de calcário ultrapassar a 3 t /ha é recomendável aplicá-la em duas ou trés parcelas. • Q = quantidade de calcário dolomítico a ser aplicada em t /ha Exemplo:A análise do solo indicou teores de Ca + Mg (e.mg/ 1 00 ce) = 1 e de Al = 0 ,5 e.mg/ 1 00 ce. A Tabela 1 indica para aplicar quantidades entre 2,7 a 3,3 t de calcário dolomítico por hectare (no caso seri a 3 t /ha com PRNT = 100%).Método baseado na satura9ao de bases (IAC) Valor S == (Soma das bases trocáveis == Ca + Mg + K ) == 0,40 + O, 18 + 0 ,25 == 0 ,83 e.mg/ 1 OOcc Valor T == (Capacidade de troca cationica ou CTC == Ca + Mg + K + Al + H ou S + Al + H) == 0 ,83 -! • 0,45 + 5,5 ::::: 6 , 78 e.mg/ 1 00 ce.Valor V 1 == S(f X 100 ::::: 0 ,83/6 , 78 X 100 = 12,2 %. Valor V 2 = a satura9ao de base requerida par-a a cultura do feijoeiro está entre 70 e 80% e, neste caso , usou-se 75 %.O PRNT (Poder Relativ o de Neutralizac;:ao Total) deste calcário é 90% . O fator P: a quantidade de calcário a ser aplicada no solo é calculada para uma profundidade padrao de 20 cm (denominada solo arável) , onde P = 1 .Quando se considera a incorporac;:ao até 30 cm de profundidade é necessário acrescentar o valor de P, multiplicando-o por 1.5 (30/ 20) para chegar a quantidade correta de calcário para corrigir até nesta profundidade .Cálculo da necessidade de calcário: (V 2 -V,) T (75,0 -12,2) 6 , 78 t calcário/ha X p = ---------v 1,5 ::::: 7,09 PRNT 90O feijoeiro, por ser uma cultura exigente em fertilidade , necessita de adubac;:ao balanceada para expressar todo o seu potencial produtivo. Existem dois tipos de adubac;:ao química: corretiva ou básica e de manutenc;:ao. A corretiva é usada para propiciar condic;:oes para o feijoeiro crescer no solo de baixa fertilidade. Normalmente, nesta modalidade de adubac;:ao, o solo deve receber calagem para correc;:ao de pH ( entre 5, 7 até 6,2 ) e baixar o teor de alumfnio livre até menos de 0 ,3 e.mg Al/ 1 00 ce do solo.A adubac;:ao de manutenc;:ao, tem como objetivo colocar, a disposic;:ao do feijoeiro, os nutrientes necessários para o seu desenvolvimento e produc;ao. As vezes, a calagem , com doses menores pode ser realizada para corrigir levemente a acidez do solo provocada por aduba9ao química repetitiva.O fósforo é o elemento mais carente nos solos brasileiros e o nutriente mais exigido pelo feijoeiro após o nitrogenio. O teor de fósforo disponível , pode ser usado como um bom indicador de fertilidade do solo. Basicamente, as recomendac;oes de adubac;ao fosfatada estao diretamente relacionadas com a concentrac;ao de fósforo e do teor de argila (Tabela 2). Através de resinas extratoras, o teor de P extraído é aproximadamente o dobro. Os teores de fósforo sao considerados, respectivamente, muito baixos, baixos, médios e altos para fim de recomenda<;:ao da correc;ao de fertilidade do solo. Quando os solos apresentam alta fertilidade em nível de fósforo, acima de 1 O ppm , recomenda-se aplicar quantidades de fertilizantes fosfatados equivalentes as doses mais baixas recomendadas para estimular o crescimento e ajudar a cultivar expressar todo seu potencial de rendimento.As doses de fósforo para a cultura irrigada devem ser aumentadas (Tabelas 2 e 3) devido ao grande aumento de produc;ao obtida em condic;oes de boa umidade e maior requerimento de nutrientes pela cultura. As culturas consorc iadas geralmente recebem apenas aduba96es de complementa9ao (Tabela 4) . A grande maioria produz apenas com o residual da cultura principal, geralmente o milho .Utiliza-se a aduba9ao potássica (Tabela 5) com finalidade múltipla . A primeira é suprir as necessidades da cultura e, a segunda, de reposi9ao de K no solo. Confere também as plantas alguma resistencia a acamamentos, ataque de pragas e doen9as.A aduba9ao nitrogenada está muito relacionada com a aduba9ao fosfatada. Doses maiores de fósforo requerem maiores quantidades de nitrogenio. As culturas mais tecnificadas, geralmente, sao mais produtivas , por isso requerem também maiores quantidades de fertilizantes . Aplica-se o nitrogenio de forma fracionada, um terc;o no plantío e dois terc;os em cobertura (Tabela 6) , em torno de tres semanas após a germinac;ao . As quantidades recomendadas dependem da expectativa do rendímento. Adubac;ao nitrogenada até 132 kg/ha foi considerada, ainda, económica para atingir produc;;6es de até 3 .079 kg/ha (Barbosa & Silva, 1994). Adubac;ao pesada pode causar efeito negativo na produc;ao provocando excesso de área foliar e acamamento da lavoura, além do ataque severo de doenc;as como o crestamento-bacteriano .A necessidade da aplicac;ao de micronutrientes está relacionada com a carencia de cada nutriente e com o pH do solo. A correc;ao de pH é feíta através da calagem. Recomendac;6es de calagens para o feijoeiro tem sido feítas para corrigir o aluminio do solo levando-se em considerac;ao os teores de cálcio e magnésio. O método científico baseia-se na saturac;ao de base, contudo, esse processo tem-se adaptado melhor para solos de fertilidade média a alta. Quando a soma de cátions é muito alta ou muito baixa, geralmente as quantidades de calcário recomendadas nao corrigem racionalmente as carencias do solo e as necessidades da planta, ou superestimam, ou , subestimam as quantidades de calcário a serem aplicadas.Quando grandes quantidades de calcário sao recomendadas para os solos com baixa capacidade tampao, como a maioria dos solos tropicais, o pH do solo torna-se muito elevado e alguns micronutrientes sao complexados tornando-os nao disponíveis para as plantas.Os micronutrientes sao essenciais para o crescimento da planta, embora requeridos em pequenas quantidades (Tabela 7) . Deve-se aplicar até atingir o nível crítico requerido pela cultura. A deficiencia de um deles pode Baixa 0 ,5-1 ,0 500 0,3-0,6 1500 2,5-5,0 1000 2,0-4,0Nivel crítico > 1,0 250 >0,6 750 >5,0 500 >4,0Obs:disponibilibidade média e equilibrada de nutrientes ocorre entre pH 5,7 a 6,2 1 ) concentra~ao no solo 21 dose recomendada Fonte: Oliveira, Embrapa-CNPAF, 1997. Tem-se recomendado, para áreas pequenas, a aduba<;:ao organica comesterco de aves, suínos e bovinos e composto de bagacilho de cana. Para áreas maiores nao existe disponibilidade de fertilizante organico suficiente para satisfazer a demanda.O esterco é rico em nutrientes (Tabela 8) e pode suprir as necessidades de micronutrientes da cultura por algum tempo.Recomenda-se o plantio de leguminosa ou adubo verde quando o terreno encontra-se em pousio ou em entressafra, com a umidade ainda suficiente para o crescimento da planta. Mucuna-preta (Sti/ozobium mucunoides) ou cinza (Stilozobium deetingianum) tem boa adapta<;:ao ao ecossistema do cerrado e produzem até 50 t de matéria verde num período de oito meses (Tabela 9).A matéria seca produzida na Embrapa Arroz e Feijao, Goiania-GO por algumas leguminosas variaram entre 1 a 27 t /ha em um período de oito meses. O processo de mineraliza<;:ao desta matéria organica come<;:ou quando a umidade do solo foi suficiente, liberando gradativamente nutrientes para nutrientes para o feijoeiro. Em geral, o nitrogénio e o potássio foram os nutrientes mais extraídos pelas leguminosas testadas, superando as doses de fertilizantes aplicadas na cultura. Para a maioria das leguminosas, que possui rela9ao estreita de C/N , a taxa de decomposic;ao é muito rápida e a disponibilidade dos nutrientes pode nao coincidir com a demanda máxima do feijoeiro . Nesse caso, o nitrogénio pode ser perdido por lixivia9ao.As quantidades absorvidas pelas leguminosas e que tornam disponíveis para a culturas variam com as espécies (Tabela 1 0) . Devem-se realizar práticas conservacionistas dentro e em torno da área de plantío . Curvas de níveis, sejam de base estreita ou de base larga, sao indicadas para evitar erosáo durante a época chuvosa. Solos com declividade a partir de 2% apresentam carreamento de nutrientes da camada superficial de até 3 t /ha , local ande se concentra a maior atividade biológica.O preparo mecanice do solo tem a finalidade de proporcionar melhores condi<;oes para o desenvolvimento do feijoeiro como preserva<;ao da umidade do solo e elimina<;ao das plantas daninhas no período inicial de crescimento. Para se chegar a condi96es ideais de cultivo é necessário acompanhar um cronograma de trabalho, utilizando implementos agrícolas apropriados para ara<;ao e gradagens antes do plantío. O plantío requer muito tráfego de máquinas no campo e quase sempre forma uma camada subsuperficial compactada pela a9ao dos pneus dos implementos e tratares. Esta compacta<;ao fica mais grave quando o preparo do solo acontece em solo com umidade elevada . O uso de grade pesada pode criar pé-de-grade que nao se percebe a olho nu, mas os penetrometros podem detectar esta compacta<;áo, que é prejudiciaf ao desenvolvimento das raízes do feijoeiro.Antes do uso de qualquer máquina agrícola é necessário fazer um levantamento do tipo e quantidade de plantas daninhas que infestam a área a ser cultivada e, no futuro, controlar com maior eficiencia, as plantas daninhas. Os restos organices sao muito importantes e atuam como fonte de nutrientes e controlador de umidade, principalmente nos cerrados, onde a produ<;ao de biomassa é baixa. O benefício da incorpora9ao da matéria organica é maior que a sua queima ou retirada da área (Thung & Cabrera, 1996). Usa-se a grade niveladora para incorpora<;ao e tombamento da matéria organica, facilitando as opera96es de ara9ao e gradagens. Após o corte das ervas e restos culturais, deve-se esperar o tempo necessário para sua secagem a fim de evitar possíveis rebrotamentos.No preparo do solo para a cultura de inverno, época da seca no cerrado, a secagem dos restos organices acorre em cinco días. A incorpora<;ao da matéria organica muito seca retarda sua decomposi<;ao e mineraliza9ao. O potencial de nutrientes da matéria organica para reciclagem é suficientemente alto, mesmo que a matéria organica seja de origem de plantas nao leguminosas. As quantidades de nutrientes produzidos nos solos com altos e baixos teores de fósforo, durante cinco meses, oriundos da matéria organica de plantas daninhas sao apresentadas nas Tabelas 11 e 12. A queima reduz muito a quantidade de nutrientes deixada no solo através da volatiliza<;ao no processo de combustao e pelas lavagens e lixivia<;ao das cinzas acumuladas na superficie. De modo geral, as altas quantidades de nitrogenio e potássio recomendadas para as culturas podem se justificar com a elimina-<;ao destes nutrientes juntamente com os residuos organicos da área. Tradicionalmente, realiza-se o preparo do solo a urna profundidade entre 20 e 40 cm com o objetivo de melhorar a porosidade, facilitar a germina~;ao das sementes e o desenvolvimento do sistema radicular. Ara~;oes consecutivas, em solo seco, podem pulverizar a estrutura do solo, criando condi~;oes para compacta~;ao superficial das áreas agrícolas quando a água deixa de ser absorvida, ocorrendo lavagem de terra durante o período chuvoso. Como conseqüencia ocorrem erosoe~ laminares e em sulcos.Os implementos mais utilizados sao os arados de disco e os de aiveca. O primeiro prepara o solo com maior rapidez e exige menor potencia do trator. O arado de aiveca te m a vantagem de cortar o solo e m maior profundidade, incorporar melhor o resto cultural ou resfduo de plantas daninhas, além de fazer um melhor deitamento da leiva. O solo fica livre de infesta~;ao de plantas daninhas por mais tempo .Tem-se usado variar, periodicamente , o tipo de implemento para evitar a formac;ao de pé-de-grade devido ao uso constante de um mesmo implemento.A época de ara~;ao é muito importante para melhorar a qualidade do preparo do solo. Ara~;ao, em época muito seca, exige maior potencia do trator com forma~;ao de torroes grandes prejudiciais ao plantío e a germi-na~;ao de sementes. Em época muito úmida é comum haver forma~;ao de adensamento de camadas subsuperficiais ou pé-de-grade e, conseqüentemente, desenvolver plantas com sistema radicular superficial.Ara~;oes realizadas em solo com umidade em torno da capacidade de campo resultam em campos melhor preparados que em solo muito seco ou muito úmido, dispensando a necessidade da gradagem de nivelamento. Reduz-se o gasto de combustfvel, além de diminuir o risco de compacta~;ao do solo através do tráfego de máquinas na lavoura.Em cultivos realizados sob irriga~;ao , recomenda-se aplicar quantidades de água em torno de 50 mm depois da ara<;ao para criar condi~;oes para que as sementes da cultura anterior e as •plantas daninhas germinem e sejam eliminadas na opera~;ao da gradagem. A grade niveladora exerce papel importante na corre~;ao do solo mal préJ!)arado, com ondula~;oes irregulares e torroes volumosos nos casos de solo muito seco ou com excesso de umidade. Na prática, os agricultores podem verificar o excesso de umidade através da colorac;ao do solo ou usando teste simples de pressao entre os dedos indicador e polegar . Se o solo molhar os dedos e nao pingar. água durant e a pressao , a umidade está boa para gradagem. Deve-se realizar a gradagem de nivelamento lago após a ara~ao . Ocasionalmente, há necessidade de se passar a grade até tres vezes para destruir os torroes secos . Pode-se utilizar a última passagem para aplicar herbicidas de pré-plantio. Recomenda-se nao passar grades repetidamente para evitar a forma~ao de compacta~ao superficial e erosao devido il pulveriza~ao de agregados do solo, que, junto com água forma o crestamento superficial.Antes da última passagem de grade leve, normalmente usa-se aplicar herbicida pré-emergente incorporado. Se nao for necessário a incorpora-~ao do herbicida, pode-se aplicar após o plantío mas antes da germina~ao (e m pré-emergencia) . Outra alternativa de utiliza~ao de herbicida pós-emergente é quando o feijoeiro está em torno de duas a tres semanas. Esse t ipo de herbicida normalmente requer um solo com boa umidade para ser efetivo.A Tabela 13 apresenta alguns herbicidas utilizados e recomendados, nome do ingrediente ativo e suas doses para o feijoeiro em solos com diferentes teores de argila. Argiloso 12 ,01 tem demonstrado baixo potencial produtivo e apresentam alta incidenc1 d de plantas daninhas em focos generalizados de doen<;:as e pragas. Chamada de plantío direto, semeadura direta, plantío direto na palha, cultivo mínimo, cultivo zero, plantío sem preparo e sistema sem nenhum preparo, constituí uma técnica que consiste em dessecar plantas dahinhas de cobertura (com controle químico das plantas daninhas em substitui<;:ao ao controle manual mec §nico) aplicar corretivos, colocar semente e adubo em solo nao trabalhado ou danificado, devido ao uso de implementos agrícolas (arados, grades e escarificadores e outros). RealizaJo em solo coberto por restevas de culturas anteriores ou pastos velhos utilizando implementos agrícolas capazes de cortar os resíduos das plantas, abrir sulco de plantío de menor espessura possível e depositar semente na profundidade adequada, possibilitando o seu contato perfeito com a terra e, ao mesmo tempo, deixando o adubo abaixo e ao lado da semente.O plantío direto nao é uma solu<;:ao completa para aumentar a produ-<;:ao e, ao mesmo tempo, mantera sustentabilidade do solo. Como acúmulo de matéria org §nica e condi<;:oes úmidas constantes na camada superficial do solo, a prolifera<;:ao de doen<;:as e pragas é maior que em solos secos dos cerrados. Para contornar futuros problemas é necessário seguir reco-menda<;:oes técnicas. Antes de se implantar esse sistema em um campo novo, recomenda-se observar os seguintes aspectos: Avalia<;:ao do grau de posicionamento nos horizontes da camada compactada do solo (pé-de-grade ou pé-de-arado) . 2 Corre<;:ao da acidez e dos nfveis de fertilidade das áreas, principalmente do fósforo. 3 Elimina<;:ao das altas infesta<;:oes de plantas daninhas, como as de difícil controle como capins perenes (Brachiaria spp, Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers, Sorghum halepens (L) Pers e outros, guanxuma (Sida spp) , mariamole (Senecio brasiliensis Less), tiririca (Ciperus spp) e outros. 4 Rota<;:ao de culturas, objetivando minimizar a compacta<;:ao do solo, reciclagem e incorpora<;:ao dos nutrientes, aumento da matéria org §nica e, principalmente, cobertura da superffcie do solo. Este sistema nao admite o pousio com o solo descoberto.A rota<;:ao é de fundamental importancia para a sustentabilidade do sistema, levando-se em considera<;:ao o ciclo completo de cada cultura adaptada para cada regiao, preferencialmente nao alelopáticas com a cultura base, no caso o feijoeiro, e de ciclo de rotac;ao nunca superior a dois anos.Deve-se fazer a correc;iio do teor de matéria organica através de plantas produtoras de grandes quantidades de massa, gramfnea ou leguminosa, por serem de fácil produc;ao de sementes, rústicas em relac;ao a tolerancia de doenc;as e pragas, a baixa fertilidade, secas, geadas e outros fatores. Recomendam-se plantas de desenvolvimento vegetativo inicial rápido, de fácil controle, de baixo custo de implantac;ao, manutenc;ao económica e eficientes no controle de plantas daninhas; ter a possibilidade de outras utilizac;:oes como forragem , feno, silagem, apfcola e outras qualidades. Devem-se evitar plantas hospedeiras de pragas e doenc;:as comuns as culturas comerciais.O período pluviométrico é muito importante para se estabelecer uma rotac;ao de culturas. Quando as reg ioes apresentam as precipitac;:oes concentradas em curto perfodo de tempo, como no cerrado, poucas sao as opc;oes de rotac;ao de culturas. O período crítico das culturas de safrinha deve acorrer, no máximo, até o final da primeira quinzena de maio. Nesta condic;ao é necessário verificar se o sistema de cultivo é tradicional ou se uti liza irrigac;:ao complementar. Para o feijao, é importante que se produza graos de qualidade comercial, assim, a cultura deve entrar no sistema quando existe condic;oes de colheita tora da época chuvosa. Por isso, pretere-se que o plantío direto seja com irrigac;ao complementar para exercer controle direto sobre a época de aplicac;ao de água .A s rotac;:oes de cultura em plantío direto, no Brasil, variam de acordo com a necessidade de produc;:ao da cultura principal, com o nível de tecnología disponível e as condic;oes climáticas de cada regiao .Para as culturas principais, nas regioes tropicais nao-irrigadas , as rotac;oes mais comuns sao: Ouando as condi96es físicas e qurmicas do solo nao comprometem a primeira cultura, basta dessecar as ervas ocupantes da área com herbicidas, aguardar o tempo necessário para prejudicar o desenvolvimento das invasoras e semear diretamente a cultura aplicando corretivos como cálcib solúvel ou enxofre e fertilizantes nas quantidades exigidas pelas culturas.Em solos degradados e muito pobres, antes de se proceder o plantio direto propriamente dito, é necessário fazer a sua corre9a0 utilizando urna planta boa produtora de massa verde e/ou fixadora de nitrogénio antes de urna ou duas culturas, para entrar no processo produtivo com vantagens no armazenamento de água e redu9ao no uso de fertilizantes.O resfduo da cultura prote9ao seja pasto, guandu, sorgo ou milheto, deve ser incorporado ao solo através de rolo-faca, grades niveladoras e/ou herbicidas na fase de flora9ao/enchimento de graos, deixando-o sobre a superficie do solo para efetuar a semeadura. Esses implementos sao causadores de compacta9ao do solo e, por isso, esta opera9ao deve ser realizada quando a umidade do solo se encontra em torno da capacidade de campo.Os residuos das culturas devem ser incorporados, após a colheita, com o objetivo de produzir graos, sejam de feijao, soja, milho, arroz, trigo e outras culturas subseqüentes, através de picador de palha, para facilitar o uso de herbicidas e semeadoras.A matéria org §nica de cobertura oferece condi9oes favoráveis a manu-ten9ao de umidade, temperatura, disponibilidade de nutrientes e calorias necessárias ao desenvolvimento de organismos.O número de minhocas aumenta com conseqüente aumento dos canalfculos do solo facilitando a movimenta9ao de água e de ar. Esses organismos sao responsáveis pela humifica9ao de matéria org §nica resultando em incorpora9ao dos resfduos org §nicos ao complexo do solo facilitando, ao mesmo tempo, a mobiliza9ao dos minerais do ambiente. O transporte e a simultanea mistura do solo sao realizados também por enchitrefdes, cupins, formigas, ácaros, lesmas, protozoários e insetos subterr §neos.A estrutura do solo é melhorada pela agrega9ao de partículas resultante da a9ao de minhocas, cupins e isópodes que ingerem partfculas de solo contendo matéria organica e a expelem em forma de agregados.Surge grande número de corós de pastagem (Diloboderus abderus) da ordem dos Coleópteros, Melolonthidae e Dynastinae que, embora considerados pragas sao recicladores de matéria organica e transportadores de nutrientes da superficie para as subc amadas do solo.As rafzes sao favorecidas pela melhoria das características f ísicas, químicas e biológicas do solo. A a9ao dos microorganismos fixadores de nitrogénio é intensificada pela facilidade em utilizar a energia do fosfato disponfvel na solu9ao do solo para fixa9ao de nitrogénio por microorganismos simbióticos ou de vida livre. b) Condi9oes qufmicas A camada arável dos solos tropicais apresenta baixa concentra9ao de matéria orgAnica, baixa capacidade de t roca, baixa soma de bases, altos teores de alumfnio e ferro e alta fixa9ao de fósforo. A corre9ao do solo com calcário e a quebra das camadas adensadas com posterior aumento do teor de matéria org §nica melhoram todas as características químicas do solo.O sistema, de início, exige maiores quantidades de nitrogénio devido ao acúmulo de matéria org §nica nova produzida, mas, após a segunda ou terceira cultura acorre um equilfbrio no balanc;;o de nitrogénio produzido e consumido desde que se faca rotac;;áo gramínea-leguminosa na seqüéncia das culturas.Consideram-se adequados alguns índices de fertilidade para que o plantío direto desenvolva sem problema de fertilidade: matéria org §nica >2%; pH acima de 5,5; cálcio >2 e.mg/ 100cc; magnésio>0,8 e.mg/ 1 OOcc; fósforo > 20ppm; potássio > 50ppm; boro > 1 ppm; cobre > 1 ppm; manganés > 5ppm; molibdénio >0,2ppm e zinco >4ppm . e) Condic;;óes físicas O aumento do teor de matéria org §nica do solo facilita maior infiltrac;;áo e disponibilidade de água e menor parda de solo, tanto por erosáo eólica como hídrica. Evita a formac;;áo de crosta e selamento da superficie arável. Melhora a estrutura do solo e aumenta a estabilidade dos agregados.A cobertura da superficie do solo e o acúmulo de matéria org §nica reduzem a evaporac;;áo de água e aumenta a transpirac;;áo de culturas como o feijoeiro. Mantém a água livre do solo por períodos mais prolongados. Minimiza o afeito depreciativo do veranico. Reduz o ressecamento rápido da superficie do solo e, conseqüentemente, controla os aumentos bruscos e drásticos de temperatura, ao mesmo tempo em que reduz o efeito do vento na evapora<;ao de água. Aumenta a eficiéncia do uso de água das irrigac;;óes.Emprega-se o plantío direto tanto para pequenas como em grandes áreas. Nao exige essencialmente que o agricultor tenha máquinas pesadas, o importante é que dentro de suas condic;;óes desenvolva tecnicamente a sua atividade. Pode-se fazer uso de tratar ou animal. Existem aradoras, sulcadoras, niveladoras, semeadoras e adubadoras de trac;;áo animal que fazem o servic;;o de corte, sulcagem, nivelamento, semeio e adubac;;áo, respectivamente sem comprometer a qualidade do sistema .A abertura do sulco pode ser feíta através de disco de corte duplo defasado, defasado recortado e disco defasado combinado de faca.Recomendam-se máquinas com mecanismos dosadores de rotor canelado, disco perfurado horizontal ou inclinado, discos com células verticais e pneumáticos . Os mecanismos distribuidores de adubo podem ser do tipo roseta, parafuso helicoidal e do tipo rotor.Os discos mais usados nestes implementos sao do tipo lisos, ondulados, estriados e corrugados.Em aplica96es normais tem-se usado dosagens que variam de 2,0 a 3,0 //ha de produto comercial de Glifosato ou Paraquat + Diuron. Nas infesta96es mistas de plantas daninhas de folhas largas e estreitas, adiciona-se, na primeira aplica9ao, 0,8 a 1 ,O //ha de produto comercial a base de 2,4 D amina.Obtem-se os melhores desempenhos das plantadeiras entre cinco a dez días após a desseca9ao. Intervalos superiores favorecem a reinfesta9ao de plantas daninhas, necessitando aptecipar a aplica9ao de produtos préemergentes. Nas desseca96es com 2,4 D amina, deve-se manter um intervalo de tres a cinco días, caso contrário, poderao acorrer síntomas de fitotoxidez, dependendo da cultura, cultivar e tipo solo.Existem vários herbicidas nao tóxicos recomendados para o plantío direto. O 2,4 D só é tóxico quando utilizado em altas dosagens. Consideram -se nao tóxicos: Atrazine, Bromacyl, Cyanazine, Daiapon, Diuron, Limiron, MCPA e Trifluralina.Tem-se considerado a minhoca como o termometro sobre o estado de fertilidade do solo. Em plantío direto tem-se observado maior número desses animais que em plantío convencional.A escolha da cultivar é muito importante para o rendimento da cultura. Grande parte da demanda de feijao, no Brasil, está relacionada aos tipos de graos carioca e preto, mas em algumas regioes, os graos roxo, roxao e jalo sao muito procurados. No Nordeste, o feijao tradicional é o Mulatinho senda substitufdo pelo Carioca. Há demanda, em pequena quantidade, de graos com tamanho mediano como Jalo, Manteigao, Carnaval, Rajado e Bagajó, que podem ter o pfe9o mais alto que qualquer outro tipo de grao pequeno. Deve-se realizar o plantío somente com as cultivares recomendadas . A lista das cultivares é publicada anualmente e sua utiliza-9ao facilita a obten9ao de crédito para plantío.As cultivares recomendadas e tolerantes para cada Estado do Brasil encontram-se listadas na Tabela 14, para o ano agrfcola 1997/ 1998. As pragas das raízes e da parte aérea que atacam a planta desde a germina9ao até a colheita sao várias. O maior problema acorre quando a planta é atacada em seu estádio jovem, quando dificilmente se recupera prejudicando a produ9ao de graos. Em muitas condi96es, o uso de pesticidas é inevitável, mas recomenda-se tratar primeiro as sementes como produto químico e somente depois de secas é que se aplica o inoculante.Deve-se tratar a semente do feijoeiro com inseticida (Tabela 15) para evitar ataque de insetos do solo e grilos. Furadan líquido é um químico eficaz, mas muito tóxico ao homem e prejudicial ao meio ambiente . Se for necessária urna aplica9ao de micronutrientes , podem ser misturados com os produtos químicos para combater pr~gas e doen9as do solo. Ouando as deficiencias de microelementos persistirem , recomendam-se aplica96es foliares adicionais de fertilizantes, especialmente em solo de fertilidade média a alta, ande os micronutrientes sao normalmente limitantes de rendimento. Neste caso a aduba9ao foliar terá efeito complementar da aduba-9ao básica .A inocula9ao de sementes com rizóbio é muito importante, mas as bactérias fixadoras de nitrogénio nem sempre sao capazes de suprir todo nitrogénio requerido para alto nível de rendimento. Existem, no mercado, inoculantes apropriados contendo essas bactérias e recomenda-se 0,5 kg de inoculante com 600 ce de água, acrescentando 50 g de a9úcar cristal e 60 g de polvilho de mandioca ou farinha de trigo em 300 ce de água fervente que , ao estriar, atinge um volume de 600 ce . Esta solu9ao é suficiente para inocular 40 kg de semente . Sementes inoculadas devem ser plantadas no mesmo dia, devendo a inocula9ao ser feita com auxílio de um aderente como água e a9úcar cristal. Alguns nutrientes devem ser acrescentados como molibdenio, cobalto, enxofre, cálcio e ferro .Mesmo procedendo a inocula9ao das sementes, recomenda-se aplicar pequenas quantidades de nitrogenio, nao devendo ultrapassar 5 kg/ha, pois nessa fase, a planta nao se encontra habilitada para fixar nitrogenio suficiente para suprir suas necessidades. Para atingir produtividades além de 3 ,5 t/ ha, é necessário aplicar doses de nitrogénio entre 1 00 a 120 kg/ha parcelado em até tres vezes; no plantio (20 kg/ha). 21 dias após a germina-9ao (50 kg/ha) e antes da flora9ao (50 kg/ha) . Barbosa & Silva (1994) conseguiram produ96es acima de 3 t /ha aplicando em feij6es de sementes de tamanho pequeno 130 kg/ha. Deve-se aplicar doses mais elevadas de nitrogenio para feijoes de sementes de tamanho médio como Jalo, Bagajó, Favinha ou Carnaval. Deve-se observar a validade do inoculante e verificar como foi armazenado, uma vez que as bactérias nao devem ser expostas a ac;:ao de raios solares. Recomenda-se guardar o inoculante em lugar fresco ou em recipiente refrigerado.Deve-se calibrar bem a máquina plantadora para obtenc;:ao de um estande uniforme. Para cultivares de hábito de crescimento determinados de tipo 1 (Novo Jalo ou Jalo precoce), a distancia recomendada entre sulcos é 40 cm com mais de 15 sementes por metro linear, que produzirao um estande inicial de 375.000 plantas/ha. Para o tipo 11 (Safira, Diamante Negro, Xamego, Rio Tibagi ) ou 111 (Pérola, Aporé e Carioca) a distancia recomendada entre sulcos é 50 cm com mais de 18 sementes por metro linear, que produzirao um estande inicial de 300.000 plantas/ha. No decorrer do tempo, várias plantas morrem por doenc;:as do solo e da parte aérea, podendo chegar a um estande final de 250.000 plantas/ha. Para cultivares de hábito de crescimento 1 , determinado, como Goiano Precoce, a distancia entre sulcos pode ser de 40 cm e o número de sementes pode chegar a 20 por m/linear para obtens;ao de um estande inicial de 350.000 plantas/ha . Necessita-se maior densidade para compensar a pouca capacidade de ramificas;ao das cultivares de tipo l. O pres:o da semente do feijoeiro, no Brasil, nao pesa muito no custo de produs;ao, normalmente atinge, no máximo, 20%. Recomenda-se o uso de sementes fiscalizadas para assegurar a qualidade e o sucesso do plantio.Existem duas épocas de plantio tradicional, a das águas, denominada de primeira safra, quando comes:a a época de chuva, e das secas, chamada de segunda safra (Tabela 16) realizada no final do perfodo chuvoso. Os plantios irrigados, (plantados normalmente no inverno nas regióes onde a maioria dos di as sao de temperatura acima de 1 2° C), denominados de terceira época, atualmente sao responsáveis pelas maiores produtividades do feijoeiro.Época recomendada para plantío do feijoeiro, sem irriga~iio, em Importantes regioes do Brasil. O consumo de água pelo feijoeiro varia conforme o sistema de preparo do solo, cultivar, número de plantas por hectare, época de plantío e adubac;ao, por isso, exige manejos diferenciados de irrigac;ao. A irrigac;ao em excesso e/ou preparo do solo inadequado favorecem a desintegrac;ao dos agregados.Dentre as principais características/propriedades físicas relacionadas diretamente a irrigac;ao estao a porosidade, a densidade e a estrutura. A porosidade determina o movimento da água no solo, os macroporos sao responsáveis pela movimentac;ao de água livre e os microporos pela retenc;:ao e movimento de água por capilaridade. A água suficiente disponível, ao longo do tempo, melhora os processos de contato da raíz com os nutrientes através do maior crescimento do sistema radicular (intercepc;ao radicular) , maior volume de água carregada de nutrientes (fluxo de massa) e movimento de ron nao móvel devido a criac;ao de um gradiente de concentrac;:ao de nutrientes (difusao).A prática do uso de plantío direto aumenta gradualmente o conteúdo de matéria organica, que melhora o armazenamento e o movimento da água no solo . A quantidade de água armazenada nas áreas de plantío direto sao maiores, em torno de 20 a 30% , que a das áreas utilizadas com plantío tradicional. A cobertura do solo proveniente dos restos de culturas e plantas daninhas, neste sistema, nao somente protege a superffcie do solo contra erosao, como também, reduz a evaporac;:ao, minimizando o consumo de água de irrigac;ao . Urna certa margem de água disponfvel é muito importante, porque a exigencia da água pela cultura aumenta com a idade da planta.O preparo do solo utilizando arado de aivecas, que permite remover o solo a maior profundidade, aumenta o arejamento dos solos, favorecendo o processo biológico e economizando até 50% da água de irrigaqáo.O clima é um fator importante no consumo de água. Épocas ou regióes quentes, secas e ventosas exigem aplicac;:óes de maiores vqÍumes de água.Há um grande número de pequenas lavouras cultivadas em terrenos próximos as várzeas e com grandes facilidades para irrigac;:ao. Algumas sao irrigadas através de inundac;ao em sulcos urna ou duas vezes por semana, outras por aspersáo. As duas formas de irrigac;:ao tem proporcionado urna produc;:ao de até tres toneladas por hectare .Por outro lado, existem produtores de milho que visam a comercializac;:ao de espigas, os quais tem plantado o feijao em consórcio irrigado. Embora o primeiro interesse desses produtores seja a produc;:ao de milho, o feijao vem baratear o custo da lavoura e aumentar o lucro do produtor. Neste caso, nao se atingirá o rendimento potencial, pois existe competic;:ao entre espécies por água, nutrientes e luz.Fatores a serem considerados na implanta¡;;ao da irriga<;ao:1 Levantamento dos recursos e ,cqndic:;oes O produtor deve estar ciente que a irriga<;ao requer cuidados constantes para que o resultado seja satisfatório. O plano de t~abalho deve ser feíto levando-se em considera<;ao os sete días da . ser:nana, domingos e feriados, e também os días que nao terao assistenc.ia direta do usuário.2 Levantamento da área a ser irrigada Quando as áreas sao de primeiro plantío deve-se COf1hecer O percurso da água no terreno, para evitar grandes perdas de áreas ou falta de água para ser utilizada .3 A valiac:;ao da fonte de á gua Antes da implanta<;:ao da irriga<;:ao deve-se verificar a.vazao da água e o direito de uso por terceiros.4 Tipo de solo A implanta¡;;ao do sistema em área arenosa requer maior número de aspersores ou turno de rega mais freqüente. Os solos argilosos retem maior quantidade de água que o solo arenoso, porém, devem-se evitar excessos devido a sua facilidade de alagamento.5 Clima Além da necessidade da planta, que varia com o hábito da cultura , algumas perdas de água vao variar com o clima da regiao que é influenciado pelos ventas, temperatura e umidade relativa. t 6 Projeto mecanico e hidráulicoDefinidos os recursos humanos e físicos é necessário esquematizar, de forma ilustrada, a coloca<;:ao de bombas, canos de irriga<;ao e aspersores. Definir também o turno de rega, período de irriga<;:ao e tipo de aspersor.¡;.A primeira preocupa<;:ao do produtor de feijao das secas e de inverno deve ser coma disponibilidade de água. Para regioes montanhosas como as de Minas Gerais, Espfrito Santo e Rio de Janeiro, a produ<;:ao do feijao da seca é regular, mesmo quando as chuvas cessam após a implanta<;ao da cultura . A umidade do ar consegue manter a umidade do solo em condi<;oes regulares para o desenvolvimento do feijoeiro. Nas regioes de umidade relativa baixa, como a dos Estados localizados na regiao do Centro-Oeste, devem-se implantar as lavouras nos locais onde se pode contar com irriga<;oes complementares. A irriga<;ao constituí o principal fator que determina o consumo da água em cada regiao, nfvel de rendimento esperado, safra, época de plantío e etapa de crescimento da planta do feijoeiro . A quantidade de água necessárfa para irriga~ao do feijoeiro deve ser estabelecida para cada regiao, com critérios próprios, pois, nao é possível transferir estes dados para outro local ou regiao . Através do coeficiente da cultura (Kc), um valor de referéncia entre as culturas com as plantas de referencias (lpomoea batata e Paspa/um notatum l.), em conjunto com os dados médios de evapora9ao de um tanque classe A , estima-se a demanda de água para cada etapa de crescimento. Steinmetz (1984) e Stone & Moreira (1986) estimaram a demanda de água para a regiao de cerrado de Goiás, estipulando valores de Kc para cada etapa de crescimento do feijoeiro (Tabela 17) .O valor de evapotranspira9ao nos días de vento forte e alta velocidade aumenta consideravelmente. Solo arenoso necessita de mais água por dia que solo argiloso. Nao só a quantidade da água é importante para irrigayao, também, a sua qualidade. Normalmente, em regioes de cerrado, a qualidade da água nao é um problema, exceto quando contaminada por esgotos ou resíduos de fábrica. No Nordeste brasileiro, em vários lugares, a água de poyos artesianos é salobra, portante, nao adequada para irrigayáO . Recomenda-se utilizar águas que apresentem até 250 micromhos/cm, pois, lavouras irrigadas com água com mais que 750 micromhos/cm tem sua produtividade bastante comprometida .Consideram-se solos salinos aqueles que apresentam pH abaixo de 8 , 5, condutividade elétrica de satura~;ao (CE) acima de 4 ,0 mmhos/cm e porcentagem de sódio trocável (PST) abaixo de 15; solos sódicos quando apresentam pH acima de 8,5, CE abaixo e 4 ,0 mmhos/cm e PST acima de 15 e, solo salino sódico com pH abaixo de 8, 5, CE acima de 4,0 mmhos/cm e PST acima de 15. Nas áreas irrigadas, 25 % dos solos estao, de certo modo, com problemas de excesso de sais solúveis e/ou sódio trocável (Pereira et al., 1986) .A condutividade elétrica (CE) é expressa em mmhos, por centímetro a 25°C. De modo geral , também pode-se medir a quantidade de sólidos dissolvidos na água onde cada ppm equivale a 0,64 micromhos ou mmhos.US Salinity Laboratory Staff ( 1954) mod ificada por Thorne & Peterson ( 1965), classifica a água e m seis categorias de perigo por salinidade : c1 contém < 250 micromhos -pode-se utilizar água desta qualidade para irriga<;:ao, mas, de vez em quando, deve ser lixiviada em condi<;:ao de solo pesado (argiloso ou argilo siltoso).C 2 entre 250 -750 micromhos -pode-se utilizar em solos que apresentam um grau moderado de lixivia-<;:ao.C 3 entre 750 -2250 micromhos -utiliza-se para irriga<;:ao sob condi<;:6es especiais, como em solos com boa drenagem.C 4 entre 2250 -4000 micromhos -salinidade elevada. Nao recomendase para irriga<;:ao.C 5 entre 4000 -6000 micromhos -salinidade excessivamente elevada .ce > 6000 micromhos -nunca pode-se utilizar para irriga<;:ao .Para o feijoeiro, o nível de cloreto é muito importante porque é urna planta muito sensfvel a este anion . A concentra<;:ao de 5 ppm de cloreto em solu<;:ao nutritiva (DeBouck, 1976) e 350 ppm na solu<;:ao do solo, na capacidade de campo, nao deve ser atingida .Aplicat;:ao de calcário ou gesso pode diminuir o problema de sódio levado pela água de irriga~¡:ao , como acorre no regiao do Nordeste brasileiro ande o clima é muito seco e a água subterranea é salobra. Em solo arenoso podese aplicar água menos favorável para irriga~¡:ao devido a facilidade de lixiviat;:ao .A disponibilidade de água para a lavoura deve ser monitorada com tensiómetro. A quantidade de água disponfvel para plantas deve estar entre a capacidade de campo (CC) em armazenar água e o ponto de murcha (água nao disponfvel) . Quando os valores estao e m torno do ponto de murcha (PM) o cálculo de água de irriga~¡:ao é dado pelo valor do cálculo da lamina de irriga~¡:ao (LL) . Como estes valores sao constantes para a mesma área e as plantas vao exigindo quantidades crescentes de água até a format;:ao das vagens, aconselha-se combinar aumento de água aplicada com redut;:ao de turno de rega até a cultura reduzir o seu consumo.Cálculo de lamina de irriga~¡:ao : LL = (CC -MI) x PC ande: LL = água de irriga~¡:ao CC = capacidade de campo (tensao O, 1 bar = 0,28 ce de água em 1 ce do solo) MI = umidade do solo desejada na tensao de irriga~¡:ao (tensao 0,3 bar = 0,23 ce de água em 1 ce de solo). Pe = espessura da camada de solo (em cm) .Como nao existe uma máquina ideal para irriga~¡:ao, deve-se considerar a eficiencia do equipamento utilizado em funt;:ao da lamina bruta de água (LB) a ser aplicada, dada pela fórmula : LB = LL/EA EA = Eficiencia de aplicat;:ao do pivo, por exemplo, igual a 0,83, a lamina bruta de irriga~¡:ao será: LB = 15/0,83 = 18 mm. Com a redut;:ao do teor de água do solo, a cor da folhagem do feijoeiro passa do verde normal para um verde azul escuro . Se a falta de água persiste, as folhas baixas amarelecem e caem. A planta inteira fica como se estivesse deficiente em fósforo . A cor azulada, muita vezes, pode ser usada por agricultores experientes, como indicac;:ao da necessidade de irrigac;:ao .A maioria das pragas e algumas doenc;:as da lavoura pode ser controlada, ou, pelo menos, seu dano pode ser minimizado, quando observadas no início da infestac;:ao . Por esta razao, a lavoura deve ser observada diariamente para verificar a presenc;:a de plantas daninhas, insetos, bem como o aspecto da planta em relac;:ao as doenc;:as.As plantas daninhas competem com o feijoeiro em água , luz e nutrientes. A intensidade dessa competic;:ao depende de vários fatores como: espécie, densidade, fertilidade do solo , disponibilidade de água e hábito de crescimento da cultura . O feijoeiro nao tolera a concorrencia de plantas daninhas até 30 días após a sua emergencia . Para áreas pequenas, duas capinas sao suficientes para manter a lavoura limpa e obter boas produc;:oes. Segundo Rodrigues & Almeida ( 1995), quando as lavouras sao extensas o controle das plantas daninhas é feíto com o uso de herbicidas (Tabela 13).As pequenas lavouras geralmente sao bem mais cuidadas que as muito extensas. A limpeza, algumas vezes, é feíta manualmente ou com carpideiras de trac;:ao animal. Quando as ervas sao pequenas há condic;:oes de se utilizar capinadeiras e bicos-de-pato que permitem, ao mesmo tempo , eliminar as plantas daninhas e chegar terra na planta. Esta operac;:ao é bastante discutida entre os produtores de áreas muito extensas, mas constituí tradic;:ao entre os pequenos agricultores por mostrar resultados positivos em relac;:ao ao desenvolvimento da planta em curto espac;:o de tempo .As doen~s constituem um dos principais fatores que contribuem para a reduc;:ao da produc;:ao. O controle deve ser preventivo, iniciando-se antes mesmo do plantío, com a escolha das cultivares resistentes e/ou tolerantes as principais enfermidades (Apéndices 1 a 9) . Após a escolha da cultivar, deve-se dedicar atenc;:ao especial a origem da semente . O agricultor deve utilizar sementes fiscalizadas . Entretanto, outras sementes também podem ser empregadas no plantio desde que de boa qualidade.Durante o desenvolvimento da cultura, por muitas vezes, torna-se imprescindfvel, o tratamento químico (Tabela 18) ou a eliminac;:ao de plantas atetadas tao lago se observem os primeiros sintomas .Existem doenc;:as comuns a época de trio e a época de calor acompanhadas do alto teor de umidade relativa do ar. O controle da maioria das doenc;:as de importancia económica tem sido feito a partir de sementes limpas provenientes de cultivares tolerantes . As cultivares modernas, geralmente sao mais tolerantes que as antigas para a maioria das doenc;:as . Fonte: COMP~NDIO de defensivos agrlcolas (19 9 6).As doenc;:as radiculares mais comuns, causadas por fungos , de importancia no Brasil e na América Latina sao:Existem dais tipos de fusarioses causados por fungos . A mais comum é a murcha ou amarelecimento-de-Fusarium. Esta doenc;:a tem como agente o Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. phaseo/i (Schlecht .f.sp. phaseoli Kendrick and Snyder) . A outra fusariose é dominada de podridao-seca-das-raízes, que tem como agente o Fusarium solani (Mart.) Appel and Wollenv. f . p. phaseo/i (Burk.) Snyder and Hans. Esta doenc;:a é menos comum no Brasil que em outros países de América Latina .O controle químico através do tratamento de semente com benomyl, thiram 70 S, captafol (Difolatan), carboxin (Vitavax) protege a planta apenas por curto período de tempo após a germinac;:ao .Recomendam-se práticas culturais como o uso cultivares resistentes além de rotac;:ao de cultura (apendice anexo) .O mofo-branco é causado pelo o fungo Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (sin. Whetzelinia sclerotiorum) (Lib .) de Bary e sua ocorrencia é muito comum nas áreas irrigadas quando nao se utilizam sementes sadias. A prática de rotac;:ao de culturas nao tem tido muito sucesso porque o fungo pode crescer na cultura sucessiva, hospedando em muitas espécies, por isso , poucas opc;:oes sao disponfveis para rotac;:ao de cultura.O controle químico com benomyl , dicloran, thiofanato metnico + mancozeb nem sempre é efetivo, princ ipalmente, quando o grau de infestac;:ao do terreno é muito alto .A podridao-cinzenta-do-caule é causada pelo fungo Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid., comumente encontrado nas regioes com temperaturas acima de 30° C associadas aos altos estresses hídricos. Existem várias cultivares resistentes.Esta doen¡;;a é causada pelo fungo Rhizoctonia solani (Kühn) . Recomenda-se o controle químico através da aplica¡;;ao dos seguintes produtos: benomyl (Benlate 500). carboxin (Vitavax 750). captan (Captan 750). Terrachlor 750, em tratamento de sementes, que poderá aliviar a incid~ncia da doen¡;;a desde que o inóculo nao esteja muito concentrado no solo .As práticas culturais como rota¡;;ao de culturas com mucuna-preta , crotalária ou gramíneas podem diminuir a quantidade de inóculos no solo.A podridao-do-colo causada pelo fungo Sclerotium rolfsií (Sacc.) é muito comum no feijoeiro, no Brasil. Verificam-se perdas significativas quando a cultura é desenvolvida em solos leves, com umidade próximo a capacidade de campo e com elavada densidade de inóculo.Recomendam-se medidas de controle através de tratamento qufmico das sementes com produtos a base de benomyl, captan e carboxin; fumi-ga¡;;ao do solo com brometo de metila e cloropicrina; calagem, aplica¡;;ao de resfduos organicos com alta rela<;ao CI N e ara¡;;ao profunda .Nas regioes quentes e úmidas dos trópicos, a doen¡;;a denominada mela causada pelo fungo Thanatephorus cucumeris Frank (Donk) constitui o único fator limitante a expansao do feijoeiro . Nao identificou-se, ainda, a fonte de resist~ncia genética de Phaseolus vulgaris a esta doen¡;;a.Até o momento, a única recomenda¡;;ao sao as práticas culturais como plantio direto sobre a palha (denominado sistema TAPADA) ou plantio direto mecanizado .Phytium sp . = Podridao-úmida-das-raízes, que infecciona o hipocótilo e as hastes.Fusarium oxysporum f . sp. tracheiphilum = murcha-do-fusário que ataca as folhas, infloresc~ncias , e ramos.As práticas culturais para cultivar feijao em solos infestados por inóculos de doen¡;;as radiculares devem ser mais ac uradas e melhor monitoradas, porque, além de contaminar outras áreas através do tráfago dos implementos agrícolas podem , também, aumentar o número de inóculos no local de acorrencía. Arac;ao profunda com aiveca, entre 30 a 40 cm, invertendo a leiva completamente, e plantío entre 3 a 5 cm de profundidade podem diminuir a incidencia dessas doenc;as. Rotac;ao de culturas constituí, também, uma prática essencial para o seu controle . Quando acorre compactac;ao das camadas mais profundas do solo, sao normais as ocorrencias de alagamentos causados por chuvas devido a baixa capacidade de infiltrac;ao do excesso de água, aumentando, desse modo, a incidencia das doenc;as radiculares.As pragas naturalmente atacam as lavouras do inicio até o f inal da cultura . Quando se faz o tratamento das sementes com produtos a base de carbofuran ou carbosulfan tem-se o controle dos insetos da lavoura como lagarta-elasmo, lagarta-rosca (Agrotis), grilos em torno de 30 a 40 dias. Devem-se tomar alguns c uidados ao se fazer o tratamento de sementes; os gases tóxicos liberados pelos produtos químicos quando inalados ou através do contato direto com o carpo humano podem intoxicar os operários de campo.Os ataques de pragas acorridos durante o ciclo de desenvolvimento da cultura podem ser controlados com inseticidas específicos (Tabela 19) .Há quatro espécies comuns que atacam o feijoeiro no campo, Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica, Meloidogyne arenaría e Meloidogyne hapla. Meloidogyne incognita divide-se em várias rac;as que dificultam a identificac;ao das linhagens tolerantes ou resistentes.Recomenda-se o controle com cravo-de-defunto Marigold ( Tagetes minuta) ou aveia preta (Avena sativa cv . Saia) . É ditrcil medir o sucesso de seu uso e, por isso, a difusao desta prática é muito lenta. O controle é realizado principalmente através da utilizac;:ao de linhagens resistentes (apéndice) .Os produtos químicos usados no tratamento do solo sao muito caros . O tratamento de semente com fenamiphos (Nemacur), carbofuran (Furadan), ou aldicarb (Temik) sao, ainda, a melhor opc;ao no momento . Ataca plllntulas durante a época seca quando estao recentemente germinadas.O controle qufmico de semente com carbofuran ou aldicarb pode evitar a incidéncia generalizada deste fungo .Nematóides das lesoes radiculares (Pratylenchus), nematóide cavernícola (Radopholus} , nematóide reniforme (Rotylenchus} , nematóide espiralado (Rotylenchulus} , nematóide anelado (Paratrichodorus} sao ectoparasitas, cujos danos sao pouco conhecidos .Praticamente, nao há diferen<;a significativa de ciclo de vegeta<;ao do feijoeiro entre as safras tradicionais, seja na regiao.Sul como clima subtropical , ou Norte com o clima tropical. No terceiro plantío ou plantío de inverno, onde nao há perigo de geadas, o ciclo do feijoeiro varia entre 85 a 95 dias, ou seja, 1 O dias a mais que nas safras tradicionais . A dificuldade em determinar o ponto da colheita através do tempo de pós-emergéncia, deve-se as varia<;oes da temperatura no decorrer do ciclo vegetativo da cultura e do ano agrfcola, tanto na regiao Norte como na regiao Sul.Determina-se o ponto de colheita de uma lavoura pela mudan<;a de colora<;ao das plantas e, especialmente, pela cor das vagens. Ouando as vagens apresentarem um amarelo-palha, os graos encontram-se com uma umidade que varia entre 18 a 22%, podendo chegar entre 14 e 16% após a bate<;ao e abana<;ao. Fisiologicamente, as sementes dentro das vagens estao maduras quando a cor das sementes estiver fixada e a umidade atingir valores abaixo de 22%. Na prática isto ocorre quando 50% das vagens mudam a cor verde pela cor creme . Algumas cultivares antigas tém problemas de deiscéncia . Quando a colheita é tardía, a perda é significativa especialmente quando a colheita ocorre na época muito seca e com umidade do ar muito baixa, mas estas condi~oes sao desejáveis para se obter graos de alta qualidade comercial (sem manchas como os produzidos nas safras das uáguas\" ).Além da umidade do grao, que deve estar em torno de 14%, deve-se realizar o tratamento da semente para evitar ataque de insetos no armazenamento. A maioria das pragas de armazenamento vem do campo. Os adultos colocam ovos nas vagens e nos graos, que se desenvolvem nos graos após a bate<;iío, quando nao se faz o tratamento das sementes. Recomenda-se usar, para o controle de carunchos, produtos a base de fosfina na quantidade de tres comprimidos por metro cúbico de sementes.O produto recomendado para tratamento de sementes é o Shellgran. Sementes tratadas com este produto sao impróprias para consumo humano.O armazenamento deve ser feíto em locais secos para evitar o desenvolvimento de fungos e bactérias . Para consumo doméstico tem-se utilizado armazenar as sementes em recipientes fechados, sem oxigenio, condic;ao adversa ao desenvolvimento das pragas dos graos.Para evitar a infestac;ao do carunho (Zabrotes subfaciatus, Bohemann) mantendo a qualidade da semente , aplicar gastoxin bem antes do armazenamento. PARTE 11O feijoeiro é urna das culturas mais importantes dentre as leguminosas na América Latina, em muitas regi6es da África e em alguns países da Ásia. Tradicionalmente, foi cultivado em todas essas regi6es sem irrigac;:ao, mas em solos de boa fertilidade. Com a expansao da produc;:ao do feijoeiro nesses países para as áreas agrícolas marginais, o uso de fertilizantes tornou-se indispensável. Entretanto, o consumo de fertilizantes químicos nas regi6es tropicais para esta cultura é pequeno quando comparado com o das zonas temperadas. A combinac;:ao de baixo uso de fertilizantes, solos inférteis e má distribuic;:ao de chuvas resulta em baixa produtividade do feijoeiro, cuja média, no Brasil, está em torno de 500 kg/ha (Thung et al. , 1991 ).Por outro lado, quando a irrigac;:ao é viável, o cultivo é feíto intensivamente, com alto consumo de insumas, resultando em produc;:6es acima de 2, 5 t /ha. Nesses dois extremos de situac;:ao, síntomas de deficiencia nutricional e/ou de toxicidade sao encontrados no campo por produtores, extensionistas e pesquisadores. Muitas vezes, os problemas nutricionais sao ocasionados por falta ou excesso de um ou mais nutrientes, e a incerteza na determinac;:ao do(s) fator(es) aumenta quando se necessita determinar o(s) tipo(s) de deficiencia(s) ou de excesso(s) que está(ao) atetando a cultura.O diagnóstico dos problemas abióticos é mais diffcil que o dos problemas bióticos. Os problemas bióticos sempre causam síntomas típicos da doenc;:a ou dos danos provocados por pragas, os quais podem ser reconhe• cidos facilmente por aqueles que sao familiarizados com eles. Os problemas abióticos sao causados normalmente por vários fatores, que agem simultaneamente e difícilmente produzem síntomas típicos. Para complicar ainda mais a situac;:ao, os síntomas variam de acordo com a intensidade da deficiencia/toxicidade e o número de elementos tóxicos envolvidos . Por exemplo , os síntomas de toxicidade de aluminio em Oxissolos sao normalmente confusos, pois podem ser o resultado de um efeito conjunto de excesso de aluminio em combinac;:ao com carencias de cálcio e/ou de fósforo. Em solos formados por cinzas vulcanicas, a toxicidade de aluminio é normalmente acompanhada pela toxicidade de manganes. Urna característica típica de um síntoma de deficiencia de um elemento pode aparecer no campo sornente quando o estresse causado na planta já é bastante severo, embora a deficiencia já estivesse presente no inicio do desenvolvimento da cultura. Outra complicac;:ao ocorre quando se trata de doenc;:as viróticas, cujos sinto• mas se assemelham a diferentes tipos de toxicidade e vice-versa. Um exemplo típico ocorreu no Estado de Sao Paulo, quando a toxicidade de manganes foi confundida com urna doenc;:a virótica (Menten et al., 1981 ).As figmas apresentadas neste documento foram, na maioria, tiradas no campo. Porém, há alguns tipos de deficiencia que raramente ocorrem isoladamente no campo, como a de cálcio e, nestes casos, houve necessidade de induzí-las em campo para obter os síntomas secundários causados pela falta de calagem. Algumas vezes, os síntomas produzidos em ambientes fechados diferem dos síntomas correspondentes no campo. Por isso, sugere-se que, além das observa<;:6es minuciosas no campo, se fac;:am entrevistas com os produtores para auxiliar a diagnose dos problemas da cultura. As amostras de tecidos e de solo devem ser coletadas e analisadas antes da caracterizac;:ao final da anomalía observada . No sentido de nao perder a confianc;:a dos produtores por decis6es erradas e comentários precipitados, as recomenda<;:6es e correc;:6es devem ser feítas após o conhecimento íntimo das inter-relac;:oes dos fatores agronómicos e nutricionais e, melhor ainda, quando os resultados das análises de solo e de tecido apóiam o diagnóstico e a recomendac;:ao.Normalmente, o problema da deficiencia nutricional é causado por vários elementos, que agem ao mesmo tempo. Muito raramente acorre deficienc. ia de um só elemento. Somente em solos arenosos já foi observada deficiencia de nitrogenio isolada em feijoeiro, ocorrendo desde o início do crescimento até o final do ciclo. Sem aplica9áo de adubos nitrogenados em doses adequadas, a planta nao cresce normalmente. Em solos ácidos, como os da Regiao de Cerrado, no Brasil, há um complexo de deficiencias e toxicidades, que agem em conjunto. Neste tipo de solo, além da aplica<;:8o de calcário para neutralizar as toxicidades -normalmente de alumínio e em poucas ocasi6es de magnésio -também é necessário aplicar fertilizantes fosfatados e nitrogenados. Sem essas correc;:6es, as plantas de feijoeiro apresentam crescimento raquftico. É ba.stante difícil identificar o(s) elemento(s) que está (ao) faltando nesta planta raquftica. O excesso de alumínio, que provoca toxicidade, causa redu<;:ao do sistema radicular e, com poucas raízes, a deficiencia de fósforo na planta é agravada, pois é um elemento pouco móvef no solo. Portanto, o conjunto de deficiencias e toxicidades provoca a reduc;:ao do crescimento da parte aérea da planta que, entao, mostra aparencia raquftica. O conceito de utilizac;:ao de plantas mais tolerantes a toxicidade de alumínio é ainda pouco desenvolvido. Até o momento houve identificac;:ao de poucos germoplasmas de feijoeiro tolerantes ao alumínio. Mesmo as cultivares Carioca e Rio Tibagi, classificadas como tolerantes, nao mostraram muita diferen9a em aparencia ou crescimento na lavoura, apenas apresentando maior rendimento de graos devido a sua tolerancia moderada a toxicidade de alumfnio.Também há poucos germoplasmas identificados em rela9ao a eficiencia de uso do fósforo . Mais recentemente , foram detectados alguns germoplasmas oriundos do Altiplano Andino e do México com melhor capacidade de uso do baixo teor de fósforo disponfvel no solo, com rendimentos superiores a outras cultivares . Porém, nao foi possfvel utilizar estes germoplasmas diretamente para os produtores, pois sao muito suscetfveis a doen9as . Até o presente momento, a diferen9a entre cultivares tolerantes e nao-tolerantes, ou eficientes e nao-eficientes, só aparece em rela9ao ao rendimento . Outros parametros, como taxa de elonga9ao das raízes ou alta atividade da enzima fosfatase, ainda nao sao confiáveis.A importancia da deficiencia de fósforo para a cultura do feijoeiro é muito significativa . Estima-se que aproximadamente seis milhOes de hectares de lavouras de feijoeiro na América Latina sofrem deficiencia de fósforo, sendo 350 mil ha em áreas irrigadas, 1 milhao ha na regiao semiárida do Altiplano do México, 400 mil ha em áreas sub-úmidas da América Central , 250 mil ha em regioes sub-úmidas da Zona Andina, 800 mil ha no Cerrado do Brasil, 2 milhoes ha em regioes sub-úmidas do Sul do Brasil e Noroeste da Argentina e 200 mil ha na regiao do Trópico Baixo e nas margens da Floresta Amazónica.Existem dois tipos de seca, causados pela falta absoluta de chuva ou pela má distribui9ao das chuvas durante o ciclo de crescimento do feijoeiro. Em geral , a seca atinge quase todas as lavouras de feijoeiro sem irriga9ao do Brasil, causando flutua96es de rendimento e do pre9o do feijao no mercado. A importancia da seca para a produc;ao do feijoeiro só é menor que a do problema da baixa fertilidade do solo .Os dois tipos de seca nao causam prejuízos somente no Brasil , mas também em outros pafses da América Latina, onde, aproximadamente 60% das lavouras de feijoeiro sofrem seus efeitos. Nesta situa9ao estao 1 , 5 milhao de ha na Regiao Nordeste do Brasil e 1 milhao de ha no Altiplano Centro-norte do México.A maior perda de nutrientes na cultura do feijoeiro nao acorre através da exporta9ao de nutrientes realizada pela colheita dos graos, mas , principalmente, devido a erosao do solo. A desordem nutricional é normalmente um problema causado pelo homem, exceto quando a deficiencia de um nutriente é inerente ao solo.Em algumas áreas agrícolas, mesmo sofrendo o efeito danoso da erosao, a produtividade do feijoeiro permanece constante ou crescente por curto espa90 de tempo . Esse aumento de produtividade mostra a tolerancia daquele solo ao efeito da erosao, conhecido como valor T, de acordo com Universal Soil Loss Equivalent (USLE) . A razao da tolerancia destes solos ainda nao é clara . O valor T termina em um certo ponto e, acima deste, a produtividade nao pode ser mais mantida, caindo rapidamente . Nos Estados Unidos, o valor T do solo situa-se entre 4 , 5 e 11 , 2 t / ha/ano . Nos trópicos, o valor T nao é amplamente conhecido e, no Brasil , semente poucos Estados tem conduzido pesquisas sobre os efeitos da erosao . Os dados preliminares sobre erodibilidade nos Oxissolos e os efeitos da erosao causada pela chuva ainda nao sao suficientes para estimar o valor T nas condi96es brasileiras .O feijoeiro adapta-se bem em clima ameno e, por isso, na agricultura tradicional de subsistencia é cultivado em meias-encostas, muitas vezes entre cascalhos e pedregulhos, como cultivo secundário, após arroz ou milho, em cultura de ro9ado e queima (Figura 1 ). Como boa prática, esses pequenos agricultores nao removem a serrapilheira , mulch ou pedras, com isso, o efeito da erosao tem sido significativamente reduzido (Figuras 2 e 3) .Quaisquer solos, se nao apropriadamente manejados, estao sujeitos a erosao. Normalmente, após duas ou mais estac;:oes chuvosas, a camada arável da maioria dos solos é erodida (Figura 4), resultando em urna queda brusca da fertilidade do solo e da produtividade . Em solos ondulados, os produtores só detectam a erosao laminar quando percebem os depósitos de terra acumulados nas partes baixas da sua lavoura (Figura 5) . Em muitas regioes tradicionalmente produtoras de feijao, as áreas sao abandonadas devido a erosao, como no noroeste do Paraná, ande a terra transformou-se em superfície lunar (Figura 6), e em Goiás, ande a erosao produziu grandes voc;:orocas (Figura 7) . Encontra-se na Tabela 20 a comparac;:ao entre o teor de nutrientes de um solo erodido e de amostras de solos comuns coletadas na camada de 0 -20 cm .     Qualidade do solo erodido (Oxissolo) plantado com feijoeiro, com 2% e 8% de declividade, sob 403 mm de precipita«;:ao durante um ciclo da cultura, comparado com as caracterrsticas qulmicas locais de solos nao erodidos. Pode-se observar que os solos erodidos, na camada de 0-20 cm, contem mais nutrientes e matéria organica que os nao erodidos. lsso significa que as camadas subsuperficiais possuem reservas maiores que as superficiais e nao foram tao prejudicadas pelo efeito da erosao. Com o decorrer do tempo, a fertilidade desta camada pode cair, havendo queda simultanea de produtividade.No Brasil, a produc;ao total de feijao pode ser mantida em torno de 2,8 milhoes t /ano, somente com a expansao da área plantada. Em campos nao irrigados, a produtividade do feijoeiro declinou de 1 .000 kg/ha, em 1970, para valores inferiores a 500 kg/ha, em 1991. Durante os anos 70, a reduc;ao na produtividade do feijoeiro foi causada pelo deslocamento das áreas de produc;ao das regioes tradicionalmente férteis para as áreas marginais, devido a rápida expansao da produc;ao de soja . Na década de 80, novas cultivares foram lanc;adas, substituindo as tradicionais, pouco adaptadas a solos ácidos e inférteis. Mesmo com cultivares melhoradas, a produtividade continuou decrescendo. A razao desse declfnio é o efeito da erosao e o uso de práticas culturais inadequadas, especialmente no preparo do solo.O sistema de plantío irrigado tomou-se popular nos anos 80, em regioes onde as temperaturas no inverno nao ficam abaixo de 1 OOC. Neste tipo de sistema, o feijoeiro é cultivado intensivamente utilizando-se alto investimento, e a produtividade varia de 2 .500 a 3.000 kg/ha. Após alguns anos, a produtividade tem declinado, mesmo com o aumento dos insumas químicos. Esta queda é atribuída a compactac;ao do solo, formac;ao de pé-de-grade e perda de matéria organica, além do aumento significativo da incidencia de fungos e pragas. O comec;o da degradac;ao do solo nao é percebido pelos agricultores, porque acorre de forma gradual, através de erosao laminar causada pela água das chuvas (Rgura 8) . O terraceamento e o cordao em contorno podem reduzir significativamente a erosao do solo; mesmo assim, a erosao ainda acorre devido a precipitac;ao na estac;ao chuvosa em solos sem vegetac;ao ou sem cultura de cobertura.A polftica oficial que estimula o produtor a utilizar práticas de conservac;ao do solo é considerada incipiente para que acorra um controle racional da erosao.O preparo do solo inadequado, realizado com grade de disco, contribuí significativamente para a desagregac;ao do solo, acelerando o processo de erosao. O plantío com cultivo mínimo está senda implementado, mas nao pode ser executado em todos os tipos de solos. Para utilizac;ao do cultivo mínimo, o solo deve ter sua fertilidade corrigida com calcário e fertilizantes, após o conhecimento de sua aptidao agrícola, devendo-se utilizar práticas culturais adequadas. Alguns proprietários relutam em adatar o cultivo mínimo devido ao alto prec;o dos herbicidas e as perdas de produtividade no primeiro e no segundo ano, além de terem pouca experiéncia com o uso de herbicidas e desconhecerem o efeito residual sobre as culturas subseqüentes. É necessária urna boa divulga<;ao, através do servi<;o de extensao, para ajudar os agricultores adotarem essas t écnicas, mas poucos extensionistas estao preparados para administrar todo o complexo que envolve as práticas culturais mínimas.A erosao do solo nao acontece somente na América Latina, mas em qualquer lugar do mundo, incluindo os países desenvolvidos. A diferen<;a reside na assisténcia técnica e na consciéncia dos proprietários em cada país. Nos países em desenvolvimento, os proprietários agroindustriais querem conseguir lucro máximo no mais curto período de tempo e, se a terra está exaurida, o agricultor muda para outra área . lsso é possível quando há terras ainda disponíveis. Porém, a abertura de novas áreas através de derrubada e queima de florestas primárias e secundárias (Figura 9) está sendo restringida. Assim , os produtores sem recursos sao fon;:ados a trabalhar nas terras disponíveis. Oeste modo, o conhecimento sobre o controle da erosao e a utiliza9ao de práticas culturais de conserva9ao ainda no campo sujo tornam-se imperativos. Método de derrubada e queima. Uma prática cultural popular, mas preJUiliiCii:ll ao ambiente, realizada por agricultores sem maquinário.O entendimento da func;:áo de cada nutriente ou elemento essencial nos processos fisiológicos da planta ajuda a definir e a caracterizar melhor os sintomas de deficiencia. Os nutrientes inorganicos essenciais a planta sáo divididos e m quatro grupos, mostrados a seguir.Carbono, hidrogenio, nitrogenio e oxigenio constituem mais de 96% do peso seco da planta . O nitrogenio e o fósforo sáo os fatores mais limitantes da produc;:áo do feijoeiro e, normalmente, sáo aplicados com os fertilizantes (Thung, 1990); o hidrogenio e o oxigenio derivam da água e o carbono do C0 2 do ar. A deficiencia de enxofre é ainda rara na maioria das áreas onde se cultiva o feijoeiro .Esses sao fans metálicos necessários como cofatores de algumas enzimas. Constituem os componentes nao protéicos das enzimas. A associ-a<;:ao entre os cofatores e as enzimas é essencial para a atividade enzimática normal. Na ausencia do ron inorganico requerido, a atividade dessas enzimas pode reduzir-se a zero.O cofator pode trabalhar mantendo a concentra<;:ao iónica no ambiente, como, por exemplo, potássio, cálcio e manganes, ou ligando o substrato com a enzima, como magnésio e zinco.Se o cofator comp6e a liga<;:ao organica é chamada de coenzima.Esses tres elementos regulam a libera<;:ao de energía da fotossíntese ou da respira<;:ao, gradualmente, através do processo de redu<;:ao e/ou oxi-da<;:ao . Além dessas fun<;:6es, o ferro é também um componente do citocromo; o molibdenio é um componente da lag-hemoglobina e está envolvido na redu<;:ao de nitrato a amina e também na fixa<;:ao biológica de nitrogenio atmosférico, na qual o cobalto também está envolvido .O boro está envolvido ativamente na divisao celular, no crescimento e na forma<;:ao da parede celular, na síntese de proteínas e no transporte e fosforila<;:ao dos carboidratos . Tem também importante fun<;:ao na lignifica<;:ao e diferencia<;:ao do xilema e no transporte de sacarose através da membrana celular. A deficiencia de boro reduz a fase de elonga<;:ao das raízes primárias e secundárias, senda a parte aérea igualmente atetada (Lewis, 1980).A fun<;:ao do sódio nao está clara , mas em concentra<;:6es superiores a 5 ppm reduz o crescimento do feijoeiro cultivado em solu<;:ao nutritiva (Debouck, 1976).O cloro é um elemento essencial, mas em alta concentra<;:ao também pode reduzir o crescimento do feijoeiro.Os silicatos tem importancia comprovada na resistencia do arroz a certas pragas, mas no fe ijoeiro sua fun<;:ao ainda nao está definida.Os nutrientes sáo absorvidos pelo feijoeiro em um certo nfvel de oxida-!;áO ou nas formas iónicas. Somente o nitrogenio pode ser absorvido como óxido (N0 3 • ) e na forma hidratada (NH 4 • ). Os nutrientes essenciais e suas formas disponíveis para as plantas podem ser observados na Tabela 21 .Os teores de nutrientes no feijoeiro variam significativamente dependendo da idade da planta. da parte da planta e da prática cultural utilizada. Sabese que a concentra!;áo dos elementos nitrogenio, fósforo. potássio e cobre nas folhas aumenta até o perfodo de flora¡;:áo e posteriormente diminui, o contrário acontecendo com a concentra!;áo de cálcio (Tabela 22) . O teor de enxofre nas folhas, em casa de vegeta!;áo, aumenta até a flora!;áO e depois decresce proporcionalmente no transcurso do ciclo da cultura, enquanto, no campo, a concentrac;áo de enxofre cresce até o final do ciclo (Cobra Netto, 1967). Na África, Wortmann et al. (1992) relatam que a concentra!;áo de nitrogenio, fósforo e potássio nas folhas aumenta até tres a cinco semanas após o plantío e depois diminui. A concentrac;áo de cálcio aumenta até o final do ciclo. A concentrac;áo de magnésio diminui com a idade, ao contrário dos dados obtidos por Cobra Netto (1967). em trabalhos realizados em casa de vegetac;áo. As folhas mais jovens, onde o metabolismo é mais ativo, tem normalmente maior concentra!;áO de nutrientes que as folhas das partes mais baixas, e os pecíolos tem menos nutrientes que as folhas (Tabela 23) . As plantas e as sementes de feijoeiro obtidas com diferentes práticas culturais diferem no teor de nutrientes (Tabela 24). Em geral, o teor de nutrientes da raiz é mais baixo que o da parte aérea em todos os estádios de crescimento, e as diferentes cultivares mostram pouca diferenc;a no conteúdo de nutrientes (Tabela 25), quando a amostragem para análise é realizada em cultivares da mesma rac;a mesoamérica de feijoeiro (Phaseolus vulgarís L.) . A taxa de absorc;áo dos nutrientes pelo feijoeiro comec;:a lentamente e aumenta com o desenvolvimento da planta. A taxa de absorc;:áo mais alta acorre durante o florescimento. declinando na fase generativa . A translocac;:áo de nutrientes para as vagens aumenta neste período (Tabela 26). Durante o florescimento, o feijoeiro absorve aproximadamente 1 00 kg de N, 1 O kg de P, 70 kg de K, 50 kg de Ca, 13 kg de Mg e 13 kg de S; com esta quantidade de nutrientes absorvidos, a planta pode alcanc;ar boa produtividade. Em condic;:óes de casa de vegetac;áo, a absorc;:áo de nutrientes é quase duas vezes maior que a absorc;áo da planta cultivada no campo (Tabela 27) . Somente um terc;:o dos nutrientes absorvidos durante o florescimento é retirado do campo através das sementes (Tabela 28). A relac;áo entre os teores de nitrogenio, fósforo, potássio, enxofre, cálcio e magnésio é relativamente constante, tanto nas plantas no estádio de florescimento, como nas sementes.    ---------------------OA> ------------------ppm ------------------------------Folhas --------------------------  ------------------------Raizes ---------------------------- w TABELA 24 Influencia de diferentes tratamentos nos teores de nutrientes em diferentes partes da plant a do feijoeiro. :~: Muzilli & Godoy (1977). Cobra N etto (1967). l2l Malavolta (1985) .141 Feitosa et al. (1980) . Experimento de campo. Mascarenhas et al. (1969). TABELA 27 Absorc;ao total de nutrientes pelo f eijoei ro .   TABELA28 Nutrientes extraídos do campo pelo f eijoeiro, com produyáo de 1.000 kg/ha de graos. Ouando se tenta diagnosticar a causa da deficiéncia nutricional , a posic;:ao dos síntomas nas folhas é importante para se obter uma conclusao carreta. Os tres locais tfpicos onde os síntomas sao melhor caracterizados est ao representados nos diagramas da Figura 1 O. O diagrama A mostra os síntomas de deficiencia que aparecem nas folhas mais velhas e que se tornam menos mareantes em direc;:ao ao topo. o diagrama e mostra os síntomas de deficiencia que aparecem principalmente nas folhas superiores. lsso indica que o elemento pode ser translocado facilmente dentro da planta mas, uma vez transformado em constituinte da célu la, nao pode ser retranslocado. Como exemplos, citamse o boro e o cálcio.Os tres diagramas da Figura 1 O ajudam a diagnostic ar os síntomas. Esse tipo de deficiéncia foliar acorre somente quando a planta sofre deficiencia ao langa de seu ciclo de vida devido a falta absoluta de um determinado elemento no solo. Algumas deficiencias ocorrem em curto perfodo de tempo, como, por exemplo, durante urna seca temporária . Neste caso, os síntomas sao menos severos porque, nas fases iniciais de crescimento , a planta já absorveu quantidade suficiente do nutriente que, neste momento , está temporaríamente indisponfvel. Conhecendo a posíc;:ao ande ocorrem os síntomas, o pesquisador tem em maos os primeiros recursos para a identificac;:ao das deficiencias.A B e Fig. 1 O Diagramas mostrando as possibilidades de localizac;:ao dos síntomas de deficiAncia na planta.A diagnose da deficiencia nutricional é a técnica utilizada para reconhecer os sintomas de desordens nutricionais, definir a natureza da deficiencia e decidir sobre a corre9ao nutricional para a planta.Na lavoura do feijoeiro , as plantas podem apresentar folhagem saudável, ainda que um dos nutrientes nao esteja suficientemente disponível para a planta . Esta indiferen9a da planta ao nutriente em carencia é conhecida como fome disfar9ada ou oculta, e o sintoma de deficiencia é diffcil de ser detectado. Quando um sintoma vem a ser visível, a deficiencia já está em etapa avanc;ada, prejudicando o desenvolvimento da planta e a produc;ao. Os sintomas, sejam de deficiencia ou de toxicidade, variam com a intensidade dessas ocorrencias e o número de nutrientes envolvidos. Os de toxicidade dificilmente ocorrem isoladamente. A toxicidade de alumfnio acorre normalmente em conjunto com a deficiencia de cálcio e de fósforo. O excesso de nutriente aplicado para corrigir urna deficiencia pode induzir outra deficiencia nutricional.As análises qufmicas de tecidos e de solo devem ser feitas antes de se fazer qualquer recomendac;ao de corre9ao, devendo ser realizadas também em plantas sem sintomas, com tecidos de partes de plantas saudáveis colhidas na mesma posic;ao . Comparando-se estes resultados, pode-se fazer urna recomenda9ao de corre9ao .As Figuras 11 , 12, 13, 14 e 15 apresentam diagramas que podem ajudar a organizar as observa.;:oes de campo, evitando conclusoes erradas e precipitadas e a perda da confian.;:a dos agricultores .A Figura 11 mostra os problemas que podem acorrer entre o plantio e a emergencia do feijoeiro . A Figura 12 mostra os problemas que podem acorrer desde a emergencia até a abertura do primeiro par de folhas trifolioladas. A Figura 13 m ostra os problemas que podem acorrer desde a abertura do primeiro par de folhas trifolioladas até o florescimento. A Figura 14 mostra os problemas que podem acorrer desde o florescimento até a matura.;:ao fisiológica . A Figura 1 5 mostra os problemas que podem acorrer desde a matura.;:ao fisiológica até a colheita .O profissional deve visitar o campo várias vezes para acompanhar os sintomas de desordens nutricionais, pois, os mesmos podem mudar suas características rapidamente.      a) Preparo do solo/aractao, compactac;:ao do subsolo Solos mal preparados podem causar vários problemas nos estádios iniciais de crescimento do feijoeiro. Quando esta cultura é plantada em áreas com subsolo compactado, pode sofrer déficit hfdrico mais rapidamente que quando plantada em solos bem preparados em profundidade. Ouando o solo está muito compactado na superfície e quase nao tem estrutura, pode-se assumir que o teor de matéria organica está muito baixo.Ouando o pH do solo é conhecido antes que a diagnose seja realizada, a caracterizayao do problema é facilitada, uma vez que se conhece o efeito da acidez na disponibilidade dos nutrientes. Alguns tornam-se rapidamente disponíveis com o aumento de pH, enquanto outros tém sua disponibilidade diminuída (Figura 16) .A capacidade de traca catiónica deve estar em torno de 60% . O teor de aluminio em torno de 0 ,6 meq/ 100 mi de solo já pode causar toxicidade, especialmente se o teor de matéria organica estiver abaixo de 2%. O manganés pode ser tóxico em alguns solos com baixos teores de matéria organica, especialmente após pesado e prolongado período chuvoso. e) Rotactiio de culturas O produtor deve ser inquirido sobre o uso de rotayao de culturas. Se plantou outra cultura naquele solo, antes da que se encontra naquele momento no campo, deve-se verificar o efeito residual da primeira sobre a nova cultura implantada. Normalmente, a rota¡;;ao permite melhor crescimento das plantas e melhor produ¡;;ao de graos que seqüéncias de feijao após feijao.Deve-se procurar saber do produtor se os síntomas apareceram recentemente ou se já tinham sido observados antes. Se já ocorreram anteriormente, saber qual a cultura que sofreu mais. Se os síntomas apareceram recentemente, podem ter sido causados por problemas bióticos, tais como doen9as, vírus ou insetos. Usar lente de aumento para observar a natureza dos síntomas nas folhas. Verificar se as condi9óes climáticas da época apresentaram grandes varia9óes em rela9ao ao passado .Perguntar se os síntomas tem sido observados por um longo período de tempo e se sao comuns na regiao . A maioria dos produtores pode pensar que os síntomas sao normais na cultura, quando, na realidade, está acorrendo urna desordem nutricional. Os síntomas de toxicidade de manganas, por exemplo, sao normalmente ignorados por produtores em várias regióes e, em menor grau, os de fósforo.Ouando os síntomas aparecem somente • em determinados campos do agricultor e nao estao generalizados nas circunvizinhan9as, deve-se dar aten-9ao as práticas culturais desta época . Verificar entre os produtores quais os fertilizantes e herbicidas usados neste semestre, e tentar também identificar os diferentes tipos de manejo de solo usados nos diferentes semestres. As plantas no campo adubado devem ter crescimento uniforme. Se existirem faixas ou manchas deve ter acorrido má aplica9ao de adubos ou de calcário. Manchas irregulares no campo podem ser causadas por inundac;:ao temporária (as plantas da parte alta do campo tem aparencia melhor que as da parte baixa) .Os agricultores tendem a usar doses mais elevadas que a recomendada, especialmente quando se trata de um novo produto qu(mico. Doses elevadas podem causar desde urna ligeira queima até a necrose das folhas.-Verificar se o número de plantas é homogéneo e se a altura das plantas é uniforme.-Verificar se há excessivo crescimento de plantas daninhas e incidencia de doenc;:as e pragas.-Verificar se há sinais caracterrsticos de estresse de água nas áreas mais altas do campo. A lavoura pode apresentar amarelecimento nas áreas baixas, devido ao excesso de água, havendo, simultaneamente, um desenvolvimento normal das plantas nas lombadas ou nas partes mais altas do terreno. Este excesso de umidade deve-se ao malpreparo do solo, que facilita o acúmulo de água nas áreas mais baixas.-Verificar o padrao de chuvas após o plantío. Manchas irregulares podem ser causadas por inunda96es temporárias; nestas condic;:6es , os feijoeiros plantados nas lombadas mostram-se melhores que os plantados em torno delas .Verificar se os síntomas de desordens ocorrem em manchas, faixas ou espalhados em todo o campo. Em lavouras irrigadas por pivó central, os proprietários tendem a depositar o calcário ao longo da estrada principal do pivó. Doses macic;:as de calcário podem induzir deficiencias de micronutrientes, como, por exemplo, de manganes e boro, limitadas as manchas ande o calcário foi depositado.A distribuic;:ao do calcário deve ser feita em tempo conveniente, istó é, no mínimo tres meses antes do plantio. A produc;:ao pode ser estimada seguindo-se o procedimento do Apéndice 1.A maioria dos problemas de análise de tecidos ou de solos deve-se a erros de procedimento na amostragem do solo, contaminac;:ao durante o transporte do campo para o laboratório e durante o preparo da amostra (secagem, moagem, peneiramento, etc). O tempo e o método de secagem afetam os resultados dos testes para pH, nitrogenio mineralizável (Keeney & Bremner, 1966), potássio (Luebs et al., 1956), fósforo e enxofre (Searle & Sparling, 1987).Devem-se tomar alguns cuidados especiais para reduzir os erros de amostragem, principalmente para a análise de micronutrientes. Nao tomar amostras de folhas próximas ao solo ou cobertas com poeira, danificadas por insetos, injuriadas mecanicamente ou com síntomas de doenc;:as . As folhas martas devem ser excluídas. Evitar amostragem em campo com alta umidade ou estresse por alta temperatura. As amostras de solo devem ser tomadas em áreas onde nao haja concentrac;:ao de fertilizantes ou acúmulo de água.Para análise de tecidos é preferível coletar partes da planta que a planta inteira. O melhor período para coletar amostras de folhas é logo após o aparecimento dos síntomas. Devem ser amostradas de 20 a 25 plantas com síntomas, coletando-se, de preferencia, a segunda e a terceira folhas trifolioladas. A quantidade mínima necessária para análises completas de macro e micronutrientes é 5 g de amostra seca moída. Uma amostra paralela de folhas saudáveis deve ser tomada, colhendo-as em posic;:ao correspondente a das folhas com síntomas. Nao se deve tomar amostras de folhas após o estádio vegetativo, porque a planta comec;:a a mobilizar os nutrientes para os órgaos reprodutivos, havendo diminuic;:ao significativa da concentrac;:ao de nutrientes nos tecidos das folhas. As amostras de folhas devem ser armazenadas em sacos limpos de papel, com furos para eliminar o excesso de umidade após a colheita . Evitar colocar amostras em sacos de plástico, porque as folhas podem se estragar rapidamente e acorrer proliferac;:ao de fungos. Limpar as amostras foliares logo que possrvel, no laboratório, com HCI 0,2 N, e secá-las ao ar, em ambiente seco, antes de serem levadas para a estufa, onde deverao permanecer por 72 horas a 70°C (Jones Jr. et al., 1971 ).A avaliac;:ao da fertilidade geral do solo requer basicamente urna amostra composta de pelo menos cinco pontos de coleta. Em lavouras grandes, é comum subdividir o campo em parcelas de 1 ou 2 ha, com cinco pontos de coleta cada, para formar urna amostra composta . O resultado é normalmente padronizado e expresso em porcentagem, ppm ou meq/1 00 mi de solo. O uso de unidad e por volume de solo ( 1 00 mi ou 1 00 ce) é a maneira mais comum para expressar os resultados de análise, e m vez de unidade por peso ( 1 00 g de solo) , porque a densidade aparente do solo difere significativamente de um solo para outro.Para identificar os problemas do solo, a técnica de amostragem é similar aquela para plantas. Várias amostragens sao tomadas nas áreas com problemas (com sintomas de deficiencia ou toxicidade). Muitas amostras compostas sao melhores que amostras simples . Urna amostra de solo contrastante, onde há plantas saudáveis deve, também, ser tomada como referencia . O propósito desta amostragem de identificac;:ao de problemas do solo difere daquelas para avaliac;:ao geral da fertilidade, embora ambas sigam as mesmas etapas : coleta de amostra , análise química, interpretac;:ao e recomenda9oes .As descri9oes dos padroes brasileiros de análises de tecidos e os métodos dos testes de análises de solo elaborados em laboratórios compoem as Tabelas 29 e 30. Potenciómetro O teor de nutrientes no tecido foliar ou na solu<;:ao do solo que separa o estado deficiente do nao deficiente é chamada de nível crítico. O nível crítico nos tecidos da planta é chamada de nível crítico interno, enquanto na solu<;:ao do solo é chamada de nível crítico externo. O nível crítico é urna faixa de concentra<;:ao do nutriente nos tecidos (Knezek & Greinert, 1971;Sillanpaa, 1982), que varia com o local e expressa o estado nutricional da planta. Cate Jr. & Nelson (1965) usaram o método cartesiano para obter o nível crítico, enquanto muitos outros autores definiram o nível crítico de um elemento como o ponto no qual a produc;:áo cai a um certo nfvel (normalmente entre 1 O e 20%) de seu máximo. A máxima produc;:ao de certa variedade também varia de um local para outro e de acordo com o estado nutricional da planta. A s Tabelas 31 e 32 mostram os níveis críticos internos de plantas de feijoeiro determinados por vários autores. Os níveis críticos externos para várias áreas de produc;:ao de feijoeiro podem ser vistos nas Tabelas 33, 34 e 35 . O teor de nutrientes sozinho nao confirma a existencia da deficiencia de um elemento no solo. As relac;:oes fósforo/manganes, fósforo/zinco, potássio/magnésio, potássio/cálcio, potássio/ferro, cálcio/magnésio , manganes/ferro e cobre/molibdenio sao importantes para o diagnóstico. Comparando essas relac;:oes com os resultados obtidos nos locais com e sem síntomas de deficiencia, podem ser encontrados os fatores limitantes da produc;:ao do solo. Ouando as plantas sofrem de urna deficiencia, seu crescimento é retardado, ocorrendo acúmulo de alguns nutrientes nas plantas devido ao seu pequeno porte, resultando em alta porcentagem de nutrientes. Ao contrário, quando as plantas tem um altíssimo crescimento vegetativo, causado por excesso de nitrogenio, por exemplo, pode acorrer efeito de diluivao, resultando em teor total baixo dos nutrientes. Portanto, a rela9ao entre vários elementos é, algumas vezes, um importante método para definir a deficiencia.Interpretar os resultados da análise de planta nao é tao fácil, pois nao basta comparar os dados da análise com as tabelas de nfvel crítico. Comparar o valor interpretativo conhecido com os resultados particulares da análise ainda é urna arte e requer alguma experiencia. lsso torna-se mais problemático quando a interpretavao dos resultados depende da análise de solo (Tabela 36). Essas análises usam ácido diluido para extrair cátions, simulando a atividade da raiz da planta durante a absor9ao de nutrientes. O extrator ácido diluido, para o caso da determina<;ao de fósforo, dissolve várias formas deste elemento que nao sao disponfveis para a planta. Oeste modo, a análise superestima o valor de fósforo, especialmente em solos que receberam fertilizac;áo com fosfato natural, cujo efeito ainda pode ser detectado vários anos depois. O teor de argila também pode alterar o valor crítico do solo. Alguns solos com teor de argila menor que 20% sao classificados como nao aceitáveis para atividade agrícola intensiva. Em geral, quanto maior o teor de argila, maior será o nfvel crítico de fósforo, magnésio e cálcio.O teor de matéria organica é um fator importante na determinac;ao do valor crítico da toxicidade de aluminio. Solos com alto teor de matéria organica tem maior taxa de saturac;ao crítica de alumfnio. Os Oxissolos do cerrado brasileiro tem urna taxa de saturac;ao crítica de alumfnio em torno de 10% , enquanto e m solos com 17-18% de matéria organica, a taxa de saturac;ao de aluminio pode chegar a 25 % sem causar toxicidade ao feijoeiro, como no solo Andept, em Santander de Quilichao, na ColOmbia. Os solos com alto teor de matéria organica podem ter a disponibilidade de micronutrientes diminufda, porque sua capacidade de quela9ao é maior. Por isso, apresentam valor crítico de micronutrientes mais alto, em compara<;ao com um solo com menor teor de matéria orgélnica. Além do mais, as amostras estao sujeitas a contaminac;oes. No solo, alguns elementos, como o manganés, podem mostrar grandes variac;oes, dependendo da umidade local. Ouando as amostras sao tomadas durante urna estac;ao chuvosa prolongada, a concentrac;ao de manganes pode ser mais alta que naquelas provenientes do mesmo campo tomadas na estac;ao seca. O armazenamento prolongado da amostra do solo em condic;ao de alta umidade pode aumentar o teor de fósforo na amostra.  -----------ppm ----------•--- Ca MgH 2 S0 4 0,25 N + HCI 0,05N Fonte: Compilado pelos autores de várias fontes.TABELA 35 Nlveis criticas de satura~¡:ilo de bases e de aluminio para Oxissolos, no Brasil. pH: solo/água = 1: 1.Ca, Mg: Acetato de amónio 1N. Al : KCI 1N.Zn , Mn : Carolina do Norte.Bray 11/ Mehlich. B: Águ a quente. M .O.: Matéria orglinica. Fonte: Compilado pelo primeiro autor de dados nao publicados.A deficiencia ou a toxicidade de qualquer nutriente sempre ateta as características fisiológicas e, mais tarde, as morfológicas, o que pode ser utilizado na diagnose da desordem nutricional no campo . Esse tipo de diagnose tema vantagem de poder propiciar uma rápida recomendac;ao sem depender dos resultados de laboratório ou de tempo para as análises qufmicas. Porém, quando os sintomas se tornam visíveis, já pode ter acorrido uma reduc;ao considerável da prodU<;:ao. Além disso, os sintomas de deficiencia de dois ou mais elementos nutricionais podem ser semelhantes, como, por exemplo, as deficiencias de nitrogenio e de enxofre. Algumas doenc;as viróticas podem produzir sintomas iniciais semelhantes aos da toxicidade de manganes. O conhecimento da relac;ao entre a parte aérea e as rafzes é essencial. É fácil observar os sintomas na parte aérea ou nas folhas, mas, para se ter alguma confirmac;ao, deve-se desenterrar as rafzes e observá-las. No caso de deficiencia de nitrogenio, a planta tende a ficar ana, mas as rafzes se desenvolvem normalmente. Ao contrário, plantas anas devido a deficiencia de fósforo também apresentam rafzes curtas. Quando a planta é ana, com pouco desenvolvimento radicular, mas com muitas rafzes adventfcias, a causa pode ser toxicidade de alumfnio. Em caso de deficiéncia de cálcio, o crescimento das rarzes é mais atetado, sem haver redu¡;ao da parte aérea da planta. o feijoeiro pertence a famnia das leguminosas, e seu requerimento em cálcio é maior que o das gramfneas, senda a calagem dos solos ácidos indispensável para o sucesso da produ¡;ao.5 . 1 Dsficiéncia de nitrogénioOcorre mudan9a na cor da folha , de verde para verde-pálida. No início, os sintomas ocorrem nas folhas inferiores (Figura 17) e, entao, se espalham por toda a planta. Ouando a deficiencia persiste, a cor muda para intenso amarelo-límao uniformemente por toda a ramina foliar. Em estágios avan¡;ados, manchas marrons se desenvolvem gradualmente por todas as folhas, semelhantes ao estádio de senescéncia, ocorrendo morte prematura. As folhas desenvolvidas por completo sao normalmente menores, quando comparadas com as folhas de plantas saudáveis, e o crescimento geral da planta é retardado (Figura 18). Há genótipos com folhas de cor naturalmente amarela-pálida, como Goiano Precoce e Jalo EEP 558 (Figura 19). o que pode ser confundido com deficiencia de nitrogenio.As folhas deficientes tem menos de 2 % de nitrogenio, em condi¡;oes de campo, enquanto a concentra¡;ao nas folhas normais está entre 3 % e 5% (MacKay & Leefe, 1962;Ramirez, 1969).Nos trópicos, o nitrogénio é o nutriente mais limitante ao crescimento do feijoeiro. A deficiencia deste elemento pode ocorrer em reboleiras, ande há matéria organica acumulada parcialmente decomposta (Figura 20) .  Planta raqurtica devido a deficiencia de nitrogenio.Folhas de alguns genótipos com colorac;ilo natural e normal semelhante A deficiencia de nitrogenio.Fig. 20 Sintomas de deficiencia de nitrogenio localizados em áreas ricas em matéria orgAnlca, com alta atividade microbiológica.Pode-se elim inar a deficiencia de nitrogenio através de aplicac;:oes em cobertura com 18 kg de N/ha como sulfato de amonio ou uréia. Em sistemas intensivos de produc;:ao recomendam-se aplicac;:oes laterais de 1 8 a 30 kg de N/ha no período entre a formac;:ao da segunda e terceira folhas trifolioladas. Quando as precipitac;:oes sao pesadas, outra aplicac;:ao pode aumentar a produc;:ao. Aplicac;:oes foliares com uréia 2%, com alto volume de água (600-1 .000 //ha). podem corrigir deficiencias leves. Algumas vezes, várias aplicac;:oes sao necessárias, o que pode ser feíto junto com a aplicac;:ao de inseticidas ou fungicidas misturados a água de irrigac;:ao .As folhas baixeiras tornam-se amarelas e, em estágios avanc;:ados, tornam-se necróticas e entram em senescencia (Figura 21 ). A planta tem o crescimento reduzido, apresentando internódios curtos e número reduzido de ramos . O florescimento é pobre e retardado e poucas vagens sao produzidas (Figura 22). A maturidade é atrasada em alguns dias. A deficiencia de fósforo combinada com estresse de água causa o aparecimento de folhas verde-escuras, pois a produc;:ao de clorofila é menos atetada no comec;:o do estresse de fósforo e o acúmulo de clorofila, com urna pequena expansao da folha, produz esse verde característico (Figura 23) . As diferenc;:as entre as deficiencias de fósforo e de nitrogenio podem ser vistas na Figura 24. A deficiencia de fósforo em casa de vegetac;:ao produz síntomas de amarelecimento menos intensos que em condic;:oes de campo (Figura 25).O teor de fósforo nas folhas de plantas deficientes cultivadas no campo é de O, 17% (Cobra Netto et al. , 1971) e, em casa de vegetac;:ao, é ligeiramente maior, atingindo 0,25% (Haag et al., 1967). O teor normal de f~::-foro no feijoeiro, sob condic;:oes de campo, em pleno florescimento, está em torno de 0,40% (Mackay & Leefe, 1962) .A deficiencia de fósforo é mais comum na América Latina (lopes & Cox, 1977;Sanchez & Cochrane, 1980;Thung, 1990) e África, onde o feijoeiro é cultivado em solos altamente intemperizados com poucos minerais primários contendo fósforo. Esses solos tem alta capacidade de fixac;:ao deste elemento, o que os torna ainda menos disponfveis para as plantas . Síntomas de deficiencia de fósforo mostrando plantas anas e colora~áo amarelo-dourada nas folhas baixeiras.Reduc;:fio do comprimento dos internódios e do número de vagens causada por deficiencia de fósforo. Comparac;:ao de uma planta normal com uma deficiente em fósforo.Sintomas de deficiencia de fósforo produzindo colorac;:ao verde-escura nas folhas.Diferenc;:as dos sintomas de deficiencia de fósforo e de nitrogenio em condic;:ao de casa de vegetac;:ao.Fig. 25 Deficiencia induzida de fósforo causa menor amarelecimento em folhas baixeiras em comparac;Ao com a deficiencia de fósforo acorrida no campo.Para prevenir a deficiencia de fósforo , deve-se aplicar fertilizante fosfatado em quantidade suficiente, de preferencia fertilizante fosfatado solúvel em água, um pouco antes do plantío (Thung et al. , 1982). O fósforo é essencial desde o infcio do crescimento até a maturac;:ao fisiológica do feijoeiro. A aplicac;:ao foliar de APP 10% (Polifosfato de Amonio, fertilizante fósforo-nitrogenado Hquido) pode corrigir deficiencias deste nutriente, se feíta semanalment e por cinco ou mais vezes. A falta de água pode agravar a deficiencia de fósforo , propiciando pouco crescimento da planta e formac;:ao de folhas pequenas verde-escuras (Figura 26) . As pulverizac;:óes com fertilizantes fosfatados solúveis, que nao o APP, nao atingem o efeito desejado, porque a quantidade de fósforo absorvida é muito pequena. A aplicac;:ao de soluc;:óes com maior concentrac;:ao deste nutriente causa queima das folhas . As cultivares Carioca, Rio Tibagi e G 2 121 2 mostram tolerancia a baixos nrveis de fósforo . Síntomas de deficiencia de fósforo combinados com falta de água, resultando em folhas de cor verde-escura e plantas anAs.As margens das folhas baixeiras tornam-se amarelas e, com o avan~o da idade da planta, as pontas e as margens das folhas ficam necróticas (Figura 27). Ocorre amarelecimento internervural, com maior severidade em direc;:ao a ponta da folha. A folha toda torna-se mais amarela com a continuac;:ao da deficiéncia. A deficiéncia induzida de potássio em casa de vegetac;:ao causa amarelecimento mais intenso que aquele que acorre naturalmente no campo (Figura 28).As folhas deficientes tem menos de 1, 5 % de potássio, enquanto as folhas normais apresentam concentrac;:6es acima de 2,0% (Trani et al. , 1983) .Fíg. 27 Síntomas de deficíiincía de potássío em folhas baíxeíras, com amarelecímento das margens da folha.Síntomas índuzidos de potássio, resultando em intensa cor amarela.A defici6ncia de potássio raramente acorre na América Latina, embora os solos predominantes nesta regiao sejam Ultissolos e Oxissolos, que nao possuem minerais primários contendo este elemento. Os minerais moscovita e feldspato desses solos sao facilmente hidrolisados, e o esgotamento de potássio através da remo<;ao pelas culturas, por lixivia<;ao e por enxurrada, é rápido. As plantas de feijoeiro cultivadas em algumas regióes com solo orgánico do litoral do Espfrito Santo (Brasil) sofrem deficiencia deste nutriente.O potássio é sempre inclufdo na maioria dos fertilizantes formulados completos, na concentra<;ao aproximada de 15% de Kp. Mesmo com essas adi<;óes de potássio, em regióes onde a agricultura intensiva dura mais de dez anos, a deficiencia deste nutriente tem sido relatada em soja, mas nao em feijoeiro. O total de potássio aplicado em muitas culturas tem sido menos do que elas necessitam, e a quantidade deste elemento carregada para tora da lavoura por erosao é desconhecida . Portanto, sua deficiencia pode vir a ser u m problema no futuro. A aplica<;ao de 100 kg de K 2 SO 4 ou KCI/ha a cada plantío recompóe as quantidades deste elemento exportadas pela cultura através das sementes.Os síntomas de deficiencia de magnésio no campo podem ser vistos como uma clorose internervural intensa (Figura 29). Quando a severidade da deficiencia aumenta, as margens das folhas ficam encarquilhadas. Em casa de vegeta<;ao é fácil confundf-la com deficiencia de enxofre, pois a deficiencia induzida de magnésio produz clorose internervural nas folhas inferiores (Figura 30). enquanto a deficiencia de enxofre produz amarelecimento uniforme e m toda a lámina foliar. Como o magnésio é parcialmente móvel na planta, os síntomas de deficiencia podem se espalhar pela planta inteira, inclusive nas partes jovens .Os nfveis crfticos variam de 0,22% a 0,48%, mas, em plantas normais, o teor de magnésio nas folhas varia de 0,35% a O, 70% (Berrios & Bergman, 1968;Trani et al., 1983).  A deficiencia de magnésio nao tem sido muito relatada, masé encontrada esporadicamente em solos organicos e em áreas frias, como em Antióquia, na Colombia. Assume-se que a deficiencia nao tenha sido relatada em solos ácidos dos trópicos devido ao suprimento de magnésio pelas freqüentes apli-ca¡;:oes de calcário dolomítico para o controle da toxicidade de alumfnio.A aplica¡;:ao de 5 t de calcário dolomítico/ha contando 25-30% de CaO e 10-20% de MgO, ou 50-100 kg de sulfato de magnésio, ou 35-70 kg de óxido de magnésio, pode corrigir a deficiencia de magnésio no solo. As aplica¡;:oes foliares de sulfato de magnésio a 1% (MgS0 4 .7H 2 0) podem resolver o problema de deficiencia, quando feítas várias vezes.Os síntomas de deficiencia de enxofre obtidos com culturas em soluc;:ao nutritiva caracterizam-se por uma colorac;:ao pálida uniforme nas folhas primárias (Figura 31) similar a que acorre quando há deficiencia de nitrogenio (Figura 1 7) .Os nfveis críticos de deficiencia de enxofre, em condi¡;:oes de casa de vegetac;:ao, variam entre O, 14% e 0,30% e, em plantas normais, situam-se entre 0,59% e O, 79% .A deficiencia de enxofre em condic;:oes de campo é difícil de ser encontrada e nunca foi relatada para feijoeiro até a presente data. O potencial de deficiencia de enxofre é maior nos trópicos, porque o suprimento de enxofre nos fertilizantes vem decrescendo . O superfosfato simples possui aproximadamente 12% de enxofre e está sendo substituído pelo superfosfato triplo, com apenas 2% de enxofre. O sulfato de amonio é muito usado nos trópicos e abastece a cultura com nitrogenio e enxofre, mas também está sendo substituído pela uréia, devido ao menor custo de transporte por unidade do elemento nitrogenio. Quando possfvel, aplicar superfosfato simples em solos ácidos ou sulfato de amonio com 18% de nitrogenio e 20% de enxofre, em vez de uréia. A aplica~ao de enxofre elementar na quantidade de 20 kg/ha em solos carentes pode ajudar a prevenir o problema.Os sintomas de deficiencia isolada de cálcio em feijoeiro sao difrceis de serem encontrados. A maior parte das deficiencias de cálcio em solos ácidos é mascarada pelas deficiéncias conjuntas de fósforo e cálcio, juntamente com toxicidade de alumrnio. Feijoeiro cultivado em solo nao corrigido com calcário, mesmo recebando aduba9ao adequada, mostra crescimento precário (Figura 32) .Os nrveis de cálcio nas folhas deficientes variam de 0,5% a 0,8% (Abruña et al. , 1974), contudo, numa folha normal, o seu teor geralmente varia entre 2,0% e 5,0% (Trani et al., 1983).A deficiéncia de cálcio ocorre em todos os solos inférteis, como os Oxissolos, sem aparecimento dos síntomas trpicos da deficiéncia. Nas camadas mais profundas do solo, de 20 a 60 cm, o teor de cálcio pode ser de até 1 ,O meq/ 1 00 g de solo. Em alguns solos, devido tl baixa rela9ao Ca/ Mg (inferior a 2), o feijoeiro pode deixar de crescer e ter o seu potencial de produ9ao comprometido . A aplica9ao de 3 t de calcário!ha pode resolver o problema de deficiencia de cálcio, embora a inda nao seja suficiente para reduzir totalmente a toxicidade de aluminio no solo. Quantidades superiores a 8 t!ha, aplicadas de uma só vez, podem induzir deficiencias de micronutrientes, como boro e zinco, em solos de cerrado. 5. 7 Deficiencia de boro 5. 7. 1 Sintomas O primeiro síntoma de deficiencia de boro come9a nos estádios iniciais de desenvolvimento, desde a germina9ao até a forma9ao dos primeiros pares de folhas trifolioladas. O caule torna-se espesso e as folhas coriáceas (Figura 33) . Quando a deficiencia persiste, as folhas jovens tornam-se enrugadas e o broto terminal marre, seguindo-se uma prolifera9ao de brotas laterais (Figura 34) . Quando a deficiencia é muito severa, as plantas param de crescer após a abertura da segunda ou terceira folha trifoliolada e morrem em seguida.O teor de boro nas folhas com síntomas de deficiencia é menor que 20 ppm (Wilcox & Fageria, 1976), em compara9ao com 20 a 60 ppm nas folhas saudáveis. O teor no solo, extraído com água quente, normalmente é menor que 0 ,6 ppm (Chapman, 1966), considerado de média a baixa ocorrencia na solu9ao do solo.A deficiencia de boro acorre comumente em Oxissolos e em Ultissolos durante veranicos ou secas temporárias . A deficiencia desaparece imediatamente quando o crescimento radicular se estende, podando explorar maior volume de solo. Em solos com pH elevado, a deficiencia pode acorrer freqüentemente, devido t:l baixa disponibilidade do nutriente. A deficiencia induzida de boro no campo, devido t:l distribui9ao irregular de calcário, é comum em solos ácidos de cerrado.Síntomas de deficiencia de boro, mostrando espessamento das folhas primárías do feijoeiro , conferindo -lhes aparencia coriácea.A deficiencia pode ser facilmente corrigida aplicando-se de 1 a 2 kg de B/ha ou 1 O kg de bórax/ha, Solubor ou ácido bórico, no solo, ou fazendose duas aplica<;:oes foliares semanais de bórax 2 % ou Solubor 1 %. Porém, quando a aplica<;:áo nao é uniforme, pode acorrer fitotoxicidade . Os genótipos Porrillo Sintético, A 304, BA T 1 512 e DOR 145 sao suscetrveis a deficiencia de boro .Os sintomas de deficiencia de zinco aparecem nas folhas recém-abertas, com amarelecimento internervural (Figura 35) . Quando a deficiencia persiste até estádios mais avan<;:ados, aparecem folhas amarelas com manchas marrons de 2 a 3 mm de diametro (Figura 36) . Síntomas de deficiencia de boro antes da formac;:íio da terceira folha trifoliolada, com folhas enrugadas e morte dos brotos terminais, seguida pela proliferac;:íio de brotos laterais.  As folhas deficientes contem menos que 1 5 ppm de zinco (Wilcox & Fageria, 1976) e o seu teor nas folhas saudáveis está acima de 25 ppm.Em Oxissolos com pH abaixo de 5,0 , o feijoeiro pode sofrer deficiéncia de zinco. A deficiéncia acorre também quando se aplica calcário em quantidade suficiente para elevar o pH do solo acima de 6,0 . Altas doses de fósforo podem induz.ir deficiéncia de zinco em experimentos de vaso (lessman, 1967), porém, no Brasil, este tipo de induc;:ao nunca foi relatado em condic;:oes de campo. Os solos ti.J Estado de Colorado (Estados Unidos), que possuem relativamente alto teor de fósforo, mostram baixa disponibilidade de zinco e, freqüentemente, sintomas de deficiencia deste nutriente.As aplicac;:oes de 25 kg de sulfato de zinco/ha, no solo , ou de O, 17 kg/ha, nas folhas, podem corrigir os sintomas de deficiencia, senda preferidas as aplicac;:oes no solo por seu afeito residual benéfico para os futuros plantios.A cultivar ICA Guali é muito suscetrvel ~deficiencia de zinco, ao contrário da cultivar Saginaw, que é tolerante (Brown & Lebaron, 1970).5 .9 Deficiéncia de ferro 5.9 . 1 Síntomas As folhas superiores das plantas tornam-se pálidas, mas as nervuras permanecem verdes . A cor pálida acorre uniformemente em toda a lamina foliar (Figura 37), ao contrário do que acontece devido ~ deficiencia de magnésio, que provoca o amarelecimento a partir da ponta e das margens das folhas mais velhas. A deficiencia de ferro em condic;:oes de campo ainda nao foi relatada. Síntomas de defici6ncia de ferro, mostrando as folhas superiores amarelas com nervuras verdes.123O teor de ferro em folhas deficientes pode apresentar grandes variavoes, embora 50 ppm seja considerado o nfvel crítico foliar (Wilcox & Fageria, 1976).Em solos aluviais com pH acima de 7 ,O e com CaC0 3 livre, pode acorrer deficiencia de ferro. As aplicavoes pesadas de calcário por vários anos podem induzir a deficiencia de ferro em arroz em solos de cerrado do Brasil, mas nenhuma deficiencia desse elemento foi relatada para feijoeiro .As aplicavoes de 25 kg de Fe-EDT A/ha, no solo, ou de 600 1 de soluvao a 3 % de Fe 2 SOi ha, nas folhas, podem corrigir a deficiencia. As cultivares Great Northern Valley, Great Northern Emerson e Great Northern Ul 59 sao tolerantes a deficiencia de ferro, enquanto a PI 165078 = G 0159 é suscetível (Coyne et al. , 1982).Nenhum sintoma direto de deficiencia de molibdenio foi documentado.Em solos deficientes, a simbiose do feijoeiro com Rhizobium é limitada, e a nodulavao, pobre .Nao sao conhecidos os níveis críticos para este micronutriente.Em algumas áreas em torno de Coimbra e Vivosa, no Estado de Minas Gerais, tem-se observado deficiencia de molibdenio. As respostas a aplicavao foliar deste elemento sao altas nessa regiao (Vieira et al., 1992).A aplicac;:ao de 1 kg de heptamolibdato de amonio ou de sódio/ha é suficiente para corrigir as deficiencias de molibdenio e prover as plantas com este nutriente para uma simbiose normal entre Rhizobium e feijoeiro no campo. A calagem pode aumentar a disponibilidade deste nutriente para as plantas quando a deficiencia é causada por pH baixo . As aplicac;:oes foliares de 20 g de molibdenio/ha, como Na 2 Mo0 4 , podem eliminar a deficiencia e, algumas vezes, aumentar a produc;:ao do feijoeiro em solos deficientes.A toxicidade de aluminio comec;:a precocemente, ainda nas folhas dicotiledonais, quando surgem manchas necróticas sobre as laminas e necrose progressiva nas margens das folhas (Figura 38). Quando severamente atetadas, as plantas morrem rapidamente após a germinac;:ao. Em condi9oes de casa de vegetac;:ao, o sintoma de amarelecimento é menos pronunciado. A toxicidade de aluminio provoca nanismo mais severo que aquele causado pela deficiencia de fósforo (Figura 39). A raíz é a parte da planta mais atetada por este tipo de toxicidade, que inibe a divisao celular (Naidoo et al. , 1978). A raíz principal marre e as rafzes adventícias, que sao entao formadas, morrem rapidamente . A curvatura da raíz secundária indica que a raíz está evitando a zona ou a camada do solo que contém alto teor de alumfnio (Figura 40). A incorporac;:ao de calcário abaixo de 20 cm de profundidade corrige a toxicidade de alumfnio nesta regiao e facilita o crescimento das raízes, mas a sua execuc;:ao é difícil com os implementos agrícolas comuns. Rafzes tortuosas podem ser também encontradas em solos com lenc;:ol freático alto, mas, neste tipo de solo, as rafzes tem mais ramificac;:oes (Figura 41) que aquelas que sofrem toxicidade de aluminio.É difícil determinar os nfveis críticos de alumínio no solo. A taxa de 15% de saturac;:ao de alumínio, usada como critério em solos com menos de 1 , 5% de matéria organica, é válida para a maioria dos solos do cerrado brasileiro. Em solos de Popayan ou de Santander de Quilichao (Colombia). com mais de 3,5 % de matéria organica, a taxa crítica de toxicidade de alumínio encontra-se entre 30% e 60% de saturac;: ao.    1 2 7A toxicidade de alumfnio acorre em quase todas as áreas em que se cultiva o feijoeiro na América Latina, especialmente nos Oxissolos, Ultissolos e solos de origem vulcanica.As aplica96es de quantidades em torno de 5 t de calcário dolomítico ou calcítico/ha geralmente sáo feitas em intervalos de quatro a cinco anos. O uso freqüente de grandes quantidades de sulfato de amonio reduz o intervalo de calagem. Quando possfvel, deve-se evitar o uso de fertilizantes acidificadores do solo, como sulfato de amonio ou uréia. Contudo, devido as necessidades da planta em enxofre , o sulfato de amonio está sendo sempre usado. Em muitos países náo é possível encontrar nitrato de cálcio ou cianamida de cálcio, fertilizantes náo acidificadores, porque o comércio desses produtos é limitado. O uso de fosfatos de rocha parcialmente solúveis ajuda a reduzir a toxicidade de alumfnio devido ao seu alto teor de cálcio. As cultivares Carioca, Rio Tibagi e G 4000 sáo mais tolerantes que outras a ambientes ácidos.A toxicidade de manganes causa clorose internervural em folhas jovens (Figura 42). Mesmo em plantas vigorosas, com crescimento intenso , a toxicidade de manganes pode aparecer após prolongadas e pesadas chuvas, com as folhas jovens superiores apresentando cor verde-pálida (Figura 43). Estresses prolongados de mangan~s causa m o enrugamento das folhas (Figura 44) surgindo manchas necróticas espalhadas em toda a lamina foliar. Sob temperaturas mais baixas, esses sintomas manifestam-se com maior facilidade (Heenan & Carter, 1977).O teor de manganes nas folhas atetadas pela toxicidade deste elemento varia de 700 ppm até 1 .400 ppm, enquanto, em plantas normais, as folhas apresentam teores abaixo de 300 ppm. A relac;áo ferro/manganes é o melhor critério para a avalia9áo da toxicidade de manganes, que acorre quando esta rela9áo encontra-se e m valores abaixo de 1 , 5 .  Síntomas de toxicidade de manganas nas folhas superiores do feijoeiro, em plantas bem desenvolvidas, com aparecimento após prolongado período chuvoso em solos ricos em cinzas vulcánicas. 129A toxicidade de manganes ocorre em solos formados por cinzas vulcanicas da Zona Andina e em terras baixas hidromórficas do Brasil. Na América Central , este tipo de toxicidade é largamente distribuido, mas recebe pouca atenc;:ao, porque o excesso de manganes quase nunca causa a mortalidade das plantas, o que ocorre com a toxicidade de aluminio. A toxicidade de manganes pode também ocorrer temporariamente durante a estac;:ao chuvosa, porque o excesso de água reduz Mnh para Mn 2 + , que é a forma absorvida pelas rafzes das plantas.A calagem usada para a reduc;:ao da toxicidade de aluminio (3 t de calcário calcftico ou dolomftico/ha) pode também reduzir a toxicidade de manganes. Sao requeridas doses maiores de calcário para eliminar completamente a toxicidade de manganes, porque é necessário que o pH do solo esteja mais alto para que isto ocorra. As aplicac;:oes de 20 t de matéria orgtinica/ha podem reduzir significativamente a toxicidade de manganes (Dobereiner & Alvahydo, 1966). Melhorando a aerac;:ao e a drenagem do solo, pode-se controlar temporariamente o problema de toxicidade deste elemento. As cultivares Carioca , G 4000, Snap Bean Green Lord e Red Kidney sao mais tolerantes a toxicidade de manganes que outras cultivares comuns.Quando ocorre toxicidade conjunta de aluminio e manganes, a germinac;:ao geralmente ocorre lentamente e as folhas ficam necrosadas como se tivessem sido queimadas por herbicidas (Figura 45) .Os mesmos níveis que causam toxicidade de aluminio e de manganes isoladamente. Os mesmos locais ande ocorrem toxicidades de aluminio e de manganes separadamente. Algumas vezes, os síntomas sao confundidos com a a9ao tóxica dos herbicidas em solos vulcfinicos.Os mesmos procedimentos sugeridos para a toxicidade de aluminio.As folhas dicotiledonais e a primeira folha trifoliolada mostram necrose marginal da lamina, o que as tornam encarquilhadas (Figura 46). mas as folhas trifolioladas subseqüentes normalmente nao sao atetadas. Síntomas de toxicidade de boro causados pela má distribu i~áo de bórax. produzindo necrose marginal na primeira folha trifoliolada.As folhas com sintomas de toxicidade de boro contem mais que 1 50 ppm do elemento .Nos trópicos. este tipo de toxicidade acorre normalmente devido a aplicac;:ao incorreta de boro. Alguns solos da Califórnia (Estados Unidos) tem alto teor de boro. e a toxicidade deste elemento causa danos a produc;:ao.Evitar a incidencia de toxicidade induzida, provocada por aplica<;oes incorretas de bórax ou Solubor. A toxicidade de boro no campo é corrigida através de ara<;ao ou gradagem, para melhorar a distribui<;ao dos fertilizantes que contem este elemento . Periodicamente, deve-se realizar urna ara<;ao profunda para evitar bolsoes tóxicos na área.Os síntomas de toxicidade de zinco sao semelhantes aos de toxicidade de boro, porém, com menor enrugamento das folhas (Figura 47) .As folhas com síntomas de toxicidade de zinco contém mais de 100 ppm do elemento .A toxicidade de zinco acorre normalmente devido a distribui<;ao desuniforme de fertilizantes contendo o elemento.Recomenda-se a ara<;ao profunda com a finalidade de distribuir o zinco em maior volume de solo. 5.16 Toxicidade de ferroA indu9ao de toxicidade de ferro em casa de vegeta9ao causa clorose internervural nas folhas mais jovens (Figura 48) .As folhas com síntomas de toxicidade de ferro apresentam teores superiores a 500 ppm do elemento, enquanto as folhas saudáveis mostram teares de 100 ppm a 450 ppm.Até o momento nao foi relatada toxicidade de ferro em feijoeiro no campo. Este tipo de toxicidade normalmente pode acorrer após urna ara9ao profunda de solos aluviais com baixo teor de matéria organica. Neste caso, as camadas superiores do solo sao enterradas, e os íons Fe 3 • incluídos nas partfculas de argila ou silte sao liberados e posteriormente reduzidos a Fe 2 • , forma que é entao rapidamente absorvida pelas plantas em grandes quantidades.A incorpora9ao de matéria organica forma quelatos com o ferro livre do solo, reduzindo a sua disponibilidade para as plantas . A calagem pode ajudar a corrigir o excesso de ferro pela forma9ao de complexos cálcio-ferro.  A arac;:ao de solos muito úmidos (Figuras 49 e 50) ou muito secos (Figura 51) produz torroes. O uso de grade pesada no preparo do solo, prática muito comum no Brasil por ser mais rápida que o uso de aiveca, provoca , em pouco tempo, compactac;:ao do solo na profundidade entre 15 e 20 cm (Figura 52) . As raízes do feijoeiro nao penetram nesta camada. As irregularidades na arac;:ao sao causadas pelo mal-ajuste dos pontos de conexao do trator (Figura 53). A plantadeira mal-ajustada coloca as sementes em diferentes profundidades. As áreas com torroes dificultam a germinac;:ao das sementes (Figura 54), mas a escarificac;:ao do solo pode ajudar a resolver o problema. O cultivo mecanico no estádio da terceira folha trifoliolada é bastante recomendado (Figuras 55 e 56), pois nao somente reduz a populac;:ao de plantas daninhas como melhora o arejamento das rarzes. O cultivo pode ser combinado com a aplicac;:ao de nitrogenio em cobertura lateralmente as linhas, com doses de aproximadamente 100 kg de sulfato de amonio/ha.    Compactac;:Ao do solo em camadas mais profundas devido ao uso treqüente de arado de disco ou de grade aradora (pé-de-grade).    Capinadeira manual adaptada a trator de baixa potencia.Muitos agroqufmicos, quando aplicados em doses abusivas, podem causar danos aos tecidos das folhas e, em alguns casos, levar a planta a morte. Aplicac;:oes de doses mais altas que as recomendadas de fertilizantes, inseticidas, fungicidas e fertilizantes foliares sao comuns em campos comerciais para aumentar a margem de seguranc;:a por parte do agricultor, mas podem trazer problemas a planta. Além do mais, as aplicac;:oes em épocas impróprias e a escolha de herbicidas nao seletivos causam severos problemas de queima. Os danos causados pelos agroqufmicos diferem dos síntomas de toxicidade ou de deficiencia de nutrientes minarais, resultando no aumento rápido da concentrac;:ao do produto na superffcie da folha devido a evaporac;:ao. Essa alta concentrac;:ao na superffcie da folha causa aumento da pressao osmótica, havendo absorc;:ao de água das células, o que causa necrose . Normalmente, acorre queima das regioes da nervura e internervurais indiscriminadamente. Ao contrário, os síntomas de deficiencia ou de toxicidade mineral nunca produzem necrose das nervuras. A aplicac;:ao de doses muito altas de fertilizantes na base das plantas, em solos ácidos, pode reduzir a taxa de germinac;:ao do feijoeiro (Figura 57) e causar necrose, que vai das margens da folha em dire<;ao ao ápice (Figura 58) . Também o tempo de germinac;:ao torna-se mais longo e a densidade de plantas é significativamente reduzida. Para aumentar a eficiencia do uso de fertilizantes químicos em solos ácidos pouco férteis, comumente faz-se a aplicac;:ao de fertilizantes em sulcos. Os fertilizantes sao distribuídos mecanicamente através de tubo distribuidor de fertilizantes, mas a obstruc;:ao do tubo por solo muito úmido pode causar desuniformidade na distribuic;:ao do fertilizante e retardar o crescimento das plantas naquela linha (Figura 59).Reduc;ao da taxa de germinac;ao em solos ácidos provocada pela aplicac;ao de altas doses de fertilizantes.Necrose das margens e encurvamento da folha do feijoeiro devido a aplicac;ao de altas doses de fertilizantes .Crescimento reduzido pela falta de fertilizantes nas linhas, em Oxissolos, devido a obstruc;ao do distribuidor de fertilizante.Os herbicidas, mesmo os mais seletivos, podem tornar-se fitotóxicos quando algum fator relacionado com as práticas culturais nao é favorável, tal como, mal preparo do solo, presenc;a de grandes torroes, solo arenoso com baixo teor de matéria organica e baixa capacidade tampao, plantío raso e sementes malcobertas, provocando contato direto herbicida-plantula, e umidade em excesso durante a germinac;ao, o que permite que o herbic ida seja absorvido pelas sementes ou pelas plantas em estádios precoces. Em plantíos com irrigac;ao no verao pode acorrer fitotoxicidade devido a alta taxa de transpirac;ao do feijoeiro sob altas temperaturas. Nestas condic;oes, a planta absorve grandes quantidades de água contendo herbicida . Há, também , diferenc;as genéticas quanto a resistencia a herbicidas e, portanto, é possfvel fazer melhoramento da planta para aumentar sua resistencia a doses pesadas desses produtos. Há herbicidas que, mesmo quando bem recomendados, provocam queima das plantas quando a aplicac;ao nao é feita corretamente. O feijoeiro é sensível aos residuos de 2,4 De Atrazina . Alguns herbicidas mais comumente usados em feijoeiro sao Linuron (Figura 60), mistura de Fomesafen e Fluozifop-butil (Figura 61) e lmasaphyr (Figura 62 ). Síntomas de queima moderada causada pela aplicac;:iio da mistura dos herbicidas Fomesafen e Fluozifop-butil.Danos causados pelo herbicida niio recomendado lmazaphyr.Normalment e, a queima das plant as é causada por doses muito altas de vários inseticidas, ou por aplica~oes freqüentes desses produtos em curto espar;o de tempo. Quando Carbofuran é aplicado no solo em altas doses pode resultar em necrose, que acorre das margens da folha em direr;ao ao ápice (Figura 63) . O mesmo acontece com os fungicidas, como, por exemplo, Pyrozaphos (Figura 64).  É difícil ter uma distribuic;ao uniforme da água através da irrigac;ao, quando se usa aspersao de alta pressao . A distribuic;ao de água desses equipamentos é influenciada pela velocidade do vento e pela inclinac;ao do terreno. A irrigac;ao em sulcos depende do bom nivelamento do solo . O feijoeiro é muito suscetivel ao excesso de água. O primeiro síntoma do excesso de água é o amarelecimento uniforme de toda a lamina foliar das folhas mais baixas (Figura 65) . Quando a inundac;ao dura mais que 24 horas, as raízes adventicias c rescem sobre as raízes principais (Figura 66). Períodos mais longos do que 48 horas de inunda<;:ao causam a morte das plantas, com as folhas apresentanda colorac;ao marrom-escura e tornando-se quebradic;as (Figura 67) . Algumas vezes, o encharcamento ocorre somente em áreas irregulares e os síntomas podem facilmente ser confundidos com murcha-de-Fusarium, quando observados vários dias após a secagem do solo (Figura 68) . A irrigac;ao por aspersao de feijoeiro que recebeu adubac;ao elev ada por ocasiao d•o plantío, quando realizada ao meio-dia e sob insolac;ao intensa, pode vir a causar queimaduras nas bordas das folhas (escaldadura), como conseqüencia da alta quantidade de sais absorvida (Figura 69) . O excesso de chuvas causa amarelecimento de toda a lamina das folhas superiores em estádio de vegetac;ao precoce. O síntoma desaparece após vários dias sem chuva (Figura 70). Chuvas pesadas prolongadas durante o estádio de maturac;ao das vagens causam germinac;ao das sementes ainda dentro das vagens de algumas variedades. lsso ocorre especialmente quando a vagem tem alto teor de fibras.Durante o processo de maturac;ao, as rachaduras nas vagens facilitam a entrada de água, causando germinac;ao das sementes (Figura 71) . Em áreas de produc;ao de feijoeiro utilizando subirrigac;ao, sistema no qual a água é fornecida a cultura pelo levantamento do nivel do lenc;ol freático, pode ocorrer excesso de umidade e até inundac;ao temporária, pois há muita dif iculdade em controlar com precisao o nivel do lenc;ol freático. Quando este nfvel está alto (Figura 72) ocorre crescimento superficial das raízes . Ao evitar a lamina de água, a raiz principal fica torta, formando u m \"L\", porém, as raízes secundári as crescem normalmente (Figura 73) . Os síntomas assemelham-se aos da toxicidade de alumfnio, havendo diferenc;as na formac;ao das raízes. A toxicidade de aluminio normalmente mata o ápice da raiz principal e muitas raízes adventfcias sao formadas para compensar sua perda. O lenc;ol freático alto causa encurvamento das pontas das raízes, mas as raízes secundárias e terciárias permanecem intactas. Em solo freqüentemente inundado, recomenda-se o plantío em camalhao, pois cría maior volume de solo para ser explorado pelas raízes.    Queima das folhas do feijoeiro causada por excesso de sals absorvldo quando irrigado durante días quentes e ensolarados (escaldadura).    Sementes germinadas nas vagens devido ao excesso de chuvas na época da colheita.Raiz encurvada causada por len.;:ol freático alto, ainda com suficiente quantidade de rarzes secundárias.As sementes grandes resistem melhor ao estresse de água desde a germinac;:ao até a formac;:ao da primeira folha trifoliolada (Figura 74). O déficit de água causa crescimento atrofiado e plantas de colorac;:ao muito escura (Rgura 75) . A Rgura 76 mostra plantas com folhas na vertical indicando um estresse temporário de água (transpirac;:ao maior que absorc;:ao) .Os danos causados por chuvas de granizo podem ocorrer em regii5es tropicais, provocando estragos nas folhas, no caule e nas vagens (Rguras 77 e 78) . O bronzeamento das vagens, causado por queima pelo sol (Rgura 79), pode acontecer em dias muito quentes.Algumas vezes podem ocorrer danos por geadas em plantíos de inverno. Em estádios vegetativos jovens, as geadas queimam as folhas, mas normalmente a planta se recupera com a formac;:ao de novas folhas em curto periodo de tempo. Quando a geada ocorre somente por algumas noites, as plantas recuperam-se facilmente. Se a geada ocorre durante o estádio desde a formac;:ao de vagens até a maturidade, causa danos as vagens. Os danos das geadas aos graos e as vagens sao semelhantes aqueJes causados por crestamento-bacteriano-comum (Rgura 80). A testa das sementes racha e quebra quando a geada ocorre no período em que as vagens estao quase maduras. Estas rachaduras normalmente produzem graos com síntomas semelhantes ao problema genético chamado olhode-peixe (Rgura 81 ). Alguns genótipos sao mais resistentes que outros aos estresses causados por baixas temperaturas (Rgura 82) . As sementes pequenas sAo mais sensfveis A falta de água que as sementes grandes durante o processo de gennina~o .   Flg. 77 Furos nas folhas causados por chuva de granizo.    Quando ocorrem baixas temperaturas na época de pré-florat;:ao , a folha central do trifólio se deforma e o ápice da folha torna-se arredondado por nao ser possrvel acorrer alongamento da nervura principal. Normalmente, as folhas tornam-se ligeiramente amarelas. Depois de vários dias quentes os sintomas desaparecem. Em regiao feijoeira de baixa latitude ( > 23° Sul), estes sintomas sao comuns (Figura 83). A baixa temperatura também causa menor tamanho das laminas das folhas, induzindo altos teores de nitrogénio, fósforo, cálcio e manganés (Tabela 37).O excesso de ozónio próximo ~ supertrcie do solo causa bronzeamento da lamina foliar (Figura 84). o que pode acorrer especialmente no fim da estat;:ao seca no cerrado brasileiro, devido ~s queimadas das pastagens para reduzir a infestat;:ao de pragas e !impar o pasto de plantas daninhas. A concentrat;:ao de ozónio aumenta de 20 ppb para 60 ppb . A alta concentrat;:ao de ozónio reduz a taxa relativa de crescimento e a produt;:ao de vagens, acorrendo redut;:ao do nitrogénio total (Bium & Heck, 1980) . Nenhuma medida preventiva contra este efeito do clima está disponrvel até a presente data .  Toxicidade de ozOnio causa bronzeamento da lAmina foliar.O dano mecanice lis sementes é difícil de ser detectado quando elas nao estao totalmente quebradas. A rachadura do tegumento é comum, mas pode nao ser percebida a olho nu. Ouando as sementes sao colhidas com umidade abaixo de 14%, podem acorrer danos medinicos durante o seu processamento. Cuando essas sementes sao utilizadas para plantio, as folhas dicotiledonais sao defeituosas ou ausentes. Em muitos casos, o crescimento do ápice da planta cessa (Figura 85). Ouando o dano é esperado, devem-se realizar testes de germinac;:ao das sementes, especialmente quando estas tém menos de 1 0 % de umidade. Quando um síntoma de deficiencia de um macro ou micronutriente é detectado, nao significa que aquele elemento em particular esteja totalmente ausente. Possivelmente, a disponibilidade deste nutriente é baixa e a capacidade de recomposi~;ao do elemento no solo é lenta, resultando numa quantidade insuficiente para satisfazer as necessidades da planta, aparecendo, entao, o síntoma de deficiencia.Em solos ácidos tropicais, o fósforo está na solu~;ao do solo em torno de O, 1 ppm. Quando este nutriente é extraído do solo por ácido fraco é encontrado em torno de 1 ppm a 2 ppm. Por outro lado, o fósforo total no solo está em tomo de 250 ppm a 450 ppm, mas o elemento está senda liberado lentamente, através de intemperiza~;ao, nao se deslocando muito pelo processo de difusao. Urna parte do fósforo pode também ser derivada da mineraliza~;ao da matéria orgánica ou de resíduos vegetais, mas esse suprimento é também muito baixo para satisfazer as necessidades da planta; conseqüentemente, urna aduba~;ao química ou orgánica é necessária. Somente 30% do fósforo dos fertilizantes químicos aplicados no solo é utilizado pelo f eijoeiro e o restante do fósforo disponível é rapidamente fixado nas partículas do solo. Assim, em solos tropicais, deve-se aplicar fósforo imediatamente antes do plantio.A aplica~;ao de fertilizantes nitrogenados deve ser feita junto com a dos fosfatados, devido a sua perda através de lixivia~;ao e volatiliza~;ao se aplicados muito antes do plantío. A máxima volatilizac;;áo ocorre quando o nitrogenio é aplicado em cobertura ao lado da linha sem incorporac;;áo (normalmente aos 21 días após a emergencia), ficando exposto ao sol e a chuva. Normalmente, o produtor nao faz a incorporac;;ao do adubo nitrogenado imediatamente após a sua aplicac;;áo por falta de conhecimento da importancia desta prática cultural para a produc;;ao. A aplicac;;áo de adubos fosfatados deve ser feíta em profundidades maiores que 1 5 cm para melhor aproveitamento do nutriente devido a maior disponibilidade de água na camada mais profunda do solo (Thung et al., 1982). Há tres tipos de deficiencia comumente encontrados no campo:1) Deficiencia absoluta, quando o elemento específico no solo náo é suficiente para cobrir a demanda. lsto ocorre em áreas isoladas nos trópicos, onde o feijoeiro é cultivado em solos arenosos, com teor de matéria organica muito baixo. O nitrogenio é um dos nutrientes mais deficientes nos solos arenosos, porque o reabastecimento normal deste elemento através da mineralizac;;ao da matéria organica é limitado;2) O teor do nutriente no solo é suficiente, mas a disponibilidade para a planta, por alguma razáo, é muito baixa para satisfazer as suas necessidades. Ocorre normalmente em solos com pH alto (acima de 7,5), onde o zinco e o boro podem ser fixados. O fósforo t ambém pode ser temporariamente fixado como fosfato de cálcio no solo, quando o pH é maior que 7,5 , ao contrário do manganes. Os solos originários de cinzas vulcanicas, com pH baixo ( < 5,0), tem grande quantidade de manganes, mas em forma nao disponfvel para a planta (Mn 5 • e Mn 7 +). Ele torna-se disponível quando ocorre reduc;;áo de Mn 4 • para Mn 2 + , a forma utilizada pela planta, devido a inundac;;ao temporária; e 3) Quando há desbalanceamento de um micro ou macronutriente. O manganes e o boro podem tornar-se temporariamente indisponíveis devido a aplicac;;ao de altas doses de calcário de urna só vez, como é feíto em solos de cerrado . Freqüentemente sao observados efeitos do excesso de calcário no campo, nao devido a aplicac;;áo de doses altas, mas a sua má distribuic;;áo .A aplicac;;áo foliar é um método muito prático para corrigir as deficiencias de micronutrientes resultantes de calagens pesadas para correc;;ao de acidez. A aplicac;;ao de macronutrientes via foliar geralmente nao é recomendada, porque a quantidade de nutriente aplicada é muito pequena, comparada com a necessidade da planta nos seus vários estádios de crescimento. A quantidade de macronutrientes que pode ser aplicada de urna vez é pequena, devido a baixa tolerancia das folhas do feijoeiro a altas concentra~oes de sal.Os fertilizantes comumente usados para pulveriza~ao foliar sao mostrados na Tabela 38. Somente um fertilizante ionico líquido, como o APP (Rolifosfato de amónio), pode ser aplicado em feijoeiro em altas concentra~oes ( ± 10% peso/ volume) sem causar queima significativa das folhas.A hora da aplica~ao foliar é também importante. Cuando possivel, devese aplicar pela manha ou a tardinha para evitar a queima. A ocorréncia de chuva após a aplica~ao pode eliminar seu efeito. A Tabela 39 mostra o tempo requerido para a absor~ao de 50% do nutriente aplicado.A calagem é a prática mais comum para corrigir a toxicidade de aluminio . Devem ser feítas análises de solo, e os teores de aluminio e de outros cátions devem ser levados em considera~ao. Kamprath (1970) introduziu o conceito de satura~ao de aluminio, expresso como : 3 Al 3 + Satura~ á> de Al + =x 100 Al 3 + + Ca 2 + + Mg 2 + + K+ Nao há nenhuma fórmula perfeita para calcular a dosagem de calcário, porque a concentra~ao de cátions dos solos nao propicia informa~ao suficiente para se conhecer o nfvel de toxicidade do elemento. A matéria organica é o parametro mais importante na determina~ao do nivel de toxicidade de aluminio. Thomas (1975) mostrou uma forte correla~ao entre o teor de matéria organica e a toxicidade de aluminio, pois o alto teor de matéria organica atua como um tampao, reduzindo o efeito da toxicidade deste elemento . Em solos com menos de 2% de matéria organica, uma taxa de satura~ao de aluminio de 15% é o limite, enquanto em solos com teor de matéria organica em torno de 10%, uma saturac;;ao de aluminio acima de 50% é ainda aceitável para o cultivo do feijoeiro. Algumas fórmulas nao incluem a matéria organica, porque assume-se que nos trópicos o seu teor no solo é menor que 2% .As fórmulas comumente usadas no Brasil para calcular as doses de calcário a serem aplicadas sao as seguintes: Tempo requerido para absorc;ao de 50% 3) Quando nenhum dado de análise de solo está disponfvel, pode-se aplicar 5 t de calcário dolomftico/ha, sem gerac;ao de efeito colateral.A escolha do calcário é também importante. Deve-se utilizar calcário de textura fina e seu poder de neutralizac;ao e teor de umidade devem ser checados antes da aquisic;ao. O alto teor de umidade do calcário, além de influenciar sua qualidade como corretivo, faz seu prec;o aumentar. O calcário com muita umidade nao pode ser distribufdo uniformemente e tende a obstruir o aplicador. A maioria dos fertilizantes comerciais usados nos trópicos causa acidez, e sua aplicac;ao continua em altas doses requer aplicac;:oes de calcário mais freqüentes. As quantidades de calcário requeridas para neutralizar a acidez causada pelos fertilizantes ácidos estao relacionadas na Tabela 40.Urna boa correc;ao do solo é essencial para o sucesso da cultura. A uniformidade de aplicac;ao no campo é de difícil execuc;ao, mas a aplicac;ao da metade da dose antes da arac;ao e da outra m etade antes da gradagem tem resultado em boas produc;oes.Quando urna lavagem do solo com água timpa é impossfvel, aplica-se o calcário para recuperar os solos salinos . O uso de calcário dolomftico podeDenomin~ matéria organica os resfduos desuniformes de plantas e animais que estáo em estágio de decomposi900, antes de se tomarem húmus, cuja origem é impossfvel de ser reconhecida. O seu teor no solo varia de menos de 1% até 19%. Nas regiaes onde predominam os Oxissolos, a matéria organica das terras agrícolas raramente é maior que 2%. Normalmente, quanto maior o teor de argila no solo, mais alto é o teor de matéria organica. Aumentar o teor de matéria organica em solos de regi6es quentes e úmidas ou semi-úmidas é diffcil sem a prática do cultivo mfnimo e o uso de herbicidas. A matéria organica, em geral, tem a relac;:áo C : N : P : S de 100 : 1 O : 2 : 1 . É amplamente conhecido o efeito benéfico da matéria org §nica na agregac;:ao e estruturac;:áo do solo, no aumento da aerac;:ao do solo, na melhoria da capacidade de retenc;:ao de água e também da capacidade de troca de cátions das argilas (dependente do pH), no aumento da capacidade tampáo, na capacidade quelante, no controle de liberac;:áo dos nutrientes como nitrogénio, fósforo e enxofre e na reduc;:áo do f luxo de manganés e alumfnio tóxicos. A adic;:áo de matéria organica ao solo aumenta a eficiéncia dos fertilizantes químicos como pode ser verificado na parte abaixo da Figura 86 .O cultivo mínimo e o plantío direto sem remoc;:ao do solo podem, ao longo do tempo, aumentar o teor de matéria organica do solo, mas nao podem ser praticados em todos os tipos de solos. Os solos compactados, com alto teor de alumínio tóxico, devem ser corrigidos antes que o plantío direto possa ser executado com sucesso. Os pequenos proprietários, sem maquinaria, podem utilizar o cultivo em faixas, com cultivo de adubo verde apropriado, o qual deve ser cortado e espalhado uniformemente antes do plantío. Esta é urna prática comum entre os agricultores africanos, mas pouco utilizada nos pafses latinoamericanos.  É ditrcil estimar a prodUI;ao do feijoeiro no campo por muitas razoes. A heterogeneidade do so lo associada é incidencia de pragas e doenyas faz a produyao tornar-se desuniforme . O melhor período para estimar a produ9ao é no início da maturayao fisio lógica, selecionando-se a melhor área representativa da cultura (nem a me lhor nem a pior parte).Contar o número de plantas em linhas de 1 O m de comprimento (a) . Assegurar-se de que essa amostra é representativa daquela área (tomar a amostra da melhor ou da pior área que irá super o u subestimar a produyao) ;Calcu lar a área da amostra (b) , verificando a tabela de conversao apresentada na página seguinte;3) Selecionar, ao acaso , subamostras de 20 plantas provenientes da amostragem feita no item 1 e fazer a média do número de vagens/ 20 plantas (e) ; ","tokenCount":"24098"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b70bb43cdc5a57c3a030a751f17ee1b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.fao.org/3/cb5131en/cb5131en.pdf","id":"-376320628"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3487e16d-1e99-4de3-9318-c85a0b4243bd","pagecount":"420","content":"The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) or the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of FAO or the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT.by clusters and linked to the five principles of sustainable food systems (FAO, 2014) and the Self-evaluation and Holistic Assessment of climate Resilience of Farmers and Pastoralists (SHARP) indicators (Choptiany et al., 2015) ..........40 Table 0.4 Estimates for food sources (%) and number of species/varieties/items for food use used in the Baka food system in Gribe, Cameroon ..48 Table 0.5 Estimates for food sources (%) and number of species/varieties/items for food use used in the Inari Sámi food system in Nellim, Finland .....49  7.1 List of cultivated foods: crops, planted trees and other cultivated foods, their seasonal availability and their growing area ...... 288 Table 7.2 List of wild plants harvested from the forest (both for food and non-food uses), their seasonal availability and their growing area ...... 288 Table 7.3   7.5 Use of palm species according to category of use: food, crafts, rituals and festivals, kitchen ustensils, and construction ....293 Table 7.6 Actors involved in the management and use of natural resources and their functions for the period from 1991 to now .......... 309 Table 7.7 Actors involved in the management and use of natural resources and their functions from background history to 1950, corresponding to the time of ancestors ................311             Climate change has been an ongoing struggle for Indigenous Peoples. It is not a challenge that we are awaiting the consequences of, but one we are currently facing and have been facing every day. I come from a Sámi people fishing community in northern Finland. We are experiencing first hand the effects of climate change on Indigenous Peoples. Global warming is melting the ice and fish resources are diminishing, which is affecting our food system and, as a result, compromising our livelihoods. Finding solutions to climate change is not just a priority, it is an emergency.Indigenous Peoples number 476 million persons worldwide, living in more than 90 countries and belonging to 5 000 different peoples and linguistic groups. We are amongst the most culturally diverse and traditionally unique societies on earth because of our rich history, culture, spirituality, unique ancestral links and tremendous traditional knowledge. Our ways of life, cultures and knowledge systems have been passed on for centuries.Indigenous Peoples are amongst the longest living cultures in the world. Our land and territories are as diverse as our groups. Whilst some Indigenous Peoples live in the Amazon rainforest, others live in the Sahara Desert, and many others live in mountains, in the Arctic or on remote islands. Our territories encompass over a quarter of the world's land surface, and intersect about 35 percent of all terrestrial protected areas and ecologically intact landscapes in the world (Garnett et al., 2018). We must assert and emphasize that indigenous territories preserve and sustain 80 percent of the world's remaining biodiversity (Sobrevilla, 2008).Researchers, academia and the international community have long investigated how and why indigenous territories are home to the highest percentage of biodiversity on the planet.The answer is simple. It is because of our profound connection to our territories and our traditional knowledge. We have learned to preserve our territories and their natural resource bases and passed this knowledge from parents to children for centuries. Our survival is a testament to Indigenous Peoples' ability to observe, adapt and incorporate traditional knowledge to ever-changing ecosystems, and harmoniously reside within the biological diversity of Mother Earth. This all-encompassing richness in culture and traditions allows Indigenous Peoples to develop and sustain diverse and unique food systems. From reindeer herding to gathering wild plants and berries, Indigenous Peoples generate and collect food in complex, holistic and resilient ways whilst always respecting the need to preserve the biological diversity that generates and maintains harmony in nature. Eating and feeding but without destroying. Eating and feeding but maintaining biodiversity. Eating and feeding thanks to Mother Earth's generosity that needs to be nurtured, protected and respected. In nature, everything is alive and has an ultimate purpose and reason of being. This purpose, often overlooked in scientific assessments, is unfortunately better grasped when the plant or animal or berry has disappeared, and the balance is gone.Indigenous Peoples' wisdom, traditional knowledge and ability to adapt provide lessons from which other non-indigenous societies can learn, especially when designing more sustainable food systems that mitigate climate change and environmental degradation. We are all in a race against time with the speed of events accelerating by the day.It is crucial to recognise Indigenous Peoples as key players in achieving the 2030 Agenda and to create larger spaces for more inclusive dialogues recognising the vast lessons to be learned from them.Although Indigenous Peoples and their ecologicalbased food systems have adapted and survived for centuries, pressures from extractive industries, intensive agricultural schemes, lack of access to natural resources, increasing environmental degradation, and drastic changes in climatic conditions are posing major threats to our livelihoods. Our food systems are not only relevant to us, but to the global community as well. This is why the global community must listen and join forces with Indigenous Peoples and advocate for the preservation and safeguarding of Indigenous Peoples' food systems before it is too late and the knowledge we hold, accumulated over hundreds of years, is gone forever.Many other challenges have the potential to devastate Indigenous Peoples' food systems. These include the migration of Indigenous Peoples away from indigenous communities to urban centres, and the increased capitalization and monetization of their economies due to their increased connectivity to commercialized societies. Their traditional knowledge is also disappearing at an alarming rate. As indigenous elders, who preserve and share this knowledge, gradually pass away, much of this traditional knowledge disappears with them.Indigenous Peoples hold internationally recognised rights for the preservation of their food systems through the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), particularly through the inherent right to self-determination and their right to food. The right to food of Indigenous Peoples was also recognised in the 2004 Voluntary Guidelines on the Right to Food, indicating how these rights are strongly linked to Indigenous Peoples' lands, resources and culture. Therefore, human-rights-based dialogue is necessary to ensure the inclusion of Indigenous Peoples in global debates on ending hunger and ensuring food security for all.The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) will take forth this dialogue in upcoming annual sessions.The UNPFII welcomes the recognition of Indigenous Peoples by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as allies in the fight against malnutrition and food insecurity. We have accompanied FAO in all relevant work for the implementation of its Policy on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples since 2010.The UNPFII also recognises FAO's relevant work on Indigenous Peoples' food systems, specifically the two key publications that FAO and the Center for Indigenous Peoples' Nutrition and Environment (CINE) at McGill University released in 2009 and 2013. These publications provided much-needed insights into our traditional food systems, their utilization, and changes in the dietary patterns in our communities. In 2018, the High-Level Expert Seminar on Indigenous Food Systems in Rome organised by FAO brought together countries, Indigenous Peoples and academics to share traditional and scientific knowledge to identify research and policy gaps on Indigenous Peoples' food systems.The UNPFII celebrates and welcomes this current publication, which combines research and case studies that delve into Indigenous Peoples' food systems. This publication is an important step in creating a deeper understanding of Indigenous Peoples' food systems. In this regard, this publication maps eight diverse Indigenous Peoples' food systems, providing insights and details into their unique elements of sustainability and resilience. FAO has conducted this participatory field research in collaboration with the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, engaging with Indigenous Peoples and their communities.I would like to thank all the Indigenous Peoples and members of their communities, as well as the researchers, who have contributed to this work. We hope this publication motivates policymakers to integrate Indigenous Peoples' perspectives in the debates about sustainable food systems. We must align altogether on the path towards a more just and sustainable world, tackling climate change and accelerating solutions to humankind´s greatest challenges.Anne Nuorgam, Chair of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII)The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Centre for Indigenous Peoples' Nutrition and Environment (CINE) at McGill University published in 2009 \"Indigenous Peoples' Food Systems: the many dimensions of culture, diversity and environment for nutrition and health\". This publication was the result of months of fieldwork and a collaboration between indigenous leaders, McGill University-CINE, and the FAO Food and Nutrition Division. The publication brought attention to the broad food base and consumption of nutritious and medicinal edibles by Indigenous Peoples. The food systems of the Inuit, Nuxalk and Gwich' in of Canada, the Awajun of Peru, the Ingano of Colombia, the Maasai of Kenya, the Igbo of Nigeria, the Dalit and Bhil of India, the Karen of Thailand, the Ainu of Japan, and the inhabitants of Pohnpei Micronesian island were analyzed, showing how their food systems were based on food species and varieties/cultivars that number from 35 to almost 400. This 2009 publication was the first book published by FAO that analyzed the comparative characteristics of diverse Indigenous Peoples' food systems from across the world. The book drew the interest of experts, researchers and policymakers towards the tremendous -and often underestimated -richness of knowledge that the traditions and ancestral practices of Indigenous Peoples have maintained and nourished over centuries. The essence of Indigenous Peoples' knowledge systems is largely encapsulated in how they generate, harvest, hunt and grow such diverse foods.In 2013, FAO and McGill University-CINE published \"Indigenous Peoples' food systems & well-being: interventions & policies for healthy communities\". This second publication was the result of nearly 10 years of extended research about the challenges that Indigenous Peoples' food systems are facing in a fast-changing world. The researchers analyzed the challenges of the indigenous communities presented in the 2009 publication, concentrating their findings on aspects of health and nutrition. The second publication provided policy recommendations to help protect traditional knowledge and customary governance rules, with the ultimate goal of preserving the communities' nutrition and health, with particular emphasis on children.In 2015, the recently established FAO Indigenous Peoples Team hosted in Rome a caucus with indigenous representatives and leaders from the seven socio-cultural regions. The caucus identified priorities for their work with FAO based on the organization's technical expertise. One of the most salient requests from indigenous leaders at the plenary discussions was for FAO to create a working group on Indigenous Peoples' food systems. FAO management agreed, and ever since the FAO Indigenous Peoples Unit has been coordinating a task group on Indigenous Peoples' food systems involving other technical divisions as well as key research organizations.In 2018, FAO joined forces with different Indigenous Peoples' organizations, research centres, the United Nations (UN) and international organizations to host the First High-Level Expert Seminar on Indigenous Food Systems at its Rome headquarters. The Expert Seminar brought together more than 200 participants including 70 speakers representing indigenous leaders, researchers, governments and FAO experts from different fields. The main result of this Expert Seminar was the agreement about the need to create a Global-Hub on Indigenous Peoples' Food Systems that would bring together universities, research centres, Indigenous Peoples and UN agencies. The Global-Hub would be dedicated to facilitating a dialogue between scientists, academics and Indigenous Peoples to co-create knowledge, reshape terminology and reexamine conceptual frameworks. The Global-Hub is expected to contribute to the ongoing global debate on sustainable food systems and climate resilience.In past decades, the world witnessed a series of global challenges that have influenced conceptual discussions and policy debates, placing food systems at the centre of the discussion within the Committee on World Food Security (CFS) as well as FAO Technical Committees on Agriculture (COAG), Forestry (COFO) and Fisheries (COFI).The 2007 subprime mortgage crisis spilled over into the food market and generated a spike of food prices that pushed several countries across the world into a critical food-provision shortage. In parallel, the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of the environment, exacerbated by climate change and weather variability, are increasing the extinction of species and damaging ecosystems. More and more, experts have moved from production and food availability concerns to looking more broadly through the lens of food systems. Beyond the food security pillars of availability, access, stability and utilization, this lens started to incorporate considerations such as value chains, local food production, food losses and waste, agroecology, food sovereignty, environmental externalities, biodiversity, climate, nutrition, health, energy and input balances, as well as the interrelations between the different players along the food trade and production value chain. The global conceptual debate moved from food security to food systems.Today, food systems based on agriculture and livestock consume more than 70 percent of the water (FAO, 2017b), 30 percent of the fossil fuels (OECD, 2010) and use 38 percent of the land (FAO, 2011) in the world. The debate has been evolving towards the importance of reviewing the sustainability of production, distribution and commercialization to make recommendations that transform food systems, making them efficient, sustainable, nutritious and respectful of the environment.Cognizant of this debate and of the different paradigms being considered, in 2017 the FAO Indigenous Peoples Unit, in an effort to develop a collaborative methodology for analyzing Indigenous Peoples' food systems, approached the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, The Indigenous Partnership for Agrobiodiversity and Food Sovereignty (TIP), The French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (IRD), the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), FAO's Pastoralist Knowledge Hub (PKH), FAO Fisheries Division, FAO Food and Nutrition Division, and the Mountain Partnership Secretariat. Inspired by the Self-evaluation and Holistic Assessment of climate Resilience of Farmers and Pastoralists (SHARP) 1 and other participatory research methods, this new methodology could be used to profile the status and trends of Indigenous Peoples' food systems across the world and continue the work started by FAO in 2009.The book you are about to read constitutes the third volume on Indigenous Peoples' food systems. The objective of this publication is to (1) acknowledge the contributions that Indigenous Peoples can make to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); and to (2) advocate for these contributions and associated food systems to be taken into consideration in ongoing discussions about sustainable and efficient food systems that could support better nutrition and health.Co-published by FAO and the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, this publication builds on the analysis by a Scientific Editorial Committee of field research carried out with the involvement of participating Indigenous Peoples' communities. Their rich discussions, their interest in the work and their level of participation, often setting aside their chores to talk to the researchers and local organizations, made the difference and informed the content of this book. The Indigenous Peoples participating in the profiling of the Indigenous Peoples' food systems are eager to share with the rest of the world the fundamental aspects of their ancestral knowledge that may contribute to better understandings of what makes food systems sustainable and resilient. This book makes valuable contribution to global food system debates, including, but not limited to, the ability to generate food without depleting the natural resource base but rather preserving and enhancing the biodiversity and health of the ecosystems, the use of renewable energy sourced from within the food system, the importance of customary governance mechanisms and institutions, and the role that traditional knowledge plays in climate resilience.At the same time, the research has revealed the tremendous forces and pressures that Indigenous Peoples across the world withstand to maintain their livelihoods and food systems. Rural-urban migration, food aid schemes that are not culturally appropriate, transition towards a more monetized economy, abandonment of traditional practices, loss of knowledge and languages, land grabbing and encroachment of Indigenous Peoples' territories, influx of highly processed imported foods, pollution of waters, lands and resources, inexorable deforestation, forced displacement, and increasing rates of suicide and self-harm amongst indigenous youth are some of the most acute issues threatening the future of Indigenous Peoples' food systems.Chaired by the FAO Indigenous Peoples Unit, the Scientific Editorial Committee, composed of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, TIP, IRD, Massey University, the PKH, and the FAO Food and Nutrition Division, reviewed all the materials from the field, selecting 8 profiles out of the 12 initially prepared by the local indigenous organizations and field researchers. The 8 profiles presented in this book correspond to the food systems of: the Baka in Cameroon, the Inari Sámi in Finland, the Khasi in India, the Melanesians SI2 in Solomon Islands, the Kel Tamasheq in Mali, the Bhotia and Anwal in India, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua in Colombia, and the Maya Ch'orti' in Guatemala.We hope that the present volume will encourage researchers to learn more about Indigenous Peoples' food systems, policymakers to incorporate new knowledges and values, country representatives to respect other forms of knowledge, and practitioners to influence the global debate with stronger fieldbasedgrounded evidence.We hope that the present volume will encourage countries to include Indigenous Peoples' representatives in policy discussions that affect humankind.Rome, March 2021.Gutierrez Hernandez was responsible for linking with the communities, organising the thematic discussions, and notetaking. Adolfo Vasquez, Alan Galván and Mario Randolfo Lorenzo from Mancomunidad Copan Ch'orti' were responsible for coordinating. Stefano Padulosi, Gennifer Meldrum and Nadezda Amaya of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT provided logistical and editorial support.The FAO Indigenous Peoples Unit and the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT would like to warmly thank the following for their generous funding and for supporting parts of the research and field activities that have made this publication possible: FAO   To endure the effects of climate change and to address the challenges that humankind (indigenous or non-indigenous) will face as a result of unsustainable food production practices, Indigenous Peoples' food systems are probably amongst the best placed to provide insights, lessons and empirical evidence that could facilitate the transition towards more sustainable food systems. The analysis of the eight food systems 5 provides nine salient insights whilst identifying obstacles that need to be considered.1. The recognition of Indigenous Peoples within the countries they inhabit is important and enables them access to basic public services.Although Indigenous Peoples and their food systems have existed for thousands of years, with the creation of today's modern states, several Indigenous Peoples across the world see their existence unacknowledged in national legislation and normative frameworks, despite the adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) in 2007 in the United Nations (UN) General Assembly and the endorsement by the countries.Ten out of the 11 Indigenous Peoples considered in these eight profiles live in countries where they are explicitly recognised in the Constitution. These are: Cameroon, Colombia, Finland, Guatemala, India and Solomon Islands. The recognition of Indigenous Peoples in the Constitution and laws in the countries facilitates their access to essential public services. However, and as the analysis showed for the Melanesians SI , the Baka, and the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, legal recognition does not resolve the need for interculturality in public services and social protection measures for them to be effective and benefit Indigenous Peoples. Evidence from many of the profiles here demonstrates communities' lack of satisfaction with development programmes, agriculture plans, school meals and education plans in which, apparently, they did not participate in the design and scope.There are examples of: energy use, territorial management, waste included as inputs in the system, fallow practices and ecological management associated with culture and tradition to enable replenishment of the natural resource base, etc. The territorial management practices of Indigenous Peoples are carefully attuned to the ecosystems in which they live and has been able to successfully preserve biodiversity and create sophisticated food systems that generate food for communities for generations. Scientists are starting to acknowledge this whilst policymakers have not yet been able to translate this growing awareness into effective policy measures that protect Indigenous Peoples' practices. There is potential to draw lessons on sustainability from Indigenous Peoples that can be extrapolated to other contexts and communities.At the same time, despite their undeniable qualities, strengths and capacities of sustainability and resilience, in the last 50 years, Indigenous Peoples' food systems are undergoing profound changes, motivated by both internal and external drivers, that are transforming some of the ancestral practices at an unprecedented speed and rapidly altering their food systems, with some of them resorting to unsustainable practices whilst others are being abandoned. The threats to indigenous territories from external actors have drastically reduced indigenous lands, thus increasing the vulnerability of ancestral and orally transmitted knowledge that has persisted until recently.The vast knowledge of Indigenous Peoples on a huge diversity of wild, semi-domesticated and domesticated species of plants used for food and medicine in their diets and health systems is the best known to humankind. In some cases, 5 Note from the editors: All references to the Indigenous Peoples in this section refer to the communities that took part in the fieldwork unless otherwise specified. These are: Baka in Gribe; Inari Sámi in Nellim; Khasi in Nongtraw; Melanesians SI in Baniata; Kel Tamasheq in Aratène; Botia and Anwal in Namik; Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua in Puerto Nariño; and Maya Ch'orti' in Chiquimula.pharmaceutical companies, in collaborative agreements with Indigenous Peoples, have developed new medicines that today are sold over the counter throughout the world. In other instances, Indigenous Peoples denounced biopiracy and lack of respect of their intellectual rights over their knowledge of plants used for medicines and foods. The respect, or lack thereof, of Indigenous Peoples' intellectual property rights over their knowledge of plants has been one of the major constraints for Indigenous Peoples to share their knowledge about sustainability with nonindigenous scientists. The international community needs to address this issue guaranteeing Indigenous Peoples' rights. Otherwise, important segments of knowledge and understanding of how nature and biodiversity works, accumulated over generations of observation of the natural cycles and interactions in the ecosystems, will be lost with the passing of the elders and the migration of youth to urban centres.4. The importance of nomadism, mobile livelihoods and shifting practices to maintain biodiversity. Indigenous Peoples remind us that many of today's livelihoods are mobile, itinerant, semi-mobile and nomadic. Often not well understood by practitioners and policymakers, the relationship between nomadic livelihoods and biodiversity conservation is an area of research that merits more dedicated analysis. Indigenous Peoples' territorial management practices have not been well understood by non-indigenous scientists. Practices like shifting cultivation have been criticized for years as responsible for deforestation. However, areas subjected to shifting cultivation practices are still forested today whilst surrounding areas have been logged and the forest eliminated. More research is needed about the cycles of shifting cultivation. Evidence suggests that in almost all communities, reducing the period of time to complete the cycle caused by external actors' pressures and increased demography has negatively impacted sustainability.Relatively recent new drivers related to globalization, monetization, markets, migration, climate change and extractive pressures over the natural resources are either impairing, limiting or forbidding mobile and nomadic practices. In some cases, the mobile livelihoods will be irreversibly lost. Climate change is posing an insurmountable challenge in some cases, given the severity of reported climatic variability in some of the ecosystems. It is important to have more dedicated research to inform policies that today either do not support mobility or go against it altogether. The disappearance of mobile practices will have an effect on Indigenous Peoples' food systems and sustainability.5. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are dynamic in time and subject to changes but today they are changing at an unprecedented speed. Whilst in the past, the dynamism of their territorial management techniques allowed them to adjust to changing migratory patterns and climate variations, the current situation and pressures are placing Indigenous Peoples in difficult conditions to counteract. They see how their territories and livelihoods are suffering a profound impact from migrants in and out of the communities, extractive industries, commercial agriculture schemes, youth's changing habits and tastes, and climate change. These, coupled with the changes introduced by the monetization of the economy and the growing interest in selling foods and handicrafts in markets to acquire cash, are rapidly introducing new habits and tastes, and reshaping the Indigenous Peoples' food systems from within.The rapid monetization of barter-subsistence traditional economies is shifting preferences and changing habits, whilst redirecting livelihood efforts towards market-oriented activities. The traditional accumulation of capital in the environment and ecosystems is now shifting more and more towards cash accumulation to access a new plethora of available goods and services that are no longer transacted by barter exchange but through cash. This is having an impact on many of the ancestral collective forms of reciprocity and circular solidarity that have constituted their safety nets for centuries. Today, important practices rooted in the indigenous values of reciprocity and collective solidarity are being abandoned. Individualism is growing. This creates a real risk that several Indigenous Peoples' food systems will disappear and become unsustainable by being detached from their natural resource base and the cosmogony and traditional knowledge that informed them for years.6. The acceleration in the adoption of marketoriented activities for cash is profoundly transforming Indigenous Peoples' food systems. Whilst access to markets and the monetization of the Indigenous Peoples' food systems is neither negative nor positive per se, in the context of ongoing globalization, the improved access to markets is having a direct impact on the socio-economy of the indigenous communities. These positive and negative impacts affect the environment, the social fabric, and the transmission of traditional knowledge. The accumulation impetus has become a negative driver to maintain the food system's sustainability, changing a basic principle of Indigenous Peoples' food systems: Previously, the system accumulated capital in the environment in the form of natural resources that, when properly managed, generated foods, medicines and by-products. Now, the accumulation of capital has moved away from the ecosystem and into private hands, enabling cash generation to purchase externally manufactured goods. This shift towards the extraction of resources from the system affects the future sustainability of some of the Indigenous Peoples' food systems that were analyzed, with community members already observing new extraction rates to cater to the market that go beyond the threshold limit that allows the regeneration of resources.7. Indigenous Peoples' food systems risk disappearance. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are today at a juncture in time where, unless properly analyzed and supported by the right policy interventions, risk disappearance or full assimilation by the dominant cultures mainstreamed in the globalization process.Markets, along with climate change effects and pressures from external actors encroaching indigenous territories and ancestral lands, are probably the factors that are transforming Indigenous Peoples' food systems at the fastest rate. These circumstances are causing the largest, longlasting and, in some cases, irreversible effects on the continuity and sustainability of the Indigenous Peoples' food systems.An important open question remains as to how the transmission of knowledge is going to be maintained and ensure the continuation of some of the practices that support the territorial management and food systems. This concern was made evident during interviews with the communities.8. The future of Indigenous Peoples' food systems depends largely on the decisions indigenous youth are making. Indigenous youth face an unprecedented divide: on the one hand, they want to access education and pursue a professional life that allows them to participate in an urbanized and globalized economy. On the other hand, if they do not continue some of the traditional practices in their communities, the food systems and associated territorial management practices threaten to disappear.New formulas are needed to allow indigenous youth to participate in both the globalized world and the local community. The importance of governments developing educational programmes with interculturality cannot be overemphasized.Initiatives and programmes discussed with elders and youth that blend traditional knowledge with new technologies could be the solution.The future will largely depend on indigenous youths' ability to reconcile traditionally sustainable and self-consumption food systems with the growing preference towards market-oriented food systems whilst maintaining elements of ancestral knowledge and sustainability. This reconciliation remains an open question and is directly linked to the preservation of ancestral languages and traditions, whose disappearance will hamper the survival and continuation of these ancestral food systems.9. Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) is more than a principle -it brings success. Free, Prior and Informed Constent is not only a right that Indigenous Peoples have in the UNDRIP, it is actually essential to ensure the success and performance of different governmental development and social protection programmes aimed at improving the well-being of Indigenous Peoples. From agricultural support programmes to education, all interventions benefit when there is consultation and consent by Indigenous Peoples.In order to fully ascertain the way forward, deeper understanding of the many existing Indigenous Peoples' food systems is needed to learn from them and inform many of their valuable contributions into the worldwide debate on sustainable food systems.Further research is required to undertake a more complete and systematic inventory of the diversity of strategies and territorial management techniques elaborated by culturally diverse Indigenous Peoples in their relations with the diverse ecosystems they live in across the world.A sustainability science approach should help better achieve this incorporation. Sustainability science seeks to examine the interactions between human, environmental and engineered systems to understand and contribute to solutions for complex challenges -climate change, biodiversity loss, pollution, and land and water degradation -that threaten the integrity of the life support systems (Lang et al., 2012). Most importantly, sustainability science is defined by the problems it addresses, not by the disciplines it employs. Contemporary research remains indeed too fragmented, too discipline-focussed, and singularly lacking in articulation between the results it proposes and the scale of the problems to be solved.Along these lines, there is an urgent need to develop new collaborative research frameworks that bring together experts from different scientific disciplines but also from different cultures to co-create knowledge. This equates to promoting transdisciplinary, transcultural and co-constructed knowledge between scientists and key actors in society, with Indigenous Peoples at the centre of these efforts.Further research is needed to highlight the role that Indigenous Peoples' food systems can play in ensuring food security and nutrition security, mobilizing political support, sharing knowledge and good practices, discussing successes and challenges, and working to promote and preserve Indigenous Peoples' food systems and the foods and services generated by them, with the ultimate objective of improving food systems, diets and nutrition for all. These interrelated interventions require the setting of a dedicated body that would carry them forward in a coordinated manner.In this regard, a major outcome of the High-Level Expert Seminar on Indigenous Food Systems held in November 2018 at FAO to introduce the preliminary findings of the profiling was the creation in 2020 of a Global-Hub on Indigenous Peoples' Food Systems.Launched at the 27th session of the Technical Committee on Agriculture (COAG) of FAO, the Global-Hub brings together universities, research centres, Indigenous Peoples, UN agencies and other interested stakeholders to co-create evidence that builds on scientific and traditional knowledge systems of Indigenous Peoples, in order to influence policy discussions on sustainable and climate-resilient food systems in the context of the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition (2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021)(2022)(2023)(2024)(2025) and the 2030 Agenda for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).The overarching objective of the Global-Hub is to facilitate an exchange of evidence that aligns research and indigenous agendas for a more concerted implication in the food systems debate. The Global-Hub will concentrate on four activities pertaining to Indigenous Peoples' food systems, their sustainability and climate resilience:• a knowledge-bearers' platform, creating a space for sharing ideas and knowledge;• a knowledge platform; designed as a knowledge repository, it will be an online staple source of information;• advice in policy dialogues, providing reliable inputs to ongoing policy discussions;• creation of synergies to drive the design of multidisciplinary and collaborative research to fill the gap of knowledge and understanding of Indigenous Peoples' food systems and to prioritize studies to be carried out.These four activities together form a coherent global programme with the intention to continue learning from Indigenous Peoples' food systems, prolonging data gathering and reframing methodologies adequately, promoting them through carefully targeted advocacy, and preserving them through the provision of legal and technical assistance when needed. Lastly, the institutional support to self-certification or other labelling mechanisms is essential.Indigenous Peoples' food systems have been providing food, livelihoods and well-being to Indigenous Peoples for centuries. Their sophisticated territorial and natural resource management practices stems from their close relationships and profound understanding of the environment and its biodiversity. This relationship is based on reciprocity, respect, the observation of the natural cycles and the interactions between the different elements in the ecosystem.The governance systems, cultures, languages, beliefs and cosmogonies in Indigenous Peoples' food systems are embedded in this connection with nature.When the food systems are well functioning, biodiversity is maintained, social cohesion and wellbeing are achieved through customary governance practices, and equity is ensured through reciprocity and solidarity circular mechanisms.1.1. The world cannot feed itself sustainably without listening to Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are multifunctional and holistic, generating food, medicines, shelter and energy, and supporting culture, social and spiritual manifestations. This multifunctionality is rooted in understanding and engagement in the food systems in their totality, giving special attention to the relationships between the different elements in the ecosystem.The very existence of Indigenous Peoples' foodsystems today and their capacity to preserve 80 percent of the remaining biodiversity in the planet (Sobrevilla, 2008) constitutes two of the most important contributions made to the world´s sustainability.1.2. Indigenous Peoples' elaborate territorial management includes mobile and semimobile practices. Gathering, hunting, fishing and farming are integral to Indigenous Peoples' food systems. Such activities are dependent upon their collective rights and access to communal resources including lakes, lands, forests and seas. However, lack of access to their ancestral territories and natural resources and governmental restrictions directly threatens the continuity of Indigenous Peoples' food systems. For Indigenous Peoples' food systems with mobile or semimobile practices, revitalizing and protecting this mobility is fundamental. There is a direct linkage between these mobile practices, the health of communal resources, the sustainability and the biodiversity of their food systems that needs more understanding, dedicated research and better policies.1.3. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are changing at an unprecedented rate. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are changing profoundly and are rapidly influenced by internal and external drivers (market and monetization; climate change; biodiversity loss; pressures from external actors; decay of traditional knowledge transmission; youth migration; mechanization; prospects and tastes changes; new technologies and inputs in agriculture and fisheries). These drivers are transforming some of the ancestral practices and rapidly altering the food systems, with some Indigenous Peoples' resorting to unsustainable practices in their food systems whilst others are being abandoned. A major threat comes from external actors encroaching upon Indigenous Peoples' territories and reducing their lands' size.1.4. Market is the fastest modifier of Indigenous Peoples' food systems. In the eight food systems, market dependency for food needs oscillates from around 20 percent to 45 percent. Markets are one of the largest factors transforming Indigenous Peoples' food systems at an incredible speed. Fuelled by improved communications, markets are bringing new opportunities in terms of cash generation, new services and goods, and new tastes and foods.Peoples' circular solidarity and reciprocity mechanisms. The increasing monetization is leading many indigenous communities to move away from barter, food sharing and communal works as traditional forms of solidarity and reciprocity. Engaging with the cash economy enables communities to access additional sources of food, inputs for food generation and health services. However, this tendency has also been seen to weaken sustainability and resilience of traditional practices of resource sharing and weaken ancestral forms of social cohesion.1.6. Highly processed and imported foods have arrived, yet Indigenous Peoples prefer their foods. Although many Indigenous Peoples are consuming more highly processed and imported commercial foods, traditional foods are still preferred in the communities. Indigenous Peoples' preference for traditional crops and breeds ensures the maintenance of the genetic diversity and biodiversity of traditional seed varieties, as well as wild and semi-domesticated edible species.1.7. Food composition is also fundamental to improve Indigenous Peoples' food and nutrition security. Food composition, particularly on micronutrients, enables research and policies to be put in place to protect key foods that are being abandoned due to changes in preferences, sometimes jeopardizing the food and nutrition security of the communities.Dedicated food composition efforts would lead to political support and sharing of knowledge and good practices before the disappearance of certain food items.Indigenous Peoples' food systems rely primarily on renewable energy and resources within their territories. From the environment, Indigenous Peoples acquire the materials and foods to cater for shelter, tools, fibres, medicines and meals. With sunlight, water, fire, wind and other renewable energies, they process, build and consume the acquired natural materials and food items. Until more recently, waste was an unknown concept in their systems.Intact Indigenous Peoples' food systems have practices to use and regenerate resources efficiently, whilst effectively reintegrating waste materials.External factors are compromising the efficient processes of Indigenous Peoples' food systems, including the arrival of materials that generate inorganic waste, increased dependence on fossil fuels, and use of inorganic fertilizers and chemical pesticides. Further, the compounding impacts of climate change are affecting Indigenous Peoples' resource availability and efficiencies.and their food systems. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are increasingly vulnerable to the amplifying realities of climate change. Historically, their food systems were resilient by aligning with the cycles of natural resources. As these cycles are disrupted by climate change, so too are their food systems and food security. Furthermore, seasonal eating habits were a strength of their food systems and nutritionally diverse diets. Now such habits pose potential risks as the variability in weather patterns affects the seasonal cycles and availability of food sources.Peoples' food systems maximise innate energy, but external inputs are also increasingly required. In the field research undertaken, it was observed that Indigenous Peoples cover the majority of their energy demands for processing, heating and cooking with sunlight, wind, water and firewood -renewable energy sources available within their territories. However, dependency on fossil fuels increases exponentially for mobility (transport by boat, car) and cooking (gas stoves). Their systems have the potential to incorporate more renewable energy sources. There are good examples of solar panels for boreholes, home appliances and small hydroelectric schemes.2.3. Shifting cultivation is a sustainable practice and lifestyle. Shifting cultivation within Indigenous Peoples' territories is crucial to ensure the preservation of the environment and biodiversity whilst also generating diverse food sources. The practice effectively blends resource management and production techniques to generate renewed growth of semi-domesticated and domesticated species, creating a broad, diverse base for food security and dietary diversity from wild foods in local fields, forests, pastures and waterways. Shifting practices are essential in territorial management of many Indigenous Peoples' food system. However, in the last 40-50 years, obstacles and rules against shifting practices have increased exponentially. Such obstacles have negatively affected Indigenous Peoples' food systems and territories reliant on these techniques, diminishing their food security and surrounding biodiversity.Indigenous Peoples have been conserving, protecting and enhancing natural resources for thousands of years. Currently, 80 percent of the world's remaining biodiversity is located in Indigenous Peoples' territories (Sobrevilla, 2008), an undeniable testament of their ability to generate food whilst preserving and enhancing biodiversity. Indigenous Peoples' diverse management practices span across terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the globe. Despite the clear evidence and wide scientific recognition, many governments and external non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are not following the science, gaining consent or respecting Indigenous Peoples' capacities to enhance biodiversity whilst practising their livelihoods.Many Indigenous Peoples subjected to environmental protection laws and natural protected areas have experienced restrictions to their livelihoods.When Indigenous Peoples are consulted and their consent is gained by governments and NGOs, the outcomes of conservation agendas and legislature are enhanced.3.1. Indigenous Peoples' approaches to conservation are key. Indigenous Peoples' approach to ecosystem conservation recognises the interdependent health of the food system, the local ecosystem and humans. Indigenous Peoples conserve biodiversity through ancestral practices emanating from traditional knowledge passed on orally from generation to generation.biodiversity for food security and nutritional diversity. Indigenous Peoples maintain biodiversity of native species and often enhance the richness of domesticated species. Food systems are often comprised of wild, semi-domesticated and domesticated plants and animals. Their relationships with diverse local species contributes to maintaining the biodiversity of their surrounding ecosystems.The loss of biodiversity in Indigenous Peoples' territories can be attributed to multiple factors. These include pressures from external actors, and replacement of sustainable practices with unsustainable and extractive ones, such as overfishing, overhunting, reduction of fallow periods, and increased numbers of animal heads in the herds. These human-induced factors are compounded by the effects of climate change, including reduction of water points, desertification, loss of wildlife, the disappearance of wild plants, melting of ice, changes in rainfall and seasons, climate variability, and changing migration patterns.The economic drivers of globalization promote unsustainable practices and demands that exhaust environmental resources. This crowds out management practices that are regenerative for ecosystems. Often, the extraction rate exceeds the regeneration rate. Pressures from external actors, including national parks, extractive industries, expansion of commercial agriculture and livestock operations are factors causing the size of Indigenous Peoples' territories to be reduced.Indigenous Peoples' governance mechanisms are integral to their home territories and livelihoods.The respect for elders and their leadership, generational transmission of traditional knowledge and their collective rights are pillars of their complex governance systems. Furthermore, the core values of solidarity, reciprocity and communal works serve to inform their societal organization and leadership. Conflicts are commonly resolved within the community as per widely understood and followed unwritten codes of conduct. Orality remains the main form of transmission of traditional knowledge.When Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) is followed in new administrative institutions, the support and involvement of Indigenous Peoples results in more community engagement and better accountability in management.Increasing intercultural education and programmes for indigenous youth is critical for the future of Indigenous Peoples and the health of their communities.Peoples and their rights and ensure access to basic public services. Although Indigenous Peoples' societies have existed for thousands of years, several Indigenous Peoples across the world have not been recognised within national legislation and normative frameworks. This is despite the adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). in 2007. This lack of recognition is a direct threat to Indigenous Peoples' rights, in particular their rights to land, natural resources and self-determination.Indigenous Peoples have developed safety nets and solidarity mechanisms based on social organization and customary governance systems. These systems are mobilized especially during times of food scarcity, in which food sharing within and between neighbouring communities is common practice. Communities that have maintained their traditional governance institutions manage to strengthen social cohesion through collective decision-making processes.need to involve Indigenous Peoples. Several of the governance and customary mechanisms developed by Indigenous Peoples are in place to ensure proper, sustainable management of natural resources. This helps them guarantee the regeneration of ecosystems and their food security. Therefore, it is crucial to integrate Indigenous Peoples' perspectives into conservation strategies and follow the principle of FPIC. Such practice will help guarantee conservation measures ensure Indigenous Peoples maintain their guardianship, culture, sacred sites and livelihoods.4.4. Development programmes do not work without FPIC. Some of these programmes have improved access to electricity, petrol, schools, health dispensaries and roads. Others have brought new varieties of seeds and new animal breeds. Field research findings indicate these positive impacts are more significant when the community was part of the initiative or consulted before the intervention. However, some programmes, initiatives and social protection schemes are introduced in the communities without consultation, resulting in a low level of success. In some cases, these initiatives have created new challenges for the communities and other environmental issues related to the introduction of new plant varieties and animal breeds.About 4 000 of approximately 6 700 languages currently spoken in the world are indigenous languages (UNDPI, 2018). When an indigenous language starts to deteriorate, so does the traditional knowledge of the community, resulting in community members forgetting the names of plants, herbs and practices. This can lead to Indigenous Peoples' food systems and associated territorial management practices vanishing. A point of concern is that Indigenous Peoples' traditional knowledge remains largely undocumented globally, with many cultures relying mainly on oral transmission in their indigenous language. Another matter of concern is indigenous youth who do not know the language or are uninterested in learning the traditional teachings. Such circumstances threaten the continuation of Indigenous Peoples' knowledge systems, languages, cultures and cosmogonies. Indigenous language revitalization efforts and intergenerational learning are key to sustaining indigenous languages.Intercultural education is critical in academic curricula and in feeding programmes to preserve Indigenous Peoples' languages, food systems, nutritional health, cultural identities and traditional knowledge.In the majority of cases, schooling has had a detrimental impact on Indigenous Peoples' customary systems and transmission of traditional knowledge, further transforming prospects, roles, tastes, traditional knowledge and belief systems. Education and school feeding programmes can play key roles in regenerating indigenous language and cultural identities for indigenous youth, addressing the loss of their language and changes in food habits, such as moving away from their traditional foods towards highly processed and unhealthy foods. As a response, intercultural educational plans and mobilizing traditional knowledge within school programmes is crucial to ensuring that food systems, livelihoods and indigenous languages are preserved and carried forward into future generations.Indigenous Peoples and their food systems have prevailed for thousands of years, adapting to changes in the environment and developing new practices and techniques. Their beliefs, cosmogonies, value systems and principles constitute core elements of their cultural resiliency. Common values such as reciprocity, solidarity, co-responsibility and community are seen throughout Indigenous Peoples globally. These core elements and common values are expressed in the dynamism of their Indigenous Peoples' food systems, resulting in resilient systems and strong communities.Today, the expansive loss of biodiversity, along with the compounding effects of climate change, is taking a heavy toll on Indigenous Peoples and their food systems.New, growing interest and dependence on external markets is changing the principles, core values and dynamics within Indigenous Peoples' communities.Collective rights and communal work is being abandoned in favour of more individualistic livelihoods.Indigenous Peoples hold unique and rich traditional knowledge on local resources that support the communities' resilience and adaptive capacity. In particular, indigenous women not only play a key role in Indigenous Peoples' food systems, they are also guardians of ancestral, dynamic and specific traditional knowledge that they, along with the elders, transmit to younger generations. In the field research, this intergenerational transmission of traditional knowledge stood out as a fundamental element of Indigenous Peoples' resilience.Peoples have adapted their food systems over time. Indigenous Peoples with their food systems and traditions have survived for centuries through climate variations, periods of colonization and displacement. Far from frozen in an idealized past, Indigenous Peoples are constantly adapting, incorporating observations, open to recombination, and receptive to new ideas and practices to borrow and adjust to their local specificities. Rather than exhaust the environment for their needs, Indigenous Peoples adapt their food generation and production to the seasonality and natural cycles observed in their surrounding ecosystems. This delicate balance between change and dynamism, and traditional knowledge through observation of the environment makes Indigenous Peoples and their food systems unique and diverse.of traditional knowledge. The future of Indigenous Peoples' food systems will be affected by the decisions that indigenous youth are making today. Namely, their ability to reconcile traditionally sustainable and selfconsumption food systems with the growing preference towards market-oriented food systems. The future of Indigenous Peoples' cultures and traditional knowledge will be determined by how indigenous youth choose to maintain elements of their ancestral knowledge and livelihoods. The transmission of traditional knowledge from older to younger generations is changing rapidly, parallel to the new interests and prospects of indigenous youth. In addition to the rural-urban migration, the attractiveness of new technologies, professions and more education opportunities often hinders the transmission of traditional knowledge. Amidst the change, elders and youth are aware their languages, cultures and food systems will vanish without their generational stewardship of traditional knowledge.The analysis from the field research shows how each food system is unique in terms of the pressures they are exposed to, as well as the diverse territorial management practices, climates, flora, fauna, culture, spirituality and traditional knowledge upon which the system is based. This richness and variety also showed certain commonalities between food systems that need to be understood and further analyzed. In the framework of these commonalities, several drivers emerged as having a direct impact on the health, sustainability and ability to generate food and income in the food systems. Without being intrinsically \"good\" or \"bad\", these driverssome external and others internal -affect either positively or negatively the continuity, resilience and sustainability of the food systems. Some systems are more sustainable than others. Some are changing rapidly to adapt to the market. Others have seen their traditional knowledge weaken. The scope of this publication is not to judge which changes are good or bad, but to analyze the resilience and sustainability of Indigenous Peoples' food systems. Therefore, this objective has guided the organization of the drivers and their categorisation as positive in terms of contributing to the resilience and sustainability, and negative in terms of undermining them. These drivers have been clustered in groups as shown in   The policy recommendations at the end of each cluster of drivers seek to provide responses to address these drivers, indicating institutions and groups that could play a key role in improving the situation.All policy recommendations are made under the overall framework of the UNDRIP, and the right to FPIC. Their aim is to advance the learning, preservation and promotion of Indigenous Peoples' food systems within the framework of the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition (2016Nutrition ( -2025) ) and the Agenda 2030 for the SDGs.The 11 Indigenous Peoples present in the eight participating indigenous communities rely heavily for their livelihoods on the collective rights and access to communal resources such as lakes, lands, forests and seas. The levels of respect and recognition of these collective rights to communal resources varies greatly from country to country and within different communities. For instance, the Constitution of Colombia recognises the rights of Indigenous Peoples, including the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, and their territorial autonomy. In several cases, such as the Baka, the Khasi and the Inari Sámi, external pressures over the communal resources and restraint in exercising their collective rights had a direct impact on their food systems. The Baka, despite being aware of their collective rights to forest resources, are now constrained by a zoning policy that establishes areas for hunting, gathering and fishing. In the Maya Ch'orti' food system, recent episodes of injustice and violence have led to insufficient access to farmland and forests, impairing food security and diet quality. Most communities rely on astilleros, or communal forest areas between villages, for firewood and wild edibles to complement their diet.There is need for more dedicated research to better understand the relationship between biodiversity preservation and Indigenous Peoples' collective use of communal resources. In the eight food systems analyzed, there are few examples of policies supporting Indigenous Peoples' collective access to communal natural resources. However, evidence strongly suggests that the use of communal resources by Indigenous Peoples is directly related to the health of their food system and the level of conservation of biodiversity.Nomadic, semi-nomadic and mobile activities like shifting cultivation, hunting, fishing and pastoralism are common territorial management practices in the analyzed food systems. Those Indigenous Peoples whose traditional food systems include mobile activities refer to the importance of revitalizing and protecting this mobility to ensure the sustainability of the food system. Mobility has also transformed over time. Several of the governance and customary mechanisms were developed to regulate the shifting cycles with the purpose of ensuring proper management of the natural resources and its replenishment.The Inari Sámi, the Baka, the Kel Tamasheq, the Khasi, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, the Bothia and Anwal, and the Melanesians SI all report the importance of their different mobile activities within their territories to ensure environmental and biodiversity conservation and food generation. The Khasi practise jhum or shifting cultivation, obtaining significant numbers of species for food through this rotating practice in the forest. The Baka food system depends largely on mobility within forests for sourcing animals, mushrooms, herbs and wild tubers. The Kel Tamasheq have been nomadic people for hundreds of years, following water and pasture availability for their flocks. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua follow the flooding cycles of their ecosystem, shifting their fishing areas and their home gardens. The Inari Sámi combine reindeer nomadic herding with gathering and fishing. The food system of the Bothia and Anwal depends on the balance between the settled farming by some communities and the transhumance of others.From the analysis of the profiles, those shifting cultivation patterns that have reduced either their shifting period or area could manifest signs of unsustainability. This is particularly the case of the Melanesians SI and the Khasi, who reduced their fallow period as a consequence of increased demography, leading to reduced soil fertility. The Maya Ch'orti' have seen their mobile practices significantly reduced, and their hunting and insect gathering have almost been abandoned.All the communities using mobility, nomadism and shifting practices as essential territorial management of their food system have stated that in recent years, in particular in the last 40-50 years, obstacles and rules against mobile practices have increased exponentially, negatively affecting their food systems and the area's biodiversity. The recognition, respect and legislation to protect nomadism and mobile livelihoods vary significantly across countries.A positive case from the countries where food systems were analyzed is Mali. The Pastoral Charter (Law n° 01-004 of 27 February 2001) recognises the rights to pastoralists to carry their mobile livelihoods' and activities and the Law on Agricultural Orientation (Law n° 06-045 of 5 September 2006) acknowledges the environmental benefits of transhumance. However, mobile activities and livelihoods in most other cases where the research took place are either not protected or discouraged, with policies favouring settlement, sometimes forcefully, of Indigenous Peoples. In addition, policies are in place that either give concessions to private mining and agriculture firms or promote the settlement of colonists on indigenous lands and territories, directly compromising Indigenous Peoples' mobile livelihoods. Mobile livelihoods often clash with the interests and practices of settled communities who have historically benefited from legislated protection of rights in most countries. There is need for further research to understand how these legislations and policy measures have contributed to environmental degradation.There have been positive developments to include Indigenous Peoples in new institutions, both at the grassroots level and in top-down processes, involving them in policy and normative discussions about collective rights to land, territory and natural resources. The Maya Ch'orti' have organised groups at various levels for their participatory decision-making regarding natural resources in their communities. They are participating in national programmes and initiatives on agriculture and to regenerate and protect forests. The Khasi in Nongtraw, thanks to support from the Government and NGOs, participate in recently created community institutions to discuss the governance of natural resources. The Khasi participate in the village council, in the Biodiversity Management Committee (BMC) and in the Village Disaster Management Committee (VDMC). The Inari Sámi leverage Article 9 of the Act of the Sámi Parliament on the \"Obligation to negotiate\" to force negotiations and stop the logging in their traditional lands by Metsähallitus, the Department of Forest Management.When Indigenous Peoples are included in governmental institutions' discussions about natural resource management, they bring to the table their vast experience with biodiversity conservation and environmental management. This active engagement and participation is a positive driver to greatly expand collaborations.External negative driver -Lack of security of access to the ancestral territories and use of natural resourcesFrom the Amazonian jungles to the taiga in Sámi land in the Arctic, from the forests in Cameroon to the Himalayan hills, the increased insecurity surrounding indigenous territories is negatively affecting Indigenous Peoples' food systems and their sustainability. This is further exacerbated when the ownership of the land by Indigenous Peoples is not recognised by the State, for example through titling. This leads to concessions to extractive industries, commercial agriculture and logging companies. In 2002, the Inari Sámi started a legal process due to a land-use conflict with the Finnish State Forestry Enterprise \"Metsähallitus\" to secure and protect their traditional pasture and forest lands from logging activities in the Kippalrova area. The Sámi presented the case to the UN Human Rights Committee, resulting in a moratorium on the logging activities for the next 20 years, explicitly recognising the Sámi people's right to enjoy their own culture enshrined in Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which in this case secured the Sámi's land-use rights. Lack of security to exercise collective rights applies directly to the use of natural resources. Since 2016, the Government of Meghalaya has intervened in the functioning of the Khasi community of Nongtraw, restricting jhum or shifting cultivation and requiring a written document from the Government for land transactions within the community.In some cases, the State's conservation policies over Indigenous Peoples' lands can create conflicts, even when these policies are well intended. Several cases are highlighted throughout this publication. The Bothia and Anwal faced the effects of the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act and the 2002 Biodiversity Act, resulting in the banning of their hunting and most of their ancestral gathering practices in their forests. This reduced the availability of foods in the food system, increasing dependency on the market for meat, eggs and other items, and favouring the domestication of animals. The Baka suffered from the rapid expansion of logging activities that began in 1960, which reduced their forest resources. The creation in 2005 of the Boumba-Bek National Park further limited their access to forest areas for food and medicine.This driver is identified as one of the main external drivers outside of the system that most affects the present and future of Indigenous Peoples' food systems. If it is not addressed, it will seriously compromise the viability of these ancestral knowledge systems. Looking at the results in terms of land degradation, biodiversity loss, impact on human well-being and other externalities generated, the success and sustainability of these governmental conservation and environmental measures is sometimes questionable. More dedicated research is needed to analyze the effects on biodiversity when States' conservation measures are put in place over Indigenous Peoples' ancestral management of their territories.• Implement the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of National Food Security (VGGT) (FAO, 2012) and sector-specific guidelines such as the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries (SFF Guidelines) (FAO, 2015) whilst continuing to involve Indigenous Peoples and their representatives in institutions and legislative settings.• Set up a multi-actors committee at the national level to look at biodiversity conservation. This committee should involve indigenous leaders and the Ministries in charge of environment, land planning and reform, and agriculture and management. If Indigenous Peoples can organise themselves at the national level into an umbrella coordination mechanism, this should be part of the Committee. The Committee will come up with a National Plan that identifies obstacles to exercising collective rights and mobility, proposing alternatives that guarantee customary rights of Indigenous Peoples and promoting nomadism and mobile livelihoods. Special attention will be given to the continuity of ancestral indigenous practices that have generated and maintained ecosystems of high biodiversity value.• Follow the recommendations of this multi-actor committee by legislative legitimacy at the parliamentary level.In particular, land titling or schemes that guarantee the exercising of collective rights by Indigenous Peoples would be key activities to follow.• Issue a specific permit or identification to Indigenous Peoples that are nomadic/ mobile to enable them to move freely in their territories, ensuring that their ancestral rights to movement and their associated livelihoods can be exercised.This identification or permit will grant governmental recognition and de facto protection of mobile and nomadic ways of living within the country and across borders.• Together with the UN and NGOs, rethink their approach to biodiversity conservation when considering the creation of national parks and natural reserves in territories previously belonging to Indigenous Peoples. Governments should collaborate with Indigenous Peoples in protected areas, benefiting from their knowledge to manage and restore biodiversity whilst they can still practise their traditional livelihoods. These biodiverse-rich areas are the result of their ancestral management practices.• Together with governments and research institutions, host a routine technical seminar followed by a statement about the need to protect rights to customary land and natural resources, collective rights, and nomadic livelihoods, avoiding concessions to the private sector, and stopping licenses for deforestation, mining, and intensive agriculture and livestock schemes, in the frame of the VGGT (FAO, 2012) and the SFF Guidelines (FAO, 2015).• Mediate between Indigenous Peoples and the states, through the UN country teams in the countries and at the global level, to reach moratoriums about interventions on indigenous and nomadic territories that have not followed the principles and process of FPIC with the Indigenous Peoples living from those resources. This will reduce tensions and violence and enable a period of revision of the policies adopted.• Issue a statement recommending an international moratorium about displacing Indigenous Peoples from their ancestral lands to have conservation areas set up.• Undertake further dedicated research on three important areas: the linkages between ecosystem services and collective management of the environment and nomadic livelihoods; the impact of resettlement policies on the environment and biodiversity for those areas previously subjected to nomadic or mobile livelihoods; and an environmental impact analysis for nomadic livelihoods that have shortened their cycles or reduced their areas.It is recommended that the Global-Hub on Indigenous Peoples' Food Systems, hosted by FAO, UN specialized agencies and indigenous organizations, undertake dedicated work about certifying Indigenous Peoples' foods generated through nomadic and mobile livelihoods, highlighting the ecosystem services they provide and analyzing mobile territorial management practices such as shifting cultivation, nomadism and transhumance.Internal positive driver -Biodiversity conservation as basis for the food systemIndigenous Peoples are the custodians of 80 percent of the remaining world's biodiversity (Sobrevilla, 2008). This conservation of biodiversity occurs in territories they manage through ancestral practices emanating from traditional knowledge transmitted orally from one generation to the next. Indigenous Peoples have a specific approach to biodiversity conservation where the health of the food system, local ecosystem and humans are all intertwined. The management of the natural resources follows a biocentric approach rooted in their cosmogony, beliefs and in the understanding that all living being are important and deserve consideration. Humans are not at the centre of the system, but rather are responsible for ensuring the maintenance of the balance between the different elements in the ecosystem. Indigenous storytelling and collective practices reinforce these beliefs and apply them in the territory.The richness of biodiversity is the heart of healthy Indigenous Peoples' food systems. This biodiversity generates a broad food base, which in some cases exceeds 250 edibles for food and medicinal purposes, consisting of different species, varieties and breeds consisting of wild, semi-domesticated and domesticated species of plants, animals and fish. For instance, the Khasi, thanks to their shifting cultivation or jhum, generate 60 species, with their food systems providing a total of 150 food species. The system of the Melanesians SI obtained over 238 foods from about 132 food-providing species, out of which 51 are aquatic species. The forest food system of the Baka consists of over 179 food species coming from animals and edible species and varieties of plants, many of which are wild tubers extracted whilst hunting and gathering. The Baka are renowned for their knowledge of more than 500 plants for medicinal uses. The food system of the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua generates 153 food species used for food, of which 116 are from the wild and 68 are species of fish. Through their ancestral milpa system, the Maya Ch'orti' cultivate 101 species that are edible, out of the 143 that the food system generates. The Sámi diet is rich in seasonal wild berries. The majority of the profiled food systems depend on the biodiversity present in healthy ecosystems in the indigenous territories to provide such a broad food base.Besides the wild edibles, these food systems also show an important intra-specific diversity, resulting from the management of the community members. For instance, the Baka food system presents 28 varieties of plantain and 18 varieties of cassava, which appeared over the years. The food system of the Khasi counts 13 varieties of potato, 7 varieties of cocoyam, and 7 varieties of sweet potato.The extended acceptance by scientists and policymakers of the vast knowledge that Indigenous Peoples have over wild, semidomesticated and domesticated species contrasts sharply with the lack of dedicated policies in place to protect this knowledge.The eight analyzed Indigenous Peoples' food systems are multifunctional, generating food, medicines, shelter and energy, and supporting culture, social and spiritual manifestations. Byproducts of food crops and animals are used for packaging and conservation of foods. Leaves, lianas, vines, roots, barks, animal hives, skins and animal parts are used for utensils, tools, housing, dressing and packaging.Multifunctionality is to be understood with a cyclical approach, where leftovers of by-products are reintegrated into the system mirroring the processes observed in nature. Multifunctionality is observed at two levels: a single species can support various uses, and one or more ecosystems can provide a diversity of services, foods and products. For example, the food system of the Bhotia and Anwal is based on various interlinked ecosystems that generate a plethora of ecosystems services, and where the forest plays an essential role in the spirituality of the community.The forest provides firewood, timber for construction and tool making, medicinal plants, and leaves used in farming. Since all of these materials are biodegradable, organic garbage and waste was not considered a problem. Instead it is seen as a resource that is recycled into biomass for fertilization or as bio-pesticide. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua also consider organic waste an important resource used as organic fertilizer.Another example of the multifunctionality of these systems by the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua is the myriad uses of palm trees for food, crafts, medicines, construction, fibre, rituals and kitchen utensils. This multifunctionality is rooted in understanding the food system in its totality, giving special attention to the relationships between the different elements.The traditional governance systems in each community integrate advanced ecological protection and management measures within their traditions and customs that are kept alive through storytelling and tales informed by their beliefs. These governance systems have been in place for generations, much before the conceptual framing of ecology and environmental protection. Six out of the eight profiled food systems rely heavily on deep ancestral spiritual beliefs and a cosmogony that sees all elements in nature as alive and worthy of respect and protection. The maintenance of biodiversity and natural resources could be seen as an unconscious result of communities' activities and norms influenced by their cosmovision entailing that water, land, forests and wildlife are worshipped and protected as sacred elements with their own spirituality. The Khasi and Melanesians SI have sacred areas in their territories where it is taboo to enter, entailing a traditional and incidental form of ecosystem protection. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua believe that the mother of the lake, represented by a large snake or anaconda, protects the Tarapoto lakes and surrounding flooded forests, providing a dimension of sacredness and respect for the natural environment. Before being colonized, animism and shamanism were openly practised as the primarily belief of the Inari Sámi, respecting the divinity of all-natural objects. The Baka recognised the role of a forest spirit called jengi in defining resource availability, whilst their food taboos and implicit rules maintain home ranges for different residential groups that have likely contributed to prevent overharvesting.When dreaming, the Baka receive the knowledge about their forests and resources thanks to visits from the forest spirits. The Bothia and Anwal worship Bhumiya Dev, the God of jungle, which makes them protect forest areas for five years to restore them in his name.The connection between Indigenous Peoples' cosmogony and biodiversity protection through traditional knowledge and customary governance practices is a fundamental element of the sustainability of these food systems. The lack of dedicated research and policies that, through interculturality, support the continuation of these governance practices is a matter of concern.Internal positive driver -Food self-sufficiency from territorial management that integrates seasonalityDespite the reported weather variability associated with climate change, the integration of seasonality in their food practices is an important characteristic of Indigenous Peoples' food systems. This seasonality contributes to their resilience and self-sufficiency, ensuring numerous foods that guarantee dietary diversity. These systems generate foods consisting of animals, fish, plants and fruits -wild, semidomesticated and domesticated -obtained through gathering, hunting, fishing and farming. The blend of territorial management and production techniques results in food systems capable of generating a broad base of foods from local fields, forests, pastures and waterways.The eight communities show a high level of self-sufficiency, with food provisioning ranging from 55 to about 80 percent, whilst the market supplements foods to varying degrees. The food system of the Baka has important counts of foods from hunting, gathering, fishing and farming, with some foods sourced from the market primarily for interest and novelty. On the contrary, the Maya Ch'orti' depend on the market, which has provided a lifeline for food security that has bolstered the local production of maize and beans. The Kel Tamasheq depend on the market to complement their diet, otherwise consisting of dairy, meat and meat products. Out of the eight food systems, the Kel Tamasheq, the Inari Sámi and the Bhotia and Anwal are the ones with the lowest food count, with 25, 26 and 29, respectively. The remaining six systems oscillate between 130 and 180 food species. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua generate their food following the flooding cycles in the Amazon watershed, combining hunting, harvesting, fishing and chagra cultivation plots. This territorial management practice consists of a variety of foods, such as fruits and vegetables, hunted wild animals, household small livestock, and purchased foods like frozen chicken, with 81 percent of their protein intake coming from their fisheries. The food system of the Melanesians SI generates a wide diversity within many food groups, such as 30 fruits, 18 vegetables, 28 leafy greens, 17 legumes, 12 eggs, 51 types of seafood, and 14 other animals. The jhum system of the Khasi had a total of 60 species, including 22 species of fruits, 17 species of vegetables, and 9 species of cereals and other starches.The fact that eating habits follow seasonality has been a strength of the various food systems, enhancing food diversification, self-sufficiency, resilience and dietary diversity. However, lately this seasonality is also becoming a weakness due to the effects of weather variability from climate change on food generation and production.The eight Indigenous Peoples' food systems reveal a low use of energy sources external to the system. These systems rely on the sun, firewood, wind and water for most of their energy needs, especially for processing, heating and cooking. Aside from solar energy, human labour and wood for cooking are the main sources of energy from within the communities and across the sites. Daily tasks rely on the labour force from families, with men and women holding distinct responsibilities. Communal and collective work involving different groups in the community are essential in most food systems and help to reduce drudgery, especially when combined with celebrations and storytelling. However, all communities indicate a constant rise in the use of non-renewable and externally sourced energies that is expected to increase.The use of energy sources, such as gas, petrol and electricity, from outside the food systems is increasing, reducing drudgery, increasing mobility and improving efficiency in the work. The role of fossil fuels is mainly for transportation, such as the motorized boats used by the Melanesians SI and the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua for fishing and reaching the markets, or vehicles used by the Maya Ch'orti' to access markets, along with fuel for tractors in their milpa plots. The Inari Sámi use snowmobiles to lead the herd during the round-up process. The use of gas and kerosene kitchens is increasing in the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua communities. Meanwhile, the micro-hydel power plant established by the Uttarakhand Renewable Energy Development Agency (UREDA) in the Namik village and managed by the Village Urja Committee is a good example of adapted lowcost technologies that could be managed by the community to increase the energy supply of Indigenous Peoples in isolated areas. Along with the increased demand for fossil fuels and electricity, the dependency on cash to purchase these relatively new forms of energy is also increasing.Overall, the participating Indigenous Peoples have stated a progressive reduction of the biodiversity in their territories. From the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua in the Amazon basin to the Sámi in the Arctic region and the Kel Tamasheq in the arid Sahel areas, this is a matter of concern.For instance, the cutting of forest on Inari Sámi ancestral lands has shrunk and degraded the remaining habitat of hanging lichen and species of birds and mammals. Since the 1980s, the population of wild species, such as taiga bean goose, has drastically declined, and mountain hare and willow grouse have also declined. This collapse has created room for other species to increase their population, like small predators. Similarly, the Khasi observed, along with the loss of dense forest, the disappearance of many of the large animals that the community once hunted, such as deer and Chinese pangolin. This process started in the 1980s and has consequently forced community members to reduce their hunting and gathering activities. In the Sahel, the degradation of the environment in Aratène has increased due to the different climate shocks and disturbances experienced since the 1970s, as well as the advance of the desert. Large parts of the wild flora have already disappeared, limiting the gathering of wild edibles. Hunting activities completely stopped about 20 years ago with the progressive extermination of the wild fauna by armed groups. Due to deforestation and the advance of the agricultural frontier at the national level, the forest area where the Maya Ch'orti' used to hunt has progressively been reduced. Populations of wild edible plants and animals have declined over time, to the point that community members do not perceive hunting as a viable food source anymore. The analysis of the eight food systems did not found evidence of any community where biodiversity has been maintained. In all instances, the environment has deteriorated and biodiversity declined. Climate change seems to be an important culprit, going hand-in-hand with deforestation and extractive activities from external actors.• Create an inter-ministerial body with representatives from Indigenous Peoples and the Ministries of Agriculture, Fisheries, Forestry, Environment and Culture that could have an integrated look at food systems. • Recruit Indigenous Peoples as parks personnel to allow them to continue with their ancestral practices whenever parks and protected areas overlap with their territories.• Start a dialogue process with Indigenous Peoples with the aim of issuing legislation that protects wild foods in their territories, restricting consumption and illegal harvesting by external actors.• Through ministries of energy, increase access to renewable energy technologies for Indigenous Peoples without resorting to importing technologies from far-away non-renewable sources whilst respecting FPIC principles.• Consider biodiversity conservation and schemes for ecosystem services that build upon Indigenous Peoples' governance and traditional knowledge systems to support their inclusion as main actors in the management of natural resources and biodiversity conservation.• Issue a statement that recognises that, as of today, Indigenous Peoples across the world are amongst the best experts in preserving biodiversity, through a UN declaration supporting Indigenous Peoples, their livelihoods and territorial management practices that made possible the preservation of biodiversity across the planet.• Issue a statement to request the end of violence and displacement of Indigenous Peoples from their ancestral lands, territories and natural resources.• Recognise Indigenous Peoples' traditional knowledge and their customary governance in relation to biodiversity conservation as the world´s intangible heritage.• Together with research institutions and governments, increase their analysis of the use of renewable and non-renewable sources of energy in Indigenous Peoples' communities, making recommendations under SDG 7 and 13.• Together with foundations and NGOs, consider funding and supporting renewable and communitymanaged energy supply schemes, particularly for indigenous communities living in isolated areas.• Undertake dedicated work to understand the multifunctionality of Indigenous Peoples' food systems, in particular: the complex territorial management systems sustaining and enhancing biodiversity and Indigenous Peoples' food systems, the linkages between indigenous cosmogony and environmental and biodiversity conservation, and the capacity to generate by-products that are organic in nature and therefore biodegradable.• Upon agreement with the Indigenous Peoples and their communities, undertake micro-and macro-nutrient analysis of the traditional food items consumed by Indigenous Peoples to understand nutrient composition of food items.Internal positive driver -Adaptive capacity to change Indigenous Peoples' food systems have survived for centuries, some for millennia, having adapted over time to climate variations, colonization and displacements. They have shown incredible ingenuity and adaptive capacity that has made them resilient through change and dynamism, whilst maintaining traditional wisdom and practices. This delicate balance between change and dynamism, and traditional knowledge through observation, is shared across all eight analyzed Indigenous Peoples' food systems. For instance, the Melanesians SI have adapted their socioeconomic and food patterns to the availability of petrol and motorized boats, which have taken the place of their traditional sailing boats. The Inari Sámi have adapted their traditional migratory and nomadic reindeer patterns to new legislation on cooperatives, creating a hybrid system that enables them to continue with their reindeer herding methods. Indigenous Peoples have been eager to adopt new livelihoods, practices and tools that improve their lives. Since the 1990s, the Baka in Cameroon have adapted their hunting practices in response to the intensification of bushmeat hunting and displacement of animal populations deeper in the forest. They tend to restrain their trapping activities as soon as a decrease in game capture is observed, hence facilitating the recovery of the animals' populations.The use of inputs from outside their territory is limited in the eight food systems, should it be seeds, agrochemicals, fuel, mechanization or electricity. Noticeably, only the Maya Ch'orti' explicitly mentioned applying agrochemicals on the milpa production plots, and the Bothia and Anwal have started applying inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. On the contrary, the Baka, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, the Khasi, and the Melanesians SI choose not to use them. Fallow and use of organic matter as compost is the primary strategy for nurturing soil. Households often save kitchen scraps and crop residues to use on crops in several sites. Kitchen gardens flourish from grey water and the manure of roaming chickens amongst the Khasi, the Bothia and Anwal, and the Maya Ch'orti'. Several of the communities continue practising shifting cultivation, although the fallow period that enabled the soil and vegetation to regenerate has generally reduced over time due to demography and external actors' pressure on the territories. Livestock often graze freely or are fed local products. The Inari Sámi and the Kel Tamasheq sometimes resort to purchasing feed and forage. Although new tools, machinery and techniques are being incorporated more and more, human labour and tools from materials sourced in the surroundings are still predominant. The Khasi use traditional machetes, iron cups and spades for farming, and the Bhotia and Anwal build tools from materials in their forests, with their blacksmiths building their traditional tools.The expected trend is a progressive increase in the use of new tools, techniques and inputs from outside of the territory as mobility increases thanks to the growing demand for petrol fuels for transportation.The participating communities agreed that despite the irruption and increasing consumption of highly processed and imported commercial foods, they prefer their traditional foods. Bushmeat is the preferred food of the Baka and the Inari Sámi prefer their traditional foods, with children especially favouring reindeer stew and fish. These preferences motivate the Baka and the Inari Sámi to continue their traditional food sourcing activities despite the growing presence of alternative food sources. For those Indigenous Peoples practising agriculture to produce their food, this means a preference for their traditional crops and breeds. For the Maya Ch'orti', taste is the primary factor in their choice and maintenance of local maize varieties. The Bothia and Anwal continue producing their local varieties of amaranth, potato, finger millet and beans. The Khasi interplant in their jhum plots in forest areas several of their traditional seed varieties.The preference for traditional crops and breeds ensures the maintenance of the genetic pool of traditional seed varieties that, together with the wild and semi-domesticated species existing in the surrounding lands and forests, contribute to the maintenance of the overall biodiversity and to the preservation in situ of the genetic pool.Different innovations and new techniques have increased efficiency in food production, sourcing and processing for some of the profiled food systems. For example, snowmobiles have reduced labour for herding amongst the Inari Sámi. The use of wire cables replacing vegetal ropes has increased hunting efficiency for the Baka. An electric mill was introduced by the Khasi, reducing the drudgery in processing finger millet and enabling the production of products with increased value-add for the market. Often these innovations increased dependence on external sources of energy (electricity, petrol) but not exclusively, as seen in the case of bicyclepowered machines that were introduced for producing crafts by a Maya Ch'orti' community in Chiquimula. Some of the new techniques incorporated also carry implicit new effects in the ecosystem that need to be researched. For instance, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua saw fish stocks in their rivers deplete due to their increased use of nylon nets. They resorted to asking the elders to design a community management fishing plan that would ensure the replenishment of the fish stocks before they were decimated. Equally, the introduction of a new breed of pig has led to abandonment of the local breed. This phenomenon has also occurred with the Bothia and Anwal, where the traditional crop amaranth is produced less than it was in the past. In the case of the Melanesians SI , the reliance on local, traditional animal breeds, as well as plant species and varieties, has also decreased over time. The Bougainville banana, introduced in 1992, had the advantage of growing easily, which contributed to its expansion to the detriment of the rich plantain and banana biodiversity that exists in the territory. This has affected, amongst others, the Vitamin-A-rich Fei banana, which used to be a nutritious staple for breakfast. Whilst the introduction of new seed varieties and crops is not bad per se, and in most cases is well intentioned, some of the negative effects seem to be related to a lack of discussion with the Indigenous Peoples and the lack of measures in place to support traditional breeds and varieties.The varietal reduction is a concern.The high dependency of Indigenous Peoples' food systems on natural resources and its cycles that made these food systems resilient over time is now making them vulnerable to the effects of climate change. • Enact legislation that protects Indigenous Peoples' food systems legacy and traditional crops, ensuring that Indigenous Peoples and their knowledge is respected and taken into account as part of the cultural and environmental heritage of the countries.• Have a section of extensionists dedicated to Indigenous Peoples' food systems within the ministries of agriculture. They will speak the indigenous languages, understand the food systems, and be able to provide technical advice to the Indigenous Peoples on how to improve their production as well as incorporate some new techniques, varieties and practices.It is recommended that the Ministries of Agriculture and Environment incorporate, amongst their extensionists and agents, the principle of FPIC when working in indigenous territories. Despite the different drivers and factors negatively affecting Indigenous Peoples' food systems, the research showed that all the participating communities manage to maintain a solid social bond and solidarity within their communities. This is even more so for those communities that have maintained their traditional governance and customary institutions, which reinforce social cohesion as everyone participates in the decisions for the betterment of the community. For example, the Khasi have maintained the Durbar Shnong, their village council, which is an ancient system linked to other villages and sites since ancient times and has been embedded within the formal system of State governance. There are examples of development programmes initiated by the government, NGOs and institutes that have benefited the communities, reduced the drudgery, and brought about positive impacts. Some of these programmes have improved access to electricity, petrol, schools, health dispensaries and roads, whilst others have brought new varieties of seeds and new animal breeds. These positive impacts seem to be greater when the community had a say and was part of the initiative managing to provide their consent prior to the intervention. The Kel Tamasheq and the Bhotia and Anwal developed vegetables via gardening to complement their diets thanks to the support of governmental agencies and NGOs. Several of the participating communities benefited from infrastructure facilitating water access. For instance, the construction of pipelines increased greatly the quality of life of the Khasi, the Bhotia and Anwal, and the Melanesians SI , whilst boreholes facilitated access to water for the Kel Tamasheq. Despite an increase of inorganic waste in the communities, a result of the increased consumption of allopathic medicines, batteries and processed foods, some of the participating communities have managed to keep the burden of waste and garbage low thanks to state-run recycling initiatives. The Inari Sámi benefited from an efficient state-run recycling system and managed to recycle all waste. The Khasi had recently been included in a state-run recycling system. Lastly, the access to governmentsubsidized food rations for the Khasi, and Bhotia and Anwal benefit the communities and are welcomed initiatives.In most of the eight analyzed food systems, government interventions aim to support the well-being of the community. Whilst some of these governmental programmes have obtained positive outcomes, others have been mentioned by the communities as an important source of stress and dissatisfaction. In most of the food systems analyzed, there are examples of wellintended governmental programmes that had a negative impact on the Indigenous Peoples' food systems and diets. The participating communities mentioned that they have not been consulted properly, which could perhaps indicate that in some cases the process of FPIC has not been duly respected. In these instances, the combination of the fact that the indigenous leaders and the community were not properly consulted, and that the State authorities did not follow the process of FPIC, resulted in the failure of the programmes. The research has shown that minor adjustments during the design, discussion and implementation phases of assistance programmes can greatly improve their impact and sustainability.Infrastructures are reported as welcomed and beneficial to the participating indigenous communities. However, the expansion of infrastructure also brings new actors that sometimes entail new challenges. For instance, the construction of roads in Nellim has resulted in the arrival of alcohol and narcotics. Improved accesses for the Inari Sámi has also brought tourists, leading to environmental degradation and eutrophication of lakes. The construction of roads and the opening of ferry services around Gribe resulted in more logging that has progressively reduced the size of the Baka forest and increased trade in bushmeat, adding pressures on the biodiversity. In Puerto Nariño, the arrival of highly processed and imported food to the market is associated with the development of the urban area. The remote location of Namik village of the Bhotia and the Anwal in the Himalayan mountains has slowed down the arrival of external actors. Likewise, for the Kel Tamasheq in Mali, the road conditions make it difficult to reach the Aratène village.• Ensure that Indigenous Peoples in their country are informed about FPIC, and on how they can request its application.• Respect the principle of FPIC. The respect of the process of principle of FPIC is a guarantee of respect of the right to self-determined development of Indigenous Peoples, which contributes directly to the success of any proposed development interventions.   , 2018). The research has shown that indigenous languages are key in sustaining the food system and knowledge of the environment. The participating communities were aware of the importance of their languages to maintain their culture and livelihoods. Indigenous Peoples' languages are particularly rich in naming plants and wild and semi-domesticated animals, describing the biodiversity and ecosystems and their interactions and behaviours within the ecosystem. For the Inari Sámi, their observations and relationship with the surrounding biodiversity is reflected in their traditional knowledge and language such that they have different words and terminology to characterise whitefish and their behaviour. The Sámi Education Institute is a positive example of intercultural education that integrates and teaches Sámi language, Finnish and traditional skills. It was noted, by many examples in the case studies, that when these indigenous languages disappear, so too does the body of knowledge that was generated through the use of this language. This is especially true for the cultures founded on orality, as are the majority of the indigenous languages in the world. The International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032) stresses that these are the languages at the highest risk of extinction.It is fundamental to come up with intercultural education programmes that support the ongoing efforts in Indigenous Peoples' communities to keep their languages alive.The eight participating communities hold unique and rich traditional knowledge on local resources that supports their resilience and adaptive capacity. One of the key factors that has helped them maintain this knowledge is their respect for elders, who are responsible for passing on this knowledge to younger generations. This intergenerational transmission of traditional knowledge stood out as a fundamental element of resilience across all eight food systems. This is particularly the case for the Kel Tamasheq, who perceive their food system and diet based on meat, meat products and dairy as part of their identity, which depends on the transmission of their traditional knowledge. Interestingly, for the Melanesians SI , the profiling exercise catalysed their awareness about the need to revive their traditional knowledge and its transmission from the elders to the youth. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua perceive mothers as the guardians of the knowledge system of the chagras, where this knowledge is passed on to the youth during different activities. The Fishing Conservation Guidelines was prepared by artisanal fisherfolk and elderly knowledge holders in the context of the Community Fisheries Agreement, and it was used to carry out educational work with the younger generations. The Maya Ch'orti' women specialized in wild mushroom harvesting, maintaining rich knowledge of the place and time when fruiting occurs.Several of the profiled food systems indicate that despite migration of the youth from the community and decreasing interest for traditional practices, some youth still take great interest in the traditions, culture and production systems.In Nellim, the Inari Sámi youth are important actors in maintaining the cultural subsistence fisheries. The Melanesians SI youth in Baniata village compose electronic music to pass on the knowledge of traditional recipes. In the village of Nongtraw, a group of 16 Khasi youth have formed a cooperative society for marketing the traditional millet, selling both raw and processed millet to cater to the market.Language and traditional knowledge are in essence adaptive and dynamic, whilst at the same time, as the Melanesians SI mentioned, fragile if not properly used, maintained and transmitted.Internal negative drivers -Globalization decreasing youth's interests in traditional practices and knowledgeMigration is affecting all eight indigenous communities. Youth are increasingly migrating away from the communities, usually to urban areas. The youth expressed their wish to leave the community and learn a profession following the attraction and calling to participate in the market economy and urban culture. Often, this phenomenon is catalysed by the attendance in school, where kids develop aspirations and change their cultural and food habits. This phenomenon is leading to a decreasing interest in ancestral practices, less capacity to maintain and carry forward Indigenous Peoples' food systems, and, sometimes, an abandonment of the land, as is the case for the Bhotia and Anwal. In Nellim, when an Inari Sámi moves outside the Sámi homeland area, their legal right to use nature in certain areas is lost, thus young people lose their connection to their traditional fishing areas. Baka women anticipate that their children will no longer forage in the forest as their parents did in the past. In Mali, the situation is more dramatic, where some youth migrate to cities to learn a profession, but sometimes end up getting involved in armed groups.There is an overall consensus that, if not addressed in a multifaceted and coordinated way, the transmission of traditional knowledge within many Indigenous Peoples will deteriorate drastically, resulting in some cases in the loss of rich oral traditions that will disappear with the passing away of the elders. Whilst migration, particularly to the cities by the indigenous youth, seems unstoppable, the transmission of traditional knowledge could be preserved through different initiatives.In all eight food systems except in the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua food system, Indigenous Peoples' traditional knowledge systems remain undocumented and depend on oral transmission to be preserved. The language, culture, beliefs and cosmogony of entire Indigenous Peoples' nations depend on the ability to effectively transmit oral knowledge. Many of the case studies exposed current vulnerabilities and risk factors compromising the traditional oral knowledge systems. One such factor is when indigenous languages are forgotten by a community. As depicted in the food system profile of the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, when an indigenous language starts to deteriorate and the community forgets the names of plants, herbs and practices, the Indigenous Peoples' food system, its associated territorial management practices and their traditional knowledge is weakened, and in some cases condemned to disappear and vanish. The wealth of knowledge that Indigenous Peoples across the world have about the environment and biodiversity is codified in the use of indigenous languages that are maintained almost exclusively through orality.Another related and influential factor found is that as some indigenous youth become less interested in traditional knowledge, a large threat exists regarding the future of these oral knowledge systems as their elders pass. This dynamic can generate frustration within the community, as for the Melanesians SI , where the elders perceive that the youth are not interested. School and education seem to play an influential role in this occurrence.It is reported that when attending school, Melanesians SI kids have a higher desire to leave the community and learn a profession than when they participate in their community's livelihoods' activities. Similar trends were seen for the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, whose children attend school and spend less time with their parents learning fishing techniques. The effects of schooling that lacks intercultural education can be understood as a negative internal and external driver that is affecting the future resilience and sustainability of Indigenous Peoples' cultures, languages, knowledge and food systems.In various ways, all profiles have shown indications of weakened ties between indigenous youth and their indigenous customs and traditions. There are several emerging factors when examining youth's decreasing interest for traditional practices. One of them is linked to the impact of school feeding and access to new imported and often highly processed foods that reshape indigenous youth' food tastes away from their traditional foods. School meals are part of the schooling and education in several countries. This is the case for the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua's kids, who have acquired increased preference for highly processed food as a result of their participation in school feeding programmes. In Solomon Islands, one quarter of the Melanesians SI kids interviewed declared their preference for processed foods over traditional ones. Paradoxically, youth and the elders agree that their indigenous traditional food systems, meals, livelihoods and ways of life are healthier, tastier and preferred to the new imported habits. However, they see themselves caught up in the divide between the need for education to access better prospects for the future or continuing their lives without education.All the Indigenous Peoples participating in the research saw the education of their children as positive, yet they were concerned about the open question of how to ensure traditional knowledge transmission that guarantees the continuation of their ancestral food and knowledge systems.External negative driver -Lack of access to education and the need for culturally appropriate educationAll indigenous communities have mentioned the effects that education programmes and missionaries have had on their livelihoods. Often these interventions not only denied the beliefs and customs of the Indigenous Peoples, but also created assimilation and reeducation programmes that undermined the essential role of ancestral beliefs, culture, spirituality, languages, habits, customs and, very importantly, foods within the system.The eight examined food systems suffer the absence of education programmes integrating and building on indigenous values, beliefs and traditions. There was either no access to schooling services or, when they did arrive, interculturality was not considered.Despite this, education is seen as essential by most of the parents interviewed, who want their children to attend school whenever possible. At the same time, parents reported that where it was available, schooling has had a detrimental impact on their customary systems and the transmission of traditional knowledge, advancing the loss of their language and a change of food habits and tastes in the youth towards highly processed and unhealthy foods.Schools have been mentioned by most communities as one of the main entry points affecting their food habits, beliefs, self-esteem and traditions.The lack of consideration of indigenous knowledge seems to have also been the norm when missionaries arrived, converting the communities into other religions and denying Indigenous Peoples' notion of holiness embedded in nature and the environment. For instance, the Inari Sámi and Khasi beliefs based on animism and shamanism were substituted by Christianism.The Inari Sámi as well as the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua were denied from using their native languages or engaging in their cultural practices.As a result, it is now rare that indigenous languages are the dominant languages within a community; worse, they can be nearly extinct, such as for the Inari Sámi. These educational and religious assimilation processes have also created a sense of inferiority, guilt and embarrassment when exercising their customs and traditions, and speaking their languages.The reconciliation of school and education with the maintenance of traditional knowledge is fundamental to ensure not only the transmission of ancestral territorial practices, but also for the survival of indigenous languages, culture, beliefs and cosmogonies. Intercultural schemes of schooling and education are possible and there have been some positive examples mentioned during the field research.This includes some of the experts providing assistance to other Indigenous Peoples through cooperation arrangements. Another example, as mentioned with the indigenous language programmes, is the Sámi Education Institute, which offers unique vocational upper secondary education along with short courses in Finnish and Sámi. The Institute promotes traditional knowledge and practices such as herding, fishing, handicrafts and cooking in Sámi languages.It is important to undertake policy interventions to ensure that education is not seen as a zerosum game. Instead, schooling should be able to reinforce the cultural heritage of the communities whilst providing youth with the needed skills for professional lives. Interculturality is essential in education programmes with Indigenous Peoples.Dedicated research and new policies discussed with Indigenous Peoples to support the schooling of Indigenous Peoples without condemning their indigenous language, culture and foods are more needed than ever.• Set up national committees composed of experts from ministries of education and indigenous leaders who can discuss and design intercultural education plans in Indigenous Peoples' territories. These intercultural educational plans should blend mainstream education along with traditional knowledge, ensuring that the indigenous languages are preserved and, along with them, the food systems and livelihoods. Ideally, interculturality should inform all educational plans and curricula in more than 90 countries where Indigenous Peoples live in the world.• Through this national committee on intercultural education, analyze the time and frequency of the classes and the schooling. It should not collide with the traditional calendar for livelihood activities that follows nature's seasonality and cycles. Rather, it is important to reach a schedule of lectures that does not clash with the transmission of traditional knowledge that takes place in association with many livelihood-related activities. The classes and lectures can be taught with the support of parents in the indigenous language as well as in the language spoken by the professors.• Through the Ministries of Education and the governmental agencies responsible for the school feeding programmes, set up a mixed committee with the indigenous elders, women and representatives to jointly decide which foods will be part of the school menus. The recipes and foods should come from the community by involving the parents in the school meal programmes, ideally purchasing their local production of indigenous foods.• Together with universities and indigenous organizations, within the overall context of the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032), undertake a mapping of the indigenous languages spoken and characterise their importance to maintain Indigenous Peoples' food systems, identifying centres that can document and support these languages to avoid their disappearance.• Promote that interculturality informs all educational plans and curricula in more than 90 countries where Indigenous Peoples live in the world.• Through the United Nations Permament Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), take up the issue of school feeding and analyze the impact it is having on Indigenous Peoples' health, food taste, habits and culture.• Through FAO, together with research institutions, undertake a study on the impact of school feeding programmes on the nutrition status of indigenous youth.• Through FAO, together with research and academic institutions, develop guidelines with indigenous organizations that can inform governments on how to preserve traditional knowledge and food systems.• Together with governments, support initiatives driven by the community and Indigenous Peoples on documenting traditional knowledge with funding and mechanisms to ensure that the traditional knowledge and languages are not lost. Many Indigenous Peoples have started to document their traditional knowledge into participatory encyclopedias and compendiums of documents such as the Matsé people encyclopedia of indigenous medicine. 6• Engage with documentation of indigenous languages to ensure their survival.• Co-create curricula for protecting and preserving traditional knowledge, together with indigenous organizations. Museums, libraries and almost all forms of transmission of knowledge through written means have an associated university degree that ensures that the knowledge is preserved.In the case of traditional oral knowledge, this is lacking, and within the International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022-2032), it is important to have important academic institutions come up with a curriculum and a methodology discussed and approved by Indigenous Peoples.• At the national level, through the national commission of Indigenous Peoples and indigenous leaders, create a working committee that analyzes how to preserve indigenous languages and traditional knowledge both inter-and intragenerational.• Blend oral traditional knowledge with written codified guidelines. The examples of the drafting of traditional knowledge encyclopedias, such as the ones initiated in the Amazon region, could be expanded to other areas of knowledge. The new forms of technology and data management can assist but should be assessed by indigenous youth to ensure the respect of FPIC and guarantee the safety and restricted access, in some cases, of the codified information and knowledge.Internal positive driver -Indigenous Peoples' food systems and cash income generationAll participating indigenous communities sell items to generate income. The Melanesians SI harvest the wild ngali nut that they market at the international level, mostly to New Caledonia. The Maya Ch'orti' sell various handicrafts made of palm at the market. The Khasi sell bamboo baskets and crops, which contribute around 40 percent of household income. The Bhotia and Anwal base their income on the selling of their crops, sheep and goats to nearby villages. They also sell wood and bamboo handicrafts. The Kel Tamasheq and the Inari Sámi obtain the majority of their income from the selling of their animals or animal products in local and national markets. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua mainly sell the surplus from their chagra plots to the urban area of Puerto Nariño. In the case of the Maya Ch'orti', the main source of income comes from off-farm labour.In the eight communities, in addition to food and inputs for the food system, cash incomes were primarily used to meet the needs for allopathic medicines, education, transportation and communication. However, cash incomes were not always considered adequate. That is particularly the case for the Baka, who reported not getting a fair price for the selling of their forest products. Due to the remoteness of the Nongtraw and Namik villages, the vegetables sold by the Khasi, and the Bhotia and Anwal are often less fresh and start to rot when they reach the markets, which affects price. The degree of dependency on the market by the different communities to sell and buy foods played a role in the prices obtained. For instance, the Maya Ch'orti' and the Kel Tamasheq rely on the market to meet their food security, whilst the Tikuna Cocama and Yagua are self-sufficient in food and sell their surplus in the market.Trade, barter and sharing are practised to different degrees in all eight food systems. The Melanesians SI have been trading with different islands to fetch items that were not sourced locally. Similarly, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua, and the Inari Sámi have been trading fish, meat and fruits with other non-indigenous and Indigenous Peoples. For instance, the Baka hunter-gatherers have been bartering and trading with the neighbouring Bantu farmers to maintain their livelihoods for generations. They collect several wild edibles such as Irvingia kernels, Aframomum pods and Ricinodendron nuts, for instance, that they exchange with the Bantu. For the Baka, food sharing is common; when one family has more food than necessary, they share it rather than store it. The barter system is also strong amongst the Kel Tamasheq, the Maya Ch'orti', and the Bhotia and Anwal, making these food systems locally interdependent. All participating communities have traditionally practised barter and food sharing as a form of solidarity based on the reciprocal practices common amongst Indigenous Peoples' societies. However, the monetization of the economy is progressively leading several communities away from these ancestral safety nets and communal practices, favouring selling for cash versus inkind exchanges.In all eight communities, trade has been occurring for hundreds of years. Whist trade has traditionally taken place through barter, the recent improved access to markets by traditionally isolated indigenous communities has brought along several new elements into their economies. In the eight cases, this increasing interest in the market for income generation is reinforcing the importance of cash and accelerating the monetization of these traditional economies. The cash and monetization of the transactions has led to an interest in accumulation in the form of products or cash to purchase manufactured goods (motorbikes, fishing nets, improved tools, snowmobiles, boats). This trend is accompanied in some of the profiles by the intensification of cultivation, harvesting, fishing and hunting geared to cover the demands of the market. The differential shifting of the eight food systems towards markets, cash and monetization is accompanied by the learning of some of the effects of this new impetus. This relatively recent focus on the market, occurring during the past hundred years, is reshaping profoundly these food systems that for centuries have come up with sophisticated territorial management practices to ensure self-sufficiency and based on barter, exchange, reciprocity and solidarity. This is affecting environmental biodiversity, sustainability and the diversity of foods within the system, as well as the social fabric, traditions, and the health and nutrition of the community. The selling at the market of nutritious foods generated by the Indigenous Peoples' food system occurs at the same time new highly processed and imported foods are purchased for consumption. This increasing consumption of highly processed and imported foods has had a direct impact on preferences and tastes, affecting traditional knowledge and deteriorating the health in the communities. The interest in cash generation has altered relationships amongst villagers in some of the communities, with evidence of individualistic behaviours growing and abandonment of collective tasks and communal work. Competition for selling goods has risen.For the Melanesians SI , the arrival of missionaries marked the starting point of the conversion from a self-sufficient system towards a monetized economy. With the introduction of income, the dependence on cash increased over time. Today, incomes within the community are increasing as community members sell more home garden products, handmade crafts and goods to the markets. The community is working on achieving certification for the selling of the ngali nuts that they collect from the wild. Since the 1990s, the Melanesians SI have increased their consumption of highly processed and imported commercial foods, whilst their consumption of fresh and traditional foods has decreased. Now, their freshly gathered and produced food items are sold in the market to pay their children´s school fees. This market-induced shift in the Melanesians SI diet has resulted in poor health outcomes, such as high blood pressure, high blood glucose, and increasing rates of obesity and people being overweight.Between 1960 and 1970, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua increasingly engaged in fishing, hunting and gathering of wild fish, animals and plant species for commercial use. This included the pirarucú (Arapaima gigas Schinz, Osteoglossidae), the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger Spix, Alligatoridae), the jaguar (Panthera onca L., Felidae) and otters (Pteronura brasiliensis Gmelin, Mustelidae and Lontra longicaudis Olfers, Mustelidae). This was rendered possible thanks to the adoption of nylon nets, which negatively impacted the biodiversity in the natural ecosystem.Once the level of the damage was understood, community members engaged in protecting the biodiversity in their territories, adhering to the Ramsar Convention and starting a sustainable community fisheries programme to reverse the reduction in catches of certain species.In Namik where the Bhotia and Anwal live, the few families that receive cash from their relatives working in urban areas rely less on the barter system, consequently affecting the social bonds within the community. Community members are now more interested in getting maximum return from their production system, when previously they offered each other gifts without expectation of reciprocity. The Khasi have abandoned barter altogether now that their income has increased thanks to markets, with community members exonerated from their traditional tasks so they can dedicate their time to produce handicrafts to be sold at the market. The Maya Ch'orti have seen their traditional weaven textiles displaced by the arrival of cheap manufactured cloths at the market.Cash-generation in communities that until recently have a low level of monetization and little access to markets has become one of the major drivers reshaping at once the preferences, tastes, social bonds, safety nets and traditional solidarity mechanisms. There is no doubt that this will continue in the near future and has raised the question of how much will the resilience and sustainability of traditional practices be compromised to meet market demand.External positive driver -Improved infrastructure and better access to markets and informationWith globalization, the communities have seen improved infrastructure, offering better marketing prospects for indigenous foods. The Melanesians SI , for example, rely on a 90-minute petrol-powered boat ride to reach the market and sell their foods. The Khasi still lack proper infrastructure and have to carry their products from the village up 3 000 steps to reach the road.If they reach the market late, they face a problem in getting a good price for their goods. A road to the village would greatly enhance their income opportunities. A similar situation exists for the Bhotia and Anwal, who suffer from remoteness and minimal road access to sell fresh food on the market. All participating communities expressed their interest in accessing better infrastructure that improves their mobility and access to markets following the principle of FPIC.The eight communities have a long-lasting tradition and knowledge about integrating organic by-products and waste generated back into the system as inputs. But inorganic waste is a different issue with the introduction of processed foods, bringing a new profusion of packaging materials, plastics and bags into the communities. Batteries and allopathic medicines have also become sources of waste.For most communities, this is a relatively new phenomenon. The lack of waste management plans, facilities and awareness has further compounded the effect of inorganic waste in otherwise pristine areas. The Bothia and Anwal throw inorganic waste from marketed products outside their houses. This practice pollutes the local landscape and water streams. It is interesting to compare this practice with other traditional behaviours, such as educating through tales about not urinating in water streams to keep them clean and drinkable, reaffirming the community values about their environment.With respect to inorganic and organic waste, this situation affects non-indigenous and Indigenous Peoples alike in both developed and developing countries. However, there is need for better understanding about the use of biodegradable materials for packaging, clothes and construction materials. Many of the biodegradable and organic products used by Indigenous Peoples are available locally and should be promoted through local legislation. In some instances, the environmental legislation in some countries, although well-intended, can be counterproductive to the harvesting and use of natural by-products from the forest that traditionally have been used sustainably by Indigenous Peoples for centuries.During the fieldwork, there were reports of some positive experiences of recycling inorganic waste that could pave the way for the adoption of these schemes at the community level in other parts of the world.• Discuss with indigenous leaders about environmental legislation hampering or restricting the use of by-products from the forest in their areas. Their suggestions should be incorporated to allow Indigenous Peoples to exercise their livelihoods whilst protecting the environment.• Include in national school curriculums education programmes that are culturally sensitive and that will reinforce traditional knowledge and healthy eating practices.• Through the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, Environment, Commerce and Development, jointly analyze in specific commissions the importance of reducing or eliminating inorganic materials in the bottling, wrapping and packaging of processed and commercial foods. The experience of some countries in banning plastic bags 7 has been exemplary policymaking for the rest of the world that could be expanded in the case of processed foods.• Within the UNPFII establish dedicated expert sessions to discuss how to facilitate the development of labelling and certification schemes for Indigenous Peoples' foods generated by healthy and sustainable food systems that protect the environment. These sessions should also address how to access the market with a preferential rate that guarantees that the added value along the chain is redistributed as much as possible to the community.• Undertake a coordinated effort through several of its main agencies to issue a statement that can help governments tackle the problem of highly processed and imported commercial foods with regards to Indigenous Peoples' health and environment.• Together with the UN undertake studies on the thresholds of wild edibles in response to market demand. It is questionable that without domestication, wild edibles, dependent on the health of the ecosystem in which they thrive, can sustain the markets' demand without being depleted. More dedicated research is needed.• Through indigenous organizations, together with NGOs and research centres, train communities on how to market their produce without losing their culture and values along the process. There are some good examples of certification and labelling. The reindeer meat marketed by the Inari Sámi is a good starting point.• Through indigenous youth, carry out an analysis on how new technologies could help Indigenous Peoples access urban markets, bypassing intermediaries.    The driver has a strong positive effect on the sustainability of the food systemThe driver has a slight to moderate positive effect on the sustainability of the food system The driver has a strong negative effect on the sustainability of the food systemThe driver has a slight to moderate negative effect on the sustainability of the food systemNo information available Important increase of the effect of the driver on the sustainability and climate resilience of the food system in future trends Important decrease of the effect of the driver on the sustainability and climate resilience of the food system in future trends Slight to moderate increase of the effect of the driver on the sustainability and climate resilience of the food system in future trends Slight to moderate decrease of the effect of the driver on the sustainability and climate resilience of the food system in future trends Effect of the driver on the sustainability and climate resilience of the food system is perceived as constant in future trends The objective of this third publication, co-published by FAO and the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, is to acknowledge the contributions that Indigenous Peoples make to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, and to advocate for these contributions and their associated food systems to be taken into consideration in ongoing discussions about sustainable and efficient food systems that could support better nutrition and health.To achieve this objective, the focus of the research methodology, the subsequent fieldwork and the analysis has been to identify elements that make Indigenous Peoples' food systems sustainable and resilient, signalling drivers affecting these two characteristics positively or negatively. This book presents evidence that demonstrates the potential of Indigenous Peoples' food systems to inform ongoing global debates about sustainability, climate resilience, territorial management, food systems and intercultural education, amongst others. The implementation of the same methodology in eight Indigenous Peoples' communities, following months of participatory field research and data analysis, allows comparison across different food systems.The analysis confirms the need for more systemized research at all levels on Indigenous Peoples' food systems. There is still much to learn with respect to the different solutions that these food systems can provide.At the same time, the findings highlight the heterogeneity and richness of Indigenous Peoples' food systems and their unique territorial management techniques, whilst bringing upfront their concerns, threats and unique practices, many at risk of disappearing. The eight cases analyzed have helped identify four salient characteristics across Indigenous Peoples' food systems:• Indigenous Peoples preserve and enrich their ecosystems through their food systems;• Indigenous Peoples' food systems are resilient and adaptive;• Indigenous Peoples' food systems can broaden the existing food base with nutritious foods;• Indigenous Peoples' food systems are interdependent with language, traditional knowledge, governance and cultural heritage.Whilst the evidence gathered confirms that Indigenous Peoples' food systems preserve biodiversity whilst providing foods, livelihoods, nutrition and by-products for the eight communities, it also indicates that these systems are subject to globalization, trade, markets, monetization, regulations and mass media like any other food system. These global trends are modifying Indigenous Peoples' food systems by introducing new opportunities, new products, new technologies and new livelihoods that are modeling the priorities, preferences and tastes of the members in the communities. Without entering into subjective affirmations on whether some changes are good or bad, it is widely observed that changes within the food systems have accelerated significantly in recent years.Moving beyond the assumption that Indigenous Peoples' food systems are sustainable and climate resilient under all circumstances, it is important to avoid preconceived ideas and pre-empted approaches. Indigenous Peoples' food systems are highly dynamic and adaptive and should therefore not be romanticized.The appearance of new actors along with globalization has led to the emergence of multiple interconnected drivers that need more dedicated research to fully grasp their effects on Indigenous Peoples' food systems. However, it is important to recall that in keeping the focus with the scope of this research, the drivers affecting Indigenous Peoples' food systems identified during the fieldwork have been analyzed in terms of their contribution or damage to the sustainability and resilience of the eight Indigenous Peoples' food systems analyzed.This publication invites the reader to learn from the unique and common elements that make Indigenous Peoples' food systems resilient and sustainable, how they can inform global debates, why they deserve respect and dignity, and what could be the consequences of the disappearance of these ancestral food and knowledge systems.The Baka living in the tropical rainforest of South-eastern Cameroon are one out of a dozen groups of Congo Basin hunter-gatherers often referred to as \"Pygmies\". The food system of the Baka is entirely dependent on the forest. An estimated 81 percent of their food is obtained through hunting, gathering and fishing activities, practised during incursions and movements in the forest, combined with shifting cultivation. Exchanges with other communities and the market provide about 19 percent of their diet. In total, the Baka use around 179 species for food. Outstandingly, the Baka are renowned for their knowledge of about 500 species of wild or ruderal plants used for medicinal, material, and spiritual purposes.The livelihood of the Baka primarily consists of an alternation between seasonal excursions into the forest and sedentary activities carried out in permanent villages along the road. In Gribe, where the study was carried out, the Baka are engaged in a transitional post-forager lifestyle affected by an increasingly constrained access to the forest. Long-distance stays in the forest in search for food items (bushmeat, freshwater resources, insects, wild tubers, honey, leaves, fruits, nuts and all sorts of spices) and non-food products (medicinal plants, various materials for building and carving) are becoming increasingly challenging and diminishing, whilst sedentary activities in the village are increasing. Shifting cultivation to produce starches and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), home gardening, and agroforest plantations to produce cash crops (cocoa, coffee), as well as off-farm activities (labouring in exchange for crops, and salaried jobs in logging and safari companies) are all important activities.The relationships between the Baka and their farming neighbours are based on complementarity. Through the adoption of a lifestyle that mimics that of their neighbours and under constant incentives by governmental agencies to abandon their age-old forager way of life, the Baka are now exposed to an acute risk of losing their expertise of the forest and their rich animist culture based on a connivance with the supra-natural forces who are the masters of forest resources. At the same time, Baka interest in NTFPs for the market is developing a new relationship with neighbours that goes beyond the traditional exchanges and barter. Despite this, the Baka are increasingly ostracized since they rarely have a voice in negotiations with the various stakeholders (authorities, private companies, protected areas managers) who meet and discuss, which in the end results in progressively reducing the Baka's access to their ancestral forests.• Increased constraints in accessing the forest (creation of a national park, presence of logging and safari companies);  • Adoption of agriculture;• Improved road infrastructures and development of local markets with merchants coming from outside;• Increased demand for NTFPs, becoming a source of cash income.• Balanced livelihood between seasonal incursions into the forest and shifting cultivation in permanent settlements along the road;• Reduced dependence on the forest products and greater reliance on food and agroforestry products;• Loss of traditional knowledge regarding the forest and rising concerns about health implications (degradation of diet quality and loss of traditional healing practices);• Marginalization and no voice in the negotiations with other forest users (farmers groups, conservation NGOs, logging companies, safari owners);• Youth manifesting contradictory aspirations. What characterises these inhabitants of the Arctic region is their lifestyle as traditional mobile reindeer herders, governed by seasonal transhumance to grazing lands. The food system of the Inari Sámi traditionally relies on fishing, hunting and wild edibles gathering. The reindeer is a keystone species that is central to the culture of the Sámi. Fishing, hunting and wild berry picking for sale are other salient traits of the Inari Sámi food system. Depending on the season, these activities are more or less prominent throughout the year. There are 26 species in their food system used for food, and one species has been identified for medicinal uses. Additionally, 30 percent of the food consumed by Inari Sámi comes from the market.As revealed by their transitioning food system, the Inari Sámi community has passed through drastic historical episodes and regulations that have profoundly modified their daily life. State law regarding the regulation of reindeer herding, changing sources of feed and forage for reindeer, decreasing demography in Inari Sámi villages, the encroachment of processed food items, and new extractive activities in the region that are impacting wildlife habitats are some of the drivers modifying their territorial management and livelihoods. This is resulting in the weakening of the food system and traditional lifestyle of the Inari Sámi. Furthermore, the Arctic is amongst the areas of the world most exposed to climate change, which has significantly affected seasons, natural cycles and the related herding activities.• increased sourcing of food from the market in their diet, especially processed meat;• visible effect of climate change on the diet (new wild mushrooms);• reduced and limited access to land and pastures; • youth migration to cities;• damaging policies of acculturation and assimilation.• expected increase of forest exploitation leading to drop in reindeer herding and rarefaction of wild edibles (berries, mushrooms, etc.);• increasing soil degradation and lake eutrophication;• reducing populations of wild game and fish;• youth losing interest in reindeer herding;• persistence of traditional activities, but less prevalent;• increased dependency on the market for their diet.CHAPTER This interdependent and open socioeconomic approach is one of the reasons why the Nongtraw inhabitants obtain an important share of their diet from the market. In total, the food system of the Khasi people is based on 150 species and varieties of plants and animals used for food. In addition, there are at least 17 prominent species used for construction and materials, and medicinal purposes.Daily wage labour and artisanal activities (especially basketry) are the main sources of cash income along with broom grass cultivation as a cash crop. Since the 1970s, the accession of Meghalaya to statehood and the related improvements in governmental facilities (electricity, pipes and storage tanks for water supply) and services (public transport, market, waste management) have improved the livelihoods of the Khasi, easing access to the cash economy and reducing uncertainty in the food supply, without damaging the traditional diet of the Khasi. Increased conservation initiatives have come up with regulations and responsible awareness to mitigate the pressure on agricultural lands and natural resources. The resilience of the Khasi food system has gotten stronger over time and this positive observation seems to stem from the strength of the selfgovernance and customary institutions in the community.• India's overall public distribution system has changed the local subsistence system;• rice has supplanted local staples (millet and pulses);• reduced presence of wild foods in the diet;• increased cash income economy;  • loss of food sharing and barter practices;• emergence of cash crop production (broom grass).• no expected changes by the Khasi, who trust the resilience of their food system supported by the solid self-governance of their community.Fishing and agroforestry food systems of the Melanesians SI people in Solomon IslandsThe term Melanesian federates a diversity of tribes that are now organised according to their followed Christian movements. The Melanesians SI inhabiting the Baniata village live in remote conditions in Rendova Island located in the Solomon Islands archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. Their food system relies primarily on the cultivation of tuber crops and banana in fields and home gardens. Inland agroforests of fruit trees and ngali nut trees as well as coconut plantations along the shoreline for the production of copra are prominent components of the food system generating cash income. In addition, the food system relies on bushmeat and fish. Hunting and fishing are fundamental activities embedded with cultural and traditional importance, despite becoming progressively less prominent within the food system. One fourth of the food resources are sourced from markets and local stores, where handicrafts and garden products are sold and highly processed and imported foods purchased. The Melanesian food system in Baniata consists of 132 species used as food, out of which 51 are aquatic species. In addition, multiple other species are used for nonfood purposes, such as for clothing, construction and materials, medicine, or fuel.Excessive logging and reliance on the market have been the major drivers of change for the food system in Baniata over the second half of the past century, resulting in natural resource degradation and a greater dependency and consumption of imported and highly processed foods. The reduction of the period for land fallowing and the intensification of agriculture have reached their limits. Increased pests and diseases along with climate change have impaired the health of the food system, resulting in further accentuating the dependency of imported highly processed foods. All of these factors are severely impairing the Melanesians SI agri-food system in Baniata village.• colonization has impacted cultural and religious beliefs and encouraged introduction of new foods and crops;• monetization of the local economy and abandonment of traditional barter and exchange practices;• increased import of highly processed foods and health deterioration with increase of non-communicable diseases;• reduced yields for crops and increased crop damage by pests;• loss of traditional knowledge, in particular regarding hunting;• declining stock of marine fish.Trends expected by the Melanesians SI in future years:• concerns about their increased demography in a context of limited land resources and damaged natural resources;• imported rice anticipated to replace traditional tuber staple foods;• climate change is feared to negatively impact agricultural yields;• dependence on the market is expected to increase.  • drying up of water bodies, ponds, lakes and aquifers, causing severe water scarcity;• significant depletion of wild plants and wild game from successive climate shocks and decimation by armed groups;• land grabbing and land tenure insecurity;• increased reliance on markets for food and cash income.• increased uncertainty caused by climate change, droughts and political instability;• intensified exploitation of land for agriculture: concern about soil degradation and competing use of water sources and reserves;• increased reliance on \"new foods\" and gradual abandonment of certain traditional foods;• youth aspirations not to pursue the pastoralist lifestyle and induced loss of traditional knowledge.  Traditionally, the Bhotia and Anwal have always practised hunting and gathering of wild game and edibles. However, conservation policies have prohibited hunting activities and progressively restricted their access to forests, thus reducing their access to wild edibles species. In total, the food system relies on 29 species used for food. An additional 20 species are dedicated to non-food uses for fodder, construction and materials, and medicine. Today, the market covers an estimated 30 percent of the food needs.Pulses, in association with maize and potato, are the major staples cultivated by the Bhotia, who also keep bees, poultry, cattle and buffalo. The Anwal take care of sheep and goat herds.Whereas fishing and hunting have always remained marginal activities, the inhabitants of Namik still devote great importance to the gathering of wild plants used as foods, medicines and raw materials for craft. Women are the main actors in the food system, as they carry most of the farming and gathering activities. The natural ecosystems provide fodder and grazing lands for livestock whose dejections serve as manure for the traditional cropping system. In this diverse system based on complementarity, barter is a relevant mode of exchange for the resilient circulation of goods. Yet the market remains necessary for enabling access to food items not generated within the system, especially rice, wheat, salt, sugar and cooking oils. Activities are paced along five distinct seasons, including the monsoon, which heavily affects the activities during the annual cycle. Road construction, protection of wildlife and access to markets have been the major drivers of change. The abandonment of foraging in the wild has accompanied a greater demand for marketed goods and a slow dismissal of lesser-used crops, reducing the diversity of the local dietary regime.As high-altitude ecosystems are more exposed to climate change, remote villages are increasingly sensitive to more occurring natural calamities, which now bring about stress and uncertainty.• reduced access to wild edibles imposed by national conservation laws;• diminished reliance on traditional medicine;• land degradation induced by climate change;• road construction increased connectivity that has been associated with migration to urban areas, introduction of new crops, and easier access to markets.• increasing aspirations by youth to leave the villages;• concern about maintaining the transmission of traditional knowledge;• awareness of pros and cons of adopting new practices from modern agriculture: opportunities to test new crops along with concerns about increased utilization of chemical inputs;• progressive disinterest for livestock rearing;• increased consumption of highly processed food, meat and eggs in the diet.  A major political feature in the Amazonian Colombia is the organization of the villagers into administrative indigenous communities, which retain a legal collective property right over their land. In this tropical rainforest ecosystem, seasons are delineated according to the flooding cycles, which are determined by the fluvial water level, flux and quality. The territorial management system that informs this food system is extremely elaborate and adapts to the flooding patterns and uniqueness of the environment. Fishing is a prominent activity in this food system and is practised in close articulation with the use -through cultivation, hunting and foraging activities -of forest lands that are not exposed to flooding (terra firma) and floodplain forests that are seasonally inundated (varzéa). To complement fish catches, these fishers seasonally hunt a great diversity of mammals, birds and reptiles.The chagra is their fundamental cropping and shifting cultivation system, which combines a great diversity of crops with maize and cassava as staples, but also other cereals, tubers, vegetables, spices, fruits and cash crops. The knowledge system related to the chagra is maintained and transmitted by the women. The food system of the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua peoples counts at least 153 species used for food, of which 68 are species of fish. Plantations of several multipurpose palm tree species (28 identified) provide a wide range of products used as foods and drinks, medicines, construction materials, and handicraft. Markets are essential for selling produce and buying goods, ensuring a good balance between the preservation of traditional dietary habits and the adoption of new exotic food products, many of them highly processed and imported foods. Today, the market caters to an estimated 25 percent of food needs. The present standardization of formal schooling exclusively in Spanish seems to be inducing a regression of the indigenous maternal languages and creating a perception of threat through acculturation.• increased presence and consumption of highly processed and imported foods fueled by the development of urban areas;• adoption of new, modern and less sustainable hunting and fishing techniques;• failed successive agricultural governmental development programmes based on new crops;• education and schooling have generated damaging policies of acculturation and assimilation;• children and youth now prefer processed foods, with the school feeding programme having played a role in this change of dietary habits.• reviving the production and consumption of traditional foods;• involving children in food production activities, especially fishing;• being proactive in rehabilitating government programmes;• making school meals more adequate and including Indigenous Peoples' foods and traditional diets.     edible plant production), and the gathering of a broad range of wild edible plants efficiently complement the food system. Bushmeat and insects, which were non-negligible resources in the past, are eaten only occasionally today. As a result of limited land access and productivity issues, food production does not fulfill all the basic food needs and the market provides the missing goods, an estimated 45 percent of the food needs. In total, the food system of the Ch'orti' is based on 143 species used for food of plants, mostly cultivated, and animal species. Fourteen species were additionally mentioned as having prominent uses for construction, fodder, dye, poison or medicinal remedies.Their weather is characterised by contrasting wet and dry seasons with a small dry season in the middle of the rainy season, which constitutes a factor of climatic uncertainty and recurrent stress. The country's chaotic political history throughout the 20th century and its associated episodes of violence, often targeting Indigenous Peoples, have heavily reduced access to land, degraded the natural resources, and impaired the selfsufficiency of the Maya Ch'orti' food system. The rise of industrial production and export markets has decreased income opportunities based on local produce and value chains. The replacement of handicrafts by manufactured goods, and the abandonment of natural dyes by industrial chemical dyes, have deprived the community of their usual sources of incomes, reducing their purchasing power.• cheap and low-quality highly processed and imported foods have flooded markets;• agrochemicals introduced into the ancestral milpa cropping system;• decrease of animal-sourced foods (bushmeat, molluscs and crustaceans, insects), resulting in a less diversified diet.• optimism that the community will foster traditional food production and slow down the reliance on imported goods;• reinforcement of trade and barter within communities through local markets and to reset a virtuous local and self-sufficient economy.From the analysis of the eight Indigenous Peoples' food systems, a series of observations can be cross-referenced to inform researchers, practitioners and policymakers. Some of these observations can be summarized into the following clusters, which are further expanded in the key messages section and in the policy recommendations section, which follows an analysis of the drivers affecting the eight food systems.Rights to land, territories, natural resources and mobile livelihoods• The way Indigenous Peoples consider natural resources, human needs and wildlife is unique. As much as possible in their territories, Indigenous Peoples mirror the processes they observe in nature.• Indigenous Peoples' food systems result from sophisticated territorial management practices that often incorporate an assortment of livelihood activities, such as gathering, hunting, fishing and farming. The recognition and respect of Indigenous Peoples' rights, in particular rights to access land and natural resources, is critical to ensure sustainable livelihoods for Indigenous Peoples.• Mobility and mobile livelihoods comprise different territorial management practices such as shifting cultivation, mobile fishing, hunting, gathering, transhumance and nomadism. There is not sufficient understanding about the relevance of these territorial management practices in terms of biodiversity conservation. Most mobile and semimobile livelihoods depend in most cases on collective rights to communal natural resources, referred to as commons. There is also a need to better understand how collective rights to communal resources contributes to biodiversity and food generation in order to rethink public policies around mobility.Biodiversity, multifunctionality of the system, energy and selfsufficiency• Indigenous Peoples' food systems both depend on and contribute to the biodiversity present in healthy ecosystems within Indigenous Peoples' territories.• Rather than tame the environment to their needs, notably through external inputs, Indigenous Peoples adjust their food generation and production to seasonal cycles and other natural patterns observed in the ecosystems.• Their food systems obtain a broad base of edibles that combine wild, semi-domesticated and domesticated plants, fish and animals that all together represent a vast biodiversity that is maintained and managed by Indigenous Peoples.• Indigenous Peoples' food systems generate many nutrient-rich food items eaten in diversified diets.The food count of many Indigenous Peoples' food systems can exceed 250 species used for food and non-food purposes (medicines, construction materials, handicrafts, clothing, dyes, fuel, traps, etc.).• Indigenous Peoples' food systems present different levels of food self-sufficiency for the communities, with the market complementing remaining food needs and diets. The relevance of the market in terms of providing food is increasing, whilst levels of self-sufficiency in some of the communities are reducing. The level of food self-sufficiency in the food systems oscillated from about 55 percent to about 80 percent.• Indigenous Peoples' food systems reveal a low use of energy sources external from the system as they rely on the sun, wind, water and firewood for most of their energy needs, especially for processing, heating and cooking.• Indigenous Peoples maintain their native biodiversity and often enhance their domestic richness through an insatiable curiosity to test and acclimatize new resources.• Indigenous Peoples' food systems are dynamic. Far from being frozen in an immutable and idealized past, they are in constant movement and have adapted over time to the environment through observation, recombining new ideas, and borrowing practices that they adapt to the local specificities.• The communities have all integrated the market to some degree in their food systems. The market supplied from about 20 percent to about 45 percent of community food needs in some cases and market dependency seems to be increasing for most communities. Despite the rise of highly processed and imported foods, traditional foods remain the preferred ones in the communities.• Different innovations and new techniques have increased efficiency in food production, sourcing and processing for some of the participating communities.• The delicate balance between change and dynamism, and traditional knowledge through observation of the environment makes Indigenous Peoples' food systems unique and different.• Despite the arrival of highly processed and imported foods and the change of food taste by indigenous youth, traditional foods generated within their food systems seemed to be the preferred foods.Governance, Free, Prior and Informed Consent, and development programmes• Indigenous Peoples have developed safety nets and solidarity mechanisms based on social organization and customary governance systems.• Traditional indigenous governance institutions and more novel community-based institutions support the continuity of the Indigenous Peoples' food system and its natural resource base by delineating use of areas in the territory, enabling knowledge transmission, and strengthening the voice of the community in negotiations, amongst other means.• Communities capable of maintaining their traditional indigenous governance systems and institutions are better placed to maintain their social cohesion, allowing for the participation of community members in decision-making.• Development programmes, interventions and social protection measures seem to work when FPIC has been followed and the indigenous communities are involved. On the contrary, lack of FPIC results in unadapted proposals and low impact, with Indigenous Peoples tending to abandon the programmes.Youth, education systems, interculturality, indigenous languages and traditional knowledge• The sustainability of Indigenous Peoples' food systems lies in their foundation in ancestral heritage, frequently exercised through the transmission of traditional knowledge and their cosmogony and belief systems.• Indigenous women not only play a key role in Indigenous Peoples' food systems, they are guardians of ancestral, dynamic and specific traditional knowledge that they transmit to young generations.• Indigenous Peoples are custodians of traditional and ancestral knowledge transmitted from generation to generation, in most cases through orality that is associated with celebrations, rituals and communal work.• Indigenous languages are essential to maintain the traditional knowledge systems and thus the food systems.• The current schooling and education is opening indigenous youth to new opportunities and preferences whilst altering oral transmission of knowledge and, in some cases, leading to aculturization and loss of their mother indigenous language.• School has been mentioned as having a direct effect on the food systems and diet of indigenous youth.Globalization, income, barter, trade, processed foods and waste• Circular mechanisms based on solidarity and reciprocity such as barter, exchanges, collective work and sharing continue in some of the food systems despite having been abandonedin other food systems in favour of cash arrangements.• Indigenous communities sell items at the market to generate income and meet their demand of items not produced by their food systems such as allopathic medicines, education, transportation and communication.• Waste in the form of inorganic garbage was unknown in most indigenous communities until recently. The arrival of processed foods and consumer goods has created the problem of waste.Defining and conceptualizing food systems is an active topic of discussion with many approaches (HLPE, 2014). As an example, the scientific committee of the 2021 United Nations Food Systems Summit is working on a definition for food systems that will bring diverse actors together around a common understanding to foster the transformation towards healthier, more sustainable and equitable food systems (Von Braun et al., 2020).In These holistic and relational views are implemented through Indigenous Peoples' biocentric approach to their food systems. Instead of humankind or market production being the central focus, Indigenous Peoples' food systems prioritize maintaining equilibrium within the ecosystem. As such, resources tend to be managed sustainably, with consideration given to all forms and inherent spirituality of life.This is significantly different from other food systems, which place the food production at the centre through a more anthropocentric approach (FAO, 2017a; Kuhnlein, Eme and Fernández-de-Larrinoa, 2019).For the purpose of this publication, the editors deliberately did not define Indigenous Peoples' food systems but rather provided a set of elements commonly featured. The sum of these characteristics can be summarized as follows: Field research was conducted with eight diverse Indigenous Peoples' communities to develop case studies, which helped to illustrate these commonly featured elements and characteristics of their food systems. The field research methodology followed a participatory approach that, at the community level, engaged and empowered Indigenous Peoples to share their experiences and points of view. This methodological approach was fundamental in pursuing the research goals that allowed for the blending of scientific and local knowledge (Lang et al., 2012). The details, methodology and approach followed during the fieldwork are described in the following section.The communities and Indigenous Peoples' food systems were selected for unique territorial management practices in different ecosystems and climatic zones. The research partners were selected for their capacity to carry out detailed documentation of the participatory field research with the Indigenous Peoples' communities. The partners were mainly Indigenous Peoples' organizations and community groups involved in other studies and research of these food systems.Field research activities were carried out in 2018 with the eight participating Indigenous Peoples' communities. Prior to starting the research process, the Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) principle was followed with each Indigenous Peoples' community. To begin, the whole community was invited to an opening meeting where the background and objectives of the initiative were presented. After which, the research partners requested the community's consent. With the consent of the community, the participatory research process began.Each case study was developed through a series of seven discussions with community members on different themes (Table 0.12), complemented by semi-structured key informant interviews. Both types of dialogue were conducted by experienced facilitators familiar to the communities. The thematic discussions considered all the seasonal food sources used by community members, as well as the practices and issues community members faced in producing, wild sourcing, exchanging and obtaining food from the market. Whilst focussing on the details of the current-day food system, the discussions also explored how the food system has been changing over time. Details on the location, dates and number of participants by gender and age in the thematic discussions are presented in Table 0.13.Whilst the general approach was consistent across all sites, the methods were tailored to local circumstances, priorities and values. Six of the thematic discussions (TD1-6) were held with gender-specific mixed-age groups. One discussion (TD7) was held with groups of youth (ages 13-15) and children (ages 7-12). Gendersegregated groups ensured representation of the knowledge of women and men. Including a range of ages, and especially elders, in the discussions was emphasized to document historical trends and provide opportunity for knowledge sharing across generations. The facilitators encouraged active and meaningful engagement. They worked to ensure that all participants were included, creating an atmosphere in which people felt free to express their opinions and experiences. Facilitators were careful not to dominate the discussions or add their own opinions.Once the thematic discussions were complete, a closing meeting open to all community members was called to present the preliminary results and openly discuss reflections on the process and outcomes. Aspects of the second principle of sustainability, \"resource use efficiency\", were considered with a focus on soil, water, energy and waste. The analysis sought to identify practices that maximise food obtention per input, recycle resources in the system, and minimise waste.The use and dependence on external inputs for maintaining soil quality and meeting water and energy demands was considered. Energy inputs to agroecosystems consist of ecological energy (from the sun) and cultural energy, including biological sources (human labour, animal labour, manure, etc.) and industrial sources, such as fossil fuels, hydrological power, etc. (Gliessman, 2007). The evaluation focussed on cultural energy and the role of tools in supporting productivity and minimising drudgery in food production and sourcing.The third principle of sustainability, \"conservation, protection and enhancement of natural resources\", was reviewed with attention to cultivated biodiversity, wild-sourced plants and animals, and natural areas in the landscape.The presence and area devoted to traditional varieties and breeds as compared to introduced ones was examined, along with motivations for maintaining these resources. Practices followed in sourcing wild foods to ensure their continued supply were highlighted, as well as activities to protect and restore natural areas in the landscape.Building on these themes, the assessment of the fourth principle of sustainability, \"responsible and effective governance mechanisms\", went further in reviewing the traditional and novel institutions guiding natural resource access and use. The communities' empowerment in decision-making regarding resources they depend upon was in focus, as well as equitability in opportunities for participation for women and men, and all persons within the community.The initiative devoted special attention to assessing the fifth principle of sustainability, which is the \"resilience of people, communities and ecosystems\". Within a food system, resilience is the capacity to ensure food provisioning by preventing, mitigating or coping with risks, adapting to change, and recovering from shocks (FAO, 2014). Resilience was evaluated with reference to a set of 13 behaviour-based indicators that link core aspects of social-ecological systems (Cabell and Oelofse, 2012 -Box 3). The presence of these indicators in an agroecosystem \"suggest that it is resilient and endowed with the capacity for adaptation and transformation\" (Cabell and Oelofse, 2012). The assessment included some aspects of the participatory assessment of Indicators of Resilience in Socio-ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes (Bergamini et al.,  2014), in which community members score their own system on a scale of 0 to 5. Inputs were also taken from FAO's Self-evaluation and Holistic Assessment of climate Resilience of Farmers and Pastoralists (SHARP), which assesses the 13 indicators defined by Cabell and Oelofse (2012) following a more quantitative approach (FAO, 2014). Here, a qualitative evaluation of the elements, practices and processes that confer resilience in the focal food systems explored multiple topics. These included experiences with climate shocks, levels of self-sufficiency in food production, accessibility of the community, knowledge generation and transmission, land use diversity, food group diversity, and redundancy in food provisioning through the presence of multiple species, varieties and sources for nutritionally distinct food groups (Box 3).The analysis involved identifying all foods by their scientific names to enable assessments of the diversity in the food systems and increase accessibility of this information to a wider audience. During the thematic discussions, foods were typically listed in the local language. The researchers were familiar with the translation of most local names to scientific names or to the name in a more widely spoken language. Ethnobotanical literature was also consulted to support the translation of local names. In cases where the identification was unknown, community members were asked to gather specimens or to describe the features of the food to support its identification. The identifications were verified by the Editorial Committee and controlled for synonyms with reference to The Plant List (2013) for plants and Catalogue of Life (Roskov et al., 2019) for animals and fungi. Unless otherwise specified, the lists of foods presented throughout this book reflect the results of this process. As specimens were not examined in all cases, it is acknowledged that some degree of error is possible in the identifications. It was thought relevant to highlight indigenous and local names with a specific formatting, in bold, italic and minuscule, in an attempt to give the adequate recognition to indigenous and local terms in this publication.Each of the eight Indigenous Peoples' food systems profiles in this book is the result of the analysis of the thematic discussions held with the communities in the field, complemented by additional knowledge from the literature and author observations. Each case study first presents the Indigenous Peoples' community and describes the current status of their food system and major changes that have occurred over time (Section I). It then provides an analysis of the sustainability principles of the food system and how they have changed over time, considering interlinkage between elements and processes that contribute to these potential changes (Section II). Finally, major highlights of the BOX 3. Indicators of resilience considered in the food system profiles 1. Exposed to disturbance: The system is exposed to discrete, low-level events that cause disruptions without pushing the system beyond a critical threshold.The system has relative autonomy from exogenous (global) control and influences and exhibits a high level of cooperation between individuals and institutions at the more local level.3. Appropriately connected: Connectedness describes the quantity and quality of relationships between system elements.The social components of the agroecosystem are able to form their own configuration based on their needs and desires.Reflective and shared learning: Individuals and institutions learn from past experiences and present experimentation to anticipate change and create desirable futures.The current configuration and future trajectories of systems are influenced and informed by past conditions and experience.The system takes advantage of and builds \"resources that can be mobilized through social relationships and membership in social networks\".The system functions as much as possible within the means of the bioregionally available natural resource base and ecosystem services. 9. Ecologically self-regulated: Ecological components self-regulate via stabilizing feedback mechanisms that send information back to the controlling element.10. Functional diversity: Functional diversity is the variety of ecosystem services that components provide to the system. 11. Optimally redundant: Critical components and relationships within the system are duplicated in case of failure.12. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity: Patchiness across the landscape and changes through time.13. Reasonably profitable: The segments of society involved in agriculture are able to make a livelihood from the work they do without relying too heavily on subsidies or secondary employment.Source: Campbell and Oelafse, 2012; Choptiany et al., 2015 food system are summarized and community reflections on the sustainability and climate resilience of their food systems are presented along with their future perspectives (Section III). Given the great scope of topics, the complexity of socio-ecological interactions in Indigenous Peoples' food systems, and the limited time for developing the case studies, the results of these case studies can be seen as a start point to be followed up by more in-depth studies.The forest-based food system of the Baka Indigenous People in South-eastern Cameroon The Baka and Bantu speakers have mutually bonded through social relations and material and immaterial exchanges. The Baka almost all speak or understand the Mpumpong spoken by the Konabembe, and a large part of non-Baka people understand Baka, whereas each group speaks their mother tongue. In Gribe and the surrounding area, Baka collectively call different groups of Bantu speakers as bantu or kàkà, and so do Bantu speakers. We accordingly refer to the Konabembe and other Bantu speakers as \"Bantu\" or \"neighbours\" (Toda, 2014). Nevertheless, some precautions should be stated here to avoid confusion: First, the term Bantu basically refers to linguistic classifications and does not make sense without contextualization. \"Pygmies groups\" are commonly segregated from \"Bantu\" groups despite the fact that the majority of them speak a Bantu language. Second, packaging the different groups into a single \"Bantu\" -or \"farmers\", \"villagers\" or \"non-Pygmies\" -category tends to overshadow the great diversity of livelihoods that exist amongst Bantu-speaking groups. Third, this homogenization misleadingly caricatures the binary opposition between the Baka and their neighbours, and tends to squander the diversified facets of their interrelationships (Rupp, 2003).The Baka form residential groups composed of 5 to 20 households tied through patrilineal kinship.The members of each residential group have close mutual relationships through daily processes of sourcing, consuming and sharing food, as well as through rituals. At the same time, most groups include households from different residential origins belonging to different patrilineal entities. Notably, many cases are found where a spouse's parents and their relatives move in and share their livelihoods. The wide range of membership in resident groups expands the range of accessible resources.One of the major factors that has increased membership is matrilocal residence. Whereas the Baka follow virilocal residence in principle, matrilocal residence is usually followed until the husband completes payment of the bride wealth to his wife's parents or relatives. Through this custom, the relationship between different resident groups becomes more intimate. The unit of exogamy is the clan ye, which is the largest boundary of the patrilineal descent group. Whilst the genealogical relationship between clan members is seldom remembered, spouses are strictly selected from different clans (Tsuru, 1998).There is strong tendency to search for spouses in clans that live farther away: half of the spouses of the Baka males originating in Gribe have spouses from outside the village and some men who have married local women may come from areas situated up to 200 km away. The wide distribution of patrilineal descent groups across the area has likely resulted from these processes of conjugal ties over long distances.There are approximately 20 residential groups in Gribe, amongst which this study focused on one -the Dimgba. The Baka believe in many kinds of me (forest spirits), which shape their religious system that is not built on a systematic precept. They segregate me from the God of Christians to which they were evangelized by foreign missionaries. Like humans, the spirits are said to live in camps in the forest, and occasionally visit Baka settlements to dance and sing with the people. On these occasions, the spirits are embodied in anthropomorphic masks. During ritual events with dancing and be (singing), men depict the visiting spirits through dances that are sustained by a chorus of women. The Baka have a rich repertoire of lìkànɔ ̀ (tales) in which they set spirits into stage. It is mainly through dreams that the spirits communicate with the Baka and impart humans with knowledge about the forest and its resources.The livelihood means currently practised by the Baka in Gribe are hunting, gathering, fishing, shifting agriculture, material and labour exchanges with the Bantu, and extractivism through the harvesting for sale of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Amongst the Baka, agriculture has increased over recent decades. The Bantu of Gribe depend mainly on agriculture, whereas they also earnestly practise hunting and gathering for subsistence, and cacao cultivation and trading NTFPs for cash income (Hirai, 2014).There are many restrictions on forest use connected with the zoning policy implemented by the Government in the 1990s and wildlife management by the protected areas. The zoning policy divided the forest that had been used so far by local people into non-permanent forest and permanent forest. The former constitutes the agroforest zone, expanding approximately 3 km on both sides of the road that passes through the village. The latter includes concession areas for timber logging (logging zone) and protected areas. Farming is only authorised in the agroforest zone. Gathering and hunting for subsistence, and fishing are possible in the agroforest zone and logging zone. In the protected areas, hunting is totally banned, whereas NTFP collection is tolerated under the condition that it is specified in the protected area management plan (Tegomo Njounan, Defo and Usongo, 2013). Further regulations are imposed for hunting in terms of target species, captive numbers and methods.All Baka in Gribe are involved in hunting (Yasuoka et al., 2015). Hunting activities are roughly categorised into three types: maka, mumbato and sendo. The term maka refers to large-scale expeditions to track big animals such as red river hog and elephant (Table 1.1). These expeditions are carried out in groups of about 5 to 10 men who journey around the forest for more than a week. The mumbato type of hunting involves a group of two to three men for about one week. Oftentimes, these groups are based in forest camps from where they go to trap animals and collect NTFPs. The sendo type is day hunting, which is a shorter outing from a semi-residential settlement or a forest camp. In addition, the Baka use a special trap called mɛ ǹdàmbà to capture mice and rats and slingshots to shoot small birds around the farming camp. Whilst men are the primary actors capturing animals, women are also involved in hunting by checking traps set by men and guarding men's absent camps.More than 50 mammal species inhabit the forest around Gribe (Table 1.1). Amongst these species, the most captured are the blue duiker, red duikers and brush-tailed porcupine. The Bantu also delegate the Baka to hunt for their consumption. Some primate species are captured when the Bantu give the Baka a shotgun. Bushmeat to exchange with Bantu or merchants is usually smoked for storage. About half of the captured animals are traded and the other half are used for self-consumption.    Irvingia robur Mildbr., Irvingiaceae q q q q mobɔlu Irvingia tenuinucleata Tiegh., Irvingiaceae q ɓòkɔkɔ̀K lainedoxa gabonensis Pierre, Irvingiaceae q q q q bùndúlú Klainedoxa trillesii Pierre ex Tiegh., Irvingiaceae q q kanà Panda oleosa Pierre, Pandaceae q q q q kaso Plukenetia conophora, Müll.Arg., Euphorbiaceae q gɔbɔ̀R icinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel, Euphorbiaceae Njangsang q q Mushrooms mòsɛlɛlɛ̀T ermitomyces sp. R.Heim, Lyophillaceae q q dedele Unknown q q q q kútù Unknown q q 1 sámɔǹi Unknown q q bòtoto Unknown q q jokàbukà Unknown q q jókàlànù Unknown q q kòtomòlesèko Unknown q q màwɔluwɔĺù Unknown q q mòmbùjàmbùnjà Unknown q q dɛǹgbɛ̀Unknown q q sákùsa Unknown q q tókpolì Unknown q q túlúkàngò Unknown q q Elaeis guineensis Jacq., Arecaceae oil palm q q q q mbalaka (nut) Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth., FabaceaeHaumania danckelmaniana (J.Braun & K.Schum) Milne-Redh., Marantaceae q q q q 1 gbado (wood)Triplochiton scleroxylon K.Schum., Malvaceae ayous (commercial wood name) q q q q 1 Snails mbɛmbɛ Achatina fulica Férussac, Achatinidae giant African snail q q q 1 Starches (Tubers and Piths)Dioscorea burkilliana Miège, Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q q q ba Dioscorea mangenotiana J. Miège, Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q q q kuku Dioscorea minutiflora Engler, Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q q q sapà Dioscorea praehensilis Benth, Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q ʔèsùmà Dioscorea semperflorens Uline, Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q ɓalɔkɔ̀ Dioscorea smilacifolia De Wild. & T.Durand, Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q q q njàkàkà Dioscorea sp. L., Dioscoreaceae wild yam q q q q ngbí Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii (Stapf) Diels, Menispermaceae wild yam q q q q mbílà Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae oil palm q q q q 1 ʔèsíé Raphia hookeri G.Mann & H.Wendl., Arecaceae raffia palm q q q q 1 pèke Raphia monbuttorum Drude, Arecaceae raffia palm q q q q 1 Elaeis guineensis Jacq., Arecaceae oil plam q q q q lɔkɔlɔkɔ à pèke Raphia monbuttorum   Drude, Arecaceae raffia palm q q q q Vegetables kata Dewevrea bilabiata Micheli, Fabaceae q q q q kɔkɔ̀G netum africanum Welw., Gnetaceae eru q q q q 1 súmba Hilleria latifolia (Lam.) H.Walt., Phytolaccaceae q q q q dúndu Sloetiopsis usambarensis Engl., Moraceae q q q q pandɔ̀T abernaemontana sp. Plum. Ex L., Apocynaceae q q q q Fishing Amongst a vast range of fishing methods reported from the East region, the Baka most frequently practise ngúma (dam fishing), hand-gathering, njɛ ́ɛǹ jɛ ̀ (angling) and mátìndì (trapping). As the Baka of Gribe more often fish in small rivers, dam fishing is one of their favourites, during which they bank up fallen trees and soil vertically with the flow of the river. Two weirs are made at intervals of about 10 metres. After water accumulates, it is raked out with big leaves of specific Marantaceae species.As the water decreases, fish -especially carp (Cyprinidae) and catfish (Siluridae) -shrimps, crabs and tadpoles can be caught by hand. Dam fishing is regarded as women's work, and they usually do it collectively since it requires heavy work and collaboration. This practice is limited to the major and minor dry season when the water level decreases. Hand-gathering is also a woman's job. Women introduce a hand into a hole in the soft soil of the riverbank and catch small catfish and mbɔ sɛ ̀ (Gnathonemus sp., Mormyridae, elephant fish) hidden there. Angling is practised by men. Finally, night trapping is a way to catch a relatively large catfish, which is done by an adult male. Fish caught are predominantly destined to domestic consumption.All Baka in Gribe are involved in shifting cultivation with a medium-term fallowing period of more than 10 years, mixed cropping and low labour input. The clearing scale is small, about 0.1 ha per household per year. Main food crops are plantain, banana, cassava, cocoyam, sweet potato, maize, yam, taro, okra and chili pepper. Peanuts and cowpeas are grown more occasionally, when seeds areCropping field with a high agrobiodiversity.© Kyoto University/ Masaki Hirai available. Cocoa, the sole cash crop, is sometimes produced in small plantations, accounting for only about 5 percent of the total cultivated area. A limited amount of plantain is occasionally sold on request. Apart from the fields, plantain, banana, cocoyam and papaya are also planted around the farming camp. Food crops are integrally destined to domestic consumption, yet some plantain bunches produced in excess might punctually be sold. The Baka also cultivate tobacco, but production rarely meets their own heavy consumption.Thirty-three crops were recorded in total (Table 1.3). Of these, plantain, banana, cassava, cocoyam and okra are cultivated by almost all the households. Peanut is very popular as an oily condiment yet few households can procure seeds. Only a few fruit trees are planted around the settlement, whilst others, such as papaya, occur spontaneously. Crops with multiple varieties are plantain (28), banana (5), cassava (18), cocoyam (3), peanut (4) and maize (2).With 28 and 18 varieties, respectively, plantain and cassava count notably more varieties than other crops. Five varieties of plantain and three of cassava predominate. All of these varieties are recognized as local and ancient. All varieties are kept stable for several reasons. The first reason is Baka's perspective that \"there is no need to abandon the varieties left by parents.\" They do not intend to exclude existing varieties.The second reason is related to the cropping system. For establishing new plots, suckers of plantain and sticks of cassava are procured from existing plots. As a result, a similar variety composition is inherited in the new plots. The third reason is that the Baka look for particular characteristics of each variety. The originality of each variety stimulates the Baka, which brings joy in their cultivation. The fourth reason is that consumption of plantain and cassava should be shared amongst the whole community and that cultivars should circulate beyond the boundaries of individual ownership. Similarly to wild resources, sharing is also put forward as a principle for maintaining homogenous and collectively owned diversity in cultivars. Accordingly, taking crops from a field belonging to someone else is not assimilated to stealing, and only a few persons condemn it. The Baka assume that all of them equally cultivate all the varieties, even though that is unlikely to be true. The Baka are renowned for using an extensive range of nearly 500 wild or ruderal plant species for material and spiritual purposes, and which in many ways support the food system. This section evokes only the most commonly used ones. The Baka source some of their food through exchanges with their neighbours, or in local shops and a weekly market that was created in 2017. The shops are owned by a few local Bantu households, and mostly by merchants coming from the nearest Yokadouma city or farther away. Most of the food found in local shops is processed, whilst stalls in the weekly market mainly provide food from the forest and fields. Most frequently purchased foods are rice, spaghetti, cassava flour, maize, sardines in cans, dry fish, frozen fish, salt, chemical seasonings, refined oil, peanuts, alcoholic drinks, juice, sugar and candy. Purchasing frequency is high only for seasonings and alcoholic drinks. Salt and stock cubes are a regular feature of the diet. Whiskey in a sachet, at a price of XAF 100 per sachet, 1 is purchased almost every day. Nevertheless, the quantity of food bought in shops remains much lower than what they produce in their swiddens or gather in the forest. The Baka exchange their forest products and labour with the Bantu throughout the year for food, daily commodities and cash (Table 1.4) (Kitanishi, 2006). The most common example of barter between the Baka and the Bantu is kernels of pɛ ́kɛ (Irvingia gabonensis) in exchange for cassava flour. Payment from the Bantu for the kernels is equivalent to XAF 500 2 per 1.5 kg of dried kernel. In addition to food and labour exchanges, the Baka craft furniture and carriers and exchange them upon request with food or other items. Food sharing is common and is a natural norm amongst the Baka. If a certain household obtained food that cannot be eaten all at once, they do not store it and instead share it with others for immediate consumption. The Baka in Gribe classify a year into four seasons based on various changes in the environment and the occurrence of phenological events determining the availability of key resources and the related tasks and division of labour (Figure 1.2). Socio-economic circumstances occurring at the village like exchange opportunities or wage labour for the neighbours are also driving forces influencing the local calendar of activities.The onset of the major dry season is recognized by reduction of rainfall, hardening of the soil, falling of leaves of semi-deciduous species as well as the appearance of mòsɛlɛ ̀ or mòsɛlɛ lɛ ̀ (a specific mushroom), njùmbu (bird), and butterflies. One of the most important activities is land clearance for cropping. At the beginning of the season, people start cutting trees to make plots and drying them to burn. Food resources are scarcer at this time of year, and hard ground makes it more difficult to set up traps, thus lowering bushmeat catches. However, the availability of annual wild yams such as sapà (Dioscorea praehensilis) and ʔèsùmà (Dioscorea semperflorens) is highest and dam fishing becomes easier to implement due to lower water levels in the rivers. During mòlɔ ǹgɔ ̀ (past long-term expedition), which were regularly conducted until the 1980s, the Baka depended greatly on annual wild yams and fish. Nowadays, fishing camps do not last longer than one month during this period. Subsequently, incomes increase from wage labour with the Bantu who hire Baka for land clearance.The onset of the minor rainy season is marked by a gradual increase in rainfall and leaf flushing. In agriculture, this season corresponds to the time of planting suckers of plantain, banana, cocoyam, sweet potato, domesticated yams and sticks of cassava. They also seed egusi melon, maize, okra and peanut. Taking advantage of the low water levels in rivers, the Baka establish medium-term forest camps for fishing. Trapping and gathering Aframomum spp. with high cash value are also conducted at this time. During this season, which is marked by synchronic tree blooming, honey is also more abundant.The minor dry season is the period of mast flowering and fruiting of specific trees such as African padauk ngɛlɛ (Pterocarpus soyauxii Hooker, Fabaceae) and bɔ sɔ (Petersianthus macrocarpus P.Beauv. Liben, Lecythidaceae). Contrary to the major dry season, food becomes abundant. Despite the need to perform agricultural tasks, including weeding, redissemination, transplantation and harvesting groundnuts, most Baka prefer to move to the forest and dedicate this season to hunting, fishing and gathering of wild edibles. The kernels of pɛ ́kɛ (Irvingia gabonensis) are the major targets of their gathering efforts.A lùngu (strong wind), heavy rainfall, flooding and the occurrence of many tree seedlings, as well as rotten fruits, being washed away from the forest floor by the rain and river water are signs of the onset of the major rainy season. After October, women engage in weeding, transplanting plantain shoots and reseeding egusi melon. Time for harvesting cacao beans comes to those who have mature cacao plantations. Villagers rebuild their houses and consolidate lateritic walls that are softened by repeated rain. Baka trappers become very active now that wildlife is constantly moving in the forest understory. Aframomum spp. are still plentiful and some collectors extend their stay in the forest camp to collect Irvingia kernels, at the expense of the maintenance of their swiddens. Those who have decided to stay in the village start exploring the agroforest zone to collect Ricinodendron fruits and barter them with the Bantu.Gribe was founded in the 1890s when the six major clans of Konabembe moved to the area from different parts of the East region of Cameroon. Nearly half of the Baka of Gribe aged 50 and above state that their ancestors already lived in the area of Gribe before its foundation, whilst ancestors of the other half moved to Gribe from Messok -located about 150 km west of Gribe -and Mikel -located 35 km east -during the 1930s and 1940s. Subsequently, many Baka were living along the Kwokwo River (Figure 1.1 right).In 1954, an elementary school and church were constructed in Gribe, probably under the incentive of the French colonial Government (Kitanishi, 2003). Following the independency of Cameroon in 1960, timber logging suddenly expanded. In 1978, the national road connected Yaoundé and Yokadouma, attracting a flow of wage labourers from the western part of the Boumba-Ngoko department, including some villages around Gribe, to the eastern part of the department for logging. In the early 1980s, merchants from Yokadouma city started to visit Gribe by foot in search of cacao beans, ivory and seeds of nèà (Strophanthus gratus (Wall. & Hook.) Baill., Apocynaceae), which produce strophantin, an alkaloid with cardiotonic properties that has been coveted by chemistry.In times of molecular synthesis by the chemical industry, the market for Strophantus seeds has now vanished, but the Baka persist in harvesting them as a key ingredient of poison for mbànɔ (crossbow arrows). Regular merchants started retailing daily commodities, including salt, sugar and soap. Around 1985, the Baka of Dimgba and their ancestors engaged in small-scale farming. At the same time, the practice of long-term foraging began to drop.From 1997 to 2001, three timber logging companies started full-scale activities around Gribe. The road from Yokadouma city to Gribe was opened in 1997 to support these activities. In 1998, a ferry was installed to cross the Boumba River half-way between Yokadouma and Gribe.In 2001, the road was further extended beyond Gribe and ultimately reconnected with the road of the neighbouring Haut-Nyong department. These communication improvements abruptly eased the access to the district, increasing the flow of all sorts of outsiders, such as logging company workers, itinerant merchants and speculators. At the same time, the Baka started establishing semi-residential settlements in the near vicinity of Gribe.In the late 1990s, the Government put the zoning policy into effect for all lands in the East region.In Major sources of cash income come from (1) sales to merchants of NTFPs, crafts and, for aMerchant visiting Gribe village.© Kyoto University/ Masaki Hirai few households, cacao beans, and (2) daily wage labour for the Bantu to clear swiddens, transport harvested crops and maintain cacao plantations. Some men may occasionally be employed by logging companies or safari organisers, but opportunities are limited and cause social tension locally. The cash obtained serves to buy kitchen utensils, clothing, machetes, flashlights and batteries, wire cable for snares, lamps and petrol, alcoholic drinks, tobacco, food items (primarily salt, sugar and oil), manufactured medicine, and school furniture. Occasionally money may be shared with other community members in need of cash.As primary producers, the Baka poorly participate in and benefit from the value chains of the forest products. Most NTFPs collected by the Baka are exchanged with the Bantu. The Bantu then sell these products to local shop vendors who will resell them to regional vendors. Only cacao and a few wild edibles like Irvingia kernels, Aframomum pods and Ricinodendron nuts will enter national and international markets. Although transformed Irvingia kernels, into condiment paste, and Baillonella seeds, into oil, may generate more income, most products are basically sold either fresh or dried.The Baka unanimously feel that they get unfair prices for NTFPs in their exchanges with their neighbours or with outsiders. They are poorly skilled in negotiating directly with merchants and the prices they are offered are significantly lower compared to those obtained by the Bantu. It takes about three hours for the Baka to collect and process kernels of pɛ ́kɛ (Irvingia gabonensis), for which the Bantu will pay approximately XAF 500 3 per kg. When the Bantu sells them to merchants, they obtain a price ranging between roughly XAF 1 000 to XAF 2 000, 4 making their margin roughly from XAF 500 to XAF 1 500 5 with a considerably lower investment of labour compared to the Baka, who are the primary producers. These margins are lower at the beginning and peak of the fruiting season, from July to September. They reach three times the Baka's benefits when the season comes to an end in October. In the minor dry season, many Bantu visit the Baka's forest camps to exchange kernels for food supplies, alcoholic drinks, and daily commodities such as clothes, radio, music player, flashlight, battery, tobacco and so on. Although they rarely feel like this exchange is equitable, many Baka succumb to the attractiveness of these goods. Merchants from the cities sometimes offer higher prices than the local merchants but they are often discouraged by poor road conditions that globally affect connectivity to market. Furthermore, the Baka fail to coordinate any form of collective action that would leverage their access to the market economy, although they fully admit the advantage they would gain in structuring their efforts. Such incapacity is chronic amongst egalitarian hunter-gatherer societies, which hinders any leadership initiative needed to change the associative dynamics. This intrinsic obstacle makes it difficult for the Baka to organise as an association for marketing. Collective or group sales are seldom or never done amongst the Baka, although they are aware of the potential contribution that it could have for raising the prices they obtain.When asked about income sourced from agriculture and from the wild, opinion amongst the Baka are mitigated. Whereas it is difficult to purchase all they hope, the Baka consider that their earnings are sufficient to ensure their food supply, but far from enough to cover school and medical expenses.For the Baka in Gribe, a pani a djô (typical meal) is a combination of a staple and mòsùkà (a sauce). The staples are plantain, cassava, cocoyam, sweet potato, maize and wild yams, whilst rice and spaghetti may be purchased occasionally. The sauce is usually composed of bushmeat, fish, caterpillars, snails, termites, a leafy vegetable or mushrooms, which may be mixed. Depending on availability, the sauce may include oil or a fatty condiment and be seasoned with salt, chemical seasoning, chili pepper, tomato paste, and the bark and fruit of ngìmbà (Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) tree, which has a garlic flavour and is renowned for its deworming properties.In consuming two to three such meals per day, the Baka tend to maintain a diversified diet.Starches are typically eaten several times a day. Meat or fish are eaten several days per week and nearly every day during the minor dry season. Leafy vegetables and other vegetal foods are eaten several times per week. Fruits and nuts are eaten several times per week, whilst wild eggs from reptiles and birds, insects, pulses, and honey are consumed at reasonably high frequency during the minor dry season, yet more rarely in other seasons. A few Vitamin-A-rich fruits such as mango, guava and papaya are occasionally found in home gardens, and chili pepper is moderately consumed. Milk is totally absent from the Baka diet.Food scarcity occurs occasionally. Around 40 percent of the male participants felt that food supply was not totally adequate over the past year. Both men and women recounted not having enough food in the household and having felt hungry. All reported having gone to sleep without eating at least once. Apart from general hunger caused by lack of pòte (food), the Baka also express by the word pɛnɛ a form of acute hunger felt when the consumption of bushmeat is insufficient. These forms of hunger both occur primarily in the major dry season, when encounters with mammals are rare and hunting conditions are less favourable. In this season, the availability of many major wild edibles and crops also declines (Table 1.2).The Baka evoke a few ways to cope with food insecurity. One of these is \"sleeping without eating.\" When food is temporarily scarce, the Baka may accept the situation with philosophy and will not let the obsession of finding food take over control of their actions. This apparent passivity is backed by the Baka's trust in the forest: \"food is always available somewhere\". \"Sleeping without eating\" is strongly associated with a conviction that they belong to the forest. It mitigates the stress originated from punctual hunger, and the feeling of insecurity is compensanted by the acceptance that \"we sleep hungry tonight but we will eat tomorrow\". Going to bed with an empty stomach occurs more frequently during the minor dry season, when they eat animal skins and intestines discarded around camp to get through that time.Frequent movement between the forest and the village and the flexibility to shift between foraging and farming activities also greatly sustain Baka's food security. Throughout the year, the Baka undertake food generation and production activities both in the village and the forest (Figure 1.2). During the minor dry season, which is dedicated to gathering Irvingia kernels in forest camps, regular trips are carried out back to the village for groundnut harvests. Kernel production from Irvingia species fluctuates strongly from year to year. In years of poor production, the majority of the Baka will remain in the village and more will engage in farming and wage labour by weeding the cacao plantations of the Bantu, whilst the few who entered the forest will focus on hunting and gathering Aframomum fruits. During the major rainy season, some will continue these activities in the forest, whilst others will opt to stay in the village and participate in cacao harvests for their neighbours. From the major dry season to the minor rainy season, the majority of the Baka of Gribe are engaged in slashing and burning new swiddens for the Bantu or for their own use, whereas others will prefer long stays in the forest for fishing, hunting and gathering.Although the major dry season is known to offer less diversity in food resources, the availability of annual wild yams and non-seasonal fruits is worth enough for a stay in the forest. Fish is an abundant resource during this major dry season and intervenes as a valuable safety net (Dounias and Oishi, 2016), although bushmeat remains the preferred food.Storing, which is a common way to secure access to food, is not meaningful amongst hunter-gatherers as it would drastically impede their mobility. In immediate-return societies, which are known to process and consume food immediately after procurement, sharing becomes fundamental and is an efficient response to food insecurity. The Baka praise sharing as a prominent feature of their cultural identity, be it for food or non-food resources. When it comes to food, sharing occurs twice: a first round of sharing occurs for the food items before being processed, and a second round intervenes once the food is cooked and ready for consumption.Sharing is in full coherence with the egalitarian political system of the Baka, in which no distinction should be tolerated between those who have and those who have not.Exchanges with the Bantu and NTFPs sales contribute to moderating food shortage. In case of low food procurement from the wild or from farming activities, income-generating activities provide access to foods sold by merchants and small shop retailers, and afford punctual opportunity to enjoy the exotic taste of rice, noodles and manufactured snacks. Baka women lament, however, that the entirety of the money they earn is spent on food and basic necessities, leaving them with no possibility to buy less necessary little extras.The Baka may occasionally borrow money from their neighbours but contracting such a loan has its drawback. Obligation to work for the Bantu to reimburse the loan may in turn restrict the indebted Baka from entering the forest or cultivating his own swidden, and consequently contribute to experiences of food insecurity.Confined access to the forest is a factor seriously compromising the food security of the Baka of Gribe. Restrictions to penetrate the logging zone, the national parks and the portions of forest conceded to sport-hunting entrepreneurs generates tensions as they drastically reduce access to the forest resources, which are of prior importance, especially during the major dry season (Sayer et al., 2017).Diets and incomes of the Baka have changed over the past three decades. The Baka have increased their consumption of crops, whilst reliance on forest foods has declined due to reduced access to the forest and an abrupt increase in market demand for forest products that drives the Baka to sell rather than keep them for their own consumption.Amongst the various forest foods, wild yams providing annual tubers such as sapà (Dioscorea praehensilis) and ʔèsùmà (Dioscoera semperflorens) used to constitute the major source of staples during the major dry season. Nowadays, reduced access to the distant forest hinders long-term expeditions and consequently lowered the contribution of wild yam tubers to the diet. With declining access to the forest, the Baka increasingly rely on labour exchange with the Bantu to obtain food in the major dry season. The highly nutritious edible caterpillars of bòyo (Imbrasia species), one of the Baka's favourites, have also become rare, a consequence of the over-logging of the host tree Entandrophragma cylindricum (Sprague) Sprague, Meliaceae (also called bòyo).The need for cash income in the community has increased considerably, along with the facilitated arrival of merchants as the result of improved road infrastructures in the late 1990s.Since the road and ferry to cross Boumba River were opened in 1997 and 1998, merchants began selling a variety of daily commodities and foods. The rise of the cacao market in the early 2000s drastically increased the cash income of the Bantu in Gribe, which permitted them to purchase new items such as bikes and new homes. Influenced by this new longing for introduced commodities, the Baka started increasing their cash incomes through intensified wage labour with the Bantu and sales of NTFPs.Although reliance on the forest decreased in favour of agriculture and purchased food, the Baka do not consider that their self-sufficiency has been affected that much, arguing that their reliance on the market economy remains minimal. Nevertheless, the prominence of starches in their diet and declining consumption of forest foods reveals their increased investment in farming at the expense of forest explorations. This shift in their diet may be a factor contributing to trends. The Baka estimate that they are more likely than in the past to fall sick and blame their change in diet, evoking for instance their increased consumption of manufactured snacks, rich in additives like monosodium glutamate.In general, the soil quality is considered good, although there is some heterogeneity. The Baka recognize two main types of soil in their landscape: sandy soils known as muséké, and red soils known as ngàò. In practice, the Baka recognize soil quality based on observation of crop growth. Although rare, gray soils are considered better for cultivation. Soils are judged better in forests called manjà, characterized by low presence of bushes or thicket in the understory, like in very old fallows or mature forests. Places where the tree species gbado (Triplochiton scleroxylon) grows are considered good for cultivating, since this species prefer fertile, well-drained ferruginous soils. By contrast, the Baka avoid farming in areas with the tree species mɛ ǹdì (Sclerocroton cornutus (Pax) Kruijt & Roebers, Euphorbiaceae) because its toxic litter inhibits the growth of other plants, including crops. When signs of crop withering are observed in the first year after planting, the Baka will abandon the swidden and seek another place.As a principle for shifting cultivation, an ecosystem's sustained fertility requires shortterm cropping alternating with long-term forest fallow. Cassava, peanut, okra and plantain, for instance, are mixed cropped. In the first year, peanut, okra and cassava are harvested, and in the second and third year, plantain and banana are harvested. After the third year, the field is set aside to allow fertility restoration by postagricultural forest regrowth.The food system of the Baka of Gribe is exclusively based on locally sourced renewable energy, mainly firewood and human labour.Firewood is used for cooking, processing and heating, and its availability is sufficient. In their semi-residential settlements, the Baka gather logs driven from clearing fields for crops, whereas in the forest, branches are collected from the forest floor.Farming is the most demanding activity in human labour. Yet, the Baka invest much less labour input into farming than their Bantu neighbours.The plots are left nearly derelict when they leave their residential settlements to join their seasonal forest camps. A male participant explained that \"plantain bunches are mature when returning from the forest,\" showing how the Baka approach agriculture in a similar fashion to wild edible gathering; they prefer to feed on ripened fruits rather than invest too much time and effort in increasing and stabilizing crop yields. The Baka follow an approach of \"less managed is management\" in their agriculture, wherein the yield per area -land productivity -is generally low, but the yield per labour -labour productivity -becomes high. This low management agriculture with minimal weeding allows the concomitant growth of numerous spontaneous wild edible plants such as Gnetum, wild yams, oil palm trees, Aframomum shoots and mushrooms, which purposely contribute to diet and income. For their cacao production, the Baka selectively decide whether to carry out maintenance according to the market and the amount of labour available at the time. Regardless of maintenance, cacao seedlings usually do not die. Biya biya or soya (mutual aid), a common seasonal practice to mitigate drudgery amongst the Bantu cacao growers, is less frequent amongst the Baka, who only have a few cacao growers and possess much smaller plantations.Some fuel and batteries are used for lighting, such as kerosene lamps and flashlights. Locally sourced resins extracted from pàkà (Guibourtia demeusei L., Fabaceae), sɛnɛ (Canarium schweinfurthii Engl., Burseraceae), mòndùmbà (Copaifera mildbraedii Harms, Caesalpiniaceae) and ngámbè (Pentadesma butyracea Sabine, Clusiaceae) are also burned as a light source. Paka na bàle (old and hard bee wax) is also valued for the same purpose. The Baka occasionally use motorbikes owned by the Bantu as a means to visit distant relatives. Such punctual and minimal use of non-renewable and external energy sources is seldom linked to foodsystem-related activities.Water is plentifully available at any time of the year. Drinking water is sourced from the many rivers in the area that are always found within a few hundred metres of the Baka's use areas.Clear water is also available from some springs. River water and rainwater are used for washing clothes and dishes, which, along with cooking, are the greatest water demands. Swidden fields, plantations and home gardens are totally rainfed.Women and young girls are responsible for water collection, which requires approximately one hour per trip, two to three times per day. No specific practices of water capture and storage are used. In order to maintain clean ponds, Baka women regularly remove accumulated vegetal debris. Standing in the water source is considered bad manner.The main waste products are residues of crop and forest products and plastic packages. Organic wastes are abandoned around the camp. Amongst the wastes, animal hides are sometimes used for making drums or vineframed backpacks. Non-biodegradable wastes include spaghetti packages, plastic whiskey sachets, empty cans, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, and batteries. Most of these are burned or abandoned, whereas some are reused and repurposed into tools, which reduces drudgery and time investments. For instance, empty sardine cans are transformed into graters for grinding hard cakes made from Irvingia kernels. Sardine cans are also used to make toy cars for children. Occasionally, vinyl sachets are used to produce small baskets by weaving different colours together with plant material. Plastic whiskey sachets and rubber slippers are sometimes used as material for ignition when newly lighting a bonfire. Polyethylene terephthalate bottles from juices are reused as water flasks and bottles for decoction. Overall, the generation of non-biodegradable waste in the food system has increased as the market has brought in many products with metal and plastic packaging.The tools used by the Baka for daily life have not changed greatly over time. Nonetheless, the introduction of some new tools has contributed to changes in fuel and labour inputs into foodsystem-related activities. Introduction of batterypowered flashlights and kerosene lamps have increased the dependency on external fuel energy.Although the Baka rarely use vehicles, increasing trade with visiting merchants is indirectly associated with a greater use of fossil fuels. The adoption in the 1970s of wire cables for trapping, which replaced vegetal ropes, has made animal capture much more efficient. Yet, in contrast with professional hunters and poachers, the Baka have taken advantage of this novelty to reduce time and effort in trapping without modifying the average number of traps that they usually set. Nonetheless, hunting efficiency -labour or time per catch -has decreased compared to before because the animal populations are negatively impacted by the proliferation throughout the region of non-Baka trappers and firearm hunters, to satisfy the booming bushmeat demand in cities.Protecting and conserving the forest are notions that are not conceptualized as such by the Baka and thus are not translated into measurable control and regulation practices. Declines in resource availability and difficulty procuring food are recognized as \"a state in which the forest is closed by a forest spirit called jengi\".Nevertheless, Baka's resource use embeds a corpus of social and cultural mechanisms contributing indirectly to forest conservation and to the enhancement of natural resource availability and livelihood quality.Food taboos are a good illustration of existing socio-cultural regulations. Many foods should not be eaten, depending on individual, gender, social status and clan affiliation. For instance, whilst processing extraction of oil from màɓè seeds, women avoid eating any bushmeat. When conducting dam fishing, women will not eat red river hog, monkey or honey, as a means to prevent misfortune in catching large fish.When the forest spirit called kòse gets angry, men will interrupt hunting and share with the spirit tubers of ba (Dioscorea mangenotiana, wild yam), along with honey and cooked cassava flour, to calm it down. Having dozens of food prohibitions of this type is not meant primarily to sustain conservation goals. Rather, what is at stake is to gather food resources successfully and to ensure a healthy livelihood. This requires maintaining a balanced relationship with the supra-natural forces, which are the custodians of natural resources. Moderation dictates the humble attitude of the Baka vis-à-vis forest resources. Food proscriptions participate in this moderation and, incidentally, contribute to mitigating excessive exploitation of resources.Between different residential groups tied by limited kinship, not entering an area already occupied by another group is somewhat implicit. Trails and ranges for gathering food resources tend to be formally differentiated.When the ranges used by different groups overlap, slight litigations may arise, particularly in the logging zone where the Baka collect forest resources more intensively. Although kinship is so conceived that it provides a broad range of shared exploitable forest between and within residential groups, access is not totally open and can become an acute concern. In the wake of extended familial and matrimonial ties, it is usual practice amongst the Baka to join other groups that occupy areas with higher resource availability. Gently differentiated access to the forest can defuse tensions and competition over resources, whilst preserving margins for permissiveness and tolerance in accessing resources and ensuring good citizenship between residential groups.Forest uses by the Baka do not hinder natural regeneration dynamics and may even contribute to an increase in the availability of useful plants.Many wild yam tubers, fruits and nuts are collected over a wide range of the forest patches and brought to the campsites where some are cast out in a specific place to deposit as waste. Such circulation of plant material driven by the Baka's seasonal mobility has likely contributed to regeneration of useful plants and expansion of their dispersal range. Small-scale disturbance of vegetation through honey gathering and forest camp building likewise facilitates regeneration and dispersal of light-demanding useful plants and incidentally creates favourable niches for wildlife.The non-random distribution of these plants along regularly used forest trails and in old residential settlements suggests that over generations, the Baka have extensively co-influenced, along with natural ecosystem engineers, the mosaic assemblage of forest patches.In the 1990s, along with the opening of the road, the Baka started full-scaled agriculture. At that time, the crops that they adopted had already been cultivated by the Bantu of Gribe for a long time. Since then, the Baka have introduced additional varieties on their own: five for plantain, as well as five for cassava. In addition, two plantain varieties and three cassava varieties were brought around the year 2000 by a local non-governmental organization (NGO).Since the 1990s, bushmeat hunting has intensified. With the opening of the logging road, many merchants have come to visit the village in search of forest products. Demand from urban dwellers is high and supply is not sustainable.Merchants began selling more robust wire cables and guns to the Bantu to hunt more animals. The Bantu deliver those tools to the Baka and ask for intensive hunting in exchange for money, food and daily commodities. Animal populations seem to have declined in the early 2000s. This concern, known as the bushmeat crisis, has led to the empty forest syndrome. Nevertheless, many Baka state that \"animals are not decreasing, rather, deep in the forest, there are still many\". For those who believe in this statement, animals temporarily move away to distant areas in response to increased trapping, but they eventually return. It is well confirmed by many Baka that the number of catches is high during the first week of trapping and decreases subsequently. Therefore, as soon as the Baka perceive a decrease in game captures, they tend to remove their traps. By restraining their trapping activities, the Baka may facilitate the populations of some mammal species, for instance the mostly preyed blue duiker, to recover.The intensity of NTFP gathering of Irvingia kernels and Aframomum fruits with cash value has clearly increased in response to exploding demand. However, in contrast to animal population dynamics, regeneration of NTFPs is facilitated or even expanded by human activities, and may not be negatively impacted by increasing demand.Since the 1990s, the Baka recognized that bier a toto (new fields) and wùndɔ (young fallow) areas increased in the agroforest zone, whilst bele (mature forest) regressed at the same time. Fields in production cover less than 3 percent of the total area of the agroforest zone and, during forest clearing to create a new swidden field, 30 percent of the trees are maintained uncut.With the extension of swiddening, the agroforest zone is constantly enriched in NTFPs, especiallyGnetum and Piper vines, Aframomum shrubs, and Ricinodendron trees. Long fallowing rotations and a scattered distribution of swiddens within the agroforest zone contribute to create forest micro-patches at different stages of regeneration. This forest mosaic is favourable to many small mammals, which tolerate proximity with humans, such as rodents, blue duikers and Bates dwarf antelopes. They remain abundant in the zone and constitute a reliable source of meat. Although the Baka do not have explicit conservation practices, their poorly intrusive agricultural system participates in maintaining a rich biological diversity within the agroforest zone.By contrast, in the logging zone, the Baka deplore the decline of resources obtained from logged trees, like the oil obtained from màɓè (Baillonella toxisperma) seeds or the popular bòyo (Imbrasia oyemensis, caterpillar) that feeds exclusively on Entandrophragma cylindricum leaves. Many sites suitable for establishing forest camps have been destroyed. It has generated serious litigation amongst various residential groups of Baka, which have lost their home range.The Baka and Bantu in Gribe have no structured endogenous institution related to forest management, nor do they have explicit rules aimed at restricting access to and use of their resources. Their extensive exploitation of forest resources has shaped a loose \"local commons\" principle characterized by mutual resource property and social interactions, leading to a consensual management. Through establishing fields, anyone can use a vacant place. Once occupied by someone, the land may be perceived as owned by that person, but in reality, property is not defined by a specific ownership system and erodes with time, after being retroceded to clan and lineage broader levels, especially if effective use of the land is dropped. This trend is more applicable for the forest camps. The preferable campsite for the Baka is a flat place located near a relatively large river where many useful plants grow. Such places are not that numerous in the landscape. Therefore, once such a spot is found, they claim their occupancy by planting some items such as oil palm. In the absence of the owner, anyone may temporarily occupy the site. Nevertheless, this tolerance is fading, especially with Baka from another village. For example, when one of the participants went trapping in a village located 50 km south of Gribe, he was threatened by a local Baka, \"I will notify the ranger that there are poachers.\" The \"local commons\" principle seems increasingly fragile and loses its ability to prevent resource depletion in a context of increased market economy and zonation of forest accessibility by local people.As many red-listed animal species inhabit the forest surrounding Gribe, several forest management and livelihood improvement projects have been conducted since the 1990s.Most of these projects were implemented topdown, even though some adopted a communitybased approach. Alternate activities to hunting were promoted as a means to reduce the threats on the most endangered species. There were improved agriculture, livestock raising, NTFPs promotion and so on, as well as the creation of community institutions. They were aiming to foster a sustainable use of fauna through licensed hunting -managed by COVAREF -and legalized logging -managed by \"Forêt Communautaire\" -with profits to be shared with the villagers. In many cases, the proposed initiatives do not meet people's aspirations and are eventually poorly accepted, notably by the Baka, who are chronically marginalized and not included in any decision-making processes.Forest governance in Cameroon has experienced tremendous changes since the 1990s. In 1989, the Government decided to stimulate timber exports with the support of the World Bank, in an attempt to recover from the economic crisis of the 1980s. In 1994, the CFA Franc (XAF) currency was devaluated by half, benefiting foreign logging companies, which intensified timber exports. Induced acceleration of deforestation led major international NGOs for nature conservation to intervene in the East region, including the area around Gribe. In 1994, prohibitions and regulations regarding hunting activities entered the Forest Code (Law n° 94-01 of 20 January 1994), with specific statements on protected species, bushmeat trade, hunting seasons and equipment, and so on. In 1998, the Jengi Project was launched by the Government in collaboration with international NGOs with the aim of establishing new protected areas and fixing sustainable forest management processes in their periphery. Small-holder farming, livestock keeping and anti-poaching measures were strengthened. Despite claiming participatory forest management, the projects remained fundamentally top-down in process, and were based on land segregation designing that discouraged forest dwellers from entering the forest, thus obliterating the adhesion of local communities to the proposed forest management plans. In 2003, the Government eventually adopted a drastic logging plan to mitigate timber exports. In 2005, the Boumba-Bek and Nki National Parks were created, southwest of Gribe.The daily life of the Baka of Gribe was severely impaired by these external drivers of change.Activities to protect the primary forest were put in place whilst logging continued, which ended with severe restrictions of access to the forest for all local communities. Establishment of protected areas and anti-poaching measures reduced their average home range by approximately 80 percent. Exclusive concessions delivered to sporthunting enterprises also contributed to lessen people's access to their forest. Despite laudable efforts of organizations to try and conciliate the diverging interests, conflicts are inclined to expand. Many challenges remain to achieve compatibility between conservation goals and the livelihoods of local peoples who are being caught between forest-intensified and non-sustainable exploitation, and more acute conservationist sanctions.A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below.The major disturbances affecting the Baka consist of climatic shocks such as heavy rain, strong winds and prolongation of the major dry season.Other sources of disturbances are wild animals that cause damage to their crops, along with some insect pests and weeds. These shocks are relatively rare.Despite higher interference of the market economy, the Baka still stay autonomous as they source most food from the local food system, and the Baka and Bantu are strongly interdependent through frequent exchange of products and labour. Even with the exchange not always being profitable for the Baka, the Bantu are seen to play an important role in buffering the Baka against the negative impacts of the market economy, as their collaboration has increased. However, augmented monetization has also created more confrontation with the Bantu.Gribe has about 10 local stores but they are of only minor importance to the Baka for food procurement.The road to Gribe is poorly constructed, impeding merchants from visiting, as well as increasing the prices of goods from those who do travel to the village. However, for the Bantu, the connectedness to markets and access to commercialized foods has increased largely since the 1990s. Further, the arrival of mobile phones in 2018 greatly enhanced their ability to gather timely information on NTFPs and demand in urban areas, enabling more efficient profit maximation. However, the Baka have not benefited from this information network as much as the Bantu. The village has seen technical agricultural guidance from NGOs, yet it has never continued long term.The social frame is organised through a shared set of norms based on respect of every individual's autonomy and extensive sharing of goods and services.The ad-hoc groups organised to perform ritual ceremonies and for labour purposes are intended to share entertainment and mitigate drudgery, thereby strengthening social ties. The Baka are reluctant to participate in systematic initiatives by external organizations, as they are greatly excluded from decisionmaking processes in the wider community and landscape. In light of recent economic commercialisation, the Baka still value the wellbeing of the entire group with close kinship more than pursuing personal property.The Baka maintain flexibility in their resource management, and base it on changes in forest resource availability, the conditions of their crops and opportunity for exchanging with the Bantu. This contributes to strengthening and stabilizing their food system and risk management and reflects a process of learning and adaptation over time. They emphasize that all community members are free and encouraged to enhance collective happiness and food security through sharing and thereby acquiring knowledge for livelihood maintenance. Their relationships with the Bantu and other communities contribute greatly to introduction of new knowledge.The Baka greatly value and maintain their ancestral practices based on traditional knowledge, beliefs and interactions with the environment. The growing market for NTFPs and bushmeat is seen by community members as a way to strengthen the relationship between Baka and the forest, and to contribute to the reproduction and further development of their knowledge. Yet, written documentation of their traditional knowledge does not exist. The recent increase in contact with the Bantu and merchants through exchange and trade has made the Baka realize to a greater extent that they are exposed to marginalization, such as the inability to join information networks, unfair exchange rates, and lack of participation in decision-making.This has led the Baka to further strengthen their common identity. This phenomenon is pointed out in revisionism, arguing that huntergatherer societies are formed as a result of marginalization within the power structure of the macro system.The Baka build and strengthen human capital by transmission and uptake of knowledge through observation of and participation in their livelihood activities.Knowledge is transferred horizontally as well as from older generations to youth by observation, active participation and word of mouth. Yet, lack of infrastructure, health and education institutions pose challenges for community members.The Baka have livelihoods that demand almost no external inputs, other than fuel for transportation of NTFPs and cacao beans.Their major energy sources for the food system, human labour and firewood are locally sourced and sufficiently supplied. Water is abundantly available. Soil quality is generally adequate due to a long fallow system, although some Baka recognized the quality to be inadequate for plantains. The major waste products are biodegradable from crop and forest products.The major changes seen since the 1990s are a result of their increased use of processed foods and, subsequently, non-biodegradable wastes.The Baka's activities for forest management allow for spontaneous growth and ecological selfregulation, with little or no degradation of the environment. Some of their activities, relating to gathering honey and wild plants, ensure dispersal of useful fruit trees. Their philosophy behind resource management is not connected to the notion of sustainability, but rather \"how to successfully collect food resources and promote health\". Despite the sustainability of the Baka's practices, recent increases in bushmeat trade, commercial logging and conservation policies have not only caused a large disturbance to the ecological processes in the community but have also somewhat segregated the Baka's livelihoods from the forest.The Baka source foods from 12 food groups (seven from their fields, eight from the forest), providing substantial diversity in their diets. Further, their forest resources can also be used for other purposes, such as building materials, furniture, cooking utensils, igniters, carriers, ropes, lighting, cosmetics and medicines. Agricultural and forest resource diversity has not changed in a major way over time. In the 1990s, some species were given cash value by the external economy and the profits from these contributes to the household economy considerably.Because of the crop and species diversity, the food system has redundancy for some food groups. Having more varieties with different characteristics is perceived as a source of joy. Several food groups are also available through exchange with the Bantu and purchase in local stores, further increasing the diversity of available foods. The redundancy of forest resources has remained high over time; however, it has decreased with external interventions such as commercial logging. One exception is the increase of plants demanding substantial amounts of sunlight.The forest used by the Baka has areas with different types of vegetation, swampy areas and natural clearings. In the agroforest zone, a mosaic distribution of vegetation in different stages has been generated through the fallow system. Tree diversity in the agroforest zone is significantly higher than that of the logging zone.13. Reasonably profitable. The Baka earn an income from which they can live on through NTFP sales, wage labour with the Bantu, and small-scale cacao cultivation in a few households. The cash income amount is still small, yet since they are nearly self-sufficient in food provision, only minimal supplies are necessary. The Baka are not driven to put significant effort into increasing their revenues. Their interest in cash use is oriented toward continuously fulfilling their daily needs, as well as satisfying instant personal or collective interests.Over time, the Baka had managed to maintain a resilient and self-sufficient livelihood based on forest resources, including wild edible plants, animals, NTFPs, fish and swiddens. The outputs of forest sourcing, namely hunting, gathering, fishing and agriculture, rely on approximately 60 animal species, more than 83 wild edible species, at least 6 common species of fish and freshwater animals, and 32 crop species that compose 12 categories of food items (Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3). Moreover, forests provide various plant and animal resources for material and spiritual purposes, including building materials, cooking utensils, tools for hunting and gathering, firewood, medicines, ornaments and cosmetics. Sunlight, rain, stream water and firewood are plentifully available sources of energy and material and are obtained by a labour force that is generally mobilized collectively. For transportation, no fuel is used. Material inputs including tools, seeds and clones for farming, and instruments for foraging activities, are almost exclusively procured locally. Pesticides are rarely used. Intellectual inputs are sustained by an achieved traditional ecological knowledge and know-how.Food sharing is a fundamental part of Baka's culture. A portion of the food they produce or collect from the wild is used to barter with the Bantu, in exchange for food, daily commodities and cash. The Baka regularly work for their neighbours, mainly in farming activities. They occasionally sell NTFPs and cacao beans to merchants for which they are paid cash or with manufactured goods and processed foods. Wastes are generated from every process. Whereas wastes from forest sourcing circulate within the system, non-biodegradable wastes via exchanges and trade tend to accumulate.The Baka consume a diversity of foods with different nutritional properties, including starches, meat, fish, dark green leafy vegetables, other vegetables, fruits, nuts, wild eggs, insects, pulses and honey. Most Baka experience food shortages over short time spans, lasting one to two days, in any season and resign themselves to go to sleep without eating. When facing food shortages during their stay in the forest, they prefer to spare their energy and to give up searching for food, summarizing their philosophy by the expression \"In days when food is lacking, persisting searching is a waste of time.\" The seasonal mobility of the Baka also supports their food security. Through alternating stays in the forest and in the village, they enhance the follow-up of resource availability in both sites, as well as opportunities for working with the Bantu and trading with merchants. Food sharing functions as a mechanism to socially mitigate food shortages. Agriculture and exchanges with the Bantu have become increasingly important for food procurement.In the 1990s, the Baka practised long-term expeditions during the major dry season to collect wild yams. In today's context of reduced access to the forest, this practice has been replaced by labour exchanges, as well as shortterm stays in the near forest for fishing and NTFP gathering.Major cash income sources are NTFP selling and wage labour for the Bantu and, more occasionally, temporary jobs in sport hunting and logging companies. The Baka have poor negotiation skills and their consensual feeling is that they do not obtain fair payments for their products and workforce. Although they obtain low incomes, it is liveable since they are nearly self-sufficient in food provision and only minimal supplies are necessary to procure. Yet, incomes are insufficient to cover schooling and medical care when needed. Besides not having enough income, saving money is not in their habits.The onset of full-scaled agriculture in the 1990s has been a major cause of increase in human energy inputs into the food system, along with intensified harvesting of NTFPs to satisfy a market demand that has become higher after the opening up of the district. According to the Baka, though, wage labour remains the most profitable means for cash income. Wire cables for trapping that arose in the 1970s at first notably reduced labour and time spent hunting. However, animal populations and related hunting efficiency dropped as a consequence of an exploding number of non-Baka hunters and firearms, in response to bushmeat demand from cities.The Baka cultivate a reasonable diversity of cultigens and cultivars, particularly for plantain (28 varieties) and cassava (18 varieties). The younger Baka farmers like to test new varieties without renouncing those that were transmitted by their parents, and this diversity circulates through sharing within the community. The diversity of foods produced in their swiddens includes many spontaneous and ruderal edible plants, which contribute to diversifying the diet.Respecting the sequence of short-term mixed cropping followed by long-term forest fallowing allows the maintenance of the farming system's overall fertility and contributes to the assemblage of a mosaic ecosystem that is home to a rich faunal and floral biodiversity.Although not conservationists in the Western sense, the Baka way of living entails modalities for successfully and sustainably collecting food resources from the wild. Customary rules of distinctive access to forest areas by different residential groups, and respect for food prohibitions are salient expressions of their traditional ways to regulate resource extraction.Unfortunately, increasing market demands for NTFPs and bushmeat undermine the efficiency of these cultural regulations, although many Baka inhabitants of Gribe estimate that local biodiversity is not critically depleted, and that fauna still has the capacity to recover from excessive hunting.Whereas a broad area of forest is required for ensuring an extensive food sourcing that respects the spatial and temporal distribution of resources, access to the forest by the inhabitants of Gribe is increasingly confined. The \"permanent forest\", property of the State, which now allocates forest usufruct and management tasks to private-owned companies, is no longer freely accessible by the Baka. Conflicts are now chronic amongst the different stakeholders and participation of the Baka in tentative negotiations is weak. Identifying ways to enable Baka to participate in the decision-making process is of utmost concern.Reflecting on the trends in their food system over time, the Baka participants in the study were encouraged to formulate tentative predictions for the next 20 years. According to them, they do not expect their livelihoods to drastically deviate from ongoing changes. They envision their swiddens to become bigger and their dietary regime to depend less on the forest as they more massively rely on food crops. They do not expect yields to become higher as they notice a constant decrease in the mature post-agricultural regenerated forest, a sign that fallowing periods are shortened.Women anticipate that their children will no longer forage in the forest as their parents did in the past. Knowledge related to hunting and gathering will no longer be transmitted, and women fear that the loss of knowledge regarding using forest plants as medicines will undermine the health of the community.When questioned about their likes and aspirations for the future, the children provide an intermediate answer that reflects their entanglement with a changing environment. They still praise forest-sourced foods and cite bushmeat, wild fruits, wild yams and fish amongst their favourites. But foods obtained from farming have become standard components of their diets so they enjoy eating cassava flour, plantain, banana and peanut sauce; they also enjoy eating rice and tuna in cans bought in the market and they crave snacks sold by itinerant merchants. A majority of young children accompany their parents for gathering wild edible plants (yams, fruits, Gnetum leaves) and working in the fields.Only half of them attend hunting and fishing expeditions. They additionally procure water and wood, and help process food (cassava cutting and pounding, Gnetum leaves slicing).Beyond similarly assisting their parents, older children carry out gathering, fishing, trapping and gbasà (small-scaled hunting) without their parents. They share obtained food with members of their residential group and occasionally sell NTFPs to the Bantu. They also learn how to prepare bushmeat and to gather stingless bee honey. All the children expressed a desire to stay and raise a family in the locality and perform well in their livelihoods, to be split between the forest and the village. But whilst some aspire to be hunters and make their own fields for cacao, others dream of becoming a motorbike taxi man, teacher or salaried worker in the logging company.Over the past three decades, the environment surrounding the Baka has changed tremendously. Nevertheless, the Baka of Gribe have maintained a predominantly forest-based lifestyle, attempting through various ingenuities to adapt to the changes; these included greater investment in shifting cultivation, greater contribution to the market economy through NTFPs and reinforced wage labour for their neighbours, and more frequent back and forth movements between the forest and the village.These adjustments were made possible through three internal processes:First, social processes: Values, knowledge, labour and food are shared amongst the Baka, shaping and reshaping their social relationships and implicit norms. Adopting agriculture that requires more advanced planning of activities and sustained work effort is a tremendous challenge compared to the more elusive and opportunistic ways of conducting foraging activities. Farming labour can also trigger a stronger sense of ownership over crops. Nevertheless, the shared tolerance over picking crops from the swidden of another Baka farmer is a social mechanism that moderates excessive individual ownership and renders swiddening more compatible with egalitarian values that conditioned Baka's past life as pure huntergatherers.Second, knowledge processes involve the acquisition of knowledge, understanding and know-how for adaptation through experience and observation, as well as reaffirmation of their basic values. As crops that are cultivated with minimal investment, are stored alive in the field, and are progressively harvested according to needs, plantains and cassava are a good illustration of the value of knowledge processes, gained by direct practice, of the Baka farming practices. These crops are also the most adequate in terms of the Baka's foraging way of life. Other annual crops cultivated by the Baka and the few cacao plantations they hold generally result in poor yields, when they are even harvested.Third, biocultural processes are interactions between the forest and the Baka that mutually influence each other and create a continuum between foraging and farming activities. Swiddens do not only provide crops but also ensure the production of spontaneous plants that are encouraged to grow in association with crops. In the forest, presumably wild resources are in fact para-domesticated by the Baka. They do not grow randomly in the forest but are purposely encouraged to cultivate in precise patches in the forest. Spiritual relationships with wildlife and supra-natural forces are the keepers of forest resources, as well as all kinds of social adjustments regulating access to resources, which result in a more sustainable use of the forest.These processes are fully consistent with the egalitarian principle and the pillars of a huntergatherer lifestyle, which value high mobility, low labour and solid interethnic relationships with the farming neighbours. These \"manners of relationship with the forest and their neighbours\" provide good resilience to the Baka's food system and great latitude to adjust to the environmental changes affecting their daily livelihood.However, adaptive attempts by the Baka to the changing environment do not comprehensively solve all the problems. Logging, intensified bushmeat trade, sport hunting, protected areas and governmental zoning policy are cumulative drivers of change that constantly challenge the resilience of the Baka's food system. Long-term expeditions during the major dry season have greatly declined. Exchange with the Bantu is influenced by the diktat of a broader market economy, which imposes a more acute dependency on cash income. As primary producers and poor negotiators, the Baka lament about a widened economic disparity between them and the Bantu, who have imposed themselves as middlemen in transactions, and whose voice predominates in negotiations with outsiders. Lack of commitment in supposedly participatory approaches of forest governance is a source of growing frustration and a serious risk to convert the connivance between the Baka and the forest into a poverty trap. There is a need to revert the tendency. How these forest dwellers have recognized, used and maintained forests should incidentally benefit the rest of the world, as far as it is first and foremost a means for these peoples to avoid poverty whilst preserving their cultural integrity.Reindeer herding food system of the Inari Sámi people in Nellim, Finland \"When we speak about fish, we speak about whitefish, unless otherwise specified.\"Elder from Nellim community.This study profiles the Indigenous People's food system of the Inari Sámi community called Nellim, located in Finland, in the municipality of Inari. Results of the research demonstrate that the Inari Sámi traditional food system has survived, largely as a result of continuation of traditional livelihoods such as reindeer herding, fishing, hunting and gathering. Traditional Inari Sámi foods include reindeer meat, fish, wild berries and game meat. In general, reindeer meat was shown to be the most important source of protein, albeit fish is also highly consumed. Wild berries, such as lingonberries and cloudberries, are still consumed as an important source of vitamins and minerals. Food purchasing from grocery stores, however, has become a normal way of obtaining food along with traditional livelihoods. Traditional dishes and cooking methods have not changed significantly in the past 50 to 100 years. However, various factors, principally environmental changes caused by competitive land usage and climate change, are decreasing the key food resources as practicing and maintaining traditional livelihoods and knowledge become more challenging. Deforestation is seen as the main influential factor, thus protecting the land environments that produce the Inari Sámi traditional food system is crucial.Note from the editors: Inari Sámi terms are mentioned using the official alphabet for Inari Sámi officially adopted in 1996.The Nellim community inhabits an area located 260 kilometres beyond the Arctic Circle in the eastern part of Lake Inari, the largest lake in northern Finland, 42 km from the town of Ivalo and around 10 km west from the Russian border in the region of Lapland. More than 3 300 islands are located close to the shoreline. For the Sámi, the area is known as Sápmi, or Sámiland.Nellim is situated on the border of the subarctic and temperate climatic zones and belongs to the sub-boreal vegetation zone. The nature around Nellim includes vast areas of wild forest and some fells and wetlands. The water quality of the lake is still, in a near-natural state, meaning that there is low impact from human activities. Overall, the water quality is good enough for the community members to drink it. The lake is influenced by hydro dam stations, causing large variations in water levels, erosion events and other alterations, such as variations of ice levels.The water from the lake is discharged into the Barents Sea through the Paatsjoki River.Lake Inari is located far from large settlements; hence, its environment has elements that are undisturbed and intact. The lake is crucial for the Inari Sámi community, and carries cultural, social and economic value. The Inari Sámi language, endemic lifeways and traditional economies evolved around the lake, thus the lake has been a central component of this socioecological system. Many of the place names on the eastern and south-eastern side of Lake Inari are a mix between Inari and Skolt Sámi toponyms, thus it can be derived from this that the region has been a border area between the two Sámi nations in early historical times.The main tree species in the forests around Nellim is Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L., Pinaceae). Birch (Betula pendula Roth, Betulaceae) occurs as an admixture amongst the pine and in some parts spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. subsp. abies, Pinaceae) can be found.The Sámi are the Indigenous People in Finland, and there are 10 000 Sámi in the country. The status of the Sámi was written into the Constitution of Finland in 1995 and the Sámi have constitutional self-government in the Sámi Homeland in the spheres of language and culture since 1996. This self-government is managed by the Sámi Parliament, an indigenous parliament established by a law. Sámi livelihoods are reindeer herding, fishing, handicrafts, hunting and gathering. The three Sámi language groups present in Finland are North Sámi, Inari Sámi and Skolt Sámi.The traditional reindeer herding community in Nellim village is called \"Nellim siida\" or \"Nellim unit\". Most of the community members participating in this research are members of the Nellim siida, which is part of the Ivalo reindeer herding cooperative, even though some of them belong to another reindeer herding cooperative called Paatsjoki. Community members who were interviewed for this report are mainly Inari Sámi as the study focuses on this Sámi group.The different ethnic groups in Nellim are Inari Sámi, Skolt Sámi and the Finnish population. The languages spoken are Inari Sámi, Skolt Sámi and Finnish. Nellim has around 150 people, and the population of the Nellim siida is around seven families. Most of the inhabitants are elderly. The village consists of wooden houses that are fairly close to one another.The households are mainly structured by nuclear families and extended families, although there run by missionary services and churches. This led to the disappearance of many older cultural elements and spiritual leadership. Today, most Sámi practise the dominant Lutheran religion of the Nordic countries in which they live. However, their current belief system is based on a synchronistic mix of older thoughts regarding nature and imported religious spiritual practices.In Nellim, Inari Sámi are evangelic Lutheran. Further, the Skolt Sámi population brought Orthodox religion to the area, thus an orthodox church was built in the village in 1987. The traditional belief system is rarely discussed in public even though it is a target of a large-scale public and touristic interest.The community's main food-providing activities are reindeer herding, fishing, hunting and wild berry picking. Traditional Inari Sámi livelihoods are practised in a sustainable way. They let the nature restore itself; reindeer migrate between different grazing lands, fish populations are not traditionally overfished, and game populations are maintained in a carrying capacity to ensure food for the coming years.Reindeer herding is one of the most evident parts of the Sámi culture. Albeit every Sámi do not practise reindeer herding, its social, cultural and economic importance is immense. It is the only traditional Sámi industry that is seen as being the most profitable without subsidies.Traditional Sámi reindeer herding is based on the annual migration of the reindeer. For the Nellim area, the seasonal cycle follows the demarcation of the cooperative territory, in addition to the Nellim unit winter and summer pastures. Fences separate their usage areas from other cooperatives, but all the modernday herding areas are in the north boreal. The grazing system is based on reindeer biology as an Arctic ruminant. Reindeer stomach rumination is adapted to the different seasonal foods. The reindeer graze in different summer and winter areas. In summer, the areas provide multiple food sources available in nature including mushrooms. In winter, the pastured areas provide traditionally lichen and treehanging lichen as the primary food, although they also offer a place for animal feeding. The boundaries of the grazing areas are not static and they may change according to the grazing conditions within the herding cooperative territory. Herding constitutes a socio-ecological system where the indigenous knowledge and culture of the herders also influence where the animals will feed. Good grazing conditions are formed when the snow is dry in early winter, the ground is properly frozen, and the snow cover has not frozen the vegetation. These kinds of conditions keep the vegetation edible and available for reindeer, so that they can dig and smell the food. The impact of climate change has already started to change these conditions and affect the food security and animal well-being.Reindeer stocks in Nellim are of the boreal type of forest deer (Rangifer tarandus L., Cervidae) that was domesticated for herding purposes. Currently, the Ivalo cooperative is assigned 6 000 reindeer, including those of the Nellim Inari Sámi. As a distinct herding practice, the Nellim unit maintains a Sámistyle herding that is built on free grazing of stocks between winter and summer pastures. Herders are joined by other community members when marking the calves in June, and doing reindeer roundups during autumn and winter. The herding is therefore a \"pulsating\" tradition with a core of herders and reindeer owners involved in the daily work, but with a social impact that cuts across the whole village. More men than women are involved with herding activities.In the winter, the reindeer eat lichen as their primary food. Lichen grows in woodlands, boreal pine forests, wetlands, fells and tundra. Reindeer can smell lichen even through thick snow, and they dig it out from the snow. However, given the land use changes and impacts of climate change, all reindeer are now also fed with supplements. Meat and other food products are processed and packaged in the village. During the herding roundups, the animals meant forInari Sámi herders gathering reindeer during the roundup.© Sámi Parliament in Finland/ Elle Maarit Arttijeff.the markets are chosen and then transported for slaughter. Reindeer meat is used for both private consumption and sales. The meat can be sold together by the cooperative to a preselected buyer, or each owner can process the meat and sell it privately. The cooperatives also collaborate during the roundup process and herd reindeer to the roundup places by motorcycles, quads, snowmobiles and even helicopters. All members of the cooperative are allowed to take part in the gathering.Reindeer are marked with earmarks, indicating the ownership of the reindeer and family system. Each family has its own mark line. Whilst new technology, such as snowmobiles and the Global Positioning System (GPS), are now being used in reindeer herding, the traditional indigenous knowledge on reindeer, nature and climate still plays a very important part.Fishing is another central Sámi practice. In the past, before the development of reindeer herding, fishing was most likely the key livelihood for the Inari Sámi. Each Sámi fisherfolk and family has traditional fishing places in lakes or rivers.In Nellim, fishing is practised in almost every household. Both men and women, elders and youth are involved in the cultural subsistence fishery. Traditionally, especially unmarried women would take part in such activities.Inari Sámi language and fish are cultural indicators of the environmental knowledge. For instance, whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus), with its range of subspecies in the Lake Inari catchment, is an iconic species for the Inari Sámi. This is evident due to their archaeological catch sites, some dating thousands of years back, as well as the endemic linguistic concepts of whitefish as expressed in their language.  These linguistic features can be seen as cultural indicators, and a socio-ecological matrix of how the Inari Sámi and their waters are interconnected. Even subtle changes to the keystone species cascade have both ecological and social impacts. The importance of fishing methods are also reflected in the local language.Fishing has always been conducted using multiple gear depending on the seasons and species. One of the most important fishing methods for the Inari Sámi has been seine fishing, and they have practised it for hundreds of years. Seining is a method of actively pulling nets that circle the fish. Seining requires very precise knowledge of the lake bottom, the water column, seasonal conditions, winds and the behaviour of the fish itself. Usually it is used to catch schooling fish such as whitefish and perch.Another method, gillnets, is used for fishing all year round. During winter, the net is spread under the ice between two holes. The summer gillnet season opens in May as the ice breaks up and targets first traditionally northern pike, grayling and perch. In the autumn, spawning species such as whitefish constitute the majority of the catch. Trolling, spin fishing and ice fishing are also practised. Fish is caught for one's own consumption or to sell within the community as a whole or fillet. Fish dishes are prepared by boiling and baking fish on an open fire, in a pan and or in an oven. The most common species for fishing and consumption are whitefish, northern pike (Esox lucius), grayling (Thymallus thymallus), yellow perch (Perca fluviatis), lake trout (Salmo trutta), Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) and burbot (Lota lota).Fishing is a key practice to maintain food security in the community. However, there are currently no professional fisherfolk left in the community, who traditionally would provide additional income to the community by selling their fish to restaurants and grocery stores.Hunting and trapping have always been part of Sámi livelihoods. The Sámi use different kinds of traps to catch animals and birds. Nowadays hunting alone is not a profitable financial In the community, some hunting products are sold for income. There used to be an auction for the moose meat during the special feast for moose during the fall. However, hunting is practised mostly for own consumption. Animals such as capercaillie and willow grouse are cooked in the oven, roasted or boiled. Moose meat is used for stew, minced or roasted.Gathering and wild berry picking continue to be important parts of the Sámi food culture.As with fishing, the Inari Sámi have their own traditional picking areas, one for each family.Families respect others' territories, and the whole family is involved in berry picking. The most common varieties of gathered berries are lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), blueberry (Cyanococcus sp.) and Arctic cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus). The village also uses the berries for sale to supermarkets nationwide, thereby receiving a supplementary income. The Arctic cloudberry is particularly attractive across the country. From the forest, the community also collects other wild plants and mushrooms such as boletes, brittlegills, milkcaps and false morels. Wild berries are eaten fresh, frozen, stored or used for baking. The community also uses them for juices, jams and marmalades. The Inari Sámi did not begin to eat mushrooms until the 1990s, as mushrooms were previously used primarily for reindeer food. Today, community members fry, stew, marinate and use mushrooms in soups. Mushrooms can also be preserved by drying, salting or freezing them. fells for the calving period. The roundup period is the most important, as the reindeer that are going to be kept alive are separated from those that are to be slaughtered for processing and selling.The herding cycle has been impacted in recent years by climate change. These include the following examples:• the ground freezes up as an ice layer: in the autumn, the bottom layer of soil gets soaked in rain and then quickly freezes. This makes the pastures of lichen unavailable for reindeer, as they cannot access their primary natural winter food through the ice.• rain-on-snow (ROS) events: the snow freezes, following the warm winter rains.• decreased travel safety: the ice takes shape later than usual, and forms in unpredictable ways, in addition to earlier melting. The transport associated with herding is therefore more dangerous and new travel conditions are appearing that have not been experienced before.• droughts and summer events: extremely warm summers are causing localised drought events that affect the quantity and quality of the reindeers' drinking water. The heat also propagates in waterways, which negatively affects the salmon and other cold-water-dependent fish species.  Food purchasing from grocery stores has become a normal way of obtaining food, in addition to traditional livelihoods. Approximately 70 percent 7 of households still eat traditional food and complement their diets with purchased groceries. The community buys the following basic groceries from the supermarket: dairy, grain products, vegetables, macaroni, a range of meats and fruits. Potato is grown and cultivated as a summer crop and consumed over the winter months, thus community members do not have to buy potatoes. Previously, bread and sweet bakery products, such as pies, cakes and so on, were homemade, yet now they are mostly bought from grocery stores. The proportion of local diets that come from the market varies according to the seasons, however, approximately 75 percent of the meat and fish that community members consume come from the community.Three grocery stores are found in Ivalo, 42 kilometres from Nellim. Supermarkets are typical chain supermarkets found in Finland, but they also sell some local products, including seasonally available products such as fish. Inari Sámi communities used to exchange products between the inland and coastal fishing peoples. The community does not exchange food with other communities anymore. Due to the advent of a cash economy, people who do not herd reindeer usually buy meat from the locals. However, some of the community members buy reindeer meat from the grocery stores, as they think it is easier.The first historical reference to Inari or Aanaar was made in 1517. In those times, the region 7 These percentage analytics have been calculated from the community participants and their answers, either through an oral interview or a survey collected for this study. Original data available from the authors.would be influenced by six ethnic societies: the North Sámi, Skolt Sámi to the east, Russians, Norwegians, Finns, and the \"local\" Sámi, the Inari Sámi people. The Inari Sámi language and culture are specific and their own in the family of surviving Sámi languages and areas. Traditionally, Sámi people were organised in a siida system, which describes the organization of Sámi society before assimilating to Finnish culture and before the State started to control Sámi land and reindeer herding. Some studies reveal that the siida system was potentially developed as early as in the Stone Age. Siidas were large and were formed by several nuclear families. The siida owned and administered the land and families used it. At least 11 siidas existed around the Aanaar-Inari lake system in early historical times.Before the introduction of reindeer herding in the 1600s, the life of a siida was based on fishing and hunting. Instead of following the reindeer yearly migrations, families in a siida migrated by the seasonal cycle of fishing and hunting. It is unclear exactly when reindeer herding began in Nellim.Initially, reindeer herds were small, as the main livelihood was fishing, and meat consumption was based on deer and other wildlife. The switch from a hunting economy to herding was caused by the Finns and Swedes settlements in the Sámi area. It increased the hunting pressure, and the ecological carrying capacity of the northern ecosystems could not support the growing needs of the local population. This gave rise to the herding. In the eastern Sámi areas, including the Inari Sámi homeland, the herds remained small and fishing constituted the second major activity until the 1960s.When the siida eventually became based on reindeer herding, the siida was more loosely organised, and individual families started to have more power to make decisions. This system is known as nomadic reindeer herding and is the centre of traditional north Sámi reindeer herding. Introduction of a herding economy changed the social structure in the community and allowed for specialization to advance in the society. In contrast to several Sámi communities in Norway with larger herds, the Inari Sámi have practised a smaller-scale herding system based on varriistâllâm (annual migration), as their fishing economy is central in the community. Concerning the species, there is a complex history over centuries of Sámi breeding and genetic choices. Often reindeer were exchanged between villages to renew bloodlines and quality of stocks.Nellim is one of the oldest inhabited Inari Sámi communities. However, life in Nellim has changed considerably over the past 100 years.Originally Nellim was the name of a household in the area of the present village. However, the Nellim area began to develop in the 1920s as a result of road construction from Ivalo to Nellim, and logging. Trees were transported to storage sites on the shores of Lake Inari in the winter, from where they were transported by boats, often either to local sawmills or down the Paatsjoki River to the Barents Sea coast in Norway. Later, some of the wood was cut in the village with a large sawmill.During the Winter War, between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939, the Inari Sámi from Nellim were evacuated to more southern parts of Finland. After the end of the Second World War, Finland had to hand over the Petsamo area, which corresponds to the northeastern corner of the country and the homeland of the Skolt Sámi, to the Soviet Union. The Skolt Sámi could not return to their traditional lands; thus, they were relocated to the Inari area, including to Nellim. Other major events include the establishment of the Virtaniemi border check-point between Russia and Finland, which provided local employment and trade flows in the community. Further, in 1960 a power line was established in Nellim. Yet, the most important factor affecting the community is seemingly the assimilation policy practised by the State. The policy included the imposition of State-led religious activity, schooling, reorganization of the reindeer herding, new road and transport construction, and, most importantly, the use of Inari Sámi land for the development of hydropower and forestry, largely affecting the Inari Sámi community.The Sámi have historically suffered through various types of discrimination and repression.Since the nation-states of Norway, Sweden and Finland first began settling Sápmi, the Sámi have been removed from their land, stripped of their culture and made to believe that they were inferior. In order to eliminate Sámi culture, the church and the governments established boarding schools whose purpose was to assimilate Sámi children into the majority culture. Sámi children were denied the right to use their native language or to engage in their cultural practices. Since their beginnings in the 19th century, boarding schools were a major part of Sámi life until the 1960s, when a Sámi movement began demanding reforms to the educational systems. In Nellim, the boarding school system was active until the 1960s. Assimilation of Sámi people to the Finnish society was particularly rough, and as a consequence the Inari Sámi language is almost extinct. The Inari Sámi language is no longer the main language used with reindeer herding. However, it is used in a hybrid way, being central to the concepts and tasks of herding. Traditional reindeer herding maintains and renews the survival of the Inari Sámi culture, particularly in Nellim.Major changes in the community's livelihoods have included the structural changes in reindeer herding, in addition to the aging of the population. Today the population size of Nellim is constantly decreasing and the largest group in the community is elderly people. This is a threat to reindeer herding, as not enough young people are willing to take on the responsibility. The professions of the people in the community are reindeer herders, fishers and civil servants. The elderly are retired, but this concept should be understood in the cultural sense -many people are still engaged in traditional activities despite their formal retirement status. Community members generate income from the selling of meat, fish, berries and mushrooms, particularly false morel.The reindeer meat is sold to a supplier of reindeer meat or to private buyers. It is brought to grocery stores from slaughterhouses and suppliers that meet the standards of European Union's directives. Meat can also be bought straight from reindeer herders from the roundup corrals (structures and events where the reindeer are separated based on ownership, age and slaughter) or houses. Community members get a fair price for their products. If products would cost more, the market would decrease. The price of reindeer meat increases slightly each year, slightly compensating the accumulating and increasing costs of fuel and equipment. To community members in Nellim, herders would prefer to sell their meat at a lower price, yet the costs of herding forces them to maintain a certain price.The following points summarize some aspects of the meat prices for a comparative value:• Overall, the price of reindeer meat was 10-13 EUR 8 /kg in November 2019. It will vary according to the parts of the animal sold and cutting methods and processing level used.• Direct sales price of meat, without bones, straight to the customer from the herder can be 15-16 EUR 9 /kg.In The traditional Inari Sámi food system of the community has the capacity to provide enough to eat, but it is still complemented with groceries purchased from stores. The traditional food system is diverse and adequate throughout the year. Community members have not experienced conditions of food insecurity since nature and its products have been diverse and abundant at all times of the year. However, the worsening impacts of climate change may alter this situation. Berries and mushrooms are examples of food strongly dependent on a stable climate.If there is a good early summer, there will be a good year for berries, but recent climate events might indicate that the coming years will be bad for collecting berries. Public access rights, or so-called \"everyman's rights\", refer to the right of everyone in Finland to enjoy outdoor pursuits regardless of who owns or occupies an area. There is no need to obtain the landowner's permission, and there is no charge to pick wild berries, mushrooms and flowers, or to fish with a rod and line, or through a hole in the ice in wintertime. Other types of fishing always require a fishing license. 11Reindeer meat is a staple food in the community, in addition to fish, game meat, fruits and vegetables. The most common dishes prepared from reindeer meat are reindeer meat soup, dried reindeer meat soup and reindeer stew. Meat is dried and can also be smoked. The bone marrow is also eaten, as well as tongue, heart and liver. Reindeer blood is used for blood pancakes and sausages. Meat can also be minced, smoked or cooked as steaks. The diets of the community are heavier during the winter months and become lighter toward spring. Traditional wind drying of reindeer meat and fish is practised in the spring, and in addition to freezing of foods, this ensures a stable food supply year-round. There is a perception that the food consumed in the community provides sufficient nutritional value for community members, particularly as reindeer meat is especially lean and has high nutritional value, being rich in protein, vitamins, minerals and trace elements (Hassan, Sandanger and Brustad, 2012). The community members also have the freedom to choose which food they want to eat. However, some of the non-herders would like to purchase and eat more reindeer meat, but they find it expensive. The community in general still has a preference for traditional food. Children in particular favour reindeer stew and fish.Although the traditional foods consumed are nutritious, the Soviet-era atomic bomb tests and the fallout from the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986 affected the region. Cesium and other radioactive elements were stored in lichen, eaten by reindeer and thereafter by humans. A State-led monitoring programme has sampled the community members since the 1960s to monitor these effects. With regards to the quality of the food products in the supermarkets, it is generally good and healthy, yet food that has higher quality or is organic costs more. In the past decades, with the proliferation of pizza, hamburgers and other fast foods, the amount of fat and other harmful substances in people's diets has increased, as a shift in food culture has taken place. This is compensated locally in Nellim with the large amount of nature-based healthy foods, especially berries. According to the community, a person with good nutrition is healthy and eats the right proportion of meat, starches and vegetables. The local way of classifying food is traditional food or local food and food produced elsewhere.Reindeer meat stored in freezer.© Sámi Parliament in Finland/ Elle Maarit Arttijeff.The income level for the community members has changed over time. Reindeer meat is more expensive, thus herders earn more, albeit costs related to the practice have also increased. If we look at the general picture, salaries have generally increased. Trade relations have also changed over time. Previously, there was an active exchange of goods between the community and Norway. This changed when the first grocery store opened in Nellim.Despite transitions in the community's food system, traditional food still plays a large role in the lives of the community members. The main change potentially concerns the amount of the animal being used, and the preservation methods.In previous times, the reindeer was completely utilized. Today some community members eat more processed meat, such as pork, and less reindeer meat. This is a result of modernization processes, as well as increased prices on reindeer meat, which in turn has reduced the consumption of meat for the community members who do not herd reindeer. Concerning vegetable consumption, nowadays some mushroom species seem to spread from southern Finland to the north, such as matsutake, a mushroom that was not found before in the Nellim area. This might be caused by climate change, thereby introducing new foods into the Nellim food system. With regards to wild edibles, it is currently more normal to consume oranges and red-fleshed fruits than wild berries. The consciousness of healthy eating has increased throughout Finnish society, leading the community to integrate more types of fruits and vegetables in their diets. In general, the community has not had a problem with obesity, yet similar to other indigenous communities, members of the Inari Sámi community have experienced alcohol problems, also leading to obesity for some. Alcohol is mainly available at the State monopoly store \"Alko\" in Ivalo.One of the main challenges facing the Nellim community is the migration of young people.Both reindeer herding and the fishing tradition are threatened by this trend. When a Sámi moves outside the Sámi homeland area, their legal right to use nature in certain areas is lost, thus young people lose their connection to their traditional fishing areas. As a result, the traditional knowledge embedded in fishing disappears.Traditional traps are also being replaced with new technology.The main power source to the village of Nellim is provided by a recently renewed 20 kV power line from Ivalo. In addition to the electric power from the grid, burning of firewood is an important component of heating the local houses. The cabins further out of the community used for herding and fishing are heated using firewood.A small amount of solar panels are used in the region. Modern heating methods, and the use of modern gadgets and communication services, are totally dependent on electricity. The snowmobiles and quad bikes used for herding are also dependent on the fuel, supplied from the town of Ivalo.New technology is used in reindeer herding and fishing activities. For instance, fish finders can be used to find fish underwater. Previously, electricity was generated via a portable generator in the roundup corrals. Nowadays, power lines that have been built near the corral site are used. Still, these practices rely mostly on human labour and household firewood collection. Snowmobiles alleviate some of the previous efforts connected to transportation across distances, but there is still a need for manual labour, especially in the roundup corrals. The rotational system of reindeer herding demands that there are shifts in the feeding patterns of the animals. People take turns delivering hay and pellets to the animals at the time of supplementary feeding. This decentralizes some of the energy needs, but the supplementary feeding itself is costly and affects the profitability of the reindeer herding practice.Every household has their own water supply and a localised wastewater system. The water is clean and drinkable. Seasonal cryosphere changes, in other words the freezing and melting of the lake and river ice, determine the availability of and access to open water. The communal water supply relies on a water cooperative, operated by the municipality of Inari. In total, the length of the water pipeline is 7 km and 50 households use it. The water supply comes from a point in Lake Inari that is approximately 700 metres east of the village. The community has no municipal sewer or wastewater services. Reindeer can find water in nature. In the wintertime, they get their drinking water from snow.The main waste products in the community come from grocery packaging and other goods from supermarkets and construction. Nowadays, as a result of recycling, there is no non-biodegradable waste accumulating in the landscape. The recycling is divided into mixed waste, organic waste, newspapers and magazines, glass, plastic and bottles, and some hazardous waste, like batteries. Bottle recycling is popular in Finland, as consumers can return bottles to bottle banks and collect money for each returned bottle and can. The community members aim to recycle everything, especially composting food waste for local gardens.Hazardous waste is transported to Ivalo. Some community members see Ivalo as too far away to recycle everything efficiently, as the nearest collecting points for many goods are in Ivalo.Nellim used to have a waste dump, but now the bigger waste must be taken to Ivalo.The tools, technologies and energy sources used by the community have changed over time.Most changes have happened over the past 100 years. The modernization of reindeer herding started back in the 1960s with the so-called \"snowmobile revolution\". The introduction of snowmobiles reflects the State's attempt to modernize herding practices to boost commercial meat production. The arrival of snowmobiles proliferated possibilities for the use of territories, yet created new dependencies on the cash economy, including fuel, technical parts and reparation. Lately, gas prices have increased, making reindeer herding a costly activity. Frequently, the costs of herding are higher than the income, forcing Inari Sámi families to find additional occupations on the side.The community has gone through a transition from a self-governing siida, with traditional land use and human-driven labour connected to reindeer herding, hunting and fisheries, to a modernized hybrid economy. With the advent of the State's presence, and their new governance over the natural resources, the characteristics of the ecosystems have shifted. Namely, the biggest ecological changes concern the hydroelectric regulation of Lake Inarijärvi and the large-scale clear-cut forestry that has altered the landscape. The alteration has changed the landscape from a natural north boreal taiga forest to a managed economic forest plantation zone used for pulp and paper industries.An assessment of the resource use efficiency cannot be directly extrapolated by comparing traditional systems with modern natural resource management. Their scales and alterations of ecological systems operate in different contexts.One can look at the speed, scope and extent of the forestry operations as efficient. However, this activity has rather large negative implications for ecology, traditional occupancies and biodiversity. Traditional systems are \"ineffective\" as seen from a modernist view but contain a low ecological footprint and a capacity to deliver ecosystem services and goods for hundreds of years.The traditional indigenous culture of the Inari Sámi people is based on the free use of land, water and natural resources. Their way of life and identity are based on traditional livelihoods and have always depended on the communal and family use of land and water areas. The regeneration of ecosystems is a slow process in the traditional homeland of the Inari Sámi, thus they have become accustomed to practicing their livelihoods and culture over large areas, thereby protecting the sustainability and reproductive capacity of the environment.Since the primary traditional economy of the community depends on the wild uses of resources, there is very little in terms of crop or livestock alterations. In the 1960s, the community kept other livestock for dairy production, yet after such products became available in grocery stores, the demand for local production disappeared. Concerning reindeer herding, in the traditional system the Sámi have managed and developed genetic variations of the reindeer through exchanges and even selective breeding of certain types. Reindeer are domesticated, as wild deer no longer live within the Sámi area in Finland. The reindeer owned by the Inari Sámi in Nellim are considered northern forest reindeer.Since the 1920s, the Metsähallitus, the Finnish State agency, imposed a more modern governance system for natural resources on the community. This entailed quotas for fishing, wild birds and other hunted animals. Since tourists have also started hunting in the Inari Sámi area, they have created tension with the local community because their numbers are included in the local quotas. There is also tension connected to the hunting of large animals such as wolverine and wolf. These are predators to the reindeers of the Inari Sámi, but are often considered important for biodiversity by mainstream society.The terrestrial ecosystems around Nellim are northern coniferous boreal forests with Scots pine dominating the landscape. Lake Inari has kept its high water quality in the main parts of the lake, but it is negatively affected by human land use in the catchment area, and also in the flow stream from the Paatsjoki River. These human activities include:• ditching and subsequent loading of mercury, organic matter from industrial logging, and aggravated erosion in the catchment area;• gold mining in the Lemmenjoki sub-catchment area and national park;• road and infrastructure development around the lake;• increased tourism and associated construction of hotels, in addition to the nutrient flows from the tourism activity to the lake;• leaking events from past industrial sites such as the Peuravuono sawmill;• large-scale hydroelectric regulation of the Paatsjoki River and the hydropower at Kirakka;• airborne and climate-driven changes, such as nutrients, algal blooms and warm spells.Terrestrial changes in the community include:• large-scale industrial logging that alters the forest stands and structures and converts natural forests into monoculture plantations;• large-scale forestry road construction that has altered and demarcated the former wilderness areas into smaller remaining stands;• road and infrastructure development on land, especially power lines and the new road to Nellim going across reindeer areas;• arrival of other species from southern areas as a result of climate change;• degradation of reindeer pastures as a result of cumulative impacts of forestry and climate change.The central traditional economy for the community, reindeer herding, suffers from the impacts of both human industrial land use and climate change. Lichen, reindeers' primary food in winter, can only be found in middle-to oldgrowth natural forests. Because these forests have been severely impacted, the need to feed the animals additional food in the winter has increased, adding to the costs of herding.Through traditional governance of the pasture areas, herders can use their knowledge to determine the snow cover, forest structure, winds, predator situation and alternative pastures so that some areas could be left to grow back as land use rotates and shifts. However, these days, industrial forestry cuts the trees in several areas, changing the biodiversity, in particular affecting the species dependent on natural forests such as hanging lichen, birds and mammals. As some species die due to the lack of habitat, other populations seem to be increasing. This is the case for small predators, as there has become a lack of larger predators. Some of the wild species hunted, for instance taiga bean goose, have seen a drastic decline in population size since the 1980s. In addition, populations of mountain hare (Lepus timidus L., Leporidae) and willow grouse have collapsed. The reason for this is considered to be the shrinking of their natural habitat, caused by more intensive land use -forestry in particular.Additionally, forestry uses techniques like tilling and churning of the soils to dry up what the industry considers as too wet conditions for tree growth. All these actions alter the soils and cause a range of impacts from erosion to release of mercury and organic loading downstream. Regeneration of grazing lands is a long-term process. A lichen stand usually takes over 20 years to grow back in a natural forest. Rewilding and restoration might be options, but they would have to follow decreased impacts from the industrial use of the land.From the time of settlement in what today is known as Lapland, and for centuries, bands of hunters and fisherfolk would occupy the lands surrounding Lake Inari and the Nellim area according to their seasonal cycles. This was before the community organised itself into siidas.It is important to note that these siidas were autonomous, indigenous-controlled reindeer herding and hunting societies that have existed for a long period of time. The original siida system was destroyed through the colonial acts of the Swedish, Russian and Finnish nation-States. The semi-nomadic siidas of the Inari Sámi were forced into partial settlement around Aanaar-Inari as early as 1666. However, the semi-nomadic cycles of seasonal life continued through this period well into the twentieth century. Fishing activities have also changed throughout the years. The Inari Sámi used to have a seasonal indigenous governance system for their home area, through the varriistâllâm, a small-scale nomadic society around Lake Inari. Integrated in the governance system was the preservation of fish stocks, which was carried out by leaving certain lakes and spawning areas to selfreplenish over time -usually five years -and diversifying the catch sites across many lakes and in Lake Inari itself. Lake Inari is still regulated by Russia with a hydroelectric power plant, constructed in the Paatsjoki River in the Soviet Union, which started operating in the 1930s.The regulation impacted local species of fish, and some of the populations have decreased since the 1930s. In the 1990s, the community experimented with freshwater trawling, but it did not last long. The main catch from the trawling fleet was the human-introduced vendace (Coregonus albula). At first, the catches were major but soon both the ecological impacts of trawling and the boom-and-bust style of trawling closed the activity. Some fisherfolk still sell fish outside the village. The catches are mostly from standing winter and summer gillnets.Increasing tourism has had a significant impact on the practice of the traditional livelihoods, particularly in reindeer herding and fishing.Examples of services provided to tourists in the area are snowmobiling and dog sled safaris. This activity forces reindeer to move away from their traditional grazing lands. Community members also consider tourist activities responsible for contaminating the water around Nellim, which is no longer drinkable. Fishing is also impacted by eutrophication of lakes. This can be noticed when fishing nets are pulled out of the lake, as they carry a bad smell that they did not have before.Nellim is in the Inari Sámi homeland area, and the Sámi people have self-governance rights guaranteed to them as an Indigenous People by Finland's Constitution. Nellim belongs to the municipality of Inari, thus public administration includes local self-government from the municipality. However, villages have no legal status in Finland and are represented through associations. Nellim siida leaders are one elder and one younger reindeer herder. Sámi traditional livelihoods rely on the communities being de facto owners of their land areas and natural resources. The practicing of traditional Sámi livelihoods requires access to extensive areas of land and depends on the Sámi livelihoods being defined as the primary form of land use in these areas. However, the government still owns the land.The Sámi are granted several rights through the nation's Constitution. Under section 17(3) of the Finnish Constitution (731/1999), the Sámi, as an Indigenous People, have the right to maintain and develop their own language and culture. Under section 121(4) of the same, in their native region, the Sámi have linguistic and cultural self-governance, as provided by an Act. However, despite the traditional livelihoods of the Sámi being considered an essential part of Sámi culture, there is no legislative provision enshrining the rights of the Sámi to land, water and natural resources. Instead, the Sámi are considered to have the same rights to land, water and natural resources as any other residents of the Sámi homeland.In Finland, the State manages 90 percent of the land in the Sámi homeland. The cooperatives' responsibility is to obey the Ministry's regulations, thus regulate the number of reindeer. This is done through a yearly slaughtering plan, where the cooperative decides the number of reindeer to be slaughtered. Each year around 100 000 reindeer are slaughtered, whereas 120 000 to 130 000 calves are born. 12 Over the years, the Nellim Inari Sámi have established a dialogue to obtain the right to create their own herding and animal production goals. This has not yet been accomplished.Starting from the 1600s, the traditional Sámi natural resource governance system was actively eroded and colonized by the Swedish and later by the Russian and Finnish States. By adapting and diversifying their options, the community was able to negotiate many of the pre-modern governance impositions until the 1920s. Then the large-scale timber and sawmill activities expanded in the region and in Nellim. The community became a gateway to northern Norway for timber floating and trade. Since Finnish independence in 1917, the region where Nellim is located was seen as a major area for timber industry and post-1944 for pulp and paper. This proliferated the use of clear cuts, land tilling and churning for the forest stands and eradicated the Sámi indigenous governance as a viable alternative. This process also removed all their rights to lands and waters from the community. However, in the 1980s, the Sámi communities responded to the large-scale logging activities with a campaign containing many demands concerning environmental and Sámi rights. As discussed, similar events occurred in the 1990s, 2000s and a settlement in 2009. These events can be considered modernera attempts to reinstall Sámi governance systems on land use. The moratorium on logging issued in 2005 by the UN Human Rights Committee also falls under such a description as warned by the Finish government to stop the tree felling.A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below.The community has experienced some climate shocks that have had serious consequences to reindeer herding for some of the herders, including deaths of calves and lack of available food. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2018), the average Arctic temperature has so far been rising at least twice as fast as the global temperature, as the ice and snow are melting, inducing the landscape to absorb instead of reflect the sun. Reindeer herding is highly dependent on climatic conditions, and as reindeer find less food, they produce less calves. This food insufficiency requires supplementary feeding, inducing large costs on the community.The community has high self-sufficiency for food such as reindeer and game meat, fish, wild edibles and vegetables. Community members do not exchange food with other communities anymore. Nellim sells fish, wild berries and mushrooms to restaurants in Ivalo. Most families in the community consume local products for the majority of their diet.The local grocery store in the village was closed down, making it more difficult to access market food as one must have a car. However, there is a collaborative spirit amongst the community members, so they help each other out. Access to the grocery store is good year-round, given the newly constructed road. Reindeer herders have access to domestic markets to sell meat. The community has access to different buyers for their food produce.A handful of Inari Sámi families organise reindeer herding activities amongst themselves. Nellim siida belongs to a larger Ivalo cooperative, thus it is under the cooperative's regulations. Concerning natural resource management, the State is responsible for governance, and, according to the Act on Metsähallitus, the management shall be adjusted to ensure the possibility of the Sámi people to practise their culture. The management shall also fulfill the obligations laid down in the Reindeer Husbandry Act.There are several challenges connected to the implementation of these acts, with regards to interpretation of definitions from the two parties.The community has recovered well from past disturbances. The traditional knowledge of the community is considered one of their most important assets to maintain well-being. In the case of the forestry conflict in the 2000s, the Inari Sámi herders stuck together, trusting that their knowledge and viewpoint were valid. This paid off in terms of the moratorium issued by the UN Human Rights Committee, and the subsequent agreement in 2009. However, the Inari Sámi are ridiculed for taking stands that diverge from mainstream discourses and face large challenges in having their voices heard.Traditional practices are still maintained, yet today they are being mixed with contemporary technologies. However, the language has suffered significantly due to the assimilation processes. Recent efforts such as Sámi media and workshops have attempted to restore the language, but they have proved to be challenging. The elders still hold a significant role in the Nellim community, and their experiences and stories are well respected and listened to. Nellim community traditions are best integrated and preserved in the Inari Sámi-style reindeer herding, the seasonal fisheries of the families, and some aspects of the gathering economies. To help the traditional practices thrive as in previous times, the main pressures from the industries should decrease or be removed.Traditional knowledge is maintained and transmitted through traditional livelihoods. These transmissions go from the elderly to youth, who are still interested in traditional practices and knowledge. Traditional knowledge is also taught in the Sámi Education Institute, promoting Sámi culture and languages throughout the Sámi area. Institutions to support human health and social services for the community members are provided by the municipality, and everyone is entitled to adequate social and health services. However, social and health services should be more widely available in Sámi languages.The food system is well coupled with the natural capital, given the low external input from outside the system for nutrients and energy.There are few signs of degradation of natural resources and little waste accumulation in the landscape. However, reindeer herding is affected by a decrease of lichen caused by soil degradation in areas of intensive logging.The bottom of Lake Inari has also seen some degradation.9. Ecologically self-regulated: Ecosystems can regenerate naturally as the community lives and harvests according to the seasonal cycles. The community does not over-harvest nor exploit the natural resources as their livelihoods and culture depend on them. Further, community members protect ecosystems and wildlife by fighting against the intensive logging in the community areas. Securing land and water rights would support the Inari Sámi food system's ability to reach an optimal efficiency and even more enhanced self-regulation capacity.The Inari Sámi community manages to respond to the natural environment in several ways, for example in cases where reindeer struggle to feed due to excessive snow amounts or ice cover. Their redundancy of food groups also ensures their capability of sustaining themselves throughout the year.The community enjoys a diversity of foods from farms, reindeer herding, the lake and the surrounding environment, as well as the market. With regards to climate change, wild berries, mushrooms and farmed vegetables are particularly vulnerable to climate hazards. To overcome periods of food insecurity, if one food group is unavailable or the amount is reduced, the community can consume more of other food groups. Several of the community's food groups are based on several species, increasing the resilience of the food system. However, with regards to hunting, there are few species, making this traditional practice more vulnerable.The spatial and temporal distributions of the Indigenous People's food system reflect the seasons and events in nature. The specific small-scale nomadism of varriistâllâm, as codeveloped with Lake Inari, is an example of adaptation to northern nature and the seasonal cycles over long periods of time.The food system provides diverse opportunities of income generation through the selling of meat, fish, berries and mushrooms on different markets.Overall, the price that the community members get for their products is fair, although production costs rise yearly. However, even though reindeer herding might be the only traditional Sámi livelihood that is profitable by itself, herders still rely on subsidies from the European Union and, when the herds are impacted by predators, from the State.The community's main food sources come from reindeer herding, fishing, hunting and wild berry picking. Along with the traditional livelihoods, purchasing food from grocery stores has also become normal. Of the community's total food consumption, today approximately 30 percent comes from the market, including dairy, grain products, vegetables and fruits. Potato is grown and cultivated in the community as a summer crop and consumed over the winter months. Grocery stores are found in Ivalo, a larger town 42 kilometres from Nellim. People who do not herd reindeer usually buy meat from the locals.The Nellim food system is a hybrid system, utilizing certain modern tools and elements, such as the water cooperative, electricity, freezers, and more effective gillnets, and the community mixes them with their unique cultural practices and knowledge, such as the Inari Sámi style of reindeer herding, cultural fisheries and gathering activities.The indigenous culture of the Sámi people is based on the free use of land, water and natural resources. The ecosystem regeneration is slow in the traditional homeland of the Inari Sámi, thus they have become accustomed to practicing their livelihoods and culture over wide areas, allowing for sustainable use of resources. The Sámi people have a selfgovernment guaranteed to the Sámi as an Indigenous People by Finland's Constitution. However, the State manages the land use in the Nellim area.Several challenges threaten the sustainability of the Inari Sámi community. Increasing tourism activities have significant impacts on their practice of traditional reindeer herding and fishing. Further, industrial logging occupies reindeer herding areas.The food production capacity of the traditional Inari Sámi food system is sufficient, yet complemented with groceries purchased from grocery stores. In general, the community members do not experience conditions of food insecurity, as nature and its products are diverse and abundant. The food consumed by the community is also adequate for nutritional needs.Currently, the largest threat to the community's food security comes from hazards induced by climate change. Wild edibles like berries and mushrooms are vulnerable to climatic changes. Further, it can negatively impact reindeer herding, hunting and fishing. Some changes are already visible, but the community members are not always sure whether climate change is the cause. There is less lichen, and it is more unavailable to reindeer due to harder layers of ice. The summer temperatures have also risen above normal during the past few years, and in general the seasonal calendar is changing.In addition to climatic events, the exploitative land use activities in the area have degrading effects on the community's sustainability, such as industrial logging, gold mining and road construction. The activities cause loss of grazing lands, loading of organic matter in the lake, decreased soil quality and degradation of the lake bottom ecosystem. In addition, the logging industries have induced a decline of wildlife habitat, subsequently leading to smaller game populations.The transmission of traditional knowledge is key for the community's sustainability. Elders have a significant role in advising and leading the community based on their experiences. The traditional knowledge is maintained and transmitted through traditional livelihoods based on nature, as well as the Inari Sámi people's relationship with nature.The community identifies their well-being as based on several elements. First, wellfunctioning social structures and services in the community must be in place, using the Inari Sámi language. Second, community members must have wide respect and tolerance of the three cultures within the community, and there must be joint and democratic decisionmaking processes. Third, women, youth, elders and other marginalized groups are entitled to secure and thriving environments for schooling, working and maintaining the Inari Sámi way of life.The major concern of the community is that forestry activities will further increase and consequently lead to a decrease of reindeer herding. They further foresee that tourism activities will continue to increase. Some community members are also concerned about what the renewed road will bring to the community. Normally road construction in the Finnish peripheries has led to intensifying natural resources extraction such as mining and forestry. An improved road system is also seen as a gateway that will increase social issues, such as narcotics and alcohol in the community, as well as the major tourism operations. A future potential development plan also includes the Arctic Railway. Initially scheduled for 2018-2019, the plan is currently in hiatus.Traditional life and livelihoods will inevitably change along with changes in the landscape, production and diets. Factors such as changing soil quality, eutrophication of lakes, decrease of and eventual loss of game species and some fish population, and a drastic decrease of reindeer herding areas will cause large changes in the traditional food system in the future. Reindeer herding is particularly vulnerable, as there is a lack of younger people willing to continue the practice.Members of the community are confident that nature will still provide berries and mushrooms. However, industrial forestry negatively impacts the growth of berries and mushrooms, in addition to the water quality downstream.Fishing will continue to be one of the community's main practices, yet the population of some traditional fishing species, such as trout, has drastically decreased whilst other species, such as northern pike, has increased.Hunting will continue to be practised, but it is difficult to see whether there will be sufficient game animals to hunt, as some of the small game populations have drastically decreased in the past years.The main challenge for the maintenance of the community is potentially the migration of youth. Nellim does not have many children and young people living in the village anymore. Life in the community is challenging and the uncertain future of reindeer herding has caused many young people to abandon traditional livelihoods and move away from the village. However, the younger generations still living in the village would like to continue traditional livelihoods and food systems. There is a general sense amongst the community members living in the village that they would like to maintain their traditions related to their local food system, foster the natural habitat, and keep it healthy and intact.The research conducted demonstrates that the Inari Sámi traditional food system has survived largely as a result of the continuation of traditional livelihoods, such as reindeer herding, fishing, hunting and gathering. Traditional Inari Sámi foods include reindeer meat, fish, wild berries and game meat. Traditional dishes and cooking methods have not changed significantly in the past 100 years. In general, reindeer meat is shown to be the most important source of protein, even though many community members also consume fish. Wild berries, such as lingonberries and cloudberries, constitute important sources of vitamins and minerals. In addition to traditional food sources, community members supplement their diets with food from grocery stores.Indigenous traditional knowledge is key for the maintenance of traditional land uses. Inari Sámi culture is also integrated in what is left of the Inari Sámi language, for instance the ways they have named different fish and reindeerwhitefish especially being a significant species in the community over hundreds of years. The Nellim Sámi have managed to maintain their traditional land use practices over a long period of time. Whilst the starting point may have been a total of 15 indigenous Inari Sámi siidas around Lake Inari in prehistoric times, we know that the contemporary population was able to maintain their varriistâllâm specific seasonal land uses well into the 1900s. This can be considered an endemic indigenous governance of lands and waters. A century of modernization and exploitation of natural resources, also disturbing the reindeer herding, has not destroyed the traditional herding in the community  The Khasi are a matrilineal society, in which land is owned and inherited by women and clan lineage is traced through the mother's side (Gurdon, 1914). The youngest daughter plays an important role. She stays back with her parents and gets custodianship of the ancestral property (Mukhim, 2008). People in the community live in both joint as well as nuclear families. In the latter, the father and the mother live with their youngest daughter, who, when married, brings her husband to stay with the family. The other siblings eventually move out of their parent's house and build a new house for themselves. Within households, there is a demarcation between men and women's roles. The man is the rice giver and money earner, performing the heavier tasks. Women perform household chores like cooking, feeding, cleaning and washing. They are the ones who handle the household's marketing concerns, buying or selling. They are also responsible for the cleanliness of the community and its surroundings. The youth and children in the community are involved in many activities, including going to school, helping parents at home or in the field, helping elders with any function in the community, and collecting firewood from the fields and the forest.Traditionally, Khasi Hills has been divided into administrative units known as the Syiemships, which can be equated to the historic princely states of the Khasi Hills (Rao, 1984;Lyngdoh, 2016). Nongtraw is part of the \"Sohra Syiemship\". Autonomous District Councils (MDC) are other important actors for bringing development to the community.   All the households rear chickens (Gallus gallus L., Phasianidae). These chickens roam around the premises of the house during the daytime and sleep in the tree at night. Some of the eggs are consumed at home and the rest are sold at the market. The chickens are given cooked as well as uncooked rice, maize and millet. They are fed in the morning and then set free to roam and eat the waste food from their neighbouring houses and any insects they find. In addition to chickens, 15 households practise piggery, which is an important income source. The paddocks for keeping the pigs (Sus scrofa Erxleben, Suidae) are built on the premise of the household. They are fed cassava, potato, rice and wild banana mixed in um sait khaw (leftover water after washing of rice) with skop sniang (husk). Wild edibles like buckwheat, wild banana, jali (Gynura nepalensis), jatwat, jakhi and jasim are also fed to the pigs twice a day, morning and evening.Beekeeping is another important activity for some households. Big logs are used for keeping the beehives. Another method known as sympa allows the bees to make their hive on a standing tree in the forest. After the hive is completed, the beekeeper takes the beehive home for upkeep and harvesting. Beekeeping households can harvest around 40 litres of honey from two beehives during spring and autumn.Connected with the jhum are the forests from where there is jingbam na khlaw (foods from the forests).    Meat from the wild is also included under jingbam na khlaw and has always been an Some of the people from the community catch fish from nearby streams for household consumption.  A few people will sell some of their catch to other members of the community or to people outside the community. The fish species caught from the nearby stream are dohsher (Garra lissorhynchus, Khasi garra), dohsher iong, sher syngkai, dohthli (Channa orientalis, Ceylon snakehead) and khasaw (Neolissochilus hexagonolepis). The latter come up in the river during the summer season from the plains of Bangladesh and return during winter, only to return the following summer. Dohpieh, dohjiar (Anura sp., species of frogs, the latter being of greenish brown colour), ka lun (Anura sp., tadpole), dohkad (Anura sp.), dohlun (Anura sp.) and tham (Uca sp., crab) are some of the other animals caught from the streams and brought home. Fishing is mostly done during the summer season as the fishes hide themselves in crevices during winter and are difficult to catch.In addition to food production, several important non-food plants are cultivated in the community as well. Synsar (Thysanolaena latifolia, (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda, Poaceae, broom grass) is the only pure-cash crop grown in the jhum fields.It is a main cash income for many households. Shken (Bambusa pallida Munro, Poaceae, a variety of bamboo) is an important crop that people use for constructing houses, weaving baskets, making pigsties and fencing their kitchen garden.Other important non-food plants are phlang tylli, phlang riat, phlang saw, phlang sharait (all types of grass), prut and sla kait (Musa sp., banana leaves). Phlang tylli is used as roof material or to cover the sides of the house; phlang riat is kept in the livestock shed; phlang sharait is kept in the basket where chickens laid their eggs so that they do not break, and sla kait is used to wrap potato seeds. Tangduma (Nicotiana tabacum L., Solanaceae, tobacco) is both cultivated and gathered from the wild by the community for their own consumption.Apart from farming, almost all the households in the community are engaged in thainkriah (basketry), which is the activity of making baskets out of bamboo. Various types and sizes of baskets are produced, including kriah phan, kriahsohsaw, kriahpiat, kriahdkhar, khohtyntong and kriahprah. This ancient skill from their ancestors is currently a major source of income for the community. The work is carried out throughout the season because it is in great demand. Mostly men make baskets, as few women have acquired such knowledge. Shken is the raw material for baskets and it grows around the houses of the people. However, increasing demand cannot be met from local bamboo production. As a result, artisans from the community buy bamboo from other areas to make their baskets.The traditional calendar of Nongtraw has 12 months. It is a lunar calendar, where the beginning and end of the month correspond with the phases of the moon. The people count the month after every four weeks because that is when the moon appears again. According to the community, on the first day of its appearance, the moon cannot be seen because it comes out along with the sun. The people continue to use the traditional calendar for guiding their farming decisions. They increasingly use the Gregorian calendar for other everyday decisions.The The end of autumn and beginning of winter is accompanied by increasing dryness of the soil and people's skin, and headaches amongst the people.January corresponds to kallyalyngkot in the local calendar, which is named so because kylla means \"to turn\", alluding to the fact that in this month people turn the logs in the fire to keep themselves warm. In January, men clear the forest for jhum cultivation and fell trees for dienging (house construction). Logs are collected and kept laterally along the borders of the fields to prevent kynring dieng (soil erosion). Women are also engaged in these activities and they spend time collecting firewood. To get the land ready for sowing, the fallen biomass is burned with the weeds so that the ash can fertilize the soil. This process, called thangdieng, takes place between the 15th and 20th of February and all households from the village take part. The weeds must be burned before the arrival of the rains. Once the ash has settled down, planting can begin. Women are the main actors for sowing seeds. Some of the households start sowing potato and maize and by March the whole village has started planting cassava, jaïing (a domesticated wild edible), sesame, mustard and ri (Phaseolus vulgaris, beans). The month of April is associated with the black colour and is considered inauspicious, so people do not build their houses or get married during this month.In the first week of April, until the 7th and 8th, people start sowing millet, Job's tears and sesame. Shken (a variety of bamboo) and banana are also planted. In June, people start sowing cucumber in their fields. The first batch of potato crop is harvested and another batch of potato and maize is planted. In July, they sow sweet potato, which is the last crop. Summer is the main planting season for the community, which continues until August.Cleaning and weeding of the field is also done in this season, which women perform at least thrice in the year between June and November. Wild edibles are especially plentiful during the summer. Both men and women pluck them on their way home from the fields. In October, millet blooms, whilst crops like Job's tears, sesame and rice bean (Vigna umbellata) reach full maturity. November is the month when people start harvesting. The important crops in this season are yam, millet, Job's tears and sesame. Men help in harvesting blackberry from the trees around the village for sale in the market. In December, the harvest continues with yam, Job's tears, rice bean, sweet potato and cassava. Crops like mustard leaf, motor (Pisum sativum, peas), phan tlang (winter potato), kubi (Brassica oleracea, cabbage) and salad (Lactuca sativa, lettuce) are grown during the winter for self-consumption. Men and women also harvest broom grass in this season. Men and children go to the forest to hunt and trap animals for food, especially mole rats. The community is busy with celebrations.The  Farmers go to this market to sell some of their produce and to buy household necessities, especially meat. Around 20 percent of the goods from the village find their way to this market. Sohra, located a bit further away (13 km) from Sohrarim, is the most important market where people go to sell their produce on a weekly basis. Apart from being the main destination of their agricultural products (70 percent are sold here), Sohra is also the market from where they buy most of their essential items. Sohra's importance is due to the fact that it is an old market that has been in existence since the pre-colonial period. Amongst the bigger markets of the region, it is the most accessible. It has the best diversity and quality of products available in terms of both food and non-food items. Shillong (41 km from Sohrarim) is the biggest market in the region. It is a daily market where people from all over the Khasi-Jaintia region come to sell and buy goods. An estimated 10 percent of the products made by the community reach this market, including baskets and some silverberry and blackberry. Occasionally village members will visit Shillong to deliver baskets and buy essential items. Before the 1960s, there was no settlement at Nongtraw. The area was covered with forests in which the people from the surrounding area practised jhum cultivation. Two brothers from the Nongtraw clan came and settled in the area for farming. After marriage, the two brothers left the area for their wives' villages, following the matrilocal custom of the Khasi. In 1958, four families belonging to four clans came to the area in search of cultivable land and they established the village, naming it Nongtraw after the two brothers who were the first to settle in the area.These four clans came from different villages. Dohling came from Rikyrshang, Rani and Khongsit came from Wahsohra, and Khonglam came from Shnongphong.The second major event for the people was the establishment of the village school in 1964. After the families had settled down for a few years, they decided to open a school.The community applied to establish a school to the parish of Sohra (Cherrapunjee), which was under the priesthood of Father Carmelo. He accepted their request and within a week a school was established. In the beginning, the school had no building and operated out of Khno Diengdoh's house until a building was allotted for that purpose. Initially, the school had only 15 students and one teacher. The establishment of the school attracted people from different villages to Nongtraw, contributing to an increase in population. In fact, the 1960s were characterised by the arrival of new households to the village. At present, the community does not process many of the items for sale. They just take the raw or washed foods, pack them, and sell them according to weight. Sweet potato and cassava are sometimes sold cooked, prepared the night before. Likewise, wild edibles like jaïing and cassava are cleaned and packed in banana leaves tied with threads made out of bamboo skin. An exceptional situation exists for millet.A group of 16 youths from the community have formed a cooperative society for marketing millet. They sell both raw (grains removed from stem) and processed form (ground into a powder) millet, the latter of which is packed nicely for sale at the market. The moment community members arrive at the market, the first task they do is search for a spot to sell the produce. Sometimes, shopkeepers offer to buy their entire produce at a wholesale price, which they sell again in their own shops. To avoid being oppressed by low prices, farmers try to sell the produce on their own. The community is known for bringing organic products for the market and therefore, in some cases, obtaining better prices than other villages.Broom grass is a cash crop that has an entirely different value chain. Unlike other crop products sold by the community, broom grass is not sold directly to consumers. Intermediaries (Marwari in this case, a trading community originally from the Marwar region of Rajasthan) come to Sohrarim and buy the entire stock from the villagers. These traders then take the product to Shillong, where it is sent to other parts of India.In some cases, the broom grass is exported to Bangladesh.Income from livestock contributes an estimated 20 percent of household income. Chickens primarily are sold within the community to friends and other members, whilst their eggs are sold outside the village. Pigs are sold directly to consumers both within and outside the community. Within the village, the pig seller organises a gambling session. Those who take part in this game win a certain amount of meat as well as money. Some households sell honey to middlemen.Amongst non-farm activities, basket making brings a substantial amount of income to the community. Their prices are quite lucrative, and demand is high thanks to the influence of middlemen who help market them in more distant markets. Shillong is the most important market for such baskets. Mahajans (business people) buy the baskets from the artisans and sell them to different business establishments in Shillong, which then sell them to consumers. A variety of daily labour activities and services are carried out in the community, including kit nong (carrying loads up and down the 3 000 stairs that connect Nongtraw to the main road), carpentry, shoh maw (breaking rocks into smaller pieces), infrastructure development under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), domestic work in Sohra or Shillong, thangrnga (charcoal production), driving, teaching, and working in NGOs.Although they participate in several value chains, the community faces many challenges in accessing the market to sell their products.Because there is no motorable road to their village, they have to carry their products from the village up 3 000 steps to Sohrarim to reach the road. When they reach the top, they have to hire and pay people to carry their goods to Sohra or Shillong markets. Oftentimes, they have to wait for long hours to catch a vehicle to the markets and they may not make it there on time.If they reach the market late, they may have trouble obtaining a good price for their goods.There is no fixed price for selling the produce, as it depends on demand and quality. The mahajan to whom they sell the produce will offer them low prices because most buyers have gone back home. Those who sell on their own also tend to lower their prices because they have no place to store their produce for the next day. Demand for honey has increased since 2000, with the price going up to INR 550 13 per kg, but the middlemen take all the profit. The beekeepers themselves have limited capital and recurring investments like construction and maintenance of beehives is very high.Income is spent on many things, including different kinds of food and drinks, dresses, toys for the children, and other household materials like utensils. Money is also spent on rice and in tea shops during the journey to the market and on the way home as well. Other activities that require cash include transportation fares, education for children (school fees, books, uniforms, etc.), donations to the church, medicines and treatments, building houses, electricity bills, disc TVs, and recharging mobile phones. Expenses for agricultural needs include renting the land for cultivation and purchasing seeds. Potato is an important crop for the community and its seeds have to be purchased every year by the farmers. People also buy piglets from outside the village. Artisans have to buy bamboos from other areas to make their baskets since local production cannot meet demand. In addition to this regular spending, some money is spent on special occasions such as weddings, birthdays, Easter, Christmas and New Year's celebrations. Moments of grief like funerals also incur a lot of expense in the form of contributions to the bereaved family. During such times, money is required for serving tea and food to those who have come to the funeral service. Money is also spent playing teer, a local gambling sport.The community benefits from various government subsidies and welfare schemes. India is a welfare state and it has many programmes for rural development, upliftment and poverty eradication. The community receives support from different schemes, including the PDS, pension scheme, Integrated Child Development Schemes (ICDS), Widow Scheme for Housing, scheme for child delivery, PHE for water supply, ASHA, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS),and Meghalaya Health Insurance Scheme (MHIS). All these subsidies are helping the community by reducing their financial burden and enabling access to services, such as vaccinations for which the cost may otherwise be prohibitive. According to men, people can survive without subsidies, but it will entail great difficulties. Women, on the other hand, agree that subsidies have helped a great deal in earning a liveable wage but also insist that they can sustain themselves in its absence as well. They would have to work harder, but they would be able to manage. Thus, supported by the Government's welfare schemes, the local food system is able to provide income opportunities for the community.The community consumes a large variety of foods. Starches (cereals and tubers) are the most common food group (consumed by 100 percent of participants in the thematic discussions in the past 24 hours), followed by dark green leafy vegetables (> 50 percent consumed in the past 24 hours).Eggs are eaten three to four times a week and meat and flesh foods are consumed weekly. People in the community do not often consume five food groups a day. Nevertheless, the community is of the opinion that their local diets are adequate to fulfil their nutritional needs. By and large, they have enough cash income to buy food from the market when they need it. Nevertheless, they are not completely immune to food insecurity. In 2017, the community suffered huge losses in agriculture because of heavy rainfall. The people could not start their farming on time and the broom grass plants (the main cash income for many) were damaged. As a result of these losses, people had to reduce consumption and were only able to eat a few kinds of food items. This situation was not unique to a few households but was faced by everyone in the community.Jingbam na iew (foods from the market) have become important in the recent past. Around 40-50 percent of the food now comes from the market. A diversity of nutritious foods is available in the market, including fruits, vegetables, pulses and meats, amongst other foods. People consider carrot, lettuce, grapes and apples to be amongst the healthiest foods, which can be easily bought from Sohra. The food available in the markets is generally considered to be of good quality. However, women noted that they do not know whether the fruits or vegetables in the market are fresh and it is difficult to find out if the food items purchased have been grown using pesticides.They have more faith in their local production in terms of quality and health effects. Food sold in the Nongtraw market is from the local landscape and people know that the food has been produced in a safe manner and will not have any side effects. Nevertheless, the diversity of foods available in the local Nongtraw market is low.Whilst the availability of foods in the market is good, people's access to it depends on availability of cash. Many in the community have adequate income to buy good food from the market, but for some it can be an issue. Currently, people spend about half of their income on purchasing food, with a single household spending around INR 2 000 14 per week. Smaller households with less income spend around INR 1 500 15 per week. People would like to have more of certain food items. In particular, meat and fish are highly sought, but they are expensive and out of reach for many households. The case is similar with processed food, oils, and orange-and red-fleshed fruits and vegetables. Such people go to bed early to rise early in the morning. Generally, people in the village consider rice, meat and vegetables to be an ideal meal. Although they would like to have good diets, there are some practical difficulties. For example, sometimes both parents have to leave early in the morning to work in the fields and they do not have time to cook vegetables.Meat is only available two to three days a week because of its cost and perishability. People typically consume meat on the days after going to the market.Prior to the 1970s, food insecurity was a big issue in Nongtraw. Not having enough food to eat was a constant preoccupation. There was no breakfast, food at home was much less than today, and whatever was available was seasonal in nature.At times people were forced to skip meals and eat less than what they thought was needed. Sometimes, food would run out and people had to stay hungry for the night. This might happen when relatives would come unannounced. To deal with food insecurity in the family, parents would reduce the quantity of food. For example, instead of cooking three pieces of yam they would cook only two. Another strategy was to replace the staple food with another item. If there was not enough rice for everyone, the parents would ask the children to eat cassava instead. People had much less cash income and they were often unable to buy rice from the market. Sometimes when food items were less, people would mix rice and vegetables instead of cooking them separately. At the community level, collective sharing was an important strategy during periods of food insecurity. Such strategies were common 20 years ago.Now things have improved. After Meghalaya attained statehood in 1972, the area's fortune experienced an upturn, with the Government improving its service delivery, the transportation network getting better, and the market becoming more prevalent. Livelihood opportunities also increased, with more options for daily wage labour and sales of agri-food products. In this context, the introduction of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) was a positive step for the people that improved their financial status. Working as miners in the nearby coalfields of Laitryngew, Sohra and distant locations like Jowai was an important source of income for many people from the community for a while. However, since the 2014 ban on coal extraction from the National Green Tribunal (NGT), people are not engaged in that work anymore. Basketry is an ancient practice for the community, but it has risen as an incomegeneration activity since 2000 as the price became more lucrative once several middlemen began marketing them in more distant markets. This has encouraged many people to learn the skill and has brought additional income to the community. In the past, most of the products from the community reached only Sohra and Laitryngew, with few reaching distant markets like Shillong. Now bamboo baskets from the community reach markets like Mawngap (on the way to Mawphlang Sacred Forest). Broom grass, traditionally present in the jhum fields, was introduced as an important cash crop, which started to be commercialized in the 1990s. After the market for crops, especially broom grass, started becoming more lucrative, families in the area began replacing thatch roofs with tin as a symbol of increasing prosperity. Better governance, availability of money, and a stronger market from which they could buy a diversity of food throughout the year were factors that led to an increase in income and the amount of food consumed in the community. Notably, the introduction of the PDS in the 1980s led to a big rise in the consumption of rice, which was only rarely consumed in the past. According to the women, however, the village's food supply sufficiency has dropped since 2005. Declining soil fertility is one reason for this trend.It can be said that the adequacy of income earned in the community has improved over time. However, whilst household income has been rising since the 1990s, at the same time, so have the various demands for the lifestyle people choose to adopt. New needs have emerged whilst old ones have transformed. For example, rather than using locally available traditional medicines, people now use modern medicines and have more associated medical expenses; instead of constructing houses with local materials, they are building concrete houses; they now purchase trendy clothing rather than using their traditional cloth; and they must pay bills for phone, electricity, etc. Expenses for agriculture have also increased in terms of renting land and purchasing seed and piglets. As expenses have risen, MGNREGS along with other schemes like ICDS, Person with Disability, Widow Pension Scheme, and the MHIS have helped the community increase their earnings to meet the demands. Adequacy of income therefore is not static but keeps on changing as income also changes.Despite improvements in incomes and food security, according to the community, nutrition and health have seen a decline in recent years.People are less healthy, some illnesses have become more frequent, and new ailments have started to appear. The body mass of the present generation has declined, with strength also dropping drastically. People no longer can carry heavy objects like they once did, and they tire more easily. Gastric issues and diarrhea are more frequent amongst community members and their memory is not as sharp as it used to be. Alcoholism has increased in the community, with many young people mired in its grips. Previously, only people above 30 would consume alcohol, but now 18-year-olds are buying alcohol from the market with their own money.Both men and women tend to agree that the changes in food consumption have had a negative impact in terms of health and nutrition.With the increasing availability of cash income, people's desire to consume different varieties of food not found in their area also increased.In The availability of good soil has made cultivation of the various crops and life in Nongtraw possible. The community has learned to read certain signs to determine the quality of the soil. Soil mixed with dew saw (red soil), dew iong (black soil) and particles of rocks is fertile and good for cultivation. Soils with an abundance of earthworms are deeper and have more moisture, an indication of good health. The presence of trees (especially fruit trees) is also good for the soil because it helps prevent erosion and increase water absorption. In contrast, according to the community, soil that does not mix with other types of soil, like sandy soil, is not good for cultivation because it does not contain enough fertility. Sandy soil needs to be combined with other soils to be suitable for cultivation. The return of weeds and trees to the previous jhum site is an indication that the soil is ready for cultivation.Soil and land quality for cultivation is not uniform throughout the landscape. As such, the community adjusts by growing specific crops in certain locations. These decisions are not just based on soil quality but also orientation of the land and its exposure to sunlight. If the plot is in the rngi (south-facing slopes), people grow all types of crops but if the fields are in dymmiew (north-facing slopes), cassava and sweet potato cannot be grown.The community has local practice and rules for maintaining soil fertility. In Jhum cultivation, the land is left fallow for 7 to 15 years to allow it to recuperate its fertility through natural formation of humus. Thang bun, the burning of biomass, is practised so that it can be used as manure.Sometimes people bring ash of wood from their home to add to the soil in the fields to improve its fertility. The people in the community practise mixed cropping to maintain soil fertility and to produce as much food with the available land. In the jhum field, potato is grown alongside jaïing, sesame, millet, mustard, beans, sweet potato, maize, cucumber, cocoyams and Job's tears. These crops grow in the same plot but are harvested at different seasons. In the kitchen garden, compost made from kitchen scraps and pig manure is also used to enhance soil fertility.A major problem in hilly areas such as Nongtraw is soil erosion. The community is well aware of this and takes certain steps to guard against it. Terraces are built in jhum fields to slow down the flow of water and stabilize the soil. Logs are kept laterally at the edges of the plots to prevent soil being washed away. People also grow shken (variety of bamboo) and synsar (broom grass) along field margins during the main rainy season to prevent soil erosion. These plants have deep roots and hold the soil in place during heavy rainfall events.The most important sources of energy used in the food system are human energy, firewood, electricity, charcoal and solar energy. Human energy is the major source in the community for carrying out agricultural work, wild sourcing, selling and procuring products from the market, preparing food, and other activities related to the local food system. The community does not use much inanimate energy, instead depending on human energy to undertake most of their livelihood activities. With the topography being incredibly steep, people do not use any draft animals and rely on only a few power tools to support their work.Firewood is the major energy source for cooking and heating water. It is known as kynrad (something that provides good care and makes people feel alive because of its presence). The people light firewood as soon as they wake up in the morning and it is lit until they go to sleep at night. Without it, there is a feeling of emptiness in the house. People cook with the traditional constructed hearth. Three stones known as maw byrsiew provide support for the pots, and above that is the ryngien, a hanging platform for drying meat and storing firewood.In some cases, the shawla (stove) is also used to cook food. Firewood is entirely sourced from the local landscape. Charcoal, produced from burning wood, is less commonly used for cooking but is preferred for warming the house during winter by burning it in the shawla (stove). Some charcoal is produced within the village from fuelwood in jhum fields, but most of it is purchased from the market.Electricity is an increasingly important source of energy in the community. for household consumption and livestock needs, as well as crops in the garden during winter.Of all the needs in the community, the highest demand for water is for domestic washing and cleaning. Drinking and cooking are other important uses of water. Amongst the livestock, pigs require a lot of water. Some households that rear pigs clean the shed once a week and others clean it every day. Bathing the pig also requires one to two buckets. Jhum cultivation is rain-fed but water is needed for the kitchen gardens. For a small garden, around 20 litres of water is required every day during the dry months, November to March. A handful of houses grow flowers and they can use around 50 liters of water per day during the winter season. These are generally the most water-demanding activities in the community.The people follow certain rules to ensure water availability both in terms of quantity and quality.It is strictly prohibited to dirty the source and the catchment around it is protected from any kind of deforestation. Water from the source is tested regularly to assess its suitability for human consumption. The community also has a filter, which cleans the water from the main source.Cleaning the village water tank occurs once a year. A general announcement is made so that the community can gather and clean the tank. At the household level, umsohkhawja (water that has been used to wash hands after eating food) and umkhawja (water that has been used to wash the rice before cooking) is given to pigs. Some crops are vulnerable to water scarcity, such as beans, mint, French bean, sohthliem, lettuce and mustard leaves. The community cultivates other crops that are tolerant to climatic stress, including maize, turmeric, cassava, sweet potato, phan jata and sohphan (varieties of potato), guava, banana, pineapple, blackberry, orange, sohjem (Citrus × aurantium, lime), citron, ginger and jaïing.Households in the community generate biodegradable wastes like vegetable skins, spoiled food and sohkhawja (cooked rice that falls on the ground whilst eating). They also generate non-biodegradable wastes like torn clothes, used cups, plates, buckets, pots, umbrellas, mura (local stool), chairs, broken spoons, etc. At the community level, plastic bags, bottles, damaged disposable cups and other kinds of wastes are often left behind when programmes are held in the community. When people visit the community, they bring plastic water bottles, which are often thrown away without any thought. People have different ways of disposing waste depending on its nature.Some people collect kitchen scraps and feed them to the pigs. Fruit and vegetable scraps are also thrown into the compost pit in the kitchen garden, a practice that was promoted by the Soil Department a couple of years ago.Traditionally, biomass, crop residues and ashes from shifting cultivation were collected in one place and left for mulching. Some households use these wastes as manure by keeping them near the roots of vegetables in their kper (kitchen garden). The same is done in the jhum plots as well, where the wastes are used as manure for the crops. Use of crop residues as manure for crops in jhum fields is a practice that people have been doing for a long time. Some of the seeds from the crops consumed in the house are kept in the kitchen near the fireplace to control weevils' infestation so that they can be planted next season. People collect chicken droppings and sell them to farmers outside the village who use that as manure to grow crops like potato. The community prefers not to use the chicken manure because it is highly acidic and has to be mixed with soil. Pig droppings, on the other hand, are used more commonly as manure for the crops and some sell them outside the community. For dirty water, some households have soak pits. However, most of these pits are already full and people allow the water to flow into their kitchen garden.Dustbins are kept around the village to stop waste from being strewn all over the area. Metals are sold to dealers from Mylliem, who buy them according to weight for recycling. Other nonbiodegradable wastes like clothes, cups, plates, buckets, pots, umbrella, chair, stool and spoons have until recently been thrown in a pit dug for the purpose located near the school garden.People would then light fire to the wastes. In People still follow traditional practices in jhum cultivation to help them maintain and protect soil quality. At the same time, they admit that soil quality was much better in the past. This is because the fallow period was longer (around 15 years), which allowed the soil to regain its fertility. Now, that period has become shorter (7-10 years). With an increase in population, there is now more demand on the land. The forest area is declining and the fallen leaves from trees are essential for maintaining fertility of the soil. WithKong Healthynoris Kshiar weeding in jhum fields.© Lyngdoh NESFAS/ Alethea Kordor.fewer trees available from the landscape, the community has seen a decrease in the number of logs available to keep at the edges of the plots as well as landscape terracing. According to the community, these changes have resulted in a decrease in the yield of crops like sweet potato. Now more ash is brought from home to maintain the fertility of the soil.Demand for non-renewable fuel and electricity has increased in the community over time.Since the installation of the electrical supply in 1992, the demand for electricity has progressively increased to provide light sources and charge electronic devices, amongst other uses. Previously, people used torches made out of local materials, such as prew (waste from bamboo) for lighting. Kerosene lamps were also a primary lighting source but are now used only as a backup when the electricity fails. The community's increasing link with the market is associated with an increased dependence on fossil fuels. These are used to transport food and goods from elsewhere for local consumption and to bring community goods to buyers in Shillong and other parts of India. The production practices for foods sourced from the market may also be more dependent on non-renewable energy compared to locally produced foods.Local food production, wild sourcing and processing remains, however, based in locally sourced renewable energy sources, especially firewood and human energy. Firewood is currently sufficient but sourcing it has become more difficult. Less wood is available from nearby areas and more travel is required. Some people have either started buying firewood from outside the community or they pay people to collect firewood for them from the surrounding landscape. In the past, children used to collect firewood from the forest but now they are sent to schools to learn rather than work in the fields.Children collect firewood only during holidays.Human energy is critical in the local food system and demand for human labour is increasing in the system since people are becoming engaged in many activities other than farming, such as daily wage labour and basket making. Nonetheless, compared to the past, there is less time to work in the fields. The shortage of human labour can cause problems at times, such as during blackberry harvesting, which is time sensitive and delays can lead to a loss of harvest. The increasing role of daily wage labour is also associated with an increase in drudgery. The scope of relaxation was greater when people worked in their own fields. When they are doing daily wage labour in other fields, those who own the fields dictate their time. The case is similar for people who work in MGNREGA, where they have to follow rules and regulations for breaks, lunchtime, and when they start and end their workday.Work in the fields is still very much exclusively manual and people continue to use traditional tools, such as machetes, iron cups and spades for cultivation, hunting and wild sourcing. These tools are mainly made from iron and wood. Iron smelting is a traditional practice known by the Khasi (Prokop and Suliga, 2013). A few innovations in production practices have occurred. For example, the use of the wait (machete) has decreased compared to the past as people now prefer kurat instead, which is faster for cutting down trees and sawing logs. Many people also now use sdie (axes), which have become more available at the market. Perhaps the greatest innovation and change regarding human drudgery has occurred in food processing.People in the community used to grind riewhadem (maize), krai (millet) and sohriew (Job's tears) with the help of grinding stones. Now the community has an electric-powered grinding machine, which has lessened the burden for people. The change of diet has also contributed to less drudgery in food processing. In addition to the installation of water storage tanks, the community has also received water tanks from Khadar Shnong Organization (KSO) and Meghalaya Rural Development Society (MRDS). The people were taught about rainwater harvesting and how to store water in times of water scarcity. This intervention has improved the level of water capture and efficiency of water use in the community. The rise of pig farming as a livelihood activity has increased water demand in the community, although some recycling of water in the household is practised: umsohkhawja (water that has been used to wash hands after eating food) and umkhaja (water that has been used to wash the rice before cooking) is given to the pigs. In general, water limitation is not an issue in Nongtraw.The protection of waterways and water quality has improved through better management of human waste. In the past, open defecation was the norm. People would go to the forest to relieve themselves. Now, that is prohibited and even when there are large church service gatherings, people are not allowed to defecate anywhere. Awareness programmes conducted by various government departments and NGOs were behind that change, as they educated people on the negative impact of improper waste management on the environment. Since 2012, every house has its own toilet.Whilst management of biodegradable waste has improved over time, the management of nonbiodegradable wastes has become a challenge.In the past, bamboo was a resourceful product from which many traditional implements were made, like baskets (small and big), ruh doi, tyndong mluh, maloi tongum (bamboo mug),tang moh (salt container) and rusiangja-jyntah (container for keeping spoons). But now plastic and aluminium have replaced bamboo as the materials from which household items are made.A high diversity of crops is cultivated in Nongtraw. More than 60 species were named by the participants in the thematic discussions that are cultivated in the jhum field or in the kitchen garden. These include cereals (3) and other starches (6), pulses (3), vegetables (17), fruits ( 22), nuts and seeds (1), and other edible species (8). Many of the crops grown by the community have multiple varieties, for a total of 34 recorded.In particular, potato has 13 varieties, cocoyam has 7 varieties and sweet potato has 7 varieties (Table 3.6). The other crops have fewer varieties. In addition to cultivating and raising a large diversity of animals, people in Nongtraw collect a large diversity of wild edibles (such as plants, honey and mushrooms). Men and women pluck wild edibles on their way home from the fields and they collect them in the forest. Honey is quite sought after and people go to the forest to collect it. When they reach a beehive, they introduce themselves to the bee, informing the bees that they will only take what is required. Then they create smoke by burning jute so that the bees do not sting the person collecting the honey. Before the honey is collected, the queen bee is removed and kept inside the ruh ngap (basket) so that the others can follow her. There are no specific rules and regulations for harvesting wild edibles from the forest. Everyone is free to do so in any way in their own plots and in the forest. However, if they want to access private lands, permission from the landowner must be sought. Sometimes people from surrounding communities like Sohrarim collect wild edibles from the community's lands, as there are plenty in the area.In addition to gathering wild edibles, people from the community hunt and fish in nearby forests and streams. Men and especially children go to the forest to hunt and trap animals for food. At other times, they kill animals to prevent them from destroying their agricultural plots. People use guns or ryntih (bow) and nampliang (arrow) for killing animals from a distance. People also use jri siat sim (catapult) for hunting wild fowl. Apart from stalking and bringing down the prey, people also use pap (a trap that looks like a pincer) to capture animals. Wait (machete) and tari (knife) are other tools used during the hunt. Animals are hunted during specific periods of the year. Animals like dkhan (mole rat) are greatly sought after and are trapped during the winter. In the summer, they usually burrow deep into the soil and are difficult to find. Squirrels, on the other hand, are caught in the summer, with traps, because they come to the fields to eat the maize crops.Only a few people from the community fish in the rivers of Wahsohra village. Fishing occurs primarily by a few people who operate a small business and sell the fish in the village. They mostly fish during the summer season as the fishes hide in crevices during winter and are difficult to catch. Furthermore, the khasaw fishes only come up the river during the summer season from the plains of Bangladesh and they return there during winter. Women occasionally make the trip to the streams during the winter season to bathe and wash clothes so they can spend some leisure time, and they often fish as well. The techniques used for fishing are riyngwiang (fishing pole) attached with hooks, khwai sai um (fishing line), tong bniej (a kind of net), tong jar (fishing net), tutia (sodium carbonate), and poison. Insects are important as bait. Some people use musari (mosquito net) as fishing nets to catch fish. They throw it to the water and bring it out with fishes and other aquatic creatures trapped in it. When women go fishing, they put on the jain tapmoh (headscarf) and jain kyrshah (traditional shawl). When the fish are caught, they are kept inside khohsiah or ruh (small baskets made for keeping fishes).The community is aware that the health of the wild edibles and wild animals depends very much on the state of the surrounding forest.A few areas in the landscape are under formal protection and are actively being restored. These areas are the Village Development Committee (VDC) lands, Wah Shah Roh, and the area under the water source. Farming is not allowed on VDC lands without the permission of the Durbar Shnong (village council). Strict regulations exist regarding harvesting of bamboo varieties like ktang (bamboo bigger in size) and rynai (bamboo with medium size) from VDC lands. Hunting, cutting and harvesting of other wild products is also strictly managed. Furthermore, planting of trees occurs in this area to improve the vegetation cover. In Wah Shah Roh, the Durbar Shnong has banned agriculture. This is because the area is highly susceptible to landslides and the community is apprehensive that the disruption of the soil could eventually lead to damage to their houses and water storage tanks.Cutting trees up to 10 metres from the water source is strictly prohibited, as are digging of soil and open defecation. This is done to protect the catchment. Furthermore, permission has to be sought to cut trees from law adong (restricted forest). According to the rules, people are allowed to cut trees only for purposes like house construction, construction of livestock sheds, etc. Collection of timber for firewood is only allowed from one's own field. These rules are important to prevent soil erosion, which would negatively affect farming. Wild plants collection would also decrease if the forests are removed from the area, thus depriving people of the food and medicinal benefits that they currently receive.The community maintains many of their traditional and indigenous crops (e.g. The most important institution in the community governing the use of natural resources is the Durbar Shnong (village council) (Lyngdoh, 2016). The community sources its food from both private land holdings and community lands.Both community land and private land holdings are governed by the rules framed by the village durbar. In addition to the Durbar Shnong, the VDC plays an important role in managing natural resources. The VDC has a chairperson, secretary, treasurer and ordinary residents of the village as the general members.Its most important function is to obtain land for cultivation. The VDC also makes rules and regulations for harvesting of natural products from the community land. Their activities are done with the intention that in the future, people will not face land shortages to grow food and the landscape can continue to provide the natural resources needed to secure their livelihoods.At present there are three community lands:(1) near the water source of the community;(2) Ancestral lands are handed down through the family, usually given to the youngest daughter along with the ancestral house (Mukhim, 2008).The woman is custodian of the land and is responsible for taking care of it and maintaining it, but she cannot sell it without the permission of her maternal uncle. If she so desires, she can share the land with her siblings. If there are no female children, the ancestral house goes to the youngest son, but the land is divided amongst the other siblings. In the case of bri (self-acquired property), the owner can choose to transfer it to anyone (such as his wife, son, daughter or someone else) based on personal choice. On some occasions, the same formula used for ancestral land is used (i.e. priority is given to the youngest daughter or son, in cases of only male children). In the case of only male siblings, sometimes the parents offer the land for rent and divide the money amongst their children. ). Thus, in the recent past, community-based landscape governance has increased. The inclusiveness of governance is also increasing. In the past, only men who were 30 years old or older were allowed to take part in the proceedings of the Durbar. Women were not allowed because it was believed that they might disturb the decisionmaking process because they were supposedly more talkative. In 2004, when the VDC was formed, it intervened and advocated for women to take part in the Durbar, which began occurring in 2008.Whilst in some ways governance of natural resources has become stronger, at the same time, since 2016, the Government has been intervening in the functioning of the community. The Government has implemented some new rules, notably one that deprives the local people from the practice of shifting cultivation. The Forest Department suggested that people plant more trees in areas where trees have been cut down.Additionally, from now on, a written document will be required from the Government for those who bought lands from others. According to the people, the Government does not fully recognize the rights of land use by the community. This is because it does not understand the community's procedures and laws. As such, the community's right over land, water and other natural resources is decreasing. There is thus a keen tussle between community members who are trying to strengthen the use and governance of natural resources and the Government, which is trying to increase its influence on the same.The land on which the community now resides initially belonged to the Tariang clan. Because of a rise in population, the community bought some parcels of land from the owners. This land was again distributed to the members who had contributed to the fund for purchasing the land. These lands became private holdings. In 2004, more land was bought from the clan. But this time, the land was for community use and was not distributed as private plots.A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below. The food system of Nongtraw shows many indications that it is resilient and endowed with the capacity for adaptation and transformation.1. Exposed to disturbance: Over the years, the community has experienced many environmental shocks including storms, landslides and unpredictability in rainfall, as well as pest outbreaks. Although disruptive when they occur, the community has recovered well after these events and they have not had an adverse impact in the long run.The community has a high self-sufficiency in food production (50-60 percent) by farming, raising livestock and wild sourcing. These activities also provide an important contribution to incomes (approximately 60 percent from crops and livestock). Local markets are supplying many foods that are produced within the region and, in this sense, a high level of regional autonomy in food provision is observed.A few shops operate in the village but they offer a limited range of products. Accessing the weekly markets in Sohra and Laitryngew is challenging because of the required 3 000 steps, demanding effort and time. It can then delay community members' arrival to the market and contribute to lower prices.The community has several institutions that support and strengthen the food system with high participation from local people. The activities of these groups are working to strengthen capacities in local food production, market local foods, and protect natural resources, amongst other themes relevant to the food system.The community is always learning, adjusting and improving its practices. They have introduced new rules for protecting forest areas and controlling hunting and fishing in reaction to observed changes in soil quality, forest cover and wildlife populations. Over the past few decades, the community has made many adjustments to its livelihood strategy to increase their incomes and meet emerging challenges and opportunities.Elders are respected in the community and the community maintains many traditional practices, crops and livestock.The community wants to maintain their traditions related to their local food system for the future and new ways are being used to document and transmit traditional knowledge.The school garden gives children an opportunity to learn about local crops but the responsibility of maintaining tradition rests mainly on individual households rather than on the community. Older students must travel outside the village to go to school and accessing medicine and medical attention can also require travelling outside the village.The community's food system is very much linked with the natural resources found in the local landscape. Whilst depending strongly on locally available resources, the food system is able to provide a high number of products to support the livelihoods of the community, whilst not experiencing grave issues with water scarcity or shortage of fuelwood or labour.The community recognizes that if the forest is healthy, the soil is also in good condition and they have accordingly taken action to protect the forest areas to improve their yields in the jhum fields.Positive interactions between crops and animals and between different crops are recognized and leveraged in their farming practices.The community produces foods with a diversity of nutritional values, including starches, legumes, meat and flesh foods, eggs, nuts and seeds, dark green leafy vegetables, orange-and red-fleshed fruit and vegetables, other vegetables, and other fruits. In addition to providing a wide diversity of nutritional values, the local landscape also provides a number of other useful products and functions such as livestock feed, medicines, structural materials, and wood for heating and cooking. Several stress-tolerant varieties and breeds are maintained that provide harvest security during periods of climate stress.Multiple species and varieties are maintained in the farming system for different food groups, which provide a safety net for crop failure. Wild areas and the market provide an important supplement for local production.The community enjoys a diversity of ecosystems and land usages in the local landscape where they source both food and non-food items. Land rotation, mixed cropping and some amount of agroforestry in the form of coffee plantations are a handful of the practices the community follows to increase heterogeneity in the system. A few weaker points in resilience were highlighted in the assessment.13. Reasonably profitable: Agriculture, including farming crops and raising livestock, is estimated to provide 60 percent of income. Secondary employment has an important role and the community depends on various subsidies and welfare schemes of the government. According to men, without subsidies people can survive but it will entail great difficulties. Women, on the other hand, agree that subsidies have helped a great deal in earning a liveable wage but also insist that they can sustain themselves in its absence as well.They would have to work harder but they would be able to manage the situation.The food-producing activities in Nongtraw are agriculture, livestock rearing, and some amount of fishing and collection from the forest. The most important form of agriculture that people follow is jhum, wherein a new plot of land is cleared every year for farming.The old plots are allowed to remain fallow for a period of 7-15 years, after which they are again put under cultivation. The jingbam na kper (kitchen garden) is another important production space. Around half the food consumed by the community is estimated to come from local production. Collecting wild edibles is an important supplement for the diet, especially in the summer months when they are highly available. Along with occasional fish and small animals, wild sourcing provides an estimated 10 percent of local diets. The remaining 40-50 percent of the diet is sourced from the market and PDS. In addition to its important subsistence role, agriculture also provides an important contribution to the income of the community (around 60 percent).Various products are sold in local markets directly to consumers or to shopkeepers for local consumption. Broom grass is a cash crop sold to more distant parts of India. Basketry and daily wage labor are other critical income sources. The major markets visited by the community are located 4-13 km from Sohrarim, which is an hour's climb from the village.Kong Pliemon Barim harvesting tapioca.© Lyngdoh NESFAS/ Riteilang Khongrangjem.The agricultural system in Nongtraw involves very low input. Jhum cultivation is rain-fed and fertilized by ash from burning the felled biomass. Abundant water from the nearby water source is used to water the garden crops in the winter and to bathe and clean after the pigs. Food production and processing are based primarily on locally sourced renewable energy, particularly human labour and fuelwood. Biodegradable wastes are well managed as kitchen scraps are fed to the pigs and to produce compost, which then fertilizes the crops along with pig manure.Recent improvements have been made in managing human waste and non-biodegradable wastes. Protection of forests and wildlife has also been strengthened recently with new rules formed by the community for regulating hunting, fishing and cutting trees. The governance of natural resources is led by the traditional village council with a growing body of communitybased organizations supported and encouraged by several NGOs and government institutes.The community produces a high diversity of crops. More than 60 species were named by the participants along with a high number of varieties, particularly for potato and cocoyam.The local agrobiodiversity includes a rich heritage of indigenous and traditional crops, varieties and breeds such as 8 varieties of cocoyam, 13 varieties of potato, and 2 varieties of finger millet. The diversity in local production contributes to diet diversity in the community.Starches such as rice and tubers are eaten daily. Dark green leafy vegetables, eggs and meat are also eaten regularly. People are of the opinion that local diets are adequate for fulfilling their nutritional needs but they are not completely immune to food insecurity. Heavy rains in 2017 meant the community could not plant on time and damaged the broom crop, which is a main income source for many. Therefore, the community had to reduce food consumption and eat a more limited number of foods. Markets are reasonably accessible and stocked with a diversity of locally produced nutrientdense foods but prices can be an issue for some people to buy food. Whilst the adequacy of income earned in the community has improved over time, at the same time so have the various demands for the lifestyle people choose to adopt. The amount of chemicals used in production of foods from the market is also a concern for the health and well-being of the community.The community sources its food from both private land holdings and community lands, the latter of which are controlled by the VDC. So far, access to enough land is not an issue. However, since 2016, the Government has started to deprive local people of the practice of shifting cultivation.According to the people, the Government does not fully recognize the rights of land use by the community. Private land available for cultivation is also decreasing day by day because of an increase in population. Yields are also decreasing. These factors could have an adverse impact on local food production in the future.Highlights of the 13 indicators of resilience as per Cabell and Oelofse (2012) are several and we summarise some of them. First, the community has recovered well after climatic shocks including storms, landslides and unpredictability in rainfall, as well as pest outbreaks. The community has further demonstrated a high self-sufficiency in food production (50-60 percent) via farming, raising livestock and wild sourcing as well as local markets that provide for high regional autonomy. Thanks to several institutions that are well organised to produce and market local foods, as well as to protect natural resources, the community has demonstrated that they are socially self-organised. Moreover, there are clear indicators for reflective and shared learning as the community is continuously adjusting its practices, for instance by devising new rules for protecting forest areas and controlling hunting and fishing. Respect for elders is another highlight of resilience that has led to a continuous transmission of traditional ecological knowledge and sustainable, ancient old practices to the younger generation.Thanks to an abundancy of natural resources available in the local landscape, there are no grave issues with water scarcity or shortage of fuelwood or labour. Positive interactions between crops and animals and between different crops are recognised and leveraged in their farming practices. The community is also ecologically selfregulated. Recognising the interlinkage between forest and soil health, particular attention is given to adequate fallow periods and rotation in the jhum fields.Resilience is also demonstrated in the diverse range of foods that provide for both a complete nutrition in people's diets as well as multiple functions including livestock feed, medicine and housing material, for instance. Crop varietal diversity also confers greater harvest security in times of climate stress. Diverse land use including land rotation, mixed cropping and some amount of agroforestry in the form of coffee plantations are a few of the practices the community follows to increase heterogeneity in the system.According to community members, one of the greatest strengths of their community is good and clean governance. The functioning of the Durbar Shnong, a premier traditional institution, is transparent and it works according to the interest of the people, making decisions for the common good. The Rangbah Shnong and the executive committee perform their duties with full participation of the community. Nongtraw is the first village under the Hima Sohra that has allowed women to sit in the Durbar Shnong, which is seen as a positive change as they can now have greater input on social issues in the community. They are members of the executive committee as well. If men do not attend the Durbar, they have to pay a fine but if women are unable to attend, they are exempted because they have multiple duties to perform. As a result, everyone's voice is heard and there is welfare without any discrimination. The future of the local food system depends greatly on the quality of governance.Within the community there is strong unity, with everyone actively participating in making decisions for the betterment of the community.A close bond exists between the members of the community, which helps create understanding and cooperation amongst themselves. Participation in community activities is in fact quite strong compared to neighbouring communities. For example, when someone passes away in the community, everyone comes out to help the deceased family. In the same way, the community also has strong relationships with outside agencies like the Government, NGOs and other institutions that support and offer guidance in agriculture, marketing and other socio-economic initiatives. The interaction with groups from outside the village has broadened the thinking of the people.The community also believes that being able to maintain and sustain their traditional farming practices by avoiding fertilizers and pesticides is one of their greatest strengths. Agriculture offers a way for community members to interact and connect with one another, allowing them to help each other in times of food insecurity and sharing/exchanging of seeds and food within the village. The traditional knowledge regarding the food system is still being passed on to new generations.At the same time, certain weaknesses exist that the community wishes to remove. One of the most important weaknesses is having office members of the Durbar Shnong who are not educated. The education infrastructure has remained the same since the establishment of the school in 1964, but the community would like to upgrade it and have a secondary school as well. Health infrastructure is also quite weak, with only one traditional healer and the ICDS centre functioning more as a storeroom.From the ocean to the mountains: storytelling in the Pacific IslandsFishing and agroforestry food system of the Melanesians SI people in Solomon Islands \"We are a welcoming community that works together, and we are proud of our baked ngali nuts.\"Woman from the community in Baniata.This study characterised the food system of the village of Baniata, on Rendova Island in the Western Province of Solomon Islands. The original land-owning tribe of Baniata was Irurego, but currently eight different tribes live amongst one another. The community is self-sufficient, with the majority of food production, 70 percent, by agroforestry farming, fishing, hunting and wild sourcing; however, an increasing percentage (30 percent) of their food is sourced from imported or processed foods from the market. Home foods are produced without agrochemical inputs, as villagers have expressed interest in maintaining organic production practices. All villagers rely on agri-food sale as their primary source of income including garden produce, copra (dried coconuts) and ngali nuts.Traditional foods are eaten daily in Baniata, often mixed with imported and highly processed foods. Food insecurity is perceived as a result of seasonal availability of home garden foods, impacts of pests and diseases on crops, changes in weather patterns and impacts on seas, high costs of food items such as meat and milk, and shifting taste preference from traditional crops to processed foods. Whilst the diversity of crops is declining, the local traditional varieties offer resilience against climate and pest disturbances, helping promote nutritious diets and access to diversified foods. In order for men to prove they are ready to marry, they must be capable of building a house and lighting a fire using a stick. For women to prove they are ready for marriage, they must cook using a motu (earth oven) and weave a basket. Baniata has a diverse mosaic landscape made up of seven primary methods of land use. These include village settlements; mountain ranges; the sea, rivers and streams; food gardens; agroforestry (ngali nut trees, (Canarium indicum L.)); and coconut plantations.Baniata has over 127 food-providing species available for production, raising, collection from the wild, and ultimately consumption. Production systems include coconut plantations, food gardens, agroforestry systems, small amounts of domesticated livestock that are free-roaming chickens, hunting, fishing, and wild food harvesting. Homegrown foods are produced without agrochemical inputs, as villagers have expressed interest in maintaining organic production practices. However, pests and diseases are increasing in impact and severity. Food waste and animal manure are not typically recycled back into food production systems. Local production coupled with wild food collection has been the primary source of dietary energy for centuries.Home gardens produce roots, tubers, bananas, vegetables and fruits. Crop rotations and intercropping techniques are often practised. Ngali nut trees (Canarium indicum) are reported to be a significant source of both nutrition and income. Since domestication, they are planted with companion crops such as karuvera (Xanthosoma sagittifolium, Chinese taro), yams, bean and shade-tolerant cassava. In total, 19 different crops are intercropped with ngali nut agroforestry. The nuts are also a primary source of food for ghausu (doves), which are raised as a food source for the villagers. Coconut is planted along the shoreline of the village and used for agri-food sales, as well as consumption in forms of coconut milk and water.Source: Google Earth, 2018, modified by Chris Vogliano from Baniata community mapping exercises, 2021.  a lack of expertise required to raise the animals. Chickens are raised both for their eggs and meat. Non-seafood-animal-sourced foods are consumed once a month or less, and reserved for special occasions such as birthdays, marriages, Christmas and New Year's. All animals are processed and consumed within the community.No meat conservation techniques were reported. Main forage and feed for livestock include coconut leaves and waste, and food scraps. Less frequently, hote (white ants) collected from the bush are given to chickens, as well as cassava leaves from the home gardens.         (These are available annual rainfall and temperature data in Honiara, the capital of Solomon Islands. Although following overall the same pattern, the rainfall profile may slightly differ from the one in Baniata village.)Villagers can predict the onset of a cyclone by noting a ring of cloud around the moon at night, signaling that a cyclone or bad weather will hit in three to four days. Additionally, villagers take note of the quantity of ngali nuts that fall to the ground to determine the strength of winds. Typically, bad weather lasts either four or eight days. Rainbows are indicative of fine weather, as are particular birdsongs.Munda is the primary town where villagers source foods from outside of the community. It is a 90-minute petrol-powered boat ride from Baniata, with a large wet market and multiple convenience shops. The Munda wet market provides a wide range of local food products including fish. Located near the Munda market are shops, which provide a range of processed foods, including sugar, oils and frozen desserts. These shops also sell household goods and supplies. Baniata has a small canteen that resells packaged foods sourced from Munda at a higher cost. Few items are sold here beyond canned tuna, sugar, rice, confectionaries, cigarettes and snacks. Foods purchased from markets and shops also include ferns, seaweed, shells especially mussels, reef fish, bananas, salt, noodles, flour, biscuits, bread, chocolate powder and butter. Non-food items include soap, kitchen utensils, clothes, knives, cups, plates, pots, carpet, diapers, garden hoe, kerosene, cutlery, cookware, rugs, nails, hammer, basket, axe, seeds, paddles, woven mats and local newspapers.Traditionally, villagers would give foods to neighbours and friends. This now typically happens only for special occasions as a gift, such as for a birthday or wedding. Gifted foods include slippery cabbage, kumara (sweet potato), cassava, coconut or prepared dishes such as masi masi or local \"puddings\" made from starchy sago palm mixed with fresh ingi rusa (coconut).Bartering and exchanges are commonplace. Bartering usually happens when villagers do not earn enough money or face financial challenges. These challenges occur more frequently during the lean season between April and July. Exchanges happen within Baniata, as well as with neighbouring villages. Common exchanges include sweet potatoes for fish; baked ngali nuts for kitchen utensils; sweet potatoes for mussels (two heaps for two heaps); ngali nuts for traditional weaved mats (5 kg of ngali nuts for three mats); sago palm starch for rice; ngali nuts for mattresses; and ngali nuts for plateware.There are challenges to accessing and selling at the Munda market. The transport costs are high due to petrol prices, and foods often perish in transit and during sale at the market due to the lack of cold storage or refrigeration. Rough seas can limit villagers' ability to access the markets, adding another barrier to selling agri-food products. Certain women struggle to reach the market at all, as some husbands will not allow their wives to travel to Munda alone.Baniata was established as a village in the early 1800s, as a result of multiple numerous smaller villages of different tribes coming together. Up until a century ago, Baniata was almost completely self-sufficient, with community members relying mostly on homegrown and wild foods such as yams, bananas, taro, wild boars, possums and seafood. The arrival of the missionaries in 1915 led to the introduction of new foods including sweet potatoes and cassava, and the establishment of commercial coconut plantations. Seventh Day Adventist Church (SDA) arrived around 1920, influencing food production and consumption, including dietary exclusion of pigs, possums, eels and crustaceans.The Second World War in 1941 catalysed further changes with the introduction of rice, canned meats, refined sugar and flour products, which were part of the American military rations.At the end of the war, these products were handed out to villagers, who developed a preference for these new foods that were high in salt, fat and sugar. Rice provided a quick and tasty alternative to traditional tubers that took significant time to process and prepare.The destruction caused by cyclone Isa in 1950 was unprecedented, destroying coastal areas, including the coral reefs, which negatively impacted the availability of aquatic animals.The cyclone also led to the heavy flooding that destroyed many homes and gardens, ruining that season's harvest, and making the land difficult to cultivate thereafter due to the salinity of the flood water. This resulted in many households deciding to re-establish their home gardens far away from the coast, at the base or even up into the hills as a preventive measure.The migration of food gardens has been further influenced by the government subsidies in the 1970s encouraging coconut plantations, which were placed near Baniata's beach areas. As a result, the travel distance to tend to and collect food became a burden that fell on women and children. This practice continued until the 1980s, when additional expansion was no longer feasible due to lack of available suitable land.Before the 1960s, Baniata was considerably smaller with fewer homes, and gardens close to each villager's home. Forests were also cleared to make room for expanding gardens, much further away from homes due to the increasing population of Baniata. In the 1990s, the logging destroyed much of the local forests within the greater mountain landscape. Since the early 2000s, Baniata has experienced an increase in population and a decrease in production yields, resulting in less local food for consumption and sale. Inexpensive and convenient imported food such as noodles and rice are replacing traditional foods such as root vegetables and bananas. An earthquake hit in 2007, causing a tsunami in Baniata, destroying home gardens, coastal houses and canoes that were needed to fish. This caused a period of food insecurity, during which villagers turned to externally produced and imported staple foods until the local production systems were able to recover.All villagers in Baniata rely on agri-food sale as their primary source of income. Outlets include local markets, as well as regional and national sales of specific agri-food products such as dried coconut and ngali nuts. Fortnightly incomes range from less than SBD 100 to over SBD 1 000 22 depending on the season, market prices for commodity crops, in particular copra, and agri-food sales at markets.The Munda market provides 50 percent of market income, which includes homegrown produce and prepared foods. Occasionally villagers will sell at the Sombara market near Munda, or the Noro market more rarely. Roughly 30 percent of income is from regional sales, including the sale of copra; 20 percent from the sale of ngali nuts and betel nuts in Honiara; and 2 percent from international markets, mostly from selling ngali nuts to New Caledonia.Copra is the primary source of income for most of the villagers, which they sell throughout the year. Coconuts are transformed into copra through the process of drying with a slowburning fire in a grass hut near the collection sites. It is exported via boats to regional resellers in Munda and Noro, who then sell in international markets. When the buying price of copra is high, villagers can receive SBD 5 000 23 per 100 kg. When it is low, they only receive SBD 1 000 24 per 100 kg. National and international markets dictate the prices. Ngali nuts are becoming an important source of income, in local and international markets, in particular New Caledonia, although they are also consumed at the household level. Ngali nuts are shelled, baked and dried by women and sold at local markets for SBD 35 25 / kg. Community members also sell masi masi prepared from slippery cabbage and ngali nuts for SBD 10 26 per piece. Ngali nuts are ground in a bowl, spread between layers of the slippery cabbage, and then cooked in a stone oven. The community is working towards achieving organic certification for the ngali nut. A dedicated processing facility is currently being constructed in the village, which will ensure the product is Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) certified for food safety.After the organic and HACCP certifications are complete, the community will likely be able to expand to other international markets and increase sales.Marketing of farmed food and vegetables is the second most common source of income. On market days, villagers can receive anywhere from SBD 100 to SBD 1 000 27 per trip. The most commonly sold foods are eggplant, tomato, capsicum, fiji vahu (a variety of sweet banana), cooking banana, cassava, slippery cabbage, watercress, paksoi (Chinese cabbage), sweet potato, yam, pana and fish. Betel nut, whilst not a food, is also commonly traded at the markets. Availability is seasonal. Slippery cabbage and cassava, unlike many other foods, are available almost all year round. December has the most diversity and quantity of foods, whilst the first six months of the year, from January to June, have the least. One heap of sweet potatoes is SBD 10. 28 Chinese cabbage prices are consistent throughout the year. Some villagers state they are generally happy with the prices they receive for their products, whilst others state they are not satisfied with the prices and do not earn enough to meet their basic needs. Since the prices are fixed per heap of cabbage sold, there is no way to negotiate a better profit margin.In addition to the Munda market, two outlets are located within the village of Baniata. On Fridays, villagers sell their products within the Baniata community. This market is important for garden produce, although it now features more baked and fried foods such as ring cakes.Income earned from market sales is used to purchase food not available in Baniata, as well as non-food items from the Munda shops and markets. A rough estimate of money that an individual can spend in a single day in Munda after marketing is around SBD 300. 29 If families have money left over from their purchases, they give a small fee to help support the village. Villagers feel the prices for foods in Munda are reasonable and affordable -particularly at the stores. Certain foods such as taro, yam, pana, fish and corned beef tend to be more expensive. Foods at the Munda markets are usually fresh, as produce is typically picked within the past day, and fish is sourced directly from the ocean. Noro market is the only exception, where the fish is stored in freezers, often for too long, and then sold to local Solomon Islanders.Local foods are sourced from home gardens, markets and wild collected foods. Villagers estimated that around 60 percent of foods come from food gardens and locally kept animals, 10-2028 Equivalent to USD 1.24.29 Equivalent to USD 37.3.percent come from the wild, either hunted, fished or collected, and 20-30 percent come from the market and stores in Munda.At some point throughout the year, many households in the community experience food insecurity. Issues include worrying they might not have enough to eat, not having access to healthy foods, eating only a few varieties of foods, and not having enough for the needs of the entire household. If they are completely out of foods, villagers may ask if they can harvest foods from a relative's garden. Rice is a commonly consumed food during times of low food access, as it is readily available and affordable.According to the women in focus group discussions, household food insecurity is most experienced from April to July, the gap after the main harvest. Men state that between January and March it is difficult to provide enough food, mainly because sweet potato varieties that are planted in December and January do not provide the same yield as before. For example, the sweet potato plants may look healthy, but tend to have lower yield for the tubers. Men say this is most likely due to the increased duration of the rainy season. Additionally, the seas tend to be rougher during the rainy season, which reduces the catch, as the men venture to sea less frequently. What is caught, together with other agri-food products, is difficult to get to the market during this period, again because of the rough seas.During the periods of food insecurity, villagers increase their consumption of cooking bananas and less-preferred varieties of roots and tubers such as wild yams and taros to supplement the low supply of sweet potatoes. The main taro species and varieties eaten at this time are voruku (Alocasia macrorrhizos, giant taro), ozo (Alocasia macrorrhizos, giant taro), kakake (Cyrtosperma merkusii, swamp taro) and karuvera (Xanthosoma sagittifolium, Chinese taro). Together with changing taste preferences, in the past taro was the staple food, which is slowly being replaced by sweet potatoes.  Changes in the provision of livelihoods and social well-being over timeIn the past, money was not required in Baniata.Villagers depended on their traditional crops for survival. There were no shops and villagers were satisfied with what they had. With globalization and the introduction of income, money is now required for foods, materials, transport, school fees, clinic fees, travel, and community contributions for special events or projects.Prior to independence from British rule, Solomon Islanders made little money, but the British pound was worth enough to pay for an acceptable standard of living. After independence in 1978, Solomon Islands transitioned to the SBD, and everyday prices for all Solomon Islanders increased significantly. The majority of the people in the village now earn money from agri-food production activities, as traditional crops progressively became a source of income.With larger home gardens and the increasing ability to sell to markets, livable wages are now possible. Villagers now work harder than before independence, but recognise that income opportunities are rising as market sales and opportunities expand.Incomes are rising due to overall increased sales of home garden products and handmade crafts and goods. Increased incomes are now altering relationships amongst villagers, as some villagers are hiding their fast-growing varieties of crops from their neighbours. Other villagers are even harvesting their neighbours' crops or \"forgetting\" to bring their neighbours' crops to the market for sale.Meanwhile, villagers state that the quality of diets and food supply has changed dramatically over the past three to four decades. Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in imported and processed foods. If the market in Baniata was previously used to sell fresh produce, eggs and fresh fish, it now sells primarily nutrientpoor, highly processed baked goods such as ring cakes, donuts and sweet breads. Villagers are more often opting for this type of food over wild collected foods, as they are easier to find, cook and prepare. Traditional foods are also declining in consumption, as many are sold for cash to buy non-food products or to pay for children's school fees. In the past few years, crop yields have been decreasing, which reduces even further the amount of crops able to be sold at the market. Harvests have changed over time.The ngali nut harvesting was previously between September and February; now harvesting continues until June, which is assumed by community members to be caused by longer and more intense rainy seasons. Fish stocks and sizes are also declining, with negative impacts on dietary quality, especially protein intakes, and income generation. This, along with a tuna cannery opening in the nearby town of Noro in 1977, has shifted local diets away from fresh fish to canned tuna. The type of tuna consumed locally is \"second grade tayio\", made of the dark flesh that is less desirable and not suitable for export. In addition, new techniques of removing skins from traditional foods such as roots and tubers due to a preference in taste are making the food less healthy. This has resulted in poor health outcomes such as high blood pressure, diabetes, increasing rates of obesity and being overweight, to name a few.The landscape is characterised by sand along the shorelines followed by loamy soils inland. After this, the soil then becomes more stony/ mixed gravel with clay, and towards the bottom of the hills and mountains it eventually becomes silt. Villagers prefer the soil that is less stony with more clay, a silty texture, and one that has been fallowed for a longer period. Soil quality is better immediately behind the shores or coconut plantations. These soils are deeper with less or no stones or gravels. This is unlike the soils closer to the foot of the mountain ranges, which are stony/ gravelly due to the continuous accretion from the streams coming from the mountains.Choices for crop cultivation are strongly connected to the landscape. Soft soils are usually planted with peanuts. Swampy areas along the riverside are used to cultivate crops such as kakake and ruta (Colocasia esculenta, taro). Home gardens are placed within close proximity to a river for easy water access. Sandy areas along the coasts are used for coconut plantations and dry loamy soils are used to produce crops like taro and sweet potatoes. Baniata's home gardens, ngali nut agroforestry systems, and coconut plantations are entirely organic, as villagers do not use synthetic pesticides, herbicides or fertilizers. Locals generally view their soil as very fertile compared to other islands in the Western Province. However, maintaining soil quality is a rising issue in Baniata.Practices that aim to maintain and enhance soil fertility are often not adequate to cope with rising pressure on soil quality. Land fallowing and crop rotations are practised throughout the village, in the following sequences: sweet potato, cassava and karuvera, followed by a three-to five-year fallow; potato, potato, potato and cassava, followed by a three-to five-year fallow; and watermelon, potato and cassava, followed by a three-to five-year fallow. Some villagers are beginning to integrate legumes such as bean or peanut in a crop rotation schedule to enhance nitrogen fixation. Most villagers do not improve soil fertility with compost or nitrogen fixation. Whilst some still use the old practice of stick for tilling and planting, most now use the hoe to cultivate.Today, erosion is controlled by moving gardens to a different site and allowing the old gardens to fallow. Some growers use garden residues or rubbish such as rice sacks or containers as physical barriers to contain the soil and prevent erosion. Others dig small drains to divert water flow away from their food gardens. Villagers also avoid cultivating on slopes to minimise erosion.Baniata is reliant on non-renewable and externally sourced energy for certain essential tasks. The primary use of petrol is to transport villagers and their goods to local markets in Munda or Noro, which are only accessibly by boat. The village owns a few petrol-powered generators; however, these are not commonplace and are being replaced with solar panels.Most households have solar panels that were provided by a government grant. Kerosene lamps are still used, but not as frequently due to the increase in solar lighting and rechargeable torches. Candles made from ngali nut oil, coconut oil lamp and disposable operated torches are now rarely used. Firewood, collected from the surrounding landscape, is used for cooking and processing copra and ngali nuts. Women and children work together to collect firewood each week. Collecting firewood takes around one half day to complete. Wood is abundant and collected from old or fallen branches of ngali nut trees. Locally, demand for firewood and other fuels such as coconut shell and husk, as well as ngali nut shells, had increased due to increased processing of ngali nut and copra for export, combined with an increase in the village population.In the village, men are responsible for clearing forests for new garden plots, gathering coconuts for copra, building new homes and teaching these skills to young boys. Besides their role in collecting firewood, women are also primarily responsible for agri-food activities including gardening, gathering wild foods such as ngali nuts, cooking, and selling goods at markets. Children help their parents with their genderspecific roles around the village. Boys typically help with planting cassava, hoeing mounds, planting sugar cane, clearing the gardens, and fishing. Girls assist with weeding, planting crops such as potato, corn, kumara, etc., and collecting vines.Human energy demands consist of gardening, collecting firewood that is primarily done by women, processing coconuts into copra, and processing ngali nuts. The food system is based on a subsistence farming system so labour requirements are high. The whole family is involved in food production and this is usually enough to meet the daily food needs, as well as yield surpluses that can be sold without needing extra labour.The most common sources of waste include bio-organic waste from the kitchen, home gardens and crop processing (such as ngali nut skins and shells), plastic bags and wrappers, human sewage, medical waste from the health clinic, and leaves from trees in the village.The most concerning wastes are plastics and human sewage. Although people sometimes reuse plastics, they are usually burned or buried. However, a large percent of plastics end up in the sea, along the shores, or littered around the village. Medical wastes are typically buried in the ground.Waste minimisation is not practised according to the community. However, some waste is reused. Kitchen scraps are recycled into animal feed or placed on banana trees for compost. Plastic instant noodle wrappers and rice bags are used as seedling starters, by placing soil and seeds into the plastic wrappers, and placing them in the sun. Plastic shopping bags are often reused for selling dried ngali nuts and for covering hanging fruits as a pest control method. Plastic bottles are reused for water collection. Other uses of plastics include weaving into door curtains, artificial flowers and purses.Traditionally longer fallowing times or permanently moving to a new garden site was commonly practised. Increasing populations and decreased land availability has reduced the amount of time villagers have allowed land to fallow. Mixed cropping was previously practised in the distant past, usually consisting of small parallel plots with a different species or variety in each plot. This has been said to decrease the soil quality and therefore has reduced the efficiency of both land and soil use. In the past, fallowing and digging with stick minimised soil disturbances and helped control soil erosion. Pests and diseases are on the rise, including rat infestations, causing villagers to prioritize crops that rats consume less frequently.Human labour demands have increased to account for a rise in agri-food sales and feeding a growing family size. The demand for cash through the sale of crops requires a larger plot of home gardens and this demands more labour. In the past, men would chop down forests by hand but now the slash and burn technique is the dominant method of clearing forests. Increased labour needs have women hiring others to help with the growing and cultivation of agri-food products. An example of this is ngali nut processing. A family would provide tea and sugar or cook rice, tuna and noodles to attract villagers to their nut-cracking sessions.The community uses few modern or mechanized farming tools, except for diesel boat engines. In addition, the level of drudgery decreased after hoeing was introduced. Machetes, large knives and axes make it easy to clear the forest for cultivation compared to in the past, where they used stone axes that required a lot of human effort. The community decided to decrease external inputs in general, not just within agriculture, which was facilitated in 2011 when a local parliamentarian donated solar panels to reduce reliance on kerosene lamps and diesel generators for electricity and light.In the past, women would walk for 10-15 minutes to collect water twice daily from the closest stream. In 1986, a pipe system from a nearby waterfall was established and taps were placed in various locations around the village. This greatly reduced the time required to fetch water, which now only takes around two to three minutes.However, water quality varies, particularly during the rainy season when it is said to taste different and can become dirty. Some villagers blame this on leaking pipes that run to the village and the establishment of food gardens close to the water source. Because of this, sometimes women will walk to the water source to fetch fresh drinking water. People now live alongside the river, which is creating new issues around water pollution and safety. The neighbouring village of Havila previously had water run through the village, but now they must walk to the river to fetch it due to the small streams drying up. Men state that recent landslides also changed the river patterns and slowed the flow of the water.Waste management efficiency has decreased over time, as larger amounts of waste are now produced compared to the past. New ways of cooking are leading to increased kitchen waste, including peeling potatoes or taro skins, grating and scraping out the flesh of coconut before squeezing out the milk, or animal forage wastes. These wastes are disposed of by tossing them into the sea, or burning. Previously there was little external waste entering the food system. Now, due to imported and packaged goods, there is significantly more plastic waste. No apparent attempts have been made to address this issue, most likely due to lack of awareness about the dangers of plastics for marine animals, and the convenience associated with the use of plastic.Crop and livestock biodiversity   There are minimal restrictions on harvesting wild plants or animals. Fishing is restricted after the death of a villager, and wild foods cannot be collected in sacred or taboo areas. At least 50 species are fished for food, including 37 fish species, 6 molluscs, 4 crustaceans and 2 turtle species. In addition, 3 mammal species and 8 bird species are hunted. The eggs from 5 bird species and 2 turtle species are gathered. In addition, leaves from 7 wild plants and 1 species of seaweed are harvested as vegetables, along with 6 wild fruit species. Wild foods collection is declining due to preference for imported foods and population increases.There are traditional areas where ecosystems are protected under informal schemes. These areas are known as taboo areas, where villagers cannot enter. It was believed that these areas were used by their ancestors and are now recognised as sacred areas. A Baniata village elder oversees certain protected areas, such as Lake Suri. The wild animals such as flying fox, fish, crocodile and lizards near this lake cannot be hunted. Men feel the landscape and seascape ecosystem protection is adequate and stable; women think protection is not adequate.Similar to the past, the community relies mostly on natural pollination. Locally important pollinators include bees, butterflies, viku (yellow birds), flying foxes and ghausu (doves). Villagers do not actively engage in pollination due to limited knowledge. The community perceives current levels of pollination are sufficient, as indicated by yields of fruits and nuts around the village. However, many note that butterflies are no longer common, probably due to introduced plants that are considered toxic to the butterflies.The reliance on local, traditional animal breeds and plant species and varieties has decreased over time in Baniata. For instance, the Bougainville banana was introduced in 1992 and provided Baniata with a new and novel variety that was easy to grow. However, this was at the cost of the rich plantain and banana biodiversity that existed in the landscape, including the Vitamin-A-rich Fei banana, which used to be a staple that was roasted each morning over an open fire, providing a nutritious breakfast for the whole family.Nowadays, traditional varieties are replaced by new varieties entering the marketplace. Less land space is expected to be available in the future, as these areas have reached the foot of the mountains. It is anticipated that sustainable intensification practices such as crop rotations and shifting between fallowed plots will need to be practised to ensure sufficient food is produced for the increasing population and, hence, demand.Fish stocks are declining, as villagers state they must travel much further to catch fish. Villagers remember a time when rivers were full of fish and eels, but due to flooding and increased populations, river stocks are much lower. Timber trees, especially vasa and gema used as firewood, are also declining and becoming increasingly difficult to access due to overutilization and lack of domestication. Villagers are adapting by alternating species for timber to build their homes.Men feel villagers are managing natural resources sustainably and that they are preserving the land for the future. For example, harvesting of fish in the sea and harvesting of animals in the bush is done in a sustainable manner, as they believe they hunt, catch or harvest only the quantity that is needed to feed their families. Home gardening plots can be moved when needed, which allows the opportunity for land to fallow and the soil to regenerate. On the other hand, women state that sustainability now is declining. In the past, small fish were returned to the sea, yet today fish of all sizes are kept for consumption, resulting in overharvesting. Women also noted that some villagers poison the river to catch fish, causing all fish in the river to die.Village elders govern the use of natural resources.If someone wants to use natural resources, they must first consult the elders. Elders traditionally help resolve land disputes between families. Solomon Islands' government does not own land in Baniata. Everyone in the community has customary or formally recognised rights over land but the elders are the people who know most about land rights. The individual members of the community can farm and work on any unoccupied land, as long as they have consulted and received approval from the village elders. The Irugo elders have the majority when community decisions need to be made but will typically gather input from each household. As the elders age, they pass knowledge to their successors.Baniata has a matrilineal system of land use rights and management. Women are the primary managers of the land. If a woman has a son, the son will inherit the land-use rights from his mother. However, both males and females have equal rights to use the land. Land has been handed down from elders to a tribe of family members, including their sons and daughters. Certain actors outside of the community can also use land with permission from the elders, including missionary groups, teachers, church leaders, nurses and pastors. Certain villagers hold land use rights in other communities too.Community-based landscape planning is fluctuating and beginning to decline according to the villagers. In the past, natural resources were well cared for by the chiefs and leaders in the community. When the last chiefs died, no chiefs took their place and now elders have taken charge. However, elders are not governing the natural resources as effectively as chiefs once did. There are also no formal institutions to help govern the use of natural resources.Baniata is home to one of the few nesting grounds of the massive yet endangered leatherback turtles. Previously, villagers would eat the turtle eggs as a source of nutrition, as each turtle lays anywhere from 300 to 700 golf-ball-sized eggs during her 10-day nesting period. However, now the Tetepare Descendants Association is helping to protect leatherback turtle populations by offering incentives to protect turtle egg nests from being harvested by villagers. However, many villagers -particularly youth -still collect these eggs at night and consume the eggs as food.A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below.1. Exposed to disturbance: Over the past few decades, villagers have experienced numerous disturbances. However, villagers cite more frequent natural disasters. Increasing intensity of weather patterns are inhibiting stability -from increased frequency of cyclones and flooding, to landslides drying up rivers. Tsunamis have also occurred after the earthquakes in 2007 and 2010. Further, pests are on the rise, jeopardizing the productivity of the local agri-food system.The community is selfsufficient, with 70 percent of the food production coming from farming, fishing and wild sourcing. However, an increasing percentage of their food is sourced from imported or processed foods (30 percent).Trade between villages is increasing with the improvement of market access via petrolpowered boats. Only a few programmes or local initiatives exist to promote agri-food products in the community, such as for ngali nuts.The village is appropriately connected to two major markets -Munda and Noro. The barriers to reaching these markets include lack of access to boat use and ownership, rough seas, costs of petrol, and seasonality of produce.In the community village elders make community decisions based on input from the villagers. Previously, Baniata had village chiefs, of higher status than village elders, and concerns have arisen with their recent passing. There is a strong notion of support within the community, as villagers regularly give a portion of their agri-food earnings to help support village expenses.The village maintains traditional knowledge that has been passed down verbally for generations, such as songs written about local recipes (masi masi). New farming technologies have reduced the drudgery involved with agricultural production, and motorboats and improved fishing gear have extended the ability of villagers to catch more seafood. However, both men and women feel agricultural innovation is decreasing and that their methods need improvement.Elders are respected in the community as the primary decision makers. The community maintains many of its traditional ways of life, as the villagers have limited access to electricity or cellular phone service. Traditional knowledge and the local languages are not written or documented, and thus are slowly disappearing. There are some initiatives by the youth to reinvigorate pride and passion around the local food culture, which can be linked with the transfer of traditional knowledge from elders to the younger generations.Knowledge transmission mainly happens through storytelling, songs and teaching by watching and doing whilst carrying out daily agri-food activities. The teaching is often gender-specific per agri-food activity. The transferring of knowledge is seemingly decreasing due to the community's increased reliance on imported foods. Further, elders are concerned about a perceived lack of interest by the youth in learning traditional recipes and ways of life. However, when asked, the youth showed much interest in continuing agricultural and cultural traditions.The community's food system is intricately linked with the natural resources found in the local land-and seascape. Negligible external inputs are used for agri-food production, as Baniata's food system is 100 percent organic. Villagers hold high respect for the natural environment as it provides them with the majority of their food, shelter and fuel. Increased levels of waste seem to be a concern, due to increasing demographic pressure and reliance on packaged foods.The villagers have a strong connection with nature and view it as a necessary and positive relationship to ensure their own good health. Soil health, water quality and quantity, and energy sourcing are all viewed positively with minor areas of improvement required.10. Functional diversity: Multiple food groups are represented in Baniata's agricultural production and land-and seascape, including starches, pulses, fruits, nuts and seeds, leafy vegetables, other vegetables, meat, poultry and fish, and eggs. However, diversity in crop production is decreasing due to the increasing reliance on imported foods.All villagers rely on agri-food products as a primary source of income. Multiple varieties exist of many types of crops, including potatoes, bananas, pawpaws and green leafy vegetables. Of 53 crop species maintained, at least 25 have multiple varieties so that the food system generates 156 crop foods in total. Whilst the diversity of crops is declining, it is believed that in particular the local traditional varieties offer resilience against climate and pest disturbances and help promote nutrition adequacy.The landscape is located on a small, forest-filled peninsula surrounded by the open ocean. A large mountain limits the expansion of the village. The villagers use the available land to grow agri-food products through traditional farming methods, agroforestry and collection of wild foods.The villagers are generally satisfied with the income earned from selling agri-food products at the markets, such as home gardens' produce, copra and ngali nuts.The income is mostly used to pay for expenses such as school fees for children, houseware items and imported foods. Incomes earned by villagers are increasing due to the price villagers can get for their products at the market. However, the reliance on boats to reach the markets creates barriers for some community members in selling their produce, especially for women.The agri-food production system in Baniata is diverse and consists of small-scale agriculture, agroforestry, wild food collection of flora and fauna, and fishing. Food is mainly grown in home gardens and collected wild (70 percent), and increasingly by purchasing imported and processed foods (30 percent).The variety of crops grown in Baniata has shifted due to changing preferences of the villagers, reliance on imported foods and climate change. Regeneration of home gardens through fallowing was practised more in the past, but due to land constraints and a growing population, fallowing is decreasing. All villagers sell agri-food products such as copra, and prepared food items such as masi masi for income, and most of them rely on these sales as their primary means of income generation. Income is spent on foods from the market, household goods, and school fees for children. The primary market is Munda, which is a 90-minute petrol-powered boat ride away. There are only two main boats, which can hold around 8 to 12 people. These boats are the primary means to access markets to sell agri-food, so villagers rotate turns so that all households get a chance to earn an income. Additionally, a market within the village primarily sells baked goods. Overall, the food system is becoming less reliant on traditional foods, and increasingly reliant on imported and processed foods.Baniata and surrounding villages rely on the land for the majority of their sustenance. The village grows food organically and crops are primarily rain-fed. The agrobiodiversity of food production and availability is quite high, with over 127 food-providing species and their respective varieties and breeds for cultivation or collection from the wild. There is a wide diversity of root vegetables, bananas and leafy greens. Some varieties are local whilst others have been introduced to the community. Villagers use food scraps mostly to feed animals such as free-roaming chickens or pigs. The composting of food is not widely practised, and if foods were composted into a nutrient-rich soil amendment, this could enhance soil quality and fertility. Food is prepared and cooked using locally sourced firewood. Fishing was previously more sustainable, but now there are fewer restrictions on the size of catch -which is believed to reduce the amount of fish available for consumption.Villagers feel the diversity of crops is decreasing due to reliance on imported and processed foods. Changes in market preferences, climate change and increasing pests are also dictating which crops are grown more frequently. Human waste management is not entirely sustainable, as villagers now use the beach as the primary waste area. This will likely be an increasing issue as the population continues to rise. Plastics litter the grounds and beaches due to mismanagement. Previously plastics were not widely used, but now since processed foods are increasing, plastic wrappers and waste are as well. Villagers feel the environmental conditions are decreasing because of plastic waste. Protection of land use remains stable, as land ownership on the individual level is not allowed. However, due to the increasing population, land for agri-food purposes is decreasing. Land is not able to fallow for long periods as it was in previous generations.Overall, resilience has decreased over time, correlated with diminished reliance on homegrown and wild collected foods for the diet, and loss of knowledge of traditional recipes and ways of life in the Baniata community.Both men and women agree that they want to maintain traditional foods and recipes and pass them down to future generations. However, villagers are concerned that if no intervention is made, they will see a continued reliance on highly processed unhealthy foods, and a decreased reliance on their local food system. Villagers state that rice will likely continue to replace traditional staple crops in local diets. These changes are decreasing the food sovereignty and food security by means of reducing access, utilization and stability of the food supply, affecting their quality of life and contributing to the rise of non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and diabetes.Decreasing land fallowing and climate change lead to decreasing yields of crops. To improve yields, it will be imperative to employ improved crop rotation and composting techniques to return nutrients to the soil. Additionally, food preservation is not widely practised, which can put the villagers at risk when natural disasters strike. In the future, villagers predict local agrobiodiversity will continue to decrease if no intervention is made. The school curriculum does not include education on local foods. Men are slightly more optimistic than women regarding the preservation of local varieties of foods. Meanwhile, there is a strong consensus that the transmission of traditional knowledge is declining, such as wild collected foods, hunting and fishing techniques, and utilization of local plant species and varieties. In addition, the majority of villagers also feel that the documentation of traditional knowledge is severely lackingWhen speaking to the villagers about traditional foods, there was strong pride in traditional varieties of crops and recipes. Children are aware of local foods and 75 percent of the children enjoy them, whilst 25 percent prefer processed foods. Twelve of the 13 children who participated in the discussions stated they want to take over their family farm in the future, they want to grow their own food, make money from copra, and ensure that their own children will have enough food to eat. Interestingly, children who had these aspirations did not attend school.Those who expressed interest in leaving had aspirations to achieve higher education and eventually return to the village with their families. Children also shared interest in local foods, although the older adults assumed they are disinterested. Leveraging this passion could be key to keeping these foods and traditions alive and vibrant within indigenous Solomon Islands' communities.Villagers are proud of their community and agri-food production. However their food system is rapidly changing due to internal and external pressures, resulting in rising levels of food insecurity and malnutrition. Baniata used to be fully self-sufficient, using the local sea-and landscape around the village. However, over the past 50 years, the community has become slowly integrated into wider markets, which is having positive and negative effects. Linking up with food systems beyond the immediate local food system of Baniata has increased access to new foods. Processed foods can be preserved and used during seasons of food insecurity. However, processed foods are also shifting diets toward lower quality, nutrient-poor foods, which leads to poorer health outcomes and decreases local agrobiodiversity.Climate change is another big risk to their resilience and the community may not be prepared enough for it. Villagers need improved access to and sharing of climate-resilient seeds, planting materials and other adaptation strategies. Improved food preservation can also help prevent food insecurity during times of low food availability. Ensuring a sustainable food system for Baniata is essential for preventing the continued rise of malnutrition and local food system degradation.Surviving in the desert: the resilience of the nomadic herdersPastoralist food system of the Kel Tamasheq people in Aratène, Mali \"Animals are everything for a Kel Tamasheq. We drink their milk, we eat their meat, we use their skin, we exchange them.When the animals die, so do the Kel Tamasheq.\"Kel Tamasheq saying.This study profiles the food system of the pastoralist Kel Tamasheq herder community of the Aratène village in the region of Goundam Circle of the Republic of Mali. The Kel Tamasheq community's food system is mainly based on livestock herding. Sheep, goats, milk, butter and cheese are amongst the main food products sold by the community. The community's diet is based on milk, dairy products and meat, together with cereals, wild edibles, vegetables, fruit and nuts. Additionally, they complement their diet with purchases made at neighbouring markets and food exchanges with other communities. The study shows that 65 percent of the food comes from local production, whilst food purchased at markets constitutes around 35 percent of the community's diet. During transhumance, herders drink milk and eat wild edibles and ground cereal that they store in goatskins. The community noted obstacles to food security as a result of drought, loss of livestock, social and land insecurity, diseases, and low incomes that limit their access to food produce. Nevertheless, at the same time, they show their resilience and adaptation to the harsh climate by maintaining and respecting traditions related to their local food system, whilst being open to innovations.Note from the editors: Tamasheq terms are mentioned using the official alphabet for Tamasheq in Mali, which was adopted in 1967 and revised in 1982. The village of Aratène is located 55 km southwest of Gargando, the main town in the commune with an eponymous name. The commune of Gargando, in Goundam Circle in the Timbuktu region, is part of the lacustrine plain of the Lake Faguibine System. The Lake Faguibine System consists of five interlinked lakes filled by two channels effluent of the Niger River. Lake Télé is located a few kilometres north of the town of Goundam. In the past, it provided the town with the water it needed for its seasonal pastoralism and agricultural activities, but it has now become a vast expanse of land that is unworkable for agriculture. The community's boundaries have been fixed due to its borders to the north by the commune of Raz El Ma, to the south by the commune of Armarzaga, to the east by the commune of Gargando, and to the west by the commune of Tignère.The area has a Sahel Saharan climate that is characterised by fluctuating temperatures that are as high as 45 °C in May-June and as low as 11 °C in January. The atmospheric circulation consists predominantly of the harmattan trade winds and the West African monsoon (Translation note: site/point d'eau potable: site/source of drinkable water; site/point d'eau: site/source of water; axe routier: road axis; site: site; mare avec forêt: pond with the forest; hauteur de cailloux: rocks elevation; gravier: gravel; hauteur de sable: dune; oued: oued; bassin avec arbres: basin with the trees; puits pastoral: pastoral well; plaine: plain).Source: RPPS, 2018.circulations. The average annual rainfall recorded in Aratène is the same as that in the Lake Faguibine System, ranging between the isohyets of 100 mm/year and 300 mm/year. Alternating years of good rainfall and years of drought have resulted in irregular years of rich yield and years of food uncertainty. The Sahel-type ecosystem is characterised by sparse and withered vegetation, made up of shrubs and thorn bushes, in particular, acacias (Acacia sp., Fabaceae), desert dates (Balanites aegyptiaca), jujubes (Ziziphus sp.), milkweeds (Calotropis sp., Apocynaceae) and spurges (Euphorbia sp., Euphorbiaeae), which dominate the most diverse grasses.The Kel Tamasheq people (also called Tuareg), who came from the east and from the Sahara, are considered to be the first ethnic settlement group to have visited the Gargando region. They are divided into three distinct socio-political entities or tribes, namely: (1) the Kel Antessar tribe, roaming in the north, in the area near the Lake Faguibine System; (2) the Tenguereguif tribe, roaming between Timbuktu and Goundam and in the river basin during the dry season; and (3) the Kel Hausa or Cheriffen, who are exclusively marabouts and whose families are related to the first two groups. According to sources, Aratène was established by a Kel Antessar fraction who lived there and who used it for their area of transhumance. Two Kel Tamasheq communities, both black and white, make up the village community: the white Kel Tamasheq and the black Kel Tamasheq. 31 In nomadic areas, any settlement exceeding 100 people can establish itself as a fraction. Like the village, the fraction is a base unit of the local authority. The current village population is estimated at 3 000 inhabitants, according to the General Population and Housing Census carried out by the National Statistics Institute of Mali (INSTAT) in 2009.Tamasheq is the local language; and it is also the only language used to communicate between the populations. Islam is the only local religion.The community is organised in such a way that the family nucleus is extended to close relatives, who are uncles, nephews, cousins, aunts and grandparents. Women take care of household chores, process food to produce by-products, and often deal with picking and small-scale trade. Men practise transhumance and deal with transport, blacksmithing, and cultivating crops and vegetables. Other family members consult them on all family matters or projects. The village chief is the leader of the community and is assisted by other traditional leaders or notable persons and fraction leaders. Key decisions that affect the community's livelihood are made after consulting the village chief, along with notable persons and fraction leaders. The village chief's authority covers the entirety of the village, whereas the fraction leader's only concerns are his fraction.The Kel Tamasheq community's food system is mainly based on pastoralism: milk and meat production and their by-products such as curd, butter and cheese, as well as dry-cured spicy salted meat (smoked meat). These primary food groups, which constitute the Kel Tamasheq's core diet, are passed on through generations. The Kel Tamasheq community self-identifies through these food items and their unique local processing methods. Livestock herding is part of a pastoralist production system, characterised by mobility, namely transhumance and nomadism. The Kel Tamasheq food system includes other subsistence activities such as cereal and vegetable farming, as well as wild food gathering.In Aratène, pastoralist livestock herding remains the main activity and is also the main source of income of the community members. Their income is generated by selling animals, due to the absolute necessity, and also by selling derivatives such as milk, meat and their byproducts. The species bred are sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, camels and poultry (Table 5.1).Donkeys are bred to transport people, building materials and firewood. The community does not use their meat or milk for consumption. Milk is a product that has both economic and cultural significance for pastoralists. It is perceived as the most appreciated and vital food product for its numerous nutritive properties. On average, good milk producers provide up to 10 litres per day in two milking sessions. This drops to 6 litres in the dry season. Milk is stored in goatskins, both amongst families and during the transhumance period. Processing it enables community members to obtain by-products such as curd, butter from cow's milk, and cheese from goat and sheep's milk. Cheese making consists of mixing, in a wooden bowl, fresh milk and a piece of abomasum (last sac of a ruminant's stomach) from a young goat, which might have been slaughtered for the occasion. After the milk is fermented, the mixture is poured through a wooden press that is weaved locally by the women. The pressure separates the milk from the cheese curd. Meat is processed by drying it in the sun or in the shade with salt and spices.To make large quantities, a young bull might be slaughtered. The meat is placed on a wooden shed for sun drying, and when dry, the meatObtaining milk in Aratène.©RPPS.is hung in the shade on cords weaved by local artisans. Dried meat can be ground and stored in gourds made by local artisans. To enable preservation up to one year, butter can be added to the dried meat, as well as honey optionally. Honey comes from the south of Mali and is therefore purchased from the market. The gourd is then air-tightly sealed to prevent air access. Curd, butter and cheese are the by-products sold at the market.Transhumance can last six months. Family leaders decide when it starts based on information obtained beforehand from observers who have gone scouting to check water and pasture conditions. Men own their livestock and manage the herd, the arrival and departure of animals, milk deliveries, food and veterinary medication purchases, etc. In contrast, women own the milk and manage the income generated from its sale. Women are also responsible for processing milk and meat as well as gathered wild edibles. Depending on production levels, they decide how much is for family consumption, for processing, for selling, for stocking, and for donating to the poor or to parents in the larger towns. Women also look after small animals and poultry. Children play their role in the community by looking after young animals, such as calves, goat kids and lambs, and by going to school.For the Aratène's pastoralist community, cultivating cereal crops is a random activity that exemplifies amateurism. Cultivation activities focus on three crops: pearl millet, broom corn and rice, all of which are rain-fed and do not require irrigation. The surface area of these rain-fed plots occupy between 1 and 1.5 ha of land. The community members carrying out these activities use the plots depending on their needs and their abilities, taking into account the interests of others and the shared ownership, as the land does not belong to anyone. Production methods are rudimentary. The women process millet into cream. The process consists of grinding the grains down to flour, which is then sprayed with a little water in a container to form a paste. This paste is then regularly turned with their fingers using regular coordinated movements to form fine dumplings, which are then steam-cooked. The flour can also be eaten without boiling it first. In both cases, the cream is eaten mixed with milk, in any form, and sugar.It is heavily demanded at the market.  Gathering grass and other ad hoc wild foods takes place during and after the rainy season and is the sole responsibility of women and girls. The activity, free and unregulated, is intimately linked to animal production and its timeline.It is important in the landscape because of its nutritional and economic value. Participants in the thematic discussions estimated that gathering provides 5 percent of the dietary intake. Gathering is primarily centred on perennials, namely, wild grasses such as wild fonio and Indian sandbur. Wild jute is also collected for its leaves, as well as jujube, desert dates and wild rice. Indian sandbur is collected on the dunes using manual reaping, as is wild rice around ponds. Jujube and desert dates are hand-picked by shaking the trees or by using a wooden accessory, such as a stick, to make the fruit fall. Generally, jujube trees are near ponds. With regard to processing, Indian sandbur and wild fonio are ground prior to use. Community members prepare ăšăboraɣ, juice out of dates. Ahufăr (jujube bread), chewed or sucked, helps prevent ripe seeds from going off should they be kept for a longer period. Soaked desert dates produce a juice used as a laxative. The produce obtained from gathering and their by-products are sold at the market.In addition to production for consumption, the community does seasonal picking for the pharmacopeia (drugs sold at the market) and for fodder. The gum arabic tree (Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile, Leguminosae) is used by cobblers in tanneries and in traditional treatment against bad breath. The jujube and desert date trees are used for diabetes and hypertension. In addition, different parts of the desert date tree, when burned and ground down, are used to heal wounds and boils.In the community, both men and women are local artisans, and the gender balance is especially apparent amongst blacksmiths, whose craftsmanship is passed down the generations and, as such, constitute their own social class. Products are made from raw materials like skin, leather, metals, wood and fabrics (dyes and sewing). These products are sold at the market and even exported to other regions in Mali. They also reach areas outside Mali thanks to art collectors.The community follows both the Gregorian calendar and the lunar calendar depending on events, although no one loses sight of the date similarities between the two calendars. For instance, the Gregorian calendar is used for the school calendar, but the lunar calendar is used for the start and end dates of transhumance. The division of the year into three seasons is where both calendars coincide. The dry cold season runs from October to February. During this period, the average temperature is 11 °C. Between March and June is the dry hot season, when the temperature averages 45 °C. The rainy season, or wintering, runs from July to September during which the temperatures average 30 °C. The quantity of water collected varies between 100 mm and 300 mm depending on the year.The community's activities are linked to each phase of the year, corresponding to the seasonal changes. The dry cold season marks the beginning of transhumance and corresponds to a period of reduced activity. Community members spend this period (1) promoting their animals and their products and by-products; (2) (These annual rainfall and temperature data are averages recorded for Timbuktu. There may be a slight difference with the weather conditions in Aratène, although they remain close to each other.)sourcing and stocking cereals for the year, which men harvest during this period; and (3) farming vegetables. Men go to the markets, where they sell or buy livestock, fodder and animal feed for the forthcoming months. Their motto is \"it is when you feel happy that the worst is to come\", meaning one should always anticipate.During the dry hot season, men take on mobility (nomadism, transhumance), which is dependent on pastures, livestock feed, water and veterinary care. The dry hot season is a period of recovery and corresponds to the summer fallow in cereal production. Women look after animals too young to go on transhumance during this period.During the rainy season (or wintering), if raining, the men on transhumance find fixed points of transition to rest and care for the animals and to stock up on food supplies. Cereal crops are cultivated during the rainy season. The collection of wild edibles starts at the end of the rainy season and lasts for as long as the quantities of seeds such as wild fonio, Indian sandbur, wild rice, and nuts such as desert dates and jujube, which are linked to the quality of wintering that allow for their growth.In addition to the food produced and harvested in their food system, members of the community complement their diet with purchases made at neighbouring markets and food exchanges with other communities. Participants in the thematic discussions estimated that food purchased at markets constitutes around 35 percent of the community's diet. Members of the community have access to the following foods: roots such as yams, sweet potatoes and potatoes, peanuts, vegetable oil, sugar, tea, rice, salt, cereals and pulses such as local and imported rice, millet, beans, processed foods such as pasta and powdered milk, and fruit from the south of Mali such as mangoes, oranges, lemons, mandarins and watermelons.Members of the community visit bazaars, which are periodic, and markets, which tend to be permanent.Trading, exchanges and donations of products are done within the community and with other communities or groups of farmers. Reciprocal needs dictate the nature of the goods to exchange or trade, whilst the terms of exchange and trade depend on the value of the goods in question; for instance, a male sheep exchanged for another male or a female.The Kel Tamasheq roamed in Gargando during the dry season with their livestock well before the fifteenth century. According to sources, Aratène is one of the oldest nomadic settlements in the commune of Gargando, founded by a Kel Antessar fraction that lived there and used it for their area of transhumance. Aratène's hamlet was transformed into a settled village in 1980 as part of the decentralisation process, which enabled the creation of local authorities in Mali such as the rural or urban community, the circle, the region and Bamako's district. To facilitate the settlement of the populations, the State carried out a pastoral borehole drilling. Settling was not imposed. Those who settled did so after losing their livelihood, particularly their livestock.From the 1970s to today, the Faguibine System, in which Gargando is located, has become dependent on hydro-climatic variations. In 1973, the worst drought Sahel countries experienced occurred. Since then, Aratène's community has suffered from the 1982 and 1984 droughts at a national scale, followed by those in 2015 and 2017, which were relatively localised in the region. This recurrence, directly linked to climate change, resulted in the loss of livestock, and the movement of populations towards the centre of Mali or to countries like Libya, Saudi Arabia and Algeria. The departures affected up to 70 percent to 75 percent of the community residents.Livestock losses reached 85 percent on average. It is estimated that around three-quarters of arable land and pastoral resources were lost, with a significant decrease in pastures and wild edibles gathering. Prior to the drought periods that started in 1973, Lake Télé supplied the town with water for its pastoral and agricultural activities seasonally. Today, it is a vast stretch of unworkable land. This system currently tends to be characterised by increased dehydration, constantly facing problems of precariousness, vulnerability, resilience, poverty and food insecurity.A rebellion broke out in 1990 and another episode reoccurred in 2012. The village of Aratène joined the movement to support the other communities involved in the rebellion. The main consequences were the involuntary departures of populations towards Mauritania, Algeria, Niger and Burkina Faso, destruction of the economic fabric, social insecurity, and theft of livestock.A shelter and transit centre for refugees was opened and the administrative centre was temporarily delocalised from the main town, which facilitated the progressive return of administrative services and refugees from 1995 to 1996. As a supportive measure, in 1998, the National Hydraulic Office drilled a well, equipped with a solar generator, as part of the Village Hydraulics programme. The community's diet is based on milk, dairy products and meat, which constitute a typical meal or any traditional dish, together with cereals, vegetables, fruit and nuts. During transhumance, herders drink milk and eat collected wild edibles and ground cereal stored in goatskins. Their diet does not change following their departure from the village, but rather depending on the areas they pass through. The most important consideration for herders is to ensure they can preserve the food products they carry, as transhumance is a long-term challenge. The community's diet changes seasonally with changes in the food supply. Milk is plentiful during the rainy season thanks to lactating female animals benefiting from the season's goodness. During this period, milk, its by-products such as cheeses, and meat are the community's primary food sources, and their diet is rarely supplemented with cereals.Plants that grow thanks to the rain, such as wild jute and okra, are more commonly used as condiments. Cereals become more important in the diet after harvest in the dry cold season, when they become community members' main food along with meat, milk, cheeses and produce from the market. The dry hot season is the most difficult period of the year in terms of guaranteeing local produce.Some of the herds' reproductive females always remain in the area during transhumance to supply milk. However, animals produce less milk during this period and wild plants are less abundant. Stocking up is important because no farmed products are available. Cereals become expensive and animals are devalued. The main food during the dry hot season are cereals, meat and market produce.According to community members, local production supplies sufficient food for consumption during the rainy season and for stocking up for the dry season. One should note that for them, the concept of sufficiency is directly linked to the permanent availability of primary foods, those that constitute the traditional and secular core of their diet produced by the local environment, namely, milk, meat and their by-products, but also nuts such as desert dates and jujube, and wild seeds. Community members get their supplies from bazaars and markets when the environment does not produce sufficiently, especially during the dry hot season.According to community members, the quality of their diet based on local production seems insufficient in terms of meat and meat-reared animals, milk and dairy products, nuts and seeds, green leafy vegetables, and wild fruit (very few).The community considers \"a number of stressful situations, essentially of social nature\" as obstacles for food security. These situations include drought, loss of livestock, social and land insecurity, diseases, and low funds that limit their access to food produce from the market in sufficient quantity and quality. Land insecurity is one of the factors that negatively influence the food system over time because it occurs to the detriment of livestock farming. The Lake Faguibine System area, in which the village of Aratène is situated, constantly suffers from land disputes, causing land insecurity. These issues especially concern animals being unable to access watering holes due to crop fields. Agricultural production remains insufficient to meet the needs of the community. Given the marginal nature of the activity, and what is most practised by livestock farmers, crop yield is insignificant, and harvest is insufficient in supporting the community's dietary needs. The ground quality, which is barely productive, will hardly meet a satisfactory level of production to meet the dietary needs of the community. Another factor is inefficient production equipment like carts, ploughs and other ploughing equipment, vaccination centres, and water sources, which stems from the lack of resources.Changes in the provision of livelihoods and social well-being over timeUntil 1973, Kel Tamasheq pastoralists produced for consumption. Today, they produce for the market and are discovering the law of supply and demand, which is subject to the seasonality of the food system. Over time, the Kel Tamasheq community has understood that income opportunities in the food system have increased to keep up with their increasing population and dietary needs. Prices have varied along the same lines.New activities such as the sale of trade and craft production, transportation (of people, building materials, food products, firewood and coal), the creation of nearby bazaars, and agri-pastoralist activities reinforce the inclination towards production for markets. The community's trade relations with other communities are dynamic, which has resulted in an improved mutual exchange of information on the pricing of goods, stocks and farmed produce.Since 1973, the community's self-sufficiency has decreased due to an array of different factors such as certain lakes drying up completely, recurrent droughts, lack of assistance, insufficient incomes and the livestock's poor productivity. Since the 1970s, the degradation of the local landscape has increased due to the different climate shocks and disruptions experienced. This resulted in the disappearance of certain plant species and wild animals, which used to be collected or hunted. Integrated crop production is a means to implement better practices. Vegetable farming and breeding hens are sideline activities that have diversified food products in the community's diet. The breeding of hens falls under the Kel Tamasheq women's responsibilities. This includes collecting eggs mainly for the consumption of their families, but also breeding hens that can be sold to increase income.The Kel Tamasheq women harvest crops that are used for food preparation and consumed in a variety of recipes. In this community, regular consumption of cereals and other market products signifies helplessness in regard to their food system's production outputs. Community members declare that they \"no longer have the choice\" and the survival instinct determines behaviour.The water need is hardly met. The community accesses water through traditional wells, the pastoral well and the only solar-powered borehole in the village, whose breakdowns are disabling for the community. These sources can barely meet their water needs.The community's water sources, as identified on the participatory map, are the following manmade sources (boreholes, wells) and temporary surface waterholes (ponds, lakes):• the pond with the forest to the north, in the northeast;• a well in the basin with the trees, in the east;• pastoral well at dune-level in the south; and• a solar-powered borehole.The choice of sites for traditional water sources is often a cause for land disputes, when the water source sites are in crop cultivation areas or near certain dried-out ponds that still fill slightly during the rainy season. The water source sites used to be determined by traditional indicators, which are the concentration of the vegetation and the direction in which it grew, and the concentration of livestock farmers and their animals, which is usually in line with the vegetation concentration.The technique used to test for groundwater helps to confirm or deny the probability of the presence of water and to decide whether to drill or not. Drinking water for domestic use is the biggest reason for water demand in the Kel Tamasheq community. Households also consume water to process food and for hygiene as well as for vegetable farming irrigation. The water supply is deemed sufficient for the needs of households but not for all the community's needs when animals and vegetable farming are considered. Water shortages can occur when the solar generator breaks down. In addition, during the dry hot season, when temperatures can reach 45 °C in the shade, all the temporary waterholes disappear. Climate change potentiates these climatic extremes. Due to water shortages, the community restricts water usage by setting opening and closing times for the improved water sources, namely, the pastoral well and the solar-powered borehole. This also helps to reduce the human and animal pressure on these water sources.Vegetable gardening in Aratène.©RPPS.The local ground is dry and arid and full of wadies, which means argyle valleys, rocky elevations, dunes, or sand elevations and ravines. The lack of rain, sometimes coupled with devastating and sudden floods, causes severe erosion whilst sandstorms and wind gusts at times carry everything in their paths, including humus, habitats, vegetation and household waste. These storms cause sand dune formations, which are problematic for human and animal mobility.Certain soil defence and restoration activities centred on sustaining the ground's production capacity are carried out following traditional methods. Such methods include sand dredging, land clearing and spreading organic household waste from the food system and domestic animal waste on crop fields and vegetable farming fields. Working the land is a secondary activity in Aratène's pastoralist food system, compared with livestock farming, and the results from the survey have confirmed this gap. The ground quality, already barely fertile, can hardly reach a satisfactory level to meet the community's dietary needs.The food system of the Kel Tamasheq is mainly based on renewable energies such as human labour, wood, coal and solar panels, and the use of non-renewable energies like fuel and oil. The system is based above all on manual labour, which guarantees food production, mobility (transhumance and nomadism), food processing, transport, and food preparation. The most laborious and time-consuming activity is looking after the livestock, which includes feeding, veterinary care, breed selection, selling and purchasing animals, and managing their numbers. Manual labour is sufficient for these labourious and time-consuming activities as it is always guaranteed.Wood and coal are essential for the preparation and processing of food. Cattle and camel dung are often used as wood and coal substitutes when these resources become scarce. Some households have solar panels for lighting and powering televisions. Alternatively, the community uses different sizes of electric batteries or lamp oil for nocturnal lighting. Those who own 4x4-type vehicles use fuel to travel to bazaars and markets outside of the community. The means of transport highest in demand are cars and motorcycles.On the whole, fuel and oil supply meets their demand. Supplies come from Bamako, Timbuktu, Léré and Mauritania. Supplies are regular but they can be interrupted during the rainy season when the roads are cut off.Aratène's food system produces very little waste thanks to a simple way of life in which the domestic equipment, both biodegradable and reusable, is made from local wood such as pestles, mortars, plates and spoons, as well as leather and skins such as bags and goatskins.The little bit of waste produced is made up of plastic and metal packaging, brought back from the markets and bazaars visited, and household cleaning waste. The waste is placed on the household's rubbish heap, outside and right next to their plot of land, but sometimes slightly further out if there is a larger multi-household rubbish heap.Traditionally, waste that can be composted is moved towards crop fields when it encroaches on their land. It is carried on foot, using a camel or a donkey. The community's environment is usually clean, which is quite noticeable for any new visitor. This cleanliness is further accentuated by the sweeping gusts sandstorms create at the beginning of and during the rainy season.The way water is collected has changed over time. Wells are preferred over ponds but since 1980 and 1998, boreholes are preferred over wells. In comparison with the past, this progression is a sign that water security, accessible via pumping and in quantity, is improving. Nevertheless, water needs are barely met, and breakdowns are problematic for the community. The water table reserve is decreasing due to the successive droughts caused by climate change. Wood is increasingly rare and substitutes must be found to ensure firewood for food preparation, for instance. This results in animal waste being used, when it should normally be used as organic manure, which causes a shortfall for the soil and plants.Due to major soil degradation and dune formation, work activities are slowed down and vast expanses of land become unusable for livestock and vegetable farming as well as housing. Abandoning harsh landscapes with a marked profile and physical surface features is part of the adaptation strategies for the heterogeneity of the land. The use of energy sources has diversified to include non-renewable resources external to the local area, such as oil and fuel to power motorbikes and vehicles and oil for domestic lighting.In summary, demand for oil has increased due to the market's dynamics but quantifying this increase is difficult due to the nature of this trade, which lacks accountability. Demand in electricity started with the tentative introduction of solar energy.The cattle, ovine and caprine breeds farmed by the community are Sahel breeds. These breeds are kept in the food system despite their low production levels because of tradition, but also and mostly due to the tolerance they have acquired to the harsh local climate. The limited production levels of these Sahel breeds are related to the climatic conditions and the supply of pastoral resources in the environment. Livestock herders do not intend to introduce external breeds that are not hardened to the harsh climate, which the community tried to alleviate through pastoral mobility. This is also because of their limited resources.Crops cultivated by the community, such as wild rice, Indian sandbur, broom corn, millet, jujube and okra, are also of sub-Saharan African origin and are well adapted to the Sahel region. Wild rice seeds are locally sourced or can be purchased at the market during seeding time when local quantities are insufficient. Millet, Indian sandbur and vegetables are purchased at the market. These are improved seed varieties and come from either the national research system or outside the country.The community lost the right to hunt wild animals following the disappearance of wild game more than 20 years ago. Some wild plants are picked for food supplies, medicine, fodder and wood, and some are sold, depending on the season. That is the case for the gum arabic tree (Acacia nilotica), which the community does not allow to be felled. This is to safeguard the tree's survival and, consequently, to sustain its use.Tannin is used in shoemaking, and leaves and bark are used as a medicine against food allergies and bad breath. Cut trees are used as firewood, as fodder, on village building sites (homes and public buildings), and to build animal enclosures.The landscape of Aratène's community is heterogeneous and comprises diverse natural ecosystems: forests, ponds, gravel plains, lateritic plains, dune elevations and desert plains. The community's initiatives to preserve and protect the weak ecosystem need to be catalysed further by local authorities.An example of a successful initiative from the local authorities is the measures put in place to stop bushfires. The prohibition to fell gum arabic trees is another substantial achievement. The pastoral use of the land is free for transhumance from one area to another, with stopover dwellings. Transhumance itineraries are not formally mapped out. They are secular itineraries recognised by the entire community.There are also animal crossings, sometimes in areas of high human and agricultural density. In livestock herding, parturition is not organised, nor is mating. Addressing the decrease in animal numbers is also not on the agenda, despite the current physiognomy of the landscape and the perspective that improving it will take too long.Crop and livestock preservation remains traditional. The community knows that the varieties and species outside the system have the disadvantage of not being adapted to the local landscape due to their intolerance to the climate and the fact that the resources needed to maintain their production level are high compared to the community's revenues. These of pastoral resources. Nearly 20 years ago, the wildlife disappeared, including lions, giraffes, hyenas, ostriches, oryx, buffalos, zebras, gazelles, deer, guinea fowls, bustards, turtles, monkeys and warthogs. Today, hunting and trapping have receded naturally following the disappearance of the wildlife, decimated by armed groups proliferating in the local environment and who have no regard for the law.Local institutions set up either by the community or the State govern the village's natural resources and native food system. As such, the Village Council, made up of the village chief, the notables and the religious authorities, is headed by the village chief, who is nominated for life by the administration, as proposed by the community. The Village Council, elected during a general assembly of the village, assists the chief. The Village Council is an advisory body to the communal authority and cannot make any decision regarding the commune's life without the council's agreement. The farmers' cooperative, set up by members of the community, is responsible for the promotion of livestock and regulates transhumance on aspects such as departures, organization and returns. Vegetable farmers form an economic group capable of internal organization. Vegetable farming is organised by women's associations, which set up a water management committee and decide how plots are allocated to the vegetable farming volunteers. The existence of these institutions that guide the community's life strengthens the food system and is a sign of good governance of the community's environment. At the end of the decentralisation period, the role of the communes was key in land management: transactions, land-use planning in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, registration, and allocation. The community's citizens are aware of it and must speak to the communal authorities for all matters relating to land management where an official recognition of land titles is needed for third parties. The first land user possesses rights of use but not definite ownership. Access to pastures is free but is regulated by the following texts of law, which take into account the rights of third-party users:• There is freedom of movement and problems only exist around waterholes and pastures, which are rare and insufficient. As indicated previously, land insecurity is amongst the major obstacles to the evolution of food security and quality of food in Mali. This is especially accurate in Aratène, where herding expansion must co-exist with other land uses, such as vegetable farming. The way farmers interfere with animal crossings through crop fields is in contradiction with the legislation in force on pastoralism and transhumance. The Pastoral Charter guarantees access to pastoral resources such as salt lands, pastures, wells, waterholes and rights of use:The present law defines the fundamental principles and general rules that govern pastoralist activity practices in the Republic of Mali. The present law recognises the essential rights of pastoralists, particularly with respect to animal mobility and access to pastoral resources. This law also defines the main obligations incumbent upon them in the practice of pastoralist activities, particularly with respect to the preservation of the environment and the respect of other people's property (Article 1 of the Pastoral Charter).Land disputes are usually resolved amicably, which helps limit resorting to local authorities.The participants recognise the fact that there is an \"understanding between the communities\" in terms of cooperation and coordination. This understanding manifests itself in the form of dialogues about the use of natural resources between the community's chief, the mayor, the notables and the religious authority and they recognise that, for all conflicts, solutions between the parties in dispute are always found eventually. A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below.The food system has faced repeated climatic shocks and disturbances since the 1970s, especially droughts, lack of rainfall and occurrences of storms. The region has also experienced locust invasions. For these reasons, it is considered to be more exposed to disturbances than in the past.Discussions held with the community indicate that 65 percent of the food for the family comes from the local environment, versus 35 percent purchased, donated or bartered. The food system is locally interdependent given the relations with other communities and via barter and local exchanges.The food system's connection to surrounding markets, located within a maximum radius of 150 km, facilitates the community's access to market foods, which in turn has allowed for a diversification of income opportunities over time. This has been a logical consequence of the increase in food requirements related to demographic growth and the opening of increasingly dynamic and diversified markets. However, a substantial challenge is that the village is landlocked in winter during heavy rainfall, with all roads being cut off.The native food system is self-organised. Also present are local institutions governing natural resources set up by the community and social support, which is particularly strong and represented by the Zakhat. Zakhat is a sort of charity where certain \"wealthy\" people within the food system, such as owners of cattle or land, donate to the poor in the community, often in the form of animals. To tackle shocks and disturbances, the community implemented adaptation strategies such as relocating certain houses due to flooding, the abandonment of risk areas for animals such as ponds and shallow rocks, and the construction of mud houses, tents or other makeshift shelters in the forest to shelter from the cold. However, the community lacks resources to deal with pests. It is becoming increasingly evident that changes in food security adaptation strategies are moving towards the progressive acceptance of foods from the market.Community members have great respect for maintaining their traditions related to their local food system, whilst still being open to innovations. There are few indications of local practices being at risk of deteriorating. Local methods for livestock and vegetable farming ensure the community's preservation of breeds and local varieties, due to their acquired adaptation to the harsh climate.Traditional knowhow on pastoralism, food processing and craftsmanship is passed on orally by elders and learned by heart by younger generations of the community. However, the lack of written documentation poses a threat to the survival of traditional knowledge. The State-built health centre covers health care provision for the community and the State school provides basic education for the children of the community.The education further provides children with the ability to document their traditional knowledge.The food system is strongly coupled with natural capital.Agrochemicals are not used and soil is fertilized with kitchen scraps and animal dejections, allowing the recycling of nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen in crops and vegetable fields. The major problems of soil degradation relate to the formation of gravel and sand dunes, slowing down soil cultivation by taking over vast expanses of land, making them unusable for livestock and vegetable farming or housing. Further, local wood sources are in decline.Animal species and several varieties of plants have disappeared, and their habitat has deteriorated. However, community members have a high level of understanding the importance of ecological interactions between livestock and the environment, and of allowing the environment to regenerate. One of the reasons behind the decrease in animal species was over-hunting for food in previous decades. The main reason behind the decrease in plant species is the advancing desert and droughts, which have resulted in certain local lakes and ponds drying out completely. The community lives in an increasingly harsh environment in which it needs to adapt. Efforts and local initiatives, helped by significant resources, are still needed to guarantee ecological regulation of the food system.10. Functional diversity: Livestock farming, crops, vegetable farming, and gathering of wild edibles supplies foods that fall into 11 food groups. The market also provides foods from several food groups, including pulses, which are otherwise not present in the local production system. The food system's diversity also builds on non-food local resources, such as firewood, plants for traditional medicine, and domestic equipment made from local wood such as mortars, pestles, spoons and plates.11. Optimally redundant: Farming multiple livestock and crop species, as well as the supply of food from multiple systems, contribute to the redundancy of the system. The diversity of processed foods and the diversity of external markets and bazaars available are also optimally redundant.The local landscape of Aratène's community is heterogeneous and comprises diverse natural ecosystems such as forests, ponds, gravel plains, lateritic plains, dune elevations and desert plains.Their production and consumption are based on seasonality through their activities of the food system such as transhumance, nomadism, and the reproduction cycles of domesticated and wild plants.13. Reasonably profitable: Income opportunities have increased over time, logically following the increasingly dynamic and diversified markets. Sales of animals constitute the main source of income. New activities such as trade and the sale of craft products, transport, the creation of the surrounding bazaars and agro-pastoralism reinforce the move towards markets. Currently, pastoralists produce for the market.The outputs and the inputs of the food system are presented below. The sustainability of a food system implies the need for a system to continuously provide quality and diversified foods in sufficient quantity for everyone as main pillars of food security.To be sustainable, the food system needs to: (1) maintain healthy rural ecosystems and fertile agricultural soils, and (2) limit its dependence on economic fluctuations and external politics.With respect to the protection of livelihoods, as far as Aratène's native food system is concerned, in comparison with the past, the diet shows little diversity and food security is seasonal.Livelihoods and incomes are inadequate. Only the sale of animals, out of necessity for that matter, provides relatively high revenues. These sales have limits that should not be exceeded to protect the herds' core reproductive members.One improvement that can be noticed in the pastoral environment is wintering that occurs between August and September when there is sufficient milk and meat, a sign of food sufficiency. All other livelihoods are adequately meeting the community's needs during this period. The farms, households with herds, can be qualified as self-sufficient during the period, since the other food types are not systematically sought.The food system's main strength is the existence and preservation through the generations of one or more primary food groups, which constitutes the core diet. In addition to other criteria such as language, specific body markings, etc., communities identify themselves through these foods, such as milk, meat and tea in a Kel Tamasheq setting. This strength determines heritage. Other strengths include social self-organization, which is strong in this community thanks to the presence of local governing institutions for natural resources; and reflected and shared learning, an achievement conducive to the creation of the local food system's human capital.The community sees its future through the prism of the projections and future trends relating to: (1) the environment, where the settlement of populations and livestock farming will be favoured over long journeys, with the necessary accompanying measures in the form of development projects; (2) production, affected by the decline of wild edibles gathering, but mostly by the intensive use of the land and the soil for the cultivation of crops; (3) diets, which must remain dominated by local product consumption as much as possible whilst taking into account market produce -but changes in diets lead to other problems related to the costliness of \"new foods\" and the gradual abandonment of certain food traditions; and (4) the disappearance of their system and of traditional knowledge, a consequence of negative external influences, going by young people's current aspirations. The latter do not intend to stay in the village, but rather plan to leave to discover other worlds, to study, to take advantage of globalisation's new technologies, to become doctors, teachers, drivers, transporters or shopkeepers, or to enter military services. This list is not exhaustive. The same aspirations influence the diet, where variety is sought: hors d'oeuvres, snacks, ice cream, fruit, vegetables and modern yoghurts. Adults continue to be demanding with regard to maintaining traditional practices in the future local food system, but they remain in tune with young people and children and are receptive to the positive changes from external influences such as, for example, the consumption of market foods not produced from the local landscape.Aratène's native food system demonstrates strengths but also faces challenges for its sustainability. The big challenges for the food system's sustainability are: the risks caused by change and/or the abandonment of secular food traditions in support of \"new foods\", which will be accentuated by young people's aspirations to leave the community -who represent tomorrow's community members and its human capital; the condition of the local natural capital, damaged for the most part due to sand dunes and gravel crusts; and the food system's ecological self-regulation, which requires work and local initiatives to be functional because the scarcity, if not the disappearance, of certain forage crop varieties due to droughts and repeated animal grazing is a sign that the system has reached its self-regulation limits. The preliminary solutions proposed by the community aimed at improving the diversity and quality of food include the flooding of dried-out lakes, helping farmers to make farms more profitable, simplifying subsistence agriculture, improving land access and learning other trades. Projects designed to help the community need to be implemented to achieve these solutions. This applies to the State in the first instance, with the solicitation of development partners. Participants in the thematic discussions noted that most of the indicators of resilience were weak and that, to improve them, they believe only projects designed to help the community in terms of livestock rearing, agriculture and learning new trades, as well as flooding dried-out lakes, should be introduced.Agro-pastoralism and gathering food system of the Bhotia and Anwal peoples in Uttarakhand, India This study characterised the food system of Namik, a mountain village situated in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand in India. The village is inhabited by the Bhotia and Anwal. The food system in the village is agro-pastoral, and the majority of households are farming or rearing sheep. The schedule caste families practise blacksmith and traditional carpenter works. A minority is involved with trade and business. The community grows approximately 60 percent of the food within the village, whilst they obtain 30 percent from outside sources, 5 percent from the wild and 5 percent from barter. Approximately 95 percent of the cultivation and animal production comes from traditional varieties, with only 5 percent of the species introduced. The community practises organic farming techniques, such as adding sufficient manure, crop rotation and the cultivation of pulses. The villagers of Namik use most of the food produce for their own consumption. They sell only a small portion of their food to earn cash, as the majority of the extra produce is exchanged with adjoining villages or with traders who come to the village. They noted that the climatic conditions of the area and the limited access to land are the main barriers to food security and diet quality. The community also relies on pasturelands 4 kilometres away from the village, where livestock such as sheep and goats can freely graze. The forests are marked as dark green areas on the map. The light green area on the map is the village area with households and farms. Further, the Ramganga East River flows from the southeast of the village to the west. The village's five natural springs are their main sources of potable water.The two communities Bhotia and Anwal participated in the study. Three societal groups categorise these communities: general, schedule caste and schedule tribe. Both communities consist mainly of Hindus, although Buddhism also influences the beliefs of many Bhotia people. The Bhotia and Anwal peoples are closely related, as the Anwal community assisted the Bhotia community in their work with trade. The village community is mixed, consisting of various Bhotia groups, amongst them both general and schedule caste. The general caste speaks Kumauni and Hindi, whilst the schedule tribe group also speaks Bhotia language (Sino-Tibetan). With the exception of Hindi, there are no dialects of the other two languages.According to data provided by the community, Namik village has 110 households. Forty-five households have one to two members working as migratory shepherds, an activity undertaken by the Anwal. Fifty households are of general castes, 41 households of schedule castes, and 19 households of the Bhotia tribe. The overall population of Namik village consists of around 600 individuals, out of which 70 individuals have migrated to cities and larger towns for work and education. Elderly people in the house are considered advisors, as they are highly respected. Nowadays young people spend the majority of their time on education, in contrast with the past, when they contributed to the family's daily activities. Many migrate to other towns.With the exception of migrating youth, all family members usually live together. During meals, the elderly and the leader of the household are served first, thereafter the youth and children, and then the women.Child marriages have traditionally been common in these communities, based on mutual understanding and family agreements. However, current Indian legislation views child marriages as a punishable offence. Women are required to be minimum 18 years old, and men 21 years old.The majority of the food in the community comes from their own farming and shepherding activities. They have two main crop cycles and grow vegetables continuously throughout the year. The Anwal community lives a nomadic/ mobile shepherd lifestyle. Their households raise livestock for their daily consumption of milk and milk products.The larger part of farm areas in Namik village are located around the cluster of houses. Each household has its own farmland, and households with home gardens grow vegetables. Community members cultivate mustard plants, spinach, fenugreek, potatoes, peas and green chillies in their home gardens. Villagers have also recently started to cultivate daikon radish, cabbage, tomato and garlic. Due to limited land holding, no fruit orchards exist in the village. With the exception of a few citrus, apple, plum and peach trees, as well as walnut trees, most of their fruit supply comes from local markets. With regards to crops, households cultivate a variety of species, such as maize, potato, taro, amaranth, finger millet, buckwheat, black soybean, black gram, pigeon pea, kidney beans and gurun (adzuki bean). Staking in climber beans occurs with the help of ringal bamboo collected from the forest, as well as from the community forest or their own farmlands. The community rears a variety of livestock, such as badri cow (an indigenous cow breed of Uttarakhand), buffalos, mules, sheep and Changthangi goats (pashmina goats introduced from Tibet). They keep these herds either in the meadows or in the forest areas near the village. Two to three community members live with these herds to look after them, and particularly men from different families take turns looking after the herds. Cows and buffaloes provide milk and milk products such as cream, which is used to prepare butter, clarified butter called ghee, buttermilk and yoghurt. The women are responsible for milking and the production of dairy products.The community rears sheep and goats for meat and wool. The men shear the livestock and, thereafter, spin the animal hair to make thread. Women primarily weave and make jackets and carpets, whilst men knit sweaters. Beekeeping is also part of the community's food system. Approximately 20 percent of the families have traditional log beehives made of oak or toon trees that are kept near a shade in the house. The nectar is mainly collected from wild and farm flora. Once the hive is mature and has produced honey, families extract it manually and collect it in jars and plastic bottles. However, the extraction is somewhat harmful as the manual method kills larvae in the process. The honey serves mainly as medicine to treat sore throats, coughs and colds. During religious ceremonies, households also offer honey to local deities.The community has always lived in harmony with nature, even before they settled in the village. They have in-depth knowledge of wild edible plants.The women primarily collect these plants and use them as food sources as well as for medicinal purposes for their households. Wild edible and medicinal plants are collected from nearby forests and high-altitude meadows. They use jarak (Phytolacca acinosa, Indian pokeweed) for snacks and vegetables, and bhangeera (Perilla sp., Korean perilla) as a spice and dip to serve as chutney. Bhaang (Cannabis sativa, cannabis) is used for many purposes. The seeds are added to cuisine and Indigenous woman from the community standing in front of bean plants.© CHINAR/ Ghanshyam Kalki.chutney as a spice, whilst hemp is used to make ropes. The fluids extracted from the leaves are used to cure wounds. Sisun (Urtica ardens, nettle) can be consumed as a green vegetable, whilst the hemp is used to make ropes as well. Gethi (Dioscorea bulbifera, air yam) is eaten roasted or boiled and can relieve gastric pains. Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa, picrorhiza) is a painkiller that can also be ingested to treat fevers. Chhipi (Angelica glauca, angelica) is consumed as an energy drink. Hisalu (Rubus ellipticus, golden Hymalayan raspberry) is eaten as fruit, as well as kilmora (Berberis asiatica, Asian barberry), which can also be used to treat asthma and coughs. Linguda (Matteuccia struthiopteris, fiddlehead ferns) is consumed as a green vegetable. After snowfall, the community harvests gucchi (Morchella esculenta, common morel), a rare mushroom in the area, for consumption. Certain orchids are used as plaster applied to bone injuries of cattle.Traditional healers in the village have a deft understanding of the power of medicinal plants.They collect the rare and recently discovered yarsagumba (Ophiocordyceps sinensis, a caterpillar infected by fungi) and the locals sell it at a high price due to its medicinal value. Trading the fungi is illegal, but it is smuggled into China through the Nepalese border. The fungi are high in protein. China uses the plant to produce various energy drinks, and due to this utility, purchasing the plant in China is quite expensive. Several people also believe that they can produce impotency medicine from this plant. Despite the plant's high demand, the only manufacturing done by the community is cleaning the mushroom before selling it to local traders.Because they receive such a low share of the income from their plants, the Government is in the process of legalizing its trade and developing a mechanism as part of Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS), so that the production can also benefit the communities. Another principal land-based activity in the village is handicraft. The communities collect ringal (bamboo), which grows in the wild, to make mats, wicker and containers. Further, they use wood from the community forest for firewood, house construction and medicines.Women are responsible for these activities.House construction is dependent on the natural ecosystem. The communities gather stones, wood, soil and slates from the community forest. They make the internal plaster from red soil and cow dung, which acts as a repellent for insects. The walls of these houses are made from stones and are approximately 2 to 2.5 metres thick.The timber primarily comes from species like toon (Toona ciliate M.Roem., Meliaceae), thuner (Taxus baccata L., Taxaceae) and oak (Quercus sp.).The houses regulate temperature well as they remain cool during summer, because the heat during daytime is unable to penetrate the walls. They also keep the atmosphere warm during the winter, and the stone walls help insulate the heat from the firewood. Further, the community has constructed their houses to be earthquake resistant, as they build them with thick, interlocked walls with gaps in between.During summers from May to June, the minimum temperature remains around 0.8 °C, reaching maximum 27 °C. During monsoon, from July to September, the temperature remains minimum 0.7 °C and maximum 17 °C. Finally, during winters from January to February, the temperature is minimum -3 °C and maximum 12 °C.The community is engaged in many livelihoodand cultivation-related activities throughout the year. Anwal shepherds spend most of their year in the meadows with their herds of sheep. Summer and monsoon are the main seasons for farming and livestock migration. During this time, the community cultivates a variety of pulses, vegetables and other crops.The availability of water remains sufficient throughout the year. In the summer, all streams and rivers overflow as the glaciers melt. The weather remains warm and clear during this time. For the Anwal people, monsoon season also carries beneficial conditions for an abundance of edible wild plants, and therefore livestock rearing. During these periods, they take their herds to higher meadows, following fresh grass availability. The green fodder contributes to the herds' healthy diets.In contrast, early winters are cold and dry. During the day, the temperature is high, but the mornings and evenings are quite cold. During this period, the Anwal people migrate down to tarai, the foothills of Himalaya, where temperatures are slightly warmer. During fall and early winter, the community collects dry grass, fodder and fuelwood, which they store for the upcoming winter season, when the area is covered with snow. This is the busiest time for the community, and they process many food products such as dried meats and cured vegetables.The Namik village hosts many celebrations throughout the year, the Hindu tradition involving a large number of festivals. Ghee Tyohar is an important celebration. It occurs on the first day of the month of bhaado, in the middle of the monsoon, when the crops and meadow are lush green and the grains start to grow. Livestock is particularly worshiped during this time.Community members prepare clarified butter for food and they put it on their forehead. During festivals, they make special traditional foods in the houses, such as puri (deep-fried bread), halwa and pua (preparations from semolina flour and sugar either in mixture or fired), bada (fried ball of black gram and spices), kheer (rice pudding), and raita (mixture of cucumber and curd). The community gathers in the same place to worship gods and goddesses by performing various rituals and prayers. Thereafter, the whole community celebrates by eating together. Another important part of the celebrations is to send food items such as prashad (holy food) to relatives and friends in adjoining villages.The community also worships local gods such as Balchhan bubu, Latu bubu and Raichan devta, for which community members have built temples within the village. From time to time, they gather at these temples and worship in them. One of their religious practices includes bali (animal sacrifice) of goat or sheep to offer them to local gods. The meat of the animal they sacrifice is distributed to the whole community as holy food.The Ha rve stin g garlic, wheat , po tat o So wi ng ama ranth, black be an , ng er mil let, kidney bean , bla ck gr am , pig eon pea, adzuk i bea n, ric e Ha rve sting garlic, wheat , pot ato there is road connectivity. A government store is located in the village that distributes food rations and kerosene at a quantity dependent on the economic classes above the poverty line (APL), below the poverty line (BPL) or Antodaya (extremely poor). The government store is opened daily and one of the village members manages it. The barter system is still practised in the village. Community members exchange many items such as vegetables, meat, pulses, potatoes, kidney beans and milk products within the village, and also with neighbouring village communities. Earlier, communities used to exchange kidney beans with wheat from other villages. As farmers in Namik now grow less buckwheat and amaranth than in the past, the current demand for wheat flour has increased.The history of Namik village dates back 160 years, to when there were only a few small human settlements in the lower areas of Namik. These settlements belonged to general and scheduled castes. Most of these people were Anwal and were farmers. Anwal people used to migrate from the Corbett landscape and Tanakpur forest zone in the foothills of Himalaya to the meadows throughout the year. Namik was the place for their breaks during migration, and livestock exchanged hearty grasses for soilenriching manure. Eventually, some of these shepherds built their temporary settlements in the Namik village. They found the soil quality, availability of water and weather conditions adequate for cultivation, particularly for potatoes and kidney beans that require cold temperatures and nutrient-rich soil. These adequate conditions for cultivation attracted more community members from the lower villages who moved and settled here. Staple foods such as potatoes, kidney beans, millets and maize thrived.Later the Bhotia tribe, native from the Johar valley, on the eastern side of Namik village, settled in the village. This tribe was earlier involved in trans-boundary trade with Tibet, through an old trading system known as the Indo-Tibet trading system. The high passes of Himalaya were their traditional trading routes. The Bamba Dhura pass via Milam glacier was one of those routes, located in Johar valley. The Bhotia community used to live close to the Tibet border and they therefore learned to speak the Tibetan language. Thus, their language and culture are influenced by Tibetan culture. This skill gave them an advantage of keeping a stronghold in the Indo-Tibet trading system. Villagers of other castes such as the general and scheduled caste did not have this skill, thus they went on these trading routes as the Bhotia's helpers.Their mode of trading was the barter system. People from Namik and other villages used to carry clothes, gud (jaggery), misri (Indian rock sugar) and wheat to exchange for silk, salt and yak butter from Tibetan traders. As the trade halted due to various social and political reasons, they started farming and escalating their handicraft. Other products involved in the trade included salty tea from thuner (Taxus baccata) bark, clarified butter, chang (local beer made from barley) and local liquor. These practices continue in the Bhotia community today, and some have also been adopted by the Anwal community.Since the community settled in the village, the production and consumption of food has changed. At the time, there was no access to the roads, nor any establishment of nearby markets. Indo-Tibet trade was the only sourceView on Namik village.© CHINAR/ Ghanshyam Kalki.of supply for many goods, especially salt, which could be bartered with community members. The Namik village slowly learned to sustain their food system throughout the year. They introduced a variety of crops that could grow in their respective altitude and climatic conditions. The first major shock to their system happened when Indo Tibet trade routes were closed after the Indo-China war during 1962.After that event, the villagers' dependency on big markets like Bageshwar increased. When the Bageshwar-Shama road was built during 1970, it became easier to access the Bageshwar market. This had important implications for the community's food system. People started going to the Bageshwar market to shop, and they added new products such as biscuits, sweets, candies and noodles to their diets. Over time, the dependency on the markets for meat, eggs and other food items increased as a consequence of nature conservation legislation that prevented community members from sourcing food from the wild. As a result, a variety of traditional food disappeared from the community. Today, some natural edible plants are foraged just as a traditional practice.The construction of a bridge over Ramganga River in 2000 increased the feasibility of trading. Before the construction, traders used to travel to Namik on their mules. Now, the farmers had a direct route to the market. Further, in 2011, the Liti-Gogina road was constructed, followed by the establishment of many small markets. Some villagers also opened shops in Namik village, making the products from the markets easily accessible. Alternatively, community members started to sell food products such as potatoes and kidney beans to local traders at the markets, and to barter those for rice.Because of the increased connectivity with other towns, people started seeking work further away, and their purchasing capacity increased. This encouraged them to buy processed food from markets, rather than exert themselves through strenuous farming or gathering food from the forests. In addition, the Anwal's trading of sheep and goats was negatively affected by the youth's migration from the village in search of better jobs, as they were left with an insufficient workforce in the village. The lack of workers has curtailed many family-farming practices in the communities.The majority of households are farming or rearing sheep. The schedule caste families practise blacksmith and traditional carpentry.A minority are involved with trade and business, such as in the few shops located in the village. In the family, the most senior working male leads the household. He is responsible for generating income for the family, purchasing goods from the market, official work, and other income-generating activities in distant villages or towns. He is also responsible for cattle grazing and financial decisions.The villagers of Namik use the major part of their food produce for their own consumption. Today, only 20 to 30 percent of their total income comes from activities related to the food system. Sheep rearing provides the majority of their main cash income. Sheep and goats are sold to nearby communities, and sheep herds in particular are sold in large scale to outside traders. Compared with agriculture, this constitutes a more profitable business, as the sales price of one sheep is approximately INR 3 000 to INR 20 000 32 depending on its size and age. Monetary income has increasingly become essential for the communities to afford children's education, clothing and other necessary items.Certain crops like kidney beans, potatoes, garlic and maize as well as some milk products, such as clarified butter, are bartered or sold in the local markets and nearby villages to obtain some cash income. But the amount of these crops and other food products is very little, covering around 10 percent of a household's average cash income. Whilst the community first began selling only excess production of kidney beans and potatoes, they now grow these crops especially for the market, as well as to barter them for rice, which cannot grow at the altitude of the village. Preferably, community members save their highquality products for the market and as seeds, whilst the rest is destined for self-consumption.Villagers sell processed products like ghee, honey, finger millet flour and chaang within the community as well as to nearby communities. Ghee is obtained from boiled cream and then packed in plastic or tin containers. Finger millets are dried, cleaned, and grinded in the traditional watermills and then sold. Chaang is a homemade beer made from rice and barley, usually prepared by Bhotia women with traditional inoculum. Finally, community members also sell woven jackets, carpets and sweaters in nearby villages or towns, as well as to tourists who visit the village.However, one of the major problems in trading products is transportation. Community members use mules or sometimes carry their products on their own back. Prices for the products rapidly rise to compensate for the time it takes to transport them to markets that are far away, and they end up not being competitive compared to other important suppliers. By the time vegetables arrive at the market, they have started to become stale or less fresh, and community members cannot obtain an adequate price. Therefore, the community cultivates crops that could be stored and bartered at any time. The rentability of bamboo and woollen handicraft is low, although they have a high added value on the market. Community members do not benefit from proper market linkage to big markets, and retribution from local customers is not high enough; hence, few quantities are produced.The cash income earned by the community is used for household needs like buying food products, such as sugar, tea-leaves, cooking oil, jaggery, salt, spices, fruits, chicken, eggs, rice, soap, detergent and vegetables, as well as medicines and medical treatment. They can also support their children's education and buy clothing and other necessary items. Additional expenses also now include mobile phones, mobile recharging costs and television recharging costs. However, income generation from the food system is not enough to meet the community's food demand. Community members are, therefore, dependent on government ration supplies to meet their needs.Namik villagers consider a healthy diet as one consisting of meat, eggs, green vegetables, kidney beans, ghee and milk. Rice is the main staple food in the community, consumed regularly for lunch. It was primarily received through the barter of kidney beans, but is now bought at the market or available in government ration shops. Together with wheat flour and pulses, these food items are eaten regularly throughout the year. Community members prefer to eat rice and pulses for lunch and reserve wheat bread or finger millets bread with curries and fresh vegetables for dinner. Kidney beans, potato and maize are the traditional crops of the Namik village. Milk and milk products are also regularly consumed, in contrast to meat, fruits and nuts. Costly and usually externally sourced, they are typically reserved for special occasions, such as during the festival season in late monsoon and fall. Monsoon is the period when diets are complemented with wild edibles such as fiddlehead and mushrooms. Further, the consumption of vegetables varies due to their seasonal availability. As such, the consumption of green vegetables is higher during fall and winter.Millets, corn flour and kidney beans are eaten in larger quantities during the winter, whilst cabbage and peas are consumed during summer. Buttermilk and ghee are common supplements to every meal. The main food of the Anwal during migration to meadows is sattu, which is made from roasted barley, wheat and ragi (finger millets).Adults in the community are not particularly interested in eating packaged and processed food, as these new items are costly and irregularly available in the markets. On the contrary, children find new processed food items such as chips, biscuits and noodles quite attractive. Community members process their own beverages such as salty tea, chhang and another local liquor.The community never faced food insecurity, and community members rely on the market, barter exchange and monthly government-subsidized rations to complement any shortage of food that may occur during the year. Seventy to 80 percent of the wheat that community members consume is sourced from government ration shops or from markets. Each household buys from the market approximately 300 kg of wheat flour, 100 to 300 kg of rice, 30 to 70 kg of pulses, salt and spices, which can be stored for the winter months.In addition, community members have developed a system to preserve food for several months.Corn is ground into flour and stored in bhakaar, big containers made from local wood. Radish, taro roots, gourds and fenugreek leaves are dried under the sun. Similarly, the Bhotia dry and store around 5 to 20 kg of sheep and goat meat to meet their protein requirements during the winter months. Community members also clarify butter and women pickle garlic and chillies. Potatoes are kept in the ground and only picked when they are ready to be consumed. Honey or clarified butter is exchanged between families in case of food shortage.However, community members face threats to food security and barriers for diet quality.Those are primarily limited to land holding, as well as harsh and changing climate. Only a few crops have adapted to these conditions. Limited income generation is an important barrier to food security. Big markets, such as the one in Bageshwar, are in general above their income capacity. Only 2 percent of households that have family members working in cities and towns succeed in obtaining an adequate income. Due to their low income, community members only buy food items for their basic needs, and at a cheap price, which prevents them from having an adequate intake of nutritious foods such as meat and fruits. Hence, community members can present signs of malnourishment, in particular the children and women.Income generation began due to the increased road connectivity to the village, allowing community members to reach markets to sell agriculture produce and handicrafts, and to migrate to nearby villages and towns for labour work in government and private sectors. Trekking companies developed and some community members became local guides or porters. The community is also accessing employment opportunities within the village, such as support for small businesses. In addition to running the shop with a licence to distribute government rations, one villager has purchased a vehicle and he now runs a taxi service.Community members who obtain jobs in the cities or towns are now sending money back to their families, allowing them to purchase food from the market, buy better clothes, and afford to pay their children's school fees. Consequently, community members rely less on the barter system. The social bonds within the community have therefore changed, and community members now more frequently expect maximum returns from their production system, when families previously often offered each other gifts without an expectation of reciprocity.Being dependent on the local ecosystem for their food, the community originally did not have income opportunities. Wild animals like Himalayan blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur Hodgson, Bovidae), Himalayan thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus C.H.Smith, Bovidae), Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus goral Hardwicke, Bovidae), wild boar (Sus scrofa L., Suidae), Himalayan monal (Lophophorus impejanus Latham, Phasianidae), satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra L., Phasianidae), and kalij pheasant (Lophura leucomelanos Latham, Phasianidae) were hunted by the locals for their own consumption of meat. Big animals were caught with guns and spears, whilst nets or traps made from plastic and iron were used to trap pheasants. Community members used to stop hunting during monsoon, as they were aware that it is the time of reproduction. During monsoon, they therefore only hunted male animals. Villagers also used to migrate to hunt in different areas during different periods. This practice was sustainable as villagers caught only the necessary amount for their food supply, whilst still allowing enough time for the prey species to reproduce. The practice of hunting progressively phased out along with the implementation of conservation legislation, favouring the shift towards the domestication of animals in the food system. Similarly, community members used to gather wild plants for food and medicine. However, the increased availability of allopathic medicine and farm food has led to a significant decrease in this activity.The level of consumption of various supplements, such as health tonics, has recently grown in the community, as a consequence of health campaigns led by the Government and private sector. Community members are becoming more aware of nutrition principles. For instance, campaigns and TV shows have educated the community about the importance of iodine. Most households now only use iodized salt in their diet, when they were previously consuming non-iodized salt.Despite these new supplements and increased availability of products sourced from the market, community members state that loss of access to numerous wild plants and animals has had a significant impact on their health. These wild edibles had important nutritious and medical traits that community members cannot benefit from anymore, which they said has led to less strength and working capacity compared to pastCommunity member from Namik village making a mat from ringal (bamboo).© CHINAR/ Ghanshyam Kalki.generations. Community members also state that the wild species that they do still cultivate are losing nutritional value due to changing climatic conditions, and diminishing seed and soil quality.The forest and meadows of the upper area of the village are part of governmental property and declared as protected areas by the Government. Therefore, hunting and foraging is banned, and the overall socio-ecological mobility of the people in the village has decreased. With regards to the Bhotia, they used to travel to Tibet through silk routes for trade, their main livelihood. Now that Indo-Tibetan trade has stopped, they are confined to the village area and it is only the Anwal who migrate with their sheep and goats.The land cleared by the community for farming is limited. Most families are joint families, but once they separate, the land is equally divided not only in measurement but also in terms of its use and quality, which means that both families will obtain an equal proportion of land that includes half rain-fed and half irrigated, if any. Similar distribution also occurs for livestock based on numbers, milking or non-milking. The land in Namik is not yet sold or rented to outsiders due to its remoteness. But due to its aesthetic value, tourism is on the rise, which may pique the interest of the tourism industry.The community's agricultural production capacity has changed over time and with it their capacity to provide an adequate quantity and diversity of nutritious food. Due to their exploitation of forest resources, mainly for fodder and manure, the availability of green fodder for livestock has declined. This in turn affects the quantity and diversity of nutritious foods. The availability of wild grasses for livestock has also changed. Now people have to walk further distances to collect fodder for the livestock.Due to the village's remoteness, green revolution technologies never reached that far and, as a result, the community still practises organic farming techniques. Soil quality is evaluated by the colour of the soil. According to community members, the darker the colour, the more the nutrients. Fine-textured soil has been reported to be better in its capacity to hold water and nutrients. Community members favour the presence of earthworms in the soil. They state that stony soil hosts eggs and larvae of pests, which can be harmful for the soil. Soil in the village is dark brown, and it is covered with a layer of humus. Although soil erosion and landslides occur in some areas of the village, neither has impacted agricultural land so far.Traditional practices, such as adding sufficient manure, crop rotation and the cultivation of pulses, which add nitrogen to the soil, are all contributing to the maintenance of good soil quality. Due to these beneficial practices, local farmers do not need to use inorganic fertilizers in their fields. Manure from animals' dung is the main soil additive used by the community. It is made by mixing livestock dung with dried leaves, grass and straw from cowsheds. Thereafter, they leave the manure in the form of a heap for one season. After decomposition, it can be used in the field at the time of ploughing, and later at the time of hoeing. These heaps are generally kept near the animal shed so that the women, who tend to it, do not have to walk long distances.Potatoes are grown separately from fields dedicated to legumes cultivation like pulses, black soybeans and kidney beans. Community members keep the land fallow before starting a new cycle. Potatoes are harvested during the new moon. During the full moon, gravitational forces pull water out from the ground, and potatoes are more likely to rot afterwards.The community prepares their own insecticides and pesticides. Ash from leaves is spread, and buttermilk and cow urine are sprayed on the crops. A common practice after harvesting is to burn the crop residue, hence destroying the pathogens of pests, whilst enriching the soil with phosphorous. Kitchen ash also contains phosphorous, from burning firewood for cooking.When mixed with the manure, it is commonly applied to vegetable crops, particularly potatoes.To prevent soil erosion, farmers build a medh, a wall of soil and stones around their fields.Over time, layers of grass and moss grow on the wall and solidify it. The wall stops soil erosion, and prevents soil nutrients from washing out during rains and strong winds. This practice further maintains the soil's fertility. From time to time, villagers use a spade to distort the soil, decompact it, and ensure nutrient circulation.The major livelihood activities, such as cooking, depend on renewable energy, such as firewood and cow dung. Firewood is the main source of energy in the village. Community members collect wood from both the community and the reserved forests, and use it to cook and heat their houses during winters. Each family uses approximately 20 kg of wood per day for cooking. It reaches 30 kg during winters, counting additional consumption for heating. The building of two-story houses is a traditional practice shared throughout the entire Himalaya to minimise the use of energy in heating, and which can be found in Namik village. Livestock is kept in the lower story and the heat that it generates warms up the upper floor.An additional source of renewable energy comes from a micro-hydel power plant established by the Uttarakhand Renewable Energy Development Agency (UREDA) in the village. It provides five to six hours of electricity supply to the village every day. The Village Urja Committee manages the micro-hydel, which is located on the strongest river in the village, called Roli gaad (gorge). The community uses this energy mainly to light the house, for electrical appliances like television, to iron clothes and to charge their mobile phones. The community shares the electricity with adjoining villages during the rainy season when there is an excess of production. However, the supply is not abundant enough to use heaters to warm the houses. Other sources of renewable energy include a watermill for grinding and solar lamps for lighting.Only a small portion of the community's energy needs depends on kerosene, which is mainly used to light the fire. The government provides kerosene at subsidized rates, along with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). However, due to the poor transportation system and harsh weather conditions, the supply is frequently interrupted. Since most of the families cannot afford LPG, they rely on the forest to meet their fuel needs.The community uses diesel-and petrol-operated vehicles for transportation, which are available 6 kilometres away from the village.Community members conduct all labour activities themselves. In fact, women undertake most of the activities related to the food system, spending 10 to 12 hours per day collecting firewood and fodder, caring after and milking livestock, and collecting water. Youth, particularly girls, also help women with these activities. In addition, they are responsible for the domestic labour. They are often the ones cooking, doing dishes and washing clothes, except during the fall, when they are busy with harvesting and collection activities. During this period, other members of the households take over the responsibility of the domestic work and the family members who have migrated come back to the village to assist.Community members usually use traditional tools for ploughing, weeding, hoeing and harvesting. The tools are sourced from the landscape and built by blacksmiths. Community members buy these tools from them. Ploughs are made of wood, and men have the responsibility to use them in the field. Cattle pull the tools to reduce the amount of human energy expended. Families that do not have cattle rent them from other families in the village. Other activities under the responsibilities of women include sowing seeds, weeding, hoeing, and applying manure to the field. The women also manually harvest crops such as wheat, barley and finger millet. Both men and women undertake thrashing thanks to thrashers made of wood. The grinding of grains (mainly finger millets, maize, barley and wheat) occurs either in traditional watermills, where it is exchanged for flour with the owner, or manually with a musal. A musal is a wooden pole with an iron ring fitted at its end, which crushes the grains placed in a stone pot. Community members relate that lack of technology is an issue given the level of drudgery associated with the activities required to sustain their food system.Five water springs exist in the village, which provide members with their main source of drinking water. These springs are 400 metres to 500 metres from the hamlets; however, pipelines channel the water, so that most village members have a water supply near their home. These natural springs recharge during monsoon and winter seasons, as well as during summer as glaciers start melting. The availability of water remains sufficient in these springs throughout the year. All families have access to these springs. The agriculture in the village is mostly rain-fed, but community members can also use irrigation in their home gardens. Crop varieties that are grown in the winter season require less water, whilst varieties that are grown in the rainy season are tolerant to heavy rain. Snowfall during the winter is important to maintain soil moisture, and for the sustainability of crops grown during spring and summer. After the snowfall, monsoon rains recharge the aquifers and the soil moisture.The community maintains the adjoining forest, which is dominated by oak and alder trees that store enough water in their roots and keep the soil moist. Amongst the livestock, buffaloes require the most water. The community mainly uses water for cooking food, processing food like washing of vegetables, rice, churning cream to prepare clarified butter, drinking water for households and livestock, washing dishes, washing clothing, and for bathroom uses.Normally the villagers in Namik have enough water supplies throughout the year. With the various schemes introduced by the Government and private organizations, many households now also have constructed water storage tanks. These are useful as they contribute to the reduction of physical labour. The community has a practice to reuse water. Water outlets from kitchens lead to the nearest field to reuse the water and maintain soil moisture.Most of the waste material generated in the village is biodegradable, such as vegetable peels, food leftovers, agricultural waste, waste from livestock like dung and urine, or leftover fodder.The community recycles the waste by making manure, and livestock dung is used as fuel. At times, farmers get rid of waste by burning the residue.Community members also generate nonbiodegradable waste like plastic wrappers, polythene bags and medicines, normally originating from market products. Most of the time, families throw the waste outside of their houses, for lack of appropriate waste deposits. This practice is polluting the surrounding ecosystems. However, the community has certain practices to reverse this trend. They reuse plastic bags and large plastic sheets to cover the roofs of their houses and livestock sheds, during monsoon and snowfall periods. They also reuse plastic bottles to collect water, and to keep liquid items like oil, honey, milk and buttermilk.The resource use has changed at the landscape level as community members would previouslyVarieties of beans found in Namik village.© CHINAR/ Ghanshyam Kalki.spend five months of the year, from April to August, for cultivation and raising livestock, and the other seven months, from September to March, for migration to the lower valleys. This practice halted 10 years ago, and most community members now spend the whole year in the village to conduct farm activities. A rotational system of crops has remained the same throughout time, although the recent introduction of new vegetable crops is creating change.The demand for human and animal labour, and the use of tools for agricultural practices, remain the same. However, the migration of men out of the village to work has led to increased pressure on women regarding activities in the village. Despite the introduction of new sources of energies, firewood has remained primordial; the same goes for the micro-hydel, which remains as the primary source of electricity despite the introduction of solar lamps.Over time, many governmental and private schemes have reached the villages, such as polyhouse construction, water tank construction, walking path construction and road construction. The introduction of pipelines by the Government has saved significant time and reduced women's workload, as they used to fetch water directly from the springs. Previously, they would spend around one hour per day getting water. Now that supply is located approximately 50 metres from each household. This encouraged the use of irrigation for their home garden and helped maintain livestock, whose water demand began increasing once they started to permanently stay in the Namik area.The introduction of plastic waste in the landscape is a matter of concern, as it will affect the community's water sources, agriculture and long-term health. Changes in their medicinal system are also a new driver of waste generation, as they now rely on allopathic medicine coming from nearby towns. Plastic containers are slowly replacing traditional containers. Community members are slowly becoming more informed through workshops, television and other informative programmes. Still, a disposal mechanism has yet to be developed.Previously the community built all houses from natural materials, thereby not generating waste. However, enhanced road connectivity made the transportation of cement feasible. New homes built can potentially pollute the landscape. The move towards cement is caused by the lack of organic materials, expensive labour and an aspirational value of modernity.After years of experimentation, the community has established its cropping system and selected a few crops and varieties that are essential for their daily needs. Since the beginning of their settlement, they have been using their own seeds.The community grows a diversity of species per food groups. These include starches (6), pulses (6), nuts (1) such as walnut, dark leafy vegetables (2), vegetables (6), and fruits (4), all of which are part of their local cuisines. As indicated, kidney beans are the main crop of the village and the community cultivates three different varieties. Almost all households grow varieties of kidney beans and soybeans. The community cultivates traditional crops like kidney bean, potatoes, amaranth and buckwheat in large scale because the area's soil and climate are highly suitable for the cultivation of these crops. They also can be easily stored for a long period, and they have good barter rates. Spotted kidney bean is tastier than other varieties, and therefore popular in the market. The ratio between the cultivation of traditional and introduced crops is 60:40. Traditional crops are an important part of the food system, yet introduced crops grown by the community help to maintain the food variety for the entire year.Livestock are the backbone of the agriculture and an integral part of the livelihoods of the communities in Namik village. The community mainly rears five species of livestock: sheep, goats, cows, buffaloes and mules. All of these, with the exception of buffalo, are traditional breeds. Two breeds of cows, badri cow and Jersey cow, are reared, along with one breed of buffalo, one breed of sheep, one breed of mule, and two breeds of goats, Indian goat and Changthangi goat. The reason for rearing traditional breeds is that they are hardier to the local conditions.Out of these livestock, the community keeps cows, buffalos, goats and mules on their farms. Herds of sheep and goats mostly stay in the meadows and nearby forests with their caretakers. During monsoon, families also take other livestock for grazing due to high availability of green fodder. Every household has two to three cows and one to two buffaloes. Around 80 percent of households rear goats and sheep in good numbers.Community members have solid traditional practices to ensure the regeneration of the harvested wild plants. They select and mark a large area of nearby forest after a common discussion and protect it for three to five years in the name of the local God Bhumiya Dev, the God of jungle. During that period, no one from the same community or nearby communities is allowed to collect or harvest any kind of natural resource from that part of the forest. This practice naturally helps to regenerate and conserve all the important species within the protected area. After this time, they open the protected area and mark a new part as protected. This is a traditional and effective practice, which the Namik village and other nearby communities still follow.In general, in their use of wild medicinal plants, community members do not overexploit the resource, as they only take the amount they require. Although the community has seen the introduction of new technologies and inventions, they still rely on natural resources, particularly for firewood, fodder, timber, water, wild products and medicinal plants. The community highly values the conservation of these resources for their sustainable livelihoods. For this reason, they have traditional practices of faith and conservation, which are more effective and followed by all as they involve local deities.According to new governmental guidelines and state laws for forest conservation, cutting a tree from the forest is a punishable offence. Community members have their traditional rights over wild resources, but they are only allowed to collect fallen trees and their branches for firewood. This is applicable in the reserved forests, which are owned by the forest department. To cut trees, community members climb the trees to get dry fuelwood and use an iron axe. For timber, the dry tree is chopped with the help of an axe, and then logs and sleepers are prepared with the help of a manual saw.In addition to the rotational management practice, shepherds, who live in the meadows, keep migrating to different parts of the grazing grounds to prevent over-grazing. Cattle grazing is permitted by the Government in these areas. Every community has their declared grazing areas.Other communities also respect this traditional system. Whenever they go to an area that belongs to another community, they ask permission from that community for grazing. They also offer a limited amount of either money or goods such as vegetables or other crops as a trade-off.Another traditional practice concerns protecting water sources from pollution. Related to this, senior members of the community tell a story of Masan, a ghost who lives near water bodies.According to the tale, if someone throws garbage or pees anywhere near the water body, this ghost catches him or her and makes them ill. This tale is transferred from generation to generation. It is an effective way of protecting the water, as people strongly believe in such tales. Similarly, villagers never take their livestock to these water resources to drink water. Instead, they dig a big trench near the water bodies where cattle can drink water. Another reason behind these practices is that the community regards the water as sacred, and villagers worship the traditional water springs. They have therefore put statues of gods or goddesses near the water sources, so that the community does not waste water or pollute the springs. Using soap and washing clothes in the springs is strictly prohibited. Women and girls are not allowed to touch or even go near the water spring during their menstrual cycle.Beekeeping in the village also contributes to ecosystem conservation and protection. Community members use traditional practices to rear bees. They rear them in locally available wooden logs in which the bees survive. The bees pollinate the community's cross-pollinating crops, and thereby help maintain the crops' productivity. The community's maintenance of agrobiodiversity helps the bees survive, which in turn provides better pollination services. The beekeepers also give sugar supplements such as sugar or sugar candies to the bees during winter when there is a deficiency of floral species in the area.For the last five to six years, cultivation of some traditional crops like finger millet, amaranthCommunity member from Namik village standing in front of traditional beehives.© CHINAR/ Ghanshyam Kalki.and buckwheat has decreased as community members have started to buy processed wheat flour from the market for their consumption. Further, these crops are not considered good cash crops, thus decreasing interest in the community to cultivate them. However, for a long time, generations have passed traditional seeds to the following generations. Some of these seeds are considered special for the Namik village. Despite the decrease in cultivation of these traditional crops, the Namik community still grows them on a larger scale than other nearby villages such as Ratirkethi, Gogina and Liti. Therefore, Namik village can be considered as a seed bank or a place of in situ conservation of these traditional crops in the higher Himalayan region. In addition to traditional crops, the community cultivates vegetable crops such as daikon radish, cabbage, tomato and garlic, introduced six to seven years ago by the Government's Agriculture and Horticulture departments. In the village, the area for farmland has remained almost the same over time. However, in some hamlets, such as Junmari and Jugadhara, some families have migrated from the village and the community has therefore converted their farmland to forestlands.  ). As the population of wild animals like wild boars, rabbits and porcupines increased, they have started destroying the croplands and the incidents of human-animal conflicts have risen in the area. Since the introduction of these acts, the community has become dependent on markets, in addition to their own cultivation, to meet all their daily needs.Although the dependence on natural resources is high related to energy use, the slight increase in use of resources such as electricity, LPG and kerosene has somewhat released the pressure on natural resources. The forest cover around the village area is therefore becoming denser. Waste deposits are also affecting the ecosystem protection, as the village is located just above the Ramganaga River. During monsoon, there is high risk that the waste will flow down to the river, polluting the water. The volume of waste is still not excessive, yet it is a concern for the ecosystem that needs to be addressed, especially regarding the downstream river ecosystem.Governance of natural resources As far as the farmlands and other land in the village are concerned, the community has their own rights to these lands. The entire area of the village belongs to the community.In addition to the gram panchayat, the village has another institution, the van panchayat. The gram panchayat looks after resources and its management within the village, whilst the van panchayat focusses on the management of the community forest. The community elects the van panchayat for a period of five years. The van panchayat has written rules for grazing management, fuelwood, timber wood, green fodder and hay collection to which the entire village has to adhere. It also determines the rotational restoration practices in the forest followed by all community members and based on the faith and conservation approach. Punishments are foreseen in case these rules are violated. However, being dependent on the natural resources for their livelihoods, community members usually comply with the rules. This management practice is prevalent in majority parts of Uttarakhand State.Sometimes after the monsoon, only dried firewood collection, and limited collection of green fodder from trees and hay, is allowed.The gram panchayat allots rights for forest use to each family. In addition, every year they allot one tree for production of timber to one family in the village. Although community members can collect firewood in large quantities, the collection of medicinal plants is only allowed in small quantities. The management committee of the van panchayat organises open meetings to discuss management issues with the community. When the community engages in plantation activities, one member from each household volunteers to contribute to the work.Originally, the community mainly structured the governance of natural resources by social laws and norms involving all members of the community. Formal institutions such as van panchayats and the Forest Department progressively replaced these informal governance systems, bringing with them normative rules and regulations. This resulted in the implementation of the Forest Rights Act in 2006, which stated that village communities were to be involved in the conservation of their natural resources. The act allocates individual rights to cultivate land in forestland, and community rights over common property resources to tribal communities and forest dwellers. A further notification on the implementation of the Forest Rights Act 2006, issued on 1 January 2008, has been considered a final effort to undo the \"historic injustice\" done to tribal communities and other forest dwellers. The management of these community forest areas now lies with the community, thus providing villages with the right to extract a limited quantity of fallen or dried firewood, fodder, timber and some wild plants from the community forest. The rights of each family are determined based on the size of their farm and family.However, as the Government now takes care of most ecosystem protection, the community's rights to land and other resources have decreased over time. Therefore, the community-based conservation of natural resources now primarily concerns community forestland. Indeed, since the 1972 Indian Wildlife Protection Act came into force, the Government has declared all forests, grazing grounds and water bodies such as lakes and rivers as national heritage. Thus, all wild species of plants and animals are now declared as protected. In the case of community grazing grounds, communities still have kept their traditional rights of grazing. The communities in the area have their own respective traditional grazing grounds. If someone from other communities uses their grounds, they must seek permission from the owner community and pay a fee.A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below.1. Exposed to disturbance: The community has observed impacts of the changes in climatic conditions, such as decline in snowfall and hotter average temperatures, both causing negative consequences for production such as an increase of pests and soil degradation. Community members also noticed a decreased abundance of wild plants such as berries in forest areas.Further, rainfall has become unpredictable, causing soil erosion and landslides, and damaging crops, insects and habitats for birds. Community members have further noticed early flowering of wild plants, like rhododendrons, as well as new species of birds in the region that are affecting the crops and killing the bees.The community grows approximately 60 percent of the food within the village, whilst obtaining 30 percent from outside sources, 5 percent from the wild and 5 percent from barter. Only 5 percent of the species are introduced. The villagers sell only a small portion of their food to earn cash, as most of the extra produce is exchanged with adjoining villages or with traders who come to the village. However, the dependency on external food sources is slowly increasing, affecting the social bonds in the village as community members are used to helping each other out in case of crop failure, deficiency of seeds or shortages of food.The closest road is almost 6 km away, and the closest big market, Bageshwar, is nearly 85 km away. The construction of the road in 2016 allowed for more regularity in receiving government ration supplies. The communities bring their handicraft products to Bageshwar, whilst they mostly sell or exchange their food products within the village or in adjoining villages. Due to the village's remoteness, governmental authorities, research institutes, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or private sector actors rarely reach out to the community with agricultural development programmes. Frequent landslides occur during monsoon season, which can isolate the village temporarily.The gram panchayat and van panchayat are strong local institutions. Whilst managing the community forests and natural resources, the community also mobilizes its strong social customs, associated with the conservation of natural resources. Strong social support exists between community members and between communities on the regional level, as it relates to seed exchanges and food shortages, as well as cultivation, house construction and marriages.Community members conduct experiments and adopt best practices for their food systems. They have their own varieties of seeds for various crops that can grow well in the local conditions. They also have local breeds of goat, sheep and cattle, which are well adapted to the local conditions.Elders are the decision makers for the selection of crops and seeds, sowing time, harvesting, barter negotiation and marketing.Involving young children and youth in cultivation and management of food and natural systems helps pass the learning to the next generations. However, the trend of increasing migration to urban areas amongst the youth is a concern for the continuity of transmission of traditional knowledge.Community members do almost all the work themselves. No institution or higher education centre exists in the village to disseminate traditional knowledge. The village only has a high school. There is neither health institutions nor institutions for other social services. However, a trained health worker provides polio drops and basic health information. Non-governmental organizations such as the Central Himalayan Institute for Nature and Applied Research (CHINAR) support the building of human capital in the village by conducting workshops to increase awareness of environmental and livelihood issues.There is efficient use and recycling of nutrients within the system, supported by a strong link between the forest ecosystem and agroecosystem. The biomass that goes into the farms comes from the forest. Traditional insecticides are used to prevent the attack of pests. The community has their own crop rotation to maintain the fertility of the soil, which they have been practising for generations.Community members rely on the local landscape for traditional medicine and various other uses, such as construction, handicraft and cloth weaving. There is low dependency on imported energy sources, imported electricity or imported water, as the community has a sufficient supply from local sources. The community's main challenge concerning ecosystem use and protection is the lack of waste disposals for inorganic waste.The forest ecosystem provides resources, whilst the agroecosystem also returns nutrients when herds of sheep, goats and cattle head to the meadows for grazing. The bees kept in log hives also provide pollination services to the forest ecosystem and maintain the forest biodiversity.Community members maintain biodiversity to control major pests, and they grow plants that are naturally insect repellent such as garlic and cannabis.10. Functional diversity: The food system supplies various interrelated ecosystem services. Supporting services are noticeable through the recycling of nutrients between forest and agricultural land ecosystems. In addition to providing food, the forest also supplies timber and other raw material for fuel, construction, forage, medicinal resources and ornamental resources.The diversity of forage and the storage capacity for most of the staple food indicates optimal redundancy for important food sources in the community. To meet their needs, the community maintains diversity in the forest as well as in the farmlands. The villagers have also developed a seed bank. They do not have many varieties of the crops for internal use, yet they have maintained various varieties of crops for barter and sale. As indicated, the villagers also have their own handicraft practices, using local natural resources.The landscape is composed of glaciers, water bodies, grassland, forest and agroecosystems. The higher landscape areas near the glaciers are used as pasture lands, whilst the land around the village is used for forest resources, and the agriculture land is in the centre. Thus, the landscape has diverse ecosystems. The community follows a definite rotation of crops, and practises land fallowing before growing potatoes, which take up lots of nutrients from the soil.Agriculture is the subsistence in the area and only a small portion of the traditional food products cultivated by the community are meant for the market. Still, most of the people, especially children and women, are malnourished. Some crops such as potato, kidney beans and garlic are bartered or marketed to get money. Men usually migrate to nearby villages for work or even to towns and cities to obtain small jobs to support their families.The Indigenous Peoples' food system of Namik not only depends on the village's farming system, but also on its forest, meadows, livestock and their handicraft. All of these are closely interlinked. The diversity in the food system helps the community survive in extreme conditions despite their remoteness to other communities. To obtain their desired outputs, the community has to provide some inputs to keep these systems sustainable.The main outputs are the diverse food products generated from the system such as potato, wheat, maize, kidney beans, buckwheat, black soy bean, amaranth, garlic, black gram, pigeon pea, adzuki bean, apple, plum, peach, lemon, golden Himalayan raspberry, Asian barberry, mustard and its leaves, cabbage, spinach, leafy mustard, daikon radish, taro, and fenugreek and its leaves.From livestock, they get milk, milk products such as buttermilk, clarified butter, butter, yoghurt, meat, dung, manure and wool. They obtain honey, medicinal plants, edible ferns and mushrooms from the forest. From wheat, buckwheat and corn flour, they prepare bread daily. They make pickle from garlic. Clothes are prepared from wool collected from sheep and goat hair. Traditional medicines are prepared from wild medicinal plants. Honey is also used as medicine.Villagers either sell or barter crop produce like potato, kidney beans and garlic to get money or additional food items. Other produce like honey and clarified butter is also sold and bartered. Goats and sheep are sold for meat or wool at good prices.Agriculture hardly produces any waste. All crop residues are used either as fodder or manure or burned to control pests. As indicated, the waste of concern is the one generated from processed and packaged food material from the market.The main input in the food system is human labour, which is required for agriculture, livestock rearing, handicraft confectioning, and collecting wild resources from the community forest. For cultivation, community members mainly use traditional varieties of seeds, tools made from locally sourced materials, and organic fertilization and pesticides sourced from the farm and landscape. Livestock is reared with fodder, fresh grass and dry grass from the landscape.External inputs come in the form of seeds and seedlings of governmental crops. In addition, the Government provides food items such as rice, wheat and sugar at subsidized rates. Farmers now also purchase packaged and processed food from the market like chips, biscuits, pickles, wheat, sugar, pulses, jaggery, rice, salt, cooking oil, noodles and fruits. To supplement local energy sources, the Government provides kerosene oil at subsidized rates. They have also introduced lights run on solar energy.The agroecosystem presents many elements of sustainability. One of the main strengths of the food system are the traditional varieties that have been conserved by the community, and which are climate resilient and well adapted to local conditions. A significant proportion of crops grown can be stored for long duration, and the agroecosystem is diverse in its outputs for food and other by-products. The generation of food optimizes and enhances the functioning of the ecosystem, as it relies on crop rotation, organic cropping, strong linkages between the farm and forest ecosystems, and pollination. The community members benefit from a diverse and changing landscape, allowing different food production activities throughout the year. Finally, community members support each other through cooperation, especially in times of emergency and shortage of food.The transmission of knowledge allows the children to develop skills and to learn from the experience of the elders in ensuring the sustainability of the food system. By being dependent on the natural ecosystem for their livelihoods, community members have a strong self-organization in managing resources through their village institutions.The food system faces numerous challenges, the primary one being the migration of youth from the village, which puts the transmission of traditional knowledge at risk. Community members also face a decline in traditional practices, such as beekeeping, which is now practised by only a few farmers in the village. Similarly, land fallow is practised less often than in the past, which poses a threat to sustainability in the long term. Community members have seen the introduction of practices related to modern agriculture, including the use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. This has had an impact on micro-organisms in the soil, as well as on the population of bees. Goat and sheep rearing has diminished, resulting in less manure for agriculture.Climate change is seen as an important threat.If snowfall continues to decrease, it will lead to scarcity of water in the springs.In the future, community members hope to be able to continue collecting wild edibles such as fiddlehead ferns, mushrooms and medicinal plants, as these varieties are essential components of their diet and traditional medicine. The prospects for crops like potatoes and kidney beans are good, as these are both healthy and profitable. Further, other traditional crops are essential for certain dishes in their cuisine. Therefore, with respect to cultural obligations, these crops will likely remain in the village.The transmission of traditional knowledge related to the food system is slowly changing over time. As the new generation becomes more exposed to the outside world, they are inspired to experiment and grow short rotation horticulture crops, which proves more profitable in monetary terms. People are slowly losing interest in livestock rearing, as it is a time-consuming activity. Although the older generation values their traditions and lifestyle in the village, students and the younger generation are fascinated by the modern world and are migrating from the village. They want to pursue higher education and work in urban areas. More men than women are migrating to urban areas. Increased contact with external societies further affects diet preferences of the new generations. They choose to include processed food, meat and eggs to a larger extent than before, potentially threatening the survival of traditional crops.Following the flooding cycles in the Amazon rainforestFishing, chagra and forest food system of the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua peoples in Puerto Nariño, Colombia \"Producing our food is inherited from our parents, it is respect for nature and its future children.\"Community member and participant to the thematic discussions in Puerto Nariño.This study characterises the food system of six communities in the Tikuna-Cocama-Yagua indigenous reserve in the municipality of Puerto Nariño, Amazonas Department, Colombia. The Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua peoples' food system is based on farming, fishing, hunting and gathering. Using ancestral knowledge, they cultivate a great diversity of species without chemical fertilizers, both in chagras -the diversified productive system -and gathered from the forest, which are amongst the foods generally consumed by families. However, half the average income comes from the sale of surpluses from agriculture and fishing, allowing families to purchase products they do not produce themselves. Additionally, some people are engaged in different activities such as tourism, crafts and construction work. Their diet is based on a variety of foods including fruits, fish, meat, vegetables, grains and, to a lesser extent, some dairy products. Nevertheless, they identified changes in the diet as a result of a rapid and unplanned integration of the Indigenous Peoples' food system into the market economy. Although the production of food in chagras has remained the primary activity for the provision of food along with fishing and hunting, these activities have undergone significant changes with respect to the techniques and products introduced, such as seeds, and nylon and hunting nets.Note from the editors: Tikuna terms in the chapter are mentioned using the following transcription used for the Colombian riverside of the area of repartition of the Tikuna. High, medium and low tons are symbolized by ´ and `, respectively, and medium is expressed by absence of symbol. Laryngeal vowels (extra low tone) are marked as a̰ . Oral and nasal vowels are marked as: a, e, i, o, u, ü, ã, ẽ, ĩ, õ, ũ, ü. Occlusive velar /k/ is marked as k; africada palatal /t∫/ is marked as ch; nasal palatal /ɲ/ is marked as ñ. Glotal occlusions are not marked. Other consonants have the same transcription as in Spanish so that /p/, /b/, /f/, /t/, /d/, /ɟ/ or /ʤ/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ɾ/, /l/ are noted, respectively, p, b, f, t, d, y, g, m, n, r, l (Goulard and Montes Rodríguez, 2016).The large biome of the Amazon basin, with 7.4 million km 2 shared by Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, French Guiana, Peru, Suriname and Venezuela, represents the equivalent of 4.9 percent of the world's continental area. The vast Amazon basin is home to the largest expanse of tropical rainforest on the planet, great ecosystem diversity and important water resources. The Amazon River runs nearly 7 000 km and has an extensive network of tributaries consisting of more than 1 100 rivers. Such characteristics make it guarantee approximately 20 percent of the volume of freshwater on the planet. Currently, more than 34 million human beings live in the basin, of which only 3.5 million are indigenous. This demography implies great challenges to ensure sustainable economic development and conservation of this great biome. Colombia has a surface area of 2 070 08 km² made up of 1 141 748 km² of continental area and 928 660 km² of maritime area. It is considered a mega-diverse country boasting a great wealth of species and ecosystems. The Colombian Amazonian region encompasses 483 163 km², which represents 42.3 percent of the country's continental territory (Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas, 2018; Alonso et al., 2007).This research was conducted in Puerto Nariño, the second municipality of the Amazonas Department, in the southwestern part of the \"Colombian Amazonian Trapeze\", on a high tierra firme terrace. The municipality is located on the left bank of the Loretoyacu and Amazon rivers, between the coordinates 03°54' -03°12'S and 70°17' -70°42'W. It borders Peru to the northwest and south, and the municipality of Leticia to the east -situated 87 kilometres away.It is only accessible via the river. Puerto Nariño has an area of 1 704 km 2 , of which only 2 km 2 are urban, 1 406.23 km 2 comprise the reserve, and 296 km 2 correspond to the forest reserve.The Tikuna-Cocama-Yagua (Ticoya) indigenous reserve is located in Puerto Nariño and inhabited by people belonging to these three Indigenous Peoples, from which the reserve takes its name. The population is distributed amongst 22 communities located on the banks of rivers or lakes, on flood plains and on tierra firme areas, with most of the settlements located in the area that is reserve territory. The Tikuna are one of the largest populations in the area called the \"Colombian Amazonian Trapeze\" to the south of the Amazon.The climate is hot and humid. The average annual temperature is 26 °C. During the summer, it could reach a maximum temperature of 38 °C.During the middle of the year, it could reach a minimum of 13 °C when the southern winds arrive during the period known as friaje. The average altitude is 40 metres above sea level, the relative humidity is 87 percent, and the average annual rainfall is 3 200 mm per year (Rangel and Luengas, 1997).The amount of rainfall determines four hydrometric periods in the aquatic environments. The period of high waters, from February to April, corresponds to the time when the forest is most flooded, and the lake system is connected to the rivers. During the falling waters period, between May and July, the water flows from the plains, lakes and canals towards the river. The time of low waters between August and October is characterised by the decreasing level of water and a change of its composition due to activation of organic matter decomposition processes. This period is then followed by the time of rising waters, from November to January, during which lakes, plains and rivers begin to flood as a consequence of rainfall happening in the Upper Amazon.The municipality is located in a tropical rainforest area, in which three types of forests have been identified. The first is the tierra firme forest, 33 which is not subjected to flooding cycles. The second is the várzea forest, which is subjected to periodic flooding by whitewater rivers. The third is the swamp or igapó forest, which is subjected to seasonal flooding by blackwater rivers (Trujillo and Duque, 2014). Puerto Nariño is located where the Lagos de Tarapoto Wetlands Complex is found. It corresponds to a river plain formed by the Amazon River and its confluence with the Loretoyacu River, in addition to a wetland system. This wetland is located in the lower area, with annual water-level variations of up to 14 metres. It comprises 21 lakes: Tarapoto Largo; Tarapoto Redondo; Cabezales 1, 2 and 3; Chimbillo; Chullo; Airuwé 1 and 2; Soledad; El Correo; San Juan del Socó; Chepetén; Mihuá; Mariano Cocha; Calzón Cocha; Cocha Larga; Garza Cocha; Charapacocha; Yolvino and El Sapo. The ecological and cultural importance of this area has been recognised at the international level with the designation of the Tarapoto Ramsar site in 2017, which covers 44 264 ha. Source: Fundación Omacha, Instituto Geográfico Austín Codazzi, Instituto Colombiano de Desarrollo Rural, Parques Nacionales de Colombia, 2018, edited by Nicole Franco, Fundación Omacha, 2020.Lagos de Tarapoto Wetlands Complex.© Fundación Omacha/ Fernando Trujillo.Puerto Nariño has a total population of 6 983 inhabitants, of which 1 848 live in the urban area and 5 135 live in the rest of the municipality, according to the latest census of 2005 carried out by the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE, 2010). 34 Over the past 20 years, the population growth rate of Puerto Nariño has been 53 percent, with a birth rate of 28 per 1 000 inhabitants, exceeding the national average of 19 per 1 000 inhabitants (Trujillo and Laiseca, 2016). This growth has been accompanied by socio-cultural dynamics inherent to urban areas, therefore representing a challenge for the municipality's sustainability.The territory inhabited by the Indigenous Peoples corresponds to the area of the reserve, which is constitutionally defined as:\"areas collectively owned by the indigenous communities, which are inalienable, imprescriptible and unseizable. They are a legal and socio-political institution of a special nature, formed by one or more indigenous communities, which -through collective ownership -enjoy the guarantees of private property, possess their territory and are governed by an autonomous organization protected by indigenous jurisdiction with its own normative system in managing the territory and life within its boundaries\" (translated from Ministerio del Interior y de Justicia, 2013).The Ticoya reserve's population is distributed amongst 22 communities or settlements. Each community has a leader known as curaca, who is the representative of the settlement or community. The curaca is responsible for the community's legal affairs and conflict resolutions, as well as for representing the community at the reserve level in decision-making processes. In 2007, the Association of Indigenous Authorities of the Tikuna Cocama and Yagua was created. This association is made up of the 22 curacas as representatives of each community.As the map shows, the communities are connected to each other along the river. The communities that participated in the profiling work live closest to the Tarapoto Largo and Tarapoto Redondo lakes, which are part of the Lagos de Tarapoto Wetlands Complex. They are recognised as ecosystems of great importance in terms of food, as they contain large stocks of fish. It is important to mention that aquatic ecosystems are crucial for these Indigenous Peoples as they symbolize their culture and way of life. For instance, the Tikuna people's stories about the origins of life tell how the human 35 As the Tikuna people are the majority of the Ticoya reserve and consituted most of the participants in the discussions, the findings presented in this report are representative of this Indigenous People. The population of Puerto Nariño is mostly Tikuna, followed by the populations of Cocama and Yagua peoples. The most spoken language is Spanish, although each Indigenous People have their own native language that are of the same name -the Tikuna, the Cocama and the Yagua. As the Tikuna people comprise the majority, their language is the second most spoken in the reserve. The Cocama and Yagua languages are mostly spoken by the elders. Children and youth speak mostly Spanish in their daily lives as they use it in schools and colleges. Additionally, the Colombian educational system provides some basic English teaching, mainly motivated by the increasing tourism in the area that provides job opportunities, especially to the youth. The younger generations learn the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua languages from their parents or grandparents.Households consist of a nuclear family composed of the mother, the father, children and -in some cases -grandparents. The organisational structure of the population is strongly related to nature. The population is grouped into clans, which -in the case of the Tikuna people -have animal names, differentiating between air and land animals. The Tikuna people 35 have patrilineal relationships, where the male children inherit the clan from their father. In turn, the clans are exogamous, as unions were only formed between members of different clans. Nevertheless, at present, marriage is not strictly limited by clan, as the population today is the result not only of unions amongst the indigenous groups in the reserve but also between them and the settlers. The latter come from the rest of Colombia and from neighbouring countries. For this reason, it is possible to find families whose members speak Portuguese.Despite the presence of Catholicism and Christianity, the communities' members do not identify with a dominant religious identity and there is no representative religious figure in the leadership of the participating communities. Their internal organization is determined by the Life Plan (Asociación de Autoridades Indígenas del Resguardo Tikuna-Cocama-Yagua, 2007), a document that reflects the population's thoughts on their identity and culture. It is used as a tool for planning their own development and public management through an indigenous political project. It constitutes a comprehensive proposal to ensure the way of life, continuity and survival as Indigenous Peoples. Some of the principles of the Life Plan are:• respect and recognition for elders who are knowledge holders and for traditional authority figures as natural advisers.• the Wone Congress 36 is recognised as the highest authority in the Ticoya reserve and its mandates as law within the territory of the reserve. The members of the Wone Assembly are mostly elected through a vote within each community.• the Indigenous Authorities of the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua (ATICOYA) is the Management Board of the reserve. It is recognised as the next-highest authority in the absence of the Wone Congress.• recognition of the Indigenous Justice Regional Council: it is made up of elders designated by each community as traditional authority figures to exercise and uphold jurisdiction.• autonomy rests on the collective mandate of the communities.• the Traditional Authority Figure is composed of elder knowledge holders, shamans or traditional healers who know and understand the laws of nature. They are responsible for guiding, healing, directing and imparting justice in their respective communities.For this reason, each community has a Council of Elders regulated and recognised by the Community Assembly of the reserve, or the Wone Congress. Such council is made up of the traditional authority figures to uphold indigenous jurisdiction. The elders and shamans or healers are the only authority figure who holds a position that is inherited or acquired by seniority.The activities that produce food are farming, fishing, hunting and gathering. All these activities depend on the water and forest systems. They provide not only the food but also any surplus intended for marketing that brings an income for purchasing other products not generated within the system. Therefore, there is a dual system that combines traditional subsistence with the market economy, based on the sale of surplus food at the local market. In addition, there is evidence that the communities' members are increasingly doing paid work activities that allow them to earn money for the purchase of products and food available in the shops -almost all of which are products not found in the traditional system.Food can be classified according to the activity of the food system that generates it, such as: harvesting and gathering, live food, and fishing and hunting. It can also be classified according to the area where it is produced or obtained, such as tierra firme, várzea or floodable area, and the time of year, as determined by flood pulses: low Indigenous woman from the community cooking fish with banana.© Fundación Omacha/ Fernando Trujillo.waters, rising waters, high waters, falling waters and all year round.The community members source their plant edibles from the chagras and the forest (Tables 7.1 and 7.2). The farming activities are carried out in the chagra -the diversified productive system in which annual and perennial species are cultivated and where attempts to reproduce forest succession processes are made. Each family makes the chagras by selecting a specific site in the forest, where they selectively cut and burn trees for the subsequent planting of several species of plants that provide food for the family group. Besides being a food production system, the chagra is also considered a knowledge system for the family, representing the cultural heritage and identity of each family. More than half of the food consumed by the family is produced in the chagras, giving the population a high degree of independence from the market. The chagra production system is considered sustainable because it produces enough per family for self-sufficiency, and chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides are not used. Most of the products from the chagra are sold at the local market in the urban area or in the ports of each community. Nevertheless, the amounts for sale are the surplus from family production, thus these vary according to the harvesting and gathering periods of each product.    Fishing is done in the Amazon and Loretoyacu rivers, and in the Tarapoto Largo, Tarapoto Redondo and El Correo lakes, which are characterised by their high fish availability.Studies carried out by Urbano et al. (2014) identified approximately 68 fish species consumed within the communities. The species consumed the most have been reported during the participatory workshops (Table 7.3).Due to direct interaction with water systems, fishing has always been an important activity, not only for the provision of food but also for the development of the way of life and culture of the Indigenous Peoples. The elders related that in the past, children learned everything related to fishing and the underwater world from their parents. Children spent long hours with their parents learning how to make and handle artisanal fishing gear, such as harpoons, arrows, rods and natural fibre rods.Traditionally, fishing has been an activity carried out mostly by men, with the Tikuna standing out for their fishing skills. This activity, aside from being a vital way of providing food for the families, is also important as an entertainment activity. Historically, women have always been in charge of post-fishing activities related to the preparation of food for family consumption. With their recent integration into the market economy, the women are now responsible for selling in the market. In all households, at least one male member would go fishing at some time during the year. All households have at least one kind of fishing gear, with nylon nets and hooks as the most common.Within the community, the inhabitants identified important differences between men who are considered \"people who go fishing\" and those who are \"professional or full-time fisherfolk\". \"People who go fishing\" refers to any member of the family who goes fishing for a short period of time in places close to the community with little or no mastery of Indigenous fishermen from the community catching fish. traditional fishing gear, as nylon nets are mainly used. Unlike the former, professional or fulltime fisherfolk are men who have great skill and mastery of artisanal fishing gear. They have in-depth knowledge on aquatic ecosystems and the landscape in which the different species of fish and other wetland animals are found, as well as their feeding habits and reproductive characteristics. In addition, this group is more actively involved in the decision-making processes related to fisheries management and ecosystem stewardship. An example of this is the creation of the calendar for responsible fishing, which was prepared by the fisherfolk and elder knowledge holders.The expert fisherfolk consider themselves to be responsible for the fish supply in their communities. They are also recognised leaders in the fishing industry, a direct consequence of the widespread use of nylon nets, to meet the demand by Pan-Amazonians who began to arrive in the area. This situation led the artisanal fisherfolk to carry out educational work with the younger generations through the Community Fisheries Agreements of 2006 to promote responsible fishing.Hunting and trapping of forest animals are part of the traditional activities of the food system. At present, these practices remain important subsistence activities that provide for the family within the communities. However, because the carrying of firearms and the selling of bushmeat and wild animals outside the reserve areas is illegal, this activity has significantly decreased. Therefore, when hunters have a surplus, it cannot be sold in Puerto Nariño's urban area.This situation, besides decreasing hunting as a practice to provide animal protein to families, has contributed to the gradual loss of the population's traditional knowledge and customs for obtaining food from nature. Men traditionally practise hunting, generally in groups and with an average frequency of once a week in the case of expert hunters, and twice a month in the case of those who hunt occasionally. Currently, some hunters from the participating communities engage in this activity affiliated with the Airumaküchi Hunters' Association, which was created by hunters from the different communities aiming to engage in this activity in a responsible manner. Although men traditionally practise hunting, females are not excluded from this activity. They, unlike men who use shotguns and traps, employ dogs. Hunting takes place in the jungle, in the flooded forest and in areas close to water sources, better known as salt licks. Such places, mainly far from human activity, are the habitat of a large number of wild animals, a reason why communities' members consider them as sacred areas or sites that deserve special care and protection. Birds and primates are usually hunted close to the lakes and on the riverbanks, whereas middle-and big-sized mammals are hunted on tierra firme. Nga (Cuniculus paca, lowland paca) are hunted in the chagra that they often visit to eat the cassava. The meat is mostly for household consumption, although depending on the size of the animal, it can be sold within the communities to obtain some income. Species such as nga, chigu (Dasyprocta fuliginosa, black agouti), Alouatta seniculus (red howler monkey), ngobü (Chelonoidis denticulatus, yellow-footed tortoise) and nakü (Tapirus terrestris, lowland tapir) are reported to be the most important preys for consumption and commerce in Puerto Nariño (Quiceno, Cruz Antia and Moreno, 2014).The meat is sold fresh by the kilogram. Hunting products do not generate added value, nor are they transformed into other items. Hunting is not a principal activity, but rather a complementary one to fishing, as it does not represent a significant percentage of the family group's total income. Herbst, Dryophthoridae Palm weevil q q q q várzea , tierra firme Mammals Alouatta seniculus L., Atelidae Red howler monkey q q q pohui Bradypus tridactylus L., Bradypodidae Palethroated sloth q q q q tierra firme maraekü Bradypus variegatus Schinz, Bradypodidae Brownthroated sloth q q q q tierra firme ñaí  Aside from food production activities, the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua communities' members use elements of the ecosystem for their livelihoods. In particular, 28 species of palms have been identified and the category of use has been reported for some of them (Table 7.5). Fourteen of them are used to construct houses, such as timber trees and palm leaves to weave the houses' roofs (Forero-Tocancipá and Córdoba, 2014). The use of wood for housing construction is a current practice in most of the settlements. However, in the past two years, housing construction projects promoted by the national government have been launched using construction materials. Furthermore, the use of palm leaves to roof houses is becoming less common, as people prefer to use zinc sheet metal for this to avoid the maintenance costs involved in installing palm thatch roofs. Fourteen species have also been identified that are used to elaborate handicraft. Weaving fabrics from natural fibres and carpentry are traditional activities. Commonly, women weave using natural fibres and men make wooden crafts. Nevertheless, nowadays these activities are carried out to sell the products to visitors and tourists. They are driven by government programmes and non-governmental organization (NGO) initiatives to mass-produce their products to promote the generation of income amongst the communities' population. Thirteen species are  Crafts q Construction q q Attalea sp., Arecaceae Shapaja palm Food q qCrafts q Construction q Bactris concinna Mart., Arecaceae Ñejilla palmTools q Medicinal q Bactris gasipaes Kunth, Arecaceae Peach palm Food q qConstruction q Bactris maraja Mart., Arecaceae MarajaTools q Medicinal q Cocos nucifera L., Arecaceae Coconut Food qEuterpe precatoria Mart., Arecaceae Lone açaí palmCrafts q Construction q Medicinal q Rituals and festivals q qKitchen utensils q Euterpe sp., Arecaceae Açai palm Food qIriartea deltoidea Ruiz & Pav., Arecaceae Pona palm Food qCrafts q Construction q qKitchen utensils qItaya amicorum H. E. Moore, Arecaceae Construction q Lepidocaryum tenue Mart., Arecaceae Poktamui Construction q Mauritia flexuosa L., Arecaceae Moriche palm Food q qCrafts q Construction q Rituals and festivals qKitchen utensils q Mauritiella sp., Arecaceae Aguajillo Food q Construction q qOenocarpus bacaba Mart., Arecaceae Bacaba Food q Crafts q Construction q Medicinal q Oenocarpus bataua Mart., Arecaceae Patawa Food q Construction q q used for food, and seven for medicinal uses. Some species can host ngairé (Rhynchophorus sp., palm weevil or mojojoí), which is collected for food (Forero-Tocancipá and Córdoba, 2014). The seeds of annatto (Bixa orellana L., Bixaceae) and jagua (Genipa americana) are used for their pigments and cosmetics by the Tikuna to paint their skin black for celebrations and rituals, giving these fruits a high cultural value.Livestock farming is an activity present in one of the six participating communities. However, it is not a representative activity for the food system, as it was introduced through national rural development initiatives, which the population consider unsuccessful due to low acceptance. The raising of some animal species as a source of food and protein has been identified amongst the practices with less relevance. Such is the case for the raising of chickens, pigs and ducks, from which meat and eggs are derived. Yet, their consumption is not considered significant. These products are mainly intended to either exchange amongst communities or to use as food during celebrations and festivals. Farmyard animals, such as chickens, pigs, ducks and, to a lesser extent, livestock are raised in small areas close to homes, such as backyards or pastures in the case of livestock. Finally, the sources of animal feed and fodder used are those available in the natural environment and organic household waste.Puerto Nariño's food production calendar shows variations throughout the year due to seasonality, the water levels of bodies of water, changes in the landscape, and the movement and migration of animal species, especially fish.Flood season takes place at the beginning of the year from February to April. This is the time of year, called high waters, when the water level reaches its maximum height and the blackwater wetlands system is flooded by whitewater from the Amazon River. During this period, the forest is flooded, creating new feeding grounds for fish and giving rise to fishing areas within the forest, as the fish are dispersed along rivers, lakes and forests. This is when the different species of fish begin to spawn and species such as the Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis Blainville, Iniidae) enter the wetlands in search of food. Flooding fertilizes the soils with nutrients, preparing them for planting during the summer. May to July is the time of falling waters.The water level begins to drop, forcing many fish to leave the wetlands for the rivers, following the progressive appearance of tierra firme plains. The period of low waters begins in August and goes until October. The water reaches its lowest level, giving rise to sandy beaches and exposing tierra firme forests, whilst disconnecting the lakes from the rivers. This is when the presence of land mammals in the forest becomes evident. During this period, people fish more, as many fish that do not head towards the rivers become trapped in the lakes, making it easier to catch them. In the low water periods, paths providing access into the forest open up, making it easier for hunters to enter in search of land mammals or birds that provide them with animal protein. Food crops such as fruit trees and cassava (Manihot esculenta) are planted during this period. From November to January, the rising waters correspond with the Amazon River once again flooding the forests and wetlands system, marking the beginning of the flooding cycle. During this time, trees bloom, the fish begin to spawn and the fry are born. Fish enter the lagoon system as feeding sites for fish appear. Activities mainly undertaken by men C a p tu ri n g ye llo w -fo ot ed tort oise F is h in g u s in g re g u la te d ny lo n ne ts is allowed Activities mainly undertaken by men C a p tu ri n g ye llo w -fo ot ed tort oise F is h in g u s in g re g u la te d ny lon net s is allowed H ar ve st in g of cassa va, planta in an d ba na n a in th e cha gras product ion plo t  © Fundación Omacha/ Fernando Trujillo.Puerto Nariño has three main stores or local markets where the communities' members buy food as part of their diets. Primarily rice, oil, meat, frozen chicken, 37 beef, coffee and salt are sold, as well as processed foods such as pasta, sugar, panela, wheat flour, bread, canned sardines, dairy products, alcoholic beverages, soft drinks and sweets. Most of the products available at these stores are Peruvian and Brazilian brands, especially dairy products, canned meats and frozen chicken.The stores are open daily. Nevertheless, the population living in the communities usually do their shopping on weekend mornings and buy a small proportion of all the food they consume at these markets as the rest is produced in the chagras. This is particularly true for families of fisherfolk that also have access to a chagra as they have greater independence from the market in terms of obtaining food. Lastly, as there is no packaging system within the food system for fresh foods such as fish, the pulp of ripe fruit and bushmeat, any surplus production is sold as fresh products at the local market on the same day it is obtained. Other products such as tubers and some green fruits for ripening, such as bananas (Musa sp.) or wild bananas (Musa acuminata), are brought to the market on a weekly basis.Due to the wealth of natural resources of the Amazon ecosystem, the population has historically faced various highly complex 37 \"Frozen chicken\" is the term used by the participants to name chicken that is not produced within the community. The participants stated that the frozen chicken available at the market is from Brazil, and it is cheaper than the frozen chicken produced in Colombia.socio-economic and cultural processes. Similar to other areas of the Colombian Amazonian region, there have been several extractive bonanzas based on the exploitation and use of plants and animals in this area. Puerto Nariño was recognised as a corregimiento 38 in 1961 to guarantee national sovereignty, as it did not have the number of inhabitants required to achieve municipality status at that time. It was only in 1984 that Decree No. 0106 of January 18 granted the status of municipality to Puerto Nariño. However, according to participants, due to population growth, evangelization and the arrival of missionaries around 1970, the population was grouped into 22 communities, which eventually became the settlements comprising the reserve today.Throughout the history of the settlements' process, the region's natural and weather conditions reflected in the dynamics of the aquatic ecosystems and the levels of the bodies of water have had a huge impact on the settlements' geographical location, the peoples' way of life and food production. For instance, people migrate from floodable areas to tierra firme areas in search of a location that guarantees proximity to the river to carry out activities such as fishing, yet at the same time to ensure that houses are not susceptible to annual flood pulses. Another example is the community of Santa Clara de Tarapoto, located in a floodable area. Although important efforts are needed to maintain houses on stilts during periods of flooding, inhabitants benefit from having more fertile soils. These fertile soils are particularly exposed during the low-water period, and become the perfect sites to grow products such as cassava, some vegetables and fruit trees for human consumption and fish food. Consequently, such grouping processes gave rise to most of the rapid changes and modifications in the ways of life of the Indigenous Peoples.Another important phenomenon was the process of evangelization of the Indigenous Peoples through the educational system and the imposition of the Spanish language by the missionaries and nuns of the Catholic Church. Indigenous Peoples were not allowed to speak their own languages and they would suffer physical punishment for doing otherwise.  , 1991, articles 286, 287, 328, 329). As a result, the elders noted that by the end of 1990, the restrictions on speaking their own languages were finally lifted. Nevertheless, participants pointed out that the period in which the restriction on speaking their own languages was in force was enough to weaken the younger generations' learning of these languages. Consequently, the traditional practices associated with their ways of life, which are highly dependent on oral tradition, were likewise weakened.As a result of the rooted impositions made by the institutional educational system and the colonization processes over the past 50 years, during which the indigenous population was forced to use Spanish, Indigenous Peoples continue articulating their traditional ways of life but now within the context of the market economy. Such conditions give rise to new needs and consumption habits, for which it became necessary to generate income to meet them.Although the production of food in chagras has remained the primary activity for the provision of food along with fishing and to a lesser extent hunting, techniques and products generated from these activities have significantly changed over time. For example, particularly from the 1980s onward, many seeds were introduced, coinciding with the establishment of Puerto Nariño as a municipality and urban area, and the subsequent arrival of State institutions. Such administrative organizations promoted productivity based on new seeds, especially vegetables, as well as aromatic and spice plants.Likewise, the creation of the urban area increased the arrival of processed products to the markets, changing the population's eating habits with the inclusion of fried foods, processed foods and alcoholic drinks that replaced the fermented cassava chicha. The consumption of frozen chicken from urban markets has become ubiquitous, as the price of chicken from Brazil is lower than the price of fish. Fishing intensification using nylon nets and hunting nets increased extraction pressure, deeply affecting hunting and fishing. The critical state of fisheries gave rise to the Community Fisheries Agreements as a sustainable use strategy (Trujillo, Escobar and Trujillo, 2017). Finally, the fishing crisis brought about a change in consumption habits. Previously, only adult fish and large fish were caught, and fishing operations were more rapid. At present, endemic fish species are scarce and difficult to catch. Fisherfolk devote more hours to fishing and it is common for their catch not to feed the family enough. The use of nylon nets has become a widespread practice.Although planting, growing and caring for the chagra involve joint and equal participation of both men and women, the chagra is considered to be a woman's domain as it constitutes a family information system that allows the personal fulfillment of family members through the generation of knowledge. The participants believe that women are represented in the chagra as a centre of knowledge. Mothers use the chagra system to educate their children by teaching them skills to obtain food for the family and transmit values and knowledge to achieve social welfare and survive as distinct peoples. Whether women are involved in post-fishing and post-hunting activities, the performance of these tasks is mostly associated with men, as in the specific case of fishing. Being a man with good fishing skills is considered an important quality when forming a family, as he can thus guarantee the supply of protein to the family group. In this way, learning and acknowledging their own food production constitutes an important basis for the population's survival and generational well-being.Communities' members do not consider that producing food exclusively for sale is profitable, the reason being the high costs of transportation Indigenous women in the community selling fresh foods on the market.© National University of Colombia/Daniel Baena.from the community to the urban area. In addition, marketing opportunities are limited to Puerto Nariño's urban area, which further discourages this selling activity. Indeed, there are only a small number of permanent buyers, consisting of some restaurants, hotels, tourists and the population of the urban area. For all these reasons, income generation is based on the sale of surpluses, which allows families to obtain other products that they do not produce themselves. Families that spend less time in the chagra or those who live in the urban area tend to spend more time on other activities within the market economy, depending on the generation of income to satisfy their food needs. At present, the population is engaged in different incomegenerating activities such as tourism, crafts, and construction work or service provision to the government institutions in Puerto Nariño.Following the seasonality of the ecosystem, the population adapts the way they generate income, since more than half the average income comes from the sale of surpluses from agriculture and fishing. In the case of the chagra, cassava is the product that has the greatest potential for transformation. Together with its derivatives, such as starch and farina, they are in greatest demand at urban markets.The economic contribution of fishing represents the second most important item for families in the reserve, since 24 percent of the total income of an average family comes from fishing, with self-consumption being more than half of this value. In other words, the contribution of fishing is highly significant if we consider the cost of the fish products consumed within each household throughout the year. Fish products intended for marketing are sold at the local market of Puerto Nariño's urban area. They are sold immediately upon returning to the urban area or the communities. The fish is bought fresh every day and for immediate consumption, thus the product is not packaged and does not gain any added value arising from the transformation. Nevertheless, it is important to point out that the population living in the urban area generates income from the sale of prepared fish, which is offered at small food stalls or restaurants, adding value to the fish during preparation.Amongst the foods produced and processed specifically for the market, the cultivation and production of sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L., Euphorbiaceae, Inca peanut) was identified. This nut is, however, not part of the local food system. It was introduced in the last three years as part of a national government initiative to encourage farming and the generation of income for communities. Nevertheless, despite being a high-yielding crop on Amazonian soil, the introduction of this crop has resulted in great challenges for the families that planted it in the chagras. As it is not a traditional product, adequate strategies to manage pests and fungi are not known by the communities' members. Furthermore, potential buyers were limited to one or two who set the purchase price, which at times did not even cover production costs. The participants related believing that agricultural production projects requiring the introduction of crops dependent on fertilizers and pesticides to obtain acceptable yields were an inefficient strategy for income generation and food production. Instead, they alter the foodgenerating system and its sustainability towards self-consumption. One of the reasons is that production is not consumed locally, which leads to the gradual loss of diversity of farms, food diversity itself, and the families' self-sufficiency in feeding themselves. Such context jeopardizes the chagras' diversity and the knowledge about food production supporting the population's traditional ways of life.The diet of the communities' members is based on a variety of foods including fruits, fish, meat, vegetables, grains and, to a lesser extent, some dairy products. All the participants reported that they would rather consume more of their own food, such as fish, cassava and its derivatives, fruits from the chagra, and bushmeat than other products available at the urban markets. In general, the population considers that the good quality of their food is due mainly to the fact that they use ancestral knowledge to produce it. This allows them to produce food without chemical fertilizers, which ultimately reduces health risks and avoids water and soil contamination.The products that are consumed the most as part of the diet of both children and adults are identified and classified into larger groups according to their origin: products from the chagra and the forest; fish and proteins produced by the community, such as bushmeat and eggs; and products acquired from the market, such as canned meats, powdered milk, eggs, pasta, grains, tuna and frozen chicken. In the case of adults, food sourced from the chagra and the forest represent 50 percent of the diet. Another 25 percent of the total diet is sourced from the local landscape and it represents protein-rich food items such as fish, bushmeat, eggs and other food produced in the community. Out of these protein-rich items, studies carried out by Trujillo and Laiseca (2016) show that fish represents 81 percent of the family protein intake. In the case of the Ticoya reserve, it is equivalent to approximately 2.6 kg per person/month or 31 kg per person/year, thus tripling national average consumption (Autoridad Nacional de Acuicultura y Pesca, 2018a). The proportions of food sourced from the chagra and the forest, and from the local landscape, remain similar when it comes to children aged 6 to 11 years. These two sources correspond to 40 percent and 30 percent of the diet, respectively. The remaining 25 percent and 30 percent of the respective diets of older adults and children is sourced from the market. Older adults preferably consume canned meat, milk powder and purchased eggs (15 percent of the diet), as well as food items such as pasta and other grains (10 percent of the diet) from the market. The children, however, preferably consume frozen chicken and canned tuna (20 percent of the diet), but also pasta, lentils, beans and chickpeas (10 percent of the diet). The adults noted that the children show a preference for market products, such as canned goods and pasta, as those products are often provided in school.With regard to the food needs of specific groups in the communities, such as the elderly, community solutions are being sought. For instance, networks of solidarity amongst families or friends have been built to meet the food needs of those who have special nutritional requirements. Additionally, there is a Senior Assistance Centre in the urban area that provides support through a Senior Feeding Programme.Regarding children, this centre offers food assistance through the educational institutions by providing school meals consisting of a snack and lunch on school days. In addition to this, the Colombian Family Welfare Institute (ICBF) exercises its mandate to improve the nutrition status and proper development of children under 5 years of age. However, all the participating parents expressed their dissatisfaction regarding the nutrition programmes implemented. They argued that the meals provided by the Institute to the children are not adequate for their healthy growth. They explained that the portions neither include foods that are part of the traditional indigenous diet nor are the quantities adequate.The parents also stated that the food provided by the ICBF contained a high level of preservatives and artificial sweeteners that could have harmful effects on health.Changes in the provision of livelihoods and social well-being over timeThe parents said that buying proteins, such as canned meats and frozen chicken, is part of their new eating habits, with the communities' members having increased their activities related to the market. They argued that the more they are integrated into \"outside\" activities from Government and other actors, the less time they have for growing and preparing traditional foods. They also stated that the children's participation in school feeding programmes has gradually decreased the children's liking for traditional foods, and increased their preference for processed products. Although the participants did not report any phenomena of food insecurity, they did state that in the last five years, diets have significantly changed in regard to animal protein intake. Fish are increasingly scarce, leading to higher prices, especially during the high-water period as fish abundance is reduced.In response to the fish deficit, the consumption of chicken, bought at a lower price than fish, has increased. Nevertheless, the culinary preference for fish over chicken prevails.This decreased availability of traditional foods can also have repercussions on the cultural practices of the Tikuna, Cocama and Yagua.Pelazon is an important celebration that can occur any time of the year and which celebrates the passing from a girl to a woman. Parties organised usually last three days at least, and anyone in the community is welcome. However, the diminished quantity of traditional food such as bushmeat and fish to share affect the practising of this ritual.The primary cause of the changes in the diet, culinary traditions and lifestyle of the communities' members is their rapid and unplanned integration into the market economy.Over the past 10 years, this process has increased the need for families to generate income to guarantee the availability of food and to cover the new needs that are arising with the market economy. Based on this exercise, the participants concluded that it is necessary to (1) promote the consumption and production of their own products within families; (2) involve the children in food production activities, especially protein food sources, such as fishing; and (3) create strategies to restructure government programmes -for example, adapting school meal plans to the Indigenous Peoples' diets.Despite the soils' low fertility, communities' members consider the soil apt for their families' food production. They compensate for the lack of nutrients by decomposing organic matter resulting from the selective felling of forests, burning wood, and using fruit and vegetable peels, as well as fish guts. This process generates compost and natural organic fertilizer, making the soil suitable for planting. The communities' inhabitants are able to identify good soil by observing its characteristics and results after planting. For instance, the colour and texture are indicators of good soil, as well as the production of food of a good size and colour. For the population, good soil -which makes a bountiful harvest of products possible -is black, sandy, loose and easy to plant. Conversely, soil inadequate for cultivation tends to be clayey and dry.Food production requires long hours of dedication, especially in the initial phase of selective felling and burning of trees to create new chagras. Afterwards, cleaning and planting are the most labour-intensive activities. The minga, as a mechanism of communal solidarity work, consists of gathering friends and family members together to help carry out these activities during a full day of work. The minga is an important activity that constitutes a network of support available for any type of work requiring physical strength and labour. It also establishes reciprocity amongst the community so that others can also benefit in the future. The family that calls the minga together is responsible for providing enough food to those who come to work.The main source of energy of the participating communities, except for the community of Santa Clara de Tarapoto, is the electric power service provided by the private company Energía para el Amazonas (ENAM). It makes community lighting possible, as well as allowing the refrigerators, televisions and cellphones to work in homes. Energía para el Amazonas generates electricity through the combustion of diesel fuel, not only in Puerto Nariño but also in the entire Amazonas Department. Propane gas is used for cooking and heating food in all the communities, although the use of firewood is still common. Firewood is commonly used in the communities for cooking and is one of the resources directly obtained from the forest.Fossil fuels are linked with river transportation as they are used for boat engines. Although not all families can afford having a motorboat, community members use small motors that are cheaper. At the community level, people are in charge of providing transportation services.Gasoline is used to run some power tools, such as sawmills or chainsaws, electric graters, and, to a lesser extent, some tools for wood polishing and carpentry. In the case of the community of Santa Clara de Tarapoto, as it is not connected to the electricity service provided by ENAM, fossil fuels are used to power electric generators. Solar energy is the primary source of light.As part of a State-funded programme, solar panels were installed in the communities of 20 de Julio, Valencia, Palmeras and San Martín de Amacayacu, 39 but they are not yet operational due to the lack of resources to have a company in charge of their operation and maintenance.Freshwater sources include rainfall, streams, lakes and rivers. Rainwater is commonly used for drinking, cooking and in farming. Water from the river is used for bathing, washing clothes and other domestic cleaning activities. In the summer season, due to the scarcity of rainfall, communities lack water. Consequently, it is necessary to use water from streams, which is boiled before drinking. In turn, the várzea areas are subject to annual flooding when the water levels rise in bodies of water. As a result, inhabitants experience a change in landscape and way of life. Such circumstances have driven them to adopt measures such as building houses on stilts to withstand the flood season.With respect to the time allocated to collecting water for consumption, people stressed that they devote considerable time and effort to this activity, particularly at the end of winter and at the beginning of summer. It is common to install plastic tanks in the courtyards to collect rainwater from roofs and gutters, which is then filtered using mosquito nets. 40 In the summer, people go to the banks of rivers and lakes to collect water. This takes them anywhere between 3 and 15 minutes on foot depending on the location of the houses.Most adult participants do not consider organic remains as \"waste\" but as part of the natural cycle. They reintegrate these remains into the ecosystem as fertilizer or as fish food in the case of seeds. This supports the efficiency of their food system, since most of the waste produced in the communities is organic and only a minimal amount is non-biodegradable material, which is considered \"unpleasant\" or \"unusable\". This consists mainly of packaging used for products purchased at the market, as well as batteries, electronic waste and chemical residues, such as oils, soap or detergent.One phenomenon that concerns participants is the increasing accumulation of plastic waste in the landscape, particularly bottles. In the urban area, the municipality is in charge of waste collection and management. The participants noted that urban waste management is better than it is in the communities. However, the Comprehensive Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan (Municipio de Puerto Nariño, 2015) concluded that the municipality of Puerto Nariño does not have a sustainable plastic waste management strategy in place. It forecasted that in the next 20 years, its plastic accumulation capacity will be less than the plastic waste generation rate due to increases in tourist activity, which is considered a highpolluting activity that threatens the ecosystem's sustainability. Although some plastic is recycled for use as garden and orchard decorations, these strategies are not capable of absorbing all the plastic that is generated, so the communities burn plastic that accumulates. The participants emphasized that new waste that generates rust, such as batteries, nails, cans, staples and sheets, are considered \"harmful\" or \"very toxic for the environment\", given their limited use and inability to be reintegrated into the ecosystem.Land use intensity has changed mainly due to population growth, integration into the market economy, and the influence of programmes by the Ministry of Environment and Rural Development, which aim to stimulate agricultural production in areas larger than those traditionally cultivated by introducing newIndigenous women in the community participating in the thematic discussions.© National University of Colombia/Sara Peña.planting and cultivation techniques requiring agrochemicals. In the case of the community of Puerto Esperanza, programmes have been implemented, with little success, to produce sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis, Inca peanut) and cocoa (Theobroma cacao). In terms of changes over time in labor efficiency and energy consumption, external and non-renewable energy sources have become more and more important over the past 40 years. Previously, the communities did not have power plants and motorboats were uncommon. However, work done directly by people, without the aid of any external energy sources, remains highly common.The use of powered tools is limited to those activities that are more difficult and are not directly associated with food production, such as transportation or logging. The latter, when carried out as a business activity, requires mechanical tools other than the machetes and axes used in subsistence activities. Regarding the use of water, people are consuming filtered water by using filters made by hand or with activated carbon. Conversely, the consumption of packaged water is a practice that is gaining popularity amongst families with higher incomes, particularly those in settlements near the urban area.The population of the Ticoya reserve cultivates a great diversity of species, both in chagras and gathered from the forest, which are amongst the foods consumed the most by the families. The list includes: fruits (47), tubers and roots (2), vegetables (3), nuts and seeds (3), cereals (2) and others (7). Fruits and nuts are gathered according to their seasonal availability. In the case of garden-grown species, most of them are introduced seeds, especially aromatic herbs, peppers and tomatoes. Cassava is the most common product in the chagras as all families cultivate it. The banana is another essential food in the diet as it is consumed almost daily and can therefore be found in every chagra.Amongst the 68 most consumed fish species reported by Urbano-Bonilla et al. (2014), 22 were identified as the highest current consumption in households. Since endemic fish species, such as tiger catfish (Pseudoplatystoma sp.) and pirarucú (Arapaima gigas Schinz, Osteoglossidae), fall into the \"vulnerable\" category, the communities have been implementing a fishery monitoring system for more than 10 years through Community Fisheries Agreements (Autoridad Nacional de Acuicultura y Pesca, 2018b). Those agreements have contributed significantly to the recovery of these species. The calendar for responsible fishing 41 prepared by the fisherfolk and elder knowledge holders is one of the outcomes of the Community Fisheries Agreements for the good use of the Lakes of Tarapoto. Amongst others, it provides recommendations on the daily limit of catch of fish, the tools that can be used and the ones that are prohibited, and the use of regulated nets depending on the area and the season. It also recommends preserving the food source of fish by prohibiting cutting down seed trees in the pepeaderos forest fruiting sites.Regarding hunting, 24 species were identified as the most hunted and consumed by the population.The Airumakuchi (loosely translated as \"Tigers of the Water\") Hunters' Association was created in 2015 to seek a more sustainable form of hunting within the reserve. However, no activities carried out by the association were identified. It was found that hunting sustainability depends on a combination of community and institutional efforts to limit hunting and commercialisation within the reserve.According to their traditional lifestyle, members of the communities simultaneously take part in different activities regarding their food system, such as farming in which the entire family group participates, or fishing where parents and children alike play different roles during the fishing and post-catch activities. Hunting and gathering are essential to maintain the food system. These activities not only generate food but are also important moments of social interaction in which ecological, cultural and traditional knowledge is shared and transmitted, ensuring the sustainability of the food system itself.At a socio-ecological level, fishing has remained important across generations, not only as a source of food and protein but also because of the cultural and social significance that embeds fishing and the fishing areas. According to the stories of the Tikuna people, their cosmogony and storytelling about the underwater world, the origin of life, and the origin of human beings is rooted on the fishing areas and banks of the Amazon River as well as the Lagos de Tarapoto Wetlands Complex.Figure 7.4 shows different areas within the reserve identified according to their use within the framework of the Tarapoto wetlands management plan as the first Ramsar Site in the Colombian Amazonian area.Along with the Puerto Nariño urban area and the water bodies, an area of about 93.5 km 2 is allocated for production. This area comprises the chagras, the conservation areas of the várzea forests, and the fruiting sites called pepeaderos used to breed minor and native fish species. In addition, areas are dedicated for eco-tourism and other conservation initiatives such as REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), which receives payments for ecosystem services, as well as to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and protect forests and trees.Figure 7.4 also shows a total area under ecological restoration and local research, equivalent to 306.6 km 2 . This area has been degraded by different uses and now sees a variety of conservation and restoration initiatives by the communities, such as reforestation, pepeaderos, tourism, hunting and fishing regulated under the Tarapoto Lakes Fishing Agreements and initiatives under REDD+ to stop forest logging. In the preservation area, research and tourism without authorization are prohibited.Finally, outside these areas high terraces of the mainland are used for sustainable farming, either through chagras or communal environmental initiatives. Changes in the conservation and protection of resources over timeThe main changes in the use of forests and landscapes are related to changes in how the ecosystem is used, which has moved from a traditionally sustainable use to one more focussed on the extraction and commercial use of animal and plant species. One of the phenomena identified occurred between 1960 and 1970 with regard to the increasing extraction of fish and wild fauna, which involved capturing species intended for marketing. These included the pirarucú (Arapaima gigas), the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) from which only the skin was extracted for commercial purposes, as well as the jaguar and its skin (Panthera onca L., Felidae) and otters (Pteronura brasiliensis Gmelin, Mustelidae and Lontra longicaudis Olfers, Mustelidae). Such fauna markets caused the greatest negative impact on the people. The participants associated this period of extraction with a weakening of traditional practices related to fishing and hunting, as the increase in extraction levels was based on technology and the use of firearms and nylon nets. The inhabitants mentioned that at that time, many fishing areas within Tarapoto Lake were difficult to access due to greater forest density, the abundance of animals considered dangerous (snakes and caimans), and the cultural beliefs associated with beings of nature responsible for caring for the ecosystems, which happen to be the protagonists of several stories about the origin of animals. For instance, the mother of the lakes is represented by a large snake Source: Modified by Nicole Franco, Fundación Omacha, 2020.or anaconda (Eunectes murinus L., Boidae) that lives at the bottom of the lake and in the flooded forests. Furthermore, there is a story regarding the Amazon river dolphins (Inia geoffrensis), which turn into men and captivate women to take with them to live in the underwater world called Natütama in the Tikuna language.Trends show that due to the adverse effects of the extractive boom, people always go back to mechanisms based on traditional knowledge and sustainable use of natural resources to recover previously affected areas. Furthermore, whilst this extractive boom led to a decrease in several animal and plant species in the landscape, it also generated a process of protection and recovery of species at risk from both the communities and the State to counterbalance. This is what led to the initiative of having the Tarapoto wetlands within the Ramsar Convention.The current governance system of natural resources has taken shape with the adoption of the Colombian Constitution in 1991. This constitution recognised rights of indigenous populations as well as territorial autonomy. On the basis of this recognition, the government began to promote the protection of cultural diversity as the nation's intangible heritage. The State also adopted actions aimed at strengthening the culture and well-being of Indigenous Peoples. However, in some cases, the adoption and implementation of ambiguous policies have undermined the right of indigenous communities to fully exercise their autonomy and govern themselves.The current governance system encompasses the highest number of actors involved in ecosystem management in the history of the community (Table 7.6). Nevertheless, it is evident that the presence of more institutions does not necessarily imply better organization of the population or more efficient use of natural resources. The participants consider that the arrival of initiatives and projects from NGOs or government institutions focussed on conservation and natural resource management do not ensure the transmission of traditional knowledge amongst the Indigenous Peoples.Communities' members are concerned by the lack of environmental education based on traditional knowledge, as well as a lack of initiatives to revitalize and strengthen the language. Throughout generational changes, indigenous languages are being taught and used less and less. This is one of the main challenges for each community, family and generation as languages are an avenue to maintain and preserve their traditional knowledge and the management practices of their territory and ecosystems. A mother of a Tikuna family stated:\"A Tikuna should know how to speak the language, how to work the chagra, and how to produce their food so as not to die of hunger. They should know their traditions.A Tikuna who doesn't speak the language is not a good Tikuna. And we should teach this to our children.\"On one hand, the communities recognised that institutional dialogue is needed, as well as support from the State and the private sector to face the different socio-economic changes. However, they also highlighted the need to implement their own processes according to their own organizational and governance structure.Although there are more leaders representing the communities today, the population reported dissatisfaction with the decisions made by some leaders on behalf of the communities. Moreover, the recently formed association of indigenous councils, which performs functions related to the management of the General Participation System's resources, 42 has in recent years triggered conflicts over mismanagement of these resources. 42 The General Participation System refers to the constitution of the resources that the Nation transfers to the territorial entities that are departments, districts and municipalities, for the funding of the services under their responsibility, as defined in Article 76 of Law n° 715 of 2001. The community and the families They struggle to maintain ancestral practices in their lifestyles. They have a dual economic system: subsistence economy and integration into the market economy.The new generations pose a challenge for the transmission of knowledge. They are beginning to create their own processes based on community participation and collective actions. They live within indigenous reserve territory, over which they have use rights.The shamans Only a few of them are left. They do not hold significant authority in the management of natural resources.They are present in the stories told by the elders. The new generations do not have enough knowledge about the sacred areas that these beings inhabit.Their activity is mainly aimed at meeting the demands of the urban population, especially tourists and visitors. They contribute to the municipality's economic integration process.There is a greater presence of various religious associations. They do not have a vote in the reserve's decision-making. They do not give rise to direct processes involving duress on the reserve's forms of social organization.It does not have a strong enough presence to provide support for conflict resolution within the reserve. It tries to create spaces for dialogue and agreement, whilst at the same time promoting actions that are contradictory to the population's way of life though productive market projects.Leaders, curacas and representatives of the reserve They legally represent the communities, but not all are considered legitimate leaders by the community. They are responsible for leading community decision-making.They offer a bridge for dialogue between the communities and the State. They provide technical and/or financial support in the implementation of projects and initiatives with the communities. They promote environmental education processes and support collective action processes in the communities.Source: Adapted from Escobar, 2019.In accordance with the above, it is clear that there is a need to create spaces for dialogue and agreement that allow finding solutions based on a common approach. Communities' members are also open to new governance strategies to improve the governance of nature as well as the well-being of the municipality members. These governance strategies aim to better integrate indigenous communities into the systems and services of the market economy without affecting their traditions and ways of life.Finally, municipality members highlighted the community organising processes that have given rise to new institutions legitimized by the community and which have reached a good level of trust and credibility, such as Community Fisheries Agreements and Agricultural Producer Associations. The need to generate greater interaction between the communities, academia, the State and NGOs is emphasized. This interaction aims to strengthen the exchange of knowledge and the necessary participatory mechanisms to allow the communities to comprehensively manage their territory and resources based on their empowerment and self-governance.View on the Ticoya reserve, Amazonas Department.© Fundación Omacha/ Fernando Trujillo.Based on the research methodology applied by Escobar ( 2019) in her research on fisheries and governance in the area, thematic discussions held were aimed at identifying changes in the governance of natural resources over time. Escobar (2019) identified changes in traditional practices regarding natural resource management in the Tarapoto wetlands area. Particular attention was paid to the changes in fishery resources because, aside from being the main source of protein, fishing also has historically determined the population's lifestyles and their way of relating to the ecosystem and adapting to changes over time. Furthermore, the study showed that the fishery crisis and fishery management have had an impact on the legitimate institutions that for many years allowed the sustainable management not only of fisheries, but also of the ecosystems that the populations have historically used collectively. Therefore, the legitimate and legal institutions governing the use of resources are weak, as they have failed to sustainably manage the ecosystem.It was noted that throughout history, the communities' members of the Tikuna-Cocama-Yagua reserve have faced diverse phenomena directly related to the use of ecosystem resources.The author identified two moments in history in which significant changes occurred in the way natural resources were managed and used, influenced by the presence of new actors.In the first period from background history to 1950, Indigenous Peoples used to live in small communities, having an efficient and sustainable livelihood relying on the forest (Table 7.7). The entire family was involved as a means to transmit traditional knowledge.During the period from 1950 to 1991 before the current governance system, noticeable changes marked the beginning of the integration of the population into the market economy (Table 7.8). Subsequently, those conditions gave rise to new dynamics of consumption and new forms of using natural resources to generate monetary income. The concept of nature as an economic resource was thus established. The Catholic Church and its educational processes came on the scene, making it compulsory to learn Spanish and to organise the population into community settlements. The community and the families They inhabit the forest in a scattered manner, mainly the tierra firme areas.They have subsistence economy. They produce only for self-consumption.They fish and hunt by hand for self-consumption, community exchange and gifts.They pass on knowledge from generations to generations and preserve the legacy of their ancestors.They speak their native tongue.They are members of a family and leaders of the population.They have great knowledge about the forests and the elements that cure diseases. They seek solutions to problems related to society/nature.They take care of the forests and lakes. They interact with people and monitor possible damage that human activity may cause. They live in sacred places that are respected by people. The community and the families They are grouped into community settlements, mainly on the banks of the rivers. They initiate the process of integration into the market economy.They are integrated into the market economy thanks to the arrival of traders, who in turn encourage greater use of money.They fish and hunt in large numbers, mostly for commercial purposes, changing their traditional fishing techniques.The transmission of traditional knowledge for food production is weakened.The shamans Their position as leaders and knowledge holders is weakened.The population loses its fear of beings of nature.The sacred places where they live are disturbed by human activity.Their arrival marks the integration of the population into the market economy.They create new needs in the population, such as making money and acquiring consumer goods.They mark the era of extractive activities (fishing, wildlife, forest resources).They impose new forms of social organizations as community settlements.They contribute to the weakening of ancestral knowledge, mainly through the imposition of Spanish as the language and the school education system.Source: Adapted from Escobar, 2019.Source: Adapted from Escobar, 2019.A summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience is presented below. Throughout the thematic discussions, the resilience of the communities was presented as the keystone.Each indicator evaluated by communities' members is rated from 1 to 5, with 1 as the lowest score and 5 the highest (Table 7.9). The indicators with the lowest scores were number 3 (appropriately connected), number 7 (builds human capital) and number 13 (reasonably profitable). The participants concluded that there was a high correlation between the results of the three indicators, as they considered that the food system would not be profitable in the future. They argued that it would be necessary to develop community cooperation systems, which in turn would imply the strengthening of human capital and the population's capacities to develop more efficient food systems. As a result, self-sufficiency and optimal production of surpluses would be ensured. It could ultimately be integrated into the market under fair conditions, allowing for a better price based on the differential recognition of products. The participants referred to profitability both at the economic and cultural levels, stating that at the economic level, there was no strategy at present ensuring the fair inclusion of their food in the market economy. However, they recognised that the creation of legal associations, such as the Taü Women's Association in the community of Puerto Esperanza, are an example of collective effort, and initiatives as such should be supported in the long term.Indicators 1 (exposed to disturbance), 4 (socially self-organised) and 6 (honours legacy) had an assigned score equivalent to 4. In those cases, the communities found that these aspects have been the key to keeping their ancestors' legacy alive after making a historical reflection on their ways of life. They stated that even though they do not have an efficient community organization at the reserve level, there are forms of internal organization at the family, family group and friends' level as channels to transmit and generate knowledge.Indicator 5 (reflective and shared learning) can be considered as one of the best attributes of the communities' food system as it was assigned a score of 4.5. It is evident that over time, traditional food production practices have been maintained and adapted to changes in the environment. The reflective learning that has taken place as a result of the community fisheries management of the Lakes of Tarapoto is particularly noteworthy. Even though these lakes have been impacted by extractive phenomena throughout history, there is currently a process of reflection amongst communities' members that has contributed to the gradual recovery of the ecosystem.Indicators 2 (globally autonomous and locally interdependent), 8 (coupled with local natural capital), 9 (ecologically self-regulated), 10 (functional diversity), 11 (optimally redundant)and 12 (spatial and temporal heterogeneity) had the highest score. The participants made a brief comparison between their food system and the one used by the urban population.Based on this exercise, they recognised their autonomous production of food and the need to maintain a low level of market dependence.They also recognised that their ways of life were sustainable, even though they identified some non-adequate practices, such as the generation of plastic waste. Additionally, they acknowledge the need to improve the mechanism of processing, transporting and storing food, as well as the need to include drinking water and electric power services.In relation to the use of local varieties, the products cultivated in the chagra have been diversified as new seeds have been introduced, some of which are Amazonian but not native to their food system, as is the case of sacha inchi. The species fished have varied both in weight and size. Currently, they are smaller than they were 40 years ago. Nevertheless, if we were to compare the same variables for the past 10 years, 43 there has been a significant increase in the size and weight of species such as pirarucú (Arapaima gigas) and tiger catfish (Pseudoplatystoma sp.), which are now protected thanks to the Community Fisheries Agreements.It is our conclusion that the transmission of knowledge remains at high levels, especially for knowledge associated with food production in chagras, considering the time dedicated to it by families as well as the high degree of inclusion of children in these activities. In contrast, regarding fishing and hunting, there is greater difficulty in transmitting knowledge. These activities require working up to several days within the aquatic systems and in the forest, therefore it is less common for parents to involve their children considering their need to attend school or government apprenticeship programmes.Many academia and research centres document knowledge and life forms in the area studied.The participants confirmed that there has been a long list of research and knowledgegeneration projects in which the communities have participated over the past 10 years. Nevertheless, they emphasized the need for appropriation of the knowledge generated, because despite the volume of information and findings made from the ecosystems in their territory and local knowledge, there is no evidence of community feedback strategies. Likewise, they highlighted the need to train their own human capital in the medium and long term as the best strategy to integrate into the market economy and to increase their capacity to manage their territory.We conclude that it is necessary to create spaces for dialogue between the different actors that currently play a role in the management and governance of natural resources. A dialogue of knowledge and an exchange of knowledge, both within the communities and between the community and external actors, such as State institutions and the private sector, are necessary to agree on adequate ecosystem management strategies in adequation to the context and needs of the population. In addition, it is necessary to implement and strengthen participatory mechanisms in decision-making by the local population, as well as to create training tools aimed at strengthening governance and the local economy. An interesting example could be the Ramsar committee created in 2017 that includes governmental organizations in coordination with the Ticoya reserve representatives.Finally, the communities' members consider that the lack of knowledge of their native tongue represents a great weakness for new generations, as the transmission of traditional knowledge, cosmovision, and the way of relating to the ecosystem is done through the language and oral traditions. Consequently, this represents the biggest challenge for both the older and younger generations.Perceptions of communities' members on their food system Question to the participants: for you, what are the key strengths of your food system and the challenges for sustainability?\"In terms of food, we don't need to buy anything. We have more than enough food… Nor do we need to produce a lot, because then the food goes to waste, and we have to sell it at a ridiculous price.\" Juan Ramos, fisherman from the community of Ticoya.\"Not all of us are clear about the roles of our leaders, and not even the leaders themselves are clear.The problem is that we remain silent.\" Sergio Silva, Comunidad Ticoya council.\"We need the money to buy things that make our lives easier. If I had money, I would buy an engine to be able to transport myself faster... we also want to do things more comfortably, like anyone else.\" Urbano Ferreira, fisherman from the community of San Francisco.\"Living here has its advantages. We have many things that the people outside do not have. The pure air we breathe here, for example, cannot be found anywhere else. All the beauty around us is ours.\" Ubaldo Valerio, fisherman from the community of 20 de Julio.The maize people in the Mesoamerican dry corridorMilpa food system of the Maya Ch'orti' people in Chiquimula, Guatemala A typical Ch'orti' household consists of a couple, man and wife, and their dependent children who live together in one house and commonly as part of a cooperating multi-household unit where each family is entitled to an equal share of their ancestral land. Whilst there are economic and social differences amongst individuals and households, the Ch'orti' communities do not have a distinct social class system. Social standing is primarily based on merit; therefore highly skilled artisans and those with special knowledge, such as healers and midwives, The Ch'orti' call themselves a campesino pueblo who have been dedicated for millennia to agricultural production of the basic foods in the diet, primarily maíz (Zea mays, maize), frijoles (Phaseolus vulgaris, beans) and squashes (Cucurbita spp.). The main ways in which the community generates food is from the milpa, the patios (home gardens), productive live fences and maintained communal forest areas.Ch'orti' communities consider the milpa the most important part of the food system as it is the primary source for the staples of their diet: maize and beans. The importance of the milpa is grounded in the creation myth of the Maya, which states that humanity was created from maize. The defining characteristics of the milpa are the production of maize, beans and squashes on a cleared plot. Practices in milpa production vary within the territory from more \"modern\" high-input, homogeneous models to more traditional methods that integrate other production elements. Traditional techniques include the use of alley cropping with trees or shrubs such as madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium, gliricidia), chipilín (Crotalaria longirostrata,         Medicines and poisons are obtained using different plants, animals and minerals measured in carefully determined doses. The crushed leaves from madre de cacao are used both as poison for rodents and as a remedy for botfly (Dermatobia hominis L., Oestridae). Sometimes wild toads are collected to extract bufotoxin as a medicine and to produce poisoned darts for hunting. The mineral calcium oxide is essential for nixtamalization of grains (primarily maize) to improve their digestibility and nutritional content assimilation. Now produced on an industrial scale, the home collection of calcium oxide continues by processing wood ash or stones. This compound is also widely used in the production of clay and pottery. The song of cicadas in March or April and the emergence of black ants from their hills in April or May are signs of the arrival of the rainy season. Cloud patterns in the skies (for example, when they occur in a woven form or settle on top of mountains and hills) also signify the coming of rains. When a \"wheel\" is seen around the sun, the people know that the rains will begin in three to five days. The rains typically start in April or May and are crucial for establishing annual crops. Households plan their planting cycles depending on when the initial rains fall. Most villagers wait for two heavy rainfalls so that the soil has enough moisture for the maize seed to germinate. Others follow the moon phases for planting, regardless of soil moisture.On the third day of May, many residents hold a \"De La Cruz\" celebration at church to ensure a successful planting and sufficient production in the rainy season. During this time, households also perform traditional spiritual ceremonies for the same purpose that consist of feeding the earth so it has the strength to produce; they dig a hole and deposit an offering of traditional toasted maize called chilate.  ) , c a s s a v a a n d s w e e t p o ta to ro ot cr op s P l a n t i n g la t e r v a r ie t ie s o f b e a n s H a rv e st in g be an s from se co n d so wi ng P la n t in g fr u it tr e e s B en di ng mai ze M a n a g in g m i l p a p l o t :C le a n in g , h il li n g , c o n t r o li n g ) , c a s s a v a a n d s w e e t p o ta to ro ot cr op s P l a n t i n g la t e r v a r ie t ie s o f b e a n s H a rv e st in g be an s from se co n d so wi ng P la n t in g fr u it tr e e s Be nd ing mai ze M a n a g in g m i l p a p l o t :C le a n in g , h il li n g , c o n t r o li n g    Equivalent to: USD 2.6 (GTQ 20); USD 3.2 (GTQ 25); USD 3.9 (GTQ 30); USD 5.8 (GTQ 45); USD 6.5 (GTQ 50).Whilst Maya Ch'orti' communities are relatively close to the market in Jocotán, transportation costs depend on the remoteness of the village or hamlet, and physical barriers such as road quality can be prohibitive to move products and people with regularity. Self-determined travel on back roads is conducted almost exclusively by walking or taking unregulated, privately owned pickup trucks that act as an informal bus system, allowing villagers to 44 Equivalent to USD 2.6-3.9. Applying the UN Operational Rate of Exchange of 1 October 2018 (1 USD = 7.70245 GTQ). This rate will apply throughout the entire chapter.ride in the back for a fee. The towns of Olopa, Quetzaltepeque, Esquipulas and Chiquimula also have small municipal markets but, as they are further, the transport prices increase by approximately GTQ 20-30 44 round trip, making the trip less feasible. Informal trade for goods and services in the communities is common, and gifting and loans of goods and services are common practices depending on availability and need.Through interpretation of ancient artifacts such as the glyphs on stelae, vessels and inscriptions, as well as oral and written histories, it is known that the ancestral territory of the Maya was divided by its cardinal points into four large territories. The eastern territory was known as the Señorio Ch'orti', or Señorio de Payaqui, or Chiquimulja and it had its cultural centre in the city of Copantl -the modern-day city of Copan in Honduras (Christenson, 2007). Ch'orti' is the name that currently describes the Indigenous People of this extensive eastern territory, now divided by modern political borders and spanning three countries of Central America -Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador. The Ch'orti' are closely related to the lowland Maya (in the Yucatán Peninsula and Belize) and considered united under the Classic Maya culture (Metz, McNeil and Hull, 2009).It is hypothesized that prior to colonization, Ch'orti' populations had started farming at higher elevations in the mountains to increase production (Metz, McNeil and Hull, 2009;Sanders and Murdy, 1982;Veblen, 1982). The Señorío Ch'orti' was formidable in resisting the Spanish until around 1530, when the Spanish conquest of Copantl broke the territorial alliance and placed colonists in positions of power. The Spanish system forced local populations to become labourers, sharecroppers or indentured servants, or to flee into the mountains (Girard, 1949;Terga Citrón, 1980). The Ch'orti' were heavily taxed and received lower wages than mestizos and creoles (Melchor Toledo, 2011). Despite colonialization, the Ch'orti' people remained organised as evidenced by their ability to purchase back 635 cavalries (70 000 hectares) of their seized territory from the King of Spain (Mendoza Lopez, 2017).  (1940). Despite facing many challenges, Wisdom recounts that in 1930, the Ch'orti' were almost completely self-sufficient and religiously independent. A testament to the resilience and economic value of the Ch'orti' is demonstrated by Wisdom's observation that although the Government of Guatemala had retired the silver peso in favour of the paper quetzal in 1925, it was not accepted by the Ch'orti' and the government continued to allow a duel currency through 1933 because of their need to trade and their productive power (Wisdom, 1940, pp. 33-34).Soon after, in 1931, the brutal 13-year military regime of Jorge Ubico began. The years under Ubico were a dark period for the Ch'orti', forcing them to retreat to the mountains and avoid urban centres (Girard, 1949). The end of the Ubico regime was followed by a time of peace under Juan Jose Arevalo, which continued under Jacobo Arbenz (1944)(1945)(1946)(1947)(1948)(1949)(1950)(1951)(1952)(1953)(1954) Income is used mostly to purchase food items, agro-industrial products, medicine, processed foods and goods to maintain personal hygiene.The main source of calories in the food system, maize and beans, are also the greatest household expense as community members invest considerable amounts for inputs into the milpa each year. Overall, the communities queried estimated that local production covers about half of household needs whilst the remaining half is purchased or obtained through barter and trade. The majority of household food production is consumed (on average 95 percent) but about 5 percent of the harvest is reserved to either be sold to the market or used to barter and trade for other goods and services. Whilst these practices do not significantly contribute to incomes, they do provide some means by which to procure desired items or to buffer incomes during times of scarcity. Due to poor market connectivity, intermediary buyers and resellers tend to offer low purchase prices for goods from the communities and ask high prices for goods on sale to increase their profit margins as much as possible. Whilst markets provide a large variety of fresh produce, due to the price of traveling to the market and scarcity of monetary resources in the communities, only specific species are purchased and households are sometimes forced to purchase only low-quality foods or those that are beginning to spoil.In villages there is a minimal capacity to buy and sell products for monetary currency, therefore commonly people engage in alternative economic exchanges of goods and services. In an economy with limited income, it is considered a good opportunity to work for a few weeks in exchange for a little bit more than 10 kg of beans or maize, as in the community of La Ceiba, where this is a common practice. Women acknowledged that these types of exchanges are less frequent amongst men, a fact that could be in part due to migration, but both men and women do participate in the informal economy. Amongst women, common trades include handicrafts or livestock for maize, beans or other foodstuffs, or alternatively services such as labour or midwifery for foodstuffs, animals or handicrafts. The midwives of Agua Blanca help deliver children in exchange for goods and accept whatever the family can give at the time, even if the payment is delayed until after the harvest.The traditional Ch'orti' diet of maize and beans enriched by native herbs, fruits, seeds and occasionally meat is still the preferred diet.Women prepare several traditional dishes that normally include five or more food groups, for example a sauce made with chilis, tomatoes, squash and seeds served with legumes, native herbs, tortillas (unleavened flatbread prepared from nixtamalized maize), arroz (Oryza sativa, rice) and sometimes meat. A variety of dishes are consumed nearly every day, contributing to diet diversity. Foods are considered to have more lifesustaining energy if they have been harvested at different times in the Maya calendar, have been transported from one area to another by foot, or if they have been processed using ancestral recipes. In these areas, wild foods are considered more nutritious than domesticated or imported foods. They are valued for their taste and use in traditional dishes such as pinol (hot beverage based on corn flour similar to an atol), chuchitos (a small tamale; maize dough with a variety of fillings such as chipilin and frijoles steamed in a corn husk), and caldo (broth).Local production and wild sourcing offer 10 distinct food groups. The communities do not produce dairy but it is available in the market and is seldomly consumed due to high prices and perishability. Vegetable oils are considered a necessary product in the household but remain cost prohibitive. When asked if all people could meet their dietary needs, community members acknowledged that not all households have that capacity. A household is considered food insecure when there is a lack of beans and maize. Food insecurity is experienced in connection with local climate events, especially during dry summer months of January to May. Whilst a diversity of foods is produced and sourced locally, a significant barrier to food security and diet quality is access to sufficient land to ensure adequate production. The challenge of migration also often makes the Ch'orti' unable to labour in their familial plots.In times of food shortage, neighbours support families to ensure that everyone has enough food. On a multi-household scale, neighbours identify action plans for the challenges they face together and agree upon decisions for development in the villages' communities.If there is a harvest loss for one community member, the harvests from all neighbouring plots are shared and, if necessary, the community requests support from nearby communities or municipal authorities. It is also during periods of food shortage that local diets depend on native plants gathered in the local environment, such as leafy vegetables and roots. Community members feel that food security can be achieved within their current landscape and production systems by capitalizing on what are considered nutritious, medicinal and culturally acceptable foods. For example, Chagüitón with the Mancomunidad Ch'orti' has been involved in the promotion of processed tree spinach flour to naturally enrich the nutritional content of prepared foods and there is an intention to expand these initiatives to reach more communities.From ancestral times, Jocotán has been the main square for sale and exchange of products, as it continues to be today. The market consistently offers fresh foods, staple foods and crafts sourced from surrounding villages but now also offers industrial products and processed products. The Ch'orti' food system has been strongly affected by the rise of industrial production and export markets that have decreased income opportunities based on local value chains. The urban markets in the food system are flooded with industrial products sold at low prices.Soup with chaya.© Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT/ Rose Robitaille.Women note that the substitution of products, such as natural fibres and handicrafts for synthetic fibres and industrially made plastics, as well as natural dyes for chemical dyes, has undercut the traditional market.Research in the Ch'orti' region reveals that malnutrition has risen with the increasing frequency and severity of drought (FAO, 2016;OXFAM, 2012;Chicas, Vanegas and García, 2014). Shifts from the traditional milpa to a more homogenous and input-intensive model also underlie problems of food insecurity and diet quality. Previously this diverse production system of maize, beans and squash created the conditions for a rich understory with a variety of native herbs, wild tomatoes, chili, tubers and fruits. The milpa gradually transformed with the introduction of chemical fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides and fungicides from a production system that promotes diversity to one that inhibits the growth of spontaneous and intercropped foods. At the same time, it is evident that the diversity of diets has decreased. For example, currently maize is consumed daily and bread is consumed occasionally. Historically, households would also eat sorghum, teosinte (Zea perennis (Hitchc.) Reeves & Mangelsd., Poaceae), and amaranth grain (Amaranthus spp.), amongst other foods. Decreasing quantity of food available in the milpa lays the burden of maintaining household subsistence on smaller production areas such as the patio, live fences and landscape. As another factor, community members noted that the role of meat in the diet has decreased over past decades with the loss of the hunting practice and declining availability of game animals. In addition, other traditional food sources have been eliminated from the diet such as edible molluscs from local aquaculture and reared insects such as the chapulin (Sphenarium purpurascens Charpentier, Pyrgomorphidae).Soils in Jocotán, Camotán and Olopa are composed of clay, loamy-clay, and clay and stony silt, all of which are used for crop production.In the communities, soil typology is determined by colour, which varies between soft and hard yellow and black fertile soils. The yellow areas are considered to be sandy with the colour darkening depending on the percentage of clay. Land is considered good quality if it has black soil with little stone and sand, as it has been observed that these areas absorb and retain water. As a result of the need to expand cultivation to marginal soils and plots with steep slopes, the community now engages in some practices to protect ecosystem functions such as planting on contour lines, reforestation of mountain areas, sowing trees as functional fences and creating \"dead barriers\". These \"dead barriers\" are made from branches and other dead plant materials that are collected and piled into mounded fences to capture fertile soil from the rains. To adapt to the various soils in the landscape, households make small plots to engage in trial and error sowings, which allows them to verify the performance of any crop before developing a larger area.There are different approaches to soil management in each distinct production zone of the Ch'orti' food system. Soil amendments are determined based on soil type and use different preparations of locally available materials and minerals that also help control pests and diseases. The patios and living fences are maintained by the female head of house, who applies natural fertilizers made from kitchen scraps, ashes and manure from their animals. The use of household ash and lime in the compost helps improve the soil potential of hydrogen (pH). Living fences in the landscape are planted strategically to stabilize soil, whilst also providing green materials for composting, such as madre de cacao leaves, palo de pito leaves, branches and others. The patios and living fences in the domicile do not require any inputs from outside of the household to maintain soil quality and the community considers the soils in these areas to be healthy and productive. All community members agreed that although soils in the milpa appear to be in good condition, production is only possible using synthetic fertilizers. Other local techniques to maintain soil quality include using crop rotations, interplanting of perennials, planting on contours, and fallow periods. To prepare for sowing crops, most households burn their plot and seldomly use other methods such as chop and drop or allowing herds of cattle or horses to eat the crop residues and fertilize the fields.The main energy source in the food system is firewood for cooking. It is only in the municipal capitals and some peri-urban communities where households have access to propane gas as fuel for cooking. All of the communities that participated in this study have access to electricity and some communities in the region have participated in projects to develop household solar and wind units. Electricity is used primarily for religious services and celebrations, educational activities, refrigeration of foods in stores, and lighting homes. Electric mills are also used to grind nixtamalized maize into dough. Whilst only some individuals own motor vehicles (primarily all-wheeldrive pickup trucks and motorcycles), most if not all of the population uses fossil-fuel vehicles by paying for passage service. Vehicles are crucial for transferring supplies, such as fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides, as well as transporting harvested products to the marketplace. In addition, tractors or other fossil-fuel-driven machines are used for field preparation, though they are seldom owned and instead rented, or the field preparation traded for other goods or services. Tractors are used primarily for planting vegetables for the market and the milpa.The activities in the Ch'orti' food system are labour intensive with few options or innovations for minimizing drudgery. Tasks are generally gender specific, with the men's tasks being agricultural or outside of the household and women labouring primarily in the household. Younger boys help the men with traditional construction trades of the village. As they grow up, they participate in the milpa fields, and when they become older, they will migrate to look for work in the agricultural sector or as unskilled labour. Women spend the majority of their time making tortillas (unleavened flatbread), cooking and washing clothes with their daughters. Women are also responsible for collecting water for the household, which is carried out with both male and female children. All family members are responsible for collecting wood, though often women and children collect firewood as a result of the men migrating for work.Traditional planting patterns make use of ecological functions to increase harvests and decrease labour demands, for example dry beans fix nitrogen to support the growth of maize, whilst the maize acts as a natural trellis for climbing beans and spiny dense squashes planted along the field perimeter serve as a natural pest barrier. Albeit, now it is more common that chemicals, in particular herbicides, are used as a strategy to save time and human labour. Those who use herbicides are able to work an area of land four times greater than those who weed with a machete. A few communities use mules or horses to support agricultural activities.Because of the volume of their production, some communities have community mills or machinery that can be used to minimise drudgery, such as maize huskers, coffee pulpers, mincers for zacate (herbaceous material) and nixtamal mills, which are usually owned by individuals but are available for use by everyone in the community for maize or other payments. Processing fibres for handicrafts is another labour-intensive task.In the case of maguey handcrafts, special tools are angled to extract the fibres by scratching the plant pulp, which is a process that usually irritates the artisan's skin. In Olopa, the Ch'orti' communities of Tituque have innovated their ancient processes for producing maguey fibre and developed a low-technology bicycle-driven machine that reduces labour whilst still creating a high-quality product.The Ch'orti' consider water to be the key to food security. As most production sites are rain-fed, water availability is a major limiting factor in the agroecosystem. According to the Municipal Information System for Food Security and Nutrition (SIMSAN), the Ch'orti' region, including its urban centres, has a 60 percent coverage of residential water. For domestic water consumption, many households depend on local water resources such as springs, wells and streams that are usually more available in the rainy winter months. In summer, some of these water sources disappear or diminish in quantity and quality, forcing inhabitants of the communities to travel several kilometres to find potable water. Communities that have better water availability are in the medium elevations of the landscape. When water sources dry up, people have to travel to other communities, which can take up to two hours every two days to transport 30 litres of water. When at the water collection site, household members will bathe and women will wash clothes.The primary use of water is for food preparation, although if water were used to irrigate agricultural plots, it would hypothetically have a higher demand. Despite the reoccurring drought conditions faced by the communities, few houses engage in rainwater collection. In the rare cases when rainwater is collected, it is primarily used for cleaning, domesticated animals and, in some cases, as drinking water.Other homes recycle grey water from the kitchen or pila (sink usually situated in the patio) for the production of plants that require more water in the patio. Some traditional forms of passive water capture in the landscape can still be seen in the Ch'orti' communities. Strategies include planting on terraces, constructing stone barriers, constructing ditches on hillsides, planting on contours, chopping and dropping residues from crops, digging pits in fields to increase water absorption, and maintaining agroforestry systems that increase soil humidity.Due to the importance of water in the community, the need for organised management of resources has created the Water Committee, which acts as a branch of the COCODE. Members of the community come together to manage, purchase and distribute water resources to any household that is able to contribute. The cost of contributing can be as low as GTQ 3 (equivalent to USD 0.4) a month to help maintain water sources and ensure equitable distribution for all members.In the patios and communal forests where medicinal plants and food are sourced, the Ch'orti' interact efficiently with local resources.Residues from raising animals, ash from the kitchen, and lime are used to fertilize the patios. Some homes also engage in vermiculture or use leaves from the living fences as green fertilizers.All non-biodegradable waste products are produced outside of the food system and are largely imported from urban centres to small shops or the municipal markets for purchase.All the chemicals used in the milpa come in plastic packaging and are difficult to dispose, as any residues cannot be treated as hazardous waste. In the urban centres of municipalities and surrounding peri-urban communities, a service transports the garbage generated in the homes to a municipal landfill. In rural communities, this service is not available and consequently it is the responsibility of each household to eliminate all organic and inorganic waste. Families collect some products, such as aluminum, iron, plastic bottles and copper, to sell. For non-recyclable items, many use an area around the house to deposit waste generated in the home and often this material is either burned or buried. Plastic bottles from soda industries, packages from herbicides, pesticides and other industrial rubbish are visible in the landscape of the communities. Some non-biodegradable products are commonly repurposed. For example, pet food bags are used to transport water, store items, transport agricultural products or handicrafts, or as planting bags. Local non-profit organizations such as the church-run Caritas and campesino organization Nueva Día try to motivate people in nearby communities to upcycle non-biodegradable waste products by using them to produce handicrafts but few have adopted these practices.With advancements in technology, there have been changes in labour demands and energy efficiency in the Ch'orti' food system. The Ch'orti' ancestors used hand tools, such as machetes and hoes, to work the land and organic insecticides and/or traps for pest control. The current dominant form of agriculture in the milpa is more dependent on chemical inputs, which reduces labour demands. It also has been associated with degradation of soil quality and community members noted that if they are not using chemical inputs in the milpa they are unable to have a good harvest. In addition, farmers now have some access to machinery to work their fields, which has also reduced labour demands. However, as money is required to purchase the inputs and hire the machines, and income is most commonly earned via migrant labour, it is difficult to understand whether these advances have actually reduced the amount of labour necessary or just moved the work opportunities outside of their communities. Additional changes in energy use are primarily a result of the increased use of mechanized transport, lighting, electric food processors, irrigation and communal mills for maize. For example, before refrigeration it was common for pig or cow meats to be dried for preservation using a process of heavily salting the meat and hanging it in the sun. These advances all help reduce labour demands, but they are not universally accessible due to distance or monetary constraints, and they increase dependence on external inputs.According to village residents, the use of water has become more efficient in recent years due to the scarcity of this resource throughout the year. This necessity has driven villages to generate efficiency strategies to reduce water waste. In villages that have domestic water, the community holds meetings for all members to ensure that water is appropriately used for housework and not for irrigation.Community members shared that there has been little change in waste management compared to the past. However, they note that recycling is practised more often because waste that previously had no value now fetches a price for being recycled commercially. Due to technological advances, however, many more pollutants, such as agrochemicals, plastic bags and bottles, are entering the local waste stream and need to disposed of properly, a task the community is not well equipped to manage with traditional methods.Crop and livestock biodiversity Amongst the animals found in the community, only turkeys were originally domesticated in the Americas, although traditional breeds of horses, pigs, chickens, ducks, turkeys, goats and cattle are found in the Ch'orti' region. A chicken breed has been introduced recently that is crossbred with traditional breeds to be resilient to drought conditions. Municipal technical agents provide this breed of chicken to members in some communities, along with a regiment of vaccines. Animal breeds kept in the community are favoured for productivity, disease resistance and low resource demand. The maintenance of smaller animal species with less input and space requirements is common as the average family gives preference for cultivating maize and beans on available land.The Ch'orti' collect a number of wild resources from within the boundaries of their communities. Edible plants are gathered along the edges of walking paths and roadsides, although they are primarily harvested from household plots where spontaneous growth is managed and encouraged. Forested parcels called astilleros between villages and hamlets are considered communal and provide shared spaces where community members can find firewood, manage communal agricultural plots, and gather mushrooms and useful materials such as wood, clays, honey and other raw fibres. The few hunters in the region use modern traps, rifles and hunting dogs, whilst the few fishers use modern hooks.The astilleros are managed cooperatively by community laws and under the supervision of the COCODES. Some communities maintain communal conservation areas in the landscape, primarily for forests and water sources. In these areas, inhabitants work together for reforestation, removing refuse and protecting against natural disasters. Management is not frequent but routine. To reduce the risk of forest fires, the community will assemble local fire brigades and clean the forest floor of deadwood to be used as communal firewood. For the management of water sources, the community gathers once or twice a year to clean the surroundings and to plant trees that allow that resource to continue to be productive by reducing erosion and supporting water filtration. Living fences are also maintained to contribute to the firewood demands of the household, for erosion control, The Ch'orti' have seen a loss of traditional practices, which has contributed to the disappearance of crop species and varieties from production fields. Historically, the milpa was designed to be a circular rather than square plot to maximize the edge space for useful spontaneous plants and to create opportunity for more diverse planting schemes. Now, the milpa is sown in furrows and chemical application inhibits the growth of traditional crops. Ancestral diversified plots still occur but in smaller proportion compared with more intensive and monoculture productions. Traditional varieties of grains such as maize and sorghum that depend less on fertilizers for their production are maintained but no longer in sizeable amounts and therefore are not highly available. Some custodian farmers continue to maintain rare native varieties that would otherwise be lost.Recently, the municipal commonwealth has been promoting drought-tolerant species to increase food security.Historically the Ch'orti' were actively hunting and gathering in their landscape but resources have become more scarce over time. There are different organised groups at various scales for consensus and participatory decisionmaking regarding natural resources in the communities. The main form of governance for small villages is the COCODE, a body recognised by the constitutional laws of Guatemala, which operates as an assembly of citizens with an executive committee, composed of a board of directors formed by a president, a vice president, a treasurer and a secretary. The COCODE is in charge of the management and the realization of specific works, as municipal activities require community consultation. The principle functions of the COCODE are to:(1) promote the economic, social and cultural development of the community; (2) promote the effective participation of the population in the identification and solution of their problems;(3) identify and inventory the needs of the community and determine the corresponding priorities for the formulation of programmes and projects; (4) propose to the municipal development council needs for the execution of programmes and projects, when these cannot be resolved by their respective community; (5) coordinate activities promoted or carried out by community groups to avoid duplication of efforts; and (6) manage the economic resources they require for their local development programmes and projects. Other community groups that relate to the food system include the Water Committee, which acts as a branch of the COCODE, and the Committee of Parents, which is charged with organising the local school feeding programmes, trainings for those serving food in the schools, and activities related to formal education. Those who have vocations that provide valuable services to the greater community such as religious leaders or teachers are perceived as authority figures and also play an important role in the resolution of conflicts and decisionmaking.In rural villages, community members are in charge of ensuring the protection of the resources of their respective plots and any problem must be resolved with the local government. For many remote villages it is difficult to maintain contact with the municipality, therefore communities assign or appoint an auxiliary or community mayor to act as an ombudsman. Auxiliary mayors receive community complaints or requests and resolve them with higher levels of governance. The auxiliary mayor works directly with the mayor of the municipality and acts as the representative of the community. If the community is not large enough to have an auxiliary mayor, the entity that is responsible for management and community organization is the COCODE. Larger communities have a COCODE as well as an auxiliary mayor. The role of the COCODE and the auxiliary mayor are grounded in the traditional values of the communities and are an adaptation of the Maya ancestral system of governance to a modern style of governance.Authorities of the community are part of an institutionalized system of voluntary service, without salary and permanence. Any member of the community can be elected as the highest authority of the COCODE, but they must be selected based on merit and their capacity to collaborate. Of the six communities studied, four communities were led by men and two COCODE were led by women. Auxiliary mayors serve for a period of two years with possibility of re-election. To participate in the Committee of Parents, one must be a parent of one or more children in the local school. The mode of and need for governing natural resources has changed markedly over time in the Ch'orti' territory. Community members recall that previously there was no need for the governance of natural resources because they were used respectfully and managed properly by those who depended on them. An example of this is the need for managing hunting and wild animal populations. From the Ch'orti' point of view, animals are considered to be brothers; therefore, individuals would only hunt if it was necessary for household security. If one did hunt, they would only harvest what was necessary to meet their needs. Ceremony was also part of the process to ask the forest for permission and give thanks to the animal for its sustaining life energy. As a result of this cultural management, the communities maintained an abundance of wildlife resources and there was no need for controls through national, municipal and community initiatives. The exploitation of forested lands by outside entities and the lack of access to previous communally managed forests also contribute to the current need for management.The Ch'orti' food system is dynamic and complex. Below is a summarized assessment of 13 indicators of resilience. It is noted that for even the weakest indicators, there may be some aspects of community life or households that maintain practices that run counter to these trends.1. Exposed to disturbance: The food system is regularly exposed to climatic events that have become increasingly more disruptive to the agricultural calendar. Due to the increase of strength and frequency of these events in the last 50 years, food system collapse has occurred in many villages, attracting the attention of the scientific community, which has focussed resources and energy into strengthening food security. In spite of climatic events that have devastated planting seasons and harvests, the Ch'orti' have been using locally adapted resources such as animals that tolerate low water availability and crop varieties with short maturation periods to strengthen the resilience of their production system.The community is an interdependent system that promotes barter, trade, loans, and gifting of goods and services, which relies on the communication between local village networks. The food system enforces cooperation amongst community members to maintain food security by the collective lack of markets and income opportunities. The community safeguards traditional seeds and therefore, if necessary, the recovery of lost varieties and seeds is possible. Communities are now becoming more dependent on outside inputs for their primary production areas, which is a trend that could weaken an otherwise strong local system of trade.Generally, the communities in the Ch'orti' territory are becoming more connected to nearby villages and municipal capitals due to the expansion and quality of roads between communities, reducing travel times. However, due to the distances that different communities and hamlets have to travel, paired with the costs of transporting people and products to the market, the Ch'orti' communities are not appropriately connected to each other or urban centres.The Ch'orti' have strong organization in local communities with high representation and participation, which helps to defend the territory against any outside threats. Villages and hamlets have achieved development through community consultations, consensus and collective decision-making. Participation of these meetings is not mandatory but rather open so that the people of the community who are dedicated to serving and have earned the respect of fellow community members can take part in non-permanent and non-paid leadership positions. Maya cosmology promotes being of service to others and the community, referred to in villages as \"mística de servicio\", which is a key element in the Ch'orti' governance providing services that are free, voluntary and permanent for the benefit of the community.This indicator is constantly progressing and evolving with the experiences of the community. Patios are a living system where each year women will experiment with new crops, crop combinations and growing practices. Often beneficial plants are allowed to grow spontaneously or can be collected from other areas and replanted in the patio. As there is often no chemical application, the resilience of plants or planting combinations can be observed in light of weather conditions. Responsibilities to innovate are shared amongst women and they will gather to exchange findings or observations in the interest of optimizing production. Aquaculture techniques are both ancestral and innovative, being passed down by observing nature or other villagers. Neighbourhood meetings that are scheduled periodically to discuss political topics are also used as a space to discuss observations and the results of experiments carried out in their fields and patios. In these meetings, representatives who have participated in capacity-building workshops share the content of the trainings with their fellow community members and answer questions regarding these respective initiatives.The communities chosen for this study have strong cultural continuity and continue to demonstrate an ancestral way of life that is highly dependent on the landscape. The community has actively conserved several aspects of the ancestral food system by passing information from generation to generation through the active practice of these traditions.The traditional diet, rich in nutritional native plants, reveals the importance of honouring the legacy of ancestors in production practices. As there are no written manuals for any expertise to standardize the practices, artisans are free to maintain, modify or update the methods of production. During the armed conflict in Guatemala, there was a decrease in knowledge of ancestral practices in the region. The Ch'orti' experienced the loss of knowledgeable individuals in part due to the recruitment by the military to act as patrols in other parts of Guatemala and the murder of intellectual leaders of the communities. They have effectively lost the local language, which is now only preserved in more isolated villages, and they use more industrial materials for house construction than previously, amongst other changes in their production systems, diets and livelihoods.The community transmits traditional knowledge through observation and practice with the conviction that learning should be a personal decision, though children are inevitably involved from a young age in the food system. As traditional practices become less marketable, there has been a loss of capacity-building of skilled artisans in the community. In addition, schooling that would prepare young adults for other professions is not available in some communities. Formalized schools for children in the local areas also do not honour the Ch'orti' legacy, discouraging the use of the language and many traditional practices.In recent years, capacity-building workshops have been held by the municipal government and outside institutions to train leaders in the community in post-harvest processing, sustainable production and living techniques. Whilst there are some local practitioners in the communities, such as midwives, and medicines that are grown locally or collected in the landscape, community members must travel to urban centres to access most medical and dental services.Traditionally the food system was completely integrated with the local natural capital.Currently the live fences and patios of the house are maintained using traditional knowledge and practices. These production areas continue to promote the spontaneous growth of local plants for multiple purposes and provide products for use in food, construction, crafts, medicine or fuel. Unfortunately, the management of the communities' natural resources has decreased over time with the advent of political borders and the privatizing of land. Outside production has created cheaper products outside of the traditional closed-loop system and has led to pollution in the landscape.Ecosystem functions from many aspects of the landscape and production systems help regulate degradation in the community. Traditional planting schemes of trees and perennials are still viable in current agricultural systems, including contour plantings for erosion control and water retention, as well as canopy cover for temperature regulation of the household and around water resources to improve quality and function of water resources. Conversely, the high-input milpa system no longer uses traditional methods and consequently is becoming less ecologically selfregulated.10. Functional diversity: Overall, the Ch'orti' production system supplies a high diversity of food groups with an average cultivation of eight food groups. The highest number of food groups is grown in the diverse patio production system and the lowest number (two to four food groups) is grown in the milpa. Taking into consideration the collection of wild edibles, the wild environment and other parts of the landscape, the system can provide nine food groups.11. Optimally redundant: Multiple species are produced and sourced from wild areas within all nine food groups, including many species of fruits and vegetables. In the past, the Ch'orti' food system had more redundancy. Traditionally the milpa, patio, living fences and the wild would have more overlapping food sources such as native herbs, animal-derived foods and fruits.The patio currently provides the greatest diversity of foods amongst the production areas and is an essential compliment to the milpa, where only two to three species are regularly cultivated and harvests are more susceptible to crop failure due to climate, pests, weeds or natural disasters. The patio has a smaller production of legumes and starches to protect against complete crop failure in the milpa. Traditionally wild areas provided more meat products but due to deforestation and resource extraction, hunting is no longer a strong food source for the household.12. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity: Overall, some significant shifts in the landscape have led to less heterogeneity in the Ch'orti' territory. Deforestation, the establishment of coffee plantations, and the increasing homogeneity of the milpa have contributed to a simpler land-use mosaic. The impacts of shifting more land into agricultural production and increased extraction has motivated efforts by the community and municipality to actively work to reforest land. In villages, heterogeneous landscapes are actively maintained using traditional planting patterns and land-use schemes.13. Reasonably profitable: At present, the connection of the food system to the market is inadequate to support current household demands for income. Few reasonable opportunities exist to generate income in the food system within the communities and it is necessary to migrate to the cities to find work.The traditional trade-and-barter economy in Ch'orti' communities has persisted since ancient times and helps compensate for the lack of local monetary resources. In this ancestral paradigm, the many goods and services offered are accessible because they are traded through a flexible economy of loans and exchanges between families. Yet the increase of household dependence on the market increases demand for monetary resources and challenges the traditional methods of exchange that have customarily sustained the communities.The six Ch'orti' villages profiled in this study are indigenous and campesinos who have engaged in subsistence agriculture in the mountainous regions of Jocotán, Camotán and Olopa since before colonial times. The study shows that the Ch'orti' produce a large number of foods from their production systems and gathering of wild foods in the communal areas. Some households continue to supplement their diets with hunting or fishing but to a lesser extent due to loss of natural resource capital.Communities gain income primarily by working with local materials as artisans and as labourers.High-quality goods from villages are sold to the municipal market at relatively low prices and at the time they are resold, they become costprohibitive for the average household. To cope, communities engage in alternative trade and barter networks that provide the opportunity to source goods and services without monetary currency.This study revealed a rich variety of sustainable aspects of the Ch'orti' food system as well as the many challenges that it faces. Whilst there are sustainable elements of the Ch'orti' food system, overall communities are not able to meet their needs with local production.The patio and live fences are diversified production areas managed by women that demonstrate many sustainable practices. These production areas act as in situ conservation sites where diversity and seeds are protected in each household. The majority of the species found in the patios and live fences are nutritious, including dark green leafy vegetables, Vitamin-Arich fruits and vegetables, and other vegetables, which provide the family with important nutrients. The soil fertility and plant health in these zones are maintained by recycling household waste, such as kitchen scraps, ash, leaves from the live fences, and manure from household animals. As water is scare in this region, the strategic location of these diverse plots around the household also allows women to make use of grey water for irrigation and small aquaculture systems. Goods produced by the community are plantbased materials found in the landscape or handprocessed minerals like clay, stone and limestone, which are non-toxic and biodegradable. Waste generated inside the system is easy to manage and often has positive reapplications in the landscape, such as the use of household waste in patios as fertilizers. As a consequence, without assistance, non-biodegradable waste is largely managed by methods familiar to the community such as burning or is freely disposed of in the landscape. Low-cost industrial non-biodegradable goods are becoming more prevalent in the community, undercutting the market for Ch'orti' products like tul and carrizo bags and baskets from regional artisans. Innovation and assistance should accompany this shift of waste management for products that have different life cycles and do not pollute the environment. As milpa production has become more input intensive, it is also generating a large source of non-biodegradable waste in the communities.The complexity of the community value system is an aspect of the Ch'orti' food system that connects communities to their natural resources. The cosmology of the Maya is shared throughout Mesoamerica, including the Ch'orti', and is a basis for understanding daily life and attitudes. Though the milpa has become an area with practices that are largely unsustainable, its importance is grounded in a creation myth of the Maya, which states that humanity was created from maize. This crop has evolved under the stewardship of households that have in turn been sustained by this food; therefore, it becomes a priority of the household, regardless of additional labour or costs, to maintain production. Foods are also valued by the embedded energy that is perceived by the community, in a metaphysical sense. For example, foods are considered to have more lifesustaining energy if they have been harvested at different times in the Maya calendar, have been transported from one area to another by foot, or if they have been processed using ancestral recipes. Maya cosmogony also promotes being of service to others and the community. This altruistic concept, referred to in villages as \"mística de servicio\", is a key element in the Ch'orti' governance, providing services that are free, voluntary and permanent for the benefit of the community. This value is instilled in children from a young age, creating strong bonds between individuals and leadership based on community service. The \"mística de servicio\" focusses largely not on the individual strength of households but on the community as a whole.Communities place their hope for the future in the hands of the next generations. Parents believe in the power of the youth to continue and improve current conditions if they engage in traditional practices. Under the guidance of local authorities, future generations are thought to have the ability to bring increased food quality and production, greater crop diversity and seed resources, as well as the return of traditional hunting and fishing.When asked to predict what the food system would look like in 20 years' time, community members were optimistic that current trends would continue. They envisioned a food system where the same traditional foods are consumed but with all of the production coming from the community without the need to import products from outside the system. In the future, communities predict being able to meet 100 percent of their dietary needs through local production and the collection of wild foods, hunting and fishing without the need to rely on urban markets. Community members envision local markets and plazas where they can trade freely with one another and access high-quality food products. It is predicted that the dominant land use will continue to be agriculture but they hope cultivation expands with the improved access and availability of seeds for different vegetable and other crop varieties to build their production diversity. It is not desired that community activities are contingent on outside sources such as NGOs but rather that they are able to fund, sustain and maintain ownership of their own initiatives.To meet the predicted challenges of climate change, diversifying production can supplement losses of maize and beans with other traditional foods that have been lost over time. It is expected that within 20 years the community will continue to produce the foods that are currently harvested in addition to the increased production of crops that used to have a robust local use but have been lost, such as malanga, sweet potato or sugar cane. The use of traditional crops and animals will increase only if traditional knowledge continues to be transmitted from parents to children. Community members note that a failure of the youth to improve livelihoods with the traditional ways in the next 20 years will lead to more malnutrition, sicker children and less food sources to support the family.The perspectives for a brighter future rest with young generations and their active engagement in building communities with better livelihoods and enough resources to have a buen vivir.In this vision of a largely non-competitive, community-oriented society, a buen vivir is when all households are able to meet their basic needs with local food production, adequate local income opportunities and adequate housing. On a community level, buen vivir also means having access to a vibrant community life with entertainment, communal space, cultural ceremonies and time to meet as a whole, in addition to adequate services such as health care and local education.As descendants of the Maya of Copan, the Ch'orti' have evolved under a participatory and inclusive ancestral model of community development based on respect for life in all its forms and natural resources. The Ch'orti' produce a large number of species on multiple production sites, have closed-loop systems of biodegradable household waste cycling, and maintain a profound knowledge of multi-use plant species in their communities. Socially, strong values based in community well-being, trust, respect for natural resources and alternative trade networks have helped provide safety nets in times of scarcity. Concluding remarks will combine comments from participants as well as observations and insights from the field, forming recommendations for potential pathways forward and needs for the future.Inclusive self-organization bolsters sustainability of the system using ancestral principles, where decisions are made through community consultation and voluntary leaders who are elected based on merit and focus on the collective welfare. This system has managed to govern a union of several villages to protect and manage communal forests, rivers and other natural resources. The food system is partially autonomous, using the ancestral practices of production and knowledge of sourcing food throughout the landscape. Traditions such as the barter and exchange of goods and services, the production of handicrafts, and preparation of ancestral dishes generate an interactive economy that strengthens the trust between community members.The Ch'orti' are also facing many challenges. Climate change in particular contributes to the breakdown of traditional ways with increasing instances of crop loss as a result of extreme weather, pests and diseases, as well as the disruption of traditional phenology. Communities have also observed the transition of the milpa system from an ecologically selfregulating design with multiple yields to a low-diversity model with high off-farm inputs.Using herbicides has reduced the number of species found in the milpa that play key roles in traditional intercropping schemes for household nutrition. In addition to these challenges, communities often suffer from a lack of services such as schooling and health care.The Ch'orti' develop intelligence by learning through observation, trial and error until they master their craft to become the teachers for the next generations. This system instills personal development into traditional crafts and promotes constant innovation to allow traditional knowledge to become a living system, open to learning, evolving and adapting over time. Yet it also limits the continuity of traditional practices as there are no available manuals or records to protect the many skilled professions represented in the communities. Paired with inadequate opportunities to receive reasonable incomes for the production of traditional goods, this has resulted in the gradual loss of traditional skills. In addition, communities only have elementary-level education. To receive higher levels of education, children must leave their villages and attend school in the urban centres. Youth miss the opportunity to engage in village activities, disrupting the passing of knowledge, and are instead immersed in a culture that does not support the local language or culture. The concept of local food banks that house, store and distribute surplus goods from the community could provide an infrastructure that is beyond the normal capacity of households.To encourage temporal diversity in the food systems approach of the Ch'orti', it is also recommended that communities work with the village COCODES at different altitudes and growing zones to develop a collaboration within communal lands. Providing access to plots at different altitudes can help to build harvest security in the case of local crop failure, whilst strengthening trade networks and knowledge sharing between communities. In light of the erratic weather conditions due to climate change, it would be valuable to expand the use of water capture to take advantage of the winter rains to help sustain households during periods of drought.This rapid profile provides a glimpse into a complex and dynamic system that varies across Ch'orti' territory. Additional research and characterizing of varietal diversity kept in households, efficacy of local phenology, and the development of alternative natural fertilizers and pest deterrents for the milpa to ease the dependence on outside inputs is needed. A characterisation of the sustainable practices of the Ch'orti' patios and live fences could be expanded upon within the context of research regarding Maya home garden design. Promoting best practices and facilitating knowledge exchange with other Maya groups can build overall resilience and sustainability, particularly in the dry corridor.• Woodward, R.L. 1993. Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821-1871. Athens, University of Georgia Press. The glossary does not aim to provide definitions, rather clarifications on the terms used in the publication. These are gathered from a variety of sources, including FAO terms, the online IPBES 1 and A4NH 2 glossaries. If the definition is not an FAO term, a reference is cited. These definitions provide an interpretation of the terms to which they refer, that relates to indigenous peoples' food systems.• Agrobiodiversity: Agricultural biodiversity is a broad term that includes all components of biological diversity of relevance to food and agriculture, and all components of biological diversity that constitute the agricultural ecosystems, also named agroecosystems: the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms, at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels, which are necessary to sustain key functions of the agroecosystem, its structure and processes (CBD, 2000).• Agrochemicals: Chemical compounds used in farming including fertilizers, pesticides, hormones and other growth agents, and soil conditioners.• Agroecology: The study of agricultural systems in the context of their entire environments over space and over time. It studies agricultural systems as ecological systems first and foremost, rather than simply as industrial food factories. It thus shades into landscape studies and agricultural geography but with more emphasis on biological factors and measures. It has become a holistic approach at odds with partial and sectored views that led early agricultural science (Altieri, 1995).• Agroecosystem: A semi-natural or modified natural system managed by humans for food and agricultural production purposes.1 Available at https://ipbes.net/glossary 2 Available at https://a4nh.cgiar.org/2020/01/26/glossary-foodsystems/• Agroforestry system: Any agricultural system (agroecosystem) in which planted or protected trees are seen as economically, socially, or ecologically integral to the system.• Balanced diet: A diet that provides an adequate amount and variety of food to meet a person's macro and micro nutrient needs for a healthy, active life.• Biocultural diversity: The diversity exhibited by interacting natural systems and human cultures. The concept rests on three propositions: firstly, that the diversity of life includes human cultures and languages; secondly, that links exist between biodiversity and human cultural diversity; and finally, that these links have developed over time through mutual adaptation and possibly co-evolution between humans, plants and animals.• Biodiversity: The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.• Biofertilizer, biological fertilizer, organic fertilizer: A biofertilizer is a natural fertilizer that helps to provide all the nutrients required by the plants and to increase the quality of the soil with a natural microorganism environment. For instance, the production and use of biofertilizer (such as seaweed products; compost) is proposed to improve crop yields by using root nodule bacteria (rhizobia), mycorrhizal fungi, and other microorganisms that are able to increase the accessibility of plant nutrients from the soils.• Biological pest control: Biological control is a method of controlling pests, diseases and weeds in agriculture that relies on natural predation, parasitism or other natural mechanisms that restrain the development of pathogenic organisms.• Biome: Global-scale zones, generally defined by the type of plant life that they support in response to average rainfall and temperature patterns. For example, tundra, coral reefs or savannas.• Breed: Either a subspecific group of domestic livestock with definable and identifiable external characteristics that enable it to be separated by visual appraisal from other similarly defined groups within the same species, or a group for which geographical and/or cultural separation from phenotypically similar groups has led to acceptance of its separate identity.• Bushmeat: Meat for human consumption derived from wild animals.• Community seed bank: A community seed system is based on seed saving and aims to conserve existing varieties and make them available to the local community.• Compost: A mixture of decaying organic matter, as from leaves and manure, used to improve soil structure and provide nutrients.• Conservation: Includes protection, maintenance, rehabilitation, restoration and enhancement of populations and ecosystems. This implies sound biosphere management within given social and economic constraints, producing goods and services without depleting natural ecosystem diversity.• Crop: A cultivated plant grown to be harvested either to be used or to be sold (adapted from FAO TERM).• Crop rotation: The practice of alternating the species or families of annual and/or biannual crops grown on a specific field in a planned pattern or sequence so as to break weed, pest and disease cycles and to maintain or improve soil fertility and organic matter content.• Cultivar: A plant or grouping of plants selected for desirable characteristics that can be maintained by propagation. Most cultivars have arisen in cultivation, but a few are special selections from the wild (Bioversity International, 2017).• Cultural heritage: Traditions or living expressions inherited from ancestors and passed on to descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts.• Cultural transmission: Cultural transmission is the acquisition of the various competences and pieces of information that a human society acquaints to its members and that forge its own traditions. Human traditions are meant to last because societies possess outstanding capacities for imitation, sufficient to trigger the evolution of cumulative cultures (Callan and Coleman, eds., 2018).• Customary tenure: Rules and norms which communities devise and uphold to regulate how their lands are acquired, owned, used and transferred. Many rules and norms are tested over generations (hence 'traditions' or 'customs').• Customary use of biological resources: Uses of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation and sustainable use requirements.• Diet: The kinds of food that follow a particular pattern that a person or community eats.• Dietary diversity: A measure of the variety of food from different food groups consumed over a reference period.• Ecoregion: A large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities that:(a) Share a large majority of their species and ecological dynamics;(b) Share similar environmental conditions, and;(c) Interact ecologically in ways that are critical for their long-term persistence.In contrast to biomes, an ecoregion is generally geographically specific, at a much finer scale. For example, the \"East African Montane Forest\" ecoregion of Kenya (WWF ecoregion classification) is a geographically specific and coherent example of the globally occurring \"tropical and subtropical forest\" biome.• Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit (CBD, 1992).• Ecosystem function: An intrinsic ecosystem characteristic related to the set of conditions and processes whereby an ecosystem maintains its integrity (such as primary productivity, food chain, biogeochemical cycles). Ecosystem functions include such processes as decomposition, production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes of nutrients and energy.• Ecosystem services: The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; pollination of crops; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as the nutrient cycling that maintains the conditions for life on Earth.• Efficiency: The ratio of a system's output (or production) to the inputs that it requires, as in the useful energy produced by a system compared with the energy put into that system.• Food biodiversity: The diversity of plant, animal and other sources used for food, covering the genetic resources within species and between species.• Food security: Food security takes place when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. The multidimensional nature of food security includes food availability, access, stability and utilization.• Food sovereignty: Right of peoples to define their own policies and strategies for the sustainable production, distribution and consumption of food, with respect for their own cultures and their own systems of managing natural resources and rural areas, and is considered to be a precondition for food security.• Global (environmental) change: A major environmental and worldwide concern for the time being, global change combines systemic and cumulative dimensions. It is systemic where environmental change in any place directly affects the characteristics of the environment elsewhere, or even of the whole earth system. It is cumulative when change results from the accumulation of local and regional changes occurring around the world (Callan and Coleman, eds., 2018).• Green manure: A cover crop grown to help maintain soil organic matter and increase nitrogen availability. Legumes are often used because they have rhizobial bacteria living in their root nodules that are able to fix nitrogen from the air and add it to the soil. Green manure is incorporated into the soil for the purpose of soil improvement. May include spontaneous crops, plants or weeds.• Habitat: The place or type of site where species and communities normally live or grow, usually characterized by relatively uniform physical features or by consistent plant forms, e.g. deserts, lakes and forest are all habitats.• Habitat degradation: A general term describing the set of processes by which habitat quality is reduced. Habitat degradation may occur through natural processes (e.g. drought, heat, cold) and through human activities (forestry, agriculture, urbanization).• Healthy diet: Healthy diets contain adequate food energy and sufficient amounts of macroand micronutrients; limit overconsumption, particularly of nutrient-poor foods high in energy, saturated and trans fats, added sugars and salt; include a variety of nutrient-dense foods from basic food groupings; and are safe to consume (Adapted from HLPE, 2017).• Hunter-gatherers (present-day): A term used to refer to small scale, mostly egalitarian, societies that subsist primarily from food that has been obtained directly from the environment -through hunting animals, gathering plant food, fishing, or scavenging. A more general term for this is 'foraging' and such peoples are also sometimes referred to as 'foragers' -or often 'post-foragers', given that most such societies no longer survive through these subsistence techniques alone. They constitute a tiny fraction (less than 1 percent) of the 476 million peoples referred to as indigenous (Lee R.B., Heywood Daly R. and Daly R., 1999).• Indigenous peoples' food system: See elements of characterization in the Methodology section.• Indigenous peoples' knowledge: Cumulative body of knowledge (for example know-how), practices and manifestations maintained and developed by people with long histories of interaction with their natural environment. It forms the basis for local-level decision-making, especially for the poor, and provides problemsolving strategies for communities.• In situ conservation: The conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties.• Institution: A structure of social order governing the behaviour of a set of individuals and that shape human interactions by serving collectively valued goals. The term includes formal institutions (e.g. public institutions, nongovernmental and private organizations, training and educational institutions such as universities and research institutes) and informal institutions (e.g. village committees, community groups, farmer groups).• Intercropping: Growing two or more crops as a mixture in the same field at the same time.Intercropping can be one way of adding diversity to a crop system.• Land race: A crop variety, often harbouring some genetic variability, yet, with a certain genetic integrity that has evolved in cultivation, usually in a traditional agricultural system over long periods, and has adapted to a specific local environment or purpose (Bioversity International, 2017).• Landscape: A landscape can be defined as a socioecological system made up of natural and/ or human-modified ecosystems.• Livelihood: A combination of the resources used and the activities undertaken in order to live. The resources might consist of individual skills and abilities (human capital), land, savings and equipment (natural, financial and physical capital, respectively), and formal support groups or informal networks that assist in the activities being undertaken (social capital).• Local food: Local food refers to food that is produced near its point of consumption.• Manure: Organic material that is used to fertilize land, usually consisting of the faeces and urine of domestic livestock, with or without litter such as straw, hay, or bedding.• Mineral fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, synthetic fertilizer, synthetic input: Fertlizers manufactured by chemical and industrial processes. May include products not found in nature, or simulation of products from natural sources (but not extracted from natural raw materials). It refers to agricultural substances produced through chemical processes, including nitrogen-fertilizers.• Natural resource: Any portion of the natural environment, such as air, water, soil, botanical and zoological resources and minerals. A renewable resource can potentially last indefinitely without reducing the available supply because it is replaced through natural processes or because it recycles rapidly as water does.• Non-Timber Forest Product: Goods derived from forests that are tangible and physical objects of biological origin other than wood.• Non-communicable diseases (NCDs): Also known as chronic diseases, these are generally of long duration and are the result of a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental, dietary, and behavioural factors.The main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (like heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma) and diabetes. NCDs are the leading cause of death worldwide (adapted from WHO, 2018).• Nutrition: The intake of food, and the interplay of biological, social, and economic processes that influence the growth, function and repair of the body.• Nutrition security: A situation that exists when secure access to an appropriately nutritious diet is coupled with a sanitary environment and adequate health services and care, in order to ensure a healthy and active life for all household members. Nutrition security differs from food security in that it also considers the aspects of adequate caregiving practices, health and hygiene, in addition to dietary adequacy.• Oral tradition: Variety of spoken forms including proverbs, riddles, tales, nursery rhymes, legends, myths, epic songs and poems, charms, prayers, chants, songs, dramatic performances and more used to pass on knowledge, cultural and social values and collective memory. They play a crucial part in keeping cultures alive.• Organic manure: Organic manure covers manures made from cattle dung, excreta of other animals, rural and urban composts, other animal wastes, crop residues and green manures. Organic manure is time tested materials for improving the fertility and productivity of soils.• Pastoralism: Wide family of livestock-based, livelihood/food production systems, which are specialized in improving the animals' diet and welfare through different forms of mobility (from short movements to nomadism), thus managing their grazing itineraries at a variety of scales in time and space (FAO, forthcoming).• Pest: Any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products, livestock, food and storage products.• Pesticide: Any substance intended for preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling, or controlling any pest including unwanted species of plants or animals during the production, storage, transport, distribution, and processing of food, agricultural commodities, or animal feeds or which may be administered to animals for the control of ectoparasites. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant-growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, fruit thinning agent, or sprouting inhibitor and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. The term normally excludes fertilizers, plant and animal nutrients, food additives and animal drugs. (Note: \"Agricultural commodities\" refers to commodities such as raw cereals, sugar beet, and cottonseed which might not, in the general sense, be considered food).• Resilience: The capacity of a system to deal with change and continue to develop; withstanding shocks and disturbances and using such events to catalyze renewal and innovation. (Adapted from the Stockholm Resilience Institute)• Self-sufficiency: A group is considered self-sufficient by its ability to produce all the materials it consumes and to consume what it produces. Self-sufficiency refers to a closed loop from production to consumption to production. It is a model, sometimes an ideal, that is never achieved. Economic self-sufficiency is in total contrast to complete market economy in which everything produced is traded and everything consumed is secured through trade (Callan and Coleman, eds., 2018).• Shifting cultivation: A way of farming that involves the clearing of natural or largely natural vegetation, usually using fire, to plant crops for one or two years and then allowing natural vegetation to regenerate on the plot for a long period of time referred to as fallowing, before clearing and cropping it again. Shifting cultivation is also known as \"slash and burn\" or \"swidden cultivation\" and by a variety of local names specific to each place in which it is practiced (Callan and Coleman, eds., 2018).• Social-ecological system: \"Social\" or \"socio\" ecological systems\" are complex and evolving systems in which humans are part of nature. Social, economic, ecological, cultural, political, technological, and other components are strongly linked and the ecological component provides essential services to society such as supply of food, fiber, energy, and drinking water (Berkes and Folke, eds., 1998).• Soil erosion: The process of removal and transport of soil and rock by weathering, mass wasting, and the action of streams, glaciers, waves, winds, and underground water.• Soil fertility: The ability of a soil to sustain plant growth by providing essential plant nutrients and favorable chemical, physical, and biological characteristics as a habitat for plant growth.• Species: An interbreeding group of organisms that is reproductively isolated from all other organisms, although there are many partial exceptions to this rule in particular taxa. Operationally, the term species is a generally agreed fundamental taxonomic unit, based on morphological or genetic similarity, that once described and accepted is associated with a unique scientific name.• Species diversity: A measure of the number of different species within a biological community, and relative abundance of individual in that community.• Staple food: Food that is eaten commonly and regularly in a country or community and in such quantities as to constitute the dominant part of the diet and supply a major proportion of energy needs.• Subsistence: Subsistence is the process whereby people supply themselves with the necessities of life, such as food and shelter. Subsistence relates primarily to selfprovisioning by small productive units, often families. These groups are referred to as autarkic for being able to supply all their own needs with no dependence on interaction with others to obtain necessities (Callan and Coleman, eds., 2018).• Sustainability: A characteristic or state whereby the needs of the present and local population can be met without compromising the ability of future generations or populations in other locations to meet their needs.• Sustainable Diet: Diets with low environmental impacts which contribute to food and nutrition security and to healthy life for present and future generations. Sustainable diets are protective and respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable; nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy; while optimizing natural and human resources.• Territory: Lands, and waters traditionally occupied, or used by indigenous and local communities.• Traditional knowledge: Knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world developed from experience gained over the centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, traditional knowledge is transmitted orally from generation to generation.• Value chain: The set of actors (private, public, and including service providers) and the sequence of value-adding activities involved in bringing a product from production to the final consumer. In agriculture they can be thought of as a 'farm to fork' set of processes and flows.• Variety: A plant or group of plants selected for desirable characteristics and maintained in cultivation. It may be traditional and maintained by farmers, or modern and developed as a result of deliberate breeding programmes (Bioversity International, 2017)• Well-being: A context -and situationdependent state, comprising basic material for a good life, freedom and choice, health, good social relations, and security.• Wild food: Wild plants, animals and insects that are not cultivated or reared in captivity. They are part of the minor crops and underutilized species, and include roots and tubers, vegetables and leafy vegetables, fruits, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals gathered for food (Bioversity International, 2017). ","tokenCount":"109954"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cd4955b791763897f1e3f65592542145","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042520.pdf","id":"-992959235"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7a507a1d-7b06-4ef7-8cfe-cf81889a4d81","pagecount":"8","content":"Transboundary water resource governance is premised on equitable water and waterrelated benefit sharing. Using the case of the Blue Nile (Ethiopia and Sudan), we explore the conceptual issues that need consideration in the crafting of cross-border cooperation within the water sector. First, drawing on global experiences with transboundary water management, we evaluate how upstream and downstream concerns are addressed by transboundary water management institutions. Second, we explore the kinds of institutional design and the issues which need to be considered to result in 'win-win' scenarios for both upstream and downstream users, as well as the mechanisms of benefit sharing negotiated amongst different stakeholders. Third, we examine ways of addressing equity and livelihoods in transboundary institutional arrangements. Finally, we attempt to assess how transboundary institutions can address broader historical, political and economic issues and their implications for sustainable transboundary water governance. This paper raises key issues that need to be addressed in establishing transboundary governance institutions.According to IWMI's 2006 Comprehensive Assessment Report, water scarcity (both physical and economic) is a major concern for developing countries in their effort to move out of poverty and meet the Millennium Development Goals (Molden 2007). The Comprehensive Assessment also argues that with the current global water demands and the increasing population, the demand for water will outstrip the available and potential water resources if the current water development model is continued. Furthermore, water resources do not coincide with administrative or political boundaries. Consequently, there is a need to go beyond national interests and engage in transboundary water cooperation. This paper is based on the ongoing upstream-downstream project which is being carried out by IWMI and its partners in Ethiopia and Sudan. This project covers the transboundary Blue Nile River, which is known as the Abbay in Ethiopia.Transboundary Water Governance Institutional Architecture: Reflections from Ethiopia and SudanThe concept of transboundary natural resources management is strongly related to ‗bioregionalism', which views the world as consisting of contiguous but discrete ‗bioregions' with the boundaries of each bioregion defined by nature rather than legislation or political expedience (cf. Wolmer 2003). According to Tessera -The Nile River Basin in general hosts problems which call for regional or sub-regional cooperation‖ (Tessera 2006: 44)‖ The severe erosion in the upper catchments of the Abbay/Blue Nile River Basins has impacts downstream within and across political borders. Since river basin problems cut across political borders, cooperation across the Nile River Basin is necessary. In river basin management, absolute sovereignty does not work since transboundary cooperation is needed. Sudan, for instance, views upstream reservoirs in Ethiopia as being an efficient way to control floods and an efficient way to store water as it reduces loss of water through evaporation in either Sudan or Egypt which have higher temperatures compared to Ethiopia. The Wall Street Journal adds that ‗Engineers from both countries agree that dams in the cool and moist Ethiopian highlands, storing water in deep natural gorges, would lose far less water to evaporation than the Aswan Dam in the hot, dry Egyptian desert. They calculate the savings on evaporation could compensate for the amount of water Ethiopia proposes to use for irrigation' (The Wall Street Journal 23 November 2003).The Nile Basin Initiative is an attempt to promote an Integrated Water Resource Management approach within the Blue Nile River Basin. This is based on the realization that sedimentation and siltation of dams and reservoirs downstream is a function of upstream land uses. The increased frequency and magnitude of drought in the Ethiopian Highlands has also affected the quality and quantity of water downstream in Sudan and Egypt (cf. Tessera 2006). The impact of environmental degradation is forcing countries to cooperate in order to address ‗common dangers' which cannot be effectively addressed without the cooperation of other countries. Tessera (2006) notes that the impact of land degradation in the sub-basin can hardly be solved by any means other than cooperative watershed management. Silt accumulation in the Roseires Dam in Sudan is largely attributed to the upstream activities in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Atbara and Blue Nile are said to contribute 53% of seasonal waters but contribute 90% of the sediment in the Nile (Tessera 2006). Sedimentation is also negatively affecting the Sennar and Aswan Dams and the related irrigation schemes. The Upstream-Downstream project has found that total storage loss in Sennar due to sedimentation is 660 Mm3 (i.e. 70% of its original capacity) since the dam was built in 1925 and for Roseires is 1,200 Mm3 (i.e. 40% of original capacity) since the dam was built in 1964 (Field visit 22-27 February 2008). Despite sedimentation being bad for most dams and water reservoirs, in Egypt the building of the Aswan High Dam has further denied downstream farmers the rich silt which made the Nile valley very productive. This complicates assessment of costs and benefits of upstream downstream water users within a river basin. Downstream impacts of sedimentation include reduced benefits from irrigation, hydropower, navigation, water quality, water quantity, flood control, fishing, and recreation. Poor water quality will result in more expensive water purification methods such as the special filters for the Khartoum water supply (Shapland 1997). Removal of Transboundary Water Governance Institutional Architecture: Reflections from Ethiopia and Sudan 248 CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings sediment in Sudan's reservoirs and related irrigation schemes accounts for half of the operation and maintenance budget (cf. Ahmed 2000;Conway 2000). Sudan is further spending US$800 million in flood mitigation measures. If mechanism could be put in place upstream which would result in the reduction of, say, the flood mitigation budget, Sudan may be willing to contribute financially towards sustainable upstream watershed management costs. The Payment for Environmental Services (PES) component of this study has found out that farmers are largely willing to pay in kindrather than in cash for improved upstream land and water management which benefits the downstream dwellers (Alemayehu et al. 2008).Attempts at cooperation and benefit sharing within the Blue Nile Basin go back to the 1960s. The 1959 Water Sharing Agreement allocated the Nile waters as follows: Egypt 66%, Sudan 22% and surface evaporation and surface seepage at High Aswan Dam at 12%. Ethiopia was not included in this water sharing agreement, nor were the other basin countries (FAO 2007, p.8).In In February 1999, the Nile Basin Initiative succeeded the TECCONILE. The NBI was spearheaded by the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin states (Nile Council of Ministers or Nile-COM). ‗The NBI seeks to develop the river in a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security. The NBI started with a participatory process of dialogue among the riparian countries that resulted in their agreeing on a shared vision: to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin water resources, and a Strategic Action Program to translate this vision into concrete activities and projects' (World Bank 2005).Transboundary Water Governance Institutional Architecture: Reflections from Ethiopia and SudanTransboundary River Basin institutions must represent the interests of the member states without bias. This will result in the transboundary institutions acquiring legitimacy and the necessary support. Enabling policies and institutions should be in place to be able to monitor and enforce compliance. The institutions carrying out this exercise must have meaningful powers but they must also be accountable to both the upstream and downstream water users, with higher level institutions having oversight powers only. It is important to recognize the need to satisfy societal requirements has expanded beyond the objective of simply water supply. Increasingly a diversity of concerned parties and organizations seek input into water related decision-making processes. The downstream and upstream water users need to participate actively, not only in the first negotiation process, but also in the finetuning of the transboundary water management arrangements over time.Transboundary water governance institutions must not be disconnected from local level institutions. This entails that there must be nested institutional arrangements where small local institutions form the building blocks, which come together to create larger management institutions. Thus multiple layers of management that link small-scale interactions to larger, and ultimately basin scale actions. Experiences elsewhere demonstrate that there tends to be a disconnection between the river basin management institutions and the water users who are supposed to be served by the transboundary water management institutions. For instance, at societal level, the Mekong River Commission remains far removed from the basin water users (Hirsch 2006).Experiences from the southern Africa region through the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems and its subsequent amendments has helped to de-securitize the issue of transboundary water management (Turton 2008;Ramoeli, 2002) and enabled Transboundary water management institutions to be viewed as part of regional integration. An institutionalized transboundary knowledge database is an important component of sharing knowledge and resulting in confidence in the data used by the transboundary institutions. The data is available to all stakeholders. In the Nile River Basinthe Nile Basin Initiative is attempting to do that. The southern African countries have similar initiatives for the Limpopo and Zambezi River Basins (Turton 2008;Ramoeli 2002). The Volta Basin Technical Committee also includes all the six riparian countries in data collection and validation (Lautze et al. 2008).Whilst benefit sharing seems to have made significant strides theoretically, there are still a number of operational issues which need to be resolved in the context of benefit sharing in transboundary water governance. In this paper, benefit sharing is viewed as offering flexibility to riparians to separate the physical distribution of river development (where activities are undertaken), from the economic distribution of benefits (who receives the benefits of those activities.) This allows riparians to focus firstly on generating basinwide benefits (a positive-sum exercise), and secondly on sharing those benefits in a Transboundary Water Governance Institutional Architecture: Reflections from Ethiopia and Sudan 250 CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings manner that is agreed as fair (see Sadoff and Grey 2005;cf. Turton 2008). Research findings in the Upstream-Downstream study have to be juxtaposed to the wealth of global experience on benefit sharing (Sadoff andGrey 2002, 2005;Yu 2007). The Payment for Environmental Services (PES) results under the upstream-downstream project are an important move in that direction. Benefit sharing takes place at various scales and levels. In Ethiopia for instance, it may vary from a small watershed project, to regional government, which may or may not coincide with hydrological zones, going up to the transboundary level where international law and conventions begin to apply.Who benefits and who loses from benefit sharingsome studies from Latin America are beginning to caution that benefits can potentially accrue to the most powerful whilst not addressing the needs of the poor and female headed households. An understanding of the power relationships at different scales will help inform the structuring of benefit sharing. In the Senegal River Basin, for instance, an artificial river flood is provided each year in order to support local livelihoods (UNESCO 2003).How do you develop sustainable and targeted funding mechanism which will be used to ‗compensate' those bearing the costs of watershed and transboundary river basin management? Selling electricity at a cheaper price to the upstream country might benefit the country as a wholebut not the specific watershed community. This might result in poorly targeted incentives which might not reward the poor upstream farmers who are bearing the cost of upstream river basin management. How are the payments going to be made? Should the reward be for only good management or also for actively improving the upstream areas within the river basin? Who pays and for what? (Poras and Grieg-Gran, 2007). Most current transboundary benefit sharing initiatives are largely funded by donors and non-governmental organizations.Upstream-downstream cooperation delves into broader international relations and political economy issues. What makes transboundary basin level management successful? What is the power balance amongst the states that are involved (Hegemony, neohegemony or realisms in international cooperation)? Transboundary Basin Management in the Blue Nile seems to indicate power asymmetry that might be reflected in who shapes what is considered ‗knowledge'. Despite the establishment of ENTRO, ‗scientific'5 data still seem to be contested and hardly shared (although this could be improving). Confidence building and establishing trust will need to take place first before detailed discussions on benefit sharing (cf. Sadoff and Grey 2005).Transboundary benefit sharing presents different benefit sharing matrices in which water allocation need not be the only potential benefit. It is possible to share benefits from water without sharing the actual water (cf. Sadoff and Grey 2005). Within the Blue Nile this is still a contested issue which needs to be resolved especially in light of the 1959 Water Sharing Agreement between Egypt and Sudan. Any transboundary river basin management has to be grounded within the specific political and historical settings rather than being an imposition of blue print solutions (cf. Merrey et al 2007).Transboundary Water Governance Institutional Architecture: Reflections from Ethiopia and Sudan 251 CP 19 Project Workshop Proceedings Finally, transboundary benefit sharing is premised on the assumption that it's feasible to establish these costs and benefits. In most river basins good practices take a lot of time to produce results and this is further complicated by natural phenomenon such as climate change and changing rainfall patterns which also potentially contribute towards land degradation. Establishing causality in most river basins causes a lot of difficulties. ‗Values' are also normative, and largely depend on the specific contexts and communities and it is often difficult to have a common understanding across sub-national levellet alone international boundaries. The physical size of the basin means that local level institutions dealing with local issues often find it difficult to acknowledge issues facing others in the basin, who may be located many hundreds of kilometers away, and for whom the key issues may be very different.While transboundary water governance is the way forward for an integrated approach to water management, there are number of issues that such an institutional architecture needs to address. For the fluid ‗benefits beyond boundaries' to be meaningful to all the individual countries involved, the issue of benefit sharing mechanisms need to be critically reviewed in practice. Equity has also to be assessed at various levels from the transboundary to the local level. Will equity at the transboundary level necessarily imply equity at local level? How can all the stakeholders' maxmize the benefits whilst minimizing the costs. Finally, transboundary institutional architecture has to be grounded in the water historical trajectories. How do you deal with past agreements on water sharing while moving forward with one shared vision on transboundary water management? This is a further complex equity issue which addresses the weight that needs to be given to existing water use.","tokenCount":"2432"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6cfbac1327ce410f6b309b6e79ccc603","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/7a71d5ad-72e2-433f-99fc-09a16a9057e2/content","id":"2051772784"},"keywords":["Puccinia striiformis","resistance","virulence","stripe rust","Triticum aestivum","wheat"],"sieverID":"8678f22e-bf00-4898-9c3e-bcd3a548a87d","pagecount":"9","content":"Stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst) is an important disease of wheat (Triticum aestivum) in Nepal, which is a part of the Himalayas stretching over the North of Nepal, India, Pakistan, Bhutan and beyond. Wheat production plays a crucial role in food security of the marginal hill farmers of Nepal. Frequent epidemics of the rust have caused huge loss in farmer's field. Periodic monitoring during 1980-2008 showed that changes in virulence occurred during this period. The objective of this study was to evaluate Pst resistance and its effective genes in wheat genotypes. For this, trap nurseries, wheat stripe rust differentials, commercial cultivars and advanced breeding lines were tested under artificial epiphytotic and natural hot spots conditions during 2005 to 2010. Four genes (Yr5, Yr10, Yr15 and YrSp) consistently showed resistance to the prevailing races. The gene Yr9 and Yr27 in combinations with Yr18 were found effective. Other lines with combination of minor genes were also found effective. The genotypes Amadina, Kukuna, Tukuru, Kakatsi and Buck Buck widely used in breeding program were resistant. The cultivation of varieties WK1204, Gautam, Gaura and Dhaulagiri have ensured genetic diversity for the rust resistance and slowed down frequent occurrence of epidemics. The findings of these studies could help in developing effective varietal resistance program in the sub-continent.Stripe rust caused by Puccinia striiformis West. f. sp. tritici Eriks. & Henn. (Pst) has posed a great threat to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivation in South [1,2], West [3] and Central Asia [4]. The farmers of mid and high hills in Nepal had been facing significant wheat yield losses due to rust and sometimes abandoned the crop when the rust occurred at seedling stage [5]. The wheat agro-ecosystem in Nepal is broadly divided into lowlands (Terai), foothills including valleys, mid-hills and high hills. Wheat is grown all the ways from 60 m up to 3,000 m above the sea level that is from warm subtropical to temperate climates. The lowland of Nepal is a part of the vast Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP) in South Asia, whereas mid hills and high hills mountains are continuum of the Himalayas in the sub-continent. Due to climatic diversity in Nepal, wheat crop is grown in the field throughout the year [6], and thus presents a unique set of environments favouring survival and development of the rust. The seriousness of wheat stripe rust in the hills is reflected through several epidemics of the rust in Nepal in the past 25 years [5]. High humidity caused by heavy dew in the winter months and cool temperatures during spring season creates conducive environment for frequent outbreak of the rust in the hills and high hills, and occasionally in the lowlands [7]. Epidemics of the rust in Sindhupalchok and Dolakha districts in Nepal during 1980s were mainly due to summer wheat grown in that region [6] and the cultivation of a single cultivar RR21 in more than 70% of the area year after year. The rust developed and produced abundant inoculum in the summer wheat for the next normal season (November-June) wheat crop. Summer wheat acts as a bridge for the rust to the normal season wheat, and so epidemics of the rust in the normal season wheat was experienced in the hills during 80s and 90s [8,9].Studies done at Agricultural Research Farm, Kavre have shown 30% and 15% reductions, respectively, in wheat grain yield and 1,000-kernel weight (TKW), due to the rust [10]. The maximum loss was recorded on Morocco at both Kavre and Khumaltar. There was no grain formation at Kavre and there was as much as 95% grain yield loss at Khumaltar [6]. Several stripe rust resistant lines developed by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the national programs, like Annapurna-1, Annapurna-3, Annapurna-4 and Kanti, were deployed for Nepal hills. However, these varieties showed poor adoption by farmers [5] and became susceptible when Yr9 virulent race appeared. Some varieties like BL1473 had wider coverage in Kathmandu valley, but became susceptible to the rust due to occurrence of a new race [5]. During 2000-2004, there was relatively lesser incidence of the rust due to wider coverage of the resistant cultivar Nepal 297. Due to lack of farmers' preferred criteria in the new cultivar, the varietal replacement in the hills of Nepal was slow, resulting in growing the same old cultivars RR21 and Nepal 297 till the end of the 20th century [11] and until the early years of this century, resepectively [5]. Inoculum source from susceptible cultivars, congenial environment, less genetic diversity and occurrence of virulent race resulted in epidemics during the 2004-2007 wheat growing seasons [12]. Hence, the present study was conducted to identify effective stripe rust resistant genes and lines/cultivars against new stripe rust races, and minimize wheat yield losses faced by hill farmers of Nepal.Five studies were conducted using stripe rust differentials, commercial cultivars and advanced breeding lines from various sources. Seeds of the stripe rust wheat differentials were obtained from the International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Syria, CIMMYT, Mexico, the DLO Research Institutes for Plant Protection, the Netherlands (IPO-DLO) and the Plant Breeding Institute, Sydney, Australia. Seeds of the wheat commercial varieties and advanced breeding lines for seedling and adult plant resistance tests were obtained from the National Wheat Research Programs, Bhairahawa and Agriculture Botany Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur. The senior author scored the rust severity and reactions in all experiments. Three trap nurseries were evaluated at Khumaltar Research Station, Lalitpur and in farmers' fields at Ramkot, Kathmandu valley. International differential sets of wheat lines containing known stripe rust resistance genes were also evaluated, and elite lines and cultivars were screened under heavy epiphytotic conditions. The scoring was performed by using modified Cobb's scale, where resistant is considered as \"R\", moderate resistant as \"MR\", moderately susceptible as \"MS\" and susceptible as \"S\". R is considered as visible chlorosis, no uredia present. MR is small uredia present and surrounded either by chlorosis or necrosis. MS is medium sized uredia present and surrounded by chlorotic area. S is large uredia present with no chlorosis or necrosis.A set of 19 Avocet NILs set received from Plant Breeding Institute, the University of Sydney, Australia was planted at Khumaltar (27.65° N, 85.02° E, 1,369 m above the sea level) in rod row design of 2 m length with 0.25 m row to row spacing.The IYRTN containing 50 wheat lines was planted at Ramkot during 2007-2008 (27.43° N and 85.15° E) and Khumaltar during 2007-2009.Likewise, IDTN containing 110 wheat lines was evaluated at Khumaltar during 2006-2010 wheat seasons planting in simple two rows of 1.5 m long at 0.25 m row spacing.The international wheat stripe rust differential set (20 lines) composed at IPO-DLO, the Netherlands were evaluated at Khumaltar in 2005 and 2006 wheat seasons using two rows of 1.5 m long planted at 0.25 m row spacing. Virulence and avirulence reaction types were recorded as the methods described by Danial and Broers [13].Screening of advanced wheat breeding lines from the Wheat Research Improvement Program in Nepal and CIMMYT was done at Khumaltar under artificial epiphytotic condition. Individual plot size was 0.75 m 2 consisting of two rows of 1.5 m long at 25 cm row to row spacing. Two rows of susceptible varieties (Agra local, Morocco and WK594) were planted as border, while the susceptible check Morocco variety was planted every after the 10th entry. Two-week-old seedlings of Morocco grown in pots were inoculated and covered with polythene sheets and kept inside the polyhouse at 9 °C. Inoculated plants were checked for the rust after two weeks of inoculation, and the spores were collected when the plants showed high production of spores. Spore suspension was made in distilled water with one drop of Tween 20. Inoculation was done by spraying using Ulva sprayer. Disease scores on adult plants were recorded using the modified Cobb's scale. Yr genes in the cultivars and the differential lines were mentioned based on gene postulation done at IPO-DLO [14] and the field book of IYRTN compiled by ICARDA as well as Louwers et al. [15].Host reaction and stripe rust severity differed for different Yr genes in different years (Table 1). Stripe rust resistance genes Yr1, Yr6, Yr7, Yr8, Yr9, Yr17, Yr18, Yr27 and Yr32 were ineffective against the prevalent races. Similarly, Yr24 and Yr26 showed variation in reactions and severities in the tested years with usually resistant to moderately susceptible reactions. However, some genes (Yr5, Yr10, Yr15 and YrSp) consistently showed resistant reactions in all tested years.The majority of lines in the nursery showed resistant to moderately resistant reactions in 2007-2009 at both sites (Table 2). The lines with different Yr gene combinations, such as Opata 85 (Yr27 + Yr18), Super Kauz (Yr9 + Yr27 + Yr18), Pastor (Yr31 + APR), Vilmorin 23 (w; Yr3a, 4a + other) and Moro (w; Yr10), were resistant in all testing years (Table 3). Anza though has two genes including Yr18, showed moderate infection. Susceptible cultivar Morocco had high score of the rust during the test years, while Kalyansona also showed susceptible reaction [9].Fifteen of the 110 lines in the IDTN showed resistant reactions to the rust in all five years (Table 3). Opata      4). This race is quite different from the previous ones. It was highly virulent to Yr27 and Carsten V.Long-term monitoring study showed differences in stripe rust severity on a set of cultivar known to possess major genes (Table 5). The two cultivars BL1473 and Nepal 297 possessing Yr2 showed higher rust severity in 2006, 2007 and 2008. Among 22 commercial varieties and advanced breeding lines from Nepal, WK1123, WK1182, BL2739, BL2879 and WK1504 were resistant to the rust in all four years (Table 5). The pipeline variety BL3503 showed moderately resistant to moderately susceptible reactions, while BL3235 showed no infection at all. The wheat lines with Yr9 and additional genes, like Annapurna-1 and BL1022, showed low rust scores. They showed susceptible reactions earlier, probably due to prevalence of new Yr27 virulent race. They may be useful for release and also for breeding purpose. 1, SU, CV (Yr32) 3 1 Refers to resistant genes in the differential cultivar: Yr1 in Chinese 166, 7 in Lee 6 in H. Kolben, SU in Suwon/Omar, CV in Carstens V according to Danial and Broers [13] and Louwers et al. [15]. High severity of stripe rust on standard differentials and other wheat lines in 1980s as well as in the recent studies confirmed that the rust is an endemic problem in the hills and high hills due to frequent changes of new pathotype [5]. Resistances shown by several differential lines possessing more than one gene or combination of genes could be an option to develop the rust resistant wheat varieties for the hills and high hills.The change in reaction of the cultivar possessing Yr2 and Yr9 from 1980 to 2008 suggests that Pst population could have changed over that period. The most prevalent races during the mid 1980s were 7E150, 7E158 and 15E158 [15], and before that period, were some primitive races, like 2EO and 4EO [16][17][18]. The cultivar Annapurna-1 possessing Yr9 was resistant in 1980 [6], and it was recorded susceptible in 1997 due to change in the race of 46S119 [19], but it was again resistant in 2007 and 2008. It is also suggested that most of the Veery's lines are heterogeneous, which shows different rust reactions at different times, especially on Annapurna-1 and Annapurna-3. On the other hand, Pasang Lhamu showed consistently resistant from 1989 till 2008, suggesting that this cultivar has other resistance genes in addition to Yr9. Since Pasang Lhamu has remained resistant to the rust over 20 years under severe rust epidemic conditions, it could be considered as a durable source of stripe rust resistance and useful for the hills and high hill wheat growing environments. This cultivar has been widely used in the breeding program. Similarly, Plant Pathology Division had tested wild emmer derivative (Triticum dicoccoides) to broaden the genetic base of wheat cultivars in Nepal [8,20]. The lines V763 and V879 were resistant to the rust and they have T. dicoccoides G-25 in their pedigree which carries Yr15 [21]. This gene was incorporated in high yielding disease susceptible wheat varieties, such as UP262, RR21, Triveni and Vaskar.A number of advanced breeding lines and promising commercial cultivars developed in the last few years, proved resistant to the rust. This suggests that resistant germplasms are being introduced to wheat improvement program in Nepal. A few of these lines that originated from CIMMYT, Mexico possess minor genes based stripe rust resistant parents in their pedigree, which could be valuable sources of resistance in the hill and high hill regions. One of the examples is WK1204 released for the hills in 2007, which is resistant to the rust under this environment [5]. This cultivar got wider coverage within a short period using faster dissemination through participatory varietal selection (PVS) method. Soon after 2005's epidemic of the rust, wheat cultivar Gautam also emerged as a potential rust resistant wheat cultivar and seeds were extensively distributed to farmers in the rust prone area, though it was released for warmer area of Terai. During seed scarcity period, Gautam and WK1204 were proved as miracle cultivars and led to quick replacement of old susceptible ones in Nepal. Additionally, many other lines, such as WK1182, WK 1444, BL3235 and BL3503, were also promoted through extensive PVS method. Because of all these efforts, significant minimization of the rust was observed after 2007. This work of enhancing genetic diversity for the rust resistance in Nepal hills was further strengthened by the release of two more resistant varieties Gaura (BL3235) and Dhaulagiri (BL3503) in 2012. Further elite lines originating from CIMMYT and possessing minor genes could be valuable sources for resistance to the rust in the hills and high hills region in future.There are important implications of development of new races or change in population structure of Pst in the hills of Nepal. Stripe rust present in the summer grown wheat, maturing in October and November in the hills, could move down to the lower hills, foot hills and eventually to the low-lands which are parts of the vast Gangetic Plains [22]. It is experienced that the early multiplication of the rust inoculum in Nepal directly affects wheat in India [23]. Since urediospores of the rust are carried over long distances, change in virulence in one country has epidemic effects in the other [7] and needs common strategies to tackle the problems. The extensive cultivation of the Veery 5 selection created a vulnerable situation, and stripe rust epidemic was recorded in the Middle East in 1990s and in Pakistan during and after 1994 [7]. The new Yr9 virulence caused heavy outbreak in India and Nepal during 1996 and 1997 [7,19]. Therefore, it is important to monitor the virulence pattern of the rust in the hills and high hills belt of Nepal and identify sources of resistance. This may also help to develop common strategies, like increasing genetic diversity of varieties, race monitoring and increasing adult plant resistance to minimize the epidemics of the rust in the region [22,24]. Faster seed delivery to farmers and researchers as demonstrated in case of Ug99 resistant wheat varieties can also be replicated for stripe rust resistant for quick management of rust [25].Since there is little published information on the long-term monitoring of Pst in South Asia, the findings of this study is valuable to manage stripe rust in the subcontinent. Four genes (Yr5, Yr10, Yr15 and YrSp) consistently showed resistance to the prevailing races. The gene Yr9 and Yr27 in combinations with Yr18 were found effective. Other lines with combination of minor genes were also found effective. The genotypes Amadina, Kukuna, Tukuru, Kakatsi and Buck Buck have been widely used in breeding program. Resistant varieties WK1204, Gautam, Gaura and Dhaulagiri have wider adoption even at remote rust prone areas, which replaced susceptible varieties, increased genetic diversity for the rust resistance and ultimately enhanced food security in the country. Information on effective genes and resistant varieties could be helpful in developing stripe rust resistant wheat. The advanced breeding lines which are identified as resistant to the rust could be further tested for their agronomic performance and to release as commercial cultivars or use in the wheat breeding programs.","tokenCount":"2716"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"35c7cfe98f580382c9fe2cd47ef1d844","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85a77a3e-6b91-49d2-bf5e-359dc2caf782/retrieve","id":"-30295888"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"17632cb4-26f0-43d9-a07a-f81773d55239","pagecount":"2","content":"The significant role of agriculture in climate change has been underrepresented in previous years' discussions and agreements under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). CCAFS and partners in the global agriculture community have strived to address this imbalance through several years of engagement with parties and UNFCCC processes. As a result of these efforts, issues directly related to agriculture, such as food production and security are explicitly mentioned in the Paris Agreement concluded by the UNFCCC at its 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) in 2015. The preamble makes specific reference to safeguarding food security and ending hunger, and one Article details the importance of protecting food production when reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, 80% of the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) submitted by countries committed to action on agricultural mitigation, and 90% of INDCs that include adaptation selected agriculture as a priority sector for action, thus creating a framework for climate action in the sector. Human rights, gender, ecosystems and biodiversity, all issues central to agriculture, are also featured within the Paris Agreement.To ensure that a new climate change deal would not close the door on agriculture, CCAFS scientists provided several inputs to the climate change negotiations. These included: Provision of evidence on agriculture and food security under 1.5C and 2C futures to negotiators through the UNFCCC Structured Expert Dialogue  Production of a guide to UNFCCC Negotiations on Agriculture, which was widely disseminated amongst parties and observers  Formal submissions to the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) call on Agriculture in 2015  Development and dissemination of policy briefs at key UNFCCC events, including SBSTA and COP21  Provision of technical support to parties in the development of their INDCs and SBSTA submissions  Strategic presence at the COP and SBSTA, including side events with a range of partners to give prominence to developing country perspectives Key facts  The Paris Agreement recognizes: \"the fundamental priority of safeguarding food security and ending hunger, and the particular vulnerabilities of food production systems to the adverse impactsof climate change.\"  CCAFS briefs were downloaded more than 6,000 times in the 4 weeks surrounding COP21 and continue to be a source of information as agriculture remains on the agenda in the 2016-2017 SBSTA process. Lessons: key elements of success  Targeted knowledge products were developed to address knowledge needs of parties and observers, and these were disseminated at key events like SBSTA and COP21.  CCAFS worked with a range of partners on different activities in order to achieve this outcome, ","tokenCount":"427"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"89adaa2af1ea9a1d2823cf13d382da58","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H001719.pdf","id":"1953770886"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1867f37-8d21-41f5-b0ba-9128fecb03d4","pagecount":"8","content":"The original FA0 Master Plan for the klahaweli Ganga Development programme anticipated the development of 900,0(10 acres of land with the provision of irrigation facilities. This comprised 650,OElO acres of new land and 250,000 acres of lands, already irrigated but needin;? supplementary irrigation. Over 200,000 farmer families were to be settled in these newly developed areas. The many dams to be constructed under this programme would generate about 500 Megawatts of power for industrial developmenl. and rural electrification.System H is one of the settlement areas where approximately 24,000 families have been settled. Each settler family has been given 2.4 acres of irrigahle land and a little more than half an acre of highland at their homestead. The social infrastructure, hamlet centers, village centers, townships which include schools, hospitals, banks, police stations, co.operatives, and commercial areas have been planned and constructed to cater to the needs of these new settlement communities.A Unit Manager is in-charge of a IJnit comprising a group of 250 farmers. He is assisted by a Field Assistant who is engaged in agricultural extension work.A Block Manager is in charge of a Block, which on an average covers 10 Units.The Block Manager is assisted in his work at block level by an Agricultural Officer, Irrigation Engineer, Land Officer, Community Development, and Marketing Officer. Three to five blocks make up a project area. There are three such project areas in System H each under a Resident Project Manager. The Resident Project Manager has higher level officers of ea:h of the disciplines represented at the block level, to assist him in the managemmt of the project.1.3.Some of the features of the Mahaweli settlements are outlined below: By Sri Lankan standards, each project covers extensive yet contiguous areas for irrigated agriculture (approx. 50,000 to 100.000 acres).Water storage and regulation of the Mah,iweli river have given rise to an unprecedented centralized system of watsr issues to the many irrigation projects covering a large part of the dry zone.Small farm model (2.4 acres irrigated farm land and .6 acres homestead).Cluster hamlets each consisting of about 125 homesteads in System H and about 250 homesteads in other projects pcx hamlet, with farmlands within convenient walking distance.Farm layout and water delivery system bused on the concept of turnouts, i.e. off-takes from the distrihutory channtds irrigating an average of 18 to 20 farm units under a field channel.An unitary approach to management of the Mahaweli settlement projects. At the operational level, the Unit Manager is responsible for a specific area of about 600 acres of farm land/farmers. At a higher level he is assisted by senior specialist functionaries.There are three objectives of procuring farmer participation: 1. To obtain collective commitment and asr,istance of farmers in the opera.tion and maintenance of the irrigation system.2.To guide farmers in the efficient use of irrigation water.To involve farmers in the eventual seKmanagement of the secondary and tertiary irrigation systems.The organisation of farmer participation necessitated the determination of:.l) physical and social basis for grouping of Iiarmers; 2) the nature and size of the grouping and the leadership desired; 3) how and to what extent to effectively engage them in water management; 4) and the type of training required.System H (Kalawewa) was the first new irrigation-cum-settlement project taken up under the Mahaweli programme. It consists of about 24,000-2.4 acre farms. Tertiary irrigation system is based on a series of turnouts. Unlike the Mahaweli areas (System B and C ) which wer,? subsequently taken up for development where population is sparse, there wwe many scattered villages in and around System H. The villagers were tradiiinnal social groups. In resettling them in System H, much effort was made to Firovide their homesteads and farmlands in a manner causing least dislocation to their social ties.Systematic establishment of farmer groups for irrigated agriculture commenced in the year 1979. In this exercise the lollowing guidelines were adopted:The physical basis for the groupings to be the turnout for convenient and effective water issue and regulation.The social basis to be the farmers community which received land within a turnout. As in the hamlets, farm lots within a turnout were generally given to farmers with close social links. This proved to he a positive factor in activating the water-user groups.The subject of water management was considered in a broad perspective. It was more than the mere issue of watei. tn the fields and maintenance of the channel. It also covered those aspmts of land preparation, soil management, cropping, and institutional growth pertaining to water management.A forum to be established for regular participation of officers and farmer representatives.Understandably in a new project, the initiative has to come more from the officers in organizing farmer participation. Intensity of officer involvement was to he gradually lowered with the growth of farmer groups for self-management.In 1979, when this programme commenced in parts of System H (Hl, H2, H7, and H9 which presently falls within the Galnewa Project Manager's Division) the unit management method did not exist. Up to its introduction in 1981, the field level operations were assisted t y KVSs (Krushikarma Vyaptha Sevaka --agricultural extension workers) and Jl's (Jalapalakawater management overseers). They were supervised by the 4gricultural Instructor and the Irrigation Technical officer who functioned at .3lock level. However, the same arrangement was continued after the introducticn of the Unit Management System. The main difference was the assignment of responsibility for field level operations to the Unit Manager. The Unit Manager was expected to function in an integrated manner.At first, adequately instructed by the senior project management, the field officers organized general meetings of farmers. The importance of working in groups and under farmer leadership was explained. Farmers were sensitized to the need to have their own groups.Accordingly, two farmer leaders were elected for each turnout by the farmers, one person mainly to associate with w.iter management and the other with agricultural extension. They represented the turnout irrigation community at the fortnightly meetings convened by the officers at the community Centre, Those regular meetings were to serve several purposes: 1) to allow the officers and farmer representatives to exchange ideas, dscnss, and solve problems with mutual understanding and assistance; 2) to plar the operation and maintenance of the irrigation system and agricultural progranune in the respective areas with farmer participation; 3) to train farmers representatives and disseminate knowledge and instructions through them to thz faimers; 4) to prepare work programmes for implementation by the officers with the assistance of farmers; and 5 ) to monitor progress. The field level officers, i.e., JPs and K W s , were to be assisted by the farmer representatives in their respective field$. Reciprocally, officers were to assist the representatives in their role, in a manner enhancing their pusition as leaders. This structure was complemented hy the monthly training sessions which were conducted for the Block level office.^, who in turn regularly trained/instructed the farmer representatives.It is seen that the ultimate objective was 1 0 involve the farmers in water management and agriculture through a scheme of training and participation.A general evaluation of their performancc: up to the year 1982 showed limited but certain positive results. Farmers rc:alized the importance of their groups to operate and maintain the field channels properly and for their common benefit. They became conscious of the necessity for collective effort to maintain the irrigation system and to cnltiiate land according to an agreed calendar. Preparation and implementation ol programmes for rotational water issue and channel maintenance were rendeied easy as they were done with farmer consultation and commitment.The farmer organisation provided the medium for two-way flow of information and formed'a clase between officer: and farmers. To the settlers who came from distant places of origin, a common-purpose grouping was welcome. Absence of such an arrangement would have placed them in a state of confusion and deprived them of easy access to institutional services. To the old villagers who were resettled, the turnout principle was a continuation of their traditional village institution. The old village society h;id its features of leadership, selfhelp, and collective responsibility generally d6,termined by the irrigation system. Those concepts were easily adaptable in the layout of the new irrigation system based on turnouts. In fact, a growth of leaderihip and community responsibility in the new settlement was first observed in the turnout areas (i.e. 303 -Toranagama) in which the resettlers were the largest majority of the population.The organisation of water management and agriculture on the basis of turuouts has yielded several gains. Within a few years, it was possible to reduce the excessive use of irrigation water to a desirabli: water duty. 'The yield per acre ot paddy cultivation recorded a steep upward trend. The groups were instrumental in bringing about a considerable transformat on in agricultural practices. Crop diversification was successfully effected in :System H. The interest that was shown by the participants was indicated by thcir eagerness to involve themselves in other community affairs as well. They wished to see that the turn-out groups attended to such matters as health, educatior , and cultural development. However, with a view to keep to the main objectives, a deliberate attempt was made to confine them only to water management ant3 agriculture.The observations outlined above do not In any way indicate that there was a growth of rural institutions or leadership tc, the extent desired. The period of time available was short, about four years. Obviously a longer period is required for their growth. My personal assessment is that the turn-out groups were proving them to he lively cells with a promise for flster growth.This exercise also has problems and issres which need examination. The turn-out groupings were established for a well defined but limited purpose, i.e., for participatory water management and agricultural extension. Their operation was confined to the area below the distributory channel. Building them in a pyramidal structure into higher organisations was not intended. Views have been expressed that the small turnout groups should he federated at higher points on the irrigation network. This is a de:iatable issue. According to my experience it is advisable, at least in the initial stages of a new settlement project, to confine their area of work and scope to the fundamental tasks of water use and agricultural extension only. Their sixe should be viable enough to achieve simple yet basic objectives. Larger organisations with other objectives could result a failure to meet fundamental obj,:ctives. tendency noted was that the field officer:; began to be over-dependent on the farmer representatives in the performance o i their own duties. For example, the Irrigation Technical Officer expected the fErmer representative to come to him with the irrigation problems. Some irrigation officers tended to be satisfied by merely expecting the farmer representative !o carry out given instructions. They began to move away from the field. Farmer representatives began to feel that their voluntary role was being used as a cover to get work done which should legitimately have been done by the officers. Before such a misconception got entrenched the trend was arrested. In orgar.izing participation and in relating it to the official structure, the possibility for this tendency should be noted.A similar trend was observed in relation tc' agricultural extension as well.Extension workers tended to become over-dependent on the farmer representative. As a result, it became questionable whei:her the extension information really went down to the farmers. The farmer repi.esentative necessarily had to be involved in the exercise of organizing other farmers and in the dissemination of extension knowledge. But, understandably, mar y of the farmer representatives had certain limitations in regard to their absorptive capacity and the time that was available to spend with other farmers. The.efore, a scheme was devised to use the best of two means to approach farme1.s. That was to approach them through the farmer representatives as well as to ].each them directly in the field.Another issue is, to what extent the tnrnciut farmer groupings should be built upwards to form larger organisational unils. The question is whether it is really necessary to build upwards. Is it not morf' practical to confine its work to the area below the distributory channel and to keep its objectives limited and well defined? It is granted that some form of organisation to cover the many other development needs in a new settlement is :necessary. It may be desirable to have a different organisation for such matters as social and cultural development and to exclude from them the objectives of turn-out groupings, water use and agricultural extension. Of course, although not distinctly seen in the management structure, farmer participation is built into the project's irrigation and agricultural programming even at a higher level. e.g. individual farmers can participate in a forum where vital decisions are taken on the preparation of the seasonal irrigation and agricultural calendar. Such important decisions as the dates and periods of water issues, the type of crops, the schedule of water issues are decided before the commencement of th: cultivation season by the joint participation of officers and farmers. This is a requirement under the Irrigati'w Ordinance. Once decided, the seasonal programme is implemented and the progress monitored through the turn-out groups. This is an area where refinements and improvements could be effected to achieve better results in water use and cultivation. The collective plans of the different turnout groups could be made to serve as the basis for the preparation of cultivation and opevation and managment plans. In effect, this is an acceptance of the principle of planning at a grass-roots level. Such a joint exercise could result in a free flow of information between the farmers and the decision makers and in planni xg, implementing, and monitoring programmes based on mutual commitment and consent.A subsequent modification made to the scheme was to allow a single elected farmer to represent a turn-out in place of two representatives as earlier. He was expected to cover both water management a n i agricultural extension. It had a few advantages. Farmers had only a single p<:rson to go to. Officers found it easier to work with a single person. Organisation of meetings and training became easier as the number involved was almost half. However, it had a number of disadvantages. With two representatives. there was broader specialization in the areas of activity. Farmers could g;o to the representative according to the nature of the problem. In a sense, training would have been more effective with farmers who sought specialization. Through such specialist representatives, irrigation management and agricultural extension would have been more effective. Two representatives from a turnout gave the assurance that a void resulting frum inaction or disinterest by one could be covered up by the other. The trial carried out with a single farmer representative was found to be deficient in many respects when compared with the performance by two representatives per turn-ont.The concept of farmers participation through turnout groupings was introduced in February 1986 to the Mahaweli prijects in System B (Maduruoya), System C (Ulhitiya-Ratkinda) and System G (Eilahara). The System H model was replicated, subject to two modifications: I) the election of two representatives per turnout was reintroduced, and 2) the farmers were to be approached through their representatives as well as through the officers. This was a formal and informal means of working with and for the farmers.There are five main features of this modified scheme:1. A monthly meeting of Block and Unit lei,el managers where they receive instructions from the senior staff.Monthly meetings of farmer representat ves and officers instead of the fortnightly meetings.The Unit Managers with Block irrigation and agricultural extension staff serving as trainers of farmer representatim:s.A joint meeting of farmers and officers within the turnout at least once a month. This is more or less a field-day type of training. Training, irrigation maintenance work, agricultural demonstrations, and organisation of voluntary labour (Shramadana) are to he done a t these meetings.These are to be supplemented by other field level agricultural and operation and maintenance programmes.4.As the programme was introduced recently, it is too early to make any comments on its performance. However, it must be noted that the new pro: gramme benefitted from the experience and knowledge of problems encountered in system H.No attempt was made in this paper to comp:ire the Mahaweli experience with that of projects outside its areas. There is a ma,or reason for this. The layout of the Mahaweli irrigation system is on the basis of turnouts? and is different to other older irrigation projects which do not have such finely worked out small turnouts. This fact makes it easier to organize Mahaweli farmers towards participatory management.","tokenCount":"2758"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"30d948c3fb942065e6325d61ecca301d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be3cda29-fa7d-41d6-8db5-4344c1c41fbe/retrieve","id":"-507152054"},"keywords":["Human resources, decentralizationlecoregionality 60","75 52 58","5 55","2 53","2"],"sieverID":"518a0146-0e26-4aa9-8c56-457a0602ba3b","pagecount":"103","content":"Research to Nourish Africa Overview of the 2003-2005 Medium-term Plan \\\\m international Institute of Tropical Agriculture The new research management arrangement IITA has operated since 10 July 2002 with a new organogram, which reflects the new management style of the Institute. The Research & Development Council (RDC) represents the highest research-for-development ideals of IITA and serves to guard its scientific and programmatic quality across the Institute. The RDC-with 3 members elected by peers and 2 members appointed by management (including the Deputy-Director General, Research for Development, who acts as the RDC chair)iloes not include specific representation of any agroecological zone or project because it strives to be more forward looking, concentrating on quality of science issues, broad institutional research-for-development strategies, and competitiveness. Furthermore, the new RDC ensures quality, advices on tactical directions, and helps scientists identify relevant funding sources.Research at IITAis now being implemented through these six projects. Special projects financed through restricted core contributions are assigned to one or more of the six projects.In the new research management arrangement, the six project coordinators, who are elected by project members, provide research leadership and assist in mentoring researchers, particularly the young ones, within the projects they are coordinating.Researchers within the six projects benefit from Gequent interactions with their respective project coordinators, who as research leaders, provide guidance in research methods and ensure project colleagues publish high quality articles or disseminate easily, timely research results and other information to the broad range of clients IITA serves in Africa: farmers, entrepreneurs, and end-users, a s well as other stakeholders and development investors of the Institute. Also, the project coordinators assist, together with RDC and the Contracts and Grant Office, project members by suggesting sources of funding for their project ideas. The project coordinators, who now report-through the Director Research for Development (R for D)-to the RDC, assist the Director General, RDC councilors, and R for D managers to accomplish competitiveness in the evolving environment in which they work, regional presence through networks and multi-country projects i n sub-Saharan Africa, improved performance within IITA and while interacting with partners elsewhere, public awareness of IITA impact in rural development (together with Communications and Information Services, CIS), plus intelligence and marketing network in Africa.The six projects group staff according to the project in which they do most of their R&D work. Staff can participate in other projects but this grouping appears most appropriate to help the project coordinators provide research leadership, mentoring, and monitoring, and to appraise for their work in R for D.All IITA staff working on R for D report to their respective project coordinators, while for administrative purposes, they report to the officers in charge of their station a s follows:Officer in Charge (OiC), BCCA if working in Benin Republic (i.e., West Africa) OiC, HFC if working in Cameroon or STCP and soon in Democratic Republic of Congo (i.e., Central Africa). OiC, ESARC if working in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and soon in Kenya (i.e., Eastern and Southern Africa). Director Research & Development if working in Nigeria, C6te d'Ivoire (WECA-MAN), and Ghana (WASDU, WASNETThe Strategic Plan acknowledges that IITA's comparative advantage lies in its proven ability to develop and deliver technological options to improve food systems that can be specifically directed to the assistance of the rural poor. The strategy calls for the employment of suitable environmental health and poverty indicators. Moreover, since IITA continues to be committed to a systems approach, these indicators will be supplemented with additional subjective indicators determined together with farmers and other clients of research. These will attempt to capture improvement in rural livelihoods, including that of women and children, gained as a result of the technological options offered by IITA and its partners. Such indicators are increasingly reflected in the revised milestones of the modified project portfolio outlined below and summarized in Annex 2.The research agenda will continue to focus on sustainable production and utilization increases in SSA, together with the diversification and increased commercialization of farming and agroindustrial enterprises. While maintaining a primary focus on key food crops, this will require IITA to pay increased attention to the totality of farming systems prevailing in the different agroecologies and including the role of cash crops within them. With a n increased focus on poverty alleviation and reduction, greater emphasis will also be placed on market analysis within a food systems approach to ensure responsiveness to changing demands from the rural, urban, and expanding commercial sectors. The strategy also requires IITA to take advantage of \"new\" science, particularly in the areas of.biotechnology and information technology, both through increased in-house capacity and through expanded partnerships in the implementation of its research agenda.In 2001, IITA examined practical options for implementing the Strategic Plan 2001-2010. It reviewed its research agenda; its compartmentalization into projects, the structure needed to manage these projects and the decentralized stations of the Institute. This exercise considered feedback received from both staff and the External Program and Management Review (EPMR), which had been completed earlier in 2001. These included the need to strengthen the agroecological zone approach a s put forward in the Strategic Plan, to simplify the structure and so reduce, to the extent possible, the involvement of scientists in administrative and managerial tasks.IITA reaffwmed that the research agenda should be driven by the needs of the agroecologies that it serves together with needed science driven research and training balanced against the human and financial resources available for the implementation of the agenda. Note was thus taken of the anticipated human and financial resources available to the Institute for 2002 and beyond.Based on such considerations and the evolving strategic issues related to agricultural research and development in SSA that were identified and articulated in the strategic plan, the following consolidation of the research projects was proposed:The Program Committee of the BOT discussed these proposals a t length. The BOT endorsed the overall direction and recommended that the proposals be further examined and elaborated upon by all staff during Work Planning Week (WPW). Scientists attending WPW for 2002 held in NovemberlDecember 2001, discussed and refined the proposed project portfolio and after agreeing on the compartmentalisation of the research agenda into six new projects, prioritized project outputs and activities and prepared project summaries (Annex 2).These changes in the project portfolio enable a marketldemand driven approach to be followed in all projects and an INRM approach specifically in Projects D, E, and F, linked where applicable to the use of new science. This also means that added attention can be paid to the quality and quantity of crops and products in a n increased effort to assist in the further commercialization of agriculture as a viable means of alleviating poverty. Further commercialization of agriculture will require added attention to marketing and agroprocessing. To facilitate and stimulate the expansion of agro-industries, competitive raw materials (crops) must be produced and supported by increased research efforts on all aspects of production and productivity. Policy research, institutional reform and business development will also need to become an integral part of the research for development agenda.Attention to food and product quality will, in addition to some of the antinutritional and postharvest aspects which the Institute is currently researching, include aspects of vitamin and micronutrient content and will strengthen necessary linkages between agriculture, human nutrition, and human health which the Institute wishes to explore further. Increased understanding of and involvement in the links between agriculture, human nutrition, and health, together with continued concerns over the social organization and availability of labor will provide the entry points to interact with malaria and HIVIAIDS prevention initiatives across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The Institute, in collaboration with others, will also continue to analyze the potential effects of climate change on agriculture. A large proportion of IITA's research agenda is directed towards generating a range of options for farmer adaptation and adoption that are likely to contribute to their capabilities to cope with the possible negative effects of climate change in the different agroecologies of SSA. The ability of farmers to cope with climate change will require the support of plant breeders, and scientists of other disciplines, who will continue to exploit biotechnological tools in support of more conventional plant breeding activities. IITA will, during this Medium-term Plan, increase its own research capacity in selected aspects of biotechnology and further strengthen relevant linkages with others. As the current lead institution in the Systemwide Program on Integrated Pest Management, IITA will continue to strengthen its plant health management capacities by developing synergies with other centers and international institutions, fully aware that the solutions to many pest problems can only be found through a global approach.These more comprehensive approaches to responding to the agricultural research needs in SSA should help the agriculture sector to better contribute to economic and social development in SSA. Also, and by pursuing these new approaches through the revised project portfolio, IITA considers that it is well placed to fully participate in the development and implementation of those CGIAR Challenge Programs that will be relevant to the priority needs of agricultural research for development in SSA.The proposed expenditure budget for 2003 is US$35.745 million, of which US$20.481 million is projected to come from targeted funds. Pressure on unrestricted operations has continued since 1996, with donor funds dropping from US$13-14 million to the US$10 million range. This situation will continue through 2002 and 2003 (Table 7, Annex 3) unless additional funds are forthcoming.Project costs are made up of two essential components, direct and indirect support costs (as shown on Table 3, Annex 3). The latter includes an allocation for administration and depreciation. Direct costs of projects are based on actual costs incurred including staff time attributed to each.IITA's standard overhead rate for targeted projects is 22.8%. The 2002 budget for external overhead stands at US$1.600 million, which if calculated on the entire targeted budget equates to only 8.7%. The same situation exists for 2003, with overhead budgeted a t US$1.7 million.In-kind contributions to IITA include cost of French scientists seconded to the Institute. IITA has a n increasing number of joint venturelcost sharing arrangements, with costs of two scientists being split between ILRI and NRI on one hand and IITA on the other. In addition, junior professional officers from Denmark (2), Belgium (4), Italy (I), Germany (I), Sweden (I), and the Netherlands (2) are strengthening the Institute's research capacity.Minor inflation factors have been included in our estimates for 2002, with any additional cost increases precipitating a reduction in ongoing activities. The expectation in Nigeria is currently that the naira will remain at between 115 and 118 naira per dollar, and for francophone countries, IITA has used an exchange rate of 720 CFAper dollar. For 2002and beyond, we have included inflation at roughly 6% on total staff costs, 5% on general services, 3% on supplies, 5% on operational travel and finance costs, and 8% on training.The IITA operating fund decreased to US$4.691 million at 2001 year-end (audited), resulting from a deficit of US$1.486 million in 2001. The cash position remained strong due to early disbursement of the World Bank contribution, and continued receipt of payments in advance for targeted activities.The current estimate for the 2002 financial year is a deficit of US$2.536 million, and US$1.822 million for 2003. The various tables in this document have been prepared using a cost estimate of US$35.745 million for 2003. Projection on the status quo based on the present cost estimates are a s follows:The current trend of deficit spending will continue beyond 2003. IITA Management will implement a fund raising strategy to address the deficit issue and implement a cost reduction plan. The plan calls for streamlining operations in support services with minimum impact on the quality of work of research activities. Though the plan addresses the reduction of the Institute's budget deficit in 2002 and 2003, it calls for stabilisation of our operations in 2004 and beyond. IITA will continue to explore cost savings in 2003 and beyond to achieve a balanced budget in 2005.IITA continues to limit capital spending, to amounts less than anticipated depreciation charges for each year in the plan. IITA has fully implemented the revised CGIAR accounting policies and reporting practices. (2,000) (2,000) Write-off (22,728)  1. Acquisitions exclude mmmitments.2. Calculated at varying rates per asset category, net of disposak.A core collection of cowpea comprising 1926 accessions which are representative of morphological diversity and geographical origin was selected from over 12 000 accessions of the world cowpea collection.One hundred and twenty seven local cultivars of cassava and 44 yam cultivars were collected in Sierra Leone, and added to the IITA germplasm collection.Experiments on cryopreservation of cassava shoot-tips, using encapsulation-vitrification and fast freezing method, gave recovery rates of about 60% in certain genotypes.Studies on population growth and stability of in situ wild yam populations in a forest reserve in Ibadan, monitored over a 3-year period, showed a slight increase in population sizes, but no significant change in the gene frequency of selected morphological markers.Studies on segregation patterns of mutants in crosses between cowpea varieties confirmed the existence of transposable elements that inhibit or excite gene expression.Musa genetic diversity studies showed amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) as more powerful than random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) in the discrimination of genotypes and the identification of genetic relationships. Plantains from Cameroon were genetically distinct from those of West Africa. Genome composition of all breeding lines and African landraces of Musa has been determined. Sukali Ndizi considered a diploid is a triploid with AAB genome composition.Germplasm material from genebanks and breeders were provided to national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) on request. The West and Central Africa Collaborative Maize Research Network (WECAMAN) dispatched 169 kg of maize seed to NARS based on superior performance of varieties tested in 2000. Fiftyeight sets of maize regional uniform variety trials and 26 sets of the regional Striga variety trials in the extra-early maturity groups were also distributed to NARES collaborators in West, Central, eastern, and southern Africa. Forty sets of soybean international trials were supplied to 21 NARES collaborators in Africa, 3 in Asia, and 1 in the US. Over 10 000 disease-free cassava in vitro plantlets were given to NARES in 6 African countries, 2 European countries, and the US. In addition, 1400 disease-free in vitro yam plantlets and 13 211 yam mini-tubers were given to NARES worldwide.Staining techniques for the isolation and identification of the rust fungi and other microorganisms from infected leaf surfaces of soybean were standardized. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides strains causing foliar infection of Dioscorea species were classified.Project 2. Improving plantain-and banana-based systems Tetraploid (4n) x diploid (2n) crosses mostly produce triploid (3n) progeny while 2n x -4 n crosses mostly produce 2n progeny, showing that ploidy in offsprings is controlled by paternal microsporogenesis.A secondary 3n cooking banana hybrid (TM3x30456 [612-74 x 8075-71) with excellent plant and fruit traits was selected in Nigeria. Another 3n selection was obtained from 2n parents (TMB2x 9722-1 x TMB2x 9128-3) in Uganda, demonstrating that unilateral sexual polyploidiation can be used to improve East African highland bananas (EAHB).Total DNA analysis revealed 3 genetic subspecies in Musa acuminata and 2 forms in M. balbisiana, suggesting that there are a t least 3 A genomes and 2 B genomes. A quantitative assay based on AFLP analysis of ribosomal RNA genes for discrimination of A and B genomes was developed.Transmission of Beauveria bassiana from infected to uninfected banana weevils was demonstrated while resistance to the pest was identified in Calcutta 4, TMB2x7197-2, and TMB2x8075-7.Long-lasting reduction in nematode infestation by hot-water treatment (HWT) of planting materials was demonstrated. Fertilizer application also suppressed nematodes, particularly without HWT. Resistant progenies (TMHx 660K-1 and TMHx 917K-2) from crosses between Enzirabahima (susceptible) and Calcutta 4 (resistant) were identified, increasing prospects for breeding resistance in EAHB.Stable integration of reporter genes was achieved for the control of banana viruses in prelude to genetic transformation against banana streak virus (BSV) and putative nematode vectors of banana die-back virus (BDBV) were identified.Signscant progress was made in establishing Musa breeding operations in the Cameroon benchmark and in the duplication of hybrid propagation for distribution at Ibadan, marking a major shift in the operational mode of plantain research in West and Central Africa. Musa breeding and nematology research capacity in Uganda for eastern and southern Africa was restored.Three workshops were held to facilitate the delivery of improved hybrids to farmers and large-scale, on-farm variety demonstration plots were established i n 11 states across the Nigerian plantain belt.A total of 595 new cowpea breeding lines were developed and tested in the moist savanna, dry savanna, and the Sahel. Over 60 promising lines combining high yield potential and resistance to diseases, insect pests, and Striga were selected. Of these, IT97K-568-11, IT97K-568-18, IT568-19, IT98K-491-4, IT98K-128-3, IT98K-131-1, IT98K-506-1, IT98K-589-2, IT98K-598-4, IT99K-381-6, IT99K-453-1, IT99K-718-6, IT99K-856-19, IT99K-1152-28, andIT99K-1258 were most promising.Improved Striga resistant cowpea variety IT97K-499-38 yielded 50% to 300% higher than the local varieties in Striga infested fields in Benin Republic. It also caused high percentage of suicidal germination of Striga hermonthim seeds.Bruchid resistant cowpea varieties showed 3-5 eggslg seed and 12-18% adult emergence compared to 1 C 2 0 eggslg seed and 55%68% adult emergence in the susceptible varieties. Seed size, color, and texture had no effect on oviposition and adult emergence.Drought-tolerant cowpea varieties such a s IT97K-499-39, IT97K-1075-7, IT97K-634, and IT97K-819-118, and heat tolerant varieties such as IT99K-1058, IT99K-1059, IT99K-1060, IT88D-643-1, IT88D-867-11, and TVu 4552 were developed.Some cowpea varieties were screened for shade tolerance. A 60% reduction in light caused a 56% reduction in grain yield. IT90K-277-2, IT93K-452-1, and IT89KD-391 were more shade tolerant than other varieties.A multiple cropping system involving a wheat crop from November to March, heattolerant cowpea from March to June, and rice from July to October was developed and tested a t Kadawa (Nigeria) irrigation scheme for' 2 years with an annual food production of 8 to 9 tlha.The IITAIICRISATIILRI improved croplivestock system was adopted by a large number of farmers. Supplementary feeding of only 200 g cowpea haulms per day along with sorghum stover to young rams doubled their weight gain compared to feeding them sorghum stover alone.Significant genetic differences were observed among cowpea varieties for seed quality.The Aloka local cowpea had the hardest seed (9 kg crushing weight) and took longest to cook (57.5 minutes).A total of 294 sets of cowpea international trials comprising over 100 improved breeding lines were sent, on request, to national collaborators.To identify varieties high in micronutrient content, 20 early-maturing maize varieties grown in 3 diverse locations were evaluated for iron, zinc, and I3-carotene content. One of these varieties grown at Ikenne showed 45% more iron bioavailability than a control variety widely grown in Nigeria. The results indicate that the potential exists to breed early-maturing maize varieties for high and stable mineral content across diverse growing conditions.In collaboration with the United States Department of Agriculture (LJSDA) and various universities and institutions in Nigeria, IITA conducted a national food consumption and nutrition survey. Data were collected on household composition, socioeconomic characteristics, food security, household food consumption expenditure, and health care issues. Nutrition status was assessed and biological samples collected. Data entry and laboratory analysis of biological samples are in progress.An experiment was conducted a t Ikenne to compare the performance of 24 earlymaturing improved maize varieties developed a t IITA and CIMMYT with 25 early-maturing farmers' ecotypes from Senegal under controlled drought stress and sufficient moisture supply. As a group, the improved open-pollinated (OP) varieties out-yielded the local ecotypes by 112% under drought stress and by 94% under sufficient moisture supply.A trial consisting of 15 maize varieties was evaluated a t 3 levels of nitrogen (N) application in Mokwa and Zaria, Nigeria. The four top-ranking varieties, DTSR-W, LNPC3, ACR8328C7, and LNTP produced higher yields than a widely grown OP variety, TZB-SR, a t 30 kgha N application. They did not differ from other varieties a t 90 k g h a N.Three soybean breeding lines (TGX1909-7F, TGX 1910-10F, andTGX 1910-llF) which fix about 10% more nitrogen than the current best variety (TGX 1448-23) were developed. Also, 15 dual-purpose soybean lines with 2-2.5 t h a grain and 2.5-3.5 tiha stover yields were identified for distribution to the NARS. Synthetic sex pheromones of Maruca vitrata were used to monitor field populations a t 3 locations. In central Benin, a good correlation was found between adult catches in the traps and larval populations in the field, indicating the possibility of using the traps as a tool to time pest control interventions. However, adult catches from both Tamale and Kano were low in spite of substantial field infestations, indicating possible behavioraYphysiologica1 differences in migrating M. uitrata populations.The investigation of natural enemies of the cowpea aphid (Aphis cracciuora) in southern and central Benin revealed spectacular epizootics of the entomopathogenic fungus Neozygites sp. in the Ou6m6 valley which wiped out aphid colonies. The total absence of hymenopterous parasitoids was confiimed, indicating a potential \"off the shelf\" bicocontrol project.During 2 consecutive years, the early maturing soybean line TGX 1835.103 was confirmed a s moderately resistant to soybean rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi). Some early varieties with relatively shorter pod filling duration had less yield loss in spite of high disease incidence.A regional adoption survey (120 farm households per country) showed that neem extracts are being used by 7, 32, and 38% of farmers in Niger, Nigeria and Ghana, respectively, and papaya extracts by 47% of farmers in Benin. The constraint is mainly labor-intensive processing of leaves. Key factors affecting adoption of cowpea integrated pest management (IPM) are access to extension, profitability, off-farm incomes, farm labor supply, and level of education.A study of cowpea IPM technologies in Benin revealed that botanical insecticides are more profitable when applied on improved cowpea varieties (high yielding or pest1 disease resistant). The net benefits ranged from US$lO/ha (local varieties), to US$1101 ha (improved varieties), and up to US$200/ha with improved market access.Farmer field schools (FFS) trained 1112 farmers and 60 NGO and extension agents in cowpea IPM in the 9 PRONAF countries. In northern Ghana farmer-to-farmer diffusion of knowledge following FFS is increasing.A medical epidemiology survey in the southern Guinea savanna of Benin and Togo revealed that 99% of 479 children were aflatoxin-positive, 33% showed stunted growth, and 29% were underweight. Exposure to aflatoxin was correlated with aflatoxin content of maize, maternal education and socioeconomic status, consumption of maize-based weaning food, and number of L-strain Aspergillus flavus colonies in the maize.Aflatoxin accumulation in selected IITA maize inbred lines was tested using a kernel screening assay in collaboration with the laboratory of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) in New Orleans, and was found to be much lower (< 50 nglg) than the best US resistant line (> 200 nglg).Public awareness campaigns on aflatoxin were launched in Benin, Ghana, and Togo in collaboration with senior national policymakers, ministers of agriculture and of health, representatives of the diplomatic corps, the FA0 Regional Office on Post-harvest, and Rotary International.Larvae of the maize stem borer Sesamia calamistis had a much lower survival rate (1.6%) on new advanced inbred lines 10 days after artificial infestation with 60 eggs/ plant.Three strains of Trichoderma species-T. harzianum, T. pseudokoningii, and T. hermatum-persisted in maize stalks co-inoculated with the causal agent of maize stalk rot, Fusarium verticillioides, in screenhouse tests. These 3 strains reduced stalk rot and were also effective against the pathogen in invitro tests. The mechanism appears to be hyperparasitism.Treating maize plants with neem oil at different concentrations in the greenhouse has reduced that o>iposition by S. calamistis by three-quarters even a t the lowest concentration tested.The exotic phytoseiid predator Typhlodromalus aripo continues to persist and further expand its range in 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, and is providing effective management of the cassava green mite.The preference of T. aripo for hairy cassava tips was shown to be widespread and food web surveys in Malawi and Mozambique confirmed that T. aripo is restricted to cassava and only affects CGM populations.Two Brazilian isolates of Neozygites tanajoae introduced in 1999 into cassava fields in southeastern and northern Benin to complement CGM biocontrol by phytoseiid predators continued to persist and produce a n average of 25% infection levels in CGM populations in several locations.In collaboration with the University of Arizona, USA, molecular techniques were used to demonstrate the association of a distinct cassava-colonising genotype of Bemisia tabaci with the epidemic of severe CMD in Uganda. A preliminary impact assessment study of CMD management work in 6 districts of Uganda estimated a net present value benefit of US$ 36 million shared roughly equally between producers and consumers.Surveys of the impact of the released predator, Teretrius nigrescens, on beetle pests in cassava chip stores in northern Benin, demonstrated reductions in losses from 4 5 9 1 % in untreated to 15-70% in treated stores.In addition to cassava, the noncultivated plants Aframomun danielli, Costus afer, and several wild yam species were identified as common hosts of the African root and tuber scale, Stictococcus uayssierei, in fallow and young forest vegetation in western and southern Cameroon.Project training activities included the completion of 3 MSc and 1 PhD study programs; cassava IPM training of extension workers (and farmers) as follows: 15 (20) in Guinea, 10 (2100) in Kenya, 20 (95) in Malawi, 1000 in Tanzania, 10 (50) in Togo, and 29 (250) inUganda; the distribution of 300 sets of cassava IPM manuals in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda; and the development of a n educational leaflet for T. aripo conservation.In the forest margins benchmark area (FMB), annual maize production in a Mucunal Pueraria cover croplrelay system was sustained for 5 years at 2.5 t h a . Maize grain yields after Mucuna var. jaspaeda were the highest over 3 consecutive years over other Mucuna varieties.Three soybean varieties were identified for various farmer circumstances in the FMB.High nodulation was observed in shorter fallow areas, with consequent higher yields. Farmers in the northern benchmark, where yields exceed 1000 kglha without inputs, are now adopting soybean.In a study in the northern Guinea savanna and derived savanna benchmark areas to identify target options for herbaceous legumes, farmer participation doubled over the previous year. Four field days involving some 130 farmers were held, and new methodologies tested during farmer workshops.Some 280 kg of herbaceous legume seed consisting of 117 seedlots were distributed to IARCs, NARS, and NGOs.Successful stakeholders' workshops on weed management strategies were realized in Zaria and Makurdi. Steering committees on Striga and Zmperata were formed to coordinate research. Two seed companies and the Nigerian Participatory Rural Appraisal Network agreed to assist with workshops and scaling-up activities.Mucuna was shown to suppress speargrass by reducing available solar radiation and other mechanisms.The Rockefeller Foundation provided a grant to research the effect of genotype and environment on the concentration of L-Dopa in Mucuna seed and other plant parts.For the 2001 growing season, research and development projects in Benin have purchased more than 2000 kg of Mucuna from Centre d'information et d'exchanges sur les plantes de coverture en Afrique (CIEPCA). The CIEPCA newsletter was produced and posted on the Web, and 4 issues of Mucuna News have been produced.A standpoint survey found Acacia auriculiformis woodlots to be the most popular soil fertility enhancing technology coming out of 10 to 15 years of work on improved fallows in southern Benin.On-farm trials conducted from 1999 to 2000 in 19 Striga hermonthica-infested fields in the dry savanna agroecozone of Nigeria showed that integrated S. hermonthica control was highly effective, in comparison to traditional practices, both in reducing S. hermonthica incidence by more than 70% and in increasing maize grain yields by more than 60%.Maize herbicide evaluation trials conducted in Ibadan and Ilorin showed that pastemergence application of nicosulfuron a t 50 to 400 g a.i./ha resulted in lower Imperata cylindrica biomass (4 to 19 g/m2) than in the unweeded control plots (63 g/m2) a t crop harvest. The effect of weeding 5 times on I. cylindrica biomass was equivalent to that of nicosulfuron a t rates of 200 to 400 g a.i./ha.Comparative economic evaluation and appropriate technology targeting of 10 legume rotation treatments showed that the grain legume and dual-purpose varieties gave cumulative net benefits ranging between US$914 and US$1233, an increase of over 150% above the least profitable system a t Ibadan fertile derived savanna (DS) site. The same trends were observed in the northern Guinea savanna (NGS) where the most profitable system outperformed the green manure system economically by over 500%.The monitoring of N and P in Zouzouvou, DS in Benin, indicates that the N balance was negative. N exports through harvest products and removalhurning of crop residues constituted the largest loss term. The annual P balance ranged between a surplus of 42 kg P h a and a deficit of 30 kg Piha.Preliminary maize yield data for the on-farm, farmer-managed demonstration trials confirmed earlier findings that maize grain yields in the sole fertilizer treatment were similar to yields in the mixture treatment in which about 40% of the fertilizer N was substituted by manure. Farmers' practices led to about 30% lower yields than in both other treatments.Growing maize after soybean resulted in significantly higher grain yield (1.2 to 2.3fold increase compared to maize control) except for the maize cultivar Oba Super 2 (8644-27) (an N-efficient hybrid).Efforts to establish tree-based assets on deforested land in southern Cameroon continued. The cocoa hybrids from CBte d'Ivoire have demonstrated significantly superior establishment vigor and growth and 3 of the 4 hybrids had a significantly greater number of flowers relative to the landraces and local hybrid. The survival of all cocoa seedlings through the second dry season was significantly greater when integrated with shade providing plantain (Musa spp.).In a remote area of the southern Cameroon Atlantic rainforest, the Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP) and its partners assisted about 200 small cocoa producers to create a farmers' union of village-based organizations. Cocoa marketed through the union in its initial year yielded 33% higher price than cocoa marketed individually and inputs purchased by the union were bought a t a 7% discount. The lessons learned from this are being used by STCP and its partners to reinforce farmer organizations throughout southern Cameroon and West Africa.An on-farm experiment evaluated the productive capacity of a mature cocoa agroforest after a 2-year abandonment with particular focus on the management of the fungal blackpod disease, the most important constraint to production. Two levels of fungicide treatment were applied and compared to a no fungicide control. A yield of over 300 kg/ha was obtained which is in excess of the average yield for this part of southern Cameroon. Yield a t the no fungicide control was less than 50 kgha indicating the importance of the constraint.An on-farm experiment in southern Cameroon compared the decomposition rates in 4 types of land use-the complex cocoa agroforest, forest, Chromolaena odorata fallow land, and Imperata cylindrica fallow land. The conclusion is that the m o a agroforest retains more ecosystem functionality when compared to short fallow cropping land-use systems.A household expenditure survey in 4 cities of the forest zone of Cameroon con£iimed that demand prospects for domestic products (yam, plantain, cassava, maize, and sorghum) are high because they are more desired by urban dwellers than imported products such a s rice.A new micro \"Market Information Systems\" model developed by FOODNET, with support from the Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), disseminates the information to about 5 million people in 8 districts of eastern Uganda.An efficiency analysis of about 560 mixed croplivestock farms in the northern Guinea savanna of Nigeria showed that the 10% most efficient farms were smaller in size, experienced high pressure on land, were managed by younger farmers, and had higher integration between crops and livestock.A new, easy, and quick \"GPS transect walk\" method was successfully tested to quantify the spread and intensity of the adoption and adaptation processes of \"best bet\" cowpea technologies in the savanna zone of Nigeria.Positive effects of technological change and policy on the profitability of cowpea systems were found in Couffo dbpartement, southern Benin. Financial returns for systems with an improved cowpea variety and botanical insecticide (Neem) to control pest in storage generated a bonus of CFA92250ha over systems without an improved variety. An additional gain of CFA59305lha was recorded for systems with improved variety and Neem and located in areas with good road infrastructure.A landscape model of human and land resources for the forest margins was developed in Cameroon. The model links the \"human\" side and the 'land\" side through land tenure systems and combines geo-positioning system (GPS), socioeconomic, and biophysical data in a GIs system.The capability for the application of GIs techniques by IITA and NARES has greatly improved through special training of 61 scientists in eastern and West Africa.Refresher courses were held for 20 NARES scientists in West Africa on advanced methods for impact and economic analyses while 8 local manufacturers in Tanzania were trained in the maintenance and repair of processing equipment.Characterized the agronomic, socioeconomic, and epidemiological features of whiteflies and whitefly-transmitted viruses in cassava, legumes, and sweetpotato in Latin America, Africa, the Caribbean, and Mexico, and initiated strategic research to develop appropriate IPM options.Developed vision of farmer participatory research (FPR) and participatory learning (PL) to advise on what would need to be done differently a t the level of farmers, community organizations, extension workers, researchers, and policymakers if FPRIPL were to be successful in IPM.Recorded significant yield gains by farmers a t 6 pilot sites in Africa where intercropping, habitat management, crop rotation schemes, and pest-tolerant crop varieties were introduced as best-bet IPM options to control the parasitic weeds Striga and Orobanche in maize-legume cropping systems. The participatory approach and processes at the sites assisted organizations to develop effective partnerships to increase the understanding and adoption of IPM options.Increased public and donor awareness of the benefits of IPM through information materials including news stories, a brochure, and a CD-ROM of information resources.Networks Improve genetic resource conservation and utilization, broaden the genetic base of adapted germplasm, and develop efficient methods for crop improvement and germplasm management.1. The genetic resources of selected food crops (cowpea, cassava, yams, plantain and banana, maize, and soybeans), as well as their wild relatives, underutilized or threatened crop species, herbaceous legumes, and multipurpose trees are collected, characterized, evaluated, documented, and conserved according to CGIAR policy and Center's best practices. Improved procedures for germplasm management are developed and made available to NARS. Genetic variation and breeding values of plant genetic resources, gene flow among landraces, improved populations and their wild relatives are elucidated.2. Genetics of key agronomic and quality traits in breeding populations of cowpea, cassava, yams, plantain, banana, maize, and soybeans are elucidated, and efficient breeding strategies for these traits are developed.Biotechnology tools (e.g., transformation systems, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics) are developed and applied for germplasm management and crop improvement. Safety in international exchange of germplasm is enhanced through the use of appropriate diagnostic tools and the tools are made available to research partners.4. Source populations and parental lines are selected/developed with resistance to important diseases and pests, desired quality traits, as well as adaptation to specific niches, and made accessible to NARS in sub-Saharan Africa and other research partners.5. Capacity of NARS for germplasm management and crop improvement is strengthened, e.g., in collection, conservation, and enhancement of plant genetic resources as well as plant health assessment.Continue collection and acquisition of genetic resources of priority food crops (cowpea, cassava, yams, plantain and banana, maize, and soybeans) and their wild relatives, underutilized or threatened crop species, and herbaceous legumes, to fill gaps in the collections; rejuvenate, conserve, and distribute germplasm.Develop and adapt improved germplasm conservation methods and strategies, including cryopresemation.Further characterize and evaluate germplasm to assess genetic diversity and breeding potential, using conventional and molecular tools.Improve documentation of both landrace and elite germplasm, using appropriate information technologies for dissemination to users and for placement in the public domain.Conduct genetic analysis of important traits.Manipulate genomes and ploidy levels to enhance crop performance.Investigate G x E interactions, rationalize test sites, and evaluate alternative breeding methods for the priority food crops.Develop genetic transformation andlor regeneration systems for cassava, cowpea, plantain and banana, and construct genes for use in crop improvement.Develop and use molecular markers and molecular diagnostics to facilitate selection for desirable traits and enhance safety in international germplasm exchange. Screen germplasm for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and other desirable agronomic and quality traits, and introgress favorable alleles from wild and exotic germplasm into adapted populations.Develop diverse populations, lines, and clones with high yield potential, resistance to diseases and pests and with good nutritional and end-user quality attributes.Provide training and technical support to NARS scientists and technicians in plant germplasm research and management, disease diagnostics, biotechnology, development of biosafety guidelines and crop improvement through thesis research, in-service training, workshops, as well a s the provision of improved germplasm and collaborative trials.Greater food security through enhanced collection and conservation of genetic diversity.Greater accessibility and utilization of germplasm collections.Increased efficiency of breeding programs through the use of improved breeding strategies and tools of biotechnology.Diverse sources of germplasm available to and utilized by NARS.Increased exchange of disease-tested planting materials between IITA and research partners.Systematic collection, conservation, and utilization of plant genetic resources by NARS in sub-Saharan African.Indefmite for aspects of Output 1 (with review every 5 years) and 10 years for other outputs.In At least 50 cowpea breeding lines combining drought and heat tolerance with resistance to major diseases and insect pests distributed to NARS.At least four IITA-derived clones of D. rotundata included in nationally-coordinated clonal trials in Nigeria aimed a t formal release of new varieties.Five hybrids with resistance to stem borer and with at least 8% better grain yield than Oba Super 2 available to the NARS through international trials.New high yielding soybean varieties with greater capacity to stimulate S. hermonthica germination and 15% higher NDFA than TGx 1448-23 deployed to NARS for multilocation evaluation. Elite soybean lines with enhanced quality traits (high content of proteinloiy micronutrients) identified and distributed to NARS collaborators in Africa.In vitro genebank of yams, cassava, and Musa increased to a t least 3500 accessions.The core collection of yams validated and its diversity established.Diagnostics of viruses of all IITA mandate crops available and protocols documented.At least 10 new genotypes each of yam and cassava certified for international distribution and 4000 plantlets of each crop as well as 5000 yam minitubers distributed.Effect of seed borne pathogens on cowpea seed longevity elucidated.Transgenic Bt cowpea used in crosses and improved populations developed.At least one improved Musa hybrid adopted by farmers and officially released in Ghana.At least two IITA-derived varieties of D. rotundata formally released in Nigeria.New maize inbred lines with more than 30% reduced parasitism in comparison with 1368STR and 9030STR developed.Phenotypic characteristics of cassava, that are most appropriate for the dominant production and utilization systems elucidated and utilized in breeding.Bases for adaptation of cassava to abiotic and biotic stresses elucidated and applied in breeding.At least 5 new cassava genotypes recommended for release in a t least 4 countries.Resistance to Phakosporapachyrhizi incorporated into elite soybean lines.Soybean lines with tolerance to low soil P or enhanced P-use efficiency developed.\"Super nodulation\" genes incorporated in elite promiscuous soybean lines.At least 50 improved cowpea breeding lines distributed to NARS.Plant scientists and breeders throughout the world gain from increased knowledge of genetic variation and inheritance of economically important traits of IITA mandate crops, and from source germplasm developed a t IITA. The world community and future generations benefit &om the free availability of conserved genetic resources, especially in Africa. NARES benefit from the facilitated, safe exchange of improved germplasm and through their improved capacity to manage genetic resources.IARCs-CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICRAF, ICRISAT, ILRI, IPGRI, WARDA Systemwide projectsSGRP, PRGA.Networks-CORAF-Maize, EARRNET, PRONAF, SARRNET, WECAMAN, GRE-NEWECA, MUSACO, BARNESA, WASNET. Develop effective and ecologically sound options to manage major pest problems and sustain biodiversity in the humid forest, savanna, and midaltitude agroecological zones of sub-Saharan Africa.Outputs 1. Knowledge base on distribution and biology of pests and their natural enemies, improved, and agrobiodiversity characterized.2. New knowledge on the interactions between pests, host plants, natural enemies and the environment generated.Efficient biological control options against important pests in farming and aquatic systems developed.4. Effective host-plant resistance against pests identified and developed.5. Effective habitat management options against pests developed.6. Crop protection products based on entomopathogens, botanicals, semiochemicals and elicitors developed towards commercialization.7. Information and diagnostics support for plant protection provided; reference collections and colonies of pests and natural enemies maintained.8. NARES capacity to develop and apply biologically-based pest management components enhanced.Assess the importance of new problems (e.g., exotic invaders) by monitoring dispersal of pests and antagonists. Characterize important arthropod pests, nematodes and pathogens.Assess crop losses attributable to different pests.Study the ecology of arthropods and epidemiology of pathogens in the context of the environment (biodiversity) including multitrophic interactions and behavioral studies. Greater food security and reduced poverty through the reduction of yield losses, increased labor productivity and on-and off-farm incomes per household and a t aggregate level, as well a s increased food quality. Improved public health and reduced environmental degradation through the reduction of pesticide use and expenditures, the related reduction in pesticide-induced health problems, and the maintenance of biodiversity and environmental quality. Improved equity and gender balance through better access to pest management technologies by poor farmers and women, and increased on-and off-farm incomes for women (farmers, food processors, traders). Improved NARES and NGOs capability building through formal training, farmer field fora, and various planning and skill improvement workshops. Brazilian strains of N. tanajoae released in eastern and southern Africa.Persistence studies of exotic phytoseiid predators across agroecologies completed and published. Performance of 2 strains of Beauueria bassiana against banana weevil tested in 4 farming systems.Germplasm and advanced breeding lines with resistance to soybean rust screened under natural inoculation at hot spots.Influence of a t least 5 factors on resistance expression to banana weevil attack determined.Vegetation management strategies for ARTS based on removal of reservoir host plants in fallows tested in Cameroon.Effect of crop residue management on banana weevil population dynamics completed.Socioeconomic studies of biopesticide (against peri-urban pests) constraints completed.Lab and green house ecological studies on PxGV completed. Sustainable mass production system for at least one virus of a peri-urban pest developed, PxGV released in Benin.Biopesticide regulatory framework survey for Africa completed and published.Socioeconomic household surveys to evaluate CGM biocontrol conducted in Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique.Improved diagnostic tools are applied to increase the safe exchange of disease tested seeds and vegetative propagules.Reference arthropod and plant pathogen collection, and related identification capacity maintained and enhanced.Epidemiology of cassava mosaic disease (CMD) in Congo Republic and DRC described.Distribution maps for monitoring virulent CMGs in Congo Republic and DRC developed.Effects of CMGs and CMG mixtures on cassava yield quantified and published.Molecular diagnostics for cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) established at Plant Quarantine Station, Kenya.Surveys on main nematode pests on cassava in DRC and on both cassava and yams in Zanzibar completed.Cast structure and distribution of ants associated with ARTS completed and published.Practical diagnostic tool for N. tanajoae developed and tested.GIs models of phytoseiid predators published; distribution of ARTS in Central Africa modeled and tested.Natural enemies of M. Improved diagnostic tools applied to increase the safe exchange of diseasetested seeds and vegetative propagules.Reference arthropod and plant pathogen collection, and related identification capacity maintained and enhanced.This project delivers a wide range of pest management options, from stand-alone classical biological control agents which require little or no inputs, to biopesticides, which might be developed and disseminated through private-public enterprises. Ultimate targets are farmers in all agroecological regions of SSA. Intermediate users are plant protectionists assembling, testing and fine-tuning the different pest management components into IPM baskets in the three IITA systems projects, a s well as collaborators in NARES, NGOs, and extension services.NARES and NGOs in West and Central Africa, and some from East and southern Africa, the Inter-African Phytosanitary Council, CIMMYT, ICRISAT, ICIPE, CABI, CIRAD, IRD, GTZ, NRI, ICIPE, IBCD, USDA, FAO; commercial biopesticide producers, and arthropod collections in Europe and Africa.Link to CGIAR logbame outputs Germplasm Improvement (lo%), Germplasm Collection (O%), Sustainable Production (60%), Policy (lo%), and Enhancing NARS (20%).Contribute to improved rural livelihoods and sustainable developments in sub-Saharan Africa through the generation and application of knowledge on food and marketing systems, policy options, the benefits and disbenefits of technological change and relevant socioeconomic processes, in partnership with agro-entrepreneurs, consumers, policy makers, NARES, NGOs, and other stakeholders.In partnership with stakeholders including policymakers, agro-entrepreneurs, consumers, NARES, NGOs, ARIs, and international scientists, bring direct benefits to people in key research sites through the development of methodologies and strategies that result in needed technologies and through their subsequent promulgation and adoption for the overall development of sub-Saharan Africa.1. Methodologies/strategies for priority setting of IITA research developed, available, and implemented.Policy and market opportunities developed and used for technical change and commercialization.Strategies developed for enhancing livelihoods related to nutrition, health and gender.Extrapolation of IITA research findings through the development and application of geo-spatial and systems models.Impact of agricultural research enhanced and documented.7. NARES capabilities strengthened for maintaining policy, impact, and systems analysis.Develop strategies for the development of a market-driven agriculture.Make recommendations, in collaboration with other stakeholders, to improve commodity based supply chain efficiency and effectiveness.Develop and establish new strategies for the dissemination of market information systems.Evaluate future food needs in urban and rural areas.Identify constraints in policy concerning the supply and distribution system, and use of basic input commodities (seed, fertilizer, machinery), and engender healthy and competitive markets for agricultural commodities.Determine the effects of institutional arrangements (e.g., land tenure) and infrastructure on commercialization and intensification of African agriculture. Identify opportunities and understand farmers' strategies for change and their ways of interacting with new technologies in order to improve their livelihoods.Examine strategies to mitigate the negative effects of emerging and pandemic diseases (AIDSIHIV and malaria) and negative effects of agriculture on human health. Formulate strategies permitting efficient scaling-up of research results from selected villages to the entire benchmarks and beyond their boundaries through the assessment of scale relationships in biophysical and socioeconomic contexts.Develop and apply research methods and procedures for IITA to set research priorities.Enhance the impact of technological interventions.Monitor and evaluate adoption processes for feedback into the research and development cycle, leading to the development of appropriate strategies for scaling-up agricultural innovations.Strengthen NARES capacity for impact, policy, and systems analysis. Link to CGIAR logframe outputs Sustainable Production (17%), Policy (58%), and Enhancing NARS (25%).Contribute to improved rural livelihoods and sustainable developments in sub-Saharan Africa through the generation and application of knowledge on food and marketing systems, policy options, the benefits and dibenefits of technological change and relevant socioeconomic processes, in partnership with agro-entrepreneurs, consumers, policy makers, NARES, NGOs, and other stakeholders.In partnership with stakeholders including policymakers, agro-entrepreneurs, consumers, NARES, NGOs, ARIs, and international scientists, bring direct benefits to people in key research sites through the development of methodologies and strategies that result in needed technologies and through their subsequent promulgation and adoption for the overall development of sub-Saharan Africa.1. Methodologieslstrategies for priority setting of IITA research developed, available, and implemented.2. Policy and market opportunities developed and used for technical change and commercialization.Strategies developed for enhancing livelihoods related to nutrition, health and gender.Extrapolation of IITA research findings through the development and application of geo-spatial and systems models.7. NARES capabilities strengthened for maintaining policy, impact, and systems analysis.Develop strategies for the development of a market-driven agriculture.Make recommendations, in collaboration with other stakeholders, to improve commodity based supply chain efficiency and effectiveness.a Develop and establish new strategies for the dissemination of market information systems.Evaluate future food needs in urban and rural areas.Identify constraints in policy concerning the supply and distribution system, and use of basic input commodities (seed, fertilizer, machinery), and engender healthy and competitive markets for agricultural commodities.Determine the effects of institutional arrangements (e.g., land tenure) and infrastructure on commercialization and intensification of African agriculture.Identify opportunities and understand farmers' strategies for change and their ways of interacting with new technologies in order to improve their livelihoods.Examine strategies to mitigate the negative effects of emerging and pandemic diseases (AIDSMIV and malaria) and negative effects of agriculture on human health.Formulate strategies permitting efficient scaling-up of research results from selected villages to the entire benchmarks and beyond their boundaries through the assessment of scale relationships in biophysical and socioeconomic contexts.Develop and apply research methods and procedures for IITA to set research priorities.Enhance the impact of technological interventions.Monitor and evaluate adoption processes for feedback into the research and development cycle, leading to the development of appropriate strategies for scaling-up agricultural innovations.Strengthen NARES capacity for impact, policy, and systems analysis. Develop and promote, in collaboration with public and private sector stakeholders, the adoption of improved technologies and market support services for sustainable increases in production, utilization and commercialization of starchy and grain staples.1. Market opportunities identified for setting R for D agenda and formulating policy options.2. Commercially viable small-and medium-scale agroenterprises that expand trade of starchy and grain staples enhanced.Broad-based and special trait genotypes and populations targeting the major production systems and market opportunities developed and disseminated.4. Environmentally safe integrated plant protection technologies that reduce preand posthawest losses due to pests and diseases developed and applied.5. Crop and natural resource management practices for sustainable, competitive, and commercially based production systems developed and disseminated.6. Public and private sector partnerships that promote information and technology exchange with emphasis on scaling up strategies for increased trade developed and/or strengthened.7. Capacities of NARS and other stakeholders to generate, evaluate and disseminate appropriate knowledge and intervention technologies for target subsectors enhanced.Characterization of agrifood systems and markets to identify opportunities and constraints to expansion of utilization in the food, feed, and industrial sectors.Increased knowledge base for effective prioritization, planning, implementation, monitoring, and impact assessment of R for D activities.Development, evaluation, and promotion of improved postharvest technologies for expanded utilization in viable commercial enterprises.Evaluate value adding opportunities within selected market chains to strengthen agroenterprise linkages between producers, processors, and emerging markets to expand commercial options.Development, evaluation, and promotion of improved and adapted germplasm for the different production systems and market opportunities with emphasis on food, feed, and industrial characteristics.Maintenance and improvement of broad-based and special trait populations, and delivery of seed populations and in vitro plantlets of elite germplasm to national programs and other stakeholders.Integration and application of environmentally safe plant protection technologies to reduce pre-and postharvest losses caused by pests and diseases.Development of natural resource management practices to ensure sustainable commercially competitive production systems.Fostering broader interaction with the public and private sectors to promote information and technology exchange and their application towards increased national and regional trade.Diverse and multiple disease and pest resistant cultivars with superior and stable yield performance and acceptable food, feed, and industrial quality characteristics increasingly available and utilized by NARS and other stakeholders by 2004 onwards. Potentially adoptable technologies for improved and sustained production systems demonstrated in long-term, on-station trials and in benchmark sites available. Increased value addition to improved germplasm within the food, feed, and agro-industrial sectors for expanded commercialization and trade. These achievements combined with effective delivery by NARS and broader public and private partnerships, which promote information and technology exchange, will lead to widespread and successful deployment of improved technologies tailored to meet farmer, processor, and consumer requirements that will enhance increased production, utilization, commercialization and national and regional trade.Resource-poor farmers using these technologies will significantly improve and sustain their production systems with less dependence on pesticide and chemical inputs. Increased productivity with genetic traits that enhance utilization in the food, feed, and industrial sector would provide additional source of cash income for those households, especially women, who produce andlor process these commodities. In addition, there will be an increased low cost carbohydrate staple for low-income urban and rural consumers, and food security in vulnerable areas. Collaborating NARS and other stakeholders will benefit from enhanced human resource development and capacity to undertake research and development activities towards increased productivity, utilization, commercialization, and national and regional trade.Cassava subsector and market characteristics described i n a t least 5 countries and approaches to strengthen links between producers and end-users developed, regional study on banana markets and products completed and opportunities identified to target R&D activities.Sources of resistance to cassava brown streak virus, mosaic, bacterial blight, and green mite, and lines with improved nutritional quality and specific functional characteristics targeting different end uses identified and incorporated into breeding populations for screening.Studies on genetic diversity, molecular mapping, resistance mechanisms, and yield loss due to pests and diseases initiated.Expanded genetic base for selection programs and improved capacity of NARS and other stakeholders to increasingly undertake collaborative research and development activities on the starchy and grain staples.Regional exchange of germplasm facilitated among collaborating countries a s seeds or tissue cultured material and through open quarantine facilities.Clean foundation seed and planting material of promising genotypes multiplied and made available for farmer participatory on-farm testing, multiplication, and distribution.Major areas for commercial cassava and banana production identified, target areas for soil rejuvenation studies characterized in terms of cropping systems and soil fertility statusfconstraints.Past natural resource management research in Uganda reviewed, probable soil constraints to production identified on a regional basis, and target domains for future research identified.Genetic diversity and relationships among East African highland bananas established, new sources of resistant to black Sigatoka, R. sirnilis, and weevils identified, male and female fertility of germplasm from Papua New Guinea evaluated, and germplasm with desirable agronomic and quality traits selected for propagation or used in developing improved populations.Human capabilities improved through initiation of 3 PhD programs on microbial control, weevil, nematode resistance/mechanisms of banana, 1 PhD program on nematode resistance in yam, 2 PhD programs on cassava mosaic virus and whitefly characterization, 6 MSc programs on microbial control and genetic diversity of EAHB, 2 MSc programs on pest and disease management in cassava through phytosanitation and biocontrol of whiteflies in sweetpotato, and completion of 3 MSc studies on evaluation of transfer of clean banana planting material, biocontrol of whiteflies in cassava and cassava mosaic virus interactions, and organization of a national course on statistical analysis using SAS program.Information and technologies diffused through r a d i m broadcasts and print media; attendance, promotion and participation in network steering committee meetings and initiatives; support for NARS scientists as requested, exchange visits, completion of the market study reports and attendance in the cassava sub-sector workshop; stakeholder meetings; participation in the establishment of farmer field schools; and completion of one manual on banana IPM.Diagnostic pest and disease surveys conducted in Uganda, DR Congo, Angola, Madagascar, Malawi, Tanzania and Rwanda, on-farm and on station studies on crop sanitation initiated on factors affecting weevil response to semiochemicals and economic mass production and delivery systems for the fungal entomopathogen Beauuaria bassiana developed.At least 20 improved cassava genotypes with superior jleld, stable performance, and acceptable quality targeting different end uses recommended for farmer participatory testing, multiplication, and distribution in at least 5 countries i n ESA. New cassava-based value-added food products and income generating processing techniques disseminated through NARS and other stakeholders to operate a t least 5 pilot rural microenterprises by farmerslwomen groups in a t least 3 countries.Bases for adaptation to abiotic and biotic stresses and phenotypic characteristics most appropriate for various production and utilization systems elucidated and utilized in breeding programs. Medium-and long-term sustainability trials initiated to positively identify soil constraints to production in degraded systems and test effects of soil amendments and natural resource management strategies. Soil and plant analysis laboratory capacity and quality improved, equipment upgraded, monitoring procedures implemented, and analytical training program established. Feasibility studies and cost-benefit analysis for tissue cultured planting material established, and impact of clean planting material assessed. Secondary triploids with Sigatoka resistance, good bunch weight, and agronomic traits selected for further on-station evaluation. Information and technologies diffused through radioITV broadcasts and print media, attendance, promotion and participation in network steering committee meetings and initiatives, support for NARS scientists as requested, exchange visits, participation in the ISTRC symposium (Tanzania), stakeholder meetings, participation in farmer field schools, and publication of one manual on bananaIPM.Completion of 2 PhD studies on natural enemies and effects of crop sanitation for control of banana weevil and organization of a national course on statistical analysis using SAS.In vitro collection of all EAHB established, genetic relationships of highland bananas and M. acuminata subsp. banksii established, drum and bucket trials to identify cultivars resistant to Fusarium wilt completed, genetic analysis of resistance to nematodes and resistance mechanisms completed in a t least 10 genotypes.Pathogenicity testing and genetic/molecular characterization of isolates1 biotypes of Fusarium wilt, R. similis completed and weevils responses to two B.bassiana isolates completed and delivery systems established.Regional exchange of germplasm facilitated among collaborating countries a s seeds or tissue cultured material and through open quarantine, and establishment of primary, secondary, and tertiary multiplication fields, 3 highyielding \"matooken landraces multiplied and distributed to NARS in Rwanda.Cassava G x E interaction and site characterization completed and results used for regional evaluation of improved germplasm by NARS.At least 100 NARS personnel and other stakeholders trained in production and utilization techniques and microenterprise development.Nutrient management for high yielding cassava in sustainable production systems documented.Commodity based public-private sector consortium with network partners operational in a t least one country.Knowledge-base significantly strengthened for effective prioritization, planning, implementation, monitoring, and impact assessment of R&D activities.Appropriateness for semiochemicals and B. bassiana determined and their costs-benefit analysis established, on-farm testing of banana IPM components in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania.Components of cassava whitefly and whitefly-borne virus IPM developed and assembled into a package for on-farm testing.Clones with high breeding values identified and used in back-up population development. In vitro regional core collection of local and improved cassava genotypes with accessible information maintained at the regional in-vitro germplasm bank at PQS, Muguga, Kenya, in vitro and in situ conservation of national core collection maintained in a t least 5 ESA countries, a t least 30 TC materials introduced to NARS for testing and establishment of multiplication fields.Sources of Fusarium wilt resistance identified and used in Musa breeding program, sources for resistance to Pratylenchw goodeyi assessed, durability for nematode resistance established, sources of resistance to nematodes in yam assessed.Effects of banana-coffee intercropping on weevil and nematode incidence determined and factors affecting performance of endophytes and B. bossiana on weevil, nematode, and wilt control ascertained.Information and technologies diffused through radio/TV broadcasts and print media; attendance, promotion, and participation in network steering committee meetings and initiatives; support for NARS scientists a s requested; exchange visits; participation in the ISTRC-AB symposium (Kenya); stakeholder meetings, participation in farmer field schools, completion of 3 PhD studies on the potential of semiochemicals for banana weevil control, whitefly characterization, and cassava mosaic virus characterization; and completion of two MSc studies on phytosanitation for pestldisease management and biocontrol of whiteflies in sweetpotato.Policy studies undertaken with at least 1 government agency in the region with clear recommendations and pathways for change identified and discussed with policymakers.Options and strategies for long-term sustainability for small-, medium-, and large-scale production to processing systems developed.At least 2 adoptable technologies for improved, sustained commercially viable production system in use by farmers.At least 15 cassava genotypes recommended for release in a t least 5 countries.Impact analysis of pilot phase commercial agroenterprises completed.Soil and natural resource management strategies leading to higher yield and improved soil quality in high-yielding commercial based systems identified.Soil fertility constraints to production in marginal systems and adaptable resource management strategies to overcome said constraints identified.At least 3 improved cultivars with Sigatoka resistance, nematode resistanc, and good bunch weights recommended for testing in farmers' fields.Regular meetings with NARS scientists and other stakeholders for exchange of ideas, joint planning, and collaborative activities.NARS and other stakeholders (farmers, processors and consumers) in ESA are the primary users of the outputs of this project through existing or new delivery systems. Impact a t the farm level will continue to increase and contribute to improved incomes and food supply for resource poor people. Processors will be able to sell a range of improved, new value-added products with lower production costs due to improved storage and processing efficiencies. New partnerships with other stakeholders will evolve with expanded utilization, increasing commercialization, and national and regional trade.IARCs-CIAT, CIMMYT, CIP, ICRAF, ICRISAT, ILRI, IPGRI, ICIPE Networks-EARRNET, SARRNET, FOODNET, BARNESA, BIONET International.Regional organizations-ASARECA, SACCAR, I S T R C A B , NGOs and CBOs, Farmers Associations, Entrepreneurs.AROs The project has direct contributions to outputs Germplasm Improvement (17%), Germplasm Collection (2%), Sustainable Production (31%), Policy (9%), and Enhancing NARS (41%).Project E. A future through farming: enhancing livelihoods, improving the resource base and protecting the environment through starchy staple, peri-urban and tree crop systems of the humid and subhumid zones of West and Central AfricaProductivity and profitability of diverse agricultural systems increased and environmental services and sustainable management of natural resources improved, leading to enhanced livelihoods in the humid and subhumid zones of West and Central Africa.Productive plantain and banana systems, intensxed cassava systems, sustainable yam systems, multi-product tree crop systems, and market-oriented peri-urban crop and livestock systems developed in partnership with farmers, NGOs, NARES, and advanced research institutions are adopted and adapted by farmers and agribusiness in a conducive policy environment leading to widespread uptake of innovations in production, commercialization, and management.1. Productive plantain systems: Integrated pest management strategies, improved cultivars, sustainable resource and crop management practices, and improved product use options developed for productive plantain and cooking banana systems, including associated crops, in partnership with farmers, NGOs, NARES, and advanced research institutions are adopted and adapted i n major production areas supplying urban markets such that farmer to farmer diffusion follows leading to widespread uptake.2. Intensified cassava systems: Integrated pest management strategies, improved cultivars, sustainable resource and crop management practices, and improved product use options developed for intensified cassava systems, including associated crops, in partnership with farmers, NGOs, NARES, and advanced research institutions are adopted and adapted in major production areas supplying urban markets such that farmer to farmer diffusion follows leading to widespread uptake.3. Sustainable y a m systems: Integrated pest management strategies, improved cultivars, sustainable resource and crop management practices, and improved product use options developed for sustainable yam systems, including associated crops, in partnership with farmers, NGOs, NARES, and advanced research institutions are adopted and adapted in major production areas supplying urban markets such that farmer to farmer diffusion follows leading to widespread uptake.4. Multiproduct t r e e c r o p systems: Integrated pest management strategies, improved cultivars, sustainable resource and crop management practices developed for multi-product tree crop systems in partnership with farmers, NGOs, NARES, and advanced research institutions are adopted and adapted such that farmer to farmer diffusion follows leading to widespread uptake.5. Market-oriented peri-urban c r o p a n d livestock systems: Integrated pest management strategies, improved cultivars, sustainable resource and crop management practices and improved product utilization options developed for market-oriented peri-urban crop and livestock systems in partnership with farmers, NGOs, NARES, and advanced research institutions are adopted and adapted such that farmer to farmer diffusion follows leading to widespread uptake. (Note: Livestock include ruminants, monogastrics, and fish.) Productive plantain systems Develop plantain systems that are productive in deforested lands through integrated resource management, pest and disease management, and crop improvement strategies.Address soil fertility constraints through a combined use of organic and inorganic amendments.Address nematode and weevil control through improved clean planting material and agronomic measures adapted to farmer circumstances.Develop germplasm adapted to key pest and disease constraints, while preserving market preferences.Identify new product use options to enhance marketing opportunities.Intensified cassava systems Develop intensified market-oriented cassava systems through integrated resource management; pest, disease, and weed management; and crop improvement strategies.Analyze cassava postharvest system and markets to identify needs, constraints, and opportunities, and to develop market and information systems efficiently linking producers to users.Develop soil fertility management strategies through a combined use of organic and inorganic amendments in commercial-oriented systems.Develop integrated management systems adapted to farmer circumstances to address particularly African root and tuber scale, root rots, and new cassava mosaic disease virus strains in Central Africa.Test and distribute germplasm adapted to the encountered key pest and disease constraints, while preserving market preferences.Sustainable yam systems I n general, develop intensified and sustainable yam systems that are productive in short fallow and continuously cropped lands through strategies integrating resource management, labor-saving measures, pest and disease management, and crop improvement.Establish nutrient deficiency symptoms in yam and address soil fertility constraints through efficient use of organic and inorganic amendments.Address pests and diseases, particularly nematodes, through improved and clean planting material and agronomic measures adapted to farmer circumstances.Develop germplasm adapted to key pest and disease constraints, while preserving market preferences and improving storability.Develop improved storage and processing methods and identify new marketing opportunities.Multiproduct tree crop systems Test different approaches to create capacity and motivation of farmer associations and farmer-owned support services to assist smallholder cocoa and oil palm producers.Create and strengthen regional market and information systems, which enhance the efficiency of the tree crop sector, i.e., primarily cocoa and associated crops.Identify and promote the use of policy and strategy options that increase the efficiency and sustainability of the cocoa sector, address undesirable labor practices, and remunerate farmers for environmental services.Elucidate the ecological functioning, environmental services, and costs of newly established cocoa trees and maintain mature cocoa agroforests and other tree crop systems to identify factors of system sustainability and link to the global environmental debateslopportunities on carbon trading and biodiversity.Identify sustainable management practices, increase availability, and use of environmentally friendly production and postharvest technologies, while raising profitability and productivity of smallholder cocoa and oil palm systems.Establish multi-product cocoa and oil palm systems that are productive in deforested lands through strategies integrating resource management, pest and disease management, and crop and varietal choice.Identify cultural methods in combination with limited chemical use to reduce yield loss due to black pod disease in shaded multi-strata cocoa agroforest systems.Market-oriented peri-urban crop and livestock systems Develop market-oriented peri-urban cropping systems and integrated c r o p livestock systems in the humid and subhumid zones that exploit market opportunities, while making more economical and environmentally sound use of external and internal inputs adapted to different cropping sequences and management practices.Commercial fresh cassava systems: design and test intensive and sustainable crop rotations for fresh cassava, in order to generate income notably for resource-poor women. (Linked closely to Output 2 on cassava systems.)Commercial maize-grain legume systems: develop sustainable intensive crop rotations of maize and grain legumes in order to exploit niche markets for new products, e.g., new foods and animal feed. (Linked closely to the Savanna Systems Project.)Improving integration between crop and livestock: develop, test, and integrate into farming systems croplivestock management strategies integrating crop selection, nutrient management, and livestock options in a n environmentally sound manner while protecting the health of animals and humans. Target systems include aquaculture, pig, and poultry systems, and peri-urban dairy production, which add value to crops and recycle nutrients.Integrated farm and landscape management options Assess agroecosystems at the household, community, and landscape levels through dynamic systems analysis, and determine farmers' management strategies and stakeholder roles in targeted study areas of the humid and subhumid zone, e.g., benchmark areas.Develop, test, and integrate into rural livelihood systems strategies for the improvement of farming systems productivity and sustainable use of the resource base a t the household, community, and regional levels in the targeted study areas.Generate and disseminate among local and national policymakers policy and institutional options to improve farming systems productivity and sustainable use of the resource base at the household, community, and regional levels.Characterize and delineate appropriate recommendation domains for targeting experimentation and dissemination permitting efficient extrapolation of research results from selected research sites/villages to the entire benchmark areas and beyond their boundaries into larger ecologies the benchmark areas represent. Identify stakeholder networks to validate innovations beyond initial study areas and groups.Strengthening institutions and outreach Promulgation of best options: make innovations actively available to the target communities for self-promulgation through stakeholder networks and assess the extent of and constraints to the up-take of innovations.Information dissemination: test and disseminate information resources (written, audio, visual) through stakeholder networks.Capacity building: enhance capacity of stakeholders to develop, test, and implement innovations through formal and informal, group and individual, and information sharing and experiential learning techniques.Productive plantain systemsPlantain is an important subsistence and cash crop in the humid zones of West and Central Africa. Local and subregional markets already exist and it is a preferred starchy stable in many urban communities. This project will enhance income-generating opportunities for the farmer and the rural community.Traditionally, plantain has been planted into cleared forest fields. However, with less forest or long fallow land available, plantain production has been displaced into land with shorter fallows. These production systems experience declines in yield due to reduced soil fertility and greater pest and disease pressures. This project will develop sustainable systems for already deforested land and contribute to reducing pressure on forests.Intensified cassava systems Besides being the major subsistence starchy crop in the humid and subhumid region, cassava is an important food crop of the growing urban centers. In addition, there are developing market opportunities in the starch and livestock feed industry. This project will develop opportunities that will increase income for producers and transformers, as well as provide for the increasing demand of the urban population.Significant progress is being made on improving the germplasm for greater yield and disease resistance. Greater yield, however, can lead to soil degradation, if not accompanied by nutrient and soil management strategies.This project will develop systems that will prevent decline in the natural resource base.Biological control approaches have led and are leading to the control of key cassava pests, though important challenges still remain. This project will contribute to the development of economically and environmentally sustainable systems.Small-scale postharvest equipment have been developed and are being integrated into farming systems through development organizations. This project will test innovative approaches to link the producers with the processors and end-users towards developing efficient and profitable market chains.Yam is a traditional African crop and increasing in importance. Urban consumption studies in the humid and subhumid zones of several West and Central African countries have indicated that a s incomes rise, yam (and plantain) is preferentially consumed compared to other starchy staples. This project will develop systems that allow producers to exploit these opportunities.Yam requires relatively fertile soils to produce well, especially for high quality yam. As pressure on land increases and fallows shorten or disappear, yam productivity has declined due to lower soil fertility and greater pest and disease pressure (particularly, nematodes, anthracnose, and viruses). This project will develop systems that allow the intensification of yam production in a sustainable way, providing income as well as protecting the resource base.Storage loss and options for transformation are key factors limiting marketability of this crop. This project will identify opportunities to reduce losses and increase marketability.Tree crops play a strategic role in smallholder agriculture, account for a large share of agricultural trade, are an area of strength and comparative advantage for the region, and can contribute substantially to sustaining biodiversity and carbon stocks and to the sound management of natural resources. This project will build on the strengths to develop options to further the income of smallholder farmers while improving on the efficiency of the marketing chain and enhancing the environmental services of tree crops.Nevertheless, tree crops systems in West and Central Africa encounter varying levels of development-related constraints: soil fertility, pest and germplasm limitations; low farmgate prices for products; limited availability of and access to technology for production, postharvest, and processing; unresponsive and expensive input supply systems; low organizational and management skills of farmer associations and groups; controversial labor practices; inefficient marketing channels; inadequate access to information; poor infrastructure to support trade and investment; lack of a policy or incentive environment to encourage competition and investment. This project will develop an integrated producer-to-user approach across the commodity chain to improve the opportunities of the smallholder tree crop farmer.Traditionally, tree crops have been planted into fully or partially cleared forest fields. However, with less forestland available, existing tree crop systems need to be rehabilitated and new systems established on already deforested land. This project will develop such management options and systems for fallow land.Market-oriented peri-urban crop and livestock systems Urban populations in the region are increasing a t several times the rate of national averages. This results in increasing and diverse urban market opportunities for agricultural products, i.e. crop, livestock and fish. The farming communities in the vicinity of these peri-urban areas are in a prime position to respond to these opportunities due to greater access to inputs, markets, and availability of labor. This project will help identify these opportunities and develop them together with the necessary stakeholders to generate income for the peri-urban farmers while supplying the urban demand.Farmers are already adopting intensive short fallow or continuously cropped and simplified field systems for primarily commercial purposes. Examples include high-value horticultural, green maize, and cassava monocrops, which are frequently integrated into cropping rotations with staple food crops. This project will initially focus on the development of sustainable and profitable management practices for fresh cassava systems and maize-grain legume systems. Additionally, it will seek the partnerships necessary for the development of the indigenous leafy green vegetable sector.The crops in the per-urban systems are often the only ones where fertilizers and pesticides are applied. However, uninformed use of these inputs, often in combination with continuous cropping, has led to significant concerns regarding resource use efficiency, environmental impact, and health risks. This project will test integrated soil fertility and crop protection measures to reduce this risk.One the one hand, limited use is being made of the synergies inherent in the integration of crop and livestock production systems. And on the other, uncontrolled growth of livestock enterprises can result in environmental pollution and illness to animals and humans. This project will initially focus on developing integrated aquaculture-agricultural systems for the forest margins together with ICLARM.The targeted cropping and land use systems in this project generally only make up part of the portfolio of farming activities of rural households in the humid and subhumid wne of West and Central Africa. Willingness of farmers to take up innovations will also depend on the relative allocation of resources to these other activities. This project will evaluate opportunities and innovations based on the overall conditions encountered by the farmers.Particularly in the humid zone, agriculture and forest management! conservation interface. This can lead to conflicts between different stakeholders. Furthermore, land with specific characteristics is often allocated preferentially to specific cropping systems. This requires a spatial understanding of household and community decisions on resource use. This project will interface across disciplines and institutions to identify alternative land use opportunities also at a spatial level.Integration of innovations by farming households is a social process. Technology development alone is not adequate to ensure adoption beyond the test sites. This project will endeavor to include the social component as a n integral part of its approach.The policy and institutional environment (e.g., related to markets, credits, and input supply) can influence the uptake of innovations by farmers and rural communities. At the same time, feedback needs to be provided to policymakers on options. This project will take these factors into consideration as it develops strategies and will also relay its findings to policymakers a t different levels.Strengthening institutions and outreach IITA can only work together with its partners in defined locations. To ensure sustainability of the research effort, translation of this into real change on the ground, and reaching beyond the original research locations, it is necessary to develop information resources and strengthen local and regional institutions. This project will actively promulgate its innovations to its partners and stakeholders in the region.Initially 10 years, and to be reviewed periodically. New knowledge generated and incorporated into the design of improved crop and livestock systems being tested in two benchmark areas.TechnoloPical recommendations for maximizing reci~rocal crowlivestock ben---efits in moist and dry savanna benchmark areas are available and tested on farm in collaboration with NARES partners in a t least 2 benchmark areas.Best bet technological options for sustainably improving productivity of selected intense farming systems developed and are available and tested on farm in collaboration with NARES partners in moist and dry savanna benchmark areas.NARES capability for maintaining continuity of research effort unaided and strengthened by improving research-extension-NGO-Private sector-farmer linkages.NARES (National Agricultural Research and Extension Services), NGOs and private sector will have access to improved technologies for intensified cropflivestock system management. Farmers are the ultimate clients and will increasingly use innovative technologies (such as the use of improved germplasm, more efficient weed control, balanced nutrient management, better tillage practices and exploitation of the advantages of association with livestock.) resulting in more sustainable production systems.      ","tokenCount":"12727"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cd2dcc95ca7416e78b29abefc563459f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f6ebd124-4740-444e-8221-96f05f5b055f/content","id":"1967846865"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"648c7261-b397-4b7e-854a-f0590b62947c","pagecount":"17","content":"Crop-wild introgressions have long been exploited without knowing the favorable recombination points. Synthetic hexaploid wheats are one of the most exploited genetic resources for bread wheat improvement. However, despite some QTL with major effects, much less is known about genomewide patterns of introgressions and their effects on phenotypes. We used two genome-wide association approaches: SNP-GWAS and haplotype-GWAS to identify SNPs and haplotypes associated with productivity under water-limited conditions in a synthetic-derived wheat (SYN-DER) population. Haplotype-GWAS further enriched and identified 20 more genomic regions associated with drought adaptability that did not overlap with SNP-GWAS. Since GWAS is biased to the phenotypes in the study and may fail to detect important genetic diversity during breeding, we used five complementary analytical approaches (t-test, Tajima's D, nucleotide diversity (p), Fst, and EigenGWAS) to identify divergent selections in SYN-DER compared to modern bread wheat. These approaches consistently pinpointed 89 'selective sweeps', out of which 30 selection loci were identified on D-genome. These key selections co-localized with important functional genes of adaptive traits such as TaElf3-D1 (1D) for earliness per se (Eps), TaCKX-D1 (3D), TaGS1a (6D) and TaGS-D1 (7D) for grain size, weight and morphology, TaCwi-D1 (5D) influencing drought tolerance, and Vrn-D3 (7D) for vernalization. Furthermore, 55 SNPs and 23 haplotypes of agronomic and physiological importance such as grain yield, relative water content and thousand grain weight in SYN-DER, were among the top 5% of divergent selections contributed by synthetic hexaploid wheats. These divergent selections associated with improved agronomic performance carry new alleles that have been introduced to wheat. Our results demonstrated that GWAS and selection sweep analyses are powerful approaches for investigating favorable introgressions under strong selection pressure and the use of crop-wild hybridization to assist the improvement of wheat yield and productivity under moisture limiting environments.synthetic-derived wheats (SYN-DER) genome-wide association studies (GWAS) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) haplotype analysis selective sweeps Genetic variation in food crops has been successfully exploited through conventional breeding over the last century, resulting in 0.8-1.2% annual genetic yield gain in five major food crops including wheat (Ray et al., 2013). However, this rate of genetic gain is insufficient to achieve the 100% increase in production target needed to meet global demand for food, feed, and fiber by 2050 (Tilman et al., 2011). A steady increase in genetic gain is required to fulfill the demands of the 2% yearly increase in world population. Such an increase is challenging because there is little scope to improve harvest index due to the genetic bottleneck introduced by modern crop improvement practices reliant on few parents. Furthermore, weather extremes and continuously shrinking arable land are additional challenges to increasing yield and yield stability in diverse environments (Xu et al., 2017). In conventional wheat breeding, a limited proportion of the genetic variation available in the bread wheat genepool for abiotic and biotic stress tolerance and quality attributes has been explored to maximize genetic gain. Some estimate that 69% of genetic diversity has been lost through domestication and modern breeding (Reif et al., 2005). Re-introducing lost genetic diversity from wheat wild relatives by integration of molecular genetics and conventional breeding technologies is one way to bridge this gap (Rasheed et al., 2018).Exploiting crop wild relatives for quantitative traits is challenging because the germplasm may be too diverse to be used directly and a prebreeding process will be required. Therefore, genetic approaches such as large-scale and systematic identification and characterization of quantitative trait loci (QTL) through GWAS could help to identify alleles or haplotypes that may not exist in crop cultivars but could be incorporated into the existing elite gene pool (Bevan et al., 2017). Synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW) developed by hybridizing Aegilops tauschii, D-genome donor to bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), is a source of genetic diversity and favorable alleles for tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Börner et al., 2015;Mujeeb-Kazi et al., 1996;Ogbonnaya et al., 2013). Synthetic hexaploid wheat and their advanced derivatives (SYN-DERs) have potential to improve drought-and heat-adaptive mechanisms in bread wheat (Afzal et al., 2017;Reynolds et al., 2005). SYN-DERs have outperformed their recurrent parents under drought stress and have proved to be high yielding compared to non-synthetic wheat in various studies (Jafarzadeh et al., 2016;Lopes and Reynolds 2011;Tang et al., 2017). Despite several GWAS and QTL mapping studies available in synthetic hexaploid wheats (Ogbonnaya et al., 2013;Rasheed et al., 2018), underpinning the recombinations favoring a yield-advantage in SYN-DER is lacking. Unlocking the genetic potential of genetic resources requires whole-genome sequence coverage through nextgeneration sequencing; however large wheat genome-size (16Gb) and incomplete reference genome makes this unfeasible. Alternatively, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) arrays can be used to define genomic regions associated with quantitative traits due to their dense genome coverage (Akhunov et al., 2009;Rasheed et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2014).SNPs have been extensively used in mapping experiments to identify the genetic loci associated with important agronomic phenotypes. In human genetic studies, haplotype blocks combining two or more SNPs in strong LD are more informative than single bi-allelic SNPs (Stephens et al., 2001). Lorenz et al. (2010) defined haplotypes by several analytical procedures in barley and confirmed that the distribution of QTL alleles in nature was unlike the distribution of marker variants, and hence utilizing haplotype information could capture associations that would elude single SNPs. Haplotype based GWAS analyses are still rare in wheat except for few studies (Hao et al., 2017;Jordan et al., 2015), and have shown promise in Brassica (Wu et al., 2016), barley (Lorenz et al., 2010) and other crop species (Qian et al., 2017). Bevan et al. (2017) argued that haplotypes in progenitors and wild relatives of crops contain a broad range of genetic variation and identification of haplotypes with fewer deleterious alleles and improved phenotypes could accelerate genetic gain in crop improvement. Such GWAS approaches either with bi-allelic SNPs or haplotypes could be combined with genome-wide selective sweeps which identifies selection signatures that are beneficial for crop adaptation. Crop breeding selects favorable alleles and retains them in new cultivars. These signatures of selection can be detected by a cross-population comparison approach (Chen et al. 2010). Several lines of evidence have shown that that genomic regions that exhibit selection signatures are also enriched for genes associated with biologically important traits (Xie et al. 2015). Therefore, detection of selection signatures is emerging as an additional approach to identify and validate novel gene-trait associations (Cadzow et al. 2014).This study aimed to identify the chromosomal regions under divergent selection in SYN-DER wheat by comparison to modern bread wheat cultivars widely grown in the same environments. We used two GWAS strategies (SNP-GWAS and haplotype-GWAS) to identify marker-trait associations under divergent selection in SYN-DERs.A total of 240 hexaploid wheat accessions including 171 SYN-DER wheats and 69 modern bread wheat cultivars and advanced lines were assessed (Table S1). Among the modern bread wheat cultivars, 32 were recurrent bread wheat parents used in the development of SYN-DER. These SYN-DERs were developed by crossing primary SHWs with advanced lines and elite cultivars of Pakistan and CIMMYT (see pedigrees in Table S1). More than 800 SYN-DERs were developed initially at the National Agriculture Research Center (NARC), Pakistan. This was reduced to 171 following re-selection for better agronomic characteristics. Field trials were conducted at two locations during the 2014-15 and 2015-16 cropping seasons at the Barani Agriculture Research Institute (BARI), Chakwal (33°40 / 38 // N 72°51 / 21 // E, 498m asl), Pakistan and the National Agriculture Research Center (NARC), Islamabad (33°43 / N 73°04 / E, 579 asl), Pakistan. At each location/year, field trials were conducted in two water regimes i.e., well-watered (WW) and water-limited (WL) conditions. Chakwal is a rain-fed, semi-arid area lies at the beginning of the Potohar plateau. The deep, well-drained soil comprises moderately fine textured particles. It is slightly calcareous, non-saline, with pH 7.6 and an electrical conductivity of 0.32 dS/m (Islam et al. 2012). Average rainfall during cropping season in 2014 was 20 mm and was 22.14 mm in 2015. A field experiment with an alpha lattice design was set up in both WW and WL conditions. The first environmental condition was established as wellwatered (WW) in which all genotypes with two replications were planted in the field. Three irrigations were given to well-watered (WW) plants, and soil moisture was maintained at field capacity (100%) until harvest. The second environmental condition was waterlimited (WL) in which all genotypes were planted with two replications in a polyethylene tunnel supported by an iron frame to provide shelter from precipitation. A 1-m deep ditch surrounded the tunnel to prevent any seepage of rainwater. Irrigation was stopped at the end of tillering through the completion of the flowering stage. The crop growth stages were determined using the Zadoks scale (Zadoks et al. 1974). Two 2-m long rows were sown with each genotype with two replications, maintaining an inter-row spacing of 30 cm for both treatments. The sowing date was November 20 in both years. To establish uniform stands, we sowed 30 viable seeds of variable kernel mass with the help of small plot grain drill for each row. To ensure sufficient nutrition, standard agronomic practices were followed.Phenotypic traits recorded at each location included chlorophyll content index (CCI), total chlorophyll (Chl), canopy temperature (CT), number of grains per spike (GS), grain yield (GY), plant height (PH), proline, relative water contents (RWC), shoot dry weight (SDW), shoot fresh weight (SFW), spike length (SL), superoxide dismutase (SOD), sugar contents (Sugar), thousand grain weight (TGW), and tillers per plant (TP). Specific suffixes were provided to each trait according to the water treatment e.g., GY WW (GY in well-watered treatment), GY WL (GY in water-limited treatment), and GY DIFF (GY for difference in well-watered and water-limited treatments).A chlorophyll meter of model CCM200 plus was used to measure chlorophyll content index. Similarly, canopy temperature was measured using an infrared thermometer IRT206 at booting stage (Z45) (Zadoks et al. 1974). Plant height was measured from the base of the plant to the spike excluding awns at Z96 stage. Similarly, number of tillers per plant (TP) and spike length (SL) excluding awns were recorded for ten spikes from each replicate. Number of grains per spike were calculated after harvesting on the same 10 random spikes and thousand grain weight was recorded.For biochemical analysis, fresh leaf samples were collected at the onset of flowering stage (Z60) (Zadoks et al. 1974). Sugar contents or soluble sugar in leaves were estimated (Dobois et al. 1956). For this purpose, 0.5 g of fresh leaf tissues were taken with 10 mL of ethanol and were heated at 80°in for one hour with continuous shaking. One mL phenol (18%) was added to the 0.5 ml of pre-heated extract and incubated for one hour. After this, 2.5 mL of concentrated H 2 S0 4 was added and vortexed. The extract was used to measure absorbance at 420 nm by a UV spectrophotometer (Biochem-2100) and the concentration of soluble sugar was measured using a standard glucose curve.Total chlorophyll was measured using dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) (Hiscox and Israelstam 1979). Briefly, 0.5 gram of leaf tissues were taken in a preheated tube filled with 6 mL DMSO. Material was heated in a hot water bath at 65°for 35-40 min. Then extract was transferred to a new tube and DMSO was added until total volume reaches 10 mL. Finally, total chlorophyll contents were measured by recording absorbance of the extract at 660 nm using RS-1100 equipment and fitting into the equation of Arnon (1949).Proline was measured following protocol of Bates et al. (1973). For this, 0.3 g of fresh leaf sample was homogenized with 5 mL of sulfosalyclic acid (3%) in a test tube. Then two mL of mixture was added to 2 mL of glacial acetic acid and 2 mL of ninhydrin and incubated for one hour at 100°. The reaction was stopped with ice and then four mL toluene was added to reaction mixture. The mixture absorbance value recorded at 420 nm using UV spectrophotometer. A standard curve was made using authentic proline and proline was calculated as mmol/g.The concentration of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in leaf was measured with following protocol. First 0.5 g of fresh wheat leaf samples were ground in a chilled mortar and pestle with 10 mL of chilled phosphate buffer (50 mM) in an ice bath. The mixture was centrifuged at 13,000 RPM at 4°for 25 min and was filtered in four layers of cheesecloth. The supernatant obtained was used to assay SOD activity (Beauchamp and Fridovich 1971;Giannopolistis and Ries 1977). The extract obtained was illuminated under 40 W fluorescent lamps at 25°w ith 100 mL of 1.3 mM riboflavin and 3 mL of 0.1 M SOD buffer for 8 min until a dark color appeared. For the samples from well-water conditions, the same protocol was followed but in darkness. A blank check without any leaf sample was prepared. The absorbance of all three mixtures was measured at 560 nm in the UV spectrophotometer.The concentration of SOD is the quantity of enzyme preventing 50% of photoreduction by nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) in contrast to the sample mixture that lacks plant material.Relative water content (RWC) was measured as per method devised by Bar and Weatherly (1962) with slight modifications. Three fully expanded flag leaves from randomly chosen plants in each plot were collected from both environmental conditions (WW and WL) at Z45 of booting stage (Zadoks et al. 1974). Top and bottom of the leaves with any dead tissue was removed off to leave a 5 cm mid-section. All samples were then immediately placed in pre-weighed air tight falcon tubes to stop any moisture loss/gain from the system. Tubes were then transferred to a cooled and insulated container (at around 10°-15°; but not frozen). All tubes with sample were then weighed and recorded under TW + FW. Tubes were then filled with 1 mL of distilled water and placed in refrigerator (4°) for 24h. This will make leave turgid. After carefully blotting with dry paper to remove moisture, hydrated leaves were weighed and recorded under TW. All leaf samples were then transferred to labeled envelopes to oven (70°) for 24h. Samples were then reweighed and recorded under DW. RWC was measured by using formulae; Leaf RWCð%Þ ¼ ½ðFW-DWÞ=ðTW-DWÞ • 100 where FW = leaf fresh weight, TW = leaf turgid weight, and DW = leaf dry weight.Five viable seeds of each genotype were planted in 5 cm diameter pots. DNA was extracted per the CIMMYT Molecular Genetics Manual (Dreisigacker et al., 2013) from fresh leaf samples of 25-day-old seedlings. DNA samples (50-100 ng/ml per sample) were sent to Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia for genotyping with high-density wheat 90K infinium SNP array (Wang et al., 2014). Genotypic clusters for every SNP were determined following the manual for Genome Studio version 1.9.4 with the polyploid clustering version 1.0.0 (Illumina; http://www.illumina.com), based on the data from all the genotypes.The physical position of SNPs on the wheat genome were determined based on IWGSC RefSeq version 1.0 (IWGSC 2018). Polymorphism information content (PIC) was used to determine genetic diversity at each locus. Markers with ambiguous SNP calls, that were monomorphic or with missing values of more than 20% and less than 5% MAF (minor allele frequency) were removed from the dataset. Genetic similarities between wheat genotypes were estimated using PowerMarker v.3.0 with a Dice coefficient based on the proportion of shared alleles (Liu and Muse 2005).Population structure was assessed with 1000 unlinked SNP markers using STRUCTURE software 2.3.3, which implements a model-based Bayesian cluster analysis. Structure matrix (Q-matrix) was formed by organization of all population entries into clusters. An assumed number of subpopulation (k) ranging from 1 to 10 was evaluated using 100,000 burn-in iterations followed by 500,000 recorded Markov-Chain iterations. Robustness (sampling variance) of inferred population structure was estimated by carrying out 10 independent runs for each k. The optimum number of subpopulations was determined utilizing ADHOC statistics Dk based on the rate of change in log probability of data between successive k (Evanno et al. 2005).Genome-wide linkage disequilibrium (LD) was evaluated across A, B and D genomes. Using TASSEL v.5.0, the LD parameter r 2 was calculated for all the pairwise markers which could be aligned to the consensus map for both entire panel and model-based subgroups. To examine LD due to the physical linkage in particular, the critical r 2 value (Breseghello and Sorrells 2006) was investigated. This was calculated by taking the 95 th percentile of the square root transformed r 2 data of unlinked markers (Breseghello and Sorrells 2006). An r 2 beyond the critical r 2 value was declared to be caused by genetic linkage. Only the LD pairs significant at (P , 0.001) were included in LD decay plots and stacked bar plots.The phenotypic data were collected from the two locations over two consecutive years under well-watered and water-limited conditions. The data were averaged for both years x locations leading to two datasets i.e., well-watered and water-limited for each trait. ANOVA was used to test the statistical significance of different sources of variation for each of the nine traits. In the ANOVA model, phenotypic effect was partitioned into overall mean, treatment effect, replication (i.e., block) within environment (year and location combination) effect, genotypic effect, environment effect, genotype by environment effect, genotype by treatment effect, and random error effect. Let y lijk be the observed value of a trait of interest for the i th accession in the k th replication under the j th environment (equivalent to location and year in this study) and the l th treatment. The linear model used in ANOVA is therefore,[1] where l = 1, 2, ..., L (L = 2 for well-watered and water-limited treatments), i = 1, 2, ..., n (n = 203), j = 1, 2, ..., e (e = 4 with two locations and two years), k = 1, 2, ..., r (r = 2), is overall mean of the whole population, R k/j is the k th replication effect in the j th environment, G i is genotypic effect of the i th accession, E j is environmental effect of the j th environment, GE ij is interaction effect between the i th accession and the j th environment, GD il is interaction effect between the i th accession and the l th treatment, and e lijk is random error effect which was assumed to be normally distributed with a mean of zero, and variance s 2 e . The ANOVA described above was implemented with the GLM procedure in SAS software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, 2007).The BLUP of genotypic value for each accession under each water treatment was used as the phenotype for all subsequent comparisons. BLUPs were calculated as follows: the observed value of trait was defined as y ijk for the i th accession in the kth replication in the j th environment (equivalent to location and year in this study). The mixed model used for BLUP was therefore,where i = 1, 2, ..., n (n = 203), j = 1, 2, ..., e (e = 4 with two locations and two years), k = 1, 2, ..., r (r = 2), m, R k/j , G i , E j , and GE ij were the same as the description above. Except for, all the effects were viewed as random effects following the normal distributions R k=j Nð0; E , and s 2 GE were the variances explained by replication, genotype, environment, and genotype by environment interaction, respectively. The BLUPs were calculated with the MIXED procedure in SAS software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, 2007).Genome-wide association analysis using SNP markers: For markertrait associations (MTAs), a mixed linear regression (MLM) model controlling both population structure (Q matrix) and kinship matrix (K matrix) was applied in TASSEL Standalone v.5.0 (Yu and Buckler 2006). Quantile-quantile plots of estimated vs. observed P values from MTAs were also produced and deviations from the expectation demonstrated that statistical analysis might cause spurious associations. Bonferroni corrections were applied, and a P-value of 10 25 was defined as the threshold for significant MTAs. SNPs with P-values in the range of 10 23 -10 24 for one trait and P-values ,10 25 for another trait were also reported. The LD decay distance at r 2 = 0.1 was used as the support interval to avoid multiple significance within one LD block.Genome-wide haplotype blocks and haplotype-GWAS: Genomewide haplotype blocks were constructed using PLINK with the default parameters as used by Haploview 4.2 software package (http:// www.broadinstitute.org/haploview/haploview). The package defined haplotype blocks based on 4 gametes, and provided the number of haplo-groups and their genetic length (bp) for each block, as well as the number of tag SNPs based on solid spine of linkage disequilibrium (LD) (Extend spine if D9.0.8). In brief, this meant that the first and the last marker in a block were in strong LD with the intermediate markers that were not necessarily in LD with each other. All the haplotype blocks consisting of two haplo-groups were removed to rule out perfect LD and similarity to SNP polymorphism. Haplotype frequency was calculated using a custom Perl script. If a haplotype block is only observed in one group (SYN-DER or BW) but not in the other group, it is considered to be a group-specific block. If a haplotype block was simultaneously detected in both groups, the haplotype block was considered to be a common block. Haplotype-GWAS was performed using the linear regression procedure implemented in PLINK (Purcell et al., 2007), where phenotype BLUPs were regressed on the number of haplo-groups of a particular haplotype using PLINK linear option, including population structure as covariate. The P-value threshold of 10 25 was defined to declare haplo-groups associated with phenotypes.Identification of loci Under selection for selective sweeps: Five statistical methods/parameters were used to detect the loci under selection. (1) Difference in allele frequencies for the m th marker locus between the bread wheat (BW) set and the SYN-DER set were tested by Student's t-test:, f 1 and f 2 were the allele frequencies of a specific marker locus in the BW and SYN-DER sets, respectively, and n 1 and n 2 were the sample sizes in the BW and SYN-DER sets, respectively. The population-specific alleles were determined for each subpopulation based on zero allele frequency in one subpopulation and non-zero in another subpopulation; and different allele frequencies between two subpopulations at significance level P , 0.001.(2) Fst was calculated for individual SNPs by where f and s 2 f were the mean and variance of allele frequencies, respectively, (Weir and Cockerham 1984). VCFtools (https://vcftools.github.io/index.html) were used to calculate Fst with a sliding window of 100 kb and a step size of 10 kb (Schmutz et al., 2014) over the whole genome, and the regions with the top 5% of Fst values were regarded as highly diverged across the two groups.(3) A search for loci under selection using genome-wide association of eigenvectors was implemented by EigenGWAS (Chen et al., 2016) requiring three steps. First, a genetic relationship matrix was generated for the 235 accessions, 69 from BW set and 171 from SYN-DER panel. Assuming that X i ¼ ðx i1 ; x i2 ; :::; x iM Þ T was a vector of genotype for the i th individual, where x was the number of the alleles and M was the number of marker loci, the genetic relationship matrix A for each pair of 240 accessions was calculated bywhere f m is the allele frequency for the m th marker locus. Second, the principle component analysis (PCA) was conducted on the A matrix (Price et al. 2006). Then matrix E with dimension N•C was retained, where E c was the eigenvector corresponding to the c th largest eigenvector. In this study, c was set as 10 to calculate the top 10 eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Finally, single marker regression on E c was conducted to estimate the effect of each marker. Further, (4) Tajima's D, and (5) nucleotide diversity (p) relative to the founder population (p SYN-DER /p BW ) were calculated using VARISCAN version 2.0 with a sliding window of 100 kb and a step size of 10 kb.A total of 19,676 SNPs was retained after quality control (Table 1). SNP marker density on each wheat chromosome is visualized in Figure 1a.PIC value was highest on chromosomes 5A and 6A (0.35) and least on chromosomes 3D and 5D (0.19). Overall, PIC value was highest on the A genome (0.34) followed by the B genome (0.33) and D genome    2a and 2b. There was a significant difference between SYN-DER and BW for number of haplotypes and haplotype block size (kb); 23% of haplotypes were divergent in SYN-DER at chromosomal positions where BW did not generate any haplotype (Supplementary Table S2).PCA with high quality SNP markers clearly separated bread wheat cultivars from SYN-DER in various sub-clusters (Figure 1b). The first five principal components explained 39.7% of the total variability. Population structure based on PCA is presented in Figure 1c, where the first three PCs are presented as a 3D biplot. All the BW cultivars were in different clusters from SYN-DERs except those that were used in developing SYN-DERs.LD was estimated by r 2 at P # 0.001 from all pairs of SNPs along each chromosome. Pairs of loci in significant LD on the sub-genome level was 45.55%, 47.47% and 35.85% on A, B and D genomes, respectively (Table 2). The average r 2 of genome-wide LD was 0.22 in the A genome, 0.25 in the B genome and 0.36 in the D genome. The proportion of pairs of markers in complete LD was 2.97%, 4.43% and 4.75% on the A, B and D genomes, respectively. The extent and distribution of LD were graphically displayed in decay plots and bar plots between the fraction of SNP pairs in SYN-DER by plotting intrachromosomal r 2 values for loci in significant LD at P # 0.001 against the genetic distance in kb and a second-degree LOESS curve was fitted (Figure 3). The critical value for significance of r 2 was estimated as 0.22 according to Breseghello and Sorrells (2006), and thus all values of r 2 . 0.22 were estimated to be due to genetic linkage.Estimates of variance components showed significant differences among locations, treatments and genotypes for all traits. All the traits showed significant variations in WW and WL conditions in both SYN-DER and BW datasets (Figure S1). All the agronomic traits including GY, GS, PH, TP and TGW were significantly reduced by 19.4% (TGW) to 62.8% (GY) under WL conditions. However, CT, SOD, Sugar, Chl and Proline were significantly increased by 10.3% (CT) to 22.3% (SOD). In the WW environment, very high heritability (0.79 -0.92) was observed for almost all physiological traits. In diversity panel, SYN-DER showed high performance on an average for all traits, for example GY in WL conditions was 16.7% higher in SYN-DER as compared to BW and can be visualized in violin distribution plots (Figure S1). In the WW environment, GY was positively correlated with SL (r = 0.29), TP (r = 0.61), GS (r = 0.40), and TGW (r = 0.74). Among biochemical traits, Chl was positively correlated with Sugar (r = 0.37), while proline was positively correlated with GS (r = 0.43) and SL (r = 0.28) (Figure S2). Other biochemical components had moderate to low correlation with grain yield and yield components. In the WL environment, GY was positively correlated with TGW (r = 0.66), GS (r = 0.72) and SL (r = 0.53), while SDW was negatively correlated with PH (r = -0.14) and Chl was negatively correlated with CTspike (r = -0.16) (Figure S2).A total of 181 loci were associated with 15 phenotypes in SNP-GWAS, of which 66 were in WW conditions, 67 in WL and 62 were associated with the difference between WW and WL (DIFF) conditions (Table 3; Table S3). Of these 181 loci, 55 SNPs were located on the D genome, 22 of which were also identified as selective sweeps. An important chromosomal region on 1A between 512.2 to 574.3 Mb was associated with multiple physiological traits including RWC, CCI, SFW and SOD (Table S3). Nine SNPs were associated with GY WW , three with GY WL , and one with GY DIFF , of these four were located within selective sweep regions. Six SNPs were associated with GS WW , two with GS WL , and one with GS DIFF . Of these, two were distributed on chromosomes 1A and 6D that were under selection (Table S3). For TGW, an important yield component trait, three SNPs were associated with TGW WW , six with TGW WL , and 10 with TGW DIFF . Among these, six SNPs were under selective sweeps, two of which were located on the D genome (i.e., chromosomes 3D and 7D). Three important loci were associated with phenotypic traits under both WW and WL conditions including SNP IWB20120 on chromosome 1A which was associated with sugar contents, IWB2303 on chromosome 1D linked to RWC and IWB8919 on chromosome 5B associated with TGW (Table 3).In haplotype-GWAS, 127 haplotypes were associated with phenotypes under different water regimes. Of these, 71 were identified in WW, 43 in WL and 20 in 'Diff' (Table 4; Table S4). Co-localization of loci under divergent selection and haplotype-GWAS identified 23 loci within the regions under selection in SYN-DERs (Table 4 and Supplementary Table S4). Only eight loci were common under both SNP-GWAS and haplotype-GWAS, including Hap-2B-RWC2, Hap-2B-CCI, Hap-3D-SFW1, Hap-4A-PH1, Hap-5A-GY2, Hap-7A-RWC1, n Table 3 a Chl: chlorophyll contents (mg/g); CCI: chlorophyll content index; CT: Canopy temperature (°C); GS: grains per spike; GY: grain yield (g m -2 ); PH: plant height (cm);Proline (mmol/g); RWC: relative water contents (%); SDW: shoot dry weight (g); SFW: shoot fresh weight (g); Sugar (mg/g); TGW: thousand grain weight (g); TP: tillers per plant.b MAF: Minor allele frequency. c Position of SNP based on IWGSC Ref sequence version 1.0 (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/blast_iwgsc/blast.php) d P-value significance for marker-trait associations in well-watered (WW), water-limited (WL) and difference between well-watered and water-limited (DIFF) conditions. e Co-localization of marker-trait associations with divergent selective sweeps (in case of p-value) and/or functional genes.GY WL by 39.7 to 87.2 gm-2 . Similarly, the favored SNP alleles gave an advantage of 2.9-6.3% for RWC WL . Three haplotype blocks; Hap2A-RWC1, Hap3B-RWC1 and Hap7A-RWC1 were associated with RWC WL and consisted of 3, 6, and 4 haplo-groups, respectively (Figure 6b,c,d). The favored haplo-groups in each haplotype block were associated with 3.4-8.7% increases in RWC WL .Divergent selections and their co-localization With drought QTL in SYN-DER wheats Genome-wide divergent selection was investigated in SYN-DER by comparing allele frequencies in the two panels. Five different approaches were used to provide complementary information (Figure 8; Table S5). The Student's t-test was used to identify significantly different allele frequencies (Table S5; Figure 5). Fst was calculated with a sliding window approach and only the top 5% of Fst values were regarded as selective loci. This was further validated by a new EigenGWAS approach where eigenvectors were used as phenotypes for GWAS. Tajima's D and p were calculated in each of the subpopulations. All the results were analyzed comparatively to identify genomic regions consistently under divergent selection in SYN-DER. In total, 291 SNPs representing selective sweep were narrowed down to 89 loci based on the LD (r 2 . 0.7). These 89 loci or divergent selections were present on all 21 chromosomes (Table S5). The number of loci under divergent selection differed among the three genomes, and the most loci were located on the D-genome (32), followed by the B-(29) and A-genomes (28). Similarly, EigenGWAS was plotted against SNP-GWAS and haplotype-GWAS to highlight GY and RWC associated loci under divergent selection (Figure 5b and Figure 7b, respectively). Among these loci, 31 were regarded as 'hard sweeps' where contrasting alleles were fixed (MAF . 0.9) in both subsets or where the -log(P) value for EigenGWAS was among the top 5% (Table S5). Based on the extent of LD in the SYN-DER panel, 20 loci were within the close proximity of functional genes such as Elf3-D1 and Vrn-D3 for flowering time, TaCwi-A1, TaCKX-D1, TaSus1-7A, and TaGS-D1 for grain size and weight, and 1fehw3, TaMoc1 and SST-A1 for sugar metabolism and transport (see Table S5 for complete list of genes).Genetic diversity in SYN-DER Crop wild relatives provide enhanced diversity and new favorable genes and gene recombinations that potentially increase additive variation for traits of breeding interest. The goat grass (Ae. tauschii) reference genome sequence has recently been published (Luo et al., 2017;Luo et al., 2013;Zhao et al., 2017). This sequence is an important tool for better understanding of wheat biology, adaptation and productivity. In parallel, Ae. tauschii diversity has been globally exploited in breeding through the use of synthetic hexaploid wheats (Börner et al., 2015;Ogbonnaya et al., 2013). The current study showed that SYN-DER wheats have different patterns of genetic diversity and population structure compared to modern bread wheat as revealed by PCA, phylogenetic tree and haplotype blocks (Figure 1 and 3). Since these SYN-DER have been selected in the field for agronomic superiority, it is possible that major proportions of the bread wheat genome have been retained because empirical selection can lead to a differential loss of genetic diversity in targeted genomic regions of agronomic importance. This in return enhances the diversity of neutral genes through promotion of gene flow, recombination and exchanges between diverse populations (Olsen and Wendel 2013). There is potential ascertainment bias in the 90K SNP array because the SNP array was developed based on transcriptome sequencing of few bread wheat cultivars (Wang et al., 2014) and variation in promoter regions and introns where much of the variation is present were not surveyed (Zheng et al., 2014). Despite these limitations, we were able to identify differential patterns of diversity and 89 loci were under divergent selection in SYN-DERs.Important candidate regions identified by GWAS for agronomic and physiological traits in SYN-DER GWAS was performed on 15 agronomic and physiological traits under two water regimes (WW and WL) and their difference (DIFF) leading to 45 phenotypic datasets in total. We further calculated LD between all SNPs associated with phenotypes and excluded those SNPs with r 2 . 0.8 and finally 181 MTAs (66 in WW, 68 in WL, and 63 in DIFF) are presented for 45 phenotype datasets. SNP-GWAS identified a relatively high number of MTAs (181) compared to haplotype-GWAS (128). We used physical positions of SNPs based on Chinese Spring reference genome sequence version 1.0 (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/download/ iwgsc/IWGSC_RefSeq_Assemblies/v1.0/), while all the previous studies used genetic maps based on linkage mapping population. Therefore, it is hard to compare the results with previous findings. Acuña-Galindo et al. (2015) previously used a meta-analysis approach and developed consensus QTL positions from various mapping experiments. As the reference genome sequences of bread wheat and some progenitors are available (Avni et al., 2017;Luo et al., 2017;Zhao et al., 2017), there is urgent need to translate QTL location information to a position in the wheat genome. We found very few common MTAs between WW and WL (3), WW and DIFF (9) and WL and DIFF (5). Such a phenomenon has been reported in most of the abiotic stress experiments where QTL under c ontrol conditions do not significantly overlap with QTL under stress conditions probably due to different evolutionary trajectories (Makumburage and Stapleton 2011;Ogbonnaya et al., 2017).A yield MTA for GY WL on chromosome 5D (393.05 Mb) is a novel MTA because it is under strong divergent selection (-log(p)=81.9) and the favorable allele gave a yield advantage of 76.2 gm -2 . This MTA was also associated with SOD WL . Two other MTAs for GY WL on chromosomes 2A and 4A are likely to be MQTL13 and MQTL32 (Acuña-Galindo et al., 2015) based on genetic positions of associated SNPs on the wheat consensus genetic map (Quraishi et al., 2017). A TGW WL MTA on chromosome 2A (553.2 Mb) is within the vicinity of grain weight gene TaCwi-A1 (Ma et al., 2012). Based on the association with multiple phenotypes, we identified three genomic important regions such as chromosome 1D at 438.3 Mb that was associated with physiological traits RWC, SFW, and SDW. RWC in leaves is a sensitive parameter for estimating plant water balance (Clavel et al., 2005), and also shows a positive relationship with yield in cereals (Merah 2001). The second important region on chromosome 3D (5.1-48.3 Mb) is associated with Sugar, RWC, and TGW which are important parameters in drought adaptability. This genomic region was not under divergent selection, so it is likely that it was retained from bread wheat parents of SYN-DER. A third important genomic region on chromosome 6A (542.7-615.3 Mb) was associated with RWC, Sugar and SL. Based on genetic positions, these two regions are likely to be the MQTL29 and MQTL49 based on the meta-QTL map (Acuña-Galindo et al., 2015). Two drought tolerance related genes TaCwi-4A and TaMoc1 (7A) were co-localized with GY WL and CCI WL MTAs. Zhang et al. (2015) reported that TaMoc1 is an important gene associated with yield-related traits and is involved in regulating axillary meristem initiation and growth, while TaCwi-4A is an important drought related gene only expressed in anthers and is involved in pollen sterility under drought stress. The association of these genes directly with GY WL in SYN-DER indicated the potential usefulness of this MTA because the minor allele frequency is higher (0.25), while the TaCwi-4A favorable allele is highly fixed during modern wheat breeding (Jiang et al., 2015).Haplotype-GWAS, a powerful complement With SNP-GWAS Consistent with reports from other studies, haplotype-GWAS proved to be an effective strategy to increase the resolution of GWAS experiments. However, this strategy is rarely implemented in wheat, even though it has shown promise in Brassica (Wu et al., 2016), barley (Lorenz et al., 2010) and other crop species (Qian et al., 2017). Our results were in agreement with Hao et al. (2017) that haplotype-GWAS was able to identify MTAs where individual SNPs were ineffective. This was because haplotypes containing a group of closely linked SNP markers can increase the level of polymorphisms and overcome the drawback of using single SNP markers by creating more combinations (haplotypes) (Supplementary Table S3). This can increase the power and the effectiveness of haplotype-based association (Hamblin and Jannink 2011;Lorenz et al., 2010). Several haplotypes associated with phenotypes in our study were not identified by SNP-GWAS and it is likely due to the fact that patterns of LD in the population and the marker density along with the genetic architecture of the trait affect the detection of haplotypes associated with phenotypes (Lorenz et al. 2010). Moreover, the information content of haplotypes is dependent on the particular mutational and recombinational history of the QTL and nearby markers which could be unlike the distribution of single SNPs. Therefore, it was recommend to routinely use both single SNP and haplotype markers for GWAS to take advantage of the full information content of the genotype data.We identified three haplotypes associated with GY WL and each haplotype had three haplo-groups (Figure 4). The favored haplotypes significantly increased GY WL by 39.7 to 87.2 gm -2 . This is important because none of the single SNPs were associated with GY WL in these genomic regions. Similarly, Hap-7B-GY-1 was associated with grain yield across three water treatments i.e., WW, WL and DIFF, while only two haplo-groups (AC and GC) of this haplotypes block showed significant differences for GY and a third haplo-group 'AT' remained nonsignificant. In haplotype block Hap-1B-GY-1, there was no significant difference between GY WL of two haplo-groups 'ATG' and 'GTA', while the 'ACG' variant had a significantly different effect on GY (Figure 4). Haplotype-GWAS identified several genomic regions closely linked to functional genes such as a haplotype on chromosome 2B (643.6-690.1 Mb) that was associated with multiple physiological traits RWC, SFW and PH and was linked to glutamine synthase2 gene, TaGS2-B1 (Li et al., 2011). Previously, haplotypes at TaGS2-B1 were associated with nitrogen use efficiency and several agronomic traits including shoot and root dry weight (Li et al., 2011), which corroborates results from this study. Similarly, haplotypes on chromosome 5A (504.6 Mb) associated with TGW and GY are within the same region of the Vrn-A1 gene. On chromosome 5B (603.8 Mb), the haplotype associated with TGW is within the proximity of Vrn-B1. These two genes are homeologous to VERNELIZATION1 (Vrn1) gene, a key regulator of flowering time in cereals that have pleiotropic effects on agronomic traits like plant height and root traits (Chen et al., 2015;Voss-Fels et al., 2017). Two closely linked haplotypes on chromosome 2A (31.9-41.2 Mb) were linked to functional genes Ppd-A1 (Beales et al., 2007) and Sus2-2A (Hou et al., 2014), which modulate the flowering time and yield related traits, respectively. Most of the synthetic hexaploid wheats have the GS-105 type 1,117 bp deletion in Ppd-A1 gene (M. Khalid et al., unpublished data), which is the Ppd-A1a photoperiod insensitive allele in durum wheat. This allele is different from Ppd-A1a allele in bread wheat and has higher transcript levels ( Wilhelm et al., 2009). In conclusion, the simultaneous use of SNP-GWAS and haplotype-GWAS dissected the complex quantitative traits at higher resolution and several genomic regions harboring functional and candidate genes of agronomic importance were identified.Divergent selections associated with phenotypes and future breeding strategies Although traditional linkage mapping and association mapping are effective for identifying large-effect trait loci, they are limited to phenotypes used in analyses and may fail to detect a large portion of the  genetic changes associated with plant domestication and improvement (Morrell et al., 2011). During the development of adapted lines, selection imposed by humans favored alleles of traits valuable for agriculture. When selection increases the frequency of beneficial alleles in a population, it impacts the standing variation of surrounding genomic regions resulting in reduced diversity, extended linkage disequilibrium, or strong inter-population allele frequency differentiation. To detect these local patterns of variation, also referred here to as 'divergent selective sweeps', we first investigated the genome-wide divergent selections in SYN-DER panel using various complementary analytical approaches (Supplementary Table S4). However, only some of these selection loci could be associated with phenotypes. In a second step, we compared the SNPs in selection loci to those identified in SNP-GWAS and haplotype-GWAS to narrow down the selection loci associated with phenotypes of significant agronomic value. This approach resulted in the identification of 53 SNPs (Table 3) and 23 haplotypes (Table 4) of agronomic importance that appeared to be loci under selection. We have shown selection loci as EigenGWAS as -log10(p) associated with GY and RWC (Figure 5b and 7b). These loci could provide novel adaptability and agronomic superiority in drought stressed environments.As the narrow genetic base of the D-genome in bread wheat is widely acknowledged, divergent haplotypes in the D-genome in SYN-DER could be a mean to introduce new genetic diversity for traits of breeding interest. The co-localization of these haplotypes with functional genes strongly supported the idea that conventional haplotypes strongly fixed during domestication or modern breeding have been replaced by new haplotypes from Ae. tauschii through synthetic wheats. For example, the close proximity of these haplotypes with functional genes like TaElf3-D1 (1D at 468.7 Mb) and Vrn-D3 (7D at 70.8 Mb) for earliness per se (Eps) and flowering time (Wang et al., 2009;Zikhali et al., 2016), TaCKX6-D1 (3D at 137.4 Mb), TaCwi-D1 (5D at 557.3 Mb) and TaGS-D1 (7D at 6.7 Mb) (Jiang et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2012;Zhang et al., 2014) for grain size and weight indicated that novel genetic introgressions from synthetic hexaploid wheats may have been selected.The benefit of using synthetic wheats or other crop-wild introgressions is that new useful haplotypes could be generated due to the differential recombination rates and patterns (Rasheed et al., 2018;Wingen et al., 2017). Such new favorable haplotypes contribute to additive genetic variation for complex quantitative traits, which can replace the conventional haplotypes exhaustively utilized during modern wheat breeding; thus improving the rate of genetic gains. The breeding strategies such as genomic selection can be applied following the identification of molecular markers linked to those haplotypes. For example, Spindel et al. (2016) identified SNPs associated with agronomic traits and fitted these markers as fixed effects in a rrBLUP model (referred to as a GS + de novo GWAS model). They showed that this new model outperformed six other prediction models for various traits. Furthermore, the prediction accuracies of extended GS models outperformed classical models using phenotype data from dry seasons, implying that this approach is particularly suitable for the improvement of drought-resilience in future crop cultivars. Because of their increased information content compared to bi-allelic SNP markers, fitting haplotypes with statistically significant trait associations to phenotypes as fixed effects in GS models could further improve prediction accuracies (Voss-Fels et al., 2017). The use of haplotype-assisted GS should more accurately depict the complex relationships between genotypic information and phenotypes than single SNPs alone; hence, this approach could ultimately help to further increase selection gain per unit of time.Our analytical approaches successfully identified the divergent selections in SYN-DER, dissected the complex architecture of quantitative traits under drought stress and identified the favorable SNP and haplotypes underpinning traits of breeding interest through crop-wild introgressions.","tokenCount":"7508"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"90445df5a3af2d54ddf908899e265392","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad7eeb3e-99eb-4955-a8d8-b8f736474845/retrieve","id":"-2101716432"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"694b8f81-8a4d-4fdb-be27-8d9f54fbbe9a","pagecount":"11","content":"Genetic linkage maps of Tanzania and Bikilamaliya sweetpotatoes (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam), based on amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) were developed using a two-way pseudo-testcross. At a LOD score of 5, a total of 656 maternal and 469 paternal markers were ordered in 90 and 80 linkage groups, respectively, covering a total map length of 3655.6 cM for Tanzania and 3011.5 cM for Bikilamaliya. The average distance between markers is 5.9 cM, with only four intervals exceeding 30 cM. Mapping was carried out in two steps. Linkage among simplex markers provided a map framework to which multiple-dose markers were added. The maternal maps contained 91 duplex markers, which allowed identification of 13 homologous co-segregating groups; paternal maps contained 69 duplex markers, allowing identification of 10 homologous co-segregating groups. The exploitation of 215 double-simplex bridging markers detected 15 linkage groups as homologous maternal and paternal groups. Type of polyploidy (autopolyploidy vs. allopolyploidy) was evaluated using the ratio of repulsion to coupling linkages. The absence of linkages in the repulsion phase indicated a high level of polysomic inheritance of homologous chromosomes. The detection of a few repulsion linkages at a lower confidence level, however, demonstrated that there is partial preferential chromosome pairing in sweetpotato.Maps of highly dense genetic linkages are powerful tools for the localization and map-based cloning of genes, as well as marker-assisted breeding. They also provide information for understanding the biological basis of complex traits (Lee, 1995) and polyploidy (Da Silva, 1993). Different approaches are available for direct mapping of polyploid genomes, most of which have been based on the use of simplex (single-dose) markers (Wu et al., 1992dose restriction fragment (SDRF) method has been applied to various polyploid crops such as alfalfa, apple, sugarcane, and potato. Multiplex markers have been exploited to identify homologous cosegregating groups in Saccharum (Da Silva, 1993;Ripol et al., 1999) and alfalfa (Yu and Pauls, 1993). Da Silva (1993) was able to include duplex and triplex markers in simplex marker maps and to identify homologous groups.Sweetpotato is a hexaploid species (2n=6x=90) with a base chromosome number of 15 (Jones, 1965). Cytological studies of sweetpotato are difficult because of the high number of small chromosomes and large number of basic groups, so the nature of its polyploidy remains uncertain. Both allopolyploidy (Jones, 1965;Magoon et al., 1970) and autopolyploidy (Nishiyama et al., 1982;Shiotani, 1988) have been proposed. Shiotani and Kawase (1989) postulated the genome constitution of sweetpotato as (B 1 B 1 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 ), but the degree of homology could not be estimated with accuracy. Ukoskit and Thompson (1997) reported a polysomic inheritance in sweetpotato based on the segregation ratio and relationship of the genetic linkages of RAPD markers.The commonly used mapping population for outbreeding trees and polyploids is the progeny of a cross between two unrelated heterozygous parents (a two-way pseudotestcross) (Grattapaglia and Sederoff, 1994). With this mapping population, linkage analysis of SDRFs in coupling phase results in two separate linkage maps for each parent based on the male and female sources of markers. The ratio of repulsion linkages versus coupling linkages was used to evaluate type of polyploidy (Da Silva and Sorells, 1996).In this paper, we report the genetic inheritance, segregation, and linkage of amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) markers in two hexaploid sweetpotatoes (2n=6x=90). We used an F1 population to construct two separate parental maps, integrating simplex and multiplex markers, and analyzed the genome constitution based on the pattern of inheritance and segregation of the markers. These are the first reported genetic-linkage maps that have substantial coverage of the sweetpotato genome. They provide a framework for tagging the genes and quantitative trait loci (QTL) of the economic traits of the sweetpotato.Seeds of an F1 mapping population originated from a two-way pseudo-testcross between two African sweetpotato landraces (Tanzania and Bikilamaliya). Tanzania is the most widely grown sweetpotato cultivar in sub-Saharan Africa and is resistant to the sweetpotato virus disease (SPVD) complex in East Africa. Bikilamaliya is susceptible to SPVD under the same environmental conditions. Linkage mapping was carried out on a subset of 94 randomly selected plants. Genomic DNA was extracted from young leaves of greenhouse-grown sweetpotatoes using the CTAB method (Doyle and Doyle, 1990).A procedure adapted from Zabeau and Vos (1993) was followed for the AFLP analysis. For the selection of primer combinations (PCs), the two parental varieties (Tanzania and Bikilamaliya) were screened with 240 EcoRI/MseI PCs. The PCs yielding a high number of polymorphic fragments for each parental line and with a total number of fragments ranging between 50-100 were selected for generating AFLP markers.Autoradiographs were manually scored for the absence (0) or presence (1) of AFLP marker bands. Markers were chosen on the basis of their presence in one parent and absence in the other, or presence in both parents. Scored markers were divided into three groups depending on the presence or absence in each parent.The assessment of marker dosage was done by the expected segregation ratios (presence:absence) of F1s for AFLP markers present in one parent in accordance with the allele dosage for three cytological theories of sweetpotato (Table 1). To classify fragments into dosage groups, acceptance regions for simplex, duplex, triplex, and double-simplex markers were constructed.All markers present in one parent and absent in the other were tested for goodness of fit to the 1:1 segregation ratio in the progeny by a χ² test at the 99% confidence level, allowing type I error = type II error = 0.5%. The null hypothesis (1:1 segregation) was tested against the alternative hypothesis (3:1 segregation) since all non-single dose ratios would be 3:1 or greater, regardless of whether sweetpotato is an auto-, autoallo-, or allopolyploid (Wu et al., 1992).Duplex markers. Among the three cytological theories listed in Table 1, allohexaploidy is the least likely genetic configuration in sweetpotato (Nishiyama et al., 1982;Shiotani, 1988;Ukoskit and Thompson, 1997). Under the assumption of either hexasomic or tetradisomic inheritance, duplex markers are expected to segregate 4:1 (hexasomic) and 3:1, 5:1 (tetradisomic) (Table 1). A 4:1, 5:1 segregation ratio corresponds to a duplex marker of fragments located on homologous chromosomes, compared to a 3:1 segregation ratio for a duplex marker where the individual fragments are located on nonhomologous chromosomes. The latter are not useful for the estimation of linkages among simplex/duplex and duplex/duplex marker pairs. As the population size used in this experiment was not large enough to distinguish between hexasomic and tetradisomic situations, we looked for a common subset of 4:1, 5:1 segregating markers as tested by a χ² test for goodness of fit at a 10% confidence level. This set of markers is sufficient to distinguish duplex markers from the expected segregation ratios for triplex markers (11:1, 19:1) and simplex markers (1:1). To separate the 3:1 from 4:1 or 5:1 segregation ratios, however, would require an extremely large population size. Therefore, in our study, calculation of 4:1 and 5:1 segregation ratios was not totally exclusive of 3:1 markers.Triplex markers. Triplex markers are expected to segregate 11:1 under hexasomic inheritance and 19:1 under tetradisomic. As these segregation ratios cannot be distinguished properly, and estimates of recombination fractions among simplex and triplex markers are associated with large standard errors, triplex markers were not analyzed. Quadruplex markers. Quadruplex or higher-dose markers were not expected to result in observable segregation in the offspring, except in the case of a quadruplex marker with random chromatid segregation, which would result in a genotype not showing the marker. Double-simplex markers. AFLP fragments present in a single-dose condition in both parents are expected to segregate in a 3:1 ratio in the population, as tested for H 0 at a 10% significance level to avoid overlapping with the 11:1 segregation class for duplex-simplex markers.Linkage analysis and map construction was carried out in two steps. In the first step, two parental framework maps (maternal and paternal) were constructed using simplex markers. Simplex markers in coupling behave the same in diploids as in polyploids and can be mapped with standard methods. Since detection of repulsion linkages in polysomic polyploids requires extremely large populations, they were not included. Recombination fractions and marker order were obtained under the backcross model using JoinMap 2.0 software (Stam and Van Ooijen, 1995).In the second step, duplex and doublesimplex markers were inserted in the fixed marker order of the parental simplex framework maps. Recombination fractions were estimated by numerically maximizing the log-likelihood (Stam and van Ooijen, 1995), assuming the random pairing of homologous chromosomes and the absence of double reduction.As the true underlying mode of chromosome inheritance (hexasomic vs. tetradisomic) in sweetpotato remains uncertain, linkage of simplex/duplex and duplex/duplex markers in coupling were calculated for both hexasomic and tetrasomic inheritance, applying phenotypic frequencies given by Ripol et al. (1999). The sets of pairwise r and LOD estimates were alternatively mapped to the simplex framework map using standard procedures (JoinMap 2.0). All duplex markers placed at different map sites for the hexasomic and tetrasomic inheritance types were removed, resulting in identical maps with an equal number of markers and marker order, with slightly different map distances. The map with the smallest map size was selected for adding double-simplex markers.Double-simplex markers. Recombination fractions for simplex/double-simplex and double-simplex/double-simplex configurations of marker pairs were estimated according to Meyer et al. (1998).The final maps comprised simplex, duplex, and double-simplex markers, with each linkage group corresponding to an individual chromosome. Two linkage groups containing the same duplex marker are likely to be homologous. A duplex marker should not align to more than two linkage groups, unless a third group is an unconnected part of one of them. Two linkage groups were declared homologous female and male linkage groups if they possessed the same double-simplex (bridging) marker. Final maps were drawn using DrawMap 1.1 software (Van Ooijen 1994).The expected genome coverage was estimated according to Bishop et al. (1983).For species with levels of high polyploidy, the ratio between the number of detected repulsion versus coupling linkages may provide a crude measurement of preferential chromosome pairing (Sorrels, 1992; Wu et al., 1992). Using Mapmaker's twopoint linkage analysis (LOD = 4, r < 0.3), the repulsion linkage was analyzed between an original marker and inverted markers.The high multiplex ratio of the AFLP method was used to produce a large number of highly reliable genetic markers for linkage analysis. A total of 112 out of the 240 primer combinations screened were selected and used to generate AFLP markers for 94 individuals of the mapping population. Three genotypes were removed from the data set because they contained many missing data and could have affected the estimation of the genetic distances among the markers.Clearly scorable markers were separated according to their presence in the male and female parents and in both. The observed segregation ratio for each of the 808 female and 641 male markers are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The distributions appear with a large group centered around  5% of the expected segregation ratio for simplex markers and a smaller group around 8% where ratios of 3:1, 4:1, or 5:1 duplex markers are expected. At higher frequencies, triplex markers or quadruplex markers were observed, as expected under random chromatide segregation. Segregation analysis resulted in 951 simplex markers. A total of 298 markers fitted into a 4:1 or 5:1 acceptance region as expected for duplex markers under hexasomic and tetrasomic inheritance, respectively. Eighteen markers showed a segregation ratio significantly lower than 1:1, which was the lowest expected segregation ratio; these were removed as skewed markers. Of 540 segregating markers present for both parents, 215 markers fitted into the 3:1 segregation ratio for double-simplex markers.Type of polypoidy (autopolyploidy vs. allopolyploidy) was investigated using the ratio of coupling to repulsion linkages. For diploids and disomic polyploids (allopolyploids), linkages in the repulsion phase should be equal to those in the coupling phase, compared to autopolyploids, where an extremely large sample size is required for detecting repulsion linkages (Wu et al., 1992). Simplex marker scores were inverted and added to the original marker scores. In diploids-as in allopolyploids-a homologous recessive allele of dominant single-dose fragments may be simulated by its 'marker image' and this can be used to detect linkages in the repulsion phase.In autopolyploids, a total of m-1 alleles (where m = ploid number) hide behind a dominant simplex marker, so the image of a simplex marker score only approximates a recessive allele. Calculation of repulsion linkages in polysomic genomes, therefore, is limited to codominant markers.Pairwise linkages among original and inverted markers were estimated using Mapmaker 3.0 (Lander et al., 1987). We did not find a single linkage in repulsion phase (at LOD = 4 and a maximum recombination fraction of 0.4), which would be highly unlikely if sweetpotato displayed strict disomic segregation. As suggested by Wu et al. (1992), this excludes allopolyploidy, indicating a high polysomy of sweetpotato chromosomes within a base set.A few repulsion linkages detected at LOD = 3, r = 0.5 gave some evidence for partially preferential pairing, which supports a genome constitution (B 1 B 1 B 2 B 2 B 2 B 2 ) with a certain degree of homology among the two genomes, as proposed by Shiotani and Kawase (1989).Chromosome association in many autopolyploid species is likely to be a combination of random and preferential chromosome association (Wu et al., 1992).These results suggest that polysomic inheritance plays a major role in sweetpotato, with the occurrence of partially preferential pairing among certain chromosomes.Two linkage maps were constructed, based on 539 simplex markers from maternal sources and 421 from paternal sources, using standard JoinMap 2.0 procedures (Stam and van Ooijen, 1995). To avoid false linkage detection, a LOD score of 5 was set as the linkage threshold for grouping markers. This reduces the rate of false positives to 10 -5 , reducing the number of false linkages to less than 1 in 100,000. Markers that could not be put in the map during 'round one' or 'round two' of the JoinMap mapping procedure were omitted. A total of 44 markers for the female parent and 50 for the male parent remained unlinked. There were 90 linkage groups for Tanzania, with 48 major and 42 minor groups of three or two markers; for Bikilamaliya, this was 80 linkage groups, with 42 major and 38 minor groups. The resulting linkage groups provided a framework into which higher-dose markers were mapped (for example, see Figure 3). Grouping was consistent through a range of LOD scores of from 4 to 6, suggesting that the groups formed were highly reliable. Linkage groups have been named randomly until they can be aligned to chromosome karyotypes.The recombination fraction (r) and LOD scores for simplex/duplex and duplex/ duplex marker configurations were calculated assuming (a) hexasomic and (b) tetrasomic chromosome inheritance. The absolute differences of pairwise estimates (of r and LOD scores) under the two inheritance types were low, with no more than seven duplex markers placed on different sites on the framework map. These were therefore removed. Duplex markers were assigned to one or two chromosomes, establishing a base-group connection within chromosomes.The final maps comprised 678 markers for Tanzania, with a total map length of 3655.6 cM, and 481 markers for Bikilamaliya, covering a total map length of 3011.5 cM. The maternal map consisted of 90 linkage groups (71 groups with four or more markers), compared to the paternal map of 80 linkage groups (56 with four or more markers). Of 160 mapped male and female duplex markers, a total of 49 were aligned to two linkage groups, which allowed us to order 60 chromosomes to 13 female and 10 male homologous cosegregating groups. The maternal and paternal maps contained 70 and 31 double-simplex (bridging) markers, respectively, which allowed identification of 17 linkage groups as maternal and paternal homologous groups.The largest female linkage group was 129 cM and the largest male group was 99.5 cM, with average spacing between marker loci of 5.9 cM with only four intervals exceeding 30 cM. This should provide reasonable genome coverage for the detection of quantitative trait loci (QTL). The percentages of mapped simplex, duplex, and triplex markers were 90%, 54%, and 30%, respectively.To avoid overestimating genome coverage, only framework markers were used in this procedure. The expected proportion of genome coverage was estimated using 656 markers for the female map and 469 for the male. Under the assumption of random marker distribution, the probability of being within 20 cM of any existing marker will be 91% for any new female marker and 88% for any new male marker (Bishop et al., 1983).The derived linkage maps have not yet been resolved into the expected 90 linkage and 15 homologous groups. This is because the total length of the sweetpotato genome was not covered, and the small linkage groups, in particular, might represent unconnected parts of other linkage groups. Therefore, additional markers would be required to cover the entire genome and facilitate the merging of all homologous groups. Codominant markers are also needed to confirm the homology relations of chromosomes.  the corresponding combination of primers used for its generation. A letter or a number at the end of each marker identifies the individual fragments amplified by the same primer combination.","tokenCount":"2841"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2ab7efd13e81af7f0b04e713a21ef56c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f2d8a561-6a06-4590-846b-0d4a5cd894d4/retrieve","id":"1561186883"},"keywords":["gene action","heterotic patterns","testcrosses","Zea mays L Badu-Apraku, B.","Obisesan, O.","Olumide, O.B.","Toyinbo, J. Gene Action, Heterotic Patterns, and Inter-Trait Relationships of Early Maturing"],"sieverID":"5d0a6919-59be-4cb2-9b51-fed82e7d38b0","pagecount":"25","content":"Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of night blindness, total blindness, maternal and childhood mortality in developing countries. Drought, low soil nitrogen and Striga hermonthica parasitism are major constraints to maize production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Thus, the development of multiple stress tolerant maize varieties with elevated levels of PVA is an economically feasible approach to simultaneously tackle malnutrition and food insecurity in SSA. The objectives of this study were to determine the gene action modulating the inheritance of grain yield and other traits, group the inbred lines, investigate inter-trait relationships among grain yield and other traits and assess the performance and stability of single-cross hybrids derived from a set of inbred lines under stress and non-stress environments. One hundred and ninety diallel crosses plus six hybrid checks were evaluated under managed drought at Ikenne during the 2016/17 and 2017/18 dry seasons, low soil N conditions at Mokwa and Ile-Ife, Striga infestation at Abuja and Mokwa, and optimal management conditions at Ikenne, Kadawa, Abuja, Bagauda and Mokwa during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons. Both additive and non-additive gene actions were prominent in the inheritance of grain yield and other measured traits under stress and optimal management conditions. However, additive gene action was preponderant over the non-additive. The PVA inbreds were classified into three heterotic groups with TZEI 25 and TZEIOR 164 identified as inbred testers for heterotic groups 2 and 3, respectively. Plant and ear heights, ears per plant, plant and ear aspects were identified as reliable secondary traits for genetic enhancement of grain yield under both stress and non-stress conditions. Hybrids TZEIOR 4 x TZEIOR 158 and TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 158 were outstanding in performance and should be tested extensively for possible commercialization to combat malnutrition and food insecurity in SSA.Maize (Zea mays) is the most cultivated cereal crop in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and has the potential to combat the challenges of food insecurity and malnutrition presently facing the region. The crop is cultivated on about 100 million hectares across the developing world and it is an important source of at least 30% of dietary calories for about 310 million people [1]. Due to increasing population and wider acceptability, the demand for maize in the developing world is projected to double by 2050. Therefore, there is a dire need for increased production of maize to meet this demand [2,3]. Maize is largely cultivated for its starchy endosperm which contributes a large portion of human energy intake. However, normal endosperm maize is deficient in vitamin A, which unfortunately the human body is unable to synthesize but must be sourced from external food supplements. Maize as a sole source of food exposes human populations in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to the risk of health challenges associated with vitamin A deficiency. Therefore, maize consumers in SSA rely on the dietary sources from plant tissues to meet its vitamin A requirements. Vitamin A deficiency is responsible for several health disorders including night blindness, total blindness and it is the leading cause of maternal and childhood mortality in developing countries [4], Development and commercialization of high yielding maize, fortified with vitamin A, is a realizable strategy for combating both hunger and health challenges related to malnutrition in SSA. Additionally, recurrent drought, low soil nitrogen and Striga hermonthica parasitism are major limiting factors to increased maize production and productivity in SSA. Yield loss due to recurrent drought is considered one of the greatest challenges facing agricultural production in SSA [5]. The occurrence and severity of drought have been projected to increase in all regions of the world leading to a downward trend in maize production. The highest yield reduction is recorded when drought occurs at the reproductive and grain filling periods, which often leads to reduced ear and kernel sizes and increased anthesis-silking interval in maize [6]. Badu-Apraku et al., [7] reported 44% yield reduction in some selected early-maturing maize varieties under moisture deficit conditions when the yield of the varieties was compared to their mean yield under well-watered environments. Striga hermonthica parasitism is another leading cause of yield loss in maize in the savanna of West and Central Africa (WCA) [8]. S. hermonthica is a parasitic weed which attacks maize, guinea corn and other cereal crops, and it is the most economically important biotic stress factor that limits maize grain yield in SSA, where majority of the diets are cereal based [9]. The damage caused by Striga is widespread, affecting the livelihoods of over 100 million Africans through reduction in grain yield [10]. The high incidence of the parasite in the savanna and mid-altitude agro-ecologies, areas with the highest maize yield potentials, severely limits the maize production capacity of SSA [10]. Kim [11] reported that under controlled environment conditions, Striga infestation causes an average yield reduction of 67% with a range of 41-91% depending on the severity of infestation and host plant susceptibility levels. Several control measures are available; however, none is capable of ensuring total control of the parasitic weed, necessitating an integrated management approach [10]. Genetic control via use of improved cultivars possessing Striga resistance/tolerance alleles has been proposed as a reliable strategy for minimizing Striga damage in SSA [12,13]. In a study conducted to compare the yield losses due to drought stress and Striga parasitism, [14] reported yield reductions of 53% and 42% under drought conditions and Striga infestation, respectively. Several factors, such as continuous cropping, declining soil fertility, short fallow as well as expansion of production into marginal lands have contributed immensely to the prevalence of Striga parasitism [10,15,16]. Low soil nitrogen is another abiotic stress that constrains the maize production capacity of WCA. In most developing countries, peasant farmers produce maize under depleted soil-nitrogen conditions due to lack of access to fertilizer which may be attributed to non-availability, and high cost and non-availability of loan facilities to farmers [17]. Reduction in grain yield due to low N is estimated to vary between 10 to 50% [18].The IITA Maize Program has used plant breeding strategies such as backcrossing, inbreeding, hybridization, and the S1 recurrent selection to develop early maturing Striga resistant, drought and low-N tolerant inbred lines with high Pro-vitamin A levels (PVA). However, information on the extent and patterns of genetic diversity among germplasm lines is critical to the success of a hybrid development program. This helps in the identification and selection of parents for the development of superior hybrids as well as identification of sources of favorable alleles for introgressive hybridization [9]. Knowledge of the mode of gene action modulating grain yield and other traits of inbred lines under stress conditions is critical for identifying good combiners and promising hybrids, and for designing appropriate strategies for developing multiple stress-tolerant hybrids. This information could be obtained through combining ability studies. However, results of several combining ability studies conducted are inconsistent. The inconsistencies observed in the findings call for further studies to clarify the contradictions about the type of gene action involved in the inheritance of grain yield and other traits under stress conditions. Additionally, it is important to assess combining ability and heterotic patterns of the several early maturing PVA inbreds recently developed in the IITA-MIP and to classify them into heterotic groups to exploit their genetic potential in hybrid combinations. Combining ability analysis is a powerful tool for identifying genotypes for crosses in order to fully exploit hybrid vigor and identify outstanding hybrids for direct use or for further breeding [19]. The genetic improvement of grain yield and other desirable traits depend on the nature and magnitude of genetic variability and interactions involved in the inheritance of the traits and can be estimated using diallel cross technique [20]. Diallel mating design has been effective for determining the gene action controlling the inheritance of grain yield and other important traits, estimating the general combining ability (GCA) of parental lines, identifying superior inbred parents for hybrid or synthetic cultivar development, classifying inbred lines into heterotic groups and identifying appropriate testers for use in breeding programs in SSA [21][22][23][24]. The present study was carried out to (i) determine the gene action modulating inheritance of grain yield and other traits (ii) estimate general and specific combining abilities of 20 PVA early maturing inbred line and classify them into heterotic groups (iii) assess the performance and stability of the single-cross hybrids under stress and non-stress conditions and (iv) investigate interrelationships among grain yield and other traits under stress and non-stress conditions.The broad based early maturing drought and Striga resistant yellow/orange variety, 2004 TZE-Y Pop DT STR C4, was crossed to a source of high provitamin A [Syn -Y-STR-34-1-1-1-1-2-1-B-B-B-B-B/NC354/SYN-Y-STR-34-1-1-1 (OR1) intermediate maturing population from the IITA Maize Improvement Program to introgress the genes for high beta-carotene into the variety. Subsequently, the top-cross hybrid was backcrossed to the recurrent population to recover earliness, resulting in BC1F1 progenies. This was followed by a cycle of backcrossing to 2004 TZE-Y Pop DT STR C4 to recover earliness. The kernels of BC1F1 with deep orange color were selected and recombined to obtain the early provitamin A variety 2009 TZE-OR1 STR. This was followed by selfing of 2009 TZE-OR1 STR to obtain S1 lines which were advanced through repeated selfing to the S6 stage to develop 155 early provitamin A inbred lines. The kernels of the BC1F1 of each material with deep orange color were selected and self-pollinated for two cycles for advancement to the BC1F3 stage. Furthermore, BC1F3 lines with the deep orange color were selected and recombined to form the early Provitamin A variety, 2009 TZE-OR1 STR (Figure 1). Due to fund limitations the provitamin A variety could not be screened for beta-carotene content. However, the variety was included in the regional uniform variety trials under multiple contrasting environments in 2010 and several of them showed outstanding performance. Additionally, the early varieties 2009 TZE-OR1 DT STR out-yielded the commercial OPV check, TZE Comp 3 and DT C2 F2 by 12 and 11% across eight contrasting environments in WCA [25]. Following the development of the PVA inbred lines, genetic studies were conducted to determine the combining ability of the lines and to identify inbred testers. Several outstanding inbred lines identified were crossed among themselves to develop biparental crosses including (TZEI 17 x TZEI 11) from which additional inbred lines were developed through pedigree selection [26].  The 20 PVA inbred lines selected for this study were planted in the breeding nursery at IITA headquarters, Ibadan, during the growing season of 2016. All the inbred lines were mated in a diallel to produce 190 F1 hybrids excluding reciprocals. The 190 hybrids along with six checks (three yellow normal-endosperm early maturing single-cross hybrids and three top-cross hybrids were evaluated in the present study.The hybrids (190 single-cross hybrids plus 6 checks) were evaluated between 2016 and 2017. The trial was evaluated under managed moisture stress at Ikenne (6°53′ N, 30°42′ E, 60 m altitude) during the dry seasons of 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. The plants were irrigated using sprinkler irrigation system that delivered 17 mm of water each week for the first three weeks. Drought stress was imposed by withdrawing irrigation at 25 days after planting (DAP) until maturity, thus making the maize plants rely on water stored in the soil for growth and development. The soil at the IITA experimental station at Ikenne is eutric nitrosol [27], with high water holding capacity. The experiment was planted on a flat and uniform field. Fertilizer was applied at planting at the rate of 60 kg N/ha, 60 kg P/ha and 60 kg K/ha, with an additional 60 kg N/ha applied as top-dress at 4 WAP.Evaluations under Striga infestation was carried out at Mokwa (9°18′ N, 5°4′ E, 457 m altitude, 1100 mm rainfall) in 2016 and 2017 and Abuja (9°16′ N, 7°20′ E, 300 m altitude, 1500 mm rainfall) in 2017 in the southern Guinea savanna of Nigeria. Striga infestation was in accordance with the method of [11] and [28]. Striga hermonthica seeds collected from sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) fields and stored for at least 6 months to break the seed dormancy were used for the present study. Ethylene gas was injected into the soil 2 weeks before artificial infestation to stimulate suicidal germination of existing Striga seed in the field. Application of fertilizer was delayed until about 21-25 DAP when 30 kg/ha each of N, P and K were applied as NPK 15-15-15. The delay was necessary to stimulate the production of strigolactones to cause suicidal germination of the Striga seeds in the soil. Weeds other than Striga were controlled by manual weeding.Under low-N, the single-cross hybrids plus checks were planted at Mokwa during the major growing season of 2016 and 2017. The soil at Mokwa is luvisol [27] with 0.27%, 0.04% and 0.48% by volume of organic carbon, organic nitrogen and phosphorus content, respectively. Maize was planted on the experimental field for several years and the biomass was removed after each harvest to deplete the N in the soil. Soil samples were taken, and the N content of the soil was determined at IITA Analytical Laboratory Services, Ibadan, using the Kjeldahl digestion and colorimetric methods [29]. Fertilizer was applied to bring the total available N to 30 kg N/ha at 2 WAP. Single superphosphate (P2O5) and muriate of potash (K2O) were applied to the low-N blocks at the rate of 60 kg/ha.Under optimal growing conditions, the single-cross hybrids plus the checks were evaluated at Ikenne during the growing season of 2016 and 2017, Mokwa and Kadawa in 2016, Abuja and Bagauda in 2017. Water and nitrogen were not limiting under the optimal growing conditions, and weeds were effectively controlled. The trials received 60 kg/ha each of N, P and K at 2 WAP with an additional 30 kg N/ha top-dressed at 4 WAP. A 14 × 14 randomized incomplete-block design with two replications was used in each of the trials. The experimental unit was single-row plots, 3 m long with spacing of 0.75 m between rows and 0.40 m between plants within a row in all the trials. Three seeds were planted per hill, and the seedlings were thinned to two seeds per hill at about 2 weeks after emergence to give a final population density of about 66,666 plants ha −1 . All experiments except those under Striga infestation were kept weed-free with the application of Atrazine and Gramoxone at 5 L/ha as pre-and post-emergence herbicides, respectively.Seed samples used for the carotenoid analyses in the present study were produced as described by [30] by self-pollinating the hybrids and 20 PVA inbred lines to produce kernel samples for analysis of the PVA contents. The 54 hybrids were selected from the 196 derived hybrids based on GY performance. The 20 inbred lines were parents involved in generating the 54 hybrids using the diallel mating arrangement. The genotypes were planted under well-watered conditions at IITA-Ibadan (7°28′11.99″ N, 3°53′2.88″ E, altitude 190 m) and Ikenne in 2018 using 1 m long single rows with 0.75 m between rows and 0.20 m within rows. One plant per hill was established to provide five plants per plot. Maize grain samples of hybrids and inbred lines were produced by self-pollination of individual plants in each plot. At physiological maturity, the self-pollinated ears of the inbred lines and hybrids of each location were harvested per plot, dried under ambient temperature, and shelled [31]. The seed samples were stored in the long-term storage facility of IITA at 4 °C. Seed samples of the 20 inbred lines used for the diallel crosses along with the top yielding 13 PVA hybrids plus two checks obtained from compositing grains harvested separately from the inbred lines and hybrid trials of the two locations were drawn from the long-term storage and the carotenoids were extracted and quantified at the Food and Nutritional Laboratory of IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. The High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) method, based on the extraction protocol described by [32], was employed for the carotenoid analysis. The five carotenoids, β -carotene (cis and trans isomers), α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein were determined based on calibrations using external standards. Total carotenoids were computed as the sum of concentrations of α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin. PVA was computed as the sum of β-carotene, and half of each of β-cryptoxanthin and αcarotene contents, because β-cryptoxanthin and α-carotene contribute about 50% of the βcarotene as PVA according to the [33]. Two independent measurements were taken to represent each sample. In addition to the PVA levels of the hybrids (HPVA) determined by chemical analysis, those of the mid-parent (MP) were calculated as the average of the sum of PVA levels of parental inbred lines (Table 1) involved in hybrid development. In all the environments, data were recorded for days to silking and days to anthesis as the number of days from planting to when 50% of the plants in the plot had extruded silks and had shed pollen. The anthesis-silking interval (ASI) was calculated as the difference between the number of days to silking and number of days to anthesis. Plant height was measured as the distance from the base of the plant to the height of the first tassel branch and ear height as the distance from the base of the plant to the node bearing the upper ear. Root lodging (the percentage of plants leaning more than 30 0 from the vertical), and stalk lodging (percentage of plant broken at or below the ear node) were recorded. For drought and low-N experiments, stay-green characteristic was measured at 70 DAP on a scale of 1 (almost all leaves green) to 9 (virtually all leaves dead). Plant aspect was scored on a scale of 1 (excellent plant type) to 9 (poor plant type). Husk cover was scored on the scale of 1 (husk tightly arranged and extended beyond the tip of the ear) to 5 (ear tips exposed). Ear aspect was measured on the scale of 1 (clean, uniform, large and well-filled ears) to 9 (ears with undesirable features). Number of ears per plant (EPP) was calculated by dividing the total number of ears harvested per plot by number of plants in the plot. Percentage moisture was determined from shelled harvested ears. For trials under drought and low-N, harvested ears were shelled and weighed, grain yield in kg/ha was computed from the grain weight, adjusted to 15% moisture. For the optimal and Striga experiments, a shelling percentage of 80% was assumed for all hybrids and grain weight (obtained from ears weighed and converted to kg/ha) was adjusted to 15% moisture. The data recorded under Striga experiments were the same as those obtained under low-N except that no data was recorded on plant aspect and stay-green characteristic. Striga damage [13] and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP (50 and 70 DAP) in the Striga infested plots. Striga damage ratings were scored on the scale of 1 (no damage, indicating normal plant growth) to 9 (complete collapse or death of the maize plant i.e highly susceptible). Even though data were collected on several traits, only those on the most important traits in the studies were presented.Analysis of variance was conducted on data collected across locations and years under each research condition with PROC GLM in SAS using RANDOM statement with the test option [34]. Furthermore, combined ANOVA were carried out across the 13 research environments with the sources of variation such as environment, replicates within environments and block within replicate × environment considered as random factors while hybrids (190 plus six checks) were regarded as fixed factors. The general combining ability (GCA) effects of the parents and the specific combining ability (SCA) effects of the crosses, as well as their mean squares in each environment and across research environments were estimated for the 190 diallel crosses following Griffing's method 4 model 1 (fixed model) ( [35] and the DIALLEL-SAS program developed by [36] adapted to SAS software version 9.3 [34]. The GCA and SCA effects were tested for significance using t-test. The relative importance of the GCA was investigated using the method of [37] as modified by [38].Inbred lines were assigned into heterotic groups based on GCA of multiple traits (HGCAMT) grouping method proposed by [39]. Grouping was achieved by standardizing the GCA effects of each trait that had significant mean squares for G under each study condition to minimize the effects of different scales for the traits. The statistical model used was:where Y is HGCAMT, which is the genetic value measuring relationship among genotypes based on the GCA of multiple traits i to n; Yi is the individual GCA effects of genotypes for trait I, Ẏ is the mean of the GCA effects across genotypes for traits I, s is the standard deviation of the GCA effects of the trait I and ԑij is the residual of the model associated with the combination of the inbred i and trait j.The 20 inbred lines were then classified into heterotic groups based on the Euclidean distance generated from the HGCAMT. Ward's minimum variance cluster analysis based on GCA effects was used to assign the inbred lines to heterotic groups across environments using SAS software version 9.3. The efficiency of the HGCAMT grouping method was confirmed based on the procedure proposed by [40] and modified by [39]. The 190 hybrids were divided into two major groups i.e., inter-group and within-group crosses. These two groups were subsequently divided into high yielding hybrids (Yield of group 1 with a mean grain yield ranking among the first 64); intermediate yielding hybrids (Yield group 2 with a mean grain yield between the 65th and the 127th) and low yielding hybrids (Yield group 3 with a mean grain yield between the 128th and the 190th).The genotype-by-trait (G × T) analysis was conducted using R (software) package GEA-R (version 4.0), [41]. Since the traits were measured in different units, they were standardized (mean = 0, standard deviation = 1). The GGE biplot model equation for the G × T analysis is as follows:where Ŷij is the genetic value of the combination between inbred I and trait j; µ is the mean of all combinations involving trait j; βj is the main effect of trait j; λ1 and λ2 are the singular values for PC1 and PC2; gi1 and gi2 are the PC1 and PC2 eigenvectors, respectively, for inbred I; e1j and e2j are the PC1 and PC2 eigenvectors, respectively, for trait j; dj is the phenotypic standard deviation (with mean zero and standard deviation of 1); and ԑij is the residual of the model associated with the combination of inbred I and trait j. The data on grain yield was subjected to GGE biplot analysis to decompose the G × E interactions as described by [42]. The GGE biplot focused on the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) derived by subjecting the environment centered grain yield means for each location to singular value decomposition. The data were not transformed (Transform = 0), not standardize (Scale = 0), and were environment-centered (Centering = 2). This provided information on the hybrids that were suitable for the different environments and investigation of stability of hybrids in the various environments.The result of the analysis of variance across the three stresses (Table 2) showed significant mean squares for genotype (G), environment (E) and genotype by environment interactions (GEI) for grain yield and other measured traits. Partitioning the genotypic effects into GCA and SCA components revealed that across the stresses, GCA and SCA mean squares were significant for grain yield and other measured traits except for SCA for ASI. Also, significant GCA and SCA mean squares were observed for PASP and STGR under drought and low soil N conditions, Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP, and emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP in Striga-infested environments. However, the SCA mean squares for emerged Striga plants at 8 WAP and 10 WAP were not significant. Under optimal conditions, G, E and GEI showed significant mean squares for measured traits under optimal growing conditions (Table 3). Significant GCA and SCA mean squares were detected for all measured traits except husk cover. The GEI mean squares were significant for measured traits under stress conditions excluding emerged Striga plants at 8 WAP and 10 WAP. Additionally, significant GCA × E and SCA × E interaction mean squares were observed for measured traits under stress, optimal and across research conditions except GCA × E for days to anthesis, Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP, emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP under striga -infested conditions, days to anthesis and silk under optimal conditions, SCA × E interaction mean squares for Striga damage and emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP under Striga infestation.Significant and positive GCA effects for grain yield were observed for TZEI 25 and TZEIOR 164 across research environments (Table 4). Inbreds TZEIOR 52, TZEIOR 163 and TZEI 25 recorded a positive and significant GCA effect for grain yield across research environments. TZEIOR 163 and TZEI 25 had negative and significant GCA effects for Striga damage rating at 8 and 10 WAP while TZEIOR 52, TZEIOR 158 and TZEIOR 164 recorded negative and significant GCA effects for Striga damage at 8 WAP and 10 WAP as well as emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP. The ratio of GCA/SCA effects revealed a higher GCA effect than the SCA for grain yield and other measured traits. The highest and least genetic ratios were observed for ASI and grain yield, respectively, under optimal growing conditions. Additionally, the relative importance of GCA to SCA effects for grain yield was higher across stress conditions than the non-stress conditions (Figure 2).The dendrogram constructed using the HGCAMT grouping method placed the parental inbred lines into three heterotic groups (Figure 3). Eleven inbred lines TZEIOR 125, TZEIOR 124, TZEIOR 79, TZEIOR 68, TZEIOR 73, TZEIOR 62, TZEIOR 129, TZEIOR 30, TZEIOR 4, TZEIOR 6 and TZEIOR 2 constituted heterotic group I. Inbreds TZEIOR 163, TZEIOR 158, TZEIOR 157, TZEIOR 25, and TZEIOR 52 were placed in heterotic group II while TZEIOR 165, TZEIOR 164, TZEIOR 119 and TZEIOR 117 were classified into group III. Inbred testers were identified based on high per se grain yield, significant and positive GCA for grain yield, and classification into heterotic groups. Based on these criteria, inbred lines TZEI 25 and TZEIOR 164 were identified as the best testers for heterotic groups II and III, respectively, while no tester was identified for heterotic group I.Under stress conditions, grain yield ranged from 23 Kg ha −1 for TZEIOR 62 × TZEIOR 68 to 3341 Kg ha −1 for TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 158 (Table S1). The best PVA hybrid outyielded the best non-PVA hybrid check by 29% under stress conditions and the least performing hybrid check by 101%. Under optimal conditions, grain yield ranged from 480 kg/ha for TZEIOR 157 × TZEIOR 163 to 6588 kg/ha for TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158 (Table S2), outyielding the best performing hybrid check by 43%, and the least performing hybrid check by 57%. Across research environments, grain yield varied between 781 kg/ha for TZEIOR 164 × TZEIOR 165 to 4300 kg/ha for TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158. The yield of the top performing PVA hybrid was 24% better than the best performing single-cross commercial check (TZEI 124 × TZEI 25) and 49% better than the least performing single-cross hybrid check (TZEI 24 × TZEI 17) across the research environments (data not shown).The GGE-biplot was employed to decompose the G × E interaction, to determine the yield and stability of the PVA hybrids across research environments. The principal component 1(PC1) axis explained 65.8%, while the PC2 explained 9% of the total variation jointly accounting for about 75% of the total variation (Figure 3). The GGE biplot for grain yield of the best 25 and the worst four PVA hybrids alongside the six checks evaluated at 13 locations under drought and low soil-N conditions, artificial Striga infestation and optimal growing conditions is shown in Figures 3 and 4. In the entry/tester view (mean vs. stability) of the GGE biplot (Figure 3), the double-arrowed line separated entries with below-average means from those with above-average means. The average yield of a cultivar is approximated by the projections of their markers on the average-tester axis while the stability of a hybrid is measured by its projection onto the double-arrow line (average-tester coordinate (y) axis). Hybrids 3 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158), 21 (TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 158) and 4 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 167) were the highest yielding and the most stable hybrids across the 13 research environments while hybrids 1 (TZEIOR 2 × TZEIOR 6), 28 (TZEIOR 164 × TZEIOR 165), and 26 (TZEIOR 157 × TZEIOR 158) were the lowest yielding and most unstable across test locations. In the polygon view (Figure 4), the vertex hybrid in each sector indicated the highest yielding hybrid in the locations that fell within the sector. Therefore, entry 3 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158) was the highest yielding hybrid at E1 (Ikenne under optimal conditions in 2016), E2 (Kadawa, under optimal conditions in 2016), E4 (Mokwa, under low-N in 2016), E6 (Mokwa, under Striga infestation in 2016), E7 (Ikenne, under optimal conditions in 2017), E8 (Abuja, under optimal conditions in 2017) and E11 (Mokwa, under Striga infestation in 2017); hybrid 17 (TZEIOR 73 × TZEIOR 158) was the top ranking hybrid at E3 (Mokwa, under optimal growing conditions in 2016), E10 (Mokwa, under low-N in 2017) and E12 (Abuja, under Striga infestation in 2017); while entry 5 (TZEIOR 6 × TZEIOR 73) was the top ranking hybrid at E5 (Ikenne, under drought condition) and E9 (Bagauda, under optimal conditions).   The genotype × trait (G × T) biplot (Figure 5) shows the performance of the genotypes with respect to different agronomic traits across the stress conditions. Genotypes in the same sector with traits are associated with such traits, while genotype(s) at the vertex of a sector was the best for the trait(s) in the sector and the worst for traits in the opposing sector. Result of relationship among genotypes and genotypes by trait interaction was substantiated by standardizing means of the evaluated hybrids. Under stress, the G × T biplot accounted for 70.34% of the total variation, axis 1(PC 1) = 55.57%, axis 2 (PC 2) =14.77%. Hybrid 1 (TZEIOR 119 × TZEI 158) and hybrid 2 (TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 25) were outstanding for grain yield, number of ears per plant, plant, and ear heights. Additionally, hybrid 9 (TZEIOR 6 × TZEIOR 163) recorded the highest number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP. Hybrid 22 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 6) was associated with high Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP, stem lodging, root lodging, leaf-death score, and husk cover. The vector view of genotype by trait (GT) biplot showing the relationships among traits (Figure 6) across stress conditions explained 70.34% of the total variation among the traits of the single-cross hybrids. In the display, the line that connects the trait to the biplot origin is called a trait vector. The cosine of the angle between any two vectors measured the correlation between the traits. The biplot display revealed a high positive and significant relationship among grain yield, number of ears per plant, plant and ear heights while these traits showed a negative relationship with plant and ear aspects, Striga damage at 8 and 10WAP, husk cover and leaf-death score. However, there was weak relationship between grain yield and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP. The G × T biplot under optimal growing conditions (Figure 7) explained 64.76% of the total variation with axis PC 1 = 47.16%, PC 2 = 26.73%. Hybrid 1 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158) was the best hybrid for grain yield and number of ears per plant under optimal conditions. Hybrid 12 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 157) was associated with high ratings for plant and ear heights while hybrid 21 (TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 6) was associated with high plant aspect, ear aspect and husk cover. The 'relationship among traits' biplot under optimal conditions (Figure 8) explained 64.8% of the observed variation for the evaluated hybrids. There was positive association among grain yield, ears per plant, plant height, and ear height. These traits showed a negative relationship with plant aspect, ear aspect, husk cover, number of days to 50% flowering and number of days to 50% silking.     The significant genotype mean squares observed for all traits measured under stress, optimal and across research conditions were indicative of the existence of high genetic variability for grain yield in the genotypes which can be exploited for accelerated genetic gains in the improvement of these traits. Also, the significant mean squares observed for the environment suggested the uniqueness of the capacity of the test environments to discriminate among the genotypes under stress and non-stress conditions. The significant GEI obtained for most measured traits in stress, non-stress and across environments revealed differential performances of the genotypes under contrasting environmental conditions, thus the need for identification and selection of outstanding and stable genotypes across environments [25,26]. Additionally, the significant GEI observed for grain yield and most other traits confirmed the importance of multi-environment testing of hybrids before recommendations for release and commercialization could be made [43]. The significant GCA × E interaction effect detected for most measured traits suggested significant differences in the combining ability of the PVA inbred lines under varying environmental conditions, suggesting the need for testing the lines in contrasting environments for identification of those with stable performance for the development of multiple stress tolerant hybrids [43].The significant GCA and SCA mean squares obtained for grain yield and most other measured traits in the test environments indicated that both additive and non-additive gene actions were important in the inheritance of the measured traits of the PVA genotypes evaluated in the present study. Variations in the GCA mean squares of the inbred lines further suggested the availability of genetic variability among the inbreds under each environment which suggests a great potential for classifying the inbred lines into heterotic groups as well as identifying lines with high general combining abilities which could be useful as testers. Additionally, the preponderance of GCA over SCA effects for grain yield and other measured traits in both stress and non-stress environments, except for grain yield across multiple stress conditions revealed the relative importance of additive gene action to non-additive gene action in the inheritance of grain yield and other measured traits of the PVA inbred lines. This was an indication that most of the measured traits could be improved through recurrent selection methods such as the full-sib, half-sib. This result is consistent with the findings of [43]. Significant GCA for grain yield and most other traits facilitated the identification of potentially discriminating inbred testers as well as candidate parental inbreds for hybrid development. Additionally, this result indicated that most of the traits could be improved through population improvement methods such as the S1 family recurrent selection, half-sib and full-sib recurrent selection methods. Additionally, the presence of significant SCA effects indicated that the backcrossing method could be employed for hybrid formation, and development of synthetics. The significant SCA × E interaction for grain yield and most measured traits signified differential performance of the hybrids under contrasting environmental conditions, indicating the need for selection of hybrids best adapted to each environment. However, the insignificant SCA × E for number of emerged Striga plants implied consistency in hybrid performance across Striga-infested environments. The results further lend credence to the approach of evaluating hybrids under contrasting conditions to enable identification of superior hybrids for each and across research environments. The HGCAMT method used in this study classified the early PVA inbred lines into three heterotic groups, effectively placing the parental lines of high yielding hybrids into opposing heterotic groups. However, the parental inbreds of the lowyielding hybrids were not necessarily placed in the same heterotic group.A prime objective of this study was to identify high yielding and stable PVA hybrids across stress and non-stress conditions. The present study showed that some PVA hybrids out-yield the normal endosperm hybrids under stress and non-stress conditions. The GGE biplot identified TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158 as the most stable and highest yielding PVA hybrid in the present study, out yielding the PVA commercial hybrid check, TZEI 124 × TZEI 25 by 25.6% across research conditions. This implied that the PVA hybrid has the potential to replace this commercial check in the public domain. It is important to note that TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 158 and TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 165 were also high yielding and stable across research environments. Following an extensive evaluation for consistency in performance, these PVA hybrids could be commercialized to combat malnutrition and food insecurity in SSA.An inbred parent with significant and positive GCA effects for a target trait is a good combiner for such trait and has a high probability of passing the characteristics to its progeny in a cross. Genotypes with positive and significant GCA effects for grain yield and other desirable traits could therefore be used for the development of heterotic populations as well as high yielding synthetics and hybrids ( [9]. Significant and positive GCA effects were observed for the grain yield of TZEIOR 52, TZEI 25 and TZEIOR 163 under multiple stresses, while TZEIOR 4 and TZEI 129 possessed positive and significant GCA effects under optimal conditions, and TZEIOR 164 and TZEI 25 across research conditions. This indicated that these inbred lines possessed beneficial alleles for grain yield and would contribute high grain yield to their progenies under the contrasting environmental conditions. Contrarily, significant and negative GCA effects were recorded for Striga damage and number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 WAP for TZEIOR 164 and TZEI 25, implying that these inbred lines are invaluable resources for Striga resistance/tolerance alleles for improving tropical maize germplasm for multiple stress tolerance.Fan et al., [40] reported that an efficient heterotic grouping method should classify inbred lines into groups which allow inter-heterotic group crosses to display higher heterosis than intra-heterotic groups. Badu Apraku et al., [43] compared different heterotic grouping methods and concluded that HGCAMT was the best method for grouping early QPM inbreds into heterotic groups with breeding efficiency of 82%. In the present study, the HGCAMT method placed the parental lines of the high yielding PVA hybrids into opposing heterotic groups further confirming the effectiveness of the grouping method at placing parental inbred lines into heterotic groups to maximize heterosis from planned crosses. Despite the effectiveness of the HGCAMT method in classifying the inbred lines into heterotic groups in the present study, it would be desirable to use molecular markers and genomic selection to confirm the heterotic groupings of the 20 early inbred lines.Information on inter-trait relationships among grain yield and other agronomic traits will enhance the efficiency of breeding programs using appropriate traits as selection criteria under stress and non-stress conditions [17]. The results of the G × T biplot analysis under multiple stresses revealed that ASI had a short trait vector implying that it is not important in evaluating early maturing maize genotypes for stress tolerance. The small acute angle observed between grain yield and ears per plant as well as plant and ear heights indicated the existence of significant positive correlations between grain yield and these traits suggesting that they could serve as important selection criteria for improved grain yield across multiple stresses. Additionally, days to anthesis and silking, husk cover, Striga damage at 8 and 10 WAP and the stay green characteristic which had angles near 180 0 were negatively correlated with yield, an indication that these traits had direct or indirect effects on yield across stress environments. This result is consistent with the findings of [38,44,45]. The significant and positive correlations between grain yield and ears per plant, ear and plant heights implied that selection for improvement in these traits under optimal growing conditions will result in improved grain yield. Also, the significant negative correlation between grain yield and plant aspect, ear aspect, days to silking, and anthesis as well as husk cover in non-stress environments are indications that these traits are reliable selection indices for yield improvement in optimal conditions. TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 158 and TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158 identified as high yielding and stable hybrids by both GGE and the G × T biplot analyses should be further tested for consistency in performance and released for commercialization to combat malnutrition and food insecurity in SSA.The significant mean squares obtained for genotypes for grain yield and other measured traits confirmed the availability of genetic variability for multiple stress tolerance among the early maturing maize. The significant GCA and SCA mean squares observed in the present study implied that both additive and non-additive gene actions modulated the inheritance of grain yield and other measured traits across the multiple stresses and optimal management conditions, however, additive gene action was more important. TZEI 25 and TZEIOR 164 were identified as inbred testers for groups 2 and 3, respectively. Plant and ear heights, ears per plant, plant and ear aspects were identified as invaluable selection criteria for yield improvement in both stress and non-stress management conditions. TZEIOR 4 × TZEIOR 158 and TZEIOR 119 × TZEIOR 158 were outstanding in terms of grain yield and stability and should be extensively tested and commercialized to combat malnutrition and food insecurity in SSA.The following are available online at www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy11071371/s1, Table S1: Mean squares showing grain yield and other agronomic traits of 196 early maturing pro-vitamin A hybrids evaluated under Striga Infestation both in 2016 and 2017 in Nigeria, Table S2: Mean squares showing grain yield and other agronomic traits of 196 early maturing pro-vitamin A hybrids evaluated under Optimal conditions both in 2016 and 2017 in Nigeria.","tokenCount":"6957"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"212e79014408eb1e38fd639ff0c41b18","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/664c5b84-546c-47bf-8153-2b6887ea31b0/retrieve","id":"1141387722"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9a68754b-d116-42ab-b434-a435a0d3d4fb","pagecount":"1","content":"Rich in iron, important for cell functions, development and functioning of brain and bloodVariety in food is not only the spice of life but also the essence of nutrition and health. A diet consisting of foods from several food groups provides all the required nutrients to support physical growth and development, maintenance of normal body function, physical activity and health: Cereals, millets and pulses provide energy and nutrients. Oils and nuts are calorie-rich. Vegetables and fruits are rich in vitamins and minerals. Milk and milk products, fresh foods, pulses, fish, and eggs are rich in proteins, the building blocks of the body, and minerals.Vegetables and fruits are treasure trove of minerals and vitamins that protect from diseases. It is recommended to eat 100g of fruits, 50g of leafy vegetables, 50g of roots and tubers and 200g of other vegetables every day. Pregnant women should eat more leafy vegetables (100g) to provide necessary iron and folic acid.Colour your plate! No single fruit or vegetable provides all the nutrients you need. The key lies in eating a variety with different colours.Important for normal vision, immune system and reproduction gahrI hrI p<ao dar saibjayaaÐ laaO ht%va sao BarpU r, maistYk kao iSa-kaAao M kI iËyaaSaIlata ivakasa evaM r> saM caar ko ilayao mah%vapU Na-.saibjayaaÐ ro Saao M , ivaTaimanaao M , enTI Aa@saIDo M T\\ sa AaO r Kinajaao M sao BarpU r.Rich in fibres, vitamins, antioxidants and minerals De Many species of fruits and vegetables are available throughout the seasons in local farms, forests and markets in Mandla and Dindori districts. Unfold and use this poster to see which ones are fresh throughout the year.Add more vegetables to your sauces and soups, to increase the nutrient content of staple foods. When possible eat raw fruits and vegetables, properly washed.Plan your home garden to include fruits and vegetables to have diversity all year round.Encourage your family to consume vegetables and fruits every day, especially green leafy vegetables and red or orange fleshed fruits and vegetables. ","tokenCount":"332"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"726efa3bbbdc8dc547b376983f440cab","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/331a0f0e-a4d8-4fca-b6b0-56acbafda0da/retrieve","id":"-24325999"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"767066df-77ab-406f-8c6b-9acfc8bd440b","pagecount":"7","content":"La sécurité sanitaire des aliments est devenue, durant les deux dernières décennies, une préoccupation majeure des consommateurs, des autres acteurs des filières agro-alimentaires et des décideurs. Cela est le résultat d'un regard plus attentionné sur la qualité des aliments à la suite des différentes crises et intoxications alimentaires ayant engendré en plus des souffrances, des pertes en vies humaines. Les mesures de contrôle des risques sanitaires sont encore insuffisantes du fait de la non maîtrise des facteurs de risques et de la complexité dans l'application de la méthode classique d'épidémiologie quantitative d'analyse de risques dans la chaîne de valeur alimentaire. Par ailleurs, ces analyses des risques se limitent au stade initial d'identification du danger. En s'appuyant sur des études de cas réalisées en Afrique subsaharienne au niveau du secteur informel du lait et de la viande et fruits de mer (Côte d'Ivoire, Ethiopie, Mali et Nigeria), nous démontrons que la participation des acteurs et la prise en compte de leurs connaissances peuvent contribuer à une analyse mieux élaborée des risques alimentaires. Les approches participative et transdisciplinaire se révèlent être d'une grande efficacité dans la collecte d'importantes données qualitatives complexes pour expliquer les données biologiques quantitatives (exposition, dose-effet). Elle pourrait permettre par une association de plusieurs techniques de collecte des données (enquête par questionnaire, Méthode Accélérée de Recherche Participative (MARP) et Focus Group Discussion), de réduire les coûts de l'analyse du risque et de mieux préciser le risque pour les prises de décisions pertinentes dans le secteur informel des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale (RASPA, 11 (S) : 15-21).L'analyse des risques est une démarche scientifique développée dans le but d'identifier les dangers connus ou potentiels, d'en apprécier les risques, de les gérer et de communiquer à leur propos [1], [7]. L'analyse des risques dans la chaîne alimentaire permet de donner les moyens d'une évaluation scientifiquement rigoureuse du risque lié aux aliments, de communiquer sur les mesures préventives qui pourraient être utilisées afin de les atténuer [19]. Dans les pays développés, l'analyse des risques est une pratique courante et représente la clé de voûte de la réglementation à la fois de la sécurité alimentaire domestique et du commerce international. Cependant, son utilisation dans les pays en développement a été limitée par les coûts et particulièrement l'importance de la forme informelle du marché. En effet les mesures de contrôle des risques sont insuffisantes voire quasi inexistantes du fait de l'absence de spécialistes et de laboratoires. En outre l'analyse des risques est rarement appliquée aux marchés nationaux où les populations pauvres vendent et achètent leur nourriture, où les niveaux d'hygiène et de sécurité sont les plus bas, et où la vulnérabilité de ces populations aux maladies d'origine alimentaire est la plus élevée [16]. Ceci conduit à un déficit d'informations sur les risques et les moyens de leur gestion. Ainsi de nouvelles approches interdisciplinaires et participatives sont promues et combinées aux approches de l'Office International des Epizooties (OIE) et du Codex Alimentarius [9]. Depuis leur introduction dans les années 1970, les méthodes et les techniques participatives sont devenues des outils centraux pour le développement communautaire et ont été appliquées dans une variété de contextes et secteurs. Les méthodes participatives sont promues sur la base qu'elles sont plus efficaces, plus durables, moins coûteuses et plus éthiques dans leur inclusion des pauvres dans la planification et les décisions qui les touchent [11]. Elles reposent sur le respect accordé aux capacités et savoirs locaux, la volonté des experts venus de l'extérieur de laisser aux populations locales la possibilité de prendre en charge le processus et de contribuer à la prise des décisions. En Afrique, deux groupes de recherche travaillent entre autres sur l'analyse participative des risques (APR), l'un au Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte d'Ivoire (CSRS) et l'autre à l'International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) au Kenya [14].L'APR est une combinaison des approches participatives (équité, inter -et transdisciplinarité) et les méthodes Hazards Analysis of Critical Control Point (HACCP), et Codex Alimentarius (OIE /OMS /FAO) qui prennent en compte la variabilité, l'incertitude, la relativité des risques et la complexité des prises de décisions face à ces risques. L'analyse du risque par les méthodes HACCP et le Codex Alimentarius est un processus linéaire, complexe et difficile à mettre en oeuvre dans le secteur informel, d'où l'émergence des guides de bonnes pratiques et de la participation pour prendre en compte les données qualitatives. L'APR pourrait donc contribuer à la gestion efficace, concertée et durable du risque. Elle prône l'implication de tous les acteurs de la chaîne des denrées alimentaires et permet de capter à travers des entretiens et des discussions de groupe, des informations qui pourraient échapper au secteur médical surtout en matière d'exposition, de dose-effet et de caractérisation du risque [3]. Le défi majeur de la sécurité sanitaire des aliments appelle à un développement d'une base fiable de données qui tient compte de l'offre et de la demande de la sécurité (quantité et qualité) dans un processus d'analyse des déterminants socioéconomiques et environnementaux (figure 1). Le présent article se propose de montrer à travers des études de cas réalisées dans le secteur informel des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale, la plus-value de la participation et des connaissances locales dans l'analyse de risques des aliments dans le secteur informel.   faible (20 pour 1'000 personnes) du fait du stockage du lait à la température ambiante pendant plus d'une journée. Dans le scénario que la production de toxine par S aureus s'arrête à un pH de 5,1, l'incidence annuelle est aussi faible (5,4 pour 10'000 personnes) [18]. Cela montre l'efficacité de certaines pratiques de fermentation spontanée du lait par les populations dans la stratégie d'atténuation des risques. Ces données mettent en exergue l'utilité des techniques participatives dans une évaluation des risques en matière de sécurité sanitaire des aliments dans les pays en développement où les données médicales manquent et où des évaluations rapides et à faible coût peuvent fournir des données qui ne sont souvent pas disponibles dans les bases de données nationales. Les études sur le lait en Ethiopie et en Côte d'Ivoire ont donc permis d'estimer la quantité de lait qui circule par jour dans la chaine de valeur. Lors d'une évaluation des risques au sein des filières informelles, l'analyse participative du risque peut être utilisée dans la compréhension et la perception des risques par les acteurs et leurs incitations à adopter des mesures correctives sur la base de leur conception sanitaire, socioculturelle et économique du risque. La combinaison des données qualitatives et qualitatives fait appel aux méthodes statistiques poussées de simulation (ex. Monte Carlo) pour caractériser les risques.En tenant compte du lait contaminé au-delà des niveaux acceptables pour la consommation humaine (règlement 2073/2005/CE) pour trois bactéries pathogènes (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, et Enterococcus spp.), on estime que 624,6 l (IC à 90%, de 424,6 à 778 L) de lait cru destiné au marché informel devraient être jetés tous les jours [17]. La destruction du lait contaminé entraînerait une perte directe journalière de € 624 (IC à 90%, à € 428,7 € 769,1) chez tous les producteurs de la zone à raison de € 41,6/ ferme. Les risques sanitaires peuvent être gérés par l'amélioration de la qualité microbiologique du lait à travers l'adoption des bonnes pratiques d'hygiène dans la chaine de production. Au Mali, la gestion participative du risque sanitaire lié à la consommation du lait frais vendu à Bamako a mis l'accent sur le lavage et la désinfection des ustensiles de vente du lait. Le dénombrement de la flore totale et des entérobactéries a été utilisé comme indicateurs de la qualité du lait. La formation conçue ensemble avec les acteurs sur les bonnes pratiques d'hygiène a permis une diminution significative de la flore totale du lait au point de vente, de 1,6.10 7 ± 1,3.10 7 à 4,8.10 5 ± 0,8.10 7 unités formant colonie par ml et une réduction des entérobactéries de 1,2.10 6 ± 1,1.10 6 à de 0,9.10 4 ± 1,1.10 4 ufc/ml [5]. L'étude suggère que la réduction du temps de transport entre la ferme et le marché, l'amélioration de la qualité de l'eau en ajoutant de l'hypochlorite de sodium, le comportement en matière d'hygiène en ce qui concerne le lavage des mains, le nettoyage des ustensiles, la désinfection et le contrôle des mammites sub-cliniques à la fin de la période de lactation permettaient d'améliorer de façon considérable la qualité du lait et ainsi conduire à la pasteurisation et à la sécurité du consommateur. Le coût de l'amélioration de la qualité n'était pas le facteur limitant mais plutôt l'accès au crédit d'investissement dans la qualité. La demande pour cette qualité est forte du fait de la valorisation du prix lié à la bonne qualité du lait. Les transformations technico-organisationnelles de la filière laitière périurbaine du Mali par exemple que le changement social peut contribuer à améliorer la qualité des produits. Ainsi, l'organisation associative autour des centres de collecte et des mini-laiteries a renforcé la la structuration de la filière en favorisant les interactions bénéfiques entre les acteurs. Les avantages qu'offre la coopérative en termes de garanties pour l'écoulement de la production, l'accès aux services vétérinaires et au crédit ont favorisé l'acceptabilité des innovations techniques par les éleveurs. En conséquence, le système de production et de collecte, les procédés de transformation et distribution ainsi que la qualité microbiologique du lait se sont considérablement améliorés. Ainsi, la gestion technique de la production laitière est fortement liée à sa gestion sociale [13]. On peut en conclure qu'avec une combinaison appropriée des méthodes anthropologiques et des outils participatifs, les méthodes modernes de promotion du lavage des mains pourraient être efficaces avec de faibles coûts sur une grande échelle [2], [6].Les données socio-anthropologiques sur la représentation de la qualité des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale ont permis de comprendre que, pour les acteurs de la filière laitière locale à Cinzana au Mali, les catégories telles que bon, mauvais, pur, sain, ne sont pas exclusivement dichotomiques, mais elles varient en fonction des motivations des acteurs. Le bon lait peut être celui qui permet de gagner plus d'argent même s'il est mouillé ou souillé. Le lait pur est celui qui n'a subi aucune transformation même s'il contient encore des résidus d'antibiotique ou des germes pathogènes. La qualité du lait dépend des croyances et de la vision du monde des populations et la définition des bonnes pratiques d'hygiène passe par la prise en compte des motivations des diverses catégories d'acteurs. Ainsi, dans le secteur informel, la confiance vis-à-vis du producteur et les croyances du consommateur sont des logiques sociales importantes dans le choix des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale. Le risque peut donc être évalué à la fois en termes absolus par le nombre de malades après la consommation du produit et la gravité du danger. Ce risque peut également s'évaluer en termes relatifs du fait des représentations car un produit est apprécié différemment en fonction des personnes et des groupes sociaux [12]. Alors dans un contexte comme celui de la filière laitière locale où les acteurs évaluent le risque en termes relatifs, une analyse du risque basée sur les méthodes conventionnelles excluant les perceptions, les représentations et les motivations des acteurs est vouée à l'échec. La qualité tout comme le risque est une construction sociale et dépend des croyances et de la vision du monde des populations [8], [10].Ainsi dans l'analyse du risque promue par ces méthodes, le risque est « la probabilité de la survenue d'un danger, combinée à l'importance de ses conséquences indésirables » [21]. Il est aussi défini comme étant une fonction de la probabilité d'un effet néfaste sur la santé et de la gravité de cet effet, résultant d'un (ou plusieurs) danger(s) dans un aliment [9]. Dans le cadre de la communication du risque, les aspects socioculturels et économiques, chers aux acteurs ne sont pas considérées alors qu'ils sont le fondement des changements de comportement et de prise de décision dans l'adoption des bonnes pratiques d'hygiène [4].Une enquête transversale de la qualité de la viande au Nigeria a montré que les associations de bouchers comprenant plus de femmes avaient de meilleures pratiques en matière d'hygiène et de la qualité de la viande avec moins de maladies gastro-intestinales chez les personnes ayant consommé ces produits [15]. ","tokenCount":"2023"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4ff1604988287b6502a9d1e8c4afcc72","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2dfd1ecb-abfe-4463-bba8-2ac3be67afaa/retrieve","id":"815156654"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85fbfc4a-6f86-4c45-9c55-7179cc907e00","pagecount":"1","content":"El objetivo principal del manejo de suelos para la agricultura es crear condiciones edafológicas favorables para el crecimiento y desarrollo de los cultivos (FAO, 2000). Es importante el buen manejo de materia orgánica para optimizar la producción del N mineralizable y minimizar la emisión de gases de efecto invernadero (Ball et al., online article, citados por Bolaños, 2007). El gas metano en la atmosfera tiene un gran potencial de calentamiento global 23 veces mayor al del gas CO 2 (Tauchnitz et al., 1991)  y es el producto de la actividad de microorganismos en ambientes de baja aireación como puede ocurrir en suelos encharcados o muy compactados, además de la influencia de otros factores como la precipitación y la temperatura del suelo. Oxido nitroso es un gas muy peligroso con un potencial 296 veces mayor que el de CO2 y su vida media en la atmosfera es de 114 años (IPCC, 2001).OBJETIVO: El manejo orgánico propuesto para el cultivo del bananito (Musa AA) contribuye al manejo sostenible del suelo y se propende por la mejora en la calidad del suelo y aire.Los flujos acumulados de metano obtenidos hasta los dos meses después de la siembra , reflejan que el suelo de cada uno de los tratamientos se está comportando como sumidero (Figura 1a). Ya a los 18 meses del establecimiento del cultivo hay diferenciación entre los tratamientos como la fertilización con quelatos, principalmente cuando se hace en conjunto con la aplicación del compost son emisores del gas metano para la atmósfera (Figura 1b ) Figura 1. Flujos acumulados de CH 4 : a. a los dos meses después de la siembra. b. 18 meses.La Figura 3, refleja que los flujos de los gases de efecto invernadero analizados están bien representados dentro del círculo de correlación:Este análisis estadístico se efectuó teniendo en cuenta los niveles de gases metano y oxido nitroso, donde el test de Monte-Carlo confirmó que el tipo de fertilización en el suelo tiene un efecto de 93% respecto a la emisión de gases de efecto invernadero, con una diferencia significativa de p<0.01. Figura 3. Circulo de correlaciones de las variables flujos de metano y oxido nitroso (izquierda) y análisis de componentes principales teniendo en cuenta las emisiones de metano y óxido nitroso (derecha).Los resultados muestran los flujos acumulados de 563 días para conocer el balance neto de los gases CH 4 y N 2 O para cada uno de los tratamientos. La aplicación del compost funcionó como un gran sumidero del gas metano comparado con sistemas agroforestales de Perú e Indonesia que reportan valores de -292 mg CH 4 m -2 año -1 y 175 mg CH 4 m -2 año -1 para cultivos con alto insumo (Murdiyarso et al., 2005). Por otro lado, sus emisiones de N 2 O son mas bajas con relación a otros tratamientos pero muy elevado comparado con cultivos con altos insumos en Perú o Indonesia y también con el cultivo de arroz en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia que fue de 300 mg N 2 O m -2 año -1 (Rondon et al., 2002).Respecto a la emisión de N 2 O por la fertilización de síntesis química que contenga nitrógeno esta se debe a la volatilidad de este elemento y al proceso de nitrificación y denitrificación que existe en el suelo y que libera N 2 O en los dos procesos; y por tanto si se agrega más nitrógeno al suelo por fuentes orgánicas (compost) o químicas se incrementará la producción de N 2 O, aunque para los abonos compostados esto es distinto porque ellos liberan lentamente el nitrógeno (González y Carlsson, 2008). También en la ausencia de fertilización puede ocurrir altas emisiones de N 2 O como se observa en el testigo probablemente por bajo aprovechamiento por el cultivo por ausencia de otros nutrientes.En la Figura 4, se presentan los niveles del N-inorgánico presentes en el suelo al inicio y después de 6, 12 y 18 meses del establecimiento del cultivo experimental de bananito. En el inicio de experimento hay mayor disponibilidad de nitrógeno en forma de N-NO 3 , debido a la ausencia de plantas para absorberlo, hay mayores riesgos de pérdida por denitrificación y lixiviación. A los 6 meses del establecimiento, se observa un aumento en la disponibilidad de nitrógeno en el suelo en ambas formas con mayor concentración de nitrato en el suelo con compost. Con el paso de los meses, con el cultivo en crecimiento y producción se observa una disminución en la disponibilidad del N incluso en niveles más bajos del inicial, que puede indicar la mayor utilización en forma de nitrato que de amonio. El N inorgánico del suelo es muy importante para la nutrición de la planta porque es la forma en que se absorbe y es muy dependiente de procesos biológicos realizados por microorganismos. Los datos disponibles no permiten mostrar una clara relación con la emisión del N 2 O pero se concluye que los abonos empleados en el plan de fertilización por tener coloides orgánicos (humus) liberan lentamente el nitrógeno que evitan sus pérdidas por lixiviación o volatilización.Asakawa, N. 1 ; Bolaños -Benavides, M.M. 2 *; Cardona, W.A. 2 ; Castilla -Lozano, L.A 3 . 1 Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 2 Corporación Colombiana de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (CORPOICA C.I. Tibaitatá). 3 FEDEARROZ•Autor de contacto: mbmarthabolanos@gmail.com Flujo de óxido nitroso Sus flujos acumulados a los 18 meses (Figura 2), muestran menor emisión con aplicación del compost o en conjunto con quelatos, que con aplicación de 17-6-18-2 o en el testigo. Probablemente, la aplicación de compost como fuente de materia orgánica y también la aplicación de fertilizantes como fuente de nutrientes minerales estimula más la actividad de los microorganismos y el nitrógeno liberado puede ser más rápidamente absorbido por el cultivo o quedar inmovilizado en los microorganismos, evitando perdidas del N, que son nocivas para la atmósfera.1. Fertilizacion completa (compost, micorrizas, quelatos, enmiendas), 2. Compost, 3. Quelatos + compost (quim+compost), 4. 100 g de fertilizante 17-6-18-2 (manejoTolima), 5.Calidad del aire: análisis del flujo de gases de efecto invernadero: metano (CH 4 ) y oxido nitroso (N 2 O) durante un periodo de 18 meses, según técnica de cámara estática cerrada estandarizada por CIAT (Chu et al., 2007). Determinación de la concentración de los gases: cromatógrafo de gases Shizadzu® GC-14 A con detectores FID y ECD.Calidad del suelo: extracción del nitrógeno inorgánico (N-NH 4 y N-NO 3 ) del suelo con KCl 1M y la lectura en espectroscopia de UV visible trabajando en la longitud de onda apropiada de cada ion. Determinación al tiempo 0, 6, 12, y 18 meses del establecimiento del bananito• Fertilización química y el testigo se correlacionan con emisión del oxido nitroso• Quelatos + compost se correlaciona con emisión del metano ","tokenCount":"1120"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8002bb4dee6d93b51d794bd87ecee364","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/163ff6be-8123-4bef-9b1e-9bb35981c510/retrieve","id":"-345003500"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"89eef10a-5c9b-4ed6-a1d5-5627e0950113","pagecount":"20","content":"Key message Sustainable control of fall armyworm (FAW) requires implementation of effective integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, with host plant resistance as a key component. Significant opportunities exist for developing and deploying elite maize cultivars with native genetic resistance and/or transgenic resistance for FAW control in both Africa and Asia. Abstract The fall armyworm [Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith); FAW] has emerged as a serious pest since 2016 in Africa, and since 2018 in Asia, affecting the food security and livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers, especially those growing maize. Sustainable control of FAW requires implementation of integrated pest management strategies, in which host plant resistance is one of the key components. Significant strides have been made in breeding elite maize lines and hybrids with native genetic resistance to FAW in Africa, based on the strong foundation of insect-resistant tropical germplasm developed at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Mexico. These efforts are further intensified to develop and deploy elite maize cultivars with native FAW tolerance/resistance and farmer-preferred traits suitable for diverse agro-ecologies in Africa and Asia. Independently, genetically modified Bt maize with resistance to FAW is already commercialized in South Africa, and in a few countries in Asia (Philippines and Vietnam), while efforts are being made to commercialize Bt maize events in additional countries in both Africa and Asia. In countries where Bt maize is commercialized, it is important to implement a robust insect resistance management strategy. Combinations of native genetic resistance and Bt maize also need to be explored as a path to more effective and sustainable host plant resistance options. We also highlight the critical gaps and priorities for host plant resistance research and development in maize, particularly in the context of sustainable FAW management in Africa and Asia.The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a migratory and highly polyphagous pest native to the Americas (Spark 1979). It is the most economically important pest of maize in South and Central America (Cruz et al. 2012;Nagoshi et al. 2014Nagoshi et al. , 2015)). Due to the absence of a diapause trait, in the USA, it migrates northward annually in the fall season to infest temperate maize cropping areas (Westbrook et al. 2016). FAW comprises two genetically and behaviorally separate strains that occur sympatrically throughout North and South America (Pashley 1986). The \"corn\" strain (C) was reported to be preferentially damaging maize, sorghum and cotton, whereas the \"rice\" strain (R) predominantly infests rice, alfalfa, pasture and forage grasses (Nagoshi et al. 2007;Juarez et al. 2012). These \"host strains\" of FAW are morphologically indistinguishable; however, polymorphisms in the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene proved to be capable of consistently differentiating and identifying the C and R strains based on their haplotypes (Levy et al. 2002).FAW was officially reported outside the Americas for the first time in West Africa in January 2016 (Goergen et al. 2016), and by January 2018, the pest was reported in over 40 African countries (Prasanna et al. 2018). In Asia, FAW was first reported in the southern Indian state of Karnataka in May 2018 (Sharanabasappa et al. 2018;Shylesha et al. 2018), and subsequently in all the maize-growing states in the country (Suby et al. 2020;Deshmukh et al. 2021). Between 2018 and 2021, the pest rapidly spread across the Asia-Pacific region and has been reported from Yemen, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia, Australia, South Korea, Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste, New Caledonia, Jordan, Syria and the United Arab Emirates (reviewed by Prasanna et al. 2021a).The rapid spread and establishment of FAW populations in Africa and Asia highlight two important facts: a) similar to the Americas, the pest can spread quickly across large geographic areas within a short timeframe (Prasanna et al. 2021a, b) FAW populations can persist throughout the year in the conducive tropical/subtropical climates. Thus, FAW has now become a global problem, posing a serious threat to the food and nutritional security and livelihoods of hundreds of millions of farming households, especially those dependent on maize, in both Africa and Asia. Although FAW incidence has been reported on several crops, including maize (field/sweet/waxy), sorghum, sugarcane, wheat, rice (very limited), millets, ginger, soybean, tomato, cotton, cabbage, groundnut, banana, pasture grasses and green amaranth, the pest has caused major economic damage mostly to maize across Africa and Asia, and secondarily to sorghum and sugarcane (to a limited extent). The economic impact of FAW is not only represented by the extensive yield losses caused by the pest to the affected crops like maize (Rwomushana et al. 2018;Matova et al. 2020), but also additional management costs incurred by smallholder farmers-for example, the cost of managing the pest using various technologies, especially synthetic pesticides, besides increased labor. A recent study (Yang et al. 2021) examining the response of farmers to FAW in Yunnan province in China showed that the full cost of pesticide-based crop protection increased from US$81 per hectare per crop season in 2018 to US$276 in 2020, mainly due to FAW. The study also showed that at the FAW infestation levels present, some farmers were applying, on average, as many as 6.4 pesticide applications per crop season in 2020. We still do not know the magnitude of environmental cost of such extensive pesticide applications that could potentially affect natural enemies of insect pests.There is no single solution that can provide sustainable control of a complex pest like FAW. A wide range of technologies and management practices have been developed over the years and are available for control of FAW, including host plant resistance, cultural control, biological control, biopesticides, mating disruption technologies, synthetic pesticides and agroecological management (Prasanna et al. 2018(Prasanna et al. , 2021b)). However, these technologies are not equally accessible to farming communities in countries across Africa or Asia due to various reasons, including regulatory bottlenecks. More generally, efficacy, cost/affordability, safety, accessibility and scalability are all important factors to consider in assessing the potential combination of technologies or management practices for IPM of FAW. In this review, we focus on the status of host plant resistance-both native traits and transgenic FAW resistance-for FAW control in Africa and Asia, as well as future opportunities and critical needs in host plant resistance research and development.\"Host plant resistance,\" in the context of resistance to insect pests, is defined as \"the collective heritable characteristics by which a plant species may reduce the probability of successful utilization of that plant as a host by an insect species\" (Beck 1965). Host plant resistance is a central component of IPM strategies to control FAW (Prasanna et al. 2018(Prasanna et al. , 2021c) ) and comprises: a) native genetic resistance: identifying/developing germplasm with resistance to FAW, and b) transgenic resistance: using a gene or combination of genes from an external source(s) (other than the recipient plant) to make the host plant resistant to FAW. FAWtolerant/FAW-resistant varieties, whether derived through native genetic resistance or through a transgenic approach, provide a practical and economical way to minimize crop losses due to the pest. In addition, improved maize varieties with genetic resistance to FAW effectively complement other IPM interventions (Riggin et al. 1992(Riggin et al. , 1994)). Seed-based technologies like host plant resistance are not only easily disseminated and readily adopted by farmers due to their visible benefits, but also require fewer applications of pesticides than the FAW-susceptible varieties.When designing a breeding strategy to introduce FAW resistance traits into elite maize germplasm, breeders consider not only the source and strength of FAW resistance, but also the potential durability of resistance over time. Insect pests such as FAW can evolve to overcome monogenic (based on a single gene) or oligogenic (based on a few genes) resistance, as has been observed with transgenic crop varieties (Huang et al. 2014). Breeding for FAW resistance is, therefore, a continuous process, with no \"finish line\" to the perpetual race between the host and the evolving pest. As a general principle, breeding programs should seek to identify, utilize, and ultimately combine multiple resistance traits-whether conventional or, where approved for use, transgenic-to improve the durability of host plant resistance (Prasanna et al. 2018(Prasanna et al. , 2021c)). Prasanna et al. (2018Prasanna et al. ( , 2021c) ) presented a comprehensive review of host plant resistance to FAW, especially in maize. This included information on potential sources of resistance to FAW in tropical and temperate maize germplasm identified or developed earlier by maize breeding programs in the Americas, and detailed protocols for mass rearing of FAW and screening germplasm under artificial FAW infestation. Here we (a) provide an update on the progress made in breeding for native genetic resistance to FAW in maize; (b) highlight the status of deployment of genetically modified (GM) maize (specifically Bt maize) in Africa and Asia for the control of FAW, and the need to implement effective insect resistance management (IRM) strategies for Bt maize; and (c) suggest possible next steps for making host plant resistance an integral component of an IPM-based strategy for sustainable management of FAW in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Asia.CIMMYT has a wealth of diverse genetic resources in maize, including landrace accessions as well as improved germplasm with an array of traits (e.g., high yield, drought tolerance, heat tolerance, nitrogen use efficiency, and resistance to various diseases and insect-pests) that are relevant for the smallholders. The maize germplasm bank at CIMMYT, Mexico, holds nearly 27,000 accessions that provide a rich platform for identifying genetic resources for various farmer-preferred traits. Research conducted at CIMMYT in Mexico (Mihm 1997) and subsequently in Africa and Asia revealed that there are genetic variation and potential to support breeding for native genetic resistance to insect pests of maize, including stem borers (e.g., spotted stem borer, Chilo partellus; maize stalk borer, Busseola fusca; Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnicalis; and European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis), FAW and postharvest pests (weevils and large grain borer).The work done at CIMMYT-Mexico led to the development of two major maize populations-Multiple Insect-Resistant Tropical (MIRT) and Multiple Borer Resistant (MBR)-that served as the foundation for deriving improved tropical/subtropical maize inbred lines with at least partial resistance to FAW. These insect-resistant maize populations were derived primarily from the Caribbean maize germplasm and Tuxpeño landrace accessions from Mexico (Mihm 1997). CIMMYT and partners in Africa have utilized the insect-resistant maize populations and inbred lines from Mexico and developed elite maize germplasm (hybrids and improved open-pollinated varieties or OPVs) with resistance to other lepidopteran stem borers, including the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn.), the African stem borer (Busseola fusca Fuller) and the spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus Swinhoe) (Murenga et al. 2015;Tefera et al. 2016a, b). Some of these insect-resistant materials have the potential to offer resistance against FAW, which is also a lepidopteran pest.A screenhouse complex (with 13 screenhouses, each 1000 m 2 ) was established by CIMMYT at Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) Research Center in Kiboko, Kenya, in 2017-2018, for intensive screening of maize germplasm against FAW under artificial infestation and for identifying and developing promising FAW-tolerant inbred lines and hybrids (Fig. 1). Each screenhouse can accommodate 245 maize rows of 3 m length with 12 plants per row. A similar screenhouse facility has been established by CIMMYT at Hyderabad, India. When identifying materials with native 1 3 genetic resistance to FAW, it is important to consider not only foliar damage but also ear/cob damage, as FAW larvae can cause significant ear/kernel damage by entering the developing ears. CIMMYT uses a 1-9 foliar damage scale (Prasanna et al. 2018), which is a modification of the Davis et al. (1992) 0-9 scale, for assessing the responses of maize germplasm against FAW under artificial infestation. At physiological maturity (harvest), the CIMMYT team also evaluates the maize germplasm on a 1-9 ear damage scale, as described by Prasanna et al. (2018). In addition, other parameters, including percentage ear rot and number of exit holes per ear, are recorded. The cumulative foliar and ear damage scores, along with grain yield and other parameters, are considered for final rating of the germplasm and for taking selection decisions.Starting in 2017, the CIMMYT maize breeding program in Kenya implemented intensive efforts to identify and develop maize germplasm with tolerance/resistance to FAW. FAW-tolerant maize germplasm developed earlier at CIM-MYT-Mexico, as well as inbred lines, OPVs and hybrids developed by CIMMYT in Africa through the Insect-Resistant Maize for Africa (IRMA) project (Tefera et al. 2016a;Prasanna et al. 2018), were screened. Between 2017 and 2020, over 6000 maize genotypes, including inbred lines and hybrids/OPVs from diverse sources, were screened under FAW artificial infestation in the screenhouses at Kiboko. The work led to identification/validation of promising FAW-tolerant/FAW-resistant inbred lines, especially from the MBR and MIRT germplasm backgrounds, with low foliar and ear damage scores.Several FAW-tolerant/FAW-resistant CIMMYT maize inbred lines have been developed and disseminated to interested institutions globally over the years. These inbred lines include lines identified earlier at CIMMYT-Mexico and validated under artificial infestation at CIMMYT-Kenya (e.g., CML71, CML124, CML125, CML333, CML334, CML338), as well as some of the CIMMYT maize lines that were found to offer resistance to FAW in Kenya (e.g., CML370, CML372 and CML574). Since 2018, FAW-tolerant/FAW-resistant CMLs have been disseminated to 92 institutions in 34 countries globally, including an array of NARES, advanced research institutes (ARIs) and commercial seed companies in the Americas, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia (Table 1). These CMLs 1 can be potentially utilized as trait donors in breeding programs of institutions  that are developing FAW-tolerant maize cultivars for local environments.Several national maize breeding programs in Africa and Asia have initiated breeding programs for developing FAW-tolerant cultivars (e.g., Matova et al. 2020;Kasoma et al. 2020), especially utilizing sources of native genetic resistance from CIMMYT. Besides the CMLs mentioned above, the CIMMYT team in Africa has identified over the last two years several promising inbred lines in both yellowand white-kernel backgrounds, with tolerance/resistance to FAW, based on low foliar and ear damage and competitive grain yields. For example, crosses were made among the promising lines, from which progenies were selected and intercrossed to increase the frequency of resistance alleles. Doubled haploid (DH) lines were developed from F 1 , F 2 and backcross (BC) source populations with resistance to FAW. In 2019-2020, a total of 2733 DH lines were produced from different source populations. From these, a set of 1400 DH lines were screened under FAW artificial infestation at the screenhouses in Kiboko, leading to identification of new FAW-resistant lines. These lines are used to make new single-crosses and three-way hybrids for further evaluation.Based on the results from screening of a large collection of inbred lines from different genetic backgrounds during 2017-2018, the CIMMYT team in Kenya formed singlecross and three-way-cross hybrids. In 2018, a set of 197 single-cross hybrids were developed and evaluated under artificial FAW infestation. The best FAW-tolerant/FAW-resistant single-crosses have been used (a) as female parents to develop three-way hybrids, (b) to make narrow-based synthetics, and (c) as source populations for DH induction to develop new FAW-resistant lines. In 2019, 88 three-way hybrids showed genetic variation for grain yield under various conditions and FAW damage parameters. Hybrids with MBR and MIRT backgrounds were among those that showed a combination of low ear damage and good grain yield across various conditions. In 2019-2020, over 500 hybrids, including single-and three-way crosses, were tested across different management conditions, including screening against FAW under artificial infestation in Kiboko. Stage gate advancement of promising maize hybrids with native genetic resistance is implemented by considering both foliar damage and ear damage scores below specific thresholds (≤ 5.0 and < 3.0, respectively), in addition to significantly higher grain yield than FAW-susceptible commercial checks (WE3106 and DK777).Based on the results of on-station screenhouse trials against FAW in Kiboko during 2017-2019, the CIMMYT maize team in Africa further evaluated in 2020 a set of eight promising white-grained hybrids (four early-maturing and four intermediate-maturing) against four widely used commercial hybrids (two early-and two intermediate-maturing) as checks under different management conditions. Of particular importance are \"no-choice trials\" under FAW artificial infestation in screenhouses in Kiboko, Kenya (Fig. 2), which provide a clear assessment of the ability of the genotype to \"resist\" the pest and provide acceptable yield. In this trial, each entry was planted in 40 rows in a separate screenhouse compartment (\"no-choice\") and each plant was infested with seven FAW neonates 14 days after planting.Fig. 2 \"No-choice trial\" of one of the promising FAW-tolerant maize hybrids versus a FAWsusceptible commercial hybrid under FAW artificial infestation in Kiboko, Kenya in 2020. Note the distinct differences in terms of foliar damage of FAW-tolerant (A) versus FAW-susceptible hybrid (C) and the differences in ear yield and ear damage (visible as blackish spots with no grains in the ears) of the FAW-tolerant hybrid (B) versus susceptible hybrid (D) 1 3Foliar damage was assessed 7, 14, and 21 days after infestation, followed by ear damage and grain yield at harvest.In addition, promising entries were also evaluated for their performance under managed drought stress, managed low-nitrogen stress and for their responses to key diseases (Turcicum leaf blight, Maize streak virus, Maize lethal necrosis, ear rots, etc.). The hybrids and their parents were also characterized on-station for their seed production characteristics, including maximum flowering time difference between parents and single-cross female parent seed yield. Besides on-station trials, the test hybrids along with commercial checks were evaluated under farmers' management conditions (without any insecticide spray) at 16 on-farm sites in Kenya. Each entry was planted in 20-row plots and data were recorded on natural FAW infestation. Foliar damage was assessed 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 days after germination together with insect incidence. Ear damage and percent ear damage were also recorded, as well as grain yield and other agronomic parameters. Based on data collected from the on-station and on-farm trials, three promising FAW-tolerant elite maize hybrids were announced by CIMMYT in December 2020 (https:// www. cimmyt. org/ news/ annou ncingcimmyt-deriv ed-fall-armyw orm-toler ant-elite-maize-hybri ds-for-easte rn-and-south ern-africa/) for partners, especially in SSA. National performance trials (NPTs) of the three FAW-tolerant elite maize hybrids are presently undertaken by several countries in SSA.The USDA-ARS Corn Host Plant Resistance Research Unit (CHPRRU) in Mississippi, USA (https:// www. ars. usda. gov/ south east-area/ missi ssippi-state-ms/ crop-scien ce-resea rchlabor atory/ corn-host-plant-resis tance-resea rch/) has a long history of conducting research on native genetic resistance to FAW, especially with temperate maize germplasm. During the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, USDA-ARS and CIMMYT (Mexico) collaborated extensively on developing FAW-resistant maize germplasm in Mexico (Williams and Davis 1997). USDA-ARS researchers developed protocols for infesting maize plants with neonates and evaluating the resulting damage and thus identified temperate maize inbred lines with resistance to FAW (e.g., Mp705) (Prasanna et al. 2018). In addition to USDA-ARS, temperate maize germplasm with native genetic resistance to FAW has been developed by Embrapa-Brazil, University of Florida, USA, and the Germplasm Enhancement of Maize (GEM) project (Table 2).In the context of insect pests, \"resistance\" is the capacity to minimize feeding damage through mechanisms such as antibiosis and/or antixenosis, while \"tolerance\" is the ability to limit economic damage even in the presence of the pest (outside/inside the host). Native resistance in maize to FAW is polygenic and quantitative in nature, conferring partial resistance. The quantitative and polygenic nature of native genetic resistance is less vulnerable to resistance evolution in the targeted FAW populations than if native resistance was high level and or monogenic. Although we do not know comprehensively the genetic, biochemical and molecular bases of native genetic resistance in maize, some interesting insights are available and are summarized below.Resistance to an insect pest may involve a combination of antibiosis, antixenosis, and/or tolerance (Painter 1958). Earlier studies evaluating FAW-resistant maize germplasm showed that the mechanisms could be quite varied, with some showing non-preference and others antixenosis (Wiseman et al. 1982). Non-preference could be due to distinct morphological traits (e.g., leaf thickness/toughness, very tight husk cover, kernel hardness) that minimize foliar or ear damage by FAW. Ni et al. (2008) showed that CML333 (with moderate silk maysin), CML336 (with low silk maysin) and CML338 (with high silk maysin) were resistant to FAW at the seedling stage, and CML335 (without silk maysin) was susceptible. CML338 and Mp708 were categorized as tolerant to insect herbivory because uninfested and injured plants   Davis (1980Davis ( , 1982Davis ( , 1984Davis ( , 2000Davis ( , 2002)) 1 3showed no differences in photosynthetic rate, light response curves or photosynthetic rate in the A/Ci curves (net CO 2 assimilation rate, A, versus calculated substomatal CO 2 concentration, Ci). Shivaji et al. (2010) analyzed whether constitutive levels of jasmonic acid (JA) and other octadecanoid compounds were elevated prior to herbivory in a maize genotype Mp708 with documented resistance to FAW and other lepidopteran pests. The inbred Mp708 had approximately threefold higher levels of JA prior to herbivore feeding than the susceptible inbred Tx601. In addition, the constitutive expression of JA-inducible genes, including those in the JA biosynthetic pathway, was higher in Mp708 than in Tx601. In response to herbivory, Mp708 generated higher levels of hydrogen peroxide and NADPH oxidase transcripts before and after FAW larval feeding. The authors concluded that Mp708 could have a portion of its defense pathway primed resulting in constitutive defenses and the ability to mount a stronger defense when FAW larvae attack. Analysis of volatiles released by the FAW-resistant Mp708 and FAW-susceptible Tx601 in the presence and absence of FAW larvae led to the identification of (E)-β-caryophyllene, a terpenoid associated with FAW resistance, released constitutively in Mp708 (Smith et al. 2012). Israni et al. (2020) recently demonstrated that FAW utilizes specific UDP-Glycosyltransferases to detoxify or inactivate maize defensive benzoxazinoids. Malook et al. (2021) identified a Chinese maize inbred line Xi502 that was able to mount effective defense in response to FAW attack. Comparative transcriptomics analyses, phytohormonal measurements and targeted benzoxazinoid quantification demonstrated significant inducible defense responses in Xi502 but not in the susceptible reference inbred line B73. The study also showed that Xi502 accumulates higher levels of benzoxazinoids effective against FAW than B73.There is still a lot to learn about the genetic architecture of native genetic resistance to FAW in maize, although a few studies carried out in recent years have given some insights. Brooks et al. (2007) used 91 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers on 213 F 2:3 families and detected quantitative trait loci (QTLs) on chromosomes 1, 2, 6, 7, and 9. Womack et al. (2018) evaluated 231 F 2:3 families from the cross of Mp704 (resistant) × Mo17 (susceptible) and genotyped with both SSR and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. This study revealed QTLs in chromosome bins 1. 09, 2.08, 3.08, 6.02, 7.04, 8.03, 9.03, 10.02 and 10.04. Womack et al. (2020) developed a bi-parental mapping population, comprising 243 F 2:3 families from the cross Mp705 (resistant) × Mp719 (susceptible), and evaluated this population for FAW leaf-feeding damage under artificial infestation over 3 years in the USA. QTL analyses led to identification of two major QTLs in bins 4.06 and 9.03 that together explained 35.7% of the phenotypic variance over all environments. The QTL identified in bin 9.03 co-located with a previously identified QTL associated with resistance to leaf-feeding damage in maize by FAW and other lepidopteran insects, while the QTL in bin 4.06 is a new source of resistance to FAW leaffeeding damage identified in this study. Badji et al. (2020) evaluated a set of 316 tropical maize lines under natural FAW pressure in Uganda and identified 14 SNPs through genome-wide association study (GWAS). These SNPs are distributed on all chromosomes except chromosomes 6 and 7. Several FAW resistance QTLs discovered in earlier studies (Brooks et al. 2005(Brooks et al. , 2007;;Womack et al. 2018) co-localized with 6 of the 14 SNPs reported by Badji et al. (2020). Kamweru et al. (2022) recently undertook GWAS on a set of 423 CIMMYT maize lines to dissect the genetic basis of native resistance to FAW. The lines were evaluated, based on foliar and ear damage scores, against FAW under artificial infestation at Kiboko, Kenya, in 2020 and 2021. All the screened lines were genotyped with the DArTseq genotyping-by-sequencing platform (Diversity Arrays Technology/DArT). The study revealed 56 significant marker-trait associations and the predicted functions of the putative candidate genes varied from a defense response to several genes of unknown function. Chromosome 4 accounted for the highest number (15%) of the SNP markers associated with foliar damage. One major effect QTL on chromosome 9 in bin 9.03, reported in previous studies (Womack et al. 2018(Womack et al. , 2020)), coincided with SNP DT9_96875821, detected for the foliar damage score on the 14 th day after infestation. Another major QTL detected on bin 4.06 coincided with SNP DT4_167218393, detected for the foliar damage score 21 days after infestation. Another SNP (DT8_165270110) located on chromosome 8 contributed the strongest estimated effect size (6.50) for the expression of the leaf feeding damage resistance trait. Overall, the study revealed that native genetic resistance to FAW is quantitative in nature and is controlled by many loci with minor effects. Genomic selection/prediction could play an important role in improving native genetic resistance to FAW in maize.The first GM crops developed in the late 1980s and 1990s expressed lepidopteran-active insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (and hence are known as Bt crops) (Fischhoff et al. 1987;Perlak et al. 1990). These proteins had been used previously in formulations of microbial products to control insect pests worldwide (US EPA 1998a, b; Huang et al. 2007;Hammond and Koch 2012). The efficacy and safety to humans and non-target organisms of these 1 3 insecticidal proteins made them the optimal candidates for the development of GM crops (Koch et al. 2015;Romeis et al. 2019). By 2019, Bt crops expressing one or more Bt proteins for pest control were grown on 56 million hectares globally (ISAAA 2019), reflecting the economic and environmental benefits accrued by farmers due to the high efficacy of Bt crops (Carrière et al. 2003;Mendelsohn et al. 2003;Wu et al. 2008;Hutchinson et al. 2010;Dively et al. 2018) and their potential to reduce insecticide use (Zhang et al. 2018).As a key lepidopteran maize pest in South America, Bt maize technologies have been successfully used to reduce FAW larval feeding injury in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and other major maize-growing countries (Fatoretto et al. 2017). Although the first generation of Bt maize technologies available in the region was based on the Cry1Ab protein, which has limited activity against FAW, these Bt maize hybrids still offered average protection against FAW that was superior to conventional insecticides. The behavior of FAW larvae to feed within the whorl of maize plants typically reduces the success of insecticidal sprays to manage FAW (Burtet et al. 2017). Moreover, resistance to various classes of synthetic insecticides including pyrethroids and organophosphates (Diez-Rodríguez and Omoto 2001;Carvalho et al. 2013), larval growth inhibitors (Nascimento et al. 2016), spinosyns (Okuma et al. 2018) and recently diamides (Bolzan et al. 2019;Boaventura et al. 2020) has been documented in FAW in Brazil. The highly destructive nature of FAW and the limited efficacy to insecticidal sprays favored the early adoption of Bt maize technologies by farmers in Brazil and surrounding countries. For instance, MON 810 hybrids containing Cry1Ab were commercially deployed in 2008 in Brazil and were perceived as an important contribution to more effective IPM for FAW (Waquil et al. 2013). Subsequently, the deployment of Bt maize hybrids expressing Bt proteins with significantly higher activity against FAW (Cry1F, Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2, and Vip3Aa20) led to higher adoption of Bt maize; Bt maize hybrids currently represent approximately 80% of the maize area in Brazil (Waquil et al. 2013;Marques et al. 2019;Moscardini et al. 2020). Extensive cultivation of Bt maize had no significant effect on non-target organisms, including parasitoids and predators of FAW (Comas et al. 2014;Resende et al. 2016;Bertho et al. 2020).The same Bt maize technologies developed and commercialized for lepidopteran pest control in the Americas have been tested for their efficacy against key African and Asian maize pests to determine their fit for those regions. Where they promise good control of these pests, now including FAW, these technologies could be an important additional tool for farmers. However, a prerequisite for Bt maize technologies to be legally cultivated by farmers is assessment of the safety of the transgenic event to humans, non-target organisms and the environment and approval by national regulatory authorities. This in turn requires the presence of suitable regulatory frameworks and assessment capacity, which do not exist in many African and Asian countries. Where the capacity is present, regulatory approvals typically take many years and represent a significant barrier to the adoption of Bt maize. This situation contrasts with the simple and rapid process for registering hybrids with the sort of novel native traits described in the previous sections. Not surprisingly, the countries cultivating the largest areas of Bt crops globally typically have regulatory frameworks for Bt crops that are expeditious, transparent, and relatively simple to comprehend and comply with (Levin, 1994;ISAAA 2020;Turnbull et al. 2021). Because of the regulatory hurdles, political barriers and other factors, experience with Bt maize in Africa and Asia still is relatively limited, as summarized in the following sections.In South Africa, the first Bt maize hybrids (MON 810 with Cry1Ab) were planted commercially in 1997. In 2010, MON 89,034 hybrids with the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins were introduced. These technologies were grown to control the stem borers, Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). As in the Americas, these technologies have provided economic and environmental benefits to farmers, including regions comprised largely of smallholders (Keetch et al. 2005;Muzhinji and Ntuli 2020;Ala-Kokko et al. 2021). The area planted to GM maize in 2017 was estimated at 1.96 million ha, representing 85% of the total maize area (approximately 2.3 million ha) (FAOSTAT 2021). Of this area, 1.62 million ha was planted with Bt maize hybrids containing the Cry1Ab protein (MON 810) or the Cry1A.105 and Cry2Ab2 proteins (MON 89,034) (ISAAA 2017).Since 2016, FAW has become a major pest in parts of the South African maize-growing area. After its invasion into South Africa in early 2016, FAW was included as a target pest of MON 89034 (Botha et al. 2019). Consistent with experience in the Americas, MON 89034 was observed to provide high levels of protection against FAW with superior yields in South Africa (Chingombe 2020). In contrast, the MON 810 maize event confers partial resistance to FAW.South Africa is currently the only African country where Bt maize is grown commercially. However, the National Agricultural Research Organizations of Kenya, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda and Mozambique are testing the performance of Bt maize technologies introgressed into locally adapted African maize hybrids under the TELA® Maize project (AATF 2021). The TELA maize project was launched in 2018 as a public-private partnership led by the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF). The 1 3TELA maize project is working to enhance food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) through the release of high yielding insect-protected (TELA®) maize hybrids.In Asia, experience with Bt maize has been broader than in Africa but is still limited. Bt maize technologies were first approved for cultivation in the Philippines in 2002 and Vietnam in 2014. The primary target pest for Bt maize in these countries is the Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis Guenée) (ACB), while secondary target pests include the common cutworm (Spodoptera litura Fabricius) (CCW), the corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner) (CEW) and more recently FAW. Bt maize is also approved but not yet commercially planted in Pakistan, where the primary target pest is the maize stem borer (Chilo partellus Swinhoe). In addition, Bt maize is in the testing and approval process in China, the largest maize-growing country in Asia.In the Philippines, Bt maize products have been cultivated since 2002 when the first Bt maize event, MON 810 (Yield-gard™), containing the Cry1Ab protein, was approved for commercial use. The approval of the first pyramided insectresistant maize hybrid containing the MON 89034 event was received by Monsanto Philippines in 2010 (Table 3), followed by approval of Intrasect® hybrids from Pioneer Hi-Bred Philippines, containing the TC1507 × MON 810 events for insect resistance. The maize products containing the MON 810, Bt11, MON 89034 and TC1507 × MON 810 events have demonstrated excellent control of ACB over the 18 years of cultivation (Afidchao et al. 2013;Thompson et al. 2010;Caasi-Lit et al. 2018). Maize in the Philippines is planted on about 2.5 million ha, of which Bt maize hybrids occupied close to 0.66 million in 2019-20 (PSA 2020; USDA-GAIN 2021). GM maize (including herbicidetolerant traits stacked with Bt traits) reached a peak of 0.730 million ha during 2012 and are planted on 0.6-0.7 million ha every year (USDA-GAIN 2020a). The high adoption of Bt maize in the Philippines has led to significant socioeconomic benefits (Yorobe and Quicoy 2006;Yorobe and Smale 2012;Gonzales et al. 2013;Afidchao et al. 2013). FAW was first reported in the Philippines in 2019 (Navasero et al. 2019) and was reported to infest an area of 8,000 ha, mostly conventional maize, as of June 2020 (https:// www. da. gov. ph/ da-allots-p150m-to-help-farme rs-contr ol-fall-armyw orm/). One possible reason for low infestations and delayed spread could be the adoption and cultivation of Bt maize (USDA-GAIN 2020a). There are no more recent estimates from the Philippines of FAW infestations.The evaluation of Bt maize in Vietnam began in 2010 and since then three Bt maize events (MON 89034, Bt11 and TC1507) have been approved for environmental release (Table 3). Based on the biosafety approval given by MONRE, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development approved Bt maize hybrids containing the MON 89034 (Fig. 3) and Bt11 events. In 2015, when they were first planted, Bt maize events occupied 3,500 ha and in 2019 they covered 92,000 ha, which was 10.2% of the total maize area (USDA-GAIN 2020b; Brookes and Dinh 2021). Brookes and Dinh (2021) highlighted the economic and environmental benefits of GM maize cultivation in Vietnam. FAW was documented in Vietnam in 2019 and was reported to have affected 35,000 ha in the country. However, in 2020, FAW infestations were reduced in earlier affected areas and this may be related to an increase in planting of Bt maize hybrids (USDA-GAIN 2020c).In Pakistan, conventional maize was grown on 1.413 million hectares in 2019, with a consistent increase in area and production over the last 10 years (FAOSTAT 2021). Maize stem borer is the primary pest of maize (Arabjafari and Jalali 2007) in Pakistan, followed by armyworm species (Spodoptera spp., Mythimna spp.) and shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) which can reduce yield by 10-30% (Naz et al. 2003;Ahmed et al. 2003). FAW was first reported in 2019-20 in the maize growing districts of Sindh and Faisalabad, with Infestation levels of up to 80% (Naeem-Ullah et al. 2019;Gilal et al. 2020;Khan et al. 2020). Considering the management challenges with key maize pests, the evaluation of Bt maize events started in 2009. After seven years of evaluation, in 2016, the National Biosafety Committee of the Ministry of Climate Change approved stacked GM maize expressing insect resistance and herbicide tolerance traits for commercial cultivation. The GM maize products approved include stacked events with MON 810, MON 89034, TC1507 and TC1507 × MON 810. However, the varietal registration of the above-mentioned GM hybrids is pending approvals by the Federal Seed Certification  (FAOSTAT 2021). The major lepidopteran pests of maize are ACB and CEW, causing 10-30% yield losses every year (Wang et al. 2000(Wang et al. , 2021;;Shen et al. 2016;Liu et al. 2016) with ACB alone causing an estimated 6-9 million tons of lost yield annually (He et al. 2003). Adding to these production constraints, FAW was first documented in China in 2019 (Sun et al. 2021a;Wu et al. 2019) and was observed in all maize-growing regions of China by mid-2019 (Jiang et al. 2019;NATESC 2019;Yang et al. 2021). By late 2019, FAW had damaged a total of 1.08 million ha of crops, mainly maize (Jiang et al. 2019). Qin et al. (2020) estimated that the potential economic losses to maize by FAW in China could be at least US$5.8 billion annually, of which US$3.95 billion can be managed with effective control measures in place. Most of the Bt maize events developed in China express Cry1 and/or Cry2 class proteins, as reviewed by Liu et al. (2016). These include events expressing single genes e.g., Cry1Ab (Wang et al. 2015) and fusion proteins such as Cry1Ab/Vip3A (Chang et al. 2013a, b) and Cry1Ah/Cry1Ie (Yang et al. 2012). All these events demonstrated efficacy against ACB under laboratory and field conditions. In a recent published study by Sun et al. (2021b), three Bt maize events-Ruifeng 125 (expressing Cry1Ab/Cry2Aj), DBN9936 & DBN9978 (expressing Cry1Ab)-were evaluated and found to be highly efficacious against ACB, including a Cry1C-resistant strain (Sun et al. 2021b). The invasion of FAW in 2019 triggered evaluations of available and new Bt maize events across China. FAW populations that invaded China were found to be susceptible to commonly used Bt proteins, e.g., Cry1, Cry2 and Vip3 classes (Li et al. 2019(Li et al. , 2020)), and maize events, e.g., DBN9936 (expressing Cry1Ab protein) and the pyramided events, e.g., DBN3608 and DBN3601 (expressing Cry1Ab + Vip3A proteins) (Zhang and Wu 2019). There are three Bt maize event approvals (biosafety certificates) given by MARA in China since 2020 (Table 4), but no Bt maize hybrid approvals have been given yet.India and Indonesia are the two largest maize-growing countries after China in Asia. Maize reached a peak of 8.7-9.9 million ha during 2018-19 in India, while in Indonesia an area of 4.5-5.7 million ha was planted in the past few years (FAOSTAT 2021). In both India and Indonesia, lepidopteran pest pressure, including from FAW, is high with heavy economic impacts and Bt maize should be considered as part of the IPM toolbox. However, no Bt maize events have been approved in either country.In India, the stem borers, C. partellus and Sesamia inferens (Walker), are the major pests limiting maize production (Kumar et al. 2013). C. partellus alone was reported to cause yield losses up to 80% in some regions (Singh and Sajjan 1982;Chatterji et al. 1969). FAW was first detected in India in mid-2018, when Ganiger et al. (2018) reported it in southern India. By August 2019, FAW was reported from all maize-growing states (Sharanabasappa et. al. 2018;ICAR-NBAIR, 2018;Bhavani et al. 2019;Suby et al. 2020;Sharma 2021). Balla et al. (2019), using rainfall patterns, remote sensing and imaging, predicted yield losses from FAW infestation could be up to 33%.In Indonesia, the major production constraint for maize is insect pests including ACB and CEW (Swastika et al. 2004). ACB has been the primary pest and causes significant damage to maize plants (Trisyono et al. 2020). Subiadi et al. (2014) reported 3.76-4.94% yield reduction per ACB larva depending on crop growth stage, with total yield loss exceeding 20% in the worst-case scenarios. In the last two years, FAW has gained economic importance after being first documented in mid-2019. The first report of FAW occurrence observed FAW on 100% of maize plants in the Lampung area, Sumatra (Trisyono et al. 2019). Supartha et al. (2021) surveyed FAW infestations in Bali province and reported that infestations began in the 2 nd week of planting (19.12%), peaked at 4 th week of planting (66.41%) and remained above 10% until 8 th week. This indicates the continued presence of FAW and the potential impact on maize yields.The primary threat to the sustainable use of Bt maize technologies is the evolution of insect resistance. The first case of documented field-evolved resistance to Bt maize in FAW was for Cry1F-based maize hybrids in Puerto Rico (Storer et al. 2010(Storer et al. , 2012a)). Several factors apparently drove the evolution of FAW resistance in Puerto Rico, including the island setting limiting insect migration and the tropical climate conducive to year-round cultivation of maize (Storer et al. 2010). Subsequently, field resistance to Cry1F maize was also detected in the southeastern USA (Niu et al. 2013;Huang et al. 2014) and in the Brazilian state of Bahia, in the latter case approximately three years after first commercial plantings (Farias et al. 2014a, b). Low compliance with IRM recommendations seems to be a major cause of the rapid onset of resistance to Cry1F in FAW in Brazil (Farias et al. 2014b). Bernardi et al. (2015a) also detected partial crossresistance among Cry1 proteins in FAW, meaning that the Cry1F resistance conferred some resistance to Cry1A.105 and Cry1Ab. However, no significant cross-resistance was found between Cry1F and Cry2Ab2. The potential crossresistance between Cry1F, Cry1A.105 and Cry1Ab in FAW was previously shown through in vitro assays by Hernández-Rodríguez et al. (2013). Omoto et al. (2016) documented the evolution of field-relevant resistance in FAW to Cry1Ab in Brazil, potentially due to either selection from the use of MON 810 and/or cross-resistance to Cry1F. The use of Bt maize hybrids with less-than-ideal IRM fit (e.g., less-than-high-dose technologies, components of Bt pyramids with cross-resistance to other Bt proteins in the landscape) combined with low compliance with IRM recommendations seems to be a common theme across the FAW resistance cases in South America (Farias et al. 2014a;Chandrasena et al. 2017). The deployment of MIR162-based maize technologies (expressing Vip3Aa20) carrying an effective new mode of action to counter FAW resistance to Bt maize technologies in South America has been an important addition to the \"toolbox\" for FAW control. However, poor compliance with IRM recommendation was a critical contributor to the observed cases of FAW resistance to Bt proteins in South America (Farias et al. 2014a;Chandrasena et al. 2017) and continues to be a threat to the sustainability of Bt maize technologies in the region.The proactive implementation of effective IRM plans can delay resistance evolution to Bt maize in FAW populations. The central components of an IRM strategy for Bt crops are the \"dose\" of the Bt technology and ensuring that the \"refuge\" is present refuge needs of the product are met, typically via the planting of structure refuges. The dose of a Bt technology refers to the level of control of susceptible and heterozygous-resistant insects; ideally, a Bt technology should control nearly all heterozygotes in the pest population of the pest and thereby eliminate most of the resistance alleles from the target pest population (Gould 1998). A refuge ensures that a sufficient population of susceptible insects is available to mate with the few homozygous-resistant insects that may survive in Bt maize fields. The combination of high-dose products to control heterozygous individuals and sufficient refuge can significantly dilute the frequency of resistance alleles in the insect population over time, thereby delaying the evolution of insect resistance (Gould 1998;Tabashnik and Carrière 2017;Van den Berg et al. 2021).Therefore, an effective IRM plan should include:1. Removal of resistance alleles/genes from the insect population through Bt technologies with effective dose or high-dose expression of Bt proteins 2. Sufficient refuge for Bt-susceptible target insects 3. Deploy Bt technologies expressing two or more Bt proteins with independent modes of action against the target insect species 4. Educate and train farmers and relevant stakeholders on practices to manage resistance 5. Monitor the development of insect resistance Although MIR162 expressing the Vip3Aa20 protein is currently the most effective Bt gene maize event, i.e., has the highest measured dose against FAW larvae (Bernardi et al. 2015b), the latest generations of Bt maize combining at least two Bt proteins active against FAW and representing unique and independent modes of action characterize a robust alternative to manage this species (Horikoshi et al. 2016(Horikoshi et al. , 2021;;Moscardini et al. 2020;Tavares et al. 2021). These products, known as Bt pyramids, combine robust protection against larval feeding injury of FAW (Waquil et al. 2013;Moscardini et al. 2020) and improved IRM value (Roush 1998;Storer et al. 2012b). Bt maize products with two or more effective Bt proteins with distinct modes of action significantly improve the likelihood of delaying resistance; however, sustaining reasonable compliance with structured refuge recommendations is also essential for sustained management of FAW. Failure to maintain adequate compliance with structure refuge recommendations was one of the main causes for FAW resistance to Bt maize technologies in South America. Among the reasons for the low levels of compliance are the economic and opportunity costs of refuge plantings. The use of seed mixtures of Bt and non-Bt seeds in the same package can transfer the responsibility of ensuring compliance to manufacturers instead of relying on farmers to plant a structured refuge (Carroll et al. 2012). Despite the benefits of seed mixtures in ensuring refuges are present within Bt maize fields, larval movement between Bt and non-Bt plants in a seed mix field can increase the risk of resistance evolution. FAW larvae not receiving a lethal dose that move off Bt plants onto adjacent non-Bt plants, and movement of larger and less susceptible larvae from non-Bt to adjoining Bt plants, could increase heterozygote fitness and intensify selection for resistance (Carroll et al. 2012). In addition, movement of susceptible FAW larvae off non-Bt plants onto neighboring Bt plants reduces refuge effectiveness by reducing the number of susceptible insects produced by refuge plants (Carroll et al. 2012). Although FAW larvae are highly mobile (Pannuti et al. 2016;Malaquias et al. 2017;Sokame et al. 2020), the use of effective Bt maize pyramids can reduce these risks associated with seed mix refuges for FAW (Bernardi et al. 2015b;Dimase et al. 2021;Horikoshi et al. 2021;Tavares et al. 2021).Once the resistance risk of a Bt maize technology is properly assessed and a refuge recommendation is defined, it is fundamental to integrate the IRM recommendation into business plans and ensure resources are available to: a) implement training and education programs for farmers and other key stakeholders; b) track adoption and use patterns of a Bt maize technology and the level of compliance with structured refuge by farmers (if structured refuge is part of the IRM recommendation); c) monitor the development of resistance in populations of the target pest and d) follow up on the cases of unexpected injury to the technology and recommend remediation practices (Head and Greenplate 2012).• An array of FAW-tolerant/FAW-resistant germplasm in diverse genetic backgrounds needs to be developed and deployed in both Africa and Asia. A major obstacle to breeding crop varieties with FAW resistance using conventional breeding is the low frequency of resistant genotypes in germplasm collections. Therefore, it is imperative both to widen the search for sources of native genetic resistance to FAW and to discover, validate and ultimately deploy genomic regions conferring resistance to FAW using either marker-assisted breeding or genomic selection, as appropriate, depending on presence/absence of major haplotypes conferring resistance to FAW. breeding for native genetic resistance to FAW in Africa and Asia is hampering progress by the international agricultural research centers and national partners to come out with solutions for FAW management based on host plant resistance. • Another important gap that needs urgent attention is the stacking of transgenic insect-resistant traits with native genetic resistance and the combined value they could generate, ensuring sustainable yield protection from pests such as FAW. • Deploying improved maize varieties with genetic resistance to FAW (native or transgenic) has significant potential to reduce the use of pesticides by farmers. Studies should be done to empirically quantify the reduction in pesticide use together with the increase in resilience and productivity that comes with deployment of host plant resistance. • Functional and effective management of intellectual property seems to be a challenge in parts of Africa and Asia, likely impacting investments on transgenic research to address issues insect control in those regions. This would require policies in place to ensure there is return on the investments made by the private and or public sectors in developing these technologies. • Regulatory systems that are restrictive for the research and cultivation of transgenic crops in countries in Africa and Asia are limiting farmers access to technologies to manage FAW. Consumer acceptance of transgenic crops and or limited technical capacity to evaluate safety of these products seems to be the main drivers of this bottleneck. These technologies have been proven safe to humans, non-target organisms and the environment. Therefore, it is critical to work across stakeholders to understand the causes and how to improve the functionality of the regulatory systems in Africa and Asia. Moreover, capacity building on biosafety may be necessary in several countries in Africa and Asia to enable the development of science-based and efficient regulatory frameworks to assess the safety of Bt crops in the region.In terms of native genetic resistance to FAW, the key priorities are:1. Varietal release and widespread deployment of \"firstgeneration\" white maize hybrids with FAW resistance, developed recently by CIMMYT and now available to partners, especially in SSA; these hybrids can also be potentially tested in Asian countries where white maize varieties are grown and consumed by local populations. 2. Fast-tracked introgression of sources of native genetic resistance to FAW into Africa-and Asia-adapted germplasm, and release of next-generation products with native genetic resistance to FAW in Africa and Asia. 3. Discovery/validation of genomic regions for resistance to FAW in maize using appropriate populations and exploring the possibility of genomic prediction for developing novel Africa-adapted/Asia-adapted FAWtolerant/FAW-resistant maize varieties.Africa and Asia in breeding and deploying improved maize varieties with resistance to FAW and other important adaptive and agronomic traits relevant for the smallholders.Regarding transgenic resistance to FAW, the major priorities are:1. Accelerated testing and deployment of Bt maize with proven efficacy, biosafety and environmental safety with appropriate support from policy makers and regulatory authorities. 2. Pyramiding transgenes with different modes of action (e.g., cry + vip genes), instead of single-gene deployment, as a part of IRM strategy. 3. Implementing IRM and proper stewardship wherever Bt maize varieties have been deployed in Africa and Asia, to ensure sustainable protection against the pest.Sustainable control of FAW is best achieved when farmers use host plant resistance as part of an IPM strategy, together with good agricultural practices, pest scouting, biological control, agro-ecological management and judicious use of environmentally safer pesticides. Intensive efforts are being made in Africa by CIMMYT and partners to identify, validate and develop elite maize germplasm with native genetic resistance to FAW. These efforts need to be further accelerated and intensified in both Africa and Asia to derive elite tropical/subtropical germplasm suitable for different agro-ecologies and market segments. Such products must combine FAW resistance with other desirable and relevant traits for resource-constrained smallholder farmers in the target geographies.In addition, Bt maize hybrids carrying lepidopteranspecific transgene(s), wherever released in Africa or Asia, can become an important tool in the IPM toolbox for FAW management. Bringing the benefits of Bt-based solutions for FAW management more extensively into Africa and Asia would, however, require overcoming existing regulatory, political and consumer acceptance hurdles. In countries where Bt maize is already commercialized, it is important to devise and implement effective IRM strategies. Combinations of native genetic resistance and Bt maize also need to be explored as a path to more effective and sustainable host plant resistance options.","tokenCount":"8471"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bb47fee11aee59e81b427259cba09a1c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/55cb9a58-68c9-4347-836d-3ec75c8d6ddb/retrieve","id":"-1106039512"},"keywords":["Puccinia graminis","Puccinia striiformis","resistance","Warrior race"],"sieverID":"3e14c3d9-b473-4c3a-8487-fd13ef3ab783","pagecount":"21","content":"Effective mitigation of the current threat from yellow rust and the potential threat from stem rust to wheat production in the south of Spain requires the characterization of the lineages/races currently present in the region. Results from this study clearly indicated that the main yellow rust lineages currently present in the south of Spain are PstS10, PstS13, and PstS14, to which several widely grown commercial cultivars are resistant. Even though stem rust is not yet present during the regular cropping season, the main lineages/races Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F, were identified, much like in most of Europe and parts of North Africa. The evaluation of differential series and special breeding lines with known genes under local conditions has indicated the availability of several genetic options that could be used in breeding/selection programs to provide effective levels of resistance to either disease in the future. However, in undertaking these efforts, it is important to consider not only the lineages currently present locally but also resistance options effective against lineages/races that are rapidly developing elsewhere and could very likely reach the south of Spain in the near future.Wheat is one of the world's leading cereal grains and represents a staple food for more than one-third of its population, contributing more calories and proteins than any other cereal [1]. It is the most cultivated crop worldwide, with an annual area of 221 Mha (million ha), and third in grain production, after maize and rice, with 771 Mt (million t) in 2021/22 [2]. It provides 21% of the calories and 20% of the protein for more than 4.5 billion people in 94 developing countries [3,4]. According to Choudhary et al. [5], wheat production needs to be increased annually by 2% in the coming years [6], representing double the rate of increase currently being achieved [7,8]. Wheat yields are, on average, around 20% lower than the current crop potential because of biotic and abiotic factors. Among the factors that affect wheat production and prevent the crop from realizing its yield potential are wheat rusts, which can cause significant yield losses in susceptible cultivars and can be difficult to control chemically in some areas of the world [9,10]. There are three types of rust affecting wheat: leaf rust, yellow rust, and stem rust, and all three can be most effectively controlled through genetic resistance. While fungicides can be excellent means of control, they are not always available in large wheat-growing areas worldwide and are not the most environmentally friendly option [11,12].Wheat yellow (or stripe) rust is caused by the fungus Puccinia striiformis Westend. f. sp. tritici (Pst), a pathogen generally prevalent in temperate regions with cool and wet weather conditions (Figure 1) [13]. In the susceptible plant, chlorotic flecks typically appear after six to eight days from infection, whereas sporulation (characteristic yellow-orange uredinia appearing in long, narrow stripes on leaves) starts approximately from 12 to 2 of 21 14 days under favorable conditions [14], eventually leading to the desiccation of the leaves. Urediniospores germinate rapidly in optimum dew conditions and a temperature between 7 and 12 • C, with ideal disease development conditions (from infection to sporulation) between 12 and 15 • C [15]. Global losses inflicted by the disease can reach 20 Mt annually, representing an estimated US$ 1 billion [10,16,17]. Wheat stripe rust has been reported in more than 60 countries, and evidence suggests a significant geographical expansion in the last 50 years [16]. According to McIntosh et al. [18], 67 yellow rust resistance genes (Yr1 to Yr67) and 42 with temporary designations have been reported. Since the 2000s, aggressive lineages of Pst adapted to higher-temperature climates have spread to warmer regions of the world that were previously less affected by this disease [19]. Although populations of yellow rust appear to be clonal in Europe, Australia, and North America, there are significant levels of genetic diversity within some pathogen populations [13]. Such polymorphic populations are evident in western China and Central Asia, consistent with their reported center of diversity in the Himalayan and nearby regions, where sexual recombination appears to be common [19,20]. Races from that region, such as Warrior or Warrior-reached Europe in recent years, bringing virulence to important resistance genes present in European wheat cultivars [21]. These linages were reported in Spain starting in 2014 and, more specifically, in the southern region of the country in 2015 [11].Agriculture 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20 to 14 days under favorable conditions [14], eventually leading to the desiccation of the leaves. Urediniospores germinate rapidly in optimum dew conditions and a temperature between 7 and 12 °C, with ideal disease development conditions (from infection to sporulation) between 12 and 15 °C [15]. Global losses inflicted by the disease can reach 20 Mt annually, representing an estimated US$ 1 billion [10,16,17]. Wheat stripe rust has been reported in more than 60 countries, and evidence suggests a significant geographical expansion in the last 50 years [16]. According to McIntosh et al. [18], 67 yellow rust resistance genes (Yr1 to Yr67) and 42 with temporary designations have been reported. Since the 2000s, aggressive lineages of Pst adapted to higher-temperature climates have spread to warmer regions of the world that were previously less affected by this disease [19]. Although populations of yellow rust appear to be clonal in Europe, Australia, and North America, there are significant levels of genetic diversity within some pathogen populations [13]. Such polymorphic populations are evident in western China and Central Asia, consistent with their reported center of diversity in the Himalayan and nearby regions, where sexual recombination appears to be common [19,20]. Races from that region, such as Warrior or Warrior-reached Europe in recent years, bringing virulence to important resistance genes present in European wheat cultivars [21]. These linages were reported in Spain starting in 2014 and, more specifically, in the southern region of the country in 2015 [11].(a) (b) Wheat stem rust, caused by the basidiomycete Puccinia graminis Pers. f. sp. tritici, was historically considered the main wheat rust disease due to its devastating impact on grain yield and quality, in some cases even with losses of more than 50% (Figure 2) [22,23]. Stem rust did not appear frequently in European countries in recent decades, thanks to effective control, starting in the 1950s-1960s [24], resulting from the widespread use of host resistance (Sr2, Sr31), the eradication of the alternate host, common barberry, and the release of early maturing cultivars descending from the Green Revolution [25]. In Eastern Africa, one of the most stem rust-prone areas in the world, the pathogen was well under control thanks to the deployment of the Sr31 gene, which was very effective against the predominant stem rust races of the time [26]. However, the race TTKSK (syn. Ug99), detected in Uganda in 1998 and its subsequent variants, defeated the effectiveness of many designated and undesignated resistance genes, and losses due to Ug99 were reported to be as high as 90% [27]. Many Sr genes originated from tetraploid wheats (Sr7a, Sr8b, several alleles of Sr9, Sr11, Sr12, Sr13, Sr14, Sr17, and Sr8155-B1) [28,29]. Several of these genes are widely used in bread and durum wheat, contributing to the successful control of stem Wheat stem rust, caused by the basidiomycete Puccinia graminis Pers. f. sp. tritici, was historically considered the main wheat rust disease due to its devastating impact on grain yield and quality, in some cases even with losses of more than 50% (Figure 2) [22,23]. Stem rust did not appear frequently in European countries in recent decades, thanks to effective control, starting in the 1950s-1960s [24], resulting from the widespread use of host resistance (Sr2, Sr31), the eradication of the alternate host, common barberry, and the release of early maturing cultivars descending from the Green Revolution [25]. In Eastern Africa, one of the most stem rust-prone areas in the world, the pathogen was well under control thanks to the deployment of the Sr31 gene, which was very effective against the predominant stem rust races of the time [26]. However, the race TTKSK (syn. Ug99), detected in Uganda in 1998 and its subsequent variants, defeated the effectiveness of many designated and undesignated resistance genes, and losses due to Ug99 were reported to be as high as 90% [27]. Many Sr genes originated from tetraploid wheats (Sr7a, Sr8b, several alleles of Sr9, Sr11, Sr12, Sr13, Sr14, Sr17, and Sr8155-B1) [28,29]. Several of these genes are widely used in bread and durum wheat, contributing to the successful control of stem rust worldwide [30]. The Sr13b gene is a major basis for stem rust resistance in durum wheat worldwide [22,31,32]. New stem rusts from different lineages have emerged in East Africa. Race TKTTF resulted in epidemics in Ethiopia in 2013, with yield losses close to 100% on the most grown cultivar, Digalu [33]. In 2013, wheat stem rust reappeared at several locations in Germany [34], along with sporadic incidences in southern Denmark, eastern Sweden, and the United Kingdom [35]. A more widespread outbreak was reported in Sicily in 2016, where thousands of hectares of both bread and durum wheat were affected [36]. Analyses of infected plant samples from Sicily suggested the presence of a new race in Europe, TTRTF [36], which carried virulence to Sr13b and is of particular relevance for durum wheat [37]. In southern Spain, this disease has been detected regularly since 2018, but with low severity. Stem rust was also detected, with higher severity, in the irrigated off-season wheat trials (August-September) in the south (Conil de la Frontera, Cadiz) and northeast of Spain (Lleida).rust worldwide [30]. The Sr13b gene is a major basis for stem rust resistance in durum wheat worldwide [22,31,32]. New stem rusts from different lineages have emerged in East Africa. Race TKTTF resulted in epidemics in Ethiopia in 2013, with yield losses close to 100% on the most grown cultivar, Digalu [33]. In 2013, wheat stem rust reappeared at several locations in Germany [34], along with sporadic incidences in southern Denmark, eastern Sweden, and the United Kingdom [35]. A more widespread outbreak was reported in Sicily in 2016, where thousands of hectares of both bread and durum wheat were affected [36]. Analyses of infected plant samples from Sicily suggested the presence of a new race in Europe, TTRTF [36], which carried virulence to Sr13b and is of particular relevance for durum wheat [37]. In southern Spain, this disease has been detected regularly since 2018, but with low severity. Stem rust was also detected, with higher severity, in the irrigated off-season wheat trials (August-September) in the south (Conil de la Frontera, Cadiz) and northeast of Spain (Lleida).Given the increasingly threatening incidences of yellow and stem rust in Spain, there is a need to characterize and understand the virulence spectrum of the local lineages of these pathogens. This objective was addressed through field testing of differential lines and main cultivars in locations where both diseases occurred naturally during the period from 2016 to 2022 by sampling and subsequently analyzing several single pustule isolates of both pathogens collected from several locations during these seven years. This research was conducted at experimental sites used by Agrovegetal, a local breeding company, at four locations in southern Spain, namely, Escacena del Campo, near Huelva (37°27′20″ N; 6°21′49″ W), Jerez de la Frontera near Cadiz (36°42′14″ N; 6°10′11″ W), Ecija near Sevilla (37°32′23″ N; 5°6′42″ W), and Conil de la Frontera near Cadiz (36°18′30″ N; 6°5′13″ W). The first 3 locations were used for evaluations related to yellow rust and were sown during the regular season (December planting), while the fourth was dedicated to evaluations related to stem rust, with a summer, off-season sowing in June under irrigation. Field trials were conducted under rainfed conditions in winter sowings and weekly irrigated at the off-season site of Conil. Rainfall during the wheat growing season (November-May) across the years of the present study is shown in Table 1. Given the increasingly threatening incidences of yellow and stem rust in Spain, there is a need to characterize and understand the virulence spectrum of the local lineages of these pathogens. This objective was addressed through field testing of differential lines and main cultivars in locations where both diseases occurred naturally during the period from 2016 to 2022 by sampling and subsequently analyzing several single pustule isolates of both pathogens collected from several locations during these seven years.  5 13 W). The first 3 locations were used for evaluations related to yellow rust and were sown during the regular season (December planting), while the fourth was dedicated to evaluations related to stem rust, with a summer, off-season sowing in June under irrigation. Field trials were conducted under rainfed conditions in winter sowings and weekly irrigated at the off-season site of Conil. Rainfall during the wheat growing season (November-May) across the years of the present study is shown in Table 1. Experiments were carried out from 2016 to 2022, relying exclusively on natural infections. In all trials, entries were sown in twin rows of 1 m length using 4 g of seed per plot. The susceptible checks, Califa for yellow rust, and McNair and Tocayo for stem rust, were planted around their respective nurseries. Tejada and Calero were planted as resistant checks for yellow and stem rust, respectively.The set of commercial varieties for yellow rust evaluation was planted in a total of 21 location/year combinations, but only the 14 location/year combinations are reported herein, as the other seven were characterized by very low or absent natural disease incidence. The set of yellow rust differential lines was planted in a total of 19 location/year combinations, with only 15 of those reported as having a high disease incidence. The 52 wheat entries in the yellow rust nurseries were divided into two sets: the old set of 35 genotypes with different Yr genes and a collection of 17 near-isogenic lines in the Avocet background. The 100 wheat entries for stem rust evaluations included (1) 34 advanced durum breeding lines selected by CIMMYT for their different responses to the African races of stem rust in Kenya and Ethiopia; (2) 6 advanced breeding lines with known resistance gene(s) introgressed at CIMMYT through marker-assisted selection; (3) 20 cultivars, landraces, or other sources of resistance to the African races used in the CIMMYT breeding program; and (4) 40 stem rust differential lines used to identify races according to their virulence (Supplementary Table S1).Rust severity was also assessed in additional field trials independently sown by the Agrovegetal company at the same four locations in southern Spain for both yellow rust and stem rust. These trials included the commercial varieties of bread wheat (Arthur Nick, Tejada, Conil, Escacena, Califa), durum wheat (Amilcar, Euroduro, Athoris, Don Ricardo, Calero), and triticale (Bondadoso, Valeroso, and Trujillo).Yellow rust and stem rust differentials in all field trials were infected naturally. Samples of both rusts were sent every year to the Global Rust Reference Center (GRRC) in Denmark [38], where phenotypic and/or genetic characterizations of single pustule isolates were carried out on each sample to identify the local lineages and/or races. 1 Data from RIA [39]. Escacena data were from the La Palma del Condado station.To determine the disease severity in each plot and the field response (type of reaction to the disease), the percentage of foliar area covered by uredinia, according to the modified Cobb scale, was recorded. In addition, the response to infection was scored according to Roelfs et al. [40]. The disease severity scores were converted into the AUDPC (Area Under Disease Progress Curve) [40], using the following formula:where D is the time interval (days between readings) and (Y1 + Yk) is the sum of the first and last scores. (Y2 + Y3 + . . . + Yk-1) is the sum of all intermediate disease scores. The AUDPC for each entry was converted into a relative percentage by using the AUDPC of the check, Atil/Local Red, as 100% [41]. To determine the difference between susceptible and resistant lines, a threshold of 30% (stem rust) or 20% (yellow rust) severity relative to the most susceptible line in each trial was set.Based on a combination of DNA analyses conducted at the GRRC from samples collected as part of this study, observations made herein on the set of differentials, and independent reports from different Spanish locations, it appears that the predominant yellow rust lineages present in Spain are PstS4, PstS7, PstS10, PstS13, and PstS14. The virulence spectra of these lineages are shown in Table 2, according to the classification from GRRC [38]. Virulence on Yr1 and Yr4 distinguishes between Warrior and the rest of the lineages, and virulence on cultivar Ambition is between PstS7 and PstS10. If virulence is observed in Yr8, the Warrior lineage is not present. If virulence on Yr8 is observed in addition to virulence on Yr10 and Yr24, lineage PstS4 is most likely present. Virulence on Yr8, but not on Yr10 or Yr24, would be an indicator of the presence of PstS13 or PstS14. To distinguish between both latter lineages, we must observe the virulence in the differentials Yr3, Yr17, Yr25, Yr32, and YrSp. Virulence would indicate the presence of PstS14; avirulence would indicate the presence of PstS13.During the period of the present study, the lineages detected in the various experiments varied from year to year and between locations within years. In Tables 2 and 3 below, the predominant lineages detected are shown for each combination location/year. In 2016, the first year the differential sets were evaluated as part of the present study, analyses conducted at the GRRC on samples collected from highly infected commercial bread wheat fields indicated that PstS10 (Warrior-) was the major lineage present. In 2017, no samples were sent to the GRRC, but from the set of differential responses, it could be deduced that the PstS13 and PstS14 races were the prevailing lineages present. In 2018, only Warrior-was detected in the field trials of the present study, but the presence of PstS7, PstS13, and PstS14 was independently reported in the country. In 2019, both differentials and DNA analysis again indicated the predominance of Psts13 and PstS14, with Warrior-also present. In 2020, only data from the Jerez location could be taken and indicated the presence of Warrior-, PstS13, and PstS14. In 2021, the presence of PstS14 was inferred from the evaluation of the set of differentials, and DNA analysis by GRRC [38] confirmed this assumption. In 2022, both results from the set of differentials and DNA analysis revealed the presence of PstS10 (Warrior-), PstS13, and PstS14.Monitoring the reaction to yellow rust of key commercial cultivars of bread wheat, durum wheat, and triticale sown in southern Spain was initiated in 2016 by the Agrovegetal company. Results from these evaluations are presented in Table 3. While these evaluations relied exclusively on natural field infections, the generally high rust scores observed on the susceptible bread wheat cultivar Califa indicate that the environmental conditions, in most location/year combinations reported herein, were conducive to the development of the disease and that virulent races were always present. Similarly high infections, to a somewhat lesser extent, were observed on the susceptible bread wheat cultivar Escacena. The bread wheat cultivar Conil exhibited low to intermediate susceptibility reactions, mostly when Pst10 was present. The other two bread wheat cultivars, Tejada and Arthur Nick, consistently exhibited high levels of field resistance and virtually total immunity, as did all the commercial durum wheat and modern triticale cultivars (Bondadoso and Valeroso). They were not at all affected by any of the lineage combinations present during the period of this study, in spite of the conducive environmental conditions. Very minor signs of infection, in some location/year combinations, were observed on commercial durum wheat cultivars starting in 2019 and on the triticale cultivar Bondadoso in 2022. However, infection levels were never high enough to be considered indicative of failing genetic resistance. The only case of emerging non-complete resistance, possibly intermediate susceptibility, is in the case of the durum cultivar Athoris. Old (from the 1980s) and now commercially obsolete, the triticale cultivar Trujillo was characterized, in most location/year combinations, by intermediate to high infection levels. Durum wheat cultivars To obtain a preliminary indication of what type of genetic option could be useful in breeding against the yellow rust lineages prevailing in southern Spain, two sets of lines with known genes of resistance were evaluated at three locations for their adult plant field reaction from 2016 to 2022. An analysis of variance with genotypes and locations was performed, using years within locations as replications, and is presented in Table 4. Genotype and location were clearly important factors of variation, but the interaction between them was not significant, indicating that the genotypes' severity scores were rather correlated between locations.The results of the severity scores on the sets of differential lines are presented in Table 5. The presence of Yr2, Yr6, and Yr9 in a monogenic state was associated with high levels of field susceptibility in all years at all locations, with variability depending on the line's background in some cases, but independently from the lineages present. Of the 52 lines tested, 14 were resistant at all locations and years, even when weather conditions were very favorable to yellow rust, as indicated by the high severity scores on the susceptible lines. These lines must have been resistant to PstS10, PstS13, and PstS14 since these lineages were present at these locations during the time of the present study. Consistent field resistance in the form of near immunity over years and locations and over genetic background (some genes were present in lines of different backgrounds) was associated with the presence of Yr4, Yr5, Yr10, and Yr15. Differential lines carrying the Yr24/Yr26 and Yr27 genes were of particular interest since they should display horizontal resistance. Indeed, the lines known to harbor these genes exhibited low levels of infection with slow disease progress, never reaching levels of high susceptibility in all trials, as slow-rusting genotypes theoretically should.In some cases, lines containing the same genes displayed contrasting responses, depending on the genetic background carrying them. This was the case for lines carrying Yr7, Yr8, and Yrsp. The rest of the genes were associated with field reactions typical of race-specificity, with high infection in particular seasons and locations, depending on the lineages present, and with no infection in other instances. This was the case of lines carrying genes Yr1, Yr3, Yr8 (in one background), Yr17, Yr18, Yr25, Yr33, and YrA.Stem rust reaction in a set of 100 genotypes (2018-2022), as well as a set of commercial cultivars (2021-2022), was recorded in off-season summer trials, under irrigation, at the southern Spain location of Conil de la Frontera.Results of race and DNA analyses indicate the presence of two races across the five testing seasons involved in the present work: Clade IV-B (TKTTF) and Clade IV-F (TKKTF), which is consistent with the GRRC information for Spain (Table 6). The key gene to differentiate Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F from the Sicilian race is Sr13. The Spanish races should be avirulent on this gene, while the Sicilian race is virulent. In the present study, lines carrying Sr13 genes displayed resistance, albeit partial in its expression in some cases. Similarly, races from Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F could be differentiated from the Ug99 lineage based on virulence on both Sr31 and Sr36. The line harboring Sr31 was resistant to the Spanish races, while the line with Sr36 shows susceptibility, confirming that the races present in this study were of Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F.In Table 7, an analysis of variance is shown using genotype as a factor and years as replications. The differences between the lines were significant with respect to their severity, showing that the ranking of severity or resistance due to a particular gene remained similar over the years of the study.    With regard to the reaction of commercial cultivars evaluated for two seasons (2021 and 2022), the results presented in Table 8 indicate that cultivars Athoris and Euroduro were susceptible. Cultivar Don Ricardo exhibited an intermediate and possibly useful level of resistance, while cultivars Amilcar and Calero show high levels of resistance. In bread wheat, cultivar Tocayo was very susceptible, as expected given that it was considered the susceptible check, and cultivar Arthur Nick exhibited a reaction that could be considered moderately to fully susceptible. Cultivar Tejada was characterized by an intermediate level of resistance, which was certainly interesting and potentially useful. Finally, the cultivars Conil and Escacena were found to have high levels of resistance to the prevailing races. The two modern triticale cultivars, namely Bondadoso and Valeroso, were completely immune to stem rust, while the old and obsolete cultivar Trujillo exhibited an intermediate level of resistance, clearly allowing for some development of the pathogen. In order to assess the genetic resistance options available against the Spanish stem rust races, we have assembled a set of 100 genotypes, including the stem rust differential series, some breeding lines with known reactions to the African races of stem rust (based on CIMMYT data from the precision phenotyping platforms established in Ethiopia and Kenya), others with known resistance genes introgressed through marker-assisted selection at CIMMYT, and, finally, some sources of resistance used in the CIMMT program. This set was evaluated under natural infection during the counter-season under irrigation at the southern Spain location of Conil for five seasons (2018 to 2022). It was also evaluated at the Jerez location in 2022, when stem rust was observed at high incidence levels during the main season. The results of the AUDPC calculated for each genotype are shown in Supplementary Table S2. In all seasons, the inoculum pressure was strong, the environmental conditions were favorable, and the stem rust severity was ultimately high, allowing for reliable discrimination between genotypes without the possibility of escape.In the first sub-group of lines, genotypes 1 to 34, we can observe a general coincidence between the reaction to the Spanish races over the five seasons and the summary information from data collected in Ethiopia and Kenya for the same material. Several exceptions are indeed observed, but the general tendency is present. Lines with good resistance to the African races in Ethiopia and Kenya are, on average, more resistant in Spain than those that are susceptible to the African races. As the resistance to the African races decreases, the susceptibility to the Spanish races increases dramatically.Within the lines with specific genes of resistance introgressed through marker-assisted selection, the results indicate that Sr25 (line 35) and Sr22 (line 38), in monogenic states, provide good to intermediate levels of resistance to the Spanish races, depending on the season. Lines with both Sr22 and Sr25 present together (lines 39 and 40) were characterized by the highest levels of resistance among this group. Lines with Sr38 have shown variable reactions, from complete resistance (line 1) to intermediate resistance (line 36) to outright susceptibility (line 37). Among the sources identified by CIMMYT over the years for their resistance to the Ethiopian races (lines 41 to 60), some maintained high levels of resistance to the Spanish races, including modern cv. Amria (Morocco), CIMMYT breeding line 45, and old landrace type Iumillo (line 42). Another accession of Iumillo (line 54) shows high infection levels indicative of susceptibility, possibly indicating the existence of different biotypes within the landrace or misclassification of the seed source. Among the same group, other sources with good resistance in Ethiopia were characterized by intermediate, possibly interesting, levels of resistance to the Spanish races, including breeding line 46 and modern cvs. Kronos (USA), Westbred 881 (USA), Calero (Spain) and Carpio (Spain), old and tall cvs. Boohai (Ethiopia), Trinakria (Italy), and landrace type Khapli (India). One surprising result was the high level of susceptibility of landrace type Reichenbachii (Turkey), which is one of the sources of resistance most effective against the African races in Ethiopia and Kenya and used significantly in the CIMMYT breeding program. Finally, sources of resistance gene Sr47 (USA), namely lines 56 to 58, exhibited promising levels of resistance, consistent with their field adult-plant reaction to the African races in Ethiopia. Among the stem rust differential lines, only line 96, carrying Sr32, exhibited high levels of resistance, albeit variable over years. Lines carrying genes Sr27, Sr33, and Sr35 had intermediate resistance levels on average, again highly variable between years. The rest of the differential lines were characterized by intermediate to very high susceptibility levels.In southern Spain, wheat is produced primarily under rainfed, often drought-prone, conditions with highly variable, but generally low yields, depending primarily on the amount and distribution of rainfall during the cropping season (Table 1). In such an extensive and relatively high-risk production system, the economic viability of any crop requires the maximization of yield potential expression under the prevailing climate conditions in any given year and the minimization of production costs. Genetic control of rust diseases, possibly the biotic factor most likely to prevent maximum yield expression in the region, does both. Not only is it key to the economic viability of wheat, but it also reduces the environmental footprint of the crop and the entire production system. The first step in achieving effective and durable genetic control of rust diseases is the thorough characterization of the lineages/races of the pathogens present in the region and the adjacent areas. The second step involves assessing the previously characterized genetic options available (known resistance genes) as well as non-characterized resistance sources for their suitability against the prevailing lineages/races of the pathogen. The objectives of the present study were to collect such information and provide such an assessment for the south of Spain, with the ultimate goal of guiding breeding and variety selection programs serving the region in their efforts to develop and deploy cultivars with effective and durable resistance to yellow and stem rust.The present study relied exclusively on the natural infection of both rusts. This ensured that pathogen sampling for race analyses and genotyping involved lineages/races that were representative of those actually present and relevant in the region. The long duration of the study (seven years) also contributes to the robustness and relevance of our results. The results reported herein were exclusively from location/year combinations where disease incidence was sufficiently high and uniform to enable reliable differentiation between genotypes. Location/year combinations with too little or no disease incidence were not considered.Results from samples taken from plots from the present study indicate that yellow rust lineages PstS10 (Warrior-), PstS13, and PstS14 prevailed in southern Spain in recent years. Reports from other areas of Spain also refer to the presence of PstS4 and PstS7 (Warrior). Some of these lineages were known to be present in the Guadalquivir valley [11], but they did not cause serious epidemics until 2015, when an outbreak in northern Spain was attributed to the Warrior race. This race, previously described in Denmark, France, England, Germany, and Sweden, circumvented the resistance of most commercial wheat cultivars in these countries. It is reported to have originated in the Himalayan region of Pakistan, subsequently spreading rapidly throughout the wheat area of Europe [42,43]. The region where our research was conducted was in fact one of the last to be reached by this race, probably because it was in the far southwestern corner of Europe with infrequent occurrences of favorable weather conditions. The newer lineages, PstS13 and PstS14, are probably those to pay more attention to, as their presence was generally associated with a slightly higher disease incidence on commercial cultivars evaluated in this study. This was particularly visible in the commercial durum wheat cultivars, with the appearance of some incidence, albeit at very low levels, during the last years of the study as PstS13 and PstS14 became more present. PstS14 was detected in 2016 in Morocco and Sicily (Italy) by the GRRC. This lineage (virulent on Yr2, Yr3, Yr6, Yr7, Yr8, Yr9, Yr17, Yr25, Yr32, and YrSp) was first detected in Spain in 2017 [38].Monitoring the reaction of commercially grown cultivars of bread wheat, durum wheat, and triticale has been useful to provide an assessment of the risk facing the southern Spain wheat production sector and how urgent it is to mitigate it. The fact that highly resistant, locally adapted, and commercially successful cultivars exist for the three crops is a very positive outcome, as they provide immediate genetic solutions to the threat of yellow rust on wheat production in southern Spain, solutions that seed companies and growers have successfully deployed and that breeding entities could use as sources of resistance in their improvement programs.While the number of commercial cultivars of each crop evaluated in this study may be too small to make generalized inferences on the resistance to yellow rust of the different species, our results clearly indicate that the durum wheat and triticale cultivars evaluated were much less affected by the southern Spanish lineages of yellow rust than bread wheat. Durum cultivars were, in most instances, immune to the disease, and even when some symptoms were present, generally starting in the 4th year of the study, they amounted to very low infection scores; too low to consider them susceptible. One possible exception may be cultivar Athoris, which closely approached a susceptible score, but only at one location in the last year of the study. Recently released commercial triticale cultivars also maintained near-immunity or immunity to yellow rust over the duration of the study. The old cultivar Trujillo, selected from a group of CIMMYT lines released in the early 1980s in several countries worldwide, has lost its resistance to yellow rust (and other diseases) decades ago in Mexico, Spain, and Tunisia (M.S. Gharbi, personal communication). While this was reflected during the duration of this study, Trujillo susceptibility levels remained inferior to those observed in the susceptible bread wheats. While resistant bread wheat cultivars Tejada and Arthur Nick exhibited resistance levels similar to those of resistant durum wheat and triticale cultivars, susceptible cultivars Califa and Escacena were characterized by levels of susceptibility unseen in the other two species.The generally better and, to a certain extent, more frequently seen genetic resistance of durum wheat and triticale compared to bread wheat observed in the small sample of cultivars evaluated in this study has been observed more widely in the south of Spain and worldwide. Among the germplasm of the three crops annually sent by CIMMYT to southern Spain for the past 20 years, highly susceptible durum or triticale lines were extremely rare, but highly susceptible bread wheat lines were regularly observed, albeit at a low frequency. Unpublished data collected from international nurseries distributed globally by CIMMYT to numerous cooperators worldwide indicate that the great majority of the CIMMYT durum wheat germplasm exhibits virtually generalized high-level resistance almost everywhere it is tested. On the other hand, a significant, even though generally low, frequency of susceptibility can be seen in the CIMMYT bread wheat germplasm distributed in the same international nurseries.The results of this study and the information discussed in the above paragraph may objectively indicate less of an emergency to work on enhancing the genetic basis for resistance to yellow rust in durum wheat. However, recent developments in the pathogen's populations in Chile should serve as a call for vigilance for breeding programs working with this crop. In 2019, a never-before-seen yellow rust epidemic appeared in commercial durum wheat fields in central Chile, and, in the experimental fields of the national program, 70% of the lines evaluated as part of CIMMYT's international durum wheat screening nursery exhibited, atypically, high levels of susceptibility to the disease (I. Matus, INIA-Chile, personal communication), while the same germplasm maintained its virtually generalized resistance to yellow rust everywhere it was tested outside of Chile (data not published). Thousands of breeding lines from the CIMMYT program were subsequently sent to INIA Chile for evaluation of their reaction to the local race of yellow rust, confirming the very high frequency (close to 70%) of susceptible lines within this germplasm group. While there is no evidence so far that this race made it out of Chile, durum wheat breeders in the Mediterranean basin, including those providing germplasm to southern Spain, need to assess the risks associated with such a devastating race appearing in their region. The collaboration between INIA-Chile and CIMMYT to address this threat to the local durum production has also resulted in a proactive preventive breeding effort by CIMMYT to increase the frequency of resistance to the Chilean race in its germplasm pool.Since the 1970s, a significant part of the spring bread wheat cultivars sown in southern Spain originated from the Mexico-based CIMMYT breeding program. A wide range of Yr genes were deployed by this program, such as Yr6, Yr9, and Yr17. These were quite common in the past, but their resistance has been overcome by new races. On the other hand, Yr27, a gene still used by CIMMYT and most likely present in the bread wheat material planted in Andalusia, is effective against the Warriors lineage [43][44][45]. In this study, this gene has provided intermediate resistance. The other genes that are worth mentioning in terms of their usefulness against the southern Spanish lineages are Yr5, Yr10, and Yr15, whose presence in the differentials series was associated with an immune reaction for the duration of the study. Yr5, located on chromosome 2BL, is effective against most yellow rust races worldwide and originated from T. spelta [46]. Yr15 is another gene that is performing well all over the world, including against the Warrior races. It originated from wild emmer (T. turgidum ssp. dicoccoides) and was transferred to chromosome 1BS of bread and durum wheat. It has been recently cloned and found to encode a compound protein kinase-pseudokinase in tandem [47]. Because of their global effectiveness against most yellow rust races worldwide and the availability of reliable molecular markers that could facilitate their introgression in elite germplasm, these genes represent very attractive protective solutions and are bound to be used extensively by breeding programs worldwide and deployed over large production areas across continents. This could theoretically expose them to being circumvented by rapidly evolving pathogen populations, as seen in the past for many such genes. It is therefore useful to keep characterizing new sources of effective resistance to yellow rust to facilitate their use in breeding and provide wheat breeders and variety developers with a more ample and diversified set of genetic options to mitigate the threat of yellow rust.Unlike yellow rust, stem rust is not yet a commercial problem in Spain; however, in recent years, the pathogen occasionally appeared at the end of the regular wheat growing season in the south of the country. Historically, when the very late-maturing and generally stem-rust-susceptible landraces were grown extensively around the Mediterranean basin, the disease was not uncommon. It was a scenario of a susceptible host maintaining green tissue well into the late spring season (May-June), providing the late-appearing pathogen with favorable conditions to successfully infect the crop. With the complete displacement of these landraces by the earlier, fast-maturing semi-dwarf wheats from the Green Revolution, which were also mostly resistant to the older stem rust races in the region thanks to the effective genes Sr2 and Sr31, the disease virtually disappeared and stopped being a yieldthreatening concern. However, recent developments in the pathogen populations and more regular appearances of the disease around the Mediterranean basin, as presented in the introduction, have raised concerns and prompted us to consider stem rust as a potential emerging threat to wheat production in southern Spain.All evaluations were again performed relying exclusively on natural infections that occurred during each of the five years of this study and developed into intense epidemics thanks to the weekly irrigations implemented for the summer sowing (off-season planting), which brings together green leaf tissue from susceptible hosts, a virulent pathogen, and favorable conditions for infection.Based on the off-season field readings from this study and DNA analysis at the GRRC, the predominant groups present during the current study were Clade IV-B (TKKTF) and Clade IV-F (TKTTF) [38]. As reported by Abdedayem et al. [48], stem rust has recently reappeared in many parts of Europe, and Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F were found to be present in Spain, Italy, France, Morocco, and Tunisia. The presence of the Sicilian TTRTF race in southern Spain and during the present study was considered improbable as this race is virulent on Sr13 [49], and the line harboring Sr13 was always resistant (partial resistance) over the duration of this study. Molecular markers identified 37 strains collected in France in 2021 as part of the sampling campaign from RustWatch (European project coordinated by the GRRC aimed at characterizing the main rust races in Europe). All of them clustered into two genetic groups, namely Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F. These two groups were already detected in 2019 and 2020 in nurseries of the Île-de-France and in 2018 and 2019 in Italy. All this information strongly indicates that these are indeed the main stem rust races in Mediterranean Europe [50], and probably also in North Africa. According to DNA analyses of samples sent to the GRRC from all parts of Europe, the races of the Ug99 family have not reached Europe. This was confirmed in the case of southern Spain, as the local races and the Ug99 lineage differed in their virulence on Sr24 and Sr31 [51][52][53].Another clear difference between yellow and stem rust resides in the level of expression of their resistance. While resistance to yellow rust was often expressed as a fully immune reaction (complete absence of pustules), such a reaction was very rare for stem rust (1 genotype out of the 100 evaluated in the present study), including when genes known to have major effects, such as Sr22, Sr25, and the combination of both, were present. None of the differential lines exhibited a near-immune reaction, indicating that no known R-gene would in fact provide such a \"clean\" reaction. This is consistent with the observations made by Ethiopian and CIMMYT scientists over many years, screening thousands of lines in Ethiopia at the Debre Zeit experimental site hosted by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). This different expression of resistance to stem rust is important to point out, as breeding programs around the Mediterranean basin have traditionally selected completely immune types with regard to leaf and yellow rusts. Those contemplating local resistance breeding efforts against stem rust will need to adjust their visual selection thresholds for what would constitute an effective and useful resistance level.Results from monitoring the reaction to stem rust of the main cultivars grown in Spain clearly indicate that suitable commercial genetic solutions are immediately available to farmers in the south of Spain should this disease become an issue in the main season. While the probability of this happening may be considered low, it did indeed materialize during the present study at the Jerez location in 2022. Durum cultivars Amilcar, Don Ricardo, and Calero; bread wheat cultivars Tejada and even Conil; and triticale cultivars Bondadoso and Valeroso were consistently resistant to both yellow and stem rusts. While the commercial availability of locally adapted cultivars with such resistance is a very positive result, it is important to keep in mind the virulence spectrum of the races these commercial cultivars were resistant to, particularly with regard to the avirulence of the Spanish races on Sr13. Virulence on Sr13, a gene that has substantially contributed to the protection of durum wheat from several germplasm pools, while still absent in Spain, is present in the south of Italy, and it is unavoidable to assume that this virulence will soon reach the south of Spain. Results from screening a large collection of durum wheat lines from different germplasm pools against the race JRCQC (with combined virulence on Sr9e and Sr13) [54] revealed a very low frequency of resistance, reportedly 5.2% [55]. The very low frequency of resistance against the Ethiopian races with combined virulence on Sr9e and Sr13 was consistently confirmed upon screening thousands of CIMMYT lines over years in Ethiopia (data not published). In this context, it becomes clear that the races currently present in Spain do not represent an unmanageable threat to the local wheat production, but that the most important and consequential threat would come from the eventual appearance of races with Sr13 virulence. Any preventive breeding effort or variety selection program to provide stem rust-resistant cultivars for the south of Spain should aim at resistance to races with combined virulence on Sr13/Sr9e, and not resistance merely to the races currently present in Spain. This can be effectively addressed using recent CIMMYT germplasm that was pre-screened for resistance to the African races, either to the Ug99 lineages via the selection in Kenya for bread wheat or to the Sr13/Sr9e virulence via the evaluation of lines in Ethiopia for durum wheat. Results from the present study confirm the suitability of this approach, as many of the durum lines known to have acceptable levels of resistance in Ethiopia and Kenya were also resistant to the currently present races in the south of Spain.In terms of the usefulness for the south of Spain of single genes or gene combinations known to provide good resistance to stem rust globally, Sr22 and Sr25, in a monogenic state, were found to provide adequate protection against the Spanish races in the present study, while also known to be effective against the African stem rust races (data not published). Sr22 originated from T. monococcum ssp. boeoticum and T. monococcum, and the translocated segment has been mapped on chromosome 7AL of wheat [56]. It has not been extensively used due to an associated yield penalty and a delay in the heading date [57]. In fact, the Sr22 introgression line used in this study is agronomically inferior and, based on unpublished CIMMYT data, has limited yield potential and drought tolerance. It was therefore never distributed globally but was used as a new donor of the gene for subsequent crossing/selection to pyramid with other resistance genes while selecting for better agronomic types with the least possible yield penalty. Sr25, linked to Lr19, was transferred to bread wheat in a translocated segment from Lophopyrum ponticum, which was also mapped to chromosome 7AL. It has been extensively deployed in many spring bread wheat cultivars of the Middle and Lower Volga regions of Russia [58], with some presence in the CIMMYT bread wheat germplasm. When introgressed into durum wheat, this gene provides good levels of resistance to the Spanish races (as indicated in the present study) as well as to the Ethiopian durum races. The first generation of CMMYT lines with Sr25 introgressed expressed variable levels of yield penalties, especially under drought. After two cycles of crossing/selection, new CIMMYT germplasm carrying Sr25 with no yield penalty has been developed (data not published). The combination Sr22 + Sr25 is attractive to use in breeding as the loci for the two genes are very closely linked on chromosome 7AL. Once assembled in the correct genetic configuration, they should effectively be inherited together with very little probability of being separated in further cycles of crossing/selection. The combination was found to be the most effective against the current Spanish races of stem rust, with reactions generally close to an immune response in the present study. Its use in spring bread wheat breeding programs in Russia was found to be associated with a higher ratio of dough tenacity to extensibility, lower flour strength, porosity, and bread volume [58]. In CIMMYT durum wheat backgrounds, the first generation of lines carrying both genes was characterized by severe yield and drought tolerance penalties; however, after two cycles of crossing/selection, the last generation of such lines has compensated for much of the yield or drought tolerance penalties, making them useful improved parents to use in any breeding programs.Other genes, such as Sr38, with limited usefulness in bread wheat breeding against stem rust, may still be useful for durum wheat. Included in a translocated 2NS fragment from T. ventricosum onto bread wheat chromosome 2AS [59], it was extensively used for its triple resistance to rusts, as it carries genes Lr37 and Yr18 in addition to Sr38. This gene is now considered to have limited utility against stem rust in bread wheat. In the present study, it was carried by the cultivar Trident, which was found to be susceptible to the Spanish races. However, when introgressed into a durum background, it had a variable effect against the Spanish races, ranging from complete immunity to complete susceptibility. The original introgression line (line 36) had an intermediate level of resistance to the Spanish races, with a highly resistant field reaction to the African durum races in Ethiopia and Kenya. The other Sr38 introgression line (line 37) had a rather susceptible reaction to the Spanish races and was characterized by an intermediate to susceptible reaction against the Ethiopian races, suggesting a possible recombination between the molecular marker used in the introgression and the actual gene. Line 1 of the set evaluated herein was a result of the introgression of Sr38 via marker-assisted selection in a CIMMYT elite background that already had a good level of resistance to the African races of stem rust, hence its immune reaction, likely due to the additive effects of several genes, including Sr38. Rust-resistance genes, with limited to no usefulness in bread wheat but with significant value for durum wheat breeding, are not unheard of. A clear example is the Lr14a gene for leaf rust resistance. It is completely useless in bread wheat breeding, as most bread wheat leaf rust races are virulent on this gene. However, most races that are virulent on durum wheat are avirulent on the Lr14a gene, making it one of the most useful sources of genetic resistance in durum wheat for many years [60], until it was recently circumvented around the Mediterranean basin [61], but it continues to be highly effective everywhere else to this day.The only other known and well-characterized genes to consider in developing/selecting stem rust-resistant cultivars for the south of Spain are Sr27, Sr32, and Sr35. These were characterized by very low levels of infection in the presence of the Spanish races (this study) and also provide good protection against the Ug99 lineage and derivatives [62][63][64]. Sr27 is located on a segment from chromosome 3R of rye translocated onto chromosome 3A of bread wheat [63]. Sr32 originated from A. speltoides and was transferred to chromosome 2DS in bread wheat [64]. Finally, Sr35 is located on chromosome 3AL of bread wheat and was transferred from T. monococcum [62]. For several of the genes previously mentioned, their origin is a translocated segment from wild relatives of wheat, which will require an assessment of the likely yield or quality penalties that could come with the resistance genes, especially if they are to be transferred to durum wheat.The results of the present study clearly indicate that the main lineages of yellow rust detected in recent years in southern Spain were PstS13, PstS14, and PstS10 (Warrior-), and those for stem rust were Clade IV-B and Clade IV-F, both avirulent on the important gene Sr13, as seen in most of Europe and North Africa, with the exception of southern Italy, with its Sicilian races harboring virulence on Sr13. For both diseases, the high and/or useful levels of resistance to the Spanish lineages/races exhibited by some of the most widely grown commercial cultivars of bread wheat, durum wheat, and triticale indicate that, in the short term, the threat to these crop productions may be effectively mitigated. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8af56705485cd75483b132e15c700b5b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9a8fc303-5a45-4dc3-810f-0d68c2e62296/retrieve","id":"629139551"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"da21aa18-faef-4231-84f4-59709d9eb56e","pagecount":"39","content":"This paper examines the dynamics of land use changes in Kitendeni wildlife corridor and their impacts on biodiversity. Data on land use/cover changes were obtained through interpretation of aerial photographs for 1952 and 1982 and satellite imagery for 2000. The field survey was conducted on the Tanzanian side of the corridor in Lerangw'a, Kitendeni, Irkaswa and Kamwanga villages, which border the corridor. The survey involved observations, interviews and discussions with indigenous people, previous researchers and Kilimanjaro National Park officials.The study established that there has been expansion of agriculture and settlements into the wildlife grazing and dispersal areas. These changes have led to reduction of the size of the corridor from approximately 21 km 2 in 1952 to approximately 5 km 2 in 2001, changes in migration routes, animal numbers and distribution in the corridor. In addition, human-wildlife conflicts have increased due to land use incompatibility. The changes are mostly a result of changes in livelihood strategies, encroachment of agriculture, and breakdown of traditional management systems. However, the drivers of the process of change are among others demographic factors, government policies, economic factors, and changes in natural resources management responsibilities, traditions and attitudes of the people towards the corridor.INTRODUCTION 1 Mount Kilimanjaro is part of a large ecosystem encompassing Amboseli and Tsavo West National Parks in Kenya and Kilimanjaro National Park in Tanzania. The Kilimanjaro-Amboseli wildlife corridor is also known as Kitendeni corridor (Map 1.1), which links Kilimanjaro National Park in Tanzania and Amboseli National Park in Kenya. In Tanzania the corridor is in Monduli District in Arusha Region, with the southern part being in Rombo District in Kilimanjaro Region. In the Northern part the corridor cuts across the Kenya/Tanzania international border through Kajiado District to Amboseli basin. The wildlife corridor is within the West Kilimanjaro ecosystem, which has relatively high mammal species diversity and several uncommon species, including the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) (Poole and Reuling, 1997).Kitendeni is the only remaining corridor that links Kilimanjaro and other ecosystems after the blockage of the former corridors to Tsavo West National Park, Arusha National Park, Meru forest and Mkomazi Game Reserve. The corridor is, however, under threat following the expansion of human activities in the area and the changing land uses over the years. This paper examines the extent and magnitude of land use changes over the past 50 years and their impacts on wildlife in the Kitendeni wildlife corridor. Understanding the factors that have accelerated land use changes and their impacts on the wildlife corridor in terms of its size, the diversity of habitat and animal species should, therefore, assist in proposing short-term and longterm management strategies for the corridor.The main objective of the study was to assess the extent and magnitude of land use changes between 1952 and 2001 and their impacts on biodiversity in the Kitendeni wildlife corridor. Specifically, the study sought to:• Assess the nature and magnitude of land use changes in the wildlife corridor over the last fifty years ;Map 1.1: The location of the Kilimanjaro-Amboseli wildlife corridor on the northwestern side of Mount Kilimanjaro Source: Newmark et al., 1991 • Establish the causes of such land use changes;• Assess the impacts of land use changes on the wildlife corridor in terms of its size, the diversity of habitat and animal species.1. There are land use changes in the wildlife corridor between 1952 and 2001. 2. Changes in land use have negatively impacted on the size of the corridor.This paper adopts the framework that was developed by Wood et al. (1999), in analysing the root and direct causes of biodiversity loss in Vietnam. According to them, forest degradation and loss were the most important contributors to the loss of biodiversity in Vietnam. According to them, the rapid loss of biodiversity and habitats around the world is occurring at local levels as a result of farmers clearing new fields, settlements and timber companies opening new forests for logging. The explanation for these activities, however, is often found in socio-economic forces that arise at national and international levels, which shape the decisions made at local level on the resource use patterns. The socio-economic forces referred to here include macro-economic policies, demographic changes, development biases, public policies, poverty and inequality. The changes in the resource use patterns resulting from the above mentioned forces are also associated with infrastructure construction, forest overexploitation, in-migration, pollution and land use changes. These activities, together with traditional practices cause habitat destruction and ultimately biodiversity loss. The focus of this study is on wildlife. So the framework is modified to fit the situation (Figure 1.1).The study focused mostly on demographic changes, traditional aspects (culture and customs), public and macro-economic policies as well as institutional factors, which seem to be the important factors for land use changes around most of the wildlife migration routes in Tanzania. These factors are closely interlinked and the inter-relationships among them are complex and they tend to reinforce each other. These factors lead to change in resource use patterns, which in turn lead to land use and cover changes in the wildlife corridor. The result of all these will be blockage of the wildlife corridor and habitat destruction thereby causing park isolation and loss of biodiversity.The field survey was done in four villages, namely Kamwanga, Irkaswa, Kitendeni and Lerangw'a. The selection of the sample villages depended on the number of villages bordering the corridor. The interest of the researcher was to study those villages that lie along the wildlife corridor on the Tanzanian side. Only two villages border the corridor now, these are Kitendeni and Irkaswa but these villages split recently from Lerang'wa and Kamwanga, respectively. The assumption was that these newly established villages were a result of encroachment on the wildlife migratory route. Ideally, the sample population was to be 15% of the total number of people in each village. As a result 30 people were interviewed in each of the three villages, namely Lerangw'a, Kitendeni and Kamwanga while only ten were interviewed in Irkaswa village (Table 1.1). There was a conflict between the Irkaswa village council, KINAPA and Monduli District Council following the encroachment on the wildlife corridor by the villagers who wished to settle and cultivate in the area of the corridor. Consequently, villagers were not willing to talk about the corridor and therefore only ten were interviewed.The study used two major categories of data, namely, primary and secondary data. Secondary data included other research findings and experience from different case studies and focused on the land use changes and their impacts on wildlife in terms of their habitats, number, movements and species diversity. Most of secondary data were obtained from libraries, for example the University of Dar es salaam library, TANAPA, College of Wildlife management-Mweka library, AWF library, TAWIRI, Conservation Information Centre (CIC) and Wildlife Division libraries. A land use map for 2001, which was obtained from the Monduli District Land Survey Unit, was also used to generate information on land use.The following data collection techniques were employed; Formal (structured) and informal interviews, non-participatory observation, transect walk, group discussions, diagrams, documentary reviews as well as interpretation of aerial photographs, satellite imagery and land use maps.The discussion focused on older people who could provide information about land use changes and their impacts on wildlife migration and species diversity over the past 50 years. Other discussions were held individually with National Park officials, including Kilimanjaro National Park Chief Park Warden, Ecologist, Community Conservation Service Officer and AWF researchers.Interviews were conducted on individual basis. Specifically, this technique was used to derive information about changes in land use in the study area, vegetation, animal movements, numbers, types, routes, relationship between people and wildlife for the previous 50 years and existing situation.The questionnaire was directed to counterchecking the information gathered through informal interviews and covered information about socio-economic activities of the people, land use practices and changes in the study area and the way these changes have affected wildlife migration and people.For the transect walk, the researcher joined groups of village game scouts who patrol at the edge of the corridor where there are farms, to scare away wild animals that raid crops. The walk started at the Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve boundary to the International border. This facilitated the observation of wild animals to determine their types, the distance of farms from the corridor, crop damages, different techniques used in the farms to scare animals and changes in vegetation cover as one goes towards Amboseli National Park. Observations were also made when crossing the corridor to and from Kamwanga and Irkaswa villages.Diagrams and pictures for different wild animals were used to identify animal species where the interviewer could not understand what species the respondents mentioned. The problem of misunderstanding was common where respondents used local names of animals.In order to capture information about land use changes aerial photographs for 1952 and 1982, and satellite imagery for 2000 were visually interpreted to generate land use maps for the time periods. 2 The 2001 land use map, which was obtained from the Monduli District Land Survey Unit, was used for comparison to determine land use changes. Because of the different levels of resolution and quality in the air photos, satellite imagery and existing map, it was not possible to compare land uses across years with great certainty (especially to distinguish grassland, bushland and cultivation); nevertheless the data provide a general sense of land use in the various years.Data collected from different sources were summarized and presented using frequency tables, charts, abundance indices, photographs and maps. The SPSS computer technique was used in the analysis of questionnaire data. With this technique, frequencies, percentages and other statistical measures were computed and then used for analysis. Descriptive analysis was also used to analyse information collected from informal interviews and information captured through observation and discussion.Extraction of information from maps about land use changes involved technical procedures of integration using the GIS computer technique. The area of closed forest was 9396 ha while the area of open forest was 845 ha. Bush and scattered trees occupied 7200 ha or 32% of the total area. This is the area that was being used by the Maasai pastoralists and wild animals for grazing, migration and dispersal. Cultivation was active in Kamwanga area, Lerangw'a along the road that joins these two areas and in few areas on the northern side towards the international boundary. About 4343 ha, that is 19% of the total area, were under cultivation. Agricultural activities were concentrated around settlements in Kamwanga area although in Lerangw'a and along the road there were no signs of settlements. This cultivation pattern suggests that people were moving from Kamwanga village to cultivate along the road and go back to the village. On the other side of the corridor, people were moving from Ol Molog village to cultivate in Lerangwá and back to Ol Molog.Some areas seemed to have been used as farms and settlements but later were abandoned possibly as a result of the nomadic nature of the pastoral societies. This suggests that the Maasai were cultivating around their settlements while looking for good pasture in some other places. When pastures were finished they abandoned the farms and bomas and moved to other places and probably came back again after grass regeneration. Consequently, 257 ha remained as fallow land. Meindertsma and Kessler (1997) also observed the same system of rotational grazing during their study on the agricultural potentials in Monduli District. The areas under grassland occupied 214 ha. These areas are mostly found adjacent to farms and settlements and these might be the areas mostly used for livestock grazing.The land use pattern in 1952 favoured a range of wild animals that were passing through the corridor from the forest through the areas of bush to Amboseli and back to the forest. According to responses from the key informants, the animal flows were very high from the forest reserve to Amboseli. This is also described in Child (1965), Millard (1954) and Lasan (1971). Areas between Kamwanga and Lerangw'a were used as common grazing areas for all pastoralists in the area. Farms that the Maasai referred to as gardens and areas for grazing small and sick animals surrounded the traditional Maasai bomas.By 1982, the distribution and density of residence and farms had changed from being low and scattered to high density and nucleated (Map 1.3). In 1952 settlements were only found in Kamwanga but by 1982 there was a high concentration of settlements and farms in both Kamwanga and Lerangw'a (See Maps 1.2 and 1.3).Areas of cultivation and settlement covered 4937 ha, that is, 22% of the total area (Table 1.3). The distribution of settlement and farms in 1982 could be a result of the villagization programme of 1975 that aimed to increase agricultural production and centralize socio-economic services by persuading communities scattered in small settlements to move to Ujamaa villages (Kikula, 1999). During the same period, Lerangw'a and Kamwanga villages were officially registered. The two village centres can be seen on Map 1.3.Bush and scattered trees occupied the area between the two village centres and it covered 6120 ha, which is 27% of the total area compared to 32% in 1952. There was a decline in the area covered by bush and scattered trees and this could be a result of expansion of farms and settlements on either side of the corridor after the villagization programme of 1975. In 1952, there were scattered farms and settlements in the area towards the international boundary but by 1982 all farms and settlements had become concentrated in the village centres. In addition, some closed and open forest areas became farmlands as a result of encroachment. Other cover types include plantation (740 ha), grassland (555 ha) and fallow land (73 ha).  1.3), there seems to be a declining trend in the area under forest and bush and scattered trees in 2000 while the area under cultivation seems to have increased. New cover classes also seem to have emerged, including dense bush land (1%), riverine forest (3%) and forest plantation with shamba system (3%) (Table 1.4). The shamba system is the system whereby farmers are allowed to inter-crop annual crops with tree seedlings in the forest plantation until the third year of tree growth. By the third year, the young trees canopy casts shade, which hinders the normal growth of agricultural crops. At this point farmers move out and are allocated other plots, if available. The absence of other land use categories on the previous maps (particularly Riverine forest) could be an interpretation error.In 2001, cultivation and settlement seem to dominate in the area. Whereas in 2000 there were three registered villages in the area of the corridor, which were Lerangw'a, Irkaswa and Kamwanga, in 2001 there were four villages. These are Lerangw'a, Kitendeni, Irkaswa and Kamwanga villages. These villages border the international boundary in the north and Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve in the South. In Kamwanga village, 100% of the total village area was under cultivation and settlements while in Irkaswa only 48.6% was under cultivation and settlements. In Kitendeni village, 44.7% of the village area was under cultivation and settlements while in Lerangw'a 25.2% of the area was under cultivation (Map 1.5).At present the area of the wildlife corridor occupies 2474 ha. Out of these, 88.5% is in Irkaswa village while 11.5% is in Kitendeni village. The area is basically a wildlife migration route from the mountain to the lowlands for feeding and dispersal but also it is a common grazing land for all pastoralists in the study villages.From the above, it is evident that the major land use changes that occurred in the study area during this time period are related to the conversion of traditional grazing areas to farms and settlements. As observed in previous sections, back in the 1950s the study area was basically a traditional livestock grazing area for Maasai pastoralists and pasture was traditionally managed. Wild animals used the same area for dispersal, feeding and migration to the forest and back to the savannah in Amboseli.The study area is within the Longido Game Controlled Area (GCAs). These are the areas of rich wildlife biodiversity put aside for the conservation of wildlife. Although in the GCAs human activities like livestock grazing, farming and settlements were allowed, pastoral activities became second to game (wildlife conservation) activities, and so were the traditional roles of managing pasture. The wildlife corridor and livestock grazing area has also been transformed from one dominated economically and culturally by Maasai herding to settlement and agriculture. Whereas in 1952 the area was dominated by closed forest and bush with scattered trees, the area covered by closed forest and bush with scattered trees had decreased by 8.9% and 3.3% of the total area, respectively, between 1952 and 1982. The area covered by cultivation increased by 2.2% while the area of open forest increased by 4.2%. While other land use/cover categories increased insignificantly, plantation forest, village centres and institutions emerged as new land use/covers.In Kamwanga village centre, agriculture and settlements expanded into the former bush land and scattered trees that were used for grazing both livestock and wild animals. Also, the area of the bush land in Lerangw'a was transformed into farms and settlements.In all, about 2978 ha (40%) of the area covered by bush and scattered trees in 1952 remained in 1982 while 3318 ha (45%) was changed to cultivation (Figure 1.2). The remaining 8% was changed to plantation forest, 4% to open forest and 3% to closed forest. In addition, some areas covered by grassland (97 ha) were changed to closed forest while 117 ha (58%) changed to bush and scattered trees (Figure 1.2). It will also be noted that 3318 ha of bush land representing 15.2% of the total area in 1952 were converted to cultivation by 1982.Map 1.5: The 2001 land use/cover types in the Kitendeni wildlife corridor and adjacent areas. Source: Monduli District Land Survey Unit.The area of closed forest that was changed to cultivation between the two time periods was only 4% of the total area. Much of the forest area (approximately 68%) remained unchanged in 1982 while 12%, 9%, 6%, and 1% changed to fallow land, bush and scattered trees, grassland, and plantation forest, respectively. In the open forest, only 5% of the 1952 area remained unchanged in 1982 while 25%, 39%, 29%, 1.5% and 0.5% changed to closed forest, bush and scattered trees, grassland, cultivation and plantation forest, respectively.The areas covered by fallow land in 1952 were all changed to other land cover forms. While 43% was changed to closed forest, 42% was changed to cultivation. The remaining 7% was changed to bush and scattered trees while 3% changed to grassland. The other 22%, 6% and 1% were changed to plantation forest, closed forest and fallow land, respectively.Although land use and cover changes occurred in the area between 1952 and 1982, the major land use changes seem to have occurred after 1982. This is the period when there was a transformation of the society from pastoralism to agro-pastoralism, high population growth and changes in the management of the wildlife corridor. These changes resulted in the designation of the areas formerly used for livestock grazing to the wildlife corridor, expansion of grazing activities in Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve and expansion of settlements and agricultural activities following the establishment of new villages in the corridor. By the year 2001 four villages had been established in the area of the corridor (See map 1.5). Consequently, the areas available for grazing both livestock and wild animals decreased and areas of settlement and agriculture increased.While the average number of herders who engaged in farming activities was only 27.8% of the population in 1970s, the number engaged in farming increased to about 88.2% by the year 2001. Only 11.8% were not engaged in farming activities (Figures 1.3). Consequently, the areas available for grazing both livestock and wild animals decreased and areas of settlement and agriculture increased. Following these land use changes, major land cover changes also occurred in the area. Closed forest changed into open and in some cases degraded forest, dense bush land and cultivation while much of the fallow land was turned to cultivation. The area covered by natural forest decreased from 7553 ha (33.9%) in 1982 to 6190 ha or 28.9% of the total area. The area of degraded forest that could be the same as the area referred to as open forest in 1982 dominates around the natural forest, which could be a sign of encroachment into the forest. Degraded forest covered 1648 ha (7.4%) in 1982 while in 2000 it covered 3485 ha or 16.2% of the total area. Forest plantation that covered 743 ha (3.3%) in 1982 decreased to 604 ha (2.8%) most probably due to the forest shamba system, which was not there in 1982 and which covered 676 ha (3.1%) in 2000 (Fig. 1.4). A comparison of land use/cover patterns between 1952 and 2000 shows an overall significant decrease of natural habitats and an increase of cultivation and settlements over the two time periods (Table 1.8 and Figure  The number of villages increased from one in 1952 to four in 2001, which had significant impacts on the size of the corridor, animal movements and distribution. It has also increased humanwildlife conflicts. As far as this study was concerned, the change of other land use and cover types to closed forest, bush and scattered trees were considered as positive for wildlife. Other forms of changes for instance from closed forest, bush and scattered trees to open forest and cultivation are regarded as negative changes as they caused a decline in the natural habitat and, therefore, reduced the size of wildlife corridor. It is evident from the findings that most of the land use/cover changes that occurred in the study area were negative and these had significant effects on wildlife as they caused reduction of the areas available for wild animal grazing and dispersal.  These changes in land use were also supported by the 97.8% of respondents who said that there has been an increase of settlements and farms in the areas previously used for wildlife and livestock grazing, which have led to the reduction of the areas available for grazing and dispersal.This section analyses the causes of land use changes and their associated impacts. The causes are categorized as immediate and root causes. The immediate causes are those which directly causes land use change, while the root causes are those which drive the process of change. The immediate causes include changes in Maasai livelihood strategies, expansion of agriculture and settlements, encroachments and availability of markets for agricultural products in the study area.The root causes include changes in resource management responsibilities, demographic factors, government policies, economic, environmental and institutional factors.The Maasai pastoralists depended for many years on livestock production, a type of land use that co-existed with wildlife. Milk and meat were the common food while cattle skins were used as clothes and for shoes. They did not believe that they could use plants directly to get food, rather, plants could provide food for their cattle. The dependence of Maasai on livestock only co-existed with existence of wild animals. The decline of livestock production resulting from long periods of drought, limited pasture and the outbreak of cattle disease in 1970s, however, forced them to diversify their livelihood strategies. The immediate solution was to copy from the in-migrants and produce food from their fields. As a result Maasai livelihood strategies changed from depending on livestock only to cultivation. This led to land use change from livestock grazing to agriculture. Campbell (1999) and Campbell et al. (2000) also noted more or less the same kind of changes in Kajiado District in Kenya.As outlined in previous sections, until 1952 only few Maasai bomas were established in Kamwanga. Lerangw'a village started in 1975. These two villages bordered the wildlife corridor on either side. In 1992 a new village called Irkaswa split from Kamwanga village in the eastern side of the corridor. Later in 2001 another village called Kitendeni split from Lerangw'a village in the western side of the corridor. It should be noted that the expansion of villages was towards the corridor at a time when the Maasai had already changed their livelihood strategies from depending on livestock only to cultivation. Therefore, two agro-pastoral villages whose main activity was agriculture, Irkaswa and Kitendeni, were established inside the wildlife corridor.Despite the 1991 designation of the area as a corridor and the restrictions imposed by KINAPA, Monduli District Council and Maasai leaders on settlements, people encroached on the area of the corridor for settlements and agriculture. Seven bomas and one primary school moved in after the 1991 agreement. The government, however, has recently relocated the people and the primary school from the corridor. Wild animals now use the former primary school water wells as watering points and there is a high concentration of animals in that place compared to the time when there was a school. This is also considered a land use change, which had an effect on the wild animals in terms of their distribution Furthermore, there has been a lot of encroachment in the corridor from the people in Irkaswa village. In early 2001, the village council changed the boundary of the corridor in the Irkaswa village from Kilimanyuki area to the gully called Gari Bovu. The area between Kilimanyuki and Gari Bovu was allocated to the landless villagers, mostly youths and widows, each getting four hectares for agriculture and settlements. During this study, this area was under cultivation and settlement. Currently the corridor boundaries are between Loormotiak gully in Kitendeni village and Gari Bovu in Irkaswa village. Gradually, the area of bush land was transformed to farms and settlements. By 1982, 29% of bush and 8.9% of forest had been converted to cultivation. Other land use changes included conversion of fallow land and grassland in to cultivation and settlements.Root causes of land use/cover changes are the drivers of the process of change. These include demographic factors, government policies, economic, environmental and institutional factors (Figure 1.6). These factors have operated in different time scales in the study area. For the sake of this study, only factors that operated after 1950 have been included in the timeframe.The Maasai pastoralists inhabited the area in Kamwanga village way back in 1950s before the official registration of the villages. At that time, human population was very low and that allowed people to have many cattle because there was plenty of pasture. For a long time polygamy was practiced hand in hand with the number of cattle owned because children were needed to take care of the cattle. At the same time, cattle were needed for children to inherit.Growth in Maasai population and in-migration contributed to land use changes that ensued in the area since the 1950s. Net migration, for example, contributed to 9.5% of the total population in Arusha region in 1967and 11.1% in 2001(URT, 1998)). In the study area in-migrants came mainly from densely populated fertile highlands of Arusha and Kilimanjaro Regions. The Waarusha, the sedentary agricultural group of the Maasai originating from Mt Meru area were among the first groups to settle in the former Maasai area in Kamwanga village. Later, the Wachaga, who are an agro-pastoral and business group from the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, also joined in the early 1960s.The increase in human population went hand in hand with the need for more areas for cultivation and settlements. As a result agriculture developed fast in the study area. The same pattern was observed on the Kenyan side of the Mt Kilimanjaro ecosystem where non-Maasai farmers and many former Maasai herders diversified into cultivation (Campbell et al., 2000). These developments had problems, as the requirements for agricultural lands and settlements involved clearing of the areas previously used as grazing lands and wildlife migratory routes. Thus the growth in Maasai population and continued in-migration of farmers significantly reduced the availability of land for grazing as more land was being turned to cultivation and settlements. As a result, the average livestock herd size declined forcing many herders to seek alternative sources of income from agriculture.The land use changes in the wildlife corridor are to a great extent associated with government policies and legislation that governed natural resources during colonial periods and after independence. The Maasai traditional land use planning became centralized and governed by colonial policies. The post independence policies inherited much of the colonial policy features in an attempt to promote the social and economic development using the available resource base. Land use planning was again done in a centralized fashion, which jeopardized the right of the Maasai to plan for their land as they used to. Consequently, this led to the changes in the way land was being used and managed by the indigenous people.Before 1895, individuals, families or clans owned land in Tanganyika under the customary law (Nahonyo, 2001). Traditional chiefs had powers over the land and natural resources in areas under their jurisdiction. In 1895, however, the Germans confiscated all the land and declared it as public property. In that context, the German government then owned all the land and the law did not allow the transfer or lease of land by natives without approval of the government (Nahonyo, 2001). This was, however, not followed and foreigners took most of the native lands. This affected natives because most of their lands (in this case pastoral lands) were taken for large-scale agriculture. In the study area most of the land were taken and converted into wheat plantations and dairy farms.The British introduced the Land Act No. 3 of 1923 where all the land became public land and foreigners were given unlimited land lease (Nahonyo, 2001). Again, this gave the foreigners power to take most of the native's pastoral lands for agriculture. Natives, therefore, had to occupy the land in semi-arid areas where the agricultural potentials were low (Lissu, 2000). Changes in land ownership during colonial period caused changes in land use in the former pastoral lands and occupation of the semi-arid areas, formerly wildlife grazing areas, for livestock grazing. The privatisation of the common grazing lands and establishment of wheat plantations in West Kilimanjaro in early 1950s, done under the 1923 land Act (Child, 1965) further influenced the rate and pace at which land use changed in the study area. They denied local Maasai pastoralists access to the traditional grazing lands and watering points. Much of the area was changed to plantation agriculture. Likewise the wheat farms blocked the elephant migration route from the mountain through Londorosi and Ol molog village west of the main Kitendeni corridor (Grimshaw and Forley, 1990). With time, livestock grazing areas became limited to the extent that pastoralists had to move to Ol molog area and later to Lerangw'a village (towards the wild animal migration routes) to avoid conflicts with farmers due to crop damage that could be caused by cattle. This move is considered to have reduced the area of the corridor because with time, the society changed the land use patterns from grazing to cultivation that involved clearing of pasturelands for agriculture and settlements.The gazettement of the common grazing area into a Game Controlled Area in 1960 also contributed to land use changes in the study area. This gazettement was done under the 1896 German ordinance to protect rare species and to control hunting (Nahonyo, 2001). Although inside the Game Controlled Areas people were allowed to live, keep livestock and practice agriculture, the major land use became game activities and, therefore, livestock grazing was made a subsidiary land use. The legislation governing Game Controlled Areas, however, was too weak to protect and make wildlife conservation compete with other forms of land use. This led to encroachments into the wildlife corridor.The post independence policies that had a bearing on land use changes in the study area include land policy, villagization policy, wildlife policy and agricultural and forestry campaigns. After independence in 1961, for example, few amendments were made to the colonial Land Act and the changes focused only on the issues of long-term land lease until 1963. The native land including Maasai land was held under the customary law under which the status of land was vaguely defined as deemed right of occupancy. Consequently, the process of occupation of pastoral lands by agriculturists continued. Agriculture continued to be practiced on the key resources for pastoralists the dry season grazing lands for both livestock and wild animals, a phenomenon that has continued till today by the Waarusha and Wachaga.The new Land Policy of 1995 proposes that the security of tenure for pastoralists in pastoral land areas should include measures like gazetting areas to protect grazing land from encroachments (Lissu, 2000). However, the common grazing area in the study villages was already gazetted as a wildlife corridor since 1991 (under the Monduli District by-law, Government Notice 132) to protect it from further encroachments. Although livestock grazing is allowed in the wildlife corridor, the gazettement has changed its use from being common livestock grazing area to a wildlife corridor.Furthermore, in 1975 Tanzania adopted the villagization programme that aimed at mobilizing scattered homesteads into villages in order to incorporate them into the government hierarchy. Implementation of the programme led to the establishment of sedentary villages that were associated with establishment of farms and permanent settlements. Before 1975, there were no registered villages in the area of the corridor but there were scattered Maasai homesteads, which were surrounded by grazing areas. The concentration of settlements was only in Kamwanga Juu and Olmolog area, which were used as common social service centres.The villagization programme led to the establishment of Kamwanga Chini and Lerangw'a villages that involved relocation of people from their scattered homesteads to clustered settlements in Lerangw'a and Kamwanga village centres. Lerangw'a is noted to have been an elephant migratory route well before the establishment of the village and that the establishment of permanent houses affected elephant migrations (Grimshaw and Forley, 1990). Irkaswa village was established in 1992 and Kitendeni in 2001. These two villages were established inside the area of the corridor, which involved clearing of natural vegetation and establishment of settlements and farms that caused reduction of the size of the corridor.It is important also to note that agriculture is the backbone of the Tanzanian economy and that national campaigns have often involved promoting rural agricultural activities to improve national and per capital incomes and, therefore, improve standards of living. It is possible that the rapid spread of agriculture in the animal migratory route was due to the implementation of the agricultural policies and campaigns. Agriculture has been expanding at the expense of key resources for wild animal dispersal, migration and grazing.In addition, Tanzania had no wildlife policy until 1998. Previously, protection and utilization of wildlife was dealt with by the use of guidelines, regulations and laws, which were implemented by the Wildlife Department and other institutions entrusted with the responsibility of conserving the wildlife. The relevant pieces of legislation, which governed wildlife conservation and management in Tanzania after independence were the Wildlife Conservation Act No 12 of 1974, the National Park Ordinance Cap 412 of 1959 and Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority Ordinance Cap 413 of 1959 and amendments. These regulations and laws, however, were not effective enough to correct the overuse of biological resources and habitat degradation outside protected areas (MNRT, 1998). None of these pieces of legislation for example covered the existence of wildlife corridors nor provided legal protection to the migratory routes and dispersal areas. The absence of legal protection of migratory corridors against human abuse has made conservation attention accorded to them not viable. This was cited as a major constraint confronting the wildlife sector as wildlife corridors became more vulnerable to human activities, particularly agriculture and settlements.The study area experiences long periods of drought, which are associated with lack of pasture and increase of cattle diseases. A major drought occurred in the period between 1970s and 1980s (see Figure 1.6) and caused reduction of livestock numbers due to deaths. In addition, the poor pasture during dry season and long periods of drought caused livestock to be in a poor condition and become more susceptible to diseases. Apart from drought, the interaction of cattle with wildebeest during calving season caused outbreak of diseases like Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF) in the late 1970s (Poole and Reuling, 1997). Other cattle diseases mentioned by the respondents were trypanosomiasis, tick borne diseases, black quarter, anthrax, foot and mouth diseases, brucellosis, dermatitis and heartwater. These must have been responsible for the abrupt decline in cattle numbers in the area.Data on livestock obtained from key informants indicated that the average number of cattle per person in 1970s was 100-1000 cattle but currently it is only 5-20 cattle per person. Some do not even have any. The Maasai's traditional responses to stress have been to draw on their flexibility to diversify their livelihood systems. The contemporary strategy has been to diversify to cultivation. Many herders have thus chosen to seek alternative ways to sustain their life and alternative sources of income from agriculture, often alongside a continued commitment to livestock production. This has contributed to land use changes experienced in the area.Although global economic forces might have minor influence on the local economic operations, globalisation is considered to be one of the factors for land use changes. Like most other third world countries, Tanzania adopted Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in the early 1980s.The elements of SAP are removal of subsidies, privatisation and other reforms in macro economic policies, such as price exchange rates, trade and market liberalization. Among the elements that were to be implemented in the programme that might have influenced land use changes in the study area are commercialisation and market liberalization.Before market liberalization in Tanzania, the government played a central role in controlling market prices through rural co-operative societies. After market liberalization in early 1990s, individual farmers had free market access and the market forces influenced prices. At present, the market for agricultural products like wheat, maize, beans and potatoes in the study villages is reliable and available in the farms at good prices because there is competition between buyers. Likewise, farmers are free to sell their crops in Kenya where prices are even higher.In Tanzania, businessmen come from the nearby towns like Sanya Juu, Londorosi, Boma and Moshi to buy crops during harvest periods and transport them to big towns like Dar es Salaam, Tanga and Arusha. In addition, farmers have access to the markets in Kenya where prices are even higher. Compared to Tanzania where a bag of maize (approximately 90kg) was being sold at 6,000 Tshs during this study, the price for the same bag in Kenya was 900 Kshs, which is equivalent to 9000 Tshs. This has, therefore, greatly stimulated expansion of agricultural activities in the area of the corridor. Also it has attracted the attention of land speculators who buy small plots from the indigenous people at higher prices, leaving the indigenous people with small plots, which are not enough for production of family food and other needs.According to the discussion with leaders in Irkaswa village, indigenous people have sold most of their land to the in-migrants due to the higher prices for the pieces of land. This has resulted in encroachment on the wildlife corridor by the indigenous people in order to acquire more land for selling and others for agriculture and settlements.Commercialisation of resources, which were free resources for local communities, has also influenced land use changes in the study area. Wildlife resources became commercialised when the area was designated as a Game Controlled Area. Prior to that they had no economic value and the local Maasai were using and managing the area on the basis of society needs and priorities, which were basically livestock keeping. The commercialisation of wildlife resources has led to game activities being accorded highest priority as opposed to pastoral activities. So wildlife has essentially become a more important land use type than livestock grazing in the corridor.Historically, the wildlife of West Kilimanjaro and Amboseli were accorded considerable protection and the presence of Maasai was said to keep the slave and ivory traders out of the area (Berntsen, 1979). The Maasai have for several hundred years co-existed with wildlife and protected animal populations within the ecosystem from hunting. Their long experience and traditional knowledge of their environments also allowed them to manage their environmental resources. To them land was the basic resource that was managed communally for pasture at all times of the year. Land use plans and allocations were done by traditional leaders and got blessings from traditional elders.The area of the wildlife corridor was managed under the Maasai traditions and grazing and watering schedules were organized in such a way that no rangeland degradation occurred due to overgrazing. This maintained the ecological balance in the ecosystem. Their traditional pasture management based on the climatic factors made it possible for the pasture to be available throughout the year not only for livestock but also for wild animals. The government interference in the management of wildlife resources since 1960s, however, led to the breakdown of these traditional natural resources management systems.In 1960, for example, the government through the Wildlife Department designated the traditional grazing area to be a Game Controlled Area for the purpose of effecting wildlife conservation.Although human activities including agriculture and settlements were allowed in the GCAs, game activities dominated and the management system also changed. Under the Game Controlled Area, resource management changed from traditional to government management through the Wildlife Department. This had an implication that the indigenous people no longer had power to plan for the land use as they used to.The replacement of many traditional authorities with modern political entities changed the resource use patterns of the Maasai and led to the breakdown of traditional natural resources management systems. The involvement of the government not only changed the basic use of the area from being a traditional grazing area to Game Controlled Area and wildlife corridor but also traditional means by which resources were managed changed. Many traditional methods of accountability were no longer effective. Although at present local communities are involved in the management of the corridor, their need for the area to be managed as a livestock grazing area is not of any priority. The major focus is wildlife conservation. The Maasai are concerned that the new management gives more priority to wild animals than their livestock and that they will eventually lose the area they have managed for many years. Therefore the Maasai elders particularly in Irkaswa village have tried to retain their power to allocate land to the people by taking part of the wildlife corridor for cultivation and settlements.The study area is within Longido Game Controlled Area and among the nine (9) hunting blocks of Monduli district where hunting, safari walks and mountain climbing take place. The procedures for license take place in the upper levels of park management and natural resource offices in Dar es Salaam. The major concern by the villagers is that the procedures for licenses do not involve village levels, instead, villagers see hunters with license from Dar es Salaam and that they have no mandate to control the number and type of animals to be hunted.Likewise, the resources accrued from wildlife are not ploughed back to the villages despite all the costs of living with animals. Therefore, wildlife utilization operates in top-down fashion, which causes villagers to lose interest in wildlife conservation because they gain nothing. As a result of non-involvement of villagers in controlling hunting and sharing of benefits accrued from wildlife resources, people opt to use the wildlife areas for agriculture in order to raise their income levels.It has been observed in the previous sections and from other studies that the areas available for animal grazing and migration, which have been reduced and replaced by farms and settlements, have largely influenced the number of animals present in the corridor. As a result, animals have been forced to use the small available area of the corridor that is approximately 5km 2 for grazing and migration instead of the previous approximately 21km 2 in the past twenty years. In addition to this, other factors also seem to have played an important role. For example, the Arusha Region and Monduli District authority, in particular, stopped issuing hunting licenses in the Longido Game Controlled Area in 1981 following the decrease in animal numbers, particularly elephants. Consequently, there was a natural animal population increase. This is the same period when Grimshaw and Forley (1990) noted the aggressive and juvenile elephant population structure in the area, which was a typical characteristic of a growing population.Moreover, the inception of Community Conservation Services (CCS) by TANAPA in 1995 seems to have improved people's attitudes towards wildlife and the corridor, which has, in turn, led to the increase in animal numbers. The CCS programme includes providing education to the local people about the local and national benefits of wild animals through study tours, establishment of the village environmental committees and game scouts. Furthermore, the programme involves provision of social services like water, schools, dispensaries and milling machines to the villages adjacent to the National Park.Recently, the inhabitants in the villages that border the corridor received assistance in the form of water, dispensaries and classrooms from Kilimanjaro National Park's Community Conservation Services (CCS). Villagers are aware that these services are the benefits from the revenues accrued from wildlife resources. And they appreciated this assistance. Nevertheless, people are concerned about the non-compensation of individual loss of crops in the farms. This is evidenced by one elder's view with regard to CCS as reported by one of the members of the environmental committee in Lerangw'a village (Box 5.1.) The community in the study area is very much aware of the wildlife-based benefits, received by their Kenyan neighbours, which include compensation and control of problem animals. On the Kenyan side of the corridor, farmers are compensated for the crop damage, livestock killings and people's injury. Likewise, electric fencing for controlling crop damage is practiced. Thus, the communities on the Tanzanian side are wondering why this is not the case if really there should be good neighbourhood. Compensation and control of problem animals seem more important to them than other social services.\"These people say good neighbourliness, (Ujirani Mwema), but when my cattle enter the park to graze I am punished and fined heavily. When their elephants and buffaloes cross into my farm and clear all my beans and maize, they never compensate me like my neighbours in Kenya. Is wildlife in Kenya different from wildlife in Tanzania? They say this is our resource. No it is their resource. They have built schools, dispensaries and water pipes for the village, yes it is a good idea. But when children ask for breakfast in the morning before going to school, the reply from their mother is that there is no food. You all know Maasai never eat wild animal meat. Now how will these children go to school while they are hungry? We are both angry and hungry, is this what you call our resource and good neighbourliness?In addition to CCS programme, the African Wildlife Foundation's (AWF) extension works with local communities, under the Protected Areas: Neighbours as Partners programme, have a longstanding dedication to educating and training villagers. As a result of all these efforts, the villagers' attitudes have changed and incidences of poaching are much more reduced because people are now guards to the wild animals; hence the increasing trend in animal numbers.Fourthly, the Kitendeni village chairman suggested that the Amboseli animals are gradually moving further into the Tanzanian side. The basic reason could be that the Amboseli range is now very degraded and that there is not enough pasture and water for animals. Likewise there is currently electric fencing to reduce crop raiding in the farms adjacent to the Amboseli National Park. This denies the animals access to other routes to different directions except the one to Kilimanjaro National Park. As a result all migratory animals of Amboseli move towards Kilimanjaro.The above argument was supported during discussions by one of AWF's researcher who was conducting elephant research in the Amboseli ecosystem. He argued that the total area available for elephants in Amboseli was not enough. According to the researcher, the Park area is 399km 2 while the elephant home range is 3000km 2 . For the elephants to survive in such a small area of Amboseli they have to go out of the park boundaries. Likewise, other migratory species also have to go out of the park boundary when the park is dry. This therefore may explain the high concentration of animals in the corridor as observed in preceding sections.Introduction of new plants, mainly crops may be another factor, which has influenced the increase in animal numbers and concentration in the corridor. Crops may have attracted some animals, such as rodents, velvet monkeys, warthog, gerenuk, birds, and antelope species, which have increased in the area. According to the interviews, animals, especially grazers, were rarely seen coming for pasture in the corridor, but now they stay in the corridor and farms throughout the year. These are reported to be the most destructive in the farms.As observed in previous sections there are some animals like lions, leopards and ostrich, which have been reduced in number while rhinoceros, klipspringer and reedbuck have become locally extinct. Newmark (1993) explained that the local extinction of the rhinoceros, montane reedbuck and clipspringer in KNP/FR since the turn of the century was their historical rarity. He noted that although the rhinoceros existed in the 1960s and 70s, their numbers were lower than the other species.The explanations given by the indigenous people for the reductions in animal numbers and extinction include poaching, hunting, reduction of habitats and Maasai traditional ceremonies (Figure 1.7). Forty percent of the respondents said that the reduction in animal numbers and local extinction results from habitat destruction and 35% said that poaching was responsible for the animal reduction and extinction. Only 12% attributed the animal reduction and extinction to hunting and 13% to traditional ceremonies.The local people said that during the period between 1960 and 70 there were many Somalis who came in the area and stayed in the Forest reserve. These are the people villagers blamed for having poached rhinoceros and several elephants. During this period villagers found many dead elephants in the grazing areas.The Arusha region aerial survey also found 94 dead elephants and no live elephants or rhinoceros in the area during the same period (TWCM, 1997). This period also corresponds to the period mentioned by Shemweta et al. (1981) that there were no rhinoceros or live elephants seen. According to the villagers, lions and leopards were also abundant in the period between 1960 and 80 but they are now scarce and rarely seen in the area. Forty percent of the respondents suggested that reduced natural habitats due to the increased human activities, including farming and construction activities, was responsible for the disappearance of lions and leopards. Leopards are now rarely seen in the corridor during the night while lions rarely invade cattle bomas during the night. This suggests that habitat loss and forest conversions have differently affected and will continue to affect the large mammal species in the ecosystem. Increasing isolation will most adversely affect the moorland fauna while forest conversion will most adversely affect the large mammal fauna restricted to the forest.Traditional ceremonies are also believed to be a unique factor responsible for the reduction of lions in the area. In Maasai tradition, men were supposed to kill lions to prove their manhood after circumcision. Killing a lion was the bridge from childhood to warrior-hood and evidence that the responsible person can take care of cattle from a lion's attack. About 13% of respondents suggested this tradition to have reduced lion populations in the area to the extent that there are no more lions to kill.The land use changes have had implications on the biophysical resources of the area particularly wild animals' distribution, migration routes, species diversity and natural habitats. Also humanwildlife conflicts have increased in the area.Land use changes in the study area have had impacts on the size of the corridor and natural habitat. The size of the corridor between Lerangw'a and Kamwanga villages, which was approximately 21km 2 in 1952, has been reduced to a narrow strip of approximately 5km 2. Apart from reduction of the size of the corridor, the new type of land uses particularly settlements and agriculture, which have emerged in the area, have led to massive destruction of natural vegetation and reduction of the area available for livestock and wild animal grazing, migration and dispersal.Although the area has been reduced, it remains significant as a grazing area and migratory route of wild animals (KWS, 1991).Impacts of land use changes on the movement of animals include blockage of routes outside the main corridor, decreased movement of animals in the former migratory routes outside the main corridor and increase in the concentration of animals in the main corridor. There are inadequate records on the extent of disturbances to animals due to land use changes, but habitat change in the traditional routes must have acted as an impediment to the movement of animals. Animals are threatened by the presence of people in the farms and new features like houses in their routes. For example, it was noted by Grimshaw and Forley, (1990) that before establishment of farms and settlements in Lerangw'a village there was a high movement of elephants moving up and down the reserve through the present village centre. Now there is a low concentration and the route has changed from the village centre to the river valley to avoid settlements and people.There are inadequate records on the extent of disturbances to the movement of animals due to land use changes, but habitat change in the traditional routes must have acted as an impediment to the movement of animals. Animals are threatened by the presence of people in the farms and new features like houses in their routes. Animals, particularly elephants and buffaloes, are forced to feed and migrate through the remaining narrow strips of natural vegetation in the river valleys for fear of human presence in other areas already occupied by farms. For example, it was noted by Grimshaw and Forley, (1990) that before establishment of farms and settlements in Lerangw'a village there was a high movement of elephants moving up and down from the forest reserve through the present village centre. Now there is a low concentration and the route has changed from the village centre to the river valley to avoid settlements and people. This is also the case in Kamwanga where farms have blocked all the routes and the only route in use is the Kamwanga river valley where no agricultural activities take place.Data to show the movement of animals and their numbers in the migratory route are scarce. Available information, however, shows that there are more movements in the remaining natural vegetation in the main corridor than in the farms. According to Kikoti (2001), buffaloes and elephants are seen in groups of 1-5 individuals each passing in the farms and 50-100 in the remaining corridor (Map 1.6).Map 1.6. Elephant distribution and corridors in the West Kilimanjaro. Source: Kikoti, 2001 Antelopes are seen in-groups of up to 20 individuals passing in the farms and 30-50 in the corridor. In addition, some of the moorland animal species like Baboons, velvet monkeys and warthogs have been displaced further into the forest following the disturbance of the forest in the lowlands (Newmark et al., 1991).In the farms movements increase especially when there is crop cover and this is the time when incidences of crop raiding and tramping also increase. Results from the interviews show that during the rainy season (March-May and October-December), elephants and buffaloes move up from Amboseli towards Kilimanjaro forest through Lerangw'a river valley. The same animals return to Amboseli in July/September and January/February. People found this route when they settled in the village and that the route extended as far as to the present village centre. According to the interviews, elephants now move up and down Amboseli and Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve in small herds of 3-5 individuals each in the farms particularly in Kitendeni and Irkaswa villages compared to 20-30 individuals in the past twenty years when there were no farms.Information from the interviews also indicated that before land use changes in Kamwanga village, elephants were passing in-groups of up to 20 in their known paths in Naglingosi, Lepayon, Mlimani Park and Kamwanga river valley. Now, all routes are blocked except in the river valley. Therefore, elephants use the river valley to migrate from the forest to Amboseli. Based on the information from key informants, the number is, however, very much reduced from 20 individuals in the group to 1-5 individuals.During the time of this study, the researcher observed a higher concentration of animals and movements in the main Kitendeni corridor than in any other places. For example, antelopes were seen in groups of 30-50 individuals while wildebeest were in-groups of 20-30 individuals. Many elephants, buffaloes, zebra and baboon were also seen in the corridor compared to other places. Information obtained from one of the game scouts in Lerangw'a village suggested that the present animal population in the corridor was the highest he has ever seen during his lifetime in the village and that the concentration increased day after day. Information acquired from the indigenous people also support the argument that there is currently a higher concentration of animals in the corridor than any other time of their experience in the area.Therefore, the blockage of routes outside the main corridor has resulted into high concentration of animals moving through the corridor and river valleys. It should be noted, however, that the high animal concentration in the corridor does not necessarily mean that there is an increase in species diversity in the ecosystem. The possible explanations could be that the area for animal dispersal and migration is now smaller than previously due to land use and cover changes in the wildlife corridor. Although there are few signs of degradation in the corridor now, the high concentration of animals is likely to cause land degradation and a decline in the vegetation in future. This in turn is likely to cause a decline in the population of animals that graze in the corridor.No ecological surveys have ever been conducted for the Kilimanjaro National Park and the corridor itself. This section, therefore depends more on the people's perception on the changes in animal numbers and the few available data for elephants, which were obtained from the previous surveys by different researchers.Although there is paucity of data on the impact of land use changes on animal numbers, the probability of local extinction and displacement of animals is high because of loss of forest, conversion of bush land into farms and settlements and blockage of migratory routes, which in turn leads to isolation of animals. As remarked by Newmark et al. (1991), forest loss and conversion adversely affect the distribution of montane fauna and the size of these species and thus in the near future the rare montane forest species could be most seriously threatened by these activities. They noted in their research that seven species of large mammals -the Crawshay's hare (Lepus crawshayi), baboon (Papio cynocephalus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), side-striped jackal (Canis adustus), white-tailed mongoose (Ichneumia albicauda) and warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), had been added to the mammal species checklist for Kilimanjaro National Park and Forest Reserve.The possible explanation for the increase of these species is the tree felling and fires at the lower elevations of the forest which have converted the habitat in some places into a secondary disturbed woodland and have thus permitted these species, which formerly were not found in the National Park and Forest Reserve, to enter the reserve.Apart from the emergence of new species in the reserve, available records (based on the elephant populations) show a decline in animal numbers due to changes in land use and associated impacts. Millard (1954) and Child (1965), for example, believed that in 1950s elephant population was in the order of 1500 in the Kilimanjaro-Amboseli ecosystem. Millard (1954)   et al., 1981). In 1980 during the aerial survey counts of Arusha region, the area was estimated to have 95 dead elephants and non-live (Ecosystem, 1980). In addition, Shemwetta et al. (1981) also noted in their study that there were no elephants seen and that this had been the case for the previous three years. They also remarked that rhinoceros were long extinct in the area. This decline was associated with sport hunting, poaching and drought. Grimshaw and Foley, (1990) also suggested a decline for the Kilimanjaro elephants between 1970 and 1980. In addition, they observed that those elephants seen in Amboseli during the early 1980s were aggressive and exhibited a very young population age structure, including a high ratio of juveniles to adults, which is typical of a poached population. The 2001 management plan for the African elephant by the Wildlife Division suggests that in the early 1990s, Tanzanian elephants were in the recovery stage and today populations are steadily increasing (MNRT, 2001).The Tanzania Wildlife Conservation and Monitoring conducted an aerial survey of animals in West Kilimanjaro and Longido Game Controlled Area in 1997 and 2001, which involved animal counts and estimation of human activities in the area. During the survey, 30 elephants were observed in the area in 1997 while 1269 elephants were observed in the same area in the year 2001 (TWCM, 1997). An increasing trend in the population of elephants could be explained by the different time periods for the surveys. The 1997 survey was done during the wet season when migratory species are in Amboseli while the 2001 survey was conducted during dry season when animals are in the corridor and Kilimanjaro National Park and Forest Reserve. This could therefore explain the difference in the number of animals observed in the area between the two time periods.The results from the interviews and discussions with local people also indicated an increasing trend for such animals like elephants, buffaloes, velvet monkeys, zebra, eland, giraffe, warthogs, rodents and antelopes (Table 1.7). This was also confirmed by 81% of the respondents who commented about the increase of some wild animal species while others were extinct. Antelopes, which were seen in the corridor and the northern side towards Amboseli, are now increasingly coming and staying in the corridor and farms. Interestingly, new species of antelopes described as gerenuks are reported to have been recently seen coming in the farms and eating crops especially beans. Species like leopards, lions and ostrich, however, are reported to have decreased in the area while the rhinoceros had become extinct.Despite the observed trends in animal populations and concentration in the Kitendeni corridor, it should be noted that the impact of land use changes on the animal populations is not very distinct and straight forward because many other factors including poaching and hunting operated in the area during the same period when land use changes were taking place. This will be discussed further in preceding sections.Protected area boundaries separate the human settlements and farms from the natural ecosystems but these are imaginary lines, which make no ecological sense to the animals (Nahonyo, 2001). Most of the settled areas surrounding protected areas were once inhabited by wildlife and, if an opportunity occurred, animals would use these areas again leading to conflicts between people and wild animals.Conflict occurs through incidents like crop raiding, competition for water between people and animals, particularly elephants, and consequent destruction of water systems, such as wells and water pipes. Also, livestock and human injury occurs. By virtue of living in proximity to wildliferich areas the local communities bear numerous costs. These costs are summarized in the equation below as adopted from Kideghesho (2001: 19): The conflicts between wild animals and people in the Amboseli-Kilimanjaro ecosystem have become more evident in recent years than in the past after an increase of agricultural activities.The conflicts arise from animal crop raiding, livestock killing and water pipeline destruction. In addition, the presence of animals around homesteads causes considerable concern for the safety of the people. The current incidences of cattle diseases are also related to transmission by wild animals. About 73.3% of respondents in all villages have acknowledged the existence of conflict between wild animals and people (Figure 1.8). Crop raiding is a serious problem in the study villages. Farms under greatest threat of being raided are those adjacent to the wildlife corridor between Kamwanga and Lerangw'a valleys. Several elephant migration routes bisect this area. The animal species mostly reported to raid crops include gazelle, baboons, elephants, warthogs, elands, buffaloes, velvet monkeys, rodents and gerenuks. Villagers regard species that raid crops at night to be much more destructive than baboons and velvet monkeys, the only two species that were reported to raid crops during the day, thus they can be chased away.In all the study villages, people commented that the conflict between people and wild animals began in 1970s. Before this period people, livestock and wild animals were living in harmony although both human and animal populations were increasing. The likely explanation for the conflict could be related to the land use changes from total grazing to farms and settlements as discussed in previous sections. These changes have not only reduced areas for animal dispersal and migration but have also blocked some of the migration routes, forcing the animals to follow their old routes which are now farms and settlements.The Maasai farmers usually resort to scare tactics of banging loud instruments, hitting logs, shouting and throwing stones to the invading animals. The effectiveness of these efforts, however, depends on the type of animals concerned. Some respondents said that they normally watch as buffaloes and elephants eat crops because they are afraid of them.Initially, this researcher thought that increasing conflicts between people and wildlife would lead to reduction of crop fields where it happens that all crops in the farms have been trampled or raided. To the contrary, only 4% of the respondents reported to have reduced their farm sizes for fear of animals. This raises controversy as to whether the reported incidences of damage are exaggerated or not. The reasons for exaggeration, possibly in the hope of compensation, are understandable, and it is an important issue to consider when assessing crop damage.Apart from crop raids, several incidences of killings of people and livestock have been reported in the villages. The most dangerous animals reported were lions, leopards, snakes and buffaloes. In Irkaswa village, for example, wild animals killed six (6) people in different incidences. Most of these incidences, however, have occurred as a result of the Maasai warriors' attempts to rescue livestock from animal attacks. In fact one incident happened during this study in Olmolog village, which borders the study villages, where a lion, which a Maasai warrior was attempting to kill after invading the cattle boma, killed him.In addition to the above, during dry seasons elephants destroy water pipelines, which take water from the forest to the villages. These animals destroy outlets in the main wells to make sure that no drop of water goes out of their use. Consequently, villagers opt to go further up into the forest reserve, where it is unsafe, to fetch water.From the preceding sections, it is evident that the remaining wildlife corridor that links Kilimanjaro-Amboseli ecosystems is currently under threat following the rapid land use changes which are taking place in and adjacent to the corridor. The research findings show that there are major land use changes in the Kitendeni wildlife corridor, which are associated with expansion of agriculture and settlements into the areas previously used for wildlife and livestock grazing. These changes have had negative impacts on the wildlife as they influence animal movements, numbers and distribution they also have had significant negative impacts on the size of the corridor and natural habitats. In addition, human-wildlife conflicts have emerged as a result of land use incompatibility. The trend shows that more land use changes are likely to take place as more land is needed for agriculture and settlements, which will threaten the existence of the corridor in the future. If the link between Kilimanjaro and Amboseli ecosystems is to be maintained, efforts to stop further land use changes have to be taken.Successful conservation in the field requires harmonization of national policies and regulations to coordinate activities that take onboard local people's interests and priorities in order to reconcile competing management needs and national objectives. The Maasai customary laws of natural resources management have to be identified and harmonized with the village by-laws and make them as relevant as possible so that Maasai traditional rules in which natural resources are managed are not ignored. A more participatory approach of making by-laws will articulate local rules and regulations, as well as help to raise the awareness of communities concerning their rights to participate in land use and resource decision-making. This process will also provide a plan and management statements that reflect the values and interests of majority of community members, which in turn can help communities effectively coordinate with other decision making bodies.It is generally felt that the area is in need of a more protected status. In light of this, it is recommended that the corridor be given protected area status, and monitoring should be undertaken to ensure that its status as a protected area is maintained. In particular, the 'no farming and settlement agreement' for the corridor area should be enforced in both Tanzania and Kenya.In any effort made to upgrade the status of the corridor, it is essential that the Maasai who have exclusively used the area continue to retain access to the land. Grazing and firewood collection as practiced by the Maasai in the past have been fully compatible with movement of wild animals between the upper and lower habitats on mount Kilimanjaro and thus the Maasai should be permitted to carry out these land use practices in the future. As described earlier, it is these land use practices that have allowed the remaining part of the corridor to remain uncultivated until now. The role of the Maasai as custodian of the land should not be changed. It is therefore hoped that the authorities concerned, in both Kenya and Tanzania, will do their best to ensure that this important area is maintained for the benefit of both its traditional pastoralists and wildlife.There should be periodic ecological surveys in order to have records on animal numbers and movements over time. Initial fauna survey of existing wildlife populations (and comparison with any available data on historical populations) is an essential first step to an ecological study to determine estimated carrying capacities and identify other factors that may be affecting wildlife. These data will be valuable in the monitoring process to note changes in animal number and movements as land use changes. The village game scouts should be trained to collect data for the monitoring programme and should work under the guidance of wildlife professionals who will be responsible for compilation of data and report writing.In order to avoid further overgrazing and to ensure future and sustainable development of the area, agro-pastoralists and farmers should be educated and encouraged to intensify their activities.The intensification of livestock can include an introduction of better productive breeds of animals and introduction of palatable and more nutritious species of pasture in the village grazing lands. These species includes Setaria spp., Panicum spp, Guatemalla as well as Kikuyu grass. These are necessary in replacing the less nutritious and unpalatable species, such as Pennisetum schimperi, in order to improve the livestock carrying capacity. Furthermore, the government should assist in facilitating accessibility to the inputs, extension services, credit facilities and competitive markets.Environmental problems cut across administrative boundaries. Impact of activities on the Tanzanian side of the corridor may be felt on the Kenyan side too. For example, the electric fencing to control crop raiding adjacent farms in Amboseli National Park have denied the animals access to other routes except that to Kilimanjaro. As a result, most of the Amboseli migratory animals flow towards Tanzania. Likewise, high prices of agricultural products in Kenya greatly stimulate expansion of agricultural activities in the area of the corridor. These problems can be solved if the authorities concerned, that is Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) and Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA), sit together and negotiate on these issues, which have international dimension.If the migration of animals between Kilimanjaro and Amboseli is to be maintained, measures must be taken to protect land in both the Kenyan and Tanzanian sides of the corridor.The West Kilimanjaro basin, lying between the snows capped Kilimanjaro, the volcanic cone of Mount Meru and Oldoinyo Longido, is part of a unique and complex ecosystem. It is an area of exquisite natural beauty. The area lends itself as a multiple use conservation area, including such activities as commercial and subsistence ranching, hunting, mountain climbing, walking safaris and photographic tourism.Photographic tourism, in particular deserves a closer look since it has potential to provide income to the people and the nation at large. In Kenya it has become one of highest revenue earners. By encouraging eco-tourism Tanzania could benefit from the many visitors who would like to experience Amboseli but do not wish to cross the border. The area is also very attractive for tourists who are interested in walking safaris and is important as a staging point for those wishing to climb either Kilimanjaro or Mt. Meru. In particular, Tanzania could benefit from the well-known elephant population of Amboseli that is increasingly using the woodlands south of the international border. This should be a wake-up call for the tourism industry in Tanzania.This study could not explore all aspects related to animal routes and impacts of land use changes on wildlife. It is, therefore, suggested that more research should be carried out to identify other migratory routes to link not only Kilimanjaro and Amboseli but also other ecosystems like Mkomazi Game Reserve, Tsavo West National Park, Arusha National Park and Meru forest. This will help to establish new protected areas or extend the boundaries of routes that already exist. This will, however, need active community involvement because villagers may be against the idea, as this will deny them access to resources such as arable land and grazing areas. A detailed study of the attitudes of local people towards protected area status for the corridor should be conducted to design the best ways of involving them in the decision making process. ","tokenCount":"12456"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a86c79b2358d9009f6cfed3896872d10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/539066af-593d-496d-b823-6ee51f749423/retrieve","id":"1205906417"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fa171eef-424f-4e20-9e3d-273af79c1aed","pagecount":"16","content":"This publication has been prepared as an output of the 'CGIAR Research Initiative on Low-Emission Food Systems. Any views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by the CGIAR System Organization.Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) protocol. The integration of this protocol into Colombia's Zero-Deforestation Agreements received support from the ministries of commerce and agriculture, which paved the way for securing financial support to pilot its implementation. The protocol emphasizes integrating existing digital innovations essential for effective traceability in supply chains.In China, the Work Package 3 team worked with Qingshan village to define its role as a Low-Emission Food Systems \"Living Lab for People\" (LL4P) platform. This model serves not only for participatory action research but also as a pilot for a \"Low-Carbon Future Village.\" In Kenya, the LL4P reached significant milestones by formalizing an agreement with the Kaimosi Agricultural Training Centre (ATC) of the Nandi County government. Participatory action research was the transversal approach for all four LL4P.Work Package 4 brought together stakeholders from the food system and governmental and non-governmental actors to repurpose technologies and innovations. This helped lay the foundation to enable institutions to turn research into integrated solutions advancing the CGIAR's climate change mitigation goals 1 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In Colombia, strategies were developed to scale agroforestry systems for cocoa and silvo-pastoral systems for livestock. In Kenya, technologies in the rice sector were assessed for their contributions to reducing GHG emissions and increasing productivity.Additionally this year, we strengthened our commitment to establishing networks and connections with negotiators from the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Secretariat. Work Package 5 organized events at the Bonn Climate Conference and COP28, promoting awareness about low-emission food systems. Our partners at Rationale Advisors developed the UNFCCC engagement strategy with our team and analyzed submissions on the Sharm El-Sheik joint work on implementation on agriculture and food security. With Work Package 5 support, Initiative scientists contributed to the CGIAR's position paper on a food systems approach to climate action and endorsed inclusion of food systems in the outcome of the first Global Stocktake of the Paris Agreement. Global and na�onal government agencies, civil society, and private sector planners increase their capacity to use co-developed tools, data, and analyses to design at least four inclusive food-system emission-reduc�on strategies and/or carbon sink ini�a�ves.Na�onal and sub-na�onal government agencies use system transforma�on research to implement policies and programs that reduce emissions and enhance climate resilience and environmental sustainability of food, land, and water systems.Na�onal and local mul�-stakeholder pla�orms are strengthened to become func�onal and sustainable in addressing development tradeoffs and genera�ng strategies for effec�ve food, land, and water transforma�on.CGIAR partners develop and scale innova�ons that contribute to the empowerment of women, youth, and other social groups in food, land and water systems.NGO, extension, and other implementa�on partners ac�vely engage with farmers and other actors in implemen�ng transforma�ve innova�ons in food, land, and water systems.Increased rigor and certainty in data, knowledge, tools, and capacity improve food system greenhouse gas emission monitoring and United Na�ons Framework Conven�on on Climate Change (UNFCCC) na�onal communica�ons in at least four countries, subsequently improving the global stocktake.Food system stakeholders and actors in Living Labs for People establish inclusive frameworks for co-designing, pilo�ng, and scaling approaches that contribute to sustainable food system transforma�on that delivers climate mi�ga�on benefit and other Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) outcomes.Interven�ons targe�ng carbon sequestra�on and reduced Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions are scaled up and out via four CGIAR technologies to demonstrate climate mi�ga�on effec�veness.Food system approaches to achieve low greenhouse gas emission development are high on the world's poli�cal agenda. Resources allocated to low greenhouse gas emission food system development increase, s�mula�ng ac�on on mi�ga�on. Informed food system decision-making is based on solid science, good governance, and principles of gender and social equity.End hunger for all and enable affordable healthy diets for the 3 billion people who do not currently have access to safe and nutri�ous food.Reduce by at least half the propor�on of men, women, and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to na�onal defini�ons.Li� at least 500 million people living in rural areas above the extreme poverty line of US $1.90 per day (2011 PPP).Offer rewardable opportuni�es to 267 million young people who are not in employment, educa�on, or training. Close the gender gap in rights to economic resources, access to ownership, and control over land and natural resources, for over 500 million women who work in food, land, and water systems.Implement all Na�onal adapta�on Plans (NAP) and Na�onally Determined Contribu�ons (NDC) to the Paris Agreement.Equip 500 million small-scale producers to be more resilient to climate shocks, with climate adapta�on solu�ons available through na�onal innova�on systems.Turn agriculture and forest systems into a net sink for carbon by 2050, with emissions from agriculture decreasing by 1 Gt per year by 2030 and reaching a floor of 5 Gt per year by 2050.Stay within planetary and regional environmental boundaries: consump�ve water use in food produc�on of less than 2500 km3 per year (with a focus on the most stressed basins), zero net deforesta�on, nitrogen applica�on of 90 Tg per year (with redistribu�on towards low-input farming systems) and increased use efficiency, and phosphorus applica�on of 10 Tg per year.Mi�gate+ Strategy: Planning for food systems transforma�on.Mi�gate+ Evidence: Data, evidence, and tools for food systems transforma�on.Mi�gate+ Living Labs for people.Mi�gate+ Scaling: Scaling low-emissions food systems.Mi�gate+ Engage: Engagement and agenda transforma�on.Section 2: Progress on science and towardsThis is a simple, linear, and static representation of a complex, nonlinear, and dynamic reality. Feedback loops and connections between this Initiative and other Initiatives' theories of change are excluded for clarity.End of Initiative outcome AA Action AreaImpact AreaNote: A summary of Work Package progress ratings is provided in Section 3.The Initiative on Low-Emission Food Systems (Mitigate+) fosters development of food systems that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in ways that do not threaten food production but support the commitments of the Initiative's four target countries to meet the 2016 Paris Agreement on climate. This Initiative employs a food systems approach. In 2023, it focused on setting the stage for achieving all its End of Initiative outcomes (EOIO) in China, Colombia, Kenya, and Viet Nam.Outputs published by Mitigate+ researchers in 2023 included peerreviewed articles (21); a book (1); reports, manuals and working papers (63); policy/research briefs (7); blog posts (30); and posters, presentations, and videos (25); 67 percent of these products focus on the four target countries and 27 percent are global in scope.Of a dozen young scientists awarded scholarships in 2023 under the Climate, Food and Farming, Global Research Alliance Development Scholarships (CLIFF-GRADS) Program, a joint program of the Initiative and the Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases, five have completed, and seven are nearing completion. Further funding this year was allocated to seven new students. The teams from Monitoring and Evaluation (MELIA) and Work Package 5 are implementing a study to understand gender barriers and identify strategies to make this program more inclusive. We conducted 19 short-term training programs for 862 individuals (335 women) that strengthened their capacities in agricultural data management and sustainable food system transformation. The Initiative also supported a program of the African Group of Negotiators Expert Support (AGNES) on climate governance and a GenderUp Facilitator Training in India. We also supported four short-term training courses on agricultural transformation processes in Colombia and facilitated stakeholder dialogues in Viet Nam. Thirty three percent of the Initiative's capacity sharing events received co-funding from Viet Nam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and Nong Lam University, from China's Zhejiang University, and from Colombia's Pontificia Universidad Javeriana.EOIO 1: We developed country profiles of China, Colombia, Kenya, and Viet Nam. These profiles provide a comprehensive and evidencebased overview of national land use, agricultural production, diets, and food system emissions. The profiles also explore possible pathways for the countries to reduce their GHG emissions while enhancing food security, nutrition, livelihoods, and the environment. Several of the Initiative's Work Packages are using these country profiles as starting points and baselines for their research.In Kenya, we generated further evidence on low-emission pathways in managing livestock manure, reducing food loss and waste, and reducing deforestation. We participated in the 2023 Global Landscapes Forum to discuss promising pathways for transforming food systems toward low-emission pathways. Work Packages 1 and 2 collaborated in sharing findings of an assessment of reforestation strategies, led by the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD), and a review of evidence of food system emissions and transition pathways with Wageningen University and Research.EOIO 2: Mitigate+ directly helped to update the nationally determined contributions (NDC) in Colombia, Kenya, and Viet Nam. Kenya and Viet Nam are actively working to reduce GHG emissions in line with their climate change strategies. Viet Nam is making significant progress toward its long-term goals, while Kenya has prioritized its agriculture, food, and land use sectors to achieve a low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathway. Colombia's updated NDC aligns closely with its goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, aiming for a 51 percent reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 compared to 2014 levels. We developed a Measuring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) framework for monitoring deforestation emissions from Colombia, which will serve the Zero Deforestation Agreements (ZDA) and other sectors and contribute activity data to national inventories. We supported the formulation of a 2023-2024 work plan for the Green Climate Fund's \"CSICAP\" project, aligning project objectives with national goals. We also supported the methodological structuring of four projects: a Korean Agency Cooperation project \"KolFACI-OPTIMO\"; a USDA project \"Fertilize Right\"; a \"GHG Monitoring in Poultry Systems\" project funded by the Poultry Grower Federation in Colombia; and Colombia's national \"Biocarbon\" initiative. Our Initiative also helped design GHG emission monitoring protocols and supported data collection on Tier 2 emission factors for rice, livestock, and poultry.Capacity-building events were implemented collaboratively with the Biocarbon Project, training national authorities from the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and AGROSAVIA on GHG emissions. We supported a training program on sustainable low-emission cocoa production systems and workshops on livestock and rice emission factors, along with a seminar on reducing GHG emissions in the poultry sector for a broader audience. In Kenya, ongoing work includes engaging with partners at the national level to discuss pathways for low-emission food-system transformation and improving MRV systems, especially for the livestock sector.To advance research on low-carbon food systems in China, the Initiative led surveys to analyze the cost-effectiveness of GHG emission mitigation measures in the dairy industry and a life cycle assessment of mitigation technology potential in dairy enterprises. This report identifies major GHG emission sources and assesses the potential of different emission mitigation technologies.EOIO 3: The framework for the Living Labs for People (LL4P) is being applied in the target countries to support locally driven innovation processes, including work to strengthen governance and co-produce knowledge that addresses power imbalance. Working with local partners led by Zhejiang University, the LL4P is conducting participatory action research to help illuminate pathways to lowemission food systems in Qingshan Village, a \"Low-Carbon Future Village\" pilot site selected by the government of Zhejiang Province, China. A participatory rural innovation (PRI) approach has been proposed for the LL4P in Colombia, whereby producers identify problems and define solutions and innovation routes to build lowemission and sustainable food systems.Our conceptualization of the LL4P in Colombia recognizes lowemission food system development as part of broader efforts. This endeavor is part of efforts to foster peace and sustainability in an area heavily affected by internal armed conflict. To ensure local buy-in and institutional stability of the LL4P, Colombia, Kenya, and Viet Nam have adopted a \"local host\" approach, with an agreement signed with the Kaimosi Agricultural Training Center of the Nandi County government in Kenya, and Agrosolidaria Montañita and the University of Nong Lam identified as potential hosts in Colombia and Viet Nam, respectively. In China, Qingshan village was recognized by the government as a long-term collaborative research site, further enabling the implementation of LL4P there. In Kenya, we established new partnerships and strengthened existing ones with stakeholders engaged in foodsystem transformation activities within the LL4P. Progress was made to establish an advisory board for guiding and managing the LL4P activities.EOIO 4: The Initiative reviewed an array of potential policy incentives that could enhance the adoption and upscaling of sustainable practices by farmers in low-income countries. A stakeholder meeting was held to assess the scalability of selected technologies/ innovations in Nairobi. Four innovations -Improved Livestock Breeds and Feeds (ILBF), Integrated Aquaculture Practices (IAP), Biogas Technology (BT), and Alternative Wetting and Drying for rice (AWD) -were chosen based on their alignment with national and local development plans, GHG mitigation potential, and ability to deliver SDG co-benefits.The Initiative is exploring geographic overlaps in mitigation and peace building activities and has initiated a partnership with the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA). In Colombia, sustainable land use systems (SLUS) contribute to peace building by providing sustainable income sources and enhancing social cohesion. We identified enabling factors for farm-level transitions to SLUS in Colombia and proposed policy designs to boost SLUS adoption in conflict areas.We developed a framework and scoring system to evaluate an innovation's scalability. We also adapted a tool, Scaling Scan, that integrates analysis of climate change and gender and social inclusion when evaluating the scaling potential of innovations.EOIO 5: To position our work in the world's global agenda, we published 30 blogs, participated in and helped organize international events (COP28, the Bonn Climate Conference), held bilateral meeting with key actors to showcase our research, and carried out several webinars. The Initiative was able to strengthen engagement activities that led to building networks in key groups that can support agendasetting work. This includes the CGIAR core group tracking UNFCCC negotiations and developing position papers, the SSJWA coordination group and the community of food systems transformation researchers and practitioners.The Initiative also launched a gender, youth, and social inclusion (GEYSI) strategy for 2023-2024 to address the foundations of gender inequality and unequal power relations. This involved providing guidance on the position and future aims of GEYSI-enhanced climate mitigation research. The MELIA team designed a qualitative evaluation to determine the contributions of the Initiative to observed impacts at different levels in the target countries, for which fieldwork will be done in 2024.EOIO 1: Capacity and support for food system greenhouse gas emission reduction strategies.• Food systems GHG emission profiles for all four countries.• Brief on opportunities for a low-emission transformation of food systems.• GHG emission assessment methods, data sources and reporting processes in Viet Nam.• Supported an international forum on low carbon agrifood systems transformation in Beijing, China.• Trade-off analyses of food loss and waste reduction and GHG emissions in food supply chains. EOIO 2: Better data for food system GHG emission monitoring.• Web-based version of the digital system for rice activity monitoring and reporting (RiceMo).• Targeting CGIAR food systems emission data for policy-making and GHG emission reporting: Viet Nam's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development is adopting a strategy for implementing the Rice Production Activity Monitoring and Reporting System (RiceMore).• Achieving improved capacity of governments, civil society, and private sector partners: the Government of Kenya utilizes marginal abatement cost curves to analyze economic costs and trade-offs in dairy farms with support from the Livestock and Climate and Low-Emission Food Systems Initiatives.• Review of NDCs from the perspective of food systems for Colombia, Kenya, and Viet Nam.• MRV framework developed for monitoring deforestation emissions from Colombia, which is being piloted by the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia and Expertise France.EOIO 3: Inclusive approaches for low-emission food system transformation in Living Labs for People.• Stakeholders of the Initiative's Living Labs for People are gaining the capacity and information to assess, plan, and implement sustainable food system solutions. LL4P is a space for locally driven co-development of innovations and co-production of knowledge for sustainable, low-emission food systems, engaging 21 researchers, training over 200 stakeholders, and partnering with 6 universities and 4 government agencies.• Co-established a Community of Practice to advance research on multi-stakeholder platforms (MSP) and advise CGIAR on MSP work.• Participatory system mapping exercises in China and Kenya to help illuminate stakeholders' mental models, system understanding, and relationships, and to understand factors affecting the low-emission food system transition, as well as to empower participants of LL4Ps.• Citizen juries foster public participation in decision-making related to the future of food systems in Colombia.• A political ecology approach to the co-production of knowledge: politicizing low-emission innovations for food systems transformation and application of the framework in Colombia and Kenya for food system transformation.• The normative conceptual framework of LL4P represents a novel innovation to advance CGIAR's effort toward locally driven co-development of innovations and solutions with effective governance modes capable of addressing inequality and power imbalance.EOIO 4: Scaled up CGIAR low-emission technological solutions.• By advancing use of state-of-the-art analytics, tools, and evidence, stakeholders identify and scale CGIAR technologies and innovations, illustrated by implementation of a sustainability strategy for the Cocoa Chain in Caquetá and Cesar in Colombia: Path toward climate action and peace building.• Mitigate+ Scoring Workshop to successfully evaluate the scalability of innovations for reducing food system GHG emissions while achieving SDG co-benefits in Kenya.• Adaptation of the Scaling Scan tool to better address climate change and gender considerations.• Enhancing comprehension of policy incentives driving smallholder adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices.• Multi-stakeholder Dialogue on Carbon Markets in Agriculture in Viet Nam.• Assessment of biophysical, social, and economic potential to develop a low-emission carbon project contributing to peace in the departments of Caquetá and Cesar, aimed at scaling out sustainable cacao production.EOIO 5: Increased awareness of food system approaches to achieve low greenhouse gas emission development.• 30 blog posts• 8 webinars• Contributed to organizing in-person events at the Bonn Climate Conference and COP28 as well as webinars to raise awareness of the Initiative's work.• Ramped up engagement activities that led to building networks in key groups that can support agenda-setting work. Established relationships with negotiators and the UNFCCC Secretariat.• Ensured the contribution of Initiative scientists to the CGIAR position paper on a food systems approach to climate action and a joint submission endorsing the inclusion of food systems in the outcome of the first global stocktake of the Paris Agreement. Increased rigor and certainty in data, knowledge, tools, and capacity improve food system greenhouse gas emission monitoring and United Na�ons Framework Conven�on on Climate Change (UNFCCC) na�onal communica�ons in at least four countries, subsequently improving the global stocktake.Food system approaches to achieve low greenhouse gas emission development are high on the world's poli�cal agenda.Resources allocated to low greenhouse gas emission food system development increase, s�mula�ng ac�on on mi�ga�on. Informed food system decision-making is based on solid science, good governance, and principles of gender and social equity.The Work Package 2 team conducted a thorough analysis of the NDCs for China, Colombia, Kenya, and Vietnam, generating comprehensive reports that identify strategies for reducing GHG emissions in food systems. The review synthesized the scientific basis, data, and analytics behind NDC targets, identified the missing data gaps and suggested additional mitigation options and their abatement potential for possible update of the countries' NDCs. This Work Package also developed a framework for a bottom-up approach to estimate country-level GHG emissions, incorporating activity data and specialized models. Data are being collected in all four Mitigate+ countries to quantify food system GHG emissions, identify mitigation options and determine their mitigation potential. The challenges faced in obtaining accurate data highlighted the need for improving information collection.In China, the team partnered with the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences to quantify the carbon footprint and economic performance of milk production. Similar progress was made in Kenya, which developed a Tier-2 approach for methane emissions from dairy livestock. In Colombia, in collaboration with governmental and non-governmental actors, the Measuring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) protocol for deforestation associated with agricultural supply chains was developed to enhance the national GHG inventory. With the leadership of the protocol, Mitigate+ contributed to the country's \"Zero Deforestation Agreements,\" which, through transparent monitoring tools and financial approaches, seeks to reduce emissions in the Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Uses (AFOLU) sector.In Viet Nam, efforts focused on engaging with digital systems for monitoring rice activity data and conducting a scoping study on riceshrimp systems with sustainable and low-emission practices. In the Mekong River Delta, work continues to develop the Rice Production Monitoring and Reporting system to promote standardized recording for low-emission practices. Proposals for farmer focused MRV frameworks addressing nitrous oxide emissions contribute to transparent monitoring and sustainable practices.The multifaceted approach of Work Package 2 and the specific milestones achieved in each country in 2023 underscore substantial progress in enhancing data collection methodologies, engaging stakeholders, and implementing innovative strategies fostering sustainable, low-emission food systems in the near future.Section 3: Work Package progress WP1: Planning for food systems transformationCountry profiles for four countries (2022), then one to three more countries, synthesizing informa�on on food systems, emission sources/levels, policies and mi�ga�on priori�es at na�onal and sub-na�onal levels.Stakeholder engagement plans available for four countries, then one to three more countries.Food systems climate interven�on planning framework (FOODCLIP) co developed with country stakeholders.Emission reduc�on pathways iden�fied and priori�zed.At least two Governments, civil society and private sector partners are using CGIAR science to design inclusive, Food System (FS) emissions reduc�on programs.Global and na�onal government agencies, civil society, and private sector planners increase their capacity to use co-developed tools, data, and analyses to design at least four inclusive food-system emission-reduc�on strategies and/or carbon sink ini�a�ves.Food system stakeholders and actors in Living Labs for People establish inclusive frameworks for co-designing, pilo�ng, and scaling approaches that contribute to sustainable food system transforma�on that delivers climate mi�ga�on benefit and other Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) outcomes.Interven�ons targe�ng carbon sequestra�on and reduced Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions are scaled up and out via four CGIAR technologies to demonstrate climate mi�ga�on effec�veness.In each of its four target countries, the Mitigate+ team closely collaborated with national governments to prioritize and plan for low-emission food systems. Key efforts in 2023 included developing country profiles for China, Colombia, Kenya, and Vietnam, analyzing GHG emissions in food systems, and a global analysis outlining opportunities for a low-emission transformation of food systems. Additionally, progress was made in analyzing the cost of GHG emissions reduction using Marginal Abatement Cost Curves. The team's global outreach included participation in events such as the Global Landscapes Forum in Kenya, the World Food Innovation Summit in China, and an impactful event during COP28, in Dubai. This outreach work is fostering collaboration on innovative GHG emission reduction strategies and financing with the private sector.The team led and planned a strategy for understanding how political and socioecological processes impact mitigation efforts in food systems. Much of the year was dedicated to developing a database, finalizing and publishing the country profiles, and producing associated policy summaries (Infobriefs to inform decision-makers) for Colombia, Kenya, and Vietnam. Global consultations were held, shedding light on the state of national planning for GHG emission reduction in food systems and identifying next steps for strategy development in 2024. Country profile data are being used by other Work Packages to help them produce their deliverables.In Kenya, a workshop sought feedback on food system GHG emissions, mitigation pathways, and integration into Kenya's NDCs.The event emphasized the importance of accurate data, questioned the limits of the food system concept, highlighted private sector engagement, and stressed a holistic approach aligned with broader development goals. In China, consultations were held with the World Food Innovation Summit. In Viet Nam, the Initiative's participation in a workshop at Nong Lam University in Ho Chi Minh City engendered consultations that improved the Initiative's country profile.WP4: Scaling low-emission food systems Food system stakeholders and actors in Living Labs, for People establish inclusive frameworks for co-designing, pilo�ng, and scaling approaches that contribute to sustainable food system transforma�on that delivers climate mi�ga�on benefit and other Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) outcomes.Interven�ons targe�ng carbon sequestra�on and reduced Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions are scaled up and out via four CGIAR technologies to demonstrate climate mi�ga�on effec�veness.Food system approaches to achieve low greenhouse gas emission development are high on the world's Poli�cal agenda, Resources allocated to low greenhouse gas emission food system development increase, s�mula�ng ac�on on mi�ga�on. Informed food system decision-making is based on solid science, good governance, and principles of gender and social equity.Work Package 4 made significant advances toward the Initiative's objectives, focusing primarily on generating the enabling environment for scaling innovations to reduce GHG emissions.We have closely collaborated with stakeholders to emphasize the potential of CGIAR-related technologies for mitigating the effects of climate change and helping to meet NDCs by 2025 and 2030.In Kenya, following a scaling framework, the team has conducted workshops with the climate-smart agriculture multistakeholder platform. These sessions have been instrumental in assessing the mitigation potential of four technologies implemented at scale. In partnership with CIMMYT, we are developing scaling strategies based on these assessments.In Colombia, the Initiative collaborated with AgriLAC Resiliente on the sustainable cocoa challenge. These efforts led to various outputs, including a portfolio of business models, training materials, and engagement with policymakers and investors. Moreover, collaborating with AgriLAC Resiliente has enabled us to develop value-chain strategies for scaling zero-deforestation cacao production, along with roadmaps for funding zero-deforestation interventions within Colombia's dairy sector. Additionally, WorkPackage 4 pursued the development and registration of an innovative project aimed at scaling sustainable cacao production under a policy instrument targeting green business models in conflict-affected municipalities.In Viet Nam our team assessed the role of integrated rice and fisheries for reducing food system GHG emission.Meanwhile, our team in China is examining China's role in reducing Brazilian deforestation stemming from soybean consumption. We contributed by enhancing the third edition of the scaling scan tool in collaboration with Work Package 3. This tool explicitly integrates climate change mitigation objectives, gender and social responsibility checks, and environmental safeguards. This ensures a comprehensive yet efficient assessment of innovation scalability for climate change mitigation while minimizing adverse effects. This tool will be used to develop scaling strategies for silvopastoral systems, low-emission rice and improved livestock breeds and feeds for 2024. The scaling advancements achieved in 2023 provide a robust foundation for expanding innovations, significantly contributing to low-emission food systems.Situa�on analysis and stakeholder mapping and analysis.Par�cipatory Theory of Change development and reflec�on process (visioning exercise).Conceptual framework (structural design) for a Living Lab for People approach to support sustainable food systems transforma�on and low-emission food system development.Strategies for mul�-stakeholder pla�orm or other social and ins�tu�onal structures where innova�on agenda is developed with par�cipatory mechanism.Innova�on cases iden�fied and validated through par�cipatory process.Lessons learned from establishing Living Labs for People and MELIA.Interven�ons for capacity strengthening and learning.Living Labs stakeholders have increased capacity and the necessary informa�on to assess, plan, solu�ons for sustainable food system transforma�on that delivers mi�gate benefit among other Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) outcomes.Living Labs for People (LL4P) stakeholders engage in co-ownership of the Living Labs and co-produc�on of knowledge.Living Labs for People (LL4P) stakeholders establish or build on exis�ng governance frameworks (e.g., Mul�-Stakeholder Pla�orm (MSP)) embedded within na�onal/regional governance structures to ensure inclusive and equitable sustainable Food System (FS) transforma�on.Women, youth, and other marginalized groups par�cipate in the development of sustainable food system transforma�on solu�ons.Global and na�onal government agencies, civil society, and private sector planners increase their capacity to use co-developed tools, data, and analyses to design at least four inclusive food-system emission-reduc�on strategies and/or carbon sink ini�a�ves.Food system stakeholders and actors in Living Labs for People establish inclusive frameworks for co-designing, pilo�ng, and scaling approaches that contribute to sustainable food system transforma�on that delivers climate mi�ga�on benefit and other Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) outcomes.In 2023, Living Labs for People (LL4P) made great strides in all four countries. This was facilitated by close collaboration with the country teams, research partners and stakeholders throughout the process.In China, Qingshan Village, in Zhejiang Province, was identified as an LL4P site and selected by the government as a pilot 'Low Carbon Future Village'. The team made significant progress in research, capacity sharing, and collaborative efforts with local stakeholders and the government, contributing to the effort to enhance the role of the village as a \"Future Village\" and \"Low (Zero) Carbon Village.\"The LL4P in Kenya made significant progress by signing a host agreement with Kaimosi Agricultural Training Center. The team's many activities helped to conceptualize the LL4P in Colombia and to conduct a situational analysis of the area. To ensure that the LL4P met the needs of stakeholders, the team identified a potential host, conducted participatory rural appraisal, stakeholder mapping, and identification of existing mitigation and adaptation efforts and projects.In Viet Nam, an assessment of stakeholder interests and needs for capacity sharing with Mitigate+ was conducted and a participatory workshop was convened to determine the site for the LL4P. Building on the site selection work in 2022, the site selected was expanded beyond Can Tho to encompass the whole Mekong Delta so as to meet the needs of the local government and stakeholders.The progress made in 2023 laid the foundation for transformative, country-specific strategies that seek to identify context-specific innovations through a participatory approach that will help establish a transformation of low-emission food systems through the LL4P. The emphasis on inclusivity and equity positions the LL4Ps as dynamic hubs for locally driven innovation and systemic change. Food system approaches to achieve low greenhouse gas emission development are high on the world's poli�cal agenda.Resources allocated to low greenhouse gas emission food system development increase, s�mula�ng ac�on on mi�ga�on. Informed food system decision-making is based on solid science, good governance, and principles of gender and social equity.At the annual Bonn Climate Conference, the Initiative took the lead in organizing an in-person event entitled \"Towards net-zero food systems: how can low-emission development strategies help achieve food security and economic growth?\" During COP28, in Dubai, UAE, the Initiative organized two events within the Food and Agriculture Pavilion: (i) \"How non-market approaches could look on the ground\", and (ii) \"The role of youth in capacity building and policymaking for climate action in the Global South.\" It also co-organized an official side event, \"Shifting the Paradigm: Towards Just, Equitable Low-Emission Food Systems\", that analyzed the potential of an agroecological paradigm shift with perspectives from science, the Rio Convention, member states, and Indigenous communities. Mitigate+ organized eight webinars exploring zero-deforestation supply chains in conflict-affected settings, participated in the UNFCCC technical expert review and engaged in other UNFCCC processes.Active efforts were made to build networks, including engagement with the CGIAR core group tracking UNFCCC negotiations, including the Sharm el-Sheikh joint work on implementation of climate action on agriculture and food security (SSJWA) coordination group, and a WhatsApp community of researchers and professionals in food systems transformation. Throughout the year, this Work Package built relationships with negotiators and staff of the UNFCCC Secretariat and will continue engaging these stakeholders in the climate policy space in 2024.In partnership with Rationale Advisors, documents were produced and circulated internally and externally, including the UNFCCC engagement strategy and an analysis of submissions on the SSJWA. The team played a vital role in the Initiative scientists' contributions to the CGIAR position paper on a food systems' approach to climate action and to a joint submission endorsing the inclusion of food systems in the outcome of the first Global Stocktake of the Paris Agreement.Through the CLIFF-GRADS program with which we team up, 12 PhD students received scholarships for training in GHG mitigation, 5 have completed their research stage and 7 are about to finish. New scholarships have already been awarded to fund 7 new students, who will begin their research in 2024.Work Package progress rating summaryProgress was made on three outputs; the remaining \"FOODCLIP\" toolbox is expected to be achieved in 2024.Progress was made on five outputs; the remaining \"Online Data Portal\" is expected to be achieved in 2024.Progress was made on all seven outputs.Progress was made on all four outputs 5Progress was made on four outputs; the remaining \"Global knowledge hub\" is expected to be achieved in 2024. Contributions to the UN Sustainable Development Goals Not targeted: The result did not target any of the Impact Area objec�ves.The result has made a significant contribu�on to any of the Impact Area objec�ves, even though the objec�ve(s) is not the principal focus of the result.The result is principally about mee�ng any of the Impact Area objec�ves, and this is fundamental in its design and expected results. The result would not have been undertaken without this objec�ve. The innova�on is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled condi�onsThe innova�on is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled condi�onsThe innova�on is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on's key concepts have been validated for their ability to achieve a specific impact F���������� The innova�on's key concepts are being formulated or designedThe innova�on's basic principles are being researched for their ability to achieve a specific impactThe innova�on is at idea stage Of the innovations developed by the Initiative, most have an advanced readiness level. Five innovations are being tested under semi-controlled conditions, four are prototypes, four are being tested in uncontrolled conditions, and one is considered a proven innovation. The latter is Scaling Readiness, an evidence-based approach to co-design, implement and monitor scaling strategies for innovation teams and innovation portfolio managers, which Mitigate+ participated in developing with the Diversification in East and Southern Africa Initiative. Our innovations with the highest scaling readiness include an MRV framework for monitoring deforestation emissions in Colombia and an automated water level sensor with SMS notifications for Vietnamese rice farming. Both innovations have reached the stage of uncontrolled testing.Innovations by type and nature Data here represents an overview of reported results in 2022 and 2023. One result can impact multiple countries and can therefore be represented multiple times.111 partners with a global focus 1 56 The country with the most results from Mitigate+ in 2023 was Colombia, followed by Vietnam, Kenya, and China. As mentioned in Section 2, 27 percent of the Initiative's 2023 outputs are global in scope.Capacity sharing for developmentOther output 1 1 48 24 23Most of the Initiative's outputs in 2023 were knowledge products (143) along with a high number -23 -of innovations developed. Our outcomes were focused on influencing policy changes in our four target countries.Data here represents an overview of reported results in 2022 and 2023. One result can impact multiple countries and can therefore be represented multiple times. Data here represents an overview of reported results in 2022 and 2023. One result can impact multiple countries and can therefore be represented multiple times. In Kenya, a partnership with AGNES incorporated a food systems approach into a workshop for African leaders, supporting the continent's progress in meeting the SDGs. Less resultsConnections are sized by the number of reported results. Collaborations where only one result was reported with a linkage between two Initiatives are excluded. In 2023, the work plan was structured around food systems and GHG emissions' mitigation in target countries, with a focus on country-specific needs. Lessons learned emphasized the crucial role of country leaders in planning, as their understanding of local conditions and external factors is essential. This approach guides the coordination of expertise toward meeting country-specific needs while ensuring alignment with the broader research Initiative.Join efforts to develop a country-specific narrative on LL4P with local partners. It is essential to raise the profile of LL4Ps by leveraging the CGIAR global platform to highlight them as a promising and replicable model with governance, co-production and attention to inclusion and social outcomes at its core.In 2023, LL4Ps proved to be effective models for showcasing low-emission practices in small community food systems. However, their success is not being sufficiently promoted within CGIAR outreach platforms. This is crucial not only to highlight individual LL4P achievements but also to organize events and village visits, as the team saw in the case of LL4P-China, to bring the results of scientific findings to public entities, thereby fostering strategic synergies and tangibleIntegrate the activities of all Work Packages in China around the LL4P in Qingshan Village, with the aim of joining efforts to develop a pilot village with low-carbon emissions (zero) and food security and to promote work in carbon accounting.The China team views LL4P as the central axis of the Initiative's work in that country. Qingshan is planned to become a \"Zero-Carbon Village of the Future\", bringing together the work of all the Work Packages. Activities of the Work Packages need to be aligned and focused on meeting the needs of each country.Ensure that CIFOR is sufficiently funded to lead and accelerate implementation of LL4P in Viet Nam.By 2024, to avoid operational limitations, it is proposed to ensure that CIFOR captures most of Work Package 3 funds on accelerating implementation of LL4P, keeping Work Package 3 funds for IRRI and WorldFish to a minimum, covering only the time and expenses of trips of the main personnel.Focus the results of the Initiative on national plans (GHG inventories, NDCs, government plans).In Colombia, seek to disseminate results and unify the efforts of multiple Initiatives to give greater scope to the recommendations for GHG inventories.During 2023, progress was made in producing and disseminating the MRV protocol and implementing pilots in different production sectors. Exploration of government-level articulation must continue, taking advantage of the expertise and focus of other Initiatives that operate in Colombia, such as the \"Fertilizar Derecho\" and CSICAP (Climate-smart initiatives for climate change adaptation and sustainability in prioritized agricultural production systems) projects, giving more scope to the recommendations for GHG inventories and thus delivering a more complete information package.","tokenCount":"6306"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3a03410fbe1b3517ec4d52fc7c4a8988","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/14799acc-2fa4-4adc-a577-c6cac5f58911/retrieve","id":"-1818253426"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"71ea3331-4bc9-4e35-b506-1d549500caf7","pagecount":"43","content":"a shield of trees to keep the desert at bay and snakes across the Sahel region from Senegal in the West to Djibouti in the East of Africa. The GGW was launched in 2007 by the African Union to promote sustainable development and climate change mitigation. The 11 countries selected as intervention zones for the initiative are Burkina Faso, Chad, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Sudan.The Great Green Wall (GGW) or La Grande Muraille Verte aims to restore 100 million hectares of degraded ecosystems and sequester 250 million tonnes of carbon across these 11 countries by 2030.Despite some hurdles following its inception, the GGW initiative is now gathering pace, with renewed and refocused objectives and significant new funding mobilized in 2021. However, its implementation is patchy and incoherent across the eleven countries it covers. It has also been criticized as being top-down in its approach, excluding local land users and even contributing to conflicts between them.UNEP is one of the key international partners contributing to the GGW initiative and most recently as a contribution to the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030. UNEP has committed to supporting pastoralism and rangelands with the agency's leadership of the UN Environment Assembly Resolution 2/24 on Combating Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought and Promoting Sustainable Pastoralism and Rangelands and Resolution 4/15 on Innovations in Sustainable Rangelands and Pastoralism. Following these resolutions, UNEP supported a gap analysis on rangelands and the resulting report: Rangelands: A Case of Benign Neglect highlights the lack of attention given to rangelands, particularly when compared to forests. UNEP has an interest in increasing investments in participatory approaches to rangeland restoration as part of its increasing investments to the GGW. Approaches such as participatory rangeland management (PRM) offer such opportunities.UNEP supported a review of the potential of PRM to address some of the gaps in GGW implementation and particularly to improve the participation of local communities in rangeland restoration initiatives.PRM is a process building the capacity of communities to manage their rangelands leading to improved productivity and good governance. PRM has been implemented in East Africa over significant areas of rangelands in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. This review focuses on Senegal and Mali, where pastoralism is the most important livelihood activity for the majority of the rural population. Both countries have extensive rangelands, with significant areas undergoing degradation and are relatively active countries in the GGW intitiative. The study was undertaken by the Initiative Prospective Agricole Rurale (IPAR) under the supervision of ILRI and included a literature review, visits to areas with potential for PRM, interviews with key stakeholders and a consultation workshop in each country. 10 Project reportOpportunities for PRM in the Great Green Wall Initiative in Mali and Senegal PRM can help bring a greater degree of community participation by including women and youth and in managing activities and interventions contributing to the GGW, where the mainly top-down approach to date has excluded communities and, in some situations, has created conflict with them. By building the capacity and willingness of communities to play a greater part in the GGW, implementation will have long-term beneficial impacts, including reduced costs and greater sustainability.In both Senegal and Mali, GGW interventions and activities are implemented top-down, with decisions about location and type of activities decided by the responsible GGW and local government agencies and with little consultation with local land users. In Senegal in particular, there are over a dozen projects that are currently mapped to or contributing to the GGW. Tree-planting has been a key area of focus of the GGW to date, normally without including local land users beyond the planting trees through cash-for-work programmes and fencing off the areas thereby excluding them from local use.Those interviewed during this study highlighted some major gaps in the implementation and monitoring of the GGW including the need to build stronger community participation and support and the need to a full and rigorous evaluation of tree-planting as the main area of focus of the GGW to date. In Mali, weak political commitment and related financing was also highlighted as a key challenge and in both countries, insecurity and conflicts in intervention areas were a concern although details on this were not available.In Senegal, the government introduced the concept of pastoral units (PUs) in the 1980s and these have been supported by a number of projects since. The PUs were set up around water points with the objective to sustainably manage resources and spaces for the benefit of local populations and the community of transhumant pastoralists. The establishment of PUs appear to be a successful intervention in terms of developing better land management organizational systems and natural resources, and a water infrastructure management system and a transhumance/grazing management system. However, despite their apparent success, PUs have been implemented in a top-down manner and have failed to invest in or empower pastoral communities to manage the PUs. Once management plans are established, the PUs are often left without supervision, capacity building programmes or monitoring and as a result, management plans are rarely implemented. Good governance is weak as communities have not been given any authority over the Pus.Where pastoral unit management bodies exist, they are often politicized and heavily influenced by local chiefs.A comparison of the processes of the PRM and pastoral unit approaches shows similarities including the undertaking of an investigation stage collecting and analyzing information on rangeland resources and other aspects of the local context, the development of a rangeland management plan and the establishment of a governance or management body. However, there are significant differences.Perhaps the most fundamental is that PRM is embedded in local land use practices with the community building on customary management and governance norms, whereas PUs are more like areas excised from the pastoral landscape and managed according to new rules and regulations that can often exclude local communities. The PUs will always require external interventions and resources, whereas in PRM a key objective is to build the capacity of communities to take control of the management, decision-making processes and the implementation of their own plan and it is anticipated they will invest in themselves.In Mali, projects have set up pastoral units or pastoral perimeters around solar energy-powered boreholes.There is signficant scope for PRM to add-value to these projects and processes already being implemented.In many areas customary institutions and governance have broken down leaving a vacuum in terms of institutions responsible for rangeland management and governance and increasing the likelihood of conflict.The emphasis on decentralization with power and management of resources in the hands of local communities provides the right political context for community-led processes such as PRM.There is considerable potential for testing and piloting PRM in both Senegal and Mali which, if successful, could then be scaled up. In Senegal, a key issue is to clarify how PRM can add value to the already established PUs and contribute to improved management or rangelands outside these. In Mali, there is the challenge of identifying suitable areas that are manageable as units within the vast rangeland/pastoral landscapes and maintain connections between these, which will likely mean working at landscape and local scales to ensure that PRM is well-supported. Source: Jounals of India 2021 https://journalsofindia.com/great-green-wall-ggw-programme/ Great Green Wall Programme.The project has had to contend with problems such as persistent land loss, the lack of a shared mechanism for monitoring progress and ineffective involvement of some GGW stakeholders. The first appraisal survey, commissioned by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and released in September 2020, shows limited progress. Only 4 million hectares have been restored in the 11 founding member states, which is only 15-18% of the area the project aims to cover by 2030. 6   The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is one of the main international partners contributing to the GGW initiative. UNEP and other agencies operate many restoration projects along the entire Great Green Wall, funded by the Global Environment Facility and other donors. The United Nations has been working with the African Union Commission, the Pan-African Agency of the Great Green Wall and member countries to define their national strategies and action plans (2010-2013), a regional harmonized strategy (2012) and to support implementation activities on the ground (2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019)(2020). FAO and UNEP are now planning another boost to the Great Green Wall in coming years. Both agencies are leading the new UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030 and the GGW will be one of the UN Decade's flagship projects.In addition, UNEP has strengthened its commitment to supporting pastoralism and rangelands with the agency's leadership of the UN Environment Assembly Resolution 2/24 on Combating Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought and Promoting Sustainable Pastoralism and Rangelands and Resolution 4/15 on Innovations in Sustainable Rangelands and Pastoralism. Following these resolutions UNEP supported a gap analysis on rangelands and the resulting report (Rangelands: A Case of Benign Neglect) which highlights the lack of attention given to rangelands, particularly when compared to forests. UNEP has an interest in increasing investments in participatory approaches to rangeland restoration as part of its increasing investments to the GGW and approaches such as participatory rangeland management offer such opportunities. (ii) The potential of PRM:This review looked at demand for a PRM approach from communities, government and other stakeholders considering other initiatives, projects and programmes focusing on rangeland management already in-country.The relevance of PRM to local contexts considering local institutions and governance, access and security to land, the use of land, mobility and movement of livestock and people, the status of rangelands and rangeland degradation, gender issues, presence of conflicts and other relevant issues.The presence or absence of a policy an enabling environment for PRM and opportunities for influencing policy.Capacities needed to pilot and implement PRM amongst government, NGOs and communities and gaps in the capacities that need to be built.Donor and development agency interest in supporting PRM in the future.Potential in-country and regional partners. Participatory rangeland management (PRM) is a step-by-step process for improving management, governance and investment in rangelands and is led by communities and supported by NGOs, researchers and development agents (Figure 2). For introductory guidelines see Flintan and Cullis (2010). PRM was first piloted in Ethiopia and then scaled up to over more than 1 million hectares with significant impacts on strengthening the management of access to rangelands, improving productivity and empowering communities, in particular women. For a review of PRM in Ethiopia see Flintan et al. (2019). The process has led to community, donor and public investment in rangeland restoration. Following on from the experiences in Ethiopia and with local adaptations, PRM has been piloted in Kenya and Tanzania with funding from the EU and as a contribution to the Rangelands Initiative of the International Land Coalition with similar results and funding is likely for further scaling. Despite its potential for supporting initiatives such as the Great GreenWall, PRM has not yet been piloted or implemented in West Africa.On the request of UNEP, a review was carried out to assess the potential for piloting and implementing PRM projects in Mali and Senegal, in the context of supporting the GGW initiative. The review was undertaken by IPAR under the supervision of ILRI and included a literature review, visits to areas with potential for PRM, interviews with key stakeholders (interview lists are provided in Appendix 1) and a consultation workshop in each country (participant lists provided in Appendix 2 and 3). The interviews followed checklists developed by IPAR and ILRI, approved by ILRI's Research Ethics Committee.The commitment is also reflected in the speed with which the ANGMV managed to define the project area.This area, 585 km by 15 km wide, is located mainly in the Sahelian part of Senegal (Figure 3).   The strategic objectives of the GGW in Senegal are listed in Box 1.The strategic objectives of the GGW in Senegal are:Intensify the fight against desertification and land degradation and by 2030 achieve land degradation neutrality (LDN).Significantly increase the areas of agricultural land for the substantial strengthening of the productivity and production of agrosylvopastoral systems and the optimization of agricultural value chains.Develop economic clusters through processing and promoting local products to strengthen the conditions for the emergence and development of the economic scope of the GGW.Ensure the mobilization and integrated management of a significant part of water resources, for the improvement of access to drinking water and sanitation services.Develop and promote renewable energy resources in the corridor.Contribute effectively through capacity building and the amplification of low carbon achievements.  There are a number of challenges and bottlenecks related to the implementation of the projects.These are summarized in Table 1.Table 1. Challenges and bottlenecks related to the implementation of GGW projects.Access to hostile environments. Isolation of localities, especially in the rainy season.Difficult access to water.Need to put up fences before reforestation.Harmonization of sectoral interventions on the theme of desert advancement.Real involvement of local communities.Lack of formal partnership.Direct interventions partly in the GGW area.GGW not taken into account.Diversification of financial partners.Low level of disbursement compared to the intensity of activities.Increased involvement of state technical services.Women›s activities slowed down due to the search for water.Find alternative solutions for access to water.-Maintenance of measures to fight against external attacks (firewalls, fences, etc.).Different use of space by several actors e.g. pastoralists and farmers.Genuine support from pastoral communities.-Identification of forest fruits. -Reforestation and tree planting is a key intervention of the GGW and its supporting projects. Activities occur in the designated GGW belt or Ferlo (designated agrosylvopastoral area). The choice of sites is made following consultation with the municipal authorities. A basic study is made to determine appropriate areas (see below).There was little if any consultation with communities in this decision.  Market gardens have also been constructed. The multipurpose market gardens form the second pillar of the project›s intervention in the Sylvopastoral Zone (ZSP). Despite their modest size and limited number, their multifunctionality makes them particularly attractive, both from the point of view of developers and the beneficiary populations. Between 2010 and 2016, eleven gardens were created. Four gardens are located in the villages located inside the Six Drillings reserve (Loughré Thiolly, Labgar, Tessékéré and Amaly,) while the other seven are located in the western part of the of the GMV belt (Widou Thiengoly, Koyli Alpha, Mbar Toubab, Syer, Kadiar and Sakal which has two). They are mainly located in the western part of the ZSP.Their distribution on the outskirts of Ranérou, east of the national route, has been planned since 2016 but has been slow to materialize. The gardens are mainly for market gardening but also house orchards. Arboriculture is based on mango and guava trees whose young plants are irrigated by drip.The managers of the GGW entrust the gardens to a horticultural agent who supervises the agricultural practices of the groups of 100 to 300 women previously formed. This organization of women›s groups, which had been widely tested in the Ferlo during a Senegalese-German project, facilitates the exploitation of plots.The horticultural agent provides the seeds each year, mainly carrots, tomatoes, onions and potatoes.The produce is marketed locally, almost entirely to other women in the same group and also at the weekly markets. Marketing is therefore based on a closed industry. This operation has the advantage of favoring the constitution of a monetary capital for the women, the sale of the harvests generating an income for the whole of the group which can then practice revolving credit. Finally, to encourage women, the GGW established a partnership with the World Food Programme in 2009. The Food for Work programme consisted of providing women›s groups with food aid conditional on their participation in the farm plots.Reforestation agents set up the nurseries where seedlings are produced before being transferred to the plots. The production of seedlings in nurseries mobilizes the local workforce. Thanks to the availability of water for irrigation from boreholes, more than two million plants are produced each year (ANGMV, 2011).This relatively high figure is explained by the need to prevent the high mortality observed during the transport of seedlings from the nursery to the plots. At around six months, the plants are transported during the rainy/ winter period (from mid-August to mid-September) to the plots to be planted in accordance with the technical choices of the forest agents, particularly in terms of density per hectare. Before planting the seedlings, a tractor and a subsoiler are used to dig the furrows. To facilitate the growth of the plants, a low density of plants is preferred (spacing of 10 meters between the lines, distance of 8 meters between the plants).The unpredictable distribution of the rains can promote or limit the growth of young plants in the sandy substrate, hence the frequent need to transplant from October. The last technical phase concerns plant maintenance. The restocking and guarding operations make it possible to consolidate the density of trees on the scale of the plot. Since 2010, the risk of destruction of plants caused by wandering cattle justified the installation of metal fences around the plots, but also of firewalls to protect the plantations from bush fires.An assisted natural regeneration strategy is implemented consisting of securing plots of land as protected areas where it is prohibited to harvest wood or non-timber products such as fruits or leaves and pastoralists are not allowed to graze their livestock. The construction of fences around these plots is effective in enforcing the bans on use. Given the strong resilience of Sahelian vegetation and in particular of tree species, a period of three to five years is sufficient for the young shoots to reach maturity. Ecologically efficient, this technique also offers the great advantage of being much less expensive than reforestation, which requires significant labor and financial resources. In total, no less than 10,000 hectares are protected in this way.Starting in 2008, the reforestation operations have continued to be renewed. Until 2012, they were concentrated in the communes of Téssékéré and Labgar. About ten plots of variable surface area (between 500 and 2,500 ha) are located on the outskirts of the villages of Téssékéré, Widou Thiengoly and Labgar covering approximately 20,000 hectares. From 2012, reforestation efforts have been deployed within the GGW belot in the adjacent territories located to the west (municipalities of Syer and Mboula) and to the east (municipality of Loughré Thioly de Ouadalaye) where in 2018 another ten plots were established. In total, more than 40,000 ha have been reforested in Ferlo.However, plant losses have been noted. The relative scarcity of water constrains both the production of seedlings in the nursery (obsolete and dysfunctional boreholes) and their growth within the plots (weakness and variability of rainfall). In addition, a significant proportion of the plants do not survive potting and planting.The destruction caused by cattle that get into the plots is also an issue. Overall, these factors result in the loss of approximately half the seedlings. Table 2 indicates the challenges and bottlenecks related to project implementation.2.2 Review of activities and projects contributing to the GGW in Mali The environmental function of gardens is not negligible. These gardens contribute to the re-greening of the Ferlo, especially when arboriculture develops there and provide additional pasture for home cattle thanks to the use of market garden residues and other weeds which contribute to reducing pastoral pressure on fodder resources. They may also offer, in the medium or long term, an alternative activity to livestock farming to slow the increase in pressure on water and pasture resources.However, the study of the functioning of multipurpose village gardens raises the question of their sustainability.Does their very poor productive and financial performance not condemn them to remain «under perfusion» visà-vis both the GGW project and the World Food Programme? This is the major ambiguity of the GGW gardens which, in attempting to promote tools for the fight against poverty, adopt the institutionalized practices of humanitarian aid.Retention basins also feature prominently in the priorities of GGW development choices (ANGGW, 2009). The first was set up in Labgar in 2009. It was not so much a question of creating an artificial water reservoir as of deepening an existing clay depression. Extending the longevity of temporary ponds that appear during the rainy season in this way makes it possible to improve the availability of water resources for livestock watering.The results of these developments are rather mixed, the main example being that of Labgar. Developed in 1931 at the instigation of Bouna Alboury, the last ruler of Djolof, the Labgar retention basin has been exploited for a long time by local breeders. To increase the theoretical capacity (objective of 25,000 m3) work was undertaken in 2008 by the managers of the GGW. Design flaws seriously reduced their effectiveness by causing a decrease in runoff and an increase in water infiltration into the ground. Little used in the rainy season when water is abundant, the basin is dried out by December. Since then, the experience of the retention basins has not been extended to other municipalities along the GGW route.Most people only know about the GGW through the media and they have not been involved in it or seen it. Animal grazing is a major obstacle for planting seedlings and in areas where there are livestock, the solution so far has been to fence off seeded areas, which has worked well but is expensive. From the interviews, two key points were raised, i) there is need to build a strong community base to increase the likelihood of the sustainability of the activities and a reduction in the costs of implementation and ii0 there is a need to make a more rigorous evaluation of the success rates of the plantations.In Mali, the ANGMV was established to:  The challenges and bottlenecks of the GGW implementation are:The low level of financing linked mainly to a weak mobilization of technical and financial partners around the GGW and the insufficient level of mobilization of internal resources. Several projects to improve agrosylvopastoral production have been developed and submitted to technical and financial partners for funding. From 2017 to 2020, 670,750,435 CFA francs were invested at the level of the ANGMV, of which 497,000,000 CFA francs were from the State (74%), the APGMV 15,000,000 CFA francs (2%)and technical and financial partners 158,750,435 (24%).The extreme poverty of some communities on the GGW route and their vulnerability.The severe degradation of ecosystems and land along the route.Insufficient and poor distribution of rainfall.The general disruption of the climate.Interethnic conflicts and the insecurity that prevails in the GGW area impacts negatively on the successful implementation of activities.As part of the search for funding, the ANGGW is collaborating with several technical and financial partners including the African Development Bank, FAO, the World Bank, the Global Environment Facility and the Global Climate Fund.The bottlenecks or challenges to scaling up GGW interventions are:Weak political commitment to the GGW compared to other initiatives.Failure to respect the commitments made by the States for the execution of certain decisions:for example, the holding of three conferences of Heads of State and Government since the creation of the GGW initiative only in 2010.Weakness of internal funding for the execution of certain subregional activities.Weak participation of the populations often due to the lack of information on the projects in progress (weakness or even lack of communication).Climate changes leading to the impoverishment of populations.Insecurity and conflicts preventing development efforts in intervention areas.Reforestation is one of the main activities in various projects and is characterized by the following:» Tree planting decisions and choice of reforestation sites are taken by mutual agreement with the beneficiary populations.Trees are planted collectively and on a voluntary basis or as part of the food-for-work programme or through service providers in collaboration with the beneficiary populations.Trees are maintained by local people, often within the framework of the food-for-work programme according to the project intervention methods or paid for in cash. If necessary, a service provider does the maintenance and watering under a contract.The projects currently implemented within the framework of the GGW are: The area of intervention concerned is that of the various projects with the involvement of all actors (public, private, communities, technical and financial partners) and specifically the communities of Nioro du Sahel, Nara, Timbuktu. These projects also involve the various initiatives underway at the regional and international levels including: The drylands of northern Senegal receive little rainfall and what they do is highly variable. This is a main factor in the absence of woody and herbaceous plant cover. During years of good rainfall, the herbaceous layer reaches high production levels. Pastoralists and other livestock keepers are unanimous in saying that livestock and breeding practices are not a factor in rangeland degradation in the ZSP.The degree of plant cover and the presence of particular plants is said by local populations to be indicative of degradation. The presence of uulo (Cassia obtusifolia) and bamwaami (Calotropis procera) is considered a sign of degradation. C. obtusifolia tends to colonize all the lowlands, especially southern Djolof. When green, it is not very palatable for livestock and in the dry season when the leaves have fallen, only stems remain, which grazing animals cannot consume.In recent years, Diodia scandens, an unpalatable herbaceous species, has colonized large areas of pasture land.As for C. procera, formerly considered as a species limited to inhabited areas, it has formed significant colonies, especially in the northern part of the ZSP. During the lean season, when pastures become scarce, its leaves drop and are eaten by animals. Some breeders, especially from Djoloff and Walo, are hesitant to say anything negative about this species because it helps feed their livestock.Fires can be common in areas with woody species. At the time of this study (November) there had been sixteen bushfires in Ogo and four in Thiel. Breeders report that each time a fire breaks out, the floristic composition of herbs at the site changes. Most often, the species which grow after a fire are very coarse (e.g.Andopogon pseudapricus and Pennisetum pedicellatum) and palatable for cattle but not small ruminants.Around residential areas, especially around boreholes, large quantities of plastic bags are found that can be eaten by livestock and often kill them. In response to this problem, the Namarel dairy started using paper bags and others could be encouraged to follow suit.Good recovery rates of reforested plants are recorded in the field, supported by the commitment of the beneficiary populations under a contract with a service provider.Bottlenecks and challenges are linked to the lack of fencing for trees and straying animals causing damage to young trees during the recovery period. However, under the contract with the service provider and the beneficiary populations, arrangements are made for guarding.Provisions are made for the registration of wooded areas for the benefit of the beneficiary populations through the communes that host these plantations.The POAS framework was scaled up across all the rural communities of the river region thanks to support from Determining the carrying capacity of pastures has been the subject of studies in many livestock regions in the Sahel. However, its application has always been problematic, not least because of the unsuitability of the term for environments with highly variable rainfall. In Senegal, an experiment took place around drilling a borehole in Widou Tiengoli between 1981 and 1987 under the direction of the department in charge of water and forests with German funding. It was concluded that the carrying capacity for sustainable pastoral production in this region is 10 ha/TLU (tropical livestock unit) for an animal of approximately 250 kg of live weight. Attempts were also made to sedentarize pastoralists while reducing herd numbers.After several years of implementing the approach, the evaluation found that far from resolving the issue of carrying capacity around the Widou Tiengoli borehole, it created problems. Almost all the inhabitants and users of the area grazed part of their herd outside the perimeter of the borehole space so that rather than sell their livestock they moved and added them to the herd that grazed outside. The process of destocking was slowed down but the load limit (10 ha/TLU) was often exceeded in the plots.This experience in Widou Tiengoli is comparable to that in rental plots supported by the Centre de Recherches Zootechniques (CRZ) Dahra. As part of its research and development activities, in 1996 the CRZ initiated a partnership with pastoralists living in the vicinity of the centre who were authorized to graze their animals on centre plots as long as they respected the animal carrying capacity calculated on the basis of 18.75 kg of dry matter per day per animal. However, it was soon realised that the herders were not bringing in the same animals all the time and were using the plots as a fodder reserve rather than as a controlled experiment.These two examples highlight that, for pastoralists at least, the term 'carrying capacity' remains an abstraction.From 1994, the Projet Pilote Pastoral de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (PPPAO) was set up with funding from the World Bank. It aimed to demonstrate that through appropriate management of resources and holistic rangeland management, it is possible to reverse the process of soil and vegetation degradation currently observed in most pastoral areas of the Sahel and to make agro-pastoral production viable. From 1996, the Senegalese component of the PPPAO was responsible for testing the applicability of the holistic rangeland management approach, popularizing the management model in the pilot sites and gradually extending it to other pastoral areas. For this purpose, two sites were chosen: Asré bani and Lol Lol.During the first years of the project, impact monitoring depended on feedback and assessment from the pastoralists. Each time the World Bank experts came on an assessment mission, the pastoralists unanimously said that, as a result of the project, plant species that had disappeared were reappearing, the toccoonde (soil spots slightly raised and bare in season) had decreased and their cows were giving more milk. However, a subsequent monitoring system set up by an external team showed that there was in fact no difference between the management of herds in the pilot sites and those of the surrounding areas and the 'reappearing species' were not found. For each PU, a rangelands management plan is developed. Designed as a planning instrument for the pastoral unit, it has the following main objectives: i) development of organizational systems at the level of the PU and between PUs to ensure the consistency of sustainable management; ii) adoption of natural resource management techniques which are adapted to the characteristics of each space and which are reproducible;iii) development of a water infrastructure management system; and iv) development of a transhumance management system.It should be emphasized that the viability of PUs depends to a large extent on the diversity of the forms of livestock mobility developed by the pastoral communities concerned. However, these specificities are not always taken into account in the approaches developed for PUs. grassroots democracy. As it currently stands, the application of the framework is far from effective for several reasons related to: i) the insufficient means of intervention of zonal commissions; ii) the capacity deficit of the members of these commissions; and iii) a lack of will to apply the rules enacted.To take into account livestock concerns, the POAS zones an area by delimiting at least three types of land use: i) agropastoral zones with agricultural priority (ZAPA); ii) agropastoral zones with livestock priority (ZAPE);and iii) sylvopastoral zones (ZSP). The latter is reserved for livestock only and agriculture is strictly prohibited.The combined effect of the extension of agricultural activities and modernization of the means of production and the degradation of soils lead to a restrictive redefinition of the rules of access to natural resources and a growing inequity in access. Pastoral communities are particularly handicapped. The surveys carried out in the ZSP in the Touba-Tessékré-Podor axis identified several types of conflicts (Table 3).Table 3. Main types of conflicts identified in the municipalities in the passage corridor. Problems and challenges related to projects supporting community management approaches include: Political interference during the composition of the management bodies of the PUs (the will of the chiefs not always going in the direction of strengthening the PU management bodies).Very often amicable settlement of disputes.Emphasis on infrastructure, not on good governance.Solutions implemented to alleviate problems in community management approaches include:» Awareness-raising through the media, animators (forest assistants identified and then trained) and music.Marking cattle tracks and development of amenities (e.g. rest areas).Creation of inter-community groups within certain municipalities (Bakel, Podor, etc.).Establishment of a service centre for pastoralists (e.g. shops, veterinary pharmacies).Digitization of livestock feed sales data (e.g. easier access to livestock feed for the shepherd).Holding informed debates on rangeland management.Increased social mobilization against bush fires.Strengthening the role of community radio stations in raising awareness and informing the population (e.g. participation of the population in opening community firewalls).Better management of transhumants, dwellings (e.g. reduction in the number of cases of bush fires and slow drying up of ponds).Better use of ponds (lengthening the duration of watering of ponds and reduction of pollution).Establishment of Association des Usagers des Forages Ruraux (better support for repairs and maintenance of boreholes).» establishment and rehabilitation of boreholes and water supply, » improving the quality of household drinking water, » capacity building of producer organizations, and » opening a literacy centre in poular.3.6.3 Projet Sénégalo-Allemand de Reboisement de la Zone Nord, Senegalese-German (Reforestation Project of the North Zone and Pastoral Self-Promotion Projet in the Ferlo)In the aftermath of the great drought of 1972-1973, Senegal asked the Federal Republic of Germany for support for natural resources management. This resulted in the German Forestry Mission at the Ferlo level and a series of projects.The Senegalese-German Reforestation Project of the North Zone (1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980). This first project had as Compared to agricultural areas in other regions of Senegal, the intervention of livestock projects is more recent in the ZSP. Development activities were carried out until the 1970s by traditional development services. NGOs are relatively rare even now and the incentives to regroup are not as strong as among farmers.We indicate below the main development projects that occupied this space in the early 2020s.3.6.1 The Société de Développement de l'Elevage dans la Zone SylvopastoraleThe Society for the Development of Livestock in the Sylvopastoral Zone (SODEP) was set up in 1975 in the aftermath of a long period of drought. It was responsible for organizing the overall development of the ZSP within the framework of the strategy for the establishment of Sociétés Régionales de Développement Rural or Regional Rural Development Societies at the level of the main agro-ecological zones of Senegal.Their strategy was based on production stratification comprised of leading each stage of animal husbandry in the most suitable ecological zone and the intensification of production through the optimal use of inputs.Thus, in Ferlo and calving areas the animals were then transported to the Doli ranch, which was the breeding centre. Finishing took place at a feeder farm in Keur Massar. Thanks to its strategy at the ZSP level, control of water supplies was possible through the management of boreholes in the area.Pressure from various partners, in particular donors and pastoralists and the state›s policy of disengaging from production companies, resulted in the closure of SODEP's activities and its liquidation. This left a void in the provision of serviced for quite some time.PAPEL›s activities cover the ZSP and the Groundnut Basin. The first phase started in 1993. However, difficulties caused by delays in the disbursement of funds made it impossible to achieve its objectives. Nonetheless, boreholes were rehabilitated and water supplies (antennas) put in place. Organizational bases for natural resource management were also developed.The second phase started in 2002 and the results included: Actions to support health coverage and food supplementation for livestock.In terms of hydraulic infrastructure, the project established new pastoral boreholes and the rehabilitation of existing boreholes and equipped new boreholes with water towers and drinkers and extended existing networks and developed firewalls and rural roads in the ZSP.The PADV was implemented from 2000 to 2007 in the northern region of Senegal in the Louga Region with funding from IFAD. Its objective was to create a sustainable dynamic of development by building the capacities of local populations and mobilizing available agro-pastoral resources. Among its achievements were: it also set up firewalls and rural roads (opening up about fifty villages), grain and animal feed stores, improved henhouses and a village shop. In the Departments of Louga and Linguère, it introduced the production of cowpea seeds and the construction of improved henhouses, dairy barns, market garden plots for the production of cowpeas for food; forage production (andropogon, cowpea forage, Leucena sp.) and building up fodder reserves through the provision of equipment (motor mowers, carts, etc.).PAPIL was set up to combat bush fires. In 2010, 35 bush fire control committees were revitalized and equipped.In addition, 65 km of firewalls were opened as part of the fight against bush fires, thus making it possible to secure nearly 60,000 ha of forest. In connection with the Ecological Monitoring Center, the monitoring pastures and bush fires has been carried out every year for more than three decades. Biomass maps at the end of the rainy season have made it possible to increase the fodder potential and provide information on deficits by region and bush fires are monitored every year throughout the dry season.On the outskirts of Niokolo Koba National Park, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Senegal has developed activities for establishing land management plans, including plans for pasture management committees.Experimental plots have been set up since 1980 to monitor the effect of load on the regeneration of plant species. PAPF activities ended in 2008 after 32 years of activity.PRODAM was initially an emergency project that aimed to support and integrate returnees and dispossessed people following the events between Senegal and Mauritania. It was co-financed by IFAD, the Banque Ouest Africaine de Développement, the Government of Senegal and beneficiary populations. Activities started in 1995 and mainly targeted populations in Matam (Walo and Jeeri).The main results were: The PDEPS approach is participatory and inclusive and the beneficiaries are pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in its area of intervention. It ran for five years and was implemented by Ministère de l'Elevage et des Productions Animales, with technical partners. The following main results are expected from its implementation:» improved management of fodder resources and access to water, » development of the milk and small ruminant value chain and » capacity building of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.3.6.14 The Regional Support Project for Pastoralism in the Sahel I (PRAPS) Phase IThe objective of the PRAPS-SN was to improve access to markets and essential production means and services for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the areas targeted by the project and improve the national capacity to respond in a timely manner in the event of pastoral crises or emergencies. Funded by the World Bank with international development assistance funds it ran from 2016 to 2021. Its area of intervention included eight departments spread over five regions of the ZSP, the Groundnut Basin and Eastern Senegal. The direct beneficiaries of the Project were 230,000 pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.The main results were: 3.6.9 The Pastoral Livestock Security Project in the Matam region Provision of basic services (animal feed, veto products) to pastoralists and agro-pastoralists along corridors.There are strong similarities between the UP approach and the PRM approach. However, differences can be noted in the steps (Table 4). Phase 1:Step 1: Indentification of resources and users Investigation phase 1. Descriptive and evolutionary analysis of resources and place of PU (inventory of fixtures), characterisations 2. Identification of constraints and opportunities 3. Definition of issues and strategic optionsPhase 2:Step 2: Strengthen or establish rangeland management institutionsStep 3: Define the rangeland management unit and prepare the resource assessmentStep 4: Develop the Rangeland Management PlanStep 5: Establish the rangeland management agreement Feedback and validation phase 5. Diagnosis analysis and resultsPhase 3:Step 6: New roles for communities and rangeland management advisorsStep 7: Halt and reverse decline in rangeland productivityStep The Azila Gum Company is financed by Saudi partners which set up in the ZSP at the beginning of the 2000s.With approval from the municipal councils of communes in the Department of Linguère, it was able to obtain plots that it reforested with Acacia senegal. Currently, the gum tree plantations have reached the age of harvesting. To prevent fraudulent exploitation, it prohibits access to the plots by pastoralists, which sets them against the local population. Conflicts are recurrent.3.6.17 The Regional Support Project for Pastoralism in the Sahel I (PRAPS SN) Phase IIThe objective of PRAPS2-SN is to improve the resilience of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in certain areas of the region and to strengthen the capacities of countries to respond quickly and effectively to crises or pastoral emergencies. Its execution period is six years (2021 -2027). The project will intervene in ten departments (Dagana, Podor, Matam, Kanel, Ranérou, Linguère, Louga, Koungheul, Bakel and Koumpentoum).In its component on Sustainable Landscape Management and Governance, the project aims to improve the availability of food resources for livestock through better access to pasture, water and complementary feed and fodder. To this end, it will intervene in:» the conservation and protection of fodder resources on natural rangelands, protection of plots and actions to restore the environment, » pasture production, dynamics of poisonous and invasive plants, such as Diodia scandens and identification of appropriate management methods, and » identification, mapping and materialization of 100 km of passageways for transhumant herds, in addition to similar work already carried out or planned by other projects (BRACED, PDEPS, PADAER, etc.).The beneficiaries and the main expected results are the same as in the first phase.This project announced by AVSF will intervene in the field of carbon sequestration through the reforestation of 10,000 ha. The feasibility study will start from mid-November 2021.There are multiple opportunities for implementing PRM (Table 6) but the challenges are numerous and the bottlenecks are real (Tables 7 and 8).  Its financial partnership portfolio is quite extensive. RBM is also a technical partner with several institutions in the implementation and monitoring of PUs. Its presence in the field through the members of its ProducerOrganizations allows it to carry out facilitation, mobilization and animation activities. Its most important contribution is its ability to continue activities even after funding from partners has ended.The CVCS is a civil society organization set up in 2009. Its mission is to contribute to the management of resilience for sustainable development by providing communities with qualified human capital.Its 67-member system is active in the field of facilitation, awareness-raising and learning. It is made up of facilitators with good experience in support, community relays, assistants, literacy and animation supervisors, education volunteers and CAF facilitators. In the field of PU management it has supported several projects (e.g.This association has been in the ZSP since 1998 where it is increasing the influence of pastoral farming (pastoralists› advocacy capacity) and the development of knowledge houses (dissemination of good practices).With the Gallo project, it has supported breeders to be more present in decision-making centers with a view Gender and social inclusion in rangeland management does not appear to have been a significant area of development investment to date.To generate the significant knowledge available on pastoral systems in Senegal, it was necessary to develop increasingly efficient inventory and monitoring methodologies for most resources and techniques for the use and restoration of spaces. The complexity of pastoral systems and the weak commitment of partners, particularly financial partners for pastoral livestock production, have been a barrier to systems support for some time. In the early 2000s, the establishment of the PPZS made it possible to make significant progress in the analysis of these systems and it was possible to develop resource monitoring indicators and tools and knowledge on the study and management of pastoral socio-ecosystems. Some projects have supported universities and other research and educational institutions in the development of training modules on arid and semi-arid ecosystems aimed on the one hand at higher education and on the other hand the transfer of skills for the benefit of pastoral societies.3.9 Capacities of actors in the implementation of PRM 3.9.1 Understanding pastoral production systems 3.9.2 Facilitation, community mobilization and animation skills in the field of PRM at the national levelSeveral organizations are active in the area of capacity building. Among these are NGOs like AVSF, producer organizations like Réseau Billital Marobé Senegal (RBM) and Association pour la Promotion de l'Élevage au Sahel et en Savane and consultancy firms like SAHEL EPA (Environment-Pastoralism-Agriculture).AVSF is an NGO that aims to secure the mobility of pastoral livestock. The competence of its experts has enabled it to develop a Capacity Building Manual for Pastoral Units in Senegal, which is a benchmark in the field of animation and facilitation. AVSF works in collaboration with the RBM for animation and mobilization activities.In Senegal, the partners who support participatory rangeland approaches are numerous. In the implementation of PRM, their experience would be a great contribution (Table 9).Table 9. Contribution of the various partners able to support PRM.Réseau Billital Marobé Senegal producer organizations: Many producers in the ZSP are members of the network of community relays trained in data collection and sensitization of pastoral populations.AVSF, NGOs: Funded and implemented the development and implementation of PU.The management of natural resources is the responsibility of the mayors; municipal councillors through the various commissions, including the State Commission, have an important role to play.MEPA coordinates and executes the implementation of rangeland projects.Certain rangelands are in protected areas which are under MED supervision; responsible for the preservation of natural resources (fire fighting, etc.).The GGW helps take charge of the needs of the populations through its consultation frameworks.France: Alongside national research structures, its institutions have developed research products that have contributed to the GPP approach.Germany: German Agency for International Cooperation has acquired considerable experience in forestry issues in pastoral areas.World Bank, ADB, IFAD have financed a number of projects in the field of PRM.FAO has developed projects that support activities carried out in rangeland projects.ISRA has contributed to the development of many management plans developed by projects at the national level.Universities: UCAD, Alioune Diop, Iba Der Thiam through their students they make available to development institutions and services.In Senegal, the Ministry of Livestock and Animal Productions (MEPA) is responsible for ensuring that livestock and pastoralism are taken into account in planning rural areas. It also ensures the improvement and protection of pastures, water supplies for livestock, animal health, genetic improvement of the herd and encourages the creation of pastoral infrastructure. MEPA is responsible for promoting the training and supervision of breeders, with a view to carrying out projects adapted to their needs. MEPA has experts in veterinary sciences, zootechnics, socio-economics, pastoral planning and related fields who are capable of managing all concerns leading to the development, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of projects and programmes. These teams were able to support previous and current projects in this area.MEPA is supported by development structures from other ministries (several national research and development institutions such as ISRA and universities) and the Ecological Monitoring Center and PPZS.Multi-institutional structures are put in place whenever necessary for planning project activities.ANACIM has a network of meteorological stations and rain gauges across the country. A series of daily data (rainfall, humidity, temperature, wind, etc.) more or less complete over several decades can therefore be obtained on request. National institutions (MEPA, Hydraulics, etc.) have monthly data at different scales in their reports on different resources (animal, plant, water, etc.) allowing cross-analyses to be carried out to determine trends. Normalized Differential Vegetation Index data are available throughout the rainy season and bush fires throughout the year thanks to the work of the Ecological Monitoring Center. With ad hoc studies and cross-referencing the basic data generated by these institutions, analyses are carried out to assess the country›s situation in terms of the impact of climate variations at various levels.Indicators are selected at the start of projects for monitoring performance. Monitoring and evaluation managers of these projects are national experts commissioned for data collection. At regular intervals, an analysis is carried out internally or with the help of external firms. Local people are increasingly involved in periodic assessments. Appropriate methodological approaches have been developed by most projects to strengthen the results obtained on the basis of indicators.As with PPM projects already carried out or in progress, PRM implementation activities can be phased as follows:» First step as for UP, identify the actors who are active in the area and inform them.The selection criteria (social cohesion, organizational dynamism, proximity to other PUs) are validated by local populations, authorities and supervisory structures during the local committees for development (Comités Locaux de Développement) organized for this purpose.Field surveys are then organized with a multidisciplinary team accompanied by representatives of producer organizations.The surveys are analyzed with a scoring system according to the criteria.These choices are validated during the Comités Locaux de Développement meetings and the concerned populations are informed.Mali has 34,000,000 hectares of rangelands, or 24.16% of the national territory. Several participatory rangeland management initiatives have been developed for the rational management of pastures within the framework of the implementation of livestock and pastoralism development projects and programmes. This has mainly resulted in the demarcation of pastoral perimeters in the large pastoral areas and livestock regions with the participation of pastoralists, transhumant and nomadic pastoralists. Each perimeter is delimited on the basis of criteria accepted by all users including the number of livestock, the area and the infrastructures (stables, vaccination centres, water points, etc.).Several rangelands management approaches and practices are common in Mali. They are mainly managed by traditional leaders and village chiefs and vary according to the resources and the cultural influences prevalent within the routes and are for the most part effective but not always inclusive or participatory.Communities have not been able to take ownership of rangelands management and manage according to traditional mechanisms which can be effective but are often conflictual. They include: i) land management, ii) pasture development plans and iii) bourgoutière management (see section 3.4).Land management is based on a participatory approach and concerns the integrated management of all the resources of a given environment(agricultural, pastoral, forestry, etc.). It is especially developed in agropastoral environments. It aims to develop a Land Use Planning Scheme. It is, to a large extent, comparable to the PRM approach.The pasture development plan approach consists in organizing breeders (in association, or pastoral group, cooperative, etc.) on the basis of specifications around a permanent water point in an exclusively pastoral area with the beneficiaries taking charge of the operation of the water point.A bourgoutière is a grassy plant formation dominated by Echinochloa stagnina (locally called bourgou).This plant association forms floating pastures in the flood plains of the Inner Niger Delta which are of great importance to the cattle breeders of the region.Following discussions, these proposals emerged:Existence of a platform of institutions working at the level of the department on issues relating to livestock (departmental services, NGOs), unfinished socio-economic infrastructure, e.g. the case of the Department of Linguère.Need to make the PUs progress in all tasks: this is to make a situation with regard to the PUs and choose the sites that do not have them.Sites that have been the subject of previous investigations and the establishment of participatory rangeland management plans.Areas of high conflict intensity to allow them to benefit from the advantages of participatory management.» Zone of Niassanté: Supply axis for a dairy industry (La Laiterie du Berger), research on this site will take into account the new structuring of activities within farms, in particular the fixation and assisted supplementation of a dairy nucleus in the camps.Widou area: Long-term research site of a Senegalese-German project on the sustainable management of natural resources and pastoral self-promotion. This site is the starting point for the reforestation initiative (the Great Green Wall) which has started in Tessékéré. This conservation approach will have effects on the agropastoral dynamics which will require an improvement. It is up to date in terms of knowledge for development. According to some, Tessékré is a crossroads area for transhumance movements.Tatki site: PPZS long-term research site. Continued research on this site will take into account changes in production systems and lifestyles in a context of aridity.Conflicts over precedence, ownership and exploitation in the rangelands are important and come from all the actors and operators: breeders, farmers, forest operators. With the early return of herds to homes and settlement areas, particularly transhumant herds and their late return to grazing sites, there are conflicts between herders and farmers. The obstruction of rangelands is a major source of conflict between farmers and breeders. These conflicts have a negative impact on rangelands management and therefore on environmental preservation.An analysis shows the fragility of rangeland management institutions leading to poor governance of natural resources. Another weakness stems from the non-transparent use of resources resulting from the collection of taxes or rangelands access rights under codified management (bourgoutières, pastoral perimeters) without any control from the state or from communities. This is not favourable to the restoration of the rangelands.A significant strength of the governance of codified management rangelands is the acceptance of codification and the recognition of cultural and institutional anchoring by communities and stakeholders. Projects have been implemented for the peaceful use and management of pastoral rangelands, in particular with the development of local agreements for the management of pastoral resources. However, the institutional framework put in place for the implementation of these conventions ceases to function with the end of the project. These projects have, however, fostered the creation of breeders' associations across the country.From this comprehensive analysis of the current state of rangeland management in Mali, it emerges that the peaceful use of rangelands remains an open issue, particularly degradation in areas with non-codified management and exploitation conflicts despite the laudable efforts made by the various initiatives of the last two to three decades to find lasting solutions. Governance mechanisms, even textbook cases, rarely survive the projects and programmes that gave rise to their development. Among the solutions proposed, the demarcation, development and participatory management of pastoral areas in an inclusive manner figures prominently. The management of the bourgoutières is a unique, centuries-old practice originally based on the association of the professional specialization of the ethnic groups in society with ecological niches: fishers (Bozo and Somono), farmers (Bambara, Marka) the exploiters of and breeders (Peulhs). The exploitation of the bourgoutières is itself based on a distribution of existing bourgou fields among all lineages, providing each Peulh family with a family bourgou placed under the management of a Jowro (traditional governance institution). Each Jowro controls the limits of their territory. The system operates on the basis of a rural code taking into account the main activities (agriculture, breeding and fishing) and establishing an annual calendar for the movement of animals set up since 1820 by the Dîna under the authority of its spiritual leader Sékou Ahmadou.The current state of range management is satisfactory in areas with developed routes (pastoral perimeters) but less so in areas without supervision. The main problems and challenges are: The main successes and failures of these projects include:» Good physical achievements due to the monitoring, evaluation and steering mechanisms put in place » Satisfaction of the populations of the different areas of the projects and programmes » the organization of communities for better management and the strengthening of communities in their roles and responsibilities in the face of rangelands challenges » the organization of communities for better management and the strengthening of communities in their roles and responsibilities facing rangelands challengesThe main results achieved by these projects include:» Marking nearly 240 km of access track to the rangelands.Strengthening the capacity of breeders› organizations and communities.Sowing nearly 500 ha of bourgoutière; improvement of fodder production.Construction of pastoral works and stores for animal feed.» Support for animal health information and awareness in the municipalities affected by interventions.Regeneration and reforestation of 3,000 ha of degraded land in the Kayes and Nioro regions of the Sahel, with the promotion of decent jobs in the background, in particular green jobs.Improving access to essential production resources and services and to markets for pastoralists and agropastoralists in cross-border areas along international transhumance axes.Strengthening sustainable management of natural resources by pastoral and agropastoral communities and securing access to these resources.Direct increase in incomes and assets of the actors.Reference documents and contacts for follow-up: Approaches for implementation include: There are a legislative and regulatory frameworks favourable to PRM but they are insufficiently implemented. Feedback meetings confirmed the interest of stakeholders in the PRM approach. In Dakar, the opening session was chaired by Mr. Youssoupha Diouf, the manager for Fonds d'Appui à la Stabulation in Dahra Djolof, representing the Ministry of Livestock and Animal Production (MEPA). He noted that the MEPA is committed to developing a participatory rangeland management approach through its projects and is interested in the PRM approach being shared.Identify the structures, including national and international NGOs, which have been working in natural resources and pastoral care. These would include sub-regional institutions such as Comité Inter-État de Lutte Notwithstanding the 34,000,000 hectares of rangelands, pastoral resources are declining in Mali due to natural hazards and pressure from human actions. The imbalance between the needs of local populations and the environment is more apparent and the maintenance of the traditional systems for managing rangelands becomes increasingly difficult.The route of the GGW Initiative hosts a large area of natural rangelands from Kayes to Ménaka, including purely agricultural, forest and pastoral areas developed or under codified management but still a lot of space in the diffuse areas subject to free, all-out and sometimes conflicting exploitation by various stakeholders.The stakeholder consultation proposes a panoply of candidate areas to host a possible intervention for the introduction and implementation of PRM in Mali. They are listed in the large agro-ecological zones of the Western Sahel, of DIN, of Gourma of Méma and in the regions of Kayes, Ségou, Mopti.In the Kayes region: Under what Senegal calls an assisted natural regeneration strategy, more often than not an area where trees have been planted is fenced off from local use which increases costs significantly and risks hostile relations with local communities. Access to water is also a problem and where possible boreholes have been builtto provide a constant supply. In larger reforestation projects where fencing is not an option, seedlings are often destroyed by cattle. Beyond being paid to plant trees there has been little if any involvement of local populations particularly pastoralists in the activities and there is little genuine support from local populationsThe GGW experienced difficulties in both countries during the setup phase but momentum has increased.In Senegal, there are funding possibilities through the Priority Ten-Year Investment Plan 2021-2030.In both countries there are large projects whose interventions can contribute to the GGW. In Senegal, it is set up as a directorate in the National Reforestation Agency.The GGW promotes an inclusive approach with support from technical partners (state and non-state) and a pooling of resources in line with PRM. To date, the GGW has been mainly implemented in a top-down way with little dialogue, consultation with or participation of local communities beyond being paid to plant trees or other activities. Pastoralists, particularly transhumant pastoralists, have hardly been involved. With greater support from local populations there would be less need for fences to secure intervention areas and where these are needed, greater opportunities for cost-sharing. Experience for how this could work is provided by the example of IED Afrique in Ngohé.In Senegal, there are participatory approaches such as POAS although this has not been very effective.The establishment of PUs is a similar approach to PRM but carried out in a top-down manner and there are gaps in capacity building and mobilization of communities. Communities are reluctant to follow rules of use established in PUs, not least because they are distanced from the process and feel no sense of ownership.PRM is an opportunity to empower communities and improve their inputs to decision-making processes related to rangelands and the GGW initiative. To avoid overlap between these approaches, any application of PRM will need to be undertaken by building the PUs and other institutions or processes already established.However, it was agreed by stakeholders that PRM can add value to the already established PU approach.PRM can be a useful approach for addressing invasive species, which requires coordination, capacity building, community mobilisation and investment. Combined with digital tools for addressing feed and veterinaryrequirements, PRM has the potential to improve livestock productivity.In Mali, the decentralisation process started in the 1960s and has been strengthened with greater power and authority within local communities and to some degree finances. This new institutional concept places communities and local actors as privileged managers of these resources and creates opportunities for more community-led GGW interventions. This will reduce the cost of rangelands management and ensure greater enforcement of regulations.PRM will need to consider the processes related to development of agreements or conventions for resource use at the local level, which will need to be developed with pastoralists and other stakeholders.Mobility and protection of livestock corridors will also need attention. It was recommended that given PRM requires investments in capacity building, sustainable rangeland management activities and monitoring and evaluation, PRM should be implemented in areas with a well-defined status and boundary.It was highlighted that PRM has potential to help vulnerable groups such as women and youth to better contribute to and benefit from rangeland management. There should be greater sharing of experiences between those working on these issues and a platform to do this would be useful.In Mali, projects have set up pastoral units or pastoral perimeters around solar energy-powered boreholes.There is signficant scope for PRM to add-value to the projects and processes already being implemented.In many areas, customary institutions and governance have broken down leaving a vacuum in terms of institutions responsible for rangeland management and governance and increasing the likelihood of conflict.The emphasis on decentralisation with power and management of resources in the hands of local communities provides the right political context for community-led processes such as PRM.Stakeholders believe that PRM has the potential for improving rangeland management and governance, increasing land productivity and contributing to conflict resolution between herders and other land users. However, if PRM is to be implemented here, there would be the need to influence the legislative and regulatory framework to be more supportive in parallel and build the capacities of government, NGOs and communities to implement PRM. A number of sites were identified were PRM could be tested, all of which are in the GGW belt.Clearly, there is potential for the testing and piloting PRM in both Senegal and Mali, which if successful could then be scaled up. In Senegal, a key issue is to clarify how PRM can add value to the already established PUs and contribute to improved management or rangelands outside these. In Mali, there is the challenge of identifying suitable areas that are manageable as units within the vast rangeland and pastoral landscapes and ensure and maintain connections between these, which will likely mean working at different levels and scales (landscape and local) to ensure that PRM is well-supported.PRM is a process that can support a greater degree of community participation including women and youth and management of activities and interventions contributing to the GGW, where the mainly top-down approach to date has excluded communities and in some situations created conflict. Building the capacity and willingness of communities to play a greater part in the GGW implementation will have long-term beneficial impacts including in reducing costs of interventions and also in terms of sustainability.for the initiative. In Senegal, market gardens are another approach to greening pastoral areas and while they have had some success they are heavily reliant on external aid and support. In Mali, provisions are made at the level of the administration for the registration of wooded areas for the benefit of beneficiary populations through the communes which shelter these plantations.Those interviewed during this study highlighted some major gaps in the implementation and monitoring of the GGW including the need to build stronger community participation and support and the need to undertake a full and rigorous evaluation of tree planting as the main area of focus of the GGW to date. In Mali, weak political commitment and related financing was also highlighted as a key challenge and in both countries, insecurity and conflicts in intervention areas although details were not available).In Senegal the government introduced the concept of pastoral units (PUs) in the 1980s and these have been supported by a number of projects since. The PUs were set up around water points with the objective of sustainably managing resources and spaces for the benefit of local populations and the community of transhumant pastoralists. PUs appear to be a successful intervention that has helped develop better organisational systems of land and natural resources management, a water infrastructure management system and a transhumance and grazing management system. Holistic rangeland management has been introduced in some of the PUs and in other areas through projects.Despite their successes, PUs have been implemented in a top-down manner and have failed to invest in or empower pastoral communities to manage the PUs. Once management plans are established, the PUs are often left without supervision, capacity building or monitoring and as a result all the stages of the management plans are rarely implemented. Good governance can be missing as communities have not been given any authority over the PUs and where PU management bodies do exist, they are often politicised and heavily influenced by local chiefs.A significant number of projects have supported interventions in the pastoral areas including strengthening PUs. These have rangeland management components including new forage varieties, control of invasive species and rangeland restoration. Mobility and the mapping and maintenance of livestock routes are also project components. However, there is little attention to building the capacities of communities to make decisions about and to lead these processes themselves, including strengthening local rangeland management and good governance. Some projects, such as the establishment of areas of Acacia senegal for harvesting gums and resins have explicitly excluded pastoralists, which sets them against the local population and conflicts are recurrent.A comparison of the processes of PRM and PUs shows similarities between the two including the undertaking of an investigation stage collecting and analysing information on rangeland resources and other aspects of the local context, the development of a rangeland management plan and the establishment of a governance or management body. However, there are also significant differences and PRM remains embedded in local land use practices, building on customary management and governance and part of the pastoral landscape, whereas PUs are more an area separated from the pastoral landscape and managed according to new rules and regulations that often exclude local communities. The PUs will always require external intervention and resources, whereas in PRM a key objective is to build the capacity of communities to take control of the management and decision-making processes and implement the plan.This suggests that,despite the significant number of projects and interventions in rangelands in Senegal including the development of PUs, there is an opportunity for PRM with its structured process of building the capacities of communities to improve the management and governance of their own lands and strengthening the linkages between pastoralists, their land and their livestock and to add value.The flexibility of PRM would allow it to be implemented in both PUs and in larger pastoral units. This conclusion from the consultants was verified and supported in the dissemination workshops. ","tokenCount":"11201"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"70c9f6684fbd66e353fa0eced5a5a9e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/abb4c635-f779-4fca-9bb8-9026386d1ccb/retrieve","id":"-1045718822"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85eade75-f0a4-4399-af2a-a798e49b108a","pagecount":"28","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).In recent times, human-caused land use and land cover (LULC) changes are increasingly impacting our planet and impeding the sustainability of obtaining products and ecosystem services from the environment (Rindfuss et al., 2004;Verburg and Neumann, 2011). Many of the global forests and grasslands and other types of vegetation are being converted to agricultural land and other LULC types because of the rapid growth of the population, deforestation, land degradation, overuse of grazing land, etc. (Geist & Lambin, 2002). Such destructive and massive LULC changes have a significant impact on the environment, availability of food, feed, and other ecosystem services and products for the present and future generations (Radwan et al., 2021).In Ethiopia, LULC change is a crucial issue, and the country has experienced a substantial shift in LULC during the last century (Binyam, 2015). The LULC change and its adverse effects are particularly apparent in Ethiopia's highlands (> 1500 m a.s.l), where approximately 95% and 65% of the country's cultivated land and livestock grazing, respectively, happen (Anon, 1988;Ermia, 1986). Because of the mixed crop-livestock farming systems commonly practiced, competition between different land use decisions is a major concern in Ethiopia's highlands. For example, the majority of scholars (e.g., Tefera, 2011;Tesfaye et al., 2014;Meles et al., 2008;Mekuria et al., 2018;Anteneh, 2022;Wogderes, 2014) argue that agricultural land expansion is increased from time to time at the expense of natural vegetation and grazing land, whereas a few others (e.g., Eleni et al. 2013;Worku et al. 2021) are claimed that agricultural lands have been converted to woodlots. While others (e.g., Gebrekidan, & Tibebe, 2012;Gashaw & Dinkayoh, 2015) are also arguing that forests, woodlands, and shrublands are converting to agricultural and grazing lands in the highlands of Ethiopia. Thus, analysing spatial and temporal LULC changes and identifying their primary causes is critical for implementing effective land use planning and intervention targeting and scaling out in mixed farming system. As a result, numerous scholars have assessed historical LULC changes and their causes by combining remote sensing satellite datasets (mostly landsat imageries available for free since 1973) and other empirical findings (e.g., Bewket and Sterk, 2005;Tegene, 2002;Hurni et al., 2005;Kindu et al., 2015;Temesgen et al., 2013;Gebresamuel and Singh, 2010) in the highlands of Ethiopia. The majority of these research have found that the trend of LULC change is concerning and that the conversion of one LULC type to the other is complex and driven by many interconnected factors (Bewket, 2002;Kindu et al., 2015). Despite the fact that it varies from time to time and location to location, many authors have boldly stated that majority of the LULC changes in the highlands of Ethiopia were primarily caused by anthropogenic activities such as rapid population growth, agricultural land expansion, deforestation, overgrazing, and improper land use and management, which resulted in accelerated soil erosion and degradation (Tesfaye et al., 2014;Eleni et al., 2013;Tegene, 2002;Bewket, 2002;Tefera, 2011;Gebrehiwot et al. 2021;Hssein et al., 2021).Although previous studies have produced crucial information that can be utilized to guide policy-and decision makers, and alleviate or prevent further changes in natural resources, a number of them have investigated historical LULC changes over a relatively wider temporal period. However, in addition to the historical changes in LULC change, it is critical to capture the current LULC changes and trajectories, as well as their links with the drivers, in order to set alternatives for sustainable land management and design proper land use systems. Examining recent changes in LULC and how they evolve could provide useful information of current LULC conditions and may aid in predicting what the future LULC will be if we continue with business-as-usual scenario. This could help in providing evidence to decisionmakers and targeting interventions in light of future changes. The aim of this research is to analyse recent land use and land cover and to comprehend both the magnitude and spatial changes over time. We also aimed to identify the major drivers of change and their implications in the study area and propose interventions under the theme of sustainable intensification that could help to address many of the current and future evolving economic, social, and environmental problems associated with changes in land use and land cover. This study was carried out in Basona Worena Woreda, one of the Sustainable Intensification Mixed Framing System (SI-MFS) sites in Ethiopia.Basona Werena Woreda is found in the North Shewa Zone of the Amhara region in Ethiopia and geographically located between the latitude of 9 0 38' -9 o 41'00'' N and longitude of 39 0 30 ' 00''-39 0 32'00''E (Figure 1). It covers a total area of 1215.29kilometre squares. The topography of Basona Woreda is largely mountainous with escarpments covered predominantly with reddish-brown soil. Based on figures reported by the Central Statistical Agency (CSA, 2007), the woreda has a total population of 120, 930 (CSA, 2007). The livelihood of the majority of the population is dependent on agriculture and agricultural-related activities. The longterm mean rainfall analysis has revealed that Basona woreda receives rainfall ranging from 890 to 1310.38 mm. More than 70% of the annual rainfall in the study woredas are received during the main rainfall season (referred to as Kiremt) that occurs between June to September. Thus, most of the crop cultivation in the study site takes place during this season. The woreda incorporates kola, Woyne Dega and Dega agro-ecological zones. Mixed crop-livestock is the dominant farming system in the study area where farmers cultivate a variety of cereal such as Barley (Hordeum vulgare), Wheat (Tiriticum aestivum), and Teff (Eragrostis tef ZUCC.) and pulse crops such as Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) and Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the woreda. Different types of forest are found in the woreda including Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus), River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), Mexican cypress (Cupressus lusitanica), Tree health (Erica arborea), Lucky-bean tree (Erythrina abyssinica), wild olive (Olea europaea subs. cuspidata), African pencil-cedar (Juniperus procera), African redwood (Hagenia abyssinica), Cordia Africana (c. abyssinica), Strangler Fig ( Ficus thonningii), Umbrella thorn (Acacia abyssinica), Ethiopian rose (Rosa abyssinica), and Woolly caper bush (Capparis tomentosa), Cape ash (Ekebergia capensis), African Wild Date (Phoenix reclinate), and Outeniqua yellowwood (Podocarpus falcatus) (Demalo,2014;Abayneh,2021;Kuria et al.,2014).To quantify the extent and patterns of recent LULC changes in the study area, USGS Landsat 8 collection 2 Tier was utilized, which contains a collection of landsat scenes with the highest data quality. It is provided with a spatial and temporal resolution of 30m and 16 days and has eleven spectral bands. Landsat 8 datasets are available since 2013 and was accessed through the Google Earth Engine (GEE) environment. We applied a simple composite algorithm method provided by GEE to create a cloud-free landsat composites. Under the GEE environment, a Java based LULC classification script was developed. A pixel-based supervised classification system using random-forest classification algorithm was adopted to classify the LULC types of the study area. A total of 638 ground truthing points (GTPs) were collected from very high-resolution images available in Google Earth Pro for the period of 2021 and were used to train and validate the classification algorithm. The classification model was trained with 80% of the GTPS and validated with the remaining 20%. Six land use and land cover types were defined in the study area based on the knowledge of the study area and visual interpretation of satellite imagery, including Agricultural land, Bareland, Forestland, Settlement, Grassland, and Water body. A GTPs were collected for each of the six LULC classes. Table 1 contains descriptions of each land use and land cover type. Overall accuracy and kappa coefficient statistics were computed to assess the accuracy of the classified map (Congalton & Green, 2009).To determine the LULC trajectories, a LULC map of the study area for each year from 2013 to 2022 were produced. Then it was estimated by calculating the cumulative net changes in the total area of each land use and land cover types at each year to the initial period of 2013.  An area of land ploughed for growing rain feed or irrigated crops. This category includes areas currently under crops, fallow, and land under preparation.Characterized by no trees if present extremely scattered.Areas under degraded grasses and shrubs. It also includes areas without any vegetation coverage Forest land An area of land comprised of forests, woodlands and it includes both the natural as well as plantation tree species.An area of land covered by grasses, bushes, and much closed and scattered shrubs water bodyAn area of land covered by surface water Settlement Any built up areas in the study area. It includes urban centres, traditional huts, churches, health service offices etcThe gross gain, loss, and net changes as well as the LULC change transition were calculated for the period between 2013 and 2022. The LULC change driving factors were gathered from earlier similar studies in the Ethiopian highlands considering that they have comparable mixed crop-livestock farming system that significantly determine the land use decisions. Accordingly, a brief explanation for the implications of the recent LULC change observed in the study area, as well as potential responses or sustainable intensification interventions to mitigate the present and future impacts of LULC, has been provided. Figure 2 provides the schematic diagram of the flow of methodologies used in the study.In this study, an overall classification accuracy and kappa coefficient of 80% and 0.7122, respectively, was achieved. The estimated LULC classification accuracy is within the acceptable limit (Congalton, 1991). As can be seen in Table 2, agricultural land was the dominant LULC type in the study area, followed by forestland and grasslands. However, from 2018 to 2021, bareland overtakes forestland and grasslands as the second most dominant LULC type, only to be supressed by forestland again in 2022. Except for 2013 (it is estimated about 42.3%), an agricultural land has covered more than half of the total study area during all time periods considered in the study, with maximum coverage of 67.9% in the period of 2018. In comparison to the initial year in 2013, agricultural land and bareland in general increased, while forest and grasslands declined. This is nicely depicted in Figure 3, which shows the cumulative net change in total area of each LULC type in the study area between 2013 and 2022. The trajectories of agricultural land showed an irregular pattern, as seen in Figure 3.The forest and grassland, on the other hand, had either minimal changes or stable at the beginning and then were drastically reduced after 2016 and exhibit the behaver of retaining back at the year of 2022. Similarly, bareland and settlements were relatively stable until 2017, when they began to rise steadily. The water class, on the other hand, remains reasonably consistent during the study period.Figures 4 and 5 depicted the LULC maps of the study area for 2013 and 2022, respectively. According to the map from 2013 (Figure 4), the study area was dominated by agricultural land and was primarily located in the central and western parts of the study area. The eastern and southern parts of the study area were occupied by forest and grasslands.  This appears to follow the topographic patters of the study area, with vegetation (including forest and grasslands) covering the higher elevations and agricultural land primarily covering the lower elevations. However, as shown by the 2022 LULC map in Figure 5, this tendency is no longer observed, and agricultural lands are expanding to high elevation areas of the study site as well. During the analysis period, it has been observed that the expansion of agricultural lands was significant, and it increases from 42.3% in 2013 to 66.5% in 2022 (Table 2). However, forest land and grassland exhibited a negative change and it decreased from 30.3% and 21.2% in 2013 to 13.7% and 8.2% in 2022, respectively (Table 2 and Figures 4 and 5). On the other hand, bareland coverage has expanded from 5% in 2013 to 9.3% in 2022.Although very small, settlements have also showed a positive change (0.2% in 2013 to 1.3% in 2022) (Table 2 and Figures4 and 5). While water LULC class remains constant over the two periods.  The LULC change map in Figure 7 provides the major LULC changes in the study area between 2013 to 2022. While Figure 8 summarises the transitions that occurred between the five main LULC types. According to the analysis, the total area of land that converted to and persisted between 2013 and 2022 was 781 km2 (63%) and 466 km2 (37%), respectively. This could imply that a significant portion of the study areas has experienced some form of LULC changes between the study periods.The dominant LULC change, as seen in Figures 7 and 8, was changes to agricultural land, followed by changes to grassland and bareland. Between 2013 and 2022, 393.1 km 2 of land from other LULC types were converted to agriculture, accounting for 31.5% of the total study area. The transition from forest and grassland to agricultural land constitutes the lion's share of this, taking up 187.9 km 2 (48%) and 158 km 2 (40%), respectively, of the total changes. A considerable portion of bareland LULC type has also been converted to agricultural land, accounting for 39.8 km 2 or 10% of the total changes. Agricultural land, grassland, and forest land (101 km 2 or 8% of the total study area) was turned into bareland. Indeed, the conversion of agricultural land to bareland is large and contribute more than half of this changes. During the study period, a large amount of LULC types primarily from grasslands (26.8 km2) and agricultural lands (16.6 km2), were converted to forestlands. Similarly, about 55 km2 of grasslands were established at the expense of other LULC types. Whereas conversion of forestland to grassland has contributed the most (40 km2).The land use and land cover change in mixed crop-livestock farming system has a direct impact on the availability of food and feed, as well as other products and services to humans and livestock. Land use change, both the spatial and temporal changes, is important for determining the land use and land cover patterns (Agidew and Singh, 2017). In this study, a recent LULC change analysis for the period between 2013 and 2022 was performed using Landsat 8 satellite imageries and random forest classification algorithms in the Google Earth engine environment.Although some irregular patterns in the trends of the LULC types in the study area, agricultural land and bareland have shown an increasing trend while forestland and grassland have decreasing over the study period. Some of the irregularity in the patterns of the LULC types across the study period could be explained by the different interventions practiced in the study area at different periods.Overall, agricultural land was found to be the most dominant LULC type of the study area (covering 66% of the total study area in 2022), followed by forestland. It is not surprising to anticipate such a coverage for agricultural land in Basona Worena woreda, given that the bulk of the people are farmers and rely significantly on farming and farm products for living. The analysis revealed that the majority of the LULC type conversion is multidirectional, despite the fact that the area of transition from one to the other LULC types differ greatly due to the different land use decisions made by various actors. Overall, a significant portion of the study area (65%) has been experiencing different forms of LULC changes over the study period. As a result, changes from other LULC types to agricultural land being the most prominent changes identified in the study area. A comparable finding has been reported by Agidew and Singh (2017), Gashaw et al. (2014) and Bewket (2002) in the highlands of Ethiopia. Agricultural land was expanded mostly at the expense of forest land, grassland, and bareland. The transition from forestland and grassland to agriculture was particularly significant, resulting in a net loss of forest and grassland from 2013 to 2022. This expansion of agricultural land in the study area might be related to population growth and low agricultural productivity, which leads to the requirement for additional land to meet farmer's food and feed demands (Agidew and Singh, 2017;Gebrehiwot et al., 2021)  (Woldemariam et al., 2021).The conversion of agricultural land to forest land could also be explained by the fact that nowadays framers are converting their farmlands to plantations in order to get cash, more firewood's, shade and year round fodder for their livestock's (Eleni et al. 2013;Worku et al. 2021).Bareland, conversely, has shown a considerable net gain from 2013 to 2022, and a significant area of agriculture, grassland, and forest land has been converted to bareland. This could be associated to sever soil erosion in agricultural lands in the study area, overgrazing of grasslands, and deforestation for firewood and timber production needs. The conversion of agricultural land to bareland was particularly significant, implying that a significant fractions of agricultural lands in the study area are experiencing widespread soil erosion and degradation, rendering the land less productive and unsuitable for cultivation. This could be due to the fact that the majority of agricultural lands in the study area are located on steep slopes, and soil and water conservation practice is relatively limited, and soil erosion is a key problem that rendered agricultural fields lees productive (Tesfaye et al., 2023). In general, the conversion of other LULC types (particularly agricultural land, forest land, and grassland) to bareland may indicate the presence of critical land degradation problem in the study area, which may have a negative impact on food security and socio-economic stability. Conversely, a considerable amount of forest land has been converted to grasslands, which could be ascribed to the clearance of forest lands for the purpose of grazing areas for their livestock. A similar finding in the highlands of Ethiopia has been reported (e.g., Gebrekidan, & Tibebe, 2012;Gashaw & Dinkayoh, 2015). As a mixed crop-livestock farming system common in the study area, farmers are rearing various sizes of livestock's and they are always in need of feed for their livestock's, and they could convert forestlands to grassland to satisfy these demands.Land use and land cover change has an important effect on the supply of food for the growing population and its adverse impact could compromise the sustainability and conservation of key ecosystem functions. Thus, identifying and studying the key drivers of land conversion and its implication has a paramount importance to prevent or reduce the present and future impacts of LULC change. An appropriate response to LULC conversion can be achieved by attempting to control the impacts of the drivers or by devising solutions for adapting agricultural ecosystem services to the consequences of the changes (Lambin et al., 1999). There are numerous approaches to developing solutions to the consequences of change drivers. These are accomplished by using innovative and cost-effective technologies, strategies, and institutional structures that encourage intensification, diversification, and regulation (Lambin et al., 1999). Based on earlier LULC change study conducted in Ethiopia's highlands, the primary driving factors identified by Gebrehiwot et al. ( 2021) and Hssein et al. ( 2021) were considered to have caused and accelerated LULC change in the stud area. Figure 9 depicts the relationship between LULC change and its key drivers as well as their implications, in the study area.Figure 9 The relationship between land use and land cover changes as well as its implications and potential drivers in the study area.The conversion of forest land, grassland, and bareland to agricultural land was found to be the major changes in the study area between 2013 to 2022 (Figures 7 & 8). This implies that agricultural lands are expanding at the expenses of forestland, grassland, and bareland because of many interlinked factors including the rapid population growth, low productivity of lands, shortage of land, etc (Gebrehiwot et al., 2021). Farmers need additional land to produce more and meet their demands. Expansion of agricultural land, especially on steep slopes and bareland, may exacerbate soil erosion and degradation (Tegene, 2022;Amede et al., 2001). The expansion of agricultural lands over grasslands may also result in a lack of feed for livestock, which may reduce livestock productivity and availability of draft animals for land preparation. According to Mekuria et al. (2018), the intensive conversion of grassland to cropland and plantations has been one of the key reasons of feed shortage in the highland mixed farming system. The LULC change analysis, on the other hand, found that there is an extensive LULC conversion from agricultural land, forest land, and grassland to bareland. A considerable amount of the forest land has also been converted to grasslands. These conversions to bareland and the conversion of forest land to grassland are derived by the major causes of land degradation in Ethiopian highlands which includes deforestation & forest degradation in the forest lands, overgrazing in the grasslands, soil erosion and lack of proper soil conservation measures in the agricultural lands, among other things (Hssein et al. 2021). Rapid conversion of forest and grassland to bareland could expose fertile soil to massive soil erosion and degradation (Tegene 2002;Maitima et al. 2009). Thus, expansion of agricultural land and land degradation are the most critical and ongoing concerns that must be addressed if future land use systems are to continue delivering the necessary food, feed, and other ecosystem services in a sustainable manner. Therefore, limiting agricultural land expansion and reverting and reducing land degradation could be key interventions to alleviate the adverse effects of LULC conversion in the study area. With the business-as-usual scenario, the expansion of agricultural land and land degradation concerns caused by the conversion of LULC types will likely worsen.In Figure 10, we proposed a part of the solution under the theme of sustainable intensification that might be applied on the ground to reverse the current LULC change trend, mitigate the future risks, and assure sustainable development and food security in the study area. We cannot address the risk of LULC conversion through providing a few simple solutions implemented by piecemeal since the major driving factors are numerous, complex, and interconnected. As a result, our solution should be as many as the driving factors, well-integrated, and require the involvement of various actors and stakeholders. The proposed intervention diagram in Figure 10 tries to show the different components of the solutions, and the components are proposed based on their direct contribution towards addressing the problem as detected by the LULC change in the study area.Agricultural expansion in the study area might be hindered by ensuring or enhancing crop and livestock productivity, reducing population growth, and engaging rural youths, women, and other landless individuals in off-farm activities.Population pressure is one of the key driving factors of LULC change in the highlands of Ethiopia (Gebrehiwot et al., 2021). Given that the bulk of the Ethiopian population is young (Megquier and Belohlav, 2014) (and we expect a similar situation in the study area) we can anticipate increasing pressure on various LULC types. Thus, a proactive measure to population management, such as awareness creation and family planning programs, is necessary. There should be a strategy in place to widen off-farm employment opportunities to engage rural youths, women, and other landless people. Increasing crop and livestock productivity could play an important role in reducing the expansion of agricultural lands. Farmers, however, requires improved technologies, agricultural inputs, and extension services to ensure productivity. Since agricultural land is expanding at the expenses of grasslands in the study area, the supply of feed for livestock could be a critical problem and so an alternative option, including dry season fodder production, should be established to ensure livestock productivity in the study area. Land degradation, on the other hand, could be reversed and reduced by lowering pressures on the land resources, such as reducing or avoiding deforestation via introducing sustainable use and management of forests as well as law enforcements, reducing soil erosion, introducing controlled and proper use of grasslands (I, e., rotational grazing, managing proper size of livestock's, reduce livestock trampling etc), and afforestation and reforestation of degraded lands.In this study, a recent LULC change analysis and its implications for the period between 2013 and 2022 were performed. The results showed that agricultural land and bareland increased while forestland and grassland have decreasing over the study period. During the study period, a significant portion of the study area (65%) has been experiencing different forms of LULC changes. The most noticeable changes detected in the study area were transitions from other LULC types to agricultural land, followed by transitions to bareland. ","tokenCount":"4175"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5180aa71ab0c07864c3a4bef35fdab69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1db14b40-20f0-4b01-819c-0a93e82823d9/retrieve","id":"-1283606219"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e64d2e21-8acb-4899-aa40-169daab104d4","pagecount":"42","content":"As part of its contribution to the economic recovery process in northeast Nigeria, which the insurgent activities of armed groups have ravaged, USAID awarded the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and its Partners (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and Catholic Relief Services) the five-and-half-year \"Feed the Future Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity'', which aims to advance the objectives of inclusive and sustainable agriculture-led economic growth; strengthened resilience among people and systems; and a well-nourished population, especially among women and children in targeted locations of Adamawa, Borno, Gombe, and Yobe states, Northeast Nigeria. The Activity seeks to support vulnerable populations to engage in basic farming activities that will improve food security, increase agricultural incomes, and improve resilience among smallholder farmers and their families. It works with a coalition of partners to facilitate improved agroinputs and extension advisory services to serve vulnerable populations; strengthens the institutions that form the market system and the networks that serve smallholder farmers who have been disenfranchised by conflict; and facilitates the engagement of youth and women in economic and entrepreneurial activities.The team would like to thank the persons noted below and the facilitators in Adamawa, Borno, Gombe, and Yobe who were responsible for the successful pretesting of the investment guides with selected Community-Based Seed Producers and Seed Companies. In addition, the design and writing of the guides could not have been possible without input from the following individuals: Esther Tolorunju, Environmental and Economic Resource Centre, Feyisayo Ayeni, Environmental and Economic Resource Centre, Ronke Adeniyi, Environmental and Economic Resource Centre, Prakash Silwal, Kayode Faleti, Feed the Future Nigeria, Integrated Agriculture Activity, Bassey Archibong Feed the Future Nigeria, Integrated Agriculture Activity, Quadri Shakiru Feed the Future Nigeria, Integrated Agriculture Activity, Munir Ahmad, Feed the Future Nigeria, Integrated Agriculture Activity and Sini Luwa, Feed the Future Nigeria, Integrated Agriculture Activity.The Activity would also like to recognize the support and guidance provided by the Management of IITA led by the Director General Dr Simeon Ehui, Dr Alfred Dixon, and others for their continued support of the Activity.Finally, we thank Dr Ayoade Adetoye, Senior Agriculture Economist and the Activity's Agreement Officer Representative (AOR), and his other colleagues at USAID who have provided their active support in terms of providing technical guidance in making sure we follow USAID rules and regulations and the documents are of quality.  Access to improved and quality seed plays a vital role in addressing low agricultural productivity, food insecurity, malnutrition, hunger, and poverty, especially within the context of smallholder farming systems in Nigeria. To achieve this objective, the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), through funding support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the Feed the Future Initiative of the United States Government, implements the Nigeria Integrated Agriculture Activity (NIAA). NIAA is a five-and-half-year Activity that focuses on improving access to quality and improved seeds in the maize value chain. The Activity facilitates access to quality and improved maize seeds through engagement with community-based seed entrepreneurs (CBSEs). The intervention has led to the establishment of over 2,250 CBSEs with high possibilities of emerging ones, leading to competitiveness in the seed markets.This handbook is designed to offer some guidance on sound economic decisions to existing and upcoming CBSEs to enable them to compete favorably with other seed producers operating within the maize value chains in northeast Nigeria. The handbook focuses primarily on economic activities in seed production, processing, packaging, and sales. The objective is to present a clear understanding of the cost structure, risks, opportunities, and management decisions that could enhance increased productivity and income for CBSEs in the maize value chain. The overall goal is to stimulate investment in maize seed production by presenting information on investment cost implications, operating costs, return on investment, and the expected level of income per production.The handbook presents a detailed cost and returns analysis and brief information on the approach used to arrive at the estimation of the investment model, its usage, and application, as well as its limitations, particularly due to changes in market prices at the time of its development. However, an e-version of the investment model used for the handbook can be accessed online. The e-version is designed to be updated to ensure its relevance irrespective of time and changes in market prices. The handbook is divided into sections to present clear information and a specific guide on each of the financial models. Details on how the electronic version was used to develop the handbook are presented under the model description.It is important to note that this handbook is developed in relation to an earlier publication by IITA titled: Guide to Maize Production in Northern Nigeria. It is highly recommended that users first study the handbook to help them understand some of the basic assumptions made on the agronomic practices in this handbook.Maize (Zea mays L.) is considered a major cereal and one of the most important food crops in Nigeria, taking over acreages from traditional crops such as millet and sorghum (Kamara et al. 2020). Maize serves as a staple food, and it also represents a source of income for many households, especially in northeast Nigeria. It is an important source of carbohydrates for human diets and animal feed (Undie et al. 2012; Ngoune and Mutengwa, 2020).Several research interventions have been conducted to improve maize production in Nigeria. These include the development of improved and high-yield varieties that are tolerant to drought, diseases, low nitrogen, and Striga infestation (Kamara et al. 2014). The USAID-funded activity led by IITA has contributed immensely to addressing the challenges associated with maize production by doubling the yield for smallholder farmers through the development of improved varieties and good agronomic practices. IITA was able to achieve this through the engagement of a team of researchers to conduct detailed soil analysis to guide the development of improved varieties that can help smallholders achieve increased productivity. Through this intervention, a number of seed maize varieties that are tolerant to drought with high yield potential were developed. IITA further promotes the adoption of these varieties through the engagement of extension workers to facilitate increased adoption among smallholder farmers. The intervention involved the use of demonstration plots, good agronomic practices, community sensitization, and trade fairs. Despite these interventions, access to improved and quality seeds remains a major challenge.One of the feasible and sustainable ways to address the gap is to promote the adoption of the community-based seed entrepreneur (CBSE) model in the Nigerian seed sector. The CBSE model allows local farmers to act as seed producers thereby making improved and quality seeds available to smallholder farmers within their local communities and at affordable prices. IITA, through funding support from USAID, signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Nigeria Agricultural Seed Council (NASC) to promote the CBSE approach by ensuring validation and certification of the CBSE activities in northeast Nigeria. The approach is growing in northeast Nigeria with the involvement of over 2,250 CBSEs.However, considering the potential increase of CBSE engagements in the seed sector alongside the rapid change in weather and economic situations in the country, there is the need to ensure that seed entrepreneurs are properly guided to effectively and successfully engage in the business. In addition, while a series of information has been published on agronomic practices on improved seed, there is no or limited information on economic guidance to enable existing or new CBSEs to make sound economic decisions to ensure the success of their business operations. To this end, this handbook intends to offer basic economic guidance to community-based seed entrepreneurs (CBSEs) to enable them to make sound management decisions to ensure sustainable investment in maize seed production. However, for the purpose of this handbook, attention will be centered on the agronomic properties of the commonly cultivated varieties in northeast Nigeria, and these include SAMMAZ 15 and 27. These varieties are commonly grown among the CBSEs following their level of yield and tolerance. It is important to note that out of the two varieties, SAMMAZ 15 is mostly grown. Thus, all agronomic properties adopted for this handbook are based on the SAMMAZ 15 variety.The variety has a production cycle of four (4) months from planting period to harvesting as seeds. This implies that the variety can only be grown at least twice a year. The recommended planting space is 0.75 cm by 0.5 cm, which is approximately 0.375 m 2 per stand at two seeds per hole. This gives an estimated seed rate of 26,667 per hectare and a plant population density of 53,333 plants per hectare. The estimation is in line with the standard plant density for most open-pollinated varieties (Ngoune and Mutengwa, 2020). The population is expected to produce a yield of 2,500-3,000 kg per hectare at an average of two (2) cobs per plant, to make four cobs per stand. However, the actual average yield reported by CBSEs is 3,500 kg per hectare (kg/ha) for SAMMAZ 27 and 4,400 kg/ha for SAMMAZ 15. This gives an average bag of maize per hectare of 35 and 44 bags, respectively, at 100 kg per bag. A summary of the production assumptions used for the model is presented in Table 1.Land length (meter) 100Land breath (meter) 100Required The handbook was developed based on consultations with CBSEs in maize production. A series of meetings were held with 140 representatives of the existing seed producers of different production capacities to gain an understanding of their business operations, including the investment and operating costs. The sample size was estimated using a minimum sample size calculator covering about 90% of the population proportion of 2,250 CBSEs at a 95% confidence interval. The aim is to help arrive at a valid cost−benefit analysis to guide new or existing CBSEs. It was observed that the majority of the existing CBSEs operate as a group and, as such, share the cost of the fixed assets used for their production, such as tractors, planters, water sources, etc., especially the newly established ones. In contrast, a few CBSEs operate individually. As a result, the cost of production varies significantly due to the share of fixed assets costs. However, to ensure that a valid business model was developed irrespective of the mode of operation, a stakeholders' validation meeting was organized to review the business activity and validate each of the cost elements based on existing business operations and market prices.Considering the variations that exist across CBSE business operations, including the scale of operations and management costs, a generic investment model was developed to accommodate this concern. As a result, the electronic version of the model is designed to be updated to suit the individual CBSE business scale, operations, and management structure.To arrive at a standard investment guide, an average CBSE business structure and current market prices were used in designing the model. Thus, the estimation presented in this handbook represents standard CBSE business operations and the existing market prices at the time of production, precisely October 2023. It is important, however, to note that the model can be adjusted to either lower or higher CBSE business operations alongside the market prices. The rationale is to enable any of the existing or upcoming CBSEs to utilize the model irrespective of their scale of operations, location, and market prices. Thus, the handbook presents brief information on the electronic version of the model that was used to guide CBSEs on how to adjust or update the handbook to meet their respective business operations. This, therefore, implies that figures used for estimation could be regarded as assumptions as the values may change due to several factors, including variation in capital assets, management structure, labor costs, market prices, frequency of sales, utility costs, etc.The discussion presented in the model is based on the final estimation as contained in each of the tables.The model is designed primarily with Microsoft Excel to facilitate ease of estimation and updating of the model. The Excel has a total of five worksheets, including the index, assumption sheet, depreciation, cost projection, and summary page. Each of the worksheets is named after a specific financial estimation. Of all the worksheets, only the assumption sheet is designed to be edited or updated to accommodate the variations that may exist across different CBSE business operations. All of the sheets are linked such that any adjustment made through the assumption sheet will reflect in the entire model. The assumption sheet has three main forms of cells, each having a different color code, as indicated below. 3To standardize the cost and business operation reported in this handbook, each cost is estimated on a per-hectare basis. This is to allow for ease of extrapolations and scaling. Hence, the handbook presents a summary of the cost implications per hectare per production cycle. It also presents different production scenarios using the Sammaz 27 and 15 maize seed varieties as commonly used by maize seed farmers in northeast Nigeria. The average yield reported by CBSEs in the northeast is 3500 kg per hectare (kg/ha) for Sammaz 27, while it is 4400 kg/ha for Sammaz 15. This gives an average bag of 35 bags per hectare at 100 Kg per bag and 44 bags respectively. The yields revealed that Sammaz 15 has more yield compared to Sammaz 27.It should be noted that while the yield varies from the estimation, the cost implication recorded under each scenario remains the same. This implies that an intending CBSE needs to work towards attaining the actual yield per hectare reported by the existing CBSEs to maximize income from their production activities to enablethem to compete favorably.Observations from the interaction held with farmers revealed that different capital items are owned by different CBSEs. The variation is influenced by a number of factors, including capital, production capacity, management practices, and so on. From the analysis, basic capital assets are required to operate a community-based production, and these include land, storage house, water source, planter, harvester, and basic farm implements such as wheelbarrow, head pan, rake, etc.From the investment model, an average capital of N656,798 will be required to establish a standard community-based maize seed business. Based on the model, the average cost requirement is presented in Table 3. The highest share of the capital is largely dominated by the operating costs covering a total of 70.12 percent, followed by fixed costs which covers 26.64 percent while the administrative cost covers a token of 15.70 percent of the total capital requirement. The operative costs include the costs of labor (planting, weeding, spraying, harvesting, packaging, etc.), herbicides, packaging bags, and so on. On the other hand, the administrative costs include costs of NASC inspection and certification, extension services, insurance, repairs, and phone calls. Again, these may vary depending on the aforementioned factors that influence the cost of investment/production.Costs and returns analysis From the analysis, the main differential factor in the yield per hectare is the variety of foundation seed planted. Thus, the analysis suggests the existing and upcoming CBSE must ensure to attain a yield of 4,400 kg/ha to operate favorably in the seed business by prioritizing high yield varieties with early maturity dates like Sammaz44. However, farmers who cannot meet this target should not go below 3,000 kg/ha to at least break even. The yield agrees with the average yield reported in maize production in the Northeast. Considering that the average maize yield in northeast Nigeria stands between 2,500 and 3,500 kg/ha per hectare, it is highly recommended that a new CBSE start the operation with just one hectare and later scale up the production after attaining a reasonable level of yield. This will help to reduce risk in investment while lowering the cost of capital requirement to kick-start the business. Also, starting the business with basic capital assets, as listed in Table 3, is highly recommended, especially when operating a one-hectare farm. This is to avoid an increase in depreciation costs, which consequently reduces the net profit. In addition, increasing capital assets will lead to an increase in maintenance costs and thus increase the overall administrative costs.Considering that a community-based seed business can be established with an average of N656,798, it is recommended that an intending CBSE engages in little or no loan services with a repayment period of at least two years with a maximum interest rate of 10 percent, especially for starters. Under such conditions, it is recommended that the intending CBSE strive to attain a yield of 3,000 kg/ha at the very least by adopting the use of improved varieties. This will enable an intending CBSE to attain a reasonable income level after the first year of production of two production cycles per year. With the increase in the number of new CBSEs, the existing and upcoming seed entrepreneurs should adopt strategic community engagement with farmers to boost demand and sales.Currently, there is an increasing demand for maize seeds due to increased awareness of the importance of improved and quality seeds among the farming communities. The intervention from the donor communities through IITA, developmental agencies, and nongovernmental organizations has widened the knowledge of farmers, thereby leading to an increase in demand for maize seeds. Seed producers are really struggling to meet the demand in northeast Nigeria. Seeds are often exhausted before planting seasons, precisely June of every year. This justifies the need for increased participation of community-based seed entrepreneurs. As seed entrepreneurs, there is a need to acquire more land to be able to grow enough seeds to meet the demand to operate effectively in northeast Nigeria.The area under cultivation in northeast Nigeria is about 243,000 hectares of arable land, and the active population of farmers in northeastern Nigeria is estimated to be between 3 and 5 million people (FAO, 2019). There are only 2,250 seed entrepreneurs to produce seeds that will be cultivated by these farmers. And not all 2,250 farmers are into maize seed production. Consumption of maize is also at an all-time high in livestock feed and human consumption. This is an indication that there is a big market for the sale of maize grain and fodder in Nigeria.In northeast Nigeria, several marketing channels have been identified for the sales of seeds by a CBSE, and these include seed companies, agrodealers, direct engagement with farmers, open markets, and input fairs. Of all the available marketing channels, the strategic community approach-which implies engagement directly with farmers through the extension agents, has proven to be the most effective market channel. Under this approach, CBSEs engage the services of extension workers to interact and sensitize the farmers on the quality of seeds, prices, location, etc., thus facilitating access to improved and quality seeds to smallholder farmers within their immediate communities.The other component of the strategic community approach is through the engagement of marketing agents. For effective demand, a CBSE is required to have marketing agents who are able to engage with farmers at all levels, including mosques, churches, and the community level, to sensitize farmers and stimulate demand. This approach has been extremely effective in increasing demand for notable agrodealers and CBSEs in northeast Nigeria.The seed market is influenced by several factors, including planting, prices, and increased awareness of improved and quality seeds among smallholder farmers. While these factors are highly important in driving demand, logistics remains a critical factor in ensuring that smallholders have access to seeds.CBSEs were not only required to engage with buyers but must also adopt effective market logistics to be able to meet the demand of farmers. Sometimes, seed buyers come from afar, and reaching such may be a major challenge. One of the proven logistic arrangements in responding to such needs is to work closely with farmers to arrange for a representative who is able to travel the distance to bring seeds to other farmers in the community. This approach is recommended when demand from such communities is relatively low to warrant establishing sales outlets in such communities.Opportunities in the maize marketMaize is highly relevant to poor smallholder farmers in northern Nigeria with an estimated 3,600,000 farmers cultivating the crop as a means of sustenance and to generate income for themselves and their families. Growing demand for maize from different industrial uses within the country is also creating opportunities for maize farmers to increase their production and income (Business Innovation Facility, 2014).Maize is a subsistence crop of great socioeconomic importance because of its many uses and different methods of preparation, ranging from cooking, roasting, frying, grounding, or crushing to preparing local food items eaten in different parts of the country.Its industrial uses are also diverse and cut across industries such as flour production, animal feed, baked foods and beverages, sugar and pharmaceutical production, and brewing of malt and beer.Risk and risk management in maize businessIn the maize business, as with any agribusiness, there are inherent risks that potential investors should be aware of. These risks can impact the success and profitability of maize farming and trade. Understanding and effectively managing these risks are essential to attain maximum profit at the minimum cost possible.Maize crops are vulnerable to a range of pests and diseases.Contributing about 20−40% to loss in maize's yield. (Agricdemy, 2023). If not managed effectively, pest and disease outbreaks can result in substantial crop losses. Implementing timely and appropriate pest control strategies and utilizing diseaseresistant maize varieties are essential for risk mitigation.Maize prices are subject to fluctuations due to various factors. These may include variations in weather conditions, changes in supply and demand, and even speculative market behavior.These fluctuations contribute about 90% to the loss in revenue, while climate variation alone contributes about 30−50% loss in yield. (Tajudeen et al., 2022) Also, managing the maize supply chain presents its own set of challenges. Issues related to transportation, storage, and logistics can lead to postharvest losses of about 30−90% of total yield (Agricdemy,2023), impacting both farmers and businesses. Addressing these supply chain risks is vital for ensuring the quality and availability of maize in the market.Potential investors can adopt various risk management strategies to navigate these risks and create a sustainable and successful maize business by conducting a thorough market analysis to understand demand trends, consumer preferences, and competitive dynamics. An in-depth understanding of the market can guide investors in making well-informed decisions.Incorporating modern farming techniques and technology, such as precision agriculture and weather forecasting, can help predict and manage climate-related risks more effectively. Also, implementing robust pest and disease control measures, including crop rotation, integrated pest management, and the use of disease-resistant maize varieties, can reduce the threat of pest and disease outbreaks.To resolve the issue of supply chain management, investing in appropriate storage facilities and transportation infrastructure is essential to minimize postharvest losses. Ensuring that maize reacesh the market in optimal condition is crucial for profitability.Above all, exploring partnerships with government agencies and nongovernmental organizations involved in agriculture and rural development, like IITA, FAO, USAID etc., can provide valuable support and resources for risk management and sustainable growth.Appendix IV Farm production record guide   ","tokenCount":"3813"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fea04be8df22f36e4c81d08c851da733","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e31ad1f-64f1-4cf3-b303-2c68c17629f1/retrieve","id":"-482655542"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"75b5fc86-052d-4e8c-bb75-c34c5d4036de","pagecount":"26","content":"Or. B. Maass welcomed me participants (Appendix I) and opened me meeting. Dr. W. Scowcroft gave me welcoming address and stressed me importance of me genetic resources held in trust by me CGIAR and nationaI Genetic Resource Centers. He stressed mat Úlese genetic resources have had a substantial impact on inereas ing animal production and contribuling to me development of sustainable agro-pastoral systems. A good example is me acid 5011 regions of Soum America, where tropical forages introduced from Africa through ClA T have already provided a major contrlbution to the development of sustainable and productive Iand use. Forages are essential as a feed resource for Iivestock production and are also important for improving fertility and hence contrlbuting 10 sustainable land use.Oc. Scowcroft said that reeenl developments arising from the Convention on Biological Diversity and ownership Issues may affeet future aecess to genetic resourees. In addition the CGIAR system is undergoing a period of ehange. A recent system wide Stripe Study of genelie resources reeommended increased collaboralion between Centers, and a new Center is being established lo impIemenl research on liveslock, ineluding forages.In 1984, a workshop held ín Brisbane, Australia (IBPGR, 1984), initiated a ¡¡hase of closer interaction between me larger national and intemalional genetie resource centers (GRC). The XVII Intemational Grassland Congress in 1993 endorsed a 1 resolution framed by participants from larger GRCs mal a tropical forage network be sel up to improve communication and effectiveness of conservatíon and developemenl of the world's tropical forage genetie resources. The resolution read as follows:\"Resolution 9. Recognising that ftmcrional networks associared with Forage Genetic Resource Centers currently exist in the European and Medirerranean zones, which promote the free flow of generic resources. ro lhe beneflt of panicipating countries, ir is recommended that rhere should be strong supponfor rhefunher development of ftmctional nelWorks. including tropical and sublropical centers .• Dr. P. Kerridge presented the rationale behind the meeting and expressed his hope that Úle outcome would be a continuing and proactive group aCling in a coordinating role in research on me genetie resources of tropical and subtropical forages. The Working Group should inerease collaboration on forage genetic resources acquisition, conservation and distribution and consider slrategic sludies needed to link ex siru and in SilU conservatíon. The impm:tance of involvíng addítional NARS was stressed, but funding would be me crucial issue. The group should work towards obtaining funding for projects on forage genetic resources and bíodiversity. He stressed that the way ahead will be Úlrough collaboration.This workshop concentrated on sening an agenda for work on tropical forage genetic resources. identityíng key species, and línking species biodiversity and eros ion of key species lo collection needs and prioríties. The need for ex siru base collections and responsíbilíty was discussed, and research institutes accepted responsibílity to maíntaín some of the more critical specíes. A major outcome of the meeting was Ihe agreemenl Ihat there should be coordínalíon of work and enhanced collaboration between participating institutes.Each participating institute has made considerable progress in the various disciplines associated wíth genetic resource acquisition, study and conservatíon. More comprehensive accounts of these activities are given in Appendíx 11 and 111.CIAT. Within the CGIAR system. C1A T now has a worldwide mandate for herbaceous leguminous and grass species adapted to acid, low-fertility soils of the lowland tropics. In tropical America, it is also responsible for selecting forage species for mid-altitudes, and multipurpose shrub and tree legumes for both lowlands and mid-altitudes. More than 30 collection missions were carried out in collaboration with NARS, ¡LCA and lBPGR, to acquire native legume germplasm from tropical America and Southeast Asia, and grasses from Africa. In recent years emphasis was put on consolidatíng the existing tropical forage germplasm collection, which comprises almos! 21.000 accessions. being 84% herbaceous and 6% shrub legumes. and 10 % grasses. Besídes characterization and preliminary agronomic cvaluation of large collections, studies on reproductive biology and genetic diversity were carried out. About 3,000-4,000 germplasm samples are distributed every year, mainly 2 10 national partners for evaluation. wíth particular emphasis on existíng networks in tropical America. CSIRO-ATFGRC. The ATFGRC has expanded its activities lO ínclude root nodule bacteria research and conservation. use of molecular markers for studying genetic diversity and has al so started 10 address the specific problem of revegetating open cut coalmines. Acquisition has beco strongly focused on key species and for key adaptive attributes. Characterization has been given priority and five legume and three grass colleetions have becn charaeterized sinee 1984. The database management system has been progressively upgraded as an aid to effectíve operatíon and servicing the needs of clíents. Methodology is being developed for evaluating physiological attributes such as lOlerance of water stress in characterizing collections\" EMBRAPAlCENARGEN. In Brazil there is a strong focus on indigenous forages, and an extensive nationwide germplasm collection program has becn carried out in collaboratíon with ClA T, CStRO and Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew, UK. Thirty nine expeditions have becn carried out since 1975, covering both tropical and subtropical regions. Collections include voucher herbarium specimens. Nearly 6.000 accessions have been assembled and catalogued and are undergoing botanical and agronomical characterization and evalualion. This has led 10 the release of several cultivars in Brazil and elsewhere. There has been recent emphasis on !he legumes Adesmia, Arachis, Centrosema, Chamaecrista, Crarylía and Stylosanrhes. Germplasm collecled in the wild is conserved at -18°C and subsamples are distributed lo other genebanks for mulliplication. characterization and preliminary agronomical evaluation, Sorne problems have been experienced in coordinating !he multiplication phase of the programo There is an effort to integrate the conservation of biodiversity !hrough !he creation of in siFu genebanks (genetic reserves). Priority is being given to existing conservation units.Centre at ILCA has concentrated on !he collection of forages in Africa and over 12,000 accessions are currently held in trust. The collection ís made up of about 60% legumes, 15 % fodder tree species and 25% grasses. There has been an emphasís on !he development of drying and storage facilities, which wiH be further expanded in 1994-1995. About 3,000-5,000 samples are for in sítu conservation in order to proceed. However, it was noted !hat in siFu conservation presents many problems and is difficult, so will be a backup for ex situ conservation.Non-participating institutes. The group identified active forage genetic resources programs which could be invited 10 become par! of!he network.The working group agreed !hat !here was a need to redefine !he priority group of genera and species Usted in !he proceedings of!he fint workshop. A Iist of promising genera 10 be held for forage genetic resources was made (Appendix I1I) and from !hat Iisl species were identified wi!h priority for further collection/acquisition and characterizatíon (Table 2). The Group identified a set of general research needs in lhe area of tropical forage genetic resources:• Studies on genetic diversity, population structure and coverage 10 identify gaps and provide information for in situ conservation. .• Adaptation of germplasm to environmental conditions and management wilh reference lo use and prediction of forage poteotial.• Studies 00 anti-quality faclors, especially in woody species. NARS need to take on full partnership responsibilities within the network.Regional networks which are crop-specific tend to be very focused. Collaborating institutes in these networks participate at different aetivity levels, depending on their needs and the scale of their operation.The need for a Tropical Forage Genetic Resources NetworkPotential benefits of collaboration are to ensure long-term conservation and availability of germplasm, and improve efficiency of operations through sharing information. Collaboration is enhanced through networks. which bring together small and large forage genetic resources eenters and can make better use of resources, and may have better funding opportunities. Long-term financial support and a coordinator would be needed for an effective comprehensive network.There is need to be aware of national concerns over access to and ownership of genetic resources. There is also a need to link to other networks concerned with biodiversity, systematics and utilization. A 6 network may al so provide opportunities for training.The benefits of a tropical forage genetie resources network would be: TIte benefits of networks are dependant on good communication between institutes. TItis particularly applíes when Ihere are opportunities for collaboration in collectíng missions, when plans need to be made well in advance.The Working Group discussed Ihe options for communícations between members. Jt was agreed Ihat Ihere may be a need fur collaborators to have different ways of access 10 Ihe data depending on Iheír needs and state of technological development. Those insUtutes wilh major germplasm holdings may have a need lo on line access to passport and olher data from collaborators. JI was agreed Ihat sorne data may nOI be in Ihe public domain and could be required to have restricted access. Production of amalgamated data bases using CD ROM technology which allows comman access to databases of different slruclures can be cost effective and useful.However, it was also noted Ihat it may be essential to have sorne paper copy for tbose institutes which do nol have easy access lo electronic technology. A newsletler could be very useful for communications.Given tbe clear advantages of networks, it is proposed Ihat a Tropical Forage Genetíc Resources Network be established. TIte proposed network should encourage Ihe participation of national, regional and international forage genetic resources programs wilhin tropical and subtropical regions of Ihe New and Old Worlds.An effecti ve network will require a secretariat wilh a coordinator to enhance effective communication between members and a steering commitlee. JI is envisioned Ihat funding can be soughl on a project basis to support collaborative projects and Ihe secretariat. In Ihe short term Ihe Working Group will continue collaborative activities (Appendix IV), whilst working towards tbe formation of a wider network (Appendix V). During characterization, recent emphasis lay on establishing differences among accessions by morphological characterization. In addition, to better understand patterns of genetic diversity of important genera and species maintained in lhe collection, biochemical characterization by electrophoresis of isozymes and seed proteins is being carried out wilh emphasis on Arachis, Stylosanthes and Brachiaria.Because little is known about reproductive biology of most of lhe species held in lhe tropical forage germplasm collection, research on reproductive biology was initiated. The reproductive mode of a large collection of Brachiaria was deterrnined for increasing lhe use of sexual accessions in the CrA T breeding programo Legume species were investigated for rnorphological markers, which may assist in determining lhe outcrossing rate to improve germplasm management.Information management and documentation. Management of registration, post-entry phytosanitary follow up, increase in field and screenhouse, conservation, distribution. and lhe 10 herbarium are fully computerized. The relational database management system, ORACLE, has been recently implemented. In collaboration wilh international taxonomists, identification of species was strongly emphasized. The herbarium was reorganized and maintains currently specimens of almost 50% of lhe accessions. Over !be 5-year perlod lo February 1994, 14,000 satnples of seed were distributed 10 clíents, 3,900 being 10 overseas clients. 950 satnples were sent 10 Asía, 680 10 Afríea, 550 10 Europe and 530 10 Soutb America.Large sets of forages are processed tbrough a quaranline glasshouse each year. Over 1993-1994, 391 accessions were processed, 266 being grasses. Numbers vary from year 10 year-!be high proportion of grasses during 1993-1994 was assocíated witb a current emphasis on grasses capable of witbstanding heavy grazing.Biological research is an increasing component oC !be activitles of CSIRO• ATFGRC. Wi!b!be incorporation oftbe RNB germplasm in tbe group, !bere are studies on RNB adaptation to host and environment and persistence after inoculation. Metbodology is being developed for characterization using agronomically meaníngful attributes, such as tolerance of water stress. In an extensive ¡iterature survey, attempts are being made to align specíes more c10sely witb habitat preference, lo improve opportunlties for germplasm selection. In conjunction wilh CIAT, ATFGRC has a program aimed at developing forages for several countries in Soulhea¡;t Asia.Brazil is one of !he most important centers of diversification of plant species of interest and, particularly, of wild legumes of importance as forage plants. Research on a number of genera of leguminosae of actual or potential value has been carried out by EMBRAPA/CENARGEN in e10se cooperation with olher EMBRAPA research units. as well as olher institutions and universities. Research activities in elude an extensive nationwide germplasm collecting program, in collaboration wilh CIAT, CSIRO and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK.Since 1975. wilh EMBRAPAI CENARGEN as Ihe research unit responsible for the coordination and organization of all activities related to genetic resources in Brazil, EMBRAPA started to develop an ambitious program on native forage genetic resources. This program has not only responded to Ihe demands for germplasm at Ihe national and international levels, but also to Ihe need to conserve Ihose genetic resources in view of growing evidence of genetic erosiono So far, nearly 6,000 accessions are undergoing botanical and agronomical characterization and evaluation. These samples have resulted in a total of 39 nalive forage collecting expeditions, of which 22 have been aimed at collecting material of forage plants of tropical areas of Brasil and 17 have been carried out in subtropical areas. As a result. all states of the Brazilian Federation have been covered. many of them several times, and clase to 5,400 accessions of germplasm of tropical legumes and nearly 500 of subtropical regions have been obtained, for a total of 5,816 accessions in Ihe period 1975-1993. Parallel efforts have been undertaken to collect native forage grasses germplasm wilh a growing number of accessions of species suitable for forage use made available.[nventory of all germplasm available at various forage genebanks carrying out research on these products; Up-dated Iists of accessions sent 10 genebanks, as well as of germplasm currently available; Catalog of germplasm available Ihroughout !he world, ineluding Ihe identification of duplicated accessions in different countries and institutions.Germplasm is being kept at EMBRAPAI CENARGEN for long term storage under controlled conditions at -[8\"C. Subsamples are distributed to genebanks for multiplication, characterization and preliminary agronomical evaluation, at local, regional, national and international levels.In order to maximize Ihe use of available resources, a good balance has been achieved between !he collection of genetic material and Ihe preparation of herbarium vouchers. Duplicates are dislribuled to specialists, collaborators and representative herbaría worldwide.The improvement of available genetic variability is done mainly on lhe basis of coUecting expeditions. About 90% of lhe germplasm available eilher al EMBRAPAI CENARGEN or al lhe genebanks has been obtained tbrough lhe nationwide germplasm collecting programo A significant number of accessions (about 10%) was introduced, however. Considerable work has already been done by EMBRAPAICENARGEN, in Brazil, 10 increase lhe available genetic variability of many forage legumes such as Adesmia, Arachis, OnJrosema, Chamaecrista, Cratylia and Stylosanthes.A number of cultivars have been successfully released by several EMBRAPA research units in Brazil, and by NARS in olher latin American countries in lhe last few years, using genetic materiaJs galhered under tbe successful collecting program coordinated by EMBRAPAI CENARGEN.In addítion, in lhe last years EMBRAPAlCENARGEN has made many efforts 10 integrate tbe conservation of biodiversity wilh lhe conservatíon of genetic resources -wilh special emphasis to native forage grasses and legumes) by creating in situ genebanks (genetic reserves). For logistic reasons high priority is being given 10 existing protected areas (eonservation units) al Federal leveL Research to define specific methodology for in si/u forage genetic resources conservation is much needed.Finally, it is suggested lhat much information useful for genetic studies of genera of economic importance could derive from lhis weallh of selectively collected and well doeumented material of wild Brazilian leguminosae available to lhe ¡ntemationa! scientific community.ILCA-FGRC Background and justification. Sub-Sabaran Africa is rieh in plant genetic resources, including many important indigenous forages, especially grasses. This indigenous base of forage biodiversity is being eroded by over-utilizatíon of resourees, destruetion of habitat and introduction of exolie germplasm. Forage genetic resources must be sustainably managed, used and preserved to secure lhem for future generations.Feed shortages and poor feed quality are among lhe major limitations 10 increasing Iivestock production in tbe region. Forages are an important feed resource, bul lack of forage seeds is an importan! limitation to increased forage production.ILeA is addressing lhese constraints lhrough lhe conservation of a large forage germplasm collection, which is available for utilization and development of IiveslOck feed and lhrough lhe promotion of forage seed production and training. An integrated project in forage germplasm, covering collection, conservation, characterization, seed productíon and evaluation for utilization as IiveslOck feeds is serving lhe needs of NARS lhrough provision of germplasm and seeds. Targeted germplasm evaluation and coordination of research results are essentia! to select forages wilh wide adaptability for use in sustainable farming systems.Objectives, To promote lhe conservation and utilization of forage genetic resources, and lhe evaluation and selection of germplasm for use by small-holder farmers in tbe developrnent of sustainable erop-livestock farming systems for increased food production in sub-Sabaran Africa.ILCA's forage genetic resources project. The ILCA genebank nolds more than 12,000 accessions from 840 species of 227 genera with a wide representatíon of the major genera ídentified for potentíal forage use (Table 2). The ILCA genebank holds both an active collection for researeh and distribution of seeds and a base colleetion for long-term security storage.  For forage germplasm, ICRAF has assembled over 500 unique individual tree accessions of Prosopis africana from the Sahel and about 90 population accessions of Sesbania from southern Africa. The Sesbania accessions are now being evaluated and characterised. In separate collections, ICRAF has available material from Kenya, which is being improved mainly for stem straightness to produce good quality stakes. Overall our main interest in Sesbania is directed towards soil improvement, using the species for improved fallows.Our future focus on genetic resources will be more towards tree species wilh higher income potential, e.g., fruits, fodder, gums, medicines, etc. In principie, Iherefore, we would like 10 become a member of Ihe proposed network on tropicl and sub-tropical forage genetic resources and 10 exchange germplasm where appropriate. We would hope, in future, to contribute more actively towards Ihe network.(O. Boland, ICRAF, 9 March 1994) Conservation Each Cenler will need to define ils own posilion and idemify priorities. Al! institutes should be encouraged to duplicate their collections for safety. The Working Group will prepare a status report of the activity and commitment of base collections defined in 1984. AH institutes should be encouraged to monitor and regenerate their collections to make them available. ","tokenCount":"3035"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4390a95a185b0e6cdd623d377da104da","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de65eb3a-a825-4a77-99dd-1e235dac7e86/retrieve","id":"-1293217233"},"keywords":["Power","Influence","Climate change","Adaptation","Agriculture","Policy","Governance","Nepal"],"sieverID":"3fe37080-7762-49e7-ae1e-e365c0a8c569","pagecount":"52","content":"The extent to which any policy, planning, or funding frameworks aimed at supporting climate change adaptation contribute to improved adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers is strongly affected by the power/influence dynamics between actors within those regimes. Power and influence studies have renewed relevance due to the current proliferation of adaptation initiatives. As these initiatives evolve, they bring up questions of equity, justice, and fairness surrounding the origins and distribution of adaptation resources. In doing so, they have shed light on persistent inequalities in status quo development regimes and asymmetrical power balances between stakeholders.To avoid exacerbating inequalities that contribute to conflict, perpetuate cycles of poverty, and prevent much needed resources from reaching vulnerable communities, it is essential that practitioners seek to make power/influence relationships transparent within any given adaptation regime. Exposing and characterizing these relationships is complex, sensitive, and involves multiple perspectives. This paper introduces the Multilevel Stakeholder Influence Mapping (MSIM) tool, which aims to assist analysts in the study of power dynamics across levels within climate adaptation regimes. The tool is adapted from the Stakeholder Influence-Mapping tool (2005) of the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). MSIM is a simple visual tool to examine and display the relative power/influence that different individuals and groups have over a focal issue-in this case, climate change adaptation of smallholder farmers. The tool can be applied individually or in groups, as often as desired, to capture multiple perspectives and also to act as an intermediary object facilitating expression of sensitive information. The multilevel adapted version of the tool was trialed with a cross-section of actors in Nepal's agricultural climate change adaptation regime. The results of this pilot, the tool use guidelines, and triangulation with supporting methods, as well as forward-looking applications in climate adaptation are provided herein.Small-scale agricultural producers in developing nations are hardly new to challenges. They face persistent livelihood threats of both natural and socioeconomic varieties. Many of the 2.6 billion individuals that engage in agriculture worldwide (IAASTD 2009) cope with extreme climatic events and variability (e.g., drought, floods, pests/diseases), limited access to agricultural inputs and markets, fluctuating commodity prices, lack of basic health and sanitation services, and in many cases, persistent cultural and structural inequalities. Meanwhile, the global food system faces never-before-seen pressures as the world population grows to an estimated 9 billion people by the year 2050 (UN-DESA 2010). Efforts to meet the caloric demand of this rapidly growing population will encounter a number of major existing constraints and others looming on the horizon. For example, food demand and distribution trends that reinforce existing caloric inequalities continue today, compounded by asymmetrical trade barriers and subsidies (Burton and Lim 2005). Demand for cereals is expected to increase by 70% to 2050, as a result of growing populations and increasing per-capita incomes, particularly in Asia (FAO 2006). All the while, regions like South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where the majority of the world's hungry reside, contain extensive areas of low agricultural productivity due to a degrading resource and biodiversity bases (Vermeulen et al. 2012). Cutting across all of these challenges over the coming decades is the issue of climate change.temperatures within the next century (Moss et al. 2008) with some recent estimates suggesting as much as 4.5 degrees Celsius. Even a 2 degrees Celsius rise in mean temperature will destabilize current farming systems (Easterling et al. 2007), transforming production patterns and crop productivity. The adverse effects of climate change on agricultural production are likely to be more intense in lower-latitude countries, particularly in the tropics and subtropics, even though the amount of temperature change here is projected to be less than in higher latitudes (Funk and Brown 2009;Lobell et al. 2008;Parry et al. 1999). It is in these regions, where achieving food security is already problematic and crops are grown closely to their limits of heat tolerance and moisture availability, where the impacts of climate change will be felt with more intensity.Whether food systems in developing nations can keep pace with growing food demands in the face of progressive climate change is a question concerning producers, decision-makers, and researchers alike (Hazell and Wood 2008;Ziervogel and Ericksen 2010). While efforts to encourage mitigation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) have dominated international fora over the past decade, adaptation to the imminent impacts of climate change has achieved greater visibility in recent years (Kates 2000;Parry 2009;Pielke et al. 2007;Smit and Wandel 2006) owing to the presentation of adverse impacts on agricultural systems and an increase in the frequency of extreme events.The role of state agencies and other national-level actors in actively promoting adaptation (planned adaptation) across governance levels-or fostering adaptation at the individual and community levels through the facilitation of an enabling environment-has been the subject of recent debate. Particularly so with the widespread establishment of national and international planned adaptation arrangements, such as the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). While many academics and practitioners in adaptation theory suggest that success in adaptation will require simultaneous action, both planned and autonomous, on multiple levels (Adger et al. 2005;Cash et al. 2006;Ostrom 2012;Sovacool and Brown 2009), there remains a gap in our understanding of how central-level institutions influence coping and adaptation/adaptive capacity at lower levels (Adger 2001;Berman et al. 2012).Ultimately, adaptation to climate change is a political process. It involves actors and institutions at multiple levels, biding for financial resources, constructing and maintaining institutions, prioritizing actions, and determining the allocation of scarce and competing resources. As such, the extent to which planned adaptation contributes to the improved adaptive capacity of smallscale producers will be determined, in part, by the relative power/influence of actors within the climate change adaptation regime.An assessment of the institutional processes at play in any climate change adaptation regime is not complete without mention of the role of power. Power is a ubiquitous term and its various ontological and epistemological origins and manifestations difficult to identify. It is, as the concepts of adaptation, sustainability, and resilience, a boundary term, and its meaning highly dependent on the context in which it is applied.Power in the social sciences is often defined as the potential of an agent to influence a target (French and Raven 1959). Michel Foucault contributed an element of 'resistance' (\"Where there is power, there is resistance\") to power relations in his work The Subject and Power, which has been subsequently adopted by most political theorists (Foucault 1982). As such, in political science, power is commonly defined as \"the ability to influence the behavior of others with or without resistance.\" In practice, power is often used interchangeably with the concept of \"influence\" (i.e., power produces influence and influence produces power), and can be exercised in more nuanced settings beyond that of \"power over\" another agent, including \"power to\" (i.e., capability) and Foucault's concept of power as the enforcement of social and political practices occurring between agents, created by institutions and the discourses around them.Despite the vastness of the topic, power and influence studies have been viewed with renewed relevance as of late, due to the proliferation of climate change adaptation funds, projects, and programmes. As these processes evolve, they bring up questions of equity, justice, and fairness surrounding the origins and distribution of climate change adaptation resources. In doing so, they have shed light on persistent inequalities in status quo development regimes and asymmetrical power balances between stakeholders.In particular, the uncertainties and imperfect information related to the impacts and timing of climate change inject increased urgency in the study of power dynamics. In recognition of this, considerable emphasis has been placed on improving the ways that research is accessed and used in decision making around climate change. Douglas and Wildavsky (1982), for example, suggest that science and knowledge will never completely dictate policy since factors like values, power, and institutions will always intervene between knowledge and action. This pathway from knowledge to action can be especially tenuous when uncertainty prevails and information is particularly imperfect as is the case with climate change adaptation. Crozier and Friedberg (1977), in respect to their theory on organized action, refer to uncertainty as the \"fundamental resource for any negotiation\" and further suggest that \"what appears as uncertainty from the point of view of the problem at stake constitutes power from the point of view of actors.\" This concept can be applied between actors as well, suggesting that uncertainty can be used to leverage power and command decisionmaking authority between stakeholders, a role that governments are particularly likely to take. Dimitrov (2003) further discusses the topic of uncertainty as it relates to constructivist and rationalist decision-making theories, introducing a glaring paradox surrounding environmental policy regimes; i.e., that they have developed at all given extreme uncertainty and imperfect information (or sometimes a complete lack of information) to guide regime formation. Dimitrov suggests that \"if collective action does not require information, than rational choice theories lose a major foundation.\" He further suggests that constructivists, who see politics as a product of social learning, are equally without justification for decision making, concluding that if \"shared knowledge is not an important independent variable, why study it as a dependent variable?\"The study of power and equity within adaptation regimes extends beyond controlling or leveraging knowledge and information. \"It relates to a wide range of issues including: decisionmaking processes-who decides, who responds; frameworks for taking and facilitating actions; relationships between the developed and developing world; and also to relationships between climate change impacts and other factors that affect and disturb\" (Thomas and Twyman 2005).Improving our understanding of how power and influence originate and manifest in adaptation institutions can lead us to support fair and sound decisions in resource allocation and ensure that vulnerable populations are appropriately safeguarded from significant impacts of climate change.The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) has initiated research in this regard, trialing a tool for mapping stakeholder power and influence. This paper contains the results of piloting a multilevel adaptation of that existing methodology.   Influence is shown in the relative closeness of the circles to the policy apex, while relationships (degree of cooperation/conflict, etc.) are indicated by relative proximity and overlap of the circles.Different colour and size circles can be used to represent stakeholder groups during the mapping activity (e.g., individuals, government, and civil society) and the analysis can be done for different time periods to track policy evolution over time. Note that in this example (Figure 1), the output map is displayed in black and white with only the actor labels serving to distinguish between actor group type. The exercise has been traditionally conducted in focus group format, with selected policy \"movers and shakers.\"The IIED tool has been utilized by CCAFS in trials in Uganda in 2010 as a means of delineating strategies for influencing climate change adaptation policy (CCAFS 2010). The rationale for conducting the exercise was that in addition to the transfer of technologies to risk-averse small-scale producers, an enabling policy environment that provides safety nets in support of adaptation is necessary. Entry points for lobbying policy change as well as explicit areas for policy improvement were identified in the mapping exercise. Specifically, the focus group revealed that the President has the strongest direct influence on the behavior of farmers and that a disconnect exists between researchers and implementing agencies on the ground. The study also yielded key insights towards the development of coalitions between key actors in the climate change regime in Uganda (CCAFS 2010).While the outcomes from the Uganda trialing were fruitful, they reflect power and influence dynamics primarily at the central policy level. Focusing solely on \"policy movers and shakers\" at this level can produce a biased understanding of powerful agents and reinforce existing inequalities between actors. Climate change manifests across actor levels and scales and requires multilevel responses from a host of agents. Given the concentration of vulnerable populations in rural settings, power dynamics across levels and their role in creating adaptation pathways that reach from (inter) national to local settings are important. Adjusting the tool to capture these cross-level dynamics is thus a valuable step in improving our understanding of how power descends/transcends actor levels.The adaptation of the Stakeholder Influence-Mapping tool to encompass power dynamics across actor levels reflects a systems approach to adaptation research. That is, when addressing complex, \"wicked problems\" (Rittel and Webber 1973) like that of climate change, we are consistently making boundary decisions as to the scope of the problem, impacts, and responses. How we choose to draw those boundaries around scope, scale and time frame of adaptation, which disturbances elicit the need to adapt, and what drives the notions of desirability or improvement of the system often completely determines the conclusions and recommendations for action (Helfgott 2011). Because we each have different perspectives, interests, values and so on, it is likely that we will make different boundary judgements in the same situation. Understanding, then, how decision-making boundaries are drawn and perceived by influential (or thought to be influential) actors provides insight into how success in adaptation is measured, who is intended to benefit, and where climate change policies are most susceptible to distortion or manipulation.Critical Systems Heuristics (CSH) is a systemic methodology for handling several key perspective-related issues: (1) that system boundary judgements are inevitable and everyone makes them, scientists, planners, lay people alike; (2) that these boundary judgements are subjective and shaped by our values; (3) that they determine the knowledge generated and the conclusions and recommendations for action drawn; and (4) that planners can only ever refer back to the original whole of system judgements to justify the merits of propositions. It is a methodology that supports professional practice through critical employment of the systems idea and a framework for reflective practice. In Ulrich's words: \"Critical Heuristics is an effort to provide planners and citizens alike with the heuristic support they need for confronting the problems of practical reason [socially rational practice]\" (Ulrich 1983).To operationalize these concepts, Ulrich developed a set of 12 'critical systems heuristics' questions that both planners and ordinary people could use to think through and debate issues. These CSH principles capture key components of power and influence in any decision-making process and, consequently, serve as a strong addition to the IIED stakeholder influence-mapping tool.Adapting the tool to elicit individual perceptions of influence at multiple levels requires only minor adjustments to the existing methodology, namely:1. Translating the policy apex across levels (Step 1 in Box 1). We often use a different language to refer to the same concepts at different actor levels. While the apex title \"climate change adaptation policy in agriculture,\" for example, may suffice for mapping by actors at the constitutional level, this concept means very little to small-scale agricultural producers at the operational level. Consequently, the apex title must be translated in such a way that it remains comparative across levels yet relevant to each stakeholder group. \"Climate change adaptation policy in agriculture\" may translate to \"food production\" or \"food production in uncertain weather conditions\" at the farm level, for example. The appropriate apex titles can be derived from semi-structured interviews (conducted before applying the tool) with actors at various levels that elicit commonly used terminology in reference to a fixed concept.1. Define policy focus. Influence mapping is applicable to almost any decision-making ('policy') scenario. The choice of policy focus depends on the aim of the discussion among the participants-the overall problem or questions about policy that they are confronting. The tool can be applied to all sorts of policy contexts, from specific local policies to very broad positions involving government agencies and others such as the private sector.2. Define one or more key time periods. Most simply, stakeholder influences at one time (usually the present) can be mapped. To explore policy change, more than one time period can be chosen, based for example on past/present/future, or based around a key event (before/after).3. Identify policy stakeholders. Some of the main individuals and groups that have an impact or interest in the policy's formation and implementation need to be identified and listed-either by participants in the mapping exercise, or perhaps with some pre-identification by the facilitators with the participants completing the process.4. Prepare materials. One pyramid, drawn and labeled on a large sheet of paper, is needed for each time period. Other materials required are a selection of cardboard or paper circles in different sizes (different colours too if possible), some marker pens, and boards to pin up the pyramids so that all participants can see them. Alternatively the pyramid and circles can be laid out on the ground. The circles will be used to represent the various stakeholders over time, so that roughly the minimum number to prepare is the total number of stakeholders identified multiplied by the number of time periods. Having multiples of the same size and colour is useful.5. Fine-tune the stakeholder list. If there is a long list of stakeholders, a relevant subset can be selected from the full list for each time period under discussion. Do not spend too long on this step, keep the full set of stakeholder groups if participants disagree on which to include.6. Estimate stakeholder group size. Different sized stakeholder groups can be represented by different sized paper circles representing the number of people in the group (smallest=fewest, biggest=most). If there are a large number of stakeholder groups, different coloured circles could be used to represent different types of stakeholder groups (e.g., to differentiate government, private sector, and civil society groups).7. Map stakeholder influence and relationships. This is the key step in the process-arranging the circles within the pyramid to display influence and relationships. Influence is shown by the relative closeness of circles to the policy apex, while relationships (degree of cooperation or conflict, and shared or divergent views) are indicated by the relative proximity and overlap of the circles. Most of the participants' time should be allocated to this step.Identify key moments and mechanisms. Policy events, notable moves made, and key external changes that have helped or hindered the process can be noted as they occur during the mapping exercise. Make sure to allocate some time to capture this useful information-one tactic is to select a note-taker or rapporteur among the participants. 9. Keep record of map for future reference. Sketching or photographing the map provides a useful record, especially if the notes and comments made by participants are also recorded.SOURCE: Mayers and Vermeulen 2005.Mapping proposed here would serve as a visual activity within a one-hour semi-structured interview. That is, the completed influence map (conducted early in the interview) serves as the 'object' of an elicitation question, or a directive approach that uses a picture, video, text, or an object to prompt or elicit discussion (Tracy 2013). It has been suggested by some authors that the use of such an elicitation device can provide more realistic responses than would be collected through the use of words only (Prosser 2011).Interviews are conducted with only one stakeholder at a time, to avoid domination in a group setting. This is particularly important in places with embedded power inequalities produced by caste structures or the like, which lead to micropolitics of domination in focus group settings.The tendency for the concentration of decision making in the hands of a dominant elite occurs across levels. As suggested by Heller (2001), even \"when a weak state devolves power it is more often than not simply making accommodations with local strongmen rather than expanding democratic spaces.\" Even more, embedding the tool in an interview format allows the analyst to capture these key moments and mechanisms in a way that reflects the cross-level realities of policy analysis. That is, what stakeholders make of the policies and the interplay between different policies is contingent upon the standpoint taken; either 'top down' or 'bottom up' (Sabatier 1986;Urwin and Jordan 2008). As proposed in the existing methodology, a note-taker/rapporteur role will be played by the principal interviewer. While the influence mapping is occurring, the respondent will provide responses to a series of questions designed to elicit concepts of motivation, control, knowledge, and legitimacy-the key components of the CSH framework.With these two adaptations in mind, multilevel stakeholder influence mapping includes the following steps articulated in Box 2.MSIM was piloted as part of the Systemic Integrated Adaptation (SIA) project, a CCAFS Theme 1 initiative. The broader SIA research employs three principal data collection methods:( 2. Identify influence-mapping respondents. For the segment of respondents representing collective action and operation levels (district and village, respectively in the case of Nepal), a sampling strategy will need to be applied, starting with the selection of an administrative district. This can be done on the basis of vulnerability to environment change, should that information be available in the study country. The respondent is free to add new actors to the list, or suggest that other be removed if they feel strongly. Allowing the respondent to remove an actor can reveal perceptions of \"figure heads\" or other perceived low-influence actors. On average, 14 actors were selected by each respondent as highly relevant in the Nepal pilot, but there should be no limit placed on the number of actors the respondent can 'tick' as relevant.5. Introduce the power-mapping board (Appendix 1). State that the exercise you are going to do together is designed to visualize power and influence between actors, as it relates to a certain policy or topic. Starting from our list of 'ticked actors,' we will be drawing circles on the mapping board with the most influential actors/actor groups closest to the top of the pyramid and the least influential at the bottom. Influence can be legal and non-legal, legitimate and illegitimate. The respondent should be told that the objective is to define how things actually are, not the way that they are intended to be. Relationships between actor groups can be represented by overlapping/concentric circles. Additional actors that come to mind that were not initially indicated in step 4 by the respondent can now be added. Note: An example, unrelated influence map can be shown to the respondent to be sure that they understand the concept.6. Define \"influence\" and its relation to \"power\" as it is understood within your conceptual framework (note that this will be different for every study). An example could be: Power = the ability to influence the behaviour of others, with or without resistance (Positional, Personality, Persuasion, Coercion, Force, Knowledge, Resources. These are referred to as power bases); Influence = the ability to exercise a particular type(s) of power. The MSIM apex of \"agricultural climate change adaptation policy\" was translated across actor levels as identified in Box 3. The chosen apexes reflect the stages of the policy development process, denoted by Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith (1993) as \"stages heuristics:\" (1) problem identification, (2) agenda setting,(3) formulation, (4) adoption, and (5) evaluation. The stages heuristics view of the policy process necessarily involves actors across levels, with the 'policy' and associated agents manifesting in different ways during each stage of the development, implementation, and evaluation process. The development of new crop varieties, for example, consists of a set or prioritized objectives and responsible parties at the central level (e.g., crop varieties, climate stressor, responsible agency, and so on), research and development and replication facilities at the regional and district level, and participatory varietal selection initiatives at the community level. Each stage mobilizes different agents performing diverse tasks under one policy umbrella.Participants in the influence-mapping exercise were asked to first indicate actors (individuals or organizations) \"relevant\" to the policy apex, translated for the appropriate actor level. A comprehensive list of approximately 90 actors (see Appendix 2) was developed through snowballing interviews conducted prior to the influence-mapping trials, during the first phase of the field research. Respondents were encouraged to write-in any actors/actor groups they perceived to be 'missing' from the list. Table 1 shows the actors/actor groups most frequently identified as \"relevant\" to climate change adaptation regimes (in % of respondents) by the entire sample of 14 respondents.The respondent then visually ranked each of the actors deemed \"relevant\" on an influence pyramid with the most influential positioned at the top, or apex of the pyramid, and the least influential at the bottom. The size of the circle, as suggested in the methodology, represents the relative size of the actor group and overlap of actor circles suggests a relationship (embedded hierarchical structure, collaboration between agencies, and so on). Four distinct colours represent actor/actor group categories including civil society (purple), state agencies (red), international/foreign agency (blue), and private sector (orange). Select influence maps created by individual actors from the local to national policy-making level can be found in Figure 2.Note that these MSIM maps in Figure 2 are intended only to provide an idea of the trends produced through multiple applications of the MSIM tool. Respondent names and the individual actor labels for each circle have been removed.A detailed example of an MSIM map as completed by a district-level actor can be found in   Other influential actor groups include the World Bank, ADB, and IMF, which leverage their own agendas through the transfer of funds to the Government of Nepal (GoN) (\"we're giving you the money, so we'll decide how it's spent\") and the Indian Government which the respondent suggests that the Nepalese try to emulate, influenced by their economic status, and a shared (similar) language and religion. The regional United Nations office location in India also contributes to India's geopolitical influence over Nepal according to the respondent.In terms of the multilevel dynamics of climate change policy, the respondent sketched a small diagram to demonstrate key barriers to policy implementation. This was prompted by a series of follow-up critical systems heuristics questions after the influence mapping had taken place, aiming to identify key challenges in the adaptation policy process. This sketch has been digitized in Figure 4.  As noted at the outset, the above discussion is simply an example of the type of data produced from one individual viewpoint. The themes emerging in Figure 4 identifying policy barriers are unique only to this respondent, and are thus not necessarily reflective of wider prevailing views.When aggregated with other actor perspectives, however, it then would start to shape the narrative of power and influence in Nepal's agricultural climate change adaptation regime.From the detailed example above, we see that the MSIM stimulates discussion that extends beyond the relative influence between actor and actor groups in climate change adaptation regimes. It can help us to understand the institutional context in which actors are embedded and identify key tripping points in the policy process, among other things. But the perceived relative influence (i.e., the theoretical distance) between actors remains important. Viewed as an output in itself, influence maps can be analyzed to identify key organizations to engage in the policy development process, and can highlight actors/actor groups overlooked or neglected in this same process. As such, calculating the relative influence between actors as revealed in multiple iterations of the mapping activity can yield valuable, triangulated information regarding actor power and influence.To create an influence score derived from multiple interviews, the frequency that actors were deemed \"relevant\" by interviewees was combined with their relative ranked position compared to other actors. The relative ranking score was established by counting actors/actor groups upwards from the bottom of each influence map and assigning the counted value as a ranking score. That is, the actor placed lowest on the influence map received a ranking score of 1, the second lowest a score of 2, the third lowest a score of 3, and so on. Actors/actor groups placed on the same level as one another received the same ranking score (e.g., \"farmers\" and \"rural poor\" placed side by side at the bottom of an influence pyramid would both receive a ranking score of 1). As there was no limit applied to the number of actors that the respondent could identify as \"relevant,\" a different number of ranking levels could feasibly be identified by each respondent. As such, the number of ranked levels was identified for each of 14 respondents yielding an average of 14 ranked actor levels. The relative ranking was adjusted to this 14-actor equivalent by applying a ratio formula and solving for 'Ra'. After applying this function, the highest possible ranking score was 14 and lowest 1 across all influence maps. The adjusted relative influence ranking is determined as follows:R/n = Ra/14Where 'R' represents the relative ranking (unadjusted), 'n' the total number of ranked levels identified by the respondent, 'Ra' the adjusted ranking score, and '14' the average number of ranked levels over all 14 pilot iterations.An initial ranking score (R) of 8, for example, among 10 ranked actors (n), is adjusted to a ranking (Ra) of 10 on a 14-actor scale. An excerpt from the table containing both ranking and adjust rankings is found below (Table 2). The average adjusted ranking score ( x Ra) was calculated by dividing the summed adjusted ranking scores for each actor group by the total number of respondents identifying that actor group as relevant.Combining the adjusted ranking score of each actor group with the frequency that the group was identified as \"relevant\" by the respondent is the final step in identifying a composite influence score. Two strategies are highlighted here for producing this frequency and rank composite score.The first composite influence score approach is based on a direct summing of the frequency and adjusted ranking score. That is, the frequency that the actor group was included in the ranking is added to the mean adjusted ranking score.Where 'I' represents the composite influence score, 'F' the frequency that the actor group was included in the ranking and ' x Ra' the mean adjusted ranking score.When calculated in this manner, the following influence scores are achieved, displayed alongside their respective actor/actor group (Table 3). In this scenario, the Ministry of Agriculture Development (MoAD) receives the highest composite influence score with regard to agricultural climate change adaptation policy across 14 iterations of the mapping exercise. The MoAD is followed closely by the Ministry of Environment and the National Planning Commission. This first approach to determining an influence score, however, tends to favour outliers with respect to either the frequency identified or the mean adjusted ranking score. The inclusion of PM Bhattarai in Table 3 exemplifies this trend. The PM was identified only twice as \"relevant\"to the climate change adaptation policy process, but in those two instances the PM was ranked among the most highly influential actors. His mean adjusted ranking is 14 (the highest possible)and when combined with a frequency of 2 still ranks in the top influence scorers.The second approach to producing a ranking score seeks to combine both ranking and frequency metrics into one composite score in an effort to reduce the impact of mismatches between frequency identified and mean adjusted rankings (as per the case with PM Bhattarai). In this approach, the adjusted rankings for each actor/actor group are summed and then divided by the maximum frequency score of 14 (i.e., the actor was identified as relevant by all respondents in the sample). This, in effect, includes in the calculation the instances that an actor/actor group was not identified as relevant (i.e., with a mean adjusted ranking of zero).Where 'I' represents the composite influence score, 'Ra\" the adjusted ranking, 'n' the respondent number, and 14 the maximum frequency score.When calculated in this manner, the following influence scores are achieved, displayed alongside their respective actor/actor group (Table 4). The top four actors/actor groups remain unchanged between the two approaches. A few small changes, however, do occur. USAID and PM Bhattarai are eliminated from the top ranking list and the Ministry of Federal Affairs andLocal Development (MoFALD) and DDC take their places. There are several other approaches that the analyst could choose in producing an influence score. A weight, for example, could be applied (50% frequency, 50% adjusted ranking; 25%Frequency, 75% adjusted ranking, and so on) to place equal or more/less importance on the variables. Ultimately, the means by which an influence score is calculated is less important than the qualitative trends that emerge from the influence maps.The results that we see above include responses from the complete pilot sample set (n=14), actors operating at the local, district and central level. Analysing the data from the perspective of a select subset of actors can also yield valuable results. For example, Table 5 holds the results of the mapping exercising using only the responses from local (operational level) actors (n=5)representing community members, local NGOs, VDC personnel, and private sector input providers. Actors in this sample responded to the local-level policy apex of \"The ability to produce food, earn income, or subsist when the weather changes.\"We see that a very different top list of influential actors is identified using this local actor subset.Traders, INGOs, and the VDC are deemed most influential from the perspective of these actors.Actors previously absent from the complete sample set (n=14), including local NGOs, community leaders, the Agricultural Service Center and the Department of Livestock Services, are now visible in the rankings. This analysis of least influential-yet highly relevant-actors directs the analyst towards actors/ actor groups that are potentially marginalized in the policy development and implementation process. That is, those actors that are directly impacted or serve critical roles in the policy process, but do not leverage influence in any meaningful way.Multilevel stakeholder influence mapping proves a useful tool for understanding cross-level power and influence dynamics and perspectives between actors/actor groups, and visualizing those relationships in a simple, straightforward methodology. The two major adaptations to the existing IIED influence-mapping tool (i.e., the translating of the policy apex across actor levels and the embedding of the tool in a semi-structured interview format) have been useful in capturing perceptions of power dynamics across levels and highlighting inequalities that exist within adaptation policy regimes. The drastic change in the actors/actor groups ranked highly influential by respondent sets operating at different actor levels speak to the former (cross-level perspective) and the consistent ranking of 'farmers' as least influential in the policy process to the latter (inequalities).The pilot results also yield fruitful considerations for strategic entry into climate change policy regimes in Nepal, and key areas for improving equity within the policy stages. Specifically, the MoE, MoAD, and NPC are perceived to be among the most influential actor groups in the climate change adaptation regimes in agriculture, even when the method for determining an influence score is adapted. INGOs also rank consistently high in their perceived influence, suggesting, as other authors have pointed out, that a robust donor and INGO network has emerged in Nepal due to persistent instabilities in government and poor service delivery of development resources (Paudel 2010;Rai and Paudel 2011). Geopolitical considerations identified in the mapping suggest that the Indian government's policy portfolio is highly influential on Nepal's agricultural sector. Particularly in the border regions, subsidies and other input distortions for Indian farmers impact directly on Nepal's rural producers given the open border and free movement of goods between the two countries.In the process of highlighting these important instances of power and influence, several methodological lessons were drawn out regarding, most notably, (1) the framing of definitional boundaries of power, (2) limitations of 'perspective-based' data, and (3) the potential for theoretical distance measurements.In the same way that adaptation is operationalized via complementary concepts like vulnerability, resilience, risk, exposure, and sensitivity, power too is dependent upon the related concepts of influence, authority, legitimacy, and legality, among others. The concept of power 'bases' (i.e., the sources of exercised power) first emerged in 1959 through the work of French and Raven. These authors suggested that power could be separated into distinct forms or 'bases,' including reward, coercion, legitimacy, referent, and expert (French and Raven 1959). Several authors have since built on these initial bases (Ulrich 1983). Bases today include condign power (i.e., force based), coercion, compensation (i.e., resource and reward), condition (i.e., persuasion or consensus), personality (i.e., charisma), positionality, and expertise (i.e., knowledge).Simply referring to 'power' or 'influence' without further defining the terms in the framing, the MSIM exercise can produce unclear conceptual boundaries for the respondent (and the analyst).Respondents are likely to be biased towards the identification of highly visible power bases (e.g., a Minister determined to be highly influential due to his or her position in government).Less-visible exercises of power including 'expertise' or 'coercion'-which can be most effective-may not be recognized (or hidden) by (to) the respondent.Yet this is not necessarily problematic. By leaving definitional boundaries vague, the respondent's perspective as to what constitutes power or influence is revealed; a valuable result in itself. Ultimately, however, the framing of the exercises will depend on the objectives of the analysts. In the event of multiple case studies, for example, a well-articulated definition of power and influence may be selected to facilitate comparative analysis. Alternatively, in one-off studies, the analyst may choose to leave boundaries vague, or to conduct exploratory interviews prior to the exercise to determine contextually appropriate definitions of power or influence.The MSIM method provides the analyst with perceptions-based data regarding the relative power and influence of actors in Nepal's adaptation regime. This does not necessarily speak to actual influence or capability of these agencies to 'successfully' develop and influence the policy process. As such, MSIM maps rely on triangulation between actor and actor groups operating at different user levels as a means of validation or results verification. Empirical evidence like budget allocations, results of decision-making processes (e.g., resulting policy objectives or priorities), participation in decision-making fora and so on can be used alongside MSIM maps to confirm or further clarify the sources or manifestations of power/influence.The visual format of the MSIM method allows individual perceptions to be systematically aggregated to obtain the mean, mode, average, and variance of perceptions of the relative influence of actors for different social groups and for the entire country. In the methodology outlined in this paper, this is accomplished by drawing on the relative ranking of actor groups.But it could also be accomplished using Euclidian distance metrics which allow greater or lesser distances to contribute to the overall results as with preferential voting rather than with just a ranked list. This \"theoretical distance\" concept could be facilitated with a simple influence mapping software, for example.Other key methodological considerations for the application of the MSIM tool include: (1) the recognition of the potentially sensitive nature of power/influence mapping (i.e., the need to ensure respondents anonymity), (2) the time required for respondents to undertake the activity and associated interview questions (e.g., the interviews lasted on average 1.5 hours), and (3) the focus on 'actual' behaviour between agents (i.e., the mapping captures the way that things are, and can be compared with intended institutional and actor structures through document and policy analysis for the ways that they ought to be).It should be noted that the results and discussion above are based on a small sample of actors in Nepal's climate change adaptation regime. The objective of the influence-mapping portion of this research was to test the feasibility of the MSIM method and to draw out key methodological considerations, not to produce unequivocal mapping results. Consequently, one must be careful not to overextend the implications of these findings using MSIM maps alone. As suggested in the introduction to the Nepal case study, the implications that follow here contain assertions that have been informed by the MSIM maps, semi-structured in-depth interviews with actors across various levels of Nepal's climate change adaptation regime, and a comprehensive policy content review of Nepal's agriculture and climate change sectors (See CCAFS Working Paper No. 44 [Sova and Chaudhury 2013]). In this context, the preliminary MSIM mapping results led the analyst towards exploring several areas of the policy process for which power inequalities between vulnerable populations and influential decision-makers were identified (i.e., the 'key moments and mechanisms'). The objective of the following section is to explore these key policy areas-mainly, ambiguous central-level policy objectives, biased vulnerability assessment processes, and the 'rendering technical' of adaptation decisions-and to suggest ways in which less powerful, yet highly invested actors in Nepal's adaptation regime, can be incorporated into the policy development process. The final policy area for further examination emerging from the MSIM tool is the trend towards purely \"expert-level\" engagement in adaptation regimes. Inherent uncertainties in climate In November 2009, these TWG and project team members conducted three separate NAPA 'transect appraisals' in Western, Central, and Eastern development zones, respectively, to produce microlevel impact assessments. These assessments were then referred back to the TWGs for a prioritization of adaptation responses (Nepal 2010b).The result of this techno-centric process is USD 350 million allocated towards implementing The LAPA process has rightly adopted such an approach, yet it must be careful in recognizing that incremental improvement in the service delivery of \"development\" activities at local levels reflects the inseparable nature of complex, multiple livelihoods stressors, and is not necessarily at odds with fixed definitions of \"adaptation\" at higher levels. Also, the NAPA document-which remains the apex adaptation planning document in Nepal-must be seen as a living document that is informed by LAPA process and amendable based on the results of the more robust SLD process that the LAPA is able to provide. Given the short period of community-level stakeholder consultation in the NAPA development process, policy learning must occur in both directions, with the LAPA serving to reshape the NAPA as time and fieldlevel realities change.Several areas of the adaptation policy process warrant further investigation for their vulnerability to-or production of-unequal power dynamics. They are included here in summary form. As suggested by Heller (2001), however, decentralization does not always go hand in hand with the devolution of decision-making power. That is, securing local political representation is a way of extending control and the creation of subjects. Research in the area of decentralization of administrative decision making can contribute to our improved understanding and progress towards equitable adaptation institutional structures.Given the cross-cutting nature of climate change, the factors that determine power in decision making in this sector can be the products of history, culture/ worldview, policies/rules/procedures, organizational structure (architecture), demographics, geopolitics, and so on. This multitude of factors contributes to an understanding of which power bases are viable in a given circumstance. They are, collectively, the \"things\" of an emerging \"political ecology\" community of practice (Robbins 2011). A political ecological perspective can be useful in framing adaptation decisions within the broader context in which they are embedded; a multilevel approach recognizing these complexities is needed in adaptation research.Power is often maintained through networks of actors, reinforced, or undermined through the formation or dissolution of alliances between actors wielding various competing or complementary resource bases. Research into how actor networks develop around power structures (or vice versa), with specific reference to actor interests and resource bases-funding, most notably-is needed to expand our understanding of how power is created, reinforced, or undermined in complex multistakeholder, multilevel systems.","tokenCount":"7137"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4dd09036b3cd0aff9b96983d6ac0a23f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cea279ae-4b00-411b-8a0b-d70fa3ad5d19/retrieve","id":"-1795470548"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"87cdc17b-0ebd-424c-851c-dd0e85327b74","pagecount":"12","content":"On field experience in India reveals how early stage interventions can significantly minimize risks of crop failure.Despite surpassing average global growth rates, South Asia exhibits some of the most glaring gaps in income distribution, access to resources as well as food and nutrition security. Climatic challenges have only exacerbated the existing issues especially for the agricultural sector which is almost always reeling under the pressures of meeting food security goals while attempting to save itself from multiple vulnerabilities. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) has been working in conjunction with national partners in the region to help usher in transformative solutions to some of the critical challenges faced by the agriculture system and communities through advance research and extension services. With a multidimensional approach, climatic resilience in South Asian agriculture has been pinned as the priority to be converged with existing policy programs and therefore a constant flow of dialogue becomes imperative to continue concerted and upgraded efforts to attain common goals.CCAFS had held a consultation in September 2017 in New-Delhi to acquire the national perspectives on priorities for research pertaining to climate resilient agriculture in the region. The participants included researchers, policymakers, agro-industry representatives from South Asia, as well as leading international experts working on CCAFS focus areas. Presentations were made by Prof Ramesh Chand (member-agriculture, Niti Aayog; India's primary planning body), Dr Bimala Rai (advisor to the President of Nepal), Dr T. Mohapatra (Director General, Indian Council of Agricultural Research) and Dr H. Pathak (Director, Indian Council of Agricultural Research-National Rice Research Institute). This was followed by a panel discussion on how CGIAR-CCAFS and National Agricultural Research Systems should link with the private sector for accelerating climate risk management in agriculture.Representatives from the agri-business, insurance, banking as well as the information and communication technology (ICT) sector participated in the panel discussion. S. Sivakumar, Chief Executive of the Agri Business Division, ITC Ltd highlighted the need for knowledge gap funding about climate affected agriculture and its continuous communication for the private sector to create serviceable products for the farmers. Multiple entrepreneurial model for agri-business and its packaging for climate related issues, led by youth, must be prioritized. National perspectives are quintessential for understanding where focused efforts in research and extension are required to help make agriculture climate resilient. Some of the core recommendations that were made were to, bring global knowledge to local relevance; usher in new tools and methods for investment prioritization in adaptation options; promote agriculture risk management through improved seeds/breeds, best agronomic practices and precision agriculture technologies developed and available with the CGIAR; support to policy and institution building for adaptation planning. Further, a call for exploring new areas of research was made along with a proposal to develop incentive mechanisms for promoting climate-smart agriculture. For scaling the same, recommendation was made for developing new models/methods of ICT. Advancement and continuity in gender transformative research for the region and social inclusion in all segments of project design and implementation was alluded to as normative.To sum up the deliberations, the gaze can be shifted towards the words of CIAT Director General Ruben Echeverria.\"The buzz words right now need to be policy engagement, communication and partnerships. CCAFS research in the region in the second phase must be more demand-driven and impactoriented to ensure that no wide gap remains between policy implementation and research outcomes\".Crop failure is every farmer's nightmare. The prospect of bad dreams turning into protracted reality has only been made stronger due to climatic changes that are wreaking havoc upon South Asian agriculture. One of the locations suffering on this account is Mathura, a prominent district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, also the most populous state of the country. Here, bajra (Pearl Millet) is a major kharif season crop and its cultivation in the district mainly depends on rainfall patterns. Time, duration and amount of rainfall during the bajra crop sowing period are critical for successfully establishing the crop in farmers' fields. In many locations of the district, farmers have experienced long dry spell just after the bajra sowing. However, in some places, farmers have received heavy rainfall and temporary inundated crop fields. These conditions have led to complete failure of bajra crop in many farmers' fields.The The first set of ICT services were rolled out to 2980 farmers in the three USAID project districts of Nalanda (Bihar), Betul (Madhya Pradesh) and Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) during Kharif season in 2017, with 8195 farmers registering themselves for the service for the Rabi season. The type of services include weather information, agro-advisory, livestock management, information on government schemes and also general services (health and hygiene, child care). Extensive trainings have been conducted on climate and disease resilient variety of seeds with access to improved variety Bajra (Pearl millet) mostly in Mathura.In Mathura, limited knowledge on seed germination often amounted to losses and thereby, exposure to seed germination testing by the project team largely helped address the issue and save on seed costs. Further, trainings were expanded to include awareness raising on seed treatment by bio fungicides (Trichoderma with PSB and Azotobacter), and replacement of broadcasting method with that of machine based line sowing, for Bajra. This has ensured that seeds get adequate moisture during long dry spell condition after sowing while also attaining proper germination after sowing. As is evident through the enclosed images, the project activities help reiterate the fact that proper action taken at early stages of growth can go a long way in avoiding crop failure which are only exacerbated due to climate change. In the CSV plots of Mathura, line sowing methods resulted in 100% seed germination while in the non-CSV plots, 50% of the project farmers had to undertake multiple re-sowings with compromised seed germination. Thus, it was seen that change in seed variety and sowing method can significantly reduce crop failure due to weather risks such as long dry spell and heavy rainfall after crop sowing. Adoption of such methods can not only minimize the impact of weather risks during the early crop growing stages but also improve crop yield and income. Therefore, verifying the accuracy of the idiom that, a stitch in time indeed helps save nine.Women farmers call the tune in Betul, Madhya Pradesh Nitya Chanana, Arun Khatri-Chhetri, Shehnab Sahin (CCAFS South Asia) and Rajashree Joshi (BAIF)The Climate-Smart Village project in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh creates women led local institutions to usher in climate-smart practices in agriculture.Women have been central figures in Gondi tribes' legends of origin. It is said that when Gondi gods were born, they were abandoned by their mother, then rescued by goddess Parvati but remained hidden in caves at the behest of her consort, lord Shiva. A Gondi hero took help from goddess Jangu Bai and rescued them from caves, thus, laying the foundation of their society led by these Gods. In the domain of reality one sees that Gondi women still command ethereal respect and are seen to actively participate in most walks of life including that of agriculture. This inclusiveness has been capitalized on by the project team devised by CCAFS funded by the United States Agency of International Development (USAID) to scale the Climate-Smart Village (CSV) approach in Madhya Pradesh along with Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.The CSV project in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh aims to build resilience among farming communities through a range of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) activities. Central to the project is the creation of local institutions called the Village Climate Management Committee (VCMC) or 'Gram Jalvayu Samiti' in vernacular in each of the 38 villages chosen for project implementation in Betul district. These local, informal institutions will oversee the management of the project while also ensuring true empowerment of the local communities. In the case of Betul, a further element of novelty comes from the fact that the local institution created (i.e the VCMC) is comprised entirely of women farmers.The Committees are a result of extensive consultations with the women farmers in the area, comprising of women farmer members, headed by a Chairman and a Secretary. Each committee will be responsible for over-seeing the formulation of site specific project intervention plans, its implementation including monitoring and evaluation. Further, a roadmap has been created to cultivate a larger institution called the 'Kisan Jalvayu Sangh', comprising the 38 Chairmen and Secretaries of the VCMCs in the project district, to be registered as a producer company of farmers.First and foremost, the VCMC members had been tasked with the selection process of farmer beneficiaries in the project villages. Out of the 38 villages in the district, a total of 3725 female farmers have been chosen as project beneficiaries out of which further segregation has been made on the basis of superchampion, champion and other CSA farmers. Subsequently, village level analysis for climatic risks were conducted, leading to the identification of locally contextualized climate-smart agricultural interventions (ICT based agro and climate advisories, sustainable agricultural practices like integrated pest/nutrient management, crop insurance etc.).To ensure the efficient institutional operation and sustainability, a number of by-laws were crafted to govern the same, some of which include member compliance regulations, resource pooling and individual member contributions, social audits of the programs among others. It is aimed that further legitimacy and credibility will accrue to the local institution through its crafting of the larger Village Development Plan that will in turn seek convergence with on-going government schemes in the project areas. Financial sustainability has been worked out through the Village Development Fund that will be managed by the VCMC and which will ensure farmers contribution in the same.Talking about her new found role in the VCMC, Rajeshwari, a farmer in Betul says, 'Over the years we have witnessed variations in our crop yields. Some years the yield has been good, and in some other, it has been very bad, which put my family in a lot of risk. This project initiative looks very promising to me and I am sure there will definitely be improvement in our yields. I am proud to be a member of the VCMC and excited to be part of the change'.While there are many channels through which scientific developmental research gets espoused, one by the private sector seems to be making strides in the recent past. With increasing private sector engagement with research for development, a panoramic potential for benefits has emerged. The Climate-Smart Village (CSV) approach too is all set to be scaled up by the private sector in India with new partnerships spawned with ITC Limited, a multi-business conglomerate of India.ITC Limited has already made its foray into rural empowerment in the country with extensive work being done to develop water and forest resources, creating new non-farm livelihoods, expanding primary education and skills in the rural hinterlands while also creating economic opportunities to empower rural women.Considering the increasing climatic impacts on the agriculture system of the country and its consequent bearing on rural livelihoods, ITC has partnered up with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) to help the agriculture-dependent communities to implement and scale up the CSV approach in its outreach areas. With an aim to initially cover approximately 2000 villages in six states of India, the first phase of the project has been launched in the three states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan for 2016-2019.The ITC-CCAFS project aims to address the growing challenge of climate change impact on current as well as future food security in ITC outreach areas. The project has been designed with utmost focus on community participation as local ownership and empowerment goes a long way towards establishing sustainability of such initiatives. The project is divided into two phases. The first phase is focussed on achieving current sustainable livelihoods through key important areas like agriculture, watershed, afforestation and women empowerment. The second phase being more future centric, targets to upgrade capabilities via education, skilling, sanitation and management of solid waste. For the implementation of the CSV approach in the key areas, as part of phase one, this joint project will: i) create a road-map for each cluster of villages that will act as a tool for communities in assessing the progress and alignment towards CSVs, ii) participatory implementation of various climate-smart interventions to promote Climate-Smart Villages in on-going projects of ITC, and iii) strengthen the capacity of farmers, local bodies and other stakeholders in climate change adaptation and mitigation.To illustrate some of the project initiatives and its ensuing outcomes, the outreach areas of Maharashtra (Ahmednagar and Pune) can be looked at. The region around Ahmednagar district being situated in the rain shadow area is severely affected by water scarcity. With the monsoon season shifting its pattern, scanty rains are observed in June (the changed normal) which forces farmers to undertake re-sowing of the kharif crops like Bajra and moong. As part of the ITC Project, a number of soil and water conservation techniques have been strategically placed to hold the water, harvest it in ponds and also recharge the groundwater aquifer. Main interventions include: Contour Conservation Trenches (CCT), Farm Bunds, Deep Level Trenches (DLT), Water Augmentation Trenches (WAT), Recharge Farm Ponds, Check Dams, and Percolation Dams. Farmer beneficiaries have attested to the interventions having helped in the augmentation of the water resources, improving crop yields, bringing larger area under cash crops, thus, ensuring higher incomes and reduced migration.The women farmers have also set up a small custom-hiring unit for the costly farm implements like Multi-Cropper, Ridger, Cultivator, and Rotavator. Women SHGs in the region have been enthusiastic about their work and participation in the project operations.Thus, it is evident with the progress so far that such joint ventures are pressing for a bottoms-up change in the rural hinterlands of India which are facing climatic risks in their agriculture systems. It is hoped that such models of collaboration are furthered and help attain multiple benefits of resilience, livelihood enhancement, gender inclusion among others within the larger ambit of community empowerment. Near real time assessment reports on weather deviations and crop conditions using multiple methods and large geospatial databases are being tested through the insurance perspectives for seven major crops in India.Since the last two years Government of India has been implementing a revamped crop insurance scheme (Prime Minister Crop Insurance Scheme) with the village as the insurance unit. This revamped scheme has now reached over 50 million hectares of cropped area and aims at reducing the basis risk and in turn minimize farmers' distress over crop insurance. The agriculture production system in South Asia is intricately linked with location-specific meteorological conditions particularly with precipitation and its distribution. It's often the weather conditions which shape the agricultural output of the season, along with management and farm-specific characteristics. The monitoring of the agriculture production systems is done through food security perspectives and mostly done at the regional scale. Besides, the outputs from the current monitoring systems were not available on either real/near-real time basis. Continuous monitoring is often required for all those agencies and individuals which are involved in agricultural and allied sectors especially the agriculture insurance sector.The CGIAR research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security in South Asia is trying to bridge this gap by providing near real time assessment reports on weather deviations and crop conditions using multiple methods and large geo-spatial databases through the insurance perspectives for seven major crops in India. These reports present district-level analysis of agriculture-specific indicators prevalent over India. High resolution gridded data was used to estimate near-real time crop condition and weather parameters. With temporal dimension of two weeks and district level analysis, the reports can ensure consistent and extensive monitoring. It aims to build a common platform where location specific, high quality data is available with minimal time lag, to monitor weather conditions and track the progress of agriculture outputs in the country. Deviations from long term averages is presented to gauge overall climatic trends.The report is structured in three sections: first section presents weather parameters, second section describes the crop condition using remotely sensed vegetation indices and third section highlights the crop specific conditions of prevented sowing, sowing failure and final yield estimates are described thereafter.The weather analysis presented here comprises of rainfall and temperature analysis. Rainfall is analysed comprehensively by focusing on volume, distribution and extremes. Additional section of drought is also included, which presents the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI). Crop condition is described by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) using MODIS datasets. The comparison from previous years and long-term averages are also presented in order to make qualitative inferences on the overall trends in vegetation cover. The final section on crop condition presents areas with likely chances of prevented sowing and crop failure, mid-season adversity (only for mid-season report) and finally yield loss assessment under different confidence level using multi-criteria assessment. Prevented sowing indicates areas where there are likely chances that sowing could not take place due to inadequate conditions. Similarly, sowing failure indicates areas where there are likely chances that crops could not survive due to unfavourable conditions. All the indicators were derived through multi-criteria assessment using weather derivatives, remotely sensed vegetation indices and crop growth modelling. This analysis was carried out only for rainfed regions; and flood losses are not considered. We recommend minimal validation and ground-truthing before further use.We believe these reports at this stage provides vital inputs to managers, planners, insurance and reinsurance industry. At this stage the reports are still incipient although rich enough in their content to serve several aspects related to crop insurance like qualitative checking of the field datasets. The analysis will soon be developed into a web-based portal where all the indicators and district/sub-district/village wise data can be accessed on near real time basis.Report can be accessed through: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/147345/retrieve","tokenCount":"2957"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c1ddab7c1a5cc9cd1983ca4a4694b632","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c4aff8e-b857-47d6-9903-a9dfae83f424/content","id":"-844808146"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0c9dacb9-3339-4f10-99f3-181c5d06bfbd","pagecount":"22","content":"Introduccidn En la ultima mitad del siglo, la fuente primaria del incremento •en la producc i6n de alimentos ha sido el aumento de las rendimientos. Se han requerido para planear nuevos sistemas de producci6n que llevaran a dichos incrementos gran numero de personas aptas cuyo conocimiento, experiencia y esfuerzos han sido canalizados par instituciones tanto publicas como privadas . En un perfodo de veinte afios, las contribuciones del CIMMYT han sido fomentar y difundir germoplasma mejorado y procedimientos para la investigaci6n en cultivos, asf como tambien brindar adiestramiento a mas de 4,000 personas que trabajan •en la investigaci6n en 95 pafses. La amplia variedad de programas de capacitaci6n ofrecidos par el Centro ha sido uno de los principales medios de fortalecer la capacidad de investigaci6n de las programas nacionales del mundo en desarrollo.Las actividades de adiestramiento del Centro incluyen cursos en servicio (impartidos en la sede y en las programas nacionales) para trabajadores agrfcolas de nivel medio, becas que permiten que cientfficos de mayor antiguedad visiten la sede, becas posdoctorales y oportunidades de realizar investigaci6n de tesis. Esta publicaci6n proporciona una breve historia de la evoluci6n, el alcance y el impacto de los esfuerzos del CIMMYT en el campo de la capacitaci6n durante los ultimas veinte afios. A ese resumen le sigue una resefia de las aspectos mas sobresalientes de lo que proyecta el Centro en este rengl6n.El Programa Agrfcola de Cooperaci6n de la Secretarfa de Agri c ultura y la Fundaci6n Rockefeller (FR), organismo precursor del CIMMYT en Mexico, cre6 muchos de los principios que siguen orientando la investigaci6n del Centro y las actuales acti vidades de capacitaci6n. Entre los afios de 1943 y 1961, miembros del personal de la Fundaci6n colaboraron con sus colegas mexicanos para resol ver algunos de las problemas agric61as del pafs. Dos de las contribuciones mas importantes de la Fundaci6n fueron brindar cursos en servicio a investigadores nacionales y proporcionar fondos que permitiesen a j6venes cientfficos mexicanos prometedores hacer estudios de posgrado . En las 17 afios que dur6 , el Programa Agrfcola de Cooperaci6n financi6 la formaci6n de unos 700 investigadores y proporcion6 becas de la Fundaci6n Rockefeller a 200 cientfficos para que obtuviesen grados de maestrfa y doctorado.En 1961 se estableci6 en Mexico el lnstituto Nacional de lnvestigaci6n Agricola (INIA, ahora parte del INIFAP) para apoyar al sector agrfcola del pafs. Este avance institucional marc6 la culminaci6n de la misi6n del personal de la Fundaci6n Rockefeller en Mexico y, con el respaldo del gobierno mexicano, se comenz6 a prestar atenci6n a los problemas de investigaci6n sabre mafz y trigo que los agricultores de otros parses enfrentaban. La Fundaci6n ayud6 a establecer redes internacionales para la prueba y distribuci6n de germoplasma de trigo semienano, en las que participaron cientfficos de instituciones de investigaci6n de muchos parses. Al iniciarse la decada de los 60, a solicitud de la Organizac i6n de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentaci6n y Agricultura (FAQ), el Dr. Norman E. Borlaug evalu6 la situaci6n y las necesidades de las programas nacionales de trigo en Africa del Norte y el Cercano Oriente . En su informe, el Dr . Borlaug sef\\al6 que la mayorfa de los programas nacionales que visit6 no estaban equipados adecuadamente y que serfa necesario una intensa instrucci6n y asistencia tecnica para introducir el germoplasma semienano y las tecnologfas de producci6n en esos paises.El Dr. Borlaug propuso que para hacer posible dicha instrucci6n se estableciera un centro internacional de adiestramiento en Mexico, que la Fundaci6n financiara becas y que la FAO seleccionara a los candidatos en consulta con los programas nacionales. Esta iniciativa marc6 el comienzo de una nueva era de capacitaci6n en el CIMMYT que ofrecerfa adiestramiento a agr6nomos de todas partes del mundo.En los primeros af\\os, el Centro invitaba s61o a unos cuantos becarios (20 a 25) a que vinieran a Mexico anualmente, de modo que era posible que participaran intensamente en los programas de investigaci6n de campo. En la decada de las 70, el programa de capacitaci6n creci6 rapidamente por varias razones. Primero, al terminar la construcci6n de su sede en El Batan en 1971, el CIMMYT cont6 con instalaciones adecuadas para una gama mas amplia de eventos de capacitaci6n. Las nuevas instalaciones de investigaci6n y adiestramiento inclufan aulas, auditorio, laboratorios, biblioteca, sitios de experimentaci6n adecuados y un dormitorio para becarios con 60 cuartos y cafeteria. Segundo, el exito espectacular de los trigos semienanos y el reconocimiento mundial al personal de Centro aumentaron en gran medida la demanda de germoplasma de trigo mejorado y de cursos en las metodos de investigaci6n para crear y producir nuevas variedades de trigo de alto rendimiento. Tercero, en 1974 se reorganiz6 el Programa de Mejoramiento de Mafz del Centro y se estableci6 un sistema internacional de generaci6n de germoplasma, cuyo adecuado funcionamiento dependerfa en gran medida de colaboradores bien calificados de las programas nacionales. Como resultado de lo anterior, el Centro ampli6 e implant6 un programa de cursos en servicio en las tecnicas de investigaci6n en mafz.Esos tres avances hicieron necesario no s61o la expansi6n de las programas de capacitaci6n, sino tambien la creaci6n de mayor numero de cursos. En las primeros anos, las cientfficos colaboradores trabajaban bajo intensa presi6n para analizar y distribuir nuevas variedades, ya que mucha parte del adiestramiento se centraba en preparar a las participantes en las cursos para que manejaran materiales mejorados. Empero, dada la magnitud de las limitantes de la producci6n, especialmente de mafz, desde el principio se dio prioridad a la formaci6n en las metodos de la investigaci6n agron6mica. Otro hecho que influy6 en el adiestramiento fue la creaci6n en 1971 del Grupo Consultivo sabre lnvestigaci6n Agricola Internacional (GCIAI), el cual aument6 las fondos disponibles para becas y permiti6 que el CIMMYT ampliara el alcance de sus programas de capacitaci6n.La filasaffa de la capacitaci6n def Centro tiene tres caracterfsticas que la distinguen: (1) aprendizaje activa, (2) enfasis en la sa!uci6n a carta plaza de las prablemas de producci6n y (3) una perspectiva de la investigaci6n basada en el producta.El aumento en la dimensi6n y complejidad de las programas hizo que la administraci6n nombrara a encargados de capacitaci6n de tiempo completo entre las miembros del personal cientffico. Hoy dfa, el Centro cuenta con ocho encargados de capacitaci6n en la sede: tres en mafz, tres en trigo, uno en manejo de estaciones experimentales y uno en economfa. Otra pa rte del personal de la sede ocupa gran parte de su tiempo en actividades relacionadas con el adiestramiento. En 1984 se cre6 el puesto de coordinador de capacitaci6n para ayudar a manejar de una serie de asuntos relacionados con la misma. Esto es tambien una de las responsabilidades importantes de las cientfficos asignados a las programas regionales; dichos investigadores constituyen casi la mitad de las miembros del personal de investigaci6n del CIMMYT y se encuentran trabajando en la mayorfa de las pafses productores de mafz y trigo del mundo en desarrollo. Al desempenar sus funciones, las miembros del personal regional de mafz, trigo y economfa participan con frecuencia en cursos breves y en talleres de campo organizados para programas nacionales especfficos, asf coma tambien en varios eventos regionales de capacitaci6n .La filosoffa de la capacitaci6n del Centro tiene tres caracterfsticas que la distinguen : ( 1) el aprendizaje activo, (2) el enfasis en la soluci6n a corto plazo de los problemas de producci6n y (3) una perspectiva de investigaci6n basada en el producto. El enfoque del aprendizaje activo se basa en la convicci6n de que cuando las personas son capaces de realizar una tarea de investigaci6n, desarrollan una mejor comprensi6n y apreciaci6n de los problemas y las prioridades del manejo de la investigaci6n y estan , por lo tanto, mas preparadas para supervisar a los demas en la ejecuci6n de los experimentos.Mediante sus programas de investigaci6n, el CIMMYT aborda los problemas de producci6n mas apremiantes de los agricultores de los paises en desarrollo, donde los rendimientos de maiz y trigo a menudo estan por debajo de su potencial. El practico enfoque cientifico del Centro ha demostrado que este tiene mucho que ofrecer, en particular como modelo para programas nacionales con recursos limitados para la investigaci6n agricola.Los cientificos del Centro aplican el enfoque arriba mencionado a la investigaci6n basada en el producto . Sus esfuerzos estan dirigidos principalmente a los problemas de producci6n de maiz y de trigo , aunque conservan su interes por las relaciones entre dichos productos y otras empresas agricolas y de cultivos . A medida que ha aumentado este interes, el Centro ha extendido en grado considerable la capacitaci6n, desde la concentraci6n casi exclusiva en el desarrollo de germoplasma hasta un enfoque mas amplio que incluye todas las fases de la investigaci6n en cultivos .El papel de! CIMMYT es facilitar la acci6n nacional mediante el suministro de los productos y servicios de la investigaci6n. Al desempefiar esta funci6n, el personal del Centro considera las diferencias entre los programas nacionales e intenta adaptar sus servicios a las circunstancias cambiantes de la investigaci6n nacional. De este modo, el Centro ha propiciado diversas oportunidades para investigadores con diferentes niveles de competencia profesional. No obstante, todos los programas reflejan un objetivo comun que se resume en tres definiciones de capacitar: \"adiestrar\" , \"instruir\", \"habilitar\" . Mas de 3,000 individuos han sido adiestrados en la sede del CIMMYT en Mexico (cuadro 1) y otros 1,250 han participado en cursos en el pais de origen . Aproximadamente dos terceras partes de los estudiantes asistieron a cursos en servicio y la otra tercera parte a programas de capacitaci6n personalizada en calidad de cientificos visitantes, estudiantes de posgrado o asociados pre y posdoctorados .El personal del CIMMYT se inclina a considerar el adiestramiento no como un evento pasajero, sino como la manera de proporcionar apoyo constante a los colaboradores nacionales a lo largo de sus carreras profesionales. Ese apoyo comienza, por lo general, con la capacitaci6n en servicio, la cual ha servido para formar directivos nacionales de investigaci6n con un enfoque practico para resolver los problemas de la investigaci6n en el campo . Los investigadores que han demostrado (en elCentro y al regresar a sus cargos en sus paises de origen) excetente actitud, aptitudes intelectuales y habilidades tecnicas, se convierten a menudo en 6ptimos candidatos para el estudio de posgrado. Se espera que estos individuos ocupen puestos clave dentro de sus sistemas naciona les de investigaci6n.Capacitaci6n en servicio en Mexico. Dos son las razones principales del inte res del CIMMYT en la capac itaci6n en servicio para investigadores de nivel medio. Primera, dado que las variedades de maiz y trigo estables. sensibles al manejo y de alto rendimiento son relativame nte nuevas en muchos de los paises en desarrollo, resulta vital pa ra el exito de los programas de mejoramiento de ge rmoplasma que los individuos recien graduados en agronomfa adquie ran a corto plazo las habilidades practicas req ueridas para manejar dichos materiales. En segundo lugar, al formar a investigadores relativamente j6venes. el personal del Centro espera introducir paulatinamente un sentido de profesionalismo y motivaci6n en aquellos investigadores que se encuentran en una etapa temprana de sus carreras.Los becarios en servicio tienen por lo general menos de treinta afios de edad y han trabajado para sus gobiernos en la investigaci6n agrfcola o en la extension durante un perfodo minimo de cinco afios. Cerca del 60% de los becarios en servicio tiene la licenciatura en agricultura, 20% tiene un grado superior y el 20% restante tiene un grado inferior. La mayoria de ellos pe rmanecen en Mexico durante un ciclo completo de cultivo (cinco a siete meses). Por lo general se realizan dos ciclos de capacitaci6n al afio.En la investigaci6n de mafz se ofrecen cursos sobre mejoramiento y producci6n de cultivos. Los cursos de investigaci6n en trigo se organizan de manera semejante, es decir, uno sobre el mejoramiento (cruzas y patologfa) y el otro sobre la producci6n. Tanto en los cursos de la producci6n de trigo como en los de la prod ucci6n de maiz, se hace hincapie en el analisis econ6mico a nivel de campo de agricultor. Para garantizar que las programas de investigaci6n de marz y de trigo reciban el apoyo necesario, se ofrece tambien un curso sabre el manejo de estaciones experimentales. Ademas, cada ano se adiestra a un pequeno numero de qufmicos expertos en cereales en las tecnicas de molienda, secado y evaluaci6n de la calidad de protefnas.Aunque el CIMMYT continua subrayando la importancia de una adecuada investigaci6n en estaciones experimentales, la investigaci6n en campos de agricultores tambien es objeto de mayor atenci6n. De hecho, hoy dra la mayorra de las becarios en servicio se inscriben en cursos del manejo (producci6n agron6mica) de cultivos de marz y trigo. El interes en las problemas de la prnducci6n se debe a que muchas veces se ha observado que la investigaci6n encaminada a formular recomendaciones de producci6n viables para las agricultores constituye el vrnculo mas debil del continua investigaci6n/extensi6n en muchos parses en desarrollo:Durante su estancia en Mexico, las becarios en manejo de cultivos son las responsables de realizar ensayos de producci6n agron6mica. Tambien tienen la oportunidad de observar una estrategia de investigaci6n en campos de agricultores en la cual las economistas forman parte importante del equipo de investigaci6n, pues el personal del Programa de Economfa participa en las cursos de manejo de cultivos. Los becarios aprenden a efectuar encuestas a nivel del predio agrfcola, cuyo objeto es la identificaci6n de las problemas de la producci6n mas importantes del agricultor y, por otra parte, a disenar, ejecutar y analizar una serie de ensayos en campos. El prop6sito de esta fase del curso es ayudar a las participantes a desarrollar la habilidad de identificar las mejores oportunidades de investigaci6n, asr coma tambien las soluciones a las problemas de producci6n.Cada becario se integra a un grupo de investigaci6n que consta de cinco a siete miembros, y que es responsable de sembrar una serie de ensayos agron6micos en diferentes sitios. El objetivo del curso es ayudar a las becarios para que tengan una visi6n clara del manejo de un programa de investigaci6n en campos con numerosos sitios de ensayo en campos de agricultores representativos.Es menor el grupo de las becarios en servicio (aproximadamente 35% del total) que participan en las cursos de mejoramiento de marz y trigo que en agronomra de la producci6n, en esencia porque las programas de mejoramiento de germoplasma de la mayorfa de las parses en desarrollo ya se encuentran bien provistos de personal capacitado. En las planes de estudio de las cursos de mejoramiento de cultivos se hace hincapie en las problemas de manejo, coma son la determinaci6n de las objetivos de mejoramiento y la organizaci6n de programas de mejoramiento de germoplasma. Los becarios tambien dedican gran parte de su tiempo a perfeccionar su capacidad de disenar y manejar parcelas, escoger material progenitor, efectuar cruzas, buscar tolerancia o resistencia a enfermedades, insectos y limitaciones ambientales, y seleccionar progenie mejorada para depuraci6n futura. Casi todos los becarios en servicio, no importa el curso en que se hayan inscrito, asisten a ciertas partes del curso de agronomfa de la producci6n, sobre todo las conferencias sobre estadfstica y analisis de datos. Los becarios tambien reciben instrucci6n sobre los principios para organizar programas integrados de mejoramiento de cultivos y de investigaci6n de la producci6n.La capacitaci6n fuera de Mexico va adquiriendo mas importancia v el personal def CIMMYT asignado a las programas regionales v nacionales asume gran parte de la responsabilidad de realizar es'te tipo de actividades.El CIMMYT y los organismos mexicanos de investigaci6n y producci6n agrfcolas mantienen relaciones especiales tanto en el adiestramiento como en la investigaci6n. El personal de la Secretarfa de Agricultura ayuda a localizar sitios para realizar capacitaci6n en campos de agricultores y se encargan de que los participantes visiten las instalaciones de producci6n de semillas, tiendas de insumos agrfcolas e industrias procesadoras de alimentos. Una de las contribuciones del Centro a traves de los anos ha sido ofrecer un programa de dos anos para seis a diez mexicanos que acaban de obtener la licenciatura en agricultura. Estos j6venes profesionales trabajan co mo auxiliares del personal cientffico en varias actividades de adiestramiento y de investigaci6n en cultivos. A algunos de ellos se les ayuda a obtener becas para hacer estudios de posgrado en instituciones mexicanas o extranjeras de investigaci6n agrfcola. Los cientfficos del Centro con frecuencia actuan como asesores de tesis para los posgraduados de universidades de agronomfa en todo el pafs. Ademas, se otorgan becas de capacitaci6n en servicio a investigadores de instituciones mexicanas.Capacitaci6n en servicio fuera de Mexico. El personal del CIMMYT participa cada dfa mas en actividades de adiestramiento fuera del pafs. Gran parte de la responsabilidad la tienen los cientfficos del Centro que estan asignados a los programas regionales y nacionales, aunque el personal de la sede (sobre todo los encc;irgados de la capacitaci6n) colabora con ellos. En anos recientes, los encargados de la capacitaci6n han sido designados a puestos regionales, donde su tarea primordial es formar especialistas en producci6n e investigadores en campos de agricultores.La contribuci6n del Centro en los programas de capacitaci6n fuera de Mexico ha tornado diversas formas. Una muy importante es el adiestramiento en las tecnicas del manejo de cultivos, en particular, en la metodologfa de la investigaci6n en campos. Este tipo de capacitaci6n generalmente se ofrece mediante un esfuerzo conjunto del personal de los programas regionales de economfa y de cultivos, que trabaja casi siempre con el personal de capacitaci6n de la sede . Asimismo, los antiguos becarios a menudo comparten la responsabilidad de impartir los cursos .Los cursos de investigaci6n en campos en los pafses de origen se basan por lo general en el sistema de \"llamadas\". Los becarios se reunen varias veces durante el ciclo de cultivo en al gun cam po de agricultor, donde siguen los diversos pasos de un programa de este tipo. En las dos primeras llamadas, los becarios realizan encuestas sabre los agricultores representativos y luego analizan los datos que se utilizaran en el diseno de los experimentos de campo, los cuales se siembran durante la siguiente llamada. En una reuni6n posterior durante )a temporada de cultivo, los participantes registran sus observaciones de los tratamientos incluidos en los ensayos. La ultima llamada es durante la cosecha cuando se recogen, analizan e interpretan los datos y se planean los ensayos del ano siguiente .10Otro ejemplo de capacitaci6n en el pals y regional son los talleres de investigaci6n de enfermedades de cereales organizados por el Gobierno de los Parses Bajos y el grupo de vigilancia de enfermedades regionales del Programa de Trigo del CIMMYT. Entre 1976 y 1984, se impartieron 10 talleres sobre las tecnicas de investigaci6n en patologfa de cereales de granos pequenos, como actividades regionales o como cursos nacionales de capacitaci6n en servicio. Estos cursos, por lo general de dos semanas, se llevaron a cabo justo antes del momento normal de la inocu laci6n de enfermedades en una estaci6n de investigaci6n en trigo centricamente ubicada. Los participantes asistieron a una serie de conferencias sobre los principios del desarrollo de variedades resistentes a las enfermedades y adquirieron experiencia directa en practicas de laboratorio, de viveros y de campo al ejecutar un programa de investigaci6n de patologfa. Ade mas de otorgar becas, el organismo donador proporcion6 equipo de campo y de laboratorio a cada instituci6n que particip6, para que los becarios pudiesen poner en practica el conocimiento obtenido.Cientfficos visitantes. Con el objeto de establecer y fortalecer relaciones de colaboraci6n con los programas nacionales, el CIMMYT ha otorgado becas a mas de 1 ,000 cientfficos que visitan la sede del Centro en Mexico (normalmente por un perfodo de dos a seis semanas) o a colegas de otros programas nacionales. Cada ano se otorgan de 50 a 60 becas de este tipo. El programa no s61o contribuye a aumentar los conocimientos practicos de los investigadores, sino que proporciona al personal del Centro una mejor comprensi6n de las prioridades de los programas nacionales de investigaci6n.Los cientfficos visitantes de programas de agronomfa y economfa por lo general dedican su tiempo a evaluar los datos provenientes de los ensayos en campos y a planificar cursos en los pafses. Estas visitas contribuyen de manera significativa al desarrollo e implantaci6n de procedimientos efectivos en funci6n del costo, para realizar investigaci6n del manejo de cultivos en programas nacionales.Becas para posgraduados . El CIMMYT ha brindado apoyo a la investigaci6n de tesis de 220 estudiantes de maestrfa y doctorado provenientes de programas nacionales colaboradores. Este apoyo por lo general consiste en germoplasma y/o datos de las redes internacionales de prueba del Centro. En virtud de que se requiere una gran cantidad del tiempo del personal y de apoyo logistico para mantener los proyectos de tesis que incluyen la investigaci6n de campo, s61o uno o dos de estos proyectos se han llevado a cabo en Mexico al aF\\o.Asociados posdoctorados. Cerca de 105 cientificos que acaban de recibir sus doctorados han pasado de uno o dos aF\\os en el Centro. El principal objetivo de esta capacitaci6n posdoctoral es que los investigadores aprendan los conceptos y desarrollen los .conocimientos practicos requeridos para ejecutar un programa internacional de investigaci6n en cultivos. El programa posdoctoral tambien ha demostrado ser muy valioso como medio para identificar los mejores candidatos para trabajar en el Cen1ro como personal internacional.La mayor parte de los posdoctorados trabajan en los principales programas de investigaci6n del Centro, al igual que los miembros del personal regular. Dado que estos j6venes investigadores a menudo tienen una formaci6n muy actualizada y conocimientos practicos especializados, en ocasiones se les invita a emprender proyectos independientes para que aprovechen mejor su experiencia y a la vez contribuyan nuevas tecnicas de investigaci6n al Centro.Conferencias y talleres . Los investigadores de todo el mundo en desarrollo consideran al CIMMYT como un centro internacional eminente en la investigaci6n de maiz y trigo. Parte de su funci6n como punto central de una red mundial de cientificos es facilitar el intercambio de informaci6n entre sus colaboradores. Para lograr ese fin, se realizan con frecuencia talleres y conferencias en la sede y en el campo; algunos de estos son sesiones de planeaci6n para miembros de las redes internacionales y otros son seminarios sobre temas de investigaci6n especificos. Una de las conferencias mas concurridas es la Semana de Presentaci6n que se lleva a cabo anualmente en la sede para dar una introducci6n a su programa de trabajo a entre 75 y 100 directores y miembros del personal de programas nacionales, representantes de los donadores, miembros del Comite Asesor Tecnico (CAT) del GCIAI y otras personas que se dedican a la investigaci6n agrfcola.El personal regional tambien contribuye en gran medida al intercambio de informaci6n mediante la organizaci6n de conferencias y talleres para sus colegas de varios pafses. Una funci6n clave de estas reuniones -que normalmente duran de tres a cinco dias-es dar a los cientificos la oportunidad de dialogar sobre la investigaci6n que se lleva a cabo en su regi6n. Dichas reuniones cuentan con una gran asistencia y a menudo son copatrocinados por un program a nacional o algun otro organismo internacional.Aunque las directores de las Programas de Mafz, Trigo y Economra son las responsables de las actividades de adiestramiento relacionadas con sus programas, las decisiones en torno a las becas y talleres o conferencias se toman junta con las investigadores y administradores nacionales . Estos ultimas estan muy conscientes de las oportunidades de capacitaci6n que el Centro ofrece pues han venido recibiendo las beneficios de dicho servicio desde hace veinte af'\\os.Los cientfficos del CIMMYT dedican, en la mayorfa de las casos, cuatro a seis af'\\os a la capacitaci6n; despues regresan a su trabajo de investigaci6n en la sede o a las programas regionales . Con su experiencia en investigaci6n y en programas regionales y nacionales, estos individuos tienen excelente~ posibilidades de lograr, al encargarse del adiestramiento, la srntesis de diversas experiencias del personal del Centro y de depurar las metodos de investigaci6n. El programa de capacitaci6n es el escenario id6neo para dicho proceso, ya que casi todo el personal participa en el mismo y, por otra parte, la ensef'\\anza es una gran ayuda para aclarar el conocimiento propio y poder expresarlo. Los becarios son a la postre las beneficiarios del programa, puesto que reciben una visi6n mas clara y coherente de las actividades y las metas de investigaci6n del Centro.Otras responsabilidades de las encargados de capacitaci6n en la sede son: ( 1) impartir cursos en servicio; (2) desarrollar material didactico, incluyendo las m6dulos y formatos para las cursos en cada pars; (3) asistir al personal regional en las actividades de capacitaci6n en las pafses y (4) consultar a las investigadores nacionales sabre la organizaci6n de programas de cursos en servicio en sus parses.Las principales tareas del personal regional son ( 1) identificar las necesidades de las instituciones colaboradoras y coordinar la asistencia del CIMMYT; (2) ayudar a disef'\\ar el contenido de las cursos en servicio que se ofrecen en Mexico y en otros pafses; (3) asesorar el desarrollo del material didactico y proporcionar ejemplos de experiencias en la investigaci6n que seran incluidos en el mismo; (4) organizar cursos en las parses y participar en ellos, y (5) coordinar el apoyo a antiguos becarios .El personal de investigaci6n de la sede tiene grandes responsabilidades para con las asociados pre y posdoctorados y las cientfficos visitantes, a las cuales dedica gran parte de su tiempo. Los cientfficos del Centro tambien trabajan con las becarios en servicio, tanto en el campo como en las aulas, y participan en el desarrollo de materiales didacticos que describen los conceptos y procedimientos clave de la investigaci6n .Con los af'ios, la demanda de los programas de capacitaci6n del CIMMYT ha aumentado considerablemente . No obstante, el Centro ha seguido hacienda hincapie en la calidad de su instrucci6n, aun cuando esta polftica ha restringido el numero de becarios que participan cada af'io. Otro de los rasgos del ad iestram iento del Centro es su compromise de mantener la interacci6n entre el personal del CIMMYT y los becarios que ya han terminado las cursos.Segun la opini6n de la mayorfa, los cursos en servicio del CIMMYT han tenido un profundo efecto en los participantes . Las razones son muchas : la interacci6n con cientfficos experimentados, el contacto con nuevas tecnicas de investigaci6n, la participaci6n en una eficaz organizaci6n de investigaci6n que cuenta con excelentes servicios de apoyo , el acceso a un amplio acervo de literatura cientffica en la biblioteca del Centro y la asocia ci6n con colegas de otros pafses.En 1984, el CAT rea liz6 cientos de entrevistas con trabajadores agrfcolas que habfan recibido capacitaci6n en servicio en centres apoyados por el GCIAI. Al informar sobre los resultados , los miembros del CAT hicieron especial referencia al impacto cualitativo de esta formaci6n y a la red que habfa generado : \" Los efectos mas importantes fueron de fndole mucho mas personal e fntima : el placer inesperado del arduo trabajo de campo, en el calor, el frfo , bajo la lluvia o la nieve, con animales, cultivos y suelos, junto a individuos altamente calificados, los llev6 a enorgullecerse de sus logros y de estar adquiriendo conocimientos practices, cosa que en otra epoca quiza les hubiera inspirado un menosprecio elitista; otro efecto fue el poner en practica lo que en su adiestramiento anterior ha bf a sido s61o mera teorfa. Todos los educadores estan acostumbrados a observar el cambio que la instrucci6n opera en la gente; lo que nos llam6 la atenci6n fue que estas personas sabfan que habfan cambiado, habfan disfrutado el proceso de cambio y estaban orgullosas del resultado .... Los antiguos becarios tambien aprecian su contacto continuado con los Centros despues de terminar la capacitaci6n .. . no tienen ya que permanecer aislados: ahora son miembros de un grupo especial y definido, pues forman parte de una comunidad mundial de ciencias agrfcolas y son catedraticos de una universidad mundial invisible . Se les brinda mas apoyo moral que material. Ninguna otra instrucci6n de la que tengamos noticia ha tenido un efecto tan poderoso \".El CIMMYT peri6dicamente realiza sus propias encuestas sobre los antiguos becarios en servicio . En 1983, se mand6 un cuestionario a cerca de 600 de ellos . Mas del 75% de los encuestados (350 personas en 58 pafses) calificaron su experiencia en el adiestramiento del Centro coma excelente y consideraron que fue una ayuda invaluable para su desarrollo profesional. La encuestaEl faturo de la capacitacidn en el CIMMYT 14 mostr6 que los antiguos becarios se habian convertido en investigadores de alto nivel : algunos se habian hecho cargo de estaciones experimentales; otros trabajaban con los agricultores en los servicios de extensi6n y unos cuantos se habian convertido en formuladores de politicas agrarias y administradores del mas alto nivel.Otros dos aspectos, puestos en relieve en la encuesta , han influido en la configuraci6n de la filosofia del CIMMYT respecto a los futuros programas de capacitaci6n . Uno de estos aspectos es el hecho de que el 70% de los encuestados afirmaron que les hubiese gustado recibir mayor variedad de materiales escritos y audiovisuales . Estos apoyos didacticos , dijeron , habrian resultado utiles durante su estancia en Mexico, y mas aun, al regresar a sus paises de origen para impartir a los demas lo que habian aprendido. El segundo aspecto que sobresali6 fue la elevada proporci6n de antiguos becarios en servicio que dijeron que el Centro deberia ofrecer mas becas a cientificos visitantes para viajar a Mexico y asistir a cursos bre ves sobre los nuevos metodos y tecnicas de investigaci6n .Hace dos decadas, muchas instituciones agrfcolas del Tercer Mundo se encontraban en la etapa inicia l de sus programas de investigaci6n sobre el trigo y el mafz. En el presente , un numero cada dia mayor de estas cuenta con investigadores altamente competentes y experimentados. Los programas mas avanzados estan en busca de nuevas oportunidades de mejorar la capacidad de investigaci6n de sus cientificos, muchos de los cuales fueron becarios del CIMMYT hace diez anos o mas. Por otra parte, muchos programas nacionales colaboradores (aquellos que se encuentran en una fase mas temprana de su desarrollo) requieren todavfa de practicos cursos en servicio para sus cientfficos j6venes mas prometedores, que subraye los aspectos elementales de la investigaci6n en mafz y trigo.Las cambiantes circunstancias de los programas nacionales de investigaci6n exigen diversas respuestas por parte de los programas de capacitaci6n del Centro: mayor cantidad de becas para cientfficos visitantes, un programa extenso de conferencias y talleres, la creaci6n de nuevos cursos sobre tecnicas de investigaci6n especializadas, la formaci6n de funcionarios nacionales de adiestramiento y la preparaci6n de series de material didactico completas en apoyo a la capacitaci6n en servicio nacional.Mejores instalaciones de capacitaci6n e informaci6n. El nuevo edificio de capacitaci6n, conferencias e informaci6n en la sede ayudara al personal del CIMMYT a satisfacer las necesidades y expectativas crecientes de su clientela en los pafses en desarrollo. La nueva construcci6n albergara la Unidad de Servicios de lnformaci6n, cuyo potencial para suministrar informaci6n sobre la investigaci6n de mafz, trigo y triticale a los colaboradores de los programas nacionales ha incrementado mediante el acceso en lfnea por computadora a las principales bases de datos cientfficos y el desarrollo de bases de datos (micas en su genero y propias del Centro. Otras caracterfsticas del nuevo edificio son las instalaciones para el adiestramiento en microcomputadoras, el centro de aprendizaje personalizado y la unidad de desarrollo de material didactico. Ademas, la capacidad del Centro para realizar conferencias sera ampliada en gran medida con las nuevas salas de seminarios que incluiran instalaciones de traducci6n simultanea. Asimismo, habra oficinas para 10 a 15 cientfficos visitantes e investigadores distinguidos.Expansion de la capacitaci6n en los paises. Miles de individuos que trabajan en programas de investigaci6n y producci6n agrfcola en el Tercer Mundo requieren cursos en servicio semejantes a los que se ofrecen en el CIMMYT . Para satisfacer mejor esta demanda , el Centro pretende dar mayor atenci6n a los cursos impartidos en los pafses, sobre todo para la ensenanza de las metodologfas de investigaci6n en campos de agricultores, ya que existe una gran demanda de este genero de instrucci6n .El fortalecimiento de los cursos en servicio de los programas nacionales ofrece varias ventajas . Por ejemplo, los cursos sobre los metodos de manejo de cultivos permiten la formaci6n in situ de mayor numero de investigadores . En virtud de que los cursos se realizan cerca de los sitios donde trabajan los participantes, resulta mas facil enfocarlos a los problemas reales de los agricultores locales. Por otra parte , para el CIMMYT el costo per capita • de la capacitaci6n en los pafses es menor que el de los programas en servicio ofrecidos en Mexico .A la vez, la creciente participaci6n del Centro en la capacitaci6n fuera de Mexico proporciona a los organismos bilaterales y multilaterales de asistencia para el desarrollo nuevas oportunidades de dar un apoyo mas s61ido y mas continuo a la formaci6n del personal nacional de investigaci6n . A diferencia del tfpico proyecto bilateral, en el cual el contacto entre el organismo ejecutor y el programa nacional a menudo conduce a la terminaci6n del contrato, el CIMMYT proporciona apoyo prolongado al personal de los programas nacionales . Esta continuidad , sin la cual los proyectos de desarrollo casi nunca cumplen con sus objetivos, es un rasgo importante de la estructura institucional y financiera del Centro .Aun cuando pueda llegar a ofrecerse mayor adiestramiento en la investigaci6n sobre el manejo de cultivos en otros pafses, los cursos de producci6n seguiran impartiendose en la sede del Centro, y este seguira siendo el sitio clave de la capacitaci6n en servicio en las metodologfas de mejoramiento de cultivos (fitomejoramiento, patologfa, entomologfa, tecnologfa de cereales) y en el manejo de estaciones experimentales. Sin embargo, en el futuro se prestara mayor atenci6n en los cursos de manejo de cultivos a la preparaci6n de becarios para que sirvan como instructores cuando regresen a sus pafses de origen .A medida que el CIMMYT intensifica sus esfuerzos de capacitaci6n en los pafses, tendran que formularse nuevas estrategias para organizar el adiestramiento dentro de los programas nacionales. Para lograrlo sera necesario aumentar los recurses pedag6gicos del Centro. Parte primordial de la tarea sera la creaci6n y distribuci6n de un nuevo acervo de material didactico (que incluya manuales, lecciones y apoyos audiovisuales) y el establecimiento de mejores sistemas para compartir la informaci6n con otras instituciones que ofrecen formaci6n en investigaci6n de cultivos .Nuevas oportunidades para los cientlficos visitantes . El programa de cientfficos visitantes constituye un medio bastante eficaz de mantener al dfa las aptitudes de los cientfficos nacionales. Aun asf, existen grandes posibilidades de mejorar los servicios a ese grupo mediante la creaci6n de cursos breves de especializaci6n sobre materias tales como el uso de microcomputadoras en el analisis y manejo de datos, asignaci6n de los recursos de la investigaci6n, modelos matematicos y otras tecnicas de investigaci6n avanzadas . Se planea en el presente continuar otorgando las 50 o 60 becas (de uno a tres meses) para cientfficos visitantes que se brindan cada ano, ademas de los cursos avanzados con una duraci6n de una a cuatro semanas para los cientfficos nacionales de mayor experiencia .El CIMMYT tambien planea establecer un nuevo programa de becas para cientfficos sobresalientes de los organismos nacionales de investigaci6n. Se otorgaran anualmente hasta seis becas a cientfficos para que pasen de tres a seis meses en el Centro . Este nuevo programa permitira a los participantes perfeccionar sus conocimientos practicos de investigaci6n, a la vez que aumentara el intercambio de informaci6n entre el personal del Centro y sus colegas de eminentes centros nacionales de investigaci6n agrfcola .Mayor apoyo a la capacitaci6n de posgraduados . El personal de la sede y reg ional continua en la busqueda de medios para ampliar su apoyo a la capacitaci6n de posgraduados. En Mexico, los miembros del personal han servido como asesores de tesis a cientos de estudiantes de Chapingo y de otras universidades agron6micas en el pafs . En programas realizados fuera de Mexico en (o cerca de) universidades que tienen programas de posgrado en agricultura (tales como la Universidad Kasetsart en Bangkok y la Universidad de Zimbabwe en Harare) , los cientfficos del CIMMYT a veces son asignados al cuerpo docente y participan en el adiestramiento de los posgraduados .Las diversas circunstancias de las programas nacionales exigen mayor numero de becas para cientfficos visitantes, mayor cantidad de conferencias y talleres, cursos nuevos y la creaci6n de material didactico.Se busca apoyo financiero ad icional para la formaci6n de los colaboradores clave de programas nacionales y se esta reservando un fondo para ese prop6sito, en particular, para Jos estudios de doctorado . En la mayorfa de los casos , el personal de! Centro asesora las tesis y proporciona informaci6n y/o germoplasma para los proyectos de las mismas . No obstante , no se espera que aumente significativamente el numero de los proyectos llevados a cabo en la sede; segu iran siendo dos o tres por ano.Continuaci6n del programa de posdoctorados . No se espera que el numero de posdoctorados aumente y la ma yor parte de estos seguiran trabajando dentro de los principales programas de investigaci6n . Empero, tendran mayor oportunidad de participar en proyectos de investigaci6n especiales y publicar los resultados. Aunque en los pr6ximos afios en el CIMMYT habra menos plazas para cientfficos de mayor nivel, el programa de posdoctorados seguira funcionando como un medio de formar, preseleccionar y reclutar nuevo personal internacional.Un programa de comunicaciones mas completo. El personal del CIMMYT tiene la bien merecida reputaci6n de mantener estrecho contacto con los cientfficos nacionales; se ha ganado este cred ito dedicando una porci6n considerable de su tiempo a visitar programas de investigaci6n en pafses en desarrollo . Los contactos personales asf establecidos han sido un factor importante del exito del Centro en la investigaci6n agrfcola internacional .En el futuro, seguramente surgiran nuevas maneras de mejorar la comunicaci6n entre el CIMMYT y sus colaboradores de los programas nacionales. Las tecnologfas modernas de telecomunicaci6n avanzan a paso muy acelerado y tarde o temprano sera posible vincular al Centro -mediante redes de informaci6n-con practicamente todos los programas nacionales con los que trabaja. El personal del Centro espera crear bases de datos que puedan proporcionar a los cientfficos nacionales, en especial a los antiguos becarios, un suministro permanente de informaci6n util de investigaci6n de cultivos.Para lograr una transformaci6n profunda de la agricultura tradicional, es menester hacer constantes inversiones en las sistemas nacionales de investigaci6n en el Tercer Mundo. Esto significa, ante todo, inversiones en las recursos humanos.Por otra parte, el Centro tiene planes para patrocinar un gran numero de conferencias y talleres internacionales . Estas reuniones dan la oportunidad de compartir las ideas y los hallazgos de la investigaci6n, y ademas brindan al personal del Centro la ocasi6n de evaluar sus prioridades y vigilar la eficacia de sus programas.Otro medio por el cual el Centro puede obtener valiosa informaci6n para la planeaci6n de los programas es el establecimiento de mejores sistemas de comunicaci6n entre sus diversos clientes, como son los colaboradores en mejoramiento de germoplasma, los antiguos becarios y los cientfficos visitantes. Otra posibilidad es que el personal regional promueva la consolidaci6n de asociaciones regionales y redes de investigaci6n especializadas. Estas serfan un medio efectivo en funci6n del costo de acelerar la soluci6n de importantes problemas de producci6n, ya que los pafses participantes compartirfan responsabilidades, informaci6n y materiales.La agricultura es el motor que impulsa el crecimiento y el Conclusiones desarrollo en el Tercer Mundo, mas s61o puede cumplir eficazmente su cometido si los tradicionales modos de cultivo se sustituyen por sistemas mas productivos. Pa ra efectuar una transformaci6n semejante sera necesario invertir constantemente en los sistemas nacionales de investigaci6n agricola, sobre todo en los recursos humanos. Dado que el CIMMYT puede formar unicamente a una fracci6n de los investigadores en mafz y trigo que desean ese tipo de asistencia, el personal del Centro debe buscar la forma de multiplicar el efecto de sus esfuerzos. Ouiza los dos caminos mas directos para llegar a esta meta sean que los programas nacionales desempenen un papel mucho mas trascendental en la capacitaci6n y que se asignen mayores fondos para apoyar a los posgraduados en instituciones de sus propios pafses o del extranjero.Estas y otras iniciativas descritas en esta publicaci6n requeriran arreglos innovativos de financiamiento, sobre todo al prlncipio, antes de que se obtenga el apoyo adicional de los donadores del GCIAI. El Centro trata de crear nuevos medios de financiamiento a largo plazo para becas y ademas espera establecer un fondo de dotaci6n especial. Con estos y otros recursos de apoyo, el CIMMYT sera capaz de mantener el excelente nivel de su capacitaci6n y fomentar un programa mas dinamico aun para mejorar los recursos humanos de los programas de investigaci6n de mafz y trigo en el mundo entero .","tokenCount":"6772"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"44c8e925ad5961913fd86f90972af0c4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/769b16d5-2ed3-4035-8bdc-0e90ec387424/retrieve","id":"1692972256"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f6d6a57b-04b9-4955-9f2c-4bfa267bd6f0","pagecount":"33","content":"The development and delivery of superior varieties that squarely meet the needs and preferences of growers and consumers is the ultimate goal of any breeding program. This requires careful assembly of germplasm of interest and testing them in a series of trials in specific target environments. The AfricaYam project is conducting yam variety selection and evaluation trials in four target countries in West Africa: Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Nigeria. Each country has researchers and scientists to monitor breeding advances and varietal evaluation. Ensuring quality data from such field evaluation and selection trials requires a standardized protocol. This protocol presents basic guidelines for settingup field evaluation trials of advanced yam clones and data recording to assist IITA and NARS staff in such a way that standardized field trials can be set-up, trial conditions accurately characterized, and quality data can be recorded, collected, shared, centrally stored, and uploaded to the YamBase and other trial data management systems. The protocol attempts to provide common ground for breeders and selectors (i) to accurately characterize environmental conditions and assess seasonal biotic factors during the planting season, (ii) agree on the key traits to be assessed and measured, (iii) to apply standardized procedures and formats to record data, and (iv) develop a user-friendly and practical system to upload, store, and share data.• Trait = a distinguishing quality or characteristic. Visible or observable quality genetically determined or conditioned. It is an entity + attribute. Example: Flower + color = Flower color (trait).• Phenotype = observed physical appearance or biochemical characteristics. Entity + attribute + value. Example:-Leaf + color + red = leaf color red = phenotype (observed)• Genotype = a collective term used by breeders to refer to a group of varieties, cultivars, wild relatives, and landraces to be studied or evaluated.• Germplasm = all the plant accessions (a single, collected variety or cultivar or a wild plant, a landrace or a bred cultivar) of a crop available for plant breeding.• Clone = a group of similar individuals arising from vegetative propagation or asexually from one ancestor or stock to which they all are genetically identical or having the same genetic constitution.• Variety = a group of individuals within a species which are distinct in form or function from other similar arrays of individuals.• Environment = sum total of surrounding factors that affect growth and development of a plant. Environment in variety trial could be total of external conditions affiliated with location, year/season, management practice, or a combination of such conditions.• Pedigree = a record of the ancestry of an individual or family.Conducting a variety performance trial is a demanding process requiring a sequence of operations and preparation. Its overall goal is to identify differences among the test varieties/clones under near \"ideal and perfect\" conditions for the intended purpose that permit the expression of the genetic potential of the plant. A variety trial could be carried out on a designated research site, what we call on-station, or it can be done under farmers' field conditions (on-farm). Prior to embarking on variety performance evaluation trials, the following series of questions need to be addressed. Asking these questions on a regular basis helped us stay focused on the task at hand while ensuring its proper and timely implementation.• What will/must I do?• Why am I doing it? What is the driving purpose? What do I desire to achieve? • How will I do it? What must I have at hand so I can do it? When will I have to do it? • What planning process and calendar of activities must I have in place for successful implementation? • Can I personally do all of the tasks? Will I be able to do all the tasks? Should I delegate some of the tasks? • Who will assist me in doing it? Is there a support group that enables me to do the things I must do; to do them well; to do them on time? • Are all the tasks in my area of expertise? If not, who is there? Who is designated as the one who will do this work?Analyzing these questions will lead to identification of tasks that must be done by you or your team or by those trained to do them so that the work will succeed. The tasks for variety trial or any other breeding activities have to be done in a timely manner and in proper sequence. Planning the variety evaluation trial encompasses: stating a clear objective, selection of treatment, choice of experimental design, number of replications, selection of site, measuring soil heterogeneity, considering competing effects, plot labeling, and preparing the proper field book for the trial.Variety performance evaluation in yam could follow a sequence of trials namely; a preliminary or observation trial, advanced multilocation and multi-season trial, and a variety verification or demonstration trial depending on the variety testing procedure of the target country. Based on the nature of the yam crop, variety evaluation trials could be initiated using up to thirty (30) elite clones recommended by breeding programs that have already shown superior performance in trials that targeted specific traits.However, the number of clones to evaluate at different stages or types of the trials is influenced by the objective, resources, and human capacity.During the first evaluation season, the preliminary/observation trials are often established in a location representative of the target production area. However, number of locations and replications per location for the preliminary trial depends on the quantity and quality of planting material (seed yam) available for the test genotypes. Most often the preliminary trial is planted on an experimental station and carefully monitored by researchers and experienced technicians. At this stage, the newly developed or introduced test clones are compared with existing check varieties for their observable merits for agronomic, biotic or abiotic stress tolerance, and quality traits before promoting them to extensive multilocation and multi-season testing. From the second season onwards, advanced variety trials could be planted in more than one location either on-station or on-farm or under different management practices representative of the target production environments to fairly assess the test varieties' quality and performance in relation to the check or standard varieties and identify the best variety for release. The number of seasons and locations to execute the preliminary or advanced variety trials depends on the countries' variety testing procedures and requirements. The variety verification or demonstration trial is normally conducted under real farmer conditions and on-station using a few identified candidate varieties from advanced trials that meet high standards for quality and performance for release decisions and/or promotion for use by growers. Such trials create opportunities for communication and interaction with various stakeholders on values of new varieties to be promoted for large-scale production.Assemble elite clones or varieties from IITA and/or national breeding programs that have shown superior performance for key traits in previous trials as test genotypes. In addition, include at least two most preferred varieties in a target production environment as a local check and one widely grown variety across sites as a standard check. For all the test clones and check varieties, high-quality seed tubers from the same origin should be used. The preliminary variety trial in the first season requires at least 10 seed tubers (setts) per entry (5 plants per row), to be planted in two replications in one location. From the second season onwards, the plot size and number of locations should be increased depending on planting material availability. The second season and advanced variety trial requires a 5 m by 4 ridge plot to accommodate 20 plants per plot. In the advanced variety trial, the six middle plants constitute the net plot while the fourteen outer plants are the border rows. Depending on the number of replications set for the trial and number of locations to plant the trial, one has to prepare in advance a sufficient quantity of seed tubers (setts) for the test genotypes and check varieties to execute a standard yield trial.The tuber is the most important planting material used for the variety performance trial. The planting material from a tuber is called a \"sett\". A sett size for standard variety performance trials should be between 200 and 250 grams. Seed tubers for planting could either be small, healthy whole tubers or larger tubers cut into minisetts and pre-treated for disease or pest damage. From a larger tuber generally three types of mini-setts could be obtained (Fig. 1): • Head setts: best yam setts to plant. It emerges fast (develop new shoots fast) because of the presence of the primary nodal complex (eye) which gives rise to the new plant.• Middle setts• Tail setts While preparing setts from large whole tubers, proper seed cutting practices should be followed to prevent disease spread between tubers and clones. Disinfect the tools after each cutting by dipping in a 5% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite solution (common bleach such as JIK available in grocery stores can be used) for at least 5 min, followed by rinsing by dipping tools in tap water. However, instead of using setts from larger tuber cuttings, plan to have a separate seed multiplication plot in a previous year or season using the mini-sett technique to produce a sufficient quantity of clean, small-seed-size, whole tubers. Having a separate seed multiplication plot for the genotypes under trial should be a routine practice for the yam variety performance evaluation exercise. When setts are used as planting material, it is advised to plant setts from the head, middle, and tail portions in separate plots to account for variation in germination timing and rates, and it also eases agronomic management. In addition, the record of the weight of the setts planted per plot should be taken to correct variability arising from planting different size setts during data analysis.Pre-treatments before planting: Treat the planting setts with fungicide and insecticide at storage and before planting to encourage wound healing and prevent entry of pathogenic organisms on cut surfaces that could spoil the setts. Treat seed tubers (mini-setts or small tubers) with a mixed solution of a pesticide cocktail prepared as follows:• Macozeb: 70 g• Chlorpyrifos: 75 ml• Tap Water: 10 L Place seed tubers (setts) from the same genotype/entry in a properly labelled net bag and dip it into the solution for 10 minutes, and then leave them in a shaded place (e.g., under a tree) for 18 to 24 hours to allow the cut surface to dry. Make sure that the seed tubers of each genotype are properly bagged and labelled to avoid mix-up and misnaming during the treatment and drying process. Use a permanent label (permanent marker, pencil, or barcode label) that will not fade in the treatment solution and drying process.To ensure quality data from field trials, use uniform size and pregerminated setts. This requires proper planning in the previous season to produce a sufficient quantity of clean tubers for the genotypes and generate excess setts. Use of excess setts would account for variation in germination rates to enable planting at the same time. Pre-germination of the planting setts could be done using pots or germination chambers/ boxes under screen house/shade-nets or small raised seedbeds in the field under conditions favorable for sprouting. Use moist carbonized rice husk or other media like sawdust, coconut coir etc. available locally for the pre-germination exercise. Use proper labelling and isolation to avoid mix-up and misnaming of the genotypes during pre-germination and the field planting process. When there is enough seed yam and the program presumes pre-sprouting is not practical under certain circumstance, use the same portion of the tubers for planting, preferably the head portion as it sprouts and emerges more readily after planting than the non-head setts. However, it should be noted that planting unsprouted head setts could result in variation in emergence within a plot and this has to be accounted for during data analysis by taking a record of the emergence date of plants within a plot.Depending on the condition of the site and number of genotypes/entries to be evaluated, a researcher at each site has to make their own choice of the most appropriate experimental design for the site. If the experimental plot at the trial site has unidirectional heterogeneity, a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), where replications of clones planted in blocks and within each block all genotypes are randomized is the most preferred design. Alpha designs are suitable designs to handle larger numbers of clones. Please refer to any experimental design and analysis books on conditions of using respective field designs. For instance, in RCBD, all treatments (test clones/check varieties) are grouped into uniform blocks of equal size. The main purpose of blocking is to reduce experimental error by eliminating sources of heterogeneity such as soil fertility or field slopes. With a predictable pattern of field variability, plot shape and block orientation can be carefully chosen so that the experimental conditions within each block are as uniform as possible. When the pattern of field variability is unidirectional, long and narrow blocks should be used. When the pattern of variability is not predictable, blocks should be as square or rectangular plots of double or multiple rows. These are preferably long, single row plots. While using single row plots, take into account how to correct variability arising from inter-plot competition or border effects due to neighboring plots within a block. If a single row plot is used, then guard rows of same variety should be planted to minimize the border effects. After the decision has been made to use an appropriate design for the trial, the treatments (elite clones and check varieties) have to be randomized properly. Use any statistical software for making randomization. For technical details in dealing with randomization of treatments refer to Gomez and Gomez (1984).Follow standard agronomic practices and crop protection measures to raise a good yam crop (see Mignouna et al. 2009). The most common agronomic practices to be followed include:• Depth/height of ridge or mound of at least 40 cm• Planting spacing of 1 meter intra row (along ridges/mound = between stands) and 1 meter between ridges (inter row). This will result planting density of 10,000 stands per hectare.• Planting depth of 15 to 20 cm to prevent setts from exposure to sun scorching and rodents• Weed control: Variety trial plots should be kept free of weeds to ensure optimum crop growth and performance. Weed competition is a serious problem during early crop growth (planting to emergence) and this has to be controlled with the application of suitable herbicides. Apply a combination of diuron (a systemic pre-emergent) and glyphosate (a contact) herbicide for effective weed control. Mix diuron and glyphosate at 2.3 L and 1.8 L, respectively, per hectare rate. Application should be done not later than 7 days after planting (DAP) of the yam. Subsequent manual weeding at least twice should be applied to further control weeds in the trial plot.• Earthening-up or Remounding: This activity is required to provide an optimum soil environment for proper development of the roots and tubers. It is normally done during weeding but when there is excessive root and tuber exposure as a result of heavy rains or rodents it has to be done separately using hoes.• Staking and Trailing: Yam is a climber and may require proper staking depending on the agroecology for optimum crop growth and performance. The variety trial could be conducted with or without staking depending on the trial objective. If the trial is supposed to be staked, a proper trellising method should be applied to reduce the number of stakes required for the trial area. Staking is normally done about a month after planting when 90% of the sprouts would have emerged in a plot. Use bamboo sticks or other material locally available or PVS pipes of uniform height (2−3 meters). Regular guiding and training of the yam vines (particularly lateral branches) to the stake must be carried out at least twice a week for proper twining during the active growth of the plant.• Harvesting: The yam variety trial could be harvested between 7 and 9 months after planting depending on the species and maturity duration. Likewise planting operation, maximum care, and precaution must be given during harvesting to avoid varietal mixture and for proper data collection. Before the harvesting operation, one has to prepare proper labels and arrange other items required for harvest operation. On harvesting day, the harvestable net plot is carefully marked and tubers dug out manually. All harvested tubers from the plot are packed on the harvested spot in each plot and prepared label tags for the corresponding plot assigned for collection of relevant harvest data and proper storage of tubers after data collection.Environmental and site descriptors: Record the environmental and site specific parameters of the location where the trial is being conducted. These include longitude, latitude, altitude, soil, and climate data. Record the climate data (temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc) for the trial period and also information on soil physical and chemical properties that help to explain spatial patterns among experimental sites and agroecological zones. Data from environmental and site descriptors are important for the interpretation of the results of the trial. Record daily weather data on temperature (max, min, average), rainfall, relative humidity etc using Hobo Remote Monitoring System or nearest weather station using separate data sheetThe evaluation parameters in variety trials usually encompass an array of plant traits/ characteristics that are either virtually independent of the environment or that are highly influenced by the environment. Traits virtually independent of the environment are descriptors recorded to ensure distinctness and uniformity of the variety whereas those influenced by environment are recorded to determine its value for cultivation and use in targeted environments. Yam variety trialling should consider recording the following array of parameters.          This data should be taken three times during the virus incidence scoring and the mean of the three readings reported. This will enable study of the disease progression.Estimate mean severity by summing severity scores of >1 in a plot divided by total number of symptomatic plants.","tokenCount":"3003"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e30d7ff98b2e27f23981f599d96453d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/47cffbb0-d717-454e-bd28-2a0b420a67e4/retrieve","id":"-1501842882"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"33756df2-82b9-48f9-85ab-1f02a5256289","pagecount":"4","content":"Chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius) is a perennial vegetable native of Guatemala, which has enormous potential to make significant nutritional and health contributions in vulnerable communities due to its high nutritional value and capacity to produce leaves yield year-round. Chaya can truly be considered as a 'superfood' and as a viable option for an economic food supply for the Guatemalan population. Yet, paradoxically, its production, consumption and marketing have been poorly studied and promoted insofar. In 2017, a value chain assessment was carried out by Bioversity International and the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (UVG) to contribute to fill this gap in knowledge, and identify opportunities and constraints for developing the market of chaya in Guatemala. This study deployed a Rapid Market Appraisal methodology to collect qualitative data through semistructured interviews of different stakeholders engaged in the chaya value chain, including producers, vendors, consumers, indirect actors and other informed participants.Estrella, Mansa, Plegada, and Picuda, the first two being the most popular. Chaya production in Guatemala is not significant when compared to other crops (e.g. coffee), but the area cultivated is unknown as no information is collected on this plant in national statistics. On average, families interviewed in Chiquimula and Petén own between 5 to 20 chaya plants, which are used as living fence-posts either around the house, home garden or agricultural plots. People keep producing chaya for traditional reasons, but also because of its nutritional value and easy cultivation. Unlike Petén, in Chiquimula the main problem for chaya production are the heavy drought spells and the limited access to water. Even though the quantity of water that chaya requires is really small, its lack does affect the quantity of leaves the plant can produce during the year. In Chiquimula in fact, the production of chaya leaves reduces during summer, and only farmers who have access to irrigation are able to get some yield to bring to the market. Chaya is quite resistant to numerous pests and diseases, and although it does show susceptibility to some of them. Farmers are used to just rip off the infected leaves to control the infestation.The costs for chaya cultivation are minimal. According to our estimates, taking care of five plants (mainly labor) can cost between 2 to 4 USD/month. In Guatemala, chaya production and consumption is measured in bundles, each one made of 15-20 leaves. The quantity of leaves harvested varies by season and region; for instance, a family from Chiquimula can harvest on average 10 bundles/week. Most chaya production in the villages surveyed is used for household consumption, and to a lesser extent for feeding animals or sale in the market. Other findings of our study indicate that the main reasons for farmers not growing chaya are the low levels of production and low market demand. Interestingly, some farmers have also shown reluctance to grow a crop wrongly perceived by many as \"food of the poor\".It is not very common to see chaya in local and regional markets in Guatemala. The supply and diversity of greens in the markets is quite high, but the assessment revealed that chaya is not an important green for vendors, who prefer to sell mostly black nightshade, chipilin, spinach, amaranth leaves, chard, lettuce, watercress, squash leaves, and condiment plants (e.g. cilantro, parsley, spearmint). This happens mainly because most vendors and consumers do not know chaya nor its nutritional and medicinal benefits; and also, because the other mentioned greens can be produced at different altitudes so that their distribution and availability in the markets are much broader than that of chaya. In fact, chaya is produced only in low lands (i.e. up to 1500 meters above sea level), thus its production is limited to specific regions of Guatemala.Our surveys found chaya on sale in the markets of Jocotan and in two markets in Chiquimula (Central Market and Terminal), those in San Benito and Santa Elena in Petén and in few more in Guatemala City (e.g. La Terminal, Central Market and La Palmita).However, the number of vendors who were selling it in these markets was not significant. In the markets of Petén and Chiquimula, vendors reported selling chaya between one to four times per week, but in very limited amounts (on average 12 bundles per week). In the case of large cities' markets, the frequency of chaya sales was even lower (once/month to twice/week, with an average of 4 bundles/week). Chaya's price varies by season and market. For instance, in the markets located in Chiquimula and Petén, chaya prices vary from 1 to 4 GTQ/bundle and in the markets in Guatemala City from 3 to 5 GTQ/bundle.Even though people in numerous communities produce and have access to chaya, their levels of consumption are minimal and in decline. Low and declining consumption of chaya in urban areas is related to low awareness of the plant and lack of availability in the markets. Most Guatemalans in the city do not even know that chaya exists and the ones who do know chaya cannot find it easily in the markets. For instance, it is estimated that at the Credit: Bioversity International/N. Amaya community level a family in Chiquimula consumes on average five bundles of chaya once a week during winter (i.e rainy season) and only three bundles in summer. Another important factor that influences the level of chaya consumption is the limited number of dishes that include chaya as ingredient. There are not many recipes used in the communities for preparing chaya. The most common dishes are tamales, scrambled eggs with chaya, soups, and chaya with pinol (i.e. flour made from toasted corn mixed with chaya and water). In the communities surveyed in Chiquimula, people eat chaya mostly in soups and with pinol, which are not very attractive nor desired by children. Of paramount importance to popularize chaya, is thus the development of innovative, more attractive and easy ways to cook chaya to make this nutritious food more appealing especially to younger generations.Around 65% of the consumers interviewed in the markets located in Chiquimula and Petén stated that they knew about chaya, while only 20% of the consumers from the markets in Guatemala City were aware of this plant. Consumers who buy chaya in the markets in Petén and Chiquimula and at lesser extend in urban markets of Guatemala, do so primarily for its unique flavor. Fewer consumers, mostly in Guatemala City, mentioned using chaya for its nutritive or medicinal value. It is estimated that consumers in these markets buy around two bundles of chaya between one up to four times per month. The level of consumption by these consumers depends on the availability of chaya in the markets, which most of the time is inexistent. Around a third of the consumers encountered in the markets in Peten, Chiquimula and Guatemala City, who never heard about chaya, were interested in trying it. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that a lot of people, especially among younger generations in rural areas, perceive leafy vegetables such as chaya as \"food of the poor\". Because of this stigma, traditional Mayan groups increasingly prefer introduced crops and products over native ones. These findings show that, one of the problems of malnutrition and food insecurity in Guatemala, cannot be ascribed only to the lack of availability and access to food, but also to the loss of knowledge and appreciation for ancestral foods. .The majority of the Guatemalan population bases its diet on maize and beans, important sources of protein and energy, but poor providers of all micronutrients needed for a healthy diet. On the other end, the cost of micronutrient-rich foods and low incomes represent a barrier for large sectors of the population to incorporate these items into their diets. According to the UN, almost half of the population cannot afford a basic food basket and as a result, the prevalence of stunting in children under five is one of the highest in the world (46.5% nationally with peaks as high as 90% in some Departments). The market price of chaya in Guatemala is lower compared to other leafy vegetables, meanwhile its nutritional composition is considerably higher in comparison. Chaya has seven times more vitamin C, four times more calcium and two times more protein than spinach, while its price is almost half that of spinach. Moreover, chaya has five times more vitamin C than chipilin, three times more than that found in black Chaya promotion in Chiquimula. Credit: S. Maselli/UVG Chaya powder, EuroTropics.Credit: Bioversity International/N. Lauridsen","tokenCount":"1407"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"883009ae38d8cb003417e0697e64551d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c2f70cf-9c9b-4443-870b-6780eb7c1ee0/retrieve","id":"1091864064"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d586f45a-19c6-46fc-9e33-6247eb5d828b","pagecount":"15","content":"The ratification of the Paris Agreement in 2016 laid the course for all countries to set Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and adaptation activities and begin implementation of these plans. In many developing countries, the agriculture sector is a key component of mitigation contributions and adaptation plans. However, not all sectoral ministries including, for example the Ministry of Agriculture, have the full knowledge about the UNFCCC processes, the global climate negotiations and their role in contributing to the national commitments in climate change and the NDCs. GIZ, as part of its support to African Union institutions, is working with NEPAD to help support African countries in their implementation of NDC commitments through creation of a training course.NEPAD and CCAFS have joined forces, and with support from GIZ they held a training workshop on 10 -12 April 2018 in Nairobi for participants from Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia. The participants came from Ministries of agriculture, environment, finance, and planning. The overall aim of the training course was to enhance capacities amongst staff and personnel of the various ministries for successful implementation of the agricultural components of the NDCs. The focus of the training was to create a broader understanding of NDCs with the aim that participants have a better understanding of (a) What has to be done? (b) How it can be done? (c) Where can they find further support? and (d) What are existing tools that can be used?The training consisted of eight modules delivered over three days. The modules included a presentation, question and answer session, and group activity/discussion. The modules delivered were:• were reviewed to minimize overlaps and repetition in the presentations. Group activity exercises and discussion questions were prepared by Laura Cramer and Philip Thornton. The purpose of these exercises was to stimulate discussion among participants about the topics covered and foster interaction between the ministries in attendance.A facilitator (Mr. Julius Nyangaga) was hired by CCAFS to lead the workshop, and presenters were identified from CCAFS, CGIAR centers, and FAO.NEPAD led the organization of the workshop, including logistics around the venue, invitations of participants, and travel arrangements. Invitations letters were issued to the ministries of focus, and they were asked to send a representative for the training. In some cases, participants had difficulty getting clearance/approval for their travel, which led to some ministries from some countries not being represented.There were four participants from Ghana, two from Uganda, two from Ethiopia, one from Tanzania, and three from Kenya. There was one participant from a civil society organization, the Pan African Climate Justice Alliance. A full list of participants and presenters can be found in Annex 3.In addition to the presentations within each module, there were group exercises to discuss in smaller groups the content presented and help participants apply what they had learned to their own country context. On Day 1, the first group exercise was for participants from each country to sit together and go through their country's NDC to identify the role of the agriculture sector. This was very useful because some participants were not familiar with their country's NDC. They were provided with a hard copy to review, and then each country presented back on how the agriculture sector factors in to the NDC. On Day 2, there were small group discussions following the presentations on ex-ante tools and social concerns and climate finance.On Day 3, there were two group exercises. The first involved the whole group identifying the top four challenges of measurement, reporting and verification (MRV). These four challenges were each written on a flipchart in a different corner of the room, and participants were asked to use post-it notes to write possible solutions for the challenges and stick them on the appropriate flipchart. The identified challenges were capacity, data, funding, and coordination. After everyone had time to stick their postit notes, everyone went from flipchart to flipchart as a group to read and discuss what had been posted. See Annex 4 for the solutions suggested under each topic. The second group exercise on Day 3 was on indicators for adaptation in agriculture. The activity was done after the presentation and discussion of Module 7, part 2, which dealt with monitoring of adaptation in an NDC context. We formed just two groups for this indicator review exercise. The groups were given about 45 minutes for the exercise. The groups were asked to answer the following for each indicator: Given the diversity of experience and expertise among participants, it was not easy for the groups to fully complete the exercise in the time allotted. The first four indicators were reviewed under the Institutions category by one group, and they were all rated as being very relevant to track. The other group began working with the agricultural productivity indicators and also only managed to get through four of them. This exercise will need to be reconsidered and re-designed for the next training.The final group exercise came after Module 8. Participants were asked to write down a few concrete actions they will do personally in the next six months and one year's time, and actions they want their ministry to undertake in that timeframe. This activity was meant to encourage them to think about how what they learned over the course of the workshop can be practically applied in their daily life. See Annex 5 for the action items listed. These action items will be used in a follow-up to the training that is planned by CCAFS. CCAFS will contact the participants in the first quarter of 2019 to assess achievement of or progress toward the actions put forward.The participants each filled out a course evaluation form at the end of the training. Overall, the results of the evaluations show that participants appreciated the workshop and learned information they did not know before attending. Average scores for questions 1 and 2 are presented below in Tables 1 and 2. The lowest scoring statements were that the content was organized and easy to follow and that the time allotted for the training was sufficient. For the topics, the average scores show that participants found all of the topics useful or extremely useful.Agreement with statements Average (out of 5) The objectives of the training were clearly defined 4.5The topics covered were relevant to me 4.5The content was organized and easy to follow 4.0The materials distributed were helpful 4.3The time allotted for the training was sufficient 3.9The meeting room and facilities were adequate and comfortable 4.6 5 = strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3 = neutral; 2 = disagree; 1 = strongly disagree  The participants were also asked within which modules they learned the most. The modules mentioned most often in this question were module 5 (climate finance), 6 (private sector engagement) and 7 (MRV for mitigation and adaptation). These were also the ones they indicated they will draw upon the most when they return home.When asked if there is anything they will do differently as a result of the training, there were several mentions of involving the private sector more in their work. There were also two participants who listed greater incorporation of gender concerns in the NDCs.When asked for suggestions on how to improve the course, people mentioned several things. These included allocating more time for discussion, making the presentations less technical, including a separate module on gender, providing the modules in advance, and providing more relevant country examples and case studies. These suggestions are being taken into consideration for the next time the course is delivered.Full results from the course evaluations are in Annex 2.NEPAD, GIZ and CCAFS will organize a similar training to be held in Francophone West Africa in September 2018. As part of NEPAD's support to its Member States, it will consider additional trainings either in more regions of Africa or at the national level for specific countries, depending on interest and resource availability. The contact person at NEPAD for these plans is Kwame Ababio.  ","tokenCount":"1326"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ff4687328a95fda1d8448842e632fa1c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0279beee-7d39-4cb4-adae-cbc446b8daec/retrieve","id":"-1087930514"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2f0ff138-b2f0-4a4f-9aff-676e9df03932","pagecount":"16","content":"8 aWhere converts weather and agronomic data into a forecast and historical record of a farmers' farm.12 With the second year of the MUIIS project coming to a close, what kind of business model will take it into the future?14 Farmers use precision agriculture to apply inputs only where and when they are needed.population growth will have dwarfed food production. This will put an untenable strain on resources such as land and water as we search for ways to feed nine billion people. This strain is likely to be further exacerbated by climate change. Unpredictable farming seasons and weather patterns are making life even more difficult for food producers. Two ways of obviating these developments is to use resources such as water and agricultural inputs more efficiently and increase the crop yields of key actors in global food production: smallholder farmers.These concerns are what led the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs to award a subsidy of 4.6 million euros through the Netherlands Space Office to a consortium of partners led by CTA to implement the Market-led, Userowned ICT4Ag Enabled Information Service (MUIIS). The project has ambitious goals: increase crop yield, farmers' income, the use of agri-inputs and water, and trade and investment; and decrease the risk of using agri-inputs.The project is designed so that each of CTA's six partners in the chain have a specific task to carry out over the project's three-year lifespan. aWhere, eLEAF and EARS-E2M handle the analysis and transformation of satellite data into practical advice for farmers. CTA works with the AGRA, EAFF and Mercy Corps Uganda on the ground to gauge farmers' information needs, train extension workers, digitally profile farmers and train them to use the information and advice they receive.For the bulk of this issue of ICT Update, we interviewed people working for several of these partner organisations, from NSO to Mercy Corps. What exactly does each partner do? What makes the partnership strong? Is the business model holding up? The MUIIS project is now completing the second of its three years, so that raises several other interesting questions, not least of which: how have farmers responded to the idea of subscribing to the MUIIS service bundle? One thing all of the people we spoke to agree on is that this project is designed to last. Too often, once a project's funds dry up, so doesICT Update spoke to Ruud Grim, senior advisor for applications and coordinator of Geodata for Agriculture and Water (G4AW) at the Netherlands Space Office, to find out more about the G4AW programme, which made the MUIIS consortium possible.all of this knowledge? How, for example, does a farmer benefit from it? Do they receive advice that will help them make better decisions? We concluded that this wasn't happening at the operational level. There were a number of pilot projects, research projects and small demonstration projects, but they tended to end without much follow-up. That's when the ministry decided to take the link between satellite data and food security to the next stage.So we examined that question for a year or so. We spoke to many players in the field, had a literature study carried out by students, and at a certain point it became clear that if we want to achieve our goal of improving food security, a number of things are crucial: first, quite simply, we need to connect to the smallholder farmer. If you can't do that, then you have no added value. You need to understand their needs, otherwise you won't be able to provide them with information that can be used to take action. So knowledge transfer and capacity building are part of this process, which is typically the domain of NGOs and extension officers from ministries of agriculture. Or companies. So that's the first step that you have to take.Q How did a space agency get involved in food security? NSO was founded in 2009. But the Netherlands has been represented at the European Space Agency for about 30 years. At a certain point we thought it's great that we've launched a number of satellites into space, but how are we going to start using them optimally? So that led to one of NSO's missions, namely to promote the use of satellite data in society. Another mission is to maximize the use of the entire infrastructure that has been developed. And at the same time look after the government's economic interests, especially in terms of innovation. In other words, we also want the Dutch business sector and knowledge institutes to benefit from satellite data. You could describes NSO's role as a driver of innovation, economic growth and the use of knowledge.NSO got involved in the discussion with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs about food security and supporting smallholder food producers in developing countries. The G4AW programme emerged from this discussion. It's a special programme because it connects two worlds that had never directly interacted with each other before. On the one hand you have satellites -the high-tech, science side of it -and then you have the development cooperation sidesmallholder farmers in developing countries, who are extremely vulnerable, because if a crop fails they're immediately in trouble. You could say the two have nothing to do with each other, and yet we've discovered that they actually have a great deal to offer each other. Q How does the raw satellite data get processed? ESA's Sentinel mission is an important source. It's a European satellite constellation basically consisting of three types of satellite, two of which deliver a new message about once a week, while another one transmits on a daily basis. These satellites supply different kinds of data. The companies and knowledge institutes have algorithms that can derive information from this data. Data that comes down from the satellite, before it even reaches the tech company, first undergoes several quality checks by the operator of the satellite, who has to make sure that the data have a certain reliability and quality. In aerospace terminology, they call it working from level 0, which is the raw data, to level 4. In other words, the information and quality improves as it goes from one level to the next.The operator also carries out a number of corrections, for exampleThe second important condition was that while you can develop a service that's suitable for farmers, it has to be economically viable as well, otherwise it's pointless. There has to be a party or an organisation behind it that develops a financial model for the provision of these services, and of course the service has to be affordable. Affordable could mean it's free, but it could come from other sources. It could be a system where customers -farmers or farmer cooperatives -pay, but then in such a way that they can benefit.The most important criterion was that the initiative has to generate a service that has added value. We noticed that this market didn't really exist yet. Why? Because it entails a number of risks, and the services have to be developed. The customers won't be able to pay for it yet or may not want to, so essentially there's a huge disincentive for organisations to invest in it. That's why we as the government have been given permission to extend grants for projects such as MUIIS. That's basically what's behind G4AW.Q How do you actually calculate at what point a smallholder will benefit from the service? Assume that the operational costs of service delivery are a million euros a year. And assume a smallholder farmer earns 1,000 euros a year. Let's say he's prepared to invest 1% of that amount in the service, with the potential added value that he will stand to earn at least 10% more income. That means he will invest 10 dollars in the service and earn 100 dollars more a year as a result. So we said, that's the minimum the farmer will have to spend on the service. The initial response from the sector was: 'You guys are nuts, we cannot reach out to 100,000 farmers,' but ultimately the sector came up with clever, inclusive business models, including aggregators and governments that make the number of farmers that need to be reached realistic.Above: A field of maize in Uganda. (James Anderson, World Resources Institute).year to take all the necessary steps to work well together, to reach the farmers properly.Another lesson is that the development of a business model can be very tricky. We have several projects in which the partnership has had to adapt the business plan, the business model. But we build space for that into our projects. We're not dogmatic about that. We don't tell our partners that they have to stick to every detail of their plan and business model. That's simply not how it works. These models are based on our best insights, and if these insights change along the way we simply have to adapt the plan and activities.But it's important to have companies on board to pull the cart. They can provide continuity because they have the business drive. Profit is considered a dirty word because it's sees as coming at the expense of the farmers. But these companies are often social enterprises involved in the environment, who are not in it to earn millions but want to continue to provide a service. Without that business drive, a researcher will wander from project to project, and without continuity the impact will be negligible. You certainly won't achieve what's needed to ensure food security.In the end, the involvement of the private sector stems from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' realisation in 2011 that support for development cooperation was waning, and the way to turn that around was to introduce the economic component. • Ruud Grim is senior advisor for applications and coordinator of the G4AW Facility at the Netherlands Space Office. atmospheric or geographical corrections. Then ESA will put the data into a database, and that's where the tech companies source their data from. They have models that can derive information from this data. You could even say that the data is a 'half' product, because for a farmer it's not advice or an actionable product yet. It's the tech companies' job to take care of the primary processing of the satellite data and package it into a product. In the G4AW project MUIIS, which is coordinated by CTA, eLEAF, for example, focuses on water and vegetation, while aWhere focuses mainly on meteorological satellite data and weather forecasts.Q What happens next? Then at a certain point all of that converges in a model, or a large algorithm. Think of it as a decision support system that contains the knowledge from which advice is distilled. Often you'll need to supplement the data with other information to achieve your aim. You may need to combine it with information on local temperatures and moisture levels. How that's all organised is up to the tech companies. Eventually the central system will produce specific advice for farmers covering a specific region. The advice is delivered via telecom or extension officers who go into the field with their mobile phone, while some farmers receive it through SMS or radio. Those are essentially the different channels used to reach farmers. But NSO's role in all this is to ensure that the entire field of players come together and that the satellite data eventually gets turned into a service or financial product that reaches farmers.Q How is this advice benefitting smallholder farmers? Traditionally, a farmer in a developing country would respond to his environment or at most to a weather report that he received from the national meteorological service, but that is general information and not location-specific. So you have to realise that the reliability of weather data for farmers was poor. And there was no other way for them to source information. Farmers still depended on the traditional signals that they picked up on from nature. But unfortunately we're having to deal with climate change. That means weather seasons are starting earlier or later, droughts are getting worse or rain is intensifying. Essentially weather has become much more unpredictable.Satellites generate much more precise, location-based, and therefore reliable, data. Providing farmers with better and timely information in the form of weather forecasting and crop management, for example, puts them in a position to make well-founded decisions -decisions that will increase yield and income and result in the more effective use of agricultural inputs and water. And because satellite data cover large areas and are consistent in time and space, the basic information is continuously the same. As a result, you can offer a high-quality service over time. Continuous, high-quality data is important. Take a local outdated weather station, for example. They break down sometimes or work at half strength. There are people at these stations filling in numbers all day long, so sometimes they get it wrong. So it's important to automate these systems as much as possible to eliminate human error and other factors you have no control over. In that sense, satellite data is extremely consistent and reliable.Q G4AW has initiated 17 projects to date. What lessons have you learned so far? Essentially the lessons we've learned is that cultural and organisational problems are often much more challenging than technological ones. Clearly, the organisation and the partnership have to be handled properly, otherwise you'll suffer delays and risk not achieving your goals. We deliberately put a limit of three years on our projects. The idea being that in the first year you set up the partnership, and develop and offer your first service.In the second year you roll out the service in the field and get feedback. Then you make plans to scale it up and roll out your training plans. And in the third year you have an improved service and take care of the full rollout of the service. That's the ideal situation. But many of these projects are being extended to a fourth year. Why? Because the reality is that the partners need more time in the first The G4AW programme is special because it connects two worlds that had never directly interacted with each other before e LEAF procures satellite imagery from the vast fleet of satellites orbiting our planet launched by space organisations such as ESA and NASA. Once sourced, eLEAF converts satellite pictures into quantified data. 'It's a process called PiMapping,' says Remco Dost. 'What we basically do is measure how much radiation solar has been emitted by the sun, how much of that has been used, reflected back into space, absorbed by the soil, and that allows us to calculate how much is used by vegetation for photosynthesis.'From that, eLEAF can get an idea of the status of the actual crop in the field. What is the current state of the vegetation growing right now? PiMapping tells you this in kilogrammes or tons per hectare. 'It also reveals the condition of the crop in terms of water,' says Dost. 'Is the crop thirsty, does it need water?' The technology also makes it possible to see in-field variation. 'It shows you that a crop is doing well at the edge but not at the centre, for example,' Dost says. Or compare two fields. 'Because we have detailed input information, we can see whether a given field is suffering from water stress or soil compaction. Then you can compare that to the neighbour's field and ask why one is doing better than the other. Is it variety? Is it management?' That's one side of the eLEAF story. The company helps farmers to monitor their crop over the season. Once it figures out why a crop is producing less, it provides the farmer with advice on how to improve production. But eLEAF also combines data. 'We can monitor a crop over the years and establish what its potential growth would be in a given region. And by combining that with climate information we can even provide information on what kind of yield to expect,' says Dost.So the next question is, how is this advice packaged so that it is useful for farmers on the ground? 'There are a number of access structures,' Dost says. 'Indeed, satellite imagery in itself would not be useful information for a farmer. So we provide a derived product with weekly updates on the status of the crop. We have our own interface, called FieldLook, so you can access it online. There farmers can log in and get all their fields spatially visualised in graphic form so they can also see the evolution over time.'The Gezira Irrigation Scheme eLEAF and CTA worked together prior to the MUIIS project. 'We worked together on the Gezira project in Sudan, which was very successful,' Dost says. Gezira is a large irrigation scheme, more than a million hectares. But farmers were having productivity issues. 'It was all gravity-based irrigation: the gates open and water flows over the fields. So we provided farmers there -who have mobile phones but not smartphones -with irrigation advice by SMS. We calculated the status of the participating farmers' crops and linked that to the weather forecast. Based on that we were able to determine when to irrigate a crop before water stress sets in.'Once a crop suffers from water stress, farmers start to lose income. The irrigation advice that eLEAF gave farmers had stunning results. In some cases, the yield increased by as much as 200% to 250%. In fact, the advice was to irrigate more, not less, which had two benefits. First, it solved the water stress problem. But second, farmers actually used less water. Because they were irrigating more, they became more conscious of the amount of water that they put on the field.Gezira was the start of the collaboration between CTA and eLEAF and the use of this type of technology for smallholders. 'Many of these services are normally used for large corporations, commercial companies that have some money to spend,' Dost says. 'But of course smallholders are a completely different sector. They have small fields, limited access to information, and willingness to pay is also usually low. That makes it difficult to provide them with these kinds services.' That is where combined services comes in, which is precisely the strength of the MUIIS project. 'That kind of project requires an investment and you have to get the technology to work. You have to put a team together, and all of these things are difficult for smaller companies. The Netherlands Space Office's tender through Geodata for Agriculture and Water (G4AW) solved this problem.'It effectively made it possible to create a consortium of partners, each responsible for a service in the MUIIS chain,We're already working on the tooling that smallholders can use on a simple smartphone up to an advanced smartphone Feature article from generating raw satellite data to providing local support to farmers. 'While Gezira provided irrigation support, what's nice about MUIIS is that there's a shift towards a more holistic economic advice suite,' says Dost. 'Irrigation advice is very specific, but most farmers engage in what we call rain-fed farming, so they rely on the weather. One of the things I really like about MUIIS is that it looks at a variety of weather and crop factors.' And the state-of-the-art tooling will hopefully get the youth interested in farming again. 'If you want to solve the food security situation in the next 30 years, I think smallholders are a large part of the solution. And youth need to be involved too.'Yet the question of tooling is complex, according to Dost. 'If the farmers in Uganda had access to smartphones we could provide them with more tooling and they could also provide us with useful feedback and data. The way we see it, the technology is there, and we are basically adapting how we deliver the messages.' eLEAF is currently conducting a feasibility study in Ghana, where literacy is an issue, so they are using voice messaging. 'But 20 years ago when I started my career there were no mobile phones, let alone email,' Dost says. 'We communicated by fax. So we're already working on the tooling that smallholders can use on a simple smartphone up to an advanced smartphone. I don't know whether they will all have a smartphone five years from now, but a number of them will. And having the access structure to those services doesn't only mean that they get better services but they will also become better advocates of the services that are there.' As for MUIIS, once the initial three-year term of the project comes to an end, it will need to stand on its own two feet. There is already a subscription fee model that farmers can subscribe to. 'But we need the numbers for that to work. We need to build up the confidence. The total MUIIS system needs to be locally owned after the subsidy and project have stopped. This isn't a project where, after the work is finished, everything is done, end of story. On the contrary, we're aiming for a sustainable service that will continue way after.' • About the author Remco Dost is senior project manager at eLEAF, a company based in Wageningen, the Netherlands whose mission is to provide data on crop growth and water use to increase food production, support sustainable water management and protect environmental systems worldwide.Above: This is where it all begins. A satellite above the Earth transmits data that will eventually help farmers on the ground (ESA/ATG medialab). aWhere is a small company that has been in the business of providing agricultural intelligence for almost 20 years. The company focuses mainly on weather and agronomic data. 'We use 3D modelling on top of satellite and ground station data to create a global grid surface,' says Hanna Camp, client engagement manager at aWhere. 'The grid is approximately 9 km by 9 km and covers all of the areas that we refer to as agricultural earth. So we'll have some modelled weather for any place where someone is growing something.' These datasets reach back at least 10 and sometimes 20 years into the past. 'We want to be sure that farmers all over the globe have access to a forecast and truly historical record of their farm, not just the closest ground stations but a real location-specific record and a forecast for their farms so that they can start to make real decisions based on the weather,' Camp says.The impetus for that, of course, is climate change. Weather has become much more volatile and unpredictable recently. This has made it more difficult for farmers to make decisions, especially when they do not have access to any real weather information for their farms. That is where a company like aWhere can make a difference. It can use its database to get a high-resolution look at food and food growth all over the world. 'For example, if we think that cocoa is going to be facing serious challenges in the next couple of years in West Africa because the conditions are becoming more hostile to the trees, then we look at where conditions might be getting better. What we can do to partner with people who want to start growing new types of food in places where they maybe weren't able to grow it before? What kind of tools do they need, and what sort of historical analysis might they need to convince them?'Converting data into 150 useful characters aWhere uses a multipronged approach. It partners with both private companies and NGOs. Indeed, the Market-led, Userowned ICT4Ag-enabled Information Service (MUIIS) project fell very much in the sphere of the projects that the company likes to take on: farmer-specific projects that try to get highresolution information down to the farmers. Another appealing aspect of the project was the idea of creating a business model that would sustain itself after the project is done. 'Too often, a project's funding dries up and then it no longer sustains itself,' Camp says.Like eLEAF (see pages 6-7 of this issue), aWhere's role in MUIIS is to package the satellite data so that it is useful for farmers on the ground. The satellite data is processed on aWhere's server every day. In the case of forecasts, they are updated every four to six hours. The data is immediately available on aWhere's application programming interface (API). 'That's the primary tool that we use to communicate with the ground,' Camp says. 'We work with Ensibuuko, our main ground partner, who run the ground systems. They also have some developers on the ground who we work with to connect to the API so that they can automatically update their data for all of the subscribed farmers as frequently as they like.'The data is filtered out by farmer location and then aggregated into a seven-day recent history, for example. 'We check whether the rainfall has been above or below a set amount. If it has been below a set amount, that triggers a pre-set message. And if it's been above a certain amount that may trigger a different message.' The system also checks for a different set of risk thresholds, not just precipitation but also temperature, for example. If it has been unusually humid, for example, that would be a risk factor for diseases. When there are multiple risks, the system sends priority messages. 'What it really amounts to is that people have taken the data from our system and translated it into a very simple 150-character text alerting the farmer of the risk and telling him a very simple action he might be able to take,' Camp says.MUIIS is a three-year project funded by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs through the Netherlands Space Office and its Geodata for Agriculture and Water (G4AW) programme. One of the things that makes this project stand out is that it is designed to be a sustainable venture that continues after the initial three years are over. 'G4AW has been incredible ambitious and supportive,' Camp says. 'This long time period that we were given to develop this product has been really important. Some of the other projects we work on tend to be very short-going. While you can develop a product in that time period, you really don't get the chance to deploy it in the field, test everything out and get the farmers' feedback.' Feedback is an important aspect of the product development  The data revolution is transforming the traditional role of farmer organisations and cooperatives. What challenges do they face in ensuring that the data revolution benefits their members? Stéphane Boyera explores options, such as providing specialised services and creating farmer profiles. F armer organisations (FOs) and cooperatives have traditionally played an important role in society. Indeed, they help to improve their members' living conditions, particularly the low-income earners. More than 40% of all households in Africa are members of a cooperative society, and the cooperative movement is Africa's biggest NGO. But what is their role in the data revolution? How can they both ensure that this data revolution benefits their members, and smallholder farmers in general, and at the same time contribute to the revolution by providing valuable information to policymakers or other stakeholders of the ecosystem?Numerous literature and data (see related links) show that there is a huge gap in terms of productivity for most crops in sub-Saharan Africa and other developing regions. This gap is also a tremendous opportunity to support smallholder farmers and increase their income and food security. There are a series of challenges at each stage of the crop cycle, and providing the right information or the right instrument at the right time (credit and insurance, for example) can help farmers to bridge at least part of that gap.The best way to use this information is by providing individual farmers with specialised services. The delivery of these services can largely be supported and improved by using open datasets. The Agriculture Open Data Package is a major resource that identifies high-value data in various agricultural activities. But those datasets are only one part of the picture.The equation relies on the mash-up of global data (for example, satellite images, research, information databases on crops, seeds, and pest and diseases) with farmer-level (credit records and field ownership documentation) and field-based information (soil information, geographic location, state of the fields and crops) to determine the appropriate individual actionable information.The result at the farmer level is the availability of new products to support their production (credit and insurance) and timely information to support decision-making.Farmer-level and field-based information is local information that can be used to create a profile of farmers. FOs and cooperatives are in the best position to build and maintain those profiles. The value of these profiles, apart from enabling specialised services for farmers, can also benefit other stakeholders, such as cooperatives and FOs themselves. The value of membership profiles spans across many of these organisations' activities:• planning and strategy based on real data (identification of new opportunities and new services); The value of these profiles can also benefit policymakers. At a basic level, policymakers want to speak to the most representative organisations with real data about their membership. The management of profiles is a way to demonstrate this representativeness.There is a potentially greater impact at the data level, however. Profile information provides disaggregated data at a hyperlocal level. Those data point mainly to the agricultural sector, but given the importance of agriculture in rural areas, these data also provide detailed information on most households. The data stored in profiles, after anonymisation and publication as open data, can contribute to many national datasets:• core agricultural datasets (land usage and production); • measurement of public policies impact (reach and impact of subsidies schemes); • Sustainable Development Goals (contribution to many targets and indicators, such as zero hunger, decent work and economic growth and responsible production); and • general household data (education, household composition, income and land ownership).The core question is to know how to build such profiles and its exact content. The set of information largely depends on the usage and focus. Depending on where FOs and cooperatives want to focus their activities, and the type of services they want to offer to farmers, very different information has to be collected. An exhaustive analysis of these data, the currently available technical solutions to store them, the options for collecting and keeping them up to date, but also all the concerns around data ownership and privacy are topics of a larger study funded by CTA through GODAN participation, and realised by SBC4D that will be published soon.•The last mile again. We gave farmers till September-October to subscribe on an instalment plan, because some farmers cannot pay the full season's subscription in one month.Q How have farmers responded to the service?In the first season, about a hundred farmers paid 14,000 Ugandan shillings for the MUIIS service. What we've learned is that we need to adapt the marketing model because a hundred is a small number compared to the 40,000 farmers that were profiled by March 2017. In other words, we haven't been able to sell the idea of this service to a large number of farmers yet. So this time around we are targeting more group purchases, whereas in the first season we targeted a lot of individual farmers to subscribe to the MUIIS service bundle. That means that a farmer group can buy on behalf of its members, which will hopefully increase membership numbers. We've adapted the MUIIS mobile purchase application to be able to accept group subscriptions now. Specifically that means mobile phones, which had to be set up with a data collection tool called ONA that would make it possible to profile the farmers.If you're familiar with mobile data collection tools, ONA falls in the family that they call open data kit. So my role was to train the agents in mobile phone literacy and make them comfortable using smartphones, because not all of them had used smartphones before.The next phase was to introduce them to the application so they could start profiling farmers. To make the graduation model a bit easier for them, we started on the first day by introducing to them the profiling tool on paper. That familiarised them with the questions that they would be asking farmers, before they get distracted by smartphones, connectivity and applications. On the second day we trained them in mobile phone literacy. How to turn on internet mobile data, for example. How to turn on GPS, because some of the questions required the GPS location to be captured. How to increase the accuracy level, because many of the farmers live in rural communities with serious barriers, such as hills and vegetation that would sometimes make it difficult to capture GPS accurately. So that was the kind of training we were giving the MUIIS agents.The task of profiling was pretty much the work of 2016, and so towards the end of that year we started developing another technology solution, but this time with a farmer interface to make it as easy as possible for farmers to subscribe to the MUIIS business service. Based on the profiling data that we had gathered we discovered that the majority of the farmers had feature phones. So the mobile application that we developed, which is a mobile banking and information system, uses a USSD communications protocol, because that can be used on feature phones. Most farmers don't have smartphones, let alone mobile phone access.Q How do farmers benefit from profiling? Once farmers have been profiled, their data is on our server and they can subscribe to the MUIIS bundle service. We also provided farmers with a way to pay, because a subscription is both an expression of interest and a paid transaction. Farmers pay 14,000 Ugandan shillings via mobile money, which goes directly to MUIIS. We had already set up a dashboard that enabled the consortium members, including CTA, to be able to view the subscriptions in real time. And when we launched the MUIIS service live for the farmers we also had a TV screen where we could actually see in real time how the subscriptions were progressing.Uganda has two rainy seasons, so our initial launch was in March to target the first season, which runs through March, April and May. By September, when the second rainy season starts, most farmers will have harvested and aggressively sold their produce, so that's when we did our second launch. The reason we open and lock this platform is that there is crop insurance embedded in this bundle, and to be eligible for crop insurance you should reasonably plant in the right planting season. That's why we closed it after the first season and then opened it up in September Right: Agents are trained in mobile phone literacy and made comfortable using smartphones (© CTA).Interview them in the future under MUIIS where they get a commission in the same way that MUIIS gets a commission for bringing insurance business to the insurance companies. Is there a specific example of how the MUIIS service has helped farmers?In the first season we were able to get an idea of which farmers were prone to particular pest and disease attacks because we knew their locations. In one case, we were able to send timely SMS messages to subscribed farmers about how to deal with a major outbreak that had affected Uganda. It was even covered in various news outlets internationally. It concerned the fall armyworm, which was particularly destructive to maize. We were able to advise the farmers on which pesticide to use and how to apply it in order to address the fall armyworm. Although the attack was quite severe, some farmers who had subscribed to this package were able to salvage some of their crops.That experience is something we've taken with us into the second season. For example we've already developed the messages for the entire season based on satellite data. And we've been translating those messages, because part of the feedback that we got from the first season is that English is not the best medium for most of these farmers. As a result, we have contracted translators to translate these messages into local languages to send to the farmers.I think this will help sell the MUIIS service too. I really do feel it's going to be unique, because no one else is providing a service like this to these farmers. Most of the information they get over the radio is very short term, usually weather predictions for a day or a week. And even then, the information isn't always relevant to their crop levels. I think the added value of MUIIS is that instead of simply telling farmers that it's going to rain or what the temperature is going to be, it focuses more on solutions. We can calculate how many millimetres of rainfall your crop needs or how much water over a longer period of time. And that can be translated into advice, as we can tell farmers that a set amount of water might not be sufficient for their crop. And that they therefore may want to consider either conservation methods of cultivation or irrigation methods. So we're focusing more on the actionable methods as opposed to just passing on information. • Ronald Rwakigumba is Agri-Fin Mobile Uganda Country Coordinator for Mercy Corps.I think the added value of MUIIS is that instead of simply telling farmers it's going to rain, it focuses more on solutions.ICT Update spoke to Ben Addom from CTA, who is the programme manager of the MUIIS project in Uganda, to find out more about the partnership and business model that he hopes will ultimately make this a standalone, sustainable project. M UIIS -the Market-led, User-owned ICT4Agenabled Information Service -is a project funded by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs through the Netherlands Space Office's G4AW programme. The initial subsidy was for three years, after which MUIIS was intended to stand on its own two feet. The consortium, with CTA as its lead partner, developed the business model and put together a team of partners. With the second year now coming to a close, the moment in which MUIIS will have to stand on its own two feet is drawing nearer.Step one: forming a solid partnership 'As soon as we heard about the grant,' says Ben Addom, MUIIS programme manager at CTA, 'which asked us to form a public-private partnership, we realised that we were well positioned to meet the requirements.' Indeed, CTA has been cooperating with other organisations from a variety of sectors for years, especially with ICT partners. 'In the case of MUIIS, we needed a mix of partners, from data companies to package the raw data into something useful for farmers, to people on the ground to train farmers, the ultimate end users, to use the service. We started modestly and contacted those in our network that we thought would fit into this long chain of partners. And in the meantime, others had gotten wind of the fact that CTA was putting together this consortium. So we were approached by them as well.' Indeed, CTA had no problem putting together a list of potential partners. In fact, one of the projects requirements was synergy, as opposed to duplication. In other words, the chosen partners had to complement each other, rather than do the same work. 'That's ultimately how you form a strong partnership. To avoid duplication, we had to eliminate some of the shortlisted partners, and that's how this consortium of seven came about. We had worked with some of the partners before, such as AGRA, EAFF and eLEAF, but we also started to work with organisations that were less familiar to us, such as Mercy Corps and aWhere.'Step two: the initial business model So with such a variety or partners, from both the private and public sectors, what kind of a business model was developed to satisfy everyone's wishes? 'The initial grant was meant to cover three years,' Addom says. 'We've just finished the second year, so there's one year of subsidy left to lean on. In our proposal for this grant, we set the aim of breaking even in this project by the fourth or fifth year. We knew from experience that MUIIS would not start to earn a profit by the end of the third year.' That meant that the MUIIS project needed to find other resources to bridge that gap, which CTA is attempting to mobilise during the transition period to make sure that the project moves forward.'The idea behind the original business case was to simply put forward the argument that MUIIS is a service that has value that people are willing to pay for,' Addom says. 'We worked together with farmer organisations to help us estimate how many farmers could potentially use this product, which ended up being about 4 to 4.5 million farmers.' Based on that advice, CTA targeted 350,000 farmers for the MUIIS service, which are being reached through awareness creation training. But CTA's ultimate goal -based on its calculations and cash-flow analysiswas to have 200,000 of these farmers subscribing to and using the MUIIS information service for three years. This would mean breaking even.In the end, it took a year to actually develop the product. 'So a year passed without a sale,' Addom says. 'We've now ended the second year and are starting the third. We've only had one test season to gauge the minimum viable product, in other words whether the MUIIS product has what it takes to satisfy early customers. The test season involved about 100 farmers, who paid for the information service, and we're waiting for their feedback.'Step three: the model for the future CTA hopes that the second season, which is just underway, can attract more subscriptions. 'It's clear that we won't achieve the goal of getting 200,000 paid subscriptions by the end of the third year, so we're updating the business model.' One of the obstacles is that smallholder farmers are much more willing to pay for tangibles, such as fertiliser, seed and chemicals, than they are to pay for intangibles, such as information services or insurance. 'That's why the original design was to organise farmers into groups and cooperatives and have them pay for a subscription through them, a bundle that includes the information service and insurance. That hasn't quite worked out yet, so we're now concentrating on increasing the number of groups that subscribe to the MUIIS service. But we're also looking for other resources, financial investors interested in accessing the farmers' data.'The idea behind the original business case was to simply put forward the argument that MUIIS is a service that has value that people are willing to pay for.Market-led User-owned ICT4Ag-enabled Information Service -MUIIS About the author Ben Addom is ICT programme coordinator at CTA in Wageningen, the Netherlands and programme manager of the MUIIS project.Our focus now is the future ownership of this unique satellite data-enabled information asset, which currently comprises over 130,000 farmer profiles. Now MUIIS needs an investor, a social entrepreneur or a business entity that can turn it into a business -not for themselves but for the smallholder. In the coming months, we are going to engage with different entities to identify the ideal profile that will encourage smallholder farmers to work with farmer organisations for sustainability. •Rather than treat a farm and crops as if every plant is the same, farmers can use precision agriculture to apply inputs only where and when they are needed. P recision agriculture (PA) is a smart farming system that helps farmers collect information and data for better decision making. PA requires the use of inventive data on environmental and soil conditions. Then farmers use collected information to add precision to the quantity, quality, timing and location in the application and use of agricultural inputs. PA allows crop farmers to take into account the variation in the field and to apply variable rate treatments with a much finer degree of precision than was earlier possible.PA is, therefore, an ICT-based farm management system that permits farmers to consider the field as a heterogenous entity and then to apply selective treatment, rather than seeing it as a homogenous entity where all is treated equally. The technology involves a process of data collection, data mapping and analysis, and site-specific treatment.Conventionally, agronomic practices and treatments are applied in uniform fashion. For example, a plot is designed to operate at uniform depth and produce uniform results over a wide range of crop and soil conditions. Similarly, a sprayer will apply the same amount of solution containing either fertiliser or pesticide. In contrast, precision agriculture helps to meet site-specific needs. It involves better management of farm inputs, such as fertilisers, herbicides, seed and fuel by helping the farmer to employ the right management practice at the right place and the right time.The first applications of PA around the world started in the early 1990s, mostly in developing countries, including some ACP nations. However, it was really only adopted at the end of the 1990s, with yield monitors and soil mapping, which remain important for PA. Techniques then progressed to site-specific crop management based on grid sampling and management zones. More recently there has been increasing emphasis on real-time on-the-go monitoring with groundbased sensors.PA covers four key ICTs: location determination via GPS; GIS; computer-guided controllers for variable rate application (VRA) of crop inputs; and sensing technologies for automated data collection and mapping. The GPS and GIS technologies underpin the major PA practices that farmers have begun to adopt. One of these is nutrient management; it involves spatially referenced soil sampling, often linked to VRA fertiliser spreading. The other is yield Feature article monitoring, usually tied to yield mapping.Yield monitors are mainly used in North America, Europe and Australia, but countries like Argentina, Brazil and some East Asian countries have also adopted these practices. The adoption of PA is related to socio-economic, agro-ecological, institutional, technological and behavioural factors, in addition to the sources of information and perception of the farmer.Remote sensing in PA includes using satellites, aircraft, balloons and helicopters, small unmanned aerial systems, or drones, and a variety of sensors, such as optical and nearinfrared and radar.Drones could be a potential alternative to satellites and aircraft given their low cost. Farmers can use them to spray pesticides over their crops or for tracking livestock and crop monitoring. Other potential applications of remote sensing in PA include bare soil imaging for management zone delineation, weed mapping, nitrogen stress detection, crop yield mapping, and pest and disease detection.PA offers many benefits in terms of profitability, productivity, sustainability, crop quality, environment protection, on-farm quality of life, food safety and rural economic development. Indeed, it has the potential to increase crop yields and ensure food security. PA tools can help farmers save money by increasing efficiencies in broad acre cropping systems and it can improve crop productivity and farm profitability through the improved management of farm inputs.As pests and disease cause huge losses to crops in ACP countries, remote sensing can help to detect even small areas troubled by pathogens. The application of fungicides can then therefore be optimally timed. Moreover, remote sensing combined with GIS and GPS can help in site-specific weed management.In addition, PA benefits the environment from more targeted use of inputs that reduce losses from excess applications and from reduction of losses due to nutrient imbalances, weed escapes and insect damage, for example. Indeed, studies revealed that site-specific nutrient management reduced nitrogen fertiliser use in Vietnam and the Philippines by 14% and 10%, respectively. It also reduced total nitrogen losses from the soil by 25% to 27%. The variable rates of herbicide application reduced total herbicide use, and preserved surface and groundwater quality. As a result, soil and water contamination is minimised.Society also benefits from PA as it creates technology jobs (computer hardware, computer software, machinery guidance, soil and crop sensors, information management, decision support systems) and mitigates environmental pollution from the over-application of agricultural fertilisers.In a nutshell, farmers using PA can reduce their environmental impact while improving productivity and profits. In addition to reducing inputs through improved accuracy, the information from PA technologies allows farmers to produce more output with less input.The challenge is to develop PA approaches that can provide customised management of farm inputs for individual plants by using data from field sampling, laboratory analyses, and proximal and remote sensors (for example, spectral, electrical, electromagnetic or radiometric measurements of soils or of plants) with different spatial and temporal scales.For smallholder farmers, the amount of data may limit the adoption of this technology. Therefore, to spur adoption in ACP countries, the operational implementation of the technology and complete analysis of the costs need to be emphasised. In addition, the role of extension services and agricultural cooperatives are important to spread the use of these technologies. • About the author Christel Kenou (kenou@cta.int) is data communication intern at the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in Wageningen, the Netherlands PA offers many benefits in profitability, productivity, sustainability, crop quality, environment protection, on-farm quality of life, food safety and rural economic development.Above: Remote sensing in PA includes using satellites, among other things, and a variety of sensors.","tokenCount":"8223"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"11b594ca6648debc3f81b5f0fd9e7f22","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a91ee79-2b7c-43ea-987b-55a59cb5cd4a/retrieve","id":"1719137856"},"keywords":["David Moles","Biodiversity Conservation Corridors Project","FA/MOE","Cambodia.]"],"sieverID":"f8acee5f-d7ad-474b-bcad-80555366ec94","pagecount":"12","content":"Ecosystems-based adaptation (EbA) is the use of ecosystem services as part of the overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change that human resilience depends on (Convention of Biodiversity, 2009). Because it focuses on benefits humans derive from biodiversity and ecosystems, it includes a wider range of areas of work such as forest and coastal habitat restoration, agroforestry and small livestock and associated sustainable livelihoods.To safeguard the region's natural wealth and development gains in the face of climate change challenges, the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS)countries need to strengthen the resilience of their natural and human systems. The GMS must also harness opportunities to reduce its contribution to climate change. Ecosystem-based approaches can help GMS countries address these challenges by making use of ecosystems and biodiversity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to assist people to adapt to a changing climate.In Cambodia the project is addressed the fragmentation of the biodiversity rich forest landscapes of Koh Kong (KKG) and Mondulkiri (MDK) provinces that may impair their ability to provide the critical ecosystems services that are necessary for sustaining local livelihoods and investments in hydropower, transport, water and food security enhancing sectors. The project is promoting sustainable resource use and restoring and enhancing these productive landscapes through conservation, development and livelihood improvement activities.The project is using the two main approaches of ecosystem-based adaption (EbA) and mitigation through the use of ecosystems and biodiversity to help people adapt to the impacts of climate change whilst making use of the ecosystems and biodiversity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.The long-term impact of the BCCP is climate resilient sustainable forest ecosystems benefiting local livelihoods with an outcome of establishing biodiversity corridors in KKG and MDK with enabling policy, regulatory and management regimes. The effort aims at enhancing the climate resilience of communities within the project target areas. On December 2010, ADB approved the BCC project which was effective from 23 March 2011. Then on 13 December 2019, it approved the first extension of the closing date of both grants from 30 September 2019 to 31 December 2020. The BCCP Project has adopted a multipurpose, sustainable, biodiversity landscapes approach and covers 22 communes (12 in MDK [1] and 10 in KKG [2] ) located across 10 districts with a total population of approximately 68,048 (2008 census) in both provinces and households numbering just over 14,000.The Project in both KKG and MDK provinces is predominantly in mountainous areas covered with protected forests, national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries.(iv) generating short-term employment to project households through project activities.The BCCP has supported a range of activities that have supported EbA. Under the original project there has been support for the restoration, protection and maintenance of biodiversity corridors. Forest restoration has been achieved through a combination of Enrichment Planting (EP), which entails the introduction of valuable species to degraded forest areas without the elimination of valuable species which already exist, and Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR), which entails the protection and preservation of natural tree seedlings in forested areas. These have been implemented through a series of contracts with the communities with the completion of 1,742 hectares within seven CPAs and seven CFs, and 1,253 hectares of ANR in nine CPAs and nine CFs, as well as 34 hectares of forest planted within the biodiversity corridors. The use of rainwater harvesting ponds is a concept that is used in Cambodia to provide an opportunity to collect and store rainwater, which would otherwise be lost to runoff, and utilise this water for irrigating high value crops during the off season and providing an attractive livelihood opportunity for poorer households. Under BCCP, one of these ponds will be provided with a rubber lining together with a geotextile underlayment, as a pilot, which although entailing additional cost, will demonstrate the benefits of lower infiltration losses. The ponds will all be equipped with a stilling well and solar powered pumps to lift the water to overhead storage tanks which in turn feed the micro-irrigation systems for the home gardens. The other 22 small-scale irrigation sub-projects will derive their water either from boreholes, by extraction from streams or from community water tanks collecting rainwater from school roofs, and similarly feed water to micro-irrigation systems using solar powered pumping systems. It is expected that these subprojects will provide irrigation for at least 60 hectares of home gardens and will benefit at least 2,000 households.The Srae Chrey irrigation system, which was built during the Pol Pot era, was poorly engineered and has never functioned effectively and the irrigation structures are all completely destroyed and cannot store water. The rehabilitation of the irrigation system is aimed to increase agricultural productivity through the provision of reliable and adequate irrigation facilities to enhance the living conditions of the beneficiary farmers in the face of increased drought risk. The system has a command area of 171 hectares and is expected to bring Seawater barriers constructed by BCCP in Koh Kong are serving to reduce the impact of sea water backflows. This had adversely affected the productivity of rice crops for years (and was expected to worsen in the wake of climate change). Following the establishment of two such barriers, farmers are now able to grow market-oriented rice varieties using SRI technologies and associated support services.to their livelihood opportunities compared to their existing rice based farming systems with very low yields. The CPA management plan is based upon the identification of 'zones' comprising different ecosystems with appropriate management strategies identified for each zone. Thus, in the illegally cleared zone where no forest or ground cover exists there is a need for support for ecosystem recovery which focusses on the planting of quick growing seedlings that halt soil erosion and provide shade for the soil, improving water retention and allowing other vegetation to return. In the long term through continued coordination and cooperation it will be possible to sustain agricultural food production, conserve biodiversity and ecosystems and support local livelihoods through sustainable CPA management with this catchment area and provide a model for other communities to replicate. Additional livelihood opportunities have been identified through support for the emergence interest in eco-tourism and the need for improved facilities to support these ventures. To date, 14 livelihood improvement sub-projects supporting alternative livelihoods (NTFPs, agroprocessing and ecotourism) have benefitted at least 766 households (85% of target) so far.  ","tokenCount":"1056"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4b7178948401d1445d1b2a18d49afc81","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f6abe00-287c-468d-b0eb-fd7014207ca5/retrieve","id":"-1544381030"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"af53f1f5-14b2-42a4-aa5d-26151b7e8346","pagecount":"9","content":"Agriculture is the largest contributor to the economies of many African countries, generating more than half of the annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for many of these countries. The livelihoods of most rural and low-income communities in these countries are to a large extent based on agriculture. While global availability of food has increased, 35% of the 800 million poor of the world live in Africa, and face food insecurity. And yet agriculture constitutes, for the majority of these poor, the primary means of survival and livelihood sustenance. Agricultural biotechnology, which comprises a wide range of biological disciplines, offers enormous potential to speed up the development of plant varieties with pro-poor traits such as drought tolerance, pest resistance or tolerance, higher yields, increased nutritional value, among others. Similarly in animal production there is substantial opportunity for development of vaccines and diagnostics targeting diseases which constrain livestock production in developing regions of the world. In addition, genetic markers can aid breeding of livestock for important traits such as disease resistance, improved product quality as well as improved productivity. However, to date, the innovation essential to achieve these improvements has largely remained a technology of the North. While biotechnology does not provide the 'silver bullet' for poverty alleviation, it does enhance the effectiveness of other disciplines such as plant breeding, integrated pest and nutrient management, and livestock breeding, feeding and disease management. Importantly, because use of these technologies, as any other, is associated with risks, African scientists need to have access to the knowledge and scientific infrastructure to assess these risks and to contribute to better informed public discussions of the opportunities and challenges of these technologies. Should biotechnology be a preserve for the rich? Can developing nations afford to ignore the potential of biotechnology? Rather than debate on whether biotechnology can meet the needs of the poor, this paper argues that being just one aspect of a complex set of inter-related interventions required to enhance the contribution of agricultural development to poverty alleviation, discussions should be had on how best to take advantage of the opportunities and manage the risks associated with these technologies, for the benefit of the poor. There is need to explore new ways to build the capacity of the public sector -notably national governments in developing countries and development partners, as well as to tap into the resources of the private sector -to enable the continent come up with African solutions to the problem of poverty alleviation. This will require closer collaboration and transfer, between the North and the South, of appropriate biotechnology and the management of bio-safety issues. Thus, risk assessment has to be an integral part of biotechnology research and development. Africa missed out on the 'Green revolution', and should not miss out on the 'Gene revolution' as well.Africa remains the world's poorest continent. Most African countries have economies characterized by slow and declining growth, low and declining per capita incomes, and declining participation in the global markets. The limited exports from Africa are predominantly low value commodities, while hunger, malnutrition and poverty remain widespread in the continent. An estimated 25 to 30 million children are malnourished and the World Health Organization estimates that 54% of child mortality in African countries is associated with malnutrition. About one-third of the children Biotech in agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa are stunted because of poor diet, while thousands of people die each day from hunger. Another one-third of the continent's adult population, about 200 million, are food insecure and are forced to live below their full potential because they lack the energy and full health to function at their best. If current trends continue, by 2010 Africa would account for nearly two-thirds of the undernourished people in the world. This vicious cycle of hunger and poverty needs to be broken.Agriculture is the most important economic activity in Africa and offers the means to reverse these trends and to stimulate wider economic growth. This is because 70% of the people in sub-Saharan Africa live in rural areas and are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. However, African agriculture is performing dismally: crop production is the lowest in the world. Yields of basic food grains, for example, are one-fifth those of China. Fertiliser use in Africa is 8 kg per hectare; in Latin America, it is over 60 kg per hectare, and in Asia, over 100 kg per hectare. Only 4% of Africa's farmland is irrigated; in the Middle East and Asia, the figures are 29% and 34% respectively. The Green Revolution has had very little effect on the continent's agriculture in the last decade or so. In Asia and Latin America, between 60% and 80% of crop area is planted with modern varieties; in Africa, the figure is between 20% and 30%. As a result, Africa imports more than 25% of the grain it consumes. Ironically, up to 40% of the continient's harvest is lost to post-harvest damage. Moreover, due to rapid increase in human population, there is need to produce more food on less land, with less water, while conserving the environment.Although the continent's GDP has improved over the years, the proportion of people living in absolute poverty is higher than it was in the 1980s and 1990s (UNDP 2005). While the economies expanded by 3% per annum between 1990 and 2004, the proportion of Africa's population classified as 'absolute poor' increased by 2 percentage points every year. It is estimated that it will take sub-Saharan Africa until 2012 just to restore average incomes to their 1980s levels (UNDP 2005). There is very limited opportunity for poor people to participate meaningfully in the economy as either producers of goods and services or as suppliers of labour.Science and technology are recognized globally as drivers of increased wealth and continuously improving standards of living. The role of science and technological innovation in economic change and sustainable development is receiving attention at national, regional and international levels. There is ample evidence that economic advances in the developed and newly industrializing countries are results of technological and organizational innovations (Mokyr 2002). Scientifically and technologically advanced countries have become continuously wealthier, and their rates of growth have not slowed significantly over time (Pritchett 1995). These countries have succeeded by reinvesting a growing percentage of their gross domestic product (GDP) in further advancement of research. Translation of research into new, more efficient modes of production has brought dramatic benefits. Technological innovation is associated with turning scientific knowledge into products and processes: putting new technologies and their products on the market and incrementally modifying and adjusting them to respond to socio-economic conditions (Juma 2005). Some of the East Asian countries that capitalized on these opportunities have transformed themselves into middle-or high-income economies (Nankani 2005). The key to success has been to focus on improving skills in solving existing and new problems, putting a premium on continuous learning.Application of knowledge through new technologies will provide opportunities for improving developing country economies and the well-being of the people, and offer a means for increasing agricultural production, improving human health, and addressing environmental degradation. In this way it creates economic competitiveness and enhances industrialization. However, these benefits can only be achieved if countries formulate appropriate policies to facilitate the development and utilization of requisite human and financial resources and appropriate infrastructure and functioning support institutions.In agriculture, advances in biotechnology have resulted in improved research leading to: drought resistant crop varieties; increased pest and disease resistance in crops and livestock; new, refined diagnostics and vaccines for livestock diseases (e.g. Foot-and-Mouth disease and East Coast fever); rapid propagation of clean planting material (e.g. flowers, vegetables, bananas etc.).Current constraints to the research and application of biotechnology in developing countries include: lack of policies; lack of human and financial resources; lack of public and private investments at levels that can make a difference; absence of systems for the delivery of technologies to potential users; lack of awareness, leading to misconceptions about the potential of, and risks posed by, biotechnology.There is now ample evidence to demonstrate the opportunities offered by biotechnology in developing economies, and from which Africa should learn. Two examples are given here, from China and India.In the early 1980s Chinese leaders decided that science and technology (S&T), especially biotechnology, would be one of the drivers to improve the agricultural sector, and committed substantial public investments in biotechnology, e.g. rice biotechnology (mapping rice genome) and rice breeding (to develop hybrid rice varieties), cotton biotechnology for insect resistance, production of value-added horticultural crops, and complimentary innovations such as use of nematodes for biological pest control leading to increased export markets. Currently, hybrid rice accounts for over 30% of rice in China and over 5 million small farmers are growing Bt-cotton on 1 million hectares of land. Use of biological control has reduced pesticide use on cotton by 30% nationally. Today, horticultural exports are expanding. Thus, through a deliberate effort to revolutionize agriculture, China is making quantum leaps in agricultural productivity and sustainability improvements. The country is now moving to the 'post-Green Revolution era' towards becoming an industrialised nation. As has been pointed out above, an efficient agricultural sector ensures food security and enables industrial development.India's National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) oversees improved dairy production by millions of smallholder livestock producers, including many women. Success in using increased milk production to generate increased income on a daily basis is the result of investments in S&T targeting: improved feeding and nutrition of dairy cattle; vaccines to control endemic diseases; and improved animal genotypes and their delivery to farmers. The NDDB organizes delivery of services (including biotechnologies) at the points of milk collection. Payments for technical services are affordable and deducted from milk payments to smallholders. In the 1960s and 1970s India regularly had famines and was a net food importing country. The Green-Revolution in crops and the White Revolution in dairy production are the result of investments in S&T and infrastructure, especially irrigation and communications and the formulation and implementation of supportive public policies (prices, trade etc.) to encourage farmers to go into production. India is now using its productive agricultural sector to guarantee food security and is moving towards industrialisation. Although there are still millions of people living in poverty in South Asia the trends in India and some of its neighbours are heading in the right direction, with millions moving out of poverty each year.Livestock products have for generations been known to be a pathway for income generation by the poor. There is also evidence that small-scale livestock income plays a disproportionately high role in the income sources of poor rural women and other disadvantaged groups in most parts of the developing world (von Braun and Pandya-Lorch 1991). Demand for food products of animal origin is expected to increase dramatically in developing countries (Delgado et al. 1999). The consumption of meat and milk, for example, is projected to grow at 2.9% and 2.7% per annum respectively, between the late 1990s to 2020. This 'livestock revolution' is also expected to result in increases in demand for pork (60%), poultry meat (80%) and red meat (50%) by 2020, with developing countries accounting for two-thirds of global meat consumption and more than half of global milk consumption. The trends in consumer demand for livestock products are driven primarily by growth in human population, increases in income and urbanization and associated changes in consumption patterns. In East Asia, even lower income rural households have begun to shift increasingly to food consumed outside the home, as they have elsewhere in urban areas of the developing world, which typically involves consuming larger amounts of higher quality animal products (Gale et al. 2005).In Africa, livestock production remains largely in the hands of small-scale farmers who collectively keep approximately 70% of total livestock units. Given this concentration of livestock production, the potential for a viable industry built around these producers provides a significant opportunity for them to escape poverty while supplying the consumer demand. Diseases sharply reduce the productivity of livestock. Conservative estimates of annual losses of US$ 4 billion in meat and milk production have been reported for sub-Saharan Africa-representing approximately onefourth of the total value of livestock production. These losses have a significant impact both on food security and poverty. Apart from the zoonotic diseases (such as tuberculosis and Avian influenza) that also afflict poor people, who are in constant contact with different livestock species, there are also a number of other livestock diseases (such as Foot-and-Mouth disease, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, Rift Valley fever and African Swine fever) which preclude livestock and livestock products of the poor from markets.Concerns about animal disease transmission keep global livestock to less than 10% of the value of global production, whereas it is 40% for fish, a commodity with equally great food safety issues and where trade is overwhelmingly from the developing to the developed countries (Delgado et al. 2003). Implications of animal health issues on trade are, today, receiving increasingly high prominence at a time when developing country producers are recognizing expanded opportunities for international trade in livestock and livestock products. The stakes in effective disease control in developing countries and reliable 'point of transaction diagnostics for disease-free-status certification' have risen considerably as producers in many of these countries have become aware of the possibility of export as an addition to what had been relatively less attractive domestic markets. This is affecting not only those producers immediately capable of supplying export markets, but is also having an impact on all other producers in the these regions. The negative impact of border closures in the Middle East due to an outbreak of Rift Valley fever (RVF) on the price of livestock in the remotest areas of East Africa (Nin-Pratt et al. 2005) is a case in point.Technological change in animal disease control with associated policy reforms could bring about a major shift in the distribution of world livestock production in favour of developing countries with abundant labour and land resources (Rich 2005). Beyond the development and application of technologies (such as vaccines and diagnostics) to improve animal health and food safety for trade, there is also need for market and policy research to demonstrate the high costs of compliance with traditionally accepted norms and to evaluate the costs and benefits of alternative options for reducing risk of disease transmission, some of which may be more appropriate to particular developing country situations.Animal health Building on a good understanding (based on cumulative knowledge from within and without the continent) of the biology of livestock (hosts), disease vectors and pathogens, research on animal health in Africa should focus on the development of technologies to address the constraints posed by major livestock diseases in the continent to reduce losses (so as to secure the livestock assets), improve productivity and facilitate access to markets (domestic, regional and global).As pointed out above, diseases such as contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), rinderpest, Newcastle disease (ND), RVF, trypanosomosis, gastrointestinal nematodes, tick-borne diseases (such as East Coast fever (ECF), Heartwater and African Swine fever (ASF)), inter alia, continue to present significant challenges for livestock keepers particularly the poor small-scale farmers. These diseases affect intensification, productivity and trade. In terms of interventions, while regulatory measures and cost-effective technologies for disease control have been effective in developed countries, this has not happened in Africa.Rapid advances in classical and molecular epidemiology, molecular biology, immunology and such new sciences as genomics, bio-informatics and proteomics are providing new technological options that can be applied for the control or eradication of animal diseases in Africa. Some of these technologies are on the threshold of being developed into effective new tools such as diagnostics and vaccines, and investment is required in applied research to facilitate this process. For some diseases, for instance, ND (vaccines), ASF (diagnostics) and ECF (vaccines) progress towards developing effective products is at stages where probability of success is high with only modest investments. Conversely, CBPP (vaccines and diagnostics) requires a two-pronged approach: a quick-win option to improve current vaccines and diagnostics and medium-to longerterm research to generate improved and more sustainable 'new generation' products.Most, if not all, of the investment in research and development (R&D) relating to the above diseases has been obtained from public sources in developed countries with a fair amount of upstream activities undertaken in the North. However, many of these diseases, e.g. ASF, ECF, CBPP, RFV, trypanosomosis, among others, have little relevance to the developed world and are unlikely to be of continuing interest to development partners in the North, except for scientific curiosity. In the case of ECF vaccine research, a substantial international effort has contributed to the progress toward proof-of-concept for a vaccine. Nonetheless, funding for completion of current and subsequent steps of R&D is not guaranteed. Similarly, research on short-term options for CBPP has benefited from some 'external' funding but there has not been adequate and sustained funding to increase the likelihood of success.It is increasingly becoming imperative for Africa not only to define the continent's R&D agenda for livestock health but also to mobilize the required resources, including allocation of national resources, to implement the agenda. Recent technological advances, many already being successfully applied to address human and animal health problems in the North and, indeed in some developing countries in Asia and Latin America, provide opportunities which Africa needs to capture. The level of commitment will be needed both to support quick win options that will translate into products and strategies (such as the Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign initiative, improving the ND vaccine, developing ASF diagnostics, improving current CBPP vaccines and diagnostics) in the shorter term, but also to support medium-to longer-term R&D initiatives.For some of the disease constraints, there are existing technologies previously developed and working for similar diseases or those developed for the same diseases but under different settings (e.g. pathogen strains, delivery infrastructure etc.) elsewhere. In these cases focus should be on the adaptation of these existing technologies to optimize their use or to enhance their strategic relevance to a wider range of users and production systems. In marginal areas, animal health constraints will need to be addressed through a strategy that combines disease control (through development of appropriate vaccines and diagnostics) and use of appropriate livestock genotypes (which combine productivity and adaptability to local environmental stresses). Conversely, in the rapidly changing sub-sectors, such as smallholder dairying in higher potential areas where exotic breeds and crossbred livestock are predominant, technological interventions need to focus on reducing disease risks and improving animal productivity taking advantage of the more benign environmental conditions.There is little known about the genetic diversity in indigenous livestock breeds and potential for genetic improvement in developing countries. To improve utilization of these resources, information is needed on: how much diversity exists in specific populations; uniqueness of populations; what breeds/populations to conserve; what conservation methods to apply; and how the genetic diversity in indigenous breeds can be utilised to generate greater benefits for the poor livestock keepers, without compromising the diversity. There are no working models for livestock genetic improvement in low input systems in developing countries, nor true equivalents of the seed systems that have been critical for the success in crop production. Furthermore, given the time required to effect genetic change in livestock, it is even more critical that development of breeding objectives take into account ongoing evolution in the production systems, hence there is need to understand the system changes and the key drivers. Indeed, it is now well accepted that, while ex situ approaches can support conservation of livestock diversity, a sustainable strategy has to be one in which the diversity is dynamically maintained as a functioning part of the production system. This underscores the need for strategies and breeding technologies that take the issues of systems changes and links to 'genotype-evolution' into account. Progress in livestock species genome sequencing is opening new ways for the identification and improved understanding of economically important traits and genes. These developments are catalysing the emergence of new tools (e.g. bioinformatics and gene expression units, such as micro-arrays) the applications of which represent new opportunities with significant potential for gene discovery research. These are common technologies for both vaccine research (e.g. antigen identification) and genetic improvement. These new technologies are providing newer, faster and possibly more efficient ways to achieving the same objectives (e.g. a specific breeding goal) and exemplify 'value addition' to, rather than replacement of, 'traditional technologies', by new technologies. There are many international efforts focusing on gene discovery for productivity traits in livestock. Efforts in Africa should focus on adaptive traits needed for the unique circumstances in the continent (e.g. disease resistance), adapting and applying methodologies developed in the North to speed the realization of desired outcomes and achievement of impact at local levels. For diseases such as helminthosis, which affect livestock (especially small ruminants) across the world, there are good prospects for global partnerships.Most African livestock production is under traditional systems in which feeding and nutrition is dictated by climatic factors. Thus, there are large cyclical swings in feed availability and quality closely following the rainfall patterns. During a large part of the year, there is inadequate feed and the nutritive quality of whatever is available is generally too poor to support animal maintenance, much less production; a common problem is low protein and high fibre content. There are a number of biotechnologies which use micro-organisms to 'bio-process' feeds/foods with a view to improving nutritional quality, including digestibility. Important feed ingredients such as maize and soya which are commonly used in monogastric feeds can also be nutritionally enhanced through genetic manipulation. Specifically, marker-based technologies are increasingly used to understand the genetic diversity in forages and in food-feed crops; the technology also has potential use in food-feed crops in ways that ensure that food yields and qualities are preserved or enhanced while at the same time improving the feed attributes.For both vaccine development and genetic improvement, lack of a working institutional arrangement to facilitate technology development and delivery can be a major impediment. The nature of these technologies requires the engagement of a large number of stakeholders, usually necessitating complex partnership arrangements, not made any easier by need for biosafety and intellectual property management. Consortia or networks of strategic international collaborators (including public research institutions in the North and the private sector) and national partners are almost invariably essential for success. Given the cost involved in putting together such consortia, it is advisable that, while the initial goal may be quite specific, their designs allow the flexibility to address other similar technological constraints. This is the basis of the concept of 'generic research platform' whose aim is to ensure that the best practices (at both technical and institutional levels) can be applied more broadly, for example, in the case of livestock, to multiple diseases, animal genetic resources and in other regions of the world under different settings. The nature of these platforms may vary considerably and will depend on the scope, focus on addressing a national or an international problem. An example of an innovative institutional arrangement of this type is a new initiative known as the Biosciences eastern and southern Africa (BecA).BecA, an ILRI-NEPAD (New Partnership for Africa's Development) initiative, is a joint venture involving NEPAD, ILRI and stakeholders of countries in the sub-region. It is providing a platform of shared state-of-the-art research facilities and capacity for application of biosciences in agriculture. The generic nature of the technologies and the partnerships and institutional arrangements are allowing ILRI to expand the impact of its expertise-in such areas as immunology, molecular epidemiology and animal genetics-and research outputs focusing on what gets done rather than just what ILRI does, including availing research capacity beyond what is needed just for livestock research. The vision is to enable African scientists and institutions to become biotechnology innovators as well as technology users. This is to be accomplished through the conduct of biosciences research and innovation targeted at issues affecting Africa's development, while accessing and using the best of science available worldwide. The shared research platform hosted by ILRI is open to African scientists-including those from universities and national research institutes-and researchers from the broader international community willing to collaborate with African partners to address African agricultural constraints.Another example is a recent initiative known as the Global Alliance for Livestock Vaccines and Diagnostics (GALV), the purpose of which is to establish and support public private partnerships that will speed the development and delivery of vaccines and diagnostic products for use by poor livestock keepers in low income developing countries. It will do this by focusing on promising leads and aiming to develop these into useful pro-poor animal health products. The initiative is borne out of the recognition that academia and the donor community alone lack the expertise, experience and key technology required to turn promising leads, such as vaccine candidates, into new products for less developed countries through the complex and highly regulated development process. However, the private sector, whether big pharmaceutical companies or small biotechnology companies, usually do not have incentive to take on the expensive research and development programmes themselves for markets that are unlikely to provide a return on investment.Economic development in Africa will, of necessity, have to be initially linked to agriculture (broadly defined to include crop, livestock, forestry and fish). Staple crops and livestock are the most likely to promote economic growth in the continent. To date, public sector investment in biotechnology in Africa has led to few products. This has, in part, been due to lack of viable private sector partners who are able and willing to take new products to markets. There is also a critical need for innovative public/private sector partnerships which will help link public investments in R&D with private 'know-how' and technology for product development. However, similar to what is happening in Asia and Latin America, there is great opportunity for Africa to mobilize science to create wealth for its people and achieve higher economic growth. This requires: strategic investments in science and technology, with time scales in the range of 20 years (from discovery to delivery); investment in physical, human and financial resources to build indigenous science and technology capacity (human and infrastructure); political will to commit the required resources to develop the requisite capacity and to provide a supportive policy environment; vibrant private sector, including facilitating emergence of a critical mass of innovative and enterprising smallholder farmers. In the short-term, some benefits are possible in Africa from previous discoveries, when adapted and adopted in the African context (e.g. Bt cotton). In the longer-term, there will have to be local innovations that focus on critical constraints in Africa (e.g. endemic diseases of livestock).For biotechnology to create wealth, at least the following must happen: there has to be a clear definition of priorities/targets (participatory research can assist in target identification); the best of relevant science regardless of where it comes from around the world must be mobilized and adapted to address the identified targets (a mechanism for proactive identification of new, relevant science must be put in place); and a critical mass of resources (human and financial) must be available for the targets to be met. In addition, the local private sector and communities need to be involved in product development and commercialization so that new technologies can be both affordable and accessible. Further, more delivery mechanisms have to be developed so that new (bio) technologies are accessible to those who need them. Lessons from the rapid uptake of mobile phone technology in developing countries are pertinent: if a new technology is useful and the price is right, the spread is almost unstoppable. Clearly, biotechnology is not a substitute for other technologies, but is an additional arsenal which should be used as and when appropriate to increase the pace of agricultural development. It is simply another arrow in the quiver!","tokenCount":"4623"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0a934aa2da45958a3dd4a773b72be940","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f9a30ff5-9da3-4846-a2a1-5d2fc3916d7f/content","id":"-1224165893"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2916c88f-9e38-4f18-b44f-9a7cd0d95cfd","pagecount":"15","content":"Germplasm banks are growing in their importance, number of accessions and amount of characterization data, with a large emphasis on molecular genetic markers. In this work, we offer an integrated view of accessions and marker data in an information theory framework. The basis of this development is the mutual information between accessions and allele frequencies for molecular marker loci, which can be decomposed in allele specificities, as well as in rarity and divergence of accessions. In this way, formulas are provided to calculate the specificity of the different marker alleles with reference to their distribution across accessions, accession rarity, defined as the weighted average of the specificity of its alleles, and divergence, defined by the Kullback-Leibler formula. Albeit being different measures, it is demonstrated that average rarity and divergence are equal for any collection. These parameters can contribute to the knowledge of the structure of a germplasm collection and to make decisions about the preservation of rare variants. The concepts herein developed served as the basis for a strategy for core subset selection called HCore, implemented in a publicly available R script. As a proof of concept, the mathematical view and tools developed in this research were applied to a large collection of Mexican wheat accessions, widely characterized by SNP markers. The most specific alleles were found to be private of a single accession, and the distribution of this parameter had its highest frequencies at low levels of specificity. Accession rarity and divergence had largely symmetrical distributions, and had a positive, albeit non-strictly linear relationship. Comparison of the HCore approach for core subset selection, with three state-of-the-art methods, showed it to be superior for average divergence and rarity, mean genetic distance and diversity. The proposed approach can be used for knowledge extraction and decision making in germplasm collections of diploid, inbred or outbred species.Germplasm banks worldwide contain collections, mainly of cultivated plants and their relatives, to preserve and make available to plant breeders, researchers and general users, their reservoirs of genetic diversity. Those collections are valuable resources to meet the challenges possed by the growing human population and climatic change. A favorable trend has been witnessed during the last 40 years, with a remarkable progress in the assembly and conservation of plant genetic resources [1][2][3]. Also, the objectives of seed banks have been diversified, and their profiles can be classified as assistentialist, productivist and preservationist [3].The tools of genome research are helping to unleash the potential of germplasm banks, and are becoming first hand tools for their management. The use of polymorphic DNA markers is helping to discover valuable genes for productivity, disease resistance and abiotic stress tolerance in the accessions contained in those reservoirs. Furthermore, those markers are helping to reduce the genetic redundancy among materials, thus helping the optimization of their contents. Molecular technologies have been demonstrated to be efficient in the finding of genes through linkage maps of genetic markers [1] and more recently by genome-wide association studies called GWAS [4]. In fact, the availability of high-throughput sequencing and genotyping has made possible to examine genome-wide patterns of genetic variation, and link them to phenotypic outcomes. Thus, modern gene banks, empowered by molecular technologies, are revolutionizing the way scientists document the genetic identity of their accessions, track genetic groups and their alleles, identify redundancies, and transform the once static collections into active entities [4].Rare alleles may be lost due to natural and management-originated bottleneck effects [5], and the sampling schemes used to provide the accessions conforming a gene bank. Although the later is an artificial sampling, its effects can be compared to the bottleneck effects due to population shrinking. Furthermore, rare alleles can be unintentionally left out from collection subsets. Although rare alleles are not likely to have a major importance in the conservation of endangered species, they may be important for plant breeding [6]. The qualification of an allele as rare is usually based on its frequency in a reference population, for example if it is less than 0.1. However, there is still another category of alleles: those that may have a high frequency in a reference population, but are unique among a set of populations. They may be present or even fixed in certain populations due to genetic drift or their relationship with fitness in specific environments. Such uniqueness make them prone to be absent in whole collections and their subsets, albeit their potential importance as a source of important traits for plant breeding. One of the paradigms of this research is to have a theoretical body and a working definition to measure uniqueness of alleles. Novel strategies in germplasm management are needed to preserve those alleles, prone to be lost, which can be potentially useful for plant breeding, specially in a scenario of rapid climate change that represents serious treats to the worldwide food production.The growth of germplasm banks has created management problems. Large collections are unlikely to be dynamical, with periodic testing and regeneration and field evaluations. Furthermore, duplicates occur very often. Genotyping is contributing to seed bank management by detecting duplicates and helping to select core collections, i.e. subsets of the whole collections that best capture their genetic variation. The creation of core collections was proposed by Frankel [7] to establish a subset with minimum similarity between its entries, chosen to represent the diversity of a large collection, with a manageable size.Core subsets are useful for evaluating a broad range of variation; however, they may not efficiently capture rare traits or alleles that potentially have high potential breeding or adaptive values [4]. Rare accessions with unique alleles may be neglected because of a lack of obvious desirable traits, but which may harbor genetic information worth to be conserved. Their scarcity and possibility of novel mutations should be considered. The adjective \"rare\" is wellknown in the context of its application to plant species, and it is even quantified with rarity parameters in ecology, based on their frequencies [8]. Since an accession forms part of a genetic continuum in a collection, the frequency-based definition of the rarity of a biological species, a rather discrete unit in the tree of life, does not apply to the entries of a seed bank. To the best of our knwledge, only one definition of the rarity of an accession, based on marker data, has been proposed, in the context of application to SSR maize data [9]. It is basically the square euclidean distance between the array of allele frequencies in a given accession, and the average frequencies for the whole collection. The emphasis of this measure is not on the presence of unique alleles, but on the differences in the allele frequencies of an entry relative to the average ones. This is a symmetrical metrics, where positive and negative differences between an accession's allele frequency and the global one, are equally weighted.In this work, an information theory view of alleles and accessions is offered, based on the concept of mutual information, measuring the reduction of uncertainty caused by the knowledge of the distribution of marker alleles across a collection. The field of information theory was founded by Claude Shannon, and deals with problems of transmission, storage and recovery of information. It has been successfully used in several genetic endeavors [10][11][12][13]. We use this approach to define the specificity of alleles and the rarity and divergence of accessions, based on information of polymorphic DNA markers.Summary. We define the mutual information between marker alleles and accessions as the average amount of uncertainty removed about the identity of an accession, by the identification of a given allele. It is called mutual due to its symmetry, by which it also can be defined as the average amount of uncertainty about the identity of a given allele, removed by the knowledge of the accession that contains it. This measure is dependent on the amount of allelic variation among the members of a collection. The so-defined mutual information equals the average allele specificity, defined in this context as the information gained about an accession's identity, by the random extraction and identification of the allele. The rarity of an accession is defined as the average specificity of the alleles it contains. Finally, the accession divergence is defined as the Kulback-Leibler information criterion, between the allele frequencies of a given entry and the global frequencies for the collection. Both, average rarity and average divergence, are identical with the mutual information between alleles and accessions.Basic notation. The basic input are allele frequencies for different accessions in a universe defined for a given collection. The members can be either autogamous or cross-pollinated species, with the only restriction of having a diploid-like type of reproduction. Let N be the number of accessions in a germplasm collection, and k the number of different alleles at a given marker locus. The set of accessions will be denoted by X 1 , X 2 ,. . .,X N and the alleles by M 1 , M 2 ,. . .,M k . The number of alleles is arbitrary for any given locus, thus multiallelic loci are allowed.If we extract an M i allele randomly from the collection, the probability that it belongs to the jth accession is obtained by the Bayes theorem:If we consider the space of accessions as equiprobable, then the probability of anyone is 1/ N, and the equation is simplified as follows:To simplify the notation, let's define:i.e. the allele frequency of M i within the accession X j ; and:i.e. the average frequency of the allele M i across accessions. Then:The input data to perform the calculations through the formulas to be described are allele frequencies for each accession. A convenient format for the input data is a table with accessions as columns and alleles as rows, with each locus covering as many rows as alleles.Mutual information and allele specificity. The conditional Shannon entropy [14] or uncertainty about the identity of an accession, given a random extraction of the allele M i is:which can be demonstrated to be:Now, since P N j¼1 p ij ¼ Np i , we have:Without marker information, the entropy or uncertainty of a given random accession is log 2 (N). Thus, the amount of information [14] about X given that the randomly extracted allele from the collection is M i becomes:This is the amount of information that a given marker allele carries about the identity of a random accession. By algebraic simplification of the last expression, we define the specificity of a marker allele M i as follows:It turns out that Eq (2) is equivalent to the information-based gene specificity in transcriptome analysis [11].Rarity of an accession. The marker allele specificity in Eq ( 2), provides a framework to define the rarity of an accession, with emphasis on the specificity of its alleles. In this sense, we define the rarity of an accession as the weighted average of the specificity of its alleles, with the following expression:Eq (3) is equivalent to the tissue specialization in transcriptome analysis [11].For multiple loci data, rarity can be computed through the average of rarities calculated for each locus. The number of alleles can be variable across loci.Divergence of an accession. To measure of the genomic departure of an accession from the whole collection, we apply the Kullback-Leibler divergence between the allele frequency distribution of the jth accession and the average allele frequency distribution in the whole set of accessions, defining the divergence of an accession:This parameter indicates the departure of the distribution of allele frequencies in the j -th accession, compared with the average allele distribution. In simple terms, the Kullback-Leibler divergence has been considered as a \"measure of surprise\" [15]. In the context of allele frequencies, divergence gives an extra weight to the unusual alleles at the whole collection level, since small values of p i will give large values of log 2 (p ij /p i ). This is a fundamental difference when compared to the use of the euclidean distance, for which only the differences between p ij and p i matter.In the same way as the rarity case, the divergence scores can be averaged across loci for multiple locus data.A global informational interpretation of those parameters. The mutual information [14] between accessions and marker alleles is:The following equality can be proved (see S1 Appendix).Thus, the ensemble of the allele specificity, accession rarity and accession divergence parameters, is strictly related to the amount of mutual information between the entries of a germplasm collection, and the marker alleles used for their characterization. In an extreme case, a non-polymorphic marker will bear no information about the identity of the accessions in a collection, with a zero allele specificity and null contribution to rarity and divergence. Core subset selection. One proposal of this work is to apply the herein developed theory to select core subsets from a germplasm collection. The optimization criteria is average rarity, defined by Eq (3), which in turn is equivalent to maximizing the average divergence, defined by Eq (4) given Eq (6). The rationale is that, by maximizinig those parameters, we obtain a highly diverse core subset with emphasis on the preservation of rare accessions and specific alleles. The use of an optimization algorithm is needed to select a core subset with maximum rarity. The reason is that rarity is a relative measure, defined in the context of set of accessions; therefore, selection of the rarest accessions of the collection will not provide a subset with maximum rarity, because the value of the parameter for the selected accessions will be re-defined in the context of the universe composed by the core subset. Although several maximization algorithms can be used, we use a greedy algorithm as a heuristic approach [16]. The starting point is the rarest accession, and then consecutively accessions are added under the criterion of causing the maximum average of accession divergence in the growing subset, until a predetermined core size is reached. We use D j in the optimization iterations, because its expression is simpler than R j , and provides faster calculations.A simple artificial data set. A small artificial data set is presented in Table 1. It comprises four accessions, A1, A2, A3 and A4, marked with three biallelic loci numbered consecutively from 1 to 3. The numbers in the cells are allele frequencies within accessions, corresponding to p ij , defined by Eq 1. A quick inspection reveals that the Allele 1 of Locus 2 is present only in the accession A4, which gives a maximum specificity score for that allele. The Allele 1 of Locus 3 is a candidate for a higher than average specificity, because it is present in two of the four accessions, but only in A4 has a high frequency. Alleles 1 and 2 of Locus 1 seem to have an average specificity, because they are present in two of the four accessions, with a maximum frequency. The Allele 2 of Locus 2 is present, at its maximum frequency, in two of the three accessions, thus being candidate to low specialization. Accession A4 stands up for having a private allele (Allele 1 of Locus 2), and the highest frequency in another allele (Allele 1 of Locus 3). Thus, a high rarity score is expected for this accession. Although it is not easy to be intuitively perceived by visual inspection, the set of allele frequencies for A4 look different from the average frequencies for all accessions, thus being candidate for a high divergence score. The results of the informational analysis of this data set are described in Results and Discussion.Application to a large wheat landrace collection. Landraces introduced into Mexico from Europe for nearly 5 centuries, also known as Creole wheats, are adapted to different areas in terms of climate, altitude and soil characteristics. From these, 9,811 accessions collected during the 1990s are maintained in the CIMMYT wheat germplasm bank in Mexico. From these entries, 8,416 have been characterized by DArTseq technology, with availability of 20,526 quality SNPs, from the CIMMYT Seeds of Discovery initiative [17]. Data are publicly available in the CIMMYT web page [18].From the genotyped collection, only the 7,986 hexaploid accessions were used for this study. To score all the alleles in the dataset for their specificities, the whole table of 41,052 alleles x 7,986 accessions was used. However, to obtain reliable scores of rarity and divergence, loci were filtered to have a set with the nearly 10% lowest missing data rates, comprising 4,126 alleles (2,063 SNP loci). With the filtered data, a core subset of 800 lines, representing nearly 10% of the collection, and one representing the 20%, were built by a heuristic maximization of average rarity. Four criteria: mean accession divergence, mean Modified Rogers distance [19], Shannon diversity [20,21] and alle richness, were used to compare these core subsets with other generated by the state-of-the-arte methods called replica exchange Monte Carlo (REMC) [22], parallel mixed replica exchange (MixRep) and MSTRAT [23]. Although the method employed in [17] for a core subset selection from the same wheat collection is not a direct optimization, but a stratified sampling strategy [24], an additional subset of 1,133 lines was selected with the herein proposed method, to make a basic criteria comparison with the published core. Calculations were performed in the R environment for statistical computing [25], by a script developed to calculate the herein proposed parameters and optimization, which is publicly available in the GitHub site https://github.com/mathgenome/SeedBankInfo. This site contains the data sets used through this research. They can also be retrieved from the CIM-MYT repository https://data.cimmyt.org/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=hdl:11529/10547952. Computation of allele specificity and accession rarity has been implemented in Bio-R [26].For this case study, where markers are biallelic and the data set is large, the algorithm proceeds as follows (i) the table of allele frequencies, with alleles as rows and accessions as columns, is reduced to have only one row for each SNP locus with the frequency of one allele, the other one being complementary, (ii) the rarity of each accession is calculated, (iii) the core subset starts with the rarest accession, (iv) each accession is added to the growing core subset, and the average divergence is calculated in the context of that subset, (v) the accession that gives the maximum average divergence to the subset is kept in the growing core, (vi) the process returns to the step iv, until the desired core size is attained. In order to have fast calculations for very large data sets, divergence is calculated exactly as in (4) until the 30th accession is added. After that, pi is used insted of p i , with pi being an estimation based on the growing core before adding the accession being tested. To compare with other approaches fore core subset selection we used the Core Hunter 2.0 software [27].The analysis of the data set in Table 1, through the application of Eq 2 to the allele frequencies p ij in the cells of the table, and their row averages p i , with N = 4, gave the highest specificity to the Allele 1 of Locus 2, with a value of 2. This is the theoretical maximum for this data set, i.e. log 2 (N). This score of two bits means that identification of that allele leads to unequivocal identification of the accession bearing it among the set of four. Allele 2 of Locus 2 had the minimum specificity among the whole set of alleles, expected by the visual analysis, with a score of 0.415. The second lowest specificity was found for Allele 2 of Locus 3, with a value of 0.478, being present in three of the four accessions, although with a frequency of only 0.5 in one of them. All other alleles had a rather average specificity close to 1. Rarity of accessions, calculated through Eq 3 as the average of allele specificities weighted by allele frequencies, had its maximum for A4. This accession bears a private allele and another one that is present in two accessions, but with a frequency of only 0.5 in one of them, with a rarity score of 1.361, which is not the theoretical maximum. To reach the theoretical maximum, in this case 2, all of its alleles should be private. The remaining three accessions had rarity scores around 0.63. The maximum divergence was also attained by A4, with a score of 1.472. The minimum divergence was attained by A1, with a value of 0.487. Interestingly, this accession did not have the lowest rarity, but the second highest one, with a score of 0.732. In fact, albeit rarities and divergences have equal overall average values, and are positively related, they do not measure exactly the same phenomenon. Whereas divergence measures the departure from global averages, rarity emphasizes the presence of unusual alleles and takes into account not only the global allele frequency averages, but the particular ones across accessions.The average allele specificity from the total of 41,052 alleles had a mean of 2.1695 and a median of 0.7794, showing a right-skewed distribution (Fig 1A ), with 55% having values less than 1, and 0.6% having values greater than 12, the maximum theoretical specificity being 12.96326, i.e. the log base 2 of the number of accessions. None of the alleles reached the theoretical maximum, attained when an allele is private of a unique accession; however, three alleles had an specificity of 12.9629. The specificity parameter was successful, because each one of those three alleles was in fact present in only one accession. The theoretical maximum was not attained because of the presence of two missing data points in each one of those three alleles. These alleles were among the cleanest ones, bearing a very low incidence of missing data. The implementation of the specificity estimation has an integrated quality control, in which selection for maximum specificity involves inherently the criteria of searching alleles with a low rate of missing data. The upper bound value of specificity is limited by the number of frequency scores effectively available for the given allele in the data set. This happens because only available values of allele frequency are used, ignoring the cases with missing data. The impact of missing data points on the scores for allele specificity could be reverted using a relative specificity, dividing Eq (3) by the log base 2 of the number of available data for the given marker. However, if some loci are technically susceptible to missing data, we recommend using the absolute specificity to select a reliable set of specific alleles. On the other hand, if the missing data pattern is not random, obeying to missing genome, absolute and relative specificity can be used, with an inspection of their relationship. For the case of alleles that had a specificity of zero, a total of 1,528, they were non-polymorphic, being uniformly present in all accessions. The allele specificity can be valuable to mine rare alleles that could be associated with specific adaptations and has the potential to be used in the screening of accessions for plant breeding.The rarity of accessions had a mean value of 0.403, with a distribution largely symmetrical, but with extension towards very rare accessions (Fig 1B), with 99.45% of accessions being concentrated in rarity values between 0.3 and 0.5. A group of six accession was found in the right side of the distribution, with values greater than 1. Divergence had a very similar distribution (Fig 1C ), with the most divergent accession being the same as the rarest ones. The association between rarity and divergence was mainly linear, but with notorious deviations in which rarity exceeds divergence, attributable to the presence of very specific alleles in those accessions (Fig 2 ). Nonetheless, as predicted by the theory, the average accession rarity was exactly equal to the average accession divergence. The use of rarity, defined by Eq (3), has a fundamental difference with divergence, defined by Eq (4): while rarity considers the allele distribution across all accessions, divergence is only based on the allele frequencies of the given accession and the average of the collection, which is the same case of the use of the square euclidean distance [9].In Table 2, the six wheat accession with maximum rarity are listed, along with their rarity and divergence scores, as well as their geographic data. Coincidentally, four of the six The four accessions of Michoacàn appear forming a sub-tree, while the accessions from the Me ´xico and Chihuahua states appear very close to each other. In fact, both accessions are mutually nearest neighbors in the SNP marker landscape. The same kind of plot was assayed against larger sets of common (less rare) accessions, and the rarest ones still appeared as a single cluster. The rarity parameter in Eq (3) can effectively be used to make decisions about the conservation of a given accession. A set of very rare materials is worth to be preserved, even when a practical use of it is not immediately known, just for the fact that its loss can mean the  A core subset of 800 wheat lines was selected by heuristic maximization of the average divergence, which in turns maximizes average rarity. The selected accessions are marked in S1 File. In Table 3 a comparison of methods is presented, based on four criteria: average divergence, mean modified Roger's distance (MR), Shannon diversity (SH) and allele richness (AR) as the fraction of the number of alleles relative to the whole collection. The number of lost alleles (LA) is derived directly from allele richness and cannot be considered as an additional criterion, but it can be illustrative for comparison. The reference methods are REMC, MixRep, and MSTRAT [23], with a random sample as a comparison control. The method herein proposed for core selection is called HCore, due to the inherent use of Shannon entropy, commonly represented by H. Mean Rogers's distance (MR) and Shannon diversity (SH) were the components of the objective function for the other three methods, with default weights of 70% and 30% respectivelly in the Core Hunter 2.0 software [27]. For average accession divergence, HCore outperformed all other methods, which is not surprising because our maximization was aimed to that parameter. The superiority of the mean divergence over the random sample for HCore is close to 10 times that of the worst performing method: MSTRAT, although only 1.2 times superior to MixRep.For MR, the HCore method outperformed MixRep, REMC and MSTRAT. The same behavior ocurred with SH, where HCore had higher scores than MixRep, REMC and MSTRAT. For allele richness (AR) the best score was for MixRep, followed by HCore. The number of lost alleles in HCore was only six above MixRep. It is notorious that REMC generated a core with more lost alleles than the random sample. The fairly good behavior of HCore for MR, SH and AR, even when they were not components of the objective function, can be considered a collateral effect of maximizing the Kullback-Leibler divergence. Very small differences in MR, SH and AR are typically observedl when comparing core selection methods [27]. On the other hand, the composition of different cores subsets can be more contrasting than the small differences between criteria may suggest.An additional test result is presented in Table 4, with a 20% core subset selection. HCore had the same comparative behavior as with the approximate 10% core subset. It outperformed the remaining four approaches in Divergence, MR and SH, ranking in second place for AR, after MixRep. The only differences occurred in the ranking among the remaining four approaches. For Divergence, MR and SH, random selection outperformed REMC and MSTRAT. For AR, the ranking was the same as with the 10% core subset, with MixRep having the maximum score and random selection the minimum. This additional test reinforces the usefulness of the informational parameters herein proposed, in their application to core subset selection.The core subset of 1,133 lines generated by HCore with the low missing data genetic markers, had the following values for the evaluated criteria: Divergence, 0.438; MR, 0.436; SH, 7.951; AR, 0.987; and LA, 52. The subset published by [17] had the following scores for the same marker set: Divergence, 0.404; MR, 0.417; SH, 7.930; AR, 0.983; and LA, 66. To do a more objective comparison for allele richnes (AR), an independent calculation was performed by considering the 20,526 loci of the dataset, comprising the 2,063 SNP loci used for optimization with HCore plus the remaining 18,463 loci. With this information, the HCore subset had an AR value of 0.989, whereas the published core had a value of 0.978. Thus, the superiority of allele richness for the subset generated by HCore was preserved. Although the HCore criteria values outperformed those of the published core subset, we must consider that both cores were selected under different criteria. Furthermore, in [17] phenotypic information was employed, and the SNP information was not used directly, but reduced to 2,000 principal components, with the six principal axes of a hierarchical multiple-factor analysis being selected to represent genotypic and phenotypic variances. Core subsets are selected for diverse objectives, and in the case of our method, it is aimed to conserve the genetic diversity of the collection, while preserving rare accessions and uncommon alleles. Furthermore, as it happens with the other methods, this approach can be used in combination with phenotype based hierarchical clustering, aiming to preserve genetic diversity within groups. On conceptual grounds, the theoretical underpinning of this approach for core subsets is a rather solid one: the subset of accessions with maximum average divergence is the one that has the maximum mutual information between genotypes and accessions.The herein proposed definitions of specificity of alleles and rareness of accessions, represent an advance in analytical tools to preserve diversity in plants, with special impact on those of interest in agriculture. Common alleles tend to be ubiquitous in crop collections; however, the unique ones are in danger to be neglected and lost. Thus, objective criteria to make decisions for conservation are highly valuable. Rare populations and specific alleles grow in importance for mainly two reasons: climate change and the availability of novel breeding tools. In the first case, despite much uncertainty derived from different assumptions for climate change projections, exhaustive analyses point towards a scenario where food security is clearly threatened by climate change in the near-term [28]. In the second case, useful genetic variants can be mined and used in plant breeding through the available genomic tools, to produce adapted cultivars to face the diverse climate change scenarios and their direct and indirect implications for food production [29].We provide a novel view of a collection in a germplasm bank tied to marker data. It can be considered as a digital view, in the sense that genomes are binarily coded through molecular markers, providing the elements for an informational landscape, where allele specificities are defined in terms of their information about the identities of the accessions, and accession rarities are defined by the average specificity of their alleles. Furthermore, it was found that the average rarity in a collection equals the average Kullback-Leibler divergence of each accession from the global allele frequencies of a germplasm collection. This view can be used to make decisions for conservation of genetic diversity, while avoiding to neglect rare variants. Application of this approach to a large collection of wheat landraces allowed us to rank the alleles according to their specificities, detecting those that are largely private of a few accessions. Furthermore, by ranking the accessions by their rarity and divergence, we could detect a group of rare accessions, which may have unique genetic potentials. This informational view, used as a tool for core subset selection in a large wheat collection, produced favorable results, with an ensemble of accessions with higher average Kullback-Leibler divergence, average Modified Roger's distance and Shannon diversity than those produced by three state-of-the-art methods, and with fairly good results for allele richness. This does not imply that the application of our method to select core subset is better than all others, but it effectively aims to obtain core collections with a high average Kullback-Leibler divergence, with positive collateral effects in other criteria. Although the methods were applied to largely homozygous lines, definitions are based on allele frequencies and can be equally applied to collections of outbred crops or wild species with diploid-like meiotic segregation.","tokenCount":"5366"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"df4fce6363c4c93b007dad595771321c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/347acbe3-a4d2-4cc6-98ac-38bc5da430de/retrieve","id":"1494631425"},"keywords":["Eriophyidae","Phytoseiidae","Aceria guerreronis","Neoseiulus paspalivorus","Perianth","Predator-prey dynamics"],"sieverID":"bdb90694-26e1-401e-a318-f41e905b525d","pagecount":"9","content":"Predators face the challenge of accessing prey that live in sheltered habitats. The coconut mite Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) lives hidden beneath the perianth, which is appressed to the coconut fruit surface, where they feed on the meristematic tissue. Its natural enemy, the predatory mite Neoseiulus paspalivorus De Leon (Acari: Phytoseiidae), is larger than this pest and is believed to gain access to the refuge only after its opening has increased with coconut fruit age. In the field, experimentally enlarging the perianth-rim-fruit distance beyond the size of the predators resulted in earlier predator occurrence beneath the perianth and lower numbers of coconut mites. On non-manipulated coconut fruits, the predators gained access to the prey weeks later than on manipulated ones, resulting in higher pest densities of coconut mites. Successful biological control thus critically hinges on the size of the predator relative to the opening of the prey refuge.Herbivores are selected to minimize the risk of being killed by predators and evolve traits necessary to colonize their host plants. In turn, plants defend themselves against herbivores by recruiting natural enemies as bodyguards (Price et al. 1980;Dicke and Sabelis 1988;Sabelis et al. 1999Sabelis et al. , 2008)), for example by providing plant structures as shelter for predators (Janzen 1966;Beattie 1985;O'Dowd and Willson 1989;O'Dowd 1994;Risch and Rickson 1981;Sabelis et al. 1999;Wa ¨ckers et al. 2005). However, some herbivores can also benefit from plant structures to hide from predators (Magalha ˜es et al. 2007). For example, herbivores are known to live in between the scales of flower bulbs (Lesna et al. 2004(Lesna et al. , 2014)), inside dense forests of leaf trichomes (van Houten et al. 2013;Glas et al. 2012Glas et al. , 2014)), and in shafts of grasses (Oldfield 1996;Lindquist and Oldfield 1996;Sabelis and Bruin 1996), which reduces the risk of predation.Larger colonies of the coconut mite Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) have been found almost exclusively on the surface of coconut fruits beneath the inner layer of the perianth (Howard and Abreu-Rodriguez 1991;Moore and Howard 1996;Navia and Flechtmann 2002;Navia et al. 2005;Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2008a;Negloh et al. 2011). In young coconut fruits (up to one month), the perianth is so tightly appressed that coconut mites have no access to the meristematic zone (Howard and Abreu-Rodriguez 1991). In the course of fruit development, the distance between the perianth rim and the fruit surface increases to the point where coconut mites can access the space beneath the perianth (Howard and Abreu-Rodriguez 1991;Aratchige et al. 2007;Negloh et al. 2010;Lima et al. 2012). This secluded microhabitat provides good conditions for development and reproduction of the mites, which feed on the meristematic tissue of the fruit. Furthermore, coconut mites are protected from adverse abiotic factors (i.e. rain, wind, sun radiation, temperature and humidity variation), and, as long as the perianth is tightly appressed to the fruit surface, they are also protected from their predators (Howard and Abreu-Rodriguez 1991;Sabelis and Bruin 1996;Ambily and Mathew 2003;Fernando et al. 2003;Siriwardena et al. 2005;Aratchige et al. 2007;Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007b).Predatory mites of the family Phytoseiidae are among the most important natural enemies of eriophyid mites (Lindquist et al. 1996;McMurtry and Croft 1997), but they are much larger than this prey and therefore have less opportunity to access the area under the perianth. Thus, coconut mites are protected from predation as long as predatory mites cannot enter. However, as the distance between the perianth rim and the fruit increases in the course of fruit development and in response to feeding by the coconut mite (Howard and Abreu-Rodriguez 1991;Aratchige et al. 2007;Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007b), the predatory mites will eventually have access to the prey colony under the perianth.Here, we tested the hypothesis that the distance between the perianth rim and the fruit (referred to as the refuge entrance below) is critical to biological control of coconut mites by predatory mites (Aratchige et al. 2007;Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007b) in a small-scale field experiment. As candidate biological control agent, we selected the phytoseiid mite Neoseiulus paspalivorus De Leon, because it was the smallest, dominant predator on coconut fruits in the geographic area where the experiments were carried out (Falcon State, Venezuela) (F. da Silva, pers. obs.). We experimentally manipulated the opening of the refuge entrance and assessed the consequences of this manipulation for the population dynamics of coconut mites and predators. For further insight into the consequences of our experimental manipulations in the field, we carried out laboratory measurements of the size of living female predators at different phases of their reproductive cycle, comparing them with the refuge entrances after manipulation.The experiments were carried out from September 2010 to March 2011 on coconut palms of the 'Criollo Malayo' variety in a plantation at Urquia Farm, Municipality of Monsen ˜or Iturriza, Falco ´n State, Venezuela. Coconut palms of 2-2.5 m height were selected, each receiving a single treatment that was applied to 12 one-month-old uninfested coconut fruits (2-3 cm of vertical calyx growth). Coconut mites usually do not infest the meristematic zone of unfertilized coconut flowers (Mariau and Julia 1970;Moore and Alexander 1987) and young fruits of up to one month old, because the perianth layers of the fruits are so tightly appressed to one another and to the fruit surface that the coconut mite has difficulties to enter (Howard and Abreu-Rodriguez 1991;F. da Silva pers. obs.). Prior to the experiment, extensive sampling of young coconuts was carried out in the field to verify the occurrence of mites. No mites were found on fruits of up to one month old. Furthermore, all fruits used in the study were previously inspected with the help of a pocket magnifier to verify that they were not infested. In case there were fewer than 12 uninfested fruits, an adjacent palm tree was used to complement the number of fruits. One fruit of each treatment was collected every other week to assess the number of coconut mites and predatory mites under the perianth. Thus, the experiment lasted for 24 weeks, but some treatments were terminated earlier because of premature fruit drop. All five treatments were replicated four times, so there were at least four trees per treatment.The treatments involved manipulation of the refuge entrance through insertion of small rectangular (3 9 1 cm) PVC blades in between the inner perianth and the fruit surface, where coconut mite densities are highest (Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007b;F. da Silva, pers. obs.). The PVC blades used were 40, 60, 80 or 120 lm thick. In the control, the refuge opening was not manipulated. In total 240 fruits were used in the experiment. The trees used in this experiment already harboured coconut mites and predators. We therefore used these naturally occurring populations. For practical reasons, it was unfeasible to carry out an extra treatment, excluding predators from coconut trees.Each sampled fruit was stored in a paper bag and transported to the laboratory in coolers (at about 15 °C) to prevent mite dispersal. Fruits were inspected under a stereomicroscope after sequentially removing the perianth layers. The mites were first separated into phytophagous and predatory mites and then transferred to separate 2 ml Eppendorf tubes filled with 70 % ethanol. Other mites (i.e. astigmatids) were collected separately, but excluded from further analysis. To estimate the number of phytophagous mites, the content of each Eppendorf tube was poured into a Petri dish (5 cm diameter), and juveniles and adults were counted as groups of ten mites (hence overall numbers were multiples of ten). A sample of 100 phytophagous mites was taken from each Petri dish for mounting in Hoyer's medium for later identification to species level. All juvenile and adult predatory mites were counted, because they were always found in much lower numbers than phytophagous mites. Eggs of phytophagous and predatory mites were not counted. Mites were all mounted in Hoyer's medium, and identified to species level.We compared the overall proportion of coconut fruits with prey and predators among treatments with a generalized linear model (GLM) with a binomial error distribution and a logit link function. The time series of the numbers of coconut mites and predatory mites per coconut fruit were analysed with a linear mixed effects model (LME from the nlme package of R; Pinheiro et al. 2014) with treatment (different refuge entrances), time and their interaction as fixed factors and replicate as random factor. We removed nonsignificant interactions and factors from the full models using the anova function of R. Factor levels were compared through a post-hoc analysis by grouping factor levels (Crawley 2007). All analyses were performed using R software (R Development Core Team 2013) and residuals were analysed to check for the suitability of the models and distributions used (Crawley 2007). Because the refuge entrance naturally increases with fruit age, we analysed the time to first occurrence of predators under the perianth with a timeto-event analysis using a Cox proportional hazards model (package survival of R; Therneau 2014). Treatments were compared with a general linear hypotheses test (glht function of the package multcomp of R; Hothorn et al. 2008).To compare the size of the entrance of the refuge to the size of mites, we measured the maximum height of the idiosoma of female predators. This was done by taking lateral pictures of mites walking on a tiny piece of PVC plate (1 mm wide, 5 mm long and 0.5 mm thick) floating on the water surface in a small groove of a plastic stick (Fig. 1). Before releasing the mites on the PVC plate, they were kept at 10 °C for approximately one hour to reduce their activity to facilitate photographing them. We used a Nikon D7000 digital camera mounted on a tilted Zeiss Universal microscope equipped with a Luminar attachment (comparable to a rigid bellows) and a Zeiss Luminar 40 mm f 4.5 at maximum extension for reproducibility. To calibrate measurements, pictures were first taken of a micrometer calibration slide with a scale (M) of 0.1 mm and this picture was then used as an overlay for the lateral view pictures of the mites. Subsequently, the image of the mite plus calibration overlay was loaded into MATLAB version 7.10.0 (MATLAB and Statistics Toolbox Release 2010a) for measurement of the grid size (n 1 pixels) and the distance between the dorsal and ventral extremes of the mite soma (n 2 pixels). The soma height (T) was calculated by multiplying the actual grid size in lm by the ratio of n 2 to n 1 (T = M n 2 /n 1 ). This procedure was carried out four times, each with 20 virgin (and thus nonreproducing) females and 20 reproducing females. The virgin females included ten that had just undergone the last moult and ten females starved for two days after their last moult. The reproducing females included ten that had constant access to food and ten that were starved for two days since the onset of oviposition. Hence, a total of 40 female predators of each physiological condition was measured. We limited the measurements to adult females because this is the main dispersing stage of many predatory mite species (Johnson and Croft 1976;Charles and White 1988;Sabelis and Afman 1994).Data on the soma height were analysed with a GLM with reproductive and feeding status as factors with a gamma error distribution and a reciprocal link function. Contrasts among reproductive and feeding statuses were assessed with the glht function of the multcomp package (Hothorn et al. 2008).The coconut mite was found under the perianth of fruits in all treatments and was overall present on 123 fruits (62.4 % of the total). The proportions of infested fruits ranged from ca. 0.7 in the control to ca. 0.5 for fruits of which the refuge entrance was increased to 120 lm, but this difference was not significant (Fig. 2, GLM: v 2 = 5.84, d.f. = 4, p = 0.21), showing that the experimental manipulation of the refuge entrance did not result in differences in occurrence of the pest on the coconut fruits. Across the treatments, the average number of coconut mites found under the perianth of a single fruit was 1438.8 (SE 158.6). The numbers of coconut mites were significantly affected by the interaction of treatment with time (Fig. 3, LME: v 2 = 13.4, d.f. = 4, p = 0.009). This was to numbers of coconut mites in the treatment with the refuge entrance of 40 lm remaining high during the last eight weeks of the experiment, whereas the numbers of mites in the other treatments decreased during this period (Fig. 3). Furthermore, the average numbers of coconut mites through time were significantly lower in the two treatments with the largest refuge entrance (Fig. 3, inset: LME: v 2 = 5.77, d.f. = 1, p = 0.016).The proportions of fruits with predators under the perianth differed among treatments, but this was only marginally significant (Fig. 2, GLM: v 2 = 8.27, d.f. = 4, p = 0.082). The number of predators under the perianths ranged from zero to four. The effect of manipulating the refuge entrance on the number of predators was significant (Fig. 4, LME: v 2 = 12.9, d.f. = 4, p = 0.012), and the effect of time was highly significant (LME: v 2 = 21.5, d.f. = 1, p \\ 0.0001). Predators were found earlier under the perianth when the refuge entrance was larger (Fig. 4). To further test this, we performed a time-to-event analysis, which showed that this trend was significant (Fig. 5, Cox proportional hazards model: v 2 = 20.03, d.f. = 4, p \\ 0.0005). Predators were found significantly earlier under the perianth of coconut fruits with the two largest refuge entrances. The treatment involving an intermediate size of the refuge entrance (60 lm) showed relatively more variation over time than the other treatments.The maximum height of the idiosoma of adult N. paspalivorus females is the most decisive measure for the ability to move beneath the perianth. This height depends critically on the physiological state of the female predators (Fig. 6, GLM: F 3,156 = 104.8, p \\ 0.0001), with reproductive females being the largest and non-reproductive starved females being the smallest.We show that sufficiently enlarging the perianth-rimfruit distance (refuge entrance) resulted in the predators gaining earlier access to the area under the perianth, resulting in a decrease of densities of coconut mites. This provides experimental evidence that the size of the opening to the mite's refuge may hamper the action of its potential predators, as was hypothesized in earlier work (Aratchige et al. 2007;Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007b;Negloh et al. 2010;Lima et al. 2012).In the control treatment, the natural increase of the refuge entrance allowed predators to reach the coconut mite only ca. six weeks after the colonization by the pest (cf. Figs. 3, 4). By the time predatory mites were able to enter the area under the perianth, the coconut mites had already reached an average number of 2925 (SE 1660.0) mites per coconut fruit, sufficiently high densities to cause severe damage (Galva ˜o et al. 2008).The manipulation of the refuge entrances had no significant effect on the time of first occurrence of the coconut mite (Fig. 3), showing that the manipulation did not affect the timing and probability of infestation of the coconut fruit. The height of the worm-like body of coconut mites (35 lm, Lima et al. 2012) seems to be sufficiently small for it to be able to squeeze through the refuge entrance of an uninfested young coconut fruit (ca. two months old), measured as ca. 15-45 lm (Aratchige et al. 2007;Lima et al. 2012).In contrast, the manipulation of the refuge entrance affected the occurrence of the predatory mite under the perianth. This can be explained by their larger size, although females of N. paspalivorus are flatter than any other known phytoseiid found on coconut plants (Fig. 6,F. da Silva,pers. obs.). Their soma height is at least 60 lm (Fig. 6), which makes them considerably larger than the refuge entrance of young coconut fruits. The results also show an effect of the physiological condition of the predatory mites: a female's soma can double in height due to feeding and internal egg development. This means that only starved females and smaller life stages such as juveniles and males can enter the prey's refuge. Once inside, they find themselves in a much larger space (so-called chamber, Aratchige et al. 2007;Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007b) where adult females can increase in size when feeding and producing eggs. Increasing the opening to at least 60 lm made the refuges earlier accessible to the predators (Fig. 5). Thus, the difference in size between predators and prey relative to the size of the refuge entrance seems to be crucial for the success of biological control of this pest.Counterintuitively, predatory mites were found on a smaller proportion of coconut fruits with an opening of 120 lm than on coconut fruits with openings of 60 and 80 lm (Fig. 2). Probably, earlier accessibility of the refuges with the largest entrances (Fig. 5) resulted in a shorter interaction period between predators and prey (Fig. 3). Therefore, predators probably had to disperse earlier from these coconut fruits in search for food, resulting in fewer fruits occupied by predators towards the end of the experiment.It is clear that increasing the space between the perianth rim and the fruit surface improved control of the coconut mite by N. paspalivorus. However, it is unclear how our findings can be put to practice: we can hardly expect coconut growers to introduce small blades of PVC on every coconut fruit. Perhaps selective breeding for varieties with slightly larger refuge entrances would offer a long-term solution. We conclude that successful biological control of coconut mites critically hinges on the ability of predatory mites to enter the area under the perianth.Even in the treatments with the largest openings, hence easier access for the predators, the densities of coconut mites were still sufficiently high to cause severe damage or even fruit abortion (Galva ˜o et al. 2008). Obviously, control needs to be further improved, and different approaches could be adopted in attempting to achieve this goal. Although predators were present early in the experiment (Fig. 4, treatments with large refuge entrances), their numbers were low. A first way to increase the number of predators would be to supply them with alternative food when fruits are still young and the predators have no access to the area under the perianth. The resulting standing army of predators could then prevent establishment of the coconut mites.Alternative food could conceivably be supplied in different ways, for example, by intercropping with plants that produce pollen or nectar or that harbour alternative prey, such as eriophyids, tarsonemids or other mite species. Pollen could also be added to young coconut bunches. Addition of alternative food to crops is a technique increasingly used in glasshouse production systems (van Rijn et al. 1999;Sabelis and van Rijn 2006;Leman and Messelink 2015;Janssen and Sabelis 2015). A second option could involve actions to facilitate the movement of predators among bunches within a tree and among trees. This could be done by connecting bunches of coconut fruits and coconut trees, for example with nets or sticks, reminiscent of a practice already used millenia ago by chinese farmers in citrus orchards (Leston 1973), by intercropping with climbing plants, or perhaps by reducing the planting distance among coconut trees so that their leaves will touch.Other predatory mite species also occur in coconut fields and are more voracious predators of coconut mites than N. paspalivorus (Lawson-Balagbo et al. 2007a, 2008b;Domingos et al. 2009), but they occur only on older, heavily-damaged fruits (F. da Silva, pers. obs.). Probably, these predators cannot move under the tightly appressed inner perianth of younger damaged fruits. N. paspalivorus was by far the dominant predator species found in the experimental area and it was almost exclusively encountered under the perianths. Hence, selecting suitable predators for biological control should not only be based on predation rates and population growth rates, but should also consider important prey characteristics, such as its use of plant-provided refuges. In cases of biological control of sheltered pests, small predators may be the most adequate candidates.(IBED) for botanical advise. We are grateful to collaborators at the Universidad Centroccidental ''Lisandro Alvarado'', 'Instituto Nacional de Salud Agrı ´cola Integral and the Government of Falcon State for logistics. Patrick De Clercq, Eric Wajnberg and two anonymous reviewers are thanked for constructive comments. FRdS was supported by the NWO-WOTRO Integrated Programme ''Classical Biological Control of the Invasive Coconut Mite in Africa and Asia'') (The Hague, The Netherlands) and a prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) to MWS.Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.","tokenCount":"3482"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5ff7bd71cc20b10ac48a88c9acec5fea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/acb5ed38-9590-462c-bf56-2cc3f29110e2/retrieve","id":"498396826"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ea81e31c-ee19-4363-89e9-e11b006cce0d","pagecount":"46","content":"Viruses remain major constraints to bean production in the tropics, due to the introduction of new crops and exotic viral pathogens into traditional bean growing regions. Sorne of the • newly introduced crops are also preferred plant hosts to insect vectors or endemic viruses. Last, the incorporation of certain genes for virus resistance in improved bean cultivars, is creating unexpected pathogenic problems with sorne of the more recently introduced viruses. As examples, we can cite the introduction of exotic strains of cucumoviruses (aphid-and seed-bome viruses of the cucumber mosaic virus group) adapted to leguminous hosts. These viruses are now widely distributed in Latín America and have already been detected in bean-production countries of Africa and Asia, particularly China. These cucumoviruses possess a very broad pathogenicity spectrum in Phaseolus vulgaris. Also, a temperate (northern) virus, alfalfa mosaic virus, was detected this year for the first time in Chile.Bean golden mosaic virus (BGMV) continues to spread in Latín America as a result of the expansion of export crops, such as soybean, tomato, tobacco, and others, which act as preferred hosts to the whitefly vector of the virus. This factor, together with the occurrence of dry, warm conditions, often result in excessive virus pressure, and significant yield losses even in fields planted to BGMV-tolerant cultivars.The deployment of monogenic dominant resistance to bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) has been a productive strategy in Latín America for over two decades. Recently, however, severa! Central American bean cultivars, which possess this type of resistance, have been suffering severe attacks by beetle-borne viruses of the comovirus group. These viruses, referred to as the 'severe mosaic' virus complex, consistently induce necrosis and considerable plant distortion in dominant (1) gene cultivars, while BCMV -susceptible bean genotypes seldom exhibit these severe symptoms. We will, therefore, implement a new breeding strategy for BCMV and comoviruses in general, as of next year.Regarding the gene tic control of bean viruses, the VRU, has been actively cooperating with bean breeders in the selection and utilization of new germplasm sources of virus resistance for breeding purposes. Additionally and for the first time, a bean plant has been genetically transformed by incorporation of three different genes (GUS gene, herbicide (Bar) resistance, and the coat protein gene of bean golden mosaic virus. We are awaiting permission to use transformed bean seeds in BGMV screening tests to evaluate the viral coat protein-mediated plant resistance approach engineered by Agracetus (a prívate biotechnology company), the Plant Pathology Department of the University of Wisconsin, and the Virology Research Unit of CIA T, with USAID funding.The VRU has the responsibility to investigate the diseases of cassava that are caused by viruses or virus-like agents. There are four main diseases that are caused by the following viruses or virus-like agents. They are the frogskin and Caribbean mosaic disease complex (virus-like agents), cassava vein mosaic virus (CVMV), cassava common mosaic virus (CCMV), African and Indian cassava mosaic viruses (ACMV & ICMV).Progress has been made on the identification of phytoreovirus-like agents associated with FSD and CMD. Virus-like particles and viroplasm-like bodies have been found in affected plants. Consistently nine ds:-RNA segments are found in the affected plants. The hybridization studies provide evidence that the ds-RNAs associated with FSD and CMD are either identical or closely related. The whitefly Bemisia tuberculata appears to be the vector of these phytoreovirus-like agents. A cONA probe has been developed to identify rapidly the ds-RNAs associated with this disease complex. The research on FSD and CMD are continuing and the investigations are centered on confirrning the association of the phytoreovirus-like agents and the entire complex of disease symptoms.The sequencing of CCMV is nearly complete. The virus is 6400 bases in length and it is most closely related to potato virus X (PVX). Most of the sequencing of CCMV was done at the VRU in CIA T and this is perhaps the first plant virus to be sequenced in Latin Ame rica.Cassava vein mosaic virus is most prevalent in the northeastem states, especially in the hot semiarid zones where it is not unusual to find more than 50% of the plants infected with CVMV. Since the virus is not present in Colombia, all work on this virus had to be done in Brazil. A cDNA clone to CVMV has been obtained, and this will facilitate efforts at molecular characterization and the development of rapid diagnostic tests.African cassava mosaic virus is the most destructive cassava virus in the world. Efforts are being made to find new sources of resistance through the CIAT-IITA cooperative project The identification of ACMV resistant germplasm adapted to tropical America will be a safeguard against the possible establishment of ACMV in this hemisphere.Beside the major diseases there are seven other known viruses that infect cassava most of which are symptomless viruses that are not known to cause disease. Diagnostic methods are available at CIA T to the four viruses that cause di se ases and to the three symptomless viruses found in Latin America. These diagnostic methods help assure the safe movement of cassava germplasm, and research will continue to develop even more sensitive detection methods.The control of viral diseases requires either the identification of resistant germplasm or the implementation of cultural practices that mitigate disease losses. Most viral diseases are controllable with the current technology, and continued development of rapid diagnostic technics togetber with the deployment of resistant germplasm should further reduce the losses caused by viruses.The genomic characterization of RHBV is progressing witb the completion of the in vitro translation experiments, and the successful cDNA cloning and sequencing of RHBV. A 20K protein encode by the RNA-3 and a 17K protein encoded by RNA-4 were identified by the in vitro translation experiments. The 17K protein was shown to be the inclusion body protein.A complementary DNA (cDNA) library to RHBV has been prepared and approximately 3,000 bases of the RHBV genome has been sequenced. Non-structural proteins on RNA 3 and 4 bave been identified and share 50-60% direct amino acid homology with the equivalent proteins encoded by RStV and MStV. Analysis of the in vitro studies and the sequence indicates that RHBV has a genornic organization that is similar to other members of the tenuiviruses. The genomic organization of RNA-3 and 4 appear to be ambisense. Each species encodes one protein from the ss-RNA that is encapsidated in the virions. They also encode a protein on tbe complementary strand, which makes both species protein encoding (sense) strands. From the in vitro data, it appears that the RNA-1 and 2 encode proteins on only one strand and that the negative sense strand, are the encapsidated ss-RNA species.The cloning and sequencing of the RHBV RNA-2, 3, and 4 are expected to be completed during the next year. This will nearly complete the primary molecular characterization of RHBV, and will be a basis for a better understanding of the diversity, epidemiology, and effective control strategies of RHBV.Potyviruses are ubiquitous pathogens of tropical forage legume species, such as Centrosema spp., Arachis pintoi, and Stylosanthes spp. Consequently, CIA T has developed reliable serological tecbniques to detect the various potyviruses detected to date in • these species. Using these techniques, potyvirus-free seed or asexual reproductive material has already been produced under screenhouse conditions. This year, a survey of A pintoi field plots planted with virus-free reproductive stock produced at CIAT, showed that it is possible to establish and maintain a virus-free forage legume field, as concluded from the absence of potyviruses in these fields. We expect to plant similar trials with four Centrosema species next year.A viral disease was detected for the frrst time in a forage grass, Brachiaria brizantha. The causal agent was shown to be an aphid-borne potyvirus, which induces streaking and ring formation in susceptible accessions. This virus can also establish latent infections in sorne Brachiaria sp. accessions. A preliminary survey suggested that this potyvirus has a wide geographical distribution, and current research seeks to establish its relationship with previously reported potyviruses of Brachiaria spp., su eh as sugarcane mosaic and maize dwarf mosaic viruses.The Virology Research Unit (VRU) conducts research on the viral diseases that affect the adaptation, yield potential, nutritional quality, or germplasm exchange of the different plant species investigated by CIA T's Commodity Programs.One of the main goals of the VRU has been to assist plant breeders in the identification and selection of sources of resistance to economically important viruses, for use in plant improvement projects. Additionally, the VRU interacts with plant breeders, geneticists, and molecular biologists to study the genetics of pathogenicity and plant resistance to selected plant viruses. An example of this research is the paper published this year, entitled \"Genetics of Resistance to Bean Golden Mosaic Virus in Phaseolus vulgaris L\", whicQ was widely requested by a considerable number of agricultural researchers from around the world.With regard to molecular biology projects, the VRU is pleased to report for the first time on the genetic transformation of Phaseolus vulgaris by the introduction of foreign genes, using a 'ballistic' (particle gun acceleration) method. These transformed bean plants express GUS activity, herbicide resistance, and the coat protein gene of bean golden mosaic virus (viral coat protein-mediated plant resistance). This is the result of a cooperative project on bean golden mosaic virus involving the University of Wisconsin, Agracetus (a biotechnology company), and the VRU.Finally, considerable progress was made in the application of advanced molecular virology techniques for the detection, characterization, and control of rice and cassava viruses. This work implied the creation of a well organized molecular virology laboratory within the VRU. These advanced techniques will soon be applied to the characterization of tropical forage viruses.Incorporation of monogenic dominant resistance into BCMV -susceptible landraces.The deployment of the dominant 1 gene continues to be a valid strategy in most of the main bean-producing are as of Latin Ame rica. Among the advantages it has, we can cite 1) the availability of several sources of the 1 gene, 2) the simple inheritance of the gene, 3) the elimination of BCMV from the seed in 1-gene cultivars, and 4) the relative simplicity of the screening procedures implemented at CIA T.As disadvantages, we can cite: 1) dependency on a single gene which can be overcome by sorne existing BCMV strains, 2) genetic linkage between certain seed colors and susceptibility to BCMV, and 3) darkening and modification of the seed colorfpattem in sorne commercial seed types. Moreover, it is becoming apparent that the necrosis 1 gene is interacting with viruses other than BCMV both in the same group (potyviruses) or different groups, as will be discussed later on under 'bean severe mosaic'. Last but not least, the incidence of BCMV in the American and African highlands in on the increase due to various environmental factors which favor the development oflarge aphid vector populations at these altitudes. lncorporation of recessive resistance genes to control BCMV The majority of the BCMV strain-specific resistance genes have not been actively used in breeding for comrnon mosaic resistance projects dueto 1) the existence of BCMV strains which can overcome these genes, and 2) the relatively simple manipulation of the dominant necrosis gene. However, due to the high incidence of necrosis-inducing strains of BCMV in East Africa, sorne recessive genes, namely bc-2 2 and bc-3, are being incorporated into E. African landraces.An intemational BCMV-Black Root (IBRN) nursery has been available and distributed for sorne time (see page 6, Virology Research Unit 1990 Annual Report, or page 129, Bean Program 1990 Annual Report). This nursery has been very useful as a source of recessive genes for resistance to BCMV, and to detect the presence of necrosis-inducing strains in a bean-production region, as it occurred this year in the Mexican highlands, where the presence of necrotic BCMV strains was confirmed this year in the unprotected dominant 1 gene control genotypes included in the IBRN. Such, findings indicate the need to deploy recessive, BCMV-resistant genes in these areas.Viruses of the Cucumber Mosaic Virus group infecting Phaseolus vulgaris lt has been known for sorne time that the so-called \"legume strains of cucumber mosaic virus\" have been attacking Phaseolus vulgaris in every major continent of the world where 6.beans are grown. Currently, major epidemics have occurred in Europe, Turkey, China, and Chile, and the virus(es) has been detected in East Africa, thanks to cooperative projects between CIAT and advanced research institutions in Germany and Italy.In Latin America, Chile is the country with the highest incidence of these bean cucumoviruses, and the country where the most virulent strains have been detected so far in the world. A new collection of 481 Chilean landraces evaluated in Chile this year by the VRU, in collaboration with INIA's scientists, was shown to have a 93.4% incidence of viruses, particularly BCMV and cucumoviruses. 1 t must be remembered that cucumoviruses are seed-borne in bean seed and are also efficiently transmitted by severa! aphid species under field conditions.Although sorne sources of resistance have been identified against the Turkish strains of cucumoviruses, notably Red Mexican 35, Pinto 114, and Monroe (Table 1), no resistant genotypes had been identified for the Chilean or Chinese strains. The main concern in relation to these comoviruses, is their apparent interaction with the dominant 1 gene, causing necrosis in bean genotypes that possess this type of monogenic domiBant resistance to BCMV. However, there are other genes that are also reacting in a hypersensitive manner with these comoviruses. These genes are currently being identified to exclude them from future breeding -for-bean-severe-mosaic-resistance projects. The following is a technical report (prepared for publication) on the current knowledge on these bean comoviruses.Various comoviruses are natural pathogens of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) in the American Continent. The main comoviruses reported to date are: bean rugose mosaic virus (BRMV), bean curly dwarf mosaic virus (BCDMV), and cowpea severe mos~c virus (CSMV) in Latin America, and bean pod mottle virus (BPMV) in the United States (5,11,12,13). Each of these comoviruses belongs to a different but related serogroup (1, 10).The endemic nature of comoviruses in common bean-producing regions of Central and South America, is probably related to the traditional association of bean and maize plantings, since the latter species also supports large populations of sorne of the main beetle vectors of comoviruses (2).Since 1985, severe epidemics of comoviruses have taken place in important Central American (El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras) and South American (Venezuela) beangrowing regions. Moreover, we reported in 1985 (3), that disease severity was greater in improved bean cultivars possessing monogenic dominant resistance to BCMV (7,8,9). This investigation was thus conducted to confirm the above observation, considering the wide distnbution of bean cultivars carrying the dominant necrosis gene (1), in the American continent. The genetics of resistance to BCMV has been recently summari2ed by Drijfhout (8).Virus isolates, maintenance, and transmission tests. The viruses used in this study were isolated from symptomatic leaf samples collected in bean fields in the States of Aragua (Venezuela) and Goias (Brazil), and in the Province of Francisco Morazán (Honduras). These virus isolates will be referred toas the Venezuelan (CV-VZ), Brazilian (CV-BZ) and Honduran (CV-HD) isolates, respectively. Under field conditions, symptom expression in systemically-infected bean plants, varied from mosaic and rugosity for CV-BZ and CV-VZ, to mosaic, plant malformation and necrosis for CV-HD.  12) with bean curly dwarf mosaic virus (BCDMV), were also inoculated witb the three selected comoviruses. These accessions are maintained at the germplasm bank of the Genetic Resources Unit of CIAT. As indicated above, sorne of these cultivars are represented by more than one accession in the germplasm bank, sorne of which may be genetically different.A set of nine cultivars: Alubia-Cerrillos (G 07930), Diacol-Calima (G 01853), Red Kidney (G 06054), ICA-Pijao (G 05773), Porrillo Sintetico (G 04495}, Bayo Gordo (G 13707), Cacahuate 72 (G 05481}, Arbolito Retinto (G 18247} and Honduras 46 (G 04791}, was also included for evaluation with the test viruses to increase the number of different bean genotypes evaluated.Finally, the bean cultivars Kentucky Wonder (G 00148}, lgua9u (G 04120}, Red Mexican (G 05507}, Comell 49-242 (G 05694}, and Moruna 80 (G 17703) were tested as reported locallesion assay genotypes for cowpea severe mosaic and bean southern mosaic viruses ( 4 ).Serological tests. The three virus isolates were serologically assayed by immunosorbent electron microscopy (ISEM) as described by Derrick ( 6). Antisera to cowpea mosaic virus (CpMV}, CpSMV, BRMV, BPMV, and quail pea mosaic virus (QPMV), are maintained at the Virology Research Unit of CIA T. The antisera to BPMV and QPMV were originally obtaíned from the Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, and the antisera to CpMV and CpSMV, from the Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida. The antiserum to BRMV was produced at CIA T.As data in Table 2 indicates, none of the first group of 24 bean genotypes evaluated was immune to any of the three viruses inoculated. With few exceptions, these viruses induced chlorotic locallesions (Fig. lA) and, less frequently, ringspots (Fig. lB) on the inoculated primary leaves. Symptom severity in 1+1+ genotypes varied from mild to severe mosaic and foliar malformation, (Fig. 2) according to the virus isolate: The most virulent virus was CV-HD, followed by CV-VZ and, finally, CV-BZ. Symptom severity was clearly greater in bean genotypes possessing monogenic dominant resistan ce to BCMV, particularly wben inoculated with CV-HD or CV-VZ. CV-HD consistently indu~ed necrosis on the leaves and stems of _ 1 gene cultivars, as previously • observed under field conditions in Honduras and other Central American countries. CV-VZ also induced necrosis in cultivars Widusa and Topcrop but not in the rest of the 1 gene culti_ vars tested. CV-BZ did not induce necrosis in any of these test bean• genotypes. The presence of BCMV strain-specific (7) recessive genes, su eh as bc-2 2 (IVT 7233 and Orfeo-INIA) and bc-3 (MCM 5001), furtber increased symptom severity (Fig. 3), as determined by the more severe malformation, defoliation and necrosis observed in plants inoculated with CV-VZ and, particularly, CV-HD. '   4) to the mechanical inoculation of the three test viruses (Fig. 4 ).The five bean cultivars reported to possess hypersensitive genes to BSMV and CpSMV, reacted to BSMV with necrotic ringspot lesions, 1-2 mn in diameter, on the manually inoculated primary leaves (Fig. 5), confirming their hypersensitivity to tbis sobemovirus. However, these bean cultivars became systemically infected by the three test viruses. Arbolito Retinto, included for comparative purposes, did not show any locallesions on the BSMV-inoculated primary leaves but developed severe mosaic and rúgosity. This bean genotype, reacts with concentric ring-shaped lesions (Fig. 5B) to the inoculation of the viruses selected in this investigation, suggesting its potential use as a diagnostic host  Serological tests.The three test viruses were shown to be comoviruses serogically related to CpSMV, QPMV, and BRMV, in that order of relatedness, as determined by a nine-, seven-, and two-fold increase in the number of virus particles trapped in ISEM tests, respectively, relative to the untreated control (ca. 700 particles/1,000 ¡Jm 2 ). The CpSMV and QPMV antisera, and the antiserum previously produced at CIA T against a bean comovirus from El Salvador, reacted more strongly with CV-HD than with CV-VZ or CV-BZ.Besides the extreme pathogenic range of the three test comoviruses in It seems unlikely that any of the three comoviruses tested in this investigation is the same as the BCDMV isolate described in El Salvador as a strain of QPMV, although CV-HD is closely serologically-related to BCDMV. Also, it is not clear whether the three comoviruses selected in this investigation belong to the QPMV or CpSMV serogroups. The high affinity of the CpSMV antiserum for the three bean comoviruses tested by ISEM, suggests these isolates may belong to the CpSMV serogroup. Moreover, from an examination of the literature, it is apparent that most of the Latin American comoviruses belong to the CpSMV serogroup (10). Unfortunately, when BCDMV was originally reported as a strain of QPMV, its serological relationship with CpSMV was not determined {12).The main conclusion of this investigation is that we are increasingly encountering in Latin Ameri~ sorne comoviruses capable of infecting all common bean cultivars tested to date, causing severe mosaic, plant malformation, stunting, and, sometimes, necrosis and plant death in cultivars possessing dominant hypersensitive resistance to BCMV. The implications of this pathogenic interaction are significant, considering that the majority of the improved common bean cultivars grown in Latin America, the United States, and Europe, possess monogenic dominant resistan ce to BCMV, and that sorne of the chrysomelid vectors of these comoviruses are also found in bean-growing regions in temperate countries.We have been collectively referring to the mosaic, plant malformation and necrosis syndrome observed in Latín America, as bean severe mosaic, and to tbe comoviruses that induce tbem, as bean severe mosaic viru~strains.  This year, for the first time, unequivocal evidence for the development of transgenic bean (P. vulgaris 'Seafarer') plants was presented thanks to this collaborative project. The transformed beans express beta-glucuronidase (gus) activity, BAR herbicide resistance, and mRNA for the coat protein of BGMV.In greenhouse tests, transgenic bean plants exhibit the same morphological traits of nontransformed 'Seafarer' beans. The BGMV coat protein gene (AR 1) is about 800 bp and it represents 15% of the total viral genome. We are awaiting permission from APHIS to move transgenic bean seed to Puerto Rico and CIA T, Cali, Colombia to screen these transgenic plants for their reaction to BGMV inoculated by whiteflies and mechanical means.In the meantime, a second virus-derived resistance scheme, the dominant lethal scheme, involving mutational changes in the putative viral replicase gene, is being pursued as an altemative to the coat-protein-mediated resistance approach described above. The reason for pursuing this objective before the coat-protein-mediated resistance approach is fully tested, is the close serological relationship that exists between whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses, which may diminish the expression and cross-protective effect of the coat protein gene.The importance of this report, however, is the demonstration that Phaseolus vulgaris can be transformed by 'ballistic' methods in the absence of a breakthrough in the in vitro regeneration of bean plants.The VRU has the responsibility to investigate the diseases of cassava that are caused by viruses or virus-like agents. The development of methodology to assure the movement of virus-free cassava gennplasm is a research priority. This is especially important because there are diseases of cassava of unknown etiology.The control of viral diseases requires either the identification of resistant germplasm or tbe implementation of cultural practices that mitigate disease losses. Most viral diseases are controllable with the current technology, and continued development of rapid diagnostic technics together with tbe deployment of resistant germplasm should further reduce the losses caused by viruses.Frogskin disease (FSD) is a virus-like disease of unknown etiology that was first reported in 1971 from southem Colombia. 'Qlere are no leaf symptoms produced in most cassava clones affected by FSD, but there can be very severe root symptoms. The malady was named frogskin disease because the root periderm and corky layers enlarge to form characteristic raised lip-shaped fissures on the roots. The roots often show a zone of constriction wbere these fissures are prominent. In severely affected plants, the roots do not fill with starch, and there are yield losses of more than 90% in areas where the disease is endemic. A few cassava clones develop mosaic symptoms on the leaves and are stunted when they are affected by FSD.Canobean mosaic disease (CMD) is a virus-like disease of unknown etiology that was reported in 1981 from the northern coastal regions of Colombia. There are foliar mosaic symptoms and significant yield loss in susceptible cassava varieties affected with CMD. Yield losses caused by CMD in susceptible cassava clones can be severe, but other clones are tolerant of this disease and produce normal yields.These two diseases have been reported as different, because the root symptoms associated witb FSD are either absent or mild in plants affected with CMD. While the root symptoms are apparently different, these diseases share many similarities. Both disease agents are transmitted by grafting and the cassava variety Secundina can be used in indexing programs for the detection of both CMD and FSD. The mosaic symptoms on the leaves of Secundina are expressed most prominently when the plants are kept in an area where the maximum temperature is kept below 30 C. Constant temperatures (a hove 28 C) suppress the leaf symptoms for both diseases. Neither FSD nor CMD can be mechanically inoculated and the only known host for both diseases is cassava. lnsect vectors have been suspected for botb these diseases, since they spread rapidly in the field.ldentification of a phytoreo virus-like agent associated with FSD and CMD Isometric virus-like particles (70-80 nm in diameter) are found in thin sections of leaves, petioles, stems, and roots of CMD affected plants. Similar virus-like particles are also found in the same tissues of plants affected with FSD. These particles have been found in plants affected with all the FSD and CMD isolates that have been tested (Fig. lA). Viroplasm-like bodies have also been found in FSD and CMD affected plants. These viroplasm-like bodies are often associated with the chloroplasts of the cells (Fig. lB).Double-stranded RNAs were purified from cassava plants infected with either CMD or FSD and ron on both agarose and polyacrylamide gels. On agarose gels, there appear to be three or four bands, but on polyacrylamide gels there are nine bands that are consistently present in plants affected with FSD or CMD (Fig. 2). The ds~RNA segments are estimated to be 4000, 3800, 3400, 2600, 1900, 1800, 1700, 1100, and 1000 bases in length (Fig. 3).Radioisotopic labeled cDNA probes have been prepared from the isolated ds-RNA, and these pro bes were used in hybridization analyses to determine the relatedness of the various FSD and CMD isolates. From the limited studies to date, there appears to be a fairly high degree of similarity between the isolates. For example, the FSD isolate 14 hybridizes with the CMD isolate 80 (Fig. 2). This is further evidence that ds-RNAs associated with FSD and CMD are either identical or closely related.The partial purification of the phytoreo virus-like particles has been attempted, but they are very labile. The particles have been banded on a cesium sulfate gradient, and then visualized with a TEM. Sorne particles are complete, but the majority of particles appear to have degraded into a 50 nm structure typical of the core virions of phytoreoviruses. To determine if the isolated particles contained the ds~RNAs associated with CMD and FSD, a dot blot assay was perfontled using a radioisotopically labeled cDNA pro be prepared from the ds-RNA The dot blots were positive indicating that the fraction containing the virus-like particles also contained the ds-RNA This is evidence that these phytoreovirus-like particles contain a ds-RNA genome.The virus-like particles and the ds-RNA bands that are present in cassava affected with FSD or CMD, are similar to those reported for in phytoreoviruses. Neither FSD nor CMD has been mechanically transmitted despite many attempts, and this is consistent with the causal agent being a phytoreovirus since these viruses are not mechanically transmitted.Whiteflies have long been suspected as the vector of FSD. For most of the transmission experiments to date, we have used the indicator clone Secundina. The mosaic symptoms in the leaves were used as the marker to determine that the transmission was successful Table 1 is a list of the FSD and CMD isolates for which transmission by Bemisia tuberculata has been shown. The acquisition period of one day gives the highest rates of transmission.   There is a latent period during which the virus is not transmitted by the vector. The minimum period of inoculation that has resulted in transmission is three days.Additional experiments must be done to more accurately characterize the transmission of the FSD agent, but the preliminary results indica te that the agent is transmitted persistently, presumably in a circulative manner. There is no evidence at this time, that the agent multiplies within the vector. Plants that developed mosaic symptoms were transplanted in soil inside a screenhouse. The plants were grown for six to eight months and then the roots were harvested and inspected ... for symptoms of FSD. Plants infected with FSD isolate 29 and CMD isolates 80 and 86 all showed mild but distinct FSD symptoms on the roots (Fig. 4 ). •The plants that developed the mosaic symptoms in the transmission tests were analyzed for the presence of ds-RNA species. In most cases, both the mother plants used as the source of inocula, and the plants infected in the transmission experiments bad similar ds-RNA patterns. The exception has been the FSD isolate 29, which loses sorne of the ds-RNA bands during the transmission experiments. Only the-nine bands, that have been consistently associated with FSD and CMD, are present in tbe plants infected during transmission experiments with isolate 29 or the other isolates. This suggests that FSD isolate 29 may be co-existing with a second virus. Roots showing mild symptoms typical of FSD. There roots were harvested from plants that were infected with the phytoreovirus-like agent using Bemisia tuberr:ulata as the vector. The plants were grown in a screenhouse to prevent oth~r sources of infection.The virus-like particles of 80 nm in diameter, similar to those found in FSD and CMD infected plants, have been found in the newly infected plants from all isolates that have been tested. Also, virus-like particles have been found directly in B. tuberculata individuals fed on infected plants. No virus-like particles were found in B. tubercu/ata individuals fed on healthy plants.The damage caused by FSD can be limited by using clean stakes. In heavily infested fields, the old crop should be removed for at least a month and then the field should be planted with clean stake material. The use of the indicator clone Secundina can facilitate the selection of clean stake material. Since the disease is not mechanically transmitted no special care is needed when handling stakes. The key for sustainable yields is the continued selection of clean stakes. There are no leaf symptoms in most cassava clones; therefore, the selection of the stake material must be made at the time of harvest. The roots must be inspected carefully for the symptoms of FSD. Many of the root symptoms are mild, but these must be recognized and stakes from those plants eliminated to mitigate the losses caused by FSD.FSD is the most serious viral disease that is endemic in Colombia. While progress has been made on the identification of a phytoreovirus-like agent associated with the disease, there are still sorne unanswered questions concerning the etiology of FSD. Therefore extra care must be taken to assure that the germplasm exported from CIA T is free of FSD agents. Currently, two tests are being used to detect FSD. The first method, that has been used. for many years, is to graft the test plant to the indicator clone Secundina. The second method is to extract ds-RNA from the plants and confirm their preserice either in a polyacrylamide gel or with a dot blot assay and hybridization probe. If either test is positive the clone is assumed to be infected. Only clones that have no history of FSD will be considered for export.Cassava common mosaic virus ( CCMV) is a member of the potexvirus group. The particle morphology is a semiflexuous rod with the approximately dimensions of 15 X 495 nm. The viral particles contain a single coat protein with a relative molecular weight (Mr) of 25,000, and a ss-RNA genome of approximately 6400 bases. Nuclear inclusions typical of the potexvirus group can be found in cassava and Nicotiana benthamiana. Gassava plants infected with the virus have mosaic symptoms on the Ieaves, and may suffer yield losses of more than 20%. CCMV occurs throughout Tropical America from Mexico to Paraguay and is considered in terms of total yield loss to be the most destructive viral disease in cassava in the Americas.The sequencing of CCMV is nearly complete. The virus is 6400 bases in length, and it is most closely related to potato virus X (PVX). CCMV has a genomic organization typical of other members of the potexviruses whose genomic sequence is known. Most of the sequencing of CCMV was done at the VRU in CIAT, and this is perhaps the first plant virus to be sequenced in Latin America.The cONA cloning and sequencing of CCMV coat protein was an essential element for the Cassava Trans project, that is based in Dr. R. Beachy's laboratory in Washington University.The coat protein gene of CCMV was successfully introduced into Nicotiana benthamiana, and these plants show almost complete immunity to CCMV. Coat protein mediated cross protection will be one method to develop resistant germplasm to CCMV. The major technical limitation is the transformation of cassava.Quarantine implications and control.Antisera against CCMV are available, and the virus is readily detected by EUSA All germplasm from the Americas is routinely screened for the presence of CCMV before exportation from CIA T.There are no reports of a vector for CCMV, and the leaf symptoms caused by CCMV are very distinct. The disease caused by CCMV is controlled by selecting plants without leaf symptoms and using these stakes for propagation. If the area is heavily infested the cutting tools should be disinfected between.plants.Cassava vein mosaic virus (CVMV) is a member of the caulimovirus group, that has isometric virions approximately 50 nm in diameter, and a ds-DNA genome of approximately 8000 bases. The only known host for CVMV is cassava, and the vector is unknown. Symptoms (Fig. ) include a chlorosis of the veins that can either appear as a cbevron pattem or coalesce to form a ringspot pattem. Sorne leaves also sbow a mosaic pattem over the entire leaf. There is often leaf distortion and sometimes the young leaves show epinasty. The symptoms are variable but are expressed better at high temperatures. The virus is reported in many Sta tes in Brazil. CVMV is most prevalen!\" in the northeastem States, especially in the hot semiarid zones where it is not unusual to find more than 50% of the plants infected with CVMV. CVMV is not known to occur outside Brazil, and there is very little information on the yield losses caused by this virus.The initial characterization of CVMV was done by Drs. E. Kitajima andA Costa (U. of Brazil). An antiserum to the virus was made by Dr. M. Lin around 1980, but it is not known ü it is still viable. Infected plants can be recognized by the distinctive symptoms and can be confirmed by TEM since the particles are large isometric particles of 50-55 nrn. Since symptoms are not always present, and the virus can infect in vitro cultured plantlets, a rapid and reliable diagnostic test is needed. DNA clones to CVMV have been prepared by Dr. R. Shepherd of the U. of Kentucky, and he has provided one of these to the VRU. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test for the rapid detection of CVMV should soon be available at CIA T. There is a need to prepare a new antiserum or transfer to a PCR detection method to EMBRAP A/CNPMF to facilita te screening of cassava germplasm for CVMV in Brazil.African cassava mosaic geminivirus (ACMV) is found throughout tropical Africa, and a similar virus, lndian cassava mosaic geminivirus (ICMV), is found throughout India and Sri Lanka. These viruses cause the most destructive viral diseases of cassava. The symptoms of the disease include mosaic, yellowing, distorted leaves and stunted growth. The vector of these viruses is the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. There are varieties that are resistant to these viruses, and in these plants symptom expression is erratic, and it is presumed that distribution of the virus is restricted in these varieties.Recently ACMV was introduced into the island Praia of Cape Verde. The origin of the gennplasm in Cape Verde was Brazil, and the losses were nearly 100% since the gennplasm was not resistant to the virus .. Similar losses can be expected if ACMV and. an active vector are introduced into tropical America. These geminivirúses have not been reported in Asia outside India and Sri Lanka; therefore, much of Asia faces a similar threat. In vitro cultures of cassava received from liTA (Nigeria) at CIAT have all been tested for the presence of these geminiviruses at the Scottish Crop Researcb Institute .(SCRI) by Dr. Harrison. \\ Monoclonal antisera to these viruses have been produced at the SCRI. There are antisera and cDNA probes to ACMV available at CIAT that can be used for the detec:tion of these geminiviruses.While B. tabaci is common t~roughout the Americas, normally it does not colonize cassava.Recently a biotype of B:-tabaci has become dominant in Florida, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, and this biotype is able to colonize cassava. Since this biotype is a possible vector of ACMV, there is the need to monitor the distribution of this new biotype of B. tabaci.The use of resistant clones of cassava is the most effective method of mitigating the losses caused by these geminiviruses. There are resistant clones in Africa and in India: The clones, that have been received at CIA T from JITA with resistance to ACMV, have severe agronomic and disease problems when grown in Colombia. These have been used in a breeding program and are one source of resistance. Another means of identifying resistance germplasm is through the joint CIAT-ITTA program described in section 23. A third possible source of resistance could be obtained through the Cassava Trans project which is working on coat mediated cross protection for both CCMV and ACMV. With the spread of the new biotype of B. tabaci, the threat of a introduction into tropical America of ACMV has increased. Therefore additional emphasis wm be placed on identifying ACMV resistant germplasm that is adapted to tropical America.There are severa! latent viruses that are known to infect cassava in Latin America. These latent viruses were discovered while working on other virus or virus-like pathogens of cassava. None of these viruses are known to cause disease in cassava orto have any effect on the yield of cassava. There is only lirnited information on the distribution of these viruses. CIA T is committed to sending germplasm that is free of pathogens. Therefore, the primary concerns of the investigations of these viruses are methods of detection that allow certification that germplasm does not contain these latent viruses.Cassava X and cassava Colombian symptomless viruses Cassava X (CsXV) and cassava Colombian symptomless (CCSpV) viruses are both potexviruses that were discovered during attempts to identify the causal agent of FSD or CMD. The discovery of these viruses occurred because they are mechanically transmitted to diagnostic hosts. Subsequent tests have shown that these viruses are not present in most of the plants affected with FSD or CMD. Neither virus is known to cause symptoms or disease in cassava, either alone or in combination with other viruses.Ouarantine implications and diagnostic tests. There are antisera to both these viruses and all in vitro germplasm that originates from Colombia is checked for the presence of these viruses by EUSA before being shipped internationally.Cassava American latent virus (CALV) is a member of the nepovirus group and was discovered by Dr. B. Walters, who isolated it from cassava that was infected with CCMV.-The virus was isolated from samples that were from Guyana and Brazil (Manaus). While the vector of the virus is unknown, it is probably a nematode. It is also possible that this virus is seed transmitted. There are no known cassava plants in the field that are infected with tbis virus, which hinders our ability to test if the virus is seed and/ or nematode transmitted.Ouarantine implications and diagnostic tests. Dr. Walter has made an antiserum for CALV available. This antiserum has been used to test cassava in Colombia and Brazil. This has been useful in certifying seedlots as free of CALV. Thousands of seeds and hundreds of plants grown at CIA T headquarters, were assayed for CAL V, and all the tests were negative. CAL V does not appear to be present in the Ca u ca valley; therefore, the further testing of materials grown at CIAT is not warranted. Approximately 200 plants (about 18%) of the germplasm collection at EMBRAP A/CNPMF at Cruz das Almas were tested for CAL V and all plants tested negative. CAL V does not appear to be present at the CNPMF farm in Cruz das Almas, but sorne additional testing may be done for the IF AD project. The distribution of this virus is not known, and the only reported source of the virus is from the humid tropical regions of the Amazon. The virus has not been found at the main si tes were true cassava seeds are produced for export. Therefore the risk that this virus is contaminating these cassava seedlots is extremely low.There are four main diseases caused by virus or virus-like agents. These are FSD, CVMV, CCMV, and ACMV (ICMV). While the losses that are caused by these diseases can be mitigated through cultural practices, there is the n~ed to continue efforts to identify and distribute cassava clones that are tolerant or resistant to these diseases.The research on FSD is continuing and the investigations are centered on confirming the association of the phytoreovirus-Iike agents and the entire complex of disease symptoms. Hybridization assays have been developed to detect the ds-RNAs associated with the disease. The development of this ñipid diagnostic test allows for the more effective screening of cassava germplasm. Also a major limitation to screening germplasm for resistance to FSD has been the lack of rapid diagnostic method for the disease; therefore, using this assay more emphasis will be placed on looking for resistance.Additional research is also needed in the Northeast of Brazil to determine the losses caused by CVMV. The vector of this virus needs to be determined to understand tbe epidemiology of this disease. The control of this virus should be a part of the integrated pest management strategies developed for this area of Brazil.There are excellent detection and control measures for CC~V. Sorne additional research is needed to identify resistant germplasm, but this research needs to be done in areas where the disease is causing disease losses. Screening CCMV -resistarit material from the Cassava-Trans project can be done at CIAT.The greatest need for ACMV is the identification of additional resistant germplasm. As resistant germplasm is identified in the CIA T /liT A collaborative project, it needs to be transferred back to CIA T so that there are adequate sources of ACMV resistan ce in germplasm that is adapted to tropical America. A similar project is needed for those areas of tropical Asia in which the virus is not present.Beside the major diseases there are seven other known viruses that infect cassava. Although most of these viruses do not appear to cause disease, they are of quarantine significance because of their limited distribution. Diagnostic methods have been developed to both the viruses tbat cause diseases and to tbe symptomless viruses. These diagnostic methods help to assure the safe movement of cassava germplasm, and one research objective will be the development of even more sensitive detection methods.The only known virus in rice in Latín America is rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV), and the major emphasis of the research during the last year has been the molecular characterization of RHBV. The molecular characterization is a collaborative project with the laboratory of Arma-Lisa Haenni at the Institut Jacques Monod. The molecular characterization of RHBV includes the identification of viral encoded proteins, the assignment of functional roles to these proteins, and the determination of the genomic organization of RHBV. These goals are being achieved through in vitro translation studies, and the cloning and sequencing of the genome of RHBV. RHBV is a member of the tenuiviruses RHBV. Recently, the partial molecular characterization of maize stripe virus (MStV) and rice stripe virus (RStV) have been reported, and RHBV appears similar with these other tenuiviruses.RNA and in vitro translation analyses.The RHBV-RNA was purified from RHBV virions and seven species have been identified (Fig. 1). Four ofthese species are single-stranded (ss-) and three are double-stranded (ds-) RNA There is no evidence of a fifth species of ss-RNA as has been reported for MStV and RHBV appears similar to RStV with four species of ss-RNA The length of RHBV-RNA 1-4 are estimated to be 8,800, 3,800, 2,200, and 1,800 using a ss-RNA ladder in glyoxal or formaldehyde gels. The size estimates using the ds-RNA were somewhat larger at 4,200, 2,700, and 2,300 bases for RNA 2-4, respectively. The exact sizes will be determined from the complete sequence. • Total RHBV-RNA was purified and translated using a rabbit reticulocyte in vitro translation system. Two majar protein products of Mr 17,000 and 20,000 were translated from total RNA The 17K product was identified by immunoprecipitation using a antis• erum specific to inclusion body protein. This protein is similar in size to the native inclusion body protein.The ss-RNA species of 2, 3, and 4 were purified by extraction from agarose gels and translated as individual species. The 17K protein was translated by the RNA-4, and the protein of 20K is translated by the RNA-3. There were no translation products from• the experiments using RNA-2, and the RNA-2 appears to be minus RNA The quantity of RNA-2 was significantly less than the quantity isolated for RNA-3 and 4, and we cannot rule out the possibility that the lack of products were beca use of insufficient RNA Not enough of tbe RNA 1 could be gel purified to attempt an in vitro translation experiment, but all translation products from the complete translation are accounted for by the translation of RNA-3 and 4.Complementary DNA cloning and sequencing.Complementary DNA clones of RHBV were prepared using a modification of the methodology of Gubler and Hoffman using random primers to begin the reaction.Complementary ONA to RNA-2, 3, and 4 of RHBV bave been identified from the library of clones.Approximately 500 bases of the RNA-2 species has been sequenced, and it contains one continuous open reading frame. The RNA-2 of RHBV is approximate 4,000 bases in length, tberefore additional cloning and sequence analysis must be done before we will know the genomic organization of the RNA-2.Within the library of cDNA clones there are many clones complementary to RNA-3.Approximately 1400 bases of RNA-3 has been sequenced and tbere is an open reading frame that encodes for a non-structural protein of approximately 20K (Fig. 2). The 20K product is at the 5' terminus of the ss-RNA species and is believed to be the product encoded using the in vitro translation system. This protein shares about 55% direct amino acid bomology with the corresponding proteins encoded by RStV and MStV. The is also a large intergenic region that contains a high A-T content. This is also consistent with the intergenic regions of RStV and MStV. The cloning and sequencing of the RNA-3 will soon be completed, but based on the current sequence data and the in vitro translation results, the RNA-3 of RHBV appears to be arnbisense and has a genomic organization which is comparable to RStV and MStV. The coat protein gene is the other expected protein encoded by the RNA-3.A group of cONA clones tbat are homologous with the RNA-4 of RHBV have been identified. Approximately 1000 bases of RHBV -4 has been sequenced and most of the putative anlino acid sequence for the 17K non-structural protein that forros the inclusíon bodies has been determined. This protein sbares a high degree of bomology witb the inclusion body proteins of MStV and RStV. There is a large non~translated intergenic region, and the RHBV -RNA4 appears to be ambisense.Approximately 3,000 bases of the RHBV geno me has been sequenced during the last year. Analysis of the in vitro studies and the sequence indicates that RHBV has a genomic organization t~at is similar to other members of the tenuiviruses. The similarities will be exploited to rapidly finish the complete cloning and sequencing of the RNA-2, 3, and 4. .Arachis pintoi. A viral disease of A pintoi was frrst detected in 1988: The characteristic symptoms of this disease conslst _of ring-shaped ( eyespot) lesions on leaves. A potyvirus was isolated, and was later (1989) characterized as a strain of peanut mottle virus (PeMV). A complete description of this virus appeared in the TPP and VRU annual review of 1990.The A. pintoi virus was first detected in the municipality of Ginebra, Valle, in farmers' fields. A survey conducted this year in the municipalities of Florida (Valle) and Santander de Quilichao (Cauca), showed that tbe virus is also present in these areas at a . very high incidence (50-100% ). This survey was afso extended to cover the municipality of Chinchina (Caldas), where the A. pintoi strain of PeMV was also found, again, at a high incidence. Finally, tbe A. pintoi collection maintained at the Agricultural Resea~cb Center for the Cerrados of Brazil (CPAC), Iocated near Brasilia, was also surVeyed. Here, tbe characteristic ringspot symptoms were also observed in A. pintoi, suggesting that the virus is widely distributed.•The distribution of the A. pintoi potyvirus seems to be facilitated by the vegetative propagation of this forage legume. Also, PeMV is seed-transmitted in its original host, Arachis hypogaea (peanut), which suggests that this virus could also be seed-borne in A. pintoi sexual seed. We have serologically assayed thousands of A. pintoi seed for the presence of this virus, with negative results. However, we can not rule out the possibility that this virus may be transmitted in a very low proportion of the sexual seed of A. pintoi {less than 1% ), just like PeMV in peanut.Stylosanthes spp. A virus survey conducted in 1989, in tbe localities of CIAT-Santander de Quilicbao and CIAT-Palmira, revealed the presence of yet another potyvirus, distinct from tbose of Centrosema and A. pintoi but serologically related to the A . pintoi potyvirus. This virus infects sorne accessions of S. capitata and S. macrocephala but, so far, it has not systemically infected various accessions of S. guianensis inoculated by mecbanical means.In general terms, this potyvirus does not seem to drastically affect Stylosanthes and its distribution appears limited. Should it become important, however, tbere are various resistant accessions or sources of resistance.Potyviruses are typically transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent manner. That is, the virus can be acquired from an infected virus source and transmitted to a healtby plant within seconds. Under these circumstances, chemical control of tbe aphid vector is obviously not feasible. Fortunately, aphids do not usually carry non-persistent viruses for very long distances, relative to other insect vectors, such as leaf-hoppers, and persistent viruses. This means that if aphids cannot acquire these potyviruses in the vicinity, there will be little chance for introduction or secondary spread. Hence, the importance of using virus-free germplasm when exotic forage•species are introduced in new regions. Thus, CIAT can make impact by providing virus-free reproductive plant material for vegetative or sexual propagation of tropical forage legumes. As an example, of the various A. pintoi fields surveyed, only those in the municipality of Miranda, Cauca, planted by 'Semillas Pance' in cooperation with CIA T, were found free of viruses. The origin of this A pintoi was vegetative planting material obtained from virus-free lots at CIA T, and seedlings produced in screenhouses and certified as virus-free by the Virology Research Unit.In the past two years, the VRU has produced certified virus-free seed of Centrosema brasilianum, C. acutifolium, C. pubescens, and C. macrocarpum. Additionally, we also have also certified Arachis pintoi and Stylosanthes spp for vegetative propagation.Furthermore, the VRU has produced specific and general virus-detection tests for the various potyviruses identified so far, in order to produce virus-free germplasm and satisfy quarantine requirements.This year, virus-like symptoms were observed, in a plant of Brachiaria brizantha (CIAT 16328) maintained under open screenhouse conditions at CIA T. These symptoms consisted of chlorotic and yellow streaks with the appearance of elongated rings later on (Fig. 1). An electron microscopy assay of this plant, revealed the presence of yet another potyvirus (Fig. 2).A survey of this virus was conducted at CIAT-Palmira, and Carimagua, in the eastem plains of Colombia.In laboratory tests the potyvirus isolated was transmitted by mechanical means, and by aphids (Myzus persicae) in a non-persistent manner. Also, sexual seed was collected from infected Brachiaria spp. plants, to investigate whether this potyvirus is seed-borne or not.A host range study was also initiated with Braclziaria brizantha, B. decumbems, and B. ruziziensis, and selected maize, sorghum, rice, and sugarcane cultivars. The results obtained indicated that only Brachiaria species were susceptible. Therefore, this potyvirus does not seem to be a strain of either maize dwarf mosaic virus or sugarcane mosaic virus, which are the only potyviruses previously reported to infect Brachiaria spp. However, this is still preliminary work which requires a more in-depth study considering the scant knowledge there is on potyviruses of grasses in tropical America.A similar potyvirus was recently detected in a Braclziaria sp. plant sent through tissue culture from Tanzania and kept under phytosanitary containment at CIA T. However, a serological test demonstrated that this is not the same potyvirus originally detected at CIA T, although both potyviruses are antigenically related. It may well be that we are dealing. with a potyvirus of wide distribution in the tropics which had not been previously detected due to the lack of virology research with these grass species, and the lack of distinguishable virus symptoms in most of the Braclziaria accessions studied so far.  ","tokenCount":"8884"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"322ae43018d340fc93d8ae1d39df0e9a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/81507315-9063-4747-92cb-0ec786f34514/retrieve","id":"-1126858631"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"19f5988c-c641-4a32-8128-f66061f4242b","pagecount":"2","content":"P331 -Policy process analysis and policy engagement Description of the innovation: Targeting policy makers and practitioners, this open-access guide outlines the main steps to mainstream biodiversity into policy and practices drawing on case studies from Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Turkey. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 4: uptake by next user (USE) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Outcome Impact Case Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: The tool was launched in 2018 at the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity.• Government of Brazil ","tokenCount":"103"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/6970724426.json b/data/part_1/6970724426.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"58adb9a514286e429074e58e39175969","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ba3d6d05-4968-4d02-80ca-967c8ea5f045/retrieve","id":"-609782734"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7f378568-9176-4c76-b9f5-91543376608c","pagecount":"53","content":"Ce manuel est développé dans le contexte du projet A-ATPC.L'objectif global de ce projet est d'améliorer l'état de santé des membres de la communauté dans les zones rurales mal desservies du Mali grâce à de meilleures pratiques d'assainissement et d'hygiène. Le Programme commun OMS/UNICEF de surveillance de l'approvisionnement en eau et de l'assainissement estime que 12% de la population rurale du Mali pratique la défécation à l'air libre. La défécation à l'air libre contribue à diverses maladies fécales, notamment l'infestation par des géohelminthes, la diarrhée et d'autres maladies pouvant entraîner une malnutrition chez les enfants. Le risque d'infection des enfants augmente lorsque leur exposition aux excréments d'animaux est élevée, généralement en raison de déchets animaux non gérés. Le projet proposé, appelé ATPC incluant les animaux (A-ATPC) au Mali, a travaillé dans jusqu'à 25 villages sélectionnés dans la région de Ségou au Mali pour piloter un modèle innovant d'eau, d'assainissement et d'hygiène (WASH) qui s'appuie sur l'approche d'Assainissement Total Piloté par la Communauté (ATPC) grâce à l'ajout de stratégies de gestion des déchets animaux. Il est de plus en plus évident que la réduction de la morbidité -et de l'entéropathie environnementale subclinique -peut être au moins aussi efficace pour améliorer l'état nutritionnel des enfants que les changements dans le régime alimentaire des enfants. Il est important de noter qu'une récente étude soutenue par l'USAID a souligné la nécessité de poursuivre les recherches pour identifier les interventions Eau Assainissement and Hygiène (WASH) les plus efficaces pour réduire l'exposition des enfants aux agents pathogènes fécaux, au-delà des approches standard des latrines, du lavage des mains au savon et du traitement de l'eau domestique.Le projet a été mis en oeuvre par IMA World Health, Lutheran World Relief (LWR) et l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI). Nous avons piloté des activités de projet dans les communautés où LWR soutient actuellement l'amélioration des pratiques de production agricole et animalepar le biais de son projet Relief to Resilience (R2R), soutenu par la Fondation Bill & Melinda Gates et par le biais de son projet Community Led Food Crisis Recovery in the Sahel II (CORE II) avec le soutien de Margaret A. Cargill Philanthropies. Les collectivités ciblées ont été choisies au hasard parmi celles qui répondent aux critères de sélection standard de l'ATPC, mais qui n'ont pas encore été exposées aux interventions de l'ATPC. Grâce à ce projet pilote, nous avons cherché à documenter les stratégies de changement de comportement A-ATPC les plus efficaces qui ont le potentiel d'améliorer les résultats en matière de santé des ménages et des enfants. Grâce à l'évaluation et à la documentation, nous avons cherché à contribuer à l'ensemble des connaissances sur l'amélioration des approches WASH et ATPC au Mali qui, selon nous, auront une applicabilité plus large à l'Afrique de l'Ouest.L'objectif de ce manuel est de pousser les ménages de la zone d'intervention du projet A-ATPC à changer de comportement à travers la sensibilisation sur la biosécurité des petits élevages dans les ménages, tout en utilisant l'approche \"Une Seule Santé\".Ce manuel donne un large aperçu sur la biosécurité des petits élevages dans les ménages en milieu rural au Mali. Il est abordé de façon générale afin de prendre en compte les différentes espèces animales présentes dans la zone d'étude, en l'occurrence la volaille, les petits ruminants (moutons et chèvres), le bovins, les ânes, les chiens et les chats). De façon spécifique, nous mettrons l'accent sur la particularité de certaines espèces animales tels que la volaille et les petits ruminants.L'idée de développement de ce manuel émane d'un constat fait dans de nombreux ménages en milieu urbain comme en milieu rural où l'Homme cohabite avec les animaux. Cette cohabitation est à l'origine d'une promiscuité entre les deux, mais aussi de contact assez étroit. Ainsi, cette inter -action entre les humains et les animaux dans les ménages n'est pas sans conséquences. Bien que certaines soient positives, les aspects négatifs de cette inter -action ne sont pas très souvent mesurés. Ce manuel est construit sur les bases des connaissances des pratiques d'élevage par les chercheurs du projet en utilisant une approche \"Une Seule Santé\". Une recherche formative qui a engagé les communautés, les services techniques de l'élevage, de la santé humaine et environnementale, de l'eau, l'hygiène et l'assainissement pour documenter les pratiques à risque aux membres des ménages dans les élevages afin de cibler celles-ci pour des interventions qui visent à améliorer la santé animale, humaine et environnementale. Différentes étapes ont été suivies pour parvenir à la production de ce manuel. Ces étapes dites Etapes recherches formatives sont:• La revue documentaire sur les risques sanitaires des ménages en milieu rural;• L'entretien avec les personnes ressources dans le cadre de l'élevage, la santé humaine, l'environnement, l'eau et l'hygiène;• Les discussions en groupes avec les communautés gardant des animaux;• Les ateliers communautaires pour valider les résultats des discussions en groupes;• L'atelier des parties prenantes du projet;• Le classement et la priorisation des interventions du projet, parmi lesquelles la formation des communautés en mesures de biosécurité.Ce manuel cible en premier les paravétérinaires, les agents de la santé humaine, les membres des comités ATPC au niveau village et les animateurs de l'Union des Sociétés Coopératives des Eleveurs de Tamani (USCET) du le cercle de Barouéli. Dans un second temps, la cible serait l'ensemble des ménages de la zone d'intervention du projet A -ATPC.Les résultats attendus de ce manuel sont dans un premier temps, de voir les capacités des agents techniques intervenant sur la chaine de valeur One Health renforcées et dans un second temps, de voir les ménages de la zone d'intervention du projet A-ATPC sensibilisés sur la biosécurité des petits élevages dans les ménages tout en utilisant l'approche One Health.A Mode de déroulement de la formationLe mode de déroulement de la formation sera de partager le contenu du manuel avec les différentes cibles du projet A-ATPC. Il se fera à travers une approche bien définie prenant en compte les différents niveaux des participants. Des matériels et supports de formation seront identifiés et développés pour permettre une meilleure conduite de la formation et assimilation par les participants.a Approche L'approche de formation sera déroulée à deux (02) niveaux. Le premier niveau concernera les agents techniques au niveau local intervenant dans le cadre de l'approche One Health et le second niveau impliquera les ménages de la zone d'intervention du projet A-ATPC. Différents outils seront utilisés pour chaque approche et pour chaque niveau.Niveau 1: Animation, Groupes de discussion, Visite de terrain, Démonstration, etc.• Animation PPT: une animation Power Point sera faite pour chaque thématique à dérouler. Elle comportera du texte et des images pour une meilleure compréhension et assimilation par les participants.• Groupes de discussion: il sera conduit au cours de la formation des discussions entre groupes de participants, mais aussi entre les participants et le formateur, afin de partager les expériences en la matière.• Visite de terrain: pour une meilleure appropriation des présentations théoriques en salle, des visites de terrain seront organisées pour permettre aux participants de mieux appréhender la thématique et les actes à poser (ex: visite d'un modèle d'habitat).• Démonstration: au cours de la visite de terrain, des séries de démonstration seront conduites pour une meilleure appropriation par les participants (ex: Comment conduire l'hygiène dans l'habitat ?Comment nettoyer les différents compartiments de l'habitat ? Comment acheminer le fumier dans la fosse compostière ou au jardin maraicher ? Etc.).Niveau 2: Groupes de discussion, Visite de terrain, Démonstration   Les zoonoses sont des maladies dont les agents se transmettent naturellement des animaux vertébrés à l'homme, et vice-versa. Etymologiquement, en grec, zôon signifie « animal » et nosos « maladie ». On parle le plus fréquemment de zoonose quand l'animal joue un rôle dans la transmission de l'agent pathogène d'une maladie affectant la santé humaine. Les maladies non infectieuses causées par des animaux (envenimations, allergies) sont exclues du champ des zoonoses.b Mécanisme de transmission L'homme peut être contaminé au cours de l'exercice d'une profession (vétérinaires, éleveurs, agriculteurs, forestiers, éboueurs, taxidermistes), le mettant au contact des animaux vivants, de leurs cadavres ou de leurs sous-produits (cuirs, peaux, laine, os, corne, etc.).La contamination peut également être accidentelle (par suite d'une morsure, par exemple), intervenir lors d'une pratique de loisir (baignade, partie de chasse) ou dans le cadre familial (animaux de compagnie).La contamination peut se faire par par contact, par inoculation, par voie aérienne, par voie digestive... (Photo 7).• Par contactCutané direct, avec un animal infecté même sans lésion (vivant ou mort ou de ses sous-produits).• Cutané indirect, avec des produits souillés (produits d'avortement et de mise-bas, litière, fumier...).• D'une blessure ou lésion cutanée même minime avec un animal infecté, du matériel ou de l'eau contaminée.Des muqueuses avec des matières infectées.Accidentel avec une souche vaccinale lors de la vaccination.• Morsure, griffure, piqûre avec du matériel souillé ou par un vecteur (moustique, tiques).• Par voie oculaireMain contaminée (exemple par les fèces d'animaux) portée aux yeux -projections dans les yeux.• Par inhalation (voie aérienne)• Par inhalation d'un aérosol de poussières contaminées.• Lors de la manipulation de compost, de foin, de grains, de laine...• En portant à la bouche un objet souillé (cigarette...).En portant à la bouche des mains souillées (contact préalable avec les végétaux, le sol, le pelage des animaux ou matières diverses contaminées).• Par absorption de lait cru ou de produits à base de lait cru, contaminés.• Par ingestion d'aliments contaminés insuffisamment cuits (viande, végétaux...).• Par consommation d'eau contaminée.• Par consommation d'aliments contaminés par des déjections de rongeurs.Par ingestion d'un aliment contenant un agent non conventionnel (prion).Photo 7: Voies de transmission des maladies zoonotiques. Les zoonoses sont des maladies infectieuses qui peuvent être transmises des animaux aux humains, mais également des humains aux animaux. (Source: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine).Au Mali, les différentes études menées durant ces dernières années, montrent à suffisance, l'ampleur des zoonoses et leur diversité. Cette situation sur le plan de la santé publique pourrait évoluer défavorablement si les mesures nécessaires ne sont pas prises. D'où l'importance de la mise en place d'un programme national pour la prévention et la lutte des maladies zoonotiques. Pour ce faire, au niveau national, différentes étapes de l'institutionnalisation ont été conduite avec différentes parties prenantes dont l'atelier national de priorisation des zoonoses au Mali selon l'approche \"One Health/Une Seule Santé\" qui a permis de de faire une liste exhaustive de quelques maladies zoonotiques par espèce animale rencontrées au Mali et leur poids (voir Tableau 1). • L'éleveur a la responsabilité de prendre les dispositions pour prévenir l'introduction d'agents pathogènes dans l'élevage, mais aussi pour limiter leur dispersion à l'intérieur de l'élevage.• Bien cuisiner la viande avant de la consommer ;• Pasteuriser le lait avant de le consommer.• Assainir les aliments des jardins maraichers à l'eau de javel pendant 30 mn (NB: éviter de laisser de l'eau de javel au soleil).• Pour éviter la rage humaine, vacciner tous les chiens contre la rage.• Après morsure par un animal enragé, ne pas abattre l'animal, le conduire au poste. Vétérinaire.• Pour réduire les maladies transmissibles par les rongeurs et les chats, consulter au plus tôt les structures sanitaire et accepter faire un prélèvement sanguin pour le contrôle de la toxoplasmose.Contrôle et prévention des zoonoses dans les élevages traditionnels: cas de la volaille, des ovins, des caprins, des bovins, des asins, des équins, des canins et des félins domestiques a BiosécuritéLes dispositions décrites dans les lignes qui suivent ne sont pas les seules que vous devez adopter: il arrive que des mesures adaptatives ou supplémentaires soient nécessaires selon la condition sanitaire de l'élevage. L'application de ces dispositions permettra d'anticiper sur tout cas suspect ou confirmé de maladie hautement contagieuse ou de maladie transmissible aux humains (zoonose).La biosécurité dans un élevage est l'ensemble des outils, des mesures et des procédures contribuant à prévenir et à contrer les dangers liés à la transmission d'agents pathogènes par diverses voies de contamination. Elle vise principalement:• À prévenir l'introduction d'agents pathogènes dans l'élevage ;• À limiter leur dispersion à l'intérieur de l'élevage ;• À contenir ceux qui sont déjà présents dans l'élevage de manière à éviter de contaminer d'autres élevages.Trois grands principes sont inhérents à un programme de biosécurité. Il s'agit de:• L'isolement (séparer les animaux en fonction de leur statut d'animaux malades, en convalescences, nouvellement introduits, etc.) et la sectorisation (organiser les animaux par secteur notamment en fonction de l'âge, de l'espèce, des objectifs de productions, etc.) ;• La maîtrise des différents circuits (eau, alimentation, etc.) ;• Le nettoyage et la désinfection.• L'éleveur doit prendre les dispositions pour prévenir l'introduction d'agents pathogènes dans l'élevage, mais aussi pour limiter leur dissémination à l'intérieur de l'élevage.• Dans l'élevage, tous les différents moyens de lutte doivent être mis en oeuvre pour contenir les agents pathogènes déjà présents de manière à éviter de contaminer d'autres élevages.• Séparer les animaux en fonction de leur statut sanitaire (animaux malades), de la convalescence ou l'introduction dans le cheptel.• Loger les animaux en fonction de l'âge, de l'espèce, des objectifs de productions et de l'état sanitaire ou physiologique.• Les insuffisances liées au suivi sanitaire et au contrôle des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale peuvent nuire à la santé de l'homme. Cette situation est due à la promiscuité des hommes et des animaux dans les concessions et au manque de prudence que les gens observent par rapport à la qualité des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale (lait, viande et oeufs).• Pour permettre aux populations de disposer de denrées alimentaires d'origine animale de bonne qualité, il est essentiel d'appliquer les bonnes pratiques d'élevage et de préparation de mets provenant de produits animaux rentrant dans le cadre de l'alimentation de l'homme.• Bien nourrir l'animal est essentiel pour éviter les excès d'alimentation qui favorisent la production de viandes grasses qui sont à l'origine de maladies cardiovasculaires chez l'homme. A l'opposé, tout déficit alimentaire chez l'animal aboutit à la production de viandes maigres souvent impropres à la consommation humaine.• Il est par ailleurs indispensable d'observer les règles se rapportant aussi bien à l'hygiène et à la proprété de l'éleveur et de l'habitat des animaux qu'à l'application de soins sanitaires aux animaux, pour éviter les différents préjudices liés à la transmission de certaines pathologies de l'animal a l'homme, en l'occurrence les maladies diarrhéiques comme les salmonelloses, la tuberculose et la brucellose.• Dans le même ordre d'idées, l'application de certaines mesures à la fois simples et pratiques portant sur la préparation de mets à partir des produits animaux rentrant dans l'alimentation de l'homme, la conservation et le stockage des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale, permet de couper de façon efficace la chaine de transmission des maladies des animaux à l'homme. Ainsi, le fait de bien cuire la viande et de bouillir le lait frais avant de le consommer, constituent des procédés efficaces qui permettent de circonscrire de tels dangers.• Les insuffisances liées au suivi sanitaire et au contrôle des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale peuvent nuire à la santé de l'homme. Cette situation est due à la promiscuité des hommes et des animaux dans les concessions et au manque de prudence que les gens observent par rapport à la qualité des denrées alimentaires d'origine animale (le lait, la viande et les oeufs).• Pour permettre aux populations de disposer de DAOA de qualité, il est essentiel d'observer les mesures et les bonnes pratiques qui se rapportent à l'Alimentation et abreuvement des animaux, à la Santé animale, à l'hygiène et la propreté de l'éleveur, au Matériel et à l'habitat dans l'élevage et la préparation et la consommation des aliments par l'homme.Les bonnes pratiques de la biodiversité est l'ensemble des mesures pour prévenir l'introduction de nouveaux agents pathogènes et pour limiter la dissémination et l'expression clinique des affections déjà présentes dans l'élevage.Elles consistent aussi à la prévention face à la propagation des agents pathogènes vers d'autres élevages ou vers l'Homme. Ces bonnes pratiques sont applicables à plusieurs niveaux. Dans ce qui suit, l'accent sera mis sur (i) l'habitat, (ii) l'alimentation, (iii) l'abreuvement, (iv) l'hygiène dans les élevages, (v) l'hygiène de la cour du ménage, (vi) la santé animale, (vii) la gestion des animaux malades, (viii) la gestion des cadavres d'animaux.L'application des bonnes pratiques de la biosécurité sur l'habitat dans un élevage englobe, (i) le choix du lieu d'implantation de l'élevage, (ii) la conception de l'habitat et (iii) le choix des matériaux utilisés pour la construction.i. Choix du lieu d'implantation de l'élevage/habitat Le choix du site géographique de l'habitat doit assurer le niveau de protection le plus élevé contre les risques de contamination. Pour cela, il faudra suivre certaines règles de bon sens. Il s'agit:• Construire l'habitat loin des maisons d'habitation, de la cuisine, des toilettes et des puits ; une distance minimale de 7 m doit être respectée. L'idéale étant de construire les habitas des animaux en dehors des concessions.• Implanter l'élevage/l'habitat le plus loin possible d'autres élevages/habitats d'animaux ou d'espèces différentes pouvant être source de transmission de maladies afin d'éviter la propagation des agents pathogènes.• Tenir compte de l'orientation des vents dominants pour obtenir une ventilation homogène et maîtrisable et pour éviter d'installer l'habitat hébergeant les animaux les plus jeunes, sous le vent des habitats hébergeant les animaux les plus âgés.• Eviter de construire dans des zones inondables, des marécages, des cours d'eau afin d'éviter les remontées capillaires des eaux.• Eviter de construire dans des zones humides fréquentées par les animaux porteurs de germes et afin d'éviter les problèmes d'eau stagnante.ii. Conception de l'habitat La conception de l'habitat doit être bien réfléchie et adaptee à l'environnement, à savoir:• Les habitats des animaux doivent être conçus en fonction de l'espèce élevée, de l'âge de l'animal ou du type de production animale recherchée.• L'habitat doit être clôturé et infranchissable aux autres espèces animales et aux animaux en divagation (chien, chat, etc.).Les abords de l'habitat doivent être bien dégagés pour faciliter l'hygiène de l'environnement. Il est recommandé d'avoir un plancher qui peut être facilement nettoyeé et que et garantit une meilleure efficacité de la désinfection. Il en est de même pour les murs (clôture) et le plafond de l'habitat d'élevage.• Prévoir un lieu de quarantaine destiné à l'isolement des animaux malades.• Prévoir une légère pente et canaliser le drainage ou l'écoulement des eaux de pluie et des eaux usées qui devront être évacuées loin des bâtiments. Dans certains cas, comme les animaux en stabulation, cette canalisation peut déboucher dans la fosse compostière.iii. Choix des matériaux utilisés pour la construction Les matériaux locaux résistants, faciles à nettoyer et à désinfecter peuvent être utilisés pour la construction des habitats d'élevage. Les normes qui suivent sont à respecter:• Le toit peut être en tôle, en paille, tiges de céréale, etc. mais imperméable à la pluie et aux rayons de soleil.Le mur de clôture doit être en briques dur, en briques de banco avec revêtement, en haie morte solide, etc. pour une longue durée de vie.Le plancher devrait être bien bâit et si possible cimenté afin d'éviter l'infiltration, en pente pour éviter la stagnation de l'eau, et rugueux ou éviter que les animaux glisses.Pour conduire un élevage en toute sécurité, l'habitat doit bénéficier d'un bon lieu d'implémentation afin d'éviter toute forme de contamination des personnes et des autres animaux d'espèces et d'âges différents vivant dans le même environnement.• Il faudrait construire l'habitat loin des chambres à coucher, de la cuisine, des toilettes et du puits afin d'assurer la bonne santé de l'homme et de l'animal.• Construire l'habitat des animaux dans un lieu surélevé pour éviter l'inondation du site, faciliter le drainage et enfin pour le bien-être des animaux.• Concevoir l'habitat des animaux en fonction de l'espèce à élever, de l'âge et de l'état physiologique de l'animal ou des objectifs de production animale.• Ne pas mélanger les animaux d'âges différents, d'espèces différentes et dont l'état physiologique nécessite un isolement.• L'habitat doit être sécurisé avec une porte solide et infranchissable par les animaux pour éviter la divagation de ces derniers dans la cour, mais aussi empêcher d'autres animaux d'y pénétrer.• L'habitat doit être construit avec des matériaux locaux notamment en bois ou en grillage, durables et faciles à nettoyer.L'aliment constitue un des intrants les plus importants dans un élevage. Le maintien de la qualité de l'aliment est fondamental. Ainsi, l'aliment doit:• répondre aux besoins de l'animal en fonction des objectifs de production ;• être sain et de qualité, suffisant et dans des mangeoires assainies quotidiennement ;• être distribué aux heures indiquées, dans des mangeoires répondant aux types d'espèces et en fonction de l'âge. Les mangeoires doivent être de qualité et faciles nettoyer.Le surplus d'aliment est à l'origine de perte économique, mais aussi une source d'envahissement de rongeurs vecteurs de maladies.Le lieu de stockage de l'aliment doit être séparé et conçu d'une façon à offrir de bonnes conditions de stockage du point de vue humidité, température, aération et propreté.• Fournir aux animaux de l'aliment de qualité et en quantité répondant à leurs besoins de production.• Les aliments doivent être distribués dans des mangeoires répondant à l'espèce élevée, l'âge et l'état physiologique de l'animal.• Veiller à fournir une ration équilibrée pour répondre aux objectifs de production.• Distribuer l'aliment à des horaires réguliers de la journée.• Eviter le gaspillage pour ne pas attirer les rongeurs qui sont vecteurs de maladies.L'eau d'abreuvement des animaux est une source potentielle de contamination des animaux. Elle devrait bénéficier d'une attention particulière. Dans l'élevage, les points suivants devraient faire l'objet de suivi. Il s'agit de:• Disposer d'une source d'eau potable et saine.• Mettre en place des abreuvoirs propres et faciles à nettoyer.• Disposer d'abreuvoirs répondant à l'espèce élevée à l'âge de l'animal et à son statut physiologique Message (s) clé (s)• Fournir aux animaux une eau saine, propre et de qualité.• Veiller à ce que l'eau soit dans des abreuvoirs répondant à l'espèce élevée, à l'âge et à l'état physiologique de l'animal.• L'eau doit être donnée ad libitum et dans un endroit à l'abri de la poussière et du soleil. • Asperger de l'eau pour limiter de la poussière ;• Balayer du plafond au plancher en passant par les murs (clôture) lors des grands nettoyages ;• Faire sortir les excréments et les transporter vers la fosse compostière ;• Nettoyer les abreuvoirs et mangeoires régulièrement (matin et soir) ;• Nettoyer couramment le matériel en commun après partage avec d'autres élevages ;• Veiller à ce que le matériel de traite soit propre.Assurer régulièrement un nettoyage et une désinfection de l'élevage à travers les équipements de nettoyages et de protection recommandés.• Protéger vos yeux, vos narines, votre bouche et vos oreilles avec un foulard, un mouchoir ou un cache nez lors du nettoyage de l'élevage.• Ne pas utiliser les mains nues pour nettoyer l'habitat des animaux, se munir de gants dans la mesure du possible.• Ne pas se frotter les différentes muqueuses sans se laver les mains auparavant.• Utiliser toujours des balais, des dabas, des pelles, des râteaux et des brouettes pour nettoyer les habitats et les désinfecter avec du crésyl quotidiennement.Décret n°2017-0326/P-RM du 11 avril 2017 régissant l'hygiène de l'habitat en République du Mali.L'hygiène de la cour du ménage est l'ensemble des mesures destinées à préserver et à améliorer notre cadre de vie. Un lieu propre et sain assainit la pensée et favorise le repos de l'esprit. C'est pourquoi l'hygiène de la cour du ménage préconise:• Le balayage et le nettoyage réguliers de toute la cour à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur.• L'élimination des ordures dans une poubelle ou un bac à ordure.• La vidange régulière des poubelles et des eaux usées dans la compostière (s'assurer des déchets biodégradables).• L'évacuation des ordures ménagères non dégradable loin des habitats ; car leur stagnation devient une source de prolifération de certains vecteurs de maladies mortelles pour l'homme (moustiques, mouches etc…). Pendant la saison des pluies, ces endroits insalubres dégagent une odeur nauséabonde et deviennent aussi inhabitables.• La mise en place des abreuvoirs et mangeoires garnis dans les enclos pour attirer/orienter les animaux au retour du pâturage.• Le lavage au savon et la désinfection quotidienne des toilettes voire même parfumer.Quelques conseils pratiques à adopter:• Eviter de laisser les animaux divaguer dans la cour.• Eviter de faire abreuver les animaux dans les récipients (marmites, tasses, bol, etc.) servant à faire la cuisine ;• Ne jamais uriner ou déféquer sur le sol ou près des puits réservés à l'usage domestique.La protection conséquemment des aliments destinés à la consommation à l'abri des sources de contamination. A cet effet, il faudrait:• Fermer la cuisine chaque fois que l'on s'en éloigne ou après utilisation.• Rincer les ustensiles de cuisine avec de l'eau saine et propre.• Garder soigneusement les aliments fermés pour les protéger des mouches et animaux domestiques, vecteurs de maladies.• Placer les repas dans des endroits non accessibles aux animaux (dans la chambre, cuisine, en hauteur, etc.).• Tenir à distance le bétail et la volaille des points d'eau utilisés par les personnes pour la boisson, de la cuisine, des lieux de la vaisselle et de lessives.• Prendre des dispositions immédiates pour enterrer les cadavres d'animaux issus des élevages du ménage.La salubrité de l'environnement est sans doute un domaine qui concerne à la fois les citoyens dont la santé et le bienêtre en dépendent étroitement et les responsables qui, d'une façon ou d'une autre agissent sur cet environnement pour le modifier ou pour l'améliorer.La prévention, le traitement, le bon usage des médicaments et le partage de l'information sur les maladies sont fondamentaux pour une bonne santé de l'animal.La vaccination est l'inoculation d'une préparation douée du pouvoir antigénique, destinée à provoquer dans l'organisme auquel on l'administre, la formation d'anticorps à un taux suffisant. Cette formation d'anticorps va conférer une protection variable en intensité et en durée, contre l'infection spécifique correspondante à l'antigène. \"Vacciner, c'est comme prendre un chaton et l'élever dans une nouvelle maison pour prévenir l'arrivée des souris, des rats. S'il arrive que les rats ou les souris entrent dans la maison, on aura déjà un grand chat capable de les chasser\". Pour que le vaccin protège contre la maladie, il faut avoir vacciné avant que la maladie s'installe.Les maladies endémiques ont un impact négatif sur la productivité à cause des forts taux de mortalités et de morbidité provoqués dans le troupeau. Un animal malade, non seulement provoque une perte de productivité importante du cheptel, mais aussi représente un risque pour la santé publique dans le cas où la maladie est une zoonose (ex. tuberculose, brucellose). Les activités de sauvegarde du cheptel à tout point de vue apparaissent comme l'un des facteurs de première ligne à promouvoir pour le développement des filières animales. En cela, les thématiques suivantes constituent des références importantes. Le Tableau 2 ci-dessous illustre fort à propos l'importance de la vaccination contre les maladies endémiques du cheptel. • Prix de vente plus élevé sur le marché ;• Plus de revenus pour l'agroéleveur et sa famille, rentrée substantielle d'argent ;• Bonne santé pour la famille, les voisins et la communauté: Pas de risques de maladies animales transmissibles à l'homme ;• Approvisionnement (alimentation de bonne qualité pour la famille et la communauté): i) en viande saine, de bonne qualité en cas d'abattage ; ii) en lait: augmentation de la quantité de lait produit par jour.• Mauvais prix de vente de l'animal sur le marché ;• Pertes d'argent pour l'éleveur et sa famille ;• Risques de maladies pour la famille, les voisins et la communauté à cause des possibilités de transmission de maladies animales aux populations ;• Viande malsaine, de mauvaise qualité (risques de maladies pour les consommateurs) ;• Diminution des productions (lait, viande, travail, etc.) à cause de la maladie.• Pertes économiques élevées (charges traitements, entretien et mortalité occasionnées par la maladie) ;• Si le cadavre n'est pas traité selon les dispositions requises (enterré ou incinéré) à temps, il y'a risque de dissémination des germes avec des possibilités de transmission de maladies aux populations ;• Arrêt de toutes les productions (lait, viande, travail). Nous avons également une obligation morale envers nos animaux: l'obligation de prévenir les maladies plutôt que d'attendre que l'animal tombe malade, souffre et doive être soigné. La vaccination protège les animaux de production comme les animaux de compagnie contre toute une gamme de maladies potentiellement mortelles.ii.Le calendrier de vaccinations du cheptel contre les principales maladies endémiques est une suite ordonnée d'actions d'immunisation de masse du cheptel mises en oeuvre par les services vétérinaires à des moments précis de l'année.Les facteurs qui exigent le respect du calendrier de vaccination contre les principales maladies endémiques avec la constance et la régularité requises, portent principalement sur les aspects ci-dessous:• La gravité du risque sanitaire lié au non-respect du calendrier de vaccination Selon la pratique, on note:• En cas de non-vaccination du troupeau, de nombreuses conséquences d'incidence variable en fonction de:• l'échelle du troupeau: Pertes numériques élevées, baisse de revenus/réduction des productions, selon la pathologie ;• sur le plan communautaire, risque accru de dissémination des maladies (responsabilité individuelle dans l'avènement de catastrophes), et ;• au niveau communautaire et national: extension possible par effet de tâche d'huile à tout le pays.• Une incidence négative liée à la pratique de vaccination partielle du troupeau qui a pour effets: l'abandon volontaire d'une partie du troupeau aux risques de maladies liées à la perte probable d'une partie ou tout le capital de production, des risques sanitaires accrus pour les voisins, la communauté et le pays, l'exposition de l'agro-éleveur aux sanctions prévues par la loi pour non-respect des termes consacrant le caractère de la vaccination de la totalité du troupeau (aspect législatifs/rappel sanctions).• Avantages liés au respect du calendrier de vaccination Ils sont multiples eu égard aux aspects suivants:• Le rapport Coût/bénéfice de la vaccination: sauvegarde du capital de production (c'est-à-dire le troupeau), augmentation des effectifs, revenus plus élevés (ventes d'animaux ou de produits/lait-viande), alimentation saine de la famille et de la communauté, voire du pays grâce à la disponibilité et l'accès aux produits alimentaires d'origine animale de meilleure qualité.• Les bénéfices liés à la vaccination du troupeau: consolidation de la base de la productivité du troupeau, contribution à la valorisation des ressources animales, protection du patrimoine (individuel, communautaire\\national), contribution au développement du pays (comportement citoyen positif).Il est bon de retenir que la maitrise du calendrier annuel de vaccination au Mali est capitale pour une bonne immunisation du cheptel. Elle passe aussi par la connaissance des pathologies animales qui sévissent dans la localité d'appartenance et elle devrait se baser sur:• Le mode d'élevage adopté (stabulation, transhumance, nomadisme, etc.).• L'état sanitaire des différentes espèces animales avant immunisation.• La période propice de vaccination.• L'intérêt d'associer à la vaccination le déparasitage et le traitement aux trypanocides du troupeau En raison des nombreuses contraintes liées à la mobilité des troupeaux, de multiples avantages sont liés à l'association des opérations d'immunisations de masse aux déparasitages (internes et externes) des animaux. On peut retenir, entre autres:• La réduction des déplacements (éleveur\\vétérinaire) pour l'exécution des opérations avec une économie d'échelle substantielle grâce au couplage des interventions.• L'augmentation de l'efficacité de la vaccination par la consolidation de la base immunitaire du cheptel grâce à l'élimination du stress lié au parasitisme et la valorisation de la ration alimentaire.L'infestation des animaux par des parasites gastro-intestinaux et externes constitue un problème sanitaire et économique très important. Bien vrai que leur effet sur les animaux est difficile à évaluer à cause de leur processus morbide prédominant, il y'a des cas où par l'intermédiaire de vecteurs (comme les tiques), les parasites peuvent provoquer des mortalités énormes du bétail (ex. ehrlichioses, piroplasmoses, babésioses, etc…) et de la volaille (Coccidiose, etc.). En élevage, deux types de parasites sont rencontrés, notamment les parasites internes et parasites les externes.Les vers gastro-intestinaux sont présents dans tous les élevages de bétail et de volaille. Leur maitrise représente un des enjeux majeurs de l'élevage. Ces parasites se trouvent dans la caillette, l'intestin grêle ou le gros intestin, ou certains parasites causent des boutons dans la muqueuse. Ils peuvent aussi se retrouver dans les poumons ou le foie.Les poux, les tiques, les puces sont des agents vecteurs ou à l'origine des parasitoses externes comme la gale et la teigne. Ils se retrouvent à la surface de la peau, dans la peau ou sous la peau.• Lutte contre les parasitoses La lutte contre le parasitisme interne et externe nécessite une bonne connaissance des maladies parasitaires qui sévissent dans l'environnement. Pour arriver à lutter contre les parasitoses, il faut:• Identifier la parasitose en cause en fonction de l'espèce, de l'âge et du statut de l'animal.• Administrer le vermifuge et le pour one par la voie recommandée et en fonction de l'espèce, de l'âge et du statut de l'animal.• Donner les déparasitants à des fréquences régulières (au moins deux fois par an notamment un mois après le début de la saison des pluies et un mois après la fin de la saison des pluies) en fonction de l'espèce, de l'âge et du statut de l'animal.Ne jamais oublier que les traitements antiparasitaires ne sont vraiment efficaces que s'ils sont accompagnés d'une conduite raisonnée de pâturage.L'automédication est l'action par laquelle une personne non autorisée s'évertue à administrer des produits vétérinaires par voies sous cutanée, intramusculaire ou intraveineuse à des animaux, même si ces animaux sont sa propriété.• Facteurs favorisant la pratique de l'automédication Bien que l'on évoque assez souvent les contraintes liées à l'approvisionnement des agro-éleveurs en produits vétérinaires de qualité, ce sont surtout les programmes de transfert de certaines pratiques sanitaires usuelles aux producteurs ruraux par les agents chargés du service de l'élevage qui est à l'origine du problème. Ces formations portaient essentiellement sur l'utilisation correcte de bolus (comprimés), de sachets de produits (vitamines, déparasitants, etc.…) et des produits en solutions huileuses ou liquides. Ces pratiques ont été rapidement étendues à l'utilisation d'autres produits plus complexes et plus sensibles comme les vaccins, les antibiotiques, les antiinflammatoires et les trypanocides.• Conséquences liées à la pratique de l'automédicationLes conséquences liées à l'administration des médicaments en dehors de tout contrôle par les services compétents, sont de plusieurs ordres. On peut citer entre autres:• L'inefficacité des traitements:• les facteurs comme la méconnaissance des produits spécifiques requis pour traiter les différentes maladies ;• la méconnaissance des doses convenables aux espèces et catégories d'animaux ;• l'application de faibles doses dites économiques pour faire de l'épargne ;• des plans de traitements intervalles entre les moments d'administration ;• l'utilisation de produits non authentiques développe des résistances aux produits authentiques, surtout les antibiotiques, d'où l'inefficacité des bons médicaments suite à leur mauvais usage.• L'augmentation du coȗt des traitements surtout lorsque les premiers essais basés sur l'usage de faux médicaments aboutissent à un échec; a reprise de la médication par un spécialiste même si elle aboutissait, engendrerait un surcoȗt.• Les problèmes d'intoxication pour les animaux: certaines molécules utilisées à des doses non autorisées peuvent être à l'origine d'intoxications de divers degrés. Par exemple, les produits souvent considérés comme d'usage courant comme les produits laxatifs à base d'huiles essentielles sont à l'origine de nombreuses intoxications, tout comme les anti-inflammatoires non stéroïdiens utilisés en dehors des normes comme antalgiques.• Les possibilités de développement de substances cancérigènes à cause du non-respect des doses et des délais d'attentes liés à l'utilisation des produits chez les animaux. Ce qui a des conséquences graves sur la santé humaine lorsque la viande des animaux traités dans ces conditions, est livrée à la consommation.La pratique de la médecine vétérinaire est réservée aux vétérinaires. Les agro-éleveurs/producteurs n'ont pas le droit d'effectuer la vaccination, des actes médicaux ou chirurgicaux sur leurs animaux. Outrepasser ces reglementations, cela est passible de sanction pénales et d'amendes.Pour assurer une bonne couverture sanitaire du cheptel, les foyers épidémiques de maladies animales doivent être déclarés. Les maladies à déclaration obligatoire sont inscrites sur une liste établie par l'Autorité vétérinaire et dont la détection ou la suspicion doit être portée immédiatement à la connaissance des Services vétérinaires, conformément aux réglementations nationales. Les maladies qui suivent figurent sur sont parmi la liste des maladies à déclaration obligatoire:• la péripneumonie contagieuse bovine (PPCB) ;• la dermatose nodulaire contagieuse bovine ;• la fièvre aphteuse (FA) ;• le charbon bactéridien ;• le charbon emphysémateux ;• la fièvre de la vallée du Rift (FVR) ;• la rage canine ;• la pasteurellose dans les espèces bovine et ovine ;• la peste des petits ruminants (PPR) ;• la maladie de Newcastle ;• la variole aviaire ;• la brucellose bovine, ovine, caprine ;• la tuberculose dans les espèces bovine, ovine, caprine et porcine ;• les salmonelloses aviaires.Bien • Signaler tout cas de mortalités d'animaux suspect de maladies à déclaration obligatoire ou pas• Informer urgemment les cas de mortalité dans le village ou sur parcours.• Déclarer les cas de morbidité ou de mortalité de la faune à l'agent vétérinaire ou de l'environnement.• Déclarer des cas de symptômes ou de maladies en lien avec le contact direct ou non avec les animaux ou la consommation de produits animaux.• Vacciner les animaux contre les maladies endémiques et zoonotiques aux périodes indiquées par le vétérinaire.• Respecter le calendrier de vaccination des animaux élaboré par le vétérinaire.• Epargner de l'argent pour couvrir les frais de vaccination du cheptel.• Déparasiter vos animaux au moins deux fois par an (à l'entrée et à la sortie de l'hivernage) pour assurer une bonne immunisation et une meilleure productivité.• Eviter de traiter vous-même vos animaux par risque de provoquer des conséquences sur la santé publique.• Faites appel au vétérinaire pour le traitement de vos animaux et à temps pour le traitement de vos animaux.• Faire appel aux personnes assermentées.• Informer le vétérinaire ou les autorités administratives de tout cas de mortalités inhabituelles d'animaux domestiques ou sauvages.Les animaux malades (animaux atteints de diarrhée, porteurs de lésions cutanées, animaux fatigués, abattus…) représentent des sources très abondantes de pathogènes et sont particulièrement à risque de diffuser les maladies au sein du troupeau.De façon pratique, il est essentiel de pouvoir isoler ces animaux malades dans un endroit non accessible aux autres animaux ou aux visiteurs. Il est important d'y apporter des soins aux animaux malades en faisant appel à un vétérinaire.Lors des soins aux animaux malades, il faut penser à utiliser des gants pour se protéger soi-même (notamment dans un contexte d'avortements, pour le nettoyage d'abcès…). Lors de l'administration des traitements (injections, vaccination) le matériel doit être adapté à la taille et au poids des animaux et autant que possible, jetable (limitation des risques de transmission par voie sanguine notamment, avec des aiguilles à usage unique).Les animaux malades isolés doivent bénéficier d'une alimentation et d'un abreuvement de qualité répondant aux besoins de récupération de l'animal.Concernant les avortements: réglementairement, un avortement correspond à une expulsion d'un foetus ou d'un animal mort-né ou succombant dans les 12 heures suivant la naissance, à l'exclusion des avortements d'origine manifestement accidentelle. Plusieurs mesures de gestion s'appliquent:• L'appel du vétérinaire sanitaire: la déclaration des avortements est obligatoire dans le cadre de la surveillance de la brucellose à partir de trois avortements sur une période de sept jours en élevages de ruminants.• L'isolement des femelles qui ont avorté pour limiter la contagion et conserver tout ou partie des produits des avortements à l'écart des autres animaux (chiens...) en attendant la visite du vétérinaire qui effectuera les prélèvements.• La recherche des causes par le vétérinaire lors d'avortements en série (diagnostic différentiel). Une attention particulière doit être portée lors de la réintroduction de l'animal mis à l'isolement, en lien avec la remise en cause de la hiérarchie dans le troupeau (conflit pouvant entrainer des blessures entre congénères).• Informer le vétérinaire à temps lorsque votre animal est malade.• Isoler l'animal malade dans un lieu reposant et disposant de toutes les commodités de récupération de l'animal.• Informer le vétérinaire des cas d'avortements fréquents et successifs dans l'élevage.Pour limiter l'impact négatif de l'inter action homme -animal, de bonnes pratiques peuvent être suivies. Dans ce qui suit, nous parlerons des bonnes pratiques pour minimiser les interactions homme -animal, mais aussi celles de manipulation des animaux.En milieu rural, il existe une forte promiscuité entre l'homme et l'animal. Ce contact divers, notamment à travers les fluides, les poils, plumes, les ongles, les excréments, etc. peut-être est à l'origine de passage de pathogène de l'animal à l'homme. La conséquence de ce passage de pathogène peut conduire à des infections très diverses et souvent méconnues transmises à l'homme par les animaux domestiques. Pour minimiser les risques d'interactions entre l'animal et l'homme, de bonnes pratiques doivent être adoptées.Les animaux élevés dans les ménages produisent des déchets animaux qui sont le plus souvent en contact avec les membres de la famille. Pour limiter l'exposition des membres de la famille a ces déchets, il faudra:• Niveau animal:• Garder les animaux dans le parc à leur retour de pâturage.Eviter la divagation des animaux dans la cour.• Niveau hommeSe laver les mains après avoir manipulé l'animal et les excréments.• Bien sécuriser la fosse fumière si elle se trouve dans le ménage.• Bien se laver les mains après toute action de manipulation de déchets d'animaux.• Se laver les mains après assistance de mise bas des femelles.Les animaux élevés dans le ménage se retrouvent en divagation le matin au réveil (volaille) ou au retour du pâturage (petits ruminants). Pendant qu'ils errent dans la cour, ils sont en contact avec les enfants, insoucieux du danger courus. Pour assurer une bonne gestion de l'interaction entre l'enfant et l'animal ; il faudra:• Eviter la divagation des animaux dans la cour.• Loger les animaux dans des habitats qui leur sont destinés.• Tenir les enfants loin des animaux en aménageant des espaces de jeux pour les enfants, afin d'éviter qu'ils se distraient avec les animaux.• Limiter le contact des enfants avec les excréments des animaux au sol en les isolant avec des nattes ou bâches de taille suffisante.• Valoriser les matériaux locaux pour le jeu des enfants.• Garder les animaux dans leur environnement de vie et éviter le contact possible surtout avec les enfants.• Se laver les mains après tout contact avec l'animal.• Trouver des occupations pour les enfants différents du contact avec les animaux.Les animaux cherchent en général instinctivement à se rassembler en troupeaux. La régie du troupeau et les pratiques d'élevage ne devraient pas compromettre l'activité sociale des animaux, ni isoler inutilement des individus.Les animaux devraient toujours être manipulés avec attention, délicatesse, calme et en suivant une routine constante. Cela réduira leurs peurs, évitera les blessures et facilitera l'observation et les traitements, tout en améliorant leur bien-être et leur productivité. Les bonnes pratiques de manipulation des animaux font appel aux mesures d'hygiène à observer et à la protection personnelle.Les mesures d'hygiène à observer lors de la manipulation des animaux devraient porter sur:• Se laver les mains avant de toucher l'animal lors des actes sanitaires, afin de ne pas contaminer l'animal.• Se laver les mains à la sortie (dans la concession) ou au retour (en dehors de la concession) du parc après manipulation de l'animal pour éviter de transmettre des germes aux autres membres du ménage.• Assurer une bonne hygiène des mains, des mamelles de l'animal et du matériel de traite avant et après chaque traite.• Se laver et désinfecter les mains à la suite de l'assistance des femelles durant le travail, lors des dystocies et/ou de césarienne.• Nettoyer et désinfecter le matériel obstétrical à la fin de l'opération.• Changer de tenue à la suite des opérations d'assistance de mise bas.• Veiller à désinfecter le site ayant servi à l'opération d'assistance de mise bas.Message (s) clé (s)• Se laver les mains avant de toucher l'animal lors des actes sanitaires, afin de ne pas contaminer l'animal.• Se laver les mains à la sortie (dans la concession) ou au retour (en dehors de la concession) du parc après manipulation de l'animal pour éviter de transmettre des germes aux autres membres du ménage.• Assurer une bonne hygiène des mains, des mamelles de l'animal et du matériel de traite avant et après chaque traite.• Se laver et désinfecter les mains à la suite de l'assistance des femelles durant le travail, lors des dystocies et/ou de césarienne.La protection personnelle est une étape importante dans le but d'assurer une bonne pratique de la manipulation des animaux. Ainsi, il faudra:• Porter les gants lors de la manipulation des animaux, mais aussi lors de l'assistance des femelles durant le travail.• Porter une tenue protectrice lors de l'assistance de mise bas des femelles.• Disposer de matériel opératoire propre et désinfecté pour toute opération.• Observer les mesures d'hygiène en se lavant régulièrement les mains et tout autre matériel en contact avec les animaux.• Se protéger avec du matériel approprié lors de la manipulation des animaux.La viande et le lait sont des produits consommés en milieu rural. Leur consommations est souvent sujette à un manque de contrôle sanitaire afin que ces produits soient indemnes à la consommation. • Contrôle sanitaire de la viande lors de l'abattage et avant consommationTout animal abattu doit faire l'objet de contrôle sanitaire par un agent assermenté des services vétérinaires avant la livraison de la viande à la consommation ;• La décision du vétérinaire doit être respectée et appliquée conformément aux textes en vigueur (répression des infractions par la Police Sanitaire des animaux).• Quelques conseils pratiques lors de l'abattage de l'animal et avant consommation de sa viande• Abattre l'animal dans un lieu propre où la carcasse ne sera pas souillée et où le sang peut être récolté ou enfui sans que les prédateurs puissent y avoir accès ;• Utiliser des outils d'abattage (couteau, coupe-coupe, etc.) propres et désinfectés pour l'abattage, l'habillage et la découpe de la carcasse ;• Protéger les muqueuses en utilisant les équipements de protection, afin d'éviter de se contaminer mais aussi de contaminer la viande ;• Se laver proprement les mains avant l'abattage de l'animal, et aussi lors des étapes d'habillage et de découpe, d'éviscération et de nettoyage des viscères ;ii.Les bonnes pratiques de traite et de la consommation de lait sont indispensables pour la santé du consommateur et aussi celui de l'animal. Elles doivent être appliquées à plusieurs niveaux.• Trayeur (opérateur)• Nettoyage et désinfection des mains avant de faire la traite ;• Porter une tenue propre et spécifique pour la traite ;• Matériels• Laver les ustensiles (calebasse, seau, bidon, etc.) avant et après la traite ;• Loger le lait dans des récipients qui sont faciles à être nettoyés (grande ouverture, accès au fond du récipient lors du nettoyage, etc.) ;• Animal• Contentionner l'animal afin de bien conduire la traite ;• Attacher la queue de la vache afin d'éviter de contaminer le lait lors de ses différents mouvements ;• Laver le pis de l'animal avec de l'eau tiède et le nettoyer avec un tissu sec ;• Jeter les trois premiers jets de lait ;• Environnement• Faire la traite dans une aire propre avec un plancher rugueux ;• Eviter de traire sous un abri avec risque d'effritement de particules ;• Aménager une litière propre pour les animaux en lactation ;• Consommateur• Laisser reposer le lait après la traite afin de permettre aux déchets solides de se déposer au fond du récipient ;• Filtrer le lait afin de ne pas laisser passer les déchets comme les poils, les crottes ;• Pasteuriser ou faire bouillir le lait avant de le consommer ;• Protéger le lait des mouches lors du refroidissement en couvrant avec un linge propre.• Les mamelles doivent être nettoyées à l'eau potable puis essuyées avec un tissu propre. Les premiers jets sont éliminés et la traite est effectuée dans un récipient propre et facile à laver.• Pour assurer un lait hygiénique, il faut respecter la procédure de traite suivante:• Se laver les mains à l'eau et au savon ;• Laver le matériel de traite ;• Nettoyer le pis et les trayons avec de l'eau propre ;• Jeter les premiers jets de chaque trayon ;• Traire dans le calme dans un environnement propre ;• Filtrer le lait dans un récipient propre ;• Laver le matériel de traite après usage.• Eviter de mouiller le lait (risque contamination par de l'eau souillée).Dans nos ménages, en milieu rural comme urbain, les animaux sont très souvent en contact avec les humains. Certains animaux domestiques ont des attirances pour les excréments humains. Ils y ont accès et s'en nourrissent, par ce que ces excréments sont souvent exposés ou mal gérés par le ménage. Ce constat est surtout fait en milieu rural. La consommation de ces excréments frais ou secs n'est pas hygiénique et peut être une source de contamination pour l'animal en question et aussi pour l'homme. Cette contamination est possible si toute fois l'animal, après avoir consommé les excréments, s'abreuve ou s'alimente dans un récipient aussi utilisé par l'homme. Ou même à travers les caresses par l'homme d'un animal ayant consommé les excréments, humains. Afin d'éviter cette inter -action, de bonnes pratiques peuvent être adoptées:• Niveau animalEviter la divagation des animaux dans ou en dehors de la cour, veiller à les garder dans leurs habitats.• Sécuriser les habitats des animaux afin qu'ils ne puissent pas s'échapper.• Niveau humainEviter de laisser déféquer un peu partout les enfants dans la cour.• Obliger les enfants de moins de cinq ans à déféquer dans les pots, et ceux de plus de cinq ans dans les toilettes.• Eviter que les enfants aillent déféquer sur les tas d'ordure ou à la périphérie du village.• Ramasser immédiatement les excréments des enfants et les éliminer dans la latrine.• Ranger les ustensiles de cuisine qui peut servir éventuellement de source exploratoire des animaux ayant consommé les excréments humains.• Eviter de jeter les excréments des enfants sur les tas d'ordure.• Eviter au maximum de déféquer (adultes) en brousse pendant que l'on y ait, mais plutôt dans les toilettes de la cour.Les excréments humains sont des déchets qui sont éliminés dans les toilettes. Si la gestion des excréments des adultes sont faciles à domicile du fait de leur élimination directe dans les latrines, celle des enfants de bas âges, notamment ceux qui n'utilisent pas les toilettes est plus difficile. La gestion des excréments des enfants ne va pas sans une manipulation. Au cours de la manipulation, un certain nombre de mesures d'hygiène doit être observé. Elles devront porter sur:• Niveau enfant• Surveiller l'enfant au cours de la défécation afin qu'il ne se salisse pas.• Nettoyer l'enfant immédiatement après défécation.• Eliminer immédiatement les excréments des enfants dans les latrines.• Après élimination des excréments dans les latrines , nettoyer proprement le pot dans lequel l'enfant a déféqué.• Se laver les mains avec de l'eau et du savon, ou à défaut, utiliser de la cendre immédiatement après avoir finis de nettoyer le pot.• Niveau adulteSe laver les mains avec de l'eau et du savon, ou à défaut, utiliser de la cendre immédiatement après avoir fini de nettoyer le pot.• S'il lui arrive de déféquer dans un pot pour des raisons de santé ou toutes autres formes d'empêchement d'accès aux latrines, nettoyer proprement le pot et le faire sécher.L'utilisation des déchets d'animaux dans les cultures maraichères est une approche courante en milieu villageois, du moment que les activités agricoles sont étroitement liées aux activités d'élevage. Mais leur utilisation n'est pas sans risque sur la santé des producteurs du fait de la possible contamination de l'homme par des germes d'origines animales. Ainsi, l'utilisation des déchets doit faire appel à de bonnes pratiques pour limiter les risques. Dans les jardins maraichers, l'utilisation des produits chimiques comme les pesticides est assez fréquente; il convient d'informer les producteurs des risques encourus de leurs utilisations dans ces jardins.La gestion du fumier produit dans le ménage ou dans le parc se fait à plusieurs niveaux. Au cours du transport, du traitement et de l'épandage dans les jardins maraichers ou les champs de culture, des normes de bonnes pratiques doivent être observées.La collecte et le stockage du fumier sont les deux premières étapes dans la technique de traitement du fumier. La conduite de ces deux étapes est capitale dans la bonne gestion du fumier.Dans la collecte de fumier, première étape de gestion de cette matière, le respect des lignes ci-dessous est indispensable pour une bonne réussite.• Le système de logement détermine les principales caractéristiques du fumier et les systèmes de collecte.• Le logement des animaux doit permettre la collecte de tous les excréments et urines et éviter les pertes de nutriments.• Le fumier solide doit être stocké sur un sol imperméable et avec une couverture contre la pluie.• L'urine doit être collectée (si possible), car c'est une source précieuse d'engrais azoté et potassique.• Le fumier doit toujours être collecté pour être utilisé comme engrais ou pour la production d'énergie.• Le fumier doit être retiré régulièrement du logment des animaux et couvert pendant le stockage pour faciliter la maturation et réduire les pertes de nutriments.Une fois le fumier collecté, une méthode appropriée de son transport doit être mise en place jusqu'au lieu de stockage.• Le transport garantit, le fumier peut être retiré du logement et mis à un endroit où il peut facilement être utilisé.• La méthode de transport utilisée doit garantir le maintien de la propreté du composé.• Dans les petites exploitations agricoles, le fumier peut être transporté à l'aide d'une brouette ou d'une charrette à bras. Dans les grandes exploitations, la traction animale ou motorisée est sollicitée.Juste après la collecte, le fumier doit être stocké dans un endroit loin des habitations ou dans son lieu d'utilisation. Le respect des lignes ci-dessous est capital.• Le stockage du fumier est nécessaire pour combler l'écart entre le moment de l'excrétion et le moment optimal d'application sur les terres cultivées.• C'est également la période pendant laquelle les nutriments sont très sensibles aux pertes dans l'environnement.• Le fumier a besoin d'environ 2 à 3 mois de maturation avant de pouvoir être utilisé comme engrais. Le temps de maturation permet à la matière organique de se décomposer afin que les nutriments soient sous une forme facilement utilisable par les cultures.• La quantité d'éléments nutritifs dans le fumier a tendance à diminuer avec le temps. Les nutriments peuvent être perdus sous forme gazeuse et par lessivage -contribuant à la contamination de l'environnement et au changement climatique.• Pour éviter de telles pertes, le fumier doit être couvert pendant le stockage.• Un stockage approprié préserve les nutriments pour la culture jusqu'au moment de l'application.• La toiture de stockage empêche le ruissellement des nutriments dans le sol et l'eau.• Le plancher de stockage empêche le lessivage des nutriments dans le sol et de l'eau.• Une couverture de stockage hermétique empêche les nutriments de se volatiliser dans l'air.Après le nettoyage de l'habitat des animaux, le fumier devrait être acheminé sur un site pour son traitement. Au cours du transport, les nombreux agents infectieux présents dans les excréments et l'urine des animaux infectés peuvent contaminer les aliments, l'eau et l'étable. Aussi faut-il prendre certaines précautions pour réduire le risque de propagation des maladies par l'intermédiaire du fumier. Pour ce faire, il faudra concevoir et installer un système de manutention du fumier qui empêchera la contamination de l'homme et son environnement (Photo 8). Les lignes ci-après peuvent être adoptées:• Niveau humain• Imbiber d'eau le fumier avant le transport afin de limiter le dégagement de poussière ;• Protéger ses muqueuses contre la poussière émanant des déchets, afin de ne pas s'exposer aux germes éventuels ;• Porter des gants si possibles pour éviter de se contaminer ;• Se laver les mains après les activités de transport de fumier ;• Utiliser des équipements de transport comme le sceau, la brouette ou la charrette, adaptés à la manutention du fumier ;• Niveau environnement Le compostage est, tout simplement, une imitation accélérée et améliorée des mécanismes naturels de décomposition. C'est un processus biologique aérobie assurant la décomposition des matières organiques en compost, un produit stable:• riche en humus ;• exempt de mauvaises odeurs ;• exempt de germes pathogènes.Dans ce qui suit, nous mettrons l'accent sur la pratique de compostage la plus courante dans la zone d'étude, le compostage des ordures domestiques. Tout comme, il a des inconvénients, le compostage des ordures domestiques a des avantages, notamment, une meilleure gestion des déchets des animaux domestiques dans les ménages.Le compostage des ordures domestiques est un cas particulier de compostage. Il se déroule sur place à partir des ordures et débris animaux et végétaux à proximité.Le compostage des ordures se fait en tas ou dans une petite fosse (2 * 2 m). Le tas doit être protégé par un muret ou un rebord (50 cm) afin d'éviter l'éparpillement des éléments et de détourner l'excès des eaux de pluies. La fosse facilite la décomposition en maintenant l'humidité et la chaleur.Le compost est couvert à l'aide de pailles, d'une bâche de plastique perforée ou de terre pour conserver son humidité jusqu'à son utilisation. Le tas ou la fosse peut être couvert au cours de la transformation pour prévenir son dessèchement par le soleil.Photo 9: Travaux de compostage (photo/Ahmadou Sow, ILRI).Quelques bonnes pratiques à observer lors du compostage:• porter les équipements de protection (coiffe, foulard, masque, lunettes, gants lors du traitement du fumier) ;• se nettoyer les mains avec de l'eau et du savon après chaque séance de traitement ;• éviter de se frotter les muqueuses pendant le traitement du fumier et avant de se laver les mains après son traitement ;• composter ou entreposer le fumier dans des conditions qui assurent la destruction de la plupart des bactéries pathogènes qui s'y trouvent, afin de les utiliser dans les jardins maraichers ;• limiter la population de mouches en couvrant le fumier avec une bâche ou en utilisant de la paille afin de limiter le développement des asticots ;• entreposer le fumier de manière que les animaux ne puissent s'y approcher, mais aussi en particulier, les jeunes enfants si toutefois le fumier est entreposé dans le ménage ou à proximité ;• empêcher les jeunes animaux ou les animaux malades de s'exposer aux tas de fumier.ii.Les fumiers produits sont des fertilisants organiques à utiliser en priorité pour couvrir les besoins des plantes en azote, phosphore et potasse. • Porter les équipements de protection (coiffe, foulard, masque, lunettes, gants) lors du traitement d'épandage du fumier.• Utiliser une pelle ou une fourche pour l'épandage du fumier dans le jardin ou les champs.• Se nettoyer les mains avec de l'eau et du savon après chaque séance de traitement du fumier.• Eviter de se frotter les muqueuses pendant les activités d'épandage du fumier et avant de se laver les mains après traitement du fumier. Quelques avantages à tirer de la bonne gestion des déchets d'abattage.• Les déchets d'abattage ne doivent pas être laissés exposés une fois terminés les travaux liés à l'abattage.• Le sang, le contenu du rumen et les morceaux d'os sont récupérés et ajoutés comme éléments entrant dans le compostage des ordures domestiques, si l'animal est abattu à la maison.• Le sang frais ou séché et les morceaux de viande peuvent être utilisés comme ingrédients dans la composition de la ration de la volaille. Le contenu du rumen, lui aussi peut être utilisé pour la production d'asticot rentrant dans l'alimentation de la volaille.• Le contenu du rumen peut être utilisé comme source d'alimentation pour le biogaz.• Les onglons et les cornes peuvent être ajoutés comme éléments dans le cadre du compostage. Les avortons, les placentas et les enveloppes foetales peuvent être des matières virulentes, sources de contamination et à risque pour les autres animaux de l'élevage, voire pour l'homme dans le cas de maladies zoonotiques. En pratique, ces déchets doivent être:• Ecartés du reste du troupeau, les avortons, les placentas et les enveloppes foetales.• Placés dans un lieu dédié (brousse, loin des lieux d'habitation et lieux de pâture), à l'abri des autres animaux de l'élevage et des prédateurs (dont chat et chien présents dans le village ou l'exploitation).• Enfuis dans le sol à une profondeur (ex: 50 cm) inaccessible aux prédateurs.• Mis sous terre en un endroit non susceptible à l'érosion hydrique.• Manipulés avec précaution, à minima avec, port de gants et masques.Se débarrasser des avortons, des placentas et des enveloppes foetales limite l'exposition à l'homme et à réexposition des animaux aux maladies transmissibles.• Enfouir déchets, avortons, placentas et enveloppes foetales à une profondeur d'au moins 50 cm.• Se protéger en utilisant les gants, un masque lors de la manipulation des avortons, des placentas et des enveloppes foetales.• Enterrer les déchets les avortons, les placentas et les enveloppes foetales dans des endroits non soumis à l'érosion hydrique.Les cadavres d'animaux représentent un danger pour les humains dans le cas de maladies zoonotiques comme pour les autres animaux. A travers les matières virulentes, ils contaminent le sol, l'air et l'eau, et exigent une manutention spéciale. En pratique, les cadavres d'animaux doivent être écartés du reste du troupeau et placés dans un lieu dédié, à l'abri des autres animaux de l'exploitation et des prédateurs (ex: chat et chien présents dans le village ou dans l'exploitation). Les précautions suivantes permettent de réduire au minimum la contamination de la ferme et le risque de propagation des maladies:• Se défaire du cadavres dans les 48 heures qui suivent la mort tout en prenant soins à minima de porter des gants, des masques.• Enfouir le cadavre sous au moins 0,6 mètre de terre (Photo 11).• Jeter également dans la fosse la litière, le lait, le fumier ou les aliments contaminés.• Nettoyer et désinfecter l'endroit où l'on a ramassé le cadavre.• Porter des vêtements protecteurs quand on manutentionne des cadavres.• Incinérer l'animal dans une fosse de préférence.• Se conformer aux autres règlements d'application de la Loi sur les cadavres d'animaux de l'Ontario, 1987. i.Le délai d'attente des pesticides est le temps à observer entre l'application et la récolte du produit. Le non-respect des délais d'attentes n'est pas sans conséquence sur la santé humaine. Ainsi, il faut:• Veiller à utiliser les pesticides au moment recommandé du cycle végétatif de la plante.• Respecter le délai de sécurité après traitement des plantes, c'est à dire le nombre de jour recommandé avant cueillette.• S'il est indiqué, prendre le soin de nettoyer les produits de récolte avant de les consommer ou de les mettre sur le marché.ii.Les pesticides sont conservés dans des emballages comme les sachets plastiques, des boîtes et/ou des bidons. Après leur utilisation, ils se retrouvent dans la nature à la portée des enfants ou des animaux ou même sont utilisés pour d'autres fins. Dans les conditions normales, ces emballages doivent faire l'objet d'une gestion rigoureuse, d'autant plus que des textes existent en la matière. La mauvaise gestion de ces déchets peut nuire à la santé humaine, animale et environnementale. Pour ce faire, un certain nombre de dispositions doit être pris:• Récupérer les sachets plastiques, les flacons, les boites des pesticides après utilisation.• Mettre à la disposition des services en charge de la destruction de ces emballages.• Les éloigner des enfants en les stockant dans des lieux non accessibles à ces derniers.• Ne pas utiliser ces bidons pour d'autres fins, surtout en relation avec l'alimentation.• Les enfouir dans le sol à une profondeur d'au moins 50 cm (Photo 13).Photo 13: Gestion des déchets des pesticides (Image: FAO/Bonnes pratiques d'utilisation des pesticides, Benin, 2014) devraient être prises en compte. Le poulailler doit être placé près de la maison pour que le producteur puisse intervenir en cas de bruits inhabituels. Ou alors une serrure devrait être placée sur la porte.Les perchoirs sont importants pour le repos des poulets durant la nuit. Les maladies et les parasites attaquent la volaille qui reste au sol et les perchoirs réduisent les risques de parasites externes dans les plumes. Chaque perchoir d'un mètre peut abriter cinq oiseaux adultes. Les perchoirs en bambou ou en bâton rond sont les plus comodes pour la taille et la structure des pattes des oiseaux. Si le bâton est trop grand ou trop petit, les oiseaux risquent de tomber.Pour empêcher l'attaque de parasites externes, les perchoirs doivent être traités avec de l'huile ou du kérosène, à l'endroit où le perchoir est fixé au mur.Les nids facilitent également la collecte des oeufs. Les oeufs sales et cassés sont évités si la collecte est réalisée deux fois par jour. Il faut collecter les oeufs au même moment de la journée, le matin et le soir. La collecte régulière des oeufs est importante pour éviter que les poules deviennent couveuses, puisque les poules couveuses ne pondent plus. Après l'éclosion, il est important de garder la poule et les poussins ensembles, dans une cage à part: un panier. Un tel abri devrait protéger contre la compétitivité des adultes pour la nourriture, contre les prédateurs et il devrait fournir un environnement stable, à l'abri du soleil, de la pluie et du vent (Photo 15).Un abri en panier avec un trou en haut de 20 cm est pratiqué pour changer l'eau et la nourriture sans déranger les oiseaux. La ventilation est également assurée.Une natte sur le sol permet une protection lors des périodes froides. La natte doit être nettoyée quotidiennement pour enlever les fientes et les surplus de nourriture. Les fientes doivent être utilisées comme engrais dans le potager.  Quelques bons conseils pour un habitat simple• Utiliser les paniers de nuit et de jour comme abri pour les petits poussins, pour réduire les coûts et le travail ;• Utiliser toujours des matériaux locaux pour réduire les coûts ;• Dans les habitats en bois, utiliser des sols surélevés, avec des lattes pour éviter plus facilement les fientes et eviter les prédateurs ;• Dans les habitats en argile, utiliser du grillage aux fenêtres pour empêcher l'entrée des prédateurs ;• Placer des perchoirs et des nids amovibles à l'intérieur des habitats pour faciliter le nettoyage ;• S'assurer que le vent ventile l'habitat sans que les poulets et les poules prennent froid ;• Prendre en considération les fortes pluies et le soleil chaud pour l'emplacement de l'habitat ;• Pourvoir des nids avec de la paille propre, faciles d'accès, faciles à nettoyer et à bouger ;• Garder toujours les petits poussins avec la poule-mère, loin des autres animaux adultes ;• Assurer que les habitats soient facilement accessibles et propres ;• Allumer la lumière dans les habitats de la volaille pendant la nuit pour limiter les attaques par les ectoparasites ;• L'hygiène du milieu de vie de l'animal contribue à la santé de l'animal et de l'homme ;• Aménager des habitats répondant aux normes pour l'élevage des animaux ;• Assurer l'hygiène du matériel et du bâtiment d'élevage.Pour assurer une meilleure productivité de nos petits ruminants et aussi préserver la santé publique, il est important de disposer d'habitats bien adaptés.Pour optimiser les effets liés à l'application de la chaine de pratiques innovantes dans son troupeau, les agroéleveurs, devraient adopter des types d'habitat améliorés dans le but de contribuer à:• Protéger les animaux contre les intempéries et les contraintes sanitaires, et favoriser un contrôle plus efficace des effectifs et des maladies, grâce à une surveillance plus accrue des animaux ;• Créer les conditions d'élevage favorables à l'amélioration des productions (lait, viande, fumure organique) ;• Promouvoir l'intégration Agriculture-Elevage qui permettra entre autres, de réduire les charges sur les parcours et de produire de la fumure organique pour la fertilisation des parcelles agricoles.Il est reconnu que les améliorations aux conditions de logement des petits ruminants à un impact significatif sur le niveau de productivité du troupeau. En effet, les animaux seront protégés contre l'humidité et les courants d'air qui constituent des facteurs qui les prédisposent aux différentes maladies de la sphère respiratoire (bronchites et pneumopathies, etc.) et aux parasitoses de toutes sortes, causes de la plupart des mortalités dans le troupeau.La construction d'un habitat adéquat de petits ruminants sollicite plusieurs étapes. Quelques modèles adoptés par les bénéficiaires du projet sont présentés ci-dessous (Photo 16).L'emplacement de l'habitat doit être choisi avec les agroéleveurs en fonction des critères suivants:• Le choix du terrain: choisir un emplacement facile d'accès, si possible, près d'un ombrage, à proximité des champs, pour faciliter le transport des résidus et du fumier, mais à une certaine distance des puits afin d'éviter d'éventuelles souillures de l'eau (distance minimale 10 m), terrain légèrement surélevé, bien drainé, c'est à dire non inondable pour éviter la formation de bourbier et la stagnation de l'eau ;• L'orientation de l'infrastructure: elle varie en fonction des conditions climatiques locales (soleil ; vents dominants et la direction des pluies) ;• Le sol de l'édifice: un sol imperméable (en terre battue ou compactée, en béton de cailloux revêtu de ciment) facile à désinfecter et à nettoyer, non glissant ; assurant l'écoulement des eaux de lavage et du purin.• Forme de la clôture: variable (circulaire, carré, rectangulaire) ;• Préférence marquée pour les formes circulaires (permet une occupation rationnelle de l'aire malgré les risques d'affaissement (surtout le cas de parcs en grillage ou fil de fer) ou rectangulaire proche du carré.iii.• Densité 1 m2/tête pour les petits ruminants ;• Hauteur du parc varie entre 1,20 -1,5 m ;• Porte d'entrée large de 1 à 1,5 m.• Les murs: de préférence en banco (mélange d'argile ou de latérite), banco amélioré (terre et ciment) en pierres de latérite ou en bois et seccos (surtout pour les charpentes, les cloisons internes ou clôtures).• La toiture de l'infrastructure: en chaume ou secco (très bon isolant, très économique aussi mais nécessite renouvellement périodiquement).  ","tokenCount":"11392"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7212e04ab14114abf89d69afb52841b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13c892f2-0503-462c-b5f4-7fb846bb016a/retrieve","id":"-1160100218"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ec1bd385-6967-4b9e-a62c-8137ff1c85fe","pagecount":"19","content":"From 1st to 4 December 2014, ILRI organized a webinar (online seminar) to discuss feedback from users and stakeholders interested in the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish value chain toolkit.The four objectives of the webinar were:1. To share and discuss experiences of using the Livestock and Fish value chain toolkit in various country and livestock commodity contexts; 2. To review the development outcomes achieved from using the Livestock and Fish value chain toolkit; 3. To debate the level of gender-awareness of the toolkit; 4. To hear from agro-economists who can help the Livestock and Fish community develop more relevant tools to analyse trade-offs in value chain development.The main lessons from the webinar regarding the Livestock and Fish value chain toolkit are: It is easy to adapt the generic questionnaire tools to local context.  It is more difficult to know what to do with all the data collected. The toolkit needs a robust value chain conceptual framework for its users to utilize the tools and interpret the data collected in line with their own research objectives. The results from the analysis of data gathered using the toolkit can help identify the most relevant chain actors that can contribute to upgrading the chain. They also help to launch a multi-stakeholder discussion on what interventions might be most appropriate. It is relatively difficult to add extra gender questions to already existing questionnaires, leading to the conclusion that gender issues should be embedded early on in the research design process so as to choose which key questions to ask. There was no contribution received on relevant methods for trade-off analysis.CGIAR colleagues who had contributed to the development of the tool acknowledged the comments shared and provided feedback on future pathways to improve the toolkit further: Establish guidelines on how to analyse the data and use it to develop suitable interventions.  Develop a manual presenting an overall conceptual framework for the toolkit, featuring core and add-on modular survey tools to analyse the wider social context of the value chain (and in particular gender norms). The manual would also suggest steps for data analysis and formulation of interventions.From 1st to 4 December 2014, ILRI organized a webinar (online seminar) to discuss feedback from users and stakeholders interested in the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish (L&F) value chain (VC) toolkit. This report summarizes the main contributions and discussions of the webinar. The original discussions can be accessed and viewed freely (after a 43-second online registration process) here.This webinar was undertaken as part of, and funded by, the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM) led by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). PIM is in turn supported by these donors. The content shared on this webinar is moderated but has not gone through IFPRI's standard peer-review procedure. The opinions expressed here belong to the contributors, and do not necessarily reflect those of PIM, IFPRI, ILRI or CGIAR.The four objectives of the webinar were:1. To share and discuss experiences of using the L&F VC toolkit in various country and livestock commodity contexts; 2. To review the development outcomes achieved from using the L&F VC toolkit; 3. To debate the level of gender-awareness of the toolkit; 4. To hear from agro-economists who can help the L&F community develop more relevant tools to analyse trade-offs in value chain development.A specific subgroup of the Agrifood chain toolkit Dgroup was created to host the webinar. The membership of the Dgroup by the time the webinar ended was 298, with a mix of researchers, development partners and value chain actors from around the world (see Figure 1).Four value chain experts had been invited to provide special contributions into the e-discussions:1. Emily Ouma, Agricultural Economist at ILRI who has helped develop the L&F value chain toolkit; 2. Cheryl Doss, Leader of strategic gender research for the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (and Senior lecturer in Economics and African studies at Yale University) for her expertise on gender analysis of agricultural issues; 3. Girma Tesfahun Kassie, Agricultural Market Economist at ICARDA who has been active in adapting the L&F value chain toolkit to drylands small ruminant value chains; 4. Gethings Chisule, Principal Fisheries Officer, Western Province, Zambia, who has interacted with the L&F research teams using the toolkit for aquacultural value chain development.  Making sure that the revision was comprehensive without compromising the possibility for regional look into the value chains was the key challenge we faced. We focused initially on making sure that the key aspects of the value chain study are addressed in adapting the tools. Then we looked at the level of disparity between the generic tools and the adapted tools. We then tried to harmonize the tools so that any interest in making a regional synthesis would not be undermined. […] The revision of the tools was also done to Pakistan SR-VC study.'Jo Cadilhon (ILRI) wrote:'I've adapted the L&F value chain assessment tool for dairy value chains in India when I was asked to conduct a gendered value chain assessment of the Mulukanoor Dairy Women's Cooperative [Telangana State, India]. I went to the generic toolkit and went through the value chain assessment tool, systematically adapting it to make the product name specific to milk and dairy, and changing USD labels into INR. That was the easy part.'Emily Ouma (ILRI) discussed about adapting the L&F VC tools to pig value chains in Uganda:'Value chain assessment toolkit: The tools were very rich, covering several aspects that can be considered in any value chain assessment work. For the production node alone, the value chain assessment covered feeds, breeds, value chain mapping and marketing, and animal health. All these components were important for us to enable us to carry out a value chain characterization and identification of the critical constraints in the production node that would help in prioritization of technology-and institution-related interventions -the result, however, was a long and time consuming tool. We trained facilitators, with local language competency to implement the tools on the ground. We ran parallel sessions covering the various subject domains of the value chain assessment to counter the time constraint.Benchmarking tools: The challenges associated with adaptation of the tools largely revolved around identification of reliable performance-related indicators for benchmarking in the pig value chain, especially at the production node since we have different production types (breeders and growers).'Dishon Muloi and Stella Kiambi (ILRI) declared:'We are mapping the dairy value chains supplying Nairobi with an ultimate goal of understanding how zoonotic disease pathogens could get introduced and transmitted along the value chains in the rapidly urbanizing city of Nairobi. The idea is to use VCA tools to understand the value chains and then use E. coli diversity as a marker to understand risk pathways within the chains etc.'Jo Cadilhon (ILRI) shared:'Kumara Swamy [consultant undertaking a gendered value chain assessment on dairy value chains in Telangana] had a harder time making sense of all the qualitative data he obtained. How to organize the data into something meaningful? The current toolkit only provides a template to gather all the data but does not mention how to analyse it.The REVALTER project used some of the tables of the L&F VC benchmarking tool to go into the details of understanding the characteristics of pig farms. This information was then fed into a cluster analysis to create groups of similar farms. The clusters of Vietnamese pig farms were then characterized to determine 3 or 4 different types of pig farms in Vietnam (depending on geographical location) and their demographic and sustainability characteristics identified.'Lisa Kitinoja (The Postharvest Education Foundation) reported on the use of VC toolkits from her organization:'So many times we were surprised when data was collected and described in detail, but not organized in any coherent way during analysis. Again, this simply could be due to too much useless data being collected. But more often, the users needed examples of how to make tables, graphs, charts, etc. and how to make comparisons, check for similarities, categories, etc. in their findings. Our future tool kits will be equipped with better examples and colorful charts and diagrams to stimulate people's imagination.'Kebebe Ergano (ILRI-Wageningen University) wrote:'For quantitative data, mainly collected at farm household level, I used simple statistics and econometric modelling (which was the easy part). But a big chunk of data related to value chains was mainly qualitative. In my previous post [see further below] I emphasized the importance of theory and conceptual frameworks. Theory and conceptual framework were crucial aids in the analysis of qualitative information. I used event history analysis and thematic analysis approaches for analysing qualitative information. Ultimately, I reported qualitative information using narrative discussions in line with the conceptual framework, previous work elsewhere and personal experience. I must admit: analysis of qualitative information was painfully cumbersome and time taking.'Girma T. Kassie (ICARDA) wrote:'I believe that making the toolkit good enough for robust results starts with developing and adapting solid and inclusive theoretical and analytical frameworks.'Kebebe Ergano (ILRI-Wageningen University) replied:Jo Cadilhon (ILRI) also shared:'I have also adapted the L&F VC benchmarking tools that try to collect detailed information from all actors in the value chains for the case of pork in Vietnam. […] And then I suggested to French and Vietnamese research partners working with me on a project to understand future pathways of livestock production for Vietnam to utilize these ready-to-use questionnaires for our research. (REVALTER Project) [… They said after reviewing the toolkit:] There were too many questions, many of which were not useful to the research objectives of the REVALTER project. I had to explain that we did not have to use everything but that many of the questions in the L&F VC tools had already been trialled in past field research projects by ILRI and so could be used with only minor pre-testing in the questionnaire we would build specifically for REVALTER surveys.'Lisa Kitinoja (The Postharvest Education Foundation) replied:'too many questions: When the manual or tool kit provides too many questions, people can feel paralyzed and not know where to start. The task seems so big that they hesitate to take it on. Our postharvest manuals included questions that would allow us to cover over 250 crops, so someone using it for tomatoes for example, would find many questions that simply did not apply. We tried explaining that the teams could select certain questions, but still it was difficult for them. So our future tool kits will be more specific, and each will target only a smaller group of similar crops.[…] I think that the first strategy (select the questions to match the research questions) is the best approach if you are doing a research study, for master's students, professors who will publish the results, but for those of us in the field, with donors waiting for \"outputs and impacts\" we will often use the second strategy and try to gather as much data as possible within our limited M&E budgets.'Guillaume Duteurtre (CIRAD) elaborated: Of course I should admit that when there was discussion about coming up with a generic sampling strategy for the toolkit (which, as statistician in the team, I should have provided) I argued that it was impossible to come up with this and hope to make it useful for multiple users of the resource. But with these discussions I am now re-thinking whether we could put together at least some general guidelines that would become part of this framework.For the modular comment then yes, I think we should be utilizing this more to try and keep surveys more manageable -each time the tools are used they should go through this contextualization / localization according to research questions, indicator requirements, situation etc., and pilot-tested.'Froukje Kruijssen (WorldFish) commented:We have complemented the VCA tools with some modules that further analyse the wider social context of the value chain, in order to start addressing underlying gender norms that result in differences in access to and benefits from participation in VCs by men and women. We are about to start testing/implementing this in combination with several adapted modules from the VC assessment tools in the aquaculture value chain in southwest Bangladesh. [… A manual developed from this activity] could then potentially form the first step for developing a manual for the full set of tools. It would be great if I could send this around to this group for feedback once we have done this. I would hope such a manual would also address some of the concerns raised about the lack of a conceptual framework. ILRI has already done a lot of work to develop such a framework and this would need to be presented in there as it was the (for now still implicit) basis of the benchmarking tools especially.[Too many questions:] I take the point made that people may feel paralyzed when presented with too many questions. On the one hand we wanted to develop a toolkit that could be applied in many different animal-sourced food value chains and in many different contexts to enable comparative analysis across chains and contexts, but on the other hand the toolkit needs to be easy to use for a range of purposes and organizations.'Bahta, S. and Malope, P. 2014. Measurement of competitiveness in smallholder livestock systems and emerging policy advocacy: An application to Botswana. Food Policy, 49(2): 408-417. Available online here.This conversation thread gathered six relevant contributions. In summary, the results from the analysis of data gathered using the L&F VC toolkit can help identify the most relevant chain actors that can contribute to upgrading the chain. Pig multi-stakeholder platforms have also emerged as a result of the need felt to address some of the constraints associated with the pig value chain. SNV has been facilitating the setting up of pig multistakeholder platforms at regional level (Central, Greater Kampala and Eastern) and one at the national level. The platforms have prioritized feeds as a major constraint and are actively developing action plans to address it. As a way of improving the best bet identification process, especially for development partners -it would be useful to have some pointers on the criteria for selection of the potential best-bet interventions and the methodologies to apply for simple screening.All actors including those involved in trade and marketing are members of the multi-stakeholder pig platforms. The challenges that arose from the VCA on output marketing and trade revolved around the high transaction costs (especially transportation and search costs) associated with the pig/pork trade, especially during high demand periods and pork slaughter and handling. In Uganda pig/pork trade is largely informal with several pig traders both local and from neighbouring countries involved. Pig slaughter facilities are usually lacking and most slaughtering occurs in backyards.To deal with the issue of high transaction costs, institutional arrangements through business models that incorporate marketing collectives (by having pig collection centres run by a pig farmers' cooperative) and access to business development services by pig farmers on a check-off system are currently being pilot tested. The traders, pig farmers and other service providers have been engaged in the discussions so that each actor assesses the benefits from such arrangements. Such an arrangement would encourage transparency in trade and enable pig farmers on one hand to have bargaining power and access quality services, even when cash constrained. The traders would also reduce on the transactions costs since they access pigs from the collection centres.'Sylvia Angubua Baluka (College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University) reported:'I am part of a project that is going to undertake a project towards improving smallholder dairy herd health and productivity in Central and Northern Uganda. These smallholder farmers are mainly poor women / widows who have received exotic / Friesian heifers from HPI and other NGOs with the purpose of improving their livelihoods but the impact has not met the expectations over the years. We would like to conduct a baseline survey and VCA to identify the constraints and opportunities at the production, transportation and marketing nodes. The data and information obtained in this project will be used to help the farmers improve animal health, production and profitability of their smallholder dairy enterprises and consequently improve their livelihoods.'Derek Baker (UNE and formerly at ILRI) elaborated:'1. Often VCA is used to identify products or quality attributes that offer opportunities for income change in a target group of people. This is often a ranking procedure according to criteria related to the accessibility of the proposed benefits by that target group. The importance, and indeed difficulty, of this is often underestimated, but I feel that this is an analytic task in which the processes of value chain analysis have a strong comparative advantage over purer forms of statistics and modelling. 2. VCA is usually the only option for ex ante analysis which lays out the case for and against a particular intervention. Note that the intervention may be something technical (e.g. a new animal remedy) while its supposed and proposed effects and impacts may be far reaching across many income and cost generating mechanisms and amongst many VC actors, over a protracted period. This calls for two types of analysis using VCA toolkits: estimation of previously-unknown parameters linking cause to effect (in our example, likely update of the medicine); and use of known parameters (its efficacy in cure or prevention). I believe that people make a mistake in assuming that the VCA and toolkit have to \"analyse everything\": the better path is to ensure a complementarity with existing information (often from different disciplines) and use the VCA tools to go after the key elements that are unknown. 'I am hearing some of the same concerns about the data collected more generally that I often hear about gender disaggregated data. When people are encouraged to collect sex disaggregated data, they say that the tool is already too time-consuming and complicated. Whether or not they add gender, piles and piles of data are collected, but then they don't know what to do with it. There is a need to develop and teach some additional tools for analysis, in particular so that there are measures that are more consistent across studies so that they can be compared. But the bigger issue is one that happens earlier in the research process. The research questions need to be clearly identified -and this can lead the choice of tools and data collection. Clearly identifying how you want to use the data in an analysis before it is collected allows you to focus on collecting better quality data that is relevant for the particular question at hand.'Birhanu Megersa Lenjiso (Ambo University in Ethiopia and Radboud Univeristy Nijmegen) replied:'I feel we need to go beyond having data by sex. Most often, these interventions do not take the existing gender relations into consideration (especially in Africa) and end up in shifting resources from one gender to the other and disrupt the existing gender relations. But this is not the end of the story. After these changes, there are often other forms of relationships between men and women. Many studies do not pay attention to what follows from the first change and our analysis often fails to explain situations on the ground when disseminated. Gender relations are not static and it may take different forms as the result of changes in the environment. Especially when it involves husband and wife they continue to bargain on the shifted resources and this is what we found in the Ethiopian dairy value chain. To capture these changing relations and coping strategies we need to choose tools that can potentially capture the processes. For example relying on games and in-depth anthropological tools can help.'Jane Poole (ILRI) added:'Our Gender, Livestock and Livelihood Indicators provide a limited number of [gender indicators] and several of the methods of collecting the data are using these in the L&F VC toolkit (the producer level / household surveys). We are currently looking for an opportunity within the L&F CRP to develop this document further to provide more details on potential indicators and methods of analyses of these data. Although they cover only a subset of our discussions I think they could contribute well to the \"tools for conducting analysis of the data\" mentioned by several participants.'There was no contribution to this conversation thread.","tokenCount":"3377"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"adbfa144b67807b403139964eb485205","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4e0cbcc9-1741-4846-9f48-2dde7aa11923/retrieve","id":"697854140"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c44818f5-4b75-4093-92f8-0a201b119b90","pagecount":"12","content":"一千多万人居住在萨尔温江流域，380万在中国，610万 在缅甸，还有60万在泰国(www. worldpop.org; Gaughan et al, 2013)。在孟邦人口密度最高(超过 每平方公里300人)，还有云南西部(高达每平方公里 100人)，在西藏最低(每平方公里5人)(图1)。 约61万人居住在萨尔温江流域，占缅甸总人口的11%， 分布于掸邦(48%)、克耶邦(4％)、克伦邦(22%) 和孟邦(26%)。平均人口密度是每平方公里49人，密 度最高的地区位于孟邦的沿海平原。主要的城市区域位 于掸邦的Taunggyi(约380,000人)，克耶邦的Loikaw( 约140,000人)，克伦邦的巴安县(约120,000人)，孟邦 的毛淡棉县(约440,000人)，以及河口地区。 萨尔温江下游流域，自1948年宣布独立以来，经历了多 次重大的国家内部纷争、战争和人口迁徙。掸邦北部和 东部的大多地区依然处于少数民族武装组织和Tatmadaw(缅甸武装部队)的争斗之中，其中也包括一系列的 民兵组织(Buchanan, 2016)。大量人口因此迁徙，有 的到了缅甸的其它地区，有的渡过边境到了相邻国家。 在泰国和云南分别有超过120,000人和超过30,000人的 难民集中营。尽管有一些少数民族武装组织已经在和政 府进行和平谈判，掸邦北部和东部的大部分地区仍处于 纷争之中，掸邦北部因为最近战火又起导致流离失所的 人口数量又有增加。汉族人口也有不少处于这种迁徙过 程和经济状态之中，尤其是在掸邦东部和中国接壤的部 分。流域偏远地区的贫困线极高。联合国发展署的相关 数据显示，掸邦北部和东部的人口，37%到46%处于贫困 线以下。孟邦、克伦邦和克耶邦的贫困线分别处于16% ， 11% 和17%，均低于国家平均水准25%(IHCLA, 2011 )。 USAID/Winrock于2015年在掸邦的研究中发现，以 女性为一家之主的家庭在获得土地时遭遇更多的阻力， 更可能陷于贫困之中。","tokenCount":"39"}
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+{"metadata":null,"keywords":null,"sieverID":"21ef0b83-e719-4fce-bb9f-26a2e6ff1f0d","pagecount":"0","content":"The evaluations of quality control for cornmercial formulated products show Ihat Ihese products \ndid not contain the quantity of spores claimed on the label, rather at a lower concentration (Table \n18). Viability tests show that only one product, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, had a viability \nrating aboye 85%, the minimwn percent that a formulated product should have, for a quick \nknock-down or kili in field applications (Table 19). The purity test established the proportion of \nthe biological agent in the formulated product, and also identified any of Ihe contaminants that \nmight be present. In two products evaluated, there was no growth of Ihe active ingredient, Ihe \nfungal entomopalhogen (Table 19). \nTable 18. Spore counts of severaI commercialIy Cormulated Cungal entomopathogen \nproducts that were evaluated for Aleurotrachelus socialis control on cassava. \nProduct \nPaecilomyces fumosorosells \nVerticillium lecan;; \nBeauveria bass;ano \nVerticillium lecan;; \nVerticillium lecan;; \nVerticillium lecanj¡ \nSpore Counts Conidia/ml \n(Actual) \n6.6x10' \n8.lxlO' \n1.9xlO' \n1.3 x I 08 \n9.0x107 \n2.0x107 \nSpore Counts Conidialml \n(Ticketed) \n2xl01O \n2xl07 \n2xlo' \n2x 1 010 \n2xl01O \n2xlo' \nThe pH can also influence fungal germination, wilh optimal range between 5.5 and 7.0. Only \ntwo products were in this range, bolh were V. lecanii. \"Suspendibility\" determines Ihe time that \na wettable powder requires to becorne suspended; sorne product suspension occurs rapidly, while \nothers do not, or require more time, wbich could lead to occasional clogging of nozzle opening \nwhen applying the product (Table 19). \nFinally, each formulated cornmercial product was evaluated by applying it to A. socia lis eggs \nthat were near hatching. All cornmercial products evaluated resulted in whitefly rnortalities \nbelow 50% (Figure 47). However, Ihe resulted mortalities on all products were significantly \ndifferent than the control. Two products, Beauveria bassiana and V. lecanii, achieved 49.9% \nmortality while the control was 19.0%, indicating, at best, mediocre A. socialis control. It should \nbe noted Ihat these formulated products have not been recornmended for A. socialis species on \ncassava, but ralher are recornmended for other species on other crops. This could be the reason \nfor !he lower mortality, results. These products could be tested on olher development stages of \nA. socia lis to determine if a bigher mortality if feasible . \nResults from these experiments indicate that the CIAT 215 iso late of V. lecanii has Ihe potential \nto be commercially formulated and promoted or recornmended for A. socialis control in cassava. \nTable 19. Quality control of formulated commercial fungal entomopathogen products \nthat were evaluated for Aleurotrachelus socialis control on cassava. \nProduct Viability 24 h Purity P H Suspensionability \nPaeciJomyces fumosoroseus 95% 98% 5.35 2 mino \nVerticillium /ecanii 35% 100'10 5.54 4 mino \nBeauveria bassia1la 40'/. 100% 5.14 SOmin. \nVerticil/ium lecanU 22% 4.80 1.30 mino \nVerticillium leca\"U 13% 4.87 \nVerticillium leca,,;; 40'10 40'10 5.59 None \n69 \n~ \n~ \nO \n~ \n:,t • \n100 \n90 \n20 \n10 \nO \n36.8* 36.8 \nP. fumosoroHU$ V. Jecanll \n49.9 49.9 \n36.5 \n31 .4 \ne . bus/ana V. IflCanll V. /ecaniJ V. t.canll Control \nFonnulated Products \nFigure 47. Aleurotrachelus socialis egg (near hatch) mortality with applications oC \nformulated commercial fungal entomopathogen products. \nContributors: I. Aleán, A. Morales, C.M. Holguín, A.e. Bellotti. \n70 \n80 \n79.5 \nr:: \n:8 \n:;::.!! a. 79 \nbE \n\"' \" f ~ 78.5 \n\" O 0(.) \n:r::,.. \ne \nQ. \nFigure 49. Consumption of A. socialis irnrnatures by male and fernale C. carnea adults in \nlaboratory studies. \n80 \n70 \n,.c=:; c= ,=::::. \n,.c=:; \nr:: \n60 o \n;o \n~a. \nb E \n\"' \" \n50 \n.. \" 40 ~ r:: \n\" o 0(.) 30 :r:: ,.. \n,.c::; \n.. \n~ 20 Q. \n10 \nO '-- '-- '-- ... \nEgg N1 N2 N3 N4 \nFigure 50. Consumption of A. socialis irnrnatures by C. carnea larvae in laboratory \nstudies (Duncan Multiple Cornparison test at 0.05%). \nIt was observed that oviposition was initiated on the 41h day tbat adult C. carnea were introduced \ninto the experimental units. Females lived on the average of 27 days but oviposition occurred \nprimarily between the 41h to 12lh day (Figure 51). Between fue 61h and 71h day oviposition peaked \nat a 19.5 a\\erage, while fue overall average was 14.0 eggs per day during the 8 day periodo Each \nC. carnea female oviposited an average of 112 eggs during its ovipositional periodo This is \nconsidered low and may have been negalively influenced by the artificial diet tbat was offered. \nIn general, C. carnea larvae appear lo be more efficient predators tban adults are. However, field \nreleases are more easily achieved with adults. C. carnea displays a significan! preference for A. \nsocia lis flfS! instar larvae. \n73 \n25 \n~ 20 \n'\" 2' 15 \n~ 10 \no \nz 5 \nO \n1 2 3 \n/\" \" / '-./\" \"-\n/ \" ./ ............. \n4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 \nOviposilion/Days \nFigure 51. Oviposition of C. carnea adult females feeding on an artificial diet in \nlaboratory studies. \nContributor: Claudia María Holguin, Luis Fernando Giraldo, Anthony C. Bellotti. \n74 \n-------\nPublications \nPosters \nArias, B., A.e. Bellotti, H.L. Vargas . 2003. Nataima-3l, variedad de yuca (Manihol esculenla \nCrantz) resistente a mosca blanca, Aleurotrachelus socia lis Bondar (Homoptera: \nA1eyrodidae), una contribución al manejo integrado de plagas. Memorias XXX Congreso \nSociedad Colombiana de Entomología, SOCOLEN. Julio 17-19, Cali, Colombia. p. 100. \nBellotti, A.C., A. Bohórquez, B. Arias, J. Vargas, H.L. Vargas, Ch. Mba, M.e. Duque, J. Tohme. \n2003. Avances recientes en la identificación de genes de resistencia a mosca blanca, \nAleurotrachelus socialis Bondar (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) en yuca (Manihol esculenta \nCrantz). Memorias XXX Congreso Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología, SOCOLEN. Julio \n17-19, Cali, Colombia. p. 99. \nArias, B., A.e. Bellotti, H.L. Vargas . 2004. Nataima-3l, a cassava (Manihot esculenla) variety \nresistant to Ihe whitefly, Aleurotrachelus socialis. Sixth lnternational Scientific Meeting of \nthe Cassava Biotechnology Network. 8-14 March 2004, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. \nBellotti, A.C., A. Bohórquez, B. Arias, J. Vargas, H.L. Vargas, Ch. Mba, M.C. Duque, J. Tohme. \n2004. Recent advances in host plant resistance to whiteflies in cassava. Sixth lntemational \nScientific Meeting of the Cassava Biotechnology Network. 8-14 March 2004, CIAT, Cali, \nColombia. \nCarabalí, A., A.e. Bellott~ J. Montoya-Lerma. 2004. Adaptation of Biotype \"B\" of Bemisia \nlabaci to cassava. Sixth Intemational Scientific Meeting of the Cassava Biotechnology \nNetwork. 8-14 March 2004, CIAT, Cali, Colombia. \nAccepted for PublicatioD \nTrujillo, H., Arias, B., Guerrero, J. , Hemandez, P. , Bellotti, A., 1. E. Peña. 2004. Survey of \nparasitoids of whiteflies Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in cassava growing regions of Colombia \nand Ecuador. Florida Entomologist. \nAleán, l. , A. Morales, C. Holguín, A.e. Bellotti. 2004. Pato~nicidad de diferentes hongos \nentomopatógenos para el control de Aleurolrachelus socialis (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) bajo \ncondiciones de invernadero. Revista Colombiana de Entomología. \nHolguín, C.M., A.e. Bellotti. 2004. Efecto de la aplicación de insecticidas químicos en el \ncontrol de la mosca blanca Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar en el cultivo de yuca Manihot \nesculenla Crantz. Revista Colombiana de Entomología. \n75 \nSubmitted \nCastillo, lA., A.C. Bellotti, L. Smith. 2004. Whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) encountered in \ncassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) in Colombia: Geographical, altitudinal and climatic \ndistribution. Environ Entorno!. \nCarabalí, A., A.C. Bellotti, J. Montoya, M.E. Cuéllar. 2004. Adaptationof Biotype B of Bemisia \ntabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) lO cassava. Crop Prolection. \nThesis \nBurbano, M. 2003. Estudio de la resistencia natural de cuatro especies de yuca silvestre \n(Manihot spp) a tres plagas artrópodas (Mononychellus tanajoa, Aleurotrachelus socialis y \nPhenacoccus helTeni) en condiciones de invernadero. Biologist. BA Thesis. Universidad del \nValle, Cali, Colombia [Spanish). \nAleán, 1. 2003. Evaluación de la patogenicidad de diferentes hongos entomopatógenos en el \ncontrol de la mosca blanca de la yuca Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar (Homoptera: \nAlyrodidae) bajo condiciones de cuarto de cría. Microbiología Agrícola y Veterinaria. BA \nThesis. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia. \nGómez, S., M.J. 2004. Caracterización del mecanismo de resistencia a \"mosca blanca\" \nAleurotrachelus socialis Bondar (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) en diferentes genotipos de yuca \n(Manihot esculenta Crantz). Ing. Agr. BA Thesis. Universidad Nacional, PaImira, Colombia. \nCarabalí, M. , A. 2004. Evaluación del potencial de resistencia/tolerancia de diferentes genotipos \nde yuca Manihot esculenta Crantz al \"Biotipo b\" de mosca blanca Bemisia ¡abaci \n(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). MSc. Thesis. Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia. \nConferences \nBellotti, A.C. 2004. Recent Advances in Whitefly (Aleurotrachelus socia lis Bondar; Homoptera: \nAleyrodidae) Resistance in Cassava f!.1anihot esculenta Crantz). SP-IPM Inter-Institutional \nWorking Group (I1WG) Meeting, 22-26 February 2004, CIMMYT, Mexico. \nBellotti, A.e. 2004. Integrated Management of Cassava Arthropod Pesls. Success Stories: \nPresent and Future Research. Sixth International Scientific Meeting of the Cassava \nBiotechnology Network-CBN. 8-14 March 2004, CIA T, Cali, Colombia. \nBellotti, A.e. 2003. Integrated Management of Cassava Arthropod Pesls. Success Stories: \nPresent and Future Research. Annual Review, PErI. 9-12 December 2003. CIAT, Cali, \nColombia. \nBellotti, A.C., J. Tohme. 2003. Host plant resistance to whiteflies in cassava. USDA-ARS, U.S. \nHorticultural Research Laboratory, Ft. Pierce, FL, USA. February 12,2003. \n76 \nCarabalí, M., A., A.e. Bellotti, 1. Montoya-Lenna. 2003. Adaptación gradual del biotipo B de \nBemisia labaci (Gennadius) (Homóptera: Aleyrodidae) sobre yuca Manihol esculenla \n(Crantz). Memorias XXX Congreso Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología, SOCOLEN. \nJulio 17-19, Cali, Colombia. p. 100. \nGómez, S., M.J., B. Arias, A.e. Bellotti . 2003. Caracterización del mecanismo de resistencia a \n\"mosca blanca\" Aleurolrachelus socia lis Bondar (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) en diferentes \ngenotipos de yuca (Manihol esculenla Crantz). Memorias XXX Congreso Sociedad \nColombiana de Entomología, SOCOLEN. Julio 17-19, Cali, Colombia. p. 101. \n77 \n","tokenCount":"1513"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/7001214821.json b/data/part_1/7001214821.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f3bbd32d5fae985319494524bebfcd4f0d1bfb40
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"40ed0273a04670d32a20ad3d333f1124","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4f2b37d3-4787-4c7f-9b82-c4cdc0880564/retrieve","id":"-1457043793"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"213f2cdb-bf8f-4d95-b6fc-5b672b8b0c5f","pagecount":"7","content":"During the period 1971 to 1975 a large portion of the cowpea world germplasm collection was screened at IITA for susceptibility to the major diseases occurring in the region, and more than 100 multiple resistant lines were identified. In 1974 the GLIP pathology program, in cooperation with several research workers in other tropical countries, initiated an International Cowpea Disease Nursery Program (ICPNP) in an attempt to identify broad spectrum stable resistance to many different populations of pathogens (including some that do not occur at IITA) over a broad range of environmental conditions. In addition to providing information on varietal resistance, the ICDNP also serves as a means of distributing useful cowpea germplasm to research workers in a position to make immediate use of desirable traits and as a means of promoting exchange of materials and ideas between research workers.Two international disease nurseries were intiated in 1974. The International Cowpea Disease Nursery (ICDN), consisting of 100 lines which show multiple resistance at Ibadan, was sent to cooperators in Brazil, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Tanzania, India and the Philippines. The second nursery, the International Cowpea Mosaic Virus Nursery (ICPMVN),consisting of 12 lines that are resistant to the spherical beetle-transmitted cowpea mosaic virus at Ibadan, was sent to cooperators in Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and India, for testing against local CPMV strains.At the time of writing results of the ICDN have been received from Puerto Rico, India and Nigeria. A summary of the results from each location follows:A. Puerto Rico (Cooperator Dr. N.G. Vakili)The ICDN was planted at Mayaguez (5 June 1974)  (e) forty-Six ICDN lines were susceptible to powdery mildew. This is valuable information because there is no opportunity to screen for susceptibility to this disease at IITA.(f) only three entries developed target spot (Corynespora cassiicola) and these three lines are also susceptible to this disease in Nigeria.India (Cooperator Dr. P. N. Patel).The ICDN was grown at the IARI, New Delhi during the Kharif season, 1974. Poor rainfall distribution hampered disease development but information was obtained on susceptibility to aphid attack and cercospora leaf spot. The lines are presently being tested for reaction to bacterial blight and to three cowpea viruses; of major interest are the facts that:(a) none of the ICDN lines were susceptible to cercospora leaf spot, though the local susceptible line developed symptoms.(b) six lines were highly resistant to the aphid Aphis craccivora Kock and 16 lines were moderately resistant to the insect. The resistance has since been checked by careful laboratory experimentation and the high degree of resistance has been convincingly confirmed (P.N. Patel, personal communication).(c) TVu 410, TVu 1563, TVu 2331 and TVu 2276 appeared to be resistant to the spherical aphid-borne cowpea mosaic virus.C.Nigeria (Cooperator Dr. R.J. Williams)The ICDN lines were planted on the IITA farm in late April 1974 and were exposed to the pathogens causing anthracnose, bacterial pustule, cercospora leaf spot and rust by inoculating highly susceptible spreader lines planted two weeks before the test lines at both ends of each test row. Disease development was good during the heavy June rains, and in addition to the above diseases target spot bacterial blight and Cercospora canescens leaf spot also were widespread in the planting. In an adjacent field all the ICDN lines were mechanically inoculated with two CPMV isolates. The complete results are given in the full report but of major interest are the points:(a) 61 ICDN lines were innnune or highly resistant to the: four major bacterial and fungal diseases -anthracnose, bacterial pustule, cercospora leaf spot and rust.(b) 11 of the 61 lines with multiple resistance to the bacterial and fungal diseases were also resistant to the two CPMV isolates (TVu's 201, 347, 408-PZ, 410, 537, 697, 746, 1190, 1283, 2430-Pl and 34l5).(c) nine lines showed differential reactions to the two CPMV isolates indicating pathogenic variability amongst CPMV strains;(d) 19 lines were free from target spot and as the disease was so widespread in the planting they have been designated resistant.In order to compare overall performance numerical values have been given to the various disease reaction categories for each disease at all locations according to the follOWing system: The overall resistance rating, derived by adding up the score for each disease at each location, is summarized in Table 1. The line TVu 1190 (recently registered as VITA 3) is outstanding with a resistance rating (RR) of 74 and is followed by TVu 410 (RR 70), TVu 2331, which was included as a rust susceptible indicator (RR 62), and TVu's 408-P2 and 1563 (RR 61). The trial mean resistance rating was 50.67. Fifty-four lines had better ratings than the trial mean, and 86 lines had better ratings than 50% of maximum possible score.At the time of preparation of this report ICPMVN results have been received from cooperators in Brazil, El Salvador, India, Nigeria, Puerto Rico and Trinjdad. The results are combined and summarized in Table 2.  43, 347, 4535, 4538 2276 57* 857, 4539, 4640 196, 1404, 1593, 1962, 2430-P1, 3511 201, 317, 461, 563-P1, 1961, 3273 131, 455. 1233, 1461-P2, 1480-P1 853, 1037, 1452. 1460-P2, 2512 346, 401, 433, 647, 1560, 2455-P2, 2460, 4543 191, 984, 985, 1000, 1027, 1938, 2000, 4537 154, 356, 515, 527, 697, 726, 1592, 2433. 2470, 3522-P1, 4536, 6665 62-P1, 264-P2, 1446, 1595, 2475-P2 381. 1614, 3349 476-P2, 735-2, 1065, 1113, 2366. 2480 459, 1566, 1963, 2616-P2, 4544, 6666 1565, 2545, 2549, 4545, 6663 155-P1, 179-P1 528, 1637-P3, 2363 The 1974 International Cowpea Disease Nursery Program, whilst being conducted at only a few locations, highlights the importance of a coordinated multilocational disease resistance testing program and provides information that indicates the possibilities for the achievement of the objectives stated at the heginning of this report. As a result of the 1974 program we know that: resistance to cercospora leaf spot or CPMV in Nigeria does not necessarily mean resistance to these diseases in Latin American countries; that we can screen for resistance to powdery mildew in Puerto Rico and to aphids in India; that lines like TVu's 1190, 410, 2331, 408-P and 1563 have a much broader spectrum of resistance than many other lines which are multiple-resistant lines at IITA and that already seed of these broadly resistant lines has already been distributed to researchers in several tropical countries.The 1974 program marks a small and useful beginning to the ICDNP but many additional locations are required to increase the range of variability of pathogens and pathogen populations. Locations are required where ephiphytotics of Septoria leaf spot, Ascocthyta leaf spot, Synchytrium false rust, Fusarium wilt occur annually, and where the pathogens causing rust, mildew, anthracnose, mosaic and others may have evolved under different selection pressures to produce different pathogenes. It is hoped that\" possibilities tor identification of broad based multiple disease resistance indicated by the results presented in this report will stimulate many other research workers to participate in the International Cowpea Disease\"Nursery Program.The ICDNP is an informal international cooperative effort. Scientists who participated in the 1974 ICD~IP are: ","tokenCount":"1162"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/7003910516.json b/data/part_1/7003910516.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..80c8510969d4aa3b9f3a131091e2a2dae5ab4237
--- /dev/null
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"63478962e623c4b7ec65fad5633b7bec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/89b9de08-bf24-454a-9dc2-e41b06b109f8/retrieve","id":"875606336"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4e356249-3be0-4d43-a089-a7fe10c0b924","pagecount":"27","content":"The dairy value chain in Kenya plays an important role in the economy, providing jobs for smallholder milk producers and nutrient-rich milk and dairy products for consumers, the most important of which are families with infants below the age of four. The share of dairy products accounts for 30% of livestock gross domestic product (GDP) and 4% of the country's total GDP (USAID 2010;Muriuki 2011). The demand for milk and milk products in Kenya is among the highest in developing countries (SDP 2004), while milk consumption in Kenya is one of the highest in the East Africa region . The country's annual per capita consumption of milk and dairy products has been estimated at 19 kg in rural areas and 125 kg in urban areas (FAO 2011) and is projected to reach 220 kg by 2030 (KMT 2017). Depending on location and socio-economic class, milk consumption may vary between 50 and 150 litres per capita and per year (Bosire et al. 2017).There is a common perception among Kenyan consumers that milk and dairy products are healthy and nutritious. Studies have found that consumers in Kenya generally boil their milk before its consumed, thereby decreasing the number of pathogens in it. However, in addition to the presence/number of pathogens in the milk, there are also other quality and safety issues (e.g. milk adulteration with water, addition of antibiotics or other chemical preservatives, aflatoxin contamination etc.) that persist even when milk is boiled prior to consumption. It is also important to note that it is not possible to boil other dairy products such as yoghurt, fermented ('mala') milk and butter.Assessing consumers' attitudes, perception and knowledge about milk quality and safety in Kenya is a fundamental step towards ensuring that policymakers are provided with the necessary information to develop and implement policies that protect consumer health. It also provides valuable information for the dairy value chain actors and stakeholders to improve their practises and provide quality and safe milk. It is in this perspective that the current study was undertaken under the auspice of the Voice for Change Partnership (V4CP) program.Before moving to the next section, we provide some key definitions about the terminologies used in this report. Raw milk (generally not chilled) refers to the unprocessed milk that is sold to consumers through the 'informal' marketing channels. Raw milk is mostly sourced directly from the producers, mobile traders/hawkers and from milk bars/shops. Processed milk is the milk that has gone through a processing activity like pasteurization (traditional or industrial), ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment, and is then packed in different volumes and package types (e.g. tetrapack, plastic bottles and pouches). In the Kenyan market, it is also possible to find unpackaged processed milk being sold from milk vending machines/dispensers (which are known as ATMs) or milk bars.The main objective of the study was to assess consumers' perception and risk attitude towards milk quality and safety in Kenya. The study also analyzed consumers' willingness to pay for safe milk and dairy products. Specifically, the study focused on the following areas: consumers' milk purchase and consumption habits, factors influencing consumers' choice, consumers' risk attitude towards milk safety, consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for safe milk, and consumers' perception of product labelling.This study reflects and builds upon existing literature related to milk consumption and consumers' perceptions of milk in Kenya. This includes studies done by national and international research organizations and universities, as well as the private sector and other dairy stakeholders. The focus was on the main objectives of this review and the presentation of the details about each study (region, type and number of respondents, and year the study was done, among other aspects) to provide a clearer picture of the context and the reliability and generalization of the results. At the end of each subsection of the results section, the main findings are summarized upon which are built the conclusions and recommendations.The findings from the literature review have been consolidated and discussed with a few stakeholders who are directly or indirectly involved in the dairy value chain in Kenya.Milk production in Kenya is dominated by smallholder dairy farmers who contribute more than 70% of gross marketed production (Walke 2014). Milk is marketed through either the formal or informal market channels. The formal milk market channel generally sees the sale of milk that has been processed (pasteurized, UHT etc.) by registered dairy companies and retail outlets, while the informal milk market channel mainly consists of the sale of raw milk and some volumes of fermented ('mala') milk by producers and unregistered hawkers and mobile traders. The majority of milk produced and marketed in Kenya (around 86% of total volume) is still sold through the informal channel (KMT 2016; Omore et al. 2000). In 2012, Kenyans consumed around four billion litres of milk (MoALF 2013), the formal dairy channel/sector recorded a total intake of about 495 million litres during the same year (KDB 2017) representing 15% of the overall supply.Kenyans' milk purchase and consumption habits are thus directly linked to and influenced by the type of marketing channel: formal vs informal. There are also other factors that affect milk purchase and consumption such as the residential area: rural vs urban. In rural and suburban areas, the majority of consumers buy raw milk directly from the producer or kiosks and smaller shops. In urban centres, the two different types of milk compete as they are sold in more or less the same retail outlets. Kiosks and shops near residential areas sell both processed and raw milk (ACET 2015;Muriuki 2011;Schneider 2018). Walke (2014) and Walke et al. (2014) analyzed Kenyan milk consumers' purchase and consumption habits in Dagoretti (a peri-urban area of Nairobi) with a focus on aflatoxin knowledge and perception. Respondents (310 persons) were mainly of low-income households, with the majority of households earning less than KES30,000 (USD345) per month. The study found that 95% of respondents bought raw milk and only 5% preferred processed milk and opted for raw milk thereafter. Women are more often responsible for the households' milk purchase than are men. Shops (40%), followed by milk bars (25%) and milk producers/farmers (25%) are the main places/outlets where consumers buy milk. Kiosks and hawkers were also mentioned by respondents but with lower percentages (15% and 10%, respectively). More than 90% of respondents bought milk once a day on average, likely reflecting the fact that the majority do not have refrigerators at home and wish to preserve the freshness and quality of the product. The majority of households (38%) bought 1 litre per purchase occasion, followed by 0.6 litre (18%) and 0.5 litre (12%). Schneider (2018), in her study of milk consumers (200 respondents) from low income households (less than 30,000 KES/month) in Dagoretti, found similar results related to milk outlets. Primarily, households bought their dairy products from a corner shop or kiosk (40%), milk dispenser in a milk bar (16%), directly at the producer's gate (12%), or from a milk bar in a dairy shop (11%). Most households only bought their dairy products from one market outlet (79%), whereas 2% bought their dairy products from a different market outlet every day. On average, the outlet was about 6.6 minutes walking distance which indicated good access to the milk market for households. Fadiga and Makokha (2014) conducted a study on milk and meat consumers in two cities in Kenya, Nairobi, the capital city (169 respondents) and Eldoret, a large city located within an agriculturally-rich area (119 respondents). The study found that the milk products consumed the most were packed pasteurized milk (21%), raw fresh milk (17%), fermented packaged milk (12%), and yoghurt (13%). In Eldoret, fresh milk was the most popular dairy product, while in Nairobi packed pasteurized milk and yoghurt were the most popular. Fresh milk was consumed mainly by low-income households earning less than KES 30,000/month.In terms of consumption, Walke (2014) and Walke et al. (2014) found that almost half of the respondents (48%) consumed milk daily or several times per week where the quantities of 300 ml, 600 ml and 900 ml were the most frequently used. In general, the quantities consumed vary from small amounts used in tea to amounts of more than one litre. One third (31%) of respondents consumed milk occasionally and 21% never consumed milk. Results showed that 67% of the infants (less than 3 years old) in the interviewed households drank cow milk every day, and 59% of children (between 3 and 18 years old) consumed raw milk (after boiling) daily or several times per week. Walke (2014) and Mtimet et al. (2015) analyzed middle-and high-income consumers' purchase and consumption habits (299 respondents) in Nairobi with a focus on aflatoxin knowledge and perception. The authors found that for all respondents (100%) processed milk was their first choice, while for 9%, raw milk was their second choice. Women were more responsible for households' processed milk purchase like in the case of raw milk survey. The preferred purchase places of processed milk by consumers were super/hypermarkets (77%) and shops (65%). Kiosks, milk bars and hawkers only played a minor role as purchase places. A high proportion of consumers (69%) bought milk once a day or more. Due to the common packaging sizes, 57% on consumers preferred buying 0.5 litre per purchase occasion followed by those who opted for 1 litre packs of milk (20%).In the same study, the authors (Walke, 2014;Mtimet et al., 2015) found that almost half of the respondents' consumed milk daily where the quantities of 250 ml, 300 ml and 500 ml were the most frequent. In general, the quantities consumed varied from small amounts used in tea to amounts of half a litre. Around half of the respondents (48%) consumed milk every day, while less than half (39%) consumed milk several times a week or occasionally, and 13% said they never consume milk. For the households who have infants, 65% of them indicated that their infants drink milk daily, while for the households with children above 3 years old who drink milk daily the proportion was 58%. Schneider (2018) found a direct correlation between income and expenditure on dairy and food products. Generally, the higher the income of a household surveyed, the higher the weekly expenditure on dairy items and food products. Average expenditure on dairy products amounted to almost KES400 per week (13% of total food expenditure). Due to the sampling strategy (i.e. targeting households that consume raw milk), almost all households (99%) purchased unpacked raw milk daily. Packed yoghurt (40%), packed pasteurized whole fresh milk (17%) and UHT milk (7%) were the other most purchased dairy products (in addition to the raw milk). Unpacked and packed fermented milk as well as unpacked yoghurt and powdered milk were bought by less than 2% of participating households. Other dairy products like ghee, butter, cream or cheese were not purchased.Schneider (2018) also found that the majority (99%) of the children aged 6 to 48 months consumed raw milk the week previous to the survey visit, followed by packed yoghurt (40%) and packed pasteurized whole fresh milk (17%). Most children who consumed dairy products as bought, consumed them either as unpacked raw milk or packed yoghurt (43% and 42%, respectively). Only 7% of children consumed packed pasteurized whole fresh milk as it was bought.From the supply side, Alonso et al. (2018) in their study of milk producers, traders and vendors in Kisumu and Eldoret indicated that from the 67 vendors interviewed and operating in the informal dairy sector in the two cities, about two-thirds of the traders sold value-added products in addition to liquid milk i.e. mala or fermented milk (64%) and yoghurt (21%). Muriuki (2011) indicated that in rural and suburban areas of Kenya, consumers buy mostly unprocessed milk directly from producers, kiosks, neighborhood shops and hotels. In urban centres, unprocessed and processed milk compete, using more or less the same retail outlets, although some, such as supermarkets, do not sell raw milk. Shops and kiosks near residential areas retail both processed (packaged) and unprocessed milk. The author also mentioned that among the main challenges for the dairy industry in Kenya is the high consumption of unprocessed milk, even in urban centres, and the relatively high consumption of milk (both raw and processed) compared with value-added processed dairy products. Bebe et al. (2018) in their study about consumers' (368 respondents) milk purchase and quality perception in four counties in Kenya (Nairobi, Nakuru, Uasin Gishu and Kakamega) found that raw milk purchase (average of 6 litres/ household/week) is higher compared to packaged milk (3.3 litres/household/week), fermented milk (1.2 litres/ household/week) and milk fat and powder (less than 0.5 litre/household/week). Households' weekly expenditure is still higher for raw milk (KES350) but the gap with the other dairy products (packaged milk, fermented milk, etc.) is lower because of the price difference. The authors found that raw milk is bought from different outlets (directly from the farm, mobile traders, milk bars, shops and kiosks) while processed milk, fermented milk, and milk powder are mainly bought from supermarkets. Njarui et al. (2011) conducted a study on the consumption of milk and milk products in the semi-arid region of eastern Kenya (Machakos County and town). A total of 135 rural and 126 urban households were studied. Raw milk was the most popular and was consumed by 99% and 84% of rural and urban households, respectively. Raw milk was most preferred followed by pasteurized milk while powdered milk was the least preferred. In the rural areas, milk shops/bars and neighbours with dairy cattle were the major source of raw milk. For the urban households, a large proportion of raw milk was supplied by hawkers. Milk shops or bars located strategically in urban residential areas were also important sources of raw milk. Household residential area and income were the significant factors affecting milk and dairy products consumption. In fact, urban households consumed 16 and 12 litres/month more raw and pasteurized milk, respectively, than rural households; and the higher-income households consumed more milk and milk products than the low-income group.The authors (Njarui et al. 2011) found that generally, as the level of milk processing increased, the frequency of milk consumption declined in households in semi-arid areas from more than once per day to 1-2 times a week and eventually to occasionally. The authors recommended improving the availability of milk and milk products to improve their consumption particularly in the rural areas. Cornelsen et al. (2016) conducted a survey (205 households) in peri-urban Nairobi (Dagoretti and Korogocho) assessing the drivers of demand for animal-source foods (ASF). They found that nearly all households (91%) purchased milk in the previous week, which accounted on average for 47% of all the total ASF expenditure.Research Solutions Africa (2013a, 2013b) conducted a survey among low-income urban consumers (304 households) in Nairobi County, who had recently consumed both raw and processed milk. The authors found that of the money spent on food at home, about 20% was spent on dairy products, and the overall per capita milk consumption among low-income urban consumers was significantly lower compared to the average 125 kg found in other studies. The authors found that more than 71% of respondents drank milk only once a day, mostly in the morning. A further 23% consumed milk twice a day, adding an evening cup of whitened tea. More than half of respondents (54%) consumed the milk in the form of whitener in their tea with no significant difference between pasteurized or raw milk, and 27% drank the milk pure. The preferred sources of pasteurized milk were supermarkets (51%) and shops (34%), and 500 ml packs were the most commonly bought. Raw milk sources were more diverse: vendors (34%), milk bars (28%), shops (22%) and kiosks (12%). Around a third of respondents (36%) consumed milk outside their homes. Respondent said that the most important reason for consuming milk in the morning was because it is a source of energy (34%). In the afternoon and evening, reported reasons for consuming milk were its being part of a meal (ugali/sweet potatoes) or as a desert after a meal (combined 40%) and feeding a baby or a child (22%).Many studies indicated lower per capita consumption of milk and dairy products (around 50 litre/year) compared to the national average of 125 kg/capita. Per capita milk and dairy products consumption in urban areas is higher compared to rural areas.Milk is considered as a source of energy for adults and an important food product for children's nutrition.The majority of the studies focused on low-income households which, considering the income distribution of Kenya's population, represent the largest share of the population and the largest group of milk consumers.Milk is mostly sold as raw through the informal sector. Processed milk is sold through the formal sector, although there are also some raw milk volumes that are sold through the formal sector.Milk is frequently bought at least once a day but there is small proportion of households buying it twice or thrice a day. This is by consumers of raw milk and processed milk.For low-income peri-urban consumers, the kiosk or shop ('duke') and the milk bars are the main sources of purchased milk. The quantities of 300 ml, 600 ml, and 900 ml are the most popular.For middle-and high-income urban consumers, supermarkets and shops are the main outlets for milk purchase. Half a litre is the most popular quantity bought followed by 1 litre.Peri-urban consumers are very loyal to the outlets from where they buy milk daily. Rural consumers mainly buy raw milk directly from the farm or from milk shops/bars. Except in Nairobi city, raw milk is the most consumed by both rural and urban consumers in other regions in Kenya. In agricultural production cities such as Kisumu and Eldoret and in rural and suburban areas, raw milk is the most popular followed by fermented milk, while in Nairobi, packed pasteurized milk and yoghurt are the most popular. Middle-and high-income consumers in the capital city prefer buying processed milk.Raw milk, pasteurized milk, fermented milk and yoghurt are overall, and in decreasing order, the most consumed products. The higher the level of processing of a milk product, the lower the frequency of its consumption.Milk consumption is generally done on daily or several times per week for around half of low-income consumers. When it comes to infants and children below 18 years of age, the proportion of regular milk consumers (daily or several days per week) is higher (around two thirds). These findings are almost the same for low-income peri-urban consumers and middle-and high-income urban consumers.Women are the ones mainly involved in buying milk and dairy products. This was observed in both the low-income and middle-and high-income population.Household income is positively and directly correlated to milk and dairy products expenditure. The higher the income, the higher the household expenditure on milk and dairy products.Very few studies have assessed milk consumption outside the home. One study mentioned that an overall proportion of 36% of respondents (low-income urban consumers) consumed milk outside the home.There are many factors that influence Kenyan consumers' choice of milk retail outlet and the type of milk purchased. Mtimet et al. (2015) employed a choice experiment technique which found that price, aflatoxin-free certification, the type of packaging (tetrapack, plastic, pouch) and the fat content of milk are the most important factors influencing consumers' choice for processed milk. In another study of raw milk consumers, Walke et al. (2014) using the same technique, found that price, the smell of the milk, and aflatoxin-free certification were the most important attributes influencing consumers' choice. Fadiga and Makokha (2014) conducted a rapid market assessment (RMA) in which dairy and meat supply chain actors were interviewed to gauge the quality and safety attributes they perceived as being important for consumers. The main attributes cited were hygiene (visual evaluation if the milk is clean or unclean), packaging, colour, smell, and price. In terms of importance of these attributes, the rating was as follows: hygiene (8.8), smell (8.6), colour (8.0) and packaging (7.9). The mean rating of each attribute was consistently higher in Nairobi than in Eldoret. The difference is most striking for packaging, rated 8.8 in Nairobi compared to 6.6 in Eldoret. The respondents in the highest income bracket had the highest mean rating for each attribute.The same authors (Fadiga and Makokha, 2014) used a conjoint experiment to assess the importance of the proposed attributes and their corresponding levels in milk consumers' choice. The study found that price was the most important attribute in determining preferences at 41%, followed by smell (31%), hygiene (15%), and colour (12%). Clean, less odorous, and cream-coloured milk had a higher preference level among consumers than polluted, foulsmelling, and white milk respectively. Packaging appeared to be irrelevant at the sample level, as there was no significant difference between milk in sealed packaging versus that in unsealed packaging. However, Nairobi consumers showed a preference for milk in sealed containers compared to those in Eldoret. Low-income consumers were indifferent with respect to packaging, while consumers in middle-and high-income households showed a preference for milk in sealed packaging. Schneider (2018) found that a preference for processed vs raw milk or the opposite (raw vs processed) is not very clear and depends on consumers. In fact, 48% of consumers believe that raw milk is of worse quality than processed milk, 46% said that raw milk is of better quality, and for 6% the quality was the same. Households were also asked whether they would prefer to buy raw or packaged milk if the price of both were the same. Results found that 54% of respondents would opt for packaged milk and 44% for raw milk, showcasing that consumers' preferences are divided. Many studies found that consumers in Kenya prefer raw milk because of its superior taste and its lower price (Blackmore et al. 2015;SDP 2004). Ndongo et al. (2015), in a study focusing on milk producers and consumers in Kasarani Constituency in peri-urban Nairobi, found that high-income consumers preferred to buy pasteurized milk as they viewed pasteurization as a guarantee of quality and longer shelf-life, and appreciated the convenience of packaged milk for transport and storage.When asked about the reasons for engaging in the informal milk market, milk producers, traders and vendors in Kisumu and Eldoret mentioned, among other reasons, that there is a general higher demand for milk in the tow cities. They also noted that there is particularly a higher demand for unpackaged or unprocessed milk as consumers like its taste, composition, pricing, and the fact that it can be purchased in small amounts to fit customers' purchasing power (Alonso et al. 2018). Bosire et al. (2017) found that annual milk consumption per capita in rural Kenya is about 10 kg higher than the urban consumption rate. This is mainly the result of a higher level of access to milk and the direct/own production and consumption of milk at home. Meanwhile, urban consumption requires consumers to locate and purchase milk products with issues related to retail/outlets access. The authors, however, also found that the average per capita milk consumption in Nairobi was about twice as high as the national average. This trend was associated with urban growth and the higher purchasing power of Nairobi residents compared to those of other urban areas. They also cited better access to milk products, facilitated by the close proximity to milk production areas, and high consumption of unprocessed milk as being key factors in Nairobi's high milk consumption rates. Grace (2015) indicated that Nairobi households drink most of their milk boiled in tea so there is little health benefit from pasteurization and potentially large health impacts from lowered access to milk because of increased price and the small number of retail outlets that sell pasteurized, chilled milk. However, the introduction of milk dispensers/ ATMs in peri-urban areas which are supposed to offer pasteurized chilled milk with better quality at an affordable competitive price could be the ideal solution in the near future.In the Smallholder Dairy Project (SDP, 2004), the authors showed that milk price and household income play an important role in consumers' preferences. Low-income consumers have a lower price elasticity (0.12) in absolute values for raw milk (that means an increase of 10% in milk price will decrease milk purchase quantities by 1.2%) and a relatively higher one (0.70; i.e. an increase of 10% in milk price will decrease milk purchase quantities by 7%) for pasteurized milk. For high-income consumers it is the opposite with lower price elasticity for pasteurized milk (0.21) and higher price elasticity (0.93) for raw milk. The same study (SDP, 2004) provides the following reasons for raw milk purchase/preference: it is 20% to 50% cheaper than processed milk, many persons prefer the taste and high butterfat content of unprocessed milk, it is sold in different quantities, is widely accessible and within the reach of many people, and consumers are used to consuming unprocessed milk. Mwangi et al. (2019) in their study on the satisfaction levels of (370) consumers purchasing processed milk from 15 major supermarket chains in Nairobi, Nakuru, Eldoret and Mombasa towns, found that the majority of respondents indicated that they were able to identify the milk brands they bought by using package and brand colour, and that they were satisfied with the package size of the milk product they purchased. Majority of respondents also expressed satisfaction that the quality of milk products purchased met their expectations, and they trusted the nutritional value of the milk. Rademaker et al. (2016) indicated that to compete with the lower prices in the raw milk chain, supermarkets such as Tuskys have started to sell raw milk (ACET 2015), showing that retail sales models will change to reflect consumer preferences for raw milk. Bebe et al. (2018) in their study about milk consumers in Kenya (in Nairobi, Nakuru, Eldoret and Kakamega) found that, overall, price and quality rather than safety are the most important attributes to majority of consumers. For raw milk buyers, price (38%) and quality (31%) are the most important attributes. For packaged milk consumers, quality (34%) and price (25%) are the most important attributes. Quality for fermented milk products (58%) and for milk fat and powder (52%) is the most important attribute. It is interesting to note that the safety attribute was always ranked last, except for fermented milk (second with 17%). The study also found that consumers prefer freshly-processed milk bought from the shops and supermarkets or from the farm directly but buy raw milk from other outlets due to price affordability. Njarui et al. (2011) in their study of milk and milk products consumption in the semi-arid region of eastern Kenya, found that richer households consumed significantly more milk and milk products than poor households. Raw milk was preferred over pasteurized, UHT and powdered milk because it was cheaper and widely available. Generally, preference for raw milk over other milk products was higher in rural households than in urban households. Consumption of pasteurized milk was skewed toward urban households, with 83% consuming it versus only around 14% for rural households. The authors also found a large disparity in consumption of yoghurt between rural and urban households. About a quarter of the population sampled in rural area consumed yoghurt, compared with 68.5% in urban households.The authors (Njarui et al., 2011) found that powdered and UHT milk become very popular during the dry season when fluid milk availability is limited. These products can be stored at room temperature without refrigeration and thus are more popular in rural than in urban households.Research Solutions Africa (2013a), found that the increase in socio-economic class increases spending on processed milk and value-added dairy products, and decreases raw milk consumption. The authors found that when milk was used for cooking, raw milk was prevalent, when used in beverages other than tea, pasteurized milk dominated. The results also indicated that price (84% of respondents), quality (65%), access (58%), quantity (49%) and trusted source (48%) were the main factors influencing raw milk purchase, while price (51%), quality (44%) and brands (44%) were the main factors influencing processed milk purchase. The major barrier to consuming processed milk is affordability (58%), and the fact that processed milk is also perceived to be less nutritious as it is strongly believed that the processing takes away nutrients. A household's choice of fluid milk sources was found to be significantly influenced by the number of children living in the household and education level of the respondent. The more children in household, the more likely the respondent purchased milk from a source that offers quantity, trust and relationships built over time.For processed/packaged milk consumers, the main factors influencing milk choice are price, aflatoxin-free certification, type of packaging, and fat content.Milk brand, identified through package size and colour, is another factor influencing consumers choice of processed milk from supermarkets in various Kenyan cities and towns.For raw milk consumers, the main factors influencing milk choice are price, smell of the milk and aflatoxin-free certification.In another study (Nairobi and Eldoret), price, smell, hygiene and colour were the main factors influencing consumer choice. Overall packaging is irrelevant, but middle-and high-income consumers prefer milk sold in sealed packaging.The preference for raw milk versus packaged milk is not very clear in terms of milk quality. Half of respondents think that raw milk is of better quality and the other half believe that packaged/processed milk is of better quality. This 'ambiguity' is also found in scientific studies trying to compare raw milk and processed milk qualities and where the results are not very clear about which product is of better quality and safer.Price and quality (in inverse order) are the most important attributes for both raw milk consumers and packaged milk consumers, respectively, in Nairobi, Eldoret, Nakuru and Kakamega.Majority of the studies targeting urban and rural consumers in cities and areas other than Nairobi (Eldoret, Kisumu, northeastern Kenya etc.) found that consumers prefer raw milk because of its better taste, higher butterfat content, lower price, availability, and the fact that it could be bought in different volumes/amounts. Income affects consumer choice of milk. High-income consumers prefer pasteurized milk linking it to better quality and the convenience of transporting and storing packaged milk.Rural raw milk consumption is higher compared to the urban raw milk consumption, mainly because of ownproduction, direct consumption and easy access in rural areas. However, in Nairobi, average per capita milk consumption is higher compared to the national average milk consumption because of the coexistence and availability of both raw and processed milk with a wide range of volumes and prices. Consumption of processed milk and valueadded dairy products (yoghurt and fermented milk) is higher in urban areas compared to rural areas.Affordability (based on household income) and perceptions about lower nutritional qualities are the main barriers to consumption of processed milk by rural and low-income consumers.Supermarkets such as Tuskys, Naivas and Carrefour are trying to satisfy consumers' preferences for buying bulk milk in customized volumes and at lower prices, by installing milk dispensers' machines known as ATMs. The latter are also found in some milk bars and shops.Findings from the literature review indicate that Kenyans are generally well aware of the issues related to milk safety and quality. Consumers follow some practises to mitigate these risks. Boiling milk is one of the main measures taken by consumers to ensure milk safety in the country. Walke (2014), Walke et al. (2014), found that almost all (99%) of raw milk consumers boil their milk prior to consumption and 95% of them believe that milk is totally safe after boiling. Health (77%) and hygienic (64%) concerns were the main reasons stated for boiling the milk, followed by 'because everybody is doing it' (21%). The results are similar in the case of processed milk consumers where 79% of respondents indicate that they boil processed milk before its consumption, and that 93% believe milk is totally safe after boiling (Mtimet et al. 2015). The main reasons stated for boiling the milk were health and hygienic concerns (53% and 34%, respectively), followed by the preference of warming the milk up (14%) and 'because everybody does it' (10%).Consumers are not well informed about the risks of possible milk contamination by aflatoxin and their attitudes vary depending on their level of knowledge of the subject. In fact, Walke et al. (2014) found that 45% of raw milk consumers had never heard about aflatoxin and that only 45% of respondents know that aflatoxin can be transferred to milk from mouldy feed given to a dairy cow. The majority of consumers (69%) perceive aflatoxin in milk as a serious or medium threat to human health, and 85% falsely believe that it is possible to make aflatoxin-contaminated milk safe for human consumption. The extensive boiling of milk or a combination of boiling and refrigerating milk were cited by 75% of respondents as the solution for decontaminating the milk. For processed milk consumers, Mtimet et al. (2015) found that 80% of respondents had previously heard of aflatoxin, and 45% of them knew that aflatoxin could be transferred to milk from cows fed with mouldy feed. The majority of processed milk consumers (87%) perceived aflatoxin as a serious or medium threat to human health. Less than a quarter (23%) of the consumers thought that it was possible to make aflatoxin contaminated milk safe, and 62% of them believed that boiling the milk was the solution.Trust is another means by which consumers mitigate the risks of consuming non-safe milk. Walke et al. (2014) found that 40% of raw milk consumers knew the farmer who produced the milk and 95% of them fully or mostly trusted the farmer to provide hygienically produced milk. When asked about how much they trust the reseller to provide safe raw milk, almost all respondents showed high levels of trust. In the case of processed milk consumers, Mtimet et al. (2015) found that 75% of respondents knew who had produced the milk and 90% of them fully or mostly trusted the producer/company. In contrast, Fadiga and Makokha (2014), although they did not examine the extent to which trust in the trading partners influences trade volumes along the value chain, found that consumers overwhelmingly claimed not to use trust as an indicator of product quality and safety (for both meat and dairy products). This indicates that at consumer level there is a demand for objective measurements of quality and safety as evidenced by the willingness to pay values for an official stamp (meat) and packaging (milk).In their study, Fadiga and Makokha (2014) found that a high proportion (63%) of consumers (both in Nairobi and Eldoret) believed the milk purchased was safe for consumption, and 67% said they were willing to pay more for improved milk safety and quality. Low-income consumers, who buy more raw milk compared to other income groups, systematically boiled the milk before consumption, which minimized consumers' concerns about safety and quality issues. Ndongo et al. (2015) found that most of the milk in Kasarani (peri-urban Nairobi) was sold directly to consumers, thus minimizing the chance of introducing bacteria during long transportation routes with multiple handlers. The authors also found that most of the milk was normally boiled before consumption which is an effective risk-mitigation strategy. Bebe (2018) in his study about milk vending machines, consumers' risk perception, and milk quality in five Kenyan towns (Nairobi, Kisumu, Eldoret, Nakuru and Kakamega) consistently found that consumers associated milk vending machines with less risk of adulteration, bacterial load, unhygienic handling and antibiotic residues than they did with the mobile-traded milk. In a random sample, the number of consumers associating milk with high risks were lower for vending machines (<15%) compared to mobile trader milk (between 15-58%), farm supplied milk (between 38-98%) or processed milk (between 12-30%), which according to the author indicates high consumer confidence levels with the quality of milk from vending machines. However, in reality, test results from milk samples indicated that vending machines did not offer better compliance in quality standards over plastic containers (in the informal market) in milk density, solids not fat, hydrogen peroxide, or antibiotics presence. Milk from vending machines performed better than plastic containers in microbiological quality indicators but exceeded Codex standards for aflatoxin (AFM1) contamination 20.87±24.63 ppt). This was not the case for milk from plastic containers. APRI (2018) in a study about Kenyan consumers' status on food safety (vegetables and milk) undertaken in five counties (Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru and Murang'a; sample size of 376 individuals), found that around 79% of respondents were concerned about food safety, 12% were not concerned about food safety while 9% were sometimes concerned. The study found that consumers follow some specific measures to ensure milk safety like boiling milk before use or storage, storing milk in the refrigerator, consuming long-life milk, and using clean containers for milk storage. Bebe et al. (2018) in their study about milk consumers in Kenya (Nairobi, Nakuru, Eldoret and Kakamega) found that consumers perceived raw milk bought from almost all types of outlets (farm, kiosks, milk bars, mobile traders) to be at a high risk in relation to unhygienic handling, adulteration, bacterial load, and antibiotics. Conversely, consumers were found to perceive raw milk at low risk of containing chemical preservatives. For UHT and fresh packaged milk, consumers' risk perception is only high for the presence of chemical preservatives. The authors also found that, on average, consumers agreed that they think about milk safety when buying and consuming milk (87%), and that it is worth avoiding the risk by buying safety-assured milk at a higher price (75%). Respondents disagreed, however, that buying milk without a safety assurance is worth the risk.The Research Solutions Africa (2013b) study found that milk consumers prefer buying small volumes of packaged milk (mainly 500 ml) because it seems that keeping an opened package is not popular, indicating consumers' awareness of hygienic risks. Safety risk is considered low by consumers buying raw milk as long as it is obtained from a trusted source (and/or boiled).Kenyan consumers are relatively aware and concerned about the issues related to milk safety and quality.Boiling milk is one of the main milk safety measures taken by the majority of both raw and processed milk consumers who believe that the milk is totally safe after boiling. The use of clean containers for milk storage is another measure taken by consumers. Keeping the milk in the refrigerator for those who have it is another measure stated by the households.Majority of the studies found that trust in the milk outlet/provider is an important factor/proxy used by consumers, mainly of raw milk, to mitigate product safety issues.Milk vending machines/ATMs seem to be trustworthy for processed milk consumers in urban and peri-urban areas and are accessible to middle and low-income households.For a segment of consumers, higher milk price is also an indicator/proxy of product quality and safety, and they are willing to pay for it.A small proportion of raw milk consumers and a higher proportion of processed milk consumers are aware about aflatoxin contamination and the related health issues. Majority of them think that boiling the milk (extensively) is a solution to aflatoxin contamination.Studies carried out in developed countries have indicated that product labelling matters for consumers who generally carefully read the information provided in the label. In the developing countries, studies that assess consumers' perception of product labelling are few. The number of studies is even lower when it comes to milk and dairy products where, as previously mentioned, the majority of the milk is sold raw in informal markets.Despite the lack of overall research conducted in this area, some research on milk and dairy has tried to assess consumers' perceptions and opinions about certification, food safety labels, and product labelling in general. Walke et al. (2014), when assessing raw milk consumers' behaviour, found that more than 60% of respondents do not trust or do not look at the certificates and safety labels of milk and dairy products, while more than 35% report trusting these certification and labelling. Only 30% of respondents rely on the information provided on product packaging labels and commercial advertisements. Mtimet et al. (2015) found similar results when assessing processed milk consumers of whom 57% said they do not trust or do not look at the certificates and/or food safety labels of the products, while 43% trust these certifications and labelling. The proportion of consumers who do not rely on the information given on product packaging labels and commercial advertisement is also very high (69%), indicating a lack of trust among consumers that should be seriously considered by the processors, retailers, and the Kenyan government certification agency. However, Wambugu (2014), when assessing customers' attitude towards milk packaging designs in Kenya (1,000 respondents from 3 towns in the Nairobi metropolitan area: Ruiru, Kiambu and Ongata Rongai) found that information on the pack including the expiry date is among the important milk attributes for packaged milk consumers.Few studies in Kenya have focused on milk consumers' perception of product labelling.The majority (two-third) of raw and processed milk consumers in Kenya do not trust or look at the certificates and safety labels in milk packaging.There is a lack of consumers' trust on the certifying institutions.From the findings presented in this report, the following conclusions and recommendations can be drawn:Milk and dairy products form part of the daily diet of Kenyans from all income segments. Milk purchase is mainly done every day, and the product is consumed either as a tea whitener in the morning or as part of the meal during lunch or dinner (especially for low-income consumers and infants). This indicates the important nutritional role of milk and dairy products.Per capita consumption of milk and dairy products is lower in rural areas compared to urban areas and is much lower than the 'proclaimed' average national consumption of 125 kg/capita. There is therefore room to increase consumption of milk in these areas and the government efforts should aim at achieving this objective. Children's milk intake at school, through programs such as the National School Meals and Nutrition Strategy 2017-2022, could play an important role in increasing milk and dairy products consumption and attracting new and young consumers.In rural milk production areas, consumers mainly purchase raw milk; while in urban areas and big cities like Nairobi, raw milk and processed milk are both available and purchased by consumers. Overall 'informal' raw milk trading and consumption predominate the market and this trend will probably persist for the next decade. There is therefore need for greater government involvement to support this 'informal' marketing channel in terms of capacity building, sensitization, training on milk handling and hygiene, and certification.Producers, hawkers/mobile traders, and milk bars are the main suppliers of raw milk to consumers who are mainly located in rural and peri-urban areas, and in production areas. These milk suppliers should be targeted by future government/sector sensitization and capacity building activities.Low-income households are the largest category of the Kenyan pyramid, which ranks them first in terms of milk volumes consumed compared to the rest of the population (middle-and high-income consumers). Milk choice for this segment is mainly driven by product price due to their limited financial resources/income. 'Forced' shifting from raw (low price) to processed milk (higher price) consumption for this consumer category will decrease the quantities consumed at the household level (adults, children below 18 years, and infants), and will have negative consequences on the nutritional status of household members and child growth and development.In addition to price, which was cited by majority of consumers as the main factor for purchasing raw milk, product freshness was also mentioned and ranked second. Consumers perceive raw milk as fresher and of better nutritional ingredients compared to processed milk which, from their perception, loses nutritional quality from the heating process. There is, in this case, an important sensitization role that should be done by consumer associations and processors on the nutritional value of processed milk if they want to attract and change the consumption patterns of raw milk consumers.Both processed and raw milk consumers are relatively aware and concerned about milk safety and quality. There are, however, misconceptions and myths that should be corrected. This work is mainly the role of consumer organizations and the dairy processers who are the most prejudiced by these misconceptions and myths.Buyers of raw milk mostly rely on sensory characteristics of the milk (smell, colour/appearance, taste, texture) and their knowledge/trust of the milk vendor to assess the quality and safety of milk. The sensory characteristics could be a good first proxy to asses milk quality, but they are not sufficient and can also mislead consumers. Trusting the vendor (majority of raw milk consumers are loyal to a specific vendor/retail outlet) is also an important factor. Both means could be reinforced if these informal vendors/marketing channels are certified (in terms of milk handling after training of relevant actors in the chain) and are subject to at least one random product control per year. The controlling authorities and the Kenya Dairy Board should be involved in these processes and controls.Higher milk price, processing and packaging are proxies used by processed milk consumers to assess the safety and quality of product. There is, however, no general consensus about the fact that processed milk is safer and of better quality compared to raw milk. This misperception is also found when looking at scientific studies comparing milk quality/composition and pathogens assessment. There is a need for more scientific evidence about this issue. National universities, national and international research centres could be commissioned by the ministry of livestock and the Kenya Dairy Board to undertake such studies.Boiling milk is the main risk mitigation strategy used by the majority of raw and also processed milk consumers who believe that the milk is totally safe after boiling. Although boiling the milk would kill almost all pathogens, there are other issues related to milk adulteration, antimicrobial resistance, addition of antibiotics or other illegal chemical products to preserve the milk etc. that should be considered. This means that consumers should be sensitized about these other issues, so that they do not take for granted milk safety after boiling.It seems that consumer practises towards milk consumption and safety have not changed drastically during the last decade. Preferences for raw milk still predominate, boiling milk is still widely practised and considered as the best way of safety assurance. For those who can afford it, shifting to processed milk is another option.Women are the ones mainly involved in buying milk and dairy products. This was observed in both the low-income and middle-and high-income population. They are also generally the ones involved in preparing the food at home. Any sensitization campaign should consider this aspect and work closely with women.The purchase of pasteurized milk from vending machines/ATMs is increasing in importance among low and middleincome consumers and might become their preferred source in the near future. There are, however, many safety and quality challenges associated with the milk sold through ATMs: the milk might not be pasteurized, it might be adulterated with water, the internal cleanness of the machine might not be checked frequently and/or adequately undertaken etc. There are also issues related to the cleanness of the bottles brought by the consumers and the time spent between purchasing the milk (generally cold) and its use/consumption by the household. The Kenya Dairy Board with the concerned regulatory authorities should sensitize the owners of these milk ATMs about the importance of hygiene and the continuous cleanness of the machines and should frequently check the quality of the milk. Additional research to assess the quality and safety of milk sold through vending machines is also required.In general, consumers are aware about the importance of milk safety and the health problems that contaminated milk could present. But there is a lack of understanding of which specific safety and quality issues are related to milk contamination. There is a need to invest in consumer sensitization about these issues.When asked, consumers are willing (stated preference) to pay a premium for better quality and safer milk. However, the data showing the importance of raw milk purchase (lower price) and also low consumers' purchase power indicate that in reality this might not be feasible. Only middle-and high-income consumers could pay for better quality milk.From the literature review, only one study was found focusing on milk consumers' trust on certification and labelling. The study findings showed that the majority (two-third) of raw and processed milk consumers in Kenya do not trust or do not even look at the certificates and safety labels. There is also a lack of consumer trust on the certifying institutions. More studies should be commissioned to assess this topic. Consumers' lack of confidence in the certifying institutions is an important issue that should be considered by the government and the private sector.","tokenCount":"8117"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a10e6a0a95b93ee0e7533cbf459a28a5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/eb732458-e8cf-4323-9294-fa80e41ab615/content","id":"2117676351"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fb48ad4f-a5eb-4ab7-848a-9bce0f947b42","pagecount":"12","content":"Nele Verhulst es becaria de la Fundación de Investigación-Flanders. Este trabajo fue financiado por el CIMMYT y sus colaboradores estratégicos. La introducción del sensor portátil GreenSeeker TM , que mide el índice diferencial de vegetación normalizado (también conocido como NDVI, por sus siglas en inglés), fue posible gracias a Bill Raun, de la Universidad Estatal de Oklahoma, quien aportó también valiosas ideas y conocimientos sobre los aspectos técnicos y científicos de la aplicación de esta herramienta. La preparación e impresión de este documento se realizaron con fondos (linkage funds) de la Agencia Estadounidense para el Desarrollo Internacional (USAID) 2009 y en colaboración con el proyecto \"Uso del sensor GreenSeeker para el cultivo de cebada maltera\" del CIMMYT e IASA (Impulsora Agrícola).Para transportar el sensor GreenSeeker TM grandes distancias, colóquelo en su caja y sujete las correas. Para cargar la batería, conecte el cargador a la toma de corriente. Se prende una luz amarilla en el cargador mientras la batería se está cargando y una luz verde cuando la carga está completa. Antes de salir al campo, asegúrese de que la batería esté totalmente cargada. ¢ Tip Para prolongar la vida de la batería, mantenga el sensor GreenSeeker™ conectado a una toma de corriente cuando no esté en uso. ¢ Tip Es importante asegurarse de que el asistente personal digital (PDA, por sus siglas en inglés) siempre esté cargado. Si la batería se descarga por completo, se borrarán tanto los datos que haya recolectado como el software NTechCapture, el cual es necesario para el funcionamiento del sensor.1. Encienda el PDA y navegue a los siguientes menús:Start/NTechCapture para abrir el programa.Sensor/Start GreenSeeker TM para que el sensor realice y registre las mediciones.Logging plots para hacer mediciones en surcos. ¢ Tip Si tiene la versión más reciente del software, solo tendrá que ir a Start/NTechCapture. 2. Encienda el GreenSeeker TM . 3. Oprima el botón verde durante cada medición (mantenga el sensor en posición horizontal en la parte superior del follaje, a una distancia de 70 a 90 cm del mismo). 4. Para guardar los datos, utilice el comando File/ Save as… 5. De nombre al archivo y guárdelo. ¢ Tip Cuando haga mediciones en ensayos con plantas de diferente altura, conviene tomar lecturas y crear archivos distintos para cada cultivo, de esta manera se podrá ajustar el sensor para cada caso. Así se garantiza la precisión de las mediciones efectuadas en cada cultivo (ángulo del sensor, longitud del tubo telescópico). ¢ Tip En caso de que diferentes operadores hagan mediciones en un mismo experimento, asegúrese que todos caminen a la misma velocidad para facilitar el procesamiento de datos. La velocidad apropiada es aproximadamente de 1 m s -1 .¢ Tip En un mapa de la parcela experimental, indique la ubicación de cada muestra y la dirección en que las personas caminaron al realizar las mediciones. Los archivos de datos de cada una de las fechas de muestreo fueron limpiados, como se describió en párrafos anteriores. Se utilizó el archivo macro para calcular el promedio del NDVI y el CV de cada muestra (Cuadro 1). Se consideraron ocho tratamientos en total, con dos repeticiones cada uno y dos muestras por parcela, por lo que se registró un total de 32 muestras. Utilizando el mapa del ensayo a cada muestra se le asignó su número de parcela y tratamiento, en el mapa aparece la ubicación de cada muestra. Los archivos de datos de cada fecha de muestreo se procesaron de la misma manera y se pusieron en un solo archivo (parte de los datos aparece en el Cuadro 2). El cuadro se ordenó de acuerdo con el tratamiento y se preparó para el análisis estadístico con la función PROC MIXED (SAS Institute, 1994); la instrucción REPEATED se utilizó para analizar las mediciones repetidas. El análisis de datos de 'repeated measures' considera una estructura de covarianza para los datos observados en el sentido de que dos mediciones que se tomaron en tiempos adyacentes están más altamente correlacionadas que dos que se tomaron en tiempos más separados. Cabe señalar que el análisis estadístico tradicional da por supuesto que estas mediciones están igualmente correlacionadas. La estructura de la varianza-covarianza se modeló tomando como ejemplo el modelo de simetría compuesta para establecer la correlación entre las observaciones. Para la estimación de las varianzas se aplicó el método de la Máxima Verosimilitud Restringida (REML).Para la representación gráfica, se calculó el promedio de los valores registrados por tratamiento para cada fecha de muestreo y se elaboraron gráficas del NDVI y el CV vs. días después de la siembra (Figuras 1a y 1b).Fecha  Los datos utilizados en este ejemplo también fueron tomados del ensayo a largo plazo del CIMMYT, en El Batán, ciclo 2006. Se midió el NDVI en todos los surcos de las parcelas de maíz, salvo los de los bordes, para sumar ocho surcos en total (Figura 3). Igual que para las mediciones no espaciales, se registraron entre 180 y 230 lecturas individuales de NDVI por surco (aproximadamente 1 punto de muestreo cada 10 cm).Los datos de NDVI se importaron a Excel y se realizaron los cálculos estadísticos descriptivos para cada parcela (media, desviación estándar, CV, valores mínimo y máximo). Posteriormente, se promediaron los datos estadísticos descriptivos de cada tratamiento.Para agregar las coordenadas X y Y, se georreferenció cada punto con respecto a la esquina suroeste de las parcelas (los ejes X y Y quedaron como se muestra en la Figura 3):Las coordenadas X de los surcos que se midieron fueron: 1.125; 1.875; 2.625; 3.375; 4.225; 4.875; 5.625  Los archivos con los valores de NDVI georreferenciados de cada parcela se utilizaron como insumos en ArcMap (versión 9.2) para generar mapas de NDVI (Figura 4). Para poder comparar las parcelas y los tratamientos, se creó una escala que incluye todo el rango de valores de NDVI registrados en el experimento, de esta forma todos los mapas se ajustaron a esta escala. A partir de los mapas individuales de las parcelas, se elaboró un mapa de todo el campo experimental (Figura 5).   Si la luz del cargador de la batería no se prende, la batería del GreenSeeker TM no se está cargando. Puede ser que alguno de los fusibles esté quemado; por tanto, abra la caja de control y cambie el fusible. Los modelos más recientes de GreenSeeker TM tienen dos fusibles de repuesto, que aparecen como 'spare' en el tablero verde. Si cuenta con uno de estos modelos recientes, retire el fusible quemado y repóngalo con uno de los de repuesto.Si tiene algún otro problema, póngase en contacto con Ntech Industries:Daniel Rodríguez Engineering Support Technician NTech Industries, Inc. 1-888-728-2436 x106 drodriguez@ntechindustries.com","tokenCount":"1101"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"41aba80e3b9544cc24fe278d14077110","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/41f72bb9-2ad5-406d-9fd1-c41167349df1/retrieve","id":"225430833"},"keywords":["Takeshima et al","(2022)","***1% **5% *10%"],"sieverID":"d1e977db-e302-4b73-9478-3981ba7c6435","pagecount":"15","content":" Revisit seed certification target in Nigeria  Excessive expansion of certified seed production may not necessarily lead to higher use rates or yield outcomes when compared to more moderate levels of certified seed production  Prioritize spatially the seed certification expansion effort if it is still of policy importance:  continue research to better identify locations with higher returns to certified seeds, given agroecological / socio economic conditions and currently popular varieties  prioritize in those locations  certification capacity enhancement / deployment of inspectors => this may encourage seed companies to invest in certified seed production in those areas  enforcement capacity (i.e., spot check of certified seeds sold by dealers conducted by NASC)  Identify and prioritize where hybrid maize is more widely adopted (so that certification efforts shift relatively more to hybrid maize) Promote more decentralized systems, like QDS / community seed schemes for rice, cowpeas, OPV maize (as in various Eastern and Southern African countries)","tokenCount":"160"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/7024488339.json b/data/part_1/7024488339.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"11dd48ab77bd8706bfbb156f7937a2ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/54270a04-54b9-46a4-8d72-4c28343d2898/retrieve","id":"502735362"},"keywords":["Interspecific Crossing","Ovule Culture","in Vitro","Dioscorea rotundata","Dioscorea bulbifera"],"sieverID":"2246cd79-30ae-45f0-917f-8e897cc0f504","pagecount":"7","content":"In the present study, in vitro ovule culture technique was used to obtain interspecific cross combination of Dioscorea rotundata ufenyi and Dioscorea bulbifera wild. Ten days after pollination, ovules were excised and cultured onto 1/2 strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium (Basal salt mixture + Vitamins) supplemented with 6% sucrose, 0.7% agar and plant growth hormones such as GA3, BAP, Picrolam and TDZ. Cultured ovules were transferred on 1/2 MS medium with 3% sucrose and 0.7% agar after three weeks. 40 days after pollination, germination was observed from 7 months cultured ovule between D. rotundata ufenyi x D. bulbifera wild. Hybridity of the regenerated plant was checked by flow cytometric method. A close relation was observed between the fluorescence intensity of the obtained progeny with one of the parents' fluorescence. The observed progeny can be closely correlated with an apomictic tissue from an ovule parent of D. rotundata ufenyi. Plantlets derived from ovule culture were proliferated through in vitro shoot multiplication with hormonal concentration (0.5 mg/l BAP) supplemented with 1/2 strength MS medium. Obtained ovule culture derived in vitro plantlets were successfully hardened, acclimatized and transferred to the field, where they survived and grew normally. In plant breeding, interspecific crossing is very important technique, enabling the time needed to produce homozygous lines to be shortened as compared to the conventional plant breeding techniques.perspective, 96% of total production of yam in the world is produced in Africa (FAO 2007). Species produced in Africa are white guinea yam (D. rotundata Poir), yellow guinea yam (D. cayenensis Lam), water yam (D. alata L.), bitter yam (D. dumetorum (Kunth) Pax.), lesser yam (D. esculenta (laur) Burk.), and aerial yam (D. bulbifera L.). White guinea yam (D. rotundata), is produced mostly in Africa and most important cultivated yam with 79% of the total world food yam. D. rotundata is economically important due to its large edible tubers production with 15 -20 kg weight and mostly consumed as a food choice in Nigerian traditional ceremonies. In Africa, most are pounded into a paste to make the traditional dish of \"pounded yam\". Dioscorea bulbifera, the \"air potato\", is found in both Africa and Asia and used as a folk remedy to treat conjunctivitis, diarrhea and dysentery. It is a large vine, 6 meters or more in length and produces tubers. However, the bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are the more important food product. In West Africa, yam is an excellent source of carbohydrate energy for the people. It also includes nutrients such as vitamins, minerals and dietary protein. Yam has a high market value in Nigeria and is widely consumed in Latin America, the Caribbean, Asia, and the Pacific Islands. From a long time ago, Japanese people also have eaten raw yam as \"Tororo\". It is still a common food in Japan now. Yam is a member of the family Dioscoreaceae. The genus Dioscorea has been reported to contain about 600 species [1].To contribute to reducing poverty and increasing food security, IITA is breeding yam to produce new varieties based on demand and value addition. However, the breeding process is still being constrained by poor flowering, low fruit setting, a low rate of seed germination and differences in flowering periods. Interspecific hybridization is an important driving force in plant evolution and speciation [2]. Incompatibility barriers prevent interspecific crosses in hybridization between distant species [3]. Direct in vitro pollination of stigma or pistils and opened ovaries or ovules may be useful in overcoming incompatibility barriers [4]  [5]. The best results have been achieved in species with large ovaries containing many ovules, such as those belong to Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Papaveraceae, Primulaceae and Solanaceae families [6]  [7]. Kameya and Hinata [8] used ovule pollination to obtain hybrids between Brassica species. There are some reports about interspecific hybridization within Dioscorea. For example in Japan, the hybridization between D. japonica and D. opposita was produced with the aid of an embryo rescue technique [9]. However, there are no reports of interspecific hybridization between D. alata and D. rotundata, which are the most common species in Nigeria. To produce additional variations in Dioscorea species, interspecific hybridization of yam is required.The main objective of this study was to develop a method for the interspecific crossing of Dioscorea rotundata ufenyi and D. bulbifera wild via in vivo pollination through ovule culture to produce new genotype of Dioscorea.In Yam species interspecific crossing Dioscorea rotundata ufenyi was used as the female (ovule) parent and Dioscorea bulbifera wild were selected as pollen parent. Parental parents were grown in IITA, Nigeria field. Closed flower buds were harvested from Dioscorea rotundata ufenyi about 48 h before opening. These flower buds were surface sterilized in laminar air flow cabinet for 30 seconds in 70% -80% ethyl alcohol.Enlarged ovules were excised from the ovary 10 days after in vivo pollination and transferred to Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium [10] supplemented with 6% sucrose, 0.7% agar and different plant growth regulators such as 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP), Thidiazuron (TDZ), Picrolam and Gibberellic acid (GA 3 ). After 3 weeks, cultured ovules were transferred on 1/2 strength MS media (Basal salt mixture + Vitamins) with 3% sucrose + 0.7% agar and the ovule is opened, if necessary. The ovule derived plants were multiplied through multiple shoot differentiation with different concentrations of BAP in the 1/2 MS medium. Various concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 mg/L) of Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) were used for rooting. The cultures were maintained at 25˚C ± 2˚C temperature with 16 hours illumination with a photon flux density of 2500 lux from white fluorescent tubes (Philips, India). Cultures were transferred into new medium after every 2 -3 weeks for best growth of plants.Rooted shoots after one month old cultures were ready for transplanting in hardening medium. Rooted shoots were transferred to soil under shade house after in vitro hardening the plantlets were taken out from the flasks, washed to remove adhered agar and then transferred to polybags containing carbonized rice husk and 2/3 of sterilized topsoil. These plantlets were supplied with half strength MS solution (without organics) twice in a week for three weeks. After three weeks, these bottles were shifted to mist chamber having relative humidity of 60% -80% with a temperature of 34˚C ± 2˚C. The caps of bottles were removed and plantlets were allowed to remain in the bottle for 3 -4 days before they were transferred to polybags containing a mixture of carbonized rice husk and sterilized topsoil. In the mist chamber, the plants were kept for four weeks and were irrigated with half strength MS medium. Later, these polybags were shifted to tissue culture room for acclimatization before exposing to the natural environment. These obtained in vitro plantlets were successfully hardened, acclimatized and transferred to the field, where they exhibit normal growth.Relative DNA contents of nuclei isolated from leaf tissues of plantlets regenerated from ovule culture of D. rotundata × D. bulbifera were measured using flow cytometer (PA, Partec). Samples were prepared according to Galbraith et al. [11]. Squeezed plant tissue containing 2 mL lysis buffer with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole and β-mercaptoethanol. Filter this suspension through nylon with mesh size 30-µm and the analyses were performed using PAII (Partec, Germany) flow cytometer. Histograms were analyzed by the use of DPAC v.2.2 software (Partec Gmbh, Germany).Twelve replicates were used per treatment on each shooting and rooting medium. All experiments were repeated thrice. The data recorded for different parameters during the study were analyzed by using ANOVA, variation among means was compared by F-test and the critical difference (CD) values at 5% computed.Dioscorea rotundata ufenyi and Dioscorea bulbifera wild were used in interspecific hybridization or crossing. In this study, 26 in vivo pollinated ovaries with ovules were obtained from 43 pollinated flowers after 10, 20, 30, 40 days after pollination (DAP). Several days after pollination, 153 ovules were observed. All ovules were cultured in vitro on 1/2 strength MS medium [10] with different growth regulators for further development. Several days after pollination, all 153 in vivo pollinated ovules were excised and cultured on to half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) media (Basal salt mixture + Vitamins) supplemented with 6% sucrose, 0.7% agar and with different concentrations of different plant growth regulators such as 6-Benzylaminopurine (1.0 mg/L BAP), Thidiazuron (0.5 mg/L TDZ), Picrolam (0.5 mg/L) and Gibberellic acid (1.0 mg/L GA 3 ). After 3 weeks, well grown cultured ovules were transferred on 1/2 MS media (Basal salt mixture + Vitamins) supplemented with 3% sucrose + 0.7% agar and the ovules are opened if necessary (Figure 2(a), Figure 2(b)). Germination was observed from 7 months cultured ovule, equivalent to 40 days after pollination between D. rotundata ufenyi x D. bulbifera wild (Figure 2(c)). After several weeks, the resultant germinated ovule were transferred onto 1/2 MS medium + 3% sucrose + 0.7% agar supplemented with BAP and IBA, for further multiplication and development of shoots and roots. The ovule-derived plantlets were multiplied through multiple shoot differentiation, which was markedly influenced by the concentration of growth regulator (1.0 mg/l BAP) in the 1/2 MS medium for shooting and (2.0 mg/L IAA) for rooting Table 1, Figure 2(d). Kato et al. [12] recorded similar results in ornamental plants for production of interspecific hybrids. Mathiyazgahan et al. [13] and Ahlawati et al. [14] also reported similar results in guar Cyamopsis species. The total number of in vivo pollinated ovaries, total number of cultured ovules, different types of growth medium and number of germinated ovule of D. rotundata ufenyi x D. bulbifera wild crosses are presented in Table 2. After in vivo pollination of 26 ovaries, 153 ovules were isolated, and 12 plants were recovered.Relative DNA contents of nuclei isolated from leaf tissues of plantlets regenerated from ovule culture of D. rotundata × D. bulbifera were measured using flow cytometry (PA, Partec). Flow cytometric analysis was used to  One month old cultures rooted shoots were ready for transplanting in hardening medium. Rooted shoots were transferred to soil under shade house after in vitro hardening the plantlets were taken out from the flasks, washed to remove adhered agar and then transferred to polybags containing carbonized rice husk and 2/3 of sterilized topsoil. These plantlets were supplied with half strength MS solution (without organics) twice in a week for three weeks. After three weeks, these bottles were shifted to mist chamber having relative humidity of 60% -80% with a temperature of 34˚C ± 2˚C. The caps of bottles were removed and plantlets were allowed to remain in the bottle for 3 -4 days before they were transferred to polybags containing a mixture of carbonized rice husk and sterilized topsoil. In the mist chamber, the plants were kept for four weeks and were irrigated with half strength MS medium. Later, these polybags were shifted to tissue culture room for acclimatization before exposing to the natural environment. (Figures 2(e)-(g)) showed acclimatized in vitro plantlets and hardening of interspecific crosses of Dioscorea rotundata × Dioscorea bulbifera. Jovanka et al. [15] and Kaneko et al. [16] reported similar results in roles of interspecific hybridization in sunflower breeding and Brassicaceae crops. These obtained in vitro plantlets were successfully hardened, acclimatized and transferred to the field, where they exhibit normal growth (Figure 2   Interspecific crossing is the viable method and makes it possible to obtain Dioscorea hybrid plants within D. rotundata ufenyi x D. bulbifera wild through ovule culture. This regenerated cross is strategically important for the yam breeding of other Dioscorea species to increase the genetic gain and gene pool for this crop and also important as a tool of rapid propagation and accelerated breeding in yams.Germination was observed from seven-month cultured ovules which was 40 days after pollination (DAP) of a cross between D. rotundata ufenyi x D. bulbifera wild (Figure 1(d)). Flow cytometric analysis was used to identify hybridity. The fluorescence intensity of the obtained progeny was closely related to one of the parents' fluorescence (Figures 1(a)-(c)). This indicated that the observed progeny may be an apomictic tissue from an ovule parent of D. rotundata ufenyi.","tokenCount":"1997"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"22aa79e117ef4e978516862af64bc325","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e268419c-06f8-4f56-9230-b77594088df0/retrieve","id":"876577592"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"88e01e2a-dd8e-4580-9452-26fd99f463b7","pagecount":"58","content":"Se presenta un recuento sobre lo realizado hasta el momento en un programa de j.nvestigaci6n en campos de agricultores (lCDA).En el Departamento de Antioquia, Distrito de Rionegro, se adelantó uno de los tres proyectos lCA-CIAT sobre el sistema de relevo maíz-fríjol, con el prop6sito de ~daptar metodologías para la investigaci6n a nivel de finca, demostrar su eficacia y generar tecnologías para pequeños agricultores.El Oriente de Antioquia tiene 30,000 ha de fríjol voluble en relevo con maíz, dentro del cual el Municipio de San Vicente cuenta con aproximadamente 3500 ha, distribuidas en relevo (70%) y unicultivo (30%). La altitud varía entre 2100 y 2300 msnro. El 94% de los agricultores tienen menos de 3.5 ha y generalmente son propietarios de su tierra. Los agricultores hacen uso de fertilizantes orgánicos y químicos y aplican pesticidas en mayor cantidad. El 80% de la producci6n de fríjol se comercializa, en tanto que el maíz se destina en su totalidad al autoconsumo.El diseño de los diferentes tipos de ensayos se basó en información proveniente de la investigación realizada en el municipio vecino de El Carmen de Viboral entre 1978 y 1981, además del reconocimiento inicial y una encuesta formal realizada en 1984. El trabajo de los cinco años, realizado en el sistema de relevo maíz-fríjol voluble, condujo a la liberación de Frijolica LS-3. 3, una variedad estable del tipo de semilla aceptable localmente. Otros cambios tecnológicos identificados durante el primer año de investigación fueron un aumento en la densidad del fríjol y un mejor control de enfermedades (especialmente para antracnosis y ascochyta) utilizando mezclas de productos específicos. Otros componentes tecnológicos evaluados incluían la apli cación de ca l y el tratamiento de semilla, los cuales fueron variables en sus respuestas en el tiempo, por lo cual no se presentan conclusiones defInitiva\".Actualmente los agricultores de la zona están participando en ensayos semicomerciales y parcelas demostrativas con frijollca. 1.5-3.3 y la adopción de esta tecnología empieza. El uso de benomyl en mezclas de funcigidas ha sido adoptado por el 60% de los agricultores y los aumentos en densidad del fríjol lo están realizando todos los agricultores.La investigación en fincas de la cual se informa, representa el esfuerzo en un municipio del oriente de Antioquia y una de las cuatro zonas de Colombia en las cuales trabaja el Programa de Fríjol del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAr), en colaboración con las ramas de desarrollo campesino e investigación del Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario (ICA). Los propósitos de este trabajo colaborativo son:a. retroalimentar a los programas de fríjol del lCA y el CIAr, con información sobre el progreso de nuevas tecnologías para fríjol (especialmente en lo que se refiere a nuevas variedades), y b. adaptar y evaluar metodologías para la investigación en [in~as de los diferentes sistemas de cultivo de fríjol.Obviamente, y en especial desde el punto de vista del lCA, el trabajo también tiene el propósito de identificar recomendaciones para el cultivo de fríjol en cada una de las zonas de trabajo, y luego divulgarlas.Desde 1978, el Programa de Fríjol del CIAT y el Programa de Leguminosas del ICA han trabajado bajo un convenio de investigación en fríjol (Woolley et al, 1988). Al principio, este trabajo se concentraba en programas de mejoramiento en estaciones experimentales, incluyendo la del Centro Regional de Investigación La Selva en Rionegro, departamento de Antioquia. Sin embargo, hubo tambi1in trabaj os sobre validación de tecnologías en campos de agricultores en los departamentos del Huila Fríjol se dedicó primordialmente \" la adaptación de metodol,)gías para investigación a nivel de finca, además del establecimi,mto de nexos co1aboratlvos de investigación con el lCA en Antioquia y otras regiones de Colombia, como también con otros países. En el oriente de Antioquia, los municipios seleccionados fueron: El Carmen de Vibora!, Harinilla y San Vicente. La raz5n de esta decisión fue entender si las tecnologías evaluadas en El Carmen de Viboral en años anteriores, se adaptaban a otras zonas frijoleras más nuevas del oriente de Antioquia y también representativas de las condiciones de pequeños agrieul tores de elima frío moderado de Colombia, como en el Municipio de San Vicente.En 1982 se escogi5 el Municipio de San Vicente para un programa de investigación en fincas en el sistema de relevo con maíz. Para su escogencia se tuvieron en cuenta las siguientes características:a.Es una zona de importancia para el desarrollo agrícola.b.El 94% de los productores son propietarios y minifundistas, condiciones que presentan ventajas para los programas de transferencia de tecnología.El cultivo de fríjol es el segundo renglón agrícola más importante después de la papa. siendo una fuente importante de ingresos para los pequeños agricultores, ya que venden cerca del 80% de la producción; además, el maíz constituye una fuente importante de alimento destinado al autoconsumo y sirve de tutor al fríjol sembrado en relevo.El cultivo de fríjol se encuentra en posibilidades de éxito, debido a que expansión, con la producción buenas en el departamento de Antioquia aÚll no satisface la demanda del producto a nivel regional. En los últimos años, el déficit ha oscHado entre 30 y 50% (Tobón et al, 1982).-e.En 1980, el municipio contaba. con cerca de 2000 ha sembradas con fríjol (Departamento Nacional de Planeación, 1983).f.Los rendimientos de fríj 01 obtenidos por agricultores eran bajos (aproximadamente 600 kg/ha); sin embargo, los rendimientos de maíz eran aceptables (2000 kg/ha).g. Existe un excelente mercado para el fríjol y maíz.h. Existe la estación experimental La Selva, ubicada a 25 km de la cabecera municipal, la cual apoya los trabajos en la zona; además, se cuenta con personal del lCA y de la Secretaría de Agricultura asignados al Municipio.Para obtener información inicial sobre la zona, se hizo uso de comunicaciones con los técnicos del lCA-DRr, Rionegro. se compararon a igual densidad y es probable que los aumentos en rendimiento se deban a población de plantas y no a variedad.El cambio de maneb a benomyl causó un incremento de 625 y 569 kg/ha en 1980 y 1981, información obtenida de lotes de agricultores que usaban mezclas de benomyl y maneb en comparación cOn lotes con aplicaciones de mancb. (eIAT, 1982).Con esta informaci6n, más el reconocimiento inicial de la zona, en 1982B se decidió utilizar para el Municipio de San Vicente, una estrategia agresiva de lCDA (Woolley y Pachico. 1987) , en la cual se abarcarOn etapas de ensayo de variedades, niveles económicos y verif iccción, para obtener recomendaciones preliminares después del primer año de ensayos.Se han investigado varios componentes en ensayos de niveles económicos y de verificación (Cuadro 1). Normalmente, los componentes se han pasado a verificación después de un año de éxito en los ensayos de niveles económicos. Los componentes con una evaluación agronómica, económica o de agricultores dudosa se descartaron inmediatamente, o se volvieron a repetir en la etapa de niveles económicos antes de pasarlos a verificación.A continuaci6n se resumen las actividades y resultados de cinco años de trabajo en el segundo semestre. El Cuadro 2 resume los efectos de todos los cambios evaluados, y el Cuadro 3 resume en más detalle el comportamiento de las variedades evaluadas.Los datos de ensayos individuales se encuentran en los apéndices.Con el prop6sito principal de identificar la línea mas prornisoria para incluirla en el ensayo de niveles econ6micos, se decidió sembrar un ensayo de variedades en unicultivo en 1982A (no era época de siembra para el relevo con maíz). Este ensayo fue cosechado prematuramente por el agricultor, pero los resultados de los ensayos ubicados en los Municipios de El Carmen de Viboral y Marinilla identificaron como promisoria a la Hnea LAS 1 (La Selva 1). El ensayo de variedades se repitió en 1982B, confirmando las bondades de esta línea de tipo de semilla Cargamanto, con tolerancia a la antracnosis.Se sembró un ensayo de variedades en cada uno de los cuatro años. La variedad Frijolica L5 3.3 fue la más eficiente económicamente durante los cuatro años de evaluaci6n.Hubo poca correlación entre la estación experimental y las fincas en cuanto al comportamiento de líneas, debido a la infertilidad y acidez del suelo que son los factores que causan estas diferencias.Como parte de las actividades del lCA, se deben seguir evaluando las Hneas LAS 49, LAS 37 Y V5764-36-310-32 de grano crema/rojo grande con semilla mayor de 65 g y tipo Cargamanto, identificadas en evaluaciones de lfneas avanzadas.Se debe hacer un estudio de adopción en 1988B, para medir el grado de aceptación de Frijolica LS 3.3, por los agricultores, ya que en 1986B y 1987B el lCA-DRl está promocionando la nueva variedad mediante un gran número de parcelas semicomerciales y. además, porque a través de la multiplicación hay disponibilidad de semilla certificada para los agricultores.Como parte de las actividades del lCA, debe continuarse la búsqueda de un mafz de tallo fuerte y tolerante a enfermedades (Phyllacora maydis y Helminthosporium spp) , ya que la debilidad de sus cañas es una de las razones que ha provocado el incremento del sistema unicultivo con varas.Durante la liberación del Frijolica LS 3.3. se debió haber hecho más promoción entre los agricultores de San Vicente (por ejemplo, invitándolos al dfa de campo), ya que fue la zona con los mejores resultados de adaptación para dicha variedad. Afortunadamente, acciones recientes de difusión del lCA tienden a compensar esta deficiencia.Parece que el aumento en la fertilización en el municipio de San Vicente no tiene grandes efectos. Actualmente, los agricultores están usando entre 150 y 200 kg de 10-30-10/ha.La aplicación de cal dolollÚtica en presencia de altas dosis de fertilización ocasiona pérdidas en rendimiento de frijol.La incorporación de la cal al suelo en forma localizada al momento de la siembra y un mes antes de la fertilización química puede inhibir la absorción de fósforo y calcio.En el futuro, se recomienda investigar aplicaciones de magnesio debido al bajo contenido de este elemento en el suelo.Ante la falta de claridad en CUanto al encalamiento, se deben explorar métodos y épocas de aplicación de la cal al suelo.El cambio de densidad ha sido el componente tecnológico de mejor respuesta y más consistente.El aumento en la densidad de maíz con el propósito de aumentar la densidad de frijol no se adoptó, ya que, manteniendo las mismas distancias de siembra para maíz (1. 1m x 1. 1m) los agricultores duplicaron la de frijol colocando cañas o varas entre plantas de maíz.No se deben realizar más investigaciones sobre cambios en densidad.ya que los agricultores tienen una población de 33,000 plantas/ha en maíz y 36,000 a 40,000 plantas/ha de frijol; sin embargo, esta práctica debe ser objeto de una mayor difusión para que sean adoptadas por agricultores de otras veredas del municipio quienes aún tienen poblaciones bajas.Tratamiento de semilla l.El remojo de la semilla en una solución con benomyl (5 gIl agua)durante 5-10 minutos tuvo un efecto positivo en los rendimientos de frijol y muy consistente durante dos años. a pesar de la disminución significativa en germinación. Por ser un tratamiento de bajo costo, sería conveniente realizarlo en condiciones de buena humedad del suelo ya que ofrece protección temprana a las plántulas contra enfermedades y ataque por Fusarium.No se logró extrapolar la práctica de tratamiento de semilla con benomyl:carboxín 3:1 (1 g/kg de semilla) del Sur de Nariño (Colombia) a San Vicente a pesar de sus condiciones aparentemente similares; sin embargo, debe continuarse con la evaluación, ya que durante el año de prueba no se presentaron las mejores condiciones de humedad en el suelo.Control de enfermedades l.La mayor resistencia de la variedad Frijolica LS 3.3 a la antracnosis no ha implicado disminución en el número de fumigaciones por los agricultores que la siembran comercialmente.Mediante el uso de productos más eficientes como 10 es el benomyl, los agricultores están controlando mejor las enfermedades foliares, principalmente la antracnosis.Es aconsejable que en la zona se realicen aplicaciones para el control de enfermedades en forma alternada y en mezclas con productos como benomyl + maneb y clorotalonil, los cuales son específicos para antracnosis y ascochyta.En los ensayos no es aconsejable realizar aplicaciones para el control de enfermedades o insectos mediante visitas predeterminadas o de calendario, ya que se puede subestimar su efecto en comparación con las realizadas por los agricultores que las hacen según el régimen de lluvias.Autocrítica sobre la ejecución de la investigación en fincas en San Vicente l.El reconocimiento se limitó a pocos agricultores y veredas, básicamente Chaparral y la Porquera, por 10 cual la fertilizaci6n química no fue encontrada como práctica común; según datos del lCA, el fertilizante químico era mezclado con el orgánico (gallinaza) y aplicado al momento de la siembra.En el municipio de San Vicente al igual que en otras zonas en las cuales se iniciaron trabajos en 1982, se diseñaron ensayos sin haber realizado previamente un diagnóstico de la zona con un suficiente número de agricultores para determinar las prácticas promedio (testigos), razón por la cual no se debió dejar la ejecución de la encuesta formal hasta 1985.Habría sido conveniente tener más copias de los ensayos sembrados en 1982B (variedades y especialmente de verificación), pues se sembró solamente uno de cada tipo.Debieron utilizarse diseños de parcelas divididas o subdivididas para evaluar aplicaciones foliares contra insectos y/o enfermedades con el fin de tratar de controlar la movilidad del insecto o patógeno.Debieron incluirse repeticiones por localidad para los cuatro ensayos de verificación de 1983B, ya que las parcelas de los extremos fueron expuestas a una fuente de varianza no experimental lo cual afectó la interpretación. A pesar de los buenos efectos encontrados en los ensayos, fue muy riesgoso por el poco número de fincas.La participación de los agricultores en los diferentes tipos de ensayo habría sido de gran utilidad para comprender mejor los cambios en el sistema de siembra que se venían desarrollando.L08 agricultores podrían haber colaborado en la evaluación de ensayos con un número grande de línfas, pero en realidad no se les solicitó.8.La selección de lotes se hizo al azar, pero teniendo en cuenta la no selección de terrenos acabados de incorporar a la agricultura. Variedades ( 3) Verificación ( 7)Verificación (3) Verificación (7) Niveles económicos (3) Verificación () Verificación (1)Verif1eación ( 1)Semicomercial ( 5)Semicomercial (5)   Üladro 2. Ef\",,_ de los caJbloo en ~t.es tecnológicos en el rendlm!.ento de frijol en relevo con um..   ! Apéndice 7. Rendimiento de frijol en ensayo de variedades x fertilización en relevo ero rraíz del agricultor. !    [1982][1983][1984][1985][1986][1987].'E,n paréntesis el número de ensayos que ha evaluado la linea.","tokenCount":"2372"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6b9ca8f6e51100421f7ec041f7268835","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/34c061b9-cbf6-436b-a310-00dd07afc90c/retrieve","id":"396011007"},"keywords":["Food Reviews International food security, food distribution, undernourishment, food justice, sustainable intensification food security","food distribution","undernourishment","food justice","sustainable intensification"],"sieverID":"5ced8444-b8a4-41b2-810f-e9c32b55d9d5","pagecount":"33","content":"More food or better distribution? Reviewing food policy options in developing countriesThe International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications.Maintaining food security at the national and household level is a major priority for most developing countries in terms of both welfare of the poor as well as political stability (Del Ninno ). However, despite continued efforts to provide a more stable, sustainable and predictable food supply, a great proportion of the population in developing world still suffers from chronic under-nutrition (Ahmed and Lorica 2002;Lin 2009). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2015), at the present time, approximately 795 million people around the world -mostly women and children in developing countriesexperience hunger as a defining characteristic of their lives. The flip side of the coin is sustainability. Many scholars stressed that both food security and achieving sustainability should be considered at the same time (e.g. Hanson 2013;Giovannucci et al. 2012). The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD 2011) underlines the importance of sustainable agriculture in addressing hunger and poverty. Productivity of agriculture in developing countries is relatively low because of land degradation, unsustainable agricultural practices, low adoption rates of suitable technologies and inadequate use of agricultural inputs (World Bank 2012).Furthermore, the situation will exacerbate with ongoing and new challenges such as a decline in available food per capita since 1984 (FAO 2003), changing food prices (House of Commons 2009;FAO 2008), water scarcity (Gerbens-Leenes and Nonhebel 2004), the political challenge of using gene technologies (Carlos Popelka et al. 2004), climate change (Edame et al. 2011) and increasing human population (Pimentel 2007;Gerbens-Leenes and Nonhebel 2004). According to FAO estimates (2008), the high food prices between 2003 and 2005 and in 2007 contributed to an increase of 75 million undernourished people worldwide, for example. Higher prices for food may create or a possible food security problem, especially for poor countries in which income levels are low (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). In many developing countries, arable cropland is scarce and land expansion is in competition with environmental protection initiatives (Godfray et al. 2010). For example, the scarcity of arable cropland in sub-Saharan Africa helps to explain the region's declining agricultural production per capita in recent decades. In Nigeria, Africa's most populated country, the population quadrupled since 1950 while the grain land area only doubled at the same time, which means that the available grain land per person has halved effectively. In northern Nigeria, pastoralists and farmers fleeing the encroaching Sahara, which annually claims 350,000 hectares of land (about half size of the Delaware State in the US), have increased demands on the already scarce land elsewhere in the country, resulting in sparking ethnic tensions (Coulter 2003;Larsen 2002;Larsen 2003).With regard to the future development, food security will remain a global concern for the next 50 years and beyond. By 2050, it is estimated that global population will reach 9 billion (Kings and Ilbery 2011). Global food production will need to feed these additional people as well and take into account the already existing 3.7 billion malnourished people (Azadi et al. 2011). As shown in Figure 1, the World Resources Institute (WRI 2013) illustrated that the world will need to produce 69 percent more food calories in 2050 compared to 2006.[insert Figure 1] FAO projections (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012) indicate that the annual global food demand per capita will increase by 1.1% until 2050. Having a closer look on the developing countries (excluding China), this figure is even higher (1.6%). This is, among others also a result of environmental degradation (Scanlan 2004;Gerbens-Leenes and Nonhebel 2004), growing urbanization (Lin et al. 2009;Scanlan 2004) and extreme climate events (Gregory et al. 2005).The current world hunger and shortages of nutrients for so many people and other ongoing challenges raise alert to the growing insecurity of world food supplies and the vulnerability of human health and productivity (Pimentel 2007). Godfray et al. (2010) suggest that the world will need 70 to 100% more food by 2050. Other projections for 2025 highlight the importance of water scarcity on food security and indicate that more than half of the world's population will live in regions dependent on food imports as a result of limited access to water (Falkenmark 1997). \"Water for food\" has become an important slogan in current debates on poverty reduction and climate change (Allouche 2011).With regard to the current situation and the projections for the future, we seek answers to the following question: Which is the best strategy for improving global food security? More precisely, this study focuses on the two following topics: 1) The assessment of different strategies for achieving food security, and 2) the identification of the pros and cons of each strategy.This paper first gives a brief overview of the concept of food security and then compares three main food policy strategies and their related scenarios: a) supply management, b) demand management, and c) better distribution.Food security and insecurity are terms used to describe whether or not people have access to sufficient quantity of food. Food is secured when all people at all times have physically and socially acceptable access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs for a productive and healthy life. Food security has three dimensions: i) availability of sufficient quantities of food with appropriate quality, supplied through domestic production or imports; ii) access of households and individuals to adequate resources to acquire appropriate food for a nutritious diet; and iii) utilization of food through adequate diet, water, sanitation, and health care. The accessibility is affected by many factors such as poverty, health, food production, political stability, infrastructure, access to markets, climate change and natural hazards (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007;IPCC 2007).The main challenges of people who suffered from hunger between 1990 and 2015 are: (1) food insecurity and (2) the inability of agricultural production to keep up with global food demands.Forecasts suggest that technological advances or expansions of cultivated area would boost production sufficiently to meet rising demands. Nevertheless, land and water are the most limiting resources for food production. At a first glance, there seems to be only one option: to increase yields and efficiency on the already available land. However, there is a growing concern that the expansion and intensification of agriculture in the least developed and development countries may lead to degradation of the natural resources (soil, water, biodiversity) and consequently to a decrease in agricultural production.Although agro-ecological approaches offer some promise for improving yields, food security in developing countries could substantially be improved by increased investment and policy reforms that integrate different approaches such as organic farming, GM crops and precision farming (Azadi et al. 2011). Furthermore, increasing investment in human capital is essential to accelerate food security improvements. In agricultural areas, education and training can effectively enhance the ability of farmers to adopt more advanced technologies and cropmanagement techniques and to achieve higher rates of return on land, thus increasing household incomes (Burkart 2012).Developing countries account for 98 percent of the world's undernourished people (FAO 2010). Asian countries that have been most successful in providing food security have based their strategies on two elements of their domestic food systems over which they have some degree of policy control: the sectoral composition of income growth and food prices. The rate and distribution of economic growth are primarily matters of macroeconomic and trade policy (once asset distributions are given as an initial condition). In the second element of the strategy, the Asian governments sought to stabilize food prices. Rather than replacing private marketing, government efforts should be aimed at enhancing private markets through improving transportation, enforcing standards and measures in grain transactions, and implementing smallscale storage technologies (Anderson and Roumasset 1996).Agricultural policies should be devised to increase dietary diversity, provide more production, improve food quality, and promote better food processing, preservation and distribution. The development and support of inclusive business models plays a major role in developing countries, as agricultural production is based to a large extent on smallholder systems. Possible policy actions that can enhance access to food include reducing transaction costs for small-scale producers, strengthening local markets and improving food safety and quality. Food insecurity is not a one-dimensional issue. Several solutions and approaches should be carefully considered. With regard to this, the present article reviews three main strategies to achieve food security for developing countries and discusses the pros and cons of more food production versus better food distribution, for being able to make recommendations on which scenarios serve best for both food security and sustainability. For a long time, the primary solution to food security has been to bring more land into agriculture. Increasing the cropping area was the main tool to augment food production in the early 20th century, when new regions were dedicated to agriculture across the globe (Boserup 1965;Boserup 1981;Grigg 1987). Mechanization resulting from the industrial revolution had further accelerated the land use change towards agriculture (Grigg 1987). Although Ramankutty et al. (2006) argue that, as a result of increasing intensification, global land expansion for agriculture has declined towards the end of the 20 th century, there still exists demand for more land for crop and livestock production. In addition to completely new land that would be needed to match with an increasing demand, agricultural land that was formerly productive has been lost to urbanization and other human uses, as well as to desertification, salinization, soil erosion, and other consequences of unsustainable land management (Nellemann 2009) and thus has to be taken into account, too. Kampman et al. (2008) estimate the global agricultural land increase since 1990 to be 34 Mha. Collins (2011) states that in the Asia-Pacific region, land expansion was 6% between 1970 and 2007 and thus higher than for the rest of the world during the same period (1%). Gerber et al. (2013) describe that between 1990 and 2006, maize and soybean were the main drivers for global cropland expansion but also the expansion of pasture plays a role in land transformation. Kampman et al. (2008) name food and feed production as the main drivers for land transformation and point out that the demand for both will still grow in the future.Although they argue that most of this demand will be met by intensification, new technologies or higher efficiency in production, models suggest that the demand for new agricultural land will be 200-500 Mha until 2020. FAO (2003) estimates that 20% of the additional food production in 2030 will be the result of land expansion. Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012)  which means a 0.1% annual increase. This increase will happen in developing countries (0.24% annual increase), whereas in developed countries a decrease of arable land-in-use will occur (0.14% annual decrease). According to the UNDP (2013), by 2050, India and Nigeria are estimated to cultivate 0.06 hectares of grain land per capita, less than one tenth the size of a soccer field. Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Ethiopia would show even lower rates, with 0.04-0.05 hectares per capita. Egypt and Afghanistan with 0.02 hectares, as well as Yemen, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Uganda, with just 0.01 hectares would are among the countries with least crop area per capita. These numbers are in strong contrast to those of the less densely populated grain exporters, which may have up to 10 times as much grain land per person available (e.g., the U.S. with 0.21 hectares of highly productive grain land per capita).As these projections show, for matching the increasing demand for food and feed, it might be necessary to bring new land into agriculture in the future. However, competition for land with other human activities would make this an increasingly unlikely and costly solution, in particular if biodiversity and public goods are provided by natural ecosystems and being protected (Godfray et al. 2010). In this regard, it also has to be taken into account that land expansion will be at the expense of nature, i.e., forests. This is especially valid for sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America (FAO 2003), Southeast Asia and Central America (Lepers et al. 2005). Global net deforestation between 2000 and 2005 reached 7.3 Mha annually, out of which 24% occurred in Brazil (FAO 2006). Lepers et al. (2005) describe the existence of deforestation \"hotspots\", mostly located in the tropics, among which the Amazon region is affected to the largest extent.Land transformation also comes along with a loss of biological biodiversity (Sala et al. 2000   Helms 2004). As an example might serve the CO 2 emissions related to land use change in beef production, which make up 15.5% (14.8% for pasture expansion, 0.7% for soybean expansion) of the overall CO 2 emitted in beef production (Gerber et al. 2013). In addition to that, land (e.g., forests, remote areas) which is being converted into agricultural land, often lacks the required infrastructure and inputs necessary for sustainable agricultural production (FAO 2003).According to FAO (2003;2009), irrigation will be of increasing importance for agricultural activities in developing countries. Another important factor is soil degradation (Ruttan 1999 in Helms 2004). These factors will result in additional pressure on limited natural resources and thus further reduce natural capital. Concern is expressed on the sustainability of ecosystem services in general (Tilman et al. 2002;Helms 2004). These concerns result in an important challenge: Is the expansion of agricultural land a sustainable solution to food security, given the possible loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity and considering the effects on the global climate? Scenario II deals with a different approach: more production through increasing intensification.At present, over 1.5 billion hectares of the global land surface (13.4 billion ha) are being used for crop production (Bruinsma 2009). An increase in the cultivated area, as discussed in the above chapter, is considered undesirable because of the adverse effects on the environment (Tilman et al. 2011;Smith 2013) and insufficient inputs such as water (Davies et al. 2009). According to the Royal Society (2009), the necessary production growth has to be achieved mainly without land expansion. In this sense, increasing intensification is another option in the context of achieving food security. Agricultural intensification means \"increasing agricultural inputs to improve per- hectare yields rather than expanding land under cultivation\" (Phelps et al. 2013, p: 7601). The increase of yield per unit area has been the main factor of the food production boost during last decades: The mean global wheat yields increased by 288% between 1900 and 2000 (Slafer 1994), barley yields increased by 103% between 1950 and 1980 in India (Evans 1993), and the annual wheat yield increased by 1.5% in the United States during 1960 and 1980 (Cox et al. 1988). Feyerherm et al. (1984) and Evans (1993) have reviewed historical trends of crop yield improvement and found out that under former yield per area production levels, almost three times more land would have been required to produce the necessary amount of crops that can sustain the present global population -land that does not exist (Smith 2013).Agricultural intensification can basically be achieved through two mechanisms: yield increases and increases in cropping intensity (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012;Smith 2013). Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012) describe that approximately 90% of the required global additional crop production by 2050 will be the result of intensification (80% yield increases and 10% increases in cropping intensity), whereas only 10% will be obtained through land expansion. For developing countries, 80% will be achieved through intensification (73% yield increases and 6% increases in cropping intensity), whereas 20% will be the result of land expansion. In most developing countries, an important share of the yield gap is attributed to a lack or deficiency of agricultural input application. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, Sheahan and Barrett (2014) argue that 65% of the farmers do not use any kind of inorganic fertilizers.However, in general the potential for increasing food production with conventional intensification of agriculture is geared towards a high-input agriculture (Tscharntke et al. 2012).Professor Bob Watson, Director of IAASTD, claimed that 'continuing to focus on production  2010) highlight, that sustainable intensification should be taken into consideration in order to produce more food on the same area of land while reducing the environmental impacts at the same time. According to the Royal Society (2009, p: 47), \"sustainable intensification of global agriculture requires systems that are resilient in the face of changing climates across diverse economic, social and political conditions. It is likely that there will be trade-offs between intensification and biodiversity but the long-term goal should be to increase global food production without damage to societies or the environment.\" After a strong increase in the application of agrochemicals in agriculture between the 1970s and 1990s, for example, a decrease could be observed during the last decades. This was achieved through improving the input use efficiency and input quality as well as through policies on mineral fertilizer and pesticide application (e.g. pollution taxes, physical limits for fertilizer use, pesticide safety information) and extension services (FAO 2003). Research in the livestock sector for example shows that with sustainably intensified forage-based livestock systems in the Latin American tropics, various economic and environmental benefits can be achieved compared to traditional extensive production systems. These include, among others, higher per area productivity, improved soil quality, or increased water infiltration (Rao et al. 2015).Sustainable intensification seems to be a suitable approach for achieving food security while at the same time considering environmental impacts. Especially for developing countries, where inputs often are scarce, the application of adequate sustainable production systems could help to increase productivity levels with lesser amounts of inputs such as fertilizer, water or pesticides and reducing negative impacts on the environment. Waste reduction is often considered as a way of mitigating food security concerns (Godfray et al. 2010;Foley et al. 2011;Foresight 2011;Smith 2013). About 30-40% of all available food in both developed and developing countries is currently being wasted. In developing countries, this is dominated by post-harvest losses whilst in developed countries food waste is dominated by post-consumer losses (Smith 2013). Globally, about 1.3 billion tons of food is being wasted each year (Gustavsson et al. 2011). According to Hanson (2013), in terms of caloric content, 24 percent of all food produced is lost or wasted in the respective production chains or by the consumer. Among the different categories of harvested crops, roots and tubers, fruits and vegetables as well as cereals have the greatest amount of loss and waste (Figure 2).  2009) stress that \"there is an urgent need to shift our focus from food production towards waste and resource management\" (Lin et al. 2009: p541). This raises the question why the focus should be on increasing food production while the efficiency of food usage is low (Tscharntke et al. 2012). While these food losses occur in both industrialized and developing countries almost to the same extent, in developing countries 40% losses occur at post-harvest and processing levels, and in industrialized countries 40% occur at retail and consumer levels (Gustavsson et al. 2011). Therefore, improving post-harvest technologies (in particular for smallholders and small-scale enterprises) and reducing food waste are among the major challenges for future food security in developing countries. For example, in Africa, due to a lack of transporting, storing and processing technology and infrastructure, large amounts of food are thrown away before even reaching the final consumer (Lin et al. 2009). Some innovations such as nanoplastic packaging can provide opportunities to reduce waste and food spoilage (Lin et al. 2009). But also more simplistic improvements of value chain facilities (e.g., slaughterhouses, cold chains, adequate transport) can help to substantially reduce post-harvest losses. Given the high amounts of post-harvest losses presented above, such improvements could play an important role in promoting food security (Foley et al. 2011).While the development of knowledge and technologies in transporting, storing and processing infrastructure are important options for reducing post-harvest losses, reducing food waste by consumers is crucial, too (Beddington 2011). This can be tackled by education and sensitization campaigns for consumers but also by demand management, which is the subject of the second strategy presented below.Apart from the above mentioned options for food security, demand management has been taken into account as an important alternative (Smith 2013;Wirsenius et al. 2010). In this strategy, the focus is set on changing the consumer behavior instead of increasing production. There have been substantial changes in human food consumption reflected in dietary and nutritional changes over the recent decades (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). It is important to improve our understanding of the demand-side drivers and examination of food demand patterns over time (Regmi and Meade 2013). There is an increasing demand for livestock products (Livestock Revolution; Delgado et al. 1999) that would result in the intensification of agriculture, particularly in South-central Africa (Smith et al. 2007). As Stehfest et al. (2009) report, the production of beef protein requires several times the amount of land than the production of vegetable proteins. As such, reduced meat demand could significantly reduce the demand for agricultural land and the need for (sustainable) intensification (Wirsenius et al. 2010;Smith 2013). Stehfest et al. (2009) examined how changes in the human diet may affect sustainability in food production and found a global food transition towards less meat, or even a complete switch to plant-based protein food to have a dramatic effect on land use. However, in this context, it has to be considered that not all land used for livestock production can be equally used for crop cultivation. Livestock production often works in marginal and resource-poor environments (e.g., on poor soils, under adverse environmental conditions and with little or no inputs) (Chandel and Malhotra 2006), whereas crop production would require high investments in inputs (e.g., water and fertilizer) for being competitive under the same conditions (Viloria de la Hoz 2003), making livestock an alternative that provides income and assets, especially for poor smallholders in developing countries (FAO/ILRI 1995).Despite the fact that this strategy receives more attention recently, its potential largely depends on the willingness of consumers to change their habits and on feasible land use alternatives. This strategy can be complemented with the last strategy presented in this paper: better food distribution.As Tscharntke et al. (2012) describe, the first goal of the Millennium Development Goals (i.e., to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger) is more related to food distribution than to agricultural intensification. Several scientists support the idea that global food production is sufficient and that the available food is not distributed equally to all individuals worldwide (e.g., Tscharntke et  Altman et al. 2009;Leathers and Foster 2009). Pinstrup-Andersen (2009) mention, food availability does not assure accessibility of enough food to all people. Smith (2013) pointed out that while enough food is produced globally to feed all humans, there are still 925 million undernourished people (mostly in developing countries). This is mostly related to the debate on food justice and food sovereignty. These concepts focus on the inequitable distribution of food, land, and other productive resources as a main cause of hunger and malnutrition (Windfuhr and Jonsen 2005). Hence, improving food distribution systems should be considered as one central strategy for food security. In this sense, Foresight (2011: 12) suggested \"the political and economic governance of the food system must be improved to increase food system productivity and sustainability\". Food distribution is about connecting producers with markets on the one hand but on the other hand also about guaranteeing accessibility of those markets to the final consumers. In this context, challenges arise with regard to distribution power and infrastructure and may lead to food inaccessibility either related to cost issues or physical constraints (FAO 2008). This leads to two types of distribution systems: domestic distribution (wet market) and market-oriented distribution. The domestic distribution system is characterized by its remoteness from formal markets. Smallholder producers, due to this distance, are often obliged to sell their produce surplus immediately after harvest to the first buyer that appears, mostly at low prices.Their inputs however, have to be purchased at high prices on formal markets, and many productive assets such as production credit, agricultural inputs, technical information, market information or new technologies may not always be available to them (Agarwal 2011). This food distribution system leads to limited food consumption by the rural poor which depends on what can be produced within a community and which is highly sensitive to short-term shocks (e.g., extreme weather events; FAO 2008) and long-term effects (e.g., climate change; Burke and Lobell 2009). In this distribution system, physical access to food is the largest constraint for the rural poor but also shock-or input-price-related product price increases are of importance (von Braun 2008). Producers who are located closer to markets and who are in frequent contact with the market tend to produce for the market rather than for domestic purposes. The market-oriented distribution system is characterized by its rather formal structure, in-time supplies, larger quantities and stricter quality controls, and comprises small shops, supermarkets, or restaurants, among others. As a result, products sold on formal markets are normally more costly as on wetmarkets, making price the most limiting factor of food accessibility in cities.As FAO (2003) reports, most African governments initiated programs of agricultural market reforms in the 1980s, in order to (re-)organize their agricultural markets. The public distribution systems for commodity marketing are among the most important components of Sri Lanka's food security strategy, for example (FAO 2003). Scientists describe that market reforms have generally supported agricultural growth and food security (Jayne et al. 2002). In addition to market reforms, changes in supply chains can be helpful. For example, supermarket operators or their agents are becoming increasingly important players in parts of the developing world, especially in Latin America, but also in Asia and Africa (Reardon et al. 2003;Stokke 2009).Buying power is being concentrated in a few hands, mainly in larger cities. Supermarkets are often the initiators of supply chain development based on their client's demand and support producers through technical assistance or short-term training for preparing them to meet quality and quantities required. Stokke (2009) describes that this can involve short-run costs for the supermarkets but at the end can result in a win-win situation for both producers who receive incentives to increase their productivity and for the supermarkets who can increase their market share. The development of adequate supply chains or value chains gains increasing importance. However, in this context, inclusiveness should be considered. New value chain approaches and business models are necessary that support and promote smallholder producers and connect them to formal markets (Burkart 2012;Vorley et al. 2008;Lundy et al. 2014).The challenges of attaining sustainable food security in less developed and developing countries were highlighted in this study by comparing three major strategies and various corresponding scenarios that could help to solve food security problems.Although some projections predict a necessary land expansion in the future, this option seems to be rather a compromise solution in case there is no other option left. Negative side effects of land expansion, such as a loss of biodiversity or forests, or the contribution to the global climate change, result in high social and environmental cost and make this option unsustainable.Nevertheless, in many developing countries large parts of the forests and the related biodiversity are still being destroyed as a result of land expansion (e.g. in the Amazon region). To stop this trend, policies have to be developed, implemented and their compliance has to be monitored strictly.The second scenario discussed in this paper deals with increasing the intensification of agricultural production and with being able to produce more on the same amount of land. This option can be divided into two sub-options: conventional intensification and sustainable intensification. Whereas conventional intensification was considered an important option during the last decades, sustainable intensification is gaining importance recently. Conventional intensification often means intensification at high environmental and social cost, as e.g., mineral fertilizers and chemical pesticides are being applied, and thus creates pressure on limited natural resources such as water or soil. Hence, this sub-option does not seem to be adequate anymore in terms of sustainable food security. However, with regard to short-term shocks (e.g., extreme weather events, natural catastrophes) it might be necessary to go back to this option for avoiding human catastrophes. Sustainable intensification on the other hand is about finding an adequate production system that, apart from productivity gains, consider and mitigate negative environmental and social effects. Case studies like the tropical-forage-based cattle production systems in Latin America show that under sustainable intensification scenarios productivity can be increased significantly while at the same time contributing to climate change mitigation.Sustainable intensification seems to be a suitable option for tackling the food security challenge.However, increasing production should not be considered as the only option to achieve food security. As discussed studies show, much of what is currently produced is being lost either before (post-harvest losses) or during retail and consumption (post-consumption losses). This is related to inadequate transport, processing, storage or packaging facilities and technologies on the one hand, and to consumer behavior on the other hand. Investments in research and dissemination of new technologies and infrastructure can help to reduce post-harvest losses to a large extent. Education and sensitization campaigns directed towards consumers can lead to less post-consumption losses. The option of waste reduction in each value chain segment should be considered for achieving sustainable food security.Various studies show that consumer demand is changing over time. The demand for livestock products, for example, is continuously increasing, i.e. in developing countries (Livestock Revolution). If such trends continue to grow, intensification and land expansion will be indispensable. Recent debates about demand management suggest that parts of the food security problem can be solved by influencing consumer demand towards more vegetable-and cropbased diets and away from meat consumption. Although it is often highlighted that most of the land currently used for livestock production can and should be used for crop production, there are also studies that show that in many areas crop production is only competitive with large amounts of inputs (e.g. water, fertilizer). This suggests that a re-orientation of production could make sense but not in all regions. Demand management thus can contribute to solving the food security problem but is not considered to be a stand-alone solution.Studies show that theoretically there would be enough food available to feed all people.However, the access to food is not guaranteed to everyone. Especially rural poor challenge physical and financial access problems to sufficient food and balanced diets. In cities, access is rather related to financial constraints as packaged and high-quality products are often more expensive. The development of inclusive distribution systems and value chains can help to overcome problems in accessibility. Supermarkets can play a key role in this process by investing in smallholder agriculture through capacity building and technical assistance. On the one hand this assures inclusiveness. On the other hand it helps to develop higher quality products and to achieve accessibility to all. Inclusive value chain and distribution system development can be a suitable but not stand-alone solution to the food security problem.After revising the different strategies and their corresponding scenarios, we can conclude that for achieving food security, it is not possible to build on only one of the available options.Moreover, focus should be on holistic approaches that combine more production through sustainable intensification with the development of new technologies and facilities that reduce  ","tokenCount":"5254"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d98ff4f9d74268cabfa8e64475b0dd3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d352a79-e32e-44db-b783-d837bbaa3ae6/retrieve","id":"-724725095"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c6b322f8-0674-43c8-bd34-b56c46c3057b","pagecount":"1","content":"Approximately 80 from diverse disciplinary backgrounds and countriesTaking an ecohealth approach, this workshop reviewed options for promoting linkages between nutritional programs and nutrition-sensitive agriculture and value chains at local and national levels, with a strong focus on sustainable systems, process and policy. The presentations covered: Points discussed included: The impact of the characteristics of agroecological zones on food availability (including the effects of rainfall, soil types, vegetation and food loss and waste) on local food availability. Options for quantifying the nutritional content of available foods and formulating optimal diets across the seasons tailored by age, gender and reproductive status. Understanding and evaluating possible trade-offs and synergies between nutritional security and other health and wellbeing goals.This plenary workshop was co-hosted by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research and the Agriculture, Nutrition and Health Academy.","tokenCount":"134"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"778855721bb3cc1dfd3b0774f52c5295","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e1d88b7-d606-40d1-b303-c57b5bc79a4c/retrieve","id":"51278937"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3443c0d4-dd82-4ea8-bf73-7b0f4768c390","pagecount":"1","content":"We acknowledge the financial support from USAID in Washington to Africa RISING project, World Bank to AICCRA project and funders of the CGIAR Mixed Farming Systems Initiative(SI-MFS).Through the promotion of Sustainable Intensification technologies (and knowledge exchange models), AfricaRISING generated an additional annual income of around USD$ 1000 per household in the research kebeles and USD$ 600 per household scaling kebeles. This equated to a 10 to 15% increase in total annual household income.The degree of use of promoted technologies was established using household surveys in 2018 and 2022, and in reference to program records. The productivity impact of each technology was established from survey data cross-checked with experimental data where available. The value of production gains was converted to USD$ in purchasing power parity (PPP) taking 2021 as the reference year. Mean increases in farm income were then extrapolated to the project and scaling kebeles to calculate the total additional income generated by use of the promoted technologies.The estimated additional income in farmers pockets was USD$ 145.5 million PPP over six years (2016-2021). The cost of the project during this time was USD$ 19 million, resulting in a 7:1 benefit to cost ratio. While a higher proportion of households in the research kebeles sites used the promoted technologies, work in the scaling kebeles reached more households. Out of the innovations promoted, those associated with bread wheat and enhanced soil nutrient inputs contributed to the largest increases in farm income.","tokenCount":"239"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8969fbaa18ccad51bf4e43baa847f2e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da66832f-77b6-4c94-848b-8d76e236aaba/retrieve","id":"156822025"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fc8b7fe7-0e2c-4522-bee8-cea1c819eb44","pagecount":"14","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihoods, Nutrition and Gender (SAPLING) is one of the CGIAR Initiatives focusing on sustainable animal productivity. See here a description of the Initiative. This Initiative aims to contribute to transforming livestock sectors in target countries to make them more productive, resilient, equitable and sustainable.Contributing to SAPLING's overall objective, the SAPLING Vietnam program (called Chan-Henh) aims to contribute to transforming pig and cattle value-chains in the Northwest Highlands of Vietnam, specifically the Mai Son District of Son La Province. This work builds on a previous project (called Li-Chan) that was initiated under the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock. Whilst Li-Chan targeted 6 villages from 2 communes (Chiềng Chung, Chiềng Lương) within Mai Son, Chan-Henh will have a broader reach targeting 9 communes in Mai Son, with an initial focus on 4 communes (Chiềng Chung, Chiềng Lương, Mường Bon and Hát Lót), and scaling out to Phu Yen District.Previous work undertaken in Son La Province (under Li-Chan) indicated that lack of access to good breeding animals was one (of many) constraints to cattle and pig production in Northwest Vietnam (https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/107285). Capacity on breeds, breeding and artificial insemination (AI) was low, there were few active AI service providers, and semen from a locally kept indigenous breed of pig (the Ban breed) was not available. In response to this, the Li-Chan project initiated: (a) training of animal healthcare workers in cattle AI; (b) training of animal healthcare workers and pig keepers in pig AI; (c) training of Ban boar keepers in semen collection and processing; and (d) and training of cattle and pig keepers, as well as animal health care and extension workers, in pig breeds, breeding and AI. The trainees continued to receive back-stop support on breeding and AI until the end of the Li-Chan project (end of 2021) resulting in some increased adoption of AI by cattle and pig keepers in the targeted sites (https://hdl.handle.net/10568/116373).Moving forward under SAPLING Vietnam (Chan-Henh), these efforts will be continued without scaling of the training to the additional sites, and continued support within the original sites (including new interventions such as the development of business models on AI, as well as an AI service provider co-operative and groups of farmers to application of AI for cattle and pigs in the study villages). This report details the training women and men livestock keepers on pig and beef cattle breeds, breeding and artificial insemination in Muong Bon and Hat Lot commune, Mai Son and Phu Yen districts, Son La Province, 14 days from 4 June to 7 August 2023 in the frame of SAPLING Vietnam (Chan-Henh). The training aimed to build capacity of women and men farmers, and communal and village veterinarians in pig and cattle breeds, breeding and artificial insemination. Women, who are closely involved in livestock production were encouraged to participate in the courses.Before the training, general information about SAPLING (Chan-Henh) going on after Li Chan project, as well as specific objectives of the training courses were introduced. The training covered key issues on cattle and pig breeding including popular breeds in Vietnam and within the sites, how to select good breeding animals, reproductive issues including reproductive diseases and treatment, as well as artificial insemination. The training was interactive with group discussions and questions and answer sessions. The trainers addressed a number of specific issues raised by the participants.Participants were encouraged to raise questions on pig and cattle production and breeding issues they face in their farming practices to get the answers and guidance from the trainers. Hard copies of the training materials in Vietnamese languages were distributed to the participants, and posters were provided and remained at the cultural houses. See Annex 1 for the detailed training agenda.In The following issues emerged from the discussions and participant questions:• More farmers raise cattle than pigs (85% compared to 62%)• Farmers do not know the breeds of pig and cattle, though they are aware that breed is very important in productivity and quality of meat. • Almost all did not know how to select good breeding animals or the criteria for a local cow that can meet requirement for AI using beef exotic semen. • Farmers were interested in the cattle breeds suitable for local husbandry conditions.• Farmers had heard about the 3B cattle breed from TV. The trainers explained about the difficulties in calving if using 3B cattle as breeding cows and the importance of maintaining good local, Laisind, and crossbreeds of Local x zebu cows. Three farmers in Hat Lot commune had applied AI for their cows using 3B semen, with resultant calving difficulties. • Many farmers had not used cattle AI because they were afraid that it could damage the cow.These farmers borrowed bulls for natural mating or cows mated naturally (uncontrolled) in pastures. • Many farmers were not sure how to recognize cow heat signals, and thus could not determine if their cow was on heat. • For farmers who did AI service for their cows, the conception rates were less than 50%. They were wondering why the conception rates were not higher and whether to vaccinate the pregnant cows or not. • Some vet workers in Mai Son District used hormones on cows (to induce heat) for cattle that had not been in heat for some time.• Training on cattle breeds and breeding had rarely (if ever) been offered before.• Many farmers used commercial female pigs (which should be slaughtered) as breeding sows.• Pig reproductive performance was on average 8-10 piglets/litter; mainly through natural mating with crossbred boars in the village; weaning after 27-28 days, the sows can be in heat again after one week. • Some farmers in Hat Lot and Muong Bon communes who had performed AI on their sows, have used hormone to stimulate heat. • According to the farmers, after ASF and COVID-19 outbreaks, there has been a reduction in both number of livestock keepers and production scale. Table 2 summarizes the numbers and percentages of animals kept and AI application. • The training workshops were implemented during time of rice transplanting and harvesting fruits and coffee those done mainly by female farmers, therefore, fewer women participated in the workshop compared to the men.• The support after training will be implemented in study communes including examining sows and cows, heating synchronization and AI application. • The workshops after training will be held in Mai Son District.Women and men farmers as well as animal healthcare workers, undertaking training on cattle and pig breeds, breeding and artificial insemination in Mai Son District, Son La Province, under SAPLING Vietnam (photo credit: Le Thi Thanh Huyen/NIAS; Han Anh Tuan/ NIAS).","tokenCount":"1145"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"11463ed83c68b479c9f124a778ca7715","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b9d35a79-713d-444b-8a81-a74f4f815da4/retrieve","id":"-1273301643"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"225ee0ad-29e6-4603-9701-77f82922dc79","pagecount":"24","content":"> Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) > International Labour Organization (ILO) > International Organization for Migration (IOM) > Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) > Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) > Sanitation and Water for All (SWA) > United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) > United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) > United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) > United Nations Foundation > United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) > United Nations University -Institute for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS) > World Food Programme (WFP) > World Health Organization (WHO)working to help raise awareness and socialize this important framework with governments and other implementors at national and subnational levels since its adoption.This submission provides recommendations regarding the modalities of the UAE-Belém work programme including organization of work, inputs, outputs and the involvement of stakeholders, as well as reflections on the process of selecting indicators for measuring progress achieved towards the targets in the UAE Framework. The UN system has relevant experience in mainstreaming adaptation within and across sectors, adaptation planning and implementation as well as expertise and mandate in monitoring similar frameworks, such as those that have been developed for the Sustainable Development Goals, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. As such, the UN has applicable expertise, tools and resources to support the implementation of the new framework and the UAE-Belém work programme. In an Annex, we offer several resources from across the UN System that may help inform the work programme. These recommendations were distilled from a series of conversations hosted by the United Nations Foundation involving focal points from across the UN system in February 2024, with the objective ofValuable lessons learned from the Glasgow-Sharm el-Sheikh work programme on the Global Goal on Adaptation should be incorporated into the new work programme. This includes conducting multiple face-to-face and hybrid workshops where parties and observers could collectively engage in generative, content-rich discussions and hear each other's perspectives. The hybrid modality allowed a wider range of both parties and observers to engage in the process, enabled sharing of experience, and brought forward perspectives that might not have been heard otherwise. Interactive sessions were particularly effective in guiding participants towards consensus and generating specific documents or texts. However, considering time and budget constraints, we recommend holding no more than four workshops per year.We propose that the initial workshop, as outlined in paragraph 43 of Decision 2/CMA.5, should focus specifically on achieving the desired outcomes of the work programme. This includes a detailed examination of the framework's intended users and applications, as well as the initiation of a structured process to unpack the multidimensional targets and establish criteria for assessing potential indicators. It should also cover the high-level terms Subsequent workshops could be organized to convene specialized working groups, aiming to ensure the coherence of approaches, promote the integration of cross-cutting considerations across targets, leverage interlinkages between targets, and tackle shared issues and challenges. These sessions will serve as valuable opportunities to assess the progress of working groups and enhance transparency in their processes.Potential workshop themes and issues to be discussed We believe the most efficient and robust way to develop as volunteers from relevant observer organizations or representatives of the UN system. We realize that creating such working groups is challenging under the UNFCCC system, but having technical expert engagement in the process of selecting indicators is crucial and will require a dedicated process to iteratively develop proposed indicators and methodologies, data sources, etc. throughout the duration of the work programme. Given experience in similar processes, we believe that one workshop per thematic area is insufficient to do the technical work of selecting and proposing meaningful indicators.The first workshop, as proposed above, should discuss potential management arrangements for working groups, desired composition, nomination process, as well as the common terms of reference for the working groups.Working groups would meet virtually and would work between meetings to iteratively produce suggested targets, methodologies, potential data sources, and other elements as needed to track progress on the given target(s).Given the significance of interlinkages between thematic areas (for example food and water security), and between thematic and dimensional targets (for example the importance of risk assessment from various sectoral perspectives), it is essential to establish a contact group. This group would be responsible for integrating crosssectoral issues into the indicator selection process, thus preventing a siloed or purely sectoral approach. The hybrid workshops suggested earlier would serve as a platform for convening working groups and ensuring a cohesive approach across the entire framework.As noted above, the UAE-Belém work programme requires wide stakeholder engagement, particularly from national-level thematic policy stakeholders and adaptation-focused entities. Engaging national level stakeholders also helps enhance awareness of the UAE framework and provides an opportunity for capacity strengthening at the national level.Participation of representatives from fragile and conflict affected states, including migrants, refugees and displaced persons, is particularly important due to their unique adaptation needs. Likewise, participation of relevant populations such as Indigenous Peoples in data collection exercises, including planning, data collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination, is central to a rightsbased approach to indicator selection. Additionally, it would be beneficial to involve representatives of transboundary basin and regional organisations.Therefore, it will be important to provide a variety of opportunities for engagement and follow-up throughout the work programme, including in-person workshops, virtual participation, presentations, public digital platforms, and written submissions. Importantly, stakeholders may also serve as key facilitators of the workshops, bringing in their expertise to help structure the dialogue. Lastly, we urge the SBSTA and SBA to solicit submissions from technical communities of practice throughout the work programme.The work programme and its working groups must develop and agree on a structured approach to selecting proposed indicators. This approach should enable for both scaling and aggregation of indicators to track global progress, while also providing a list of indicators to capture diverse country-specific circumstances. Countries can then select indicators to report against and operationalize at national and sub-national levels, according to nationally available data and capacity, similar to the Sustainable Development Goals framework. Indicators should not only serve to enable tracking and evaluation of progress but also to facilitate learning and adaptive management. In addition, the indicator selection process should include dimensions such as equity (justice, gender), environment, transboundary aspects, and means of implementation. As a guiding principle, the process should aim to remain simple and leverage existing frameworks to minimize duplication and reporting burdens.We propose that each working group should start with dissecting the focal target (for both thematic and dimensional targets)as each target has several sub-components, many of which have multifaceted definitions or require further development of definitions. The steps in the process are as follows:1) Initiate a normative process to understand and define what it is that we are trying to achieve under each target.   We urge the UAE-Belém work programme to make full use of UN resources to reduce reporting burdens. Annex 1 provides a more detailed list of resources (publications, indicator frameworks, data sources, methodologies, guidance notes, etc.) from the UN system which could be used to inform the work programme and its associated working groups.We welcome the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience and appreciate the opportunity to provide recommendations to shape the UAE-Belém work programme on Indicators for the framework. We urge parties and the Secretariat to commence the work programme promptly given its complexity, and the need for careful deliberation and engagement.The UN System specialized agencies that have coordinated this submission offer to the Parties their thematic expertise across all thematic and dimensional targets to support the process of developing indicators, including through using or adjusting global datasets when needed.This support also aims to minimize to the extent possible additional burden on reporting mechanisms to the UNFCCC. We stand ready to engage and support the process, with the shared commitment of realizing the objectives of the Global Goal on Adaptation.   ","tokenCount":"1330"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5101a546ea9083a811b6046192e10df8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/38e8059d-9580-4728-999c-333879064630/retrieve","id":"-225686336"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f562b41f-e96a-4bf5-8864-8701f2795723","pagecount":"4","content":"PART 1: Description and all information of the outcome/impact reported OUTCOME STORY/IMPACT STATEMENT Through Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees (LTACs) and multimedia, timely Agro-Climatic Bulletins (ACB) are being disseminated to over 221,000 farmers in 521 communes in 52 districts in all 13 provinces of Vietnam's Mekong River Delta (MRD). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) recognized the process of ACB development and dissemination as a new Technical Advance and approved the Department of Crop Production's (DCP) workplan and budget to extend its climate-resilient and preparedness approach to all 13 MRD provinces. YEAR 2023 COUNTRY: Vietnam GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE: NATIONAL TITLE Agro-Climatic Bulletin: Empowering 221,000 Vietnamese Farmers Against Climate Change Subtitle Officially Adopted by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development as Climate Advisory Approach for all 13 Mekong Delta provinces Comments: All 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta, and currently being implemented in 521 communes of 52 districts.Based on this Decision, not only the MRD provinces but also other provinces in Vietnam can officially apply the ACB approach and have chances to access the Government's support budget. Upon MARD's Decisions on technical advance and ACB scaling to all MRD provinces, DCP issued a Decision to establish an official Technical Working Group (TWG) at MRD regional level to take initial action for ACB implementation in the MRD [4]. In addition, DCP in collaboration with the Alliance organized Training of Trainers (TOT) workshops and a consultation meeting with stakeholders in the MRD to discuss and make a plan for ACB implementation [13,14,15,16]. Based on the feedback from MRD provinces, DCP continued issuing a directive letter for implementation of ACB in the Winter-Spring season 2023-2024 [5] and the participating MRD provinces have made work plans to implement ACBs. With strong government buy-in and contribution of technical working groups from 13 provinces in the MRD, there is strong potential to successfully implement and replicate ACB in Vietnam and improve agricultural productivity and resilience to climate change. Implementation stakeholders currently comprise 108 local partners from district, provincial and regional levels with 174 governmental staff, of which 117 males and 57 females [9,10,11]. As next step, DCP and the Alliance are conducting activities, and plan to i) improve the quality of ACB [12], ii) disseminate advisory on low emission, nutrition-sensitive, and conservation agriculture practices, and iii) promote two-way interaction with farmers through a digital platform. This also contributes to optimizing the bulletin development and dissemination process. An eventual outcome could strengthen farmers' resilience in the MRD and help generate preparedness for climate extremes, to ultimately help stabilize their livelihoods under climate change.Vietnam is a success story. It has demonstrated how climate service-informed decision-making can help more than 221,000 farmers to better manage risks and take advantage of favorable climate conditions [21]. The ACBs are produced based on seasonal, monthly, and 10-day climate and weather forecasts. This information can be used by farmers to make decisions about their crops, such as what variety to select, when to start planting, when and how much fertilizers and pesticides to apply, the use of irrigation, and when to harvest crops [19,20,21]. The ACB was piloted at commune level in 2020, replicated in one province in 2021, expanded to 7 provinces in 2022 and is now being scaled to all 13 provinces in the MRD [7,8]. The project is currently involving 52 districts and 521 communes and reaching more than 221,000 people. Climate advisories co-developed are shared by provincial Technical Working Groups (TWGs) through Zalo messaging app (38,841 farmers with about 22% female are registered in Zalo groups), farmer-tofarmer communication, and other channels, such as posters/flyers, loudspeaker and social media [7,8]. Based on the positive feedback from local partners, MARD approved DCP's plan and budget to expand the approach to all 13 provinces in the MRD [2,3]. The approval allows DCP to further scale ACB with a government-supported annual budget of 400 million Vietnamese Dong (approximately $17,000 USD) per year, making the dissemination of the bulletins a part of the Vietnamese government's policy, and contributing to the state's crop management and national climate change adaptation strategy [2,3]. Moreover, the ACB approach was recognized by MARD-DCP as a Technical Advance [1].Gender relevance: 1 -Significant. The project involves women in the research, implementation and feedback for development and dissemination of ACB [17,18] Cap Dev relevance: 2 -Principal. TOT trainings and on-the-job trainings were conducted with key stakeholders of technical working groups from 13 provinces [13,14,15].  ","tokenCount":"732"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"89e7c124d15f155c3cfb279ffc19ae49","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b8c6e92f-87ad-4ec7-880c-4ce558686b1b/retrieve","id":"308272509"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ae9b687a-0de5-4e55-bd22-ac60244e161d","pagecount":"4","content":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works to improve food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for better and more sustainable use of livestock. ILRI is a CGIAR research centre, a global research partnership of 15 centres working with many partners for a food-secure future. ILRI was established in 1994 from a merger of the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD-based in Nairobi) and the International Livestock Centre for Africa (based in Addis Ababa). Its headquarters are in Kenya and it is co-hosted by the Government of Ethiopia. Since 1974, ILRAD and then ILRI have worked on major livestock issues, including: animal health, genetics and feeding; development of smallholder dairy, mixed crop-livestock and pastoral production systems; and livestock markets, policies and value chains.ILRI works with national organizations in Kenya to contribute to the country's long-term development blueprint, Vision 2030, which aims to reduce poverty and ensure food security, transforming Kenya into a middle-income country by 2030. The institute has established close links, memoranda of understanding and collaborative research agreements with Kenyan ministries, research institutes, universities and local government offices as well as with non-governmental organizations, private companies and local communities.Most ILRI programs are financed through a series of multi-partner 'CGIAR research programs'. ILRI is actively involved in eight of these: Livestock and Fish; Agriculture for Nutrition and Health; Dryland Agricultural Production Systems; Water, Land and Ecosystems; Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics; Managing and Sustaining Crop Collections (genebanks); Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security; and Policies, Institutions and Markets.The following on-going projects in Kenya are led by ILRI and in most cases jointly implemented with partner organizations.The ILRI Vaccine Biosciences Program develops vaccine-based solutions to disease burdens limiting livestock productivity in smallholder and pastoral farming systems. The program develops and improves vaccines and diagnostic reagents using modern biotechnology. It focuses on a few diseases important to Kenya: ASF, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, ECF, PPR and RVF. There has also been work on the camel pathogens such as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in northern Kenya. The unit has also been at the forefront in developing fieldapplicable diagnostics assays with focus on easy-to-use tests that can be powered and read out by mobile phones. Kenyan partners include DVS, JKUAT, KALRO and the University of Nairobi.ILRI has several research groups conducting work on food safety and zoonoses in Kenya. With its national partners, ILRI has generated evidence on emerging diseases, including avian influenza and RVF, and is working on others, including brucellosis and cysticercosis. It has conducted a situational analysis on food safety and researched food safety in the milk, meat and other sectors. ILRI has also developed decision-support tools to help public services better manage RVF and training manuals to help farmers and milk traders reduce the risk of milk-borne disease. Working closely with Kenyan universities and Kenya's Zoonotic Disease Unit, the institute is now assessing the harm to human health caused by mycotoxins in maize and milk in Kenya and ways to better manage this problem. Dozens of Kenyan graduate fellows have been supported to undertake masters and doctoral degrees in this area.The US 'Feed the Future'-funded Accelerated Value Chain Development (AVCD) project focuses on the livestock, dairy and staple root and drought-tolerant crop value chains in 23 counties in Kenya. It applies technologies and innovations to competitively and sustainably increase productivity, contributing to inclusive agricultural growth, and food and nutritional security in the country. The program aims to help lift 317,000 households of poverty and become food secure by enabling their transition from subsistence to marketoriented farming. ILRI is implementing the livestock and dairy components of the AVCD program in conjunction with the Kenya Livestock Marketing Council, the Northern Rangelands Trust, and the University of Nairobi's Africa Dryland Institute for Sustainability. Additional partners include county livestock marketing councils, livestock marketing associations, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, and the Kenya National Drought Management Authority. In addition to providing specific technical expertise in AVCD, ILRI provides knowledge management expertise and synthesizes evidence for the purpose of prioritizing interventions and scaling them out to new locations.African Dairy Genetic Gains project ILRI works with the University of New England (Australia) and PICO Eastern Africa on an African Dairy Genetic Gains (ADGG) project in Kenya and Ethiopia. The project uses genomic technology to identify the most suitable dairy genotypes for various production systems and farmers. As part of animal genetic resources research in Kenya, ILRI helps collate and manage national livestock records in a centralized database maintained by the Kenya Livestock Breeders Organization (KLBO). ILRI provides technical support for an internationally accredited livestock database management program (MISTRO) for dairy and beef cattle performance recording and the provision of feedback to farmers. Run by KLBO, MISTRO handles millions of records and facilitates both pedigree and performance certification for farmers who register their livestock.From 2009-2013, with support from the Kenya Ministry of Livestock Development, ILRI worked with partners to improve the production of indigenous red Maasai sheep which had shown great resilience to recent droughts in Kenya. A resource population of sheep, maintained at ILRI's Kapiti Ranch, served as a source of improved breeding rams for pastoral communities. Improvements were recorded in market access by the pastoralists and in the prices of sheep and sheep products. ILRI works with KALRO, the State Department of Livestock and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries in a project on sustainable small ruminant breeding for climate-smart agriculture, which is assisting farming communities to both mitigate and adapt to climate change. In Nyando, western Kenya, where resilient crossbreeds of animals better adapted to changing feed and water conditions have been kept since 2014, the community has reported additional income, with a positive impact on household food security.The Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) project in Kenya is successfully reaching vulnerable people with climate risk insurance. It involves ILRI, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries and private sector actors. It assists livestock keepers to mitigate the impacts of livestock losses due to drought, which can be catastrophic, through a novel index-based livestock insurance scheme. Thousands of livestock herders in Kenya have purchased this livestock insurance since it was launched in 2010 and the scheme has contributed to an estimated 50% drop in 'distress' sales of livestock to raise cash in times of drought, a 33% reduced likelihood of having to eat significantly smaller meals, and a 33% reduction in dependence on food aid.A state-of-the-art environmental research and education centre has been established at ILRI's Nairobi campus. Known as the Mazingira Centre, it aims to enhance the infrastructure and capacity for environmental research in East Africa, with a focus on livestock systems and land-use change. The centre promises a step change in Africa's environmental research infrastructure and capacity. Most of the on-going activities are being implemented on farms in Kenya with a view to decreasing the environmental footprint of mostly small-scale livestock production systems while at the same time increasing livestock and whole-farm production efficiencies, thereby improving livelihoods.Policy, investment and trade ILRI invests in generating evidence needed to inform livestocksector policies and investments. It assesses policy and investment options for pro-poor livestock development and uses evidence to raise awareness among decision-makers of important local and national roles played by livestock. As part of this program, the Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System (ReSAKSS), established in 2006, supports evidence and outcome-based planning and implementation of agricultural sector policies and strategies. ReSAKSS has facilitated many policy dialogue, benchmarking, review and mutual learning processes of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme implementation agenda.Research on Brachiaria, or signalgrass, since 2013 in partnership with KALRO, has identified four best-bet varieties and engaged over 1500 farmers across Kenya in evaluating these cultivars for herbage production and livestock productivity. In areas where it has been introduced, the grass has produced as much as 15 tonnes per acre per year and when fed to livestock resulted in significant increases in milk and meat production. Brachiaria can be grazed or baled as hay. Research shows that Brachiaria decumbens cv, Basilik B. brizantha cv MG4, B. Brizantha cv Piata and B. Brizantha cv Xaraes are the best varieties for semi-arid, sub-humid and humid areas of Kenya; and the Brachiaria hybrid cv. Mulato is suitable for its coastal lowlands.ILRI, in conjunction with KALRO, is also implementing a project in western Kenya to improve smallholder dairying by reducing a feed deficit and improving forage resource management. The project is improving traditional smallholder dairy Napier grass-based feeding systems by incorporating sweetpotato vines and a KALRO-developed Total Mixed Ration (TMR) feed block. ILRI is also involved in the development of a knowledge sharing platform for genebanks (Crop Genebank Knowledge Base), a forage registry of available forage accessions in the world's forage genebanks and development of a website to share information on Napier grass stunt and smut diseases. KALRO's forage program has benefited from Napier germplasm from ILRI, which assisted in developing the Kakamega 1 and 2 Napier grass varieties that are tolerant against head smut and have been widely adopted by smallholder farmers.ILRI thanks all donors that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works with partners worldwide to:• develop, test, adopt and promote science-based practices that-being sustainable and scalable-achieve better lives through livestock. • provide compelling science evidence in ways to persuade decision-makers-from farms to boardrooms and parliaments-that smarter policies and bigger livestock investments can deliver significant socioeconomic, health and environmental dividends to both poor nations and households. • Increase capacity among key ILRI stakeholders to make better use of livestock science and investments for better lives through livestock. ","tokenCount":"1601"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6979331786391f2c7ffbe5d373c2a5bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/DXMARV/LZIXRO","id":"-1296873014"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4b21bd08-aa16-4199-8604-7344d5b7e815","pagecount":"56","content":"Women and men's ownership, access to, and decision making power over productive resources such as land, livestock, agricultural equipment, consumer durables, and credit;  Leadership: Women and men's membership in economic or social groups and comfort in speaking in public;  Time use: Women and men's allocation of time to productive and domestic tasks and satisfaction with the available time for leisure activities.Baseline data will be compared against mid-term and final evaluation data to capture statistically significant changes in the ZOI over time. This survey will also be used as a point of reference for further special studies as may be determined by USAID and the implementing partners (IPs).This document sets forth to provide the necessary guidelines for field enumerators regarding field procedures, operational definition of key concepts, and the standards and conventions that are required of the enumerators.Ghana has been designated as a priority country for the United States Government's Feed the Future (FTF) initiative. This is an initiative that supports growth of the agricultural sector and promotes good nutrition to attain its key goal of sustainably reducing global hunger and poverty by first tackling the root causes and employing proven strategies for achieving large scale and lasting impact. The key indicators chosen to measure success in this initiative include the prevalence of poverty and the proportion of underweight and stunted children.The FTF programme started in Ghana in mid-2011 and is being implemented in the three northernmost regions of Ghana namely: Upper West, Upper East, and Northern Region, as well as some selected areas in Brong Ahafo Region that lie above the 8 th degree parallel. These areas are designated as the FTF Zone of Influence (FTF ZOI). USAID/Ghana's focus on these areas is based on national estimates that indicate that the incidence of poverty, malnutrition, and stunting among children less than five years of age is disproportionately high in these areas. Therefore, by focusing on these areas, the programme seeks to have greater impact than could be anticipated if the programme was thinly spread throughout the country.To facilitate accurate monitoring and evaluation of the initiative's goal, USAID is funding a population-based baseline survey in selected districts of the ZOI to provide data that will be used as a means of accessing population level changes in selected key indicators within the ZOI between baseline and end-line. This survey is being implemented through the collaborative efforts of the USAID-Ghana Monitoring Evaluation and Technical Support Services (METSS) program, Kansas State University (KSU), University of Cape Coast (UCC), the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) at the University of Ghana, and the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and USAID are providing technical support.The overall objective of the survey is to provide baseline data on the prevalence of poverty, per capita expenditures, nutritional status, women's empowerment, household hunger, dietary diversity and infant and young child feeding behaviours. To achieve this goal, data is being collected on the following key elements: Comprehensive household demographic information  Dwelling characteristics  Consumption expenditure  Food Security (Household Hunger Scale)  Women's Dietary Diversity  Women's Anthropometry  Women's Empowerment in Agriculture (WEA)  Breastfeeding and Minimum adequate diet  Children's Anthropometry Specific modules on women's empowerment include:  Production issues: Women and men's sole or joint decision making over food and cash-crop farming, livestock, and fisheries as well as autonomy in agricultural production;The survey would adopt the Computer-Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI) approach to the data collection. By this, the enumerator would administer the questionnaire by reading the questions from the computer and entering the responses into the computer programme on the go. In the event that an interviewer cannot be conducted in this way, the Paper and Pencil Personal Interview (PAPI) would be used. This could happen as a result of a malfunction of the computer or lack/loss of power supply to the computer. It would be the responsibility of the enumerator who administers an interview in the PAPI mode to enter the details of the interview into the data capture database as soon as possible.3.1 Organization of the fieldwork Fieldworkers (enumerators) will be deployed in teams of five (5) members with each comprising of four (4) interviewers working under a supervisor. The team is expected to move and work together as a unit in each EA assigned. While interviewers would be assigned individual households to interview, they would be expected to work in pairs when it comes to the anthropometric measurements which require two trained personnel to undertake. Where possible, the team supervisor could pair with any of the enumerators for the anthropometric measurements in order to save time.The fieldwork will be managed by a Field Coordinator from ISSER, who would liaise with the METSS survey Coordinator to roll out the survey. The supervisors will coordinate and oversee the activities of their team on a daily basis. The supervisors would also be responsible for the assignment of households to the interviewers, reviewing of completed household data files, doing call-backs on some selected households and compiling and sending of completed data files to METSS, KSU and ISSER. Scope and areas of work would be assigned prior to departure to the field. Fieldwork is expected to start on July 1 st and end on August 17 th .The actual number of days would however vary by team based on the assigned tasks.Because of the length of the survey instruments, the modules were partitioned for two visits to the household: A first visit (Visit I) to complete modules 1 to 10; and a follow-up visit (Visit II) later the same day or on the following day, as may be arranged with the household, for Module 11. It is possible that a third visit is necessary to complete the interview for some household members and this must be arranged with the household.In general, the responsibilities of the interviewer will include: o Locating the structure and households in the sample that are assigned to them, and administering the questionnaires; o Identifying all the eligible respondents in the household assigned to them; o Obtaining informed consent from all the eligible respondents in the households assigned to them: o Interviewing all the eligible respondents in the households assigned to them; o Checking completed interviews to be sure that all questions were asked; o Making call-backs to interview respondents who could not be interviewed during their first or second visit due to various reasons; and o Ensuring that the information given is correct by keeping the respondent focused to the questions.If an interviewer is unable to gain the cooperation of a selected household or an individual, the case has to be referred to the supervisor who will take steps to convert such cases to completed interviews. This should however not stop the entire interview. The enumerator should proceed with interviews with other consenting eligible household members or move on to other households assigned. Every single case of non-response at the household or individual level has to be endorsed by the supervisor.It is required that all interviewers cooperate fully with their supervisors and take instructions accordingly. Additionally, interviewers are expected to observe the highest standards of professionalism in their duty. Interviewers should show respect to the respondents at all times in order to sustain their interest in participating in the survey. It must be noted that interviewers may be summarily dismissed from the field if they engage in inappropriate behaviour such as the use of illicit drugs, showing disrespect to the supervisor or respondents, or failure to complete all modules of the survey for no good reason.Arrival in the Community Each field team is expected to arrive in a designated Enumeration Area (EA) for work a day before the start of the survey in the EA. Accompanied by the interviewers, the supervisor of the team will visit the Chief, Assemblymen, Town Development Committee (TDC) members, or other prominent individuals to explain the purpose of the survey, and introduce the members of the team and discuss the survey program. This protocol arrangement is important to facilitate access to, and the cooperation of the households.It must be noted that no demands for accommodation or feeding be made from such community leaders. The community leaders could assist with making such arrangements but the cost should be borne completely by the field team. Security of accommodation is vital due to the nature of equipment the team members would be carrying and care must be taken in the choice of place that the team members lodge.Locating the households Each enumerator would have a copy of the addresses of selected households to be interviewed within each EA. It is expected that each enumerator spends part of the first day in the EA to locate the addresses of all the households s/he has been assigned to conduct interviews. Each enumerator should look for the address given on the listing sheet and make sure that it is the household of the head indicated on the sample household sheet. Sometimes you will have difficulties in finding a household. You may be unable to find either the dwelling or the household. The dwelling at the address may be abandoned or nonexistent, the address given may not be a residential address at all, the listed household may have moved without being replaced by another, the household of the head whose name is on the listing sheet may have left and another household may be living in the dwelling. If any of these happens, you should immediately seek advice from your supervisor.Where the listed household could be traced to their new location within the EA, then the household should be traced to their new location for the interview. If the household has moved outside of the EA, then the household should be skipped and reported as not found. It must be noted that the new household of the dwelling where the selected household used to live should not be interviewed as a substitute.The survey team shall be supplied with map spotting sheets and forms to facilitate the location of respondents. The use of the form for this purpose also implies that enumerators, through the supervisor, shall be required to update information on the map spotting sheets and forms for future use.First contact with households You should contact each of the heads of household to be interviewed a day before the interview. The purpose of this is to introduce yourself and the survey, explain the purpose of the survey, and confirm that the interview will take place the next day. At the same time you will be able to find out whether the two of you speak a common language in which the interview could be conducted. Where there is no common language spoken, this should be reported to the supervisor for reassignment of the household to another enumerator within the team, or to contact other nearby teams for possible reassignment. When this effort fails, then arrangements should be made for the use of an interpreter to conduct the survey.We strongly recommend that the use of interpreter should be the last resort. When the use of an interpreter becomes inevitable, the following guidelines should be critically taken note of. If no one in the household speaks English well enough to do the interpretation, you must ask the household to choose someone (for instance, a friend, a neighbor or a relative) to interpret for the interviewer. This person should be someone who speaks English well and is trusted by the household, since some questions are confidential. You should be aware that in either case certain problems could arise from the use of an interpreter:1. It is difficult to know how good the translation is. It is possible that the respondent's friend who speaks English does not speak it well enough to translate everything said during the interview, and he will not want to admit it. If you find that the responses do not correspond to the Questions, try tactfully to help the interpreter or replace him. You could for instance, suggest that interpreting is a very tiring job, and that the interpreter should take a rest while someone else carry on. Or you might say that you have already taken up too much of his (interpreter's) time, and that the job should be shared among a number of people. 2. Another difficulty often encountered is that the interpreter is so familiar with the household that he starts to answer for the respondent without directing the Questions to him/her (respondent). In such a situation you must politely remind the interpreter that it is the respondent that has been chosen for the interview, and that it is only his/her answers that you can write in the Questionnaire.Explanation of the Survey and obtaining informed consent When you enter a household the first thing you should do is to greet every one, introduce yourself and say that you are working for ISSER, University of Ghana. Your interviewer's ID card should be visibly displayed at all items to ensure easy identification. You must explain that:You are conducting a survey of Ghanaian and non-diplomatic households living in Ghana, and that the purpose is to find out about the present patterns of household consumption and expenditure, employment, living conditions, diet and nutritional status in some parts of the country. The survey is thus very important for planners to know how to improve the quality of people's living standards. The communities and the households that will be interviewed have been randomly selected. Other neighbouring communities and households have been selected in the same way. The survey is not concerned in any way with taxes, and all the information recorded will be regarded as confidential and covered by the obligation of statistical secrecy.You must further explain that the information obtained would be used to inform the implementation programmes and strategies of the FTF programme for which they COULD end up as beneficiaries. You should frequently remind the respondent of the purpose of the survey and of the fact that the data obtained would be kept confidential. This is very important at the beginning of each visit. As several people are interviewed on each visit, these reminders must be given to each of them in turn.Once the person agrees to participate in the survey, you should proceed to administer the content of the Informed Consent Form (see Appendix C). Two copies of the informed consent form should be signed and a copy should be kept with the respondent. This procedure of obtaining the informed consent should be applied to all eligible members in the household who agree to participate in the survey.You must also ensure that the interpreters understand the confidential nature of the interviews. If a supervisor or a member of the survey team accompanies or visits you, you should introduce him/her at the beginning of each interview. Explanations play a great part in the willingness of people to reply to Questions.Equipment and Logistics for Fieldwork Since the method of data collection is the CAPI, each enumerator will go to the filed with a laptop together with a Trimble Juno SBs GPS. Anthropometric equipment including digital standing scales for children and adults, portable stadiometer (height measures) for adults as well as portable measuring boards for children will also be given for fieldworkers. Table 1 gives the full list of equipment and logistics that would be provided for the fieldwork.All fieldworkers would be required to make an undertaking for the proper care and use of the equipment they would be provided with, and they would be responsible for any failures arising out of negligence on the part of the fieldworker. In case of any equipment malfunction, this should immediately be reported to the supervisor for immediate action. To be used when necessaryThe strategy for Data Quality Control for the PBS will involve a two-pronged approach, namely, Ex-Ante and Ex-Post procedures. The Ex-Ante strategy will include logical strings conditional clauses built into the programmed PBS software that ensures that appropriate responses are captured by enumerators in the field. As a quality control, the software will reject responses that are not appropriate in specific contexts and prompt enumerators to key in the acceptable data. The Ex-Post strategy should include broad discussions across teams, focusing on issues that emerged in the first days of fieldwork and coming up with concerted and well communicated solutions to the teams. This strategy will be a continuous process involving supervisors and their teams throughout the fieldwork phase of the PBS.Field supervisors will pay regular unannounced visits to enumerators as they conduct interviews to ensure that they are engaging respondents appropriately and recording data accurately. A minimum of 10% of all interviews conducted by each interviewer will be scrutinized by the supervisor. This will involve returning to a respondent who will have been interviewed in order to re-interview and verify key points of the questionnaires. Field supervisors will not have the opportunity to change any data they review. They will flag the data and enumerators will need to update them per their recollection (e.g. transposed numbers for age of a child) or through a follow-up household visit.Teams from METSS and ISSER will conduct spot checks of enumerators and field supervisors to ensure that data are being properly collected, recorded and stored. ISSER will ensure that at the start of the actual field work the first five (5) interviews completed by each field worker is thoroughly reviewed by a supervisor. This will be subsequently reviewed by the Field Coordinator and the ISSER team. In addition to this, there will be constant and random back-checking to make sure that the quality of the data is not compromised in any way.Data Management Every enumerator is required to review and edit each day's work before it is passed on to the supervisor. At the end of each day, field supervisors will download up-to date entries made by enumerators on their laptop computers to a database. Field supervisors will create a backup copy of the data on an external drive. On a daily basis, supervisors would ensure that questionnaires are complete and accurate, meeting basic data quality standards. They will review a portable document format (PDF) of the questionnaire where they can mark any discrepancies found and discuss their findings with enumerators before sending the data to the head field supervisor. The field supervisor will send the verified database, daily using an encrypted email attachment, to the METSS office in Accra. ISSER, METSS and KSU will review the data as they are presented to them, and flag any discrepancies not caught by the field supervisors for follow-up. A clean database should be available for analysis approximately one week after the end of each data collection period.Procedures to Ensure Ethical Considerations Field supervisors and enumerators are to ensure that all respondents read (read to as the case may be), sign (or endorse by thumbprint) and receive a copy of the informed consent forms for the general household questionnaire before starting the interview and before gathering height and weight data. If an interviewer is unable to gain the consent of selected participants, the case should be referred to the interviewer's immediate supervisor to address. If the supervisor fails to get the consent, then the interview should not be conducted.Data files are to be password protected and shared only between the enumerators and their field supervisors and the survey team comprising ISSER, METSS and KSU. Data passing over the internet as email attachments should be encrypted. There will also be a password given from the METSS Program Specialist for Information and Knowledge Management to protect the database files.The World Health Organization (WHO) refers to a child as underweight, stunted or wasted if their weight-for-age, height-for-age or weight-for-height Z-score, respectively, falls below negative two standard deviations from the median score of each measure. The weight-forheight Z-score has been programmed into the devices so that a child will be flagged if a child is severely acutely malnourished (weight-for-height <-3 Z-score).Enumerators have a moral responsibility to advice the household of a child with this condition to take the child to the nearest health facility for attention.Based on observations made during pilot studies in parts of the ZOI, the following challenges can be anticipated and the recommendations for minimizing their occurrence and dealing with them are outlined.The laptops and Trimble GPS devices could run out of power on the field and become unusable. This would greatly disrupt the survey and therefore have to be minimized to the barest minimum. Enumerators are therefore required to ensure that their laptop and Trimble batteries are fully charged before the start of each day's work. This is especially critical when the next day's work is going to be in an EA which has no electric power. All supervisors and enumerators are to NOTE that paper forms will have to be used in the event of non-functioning of the laptops for any reason including power outages. Everybody has to therefore pay keen attention on how to power the electronic device as well as using paper forms. Paper forms will ensure that data collection time is not lost if electronic devices cannot be recharged. Interviews conducted in the paper form should be entered into the computer program on return to base that same day for onward transmission to the supervisor. Field supervisors are also required to keep spare batteries on hand. More importantly, enumerators should be quick to identify warning battery life for all equipment being used.Field supervisors are to keep a copy of all data to be transmitted on a USB thumb drive for portability. This will be transported to Accra for onward transmission to data clerical unit. Field supervisors should also immediately call the METSS office to alert them of their inability to transmit data.Before starting the interview in each household, you are required to double check to ensure that:• You have gained informed consent for the individual in the household questionnaire;• You have sought to interview the individual in private or where other members of the household cannot overhear or contribute answers; and• Remember to leave a copy of the signed informed consent form with the household with a telephone number they can call for follow-up questions or concerns.• Do not attempt to make responses between the primary and secondary respondent for the WEAI module the samein fact, it is ok for them to be different.• Do not read the respondents the list of coded answers unless explicitly instructed to \"READ.\"• Month should always be written in numbers from 1-12.• Every effort should be made to ensure that individual respondents are interviewed separately, without other household members or outsiders present. It is NOT good for other household members to assist with recall for questions on the individual modules. These modules are:Module 4: Women's Dietary Diversity Module 7: Anthropometry for women Module 10: Women's Empowerment in Agriculture IndexFor each of these modules, it is required that the woman concerned is interviewed alone with no other household members present. Similarly, interviews with Males for the Women in Agriculture Module should be conducted with the male respondent alone with no other household members present.Module 1 is very important for the successful completion of the other Modules. Some aspects of this Module would be pre-loaded and would not be completed by the enumerator. The particulars of the selected household will be provided beforehand, e.g. the name and number of the EA, the household number, household head name and the address of the house. You, however, need to still cross-check to ascertain accuracy. Having the correct household ID and individual ID is very important for the success of the survey and the evaluation process.Within each Enumeration Area, you will interview 20 households. Locate and interview the list of 20 households given you. If after two attempts you are unsuccessful in obtaining audience, you are required in consultation with your supervisor to drop that household.Filling out the consent form. Individual consent must be obtained from all respondents. If members of the household agree to continue with the survey, proceed to complete the questionnaire until any respondent refuses to continue, then stop or move to the other respondent or module as the case may be. In the case of children, ensure that parents/caregivers consent to their being included in any of the modules that apply to children before proceeding with the module.Filling out the questionnaire Follow the skip/prompt functions of the electronic data collection device through each question appropriately. If appropriately and accurately done, you will notice that some portions of the questionnaire will be auto-filled after you have completed some modules or aspects of a module. If using the paper copy, this auto-fill function will not be available, so it is even more critical that close attention is paid to instructions on who are the respondents for each module, and to the skip patterns.Questions 1.02 -1.06 are about the region, district, community and EA identification of the household, all of which would be provided with the listing sheet for each EA.Question 1.08 -1.09 asks about the name of the primary and secondary respondents respectively. Enumerators are to note that not all households may have secondary respondents depending on the household structure. These two questions can only be answered after completing Module 2 which is the household demographics.The primary respondent should ideally be the person with the most decision making authority in the household. In the majority of cases in Ghanaian households, and more so in the Northern parts of the country, this is a male adult. The secondary respondent is the person of opposite sex to the primary respondent who has the most decision making authority in the household in the absence of the primary respondent. The secondary respondent is not necessarily the person with the second most decision making authority if this person is of the same sex as the primary respondent. When the person with the most decision making authority in the household declines to participate in the survey, the person with the second most decision making authority becomes the primary respondent and the secondary respondent to this person should be assigned to the next person of opposite sex who has the most decision making authority in the household.Question 1.10 asks about the type of household. Four codes are possible. In the computer based version, this question would automatically be filled once Module 2 is completed. When using the paper version, the following definitions apply: 1. Male and Female adult (M & F): Case where we have both a primary respondents and a secondary respondent of opposite sex. 2. Female adult only (FNM): Case with a primary respondent being female and with no adult male in the household. 3. Male adult only (MNF): Case with a primary respondent being male and with no adult female in the household. 4. Child only household (CAN): Case of a child-headed household with no adults.We do not anticipate that there would be many cases with household type 4 and enumerators are strongly advised to probe carefully when they encounter such cases of child-headed households.Question 1.11 asks about the main religion of the household. When there is a split in the religion of the household members, we would take the religion of the head of household as the main religion of the household.Question 1.12 is about the main ethnic group of the household. The codes given represent the broad ethnic groupings in Ghana and the details of the sub-groups that fall under each of these broad groups is given in Appendix A of this manual. Question 1.13 asks about the GPS coordinates of the household interviewed. Use of the GPS is described in Section 7 of this manual. In addition to the coordinates, the computer based version of the data collection requires that the file name used to save the household GPS coordinates on the Trimble machine should also be recorded. This file name should be the same as the Household ID automatically generated in the computer programme.Question 1.14 tracks the dates and interview start and end times for each visit up to three visits. Note that the time should be recorded in 24 hour clock format.Question 1.18 is a code for the supervisor to the team.Question 1.19 asks about the final outcome of each interview. This should be recorded even if there is no contact at all with the selected household. This variable is essential for weighting purposes.Ask this Module about all household members to the primary respondent or whoever is taken as most knowledgeable about the relevant characteristics (i.e. age, education, literacy, etc.) of the other household members. In that case the person selected must be a member of the household and capable of giving all the necessary information on all household members. However, other members of the household can help to answer Questions by adding information or details especially when the Questions are about them.This Module is to serve as a comprehensive roster of the household and is important for the accurate completion of all the other Modules. It identifies every person who is considered as a member of the household. The Module must be completed with the very greatest of attention to detail. This would ensure the quality of the data being collected.A household consists of a person or group of related or unrelated persons, who live together in the same housing unit, who acknowledge one male or female as the head of the household, who share the same housekeeping and cooking arrangements, and are considered as one unit.Remember that not all related persons living in a house form one household, and that more than one household may live in the same house but one household cannot live in two different houses. A group of people living together in the same house, but each with a separate eating arrangement should be counted as separate one-person households. Please, probe well to put every person in the right household.It must be noted that by the FTF protocols, individuals who have been absent from the household for more than 6 months cannot be listed as household members. Guests or visitors who intend to stay for more than three (3) months are to be counted as household members, and individuals who have recently moved out with no intention of coming back in the next three ( 3) months (such as those who have recently married or migrated in search of permanent work) should not be counted as household members. Students in boarding school or hostel facilities who would return to the household on vacation are to be listed as household members.The following examples can be helpful to put persons found in a house or compound into the right households:1. In general, a household consists of a man or a woman, with a spouse, children and some other relatives or a house help who may be living with them.2. In large family houses where there may be two or more generations of relations living, care should be taken not to treat the grandfather, his married children and their families as forming one large household. Note that sharing meals with each other is not the same as sharing the same housekeeping and cooking arrangements. Probe well to separate the various households.3. Treat as one household if a man lives with more than one wife and their children in the same house and eats successively with each of the wives in turns.4. If a man does not live in the same house as his wife or wives, the man and his wife/wives must be considered as separate households. Any children and others must be included in the household of the one in whose house they sleep. Thus, if a man and his wife live in different houses and their two sons sleep in the father's house after eating in their mother's house, the children must be included in the father's household while the mother is listed as a single-person household.5. A house help and his family who live in a house or an out-house in the same compound as the employer must not be included in the employer's household if they prepare their own food. However, if they eat and sleep with the employer, they should be considered as part of the employer's household.6. If two or more unrelated persons live together in one room or apartment, they should be considered as separate single-person households if they do not share a common catering arrangement.7. A lodger (or percher) who has stayed with the household for a period of 6 months or more and shares the same cooking and housekeeping arrangement with the household should in this sense be regarded as a member of the household. This should be the case even if the individual expresses an intention to leave soon or in the future.Questions 2.01 to 2.05: These must be asked of every member of the household Question 2.03: It is important to specify the relationship of every member to the primary respondent so as to contextualize the answers given and observe the distribution of resources, etc. within the household.Questions 2.04 -2.05: Age in numerical years and months (for members below 24 months).Official documents, such as a birth certificate, affidavit of birth, national identity card or passport, can be used to find or ascertain age. Use other local and historical events to also estimate the age of members where these documents do not exist.Questions 2.06 to 2.10: These should not be asked to members below 3 years.Question 2.06: PRESENT MARITAL STATUS applies to the day of the interview. Read out each category to the respondent to be sure that, for example, a woman who is \"divorced\" or \"separated\" does not answer \"single\".MARRIED includes all types of marriages, e.g. The purpose of this module is to, among other things, assess the food security situation in a country or region, to provide evidence for the development and implementation of policies and programs that address food insecurity and hunger; monitor and evaluate the impact of anti-hunger policies and programs; provide information for early warning or nutrition and food insecurity and hunger; and inform standardized food security/humanitarian phase classifications. The Module ultimately establishes food deprivation or inadequacy in the household over the past 4 weeks. This Module should be administered to the primary person responsible for Household Food Preparation.Q3.01 asks whether over the past 4 weeks, there ever was no food to eat of any kind in the house because of lack of resources to get food. Respondents who answer \"No\" to this question should skip to Q3.03. Those who answer \"Yes\" proceed to Q3.02. It is important to note that this is different from somebody skipping a meal due to illness, lack of taste, etc. It refers to one, some or all members of the household skipping or failing to get food to eat due to insufficiency or unavailability. The reference period is the past 4 weeks prior to this interview.Although there are pre-coded response options, these should be read only for the first HHS question, as suggested response options. The respondent should be allowed to answer in his or her own words. The enumerator will then select the most appropriate response option based on the respondent's reply. If the respondent has difficulty replying, then the interviewer can encourage a response by listing the set of options again.\"Table 2 gives the intended meaning of key concepts in the questions that should be taken note. In case of translation into any local language, the enumerator should make sure that all the intended meaning is conveyed in the translation. This question asks whether any household member did not eat from the time they awoke in the morning to the time they awoke the following morning because there was not enough food. A person who chooses not to eat for a whole day for reasons other than lack of food (for example, if fasting or on a diet) should not respond affirmatively to Q3. This is particularly important as the annual Moslem month of fasting approaches among the many Moslem communities in the Northern parts of the country Food (Q I , Q2, Q3)The word \"food\" may be synonymous with the major staple food in some cultures. The use of the word \"food\" in the Household Hunger Scale, however, means all foods, i.e., anything that is edible, not just the staple starch. It may be possible that a household that is unable to get the staple 'Tuo Zaafi' may count that as not having eaten even if they are able to get some bread to eat.House (Q1 ) Q1 asks about the availability of food in structures belonging to the household (i.e., the house itself and any storage structures).Lack of resources (Q1) \"Lack of resources\" refers to the lack of money to buy food or the inability to produce or barter for food.Hungry (Q2) To be \"hungry\" is to have a compelling need or desire for food, to have a painful sensation, or to be in a state of weakness caused by the need for food. A hungry person is not necessarily one who has not eaten at all; food eaten may not have been enough to fill the belly.Module 3B is on household production of three key crops in the immediate past cropping season. The three crops under consideration are maize, rice and soya. For each of these crops cultivated, information is elicited on the land size cultivated, the quantity of the crop produced and the revenue from the sale of these crops if any.Ask these questions of each woman of reproductive age (15-49 years) in the household. Due to the fact that a current respondent may not be the same as the first respondent captured in Module 2, you will need to obtain consent from the woman to be interviewed if this has not already been done in Module 1. Make woman understand that participation in this Module is equally voluntary and she may stop at any time and that her responses will be kept confidential.This Module is used to collect information on the diet of all women of reproductive age (15 -49 years).Questions 4.01 to 4.04: Check that responses to these questions are consistent as earlier captured in Modules 2. Thus, the women should confirm that she is aged between 15-49 years at last birth date as there could be inconsistencies if the respondent to the household background information module does not know of the actual age of the woman. Where the woman's age falls outside of this range, refer back to the demographic characteristics of respondents and correct the age accordingly before proceeding.Questions 4.06 to 4.26: Whilst woman tells you of the foods that she ate the whole day and night, mark each food group as a relevant food is mentioned. Allow woman to describe the foods and liquids that she ate or drank yesterday, during the day or night (from time of wakeup till went to bed) whether at home or outside the home. When dishes are mentioned, ask what the ingredients in the dish were so the appropriate food groups can be marked. It is only necessary to mark the food group the first time one of the applicable foods in the group is mentioned.Note: Questions 4.6 to 4.27: The reference period to all these questions is YESTERDAY (The day and night before the interview). This should be asked separately for each woman even if in the same household.This module is to be administered separately to the mother or caregiver of each child aged 6-23 months (6 months to <2 years) in the household. You have to be sure that consent to be interviewed has already been given on the cover sheet, or you must obtain permission from EACH woman/caregiver of the child. Let the respondent know that her/his participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time if she/he so feels. The target respondent of this module is the mother of the child, or in her absence, the primary caregiver. If there are two or more eligible children in the household and these children have different caregivers (or mothers), administer the module to each caregiver (or mother).The purpose of this module is to find out how and what the child is fed. Therefore, for the purpose of this module, the primary caregiver is the person who knows the most about how and what the child is fed. Usually (but not always) this will be the child's mother. The primary caregiver for each eligible child is identified on the Household Roster and the caregiver's name is to be recorded in this module.First, verify that you are speaking with the correct respondent. The respondent should be the primary caregiver (which is usually the mother) of the child listed in the information panel. If the respondent is not the person identified in the information panel, you should ask to speak with the correct respondent.Questions 5.01 to 5.07B: Check that responses to these questions are consistent as earlier captured in Module 2. It should be confirmed that the child is aged between 6 and 23 months old. If not, then the information provided in the household demographics has to be corrected before moving on. You will begin the interview with questions about the child's date of birth and age. These are very important questions in the interview, since analysis of the data depends on the child's exact age.We need to obtain accurate information on the child's age in months. You will collect this information by learning the child's date of birth. Later, the child's age in months will be calculated by comparing the child's date of birth to the date of the interview.The questions on age and date of birth must be asked independently from similar questions on the household roster. You would have obtained the child's age (in months) in the household roster to consider him/her eligible for this module. Even in such cases, you must ask these questions again. This is because often the household head is the respondent for the Household Roster. This person may not always know the exact age of children. The primary caregiver of the child (the respondent for this module) will usually be able to report the date of birth of the child with the most accuracy. That is why questions about age are asked again.In Q5.04, the caregiver is asked the day, month, and year when the child was born. If the caregiver knows the exact birthdate, including the day, enter the day of birth. If she does not know the exact day of birth, you can enter \"98\", indicating \"don't know\" for day. You do not need to probe further for day of birth. Indicate the month of birth as a number with 01 representing January and 12 representing December. Note that you are not allowed to enter \"don't know\" for month or year of birth. You have to obtain the month and year of the child's birth. As a guide, interviewers should not that since the fieldwork is scheduled to take place between June and August of 2012, the year of birth cannot be earlier than 2010 and the month of birth cannot be earlier than May if the year is 2010. If the respondent is unable to provide the date of the child's birth, ask whether she has any documentation such as an identification card, health card, or a birth or baptismal certificate that might give the date of her last birth. Confirm with the respondent that the date of birth recorded on such documents is indeed correct.Question 5.05 asks about the child's age in completed years and Q3 asks about the child's age in completed months.Examples:A child who will soon turn 3 years (36 months) would be recorded as being 2 years of age in Q2 and 35 months in Q3.A child who is 2 weeks old would be recorded as being 0 years of age in Q2 and 0 months of age in Q3. Question 5.09 asks if the child has ever been breastfed. For this question it does not matter how long the respondent breastfed the child, only whether or not she ever gave the child the breast. If the respondent answers \"Yes\" to Q5.09, continue to Q5.10. If the respondent answers \"no\" or \"don't know\" to Q6, skip to Q7a.Question 5.10 asks if the child was breastfed in the day or night preceding the interview. If the respondent answers \"No\" or \"Don't know\", continue to Q5.11. If the respondent answers \"Yes\" to Q5.10, skip to Q5.12.Question 5.11 is only used if the respondent tells you either: 1) the child was never breastfed; 2) the child was not breastfed yesterday; or 3) the respondent does not know whether or not the child was breastfed.Question 5.11 helps us find out if the child was given breast milk some other way, rather than being breastfed by the mother. Sometimes it is not possible for the mother herself to breastfeed her child and alternate feeding methods are used to provide breast milk to the child.Question 5.11 asks whether the child received breast milk yesterday (day or night) in the following ways: Child was breastfed by someone other than the mother. Child was given breast milk expressed by the mother and fed by spoon, cup, or some other way. Child was given breast milk expressed by someone other than the mother (and fed by spoon, cup, etc.).Questions 5.12-5.24: Medicines, liquids and foods given yesterdayThe main purpose of Questions 5.12 through 5.24 is to learn if the child is being exclusively breastfed and to obtain a better picture of the diversity (number of different food groups) and quality of the child's diet. The reference period for these questions is the entire 24 hours of the day preceding the day of the interview. Questions 5.12 and 5.13 ask about vitamin/mineral or medicine drops, and about oral rehydration solutions. You will ask if the child consumed any of these the previous day.Questions 5.14 to 5.24 ask about the different liquids that the child ate the previous day during the day or at night. It is extremely important to ask about all the different kinds of liquids listed. Read the question slowly and then read through each item in the list. Wait for the response after each item and record whether the child consumed the liquid or not.Although not always considered a liquid, yogurt is included in the list of liquids here because we want to ask about the frequency of feeding for certain milk-based liquids and foods in.We ask separate for: infant formula; milk such as tinned, powdered, or fresh animal milk; and yogurt. For questions 5.15, 5.17 and 5.21, we probe further to ask the number of times the child was fed with such liquid if the answer to any of these questions is \"Yes\". You may need to use probes to help the caregiver remember all the times the child consumed each of the items yesterday.These questions asks about the different types of foods the child ate the day before the interview. The approach used for collecting information about the child's diet is a 24-hour \"free recall\" by the respondent. Help the respondent to recall what the child ate the day before, as follows:1. Begin with asking about the first food eaten by the child the previous day. Use neutral questions to help the respondent remember the child's activities on the previous day.Begin with the first events/activities in the morning and help the caregiver recall events in order through the day. This helps ensure that she remembers all of the foods the child ate at various times throughout the day and night.2. You should not ask the respondent about specific meals (for example, do not askwhat did (NAME) eat for breakfast yesterdayor what did (NAME) eat yesterday morning)as such questions assume that the child ate breakfast or ate in the morning. If you ask that way, the caregiver might feel like she should report something, even if the child did not eat.3. As the respondent recalls the foods, answer \"Yes\" for each listed food group.4. If foods are used in small amounts for seasoning or as a condiment, these should be included under the condiments food group. For example, if the respondent mentions that she used a few dried chilies to season a pot of stew fed to the child, the chilies would be included in the condiment food group, not the vegetables group.5. If a food is not listed in any of the existing food groups, write the name of the food in the box labelled \"other foods\".6. Probe for added foods in mixed dishes such as porridges, stews and sauces. If the caregiver says the child ate a mixed dish, ask about and indicate all the ingredients of the dish using the probes. (\"What ingredients were in that (mixed dish)?\" Probe: \"Anything else?\" until the respondent says \"nothing else\"). Do not ask \"leading questions\" as this may result in biased results; for example, do not ask -\"didn't you add any meat to your sauce?\" This may lead the caregiver to report cooking with meat, even if she did not have any.7. Once the recall is finished, ask the respondent about the food groups remaining in the list no food has already not been answered. Answer \"1\" in the right hand column of the questionnaire if the respondent is reminded of a food in that group eaten by the child.Circle \"No\" in the right hand column of the questionnaire if she confirms that no foods in that group were eaten by the child yesterday. Circle \"DK\" in the right hand column if the respondent does not know if the child ate any food in that group.Question 5.43 asks if the child ate any solid, semi-solid or soft food yesterday during the day or at night. This question is only asked if none of food groups A through Q are reported by the caregiver during the free recall. This question is used to verify that the child really had no such foods the previous day. If the caregiver responds \"No\" or \"don't know\", end the module. However, if the caregiver responds \"Yes\" this means that one or more foods were missed during the free recall. If she says \"Yes\", probe for the type of food and go back and correct in Q5.25-5.42.Ask about each child aged 0-5 months (up to end of five months old, less than six months) in the Household. The primary respondent for this Module is also the mother of the child or in her absence, the primary caregiver of the child. Module 5 and 6 appear the same, but check the PURPOSE and the AGE difference so that you do not take responses in Module 5 into Module 6.This Module is used to collect information on the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding for children and consumption of both liquid and solid (semi-solid or soft foods).Questions 6.0 to 6.07: These questions are meant for identification and confirmation of the age of the child. Check for consistency in the date of birth and age and make any adjustments in the information recorded on the household roster if the need arises. The probes and guidelines given for administering Module 5 are equally applicable. Confirm that the child is aged between 0-5 months before proceeding with the interview.Question 6.09: Establish whether the child has ever been breastfed at all.Note: Questions 6.10 to 6.42: The reference period to all these questions is YESTERDAY (The day and night before the interview). This should be asked separately for each child in the household Questions 6.14 to 6.19: List of liquid food items should be read and explained to the respondent to allow her answer appropriately.Questions 6.22 to 6.38: Guide respondent to describe and confirm the solid food items the child ate YESTERDAY. The method of verification and confirmation described for Module 5 also apply.Apply this module to each woman of reproductive age (15-49 years) in the Household.This Module is used to weigh and measure all women within the ages of 15 and 49 years in the household.Ensure that the identities of all eligible women are recorded in the first column of this module under Woman's ID# as in the roster. Enumerators MUST explain to each woman that the measurements are important to compare across regions in Ghana and that these measurements will be kept confidential. If a woman refuses to be measured go to the next eligible woman or end Module if that is the last woman.Question 7.6: Asks the woman being measured whether she is currently pregnant.To do the measurement, have each woman >=15 and <=49 years be in standing position with both their arms hanging loosely to their sides (Picture 1 below). Tell the individual to relax their arm muscles.Apply this to each child aged 0 -59 months (<5years) in the HouseholdThis section is used to weigh and measure all children less than 5 years in the household. It is very important that enumerators accurately make the measurements using the included scales and rulers.Ensure that the identities of all eligible children are recorded in the first column of this module under Child's ID# as in the roster. Enumerators MUST get the consent of a child's parent or caregiver before proceeding with the other aspects of the module. All attempts should be made to explain to parents that the measurements are important to compare children across regions in Ghana and that these measurements will be kept confidential. If a parent refuses to give the go ahead for the child's weight and height to be taken, the remaining aspects of the Module about that child should not be continued.Measuring the weights of eligible women and children in the survey will be done using a Seca 876 U Electronic scale. The Seca 876 U scale can be used in two ways:1. Women and children can line up for weighing, stepping on the scale one after the other.2. Babies and very small children can be weighed while being held in the arms of a mother or helper. This second method of weighing is called 'tarred weighing' and for this purpose the scale has a \"mother-and-baby function\". \"Tarring\" involves first taking the weight of the mother or helper, and then resetting the reading on the scale to '0.0' while the mother or helper is still standing on the scale.The Seca 876U scale is powered exclusively by batteries and field teams must make sure to carry adequate supplies of batteries at all times. About 120,000 weighing operations can be performed with one set of batteries. The scale uses four type AA 1.5 V batteries that are easily replaceable.The scale switches off automatically; -after 20 seconds in normal mode -after 2 minutes, if the mother-and-baby function is switched on Preparing the SECA scale for weighing 1. Place the scale on a hard, level surface (wood, concrete or firm earth). Soft or uneven surfaces may cause small errors in weighing. Enumerators are encouraged to carry piece of wood to use if a hard and level surface is not readily available. 2. Carefully turn over the scale so that the base is accessible. Open the battery compartment and insert the supplied batteries. To activate the power supply, push the switch located in the battery compartment in position \"On\". Make sure to turn the switch to \"Off\" after weighing in order to conserve battery life. Additionally, batteries should be removed and carried separately after the day's work is complete. 3. The scale will not function correctly if it becomes too warm or too cold. It is best to use the scale in the shade, or indoors. If the scale becomes hot and does not work correctly, place it in a cooler area and wait 15 minutes before using it again. If it becomes too cold, place it in a warmer area. 4. The scale must adjust to changes in temperature. If the scale is moved to a new site with a different temperature, wait for 15 minutes before using it again. Do not drop or bump the scale.  Do not weigh loads totaling more than 150 kilograms.  Protect the scale from excess moisture or humidity.  Do not use the scale at temperatures below 10º C or above 40º C.To clean the scale, wipe surfaces with a damp cloth. Never put the scale into water.Do not store the scale in direct sunlight or other hot places.Older children and women should be weighed by having them stand on the scale themselves after the scale has been prepared. Enumerators should make sure that the scale reading is before the child or woman steps on the scale. It is important to ensure that the persons to be weighed step on the scale with dry bare-foot, and that they only wear minimal clothing and do not carry any objects such as coins, mobile phone, purse, etc on them. For children, enumerators should check that the children are not wearing heavily soaked diapers which could add to the weight reading.Both feet must be on the scale and the person must be relaxed and not deliberately exert any extra force to try and bolster the weight. While standing on the scale, make sure that the individual's head is upright, looking parallel to the surface. It is normal for the scale reading to be fluctuating once the person steps on the scale and it is important to wait for the scale reading to stabilize before recording the weight and asking the person to step off the scale.The mother-and-baby key enables the body weight of infants and young children to be determined. The child is held in the arms of an adult.1. The scale is fitted with a vibration switch. Turn the scale on by gently tapping on the weighing platform. 2. Wait until the display shows before stepping on the scale. 3. Ask your helper to stand on the scale. Your helper's weight will appear on the display. NOTE:The person being weighed must stand still on the scale.4. With your helper standing still on the scale, press the mother-and-baby key. The display will read . This is the tared step. 5. The helper can now get off the scale to get the baby. Alternatively, the baby can be handed to her.If the helper gets off the scale to get the baby, the display will show ----6. After the helper steps back onto the scale and holds the baby, only the weight of the baby will be displayed. Once the value is stable for about 3 seconds, the display is retained. This avoids the display jumping around as a result of the child's movements.Record the baby's weight. Important points  The weight of the person who will hold the child must be displayed (and then tared) before the child is given to her for weighing. The same person whose weight is tared must also hold the child. The tare can be de-activated by pressing the mother-and-baby key again or by waiting until the scale switches off automatically.The heights of the children under five (5) years of age would be measured using the UNICEF approved standard measuring boards. For children under 2 years of age, we measure them in lying position (length measurement) while children between 2 and 5 years are measured in standing position (height measurement). Illustration 1 shows a demonstration of the procedure to be followed in measuring a child's height. The steps involved are as outlined below:Illustration 2 shows a demonstration of the procedure to be followed in measuring a child's length. The steps involved are as outlined below:The height of women should be measured by the use of microdots. The women should be made to stand in an upright position on a hard level ground against a wall, staircase or tree, with not footwear on. The measure should be stretched from the feet to the top of the head by the side. The person doing the reading should be taller than the woman, or should stand on a table or chair that ensures this.Estimating Height/Length of \"difficult to measure\" persons The procedures described above would not always work in some circumstances. For example, it is not feasible to directly measure the height of a cripple, or it may not be possible to ask for a woman to release a 2 month old child to be placed on the board for the length to be taking. In such a case, we can estimate the height/length by measuring the distance from the tip of the middle figure to the middle of the chest and multiply the value obtained by two to get the actual height. For example, if the distance from the tip of the middle finger to the middle of the chest is 44 cm, then the estimated height should be recorded as 88cmOdema should be assessed after the weight and height/length measurements have been taken. Odema is the retention of water in the tissues of the body. Nutritional Odema always starts in both feet and extends upwards to other parts of the body. Bilateral (in both extremities) Odema is a sign of severe acute malnutrition. Odema in one foot is not caused by malnutrition.Odema is assessed by holding one foot in each hand and applying pressure with the thumbs to the tops of the feet for three seconds. If the child has bilateral Odema, an impression or pitting will remain in both feet for a few seconds after the pressure is released. The child should only be recorded as having Odema if both feet clearly show an impression or pitting.Ask these questions about the dwelling of the household The purpose of this section is to measure the quality of housing occupied by the household.In this regard, it seeks information on the physical characteristics of the dwelling, the dwelling type, occupancy status of the household, as well as utilities and amenities in the dwelling.The respondent should be the person who is most knowledgeable about the dwelling characteristics and its ownership arrangement in the household.Dwelling: This includes all types of structures occupied by members of a household. These may consist of a house, a room inside a house, a group of houses, a multi-storeyed house, and a hut or group of huts.Questions 9.01 to 9.04: You are to observe the house or the structure and record your observation. Even when the interview is conducted in a place outside of the household dwelling, the enumerator should visit the dwelling to make these observations. However, if the interview is conducted outside of the dwelling and there is no chance to observe the floor material, then this could be asked. Where different portions of the dwelling are constructed of different types of materials, the enumerator should record the dominant material for each of the questions.Questions 9.09 to 9.19: These questions ask about the utilities and amenities of the household. Question 9.06 asks about occupancy status whether the dwelling is rented, owned, borrowed or other. Borrowed here is used to mean that no rent is paid, either in cash or in kind, although the household does not own the dwelling.Question 9.11: General use refers to all uses water is put to except for drinking.Question 9.15 asks about access to electricity. This is irrespective of the source so far as there is power: whether connected to the national grid, powered by a generator or relies on solar panel power generation. However, a wired house with non-connected or disconnected power source should not be recorded as having access to electricity.Question 9.17 asks about the main source of cooking fuel for the household. An option is provided for the case where no cooking is done in the household.This module is to be administered separately to the primary and secondary respondents. This module would ideally be administered to the two respondents at the same time by one member of the team taking one respondent and the other team member taking the other.Before the start of the interview, check to be sure that the consent form is completed as in Module 1 above. This module should be conducted strictly under private, where other members of the household cannot overhear or contribute answers. Do not attempt to make responses between a primary and secondary respondent the same. Ensure that you code the outcome of the interview at the end of interview for each target respondent under this module.The purpose of this module is to get an idea about men's and women's relative roles in decision making around income-generating activities. Do not attempt to ensure that responses are the same between the male and female respondent. It is okay for them to be different.The household identification should be as before and you will notice that some fields are auto-filled as soon as you get the identification right.Question 10.1.05: Even though it is requested that this module is conducted under private conditions it is also recognized that sometimes it becomes extremely difficult to completely have that. This question seeks to establish that condition.There are three basic questions in this module:Question 10.2.01: Did you (singular) participate in [ACTIVITY] in the past 12 months (that is within the last [one/two] cropping seasons)?In some languages there is a singular \"you\" and a plural YOU. The individual level question refers to the singular you (the person being interviewed, not the respondent together with his or her family). The respondent needs to understand that this applies to just him/her.In some cases, for crop production related activities, it will be helpful to ask the respondent to think about the last cropping season or two cropping seasons if the area has a bi-annual crop season.Questions 10.2.02 and Question 10.2.03: Asks about the respondent's contribution/role in making decisions concerning productive activity and income use.Note that whilst Questions 10.2.02 concerns decision about production, Question 10.2.03: relates to decisions on the use of income generated from the [ACTIVITY].Also note that the two questions are answerable using the same codes.Code 6 however should be entered in the case that the decision is not made. Code 6 also fits a situation where crops have been lost in a cropping season so no income was generated or livestock/livestock products were not sold so income was not generated.In some cases respondents will need more explanation about what certain categories contain.In this case the enumerator can use simple examples tailored to specific activities undertaken by households in the survey area to explain.Examples can be: Food crop farming: crops that are grown primarily for household food consumption: For example, did you have input into decisions about what crops to plant this year or in which plots they would be planted, or which seeds, fertilizer (other inputs) your family would buy?Cash crop farming: crops that are grown primarily for sale in the market: For example, did you have input into decisions about how much of your family's land would be used for growing cash crops, or about the crops to be grown for sale, and the inputs to be used for those crops? Livestock raising: For example, did you have input into decisions about the purchase, care, or sale of livestock?Non-farm economic activities: Small business, self-employment, buy-and-sell: For example, did you have input into purchases made for a small business or goods sold?Wage and salary employment: in-kind or monetary work both agriculture and other wage work: For example, did you have input into decisions about if you or other household members will work outside the home?Fishing or fishpond culture: For example, did you have input into decisions about when to do fishing, or how to stock a fish pond, inputs for fish culture?In the case that a crop is grown partially for food and partially for sale on the market, record that activity only once, in the category which the crop is primarily grown for (in terms of volume).The purpose of this module is to get an idea about men's and women's access to capital or assets and their ability to control use of the resource. Again, do not attempt to ensure that responses are the same between the male and female respondent.The questions ask about men's and women's access to different types of assets (14 types of assets) and ask about different types of decisions on each type of asset, and who makes those decisions most of the time.Question 10.3.01: It is most preferred that this question is asked for all assets before asking the remaining questions. In this way, respondents have no incentive to undercount assets because of the perception of having to answer the remaining Q10.3.01b-Q10.3.06 questions.After Question 10.3.01, ask all the questions for one type of asset at a time before going to the next type of asset so that the respondent is consistent in answers across the types of decisions.It is important not to double count assets into two categories when thinking about different asset categories. For example, it is important to distinguish between large livestock and small livestock; Farm equipment (non-mechanized), Farm equipment (mechanized) and Nonfarm business equipment; clearly beforehand so that respondents do not add all together and latter have to answer same for subsequent options.Non-farm activities include any asset used for small businesses including solar panels (if used for recharging), sewing machine, brewing equipment, frying equipment, etc. The distinguishing factor between farm and nonfarm activities is the value addition to production (i.e. Brewing or processing like baking bread).Note: Items which are not functioning at the time of interview are to be counted insofar as there is a resale value for the asset (i.e. it can be fixed or it can be sold to buy another productive asset or service).Also NOTE that questions (Q10.3.02 -Q10.3.06) refers to \"general\" decisions or who takes decision on the items MOST OF THE TIME. The codes for all these questions are the same.This module seeks to get an idea about men's and women's access to credit. Do not attempt to make responses from the two respondents the same.The questions ask about men's and women's access to five sources of lending credit, who makes the decision to borrow or not to borrow from a particular source, and decision on the use of the credit.Question 10.3.07: It is possible that other individuals in the household access credit that may not be known to the respondent. In that case the response 5 \"Don't know\" can be entered.Question 10.3.07: Even though there may be more than one reason for which the respondent is not able to borrow, the primary reason should be recorded here.NOTE that the reference period for the module is the past 12 months.Non-governmental organization (NGO): As known to the respondent. Where the category of the lending source is not clear, the enumerator should note this and discuss with the supervisor for verification.Formal lender (bank/financial institution): As known to the respondent Friends or relatives: As known to the respondent Group based micro-finance or lending including VSLAs 1 /susu etc.: As known to the respondent.The purpose of this module is to get an idea about men's and women's potential for leadership and influence in the communities where they live. Again, do not attempt to ensure that responses are the same between the male and female respondent.The purpose of this module is to get additional information about decision making within households. These questions are different from the previous questions on decision making, because we are now asking whether the respondent is satisfied about decisions made, and motivations for making these decisions.These questions are asked about 9 types of decisions between Q10.5.01-Q10.5.06. Codes here are a bit different from previous codes, so please pay attention.Things to consider: Question 10.5.01: When decisions are made regarding the following aspects of household life, who is it that normally takes the decision?Question 10.5.02: To what extent do you feel you can make your own personal decisions regarding these aspects of household life if you want(ed) to?NOTE that if the respondent indicates that they alone currently make the decision, then Q10.5.02 is skipped-as it does not make sense to ask if someone could make the decision if they already have said they are the only person who makes that decision in their household.Question 10.5.03 -10.5.06 examine motivations for undertaking activities. Please emphasize that there are no right or wrong answers (do not rush the respondent to finish the interview).In some cases it will be helpful to give examples of these situations.Question 10.5.03 -10.5.06: Note that these questions are asked in reference to the family setting. So when you are talking about \"getting in trouble\" (Q10.5.04) or you are asking about if others will think badly about him/her (Q10.5.05) the question should be in reference to trouble or negative thinking from a family member(s).Module 10. 6: Time AllocationThe purpose of this module is to get an idea about men's and women's time spent in both work and leisure activities and their satisfaction with their time use. Types of activities and their duration can be used in economic as well as in social analysis, e.g. women's contribution in economic activities; the value of home production and the informal sector; productivity; time poverty and others.Question 10.6.01: Please record a log of the activities for the individual in the last complete 24 hours (starting yesterday morning at 4 am, finishing 3 am of the current day). For each item, the enumerator is expected to indicate the start time and end time of the activity and indicate whether the activity was a primary or secondary activity according to the definitions below. Make sure that your marks are very clear. You should never mark a P or an S on the line between two boxes, rather they should be marked entirely in the center of the beginning box.Primary means this is the activity they are most focused on and is the primary objective of what they are doing at that time; Secondary means any other activity they are engaged in, but is not the main objective of their time.It is most helpful to fill this table as a conversation with the respondent, rather than asking them what they were doing at 4:15, 4:30, 4:45 and so on. For example, ask them when they got up in the morning and what they did first. Then after that, what they did next throughout the entire day.Example: In the diagram below, we can see that the respondent was sleeping or resting up till 5:30 am. At 5:30 am they got up and ate breakfast for 15 min, followed by bathing and dressing themselves for 15 min. At 6:00 am they started working in a shop, which they continued for the next two hours. In addition, from 5:15 am to 6:00 am they were listening to the radio at the same time they were resting, eating breakfast and bathing, however this was a secondary activity, because it was not the main objective or focus of their time. The worksheet is very simple and therefore it might be that something that the respondent has done is not described among the activity categories. First think if the activity fits in any other of the pre-printed activities. If it does not, then use the category \"Other\", specify. Draw the line in the grid and write in the empty space below what you did. Try to describe it as detailed as possible. If there are more than one \"Other\", describe (ie both the primary and secondary activities fall into the \"Other\" category, then add this on an additional line below the Farming/livestock/ fishing Includes small-scale food production in the garden for own consumption and selling. Includes fishing for own consumption and selling, but excludes fishing just for fun (record as \"social activities and hobbies\"). Shopping/getting service (including health services) Includes paid personal care, like haircutting, visit to the doctor or health facility (obtaining health services), car servicing and banking, etc. Any traveling linked to shopping will be noted as travels. Weaving, sewing, textile care Includes textile work for selling and own consumption, but excludes repairing of textiles (note as \"domestic work\").Includes all unpaid domestic work such as fetching water and firewood, cleaning and other household chores (excluding cooking). Paid domestic work is counted as \"work as employed.\" Care for children/adults elderly Includes unpaid care for all persons at home as well as outside home. Paid care is counted as \"work as employed.\"Travels to and from work or school. Travel includes all travels, except commuting and travels on working hours. Includes even walking if the purpose is not exercising. Longer journeys will be separated by activities like eating, personal care, etc. Watching TV/listening to the radio/reading Is often a second activity, particularly outside home, but comes first if just eating snacks or drinking at the same time. Includes all kind of reading, except homework for school and reading at work.All kind of physical sport activities including walking, if the purpose was not moving from one place to another (travel)This category captures any social activities, such as sitting with family, visiting friends, talking on the phone with friends, visiting a drinking spot with friends, going to watch sporting activities etc. This category also encompasses conjugal activities if they are not for paid work (otherwise can be captured as \"work as employed\" or \"own business\"). Also includes gardening, fishing and other production just for fun.Include attending services, praying or other religious activities/ceremonies. Note that if the individual is a Pastor, Imam or other person that does this as their occupation/work, it should be counted in that category and not as a religious activity.This module seeks to elicit information on household expenditures on various categories of items over different time periods over the last 12 months. This module may be administered to the primary or secondary respondent, whoever is most knowledgeable about the food the household members have eaten in the past week, as well as any non-food items that household members have bought. It is possible to alternate the respondents for different sections of the module depending on who is identified to be the most knowledgeable on the section. A description of the subsections and the questions asked are as follows.Module Cooked food from vendors -There are about 124 separate food items under these categories and interviewer is expected to ask about the consumption of each of the items separately. If the item is NOT consumed by the household, then the interviewer enters a '2' in question 11.1.01 then skips to ask about the next item in the list. Where the item was consumed by a member of the household over the past 7 days, then the interviewer should go ahead and ask a series of question concerning the consumption of that particular item. The questions are as follows:Question 11.1.03: How much in total did your household eat in the past week? This asks about the quantity of the food item consumed (Q11.1.03a) and the unit in which the quantity is specified (Q11.1.03b). Without the unit, the quantity is effectively meaningless.Question 11.1.04: How much came from purchases? This question asks about the portion of the item consumed that came from purchases. Here again, we specify the quantity (Q11.1.04a) and the unit (Q11.1.04b) of the consumption.Question 11.1.05: How much did you spend on what was eaten last week? This question asks about the monetary value (in Ghana cedis and pesewas) of the food that was consumed over the past 7 days. Where the household consumed part but not all of something they purchased, this question requires only an estimate of the value of the portion that was consumed.Question 11.1.06: How much came from own production? This question asks about the portion of the item consumed that came from own production (either in storage or from direct harvest). Here again, we specify the quantity (Q11.1.06a) and the unit (Q11.1.06b) of the consumption.Question 11.1.07: How much came from gifts and other sources? This question asks about the portion of the item consumed that came from gifts and other sources. Here again, we specify the quantity (Q11.1.07a) and the unit (Q11.1.07b) of the consumption.Detailed lists of unit codes are provided for use with Questions 11. 1.03b, 11.1.04b, 11.1.06b and 11.1.07b. While it would be ideal to try and express all the quantities in the same unit, this might not be practically possible and conversions are not allowed in circumstances where the interviewer is not absolutely sure about the conversion factor(s).Module 11.2 to 11.4: Non-food Expenditures For these sub-modules, we seek to elicit data on the detailed expenditures for each item for the reference period specified. The detailed expenditures help to provide accurate data and minimize the risk associated with underreporting when expenditures are reported for aggregates of such items.Module 11.2 covers non-food expenditures for items whose purchases typically occur in one week or one month period. Items for which expenditures are relatively fluid are reported over a one-week recall period while items whose expenditures are less fluid are reported over a month's recall period.Note: HEALTH EXPENDITURES include all expenditures made including those that receipts were given and those that receipts were not given. A non-prescription medicine includes those bought over the counter.Module 11.3 covers non-food expenditures for items whose purchases occur over three months but less than a year. Because the recall period here is relatively long you need to adopt very innovate strategies to get or help the respondent provide answers that are close to expectations. Do not argumentatively contest the answers (be innovative and supportive).Note: Lady's other clothing include ladies sanitary pads, etc.The following definitions are to be adopted in defining a baby, an infant, boy, girl, men and ladies.Baby: A person between the ages of 1 and 5 years of age.Boy: A male aged between 5 and 17 years.Men: A male 18 years or older Girl: A female aged between 5 and 17 years Ladies: A female aged 18 years or older.Module 11.4 just like module 11.3 is very long -12 months. Over here recall could be difficult. But again, you need to be innovative to get the respondent to provide answers that are close to expectations. Do not unnecessarily challenge the answers (be innovative and supportive).Council rates include rates paid to local authorities for the use of items by the household. This could be rates paid for landed properties, pets, etc.Note: Expenditures here refer to all expenditures reference in Modules 11.2 and 11.3 and other times before but not exceeding a year.The last part of module 11.4 (items 222-224) try to estimate use of items by the household which may not have been purchased directly by the household.1. Purchase/use refer to all the items bought or used within the reference period 2. Do not argue with the respondent over the figures 3. If respondent indicates use of an item but this falls outside the reference period, the answer should be No and 2 should be coded.4. There is no way answers referring to the same item or expenditure in module 11.4 will be less than answers in module 11.2 or 11.3. Similarly, there is no way answers referring to same item or expenditure in module 11.3 will be less than answers in module 11.2.This module aims at measuring the ownership and value of the housing being occupied by the household.Question 11.5.01 tries to capture the ownership structure of the dwelling. FREE, AUTHORISED is someone occupying a dwelling with the expressed consent (verbal or written) of the original without paying any rent and FREE, NOT AUTHORISED has to do with someone occupying a structure without any expressed authorization to live there. Question 11.5.04 is also being asked to them to try to estimate the price if they were renting these structures. Since they are not renting these structures Question 11.5.05 will not apply to them.This module is designed to collect information on durable assets owned by the household.A list of items, durable goods, is provided in column 1 with their corresponding codes in column 3 (11.6.02). The respondent is expected to answer Question 11.6.01 for each item listed, and Questions 11.6. 03-11.6.07 if the response to Question 11.6.07 is YES.Question 11.6.04: Deals with the exact point in time that the item was acquired.Question 11.6.05: Deals with current estimated value of the item if it was sold today Question 11.6.06: Ask if the household paid anything for the item. NOTE: Whilst for a gift the answer here could be NO, if the household paid anything of any sort to get the item it must be recorded as YES and the value of that recorded in Question 11.6.07 which deals with the purchase or acquisition price of the item.The application software to be used for the METSS Population-based Survey (PBS) is referred to as eNCORE. It was designed according to the requirements of the PBS questionnaires. The program comprises of two major components:a) The client application: This was built on .NET platform. It is the interface which interacts with the database b) The Back-end: This is the data repository of the client application. It relies on MS SQL Server 2005.The program is installed on the Dell Laptop that each enumerator would receive. The programme can be launched by clicking on the eNCORE shortcut icon on the desktop, or from the eNCORE icon in the start menu. Upon double clicking on the icon, a dialog box would be displayed to ask for the enumerator user name and password. These details would be given to enumerators and would be unique to each enumerator to allow for tracking of individual output in the final database. When the user name and password combination is acceptable, the eNCORE client application would be displayed. The icon for the eNCORE program as well as the log in window and the client application display are as shown below.The left panel of the eNCORE application contains a list of the modules to be administered starting from the household identification module. The right panel also has a list of the modules but this panel is used for previewing captured data and for export of the captured data to Microsoft Excel format. When the client application display is loaded, all the tabs in the left hand panel are disable except for the tab for the household identification module. The save button is used to save captured data, and to overwrite existing data when in edit mode. The save function is permitted only when there are no violations to the data captured in the active window. Otherwise, a warning pop-up display (such as the first two shown below) would show up. When the save is successful, the third icon below would show up.The edit button is used to call data from memory for the purpose of making updates. The delete button is used to delete existing records in memory while the next button is used to move from the current window (Module) to the next module on the data entry path.A number of tools have been provided in the eNCORE program to assist the enumerator. Tools provided include a notepad to keep notes, a calculator to help with computations and conversions, a backup tool to readily activate data backup and a restore tool to restore the database to a desired status at a particular point in time. The tool buttons are as shown in the display below.Encore tool buttons.6.3 Entering data for a household Data can be added to the encore database by directly entering data into the forms on any active module. To begin data entry for any household, the household identification module must first be completed and saved. The household identification form can be activated by selecting the tab from the left panel of the eNCORE user display. The form for the household identification is as shown below:The red rectangle to the right corner of the display (labeled A) shows a drop-down field.When any question has this feature, it implies that the possible entries for the field should be selected from the dropdown list. The red rectangle, labeled B, shows a radio button where all the possible responses to a question are displayed and the chosen answer is selected by clicking in the button against the choice of answer to activate it. Open fields without dropdown arrows are meant for direct keyboard inputting. A completed household identification page would look like the screen shown below. The GPS File Name should be identical to the Household ID automatically generated.Once the household identification page is successfully saved, the household demographics page is activated for the entry of data for the household members. Data entry into all the forms follows the same procedure described above. Fields with a dropdown are answered by selecting from the dropdown, while fields with radio buttons are answered by clicking in the appropriate option to activate the choice of answer. Some fields have default answers provided and can be left untouched if the default answer is indeed the correct answer. For example, on the household demographics form, the questions \"Are you currently attending school\" has the default answer of \"No\" (see display below). For a person who is not currently in school, the enumerator has no work to do. When the person is in school, then the enumerator is expected to click on the box to change the answer to the question to \"Yes\".Once information is provided for each member, the supporting database is displayed in the panel below the forms to provide the opportunity for quick review and referencing. When information for each person is provided, the case has to be saved before proceeding to enter data for the next person. When information has been entered for all household members, the enumerator can proceed to the next module by clicking on the next button. The display below shows the entry panel with information entered for three household members.Skip patterns in the questionnaire have been automatically programmed such that once fields are not applicable based on previous answers, the affected fields become inactive. In the household demographics form, for example, once the age of a child is less than 3 years, the field on marital status and the questions on education become inactive since they are nonapplicable for a child less than three years.There are some in-built consistency checks as well, particularly between current age and date of birth. From the display below, the check icon is shown when there is an inconsistency but the icon changes to when the data entries being compared are consistent. It is important that enumerators keep this in mind so that they can enhance the quality of the data entered.Check mark turns to when age and date of birth are consistent Two of the modules, namely Children's Minimum Acceptable Diet and Exclusive Breastfeeding, have multiple pages displayed in tabs. For such forms, the save button is only available on the last page. It must be noted that the entries for each child is complete only after entering data into all the three forms.With the above details, every enumerator can navigate the data entry program until the end of the modules for the first visit. In case the interview is not completed, the case can be revisited by using the 'Update Existing Questionnaire' tab in the System menu located on the uppermost left corner of the application display. This same feature can be used to continue with the consumption module for the second visit.Since there are a number of individual level modules, it is possible that not all eligible individuals would be available at the time of enumeration, or some may even decline to participate in the survey. In this case, the enumerator can use the exclusion feature to by-pass the entry path and then to include the individuals later once they become available. If they do not become available for enumeration during the period of the fieldwork, they would remain excluded.It is required that each supervisor exports all captured records from his/her team on a daily basis, export it to Microsoft Excel format, and then forward it to METSS/KSU/ISSER. The procedure to follow in exporting data to Microsoft Excel is as outlined below:From the right panel ","tokenCount":"15322"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4aeb73494356c8ffb4f9f5aeab21271e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5a57674e-5772-4eef-b1e3-5cbb4e9a29fa/content","id":"-1035060286"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"de369560-ad54-4064-8398-3a45b6b381ab","pagecount":"8","content":"Mitra) del Sintético Hexaploide Ruff (Triticum turgidum L.)/T. tauschii (Coss.) Schmalh. x Triticum aestivum L.Resumen. Se estudió la herencia de la resistencia al carbón parcial (Tilletia indica) en dos poblaciones de líneas haploides dobles de trigo. Las poblaciones se obtuvieron del programa de cruzas amplias del CIMMYT, México, utilizando la técnica de polinización con maíz y rescate de pro-embriones. El sintético hexaploide Ruff/T. tauschii se utilizó como progenitor resistente y las variedades Opata M-85 y Ciano T-79 como progenitores susceptibles. Las poblaciones constaron de 146 líneas de la primera población y 104 de la segunda, las cuales fueron sembradas e inoculadas durante dos años de manera artificial en campo. Se realizaron dos fechas de siembra en el ciclo de cultivo 2003-2004 y tres en el 2004-2005. En cada ensayo se incluyeron los progenitores, así como el testigo susceptible WL-711. Las diferencias en los niveles de incidencia al carbón parcial entre líneas haploides dobles fueron altamente significativas y al menos cuatro de ellas mostraron 0% de infección en los dos ciclos de cultivo en las dos poblaciones. La variedad Opata M-85 mostró ser más resistente que la variedad Ciano T-79. La segregación de haploides dobles en resistentes y susceptibles indicó al menos dos genes de resistencia en la primera población y en la segunda de tres a cinco genes.Palabras clave adicionales: Carbón parcial, carbón karnal, haploides dobles (HDs).Abstract. Inheritance conferring resistance to partial bunt (Tilletia indica) was studied in two doubled-haploid populations of wheat. These populations were produced by the wheat wide crossing program in CIMMYT, Mexico, using maize pollination and rescue of proembryos. The synthetic hexaploid Ruff/T. tauschii was used as a resistant parent and cultivars Opata M-85 and Ciano T-79 as susceptible ones.The first population consisted of 146 lines and the second 104; each population was planted and artificially inoculated in the field during two crop cycles. There were two planting dates in 2003-2004 and three in 2004-2005. Parents and the susceptible check WL-711 were included in each trial. Infection levels of karnal bunt were highly significantly different among the doubled-haploids, and at least four showed no infection across planting dates and years. Cultivar Opata M-85 was more resistant to karnal bunt than cv. Ciano T-79. Segregation of doubled-haploids into resistant and susceptible in population one indicated the presence of at least two genes for resistance, whereas population two indicated three to five.Additional keywords: Partial bunt, karnal bunt, doubledhaploids (DHs).El carbón parcial del trigo es una enfermedad causada por el hongo Tilletia indica [sin. Neovossia indica (Mitra) Mundkur], el cual afecta al grano generalmente en forma parcial. Esta enfermedad constituye un serio problema en algunas partes del mundo como en el noroeste de la India, Pakistán y el noroeste de México. Consecuentemente se han adoptado medidas cuarentenarias, las cuales afectan no sólo la producción sino también el mercado internacional (Brennan et al., 1990) limitando el movimiento de germoplasma (Fuentes-Dávila, 1997). Debido a que el carbón parcial se disemina por semilla y a que se tiene cero tolerancia en niveles de infección, el control químico de la enfermedad con fungicidas durante (Recibido: Marzo 6, 2006Aceptado: Junio 6, 2006) la floración en la producción de semilla resulta comercialmente impráctico (Fuentes-Dávila y Rajaram, 1994). Las teliosporas que se encuentran confinadas en la semilla, se liberan durante el proceso de la cosecha y trilla, pudiendo ser depositadas en el suelo, o adheridas a los granos sanos como contaminante externo. Las teliosporas recién formadas generalmente presentan bajos porcentajes de germinación (Bansal et al., 1983;Smilanick et al., 1985), y se considera que tienen un período de dormancia de varios meses; aunque también se ha reportado que las teliosporas en soros intactos y a varias profundidades en el suelo, se pueden mantener viables durante 27 a 45 meses (Krishna y Singh, 1982). Alta humedad relativa, temperaturas moderadas y lluvia durante la floración, favorecen el desarrollo de la enfermedad (Aujla et al., 1977;Mundkur, 1943;Singh y Prasad, 1978). El desarrollo de variedades resistentes parece ser la mejor alternativa para el control de la enfermedad (Fuentes-Dávila, 1997;Singh et al., 1993). Altos niveles de resistencia al carbón parcial se han reportado en trigo duro (Fuentes-Dávila et al., 1992, 1993; Fuentes-Dávila y Ammar, 2006a), triticale (Fuentes-Dávila et al., 1992, 1993; Fuentes-Dávila y Ammar, 2006b) y la especie silvestre Triticum tauschii (Coss.) Schmalh. (Aegilops squarrosa L., 2n = 2x = 14DD) atribuido al cromosoma 6D (Gill et al., 1981;Villarreal et al., 1994). La variabilidad que presenta esta última especie ha sido utilizada a través de la producción de trigos sintéticos hexaploides (Triticum turgidum L. X Triticum tauschii) reconocidos como resistentes a la enfermedad (Mujeeb-Kazi y Hettel, 1995;Mujeeb-Kazi et al., 2001b). La herencia de la resistencia al carbón parcial fue investigada en cruzas de tres trigos sintéticos hexaploides Altar C84/T. tauschii (219), Chen/T. tauschii (224) y Duergand/ T. tauschii (214) con dos trigos harineros susceptibles Seri M-82 y Opata M-85, postulándose que en conjunto existe un mínimo de tres genes presentes que confieren la resistencia (Villarreal et al., 1995). La producción de líneas haploides dobles es un método rápido para obtener genotipos homocigotos en una sola generación a partir de heterocigotos de una cruza realizada (Steffenson et al., 1995). Estos materiales pueden ser producidos utilizando varias técnicas biotecnológicas, como el cultivo de embriones inmaduros, cultivo de anteras, cruzas interespecíficas, aplicación de reguladores de crecimiento y colchicina (Mujeeb-Kazi, 2000;Mujeeb-Kazi y Hettel, 1995;Snape, 1989). Poblaciones de haploides dobles de trigo y cebada (Hordeum vulgare L.) han sido utilizadas para estudios genéticos de resistencia a royas y carbones (Brammer et al., 2004;Knox et al., 1998;Steffenson et al., 1995). En estudios de herencia de resistencia utilizando familias F 2 ó F 3 , la evaluación se dificulta por la diferente segregación que presentan, lo que complica la clasificación genotípica y la interpretación de resultados (Knox et al., 1999). En el uso de líneas individuales, como haploides dobles o de descendencia uniseminal, las plantas son homocigóticas y pueden usarse de tal modo que la clasificación estará relacionada al mismo genotipo y así se puede probar mejor la reacción a las enfermedades, medir la variabilidad y análisis genético (Mitchell et al., 1992;Snape, 1988;Winzeler et al., 1987)  (1974). Las inoculaciones se realizaron durante los meses de enero, febrero y marzo de cada ciclo de cultivo conforme las líneas alcanzaban su etapa de embuche. Las espigas seleccionadas se marcaron con una etiqueta roja para identificarlas y registrar su fecha de inoculación. Se mantuvo una humedad relativa óptima utilizando un sistema de aspersión para proveer una ligera brisa y facilitar el desarrollo de la enfermedad. Al momento de la madurez, estado 94 (Zadoks et al., 1974), las espigas inoculadas de cada línea, progenitores y del testigo fueron cosechadas por separado de manera manual. Se calculó el porcentaje de infección de cada línea contando el número de semillas sanas e infectadas de forma visual (Fuentes-Dávila et al., 1995). Análisis estadístico. En cada ensayo, los datos número de semillas infectadas, número de semillas sanas y total de semillas de cada línea se sometieron a un análisis de varianza en forma binomial para estimar las diferencia entre HDs utilizando el procedimiento LOGISTIC GENMOD ANOVA del programa SAS (Litell et al., 2002). Con el fin de explicar las diferencias en incidencia de una misma línea entre las fechas de siembra se aplicó el modelo de Jhorar et al. (1992) a los datos de humedad relativa diaria y temperatura máxima de la estación metereológica Block 910 CIANO, para determinar el índice de riesgo de incidencia en los días que se efectuó la inoculación artificial. Para la determinación del número de genes de resistencia, las líneas HDs se agruparon en susceptibles (líneas con valor de incidencia igual o mayor al progenitor susceptible) y resistentes (líneas con valor de incidencia menor al progenitor susceptible) en cada fecha de siembra para formar dos grupos: uno de la clase homocigoto susceptible y otro homocigoto resistente en cada población. Se realizó un análisis cuantitativo a través de la prueba de X 2 para comparar las distribuciones esperadas y observadas entre los dos grupos anteriores de cada población.El nivel de incidencia del carbón parcial en el sintético hexaploide resistente utilizado en este estudio en los dos ciclos de evaluación fue de 0 a 4.09%; en otros trabajos como el de Multani et al. (1988), donde se utilizó un sintético con igual genotipo tetraploide (Ruff/T. tauschii 3745), se registró un nivel de 0%, pero sólo a partir en ocho espigas de una sola fecha de siembra y un sólo año. En el presente estudio, un decremento en los niveles de infección de todos los genotipos se produjo en la segunda fecha de siembra del 2004, sobre todo en Ciano T-79, lo que causó que la clasificación disminuyera ligeramente en la proporción de resistentes (Fig. 2). La variedad Opata M-85 utilizada como susceptible en la población DHO/RAS en este estudio, mostró diferencias en los niveles de infección en las dos fechas de siembra del ciclo 2003-2004; de la misma manera, líneas inoculadas el mismo día de la segunda fecha de siembra tuvieron por lo general una reducción en los niveles de infección comparadas con las inoculaciones correspondientes a la primera fecha de siembra (Cuadro 1). De acuerdo con Singh et al. (1993), lo anterior se puede explicar debido a que el carbón parcial es una enfermedad errática en las áreas de incidencia, que depende en gran medida de las condiciones ambientales prevalecientes en la etapa de espigamiento-floración. Ejemplo de esto es la diferencia en incidencia que se presentó en los ciclos de cultivo 1984-1985 y 1986-1987 en el Valle del Yaqui, donde 70% de los muestreos de cosecha resultaron positivos en el primer ciclo, mientras que en el segundo sólo 0.35% tuvieron granos con algún grado de infección (Fuentes-Dávila y Hettel, 1991). Las diferencias antes mencionadas en el presente estudio de la segunda fecha de siembra, podrían atribuirse principalmente a las temperaturas que se presentaron al momento de la inoculación, ya que según Figueroa-López ( 2004), para el Valle del Yaqui, Sonora, días con clima seco y cálido a las 4:00 pm durante febrero y marzo no son favorables para el desarrollo de la enfermedad; durante las inoculaciones llevadas a cabo en la segunda fecha de siembra, un notable incremento de las temperaturas máximas fue registrado del 16 al 19 de febrero del 2004 fluctuando entre los 28.9 y 33°C, lo que podría explicar las diferencias de incidencia de la enfermedad dentro de una misma línea. El análisis de varianza de la reacción a la enfermedad de las líneas haploides dobles y sus progenitores en las dos poblaciones mostraron diferencias significativas (P < 0.001), expresando un mayor efecto en las dos primeras fechas de siembra de cada ciclo. Con el fin de apreciar la separación entre HDs homocigotos resistentes y homocigotos susceptibles de las dos poblaciones, se formó una distribución de frecuencia con clases de amplitud del 5% de incidencia (Figs. 2 y 3). Los resultados en fechas donde el progenitor susceptible tuvo niveles de infección bajos, ocasionaron que no fuera posible separar los haploides dobles en resistentes y susceptibles debido a probables escapes a la enfermedad. El análisis de X 2 en las líneas de la población DHO/RAS mostró, un tipo de segregación que se ajusta a una relación de 3:1 ó 5:3 resistente:susceptible indicando en el primer caso dos genes de resistencia y en el segundo tres genes con dos en forma complementaria (Cuadro 2). Una proporción 3 resistentes (heterocigotos y homocigotos resistentes): 1 susceptible (homocigotos susceptibles) fue obtenida por Villarreal et al. (1995) cuando utilizó durante un solo ciclo de cultivo los promedios de granos infectados en líneas F 3 de la cruza del sintético hexaploide Chen/T. Tauschii(205) y Chen/T. Tauschii(224) por la variedad susceptible Opata M-85 postulando un gen de resistencia; sin embargo, al cruzar el sintético Duergand/T. tauschii (219) con la misma variedad, obtuvo una relación de 9 resistente: 3 susceptible postulando para una población F 3, la existencia de un gen independiente y dos genes complementarios para la resistencia. Con relación al estudio de la población DHC/ RAS, los segregantes estuvieron distribuidos en proporciones de 7:1 y 31:1 resistente:susceptible, mismas que suponen la posible segregación de tres genes para la primera y de cinco genes para la segunda (Cuadro 3). El progenitor susceptible Ciano T-79 tuvo un nivel de incidencia máximo de 26.16%; aún si éste hubiese tenido una reducción de la tercera parte en el porcentaje de infección, toda la población se ajustaría a una proporción 7:1, tal como sucedió en la segunda fecha de siembra del 2004. Las variaciones en las proporciones dentro de una misma población ya han sido reportadas de diferente forma en trabajos anteriores; Knox et al. (1998) por ejemplo, analizaron repetidamente una población de líneas de haploides dobles para la resistencia al carbón apestoso [Tilletia caries (DC.) Tul. y C. Tul.] en una cámara de crecimiento y en condiciones de campo, obteniendo las proporciones 1:1 y 1:3 entre resistentes: susceptibles, respectivamente, atribuyendo la variación a las diferentes condiciones que se presentan en  campo. Con relación a lo anterior, las proporciones en el presente estudio podrían variar por clasificaciones erróneas debido a que por lo errático de la enfermedad pueden presentarse escapes; sin embargo, es de resaltar que de las diferentes formas analizadas algunas proporciones se repiten de manera constante. Las poblaciones de HDs producidas por cultivo de anteras podrían tener la limitante de mostrar las frecuencias génicas alteradas por variación somaclonal o especificidad genotípica (Picard, 1989). No obstante, Laurie y shape (1990) encontraron que el desarrollo de HDs utilizando polen de maíz y rescate de embriones, tal como se obtuvieron los materiales empleados en este estudio, no causan las anormalidades antes mencionadas, de aquí que Knox et al. (1998) recomiendan este método como una forma de minimizar los problemas que se tienen al hacer la clasificación errónea entre resistentes y susceptibles. El número de haploides dobles obtenidos entre susceptibles y resistentes en estudios genéticos no necesariamente tienen que ser grandes, pero sí de un tamaño suficientemente apropiado para distinguir la acción de uno o más genes. Debido a la ausencia de heterocigosis, la raíz cuadrada de una población convencional F 2 , (v1024) es equivalente a utilizar 32 haploides dobles para identificar un mínimo de cinco genes (Brammer et al., 2004), por lo que el número de HDs en este estudio podría considerarse aceptable. En las dos poblaciones analizadas en este trabajo, es evidente que parte de las líneas de HDs clasificadas presentan valores que sobrepasan a sus progenitores, tanto de carácter resistente como susceptible siendo más notorio en la proporción correspondiente a la población DHO/RAS, lo que podría deberse a una No  et al. (1995), a genes suprimidos en el sintético hexaploide. En este último caso, el número de genes de resistencia determinados en este estudio podría variar por los genes supresores y/o por una clasificación diferente en las proporciones entre HDs resistentes y susceptibles. Es conocido que existen genes de resistencia provenientes de T. tauschii a factores bióticos como el carbón parcial en trigos sintéticos hexaploides (Mujeeb-Kazi y Hettel, 1995); así mismo, los trigos duros o cristalinos presentan un alto grado de resistencia a la enfermedad (Fuentes-Dávila et al., 1992;1993); por lo que T. tauschii y T. turgidum podrían estar contribuyendo a la resistencia. Los resultados basados en la segregación de las líneas HDs indican en este estudio que podrían postularse un mínimo de dos genes de resistencia presentes en el trigo sintético hexaploide Ruff/T. tauschii.","tokenCount":"2565"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ad5f03f196526a3ee0bbe1c441b0f9f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8a31e83b-7d51-4ecc-bfcb-2fd53d249802/retrieve","id":"1251892984"},"keywords":["arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi","drought stress","root colonization","nutrient concentration","sweet potato","yield gap"],"sieverID":"85da918c-693a-4467-8c23-390de78b7b18","pagecount":"17","content":"Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam] yields currently stand at 4.5 t ha −1 on smallholder farms in Uganda, despite the attainable yield (45-48 t ha −1 ) of NASPOT 11 cultivar comparable to the potential yield (45 t ha −1 ) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). On-farm field experiments were conducted for two seasons in the Mt Elgon High Farmlands and Lake Victoria Crescent agro-ecological zones in Uganda to determine the potential of biofertilizers, specifically arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), to increase sweet potato yields (NASPOT 11 cultivar). Two kinds of biofertilizers were compared to different rates of phosphorus (P) fertilizer when applied with or without nitrogen (N) and potassium (K). The sweet potato response to treatments was variable across sites (soil types) and seasons, and significant tuber yield increase (p < 0.05) was promoted by biofertilizer and NPK treatments during the short-rain season in the Ferralsol. Tuber yields ranged from 12.8 to 20.1 t ha −1 in the Rhodic Nitisol (sandy-clay) compared to 7.6 to 14.9 t ha −1 in the Ferralsol (sandy-loam) during the same season. Root colonization was greater in the short-rain season compared to the long-rain season. Biofertilizers combined with N and K realized higher biomass and tuber yield than biofertilizers alone during the short-rain season indicating the need for starter nutrients for hyphal growth and root colonization of AMF. In this study, N0.25PK (34.6 t ha −1 ) and N0.5PK (32.9 t ha −1 ) resulted in the highest yield during the long and the short-rain season, respectively, but there was still a yield gap of 11.9 and 13.6 t ha −1 for the cultivar. Therefore, a combination of 90 kg N ha −1 and 100 kg K ha −1 with either 15 or 30 kg P ha −1 can increase sweet potato yield from 4.5 to >30 t ha −1 . The results also show that to realize significance of AMF in nutrient depleted soils, starter nutrients should be included.Sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam] is an important staple food crop in many parts of the tropics. Globally, it is ranked the seventh most important food crop after wheat, rice, maize, Irish potato, barley, and cassava (Mwanga et al., 2001). It is a substantial source of carbohydrate and beta-carotene (FAO, 2002). In Africa, sweet potato is the second most important root crop after Irish potato and it is produced mainly in East African countries around Lake Victoria. It is a staple food crop in Uganda, where it is among the priority food security crops (Aritua and Gibson, 2002;Kapinga et al., 2007). Productivity of sweet potato is constrained by poor fertility especially low potassium (K), phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and micronutrients (copper, zinc, iron, manganese, molybdenum, boron, chlorine, and nickel)  (Bourke, 2005(Bourke, , 2009;;Bailey et al., 2008;Kirchlof, 2009;Taraken et al., 2010;Uwah et al., 2013). The estimated nutrient removal by sweet potato from soil is 100, 90, and 200 kg ha −1 of N, P, and K, respectively, which may result to 20-40 t ha −1 of marketable roots depending on cultivar and management (Traynor, 2005). In highly nutrient depleted soils of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), balanced nutrition of N, P, and K is required to enhance crop yield (O'Sullivan et al., 1997).In Uganda, sweet potato tuber yields on smallholder farms stand at an average of 4.5 t ha −1 (CIP, 2006), which is 10% of the attainable yield (45-48 t ha −1 ) of the cultivar Namulonge Sweet Potato 11 (NASPOT 11;Mwanga et al., 2011) and the potential yield (45 t ha −1 ) in SSA (CIP, 2006). NASPOT 11 has long-elliptic storage root shape when grown in light soils, has high dry matter content (∼34%) which translates into increased yield and good to excellent consumer acceptance, depending on growth conditions. In terms of resistance to diseases such as sweet potato virus disease (SPVD) and Alternaria bataticola blight, the cultivar is superior to previously released cultivars (Mwanga et al., 2011). The low on-farm sweet potato yields are recorded in other SSA countries like Kenya and Ethiopia with 9.5 and 7.7 t ha −1 , respectively, among others (PRAPACE, 2003). Although, yields are substantially below their potential, experimental yields of more than 25 t ha −1 have been obtained with the use of fertilizers (MAAIF, 1992). Osiru et al. (2009) showed significant variation (p < 0.05) at Kachwekano Agricultural Research and Development Centre in south-western Uganda (41.10 tons per hectare) than at Namulonge Agricultural Research Station in central Uganda (16.08 tons per hectare) and at Serere Animal Agricultural Research Station in eastern Uganda (14.75 tons per hectare) across genotypes and seasons. While the germplasm constraint has been fairly addressed through breeding, the abiotic and edaphic constraints, especially soil fertility, still limits potential yield of sweet potato (Pender et al., 2004). Possible interventions to alleviate soil fertility limitation include application of inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers and biofertilizers. Biofertilizers are increasingly being included in integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) programs in Asia and Africa (Vanlauwe et al., 2010). Intensified use of biofertilizers such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is emerging as an environmentally-friendly alternative soil fertility management practice with potential to increase and cheaply sustain crop yields compared with continuous application of inorganic fertilizers alone (Sharma et al., 2013). Introducing AMF to soils which already contain AMF could be beneficial since the carrying capacity of some agricultural soils may be low yet high spore densities are required to increase the volume of hyphae in the soil and the percentage of roots colonized (Rosendahl, 2008). Several benefits of AMF have been reported including improved plant survival and acclimatization, increased growth and nutrient uptake (especially P, Zn, Mn, Mg, Cu, K, and N), increased crop yields (Estaun et al., 2002;Wang et al., 2008;Kapulnik et al., 2010;Ortas, 2010;Kavoo-Mwangi et al., 2013) and improved water use efficiency (WUE; Auge, 2001). These have been reported for plants and crops like olive (Porras-Soriano et al., 2010), banana (Kavoo-Mwangi et al., 2013, 2014), turmeric (Radhika and Rodrigues, 2010) and cassava (Ceballos et al., 2013), and sweet potato (Abdel-Razzak et al., 2013). Abdel-Razzak et al. (2013) reported that integrating AMF inoculum with superphosphate fertilizer under the recommended P level (100% P 2 O 5 ) enhanced root productivity and quality than when the treatments were applied singly. However, despite the Abuja declaration of 2006 to increase inorganic fertilizer use to at least 50 kg nutrient per hectare, little impact on this has been realized in most parts of SSA due to financial constraints experienced by smallholder farmers. Moreover, a great proportion of applied P fertilizer is not available to plants due to strong fixation of P on iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and aluminum (Al) oxides (Bünemann et al., 2004;Cardoso and Kuyper, 2006) in most tropical soils. Therefore, we hypothesized that the introduced AMF will improve P availability through solubilization of the P present in the soils, and moisture mobilization leading to increased growth and yield of sweet potato. This prompted the investigation on how to reduce inorganic P fertilizer use by integrating N and K with biofertilizer in increasing sweet potato yields. This was evaluated by comparing AMF to varying P rates in a Ferralsol and Rhodic Nitisol soil in Uganda, and it was predicted that there will be slight differences in the performance of the treatments in the two soils due to their almost identical low to medium fertility levels.On-station experiments were conducted in the Mt Elgon High Farmlands and Lake Victoria Crescent located in eastern and central Uganda, respectively for two seasons (Figure 1). In eastern Uganda, the trial was conducted at the District Agricultural Training Centre (DATIC) in Tororo located at 0 • 40 ′ 57 ′′ N and 34 • 10 ′ 45 ′′ E. The annual mean rainfall is 1100 mm distributed bimodally (March to June and September to November) and the monthly mean temperature is 25 • C. The dry season is mostly pronounced during December to February. The soil at this site is mainly sandy loam classified as Ferralsol. In central Uganda, the experiment was done at the Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute, Kabanyolo (MUARIK) in Wakiso District, located at 0 0 28 ′ N and 32 • 37 ′ E. The soil at this site is of sandy clay texture and classified as Rhodic Nitisol. The area also receives bimodal rainfall during the months of February to May and August to December with an annual mean of 1160 mm. The station's monthly mean temperature is 24.5 • C (Yost and Eswaran, 1990). Ten sub-samples were collected in March and September, 2014 using an auger at a depth of 0-20 cm in each site following a zigzag pattern, and soils were homogeneously mixed and 1 kg composite sample obtained through quartering. Each soil sample was air-dried, sieved through 2 mm sieve, homogenized and analyzed for pH (in 1:2.5 H 2 O), total carbon, total and available P, exchangeable cations (Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , and K + ) and texture in Makerere University Soil and Plant Analytical Laboratory. All analyses were performed following routine procedures. Soil pH was measured in a soil-water solution at a ratio of 1:2.5 (w/v) using a pH meter (Mettler-Toledo, AG 8603;Rhoades, 1982). Total N was determined using Kjeldahl digestion method (Anderson and Ingram, 1989a). Available P was extracted using Bray 1 method (Anderson and Ingram, 1989b) and read using a spectrophotometer (Jenway, 6405 UV/Vis). Exchangeable bases were extracted in ammonium acetate and measured using a flame-photometer (K + ) (Jenway, Essex CM6 3LB) and atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ ) (Anderson and Ingram, 1993b; Jenway, 6405 UV/Vis). Total carbon was determined by wet oxidation and titration (Anderson and Ingram, 1993a). Soil texture was determined using a Bouyoucos (Gallenkamp Bouyoucos) method (Bouyoucos, 1962). The soil water holding capacity was determined using the soil texture hydraulic properties calculator. AMF spores were extracted from the test soils and AMF based biofertilizers using Jenkins (1964) procedure as modified by Ingleby (2007) and identified according to their morphotypes on the basis of spore morphology and subcellular characters with reference to the original species descriptions in INVAM. ( 2017) and Schenck and Perez (1990).Land selected at MUARIK had been used as a pasture paddock for almost 10 years and later converted to crop field, mainly maize for 1 year. At DATIC, the field had been under maize and cassava production for 2 years. All the experimental sites had not been inoculated with AMF previously. Land was ploghed using a tractor and animal-drawn plogh at MUARIK and DATIC, respectively, but mounds of about 0.5 m height and 1 m length were manually heaped. A common practice of an inter-row spacing of 1 m and intra-row spacing of 1 m was used giving a total of 30 mounds within a plot size of 5 m by 6 m and planted with NASPOT 11 sweet potato cultivar. This is one of the recently released high yielding varieties and resistant to pests and diseases. It also produces high biomass which can be fed to livestock (Mwanga et al., 2011). Sweet potato tip cuttings about 25 cm were planted at an angle of 45 • with two thirds of the vine under the soil for proper establishment. The first and the second season experiments were established in April 2014 and October 2014, respectively. The experiment consisted of 10 treatments (Table 1) arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replicates. The study sites were blocked across gentle slopes to obtain homogenous plots in the blocks. Biofertilizers were applied per mound (1 m 2 ) at a rate of 50 g Rhizatech and 1.3 g Symbion vam plus. Biofertilizers were applied to soil based on the manufacturers' recommendations. Rhizatech is produced by Dudutech Kenya Ltd while Symbion vam plus is produced by T. Stanes & Company Ltd and marketed by Osho Chemical Industries Ltd. The biofertilizers were tested since they were the only AMF products available in the nearby market and they are recommended for all AMF host crops. Inorganic P fertilizer (Triple Super Phosphate) was applied at five rates of 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 kg ha −1 representing 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the full rate, respectively. Nitrogen and K were applied at blanket rates of 90 and 100 kg ha −1 , respectively. All the P fertilizer and a third of the N (Urea) and K (Muriate of Potash) fertilizers were applied at planting and top-dressed with the two-thirds of the N and K fertilizers at 2 months after planting (2 MaP). The plots were kept free of weeds by manual weeding. The crop was managed for 4 months before harvesting.Plants in each plot, excluding the border mounds, were assessed for AMF root colonization, nutrient recovery, biomass accumulation and tuber yield. Destructive sampling of nine plants from three mounds per treatment per replicate was done at two and four MaP to determine AMF root colonization, while biomass accumulation, nutrient recovery and tuber yields were determined at four MaP.Sub-samples of roots were processed for mycorrhiza colonization according to procedures by Koske and Gemma (1989). Into each bottle 2.5% potassium hydroxide (KOH) was added before heating in the oven at 70 • C for 1 h. The KOH was poured off and the roots rinsed to remove KOH. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide (60 ml of 28-30% NH 4 OH, 90 ml of 30% H 2 O 2 , and 840 ml distilled water) was then added and roots left for 1 h to remove the phenolic substances. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide was poured off, the roots thoroughly rinsed with tap water and 1% hydrochloric acid (HCl) added and left for 1 h. After pouring off HCl 0.05% Trypan blue was added and the roots placed in the oven for 1 h. De-staining solution (500 mL glycerol, 450 mL of distilled water, and 50 mL of 1% HCl) was added. Slides were prepared with 30 pieces of roots each 1 cm long then examined under a compound microscope at magnification x40. The percentage of each piece covered by arbuscules, vesicles, hyphae and intraradical spores was assessed to determine the intensity of AM fungi colonization (Equation 1; McGonigle et al., 1990). The oven-dried vine samples were ground in a ball mill and analyzed for total P, K, and Zn. Emphasis was put on P and Zn nutrients because AMF has frequently been reported to increase their uptake and concentration in plant tissue, while K is required in large quantities by sweet potato. The concentration of total P was assessed after wet digestion of air-dried ground plant samples with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and selenium powder and salicylic acid and measured using a spectrophotometer (Jenway, 6405 UV/Vis). Potassium was assessed from the digested sample using a flame photometer (Jenway Ltd, Felsted, Dunmow, Essex CM6 3LB), while Zn was assessed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Savant AAA series version 3.02, GBC Scientific Equipment) following digestion (Okalebo et al., 2002).Soil was carefully removed from the tuber and non-tuber roots.Fresh weights of all vines and roots were weighed in the field using a balance (Terraillon, Hanson H1040 of 50 kg and accuracy ± 0.025 kg). Sub-samples of tuber, non-tuber and vines were oven dried at 60 • C for 72 h and dry matter weighed with a precision balance (Phillips Harris, Shemstone England, 4.5 kg and accuracy ±0.01 g).Root colonization, nutrient concentration, biomass accumulation and yield data in individual sites were fit in a general linear model and subjected to analysis of variance using Statistical Analysis Software (SAS), version 9.4 for analysis of variance. Pre-ANOVA assessment included the test of normality of the data. Means were separated using Tukey HSD test.Treatment contrasts were used to compare differences between pairs and groups of treatments and they included: 1 vs. 2,3,4,5,6 = Control vs. NPK treatments; 1 vs. 7,8,9,10 =Control vs. Biofertilizer treatments; 2 vs. 3,4,5,6 = NK vs. NPK;2 vs. 7,8,9,10 = NK vs. Biofertilizer treatments;3,4,5,6 vs. 7,8 = NPK vs. Rhizatech treatments;3,4,5,6 vs. 7,8 = NPK vs. Symbion vam plus treatments; 7,8 vs. 9,10 = Rhizatech treatments vs. Symbion vam plus treatments; 7 vs. 8 = Rhizatech vs. Rhizatech+NK and 9 vs. 10 = Symbion vam plus vs. Symbion vam plus+NK. Simple linear regression was conducted using SAS REG procedure to determine the relationship between AMF root colonization and P, K and Zn concentration, VDW, RDW, and yield in the sweet potato vines.The total carbon content was high and low for the Rhodic Nitisol and Ferralsol soil, respectively. The total N for the Ferralsol was slightly low, while that of the Rhodic Nitisol was within the medium fertility range. Available P levels for both soils were very low considering a moderate range of 12-20 mg per kg of soil (Cook, 1988). The exchangeable bases were sufficient for crop production except for calcium (Ca) in the Ferralsol. There was a moderate population density of indigenous AMF (4-5 spores g −1 of soil) in both sites (Table 2) which was comparable to the spore densities in the biofertilizers (4 spores g −1 of product) used in this study (Table 1).DATIC site received more rainfall (average, 5.30 mm) than MUARIK (average, 2.03 mm) during the long-rain season. However, during the short-rain season, MUARIK received slightly more rainfall (average, 2.74 mm) than DATIC (average, 2.44 mm). The rainfall was unevenly distributed across sites and seasons. In the short-rain season, there was almost no rain for ∼6 weeks in both sites. The rain distribution and intensity at DATIC was better than MUARIK during the long-rain season. At MUARIK the intensity was higher at the beginning of the shortrain season, although the rains ceased too early (Figures 2A,B).Root colonization intensity differed by the interaction of treatments and seasons (p = 0.0007), treatment composition (p < 0.0001) and seasonal variation (p < 0.0001; Figure 3A), and the sampling date and season (p < 0.0001) as shown in Figure 3B.The intensity of AMF root colonization was greater in the short-rain season than in the long-rain season in both sites with a range of 31.0-55.3% and 24.0-42.7%, respectively (Table 3).In the Ferralsol, contrast analysis showed that applying inorganic fertilizers or biofertilizers with and without N and K significantly increased colonization intensity compared to the control and NK in the short-rain season but not in the longrain season. Applying Rhizatech or Symbion vam plus with or without N and K significantly increased colonization compared  to the NPK treatments at 2 and 4 MaP. Effect of Rhizatech with or without N and K was significantly greater than Symbion vam plus with or without N and K at 2 MaP. Biofertilizers applied singly or in combination with N and K significantly increased colonization intensity compared to the control. Rhizatech with or without N and K had significantly more colonization compared to the NPK treatments at 4 MaP (Table 3).In the Rhodic Nitisol, applying biofertilizers singly or with N and K significantly increased colonization intensity compared to the control. Rhizatech with or without N and K had significantly more colonization compared to the NPK treatments at 2 MaP in the long-rain season. Biofertilizers applied singly or in combination with N and K significantly increased colonization intensity compared to NK at 2 MaP in the long-rain season. In the short-rain season, applying inorganic fertilizer treatments and biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly had more colonization compared to the control. In the same season, NPK treatments and biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly increased colonization compared to NK while Rhizatech, with or without N and K, significantly increased colonization compared to the NPK treatments at 2 and 4 MaP. Symbion vam plus with or without N and K and Rhizatech combined with N and K significantly improved colonization compared to Rhizatech alone at 2 MaP. At 4 MaP, applying inorganic fertilizer treatments or biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly increased colonization intensity over the control. The NPK treatments significantly improved colonization intensity compared to NK while Rhizatech with or without N and K and Symbion vam plus with or without N and K significantly performed better compared to the NPK treatments. Rhizatech with or without N and K significantly performed better compared to Symbion vam plus with or without N and K in improving colonization intensity (Table 3).  Generally, P concentration was influenced by treatment composition (p < 0.0001), soil type (p < 0.0001) and variations in the seasons (p < 0.0001; Figures 4A,B). Potassium concentration was influenced by the interaction of treatment, soil type and season (p = 0.0403), soil type (p = 0.0042) and differences in seasons (p = 0.0004; Figure 4C). Zinc concentration was significantly influenced by the interaction of treatment and soil type (p = 0.0191), and treatment composition (p < 0.0001; Figure 4D). Table 4 shows the means of nutrient concentration and treatment contrast analysis for each site (soil type), respectively, and for both seasons. Treatments variably affected the concentration of macronutrients (P and K) and micronutrient (Zn) in sweet potato vines in the two soil types over the seasons (Table 4).In the Ferralsol, the contrast analysis showed that biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly increased P concentration when compared to the control in the short-rain season and NK in the short and long-rain season. In the same season, Rhizatech with or without N and K significantly outperformed NPK treatments (Table 4). For the two seasons in the Rhodic Nitisol, inorganic fertilizers significantly increased P concentration compared to the control. However, NPK treatments significantly increased P concentration compared to the NK treatment in the two seasons. Biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly increased P concentration when compared to the control and NK in the two seasons.The effect of biofertilizers with or without N and K and inorganic fertilizer treatments on K concentration was significantly greater compared to the control in the short-rain season in the Ferralsol. Biofertilizers with or without N and K outperformed NK in the long-rain season in the Ferralsol. In the Rhodic Nitisol, applying biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly increased K concentration beyond the control and the NK in the short-rain season. Rhizatech+NK significantly increased K concentration compared to Rhizatech applied singly while the inorganic fertilizer treatments significantly outperformed the control in the short-rain season (Table 4).Significant differences in nutrient concentrations were observed where biofertilizers with or without N and K, and inorganic fertilizers were applied compared to the control and NK during the long-rain season in both soils. In the same season, biofertilizers applied singly or supplemented with N and K significantly increased Zn concentration beyond the inorganic fertilizer treatments in both soils. However, NPK treatments significantly outperformed NK treatment while Symbion vam plus supplemented with N and K significantly outperformed Symbion vam plus alone in the Ferralsol during the long-rain season. In the Rhodic Nitisol, Rhizatech with or without N and K significantly increased Zn concentration compared to Symbion vam plus with or without N and K in the long-rain season (Table 4).Vine dry weight was significantly influenced by soil type (p < 0.0001; Figure 5A) and season (p < 0.0001; Figure 5B). The root dry weight was significantly (p < 0.0001) influenced by   3,4,5,6 = Control vs. NPK treatments;1 vs. 7,8,9,10 =Control vs. Biofertilizer treatments;2 vs. 3,4,5,6 = NK vs. NPK;2 vs. 7,8,9,10=NK vs. Biofertilizer treatments;3,4,5,6 vs.7,8 = NPK vs. Rhizatech treatments;3,4,5,6 vs.7,8 = NPK vs. Symbion vam plus treatments;7,8 vs. 9  seasonal changes (Figure 5C). The tuber yield was significantly (p < 0.0001) affected by variations in seasons (Figure 5D). Insignificant effects of treatments were observed on growth and tuber yield except for yield in the Ferralsol during the short-rain season (Table 5). Contrast analysis indicated that the inorganic fertilizer treatments and the biofertilizers with or without N and K significantly increased yield as compared to the control while the effect of NPK treatments on yield was significantly greater compared to that of NK.A simple linear regression analysis showed some significant relationship between AMF root colonization and nutrient uptake, but the coefficients of determination (r 2 ) were relatively low. Sweet potato P concentration was positively correlated with AMF root colonization at 4 MaP in the Ferralsol (r 2 = 0.233; p = 0.007) and Rhodic Nitisol (r 2 = 0.126; p = 0.054) during the shortrain season. Sweet potato vine Zn concentration was positively correlated (r 2 = 0.3834; p = 00003) with AMF root colonization in the Ferralsol at 4 MaP (r 2 = 0.3900; p < 0.001) and 4 MaP (r 2 = 0.3834; p < 0.001). According to this analysis, AMF root colonization never correlated with the uptake of K and sweet potato biomass accumulation and tuber yield. However, given the low coefficients of determination, AMF root colonization only would not be adequate enough to predict P and Zn uptake in sweet potato, but the biofertilizers significantly contributed to the nutrient uptake. The tuber yield was positively influenced (r 2 = 0.0809; p = 0.0105) by vine growth during the long-rain season in the Ferralsol, and during the long-rain season (r 2 = 0.3021; p = 0.0002) and the short-rain season (r 2 = 0.2917; p = 0.0021) in the Rhodic Nitisol, although the coefficients of determination (r 2 ) were relatively low (Table 6).The sweet potato root colonization, nutrient concentration and, growth and yield were variably affected by treatment composition, soil conditions, seasonal variations, and the interactions of these factors.In this study, it was hypothesized that AMF increases bioavailability and uptake of P required by the sweet potato crop hence the comparison of biofertilizer + NK with NPK. However, the P mobilized by AMF in these low P soils was generally lower than what was supplied by the NPK treatments. Response to AMF is expected to be better in slightly acidic soils (Fattah, 2013), like the ones used in this study, by improved solubilization of P or extended rhizosphere by fungal hyphae (Lambers et al., 2008;Parewa et al., 2010) increasing surface area for nutrient acquisition. Generally, the effect of biofertilizer on root colonization, nutrient uptake and, growth and yield was not always significant which is possibly due to the shorter period (4 months) the crop was maintained in the field or due to low available P in the soil. The low response to mycorrhizal treatments in growth of annual crops could be attributed to the fact that colonization commences after hyphal formation and   3,4,5,6 = Control vs. NPK treatments;1 vs. 7,8,9,10 =Control vs. Biofertilizer treatments;2 vs. 3,4,5,6 = NK vs. NPK;2 vs. 7,8,9,10=NK vs. Biofertilizer treatments;3,4,5,6 vs.7,8 = NPK vs. Rhizatech treatments;3,4,5,6 vs.7  subsequent colonization of the root. This depends on the state of propagules (spores, hyphae) which may take long period to germinate and infect the plant. Spores persist longer in the soil but they are slow to colonize host plants as compared to hyphae and root fragments (Marin, 2006;Mukhongo et al., 2016). Kavoo-Mwangi et al. (2013) reported lack of immediate expression of Rhizatech (G. mosseae, G. intraradices, G. etunicatum, and G. aggregatum) in growth of tissue culture banana plantlets for 22 weeks under nursery conditions, but they gave significant results when the inoculated plantlets were established under field conditions for 7 months. The less significant results could also be due to the low spore densities in both experimental soils (4-5 spores g −1 ) and biofertilizers (2-4 spores g −1 ) as compared to high density (50 propagules g −1 ) used by Kavoo-Mwangi et al. (2013). However, it is possible that the occurrence of both indigenous and introduced AMF in plots that received biofertilizer treatments boosted the AMF spores in soil, and hence the significant colonization over the rest of the treatments.Although it is unknown if spore abundance increased during this experiment as this was measured only before planting. Increased abundance of AMF propagules is important to achieve rapid colonization (Verbruggen et al., 2012). This was also supported by the effect of Rhizatech (4 spores g −1 of product) with or without N and K which was in most cases greater than for Symbion vam plus (2 spores g −1 of product) with or without N and K. Combining biofertilizers with N and K consistently performed better than biofertilizers alone which demonstrated the importance of starter dose of nutrients in low nutrient soils like the Ferralsol and the Rhodic Nitisol used in the present study. However, due to the lack of data on AMF changes in spore abundance, hyphal biomass and diversity (in spores and in plant roots) after biofertilizers were applied, and lack of a biofertilizer + NPK treatment in this study, we were unable to separate native verse biofertilizer AMF effects on sweet potato root colonization, nutrient uptake, biomass accumulation, and tuber yield. Phosphorus and zinc were analyzed in the sweet potato vines because AMF has frequently been reported to increase their availability and concentration, while potassium is required in large quantities by sweet potato. The significant effect of biofertilizers with or without N and K on increasing P, K, and Zn concentration was attributed to the functioning of AMF and B. megaterium present in the biofertilizers. Root colonization by AMF improves nutrient uptake per unit of root length due to the enhancement of root surface area by hyphal growth and providing an extra route for uptake as mycorrhizal pathway (Smith et al., 2003) but this depends on the AMF species colonizing the plant roots. Efficiency of AMF species is influenced differently by their development and activity of the external hyphae, hyphal transport rates, and solute interchange at the arbuscule-host root cell interface (Marschner, 1995;Hajiboland et al., 2009). Plant growth promoting bacterium B. megaterium improves root growth and development (Mia et al., 2002;Kavoo-Mwangi et al., 2013) hence increased nutrient uptake. During drought conditions in the low fertility Ferralsol soil, AMF root colonization increased with water stress (Auge, 2001) therefore, increasing P and K uptake through solubilization and extended rhizosphere due to fungal hyphae. Mycorrhizae are known to help plants acquire nutrients that are fixed in the soil such as P and also significantly improve plant nutrition under low fertility soil conditions (Lambers et al., 2008(Lambers et al., , 2011)). The major ways of increasing uptake of nutrients include increase of acquisition area by root growth or involvement of mycorrhizae and root exudation of low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs) or phytosiderophores (Gao et al., 2012). The significant effect of inorganic fertilizer treatments on P and K concentration in sweet potato vines and their subsequent effect on growth and yield were due to the increased availability of the nutrients in the soil solution. Root length and spatial availability are of high importance for nutrients such as P, K, and Zn (Marschner, 1995).The attainable yield of NASPOT 11 is ∼45-48 t ha −1 (Mwanga et al., 2011) while the highest attained yield was 34.6 t ha −1 from N0.25PK treatment (15 kg P ha −1 ). Therefore, application of N0.25PK can alleviate yield constraints by 74%. Although there were significant improvements by some of the treatments on growth and yield, there was still a yield gap of 11.9 t ha −1 for the cultivar which could be linked to a consortium of complex interacting factors. Therefore, there is a need to screen for efficient AMF strains and dosage that could improve nutrient acquisition and test their effect on sweet potato growth and yield when combined with NK and varying rates of soluble P. Abdel-Razzak et al. (2013) reported improved sweet potato growth and yield response to AMF (G. mosseae) combined with superphosphate fertilizer compared with single use of either input after 120 days of growth. However, the initial soil available P was high (23-25 mg kg −1 ) unlike in this study at 1.54-3.76 mg kg −1 . Sastry et al. (2000) reported significant improvement in AMF root colonization of Eucalyptus hybrid and subsequent growth and P uptake when inoculum was combined with >20 mg P kg −1 , but they all decreased when the P rate was increased to 30 mg P kg −1 . This and other reports from Rakshit and Bhadoria (2008) and Schubert and Hayman (1986) reveal that there's no standard level of available P for realizing the greatest AMF benefits. However, available P of between >20 and 150 mg kg −1 promotes AMF root colonization and its subsequent effect on growth and yield. This study has demonstrated that AMF biofertilizer may not be suitable for sweet potato when applied singly especially in nutrient poor soils. Therefore, there's need of reviewing their application rates and combining them with limiting nutrients depending on soil analysis results.The positive tuber yield response to AMF inoculation in the Ferralsol (sandy-loam) with low organic carbon (1.25%) during the short-rain season indicates the possibility that the mycorrhizal inoculation improved water use efficiency (WUE) of sweet potato. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi root colonization increases with water stress and this affects plant-soil water relations under drought which have an impact on physiological processes such as photosynthesis rate (Auge, 2001). Relatedly, Johnson et al. (2010) reported that shifts in environmental conditions like rainfall patterns modify mycorrhizal response. However, further investigation is required to confirm AMF beneficial effect in drought conditions in sweet potato. The uneven distribution and intensity of rainfall at the two sites during the two seasons (Figures 2A,B) contributed to lower than the potential yield by affecting tuber expansion that occurs from 10 weeks after planting (Traynor, 2005). Tuber yield levels were however larger ranging from 12.8 to 20.1 t ha −1 in the Rhodic Nitisol (sandy-clay) compared to 7.6 to 14.9 t ha −1 in the Ferralsol (sandy-loam) during the same season. This is possibly due to the positive influence of vine and leaf growth rate hence the increased supply of photosynthates resulting into sucrose synthesis and tuber development (Mengel et al., 2001).Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonization has been previously shown to increase with water stress (Auge, 2001) which may be one of the reasons why the AMF root colonization increased during the short-rain season (Figures 2A,B). The increased colonization had a positive influence on the concentration of P and Zn in the sweet potato vines suggesting the contribution of AMF to nutrient solubilization and extended rhizosphere for nutrient acquisition (Parewa et al., 2010). Nutrient uptake increases with increased moisture content since high moisture changes the availability of nutrients (Misra and Tyler, 1999). Increased moisture content during the long-rain season significantly boosted most of the treatments in promoting the uptake of P (Figure 4A) and Zn (Figure 4D). However, P concentration was higher in the Ferralsol than in the Rhodic Nitisol which reflects the initial soil available P (3.76 and 1.54 mg kg −1 , respectively) (Figure 4B and Table 2). The total carbon (T.C) in the soils also affected moisture availability which in turn influenced K uptake. For Rhodic Nitisol (sandy-clay), significant effects of treatments were observed in both seasons due to high T.C (3.21%) hence an improved water holding capacity of 0.31 cm 3 water/cm 3 soil. The Ferralsol (sandy-loam) had a lower T.C content (1.25%) hence a lower water holding capacity of 0.19 cm 3 water/cm 3 soil. This only promoted significant effect of the biofertilizer treatments in the short-rain season where there was increased AMF root colonization and improved moisture mobilization that positively influenced K uptake. Water deficits reduce leaf water potential and total water use, and subsequently reduce stomatal conductance, leaf area, root mass, tuber development, and total plant mass (Schneider et al., 1993). The influence of high moisture content on nutrient uptake during the long-rain season positively affected the root growth and yield leading to the seasonal differences (Figures 5B-D).The fertility of the soils used in this study ranged from low to medium which confirms the importance of biofertilizer/fertilizer use in bridging sweet potato yield gap. In these low/medium fertility soils, there was a response to applied P and K hence their improved uptake and boosting of Zn uptake. Significant effect of biofertilizer and NPK observed on yield during the short-rain season in the Ferralsol indicates the possibility that mycorrhizal inoculation improved WUE of sweet potato. It also shows the responsiveness of the Ferralsol to NPK fertilizer application. The increased AMF root colonization in the shortrain season confirms that colonization increases with water stress and that significant yield response is due to the effect of extended rhizosphere through fungal hyphae on nutrient and water acquisition. The results also highlight the importance of AMF applied singly or in combination with N and K in enhancing sweet potato growth and yield. The significance of interacting biofertilizers with N and K suggests the need for starter nutrients for AMF hyphal growth and root colonization.There is a need to screen for efficient AMF strains that could improve nutrient acquisition and test their effect on sweet potato growth and yield when combined with NK and varying rates of soluble P. This will be addressed in our future work on AMF mechanisms of action using different strains and varying rates of P. Low sweet potato growth and yield response to both AMF and NPK indicates the need for further investigation on other limiting conditions to bridge the yield gap in sweet potato production in Uganda. Interaction of AMF inoculation with reduced rates of inorganic fertilizers tailored to results of soil analysis can increase their effect on sweet potato growth and yield. Therefore, assessing the performance of the AMF strains in the context of integrated soil fertility management program based on a comprehensive diagnosis of limiting agro-climatic conditions is a prerequisite.","tokenCount":"6246"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"591492d01884b8915a9c249a0cb99dee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f3ae925-7a9f-467b-9520-011b2a7ca90e/retrieve","id":"1710258133"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"34d8a764-c147-4e8f-8f59-6fb34eea8cd4","pagecount":"1","content":"• Adoption of improved forage cultivation is indispensable to improve livestock productivity, income and environment health • When farmers are allowed to experiment with improved forage production and utilization, they are willing to invest land and resources • Matching the right forage with the right niche is key in triggering croplivestock intensificationThis poster is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. January 2017We thank farmers and local partners in Africa RISING sites for their contributions to this research. We also acknowledge the support of all donors which support the work of the CGIAR centers and their partners through their contributions to the CGIAR system1. Demonstrate and evaluate improved forage cultivation and utilization practices for wider adoption 2. Integrate multipurpose fodder trees in the mixed system (Fig. 1) 3. Test and evaluate improved postharvest feed handling and utilization techniques Technologies: tree Lucerne; oat-vetch mixture, desho grass, sweet lupine, feed troughs and storage sheds, choppers Approach: Action research was initiated by involving more than 600 farmers across the Africa RISING sites. Innovation platforms and farmer research groups were used as vehicles.• Farmers produced high amount of good quality feed biomass from small plot of land (Fig. 2) • By supplementing the forages produced with the local feed resources, production was improved by about 60% • Key determinants of survival and growth of tree Lucerne fodder have been identified (fencing, watering; mulching; manuring; farm typology) • Wastage of feed resources reduced by about 30-50% as a result of use of improved feeding troughs and sheds• Feed is the single most important input for livestock production; adoption of these technologies boosts productivity • The role of forages in biological soil and water conservation has been recognized; additional growing niches created in arable lands • The demand for livestock products (milk and meat) is increasing; forage markets are developing steadily • The technologies can be scaled across the highlands with a potential to reach hundreds of thousands of farmers ","tokenCount":"328"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"df058325bac0c283cb124241b7d73c8d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ab3acc9e-ccd4-42f9-b57b-aeae0ce45740/retrieve","id":"-1369693959"},"keywords":["Zhongming","Z.","Linong","L.","Wangqiang","Z.","& Wei","L. (2021). Major new report shows widespread","rapid and intensifying climate change"],"sieverID":"9f598528-97c3-4cc1-957a-e671aace6df5","pagecount":"107","content":"SEMANA 2: Inventarios de Gases de Efecto Invernadero y la contribución del sector agropecuario al cambio climático. Del 15 al 21 de noviembre, 2021 CONTENIDO TEMÁTICO o Métodos para estimar la producción de metano entérico en rumiantes o Herramientas para la medición de metano por fementaciñon enetérica de acuerdo con métodos in vivo e in vitro.o Medición de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) en el sector agropecuario-sectores de acuerdo con los lineamientos del IPCC, enfasis en fermentación entérica.o Acción de Mitigación Nacionalmente Apropiada NAMA. Actividades de evaluación -Ejercicio práctico: Inventarios de Gases de Efecto del sector Agropecuario, informe con principales resultados y medidas de mitigación recomendadas (Min 1 página).Fecha límite de entrega: 21 de noviembre a las 22:00 horas (Hora de Panamá)El cambio climático representa una seria amenaza para las sociedades centroamericanas por sus múltiples efectos registrados, presentes y futuros en la población y en los sectores productivos. El incremento de la temperatura atmosférica, la reducción y la inestabilidad del régimen de lluvias y el aumento de la temperatura y del nivel del mar, aunados a la intensificación de los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos, como sequías y tormentas, impactarán la producción, la infraestructura, los medios de vida, la salud y la seguridad de la población, además de que debilitarán la capacidad del ambiente para proveer recursos y servicios vitales. Es por ello, que lograr las metas del Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible ODS13 de \"Acción por el clima\" es vital para darle sostenibilidad a otros ODS como el ODS1 \"fin de la pobreza\", ODS2 \"Hambre cero\", ODS3 \"Salud y Bienestar\", ODS6 \"Agua limpia y saneamiento\", ODS7 \"energía asequible y no contaminante\", ODS14 \"vida submarina\" y ODS15 \"vida de ecosistemas terrestres\".En ese contexto, es importante sentar las bases conceptuales y de contexto del cambio climático para identificar soluciones de adaptación y mitigación en el sector agropecuario. Hablar en los mismos términos que los expertos climáticos y ambientales y relacionar estos temas para cada sector productivos será de mucha importancia para los análisis aplicados y el mejor entendimiento de los impactos del clima.Brindar a las personas enlaces técnicos de los Ministerios de Agricultura ante el CAC, así como los enlaces técnicos de los Ministerios de Agricultura ante la Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (CCAD) de la región SICA, los conceptos básicos del cambio climático, el marco normativo a nivel internacional, mostrar la información existente de escenarios y su análisis, así como las estrategias, políticas y gobernanza a nivel de la región SICA.1.Comprenderlosretosydesafíosqueimplicanlosimpactosdelcambio climático para reducir la vulnerabilidad y pobreza en los sistemas agroalimentarios.2.Analizar los inventarios de gases de efectos invernadero y la contribución del sector agropecuario al cambio climático.3.Identificar el marco normativo de Sendai vinculándolo con la adaptación al cambio climático y perspectivas para el sector agropecuario. 4.Identificar algunos temas transversales que deben ser considerados en la lucha contra el cambio climáticoPara alcanzar los objetivos del módulo 2, se utilizó principalmente la combinación de herramientas educativas y de comunicación sincrónica y asincrónica.Las sesiones sincrónicas se realizaron a través de la plataforma ZOOM, en el campus virtual del ICAP, de la siguiente manera: A. Primera sesión sincrónica: consistió en la asistencia de todos los estudiantes matriculados al diplomado. Se realizó el martes 16 de noviembre de 2021 en el horario de 9 am a 12 pm (horario Panamá). En el encuentro sincrónico los docentes presentaron los contenidos del modulo 2, semana 2, que serán descritos más adelante. En este espacio fueron explicadas los conceptos básico del tema del modulo y se brindaron las herramientas y orientacióon para el desarrollo de una actividad evaluativa que debia cumplirse durante la semana, además atendieron preguntas y dudas de los estudiantes sobre los temas abordados en clase.A. La segunda sesión sincrónica: consistió en la asistencia optativa de los estudiantes matriculados. Se realizó el jueves 18 de noviembre de 2021 en el horario de 9 a 11 am (horario Panamá). En este encuentro se atendieron dudas y se explicó un ejercicio práctico de acuerdo con las directrices del IPCC, el cual fue fundamental para el desarrollo de la actividad evaluativa del módulo 2. Además, se presentó un ejercicio usando la herramienta CLEANED. Forrajes Tropicales del CIATForrajes Tropicales del CIATConsultor del CIAT Técnica de producción de gases in vitro automatizada (ANKOM RF)Transductor de presiónImágenes Alejandra MarínEs un método indirecto que permite determinar la degradación de un alimento mediante el volumen de gas producido durante un proceso fermentativo (Theodorou et al 1994).Es una técnica que permite evaluar exitosamente:• La digestibilidad de la materia orgánica de un alimento.• La energía metabolizable de los alimentos.• Poblaciones microbianas (arqueas metanógenas).• Ácidos grasos volátiles (acetato, propionato, butirato).• Producción de gas (CH 4 , CO 2 , entre otros).In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD)Acidos grasos volatiles (Acetato, propionato, butirato)Algunas publicaciones recientes generadas por el equipo de CIAT, Colombia:In vitro fermentation profile and methane production of Kikuyu grass harvested at different sward heights. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 2021Nutritional Evaluation of Tropical Forage Grass Alone and Grass-Legume Diets to Reduce in vitro Methane Production. 2020.Effect of the addition of Enterolobium cyclocarpum pods and Gliricidia sepium forage to Brachiaria brizantha on dry matter degradation, volatile fatty acid concentration, and in vitro methane. 2020El Rusitec es otro método que permite evaluar la calidad nutritiva en forrajes y los principales productos de fermentación ruminal.A diferencia de la técnica de producción de gases in vitro en el Rusitec se pueden realizar estudios de larga duración (días o semanas).Se pueden medir:• Producción de CH 4, CO 2 Fermentadores continuos -Hoover (Hoover et al, 1976) Rusitec (Rumen Simulation Technique)Imágenes Isabel Molina• Es considerada la metodología estándar (\"oro\") para medir las emisiones de metano de rumiantes.• Han sido utilizadas ampliamente para estudiar el metabolismo energético de animales individuales.• El principio de las cámaras de respiración es recolectar todos los gases emitidos, incluidos los de la boca, la nariz y el intestino posterior (Storm et al., 2012).• Se toman muestras del aire y se miden los gases, incluido el metano.• Todos los animales son entrenados antes de usar la cámara.• Alta precisión y confiabilidad.Vista delanteraÁrea: 48 m2 y volumen: 134 m3Tasa de extracción de 0.9 m 3 / sImágenes Isabel MolinaPermite medir las emisiones de metano de los animales in vivo.• Se puede conocer el consumo de los animales para posteriores relaciones con la emisión de metano.• Permite medir el metano entérico emitido por los animales durante un día.• Condiciones ambientales controladas.*Analizador de gas FTIR portátil Gasmet DX4040 (Gasmet Technologies Oy®, Helsinki, Finlandia) Técnica del hexafluoruro de azufre (SF 6 )Es un método de medición directa de metano entérico de rumiantes bajo condiciones de pastoreo.El método se basa en el principio de que el metano se puede medir utilizando la tasa de emisión conocida de un gas trazador del rumen (Brouček, 2014).Se usa el SF 6 como un trazador del metano.El SF 6 tiene un comportamiento similar al del CH 4.En condiciones normales de preisón y temperatura es una gas incoloro, inodoro, no toxico, no inflamable y que no reacciona.No afecta la fermentación ruminal.Concentraciones basales en el aire sean bajas.Imágenes GPEP-UFRGS Técnica del hexafluoruro de azufre (SF 6 )Es un método de medición directa de metano entérico de rumiantes bajo condiciones de pastoreo.El método se basa en el principio de que el metano se puede medir utilizando la tasa de emisión conocida de un gas trazador del rumen (Brouček, 2014).Se usa el SF 6 como un trazador del metano.El SF 6 tiene un comportamiento similar al del CH 4.En condiciones normales de preisón y temperatura es una gas incoloro, inodoro, no toxico, no inflamable y que no reacciona.No afecta la fermentación ruminal.Concentraciones basales en el aire sean bajas.Gases exhalados y eructados son recogidos en collares de PVC (Vacío -25 psi).4. Recolección de las muestras \"Ambiente\".Las concentraciones de gas CH 4 y SF 6 se determinan por cromatografía de gases.6. Cálculo de emisiones de metano (CH 4 ).x SF 6 TP 1. Se coloca un tubo de permeación que contiene SF6 en el rumen.2. Tubo de permeación libera gas SF 6 a una tasa constante.Técnica del hexafluoruro de azufre (SF 6 )The Greenfeed system (C-Lock Inc)GreenFeed es un sistema automatizado que permite medir los flujos de gas de metano (CH 4 ), dióxido de carbono (CO 2 ) y, opcionalmente, oxígeno (O 2 ) e hidrógeno (H 2 ) de animales individuales.El sistema está configurado típicamente para ofrecer una pequeña cantidad de atrayente de cebo granulado para atraer a los animales a visitar varias veces al día.Los datos de emisiones de gas se registran y luego se procesan, lo que permite acceder fácilmente a un informe resumido de los flujos calculados.Permite que los animales pasten naturalmente.Representa una mejor respuesta del comportamiento ingestivo del animal.Imagen: Alejandra Marín Los datos se envían electrónicamente desde la unidad de Greenfeed hasta el sofware de C-Lock Inc.Generar este tipo de información y conocimiento. sumado a otras informaciones como: Caracterización de animales tipo, de la dieta, del sistema de alimentación y gestión del estiércol, climática permite finalmente obtener…Medición de gases en el sector agropecuario. • Representaciones abstractas y simplificadas de la realidad.• Variables analíticas para describir los diversos factores de la realidad.• Ecuaciones y/o inecuaciones para establecer diversas interrelaciones entre estos factores.• Funciones matemáticas para medir el nivel del éxito obtenido en la solución del problema.Evaluación de la eficiencia de predicción de un Modelo El sector de la energía es uno de los más importante en los inventarios de emisiones de GEI y, por lo general, contribuye con más del 90 % de las emisiones de CO 2 y el 75 % de las emisiones totales de GEI en los países desarrollados.Categoría de gran relevancia en países industrializados, en América Latina y el Caribe el aporte no es mayor al 5%, en la mayoría de los casos, siendo la industria del cemento la subcategoría mas relevante.Representa la categoría más importante para la mayoría de países con economías emergentes, en este sentido, las altas tasas de deforestación, las actividades pecuarias y agrícolas representan para los países en la mayoría de los casos mas de la mitad de las emisiones nacionales.Los residuos domésticos e industriales son incluidos dentro de los inventarios nacionales, representando normalmente menos del 4% de las emisiones totales. 1. Los inventarios nacionales de GEI son la fuente oficial que los países signatarios (Acuerdo de parís) para reportar todas sus emisiones/absorciones en una serie de tiempo definida según sus capacidades.2. Son la base para generar todas acciones de mitigación y compromisos internacionales de reducciones de emisiones GEI (NDC, NAMAs, PDBC, MDL, REDD+)3. Fuente de financiamiento internacional para programas de mitigación. Todos los reportes de los inventarios nacionales se reportan y detallan en los capítulos 2 de los IBA´s (Reportes Bienales de Actualización), mediante descripciones narrativas y resumidas en las tablas de reporte.1. Todos los reportes de los inventarios nacionales se reportan y detallan en los capítulos 2 de los IBA´s (Reportes Bienales de Actualización), mediante descripciones narrativas y resumidas en las tablas de reporte.Tomado del NIR de Colombia, 2019Inventario de GEI para el sector agropecuario ¿Cómo se reportan los resultados de un INGEI?Herramientas para la medición de GEI de acuerdo con las directrices del IPCC.Niveles metodológicos IPCCTomado de los Informes Bienales de Actualización; UNFCCC ( 2020  Categoría Fermentación entérica: cuantifica emisiones de GEI producido en el proceso digestivo de las especies pecuarias más representativas de un país o una región específicaCategoría IPCC, 2006: 3A1Fermentación Entérica: proceso digestivo por medio del cual los microorganismos descomponen los carbohidratos en moléculas simples para la absorción hacia el torrente sanguíneo de un animal. Durante este proceso se producen grandes de emisiones de metano.Categoría Gestión de estiércol (CH4): el CH4 producido durante el almacenamiento y el tratamiento del estiércol, así como del estiércol depositado en la pastura.Categoría IPCC, 2006: 3A2 Gestión de estiércol: Diferente manejo que se da a la orina y heces generada por las especies domesticas en un lugar específico. Fuente: IPCC, Modulo 4, capítulo 10.Fuente: IPCC, Modulo 4, capítulo 10.Ganado -Gestión de estiércol (CH 4 )Identificar el método apropiado para estimar las emisiones de cada categoría de fuente y, entonces, basar la caracterización en los requisitos más detallados identificados para cada especie de ganado. Es factible que la caracterización básica para el Nivel 1 sea suficiente para la mayoría de las especies animales en la mayoría de los países. Para este método, es una buena práctica recabar los siguientes datos de caracterización del ganado a fin de respaldar las estimaciones de emisiones Total CH4 Estiércol = emisiones totales de metano por gestión del estiércol, Gg CH4 año-1 EF(T) = factor de emisión para la población de ganado definida, kg CH4 cabeza-1 año-1 N(T) = la cantidad de cabezas de la especie/categoría de ganado T del paísCategoría Gestión de estiércol (N2O): el N2O producido durante el almacenamiento y el tratamiento del estiércol de manera directa e indirecta, antes de que se lo aplique a la tierra.Gas cuantificado: Oxido Nitroso Categoría IPCC, 2006: 3A2 -3C6Gestión de estiércol: Diferente manejo que se da a la orina y heces generada por las especies domesticas en un lugar específico. Fuente: IPCC, Modulo 4, capítulo 10.Fuente: IPCC, Modulo 4, capítulo 10.Nivel 1. Centidad total de excreción de N (de todas las especies/categorías de ganado) en cada tipo de sistema de gestión del estiércol por un factor de emisión Nivel 2. Incluye el uso de datos específicos del país para algunas o todas estas variables Nivel 3. Estimación alternativos basados en una metodología específica del país, p.ej procesos y equilibrio de masa que rastrea el nitrógeno a lo largo del sistema.Cuantifica emisiones de GEI proveniente de la aplicación de urea, cal y el cultivo del arroz Ecuación empleada -Uso de UREALa descomposición anaeróbica de material orgánico en los arrozales inundados produce metano (CH 4 ), que se libera a la atmósfera fundamentalmente mediante el transporte a través de las plantas del arroz; Las emisiones de metano están en función de:Cantidad y la duración de los cultivosEl tipo de suelo, la temperatura y practicas de cultivoInventario de GEI para el sector agropecuario Quema de biomasa: el quemado de biomasa cuantifica emisiones de GEI en tierras de cultivos y pastizales de gases no CO 2Gas cuantificado: Metano, Oxido Nitroso y Oxido de nitrógeno Categoría IPCC, 2006: 3C1Inventario de GEI para el sector agropecuarioEl Monitoreo, Reporte y Verificación (MRV) es un sistema que permite estandarizar y verificar procesos de medición, monitoreo, recolección, gestión de datos y reporte de información relacionada con emisiones de GEI, la implementación de sus políticas, programas y acciones de mitigación, sus efectos y el apoyo recibido por países.Verificación:Es el proceso de recolección y análisis de información para dar seguimiento a las emisiones, reducciones, financiamiento y cobeneficios de las medidas de mitigación. Refiriéndose también a la evaluación de las medidas de adaptación y la medición y estimación de los flujos de financiamiento climático.Es la presentación de los resultados de la información consolidada y analizada. Existen dos tipos de reporte: 1) El que realiza el implementador de la iniciativa o medida. 2) El que realiza el país frente a la CMNUCC o las instancias internacionales que lo requieran.Es el proceso de aseguramiento y control de la calidad de la información. El proceso de revisión del cumplimiento de las metas y objetivos en materia de mitigación a diferentes escalas y la efectividad del financiamiento utilizado para tales efectos.▷ Las NAMA en el contexto de las negociaciones de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Climático (UNFCCC).▷ El concepto de NAMA.▷ Las NAMA en la ganadería_ Colombia. El portafolio de NAMA Facility e cual incluye un total de 43 proyectos de reducción de carbono https://www.nama-facility.org/news/nama-facility-announces-second-round-of-funding-through-the-ambition-initiative/Las NAMA en el contexto de las negociaciones de la UNFCCC LAS NAMA o acciones de mitigación apropiadas para cada país son propuestas voluntarias de reducción de emisiones presentadas por los países en desarrollo a la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC).Estas acciones priorizadas por el gobierno tienen como objetivo reducir o limitar las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) de varios sectores, y se espera que sean el vehículo principal para las acciones de mitigación en países en desarrollo.Las NAMA se pueden implementar a nivel nacional, regional o local y en el contexto del desarrollo sostenible, respaldadas y habilitadas por la tecnología, el financiamiento y el desarrollo de capacidades, de manera mensurable, notificable y verificable.Los requisitos de Medición, Reporte y Verificación (MRV) de las NAMA implican tener un sistema sólido, creíble y transparente para rastrear las emisiones de GEI que sea consistente, comparable, completo y preciso. El MRV brinda garantías de que las NAMA están contribuyendo a la reducción de emisiones y que esta reducción se monitorea, se informa el progreso y se verifican los resultados.Los proyectos NAMA cuya función principal es la reducción directa de las emisiones de GEI, así como el aumento de la capacidad de mitigación de los países en desarrollo, también deben tener otros importantes beneficios sociales, económicos y ambientales.Por lo tanto, los proyectos NAMA podrían incluir estrategias (como una estrategia nacional renovable), políticas (como un estándar de eficiencia energética o una tarifa de alimentación), programas (como un programa de iluminación de eficiencia energética) y proyectos (como un autobús o un carril de tránsito rápido).Se puede solicitar apoyo para la preparación del concepto de NAMA, para su implementación o para ambos. La CMNUCC ha establecido un registro de NAMA para registrar las NAMA enviadas y para facilitar la combinación de apoyo financiero, tecnológico y de creación de capacidad para las NAMA que buscan apoyo internacional.Un país también puede optar por presentar NAMA financiadas a nivel nacional para las que no se solicita apoyo internacional (NAMA \"unilaterales\") para su reconocimiento. En el Plan de Acción de Bali de la CMNUCC (2007), se decidió poner en marcha acciones de mitigación para los países en desarrollo \"[…] Acciones de mitigación apropiadas para cada país de las Partes que son países en desarrollo en el contexto del desarrollo sostenible, respaldadas y habilitadas por la tecnología, la financiación y la creación de capacidad, de una manera mensurable, notificable y verificable \". (Decisión 1 / CP.13, párrafo 1 (b) (ii)) La (NAMA) de la ganadería bovina es una política publica para la gestión del cambio climático mediante la transformación de dicha ganadería a sistemas integrados de sostenibilidad ambiental, social y económica. Brindamos soluciones científicas que aprovechan la biodiversidad agrícola y transforman los sistemas alimentarios de manera sostenible para mejorar la vida de las personas en medio de una crisis climática.BiovIntCIAT.espCCAFS trabaja de la mano con los centros de investigación del CONSORCIO CGIAR para generar productos científicos de alta calidad que apoyen la toma de decisiones de las comunidades rurales para hacer frente a los impactos del clima cambiante. Ejercicio práctico: estudio de caso del inventario nacional de emisiones, sector AFOLU, fermentación entérica y gestión de estiércol.Objetivo: Implementar la metodología Nivel 1 del IPCC del año 2019 para evaluar las emisiones de metano (CH4) por fermentación entérica y gestión de estiércol y analizar e interpretar resultados de emisiones de metano.Instrucciones: el ejercicio práctico se basa en un censo nacional hipotético de ganadería (bovino, equino, mular y asnal, bufalino, caprino, ovino, porcino y avícola) empleando los factores por defectos del IPCC del año 2019 descritos en el capítulo 10 del modulo 4 usando metodología Nivel 1 (básico), que cuantifica las emisiones de metano (CH4) por fermentación entérica y gestión de estiércol.1. Guía de Taller_de_evaluacion_modulo_2_semana_2 2. Archivo de Excel \" Ejercicio_Ganado.xlsx\" 3. Capítulo 10 del Volumen 4 de IPCC (2019) refinamiento.Para realizar el ejercicio práctico y con base en los conocimientos presentados en el modulo 2, Inventarios de Gases de Efecto Invernadero y la contribución del sector agropecuario al cambio climático, el estudiante deberá seguir los siguientes pasos:1. Abrir el archivo Excel: Ejercicio_Ganado.xlsx.2. Ir a la hoja de cálculo población 3. Verificar la población que hacen parte del inventario y ajustar las que sean necesarias (poblaciones dinámicas). Nota: para pollo de engorde asuma animales de 2.2 kg y porcinos de 110 kg (menores de 6 meses).4. Ir a la hoja de cálculo emisiones e introducir los valores descritos en el numeral 3 en las celdas azules.5. Introducir en las celdas verdes de la columna c, hoja de cálculo emisiones los valores de factores de emisión por metano entérico por cada especie pecuaria descritos en la tabla 10.10 y 10.11 del Capítulo 10 del Volumen 4 de IPCC (2019) refinamiento. Nota: Tenga presente los valores para América Latina.6. Introducir en las celdas verdes de la columna e, hoja de cálculo emisiones los valores de factores de emisión por metano por estiércol por cada especie pecuaria descritos en la tabla 10.13A y 10.14 del Capítulo 10 del Volumen 4 de IPCC (2019) refinamiento. Nota: Tenga presente los valores para América Latina.7. Estimar las emisiones de metano entérico y por estiércol para todas las actividades ganaderas, descritas en las celdas amarillas.1. ¿Cuáles especies aportan el mayor porcentaje de las emisiones de metano por fermentación entérica? _____________________________________________________________________________________ ","tokenCount":"3467"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8a191bf36bf60431d6d5e47ed70ef1f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f2a3f55e-4d22-4329-bfd3-e26e3c684f74/content","id":"-161420866"},"keywords":["Food production","China","Brazil","Feed production","Maize","Zea mays","Varieties","Protein content","Protein quality","Nutritive value","Nutrient improvement","Innovation adoption AGRIS category codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies E10 Agricultural Economics and Policies Dewey decimal classification: 338.16"],"sieverID":"aa1b30a3-63a8-43f3-a88e-7c7e1df9d1c1","pagecount":"37","content":"CIMMYT (www.cimmyt.mx or www.cimmyt.cgiar.org) is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center works with agricultural research institutions worldwide to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of maize and wheat systems for poor farmers in developing countries. It is one of 16 similar centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR comprises about 60 partner countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. It is co-sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Financial support for CIMMYT's research agenda also comes from many other sources, including foundations, development banks, and public and private agencies.CIMMYT supports Future Harvest, a public awareness campaign that builds understanding about the importance of agricultural issues and international agricultural research. Future Harvest links respected research institutions, influential public figures, and leading agricultural scientists to underscore the wider social benefits of improved agriculture-peace, prosperity, environmental renewal, health, and the alleviation of human suffering (www.futureharvest.org). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) 1999. Responsibility for this publication rests solely with CIMMYT. The designations employed in the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CIMMYT or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Improvements in the production characteristics of quality protein maize (QPM) are currently leading to its reintroduction in various areas of the world, both for human and animal consumption. Although the improved QPM varieties produce yields that are highly competitive with other modern varieties, doubt still remains about the extent of protein deficiency as a nutritional problem in humans, as well as the feasibility of implementing the technology. This paper explores the pros and cons of adoption of QPM for human consumption and as animal feed, reviews where in the developing world it is most likely to have an impact, and discusses some important issues regarding its introduction.Based on current data, the extent of protein deficiency as a nutritional problem among humans is unclear. Although it is not generally considered to be a widespread problem, it may be significant among certain populations, particularly young children during the weaning period. In addition, the technology faces production and distribution problems: genetic loss of the recessive, high protein gene remains a constraint, as does identification of QPM, which is now virtually indistinguishable from other maize. These problems greatly complicate the delivery of QPM to the target groups. QPM's nutritional impact as an animal feed is more straightforward, but it remains to be seen whether it is an economically viable alternative to synthetically produced amino acids.Assuming that positive resolutions to these issues are found, QPM is most likely to have its greatest human nutritional impact in African countries with high maize consumption. It could also be important, however, in Central America and specific areas of South America and Asia. Its greatest potential for use as animal feed is in China, where it is already grown for this purpose. However, it has significant potential in other countries included in this study, with the exception of most of the African countries where pork and poultry consumption tends to be very low.Although the prevalence of malnutrition has been reduced in many countries, it continues to persist and affect countless lives around the world. Its multiple causes make it a difficult problem to address; hence, many approaches have been developed to combat it. One approach now being explored is based on improving the nutritional value of cereal crops such as maize, wheat, rice, and other staples. Current work in this area is directed toward increasing the quantity of protein and utilizable micronutrients available in many of these crops. While considerable work remains for increasing micronutrient content in cereal crops, higher protein maize is here now and ready for introduction into maize consuming areas around the world.Quality Protein Maize, or QPM, has been heralded as a possible protein source for both human and animal consumption in many countries. However, much debate remains concerning the magnitude and extent of protein deficiency, and consequently, questions arise about the overall nutritional impact of QPM. Targeting areas with the greatest potential need is therefore very important in order to maximize its impact. This paper looks at the potential role of QPM in 16 countries chosen as likely candidates for its introduction for human consumption, as animal feed, or both.Maize, which originated in Mesoamerica, has become an important staple for many people, both in its center of its origin and many other areas around the world. Aside from being directly consumed by humans, it is also widely used in animal feed. As is generally true with cereals, maize is weak as a source of protein. Its utilizable protein content is limited by low levels of certain amino acids, particularly lysine, and to a lesser extent, tryptophan. Therefore, in areas or amongst populations where diets consist largely or totally of maize, protein deficiencies can occur.Until the early 1970s, protein deficiency was believed to be the most serious cause of malnutrition. Based on this premise, many strategies were developed to decrease or alleviate protein deficiency. In 1963, scientists at Purdue University found a mutant maize variety with twice the normal levels of lysine together with elevated levels of tryptophan. Dubbed Opaque-2, this maize was heralded as a significant breakthrough in the global alleviation of protein deficiency. Studies carried out on rats, monogastric animals, and humans demonstrated the positive nutritional benefits of QPM (Bressani 1991;Graham et al. 1990;Graham et al. 1989;Valverde et al. 1981).However, the Opaque-2 maize also possessed qualities that presented limiting factors to its widespread adoption, the most important being a lower yield potential than improved maize and the texture of the kernels. Opaque-2 had chalky, soft kernels that affected both the production and consumption qualities of the maize. It was much more susceptible than conventional maize to fungal attack due to its higher moisture content, and it had lower resistance to insects and higher storage losses. All these problems proved to be major obstacles to past attempts to implement adoption of Opaque-2 maize.Interest in Opaque-2 maize received another setback in 1973, when the United Nations and the World Health Organization issued a report on revised recommended energy and protein levels. Whereas it was previously thought that overall protein was the most limiting factor in cases of malnutrition, newer research set much lower protein requirements while greatly increasing the importance of overall energy consumption (FAO/WHO 1973). The energy requirements of the human body were found to take precedence over its protein needs. Given shortfalls of both energy and protein, the body will convert protein into energy to cover its more immediate needs. As a result of this shift in nutritional thought, interest in increasing protein levels greatly diminished, and research has generally focused on increasing yields in crop production in order to reduce the overall energy deficit. Tradeoffs in quality have often been overlooked or justified on the basis of increased production.Because of its undesirable production and consumption traits and the de-emphasis of protein requirements, interest in Opaque-2 maize had virtually vanished by the late 1970s. This was not the case for CIMMYT and a few other research sites, where work continued on refining the original Opaque-2 maize-the aim being to maintain its nutritional quality while making it competitive with conventional varieties of improved maize. These improved Opaque-2 varieties were renamed Quality Protein Maize, or QPM.After many years of work, QPM has been improved to such an extent that breeders consider it almost indistinguishable from conventional maize varieties and now ready for widespread distribution. Various government programs have embraced it, especially in Africa, where dissemination efforts are proceeding under the auspices of Sasakawa-Global 2000 and CIMMYT,.Although protein has been downgraded as a global nutritional problem, debate continues over its importance and whether resources should be diverted into reducing protein deficiency. It has been pointed out that some important population groups with special protein requirements-pregnant women, nursing mothers, very young children, the sick, and possibly the elderly 1 -may have difficulty receiving enough protein, especially when their diets lack sources of animal protein. High protein maize could help respond to their protein needs. Nevertheless, assuming that these groups lack adequate protein, questions remain as to the level of benefit that could be gained by introducing QPM, and whether it would be cost effective compared to other possible interventions.This paper examines issues related to the targeting of QPM. What are the relevant factors in terms of need and adoption? Which countries are the best candidates for the introduction of QPM? Where would it have the most impact? Does a protein deficiency exist in the first place, and, if so, would the target group actually be affected by the introduction of QPM? Could QPM have an important role as an animal feed? Are pulses, such as soybeans, commonly added to feed? Or could amino acid deficiencies be supplemented more cheaply and efficiently through chemically produced amino acids, which are commonly used in developed countries? Sixteen developing countries have been identified by members of the Maize and Economics Programs at CIMMYT as possible targets for the introduction of QPM. A key criterion for target selection was that the country be representative of areas with high utilization of maize where QPM could have an impact through either human or animal consumption. Selected countries include Bolivia, Brazil, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, China, India, Vietnam, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Ideally, an economic analysis should be conducted to determine the cost of introducing QPM vis a vis its potential health benefits. The scarcity of data and knowledge regarding actual impact on health precludes such an investigation at this time. In lieu of this approach, the author examines publicly available FAO data to obtain a general overview of the possibilities for QPM in the potential target countries. The data cover each country on an aggregate basis, and refer to available food supplies, not actual consumption. The data give no information regarding differences between economic groups or regions within the countries. Accuracy, particularly in respect to some of the African countries, is also a concern. Even given these shortcomings, however, the data can provide an overview for targeting countries that might be good candidates for QPM. Other sources of consumption and/or production data have also been incorporated into this review when possible.It might be helpful at this point to describe briefly the protein \"problem\" with maize. Proteins are made up of amino acids, including nonessential amino acids, which the body can produce itself, and essential amino acids, such as lysine and tryptophan, which must be obtained from a dietary source. Since all the amino acids are needed to make protein, a shortage of any of them is a limiting factor. Animals provide the most complete and convenient sources of protein in the forms of meat, eggs, milk, and milk products. In the absence of animal proteins, the amino acids can be obtained from various vegetable sources, however, in general, a variety of different vegetables must be consumed in order to supply all of the essential amino acids.Conventional maize lacks adequate levels of some essential amino acids, particularly lysine and tryptophan, thus reducing the overall biological value of its protein. However, when combined with pulses that carry those missing amino acids, the combined biological value of their protein approaches that of animal proteins. QPM has approximately twice the lysine and tryptophan levels of conventional maize and increased levels of histidine, arginine, aspartic acid, and glycine. On the other hand, it has reduced levels of the amino acids glutamic acid, alanine, and leucine. A lower leucine level, however, is considered an advantage because it results in a more balanced leucine-isoleucine ratio, which, in turn, helps liberate more tryptophan. These changes in amino acid composition increase the total amount of protein available from maize, without requiring the ingestion of other foods. Analysis of Opaque-2 maize in the 1960s found its protein quality to be as high as 90% of that of milk protein, which is often used as a protein of reference (Bressani et al. 1969). Nitrogen balance studies carried out on both children and adults found that although the nitrogen balance of Opaque-2 was lower than the protein of reference (either milk or casein), it was significantly higher than conventional maize (Bressani 1991).It has also been hypothesized that higher tryptophan levels could help decrease the incidence of the nutritional disease pellagra, which is caused by niacin deficiency (Bressani 1991). When tryptophan, an important dietary precursor for the B vitamin niacin, is found in high levels concurrent with lower levels of leucine, niacin availability increases. It should be noted, however, that the oxidative conversion of tryptophan to niacin also requires three other Bcomplex vitamins-thiamin, riboflavin, and pyridoxin. Although pellagra is not currently considered a major problem, it still occurs, and QPM's possible role in its prevention is hypothetically considered to be an additional benefit. QPM could also play an important role in meeting infants' protein requirements with less bulk. If solely breastfed, infants should be able to receive all the protein they need from breast milk, up to 4-6 months of age. The switch from breast milk to weaning foods is a very vulnerable time for children. Often, weaning foods do not adequately meet a young child's nutritional needs. Furthermore, the introduction of such foods is frequently accompanied by contamination from water and other foods. Very young children, consequently, are often afflicted with diarrhea and various illnesses, and so require even higher quality and greater quantities of foods to recover and for catch-up growth to occur. Without adequate nourishment, catch-up growth may never occur, leaving the children permanently stunted or worse. Even marginal malnutrition can cause deficits in behavior and cognitive performance, although these have been attributed to various micronutrient deficiencies rather than protein (Allen 1993).Although experts advise against feeding weaning-age children a diet consisting solely of maize, all too often this is the case. In many areas, young children are fed only a maize gruel as a weaning food. Such children may not be able to consume enough bulk to satisfy their protein requirements (Ljungqvist et al. 1981). QPM could help meet their protein requirements with less bulk. It should not, however, be considered a complete solution as its increased lysine and tryptophan levels do not equal that found in animal protein and it does not overcome other important nutritional limitations. While QPM would be an improvement over plain maize gruel, care must be taken not to promote it as the sole source of nutrition for young children. Further research, sponsored by Sasakawa-Global 2000, on the role of QPM as a weaning food in Africa is currently underway.Protein requirements vary widely among different members of the population depending on size, weight, activity levels, and individual differences in efficiency of utilization. Total daily requirements are higher for some groups, such as physical laborers and pregnant or lactating women, and lower for other groups, such as small children, who have a much lower body weight. The quality of the protein also affects protein requirements. Protein obtained from cereal, legumes, and vegetables are less bioavailable than protein obtained from animal sources, thus requiring greater intake (FAO/WHO 1985). This paper looks mainly at country-level aggregate data and uses the per capita intake of 50g/day recommended by the FAO and WHO (FAO/OMS 1992). This could be considered high for most people's needs, but it is meant to be adequate to cover the needs of almost any healthy individual.As mentioned earlier this paper mainly relies on data from FAO food balance sheets for information regarding protein and energy availability. Admittedly there are problems with extrapolating consumption information with this type of data. Food balance sheets show availability of food, not actual consumption. They show, \"for each food item -i.e., each primary commodity and a number of processed commodities potentially available for human consumption -the sources of supply and its utilization,\" (FAO, 1998). In 1980 FAO defined a food balance sheet as, \"A national account of the annual production of food, changes in stocks, imports and exports, and distribution of food over various uses within the country,\" (FAO 1980).The use of food balance sheets as indicators of consumption has been questioned. It does not take into account distribution or seasonality of supply. When estimates from food balance sheets and actual home consumption surveys are compared, they seldom match. Generally, food balance sheets overestimate consumption when compared with actual consumption data, but not in all cases (Dowler et al. 1985). Nevertheless, it is being used in this case due to its accessibility for all the countries included in the study. The accuracy of the data for some of the specific countries will be discussed later in the paper. According to the FAO's 6 th World Food Survey, the minimum (but not sufficient) per capita dietary energy supply needed by a country to lower food insecurity to 2.5% of the population is 2,770 Kcal/day (FAO 1996).The countries examined in this paper represent areas of high maize use either for human consumption and/or animal feed. They provide a cross section of countries with different levels of development, ranging from the relatively well off, such as Mexico and Brazil, to very poor countries such as Malawi, Mozambique, and Ethiopia. Table 1 (following page) provides demographic background on the countries in this study. Several countries have relatively, high annual population growth rates, approximating 3%, which, if unabated, will lead to dramatic population increases. China, Brazil, and El Salvador stand out as having lower rates of also is generally lower in the African countries and malnutrition tends to be high. The rates of malnutrition, especially stunting (a measure of long-term malnutrition) were high in the African countries as well as several countries in Central America and Asia.The countries in this study present a range of conditions within the maize consuming world that allow the exploration of different QPM targeting options. These options address 1) improving human nutrition and/or welfare through using QPM to increase human protein consumption or 2) using QPM in animal feed.As seen in Fig. 1 (following page), the most direct route to improving human nutrition using QPM is if it is grown by and fed directly to the target groups. We could envision this happening with subsistence or small-scale maize farmers, but there are also other possibilities. The maize could also be sold to gain more income with which to purchase higher quality food or health care. In this instance, its impact would not differ from selling any other improved variety, unless it could be sold at a premium (which is unlikely). Selling QPM at a higher price for human consumption would probably require government subsidies in order for the target consumers, the poor, to be able to purchase it.Selling it at a higher price for animal feed is different option, which will be examined later. x indicates data that refer to years or periods other than those specified in the column heading, differ from the standard definition, or refer to only part of the country.--Data not available.Another possibility is the large-scale production of QPM on commercial farms for sale to the target populations. This option could be especially promising as part of a program aimed at the urban poor, although it could also be extended to any areas where maize is mainly purchased and home production is minimal. An advantage to this option is that large, commercial producers would probably use hybrid QPM seed, thus resolving the problem of maintaining QPM's genetic purity. However, once QPM leaves the farm, be it a commercial operation or a smallholder plot, the problem of differentiating it from normal maize arises. These issues will be addressed later in this paper.As Figure 2 shows, the potential routes of QPM to affecting human welfare, when used as animal feed, may be primarily as a source of income. In terms of QPM's impacts on nutrition when used as feed, they are likely to be indirect at best. In large part, because members of the target groups are poor, they are the least likely to own animals; indeed, if they owned and consumed animals, they would probably not be suffering from protein deficiencies and hence not be in the target group. It is possible to hypothesize that cheaper feed would result in more economically accessible meat products, if one assumes that the savings are passed on. However, this would be unlikely to have an impact on the target populations. If people cannot afford to buy and eat legumes, they probably cannot afford to buy meat, even at reduced prices.  Another possibility is for poor farmers to sell QPM for use in feed at a premium price. In this scenario, their incomes would be higher than if they sold conventional improved maize varieties, and they might possibly reap benefits through its direct consumption as well. To sell QPM at a premium, however, would require that it be easily identifiable or certified in some way.Although it would be difficult to measure an impact of QPM use for animal consumption on human nutrition, this is not to say that using QPM in animal feeds is not an important option for savings in the feed industry. This will be discussed further in the section on animal feed.The Protein Question: Are Deficiencies a Problem?One of the main arguments against further investments aimed at introducing QPM is the belief held by many nutritionists that little protein deficiency problem actually exists. As mentioned earlier, interest in QPM waned substantially following the issuance of the revised protein requirements in 1973 (FAO/WHO 1973), and since then, protein deficiency has not been considered the threat that it once was. A study carried out in Mexico, Kenya, and Egypt seems to confirm this stance, as no protein or amino acid deficiencies were found, in either adults or children, in any of the communities studied (Beaton et al. 1993). Today it is generally believed that overall energy deficiency and micronutrient deficiencies such as iron, Vitamin A, zinc, and iodine, are more important. Some nutritionists, however, strongly believe that protein deficiency remains an important dietary problem, especially among high risk groups, due to the low quality of protein that is often consumed when animal products are not a part of the diet. Illnesses and severe intestinal parasites also can reduce the body's ability to absorb and use protein.Assuming that protein deficiency is a problem, many aspects of QPM's actual potential nutritional impact on humans are still unclear. Several studies carried out under controlled conditions show an increase in nitrogen retention and weight gain with Opaque-2 or QPM, versus normal maize (for an overview, see Bressani 1991). Most studies to date have been controlled feeding trials comparing groups consuming different sources of protein (usually Opaque-2, normal maize, and a reference protein such as milk or casein). Few community level studies on adoption and impact under normal conditions have been carried out.Among the few community-based studies were a six-month, supplementation trial with preschool children in India (IARDI 1977;Singh et al. 1980), and a maize replacement study on a coffee plantation in Guatemala (Valverde et al. 1983). The Indian study consisted of a control group and groups of children supplemented with normal maize, Opaque-2 or skim milk. The results of the performance of Opaque-2 appeared to be promising, with the children involved showing gains in weight, height, and arm circumference comparable with or just below the group receiving milk. However, no statistical analysis was shown for the study, and the study itself concluded that its time frame was too short for its results to be authoritative (Singh et al. 1980). Furthermore, supplementation trials provide little information regarding adoption and impact under normal dietary conditions.The Guatemalan study also showed some promising preliminary results, but it was not completed due to loss of funding. Several other interventions such as the introduction of medical care, an improved water supply, and an increase in the minimum wage make the results difficult to interpret. However, the data suggests that, taking into account the impact of other interventions, children in communities receiving Opaque-2, versus those receiving normal maize, had greater improvements in weight and height in children under 19 months of age, after which improvement was not found. In the case of older children, growth stunting had, most likely, already occurred, and it was hypothesized that an increase in protein consumption alone was not enough to make a difference without an increase in energy consumption as well. It was not ruled out that the same results could have been obtained with only an energy supplement.Both studies, and particularly the Guatemala study, looked to some extent at the issue of adoption, although the exact methodology was not described. Although it was concluded that Opaque-2 was acceptable for consumption purposes, the more serious production related and storage problems were not adequately dealt with, as is evident from its lack of widespread adoption at the time.More recent studies were carried out after the introduction of QPM into Ghana. In 1993, a group of 444 farmers were given either QPM or another type of maize to cultivate, and threeday assessments were carried out at six-month intervals on children in the two groups. In a second study two groups of a total of 120 children between 0 and 15 months of age were given supplements of maize dough made with either QPM or other maize. It was reported in a paper by Tsumasi-Afriyie et al., (1998), that, \"The studies and observations indicated that QPM-fed children were healthier, suffered less fatalities and had better growth rates.\" Unfortunately, these studies are unpublished and details and actual results are unavailable.Assuming that QPM is acceptable to consumers and that protein deficiency is a problem, the biggest question is whether QPM is the most desirable or cost-effective method for addressing the problem. Although providing for a range of nutritional needs in one staple crop seems to be a convenient solution, is it the best one? How many people enjoy eating such a monotonous diet? Would not another approach involving a more varied diet better address nutritional deficits as a whole, be more agreeable, and possibly more efficient in the long run? Although growth faltering among preschool children is directly caused by inadequate intake of energy, nutrients, or both as well as infectious diseases, these are affected by complicated interactions between a variety of biological, social, and economic factors and relationships. These relationships vary between different locations, time periods, and population groups, making the problem difficult to address. (Pinstrup-Andersen et al. 1995). Given the complexity of the problem, is allocation of resources to QPM, in terms of money and effort, the most cost-effective approach to the problem?The other side of the argument is that a more varied diet may be out of reach to many people who are already eating diets consisting mostly of maize. Although a balanced diet may be the best option, animal products, the most efficient source of protein, are generally expensive and unaccessible to many. Fresh fruits and vegetables also tend to be expensive and they are seasonal. Although legumes are a good source of protein when combined with cereals, consumption levels have dropped in many areas, and they are often not used in weaning foods.Furthermore, since improved versions of QPM are already available, have no known negative side effects, and will probably help some people, why not introduce it? If people are already consuming a maize-based diet, why not make it as nutritionally complete as possible to offset dietary deficiencies. Although protein deficiency has been downgraded as a nutritional constraint, some at-risk populations could still benefit from it. Regarding QPM's cost effectiveness, most of the money needed to develop QPM has already been spent and a marketable product has been produced. This does not discount the fact that introducing and promoting QPM would still entail considerable expenditures.Is there adequate protein available to feed the populations of the countries included in this study? Based on 50g/day and total per capita protein available, most countries seem to have enough available protein to feed their populations, although the margin for some countries is minimal (Table 3). Ghana and Mozambique, however, fail to meet the FAO/WHO minimal standard. Ghana comes close with 49 g/day, but Mozambique falls quite short at 35 g/day, providing 98% and 70% of the daily per capita protein recommendation for these countries, respectively. Zimbabwe, Zambia and Nicaragua are on or just above the daily per capita recommendation. Some of the data may be suspect, especially those from Mozambique, as the exceedingly low figure for per capita protein availability is not consistent with reported levels of malnutrition for the country. Protein deficiency is not the only, or the worst, nutritional deficit in these countries. Low levels of energy consumption, generally accompany it. This is true for all the countries in this study. Based on the FAO/WHO recommended per capita energy intake of 2,300 kcal/day (FAO/OMS 1992), many countries have less than the recommended available energy supply needed to feed their populations. These include Bolivia, Guatemala, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, which again registered the lowest level of the group. In fact, using the threshold mentioned earlier of a minimum per capita energy supply of 2,770 kcal, only Mexico, Brazil, and China meet this criterion. This does not even take into account all the micronutrient deficiencies, which will not be discussed specifically in this paper. As noted, it has been argued that energy is a more important priority than protein and that an overall increase in food supply would probably also take care of most protein deficiencies. If QPM yields as well as other high-yielding varieties, however, no energy tradeoffs would be involved.Figure 3 shows the growth rate in energy and protein availability over a ten-year period ending in 1996. It is clear that while some countries have made fairly large gains (Ethiopia, Ghana, China, and Vietnam), others have been losing ground (Zambia, Zimbabwe, Guatemala, and Nicaragua). Note that the protein gains in China far outweigh the energy gains, probably reflecting the increased consumption of animal products. Ghana, on the other hand, has experienced the reverse; although there have been energy and protein gains, the much larger energy gains probably reflect an increase specifically in cereal consumption.Brazil, China, and Mexico stand out as having more than enough kcal and protein available to feed their populations, however, these are aggregate figures and there can be significant incountry variation.The National Nutrition Survey in Mexico, undertaken by the Instituto Nacional de Nutrición Savador Zubiran (INNSZ), shows a gradient of malnutrition from north to south, with malnutrition gradually increasing as one moves south, but with pockets of malnutrition and poverty in other areas, most notably Guerrero (INNSZ 1997). The FAO data for the overall amount of energy available in Mexico is quite high at 3,137 kcal, or comparable to that found in the USA. On the other hand, the National Nutrition Survey based on household level consumption, found per capita daily consumption to be 1,910 kcal outside of Mexico City and 2,016 kcal within Mexico City. Protein consumption was 61 g/day outside of Mexico City and 70 g/day within the city (INNSZ 1997(INNSZ , 1995)), compared to the figure of 82g/day from FAO.According to the INNSZ data, no region of the country suffered from protein deficiency, although many states show fairly high rates of malnutrition (INNSZ 1996). This does not necessarily indicate that protein deficiency does not exist in some areas of the country, or within some populations, but that it does not appear at a regional level.  In Bolivia, the FAO data show per capita energy and protein availability at 2,170 kcal and 56g/ day, respectively. Government surveys have shown energy consumption during 1990-1994 to be 2,045 kcal/day. However this varies widely between urban and rural areas, and by state, ranging from 1,226 kcal to 2,314 kcal/day. Protein consumption ranged from 33g to 76g/day in various parts of the country (Haquim 1995). Overall protein availability seems adequate based on the FAO data, but protein intake from actual consumption data was well below the recommended 50 g/day in some areas of the country. Given these discrepancies, it is quite probable that the FAO data also overestimates actual consumption figures in some other countries and that assumptions of protein adequacy may not be accurate.In contrast, the data used here for some other countries probably underestimate real consumption. According to Alderman and Higgins (1992), actual consumption generally exceeds the balance sheets, and they assume this is the case in Ghana and probably other African countries. This may be the case for Mozambique, which reported very low available per capita protein.Table 3, which shows per capita availability levels of maize for human consumption, provides useful information regarding which countries would be good candidates for QPM. Malawi and Zambia are strong prospects with around 60% of their total kcal and protein supplies coming from maize. Guatemala, Mexico, El Salvador, Mozambique, Ghana, and Zimbabwe also exhibit high percentages of total energy and protein supplies coming from maize, which may make them suitable for QPM deployment. On the other hand, maize in China, India, and Brazil provides less than 10% of total available protein and energy, although this does not provide an accurate picture of the overall situation in these countries. India and China especially have large regions of high maize use, and although the contribution of maize to people's diets in these countries appears small in percentage terms, it does contribute to the food intake of a large number of people.According to these data, Mozambique is also a good candidate for the introduction of QPM based on an overall deficiency of protein available, despite its relatively lower proportion (26%) of total calories that come from maize. Naturally its introduction could have the most impact in those regions of the country with the highest levels of maize consumption.Figure 4 shows differences in the proportion of available protein provided by maize between 1987 and 1996. With the exception of Bolivia, the role of maize in providing protein has generally dropped in the Latin American countries. China shows a drop of almost 60% in the proportion of available protein coming from maize, while in India and Vietnam, the contribution of protein from maize, although low to begin with, has increased substantially, by 86% and 159%, respectively. With the exception of Ethiopia, the importance of maize as a protein provider has also increased in all of the African countries, most notably in Mozambique.In summary, the importance of maize in the national food supply is very high in many African countries and in Central America, and somewhat less important in South America. The lowest contribution of maize is in Asia, although its importance is increasing in India, Vietnam, and several other countries, especially in Southeast Asia, that are not included in this analysis. China appears to be lowering its per capita use of maize as a food crop as its economy improves, although maize consumption is still important in certain areas of the country.When considering the protein situation in the potential target countries, we must consider the role played by pulses in the diets. Many traditional diets provide a large portion of their protein by combining cereals with pulses (which contain a more complete set of essential amino acids, including higher levels of lysine and tryptophan).However, with changes in traditional diets, pulse consumption has dropped in several countries, often without being replaced by another protein source. In some countries, for instance China, the drop in pulse consumption is an indication of prosperity and a switch to animal proteins. People become better off and consume more animal products and fewer beans. In other countries, pulses have been dropped from the diet, because of high prices and/or unavailability, and not replaced by alternative sources of protein, thus leading to potential protein deficits.Table 4 reviews the in-country correlations between annual per capita supply of pulses and protein from 1961 through 1996. Countries with growing per capita meat supplies, such as China and Brazil, decreased their levels of pulse supply while increasing their overall protein supply. Mexico, India, and Zimbabwe also showed negative, though statistically insignificant, correlations between protein and pulse availability. Correlations between pulse and protein availability were positive, and in most cases statistically significant, in the other countries included in this analysis. This positive correlation does not necessarily indicate whether availability is increasing or decreasing, however, it is noteworthy that the targeted African countries and Nicaragua showed negative growth rates for both pulse and protein availability. Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Vietnam all showed low but positive growth rates for these variables during this time frame 3 . Although cause and effect cannot be demonstrated by correlations, the data imply that pulses continue to play an important role in the diet of many countries, and that reduced consumption, without a replacement source of protein, can leave an important dietary gap. This is particularly true in Africa, where QPM may help fill this gap. Studies examining the dietary combinations of QPM or conventional maize and beans suggest that with QPM, the absence of beans does not affect protein quality (Bressani 1991); this is not the case with conventional maize. Therefore, it appears that, in the absence of increased pulse consumption, QPM provides a viable option for increasing protein consumption.Table 4 also shows the contribution of pulses to protein availability, and production trends for pulses. Pulses continue to be an important source of protein in several of the countries included here, most notably Ethiopia, Malawi, and Brazil, where 20% or more of the recommended protein requirement can be supplied by pulses.It is generally true that from 1961 to 1996 pulse availability has declined in most of the countries in this study. There have been shifts, however, within this overall trend. While the growth rates for pulse use from 1961 to 1986 were generally negative or near zero, between 1987 and 1996, some countries have increased their pulse supply (Figure 5), including Brazil, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Malawi, Vietnam, and most notably, Ethiopia and Zambia. In Ethiopia, however, the increase in pulse supply was accompanied by a decrease in meat supply. Increases in both meat and pulse supply should indicate increases in overall protein availability, although it is highly unlikely that such increases are evenly distributed throughout a population.In some cases, when pulse supply drops, so does protein supply, because no alternative protein source is found or provided. This loss appears to leave a gap in traditional diets, which in many cases is only being filled by  Source: FAOSTAT, FAO November, 1998.increased dependence on maize or other cereal crops. Given the poor quality of protein in conventional maize and cereals in general, protein deficits can only increase in countries where this trend is not reversed.An important agronomic shortcoming of QPM is that a recessive gene controls its high lysine levels. Because maize is an open pollinated crop, this gene can be easily lost through crosspollination unless hybrid seed is purchased every year. This problem will be more pronounced where QPM is planted in small patches surrounded by non-QPM maize, the practice of planting multiple varieties in close proximity being common among many small landholders. Several possible solutions have been suggested, but none appear ideal for most poor or subsistence farmers. The most reliable way to maintain high lysine levels is to purchase and plant hybrid seed each new season, however, this solution may not be feasible for small-scale farmers who are not accustomed to, or economically capable of, purchasing seed on an annual basis.Another proposed solution is to blanket an area with QPM, so that no crossbreeding with other maize occurs. It is unlikely, however, that this would prove sustainable. Maize populations are dynamic, with farmers continuously introducing new varieties with different characteristics, either to ensure against total crop loss (i.e., maize with different growing seasons, tolerances to drought or insects), for use under various cropping conditions, and/or for different consumption purposes. Experimentation at the farm level is constant (Bellon and Brush 1994;Louette et al. 1997). Therefore, even if an area were planted solely to QPM one year, it is unlikely that it would continue to be so within a few years time. Furthermore, in some circumstances, blanketing a large area with QPM could be undesirable because of the potential negative impact on genetic diversity.Loss of the high lysine gene can also be controlled to a certain extent by careful management practices, such as selecting seed from the center of the field. This practice, however, would probably require special training of farmers. Furthermore, since QPM appears virtually identical to conventional maize, it would be difficult to tell when the gene was actually lost and new seed must be purchased. Making QPM a different color from other maize consumed in the area (i.e. white versus yellow) could alleviate the latter problem. However, this could cause problems with consumer acceptance. Biotechnology could offer a solution in the future by changing the gene from recessive to dominant, but such work has not yet been undertaken, and could also cause problems with acceptance.Finding an appropriate solution to the loss of the high quality protein trait depends very much on the targeted group, its cultural traditions, and its cropping conditions. Certainly, large-scale farmers growing hybrid seed would be the easiest way to ensure maintenance of genetic purity.Regarding acceptance of QPM, policy-and decision-makers should address several basic questions. Do people in the proposed target country or region actually have protein deficiency? Is maize consumed in sufficient quantities in those areas for it to have an impact on overall protein consumption? And, is QPM an acceptable substitute for foods already consumed by target groups?A thorough analysis of factors affecting the acceptance of QPM is beyond the scope of this paper. However, one can pose several reasonable hypotheses based on past history and anecdotal information. One such hypothesis is that acceptance will more likely pose a problem in the center of origin for maize, Mesoamerica, given its ancient traditions regarding maize consumptionmany types of maize are grown for very specific uses. The Museo Nacional de Culturas Populares reported 605 different maize dishes in Mexico (Museo Nacional de Culturas Populares 1982).People in these areas with a long tradition of using specific varieties for different preparations might be less likely to accept substitutes. CIMMYT work on maize diversity management and utilization in Oaxaca, Mexico found that the traits most frequently cited by farmers as important were consumption related and included taste and suitability for special preparations such as atole, tejate, pozol, and nicuatol (Bellon et al. 1998). QPM may or may not be acceptable for these preparations. This could prove problematic if it was widely viewed as unacceptable for dishes consumed by the target groups, such as weaning foods. Such preferences can vary from region to region and even from village to village.One could also hypothesize that QPM may be more readily acceptable in Africa or Asia than in Mesoamerica. Although maize has been in Africa since the sixteenth century, it has only become a staple crop of real importance within this century; therefore it does not have the extensive history and traditions that are found in Mexico or Guatemala. Substitution of one type of maize for another with similar color and general consumption characteristics may not be overly problematic. In Ghana, for example, QPM seems to have been well accepted, and most households make no distinction between it and other improved varieties (Morris et al. 1999).However, even in Africa, further research on QPM acceptance and adoption is warranted in order to avoid any deployment missteps. Breeders often use a different set of criteria for judging a variety than consumers. For instance, breeders may concentrate on improving production characteristics such as yield, while paying little attention to consumption characteristics. For example, national research programs in Malawi, concentrating on increasing yield, released improved dent maize varieties. Although farmers appreciated the increased yield, they preferred their local flint varieties for their personal consumption, because they could be more easily processed into the flour used for everyday consumption. As a result, they produced local varieties for home consumption and improved dent varieties for sale (Smale and Heisey 1994). The fact that breeders did not take milling characteristics into account had an important impact on the adoption of the new varieties.Although breeders consider current versions of QPM to be virtually indistinguishable from conventional maize, this may or may not be so. Maize breeders and consumers may be using different criteria to judge the maize. These differences are often not apparent until it is grown and consumed by the target populations. However, fairly widespread adoption in Ghana (Morris, et al 1999) would appear to justify claims that in Ghana at least, current versions of QPM are as acceptable as other maize.Another important adoption issue is the identification of target recipients. Raising QPM as a cash crop to be targeted for consumption by the urban poor in the form of tortillas, for example, could be a valid approach, especially with the large urban populations found in Mexico and Brazil. As seen in Table 1, large percentages of the populations of Central and South America are already urbanized and those figures are rising. However, the maize characteristics that could be successful in an urban-based deployment strategy, may not necessarily be accepted in a setting of rural poverty, where maize is grown for self-consumption.Malnutrition is affected by a number of factors including the demographics of the affected group. With preschool age nutrition, a large body of research indicates that maternal education is a very important variable. Maternal education includes specific education on nutritional issues, as well as levels of formal education. A 1997 study conducted in nine countries and the Indian state of Kerala on the impact of health interventions found that health; nutrition, water, and sanitation all had significant positive impacts on health indicators. Education, however, had the greatest health impact, including improved rates of infant and under-five survival, life expectancy at birth, and total fertility (UNICEF 1999).Another study, conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), looked at the determinants of nutritional status of children in 179 developing countries and found that women's education was the most important determinant, followed closely by per capita food availability. In fact, improvements in women's education was found to be responsible for 43% of the total reduction in child malnutrition between 1970 and 1995; that percentage climbs to more than 50% of the reduction when combined with women's relative status. However, in cases in which per capital food availability was less than or equal to 2,300 kcal, food availability ranked first, followed by education (Smith and Haddad 2000). Given the importance of education, it is worth examining some educational statistics from our sample countries (Table 5).The lowest levels of adult literacy are found in India and Africa; however, some countries appear to be responding to the problem. Malawi in particular, with a 56% literacy rate, is apparently making an effort to rectify the situation. Between 1993 and 1997 it claimed 100% enrollment of primary school age children. Educational improvements in some countries, notably in India, Ethiopia, Malawi, and in the past Mozambique, have been distributed inequitably between male and female children. The educational situation for women in Mozambique is particularly bleak; only 40% of the total adult population and 23% of adult females are literate. The situation of the next generation will not be much better as only 45% and 35% of elementary school age boys and girls, respectively, were enrolled in school during the cited time period. The situation is not much better in Ethiopia with a female literacy rate of only 25%. Guatemala and Ghana are a little better with around half of the female population in these countries literate. In general, the remaining countries in this study take a somewhat more egalitarian approach to education in regards to gender (Figure 6).Low levels of female education are detrimental to these countries for many reasons. Not only do these countries fail to capitalize on the human resource potential these women offer, they also neglect the key players needed to combat health and nutritional problems. Women control most aspects of eating and childcare. Poor understanding of an intervention can lead to lack of, or improper, adoption. Furthermore, women with less education tend to have lower social status, therefore, even if they understand the benefits of an intervention, they are less likely to have the power to act on it. Such problems would probably extend to the adoption of QPM for use in weaning or children's foods by a population of largely uneducated women. The Ghana experience is a case in point. As mentioned earlier, Ghana had a large-scale campaign to promote the benefits of QPM. Despite its local name, Obatanpa, \"the good nursing mother,\" a recent survey found that few farmers knew that it possessed any special nutritional benefit and women constituted a minority of the \"knowledgeable\" group (Morris et al. 1998).Assuming that one of the most important QPM objectives is its adoption for weaning foods, mothers must understand that; 1) there is a nutritional difference between QPM and conventional maize, 2) have access to it, and 3) be willing to use it. Constraints regarding these y Indicates that survey data were used for estimating net primary school enrollment.--= Data not available.The number of children enrolled in secondary school, regardless of age, divided by the population of the age group which officially corresponds to the same level.The number of children enrolled in primary school, who belong to the age group that officially corresponds to primary schooling, divided by the total population of the same age group. Data from household surveys on children attending school have been used to fill blanks and to replace UNESCO reported data that are three years or more, older than the survey data. Such data are identified by 'y'. Source: The State of the World's Children1998.  points have been addressed earlier in this paper. That said, the importance of maternal education should be taken into account when addressing these points and in the broader context of implementing programs aimed at introducing QPM for human consumption. Such programs, ideally, should be part of integrated nutrition and development programs that include an educational component aimed at women. This approach should greatly increase the possibility of adoption and impact, although researchers may find it difficult to ferret out the respective impacts of QPM and education in their impacts assessments.Despite the controversy over its potential value, many now feel that QPM is worth a second look, both for human consumption and as animal feed. It was introduced into Ghana in 1992, and has been promoted on a fairly large scale. However, its nutritional impact is unclear because no baseline nutritional studies were carried out on which to base a comparison. A 1997 survey found that farmers identified about 15.9% of the area planted to maize in Ghana as planted to QPM. A further 18.5% was identified as \"agric,\" a name that farmers used as a catch all category for various improved varieties. It can be assumed that a fair, but unknown proportion of the \"agric\" was also QPM. Despite the fairly widespread adoption, must farmers were unaware of its nutritional properties and knew of no difference between it and other improved varieties issued by the government. Even when farmers were aware of the existence of a nutritionally improved variety, they did not always correctly identify it (Morris et al., 1999). On the positive side, adoption does not seem to be a problem since farmers apparently found it indistinguishable from conventional, improved maize. QPM appears to be functioning similarly to an enrichment program, in that people growing or purchasing QPM are receiving the added protein without necessarily being aware of it. Therefore, if QPM were widely grown and its lysine levels could be maintained, it could reach a large proportion of the population.QPM is currently being grown in China, Brazil, Ghana, Viet Nam, India, South Africa, and the United States. It is in the process of being released in Mexico, El Salvador, and Guatemala. Verification trials are being held in several countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Sasakawa-Global 2000 is actively introducing it in several African countries including Ethiopia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Mali, Mozambique, and Nigeria.The other important use of QPM is as a less expensive source of high protein animal feed for monogastric animals, such as pigs and poultry. Unlike multiple ruminant animals (i.e. cattle, sheep, goats), monogastric animals require a more complete protein than cereals alone can generally provide. The nutritional protein limitations of conventional maize extend to monogastric animals, insofar as it lacks sufficient lysine and tryptophan. These amino acids are usually supplemented in animal feeds by soybeans, pulses, or commercially produced synthetic amino acids. QPM presents another option. Studies have documented improved growth in pigs and poultry when QPM is substituted for conventional maize, thereby increasing bioavailable protein (Sullivan et al 1989;Asche et al. 1985). As a result, some have suggested that the biggest impact of QPM could from its use in commercial feeds.Traditionally, the protein content of feed has been increased through the addition of pulses and/or soybeans. However, with the exceptions of China, India, and to some extent Mexico, this is not a widespread practice in the countries found in this study (Table 6).In recent years, the supplementation of feeds with commercially-produced synthetic amino acids has become more common in developing countries, and it remains an important option for the commercial feed industry. When available, synthetic amino acids can be inexpensive and easy to add to animal feed, especially when used in bulk. Some countries, such as Mexico, Brazil, and China, now produce their own synthetic lysine and tryptophan, while others can easily import it. This solution to the protein problem, however, may not necessarily be available to all developing countries, or if it is, it may not be within reach of their small-scale farmers.QPM could still provide savings on the price of feed, depending on its price and the price and availability of synthetic lysine.A 1992 CIMMYT study analyzed the possible economic benefits of QPM for the commercial feed industries in Brazil and El Salvador (López-Pereira 1992). By using QPM, the study found that soybean meal could be reduced by approximately 50% and imports of synthetic lysine eliminated or substantially reduced. Furthermore, the savings in the cost of producing feed from using QPM would be 4-5% for pig feed and 3-4% for poultry feed in Brazil and 3-4% for both pig and poultry feed in El Salvador.It appears that there may be a role for QPM in the commercial feed industry, although its advantages depend on its price and availability versus those of the alternatives. Its role as feed for small-scale or home livestock production and consumption is less clear. Small-scale farmers Source: FAOSTAT.FAO. November, 1998.often do not have the resources to provide special feeds for their livestock. If QPM is grown on the farm or is readily available, then these animals could possibly benefit from its use. It seems unlikely, however, that backyard pig and/or poultry raisers that are not currently purchasing feed will start purchasing QPM for their animals. Even when small-scale farmers can afford to purchase such inputs, they could encounter the problems cited earlier associated with identifying and purchasing QPM for human consumption.Most of the benefits of using QPM as an animal feed are likely to be through economic savings to commercial feed producers or to larger pig and poultry operations that purchase commercial feed containing QPM grown from hybrids on commercial farms. Any analysis of possible impact of QPM on human nutrition through animal feed is tenuous at best. However, to give a clearer picture of its possible impact, the author will review the role of pig and poultry production and supply, and the current state and future of the pig and poultry industries in the countries examined in this paper.To examine the possible dietary impact on humans of QPM used in animal feed, it is important to determine the role pig and/or poultry meat plays in the diet. The per capita meat supply in several of the surveyed countries was so low that we can deduce that pig and poultry meat has little impact on the diet. In other countries, animals that would not benefit from QPM (such as cattle or sheep) might be more important meat sources. Availability was quite clearly discerned by region. Overall meat availability in India and the African countries in 1996 was quite low (Figure 7). India, Malawi, and Mozambique had per capita meat supplies of less than 5 kg/y, compared to 48 kg/y for Europe and 71 kg/y for the USA and Canada (FAO 1998).Other countries, including China, Mexico, Bolivia, and especially Brazil, had fairly high per capita levels of meat supply. Although pigs or poultry taken independently were not necessarily the most important sources of meat (beef is more important in Bolivia and Brazil), combined, they represent at least half of the meat consumed in these countries. In China and Vietnam, pig and poultry meat together represent 86% of the total meat supply.Increases in pig and/or poultry use in some countries, most notably China, have been dramatic. Per capita availability of pig meat in China and poultry meat in Brazil have increased by more than 1000% since 1961 (FAO 1998). The average annual growth rate of the per capita supply of meat in China (1987-96) exceeded 8%, with growth rates of 5.7% and 16.3% for pig and poultry meat, respectively. Poultry availability in Bolivia, Honduras, and Nicaragua has also increased more than 10% annually during this period (Table 7).  availability is generally quite low, providing only a small percentage of the average recommended daily allowance for protein.Available protein intake from poultry and especially pig meat is somewhat higher in the Central American countries than in the African countries or India, although growth rates have actually been negative over the past ten years in many countries (Figure 8). In fact, in some African countries the per capita supply of meat in general has been declining.The extremely low availability of pig and poultry meat in the African countries suggests that, at this time, there would not be a large market for QPM as feed. Meat availability there as a whole provides only a small percentage of the FAO/WHO recommended daily intake of protein (FAO/WHO 1992). In India, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Zimbabwe, not only is overall availability of meat low, but combined pig and poultry meat represent less than 30% of the meat available. In Ethiopia it is only 12.5%. Beef, mutton, and other meats are more commonly consumed in these countries, where grazing animals are a traditional part of life (FAO 1998).Analysis of data on pig and poultry production provides similar and consistent results. Of the countries in this study, China has the highest production growth rates (over the 10-year period) for pig meat and the second highest for poultry (Table 9), with Vietnam close behind. In a few cases, specifically Malawi and Zimbabwe, there has been a general increase in pig production occurring simultaneously with fairly large drops in availability for human consumption. This discrepancy can be somewhat accounted for by high annual population growth rates, and in the case of Zimbabwe, the exportation of much of its pig production. In 1996, Zimbabwe exported 20.8% of its pig production and from 1987 to 1996 exports grew at an annual rate of 35.7%. (FAO 1998). Generally, however, production growth rates in a country reflect similar supply growth rates.A review of the import and export figures shows that El Salvador, Guatemala, and especially Ghana import a large percentage of their total domestic supply of pig meat (Table 10). Ghana also imports a large amount of poultry. With pig production dropping, low levels of per capita supply, and much of what it does consume imported, Ghana appears to be an especially poor candidate for QPM use in feed production.Inexpensive feed could, of course, make pig and poultry production more attractive, especially in countries where pig meat and poultry account for a large percentage of the total meat consumed. Conversely, where consumption of pig and poultry meat is minimal because of low overall consumption and/or preferences for other meats, and commercial feeds are less commonly used, the prospects for QPM as animal feed are probably not good. maize crop is used for feed, maize is the cereal most often used for that purpose (maize accounted for 89-100% of the total cereal used in feed in the African countries in this study). These figures on African maize use indicate, in turn, that these countries simply do not use very much animal feed. Nevertheless, should a more viable feed industry develop in these nations, given the preference for maize as a feed ingredient, a future role for QPM for animal feed in Africa should not be ruled out. China and Brazil, on the other hand, use the highest proportions of their maize for animal feed; in the case of China especially, this accounts for a huge amount of maize.The average annual growth rates for maize use as feed and food during 1987-96 are shown in Figure 9. Clearly, maize use as feed has been increasing substantially in many countries. The highest percent increase is in Nicaragua, although the amount of maize involved is actually fairly small. Increases in maize use as feed can similarly be seen throughout Latin America, with the exception of Bolivia. China uses the largest quantity of maize as feed, and has a 10-year annual growth rate of 10.94%, which corresponds to a drop in the growth rate of maize for human consumption of -9.11%. Overall maize use also rose substantially in Vietnam. In the African countries, the growth rate for maize use as animal feed ranges from zero to negative figures, with the exception of moderate growth in Ghana and Malawi.In looking at these statistics, it should be noted that increases in poultry, and particularly pork consumption might also be restricted in several countries because of religious and/or cultural  Feed Food reasons. Although diets tend to change and diversify as incomes rise, it is not likely, for example, that Muslim areas of Africa or India are likely to become major pork consumers, no matter how low the price of feed.With the reintroduction of QPM into various countries around the world, it is important to take a fresh look at the problems encountered in the past and those likely to be encountered in the future. To ignore these problems is to run the risk of once again being stymied by them, and after great expenditure of money and resources, failing to have any substantial impact on the nutritional problems of the developing world.There are two distinct important options for use of QPM: 1) as a staple food crop for human consumption and 2) for pig and/or poultry feed. Different groups of people benefit from the different options. With human consumption, the pathways toward improving human nutrition can be fairly direct, however, this holds true only if QPM is consumed by the target groups. On the other hand, any benefits from QPM to the poor through its use in animal feed will probably be quite tenuous and indirect. QPM as feed will probably not significantly decrease human protein deficiency simply because people with access to animal protein are probably not protein deficient. The main benefits would be economic and would probably accrue to pig and/or poultry producers and the feed industry.The original and arguably more important goal of QPM is to help the poor by decreasing malnutrition through direct human consumption. Despite various deployment attempts in the past, QPM has not been widely adopted, and therefore its impact on human nutrition has been minimal. However, given the prevalence of maize in the diets of Africa and Mesoamerica, the improved QPM varieties could serve as an important weapon in fighting protein deficiency in targeted populations. QPM's greatest potential impact would probably be in Africa, due to the continent's high levels of poverty and malnutrition, as well as high levels of maize consumption. Its fairly widespread acceptance in Ghana may indicate that current QPM varieties are as acceptable as other types of improved maize. Within each country, it is critical to target the populations in which protein deficiency is most likely to be a problem and regions where QPM can be easily obtained and consumed by those populations. The latter could be either rural areas, where maize is grown and consumed at home, or urban areas, under circumstances in which the legitimacy of the QPM supply can be assured.The potential for QPM as animal feed is probably highest in China, Brazil, and Mexico, because of the high levels of pig and poultry production and consumption and extensive use of maize as feed in those countries. Other Latin American countries, as well as Vietnam, are also fairly good candidates for its use as feed, while its potential for this use in Africa and India appears to be quite low.Further nutritional studies and assessments of protein deficiency in the developing world will be required to resolve the debate over whether QPM could provide widespread health benefits. However, a drop in traditional pulse consumption, unaccompanied in many cases by an increase in the use of an alternative source of protein, may be creating an important nutritional gap that, in many areas, is not being filled. Furthermore, little study has been dedicated to determining whether QPM would be adopted and consumed by the target groups most likely to benefit from it. In the past it was not, however, with improvements in the production and storage qualities of QPM, the response from target groups could change. The recessive gene for high protein levels remains a problem, as does the lack of adequate research to assess its impact in areas where it has been adopted. The failure to educate women, both on nutrition issues and in general, may also impede QPM adoption and keep it from reaching its target groups. It is critical that QPM be introduced in concert with education, both for farmers, regarding the best ways to maintain its genetic purity, and for women, regarding its benefits and proper use. QPM may not be the ultimate answer for our nutritional problems. And it may not have the widespread impact of other interventions, such as better education for women and improving economic conditions. However, in maize-consuming regions of the world, QPM could make an important contribution toward reducing protein deficiency, and, in conjunction with other nutritional and educational interventions, it could help improve the overall nutritional picture for many resource poor people in the developing world.","tokenCount":"11149"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cfa772d054cca32c4e9ed9baf8d1838a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28285dc4-2c3c-490b-a04c-f7a8196cb064/retrieve","id":"2029599890"},"keywords":["www","climatesecurity","cgiar","org Africa Climate Crisis Security Observatory www","climatesecurity","cgiar","org Climate Security Observatory Series"],"sieverID":"5ff70a5c-3500-496c-9446-3df86659abd5","pagecount":"10","content":"This factsheet answers if policy makers are aware of the climate security nexus, using social media analysis. The results show a disassociation between climate, socio-economic insecurities, and conflict in the public communications of policy makers.The relationship between climate and conflict has been receiving increased attention in the past decade, as the effects of climate change have shown to impact social and political stability. However, despite heightened interest and awareness regarding the potential linkages between the climate crisis and peace and security, this relationship has yet to be reflected in the policy arena. Policy cycles for national security and for climate adaptation and mitigation are often detached and do not reflect the complex pathways that link the two dimensions (Brzoska 2012).To explore the potential policy gap related to climate security, an innovative, data-driven method has been developed to assess the policy landscape of the Climate Security Observatory countries. Drawing on cutting edge academic research that relies on social media platforms as proxies for wider public discourse and engagement, digital methods approaches were applied to detect issue formations in online networked content (Rogers et al. 2015). The main research questions we address are:1. How salient is climate security in the policy agenda of the Climate Security Observatory countries?A machine-learning approach was applied to extract, process and analyze thousands of publicly available Tweets from policy makers to investigate the salience of climate security narratives and dynamics among policy actors at the national level.This factsheet summarizes the key findings for Zimbabwe. Overall, results show a disassociation between climate, socio-economic insecurities, and conflict in the public communications of policy makers. Together with the Policy Coherence assessment, insights emerging from this analysis provide a starting point for the development of evidence-based advocacy and engagement strategies so that effective responses to climate change are sensitive to the interlinkages with the security context in the country.Twitter has been widely recognized as an important venue for institutional communications; news media increasingly rely on the platform as a primary source for official statements and positiontaking. Its potential as a real-time, topic-driven platform enables rapid detection of trends to uncover discourse dynamics (McDonald 2013). Hence, to frame perceptions around the climate-socioeconomic insecurities-conflict nexus at the policy level in Zimbabwe, an analysis of government communications on Twitter was performed.An algorithm was developed to extract all publicly available Tweets from the official accounts of central government bodies, ministries of agriculture, environment, and natural resources, as well as national security bodies (Table 1), from which the presence of a climate security taxonomy was explored. In total, 15,465 Tweets were collected between 2014-12-10 to 2021-08-04.Building on the country-level impact pathways developed for Zimbabwe and the other Climate Security Observatory countries, a taxonomy was constructed to establish broad categories and specific topics for classification. The overall framework consists of 115 terms, organized within seven groups of variables: Climate, Conflict, Agricultural impacts, Resources, Socio-economic, Socioecological, Political/Institutional. The terms were matched to AGROVOC 1 , the Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) open-source, multilingual vocabulary. AGROVOC consists of more than 37,000 concepts covering FAO's areas of interest, such as food, nutrition, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, environment, etc. Vocabulary is available in up to 37 languages, which is particularly relevant as the multi-language definitions enable identification of topics in the original idioms of Tweets.For each topic, the corresponding AGROVOC definition was extracted, and a custom algorithm was developed to detect and classify the related terminology within the text of the Tweets. The topics were then assessed through correlation measures and sentiment analysis to identify the dynamics of linkages among them.In addition, leveraging on specific affordances of Twitter, network analysis enables assessing the relationships among policy actors by analyzing the accounts mentioned on their tweets. As defined in the Climate Security Observatory's country level network analysis, a network is a graphical representation of the relationships (edges) between different entities (nodes). In this case, the @ mentions are the nodes and their relations are the lines connecting pairs of nodes. This means that accounts are connected if they are mentioned by another. As the focus of this analysis is on the interaction between national security and climate adaptation and mitigation policy narratives, the network was restricted to the links between the 8 government accounts.No. Drawing on the mechanisms through which climate stressors may interact with socio-economic, ecological, and political dimensions identified in the Zimbabwe impact pathways, shows their overall distribution, as frequency counts. 'Livestock' and 'Water' are the most frequent topics in the communications of Zimbabwean state actors, followed by socioeconomic indicators 'Poverty' and 'Food security'. The most present topics for climate and conflict variables are 'Rain' and 'Armed conflicts', respectively.While the overall distribution of variables uncovers the cumulative prominence of topics, a temporal distribution provides a more nuanced perception of topic prevalence over time. Beyond the presence or absence of a topic, the algorithm also quantified their presence 2 . Figure 2 presents timelines for the prevalence of climate variables (top) and conflict variables (bottom) in the corpus of tweets. The visualization indicates not only which topics were in focus, but also when they were of most interest.Among climate variables, 'Drought' had a significant peak in early 2016, whereas 'Rain' presented a peak in at the end of the same year, reflecting the erratic impacts of El Niño that year. The Conflict timeline shows higher variability among variables. The peaks for 'Crime', 'Sexual violence' and 'Theft' in 2020 reflect the increasing unrest and fragility of Zimbabwe's democratic transition.To further unpack the interlinkages between different topics within the Tweets, a measure of correlation was established to identify when terms are present within the same body of text. A strong correlation indicates that the terms consistently occur within the same Tweet, whereas a negative correlation denotes they are occurring in separate Tweets. Figure 3 displays the seven variables most positively correlated to climate variables (left) and to conflict variables (right).3 Values were normalized on a scale from 0-1, so that prevalence is shown as a proportion of all frequency, on all topics, in the corpus of Tweets.  A sentiment analysis algorithm was applied to identify the direction -or tone -of the Tweets. The analysis enables the creation of a sentiment index, where the scale of polarity consists of counting terms related to \"positive\" sentiment and terms related to \"negative\" sentiment, and where unrelated words have a score of 0. Figure 5 presents the sentiment of Tweets in relation to the impact pathway variables in each category.While some positive results can be surprising, given the generally negative connotations attributed to the climate crisis, these should be interpreted from an institutional communications lens, i.e. the messages policy makers wish to convey publicly. As such, Tweets tend to focus on actions, solutions or achievements. For instance, conflict variables are often addressed from the perspective of state measures to tackle and prevent violence. Likewise, in the case of 'Rain' or 'Cyclones', Tweets could be focusing on disaster response. Hence, topics associated to a negative sentiment can indicate not only areas where risks and insecurities are greater, but also challenges to which policy solutions have yet to advance. Lastly, one of the key affordances of Twitter is user interaction through the @mention, when an account is tagged and notified, giving it the ability to engage in direct public dialogue. The network in figure 6 presents a visualization of the dynamics between the key state bodies representing climate, agriculture, natural resources, environment, and security interests. The spatialization of nodes was estimated with a force-directed algorithm that turns structural proximities into visual proximities (Jacomy et al. 2014). This means that linked nodes are drawn closer while unrelated nodes www.climatesecurity.cgiar.orgCGIAR aims to address gaps in knowledge about climate change and food security for peace and security policies and operations through a unique multidisciplinary approach. Our main objective is to align evidence from the realms of climate, land, and food systems science with peacebuilding efforts already underway that address conflict through evidence-based environmental, political, and socioeconomic solutions. ","tokenCount":"1324"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"33b9a652c910ba41d8e8b0cf8cd54b3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1784e92a-6708-4710-b30f-df96673f880e/retrieve","id":"732513664"},"keywords":["Gender","agriculture","climate change","youth","resilience"],"sieverID":"3c732e33-ca15-4822-9ac1-02b438a9fb7b","pagecount":"61","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.Rising temperatures and more extreme weather associated with climate change are expected to exacerbate existing social and gender inequalities across the globe (Dankelman, 2010;IPCC, 2014). In a 2°C (or more) world, gender equality will need to encompass women and men's increased resilience and reduce their vulnerability to climate change. Women's agency in relation to climate resilience is the ability to access and act on (make choices based on) information and to participate in decisions that affect their lives (Huyer, Gumucio, et al., 2021;Kabeer, 1999). This paper reviews the evolution towards gender equality and empowerment in relation to climate resilient agriculture of the agenda of the Gender and Social Inclusion Flagship (GSI) of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).Building on analysis of women's capacity and willingness to adopt CSA in the context of the gender productivity gap, CCAFS research generated a \"gender-smart agriculture\" (GSA) approach. GSA considers women's priorities and access to technology, resources, and information to support climate resilience through equality and agency. It ensures that the needs and priorities of men and women are recognised and addressed in the design and application of climate resilient interventions. and strategies (individual, household, or collective) and the differences in their capacity to adapt. Analyses of intrahousehold gender survey data showed that women and men adopt different CSA practices in particular contexts 2 , although some practices appear to be generally preferred by women or men across diverse environments. For example, women are more likely than men to adopt improved stoves, water harvesting, and small-scale irrigation, while men are more likely than women to adopt stress-tolerant varieties and animal breeds as well as agroforestry practices (Jost et al., 2016;Kristjanson et al., 2017). On the other hand, work in Latin America found that women play a role in agroforestry decisions around household use for food security and income generation (Gumucio et al., 2017).In 2013 a survey was undertaken in four sites in sub-Saharan Africa, with the intent to understand gendered climate change perceptions, impacts, adaptation, and coping strategies, as well as the constraints to adaptation in Kenya, Senegal, and Uganda. Questions included:• How do men and women perceive climate change and, particularly, the livelihood risks associated with climate change?• What are the gender disparities in access to and control over assets and how and to what degree does the disparity in assets affect how men and women experience climate shocks and change?• How and to what degree does asset disparity determine how men and women respond to climate shocks and change?• Which coping strategies and adaptation options are favoured by women and men, respectively, and why?The survey was undertaken after two years of CCAFS work in the sites on climate-smart agriculture practices. It collected detailed gender-disaggregated data on these issues to inform strategies to increase climate change resilience among both women and men, including: household make-up; land ownership, management, and decision making; decision-making authority on agricultural, livestock, and household decisions; adoption and knowledge of climate-smart agriculture practices; access to and use of climate and agricultural information services; access to and use of credit; membership in groups; fuel and water use; experience with climate shocks and coping strategies; perception of climate change and its potential impacts; and identification of adaptation strategies (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2018).The survey found clear gender differences in perceptions of climate change, awareness, and adoption of climate smart agricultural (CSA) practices, as well as types and sources of agroclimatic information (Figure 1). It found that both men and women were experiencing changes in long-run weather patterns and that they changed their behaviours in different ways in response -albeit relatively minor shifts in existing agricultural practices. For example, the most prevalent changes reported included switching crop varieties, switching types of crops, and changing planting dates (Figure 3). Women were less aware of many CSA practices. Encouragingly, this same pattern did not hold in relation to adoption of CSA practices; in many cases, in East Africa in particular, women, when aware, were more likely than or just as likely as men to adopt them. In West Africa, overall, the adoption of these practices was much lower, while access to information from different sources varied greatly between men and women. However, it was also found that those with access to information reported using it to make changes to their agricultural production (Twyman et al., 2014). For example, survey results in Rakai found that having access to weather and agricultural information was essential to overcome women's adaptive challenges. Women did not have equal access to the information they needed to produce food more effectively and efficiently.The ability to access and use information on weather, climate and early warning of disasters is a critical element of adaptation. The gender surveys in 2013 found consistent gender differences in access to information for climate change adaptation, particularly with respect to weather and climate information, but also in relation to agricultural advice on adaptation.The results of a descriptive analysis show that across the African sites, women farmers tend to have significantly less access to many types of agricultural information, (e.g., CSA practices), and climate-related information than men (Kristjanson et al., 2017;Twyman et al., 2014;Jost et al, 2016), with some exceptions (Figure 2). For example, in the two Kenyan sites (Nyando and Wote), women reported higher levels of access to crop and livestock production and post-harvest handling information than men (Twyman et al., 2014). Radio and TV reach both men and women widely (Africa Enterprise Challenge Fund & University of Reading, 2014;Diouf et al., 2019). In Colombia it was found that while most men and women received information from technicians, radio, TV, neighbours, extension agents, and family members, a higher percentage of men than women reported access to each of these sources of information (Twyman, Muriel, & Clavijo, 2016). In Nicaragua, radio and NGOs are the primary sources of information for agriculture and climate-related information. Men have slightly higher rates of access to these sources (Kristjanson et al, 2017). Preferences for types of climate information is another gender issue, with women and men having different preferences depending on their gender roles, access to resources and access to household labour (Gumucio et al., 2020a). In Senegal, women, unlike men, request forecasts of dry spells and timing of the cessation of the rains, given that they plant later than men owing to lack of control over means of production (Tall et al., 2014).East and West African countries developed an analysis that was complementary to the work on gender trends in adoption and benefit from CSA and climate information. The analysis compared the agricultural and livelihood systems of women and men farmers, as well as their productive resources, organisation, and access to services. It was found that women have less access than men to common property resources, as well as to cash to obtain goods or services. They control less land than men, the land they control is often of poorer quality, and their tenure is insecure. Perhaps in response to this precarious position, women engage in mutual insurance and risk-sharing networks, and benefit from non-agricultural services provided by social support institutions external to the village. It was also found that formally registered, public, and private external organisations that foster agriculture and livestock production have tremendous anti-women biases and tended to provide support primarily to men (Perez et al., 2015). This finding was echoed in other CCAFS research, including the gender surveys (Kristjanson et al, 2017) as well as research by Cramer et al (2016) and Jost et al (2016) who found that women tended to interact more with community and informal based institutions, while men interacted more with formal organisations.CCAFS research also recognized that rural women are at high risk of negative impacts from climate change, due to household responsibilities as well as increased agricultural work from male out-migration. One of the important effects of environmental stress in farming systems (such as those imposed by climate change), for example, is the intensification of women's workloads, while another is decreases in assets of poor households (Agwu & Okhimamwe, 2009;Jost et al., 2016). Migration also plays a role in CSA decisions by women. In Kenya the most rapid adoption of climate-resilient farming for women was among those whose husbands were away and not making the day-to-day decisions. However, the possibility of increased labour loads from CSA practices is a significant barrier for women (Bernier et al., 2015;Jost et al., 2016;Twyman et al., 2014). Other questions that emerged from CCAFS research included how social and gender disparities affect how poor men and women respond to climate impacts on agriculture (Jost et al. 2016). Climate variability and weatherrelated shocks affect women's and men's assets in different ways and cultural norms can affect changes in control and ownership of assets during drought. For example, in one case women gained increased control of the household's livestock because men sold their livestock first (Kristjanson et al., 2014). Women and men are also changing cropping practices in response to climate variability, with different impacts on control of the income from crops and on workloads (Jost et al. 2016;Nelson & Stathers, 2009).A special issue in Gender, Technology and Development on Gender, Climate Change and Agriculture (2016), presented influential findings on gender and CSA research by CCAFS and partners to date (see also Huyer et al., 2015) 3 . In their gender analysis of CSA practices across different farming and cultural systems to facilitate adoption by, and livelihood improvements for, women smallholder farmers, Murray et al. (2016) found that climate posed challenges for their agricultural and labour productivity. They found that labour of women was constrained by lack of access to labour-saving technologies, even to the most basic of farm tools. This produced a poverty trap for poorer smallholders which could not be escaped without access to key resources such as rural energy and labour-saving technologies. Despite the aspirations of women smallholders to engage in CSA, their research found that many women smallholders had either limited or no access to basic agricultural tools, transport, and rural energy. Their research raised the question of whether future livelihood scenarios for poor farmers will consist of barely surviving or \"hanging in\"; whether they can \"step up\" to adapt better to future climate constraints; or whether more of these farmers will \"step out\" of agriculture. They argued that for women smallholder farmers to become more resilient, gender constraints in accessing basic agricultural technologies need to be addressed, combined with participatory approaches to develop, and adapt CSA tools and technologies to their needs in future climates and agro-ecologies. Surabhi Mittal (Mittal, 2016) investigated the potential of a mobile phone-enabled information delivery mechanism to reduce the knowledge gap between large and small farmers as well as across gender, by creating awareness about CSA practices and technologies. Her research found that women can feel empowered from access to information through voice enable phone lines if the information targets their interests and activities. Women farmers said that agro-advisory messaging helped them make more efficient use of inputs by increasing their knowledge about climate-smart technologies. It also increased their empowerment through more influence on household decision making, since they were able to discuss the agricultural information used by their husbands with them.Overall, Phase I research found that linked household-, intrahousehold-, community-, and institutional-level data shed light on significant and nuanced gender differences in the capacity of individuals and communities to adapt to climate change for reasons of the gender gap, access to resources, and access to information. It found that the gender gap was substantial in exposure to climate change and its impacts as well as adoption of new practices to lower vulnerability. To overcome neglect of women's needs and priorities by service and information providers, their differing needs, access to, and control over resources need to be considered in policy and programming (Kristjanson et al., 2017).Phase II: Developing an approach to gender-smart agricultureThe CCAFS work in Phase II (2017-2021) on Gender and Social Inclusion (GSI) expanded on this research to develop an approach, strategies, and monitoring frameworks for a genderresponsive, or gender-smart, CSA. This approach targets gender equality and empowerment of women and men, taking CCAFS research beyond diagnostic and equity approaches towards research to inform, catalyse and target CSA solutions for women and youth, increase their control over productive assets and resources (e.g., climate information, climate finance), and increase their leadership and decision-making (e.g., in local and national climate adaptation) (Huyer et al., 2016). This expanded approach included a focus on social inclusion 4 , involving gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, disability, and age (youth and seniors) (FAO and CCAFS 2013).Analysis in Phase II increased understanding of what are the gender equality aspects and results of designing and implementing CSA practices, and how gender equality or empowerment results in CSA are measured, towards the development of a framework for gender-smart agriculture (GSA). A key challenge for gender and CSA research is to identify the trade-offs and co-benefits from different combinations of options in different contexts that benefit women, youth and poor farmers, and promote the transformation of agriculture and rural development in ways that promote equality (Locatelli et al. 2015;CCAFS 2016). A range of approaches for integrating gender into prioritization and impact measurement of CSA technologies and climate services were also developed and tested (see section on Tools below).A Learning and Action Workshop on Gender Transformative CSA in 2019 as well as a special issue of Climatic Change, on \"Gender Equality and CSA: Frameworks, Opportunities and Action\" (January 2020) assessed research to date and highlighted findings around a gender equality framework in CSA. The Learning and Action workshop, held at the University of Canberra on 1-2 April 2019, was an opportunity to identify opportunities for gender equality in climate-smart agriculture (CSA) through knowledge sharing and discussion of next steps.The workshop involved researchers across CCAFS who reviewed the existing knowledge base, noted key gaps, and identified future research questions and themes (Huyer et al, 2019). The discussions were based on an action framework that conceptualized the integration of gender equality into CSA and mapped the CSA approach outlined by Lipper et al. (Figure 4). Phase I of CCAFS research demonstrated that climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has the potential to bridge the gender gap by providing a range of benefits for women, if implemented in such a way that they can take advantage of them. But Phase II research found that for CSA to be a positive strategy for women, differences in priorities and in ability to adopt new practices between women and men of different ages and social classes need to be considered. Stemming from these differences, women have different needs and priorities for training, technology, and climate information, based in their differing access to resources, social and gender norms, and gender division of labour (World Bank, FAO, and IFAD, 2015;Jost et al. 2016;Tall et al. 2014;Huyer 2016).As a result, CSA will not be relevant to, or beneficial for women by definition. Some argue that CSA is a compilation of market-led and productivity-oriented practices that are antithetical to feminist approaches in agriculture for development (Collins, 2018) and CCAFS research found it has the potential to entrench and solidify prevailing power and gender relations within a community if questions are not asked about who is controlling the technology and who benefits from the practice (Haapala, 2018). The tendency to allocate new labour-intensive activities to women can mean they will be hesitant to adopt new adaptive practices in agriculture out of concern that their workload will increase (Beuchelt & Badstue, 2013), and it has been argued that \"gender\" research in CSA is mostly concerned with a men-women dichotomy that ignores power and social and political relations, stemming from gender, race, class, ethnicity, religion, and age (Djoudi et al., 2016;Mungai et al., 2017).Constraints from outside agriculture also influence women's ability to adopt and benefit from CSA. Some researchers have noted a tendency for women to adopt labour-intensive CSA technologies for their own work (probably due for cost reasons) which may mitigate against other equality benefits by increasing their workloads (Mutenje et al., 2019).Inadequate infrastructure for water or transportation will increase women's unpaid care work and time expended in fetching water or taking produce to market, while social norms restrict women's public interactions, participation in decision-making, and control over resources (Huyer & Partey, 2020).While CSA can have negative effects for women, CCAFS research also showed a two-way relationship between CSA and gender equality. Gender equality can be a factor in the adoption of CSA (Mutenje et al., 2019) -in Malawi, households where women were more empowered were more likely to adopt CSA -while in other situations CSA adoption can facilitate empowerment. CSA technologies and practices for adaptation that reduce workloads can increase production, reduce negative impacts on health, and allow women more time for other activities such as education or enterprises. This is a critical gender and climate issue since climate impacts such as drought in combination with deforestation are expected to significantly increase women's workload (Dankelman, 2010). Information and capacity-building to cope with and manage climate risk and variability, is important for women's and men's capacity to adapt, can promote women's participation in household decision-making and increase their agricultural production (Huyer, 2019;Mittal, 2016;Rengalakshmi et al., 2018).The special issue of Climatic Change research addressed this in two ways, for both policymakers and practitioners, by ( 1 poverty in India and Nepal. The resulting maps identify \"hotspots\" or high-risk areas where climatic risks overlap with a high proportion of women in agriculture. While this kind of macro-level approach has been criticized for failing to consider important differences in socioeconomic level, status, etc., affecting women's situation, it offers a large-scale overview for policymakers and support organisations to identify those areas where the greatest climate risk and vulnerability exist 5 . An analysis of the extent of gender integration in climate-related policies in Tanzania and Uganda, and how gender is budgeted for in implementation plans at district and lower governance levels (Ampaire et al., 2020) builds on work in Latin America by Gumucio and Rueda (2015) analysing the inclusion of gender in climate-related policies in Latin America.The East Africa analysis showed that while there is increasing gender responsiveness in climate-related policy in both countries, (i) gender issues are still interpreted as \"women's issues,\" (ii) there is a lack of harmony in gender mainstreaming across governance levels, (iii) budgeting for gender is not yet fully embraced by governments, (iii) allocations to gender at sub-national level remain consistently low, and (iv) gender activities do not address structural inequalities. The article goes on to propose approaches that increase capacity to develop and execute gender-responsive policies, implementation plans, and budgets.A second group of articles presented in the special issue look at how implementation of CSA practices and technologies affect gender equality and empowerment within households. The approaches presented consist of both new and adapted methodologies to better understand the following: (i) gender equality in relation to CSA and climate-resilient agriculture approaches (Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2020) (ii) exploration of whether CSA practices can lead to greater empowerment for women and men (Hariharan et al., 2020)  Khatri-Chhetri and colleagues (2020) focus on one critical gender equality aspect of agriculture in the context of climate change: women's work burden. As they note, there is significant concern that women are likely to be more negatively affected by climate impacts, especially in developing countries where they are highly reliant on natural resources for livelihoods and household well-being. Most analyses have been limited to their access to resources and decision-making, but the effects on women's workload in agriculture could be very significant. In this context, women's agricultural activities in South Asia tend to be labour-intensive: sowing, weeding, and harvesting. Climate change impacts such as decreasing crop residues and biomass for energy and livestock feed, the need to re-sow or transplant crops, and decreases in crop yields are likely to increase women's workload more, given their involvement in these and related activities. A methodology was proposed to assess the labour-reducing potential for women of selected CSA technologies and practices: farmers' practice (FP), direct-seeded rice (both zero tillage and low tillage with machine), system of rice intensification (SRI), green manuring, and laser land levelling (LLL). The analysis in the pilot sites found that direct seeded rice, zero tillage machines, laser land levelling, and green manuring have potential to significantly reduce women's workloads, with direct seeded rice (zero tillage and low tillage using machine) and green manuring (GM) being the most likely to significantly reduce their labour hours. This finding is corroborated by analysis elsewhere in the region that found drum rice seeders can significantly reduce women's workload (Aryal et al., 2020). The interrelationship of labour-reducing technologies with other factors, such as access and control of resources, participation in decision-making about the adoption of CSA technologies, and linkages to new markets, needs further attention (Khatri-Chhetri et al, 2020).Significant progress was made in developing indicators to measure gender equality results and the empowerment of women in the context of climate-resilient agriculture. The Gender Empowerment Index for CSVs (GEI-CSV) proposes an index tested in two regions in India-Bihar and Haryana (Hariharan et al., 2020) . The Index builds on two global initiatives-the Global Gender Gap Index (World Economic Forum 2018) and the Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) (Alkire et al., 2013)-to construct a framework that measures four domains of empowerment: political, economic, social, and agricultural. Indicators measure both increases in degree of empowerment (e.g., increased access to credit; better access to a mobile phone) as well as the achievement of empowerment in the form of participation in village-or household-level decision-making, better control of money for various uses, increased participation in agricultural decisions, among other factors. The added dimensions of the GEI-CSV include a focus on agricultural technologies and management practices in the context of climate change, as having the greatest influence on participation in agriculture in the climate context by households and household members and on agricultural production.As a result, the expanded set of agricultural indicators measures empowerment both in the recognized sense of increased decision-making in household agricultural decisions and increased incomes (FAO and CCAFS 2013) but also in relation to climate vulnerability and resilience of women and men, i.e., the ability to respond to and adapt to the impacts of climate change (Perez et al. 2015). Resilience indicators include ability to manage agricultural risk, use of climate insurance, crop diversification, and access to weather and agro-information. The GEI can be adapted to different regional and agricultural contexts.The pilot in Bihar and Haryana found increased empowerment for both women and men in CSVs in both regions, compared with non-CSVs. This study concludes that climate-smart approaches can increase empowerment of women and men in agriculture by increasing their resilience and adaptive capability while also increasing gender equality in decision-making and control of resources. The GEI is in process of being further tested in 9 countries five regions: Nepal, Vietnam, Kenya, Ethiopia, Senegal, Mali, Ghana, Nicaragua, and Guatemala, with additional indicators on workload and political participation. whether gender is a determinant of climate information use; and (iii) whether men and women benefit and face similar constraints to the use of climate information services.Results showed that while 85.2% (representing 767) of farmers were aware of climate change and its implications for their agriculture and other livelihood activities, and that while men and women were found to have similar perceptions about climate change, use of CIS may be influenced by gender. Men tended to use the service more than women, likely because they were more able to buy and use mobiles to access the climate and agroinformation. Women generally used their husbands' phones. This echoes research and data from the GMSA that show that the digital gender divide is greater in ownership and control of mobiles than in access to them, and that the gap is not noticeably closing (GSMA Connected Women 2019). Nevertheless, despite these differences in access to CIS, both men and women found it beneficial for farm decision-making on issues such as when to begin land preparation, when to plant, and which crop to select. As well, both men and women were found to face similar constraints (such as poor network connectivity and limited of training) to accessing and using CIS through the Esoko platform, although women's constraints were slightly more likely to be based on resource limitations and illiteracy than men. Building on research elsewhere (Gumucio et al., 2018;Tall et al., 2014), the authors recommend the need to explore different dissemination channels for information for women and men, as well as design of CIS that meet gender-specific needs and capacities. Gumucio et al (2020b) in their review of the rural climate services work of CCAFS assessed the empirical knowledge base on gender-based differences in access, use and benefits to analyse gender equality challenges and identify pathways for making climate services more responsive to the needs of rural women and men. While existing research is limited, the review identifies key gender-related factors and processes that influence inequalities in access and use. The review found that differential access to group processes and to information and communications technologies (ICTs) can significantly limit women's access to weather and climate information. Socio-cultural norms that define women's and men's labour roles can also influence the resources and decisions under women's and men's control, affecting their differing climate information needs and demand. Ways forward suggested by the literature concern inclusion of women's groups and networks in communication channels and development of ICTs that respond to women's preferences.Meeting women's climate information needs and pursuing cross-sectoral collabouration will be important for successful climate action. Research opportunities include analyses of the potential for women's and mixed-gender groups to enhance women's access to climate information; evaluation of the communication processes that improve women's understanding of climate information; and further connection with the body of knowledge on intra-household decision-making processes.Analysis by Huyer (2019) of how women use ICT and access to CIS for empowerment found they play a critical role in food security in the developing world, but their agricultural activities are often characterised by gaps in information and resource access, with deficiencies in several areas: land, labour, credit, information, extension, and technology (Huyer, 2016). CIS are not sufficiently providing women with the information, services, and knowledge they need and want. Sufficient evidence and experience exist, however, to develop agricultural information strategies for food security that support women and promote gender equality. Successful strategies for reaching women, include mixed approaches of radio (Ingabire, 2021), TV (Africa Enterprise Challenge Fund & University of Reading, 2014), and mobiles that may be the most appropriate approaches to reach women with agriculture and climate information, in view of women's low access to resources and widespread gender norms that inhibit women's information access. Intermediary organisations, such as social networks and community organisations, health clinics, farmer associations and women's organisations, are also important avenues for women to access and use information (Huyer, 2019).In 2019-2020, a review of CCAFS work in its second Phase assessed how climate adaptation and mitigation approaches can reduce women's and men's vulnerabilities, promote their capacities for resilience, support the ability of women to exercise their agency, and, as a result increase gender equality. Existing literature and regional case studies were analysed in relation to four dimensions of gender in/equality: (1) participation in decision-making at different levels, (2) women's work burdens, (3) access to and use of productive resources such as agro-climatic information, technology, livelihood incomes, and credit, and (4) collective action (Huyer, Gumucio, et al., 2021).Collective action emerged as a key strategy / ingredient for promoting gender equality and women's agency. Women's group organising and collective action can engender capacitybuilding tailored to women's needs and constraints, and serve as platforms for women to exercise agency in implementing climate adaptation strategies (see (Chanana et al., 2018;Huyer et al, 2021). Different organisations in the form of farmers or producer organisations (FOs and POs), women's organisations, and community-based organisations (CBOs) have been able to promote or work towards empowerment from a base of economic support and increased access to resources (Huyer et al., 2022). This when combined with aspects such as participation in decision making in the household or community, increased voice and agency, and ability to influence decisions in their local or national contexts, act as contributing factors to empowerment. For instance, in Uganda, women members of the Manyakabi Area Cooperative Enterprise were able to generate multiple benefits in the form of increased incomes, improved connections with traders from local and external regional markets, greater independence and status, new leadership and business skills. Women felt empowered by having a stronger voice in the community (they now negotiate prices with wholesalers), a new bargaining position that has increased their standing with both business partners and family members (Ferguson and Kepe, 2011).Similarly, self-help groups (SHGs) are a widespread form of collective action in South Asia and were leveraged in scaling climate smart agricultural practices in Madhya Pradesh, India.Women's participation in committees to manage and implement CSA practices and technologies, supported their empowerment by integrating them into a successful village activity, improved their knowledge of climate-resilient practices, increased their access to information, and resulted in increased visibility and leadership in the community.Building on the gender profile of climate-smart agriculture in Ghana (CCAFS 2021) and the Gender Empowerment Index for CSVs, a \"gender-smartness\" framework was developed to plan and measure impacts of gender-smart agriculture. GSA is implemented in four key stages including situational analysis, planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation. The first step, situation analysis, explores the entry points for investing in priority GSA initiatives at scale. Content of the situation analysis is usually based on existing global and national data sources, as well as expert input and surveys ideally including farmers and technical experts and can also incorporate more localized data if available. The planning step involves participatory targeting and prioritisation consultations with all stakeholders. It results in the development and design of a final portfolio is informed by an understanding of the existing socio-cultural and economic barriers that can enable or disable adoption by men and women. For the third stage, several participatory approaches enable inclusive implementation of GSA. They involve leveraging the existing institutional environment to build upon the agency and capacities of women that can considerably impact the adoption of technology. Finally, a gender-smart indicator can be used to assess the effectiveness of the selected GSA options to address the following:• Gender gap in access to resources including income, credit, inputs, production, and climate information services • Gender differences in intra-household decision making participation• Gender gap in agency/ leadership at community level • Gender differences in workloads.Emerging global crises such as climate change, massive migrations, pandemics, and environmental degradation are posing serious risks and threatening ecosystems and rural livelihoods across the globe. Climate change in particular is expected to exacerbate preexisting social inequalities, including gender inequalities. Innovative and equitable climate adaptation and mitigation strategies will be needed, including substantive integration of a gender perspective into climate change policy discussions and agreements at global and national levels (Huyer et al., 2020).Policy change takes time, along with ongoing engagement with policy makers and influencers (Mulema et al., 2021). GSI focused on work with the Africa Group of Negotiators Expert Support (AGNES) and the African Development Bank from 2017 to 2021, with the purpose to build capacity and generate momentum in gender and climate policy in the African region.The goal of the GSI work in this context was to \"work with AGNES and other organisations to ensure climate changed-related policies and activities are not only conceptually inclusive, but also provide a space for women and youth to take an active role in advocating for themselves (Freeman & Mulema, 2021).\" To this end, GSI provided technical and funding support on gender and youth to policy analyses, inputs, and submissions (including NDCs and national climate policy), as well as capacity development to policy makers on gender in global and national climate policy. In collaboration with Women in Global Science and Technology (WISAT) it also contributed to analysis of gender in NDCs.In 2017, CCAFS GSI contributed to 3 submissions to the UNFCCC on the Gender Action Plan, by Kenya, Ghana (in May) and the AGN (during COP23). on 18 April 2017. Analysis of the text in the Kenya, Ghana and AGN submissions included text from a CCAFS presentation, and the Ghana submission includes acknowledgement of CCAFS' role in supporting the submission.Mary Nyasimi, GSI Science Officer, was asked to represent Kenya at these meetings and contributed to the Kenya submission.Ongoing collaboration between GSI and AGNES produced several successful gender-related climate policy outcomes. In the lead up to the 25th Conference of the Parties (COP), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) called for submissions to their Gender Action Plan (GAP). The GAP, which sets out plans for gender-responsive climate action, is an essential component of ensuring inclusive and meaningful participation for all genders in the UNFCCC process. In 2017, GSI facilitated and contributed to the text for the African Group of Negotiators' (AGN) submission to the UNFCCC GAP and, in 2019, CCAFS' support was instrumental in finalizing the GAP at COP25. This support included the coproduction of the CCAFS-AGNES working paper \"Gender Implications of the Gender Action Plan and Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (Masiko et al., 2019)\" and included ongoing collaboration with the facilitator of the negotiations, Winnie Masiko. In a discussion about the support offered to AGNES by CCAFS, George Wamukoya, AGNES Coordinator, stated, \"CCAFS should be proud of the outcome (Freeman and Mulema, 2021) GSI also supported the identification of priority areas and actions leading to a set of recommendations on gender, forestry, water and energy for the update of the Uganda NDC that is currently ongoing. Winifred Masiko, AGNES member, worked with staff in the relevant ministries to develop the recommendations. In Kenya, support and inputs were provided to the Ministry of Agriculture in its update of the Gender Agriculture Policy. Both reports are currently under review in the relevant Ministries.Other policy-related documents included development of a conceptual framework on gender mainstreaming of NAPs and NDCs (Chingarande et al., 2020); and the AGNES Policy Brief \"Closing the Gender Gap in African Agriculture in the Face of Climate Change\" (AGNES -Africa Group of Negotiators Experts Support, 2020).Capacity development activities included ongoing support to participation of youth and gender experts in AGNES to the annual COP meetings; and a series of national workshops coorganised with the African Development Bank for policy makers on gender policy development and negotiations:• Training of Tanzania MPs on gender and climate change (Natai et al., 2019) • Workshop with national policymakers in East Africa on gender in national climate policy (https://ccafs.cgiar.org/news/east-african-policy-makers-advocate-genderclimate-policy)• AGNES training workshop on gender in global climate negotiations, Dakar, September 2018.A framework for CCAFS work in youth was initially developed in 2017, based on work in Phase I Flagships and regions, and target and equip youth with knowledge on climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and technologies to increase productivity, resilience, and employment opportunities (CCAFS, 2016). This youth strategy was revised and developed during Phase II to comprise 6 areas of focus:1. Identify CSA options and incentives that offer attractive opportunities for young farmers and youth entrepreneurs along value chains, including digital-based opportunities.2. Understand the relation and interactions of youth migration with climate change and related factors (e.g., food security, employment, disasters, and conflict).3. Explore the use of digital technologies and engagement processes to meet the CSA and climate information needs of youth to strengthen their entrepreneurship and climate resilience.4. Undertake strategic research on youth engagement in policy and how it can be improved at local, national, and global policy levels (e.g., through civil society organisations, social media, youth networks, and negotiation processes). 5. Engage in the capacity development of young people, including through social media, webinars, participatory learning approaches (e.g., use of participatory video, theatre, and information and communication technologies (ICTs), climate change research opportunities, and access to professional networks. 6. Include age-disaggregated indicators (data) in monitoring, evaluation, and learning (MEL) processes (Bullock et al., 2020).The Youth Strategy was interwoven with the CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion (GSI) Strategy (Huyer et al., 2016) and advocated for approaches that build the agency of youth to navigate and negotiate opportunities for more sustainable futures. To understand youth, broader geographic characteristics that influence local opportunities for employment, including improving productivity, adaptive capacities, and youth migration, must also be understood. While structural and rural transformation interact with conditions for CSA initiatives, social factors need to be equally considered for their inter-relation with agency to pursue options based in their priorities and abilities. Socially inclusive and intersectional approaches provide a better understanding of the ways in which local and cultural contexts structure young people's opportunities and challenges. The social networks that youth are embedded in often mediate agency and their ability to secure resources, both of which will be important to support their ability to kickstart, participate in, and benefit from CSA initiatives (Bullock et al., 2020).The Youth Strategy was supported in part by research in East Africa on young women and men's participation in agricultural decision making and trends in migration of youth.Research on \"Youth Decision Making in Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change\" (Amsler et al., 2017) explored the extent to which young people in East Africa have decision making power in the implementation of agricultural adaptation practices due to climate change, Africa's \"youth bulge\" and their perceived disinterest in pursuing agricultural livelihoods.Using a comparative political ecology framework, focus groups discussions, interviews with key informant and individuals were conducted with a total of 155 rural youth and 42 policymakers and stakeholder representatives in selected sites in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda. Findings suggested that young people have an understanding of climate change and how to adapt to it, but they are unable to implement this knowledge due to lack of agricultural inputs and financial capital, insufficient land ownership, indirect participation in decision making and limited access to markets. Initial research on the nexus between climate change, agriculture, international migration in East Africa and youth provides a starting point for expanding research and analysis in the continent (Bezu et al., 2020). Migration is related to climate trends in the region -East Africa will experience longer and more frequent droughts, suggesting that agricultural livelihoods will become more vulnerable in the coming decades. The region experienced significant growth in outmigration in the past few decades and climate change is likely to accelerate this trend. The quantitative analysis provides suggestive evidence to support this hypothesis, demonstrating that a higher number of average dry days for a country is positively correlated with higher stock of emigrants from that country. This research found that the prospect of youth international migration from East Africa is high and likely to increase with climate change. This is a critical issue, given that the youth population in the region is not only the highest in the continent, but is more likely to be unemployed, less encumbered with family responsibilities and more educated than the previous generation. All these factors support the likelihood of higher youth migration in the context of climate change (Bezu et al, 2020).Implementing and measuring gender-smart agriculture:Experience in Phase I of CCAFS gender research was that there were few clear guidelines for addressing the needs of men and women in different environments and agricultural systems. CARE International, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), and CCAFS, along with practitioners, scientists, farmers, NGO professionals and academics, developed tools and concepts through workshops, field tests, and reflection sessions. It was developed as part of a larger social learning approach in CCAFS (Harvey et al, 2013) which emphasises selfreflexive, iterative and shared learning platforms that seek to integrate diverse actors and sources of knowledge. The Toolbox was presented as an alternative to expert-driven, often top-down approaches, to support the participation of those left out of policy and programming on climate change and adaptation; as well as to understand the different options women and men farmers pursue to reduce climate vulnerability. The Toolbox did this by highlighting participatory research using qualitative tools to collect, synthesize and analyze data, including participatory tools for context analysis and information on perceptions of wealth, empowerment, and overall socio-economic dynamics in a community. Guidance on how to explore issues of access, use and control over climate services is also provided, how co-benefits of climate interventions are perceived, and how qualitative data can be organised and analysed (Jost et al., 2014).Other gender toolkits and guidance developed by CCAFS include 6 :• A Gender-responsive Approach to Climate-Smart Agriculture: Evidence and Guidance for Practitioners (Nelson & Huyer, 2016), developed with FAO and the Global Alliance for CSA (GACSA)• Step-by-step Process to Mainstream Gender in Climate-smart Agricultural Initiatives in Guatemala (Acosta et al., 2020) • Participatory Identification of Climate-smart agriculture Priorities (Duong et al., 2016) • Developing Participatory Agro-Climate Advisories for Integrated Agroforestry Systems (Simelton et al., 2018) • Inclusion of Gender Equality in Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Services (Gumucio et al., 2018).• Gender-Climate-Hotspot Mapping (Chanana and Agarwal, 2020;Khatri-Chhetri et al, 2020) • Gender Empowerment Index -CSVs (Hariharan et al, 2020) to measure empowerment of women and men from participation in climate-smart villages.Climate change research in general shows glaring gaps in understanding the different adaptive strategies and capacities of men and women, as well as the technologies, practices, and enabling environments that will empower women (FAO & CCAFS, 2013) The critical priority now is to focus on how to promote gender equality and increase resilience, with a need for further exploration of the long-term interconnections between resilience and gender equality. What are the longer-term effects of decreased work burdens on resilience and agency? Research is also needed on promoting women's agency and voice in different contexts through collective action.Power relations between women and men, within households, communities, and countries, as well as among different groups in a community condition climate adaptation and resilience (Colfer et al., 2018;Haapala, 2018). Power relationships are expressed through a range of structures-judicial, economic, social, and political-so that overcoming power imbalances involves promoting greater equality in control over resources (physical, human, intellectual, intangible) and ideology (beliefs, values, attitudes), as well as changes in institutions and structures (Rao & Kelleher, 2005). More research is needed on the gendered impacts of climate change on men, their experience of and responses to climate change, as well as integration of men into climate adaptation programs targeted to women (Kantor et al., 2015).Related to this is the need to understand existing socio-cultural norms. Social norms cut across multiple dimensions and have been highlighted as underlying factors affecting men and women's vulnerability (access to and control of resources, intersections with individual characteristics like age, marital status, landholding, etc.), CSA adoption barriers (literacy, limited agency, limited technical resources etc.) and factors affecting differences in adoption by men and women (access to extension, institutions, asset ownership and access etc.). They are also responsible for how women benefit or not benefit from CSA. Addressing these is therefore essential for ensuring more gender-equitable outcomes of adaptation.A major challenge is to identify the context-specific technologies and supporting measures that may be needed. Which trade-offs and co-benefits from different combinations of options will benefit women and promote the transformation of agriculture and rural development in ways that promote gender equality (Locatelli et al, 2015)? There is a need to better understand the processes or enabling mechanism of achieving gender equality through CSA adoption (for example role of group-based approaches, capacity building, training etc. In addition, understanding gender dynamics in terms of decision making on CSA adoption, implementation and distribution of benefits also needs more attention.Several specific research areas are critical to the promotion of gender equality and women's agency and resilience in climate adaptation and mitigation:• Use of CSA technologies and practices to reduce women's work burden.• Access to agro-climatic information; and• Increasing the participation of women and men in the formulation of climate policy as well as models for gender-responsive climate policy.• What constitutes inclusive scaling: Who and what is it for? How do scaling strategies consider the capacities, priorities, and goals of all groups in society (Huyer, et al., 2021a;Huyer, et al., 2021b) ","tokenCount":"7366"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f74db501bdf7405a9d294566373eed64","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dab671ca-322f-46ab-9489-a249a9d40c7c/retrieve","id":"618127685"},"keywords":["information and communication technology","agricultural extension and advisory services","content management"],"sieverID":"a9b33a61-2dc1-411a-bedc-59778148b09f","pagecount":"40","content":"IFPRI Discussion Papers contain preliminary material and research results. They have been peer reviewed, but have not been subject to a formal external review via IFPRI's Publications Review Committee. They are circulated in order to stimulate discussion and critical comment; any opinions expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the policies or opinions of IFPRI.The generation and application of agricultural knowledge is increasingly important, especially for small and marginal farmers, who need relevant information in order to improve, sustain, and diversify their farm enterprises. Agriculture can require substantial knowledge transfer to and among farmers, including information about successful farming practices, new technologies or controls of pest and disease outbreaks, and new markets. In India, information and communication technology (ICT) projects that support such information flows are rapidly growing, with many initiatives in operation today. ICTs can directly support farmers' access to timely and relevant information, as well as empower the creation and sharing of knowledge of the farming community itself. The processes that ICT projects use to source and deliver content are important to examine, because public, private, and nongovernmental organization (NGO) extension services may be able to increase their effectiveness by using these tools.ICTs in agriculture have the potential to facilitate greater access to information that drive or support knowledge sharing. ICTs essentially facilitate the creation, management, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of any relevant data, knowledge, and information that may have been already been processed and adapted (Batchelor 2002;Chapman and Slaymaker 2002;Rao 2007;Heeks 2002). In the past, television and radio were the main electronic broadcast technologies used to reach rural communities; however, in the past two decades, Internet-and mobile-based channels have emerged. ICTs now include computer-based applications and such communication tools as social media, digital information repositories (online or offline), and digital photography and video, as well as mobile phones (Balaji, Meera, and Dixit 2007). However, in agriculture, despite the rapid spread and potential of ICTs to facilitate farmers' access to information, many of the initiatives face common challenges, such as issues of sustainability, affordability, ease of use, accessibility, scalability, and availability of relevant and localized content in an appropriate language (Keniston 2002;Dossani, Misra, and Jhaveri 2005;Saravanan 2010).The way in which ICT projects access, assess, apply, and deliver content may increase the likelihood of ICT use by farmers and thus may become an important factor in a project's success. To address the information needs of farmers, relevant content is a key component of ICT projects. The extent to which content is customized and localized to a farmer's condition influences its relevance. Local content has been defined as content that is intended for a specific local audience, as defined by geographic location, culture, or language or as content that is socially, culturally, economically, and politically relevant to a given society (Ballantyne 2002). Thus, local content is the expression of a community's knowledge. Local content includes external or global content that has been transformed, adapted, and assimilated into a knowledge base. Yet ICT projects may not always be relevant to local context and needs, because of a disconnect between the project and its end users (Ballantyne 2002). Too often, projects push content to people and pay insufficient attention to the pull, or demand side-that is, what do farming communities really need and want?As Colle and Roman (2002) identified, many questions need to be considered when examining and localizing the content delivered by ICT projects. By using case studies of ICT projects in Indian agriculture that cover a range of delivery mechanisms, this paper aims to address some of the following questions: What type of content is available? What is relevant content? What mechanisms are used to localize content, and are these mechanisms based on users' needs and demands? What constrains localization of content? What conditions encourage the creation of local content?This paper analyzes how six case studies of ICT initiatives in agriculture in India handle content management and delivery processes. These case studies were chosen because their focus is on agriculture and on directly addressing farmers. In addition, they have been highlighted as innovative approaches by the media and in expert circles (Srivinasan 2010b). The case studies include Reuters Market Light (RML), IFFCO (Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited) Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL), Lifelines, Digital Green, e-Sagu, and aAqua (Almost All Questions Answered). Although RML, IKSL, and Lifelines all use mobile phones to deliver information, they differ in the services they provide. RML is a private, mobile-based service that sends short-message service messages about market prices, weather, and other agroadvisory information to subscribed farmers' phones. IKSL is a value-added service of the cellular service provider Airtel, in partnership with IFFCO that delivers voice messages with some information similar to that sent by RML, but that also operates as a help line. The Lifelines platform is a donor-funded project based on a question and answer (Q&A) interactive voice-response system. aAqua is a start-up company of the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay that works through a Q&A service, but on an open online forum. Digital Green is a nonprofit organization that works through a video-based platform that supports the existing extension services of its NGO partners. The e-Sagu platform, a Media Lab Asia project, requires that local staff take digital photos of farmer fields; these photos are then sent to experts who, in turn, provide the necessary advice.The structure of this paper is as follows: Section 2 gives a background to examining content in ICT initiatives. Section 3 describes the conceptual framework to analyze the content management and development cycle of ICT projects. In Section 4, the case studies are presented. Section 5 discusses each case study's approach to content management and development. Section 6 concludes the paper with some final remarks.Aside from informal sources like farmers, friends, and private input dealers, the public-sector agricultural extension has been the traditional formal channel by which farmers have gained access to information related to their farming activities. Communicating information to farmers is one of the key roles that agricultural extension is expected to fulfill. Currently in India, the public-sector extension system is seen by the Government of India as the main way to bridge the yield gap that exists between agricultural research outputs and farmer fields (Government of India 2007). However, from the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) 2003 survey, India's public-sector extension system accounts for only a small percentage of farmers' information sources. In addition, according to this survey, 60 percent of farmers did not access any source of information on modern technology that year (NSSO 2005), with farmer-to-farmer informal exchanges remaining the main channel for accessing agricultural information and new technologies in India. Of those farmers who had accessed information through extension services, one of the major problems identified was the content and relevance of the advice (NSSO 2005).As the agriculture scenario has become more complex, farmers' access to a reliable, timely, and relevant information source has become increasingly important. Farmers require access to more varied, multisource, and context-specific information, related not only to best practices and technologies for crop production and weather but also to information about postharvest aspects, including processing, marketing, storage, and handling (van den Ban 1998). Thus, generalized content might not help farmers in different regions, which have their own crops, times, and agroecological specificities. Information that is context specific rather than generic could have important impacts on the adoption of technologies and could increase farm productivity for marginal and small agricultural landholders (Samaddar 2006). Yet, context-specific information is more resource intensive, requiring more information at the farm level, which varies spatially and temporally and with different degrees of specificity (Garforth et al. 2003). An added difficulty is that digitally available public information related to agriculture is generally poor in quantity and generic in quality (Balaji 2009). Despite the potential cost and time associated with generating localized content, access to locally contextualized quality content is more relevant for the poor and more useful to their information needs (Cecchini and Scott 2003;UNDP 2001). Reliable, easily available, quality content that is relevant for farmers' decisionmaking could also reduce informationseeking and learning costs (Llewellyn 2007).Therefore, content and delivery mechanisms need to be developed with the target range of farmer characteristics in mind, such as the sociodemographic profile, gender, landholding size, or agroclimatic zone of the user groups (Rivera 1996). A number of factors and attributes of farmers influence information-seeking behaviors, access to information sources and channels, and learning costs. For example, Alvarez and Nuthall (2006) found that in New Zealand and Uruguay, the personality, education, skills, and learning style of dairy farmers were associated with farmers' use of computerized information systems. In Australia, Llewellyn (2007) found that information acquisition and learning could be explained by farm size, the ability of the farmer to make use of information, and available access to a more localized content source. In Llewellyn (2007), farmers valued information that had been adapted to the local conditions, because this meant less information processing. In India, Ali and Kumar (2011) found significant differences in decision-making among farmers according to their social groupings, income levels, and farm size; those farmers who were not from lower castes and who had larger farm size and income had better decisionmaking and information use capacity for their farms. The Indian NSSO 2003 survey showed that small and marginal farmers accessed less information and from fewer sources than did medium-and large-scale farmers (Adhiguru, Birthal, and Ganesh Kumar 2009). All of these studies illustrate the need to understand the different target groups within rural communities, so that content can be better targeted.The important questions are: What information does different types of farmers need, and when is that information needed? (Garforth et al. 2003;Narula and Nainwal 2010). The answers can be determined through surveys, participatory rural appraisals(PRA), and focus group discussions, as well as by involving users in the monitoring and evaluation of programs (Colle and Roman 2002;Cecchini and Scott 2003;Meera, Jhamtani, and Rao 2004). However, not all information has to be generated through community demands. For example, information about environmental issues, climate change, and food and nutrition could initially be provided to farmers to start creating awareness or as an entry point to discussing these issues. In addition, encouraging diversification of enterprises-for example, encouraging women to rear goats (Balasubramanian et al. 2010)-will first require information for awareness creation and training purposes. The type of information provided by an ICT project will also depend on each project's motives. For example, private-sector initiatives will provide information that has higher excludability and rivalry and, thus, that is of a more private nature. Public or civil society initiatives, on the other hand, tend to provide information that has lower excludability, because they mainly address issues of public or common good.All that any knowledge-centric ICT platform does is essentially handle and present data and information. Any relevant agricultural information, which is either enabled or driven by ICTs and which farmers can apply to their farms or which can help farmers make informed decisions about their farming enterprise, could potentially increase agricultural productivity and income (Chapman and Slaymaker 2002). Thus, access to ICTs could reduce transaction costs related to information searching and reduce knowledge and information asymmetries, particularly related to market price information (Chapman and Slaymaker 2002;Bowonder, Gupta, and Singh 2007;de Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008), because information delivered through ICTs can be timelier and can reach a greater number of farmers directly (Richardson 2006). Aside from content relevance, the success of any ICT project depends on a number of other factors, including the enabling environment; sociocultural factors; the financial capacity of users; the appropriateness, accessibility, trust, and affordability of the technology for users; human capacity and training; and infrastructure (bridges.org 2003). Said otherwise, content is one of the 12 C's, which also comprise connectivity, community, commerce, capacity, culture, cooperation, capital, context, continuity, control, and coherence (UNCTAD 2006). Thus, a more holistic and systemic approach to ICT initiatives increases the likelihood of an ICT's sustainability. Heeks (1999) described this systemic approach as -the information system,‖ which first comprises the information (defined in this paper as the content) that is delivered by the ICT platform. Second, it involves the technology used, such as radio, television, Internet, or mobile phone, as well as the information regarding the device's hardware and software. The information and technology are, in turn, influenced by the processes and activities of the ICT platform itself, as well as by the people who undertake those processes. Finally, the contextual environment in which the platform operates influences all of the above. In operational terms, the information system concept is translated into the need to strategically integrate ICTs into organizational systems by focusing on the needs of the users of the technology, in order to be meaningful and, at the same time, to amplify the developmental intents of the organization (Toyama 2010). Without this integration process, the project becomes -technology looking for a solution‖ (Parker 1999). The integration of the ICT into the key organizational processes and individual tasks at the different levels in which it operates is the most complex component of an ICT project-but it is a critical one for the ICT project's effectiveness and success.At the center of the information system is the content provided by any ICT initiative (Heeks 1999). Thus, although many factors play an important role in determining the success of an ICT project, content management and delivery mechanisms are a central component for the project's usefulness in the agricultural development context. In ICT projects, content needs to be gathered, stored, retrieved, adapted, localized, and disseminated (Balaji, Meera, and Dixit 2007). The process by which all of this occurs will influence how relevant, trustworthy, affordable, useful, and usable that information is for the user (Roman and Colle 2003). Moreover, the most appropriate channels and formats for information dissemination need to be considered. These channels include the information delivery mechanism that is the technology itself, as well as the offered language options, with the local language being the preferred one (Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi 2010). Agricultural information may need to be interpreted and then translated and evaluated, while also being continually updated and adapted while it is disseminated (Roman and Colle 2003).The complexities in the process of generating and delivering relevant content mean that content management is a major identified challenge in ICT projects (Chapman and Slaymaker 2002;Colle and Roman 2002;Dossani, Misra, and Jhaveri 2005). Batchelor (2002) stated that many ICT projects still tend to supply generic information. In fact, the most frequent criticism that farmers in India had regarding information provided through mobile phone services was that the information was generic and was considered old and routine (Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi 2010). Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi (2010) also found that the information's quality, timeliness, and trustworthiness are important features that enable farmers to use the information. Content-related issues in ICT agriculture projects could exist for a number of reasons. For example, the information that communities originally state that they need may not be what they eventually use (Keniston 2002). Low content relevance could also be the result of language and other localization issues, poor awareness of users, or inadequate understanding of local needs by program implementers (Dossani, Misra, and Jhaveri 2005). Many ICT projects may push external content toward local people, reflecting the interests, biases, and limitations of the ICT project itself and being based on what experts think the community needs (Ballantyne 2002;Roman and Colle 2003). On the other hand, relevant and localized content may not be available or affordable, due to the high cost of generating and managing locally relevant content (Keniston 2002). However, in many instances, technology takes precedence over both content and integrating that content within local information flows.To reduce content issues, much of the existing literature and case study research on ICT projects for development highlights the need for community involvement as well as partnerships with experts for content development (UNDP 2001;Batchelor 2002;Singh 2006;Balaji, Meera, and Dixit 2007;de Silva 2008). To be effective, ICT projects need to build upon, and integrate within, existing systems of local information exchange and flow in rural communities (Roman and Colle 2003). By understanding how information is used locally, the impact of ICTs could be greater (UNDP 2001;Chapman and Slaymaker 2002). Information provided by ICTs must therefore be directly relevant to the lives and livelihoods of the users of that information (Thomas 2009). Contextualized or local content is an important aspect, because it tends to be more responsive to local interests and needs; in addition, individuals often relate better to content that is locally produced (Subramanian, Nair, and Sharma 2005). In agriculture, information generation needs to be a two-way process, with research at the farm level so that contextually appropriate content can be generated (Chapman and Slaymaker 2002;Roman and Colle 2003). A two-way process also enables farmers to share lessons and best practices related to their farm enterprise, thus incorporating farmers' knowledge base into the program (de Silva 2008). By determining the community's information needs, the ICT project can then contextualize the content. To understand the needs of the community that the ICT platform will serve, the articulation of demands from local communities requires iterative interactions with the community and the establishment of trust. Articulation of clear demands by communities requires facilitation competency in needs analysis, where the process is based on real dialogue with community members, which, in turn, requires community organization and empowerment. This complexity often leads ICT projects to fail to serve the needs of the poorest groups in a community (Chapman and Slaymaker 2002).The value or relevance of content in ICT projects can be conceptualized in the information chain (Heeks 2002(Heeks , 2005)). The information chain considers how content from an ICT project is accessed, assessed, and applied by the client or user of that information. It also considers the content itself, which needs to be relevant and available. To access, assess, and apply the content, users must have the economic resources, including money, skills, and technology, as well as the social resources, such as motivation, trust, confidence, and knowledge. Individuals must be able not only to access that content, assess its relevance, and apply it to a specific decision, but also, ultimately, to act upon the information. This action requires further resources at the user level, including action resources and capacity. For example, content may be available to a community, but it may not be accessible, because of a low level of literacy; or it may be accessible, but it cannot be acted upon because of poor financial capacity to buy the necessary inputs. Unless the entire information chain operates successfully at the user level, there can be no contribution of information provided by ICTs to development (Heeks 2005). As Coudel and Tonneau noted, -Information may seem appropriate, usable, relevant, but it can only be useful if the actors have the capacity to use it and if their environment offers them the opportunity to use it‖ (2010,63). A good example of this is described in a review of different ICT initiatives in India by Sulaiman and Ramasundaram (2011). This study did not find any clear correlation between the use of ICT and the empowerment of women. Instead, access to information was found necessary but not sufficient, with additional complementary services and support being required. When ICT is part of an integrated service-for example, mobile information provided to rural women in Tamil Nadu to support goat rearing as part of a microfinance loan-the results have been more positive (Balasubramanian et al. 2010). However, although the social, economic, and action resources influence the information chain, the process of turning content into useful information that can be finally acted upon is a key driver in the chain. This paper refers to this process as the content development and management process, which is explored further in the next section.The conceptual framework used in this paper expands upon Heeks's (2002Heeks's ( , 2005) ) information chain and the information system concepts. In this paper, the information chain starts from the content itself, which flows to the ICT platform and eventually to the user (Figure 3.1). Contextual factors and characteristics influence the activity at each place along the chain. Content requires sourcing and storing, which is influenced by political, economic, and sociocultural environments. The ICT project needs to access, assess, and adapt that content so that it is relevant to the users. This content needs to be formatted, translated, and updated as required, through the type of technology-for example, mobile short messaging service or mobile voice messages. The users must have the capacity and resources to be able to access, assess, apply, and act upon the information provided by the ICT projects. Ultimately, the goal is to develop and manage useful content that users can then act upon. As a two-way process, feedback from users to the ICT projects and to the content can also affect what content is used. Thus, the information and knowledge of the users can influence the content management process all the way up to the content source; in fact, users could even be a source of content.Source: Authors, based upon Heeks (2002Heeks ( , 2005)).The content development and management cycle is described in Figure 3.2. This framework explores how an ICT project accesses, assesses, and applies content to a technology. The content management cycle in Figure 3.2 begins with a definition of the required content to be provided through the technology (A). This definition should begin with an assessment of community information needs into which the project will be established. Once the type of content has been identified, the process for content searching begins (B). Information search can use the local knowledge of the farming community as well as organizational knowledge-for example, information from agricultural universities, national information repositories, or global knowledge sources. Many ICT projects may partner with -experts‖ for content. Often, ad hoc partnerships with universities or research institutes are supported. Other projects may employ agricultural graduates-sometimes known as infomediaries-to gather the required content. The determination of the content's source will influence the accuracy and trustworthiness of the data, which leads to (C): the content collected must be assessed, verified, and qualified in some way. Context-specific, localized content is an important aspect of relevant information provision (D)the information collected must be adapted, localized, and packaged to be relevant to the users. The technology aspects now come into play, with storage and retrieval components (E) and delivery mechanisms and dissemination (F), all of which influence how the content is packaged and made accessible to users. The availability or potential for a human interface, especially at the initial stages of ICT project implementation at stage (F), may be an important factor for information dissemination. Finally, learning from experience through participatory monitoring and evaluation during the cycle is important in order to respond to user-level situations. Continual consultation and feedback from users on the applicability of the content and the use of the technology are important elements of the content cycle's learning process. Although the framework follows logical steps in content development and management, integration of steps may be fluid and dynamic.In this framework, the content management and development cycle stops at the point of information delivery in ICT projects, without examining the impact or resources required for users to act upon that information, as suggested in Figure 3.1. Although within the content development and management process, the ICT project may ultimately provide relevant content, if the users do not have the right incentives, skills, motivation, confidence, resources, and trust to access, assess, and apply the content, then the development impact of information may be limited (Heeks and Molla 2009).This section describes the platform of each of the chosen case studies of ICT projects in Indian agriculture. Interviews within the organizations that implement the project were carried out, in addition to literature reviews and some field visits. These case studies were chosen because their focus is in agriculture and because they work directly with farmers. The projects have also been highlighted as innovative approaches by the media and in expert circles (Srivinasan 2010b).Started in October 2007, Reuters Market Light (RML), a business of Thomson Reuters, is a mobile-SMS that provides personalized information to subscribed farmers, which today number about a million unique subscribers in more than 40,000 villages. The service is delivered through SMS in eight local languages, across 13 states, and over any service provider or mobile phone (RML 2010). Farmers purchase a prepaid information card (called RML Direct) over the counter from one of 4,000 retailers. The farmer then calls a toll-free number to subscribe to the service through a call center. During the subscription process, detailed information about the farmer is obtained, including details of crop and market preferences (for two crops and three markets each) and the farmer's location, in addition to preferred language. Daily messages are then delivered at preset times according to the subscriber's profile. Information includes daily spot market prices, localized weather forecasts, and agroadvisories tailored for one crop and the stage in the crop cycle (Figure 4.1). General news is also provided. A user receives between 75 and 100 SMS messages each month. Prepaid packages include 99 Indian rupees (INR) (US$2.21) for one month, INR 350 (US$7.82) for four months, INR 999 (US$22.33) for one year, and INR 1,999 (US$44.67) for two years. RML employs more than 300 content professionals, who collect the required content for the SMS service, mostly for local market price information. The service tracks 150 commodities, the prices for 1,000 markets, and the weather for 2,000 locations (Thomson Reuters 2010). Weather information is localized to a surrounding 50-kilometer radius, and sources are the Indian Meteorological Department and partnered private weather services. Agroadvisory information is developed by the RML team and external partners, which include academia and industry. RML also partners with centrally funded government institutions that are looking for more ways to distribute information to farmers, and hence to contribute content to RML (Preethi 2009). Locally relevant news comes from the RML ground staff and content reporters. This news could include information on a government subsidy, which would also provide details of the corresponding government officer's name and contact details. Although this information may be available in the public domain for free, RML provides customized personalized information directly to the farmer. Agroadvisory messages are sent depending on the date of seed sowing and try to be closely aligned with crop cycles. Revenue is generated through the purchase of the prepaid card (RML 2010).Based on farmer interviews, farmers have described an income impact of 5-25 percent of income due to the SMS service (Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi 2010). Customer satisfaction surveys are carried out by the Indian Market Research Bureau (IMRB), which randomly contact subscribers. The satisfaction levels consistently range from 70 to 80 percent, and IMRB found that in some cases, farmers waited to receive RML messages before selling their produce. Fafchamps and Minten (2011) used randomized control trials to see whether there was any difference in prices received by Maharashtra farmers who had used RML and those who had not. The authors did not find any significant differences in price received between the treatment and control groups but RML influenced farmers to change their crops to improve profitability by 14-20 percent. Parker and Weber (2011) find that RML has improved the efficiency of mandis and empowered farmers to sell crops more profitably.Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited (IFFCO) Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) is a partnership between IFFCO and the mobile service provider Bharti Airtel. The initiative started in June 2007 and now covers 18 states in India. Subscribers purchase an IFFCO-Airtel Green SIM (subscriber identity module) card, and revenue is generated from the use of talk time by the subscribers. The green SIM card is seen by Airtel as a way to attract customers in rural areas. The main service of IKSL is the provision of five free daily voice messages in the local language to subscribers. To date, around 139,000 voice messages have been developed, and 95,000 messages have been delivered. Information is provided on weather, crop and animal husbandry advisories, market prices, and miscellanea, such as fertilizer availability, electricity timings, and government schemes. If the voice message is not received immediately by the farmer, it can be retrieved by dialing a number at a cost of INR 1 per minute. In addition, a help line service is available, which provides customized advisories at normal call charges. There are approximately 81,000 questions with answers (Q&A) in the repository, with 3,500 calls from farmers monthly with feedback. To encourage users to listen to the messages, quizzes are also held (Figure 4.2). In addition, IKSL conducts phone-in programs, where a subject matter specialist answers calls on a given topic. This option provides farmers a pull mechanism for information, though the main delivery mechanism of IKSL is push through the provision of voice messages.The voice message content and development are supported in each state by content managers, who are usually postgraduates or doctorates in agriculture science. The content managers are supported by a panel of experts from various agriculture universities and other content partners. Content partners for the voice messages include Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International (CABI), the M. S Swaminathan Research Foundation in Tamil Nadu, the Commonwealth of Learning, selected agricultural universities, and other institutes of India, including portals like Agricultural Marketing Information Network (Agmarknet), which provides market prices for regulated markets. Comprehensive information for 53 crops and 5 animals, known as fact sheets, have been developed by CABI and national experts and is used as content for the voice messages. The IKSL content team consists of 32 agri professionals. The messages are prepared by subject matter specialists on the relevant area of interest and are then sent to the content manager or jointly prepared. The content managers ensure that these messages are one minute in length. GSMA supported IKSL to develop a robust content management system. Entire information about the content is being documented in \"Integrated Information Management System (IIMS)', which works as the repository of content which the content team can refer to while answering the helpline and also for drafting voice messages (GSMA, 2012). A diagnostic mobile-based tool for pests and diseases is also under testing. Lifelines, a mobile-and Internet-based ICT project in agriculture, was launched by OneWorld.net, a UKbased nongovernmental organization (NGO), in partnership with British Telecom and Cisco in 2006. Today Lifelines serves more than 150,000 farmers in over 2,000 villages, and it partners with three NGOs in areas of the states of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Haryana (OneWorld 2010). Lifelines provides answers to farmer queries based on demand. Access to the Lifelines Q&A platform is via an interactive voice response system (IVRS) that routes queries and sends back answers via an intelligent call manager and unified messaging service. The Q&A service is integrated with a Web-enabled application, with a database for the audio files and texts and an exchange server for the IVRS (OneWorld 2010) (Figure 4.3).The main elements of the Lifelines platform are the field volunteers, the knowledge workers, the knowledge database of frequently asked questions (FAQs), and the panel of experts (Figure 4.  Each recorded question receives an identification number, to be used by farmers when they call back to hear the answer. The query is received by one of the two operation hubs, where seven or eight knowledge workers listen and register farmers' queries. To answer each query, the knowledge worker searches answers from the Lifelines knowledge database, which has about 400,000 stored FAQs. When the query cannot be answered by the knowledge worker, the query is sent, with a summary script of the attached voice recording, by email to the most appropriate expert from a panel of experts, who are subject matter specialists in various agricultural fields. The expert panel includes about 100 active members from a range of institutions, including India's Department of Agriculture, state agricultural universities, and NGOs. Once an answer has been returned, the response is stored by the knowledge worker in the Lifelines knowledge database and played back as a voice message to the farmer. The knowledge worker processes the query within 12-15 minutes, and the answer is delivered to the farmer within 24 hours. Farmers pay the field volunteer once they have received the answer to their queries. On average, the Lifelines service receives about 350 calls a day, with up to 500 calls a day. In Lifelines, farmers who have used the service after each crop cycle have normally shown high satisfaction with the service, though no rigorous quantitative assessment of Lifelines has yet been carried out. However, farmers estimate the perceived impact on their productivity to be around 20 percent.aAqua is a free, online, multilingual, multimedia agricultural portal that provides agricultural and weather information and advisories to farmers via the aAqua knowledge bank. Around 65 percent of aAqua users access the portal through personal computers, and the rest access it at office, Internet kiosks or cyber cafes. Individuals register as users by filling out an online form or through a phone interview. Users then post questions to experts via the different spaces provided by the portal. Answers are provided within 24-72 hours, depending on the question.The aAQUA online service started in Pune district, Maharashtra, in December 2003. The platform was developed by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay, with the support of Media Lab Asia. Since 2006, aAqua has been run by Agrocom, a business incubation company chaired by IIT Bombay. Since aAqua's inception, 32,000 questions have been posted, covering thousands of topics from about 4,000 users in 445 districts (26 states); of which those questions, 11,000 have been answered. The remaining questions still are unanswered. The platform is said to receive one question per hour. Seventy percent of users (estimated at more 15,000) own more than five acres of land.The system components are a kiosk operator (Sanchalak, the name of the kiosk operator, in Figure 4.4), experts, the Q&A database, a crop recommendations database, a crop disease images database, and a Q&A translations database. Kiosk operators support farmers by storing questions online under a recorded identification. Anyone can answer questions to questions; however, the project also employs 60 experts from Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Baramati, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Pantnagar University and its KVKs, University of Dharwad and its KVKs, and University of Raichur and its KVKs. The average response time is around 2.9 days. Moderators monitor and filter content and can modify and delete Q&As. Most questions are related to crop production. Retrieval of archived Q&As is possible through a user interface that incorporates text and audiovisual elements. Textual content is stored in a language-independent fashion, which allows users to ask questions in their own language or access content in another language and then view it in their own language (Ramamritham et al. 2009). The aAqua knowledge base is also available to the public offline (via the aAqua box). This feature automatically sends and receives updates when an Internet connection is available; it can also be viewed through a television display. A new smartphone 3G application of the aAqua portal has also been created for different rice varieties (aAqua rice) with the support of ICRISAT.Digital Green is a nonprofit organization that partners with NGOs, and also government agencies like the National Rural Livelihood Mission, to improve the effectiveness of their field extension services by disseminating agricultural practices using video as a medium. The process developed from the idea that farmers prefer interpersonal methods of receiving information on new and innovative farming practices over receiving that information through mass media methods (Gandhi et al. 2009). To date 1,918 videos have been produced, and screened 68,988 times and involving 75,107 farmers (www.digitalgreen.org, accessed January 13, 2012). Digital Green was incubated by Microsoft Research India in 2007, when Digital Green partnered with the Green Foundation in Karnataka. Today, Digital Green partners with seven NGOs (BAIF, PRADAN, Access Livelihoods, Pragati, Varrat, ASA, Society for the Elimination of Rural Poverty (SERP), and Samaj Pragati Sahayog) and in six states of India (Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka). In the future, Digital Green sees itself as an agency for building capacity of different governments and NGOs in using videos to increase the impact of training and of the dissemination of information for different rural development programs. Digital Green receives core funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.The key elements of the platform are the NGO partner capacity for video content generation (storyboards and single technology/practice developed); the making of videos by NGO field staff and community resource people (CRPs); editing and uploading of the videos on a dedicated DG platform supported by a DG anchorperson; and community service provider (CSPs) or video mediators, who present and discuss the video for technology dissemination (Figure 4.5) (Gandhi et al. 2009). Digital Green takes the existing practices identified by the partner NGO as the seed content for the first 15-20 videos, which feature local early adopter farmers or farmer groups describing a technology or practice. Each district has three or four CRPs who work in pairs-one camera operator and one facilitator-to film videos. The CRP also identifies interested farmers to record content. The content and storyboard are identified and checked by the NGO's subject matter specialist, who also reviews the videos to ensure the content's accuracy, clarity, and completeness (Gandhi et al. 2009).Videos are about eight minutes in length and are shown to farmer groups using either a pico projector, which is a handheld, battery-powered digital device capable of storing more than 20 videos, or a compact disc video player attached to a television set. Farmer groups are mobilized by the partner NGO, and these groups are also involved in the selection of CSPs and CRPs. When farmer groups agree to attend video screenings, some commit to providing a small financial contribution (INR 1-2 /farmer organization member per video screening). The CSP is a local mediator who mediates the video screening and who is a resident of the same communities, where they share Digital Green video-based content.There is at least one CSP per village. CSPs conduct at least three screenings each week in each village during suitable evening hours at a location chosen by the CSP and the NGO field staff. CSPs receive a maximum of INR 250 per screening. In many cases, the mediators were the first adopters of the practices; through continued exposure to the videos, they have developed expertise in the techniques being shown. Videos are repeated if the audience demands them. During the video presentations, farmers' feedback, questions, and concerns are transcribed and entered into a database. This information is then reflected in the production of new videos. During the pilot, an assessment of Digital Green was carried out by comparing adoption rates between villages that used the Digital Green system with rates in villages that used a Training and Visit extension approach. In the Digital Green villages, 85 percent of farmers adopted at least one new agricultural practice, whereas only 11 percent did so in the control villages (Gandhi et al. 2009).Source: Authors.e-Sagu (sagu means cultivation in Telugu) uses the medium of digital photos of farmers' fields to provide expert advice. Photographs are captured every 15 days by a local coordinator employed by e-Sagu; these photos are then sent to the e-Sagu main center in Hyderabad, where they are examined by experts who provide advice, which is sent back to the local coordinator. The advice is provided on a regular basis (typically once a week) from sowing to harvesting (Reddy, Ramaraju, and Reddy 2009). It is a project of International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) Hyderabad, funded by Media Lab Asia. Launched in 2004, this service has been tested on 5,000 farms in 35 villages in more than six districts of Andhra Pradesh. The project partners with different NGOs and organizations, such as the Byrraju Foundation, Confederation of Kisan Organizations, Janani Foods Pvt. Ltd., and Bhagavatula Charitable Trust, all of which host the e-Sagu local centers. Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University is the main knowledge partner. The key components of e-Sagu's platforms are the scientists and the experts at the main center, the local e-Sagu center, and the coordinator, who takes the pictures and interacts with farmers (Figure 4.6). A local e-Sagu center (a few computers and one computer operator) is established for a group of about 10 to 20 villages. Educated farmers from the village work as coordinators. The coordinator is responsible for the registration of the farmer and the farm data. After registration, the coordinator visits the farm at regular intervals (150 farms per season) and takes four or five photographs of each crop. In addition, the coordinator fills out a feedback form, which contains details of the crop problems and farmer feedback about previous advice. In 2010, the cost of the e-Sagu service, charged to the farmer, was INR 300-500 per season per crop. Farmers can register more than one crop. The photos and text are uploaded on a dedicated e-Sagu portal. If Internet connectivity is not available, a compact disc is prepared with the photographs and feedback forms and is sent by regular mail. The information is accessed at the main e-Sagu center at IIIT Hyderabad, which hosts a small of team of agricultural scientists (of the masters of science level), who in turn are supported by experts identified in the state agricultural university. The agricultural scientists analyze the crop situation in the photos and prepare standardized recommendations based on the crop calendar information stored in the e-Sagu database. Customized advice is added when specific crop problems are detected. At the local e-Sagu center, the expert advice is downloaded electronically through a dial-up Internet connection. The coordinator prints out the advice and delivers it to the farmer. In case of pests and diseases requiring urgent treatment, the advice is sent via SMS directly to the farmers and the coordinator. Advice delivery is in around 24-36 hours.The case studies in Section 4 contain a range of approaches to manage and develop localized content for farmers. This section analyzes the case studies according to the conceptual framework described in Figure 3.2. This analysis includes how the content was defined, from where it was obtained, how it was localized, how the delivery mechanism influenced content packaging, the feedback mechanisms used, and the experiential learning nature of the cycle.Determining what content to provide is important in ICT projects, because it influences the relevance and actionability of that content to the end users (Figure 3.2, Step A). In addition, the excludability and rivalry of the information may influence whether payment is required for the delivery of that information. As described in Section 2, although timely and localized information to context-specific situations may be more costly, it may also have greater impact for targeted groups, such as women (Sulaiman and Ramasundaram 2011). The use of surveys, PRA, focus group discussions, and participatory monitoring and evaluation may help support continual definition of appropriate content in ICT projects. Many of the projects described here emerged from known information gaps and asymmetries in Indian agriculture.The main driver of content in RML is the perceived gap in information access by farmers-namely, access to spot market prices, timely weather forecasts that can affect crops, or local input prices. RML also disseminates relevant news about agricultural topics and government schemes, which may normally be fragmented and difficult to access in India. The services offered are based on the company's market research of farmers' information needs, as well as on a field test marketing program carried out in late 2006 and early 2007 (Fafchamps and Minten 2011). IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) determines content via a mixed strategy, including structured surveys by universities and third parties, needs assessment by in-house teams in different states, crop calendars and analysis of agroclimatic conditions by experts based on existing data, PRAs in focus communities, capture of specific interests of farmers at the initial farmer registration, and provision of a mix of messages capable of covering various areas of interest. In addition, the help line service that IKSL operates receives about 25-30 calls each day in each state; these calls guide the content of the voice messages, based on the feedback received and the types of questions asked.aAqua and Lifelines recognize that farmers need access to personalized knowledge and advisory services related to their on-farm crop production; this need was not being met by the existing extension system. Lifelines and aAqua attempt to reduce the expert-farmer gap by providing a question and answer (Q&A) platform that farmers can access on a demand basis via mobile and the Internet. Articulation of the farmers' questions on the ICT platform is supported by a human interface in both models, though more so in Lifelines. The framing of the question influences the relevance of the consequent answer.e-Sagu also recognizes the weakness of the existing extension system, which has a lack of personalized and timely information provided to farmers by the public extension services. e-Sagu considers the content supported by public-sector extensions too generic and sees it as not being based on context-specific situations. The existing content is not developed or updated based on farmers' feedback and on local knowledge, in part due to a lack of specific farmer demands (Reddy, Ramaraju, and Reddy 2009). In addition, e-Sagu claims that farmers are not in a position to detect and report timely crop problems because of ignorance and lack of time, as well as farmer's low capacity to formulate questions for external experts to understand. Therefore, monitoring of the different crops growing on a farmer's field must be provided as a public service to improve productivity and farm returns.Compared with the other ICT projects included here, Digital Green works to support existing extension services rather than substituting them. When it comes to receiving information on new or innovative farming practices, the Digital Green approach is based on the idea that farmers prefer interpersonal contact over mass media; a human intermediation increases the likelihood of farmers acting upon information (Gandhi et al. 2009). Digital Green believes that farmers must participate and be involved in a dialogue before they will consider changing their behavior and adopting a new agricultural practice. This approach to the use of ICT is unique among the case studies examined here.In summary, all the case studies arise from a similar problem analysis and have similar aims. They all are trying to bridge the gap between expert knowledge and farmers. But the delivery mechanism by which this problem is addressed differs. These projects provide a mechanism through which expert advice can be given directly to farmers through mobiles (RML, IKSL, Lifelines), Internet (aAqua), photos (e-Sagu), and video with human intermediation (Digital Green). Whereas Digital Green relies on the partnering NGO's expertise to understand user demands, RML and IKSL use PRA in target communities, though mainly at the initial stage of project implementation. Lifelines and aAqua use a Q&A techniquea problem-solving approach-to elicit the needs of users. Using a similar problem-solving approach, e-Sagu takes photos of farmers' fields to generate advisory content.The process of sourcing the content (Figure 3.2, Step B) influences not only the content quality but also the costs and the time needed to gather appropriate content. It also determines credibility and sustainability, particularly for private approaches like RML and IKSL. RML collaborates with a network of partners for content generation, in addition to employing more than 300 who collect content that is not readily available, such as market spot prices and locally relevant news. Weather information is provided by Indian Meteorological Department and other private weather services, as needed. Agroadvisory information is provided by experts from various academic and private sources.Similarly, IKSL collaborates with a number of partners to develop content for its voice messages. Partners include Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International (CABI), Prof M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), Commonwealth of Learning, selected agricultural universities, the Department of Agriculture, and agricultural research institutes. Due to the huge variability in agriculture across India IKSL sourced knowledge from local agricultural institutes and universities (GSMA, 2012). The 32 members of the IKSL content team are supported in preparing voice messages by fact sheets developed by an expert panel of subject matter specialists from various agricultural universities and organizations. CABI provides crop and livestock fact sheets, based on cropping season, ecological zones, and dominant farming systems. These fact sheets are suitable to be directly translated into voice messages in different languages. In other instances, a nominal monetary incentive is offered in the form of study grants to a panel of experts to provide agro advisory information. Both RML and IKSL are mainly push models.Lifelines, aAqua, and e-Sagu also rely on experts to provide relevant content. However, their approaches are problem solving in nature in order to answer specific user questions. In the Lifelines platform, the knowledge worker's role is critical to make a proper diagnosis of the problem and send an appropriate answer. The ability of knowledge workers (mainly agricultural graduates in Delhi and eastern Uttar Pradesh) to answer a query based on a few minutes of voice record only, without any diagnostic tools, is challenging. The content management cycle in Lifelines has developed from relying almost entirely on the expertise of the expert panel to now using the archived FAQ knowledge database, which has expanded over time. The organization's partnership and network with experts is the strength of its program. The panel of experts receives a monthly honorarium to participate. Another incentive ensuring experts' commitment is the opportunity of establishing a direct link with farmers in the field. The updating of queries occurs when elements are added to the FAQ, which are then flagged.aAqua relies on expert knowledge from subject matter specialists at KVK Baramati, who are able to access the online forum. e-Sagu also takes a problem-solving approach to content provision, but it does not rely on farmers' demand for content generation. Experts (graduates of agriculture) work in the main center in Hyderabad and virtually visit the farmers' field through photographs sent by coordinators. The required expertise to grasp various problems faced in the farmers' field from photos differs, depending on the experience of the expert and local exposure to field conditions. Recent graduates may lack the required location-specific, crop-specific capabilities that the e-Sagu platform requires, and their skill base needs to be developed (Reddy, Ramaraju, and Reddy 2009).In Digital Green, the onus is on the NGO partners to provide the relevant agricultural expertise, the agricultural technology, or the package of farm practices that is best suited for or needed by the community, The video-based content topic depends mainly on identified practices or technologies that have been successfully field demonstrated and that were actively disseminated by the partner NGO through conventional extension methods. Videos are produced by CRPs, who are familiar with the local context and who have a basic knowledge of local agricultural practices. CRPs tend to have at least 12 months' experience with the partner NGO, a class 10 education, a basic understanding and interest in handling electronic equipment, good communication skills, and time to work for a program (normally part time). If farmers have an innovation, it may also be included in the video; however, in the majority of cases, it is the expertise of the NGO extension agent that contributes to content (Gandhi et al. 2009). Content themes of videos include innovations, demonstrations, testimonials, approaches, methods, and mistakes (Gandhi et al. 2009). In general, Digital Green produces videos on a single adoptable practicefor example, feeding for the maintenance of cattle-and they avoid the demonstration of complex packages of information.All the case study ICT projects in this paper form partnerships with experts to source content, whether from Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutes, industry, or NGOs. Due to the noted fragmentation of agricultural content in India, these partnerships are important for sourcing information. In addition, RML hires people specifically for collecting local content that is not available from other sources. Content sources are mainly public sources; however, due to the challenge of translating and disseminating this information, the ICT projects are able to translate and disseminate this information to a larger audience, in some instances for a fee (as with RML) or for free (as with Digital Green). All these ICT projects provide access to information from public organizations, but predominantly through tacit knowledge and people of those organizations, rather than through explicit information resources. These projects are therefore geared toward connecting people and expertise rather than connecting them to databases and information systems, which supports the localization of content.Reliability of content by users can be ensured by appropriate quality of information (Figure 3.2, Step C). If the information is known to be reliable, farmers may be more likely to use the information to make decisions in their farming enterprise. Usability may be increased by sourcing content from farmer perceived trustworthy local sources, which may not necessarily need to be a scientific or government authority. Because all of these projects utilize expert knowledge from the ICAR institutes, NGOs, and other industry partners, the reputation and reliability of the organizations is the base on which quality of content is assessed. Certification of content tends not to be common, with content provided as information only.RML has two different processes of content assessment, depending on the content source. One is the local content, which is self-generated by employed professionals. This content is cross verified and validated at the state and national levels. External content is ensured by an internal team of market experts (PhDs and agroindustry professionals). This team ensures that the content communicated is accurate and bias free. Because RML sees content as the key to its success, emphasis is on ensuring the quality and relevance of information maintained.IKSL has periodic surveys conducted by external agencies and quality audits of delivered messages. These audits check for authentic source and that the content provided is adequate, relevant, and accurate. The audits are performed on a random selection from all the voice messages sent each month. CABI is also a certifier of IKSL crop and livestock information, while the fact sheet produced mentions the sources of the information. FACI also devised protocols that cover the standardization of data, content sourcing and editing (GSMA, 2012). Also, because state and national institutions were used to provide content, the trust and quality of content was associated with the reputation of the institute (GSMA, 2012).In the Lifelines platform, quality assurance occurs concurrently with the Q&A service and is separate from operations. Two auditors, who are more qualified than the knowledge worker with as masters level qualification, listen to each Q&A. They use online public sources of information, coupled with their technical expertise, to verify the correctness of the answer and the interpretation of the question. Risk of poor service quality is always there, but knowledge workers are very cautious, because credibility with farmers is quickly lost with poor answers that can be easily tracked. Knowledge workers are from the area and are familiar with the context within which Lifelines operates. A time delay of 24 hours is introduced in Lifelines to search for the best answer. Lifelines believes in quality rather than in giving immediate answers. aAqua uses independent authorities to verify the quality of answers to responses. e-Sagu has standard operating procedures (SOPs) for taking the digital photos, which ensures quality photos from which agro-advisory is given.For content generation and verification, the Digital Green process relies primarily on the partner NGOs' extension staff and subject matter specialists. For example, in Karnataka, every video produced must be approved by the BAIF regional NGO director before being disseminated. The expertise of the partner NGO is important to validate the content. A video editor with a rudimentary understanding of content and at least a bachelor's degree also checks the video content. Detailed SOPs also help ensure the quality of the entire process; the SOPs are available publicly on the Digital Green website. Content also develops over time, as farmers view the videos and request additional or different information. Thus, new videos develop based on farmer feedback.Quality control is addressed in different ways in the different platforms. Quality of localized and context-specific information remains a challenge that does not indicate generic solutions to be mainstreamed. Quality remains embedded in the competency of the content source-that is, in the individuals, the experience, or the reputation of the different content organizations. Content quality assurance is a core responsibility of each ICT platform, requiring continuous monitoring and dialogue with users in order to understand usefulness, determine where improvements are needed, and find out what information is needed. In private initiatives, such as RML and IKSL, users could simply not buy the product if quality becomes an issue. Quality-assurance systems ought to be in place, but such measures as SOPs would be self-determined. For example, quality could be assured through different internal and external content-review mechanisms. This assessment would involve ICT platforms, stakeholders, their partner organizations, and farmers in a continual improvement and learning process about content relevance and its use.Provision of content for farmers is more useful if it is location and context specific (Figure 3.2, Step D). Each case study tries to personalize information to its users to make the content more relevant. In RML, users are provided with information for two crops and three markets, which they identify when they subscribe. Content is targeted because each farmer chooses the crops and local markets of his or her interest. The IKSL messages are localized to the agroecological zone within states, which adds to 61 zones across the country. For example, in Tamil Nadu, IKSL has divided the state into four agroecological zones. In each zone, messages referring to the activities for the growth cycles of crops grown in those zones are disseminated. The IKSL service has been perceived as more unpredictable in the value it delivers and has been described as lacking in relevance to farmers' needs (Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi 2010). IKSL is now piloting recording the characteristics and interests of subscribers to better understand its users. IKSL is also promoting 90 focused communities like sugarcane growers, fishermen, goat rearing, vegetable growers, and dairy farmers. These focus groups receive voice messages related to their area of interest.Content of the Lifelines platform is generated through on-demand specific questions from farmers themselves. Content developed through the platform therefore responds to the local, contextual needs of each farmer. By taking this approach, Lifelines is able to inherently search, package, and deliver information that has the potential to be relevant to its users. The Lifelines approach is similar to the aAqua platform, which relies on queries from users to provide appropriate content. e-Sagu provides expert advice based on photographs of actual farmers' fields. (Farmers can register individual crops in the same field.) Experts provide feedback on the basis of the photos. If no specific problems are identified, generic agronomic recommendations are given based on the agricultural information databases that have been built according to the different crop calendars and weather conditions.The Digital Green process builds upon the existing capacity present in the partner NGOs, including knowledge and trust within the community. In this process, it is expected that the partners will have the domain expertise necessary, with a determined set of agricultural practices useful to communicate via video. In addition, the NGO partners must be able to work at larger scales, so that there is the potential for expansion. The content is therefore localized to the specific region of the NGOs' work. A crucial aspect identified by Digital Green is that farmers themselves should be included in the videos. In other words, the background of the people depicted in the video is important. In the Digital Green pilot, farmers were more interested in videos featuring people similar to them, with low-and medium-skilled people being generally more trusted. Thus, farmers appeared most swayed by videos of other farmers in the same socioeconomic strata as themselves who had local accents (Gandhi et al. 2009). In addition, farmer interest depended on relevance to the current season and tangible benefits of the application of practice, whereby some immediate benefits could be gained (Gandhi et al. 2009). Because the video is locally produced, farmers are able to personally visit and see the subject of the video.Localization of content is seen in all of these ICT projects. Despite being a push model, RML tries to target specifically requested information to users. IKSL is beginning to pursue a similar path. Because users need to pay for this information, the content value addition through localization is important. Lifelines and aAqua are pull models that respond to specific questions and thus are the most localized to user demands. These ICT platforms localize content using a problem-solving approach.As a problem-solving tool for farmers' agricultural queries, voice and Internet may not be completely accurate without seeking additional information regarding the context and situations of the farmers' problems. For example, a yellow-leaf problem could be caused by any number of things and would require further diagnostic tests to determine whether it is a pest or nutrient problem. Lifelines tries to reduce this problem by employing knowledge workers who are familiar with the area of operation. e-Sagu also seeks to reduce diagnosis issues by taking photos directly from farmers' fields. Although e-Sagu may be able to provide targeted information, farmer interest is lacking, and getting farmers to pay for e-Sagu advice has been difficult (Stone 2010). The Digital Green videos are mostly of progressive farmers who are using the practices suggested by the NGO partner. These farmers are also locals, which supports localization of content. This approach provides farmers with an opportunity to visit other farmers' fields not only via video but also face to face if they want to, because the videoed farmers live locally. Although localization of content occurs in these projects, the control of content and priorities is not localized, which means that farmers do not play a role in governance or priority setting beyond the mechanisms already described.Computer-based data and information management through the creation and linkages of databases is a key activity of any ICT platform. This management is the core added value of the digitalization of information (and on the fly instant connections), which allows a move away from the cumbersome paperand-folder management and their storage in temporary, poorly accessible archives. The perennialization (long-lastingness) of agricultural information offered by the digital revolution has also become a new way to give commercial value to what was, in the past, considered part of the public domain and available for free. Databases allow information to be digitally stored, searched, and retrieved on demand at the click of a mouse. Trends and patterns can be displayed and visualized to help in the management, analysis, and understanding of complex, large-scale interactions and observations. This accessibility generates enormous efficiency gains in terms of time and costs spent in making agricultural content readily accessible, adaptable, and available to farmers through various digital devices.RML has built its agricultural information database on the already well-consolidated experience and digital infrastructure of Reuters, which manages general market information and news. Because selling information is part of Reuters core business, all the content stored and disseminated to subscribers by RML is not open access and not available to the general public. IKSL has recently started building a database infrastructure for its help line and as the source material for the delivery of its five voice messages per day. These databases are currently closed to public access. The Lifelines knowledge database has stored about 400,000 FAQs. The content management cycle in Lifelines has developed from relying almost entirely on the expertise of its expert panel to now accessing the FAQ knowledge database. Although Lifelines plans to make available its FAQ database for research purposes, the database is presently of closed access. aAqua has 32,000 postings, and related answers are accessible online; yet the Agrocom company has not yet decided on an open-access condition to its database. e-Sagu's data and digital pictures are not available to the public. Digital Green is the only ICT platform studied that has an open-access policy. All videos are uploaded on the social media YouTube. Field data are uploaded and freely available through COCO, an open source website through which the field operations, including adoption rates of video contents and level of farmer participation in the screenings, are graphically displayed in real time.The lack of access to digital repositories of public agricultural information and their fragmented proliferation are both matters of concern for the future development of ICT in agriculture and extension. RML and IKSL show that the private sector is playing a role in collating, translating, and disseminating agricultural information and providing it to farmers for a fee. Nonprofit organizations are also trying to achieve the same role while also searching for sustainable business models. Investments made by an ICT initiative to customize and localize information for specific contexts and farmer needs turn delivered information into more of a private or club good rather than a public or common pool good. This suggests that greater effort is needed by India's public sector to encourage the development of open-access repositories for information to be publicly available in digital form. Content needs to be open and accessible to be used by private, public, and civil society sectors. While much of this content may come from the public research institutes, private and civil society sectors add value to the information, like RML and IKSL.Content dissemination over digital devices is highly influenced by the delivery mechanisms used and determines how content is packaged. For example, information that can be sent by voice message may be different from that sent by SMS or from information that is accessed over the Internet. In many instances, the presence of a human interface is needed to support farmers in the use of content provided. Some channels provide much more context to help interpret a message; others provide only the bare facts. Some channels have entry costs or transaction requirements that may limit usage. Thus, the medium intrinsically influences the message's value and usefulness.RML delivers content via mobile SMS, which relies on users being literate. Advantages of SMS are that it may be easier to share and store as compared with voice (Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi 2010). However, most IKSL farmers reported that the voice message was preferable to an SMS because of literacy concerns. However, Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi (2010) found that IKSL voice messages were sent at unpredictable times during the day, though they are typically sent in a five-hour period between 6 and 11 a.m. If subscribers do not access the voice call immediately, they can call the interactive voiceresponse system and listen to the message at the cost of a local call.In Lifelines, the content delivery is through recorded voice message, which is valuable for illiterate farmers. The capacity of farmers to use the platform needs to be developed. Despite the use of voice, which avoids problems of literacy, the presence of a human interface (the field volunteer) to help farmers interpret answers and frame queries is important. Meera, Jhamtani, and Rao (2004) found that a trusted qualified human interface is important, particularly with computer systems. Farmers require a human interface to be able to use the system, because of their need to frame and record a question in a few sentences. The minimum qualifications of the field volunteer (a local from the area) is a class 10 level of education or greater. As farmers gain experience with the service, they become better at framing their queries.Similarly, aAqua uses a kiosk operator to help facilitate farmer usage. However, a survey carried out in November 2010 found that most users (63 percent) accessed aAqua on the Internet in their homes, followed by in their offices (44 percent) (Agrocom 2010). This suggests that different demographic of farmers is target through this intervention compared with other interventions, like Digital Green, Lifelines and e-Sagu, where farmers access to the Internet is very limited. e-Sagu's human interface is also important-the field operator takes photos and then delivers advice from experts. The answer is delivered as text (in English and Telegu) and sent by mail, or it is scanned and sent by email to the e-Sagu local center. The interface with the farmer is face to face at the time the photos are taken and when the answer is delivered on paper. Thus, human interface is relevant here as well.In Digital Green, video was chosen because of low adult literacy in rural areas. Video can show contextualized content of other local farmers with similar backgrounds, which is well received by farmers (Gandhi et al. 2009). In addition, video is less expensive than other forms of mass media (Gandhi et al. 2009). Screening the video in the presence of a mediator (the community service person, or CSP) is important. The use of other material, such as handouts, during the screening increases farmer participation. Digital Green suggests that without the CSP, the videos would only connect with progressive farmers. The mediators are the ones who make the video more interactive and who facilitate internalization of content for participating farmers. The human interface also facilitates application of the practice or specific technology described in the video. The CSP engages with the farmer group during the screening and takes the feedback to the partner NGOs and CRPs. CSPs' role in strengthening the information chain in this approach is critical to content management. The content is developed and based on local conditions with local people, so it is highly relevant to and trustworthy for farmers who view the videos. Videos may need to be screened more than once, depending on the complexities of the practice; and in some cases, the NGO extension agents are involved in order to provide direct support for adoption (Gandhi et al. 2009). In some instances, the video-based content is integrated with services-for example, a BAIF video on artificial insemination gives directions to farmers on how to obtain resources for this practice.As the experiences of Lifelines, e-Sagu, and Digital Green show, providing a mix of approaches is important. In these projects, ICT is supported by human intermediation to support users in understanding content delivered through ICT media. Literacy concerns may influence users of text-based services like aAqua and RML, so voice-based and video services, like those from IKSL, Lifelines, and Digital Green, may be important in less literate communities.Much of the literature on content in ICT initiatives suggests that a two-way process, with feedback and participatory monitoring and evaluation of end users, increases the service's relevance. RML does not actively provide two-way communication through its platform. Although there is the option for the farmer to call the toll-free service number with any complaints or suggestions, Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi (2010) found that awareness of the customer support service was low. IKSL provides a help line, where farmers can talk directly with IKSL experts. To date, IKSL receives around 3,500 monthly calls with feedback; however, considering the number of users (five million), this may not be sufficient enough to redefine content as needed. Lifelines and aAqua are pull-based initiatives, relying entirely on farmers' demand for answers to questions. The types of questions and the needs of the users influence the experts chosen, who are sought out to answer specific questions. e-Sagu does not involve farmers in content definition; instead, farmers have a rather passive role. Thus, feedback and two-way communication do not play essential roles for the functioning of the e-Sagu platform. In Digital Green, the showing of videos incorporates the obtaining of queries and feedback during the initial video presentations; this feedback may then influence future video presentations. The online field data collection through COCO and the automated analysis both provide further feedback information on content preferences from users on an area or village-cluster basis.In each project, the extent of user feedback varies considerably. In general, monitoring is normally done on an ad hoc basis using sample surveys, of which content is a small component, analyzed in very general terms (useful or not useful), without the necessary analytical depth (for example, Was a specific piece of information used and for what purpose? or What piece of information would have been more useful instead?). There is much scope for ICT projects to increase the involvement of and feedback from users to increase the relevance and impact of content.In spite of their different approaches, all studied ICT initiatives try to provide locally relevant content to farmers while reducing the expert-farmer gap. While incentives may differ in each project, from the business models to the donor funded projects, in each of the ICT initiatives there has been a clear effort to make content relevant, accessible and sourced from reliable knowledge sources. Each of the studied ICT projects share similar goals, while using different ICT approaches and pathways. Yet, a common missing element in all projects is the tapping into the content directly by the users. Although not a focus of this paper, ICTs also offer great potential for rural communities to create and share their own knowledge and content. This is included to a certain extent only in the Digital Green project.The case studies show that localization of content is important, where a Q&A approach or the direct involvement of users in content production can improve such localization. The content sources tend to be local experts and organizations with expert local knowledge. This can support localization of content. Increased feedback and involvement of users would improve content relevance. Dissemination of information may require human intermediation to provide follow-on support on the basis of the information provided, and may also depend on the target users, who could need greater facilitation support to access information. Future research in content development and management processes in ICT needs must focus on approaches or mechanisms that can increase the relevance of content at the farmlevel. This can be achieved by improving user feedback into the platforms, and integrate farmer knowledge and information needs into the content management system.Each ICT project examined here develops and maintains content databases. This shows that introduction of ICTs into agricultural projects may be an effective way to restructure and systematize agricultural information within an organization. ICTs have the further potential to disseminate and customize agricultural information on a large scale as RML and IKSL show. Yet, in most of these initiatives content databases are exclusive with their access being closed. The only two exceptions are Digital Green, which provides an open source database of videos, and aAqua, which stores archived Q&A, that are openly available. Despite being closed databases, the major content source in these projects is from public institutes.ICTs have also the potential to enable greater sharing of information within agricultural public institutes, where expert knowledge can be freely shared. One option could be to create an Indian ‗agrigoogle', that is to say a central national agricultural information search engine linking those searching for agricultural content to the network of knowledge experts nationally and globally. Another consideration is the integration of ICT platforms in existing public agricultural institutions to ensure the sharing of expert tacit knowledge with farmers. The public sector must ensure that digital content is freely available to private and third sector ICT initiatives that deliver agricultural content. The institutes of ICAR are the major producers of agricultural content. In addition, any digital content needs to be promoted in regional languages. Investments in each state of India to build a repository of localized and validated information in agriculture must be pursued.An important activity of public institutions in agriculture is to ensure that content provided by ICT projects is of a certified quality. Quality assurance and accuracy of digital content will require greater attention as ICT platforms expand, and a structured and coordinated approach would be necessary. Currently, quality assurance of content still remains connected to the source of the content. In order to ensure quality, a body or panel could be established to certify and validate the content management systems of ICT platforms, as well as suggest standards for content management in ICT programs. One example is that content databases need to include references from where materials are sourced. This is important in agriculture, where information is an important input. Like seed certification, which is publicly monitored, certification of information is also necessary. This forum could consist of members from the public, private and third sectors. Validation of content is important to protect farmers' interests, because they may have inadequate analytical skills to assess its value.Another activity to ensure quality in content is to train the people who work on the content of ICT platforms. This certification could give training on applying content to an ICT platform. For example, what is a good agro-advisory message to give on a phone via SMS or voice? Such training would build the capacity for the content manager to adapt content for different digital devices (like video, and mobile phone) and also capacity to interact with farmers remotely (for example, through help lines). Strengthening communication skills will be important in such certifications, where scientific content needs to be explained simply to farmers who have low levels of formal education. It could be the role of public institutions in agriculture to develop a curriculum in ICT for agricultural development and support ICT platforms to facilitate farmers' access to quality agricultural information.","tokenCount":"12882"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cda570d29616c448c85785ba06d26072","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4597b391-870d-4340-96c6-4118bbbe673c/retrieve","id":"-1462760121"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9bfc2546-88c7-419a-a226-b45d0165598f","pagecount":"10","content":"There is a growing focus in the ACP on enhancing the contribution of the fisheries sector to national development. In some countries, the focus is on the development of small-scale fishing activities; in others, it is on the development of local value-added processing linked to industrial or semi-industrial fishing activities; while elsewhere the focus is on securing improved access for all fish caught in the national exclusive economic zones (EEZs).Rules of origin are still highly contentious in the fisheries sector. Although some agreements with ACP countries have granted concessions to allow 'global sourcing' for certain products, they are not generalised across the ACP, nor have the concessions been applied to a wider range of fisheries products.In addition, given the EU's stricter application of sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards and food safety requirements, these play a major factor in securing effective market access, particularly for the small-scale fisheries in ACP countries.Never theless, the EU remains the major market for ACP fisheries exports, although it supplies only around 11% of EU fish imports (excluding fish caught in ACP waters and directly exported). However, China is playing an increasingly Developments in fish trade relations between the EU and third countries Developments in the application of private eco-labels and other standardsimportant role in the global fish trade, both as an importer and, after further processing, as an exporter. This potential creates new market opportunities for the structural development of ACP fisheries sectors.Throughout 2012-13, the debate continued on the future regulation for the common organisation of the market for fisheries products. There is a growing focus on sustainability within the EU's fisheries policy, with efforts in progress to link sustainability requirements to access to the EU market, in terms of both environmental and social sustainability. The rise of sustainability concerns, however, can leave policy making subject to divergent pressures from competing interests in the EU fishing sector.At a time of budgetary constraints and increasing competitive pressure on the EU fisheries sector, there would appear to be a need for international harmonisation of approaches to the promotion of sustainable fishing practices through the use of market access requirements, if these pressures are not to lead to protectionist measures or to political manipulation to secure fishing access for EU fleets in ACP waters.Concerns exist over the proliferation of private standards and eco-labelling schemes and their potential to become new barriers to access to particular market components. In addition, issues arise as to the consistency of private labelling requirements and their relationship to emerging official standards and requirements (e.g. private labelling of certain fisheries as sustainable, while the same fishery is placed on the official lists denoting unsustainable fishing practices).New EU free-trade agreements (FTAs) potentially increase both the trade and investment competition facing ACP fisheries sectors (e.g. the issue of the future treatment of tuna under an EU-Ecuador FTA and its effects on investment in Papua New Guinea/PNG), thus eroding the value of traditional fisheries sector preferences.While aquaculture is playing a growing role in the international fish trade (about half of the global fish trade), the sector is relatively underdeveloped in the ACP regions. There is, however, growing investment interest in aquaculture development within the ACP nations from both EU and Chinese investors.There remain, therefore, many market access-related issues of concern to ACP governments, with numerous potential areas for action to strengthen the contribution of the fisheries sector to national economic development.Developments in the ACP policy focus in 2012-13In response to global developments, there is a growing ACP policy focus on maximising the contribution of the ACP fisheries sector to job creation (in both the catching and fish processing sectors) and food security, including through the reduction of discards and of use of inappropriate handling and conservation methods. There is also a focus on improving the efficiency of fishing operations, for example, by reducing fuel use to help maximise the net economic benefits.\"A key requirement to increase small-scale fish producers' participation in global fish trade is access to trade and market information\"One avenue being explored in this context is the increased participation of small-scale fish producers (e.g., fishers, fish processors and traders, and fish farmers) in the international fish trade. However, this brings new challenges in meeting specific requirements on international markets and improving the efficiency of small-scale fishing operations. As part of the reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), the European Parliament voted in 2012 on the future EU Common Market Organisation (CMO). Given divergent positions in the European Commission (EC), Council and Parliament, a trilateral dialogue ('trilogue') has been launched to reach a consensus on the new fisheries CMO regulation.The text approved by the European Parliament emphasises the importance of labelling that provides consumers with information on all fisheries products as regards the stocks and area where they were fished or farmed, as well as the date of landing for fresh fish products. Fish products previously frozen, but sold as fresh, will also have to carry the words 'defrosted product' on their labels. In 2012, the EU adopted new legislation imposing trade and non-trade-related sanctions on third countries \"that do not abide by international rules on sustainable fishing methods\".The regulation concerns any fish stocks where the geographical distribution makes them available to the fleets of both EU member states and non-EU states.The legislation defines a country allowing unsustainable fishing as one failing to cooperate in the management of resources covered by the UN Fish Stocks Agreement, and either fails to adopt the management measures needed, or adopts management measures without due regard to the rights, interests and duties of other countries and the EU.The measures proposed are wide ranging -many of them similar to or building on measures contained in the EU's illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) regulation. Measures are included that, if applied to an ACP country, would affect its capacity to trade fish products into the EU market, either directly (by the imposition of quantitative restrictions on imports) or indirectly (by limiting the possibilities for increasing the volume of fish products that can be considered 'originating', e.g. by prohibiting \"the conclusion of private trade arrangements between nationals of a member state and those of countries allowing non-sustainable fishing in order for a fishing vessel flying the flag of that member state\", preventing that country from using \"the fishing possibilities of such countries\") (see Agritrade article 'EP Fisheries Committee backs market-related measures against countries allowing unsustainable fishing', 24 June 2012).The EU Fisheries Commissioner highlighted the intention of this new legislation to help create \"a level playing field\" between the EU and third-country fishers. However, considerable legal elaboration will be required before the proposed new trade instruments can be deployed (see Agritrade article 'EP votes for trade measures against countries allowing non-sustainable fishing', 8 October 2012).In 2012, the implementation of the EU regulation to combat IUU fishing continued to spark concerns as a potential non-tariff barrier to trade. These questions strongly suggest that there is a need to harmonise international approaches to combat IUU fishing. In the context of the CFP reform to promote an international catch certification scheme proving that a fish product has been caught legally, the EC proposal may assist in the development of such a harmonised approach.\"An international catch certification scheme -such as that promoted by the EU -may assist in the development of the international approach against IUU fishing\" Another key concern for Namibia is the way its hake is marketed in Europe by Spanish importing companies, and whether it is done in a way that maximises benefits and strengthens the position of Namibian hake on EU markets (see Agritrade interview 'Lack of Namibian control over its resource value chain affects its benefits from fisheries', 11 January 2013).The Given the launch of bilateral FTA negotiations with ASEAN members, the EU fisheries sector has been continuing to draw attention to the \"unfair\" production conditions in some ASEAN countries.There have been criticisms of the Thai tuna sector for its failure to fully comply with EU health standards (22 violations in 2012), resulting in ANFACO, a group that represents Spanish tuna canners, calling on the EC to withdraw its approval of Thai health authorities as competent to issue EU-recognised health certificates. Such a move would effectively close the EU market to Thai tuna exports unless EU-based certification agencies were used, a process which would greatly increase costs (see Agritrade article 'Spanish processing sector wants EU doors to be closed to Thai canned tuna', 11 February 2013).In the Philippines, allegations of forced labour throughout the production chain for tuna (on boats and in processing facilities) have been highlighted by ANFACO. However, ANFACO has been cautious in its handling of this issue, maintaining that while it will exercise \"extreme controls of the raw material from Philippine companies that do not respect labour standards\" set by the International Labour Organization, its members will not stop importing tuna from the Philippines (see Agritrade article 'Spanish processors are to examine labour conditions of tuna imports', 16 December 2012). Instead, emphasis is being placed on government ratification of international agreements for the protection of workers' rights and elimination of child labour that are required under the EU's GSP+ regulation.At a more general level in terms of trade negotiations, ANFACO has requested that tuna should be considered a 'sensitive product', rather than a bargaining chip in all trade negotiations (see Agritrade article 'International trade negotiations should contribute to establishing a level playing field, says EU canning industry', 8 October 2012).A feasibility study was undertaken in 2012 to examine how the 2010 EU regulation that governs the EU eco-label scheme could be extended to fish products. It underlined the fact that most existing labels (e.g. the MSC) concentrate on the environmental impacts of primary production and not on the whole life cycle of the product. However, for fisheries, this primary production stage is responsible for between 70 and 95% of the total environmental impacts over the products' life cycles. The study suggested that an extension of the EU eco-label scheme to fish products might only be advantageous for products that have a sig- Ensuring EU sustainability standards are internationally compliantOne of the main stated objectives of regulations adopted in 2012 is to create \"a level playing field\" between EU and imported fisheries products. However, any new EU legislation needs to be in line with internationally agreed standards, otherwise third countries may be able to challenge these new regu-lations as trade distorting. This in part explains why the EU is promoting an international catch certification scheme as a tool to fight IUU. In 2012, the EU made progress in bringing Japan and the US (both important markets for ACP products) into this international initiative.\"ACP governments need to monitor whether EU standards applied to fisheries imports comply with internationally agreed standards\"In this context, ACP governments will need to establish mechanisms to monitor both the elaboration of these international standards and whether new EU regulatory standards applied to fisheries imports are compliant with internationally agreed standards and conventions.The difficulties ACP products will face in finding alternative international markets if they are not in line with emerging EU standards gives added importance to enhancing the capacities of ACP coastal states to effectively manage their fisheries resources in line with the increasingly strict international environmental and social standards.Potentially, getting ahead of policy developments in this area could provide opportunities to promote the environmental and social production qualities of ACP products in ways that give ACP suppliers a competitive advantage over some other suppliers.Appropriate support -financial, technical, information, etc. -also needs to be provided to ACP small-scale fish producers, men and women, to maximise the contribution of fisheries to local and regional food security, and increase their capacity to access international markets with high-quality products. \"An alternative to relaxing the rules of origin -as is being pursued in the Pacific -is the reflagging of foreign vessels\"An alternative means of approaching rules of origin challenges is through the reflagging of foreign vessels to ACP jurisdictions. This is being pursued in the Pacific. Some ACP countries are also looking for more flexibility in terms of definitions of origin of fish coming from chartering operations. However, this alternative path requires substantial investment from ACP countries into fisheries management, to ensure that these reflagged/chartered vessels comply with national and international legislation, including environmental and social standards, as these standards become a prerequisite for accessing key international markets.Capitalising on growing Chinese demand to increase ACP processingIn 2012, China became the main fisheries trade partner for many ACP countries, particularly in Africa, involving the export of fisheries raw material to China for processing and re-export.Although there is a need for ACP countries to take advantage of possibilities to diversify their markets for fisheries products, the main issue remains: how to increase local value addition to ACP fish products prior to export.A detailed market analysis is required to identify how further-processed ACP products can find their own niche on traditional EU, US and even emerging export markets such as China. On the basis of detailed market analysis, the investment required to facilitate value addition to certain fish products (where fresh fish exports are not the most profitable form of export) prior to export can then be identified.Developing regional fish trade in the ACP Regional markets for ACP fish products are also growing, including for processed products. This is an alternative which is increasingly important for ACP producers, particularly smallscale producers, as regional marketing channels are often well known to them and more easily accessible.\"Existing barriers to regional trade should be dismantled to promote ACP intra-regional trade in fisheries products\"The promotion of such regional markets needs to be supported through political action to dismantle existing barriers to regional trade in fish products and promote investment in the necessary logistical infrastructure to facilitate regional trade in fisheries products.","tokenCount":"2292"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e26f65e89cda38395833818e50f2f41a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87a2fe84-db44-45ee-b7ca-320da35b5521/retrieve","id":"-503509901"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e6172862-f41c-440e-a4d5-d768d97ff5fd","pagecount":"12","content":"• Gender-specific roles, access to, participation in and benefits from forestry, fisheries, aquaculture and livestock• Status of gender gaps in these sectors• What has proven effective to reduce these gapsSignificance of the sectors for livelihoods -1/3 of global population, and over 90 percent of people living in extreme poverty-including Indigenous Peoples, ethnic minorities, landless farmers, and others in vulnerable situations-have a close dependence on forests for food, fodder, shelter, energy, medicine, income, and more (FAO and UNEP 2020)-In 2017, fish represented almost 20 percent of the average animal protein intake and essential micronutrients for 3.3 billion people; and 800 million people, many of them among the poorest and most marginalized, relied on income from aquatic food value chains (FAO 2020a) -The livestock sector plays an essential role in maintaining livelihoods and reducing poverty for 1.7 billion people globally, providing income to 60 percent of rural households, and contributing up to half of agricultural GDP (World Bank 2021)➢Each of these sectors is highly gendered in terms of division of labor, rights to access and control resources and assets, decision-making and benefits.Source: Gendered Food Systems framework. Source: Njuki et al. (2021, 2)Gender Gaps in Forestry• Lack of women's rights within community rights to forests• Limited access to assets hinder women's ability to access the forest to collect NTFPs• Normative constraints to women's participation in forest governance at multiple levels -formal education and less income inequality related to improved participation• Disparities in participation and decision-making in formal forest user groups and programs (e.g., REDD+)• Lack of access to capital, cultural norms and taboos, restricted mobility and time deficits => women in less remunerative forest enterprises and nodes of VCs• Lack of sex-disaggregated data; and of statistics on small-scale fisheries, inland fisheries and postharvest activities, where women tend to be concentrated• Fishing and fish farming dominated by men -normative; but women 47% of small-scale fishers (less visible)• When all stages of the value chain considered, women half of global primary and secondary aquacultureand fisheries-sector workers -but occupational segregation• Lack of access to boats and fishing equipment, fish ponds, cold-storage tech (leads to post-harvest loss), transport, information, credit• In small-scale (fish farmer groups) and industrial fisheries -women less influential in decision-making• Concentration of women in lower value value chains and segments -differences based on wealth groups• Women two-thirds of poor livestock keepers; most of the day-to-day farm animal management, processing, marketing, sale of animals and products (FAO, 2012).• Caring for livestock often considered an extension of women's care work.• Gender roles, responsibilities, and constraints in livestock value chains vary based on the type of livestock species/product and production system (e.g., pastoral, smallholder or commercial)• Normatively, men associated with more valuable breeds.• Gender gaps in land ownership and access to: pastures, fodder and forages, water, credit, technology, information, veterinary services and products (vaccines).• Uneven decision-making and control over livestock and products -related to sales vs consumption, breeds, economic value of product, etc.","tokenCount":"486"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a9d909c5aa30e232c0624c9f5c56e73","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040687.pdf","id":"882130625"},"keywords":["water law","formal water rights","permits","customary water rights","Roman water law","water trade","Chile","sub-Saharan Africa","informal","poverty","gender"],"sieverID":"e640174d-123b-4801-920e-ac4832a1000e","pagecount":"19","content":"This chapter challenges the assumption that permit systems are the best legal device to address the challenges of water scarcity in the 21st century, as widely held in the global trend of water law revisions. It analyses the origins of permit systems and their dual obligations and entitlement dimensions in Roman water law. It then highlights their differential development paths in high-income countries compared with middle-and lowincome countries. As argued, permits may work in high-income countries as a hook for governments to impose obligations, like registration, taxation or waste discharge charges. In exceptionally arid closing basins, like Australia and the western USA, the century-old permit systems may facilitate water sharing, including trade. However, in middle-and low-income countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa, permit systems were introduced by the colonial powers with the primary goal of dispossessing indigenous water users of their prior claims to water. Evidence from Chile and elsewhere shows how 'modern' water law revision risks reinforcing this colonial legacy for the large majority of informal water users. Permits as individual water rights based on an administrative act, first, ignore the intrinsically different nature of communal indigenous water rights regimes; secondly, favour the administration-proficient; thirdly, may entail explicit discriminatory conditions; and fourthly, discriminate against poor women even more than poor men. The chapter concludes with recommendations for formal legal tools that strengthen water entitlements of informal small-scale water users.The present chapter focuses on the highly problematic interface between community-based water law on the one hand and permit systems (also called administrative formal water rights, licences, concessions, royalties or leases) on the other. It is well known that both community and permit systems coexist, though not necessarily smoothly (see Meinzen-Dick and Nkonya, Chapter 2, this volume). In particular, as Boelens et al. (Chapter 6,this volume) highlight, after the colonization of the Andes, when permit systems were imposed over existing community-based systems, they created conflict and divested indigenous peoples of their claims to water and its use and management. At the same time, this imposition impacts the ways in which communities and their allies can engage with the contemporary state in the future design and negotiation of alternative water management arrangements.A closer look at this interface is critical because permit-based formal water rights are now also rapidly gaining popularity in the region with the largest proportion of indigenous and informal water users: sub-Saharan Africa (see Meinzen-Dick and Nkonya, Chapter 2, this volume for the rationale of the proponents). There, neither the risk of dispossession by superimposition of permits over the widely prevailing indigenous water governance arrangements nor the alternatives emerging in Latin America have received much attention.Fully fledged permits are written certificates that state: 'such matters as the approximate location of the land to be supplied, the purpose(s) for which water is sought, the source from which it is to be drawn, the proposed point of diversion, the volume to be diverted, the nature of existing and proposed hydraulic structures, and drainage and treatment' (Caponera, 1992). Permits entail the 'agreement to abide by conditions imposed in the permit' (Hodgson, 2004), usually for a fixed duration after which a review is performed. Permits are the legally binding contracts between the state and individual or organized water users.Permit systems are now being promoted as the single most effective legal device to address the water management problems of the 21st century. They are increasingly perceived as a standard ingredient of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Virtually all water law reforms of the past few decades have introduced or strengthened this legal device: in high-income countries such as the UK in 1963 and in France in 1964; in middle-income countries in Latin America, e.g. Chile (Water Code of 1981) and Mexico (National Waters Law of 1992); and in low-and middle-income countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Mozambique (Ley de Agua 1991), Uganda (Water Statute 1995), Ghana (Water Resources Commission Act 1996), Tanzania (1997 and2002 Amendments to Water Ordinance [Control andRegulation] Act No. 42 of 1974, and currently redrafting the law), Zimbabwe (Water Act No 31/1998), South Africa (National Water Act 1998), Burkina Faso (Loi d'oriéntation relative a la gestion de l'eau 2001) Kenya, (The Water Act 2002) and Swaziland (Water Act 2002).As an intrinsic part of permit systems, these new water laws invariably confirm and strengthen the role of the state as trustee, owner or custodian of the nation's water resources. They typically increase the scope of water resources declared as being public and so under state control, for example, including groundwater as part of public water. Finally, they tend to expand the uses of water under state control requiring state authorization through permits including, for example, waste discharges.There are two dimensions to a permit (or administrative water right): (i) an obligation dimension (as the name 'permit' conveys); and (ii) an entitlement dimension (as expressed by the name 'right'). Users' obligations are conditions attached to the permits. Permits serve as a 'hook' for the state to impose such obligations. Not surprisingly, many government water managers tend to be most interested in this obligation dimension as they expect permits to be vehicles allowing more effective regulation of water resources. Global debates on permit systems often refer to this role as a hook to impose obligations. An exception is found in Latin America, where the focus is on the entitlement dimension, a point returned to later. For example, in high-income countries, 'the polluter pays' principle is increasingly implemented through waste discharge permits. Underresourced governments in sub-Saharan Africa, advised and financed by international organizations like the World Bank and donors, are often attracted to these systems, in part because they can provide financing for the basin organizations, as these international organizations often prescribe to establish as a conditionality of aid. The obligatory registration of water users also provides indispensable information for water managers about the use of the resource that is to be managed, certainly in low-and middleincome countries where such information is largely lacking.Legally, though, permits are only one way of imposing obligations. States have fiscal, administrative and policing tools that can achieve the same purpose. As found in Mexico, Tanzania, South Africa and elsewhere, these other methods may even perform considerably better in enforcing obligations, at least if well targeted at specific water users (van Koppen, 2007, unpublished).It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss the obligation dimension of permit systems in further depth, except in the sense that the effectiveness of permits as a hook to impose obligations fully depends upon the way in which the other dimension, the entitlement dimension, works out. This chapter focuses on the latter.As argued here, for the Andean region as well as for sub-Saharan Africa, permit systems boil down to the formal dispossession of rural informal water users who manage their water under community-based arrangements. What is at stake becomes clear in the case of Ghana, where the legal power of the traditional authorities, or 'stools', and the customary links between land and water rights are still strong enough to provide a voice that rural communities elsewhere often lack. There Sarpong (undated), an expert in water law, made the following comments on The Water Resources Commission Act of 1996 and its establishment of permits: By a stroke of the legislative pen and policy intervention, proprietary and managerial rights which had been held from time immemorial by families, stools, and communities have been taken away from a people some of who probably had no prior knowledge of the matter. Significantly, water in view of its appurtenance to land, has all along been regarded as part of land. The Constitution of 1992 recognizes customary landholdings and bars state intervention and/or appropriation of lands except under stringent conditions laid down under Article 20. Indeed, the 1992 Constitution puts behind us the era of unbridled acquisition of land without payment of compensation. The issue is whether the Water Resources Commission Act can unilaterally hive off water from land and provide a separate institutional and legislative framework to address its use. If the Constitution provides the regime of land tenure ought to be in conformity with customary law, then any attempt by the state to fashion out a separate regime for water that runs counter to this constitutional edict will offend the letter, if not the spirit, of the Constitution. This is an issue that deserves to be examined having regard to the massive nature of the assault of the legislation on customary proprietary water rights.[…] If the law on appropriation of land by the state is to be used as a guide on the matter, then it may be surmised that the Water Resources Commission, in spite of its far sweeping powers with regard to water appropriation, would have to yield to the constitutional requirement of providing prompt, adequate, and effective compensation in accordance with Article 20 of the Constitution for the compulsory acquisition of customary water rights as obtains in the case of compulsory land acquisition by the state.It is remarkable indeed that this dispossession of indigenous water rights has received so little attention up till now in sub-Saharan Africa. One explanation may be that the colonial water laws which, on paper, entailed dispossession at a large scale, were only partially implemented. Water administrations focused instead on gradually formalizing water sectors of settlers involved in large-scale irrigation, mining, urbanization, hydropower and upcoming industries. It was only recently that, under the banner of IWRM, water laws were revised to include permits more explicitly and nationwide. Now nationwide laws incorporating permit systems are also implemented with more force. The good news is that the limited implementation in sub-Saharan Africa still allows timely adaptation of the paper laws in accordance with the lessons that have been learned by now.For a better understanding of the rationale for and double-sided nature of permit systems with obligations and entitlements, a closer look at their historic origins is revealing: the second section (Roman Water Law) and the third section (The Transformation of Roman Water Law in High-income Countries) highlight these origins.This history highlights how dispossession through the powers of the ruling aristocracy has been contested since the early 1800s and that it was only recently that permit systems became more popular again. The older permit systems in arid areas in former colonies, in particular in high-income Australia and the western USA are exceptional, although much cited, and beyond the scope of this chapter 1 (van Koppen, 2007, unpublished). The point is that both the recent and older permit systems work in the very specific context of highly sophisticated and formalized water economies in fully industrialized societies. This specific context tends to be ignored when the international donor community finances their replication in low-and middle-income countries of the south with entirely different settings.In the south, the vast majority of water users are informal. As primary water takers, they develop their own water resources. The lack of state-sponsored infrastructure and water management institutions means that self-initiative and climate determine water availability. Yet, public water and permit systems, without many obligations attached, have already existed since the colonial era. One reason for this explored in further depth in the fourth section (The Colonial Legacy of Water Law in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa) is the still omnipresent legacy of the colonial water laws in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.The fifth section (Permits as Property Rights in Low-and Middle-income Countries Today) develops a more abstract analysis of the resulting water rights systems in low-and middleincome countries in these two continents today. It exposes the essence of permits as formal entitlements to a public and shared resource that are basically vested by a mere administrative act. While administration as a basis for rights to water may be meaningful in the highly controlled conditions of high-income settings, such a legal system is ludicrous in societies with deep divides between the administratively knowledgeable, who can easily obtain such paper rights, and the large majority of informal users who cannot, or, if they can, can often only do it too late.The sixth section (Resource Grab by Design: Evidence from Chile and Elsewhere) confirms this essence by tracing the real-life implications of permit systems for the earliest and best-documented case in the developing world: Chile. The seventh section (Discrimination by Water Administration) focuses in depth on two generic sets of discriminatory processes at stake when permit systems with their seemingly 'neutral' and 'orderly' administrative measures are imposed over informal rights systems in societies with deep administrative divides, not only in Chile, with its minority of informal water users, but even more so where the informal sector is larger. Conclusions and recommendations, particularly for sub-Saharan Africa, are given in the last section (Recommendations: challenging the colonial legacy of dispossession).The dispossession dimension of permit systems has existed ever since the Romans invented the famous notions of public as opposed to private water and the requirement to obtain permits for the use of public water. From the outset, permits served the double purpose of providing the hook for the state to impose obligations and dispossessing conquered tribes from their existing claims to land and water resources. Caponera's (1992) fascinating classic analysis of historical and contemporary water law provides the following information, (pp. 29-48) although he, as most other water lawyers, has never explicitly mentioned the element of dispossession.Throughout the 1500 years of Roman expansion, from 1000 BC till about AD 500, the core principle of Roman water law was that collectivities classified water resources into public waters 2 subject to regulation by the collectivity, for example for navigation (res populi, and later res publica) on the one hand and private waters, where the private title-holders (and his neighbouring private title-holders) all had rights to use and abuse surface water and groundwater as they liked (ius utendi et abutendi), on the other. This included the right to sell water. The underpinning 'statement of principle' that running water, like air, was a thing common to everyone (res comunis omnium) to which no one could claim ownership because of its nature, remained throughout, although with limited practical implication other than the classification mentioned.While these core principles stayed, important changes took place with regard to 'collectivity', 'public' and their hierarchies. By 500 BC, 'collectivity' was still confined to the three agricultural communities founding Rome and the Republic in Latium immediately surrounding Rome. By AD 500, history's early and aggressive conquest of neighbouring tribes and their land and water resources had led to an empire stretching from continental western Europe to Byzantium in the Near East. From the very outset, the classification of land and water resources as public versus private was linked to this military conquest. Initially, the legal status of water entirely followed that of land: springs and artesian wells were appurtenances of land, so if land was declared as being public, all water running, springing, lying or gathering thereon was deemed public. All water that fell within private land (rain, groundwater and minor water bodies) was deemed private.Thus, in these early days of Roman conquest, the 'lawful' way to appropriate territories conquered and, hence, their water resources, was typically by ranking it as 'public' land. Public land also included all mountain land and such strips of land marking the borders between existing colonies or, within a colony, between allotted plots of land. These borders often corresponded to a perennial river and, sometimes, to streams -typically reliable borders for delimiting land. As a consequence, all rivers and some streams, the springs feeding urban aqueducts, mountain lakes and such rainwater as was collected by natural mountain pools or artificial tanks, were also declared as being public. In later phases, the Romans even further expanded their definition of waters that were seen as public. All perennial rivers and some non-perennial watercourses became 'public rivers' (flumen publicum). In the last two centuries of the Roman Empire, more nonperennial rivers were included in this category.While more waters became 'public,' the 'public' itself that owned the water resources narrowed to reflect the evolving Roman centralizing hierarchies into, ultimately, the Emperor. Initially, some autonomy was left for conquered tribes. In the Republican period until 27 BC, when the legal regime of water ownership was extended from Italy to the provinces conquered, water administration fell under the responsibility of the Roman governors in territories entirely subject to direct Roman rule. However, in territories governed by a treaty, a large degree of autonomy was left to the local authorities, also in the field of water administration.After the Republican period, power gradually shifted from the 'people' to the Emperor and the Senate. From the third century AD onwards, this diarchy further evolved toward absolute monarchy, as all powers were ultimately concentrated in the hands of the Emperor alone. The sovereignty of 'the people' was transferred to the Emperor, also in water administration. In Italy and the provinces, water administration responsibilities passed entirely to the Emperor's vicars, parallel with the gradual suppression of the surviving local autonomies. Res publica came to mean only 'people's right of use' (res in publico uso). Moreover, throughout the Roman world, the Senate of Rome had supreme control of state finances, both with regard to public expenditures (including public works) and to revenues (including water rates). In sum, by declaring land and increasingly more water resources as being public, more existing customary water rights regimes were superseded by the more authoritarian Roman water laws, controlled by the more centralizing Roman administration.The new 'right' to use the expropriated 'public' waters was through the administrative permit or concession. In some situations -well discussed in the literature ever after -permits kept serving as a hook to impose obligations in return to clear water service delivery by the administration. In the city of Rome, for example, a specialized technical water service and administration governed water use. The administration also kept registers both on water sources and availability, and on distribution, with one on modifications of water rights, water users and water distribution. As soon as a concession came to an end, this was recorded and the water returned to the administration for reallocation to a new concessionaire.In most cases, nevertheless -although quite ignored in the literature -the requirement of 'administrative' authorization of public water use through permits had very little to do with delivering any water service. Its main purpose was to allow the rulers to 'lawfully' appropriate resources from conquered tribes, at least on paper. Gradually, administrative concessions became the only legitimate mode of acquisition of a right to divert water from public watercourses for irrigation and/or industrial purposes. Also, it was generally prohibited to divert water from navigable watercourses. The only two ways to recognize existing water rights were, first, through the legal provision that some longlasting use or usus vetus could evolve into a mode of acquisition of a right to use public waters and, second, through what Hodgson (2004) calls de minimis uses. The latter are micro-scale uses for domestic purposes, homestead gardening, small-scale livestock watering and sometimes a bit of irrigation.To summarize the old Roman pattern that has remained so very intact ever since: by declaring land and waters as 'public', the authorities representing 'the public' could impose their ownership and rules. The declaration of land and waters as being public formally nullified prior resource claims of conquered tribes. The only way to regain 'lawful' access to their former water resources was to recognize the authority of the powers that were trying to establish their rule by asking them permission, thus negating own rules and surrendering to the new owner of the water resources. The new authority then 'granted' administrative authorization in the form of permits.In Europe itself, Roman water law was profoundly transformed and only revived very recently under entirely different conditions. As Caponera's (1992) study highlights, after the fall of the Roman Empire in the sixth century AD, Roman water law blended with customary laws. Yet, the emperors, kings, dukes and higher feudal lords kept their claims of ownership over land and water, which they vested, from the top down, in their lower-ranking vassals. In the feudal system there was no concept of private ownership of water, and the feudal lords had full control over land and water within their jurisdiction, including the authority to charge levies. It took more than 1000 years before this changed. In the civil law countries, i.e. France and most of continental Europe, the aristocratic powers ended, among others, with the French Revolution. A bourgeoisie emerged as the new social class with new economic interests. In civil law countries Roman law was revived, but this time to strengthen the private rights of the emancipating users against state interference. The Napoleonic Code of 1804 classified water into private waters (located below, along or on privately owned land) and public waters (which were confined to 'navigable' or 'floatable' waters only) requiring a permit for rights of use (with related water rates).Around the same time, users also exerted their claims in the UK. Common law was adopted, which held that water could not be owned, neither by the Crown nor by individuals, but would be owned by all (res comunis omnium). Through a (riparian) use right, the riparian doctrine that evolved out of this new UK common law allowed riparian landowners the free utilization without the need for administrative intervention. The riparian doctrine gave equal status among riparians and strong rights to the riparians vis-à-vis newcomers beyond the riparian strips, who had to negotiate hard for their entrance. The many laws, ordinances, regulations or other legal enactments for administering or regulating specific subjects related to water were bottom-up. They all sprang from needs arising from local conditions. A similar system developed in the eastern USA.During the following 150 years profound economic, social and political changes took place in Europe. Extensive state investments were made in public infrastructure to catalyse the evolving water economies. In France, the definition of public waters slightly expanded after 1910, to include waters that the state needed to acquire for the purpose of public works. Water economies developed in which public agencies, parastatals, public-private partnerships, hydropower plants, municipal and industrial water service providers and private companies established effective technical and institutional control over the nation's water resources. Gradually, almost all former primary water takers became secondary users as clients of these water service providers or as members of irrigation groups and water user associations. Extensive institutionalization took place, which assured that virtually all water users were known to the relevant authorities, registered and were paying their subsidized bills. Pollution issues became more important. The 'environment' emerged as a new water user in its own right. Stronger state control was needed and accepted for such regulatory roles. Further development and harmonization towards permit systems was only by then increasingly seen as a legitimate 'hook' to impose such obligations in a legitimate public interest.For example, in France, it was only in 1964 that more waters were included in the public domain, such as that necessary for domestic water supply, navigation and agricultural and industrial production. And the law no longer spoke of private waters but of non-domanial waters -but they still required compensation in case the state revoked. A new criterion of 'public interest' was also introduced at this time, which further limited the sector of privately owned waters (Caponera, 1992, p. 77).In the UK the common law riparian system also changed with the Water Resources Law of 1963, when licensing for the abstraction of water was imposed generally by statute. An authority became responsible for authorizing water abstractions above certain thresholds. Nevertheless, many features of riparianism were preserved. The common law notion of water ownership as being vested in the whole community (res comunis omnium) was also preserved: common law countries avoid the expression of 'water ownership' in legislative texts. Instead, the texts generally declare that the state has the power to control water utilizations (Caponera, 1992, p. 114).Significantly, the expansion of public waters requiring permits in high-income countries was accompanied by the full recognition that there are plural legal regimes to govern water. In common law countries, a large part of formal entitlements still remains attached to customary law under the name of common law. In other countries, customary arrangements are also recognized, if not preserved. For example, in the Netherlands, the centuries-old customary water boards are well respected and their merging into the state apparatus has been gradual and negotiated. Similarly, the Water Tribunal of Valencia, Spain, which has held customary rules since time immemorial, is respected and enforced (Caponera, 1992;Hodgson, 2004).High-income countries outside Europe also respect other existing water rights regimes. For Japan, Bruns has noted (2005):Acceptance of traditional water rights, even when these have not been formally registered, has been a key principle underlying river management in Japan (Sanbongi, 2001). The law established the principle that existing users have legal standing to protect their interests when necessary. The River Laws of 1896 and 1964 provided a formal basis in state law, through which agencies and courts could take account of existing rights. The principle of being 'deemed to have obtained permission' reduces conflicts between state and local law without forcing local rules to explicitly conform to the criteria and formulations of state law. (Bruns, 2005).Full respect for non-permit systems, strong users' entitlements and more centralized authority only after nationwide, inclusive and highly sophisticated formal water economies were developed are in sharp contrast to the origins and development of water laws in Europe's former colonies.According to Roman military tradition, water laws in Europe's colonies in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa were primarily designed to overrule prior claims and customary arrangements. Water laws 'lawfully' vested ownership to most, if not all, of the conquered areas' water resources in the colonial minority rulers. Often, permits were imposed as the only formal way to render existing and new water use 'lawful'. This enabled settlers to obtain rights that were declared formal and hence first-class compared with other water rights regimes. If indigenous inhabitants were allowed at all to apply for permits, they were forced to recognize the legitimate authority of the invaders as the 'lawful' new owners of waters that were already theirs. It introduced a divide-and-rule mode of obtaining water rights which only settlers and, at best, a small portion of indigenous people could obtain. It relegated all prior water rights regimes to a second-class status, and also in the cases in which the 'free' use of small quantities, so de minimis rights, was granted.The water laws that the Spanish conquerors of Latin America vested were based on the Papal Bull in 1493, by which Pope Alexander VI gave the catholic kings all newly discovered lands, including waters. Water use became the object of special king's permits (Mercedes) granted by the Spanish government authorities for certain purposes, such as domestic drinking needs and irrigation. Such permits could be revoked. [ … ] The violation of permit requirements could be punished with a fine. (Caponera, 1992, p. 49) A few decades later, the Spanish phrased their encroachment upon prior appropriation claims in a subtler way, aligning with the community-based arrangements that they found alive among the Incas, Aztecs, Mayas and other indigenous water users. The Leyes de Indias, promulgated in Spain in 1550, declared for her American colonies that: Rivers, ports, and public ways belong to all men jointly, so that any person coming from a foreign land may use them in the same way as those living in their vicinity. These common goods were attributed to the Crown and their ownership vested in the Prince as the representative of the community [ … ] These principles were combined in the Laws of the Indies together with the existing local customs which were not contrary to them. In the indigenous agricultural practice the collective use of land by the clan necessarily implied a collective use of water. Thus the Laws of the Indies accepted the concept that water is a common good which must be distributed within the community for the benefit of its members, but vested its ownership in the Crown, and entrusted its administration to the Spanish authority, considered as the representative of the community. (Caponera, 1992, p. 49) By the 19th century, the privatization tendencies of the 1804 Civil Code of France found their way to Latin America. While some countries strengthened private waters, others states kept their declaration of most water resources as being public, but codified such use rights into such strong private rights that the prerogatives assigned were the same or almost the same as those associated with ownership. Caponera indicates how this has 'promoted expansion in water use, in that it offered the user certainty before the law and a freedom of action […]. Such a system called for only a very simple administrative organization for the application' (Caponera, 1992, p. 110). Thus, the colonial settlers kept carving out strong formal first-class rights to shared water resources, while 'lawfully' depriving indigenous communities of their prior customary water rights.As listed above, recent water laws have revived and reinforced this colonial legacy. Chile's Water Code of 1981 is the world's most extreme example in which refurbished concessions offer certain users 'certainty before the law and a freedom of action […], while calling for only a very simple administrative organization for the application', as elaborated below.In Mexico, the concept of concession was introduced with the Spanish conquest in 1512, which stipulated that ownership of water resources was vested in the Spanish king and that a royal grant was required to use it. However, the factual 'granting' of concessions remained dormant up till 1992. By then only 2000 concessions had been granted (Garduno, 2001). From then onwards, however, the system of concessions was revived nationwide, partly inspired by the Chilean experience (van Koppen, 2007, unpublished).As documented by Boelens et al. (Chapter 6,this volume), indigenous peoples in the Andean region have increasingly contested the revival of this colonial legacy.When France (and Belgium) colonized Africa, water was originally classified, as in France, as public or private, public waters being those that were 'navigable or floatable' -and vested in the colonial governors. Caponera (1992, p. 99) describes the mindsets of the conquerors in more detail:Later, due to climatic circumstances, i.e. of the fact that most African streams are seasonal and therefore non-navigable during certain periods of the year with the consequence that very little is left to the public domain, the distinction between navigable and non-navigable waters disappeared and, generally, all waters were placed in the public domain. Under this regime, every use of public water is subject to the obtention of an administrative authorization, permit or concession.In addition, specialized institutions, government, private or mixed, have been set up to deal with particular water development activities such as domestic and municipal water supplies, power generation and distribution, irrigation and others.Countries under former British administration have adopted the British system according to which water is res comunis onmium (common to all), of which the riparian landowners can make use, unless it has been brought under government control through legislation or judicial decisions. Crown land did not generally include water resources, with the result that every specific use of water had to be the object of special legislation. This has produced a large number of legal enactments concerning specific water utilizations. (Caponera, 1992, p. 100) However, in various colonies the British minority was quick to introduce permit systems, as in Zimbabwe (Derman et al.,Chapter 15,this volume) or under certain conditions as in Ghana (Sarpong, undated) and Kenya (Mumma, Chapter 10, this volume). In South Africa, the British land title deed system had vested strong paper titles for whites only on 91% of the territory. By adopting riparian rights throughout the Union of South Africa, most of the water resources were appropriated with a stroke of the pen.The case of Tanzania illustrates both the history of dispossession and the revival of colonial law under the banner of IWRM. In line with the German colonial tradition before German East Africa was ceded to Britain as Tanganiyka in 1919, the Water Ordinance of 1923 required registration to vest water rights. This was open to white settlers only. The Water Ordinance of 1948, Chapter 257, stipulated: 'The entire property in water within the Territory is hereby vested in the Governor, in trust for His Majesty as Administering Authority for Tanganyika.' Under this Ordinance, water uses 'under native law and custom' were recognized but native users could only participate in decision making through 'duly authorized representatives' or 'natives in addition to the District Commissioner'. Customary law was tolerated, but only where it did not conflict with the interests of the colonial state.In the Water Ordinance of 1959, urban water supply and water use for mining operations were regulated separately. For other uses, obtaining a water licence, permit or right from the colonial water authority was emphasized. The option of registration was extended to native water users, but the status of those who did not comply was left somewhat undeter-mined. After independence in 1961, the new government under Julius Nyerere shifted ownership to the new state, declaring that 'All water in Tanganyika is vested in the United Republic' under the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act 1974, Section 8. In section 14, registration was rendered obligatory for all who 'divert, dam, store, abstract and use' water. From then onwards, throughout the nation, only registered water use was considered to be lawful. However, the water law remained rather dormant up till the early 1990s (van Koppen et al., 2004).The dormant laws were revived when a Rapid Water Resources Assessment was carried out by the World Bank and DANIDA (URT/MOW, 1995). This project identified a need for stronger state regulation to better divide what was seen as an inevitably limited pie -ignoring Tanzania's abundant water resources but lack of means to develop them. Especially the 'user pays' principle was promoted, both to create the awareness that was expected to lead to wiser water use and to finance new basin Water Offices. The Staff Appraisal Report of the World Bank report that formulated a River Basin Management project to implement the reform discovered that, ever since the Water Ordinance of 1948, the respective governments had ascribed to themselves the authority to 'prescribe the fees payable in respect of any application or other proceeding under this Ordinance'. But this had never been operationalized. Underlining, in essence, the suitability of a slightly altered colonial water law for modern water management, the report says:The conceptual framework for integrated river basin management is already laid out in the 1974 Act, as amended in 1981. However, the legislation has never been effectively implemented. The Government has submitted a letter of Water Resources Management Policy outlining measures to be taken to update the legislation and improve management of this resource.(World Bank, 1996, section 2.13) Thus, in 1997 and 2002, the government promulgated amendments to the law of 1974 in order to raise water tariffs considerably ( URT, 1997URT, , 2002)). Besides a once-off registration fee of $40, 3 an annual 'economic water use fee' was introduced. The rate was proportionate to the annual volume allocated and dependent upon the water use sector, with lower rates for the smaller users. As Tanzania has no exemptions for small users, at least in the current version of the law, the minimum flat rate for an individual or, more often, a group of users was set at $35, irrespective of the actual flow or volume used. This is more than a monthly income for over half of Tanzanians. According to the World Bank, in Tanzania, 58% of the population live on less than $1/day (World Bank, 2000).The water rights registers of the Rufiji basin, with several million water users, illustrate how permits had factually been implemented, primarily by formal and foreign users (Sokile, 2005). By mid-2003 the Rufiji Basin Water Office's database contained 990 water rights. Of these, 14% had been issued between 1955 and 1960 (just before independence) and 29% administered after the establishment of the Rufiji Basin Office in 1993, although these are still largely in the stage of application or have only a provisional status.Of these rights, 40% were held by governmental agencies, 12% by Brooke Bond Tea Company and 8% by various Catholic dioceses. The remaining 40% of registered users included private irrigation schemes, such as those belonging to Baluchistani and other Asian immigrants who were brought by the British colonialists. As many as 47% of the registered rights, especially the older rights, were 'not operated' anymore, which may reflect the outflow of Germans, Baluchis and Greeks after independence in 1961 and the Arusha Declaration in 1967, which announced further nationalization (for the study of the implementation of the revived water rights system in the Upper Ruaha catchment among customary water users, see van Koppen et al., 2004;Mehari et al., 2006;van Koppen 2007, unpublished;Chapter 14, this volume).Tanzania and Ghana, mentioned above, are no isolated cases. Other chapters in this volume touch upon similar revival and revision of colonial water laws that have focused on dispossession, towards more widespread application and implementation of permit systems (globally: Meinzen-Dick and Nkonya, Chapter 2, this volume; the Andean regions: Boelens et al., Chapter 6, this volume; other authors on Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe); for Uganda, see Garduno, 2001. Although further study of the legal revisions and their implications in these and other countries is clearly warranted, some general characteristics of today's permit systems in low-and middle-income countries emerge, and are discussed in the remainder of this chapter. The fifth section discusses the notion of 'property' rights to water in the more abstract sense. The sixth section presents the empirical consequences of such notion of 'property' for the case of Chile. The seventh section builds upon the Chilean case, and also upon evidence from elsewhere, to identify the two key processes that render administration-based permit systems highly discriminatory entitlement systems for informal water users. Again, the obligations dimensions of permits are not discussed here. See van Koppen (2007, unpublished) for the argument that permits can only be vehicles for registration, taxation and waste discharge charges in low-and middle-income countries, if well targeted at the few formalized users and disconnected from entitlement dimensions.This section takes a closer look at the nature of this peculiar form of property rights in countries with deep divides between the few administratively knowledgeable large-scale users and many less administratively knowledgeable informal water users. In the light of contemporary notions of justice and fairness, it is odd that a formal property right can be vested primarily through an administrative act. Indeed, a formal property right boils down to the formal legal backing of a user's claim to such a resource, and sometimes to compensation if taken away (Bromley, undated). That is also the core of administrative water rights. However, unlike other objects of property rights, like land, the contents of the rights to water are difficult to define. The physical nature of water as a fugitive, highly variable and unpredictable resource renders any quantification and verification highly problematic. This is certainly the case for under-resourced water departments without measuring devices and with underdeveloped water control infrastructure. It should be remembered that the inability to quantify was of little concern to the Roman and colonial conquerors, whose primary interest was to establish whose water it was in order to establish who could authorize its use, not how much precisely.For modern states, such formal legal backing remains the primary role. However, even in high-income settings where water is fully controlled physically and institutionally, water laws typically include clauses which stipulate that, in no way, can water rights holders hold the state accountable to make the waters available as stipulated in the rights. Water laws in middle-and low-income countries contain similar clauses. There, any quantification is even more unreliable and inaccurate because of the weak monitoring capacity of water departments and the even greater unpredictability of available water resources in the absence of infrastructure. Average annual volumes stipulated in permits may give some indication of water use and may work as some basis for taxation, but have little to do with factual water quantities and even less with low flows far below any average, when entitlements count most. This renders vesting formal rights to water resources primarily an administrative act in low-and middle-income countries. A permit with formal state backing of the entitlement is a first-class right compared with any claim without such formal backing, which automatically becomes second class when it regards competition for the same resource.The exemption of domestic and micro-scale water uses, or de minimis water uses, from the obligation to register and apply for permits only confirms the inadequacy of a property rights system which defines an administrative act, without much reliability of the contents, as the primary basis for vesting rights. Or, in the words of Hodgson (2004) There is no great theoretical justification for exempting such uses from formal water rights regimes. Instead a value judgement is made by the legislature that takes account of the increased administrative and financial burden of including such uses within the formal framework, their relative value to individual users and their overall impact on the water resources balance. […] While they may be economically important to those who rely on them, it is hard to see how they provide much in the way of security. […] The problem is that a person who seeks to benefit from such an entitlement cannot lawfully prevent anyone else from also using the resource even if that use affects his own prior use/entitlement. Indeed the question arises as to whether or not they really amount to legal rights at all.The second-class status of de minimis rights is also manifest in the fact that no state has any compensation measure if water for micro-scale uses is taken away. In low-income countries, exemptions for de minimis uses relegate the majority of citizens, including the poorest who depend on micro-scale domestic and productive water uses for basic livelihood needs, to having only second-class rights. They are given a status of being negligible and invisible by design for the mere reason -not their own fault -of not being administrable.As described earlier, this administrative property system is now increasingly imposed to replace indigenous water rights, and reforms are further reaching out into rural areas. Especially in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, prior water claims are declared as illegal until they undergo an administrative process and are 'converted' or 'regularized' into registrations and permits. Usually, the high costs for registration are with the water user and the period for registration is extremely short. The invariably needed extensions are called 'grace' periods. South Africa is an exception, as it recognizes existing lawful use as continuing to be lawful under the 1998 National Water Act.Thus, although often unintentionally, contemporary dispossession of prior indigenous and informal water claims, as under colonization, occurs essentially by forcing users to recognize administrative water rights as the first-class titles and denouncing the status and nature of their own, earlier rights. A burden of proof of centuries-old claims is suddenly imposed, assuming that the old claims can be expressed in terms of permits at all. The revised laws and their re-energized implementers seek to finish the unfinished business of colonial dispossession.Idealistically, it is assumed that everybody will be equally subsumed under the new system and that administrative systems are equitable and fair because 'everybody can apply for a permit'. This ideal of reaching everybody equally further increases the pressures to register quickly and in an encompassing way. Yet, this ideal is totally unrealistic in low-and middle-income countries with strong differences in administrative adeptness between the few formal users and a majority of informal smallscale users who have hardly any contact with the state, local governments or water departments. Equal treatment is as unlikely today as it has been in the past. Evidence from Chile (in the sixth section) and elsewhere (seventh section) corroborates this and debunks the myth that administration-based permit systems foster justice by treating all citizens, in principle, equally in low-and middle-income countries.The following analysis of Chile is the author's interpretation of the findings of Bauer's indepth studies on the Chilean Water Code (Bauer, 1997(Bauer, , 1998(Bauer, , 2004)), unless indicated otherwise.The Chilean experience, which has now lasted over 20 years, gives insights in the essence of administrative water entitlements of permit systems. The Water Code of 1981 is an extreme case because it cancelled all earlier restrictions and obligations for users, even the obligation to use the water. In line with the general colonial practice in Latin America sketched above, Chile's Civil Code of 1855 codified that 'administrative concessions' could be obtained to water defined as 'the national property for public use'. Besides these use rights to a public resource, some categories of water use were recognized as private.With Chile's first Water Code of 1951, some formalization of administrative procedure for granting use-rights started. The law also began encouraging registration of those rights in the local Real Estate Title Offices. The users' rights remained subject to various legal conditions. Rights were tied to landownership and their owners were required to actually use the water within 5 years. The state could revoke without compensation and had well-defined regulatory authority. In the 1960s, state power over water was further enhanced when the socialist government started implementing distributive land reform and also needed to redistribute water. A new Water Code of 1967 was adopted. This Code reallocated water rights according to new principles, such as plot-sizebased crop water requirements of the smallersized plots of the 'parceleros' benefiting from the land reform. A new agency, the General Water Directorate, was created to implement this package (Bauer, 1997(Bauer, , 1998(Bauer, , 2004).Pinochet's military coup of 1973 halted the land reform and introduced Chile's extreme neoliberal economy, with absolutely minimal state interference. A new constitution was formulated in 1980, which defined water use rights unambiguously as 'private property'. The right encompasses 'the right to alienate the water owned through sale, donation, transfer, inheritance, or to constitute different rights on the same, whatever their nature, at the discretion of the owner'. Not being an 'administrative concession' any more, the state was now also obliged to pay compensation if water was taken away.Water rights were, for the first time in history, legally separate from landownership and could be freely bought, sold, mortgaged, inherited and transferred like any other real estate. There were no requirements to prevent pollution attached to a water right. Originally, owners had not even the legal obligation to actually use their water rights, and they faced no penalty or cancellation for lack of use. Lawyers realized the peculiarity, unique for water rights, that an individual can have absolute private ownership rights to a public resource. The Chilean legal 'solution' for this contradiction intrinsic to the entitlement dimension of permit systems is that an individual can own a water right but not the water itself, 'since it is only the former that he is free to sell' (Bauer, 2004, p. 141).These sophisticated definitions of what a 'right' entails in Chile may suggest that the substance is sophisticated as well. This is not the case: water rights are mostly not even registered. Formal property rights to existing uses were based on actual water use in 1981, which somehow has to be proved. The Water Code of 1981 addressed the potential uncertainty of existing claims by declaring a presumption of ownership in favour of those who were using water rights de facto at that moment. The high courts confirmed that unregistered rights had full constitutional protection as property, insisting that they are not lost through failure to be registered. Hence, the large majority of water rights in Chile are not formally registered as they pre-dated the 1981 Water Code, but at least they can be established by proving factual water use.Rather than being sophisticated and well defined, administrative procedures and registration of water rights opened up a resource grab, both for existing and new water uses. Registration of existing uses without clear measurement and checking by the government as a third party implied that basically any claim held (unless verified by other bodies such as Water User Associations). Not surprisingly, a recent study in the Valley of Codpa showed that individual water rights ranged from 200 to 10,000 m 3 /ha (Hendriks, 1998).The possibility of vesting new claims merely through application and registration with the centralized General Water Directorate proved a very easy way to lawfully gain access to water by the expanding foreign mining and irrigated export fruit cultivation under the neo-liberal economy.Moreover, and most heavily criticized, the option even to claim water without obligation to use led to the hoarding and speculation by a minority of administratively knowledgeable vested powers. The large hydropower companies especially laid massive claims on still uncommitted water resources -anticipating reducing gas supplies from Argentina. After 1990, the newly elected government and the National Water Directorate agreed that this was socially unjust as well as economically undesirable -letting private parties profit from public resources without fulfilling a useful social function in return, and holding back economic development by disallowing others to use the water for productive activities (Bauer, 1997(Bauer, , 1998(Bauer, , 2004)).The Water Code Reform of 2005 introduced licence fees for unused water rights and the limitation of water use rights requests to genuine needs as a deterrent against speculation and hoarding (GWP, 2006). However, as in other low-and middle-income countries, the government lacks the implementation and monitoring capacity to factually check how much water requested in new applications is to be used beneficially.As widely recognized now within and outside Chile, the expected water market did not come about. Although rights had become saleable, there were hardly any transfers of water from (registered) willing sellers to (registered) willing buyers. The main transfer that took place was between the government that gave water away for free and speculators who now lawfully demand payment from both government and new users wanting a new water right.Not even informed about the laws and also otherwise structurally disadvantaged to make use of the laws, informal and indigenous smallscale water users have been most injured by the vesting of water rights through administration. As they were too late to claim their share of the nation's available water resources, access to new water resources has been severely hampered, stifling further water development by them. Moreover, even their existing rights are increasingly under attack. Boelens et al. (Chapter 6,this volume) cite the Mapuche leader, bitterly complaining about water originating and used in his areas that has been appropriated by vested powers downstream.Also, in many other cases, settlements that previously included natural access to water were by now given restricted and irregular access. By the time peasants and their organizations learned of the new procedures, they found that rights to available water had already been granted by the General Water Directorate or regularized by those more legally adept: large farmers, agro-industries and mining and logging companies (Bauer, 2004). Even in a number of government-created programmes to promote small-scale irrigation, subsidies have been denied because of inability to get legal title to unused waters (Maffei andMolina, 1992, cited in Bauer, 1997).In spite of government support from the 1990s onwards to 'regularize' local rights in the formal property owners' records, the gap has remained. Legal advice and financial support, including considerable expense to repurchase rights on behalf of indigenous groups, still left most of the indigenous claims unanswered. Even specific legislation for minorities' rights was of little avail in the encounters with the powerful Water and Mining Codes (Boelens et al.,Chapter 6,this volume).At the same time existing indigenous water rights, which were formally protected as factual water use in 1981, are increasingly challenged. The business sector keeps promoting registra-tion by indigenous and peasant communities. According to them, the water rights market and investment in water resources cannot operate if there are local and customary rights that are not registered but do entail a certain legal protection (Boelens et al., 2005). Registration would 'provide a broad catalogue of legal certainties for outside investors in rural areas and indigenous territories'. However, registration for outsiders' 'certainties' imposes heavy and costly burdens of proof, if possible to prove at all, on indigenous users. It traps them further in the recognition of an administrative system that is designed to overrule and erode other legal water rights systems and, as elaborated below, is intrinsically discriminatory vis-à-vis informal small-scale users.The discriminatory processes at stake are not limited to Chile, but intrinsic to water administration in low-and middle-income countries in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa in general. Ever since colonization, they have deepened structural inequalities and favoured the powerful at the expense of the less powerful, including informal water users. Today's liberal language that 'everyone can apply for a permit' hides and entrenches these structural inequalities even further. Below, we summarize two sets of generic discriminatory processes when administration is the basis of vesting rights.The first form of discrimination is, obviously, that permit systems are declared as the superior system and as the norm to which other existing arrangements have somehow to adapt. It is simplistically assumed that customary water rights systems, which are very different legal systems, can be formulated in terms of an administrative right without violating the essence of customary water rights systems. Yet, the differences are substantive. For example, in indigenous water rights regimes, ownership is usually defined as a communal right in contrast to permit systems that vest ownership in the state and permits in individuals and formal entities. Caponera (1992) has also advocated, fully respecting these essential features in high-, middle-and low-income countries alike: 'In the countries where customary rules exist regarding the ownership of water, such ownership, generally deemed to be community ownership, should be recognized in the legislation' (Caponera, 1992, p. 139).However, 'recognition' of one legal system in terms of the other system is not easy. Boelens et al. (Chapter 6,this volume) discuss the complexities of the politics of recognition in the Andean region. A common option, also adopted in Chile, is vesting permits in collectives. However, this still creates new problems rather than solving existing ones. Typical issues include the definition of 'the community' and the risk of male elite capture that further polarizes internal gender, class and ethnicity hierarchies.For sub-Saharan Africa, where the proportions of informal rural users are largest, the issue at stake may be as fundamental as changing the norm of which legal system should be the first law. In this regard, the water sector can learn much from the indigenous land tenure debates, where it was found out in the hard and costly way that one cannot simply replace one legal system by another. Ever since independence, governments, development organizations and academics have deployed huge efforts to 'formalize' indigenous land tenure through centralized formal land titling. They have all failed up to the point that now, after five decades, it is recognized in mainstream debates that indigenous land tenure should be recognized as the first and superior law (McAuslan, 2005). The 'received' colonial and statutory formal land laws have a modest role only, which can only take shape gradually and in a problem-based and bottom-up way. While land tenure policies and debates have abandoned centralized titling, the water sector seems to want to reinvent the same wheel all over again by promoting centralized titling through permit systems for a much more complicated natural resource.For both land and water tenure, 'regularizing' communal systems into individual saleable ownership rights can be highly destructive. These negative impacts should be fully considered when opting for a certain legal system. In Chile, the novel possibility for individuals to sell water rights, which were by now de-territorialized, to outsiders eroded the precious social capital of communities' collective water-sharing arrangements. The 'soaking off ' of water rights from collective and community-controlled frameworks created the 'tragedy of the commons' by encouraging individuals to pursue their own individual interest at the direct expense of others and the collective as a whole. Indeed, 'the individualization of formerly collective rights and management systems has created internal chaos' (Boelens et al., 2005). In sum, different legal systems are like apples and oranges: one cannot compare them, and it is even less possible to change the one into the other.The second set of processes that lead to differential impacts of administrative water rights concern the working of administration in general. One main reason why the resource grab in Chile by the elite could happen was simply that only very few people were informed about the possibility of registering and obtaining water rights. After the promulgation of the 1981 Water Code, the Chilean government undertook no campaign of public information about the Code's new features, nor did it offer legal or technical advice about how to apply for new rights or regularize older ones. Even if publicity had been better, major gaps in access to 'public' information, or rather timely access in order to be the first to take the share, would have remained.Those informed and submitting their claims just a couple of years later found that they were already too late. The unequal access to the main information channels and the structural differences in the ability and skills to communicate in the language of the powerful have been amply documented. They include inequalities in: (i) literacy; (ii) access to audio-visual media and written documents; (iii) personal means of communication, like mobiles, internet, post office or bank accounts; (iv) mobility and relative costs of transport; (v) experience with bureaucracy; (vi) distance to state offices; (vii) officials' acquaintances; and (viii) vulnerability to and adeptness for bribery.A less documented form of structural discrimination is a matter of scale. The transaction costs in applying for permits are disproportionately high for small-scale users compared with those for large-scale users. Both have to undergo largely the same procedures with the exorbitant high costs for the applicant, as in Chile. Costs include presentation of technical antecedents (geographical coordinates, flows, etc.), publication in the official gazette, public registration and lawyers' fees, travel and lodging etc. to arrange this paperwork (Hendriks, 1998). Yet, for smallscale users the profitability of water use is by definition much less than for large-scale users, for whom the application costs are just a tiny proportion of the profits made. Another example of increasing costs for permits that are disproportionate, if not unaffordable for smallscale users in the colonial past, is the obligation to install expensive measuring devices, as imposed by governors in Zimbabwe in the 1950s (Manzungu and Machiridza, 2005). Collective applications mitigate only partially for these disproportionate costs, as they require extensive internal transaction costs as well.On top of this implicit discrimination through administration, there may also be conditions attached to permits that discriminate explicitly against small-scale informal users. One common condition for formal permits tied to land is that they apply only to formally titled land. For example, the Kenyan Act of 2002 allocates permits only for titled land that only a small proportion of Kenyans possess (Mumma, Chapter 10, this volume). Such conditions formally exclude all other Kenyans from water titles.have no recourse if such rights were infringed upon. Even state legal advisors cannot do much if large-scale users violate smaller users' rights, for at least two reasons. First, the Code stipulates that decisions on water management are weighted according to actual possession of certain water rights. So rights holders with more water shares (volumetric right per time unity) have stronger decision-making power. This contrasts with indigenous management, where collective interests are negotiated according to the rule of 'one man, one vote'. This minority that possesses the majority of shares, many of whom, moreover, live in the city, has no interest whatsoever in using water more efficiently. They are legally allowed to continue depriving others, even if the latter try hard to increase the efficiency of water distribution and enhance water productivity (Hendriks, 1998).A second reason for the weak bargaining position in the case of conflicts is that the Water Code reduced all state intervention possible and relegated all conflict management to the regular civil courts. Their judges are powerful, but rarely competent in technical aspects of water rights, and tended to hold a narrow and formalistic concept of law (Bauer, 2004). The costs of their specialist adjudication are high and unaffordable for peasant farmers and out of proportion compared with the limited profits they make with the low volumes of water. Even if small-scale users were to win such court cases, there would be no agency to ensure enforcement (Hendriks, 1998).Women as a gender are most excluded. Their legal status in indigenous arrangements is often a second-class status of minor only; their individual resource rights are overruled by men claiming to be the head of the household and therefore deserving control over all household resources towards external parties; their literacy rates are lower and their other forms of access to information and communication are also less than for men; women can even less afford the costs of regularization, let alone formal adjudication for the relatively small quantities of water that they use which, nevertheless, are crucial for basic well-being. In virtually all formal property regimes in the world nowadays, women's individual titling or joint titling by spouses is debated and gradually taken up in policies and legislation (Lastarria-Cornhiel, 1997). This gender issue is addressed to some extent in Latin America. However, it has been entirely ignored in any debate on permit systems in sub-Saharan Africa up till now.Thus, for the widely assumed merit of formal water rights systems: 'When formal water rights are secure and tradable […] they allow for orderly allocation of water resources' (Hodgson, 2004).This chapter attempts to show that permit systems, the favourite in the discourse on IWRM, may function in high-income countries but risk repeating the divestment of rural informal water users from their prior claims to water in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa. Reviving the strong but still largely ignored legacy of colonial water law, the entitlement dimensions of revised permit systems allow, again, the 'lawful' grab for water resources by the minority of administratively knowledgeable large-scale users. Although the experiences in Chile are exceptional in some senses, the underpinning design of administrative water rights and the processes of discrimination have general validity.Administrative water rights systems are highly problematic in low-and middle-income countries, first because of the structural social differences between the administratively knowledgeable formal sectors, well acquainted with the state, and those who are not; and, second, because the state lacks the capacity to check and control. This implies that the administratively knowledgeable can lawfully obtain water resources by such measures as: (i) 'regularizing' their existing water uses and claiming higher volumes than actually used; (ii) submitting requests for claims to new water resources as they like, forcing the state without the factual information to allocate whatever is 'still available'; (iii) being legally empowered to treat any other existing water use governed by other regimes than permit systems as second class only, if not illegal; and (iv) intimidating other users with the volumes claimed and asking for the support of formal lawyers to corroborate their case.The administratively knowledgeable are faster than others and the first to claim still uncommitted water resources. When the others catch up, they will probably be too late. While losing out to outsiders, communities also lose when administratively knowledgeable individuals within their own communities destroy social capital and create the tragedy of the commons.To conclude, the following measures are recommended for policy and law in low-and middle-income countries. In countries that are still in the process of redrafting their laws these lessons will be timely.1. Existing indigenous and informal water rights systems should be recognized and obtain at least equal formal legal status as other legal systems without any burden of proof. From there, adequate forms of written recognition are to be developed. 2. For providing a higher status of entitlements that formally empower informal users, innovative measures are required, e.g. reserved rights doctrine in western USA (Getches, 2005) or General Authorizations that have priority over permits, as currently discussed in South Africa (RSA, 2006). 3. The 'regularization' of existing non-permit systems into permits by the administratively knowledgeable users should be discouraged, as this opens up opportunities for abuse by these users to claim more water than actually used. If applied at all, this should be accompanied by accurate assessments of actual use. 4. Permit systems should, at best, be used as hooks to impose targeted obligations. They need to be well targeted, for example to newcomers only, or as vehicles to impose certain obligations to certain users. In both cases, other legal tools that can achieve the same goal, e.g. registration or taxation, need to be considered as well, as they may appear more effective, requiring considerably leaner administrations. 5. If permits are used as hooks to impose obligations, the entitlement dimensions of the permit need to be removed so that permits are not pursued as an easy way of claiming rights to more water.1 The specific context in which tradable water rights have evolved in high-income countries is illustrated by the arid and under-populated states of Australia. Here, strong state intervention with permit systems evolved over more than a century. Neither extended irrigation nor gold mining would have been achieved if the use of water had been limited to riparian land, as the earlier common law from the UK had envisaged. In New South Wales, for example, licences had already existed since 1884, numbering 130,000 today -a number that is manageable with Australia's modern institutions and information technologies. The step to tradability was small. Licences became transferable in the 1980s in response to droughts that made it impossible to put all water licences to productive use. In 1994, all federal states of Australia were committed to engagement in water reform, driven by a nationwide concern for salinization and other environmental problems. In 2000, New South Wales promulgated its Water Management Act. Even in the fully dammed rivers of arid New South Wales, annual precipitation is too variable for secure water delivery. So the security that the state was willing and able to offer as legal backing to its licence holders (and their buyers) was limited, and expressed in an annual volume with the longterm computed probability of availability in any one year. Computations are based on long-term data collection and sophisticated modelling. The more expensive high-security licences have a probability of 99%, while general security licences (for irrigation) are in the 35-70% range. This system is still being perfected, and is now also being extended into proportional rights.Trade is stimulated, among others, through the statewide, internet-based water exchange (http:// www.waterexchange.com.au). However, permanent trade regarded only 4.5% of the total water rights in 1997-1998, largely because people did not like to leave the already made on-farm investments idle (Haisman, 2005). 2 The word 'waters' is used here and in many other instances in this chapter following Caponera's (1992) usage. 3 In this book, $ means US$.B. van Koppen","tokenCount":"11155"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a579bdde00568d11ed735d8c8060995a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b8e0acc1-05e4-4537-a03f-ead2b6383b31/retrieve","id":"-1645796593"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0fefa51-215d-4662-b66c-62501fbbf39a","pagecount":"18","content":"In this pape,r, the term \"dual purpose\" refers to the traditional cattle production system in the lowland tropics of Latin America in which local cattle of mixed zebu, criollo and European inheritance are used for the production of milk and meatoThe exact contribution of the system to national milk production ís difficult to assess because of lack of accurate statistics. However, in Venezuela for example, European dairy breeds account for 1ess than 5% of the total population of cows in mi1k (Ministerio de Agricultura y Cría, 1981).S imilar ly, in Co10mbia,'Panama and Nicaragua, dual purpose cattle are estimated to contribute 86%, 67% and 75%, respectively, of ~ational milk yields (Ministerio de Agricultura, 1977; Schellenberg, 1983). That this tendency i~ general throughout the tropical regíon is indicated by the cO'!llparatively low yields of milk per cows in Central and tropical South America, conpared wi~h the temperate zone, where specialized dairying is generalized (Table 1).The reasons for tne predominance of the dual-purpose syatem are various.In the first place, mi~k prices are high across the tropical region, particular19 in relation to beef (see Table 2). The system allows flexibility according to the va+iations in relative prices 01 milk and beef. This is important in a region where market trends are variable and notoriously unpredictable. Secondly, they require very little extra investment compared with beef production alone, often making use of labour which would otherwise be uuemployed and, thirdly, they provide regular incomes which cover daily operational expenses and provide milk for household consumption.In order to provide a general description of the system, informatíon from commercial farms in various parts of the regíon 1s summarized in Table 3a, b and c.Dual purpose farms are commonly found throughout the lowland parts of the region, below approximately 1000 m above sea level. Annual rainfall usually amounts to 800-2500 mm, with a clear seasonal distribution such that dry periods of 3-6 months' duration are prevalent.Production resources: Family farms are common, especially in Central America, with little or only occasional hired labour. Otherwise, farms may be run by administrators and visited infrequently by the o\\o.\"'!ler, a system which severely limits the efficiency of the operation. The educational level of owners, and especially of labourers, is low. The reserve wage in tropical Latin America i9 high and s t rong ec onomi c incentives are required before labour-intensive changes .in the production system will occur.Farm size varies considerably, tending to be very small in Central America and larger in the southern countries. Farms are commonly located on marginal lands, for which alternative uses are limited due to poor soil quality, accessibility or topography. The proportion of the farro devoted to crops is 'variable, but tends to be higher in Central America than in the south. The Bolivian data refer to th~ common system of \"slash and burn\" forest clearing, where crops are taken in the first few years and cattle then graze the naturalized and introducéd grass species.Following farm size, the number of cows kept also tends to be higher in tbe southern countries. The proportion of males over one year of age in tbe berd indicates the relative importance of beef production in'each area. The cows are usually crossbreds of mixed zebu, criollo and European inheritance.The use of zebu and criollo bulls is widespread, despite its depressive effect on milk yield, so tbat the balance between native and European breeding may be kept.TYP1cally, land and cattle constitute the main capital investment in the system. In the Panarnanian case reported (Seré et al., 1982)  Brazil. The calf may be allowed to suck at the start or sirnply tied .up near the cow to ensure \"let-dmm\". Sometimes a whole quarter is left for the calf, in other cases, a little milk is left in all four. The calf rernains with the darn until the afternoon and rnay have to walk long distances to and from grazing areas. Calves are then enclosed for the night, frequently without access to feed or water. Hygienic conditions at milking are extremely poor. In the Venezuelan study, for ~xample, the proportions of all farms which milked on earth floors with no source of water, did not wash udders or filter milk were 55%, 88% and 61% respectively. Thus, the initial quality of the rnilk, cornbined .. ..,.... __ ._~-.,.,...~~._'\"\"'--....with high ambient temperatures, presents serious problems for conservation , and public health.Very few farms implement adequate health programmes and even brucellosis and foot and mouth disease are not properly covered, although they are endemic in many parts of the region and official vaccination prograrnmes exist to control them. Some degree of external parasite contro~ is usual and more common than treatment for internal parasites. The latter are widely considered to be one of the major factors limiting production.Animal performance: Calving rates are most commonly in the range of 50-60%. The mortality rates shown for calves and young stock exceed the figures usually assumed for such systems, but are believed to be representative.Calf death not only represents a direct loss from sales of beef but also of milk, since it almost always termina tes lactation.Growth rate data are scarce but those shown are considered to be typical.First calving usually occurs when the animals are 3 years old or more and, if it does occur earlier because of lack of control, heifers often never recover to reach their normal adult weights or production potential.The milk rields shown refer to saleable milk, excluding that consumed by the calf, and are commonly in the range 3-4 kg/cow/day and less than 1000 kgl <lactation. Lactation length is poorly documented but is very variable, whether due to the death of the calf or noto Cows may ceas e to be milked because of limited forage availability or higher priority demands on labour, as was the case in the Bolivian study where the start of the rice harvest affected the number of cows milked, or, in other cases, cows giving as little as one kg/day continue to be milked because market and labour conditions are favourable.The data tabulated show a range of annual production of 45-192 kg of beef<and 182-746 kg of milk per hectare.Economic performance: < Information on economic performance is extremely scarce and economic parameters for these low-input/low-output systems are far more complex to define than biological indicators. The limited use of purchased inputs makes results very sensitive to the valuation of land, capital and labour resources used. If market prices for land, labour and capital are imputed dual purpose systems can frequently be shown to produce negative net incomes. This type of analysis often neglects the fact that generally land with below-average opportunity costs is used. The same applies to the labour employed. The safety of the investment and cash-flow advantages tend to justify returns to capital below markets values. Taking these aspects into account, reasonable returns to management and family labour can be achieved as shown in the Panamanian case Where the return per total man-day employed was of U5$10, doubling the market wage. In spite of the low output per hectare or per cow these systems generate important incomes in the region due to the services they demand, labour for milking, weeding', fencing, milk transportation, etc. This is particularly attractive because it is a year-round operation thus creating continuous employrnent and therefore cash flow in the regional economy.Dual purpose systems can be concluded to be systems of intermediate In the field of nutrition, increasing attention' is being paid to improved pastures (Cubillos, 1982;Martínez and Delgado, 1982;éÍAT, 1982éÍAT, , 1983)), with emphasis on improving the seasonal distribution of forage as well as its nutritional value. Legumes, including tree species, have a most important part to play (Alvarez and Preston, 1976;Paterson and Borre1, 1981;Paterson et al., 1981Paterson et al., , 1982) ) particularly due to the rising cost of N fertilizers and the shortage of alternative protein supp1ements. The potential contribution of legumes to dry season farage supply, pa~tic~larly on 'p~or\" acid soils is demonstrated by work at CIAT (CIAT, 1983;Rónnart, 1983). Ihe importance of adequate pasture management and the introduction of legumes is emphasized by the difficulty and cost of forage conservation (hay or silage) under lowland tropical conditions.Early attempts to use ley systems in the tropics did not succeed but substantia1 advances in the understanding of tropical soil-plant interactions and the avai1ability of forage legumes with high N fixation capacities and productivity, as well as rising ferti1izer prices, are increasing the attractiveness of integrated crop-pasture systems. CIAT is now starting research in this field in the Eastern Plains of Co10mbia~Interest is a1so focused on the use of crop and industrial by products as supplements for grazing cattle. Animal responses to the use of sugar cane by-products have generally been disappointing (Archiba1d et al., 1983;Martínez and Delgado, 1982). Regiona1ly available materials such as straws and corn cobs (Escobar and Parra, 1984)a~d crops such as bananas (Cerdas and Ruiz, 1983) or sweet potatoes (Ruiz et al., 1981) which may be seasonally available surp1usto market requirements and which have, in addition, valuable forage components, shou1d be incorporated increasingly into catt1e diets ona local scale.Mineral deficiencies are ,widespread throughout the region (McDowe1l et al., 1979) but supplements are expensive and their chemical composition is often unsuited to local needs (Vaccaro et al., 1984). Thus, local requirements must be diagnosed and specific mixtures made available.In the field of management, special attention has been directed to milÍdng and weaning systems. Cows with zebu or criollo inheritance tend to produce more total and saleable milk if milked without weaning their calves, a system which also reduces calf death rate~and mastitis incidence (Alvarez and Saucedo, 1982). Restricted suckling after milking also gives satisfactory results (Ugarte and Preston, 1975;Alvarez and Saucedo, 1982). However, more information is needed on systems which optimize saleable milk yields, long term calf growth rates and the use of calf feed supplements. Calving intervals may be some~hat lengthened if the calf is not weaned (Alvarez and Saucedo, 1982), but it seems that post partum ovarian activity is not necessarily affected (Velazco et aL, 1983). In any case, the increase in calving interval is insignificant compared with the advantages of the system'. Once labour costs make machine milking a necessity, installations should be designed to permit the calf to be present, since variable results are obtained from milking cows with as much as 50% European inheritance without them. However, Carnevali and Bodisco (1966) showed with the Milking Criollo that the most productive cows will respond to milking alone and the rest might be considered candidates for culling in any case.In the area of genetic improvement, there is an urgent need to standardize the measurement of performance in dual-purpose cattl~ and to study the inheritance of milk and calf production in systems where the cow is milked and suckled.European x zebu/criollo cows will produce most milk and live calves over a given time period (Vaccaro, 1979), even where conditions permit yields of 3000-3500 kg ,milk/lactation. Holstein crossbreds hav'e proved superior ta Brown Swiss crosses in age at first calving, survival and, usually in mi.1k yield (Rubio, 1976;Rodríguez snd Rinc6n, 1971;Cer.rada et al., 1977;Vaccaro andVaccaro, 1981, 1982;Cardozo and Vaccaro, 1983a,b) but it is not clear whether the use of high predicted difference bulls, proven in temperate zones, is justified.Despite the importance of crossbred populations, Cuba is the only country with crossbred bulls in artificial insemination and these have yet to be proven.In general, progress has been very slow in putting practical, scientific programmes into field practice. Simple effective plans such as farm selection of bull dams according to milk+calf production (Venezuela) or the distribution of high quality young crossbred bulls by national institutions (Brazil; Madalena, 1981) should be more widely promoted.On-farm milk storage, collection, handling and marketing are other areas requiring increased attention. At present, milk cooling is the only method of conservation, apart from turning the milk into cheese. Low-cost cooling techniques, such as those based on solar energy, might expand the areas supplying milk markets substantially and prove critical in shifting the trend towards twice daily milking. Additives to preserve milk should be developed and would probably be adopted if milk for the liquid market were clearly chanelled thereto and subjected to specific quali~y regulations rather than, as at present~ to those appropriate for milk used in cheese and yogurt making.Due , series of large scale consumption surveys of maj or urban centres of Latin America documented that the expenditure for milk and dairy products within the lowest income quartile of the population amounted to 7 to 13% of total foodexpenditure.For the same population group income elasticity of demand for milk and dairy products was estimated to range between 0.87 and 1.16 (Nores and Rubinstein, 1980).This strong consumer preference, together wit~population growth, leads to an increasing demand for milk. As demand outpaces supply in the region, local prices and/or importations increase. Due to the huge national debts in most countries, pressure for a higher degree of self-sufficiency in milk and dairy products is growing in the region. However, land at higher altitudes suitable for intensive production using European cattle is limited (except in Colombia) and has high opportunity costs for alternative agricultural and horticultural uses. Thus, the growing demand for milk must be met f!om the lowlands.In the lowland areas, intensive systems continue to be tried and, usually, discontinued. Mi1k yields of 3000-4000 kg/lactation and reasonable ~~lviri.g intervals may be obtained using Europaan or high-grade crossbreds (Prada, 1979;Verde, 1979;WilkÍ'ns et aL, 1979) but heavy losses occur at all stages of life from conception (Vaccaro and Vaecaro, 1981;Cardozo and Vaccaro, 1983b;Vaecaro et al., 1983). Health and reproduction problems inflate production costs already high due to the high initial price of the cattle, heavY,concentrate 1 feeding and the large investment in infrastructure and machinery necessary to establish the cornplex eut and carry forage feeding systems required. Thus, income may not cover costs at all (Wilkins et al., 1979) or leave only a very small margin of profitability CLovera and Fernández, 1983).!he fact that sueh systems can only operate successfully with very high milk priees or substantial subsidies, at the expense of low-income consumers cr taxpayers, severly questions the desirability of such a development strategy from a national viewpoint. It is thus concluded that the gradual improvement of traditional dual-purpose systems through balanced efforts in researeh, extension and dairy policy, is the most appropriate way to supply consumers in the Latin American tropics with milk in the coming decades.   ------_. ","tokenCount":"2403"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2e53cb54d0b441d55f671b69c6d865bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/819485d2-9c3c-4ccf-9feb-7c820e36bfaa/retrieve","id":"-1518818800"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1a37616-12ce-4dcc-982c-f6a08c6ef9c3","pagecount":"4","content":"Increased uptake of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies and innovations across the Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs). ◼ Adoption of CSA technologies influenced by household socio-economic and institutional factors.◼ Improved multiple stress-tolerant crops and improved small ruminant livestock breeds had positive and significant impacts on household livelihood outcomes.◼ Participatory learning actions that take into account local knowledge are important for accelerating CSA uptake and enhancing the adaptive capacity of farmers.Farmers in East Africa are experiencing increasing livelihood challenges attributed to increasing scarcity of agricultural land, steep rises in food prices, deteriorating soil fertility and associated declining crop yields, poor market access and, in some cases unclear land tenure systems (Yamano et al. 2011). Climate change compounds these challenges, with the region witnessing changing climatic conditions characterized by warmer temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and increased frequency and severity of extreme weather conditions (Wheeler and Von Braun 2013). Expected consequences and impacts of these changes include shortened and disrupted growing seasons, reduction in area suitable for agriculture and declining yields in agriculture (Connolly-Boutin and Smit 2016).Increasing agricultural productivity and meeting food security needs in the face of climate variability and change in East Africa requires a range of technological, The study uses data collected from the Nyando CSVs in western Kenya (see Recha et al. 2017 for a detailed description). Agriculture is the main source of livelihood, providing food and income in Nyando. The farming system is largely subsistence rain-fed mixed croplivestock. Climate-related risks include frequent droughts, increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns, flooding in the lower areas, agricultural water shortages and heat stress, all of which are indications of a changing climate (Kinyangi et al. 2015). The portfolio of CSA technologies and innovations in Nyando include multiple stress tolerant crop varieties (e.g. sorghum, pigeon peas), improved small ruminant livestock (goats and sheep), soil and water conservation, agroforestry, on-farm crop diversification, smart-farms and collective action through community based organisations (CBOs) for learning.Using quasi experimental approaches, the study combines monitoring and evaluation data and a crosssection survey. The cross-section survey collected data from 433 randomly selected households within and outside of the CSVs. In order to create a counterfactual, we identified villages with similar characteristics to the CSVs in terms of the observable biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics. Key informant interviews were also conducted to triangulate information from the survey. The study combined Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and Endogenous Switching Regression (Heckman and Navarro-Lozano 2004) to evaluate the impact of CSA technologies on household income (per adult equivalent), assets (asset index) and food and nutrition security (household dietary diversity score).Adoption of CSA technologies and innovations increased across the CSVs, including improved agronomic and livestock management practices. Adoption of CSA is influenced by household socio-economic and institutional factors. Social capital (group membership), participation in agriculture as the primary occupation, farmer expectation of occurrence of climate extremes, early receipt of weather forecasts and household wealth were associated with higher likelihood of adoption of CSA technologies and practices. Culture, gender, experiences and micro-climate were also important in influencing farmer's choices of CSA technologies and practices.Households in the CSVs have organized themselves into collective action groups, through which they have pooled resources together into an innovation fund, where farmers can borrow for agricultural investments and other household needs. The groups have also invested in bringing agricultural inputs of high quality at affordable prices within closer reach of the farmers, and thus increasing use of improved inputs-improved seeds (Figure 1) and fertilizers.Because of capacity building within the CSVs, uptake of improved climate resilient crop varieties has been on an upward trajectory (Figure 2), with the number of farmers introducing improved crop varieties gradually increasing from 2011. This is consistent with the technology diffusion theory which indicates that, initially only a few farmers may adopt a technology. However, as more farmers observe the experiences of their neighbors, they are motivated to adopt. Even early adopters are likely to intensify adoption once they experience the benefits.Adoption of more resilient small ruminant livestock breeds, particularly Galla goats and Red Maasai Sheep has also been on the rise since their introduction in the CSVs (Figure 3) between 2012 (when 70 breeding units of Galla goats were introduced) and mid-2013 when (30 breeding units of Red Maasai sheep were introduced). As of 2011, about 60% of households in the CSVs had not introduced any improved or resilient livestock breeds. It is projected that gradually the Galla goat and Red Maasai sheep crosses will replace the indigenous breeds in Nyando CSVs.Other changes reported include uptake of agroforestry, especially fruit trees; diversification into beekeeping by some households; early planting, crop rotation and intercropping; and soil and water management practices.While food security remains a challenge in Nyando, an increasing number of households in the CSVs reported a decline in the number of hunger months experienced annually (Figure 4). The proportion of households experiencing no hunger at all throughout the year has gradually increased between 2011 and 2016. In the same period, the proportion of households experiencing 5 or more hunger months in a year has consistently dropped.Adoption of drought-tolerant crops and improved small ruminant livestock breeds had positive and significant impacts on household dietary diversity (Table 1). Adoption of drought-tolerant crops improved the household dietary diversity score by about 2-adopters consume about 2 food groups above their non-adopting counterparts. The impact of adoption of improved small ruminant livestock breeds was even higher, with adopters having about 3 scores above their non-adopter counterparts. The impacts were significant in CSVs and non-CSVs, and among the poor and non-poor households. The impacts were not statistically different across the sub-samples. The impact of drought-tolerant crops on dietary diversity is not surprising. It allows the households to produce diverse food crops on-farm. This improves access to more food groups, either because the farmers are able to produce their own diverse food crops or purchase them from other farmers in the neighborhood. The same applies in the case of improved small ruminant livestock breeds. Such breeds improve access to livestock products, either for household consumption or for sale to purchase other food requirements of the households.Adoption of multiple stress-tolerant crops and improved small ruminant livestock breeds had positive and significant impacts on asset accumulation (Table 2). The results show that adoption of multiple stress-tolerant crops increased asset index by about 21 points, while adoption of improved livestock breeds increased asset index by about 22 points. Although impacts were not statistically different across the sub-samples, all the adopters across those sub-samples enjoyed significant adoption impacts. This probably indicates that adoption of drought-tolerant crops and improved livestock breeds leads to surplus output which households can sell to purchase household assets.Adoption of improved multiple stress-tolerant cropsFor income, only multiple stress-tolerant crop varieties had significant and positive impact on household income (Table 3). Adoption of drought-tolerant crops increased household income per adult equivalent by about KES 14,000 (approximately USD 140). Notably, adoption of improved livestock had no impact on household income per adult equivalent.The impact of integrated soil and water conservation practices were marginal and largely insignificant, implying it takes a longer time period to realize their benefits. No hunger months 1-2 hunger months 3-4 hunger months ≥ 5 hunger months A key question is how to promote wider uptake of these CSA technologies, including linkages with the private sector and feeding into policy processes across scales. In addition, there is need to strengthen other support services-climate information, agro-advisories and access to finance and to strengthen existing farmer experimentation networks including mobilizing farmers to continue working in groups. Lastly, there is need to ensure that resource poor vulnerable farmers, women and youth are at the center of efforts to build adaptive capacity. ","tokenCount":"1270"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8c853760cd709e5b49f3f5f012474866","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/FO8WDU/WNYDAP","id":"-1601469452"},"keywords":["Sl. No Questions Response Code Dark green leafy vegetables","including spinach","red amaranth leaves","green amaranth","puishak","laushak","kumrashak","kolmishak","mustard leaves","yam leaves","koloishak (pea leaves)","methishak (amaranth leaves)","dhekishak","demishak etc Other vegetables (e.g.","squash","eggplant","green papaya","cauliflower","cabbage","onion","radish","sheem/boboti (beans)","SPICES","CONDIMENTS","BEVERAGES? Spices (cumin","coriander","salt)","condiments (pickles","chutney)","coffee","tea","etc"],"sieverID":"7b6cc1fd-7a71-4656-95e0-e5e78ae33341","pagecount":"89","content":"C21.1 To cook? C21.2 To wash clothes? C21.3 To fetch/collect water? C21.4 To fetch/collect fuel? C21.5 To clean the house and around the house? C21.6 To take care of the youngest child? C21.7 To feed the youngest child? C21.8 To bathe the youngest child?C21.9 To go to the market to buy food for the house?Good morning/afternoon. I am ________ from the Data Analysis and Technical Assistance Limited (DATA), a Research organization based in Dhaka . Together with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) & BRAC, we are conducting an evaluation of a BRAC A &T Health Program in this area. We want to talk with you about your health and the health of your child. The information that you will provide us will be used to set up a good health program in this community and in similar settings in other parts of the world. We will measure your child's weight and height. We may take few drops of blood from the finger/heal of your child. It is not so painful will not cause any harm to your child. The blood will be used to assess hemoglobin/iron in his/her blood and you will know if your child has anemia.We are inviting you to be a participant in this study. We value your opinion. You will only be identified through code numbers. Your identity will not be stored with other information we collect about you. Your responses will be assigned a code number, and the list connecting your name with this number will be kept in a locked room and will be destroyed once all the data has been collected and analyzed. Any information we obtain from you during the research will be kept strictly confidential. We will use approximately 2-3 hours of your time to collect all the information.There will be no cost to you other than your time. Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. You are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue participation in this study at any time. You also have the right to refuse to answer specific questions. There will be no risk as a result of your participating in the study.Three organizations are Jointly doing this survey. The International Food Policy Research Institute, BRAC and DATA. Your participation will be highly appreciated. The answers you give will help provide better information to policy-makers, practitioners and program managers so that they can plan for better services that will respond to your needs.The researcher read to me orally the consent form and explained to me it meant and agree to take part in this research. I understand that I am free to discontinue participation at any time if I so choose, and that the investigator will gladly answer any question that arise during the course of the research. If you have any questions, you can talk with Dr. Kuntal Kumar Saha, who can be found at the Alive & Thrive office at the phone number.Contact information: Dr. Kuntal Kumar Saha, IFPRI, Alive & Thrive Office, South Breeze Apartment (4 th Floor) 8 Gulshan Avenue, Gulshan -1, Dhaka -1212, Tel: 880 -3772, 014997 Email: k.saha@cgiar.org  Was the baby put to the breast before or after someone cleaned the baby?       Begin with the first question and ask the mother whether the child is able to do the following skills. Questions with an asterix require the child to demonstrate the skill. She can make crawling (swimming) movements but with tummy touching the ground.G06 She can sit with the support of leaning against an object or person G07 She can sit without support.G08 She can raise her tummy off the floor and support herself on her hands and feet or knees G09 When she is lying on her stomach, with her head and chest raised, she can move across the floor by using her arms and legs. Her stomach remains on the floor. G10 She can crawl.G11 She is able to stand if she holds on to something or someone to help support herself. G12 She can walk when both hands are held.G13 She can walk with only one hand held. G14 She can stand for a moment on her own. G15 She can stand alone for a long time.G16 She can bend down (at the waist) and straighten up again without falling. (Knees are straight, or are just slightly bent) G17 She can take at least a few steps alone.(Without the help of a person or object)G18 She can run. G32 Makes sounds like da, ba, ga, ka, ma.Makes sounds like ma-ma, da-da, ba-ba.Imitates single sounds like da, ba, ma or repetitions.G35 When he's holding something and I ask him to give it to me, he does.G36 He can say one word.G37 Waves bye-bye at the right time.G38 He points and makes sounds when he wants something.Sl. No Questions Response Code G39 If I ask him he can point to a cat or a chicken. G42 He can say 6 words. G43 He uses the words \"me\" and \"you\".G44 He is constantly asking the names of objects.G45 He asks a lot of questions beginning \"What\"? \"Where\"? and \"Who\"? G46 He can say many words (20 or more). G47 He uses plurals when he speaks.G48 He can tell me what a knife is for. G49 He can tell people his full name. G50 He can tell me the opposite of the word \"big.\" G51 He can talk about things that happened the past. (Using past tense)  Chicken, duck, other poultry Fish (Big) Fish (Small) Eggs Peanuts, groundnuts, other nuts Milk (cow, goat or powdered) Purchased snack foods (chips, chanachur, Chocolate/candies etc.)Are there reasons why a mother should stop breastfeeding her child if the mother becomes ill, and continue after she becomes better?  We want to know how you feel , not only how you feel today but how you have been feeling during the last one week (7 days), would you please let us know. For this we shall ask you TEN questions. Each question has FOUR answers, please tell us the one that matches with your current situation: Let me give an example: -\"you were happy\": Yes, always ..  ","tokenCount":"1022"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"56294e634b2a2850c5c3df84725e4b59","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f3f057c4-4537-4285-a141-fb9cca467341/retrieve","id":"1067645005"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7f974cc9-c5dc-477a-b91b-f03ead538c08","pagecount":"16","content":"Productos de lluvia grillados y de superficie .Evaluación de productos de lluvia de alta resolución para representar la canícula en el corredor seco de Honduras Carlo Montes, Camilo Barrios, Irma Ayes, Julian RamirezLa sequía de verano o canícula es un fenómeno hidrometeorológico estacional que da forma a múltiples actividades sociales en Honduras, pero especialmente a la producción primaria de cultivos y ganadería. Este estudio evalúa el desempeño de cuatro productos de lluvia grillados de alta resolución espacial (AgERA5, CHIRPS, IMERG, MSWEP) para su uso en el monitoreo de la canícula en el corredor seco de Honduras. Se utilizaron datos de 27 pluviómetros para el período 2001-2020. Para la evaluación del desempeño se utilizaron las fechas de inicio, momento de mayor caída de la lluvia (peak) pico y término, además de la duración e índices de intensidad. Junto a lo anterior, se utilizó la evapotranspiración de referencia (ET0) y el índice de sequía de demanda evaporativa (EDDI, por su sigla en inglés). Los resultados muestran diferencias notables en la representación de la extensión espacial del corredor seco por los productos grillados. En cuanto al momento de ocurrencia de la canícula, los resultados indican una representación similar de los productos grillados evaluados, con un error medio de aproximadamente una semana. Los cuatro productos muestran intensidades de la canícula más bajas en relación a los pluviómetros, aunque con patrones espaciales climatológicos similares. Todos los productos muestran una mayor intensidad de la canícula en las áreas centro-sur de Honduras; IMERG y CHIRPS generalmente muestran intensidades más bajas que AgERA5 y MSWEP. Los cuatro productos grillados capturan categorías de sequía EDDI similares en cuanto a intensidad. A pesar de las ventajas de utilizar conjuntos de datos cuadriculados, especialmente en relación con una mayor cobertura y consistencia, ningún conjunto de datos coincidió consistentemente con las mediciones de pluviómetros para todas las características y áreas de la canícula en Honduras. En consecuencia, la elección de un producto de lluvia debe hacerse con base en el propósito de aplicación de los datos en el contexto de Honduras.Type of report eg Technical Report Introducción Honduras, ubicado en Centroamérica, está altamente expuesta a los impactos de eventos meteorológicos y climáticos extremos, así como a los impactos del cambio climático (Kreft et al., 2013). Las sequías recurrentes, los ciclones tropicales, las inundaciones y las olas de calor afectan gravemente los medios de vida y la economía de la población agrícola dominante (Aguilar et al., 2005). Fenómenos globales del clima como El Niño-Oscilación del Sur (ENOS), modulan en gran medida la intensidad y frecuencia de los eventos extremos en Honduras.El clima de Honduras es altamente estacional y está regulado principalmente por los vientos alisios y el curso estacional de la Zona de Convergencia Intertropical. Una vasta zona adyacente al Océano Pacífico se caracteriza por una interrupción del período húmedo que conduce a un mínimo local de precipitaciones. Este período se conoce como sequía de verano o canícula, generando una distribución anual bimodal de las precipitaciones (Magaña et al., 1999). Esta zona forma parte de una unidad geográfica que se extiende desde el sur de México hasta Panamá, conocida regionalmente como corredor seco, la que ha sido descrita como una de las regiones más vulnerables a la variabilidad climática en el mundo (Huber et al., 2023). El ciclo estacional típico de lluvia en el corredor seco de Honduras muestra un peak entre mayo y junio, seguido de un mínimo de lluvia entre julio y agosto, y un segundo peak entre septiembre y octubre. La canícula surge de la interacción de múltiples factores. El primer máximo de precipitaciones se debe al calentamiento del Océano Pacífico oriental y al consiguiente aumento de la convección, siguiendo un debilitamiento de los vientos del este y un aumento de la nubosidad. El mínimo de precipitaciones es causado por una reducción de la radiación solar incidente y un enfriamiento del océano, lo cual suprime la convección, una intensificación de los vientos alisios que, junto con el efecto orográfico, generan un máximo de precipitaciones en la costa Caribe y un mínimo en la vertiente del Pacífico (la canícula). El calentamiento posterior del océano da lugar a una convección húmeda profunda y, en consecuencia, al segundo máximo de precipitaciones (Magaña et al., 1999;Maldonado et al., 2016).Si bien la canícula es un fenómeno estacional recurrente que no necesariamente representa un período de ausencia absoluta de lluvias, la fuerte disminución en las precipitaciones y su variabilidad interanual en cuanto a fechas de inicio, término, y su intensidad, son de gran importancia para la población rural dominante del corredor seco. Las variaciones en las fechas de inicio o en la intensidad de la disminución de la lluvia y la duración de la canícula afectan la toma de decisiones en cuanto a actividades de los pequeños agricultores, con consecuencias en la productividad de los cultivos, la economía local y la seguridad alimentaria (Maurer et al., 2022). Por lo tanto, se necesitan acciones anticipatorias para reducir los impactos estacionales de la canícula en la seguridad alimentaria e hídrica y los medios de vida rurales (Alianza Bioversity-CIAT, INSIVUMEH y MAGA, 2022). Tales acciones se basan en sistemas confiables de monitoreo y pronóstico que ayuden a anticipar los problemas asociados con una aparición temprana de la canícula en cultivos de secano como frijoles y maíz, o la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades, y las opciones de adaptación correspondientes para mitigar los riesgos inducidos por la canícula (Maurer et al., 2017). Desafortunadamente, el acceso a datos y pronósticos de calidad sobre la canícula y sus impactos, así como la identificación de patrones en cuanto a proyecciones futuras está fuertemente limitado por la escasez de datos en Honduras y, más ampliamente, en Mesoamérica (Quesada-Montano et al., 2019). La mayoría de los estudios que intentan delimitar el corredor seco centroamericano (ej., Quesada-Hernández et al., 2019;Stewart et al., 2022) o caracterizar la canícula (ej., Zhao et al., 2021Zhao et al., , 2022;;Maurer et al., 2022), se basan en datos meteorológicos grillados como reanálisis o productos de precipitación satelital. La mayoría de estos estudios son regionales y, por lo tanto, no captan las especificidades internas de los países. Además, el uso de productos cuadriculados generalmente se realiza sin una evaluación comparativa adecuada con pluviómetros o registros de estaciones meteorológicas debido a la escasez de datos.El objetivo general de este estudio es evaluar el desempeño y comparar cuatro productos de lluvia de reanálisis y satelitales de alta resolución en cuanto a la representación de la extensión espacial del corredor seco y un conjunto de métricas del tiempo (inicio, término, duración) y la intensidad de la canícula en Honduras. Los resultados de este trabajo pueden potencialmente contribuir a mejorar el conocimiento de las áreas de Honduras afectadas por la canícula, sus principales características y diferencias, además de la implementación de sistemas de monitoreo que permitan enfocar y priorizar acciones de adaptación y mitigación. El estudio también contribuye a comparar productos cuadriculados con registros observados, ayudando así a científicos y profesionales a realizar selecciones sobre qué productos utilizar para su aplicación específica de interés.Se evaluaron cuatro productos de lluvia grilados derivados de satélites y reanálisis en cuanto a la representación del corredor seco y la canícula en Honduras. Estos productos proporcionan series temporales lo suficientemente extensas para una climatología regional, y con resoluciones espaciales que pueden considerarse adecuadas para capturar las principales características geográficas del país. El conjunto de datos corresponde a la lluvia diaria de AgERA5, CHIRPS, IMERG y MSWEP. Las características principales de los productos utilizados se presentan a continuación y se resumen en la Tabla 1.Tabla 1. Características principales de los productos de lluvia evaluados. Desarrollado por el European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), AgERA5 corresponde a una versión diaria y de mayor resolución espacial del reanálisis ERA5. Proporciona datos a una resolución espacial de 0,1º  0,1º, abarcando el período desde enero de 1979 hasta el presente, con una latencia de 8 días.. El segundo producto evaluado corresponde a CHIRPS versión V.2, el cual es desarrollado por el Climate Hazards Group de la Universidad de California-Santa Bárbara. CHIRPS corresponde a un producto generado por la fusión de datos de mediciones satelitales y terrestres, proporcionado a una resolución espacial de 0.05º  0.05º y 0.25º  0.25º, y a una escala temporal horaria, diaria, mensual y anual, para el período desde enero de 1981 hasta la actualidad, con una latencia de alrededor de tres semanas. El tercer producto evaluado es el Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Multisatellite Retrievals for the Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG) de la National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA). IMERG corresponde a un producto de lluvia casi global (60 ºN-60 ºS) que se deriva de una constelación de satélites de radar y microondas pasivos e infrarrojos. Lanzado en 2014 y extendiendo la cobertura temporal de la Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), IMERG está disponible desde junio de 2000 hasta el presente, proporcionando datos de lluvia a una resolución espacial de 0,1º  0,1º para tres versiones (temprana, tardía y final), las que difieren en la latencia y la calidad de los datos. Se utilizó el producto de lluvia diaria de corrida Final Nivel 3, el cual es producido utilizando datos de pluviómetros para su calibración, siendo recomendado para estudios climatológicos. Finalmente, se evaluó la precipitación del producto Multi-Source Weighted-Ensemble Precipitation (MSWEP), el cual corresponde a un producto de lluvia global subdiario y diario de última generación, proporcionado a una resolución espacial de 0,1º  0,1º para el período desde enero de 1979 hasta el presente. MSWEP se genera con una latencia de tres horas, combinando lluvia satelital, reanálisis y datos diarios de pluviómetros.Además de los cuatro productos de grilla, se utilizaron datos de lluvia diaria proporcionados por el Centro de Estudios Atmosféricos, Oceanográficos y Sísmicos (CENAOS), el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional de Honduras. Este set de datos consta de precipitaciones diarias de 27 pluviómetros, para el período comprendido entre enero de 2001 y diciembre de 2020, el período común para los cuatro productos de lluvia grillados evaluados. La distribución espacial de los pluviómetros utilizados se presenta en la Figura 1.Figura 1. Mapa de elevaciónd de Honduras (m sobre el nivel medio del mar) y distribución espacial de los pluviómetros utilizados (círculos). Los datos de elevación se obtuvieron del modelo de elevación digital Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) de 90 m: https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/.Se utilizó el algoritmo de detección de la canícula desarrollado por Zhao et al. (2020), el cual se adapta a la implementación de servicios de información y monitoreo de la canícula, y ha sido descrito como adecuado para su caracterización en relación a otros métodos (Zhao y Zhang, 2021). Este método se basa en el uso de lluvia diaria para detectar patrones de lluvia bimodal de acuerdo a los siguientes criterios: (1) la serie de tiempo presenta un primer máximo entre el 15 de mayo y el 15 de julio, y un segundo máximo entre el 15 de agosto y el 15 de octubre;(2) uno de esos dos máximos corresponde al máximo de precipitación anual; y (3) es posible realizar un ajuste lineal estadísticamente significativos entre el 1 de enero y la fecha del primer máximo, y otro entre la fecha del segundo máximo y el 31 de diciembre, los cuales representan la forma bimodal de la serie de tiempo. Cuando se cumplen esos tres criterios, el período entre el primer y el segundo máximo de lluvia corresponde a la canícula. Previo a aplicar el método, se aplicó un filtro ponderado gaussiano a cada serie temporal diaria de lluvia anual. Asimismo, el algoritmo se aplicó en dos etapas; en primer lugar, para la detección del área correspondiente al corredor seco en Honduras, y, en segundo lugar, para caracterizar la variabilidad de la canícula. Para delinear el corredor seco, los tres pasos descritos anteriormente se aplican al ciclo anual promedio diario de lluvia a largo plazo (20 años en el presente estudio), de modo que cada punto de grilla donde se cumplen los tres criterios corresponda a un punto en el corredor seco. Para caracterizar la canícula, se obtuvo una serie de métricas temporales: fecha de inicio (fecha del primer máximo), fecha de término (fecha del segundo máximo), duración (número de días entre las fechas de inicio y término) y fecha peak (fecha de la precipitación mínima en la canícula). Además, la intensidad de la canícula se caracterizó mediante el índice de intensidad IMSD (Zhao et al., 2020), el que se calcula como \uD835\uDC3C \uD835\uDC40\uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC37 = (\uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65 − \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC5B ) \uD835\uDC43 \uD835\uDC5A\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65 ⁄ , donde Pmax es el valor mayor entre el primer y el segundo máximo de precipitación de la distribución bimodal de lluvia, y Pmin la precipitación media en el período de la canícula.Se utilizó la evapotranspiración total de referencia (ET0), un indicador de la demanda hídrica atmosférica, integrada entre el inicio y el término de la canícula. Para esto, se utilizó el producto de ET0 diaria, a 0,125º  0,125º de resolución espacial, de cultivo largo (0,5 m de altura), desarrollado por la División de Ciencias Físicas de la Administración Nacional Oceánica y Atmosférica (NOAA PSL, 2023; https://psl.noaa.gov/eddi/globalrefet/). Este producto es generado utilizando datos del Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications version 2 (MERRA2) y la formulación Penman-Monteith de la Sociedad Estadounidense de Ingenieros Civiles (ASCE; Allen et al., 1998). Los datos de ET0 fueron remuestreados bilinealmente a la resolución espacial de cada producto de lluvia, es decir, 0,05º  0,05º y 0,1º  0,1º.Se utilizó también el índice de sequía de demanda evaporativa (EDDI; Hobbins et al., 2016) para evaluar posibles condiciones de estrés relacionadas con la sequía en cultivos. EDDI es un índice no paramétrico diseñado para evaluar la ocurrencia y severidad de la sequía basándose únicamente en la demanda hídrica atmosférica. Este índice fue elegido dada su flexibilidad en términos de períodos de agregación (diario, mensual, estacional), a diferencia de otros índices comúnmente utilizados como el Índice Estándar rizado de Precipitación (SPI, por su sigla en inglés) o el Índice Estandarizado de Precipitación y Evapotranspiración (SPEI, por su sigla en inglés), que se basan en métodos paramétricos ajustados a escalas de tiempo específicas (ej., 1, 3, 6 meses). EDDI se calcula a partir de ET0, por lo que representa la ocurrencia de sequía sobre una superficie con vegetación (ver Hobbins et al., 2016 para detalles sobre el cálculo de EDDI). Valores positivos (negativos) de EDDI representan condiciones más secas (más húmedas) de lo normal. Además, se definen categorías de sequía en base a los percentiles de percentiles EDDI (Tabla 2).Tabla 2. Categorías de sequía y su descripción para diferentes percentiles de EDDI. Figura 2. Mapas del corredor seco obtenidos de los cuatro productos grillados de lluvia cuadriculados en Honduras. Los puntos negros corresponden al área del corredor seco de van der Zee et al. (2012).Los cuatro productos de lluvia se compararon en términos de la temporalidad de la canícula (inicio, término, duración). La Figura 3 muestra los mapas de las fechas promedio (2001-2020) de inicio, peak y término, además de la duración de la canícula. Estos índices se calcularon sobre el corredor seco obtenido para cada uno de los cuatro productos de lluvia (Figura 2). Los mapas de la Figura 3 muestran que, en cuanto a fechas de inicio (Figura 3a-3d), los cuatro productos reproducen un patrón de fechas más tempranas en las áreas centro-sur de su correspondiente delimitación del área del corredor seco, y en general más tardías hacia el occidente del país, lo que concuerda con las observaciones de los pluviómetros. Las fechas medias de inicio de la canícula son similares para los cuatro productos, con una fecha promedio del 20 de junio (día del año DOY =172), variando entre el 18 al 22 de junio. En cuanto a la fecha peak de la canícula, los mapas de la Figura 5e-5h muestran fechas promedio que van del 6 al 10 de agosto y, a diferencia de las fechas de inicio, el peak de la canícula muestra una distribución espacial de fechas más tempranas hacia el oeste del país. De manera similar, los mapas climatológicos de las fechas de término de la canícula muestran fechas más tardías en el área centro-sur de Honduras y más tempranas en el oeste y el este (Figura 5i-5l). Los resultados anteriores tienen un impacto en la duración de la canícula, la cual se observa mucho más larga en las zonas centro-sur de Honduras, con una duración promedio de alrededor de 3 meses (~100 días), patrón que es capturado de manera relativamente similar por los cuatro productos de lluvia (Figura 5m-5p).   4. Climatología (20014. Climatología ( -2020) ) del índice de intensidad de la canícula (IMSD) para los cuatro productos de lluvia cuadriculados.En la Figura 5a se presentan las series de tiempo promedio a nivel de país de la ET0 acumulada durante la canícula. La ET0 promedio para los cuatro productos y durante los 20 años considerados es de 427 mm, variando desde un promedio mínimo entre productos de 360 mm en 2010, hasta un máximo de 497 mm en 2015, muy cerca de los 495 mm de 2019. Estos totales representan alrededor del 70% del total durante la temporada de lluvias (Figura 5d). AgERA5 e IMERG representan la ET0 total más alta y más baja, respectivamente, lo que puede explicarse por la duración media de MSD más larga y más corta capturada por esos dos productos, respectivamente (Fig. 3). De manera similar, la Fig. 5b muestra la serie de tiempo de EDDI agregada durante la canícula, capturada por los cuatro productos de lluvia. Como era de esperar, teniendo en cuenta su cálculo basado en rangos, las series de tiempo de EDDI se observan muy similares entre sí, excepto en algunos años (2006,2017) cuando se observan algunas diferencias. Además, dada su autocalibración, los valores de EDDI varían de negativos a positivos, lo que es indicativo de condiciones más húmedas o más secas de lo normal, respectivamente, dentro del período más seco de la canícula.La Figura 6 muestra la distribución espacial de las categorías de sequía descritas para EDDI (Tabla 2), en este caso para los años 2015 y 2019, los cuales aparecen particularmente secos en la Fig. 5b. Durante estos dos años, la ET0 fue mayor que la precipitación (Fig. 5d), y el índice EDDI indica condiciones que van desde anormalmente secas (D0) hasta sequía excepcional (D4). Una diferencia importante entre ambos años es el gradiente espacial que muestran las categorías de sequía, el cual, en general, se observa con orientación noreste-suroeste en 2015, mientras que en 2019 las áreas más secas se distribuyen hacia el norte del correspondiente dominio del corredor seco. En todos los casos, la clase de sequía excepcional D4 es dominante en términos de su extensión espacial, lo que es indicativo de condiciones de sequía con altos impactos potenciales para los cultivos. Figura 6. Mapas de categorías de sequía EDDI (Tabla 2) para los cuatro productos de lluvia en 2015 (columna izquierda) y 2019 (columna derecha). También se muestra el área porcentual de la categoría de sequía.Se presenta una evaluación de cuatro productos grillados de lluvia de alta resolución derivados de reanálisis y satélite (AgERA5, CHIRPS, IMERG y MSWEP) en cuanto al cómo representan la extensión espacial del corredor seco, así como un conjunto de métricas de caracterización de la canícula en Honduras, utilizando una metodología basada en el procesamiento de datos diario de lluvia. Estos conjuntos de datos de lluvia representan una oportunidad para el monitoreo y análisis de un fenómeno de gran importancia, como lo es la canícula, en un país con una cobertura espacial de pluviómetros y estaciones meteorológicas deficiente. La comparación con los datos de los pluviómetros sugiere que los diferentes algoritmos y datos de entrada utilizados para generar esos productos conducen a diferencias importantes. En este sentido, si bien el desempeño general de AgERA5 puede considerarse el más pobre, este corresponde a un producto generado a partir del downscaling estadístico del reanálisis ERA5, el que, además de precipitación, proporciona múltiples variables de interés para el seguimiento y análisis de fenómenos de relevancia en agricultura. Por el contrario, tanto CHIRPS, IMERG como MSWEP son productos que proporcionan únicamente datos de precipitación.El área delimitada como corredor seco en Honduras varía considerablemente para los cuatro productos. Si bien éstos logran identificar la ubicación del corredor seco hacia la mitad sur del país, su forma y proporción del área del país difieren considerablemente. Estos resultados sugieren que la delimitación del corredor seco y el área afectada por la canícula en Honduras es muy sensible a la elección de un producto de lluvia. Además, es probable que el uso de la precipitación media diaria interanual no necesariamente capture el patrón de precipitaciones que caracteriza a la canícula, ya que al filtrar los datos ser podría eliminar la señal de disminución de lluvias en verano. Como consecuencia, el uso exclusivo de datos de lluvia puede no ser una opción adecuada, ya que los resultados se verían afectados por los errores sistemáticos y aleatorios inherentes a los productos. Por lo tanto, el uso de métodos de corrección de sesgos junto con información auxiliar tales como mapas de uso de suelo o series de tiempo de índices de vegetación puede representar una mejor opción para la delimitación del corredor seco en Honduras. Lo anterior con el objetivo de combinar la identificación de la señal de lluvia durante la canícula y las propiedades de superficie resultantes tales como la caída en el verdor de la vegetación.Los resultados muestran que todos los productos reproducen el patrón espacial de fechas de inicio/término más temprano/tardío hacia la zona centro-sur del país, con patrones relativamente similares en cuanto a fechas de inicio, peak, término y duración de la canícula, con diferencias del orden de una semana. A nivel país, la canícula en Honduras se extiende en promedio entre el 20 de junio y el 26 de septiembre, con una fecha peak el 9 de agosto. Estos resultados, que son similares a estudios anteriores (ej., Magaña et al., 1999;Maldonado et al., 2016;Zhao et al., 2020), son consistentes con las observaciones (Figura 3), y muestran que los productos proporcionan resultados más homogéneos al capturar las fechas de inicio de la canícula. En cuanto a la intensidad de la canícula, los cuatro productos reproducen el patrón de mayor intensidad, representado por el índice IMSD, hacia las zonas centro-sur de Honduras. Sin embargo, la comparación con los pluviómetros indica que los cuatro productos tienden a subestimar la intensidad de la canícula. Esta subestimación, que parece acentuarse más hacia las zonas occidentales del país (Figura 4), puede ser relevante a la hora de diseñar servicios climáticos centrados en el impacto potencial de la canícula en los sistemas agrícolas o hídricos, lo que llevaría a la necesidad de implementar un método de corrección de sesgo. Sin embargo, la similitud en los patrones espaciales de temporalidad e intensidad de la canícula, sugiere la idoneidad del método utilizado para monitorear la canícula, y que los conjuntos de datos podrían ser, por lo tanto, adecuados para el monitoreo de la canícula, lo cual es particularmente importante para áreas no cubiertas por estaciones meteorológicas.Los resultados obtenidos al utilizar EDDI como índice de sequía representan una oportunidad para el desarrollo de herramientas de monitoreo y caracterización de la canícula y la agricultura utilizando datos de lluvia de corta latencia y ET0. Por ejemplo, EDDI es capaz de discriminar áreas con mayor intensidad de la canícula, lo que podría usarse para el monitoreo y potencialmente el pronóstico, junto con las precipitaciones, ya que se ha demostrado que EDDI es más adecuado para evaluar eventos de sequía de rápida aparición (Ramseyer y Miller, 2023). En este sentido, si bien el algoritmo de detección de la canícula utilizado proporciona una aproximación adecuada, un enfoque multivariado que considere las relaciones entre lluvia y EDDI, por ejemplo, podría ayudar a delimitar el corredor seco desde una perspectiva de los impactos para los cultivos, considerando no sólo la forma del ciclo anual de lluvias sino también el cambio en la demanda de agua.","tokenCount":"3986"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6820a5c83e0e61ccb4f1e058c528351e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/481164de-ffc9-4adf-94c1-6444903e4904/retrieve","id":"-1799751780"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5733388a-e0bb-4c4c-8c89-6b3be09b9e85","pagecount":"4","content":"To avoid the spread of African Swine fever, all pig farmers in an area need to be trained: Identify model pig farmers (whose farms will function as demonstration sites) and support them in their respective localities to train others in nearby villages. These model farmers will also be responsible for making other farmers aware of where they can access reliable veterinary services.By-laws to control African Swine fever are not being followed: Build the capacity of pig farmer unions in undertaking lobbying and advocacy, enabling them to engage with their respective local governments on the implementation of existing laws on controlling the spread of African Swine fever.Farmers lack good quality breeds and it is expensive to maintain a boar on the farm: Support the provision of artificial insemination services through collaboration with specialized agencies.Farmers cannot afford disinfectants and the construction of pigsties and fences: Explore cheaper alternatives to overcome the current cost barriers, e.g. proven local/homemade disinfectants and low cost housing.  and ways of reducing its spread. As expected, the urban pig value chains registered higher gains in all areas. During the FGDs, participants demonstrated varied knowledge of ASF causes, symptoms, transmission and control measures, learned during the training workshops. The Masaka group demonstrated a comprehensive knowledge of the causes, symptoms, transmission routes and control measures. All farmers in the various groups knew that there was no cure or treatment for ASF, but that it could be controlled through the application of recommended biosecurity measures.The training positively changed the knowledge levels of several respondents. The biosecurity measures about which most farmers were aware included: isolation of new pigs (10%-urban); farm cleanliness (9%-rural); heated swill feeding (15%-urban and 15%-rural); avoidance of undisinfected farm tools (11%-urban and 15%-rural); and use of disinfectant (9%-urban and 17%-rural).Before training, majority (71-77%-urban and 56-68%rural) of the boar keepers were not taking any actions (particularly urban keepers) to protect their pigs from getting infected by the sows brought in from other farms. Following the training, more rural boar keepers (24%) started isolating incoming pigs, while the urban farmers started undertaking actions to protect their pigs, such as spraying and deworming their sows. Some progress was made in changing the attitudes of respondents in the treatment group. An additional 7% of trained rural respondents said they would keep traders off the farm; 7% of the trained urban respondents stated they would have control their neighbour's visit to their farms; and 6% of urban and 4% of rural trained respondents would house pigs if there is ASF outbreak, in addition to the numbers highlighted above. During the FGDs, all participants indicated that due to the training, they had changed their attitude towards ASF. They highlighted some practices which had produced good results, including: confining pigs, good hygiene, and use of disinfectants for visitors, suspending domestic pork consumption during ASF outbreaks, boiling swill before feeding pigs, burying dead pigs and, in some cases, purchasing needles and syringes Background African Swine fever (ASF) is recognized as one of the biggest hurdles to the development of the pig sector in Uganda. As it has no known cure, disease outbreaks have had a big impact on the socio-economic status of pig farmers, with revenue losses and increased vulnerability to poverty. The adoption and implementation of biosecurity measures along the pig value chain is the only method of controlling ASF. The transmission cycle in domestic pigs has been identified as a key driver of ASF circulation in a number of areas with high pig population densities, a significant proportion of free-range management systems, and low levels of farm biosecurity. During ASF outbreaks, the diseases spreads along illegal and legal trade routes of live pigs and pork affecting the whole value chain with human behaviour being a dominant factor in the transmission cy-cle in Uganda. A lack of sufficient knowledge on the control measures-coupled with high risk practices and an absence of effective prevention and management strategies-results in continuous ASF outbreaks. To address knowledge gaps, ILRI and partners developed a training package-comprising a training manual and poster on biosecurity measures at farm level-tailored specifically for smallholder pig keepers in Uganda. These manuals were used to train pig farmers in Masaka and Lira districts. This brief outlines the key outputs of that training.Masaka and Lira districts were purposively selected to host a randomized control trial (RCT) study on the effectiveness of training farmers on biosecurity protocols. Semi-structured questionnaires on knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) regarding ASF and biosecurity were administered to 480 pig farmers in the treatment group and 480 farmers in the control group prior to the interventions in April 2015. Follow-up surveys were undertaken in May and April 2016 with the same target groups using similar questionnaires. In addition to the quantitative data, focus group discussions (FGDs) were undertaken with participants of the treatment group during separate reflection workshops in the target areas to assess whether the training had been helpful, and also to enable comparison (where applicable) across data sources. The study identified and documented important learning experiences from the capacity development interventions as evidence for wider applicability in the pig value chains. The evaluation also enabled ILRI and other stakeholders to assess whether the design and implementation of the capacity development interventions needed improvement i.e. identify lessons to take into account for future projects. The quantitative data analysis included the tabulation of data by RCT and value chain domains, prior and after the intervention. The FGD data was analysed using content qualitative analysis.Following the training, all areas reported a reduction in ASF outbreaks as more people were made aware of clinical signs of the disease, modes and channels of transmission for veterinary use. The majority of farmers attributed implementation of these practices to the reduction of ASF outbreaks in their respective areas. Most importantly, farmers felt they would be no longer deceived by 'quack veterinarians' claiming to treat ASF through vaccination; which has saved them money.The intervention boosted farmer capacities in many ways. Before the training, farmers' main sources of health and production information were fellow farmers (i.e. 36-40%-urban and 34-38%-rural) and area veterinarians (48-49%-urban and 47-49%-rural). After the training, fellow farmers remained a key source of information in the value chain (particularly those in receipt of training), while group meetings were the key source of information for rural farmers. More farmers in the urban and rural areas find time to clean and disinfect their farms than before. Although the vast majority (89-97%-urban and 96-98%-rural) had initially indicated they did not have enough labour to take care of their pigs daily, there was a turnaround after training.During the FGDs, it was noted that there were variations across farmers in the implementation of biosecurity practices. The groups in Lira district implemented the least number of practices. The only common practice reported across all groups was confinement of pigs by either construction of pig structures/fences or tethering. Other common practices reported by the majority (except a couple of groups in Lira) were the: restriction of outsiders like traders from accessing the pig units; maintenance of good hygiene by regularly cleaning pig houses/confinement areas; isolation of sick pigs; avoidance of swill boiling before feeding pigs; and early reporting of suspected ASF to the authorities. The control measures involving significant financial investment, labour or land, such as burying dead pigs/piglets, the use of disinfectant and footbaths and the purchase of boars, were adopted by very few farmers, mostly in Masaka. The majority did not have enough money to buy farming tools or could not access financial credit; and many could not build better units.The training of pig farmers on the control of ASF was effective in reducing outbreaks. Not only did farmers learn how to diagnose the disease, but also to prevent and control it. Although they differed considerably in their application of the recommended biosecurity measures, more farmers implemented the practices and got good results. More importantly, the training addressed crucial perceptions towards ASF control. The communities in general are aware of the absence of a cure and have considered taking up the biosecurity measures. If the issue of associated cost for some of these practices can be addressed and the training continue up to village level (as requested), the number and frequency of ASF outbreaks could be substantially reduced, ultimately improving the livelihoods of smallholder pig farmers. ","tokenCount":"1382"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fcff8aaa0cecc9efb988755e2c11bc6c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fc9f33cc-fceb-482d-bc9e-45b1b6a3ffa2/retrieve","id":"-1859858273"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4979a7e8-0794-4514-9162-ed6b27a8a680","pagecount":"38","content":"Agente causa 1: Uromyces phaseoli (Reben) Wint [= U. appendiculatus (Pers.) Unger U. phaseoli {Reben) Winte r var. typica Arthur] Otros nombres de la enfermedad: Chahuixtle, Ferrugem do feijoei ro (Portugués ), Rust ( lnglf>s), la roni lle du hari cot La roya se t::ncuentril ampliamente di stribuida en todas las regiones frijoleras del mundv ocasionando pérdidas de im portancia económica, las cuales dependen del grado de susceptibi 1 idad de la variedad en;p leada, de la severidad de \" la enfermedad y de las condiciones amb ientales que prevalezcan en el área en el mon1ento de l ataque.La reducción en rend i miento es mayor cuando las plantas son atacadas durante los ｰ ･ ｲ ｾ ｯ ､ ｯ ｳ ＠ de preflor ación o floración, aproximadamente 30 a 35 días después de la siembra.El patógeno que causa la roya del frijol es un parásito obl i gado que es antoico, o sea que sólo necesita de un hospedero para completar todo su ciclo de vida y macrocíclico, es deci r que posee varios tipos de esporas.En el trópico es común observar dos tipos de esporas: las uredosporas o esporas vegetativas que son las que general mente inician la enfermedad y las teliosporas o esporas sexua les.Si el i nócu lo está presente y las condi ciones climáticas son fav orables, la apa rición de los primeros síntomas de roya en la planta dependen de la susceptibilidad de la variedad;en las muy susceptibles se pueden observar S a 6 días después de la inocul ac i ón , manchas muy pequeñas , cloróticas o blancas l i geramente protuberantes tanto en el haz como en el envés de la hoja (Fig . 1), pero generalmente se observan m1is comúnmente en el envés.Estas manchas tanto en el haz como en el envés , aumentan de tamaño ha sta formar pústulas maduras pardo-rojizas que al romper la epidermis de l a hoja y sacudirse levemente, liberan una especie de polvillo herrumbroso , constituido por masas de uredosporas aptas para germinar al encontrar las condiciones propicias. El cicl o comp leto de infección tiene una duración de 10 a 15 días. Alrededor de la pústula princi pal pueden formarse pústulas secundari as (F i g. 2) .  Pústulas de roya.Cuando estas pústulas maduran toman una coloración negruzca debido a la presencia de teliosporas . Cuan do la i nfección es muy severa , o aparece temprano antes de la floraci6n, puede ocurrir defoliación premdtura con una disminución ､ ｲ ｾ ｳ ｴ ｩ ｣ ｡ ＠ en la formación y llenado de vaina s ; cuanto más jóvenes sean las vainas, más s us ceptibles serán al ataque (Fig. 3) . El patógeno también puede atacar tallos y peciolos, donde se pueden obset•var pústul as.La di sem in ación de l a roya es muy fácil: cua lquier objeto que haya estado en contacto con 1 as hojas infectadas o que haya entrado en contacto indirectamente co n l a masa de uredosporas , será un agente diseminador : herramientas de trabajo, ropa , insectos, vertebrados, la piel del hombre, gotas de agua. El viento es agente diseminador por exce l encia a grandes distancias . Este hongo no es transmitido por sem i lla. Infección en las vainas.Una medida de control de la roya en el frijol consiste en determinar regionalmente las épocas de s iembra para que las condiciones ambientales sean desfavorables a l a rápida multipl icación durante las etapas ｣ ｲ ｾ ｴ ｩ ｣ ｡ ｳ ＠ de infección del patógeno que son prefloración y floración . Si n embargo , en la práctica es dincil de apl i car exitosamente este método de cont rol pues generalmen te las s iembra s están determinadas por épocas de lluvia defin idas. Otras medida s que se recomiendan son la rotación de cultivos que no sean hos pedantes de este patógeno y la eliminaci ón de residuos de cosecha para rebajar el nivel del inócul o en el terreno .es más efectivo durante las etapas iniciales del ataque . Se han reportado bue nos resultados en el control de la roya del frijol tanto con fungicida s protectantes como con sistémicos. En gener al, los protectantes tales como Dithane M 45 (Mancozeb) , Daconil (Bravo o cloratalon il ) y Manzate D {Mane b) no son tan eficientes en áreas con lluvias frecuentes que tienden a lavar el fungicida impregnado en las plantas. Varios fungicidas s i stémicos como el Pl antvax Ｈ ｏ ｸ ｩ ｣ ｡ ｲ ｢ ｯ ｸ ｾ ｮ Ｉ ＠ y Baycor, son bas tante eficientes en el control de esta enfermedad. En muchas regiones del trópico, sobre todo en áreas donde es necesario hacer varias aplicaci ones de ｦ ｵ ｮ ｧ ｩ ｣ ｩ ､ ｡ ｾ ＠ para tener un control eficiente de la roya del frijol, el uso de estos no es una práctica económica . Qu izás esta práctica es más rentable en el control de la r oya en la habichuela o frijol verde .Enco ntrar va r i edades res istentes a la roya es la medida de contro l más adecuada; sin embargo ésto ha sido ､ ｩ ｦ ｾ ｣ ｩ ｬ ＠ dado que Uromyces phaseo li es uno de los patógenos del fri j ol más variable que se co noce (18, 55) , pues continuamente surgen razcs diferentes (22). La metodologí a empleada para transmitir resistencia ｧ ･ ｮ ｾ ｴ ｩ ｣ ｡ ＠ a diferentes materiales de fri jol , ha sido descrita detalladamente por CIAT (18). Al crearse en 1974 el Vivero Internacional de Roya del Fr ijol ( IBRN) se indicó entre sus objetivos el de identificar cultivares y líneas de Phaseolus vul gari s por su resistencia a un amplio rango de las razas del hongo que causan la roya del frijol (22) . El ｩ ｮ ｦ ｯ ｲ ｮ ｾ ＠ correspondiente al período 1981 -82 ana l iza la infonnación recopilada durante 8 años y obtenida en un promedio de 20 localidades de Améri ca Latina , Estados Unidos, Europa, Asia, Africa y Australia (23). En el Cuadro 1 se presentan las variedades \"monitores\", o sea aquellas que han sido constantes en el IBRN desde 1975, con el mas amplio rango de resistencia a las razas del patógeno de la roya, a ｴ ｲ ｡ ｶ ｾ ｳ ＠ del tiempo y de localidades. El Cuadro 2 presenta l as líneas de frijol de CIAT y de programas nacionales con amplio rango de resistencia.Con referencia a esca l as de evaluac i ón que se usan actualmente, se utiliza una escala para estimar el porcentaje de dai'\\o y otra escala para el tamaño de pústula y en acuerdo con la reuni ón de trabajo sobre roya del frijol realizada en Puerto Rico en 1983 (52) . E 1 Cuadro 3, presenta las nuevas líneas de f rijol que serví rán como diferenciales para las diferentes ra<: as de roya, con informaciones sobre color de grano, según se acordó en Puerto Ricu en 1983.En l a actualidad se busca obtener una resistencia genética durable evaluando diferentes mecanismos de res istencia a la enfermedad . Entre estos se destacan: a) el tipo de pústula pequeña, b) un período de latencia prolongado y e) una baja recep t ividad a la roya (43).Colletotri chum lindemuthianum (Sacc & Magn.) Briosi & Cav. estado asexual;Glomere l l a cingul ata (S t onem Spa uld et V. Schrenk) estado sexual Ot ros nombres de la enfermedad :L'anthracno se (francés) , Anthracnose (inglés) La antracnosis es una de las pri ncipales enfermedades del frijol que IMs pérdidas económicas causa en todo el mu ndo. Se han registrado severos ataques en Bras il, Méxi co, Guatemala , Cuba , Colombia, Nicaragua , El Salvador , Honduras, Uganaa y ｾ ｳ ＠ recientemente en Argentina. Las pérdidas di fi eren según el grado de resistencia de las Vdriedaaes , pero puede n ser hasta de 100% si las condiciones son favorables para el desarrollo de la enfermedad.La enfennedi!d es favorecida por temperaturas frescas entre 13° y 26 °C una óptima de 17 °C y por alta ｨ ｵ ｮ ｾ ､ ｡ ､ ＠ relativa en forma de lluv i as moderadas y frecuentes acompañados de vientos ; factores que contribuyen a la diseminación del patógeno.El medio más importa nte de diseminación, a corta distancia, es el salpique de agua lluvia sobre residuos de cosecha que contienen conidias , conidióforos o acérvulos del hongo. Las conidias, contenidas en una matriz ge l atinosa soluble en agua, germinan e invaden el tejido vegetal. El ataque del hongo es IMs intenso y rápido en plantíos de alta deQsidad . El agua también actúa como diseminador al arrastrar las conidias en su mov imiento superficial .  El otro medio de diseminación importante sobre todo a largas distancias es la semilla contaminada. Una planta con antracnosis produce semillas que porta internamente e 1 hongo . los insectos y e 1 hombre también pueden transportar conidias de plantas afectadas a plantas o lotes sanos.los síntomas pueden aparecer en cualquier parte de la planta, pero no en las raíces . Estos dependen del grado de desarrollo de la planta al momento de la infección y de la fuente de donde provenga el inóculo. las fuentes de inóculo que pueden iniciar la enfermedad son los residuos de cosecha, las semillas i nfectadas y plantas vecinas enfermas. Si la fuente de i nfección es la semilla, l os primeros síntomas aparecen en las hojas cotiledonares ó en los cotiledones como lesiones necróticas. la infección puede ocurrir en el pecíolo de la hoja; en casos severos la debilita hasta tal punto que la hoja se dobla por el sitio de la l esión (Fig . 4). También hay síntomas de lesiones deprimidas en tallos y ramas. las lesiones foliares oc urren inicialmente en el envés de las hojas, a lo largo de las nervaduras principales, en forma de manchas pequenas, angulares , de color rojo ladrillo a púrpura, las que posteriormente se vuelven de color oscuro ( Fig . 5) . la antracnosis se reconoce con mayor fac il idad en las vainas (Fig. 6) , donde las l esiones son chancros deprimido s , de forma redondeada, con márgenes ligeramente prominentes delimitados por un anillo negro con borde café rojizo.Cuando las condiciones ambientales son favorables al hongo, aparece en el centro de l a lesión una masa ro sada formada principalmente por las conidias de l hongo.  El patógeno puede afectar las sem illas y atravesar el tegumento, produciendo les iones en los tej idos de los cotiledones; las lesiones son chancros ligeramente deprimidos de tamañ o variable, desde pequeños puntos hasta lesiones que cubren la semilla y pueden ser de color amarillo, pardo o negro, según e l color de la testa (Fig. 7) . En semillas de testa negra estos s1ntomas son difícilmente observables. La semilla limpia libre del patógeno ha sido utilizada eficientemente en muchos países para controlar la antracnosis. La mayor1a de agricultores de América Latina obtienen directamente la semilla de frijol en sus plantíos y tienen dificultades para ejer cer un adecuado control de calidad de su semilla en cuanto a 1 impieza fitosanitaria; VIEIRA et al (56} hace una serie de recomendaciones entre las cuales se deben mencionar, por su relativa facilidad de aplicación: eliminar las plantas enfermas dentro del cultivo, cosechar después de su madurez fisiológica y eliminar las semillas anormales y con s1ntomas evidentes de la enfermedad. Otro medio de control es la rotación por dos o tres años con cultivos no hospedantes del patógeno, para rebajar el nivel del inóculo ó eliminar el problema. El sistema de cultivo inf luencia la severidad de la antracnosis en el frij ol.La eliminación de residuos infectados de la cosecha anterior es también un buen método para reducir el nivel de inóculo. Se ha informado sobre un buen control del patógeno qu e viene en la semilla, sumergiendo ésta en agua a 60 grados centígrados durante 5 minutos; una desventaja de este tipo de tratamientos es la posible pérd ida de la germinación de la semilla, la cual, debe ser semb rada inmedi atamente después de tratada . Este método no es muy utilizado.Se han utilizado fungicidas para tratar la semilla en aspersiones f oli ares (12). La posibilidad de controlar la i nfestaci ón de las testas de las semi llas con fungicidas, ha dado resultados positivos con productos qu1micos como ferbán, zirán, tirán y ceresán; en la mayorí a de los casos se recomienda aplicar de 1 a 5 gramos de producto por kilogramo de semilla. Para aspersión foliar los fu ngicidas más utilizados son pl maneb, zineb, carbendazim, benomil, captafol o difolatán; sin embargo en Colombia , el mayor rendimiento se obtuvo con la r otación benomil-hidróxido de fent1n (40).Se ha reg istrado resistencia ¡;ersistente del Co lletotrichum al benomil (53). así como fituxicidad al acetato trifenil estaño (35). Es necesario anotar que en la mayo r1 a de los casos los fungicidas son costosos y a veces dif1ciles de conseguí r en regiones frijoleras de América Latina.1 La resistencia genética es la med ida de co ntrol que mh se ha ut ilizado para el manejo o control de la antracnosis generalmente porque es la más adecuada, fácil de utilizar y práctica . Es necesa rio recordar que las variedades de frijol resistentes al patGgcno de la antracnosis er. una localidad pueden ser susceptibles en otra ya que Col letotrichum lindemuthianum posee una gran variabilidad patogéni ca. Desde 1918, año en que se report6 por primera vez que este patógeno pose1a razas , ha sta ahora se han reportado muchas razas de este hongo , tanto en Europa así como en Africa y América Latina (12). De estudios conducidos en C!AT (4 , 14, 15, 16) se sabe que la variación patogénica C. l indemuthianum en América Latina es diferente y más amplia que aquella-reportada en Europa . As1 por ejemplo los cultivares BAT 44, BAT 841 y Amapol a del camino que fueron ? resistentes a todas las razas del patógeno present es en Europa , fueron susceptibles en cond i ciones de campo en Mé xico 1982.Ig ualmente la conoci da fuente de resistencia Cornell 49242, una variedad origi naria de Venezuela, donante del gene ARE de res istencia a ld antracnos is, que ha sido utilizada con mucho éxito er• Europa, Norte Améri ca y Africa, no es adecuada en América Latina. Corne ll 49 242 es sus cepti ble a lil an tracnosi s en Colombia y Brasil, por ejemplo. Por todas estas razones en ClAT SP empezó a evaluar grandes ca ntidades de cultivares procedentes del banco de germoplasma con el objetivo de ide'ntifi ca r nuev a!\". y mejores fuentes de resistencia a esta importante enfermedad . De 13,000 acces iones que fueron evaluadas en el campo y en el invernadero por un perí odo de 3 años, se han identificado much as líneas que tienen amplia resistenci a al patógeno de la antracnosis (51) . Entre los cu ltivare5 que han sido amp liamente evaluados tanto en el campo como en el i nve rnadero y que poseen ampl1a resi stencia, se destacan: G 811, G 984, G 2333 , G 2338, K2 , princor , A 252, A 475, 483 y AB 136. Algunos cultivares como lea Llanogr.mde , (G 12488) son altamente resistentes en el campo en tGoos los lugares donde ｾ ･ ＠ les ha evaluado, sin embargo son susceptibles cuando se les inocu la en estadG de plántula en el invernadero (44). Ot ros cultivures con ampl ia resiste::ncia de campo son Gloriabamba (G 2829) y Anca sh 66 (G 47,7) . En la actualidad l a sección de ｦ ｩ ｴ ｯ ｰ ｡ ｴ ｯ ｬ ｯ ｧ ￭ ｾ ＠ de fri jr.l del C!Al aistri buye un vivero internacional de resistencia en frijol a la antracnosi s (IBAT) que incluye las ｭ ･ ｪ ｯ ｲ ･ ｾ ＠ fuentes de res i stencia así como los cultivares diferenciales.La evaluaci ón de este vivero permite i dentifica r no sólo la efectividad de la resistencia presente en las nuevas fuentes, así como su estabilidad a través de 1 oca 1 ida des y de 1 tiempo, si no también tener un mejor conocimiento de la distribución de las razas del patógeno. Basado en esta infonnación la estrategia de mejoramiento para la antracnosis de frijol incluye el uso del mayor número posible de fuentes de resistencia di ferentes para así ampliar la base genéti ca de:l frijol y ccntrarrestar 1 os efectos de esta enfermedad causada por un patógeno que posee amp 1 i a variación. Así mi smo se está tratando de combinar en un mismo cultivar c u¡¡tro y a veces hasta cinco fuentes diferentes dt:: resi5tencia a la antracnosis en cultivares con color de grano cumercidl y de diferentes habitas de crecimiento .Agente causal: Isariopsis grist::ola Sacc . [= Phaeoisiaropsis griseola (Sacc.) Ft::rraris] Otros nombres oe la enfermedad: Man cha Foliar Angu l a r, Man cha Angular ( Portugués ) , Taches anguleuses (francés) , An gu lar Leaf SpotLa manchd angular del fri ,iol es causada por el hongo lsariopsis griseola Sacc. y se ha reg1strado su ataque en regiones tropicales y subtropicales tales ｣ ｯ ｮ ｾ ＠ Colombia, Costa Rica , Guatemala, México , Perú, Venezuela, Srasil, Argentina. La mancha angular es tamb1 én una enfprmedao oe am¡;lia di!.tribuc ión y económicamente ir¡¡portante en varios países de Africa comoLas pérdidas económicas aue esta enfen.1edad puede causesr varíar según la susceptibi 1 idad de la variedad, las condiciones ambienta l es al momento del ataque y de la virulencia de la raza o razas presentes. Se han realizóGO evaluaciones de pérdidas de hasta Ｕ Ｐ ｾ ＠ en Estados Un idos, Ｔ Ｐ Ｍ Ｖ Ｐ ｾ ＠ en Co l ombia (2) y 90% en México (7) .aparecen 6 días después de la inoculación (6 ) . úado que el inóculo del patóge no proviene principalmente de los restos de cosecha contaminados , pero también de semilla contaminada con el patógeno, las lesiones ¡.¡ueden aparecer inicialmente en las hojas primarias y s.'ilo se gene ralizan t:: n la planta después de la floración, o cuando con•ienzan a formarse las vainas (3).Cuando el ataque se presenta en las hojas primarias , los síntomas se m¡¡ni fiestan como mancha s st::nlicirculares, con esporulación en ambos lcJdos de la hcja, pero estd acontece generalmente en t::l haz .Cuando las lesiones están bien establec.idas er. el follaje, éstas son típican,erlte angu lares e n ambos lados de la hoja (Fig . 8) y del imitadas por las nervadut•as ; inicialmente son .manchas grises oue se van oscureciendo, en algunas oportunidades se puede presentar un halo clorótico que depende de la variedad, ｾ Ｇ ｬ ｡ ｳ ｴ ｡ ＠ tornarse necrótica y generain1 ente adquirir la fon11aen l as hojas trifoliadas.Posteriormente , las manchás son cubiertas por la s estructuras fructíferas del patógeno o !. inenras y adquieren la apariencia <it. un pequeño CE'pillo . En el tallo, las ramas y los peciolos, las lesiones son de color café-rojizo, de bordes oscuros y ｦ ｯ ｲ ｮ ｾ ＠ dlargada.Fn las vainas las manchas son ovaladas o c irc ul a res, con centros café-rojizos y a veces con bordes más oscuros (Fig. 9) .  Lesiones de lsariopsis griseo/a.Los residuos de cosecha son el medio primario de sobrevivencia de l hongo de una s iembra a otra donde pueden sobrevivir hasta los 12 meses (9). Por tal moti vo, donde hay antecedentes del problema o se presentan las características climá ticas fav orables al hongo, que son temperaturas entre 18-25°C y alta humedad relativa aco mpañada de períodos cortos de baja humedad , es importante la eli minación cuidadosa de los residuos de cosec ha.El pa tóge no es diseminado por el salpique de la gota de agua sobre el residuo contaminado, o por contacto directo de la plántula al emerger con el ｮ ｾ ｴ ･ ｲ ｩ ｡ ｬ ＠ vegetal infectado. Una buena medida preventi va sería rotar el frijol con otro cultivo no hospedante del pat6geno durante dos año s al me nos ､ ･ ｳ ｰ ｵ ｾ ｳ ＠ de que se haya presentado un ataque severo. Es importante recordar que el s i stema de cultivo puede influenciar la severidad de laarrastra las esporas del hongo y ｾ ｳ ｴ ｯ ＠ es conveniente tenerlo en consideración cuando hayan lotes infestados cercanos a lotes donde no se ha presentado el ataque, para efectuar en tonces alguna protecc ión qulmica preventiva. Aunque se ha reportado que la transmis ión del patógeno por semilla es muy ba ja (5}, este es un pel igro potencial. En Bras i l es importante (1). Una bue na medida de control integrado es escoger para la siemb ra una semilla de excelente calidad, con buena apari encia, tamaño y coloración.El uso de fungicidas es un comp lemento de las prácticas anteriormente mencionadas y no un sustituto de ellas. Las apli caci ones deberán ser efectuadas en l as etapas iniciales del ataque. Se ha usado con ｾ ｸ ｩ ｴ ｯ ＠ Cdrbendaz ím, benomil , triforin (19}, oxicloruro de cobre y cardo ｢ ｯ ｲ ､ ･ ｬ ｾ ｳ ＠ (25} , y el zi neb y ma neb (29A}. El fungicida Baycor ha dado un control muy eficiente en condicione s de Popayán, Co lombia.La utilización de la resistencia varietal es la alternativa más importante de co ntrol.Se viene trabajando intensamente en la evaluación de germoplasma distribuído en múltiples países y por diferentes equipos de investigadores , aunque ült.imame nte se ha ce mayor énfasis en experimentar grupos semeja ntes de variedades en di ferentes regi ones, comuni candose en forma sistemática los resultados para obtener realmente l os mejores materiales genéticos y con mayo r estabi lidad pos ible.La eval uac ión en Colomb i a, Argentina y Brasil en las améri cas ; Rwanda, Burundí, Za rie y Zambia en Af rica, así como en el invernadero de un gran número de nuevas l íneas de frijol con diferentes fuentes de resi stencia, ha permitido ;:liferenciar razas de l hongo causa l de la mancha angular en estos pa í ses y en Colombia. Au nque las líneas CIAT A 160, A 210 y BAT 332 son resi stentes en Co lombia, en Brasil son susceptibles, lo contrario ocurre para las l íneas A 339 y A 340 . Las líneas BAT 67, BAT 76, A 140, A 154, A 295 y Ja lo EEP 558 entre otros ｾ ｯ ｮ ＠ re si stentes en ambas zonas.El CI AT ha desarrollado una meto dolog ía para eva l uación de resistencia a Isariopsi s (1 9).La diferencia de estas lesiones con las de la antracnosis, es que este último ocasiona chanc ros deprimidos en las vainas; con Isario sis es común encontrar las manchas de las vainas cubiertas de sinemas F1 g. 10 }.Cuando e 1 pa tógeno ataca 1 as vainas jóvenes , ocasiona s u vaneami ento perdiéndose la totalidad de l a semi lla. El hongo puede atravesar la va ina dando origen a semillas decoloradas, mal desarrolladas o totalmente arrugadas {Fig. 11).Lesiones en las vainas con la formación de sinemas.Figura 11 . Arrugamiento y decoloración de la 58milla de plantas afectadas.Otros nombres de la enfermedad: Telaraña , quema, chasparria, rhizoctonia del fol l aje, me l a yb,ta enfermedad es considerada como uno de los principales factores limitantes de la producción de frijol en las zonas húmedas y cá lidas del trópico, como la r egión amazónica o en las tierras bajas de CentroEn Costa Ri ca es una enfermedad endémica (27) , y en Argentina se ha registrado recientemente su aparición (46). Es importante también en Brasil (57). Su ataque causa defoliación rópida y drástica en las plantas y , en una o dos semanas puede ocasiuuilr la ｰ ｾ ｲ ､ ｩ ､ ｡ ＠ total de la cosecha si se pr esenta en la etapa crítica de llenado de vainas (47) . 32). Además de las condici ones climáticas favorables para el desarrollo del patógeno, desequi 1 ibrios en el estado nutrici onal de la planta tales como alto contenido de nitrógeno y bajos niveles de calcio tornan más suscepti ble el cultivo al ataque (34) . ｔ ｡ ｭ ｢ ｩ ｾ ｮ ＠ la presencia de agua sobre el tejido foliar favorece la i nfección.En los períodos secos se r estringe considerabler,¡erte la incidencia y el desarrol lo de la enfermedad .La di seminación del patógeno se hace a través del viento, la lluvia, el ag ua de e scorrentía y el movimiento de implementos ag rí colas dentro del cul tivo.Los esclerocios generaJr,¡ente constituyen el inóculo primario {30) y pueden permanecer viabl es por uno o m<i s años , arlemá s de que el hongo también puede sobrevivir como micelio vegetativo en los residucs de la ccsecha.T. Cucume r i s ataca principalmente el follaje, tallos, ramas y vainas de lade frijo l en cua lquier estado de desarro l lo, pero no causa lesiones en las raíces . Los pri meros s í ntuma s que aparecen en 1 as hojas, que son generalmente causados a l producirse el salpi que de los esclerocios y micel io ( estado asexua l ) se presentan como pequeñas lesiora:s acuosas circulares de 1-3 mm de diámetro y de coloración más clara que la hoja . Otro tipo de lesión, en este caso ocasionada por basidioesporas (estaco sexual) son manchas necrót icds de 2-3 11111 de di ámetro en las cual es al necrosarse el tejido, éste se puede desprender forma ndo lo que comúnmente se denom ina \"ojo de gall o\" (Fig . 12) . Síntoma denominado \"ojo de gallo\".A medida que se desarrolla la infección por micelio, las lesiones van adquiriendo una coloración café del i mitada por un halo oscuro y pueden comenzar a aparecer lesiones leves en las vainas; las manchas de las hojas adquieren un color gris-verdoso a café oscuro dando la apariencia de ser el resultado de escaldaduras (Fig. 13 ) . El micelio del hongo pas a a otros órganos de la planta y puede crecer en forma de abanico o telarafia, cubriendola; las hojas se adhieren entre sí y se produce defoliación severa. Las vainas jóvenes pueden ser destruidas totalmente (Fig. 14 ). En las vainas maduras las lesiones coalescen, causando dano severo y va neamiento. El hongo puede infectar la semilla.Se recomienda un programa de control integrado que incluye la s iembra de semilla libre de contaminación interna y externa; la eliminación de residuos de cosecha infectados por el patógeno, dada su amplia capacidad de vivir sobre materia orgAnica aún en descomposición .Donde se presenta el problema de esta enfermedad es conveniente rotar con cultivos no hospedantes del patógeno, como por ejemplo las gramíneas. Si es posible, es conveniente coincidir l a maduración de las vainas con una época seca; la siembra en surcos permite un mejor control preventivo a la enfermedad (24). El método de control cultural que ha dado los mejores resultados en Costa Rica es el uso de coberturas, ya que sirve de barrera al salpique de la gota de lluvia sobre material contaminado; se ha utilizado con éxito la cobertura de arroz con 2.5 cms de espesor, superando el uso de productos químicos incluido el benomil (32) . Esta prActica sin embargo no se recomienda. En su lugar se usan coberturas de malezas muertas con herbicidas.Para el control químico se recomienda el uso de zineb, benomil, tiofanato, maneb, zinam, captafol, metiran y bayco r (20). En Brasil emplean con éxito el tiabendazole y el benomil (10 y 11), pero no han obteni do buenos resultados con el PCNB. Vainas con infección avanzada de mustia hilachosa.El sistema de labranza ｭ ｾ ｮ ｩ ｭ ｡ ＠ reduce los efectos del salpique como factor primario de la enfermedad. Costa Rica emplea el sistema• de siemb ra de \"frijol tapado\", que también controla bi en la enfermeda d pero reduce un poco los re ndimientos por causa de la comp etenci a de las ma l ezas co n e l cultivo (32}. Incorporar resistenc i a genéti ca a l os mate ri a les de f ri jol para l a mu s tia hil achosa se considera l a mejor alternativa de cont r ol, pero ha sido dif, ci l avanzar con rapidez. Aunque ni nguna línea conocida es i nmune, algunas nneas de f r i j ol han sido i dentifi cadas como moderadamente resistentes bajo intensa presión de l a e nfermedad . Esta res iste ncia ya ha consegui do ser incorporada a varias líneas pr omisorias (14 }. En l os viveros internac ional es de frijo l, que es donde se viene t r abajando actualmente con más intensidad en sel ección genética, se han he cho evaluac i ones para resistencia a mu s tia hilachosa en Co l omb ia, Panamá, Cos ta Rica, Nicaragua, El Sa l vador, Guatema l a y M éxi co .Las nneas BI\\T 1235 , BAT 1230, Po r rillo 70 , 5-603'0 y Porri11o 1 han mostrado nive l es aceptabl es de resistencia al ataque de l a enfermedad. Sin embargo, como esa resistencia no es s uficiente para ob tener nive les de producción sati sfactorios es necesario complementarla con controles cul turales y químicos (14).En Panamá se ha establ ecido un sistema eficiente de control de la enfermedad util izando cobertu ras y combinandolas con el sistema de labranza mínima y el uso de herbicidas postemergentes (33).El CIAT ha publicado un Si stema de Evaluaci ón para mustia (20) ; hac iendo uso de este s is tema, las l ecturas de los observa dores serán comparables en todas l as reg i ones del mundo en que se presente la necesidad de hacer estudios a l r especto .Agente ca usal:pha seo l orum Sacc . [= A. boltshauseri Sacc . , var . d1versispora) Phoma exigua Otros nombres de la enfermedad: Mancha de Ascochy t a (Portugués) , Ascochytose (Francés), Ascochyta Blight (Ing lés) .Esta enfermedad ha llegado a ser muy importante en l a reg ión Andina ( 14) , dejando as1 su condición de enfermedad secundaria como ha sta ahora se hab1 a manifestado , pue s bajo condiciones de alta humedad y baja temperatura ha ocasionado graves pérdidas económi cas. Regiones con más de 1500 m de altitud favorecen su desarrollo . En Guatemala, Shi eber (47) seña 16 que esta enfermedad habí a si do confu ndí da frecuentemente con 1 a antracnosis. En PopayAn (Colombia), Ascoc hyta es una enfermedad endémica (15), en Brasil, l os Estados de Mina Ge ra is (38) y Espíritu Santo (8 ) ha n registrado ataques de esta enfermedad con niveles de ､ ｡ ｾ ｯ ＠ económico.Inicialmente los síntomas aparecen en las hojas, con l esiones circulares de color oscuro, que al crecer adquieren la apariencia de un conjunto de c1rculos concéntricos y donde pueden estar presentes masas de ｰ ･ ｱ ｵ ･ ｾ ｯ ｳ ＠ pi cnidi os negros (Fig. 15) . Las le9'iones también se pueden presentar en l os peciolos, pedúnculos, vainas (Fig . 16) y en el tallo, el cual di sminuye de diámetro en el luga r de la lesión provocando volcamiento y muerte de la pla nta.Las lesiones en las vainas producidas por Ascochyta presentan manchas de coloración oscura sin forma definida ni depres1ones , pero sí l os anillos concéntricos y a veces la presenci a de los picnidios. En condiciones favorable s, el ataque de este patógeno es muy ráp ido, ocasionando quemadura severa en el follaje, defoliaci ón prematura y muerte de la planta.El hongo puede disemi narse por residuos de salpique del ag ua con picnidi os o por contacto micelio. Otra forma de disemi nación del contaminada (2 1). cosecha contami nados, por directo del tejido sano con hongo es por la semi lla Contra 1Al gunas de las prácti cas recomendadas para el control son : la siembra de semilla li mp i a , o en caso de duda, tratada química o físicamente para elimi nar el patógeno que all í puede ser t r anspo rtado ; rotación de cultivos, pues el nivel del inóculo puede aumentar en años segu idos como f ué constatado en Brasi 1 (38 ); establecer un mayo r espaciamiento entre las pl a ntas . Con respecto a la siembra asoc iada de frijol y maíz , hay infonnac ión que en variedades altamente susceptibl es la asociac i ón aumentó los ni veles de ataque (1 6 ) .Un trabajo sobre control integrado en Colombia (41) recom ienda aplicaci ones de ｢ ｾ ｮ ｯ ｭ ｩ ｬ ＠ cada 15 dí as con Cistanci a de s iembra 60 x 60 cm. para una variedad arbustiva . En Brasi l, el uso de benomi l tamb i én ha dado buenos resultados ( 8) . Se recomí endan también los productos a base de az ufre, también el clorotalonil y el zineb (20 ) . Los fungicidas Dacon il (Bravo) y Oe rosal (Bav i sti n ó Carbendazi m) han da do resultados muy satisfactorios en Colombi a .Para mancha foliar por Ascochyta se han he cho hasta e 1 mome nto evaluaci ones de resistencia genética en Guatemala, Colomb ia, Ecuado r, Perú, Rwanda y Tanzani a ( 15).Tamb i én se ha ev aluado la diferente reacc10n del tipo de f ri jol t repador y arbustivo, a esta enfermedad . Un material se ha presentado como muy res i s tente, identificado como GUAT E 1076 -CM, (G 35 182 ) co rrespond iente a Phaseol us coccineus subs polyanthus, la progenie oe los cruces realizados entre es te ma terial ｹ ｾ ﾷ ＠ vulgaris ha resultctdo tamb i én resistente. Dentro de P. vulgaris un a de las accesiónes más resi stente ha sido GUATE 121 3-CM y de las lineas avanzadas para l e. región andina está VRA 81022 que es l a más resistente (1 6). El tipo trepador favo rece el escape de lct enfermedad pues Ascoch yta t iende a a tacar más severame nte el tej ido más ce r ca no al suelo.El uso de espaldera ha favorecido l a resistencia genética que oponen los materiales evaluados a la enfermedad (15).CIAT presenta además un sistema de evaluación estándar para mancha por Ascochyta en frijo l.Macrophomina phaseolina (tassi) Go idanich [= !:1• phaseoli (Mau bl. ) Ashby] Otros nombres de la enfermedad :Pod redumbre carbona, tizón cenizo del tallo , mancha ceniza del tall o , pud ri ción ca rbonosa de la raíz, pudrición gri s de la raíz ; podridao cinzenta do ca ule (Po rtugués) ; pou rriture charbonneuse (Francé s) ; ashy stem blight y charicot rot ( Inglés) .Esta enfermeda d es más común en frijol expuestc. d stress de sequ ía y a temperaturas altas.Bajo estas condicior,es , ha sido reportada en l a mayo ría de las r eg i ones f ri Joler as tanto de l as Américas así como de ,5.fri ca , Asia y algunos países de Europa . En Amér ica Latina su recurrencia es reportada en algunos estados del Noroeste de Brazil como Bah ía, en Chile , Costa del Perú , Venez uela, Cu ba y en al guna s reg i ones de Amé r ica Lentrol . El patógeno qu e causa lo ¡:: udrición gri s tiene la capacidad de atacar ｾ ｵ ｣ ｨ ｯ ｳ ＠ cultivos como soya, alfalfa , ｾ ｡ ｮ ￭ Ｌ ＠ sorgo y maíz .Macrophomina phaseolina puede atacar al frijol en estado deo en estadG adu lto . En plántulas, los síntomas se pueden observar antes, pero más comúnmente después de la emergencia en los tallos a l a altu ra de las hojas coti ledonarias como chancros negros, deprimidos con bordes bien def inidos. A veces los bordes de los chancros se observan como anillos concéntricos (Fig. 17 Cuando las condiciones ambientales son adecuadas para el desarrollo de la enfermedad, los síntomas se extienden rápidamente, generalmente sólo en un lado de la planta, progresando de la base de los cotiledones en ambas direcciones a veces hasta los peciolos de las hojas primari as y frecuentemente llegando a destruir el punto de crecimiento de la plántula.También puede ocasionar el rompimiento de la plántula en el punto de l tallo debilitado por el chancro. En estos casos, es común que el hongo forme en los chancros estructuras de supervivencia llamados esclerocios. En los tallos y peciolos también puede fonnar picnidios que son las estructuras que contienen 1 as esporas asexua 1 es de 1 hongo . Ambos, 1 os esclerocios y picnidios fonnados en la superficie del tallo, se observan como pequeños puntos negros que parecen granos de pimienta molida (Fig . 18).La infección en plantas adultas causa síntomas similares . Generalmente los síntomas son también más pronunciados en un lado del tallo o de las ramas y pueden causar clorosis, marchitamiento, defoliación prematura, raquitismo y muerte de la planta. Las lesiones posteriormente se vuelven de color gris o ceniza y generalmente presentan externa o internamente losde color neyro. Tamb i én es común observar externamente los picnidios sumergidos sobre un fondo gris. La coloración gris o ceniza de las ｬ ･ ｳ ｩ ｯ ｮ ｾ ｳ ＠ con la presencia de esclerocios o picnidios le dan la apariencia característica a esta enfennedad.Los esclerocios sobreviven en los residuos de cosecha y en el suelo y son la fuente primaria de inócul o que inician la enfermedad cuand o germinan e infectan l os tallos de las plantas cerca de la superfic i e del suelo. Las conidias que se encuentran dentro de los picnidios pueden ser transportados por e •l viento y así iniciar infecciones secundaria:; sobre tudú en plantas adultas.El patógeno también puede sobrevivir en laFigu,.18.Aunque la rotación de cultivos se recomienda para disminuir el inóculo presente en el suelo , esta medida no es muy efectiva porque e l patógeno puede atacar muchos hospederos. Se recomienda sembrar semilla 1 i bre de 1 patógeno ya que éste puede ser transportado internamente en ella. También s e ha utilizado el tratamiento de la semilla con productos qu1micos como Ceresán. las aradas profundas así como la destrucción de l os residuos de cosecha infectados tienden a disminuir el inóculo. la humedad alta en el suelo y las adiciones de orgánica también reducen los niveles de los esclerocios as1 como la fumigación del suelo con bromuro de metilo. Se han identificado algunas 11neas de fri jol como BAT 85 , BAT 477 y G 5059 que tienen muy buenos niveles de resistencia a Macrophomina ph aseolina. También se reportil en el estado de Wi scons in , EE UU e 1 hongo Aphono1r.yces eutichi s causando una pudrición en las raíces de frijol; este patógeno ataca mas comúmente a las arvejas ( Pi sum sativum ) . De una man era simi l ar se ha reportado tamb ién el hongol>hymatotrichum omn i vorum, un pa t ógeno generalmente asociado con pudriciones de raices er. el algodone ro y árboles fruta les como e l durazno.La enfermedad es conocida como producción tejana de la raíz. El hongo ｴ ｾ ｡ ｣ ｲ ｯ ｰ ｨ ｯ ｭ ｩ ｮ ｡ ＠ phaseolina que ca usa la pudrición carbonosa o pudrición gris del frijol, tamb ién produce estructuras de sobrevivencia (esclerocios) que permanecen e n el suelo; sin emba rgo, los síntomas de esta enfermedad se presentan mayormente en el tallo y raramente ataca la raíz del frijol; por e sa razón, aquí no se le considera como una pud ri ción de la raíz s ino que es tratada en otro cap1tulo como una enfermedad del tallo y otras partes aéreas del fri:ol.distribuidos en la mayorí a de los suelos dende se cultiva frijo l ; sin embargo, la sola presencia de estos patógenos no s i gnifica que causen pérdidas económicas . Mucha s veces la importancia económica de las pudriciones radicales es difíci 1 de eval uar con precisi ón, porque los s íntomas que causan ocurren por debajo de l nivel del suelo y muc has de las manifestaciones de e s tas ･ ｮ ｦ ･ ｲ ｾ ･ ､ ｡ ､ ･ ｳ ＠ como amari\"l l amientu, marchitamiento, enanismo y aun l a ge r minación y emergencia pobres muchas veces son at r i buidas a factores edáfi cos y amb iental es como exceso de agua, ｳ ｵ ｾ ｬ ｯ ｳ ＠ pobres , etc.A continuación se ha ce una breve descripc ión de 1 os síntomas característicos de las enfermedades radicales más importantes del frijo l, su epi demi ol og ía y control.Esta enfermedad es también conocida como chancro o tizón; podridao radi cular de Rhizocton ia (Portugués); fonte des semis (Francés) y Rhizocton ia root rot (Inglés). El patógeno, Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn se encuentra en la mayoría de los suelos agrícolas del ｭ ｵ ｮ ｾ ｴ ｩ ･ ｮ ･ ＠ la capacidad de atacar un gran número de hospederos. El ataque de este patógeno de frijol muchas veces ･ ｳ ｴ ｾ ＠ acompafiado por ataques de Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli pudiendo resultar en dafios bastante severos. La severidad de la enfermedad depende de temperatura y humedad del suelo entre otros factores. La enfermedad se desarrolla en temperaturas de moderadas a bajas y en humedad del suelo de moderadas a altas. Se reporta que la temperatura óptima para formación de los chancros en frijol producidos ｰ ｯ ｲ ｾ ﾷ ＠ solani es de l8°C .El patógeno en el frijol puede producir podredumbre del pie (damping-off ) , pudrición radical, chancro del tallo y pudrición de la vaina.Los daños son mas severos princi palmente durante las dos primeras semanas después de la siembra. El frijol es mas susceptible antes de l a emergencia. El ataque puede disminu i r considerablemente la emergencia de las plántulas sobre todo cuando la siembra es profunda y el frijol se s iembra en suelos de textura pesada con presenci a de costras sobre la superficie a causa del mayo r tiempo de exposición de la semilla en germinación al patógeno.Algunas veces las semillas en emergencia atacadas producen plántulas co n el ápice muerto y con visibles chancros en el hipocótilo (Figura 1). Es tos chancros en el hipocót ilo y raíces, ini cialmente so n manchas ob longas pero a veces semiredondos que se transfo rman en chancros de primidos y de l i mitados por márge nes de color rojo . Posteriormente estos chancros au me ntan de tamaño , se tornan m ás profundos y roj izos, llegando a la médula y bordes se vue l ven ásperos y secos (Fi gura 2) . .l,, \": l. Las plantas co n chancros son por lo gene ral más pequeñas y menos vigorosas. Muchas veces se puede encontrar esclerocios de co lor café y mice lio sobre la superficie y dentro de estos chancros . Ambos esclerocios y micelios son la fuen te de inócu lo que emp i eza una nueva i nfecc ión y sob revi ve en el suelo o en l os residuos de cosecha . Después de l a emergencia los tall os por l o gene ral son mas resistentes al at aq ue .El patógeno tam bién ataca a las vainas en contacto con el suelo produciendo primero manc ha s grandes y acuosas las que posteriormente se tornan en lesiones deprimidas de co l or café con bordes mas oscuros y bi en delimitadas. La semilla infectada se decolora y puede transportar el patógeno.El nivel de inóculo del patógeno i ncrementa cons i derablemente en el suelo después de siembras continuas de frijol en el mismo lote por lo que se debe hacer ro t aciones con cu l tivos de espec ies no leguminosas como trigo, cebada, avena, que disminuyen rápidamente el nivel de inóculo. También se debe utili zar semi lla libre del patógeno y evitar las s i embras profundas que exponen las semi llas al patógeno por mas tiempo. La siembra no se debe hacer tampoco en suelos con temperaturas bajas y deben posponerse ha sta que la temperatura sea l o suficientemente alta para di smin uir la infección. La humedad del sue l o debe ser la mínima necesari a para la germinación y dura nte l as épocas de lluvi as se debe ha cer en cama s que faciliten el buen drenaje. En tre l os fu ng i cidas mas efectivos para el control de Rhizoctonia solan i está el PCNB conoc ido como Brasicol. Tamb ién se utiliza Demosa\"ñ\\Cíoroneb) carboxin (Vitavax, be nomil, tiram, zineb, y captan. Tanto PCNB como Demosan son muy ･ ｳ ｰ ･ ｣ ｾ ｦ ｩ ｣ ｯ ｳ ＠ al control de R. sola ni. Generalmente se ap l ican a l a semilla en dos is de 1-3 y de ingrediente activo por kilo de semill a. También se ha ut il izado PCNB para tratar el suel o antes de la s iemb ra en dosis de g kg/ha. Este es más efectivo cuando se asperja directame nte en el surco ab i erto, inmediatamente an tes de la siembra. El co ntrol químico es efectivo durante la germinaci ón y desarrol l o inici al de las plántulas . Después ya no es efec tivo; además l as plantas aume ntan su resistencia a medida que crecen. Son pocos los cultivares con buenos niveles de resistencia a R. solani, entre estos se reporta a l ea Pi j ao.Esta enfermedad conocida también como pudri ción seca de la raíz es ｣ ｡ ｵ ｾ ｡ ＠ por Fusarium so l an i (Mart.) Appel y Wollen W. f. sp. phaseol i (Burk) Snyde r y Han sen. En Portugués se 11 ama pod rida o radicular seca; en Francés fonte fusariose y en Inglés Fusarium root rot Los síntomas ini ciales aparecen en el hipocótilo y raíz principal como lesiones o vetas rojizas la que gradualmente aumentan de t amaño, se vuelven de co lor café, uniendose al coa l escer llega ndo a extenderse hasta la supervicie del sue lo y a cubrir toda la raí z . Estas lesione s no tienen márgenes muy definidos y a medi da que avanzan en edad, pueden convertirse en agrietamientos longitudinales en las raíces primarias y l ateral es l as que muchas veces m ueren a causa de la enfermeda d.Cuando la raíz primaria muere, la parte inferior del tallo se vuelve medulosa o hueca y lo que generalmente estimula el desarrollo de raíces laterales por encima del tejido infectado permitiendo que la planta 50breviva y produz ca ulgunas vainas. Si después de un ataque severo de esta enfermedad, las plantas infectadas son expuestas a deficiencia de humedad, estas muchas veces se vuelven raquíticas y mueren.El patógeno sob revive en el suelo en forma de estructuras de sobrevivencia que se ll aman clamidosporas que están asociadas con las partículas o con los residuos de cosecha . Las esporas del ｾ ｯ ｮ ｧ ｯ ＠ produc idas sobre el tejido atacado se convie r ten en c l arnidosporas las que inician la e nfermedad al germinar estimulados por los exudados de raíces tanto de las plantas susceptibles como no susceptihles.La enfermedad es mus severa cuando el frijol se siembra en suelos compactos que no permiten el rápido desarrollo de las raíces y en temperaturas frescas. La enfermedad ha sido reportada como mas severa en temperaturas de 22°C que a 32 cc . Los períodos de alta humedad del suelo que reducen la tuza de difusión del suel o , así como el ataque de nematodos del gé nero Pratylenchus y ｾ Ｑ ･ ｬ ｯ ｩ ､ ｯ ｧ ｹ ｮ ･ Ｌ ＠ contribuyen a que: la pudrición radical por f. solani seu mayo r.Es importante tene r ero cuenta que las plantas vigorosas son menos susceptibles a esta enfermedad; por lo tanto se debe sembrar en suelos bien fertilizados y con buen drenaje que favorezcan el crecimierto rápido y vigoroso de la planta. Las medidas de control util izando prácticas de cultivos deben ser enfocadas a disminu i r la competencia ertre raíces, lo cual puede hacerce distr ibuyendo unifo rmemente las 5emillas en el suelo y no sembrar varius semi 1 ias en un sólo si t i o . Se ha conseguido un control adecuado con benomil aplicado pur aspersión al surco ｩ ｮ ｮ ｾ ､ ｩ ｡ ｴ ｡ ｭ ･ ｮ ｴ ･ ＠ de spués de la 5iemb ra. Lo mi smo se ha consegu ido con Difolatán . Una vez iniciada la enfermedad la mayo rí a de los tratamientos químicos no son muy efectivos ya que l as raíces l aterales no se benefician cor. la apl i caci ón del producto . No existen mucha s variedades con resistencia a este patógeno aunque se han reportado algunos como PI 203958 , NY Ｒ Ｑ Ｑ Ｔ Ｍ Ｑ ｾ ＠ y Porrillo Sintético.Esta enfermedad puede ser causada po r varias especies de Pythium que sobrev iven en el suelo y cuyos requerimientos de temperatura varían considerablemente de ur.a especie a otra . Pythium ultimum y P. debaryanum son frecuentes er. suelos con tempe raturas baJaS, m1entras que P. myri otyl um y P. aphani dermatum son más frecuentes en su e 1 os con temperaturas ¡,]fas . En todos los casos, la alta humedad del suelo es uno de 1 os factores que mas favorece a 1 a taque de es tos patógenos , cuyos efectos o s í ntomas se conocen comúnmente como damping off. La s especies de Pythi um pueden atacar la semilla en germi nación , los cotiledo nes, la yema terminal, la radícula y e l tejido del hipocóti lo antes de la emergencia l o que puede causar la muerte de la plántula y l o que se conoce como damping off de preemergencia (Figura 3) . Las plantas que sobreviven pueden morir tres a cinco días después de la emergencia, 1 o que se conoce como dampi ng-off de postemergenci a. Los síntomas que resultan en marchitamiento se manifiestan como lesiones acuosas y alargadas en la parte mas baja del hipocótilo y en las raíces, una de tres semanas después de la siembra. Estas lesiones se pueden extender y a medida que la infección progresa, se secan y toman un color entre café y canela (Fig. 4) con la superficie levemente deprimida. Las ra1ces de las plantas infectadas aparecen cortadas y el tallo podrido de abajo hacia arriba.Bajo condiciones de alta humedad estos patógenos pueden infectar la parte aérea del tallo y causar la muerte de las plantas bien desarrolladas y en los que muchas veces se observa el micelio blanco y muy fino del hongo creciendo sob re la superficie del tallo.La incidencia de Pythium se puede reducir mediante algunas prácticas culturales.Una mayor di stancia de siembra proporciona una buena aireación y menos sombra, lo que disminuye la humedad y la transmisión entre plantas. Es importante tener suelos bien drenados. Los camellones reducen la incidencia de la enfermedad. Como estos patógenos atacan a un gran número de plantas, las rotaci ones de cultivos no dan resultados satisfactorios. Entre los productos químicos que se pueden utilizar con eficacia, están:Dexon (Fenam inosulf), Demosan (C loroneb ) y Ridomil (Apron). La resistencia a las especies de Pythium es común en las variedades de grano negro como Cornel l 21 14-12.Esta enfermedad causada por Fusari u m oxysporum Sch 1 echt f. sp. phaseo 1 i Kendrick y Sn ider, es también conocida como marchitamiento o amari llamiento por Fusarium, fusariosis, tizón por Fusarium; murcha de Fusarium (Portugués) y en Inglés como Fu sari um yellows . Este patógeno ocurre frecuentemente y tiene import ancia económica en el noroeste de Brasil , Perú, en el sur de Co lombia, Amé ri ca Central y en algu na s regiones de Estados Unidos. De las expecies de Fusarium que atacan al frijol, esta es 1 a que causa daños mas severos . Genera 1 mente su efecto es sobre e 1 sistema vascular al que lo invade causando el marchitamiento y muerte de l as plantas.Cuando el ataque es a temprana edad del cultivo, éste generalmente se queda pequeño, pudiendo sufrir raquitismo a tal punto que las pl antas no ll egan a florecer y produ cen pocas vainas.La infección general me nte ocu rre a través de las heridas en las r aíces o en los hi pocótilos y avanza ha cia los tallos , los cuales cuando la enfermedad está en etapas avanzadas de desarrollo se ven podridos (Fig . 5). El hongo ca usa el t aponamiento del sistema vascular lo que resulta en un amari llamiento y envejecimi ento prematuro de las hojas inferiores (Fig. 6).Posteriormente este amarillamiento se hace más pronunciado y afecta l as hojas más jóvenes sin que la planta sufra un severo marchitamiento. En las vainas el patógeno puede causar lesiones acuosa s sobre las vainas y así llegar a la testa de l a semilla donde sobrevive.Algunas medidas generales de control son las buenas prácticas de drenaje y fertilización que favorecen un crecimiento vigoroso de la planta. La semilla puede ser tratada con Capta fol (Oifolatán ), Ceresán o semerán . También se recomienda las rotaci ones de cultivos con cereales como arveja, trigo, etc. Se debe sembrar variedades resistentes o menos susceptibles.    ","tokenCount":"9056"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"38217a420bcc00008320643bc439d9b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be88c1ae-9fa7-4cf0-97de-5166297de9ff/retrieve","id":"347060111"},"keywords":["• P270 -[Program Management Unit] Knowledge and Data Sharing • P268 -Flagship 1","Engagement, synthesis and support OICR","Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"67d87a2d-8f23-4bdc-9edf-4f0620e3ac3a","pagecount":"3","content":"CCAFS has revised its data management guidelines, which were taken up/ adapted by CIAT for the Center. IITA has indicated interest to also adapt and build on them since. This will be used and useful to program and center partners for better quality, improve management of the data generated through their research.Contributing CRPs/Platforms:• CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Contributing Flagships:• FP1: Priorities and Policies for CSA Contributing Regional programs:• EA: East Africa There were many meetings to develop and build the data management support pack, virtual meetings and sometimes f-2-f. There were a number of webinars with CCAFS and CIAT staff. There were also presentation with external partners and IITA data and information management.","tokenCount":"116"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3d5853f36ce388d016204657e0f21471","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7088e22-7d9d-4ea0-a334-bbad514458d9/retrieve","id":"-46948275"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cd4001ba-72b9-42d5-9bd6-b8bda6f0960f","pagecount":"160","content":"Access to input / technology, information / knowledge, credit / finance is very decisive for the development of a given society in general and irrigation based high value crop production in particular. The identification of the contribution of social networks in facilitating access to these resources and services and thereby influence crop choice among irrigation user farmers is vital to identify the important actors contributing in irrigation based vegetable production. This study was undertaken in Alamata woreda, Southern Zone, Tigray National Regional State and has been designed to give a clue on the existing formal and informal social networks and groups in facilitating access to resources and services, among irrigation based vegetable growers and non growers. The practical contributions of social networks and their gender implications in facilitating access to inputs / technologies, information / knowledge and credit / finance in irrigation based vegetable production; and identification of alternatives for enhancing the role and sustainability of these social networks for promoting vegetable production in the woreda was the focus of this study. Identifying the factors for choice of crops by farmers in using irrigation was also another additional objective of the study. Multistage sampling procedure was employed to select 4 PAs out of 10PAs in the woreda and 150 sample households from the 4 PAs. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to obtain reliable information from primary and secondary sources. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics, mainly. Chi-square and ranking was used to seeFirst, I declare that this thesis is my original work and all sources of material used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of M. Sc. degree at Haramaya University and is deposited at the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. I also declare that this thesis can be submitted to any other institutions, if the University found it necessary.Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the School of Graduate Studies when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author. Tadesse for his unrestricted help during the analysis of this research paper, by devoting his precious time. My special thanks also go to Tirame Godebo who helped me a lot starting from proposal until write up the thesis.I also remain thankful to all the enumerators who assisted me in data collection with patience, commitment and dedication.I am grateful to farmers of Alamata district who responded to all questions with patience and gave basic information for this research work.My special thanks go to my family as a whole, especially to my late elder brothers: Ato Abera Hailemariam and Ato Selemon Hailemariam, who scarified a lot not only for me but also for the change of our family's life, and who taught me sharing responsibilities and living for others. And my special thanks go to my immediate elder brother for his moral support and encouragement in my every day life. The last but not the least, my deep appreciation goes to my beloved father Ato Hailemariam Seifu and my mother W/ro Simiret Negash for their encouragement and moral support through out my life.1 Relationship between social participation in different formal and informal organizations and choice of crops (N=150) 2 Relationship between social participation in different formal and informal organizations and choice of crops, across sex categories (N=150) 3 Distribution of actors as technology source to the respondents (across crop production category) in terms of their frequency of use (N=150) 4 Distribution of actors as technology / input source to the respondents (across sex category) in terms of their frequency of use (N=150) 5 Distribution of actors as credit source to the respondents (across production category) in terms of their frequency of use (N=150) 6 Distribution of actors as credit source to the respondents (across sex category) in terms of their frequency of use (N=150) 7 Distribution of actors as information source to the respondents (across Crop production category) in terms of their frequency of use (N=150) 8 Distribution of actors as information source to the respondents (across sex category) in terms of their frequency of use (N=150) 9 Distribution of actors as technology source to the respondents (based on crop production category) in terms of their score and rank (N=150) 10 Distribution of actors as technology source to the respondents (across sex category) in terms of their score and rank (N=150) 11 Distribution of actors as credit source to the respondents (across crop production category) in terms of their score and rank (N=150).12 Distribution of actors as credit source to the respondents (across sex category) in terms of their score and rank (N=150) 13 Distribution of actors as information source to the respondents (across crop production category) in terms of their score and rank (N=150) 14 Distribution of actors as information source to the respondents (across sex category) in terms of their score and rank (N=150) 15 Influence of others on decision to grow vegetable crops (N=90) 16 Market linkages (where and for whom the farmers sell their crops) by crop production categories. The total area of Ethiopia is estimated 1.1 million km 2 . From this about 60% of the land area is considered potentially suitable for agricultural production of which 16.4 million (14.8%) of the total has been used for crop production (Belay, 2003). Agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy contributing 50 % of the total GDP and 90 % of export items in which horticultural crops are the leading component. The challenge is that virtually all of those farmers involved in agricultural productions are subsistence farmers and, although the land is fertile, most agriculture is rain fed. Only 1 percent of cropland is irrigated and a period of drought can throw the whole country into crisis (FAO, 2007 as cited by Abebe, 2008).Major constraints to agricultural growth of Ethiopia are population pressure coupled with the dominant traditional agricultural production technologies, including traditional farm tools and farming practices, low application of modern inputs like improved seeds and fertilizers, and poor animal breeds. The country's capacity to support agriculture through development of irrigation has been weak (Mengistu, 2000). For a country facing recurrent drought, with severe consequences for development, the need for irrigated agriculture cannot be overlooked.Ethiopia cannot hope to meet its large food deficit through rain-fed agricultural production;the country could still face millions of tons of cereal deficit for decades to come (Desta, 2004).Ethiopia has a high potential for irrigated agriculture. It is known as 'water tower of Africa'and is endowed with abundant water resources; lakes covering 7400 km 2 , 10 major rivers, and other water bodies, which are expected to provide extensive potentials for irrigation and fish farming (Mengistu, 2000). Although, water resource potential is said to be abundant in Ethiopia, it is clear that even by the low standard of African countries, Ethiopia's use of its water resources is limited.Ethiopia cannot meet its large food deficits through rain-fed agricultural production alone.Cognizant to this fact, the government has taken initiatives towards developing irrigation schemes of various scales (Desta, 2004).The government of Ethiopia as stated in its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), has recognized the importance of water and increased its focus on water resource development and utilization to achieve food security (FDRE, 2000).Its water policy stressed increased use of small-scale irrigation through diversion of rivers and building of small dams.The importance of intervening irrigated agriculture in the economy of developing countries results from the fact that rain fed agricultural system is not capable of supplying the desired amount of production to feed the increasing population. Irrigation is not needed for any inadequacy in the total supply of water by rainfall only, but because of the inadequacy of this supply at certain times of the year. This inadequacy of moisture will surely lead to the reduction of plant growth (Briggs and Courtney 1989 as cited by Mintesinot ,et.al, 2004).Therefore, Irrigation is used in order to combat periods of moisture stress so as to fulfill the crop moisture requirement and increase the production. Irrigation practice is an expensive one, and in many cases can only be applied with profit to high value crops.Currently the population of Ethiopia is about 76,511,887 (July, 2007 est.) and expected to double within the coming 30 years. Almost 80% of the population is living in the country side while the rest situated in urban area. An estimated five million people are suffering from lack of vitamins and essential minerals, of which 80% are children for the next generation.On the other hand, vegetables are indicated to be the major source of most micronutrients and the only practical and sustainable way to ensure their supply (Anonymous, 1998).Ethiopia has highly-diversified agro-ecological conditions which are suitable for the production of various types of fruit and vegetables. However, the contribution of horticultural crops both to the diet and income of Ethiopians is insignificant. With the aim of enhancing agricultural development, the Government considers various projects, including small-scale irrigation mainly through rainfall harvesting and home gardening, to be of crucial importance.As a result, vegetable and fruit production is being more widely adopted, primarily to ensure food security and promote production of high-value crops for the market and improving the living conditions of smallholders (Abebe, 2008).Ethiopia has a variety of vegetable crops grown by small farmers in different agro-ecological zones, mainly as a source of income as well as for food. Commercial producers are also involved in the production, processing and marketing of vegetable. The crops are produced under rain fed and irrigated condition. It is produced both in cereals based cropping system and in monoculture. The warm season vegetables such as tomato, onion and Capsicum are grown in the lowland areas under irrigation, whereas the high land areas offer favorable condition to grow cool season vegetables like cabbage, garlic, shallot, carrot etc (Lemma et al., 1994).According to Abebe, ( 2008) although the potential is enormous, the development of horticultural crops production is still in infancy. The status of vegetable production in the country yet needs further improvement. Despite an enormous potential and a favorable environmental advantage in the country, vegetable farming is relatively under-developed.Nevertheless, even though there is limited production at a national level for most of the vegetable crops, the productivity levels achieved show the potential of vegetable production in the country.However, new ideas and ways of doing things do not necessarily take hold all at once, but often spread gradually through social networks. Rogers (1995) concludes that: \"The heart of the diffusion process consists of interpersonal network exchanges between those individuals who have already adopted an innovation and those who are then influenced to do so\".According to Hogset (2005), social networks may influence technology adoption through their function as a source of informal finance (both credit and insurance), as channels of information and thus vehicle of learning, as a means for resolving externalities and collective action problems, or through enforcement of social norms. The role of informal networks in Africa has been extensively documented by sociologists and anthropologists. But, we have little understanding of the inter-linkages between them and formal government and market activities. Informal networks are there, where much of rural insurance and credit activity is located. Networks, however, by their nature are personalized and exclusive and we have little understanding of why and under what circumstances some people might be excluded from social networks (Hoddinott et.al., 2005).Moreover, these functions of social networks may interact with gender to produce different outcomes for decision -makers of different gender. Different members of the same household may also participate in different social networks due to gender or generational differences. Several studies have found that men and women's personal networks differ in composition. Men's networks tend to be more formal since men are more often involved in formal employment. Male networks include more co-workers and fewer kin than women's networks (Moore, 1990). Moreover, this has its own effect on the process of decision making at household level, regarding to technology adoption, in relation to access to information and other resources.Because mostly women have very low participation in important and decisive institutions and as a result they have low access to resources, new technologies, and also information/ knowledge. According to Deribe (2007), majority of women farmers interviewed in, SNNP, Dale woreda, were having no involvement in any formal and informal institutions or organisations. The types of the institutions in which they are mostly involved are ekub, edir, or mahber, next to religious organisations and also they are mostly involved in women's associations. Despite these facts, most of the time development programs are not gender sensitive. In this regard, Quisumbing (2003) indicates that development programs are often criticized for failing to account for gender inequalities in decision making, task allocation and resource ownership and management, which has implications for policy recommendations.In the context of knowledge management, social network analysis enables relationships between people to be mapped so as to identify knowledge flows. The results can be used to identify teams and individuals playing central roles as well as spot opportunities for information flow improvements and to bring equitable accessing of resource and services (NeLH, 2008).So, it becomes essential to investigate and design policy and institutional options in relation to identifying important formal and informal social networks, in order to support and encourage farmers choice of high value crops and diversified income generating activities, as part of strategies used to meet challenges in food security and to bring better livelihood in the farming community.No attempt has been made so far to study the contribution of formal and informal social networks in facilitating access to inputs / technologies, information / knowledge and finance / credit and thereby influence farmers to take up high value vegetable crops in irrigated fields, which is the major cash crop in the study area.Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) policy briefs that in drought-prone areas, agricultural production, among others, can be increased through the development of small-scale irrigations by providing the necessary farm inputs, credit facilities and extension services by the government (Tafessee, 2007).Alamata is one of the drought prone areas in Tigray region. Despite this fact, it has a very great potential of underground water. In addition, run off water from the surrounding mountains becomes the main sources of supplementary irrigation, even if there is no sufficient rainfall (IPMS, 2005). Considering this potential of the area, the government is trying to introduce farmers with cash crops, mainly vegetable crops, in addition to traditional crops.For this purpose the government is constructing different water structures and diversions to utilize the water flooding from high lands, so that farmers will be profitable and economically strong using this irrigation resource. For instance, the Tigray Commission of Water Resources, IFAD and REST have developed a series of 30 ponds that could enable supplementary irrigation of 133 ha in the woreda (IPMS, 2005).In spite of the market oriented development program of the government and the irrigation potential of the area, there are many farmers who are still remained to be in subsistence farming, confined to cereal crops, mainly for home consumption, while some of them are moving towards market oriented agriculture. This is true especially for FHHs in the study area. For this observable differences regarding crop choice in using irrigation among the farmers, social networks and their functional contribution in facilitating access to inputs / technologies, information / knowledge; and services are assumed to play vital roles, in addition to other preceding factors. Because in order to use irrigation water for high value market oriented cash crops such as vegetables, availability and accessibility of the needed resources and services is very important and this is possible only through formal and / or informal social networks among the community members.Access to input / technology, knowledge / information and services could largely depend on the size of social networks of individuals, which depends on their participation in different formal and informal groups and / or their formal and informal relation ships with individuals and organizations.Hence, in a given social system it is important to identify influential networks and their functional contributions in facilitating access to resources and services in addition to their gender dimensions, so that it would be possible to know the most important actors influencing the community in relation to growing high value market oriented crops.So far, there is no systematic investigation done in the study area, that shows the contribution of social networks (formal/informal) in agricultural knowledge/ information flow, access to resources/services and thus in taking up irrigation based high value crops, specifically vegetables. In the context of the recent approach of promoting commercialization of farming and improving market success, this study is expected to fill the gap in this aspect so as to formulate necessary policy recommendations for needed interventions.The general objective of the study was to asses the contribution of social networks for facilitating access to different resources and services, along with their gender dimensions; and there by influence farmers to choose high value vegetable crops.The specific objectives of the study were:1. to assess the contribution of social networks in facilitating access to resources and services in the context of using irrigation for high value vegetable crops;2. to study the gender dimensions of social networks in using irrigation for high value vegetable crops; and 3. to analyze the factors influencing the choice of crops by farmers with access to irrigation;1. How do social networks contribute to access resources and services for irrigation based high value crop production?2. How different are the social networks of women (FHHs) and men (MHHs) for accessing resources and services?3. What are the determinant factors that influence the choice of crops of farmers, when there is access to irrigation?The study was conducted in one of the eight woredas in southern zone of Tigray region. The data were collected from a sample of 150 respondents from four PAs. Due to time and resource limitations the study covered the aforementioned respondents' from 4 PAs with access to spate irrigation.The main focus of the study was to see flows of information, inputs / materials, finance/ credit, market linkage, know who has more access to resources/ services and to know why some farmers are becoming market oriented while, others are still remained producing cereal crops for consumption, and what the contribution of the social networks are in facilitating access to important inputs, resources and services, in using irrigation and taking up high value crops, giving due attention to gender. Finally, it is important to note that, Ethiopia is diversified in agro-ecological, socio-economic, cultural, and institutional environment, and the study being location specific in nature, its results could not be generalized to the zonal or regional level. However, the recommendations and policy implications of the study can be used for other areas of similar contexts and as a basis for further studies.It is inevitable that using irrigation mainly for high value crops (vegetables) is the most recommended way for Ethiopia in order to alleviate poverty and generate income of the majority poor rural households using the limited and poor resource, especially in drought prone areas like the study area. In this case; merely introducing new practices such as producing vegetable crops will not give out the purpose of improving the livelihood of the farming community in general and the income level of the poor specifically. Along with introducing new practices, identifying important social networks for flows of information / knowledge, inputs / technologies and credit / finance is critical. This will give an insight regarding who has more access to services and resources, why some farmers are producing high value crops and become benefited, but others still produce consumption crops, when irrigation is available.In order to explore these and other similar questions, studies which focus on social network and their contribution on flows of information, inputs/ materials, finance/ credit is essential.Because, once social relationships and resource flows can be seen, they can be evaluated and measured and its results can be used to identify teams and individuals playing central roles as well as isolated teams or individuals. Moreover, this will have its own contribution for future research and extension as well as for different developmental programs to be effective.Though it is known that social networks and social interactions have a decisive role in accessing information, resources and services, different studies so far gave little attention to it.So, this study will provide information to different development actors involved in developmental works, especially for those who are involved in expanding irrigation and introducing high value crops, at different levels, on the contribution of social networks (formal and informal) for information/ knowledge dissemination and also facilitating access to different resource/ services.2.1. Concepts and Definitions:The first question in any discussion of irrigation, as stated by Turner (1994), is the concept and definition. Certainly irrigation is the application of water to living plants. According to FAO (1994), irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the crop for the purpose of food and fiber production overcoming deficiencies in rainfall and help in creating stabilized agriculture. Irrigation development could also be defined as a case of agricultural development in which technology intervenes to provide control for the soil moisture regimes in the crop root zone in order to achieve a high standard of continuous cropping (EVDSA, 1996). A wide definition such as the following is, therefore, more important. Irrigation is the practice of applying water to the soil to supplement the natural rainfall and provide moisture for plant growth (Uphoff, 1986).With respect to the area irrigated, scale of operation and type of control or management, irrigation is categorized either as small, medium or large scale (Seid, 2002). Regarding the ways of supplying water, flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, sprinkling or spray irrigation and drip irrigation are identified (Nigussie, 2002). Irrigation may also be categorized using other criteria such as ownership, economic objective and modernity. Although tank irrigation, small dam irrigation and shallow or deep tube well irrigation are generally termed as small-scale irrigation schemes (Smith, 1998), some considerations of the criteria of classifying irrigation in terms of scale may vary from country to country. Turner (1994) also points out that irrigation systems can be classified according to size, source of water, management style, degree of water control, source of innovation and type of technology. Most authors, however, agree that concepts of local management and simple technology should be combined with size.Moreover, small-scale irrigation can be defined as irrigation, usually on small plots, in which small farmers have the controlling influence, using a level of technology, which they can operate and maintain effectively. In terms of management, there are three broad types of smallholder schemes: government-managed, farmer-managed, and jointly-managed schemes.Farmer-managed schemes are developed either by community or by the government but owned and managed by the farmers' irrigation management committees or water users' associations with minimal government interventions. Small-scale irrigation is, therefore, farmer managed: farmers must be involved in the design process and, in particular, with decisions about boundaries, the layout of the canals, and the position of outlets and bridges (Yusuf 2004 as cited by Taffese, 2007). In similar fashion, FAO (1996) defined small scale irrigation as: Farmer-managed irrigation schemes of a few hundred square meters to a several thousand hectares, developed, operated and maintained by individuals, families, communities, or local rulers and landowners, independently of government, and generally for the production of basic food or fiber crops and vegetables for local markets. Indeed, small-scale schemes are defined as schemes that are controlled and managed by the users themselves.Ethiopia has a variety of vegetable crops grown in different agro-ecological zones by small farmers, mainly as a source of income as well as for food. Commercial producers are also involved in the production, processing and marketing of vegetable. The crops are produced under rain fed and irrigated condition. It is produced both in cereals based cropping system and in monoculture. The warm season vegetables such as tomato, onion and Capsicum are grown in the lowland areas under irrigation, whereas the high land areas offer favorable condition to grow cool season vegetables like cabbage, garlic, shallot, carrot etc (Lemma et al., 1994). The area of vegetable crops, cultivated land of the peasant farms is not well known. However, the production of all the vegetable crops is estimated to be about 2.8 million tons per year. In fact, the total area under major vegetable crops production excluding tuber crops in the country is estimated to be about 131,962 ha in 2005 with an increase of about 18. 13% over 200413% over (CSA, 2007)).According to CSA, 2006/07 irrigated land holders living near to urban centers largely practice vegetable farming. Most vegetables are not commonly practiced by the rural private peasant holders, hence the small volume of production recorded as well evidenced by the survey results. CSA also reported that, vegetables took up 0.84% of the area under all crops at national level. Of all the area under vegetables 59.74% and 24.62% was under red peppers and Ethiopian Cabbage, respectively. As to the volume of production of vegetables, 29.47% and 46.13% was that of the same crops, in that order.\"Social capital is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition or in other words, to membership in a group which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectivity-owned capital, a \"credential\" which entitles them to credit, in the various senses of the word\" (Bourdieu, 1986). In the 1990s, Robert Putnam emerged as a key user of the concept social capital. In 1993, he claimed that \"Social capital refers to features of social organization, such as trust, norms and networks, that can improve the efficiency of society, facilitating co-coordinating actions for mutual benefit\" However, in more recent writings Putnam (2000) has located trust as an outcome of social capital defined as social networks and associated norms of reciprocity.Portes (1998), on the other hand, observed, 'Whereas economic capital is in people's bank accounts and human capital is inside their heads, social capital inheres in the structure of their relationships'. The uniqueness of social capital is that it is relational. It exists only when it is shared. According to Hancock (1999), social capital constitutes the 'glue' that holds communities together, with an informal aspect related to social networks and a formal aspect related to social, development and other programs. Likewise, social capital encompasses the formal and informal rules that enable coordinated action and goal achievement\" (World Bank 2000). Deepa Narayan, who has attempted to apply the concept to field situations, refers to it as \"the glue that holds groups and societies together -bonds of shared values, norms and institutions\" (Narayan and Pritchett, 1997) Social capital refers to the norms and networks that facilitate collective action. Social capital is also referred to as the ability of men and women farmers to develop and use various kinds of social networks and the resources that become available as a result. A social network is a set of individuals or groups who are connected to one another through socially meaningful relationships (Wellman & Berkowitz, 1988). This definition can be refined further: a social network is a finite set of actors who are connected to one another through relations. A social network can consist of groups and sub-groups of actors.Examples of such socially meaningful relationships include family, friends, or relations based on trust, giving advice, or sharing information (Stone, 2001).Understanding the groups and networks that enable people to access resources and collaborate to achieve shared goals is an important part of the concept of social capital. Informal networks are manifested in spontaneous, informal, and unregulated exchanges of information and resources within communities, as well as efforts at cooperation, coordination, and mutual assistance that help maximize the utilization of available resources. Informal networks can be connected through horizontal and vertical relationships and are shaped by a variety of environmental factors, including the market, kinship, and friendship. Another kind of network consists of associations, in which members are linked horizontally. Such networks often have clearly delineated structures, roles, and rules that govern how group members cooperate to achieve common goals. These networks also have the potential to nurture self-help, mutual help, solidarity, and cooperative efforts in a community. \"Linking\" (vertical) social capital, on the other hand, includes relations and interactions between a community and its leaders and extends to wider relations between the village, the government, and the marketplace (Dudwick, et.al, 2006).Finally it is understood that social networks is not considered as a single entity, rather it is multidimensional. There are many definitions, controversies over the definitions and ways of  (Rogers, 1983).Understanding contexts for social learning merits special attention. In order to fully achieve learning in the real life situation, not only to a 'person' as learner, but more importantly to a 'person' as resource manager, learning to solve problems requires not only perception but also resources from the environment. The household or the community cannot just learn without the availability of the complementary resources for the learning to take place because they learn for immediate (Tesfaye, 2003). Ellison and Fudenburg (1993) use the argument to justify simple rules of thumb where individuals learn from similar neighbors only, slowing down the rate of diffusion. The individual could in principle do better than that by controlling for differences between his own and his neighbors' characteristics when learning from their experiences, but only to the extent that these characteristics are observed. Social learning breaks down if unobserved, or imperfectly observed, individual characteristics are important determinants of neighbors'outcomes.Recent research work on social learning in agriculture showed that farmers learn how to cultivate a new crop from past choices of others in their social network who are cultivating the same crop (Conley and Udry, 2000).Social capital may influence social learning and information diffusion in a number of ways.First, social capital reduces the cost of information acquisition since it can be acquired passively during social interactions or actively from people who already know each other.Second, social capital reduces the uncertainty about the reliability of information. Information is likely to be given a higher value if it comes from trusted people. Third, social capital facilitates the willingness and cooperation to share information, thereby revealing the tacit information that would be difficult to exchange otherwise (Yli Renko et al, 2002).The interrelationship between the individual and society facilitates social learning in a community. Whether the quest for an alternative originates from an individual or group or the entire society, practices that are consistent with the social system are likely to spread in the community. When more people are involved in practice, it is likely that it will be modified and developed to fit different members of the community (Tesfaye, 2003).Social capital is increasingly recognized as an intervening factor in the process of social learning and information exchange. Social capital depicts the features of social organizations, such as social institutions, networks or associations, less institutionalized networks of friends, relatives and acquaintances (or private social networks) and civic engagement, that enable knowledge gathering and information exchange (Katungi et al., 2006).Since every society is built around relationships, the behavior of an individual actor cannot be fully understood unless we relate it to the actions of others with whom the individuals are connected through various social ties (Granovetter, 1985).Social and informational networks do exist within the farming community; they exert a significant influence on farm-level decision making; and such networks affect different decision domains in different ways.Small-scale producers often rely on informal mechanisms of information exchange and knowledge sharing to address agricultural problems and challenges. Given the limited scope of formal extension programs, informal exchange is often the primary source of information about new technologies in sub-Saharan Africa. The increasing role of informal mechanisms for information sharing has been recognized in the literature through farmer-to-farmer models of agricultural development (Eveleens et al., 1996).In the developing world as a whole, women play the primary role in food production. Rural women, who undertake a major proportion of farm work, are responsible for family food security and home production, and are often involved in post harvest processing and marketing. However, they often enjoy lower levels of social status and economic security in the family (Ravula et al., 2006).Women and men also have different resource endowment when pursuing livelihood strategies, which could have far-reaching consequences on social capital formation and information exchange. Women are often more dependent on informal networks based on everyday forms of collaboration, such as collecting water, fetching fuel wood and rearing children. These services, together with the fact that women have a high opportunity cost of time, may motivate women to form networks with individuals who are geographically close to reduce the length of time required for travel for social interaction ( Granovetter, 1973).According to Ravula et al., (2006), as a result of differing social networks and correspondingly different levels of access to information, men and women experience different economic consequencesFor women to build and maintain a social network is also costly in terms of both time and other resources imposing a barrier to social capital accumulation (Dasgupta, 2005). Women typically have a high opportunity cost of time that reduces their incentives to participate in certain social networks (Meinzen-Dick and Zwarteveen, 2003). Women have been found to join groups that mobilize fewer resources than men because they are resource-constrained (Maluccio et al., 2003).Available evidence suggests substantial differences in men's and women's networks, particularly in composition. The evidence suggests that men belong to more formal networks reflecting their employment or occupation status, while women have more informal networks that are centred on family and kin. Findings show that women who are engaged in agriculture and allied activities develop bonding social capital characterized by strong bonds such as that found among family members or among members of an ethnic group. Men who are engaged in agriculture, on the other hand, develop bridging social capital characterized by weaker, less dense but more crosscutting ties such as with farmers, acquaintances, and friends from different ethnic groups and friends of friends (Moore, 1990).In many rural areas, where small-scale agriculture is practiced, gender differences have been found to have a significant impact on resource allocation and productivity in agriculture (Alderman et al., 2003). Gender inequalities almost always favor men, with women often being disadvantaged both in the control over household assets and in the division of responsibilities in the household and in the community (Fafchamps and Quisumbing, 2003).Even when a woman heads the household and is in charge of household resources, gender differences emerge across female-headed households and their male-headed counterparts (Peters, 1983).Women in rural areas are known for their very low access to different essential resources.Irrigation water is among the most important resources in rural community for agricultural production, especially for vegetable crops, in which women have less access in most cases.Committee of Feminist Economists (CFE), ( 2007) during the formulation of the Eleventh Five Year Plan, pointed out in this regard that, it is necessary to enhance and protect water resources and invest in and protect women's access to water. Gender issues arise in relation to both domestic water use especially for drinking (which women primarily collect) as well as water for irrigation which women tend to have little access to). Rural women's access to water for their fields and their equal participation in water user's association are essential.Women must be made key actors in management of local water bodies and women should constitute at least 50% of the members of Water Users Associations set up for participatory management.The contribution of women as food producers is less recognized because women's employment in the agricultural sector is mostly unpaid. Since the role of women as food provider in the household is considered domestic work, it is not included in the national economic account. Women's status as unpaid workers makes them invisible thus resulting in reduced access to services such as credit, new technology and information. Agricultural extension workers have neglected women's issues. According to Monthathip (1995),Agricultural extension primarily reaches male farmers because women generally are not invited to participate in training and extension meetings.According to CFE (2007), Women, especially poor women, are increasingly excluded from formal sources of finance and, as a result, have to resort to borrowing from moneylenders at high interest rates. Financial inclusion requires increasing women's access to all types of credit sources, especially from commercial banks and cooperatives and not just micro-finance institutions, which has tended to overwhelm all other sources for women, even while acknowledging the important role of microfinance in providing for women's needs. Women need credit in much larger amounts than currently provided for. Financial inclusion should embody not just loans but include savings, various insurance services, as well as pensions.Studies on gender have highlighted entrenched inequalities in control over assets, gender discrimination in labour markets and lack of a voice in the power struggles controlling resource allocation as major reasons for women's poverty and vulnerability (Buvini´c and Gupta, 1994;Jackson, 1995;Kabeer, 1995;Lockwood, 1995). One dimension of vulnerability, especially of the poor in marginal areas, is a lack of power, voice and social networks that limits their access to resources, institutions, technology and markets.Application of the concept in agriculture has shown that communities with higher levels of participation, social networks and local organizations are more efficient in information sharing and more receptive to extension projects, and therefore more likely to use modern agricultural inputs than those without. Social capital is the economic value obtained in institutional or individual networking, and its significant effects on development outcomes, both positive and negative. It improves access to resources like land, information and knowledge about new technology options and practices. Furthermore, it expands choices available to each household member -e.g. selecting and adopting seed technology of their choice, and alternative investment options -and influences the distribution of benefits from the technology because of the ways in which social networks and social relationships facilitate technology dissemination (Bantilant and Padmaja, 2008).High quality supply seeds availability is determined by the connection of the farm to various social networks. The management of the biodiversity at the village scale through complex and intersected networks of exchanges supports the conservation, the renewal and the diffusion of varieties adapted to the needs of the local populations. Social networks play a key role in determining access to seeds and information. Relationships of trust and affection within the extended family, neighbor hood or beyond are fundamental to the exchange process, while norms, laws, rules, procedures, traditions, customs and practices influence the choice of individuals. All of which affect the movement of genes within households, villages, between villages, and over larger geographic areas (Subedi, A. et al., 2004). Wellman (1979) showed that the larger the network, the greater the chance of finding at least one member able to provide resource (information, labor, inputs like seed etc to their members). In addition, the larger the network size the greater the chance that several individuals possess the same resource, thereby avoiding the need to refer constantly to the same individual for resource (information, labor, credit, inputs like seed etc). Wellman has also demonstrated that the more the members of a network are interconnected (network density), the greater the chance of similarity of the resources they exchange among themselves. In a dense network, exchanges occur more easily and are better co-ordinate, although the accessible resource may be less varied. The inverse is true for networks with weak interconnections among members. According to Narayan (2000), strong networks and membership based organizations extended beyond the family and immediate community are essential to help poor people gain access to other assets and resources.Women are consequently more likely to rely on kin and social networks for access to resources. Because men and women belong to different social networks, the economic and social consequences of technological choices and developmental interventions impact their social networks and associations in different ways. Traditionally, women are responsible for household welfare and child rearing. Reliance on informal exchange networks is necessary among women and their households to share resources, stabilize incomes, and reduce risks.For women in female-headed households networks are also important for their economic activities (Ravula et al., 2006).It was not easy to find sufficient studies which relate social networks with decision of choice of crops, which could be related to the recentness of the concept. Hence, in this part those studies that are directly or indirectly related to the variables of this study were reviewed. Now a days the concept of social networks is becoming well-known, especially in relation to agriculture. It has shown that individuals with higher levels of participation, large social networks and more involvement in local organizations are more efficient in information sharing and more receptive to extension packages, and therefore more likely to use modern agricultural technologies than those without. Several studies have documented that households who are actively involved in social networks are better insured against unforeseen risks of failures or financial losses than households who are less involved in social networks and have few relatives (Barlett, 1980). Bantilan and Padmaja (2008) have explored the importance of social capital creation for agricultural research for development in general, and for the adoption of groundnut technology in particular, and the different processes and outcomes for women and men.They systematically document the process of empowerment, whereby the marginalized groups (including women and tribals) gained better access to resources, information, knowledge and some opportunities for political participation. Collective action was enhanced with the increased involvement and participation of women. Kinship ties were more common among women's networks than among men's. The study showed that technology uptake improved as rural Indian farmers were empowered through building social capital, in particular, where social networks crossed caste and class barriers. The process of build-up of social capital played an important role in influencing the distribution of benefits from the technology, because of the ways in which social networks and social relationships facilitated technology dissemination. Thus, social networks played a crucial mediating role in the process of technology uptake.Studies have found that mechanisms for farmer-to-farmer seed flow are based mostly on traditional social networks and family relationships but as Tripp, (2000) pointed out that, one should be careful not to assume that seed flows are always the result of seed exchanges among them. In many instances, seed obtain from other as gifts, through purchase, or as exchanges for labor or grain. Even if seed is bought and sold among, these transactions may occur among people with close social ties and within the same village. The marketplace can also be an important source of seed, and might be included as part of the network (Tripp, 2000). Bantilan and Padmaja (2008) in their study in titled; Empowerment Through Social Capital Build-Up: Gender Dimensions In Technology Uptake in India, pointed out that choices available to farm households which could be related to cropping pattern, investment strategies, and choices to better manage risk and instability are highly related to social capital conditions. They also recommend that understanding formal and informal organizations is necessary to perceive how people mobilize and acquire a wide range of assets and gain access to decision-making processes, technologies, resources and markets, and benefit from them.Recently the role of social networks in facilitating access to different resources and services such as information, inputs, and credit is increasingly acknowledged. Generally it is gradually becoming known that social networks play a crucial mediating role in the process of technology uptake in rural farm communities. The researcher adhere to this view in studying the contribution of different formal and informal social networks may play in facilitating access to information, inputs and credit and thereby influence the choice of growing vegetable crops among rural households along with the gender implication of the networks in Alamata Woreda.The conceptual framework indicates that households' formal and informal networks are expected to influence the household's access to inputs / technologies, information / knowledge, and credit / finance and thus influence the crop choice decision at household level. This is because of the hypothesis that the involvement in different formal and informal  Access to other services Other preceding factorsAlamata woreda is located 600 km north of Addis Ababa and about 180 km south of the The mountains surrounding Alamata cover a large area and have a series of dissected gullies, which serve as a source of runoff water to the Alamata valley. The gullies join together and form rainy season rivers down the foot of the mountains. The dissected channels slowly spread over the valley depositing silts and water down to the valley. The fine silt is relatively fertile and the water becomes a source of supplementary irrigation. The Alamata valley is one of the most agriculturally potential areas in the Tigray. Farmers in the woreda extensively cultivate cereals and vegetable; and raise mainly sheep and cattle in the valley.The total area of the woreda is estimated at 550 sq. km. However, the total area based on a digital data obtained from IPMS GIS Unit is 725.39 sq. km. Altitude and rainfall increase from south to north and east to west. Shortage of rainfall (moisture stress) is a major constraint of agricultural production in the woreda. Rainfall is usually intense and short duration. As a result of all these; Alamata is one of the 16 drought prone woredas in the Tigray region. It experiences bimodal rainfall, but since recently the rainfall pattern has drastically changed that the main rains at times start around the mid of August and stops soon after and the small rains is very uncertain (IPMS, 2005).The belg (short rains) is from January to February and Meher (long rains) from July to August. In this area, both the short and long rains were below average. Reliability of rainfall is increasingly becoming so low year after year that crop production is affected significantly.The short rains are used for land preparation for the main rainy season and also for growing grass for livestock. In addition, it is also used to grow vegetable seedlings in areas where irrigation is not available. The main rains are not also reliable because the rains do not last long enough for supporting crop growth. In the old days, the big rain usually used to start in April at which time farmers would plant sorghum (which lasts for 8 months) and harvest it in November. Farmers in the area still exercise the planting of the long seasoned sorghum but with difficulties of obtaining good harvest. Even if the crop does not fail totally because of the crop's drought tolerance, yield is substantially low. On the other hand, rainfall in the midlands is slightly reliable but because of poor soil fertility and shallow soil depth, productivity is also very low.Currently, field pea, faba bean, lentils (highlands) teff and pepper (lowlands) are the most important marketable commodities in Alamata. The pulses are grown on rain fed while teff could be grown on rain fed but with supplementary irrigation (spate irrigation), and pepper is totally grown using irrigation. However, the woreda strategic plan has identified other newly introduced crop commodities for the lowland areas as the future focus using underground water as a source of irrigation. The newly introduced crop commodities and identified as future potential are cotton, tomato, pepper, onion, fruits (papaya, avocado, oranges, guava, mango, banana, and grape vine), haricot bean (rain fed) and groundnut, cowpea and popcorn (in order of importance). Among these crops, farmers traditionally grow pepper, papaya and guava in smaller plots in the valley bottoms (IPMS, 2005).In The fledgling horticultural production using irrigation in the woreda is also selling to private trades or directly to consumers in the woreda. Farmers are seriously concerned about market availability and price stability for their horticultural produce, especially in view of the push to produce these crops using irrigation water by the woreda extension service. There seems to be a good potential to produce horticultural crops in the lowland plain of the woreda, which covers about 75% of the cultivated land. It is quite crucial to develop markets for these produce if farmers are to be involved in producing them in a sustainable way. Farmers concern of market availability for horticultural crops is much more serious than for cereal crops, because the latter can always be stored by the household and consumed as food later.Lack of market for horticultural crops can result in heavy loss if the produce is not sold in time or if prices plummet. It was reported that a farmer can get revenue of up to Birr 2000.00/year from a 0.2 ha of onion and Birr 4,000 from tomato production, if prices are reasonable.Seed supply for teff, maize, wheat, cotton, and horticultural crops (onion, tomato, fruit crops etc.) were reported to be below the need and not arriving in time. There is a newly established fruit crops and vegetables nursery in the woreda, managed by the OoARD. There may be a need to convert that nursery into a federally managed nursery to supply seeds and planting materials to a wider area along the valley. Strengthening this nursery site and establishing similar nurseries can play important role in alleviating the problem. Moreover, farmer to farmer supply of seedlings and planting materials is another approach that needs to be explored in the future, since there are signs of private farmers selling seedlings and planting materials in the woreda. Technical training and support to farmers is crucial in this regard.In Many types of vegetables could easily be grown in the valley because of the conducive climate and easy access to water. Among these vegetables, growing pepper has a long history in the area. As a result, farmers have developed their own systems. But the preference is becoming changed into onion production because of the gradual decrease of productivity of pepper in the area, due to diseases and pests. Efforts are underway through the OoA and REST to introduce different vegetables, in addition to pepper. Sometimes, the price of vegetables becomes discouraging; especially when there is surplus production. According to IPMS (2005), The current attempts of boosting irrigation in the area is likely to drive prices low and hence other innovative ways of producing and marketing need to be assessed.Market potentials for vegetables may need to be assessed because there will be high number of vegetable growers in the future. Currently, marketing of vegetables is done on an individual basis. The marketing of vegetables will also depend up on the production of vegetables in other areas. However, the farmers in general lack market information and are severely affected by lower prices of their produces (IPMS, 2005). Generally, the major constraints in the area in relation to market are market fluctuation, lack of market information, weak capacity of service cooperatives, poor shelf life, especially for tomato and onionIn spite of the irrigation potential and favorable agro ecological condition for vegetable production in the area, there are a lot of constraints in relation to production, input supply and finance, in addition to marketing problems. Among the constraints identified by IPMS (2005) are; poor yield, lack of knowledge on proper agronomic practice of vegetables, diseases and pest problems, lack of proper knowledge on post harvest handling and unavailability of improved seeds, lack of sufficient planting materials for improved vegetables (seed, seedlings), high fertilizer and pesticide cost, unavailability of fungicide in Alamata, rigid credit system, group credit system discouraging farmers, and weak capacity of service cooperatives.Al am at a Multistage stratified sampling design was used to select the respondents. First, Alamata wereda was purposively selected because of its potential for access to irrigation, and thus potential for high value vegetable crops production for market. In addition it is one of the pilot learning weredas (PLWs) of IPMS, the sponsor of this research.There are 10 PAs in the wereda. Two PAs are in the high land part of the wereda and the other eight are lowlands. The highland was not included in this study because the irrigation land coverage is not as significant as in the low lands and also there is lack of transportation facilities. Then, the PAs in the low lands were stratified into two groups in which the first stratum includes the PAs having access to spate irrigation, and the other one includes the PAs without spate irrigation. From the first group, with access to spate irrigation four PAs which have extensive cultivation of vegetables and cereals were selected purposively among which, two PAs are nearer and the other two are relatively far from the woreda town. This was done in consultation with woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development and available documents. Then each PAs was stratified by vegetable growers and non growers. In the next stage vegetable growers as well as non growers were stratified in to male and female headed households. Vegetable growers were purposively fixed to be 60% while the non growers to be only 40%. The sampling frame of the study was the farmers who grow either vegetables or cereals or both using spate irrigation, with or without other crops. Probability proportional random sampling design (PPS) was applied to select farmers who grow vegetables and who do not grow vegetables, but growing cereals from each kebele. Finally, 150 HHs were selected as the sample of the study. The sample has purposively included 26 % FHHs. This was made to implicit the needed data regarding gender based social networks and access to resources and services and their implications in decision making of households to grow vegetable crops using irrigation.To fulfill the objectives of the study, both qualitative and quantitative data were gathered from the primary sources. The qualitative data were gathered through focused group discussion, key informant's interviews, and informal discussions with farmers, and personal observations. Quantitative data were generated through survey method employing structured interview with the sample respondents. In addition; relevant secondary data were collected from available reports, records and other published and unpublished documents from the concerned offices.Emphasis was given to the qualitative data also, to capture all relevant information required to have an in-depth view of the gender dimensions of social networks and to find out constraints in relation to growing vegetable crops using irrigation.From the household survey, the necessary information of sample household regarding their social networks for accessing inputs / technologies, information and credit services; and also their personal & demographics and socio-economic conditions, was collected. For the household survey, the enumerators who were familiar to the area were recruited from the study area and were trained on the objectives, methods of data collection and interviewing techniques. The interview schedule was semi-structured and pre-tested before the interviews took place. Besides the surveyed sample, different methods were used in order to elicit relevant qualitative information especially in relation to gender dimensions of social networks and to see major constraints to grow vegetables. There were four focused group discussions in each selected PA in which men and women have discussed separately. In addition, group interview was held in each PAs in which the group comprises elders, religious leaders, opinion leaders, and knowledgeable individuals. This helps to extract information about the different formal and informal social networks and their gender dimensions in relation to their contribution in facilitating access to resources and services, and to find out why farmers continue to cultivate cereal crops ignoring cash crops when there is access to irrigation giving due attention to women. The group interview checklist was prepared, before the actual work was started and the enumerators & the researcher were involved simultaneously. The role of the researcher was a facilitator and moderator.Primary data collected from individuals through the interview schedule were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as measures of central tendency, frequency, percentages, and ranking with the use of Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). To assess the contribution of social networks of a given household in facilitating access to resources and services and thus see the difference and similarity of social networks of vegetable growers and non growers, as well as FHHs and MHHs, chi-square was used. Ranking was also used to see the relative importance of social networks (formal & informal) in facilitating access to resources and services for vegetable growers & non growers and FHHs & MHHs separately.To identify factors influencing farmers' choice of growing vegetable crops, in addition to descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression model was used. Qualitative data gained from FGDs and group interviews were described, analyzed and interpreted on spot during data collection to avoid missing relevant information.Responses to a question in relation to choice of crops, such as whether farmers grow vegetables or not could be 'yes' or 'no', a typical case of dichotomous variable. A variety of statistical models can be used to establish a relationship between factors and choice of growing vegetable crops by farmers. Conventionally, linear regression analysis is widely used in most economic and social investigations. This is because; it has some desirable properties for specific type of enquiry and data and is widely available in computer packages (Green, 1991). Moreover, it is easy to interpret and it is a reasonable procedure even if some of the assumptions underlying it are not met in the data. However, the same source further stated that while estimates derived from linear regression analysis may be robust in the face of errors in some assumptions, other assumptions are critical and their failure will lead to quite unreasonable estimates. To mention some weakness, the linear probability Model (LPM) may generate predicted values outside the 0-1 intervals, which violates the basic tenets of probability. The other problem with LPM is that the variance of the disturbance term is heteroschedastic. Furthermore, the assumption of normality in the disturbance term is no longer tenable.The inadequacy of the linear probability model suggests that a non-linear specification may be more appropriate and the candidate for this will be an S-shaped curve bounded in the interval of 0 and 1 (Amemiya, 1981). This author suggested the S-shaped curves satisfying the probability model as those represented by the cumulative logistic function (logit) and cumulative normal distribution function (probit).The choice between these two models revolves around practical concerns such as the availability and flexibility of computer program, experience and other facilities. In fact it represents a close approximation to the cumulative normal distribution. Hosmer and Lemshew (1989) pointed out that a logistic regression has got advantage over others in the analysis of dichotomous outcome variables. There are two primary reasons for choosing the logistic distribution. These are 1) from a mechanical point of view, it is an extremely flexible and easily used function, and 2) it lends itself to a meaningful interpretation. The logit model is simpler in estimation than the probit model (Pindyck and Rubinfeld, 1981). Therefore, in this study a binary logistic regression model is used to analyze the factors influencing farmers' decision of choice of vegetable crops in irrigated fields, in Alamata district.Following Hosmer and Lemshew (1989), the logistic distribution function for analyzing choice of growing vegetable crops can be defined as: Where βB oB is the intercept and βB iB are the slope parameters in the model. The slope tells how the log-odds in favor of being willing to participate in vegetable production practices change as independent variables change.Since the conditional distribution of the outcome variable follows a binomial distribution with a probability given by the conditional mean PB iB , interpretation of the coefficient will be understandable if the logistic model can be rewritten in terms of the odds and log of the odds, (Gujarati, 1995). The odds to be used can be defined as the ratio of the probability that a farmer will practice (PB iB ) to the probability that he/she will not (1-PB iB ).( ) Taking the natural logarithms of the odds ratio of equation (5) will result in what is known as the logit model as indicated below. lnIf the disturbance term UB iB is taken in to account the logit model becomes:Hence, the above econometric model was used in this part of the study to identify determinant variables that influence choice of growing vegetable crops by farmers.The dependent variable of the model (binary logistic analysis) has dichotomous nature representing the observed status of the respondents in decision of growing vegetable crops for market, using spate irrigation. The variable takes the value 1 if the farmer grows vegetables for market, and 0 otherwise. Choice of crops of farmers while they use irrigation can be determined by different factors.Independent variables: Explanatory variables are the variables hypothesized to affect farmers` decision of choice of growing vegetable crops. These are a combination of different types of variables, among which are household personal & demographic characteristics, economic characteristics, and the organizational and institutional support systems in which farmers operate, including social networks of the household. Based on theoretical background and empirical results of a few studies on vegetable production practices, and some other related crop choice studies carried out elsewhere as well as considering the information from the pilot study, the following variables are hypothesized to influence decision of farmers to grow or not to grow vegetable crops. Definitions and operationalization of these variables are given in Appendix 3.Farmer's age (AGE): This refers to the age of the household in years, during the data collection. Choice of crops is mostly influenced by age, especially in relation to growing crops such as vegetables. Vegetable production is a knowledge demanding business; particularly it requires modern knowledge of production and marketing. Moreover, it is known that it is risky in relation to its high production cost and perishability nature. But elder people are usually risk averters. Because of this, they usually hesitate to try out capital intensive crops such as vegetables. On the other hand, elder people are more respected and trusted by the community, and have better opportunity to participate as leaders in different formal and informal institutions, which may facilitate them access to resources and services.Based on this controversial issues age is hypothesized to have negative or positive influence on choice of farmers to grow vegetable crops.It is a discrete variable measured in number of years of schooling of the household head. Households headed by better educated individuals are more likely to join economically oriented organizations, perhaps because of the higher productivity of these organizations when an individual is better educated. Education also enhances trust in others and hence the willingness to participate in organizations of a sensitive nature (Godquin and Quisumbing, 2005). Furthermore, education level increases farmer's ability to get process and use information and increase farmer's willingness to try out different alternatives of crops.Therefore, it was hypothesized that education influences the decision making of farmers to grow vegetable crops positively.It is a dummy variable that refers to the marriage status of the household head. It was hypothesized that married respondents have a better social status in the community and being respected by the community members. They are expected to have larger networks. As a result they could have better access of information and other inputs. Hence, they are likely to decide to try out new practices. According to Dessalegn, (2008) married respondents have relatively more social networks and better access to improved seed than divorced and widowed and thus they have high probability to try out new practices.Farm income (ONFARM): It is a continuous variable measured in birr. It refers to the total annual earnings of the family from sale of agricultural produce such as sale of crop, livestock and livestock product after meeting family requirements. According to previous studies, this is believed to be the main source of capital for purchasing agricultural inputs. More over, households with better income level could be better respected and trusted and thus could have large network, which results in better access to information, input and other services. Hence, it was hypothesized that those households with a relatively higher farm income are expected to have higher probability to cultivate vegetable crops.It is a continuous variable measured in birr. It refers to annual income obtained from different agricultural activities (outside the farm) such as hired labor.According to Asfaw et al., (1997) andHabtemariam, (2004), this type of income increases the farmers' financial capacity and increases the probability of investing in capital intensive agricultural practices. It is therefore, expected to affect farmers' decision to grow vegetable crops positively.It is a continuous variable measured in birr. It refers to the income gained from other than agricultural activities and other than off farm income also, such as participating in trading non agricultural goods. The same as to the off farm income, this is expected to have positive relationship with growing vegetable crops by farm households.This refers to the total irrigated land that a farmer owns, or could be rented in or shared crop in land, measured in local measurement unit timad, (1hectares=4timad). Many agricultural practices require substantial economic resources, among which land is the most important one. This is because of the reason that, a farmer who owns larger size of land can allocate part of it to try out new practices. The hypothesis in this study was that field size, specifically irrigated land is positively related with the decision of the households to grow vegetable crops.Labor availability (LABOUR): Labour was measured in terms of man Equivalent.Availability of labour is likely to influence the decision of farmers in relation to choice of crops. A household with larger labour force per hectare (unit) is expected to have high probability to decide to grow vegetable crops, which are known for their labour intensive nature. Based on this, it was hypothesized that labour availability influences decision of households to grow vegetable crops positively.This refers to the total number of livestock measured in tropical livestock unit (TLU). Livestock is important source of income, food and draught power for crop cultivation in Ethiopian agriculture. Like many other similar studies, it was measured in terms of Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU). Livestock ownership is hypothesized to be positively related to choice of growing vegetable crops.Mass media exposure (MMSCOR): Respondent farmers' use of mass media (radio, TV and print media including the habit of listening of discussion of print media from kebele administrators) was rated on five-point scale taking responses from no use to very often use.Accordingly, mass media exposure constituted a total score of 20. Farmers' total mass media exposure is the sum of the score value they obtained for their level of exposure to each mass medium considered. Mass media play a significant role in creating awareness about new ideas and practices in a fastest possible time. Therefore; mass media exposure was hypothesized to have positive influence on farmers' decision to grow vegetable crops.It is a continuous variable measured in kilometer. It refers to the distance from farmers' farms to the main all weather roads. As farmers` home and farms gets closer to the main road, they can have access to transportation facilities and thus encourage farmers to grow crops such as vegetables, which definitely need huge market.Therefore, in this study, it was hypothesized that this variable is negatively related to the choice of growing vegetables by farmers.It is a dummy variable, which takes the value 1 if the farm household has access to formal credit in terms of availability of credit & credit sources; and possibility of getting credit and 0 otherwise. Vegetable production involves more use of inputs which has great cost implication. Credit is very much useful to purchase inputs such as improved seeds and other important inputs. Hence, access to credit was expected to influence farmers' cultivation of vegetable crops positively.Extension contact (DACONTA) it was measured using the Frequency of contact with extension agents. This refers to the number of contacts per year that the respondent made with extension agents. The effort to disseminate new crops such as vegetables is within the field of communication between the change agent (extension agent) and the farmers at the grassroots level. Here, the frequency of contact between the extension agent and the farmers is hypothesized to be the most important and decisive factors which accelerates the effective dissemination of adequate agricultural information to the farmers, thereby enhancing farmers' decision to try out new practices. Hence, it was hypothesized to affect decision of farmers' choice of crops towards vegetables, positively.This variable considers participation of respondents in four extension events, namely field days, training, on-farm demonstration and extension exhibition. A study conducted by Kansana et al. (1996) indicated that participation in training, access to communication sources and number of information sources had significant association with level of knowledge of improved wheat varieties. In this study, the variable was hypothesized to influence choice of vegetable crops by farmers positively.It is the frequency of contact the farmer has with external situations of the social system. This is assumed to influence the access to information on improved farming practices as compared to the other members of the group and it is expected to influence households' probability of cultivating vegetable crops positively.it is a continuous variable which refers to the number of relatives and close friends the HH head has and can talk to freely and approach for help incase of any problem. The number of relatives may reduce the aversion to risk and hence increase the household's willingness to participate in groups and associations.According to (Katungi et al., 2007), households that interact closely with more relatives are also likely to be better informed about the benefits of participating in organizations. Besides being better informed, individuals are likely to influence their relatives to join organizations/social networks of which they are members. This participation in different organizations helps them to be exposed to new ideas and practices; as a result they may decide to adopt new technologies. Based on these, it was hypothesized that households with relatively more number of relatives and friends have access to information, inputs and hence likely to decide to grow vegetable crops.Social participation (SOCIALPA): Membership and involvement in social activities( formal) such as in administrational groups, agricultural related groups such as cooperatives and water use associations and other civic associations ,etc or in (informal organization) such as community based organizations ('Iqub', 'Edir' Religious clubs such as 'Mahber', etc) will give higher exposure to new information. According to Chilot et al., (1996) and Habtemariam ( 2004), membership and leadership in community organization assumes that farmers who have some position in peasant association and different cooperatives are more likely to be aware of new practices as they are easily exposed to information. It is, therefore, hypothesized that those farmers who participated in some social organization as member or leader are more likely to decide to grow vegetable crops. The variable is measured in terms of degree (0= no participation, 1= member, 2= leader) and frequency of participation (0= never, 1= sometimes, 2= whenever conducted) in different social organizations. The sum of both frequencies was used to arrive at a social participation score.This part is mainly concerned with the description and interpretation of the findings of the survey. As already noted, a structured interview schedule was administered to 150 sample households in the study area, Alamata wereda. The main aim was analyzing the contribution of formal and informal social networks and their gender dimensions in facilitating access to resources and services, such as technology / input, credit / finance and information / knowledge and thereby influencing farmers' choice of growing high value vegetable crops.Identifying the preceding factors which determine farmers' choice of crops in using spate irrigation was also another additional objective of this study. The interview schedule was designed in such a way that it enables to collect data on the contribution of formal and informal social networks in terms of their frequency of use by the individual sample respondents and their relative importance as a source of each resources and services, according to the respondent farmers and also data on Personal & demographic, economic and institutional characteristics of sample respondent farmers, which are expected to influence the decision of choice of crops of farmers to grow or not to grow vegetables. In addition, 16 focus group discussions with vegetable growers and non growers and with different gender composition (men and women separately) were conducted. Moreover interviews of key informants in each sample PAs were used to elicit the maximum information.In this section, the results of descriptive statistics using chi-square and ranking, in relation to social networks of vegetable growers & non growers and FHHs and MHHs are discussed. In addition, the results of both descriptive statistics and econometric model for decision of choice of growing vegetable crops are discussed in detail. In order to understand the existing characteristics of sampled households with respect to decision of growing vegetable crops or not, the descriptive analysis is summarized and discussed under household personal and demography, economic and institutional characteristics. The results are presented using descriptive statistical tools such as mean, percentage, and frequencies. Independent t-test and chi-square test were employed to see the relationships between selected variables. Qualitative data was also analyzed and interpreted.There are different types of formal and informal groups (networks) in the study area. Among  Regarding the crop production categories, as it can be seen from Table 1, there is no significant difference in participation of the respondents in administrative groups, associations, community based organizations and in worth places, except participation in agricultural related groups, which is significant (χ 2 = 4.871, P=.027) at 5 % probability level of significance.In relation to the sex categories, as it can be seen clearly from Table 2 there is a significant difference between FHHs and MHHs regarding their participation in administrational and agricultural related groups in which 5.1% of FHHs and 30.6% of MHHs participate respectively in the former and the variation is significant at 1 % probability level (χ 2 = 10.290, P=.001) and 33.3 % of FHHs and 50.5 % of MHHs participate respectively in the later and the variation is significant at 10 % probability level of significance (χ 2 = 3.404, P=.065). Relating this result to the concept of social networks, this has an indication that farmers who are more involved in different social networks or groups, specifically in those groups which are related to agricultural activities and which are mostly economic oriented; are better involved in growing high value vegetable crops. This could be because of the reason that, through these groups' farmers can have better access to inputs, information and other needed resources.The result of this study clearly revealed that FHHs are less involved in the most important economic oriented groups. This indicates that FHHs may face difficulties in relation to access to inputs, information and other needed resources as a result of their exclusion from such networks which has its own implication on their decisions to grow vegetable crops.In this regard, key informants were interviewed to get clear information about different groups and social networks and involvement of women in the groups. According to the discussion held among the key informants, there are groups in which women do not participate because of many reasons. Women do not participate in the cooperatives of sand and stone collection, water use association and farmers association. The only association in which women exclusively participate was the women association. The reason for this difference regarding participation in different formal and informal groups according to the key informants is summarized as follows:The reason for this difference regarding participation in different formal and informal groups can be related to attitude problems which may be stemmed from cultural and religious believes in the community, including among women themselves. For instance, in the case of collection of sand & stone for example, it is because of believing that they may not fit physically and thus may not be able to compete with the men regarding the collection of sand & stone. Regarding water use association; the association is more of traditional and culturally it is not common to involve women in such associations, hence this time also women do not participate in this very important association. As a result it is usually common to observe abuse of the right of women regarding use of irrigation water.In the other formal organizations such as irrigation cooperatives, saving and credit, multipurpose cooperatives, agricultural development groups and political groups, women participate but their level of participation is not significant compared to the level of participation of men. In terms of their number women who participate in these groups are not considerable compared to men. The reasons based on the key informants discussion is interpreted as follows:The main problem is the wrong attitude towards women, as a result of culture and norms of the society. Culturally women are not encouraged to have contact with men and to participate in public issues. Especially if the woman is married, her husband will not allow her. This wrong attitude towards women is observed among individuals who are in leadership status also. One of the leaders of the PA articulates this as follows:'We don't want our wives to participate in political leadership issues. Even those who are FHHs, we don't usually encourage them to participate in different organizations especially at leadership status. We don't believe in women equity heartily and we always want them to be inside the house and take all responsibilities there. We are not willing to share their responsibilities in side our homes and help them to be exposed to different organizational participation. Most of us don't accept the capacity of women to perform what the men can perform and we always doubt to bring women to leader ship status.'Another key informant clarifies the attitude towards women's' participation in different groups as follows:'It is impossible for husband and wife to be involved in different groups at the same time. There should be sharing of responsibilities between them.Other wise who is going to take care of the issues in side our houses if is it is said that both husband and wife should participate equally? Practically it is difficult even though it have been said for a long time.'The other very important thing is their own attitude towards participation in such groups.Women normally don't want to participate in such groups because of the cultural and religious constraints. Time constraint as a result of their reproductive role in their houses in addition to their major role in productive activities is another issue for women to participate or not participate in social organizations.Group discussion was held among women, FHHs and wives of the MHHs separately.According to the FHHs: However, all the groups and social networks may not be important, specifically in relation to their contribution in facilitating access to different resources and services in irrigation based vegetable production, in the study area. Hence based on the group discussions and interviews held during the study time, only the most important groups or social networks were taken and analysis was made regarding their contribution in facilitating access to inputs/ technologies, information, and credit / finance.Based on this study, social networks is network of individual farmers that could be formal, which is created as a result of participation in different formal groups and associations or as a result of close and frequent contact with formal development actors such as extension agents;or could be informal which is created as a result of participation in different informal groups or network created as a result of friend ship or blood relationship; and thereby being able to access different resources and services as a result of the participation and / or the formal and informal relationships.  As it can be seen from Table 3, there is difference between vegetable growers and non growers in terms of frequency of using the actors service cooperatives, input supplier organizations (private input providers) and neighbors or friends. According to the result of the study, in terms of frequency of use, the vegetable growers are using the service cooperatives and input supplier organizations more frequently than the non growers. More over, the chisquare test result (χ 2 = 8.68, P= .013) for service cooperatives and (χ 2 =9.770, P=.008) for input supplier organizations assured that there is significant difference between vegetable growers and non growers of vegetables in terms of frequency of use of service cooperatives and input supplier organization, as a source of technology, at 5 % and 1% probability level of significance respectively. The probable reason for this significant difference especially in relation to the private input providers is that, vegetable growers commonly purchase different inputs from private suppliers, because input supply from the cooperatives is not on time in most cases.On the other hand, the non growers are using neighbors / friends as a source of technology/inputs more frequently than growers. The chi-square value (χ 2 =26.290, P=.000) also indicated that there is significant difference between the two categories in terms of frequency of use of the actor as input/ technology source at 1% probability level of significance. This could be because of the tradition of sharing of seed of cereals and other food crops among neighbors / friends, which is not common in high value (cash crop) seed, may be because of the expensive price of the seed. Significant difference was also found between sex categories (Table 4). they have frequent contact with the DAs as well as the administrators in the kebele including the leaders of the cooperatives. They could also be members them selves.Hence, they are able to get first hand information and as a result they will have better opportunity to access inputs and other resources, than women.'Credit source and its use pattern were analyzed to assess which actor is contributing more in facilitating access to finance in terms of frequency of use of actor by the respondents.Distribution of frequency of use of actors as credit source to the respondents is presented in Table 5. According to the result of the study, there is no difference between vegetable growers and non growers in terms of frequency of using the actors Service cooperatives, Dedebit Saving and Credit Institution and neighbors / friends as credit source. According to the result of the study, the actors are giving service almost fairly for both vegetable growers as well as non growers as a source of credit. On the other hand significant difference was found between sex categories, as it is displayed below. Regarding the sex categories, as it can be clearly seen from Table 6, there is statistically significant difference between FHHs and MHHs, favoring MHHs, in terms of the frequency of use of the actors service cooperatives and Dedebit saving & credit as a source of credit, which shows women have less access to formal credit services than men, which may be because of their low socioeconomic conditions, thus fear of taking risk and their law participation in economically oriented groups such as service cooperatives.Information source and its use pattern were analyzed to assess which social networks (actors)are contributing more in providing information, in terms of frequency of use of each actor by the respondents. Distribution of frequency of use of actors as information source to the respondents is presented in Table 7. As it can be seen from Table 7, there is difference between vegetable growers and non growers in terms of frequency of using the actors WOoARD, DAs, and neighbors or friends as a source of information. According to the result of the study the vegetable growers use WOoARD and DAs more frequently than the non growers. Moreover, the chi-square test result (χ 2 = 6.961, P= .031) for WOoARD and (χ 2 =4.617, P=.099) for DAs assured that there is significant difference between vegetable growers and non growers in terms of frequency of use of DAs WOoARD, as a source of information, at 5 and 10 % probability level of significance, respectively. On the other hand, the non growers are using neighbors / friends as a source of information more frequently than growers. The chi-square value (χ 2 =21.026, P=000) also indicated that there is significant difference between the two categories in terms of frequency of use of the actors (neighbors / friends)as information source at 1% probability level of significance. This result indicates that vegetable growers use formal networks as a source of information, while the non growers' source of information is mostly the informal networks such as neighbors and friends. Similar result was found regarding sex categories, as it is presented in Table 8. The result of this study revealed that there is significant difference between FHHs and MHHs in using the actors such as development agents, service cooperatives, and neighbors or friends as a source of agricultural information. According to the result of this study, MHHs use DAs and service cooperatives as information source more frequently than the FHHs. The chisquare test (χ 2 = 7.475, P=.024) for DAs and (χ 2 =10.913, P=.004) for service cooperatives indicates that the variation is significant at 5 % and at 1% probability level of significance.But in the case of neighbors or friends, according to the study, FHHs use these actors more frequently than MHHs. As the chi-square test (χ 2 = 9.501, P= 009) indicates that the variation between the sex categories in terms of using these actors as source of information is significant at 1% probability level. This indicates that FHHs are highly reliant on informal networks for information source, than MHHs which indicates their low level of contact with development agents and their low level of participation in cooperatives.Relative importance of different actors as a source of inputs / technologies, information and credit services were analyzed in order to know the relative importance of different actors as a source of each resource or service for vegetable growers & non growers and FHHs and MHHs comparatively. The score of frequency of use of each actor by the respondent farmer was taken and ranking was made based on that. In this case, the actor which has higher score is taken to be the most important.The response analysis of Table 9 indicates that cooperatives, neighbors / friends and DAs respectively, were the most important actors as a source of technology for non growers.Whereas, in the case of vegetable growers cooperatives, DAs, input supplier organizations are found to be the most important source of technologies, respectively. As it can be clearly seen, neighbors or friends were among the most important sources of technology for the non growers compared with those of vegetable growers. Based on the qualitative information gained from different group discussions in this regard, the reasons for the difference of the rank of importance could be, regarding the neighbors / friends, because of the tradition of sharing of seeds of cereals or other food crops among farmers, which is not common in the case of seed of vegetables, because of its expensive cost.On the other hand, private input supplier organizations were found to be important for vegetable growers than non growers, because farmers commonly purchase different inputs needed for vegetable production from private input suppliers in the study area, because of the absence of on time input supply by the service cooperatives, as it is discussed previously. As a result, farmers are forced to buy the needed inputs from private shops. According to the farmers, purchasing different inputs from private shops is not advisable, and there are problems in relation to the quality( sometimes expired) and unfair price of inputs, but in order to use the critical time, for example sowing or planting (especially, during rainy season), they usually use private shops as a source of different inputs.Regarding the sex categories, as it can be clearly seen from the table below, (Table 10), neighbors/ friends, DAs and cooperatives are the most important three actors in that order for FHHs as a source of technology. But for MHHs cooperatives, DAs and neighbors / friends are the most important three actors in that order mentioned as a source of technology. This variation of order of ranking indicates that women most of the time use informal networks to access resources, and thus they are the most important source of inputs for them, while men commonly use formal networks. As it is clearly displayed in Table 11, the actors serving as credit providers for the sample respondents are service cooperatives, Dedebit saving and credit institution and neighbors or friends. The most important actor for vegetable non growers is service cooperatives but in the There can be many sources of information for different types of information, in relation to governmental or non governmental programs and activities along with their progress and future plan. Formal organizations and informal social networks are usually the most trusted sources of information. They are perceived by individuals to provide the most relevant information. The information provided by these networks is also perceived as being up to date. This sub section indicates how sample households perceived the importance of social networks (different actors) as sources of information. The result of this study in this regard is displayed in the Table below. As it is displayed in Table 13, comparing the two production categories, neighbors/ friends, DAs and farmers development groups were found to be the most important sources of information for vegetable non growers. On the other hand, for the growers of vegetables, DAs, neighbors/ friends, and WOoARD were found to be the most important sources of information. The probable reason for the DAs to be the first important source of information could be that growing vegetables is an innovation for the area, there might be a need of frequent information to get better knowledge and produce more.Regarding sex categories, the result of the study revealed that, there is a difference between sex categories in terms of the rank given to actors used as a source of information, as it can be seen from Table 14.Networks with some members who have tried growing vegetables and benefited from it can give accurate information based on his / her experience and can definitely influence their members to try out the crops. On the other hand governmental or non governmental agents can also persuade and influence community members through different methods. According to the group discussions held among farmers, especially at the initial stage of the introduction of vegetable technologies, the role of agricultural extension agents were very great, as there were high resistance in the farming community regarding cultivation of vegetable crops.However, latter farmers started to learn from each other (from their neighbors and friends) and produce vegetables by their own decisions. More over there is high computation regarding producing vegetables for market this time.Market is one of the most important preconditions in any technology take up in particular and economic development in general. Hence, investigating where the farmers sell their produces and knowing who their potential buyers are; along with the constraints faced by farmers in relation to market is very important to promote growing irrigation based high value vegetable crops. The result of this study is displayed in the table below. As it is indicated in Table 16, sample respondents sell their produces in PA market or village, woreda market (Alamata) and regional market (Mekelle). According to the result of this study, 33.3 % of cereal producers in PA market and 64.4%, (the majority) of vegetable producers, sell their produces in village. In PA market, service cooperatives was mentioned as major market for 20% of cereal producers, while, in village wholesaler from urban and from regional were mentioned as the potential buyers market for 30% and 21.1% of the vegetable producers respectively. Only 6.7%, 5% and 1.7% of cereal producers reported that they sell their produces to retailer from urban, retailer from rural and wholesaler from urban in PA market respectively. On the other hand, only 3.3%, 6.7%, 2.2% and 1.1% of vegetable producers reported that they sell their produces to retailer in urban, retailer in rural, consumer in urban and service cooperatives respectively.However, 50% of cereal producers and only 18.9 % of the vegetable producers were selling their produces in woreda market (Alamata). In this market center (woreda market), retailer in the urban was mentioned as potential buyer for 31.7% of cereal producers, while, wholesaler from urban was mentioned as a relatively potential buyer for 9 % of the vegetable producers.Only 1.7% of cereal producers reported that they sell their produces to farmers and wholesaler in urban in Alamata. On the other hand, only 4.4% and 3.3% of the vegetable producers reported that they sell their produces for retailer in urban and consumer in urban respectively.Moreover, only 5% of the cereal producers and 7.8% of the vegetable producers were found to be using the regional market as a major market. And the regional wholesalers were their buyers for both. In this study, it was found out that farmers sell their agricultural products not only in the aforementioned three major markets, but also in other alternative markets, such as in other neighboring woredas, including region three( Amhara region), although the number of respondents who use the alternative market places are very few.producing vegetbles using irrigationAs it is displayed in  Based on the group discussions and interviews held among different groups, lack of irrigation water is a serious problem in which it needs attention by the concerned bodies. Especially when the amount of rainfall in the rainy season is not sufficient, the amount of water from the highlands will be less in which it is difficult to distribute equally among the users of the water. Although the water is governed by the locally elected water use association leaders called \"ABOMAY\", which means fathers of water in the local language, conflict occurs whenever lack of water for irrigation exists. According to the participants of the group discussion:'The water use association (ABOMAY) is not functioning well and every farmer is not treated equally. This is due to the fact that the association has a corrupted network where favor and priority is given to farmers who are friends, relatives and/or to any farmer who is informally related to the members or leaders of the association. Otherwise, it is difficult to use the water any time our crop is in need of water, even if it's our turn to water our crop. Moreover the time which is allowed for each of us may not be sufficient.'This problem is serious especially to women, specifically FHHs. Because, first as it can be understood from it's naming, women are not included in the water use associations, even as a member. The primary reason justified by them is that, culturally, it is not common to include women in water use associations and secondly because it may be difficult for them to manage some jobs regarding water use, as there exists conflicts.Moreover, there is also a need to control the water use day and night which may not be accomplished by women. The focus group discussion among FHHs is summarized as follows:'Being a women and producing vegetable is challenging at this time because in order to get the water at the time your crop is in need , you may require to pass through conflicts with other farmers and also follow up even at nights.MHHs use this time preferably. Unfortunately, this is not suitable time for FHHs due to risks. For FHHs, watering even at the day time is difficult because of conflicts that usually happen as a result of blocking of water supply by other farmers who happen to be closer to the main source. At this point, our right to use the water is highly violated. So, in the first place we should participate in the water use association at least as a member, so that we may be able to protect our rights of water use evenly as the men do.Moreover, the water should be governed by government body so that every farmer will access it without any discrimination, including women.'The other problem mentioned by them as a reason for the scarcity of water was technical problem. According to the focus group discussion of vegetable growers:'There is technical problem with most of the check dams and channels done by the government bodies, especially at their head works. Most of the time there is a need to clean the sand dumped in the channels from the highlands.However, the sand is usually not cleaned at the right time, means before the rainy season comes, which makes difficult to use the water efficiently. This is a result of the absence of concerned body, which can collaborate and help us to do this task on time. This is also another issue in which the functionality of the water use association, 'ABOMAY' becomes questionable. But the major problem is the absence of participaratory design and construction of the structures and as a result farmers are restructuring the out lays according to their convenience that the out lays should be.'Marketing problems were also mentioned by some of the sample respondents (20.67%) in which, 6.66% and 30% of vegetable non growers and growers are included respectively. As it can be clearly seen in Table 17, majority of the sample households who mention lack of marketing as a constraint are vegetable producers. This could be because of the reason that vegetable needs huge market in addition to the local market and it is perishable as well. To elicit more information regarding marketing issues different group discussions were made.This will be discussed in the next part, constraints related to market, in order to avoid repetitions.As it can be clearly seen from the Table 18, according to the respondent farmers, among the constraints faced by the farmers in accessing different inputs, unavailability of the inputs on time was mentioned as the major one by the sample respondents (27.3 %) among which 10 % were vegetable non growers and 38.9 % were vegetable growers. As it can be clearly seen from Table 19, majority of the sample respondents reported that they don't have constraint in relation to access to credit. However among the respondents who mentioned constraints, unable to pay down payment and high interest rate was the most important constrains among others, for the non growers, in which it contains 21.7% and 16.7%, respectively. This could be because these farmers are not involved in the production of cash crops, and the interest rate may be too much for them and as a result they are not able to repay it. On the other hand, lack of credit was the most important constraint in relation to vegetable producers, which indicates that the vegetable producers are in need of additional credit. In the group discussion regarding this issue, farmers who produce vegetables complain that there is no credit service in the cooperatives for seed and other inputs needed for vegetable production, but there is indeed for cereals and other pulse crops. According to the group discussions of the key informants:'Selling price of vegetables is better now a days than the previous years mainly because concerned bodies such as union cooperatives, NGOs (ILRI/IPMS) and also administration office of the woreda are trying to do some activities in relation to market. For instance, they are working on creating awareness about the middle men among the farmers and also providing market information to farmers so that they will not be cheated by the middle men (brokers).But still, the middle man / wholesalers are the one who are benefiting more compared to the farmers, when the benefit is calculated in terms of the cost of the production the farmers expend, including their labour and time. All this is the consequence of the absence of alternative market'.In addition, farmers face many challenges whenever they take their vegetable produces to other places in search of better market. Among the challenges faced by farmers in search of alternative market, according to the key informants, are summarized as follows:'Last year (1999 E.C), there were some farmers who took the option of taking their vegetable to other alternative markets, so that they can earn better profit. For this purpose, they rented Isuzu truck and took their produces to Mekelle market. But, unfortunately, the reverse happened in such away that farmers were forced to sell with the price of the interest of the buyers. This happened because the brokers as well as wholesalers were already networked and they exchange information about the arrival of the farmers and wanted to discourage them from bringing their produces to cities. They did this to control the market price based on their own interests. As a result, every buyer was calling the same and unfair price and at last farmers were left with no option than selling it with the unfair price, where they came back with out any profit while some of them with loss. Therefore, farmers were discouraged and were forced to sell their vegetables in their fields at lower price to avoid such risks, even if they believe that they deserve better profit than the profit they are earning now.'The above discussion indicates that farmers are facing many challenges in the production of vegetable crops for market purpose, but the need of alternative market is the most important burning issue and it shouldn't be left for tomorrow to solve. Otherwise, many farmers may become discouraged and discontinue the production of different vegetable crops.Discussion was also held among non growers to find out why they prefer to produce only cereals with out any cash crops. Their discussion is summarized as follows:'We know that vegetables are high value crops and they can give better profit from small piece of land compared to cereals. But there are a number of reasons for choosing cereal crops. In the first place, the water is not enough even for producing cereal crops. It is very risky to decide to grow vegetables with the water resource available now. Moreover vegetables are capital and labour intensive. They need technical knowledge and management skill to produce more. They have many risks in relation to production, storage and also marketing. Even after a lot of expenses, it is a matter of chance whether to get profit or not from producing vegetables. But in the case of cereals, even if loss happens, the level of risk is not the same as in vegetable production, because of many reasons. For instance, production cost is not comparable with the cost needed for vegetables; we can store cereals for a longer period and sell it when ever we like to sell, as there is no risk of perishability. Moreover cereals are useful for family food and animal feed. We can not live without cereals, but it is possible to live without vegetables, as we can not live eating vegetables and as well our animals. Generally, it is not bad producing vegetables in addition to cereals or other food crops, provided that there is permanent source of water for irrigation, easily access to inputs including chemicals and if we can be sure with the accessibility of market with fair price, otherwise it is difficult to decide to grow vegetables.'Age is one of the demographic factors that is helpful to illustrate households' personal situation and give indication about the age structure of the sample, along with the population.It is generally assumed that elder people have more farming experience which enables them to easily adopt new technologies and also because they have better involvement in different formal and informal groups, which helps them to easily access services and resources. On the other hand, vegetable production is capital and labour intensive enterprise. In addition, its nature of perishability and market fluctuations make it more riskier business. Because of their risk averting nature, elder people are usually hesitant to decide to adopt new technologies such as vegetable production. Based on the above controversial facts, age was hypothesized to have negative or positive relationship with vegetable production in irrigated fields. As indicated in Table 21, the mean age of sample households was 42.15yrs with standard deviation of 10.01yrs. The maximum age for the sample farmers was 67 yrs while the minimum was 27 yrs. Result of mean test using independent sample test indicated that there was significant mean difference (t=3.59, p=0.000) among crop production categories at 1% probability level of significance implying the significant association of age with cultivation of vegetable crops. This result implies that, vegetable growers were found to be younger with the mean age of 39.86 years than non growers who were on average 45.6years.The probable reason for this could be younger people are usually more likely to change their mind sets with new practices or ideas and thus they are better in making decisions, to try out new technologies / practices, unlike the elder ones which usually are known for their conservative behavior.Behavioral change is vital in making decisions to take up new technologies. In order to make a right decision, adequate information is needed. Education increases the likelihood of participating in formal organizations and thus acquiring information from formal sources, and it can lower the likelihood of relying on informal mechanisms of information exchange. In this study, education was expected to have positive relationship with decision of farmers to grow vegetable crops. The maximum educational achievement for the sample farmers was grade 12 while the lowest was 0. Considering the crop production categories, the mean years of schooling was 1.67 and 2.97 years with standard deviation of 2.36 and 2.9 for non growers and growers respectively.Result of t-test showed that there was significant mean difference (t= -2.877, P=0.005) in education level between crop production categories at 5 % significance level. Similar result was reveled regarding sex categories. The mean years of schooling were found to be 1.05 and 2.94 years with standard deviation of 2.03 and 2.86 for FHHs and MHHs, respectively. Result of t-test showed that there was significant mean difference (t= -4.468, P=0.000) in education level between sex categories, favoring MHHs at 1% probability level of significance (Table22).This clearly shows that, women are less educated than men, which have its own implication in their ability to communicate and the possibility to get information; and thus their decision making on choice of crops.The finding of this study is in agreement with many of the previously conducted studies. For example, Ataklti ( 2008) have reported that better educated farmers are found to be involved in vegetable production.Relating this result with social networks, education is the most significant correlate of social networks. Better educated people have more opportunities to participate in different formal and informal social networks which help them to have better access to information and other important resources and services. Putnam (1995) indicates that there is a strong positive relationship between levels of education and levels or stocks of social capital at individual and community levels.Marital status could have influence on participation in different social networks. Because married farmers will have social networks, not only with their own relatives / friends, but also with the relatives and friends of their husbands or wives, which could have its own contribution in encouraging individuals to participate in different formal and informal institutions. For instance, according to Dessalegn (2008), married women are likely to be active in collective decision-making meetings because they are better trusted and respected.They are also expected to influence higher-level decisions indirectly through their husbands and their own informal networks. Their marital status allows them access to more networks and thus enables them to generate more social capital. Hence, they could have better access to information and other relevant resources and thus to take up new practices such as vegetable crops production.On the other hand, farmers could have irrigable land, which could be owned or rented in / shared crop in from others.In the study area, vegetable production is carried out mainly under spate irrigation. However, a farmer's total owned land may not be irrigable, but some farmers may have large portion of their land in the fields where irrigation water can be accessed and vice versa. In this study, considering its importance to vegetable cultivation, only irrigable land size was taken and hypothesized. Hence, land holding specifically; irrigable land size was hypothesized to have positive and significant relationship with decision of households to grow vegetable crops. The average land holding of sample population was found to be 3.43 timad (1 ha=4 timad).The minimum and maximum owned land for both growers and non growers were 0 timad and 8 timad, respectively. According to the result of this study, there is no statistically significant variation between crop production categories regarding the size of owned and total cultivable land.rent in irrigable land from others to cultivate vegetables. Share cropping is also another strategy used by the farmers who have no irrigable land for vegetable production. According to the result of this study (Table 25), 12% and 66.7% of the total sample households were found to be involved either in sharing crop out / rent out their land or shared crop in/ rented in others' land. Among the non growers, 21.7% of them were found either shared crop out or rented out their land and 58.3% of them were involved either in sharing crop or rent in others' land. On the other hand, among the vegetable growers, only 5.6% of them either shared crop out or rent out their lands, and 72.7% of them are involved in either sharing crop or rent in others' land. This result shows us clearly that vegetable producers share in or rent in others lands, while cereal producers are involved more in sharing crop out or rent out their own land. This could be because of the reason that vegetable growers are in a better economic condition and they can afford the cost for renting in and also for sharing crop in as a result of better livestock ownership. On the other hand, the non growers may prefer to be benefited from renting or sharing out their lands because of scarcity of capital and other important resources.Livestock holding is an important indicator of household's wealth status in rural areas. It also serves as an important source of cash. Since vegetable production is capital-intensive business, initial financial capacity is vital and livestock could be used as one of the important financial sources to begin with. Based on this assumption, this variable was hypothesized to have positive and significant relation with decision of farmers to cultivate vegetables. As it can be seen in Table 26, based on the result of this study, the mean livestock holding of the sample population was 4.96 in TLU. On average vegetable growers have more number of livestock population, 5.21 in TLU as compared to the non growers who have about 4.59 in TLU. However, independent sample test showed that the mean difference of livestock number was not significant between vegetable growers and non growers. But with regard to sex categories, there was variation among households regarding possession of livestock.According to the results revealed by this study, the average livestock holding of MHH was 5.70, where as that of FHH was found to be 2.87 in TLU. This figure clearly shows that there is high disparity between MHH and FHH in their ownership of livestock. The t-test reveled that (t=-3.938, P=.000) there is significant variation between sex categories at 1% probability level of significance, regarding livestock ownership. This could be because of the low economic level of women farmers to own such important assets in the rural households. Concerning this study (Table 28), the result from the survey shows that from the total sample respondents only 9.3% responded that they don't face labour shortage problem. While the majority, which is 90.7% responded that they face labour shortage problem, in which 35.3, 23.5, 39.7 and 1.5% of them use hiring labour, mutual for cooperation, both hiring labour as well as asking for cooperation and other solutions are taken respectively for the labour shortage problem. In the area, use of hired labor is a common practice not only in vegetable production but also in other crop production activities. Regarding vegetable production, the involvement of household labor is minimal as compared to the huge amount of labor force that vegetable production requires, which indicates that there is a lot of task to do to change the culture of farmers in the area to use their own available labour efficiently.Income level is one of the most fundamental factors determining farmers' decision to choose vegetable production. Income of the household obtained from sale of crops, livestock and livestock products, after the household consumption requirement is met could be used for purchasing different farm inputs. Cultivation of vegetable crops is known for its high production cost. Due to this, vegetable grower households need to have the required financial capacity to run the activities. Therefore, a household with relatively higher farm income was expected to better involve in vegetable cultivation. According to the result of the study, the average annual farm income of the sample households was 6120.33 ET birr. The maximum annual farm income was 37, 250.00 ET birr while the minimum was 0. As it is indicted in Table 29, on average vegetable growers had higher annual farm income, 8651.55ET birr as compared to non growers who on average had only 2323.51 ET birr. T-test of mean of annual farm income had also indicated that there was significant mean difference (t=-8.061, P=.000) between growers and non growers, at 1 % probability level of significance (Table 29).Regarding FHHs and MHHs sample respondents, the mean annual farm income were 4129.32ETB and 6819.88 ETB respectively. As it is clearly seen in Table 29, MHHs mean annual on-farm income was greater and there was significant mean difference between the annual farm income of both sex categories (t= -2.300, P= .023) at 5% probability level of significance.Based on the result of this study, the average annual off farm income of the sample households was 745.77 ET birr. The maximum annual off farm income was 14,600.00ET birr while the minimum was 0. As it is indicted in Table 29, the annual off farm income of vegetable growers was found to be 796.17ET birr, while that of non growers was found to be 670.17 ET birr. The t-test of mean of annual off farm income had indicated that there was no significant mean difference (t=-0.575, P=.566) between growers and non growers, whichshows that contribution of off farm income is not as such decisive factor for growing vegetables.Regarding FHHs and MHHs sample respondents, the mean annual off farm income was 671.77 ETB and 771.77 ETB for FHHs and MHHs respectively. However the t-test result revealed that there was no significant difference between both sex categories (Table29).Considering the non farm income, according to the result of this study, the average annual non farm income of the sample households was 1392.53ET birr. The maximum annual non farm income was 144,000.00 ET birr while the minimum was 0. As it can be seen from Table 29, on an average, vegetable growers had higher annual non farm income 2208.21ETB as compared to non growers who on an average had only 169 ETB. However, t-test of mean of annual non farm income had indicated that there was no significant mean difference (t=-1.039, P=.301) between growers and non growers, which shows that contribution of non farm income is not critical issue for growing vegetables.Regarding FHHs and MHHs sample respondents, the mean annual non farm income were 307.18ETB and 1773.86 ETB, respectively. MHHs mean annual non farm income was greater however; the t-test result revealed that there is no significant difference between both sex categories in this regard (Table 29).for those who have monthly contact with extension agent, score of 3 was given for those who have bi-weekly contact with the agents and a score of 4 given for those having weekly contact with the agent. Accordingly, the maximum score to be achieved by a farmer was 4. The result of this study is displayed in Table 30. The relationship between frequency of extension contact and choice of cultivation vegetable crops was found to be significant as shown in Regarding the sex categories (Table 31), a significant difference was found between FHHs and MHHs, in relation to frequency of contact with extension agents. The chi-square result (χ 2 = 23.658, P= 0.000) shows the variation between the sex categories is strongly significant at 1% probability level of significance favoring MHHs.The probable reason for this significant difference could be because; FHHs use informal networks such as friends and relatives to access information, in most cases. Moreover, development agents are not giving special attention to improve involvement of FHHs in agricultural extension activities. Deribe (2007) found similar result regarding the use of informal network for accessing information, by women.It is a continuous variable and measured in kilometer. It refers to the total distance between the farmers' residence and the nearest main road. It indicates access to market to buy input and/or sell out put. As the household is near (closer) to a main road, the higher will be the chance of getting better market. As a result farmers who are nearer to main road are expected to grow vegetable crops, which are known for their easily perishable nature. It is also about securing information at market place. Therefore, it is hypothesized that distance from home to the nearest road to market will influence the probability of decision of farmers' to cultivate vegetable crops negatively. The survey result is as presented in sometimes, once a week, most often and daily respectively. However the chi-square test (χ 2 =2.947, P=.567) was not significant for crop production categories. But between sex categories, there was significant variation regarding their habit of visiting to the nearest town.The chi-square test (χ 2 = 9.121, P=.058) revealed that their relation ship is significant at 10 % probability level significance. The probable reason for this could be because of the multiple responsibilities of women in side their houses, which limits the possibility of their exposure to external environment and thus the possibility of getting new information.This variable considers participation of respondents in different extension events. Farmers   =5.351, P=.021) indicated that there is significant difference between the two crop production categories at 5% probability level.Field day is undertaking field trial on ones farm and it is one of the most known methods of transfer of information about certain new practices or technologies. Arranging field days on farmers' field is influential way of convincing other farmers about certain practices such as growing vegetable crops, since farmers can clearly observe and easily understand about the new practice from their neighboring farmers in the field days. This is also one of the most relevant extension events which is helpful for creating awareness and introduce new agricultural practices to farmers. According to the results of the study, majority of the sample respondents 84 % were not able to participate in extension exhibitions.Among the vegetable growers 21.1 % of them were participated in extension exhibition, but only 8.3 % of the non growers were able to participate in the program. Based on the chisquare value (χ 2 =4.373, P=.037), there is a significant different between vegetable growers and non growers at 5 % probability level of significance, concerning the participation in extension exhibition, which implies the importance of the event for farmers to decide to try out new practices. Regarding sex categories, there was no statistically significant difference between MHHs and FHHs in relation to participation in extension exhibition.To see the total score of participation of sample respondents in extension events, the variable was measured by giving scores to respondent farmers' participation in the four extension events namely training, field visit, conducting demonstration and participating in extension exhibition. Farmers' attendance was valued out of the total score of 4 which was assigned for each event. Accordingly, total attendance in extension events constitutes a total score of 16.A farmer who had attended four times in each extension event was given maximum score of 4, while those who attended three times in an event was given score of 3, those who attended twice in the extension event were given score of 2, those who attend once were given 1 and those of farmers who did not attend in any of the events were given a score of 0. Finally, respondent farmers' total attendance in extension events was taken as a sum of a score for each event. The result on mean score achieved from attendance in extension events across crop production and sex categories is provided in Table 34. As it can be clearly seen from table 35, there is significant difference between non growers and growers regarding the total mean score of participation in different extension events, which is found to be 1.67 and 4.5, respectively. The t-test result (t= -4.352, p=000) indicates there is significant difference between non growers and growers of vegetables, regarding participation in extension events at 1 % probability level of significance. This shows the relevance of such extension events to facilitate decision of farmers to grow high value crops, such as vegetables. Similarly, regarding the sex categories, significant difference was found (t= -2.524, p= 013), at 5 % probability level of significance. This indicates that, the concerned bodies are not giving attention to FHHs, while providing such services to farmers.Different actors were mentioned by the respondents with regard to arranging the events. The result of the study is displayed in Table 36, below.   In this study as it is indicated in Table 39 the result was found to be against the hypothesized proposition. The result of the chi-square test (χ 2 =2.358 p= 0.125) reveled that there is no significant difference between crop production categories, in relation to access to credit. On the other hand, significant difference was found between household categories, in which the chi-square result was (χ 2 =7.902, P= 0.005) found to be significant at 5 % probability level of significance. This indicates that FHHs have less access to get credit services may be because of their low socio economic conditions to repay down their loan and also to take risks.Participation in social organization is expected to have an indirect influence on decision behavior of choice of crops of farmers. It helps individuals to be exposed to new ideas and practices. This exposure make them positively predisposed towards innovative ideas and practices.The total score of social participation was taken to see the general influence of social participation in choice of crops by farmers. The total scores of the farmers were calculated on the basis of scores given for their membership status, score of zero was given for non participant, score of 1 was given for those who are members only, 2 was given for those who are leaders of organization. To see each farmer's level of social participation in different formal and informal groups, 21 organizations were included in the interview schedule. A farmer's maximum total score to achieve accordingly was 42. The result of this study is displayed in Table 40. The mean score of social participation presented in Table 40, shows that there is a significant difference across crop production categories in which, the mean score of non growers of vegetables is 10.8 at standard deviation of 5.9 and those of vegetable growers is 12.5 at standard deviation of 6.08 at 10 % probability level of significant (t=-1.698, P=.092). Across sex categories, there is significant difference between the mean score of FHHs, 9.72 at standard deviation of 5.41and MHHs, 12.56 at the standard deviation of 6.1 and at 1 % probability level of significant (t=-2.572, P= .001).Generally the result of the study revealed that social participation has a great influence in facilitating decision of farmers to grow vegetable crops. This could be as a result of the better access to information, inputs and other important resources, as a consequence of participation in the organizations. FHHs are less involved in such organizations and thus less exposed to new practices as a result of lack of timely information and other needed resources.Households that have more friends and relatives are likely to be better informed about the benefits and characteristics of new technologies. Moreover, better informed households are likely to persuade and influence decision of their relatives, friends and neighboring farmers regarding choice of crops. Hence, number of relatives / close friends was hypothesized to influence household's involvement in vegetable production.  Binary Logistic Regression Model was used to identify determinant variables in decision making of farmers to grow vegetable crops. Therefore, in this section, procedures followed to select independent variables and results of logistic regression analysis conducted to identify determinants of choice of crops of farmers in Alamata woreda are presented.Before using the logit model for hypothesized variables, it is necessary to test the problem of multicollinearity or association among the potential independent variables. There are two measures that are often suggested to test the existence of multicolinearity. These are:Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) for association among the continuous variables and contingency coefficients for dummy / categorized variables. VIF shows how the variance of an estimator is inflated by the presence of multicolinearity (Gujarati, 2003).A statistical package known as SPSS was employed to compute the VIF values. Once VIF values were obtained the RP 2P values can be computed using the formula. As a rule of thumb, if the VIF of a variable exceeds 10, there is multicolinearity. To avoid serious problems of multicollinearity, it is quite essential to omit the variable with value 10 and more from the logit analysis (Gujarati, 2003). Thus, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was employed to test the degree of multicollinearity among the continuous / discrete variables (Table 44). As shown above in Table 44, the values of the VIF for twelve continuous variables were found to be small (i.e. VIF values less than 2) and for the rest was less than ten, indicating the data have no serious problem of multicollinearity. However, only the significant values were entered into the binary logistics analysis. Similarly, the contingency coefficient, which measures the association between various dummy / categorical variables based on the Chisquare, were computed in order to check the degree of association among the dummy / categorical explanatory variables or the existence of multicolinearity problem. The decision rule for contingency coefficients states that when its value approaches 1, there is a problem of association between the dummy / categorical variables, i.e., the values of contingency coefficients ranges between 0 and 1, with zero indicating no association between the variables and the values close to 1, indicating a high degree of association. In this study dependent variable is either grower or non-grower. In order to explain this binary variable, it is necessary to construct a model that relates the dependent variable to a vector of independent variables. The logit model was employed in this study to estimate the effects of the hypothesized independent variables on choice of growing vegetable crops by farmers.Eight independent variables which are found to be significant in the descriptive statistics were included in the model. These are age, education level, marital status, on farm income, frequency of contact with extension agents, participation in extension events, social participation, and number of relatives and close friends of the respondent in the village. These variables were selected by testing the existence of muliticollinearity using Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and contingency coefficients, in addition to their significance in the descriptive statistics.The various goodness of fit measures were checked and validate that the model fits the data.The likelihood ratio test statistics exceeds the Chi-square critical value at less than 1 probability level. This implies that the hypothesis, which says all coefficients except the intercept is zero, was rejected. The value of Pearson Chi-square test shows the overall goodness of fit of the model at less than 1% probability level.Another measure of goodness of fit of the model is based on a scheme that classifies the predicted value of events as one if the estimated probability of an event is equal or greater than 0.5 and 0 otherwise. From all sample farmers, 87.3 were correctly predicted in to grower and non-grower categories by the model. The correctly predicted growers (sensitivity) and correctly predicted non-growers (specificity) of the model were 90 and 83.3 respectively.Thus the model estimated groups of growers and non-growers of vegetable crops accurately.The maximum likelihood estimate of the parameters and the effect of independent variables on the decision of growing vegetable crops by farmers were analyzed and presented in Table 46.The results of this study confirm a priori expectation in that the decision to grow or not to grow vegetable crops was influenced by the simultaneous interaction of several personal & demographic, socio-economic and institutional factors. As it is presented in Table 46, out of 8 explanatory variables found significant in the descriptive statistics and hypothesized to determine farmers' decision to grow vegetable crops, 6 were found to be statistically significant in the model. The result shows that marital status of the household (MARITAL), extension contact (DACONTA), education level (EDUCN), on farm income (ONFARM), participation in extension events (EVENTSCO) and number of relatives and close friends (FRNRLTV) were positively and significantly related with the growing vegetable crops by farmers. The other two variables were not significant. The effects of the model estimates were interpreted in relation to the significant explanatory variables in the model as follows:For farmers decision of choice of crops, advisory services and technical assistances are very necessary. In Ethiopia, where the extension service is provided dominantly by the government organization, the extension agents of this organization are the major sources of information to farmers. It was hypothesized that farmers who have more contact and visited frequently by extension agents have better probability to cultivate vegetable crops than others. The result of the study also shows that the frequency of visit by extension agents influences the decision making of farmers to grow vegetable crops positively and significantly at 5 % level of significance.Education level is found to have positive and significant influence on choice of farmers to grow vegetable crops, at 10 % level of significance. Households who have a better education are assumed to be geared to cash crop orientation where food crop production is a second priority. This shows that being literate would improve access to information, capable to interpret the information, easily understand and analyze the situation better than illiterate farmers and thus help to try out new practices. The result of this study shows that farmers who have better education are involved more in vegetable production. Similar result was found by Taddese (2008).Household's income position and resource ownership was found to be important in cultivation of vegetable crops. This may be due to the resource demanding nature of vegetable production activity particularly when the production purpose is beyond the home consumption and is for commercial purpose. As it was expected annual farm income of the household was found to be positively and significantly influenced decision of farmers to grow vegetable crops at 1% significance level. This means that a farmer who has better income will be more likely to be involved in vegetable crops cultivation, while on the contrary; low income and resource poor farmers face difficulty to grow vegetables. This suggests the need to support resource poor farmers to help them produce cash crops, so that they will be able to improve their income level in particular and their livelihood conditions in general.Participation in extension events is the other means through which farmers get information and make decisions regarding improved practices. Such events include extension arrangements such as training, demonstration, field days or visits and extension exhibitions. In the model, participation of farmers in these events was considered as one aggregate variable.Result of the finding indicated participation in extension events was positively and significantly related to growing vegetable crops at 10 % probability level. The implication is that emphasis has to be given to farmers' training, participation in demonstration, field days and extension exhibitions to enhance vegetable cultivation by farmers.Number of close friends and relatives that the households can talk to about private matters or call on for help in a long term emergency was found to be positively and significantly affecting choice of growing vegetable crops, at 5% level of significance. The probable reasons may be better access to inputs and information; avoiding risk and uncertainties that may occur as a result of involvement in capital and labour intensive practices such as vegetable production.With the aim of enhancing agricultural development, the government considers various projects, including small-scale irrigation mainly through rainfall harvesting and home gardening, to be of crucial importance. As a result, vegetable production is being more widely adopted, primarily to ensure food security and to promote production of high-value crops for the market to improve living conditions of smallholders.The study was conducted in Alamata district, southern zone of the Tigray National RegionalState. In the district there are different water sources for irrigated agriculture, which includes permanent and temporary diversions (spate irrigation), shallow wells and ponds. The spate irrigation covers a lager area of the woreda. In spite if this irrigation potential of the area ans the favorable condition for vegetable production in the area, considerable number of farmers still continued to produce cereals only (with out any cash crops such as vegetables).The objectives of the study were, assessing the contribution of social networks (formal and informal groups) in facilitating access to resources and services in addition to their gender implications, and there by influence decision of farmers to grow vegetable crops. Analyzing the factors influencing the choice of crops by farmers with access to irrigation was also another additional objective of this study.Multistage sampling procedure was employed to make up the study sample at individual level, in which 26% female headed households were included purposively. To address the objectives of the study, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to generate relevant data. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources. The primary data necessary for the quantitative study were collected through personal interviews from 150 farmers who use spate irrigation to grow vegetable (with or with out cereals) and vegetable non growers, drawn from four PAs (which have relatively more producers of cereals as well as vegetables, using spate irrigation). Qualitative data were collected through field visits, observations, informal interview with key informants, Village leaders, DAs, SMSs, extension officials; discussion with separate focus groups of women and men farmers.The analysis was done with the help of descriptive and econometric tools employing SPSS software. Different analytical techniques were applied to analyze the available information.To analyze the comparative contribution of social networks as source of information, input, and credit; across crop production categories and sex categories, chi-square test was mainly used. And to see the relative importance of social networks ranking was used. The econometrics model binary logit was also employed, in addition to the descriptive statistics such as chi-square, t-test, mean, frequencies and percentages; to estimate the effects of hypothesized independent variables on decision of farmers to grow vegetable crops. The summary of the study results are discussed here below.Concerning the contribution of social networks and their relative importance, the major actors in the area which are believed to be serving the rural community in facilitating access to inputs, credit and information were taken. Based on the result of the descriptive statistics, in terms of frequency of use of different actors as a source of technology significant variation was found between vegetable growers and non growers, in relation to use of the actors cooperatives, and input supplier organizations, in favor of vegetable growers, on the other hand significant difference were found in use of neighbors / friends as a source of technology, on favor of the non growers. Regarding the sex categories, significant difference was found in frequency of use of DAs and cooperatives as a source of technology in favor of MHHs and neighbors/ friends in favor of FHHs.With regard to the frequency of use of different actors as a source of credit no significant difference was found between growers and non growers, however there was significant difference between the sex categories, in which both Dedebit saving and credit institution and cooperatives is favoring MHHs.In relation to use of the different actors as a source of information, significant difference was found between vegetable growers and non growers regarding the actors WOoARD, and DAs in favor of vegetable growers, on the other hand, the actors neighbors/ friends in favor of non growers. Regarding the sex categories, significant variation was reveled in relation to the As a source of credit, service cooperatives, Dedebit saving and credit institution, and friends / neighbors for non growers; Dedebit saving and credit, service cooperatives and friends / neighbors for vegetable growers, in their order of importance, were found to be the most important actors. Regarding the sex categories, Dedebit saving and credit, service cooperatives and friends / neighbors for FHHs; whereas service cooperatives, Dedebit saving and credit and friends / neighbors for MHHs, in their order of importance, were the most important actors.As an information source neighbors, DAs, farmers' development groups, WOoARD, service cooperatives and input supplier organizations for non growers; whereas DAs, neighbors / friends, WOoARD, farmers' development groups, service cooperatives and input supplier organizations for the growers, in their order of importance, were the most important actors.Regarding the sex categories, neighbors, DAs, WOoARD, farmers development groups, service cooperatives and input supplier organizations for FHHs; DAs, , neighbors, WOoARD, farmers development groups, service cooperatives, input supplier organizations for MHHs, in their order of importance, were the most important actors.The descriptive analysis result showed that some of the variables hypothesized to influence farmers' decision behavior were significantly related with choice of growing vegetable crops.Age, marital status and education status from household's personal and demographic factors;farm income of the household head from economic variables; participation in social organization, attendance in extension events and frequency of contact with extension agents from institutional factors, were found to have positive and significant relationship with choice of growing vegetable crops, at different probability level of significance. Significant difference in education level, farm income, participation in social organization, attendance in extension event and in frequency of contact with extension agents were also found across the different household (sex) categories, at different probability levels of significance, in favor of MHHs.Based on the results of descriptive statistics, variations were observed between vegetable growers and non growers as well as male and female headed household in terms of participation in different groups and associations in which they are divided in to five groups in this study. In relation to agricultural related groups which are most of the time economical oriented organizations such as service cooperatives, saving and credit groups, water use associations, and agricultural development groups, significant difference was found out between vegetable growers and non growers, in favor of vegetable growers at 5 % probability level of significance. In case of sex categories, significant difference was found with regard to agricultural related groups and administrative groups at 1% and 10% probability level of significance.Number of relatives or close friends was also found to have positive and significant relationship with choice of vegetable crops by farmers. In this study, it was observed that, there was significance mean difference between vegetable growers and non growers in relation to the number of relatives and close friends, at 1% probability level of significance.Similarly significant difference was found out in this regard between household categories, at 10 % level of probability. This result indicates that informal social networks contribute a lot to decision making of farmers to grow vegetables.The binary logistic regression model output showed that marital status and farm income; frequency of contact with development agent and number of relatives & close friends; and education level and participation in extension events were found to have positive and significant influence on the choice of growing vegetable crops by farmers, at 1%, 5% and 10% probability level of significance respectively.In general, the study revealed that social networks, whether informal or formal, contributes a lot in facilitating access to information, input / technology, credit and other services, and thus has significant role in influencing the decision of households to grow vegetable crops.However, informal networks are not only the most frequently used but also the most important source of inputs / technologies and information for FHHs.The study also tried to assess some marketing related issues. According to the study, majority of vegetable growers sell their produces in village, and their potential buyers were found to be wholesalers from regional market or the middle men. The major problem of farmers in relation to market was absence of alternative market, followed by lack of market information.Generally farmers face many problems in using irrigation for their crops, specifically in the production of vegetables. Among the challenges, lack of irrigation water as a result of lack of appropriate management & technical problems in relation to the way the head works and channels are constructed, unavailability of inputs on time, were the most important constraints.Based on the research findings of this study, the following points are recommended to improve the performance of the contribution of different social networks in facilitating access to resources and services and there by influence farmers decision to grow vegetable crops.This study has analyzed the contribution of social networks (formal and informal) and their gender implication in accessing resources and services and there by their influence in decision making of farmers to grow vegetable crops. Accordingly, it was discovered that agricultural related groups, which are mostly economical oriented social groups such as cooperatives, water use association and; saving and credit groups, were mostly serving the vegetable growers generally and MHHs specifically. The non growers in general and FHHs in particular are most of the time not involved in such economical oriented groups, and thus not served equally compared to the growers. Such social groups are essential components in the process of agricultural development because of their contribution of facilitating access to resources and services and also resource exchange. Therefore, efforts should be made to establish such groups and also to strengthen the existing ones. In addition, efforts should be made to involve as many farmers as possible in these groups and special attention should be given to FHHs, to increase their participation in different groups and associations especially in economic oriented groups, so that their access to inputs and services will be increased and as a result their income level will also be improved.Regarding the frequency of use of different actors, cooperatives and input supplier organizations were found to be the most frequently used actors for vegetable growers, as a source of technology; hence there is a need to involve other private input supplier organizations, but with critical follow up and supervision activities, so that the farmers will not be cheated and they will be able to get necessary inputs on time. Regarding the sex categories, this study revealed that DAs and service cooperatives are the most frequently used actors for MHHs as a source of technology, as compared to FHHs, hence there is a need to make purposive intervention in order to encourage FHHs to participate in cooperatives and extension programs, and for this the extension agents and other development workers should be well convinced and should have heartily believe in the necessity of involvement of women in any development programs for economic and social development of any country, so that they will work hard too improve the livelihood of women, specifically FHHs.As an information source, WOoARD and DAs were frequently used by the growers but for the non growers neighbors were the frequently used actors. Regarding the sex categories, DAs and service cooperatives were frequently used by MHHs, but for FHHs neighbors were the most frequently used actor, hence due attention should be given, to make relevant and timely information accessible for those farmers who are not participating in market oriented production system generally and FHHs in particular.Generally both formal and informal networks have their own contribution in facilitating access to resources and services, hence recognizing the importance of informal networks and intervening to strengthen them by forming self help groups and also establishing linkage with the formal channels of information, inputs and credit is very important.Finally, integration between different concerned formal organizations such as WOoARD, Alamata research center, credit provider organizations ,administration office of the woreda and NGOs on one hand; recognizing informal networks and creating important groups for accessing resources and services and information sharing on the other hand and creating strong linkage between the two ( formal and informal networks) will be important not only to enhance vegetable cultivation practices but also for research and improvement of innovation capacity of farmers.Decision of farmers to grow vegetable crops was found to be influenced, among other things, by households' income position. This shows the need of initial capital to involve in vegetable production. Therefore, giving special attention to provide credit to the poor, especially, FHHs has to be considered as a central and core component of any development intervention in the sector.Vegetable production involves the use of different practices which require knowledge and skill of application and management. Education was found to have a positive relation with choice of growing vegetable crops, as it increases the probability of behavioral change of individuals and thus enhances ability to acquire and use information required for production and marketing. Therefore, due emphasis has to be given towards amplification of education in rural area, so that overall livelihood of the farm households will be improved.Farmers' attendance in extension events like field visit, training, hosting demonstration and extension exhibition; and frequency of contact with development agent was found to be highly related to growing vegetable crops by farmers. Hence, concerned organizations should give due attention in organizing and facilitating such events. Likewise, extension service provision has to be strengthened in order to improve farmers' access to information and extension advice, because vegetable production compared to other cereals crops is complex in which it needs modern technical knowledge and know how of application of different inputs.As the result of this study indicates, WOoARD is the most frequently mentioned actor by sample respondents as a provider of most of the extension events, especially training. Hence, other actors such as Alamata research center and concerned NGOs should contribute their role in this regard.Based on the result of descriptive statistics and different group interview & focus group discussions, the major problem facing vegetable growers were absence of alternative market.Hence the concerned bodies should give emphasis to organize marketing cooperatives as well as giving recognitions to newly established cooperatives. Moreover, efforts should be made to create market linkages among vegetable producers and potential market area, so that farmers will be able to sell their produces with fair price. In addition, storage technologies and processing activities such as production of canned and bottled vegetables should also be introduced; so that the bargaining power of farmers will be improved and as a result their income level and livelihood conditions will be improved.Lack of irrigation water, as a result of lack of appropriate management & technical problems in relation to the way the head works and channels are constructed was also another problem, hence efforts should be made to find better way to manage the water, so that it will be possible for farmers to use the water uniformly and thus it will be used efficiently. Moreover, farmers must be involved in the design process particularly in decisions about boundaries, the layout of the canals, and the position of outlets and bridges to make the use of the structures sustainable and cost effective, in addition timely maintenance is very crucial. Purposive intervention should be made to increase the participation of farmers, specifically FHHs in the management issues and other related activities regarding water use. The other major constraints were lack of availability of inputs on time and lack of market information; hence efforts should be made to strengthen the service cooperatives in terms of capital and man power, so that it will give the needed service in providing inputs on time as well as relevant and timely information. ","tokenCount":"24724"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"91691a43a0f877bbca1ced26fcf56238","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de96afc6-ccad-4a30-a760-379be6440a0a/retrieve","id":"1538327058"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8e147e99-42ae-4698-8510-f0cd36a1131c","pagecount":"64","content":"In 2003/04, a CTA/CARDI/CRFM regional study examined the organizational needs and operational strengths and weaknesses of existing national and primary or community-based Caribbean fisherfolk organizations and made recommendations to address them. At a CTA/CARDI/CRFM Regional Workshop held in Belize in 2004 to review the study and recommendations, an explicit recommendation was made to launch a Regional Network of National Fisherfolk Organizations (CARNUFO). It was also decided that CARNUFO would be established when at least 50% of the ACP Caribbean countries + 1 would have NFOs. In this context, a Working Group was created to develop a strategy for the launching of CARNUFO and make proposals for strengthening the institutional capacities of fisherfolk organizations, with the strategy being aimed at addressing the following issues:-Lack of critical mass of NFOs for launching CARNUFO as defined by the 2004 Belize Workshop -Weak management skills of fisherfolk organizations -Insufficient access to relevant information by fisherfolk -Limited communication and advocacy skills of fisherfolk organizations.The Working Group met in Guyana in June 2005 and produced a Strategy and Medium Term Action Plan for the Institutional Strengthening of Regional Fisherfolk Organizations -2006 to 2010.Based on the Strategy and Medium Term Action Plan, a project proposal for the development of the Caribbean Network of Fisherfolk Organizations was submitted to the CTA. This proposal was reviewed and refined by the CRFM and CTA into the Terms of Reference: Development of Caribbean Network of Fisherfolk Organizations, September 2006 -July 2008, with the overall objective being to contribute to improved income earnings, higher standard of living of fisherfolk and the sustainable management of fisheries resources in the Caribbean. This component of the TOR, the CTA/CRFM Training of Trainers Workshop for Fisheries Extension Officers to Enhance their Skills to provide better Information, Advisory and Training Services to Primary and National Fisherfolk Organizations, is aimed at enhancing the capacities of twenty-four fisheries extension officers in twelve ACP/CRFM Member States (Groups 1 and 2) to provide better information, advisory and training services to primary fisherfolk and national fisherfolk organisations.The Workshop was convened to achieve the following:-provide training, primarily, to Fisheries Extension Officers to enhance their skills to provide better information, advisory and training services to primary and national fisherfolk organizations;-draft the briefing note on fisherfolk organizations in the Caribbean; and -outline the draft guidelines and strategy for the conducting of the national consultations for the launch of NFOs in Group II countries.The workshop was held at the Conference Centre of the St. Vincent and the Grenadines Chambers of Commerce in Kingstown, St. Vincent and the Grenadines.Twenty-six participants from Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, British Virgin Island, Commonwealth of Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St.Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) Secretariat attended the workshop.Mr. Terrence Phillips, Programme Manager, Fisheries Management and Development, CRFM Secretariat, welcomed the participants to the Workshop. He provided the participants with an overview of the CTA/CRFM Terms of Reference: Development of Caribbean Network of Fisherfolk Organizations, and outlined the objectives and expected outputs of the Workshop. He also stressed the need for the participants to continue to remain involved in the implementation of the CTA/CRFM TOR for the Development of a Caribbean Network of Fisherfolk Organizations.Participants and resource persons introduced themselves, with the Facilitator of the Workshop being Mr. James Finlay, Fisheries Consultant and former Chief Fisheries Officer of Grenada. See List of Participants set out at Appendix 1.The Draft Agenda for the Workshop was reviewed and adopted. See Agenda given at Appendix 2.The Facilitator did not make a presentation on this topic, since he considered that it had been adequately covered by the PM, FMD, in his opening remarks.In his presentation on this topic, the Facilitator noted that it was important to first know your environment. He indicated that the direct and indirect environment of primary and secondary fisherfolk organizations could be described as the immediate fisherfolk community from which the organization emerged and was created to serve; government as manager/conservator of common property resources; commercial services providers; and regional and international bodies.He indicated that in relation to the immediate fisherfolk community from which the organization emerged, the environment would depend on the community type (e.g. stock-based, geographical), the rationale for the creation of the organization (e.g. production/marketing demand for the product), level of production, size of investments of fisheries units (e.g. subsistence, semicommercial, commercial), ownership and economic space of community members. With regards to government, the environment would take into consideration public policy on community-based organizations, fisherfolk community attitude or expectations with regards to benefits and support of government, public policy instruments administered by governments and existing institutionalised delivery systems and the role of fisherfolk organizations in the delivery of services to their communities.Commercial services providers would impose on the environment the influence of stakeholders with an inherited/acquired economic space, traditional traders in goods/services, public policy support for commercial delivery systems, economies of scale, and avenues for out-competing traditional businesses in the trade of goods and services, while regional and international bodies would bring existing intergovernmental agreements on management of shared marine resources for the purpose of sustainable use, alleviation of poverty, improvement in standards of living, on incorporating grass root/user groups in management/conservation of resources, and generating legitimate and validated consensus.During the discussions, it was noted that the links between government, fisher/fisherfolk organization and the community needed to be strengthened and that it was better to avoid confrontation among the various stakeholders, but develop mechanisms for continued dialogue.It was also put forward that the role of the public servant in this process should be one of facilitator, fostering dialogue between the stakeholders and delivering government services to fishers, fisherfolk organizations, communities, etc. Participants indicated that public servants should conduct themselves in a professional manner at all times so as to gain and maintain the trust of the other stakeholders.Country presentations on the status of the primary and/or national fisherfolk organizations in their respective countries, with some background on the establishment of these organizations, roles and functions, membership and indications of their strengths and weaknesses were made by the respective country representatives/teams.Anguilla currently has 385 registered fishing boats, and approximately 300 full time and part time fishers. Most boats are about 32 ft in length with two outboard engines. Targeted species include king fish, swordfish, dolphin fish, lobster and reef finfish.The country has no primary or secondary fisherfolk organizations or groups, but has been exploring the formation of such groups. Among the reasons put forward for the lack of organization were: the independent nature of the fishers, in particular their financial independence; and the great demand for fish from the tourist industry, with fishers taking their catches directly to the hotels. It was pointed out that fishers needed to be made more aware of the necessity for conservation and management of the fisheries resources, and efforts made to involve them in the fisheries management process. As such, the need for some level of organization among the fishers was recognised.During the discussions following the presentation by Anguilla, it was noted that it was not the role of any fisheries department to impose an organization on the fishers, but fishers should be encouraged to organize to address common issues/problems that affected their daily livelihoods.It was suggested that a good point to bring them into the management process would be to involve them in the consultations to update the fisheries management plan.Antigua and Barbuda is an archipelago made up of three main islands: Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, with Antigua being the largest of the three. The fishing industry provides employment for over 1200 persons either directly or indirectly, with the spiny lobster being one of the most valuable resources accounting for 19.7% of the total production of fish. The total export of fish products from Antigua and Barbuda in 2002 was 169,000 pounds (mainly live lobster to the nearby French Territories). Fish traps/pots continued to be the most dominant fishing gear employed by the industry, with other gear types being hook and line, gillnet, \"scuba\" and artisanal longlines. The total number of registered vessels in 2003 was 695.The mission of the Fisheries Division is to ensure the development of the fishery sector in a manner that is sustainable and capable of contributing to the overall development of the national economy. There are four fishers' organizations, with these being the Antigua and Barbuda Fishermen's Alliance; Antigua & Barbuda Fishermen's Co-operative Society Ltd., Barbuda Fishermen's Cooperative and South Coast United Fisherfolk Co-operative.The Antigua and Barbuda Fishermen's Alliance was formed in January 1997 to represent its members at a national level on all matters pertaining to the fishing industry. The South Coast United Fisherfolk Co-operative was started two years ago with the conch divers in the south and has broadened its scope to include all interested fisherfolk in the area. Membership in the Antigua & Barbuda Fishermen Co-operative Society Ltd. currently stood at one hundred and fifty-one (151), including eleven (11) females.During the discussion on the presentation by Antigua and Barbuda, it was postulated that some of the factors preventing the formation of fisherfolk organization were: impatience of fishers (they were patient at sea but impatient on land) and insufficient time to dedicate to the task of organizing. Among the benefits identified were better access to facilities and markets and the ability to influence the price for their products.Barbados has five active fisherfolk associations: one secondary organization and four primary organizations. The secondary organization is the Barbados National Union of Fisherfolk Organizations and the primary associations are Weston, Sandpit, Oistins and Central Fish Processors Fisherfolk Associations, with each association having a strategic plan. Their activities included provision of fuel, tackle, berthing space and boat yard space for repairs.Fisherfolk associations were represented on the Fisheries Advisory Committee and participated as co-partners in the design and implementation of the Fisheries Management Plan of Barbados. They also have representation on Government negotiation teams dealing with fisheries matters. Among the weaknesses identified for these associations were the dependency on Government for subventions; inadequate financial resources; absence of expertise; lack of full time staff; the executive having to shuffle between their main calling and the running of the association; too crisis oriented; inability to take advantage of funding from donor agencies; inability to fully implement strategic plans; and unfamiliarity with the workings of GovernmentDuring the late sixties and early seventies, nine (9) fishing cooperatives were registered in Barbados. However, they have mostly been cancelled. At present, one fishing cooperative exists. This cooperative society was registered on the 18 th of February 1986 and with a membership of sixty-three (63), with these being boat owners and fishers. It was opined that most of the fishing cooperatives failed for reasons such as undercapitalisation, poor management, lack of commitment and loyalty, and poor record keeping.During the discussions, it was indicated that the fisherfolk organizations in Barbados tended to come together when there was a problem such as a fish kill or border dispute, but lost interest after the matter had been addressed. It was noted that this situation was not unique to Barbados but seemed to be common to other Caribbean countries.It was mentioned that many fisherfolk organizations were maintained through the persistence of a core group who remained in place both during and after any crisis, but this could lead to issues of succession at the executive level when these members eventually leave. Fishers and their organizations lacked access to information and training.The fishing industry of Belize has contributed significantly to the development of the country by providing direct employment to 2,026 fishers and over 1,182 processing plant personnel. In addition, it has been contributing foreign exchange earnings to the development process. The private sector of the fishing industry is made up mainly of shrimp farms and fishing cooperative operations.During the late 1940's and early 1950's, fishing became an industry due to the formation of many fisheries companies. However, these foreign companies exploited the native fishermen by paying them low prices for their product, especially lobster. As a result, the fishermen from the northern part of the country (Caye Caulker and San Pedro) who worked for these companies came together Cooperative, and the Caribena Fishermen Cooperative. Each cooperative is represented on the managing committee of the BFCA.During the discussion, in response to a request from one of the representatives from Antigua and Barbuda, the representative from Belize offered technical assistance and training in the construction and use of lobster traps, with it being suggested that the CRFM could facilitate this exchange. There was also some discussion on profit sharing for cooperative members.The British Virgin Island has about 300 part time fishers, with fishing being part of its tradition and culture. Government policy reserves commercial fisheries as a right for B V Islanders and \"belongers\". Fish is a primary natural resource, but its contribution to the GDP is often underestimated and its importance not fully appreciated. Hotels, restaurants, the dive industry and the charter boat industry rely on fish as local cuisine as well as for recreation.The Extension Unit of the Fisheries Division is responsible for the provision of extension services to fishers and the fishing communities, and promoting and assisting in the formation of fishers' groups and cooperatives. It has been trying to mobilize fishers to form associations that would help in resource management and advocacy. There was one fishers' cooperative on the island of Virgin Gorda, with there being plans to mobilize, strengthen and form organizations on the islands of Jost Van Dyke, Tortola and Anegada.During the discussions it was noted that fisheries departments should seek to better network at the regional level to foster fisheries management and development. Also, the need for the networking of fisherfolk organizations was recognised. There was some discussion on the likely conflict between the roles of the fisheries extension officer in technology transfer to fishers' groups as well as their role in the enforcement of fisheries regulations. The role of the fisheries department as a bridge between the fishers and policy makers was also discussed.In Dominica, fisheries cooperatives started in the early 1960s, with the first Fisheries Cooperative being registered in the capital Roseau in 1963. It attracted membership island-wide. During that same period, which was referred to as the \"Cooperative Boom\", other cooperatives like the credit unions were registered as well.In the 1980s, fisheries cooperatives were established in many of the fishing communities, but some have since been dissolved due to poor management. To date, there are five (5) active societies; four (4) dormant societies and four (4) study groups to be registered. The contribution of fisheries cooperatives to community development has been significant. The total assets of the fisheries cooperatives amount to over EC $5 million, with the membership being at about 700.During the discussion, the representative from Dominica indicated that they needed to promote the development of a national fisherfolk organization, as such a body could play a role in fisheries management and development, including quality control.In Grenada, co-operatives have been in existence over for forty years, with such bodies having been formed to meet a particular need. The aim of these co-operatives is seen as the empowerment of its members to manage their own affairs and improve on their standard of living. Despite the poor track records of previous co-operatives, the fishers have not been daunted and believe that co-operatives still have the potential to play an important role in the development of better livelihoods.A National Fishermen Association had been formed to represent fishermen, but it has been inactive. It was formed as a lobby group to represent the interest of all fishers throughout Grenada.Some of the weaknesses of co-operatives were identified as lack of funding for the NFA and a clear objective; mismanagement of co-operative funds; lack of trust among the membership; failure of the executive to motivate its members; insufficient guidance from the Co-operative Department; lack of transparency and auditing of books; failure to hold regular meetings; lack of enthusiasm among members; inadequate leadership; and insufficient knowledge of the bylaws. Some of the benefits were identified as provision of appropriate services; providing scholarships for children of fishers and annual profit sharing.Coming from the discussion was the recognition that oversight by the government regulatory agencies responsible for fishers' cooperatives and associations was essential.Jamaica is an archipelagic state. It has approximately 13, 600 registered fishers (2001 estimate) and 4,100 (2001 estimate) registered boats. The total fish landings for 2001 was 6327.79 metric tonnes, with the fish caught including reef finfish (parrot fishes, grunts, doctor fishes, snappers, etc), lobsters, conch, shrimp, oceanic pelagic fishes (tunas) and coastal pelagics (herrings).The Jamaica Fisherman's Cooperative Union (JFCU) is the umbrella organisation for 14 fishermen's cooperatives, with 9 being active. Its affiliates account for 4,700 members. The JFCU started as a welfare endeavour, which was eventually converted to a cooperative for fishers in 1954. Following on its formation, it has been promoting the formation of primary fisher groups across the country. It has nine board members drawn from the active primary cooperatives. The umbrella organization sources and provides fishing supplies to fishers and affiliated cooperatives.It is also strongly involved in advocacy for the welfare of its members.The support of the member organizations is seen as its main strength while a weakness is perceived as its small membership base. To this end, the JFCU has been continuing its drive to promote the formation of primary fisherfolk groups on the Pedro Cays, etc.There was no discussion after this presentation.St Kitts and Nevis 6.9. Among the weaknesses identified were dependency on the Department of Cooperatives; insufficient teamwork; poor record keeping; low investment in shares; and poor responses to training opportunities.There was no discussion after this presentation.On Nevis, there are about 250 fishermen, with most of them being young men. Many fishers have to travel great distances to catch fish, so, the market prices tended to be high. Approximately ten percent (10%) of the fish caught in Nevis is sold in St. Kitts. The fishing methods include fish pots, line, seine and spear fishing, and trolling. About ninety percent (90%) of fish landed on the Island was caught in fish pots, with the main species being bonito, snapper, mackerel, kingfish, tuna and dolphin, plus smaller species caught on the reefs and shallows.Nevis has one fishing cooperative, with a membership of 297. Attempts were being made to encourage all fishermen in Nevis to become members of the cooperative. It operated an outboard motor shop, which has provided practical training for local fishers.The objectives of the Cooperative Society are to arrange for the sale to members of requisites; arrange for the marketing of members' catch; provide necessary equipment, plant and machinery for the collection, storing and processing of members produce; assist members to improve their operations and to conduct, encourage and assist in conducting educational programmes; and promote thrift among its members by providing ways and means whereby buying and selling can be effected.The strengths of the cooperative were identified as training (limited) and support from the Fisheries Department while the weaknesses were given as lack of support by members to the cooperative society; inadequate funds; inadequate equipment; poor record keeping and the lack of modern technology for effective management.There was no discussion after this presentation. During the discussion it was noted that most fisherfolk organizations tended to be boat owner oriented, as the fishers themselves did not see any real benefits coming to them from being members of such organizations.In St. Vincent and the Grenadines, there were four registered cooperatives, with these being the Goodwill Fisherman's Co-operative Society (1987), Calliaqua Fisherfolk Co-operative (CALFICO) 2004), Barrouallie Fisheries Development Co-operative and North Leeward Fisheries Development Co-operative Society.The Goodwill Fisherman's Co-operative has a membership of about 90 and provided services such as sale of fuel, oil and fishing gear. It was pointed out that its strengths were in relation to being able to provide services to members at affordable prices, and to represent them on fisheries related issues to the Government. The main weakness was identified as the inability to recruit competent persons to manage the cooperative. CALFICO, with a membership of 88 fishers, was established at the Calliaqua Fisheries Centre to provide services in relation to fish storage, production of ice for fishing activities and marketing of fish. It was a functioning society with a management structure that enabled it to provide good services, but not all of their needs, such as being able to purchase fuel and limited number of lockers, were being met. There was poor attendance at meetings.Barrouallie Fisheries Co-operative Society has 17 members, and has its own facilities at the Barrouallie Fisheries Centre with a manager/clerk. However, the Cooperative was experiencing difficulties in implementing its strategic plans due to a non-functioning Board of Directors, poor record keeping and lack of membership support. The North Leeward Fisheries Development Cooperative, with a membership of 20, is now being developed and has regular meetings.There was no discussion after this presentation.The marine environment of Trinidad and Tobago can be described as being mixed, with freshwater and estuarine influences from being downstream of the major river systems of northeast South America e.g. the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. The fishing industry is largely artisanal based on resources occurring in the coastal and territorial waters and consists of multispecies, multi-gear and multi-fleet operations. There are sixty-five (65) landing sites in Trinidad (2003 census) and forty-five (45) in Tobago (1991 census). It had been estimated that 15,000 persons were directly and 30,000 persons indirectly involved in the fishing industry.Trinidad has twenty-seven (27) fishing organizations, with nineteen (19) being associations and eight (8) cooperatives. Fishing associations consist mainly of groups of fishermen in their respective communities and tended to be informal organizations with no legally binding instruments while the co-operatives were organised legal entities. The primary role of the fishing organizations in Trinidad and Tobago was to address issues that impacted on the livelihoods of the fishing community so that fisherfolk could enjoy the benefits of a regular income. However, most of the organizations were dormant, with a tendency to quickly regroup in reaction to events that may impact upon their fishing operations, as it had been generally recognized that there was faster resolution of conflicts when representations was made by groups as compared to individuals.The most stable fishermen's organization existing in Trinidad was the Cedros Fishing Cooperative, which operates the Cedros Fishing Centre, consisting of a boat/net repair shed, storage lockers, caretaker's quarters and retail market. Unlike other fishing cooperatives, the Cedros Fishing Cooperative could be considered to be self-sufficient as it operated a gas station, post office and a lottery outlet. The Toco Fisherman Cooperative, after being dormant for some years, was revived in September 2004. However, after a period of six (6) months, the cooperative became inactive due to the lack of participation of its members. In March 2006, the Toco Fishermen Association was formed and was making progress.In 2004, the Women In Fishing Association (WIFA) was formed, with its members being fisherwomen who are vessel owners as well as wives of vessel owners and fishers residing in the Mayaro-Guayaguayare area. All members have participated in net repair and fish processing courses, which were conducted by the Caribbean Fisheries Training and Development Institution (CFTDI) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources.There was no discussion after this presentation.Draft forms entitled: \"Profile of Fisherfolk Organization (Community) Country/Territory\" were provided to the representative/team from each country for completion. This form was amended and refined by the group into two profiling formats (1) Country Profile Format of Fisherfolk Organizations (Primary and Secondary) (Appendix 3), and (2) Profile Format of a Primary Fisherfolk Organization (Appendix 4). Using the refined forms, the representative/team from each country worked to: (a) profile fisherfolk organizations in their respective countries, and (b) profile a single fisherfolk organization. Each country team then made presentations in plenary.During the discussions, the following matters emerged:• The need to be sensitive while addressing the socio-political environment in each country.• The need to devise innovative ways to promote the organization of fishers' groups to foster their economic development and a play a role in advocacy. • The need for government policies that encouraged consultation and participation in the fisheries management and development process as these could assist in promoting the organization of stakeholder groups.During the course of this discussion, there was recommendation for the placement of a decompression chamber at the South Coast United Fisherfolk Association to assist fishers who frequently suffer from \"bends\" while diving.The Facilitator advised participants that under the Awareness and Promotion Campaign to promote the formation of CARNUFO, key stakeholders would need to be further sensitised to the benefits of forming NFOs and CARNUFO. He also indicated that a Briefing Note on Fisherfolk Organizations in the Caribbean had to be prepared, with the 2003/2004 Needs Assessment Study being used as a guide.Based on a review of the Study, participants agreed that the Briefing Note should focus on the following:Needs Assessment Studies and contribution of participants:1. Numerous community based primary organizations that are insular, but few national umbrella or apex organizations.2. The need for strengthening and capacity building at both the primary and national levels, noting that strengthening and capacity building at the primary level only will not achieve the goal of effective co-management for purposes such as resource-base conservation/management.3. Fishers, in the context of fisherfolk organizations, appeared to be concerned with addressing their immediate needs first; followed by community and resource needs that did not address issues of sustainability.4. Strong hold of executives at the fisherfolk organization level and centralised control by Government representatives were not conducive to participation by all in the fisheries management process.5. Need for good governance at all levels, with key factors being the strengthening of economic base of fisherfolk organizations at the primary and secondary levels, decentralised government, and improved mechanisms for consultation and participation in the fisheries management and development process.6. Records at some national fisherfolk organization show superior benefits of: The Facilitator made a presentation on the rationale and objectives for the formation of primary and national fisherfolk organizations, with the main points being:(1) Community-based groups in pursuit of common goal (s) could empower the individual as well as the community.(2) Empowered community based groups would be better able to widen the economic space for their members through means such as capacity building, advocacy, networking and by taking advantage of business opportunities.(3) Community based groups would have a higher profile and greater capacity than an individual and would be better able to contribute to co-management of the resource base that members have a proprietary interest.(4) Fisherfolk organizations could make use of opportunities available for accessing assistance from both government and external agencies for institutional development.(5) Community and political leaders have a need for focal points for forging legitimate community consensus. (6) Conservation and management of fisheries and the ecosystem.The following matters emerged from the discussions: -Cooperatives should apply caution as they expanded or diversified away from their core activities, and should seek to work within their limits.-Fishers should be encouraged to save more towards their retirement, with likely investments in insurance plans and other saving instruments.-The likely impact of the CSME on fishing activities, especially trade in fish and fish products.-The value of cooperatives as grass roots organizations.The Facilitator gave an overview of the Needs Assessment Report and the method of scoping. He then explained that four groups would be formed to review and comment on specific sections of the said Report, with these being as follows: The presentation commenced with a definition of the term, negotiation, which was given to be 'an engagement between or among parties with the purpose of generating an agreed upon outcome.'The Facilitator explained that in the forming of new, or reviving of dormant cooperatives/organizations there was need to negotiate with fisherfolk, village elite or important significant persons and other persons with interest in fisheries and NGOs, with the recognition that these persons/entities would have their terms of negotiation. Also, it was pointed out that there would have to be negotiations with the Government as well as they too would have a stake in the outcome. He expressed the hope that the participants present would initiate these negotiations or be involved in the negotiation process. He indicated that in initiating such negotiations, they would have to determine the point at which to start, and raised the question as to whether it would be with the community, fishers, or the wives of the fishers. He stressed that the strategy was not to impose positions, but to educate, inform and guide.He indicated that they should have clear in their thoughts the subject of the negotiations, be it a defunct or dormant or new organization as the process of negotiation would not be same for all situations. He further indicated that the participants/negotiators should be clear about the beneficiaries of the negotiations, e.g. in the case of the reactivation/formation of fishers organizations, fishers would be direct beneficiaries and government would be the indirect beneficiaries. He mentioned that the negotiators should ensure that all the stakeholders are identified and the key participants included in the negotiations. He cautioned that negotiators should not give false hope, or leave out the not so pleasant parts, noting that if the road got rough and participants in the negotiating process were not prepared then the negotiator could be left to do all the work.The Facilitator pointed out that based on current inter-governmental initiatives for fisheries management and development, with the inclusion of the various stakeholders, there was need to involve community-based fisherfolk organizations, using a strategic plan of action, with objectives aimed at: (1) Improving incomes, (2) Improving standards of living, and (3) Fostering co-management of the resource base in response to threats/habitat mismanagement. He indicated that under the CTA/CRFM Project Member States had been placed in three groupings according to presence of primary and/or secondary fisherfolk organizations or absence of any form of fisherfolk organization. However, he noted that at both the primary and secondary organizational levels, some fisherfolk organizations were functioning well while others were not, and stated that there was a strong need for institutional strengthening and capacity building. He then pointed out that for purpose of the working group exercise three groups would be formed to address the following:Task: Using the experience of countries having primary fisherfolk organizations with successful initiative in forming national organizations, some functional, others weak or threatened, and where there is a strong need for institutional strengthening and capacity building, address the following questions:1.Outline the causes for the formation of the secondary organization, e.g. a felt need, response to a crisis, etc.Identify the conditions favouring or disfavouring the maintenance of the national organization.What were the gains made and the lessons learnt? 4.Would strengthened and capacitated national fisherfolk organizations fulfil the goals and purposes set out in the Project, especially co-management?12.1.2 GROUP 2 -BVI, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia Task: Using the experience of countries with primary fisherfolk organizations with failed efforts at forming functional national organizations, and where there is a strong need for institutional strengthening and capacity building, address the following questions:1.What caused the failed attempt at forming national fisherfolk organizations? 2.What are the conditions currently favouring or disfavouring the formation of national fisherfolk organization? 3.What are the lessons learned and the conditions to be created if national fisherfolk organizations are to be formed so as to fulfil the goals and purposes set out in the project especially co-management.12.1.3 GROUP 3. -St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua and Barbuda and Anguilla.Task: Using the experience of countries with primary fisherfolk organizations but with no attempts at forming national fisherfolk organization, and where there is a strong need for institutional strengthening and capacity building, address the following questions:1.Enumerate the reasons why primary fisherfolk organizations never formed a secondary fisherfolk organization (eg. if physical, socio economic or socio cultural factors were responsible).What conditions would have to be created if a national fisherfolk organization would be formed (eg. Conditions that might be created by government, fishers etc. if the goals and purposes set out in the document especially co-management would be fulfilled?At the end of the Working Group Sessions, Working Group deliberations were shared with the Workshop. Summaries of the groups' presentations are given at Appendix 6.During the discussions, it was recommended that in countries such as Anguilla, where there was no fisherfolk organizations, could first set up an \"interim\" national body with representation from across the country and use this as the vehicle to set up primary groups in local communities.It was also pointed out that in terms of the roles and functions of apex bodies, there were two models, with these being: Model 1 \"Limited Model\" (the experience of Barbados, Trinidad & Tobago, Belize)The functions of the apex body were limited to coordinating, networking, and serving as a national advocacy group. The apex group did not compete with the existing activities of the primary organizations, for example the apex bodies did not do direct marketing of fish, etc. but would source markets for its primary bodies.Model 2 \"Wider Model\" (the experience of Jamaica)The function of the apex body was not limited to, but included coordinating, networking, and serving as a national advocacy group, but the organization was so structured and supported legally so as to act as a marketing and service agency for the primary organizations.These two topics were linked and dealt with together, with the strategy being used to first brainstorm in small groups and then together for a wider discussion. The participants were placed in two groups.Group 1:Anguilla, Belize, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago.Group 2: Barbados, Jamaica, Dominica Antigua & Barbuda, St. Kitts & Nevis, and British Virgin Islands.The groups were tasked to:1. a) Outline the steps to be taken in getting ready primary fisherfolk organizations for the limited purposes of joint representation (advocacy) etc. only; b)Which were the focal persons or agencies to deal with in this effort; and c) Match their initiative with a time frame.Outline implications of introducing the idea of the national fisherfolk organisation being involved in the wider role and functions e.g. commerce, and try to determine the reaction of primary fisherfolk organizations.Determine whether existing legal and institutional/administration provisions facilitate or provide for: -the \"limited functions\" of national fisherfolk organizations -the wider functions of national fisherfolk organizations NB: Please cite laws/regulations institutional/administrative arrangements, in place and indicate jurisdictions (countries). NB: Please provide a checklist that may be used by participants on return to their homes.A summary of the deliberations of the Groups can be seen at Appendix 7.In terms of the model of NFO which could be utilised for the setting up of new umbrella fisherfolk organizations, participants suggested that the limited approach could be adopted in the first instant and then NFOs could expand to take on the role of the wider model, if the situation was conducive.It was opined that, bearing in mind the laws in relation to regulation of cooperatives, etc., both the fisheries and cooperative departments should work together, with the fisheries departments taking the lead in promoting and encouraging the establishment of primary and secondary fisherfolk organizations. It was recognised that the role of the cooperative department in providing oversight to the management and operations of fisherfolk groups was critical to their success.The Facilitator indicated that the main actors in this consultation would be (1) The primary fisherfolk organizations (2) The Fisheries Management Authority (3) The Competent Authority (eg. The Registrar of Cooperatives etc), (4) Central government (perhaps as the agency mandating this inter-governmental/political initiative), and mentioned that the following should be noted:1) The primary fisherfolk organizations in a community will have their vested interests, which they would seek to protect and others that they would seek to promote. Consultations with fisherfolk/fisherfolk organizations by implication represented a bottom up approach, and thus the consultation should be seen as a grass root initiative. During the consultations with the fisherfolk organization as a unit, the current status, capacity, vision/plan should be examined, to determine the environment of the fisherfolk organization.2) The Fisheries Management Authority in terms of its relationship with the fisherfolk organization. The extension functions, of the Authority re: its human resources, for example Extension Districts Officers would be vital in this process. Its general capacity to participate in the process should also be noted.3) The Competent Authority has its role in engaging fisherfolk organization and community based institutions and must be involved in terms of Extension Districts/Division of responsibilities.4) Central government, the agency mandating this inter-governmental/political initiative. Its role would be mediating/coordinating and promoting the process for formation of national fisherfolk organization (institution), as well as providing direction (Cabinet level direction) for the process.From the ensuing discussion it emerged that interacting with fishers was viewed as a great challenge to the cooperative department, but it was suggested that they make every effort to carry out their mandate and participate in the Project. It was recognised that cooperative departments tended to concentrate more on the provision of financial services (e.g Credit Unions, etc.) and less on the formation of fisherfolk organisations, but participants opined that with an apparent shift in policy in some countries, where the credit unions will no longer be supervised by the cooperative department, this would leave the cooperative department more resources to deal with fisherfolk organizations. Also, in countries such as Dominica, there was a strategic plan to deal with non-financial organisations. In addition, participants noted that fishers were not as well informed about the services offered by the cooperative department, as they should be. It was recommended that the cooperative and fisheries departments should pool their resources together to better assist the fishers and their organizations.Following on the above, participants were divided into two groups to further brainstorm, with the task being to perform an in-depth examination of the key actors in the process of institutional strengthening, capacity building of existing national umbrella fisherfolk organizations and formation of new ones. Summaries of the group presentations to the workshop are set out at Appendix 8.The Facilitator in his presentation made the following points:Governments of the region appeared to be supportive of the move to organise fishers, especially as it related to management of the resource (co-management), and this could contribute to the objective of improving the incomes of fishers.Government would probably find it difficult to work with all the different primary organizations.In the past, Governments have often used the top-down approach (command and control) in management of the resources, this approach did not appear to be successful, especially in open access situations. Governments were moving away from the top-down approach towards a bottom-up, co-management approach.Government policies on resource management have failed because they have found it difficult to apply them consistently.The coming into being of the CSM and subsequently the CSME would pose new challenges for fisheries management and development.Most of the discussions were centred on the impacts of the CSME, and likely Common Fisheries Policy on sustainable fisheries development, with participants expressing some concern about the accessing of resources in each other's fishery zones. The Facilitator, Ms. Michelle Peters, who had been brought in by the Facilitator to assist in the delivering the remainder of the Workshop, made a presentation that covered both topics, and then the participants were broken up into working groups.During her presentation, the Facilitator indicated that the proposed structure to be used for new national fisherfolk organizations could take the form of an umbrella body that would represent all fisherfolk organizations whether it is a co-operative or an association. The possible functions of the national fisherfolk organization could include: to represent all fisherfolk organizations in liasing with government on common problems among fisherfolk organizations; to promote interest and co-operation among all fisherfolk organizations and other regional and international fisherfolk organizations; to assist in building the capacity of the fisherfolk organizations through training, technical assistance and advisory/consultancy work and to assist all fisherfolk organizations in maintaining a high standard of management and proper governance of the organization.She pointed out that some of the challenges that could be experienced in the setting up of a national fisherfolk organization were resistance from primary fisherfolk organization members; lack of knowledge of the industry, government, finance, and governance; maintenance of the national fisherfolk organization, with ways to be considered being payment of dues by primary fisherfolk organizations to the national fisherfolk organization, and fees for services rendered to the primary fisherfolk organization; employment of staff to carry out the day to day operations,; appointment of a Board of Directors to manage the affairs of the organization and seeking support from local, regional and international funding agencies. She identified the following conditions for the creation of a national fisherfolk organization:• Government policy;• Effective and efficient primary fisherfolk organizations;• Proper governance, including transparency and accountability in the organization;• Proper policies and procedures in place; and• Appropriate regulatory and supervisory control being provided.In terms of the process for setting up an NFO, the Facilitator mentioned the following:• Dialogue with the individual primary fisherfolk organizations;• Need to sell the idea of the benefits to be derived by having a national fisherfolk Organization; • Need to educate the public on the setting up of the national fisherfolk organization;• Dialogue with and among fisheries officers and co-operative officers; and • Dialogue within fishing communitiesThe following instruments for communicating the message were also identified:• Panel discussions on radio and television;• Public meetings in various communities;• Fliers;• Brochures on benefits of the national fisherfolk organization; and • One-on-one dialogue with members of the primary fisherfolk organizations.The Facilitator then identified the working groups tasks as: develop guidelines and protocol for representation, advocacy, networking, communications, training promotions, awareness etc.Participants were divided into three working groups, which met and then made presentations in plenary.In the presentation, the Facilitator explained networking as follows:1) The ability to pool/link people, communities and countries together.2) The process in which one could form linkages between national fisherfolk organizations and the government.She indicated that good networking facilitated the transmission of information in the shortest possible time using modern technology e.g. telephones, internet, VHF radio, mass media, etc. She mentioned that networking could start with the fishers and their organizations, and that an initial point could be the creation of a directory of fishers' organizations as this could assist in ensuring the efficient flow of information among primary and secondary organizations. The importance of regular meetings and the reports from such meetings in the networking process was stressed, with the fisheries and cooperative extension officers being identified as key facilitators in this process.The use of such tools as websites, newsletters, etc. in sharing information and putting out notices about meetings, agendas, etc. was also mentioned. She also informed the participants that the identification of key networking points/reliable contact persons was important in the process of networking.One of the participants from Jamaica shared their experience in networking, indicating that they had contact persons at the primary level, and made use of mass communication, notice boards, websites, telephone, facsimile and marine radios. The representative from Anguilla noted that they used a VHF system to link their fishers, while the representative from Barbados indicated that the umbrella organization passed information to the primary organization through specific contacts.It was noted that the communication systems of the fishers and related agencies would have to be developed to facilitate effective networking and the establishment of CARNUFO.In her presentation, the facilitator indicated that as part of the institutional development of primary and secondary fisherfolk organizations the following skill areas would need to be addressed: planning, accounting, marketing, customer relationships and advocacy. She highlighted the need for good governance and effective planning at the organizational and business levels. She then touched on some aspects of the areas mentioned, such as the need for transparency and accountability; good record and inventory keeping in accounting; ability to plan and market the organization and its goods and services to the members and other clients; principles of good customer relations and formal communications with clients and the public.Following on this presentation, participants discussed such matters as the need for integrity and honesty among board members; the role of the cooperative department and national fisherfolk organization in training and development; enforcement of penalties when rules are breached; and the need for all involved to be aware of the regulations governing their operations. Participants also opined that cooperatives and fisher organizations should be able to access the skills of managers, accountants, planners, etc. within their communities if such persons were willing to assist in the development of the organization.In her presentation, the Facilitator touched on conventional means of communication, such as letters, telephone, facsimile, etc. and discussed them in relation to electronic means of communication such as the internet, websites, emails, texting, etc. The formalities involved in electronic communication were also addressed, with he need for maintaining the security of electronic systems; good record keeping, including the need for 'back-up\" records; and caution with regards fraud, etc. being committed on the internet.The participants were divided into three groups, with the task of the groups being to discuss and outline guidelines for the utilisation of conventional and electronic forms of communication in fisherfolk organizations.The benefits of the electronic tools were recognised by the participants, but their admissibility in cases in which the fisher organization may have to resort to the courts, etc. was raised, with this being identified as an issue for research. Also, the need for training in the use of electronic forms of communication was identified as an area to be addressed.Participants recommended that the CRFM should assist fisher organizations in obtaining the electronic equipment and training required to improve on their capabilities for electronic communications and networking.Participants were divided into three groups, and each group given the task of preparing an incountry training plan for primary and secondary fisherfolk organizations. The three in-country training plans are given at Appendix 9.The Facilitator made a presentation on the project cycle, covering such areas as project identification, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Then the CTA TOR: Development of Caribbean Network Fisherfolk Organizations was used as a case study during a working group session, with each group being asked to:Review the TOR/Project in terms of the rationale, objectives, approach to project implementation and management and provide comments. The comments were discussed in plenary.Participants referred to the previous discussions and recommendations on this topic and reiterated the need for the development of directories of national and regional fisherfolk and related organizations. They also, as a start of networking among themselves and their organizations, received copies of the List of Participants (Appendix 1).The Workshop came to a close with remarks by the Programme Manager, FMD, who commended the participants and facilitators for the efforts they put into completing the two weeks of presentations, discussions and working groups exercises on the topics set out in the agenda, and expressed the hope that they would return to their countries and agencies fully committed to participating in the implementation of the entire Project that would lead to the formation of CARNUFO.Mr. Francis Calliste, Grenada, thanked the CTA, CRFM, facilitators, Secretariat staff and caterers for a job well done in delivering and servicing the Workshop. ","tokenCount":"7849"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"76c65e772cf867516ca5dc4c61edb1a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6e9a6324-ceed-4287-b001-3fed15b3faca/content","id":"623486948"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"75db54bc-b542-4023-9234-48c9180b6435","pagecount":"19","content":"High-throughput phenotyping technologies, which can generate large volumes of data at low costs, may be used to indirectly predict yield. We explore this concept, using high-throughput phenotype information from Fourier transformed near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) of harvested kernels to predict parental grain yield in maize (Zea mays L.), and demonstrate a proof of concept for phenomic-based models in maize breeding. A dataset of 2,563 whole-kernel samples from a diversity panel of 346 hybrid testcrosses were scanned on a plot basis using NIRS. Scans consisted of 3,076 wavenumbers (bands) in the range of 4,000-10,000 cm −1 . Corresponding grain yield for each sample was used to train phenomic prediction and selection models using three types of statistical learning: (a) partial least square regression (PLSR), (b) NIRS best linear unbiased predictor (NIRS BLUP), and (c) functional regression. Our results found that NIRS data were a useful tool to predict maize grain yield and showed promising results for evaluating genetically independent breeding populations. All model types were successful; functional regression followed by the PLSR model resulted in the best predictions. Pearson's correlations between predicted and observed grain yields exceeded .7 in many cases within random cross validation.Abbreviations: AF, aflatoxin; BLUE, best linear unbiased estimator; BLUP, best linear unbiased predictor; CV, cross validation; CV0, predicting one environment using data from all other environments; CV1, 20% of the hybrids are predicted by the remaining 80% of hybrids (five-fold), within each environment; CV2, predicting across environments, where hybrids are seen in some environments but predicted in others (mimics sparse testing); G × E, genotype by environment; G-BLUP, genomic best linear unbiased predictor; GEM, germplasm enhancement of maize lines; GWAS, genome-wide association study; LM, simple linear model; NIRS, near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy; NIRS BLUP, NIRS-based best linear unbiased predictor; PLSR, partial least squares regression; RMSEP, root mean square error of prediction; SERAT, southeast regional aflatoxin trial; UAS, unoccupied aerial systems; WS, water stress, unirrigated treatment; WW, well-watered, irrigated treatment.Modern plant breeding is conducted much differently from the crop domestication of over 10,000 yr ago, and even from the first scientific breeding of 100 yr ago (Lee & DeVore, 1968). As new science for plant breeding has progressed, a major focus has been on genomic tools for crop improvement, with key technological innovations being the primary driver of advancements. Over time, breeding has become faster, by decreasing cycle times (i.e., growing plants in off-season nurseries to reach multiple generations within a year), and has become more targeted, through marker-assisted selection and other molecular techniques (Brummer et al., 2011). Most recently, genomic prediction and selection approaches have shown practical value and have become extensively relied on for decision making in private and public sector breeding programs (Cooper et al., 2004;Crossa et al., 2017;Zhao, Mette, & Reif, 2015). In general, technologies to better understand and collect genetic data have vastly improved over the past few decades (Levy & Myers, 2016), leading to other bottlenecks in the breeding process.In contrast, methods employed to collect and quantify phenotypic data have not seen the same rate of technological advancement (Araus & Cairns, 2014). It has been noted that phenotyping is the limiting factor in genomic selection and other breeding methods (Rincent et al., 2012). Evaluating plants in the field is the single most costly and complex aspect of a breeding program, in terms of time, labor, and money, but is a key step in most accurately estimating a genotype's yield potential and training genomic models (Bernardo, 2008;Bernardo & Yu, 2007). In addressing phenotyping bottlenecks, efforts are expanding to better collect and analyze phenotypic data on a wide scale. Recent findings suggest that improving phenotyping methods may not just simply improve genomic selection or other genetics-based techniques, but could potentially reduce or eliminate the need for genotyping in some cases (Rincent et al., 2018).Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) has a long history in agricultural settings for evaluating chemical composition since the 1960s, with some of the first mentions of the technology being used to quantify seed oil composition (Morris & Holman, 1961). Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy is now commonly used to estimate characteristics of grain or seeds including protein, starch, and oil content (Chen, Ren, Zhang, Diao, & Shen, 2013;Ferreira, Pallone, & Poppi, 2013;Murray et al., 2008a;Silva, Milach, Silva, & Montero, 2008) and new composition traits such as grain phenolics (Meng et al., 2015). Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy composition estimates are commonly made on plant tissue, such as forage and silage, to estimate bioenergy potential or livestock feeding value (Murray et al., 2008b;Wolfrum et al., 2013). Moreover, NIRS has a sound grounding in physics, as near-infrared light at specific wavelengths is absorbed by specific chemical bonds that make up the components of living tissues. Furthermore, the relative proportion of each of these bonds within the tissue quantitatively influence the nature of the absorbance of light at different wavenumbers (Foley et al., 1998). Typically, however, no single region of the near-infrared spectrum can be attributed to a single chemical component in plant and animal tissues, because they exist as heterogeneous mixtures of compounds, making direct inference from spectra challenging (Foley et al., 1998). Statistical analysis, traditionally partial least squares regression, is needed to extract meaningful information from NIRS on biological samples. Key among the benefits of NIRS is that there is no need to contact, damage, or destroy samples. Consequently, samples can be analyzed and still be available for planting or other analyses.Although previous studies have shown the ability of NIRS to quantify composition, understand chemical bonds, differentiate between species, varieties, or even genetics (Bertrand, Robert, & Loisel, 1985;Espinoza, Hodge, & Dvorak, 2012;Lang, Almeida, & Costa, 2017), using NIRS information to perform selections in the context of breeding for grain yield remains relatively novel, since grain yield is not a chemical component. However, NIRS has been previously shown to correlate with yield. Ferrio, Bertran, Nachit, Català, and Araus (2004) investigated grain yield correlation with NIRS of durum wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour. Despite high r values, the slopes of their predicted and measured yield values were not in unity, causing them to conclude that the ability of NIRS to predict grain yield in wheat was not an accurate way to achieve estimations under their conditions. They partially attributed these challenges to a lack of strong previous calibrations under the same growing conditions of the samples.The concept of treating NIRS data as markers, and using them to make inferences about relatedness, is a recent phenomenon. The theory and the term of phenomic selection was first introduced by Rincent et al. (2018), as the practice of evaluating and selecting lines via phenotypic variables. Essentially, phenotypic, or phenomic, variables (such as NIRS) replace genetic marker information in traditional selection methodology. Rincent et al. (2018) used NIRS wavelength data on wheat grain and leaf tissue as well as poplar (Populus nigra L.) wood to develop NIRS best linear unbiased predictions (NIRS best linear unbiased predictor [NIRS BLUP], an NIRS similarity matrix); the authors surprisingly obtained better prediction accuracy than using genomic best linear unbiased predictor (G-BLUP; genomic similarity matrix). The present study serves to independently validate and generalize some of the concepts and findings of Rincent et al. (2018) about the predictive capacity of NIRS, using phenomic prediction (plot basis) and phenomic selection (entry basis).The main objective of this study was to apply models and methods to the NIRS data for the phenomic prediction and selection of grain yield. Specifically, our aim was to predict parental grain yield from existing grain scans of a hybrid maize (Zea mays L.) diversity panel grown in several environments (Barrero-Farfan et al., 2015;Flint-Garcia et al., 2005;Warburton et al., 2013) using cross validation and apply these calibrations on additional independent breeding populations to validate calibration robustness.We sought to evaluate different statistical models: (a) partial least square regression (PLSR); (b) NIRS BLUP, employing the values of NIRS instead of markers as proposed by Rincent et al. (2018); and (c) functional regression analyses using the NIRS values as covariates in a G × E, multi-environment model. In this case, PLSR was used as a phenomic prediction, where yield is predicted on a plot sample basis, with NIRS used for each plot. This is analogous to how composition of grain samples have traditionally been predicted. The NIRS BLUP and functional regression models were used as phenomic selection, where predictions were made on an entry basis, with NIRS being averaged within pedigrees. This is analogous to how a breeding program predicts breeding values using marker information.Different cross-validations schemes were used to ensure prediction accuracy estimates would be relevant to future breeding activities. These schemes addressed (a) predicting known genotypes in unknown environments, (b) predicting unknown genotypes in known environments, and (c) so-called• Phenomic selection and prediction using nearinfrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) of maize kernels was successful. • Two methods of implementing phenomic selection in maize showed promise. • Predicting yield on an entry and plot basis have potential in maize breeding. • Grain NIRS likely extends beyond traditional settings or uses.sparse testing, where known genotypes are predicted in known environments in which they are not observed. If NIRS can be used to estimate the performance (grain yield) of a genotype, either on a plot or entry basis, it therefore stands to reason that the spectra also capture some of the value of that material.A set of 346 diverse hybrid lines were grown as a structured genome-wide association study (GWAS) to assess aflatoxin resistance, drought tolerance, and other agronomic traits such as yield in 2011 and 2012 in College Station, TX (Barrero-Farfan et al., 2015). These lines originated from a subset of the USDA-Goodman maize association panel (Flint-Garcia et al., 2005), as well as the southern subtropical Williams/Warburton panel (Warburton et al., 2013). This panel was crossed to two isogenic lines of Tx714, a highyielding, southern United States bred stiff-stalk line that is more than 95% identical to its stiff-stalk relative, B73 (Romay et al., 2013). The Tx714 isogenic hybrids differed only for which of two maize lipoxygenase genes were mutated (De La Fuente et al., 2013;Park, Kunze, Ni, Feussner, & Kolomiets, 2010). Each isogenic hybrid was grown under one or two experimental conditions (well-watered [WW] and limited irrigation, or water stress [WS]) with two replicates in a randomized complete block design, where seed was available. A full description of the hybrids and experimental design is in Barrero-Farfan et al. (2015). Since isogenic hybrids did not differ in grain yield, the data from both were combined and treated as the same hybrid. This population was used for all model training and for validation.Other elite hybrid breeding trials in the Texas A&M breeding program were also used as independent validation sets for evaluating prediction robustness. These trials, grown in 2011, consisted of breeding relevant hybrids with no known or expected relatedness to the original material (GWAS hybrids) presented above, most being sub-tropical derived lines crossed to U.S. commercial stiff stalk hybrids (Murray et al., 2019). In addition to grain yield, these tests were grown to assess aflatoxin (AF) resistance in the hybrids. Material from within the program represented four tests, and are referred to in this study as 1AF, 2AF, 3AF, and 4AF. Two other tests, which included breeding material from other programs, were also assessed in 2011. The Southeast regional aflatoxin trials (SERAT; Wahl et al., 2017), and the germplasm enhancement of maize (GEM) lines.Three of these validation tests (3AF, SERAT, and GEM) were grown in College Station, TX, under similar conditions, 1AF and 2AF were grown in both Weslaco and College Station, TX, and 4AF was grown in Corpus Christi, TX. All together, these datasets combined represent 200 pedigrees across three Texas locations from 2011 (679 samples total), most of which were breeding material of commercial hybrid checks. Grain yield and NIRS were collected for each breeding test on a plot basis. This set of tests was used as a practical validation for how broadly the trained models could be used in a breeding program.Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy was performed on harvested grain from Barrero-Farfan et al. (2015) hybrids during the completion of the initial study. In total, 2,563 whole kernel samples, each bulked from a single plot, were scanned using Fourier transformed near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Spectra were collected with a Thermo Anteris II Fourier transformed interferometer, where approximately 175 g of bulked grain, acclimated to a climate-controlled room, were scanned 128 times, resulting in an average (full description of methodology in Meng et al., 2015). The spectra consist of every other wavenumber (i.e., band) from 4,000 to 10,000 cm −1 (a range of 1,000-2,500 nm). The raw spectral data are included in Supplement 1 and 2.In 2011, very low yields were observed in all experiments due to record heat and drought. The lowest yielding of the plots appeared remarkably atypical, so a threshold of at least 62 g m −2 (10 bu ac −1 ) per plot was set. Applying the threshold, 47 plots were removed, leaving 2,516 samples with an average yield of 559 g m −2 , and a range of 63-1,462 g m −2 . Furthermore, as an objective method to eliminate bad NIRS scans, an algorithm was implemented in R (R Core Team, 2018) to eliminate scans that had shapes perceptively different from other scans. First, the difference of each spectra from the average spectra across each wavenumber was calculated. Next, the sum of the absolute value of those differences were taken. Finally, scans with substantial differences from the average were removed. This method successfully and objectively eliminated spectra with abnormal shapes (\"bad scans\"), as opposed to abnormal predictions within the model. This, presumably, was an unbiased approach to identifying bad scans. This procedure removed 24 sample scans leaving 2,492 samples for final analyses. Supplement 3 contains this filtered, treated data.The cleaned scans were loaded into R and processed with the prospectr package (Stevens & Ramirez-Lopez, 2014) to obtain the first and second derivatives, using the Savitsky-Golay method and a window size of 37 (Figure 1). This transformation served as a normalization from the raw scans, and mainly accounted for differences in albedo (overall reflectance) between samples. Interferometers, as used in this study, generally have a higher spectral resolution than other methods, often associated with a smaller signal/noise ratio. Therefore, it has been recommended to use smoothing derivation methods such as the Savitsky-Golay method as opposed to a simpler, finite-difference derivative method (Rinnan, van den Berg, & Engelsen, 2009). Ultimately, the first derivative proved to offer the best results in cross validation, so this was used across all model types.Multiple statistical approaches were investigated for grain yield prediction accuracy. Both phenomic prediction models, where data were assessed on a plot basis, and phenomic selection models, where data was assessed on an entry basis, are described. The models using the NIRS and phenotypic information are described below.Partial least squares regression was used to predict yield as implemented in the pls package in R (Mevik & Wehrens, 2007). Models were cross-validated using the default of 10 segments, and then further validated on a held-out test set. Held-out test sets were selected to ensure that entire instances of a hybrid were held out from all environments, in contrast to pls defaults for random cross validation. Held-out test sets were selected using the DUPLEX method available in the prospectr package (Stevens & Ramirez-Lopez, 2014), which functions by selecting the two most distant points (based on principal components) iteratively for the sample size desired. This served to select a spectrally representative set of samples to use for validation or calibration while holding out all replicates of that hybrid for training the model; this is similar to predicting untested genotypes in known environments (Saint Pierre et al., 2016).For example, for the model trained on both years (PLSR 1, Table 1 in Results), the training set consisted of 1,573 samples, representing 253 pedigrees. The test set was composed of 848 samples, representing 91 pedigrees. All PLSR models were validated in this way, though the number of samples used to train and test the models varied.Additionally, PLSR models were built to investigate the ability for the model to be trained on one year to predict the same year, or to predict the other year. Models were evaluated either for their ability to predict known or unknown hybrids in an unknown year. Evaluating the ability of the model to predict yield for a separate experiment from another year, consisting of different hybrids, or predicting unknown genotypes in unknown environments (Saint Pierre et al., 2016), is also of great practical interest in breeding programs.The number of PLSR components used in each model were selected based on the root mean squared error prediction (RMSEP) curve using the one-sigma heuristic and per-mutation approaches as implemented in the pls package in R (Mevik & Wehrens, 2007); R code used for PLSR models can be found in Supplement 4.In this subsection, we explain the six phenomic selection models implemented using the phenotypic and NIRS information under NIRS BLUP and functional regression approaches. Before describing the six models used under BLUP and functional regression, we briefly describe the model used for obtaining the BLUEs (best linear unbiased estimators) for grain yield and for NIRS over each of the wavenumbers with the intention of removing the experimental design. This analysis was the first stage analyses that produced the BLUEs used in the second stage analysis where Models M1 to M6 are implemented. The BLUEs of each hybrid and NIRS in each environment were obtained using the following model:where y jk is the response variable (grain yield, or wavenumber measurements) of the jth hybrid in the kth complete block; μ is the overall mean; b k is the random effect of the kth complete block assuming independent and identically distributed (iid) N(0,σ 2 \uD835\uDC4F ); H j is the fixed effect of the jth hybrid, and ε jk , assuming iid N(0,σ 2 \uD835\uDC52 ), represents the random residual plot error associated with the observation y jk .Then in the second stage analysis these BLUEs of grain yield were used as response variable and the BLUEs of each NIRS were incorporated as covariates to implement an improved version of the following model that takes into account the hybrid × environment interactionwhere E i is the fixed main effect of the ith environment; H j is main random effect of the jth hybrid identical and independent normal distributed (iid) HE ij N(0,σ 2 \uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC38 ); HE ij is the random interaction effect between the ith environment and the jth hybrid; it is assumed iid N(0,σ 2 \uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC38 ); and ε ij is the residual error term assuming iid N(0,σ 2 ). For the sake of clarity, later we named the model including hybrid × environment interactions as Model M5.Wavenumber can be introduced in the previous baseline model such that the effect of hybrid (H j ) can be replaced by w j , T A B L E 1 Description of factors used in training partial least squares regression (PLSR) and simple linear model (LM) models for grain yield on all genome-wide association study (GWAS) data and their results. The number of samples used in the training and testing sets as well as the number of genotypes (pedigrees) represented by those samples are reported. The number of partial least squares components used for each model are listed (PLS) when relevant. Models were built with 10-fold cross validation and then applied to the testing set. Pearson's correlation (r) and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) in g m −2 were calculated between observed and predicted values of the test set. Partial least squares regression 1 and 2 are built using information from both 2011 and 2012 which is expressed as a linear regression of phenotypic data on the wavenumber covariates that approximates the value of the jth hybrid such that the vector of the NIRS random effect is assumed w ∼ N(0,Wσ 2 \uD835\uDC64 ), where σ 2 \uD835\uDC64 is the spectral variance component and W is a scaled wavenumber relationship matrix that was computed using the matrix of wavenumber information (N) from data of order J × w (for a total of J lines and w wavenumbers) as W = NN T /w.It is important to point out that the final W reported for lines was calculated as the average of the wavenumber relationship matrices calculated in each environment since the wavenumber reflectance values were obtained for each hybrid in each environment. Similarly, for the interaction terms, when wavenumber information was used, the hybrid × environment interaction HE ij of the lines across environments baseline model was replaced by wE ij the random effect of the interaction term of the ith environment and the jth wavenumber and wE = [wE 11 , …, wE IJ ] T ∼ N(0,W A σ 2 \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC38 , where σ 2 \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC38 is the variance component associated with the wavenumber × environment interaction, but W A was calculated aswhere N A is the matrix of wavenumber information of order JI × w where I denotes the number of environments assuming that the same number of hybrids, J, were evaluated in each environment.Therefore, using basic wavenumber information, the NIRS BLUP model including environments, wavenumber, and their interactions becomes Model M1, which isM1 establishes relationships between hybrids based on wavenumber information, which is similar to the conventional G-BLUP. In a traditional G-BLUP approach, dense molecular markers are used (instead of wavenumbers), and covariates are incorporated to develop the genomic relationship matrix (G) establishing the similarities between hybrids based on genomic markers. The main difference in this scenario is that that wavenumbers are measured for all hybrids in each environment, as opposed to DNA markers, which are measured once for each hybrid. The R code used for NIRS BLUP (M1) can be found in Supplement 4.High throughput phenotyping technologies, in addition to NIRS, are increasingly available in agriculture and generate large volumes of data. Many such phenotypes are multi-dimensional, and these data can be represented as functions. Functional data analysis is a field of study that deals with the analysis and theory of data whose units of observation are functions (curves) defined as continuous domain (Morris, 2015). Recent studies by Montesinos-López et al. (2017a, 2017b) present functional regression models to develop prediction equations for wheat grain yield and other traits using hyperspectral crop image data from the field. This work showed that functional regression models could provide yield predictions with similar and, in some cases, higher predictive power than that of conventional regression techniques. Montesinos-Lopez et al. (2018) described details for implementing Bayesian functional regression using the developed genomic functional regression package. The previously defined baseline model, y ij = E i + H j + HE ij + ε ij , can be combined with the information from the wavenumber, but not as a wavenumber matrix as introduced in Model M1. Instead, wavenumber values are combined using models displaying wavenumbers as functional covariates. These models are called functional regression models, where the response variable is a scalar and some of the covariates are functions. Thus, this combination will be named Model M2 and is represented asHere, w ij (k) is the functional predictor and represents the value of a continuous underlying process evaluated at the kth wavenumber; β 1 (k) is the functional regression beta coefficient for the functional part of the model; and ε ij is defined as in Equation 2 (Montesinos-López et al., 2017b).The functional regression models add the 3,076 wavenumbers to M2 as functional covariates constructed over the interval between 4,000 and 10,000 cm −1 . Model M2 was implemented using a total number of L = 101, Fourier basis, to approximate the functions, w ij (k) and β 1 (k) in Model M2. The Fourier basis (not to be confused with Fourier transformed NIRS data collection) is a set of predefined functions in terms of sine and cosine. If in Model M2, we replace the integral of the product by the sum of products ( ∑ \uD835\uDC5D \uD835\uDC58=1 \uD835\uDC64 \uD835\uDC56\uD835\uDC57\uD835\uDC58 β \uD835\uDC58 ), then Model M2 is reduced to a conventional linear regression model. In this model, w ijk represents the kth wavenumber data measured on the jth hybrid in the ith environment with k = 1, 2,…, 3,076; w ijk are BLUEs obtained in the first stage analysis; and β k is the beta regression coefficient for the kth wavenumber. Note that we implemented Model M2 to avoid implementing a model with 3,076 beta coefficients corresponding to each of the wavenumbers. This model was implemented using a Bayesian approach. The R code used for Model M2 can be found in Supplement 4.Model M3 is similar to M1 but only with main effects of hybrids (with wavenumbers incorporated through a covariance matrix) applied for each environment. This model is equal toIn M2 Equation 4, w ∼ N(0,Wσ 2 \uD835\uDC64 ), where W was calculated with the wavenumber information of each environment. Note that Model M3 is obtained from Model M1, ignoring the main effect of environment, E i , and the interaction term, wE ij . It is reduced to y j = w j + ε j , with w = [w 1 , …, w J ] T and w ∼ N(0,Wσ 2 \uD835\uDC64 ).Model M4 is similar to M2, but with only the main effects of hybrids, y j = H j + ε j , because it was applied for each environment one at a time. When using the wavenumbers as covariates, Model M4 is described asAs previously mentioned, the model of the hybrid × environment interactions is named Model M5,Furthermore, when Model M5 includes only the random effect of hybrids, this yields Model M6.For all validation schemes, we report the Pearson´s correlation (r) and RMSEP between the observed and predicted values of grain yield for the testing set. For PLSR models, these results are reported for the held-out validation test sets as described above. For functional regression and NIRS BLUP models, we report the average of the five-folds resulting from the random partitions implemented.In order to measure the accuracy of the functional regression and NIRS BLUP phenomic selection models, we used three cross-validation strategies on an entry basis, the first one of which was also used for PLSR phenomic prediction on a plot basis. These schemes were: (a) cross-validation predicting one environment using the other environments as the training set; (b) random cross-validation within each environment where 20% of the maize hybrids are predicted using 80% of the other hybrids as the training population; and (c) random cross-validation across environments where 20% of the lines were observed in some environments and predicted in other environments using the other 80% of lines.The first scheme consists of the prediction of all hybrids in one environment (in turn, WW_2011, WW_2012, WS_2011, and WS_2012) using all the hybrids combined from the other three environments as the training set. This prediction is named cross-validation 0 (CV0) (predicting known genotypes in pseudo-unknown environments). In this experiment, when the model was tested but not trained on an environment that data had been collected, the environment is considered to be pseudo-unknown. The PLSR, functional regression, and NIRS BLUP models were all assessed with the CV0 scheme, to test the models' abilities to perform in unknown environments.The second cross-validation scheme was a random crossvalidation within each environment, where a five-fold random partitioning was implemented. In each partition, 20% of the hybrids are predicted by the remaining 80% of hybrids; this is named (CV1) (unknown genotypes in known environments).Finally, the last cross-validation strategy was a five-fold random cross-validation across all environments (CV2) where 20% of the hybrids were predicted by 80% of the other hybrids, similar to CV1. However, in this case, 20% of hybrids are not observed in some environments, and thus predicted in those environments, but are observed in other environments (known genotypes in known environments). This CV2 mimics a prediction problem faced by breeders in incomplete field trials where hybrids are evaluated in some, but not all, target environments (usually called sparse testing). Note that in CV2, all environments were used in training the model. In this cross validation, some hybrids can never be part of the training set. This is because some hybrids were not observed in all environments. This CV2 strategy used sampling with replacement, which means that one observation can appear in more than one partition. Training and testing partitions were obtained as follows: since the total number of records per trait available for the data set with multi-environments is N = J × I observations comprising of J hybrids and I environments, to select lines in the test data set, we fixed the percentage of data to be used for test (Testing = 20%). Then we chose 0.20 × N (hybrids) at random, and subsequently, one environment per hybrid was randomly picked from I environments. The resulting cells (ij) were assigned to the test data set, while cells not selected through this algorithm were allocated to the training data set. Hybrids were sampled without replacement if J ≥ 0.20 × N, and with replacement otherwise (López-Cruz et al., 2015).The breeding trials described above (1AF, 2AF, 3AF, 4AF, GEM, and SERAT) were used as practical validation and served as a secondary held out test set. In this scenario, the phenomic prediction PLSR model was trained on the original diversity panel data and then used to predict these breeding trials, as a held-out validation.For phenomic selection Models M1-M6, all of the diversity panel data, along with 10% of the material from each test, were included in the training set. As these models function on an entry basis, including some of the breeding trial observations was necessary in referencing the new site. Means and standard deviations across 10 repetitions of a five-fold CV are reported (see Supplement 5).To investigate if yield was simply correlating with some compositional aspect of the kernels, predictions for crude protein, starch, and oil content were obtained using existing calibrations from these components built within the research program (Christman, 2017;Meng et al., 2015). To assess the correlation of composition to yield, simple linear models (LM) were built using the LM function in R (R Core Team, 2018). These LM were compared with the results of the PLSR model trained and tested on the same samples sets, as both predict on a plot basis. Repeatability for grain yield on an entry basis across all environments were estimated as explained by Anderson, Mahan, Murray, and Klein (2018), where genetic variance was divided by error variance over the number of reps by treatments, G × E variance over treatments, and genetic variance.The results are presented in two main sections. The first section presents the predictions under the PLSR and LM methods. The second section describes the predictions based on the phenomic selection models (NIRS BLUP and functional regression), for single environment and G × E multienvironment approaches.Cross validated yield predictions from models using PLSR within the same years demonstrated a high Pearson's correlation to maize grain yield on a plot basis in the testing data (r = .84; Table 1, PLSR 1). The model was successful in using spectra alone to predict the yield of a sample on a plot basis, evaluated by error in prediction, RMSEP. With only spectral data, the PLSR model using 15 PLS components predicted yield with a RMSEP of 163.67 g m −2 .To investigate if kernel compositional traits were correlated with yield, NIRS composition predictions were used to predict yield using simple LM. A PLSR model as above was run but using only the 2,155 samples with composition predictions to build the training and testing sets (Table 1; PLSR 2); this had an r of .82. Looking at individual components, crude protein was the only measured component with a strong correlation with yield (r = .58) (Table 1; LM 1). Both starch and fat had very low correlations (r ≤ .17, Table 1; LM 2-3). Combining all compositional predictions into a model to predict yield improved predictions over protein alone, but only slightly, yielding an r of .64 (Table 1; LM 4).Next, PLSR scenarios were developed to predict yield on samples from a year unknown to the model, on known or unknown hybrids (see Table 2). Results showed that a model built on 2011 predicted unknown hybrids in 2011 better than a 2012 model predicting unknown hybrids in 2012 (Table 2; PLSR 3-4). Results also showed that a model trained on 2011 predicted 2012 well, and better than the reverse (PLSR 5 and 8); even though the predicted hybrids were known to the model in both cases. In predictions between years, the best performing model was trained on all available samples from 2011 to predict 2012 (PLSR 6). The PLSR 6 had more training data than PLSR 5, as this training data represented all available 2011 data (including the USDA and other breeding populations from 2011). We also investigated the ability of a model to predict only unknown hybrids from a new year (PLSR 7), which was comparable to when most of the hybrids were already known from a previous year (PLSR 5) crossvalidation under CV0, CV1, and CV2 schemes.Results of cross-validation CV0, where one environment is predicted using the other three environments (year × irrigation) as the training data, for PLSR, NIRS BLUP (M1), and functional regression (M2) models are shown in Tables 3  and 4. The PLSR had slightly higher prediction accuracies across all scenarios than both M1 and M2 (r = .55; Table 3). Model M2, using functional regression with wavelength as covariates, gave higher prediction on average when compared with Model M1, using NIRS BLUP (r = .53 vs. .40; Table 4). Error, as presented via the average RMSEP were nearly identical between functional regression and PLSR models (272.12 and 272.70 g m −2 , respectively). In general, all hybrids predicted in individual environments had higher prediction accuracies for Model M2 than for Model M1 (e.g., WS_2012 = 0.68 for M1 vs. WS_2012 = 0.74 for M2). Results showed that the prediction of hybrids unobserved in WW using observed hybrids in WS is better than the reverse, and this was much higher for M2 than for M1 (WS = 0.42 and WW = 0.75 for M2 vs. WS = 0.20 and WW = 0.28 for M1; Table 4). The PLSR performed similarly to M2 overall (Table 3). Similarly, hybrids grown in 2012 were more predictable than hybrids in 2011, which makes sense given 2011 was a drought year, presenting more overall stress to plants. Based on the r values between samples observed and predicted values, and the RMSEP results, functional regression Model M2 and PLSR models had substantially higher prediction accu-racies of unobserved hybrid performance than NIRS BLUPs Model M1.Results of Models M3 and M4 under CV1 for the predictions of hybrids within each environment are shown in Table 5. Models M3 and M4 are the counterpart of Models M1 and M2, respectively, but include only main effects of hybrids. In general, results showed that NIRS BLUP Model M3 with only main effects predicts the unobserved hybrids better (0.57) than the main effect functional regression Model M4 (0.46). The prediction accuracy of unobserved hybrids in WS_2012 for M3 (0.54) was lower than that achieved in WS_2012 for M4 (0.64).Within an irrigation treatment, prediction of unobserved hybrids tested under WS using observed hybrids evaluated under WW was higher than the prediction of hybrids under WW using hybrids in WS by means of Models M3 and M4, if both years were included (Table 5). The prediction of hybrids in WS environment was of 0.85 with Model M3 and of only 0.47 for Model M4. In this case, unobserved hybrids in 2011 were more predictable than unobserved hybrids in 2012. Based on r between observed and predicted values, results indicated that functional regression Model M4 had lower prediction accuracy than NIRS BLUP Model M3. However, based on RMSEP values, results indicated that functional regression Model M4 had higher prediction accuracy than NIRS BLUP Model M3.Table 6 shows the random cross-validation CV2 fitting Models M1 and M2. When including the environment × hybrid interaction the functional regression using the NIRS as covariates (M4) gave much higher prediction accuracy of the unobserved hybrids (r = .73; Table 6) than the NIRS BLUP (r = .38). Model M2 with functional regression covariates in the G × E multi-environment modes gave very good predictions of unobserved hybrids in WS (r = .91; Table 6) as well as in WW (r = .87); on the contrary, NIRS BLUP with G × E multi-environment (M1) gave very poor prediction of unobserved hybrids in WS (r = .07) and in WW (r = .14) (Table 6).For Model M1, training on WW hybrids to predict unobserved hybrids in WS conditions showed very poor performance, and the reverse was only slightly better (Table 6). It was better to train on 2011 hybrids for Model M1, although the opposite was true for Model M2. Based on r values and RMSEP, results indicated that functional regression T A B L E 2 Description of factors used in training partial least squares regression (PLSR) scenarios to carry out year-to-year predictions on grain yield and their results. The number of samples used in the training and testing sets as well as the number of genotypes (pedigrees) represented by those samples are reported. The number of partial least squares components used for each model are listed (PLS). Models were built with 10-fold cross validation and then applied to the testing set. Pearson's correlation (r) and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) in g m −2 were calculated between observed and predicted values of the testing sets. Partial least squares regression Models 3-8 were built using information from within years, as indicated in the training and testing data information in the Model M2 had substantially higher prediction accuracy than NIRS BLUP Model M1. Models M5 and M6, which do not include the NIRS data (Table 7), gave a much lower prediction accuracy than Models M1, M2, M3, and M4 that include NIRS, for all three cross-validations schemes (CV0, CV1, and CV2).The PLSR 1 model (Table 1 describes training set) was applied to other breeding tests from 2011 to investigate the ability for this calibration to predict other genetic material, relevant for breeding. This model had an ability to predict not only unknown pedigrees from within the experiment (a genetics study where all hybrids share the same tester line T×714), but also showed ability in predicting genetically distinct material from different experiments grown in 2011 on a plot basis (Figure 2). These breeding experiments were grown across three locations in the state of Texas. Among the best predicted were 4AF (r = .68), a low yielding, late planted diverse test grown in Corpus Christi, SERAT (r = .53, Figure 2b) a moderate yielding late planted test in College Station, whereas the other breeding tests from Weslaco (1AF and 2AF) and College Station (3AF) were not particularly well correlated (r = .23, .25, .21, respectively). In the GEM predictions (Figure 2b; r = .33), two plots were predicted erroneously, having a negative yield prediction. These plots were removed from plotting and analysis. It is important to note that although these GEM plots were not accurately predicted, they were also some of the lowest yielding plots from the test.Various phenomic selection models were similarly investigated for their ability to perform on the same unrelated material, although results were not as impressive, given that 10% of the new material was included in the training set. These results, which importantly differ in that they were conducted T A B L E 4 Pearson´s correlation (r) between predictive and observed value for environments water stress (WS) and well-watered (WW) during years 2011 and 2012 for phenomic selection Models M1 and M2 including interactions between wavenumber × environment. Root-mean squared error prediction (RMSEP) is reported in g m −2 . Cross-validation CV0, predicted one environment using the other three environments, one irrigation regime (WW, WS) using the other irrigation regime, or 1 yr (2011,2012)  on an entry basis, for phenomic selection Models M1-M6 are included in Supplement 5.The repeatability of yield across and within environments are presented in Table 8. The lowest repeatability was within WS_2011 (0.55), and overall repeatability was relatively high (0.77), consistent with the heritabilities calculated in the original study (Barrero-Farfan et al., 2015).Our aims were to determine if information from NIRS of maize grain could be used to estimate grain yield in both phenomic prediction and selection scenarios. If the spectra capture the value of genetic material, there would be potential for these methods to be useful within the context of breeding programs. The models used in this experiment represented two distinct approaches to mining NIRS spectral data, phenomic prediction on a plot basis, and phenomic selection on an entry basis. Phenomic prediction in this case is similar to the traditional use of NIRS, with a biological composition basis likely underlying a correlated proxy yield estimate. Phenomic selection is different in that it uses NIRS spectra to estimate relationships between genotypes and these relationships are used to estimate yield. The relative success of both approaches offers promise for future techniques using NIRS beyond traditional composition analysis.The NIRS information clearly formed the basis for most of the prediction capability for each of the model types used in this study. Models not including NIRS information (Table 7) had very little correlation between predicted and observed values. Yield correlations (r values) between the BLUPs of each environment ranged from .32 to .67, suggesting some predictions were simply due to lines performing similarly across environments; this was often still substantially less than the NIRS models, however. The mode of action for the strong NIRS predictive relationships across genotypes and years is not yet well understood.One hypothesis, most relevant to the plot-based phenomic prediction approach, is that spectra could be indicative of compositional aspects of the kernels that are correlated with yield. This was investigated by comparing composition prediction model results, and only crude protein appeared to have any significant inverse correlation with yield on its own (Table 1; LM 1). Combining all measured compositional predictions (starch, oil, protein; LM 4) into a model to predict yield improved predictions over a single compositional component alone; demonstrating that composition is relevant but T A B L E 7 Pearson´s correlation (r) between predicted and observed values for water stress (WS) and well-watered (WW) environments during years 2011 and 2012 for Model M4, and for Models M5 and M6, which do not use NIRS in their predictions. Root-mean squared error prediction (RMSEP) is reported in g m −2 . Cross-validation, CV0, five-fold random cross-validation within one environments CV1 and five-fold random cross validation CV2 for predicting 20% of the lines not observed in some environments but observed in others. SE_r denotes standard error under r and SE_RMSEP denotes standard error under RMSEP. Models M4 and M6 consider the main effects of environments likely not sufficient in predicting yield. Using composition in any combination was never as accurate as using NIRS data. However, adding more (as yet unknown) compositional components could further improve these correlations. The NIRS-based yield predictions were surprisingly better than what is usually observed or expected in predictions of compositional traits (Christman, 2017), but this was a larger dataset. Alternatively, more relevant to the genotypic-based phenomic selection approach, the spectra could be explaining genetic relatedness between samples. If the NIRS was capturing genetic relatedness alone, the phenomic selection models would have been expected to significantly outperform the PLSR phenomic prediction models, given that they were functioning on an entry basis, and this was not the case (see Table 3 vs. Table 4). Furthermore, the phenomic selection models were more limited in predicting unrelated material than phenomic prediction models (see Figure 2 vs. Supplement 5). At best, phenomic selection models were comparable to phenomic prediction, never significantly better and often much worse, even though these phenomic selection models included some of the breeding material in their testing sets as a reference. With phenomic prediction (Figure 2), the SERAT test was predicted relatively well (r = .53; Figure 2b) although the GEM dataset from 2011 was predicted with poor accuracy (r = .33). Additionally, although tests 1AF and 2AF were also predicted rather poorly (r = .23 and .25) both were far worse with phenomic selection approaches, where correlations often approached 0. Both of these breeding tests represented material from outside of the original GWAS study. Given that the NIRS BLUP and functional regression models could not predict the unrelated genetic material nearly as well as the PLSR models supports that the NIRS BLUP and functional regression rely more on estimating genetic relatedness than the plot-based method.The NIRS BLUP model for phenomic selection mimics the genomic best linear unbiased prediction (G-BLUP) model by building a relationship matrix with the bands of the spectral data. This mimicry made NIRS BLUP models very parsimonious despite large p (independent variables, bands in this case) and small n (number of observations). The G-BLUP is one of the most popular methods in genomic selection because of high prediction accuracies of sample data, and because it is easy to process and implement in conventional statistical software. Thus, these benefits are also applicable when computing the NIRS BLUPS via generation of a NIRS similarity matrix between entries.Functional regression analysis performed very well. Functional regression analyses accounts for spectral bands as transformed covariates of the original bands, which are of considerably fewer dimensions than the original number of bands. Because of this, functional regression is parsimonious and practical to implement in conventional software for phenomic selection. The functional regression analyses was implemented under a Bayesian approach using conventional genomic selection software (Montesinos-Lopez et al., 2018). One problem with the functional regression model is that it is not easy to choose the required number of basis functions (L) that give rise to the transformed covariates used for final implementation. This process is somewhat analogous to selecting the number PLSR components to use. The correct method for selecting the hyperparameter L is via a tuning process. The advantage is that when the bands (original covariates) are strongly correlated with few transformed covariates (L = 25), it must be enough to capture most of the information existing in the original spectral data.Phenomic selection worked well for extracting meaningful information from NIRS of kernels, aligning with findings by Rincent et al. (2018) for predicting end quality traits in wheat. The NIRS BLUP and functional regression both offered parsimonious models for directly including all the spectral data (bands). The NIRS BLUP included all the spectral data for building a NIRS relationship matrix, which mimics the genomic relationship matrix of the G-BLUP method of genomic selection. The functional regression analyses uses only a few transformed covariates (L = 101 in our case) that represent the 3,076 bands originally measured.An obvious advantage over a simple plot-based prediction method is that the selection methods aim to determine the yield value of a variety, which more easily fits the objectives of most breeders. For breeders it is not necessarily important to understand why the NIRS successfully predicts, simply that the prediction is reliable and consistent within the context that it is used. Cross validation within model development followed by testing on independent tests for robustness can be used to assess reliability.Genomic prediction has been rapidly adopted by industry in the improvement of major field crops. The genomic selection approach requires building prediction models using genotyping information to better estimate the breeding value of different varieties within a breeding program (Bernardo, 1994;Bernardo & Yu, 2007;Crossa et al., 2010Crossa et al., , 2017;;Meuwissen, Hayes, & Goddard, 2001;Rincent et al., 2012). Our results suggest that phenomic prediction (such as NIRS of grain yield) is also very useful, although this might be under more restrictive scenarios where the grain composition can be readily assessed, such as in hand-harvested experiments and where NIRS is mounted within grain combines, since NIRS performed best using each sample in each environment. Our results also suggest that phenomic selection, where the NIRS is used to make inferences about the value or performance of a variety, may be even more useful, once protocols for the conditions to best collect NIRS calibration information are better established and understood.By predicting or at least improving yield estimates, grain NIRS has the potential to reduce the number of field replications needed to compare genotypes. Reducing replications or using less expensive plot evaluation methodology has potential to save breeding resources. Improving phenotypic data accuracy also has potential to improve selection ability. For new technologies to improve plant breeding they need to either reduce evaluation resources, improve data accuracy, or both. High-throughput phenotyping tools like NIRS offer potential for inexpensive, fixed-cost methods of evaluating best yielding varieties within a breeding program. It is important to note that the repeatability for yield in this study was relatively high, which may have impacted the success of NIRS being able to capture yield well across all methods.Ultimately, high r values, even when the yield predictions are not highly accurate, suggest that NIRS-based models offer a strong potential to be used in ranking varieties relative to one another, as is often done in breeding programs. Furthermore, as suggested by Rincent et al. (2018), there is potential for NIRS to assist in negative selection, to eliminate varieties with confidence that none of the best lines are being lost, before subjecting a population to more expensive or rigorous screening. The most practical future application would be an eventual relative ranking model to be designed to assist breeders in selection.Phenomic prediction and selection have a number of potential direct applications. First, it would be useful in improving plot combine yield data, which would be particularly easy to incorporate into programs with NIRS-capable combines. There is also the potential to carry out single-ear, hand-harvested yield estimates to reduce the amount of plants grown or plots combined. This would be most useful when increasing the environments where limited or unskilled labor might be available for collecting some ears but not the entire plot.One recurrent question surrounding NIRS prediction methods are the optimization of the environments in which to capture scans. Spectra collection in environments separate from the environment in which calibrations are made has presented challenges in the past (Ferrio et al., 2004), and remains a key question to be answered in optimizing selection models using NIRS. It has been shown that NIRS can be used to predict in new environments (Rincent et al., 2018), but understanding what makes the best calibration site is yet to be determined. In this study, where entire environments were held out from the training of the model (CV0), it was always better to build the model using the more stressed environment (e.g., WS_2011), consistent with the findings of Rincent et al. (2018). Surprisingly, the best environment to build the model, the most stressed environment, WS_2011, also had the lowest repeatability. High-stress environments that increase phenotypic differentiation, even if decreasing repeatability, should therefore be used for training.Beyond single high stress environments, it is likely that the most robust models in a breeding program will be those calibrated with data from multiple years, across a wide diversity of genotypes. This is supported by the improvement made in prediction accuracy between PLSR 5 and PLSR 6 (Table 2), where more genetic material across more environments added to the training set improved prediction results.One of the expected pitfalls that will vary by crop, is that maize is an outcrossing crop grown as a hybrid, meaning the grain likely is not a pure representation of the mother plant, unlike the successful Rincent et al. (2018) wheat study.Fortunately, xenia effects are not usually impactful in maize grain (Seka & Cross, 1995). Future work could consider NIRS collection on the hybrid seed before it is planted, but lacking a xenia effect, this would likely only represent the maternal parent and not the hybrid per se.In terms of improving the statistical models used, using a block diagonal covariance matrix, with an environmentspecific W on the diagonal may be a way to improve the NIRS BLUP models. The fact that this NIRS BLUP model performed better under CV1 than CV2 suggests there may be strong structuring in the W A covariance matrix used in this work.The overall concepts of phenotyping have evolved from the direct measurement of the trait of interest, to investigations surrounding more indirect measures of overall plant growth or spectral signatures, which may be inferred via remote or proximal sensing (Cabrera-Bosquet, Crossa, von Zitzewitz, Serret, & Araus, 2012). Phenotyping concepts are now further expanding to phenomic selection methodologies to estimate genetic relationships. Beyond NIRS, one of the best potential data collection systems to collect the volume of data needed are unoccupied aerial systems (UAS, i.e., drones). Recent reductions in UAS costs and technological hurdles have increased opportunities for new types of data collection by researchers and farmers (Araus & Cairns, 2014;Shi et al., 2016). When UAS campaigns successfully collect images over breeding programs, especially temporally over a growing season, many features from the images can be extracted. Some of these features may correspond with traditionally measured phenotypes such as plant height (Pugh et al., 2018), which themselves can be incorporated into physiological growth models to extract novel, more robust phenotypes (Anderson et al., 2019). Researchers have excitingly begun to incorporate many features into statistical models that can predict end yield, such as plant height (Anderson et al., 2019) and vegetation indices (Sun et al., 2019), already known to have some relationship with yield. As the numbers of phenotypic features are expanded these may complement, or replace, current genomics methods. In wheat, developing relationship matrices from hyperspectral data collected via UAS generated successful yield predictions alone, and using them alongside genetic marker and pedigree information improved predictions in some cases (Krause et al., 2019). Evaluating the thousands of features provided by NIRS can serve as a guide to utilizing many kinds of dense phenotypic datasets. In future work, it is likely that hundreds or thousands of features from UAS temporal flights and hyperspectral sensors could be identified that consistently differ-entiate between cultivars in the field and applied in phenomic selection the way NIRS spectral bands were here. Most such features have not yet been evaluated for their ability to predict end yield (Shakoor, Northrup, Murray, & Mockler, 2019).This study supports previous evidence from wheat that the use of grain spectral data is useful for predicting grain yield, but for the first time, shows that this approach is valid in maize. For this reason, these results offer promise for studies in other crops, and will likely guide users to choose a statistical analysis method that best suits their goals. Partial least squares regression is routinely used with NIRS and showed promise for predicting a non-compositional trait on a plot basis, including on unrelated material. However, functional regression generally performed better, within a set of similar germplasm, and may offer even more value for breeders once protocols are established.There is reason to suggest that building NIRS prediction models including multiple years will further strengthen the prediction accuracy. Future experiments or applications of these methods should aim for more than 2 yr of data to predict subsequent years, especially focused on higher-stress environments. Low cost of implementation and evidence provided in this work suggest that breeders interested in this technology should scan as much relevant genetic material as possible when building calibrations, and continually add and update the models just as in genomic selection. curation; G. N. De La Fuente: data curation; C. L. S. Morgan: methodology, review and editing (supporting).","tokenCount":"9271"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"403b7d0a520615608111b9dcee5faf94","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/OEQAKM/PY4RDL","id":"95035491"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"77469c01-994a-4d94-83d7-f6c46117f434","pagecount":"11","content":"One of the most important questions to be answered in plant breeding relates to the parents to be used in the generation of new germplasm. This is particularly true for cassava, given the time required to evaluate segregating progenies and the large genetic variation generated with each cross due to the highly heterozygous nature of the crop. In the past, cassava breeding at CIAT focused on properly identifying the best clones, from large, segregating progenies. However, the process was not designed to take advantage of all the potential information that could be generated. Significant steps have recently been taken at CIAT to modify the evaluation scheme, particularly during the first clonal evaluation stage, with the following objectives: a) obtain information that allows an approximation to the general combining ability of progenitors; b) shorten the length of the evaluation process; c) improve the probabilities of identifying superior germplasm; and d) detect new potential traits that can be incorporated into the selection criteria. The modifications have been implemented and improved during the past three years. The new breeding scheme has already produced important benefits. Parents are currently selected based on the quality of progenies they produce. Leaf retention at five month of age and in the absence of biotic or abiotic stresses, has proven to have a large effect on root yield. The evaluation cycle has been shortened by 16 months, and it is expected that the new scheme is more efficient in identifying superior germplasm.Cassava germplasm development at CIAT is centered on the development of improved gene pools for specific edapho-climatic zones with importance for cassava production. The most relevant ecosystems are the semi-arid and sub-humid tropics, for which the majority of efforts are devoted. The main selection activity is conducted in sites selected to represent the conditions of the target ecosystem. For each zone, a recurrent selection program with a progressive set of stages is followed. As the stages progress, more emphasis is given to traits of lower heritability, because more planting material for each genotype is available, and the evaluation can be conducted in bigger plots with replications. Certain selection criteria are of general importance across ecosystems (i.e. yield potential, dry matter content), while others are specific for each ecosystem (i.e. specific pests and/or diseases).The traditional evaluation and selection procedure has a few important drawbacks: a) breeding cycles were long; b) no data was taken at the early stages to allow estimates of general combining ability effects of the progenitors employed; and c) it took several steps in the selection process until replicated evaluations could be performed. Cassava has unique opportunities to increase its relevance in tropical agriculture and agro-industries. To take advantage of these opportunities a more dynamic and efficient breeding scheme is required to meet the new demands on this crop. This article describes the modifications introduced into the cassava breeding scheme at CIAT and some of the initial observations made upon their implementation.Traditionally in CIAT headquartes at Palmira, the progenies generated from the crossing blocks (F1) were planted in screenhouses and the seedlings transplanted to the field after two months (Figure 1). At six months after planting, two stakes were harvested from each plant and given a consecutive number according to the plant. One of the stakes was planted at CIAT-Palmira, the other was planted at the main selection site (F1C1).Selection was conducted at harvest on individual plants at the main selection site. Planting material taken from the selected genotypes, but using the replicated source at CIAT-Palmira, was used subsequently to establish a non-replicated, 6-plant plot, at the main selection site (Clonal Evaluation). Evaluation was done using three central plants. The remaining three plants were used as source of planting material which now started to originate at the selection site. The following stage (Preliminary Yield Trial) was planted in non-replicated 20-plant plots. Evaluation was done on the central six plants, and the remaining 14 outside plants were left as source of stakes. Selected genotypes were then passed to the Advanced Yield Trials at one or two sites, with three replications of 25-plant plots. Genotypes selected over 2 consecutive years at the Advanced Yield Trial level were considered as \"elite genotypes\" and incorporated in the germplasm collection and the crossing blocks. Since each year a new breeding cycle was initiated, all the stages were simultaneously being conducted in each site (Figure 1). Some modifications to the traditional scheme have now been introduced. A major constraint of the traditional evaluation methodology was that the first three stages of selection (F1C1, Clonal Evaluation, and Preliminary Yield Trial) were based on nonreplicated plots. In addition, large amounts of material was maintained at headquarters just to have duplicates of the very few materials that would eventually reach the status of \"elite genotype\" in each selection cycle. The changes introduced will speed up the selection process, allow for the evaluation of larger number of progenies and, hopefully, will increase the efficiency of the selection process. The main changes are as follows:1) The F1 plants are grown for ten months rather than six. At that age they produce up to 8-10 stakes. The stakes are then sent to the proper evaluation site for the Clonal Evaluation. This implies that the F1C1 stage is eliminated and that no duplicate of each genotype is maintained at CIAT headquarters. 2) The Clonal Evaluations are based on up to eight plants, rather than six as before. An important modification for the sub-humid environment is that most measurements in the Clonal Evaluation are carried out in two stages: at the normal harvest time only two plants are harvested to measure % of dry matter in the roots. This trait varies considerably with the time of harvest and age of the plant. Therefore, to estimate it correctly, the plants need to be harvested at the proper time. The remaining six plants of each plot are harvested just prior to normal planting time (one week before) and yield potential is measured again. A few other traits are also measured or estimated (using visual scores): plant architecture, foliar health (for insects and diseases separately), above-ground biomass (for measuring harvest index), and root aspect. A  selection index was used to make an efficient and fast selection of the approximately 1000-2000 genotypes evaluated at this stage, for each ecosystem.3) The changes described above allows taking stakes from no less than six plants (except for those cases where stakes did not germinate or plants died), rather than three, as in the past. For eco-regions different from the sub-humid environment, only one harvesting is carried out using all the available plants (seven).The six plants harvested at the second harvest time, produced no less than 30 cuttings, which were used for the first replicated trial based on three replications and two row plots with ten plants per plot. It is recognized that this evaluation results in some competition effect among neighboring plots. However, it is hoped that the number of replications will neutralize most of these effects. Also, row spacing between plots was increased and the plant to plant distance within the plot reduced. This maintained the density unchanged, while favoring competition among plants from the same genotype. 4) A final important modification to the evaluation process is that data was taken and analyzed for all the progenies evaluated. In the past, data was taken only for those families that went beyond the Clonal Evaluation stage. Therefore it was difficult to estimate combining ability effects of parental materials, because most of the crosses did not produce balanced data (many progenies had been discarded in the field before any data was taken). The changes introduced allows us to base the selection of the parental materials on its breeding value (related to general combining ability) rather that its performance per se, or empirical appreciation of their potential as progenitor.A selection index (SI) is just a way to simplify the selection process. Once all data from an evaluation is taken and downloaded into a computer file, the SI summarizes all the relevant information in a single number. The data set can then be ranked from the highest SI to the lowest. In this way, the best germplasm concentrate in the top of the file. Having the best materials grouped together facilitates the analysis of each individual genotype for a final selection. It should be emphasized that SI does not provide any new information and does not improve the quality of the data either. So, cassava breeding remains hard work and a demanding activity in the field. What the SI does is to facilitate the analysis of the data obtained.The SI integrates, in a single number, the information from several variables that the breeder renders as important. Generally, three to five variables are included. Too many variables in the SI should be avoided, because the progress for each individual trait decreases when the simultaneous improvement of numerous traits is expected. So, the first element that defines the SI is the variables to be included:where X 1. refers to the first variable in the SI (for example fresh root yield), X 2. refers to the second variable (for example dry matter content), and so on. For each case, there is a dot as a reminder that each genotype has its own SI value.The procedure to define a SI requires some weights for each variable to be included (Baker, 1986). Some variables are more important than others: the higher the relevance of the variable, the higher the weight it will have in the index. The relative importance of each variable depends on each breeder's criteria. The SI used at CIAT in Colombia does not necessarily have to be used by other cassava breeders. A particular SI can be defined for each region, particular end use, or breeder's preferences and/or priorities.A second element in the SI is the relative weight that each variable will have in the SI. There are numerous criteria to define weights (Baker, 1986). In some cases an economic value for each trait is used. In other cases the heritability of the trait contributes to the definition of its weight in the SI. Furthermore, genetic correlations among variables can also be considered. In the example below, a weight based on the breeder's judgement is used. It is assume that the simplicity of the proposed method, although not scientifically precise or sophisticated, is very appealing. The formula for the SI, therefore, evolves to be as follows:Where W 1 , W 2 , W 3 , … W n are the respective weights for each variable.The SI, as developed, is already complete. There is, however, an additional point to explain before applying the procedure. In the last equation, it should be clear, SI is a linear function of the n variables included in the formula. One problem that this SI presents is the issue of units. Different variables are measured in different units: fresh root yield will be around 30 t/ha, number of commercial roots may be around 6 per plant, and harvest index is around 0.60. The fact that each variable is measured in different units, with large differences in their magnitude creates a problem because those variables measured in higher magnitude would have a higher weight in the definition of the SI. This problem can be solved if the variables are standardized, using the classical statistical formula (Steel and Torrie, 1960):where X i. ' is the standardized value, X i. is the original value, μ is the mean of the population, and St. Dev. is the standard deviation for the variable analyzed. The standardization procedure changes the units of a given variable (t/ha, %, etc.) into units of standard deviation. After the variables are standarized they should have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one.After the SIs are calculated, the results are analyzed and eventually some adjustment on the weights are made. In other words, the results of a given SI may give too much emphasis to dry matter content and not enough to plant type, for example. So the analysis is a dynamic process involving a few iterations until the desirable results are obtained. The selection index used at CIAT for the sub-humid environment is: SI = ( FRY x 10) + ( DMC x 8) -(PTS x 5) + ( HI x 5)where FRY means Fresh Root Yield, DMC is Dry Matter Content, PTS stands for Plant Type Score, and HI represents Harvest Index. The weights used for each variable were 10, 8, 5, and 5, respectively. These weights are the result of a subjective process by the breeder. As said above, each breeding program will have its own weights, addressing its own priorities.It should be clarified why in the formula, the value for PTS (plant type score) is negative. The reason is simple: the best plant type is rated 1, and the worst is rated as 5. In this case, the index should \"reduce the expression\" of the variable, because the best material are those with a low score. By utilizing the negative sign the formula will automatically give preference to those materials having negative standardized values, which are those with a low score.Once the SI value for each genotype has been obtained the entire data set can be ordered by the SI variable. Most of the superior clones will be on top (or the bottom, depending on how the ranking is made) of the file. It is then highly advisable for the breeder to carefully analyze the results, because it is frequent to still find a few undesirable clones among the ones favored by the index.In the North Coast of Colombia, the Clonal Evaluation Trial was handled in a particular fashion. Because of the bimodal distribution of rainfall, with the rainy season starting towards the end of April to early May, cassava is traditionally harvested in February or March. Plants harvested at this time cannot be used as seed source because the stakes deteriorate by the time the rains arrive in May. Consequently, the Clonal Evaluation Trial used to be evaluated during the dry season, using three plants. The remaining three plants were left as seed source, being cut in May. When the rains arrive, the cassava plant reinitiates its growth, thus extracting energy that had been accumulated in the roots. As a consequence, dry matter content drops to the extent that starch and chip-drying industries usually either reject the roots or pay low prices for them.The Clonal Evaluation Trial was modified by increasing the number of plants representing each clone to eight. Of these eight plants, two were harvested in March, to measure dry matter content during the optimal time for taking this measure. The remaining six plants stayed in the field until the rains arrived and were finally harvested in mid-May, when root yield and dry matter content were measured again. Despite the duplication of work, it was hoped that this procedure would allow for the identification of clones with capacity to maintain high dry matter content even after the arrival of the rainy season. It should be pointed out that an important modification introduced in the new selection system is that the F1C1 stage has been eliminated and the first stage of selection is now the Clonal Evaluation Trial. In addition to the modifications introduced into these trials mentioned above, there is another major change: since no selection has been made previously, the new Clonal Evaluations are much richer regarding genetic variability.In this paper the results of the Clonal Evaluations conducted in the Sub-humid environment of Colombia's north coast and harvested in 2001 and 2002 are presented to illustrate the advantages of the new evaluation scheme.Table 1 presents the results from the Clonal Evaluation Trial harvested early in 2002. The trial included the evaluation of 1967 clones from a total of about 52 full-sib families. The codes for identifying full-sib families changed this year from CM to GM, because the CM code already reached the number 10,000. The information provided in this table is very valuable because it offers balanced data about the general performance of each family. This data, in turn, is useful for identifying parents that tend to produce superior performing progenies (≈ breeding value).For instance, family CM9923 was composed of 34 clones of which 24 were selected (70.6%). The average of selected clones across the evaluation was 16%. It is obvious therefore that this family showed an outstanding performance. In contrast, full-sib family GM281 had 39 clones of which none were selected. Furthermore, it is clear that family GM281 has very low dry matter content (23.0%) and low root yield (14.0 t/ha). On the other hand CM9923 had much higher root yield (32.2 t/ha) and dry matter content (31.2%), as well as excellent plant type (2.03).Once the information of each family is consolidated, some conclusions can be drawn from their respective progenitors. Moreover, because a given clone participates as progenitor in more than one family, very reliable information about the progeny of each progenitor can be produced to feed back into the breeding process (Table 2). Those clones with superior progenies are maintained and those with mediocre ones are eliminated.The new procedure for the Clonal Evaluation permits measuring dry matter content in each clone on two occasions: during the dry season (March) and after the rains arrive (May). Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between dry matter content in March and that in May for the 1,350 genotypes harvested during 2001.From the information provided in Figure 2, it can be concluded that a relationship exists between the two sets of dry matter contents, corroborated by a correlation coefficient of 0.689. However, observations made in March do not allow to predict with precision those materials that will present high dry matter content in May. For example, clone \"A\" in Figure 2 had high dry matter content in March (> 40%), but very low content in May (< 25%). In contrast, clone \"B\" showed a mediocre performance in March (< 35%), but it was outstanding (about 37.5%) after the rains arrived in May. Based on these data, 20 clones were selected in 2001 not only for their high dry matter content, but also because their DM content decreased little upon the arrival of the rains. These 20 clones were planted again and harvested in May 2002. Dry matter content values in 2001 and 2002 had a good correlation (0.65), confirming that this trait has relatively high heritability, and that the selection scheme as the one implemented is likely to be successful. Another significant result obtained from the Clonal Evaluation harvested in 2001 was the observation that some genotypes had the capacity to retain leaves for longer periods during plant growth observed by the end of October. At that time, the crop was 5½ months old and a differential capacity to retain leaves was already obvious. Although in most materials (1,225 or 90.7%), leaf abscission had already occurred in the lower 2/3 of the plant, the remaining 125 clones (or 9.3%) had still retained their leaves (Figure 3). Leaf retention capacity was recorded at that time.Table 3 presents the averages of different traits for the 1,225 clones that did not retain their leaves and for the 125 that did. The notable difference observed between the performances of the two groups suggest that the capacity to retain leaves at five months of age (at a time when no marked water stress has yet occurred in the region) has, indeed, a profound effect on overall performance measured at ten months of age. The materials that retained leaves yielded, on average, 26% more fresh roots (24.96 versus 19.75 t/ha), which represents an addition of about 2 t/ha of dry matter. Furthermore, leaf retention was also observed to associate with higher dry matter content (between 1% and 2% more, depending on when it was measured) and with a higher harvest index (by about 10%). These results are significant in that a trait has been identified that is most likely to be of high heritability (i.e., easy to select and fix in populations adapted to sub-humid conditions) and has a positive effect on the agronomic performance of cassava in this region.    The positive effects of leaf retention on the general performance of cassava was predicted earlier by Cock and co-workers (1979). These results confirmed the predictions based on theoretical models and have been further confirmed with other evaluations whose results are not presented here. The distinctive variation for leaf retention was apparent because a large number of clones (new Clonal Evaluation) were represented by eigth rather than one plant per genotype (old F1C1 stage).The main advantages of the new evaluation scheme can be summarized as follows:-The duplication of materials maintained at CIAT headquarters is avoided until they reach status of \"elite genotype\". -The selection of a large number of segregating progenies, at the F1C1 stage, which was based on single plant observations, is avoided. -The time required to reach the stage of replicated trials is minimized.-The total length of each cycle of selection is reduced by almost a year.-Data records will allow for selecting parental material based on general combining ability. -The total cost for each cycle of selection should be reduced. -Selection will be less subjective by using appropriate selection index specifically developed for that purpose. -Genetic differences among clones are much more apparent in the new Clonal Evaluation than in the old F1C1 stage. -For environments with rains concentrated in one season, there is a possibility of selecting clones able to maintain high dry matter upon the arrival of the rains.","tokenCount":"3587"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8c85439d1fe9fbce33f684632383d310","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/82734b73-8a96-4f79-9b08-669fc730f0e5/retrieve","id":"-1613493526"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"64251f25-667f-4245-ba40-c6e0fc7a171d","pagecount":"7","content":"Agriculture is central to rural livelihoods in Ethiopia. It makes up 32% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs 79% of the population (FDRE Ministry of planning and development, 2021). Most agricultural production in Ethiopia is rain-fed, subsistence-level, and low-yield, making it especially vulnerable to the effects of climate change (World Bank, 2021a). Hazards related to climate change, including thermal stress, increased climate variability, droughts, and floods, vary by region and season (ibid). By 2045, climate change is projected to reduce Ethiopia's GDP by approximately 10%, mainly due to the impact of drought on agriculture (ibid).Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers a potential solution. CSA is an integrated landscape-scale approach to addressing the interconnected challenges of food security and climate change. It focuses on three main areas: increasing agricultural productivity, enhancing resilience to climate change through adaptation, and reducing emissions through mitigation (World Bank, 2021b).In Ethiopia, a group of stakeholders, including representatives from local governments, research institutions, the Ministry of Agriculture, farmers' unions, the private sector, and NGOs, developed the planning framework that formed the basis for Ethiopia's Climate-Smart Agriculture Investment Plan (CSAIP). The CSAIP outlines seven priority investments identified by stakeholders to meet the goals of productivity, adaptation, and mitigation. This Info Note briefly summarizes these prioritized investments, key considerations for success, and the monitoring and evaluation plan.Climate change is already impacting the livestock sector through rising temperatures, water scarcity, feed shortages, flooding, drought, and increased incidence of pests and diseases (Tiruneh & Tegene, 2018). Livestock production, particularly dairy, also contributes significantly to Ethiopia's GHG emissions (Mengistu & Mekonnen, 2021).Objective: To improve the efficiency of livestock value chains through the adoption of climatesmart practices and value addition to promote climate resilience, mitigate GHG emissions, and foster food system and community livelihood sustainability.• Promote CSA technologies and practices to reduce food loss and waste in livestock value chains.• Build farmer capacity on value addition, packaging, and branding of products.• Improve farmer access to inputs, market information, and advisory services.Analysis: Processing value-added products and reducing food loss and waste along the poultry and dairy value chains show both long-term and immediate economic benefits compared to the status quo. However, both practices require large upfront investments that may not be possible for farmers. The authors recommend government and private investments to strengthen livestock value chains, improve advisory services, and support the forming of dairy cooperatives.Context: The lack of high-quality feed is a major constraint in the Ethiopian livestock sector.Livestock forage is often grown on marginal land in drought-prone areas and is thus vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Improved forage species have been developed in Ethiopia but are not widely used. High-quality forage can improve animal health and productivity, increasing incomes and food security for livestock producers. CSA practices, such as crop rotation, agroforestry, under-sowing, and shifting to perennial forage crops, can both reduce erosion and increase the feed value of forage.Objective: To enhance the production and use of improved forage to increase cattle and dairy productivity.CSA Pillars: Productivity, adaptation, and mitigation• Promote improved forage production techniques, such as crop rotation, under-sowing, and agroforestry.• Increase the supply and distribution of improved forage species bred for specific regions.• Support farmers in shifting from annual to perennial forage production.• Strengthen extension services on improved forage production.Analysis: Improved forage cultivation and fodder management was found to increase the productivity of dairy cows and poultry and provide immediate and long-term economic benefits. However, growing and feeding forage is more costly than the status quo. For the successful adoption of this intervention, the authors recommend extension education on the importance of supplemental feeding. Improved land tenure security and investments in strengthening the livestock value chain may also encourage farmers to adopt improved forage production.Context: Most agricultural production in Ethiopia is rain-fed and thus highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Studies estimate that• approximately six million people in Ethiopia would benefit from expanding small-scale irrigation (ILSSI, 2020). Farmers who switch from rain-fed to irrigated production are likely to be more resilient to climate change and may be able to increase family incomes and improve household nutrition by growing high-value crops on small areas of land.Objective: To promote small-scale irrigation in drought-prone and food-insecure areas using efficient and renewable technologies.CSA Pillars: Productivity, adaptation, and mitigation• Promote efficient, renewably powered irrigation technologies, such as solar-powered irrigation pumps and drip irrigation.• Scale up education about and financing for these technologies.• Strengthen the technical capacity of farmers, development agents, and extension workers to operate and maintain irrigation schemes.Analysis: Solar irrigation pumps and drip irrigation improved water use efficiency and increased productivity of cereal and horticultural crops in Ethiopia. However, both technologies have significant upfront and ongoing costs. While using solar irrigation pumps and drip irrigation show both immediate and long-term economic benefits for adopters, scaling up these technologies will require investments both in the technologies themselves and in farmer education and training.Context: Soil degradation and erosion are major challenges in Ethiopia, with significant impacts on agricultural productivity. An estimated 42 tons of soil per hectare of cropland are lost per year, and 43% of cultivated soils are acidic (Moges et al., 2020). Erosion is caused mainly by intensive cultivation of marginal or sloped lands, monocropping, and deforestation. The impacts of climate change will further degrade the soil unless conservation measures are implemented.Objective: To optimize crop production with Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) strategies, including fertilizer and manure application, management of soil pH through liming, and practices like mulching, intercropping, and reduced tillage. The prioritized crops mainly include cereals and horticulture crops, mainly Maize, Sorghum, and Tomato.CSA Pillars: Productivity, adaptation, and mitigation• Create awareness of how ISFM can help improve productivity, conserve soil, and reduce the impacts of climate change.• Build farmer and extension staff capacity on ISFM practices, including applications of inorganic and organic fertilizer (including manure, green manure, and compost), conservation agriculture practices (including minimum tillage, diversified crop rotation, mulching), lime application, and agroforestry.The authors analyzed the impacts of lime application and intercropping on several crops in different regions of Ethiopia. Both practices increased yields and profits over the status quo. However, applying lime has upfront and ongoing costs that farmers may be unable to afford. For ISFM practices to be successfully implemented and scaled, farmer education and financial support for lime purchases are needed. The authors also recommend the development of affordable, robust soil diagnostic tools that farmers can use to evaluate their soils.Context: For Ethiopian farmers to adapt to the effects of climate change, they must be able to access timely and reliable weather information along with new CSA practices. Digital advisory services have the potential to reach a large number of farmers at a relatively low cost and can provide farmers with the tools to make informed decisions.Objective: To expand the reach, use, and quality of digital advisory platforms to strengthen agricultural knowledge systems, promote climatesmart practices and technologies, and provide farmers with ease access of credit and insurance services.CSA Pillars: Productivity, adaptation, and mitigation• Promote the adoption of digital agricultural advisory tools, including ICT-enabled climate information services (i.e., weather forecasts) and agro-climate advisory services.• Improve access to and use of context-specific, index-based crop and livestock insurance, including weather index insurance.• Promote the use of digital technologies to detect and control pests and diseases, e.g., drones, sensors, and satellite images.The Ethiopian government and international development organizations offer various digital agricultural advisory services, some of which are climate focused. Existing programs have effectively delivered advisory and climate information to their users. However, many farmers still lack access to digital advisory services, and further investments are needed in extension staffing, content, and delivery systems, as well as digital access and literacy.Context: majority of livestock production in Ethiopia is subsistence-level, with limited input use, low productivity, local breeds. Several livestock diseases are endemic, and there is high livestock morbidity and mortality. Climate change impacts livestock health through heat stress, decreased feed and water availability, and increased incidence of pests and disease. The livestock sector is also a major contributor to Ethiopia's GHG emissions (FAO, 2020).Objective: To improve livestock production and productivity for food security, diversify incomes, and reduce GHG emissions.CSA Pillars: Productivity and mitigation• Increase the use of improved dairy and poultry breeds and small ruminant crossbreeds, i.e., those that emit less methane or are highproduction, climate-resilient, or disease-resistant.• Expand community chicken vaccination.• Implement training to strengthen the capacity of artificial insemination (AI) technicians.• Expand advisory services for calf mortality reduction, breed improvement, reproduction and fertility management, manure management, and animal health management.• Incentivize the private sector to deliver animal health services.The authors analyzed the impacts of four investments: AI for dairy cattle, calf mortality reduction practices, poultry vaccinations, and improved poultry breeds. All practices were found to improve productivity and provide economic benefits to adopters over the long term, but they also had significant upfront and ongoing costs compared to the status quo. Investments will be needed to help farmers adopt improved practices and to strengthen livestock value chains overall.Context: Wheat is an important food security crop in rural Ethiopia and is also likely to be heavily impacted by climate change. Wheat yields are predicted to decline by 36-40% by 2050 due to heat stress, drought, and increased incidence of pests and disease (Rettie et al., 2022). Improved wheat varieties are available in Ethiopia, but adoption rate is low.To promote improved wheat varieties and CSA practices in wheat production.CSA Pillars: Production, adaptation, and mitigation• Increase adoption of climate-resilient (heat-and drought-tolerant, early maturing, diseaseresistant) improved varieties and local landraces with climate-resilient attributes.• Promote mechanized row planting, harvesting, threshing, and processing.• Train farmers on soil and water conservation techniques (e.g., mulching, tied ridging), integrated fertilizer use, and small-scale irrigation.The authors' analysis showed that improved, early-maturing wheat varieties are more productive than current varieties but also have additional costs. Fertility management practices improve soil quality and wheat productivity and cost less than current practices. Both practices showed short-and long-term economic benefits for farmers. Investments are needed to expand and strengthen the seed distribution system, help farmers purchase seeds and inputs, and expand rural access to credit. ","tokenCount":"1675"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"89cbd268a0898e3f328d6d053699f3b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e74c4bab-1de8-4c66-8f89-9477cdf14573/retrieve","id":"-496569967"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"abcbb7f1-a701-4fdd-8ad3-368a2dce914f","pagecount":"22","content":"Uasin Gishu County referred to as the breadbasket of Kenya has high and reliable rainfall, relatively large farm sizes, and highly mechanized farming. Ninety percent of the total land in the county is arable. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy contributing 80% of total rural household income and food security. Maize, wheat, beans, dairy, Irish potatoes, horticulture and local chicken are the key value chain commodities in the county.Changes in both growing seasons' rainfall characteristics and intense rainfall compromise productivity and food security in the county with climate projections indicating even greater challenges in the coming years.On-farm strategies to cope with climate risks and shocks include; conservation agriculture, early maturing crop varieties, early and dry planting, diversification, animal feed conservation, tree planting and water harvesting. The main constraints to the uptake of these strategies include limited knowledge of new technologies and high costs of investing in these technologies.Off-farm services to alleviate the risks associated with climate change and variability include early warning systems and advisory services for better decision-making, insurance uptake and formation of cooperative societies for easier access to farm inputs, credit, markets and information.High input prices, low input use, poor access to credit, declining soil fertility, poor road infrastructure and poor governance in farmer organizations are some of the salient factors that aggravate the impacts of climate change and variability.Inadequate financial, technical and human resources and lack of county-specific legislation are some of the most common institutional bottlenecks to climate risk management.Drafting and implementation of county-specific policies on climate risk management is of utmost importance and needs to be fast tracked in order to tackle the emerging issues of climate change and the associated implications on agricultural production.Climate change is becoming one of the most serious challenges to Kenya's achievement of its development goals as described under Vision 2030. Kenya is already highly susceptible to climate-related hazards, and in many areas, extreme events and variability of weather are now the norm; rainfall is irregular and unpredictable; while droughts have become more frequent during the long rainy season and severe floods during the short rains. The arid and semi-arid areas are particularly hard hit by these climate hazards, thereby putting the lives and livelihoods of millions of households at risk. In 2010, Kenya developed a National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS), which recognized the importance of climate change impacts on the country's development. This was followed by the National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) in 2012, which provided a means for implementation of the NCCRS, highlighting a number of agricultural adaptation priorities. The focus of these initiatives has been at the national level, there is need to mainstream climate change into county level policies, programmes, and development plans; therefore ensuring locally relevant, integrated adaptation responses with active involvement of local stakeholders.The Government of Kenya (GoK) through the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF), with funding by the International Development Agency (IDA-World Bank Group) is therefore implementing the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP). This projects objective is to increase agricultural productivity and build resilience to climate change risks in targeted smallholder farming and pastoral communities in Kenya, and in the event of an eligible crisis or emergency, to provide immediate and effective response. This Climate Risk Profile has been conducted within the framework of KCSAP and aims to inform county governments and stakeholders on the climate change risks and opportunities for agriculture so they are able to integrate these perspectives into county development.This document presents the Climate Risk Profile for Uasin Gishu County. The county has a relatively low vulnerability index (0.419) to climate change (GoK,  2013) yet it continues to suffer extreme weather events like drought and floods. Though climate models have shown that floods are likely to occur every three years 1 , recent news reports in the last three consecutive years (2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016) have shown devastating floods in different regions in the county. For instance, in 2013, floods killed eight people in Uasin Gishu 2 , in 2014, and destroyed property, roads and buildings including the Uasin Gishu District Hospital 3 , and more than 30 families displaced in Kimumu estate in 2016 4 . In addition, due to climate variation, there has been proliferation of crop diseases such as Maize Head Smut, Maize Ear Smut, Maize yellowing and Maize Lethal Necrosis disease and insect pests e.g. Fall Army Worm which have significantly reduced production. Drought on the other hand has resulted in crop failures 5 and reduction of the areas under crop production. For example in 2014, the area under maize production reduced from 92,500 hectares (ha) to 77,225 ha. Considering that Uasin Gishu County is the breadbasket for the country, the above consequences of climate change and variation on agriculture and livelihoods in general necessitate deliberate effort to mitigate climate risks in future.The profile is organised into six sections, each reflecting an essential analytical step in understanding current and potential adaptation options in key local agricultural value chain commodities. The document first offers an overview of the county's main agricultural commodities key for food security and livelihoods as well as major challenges to agricultural sector development in the county. This is followed by identification of the main climatic hazards based on the analysis of historical climate data and climate projections including scientific assessment of climate indicators for dry spells, flooding and heat stress among other key climate hazards for agriculture. The document continues with an analysis of vulnerabilities and risks posed by the hazards on the respective value chains. Based on these vulnerabilities, current and potential on-farm adaptation options and off-farm services are discussed. The text also provides snapshots of the enabling policy, institutional and governance context for adoption of resilience-building strategies. Finally, pathways for strengthening institutional capacity to address climate risks are presented.4 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles SeriesUasin Gishu County is located in the Kenyan rift valley, which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The County covers a land area of 3,345 km 2 . It borders Trans Nzoia County to the north, Elgeyo Marakwet County to the east, Baringo County to the southeast, Kericho County to the south, Nandi County to the southwest and Kakamega County to the northwest.Agriculture is the mainstay of the county contributing to about 80% of rural household income and food security. According to the Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP) household baseline survey (GoK, 2014), at least 56% of households are engaged in crop and/or livestock farming. Uasin Gishu County divides into three agro-ecological zones (AEZs) namely; the upper highlands (UH), upper midlands (UM) and lower midlands (LM) zones. High and reliable rainfall experienced in the county support crop farming, livestock rearing and forestry. The major crops in the county are maize, beans, wheat, sunflower and potatoes while the livestock include dairy farming, beef cattle, poultry, sheep, goats, pigs, beekeeping, rabbit farming and fish farming. The mean annual total household income is KES 871,076. The mean annual on-farm income earned by households in Uasin Gishu County is KES 334,320 with crop income accounting for 62% compared to livestock income which accounts for 20% (GoK, 2014).According to the Kenya Population and Housing Census (KPHC) of 2009, the total population of Uasin Gishu County stood at 894,179 in 2009 and it is projected to grow to 1,211,853 by 2017 at a growth rate of 3.8% which is higher than the national population growth rate of 2.9%. Approximately 64% of the County's population is concentrated in the rural areas whereas 36% lives in urban areas.Poverty rates in the county are estimated at 47% compared to 43.37% at the national level. Access to water in the county is relatively high. The county has three main water towers, Kaptagat, Timborowa and Kapchemutwo forests, and four major rivers, Moiben, Sosiani, Kipkarren and Nzoia. Ninety percent of the County's population has access to water within a 2 km radius while 42% has access to potable water (GoK,  2013). Firewood is the main source of cooking fuel with 84% of households using it as the primary source of fuel (GoK, 2013). This can be attributed to the sizeableportion of the total county land under forests. The county has 29,802 ha of gazette forests out of which 56% are under indigenous forest cover while 44% is under plantations. The reliance on firewood by a large portion of the population puts undue pressure on the existing forests in the county reducing the forest cover. According to the KPHC (2009), 28% of the households in the county have access to electricity for lighting and this is rising due to the current efforts by Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC) to connect households to the national grid. The literacy level in the county is 81%.Food insecurity in the county stands at 32% of households characterized by shortage of food at household level, which is mainly prominent in the months of May to August (GoK, 2014). Prevalence of stunting is 31.2% while 11.5% of children under-five are underweight (KDHS, 2014) attributable to less diet diversification due to overdependence on crops such as maize. The county being commercially oriented in terms of crop and livestock production produces enough for local consumption and sale to other neighbouring counties and further afield. Relatively large farm sizes, good soils and favourable climatic conditions play a key role in making the county a leading producer in most of the important crops in the country such as maize.Most households in Uasin Gishu County depend on food and cash crops, livestock, and employment for their livelihoods. The major crops grown include maize, wheat, beans, potatoes, and horticultural crops while livestock include dairy farming, beef cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, bee keeping, rabbit farming and fish farming. These are categorized into two farming systems namely; mixed farming of food crops and livestock, mixed farming of commercial crops and dairy cows Production in the county ranges from small-scale low-input farming to highly mechanized large-scale farming with high levels of input use. Uasin Gishu County has a total land area of 334,500 ha. Arable land covers 299,500 ha representing about 90% of the total county area while forestland (both indigenous and plantations) covers 29,802 ha representing 8.9% of the total county area. The remaining portion is non-arable being hilly and rocky. Uasin Gishu County has three main distinct agroecological zones (AEZs) namely; lower highlands ranging from LH2 to LH4, upper midlands (UM3) and upper highlands representing UH1 and UH2 (Jaetzold  et.al., 2010)  Maize is a key staple food crop grown predominantly for commercial purposes with only a small percentage used for household consumption. Uasin Gishu County is the leading producer of maize in Kenya. It grows mainly in LH3, LH2 and UH4 agro-ecological zones, which are in Kesses, Kapseret, Turbo, Soy, Moiben and Ainabkoi areas. Maize production is under mixed farming systems: mixed farming (food crops and livestock) and mixed farming (commercial crops and livestock). Especially farmers with large farms and as an intercrop with beans by farmers with relatively small farms mainly grow maize as pure stands. About 61-80% of the population are engaged in the value chain. According to the County Directorate of Agriculture, Uasin Gishu County, the area under maize in 2016 was 102,753 ha which produced 4,220,120 bags of maize valued at KES 12,660,360,000. This is a clear indicator of the economic value of maize to the county. Maize is a staple food crop and sold to provide income, thus it contributes to the food security of the county. The income from the maize sales -almost 75% of the total produce is sold -is used mainly to purchase inputs for the next growing season and to educate the children.County have formed cooperative societies to help them bulk the maize for sale to millers. The cooperative societies also provide services like, cheaper and affordable inputs, and facilities for drying maize to achieve the recommended moisture content. The marketing for maize include both formal and informal channels. The formal markets consist of the National Cereals Produce Board (NCPB), a key player in the sector, and several milling companies ranging from large-scale processors such as UNGA to small-scale millers. These actors offer preset prices to farmers for their produce. The informal channels comprise of traders, millers and posho mills. The millers and posho mills process the maize into various products such as flour and animal feeds. The millers are mostly large-scale while the posho mills are small-scale in nature.Potato is the second most important food and cash crop after maize in Kenya. Uasin Gishu County is one of the leading producers of potatoes in Kenya. Potato growing is for both commercial and household consumption purposes. Potato growers constitute between 30-60% of the total population of the county. It production is limited to a small part of the county mainly in the agro-ecological zones UH2 and UH3 which are characterized by very high altitudes. These zones have mostly mixed farming systems comprising of commercial crops and livestock. Potatoes grows in pure stands across farms with varying sizes. Most potato farmers are small scale with the major growing areas being in Ainabkoi and Kesses sub-counties. In 2016, according to the County Directorate of Agriculture, the area under potatoes in Uasin Gishu County was 1,428 ha producing 15,975 tons valued at KES 639,000,000. This underscores the importance of potato as a crop contributing significantly to household income and food security by providing an alternative food source to cereals such as maize.Women are mainly engaged in on-farm production and harvesting. The importance of the potato value chain to the women ranges from high to very high. The youth on the other hand are largely involved in harvesting, sorting and marketing of potatoes. In terms of inputs, the potato value chain is served by medium-to large-scale service providers such as Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC), and NCPB complemented by the small-scale actors such as the local and small-scale agro vets. Small-scale processing takes place such as the production of potato crisps, sold in supermarkets. Marketing of potato is informal and dominated by traders who are predominantly middlemen or brokers. The traders, who fall mainly in the medium-to largescale category, determine the price of potatoes. Due to their bulky nature, farmers sell their potato produce at farm gate where the potatoes are taken to fast food outlets and markets in major urban centres.Uasin Gishu County is one of the leading milk producing areas in Kenya and often referred to as a dairy county. Dairy farming is practiced in all the agro-ecological zones found in the county. Due to the importance of livestock to the livelihoods of farmers, every farm family is at least involved in some form of dairy production. Between 81-100% of the people are engaged in the value chain. According to the Directorate of Livestock, in 2016 the dairy sub-sector produced 200.5 million litres of milk, which earned farmers a total of KES 6.2 billion. This large volume of milk produced contributes significantly to the household food security in the county as part of the milk consumed at household level. The average milk production from dairy cattle is 5 litres per cow per day. According to Agriculture Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP), the average milk production for exotic cattle during the wet and dry season is 13.3 and 10.8 litres respectively while that of indigenous cattle is 6 and 5 litres per day respectively. Women are highly involved in the on-farm activities (mostly feeding and milking) in this value chain while youth are mostly involved in the transportation to collection points or urban centres and sale of the milk.Local chicken is one of the enterprises that is gaining currency in Uasin Gishu County. Both large-and small-scale farmers are engaged in local chicken production major production systems being extensive, semi-intensive or intensive. Almost every household (between 81-100% of the population) keep local chicken and the majority of farmers are women. The majority of farmers in the county practices free-rangingAlthough dairy farming is widespread, the output is average. Most farmers are practicing extensive and semi-intensive management practices characterised by low input use. Because of this, farmers do not realize their milk production potential despite the high number of grade cows kept. There are several collection points and cooling plants used by large-scale processors like Brookside, New KCC and other small-scale processors. The raw milk is processed into fresh milk, sour milk, long-life milk, butter, cheese, yoghurt among others. Farmers are price takers and have no voice in determining the milk price, which is set by the processors. These large-scale milk processors control a large share of the market. Some of the milk is sold as raw milk in urban centres.management systems. Rearing of local chicken is is mainly practised by women. It requires low capital investment, low labour, a small area to operate, and it does not require very high management skills. Women are involved in all the value chain activities from on-farm production to marketing. The eggs and meat from local chickens provide a cheap and readily available source of proteins and nutrients to households playing a significant role in improving food security in the county.Most of the chickens are sold with only about 10% reserved for household consumption. The marketing channel for local chickens is informal, dominated by local traders who purchase at farm gate or through local markets for selling to urban centres where chickens are in higher demand. Farmers rarely have influence on the price of chickens, as they are price takers. Processing of local chicken in the county is minimal.Agriculture is the economic mainstay in Uasin Gishu County, contributing greatly to food security and household income, yet it is experiencing several production, economic and social challenges. Even though the county has good soils and favourable climatic conditions, agriculture is yet to realized its full potential. Several factors have contributed to this. The high cost of inputs (such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, farm machinery) is one of the limiting factors since it increases the cost of production, making it difficult for farmers to make profitable returns. Increasing incidences of counterfeit inputs from unscrupulous input suppliers contribute to low productivity. In addition, population growth has led to increased land fragmentation, which also negatively influences agricultural production. Continuous cultivation of the land coupled with overuse of inorganic fertilizers in some instances has led to declining soil fertility resulting in low crop production.Most of the commodities produced in the county sell in raw form without any form of value addition fetching low prices. Poorly organized marketing channels in the county have resulted in farmers receiving very low prices for their produce. In addition, poor governance and corruption rendering them ineffective and inefficient trouble the cooperative movements on which smallscale farmers rely for credit and inputs. Low market access caused by poor road infrastructure especially during the wet season is another important challenge to the sector. Underfunding and understaffing of extension services has resulted in inadequate service provision to farmers, which hampers their ability to make informed decisions. Although the livestock sector shares most of the abovementioned challenges, some are specific to livestock and these include; poor livestock nutrition, animal diseases and low-quality genetics. This is often a result of inappropriate production systems and poor management by farmers. Farmers by far prefer the traditional extensive free-range production system, which depends on good rainfall patterns. However, this system is marked by climate risks, which can affect both water and fodder supply for the animals. The high cost and inadequate availability of high quality concentrates is also a challenge for livestock producers. In addition, animal feed conservation is still low in the county despite concerted efforts to upscale the technology. The use of artificial insemination (AI) to improve production traits and genetic variability is also low.Uasin Gishu County has a relatively cool climate with mean annual temperatures across the county being predominantly below 21°C, a factor attributed to its location on a plateau that rises gently from 1500m a.s.l. to 2,700 m a.s.l .Rainfall in the county is relatively high with the northern and central parts receiving between 1000 and 1250mm of rainfall annually, the southern parts receiving 1250-1500mm annually and the western tip receiving above 1500mm. Rainfall in the county is reliable and evenly distributed throughout the year and even the driest months between November and February receive some rainfall. The climatic conditions are favorable for crop and livestock production, and the County is referred to as a breadbasket for Kenya particularly in relation to its high maize production. Annual rainfall variability does occur, and year to year variations in rainfall between the months of July and September have been found to be most crucial in determining the county's maize yields 9 . Due to the importance of maize production in Uasin Gishu for Kenya as a whole, particular attention needs to be paid to changes in the County's weather and climate. Drought is not common in the County, however when they do occur the impacts have repercussions not just for the county but for Kenya as whole, due toClimate change and variability: historic and future trends Uasin Gishu being among the main maize producing counties in the country. Floods on the other hand have occurred every year since 2013 in different parts of the county, affecting crop and livestock production as well as infrastructure and sometimes resulting in loss of lives 10 .Analysis of temperature trends in the county over 25 years (1980 to 2005), showed that both first and second season temperatures have increased moderately over the years (0.5°C and 0.3°C respectively). These temperature changes have however not resulted in any significant changes in the number of heat stress days. Analysis of rainfall over a 35 year period (1980-2015) showed that average seasonal rainfall had remained relatively constant in the first season and had increased only slightly (≈25mm) in the second season. Although average annual precipitation has not changed significantly, there have been changes in rainfall intensity, with the number of days of high intensity rainfall 11 increasing from an average of 20 days in the to 25 days in the second season and from 21 days to 23 days in the first season. The maximum 5-day running precipitation average has also increased from 15mm/day to over 20mm/day in the second season. The first season has however experienced a slight increase in the average maximum number of consecutive dry days from 17 to 20.These changes have resulted in an increased flood and erosion risk in the second season. The increasing variability of rainfall has resulted in an increased drought risk in the second season. Despite some differences in the changes in rainfall patterns between the two seasons, rainfall in both seasons has become more variable with a tendency for more intense rainfall over shorter periods of time accompanied by longer dry spells in between, changes which can have a great impact on soils, crops, livestock, infrastructure 12 , livelihoods, and economic development in the county.Looking ahead to the period 2021-2065, climate projections based on two representative concentration pathways (RCPs 13 ) indicate that under both scenarios there is expected to be a reduction in the length of the growing period for both the first and second seasons. In addition, there is expected to be a change in the frequency and magnitude of intense rainfall episodes in both seasons, with the maximum 5-day running precipitation average expected to rise from 10 http://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2013/04/16/eight-killed-in-nandi-uasin-gishu-flooding_c762284 11 Number of days reaching the 95th percentile of average daily precipitation 12 http://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/huge-losses-floods-cause-havoc-eldoret 13 The two RCPs, RCP2.6 and RCP8.5, are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values (+2.6 and +8.5 W/m2, respectively).The pathways are used for climate modelling and research. They describe two possible climate futures, considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come. RCP 2.6 assumes that global annual GHG emissions (measured in CO2-equivalents) peak between 2010 and 2020, with emissions declining substantially thereafter. In RCP 8.5, emissions continue to rise throughout the 21st century 13 Indicated by the maximum number of consecutive days receiving less than 1mm/day of rainfall.an historical average of 22mm/day in a season to between 28 mm/day and 30mm/day. Under both scenarios, there is also expected to be a moderate increase in dry spell length 14 and this increase is more pronounced in the second season. These projections of future climate change under the two climate scenarios, show some differences but exhibit similar trends, and point to increasing climate risks to crop and livestock production in Uasin Gishu. Even under the conservative GHG emissions scenario there are expected to be changes in climate and weather parameters and hence there is need to plan for and implement resilient agricultural practices.Farmers in Uasin Gishu County perceive climate change in different ways. These include: changing dates in the onset of the rainy seasons, extreme temperatures with higher temperatures recorded during the dry season and much lower temperatures recorded during the wet season, reduced amounts of rainfall and overlap of seasons with rainfall extending into the dry periods. Hailstorms have also become more common especially in the maize growing areas. Farmers have become apprehensive of dry planting especially of maize and now they have to wait for the actual rains to start before planting. The planting dates of wheat are shifting from May to June due to changing weather patterns. Farmers are reporting increased incidence of pests and diseases. For instance, wheat farmers complain of increased incidences of wheat rust and Setaria grass commonly referred to as \"Arap Misoi\". Potato farmers have seen an increase in fungal diseases such as potato blight related to extremely low temperatures at night. Maize farmers are reporting cases of emerging weeds, which have become a menace to crop production. These include the Niger weed that is christened \"Arap Seroney\" by the locals. This weed appears to be resistant to herbicides and poses a great danger in maize growing areas since it can lead to total crop failure. The net effect of these changes has been an increase in spraying regimes, which has resulted in increased production costs. According to farmers, there is an upsurge in animal diseases such foot and mouth disease as compared to a few years ago.Expected future climate change and variability poses serious threats to value chain commodities prioritized for analysis in this study. Hazards affecting the agricultural sector include; changes in the onset of the planting seasons (decrease in stability of season), intense rainfall and prolonged dry spells in both seasons.Decrease in stability of both growing seasons and slightly longer periods of drought are important hazards to maize production in Uasin Gishu County. This mainly occurs in Kesses, Kapseret, Soy, Moiben, Turbo and Ainabkoi areas of the county. Decrease in stability of seasons leads to uncertainty on when to procure inputs, prepare the land, plant, and harvest. Unexpected changes such as early rain causes shortages and consequently price hikes of agricultural inputs. Unscrupulous traders take advantage of this situation to sell counterfeit products to farmers. This has a domino effect on all other stages of the value chain such as increased production costs and reduced crop yields. Similarly, extended periods of drought also affect crop yields negatively because of a deficit for moisture required for optimal growth. Farmers have adopted a host of measures to increase their adaptive capacities. Some opt for the use of uncertified seeds in the event that planting seeds become more expensive or scarce. Some make better use of organic manure and/or purchase subsidized fertilizers. Those who are members of cooperatives purchase agricultural inputs at lower prices because cooperatives can negotiate better prices on behalf of farmers. Early land preparation, tilling several times to break the ground, and in extreme cases reducing the acreage planted are other measures farmers use to increase their adaptive capacity. Traditional methods of weed and pest control are employed to tackle the increased incidence of pests and weeds. Some farmers opt for early harvesting and marketing at farm gate to brokers and middlemen, unfortunately, this often has a negative effect on the price farmers receive for their produce. The government through the NCPB provides drying and storage facilities and buys produce from large-scale farmers.The most affected in the maize value chain are resource-poor farmers who have less income and low access to credit facilities, therefore hampering their preparedness. This also includes access to inputs, mechanized land preparation and access to storage facilities. Poor extension linkages, limited market Intense rainfall and decrease in stability of seasons are important hazards in Irish potatoes production. These hazards occur mainly in Ainabkoi and Kesses subcounties where potato is grown. Decrease in season stability leads to uncertainty with farmers caught off guard on when to acquire inputs and when to plant. Untimely planting and poor germination of the potato tubers affects harvesting and yield of the potato crop. This results in loss of income for farmers because of Less intense rainfall and slightly longer periods of drought in both seasons affects the cattle for milk production. These hazards occur in almost all parts of the county while less intense rain is experienced in Moiben, Soy and Kesses sub-counties. Moiben sub-county is prone to slight increases in dry spells. These hazards lead to feed scarcity and increased production costs of dairy cattle (such as increased demand for extension services and vaccinations, and high costs of feeds). These hazards mainly affect the on-farm production stage of the value chain resulting in reduced milk production, reduced market supply and therefore higher producer and consumer prices.Farmers are forming producer groups for easier access to extension services, training and information. The Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) and MoALF (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries) are assisting farmers to establish more pastures and alternative fodder such as Rhodes grass to increase feeding capacity. Large-scale farmers are allocating parts of their farms to produce pasture for individual use and for sale. Some farmers are conserving feed while others are formulating feed on their farms to alleviate feed scarcity. There are organized programmes for subsidized mass vaccinations of cattle and other livestock against disease outbreaks. Finally yet importantly, information on the weather outlook by early warning systems has helped farmers to plan and make better decisions.Farmers who lack the financial ability to invest in technologies are hard hit by climatic hazards. In addition, inadequate extension services also contribute to vulnerability of farmers. Lack of policies and advisory services hampers the implementation and enforcement of measures that tailored to increase farmers' adaptive capacity.information and a lack of a pricing policy make maize farmers more vulnerable to climate change and variability.Moderate decreases in temperature and intense rainfall in both seasons affect the local chicken production. This occurs in the upper midlands and upper highlands agro-economic zones. These climatic hazards cause feed scarcity, low breeding rates, low growth rates, high mortality rates and high production costs. They affect mostly the input supply, on-farm and post-harvest stages of the value chain.Chicken farmers increase their adaptive capacity by feeding chickens on leftover food. They also use traditional herbs and shrubs to cure any ailments faced by the birds. Energy saving jikos referred to locally as \"Chepkube\" guard the chickens against extreme low temperatures. Keeping local chickens is in itself an adaptation mechanism because local chickens are hardy and can survive extreme temperatures. The chickens thrive in both extensive and semi-intensive management systems. Farmers select birds with vigour for breeding purposes to improve productivity.lower yields and higher consumer prices because of low supply.In order to increase their adaptive capacity; farmers have employed a number of strategies. Farmers use their own farm-saved seed tubers or acquire planting material or seed from their neighbours when there is scarcity. Farming communities also share their knowledge and experience because many smallholders cannot currently access extension services. Organic manure is used when farmers are unable to procure inorganic fertilizers. Early land preparation prior to planting to create a soil structure favourable for crop growth help address the untimely planting. During harvesting, farmers contract extra work force to reduce post-harvest losses. A potato chilling plant has been set up in the county at Ainabkoi sub-county, which can store up to 50 tonnes of potatoes for over six months. This will enable farmers to store their produce during high production when prices are low and take their produce out of the store when prices are high.Poor road infrastructure is one of the underlying factors that make farmers vulnerable to climate hazards since the roads are impassable for farmers to access markets. The high costs of hiring mechanized machinery puts resource poor farmers at a disadvantage since they have no access to credit facilities. Farmers in the lower areas withstand the worst of intense rain, which causes rotting of potato tubers as opposed to the higher areas. Potato production practices in the county are suboptimal; good crop management, which involves the appropriate and efficient use of inputs, such as good-quality seed, is seldom practised.Farmers in Uasin Gishu County predominantly depend on rain fed agriculture. Rain fed agricultural systems are highly vulnerable to climate variability forcing farmers to adopt measures that increase their resilience. Farmers are shifting to early-maturing maize and potato varieties in order to optimize on the short crop cycle occasioned by climate change. In the same vein, farmers are embracing early dry planting with the slightest hints of impending rainfall. Other farmers are replacing maize with high value horticultural crops like passion fruit. According to GoK (2014), 29% of households in the county are changing crop types as an adaptation measure to climate change.Climate smart practices such as minimum or zero tillage are gaining currency in the county. These practices improve the soil moisture content to enable optimum growth of crops. For instance, maize and wheat farmers use chisel ploughs and planters for minimum tillage to help retain soil moisture content and thus aid crop growth during moisture stress. Since the chisel ploughs are few and the cost is prohibitive, some farmers opt to use herbicides such as roundup to prevent soil disturbance. Some wheat and maize farmers to break the life cycles of pests found in soils use crop rotation.Farmers are being encouraged to engage in commercial fodder growing and feed conservation to address the issue of feed shortages. About 11% of households in the county are conserving animal feed in one form or another as a climate change adaptation strategy (GoK,  2014). Hay production is an alternative feed to help dairy farmers increase their resilience during dry spells. Farmers also use crop residues that previously used to be left on the fields and burnt as animal feed. These include maize stalks, wheat straws and even sunflower stalks. With the increase in dry spells in the county, free-range grazing or extensive management, systems are becoming unsustainable. Farmers are therefore transitioning to more appropriate production systems such as the semi-intensive and intensive systems e.g. zero grazing.Water harvesting is another technology farmers are employing to improve their adaptive capacity. This includes the construction of water pans to harvest and conserve water for use during dry spells. Irrigation exist along rivers such as River Sosiani and River Moiben where high value horticultural crops are grown. In Uasin Gishu County, 25% of households are involved in harvesting water to improve their adaptive capacity to climate change (GoK, 2014).Tree planting among farmers is being encouraged and promoted to help alleviate the effects of climate change on agricultural production. About 47% of households in the county are embracing tree planting as an adaptation strategy to climate change (GoK, 2014). Farmers are establishing woodlots, planting trees on their farms with the aim of providing wood fuel, timber for construction, and conserving the environment. This initiative is supported by the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) through the provision of seedlings. Forests act as carbon sinks and help reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and hence mitigating climate change. However, unavailability of seedlings due to high demand is a major challenge in smallholder tree planting efforts. On the other hand, farmers are being encouraged to use alternative and efficient improved cooking stoves that use very little firewood to reduce tree cutting. However areas near forests that have abundant firewood have recorded low uptake of these improved cooking stoves. Continued dependence on wood fuel from trees has led to deforestation. Encroachment of wetlands for farming purposes are also negating the efforts of tree planting and contributing to weather changes.Off-farm services either support on-farm adaptation practices or improve preparedness for and resilience to climate shocks. These services include finance, infrastructure (especially irrigation), climate and agricultural services including early warning systems. The providers of these services are mainly government and private institutions including non-government, faith-and community-based agencies.The Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD) is a government department mandated to provide information on the weather outlook through timely and accurate weather forecasts. The department provides early warning systems through the Participatory Scenario Planning (PSP) forum. The department provides advisories related to the rainfall season and addresses information needs such as rainfall patterns and the type of crops and crop varieties that are well suited for rainfall that will be available. This helps farmers to plan better, make informed decisions and improve their preparedness to avoid weather-related impacts and losses. Early Warning Systems (EWS) are mainly related to the production and post-harvest stages of the value chains. The main bottleneck in the provision of timely and accurate forecasts is the insufficient number of weather stations in the county. Currently, only two functional weather stations exist and this is far from an ideal situation.Farmers in Uasin Gishu County have formed cooperative societies to help them increase their adaptive capacity to climate change. Some of the value chains with vibrant cooperative societies include; maize, potato and dairy value chains. They provide services such as inputs at subsidized rates due to economies of scales. In addition, they provide the much needed credit facilities to farmers (both in cash and in kind) as well as access to markets for their commodities. However, poor governance and corruption is the bane of the cooperative movement rendering most of them ineffective in addressing the plight of farmers. The cooperative movement is linked to all the stages of the value chains from input supply, production, postharvest and marketing of agricultural produce.Crop and Livestock insurance is a strategy embraced by farmers to hedge them against climatic hazards. Insurance products are linked to production and are intended to assist farmers recoup their losses because of hazards. Service providers such as the Cooperative Insurance Company (CIC) provide these products. Another promoted insurance product is Kilimo Salama, which is loosely translated as \"Safe Agriculture\". This is an insurance designed for maize and wheat farmers to insure their crop against drought and excess rain. Despite concerted efforts to encourage the uptake of insurance products, the results have not been very encouraging due to what farmers perceive to be stringent conditions set by service providers and lack of trust of the service providers. Only a paltry 1% of the households have bought insurance for their agricultural production systems (GoK, 2014)  Uasin Gishu County like most of the Kenyan counties lacks elaborate contextual policies and legislations that directly address climate change. However, the county largely relies on, and borrows from these national level policies as foundations for programme design in achieving some of the objectives therein of incorporating climate change into the development agenda and building resilience. Some of the national policies fully or partially implemented in the county are as in the following discussion.The Agricultural Policy of 2010 aims at increasing agricultural productivity, income growth and food security especially among smallholder farmers. This can be achieved through emphasis on irrigation to stabilize agricultural productivity, commercialization and intensification of production among small-scale farmers. Droughts and decrease in stability of both seasons have increased in frequency causing massive crop failures. The agricultural policy helps farmers improve their productivity using modern agronomic practises and technologies.Smallholder dairy production accounts for 70% of the total milk production in the country but the potential of this sector in the county is yet to be realized .The main objective of the National Livestock Policy of 2008 is to increase the production of livestock products. The policy therefore seeks to address the challenges in the livestock sub-sector in the context of livestock breeding, nutrition and feeding, disease control, value addition and marketing and research and extension. This includes and is not limited to the use of improved fodder, use of artificial insemination using semen of superior breeds, vaccination programs and converting milk to other products of high value. The main challenge facing this policy is the innate practise of overstocking where keeping large herds of animals is considered as a symbol of wealth and status.The EMCA act of 1999 provided for the establishment of the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), which supervises and coordinates all matters relating to the environment and implements policies relating to the environment. In addition, NEMA creates awareness of the importance of environmental issues in the county. The environment intertwines with the survival and socioeconomic wellbeing of the population who depend directly and indirectly on the environmental goods and services. Climate change poses great challenges since it has adverse effects in form of floods, landslides and prolonged drought, which are difficult to manage. Therefore, the objective of the policy is to provide a framework for an integrated approach to planning and sustainable management of Kenya's environment and natural resources. The policy provides a legal and institutional framework for good governance,effective coordination and management of environmental and natural resources.The Kenya Forest Services Act of 2015 ensures that measures put in place significantly increase the area under forest cover with the aim of achieving the national target of 10%. To achieve this objective, the government is promoting farm forestry and community participation in forest management and conservation. The Kenya Forest Service (KFS) is the lead actor by establishing the Community Forest Associations (CFA) and providing seedlings for farmers to plant and establish woodlots. Another strategy employed by the KFS is the Green Schools Programme that encourages tree growing in schools to inculcate the culture of tree growing among the school going population. In the same vein of improving the tree cover, KFS together with the German Development Agency (GIZ) are promoting the use of improved cooking stoves. These technologies use little firewood and reduce emissions.The Water Act takes cognisance of the contribution of the water resources to economic productivity and improvement of livelihoods. As such the National Water Policy of 2012 aims to promote optimal, sustainable and equitable development of water resources for livelihood of Kenyans. This is done through protecting, rehabilitating and restoring forests and water catchment areas which provide a continuous supply of water even to neighbouring Counties. This is of paramount importance since the county has three water towers. Water harvesting and storage can also help in realizing the objective of the water act. This is particularly relevant to Uasin Gishu County since it experiences heavy rains that can be harvested and harnessed for future use.The aim of the National Irrigation Policy of 2012 is to expand the areas under irrigation by opening new lands for irrigation, physical expansion and rehabilitating the existing areas. Uasin Gishu County is endowed with three water towers and has four major rivers traversing the breadth and width of the county. These water resources can be harnessed to increase and stabilize agricultural productivity and enable diversification of agricultural enterprises and hence improve food security. However, high costs of irrigation infrastructure and equipment are hampering the implementation of irrigation schemes.In addition to the policies, a number of programmes have been implemented in the county to operationalize the various policies and legislations. The Smallholder Dairy Commercialization Programme (SDCP) has enabled the Livestock Directorate to reach many farmers. The programme has assisted farmers with hay boxes, chaff cutters, nitrogen tanks for artificial insemination, artificial insemination kits, seeds for bulking plots and milk coolers in the county. Household income among the programme beneficiaries has increased from KES 150 to KES 450 per day on average. The most vulnerable and poor farmers have received about 168 goats. The programme has assisted farmers form cooperative societies with a membership of 1,180 farmers. The societies play an important role in bulking and marketing of milk because they provide a direct link to the main processors.The ASDSP is also a key player in supporting the development of value chains. ASDSP that started in 2011 has been working alongside other partners in implementing the Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises (KAVES) project in Uasin Gishu County. The aim of the project is increasing the productivity of the Irish potato, passion fruit, maize and dairy value chains thereby increasing incomes of smallholder farmers and improving food security and nutrition. Indigenous or local chicken is also promoted to assist vulnerable groups such as women to earn extra income.Other programmes by the county government include; \"Inua Mama na Kuku\" program that supplies chicks to women groups to improve poultry enterprises; training on care and maintenance of chickens, subsidizing artificial insemination services and construction of standard milk coolers' housing structures for 46 cooperative societies who will benefit from the contribution through fully equipped milk chilling facilities. This programme was launched in 2015 and after transforming women livelihoods through its successful implementation, the second phase is already underway to increase the number of beneficiaries. The Inua Mama na Kuku program had benefited about 450 women groups through the purchase of 450,000 birds and the county government intends to upscale the number to 1 million birdsThe East African Dairy Development (EADD) program is a regional development program led by Heifer International in partnership with ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), TechnoServe, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the African Breeders Service Total Cattle Management. Since its inception in 2008, the goal of this project is to help families living on small 1-5 acre farms lift themselves out of poverty through more profitable production and marketing of milk. EADD has provided extensive training on dairy husbandry, business practises and operation, and marketing of dairy products. During the first phase of the program, 42,700 farmers benefited from the program and the second phase is already underway.The International Potato Centre (CIP) is implementing a project funded by United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under Feed the Future Kenya initiative. The program seeks to harness technologies and innovations within the research system to sustainably reduce poverty and hunger in Kenya. CIP is implementingThe ASDSP which commenced its operation in Uasin Gishu County in the 2013, plays a significant role in climate risk management by bringing together the various actors through the Participatory Scenario Planning (PSP). The actors congregate when the meteorological department gives the assessment of the weather outlook and the early warning systems for the long and short rains. Based on this assessment relevant interventions are formulated based on the capacity and financial resources available and implemented. The development partners through NGOs undertake most of these interventions. Faith-based organizations are heavily involved in the implementation due to their strong presence in the largely religious population of the county and therefore their ability to influence a large number of people. Despite the PSP working towards climate risk management, there is a lack of specific policies at the county level to address climate risk management and a tendency to domesticating of national policies.Climate risk management and adaptation strategies are addressed by collaboration between state and nonstate actors either directly or indirectly. The state actors include the ministries such as; Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries department, irrigation department, the KMD, KFS, and government parastatals such as NEMA. The non-state actors include NGOs such as CIP. Many more NGOs have their offices in Uasin Gishu County but their activities are based in the neighbouring counties. The faith-based organizations include the Anglican Church Services. Government departments provide mainly technical support and policy direction while the non-state actors are involved in research, funding and implementation of climate risk management adaptations. NEMA coordinates and supervises over all matters relating to the environment and implementation of all policies relating to the environment in the county. They ensure that there is integration of environmental considerations intothe following activities: establishment of demonstration plots; capacity-building for seed and ware multiplication with emphasis on improving access to quality seed; promoting investment in potato facilities and structures such as seed storage structures and irrigation; promotion of new technologies such as high yielding disease resistant varieties, good agricultural practises and rapid seed multiplication such as rooted cuttings. CIP has been involved in the development of disease, heat and drought resistant potato varieties. A good example is \"Unica\" which is a lowland and heat resistant variety that is being promoted in the North Rift region and other potato growing areas. development policies, plans and programs. KMD provides meteorological and climatological services to agriculture, forestry and water resources for better utilization of natural resources. They provide early warning systems that inform decision-making with regard to climate risk management. KFS conserves, protects and manages all public forests. They assist the county government to develop and manage forest resources, assist in building capacity in forestry and forest management. Furthermore, they manage water catchment areas in the county in collaboration with other stakeholders.There is a lot of collaboration going on among the various stakeholders aforementioned but sometimes this lacks a framework for collaboration and therefore lack of accountability. Low funding and human capacity are the bane of climate risk management among the state actors affecting planning and implementation and therefore should be addressed. Training and capacity building opportunities for actors on climate risk management are a rarity rather than being the norm in the ever-changing climate scenarios and adaptation strategies.Uasin Gishu County is agriculturally rich; endowed with fertile agricultural lands and high rainfall spread evenly through the year. Agriculture is the main economic activity at both commercial and subsistence level. The sector is characterized by large-scale farming of high value crops, food crops and livestock and a vibrant dairy enterprise. Despite recording success in agricultural production, a host of challenges that hinder the attainment of its full potential plagues the sector. This include high costs of inputs, low input use, declining soil fertility, poor infrastructure and poor governance in farmer organizations. These have been exacerbated by the negative impacts of climate change and variation that have led to intense rainfall, changes in the onset of the growing seasons, extended dry spell periods and emergence of new pests and diseases. With these climatic hazards bound to occur frequently in future, the capacity of KMD should be enhanced through the acquisition of more automatic weather stations for accurate and reliable forecasts to help farmers in planning and making informed decisions.Farmers in Uasin Gishu County should harness their efforts to increase use of organic manure to address the challenge of declining soil fertility. Protection of water catchment areas is of paramount importance since the county has water towers which play an important role in water availability. For farmers to get better returns from their produce and be motivated, training of value addition should be enhanced so that they can improve their products. Even though alternative crops have been introduced to diversify enterprises to prevent farmers' reliance on specific enterprises that are vulnerable climate change and variability, these efforts should be scaled up. Deliberate efforts should be made to improve the road network and infrastructure in agricultural rich areas to enable farmers to access markets for their produce and better prices.Institutional capacity to tackle the increasing climate change and variability in the county should be enhanced to make climate risk management proactive. Policies relevant to climate risk management should be enacted and anchored in county development plans to provide an enabling framework for the various stakeholders to engage, coordinate and provide the requisite synergy required to assist farmers cope with climate change and variability. Policies will ensure budgetary allocation for both financial and human resources to strengthen the efforts required in tackling climate change issues. Capacity building for climate risk management actors and specialists should be enhanced to enable them to provide up to date information and skills in the choice and implementation of adaptations strategies. Information sharing between the various actors should be encouraged to improve the efficiency and effectiveness in implementing adaptation strategies. This calls for more engagement forums between the various stakeholders involved in climate risk management.","tokenCount":"8729"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"861d8d20ef77e1b6a021628f21725fa7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6b500200-4dfb-41ab-8593-84ad86abe196/retrieve","id":"1008417332"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85d77aeb-5317-4c87-b12b-56f7e968b1d1","pagecount":"5","content":"Directing resources towards early warning systems and community sensitization mitigates the impact of natural disasters on vulnerable communities, prioritizing proactive measures over reactive responses.  To ensure effective and sustainable disaster risk management (DRM) initiatives, allocating resources to bolster district-level DRM structures in alignment with community-led resource mobilization efforts is crucial.  Recognizing the pivotal role of youth increases community anticipatory capacity through comprehensive disaster risk management training. Innovative approaches such as theatre for development foster civic engagement, community dialogue, and resource mobilization. Inclusive participatory planning processes should embrace indigenous early warning information. In-vesting in automated community-based early warning systems, particularly focusing on agriculture and nutrition, facilitates timely decision-making and harnesses local wisdom. To reduce vulnerability among low-income communities, forging partnerships with the private sector is crucial. Micro-insurance and asset options can be explored, empowering communities to enhance their resilience without imposing undue burdens.Malawi is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events, leading to climate-induced food insecurity. Despite various resilience enhancement programs over the past decade, resource mobilization for Village Civil Protection Committees (VCPCs) responsible for disaster risk management (DRM) has been minimal, with activities focused on response rather than preparedness. To address this, Titukulane conducted a process assessment to understand community-led resource mobilization initiatives by VCPCs in Zomba and Mangochi districts.The assessment aimed to engage communities in designing their DRM and resilience strategy plans, which will be integrated into community-level DRM planning. Titukulane conducted training on resource mobilization in 2022 and continues to support communities throughout 2023 for sustainable uptake of resource mobilization activities across Zomba and Mangochi districts. The assessment also informs national stakeholders, including the Department of Disaster Management Affairs (DoDMA) and other NGOs implementing the National Resilience Strategy (NRS), of key areas for community-led resource mobilization to ensure grassroots coordination of the NRS. The report and brief also aim to influence systemic and structural changes within local structures for increased investment in the NRS.The national DRM institutional structure in Malawi comprises various committees responsible for disaster management at the village, area, district, and city/municipal levels, with VCPCs playing a key role at the village level. In 2021 Titukulane supported Zomba and Mangochi District councils in establishing and revamping VCPCs and continues to build the capacity of youth networks within communities through training on Theatre for Development, a social behavior change approach promoting civic dialogue and community engagement for improved anticipation of shocks and stresses.Invest resources in the DRM processes towards community preparedness to minimize the impact of the shocks.The NRS recognizes that disasters are never entirely natural but are the result of how natural events interact with aspects such as a lack of preparedness and coping and adaptation capacity, as well as inaction to reduce over-exposure and vulnerability to hazards. It further states that while humanitarian reforms have improved Malawi's national response, emergency interventions are fragmented, underscoring the need to improve accountability and coordination among actors, and between prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery actions.Disaster preparedness entails deliberate investment in early warning systems (EWS), sensitization of communities on best practices for risk reduction and prevention to avoid or minimize the impact of natural disasters, and strengthening community resilience through provision of an enabling environment for enhanced economic livelihoods of the people, among others.The National resilience Strategy (NRS) focuses on strengthening the humanitarian-development nexus through mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management (DRM) across all technical sectors and administrative levels prioritizing drought and flood risks, and other emergencies. However, state funding towards implementation the strategy is limited, resulting to DRM processes being oriented towards response versus preparedness.This calls for adequate financing for the implementation of the NRS if DRM is to improve for the benefit of the vulnerable communities.Access to weather and climate information is limited for vulnerable communities as \"last mile\" dissemination channels are inadequate. Currently, various dissemination methods are used, including radio (national and local), email, television, print media, internet and national workshops, and cell phones. There is limited understanding of the effectiveness of these methods and uptake of this information by vulnerable communities, particularly women. This is partly because information, particularly scientific information and concepts, is not understandable or communicated effectively, nor is it clear how to integrate it with local knowledge and socio-cultural and gender-differentiated contexts. Titukulane has trained civil protection committees district, area and Group Village Headman (GVH) levels in interpretation and effective message delivery. The project has trained 378 VCPCs in early warning systems. The project has also distributed 579 mobile phones to increase number of people being reached with the early warning information. The project further trained Civil Protection Committee (CPCs) at district and area levels on participatory scenario planning (PSP). These CPCs have been disseminating the weather messages in the communities using the PSP approach.Limited financial, technical and human capacity available for hydro-meteorological services, which has resulted in reduced capacity of the Department of Climate Change and Metrological services DCCMS, DoDMA and Department of Water Resources (DWR) to fulfill their core mandates: One of the main reasons for the current state of the climate information and early warning system in Malawi is a lack of public sector support. With limited funding provided to DCCMS, DWR and DoDMA, as well as other engaged ministries, departments and district councils, there has been i) a steady decline in the state of the hydrometeorological observation networks in Malawi over the last 20-30 years and ii)a limited ability of these entities to issue early warning systems and climate information as per their mandate.There are human and financial capacity and resource limitations constraining expansion of observational network coverage and forecasting as well as appropriate communication and packaging of warnings for local communities. Problems include the spatial and temporal scale of climate information, often not appropriate for decision-making, poor accessibility of information, untimely weather/climate warnings, and lack of explanation of links between locally held and scientific information. Therefore, there is a need for more private sector and public sector investment in early warning systems.The assessment established that while the community the initiatives are making progress in mobilizing resources for disaster response, the resources are very low for meaningful interventions. For instance, VCPCs mobilized contributions to a maximum of K500 per member per year, with others only parting away with K200 per year. Such resources can only do the bare minimum in cases of disaster response.Further, interactions with district level players such as the Relief and Rehabilitation Officers (RROs) and Metrological Services Offices (MET Officers) revealed that the resources mobilized at district level through contingency planning are technically unavailable for response in the case of disasters owing to the same limited funds allocation towards NRS implementation (stated above).It is therefore recommended that the government consider resource allocation to the district DRM structures to substantiate the community efforts for disaster response. Some of the gains made through interventions by both the state and partners in building the resilience of the communities are undone due to this lack of resources once disasters occur.Also, if the communities are provided with opportunities for meaningful livelihoods, it would capacitate them to contribute more towards disaster response. This means that there is need for collaborative efforts from both the government and partners to enhance the economic environment in the communities to ensure that communities become more resilient.Target youth as key stakeholders in increasing community anticipatory capacity.Youth networks play a crucial role in building community resilience to climate-induced food insecurity. By strengthening their capacity with DRM training, they can mobilize resources in anticipation of shocks and stresses, such as extreme weather events. Training in Theatre for Development (TfD), which accords youth space to participate in decision-making processes, promotes civic dialogue and engagement, and provides an income through theatre performances, is essential.Titukulane has trained 131 youth clubs in TfD, specifically for DRM interventions such as increasing the functionality of early warning systems. The youth participants have effectively sensitized their communities on the importance of resource mobilization and fundraising for Village Civil Protection Committees (VCPCs) within their communities. This has included sharing downscaled seasonal forecasts and illustrating agronomic practices that communities should follow given the expected scenarios for that season.Allocating resources to build youth networks' capacity through training and providing funding for youth-led DRM initiatives would enable the youth to contribute meaningfully to community resilience-building and ensure grassroots coordination of the National Resilience Strategy (NRS).Mainstream indigenous early warning information in participatory planning processes is essential to prepare for and respond to shocks in areas prone to natural disasters.Invest in automated community-based early warning systems for prompt decision-making, especially around agriculture and nutrition.Integrating indigenous knowledge with scientific information is crucial to enhance community anticipatory capacity and response to natural disasters. Investing in automated community-based early warning systems for agriculture and nutrition is essential for prompt decision-making. Reviving indigenous EWS complements scientific information and increases access to information firsthand by community members. Documentation of indigenous early warning signs and their integration with scientific information is necessary for area-specific participatory scenario planning processes. Titukulane recommends DoDMA to document indigenous early warning signs and incorporate them into DRM and contingency plans. Illustrations of indigenous early warning information can be shared in strategic places such schools and health centers to increase awareness among the youth.With over 80% of Malawi's labor force in the rural sector, many producers lack access to financial products, leaving them highly vulnerable to external shocks, particularly those associated with recurrent droughts. The World Bank has long recognized the need to reduce this vulnerability. One successful mechanism in other countries is indexed weather insurance, which uses an indicator such as rainfall to determine coverage. While microinsurance projects face challenges, Malawi has had success with weather indexes, reducing costs by eliminating the need for multiple individual claims and subjectivity in assessing contingencies. The Insurance Association of Malawi intermediates the coverage, removing the need for a direct relationship between the client and the insurance company, and policies are distributed to members. By partnering with the private sector, the government can help provide vulnerable communities with the financial tools they need to build resilience.In conclusion, the Community-led Resource Mobilization and Early Warning Systems Process Assessment in Malawi's Zomba and Mangochi districts has identified critical areas for improvement in disaster risk management and resilience building. There is a need for increased investment in disaster preparedness, particularly in early warning systems and community sensitization. Emphasis is also placed on the importance of community-led resource mobilization initiatives, focusing on youth engagement and integrating indigenous knowledge in participatory planning processes. To achieve these goals, adequate financing and technical and human capacity are required at both the district and national levels, with collaboration between government and private sector entities.Overall, the findings of the process assessment provide valuable insights for stakeholders in Malawi's disaster risk management sector, with potential for influencing systemic and structural changes to increase investment in the National Resilience Strategy and enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities.","tokenCount":"1798"}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c04d71593ce921a7061f694b8b5de823cbf65b69
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b590fcd064bdbe73939ee7abd80dcce9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1c8c0d61-ff15-4212-82fd-b347ed7a1e85/retrieve","id":"647976066"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cd2e1e0d-c6b0-40e8-86ce-19df887eb495","pagecount":"2","content":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), a member of the CGIAR Consortium, is a non-profit organization based in Africa. ILRI's mission is to use the best and safest livestock science available to confront poverty, hunger, and disease in the developing world, where livestock provide livelihoods and food for hundreds of millions of people.One of ILRI's most important priorities today is to help poor livestock keepers in Africa deal with the constant threat of a devastating disease called trypanosomiasis. This disease is arguably Africa's most important livestock disease, wasting and killing cattle, commonly the most important asset of poor households. The human form of the disease is called sleeping sickness, which afflicts tens of thousands of people every year, killing many of them, and putting tens of millions more people at risk. As part of ILRI's comprehensive fight against trypanosomiasis, the institute is now in the very early stages of a project to develop disease-resistant cattle, which could save the lives of livestock and people both. Thus far, ILRI and its partners have taken a preliminary step in the process, which involved successfully cloning a male calf from one of East Africa's most important cattle breeds, the Boran. The calf is healthy and is being raised at ILRI's research facilities in Kenya.A next step is to develop a new Boran clone modified with a gene that naturally confers resistance to the disease. This involves using a synthetic copy of a gene sequence originally identified in baboons that should protect cattle against this devastating disease.A final step will be to use these disease-resistant cattle in breeding schemes that will provide African countries with another option in their fight against trypanosomiasis.This research potentially offers a reliable, self-sustaining and cost-effective way of protecting tens of millions of African cattle against disease and untimely death, as well as dramatically reducing poverty across Africa. By reducing the reservoir of pathogens, this should also help to save thousands of human lives each year.It could take up to two decades to develop diseaseresistant cattle herds for Africa. ILRI and its partners are also continuing to pursue other options for fighting trypanosomiasis, such as rationale drug treatment and integrated disease control methods.For ILRI, public safety and animal welfare are paramount; this means working with all the relevant Kenyan and international regulatory authorities to ensure that the highest bio-safety standards are always employed. In line with its commitment to transparency, ILRI places all of its research results in the public domain.ILRI is working with a team that includes scientists from New York University, along with experts from the Roslin Institute in Scotland, and Michigan State University in the USA. The fundamental research aspects of this project are being funded by the US National Science Foundation. ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund.","tokenCount":"474"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/7534074886.json b/data/part_1/7534074886.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..84da57a035b0a98d5da483d272303e5a168827c7
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"550d16ec3d558163781936e42c7e2435","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e3b9502-0228-46a4-a505-905a6cdbb7b0/retrieve","id":"1009201819"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"97f593c1-4911-4ceb-b929-cae2ae6a1ef3","pagecount":"3","content":"In a series of papers to be presented next week, scientists offer new evidence that a potent chemical mechanism operating in the roots of a tropical grass used for livestock feed has enormous potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.Referred to as \"biological nitrification inhibition\" or BNI, the mechanism markedly reduces the conversion of nitrogen applied to soil as fertilizer into nitrous oxide, according to papers prepared for the 22 nd International Grasslands Congress. Nitrous oxide is the most powerful and aggressive greenhouse gas, with a global warming potential 300 times that of carbon dioxide.\"Nitrous oxide makes up about 38 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture, which accounts for almost a third of total emissions worldwide,\" said Michael Peters, who leads research on forages at the Colombia-based International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), a member of the CGIAR Consortium. \"BNI offers what could be agriculture's best bet for keeping global climate change within manageable limits.\" Scientists at CIAT and the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) have researched BNI collaboratively for the last 15 years. \"This approach offers tremendous possibilities to reduce nitrous oxide emissions and the leaching of polluting nitrates into water supplies, while also raising crop yields through more efficient use of nitrogen fertilizer,\" said G.V. Subbarao, a senior scientist at JIRCAS. As a result of recent advances, scientists have developed the means to exploit the BNI phenomenon on a large scale: CIAT researchers have found ways to increase BNI through plant breeding in different species of Brachiaria grasses. The new techniques include methods for rapidly quantifying BNI in Brachiaria together with molecular markers, which reduce the time needed for field testing. Center scientists have also just gathered evidence that a maize crop grown after Brachiaria humidicola pastures gave acceptable yields with only half the amount of nitrogen fertilizer normally used, because more nitrogen was retained in the soil, thus reducing nitrous oxide emissions and nitrate leaching. The researchers determined that BNI had boosted nitrogen-use efficiency by a factor of 3.8. In addition, scientists have developed hybrids of Brachiaria humidicola and delivered these, with support from the German government, to farmers in Colombia and Nicaragua for productivity and quality testing. Previous grass hybrids have increased milk and meat production by several orders of magnitude, compared to native savanna grasses, and by at least 30 percent, compared to commercial grass cultivars. Based on evaluation of the new hybrids and with the aid of simulation models, researchers are studying where else the hybrids can be introduced and on how large a scale.\"Livestock production provides livelihoods for a billion people, but it also contributes about half of agriculture's greenhouse gas emissions,\" Peters explained. \"BNI is a rare triple-win technology that's good for rural livelihoods as well as the global environment and climate. It defies the widespread notion that livestock are necessarily in the minus column of any food security and environmental calculation.\"\"The problem is that today's crop and livestock systems are very 'leaky,'\" said Subbarao. \"About 70 percent of the 150 million tons of nitrogen fertilizer applied globally is lost through nitrate leaching and nitrous oxide emissions; the lost fertilizer has an annual estimated value of US$90 billion.\"\"BNI has huge possibilities for reducing nitrogen leakage,\" said CIAT scientist Idupulapati Rao. \"Grassland pastures are the single biggest use of agricultural land-covering 3.2 billion hectares out of a global total of 4.9 billion. In Brazil alone, 11 million hectares of grassland have been converted to maize and soybean production, and another 35-40 million could be shifted to crop production in the near future. Instead of more monocropping, developing countries need to integrate Brachiaria grasses into mixed crop-livestock systems on a massive scale to make them more sustainable.\"Originally from sub-Saharan Africa, Brachiaria grasses found their way to South America centuries ago-possibly as bedding on slave ships. Improved varieties of the grass are widely grown on pasturelands in Brazil, Colombia, and other countries, and they have recently been taken back to Africa to help ease severe shortages of livestock feed.In a major breakthrough, JIRCAS scientists discovered several years ago the chemical substance responsible for BNI and developed a reliable method for detecting the nitrification inhibitor coming from plant roots. Scientists at CIAT then validated the BNI concept in the field, demonstrating that Brachiaria grass suppresses nitrification and nitrous oxide emissions, compared with soybean, which lacks this ability.Other research has shown that deep-rooted, productive Brachiaria grasses capture large amounts of atmospheric carbon-on a scale similar to that of tropical forests-a further plus for climate change mitigation.\"Our work on BNI started with a field observation made by one of our scientists in the 1980sback then it was nothing more than a dream,\" said Peters. \"But now it's a dream with an action plan and solid scientific achievements behind it.\"","tokenCount":"795"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/7548188188.json b/data/part_1/7548188188.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..61893b51e7623b9d6df76e0833defa27d769f24e
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d42cb0dc3f704b462a67386c9014934","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6d7e60b0-89fa-48b6-9cd1-bdb0672dcb6e/retrieve","id":"-397282587"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"62df421f-b7c3-49e5-85cd-88ad120466b1","pagecount":"1","content":"Urban livestock keeping is an important and integral part of cities in many tropical and developing countries, where it ensures highly nutritious food on urban markets and provides inhabitants with livelihood options (Herrero et al., 2013; De Zeeuw and  Drechsel, 2015). However, there are also risks associated to livestock keeping that should not be neglected. A systematic review indicated an association between agricultural intensification and an increased risk of human disease (Jones et al., 2013). Mosquito-related diseases, are constituting an increasing threat to human health globally, especially in tropical and developing countries (World Health Organization, 2014). Whereas livestock is increasing in the growing cities, mosquitoes also are adapting and finding urban breeding habitats. There has so far not been any infection with Zika virus in Hanoi, but dengue fever is emerging as an endemic disease. In 2017, Hanoi witnessed the largest dengue outbreak ever in both urban and rural districts with nearly 38,000 cases and 7 deaths. In addition, 9 cases of Japanese Encephalitis were reported (Hanoi Preventive Medicine Center, 2017). Since 2008, after merging areas of surrounding provinces; Hanoi city, now called \"Great Hanoi\", is in rapid progress of urbanization. The livestock in Hanoi was diverse and numerous with approximately 160.000 cattle, 1.6 million pigs and 23 million poultry in 2016 (GSO, 2016). Besides the advantages for high value animal-source food products; livestock keeping is potentially increasing the risk for human infections with vector-borne pathogens. This study attempts to increase the understanding of urban disease epidemiology in urban districts of Hanoi city where multiple vector-borne diseases are occurring simultaneously, and to an improved understanding on how urban livestock is contributing to these risks.Component 1: Knowledge, attitudes and practices among urban inhabitants in regard to risks and benefits of urban agriculture, and the current knowledge on mosquito-borne disease transmission  Conduct a cross-sectional study to interview randomly-selected urban households with and without livestock to explore how livestock-keeping is associated with the presence of mosquitoes. Household owners will be interviewed about their knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) regarding urban livestock keeping, and what economic benefits they obtain, compared to the risks and their knowledge about mosquito-borne diseases using a structured questionnaire. Use participatory-mixed methods to interview with stakeholders, policy makers and health personnel. This component focuses on the urban epidemiology of vector-borne vectors and flaviviruses, including dengue virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and Zika virus. Within mapped sections of the cities, households will be randomly selected for screening for disease vectors. Both households with livestock, next-door neighbours, and households with no contact with livestock will be included. Adult mosquitoes will be collected close to human habitats as well as close to animal farms using CDC light traps, and larvae will be collected from potential breeding grounds (pots, stagnant water in trash, ponds etc). Livestock in the same households will be sampled for screening of antibodies. Samples of mosquitoes collected at the households, as well as samples from the livestock will be analysed using Flavivirus multiplex PCRs, Luminex-based assays and ELISAs for simultaneous detection of viral RNA and Flavivirus-specific antibodies respectively. Potential risk factors for urban transmission will be identified by collaborations with local health centres. Blood samples will be collected from febrile patients consenting to be part of the study and willing to answer a questionnaire about risk factors. The samples will be screened using the multiplex PCR, and their households will be investigated to identify risk factors and for sampling of potential mosquito vectors and livestock, which will be tested as in Component 2. To identify the most promising, cost-efficient and sustainable methods for controlling mosquitoes and reduce the risk for disease transmission through literature review. Pilot them in urban households, and assess how efficient and sustaining the methods are in an urban setting, and how they are perceived by the members of the households. Areas of the city will be randomly selected into controls and trial groups, and the households that participated in the screening for vectors will be followed up during the trial period. Participatory methods will be used to assess the feasibility of interventions, and the previous experiences. In the trial group, surrounding households will also be invited for training on the intervention to achieve a peer encouragement, and the households will subsequently be followed for one year, with visits after 3, 6 and 12 months, respectively, to study the following: 1) Compliance and sustainability of the method chosen, 2) Effects on vector population, and animal and human health, and 3) Perception of the household.(1) International Livestock Research Institute (2) Uppsala UniversityThang Tien NGUYEN 1* , Long Thanh PHAM 1 , Hung Viet Nguyen 1 , Åke Lundkvist 2 , Johanna LINDAHL 1,2 The association between livestock keeping and mosquito-borne diseases in urban areas in Hanoi city, Vietnam","tokenCount":"790"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3cfb65ad6558fd23201baf494cc1519c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d2471739-3ed0-4ed7-8cb0-79db0a7f549e/retrieve","id":"-707241078"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"78204801-ba95-4c20-a049-6f1552af0084","pagecount":"145","content":"Elllder de cada subproyecto preparó con la ayuda de los otros pamclpantes su Sub proyecto respectlvo, sigUIendo las normas estableCidas en el Manual de FunCIOnes y Procedimientos Fmalmente, se mtegra en un solo Informe, en formato PPO, los Informes presentados por cada ltder, as( como por los pamclpantes de cada sub proyecto En los sub proyectos que ventan desde la Pnmera Fase se nota avances muy Importantes, y, los aprobados para mlczar en la Segunda Fase apenas las accIOnes preparatonas Cabe destacar, Sin embargo, el progreso en algunos de estos últimos sub proyectos graCias al esfuerzo de los Programas NaCIOnales de leguminosas de Grano (PILG) de los pa(ses andinos, qUienes con sus escasos recursos ImCIaron actIVIdades Importantes en los vanos subproyectos Se recordará que los recursos económicos /legaron tarde debido a las negoczaclOnes de la Segunda Fase entre el CIAT y COTESU Fmalmente, los (¿cmcos de PROFRlZA, presentan/as actIVIdades y resultados que Junto con los colegas del CIAT-Call y de los Programas PILG's o de otras mstlfuClOnes nacIOnales llevaron a cabo en 1990 -1991    El Coordmador de PROFRlZA qUIere dejar su testlmomo de gralltud a los colegas de los Programas NaCIOnales (PILG's) y de otras institUCIOnes nacIOnales, as( como a los compañeros de PROFRlZA y de CIAT-Ca/¡ que colaboraron tan eficaz, efiCiente y con mucha múttca a llevar a cabo las accIOnes que se diseñaron en el PPO de Julio 30 -AgosfO 3, 1990 en CIA T, Call Fmalmente, al conocer que este es mI ultimo Informe como Coordmador de PROFRlZA, qUIero agradecer la ayuda oportuna -loglmca y económica -de las autondades del CIAT-Ca/¡, as( como de la Coorporaclón SUIza al Desarrollo (COTESU)    Informó que por efecto de la actIVIdad desarrollada, se ha Incrementado la supeificle cultIvada, de 8200 has, en 1990 a 18000 has en 1991 Para lograrlo ha SIdo decISIva la estrategia utilIzada de dlsmbuc¡ón oportuna de semIlla a agncultores IndIVIduales y asOCiaCIOneS, la enseflonza de prácllcas para conservar la semilla, la evaluacIón de lineas prom/sanas en las Parcelas de los productos, la partlclpacI6n de estos en el proceso de seleccl6n del matenal y evaluacl6n de prácllcas agron6mlcas SeguIdamente mostr6 los resultados de una sene de ensayos, sobresallendo las sIguIentes lfneas A-295, de la cual tlenen 10 TM de semIlla, A-686, con 30 Kg de semIlla, FEB-127, con 25 Kg de semIlla, y AFR-244 Y AFR 245Manifestaron que la partiCIpacIón de los agncultores en este proceso fue bastante consIstente Después de vanas IntervencIOnes, la comISIón recomendó al lng Juan Ortubé, publIque la expenencla bolIvIana con mIras a establecer un modelo propIO de Investlgacl6n partlclpatlva para la regl6n Al consultarle sobre la mayor dificultad que tuvo para cumpllr con las actIVIdades preVistas, manifestó haber SIdo lafalta de un vehfculo 32 Ecuador 321 Produccl6n Artesanal de SemIllas (PAS)Se lriformó que por razones de llderazgo, no se cumplIÓ con los objetivos propuestos en el proyecto de ProdUCCIón Artesanal de SemIlla (PAS) Las accIOnes relevantes de este trabaja se relacIOnan con la produccl6n de fréjol arbustlvo y voluble en lotes compartldos con pequeflos y medIanos agncultores, en esta etapa se generó alrededor de 3 TM de semIlla para el Proyecto, la que regresó a los agncultores luego de ser benefiCIada Otros aspectos Importantes que se lograron en la pnmera fase fueron el haber logrado IntrodUCIr el concepto PAS, el demostrar que sf es pOSIble prodUCIr semIlla de calIdad con pequeflos productores, el haber ganado en expenencIa en el manejO del sIstema de produccl6n de semIlla, el haber hecho concIenCIa con los pequeflos productores sobre la ImportancIa de un beneficIO adecuado de la semIlla Además se están llevando accIOnes con MAG-PROTECA e INlAP, para demostrar que el sIstema convencIOnal de prodUCCIón y entrega de semIllas no es funcIOnal con las leguminOSas de grano y afuturo proponer un cambIO en la ley de semIllas, donde tenga cabIda la semIlla de calIdad prodUCIda \"anesanalmente\" por los pequeflos agncultores para su uso y el de sus vecinos Se mformó tambIén que este últlmo afio agrfcola, se están Implementando nuevas accIOnes para prodUCIr semIlla de calldad Se present6 como una modalIdad el sIstema en espaldera para frejol voluble y la proyeccIón que tendrá el sIstema en campos de agncultores, pero con un manejo acorde con las neceSIdades y status del agncultor Se mformó además de la restructuracI6n que se ha llevado a cabo en el Programa de Legumlnasas y de las proyeccIOnes a futuro En base a esto, se recomendó que en la segunda fase se ponga énfasis en la mvesngaclón de otras modalulmies de produccu5n artesanal de semIlla (PAS) y que se avance luu;la [a fase de beneficIO J cOmerCialización, as( como también que se escnba y publique estas expeTUlIClas   ---------1   ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  INTRODUCCION AproXImadamente el 60% del malZ de la Zona Andma Peruana se sIembra en asoczaclón Con otros cultiVOS especlalemente frijoL Por otro lado se estima que el 80% del fnJol se sIembra en asoclaCU)n con maiz y las condiCIOnes generales que se presentan son Las tierras ladera son diferentes a las del valle, tambu!n ofrecen poslb¡fldades para asociar el maiz con el fnJoL En el Valle Sagrado de los Inca en Cusca las condiCIOnes son apropiadas para la asoczaclón maiz frlJo~ pero Siempre se dedlcr'J mayor atención al monocultIVO de maiz de exportacIón y algunos agncultores han aceptado la asOCIUCU)n.En todas las zonas pero especialmente en la sIerra, los diferentes niveles de preparacIón del suelo afectan en dIferente gnzdo a la erosión del suelo y al rendImIento de los cultIVOS y las enfermedades como Ascochyta y AntracnoslS, tambIén afectan la produccuJn.La magmtud de las hectáreas, del número de fanullas, del volumen de produccwn nacional, y de las expenenclas tecnológicas mdlcan la necesulad de adelatnar trabajos en sIStemas de asoclaClón de CUltIVO con muas a mejorarlo y/o ofrecer nuevas alternativas  El presente pruyecto €lene por objetiVOs 1), Identificar los pnnclpales patógenos asOCiadoS con el compleja de pudnclOnes radicales del/njol, 2), seleCCIOnar germaplasma reSistente, y, 3) evaluar métodos de control de baja costo que perrmtan disminUir slgnificatlvamente las pérdidas económicas causadas por las pudnclOnes radIca/es en las pnnclpales zonas productoras de /nJol de Peru, Ecuador y BoliVia El Proyecto tendrá una duraCión de 3 años a partlr de Juma de 1991 y será financuwo por /a Corporación SUiza para el Desarrollo (COTESU) a traves del PROFRlZA-ClAr y con el aporte de los Programas NacIOnales de investigación En su eJecuCl6n partlCIparan investigadores de los tres Programas NaCIOnales con el apoyo de  El compleja de pudnclOnes radicales es considerado como uno de los pnnclpales problemas de prodUCCión del fn)ol en BolIVIa, Perú, Ecuador, Colombza y Venezuela (IlCAIPROCIANDINO.1987), sm embargo, no se conoce con exactlfud que patógenos están causando las mayores perdIdas de! rendImiento en las áreas de jn)ol de estos pa(ses estudiOS preliminares en áreas productoras defnJollndlcan a RhlZOCfoma solam, Fusar/um solam y Melmdogyne spp como los pnnclpales patógenos del suelo asOCiados con el fn)ol en Peru y Ecuador Además de éstos patógenos. también fueron encontradas Fusanum oxysporum j sp Mqseol!. SclerOflum rolfSll y Macrophomma phaseolma en Colomb/O y Venezuela (Abawl,1987 Fmal consultancy mp repon submmed to IlCA office m QUitO, Ecuador) Barros (1966), Ident¡ficó en ColomblO a F oyspomm, F solam y F rOSfum coma los prmclpales patógenos del jn)ol en la regl6n de MedeIl(n Los daños causados por el complejo de pudricIOnes radicales son muy dIversos en todas las estapas de desarrollo del cultivo Los s{ntomas generales Incluyen pudrición de la semilla en la etapa de germinacIón, muerte de plámulas, ac1UJparralmemo y creClmlemo deSigual de las plantas, clorOSIS, defoliacIón prematura, pobre estableCimiento del cultlvO y consecuentemente redUCCIón Slgn¡ficatlva del rendimiento (Abawl and Pastor-Corrales. 1990) Las pérdidas del rendImiento por efecto de las pudnclOnes radicales pueden alcanzar hasta el 100 %, dependiendo de las co/UJ¡clOnes de clima, suelo, vanedad uflllzada y patógenos presentes (Campos, 1987, Barros, 1966) Algunos patógeMs actuando en combinación con otro causan mayores daños que cuando actúan separadamente, mucJws son transmlfldos en la semilla y en general, son de amplw dlstnbuclón geográfnca, sm embargo, unos son más Importantes que otros dependiendo de las condiCIOnes ambientales prevaleCientes (Pastor Corra/es, 1985, Pleczarka and Abawl, 1978) Lo erradicación de estos patógenos como medida de control en el campo es inViable pero la IncidenCia puede ser redUCida slgmficatlvamente medIante la rotacIón adecuada de cultivos, IncorporaCión de matena orgánica y otras prácticas culfl¡rales (Abawl,1989) Dada la complejidad de estas enfermedades, su controlo manejO puede vanar de una enfermedad a otra, por eso se debe hacer un dwgnóstlco apropwdo para determinar, pnmero, cuales son las enfermedades más Importantes, su dlstnbuclón y sus causas para poder establecer un plan de manejO Un plan de manejO de estos patógenos debe contemplar métodos de control de baJO costo y de fácil uflllwclón mcluyendo el desarrollo y uso de vanedades reSIStentes (Pastor Corrales, 1985a ","tokenCount":"1450"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2105a28d83b2d85e352c59759eaa9c00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e417a4c9-b3ac-43a4-a6a0-615198d316e8/retrieve","id":"1616783305"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b946c6e6-11a4-4264-aafa-5bfb40d46b17","pagecount":"2","content":"The May-June issue of 'Livestock Matter(s) presents a 'round-up' of livestock development news from ILRI and its partners.Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock in East Africa significantly lower than global estimates Findings of a new study published in June 2016 by scientists at the Mazingira Centre found that GHG emission factors recorded from the African livestock waste are at least ten times lower than calculations based on the simplest level of IPCC methods and data, Tier 1.The East Coast fever (ECF) consortium annual meeting discussed the results framework, budget rates and assessed the future of the consortium. Participants agreed to fast-track immunogenicity studies with three antigen delivery systems: BHV-4, mini-gene immunization and yeast to have in vitro CTL data before the last quarter of 2016.The role of innovation platforms in addressing agricultural problems, the approaches they bring to the table and how one goes about setting up, facilitating, coordinating and evaluating them was discussed at a workshop in Philippines, in May. It was organized by the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture and supported by ILRI.An agricultural conference that discussed ways to strengthen Vietnam's integration and competitiveness in the global market, and the readiness of its livestock, rice and fisheries sectors for the challenges of climate change, was held in Hanoi in June.Small ruminants, mainly goats and sheep, can play a key role in helping farming communities adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. In Nyando, western Kenya where resilient cross breeds of these animals better adapted to changing feed and water conditions are being kept since 2014, the local community is already reporting additional income, with a positive impact on household food security.The Livestock and Irrigation Value chains for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES) project and the Improving the Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers (IPMS) project that preceded LIVES have used the impact-oriented research for development approach 'demanded' by the donor community and beneficiaries.Evidence from systematic reviews has showed that providing nutrition training targeting health workers can improve feeding frequency, energy intake, and dietary diversity of children aged six months to two years. Scaling up of nutrition training for health and agriculture workers presents a potential entry point to improve nutrition status among children in Ethiopia.A new policy report published by RESULTS UK in May highlighted the Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) Program in Kenya, as one of the initiatives that are successfully reaching vulnerable people with climate risk insurance in developing countries.A new strategy and newsletter set out the argument for, and the specifics of, better conservation and use of tropical and subtropical forages.In May 2016, the program made some changes to flagship leadership. Karen Marshall (ILRI) has taken up the leadership of the Animal Genetics flagship, replacing John Benzie from WorldFish given his major role in developing the 2nd phase of the Fish CGIAR Research Program.Africa: Group to Improve Africa's chicken productionThe African Chicken Genetic Gains Project has said it is committed to improving productivity and increase profit in smallholder chicken production in sub-Saharan Africa, especially since past efforts had little impact because of the unsuitability of the exotic breeds for scavenging systems.As nations attempt to usher in a new era of global development, seeking to satisfy both the Paris climate agreement and Sustainable Development Goals, there is one natural resource that has remained untapped -livestock!.Ethiopia is in the middle of the worst drought in 50 years. It's the sort of shock to the system we are likely to see more of with climate change. But Ethiopia is also home to a successful experiment to make the land more resilient to drought. If we are going to adapt to our changing world, it's experiments like these that will show us the way.In May and June we welcomed the following staff: Read this roundup online: clippings.ilri.org/tag/roundup","tokenCount":"633"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"00e6e344964567c35350e01d64bb25e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a419e88-cfec-4c70-9a0a-34fd59e9053f/retrieve","id":"1270819821"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b78635b0-1983-4fe1-a233-ead77897c84d","pagecount":"14","content":"Food security is one of the most important strategic issues for all countries, as it represents an integral part of their national security. For this purpose, all countries all over the world aim to achieve food security for their citizens to ensure the political independence and well-being of their citizens. In this framework, food security has been one of the most important issues for the Egyptian government following the revolution on the 25 th of January 2011, since one of the basic demands of the revolution was achieving food security for Egyptian citizens under the slogan \"Bread -Freedom -Social justice\", and the achievement of the dignity of humanity i . Therefore, the issue of food security represents a fundamental pillar in the Egyptian economy due to its close connection to the process of economic development on the one hand, and political and social stability on the other hand.Currently, Egypt is still suffering a food gap in most food commodities in a way that threatens Egyptian food security, the most important of which is the food gap in grains that amounts to some 17.1 million tons ii , accounting for 41.4% of the quantity consumed. This gap represents a heavy burden on Egypt's food import bill, particularly with the foreign currency crises, which threaten Egypt's Food Security due to the currently existing global threats that may obstruct the flow of grain imports to Egypt.To meet the needs of the growing population, the current agricultural policy has given priority to implementing several steps to ensure enhancing self-sufficiency rate in cereal crops. This paper aims to shed light on agricultural policies adopted by the Egyptian government to curb the food gap in grains by increasing domestic production of grains, as well as rationalizing consumption .Currently, the average cultivated area is estimated at 9.7 million acres iii (4.07 million ha), of which 11% are cultivated with perennial crops (fruits and sugarcane), while the rest of the area (89%) is cultivated twice a year, i.e., the winter and summer seasons, bringing the total cropped area to about 17 million acres. Almost 80% of the holders belong to the holding category of less than 1.26 hectare and live on around 37% of the agricultural land area (of whom nearly 42.2% fall in the holding category of less than 0.42 hectare and live on about 8.6% of the agricultural land area). The total cropped area in Egypt is distributed among grains, sugar crops, vegetables, fodder crops, and other crops, in addition to orchards, palms, and perennial crops. Old Lands are the main source of agricultural production as they represent about 69% of the total cropped area, while New Lands represent only 31%. About 47% of the total cropped area is allocated for grain production, of which 81% is in Old Lands and 19% is in New Lands). However, winter grain crops are concentrated in both wheat and barley, with an average area estimated at 1.43 million hectares for wheat, and 147.1 thousand hectares for irrigated and rain-fed barley. As for grains grown during the summer season, they are concentrated in white and yellow maize, sorghum, and rice, with areas estimated at 1.1 million hectares, 151.3 thousand hectares, and 0.55 million hectares, respectively. Egypt's food gap is concentrated in both wheat and maize. However, domestic wheat is mainly used for making bread loaves (Balady bread) after mixing with imported wheat, which consumers depend on for their daily food. While average domestic wheat production is almost 9 million tons iv , demand stands at some 20.4 million tons per year. In some rural areas, people mix wheat with white maize to make dry bread. However, due to insufficient domestic production of wheat, there has been a traditional reliance on imports, which has led to importing around 12 million tons of wheat per year. Besides, the shortage in yellow maize production resulted in the importation of some 8.9 million tons v , mainly utilized as feed in the poultry sector. The following are suggested options to reduce the gap between domestic supply and demand.Seeds, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation water are considered the main inputs that have direct impacts on Egypt's cereal production. To maximize the benefit of these inputs, the government adopted the following policies to help farmers expand cultivations of cereal crops:The availability of certified seeds is the main factor determining the increase in production. Statistics indicate that vi , except for maize, the coverage rate of base and certified seeds is estimated at about 32% for wheat, 46% for rice, 5% for barley, 40% for sorghum, and 20% for fava beans. High prices of certified seeds represent one of the obstacles to farmers' adoption of such seeds, despite their availability in some cases. Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture adopted a package of tools that aim to:• Increase the coverage rate of certified seeds to 100%.• Focus on genetic engineering in producing varieties that tolerate water scarcity and have less fertilizer needs. Genetic engineering can be used for pest control as well, because of the armyworm's rapid adaptation and mutation to resist the effectiveness of pesticides. • Supporting farmers by providing them with certified seeds for free, as support can be allowed within the framework of the Free Trade Agreement if it conforms to the conditions allowed in the Green Box, such as subsidizing production inputs, the agricultural extension system, and many other operations. • Abide by crop rotation (double or treble) to preserve the quality of the land and soil.• Abide by the variety map developed to match varietal demands by producers.• Difficulty in finding proper sites for contracting to produce seeds.• The high commercial price of maize that exceeded EGP 20 thousand per ton, (US$ 467.5).With an average yield of 3 tons per acre (7.14 ton per hectare), total revenue per acre of maize is EGP 60 thousand (US$ 1,942). • Seed production, especially for single cross hybrids, is becoming a challenge. The yield capacity of parents is quite low because of the low traits and sensitivity to weather conditions, where yields may sometimes not exceed 2 ardab per acre (0.7 ton per hectare), and 750 kg per acre at the highest estimates (1.78 ton per hectare).To address these challenges, the following are suggested:• Set a trigger procurement price for farmers for seed production and delivery that is not lower than EGP 40 thousand (US$ 1,295) as an equilibrium point. This is because seed production requires maintaining variety purity through seedbed preparation; timely completion of tillage operations; irrigation; supplementary pollination measures, if required; weed control; pest and disease control measures; identification and removal of the contaminants, off-types, obnoxious weeds, objectionable crop plants, diseases with seed-borne nature, disposal of the parents before harvesting, drying, etc.• To overcome the challenge, which will be very difficult in the valley and the delta, it is possible to expand maize production in the lands of East Owainat, Dabaa Axis, etc., provided that milling machines are made available due to a lack of labour in such areas.Since 1995, the agricultural sector has been facing challenges in providing fertilizers. Some of these problems relate to the deficit in fertilizers, especially when the government exports fertilizers to foreign markets. In this case, farmers lack the amounts of fertilizer sufficient to add to their land. On the other hand, the fertilizer distribution policy has not been updated, as fertilizer regulations have not been updated, which requires consideration of achieving a balanced policy between nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) elements, and the necessity of providing subsidized fertilizers to farmers.It is worth mentioning that global fertilization balance ratios are estimated at 5: 3: 1 for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, while Egyptian ratios are estimated at 17: 2: 1. Accordingly, the goal of the Soil, Water and Environment Research Institute (SWERI) is achieving the global balance ratio via a dynamic fertilizer map that must be respond to climate changes, considering the limited land and water resources and the issue of intercropping methods, maize with soybeans for example.Matching the global fertilization balance ratios requires educating farmers about them and about considering the elements available in their lands, whether in the valley or the delta, through farmers' field schools and national campaigns.The Russo-Ukrainian crisis led to higher prices of natural gas, and consequently higher prices of nitrogenous fertilizers in the global market, which in turn resulted in higher prices of agricultural products all over Europe due to the higher costs of transportation, logistics, electricity, and fertilizers. To mitigate these challenges, the Agricultural Research Center vii (Soil Water and Environment Institution) has suggested some innovations:• Using liquid ammonia to mitigate the impact of pressure on nitrogenous fertilizers. To optimize the benefits of this alternative, it is critical to estimate the amount of liquid ammonia used or the recommended amount; estimate the increase in yield per acre or by hectare because of using liquid ammonia; determine the types of soil suitable for fertilization with liquid ammonia; and estimate the response of new high-yielding crop varieties to fertilization with liquid ammonia.• Determining the needs of fertilizers for new high-yielding crop varieties.• Revisiting the currently applied fertilizers distribution policy so that it is based on land holding area to overcome the problem of linking the distributed fertilizers to wheat planted area (like the ration cards for individuals).• Expanding viii the use of liquid fertilizers and fertilizers suitable for modern irrigation systems wherever applicable.• Orientation ix to using organic fertilizers (compost, humus, etc.) to ease the pressure on mineral fertilizers and protect the soil from pollution.• Linking fertilizers' distribution policy to grain crops' delivery policy.Crop production mainly depends on irrigated agriculture, which constitutes around 84.5% of the total agricultural land. The surface irrigation method is considered the most common in Egypt and is applied in almost 82% of the agricultural lands. Drip irrigation is used in only 10%, while sprinkler irrigation is used in the rest area, i.e., 8%. Currently, the government is developing an irrigation system to switch from flood to drip and sprinkle irrigation in old lands. Besides, incentives have been set for farmers, represented in supporting the establishment of irrigation networks.Egypt 2030 updated Sustainable Agriculture Development Strategy has targeted maximizing water use efficiency through promoting the adoption of water use rationalization methods; issuing ministerial decrees defining x bananas, rice, and sugarcane cultivated areas; promoting the adoption of modernized irrigation systems in new lands; and issuing ministerial decrees for modernizing irrigation systems in orchards in the Valley and the Delta.The agricultural sector in general, and the grains sector in particular, were exposed to several external shocks that led to negative impacts on food crops' production, including the COVID-19 crisis, the Russo-Ukrainian war, and the US dollar crunch. Such negative impacts led to governmental interventions to adopt indicative cropping patterns through implementing a package of policies to mitigate the impact of such crises, the most important of which include: a) Contract farming policy. b) Expand the cultivation of yellow maize and soybeans to overcome the poultry and livestock feed crisis. c) Allocate part of the reclaimed land areas in mega projects to expand the cultivation of grain crops. d) Setting price incentives to encourage farmers to grow and deliver grain crops (wheat and rice). Farmers are late in crop planting dates (e.g., maize) due to relatively low profitability compared to competing crops. This year, the government announced remunerative procurement prices for crops, which encouraged farmers to buy approved seeds. The indicative prices announced by the government should consider the following factors:• Covering production costs and realizing a remunerative profit.• International prices of grains.• Equating incomes realized from grain crops with those realized from competing crops.• Maintaining the purchasing power of farmers.e) Distortions in rice pricing this year occurred due to the following reasons:• The government has set an indicative price for paddy rice at EGP 7 thousand per ton (US$ 226.54).• Merchants purchased the crop from farmers directly from the field for EGP 10 thousand per ton, (US$ 323.62).• The Ministry of Supply and Internal Trade then purchased rice from merchants for EGP 16 thousand per ton, (US$ 517.8).• The crop grain delivery by farmers to the government should be voluntary because there is no need to force farmers to deliver their produce when they have no desire to do that.• It is necessary to subsidize agricultural production because it can lead to increasing supply in the market thus reducing consumer prices, and hence alleviating burdens on consumers.• Applying the contract farming system where it can be feasible.In the past, the government adopted the policy of import concentration, where Egypt's wheat imports are concentrated in Russia (about 50%) and Ukraine (about 25%). As for yellow maize, Egypt's imports are concentrated in Argentina (about 35%), Brazil (about 33%), and Ukraine (about 24%).After the Russo-Ukrainian War, world prices of wheat and maize soared and almost doubled from US$ 150-200 to US$ 400-450 per ton, which resulted in huge negative impacts on the imports of such commodities. Therefore, the government decided to adopt the policy of diversifying grainimporting sources to hedge against the risk of banning exports by some countries (the case of Indian wheat). Currently, the government is considering activating the win-win deals mechanism with some countries; Russia, for example. The General Authority for Supply Commodities (GASC) xi actively explored this option, while also increasing planned procurement prices from domestic sources by 38% over last year's figure.Agricultural production policies aim to curb the food gap in grains, estimated at approximately 50% for wheat and 75% for yellow maize, which the government covers through imports from abroad. However, Egypt faces challenges in increasing wheat and maize cultivated areas because the maximum possible expansion area for both crops is 500 thousand acres (210,000 hectares). Accordingly, the vertical expansion strategy comes on top of the solutions that can contribute to increasing yield per unit of land and water by focusing on improving the yields of varieties; raising farmers' awareness of the proper cultivation packages associated with such varieties and implementing modern technology.In this context, the government developed a strategic plan to promote expanding the production of strategic crops, which is being implemented and followed up by the Ministry of Agriculture. It focuses on curbing the gap in strategic crops, including wheat and yellow corn, by adopting the following policies:Increasing the cultivated area of some crops (including wheat and corn), either by increasing the agricultural area in New Lands, or by deducting areas from some crops which area is intended to be reduced. Results achieved from applying the technical recommendation packages in the implemented national mega projects in newly reclaimed areas xiii revealed that wheat yield under the \"Future of Egypt for Sustainable Agriculture\" project reached 22-24 ardab per acre (7.86 -8.57 tons per hectare) in some regions, while reached 27 ardab per acre (9.64 ton per hectare) in other regions.Vertical expansion policy aims to increase productivity per hectare by developing modern, highyielding, disease-resistant and early maturing varieties; expanding the production of certified seeds; applying good agricultural practices; activating the varieties map and expanding extension fields.several years ago, Egypt ranked fifth at the world level in terms of wheat yield xiii . The multistakeholder workshop revealed that a gap exists between the yield capacity of varieties planted in pilot plots and average yield at the country level xiii . Therefore, the government's agricultural policy aims to close this gap, especially since some farmers can achieve even higher yields than those realized on the pilot plots. Such policy aims to increase wheat planted area up to 1.51 million ha (3.6 million feddan), besides increasing yield up to 7.86 tons per hectare (3.3 tons /feddan) by the agricultural season 2024/2025, bringing total production to some 11.8 million tons. To achieve that goal, the government has expanded the national campaigns for grain crops so that one pilot plot is allocated for each village. It is expected that a 25% vertical increase in wheat yield can be realized without exerting additional efforts. In case more efforts are exerted, and more funds are allocated for research studies, yield can be increased by more than 40%. Implementation tools include:• Increasing wheat planted area by 200,000 acres during the season 2024/2025 by deducting from alfalfa planted area without affecting the total production of green fodder due to expansions in planting improved alfalfa varieties, as well as expanding wheat planted area in new lands.• Increasing certified seeds' coverage rate to reach 50%, which will lead to an increase in productivity by 715 kg/ha (300 kg/feddan). It is worth mentioning that the Central Administration for Seed Certification (CASC) has established a mechanism to control the quality of certified seeds.• Promote farmers' commitment to applying good agricultural practices (planting on raised beds and adhering to planting on the recommended dates), which will lead to an increase in perarea productivity at a rate of 715 kg / hectare (300 kg/feddan).• Promote farmers' commitment to following the variety map.• Expanding the establishment of extension fields to reach one field for every 210 ha (500 feddan), i.e., establishing 7,000 extension fields in which productivity is estimated at 8.8-10.4 tons/ha (3.7-4.5tons per feddan).The government of is expanding the yellow maize cultivated area to provide the feed required for livestock and poultry production in response to the world grains crisis, which is expected to worsen after the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam in Ukraine in early June 2023. The World Grain Program expects that Ukraine will be able to export only 40% of the volume of grains it used to export two years ago.In this case, the government's policy aims to increase the yellow maize planted area up to 840,000 hectares (2 million feddan), as well as increase productivity up to 8.33 tons per hectare in the agricultural season 2024/2025, which would help to bring the total production to some 7 million tons. Implementation tools include:• Gradually increasing yellow maize planted area using those areas illegally planted with rice, areas allocated of white corn, as well as expanding yellow maize planted area in new lands .• Limiting silage production to white maize.• Promoting farmers' commitment to applying good agricultural practices (planting on the recommended dates).• Promoting farmers' commitment to following the variety map.• Expanding the establishment of extension fields until reaching one field for every 420 ha (1,000 feddan), i.e., establishing 2,000 extension fields.• Obliging the Union of Poultry Producers and Feed Factories to receive yellow maize from farmers, provided that sufficient storage capacities are provided to accommodate the received quantities, in addition to providing dryers.Loss and waste in food crops across all stages of the value chain is one of the main obstacles to agricultural food systems policy. According to the FAO, global loss in plant and animal production is estimated at 13.8%. Domestically, loss in Egyptian food production is estimated at 14.2%, which can be attributed to the low level of technology used in agricultural operations. Both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Supply have exerted several efforts to reduce losses, starting from land preparation, through the production stages, until harvesting. Besides, the development of wheat transportation methods, silos, and storage facilities led to reducing wheat losses to only 2%.The government gave special attention to the agricultural sector by increasing the value of governmental investments in the field of land reclamation and cultivation. Official statistics show a continuous increase in the value of public and private investments in the general budget allocated for implementing infrastructure projects, either new or renewal, as well as other projects in the agricultural sector. During the last executive plans, the government has expanded in implementing major national projects, including:• Field Irrigation Improvement projects, rationalization of irrigation water use and allocating the saved water to horizontal expansion areas.• Establishing several high-tech storage silos to increase wheat storage capacities and accommodate the expected increase in local production.• Urging the private sector to pump more investment in the field of drying yellow maize grains to use in manufacturing feed for the poultry sector.The government supports farmers through:• Providing production inputs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides).• Bearing part of the cost of resisting some agricultural pests.• Reducing seed prices.• Providing soft loans for some agricultural purposes.The policy implementation tools include:• Activating the Farmer's Card System.• Providing conditional support to crop production, especially strategic crops.• Conditional support is focused on subsidizing the cost of agricultural production inputs, especially seeds and fertilizers.During the past few years, the government estimated and announced wheat procurement prices to farmers during the harvest season, and farmers supplied the harvested crop optionally. During the last agricultural season:• The government set and announced wheat procurement prices well before planting and revisited them during the agricultural season based on international prices.• Some regulatory controls have been set for supplying to the silos of the Commodities Supply Authority.• Farmers were obligated to supply at least 50% of their production, and some penalties were imposed on those who did not supply the specified percentage, such as denying access to subsidized fertilizers, as well as excluding from governmental support to citizens in the future.• The government sets and announces the procurement price well before planting. However, the government is not obliged to purchase it from farmers; rather, purchases are made by poultry production companies.• Currently, there is competition in marketing yellow maize as grains for the poultry sector against marketing as green silage for dairy farms.• Private post-harvest logistics are very weak when it comes to drying, storing, and distributing the crop.Farmers manage their rice production by retaining part of their production to cover their annual family consumption needs and storing the surplus for other purposes like selling to domestic merchants, or exporters, based on the announced price. It should be noted that domestic rice prices are mainly affected by policies adopted by the government regarding allowing or prohibiting exports or imposing extra custom duties on rice exports.• Low-income groups suffer from the high prices of food commodities, especially after the outbreak of COVID-19 and the Russo-Ukrainian war, which led the state to increase the value allocated to subsidy to enable these groups obtain their basic needs of food.• Support is provided in kind to low-income families by distributing certain amounts of subsidized local bread loaves, and providing certain rations of cooking oil, rice, sugar, and pasta through ration cards.• To rationalize families' consumption of subsidized local bread, the government designed and adopted the program of replacing the saved value of local bread by corresponding food commodities included in the list of subsidized goods in ration cards.The key policy objectives are addressing emergency cases of food shortages and balancing price rises during supply shortage of the commodity. This can be implemented such that in case price levels fall, the government purchase additional quantities of goods and store them. When price levels rise due to increased demand and supply shortage, the government releases quantities from the stock to markets.• The General Authority for Supply Commodities (GASC) stores the locally purchased wheat, as well as the wheat imported to manufacture \"Subsidized Balady Bread\" in their stores and silos.• Private sector companies annually import wheat, or wheat flour, for their own purposes, and undertake the management, storage, and trading of the imported quantities, whether in their own stores that are attached to mills, or by renting silos that have accommodating spaces.• Locally produced Maize (white and yellow) is stored by farmers at their homes for family consumption and animal feed. The surplus is sold to local merchants.• Poultry companies purchase small quantities of the locally produced yellow maize and import the large amount of their needs on several batches according to their storage and manufacturing capacity, and their daily and monthly capacity.• There are no reliable statistics or data available on maize crop to analyze the strategic stock in the conventional sense.• Paddy rice is usually stored and traded, either by farmers, or by the merchants in their own stores.• Paddy rice is milled into rice grains by local merchants to sell at local markets, or by exporters to sell to world markets.• The government has no specific role in managing, trading, or storage of paddy or milled rice, whether intended for local or export markets, which are all carried out by the private sector.Improving the performance of agricultural policies and achieving their desired goals requires proposing a system of executive mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the implemented policies, introduce whatever required amendments to increase their effectiveness, and coordinate between the ministries related to implementing the system, through: a) Establishing a database for strategic crops, which can be electronically accessed by relevant authorities. Main data and relevant authorities include:• Area cultivated with strategic crops at the level of production governorates (old landsnew lands). Relevant authorities: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation; Ministry of Planning; Ministry of Finance.• Locally produced quantities (old lands -new lands). Relevant authority: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. b) Linking the production system of strategic food commodities to demand for such commodities by implementing contract farming, because it helps in:• Announcing the main buyer of strategic goods.• Setting the purchase price of crops well before planting.• Formulating indicative contracts that include specifications of the produced crops and the good agricultural practices that must be followed to obtain the required crop quality.• Concluding contracts between the purchasing entity and farmers (individuals; cooperatives; farmers' unions).• Establishing an arbitration mechanism to settle disputes that may arise between the contracting parties. c) Establishing a Monitoring and Evaluation System that includes:• Indicators to measure the state of food security, food commodity markets and food safety.• Long-term estimates of strategic food needs that allow policy makers to simulate the balance between local production and import requirements (i.e., when, from where and how imports will take place).d) It is also important to:• Conduct a comprehensive review of grain import policies, whether for the government or private sector, with the aim of improving purchasing procedures in terms of quantity and import timing, as well as technical and health specifications.• Adopt proper incentive policies that help attract investors.• Expand the storage capacities and improve the local supply chains of strategic crops.• Activate the purchasing mechanism through futures contracts (Stock Market Exchange) and carry out the hedging process on deals.• Establish a joint-stock company to carry out logistic operations for drying yellow maize and manufacturing local poultry feed.• Establish a joint-stock company under GASC's umbrella to collect paddy rice from farmers, mill it and then directly sell in the market, or distribute on the ration cards. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6708fe9bace2628901577a761644e776","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8dda4f61-1e4a-45e5-9239-35f30b0e4606/retrieve","id":"-1326098598"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0d4cf77b-cff2-4956-8a2c-2b2fbb8fe05a","pagecount":"22","content":"The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader development goals under a changing climate and increasing food demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and require planning to address tradeoffs and synergies between these three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1]. The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems that address challenges inenvironmental, social, and economic dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future, and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This Yobe state profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, about entry points for investing in CSA at scale.• Agriculture is the mainstay for Yobe state economy employing over 80 percent of the population. Agricultural practices in the state are mainly rain-fed with majority of the farmers engaged in small scale subsistence farming with millet, sorghum, cowpea and maize as major food crops and gum arabic, groundnut, sesame seed and cotton as cash crops. A significant proportion of the population are pastoralists rearing livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses at commercial level.• The agricultural sector in the state is struggling to meet the increasing food demand for its growing population as it battles with low productivity arising limited investments, low farm input use, land tenure and climate variability. In addition, the problem of flash floods, high temperature and incidences of pests and diseases have also aggravated the irrigation and upland farmers' losses which consequently increase the incidence of poverty and malnutrition in the state.• CSA practices and technologies such as the use of micro dosing, improved seed varieties, intercropping, planting pits, integrated soil fertility management, fodder banks etc. are quite widespread and their proliferation has been facilitated by ease of adoption, and multiple benefits such as food, income diversification and improved resilience.• Although there are a wide range of organizations conducting CSA-related work, most have focused largely on food security, environmental management and adaptation. There is the need to also integrate mitigation into the state's climate-smart agriculture development efforts. In addition, off-farm services related to CSA need to be enhanced, including weather-smart and marketsmart services.• The Yobe state government places high priority on the development of the agricultural sector in the state. The state ministry of agriculture is saddled with the responsibility of implementing agricultural policies that enables CSA. The broad strategic goals include creating an operating environment that supports rapid modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through supportive government policies.• Funding for CSA is limited in the state and Nigeria in general, however there are opportunities to access and utilize international climate finance from sources such as the Green Climate Fund and Global Environment Facility and through readiness and capacity building programmes. At the national level, the National Agricultural Resilience in Nigeria, an arm of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development which targets reforestation, agriculture and livestock, is a useful mechanism for directing climate finance to CSA-related activities. Others are the fund set aside for the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan for Climate Change in Nigeria (NASPA-CCN) which can benefit CSA-related activities the Yobe state. The agricultural sector is the mainstay of the economy of Yobe state and contributes about 40 percent to the state's gross domestic product (GDP) with crop production and livestock as the major drivers [3,4]. Yobe state's economy is relatively small with more than 80 percent of the citizens engaged in small-scale subsistence farming. Millet, sorghum, cowpea and maize are the major food crops. The cash crops that are commonly grown in the state include groundnut, gum arabic, sesame seed and cotton. Although exportations figures are not currently available at state level, major agricultural export crops contributing to the national economy are sesame, soybean, cotton, groundnut, and maize. The top five agricultural products imported into Nigeria and for that matter the state are, rice, soybean, maize, groundnut and sorghum [5].Economic relevance of agricultureSource: [3,4,5,6,11] Source: [4,7,8,9,10,11] Yobe state has an estimated population of 3.4 million people with about 60 percent living in rural areas. About 80 percent of the population are engaged in primary production agriculture [6]. Majority of the population live below the national poverty line with rural populations constituting 76 percent. Recent data showed unemployment rate of 26.2 percent (2011) and income inequality index of 0.38 [7]. With regards to education, adult and youth literacy stands at 52 percent Yobe state has a total land area of 47 153 square kilometer of which 70 percent of the land area (33 007.1 square kilometer) is classified as arable land, 10 percent forest, 11.9 percent under permanent crop production and 3.15 as permanent meadows. The vegetation is mostly light foliage and thorns [4,12]. Grasses are short, discontinuous, wiry and tussock. They are much used by cattle and sheep. There is no real gallery or fringing forests but only riparian woodland of certain acacias, tamarind and baobab. The basic agriculture of the savannahs is upland rainfed cultivation with crops such as maize, sorghum, cowpea, groundnut, rice, and recently soybean [13]. In most areas, the cereal cropping systems are being intensified and new crops are replacing the old ones.Yobe state is located in the sudano-Sahelian vegetation zone which is characterized by a hot and dry climate for most of the year [14] (annex 1). The region is both semiarid and arid with low rainfall amounts of about 300 mm per year [14]. The state is divided into two agro ecological zones which include the sahel savannah located in the northern part covering Gujba, Yusufari, Bursari, Tarmuwa, Machina, Karasuwa and Bade local government areas of the state, while the sudan savannah in the southern part of the state covers Jakusko, Nangere, Nguru, Potiskum, Fika, Gujba, Yunusari, Fune, Gulani and Damaturu local government areas. It has an annual precipitation of between 500 and 600 mm. The sahel savannah zone is suitable for the cultivation of millet, maize, sorghum, rice, wheat, beni seed, gum arabic, groundnut, bambara nut, guna seed, egyptian doum palm, cassava, mango, onion, tomato, kenaf and sorrel [3]. The sudan savannah zone of the state is conducive for the cultivation of wide varieties of cereal crops (millet, maize, sorghum, rice, wheat), fruits and vegetables (mango, guava, tamarind, egyptian doum palm, tomato, pepper, kenaf, sorrel, onion), cassava and cotton [3]. [15] reported that, the average yield for maize, sorghum, cowpea, rice and groundnut in 2015 were 441 kg/ha, 985.7 kg/ha, 1 602 kg/ha, 1 221 kg/ha, and 1 337 kg/ha, respectively. These yield values were significantly lower than the standard expected yield for the respective crops. According to FEWSNET, the belowaverage 2015 harvest in the entire northeast was attributed to the prolonged conflict (for the third consecutive year) which severely restricted cropping activities. The low yields could also be attributed to climate variability particularly the delayed onset of rains and the increasing length and frequency of dry spells during the growing season. In addition, the problem of flood, high temperature and incidences of pests and diseases have also aggravated the irrigation and upland famers' losses which consequently increase the incidence of poverty and malnutrition in the state [16].Livestock production in Yobe state also plays an important role in the livelihoods of the agro-pastoral farmers. About 60 percent of households are engaged in livestock production due to the pastoral nature of the dominant communities in the state. Cattle, goat, sheep and poultry are some of the different types of livestock kept by households in Yobe state [15].The following infographic shows a selection of agricultural production systems considered key for food security in the Yobe state of Nigeria. The selection is based on the production system's contribution to economic, productivity and nutrition quality indicators. For more information on the methodology for the production system selection, consult annex 2.Source: [4,12,13] The World Food Programme (WFP) in 2017 reported that, 8.8 percent of households in Yobe State are food secure, 54.8 percent are marginally food secure, 30.5 percent are moderately food insecure and 5.9 percent are considered as food insecure [18]. The causes of insecurity in the state can be attributed to lack of funds needed by the farmer to purchase the required agricultural inputs due to difficulties in accessing credit facilities, problem of the Boko Haram insurgency which restricted access to agricultural land and labour, climate change and natural disasters, lack of functional irrigation schemes, low technology for processing and storage as well as poor information dissemination on agricultural practices that are climate smart [18].Yobe state has the highest number of malnutrition cases in Nigeria. The World Food Programme in 2017 revealed that the global acute malnutrition is 11.4 percent in Yobe state compared to 11.3 percent and 5.6 percent in Borno and Adamawa states respectively. The prevalence of underweight children below the age of 5 years in the state is 39.6 percent and 57.2 percent were estimated to be stunted [19]. The fertility rate and the percentage of literate population in the state are 15.90 percent and 7.23 percent respectively [7]. The prevalence of HIV rate for the population in Yobe state is 3 percent [20].Production systems key for food security in YobeSource: [5,17] Source: [5,17,21,22] YobeSource: [8,23] Source: [7,19,24,25] Like most parts of north-East Nigeria, around 14 percent of human-generated greenhouse gases are estimated to come directly from agriculture in Yobe state; for example, almost half of all methane and nearly 60 percent of nitrous oxide emissions are generated by agricultural activities, including livestock production, and fertilizer and pesticide applications. A further 18 percent of greenhouse gases come from land use changes (e.g. clearance of forests for crops and pasture), soil erosion or machine intensive farming methods, which also contribute to increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Reducing agriculture's carbon footprint is therefore an important consideration to limiting climate change [26].Climate-Smart Agriculture Country ProfileSource: [5 , 28, 29] (a) Growth in population and food demand Agriculture is the principal source of food and livelihood in Yobe, making it a critical component of programs that seek to reduce poverty and attain food security. To meet the rapidly increasing demand for food by an ever-expanding human population, production from crop agriculture must expand by 4 percent annually while the production of food from animal agriculture must expand by more than 3 percent annually, between now and the year 2050. This will result in great pressure on land, leading to intensification of land use. Under these conditions, full integration of crop and livestock production offers the greatest potential for increasing agricultural productivity [27].Drought and soil fertility depletion are common phenomena in Yobe and regarded as the fundamental biophysical cause for declining per capita food production. This challenge will continue as population pressure increases and degradation of soil resources is aggravated. Overgrazing, constant bush burning, extensive tree felling for timber, fuel wood and continuous land cultivation have contributed negatively to soil fertility. Soil degradation due to inappropriate land use system is threatening the livelihood of thousands of people. Presently, large areas of land in Yobe State have been abandoned due to soil fertility depletion as the result of continuous cultivation. In order to make sound decisions regarding land use, knowledge of specific properties related to soil functioning under different land use systems are necessary [27].Majority of the Yobe population lives in poverty, despite the wealth in Nigeria. Nigeria's inequality level was 0.45 in 2010 which is relatively high and indicates that income is held in the hands of relatively few. In the northeast where Yobe state belongs, the poverty rate is 69.1 percent. With increased poverty, a large proportion of farmers are resource-poor to meet the agricultural input requirements on their farmlands. This poses threats to food production and challenges efforts to improve food and nutritional security in the Yobe state [27].Agricultural performance in the Yobe state is greatly impaired by the low level of development of social infrastructure. In the rural areas, where majority of the smallholders operate, inadequate infrastructure constitutes a major constraint to agricultural investment, production and trade. In addition, many farmers and value chain operators have no access to formal credit to finance their operations. With the scarcity and rising cost of farm inputs and processing, it is difficult for value chain actors to engage in commercial agriculture projects especially in view of their low level of income and savings, and access to credit challenges [27].In Yobe state, analysis of climatic data over 35 years (1981-2016) have shown anomalies in rainfall, temperature and evaporation within Yobe state represented by Potiskum in the south (sudan savanna) and Nguru (sahel) in the north. During these period, Yobe state and indeed the entire northern part of Nigeria suffered series of drought notably, the droughts of 1970s, 1980s and 1990s that can be seen in Figures 1-2. There is an observed increasing average rainfall trends but this was accompanied by higher average temperature trends (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)   This higher temperature trend will have effect on crop and pasture production [30].The impacts of the changes also results in the loss of crops due to drought and bush fires. Other challenges related to climate change in the state include: the uncontrolled deforestation, land degradation and insecurity all leading to, declining agricultural yields. Climate change will impact negatively on the food security and livelihoods of farmers.CSA technologies and practices present opportunities for addressing climate change challenges, as well as for economic growth and development of the agriculture sector. For this profile, practices are considered CSA if they enhance food security as well as at least one of the other objectives of CSA (adaptation and/or mitigation). Hundreds of technologies and approaches around the world fall under the heading of CSA. Evidence from the literature suggests that farmers are using several agricultural innovations developed from indigenous knowledge or introduced technologies to improve their adaptive capacity to climate change and variability. Some of these practices are ex ante, meaning they are based on pre-informed climatic events while others are ex post (measures adopted after a climatic event has been realised). Below, we used evidence from the literature to discuss some agricultural technologies and practices in the Yobe state have been promising in achieving one or more of the three pillars of CSA: productivity, mitigation and adaptation: a. Micro-dosing -micro dosing was introduced to Yobe state by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) in collaboration with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). The practice is used at the planting stage and after thinning for cereal crops (millet, sorghum, wheat and maize). At planting, a coca cola cap of fertilizer is planted with the seeds on a soil that has adequate moisture content. After planting and thinning, the second dosage of fertilizer is applied at the rate of 2 coca cola cap filled with fertilizer at a depth of 5 to 8 cm. The practice has the advantages of reducing the amount of fertilizer usage and wastage of fertilizer compared to the broadcasting method of fertilizer application. The practice resulted in higher yield of 2 000 kg/ha compared to the control which gave a yield of 1 200 kg/ha. The practice is widely used with adoption rate of up to 80 percent in areas with awareness on the benefit of the practice. The barrier to the adoption of micro dosing as a CSA practice is that, it is labour intensive. b. Conservation agriculture -like most farming communities in Nigeria, conservation agriculture (CA) is a common practice in the Yobe State with soil and water conservation attributes. Building on conventional slashand-burn agricultural systems, CA approaches involve: (a) minimum or zero-tillage; (b) maintenance of soil cover through cover cropping or mulching; and (c) crop rotation [31]. CA delivers on one or more of the three pillars of climate-smart agriculture. The use of CA is driven by increased soil degradation throughout the dry areas of north-east Nigeria where crop yields are relatively low due to low soil organic matter, limited use of fertilizer inputs and recurrent droughts. In terms of productivity and adaptation, empirical evidence confirm CA increase the biological yield of major food crops such as maize, sorghum and millet even on poor soils and offer economic benefits from diversified crop rotation systems [31]. Maintaining adequate soil cover through mulching offer multiple benefits to the farmer in dealing with climate-related risks.These include reduced run-off, increased water infiltration, improved soil organic matter and improved soil moisture retention. The encouragement of zero or minimum tillage in CA also minimizes labour costs in land preparation and enables early planting to synchronize the onset of rainfall. c. Intercropping/crop diversification -with crop diversification and use of varying intercropping approaches in CA, there is significant reduction in the risks of crop failure providing farmers important safety nets in the event one crop fails to perform as expected. Cereals (maize and millet) and legumes (cowpea and groundnut) are often grown in annual double-cropping systems in the sudan and guinea savanna zones. Typical double cropping systems in these zones include maize-cowpea, millet-maize, millet-cowpea and groundnut-maize. Intercropping is widely practiced in different parts of the state, particularly in the sudan savannah. Cereals are often intercropped with legumes or with other cereals for economic reason. d. Planting pits (Zai) -in the sahel areas of Yobe, farmers use planting pits call zai as water harvesting techniques to retain water for sorghum and millet production [32,33]. Developed from indigenous knowledge, the techniques are being promoted as climate-smart soil and water conservation technologies [34,35]. Zai involves digging pits (at 20-40 cm diameter and 10-15 cm depth) to accumulate water before subsequent planting with or without the application of organic resources such as compost, plant residues and animal manure [33]. Farmers use the techniques mainly on bush fields, on dry eroded valley soils as well as on normal and degraded bare lands to maintain soil moisture, reduce soil erosion, and improve soil fertility [36]. Zai remains common among many smallholder farming communities in the Sahel despite their strenuous manual labour requirements per hectare (about 300 man/h) during the dry season; unpredictable rainfall patterns and high temperatures. Crops such as sorghum, millet and cowpeas are successfully planted with these techniques by employing other conservation agriculture techniques such as the application of animal manure or compost [37]. e. Erosion control techniques -although rainfall is important for farming activities, excess rains cause flooding and erosion on farmers' fields causing crop destruction and removal of top soils [38]. The use of innovative approaches such as contour/tie ridges for reducing erosion and collecting run-off water for farming activities are becoming popular among farmers in Yobe.f. Improved seeds -over the past decades with increased temperatures and higher intensity of rain, many farmers have adopted the use of varieties that are resistant to extreme weather conditions. Some adopted seeds are also early maturing to evade consequences of reduction in amount of rainfall being experienced under varying and changing climate.g. Integrated soil fertility management -farmers combine chemical fertilizers with other soil fertility improvement practices such as application of animal manure, compost, crop residues etc. Addition of organic manures to improve soil aggregate stability necessary and improve soil nourishment through decomposition and nitrogen mineralization. Using integrated soil fertility management practices markedly reduce the need of large quantities of synthetic fertilizers which, apart from their high costs contribute to GHG emissions.h. In livestock production -common CSA practices for cattle, sheep and goats identified are seasonal migration, especially during dry period in search of pasture and water for pastoralists, improved housing for sedentary herders to create microclimate to shield the animals from excessive heat and rainfall and provision of quality water that helps in production. Others are conservation of feed for off season utilization and improved medication. In addition, for poultry production routine vaccination and feed formulation with locally available materials to reduce cost are common practices.The following graphics present a selection of CSA practices with high climate smartness scores according to expert evaluations. The average climate smartness score is calculated based on the practice's individual scores on eight climate smartness dimensions that relate to the CSA pillars: yield (productivity); income, water, soil, risks (adaptation); energy, carbon and nitrogen (mitigation). A practice can have a negative/ positive/ zero impact on a selected CSA indicator, with 10 (+/-) indicating a 100 percent change (positive/ negative) and 0 indicating no change. Practices in the graphics have been selected for each production system key for food security identified in the study. A detailed explanation of the methodology and a more comprehensive list of practices analyzed for Yobe State, Nigeria can be found in Annexes 3 and 4 respectively.Pearl millet is one of the staple cereals crops grown in Yobe state. It is largely grown in the drier ecological zone of the state that has rainfall of just about 300-400 mm during the 3-month rainy season. It is a hardy crop that tolerates drought better than any other cereal grown in Nigeria. Farmers in Yobe state grow several varieties of the crop with varying yield potentials.For many years, Ali Shehu, like many farmers in his location of Potiskum local government area of Yobe state, was growing the local traditional millet variety, Gwagwa until when he was introduced to an improved variety known as SOSAT in 2012. Typical of local farmers, Ali Shehu did not accept the improved cultivar as a total replacement of his traditional variety, rather he decided to grow the two pearl millet varieties alongside each other on the same farm for comparison and preservation of his traditional variety. So for four years Ali grew the traditional Gwagwa on one half of the one hectare farm and SOSAT on the other half. The millet was intercropped with sorghum and cowpea as practiced by most farmers around Potiskum area. The crop geometry consisted of two rows of millet, one row of sorghum and cowpea was planted on millet rows (in between millet stands). This is the common practice by farmers around Potiskum locality.With good management, the mean yield of the local Gwagwa millet variety in three cropping seasons was 550 kg/ha. On the other hand the mean yield realized by Ali for the improved SOSAT millet cultivar was 900 kg/ha giving a yield difference of 350 kg/ha over the traditional variety. In 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons, Ali planted both the local and the improved millets on the same farm in a design of 10 rows of local millet and 10 rows SOSAT millet. This time around, the millets were intercropped with cowpea only, sorghum was not included. At the end of the seasons the average yield of local variety was 400 kg/ha while that of SOSAT was 750 kg/ha giving a difference of 350 kg/ha. The above production clearly shows that the improved variety of millet (SOSAT) grown under the same farmers' practice of intercropping with sorghum and cowpea gave Ali Shehu yield increases of 64 percent over the use of the traditional local variety. When the intercropping was limited to cowpea by excluding sorghum, the yield advantage increases to 88 percent. This is a clear demonstration of how climate-smart options like the use of improved cereal intercropped with legumes such as cowpea could help boost crop productivity and diversification which can also potentially increase income of farmers.• The National Forest Policy is geared towards ensuring sustainable forest management, promoting participatory process of development, facilitating private sector -forestry development and adopting an integrated approach to forestry development. Government is currently embarking on a number of afforestation programmes. Under the guidance of the African Union Commission, Nigeria is keying into the project on the \"Green Wall Initiative\" in which a \"green wall\" of trees (40 million trees annually in the next 10 years) will be planted across the dry-land area of Nigeria to not only push back deforestation and secure agriculture and livelihoods across the Sudano-Sahelian zone of the country, but also enhance the carbon sequestration of biological diversity resources in the region for climate change mitigation [42].• The National Policy on Drought and Desertification, in particular, recognizes that climate change could intensify drought and desertification in the part of the country that are very prone to these environmental problems. Thus the policy emphasized the need to equip relevant agencies, institutions and citizens adequately to collect, analyze and use climate data effectively to ameliorate and combat drought and desertification. Specific implementation strategies for the policy include: (i) strengthening of agencies, institutions and facilities for the collection and analyses of meteorological and hydrological as well as for dissemination of information; (ii) upgrading the existing national early warning facilities for more efficient service delivery; (iii) developing appropriate awareness programmes for formal and informal education to enhance knowledge on climate and environment issues; and (iv) encouraging appropriate land use that enhances carbon dioxide sequestration, such as afforestation, reforestation and agro-forestry. This also reduces soil erosion and increase crop productivity for economic development [42].• Agricultural Promotion Policy: The main objectives of the Nigerian Agricultural Promotion Policy include: (i) the achievement of self-sufficiency in basic food supply and the attainment of food security; (ii) increased production of agricultural raw materials for industries;(iii) increased production and processing of export crops, using improved production and processing technologies; (iv) generating gainful employment; (v) rational utilization of agricultural resources, improved protection of agricultural land resources from drought, desert encroachment, soil erosion and flood, and the general preservation of the environment for the sustainability of agricultural production; (vi) promotion of the increased application of modern technology to agricultural production; and, (vii) improvement in the quality of life of rural dwellers [40].The following graphic highlights key institutions whose main activities relate to one, two or three CSA pillars (adaptation, productivity and mitigation). More information on the methodology and results from interviews, surveys and expert consultations is available in Annex 5.The graphic shows a selection of policies, strategies and programs that relate to agriculture and climate change topics and are considered key enablers of CSA in the country. The policy cycle classification aims to show gaps and opportunities in policy-making, referring to the three main stages: policy formulation (referring to a policy that is in an initial formulation stage/consultation process), policy formalization (to indicate the presence of mechanisms for the policy to process at national level) and policy in active implementation (to indicate visible progress/outcomes toward achieving larger policy goals, through concrete strategies and action plans). For more information on the methodology and results from interviews, surveys and expert consultations, see annex 6.Financing CSA activities in the Yobe state is presently the prerogative of implementing agencies across the state. There are limited concrete linkages with funding organizations at the bilateral and multi-lateral levels in support of CSA. There are, however, donor-supported climate change projects at the Federal level that benefits the state. Nationally, the Government of Nigeria is taking pragmatic measures to devote significant proportions of national budget to climate change especially in sectors of the economy like agriculture deemed highly vulnerable to climate change and variability. While Nigeria has been able to obtain funding from the Global Environment Facility Trust Fund for climate change-related projects in other states, very less can be said of the Yobe states.Yobe state may not have sourced a lot of funding from climate finance initiatives like the Green Climate Fund and the Global Environment Facility. However, the vulnerability of the region to climate change and the rising need for the adoption of innovative agricultural technologies that avert the risks posed by climate change, makes projects seeking to improve climate change adaptation and rural livelihoods appealing to donors. At present, Federal Government support are not sufficient with the state counting mainly on local and international development agencies operating in the region. According to the Federal Ministry of Environment, the Federal Government is in the process of putting in place a Nationally Strategic Climate Change Trust Fund (NSCCTF) as a response to the need to broaden the scope of national interventions for impact at all levels of governance. The scope of the NSCCTF is said to be broad to cover many activities related to climate change and sustainable development in Nigeria. Agricultural stakeholders in the Yobe state seeking to design projects that have the potential to strengthen agricultural production systems (crop and livestock) and improve their resilience to climate change-induced weather extremes such as drought are likely to benefit from this funding scheme.There have also been discussions on setting up an agricultural resilience fund that Yobe state can benefit. The Bill to set up the National Climate Change Commission provides for \"a fund into which all the monies accruable to the Commission shall be paid and from which all the activities of the Commission shall be funded\". This is the equivalent of a Climate Fund and would provide a pot from which the various economic sectors, including agriculture, could obtain their finances.But there should also be a separate agricultural resilience fund to complement the National Climate Change Commission provision. Indeed, the National Policy on Climate Change explicitly recognizes the need for individual sectors to pursue additional measures against climate change. Categorizing agriculture as a business invites greater involvement by the private sector in building finances to tackle climate change and develop climateresilient agriculture. The private sector has many comparative advantages, including organized structures, experience, money and trained personnel, and will engage constructively in efforts to mitigate the shocks and stresses imposed by the changing climate. It understands the marketability and the profitability of climate-resilient agriculture and is willing to back that appreciation with the necessary level of investment.The graphic highlights existing and potential financing opportunities for CSA in the Yobe state of Nigeria. The methodology and a more detailed list of funds can be found in annex 7. The fieldwork that supported the preparation of the CSA country profile for the Yobe state of Nigeria was funded by the Government of Norway. We acknowledge the contribution of the stakeholders from Yobe state as well as experts from Federal Ministries and NGOs for the validation of the profile content.","tokenCount":"5050"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1856d7aecc822d87364d77fcc0c4e8c4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/40ab5bdf-4442-433c-9608-39a52d6972b2/content","id":"-341464525"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"72cd2fac-5929-44fb-bedc-92838e011e8e","pagecount":"5","content":"Wheat is a major staple food crop providing about 20% of dietary energy and proteins, and food products made of whole grain wheat are a major source of micronutrients like Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Magnesium (Mg), Vitamin B and E. Wheat provides about 40% intake of essential micronutrients by humans in the developing countries relying on wheat based diets. Varieties with genetically enhanced levels of grain micronutrient concentrations can provide a cost-effective and sustainable option to resource poor wheat consumers. To determine the effects of commonly deployed dwarfing genes on wheat grain Zn, Fe, Mn and Mg concentrations, nine bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) and six durum wheat (T. turgidum) isoline pairs differing for Rht1 (= Rht-B1b) and one bread wheat pair for Rht2 (= Rht-D1b) dwarfing genes were evaluated for three crop seasons at N.E. Borlaug Research Station, Cd. Obregon, Sonora, Mexico. Presence of dwarfing genes have significantly reduced grain Zn concentration by 3.9 ppm (range 1.9-10.0 ppm), and Fe by 3.2 ppm (range 1.0-14.4 ppm). On the average, about 94 ppm Mg and 6 ppm Mn reductions occurred in semidwarf varieties compared to tall varieties. The thousand kernel weight (TKW) of semidwarf isolines was 2.6 g (range 0.7-5.6 g) lower than the tall counterparts whereas the plant height decreased by 25 cm (range 16-37 cm). Reductions for all traits in semidwarfs were genotype dependent and the magnitude of height reductions did not correlate with reductions in micronutrient concentrations in wheat grain. We conclude that increased grain yield potential of semidwarf wheat varieties is associated with reduced grain micronutrient concentrations; however, the magnitude of reductions in micronutrients varied depending on genetic background and their associated pleiotropic effect on yield components.Globally, over 805 million people suffer from hunger and approximately 165 million (or 1 in 4) children under the age of five are stunted due to the lack of proper nutrition received between pregnancy and a child's second birthday (FAO, 2017). Despite the significant growth in agricultural production, a large population suffers from the dietary deficiency of essential micronutrients such as zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe). Additionally, magnesium (Mg) and manganese (Mn) deficiency is very common among resource poor consumers. In particular women and children are more vulnerable to the micronutrient deficiency. The first 1,000-days are the most important time period for a child's cognitive, intellectual and physical development. Under nutrition contributes to 45 percent of the child deaths each year worldwide (WHO, 2017). Biofortification offers a sustainable solution to increase food and nutritional security to millions of resource poor consumers depending on major staples as the main source of their dietary energy (Bouis et al., 2011). To meet the challenge of improving nutritional food security, the HarvestPlus program of the CGIAR research program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (CRP-A4NH) supports the development of micronutrient-rich staple crops including common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The primary target nutrient for wheat is Zn, as millions of resource poor wheat consumers in the target countries in South Asia and Africa are prone to Zn deficiency. In fact, more than 400,000 children die each year due to Zn deficiency globally (Muthayya et al., 2013). Overall, an estimated 17.3% of the global population is at risk of inadequate zinc intake. The regional estimated prevalence of inadequate Zn intake ranges from 7.5% in high-income regions to 30% in South Asia (Stein, 2010). Multiple micronutrient deficiencies, including Mg and Mn, are widespread and have severe health consequences in resource poor communities. Wheat varieties with improved nutritional quality, protein content, high grain yield and desirable processing quality in adapted genetic backgrounds can help alleviate nutrient deficiencies among resource poor people (Pfeiffer and McClafferty, 2007;Singh and Velu, 2017). For this reason, genetic resources (landraces and ancestors of common wheat) with high Zn and Fe content such as Aegilops tauschii, T. turgidum ssp. diccocoides, T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum and T.aestivum ssp. spelta species, have been used in breeding to enhance Zn concentration (Ortiz-Monasterio et al., 2007;Guzmán et al., 2014;Velu et al., 2011Velu et al., , 2012Velu et al., , 2014)).Plant height is an important trait in wheat, it significantly reduces lodging in higher yielding environments and increases grain yield. Extensive research has been conducted to study the effect of Rht genes on grain yield (Borlaug, 1968;Villareal and Rajaram, 1992) and to some extent on protein content (Gooding et al., 1999;McClung et al., 1986). The widely deployed dwarfing genes Rht1 (Rht-B1b) and Rht2 (Rht-D1b) are known to have pleiotropic effects on input responsiveness and lodging tolerance that leads to significant grain yield increases in wheat. This phenomenon led to the wide adoption of semidwarf wheat varieties in 1960′s and 1970′s resulting in Green Revolution in South Asia and other regions of the world (Swaminathan 2013).New research was undertaken at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Mexico where the Green Revolution began using the Rht dwarfing genes. The objective of our study was to evaluate effects of dwarfing genes Rht1 and Rht2 on four essential micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Mn and Mg) concentration and associated pleiotropic effects on grain weight and plant height by using 16 pairs of isogenic lines developed previously for 10 bread wheat (T. aestivum) and 6 durum wheat (T. turgidum) varieties.Sixteen pairs of tall and semi-dwarf isolines derived from CIMMYT historic and modern wheat varieties were used in this study. Ten pairs of isolines are derived from bread wheat (T. aestivum) and six were from pasta wheat (T. durum) varieties. The detailed procedure in developing these isolines has been described in Singh et al. (2001). All isolines carry Rht1 dwarfing gene excepting Pavon isolines, which carries Rht2 gene.The sixteen pairs of isolines were grown in a split-plot design with two replicates during 2014-15 (2015), 2015-16 (2016) and 2016-17 (2017) crop seasons at Norman E. Borlaug Experimental Station in Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico. Each genotype was planted in a paired row of 1 m long with a bed to bed distance of 80 cm. Trials were laid out in a paired split-plot design with the isolines (tall and semidwarf) as main plots and genotypes as subplot factors. All recommended agronomic practices were followed (Velu et al., 2012(Velu et al., , 2017)). The commercial form of ZnSO4•7H 2 O was applied in the soil as basal application along with the 50% of the recommended 200 kg/ha Nitrogen and 100% of 50 kg/ha Phosphorus fertilizers. Remaining 50% or 100 kg/ha N applied as top dressing during the second irrigation about 30 days of sowing. At maturity, whole plots were harvested.About 30 g of grain samples free from dust particles, chaff, glumes and other plant materials was prepared for determining micronutrient concentration and thousand kernel weight (TKW). Grain Fe and Zn concentrations (parts per million: ppm) were measured using a benchtop, non-destructive, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF) instrument (model X-Supreme 8000, Oxford Instruments plc, Abingdon, UK), calibrated for high-throughput screening of Zn and Fe in whole wheat grain (Paltridge et al., 2012). In addition, grain samples were analyzed for all four micronutrients with Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) at Flinders University, Australia. TKW was measured with a SeedCount digital imaging system (model SC5000, Next Instruments Pty Ltd, New South Wales, Australia). Plant height was measured from bottom of the plants to tip of the awns after physiological maturity of each plot.Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistical Analysis System 9.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). Analysis of variance was done following fixed model (Gomez and Gomez, 1984), and data was analyzed as a paired split-plot design. Mean comparisons between tall and semidwarf pairs were also made for all six traits in the study. Broad-sense heritability (H 2 ) (repeatability) was estimated across environments using the formula H 2 = σg 2 /(σg 2 + σge 2 /y + σe 2 /ry), where σg 2 is the genotypic variance, σge 2 is the GE variance, and σe 2 is the residual error variance for r replicates and y years. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was calculated using META-R statistical package (www. data.cimmyt.org). The Pearson correlation coefficient between traits was calculated using PROC CORR procedure.Analysis of variance showed highly significant differences between genetic backgrounds (entries) for grain Zn, Fe, Mn, Mg, TKW and plant height (PH) (Table 1). Combined analysis across environments showed significant environment effect on grain Zn, Mn and Mg concentrations (P < 0.001). Contrast between tall and semi-dwarf isolines was significant for Fe, Zn, Mn, Mg and PH (P < 0.001) and TKW (P < 0.05). Interaction effect of Rht genes on environments was significant for all traits except Fe. The broad sense heritability was high for all traits (H 2 = 0.75 to 0.95), except intermediate heritability was observed for Fe (H 2 = 0.52) and coefficient of variation below 10% suggested a good management of trials across years. Analysis of variance showed significant interaction effect between environments for grain Zn, Mn and Mg concentrations, however, significant positive correlations between environments allowed us to conduct combined analyses (averaged across 3 environments). Grain Zn averaged over three environments varied from 46 to 63 ppm with the mean of 52 ppm (Fig. 1), whereas grain Fe ranged from 29 to 52 ppm with the mean of 35 ppm (Fig. 2). On the average, dwarfing genes reduced grain Zn by 3.9 ppm and grain Fe by 3.2 ppm, respectively (Table 2). There was a significant genetic background effect on the expression of Rht genes on grain Zn and Fe concentrations, for instance highest reduction of 10 ppm occurred for Zn in bread wheat Culiacan dwarf over its tall pair, followed by durum wheat Aconchi and Bichena with about 5.9 and 5.6 ppm reductions, respectively. The lowest reduction or less effect of Rht dwarfing gene on grain Zn occurred in bread wheat Siete Cerros and durum wheat Focha with only 1.9 ppm reduction. In the case of Fe, the highest reduction, 14.4 ppm, occurred in bread wheat variety Genaro and the lowest in bread wheat varieties Seri with only 1 ppm difference between the isogenic pairs (Table 2). Grain Mg averaged over three environments varied from 965 to 1390 ppm with the trial mean of 1193 ppm, whereas grain Mn ranged from 40 to 64 ppm with a trial mean of 53 ppm. On average, about 94 ppm Mg and 6 ppm Mn reductions in semi-dwarf varieties compared to tall varieties. The highest reduction of 150 ppm for Mg was in the wheat variety 'Anza,' whereas wheat variety 'Galvez' showed a maximum reduction of 11 ppm for Mn.A significant difference between tall and semidwarf isolines was observed for TKW with average reduction of 2.6 g for semidwarf compared to tall (Table 2). The highest and lowest reductions of 5.6 and 0.7 in TKW occurred in bread wheat Nesser and durum wheat Lavanco, respectively.There was a significant positive correlation between grain Zn and Fe (r = 0.45; P < 0.01) and Mg and Mn (r = 0.80; P < 0.01) and significant positive correlation between these four micronutrients. There was no correlation between these micronutrients and TKW, which was reflected from the PCA biplot (Fig. 3) where Fe and Zn were grouped together, Mg and Mn were clustered together and TKW was distantly positioned. In case of plant height, on average the semi-dwarf isolines were 25 cm shorter than the tall pairs. The lowest and highest height differences of 16 and 37 cm observed for bread wheat Galvez and durum wheat Nehama, respectively. However, magnitude of height reductions did not influence a decreased amount of Zn and Fe in semidwarfs.Previous studies have shown that Rht dwarfing genes reduced grain Zn and Fe concentrations in wheat with a limited number of isogenic pairs (Graham et al., 1999). Our results corroborates with this finding by using 16 pairs of isolines to investigate the effect of dwarfing genes on grain Zn, Fe, Mn and Mg concentrations and kernel weight in different genetic backgrounds. On an average, the reductions of 3.9, 3.2, 6.0 and 94 ppm for grain Zn, Fe, Mn and Mg, respectively were observed in semidwarf lines over their tall counterparts. However, the magnitude of reduction varied in different genetic backgrounds. Using same 16 pairs of isolines Singh et al. (2001) found significant increase for grain yield (1 t/ha) under optimally managed environment; however, the magnitude of yield increases also varied depending on the background. Several studies have been conducted to measure effect of Rht genes on kernel weight. In our study there was a negative effect on kernel weight suggesting that Rht genes might have contributed to increase the number of kernels per spike as well as kernels per unit area and thus compensated the marginal reductions in kernel weight for increased grain yield potential. Similarly, in winter wheat background Rht alleles have reduced grain weight and it was compensated by a 10% increase in number of grains per spike and a 13% increase in tiller numbers per square meter (Kertesz et al. (1991).Recent QTL mapping studies at CIMMYT have identified pleiotropic QTL regions that enhance kernel size and grain Zn concentration simultaneously (Hao et al., 2014;Crespo-Herrera et al., 2016). These results indicate that Zn and Fe increase in tall varieties may be due to larger kernel size or lesser grain yield levels for tall lines. This merits further investigation.Quantitative traits expressions are often influenced by a balance among multigenes or allelic changes at major gene loci resulting in variable expression of reductions in Zn and Fe in different genetic backgrounds. Thus, the changes in micronutrients concentrations are mainly due to the associated pleiotropic effects of dwarfing genes on increased biomass partitioning and higher harvest index. Considerably this trend led to slightly lower concentration of Zn and Fe per grain in modern wheat varieties, however, the total Zn harvested from the soil or Zn harvested per unit area is higher (data not shown). Recent QTL mapping studies in wheat have shown that there are various QTL regions for grain Zn and Fe, which are not associated with height or    ","tokenCount":"2327"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69f13708d57cfbba5829695328a29d93","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad67e3cd-a38e-449d-88ec-027371cedd10/retrieve","id":"-757120507"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"750c01be-7c1b-4c72-b842-ac4e4c90b314","pagecount":"11","content":"The current ways that planetary resources are used to produce and consume food are raising significant concerns about the impact on nutrition, health and sustainability. A major reorientation of our food systems is needed in terms of both activities and governance. This paper describes the important contributions agricultural biodiversity makes achieving healthy diets and sustainable food systems and highlights a number of key actions needed to maximize those contributions.Dietary factors are the number one risk factor in the global burden of disease. At the same time, many of the ways in which food systems operate, from production to sales and consumption, are causing significant environmental damage, including loss of biodiversity and of the beneficial services that biodiversity in ecosystems provides to humanity.This paper argues that focusing on increasing agricultural biodiversity in landscapes, food systems and diets is an important part of the solution to creating healthier diets from sustainable food systems. For instance, a healthy diet should be based on whole grains, fruit, vegetables, legumes, nuts and seeds, and be limited in added sugar and sodium. Agrobiodiversity can ensure these essential ingredients are present in our food system, and so support healthy diets. In terms of increased sustainability of food systems, agricultural biodiversity can boost yields, provide pollination services and pest and disease control, reduce the need for inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides, and provide protection to natural habitats. Agrobiodiversity can also contribute to breeding of crops and animals that are more capable of coping with climate change. Good governance is key to achieving positive outcomes from promotion of agrobiodiversity. Food systems arise from complex agronomic, economic, political, institutional and social interrelationships. Good governance must drive the enabling environment that influences multiple actors operating in these systems and the actions they can take that will impact on the sustainability of food systems and the creation of healthy diets. Promoting agricultural biodiversity can be a practical investment for healthier diets through four main avenues: local and more nutritious value chains; public or institutional procurement; increased availability of fruits and vegetables; and appropriate policy incentives and coherence for diversification of production and consumption. We use examples from a number of contexts to illustrate potential actions that other countries may follow.Sustainable food systems and healthy diets, a pillar of the Second International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2) Framework for Action, are key to delivering on most of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), not just SDG 2 (Bioversity International, 2016). The UN Decade of Action on Nutrition (2016Nutrition ( -2025) ) offers an important opportunity to strengthen implementation and commitment to achieving improved nutrition outcomes. Similarly, the overlap with the UN Decade on Biodiversity (2011Biodiversity ( -2020) ) provides a unique opportunity to break silo thinking and bring together biodiversity with nutrition.The ways in which food is produced, distributed and consumed are causing huge environmental damages, likely pushing beyond certain planetary boundaries needed for sustainable development (Rockström et al. 2009;Steffen et al. 2015), which then undermines the capacity for future food production (Garnett 2014). It is estimated that food systems today contribute between 20 and 30 per cent of anthropogenic green¬house gas emissions (Vermeulen, Campbell and Ingram 2012) and agriculture accounts for 70 per cent of all water utilization (UN Water 2013). Deleterious effects of food systems include land degradation, deterioration of natural habi¬tats, and losses of biodiversity and of the beneficial services that ecosystems provide to humanity. They can also contribute to considerable production and use of chemical fertilizers, pollution and contamination of soil and water (Parris 2011), all of which have significant impacts on human health (Hodgkin et al. 2015). In addition, the increasing uniformity and reduction of agricultural biodiversity in global food systems poses one of the greatest, but often overlooked, challenges to achievement of sustainable food systems and healthy diets (IPES-Food 2016).In this paper, the proposal to increase agricultural biodiversity in landscapes, food systems and diets is used as an important part of the solution to the challenges to agriculture, the environment, and nutrition faced in the era of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. Mainstreaming biodiversity in food systems offers multiple benefits, not just for diets and nutrition. While not the only component of a sustainable food system, a sustainable food system cannot exist without agricultural biodiversity.Agrobiodiversity is defined as the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture, including crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. It comprises the diversity of genetic resources (varieties, breeds) and species used for food, fodder, fibre, fuel and pharmaceuticals. It also includes the diversity of non-harvested species that support production (soil micro-organisms, predators, pollinators), and those in the wider environment that support agro-ecosystems (agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic) as well as the diversity of the agro-ecosystems (FAO and Bioversity International, 2017). A sustainable food system is defined as a food system that ensures food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition of future generations are not compromised (HLPE, 2014). Greater utilization of agrobiodiversity within food systems is a promising approach to help achieve complex, inter-connected goals that span nutrition, environment and health (Romanelli et al., 2015).Although over 5,500 species have been counted as food used by humans (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2016), three species -rice, wheat and maize -dominate our global diet and provide the majority of the world's plant-derived calories. Relying so heavily on such a narrow resource base is a risky strategy for the sustainability of the planet, for individual livelihoods and for achieving a healthy diet (Bioversity International, 2016). Expert opinions on the components of healthy diets consistently agree on the need for dietary diversity of healthy foods and for diets to be based upon whole grains, fruit, vegetables, legumes, nuts and seeds, and limited in added sugar and sodium (WHO, 2015;USDHHS, 2015;Imamura et al., 2015;Gallup and Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation, 2016). Considering the global burden of disease and the global needs for minimum diet-related risks to address them, our global food system reflects gaps in food availability of 44 per cent for fruits, 11 per cent for vegetables, and 58 per cent for nuts and seeds (Murray, 2014).The evidence base for the role of biodiversity in food and nutrition security is growing. For example, Wittman and colleagues demonstrate the linkages between food security and biodiversity across a range of socio-ecological properties and across global, regional, landscape and household scales, and document the evidence base for the biophysical as well as social connections between the two (Wittman et al., 2016). In relation to nutrition security, significant and positive relationships between crop diversity and dietary diversity were found for a majority of contexts (Powell et al., 2015), and the diversification of agricultural production towards fruit, vegetables and aquaculture was seen to improve diet diversity and intake of specific nutrients (Pandey, Dev and Jayachandran, 2016). The role of the provision of food and essential micronutrients year-round is another well-documented association between greater use of biodiversity and food and nutrition security (Powell et al., 2015).In terms of greater environmental sustainability, we know that agricultural biodiversity in production systems can boost yields, provide pollination services and pest and disease control, improve soil function and reduce the need for inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides (Bioversity International 2016). Biodiversity also provides the base for traits for breeding stress-tolerant, nutritious crops and animal breeds that can help improve farmers' resilience in coping with climate change. Biodiversity is also essential to securing sustainable agricultural production through the provisioning of diverse raw material to markets and industry, supporting diversification of value chains, self-reliance of local economies and the empowerment of marginalized groups (Padulosi et al. 2015; IPES-Food 2016).Food system activities encapsulate consumption, production, processing, distribution and retail, waste management and governance (Figure 1). The central role of governance within the framework is important because it drives the enabling environment that can in turn influence all other food system activities. Good governance is key to positive outcomes in this complex system of agronomic, economic, political, institutional and social interrelationships. Food system actors are individuals or bodies that play a specific role within specific food system activities. Food system actors include consumers, consumer groups, farmers, farmer co-operatives, food distributors, food manufacturers and food retailers. Food system activities and the actors that carry them out operate at different levels, i.e. international, national and local. The potential spheres of influence are highly complex and linked. As research on food systems has shown, the outcomes of food systems can be either positive or negative (IPES-Food 2016); the aim of a sustainable food system would clearly be to draw out the greatest number of positive outcomes for the system as a whole.The most critical aspect related to making food systems more sustainable and diets healthier is to translate theory into practical, feasible actions. In order to work toward healthier diets and food systems to achieve the desired positive dual outcomes of improved nutrition and environmental outcomes, actions need to be taken by key food system actors. Table 1 provides suggestions for different groups of food systems actors by food system activity for moving toward both healthier and more sustainable diets. Decisions on what food to consume/ purchase and the level of processed and packaged food to purchase.Decisions on where to purchase (from which type of retail and level of certification).Homestead fruit and vegetable production.Consumer awareness groups Advocacy on healthy food choices. Advocacy on sustainable food choices.Governance bodies Legislation to ensure healthy food in social programmes that supply food (food aid, school feeding).Disincentives (e.g. taxes) for unhealthy food.Incentives for healthier food.Develop food-based dietary guidelines that valorize native agrobiodiversity.Legislation to ensure sustainability of food in social programmes.Development of food-based dietary guidelines that include sustainable consumption practices.Farmers Decisions on the level of crop diversity planted (species and cultivars) planted and balance between own consumption for dietary diversity and sale for income.Increase fruit and vegetable production.Decisions about crop production diversity that also consider nutritional properties.Sustainable production practices such as mixed and rotational cropping (modify soil pH to make nutrients better available to plants).Influence types of foods and cultivation practices managed collectively.Influence crop diversity and sustainable production practices; selling of diverse nutrient-dense food in markets close to consumers; stewardship of community natural resources.Policies in support of producing the types of food needed for healthier diets.Policies to reduce unsustainable production practices (e.g. monocrop/mono-variety cultivations; excessive use of pesticides); incentives to promote sustainable practices (e.g. greater use of diverse nutritious-dense and resilient crops).Food industry (small-and large-scale) Consumers, numbering over seven billion and rising, are undoubtedly the most influential actors with regards to sustainable food systems and can also be proactive rather than only reactive to their food environment. The United Nations website for the Sustainable Development Goals provides some very practical actions for an everyday citizen (mostly applicable to a high-income country) to enable them to become more proactive in making more sustainable dietary choices.Four actions are recommended in several recent reports (FAO and WHO, 2014; UNSCN, 2016a; IPES-Food, 2016; Global Panel on Agriculture for Food Systems and Nutrition, 2016) for more sustainable food systems and healthier diets: support of shorter supply chains for local produce; public and private procurement programmes for agrobiodiversity; promotion of fruits and vegetables; and policy incentives and coherence for diversified production and consumption. Examples of how these actions can be used to promote agrobiodiversity and create healthier diets from more sustainable food systems are provided below.Relevant recommendations:• Strengthen local food production and processing, especially by smallholder and family farmers, giving special attention to women's empowerment, while recognizing that efficient and effective trade is key to achieving nutrition objectives (FAO and WHO, 2014). • Invest specifically in nutrition-sensitive value chains and opportunities for crop diversity (UNSCN 2016a). • Create demand and improve access to locally produced food as an investment for improving nutrition through consumption (UNSCN 2016a). • Support short supply chains and alternative retail infrastructures (IPES-Food 2016).The existence of many intermediaries in food supply chains is a recurrent theme that challenges efficient and nutritionsensitive food systems, especially for nutrient-dense products such as fruit and vegetables. The shortening of food supply chains has a positive impact for both farmers and consumers in economic, social and cultural terms (...Continued) (UNSCN, 2016b). Positive effects are also recorded in terms of growth in trust and equality and increase in sustainability in all its dimensions, including environmental, health and wellbeing, social and economic (Marsden, Banks and Bristow, 2000;Galli and Brunori, 2013)  Brunori 2013). With regard to the development of local markets or farmers' markets in particular, SFSC can be established with the support of farmers' and consumers' associations. Active groups for short supply chains in Europe include: Associations pour le maintien de l'agriculture paysanne (France), Groupes d'achat solidaire de l'agriculture paysanne (Belgium) and Gruppi di acquisto solidale (Italy). In developing countries, SFSCs require interventions to build capacities of farmers in delivering produce of high quality, in regular supply and in respect of safety standards. Lack of infrastructure and poorly organized farmers or consumers associations are often recurrent barriers in these countries (FAO, 2015b). Successful examples, however, do exist, as in the case of \"Harvest of Hope\" project from South Africa. This initiative is run by Abalimi Bezekhaya (Farmers of the Home), a non-profit organization that connects home and community gardens throughout the townships of Cape Town City. 1 This project aims at strengthening food and nutrition security by encouraging residents of townships to grow their own vegetables, which are then sold to markets. This produce is planned to match the market's demand for locally grown vegetables, free of chemicals and pesticides. Support to growers in accessing seeds, production planning, soil preparation, harvest, transportation, and financial services is also provided by the organization. Relevant recommendations:• Establish food or nutrient-based standards to make healthy diets and safe drinking water accessible in public facilities such as hospitals, childcare facilities, workplaces, universities, schools, food and catering services, government offices and prisons, and encourage the establishment of facilities for breastfeeding (FAO and WHO, 2014). • Use public procurement to support local agroecological produce (IPES-Food, 2016). • Institutionalize high-quality diets through public sector purchasing power, including food provision in schools and hospitals (Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition, 2016).In Brazil, strategic lobbying and advocacy by key actors involved in the implementation of the Food Acquisition Programme (PAA) and the National School Feeding Programme (PNAE) as well as strengthening the knowledge base to demonstrate the nutritional value of native food biodiversity has established a strong platform for mainstreaming underutilized nutrient-rich food biodiversity into both programs (Beltrame et al., 2016). Both the PAA and PNAE provide incentives for linking local farmers and agricultural biodiversity including a law passed in 2009, which states that 30 per cent of food procured for school feeding under the PNAE must be sourced from local family famers while the PAA pays a premium of 30 per cent for agro-ecological and organic products.Home-grown school feeding programmes also seek to link to local food procurement, though efforts to date to encourage the integration of underutilized, nutrient-dense food biodiversity have been limited. Pilot interventions in Kenya have demonstrated that underutilized, nutrient-rich African leafy vegetables can play a role in helping link local farmer groups to school markets at the county and district level in Kenya (Wasike et al., 2016), while it has been demonstrated that underutilized minor millets incorporated in school feeding programmes can enhance the nutritional status of school children in certain areas of Karnataka state, India (Bergamini et al., 2013). Although small in scale and scope, these examples do demonstrate the potential for agricultural biodiversity to diversify procurement and school feeding.Relevant recommendations:• Promote the diversification of crops including underutilized traditional crops and apply sustainable food production and natural resource management practices (FAO and WHO, 2014). • Improve storage, preservation, transport and distribution technologies and infrastructure to reduce seasonal food insecurity, and food and nutrient loss and waste (FAO and WHO, 2014). • Home gardening as a viable investment for improving nutrition for both production and consumption (UNSCN, 2016a). • Focus more research investment on fruits and vegetables to increase their availability and affordability (Global Panel on Agriculture for Food Systems and Nutrition, 2016).Increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables has important positive health and environmental implications. This goal requires interlinked and interdisciplinary interventions along the value chain of target crops, together with measures addressing the food system. The departure point is a re-visitation of the pathways to nutrition in terms of production of more diverse, nutrient-dense foods. Local crops provide a reservoir of untapped diversity to pursue this goal.According to the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (2016), there are more than 5,000 food crops, with Africa ranking as the most diverse region in the world (539 vegetables and 645 fruit indigenous species) (PROTA, 2010) in terms of wild or cultivated foods. An entry point to leverage this diversity is to better document the nutritional values and promote the conservation of these genetic resources, many of which are currently under threat due to marginalization from markets and environmental degradation. Fruits and vegetables for household consumption can be promoted through home gardens and family farms, whereas sustainable marketing may require efforts towards building better organized and efficient value chains (Padulosi et al., 2014). Value chains can be strengthened through more effective cold chains and enhanced processing methods; marketing strategies, including nutrition labelling or the provision of nutrition information for fresh produce; the introduction of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) or Geographic Indication (GI); and the establishment of multi-stakeholder collaborative platforms (Polar et al., 2010). Education also plays a fundamental role in changing food habits of consumers starting at early ages, hence schools can serve as platforms to support parallel nutrition awareness campaigns targeting other members of the family, especially women, or the community at large. School meals programmes also represent an excellent entry point for awareness raising and sensitization of youth to nutritious foods and diverse, balanced and healthy meals. Public awareness campaigns targeting consumers at large are also needed for the promotion of healthy diets and sustainable food systems. However, a robust and wide impact can only be achieved with the involvement of the multitude of private sector actors who participate in activities throughout the food system, from production to consumption.Relevant recommendations:• Integrate nutrition objectives into food and agriculture policies, programme designs and implementation at multiple levels to ensure coherent food policies from production to consumption, enhance nutrition sensitive agriculture, ensure food security and enable healthy diets (FAO and WHO, 2014;IPES-Food, 2016). • Create policy incentives for diversification and agroecology (IPES-Food, 2016).One of the key actions a country can take to make underutilized, nutrient-rich fruits, vegetables, nuts and pulses more widely available is to develop policies that support and mainstream agricultural biodiversity. ","tokenCount":"3120"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9222c3b18067a22644f4a362db43f507","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a4d6f408-79d8-469e-83eb-10e6f16d3e0d/retrieve","id":"1737803253"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aabf2330-b001-4b1c-b194-96162b942dda","pagecount":"20","content":"This document provides guidance for peer-reviewers who will evaluate concept notes and full proposals submitted in response to the Bio-Innovate First call for concept notes on Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture and the Environment in Eastern Africa. These guidelines describe how the external reviewers are identified and what role they play in the evaluation process. Guidelines for reviewing concept notes by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the Bio-Innovate have already been set out together with the call for concept notes. TAC will technically evaluate the concept notes and short list the eligible ones to de developed into full proposals by successful applicants. The full proposal will be evaluated by independent external experts and the final selection will be made by TAC. This guideline is therefore prepared to guide the reviewing process of the concept notes by TAC as well as full proposals by independent external reviewers.The detailed information about the call content and the call procedures for the preparation of full proposals will be available on the BioInnovate website in due course in the call applicant's guide (http://bioinnovate-africa.org/ calls/applicant_guide.pdf).Identification of peer reviewers and expertise required Bio-Innovate Management Team and the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) may appoint independent experts as deemed necessary to assist in the evaluation process of concept notes and full proposals. Bio-Innovate will ask experts to serve as members of the respective peer-review panels with the following terms of reference: to peer-review the concept notes by the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) in mid-August; and to peer-review the full proposals by Independent experts subsequently.The reviewers for the full proposals are individuals from the fields of biosciences and development, who are internationally recognized in the area of agricultural and environmental biosciences. All independent experts must have a high level (at least 10 years) of professional experience in the public or private sector in research and/or practice in bioresources innovation systems with extensive experience in the Eastern Africa. They should also have experience in one or more of the following areas:Evaluation of projects;Use of the results of research and technological development projects to solve development challenges in agriculture and the environment; Up-and-out scaling of innovations;Biosciences Innovation systems and policy analysis in agriculture and the environment and Innovation systems and value chain analysis targeting climate changeBio-Innovate identify potential reviewers through recommendations by the TAC members on the basis of their experience and appropriate range of competencies in the Bio-Innovate thematic areas of \"First call on concept notes on Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture and the Environment in Eastern Africa\" (Thematic Areas 1 and 2). These areas are described in more detail below.This theme focuses on generating and promoting technologies to boost productivity of strategically important crops in eastern Africa under the threat posed by climatic change. Such crops are important to small-scale farming and rural livelihood strategies. The theme aims at unlocking genetic potential of crops that are resilient to climate change. The Thematic Area seeks to produce crop varieties that are high yielding and resilient to biotic and environmental stresses and address nutritional quality. The theme focuses on strategically important crops for the region, as designated ASARECA, such as cassava, millet, sorghum and sweet potato; and adding value to ongoing initiatives by tackling both input and output traits (including processing and other quality attributes). The innovations will contribute to boosting food and nutrition security, lower food prices, offer more opportunities for income growth through crop diversification, explore value addition opportunities and reduce crop intensification pressure in fragile agro-ecologies.This theme will focus on treatment of agro-processing waste through reuse, conservation of water and other bio-resources. It aims to generate coping strategies, through innovations to reduce the impact of green-house gas emissions and adapt to climate change through innovations to enhance bio-energy recovery from solids and wastewater and provision of clean freshwater resources. An important area will be on use of agro-processing by-products, waste treatment and bio-energy production from existing and ongoing agro-processing activities in the region.The use of wastes for production of value added products such as improved feed, bio-processing reagents with selective catalysts, safe green chemicals, bio-fuels, biogas, bio-plastics and biopolymers would serve the agro-processing sector in the region by making it more sustainable and reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. This would also make the agro processing sector more energy and resource efficient, which is vital for its competitiveness. Such links would also support rural livelihoods through increased demand for local crops and livestock and other bioresources, enhancing the agribusiness opportunities for farmers and small scale enterprises in the region. Promoting the conversion of waste into renewable energy (such as biogas, bio-fuel etc) will also reduce the need to import costly fossil fuel and serve as a step to mitigate climate change. Another important focus will be on promoting innovation on small scale bio-refineries at village level by assisting local communities to add value to their crop produce.Nominations should be sent to the Bio-Innovate Management Office with a brief 1-2 page CV and a signed copy of the attached simple confirmation of availability (see Annex 1) until August 31, 2010. Subsequently, the Bio-Innovate Management Team will compile a list of the nominations for formal approval by the Technical Advisory Committee.In all cases, the relationship between the Bio-Innovate Management Office and the reviewers is defined by a written and signed agreement, the Appointment Letter. Signature of this agreement by the reviewer indicates acceptance of the conditions regarding confidentiality, conflict of interest and use of personal data by Bio-Innovate. Bio-Innovate cannot make available proposals to a reviewer who has not been officially appointed. The model appointment letter is included in Annex 2.Reviewers will work remotely and deliver their individual reviews by electronic means. During the individual review, there shall be no discussions of the proposals concerned between the reviewers. The reviewers will work with the evaluation criteria and the scoring matrix provided in Annex 3. They will give scores between 1 and10 for the following selection criteria (see attached selection criteria): Rationale that a regional approach is more effective than individual, national projects Scientific and technological excellence and degree of innovation with focus on adapting to and/or mitigating the effects of climate change Pathway to Impact (Project design): clear innovation pathway that demonstrates the necessary linkages along the innovation chain to ensure delivery to end users Applicability of the results in practice, potential impact and dissemination Adding value to existing regional efforts Clear demonstration of institutional support and matching funds Quality and organization of the consortium with clear track record of the proposed team leader/principal investigator and Co-PIs Communications and or dissemination mechanisms to end users Monitoring and evaluation plans Intellectual and other policy considerations relevant for the delivery and impact of the specific innovationIn addition, reviewers are expected to provide a succinct but substantial written explanatory comment for each score. Comments should take the form of a statement and explanation of key strength and key weaknesses, in the light of the criteria. They should be impeccably polite, as they form the basis of the feedback to applicants.The technical evaluation process of eligible concept notes by TAC experts takes place between 6 -10, August 2010, and the external peer-review evaluation process of the full proposals takes place between 27 September -October 8, 2010.In the First Bio-Innovate call for concept notes on \"Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture and the Environment in Eastern Africa\" on thematic areas 1 and 2, a total of 43 concept notes (30 on thematic area 1; and 13 on thematic area 2) have been received by the Bio-Innovate Management Team. From the preliminary screening of the concept notes against initial screening criteria by the Program Management Team, 22 concept notes ( 15 from thematic area 1 and 9 from thematic area 2) were found to qualify the preliminary formality checks (conformity to the standard format provided) and were selected for further evaluation by the TAC.We expect that each TAC member might evaluate 3 -5 concept notes. The concept notes will be delivered in a predefined format; with all the sections directly related to the evaluation criteria.The specific project information is strictly limited to 10 pages. It is assumed that an evaluation of a concept note can be conducted within a maximum of 2 days. Given these circumstances, TAC members are expected to be able to allocate 1 -2 working days for the evaluation of the concept notes between 6 -10 August, 2010.Based on the scoring and comments of the reviewers from TAC experts, the Bio-Innovate Program Management Team will select 10-15 concept notes (shortlist) to be developed into 5 -7 full proposals (project consortia). This will be decided by the first TAC meeting scheduled for 16-17 August 2010.It is also expected that each external reviewer will subsequently evaluate 2-3 full proposals. The length of full proposals will be limited to maximum of 20 pages, and reviewers are expected to be able to allocate 2-4 working days for the evaluation of the full proposals between September 27 -October 8, 2010.Bio-Innovate will pay a modest remuneration for the reviewers. The remuneration will be 100 USD per evaluated concept note and USD 200 per evaluated full proposal, payable upon satisfactory completion of the review process and upon receipt of a valid invoice request.Peer-reviewers should not be put in a situation in which their impartiality might be in question, or where the suspicion could arise that recommendations are affected by elements that lie outside the scope of the review. To that effect, Bio-Innovate have formulated a clear set of rules pertaining to conflict of interest (see Annex 4). These rules are incorporated in the appointment letter, in the form of the need for disclosure by the reviewer of any actual or potential conflict of interest regarding the proposals. Conflict of interest arises when an applicant and an evaluator have a significant research collaborative, conflictual or institutional linkage; have close family ties or a personal relationship; have direct financial or administrative dependencies; or are close colleagues in the same institution.In the potential case, the Bio-Innovate Management Team and the TAC will make a decision whether the situation in question constitutes an actual conflict of interestor whether no conflict of interest exists.In every stage of the evaluation, confidentiality is of the utmost importance. All reviewers must respect confidentiality with respect to the applications. If you believe that additional scientific and technical expertise is needed to review an application, contact the Program Management Office who can obtain an appropriate outside opinion. Respect for the privacy of the applicants' ideas is also important. Misappropriation of intellectual property, including the unauthorized use of ideas or unique methods obtained from a privileged communication, such as a grant or manuscript review, is considered plagiarism and falls under the definition of scientific misconduct.Annex 1DateFull mailing address-------------------P.O.Box Nairobi 00100, Kenya I hereby confirm my interest and availability to undertake peer review which is part of the evaluation process of the Bio-Innovate First call for full proposals on Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture and the Environment in Eastern Africa.I am available to carry out the evaluation of full proposals in the period of September 27 -October 8, 2010. I confirm that I have read, understood and will comply with the \"Bio-Innovate Terms of Reference and Guidelines for Peer Reviewers\". I attach the required brief 1-2 page CV.Name: - ---------------------------------------------Signature------------------------Date-------------------- I undertake not to reveal any detail of the peer review evaluation process and its outcomes or of any proposal submitted for peer review evaluation without the written approval of the Bio-Innovate Management Office.I agree to the use of my personal data for the sole purpose of peer review evaluation.For acceptance: Name………………………….Signature…………………….. date………………………….Clear detailed Budget per activities, per partners and per project duration.A template with further instructions for the completion of the full proposals will be available on the Bio-Innovate website in due course and is provided in the call applicant's guide.The evaluation process consists of three steps:1. Review process of the concept notes: Formality and eligibility check by Bio-Innovate Management Team; Evaluation of concept notes by the expert members of the Technical advisory Committee and additional independent experts if need arises, according to predefined criteria and scoring table (see below); Technical Advisory Committee selects the concept notes with the highest scores that are subsequently to be grouped into the respective theme(s) and be developed into full proposals.2. Scientific peer review process of the full proposals (consortia of projects) in thematic areas 1 and 2 by independent external reviewers: Evaluation of each full proposal by at least two independent scientific reviewers from the pool of experts according to predefined criteria and scoring table (see below) Proposals above the scoring threshold value will go to the next step 3. Selection of the projects by the TAC to be funded by the Bio-Innovate ProgramThe following flowchart shows the different activities and the timeline of the evaluation and selection process. The different steps are described in more detail in the text below.The Bio-Innovate Management Team will conduct a formality and eligibility check for compliance with the following criteria: Meeting the deadline, multidisciplinary, multi country with regional leadership including private and public entities and comprise of minimum of 4 and maximum of 6 partners, addressing the research themes as described in the call text, and eligibility of the participants. This check will be done to confirm that the concept notes are eligible for further evaluation.Each eligible concept note will then be evaluated in a peer-review process by experts from members of the TAC. The PMO will compile the evaluation results and provide a ranking list of the concept notes, based on the total score achieved in the evaluation. The TAC in its first meeting will select 10-15 concept notes (shortlist) to be developed into 5-7 full proposals comprising consortia of projects, based on the ranking order of the scoring and the comments of the evaluators.The PMO will again perform the same formality and eligibility check for the full proposals as already done for the concept notes. All eligible full proposals will then go again to a peer review process for full proposals.Each eligible Proposal will then be evaluated in a peer-review process by at least two independent evaluators. A pool of potential reviewers will be established before the start of the evaluation process, but final selection of reviewers will not be made until the applications have been received. The pool of evaluators will be formed from biosciences experts nominated by the TAC. The TAC shall ensure that the reviewers are independent experts with the skills and knowledge appropriate to the tasks assigned to them, and are not faced with conflict of interests on the matter on which they are asked to give opinion. The reviewers will be required to sign a declaration of confidentiality and 'no conflict of interest' at the time of their appointment. Reviewers will be chosen from the pool based on their specific knowledge of the topic areas covered by the applications, and may represent both the scientific and user community. Peer review will be carried out remotely to ensure that independent views are anonymously obtained. Reviewers will be provided with guidance and will use an evaluation model based on given criteria and a specified scoring matrix (same matrix as specified for step 2, see below). Each peer reviewer will produce a textual report for each of the evaluation criteria, a score for each criterion, and a total score for each proposal.If the evaluation of the two independent evaluators differs significantly, the final ranking decision is at the discretion of the Technical Advisory Committee.The peer review process for full proposals will provide an opportunity for the reviewers to ask for clarification of parts of the proposal if necessary, facilitated by the Bio-Innovate Management Office.The review process will be conducted following the criteria given in Table 1 below.Criteria 1.Rationale that a regional approach is more effective than individual, national projects.threshold score in each criterion will be considered as \"fundable\" and go to final step (step 3) of the evaluation. Proposals failing to achieve the threshold score in one or more of the criteria should be considered as \"not fundable\". If the evaluation of the two independent evaluators is not consistent on \"fundable\" or \"not fundable\", the decision will be at the discretion of TAC.Step 3: Selection of full proposals that passed the threshold valueAll the full proposals that meet or are above the threshold score in each criterion will go to a TAC Selection Committee of the Bio-Innovate Program. The TAC will aim to create a balanced portfolio of projects, taking into account the objectives of the call, the quality of the proposals, and the advice from the evaluators and the availability of funding. The TAC will take the final decisions on project selection and advise the PMO to start the contracting process.A disqualifying conflict of interest for a specific proposal exists if the reviewer: Was involved in the preparation of the proposal Stands to benefit directly should the proposal be acceptedThe Principal Investigator submits the proposal on behalf of his/her host organization designated lead institution and the partner organizations. These organizations are the applicant legal entities.A disqualifying conflict of interest for a specific proposal therefore arises if the reviewer: Has a close family relationship with any person representing an applicant legal entity in the proposal Is a director, trustee or partner of an applicant legal entity Is employed by one of the applicant legal entities in the proposal Was employed by one of the applicant legal entities in the proposal within the previous three years Furthermore a disqualifying conflict of interest for a specific proposal exists if the reviewer is in any other situation that could compromise his or her ability to evaluate the proposal impartially, such as the reviewer: Has close family ties or a personal relationship with the principal investigator or partner investigators of the proposal Is a former supervisor of the principal investigator or partner investigators of the proposal Is a close collaborator of the principal investigator or partner investigators of the proposal (up to five years previously)A potential conflict of interest may exist for a specific proposal, even in cases not covered by the clear disqualifying conflicts indicated above, if the reviewer: Is already involved in a contract or research collaboration with an applicant legal entity or had been so in the previous three years Is in any other situation that could cast doubt on his or her ability to evaluate the proposal impartially, or that could reasonably appear to do so in the eyes of an external third party","tokenCount":"3083"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c0765c0776b1066e362e73a112785746","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c0e1753-0220-4a41-8888-53b43f71f6ec/retrieve","id":"-1228606426"},"keywords":["phosphorus deficiency","root morphology","root architecture","root traits","Pi uptake","PSI genes"],"sieverID":"b2662517-a9e6-4c12-a48b-bc0a79c6be2c","pagecount":"15","content":"Phosphorus (P) is one of the essential macronutrients for plant growth and development, and it is an integral part of the major organic components, including nucleic acids, proteins and phospholipids. Although total P is abundant in most soils, a large amount of P is not easily absorbed by plants. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is the plant-available P, which is generally immobile and of low availability in soils. Hence, Pi starvation is a major constraint limiting plant growth and productivity. Enhancing plant P efficiency can be achieved by improving P acquisition efficiency (PAE) through modification of morpho-physiological and biochemical alteration in root traits that enable greater acquisition of external Pi from soils. Major advances have been made to dissect the mechanisms underlying plant adaptation to P deficiency, especially for legumes, which are considered important dietary sources for humans and livestock. This review aims to describe how legume root growth responds to Pi starvation, such as changes in the growth of primary root, lateral roots, root hairs and cluster roots. In particular, it summarizes the various strategies of legumes to confront P deficiency by regulating root traits that contribute towards improving PAE. Within these complex responses, a large number of Pi starvation-induced (PSI) genes and regulators involved in the developmental and biochemical alteration of root traits are highlighted. The involvement of key functional genes and regulators in remodeling root traits provides new opportunities for developing legume varieties with maximum PAE needed for regenerative agriculture.Phosphorus (P) is one of the principal macronutrients for plant growth and productivity, and it is part of the crucial organic components such as nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes and phospholipids (Hawkesford et al., 2012;Plaxton and Shane, 2015;Lambers, 2022). P participates in a series of physiological, biochemical and metabolomic processes in plants such as photosynthesis, respiration, energy generation, nucleic acid synthesis, nitrogen (N) fixation and redox reactions (Liang et al., 2014;Ham et al., 2018;Lambers, 2022). Hence, P is essential at all developmental stages of plants including seed germination, root growth, leaf and stem development as well as flower and seed generation (Malhotra et al., 2018).Although total P is abundant in most soils, a large proportion of P is fixed by soil mineral components (e.g., aluminium or iron) into insoluble chemical complexes that are not readily accessible to plants (Hinsinger, 2001;Margenot et al., 2016;Ojeda-Rivera et al., 2022). Inorganic phosphate (Pi), in the form of HPO 4 2and H 2 PO 4 -, is the plant-available P. However, Pi concentration in soil solutions is generally less than 10 µM (Vance et al., 2003;Mo et al., 2022). Therefore, low Pi availability is considered as a major limiting factor for plant growth, development and yield in more than 60% of the world's arable land (Gutieŕrez-Alanıś et al., 2018). To obtain high crop yields, a large amount of P-containing fertilizers derived from rock phosphate are applied in agricultural systems. Approximately 60 million tonnes of P fertilizers were used in 2020 around the world, which were more than 40% higher than those in 2000 (FAOSTAT, 2022). However, only 10-30% of the P in P fertilizers are estimated to be used by plants (Vance et al., 2003;Richardson and Simpson, 2011;Ojeda-Rivera et al., 2022). Most of the mineral P fertilizers that are applied in high amounts can gradually leach from soils into water bodies, leading to environmental pollution, such as eutrophication (MacDonald et al., 2011;Zak et al., 2018). In addition, rock phosphate reserves are a non-renewable resource that will be depleted in future (Vance et al., 2003;George et al., 2016). Breeding programs address this problem through the development of P-efficient crop cultivars that produce higher yields per unit of P fertilizer input. Therefore, an improved understanding of the mechanisms of P efficiency in crops is required.Several studies have demonstrated that increasing plant P efficiency can be achieved by improving P acquisition efficiency (PAE) and/or P utilization efficiency (PUE) (Wang et al., 2010;Adem et al., 2020;Han et al., 2022;Zou et al., 2022). PAE is regarded as the ability of plants to acquire soil P by roots, while PUE is thought to be the ability of plants to generate biomass or yield using the acquired P (Wang et al., 2010;Han et al., 2022). In P-limited soils, enhancement of PAE is a key strategy that has received considerable attention with a focus on optimizing root traits including: (1) root growth responses that involve changes in root morphology (e.g., primary root, lateral roots, root hairs, and cluster roots) and root architecture, contributing to acquire more P from soils by extension of root system (Lynch, 2011;Li et al., 2016;Zhang et al., 2018;Chen et al., 2021;Liu, 2021;Lynch et al., 2022); (2) coordination of physiological and biochemical alterations of root traits, such as exudation of protons, organic acids and phosphatases into the rhizosphere, facilitating P mobilization from the unavailable P in the rhizosphere (Pang et al., 2018a;Robles-Aguilar et al., 2019;Wen et al., 2019); (3) establishing symbiotic interactions with beneficial microbes (e.g., Pi-solubilizing bacteria) or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to improve PAE by solubilizing and foraging P (Khan et al., 2014;Campos et al., 2018). Thus, genetic modification of root system traits can be an effective strategy for improving crop varieties with low P tolerance and high PAE.The Fabaceae family, formerly known as Leguminosae, is one of the largest families of flowering plants, comprising more than 700 genera and about 18,000 species among the grain, pasture, and agroforestry species, and it is second in importance to human activities after Gramineae family (Lewis et al., 2005;Abdelrahman et al., 2018). Legumes account for approximately 27% of the world's crop production, ranking in second place as human food crops after cereal crops. Major legume crops include soybean (Glycine max), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), and white lupin (Lupinus albus). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), clover (Trifolium spp.), and stylo (Stylosanthes spp.) are major forage legumes in the world. Many legume crops are either used for food or as an animal fodder or for both purposes (Foyer et al., 2016;Abdelrahman et al., 2018;Roy et al., 2020). Unlike most other non-legume plants, legumes can develop symbiotic interaction with rhizobia to form nodules that can fix atmospheric N, thereby contributing to enhance agricultural sustainability (Abdelrahman et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2022). Since symbiotic N fixation (SNF) in nodules requires significant inputs of energy, legumes are generally considered to have a high P requirement (Sulieman and Tran, 2015;Pang et al., 2018b;Zhong et al., 2023). Furthermore, as N-fixing root nodules are strong P sinks, the growth and yield of legumes are dramatically decreased by 30-40% under low P stress (Tesfaye et al., 2007;Valdeś-Loṕez and Hernańdez, 2008;Chen et al., 2011;Qin et al., 2012;Guo et al., 2022). Thus, low P availability is regarded as an important constraint for legume production.Over the past three decades, great efforts have been made to elucidate the plant responses and the adaptive mechanisms of legumes to Pi deprivation. In this review, we focus on progress in the understanding of root growth responses to P deficiency in legumes. In particular, we summarize the recent advances in dissecting the adaptive strategies of legume plants to Pi starvation through regulation of root response for improving PAE. We highlight the Pi starvation-induced (PSI) genes that have been successfully characterized for their roles in improving PAE and we also indicate future research directions for improving PAE. This will provide new opportunities for developing legume varieties with high P efficiency that are needed for resourceefficient and regenerative agriculture.Plants can sense external and internal Pi status and remodel root traits in response to P deficiency through local and systemic responses (Raya-Gonzaĺez et al., 2021). Local P deficiency appears to be the external driver of primary root growth inhibition, promoting lateral root formation and increasing the production of root hairs (Chien et al., 2018;Huang and Zhang, 2020;Liu, 2021) (Figure 1). Although the dissection of root responses to P deficiency in legumes has remained less defined, legumes are able to adapt to P deficiency through regulation of a variety of root growth responses and gene expressions.Adaptive responses of legume plants to P deficiency involve changes in root morphology induced by dynamic remodeling of primary roots, lateral roots, root hairs and cluster roots, which maximize the acquisition of external Pi from soils. Low-P-enhanced elongation of primary roots is observed in many legume plants, such as soybean, common bean, stylo and crowtoe (Lotus corniculatus) (Wissuwa, 2003;Guo et al., 2011;Zhou et al., 2014;Luo et al., 2020;An et al., 2023). For example, the growth of primary root is stimulated in soybean and stylo during P deficiency, which may be beneficial for foraging P from soils (Li et al., 2015;Luo et al., 2020;Yang et al., 2021a;Xie et al., 2022). To date, a set of PSI genes have been demonstrated to be involved in the regulation of primary root growth in legumes (Guo et al., 2011;Li et al., 2022). It has been reported that more than 200 PSI genes have been identified in soybean roots. Among them, GmEXPB2, a b-expansin gene, is found to be induced by P deficiency in roots. GmEXPB2 is a secretory protein that localizes to the cell wall; overexpression of GmEXPB2 increases the growth of primary roots by enhancing the size and number of cortical cells in both the root meristematic and elongation zones, thereby increasing Pi uptake and P efficiency in soybean (Guo et al., 2008;Guo et al., 2011;Zhou et al., 2014;Li et al., 2015;Yang et al., 2021a). Furthermore, a low-P-induced expansin-like B gene, GmEXLB1, has been proved to participate in enhancing root elongation and modifying root architecture, which is contributed to increase plant PAE (Kong et al., 2019). Similar role of SgEXPB1 gene in regulating root growth has recently been characterized in stylo under P-deficient condition (Wang et al., 2023). A variety of expansin genes upregulated by P deficiency are also reported in other legumes, such as alfalfa (Li et al., 2022), suggesting the key role of expansin genes in legume root growth. In addition, a group of transcription factors are also reported to be involved in regulating the primary root growth during P deficiency, such as members belonging to the MYB transcription factor family. For example, GmWRKY46, belonging to the WRKY family localized in the nucleus, is induced by P deficiency in soybean roots; overexpression of GmWRKY46 promotes the growth of both primary root and lateral roots and increases Pi uptake in transgenic Arabidopsis probably through the regulation of downstream PSI gene (Li et al., 2021).Lateral roots also play vital roles in efficient Pi acquisition by enhancing soil exploration (Li et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2020;Li et al., 2021;Lynch, 2022). It has been shown that the growth and proliferation of lateral roots in legume plants are mediated by Pi availability. For example, elongation and density of lateral roots are increased by low P stress in alfalfa and common bean (Williamson et al., 2001;Linkohr et al., 2002;Reymond et al., 2006;Zhang et al., 2014). A group of genes involved in lateral root growth have been identified in alfalfa, soybean and white lupin (Cheng et al., 2011;Li et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2020;Li et al., 2021). For example, Gm6PGDH1, encoding the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, is Strategies for improving P acquisition efficiency through gene regulation in legumes. In legumes, P acquisition efficiency can be achieved by remodeling of root morphology and architecture, inducing high-affinity Pi transporters, increasing root exudates to facilitating P mobilization, and activating Pi signaling network. A variety of Pi starvation-induced (PSI) genes have been implicated in improving P acquisition efficiency in legumes. These are related to root growth, Pi uptake, insoluble P mobilization and Pi signaling network.mainly expressed in the P-deficient soybean root; overexpression of Gm6PGDH1 increased lateral root length and Pi uptake in transgenic soybean plants under P-deficient conditions (Li et al., 2021). In addition, GmETO1 is an essential ethylene-biosynthesis regulator located in the cell nucleus; both hairy root length and number of lateral roots are significantly increased in transgenic soybean plants with GmETO1 overexpression (Zhang et al., 2020). Furthermore, it has been found that the overexpression of GmWRKY45 increases the adaptability of transgenic Arabidopsis to Pi starvation through an increase in lateral root growth, contributing to greater Pi uptake (Li et al., 2020). In white lupin, the NAC domain-containing LaNAC1 is also implicated in regulating the growth of lateral roots under P deficiency (Cheng et al., 2011).Root hairs, deriving from root epidermal cells, increase the root surface area that can be in contact with the soil substrate (Williamson et al., 2001;Huang et al., 2017). For instance, the number and length of root hairs in alfalfa increase rapidly in the early stage of P deficiency, facilitating greater Pi uptake (Li et al., 2018). Many genes have been documented to be involved in root hair growth in common bean, soybean and white lupin (Cheng et al., 2011;Yao et al., 2014a;Yao et al., 2014b;Li et al., 2015). For example, two genes encoding glycerophosphodiester phosphodiesterase, LaGPX-PDE1/2, have been implicated in root hair growth and development in white lupin (Cheng et al., 2011). Both LaGPX-PDE1/2 are highly expressed in P-limited root hairs; knockdown of LaGPX-PDE1/2 in white lupin impairs root hair development and density, thereby decreasing P concentration (Cheng et al., 2011). Therefore, LaGPX-PDE1/2 are proposed to be involved in improving PAE by enhancing root hair development. In common bean, PvSPX1 is one of the SPX (SYG1, Pho81 and XPR1) domain-containing proteins that is localized in the nucleus and plays a central role in the P signaling network (Yao et al., 2014b). The expression of PvSPX1 is enhanced by P deficiency in both leaves and roots of common bean; overexpression of PvSPX1 leads to an increase root P concentration and an enlargement of root hair zone in transgenic bean hairy roots, suggesting that PvSPX1 can regulate the growth of root hairs (Yao et al., 2014b).Cluster roots, also known as proteoid roots, are a specialized root structure consisting of closely spaced tertiary lateral roots, and it is the feature of the Proteaceae members and several other plant species (Shane and Lambers, 2005;Shu et al., 2005;Lambers et al., 2006). It has been established that Pi acquisition capacity within the cluster roots is greater than that of the normal roots, suggesting an important role for cluster roots in Pi acquisition (Keerthisinghe et al., 1998). White lupin is the representative plant used to study the formation and growth of cluster roots affected by P nutrition (Liu et al., 2005;Wang et al., 2015). The earliest response of white lupin to P deficiency is the formation of cluster roots (Neumann et al., 2000). Numerous PSI genes have been identified in cluster roots of white lupin (Zhou et al., 2019). Among them, a novel C terminally encoded peptide gene LaCEP1 is characterized to be negatively regulating cluster root development (Zhou et al., 2019). LaCEP1 is highly expressed in the pre-emergence zone of the cluster roots; overexpression of LaCEP1 results in the inhibition of cluster root formation (Zhou et al., 2019). Although the formation of cluster roots significantly increases root surface area, cluster roots increase P acquisition mainly through increasing root exudation rather than by strengthening P foraging (Gardner et al., 1982;Neumann and Römheld, 1999;Shen et al., 2003). It is therefore of interest to investigate the coordinated morpho-physiological and biochemical responses of cluster root to P deficiency.Root architecture refers to the overall spatial configuration of the root system, and it has significant effects on nutrient acquisition (Zhao et al., 2004;Koevoets et al., 2016;Li et al., 2016;Lynch, 2022). Root architecture displays high plasticity under P deficiency (Rellań- A ́lvarez et al., 2016;Amtmann and Shahzad, 2017;Motte et al., 2019). Modification of root architecture is the key strategy for plants to cope with low P stress and maximize Pi acquisition under P-limited conditions (Zhao et al., 2004;Li et al., 2016;Liu, 2021). Root architecture determines the distribution range and expansion degree of roots in soils, which is highly correlated with the P efficiency of legumes. The development of shallow root architecture is generally considered as an effective strategy for the legumes adaptation to P deficiency, such as common bean, mungbean (Vigna radiata) and soybean (Liao et al., 2004;Reddy et al., 2020;Seck et al., 2020). For example, in soybean, shallow root architecture and high lateral rooting are helpful traits in increasing Pi uptake compared to the deep root architecture. Furthermore, among an applied core collection of soybean, the cultivated soybean displays a shallow root architecture and high P efficiency, while the wild, climbing soybean exhibits a deep root architecture and low P efficiency (Zhao et al., 2004).A range of quantitative trait loci (QTL) are reported to be related to root architecture and Pi acquisition (Liao et al., 2004). In legumes, for example, according to QTL analysis of basal root growth angle (BRGA) in bean recombinant inbred lines (RILs), the QTL for BRGA co-segregates with gain in yield under low P stress, and thus the BRGA has a major effect on PAE and yield under low-P conditions (Lynch and Brown, 2001;Liao et al., 2004). Furthermore, QTL analysis using bean RILs shows that some of the identified root traits, including those for BRGA, shallow basal root length and relative shallow basal root length, are associated with QTL for PAE (Liao et al., 2004). In addition, the QTL for basal root growth is also linked to the QTL for PAE in common bean (Beebe et al., 2006). Similarly, various QTL controlling root traits and P efficiency have been identified using soybean RILs; and the authors proposed that some of the identified QTL have great potential for genetic improvement of soybean with high P efficiency through a selection of root traits (Liang et al., 2010b).Although key genes responsible for the QTL controlling root architecture in legumes have not been well characterized by forward genetic approaches, several genes possibly involved in modifying root architecture in response to Pi starvation have been identified by reverse genetics (Li et al., 2014;Yang et al., 2021a). For example, in soybean, GmEXPB2 is intrinsically involved in root system architecture responses to abiotic stresses, and overexpression of GmEXPB2 modified soybean root architecture through expanding root hair density and size of the root hair zone (Guo et al., 2011;Li et al., 2015).Phosphate transporters (PHTs) are known to control Pi uptake and transport in plants (Versaw and Garcia, 2017;Dai et al., 2022). PHTs have been identified in many plants and can be divided into four subfamilies (PHT1, PHT2, PHT3 and PHT4) according to their functional differences and subcellular localization. Among them, the PHT1 family is a multiprotein family that is localized in the plasma membrane for transporting Pi from apoplast to cytoplasm (Nussaume et al., 2011). Most PHT1 genes are induced by Pi starvation in plant roots and are implicated in Pi uptake from soil or Pi translocation within plant tissues or cells (Liu et al., 2011;Remy et al., 2012). The role of PHT1 homologues in Pi uptake has been documented in legumes, such as M. truncatula, soybean and white lupin (Liu et al., 2001;Liu et al., 2008;Guo et al., 2022). Of the eleven PHT1 homologues in M. truncatula, only MtPT1, MtPT2, MtPT3 and MtPT5 are induced by low P stress (Chiou et al., 2001;Liu et al., 2008). MtPT1 is mainly expressed in the root and is likely involved in the Pi uptake (Chiou et al., 2001). MtPT5 encodes a plasma membrane-localized Pi transporter (Liu et al., 2008). Ectopic expression of MtPT5 complements the Pi uptake capability in the Arabidopsis pht1;1pht1;4 double mutant, confirming its function in Pi uptake (Wang et al., 2022). In soybean, GmPT4 is a plasma membrane-localized Pi transporter; and overexpression of GmPT4 increases the growth and Pi uptake in soybean, improving PAE (Guo et al., 2022). Pi-starvation-enhanced expression of PHT1 genes are also found in white lupin and stylo (Liu et al., 2001;An et al., 2023). Overexpression of SgPT1 from stylo can increase Pi uptake and enhance root growth in transgenic plants (An et al., 2023).Insoluble P in soil can be divided into inorganic P and organic P. Inorganic P can be further classified into calcium phosphate (Ca-P), aluminum phosphate (Al-P) and iron phosphate (Fe-P), all of which is not easily available for the plant (Ao et al., 2014), while organic P mainly exists in the form of organic P esters and anhydrides, such as phytate, phospholipids, nucleotide and its derivatives (Simpson et al., 2011;Lorenzo-Orts et al., 2020).Previous work indicates that the regulation of root organic acid exudation is an important process for inorganic P acquisition from the soil by chelating metal ions of insoluble phosphate, thereby increasing Pi concentration in soil solution (Peng et al., 2018;Lambers, 2022). Various types of organic acids secreted from roots are observed in legumes, such as white lupin (Lambers et al., 2013), soybean (Ryan et al., 2009), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) (Ishikawa et al., 2002) and common bean (Shen et al., 2002). For example, citrate and malate are the major organic acids secreted from cluster roots of white lupin under low P stress, which can help to increase Pi concentration in the rhizosphere (Vance, 2010;Lambers et al., 2013). Furthermore, organic acid exudation from a low-P-tolerant soybean genotype was higher than that of a low-P-sensitive soybean genotype (Zhang et al., 2011).Organic acid synthesis and exudation are controlled by a variety of genes in legumes (Ryan et al., 2001;Wang et al., 2013;Loṕez-Arredondo et al., 2014). For example, organic acid synthesis is significantly increased in roots of transgenic alfalfa overexpressing the malate dehydrogenase gene, MDH, which is beneficial for increasing Pi uptake (Tesfaye et al., 2001;Tesfaye et al., 2003). Similar roles are observed in GmMDH12 from soybean and SgMDH1 from stylo (Chen et al., 2015;Zhu et al., 2021;Song et al., 2022). In addition, it has been reported that overexpression of citrate synthase (DcCs) from Daucus carota increases the synthesis and exudation of citrate in transgenic pigeonpea; and transgenic lines display enhancement of root growth compared to the wild type (Hussain et al., 2016). To date, the well-characterized malate and citrate transporters are members belonging to Aluminium Active Malate Transporter (ALMT) and Multidrug and Toxic Compound Extrusion (MATE) families, respectively (Sasaki et al., 2004;Hoekenga et al., 2006). For example, a group of GmALMT genes are regulated by P deficiency in soybean. Among them, GmALMT5, localized to the plasma membrane, is enhanced by Pi starvation in soybean roots; both root growth and P content of transgenic Arabidopsis overexpressing GmALMT5 are increased when grown in a medium supplied with Ca-P as the external P source (Peng et al., 2018). Similarly, LaALMT1 is also characterized to be the plasma membrane-localized malate transporter in white lupin (Zhou et al., 2020). In addition, several genes encoding citrate transporters have also been reported in legumes, such as VuMATE in rice bean (Vigna umbellata) and LaMATE1/3 in white lupin, all of which are induced by P deficiency (Wang et al., 2013;Loṕez-Arredondo et al., 2014;Zhou et al., 2021). For instance, LaMATE1/3 exhibit the highest expression in mature cluster root under low-P conditions; mediating citrate transport when LaMATE1/3 are expressed in oocytes, suggesting the role for LaMATE1/3 in regulating citrate transport during low P stress (Zhou et al., 2021). In addition, secreting protons by legume root can acidify the rhizosphere soil, thereby improving the bioavailability of insoluble P (Kouas et al., 2009). For example, a plasma-membrane transporter GmVP2 has recently been reported to mediate H + exudation from root of soybean exposed to low P treatment; overexpression of GmVP2 in Arabidopsis can increase H + exudation, promote root growth and increase Pi availability (Xie et al., 2022).As mentioned before, about 30-65% of insoluble P in soil exists in the form of organic P, which can only be utilized by plants via the participation of various phosphoesterases, such as phosphatases, phosphodiesterases and nucleotidases (Matange et al., 2015;Tian and Liao, 2015;Yang et al., 2017). Purple acid phosphatases (PAPs) are among the most identified phosphoesterases in plants, which belong to the hydrolases that hydrolyze organic P to release inorganic Pi for plant uptake (Tian and Liao, 2015;Wu et al., 2018). It has been demonstrated that the root-associated/secreted PAPs are either associated with root surfaces or secreted into the rhizosphere, scavenging Pi from external organic P and increasing Pi availability (Loṕez-Arredondo et al., 2014;Tian and Liao, 2015;Wang and Liu, 2018). The Pi-starvation-increased activity of root-associated/secreted acid phosphatase is observed in common bean, stylo and peanut (Arachis hypogaea) (Liang et al., 2010a;Wei et al., 2022;Liu et al., 2016Liu et al., , 2018)).A set of PSI-secreted PAPs has been identified in legume plants, for example, LaSAP1/2 from white lupin (Wasaki et al., 2000;Wasaki et al., 2009), PvPAP3 from common bean (Liang et al., 2010a;Liang et al., 2012), and GmPAP7a/7b from soybean (Zhu et al., 2020). GmPAP14 is a secreted PAP in soybean. GmPAP14 overexpression increases secreted APase and phytase activities, contributing to external phytate utilization and growth enhancement (Kong et al., 2018). Similar roles for GmPAP7a and GmPAP7b have been found in soybean and these two PAP members exhibit high activities against adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in vitro. Overexpression of GmPAP7a and GmPAP7b is able to increase root-associated APase activities, thereby improving utilization of organic P in soybean (Zhu et al., 2020). In common bean, PvPAP3 is found to localize to the plasma membrane and apoplast. The transcript of PvPAP3 is induced by Pi starvation in roots of common bean, especially in the P-efficient genotype; and overexpression of PvPAP3 increases the growth and P content in bean hairy roots and Arabidopsis when ATP and dNTPs are supplied as the sole external P source, respectively (Liang et al., 2010a;Liang et al., 2012). In addition, overexpression of MtPHY1 or MtPAP1 increases the ability of organic P utilization in both white clover (Trifolium repens) and alfalfa (Ma et al., 2009;Ma et al., 2012). The roles of other PAP homologues, such as SgPAP7/10/23/26 from stylo and CaPAP7 from chickpea in organic P utilization have also been elucidated (Liu et al., 2016;Bhadouria et al., 2017;Liu et al., 2018). These studies suggest that PSI-secreted PAPs play an important role in the utilization of external organic P for improved P acquisition.In soils, plant roots can interact with many rhizosphere microorganisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi and phospho-relieving bacteria, regulating Pi uptake and its utilization (Smith et al., 2003;Smith et al., 2004;Liang et al., 2014). Most of the legumes can be infected by mycorrhizal fungi to form a symbiotic system. The formation of plant-mycorrhizal fungal symbiosis is one of the vital mechanisms of plant adaption to low P stress (Smith et al., 2003;Smith et al., 2004), which can improve plant P efficiency (Figure 2). In plant-mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis, mycorrhizal association generates a large number of extra-root hyphae which can extend beyond the Pdeficient roots, but also enter into the small soil particle gaps to improve the spatial utilization of P in soils (Bago, 2000;Wang et al., 2011). Mycorrhizal fungi can promote Pi uptake and transport by regulating the expression of PT genes in the extracorporeal filaments and roots of the host plant. A set of PT homologues are induced by mycorrhizal fungi inoculation in host plants, such as MtPT4/6 in M. truncatula, AsPT4 in Astragalus sinicu and GmPT8/9/10/11 in soybean (Harrison et al., 2002;Tamura et al., 2012;Xie et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2016;Cui et al., 2019). For example, MtPT4 encoding a low-affinity Pi transporter is expressed in mycorrhizal roots of M. truncatula. Complemental analysis shows that MtPT4 can enhance Pi uptake in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells, suggesting that MtPT4 is involved in Pi acquisition from arbuscules in M. truncatula (Harrison et al., 2002;Volpe et al., 2016). In soybean, GmPT10 and GmPT11 are two mycorrhiza-inducible Pi transporters that can complement Pi transport in the yeast mutant PAM2, which is lacked PHO84 and PHO89, two high-affinity Pi transporters (Tamura et al., 2012). In addition, PAP genes have also been characterized to involve in plant-mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis (Li et al., 2017;Li et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2020). The plasma membrane-localized GmPAP33 is found to be mainly expressed in arbuscule-containing cells; overexpression of GmPAP33 significantly increases the percentages of large arbuscules and P content of transgenic soybean when inoculated with AM fungi (Li et al., 2019).On the other hand, legumes are able to develop symbioses with rhizobia to generate a special organ, nodule, which can release an abundance of protons to acidify the rhizosphere, thereby increasing Pi availability in soils (Qin et al., 2011;Ding et al., 2012). It has been reported that the growth and N and P contents are increased in soybean after inoculating with rhizobia in low-P acid soils (Cheng et al., 2009). A variety of PSI genes and proteins have been identified in nodules exposed to P deficiency (Figure 2; Hernańdez et al., 2009;Chen et al., 2011;Cabeza et al., 2014;Xue et al., 2018;Zhong et al., 2023). For example, 1140 and 2055 genes have been found to be regulated by P deficiency in nodules of M. truncatula and soybean, respectively (Cabeza et al., 2014;Xue et al., 2018). Among them, a group of Pi transporter genes have been reported to be involved in improving Pi uptake in nodules. For example, GmPT7, a nodulelocalized Pi transporter, is induced by low P stress in soybean nodules. GmPT7 is found to be mainly expressed in the outer cortex and N fixing zones of the nodules; overexpression of GmPT7 in soybean increased nodulation, P content and soybean yield, suggesting that GmPT7 is responsible for direct Pi entry to nodules (Chen et al., 2019). Unlike GmPT7, GmPT5 is proposed to function in transporting Pi from roots to nodules, thereby regulating nodulation and soybean growth (Qin et al., 2012). In addition, GmPT1/4/11 are also implicated in Pi homeostasis and nodulation in soybean (Qin et al., 2012;Chen et al., 2019;Lu et al., 2020). In M. truncatula, MtPT6 is preferentially expressed in vascular bundles, cortical cells, and fixation zone cells of nodules. Functional analysis confirms that MtPT6 is a typical Pi transporter and can increase PAE in plants (Cao et al., 2021). Furthermore, MtPHO1.1 and MtPHO1.2 are expressed not only across the various nodule zones but also the root vascular system, participating in transporting Pi from infected nodule cells to bacteroids in M. truncatula (Müller, 2021;Nguyen et al., 2021). In addition, the transcript of GmPAP12 is gradually increased during soybean nodule growth. Subsequent analysis shows that overexpression of GmPAP12 leads to increase nodule number, shoot dry weight, and N and P content of transgenic composite soybean plant under low P stress, suggesting the roles of GmPAP12 involved in nodulation and SNF in soybean (Wang et al., 2020). Among the nine b-expansin members, the expression of GmINS1 is found to be enhanced by Pi starvation in soybean nodule; overexpression of GmINS1 increases nodule size and N 2 fixation capacity, ultimately enhancing P content, plant biomass and soybean yield (Li et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2021b). Although only a few genes involved in symbiosis have been identified, their function highlights the importance of symbiosis for improving legume adaption to low P stress.Physiological and biochemical changes of plants in response to low P stress are mediated by a complex signaling network, including local and systemic sensing and signaling. A set of important components shown in Figure 1, such as transcription factors and regulators, have been demonstrated to be involved in the Pi signaling network. Among them, an R2R3 MYB member, Phosphate Starvation Response 1 (PHR1) is the most well-characterized transcription factor involved in Pi starvation responses in the Pi signaling network (Chiou and Lin, 2011). PHR1 or PHR1-like is considered as the central transcription factor of Pi signaling network through the regulation of a lot of downstream PSI genes (Wang et al., 2009;Bustos et al., 2010;Wang et al., 2014;Zhong et al., 2018). To date, several PHR1 genes have been identified in legumes, such as GmPHR1/4/25 from soybean (Xue et al., 2017;Lu et al., 2020) and PvPHR1 from common bean (Valdeś-Loṕez et al., 2008). For example, in soybean, the Pi starvation up-regulated gene GmPHR25 is an important regulator in the Pi signaling network that controls Pi homeostasis in soybean; and overexpressing GmPHR25 results in increasing Pi concentration in transgenic soybean hairy roots, probably through enhancing the expression of several high-affinity Pi transporters (GmPTs) and GmPAP14/21 (Xue et al., 2017). In common bean, PvPHR1 is a positive regulator of the Pi signaling network. The transcript of PvPHR1 is increased by Pi starvation in both leaves and roots; and the knockdown of PvPHR1 leads to a decreased expression of a set of PSI genes, such as PvPHT1, PvPHO1, Pv4, PvRNS and PvAPC5, thereby decreasing Pi concentrations in composite common bean plants (Valdeś-Loṕez et al., 2008).In addition, SPX domain-containing proteins also have been characterized as key sensors and regulators of Pi homeostasis and signaling in soybean, common bean and M. truncatula (Yao et al., 2014a;Yao et al., 2014b;Wang et al., 2021;Zhuang et al., 2021). For instance, in M. truncatula, two SPX domain-containing proteins, MtSPX1 and MtSPX3, are found to be localized in the cytoplasm and the nucleus and can also interact with MtPHR2. The expressions of MtSPX1 and MtSPX3 are increased by Pi starvation in arbusculecontaining cells. Lost function of MtSPX1 and MtSPX3 results in decreased root colonization and arbuscule abundance as well as the expression of Rhizophagus Irregularis Elongation Factor (RiEF) and MtPT4, suggesting that MtSPX1 and MtSPX3 play important roles in maintaining arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in M. truncatula (Wang et al., 2021). In common bean, PvSPX1 is a positive regulator in the Pi signaling network. PvSPX1 can regulate a set of downstream of PSI genes that are involved in Pi transport, translocation and homeostasis, such as PvPAP1/2/3/4/5, PvPS2:1, Pv4 and PvPHR1 (Yao et al., 2014b). A similar role of GmSPX3 has been implicated in soybean (Yao et al., 2014a). In addition to interaction with PHR, one of the GmSPX members in soybean, GmSPX5, has been reported to interact with the transcription factor GmNF-YC4 to activate GmASL6 expression, mediating nodule development through regulating asparagine metabolic processes (Zhuang et al., 2021).Other transcription factors belonging to bHLH, WRKY, SPL, EIN3, ZAT and GARP families are also involved in the regulation of PSI genes in the Pi signaling network (Zhang et al., 2014;Scheible and Rojas-Triana, 2015;Song and Liu, 2015). For example, in soybean, GmPTF1 is an HLH transcription factor responsible for activation of GmEXPB2, modifying root architecture during P deficiency (Li et al., 2014;Yang et al., 2021a). In addition, other regulators, such as miRNAs and PHO2, have also been reported to be involved in the Pi-starvation response in many legume plants, such as common bean (Valdeś-Loṕez et al., 2010), white lupin (Zhu et al., 2010), soybean (Zeng et al., 2010), M. truncatula (Boualem et al., 2008) and alfalfa (Li et al., 2018). For example, PvPHO2, encoding E2 ubiquitin ligase, is a target that is negatively regulated by miR399 in common bean; PvPHO2 is suppressed by P deficiency and it negatively regulates PSI genes, including PvAPC5, PvAP and PvPHT1 (Valdeś-Loṕez et al., 2008;Ramıŕez et al., 2013).Due to the non-renewable, limited P resources and severe environmental problems associated with excess P mining and Genes involved in symbiotic interactions in the response of legumes to P deficiency. A model for mycorrhizal and rhizobial symbioses is presented. AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.fertilizer application, more attention has been paid to improve PAE in legumes for sustainable agriculture. As discussed before, optimizing root responses is a key strategy for improving PAE and plant tolerance to low P stress. Strategies for improving PAE of legumes can be achieved by conventional breeding, marker-assisted selection (MAS) breeding or genetic engineering with target gene transformation (Yan et al., 2004;Ojeda-Rivera et al., 2022).As conventional breeding for improved crop P efficiency is mainly based on phenotypic selection for root systems which is difficult and time-consuming, another important approach for improving plant PAE of crops in modern agriculture is based on the identification of QTL for the trait of interest with molecular markers. A pioneering work in rice has demonstrated that Pi uptake 1 (Pup1) is a key QTL for improving Pi uptake (Gamuyao et al., 2012). The P efficiencyrelated gene, phosphorus-starvation tolerance 1 (PSTOL1), responsible for the Pup1 QTL, acts as an enhancer of root growth and Pi uptake in rice and Arabidopsis (Wissuwa et al., 1998;Wissuwa et al., 2002;Chin et al., 2011;Gamuyao et al., 2012;Neelam et al., 2017), suggesting the potential use of Pup1 or PSTOL1 in breeding crop varieties with high P efficiency. In addition, it has been demonstrated that SbPSTOL1, the homologue of OsPSTOL1 in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), not only involves in enhancing root surface area but also improving root system architecture, contributing to increase in grain yield under low-P condition (Hufnagel et al., 2014;Leiser et al., 2014). In common bean, QTL analysis was performed using RILs population for the root traits, including root-hair density, root-hair length, H + exudation and total acid exudation, which shows that QTL for H + exudation and total acid exudation are closely linked with QTL for Pi uptake; and the authors suggest that molecular markers linked to the target root traits might be potentially used for screening of phenotypic root traits that contribute to improved P efficiency in the breeding process (Yan et al., 2004). In addition, several QTL for root traits and P efficiency have also been identified in soybean (Liang et al., 2010b;Yang et al., 2019;Seck et al., 2020) and other legumes, such as chickpea (Varshney et al., 2019). However, the achievements in identifying QTL for P efficiency are still limited due to the epistatic effects and their interactions with the environment, and most QTL regions are needed to be narrowed down so that only target genes are identified. In addition, genome-wide association study (GWAS) of root traits associated with P efficiency could also provide a helpful solution to identify key genes and their interactions in crops. A recent study has shown that a genetic locus, component of phosphorus uptake 1 (CPU1) contributes to P efficiency based on GWAS of PAE in a soybean core collection (Guo et al., 2022). Furthermore, a SEC12-like gene, GmPHF1, identified as the causal gene for CPU1, is proven to mediate Pi uptake in soybean (Guo et al., 2022).With the rapid development of transgenic techniques, numerous genes have been successfully introduced into different legumes to improve PAE, which are summarized in Table 1. For example, in soybean, GmPT4 is a plasma membrane-localized Pi transporter and GmPT4-overexpression in soybean plants displays higher PAE and biomass than the wild type (Guo et al., 2022). Furthermore, transgenic soybean plants overexpressing GmEXPB2 exhibit an increase in root length and root hair density, resulting in an increase of PAE in soybean (Zhou et al., 2014;Li et al., 2015;Yang et al., 2021a).GmPAP7a and GmPAP7b possess high activities against ATP in vitro. Overexpression of GmPAP7a and GmPAP7b improves the utilization of organic P in soybean (Zhu et al., 2020). In addition, overexpression of GmETO1 can increase PAE in plants and tolerance to low P stress (Zhang et al., 2020). Overexpression of PvPAP3 increases the growth and P content in bean hairy roots when supplied with organic P (Liang et al., 2010a;Liang et al., 2012). Similarly, both MtPHY1 and MtPAP1 transgenic white clover and alfalfa plants display high PAE and tolerance to low P (Ma et al., 2009;Ma et al., 2012). Genes related to organic acid synthesis, such as MDH in alfalfa and DcCs in Daucus carota can also improve Pi uptake in transgenic plants (Tesfaye et al., 2001;Tesfaye et al., 2003;Hussain et al., 2016). Although none of the transgenic plants generated with high PAE have been released for commercial use, transgenic techniques are shown to be effective in improving plant PAE. Such improvements are essential at least to adjust how we manage crop yield and excess P fertilizer inputs.In addition to molecular breeding and genetic engineering, the inoculation of crops with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) is one of the most effective strategies for improving the PAE of legumes, such as soybean, common bean, and chickpea (Peŕez-Montaño et al., 2014;Mohamed et al., 2019;Lazali and Drevon, 2021). PGPR are free-living bacteria from the genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus that can colonize plant roots, playing crucial roles in plant growth and development. The PGPR can promote plant growth by producing phytohormones, enhancing root development, solubilizing Pi, thereby increasing PAE in plants ( Mantelin and Touraine, 2004;Yang et al., 2009). For example, Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas fluorescence are regarded as the bio-fertilizers for plants; after inoculation of these bacteria, the yield and Pi uptake are significantly increased in common bean (Mohamed et al., 2019). In chickpea, application of PGPR can enhance plant growth and PAE by increasing exudation of organic acids from roots (Israr et al., 2016). In addition, Pi-solubilizing bacteria are vital components of PGPR for legumes to acquire more Pi from soil (Rosas et al., 2006;Tabassum et al., 2017). For example, inoculating Pi-solubilizing bacteria, such as Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Pseudomonas putida, can contribute to improve the shoot and root growth of soybean by solubilizing Pi from the tricalcium phosphate (Rosas et al., 2006). Therefore, application of PGPR is a useful strategy for improving PAE of legumes.4 Limitations and future perspectives P is a major nutrient that is essential for crop growth performance and productivity. As P availability in most agricultural soils is low, inorganic P fertilizers are overused in intensive cropping systems to ensure crop production stability, leading to negative environmental impacts. At the same time, the low availability of P in soils and insufficient financial support to access P fertilizers in some developing countries keep many smallholder farmers from growing crops with high productivity and quality. Legumes possess numerous economic and environmental benefits in agricultural systems, but their productivity is severely affected by low P availability in soil. Thus, developing P-efficient legume cultivars with high yields using less P fertilizer inputs could contribute not only to sustainable and regen erative agriculture but also to global food and nutritional security.As discussed in this review, enhanced PAE through modification of root growth and response is a key strategy for increasing plant P efficiency under limited P supply. To date, numerous PSI genes have been shown to be associated with increasing PAE, such as genes that are involved in root growth, Pi uptake, and Pi signaling network. Despite this significant progress in recent years, the current understanding of the specific mechanisms and regulatory aspects of controlling root growth response to P deficiency in legumes is incomplete. Furthermore, it is not easy to develop legume or even other crop cultivars with desirable root traits by manipulating a single gene without a trade-off in carbon cost and crop productivity. These are some of the aspects that need to be considered in improving PAE of legume crops, and this will require enhanced collaboration between plant breeders, molecular biologists and plant physiologists.With the advance in large-scale omics approaches, the application of the reliable and accurate next-generation sequencing (NGS) and transcriptomic technologies, as well as in-depth studies on posttranscriptional regulation can accelerate genetic improvement of crops that are able to cope with low P stress by identifying novel functional and regulatory genes related to P efficiency. In addition, QTL analysis and GWAS of root traits with P efficiency are helpful for identifying candidate genes in crops. Therefore, making full use of the advantages of these new approaches might help to develop high P-efficient legume cultivars more quickly in the near future. Furthermore, in order to fully understand the mechanisms underlying plant cell response to P deficiency, single-cell RNA sequencing can be applied to investigate the dynamic responses of plant cells to Pi starvation.Although plants display root plasticity during P deficiency with improved root growth and thus increasing PAE, this active response of root might occur at a certain P level and can not be maintained during all growth stages of the plant, especially under severe P deficiency. When Pi uptake reaches its maximum level, modification of PUE is an important complementary strategy that is also needed for improving P efficiency in plants. A higher PUE can be achieved through efficient re-translocation, re-distribution and re-use of Pi from organic P pools in cells or tissues of plants, which involves various transport and metabolic processes, thereby reducing P depletion from soils as well as the dependence of smallholder farmers on P fertilizer inputs. Thus, additional research efforts are needed to combine PAE with PUE in legumes to improve their adaptation to low P soils.To unravel the key mechanisms responsible for complex interactions among plant root systems, rhizosphere and P status in soils (e.g., interactions of root exudates with microbes and soil chemistry to facilitate P mobilization), transdisciplinary research efforts are needed that will require expertise in plant biology, soil science, rhizosphere biology and ecophysiology. Furthermore, for improving P efficiency of legume crops grown in low P soils, basic and applied research work is needed to find the perfect breeding approach that incorporates SNF capability, adaptation to climate variability and change, mono-and intercropping cultivation models, and agronomic management conditions. In addition, some legume plants are able to acquire less available forms of soil P and these legume genotypes could become major focus for future investigation on gene identification and gene transfer.","tokenCount":"7464"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fb6ceec30ca6871a8176b39b879f6d78","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fbdb17cb-5270-4987-aa95-fcbed57a816c/retrieve","id":"736355597"},"keywords":["Milk marketing chain","Smallholders","Dairy farmers","Modern milk marketing chain","Bihar","Punjab JEL Classification : Q12","Q13"],"sieverID":"0dd8ec70-780a-4995-8ed5-0ef3489d4fd2","pagecount":"11","content":"The smallholder dairy farmers' access to modern milk marketing chain has been assessed in India by collecting data at the farm level in two states, viz. Bihar and Punjab. These states are among the largest milk producing states of the country but depict stark variations in terms of milk productivity and per capita milk availability. Another significant feature is the emergences of modern milk marketing chains in both the states. The study has shown that in spite of the growing presence of modern milk supply chains, the traditional milk supply chain is still dominant in the Indian milk market. Its presence is even more pronounced in less-developed states like Bihar. However, the traditional milk supply chain is being replaced, albeit slowly, with the commercialization of dairying. The structure of the milk marketing in Punjab has depicted this conclusion. The study has concluded that the modern milk supply chain seems to have an inclusive structure and the resource-poor dairy farmers are not excluded from the modern milk supply chain. The study has argued that the traceability and food safety issues will further strengthen the modern milk supply chain. The scalability of the modern milk supply chain will depend on the development of milk collection and transportation facilities and incentive pricing for a quality produce.One of the most significant changes in India's agricultural economy over the past three and a half decades has been the rising contribution of livestock sector in the agricultural gross domestic product (AgGDP). Between 1970 and2008, the share of livestock in AgGDP has risen from 17 per cent to 29 per cent. Dairying accounts for more than two-thirds of the livestock output and is largely responsible for the rising importance of the livestock sector in the country. India has emerged as the world's largest milk producer and milk production continues to grow at a fairly high rate. Despite trebling of milk production between 1970 and 2008, the dominance of traditional marketing channels has not been affected. About 80 per cent of the milk marketed still passes through the traditional channels handling raw milk and conventional processed products (Staal et al., 2006;Kumar and Staal, 2010). The much hyped cooperative dairy development has also failed to affect the dominance of the traditional milk marketing channels. Liberalization of the dairy sector since 1991 has permitted formal, private processors to compete increasingly with both traditional market and cooperative processed milk market. Consequently, several private milk processing firms have emerged in the Indian milk market. Further, since late-1990s the importance of supermarkets and retail chains has swelled in the Indian food market which includes milk also in its ambit.The growing middle class with increasing income and expanding urbanization are likely to boost the demand for more formally processed milk products, which the traditional markets generally do not cater for. This will fuel the growth of a modern, formal and organized milk market. These emerging trends, while indicative of catering to the expanding consumer base with growing wealth, have generated concerns on both the supply as well as the demand side. Internationally, one of the most controversial issues is that the rise of modern marketing chains (especially under private ownership) could have negative effects on income equality. Several studies have opined that the poor will suffer from this process (Elizabeth et al., 2000). In India, this is an ongoing debate and the concern has dampened the prospects of modern supply chains in some states. However, recent research has brought in another side of the argument by suggesting that the emergence of modern food supply chains has improved linkages between the buyers and poor farmers in developing countries, which has turned out to be beneficial for the smallholders (Dries et al., 2004;Minten et al., 2006;Maertens and Swinnen, 2006;Birthal et al., 2007). It is important to mention here that the majority of milk producers are smallholders and contribute more than 70 per cent to the total milk production in India.Will an increased role of modern private formal dairies put pressure for a change in the structure of production, in favour of large milk producers, who may be able to supply higher quantities and better quality of milk at lower collection cost? Will the smallholder dairy farmers be deprived of reaping the benefits of emerging market opportunities? Or, are they inter-linked with the emerging market opportunities and maximizing their welfare? This study has addressed the structure of production and marketing of milk, and links between smallholder dairy farmers and alternative milk marketing channels. The status of food safety practices and traceability issues in the alternative market channels have also been indicated. The extent of participation of smallholder dairy farmers in modern milk marketing channels and its determinants have been examined by using data collected in two states of India, viz. Bihar and Punjab.This study is based on the primary data collected in the year 2007 at the farm level in two states, Bihar and Punjab. These states capture the geographic and institutional diversity of milk production and milk marketing. Bihar and Punjab are among the India's largest milk producing states, and account for 8.9 per cent and 5.5 per cent of the national milk production, respectively. However, stark variations exist between the two states in terms of milk productivity and per capita milk availability. Punjab exhibits the highest level of per capita milk availability (962 g) and milk productivity (7.9 kg/day/milking animal), while per capita milk availability (only 170 g) and milk productivity (3.7 kg/day/milking animal) in Bihar is one of the lowest in India (DAHD, GoI, 2008). Modern milk marketing chains have emerged significantly in both the states. However, the traditional market which dominates the Indian dairy, continues to play important roles in both the states.At the farm level, the traditional market is represented by the private milk traders or vendors who buy milk directly from producers and supply it also directly to the urban consumers, or to informal institutional buyers such as restaurants, tea stalls, etc. or wholesalers and other retailers. They often operate on a small scale, handling 50 to 100 litres of milk per day. Dairy cooperatives and private formal processors, in contrast, collect milk at the established collection points in villages, and unlike private traders, milk price paid to farmers is generally scaled according to milk quality measured by the amount of fat and solid not fat (SNF). Recently, they have started offering some premium price for lower microbial counts also. In the analysis which follows, formal private processing firms and cooperatives were combined into one category of modern milk marketing channel. This was done primarily because they follow similar collection and payment practices and also because private processors accounted for only 3-4 per cent of milk marketed in the study area.One district from each of the states was selected purposively. The districts selected were Patna in Bihar and Rupnagar in Punjab. Three administrative blocks were randomly selected from each selected district. From each selected block three villages were selected randomly. From each block, 75 dairy households were identified for the survey. At the village level, the number of sample households was decided in proportion to the village population. Sample households were post stratified into different categories 1 , viz. landless, marginal, small, medium and large households. Thus, 225 households were selected from each state, making the total sample size of 450 households and data were gathered from these 450 dairy farming households. The data gathered covered a wide range of information on household, farm and milk marketing practices.Descriptive statistics were worked out to understand the structure of milk production and milk marketing, trading behaviour of dairy farmers, status of adoption of food safety practices by farmers, etc. A logit model was estimated to identify the factors that influence dairy farmers' decision to participate in the modern milk marketing channels. Since dependent variable was a binary variable (farmers selling milk to modern supply chain = 1, otherwise = 0), and independent variables were a mix of qualitative and quantitative variables, the multivariate logistic regression given in Equation (1) was used:where, p represented the probability that the farmers were selling milk to the modern milk supply chain and â is were the regression coefficients estimated by the maximum likelihood method. The explanatory variables used in the model included gender, age, education, milk production, milk price, milk testing, road connectivity, distance from city, and presence of milk collection centre in the village.The interpretation of coefficients is less straightforward in the logit than the OLS model. Usually, a positive coefficient for an independent variable increases the probability of a household being upwardly mobile. However, the marginal effects of the explanatory variables on the probabilities are not equal to the coefficients. Further calculations were required to estimate the marginal effects of each explanatory variable. The marginal effect of a variable was computed by using Equation (2):where, Z was the sum of coefficients multiplied by the means of respective variables plus the constant term.Unlike the large scale commercial milk enterprises that characterize many countries, milk production in India is dominated by smallholder producers with a few buffaloes or cattle, in systems closely integrated into agricultural production through use of crop residues such as straw of rice and wheat. The marginal and small landholders account for about 69 per cent of the total milk production (Birthal, 2008). The structure of milk production exhibits an explicit dissimilarity in Bihar and Punjab. Similar to the structure of milk production at the national level, milk production in Bihar is overwhelmingly dominated by small landholders. Landless, marginal and small landholders accounted for 64 per cent of the total milk production and 69 per cent of the marketed milk in Bihar. In Punjab, the share of landless, marginal and small landholders taken together was only 39 per cent, indicating increasing commercialization of dairying in this state; their share in marketed milk was about 33 per cent. Based on the herd size also, a similar pattern was discernible. In Bihar, 78 per cent of milk production and 67 per cent of marketed milk are contributed by the households having one or two milch animals; while in Punjab more than 75 per cent of milk production and marketed milk are contributed by the households keeping 3 or more milch animals. This is expected as majority of the surveyed households (90%) keep one or two milch animals in Bihar and only about 3 per cent of the households were observed to keep more than three animals. But in Punjab, one-fourth of the households keep more than 3 milch animals.The rearing of cattle and buffalo is not always necessarily a market-oriented activity, given the strong household demand for consumption of milk and milk products. As shown in Figures 1 and 2, it is estimated that 49.3 per cent of milk is marketed and 50.7 per cent is retained for domestic consumption in Bihar, while in Punjab, two-thirds of the milk produced is marketed and one-third is retained for home consumption. The  In this section we have examined the extent of participation of different categories of dairy farmers who sell their milk through traditional and modern supply chains (Table 2). In the first set of rows of Table 2, we can look at the ownership and size of landholding (comparing how landless, marginal, small, medium and large farms market their milk). In the second set of rows, we can look at the number of their milch animals comparing on the basis of scale of production, how the milk is marketed.According to our data, there is no evidence that small milk producing households are relegated to the traditional supply chains or excluded from modern supply chains. And this holds true for both the states. The households in Bihar having herd-size of 1, 2, 3 and more than 3 are respectively, selling 26.2 per cent, 36.8 per cent, 22.2 per cent and 20.0 per cent of their milk to modern supply chains. In Punjab, milk supplied to modern supply chains by the corresponding herd-sizes was 97.3 per cent, 87.9 per cent, 96.0 per cent and 86.5 per cent, respectively. In other words, there is no discernible relationship between herd-size and the choice of milk marketing channel.The same appears to be true on examining the relationship between size of farm and the choice of marketing channel of milk producing households (Table 2). In case of Bihar, a linear relationship between land size and access to modern marketing supply chain is somewhat visible. But in Punjab, the relationship between farm size and choice of marketing channel did not follow a clear trend. For instance, 92.2 per cent of marginal milk producing households sell milk to modern marketing channel, while 89.3 per cent of the large farmers access modern marketing channel to sell their milk. In fact, according to descriptive statistics based on our data, landless and small landholder dairy farmers are not being relegated to traditional marketing channels. Similarly, although the activity of modern marketing supply chains is limited in Bihar, small and poor households are not being excluded.Largely the same story was true when we examined the proportion of milk sold by different categories of farmers to alternative milk marketing channels (Table 3). Although there is a slight linear trend in Bihar that shows landless dairy farm households are more likely to sell through traditional milk supply chain than landholder dairy farmers. The same trend does not hold true in Punjab. There is no evidence that landless or small landholder dairy farmers are getting less access to modern chains.Hence, from the above descriptive analysis several points are clear and provide evidence that can help clarify one of the debates about the effect of emerging market integration models and changes in the downstream segment of the marketing chain. First, the structure of milk production and marketing exhibits a significant regional variation. The dominance of landless, marginal and small holders in milk production is weak in Punjab as compared to Bihar. Second, the modern milk supply chain is quite important in an agriculturallydeveloped state like Punjab, while the traditional milk marketing supply chain continues to play a dominant role in Bihar, which is yet to catch up to the same extent of agricultural and dairy development as witnessed in Punjab. Finally, and most importantly, when we look at who is selling to different chains, there are no The milk price received by dairy farmers did not exhibit variation with the choice of milk marketing outlets (Table 4). Contrary to general perception, farmers selling milk to the traditional milk supply chain received a slightly higher price. This seemed to be counter intuitive. Therefore, we examined the price received by farmers at a more disaggregate level, which revealed that farmers fetched a relatively higher price by selling milk directly to consumers than to any other milk marketing outlet (Figure 3). Price 2 offered by milk vendors (` 11.30/litre) and dairy cooperatives (` 11.20/ litre) in Bihar was almost same, while the private formal dairy processors offered a little higher price (` 12.10/ litre). However, in Punjab, the price offered by the milk vendors (` 11.90/litre) was considerably lower compared to the price offered by the dairy cooperatives (` 14.90/litre) and formal private dairy processors (` 14.80/litre). This explains partly the continued dominance of the traditional milk supply chain in Bihar and its diminishing role in Punjab.It is clear from the above discussion that there are no distinguishable differences in prices offered by alternative marketing chains, except when farmers sell milk directly to the consumers. However, direct sale to consumers is limited. Segregation between the main milk producing centres and milk consumption hub (which is the urban area), changing tastes and preferences of the consumers, perishability of the produce and growing concerns about food safety are some of the important reasons which limit farmers' opportunities for direct sale to consumers. Besides, services provided by the alternative milk supply chains may influence the farmers' choice of milk marketing channels. Credit is provided by both the supply chains but the farmers' access to credit through the modern supply chain is considerably higher in Bihar (Table 4). In Punjab, only 7-8 per cent of the farmers are taking credit through their milk market outlets.In terms of other services, modern supply chain is definitely better placed and the extent of service provided by them particularly in Punjab in breeding (64.1%) and veterinary services (72.8%) was high. In Bihar, the marketing of milk and service providers seem to be working independently and the modern milk supply chains are not providing many services, except credit. Training, an activity crucial to improve the human resource capacity and for maintaining food safety of milk, did not get proper attention from the modern supply chain. This is a disappointing fact.While there seem to be no direct measures of safety status of milk marketed in India, we were able to observe the nature of transactions between the buyers and sellers. During our survey, we specifically asked the farmers several questions that we used as a basis of our analysis concerning the ability of India's domestic milk marketing channels to guarantee a safe and hygienic product. Based on these assumptions and using our data, we found that there is a big challenge 2 Price refers to the year 2007  before India's dairy economy to ensure delivery of a safe product. One basis for the statement came from our data related to contracts between sellers and buyers.There was no activity based on written contracts (Table 5). However, 39 per cent of the farmers linked to the traditional milk chain and 62 per cent linked to the modern milk supply chain in Bihar had oral contract regarding the quality of the milk delivered by them. But, in Punjab, only 23 per cent of the farmers linked to the traditional chain and 28 per cent linked to the modern chain had oral contracts about the quality of milk sold by them. Besides, modern supply chains encourage the farmers for quality assurance by paying a premium price for desired microbial count. In Punjab, it has been reported by the personnel of dairy cooperatives that the microbiological quality of milk has improved significantly in recent times with the introduction of premium prices linked with microbial counts and installation of bulk coolers at the grassroots level.Although, there was lack of adequate emphasis on the quality and safety of milk explicitly through contracts, the adoption of food safety practices (examined at farm level), was encouraging (Table 6). An overwhelming proportion of farmers in both the states, irrespective of their choice of milk marketing channels, followed the basic hygienic practices required for safe milk production. These practices help to a great extent in maintaining the quality and safety of milk at the farm level. There are evidences that the bacteriological quality of raw milk in India is comparable with that in the leading milk exporting countries ( MOFPI, 2005). This is partly explained by the adoption of good animal husbandry practices by the dairy farmers in India. In fact, deterioration in quality of milk takes place during transportation of milk from farm to milk processing plants or other end-users. Several initiatives have been taken by the government and significant investments have been made to ensure quality and safety of milk. The support for installation of bulk milk coolers, automatic milk collection centres, bucket milking machines, supply of hygiene kits, training of personnel involved in milk collection and handling are being vigorously pursued to ensure safety of milk and milk products.The results of the logit model, presented in Table 7, reveal that education, milk price, milk test and presence of cooperative milk collection centres in the villages have a significant positive influence on famers' decision to integrate with modern formal milk marketing supply chain. However, its marginal effect on the choice of milk marketing channel is negligible. The presence of milk collection centres of the modern milk supply chain, a proxy for saving in transaction cost, has a significant positive influence on the farmers' decision to participate in the modern milk supply chain. The marginal effect of milk collection centres established by either cooperatives/formal private processing farm is high (14%).The price offered by the channels also induces the farmers to sell milk to a modern milk supply chain. The marginal effect of price in the selection of modern milk supply chain is only 3 per cent. The adoption of milk testing done by the modern milk supply chain positively and significantly affects the farmers' choice of milk marketing outlet. The interpretation here is that milk testing adopted by the modern milk supply chain promotes differential pricing of milk and gives incentives to the farmers based on the quality of the produce. Enterprising commercial farmers are particularly motivated to sell to a modern marketing supply chain and can harness the opportunities of getting higher prices. The emphasis on quality has the highest propensity to induce farmers to sell milk to a modern milk supply chain. The marginal effect of unit increase in milk testing is 69 per cent.The household size implying greater labour availability for the farming households has a negative influence (though not significant) on the farmers' decision for integration with the formal markets. This suggests that if labour is abundant, farmers would explore different market opportunities and would not like to tie-up with one marketing channel. With greater labour availability, they can endure the pressure of search, bargaining and delivery costs for sales to the traditional milk supply chain and maximize their price. Similarly, households producing higher quantity of milk are more likely to sell through the modern milk supply chain, which reflect their better ability to integrate with the modern supply chain. This indicates that farmers producing higher volume of milk seek out channels that more easily accept larger, and possibly more variable quantities of milk. However, again the effect of scale of production is not significant on the choice of milk marketing outlets, indicating the propensity of modern milk supply chain to include even the small-scale producers.Education positively and significantly affects the choice of milk marketing channels. Higher education generates more awareness about the market opportunities and reflects better ability of the farmers to integrate with the modern milk supply chain. Age and sex of the household-head are not significantly associated with the choice of milk marketing channels. It should be noted that 98 per cent of the households were headed by a male, and therefore, there was very little spread on this variable.The study has shown that in spite of growing presence of modern milk supply chains in the Indian milk market, the traditional milk supply chain is still dominant. Its dominance is even more pronounced in less-developed states like Bihar. However, it is apparent that the traditional chain is being replaced, albeit slowly, with the commercialization of dairying. The structure of milk marketing in Punjab is a clear pointer to this conclusion.Upstream segments of the milk marketing chain in India have evolved significantly, yet there is no clear and conclusive evidence that this is directly moving down to the farm gate. However, the modern milk supply chain appears to be inclusive and the resourcepoor dairy farmers (landless, small, marginal) are not excluded from the modern milk supply chain. The traceability and food safety issues may further consolidate the position of modern milk supply chains and the existence of the traditional chain would be increasingly challenged. Further expansion of the modern milk supply chains by and large is dependent on the development of milk collection infrastructural facilities at the doorstep, incentive pricing and rewards for quality produce. ","tokenCount":"3925"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"041ef7eaf9110f798d81cbb8a4aaf45e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/68d53980-90ad-47b4-bfb8-53fdcb128548/retrieve","id":"-1847886864"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b16742f0-e838-4a36-863a-9d8001aa6018","pagecount":"10","content":"The Results based management framework links strategic objectives to a set of flagship products that draw multidisciplinary expertise from the different RTB Themes. • Significant measurable and time-bound deliverable, based on an output of research that results from a research activity or set of related activities attributable to RTB.• Used by a well-defined group of next users who may be either researchers or development actors, with strong evidence of demand pull from these users.• Near market-ready set of ideas, technologies, or science products that generate excitement amongst researchers and other users.• Has potential for large-scale impact.• Analysis of capacity strengthening (CS) needs Building institutions and innovation systems to improve access to quality RTB planting material and new varieties for smallholder, marginal, and vulnerable communities 1. For creating and validating the framework:• MSc students from local universities to document and describe the cases (50% women) • MSc students from international universities to analyze the cases from different perspectives (Gender analysis, economics, quality standards, policies, sociology, anthropology, etc.) • Funding for students (TBD) 2. For training on use of framework, principles, guidelines to improve seed interventions ","tokenCount":"184"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"15a505e1d213b23a54fa1ab279d044c6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70be9a00-b62f-48d8-9f7e-dce25967bbc3/retrieve","id":"-1115409499"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e3bb05e6-af12-4fcd-980d-efdf60a6f773","pagecount":"10","content":"to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).Bangladesh is a densely populated agricultural-based country and about 75% of people live in rural areas. The livelihoods of rural areas directly and indirectly depend on agricultural activities. Although Bangladesh has achieved food security to some extent, malnutrition is yet a great concern, especially in the rural areas. Most people in rural areas of Bangladesh rely on rice as their staple food to satisfy their hunger. In the case of taking food, they never think about the nutritional value of the food. We know the main sources of vitamins and minerals are vegetables and fruits, but the consumption rate of vegetables and fruits in rural areas is very low. Most of the farmers in rural areas are marginal and small and they have only small pieces of land for cultivation where they grow mostly rice. Almost all dwellers of rural areas have small homestead areas where they usually do not grow vegetables, only sometimes growing some fruits. Homestead gardens in the homestead areas can play an important role in the production of horticultural crops (vegetables, fruits, and spices) to increase family consumption of nutritional foods and some extra income by selling them. Homestead vegetables and fruits are especially important in overcoming the seasonal availability of vegetables and promoting household self-sufficiency. The homestead garden provides multiple products to the household and meets diversified needs including food, nutrition, and energy. The unavailability of small packages of good quality vegetable seed at the local level, and lack of technical knowledge on year-round homestead vegetable production technologies are the major challenges for year-round homestead gardens. Household members especially women can use their homestead area for vegetable and fruit production by using homemade biofertilizers and biopesticides, which are safer than the vegetables they purchase from the market.Homestead gardening is the most complex multi-strata integrated production system that combines all farming components (tree, crop, livestock, and occasionally fish) and provides household food security, employment, and income generation opportunities. Multiple social benefits of homestead gardens include enhancing food and nutritional security in many socio-economic situations, improving family health, and empowering women. SI-MFS has taken the innovation of homestead gardening to scale among large numbers of households in its working areas. We are aiming to intensify and diversify homestead gardens that will be beneficial for the household members by increasing nutritional status and extra income. Ensuring small packages of good quality seeds and seedlings through local service providers or local seed companies will increase year-round vegetable and fruit production. In addition, this innovation will also increase women's empowerment.The SI-MFS is doing the following homestead-based activities in the Rangpur regions.➢ Scaling homestead model (Saidpur homestead gardening model, below table) for year-round vegetable and fruit production. ➢ Ensure quality vegetable seed through linkage with local seed companies/seed entrepreneurs. ➢ Awareness and capacity build-up through meetings and training. ➢ Development of community-based marketing for vegetables. ➢ Compost and vermicompost production by respective households for ensuring organic fertilizer for homestead gardening. Initially, SI-MFS, Rangpur established this homestead model with 100 households from 4 villages in Rangpur and Nilphamari in January 2023. SI-MFS provided seed and technical support to the respective households for establishing these homestead gardens. In the meantime, the project also provided support to establish 100 ideal compost pits for the same households to ensure organic fertilizer for homestead vegetable production. Among 100 households, 10 also received vermicompost production facilities.For the availability of small pack-size vegetable seeds throughout the year, the project worked with several private seed companies. One company (Bandhan Genetics Ltd.) is already committed to making a combined mini pack with all vegetables for the Rabi and Kharif seasons separately. Now family members under SI-MFS homestead gardening consume different types of vegetables every day which helps them significantly increase nutritional food consumption. They are also selling additional vegetables to neighbors after meeting the family demands which helps them to generate extra income. In 2023, SI-MFS provided support to 2750 households for the Homestead Garden in 15 villages in the Rangpur region.Photo 1: Year-round homestead vegetable production using the Saidpur model in Rangpur.Photo 2: Year-round homestead vegetable production using the Saidpur model in Nilphamari.In the Patuakhali region, SI-MFS has selected 500 households for establishing homestead gardens. Groups were formed consisting of 25 households in each group and a local service provider (LSP) was selected for each group. SI-MFS provided large packets of different types of vegetable seeds to the LSPs and the LSPs distributed the seeds among their group members using the small packets. The LSPs have also prepared the seedlings of different vegetables and fruits from the supplied seed and distributed them among the members. These LSPs have been developed to ensure the sustainable supply of quality seeds and seedlings as per the requirements of the community. Technical guidelines were provided to all household beneficiaries and LSPs during group formation and seed distribution.Photo 3: Group formation and technical discussion at Amtali, Barguna. Photo 4: Vegetable seed distribution through LSP (Right) at Amtali, Barguna.cgiar.org/initiative/mixed-farming-systems","tokenCount":"925"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"210e546ee1295c78f29510267c030f7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d37f436d-df3b-4de2-904f-07b9fcc469ed/retrieve","id":"1033556323"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6524d604-ce0f-4212-aaa3-3fdba460e56c","pagecount":"127","content":"The farming sub-sector of Ethiopia is characterized by traditional rainfed and low techniques of production and thus, is prone to the recurrent natural calamity of drought, which leaves famine and death in its wake. Today, farmers in Ethiopia have difficulties in feeding their households on their increasingly fragmenting land, using traditional and backward techniques of production. Hence the drastic need to improve agricultural productivity and production through the adoption and adaptation of improved agricultural technologies and techniques is apparent. For modernize agriculture, a strong support system involving input supplies and other services like marketing, transport, storage, processing etc. are inevitable. This study is intended to analyze the agricultural input demand -supply system of the study area; to map the actors and their linkages, knowledge and information flows, to identify influential factors for the smooth functioning of the system and to explore the influence of policy in providing an enabling environment in relation to the input demand-supply system in Dale Woreda, Sidama Zone, SNNPR. Three stages sampling were used in which both nonrandom sampling and random sampling procedures were followed to select four Peasant Associations and 200 respondents. Structured interview schedule and questionnaires were used for collecting the essential quantitative and qualitative data from the sampled respondents and input suppliers respectively. To generate qualitative data, field observations; informal interview with key informants; and discussions with separate focus groups were conducted. The quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools chi-square test, Cramer's V, Pearson and Spearman's rho Correlation coefficient, and Multiple Linear Regressions from inferential statistics. The major output of the study indicates that the system is highly characterized by relatively poor linkage and inefficient knowledge flow between actors and farmers in the study area. Moreover, input demandsupply index was significantly influenced by household head age, active labor force of the family, access to market, extension contact and type of road used. In addition to this, from the supply sector factors like organizational mandatory clarity, sufficient and irrigable seed farm, skilled man power, delay of temporary loan settlement by users, policy environment, storage facilities at grass root level, efficient marketing system, timely demand claims from users, clearly defined role and responsibilities of each partner, availability of improved seeds in terms of their germination, viability and adaptability, research centers cooperation and willingness to share resources including knowledge, farmers willingness to take risks and demand for improved crop varieties were some of mentioned factors that influence the system positively and/or negatively. As to the enabling policy environment, pitfalls identified were; inflexibility of rules and regulations, lack of strong quarantine measures on imported seeds and prolonged time given for variety release and registration were amongst all. Therefore, it is recommended that, the existing extension service should be strengthened in a way that working in harmony with relevant actors to bring about change for efficient and effective delivery of agricultural inputs/services. Likewise, policy should account the flexibility of rules on credit provision and organization of small farmers groups in addressing resource poor farmers to ensure food self sufficiency of rural community in particular and the nation at large.In Ethiopia, 84% of the estimated 78 million people live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. The sector contributes 41.4% of the GDP of the country.The average cereal yields are low at 1244kg/ha (World Bank, 2006).Despite the importance of agriculture in its economy, Ethiopia has been a food deficit country since the early 1970s. A close look at the performance of the Ethiopian agriculture reveals that over the last three decades it has been unable to produce sufficient quantity to feed the country's rapidly growing human population. Even worse, the country has experienced recurrent droughts that claimed the lives of several thousands of people. It is note worthy that food aid has been accounting for a significant proportion of the total food supply in the country. For instance, Ethiopia received 726,640 metric tons of food aid yearly over the 1985-2000periods (FDRE, 2002)). This is equal to about 10% of the national food grain production.The farming sub-sector of Ethiopia is characterized by traditional rainfed and low productive techniques of production and thus, is prone to the recurrent natural calamity of drought, which leaves famine and death in its wake. Today farmers in Ethiopia have difficulties in feeding their households on their increasingly fragmenting land, using traditional and backward techniques of production. Hence, the drastic need to improve agricultural productivity and production through the adoption and adaptation of improved agricultural technologies and techniques is apparent. This places a lot of responsibilities on agricultural support services like agricultural research and extension (AESE, 2005).The national strategy chimes with a widely held view that poverty reduction in Ethiopia is impossible without significant growth in crop yields for major staples, and this requires improving farmers' access to fertiliser, improved seeds, agricultural credit and other inputs. However, this view is not new. Indeed, it has dominated development thinking for the past four decades, and some developing countries have implemented it with some success, as part of a 'green revolution'. Previous Ethiopian governments have also toyed with the idea and have selectively implemented this strategy in the 1960s and 70s as part of major package programmes, although there was very little to show for it. But, no government in the country's history has given much emphasis on this strategy as the current one. Not only has it accorded priority to the agriculture sector, it has made agricultural development the centrepiece of its overall development strategy.The Agriculture Development Led Industrialization strategy (ADLI) was officially formulated and inaugurated during the 1995 elections and continues to be the country's development strategy for the next five years. In fact, even before the strategy was officially launched, a massive extension program to diffuse agricultural technology (particularly fertilizers and improved seeds) was started as early as 1993/94 under the transitional government (EEA, 2002). In 1993, Sasakawa Global 2000(SG-2000), a nongovernmental organization introduced a new system of extension intervention aimed at increasing productivity and production of small holder farmers through an aggressive technology (mainly improved seeds and fertilizer) transfer program, and strengthening the linkage between the research and extension in order to streamline the process of technology generation and dissemination (SG-2000(SG- , 2002)). In 1995, the then Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE), pleased with SG-2000's performance, launched a similar extension intervention program called the National Extension Intervention Program (NEIP) and adopted PADETES/EMPTs as its implementation instrument. NEIP took over and expanded SG-2000's operations. NEIP is considered as an instrument of the Agricultural Development Led Industrialization Strategy (ADLI). Though ADLI is a strategy for Ethiopia's overall economic development, with regard to agriculture, it has aimed at improving agriculture production and productivity and thus living standards of the rural population by demonstrating to and training participating farmers and development agents on improved cultivation practices and enhancing increased use of improved technologies (MEDaC, 1999).The Ministry of Agriculture was not only responsible for conducting adaptive research and transfer of technology, but also played a key role in provision of inputs, particularly fertilizers and pesticides. The agricultural input supply enterprise (former AISCO, now AISE has the primary responsibility of input supply (fertilizers, pesticides, seeds and credit) for the peasant sector. AISE operates under the MOA and collates demands, arranges the importation and distribution of inputs with strong emphasis on fertilizers and pesticides. AISCO managed over 600 distribution centers throughout the country although little has been achieved in certified seed marketing and distribution (Zewde, 2004).A necessary and integral part of the technology introduction services is the provision of improved inputs/services such as seeds, seedlings, agro chemicals, drugs, veterinary services, heifers, artificial insemination, credit, production and processing tools. Most of these inputs were supplied through the agricultural offices linked to the package. While this has contributed to the development of agriculture, several sources indicate that improved inputs/services are usually in short supply and delivery is often untimely.Government policy is now stimulating diversification of input/service provision, involving private sector (Gebremedhin et al., 2006).Extension service focused in Ethiopia until about 2002 was focused on increasing production and productivity in view of achieving food security (Mathewos and Chandaragi, 2003). However, it had become apparent around 1996 that without integrating farmers in to the market, sustained growth in the agriculture sector would not be realized. Perhaps as a result, the government policy on agricultural development has recently started to emphasize the transformation of subsistence agriculture into market orientation as a basis for long term development of the agricultural sector (Berhanu et al., 2006).Imbalance between the population growth rate and the agricultural production growth rate is one of the pronounced national problems in Ethiopia. Low-level productivity, due to low level of improved technologies utilization and high risk due to adverse environment are among the most frequently mentioned major causes of the country's chronic food security problem. In order to meet the food requirements of the growing population, food grains and other agricultural products have to be increased. The immediate available means to attain the national goal of food self-sufficiency is improving productivity through improved technologies. Improved seeds, fertilizer, farming tools, pesticides etc. are some of the major productivity enhancing inputs (Ibid).In the study area (Dale woreda), most farmers are growing coffee as the main source of income. Maize and haricot bean are cultivated mainly for alternative food source and market sale.Moreover, farmers are experienced in using agricultural inputs through Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office (WARDO). Actors involved in delivering agricultural inputs are Sidama Elto Union, ESE Shallo branch; private farmers who engaged on haricot bean seed and improved coffee seedling multiplication are amongst all. There are also actors who are involved on facilitation of inputs by providing credit to the farmers like Rural Development Finance Fund and Commercial Bank of Ethiopia.One way or the other, WARDO, Awada coffee research sub center and IPMS are also playing important role in providing agricultural knowledge related to the above mentioned crop technologies.The WARDO, in its strategic plan, has indicated to increase the productivity of these crops by reasonable figure. But the average productivity of coffee, haricot bean and maize do not exceeded from 5, 4, 20 quintals/ha, respectively, due to poor supply of the inputs. This shows how the production is low and needs attention for further investigation regarding their use of inputs and related services, such as seeds, fertilizer, credit, etc.Therefore, this study is made to provide information on actors involved in the system, their linkage and knowledge flow in input delivery, the influential factors for the smooth functioning of the system and the influence of enabling policy environment towards input demand-supply system by giving special emphasis on coffee, haricot bean and maize crops in the study area. The study also provides research, extension, development institutions and policy makers with valuable information that assists in improving the efficiency of communication among them.Majority of Ethiopian farmers have been using traditional way of agricultural practices. This has contributed for low productivity of the agricultural sector. To solve these problems, governmental and non-governmental organizations have made efforts to bring about change in agricultural production system of peasant farmers. They have introduced improved agricultural technologies like fertilizers, high yielding varieties of seeds, pesticides, farm tools, etc. As a result, farmers who participated in the extension package program showed relative change in the style of their production process.To increase production and productivity, the collective interaction of actors in the sector is a must. Agricultural input suppliers are one of the actors that are responsible to deliver according to the demand of the farmers.However, due to the growing demands of the farmers in the study area, for improved agricultural inputs, the supply sector could not satisfy the needs of the farmers. This indicates that there are different factors directly or indirectly influencing the input supply system that believed to boost up production and productivity of the smallholder farmers.But the reasons why input-supplying system failed to satisfy the needs of the farmers is not analyzed so far in the study area. Therefore, this study focused on identification of actors, their linkage and knowledge flow among actors in enhancing crop production and productivity, influential factors of the system and the enabling policy environment of agricultural inputs demand-supply system by giving special emphasis on coffee, haricot bean and maize technologies. Hence it attempts to fill the existing gap of knowledge regarding the input supply system.The general objective of the study is to identify the constraints and strengths of inputdemand supply system of the selected crops in the study area.The specific objectives of the study are:• to map the actors and their linkages, knowledge and information flows in the input demand-supply system;• to identify influential factors for the smooth functioning of input demand-supply system; and• to explore the influence of policy in providing an enabling environment in relation to the input demand-supply system• Who are the actors, the status of linkage and how knowledge flow works within the system?• What are the influential factors for the smooth functioning of input demandsupply system?• What is the influence of policy in providing an enabling environment to the system?To enhance production and productivity of small scale farmers, efficient and effective input/service delivery system should be on practice. To ensure this goal, relevant actors within the system should play role for effective linkage and policy implementation as to bring about change on peasant sector.The result of this study will help to identify actors involved in input/service delivery, their role, linkage and knowledge flow within the system and influential factors that hamper the smooth functioning. More over it will also help to identify policy issues that influence the system and make some corrective measures to benefit end users. The findings of this study can also be used in guiding policy makers and development planners who are concerned about input/service provision in the region and elsewhere in the country.This study was undertaken in one woreda, namely Dale which is in the SNNPR. Since the study was limited by time, finance and human resources, there could have been some bias in the information obtained about the supply system of improved agricultural inputs related to coffee, haricot bean and maize crops.Given the diversity of the Ethiopian population in terms of religion, ethnicity, agroecological climate, the communities selected are not representative of all the people in Ethiopia. As such, the research does not claim to provide conclusive findings on agricultural input demand-supply system. However, the research findings could be used to raise awareness among different stakeholders and also serve as background information for others who seek to do further related researches and would help serve in formulating and revising the system towards benefiting the farmers in the study area in particular and the region in general.According to Gardner et al., (2007), innovation encompasses the entire process, from idea to implementation, of the development of new products, services, methods, management practices and policies. The word \"innovation\" is often used as synonymous with the outcome of the process, but should not confuse with \"invention\". Spielman (2005) succinctly defines an innovation system as \"a network of agents, along with the institutions, organizations, and policies that condition their behavior and performance with respect to generating, exchanging, and utilizing knowledge.\"Moreover, an innovation system can be defined as a network of organizations, enterprises, and individuals focused on bringing new products, new processes, and new forms of organization into economic use, together with the institutions and policies that affect their behavior and performance. The innovation systems concept embraces not only the science suppliers but the totality and interaction of actors involved in innovation (World Bank, 2004).Then innovation as a process is linked to learning processes and to the information and knowledge management capability that the agents and actors have different motivations and confront different challenges (Barbier, 2003).According to Spielman et al. (2008), innovation agent is someone who introduces or uses such knowledge a process that entails seeking information from various sources and integrating elements of the information into social or economic practices that somehow change the behaviors and practices of individuals, organizations, or society.Thus, innovation occurs when someone uses an invention-or uses existing tools in a new way-to change how the world works, how people organize themselves, and how they conduct their lives (Fagerberg, 2004).Fagerberg ( 2004) identified a variety of innovation classifications and some of them are:i/ Organizational innovation -involves the creation or alteration of business structures, practices, and models, and may therefore include process, marketing and business model innovation.ii/ Process innovation-involves the implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method.iii/ Product innovation -involves the introduction of a new good or service that is new or substantially improved. This might include improvements in functional characteristics, technical abilities, ease of use, or any other dimension.vi/ Service innovation -refers to service product innovation which might be, compared to goods product innovation or process innovation, relatively less involving technological advance but more interactive and information-intensive.The purpose of this subsection is to provide information on how actors are functioning within the system-main actors and organizations in the sector with the specific roles they play; extent of linkage between actors and organizations and the nature of these linkages for supporting interaction; level of coordination, and identification any missing actor or role in input demand-supply system.Generation of technology is not an end by itself. It must be utilized by end users. This can be realized through the presence of effective linkage among the major stakeholders in the agriculture, agricultural knowledge and information system. Linkages between major institutional actors in agricultural knowledge and information system are widely recognized as essential for an effective flow of technology and information between research, extension and farmers. The types and nature of linkage between actors within the agricultural knowledge and information system directly influence the production and productivity of small holder farmers. It is commonly recognized by agricultural knowledge and information system stakeholders that poor performance of the system is often related to linkage problems (Akalu and Enyew, 2006).According to Hagmann et al., (2002), linkages between service providers in to service delivery system are critical to 'make the system work as a system'. The different roles and mandates of service providers need to be clarified and even more important; they need to 'learn to play the roles' and work together in synergistic way towards making a difference.Hence, to map the interactions thereby learning among the actors in the service delivery system, tools for diagnosis and institutional change in agricultural innovation systems are adopted (Hall et al., 2007).Knowledge can be understood as both information and skills that are acquired through individual experience and trial and error, within an organization or a learning community, or from outsiders adapting it to local contexts. Knowledge that rural and farming communities are typically interested in includes cultural management practices; new agricultural technologies; diagnostic information about plant and animal disease and soil related problems; market information on inputs and sales(prices, seller, buyers, retailers); market demand and quality of products required for these markets; and land records and government policies. The concerted efforts and practices used by organizations and individuals to identify, create, accumulate, re-use, apply and distribute knowledge are commonly labeled knowledge management (Hartwich, et al., 2007).According to Paul and Engel(1997), knowledge is not simply that is possessed and accumulated, it emerges out of process of social interaction and should be looked at in terms of social relationships. What people know and how they go about learning is intrinsically woven in to their life as social beings. Knowledge emerges as a result of social efforts to come to grips with the demands, the social and physical environments in which individuals and groups are immersed and said about knowledge that to know is to act effectively. Knowledge includes the ideas, concepts routines and skills people acquire over time to support their livelihood.Since knowledge is dynamic, it is constantly produced and reproduced, shaped and reshaped and yields many types of knowledge, differentiated within and between localities (Mango, 2002).According to Joshi et al., (2004) knowledge continuously evolves as farmers learn both by evaluating the outcome of previous actions and by observing the environment. This means that knowledge that enters a locality is not simply internalized, but becomes transformed by various actors to suit their circumstances.The important questions need to be answered in the knowledge/information network analysis are what types of knowledge/information are important for the successful performance of the system? Who are the source user of these types of knowledge and information? Who or what are the intermediaries-the actors, printed materials or other media that move knowledge and information among actors? How effective are the existing communication networks in linking relevant sources, intermediaries and users of knowledge and information (Salomon and Engel, 1997). Systems theory or systems science argues that however complex or diverse the world is that we experience, we will always find different types of organization in it, and that such types of organization can be described by concepts and principles which are independent from the specific domain under consideration. Hence, if we could uncover the general laws, we would be able to analyze and solve problems in any domain, and pertaining to any type of system. The systems approach is distinguished from the more traditional analytic approach in its emphasis on the interactions and relationships between the different components of a system. Although the systems approach in principle considers all types of systems, in practice it focuses on the more complex, adaptive, self-regulating systems which can be termed \"cybernetics\" (Görlitz, 1989).In systems theory, reality is seen as a complex pattern of various relationships between different elements. A system which can be defined as a simplified reproduction of a part of reality is composed of elements with attributes, i.e. their perceived characteristics, and describes the specific relationships between them and their boundaries. What is regarded as a system (i.e., which elements and relationships are selected to form a system) depends on the perspective and the specific objectives (e.g. small-scale farmer obtaining access to agricultural inputs, private research institutions advising commercial farmers, government institutions privatizing extension services, development organization designed to improve the agricultural services in a specific region). The systems, or holistic, approach is useful when seeking to analyze and understand better the complexity of service systems (Doppler and Calatrava, 2000). In the context of services to the agricultural sector, five important aspects can be identified:• Type of service: this comprises the key features (technical aspects, economic characteristics, quality aspects, effects) of an individual service such as agricultural extension, research, etc. • Actors of the service system: this aspect includes the provider sub-system (service supply) and the client sub-system (use of service).• Functional relationships of the service system: this includes the components of service provision ( financing, delivery, assurance), the interaction of and between actors and services, and the governance of services (mode and mechanisms). • Level and scope of the service system: this includes the micro-level (farm-household), meso-level (region or district) and macro-level (national) as well as the regional range of the service system.• Frame conditions of the service system: this includes the technological (service infrastructure) and ecological conditions in the region in which the service system is operating, as well as the political, economic and socio-cultural conditions influencing or being influenced by the system.Each of the above mentioned aspects can be further differentiated and analyzed in the context of sub-systems. Numerous possibilities of classifying agricultural services in a system context exist, with the emphasis shifting away from a simple technical interpretation to the processes and functional relationships of the service system itself.Adopting a systems perspective, agricultural services can be categorized as follows (Ibid):• Services for the application and management of agricultural inputs, such as water (irrigation), veterinary products (veterinary services), machines and tools (mechanization), pesticides (plant protection), etc. • Services for the acquisition and management of agricultural production factors, such as land (e.g. Provision of land) and labor (e.g. hired labor).• Services for post-production systems: these include all services related to operations, from the harvesting of agricultural products to consumption (e.g. processing, transport, storage, etc.), including the respective actors and all influencing factors and framework conditions (often referred to as \"post-harvest systems\").• Supply-chain services: these include all services related to the production and postproduction of a specific commodity (e.g. cotton, tomatoes, cocoa, etc.). • Information and knowledge services: these include services related to the creation and dissemination of agricultural information and knowledge.• Services for innovation systems: these include all services related to the development and dissemination and utilization of a particular innovation (e.g. research, extension, input supply, etc.).• Regional services: these include all services related to the production and postproduction of crops and livestock in a specific region.• Public sector services: these include all services provided by the public sector as well as their political and social influence on frame conditions (e.g. legal aspects, institutional arrangements, etc.).• Services of interest representation: these include services such as co-ordination, representation, negotiation, advocacy and lobbyism. These services are strongly related to the governance of a service system.Seeds played a critical role in agricultural development since pre historic man domesticated the first crops 10000 years ago. The domestication of wild species into crop plants probably started with the collection, storage and utilization of seeds not only for food, but also for planting a major step in the evaluation of settled agriculture. The domestication of plants was a gradual transformation from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture rather than a sudden revolution. During this process conscious and unconscious selection occurred, leading to significant modification of many our crop plants from their wild ancestors into highly adapted and diverse population of local land races (Zewde, 2004).According to (Buddenhagen and Richard, 1988;as  The primary objective of the enterprise was to produce and supply improved seeds to state farms and small farmers (Techane and Mulat, 1999).Agriculture is the foundation of the national economy and plays a major role in the socio-  , 1999).According to NSIA (1999), the Ethiopian seed industry is characterized by the following deficiencies.• Shortage of improved varieties and inadequate supply of high quality breeder and basic seeds which serve as the foundation for certified seed production;• Inadequate specialized seed farms for different agro-ecological zones;• Inadequate coverage of economically important crops and production regions;• Absence of an organized system of using local cultivars;• Inadequate provision for national seed data base and lack of provisions for reserve seed stock;• Shortage of trained workforce in seed production, processing and marketing;• Insufficient availability and supply of agricultural inputs mainly seeds and pesticides;• No internal quarantine regulation to curtail the movement of seeds from contaminated area to another area;• Inadequate follow up of imported materials by the quarantine unit of the ministry of agriculture.The supply of yield enhancing inputs in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) is restricted and highly priced in relation to international market prices. Within SSA, fertilizer use is mainly confined to export cash crops. Gregory and Bumb (2006) identified five pillars that are required to develop input markets and achieve market efficiency. Increasing supplies and market efficiency can reduce input prices. These five pillars are the policy environment; human capital development; access to finance; market information; and regulatory frame works. These generic components need to be adopted in the context of country-specific situations. Holistic improvements in all areas will reduce transaction costs and improve accessibility to fertilizers in rural areas.Recognizing the need to increase the use of fertilizer, the federal Government of Ethiopia has taken several measures, including issuance of national fertilizer policy, liberalization of the market to allow private sector participation, deregulation of prices and expansion of extension services. The national fertilizer policy was issued in 1993 with the main aim of ensuring competitive fertilizer market and supporting the national fertilizer and extension systems. The Government completely deregulated fertilizer prices in 1998 and eliminated subsidy in 1997 in an attempt to create a fully competitive market (Techane and Mulat, 1999).Despite the growth in the total fertilizer consumption, the average nutrient used per hectare of cultivated area in Ethiopia is one of lowest in the world. For instance, fertilizer nutrient use per hectare of cultivated land is about 48kg in Kenya, 97kg for the world (estimated average) and more than 200kg in Europe, compared to 17-20kg in Ethiopia.The picture of organic fertilizer is not any more encouraging. Because of fuel wood scarcity, rural households have been forced to divert animal dung from its traditional role as a source of soil nutrient to direct burning as a source of fuel (Ibid).Immediately after the liberalization, many wholesalers and retailers were registered as agents of different importers. For instance, in 1996 there were 2309 wholesalers and retailers registered by importers. But their number reduced to 430 in 1998 (quarterly reports of NFIA, 1996NFIA, -1999)). Field observations and regional reports have shown that the number of wholesalers and retailers further declined in 1999 (Ibid). This is because:-Before the deregulation of fertilizer price, there was a retail margin built in the selling price of fertilizer fixed by the government. This margin has attracted many wholesalers and retailers to participate in fertilizer business. But, after complete deregulation, they have to compete in the market to earn profit. Many private wholesalers and retailers withdrew from the business doubting the profitability of this seasonal activity.-Retailing by importers has also limited the number of private wholesalers and retailers, leaving no room for small wholesalers and retailers.-Private wholesalers and retailers have also been discouraged by lack of working capital since most of them are not in a position to provide collateral to banks to get credit.Credit administration and channeling system varies from region to region. In Amhara, SNNP and Tigray, the regional governments actually assess loan requirement, screen eligible beneficiaries, process the loan applications and issue purchase order to the input supplies using the relevant administrative machinery. In such cases, the task of the bank is to distribute payments to the designated suppliers. Cooperative promotion bureau, Omo micro Financing Institute and ICU at different level are responsible for input credit administration. In Tigray, while the cooperative promotion bureau is responsible for administering input credit obtained from CBE, Dedebit Credit and Saving Institute deliver and administer input credit from its own fund. In Oromya region, the credit required for the extension program is administered by the Agricultural Bureau at different levels. The agricultural bureaus assess loan requirement, process loan applications and issue purchase order to the suppliers. With regard to credit required for the regular program, the beneficiaries deal directly with the bank through their groups or service cooperative backed by the technical assistance from the cooperative promotion bureaus at different level (Ibid).The regional governments use their administrative machinery at all level and apply administrative measures to enforce repayment. Although strenuous efforts are made by the regional governments to enforce repayments, loan recovery is still facing problems.Some of the factors constraining loan recovery are:-Crop damage due to bad weather conditions -Lack of integrated efforts among all concerned to collect overdue loans according to the time table-Strategic default-decision by some farmers not to repay loans even they have the capacity to do so -Some farmers are taking inputs and sell it in cash at a cheaper price to solve their immediate financial problems (Ibid).Agricultural input supply system has an immense contribution in enhancing the productivity of agricultural commodities through collective action of relevant actors within the system. The system also plays important roles in bridging modern agricultural technologies to the peasant sector.Moreover, it has potential to influence goals, strategies and resources and thus bring about changes in policies, programs and other related agricultural projects. To insure food self sufficiency, identifying of influential factors in the smooth functioning of the system is essential to design purposeful intervention planning for betterment of the farming community in particular and the society at large.According to different sources and the real world situations, the input demand-supply system is influenced by personal, situational, economic, institutional and organizational factors. Therefore, in this study the researcher tries to analyze these relationships, identify the influence of independent variables on the dependent variable and also tries to identify the influential factors of the input demand-supply index of the area under study. The conceptual framework diagram of this study is presented in figure -1. • AgeInput demandsupply index• Storage facility• Distance from nearest input market• Type of road used• Access to market• Farm size• Family labor• Input priceDale woreda is one of 19 Woredas in Sidama Zone and covers a total area of 28440 ha, at about 320 km south of Addis Ababa. The woreda is subdivided into 36 PAs. According to CSA (2008), the population of the woreda is estimated as 244692 of which women account for 49.7% and men account 50.3%of the population. The altitude of the woreda ranges from 1650-2800 masl. The altitude at Yirgalem, which is the woreda headquarter, is 1765 masl.The mean annual rainfall recorded at Awada Research sub-centre in Yirgalem is 1314 mm. Rainfall declines as one move from the highlands in the east to lowlands in the west.There are two cropping seasons in the area, Belg (short rainy season) from March to April and Meher (main rainy season) from June to September. Belg rains are mainly used for land preparation and planting long cycle crops such as maize and seedbed preparation for Meher crops. The Meher rains are used for planting of cereal crops like barley, teff, wheat and vegetable crops. Meher rains are also responsible for the growth and development of perennial crops such as enset, coffee and chat. Livestock also play a major role in crop production in areas of the mid highlands and lowlands for cereal production (draught power) in addition to meat and milk; it also denotes prestige and asset to the households.According to IPMS (2005), two main farming systems can be found in Dale woreda.They are the garden coffee, enset, and livestock (here after referred to as coffee/livestock system) system is found east of the main road transecting Dale from north to south. The terrain is hilly and soils are red (Nitosols).Rainfall is higher and more reliable than in the dry midlands haricot bean/livestock system. The farming system is composed of garden coffee, enset, and cattle, which are tethered and kept for manure and production of dairy products. Other crops in the system are haricot beans (as an intercrop), yam, cereals, fruits, mainly avocado and bananas.Because of the perennial nature of the crop and the small holding size (between 0.25-0.5 ha per family), hand hoeing is the predominant method of cultivation.The Cereals, enset, haricot beans, garden coffee, and livestock (here after referred to as haricot bean/livestock system) system is the other main farming system in Dale woreda.This system is found west of the road transecting Dale from North to South. The terrain varies from relatively flat to hilly. Black soils (Pellic Vertisols) are commonly found on the flat areas and red soils on the slopes. Rainfall is lower and more erratic than in the coffee system. This system is dominated by cereals (maize, teff) rotated with haricot beans. Enset is cultivated near the homesteads.Garden coffee is grown in small patches, on the red soils. Extensive grazing areas are found, which are used for herding the oxen, cattle and goats. Average farm size is estimated at 1.5 ha. The farmers use oxen for their cultivation.Besides these two major systems, one smaller system can be found in the extreme east at the high altitude where farmers grow horticultural crops like shallots (IPMS, 2005).According to the available statistics, the area under coffee is 13,215 ha and average of 9 million kg of red cherry was sold annually to central market. Garden coffee improvement is being promoted predominantly in the coffee/livestock system. A total of 24 PAs have been targeted for this specialization, while, all the 36 PAs grown coffee. The commercialization of the haricot beans is targeted for the haricot bean/livestock farming system. The area under beans at the moment is still small i.e., 2,510 ha and the estimated production is 670 tons. A total of 12 PAs are targeted for specialization. The government intends to commercialize the haricot bean for export purposes, using the Awash 1andAwash melka varieties (small white seeds). This is a new introduction to the area which can either be added to and/or replace the area already sown with the local red Wolayta variety (IPMS, 2005). According to WARDO, the total coverage of maize crop is 3007ha. system in the lowlands (haricot bean/livestock system) to intensive tethered system in the major coffee/livestock system. Sheep production is important in the Dega (highlands)areas. Cattle, sheep and goat production is major in the mid-altitudes and goat, cattle, and sheep production are important in the lowland areas. Land preparation is mainly done by oxen power in the haricot bean/livestock system or human power using hoe in the coffee/livestock, depending on land size and availability of oxen. Oxen ownership is very low and farmers share their oxen for ploughing. In the woreda, only 16% of the farmers have a pair of oxen, 26% have one ox and 58% have no oxen. There is a large resource of production of skins and hides in the woreda. Production of fattened cattle, goat and sheep has great potential and there is a plan to enhance meat production in the woreda. The To develop sampling frame for the study, both probability and non-probability sampling methods were used. Multi-stage random sampling from probability sampling techniques and convenience sampling technique from non-probability sampling were used.Firstly, the woreda was divided into two groups according to the existing farming system (coffee-livestock and haricot bean-livestock). From two farming systems, PAs were stratified depending on closeness and farness from the center (town). Then a total of four PAs were selected purposively (two from far and two from closer to town). Finally respondents were randomly selected using probability proportional to size (PPS) in terms of the population density of the selected PAs.Sample size is determined based on research time and resource available and accordingly the total size of the respondents was 200 farmers. Female-headed HHs in the selected PAs were included in the sample with proportion of 20% for their engagement in crop production processes. P P SThe primary data necessary for the study were collected from sample respondents by using pre-tested and structured interview schedule.For the purpose of data collection, 10 enumerators, who have acquaintance with socio economic concepts and knowledge of the culture of the society as well as local language proficiency were selected, oriented and employed.The interview schedule was consisted different types of questions or items, related to the topic of the research and relevant variables to gather the needed information. Thus structured interview schedule was developed and used in order to allow the respondents to freely express their opinion on issues related to the research topic. After formulating the interview schedules, necessary editing was done for its observed consistency and logical sequence with frame of reference of the respondents. Then it was subjected to a pilot study on non-sample respondents with a minimum and adequate sample size. Based on the nature and extent of responses obtained, necessary modifications and further editing was done in the interview schedules to ensure its clarity and completeness for generating the needed information from the respondents. As to input/service providers, data were collected through questionnaires distributed to relevant actors related to the research topic.To supplement the quantitative data, qualitative data was collected through focused group discussions, informal interview with key informants, discussions with woreda level and village level extension staff and related actors.To collect data on information/knowledge flow, Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural knowledge systems (RAAKS); information source-use exercise (Tool B3/a) and linkage matrix (Tool B4/a) were used. These tools help to identify the important types of information and knowledge, the source and users of knowledge and information, the intermediaries that move knowledge and information and the status of linkage among actors (Salomon and Engle, 1997).Different types of analytical methods can be used to evaluate different research resultsand make a sound conclusion for a given survey information. Literature reveals that each and every analytical method has their advantages and limitations; it is always advisable to select the one that can better suit to answer the specific purpose (Hopkins et al., 1996;Pallant, 2001).The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in analyzing its data and drawing conclusions there from. Only after this, we can adopt the process of generalization from small groups (i.e., sample) to population.In this study, data were analyzed using different quantitative and qualitative procedures and methods. Descriptive statistical tools were used to analyze the quantitative data. The important statistical measures that were used to summarize and categorize the research data were means, percentages and frequencies. Qualitative assessment was carried out using key informants and focused group discussion; input suppliers' survey and government policy document content analysis.To see the association of explanatory variables with response variable chi square test for discrete/categorical variables, Pearson correlation analysis for continuous variables and Spearman's rho correlation analysis for dummy variables were used.analyze the influence among variables (i.e. single dependent variable and several independent variables) with the object of using the independent variables whose values are known to predict the single dependent value (Hair et al., 1998).According to Browen and Starr (1983), the regression equation takes the form: Before estimating the models, it was necessary to check if multicollinearity exists among the explanatory variables. If multicollinearity turns out to be significant, the simultaneous presence of the two variables will reinforce the individual effects of these variables.According to Gujarati (1995) there are various indicators of multicollinearity and no single diagnostic will give us a complete handle over the collinearity problem. For this particular study, Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) was used for continuous variables.The larger the value of VIF, the more it is troublesome. As a rule of thumb, if the VIF of a variable exceeds 10 (this will happen if R i 2 exceeds 0.95), that variable is said to be highly collinear (Gujarati, 1995). Following Gujarati (1995), the VIF is given as:Where, R j 2 is the coefficient of determination when the variable X j is regressed on the other explanatory variables.Similarly, there may be also interaction between qualitative variables, which can lead to the problem of multicollinearity. To detect this problem, coefficients of contingency were compounded. The contingency coefficient was compounded as follows:Where, C is coefficient of contingency, χ 2 is chi-square test and n = total sample size.For dummy variables if the value of contingency coefficient is greater than 0.75, the variable is said to be collinear (Healy, 1984 as cited by Mesfin, 2005). x,y ……..= are types of inputs N = number of inputs applicableFor this study, 12 independent variables were hypothesized to influence the dependent variable. Out of these variables; five, three and four were continuous, discrete/categorical and dummy respectively. Independent variables include the personal/demographic, socioeconomic, situational, and organizational and institutional factors that may influence the dependent variable. The selection of independent variables is based on the past research and published literature related to the study.1. Agethe age of the farmer has negative effect on using agricultural inputs by contributing for risk aversion ( Abadi and Pannel, 1999). It is hypothesized that as the age of the farmer increases the demand for agricultural inputs will be decrease. Thus it was expected to have negative effect on the dependent variable. It was measured in year's equivalent.Educational levelthe level of formal education of the farmer is important variable affecting the probability of using improved agricultural inputs (Nkonya et al., 1997). The better the education level the farmer has the better will be his understanding concerning the knowledge of improved agricultural technologies. Thus educational level was assumed to have positive association with dependent variable. It was measured using categorical scale.Family labora farmer with larger number of family size engaged on agricultural activities is more likely to be in a position to try to continue using a potentially profitable production enhancing inputs (Abadi and Pannel, 1999). Thus a farmer with high family labor will have a capacity to use labor intensive agricultural inputs. The variable was expected to have positive effect on the demand-supply of inputs. It was measured by man equivalent.4. Access to credit -the existence of credit institution at a disposal of farmers will enhance the use of improved agricultural inputs. A study conducted by Getahun et al., (2000) revealed that access to credit, has a significant and positive influence on the adoption of improved technology. Therefore, the variable was expected to have positive effect on the dependent variable. It was dummy variable with value of 1 for yes and 0 other wise.Storage facilitythe presence of storage for agricultural inputs at farmers' disposal may encourage farmers to demand it timely. Thus it was assumed to have positive relation to the dependent variable. It was dummy variable with value of 1 for yes and 0 other wise.6. Extension contact -the more contact the farmer has with extension service, the more will be the information/knowledge s/he has and the better will be the use of agricultural inputs (Haji, 2003). Packages developed by Board are more or less composed of improved agricultural inputs. DAs are responsible to transfer knowledge about the recommended packages prior implementation through their regular contact program.Therefore, it is assumed that farmers who have frequent contact with DAs are more likely to demand agricultural inputs due to the increased awareness, and it was expected to affect the dependent variable positively. It was measured using different levels of frequency scales. Therefore, the variable was expected to have negative association with the dependent variable. It was measured in kms.Farm sizethe size of land holding to a limit of course provides sufficient income and there by funds for investment on modern farm inputs (Roy et al., 1999). Thus size of land holding assumed to have positive relation to dependent variable. It was measured in 'timad' base and hactar equivalent ( 4 timad= 1 ha).10. Annual income -the status of the farmers in terms of their annual income will matter in deciding to purchase improved agricultural inputs. Wealthy farmers decide to take risk for using agricultural inputs (Getahun, 2004). Therefore, annual income has assumed to have positive relation to dependent variable. It was measured in Ethiopian birr.11. Access to market-Market access is one of the variables that affect input out put marketing in rural areas. Presence of input/output marketing at farmers disposal would increase the uptake of improved agricultural inputs by farmers. Hence the variable was expected to have positive influence on the dependent variable. It was dummy variable with value of 1 for yes and 0 other wise.12. Input pricethe price of agricultural inputs may encourage/discourage farmers in order to use production enhancing inputs. Wolday (1999) indicated that price of inputs is significantly related to use of improved seeds. If the pricing regulation of inputs does not invite farmers, it will have negative effect on improved agricultural inputs use. Therefore, this variable was expected to have negative association with the dependent variable. It was dummy variable with value of 1 for yes and 0 other wise.This part of the thesis presents the major findings of the study under three sub sections.The first sub section presents map of actors, linkage and knowledge flow within the input demand-supply system in the study area. The second describes influential factors for the smooth functioning of the system. The implication of current input/service delivery system is analyzed from the perspective of Government policies and institutional arrangements in the third subsection. Identified actors and their role in the system are illustrated in Appendix Table 6.• Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office (WARDO)WARDO is mainly concerned with provision of extension service to farmers through woreda SMSs, and DAs assigned in each PA who are responsible to transfer knowledge about plant production, animal production and natural resource conservation and development using individual and group contact. It is also engaged in facilitation and joint action of activities carried out by partners such as input suppliers, GO and NGOs for the successful accomplishment of their goals and objectives towards improving the livelihood status of farmers in the project area. Moreover, with regard to agricultural input provision, farmers demand would be finalized through DAs and line work process for the timely delivery of inputs.In input demand-supply system, the woreda cabinet has played significant role in mobilizing farmers for rural development activities. It facilitates joint actions such as input supply, input credit provision and monitoring and evaluation of productive safety net activities.• Sidama Zone Agriculture and Rural Development (SZARD)The Sidama Zone Agriculture and Rural development Department is concerned with all activities undertaken in the study woreda by line sector office. The department played role in facilitating input credit, input distribution, technical assistance, and monitoring and evaluation of the extension program. It is also involved on capacity building to SMSs and farmers through workshops and refreshment trainings.As it is well known that agricultural inputs specially seed technologies are the result of research organizations', efforts have been made to maximize the production and productivity of seed technologies per unit area. In the context of this approach, HARC played significant role in execution of enormous types of seed technologies which are best fitted to different agro-ecological zones.In the study area, the research organization has provided different types of haricot bean varieties to be selected by farmers. It also works with IPMS to strengthen farmers to farmers seed exchange system. As a member of Research Extension and Farmers Linkage Advisory Council (REFLAC), the organization started to strengthen the linkage with WARDO and farmers in transferring knowledge through Farmers Research andExtension Groups (FREG).The research sub center is working under close supervision of Jimma Coffee ResearchCenter. The main occupation of the research station is to conduct research on coffee and diversification with associated crops. The research station provides coffee berry disease (CBD) resistant improved coffee technologies to farmers and in return works for the improvement of the technologies on feedback gained from users. Currently, dissemination of \"Angefa\" improved coffee variety is on duty in collaboration with IPMS and WARDO staff for coffee multipliers and growers.The Sidama Elto Crop Cooperative Union is one of the three unions existing in SidamaZone. The main occupation of the union is supplying inputs to farmers through member cooperatives/WARDO to farmers and facilitation of market link for grain produce to its primary member cooperatives. As to input supply, the union is mainly concerned with provision of commercial fertilizer from Federations at regional level to farmers grass root level on credit and cash bases.According to a key informant of the organization, the input delivery system is not efficient as expected. This is because, the organization lacks warehouses, trucks and vehicles to damp inputs at farmers disposal, transport inputs for distant areas and to facilitate input delivery system with concerned parties respectively. However, to reverse the situation, the organization tried to deliver inputs through cooperation with public line sectors.• Ethiopian Seed Enterprise-Hawassa Shallo Basic Seed Multiplication Company(ESE-HS)The main occupation of the organization is seed multiplication, processing and distribution. Maize hybrid varieties (BH-540, BH-660 & BH-140) and haricot bean varieties (Red wolita, Awash melka, Awash-1, Ebado, etc.) are supplied from this enterprise to farmers in the study area. Besides these, variety adaptation trial is carried out in conjunction with WARDO to provide inputs that best suited to the agro ecology of the woreda. However, the organization could not satisfy the need/ demand for improved hybrid maize varieties due to lack of irrigable seed multiplication farm and related constraints (see appendix table 3). As the organization is a member of the regional REFLAC, the advisory council arranges quarter and yearly meetings, forums and workshops in collaboration with Rural Capacity Building Project (RCBP) to share knowledge among member partners. ESE/HS being as improved seed supplier shares its experience and get feedbacks from line sector representatives to improve the seed multiplication process.• Coffee seed multiplier farmers Farmers, who are living in one of the woreda PAs (Dagiya), are engaged in coffee seedling multiplication in addition to crop production and livestock rearing. These farmers started coffee seedling multiplication eight years ago in small patches near river side. They were supported by WARDO in provision of coffee berry disease (CBD) resistant improved coffee seedlings/seeds. Now-a-days, multipliers have started to provide coffee seedlings and seeds to surrounding farmers and coffee growing zones of the region respectively.Though they are working with close technical assistance of WARDO and IPMS, according to the key informants, due attention is not given by responsible bodies to empower them. They need to be organized in group or association to broaden their activities and enhance bargaining power in competitive markets.• Improving productivity and market success of Ethiopian Farmers (IPMS)The role of IPMS in the study area is not limited with research and development. It also involved in capacity building activities through conducting trainings in collaboration with WARDO and research organizations to SMSs, DAs and farmers groups to bring about sustainable agricultural development in the sector. Besides this the project facilitates market links and input supply for high value agricultural commodities like; coffee, haricot bean, mango and avocado through joint action with concerned parties. It also accessed knowledge centers as a source of indigenous and scientific knowledge to users in woreda and PA level. Currently provision of selected varieties of haricot bean and coffee to targeted farmers group is underway with the collaborative actors of IPMS.In the process of actor identification through FGD, key informants and relevant staff of WARDO, some missed actors were identified. These actors have their own contribution for the system either by playing facilitation role or indirect involvement. The identified missed actors were Regional Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development, Pioneer hybrid P.L.C and AISE. The roles of these actors in the system are discussed below.• Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD)The regional BoARD has direct involvement in input credit facilitation. The loan agreement modality document is signed in collaboration of this organization with loan lender banks and responsible line sectors. In addition to this, capacity building activities are conducted to woreda SMSs and DAs through TOT and refreshment trainings. The SMSs of BoARD are also provided technical support to woreda SMSs to bring about change within the sector.• Pioneer Hi-Bred Seeds Ethiopia P.L.CPioneer hybrid is the first private company that provides hybrid maize seed in the country. Few years ago farmers in the study area were using hybrid corn varieties namely Phb-3435 and Phb-3253. But now due to shortage of improved hybrid maize seeds, farmers could not get the seed. According to the company key informant, timely claim is very important to get hybrid corn seeds. They also need to re-strengthen their linkage with the WARDO to serve as alternative seed source.• Agricultural Input Supply Enterprise (AISE)The former AISCO and the now AISE is the government enterprise known for a long period of time in delivering commercial fertilizer to farmers throughout the country.Farmers in the study area were also using DAP and UREA fertilizers from the distribution centers. According to the key informants of the enterprise, though due to the illegal interference of some actors in the bid process, the enterprise was not able to reach the farmers, still they are willing to work with the community as alternative source of commercial fertilizers.According to Hagmann et al., (2002), linkages between service providers in to service delivery system are critical to 'make the system work as a system'. The different roles and mandates of service providers need to be clarified and even more important; they need to 'learn to play the roles' and work together in synergistic way towards making a difference.To bring sustainable agricultural development, partners within the sector must develop joint collaborative action to ensure efficient and effective input/service delivery system.To support actors in the sector, the Regional Research Extension Farmers Linkage Advisory Council (REFLAC) started to strengthen the linkage among multiple actors.Potential actors like BoARD, Research stations and FREG are participated in joint planning for action. The main aim of the council is to promote farmers participatory research through strong collaborative action by potential actors and to develop area specific technologies through adaptation trials and farmers-to-farmers seed exchange specifically on cereal and pulse crops. The Regional Rural Capacity Building Project (RCBP) is in charge of facilitating joint activities carried out by partners through budget and material support i.e. capacity building , workshops, joint monitoring and evaluations, for members of advisory council and FREG. In the study area, linkage of actors is worked out on the basis of their proximity to the farmers and link for support among themselves.Actor interaction is mapped using both character based map and linkage matrix. By using character based map; here we can look at individual actors and see that they link up with.Following Anandajayasekeram et al.(2008) the actor linkage maps were produced by placing farmers in the center and linking the other actors based on their contribution to the demand sector (farmers). A participatory actor's linkage map was produced by farmers and other key informants according to the proximities to them and farmers and key informants were asked to identify key actors they have linkage and draw the map (Figure 4).As indicated in the linkage map, farmers and key informants put the linkage between them and actors as strong with WARDO, Wereda Cabinet and coffee seed/seedling supply farmers. On the other hand, they put medium for the linkage with, SZARDD, interaction was presented using linkage matrix where major actors in the input demandsupply system are listed both the row and column of the matrix and their relation and interaction is described in the intersection cells (Table 3). Each box/cell in the matrix then represents the linkage between the two actors and the type of linkage. Bolded cells represent strong linkage among the respective actors.Accordingly strong linkage was observed between actors involved in technology generation and knowledge provision viz. HARC, AWCRSC, SZARD, WARDO and IPMS. The probable reason for this might be the presence of these actors in different plat forms such as REFLAC may contribute to act collectively for joint actions. In contrary, the linkage between others seems to be weak. These weak interactions call for strong efforts to strengthen the capacities of relevant actors for interacting and learning.    1,2,5,7  1,2,5,6,7  1,2,5,7  6,7  1,5 Strategic: Knowledge/information related to future perspectives (e.g. keeping up of quality standards of coffee for export, improving productivity for better income, cost benefit analysis etc.Operational: Knowledge/information related to activities to be under taken (e.g. adjusting planting time, use of short duration varieties to escape from drought, plant population per unit area and such managerial aspects.Policy: Knowledge/information related to policy issues like organizing farmers for better market negotiations, channelizing incentives.Market: Knowledge/information related to in the context of input-output marketing to benefit the farmers.From the above matrix, actors like WARDO, Woreda cabinet and SZARDD are found to be relatively with different sources of knowledge/information that would help in achieving their plan of actions. The probable reason for this is knowledge/information related to technical, operational and market would provide by multiple actors to strengthen the overall agricultural extension program to the study woreda in particular and Sidama zone in general.Linkage between actors could be seen through how they frequently communicate and draw active knowledge/information flow mechanisms to end users. In the study area, frequency of knowledge flow among actors is also identified according to how frequent knowledge transferred to end users. Table -5 shows frequency of knowledge flow within the system. From the survey result, frequency of knowledge flow within the system is not as such satisfactory due to absence of strong linkage among all actors. The probable reason for this is actors who involved in the system are not transferring knowledge to farmers directly rather they transfer to WARDO independently. Therefore, WARDO might shoulder all responsibilities to transfer knowledge delivered by partners to farming community and feedbacks from the farmers to partners. The study revealed that knowledge flow between partners and WARDO is relatively Constraints of the system were identified from the perspective of input/service providers and users independently. Questionnaires and interview schedules were used to collect the data from input/service providers and users respectively. The results of the survey are discussed below.According to key informants and input/service suppliers survey result, the following are constraints of the supply sector.• Unavailability of agricultural inputs at farmers disposal due to lack of transport, storage, etc. facilities Farmers From the result obtained, exorbitant input price was ranked as the first constraint of agricultural input demand by the farmers. The focus group discussion revealed that currently agricultural input price was escalated beyond the affordability of many farmers. The discussant mentioned that the price of fertilizer and seed increased by more than double fold comparing to past 2-3 years. This in return discouraged farmers to demand for production enhancing inputs.The second constraint described by the sample respondents was mismatch with demand in terms of kind of inputs. During the focus group and key informants discussion, participants pointed out that there was difference between the demands in kind and inputs delivered in the study area.For example, improved maize variety like BH-540 has got high demand by the farmers for its high adaptability and yield potential. However, the delivered maize varieties were BH-140 and BH-660, which were out of their demand.The third constraint of farmers demand for agricultural input supply is timeliness of input delivery. As crop production is associated with planting time, inputs should be delivered ahead of time. According to focus group discussants, they suffered with problems regarding to the delay of inputs supply which in turn contributed pest attack and yield loss for lately planted crops.The fourth constraint of input supply is insufficient delivery of inputs. The focus group discussion revealed that currently farmers suffered with shortage of agricultural inputs.According to discussants, the amount of input delivered is by far lesser than the required. The collected down payment from farmers for input purchase is returned back to farmers due to shortage of inputs. This, in response, seriously exposed farmers to purchase unknown source of inputs from local markets in the name of improved technologies but weak in their yield potential and quality.The fifth constraint of input supply was source from far distance. As the survey result showed, there are no input stores at farmers' disposal. Therefore, farmers tend to move long distance (10-25kms) to bring agricultural inputs. This may discourage them to search for improved agricultural inputs. According to key informants and discussants, unavailability of inputs at their disposal forced them to remain on traditional practices.Tilahun Gabisso is living in Manche PA of the study area. He is a farmer who engaged mainly on coffee, maize and haricot bean farming in conjunction with livestock rearing. He shared his experience in using agricultural inputs/services. He said, \"I don't have serious problem in the process of coffee cultivation, because I can get coffee seedlings nearby from public nursery or private farmers' nursery. In addition to this, as I prepare organic coffee for the central market, I am using organic fertilizer such as compost for my coffee orchard. strengthen together the organization to provide us input and credit, because many years ago we have a trend in paying our debts on the basis of delivering ripened coffee cherries to the cooperative\".Factors that influence the smooth functioning of the system is seen using questionnaire for input/service providers and focus group discussions and interview schedule for users. Therefore, in this section, findings are discussed from input/service providers and users point of view independently.For the successful provision of agricultural inputs/services the input supply sector should work in harmony to satisfy the need of the clients. During the study, factors that influence the smooth functioning of the supply sector were identified by each partner involved in the system in terms of input supply and knowledge provision. From the result obtained, the sector is positively/negatively influenced by the following major factors:• Sufficient and irrigable seed farm (-)• Skilled man power (+)• Delay of temporary loan settlement by users (-)• Policy, in creating conducive environment (+/-)• Storage facilities at grass root level (-)• Efficient marketing system (-)• Timely demand claims from users (-)• Demand for improved crop varieties (+)• Organizational mandatory clarity (+/-)• Clearly defined role and responsibilities of each partner (-)• Availability of improved seeds in terms of their germination, viability and adaptability (+)• Research centers cooperation and willingness to share resources including knowledge (+)• Farmers willingness to take risks (+)In this section, the result would be presented on the basis of methods used to collect data. In the first sub section, the result of FGD would be presented, and users' survey data results presented in the second sub section. To find out influential factors of the demand sector, focus group discussions were made in the selected four sample PAs. From FGDs conducted, prioritization of influential factors is carried out by using pair wise ranking. Table -7 shows identified factors by the farmers in priority order. From the result obtained, lack of insufficient credit service, low quantity of input delivery, high cost of input price, timeliness, pest attack and quality are crucial factors that singled out by the farmers according to their priority order respectively. Based on FGD findings, some of the identified factors are discussed in this section.The most important roles that credit is expected to play in agriculture may include-facilitating adoption of improved agricultural technologies, transformation of traditional agricultural practices, mitigating adverse conditions (drought, crop failure, disease and price uncertainties), improving physical and human capital, increasing farm efficiency, increasing flexibility of farmers decisions, attaining economies of scale in production, consumption, smoothing, and so on (Edlengaw, 2006).From the result obtained, insufficient credit service was the most serious problem remained unsolved in the study area. The probable reason for this is lack of commitment of facilitators at woreda level. According to the Sidama Zone Agriculture and Rural Development Department (SZARDD), the agricultural credit system is of two types (extension package and household package) -for extension package especially for inorganic fertilizer (DAP and UREA), BoARD of the region is responsible to finish loan agreement with the branches of Commercial Bank of Ethiopia. Head of zonal and woreda administration, finance and economy branch offices and WARDO are also responsible to sign on the modalities and they have to confirm that their running cost budget accounted for collateral.For house hold packages, Rural Finance Fund (RFF) is responsible to deliver loan to farmer cooperatives through their unions. In most cases improved seed would not be provided in credit basis, therefore farmers are forced to pay 100% of the price.According to WARDO, fertilizer credit is given to the farmers with 25-50% down payment using quota system. During focus group discussion, farmers seriously underlined that the input credit for each PA distributed was very limited which does not exceed from few farmers. Therefore, the majority of the farmers remained without getting fertilizer credit. However, fertilizer suppliers confirmed that there is no input shortage in their stock rather the problem emerged due to lack of using allocated loan fully by the woreda. From the survey result, the reason why they underuse yearly allocated loan for fertilizer is due to collateral in the loan agreement. Inability for timely settlement of the debt causes the transfer of the woreda running cost budget to commercial bank accounts. Therefore, to minimize the risk what they did is limiting the amount of loan to manageable size for recollection of the remaining debt.Lack of input credit is not associated only with access and utilization it also associated with debt settlement. If a given PA did not settle previously utilized debt, it will not get input credit for coming crop seasons. This, in return, disfavored the majority of the farmers by exposing to three main problems;• farmers who settled their debt timely could not get input credits due to farmers who did not settle their debts in a given period of time. • farmers would be exposed to serious food shortage due to low productivity.• consequently most farmers are migrating to nearby towns and PAs to be hired as daily laborer to search alternative sources of income.On the other hand, inputs delivered to the farmers are not in sufficient quantity, not timely and are costly. This also exposed farmers to four main problems;• inability to deliver inputs as per farmers demand ( in type and quantity) made farmers unable to increase their productivity per unit area by influencing on the growth of the total production in the woreda.• even inputs which delivered in small quantity, does not reach at farmers' disposal timely. This has caused for low productivity due to incidence of crop pests and shortage of moisture due to late planting.• the cost of inputs is increasing from time to time by causing smallholder farmers out of the game. This resulted the majority of poor farmers not to adopt production enhancing inputs and consequently the overall productivity of the woreda would be affected to meet the proposed goal.• Insufficient delivery of inputs may force farmers to search alternative market source (local market) where the quality of inputs is in question. As it was clearly observed, the quality of seeds and fertilizer sold from local market was very poor for productivity and increasing soil fertility respectively.The current seed and fertilizer supply channel in the woreda would take the following forms:Cooperative Unions Primary cooperatives Farmers (WARDO)Zonal ARDD plays facilitation roleWorkenesh Toramo is a woman farmer living in the study area, Danshesire PA. She is working as a leader of women's credit and saving group. She shared us her experience in agricultural inputs/service provision in her PA. She said, \"due to lack of access of women farmers to agricultural inputs, credits and extension service, we did not get chance to benefit from services to improve our livelihood status, rather we are searching for food aids. Though the PA has potential for crop production (maize and haricot bean), credit and input provision is very poor.Hence, most farmers are forced to continue with traditional practices resulting in low yield and income\". As she added, \"due to shortage of income I could not afford to give enough food for my children who attend school in Yirgalem town (capital of the woreda). As our soil is very poor in nutrient content, planting food crops without commercial fertilizer is unthinkable. Though starting from last year, we have started to be organized in credit and saving groups to save 2 birr on monthly basis, still we are in short of the above mentioned services. Therefore, attention has to given by responsible bodies to women farmers to make us more productive and self sustained\".In this section, descriptions of personal, socio-economic, situational, and organizational and institutional characteristics are presented and discussed in detail. These are the hypothesized variables that might influence the dependent variable, input demand-supply index.Personal Characteristics include the variables related to personal characteristics such as age and level of education. The distribution of sample respondents based on their personal characteristics is presented in Table 8. Age of farmers was one of the demographic characteristics hypothesized to influence agricultural inputs demand negatively; towards this end data on the age of farmers with respect to input demand-supply index seems important.The age of farmers who participated in the study ranged from 20 to 110. Farmers aged 30-49were the majority (69.5%) followed by age group 50-65(14%), 15-29(13%) and age group >65(3.5%).Education is one of the important variables, which increases farmer's ability to use production enhancing agricultural inputs. Low level of education and high illiteracy rate is typical in developing countries like Ethiopia. In fact, education level of farmers is assumed to increase the ability to use improved agricultural inputs in a better way. Therefore, in this study, education level is a variable helping to demand production enhancing inputs by the respondents.As indicated in Table 7, 15% of the sample respondents were illiterates, 21.5% were able to read and write, 46% had elementary school education, and 17.5% had attended secondary school education. From the data presented, number of educated farmers (> 63%) is by far greater than that of illiterates (21.5%).Socio-economic factors relate to the purchasing power of farmers to agricultural inputs, which is determined by various social and economic variables such as size of land holding, annual income, family labor and input price. The findings are presented in Table 9. Land is a primary source of livelihood for all rural households. It was assumed that larger the farm size, higher is the possibility to use a combination of improved agricultural inputs. In the study area, the size of the land owned differed from household to household.Of the total 200 respondents, 85 (42.5%) own between 0-0.5 hectare, 93 (46.5%) own between 0.51-1 hectare, while only 11 (1.3%) own 1.01-1.5 hectares of land. Average land holding of total respondents was about 0.723 hectare with maximum and minimum of 2.50 and 0.125 hectares respectively.Total annual cash income is an important variable explaining the characteristics of households, in that those who have earning relatively high income could probably increase the purchasing power of agricultural inputs and this in return would expose them to demand inputs. Results of different empirical studies show the effect of annual income on house holds' decision in using and adopt improved agricultural technologies. For example Kidane(2001) , Dejene et al., (2001) and Getahun (2004) reported positive influence of households' farm income on adoption of improved agricultural inputs. As indicated in Table 9, the minimum and maximum annual income was Birr 500 and Birr 25000 respectively.Higher number of family active labor force leads to decisions to take risk for participation in technology packages. Therefore, family labor force contributes to the variation in agricultural input demand. In this study, family labor force was assumed to have positive relation with the dependent variable. Similarly the result of the study conducted by Bezabih (2000) on the role of new varieties and chemical fertilizer revealed that the rate of adoption of chemical fertilizer is positively influenced by the number of man equivalent.Family labor force in the study area ranges from one person to nine persons with an average of 2.82 adult equivalents per household. The respondents were placed under three family labor force categories. Based on this, 80%, 19% and 1% had in the range of (0.5 -3.9, 4 -6 and 6.1-9) adult equivalents respectively.The price of inputs may be seen in terms of affordability by small scale farmers. Affordable prices of inputs may enhance farmers' interest to purchase inputs from the distribution centers, whereas exorbitant input price lead poor farmers to not demand improved agricultural inputs.Therefore, the variable is expected to have negative effect on the demand of agricultural inputs.From the data, almost all 199(99.5%) of the respondent noted that the price of input is not affordable. From the result of qualitative analysis, though the price is unaffordable, farmers were subjected to use below recommended rate and partly use of package inputs due to lack of alternative input sources (see Appendix table 5). The variable was not computed for statistical analysis due to relatively very low variability among respondents.Situational characteristics include the variables that might influence farmers demand for improved agricultural inputs such as type of road used, access to market and distance from nearest input market. The findings are presented in Table 10. Type of the road may have an influence on input demand-supply index. All weathered roads would fever the inlet/outlet of farm inputs and produce at/from farmers' disposal. From the data obtained, 24(12%), 35(17.5%) and 141(70.5%) of the respondents have no access, winter season road and all weathered road respectively. According to respondent farmers, even if they have roads meant for transportation, due to lack of allocation of transport vehicles by responsible bodies still the problem remain unsolved.Access to input /output marketing may have positive association with farmers' demand for agricultural inputs and to sell their produce with reasonable price. From the data obtained, 73 (36%) of the respondents have no access to market and 127 (63%) have access to market.The availability of inputs on nearby markets would have positive influence for farmers to demand inputs. Whereas for farmers who located far from input markets may have relatively negative influence to demand agricultural inputs. From the finding, farmers who live in different range of distance (0.3-5, 6-10 and >10) are 13(6.5%), 52(26%) and 135(67.5%) respectively from nearest input market. Though for the purpose of the survey, 2 PAs are selected from nearby PAs and 2 are from far, their settlement within the PA varies even in the nearby PAs from the center.Organizational and institutional factors include the variables that might influence farmers demand for improved agricultural inputs such as access to credit institutions, storage facilities, existence of service cooperatives and extension service. The finding is presented in Table 11. Access to credit can address the financial constraints of farmers. The finding shows that, 58.5% of the respondents had no access to credit institutions, whereas, 41.5% had access to and utilization of credit from institutions. Among those who have access to credit institutions, only 21.5% of them have got credit in 2008 production year in the study area. The constraints for access to credit in the study area might be lack of efficient credit system at farmers' disposal.Existence of storage facilities at farmers' disposal would have an advantage for input suppliers to damp and timely deliver agricultural inputs. As a matter of chance no warehouses were seen that meant for input storage in the study area. From the data collected, the response of all respondents was the same (200%) and showing the absence of storages. This entails farmers are subjected to high transport cost and lack of timely delivery of inputs. Therefore, this variable could not show variation among respondents in relation to their input demand, and not included in statistical analysis.Farmers' proximity to agricultural extension services would have positive influence on demand for agricultural inputs due to increased adoption rate of farmers on improved agricultural inputs.The variable is computed in terms of farmers' proximity/contact with DAs. From the survey, 178 (89%) of the respondents have contact with DAs at different level of frequency ( rarely 39, once in a month 33, once in three weeks 41, once in two weeks 40 and once in a week 25) and the rest 22(11%) had no contact.This section covers the findings on relationship between input demand-supply index (dependent   The output of Pearson correlation analysis in Table 13 indicates that, out of five continuous independent variables, distance from the nearest input market is positively and significantly associated with the dependent variable at 5% level of significance. The probable reason for positive significance of distance from the nearest input market is majority of respondents are located in distant villages even within the nearby PAs (see Table 10). The output of Spearman's rho correlation analysis in Table 14 indicates that, out of two dummy independent variables, access to credit is positively and significantly associated with the dependent variable at 1% level of significance.In the preceding parts of this thesis the descriptive analysis and bivariate analysis of important independent variables, which are expected to have influence on input demand-supply were presented. In this section, the selected independent variables were put to Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) model to identify the factors influencing agricultural input demand-supply index of farmers. A MLR model was fitted to estimate the influence of the hypothesized independent variables.Prior to the estimation of the model parameters, it is crucial to look into the problem of multicollinearity or association among the potential candidate variables. To this end, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was used to test the degree of multicollinearity among the continuous variables and contingency coefficient test for categorical/dummy variables.The value of VIF for continuous variables was found to be less than 10 (see appendix table 8).To avoid serious problem of multicollinearity, it is quite essential to omit the variables with VIF value greater than or equal to 10 from the MLR analysis. As a result all 5 continuous independent variables were retained and entered into MLR analysis. For categorical/dummy variables contingency coefficient test was worked out to test the existence of multicollinearity effect. As a result the values of contingency coefficients were less than 0.75 and no serious multicollinearity problem was occurred among the independent variables (see appendix table 12).The variable input demand-supply index was used as a continuous dependent variable.Eventually, a set of five (5) continuous independent variables, three (3) discrete/categorical and two (2) dummy variables were included in the model and used in the MLR analysis (see appendix table 13).These variables are selected on the basis of theoretical explanations and the result of various empirical studies. To determine the best subset of independent variables that are good predictors of the dependent variable, the MLR were estimated using SPSS 12 version. In this method all the above mentioned variables were entered in a single step. The result showed that as number of active labor force of the family increases by 1 unit, input demand-supply index of the family would be increase by .036 units. This implies when the number of active labor force of the family increases taking the risk of using production enhancing inputs would increase. This result coincides with the findings of Abadi and Pannel (1999) and Bezabih (2000).Type of road used: the analysis revealed that having road which is inconvenient to transport inputs would deceases the input demand supply index by .110 units. This intailes the type of road is negatively influence the dependent variable and hence, having difficulties in transporting agricultural inputs would decrease the probability of purchasing production enhancing inputs.The result concurs with the findings of Tesfaye and Shiferaw (2001).Access to market (CACTMKT): as we can see from the analysis that having access to market would increase input demand-supply index of the farmer by .034 units. This implies farmers who have access to market regardless of input/output marketing, would have the probabilty of demanding production enhancing inputs as compared to farmers who do not have market access.It was hypothesized that this variable has positive influence on the dependent variable. From the result obtained as frequency of contact with development agent increases by a unit, input demand-supply index of the farmer would be increase by 0.028 units.This implies when farmers have regular contact with extension agent, probability of using production enhancing inputs would increase through increased awareness from the extension organization. This result will coincide with Kidane (2001) and Techane (2002) who have reported significant and positive relationship of extension contact and use of agricultural technologies.In analyzing the existing input demand-supply system of the country in general and the study area in particular, policy and institutional environment for channeling the services is crucial.According to Hagmann et al. (2002) as cited by Anteneh (2007), service delivery framework this level is called 'Supporting the Response'. At this level, analysis on the policies and legislation for the institutional arrangements of service provision, monitoring and evaluation and quality assurance of the service for regulating service provision modes and arrangements was undertaken. The analysis was made based on narrative analysis of government policy and strategy documents. It was backed up from public sector input suppliers, MoARD offices existing at different levels and past studies conducted by some scholars.There exists a multiple actors in the service delivery and regulatory institutions in the public, private, farmer based organization, civil society and NGOs with verified responsibility and yet complimentary. Currently, the agricultural marketing and input sector in the MOARD with its decentralized structure has developed implementation strategy to coordinate and support in capacity building for the production, supply, distribution and marketing of agricultural inputs system in the country (MoARD, 2005).However, the public system is not functioning in an efficient or coordinated manner for the financing and delivering inputs/services there by support responsive input/service delivery system due to poor institutional linkage between different public organizations at different levels, and between public organizations and other players in the system (i.e. private, cooperative unions, NGOs and civil society organizations). These weak linkages are exacerbated by the public sector's persistent emphasis on yields and technologies rather than more comprehensive focus on improving the service delivery ( Spielman et al.2006).With regard to financing and delivery of the research system, agricultural research is also the services that demonstrate existence of multiple actors in the financing and provision of the research services especially for maize and participatory research in the country. The limited research under taken by the private sector like Synegnta and pioneer hybrid in maize research can be referred.From an economic point of view, determining the appropriate role of the state and the private sector in the market for seed is a complex issue. Seed systems are, by their nature, subject to a variety of unique market and institutional constraints (Tripp andLouwaars, 1997, Gisselquist andVan Der Meer, 2001). First, problematic property rights questions arise from fact that improved seeds can, in many cases, be reproduced by the farmer, thus reducing the ability of breeders to appreciate the gains from their innovative activities and investments. Second, information asymmetries result from the inability of farmers to make ex ante assessments of seed quality, since the seller retains such knowledge in the absence of certain types of regulation. Third, coordination problems result from difficulties in monitoring and enforcing contracts for seed use.Finally, inelastic supply responses result from the inability of breeders to respond effectively to the changes in seed demand that result from expectations of market prices, household incomes, rainfall, and other determinants of farmers' planting decisions. Nonetheless, over time, many of these failures can be resolved through enactment of plant variety rights and truth in labeling laws, eventually allowing developed seed systems to be largely driven by the private sector.Until 1992, there was no coherent national policy for the development of seed industry. In 1993, a national seed industry policy and strategy was formulated to guide seed sector development.The National Seed Industry Council (NSIC) was established under Proclamation No 56/1993 and become responsible for advising the Government on policy and regulatory issues that would help improve and build a sustainable national seed supply system. Proclamation No122/98 amended the members of the Council (Getnet et al., 2001). The main objectives of national seed industry policy are to:• Streamline evaluation, release, registration and maintenance of varieties developed by national programs. • Develop an effective seed production and supply system through participation of public and private sectors.• Encourage the participation of farmers in germplasm conservation and seed production.• Create functional and efficient institutional linkages among seed industry participants.• Regulate seed quality, seed import export trade, quarantine and other seed related issues.In the national seed industry policy, emphasis have been given to agricultural research institutions, the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE), state farms, private farms and farmers as major producers and suppliers of seed. The private sector is expected to play an important role in seed sector development.A Ministerial Regulation No. 16/1997 which was enacted to cover registration of varieties, seed producers, processors, distributors, quality control, seed trade (import-export), etc. has been replaced by Seed Proclamation No. 206/2000. The latest Proclamation is more comprehensive and creates stronger legal framework for the protection and control of the interests of all players in the seed industry. Moreover, field and seed standards prepared for 74 crops are officially issued for implementation.Shortcomings in seed quality and timeliness of delivery have been an issue in Ethiopia for several reasons. First, the ESE supplies seed with only a limited number of traits capable of addressing the many biotic and abiotic stresses found across these farming systems and agro ecologies. Second, concerns have been raised regarding the quality of seed provided by the ESE.Poor cleaning, broken seeds, low germination rates, and the presence of mixed seeds has been commonly reported in ESE supplied seed (DSA 2006). Third, the official process of procuring, stocking, and distributing seed often fails to meet the time-sensitive needs of farmers. Numerous surveys have found that seed procurement and distribution through official channels is often not conducted in a timely or coordinated manner. Seed is either distributed after the optimal planting time, or the varieties distributed are not appropriate to changes in farmers' expectations of weather (e.g. Sahlu and Kahsay 2002;DSA 2006;EEA/EEPRI 2006).As it was discussed in literature review part, timely delivery of agricultural inputs with sufficient quantity as per the demand of users would enhance the consistent use of agricultural technologies to boost productivity of individual farmers in particular and the farming community in general.From the discussion with WARDO and key informants, improved maize seed delivered to the woreda was not timely and not according to the demand. Moreover, according to SZARDD, the quality of BH-660 (maize variety) seeds delivered this year (2009) by private investors and Hawassa state farm found to be worse (full of broken, shriveled and poor in germination).Though seed policy and legislations are issued regarding quality, due to weak controlling system and inability to implement rules and regulations the demand sector faces this problem repeatedly.Agricultural research in Ethiopia has a relatively long history and is carried out by a number of institutions. In the past EARO has a national mandate to conduct and coordinate research, but institutions of higher education (universities and colleges) are also engaged in agricultural The NVRC proposed a reform of its current structure and functions and elaborated procedures for variety release and registration of horticulture, fruit and tree crops. The Seed Quality Control and Certification Department of NSIA serves as the secretariat of NVRC. Varieties are in extensive trials before they are proposed for release at regional or national level. Breeders carry out a minimum of two to three years national or regional trials (NYTs) in at least three to five locations or different agro-ecological zones before submitting an application to NVRC. The variety should be tested for yield, tolerance to pests and other important agronomic characters compared with standard varieties or local check. Superiority in yield, grain quality and acceptable level of distinctness, uniformity and stability are required to grant a release (Ibid).According to the key informants of improved maize variety suppliers, the time given for variety release has to shorten and improved through increasing number of locations in different agro ecological zones to test for various characters. This in return would have advantage for both sectors to update the existing varieties and deliver high yield potential varieties within a short period of time as to satisfy the current high demand for improved maize technologies and increase production and productivity of farming community to ensure food self sufficiency.Unlike seed, fertilizer is a private good that should be well suited to private market development in Ethiopia. However, a number of features of fertilizer have complicated market development in the early stages of adoption. On the demand side, fertilizer is a highly specialized input, the efficient use of which generally requires complementary inputs (e.g. improved varieties), as well as higher levels of management. Most final consumers of fertilizersmallholders-are widely dispersed geographically, and most of them are poor, so creating a market can be costly. Furthermore, in rainfed areas, fertilizer consumption is highly seasonal (a 2-3 month market window), and year-to-year fluctuations in rainfall patterns contribute to high inter-year variability in demand for fertilizer, with corresponding risks of high carryover stocks from year to year. On the supply side, fertilizer is a bulky input, with relatively low value to volume. This means that transportation costs can make up a large share of final selling prices, even despite considerable economies of size in international procurement and shipping. In countries that import fertilizer (such as Ethiopia), the supply chain from fertilizer production to the final user, the farmer, is long in terms of both distance and time, often requiring over six months from initial orders to final purchase. Hence, liquidity along the supply chain is often a constraint. Due to these constraints on both demand and supply, public interventions in fertilizer markets are common in the early stage of market development (Getnet et al, 2001). However, since 1999 the private sector that had initially responded to the reforms has largely exited the fertilizer market. In the case of imports, the share of private firms operating in the market went from 33 percent in 1995 to zero in 1999. Since then, the AISE has taken the majority share, followed by \"private\" companies closely affiliated with or owned by the governing party and, more recently, cooperative unions. In 2004/05, the share of party affiliated companies declined, and cooperative unions entered the import market with considerable technical assistance from the Ministry of Agriculture. The market share trends are similar in the case of wholesalers. While AISE had a market share of less than 50 percent during the mid-and late 1990s, it had regained the majority share by 2001, when private sector wholesalers, except for the party-affiliated companies, had disappeared from the scene. The decline of the private sector in the retail market was more dramatic. While private sector retailers held a majority share of the market in the early 1990s, the public sector and cooperatives have become almost the sole distributors of fertilizer since early 2000 (DSA 2006). As of 2004, the public sector accounted for over 70 percent of distribution, with private dealers accounting for only 7 percent of sales nationwide (EEA/EEPRI 2006). The public sector supply channels have also changed; whereas extension agents initially managed distribution, the responsibility was shifted to local input supply offices in more recent years.Difficulties are also evident in the estimation of demand and distribution of fertilizer. Estimates of demand are compiled through official channels and aggregated to the national level as in the case of seed. Importers respond to official demand estimates and organize distribution through the regional bureau of agriculture or cooperatives, depending on the region (DSA, 2006).The current government policy is to target at least 80 percent of fertilizer sales through cooperatives, which are eventually intended to replace the public sector involvement in retail distribution of fertilizers. This process, as with the importation process, tends to favor those firms or organizations with access to capital markets and experience in navigating the regulatory and administrative systems at both the federal and regional levels.To ensure the uptake of the seed-fertilizer technological packages, regional governments in Ethiopia initiated a 100 percent credit guarantee scheme beginning in 1994. Under this system, about 90 percent of fertilizer is delivered on credit at below-market interest rates as part of packages (incorporated with extension programs), displacing what had previously been retail sales from the private sector (including a substantial share on cash basis). In order to finance the seed-fertilizer technology packages, credit is extended to farmers by the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (a state-owned bank), through cooperatives, local government offices, and more recently, microfinance institutions (MFIs) and one cooperative bank. Since 1994, the number of active cooperatives, cooperative unions and MFIs has expanded. These organizations have gradually assumed part of the guaranteed credit program, which had reached some four million farmers with guaranteed credit of nearly $70 million in recent years.Credit recovery, using extension agents and a degree of coercion by local administrative officials, was generally successful until the collapse of maize prices in 2001 and the subsequent drought. In Oromiya, for example, recoveries had averaged above 80 percent up to 2001, but this figure dropped to 60 percent in 2002, forcing major rescheduling of loans. As a result of the credit guarantee, the total amount of the defaults is now deducted from the Federal government block grants to each of the regions (Ibid).Moreover, the regional government of SNNPR currently put credit norms in the basis of production seasons i.e. for belg, 75% of inputs would be delivered in cash and only 25% was meant for credit with 25% and 50% down payment and for that of meher, input credit is delivered with ranging from 25% -50% down payment for inorganic fertilizer. No credit is provided for improved seeds.According to WARDO seed-fertilizer channel is complex and bureaucratic due to inefficient facilitation by concerned partners. The credit system is also taking many steps to reach at farmers' disposal. Moreover, credit modalities (norms) are disfavor of small scale poor farmers due to absence of money at times of down payment collection.The current fertilizer supplier in the project area (Sidama Elto Crop Cooperatives Union) is not efficient due to weak organizational and institutional arrangements. Similarly, fertilizer credit provided by commercial bank of Ethiopia (CBE) is also full of obstructions like untimely release due to prolonged loan agreement process and inefficient uptake of credits by users due to link between government offices running cost budget and collateral. This, in turn, affected the commitment of grass root level policy implementers to help resource poor farmers through channeling efficient credit systems in a wider scope.The study area Dale woreda is one of the potential for coffee producing woredas in the region having two farming systems viz. coffee-livestock and haricot bean-livestock. To determine the input demand-supply index of the respondents, input required and obtained last year in relation to coffee, haricot bean and maize crops are taken into considerations.The study was conducted in order to analyze the input demand-supply system of the area. It also tried to investigate, the status of linkage and knowledge flow among actors involved in the system, influential factors for the smooth functioning of the system and the enabling policy environment toward the system. To see the status of linkage and knowledge flow among partners, linkage matrix and knowledge network analysis of RAAKS tools were used. For identifying the influential factors both qualitative and quantitative method of data collection were used i.e. for input suppliers, qualitative analysis was used through questionnaires distributed, and for demand sector (farmers) FGD and interview schedule were conducted to collect data and analyzed using descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression from econometrics model. As to the enabling policy environment, Government policy content analysis on seed and fertilizer policy was made using different documents of policy and regulations of the country versus implementations.According to the result of the study, linkage between farmers and relevant actors was found to be relatively weak, and whereas linkage among actors like WARDO, SZARDD, HARC,AWRC and IPMS found to be relatively strong. As far as knowledge/information flow from relevant actors to farmers is concerned, it was also found to be 'sometimes' and 'rarely'. But information/knowledge flow between WARDO and relevant actors seemed to be somewhat frequent.As to influential factors for the smooth functioning of the system, from input/service providers side; organizational mandatory clarity, sufficient and irrigable seed farm, skilled man power, setback of temporary loan settlement by users, policy environment, storage facilities at grass root level, efficient marketing system, timely demand claims from users, clearly defined role and responsibilities of each partner, availability of improved seeds in terms of their germination, viability and adaptability, research centers cooperation and willingness to share resources including knowledge, farmers willingness to take risks and demand for improved crop varieties were some of mentioned factors that influence the system positively and/or negatively.Moreover, from users' survey, the results of econometric model indicated the relative influence of different explanatory variables on the response variable. A total of ten (10) explanatory variables were included into the model, of which five (5) of them had shown significant influence on the dependent variable (input demand-supply index). Number of active labor force of the family, access to market and extension contact found to have positive and significant influence on input demand-supply index; and contrary to this, age of the household head and type of road used were shown negative and significant relationship with the dependent variable.Regarding to the enabling policy environment, rules and regulations to implement policies and strategies found to be mainly constrained with lack of flexibility and commitment. Though the policy invited actors to involve in the system, especially in seed industry and fertilizer markets, due to lack of efficient management system and facilitation role by the bureaucracy, it is found to be not as expected. Accordingly, issues like durations for seed release and registration, cooperative law, quarantine measures for imported/shopped seeds and attention to seed biodiversity (endemic/indigenous crop varieties) were some points raised from supply sector and pricing, quantity and credit system were some of issues raised from users to be revisited in the policy to strengthen the system and hence to create efficient and effective input/service delivery to farmers as to increase production and productivity of the study area in particular and the nation at large.To bring sustainable agricultural development and ensure food self sufficiency of the nation, actors involved in the sector should act synergistically. Services like extension, input supply, credit provision, research and development were amongst all delivered in the project area for the realization of bringing about change at the peasant sector.Agricultural inputs like seed, fertilizer, pesticides, improved farm tools, etc supply in line with efficient extension service would lead to ensure enhanced production and productivity. However, the supply of these production enhancing inputs/services were constrained with various factors.These factors together with several personal, situational, socioeconomic, and institutional and organizational factors greatly affected the input demand supply index of the sector in the area under study. Based on the research findings of this study, the following points are recommended to improve the input demand supply system of the study area.For the strength of the system, the existence of strong linkage among actors within the system has a vital importance in a way that to transfer knowledge and provision of agricultural inputs/services in efficient and effective manner. Therefore, creating strong relationship among relevant actors through platforms, workshops and symposia has to consider with the aim of bringing strong partnership to reverse the existing livelihood status of the peasant sector.Inaccessibility of credit is found to be serious problem to increase farmers' productivity in the sector. This, in response, disfavored the majority of small scale farmers in lowering their livelihood status and resulting for food shortage. Therefore, by improving the efficiency of credit system, timely and sufficient amount of delivering credit to farmers who engaged on crop production has to be considered as a central and core component of any development intervention in the sector. In line with this, due attention has to given to women farmers group to empower them and participate in productive activities through delivering agricultural input credits as to minimize vulnerability and improve their livelihood status. Provision of inputs timely and according as to the demand of beneficiaries is crucial to boost up production and productivity of smallholder farmers. Accordingly organizing farmers groups through primary cooperatives has significant importance to deliver inputs via cooperatives at the beneficiary disposal. Therefore, attention has to given for the strengthening of farmers organizations to involve in input distribution and credit provision for farmers and enhance bargaining power in competitive markets with support of GOs and NGOs involved in the sector.To resolve problems related to the use of production enhancing inputs by farmers, establishing efficient extension service in the study area is mandatory. In this regard, the extension organization should work in harmony with research centers and NGOs in updating knowledge to be transferred to farmers' research extension groups (FREG) supported with relevant extension methods and approaches. Likewise, the extension service should give attention in accessing information/knowledge to women farmers through including women groups in its program as to participate in income generating activities and for accumulation of capital at household level.Moreover, attention has to be given by local administration to rural development and agricultural extension activities in facilitating infrastructures related to road and transportations for market in/outlets to change the life of resource poor farmers in particular and the rural society at large. With regard to the enabling policy environment, flexibility of laws and changing paper to action is very important for the smooth functioning of the system. Flexible laws that could accommodate and recognize other informal types of organization like 'groups' may enhance the supply of inputs/services by service providers as to assist according to farmers need and willingness to involve in interventions to be conducted. Therefore, to fill the gap, polices related to farmers organization (groups), channeling efficient and effective credit service, time given for release and registration of new seed varieties, appropriate quarantine services to shopped and imported crop varieties, attention to seed biodiversity particularly those of our endemic/indigenous crop varieties, expansion of public and private seed multiplication farms supported with irrigation facilities and promotion of farmers to farmers seed multiplication and exchange has to be given due emphasis to reverse the impediments encountered due to inflexibility and inability to put in action of intended policies for the sector. ","tokenCount":"17391"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b5fa4db1133f5f1cf19f48cc81de56ce","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6844f43b-700c-436d-aacf-7d6a3d24d6b5/retrieve","id":"-604848718"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8deb24c3-5518-4f44-ade7-da85dea9d2cf","pagecount":"52","content":"¿cómo establecer y manejar un banco comunitario de semillas? Manual del productor agrícola ¿Cómo eStABleCeR y mAnejAR un BAnCo ComunItARIo de SemIllAS? Manual del productor agrícola CuAdeRno 3 de 3 GeStIón, RedeS, PolítICAS y un ReSumen Bioversity International 2018página 36: Banco comunitario de semillas La Labranza, No. 2, Matagalpa, Nicaragua. PCaC/J.I.Vásquez-Zeledón página 37: Comité de manejo de la reserva de semillas de Los Lucas, Guatemala. Anna Porcuna Ferrer página 38: Banco comunitario de semillas de la comunidad de Piedra, Yunnan, China. China Farmers' Seed Network página 39: Banco comunitario de semillas la comunidad de Gumbu, Sudafrica. Bioversity International/R.Vernooy página 40: Banco comunitario de semillas de la comunidad de Kabwohe, Uganda. J.Adokorach página 41: Banco comunitario de semillas de la comunidad de Tamaphok, Nepal. Bioversity International/R.Vernooy 3 ¿cómo establecer y manejar un banco comunitario de semillas? tabla de contenido nota sobre el proceso de preparación de este manual el establecimiento de un banco comunitario de semillas aspectos técnicos Gestión, redes y políticas resumen final: ¿qué hay que tener en cuenta para establecer un banco comunitario de semillas? cuaderno 3Gestión, redes, políticas y un resumen una eXperiencia desde america latina ¿Quiénes somos?Somos miembros del comité de manejo del banco comunitario de semillas de Climentoro situado en las montañas de Guatemala. Nuestra comunidad está ubicada en un área remota. Vivimos principalmente de la agricultura. El maíz siempre ha sido y sigue siendo un cultivo muy importante para nuestro sustento, así como también por motivos culturales y religiosos.Nuestro banco comunitario de semillas comenzó en 2011. Almacenamos semillas de maíz, frijoles, cebada, cilantro, haba, calabaza (\"chilacayote\"), mostaza, trigo y plantas medicinales como la hierba blanca y la manzanilla.Tener un lugar seguro donde guardar nuestras semillas es muy importante. Cada vez con mayor frecuencia, los eventos climatológicos extremos dañan nuestros cultivos ocasionando pérdidas en las cosechas, lo que acaba comprometiendo nuestra seguridad alimentaria.Recibimos apoyo técnico regular de la Asociación de Organizaciones de los Cuchumatanes (ASOCUCH), una organización no gubernamental que trabaja con las comunidades de nuestra zona.En este tercer cuaderno nos gustaría tratar algunos temas relacionados con la gestión de un banco comunitario de semillas: su normativa, sus necesidades a nivel de redes y de apoyo técnico, la influencia de las leyes y políticas, y lo que se necesita para garantizar su viabilidad y sostenibilidad a largo plazo.1. ¿cómo gestionar un banco comunitario de semillas?La gestión de un banco comunitario de semillas es responsabilidad de su comité de manejo. Habitualmente son los mismos miembros del banco los que eligen en asamblea a los miembros del comité.El comité de manejo supervisa las operaciones cotidianas, tales como la coordinación y la toma de decisiones, los aspectos técnicos, las finanzas y la administración.El comité también se encarga de convocar una reunión anual con todos los miembros del banco comunitario de semillas, así como de organizar reuniones regulares con los miembros del comité.En general los comités de gestión están formados por agricultores, hombres y mujeres, que asumen sus respectivas responsabilidades y funciones en la gestión y el manejo de las semillas del banco. En algunos países, el comité está compuesto exclusivamente por mujeres, consideradas las guardianas de las semillas.1. ¿cómo gestionar un banco comunitario de semillas?El comité de manejo también es el responsable de la difusión y del intercambio de información y experiencias por medio de:• La organización de ferias de agrobiodiversidad y ferias de semillas donde los productores pueden intercambiar sus semillas• El establecimiento de parcelas de experimentación, por ejemplo, en colaboración con las escuelas de campo para agricultores• La organización de visitas a otros bancos comunitarios de semillas para fomentar el intercambio de conocimientos, experiencias y semillas Las operaciones técnicas se suelen realizar en colaboración con escuelas de campo para agricultores, comités técnicos o mediante la distribución de tareas y responsabilidades entre los mismos agricultores, bajo la supervisión y apoyo de un agente de extensión agrícola.Estas tareas técnicas incluyen lo siguiente: métodos de selección, documentación, almacenamiento, monitoreo, renovación y multiplicación de las semillas. Teniendo en cuenta los estándares de calidad de semilla.La implementación de algunos bancos comunitarios de semillas se ha iniciado con un pequeño fondo de aproximadamente $ 1,000-2,000 USD. Otros han recibido fondos iniciales de $ 5,000 a $15,000 USD. Normalmente la comunidad contribuye en especies: con materiales de construcción, terreno y mano de obra.Sin embargo, un banco de semillas no solo requiere recursos económicos y materiales, sino también recursos humanos. Las escuelas de campo para agricultores, las oficinas locales de extensión agrícola, las agencias nacionales para la conservación y la investigación, las ONGs nacionales e internacionales y las organizaciones internacionales de investigación pueden ofrecer capacitaciones técnicas y supervisión en aspectos tales como:• La salud del suelo y de los cultivos• El análisis participativo de la diversidad de cultivos y el mejoramiento participativo de cultivos• El manejo técnico de las semillas y el registro y documentación de la información• La producción y comercialización de semillas• La organización comunitaria y el empoderamiento de las mujeresHabitualmente los miembros pagan una contribución anual que se utiliza para el mantenimiento del banco comunitario de semillas, lo que constituye también una manifestación de responsabilidad social.Algunos bancos comunitarios de semillas con experiencia administran un fondo financiero rotatorio que puede ofrecer préstamos a corto plazo a los miembros del banco. Los hogares de bajo ingreso pueden acogerse y beneficiarse de dicho fondo.La viabilidad de un banco de semillas comunitario depende de factores como:• El tratamiento justo de todos los miembros• La buena administración de fondos y del equipamiento del banco• El reconocimiento de la capacidad de las mujeres para ejercer su importante papel como como guardianas de la agrobiodiversidad• La motivación de los agricultores• El incremento gradual del número de miembros• El uso de buenas prácticas de selección, almacenamiento e intercambio de semillas• El establecimiento de buenas relaciones con las autoridades locales, las ONGs y el agente de extensión local 3. fomentando las relaciones de colaboración mantener y fomentar relaciones de colaboración con los diferentes actores interesados puede ayudar enormemente al éxito de las operaciones del banco comunitario de semillas. Además, puede tener un impacto positivo en el desempeño de las funciones del banco comunitario de semillas y brindar nuevas oportunidades para desarrollar estrategias de sostenibilidad.En general los bancos comunitarios de semillas colaboran con las escuelas de campo para agricultores, el agente local de extensión agrícola, el inspector agrícola del distrito y las ONGs internacionales o nacionales.Mantener relaciones con otros bancos comunitarios de semillas puede ser muy beneficioso para el intercambio de conocimientos, experiencias, innovaciones y semillas. ¡Es más fácil aprender de nuestros compañeros/as! Mantener buenas relaciones con los responsables políticos y autoridades locales y estatales, puede contribuir a obtener reconocimiento legal y conseguir apoyo técnico y / o financiero.Una buena estrategia para desarrollar y mantener buenas relaciones así como para facilitar los intercambios de semillas entre productores, es la organización anual de ferias de agrobiodiversidad.La organización anual de ferias de agrobiodiversidad fortalece la conservación y el intercambio de semillas. Además, potencia la divulgación de la diversidad local de cultivos.Estas ferias están organizadas por los miembros del comité de manejo del banco comunitario de semillas en colaboración con actores clave tales como el personal local de extensión agrícola o los agentes más relevantes de la sociedad civil. Los agricultores interesados en participar en la feria de agrobiodiversidad deben registrarse a través del comité de manejo del banco comunitario de semillas.Es importante presentar las semillas en un espacio abierto, lo que permite a los visitantes moverse libremente mientras visitan la exposición. Las semillas se pueden colocar en el piso o sobre mesas u otras instalaciones que permitan observar las semillas sin tenerse que agachar. Es importante promover no solo la presentación de la biodiversidad de semillas sino también su intercambio.Los organizadores de la feria pueden conformar un jurado que \"puntúe\" las mejores exhibiciones y recompense a los agricultores cuyas presentaciones sean las mejores (según un conjunto de criterios preestablecidos). Los premios pueden variar desde certificados de reconocimiento hasta pequeñas muestras de apreciación de acuerdo con las posibilidades del comité organizador.Antes de comenzar las operaciones recomendamos que el banco comunitario de semillas desarrolle unos estatutos que especifiquen las normas y el reglamento operativo. Si fuera conveniente se podría solicitar la aprobación de los estatutos a las autoridades locales. Es una manera de recibir reconocimiento y de involucrar a dichas autoridades. En algunos países los bancos comunitarios de semillas solo pueden funcionar si cuentan con el reconocimiento oficial del gobierno.Otras formas de reconocimiento pueden ser:• Establecer relaciones directas con el banco nacional de recursos genéticos / de germoplasma Las políticas y leyes que afectan a las cooperativas y organizaciones de agricultores pueden brindar un apoyo importante a los bancos comunitarios de semillas. Estas políticas pueden asegurar:• Reconocimiento y protección legal• Soporte técnico y financiero• Oportunidades para la comercialización de semillas En algunos países el Ministerio de Agricultura también puede integrar los bancos comunitarios de semillas en sus planes y programas como parte de una estrategia para aumentar el acceso a semillas de calidad y contribuir a preservar la agrobiodiversidad local.Es útil identificar las políticas y leyes de su país que puedan tener una influencia en las actividades de su banco comunitario de semillas.Para que nuestro banco comunitario de semillas se mantenga dinámico y funcione a largo plazo debemos abordar la sostenibilidad. Recomendamos tener en cuenta desde el principio los siguientes cuatro aspectos:recursos humanos• Los conocimientos técnicos de los miembros juegan un papel importante en el mantenimiento de la calidad de las semillas. Los conocimientos y la formación técnica son esenciales.• La transferencia de conocimientos, liderazgo y experiencia de los miembros de mayor edad a los más jóvenes es muy importante. La involucración de mujeres y hombres jóvenes desde el principio es fundamental y estratégica.5. la sostenibilidad de un banco comunitario de semillas modos de funcionamiento• Debe existir una definición clara de los roles y responsabilidades de cada uno de los miembros del comité de manejo.• Así mismo es importante adoptar métodos para promover la participación de todos los miembros en la toma de decisiones.• Algunos bancos comunitarios de semillas producen y venden semillas en grandes cantidades para garantizar su viabilidad económica. Es muy interesante explorar también otras formas de generar ingresos.política y legislación• En la mayoría de países los bancos comunitarios de semillas deben estar legalmente reconocidos y registrados a fin de obtener financiamiento.• Muchas organizaciones donantes vacilan en apoyar una organización si no es una entidad legal.resumen final revisemos ahora lo que hemos presentado en los tres cuadernos 1. eValuar la diVersidad de cultiVos y sensibilizar a los miembros de la comunidad• Evaluar la diversidad de los cultivos• Analizar las tendencias de la diversidad en espacio y tiempo• Examinar el sistema local de semillas• Sensibilizar a los miembros de la comunidad sobre la importancia de la agrobiodiversidad local 2. establecer un banco comunitario de semillas• Tomar la decisión de establecer un banco comunitario de semillas• Establecer contactos con organizaciones externas y autoridades locales para obtener apoyo• Identificar una ubicación para el banco comunitario de semillas• Motivar y organizar a los agricultores locales en torno a la construcción del banco comunitario de semillas• Organizar la capacitación• Contribuir a la conservación de semillas• Proveer acceso y disponibilidad de semillas a través del intercambio• Generar una plataforma para el desarrollo de la comunidad 4. tomar una serie de medidas y decisiones para hacer Que su banco comunitario de semillas funcione bien• Decidir qué tipo de cultivos y variedades desean recolectar y almacenar• Tomar medidas adecuadas para garantizar la selección de semillas de buena calidad• Detallar la diversidad de semillas en un registro• Utilizar equipo y métodos apropiados para mantener las semillas limpias y de buena calidad• Comprobar la calidad de las semillas regularmente• Planificar la regeneración de las semillas• Establecer regulaciones sobre el acceso a las semillas por los miembros y no-miembros del banco comunitario de semillas.• Formar un comité de gestión y uno o varios comité(s) técnico(s)• Evaluar los costos y los recursos disponibles• Buscar el reconocimiento como organización legal 6. conseGuir apoyos y desarrollar redes de colaboración• Tener buenas conexiones a nivel local y estatal puede tener un impacto positivo en el desempeño de los bancos comunitarios de semillas y ofrecer oportunidades para desarrollar estrategias de desarrollo sostenible.• Los intercambios de agricultor a agricultor permiten la adquisición de nuevos conocimientos y habilidades, el desarrollo de innovaciones y la obtención de nuevas variedades de semillas.• El apoyo político y legal de las autoridades locales y del gobierno estatal puede marcar la diferencia entre un funcionamiento efectivo y una lucha constante por la supervivencia y sostenibilidad del banco comunitario de semillas.7. identificar las políticas y leyes Que pueden afectar a un banco comunitario de semillas e influir en su Viabilidad y sostenibilidadEs útil identificar desde el inicio del establecimiento del banco comunitario de semillas, las políticas y leyes que pueden tener un impacto positivo o negativo con respeto a:• El reconocimiento y la protección legal• El soporte técnico y financiero• Las oportunidades para la comercialización de semillas 8. analizar las condiciones de sostenibilidad del banco comunitario de semillas a lo larGo del tiempo• Cuatro factores importantes influyen en la sostenibilidad: los recursos humanos, los modos de funcionamiento del banco, la viabilidad económica y el apoyo político y legislativo• Un banco comunitario de semillas debería analizar estos cuatro factores desde el inicio.acerca de los autores ronnie Vernooy, Bioversity International, Wageningen, Holanda.Ronnie forma parte de Bioversity International desde octubre 2011. Ha trabajado en temas relacionados con la conservación y el uso sostenible de la biodiversidad agrícola durante más de 30 años. Su trabajo se enfoca en políticas y aspectos jurídicos relacionados con la preservación, tanto ex situ como in situ, de recursos fitogenéticos y su uso sostenible.Guy bessette, consultor independiente, Gatineau, Quebec, Canadá.Guy ha trabajado en comunicación para el desarrollo, aprendizaje social y manejo de recursos naturales en África y en el sudeste de Asia. Actualmente apoya varias iniciativas de Bioversity International relacionadas con los sistemas de semillas.bhuwon sthapit (in memoriam)Bhuwon fue fitomejorador y trabajó con Bioversity International de 1997 a 2017 como especialista en conservación in situ, inicialmente con sede en Malasia, luego en la India y en Nepal. Sus principales temas de investigación incluyeron los métodos participativos para evaluar y usar la biodiversidad agrícola, el fitomejoramiento participativo, la conservación in situ y en fincas, los huertos caseros, el manejo comunitario de la biodiversidad y los bancos comunitarios de semillas.anna porcuna ferrer es bióloga ambiental por la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, España y estudiante del Master de Agricultura Orgánica y Agroecología en la Universidad de recursos naturales y ciencias de la vida de Viena, Austria. Está especialmente interesada en entender cómo y para quien los bancos comunitarios de semillas crean espacios de cambio y cómo estos espacios contribuyen a la resiliencia socio-ecológica de las comunidades locales. Como parte de su tesis de maestría, Anna ha hecho su investigación de campo sobre este tema en la Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, Guatemala, con el apoyo de ASOCUCH y Bioversity International.Aquí llegamos al fin de este manual.Esperamos que los tres cuadernos les hayan ofrecido una buena introducción sobre cómo establecer y manejar un banco comunitario de semillas.¡Buena suerte en el establecimiento de su propio banco comunitario de semillas! notas personales","tokenCount":"2518"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7fd606b8d34eadc099065518001dd6db","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/688ecc94-cdea-4574-a692-544542a46fe6/retrieve","id":"2066861616"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dc33b370-91c6-4bec-a218-f1cdef3b493d","pagecount":"51","content":"Gender-targeted CSA technologies and practices• Articulation of how and why gender-targeted CSA technologies, practices, crops, were chosen -what was the prioritization and implementation process § Development of common approach or set of approaches• Relation to value chains, and the position of the GSI-targeted CSA in the value chain;• Monitoring of improvements in terms of one or more of the following: § Women's time use and resulting benefits § Household results (TBD) § Community results, i.e. participation and leadership in community organizations § National results? § Empowerment -GEI CSV• Monitoring the numbers of women as capacity developers, researchers (MARLO)We need to come up with a common & connected but not necessarily identical approachComponents of the gender and CSA case studySex disaggregated data -collect a sample or already available 2.CSA Profiles -some have gender data and informationGender Profile of CSA in Ghana 4.Global databases -World Bank, ILO, etc.Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal tool -gender example: : Gender divisions and climate variability are hindering a climate-smart East Africa 6.Participatory identification of climate-smart agriculture priorities 7.Integrating Gender in CSA: CSA Prioritisation ","tokenCount":"176"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be4907a627061ff6669506aac51ceb1f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/7c989f7d-99f8-4d9e-bf5d-b6e50e8ffd3b/content","id":"-1005876783"},"keywords":["Risk","Dry soil planting","Climate variability","Dryland crop production","Vertisol"],"sieverID":"b7f1dc7a-4f84-4bf0-bb45-e4b23b2ac545","pagecount":"11","content":"Dry soil planting is practiced in response to variable rainfall onset in Ethiopia to maximize use of the full season.Rainfall data of >30 years for seven locations were used to evaluate dry soil planting opportunities on Vertisols.Three rainfall related risks were evaluated: (i) seed lies in dry soil without imbibing water for >20 days (Risk I);(ii) rainfall causes germination but fails to support growth and many seedlings die (Risk II); and (iii) when planting is delayed until after onset of rains by not dry soil planting sorghum or maize and because the fields are too wet to prepare and plant (Risk III). Risk I and II are associated with potential failure of dry soil planting while Risk III is associated with negative consequences of not dry soil planting. Mean probabilities of occurrence of risks associated with dry soil planting were, respectively: ≥50% and ≤30% for Risk I in 25% and 56% of the timeframe; ≥50% and ≤30% for Risk II in 35% and 22% of the timeframe; and ≤30% for Risk III in 90% of the timeframe. The cumulative value of the three risk types were represented by two risk indexes. Dry soil planting was found to have a high probability of success, even when done before the expected onset of rainfall for several locations. Farmers cannot avoid all risk types and risks occur with wet soil planting as well. Guidelines to timeliness of dry soil planting for early crop establishment were developed for each location.Adverse food security and economic consequences faced by farmers due to seasonal climate variability commonly occur with rainfed agriculture in Ethiopia with direct impact on crop yields and indirect impacts by triggering insect pest, disease and weed infestations (Gadgil et al., 1998;Bekele, 2000). Lansigan (2000) reported significant crop yield losses due to prolonged dry or wet periods coinciding with critical stages of crop growth and development. Van de Steeg et al. (2009) indicated that the growing season in some parts of Ethiopia could be 20% shorter by 2050 relative to the current baseline period , which would have negative repercussions on food production. In addition, Kassie et al. (2013) found an increase in total duration of periods of soil water deficit during the crop growing season of 0•8 days per decade resulting in more crop stress in semiarid areas of Ethiopia. They concluded that climate trends, especially for rainfall amount and variability and temperature, indicate greater risks to rainfed agriculture in Ethiopia. They suggested designing of specific adaptation strategies to cope with the risks, sustain farming and improve food security. Climate variability concerns include variability for onset and cessation of rainfall, rainfall amount, and frequency and duration of periods of soil water deficits. This variability greatly affects rainfed crop yield, is a major disincentive to adoption of yield improving practices, and challenges researchers in developing adoptable practices and varieties (Stewart, 1991;McCown et al., 1991;Fujisaka et al., 1996). Therefore, knowledge of the seasonal climate variability and associated risks is important to improvement crop management. Stewart and Faught (1984) recommended an approach of response farming in which crop management is systematically adjusted in response to specific rainfall indicators in the early part of a season.In the semiarid areas of Ethiopia, where onset of the rainy season is highly variable (Kassie et al., 2013;Mamo, 2005), rainfed sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] and maize (Zea mays L.) are the main crops for food, feed and income (Mitiku and Kidane, 1994), including for pastoralists (Agriculture in Ethiopia, 2014). Sorghum and maize are cultivated mostly in warmer areas along western, southwestern, northern, and eastern peripheries of the Ethiopian lowlands and highlands. Sorghum prevails over maize where rainfall is less reliable and altitude is <1900 m while maize is grown chiefly between elevations of 1,500 and 2,200 meters and with better rainfall.Farmers relate rainfall onset to seasonal length, and risks increase with delayed onset, perceiving good to normal seasons to have relatively early onset (Habtamu, 2004). Farmers' management decisions vary from season to season to conform with received and expected rainfall (ICRA, 1999;Fujisaka et al., 1996). Farmers practice dry soil planting of sorghum and maize in parts of Ethiopia (Merga et al., 2014).Dry and wet soil planting refer respectively to planting in dry soil and in soil where the surface 20cm depth or more has been wetted by rainfall (Merga et al., 2014). Risk of longer dry periods in the months of May and June is increasing with increased risk to sorghum and maize establishment (Merga, 2013). In addition, Merga et al. (2014)   et al., 2007). Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate three types of risk associated with dry soil planting times and (ii) identify dry soil planting times with low risk of failed crop establishment but early enough to take full advantage of the season for vertisols in Ethiopia.Seven locations in semiarid areas with Vertisols were considered in this study (Table 1). during February to May (Fig. 1).Daily meteorological data from 13 stations were obtained from the National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia. The seven selected stations (Table 1) had > 30 years of weather records with less than 10% missing values (Seleshi & Zanke, 2004;Rosell, 2011).The daily time series from each station and for each year were plotted to identify obvious outliers, which were removed from the data series. Outliers were detected using the Tukey fence approach (Tukey, 1977). The rules of this approach are that inner fences  et al. (1998) and applied in various studies (Seleshi and Zanke, 2004;Vergni and Todisco, 2011).In order to define the commencement of effective  guide, 2001), has been used with some modification in this study. Therefore, the onset of rainfall was considered to be the first occasion with >30 mm in a 5 day period after 1 March for Ya'abalo, and after 1June for the rest of the locations with no dry spell of consecutive 10 days or more within the following 30 days. Dry spell length was identified as the duration of consecutive days with <2 mm rainfall. Rainfall <2 mm day -1 is taken as threshold value since water availability below half of the daily ETo of many crops is not enough for important physiological process (Doorrenbos and Kassam, 1979). Note that for onset definition, >2 mm day -1 of rainfall is considered hereafter as wet.Historical rainfall data of >30 years were used for all locations (Table 1). Three major rainfall scenarios important to assess risk of dry soil planting were set.Their occurrence were determined for 5-day intervals during day of year (DOY) 50-110 at Ya'abalo and DOY 140 to 200 for the other six locations; dry soil planting timeframe. Scenario I is that seed lies in dry soil without imbibing water for >20 days, and assumes <15 mm of rainfall within any 5 day period until >20 days after planting. Maize and sorghum seed can stay in the soil for 15 days (Merga, 2013), but a longer stay leads to reduced seed viability. Scenario II is when rainfall causes germination but fails to support growth and many seedlings die. Scenario II was as the condition of receiving >15 mm rainfall within any 5-day period after planting that is followed by a period of >10 days with <15 mm rainfall.Scenario II is applicable to wet soil planting as well, and was considered to be of equal risk for wet and dry soil planting beginning on the day of 50% probability for the onset of the rainfall. Scenario III occurs when planting is delayed until well after onset of rainfall by not dry soil planting sorghum or maize and because the vertisols fields are too wet to prepare and plant.Scenario III was defined as the rainfall condition when an area receives >35 mm rainfall within a 7-day Therefore, Risk III might carry twice the value of each of the other risks (Risk Index B = Risk I + Risk II -2*Risk III). We assumed that farmers are equally likely to wet soil planting as to dry soil planting at the DOY of 50% probability of onset (Fig. 2; Fig. 3); therefore, after that DOY, Risk II is equally a risk of wet and dry soil planting and was treated as zero in the risk indexes. Risk Index values of <30% were considered acceptable for dry soil planting.Risk I and II decreased with dry soil planting from DOY 140 and 163, respectively. Risk III increased from DOY 167 but had a lower probability of occurrence compared with Risk I and II in most of the dry planting window at Miesso. Risk I was 43 to 45%between DOY 141 and 157 but <34% in 69% of the planting window considered (Fig. 4a). Risk II was >40% in 54% of the planting window between DOY 151 and 181, and then decreased to 20% on DOY 191.Risk III was <28% throughout the planting window and <18% in 85% of the planting window. Risk Index A and B were 44 and 35% beginning DOY 181, the day of 50% probability of onset of rainfall (Table 2; Fig. 2a), but the index values specific to dry soil planting were <30% after this date with Risk II equally applicable to dry and wet soil planting.  water for >20 days (assumes <15 mm of precipitation within any 5 period until >20 days after planting); Risk II: precipitation causes germination but fails to support growth and many seedlings die (>15 mm precipitation within any 5 day period that is followed by a period of >10 days with <15 mm precipitation); Risk III: when planting is delayed until well after onset of rains by not dry soil planting (precipitation is >35 mm within 7 day period).Risk I was higher than Risks II and III at Kobo and higher than at any other locations early during the dry soil planting window (Fig. 4c). Risk II increased throughout the dry soil planting window. Risk I was >55% until DOY 181 and declined to 0% on DOY 201.Risk II was <30% until DOY 191, but increased to 54% on DOY 201. Risk III was <25% until late in the dry soil planting window, and was of no risk between DOY 161 and DOY 181. Probability of onset of rainfall was 50% on DOY 188 (Fig. 2c; Table 2). Risk II continued to be high after DOY 188, but it is assumed that this risk is equally applicable for wet and dry soil planting beginning with the DOY that marks 50% probability for onset of rainfall. Crop production in Kobo is of relatively high risk given the short duration of the rainy season with both dry and wet soil planting (Fig. 1), and dry soil planting should commence at least by DOY 188 given the potential to increase the growing period and reduce impacts of terminal drought.The trends of Risk I and III at Sirinka were similar to Kobo, but Risk II was nearly constant for most of the dry soil planting window (Fig. 4d). Risk I was 70% on DOY 157 and declined to <30% after DOY 171. Risk II was <40% in 70% of the planting window. Risk III was relatively high before DOY 151 and after DOY 186, but only 0-7% between DOY 157 and DOY 181.Probability of onset of rainfall was 50% on DOY 195 (Fig. 2d; Table 2) when Risk Index A and B were <0.Risk Index A and B were <30% beginning DOY 187 and 183, respectively. Risk I was higher than Risk II and III before DOY 175, after which Risk II was higher (Fig. 5a). Risk I was 70% on DOY 161 and dropped to 3% on DOY 201.Risk II increased slowly throughout the window ranging from 37 to 53%. Risk III was <17% throughout the planting window and only 3-7% between DOY 146 and DOY 176. Probability of onset of rainfall was 50% on DOY 205 (Fig. 3a; Table 2) when Risk Index A and B were 20 and 12%. Risk Index A and Risk Index B were <30% beginning DOY 200 and DOY 195, respectively.  Risk II was higher than the other risks especially during the latter part of the dry soil planting window at Jigjiga (Fig. 5b). Risk I peaked at 50% on DOY 166 and dropped to <35% after DOY 171. Risk III was <13% throughout the window. Probability of rainfall onset was 50% on DOY 217 (Fig. 3b; Table 2). Risk Index A was lowest at 58% ON DOY 207 but Risk Index B was 34% DOY 217. As with Kobo, it needs to be accepted that crop production at Jigjiga is of relatively high risk and that much of the risk of planting failure at 50% probability of rainfall onset is with Risk II, and that Risk II is important to both wet and dry soil planting. Therefore dry soil planting should commence at least by DOY 217 to minimize the loss of the potential length of growing season.Like Jigjiga, Risk II for Ya'abalo was high compared with Risk I and III and >49% throughout the dry soil planting window (Fig. 5c). Risk I decreased from 56% on DOY 50 to 9% on DOY 110. Risk III ranged from 4-13% between DOY 50 to 85. Probability of onset of rainfall was 50% on DOY 89 (Fig. 3c; Table 2) when Risk Index A and B were 64 and 44%, respectively. However, the high index values are due to Risk II which is also a concern with wet soil planting.Therefore, dry soil planting should commence at least by DOY 89 if onset of rainfall has not yet occurred.Periods of soil water deficit constrain crop productivity in semi-arid areas of Ethiopia and frequency and severity of these deficits are expected to increase (Conway and Shipper, 2011). Improved adaptive management is needed such as through improved pro-active practices like dry soil planting, better response to conditions as the season unfolds, and strategically through more risk buffering polices and improved genetics and practices (Adger et al., 2007;Vermuelen et al., 2013). northern Rift Valley of Ethiopia. ‡Risk I: seed lies in dry soil without imbibing water for >20 days (assumes <15 mm of precipitation within any 5 day period until >20 days after planting); Risk II: precipitation causes germination but fails to support growth and many seedlings die (>15 mm precipitation within any 5 day period that is followed by a period of >10 days with <15 mm precipitation); Risk III: when planting is delayed until well after onset of rains by not dry soil planting (precipitation is >35 mm within 7 day period).The results of the current research demonstrate high probability for some locations of successful crop establishment with dry soil planting before the DOY of 50% probability for onset of rainfall. For other locations, the risk of failed establishment remains relatively high at the DOY of 50% probability for onset of rainfall but Risk II is then prevalent and it is important both for wet and dry soil planting. These higher risk locations also have relatively short growing seasons and therefore much potential to benefit from early crop establishment. The benefits of dry soil planting are likely to be greatest when the onset of rainfall is later than normal. If partial or full failure of establishment occurs with early planting, farmers are likely to have more response farming (Stewart and Faught, 1984) or adaptive management options available to them compared with failed later planting, possibly including replanting or gap-filling with a shorter-season crop or cultivar (Fujisaka et al., 1996).  ","tokenCount":"2576"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac04ab656f277e692c588db1f32bc0d5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c278c00f-4c33-4016-bdc3-323e151dd1fb/retrieve","id":"-1449236421"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6c548b5e-1caa-4b1f-a1f9-1e82ba04e25e","pagecount":"62","content":"List of rivers and locations for which the feasibility study was conducted .......................................5 Table 2. Measured and flow duration-based discharge (minimum, maximum, 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th percentile) of mean daily FDC at Gumera MHP site .............................10 Table 3. Measured and flow duration-based discharge (maximum, minimum, 95th, 90th, 75th, 50th, 25th, 10th, and    (maximum, minimum, 95th, 90th, 75th, 50th, 25th, 10th, and 5th percentile) of mean daily FDC at Elkete Gobe MHP site ..............30 Table 9. Measured and flow duration-based discharge (maximum, minimum, 95th, 90th, 75th, 50th, 25th, 10th, and 5th percentile) of mean daily FDC at Waro MHP site ..........................33 Table 10. Measured and flow duration-based discharge (maximum, minimum, 95th, 90th, 75th, 50th, 25th, 10th, and   13. Measured and flow duration-based discharge (maximum, minimum, 95th, 90th, 75th, 50th, 25th, 10th, and 5th percentile) of mean daily FDC at Idris site .....................................42 Table 14. Measured and flow duration-based discharge (maximum, minimum, 95th, 90th, 75th, 50th, 25th, 10th, and   The pressure on land for various purposes such as for biomass (particularly firewood and charcoal) and agriculture is the primary cause of land degradation in Ethiopia (Gebreselassie et al., 2016). Ethiopia has one of the lowest rates of access to modern energy services, whereby the energy supply is primarily based on biomass. About 94% of the total national energy consumption is derived from traditional biomass fuel (fuelwood, charcoal, dung, and crop residues) and only 4% is derived from modern energy sources such as petroleum fuels and electricity (Mondal et al., 2018). The more pressing problem is that, in some parts of the country, all vegetation, crop residues, and animal dung are used for household fuel consumption, with no residues to be added into agricultural landscapes, thus leading to health and land degradation problems. A large number of initiatives and programs aiming to improve soil health/fertility and land restoration implemented in Ethiopia in the past few decades have limited success because of this traditional biomass energy usage. Therefore, expansion of alternative renewable energy is not only useful from the energy efficiency perspective but is also important from the land degradation perspective and for increasing the success of sustainable land management activities in the country.Energy is one of the key elements in the socioeconomic development of a nation. For the past decade, problems with energy supply have been increasing for different reasons, including the oil crisis, climate change, technical capacity limits, continuously growing demand, and restrictions on sales (Lajqi et al., 2016). One of these alternative sources is to generate electricity as close as possible to consumption demand by using renewable sources that do not cause environmental pollution. Hydro, wind, biomass, solar, and geothermal are among the most important renewable sources for energy generation (Nautiyal et al., 2011;Josel et al, 2014).To solve these problems, electrification of rural communities is essential. Increasing the penetration rate of renewable energy (RE) sources such as small run-of-the-river (ROR) hydropower, solar power, and wind power would diminish the dependency on traditional biomass and decrease the pressure on land for an energy source, that is, it would allow all organic matter (vegetation, crop residues, and animal dung) to remain to improve soil fertility. One of the most important advantages of RE is the decrease in CO2, thus contributing to the effort to combat climate change as the damage from climate change is quite diverse. This, in turn, facilitates the efforts of Ethiopia to fulfill national strategies such as Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) and regional and global agendas such as the AFR100 initiative (Abegaz et al., 2020). Moreover, increasing the production of RE has strong synergistic effects on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by providing energy for making progress on several goals. Out of the 17 SDGs, most of them, such as ending poverty, improving health and education, combating climate change, and protecting forests, have a high demand for renewable energy. For instance, the expansion of RE in the rural areas of Ethiopia will ensure healthy lives by decreasing indoor pollution that could be produced by charcoal and firewood, thus improving the welfare of women as the burden of indoor air pollution is currently placed disproportionally on them. This would improve gender equality and girls' education.Because of its geographic location, Ethiopia is endowed with various renewable energy sources such as natural gas, hydropower, wind power, solar power, and geothermal. The main source of RE is large hydropower plants (94%) such as Koka, Awash, Fincha, Beles, Tekeze, etc., including the new Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, whereas small hydropower has been given no attention at all although the amount of energy produced by it is important in several places. In addition, most of the villages and towns that are remotely located largely rely on traditional biomass energy sources for cooking and heating. Large hydropower systems can be complex and can bring a range of socioeconomic and environmental risks (Botelho et al., 2017;Kaunda et al., 2012). The need for power and the negative effect of traditional power systems requires a new method of electrification in rural areas. This new method could exploit the potential of renewable energy such as hydro, wind, and solar or a combination of the three. Because of the natural topography and water resources, many locations are suited for hydropower generation without the construction of large dams (e.g. run-of-the-river (ROR) kind of design) and at relatively low cost. Hence, micro-hydropower is an important small-scale source of energy. Small (mini or micro) hydropower can be a solution in terms of causing minimal environmental impact and minimal investment demand, and can also be developed off-grid for rural society. The highlands and rift escarpments of Ethiopia are often associated with high topographical variability and they receive relatively high rainfall. Moreover, many of these areas have perennial streams/rivers that could provide suitable conditions for local power generation. Therefore, mini-hydropower (MHP) schemes are the appropriate solution to the demand for power as these require a small capital investment and can be completed in a short period of time, with minimum adverse environmental impacts (Raguvanshi et al., 2008). MHP is also useful for electrifying the rural community without developing expensive grid infrastructure in the rural community. CCAFS/O. Bonilla-Findji Although the country has huge potential for ROR hydropower generation, we estimated the potential for selected sites. All the sites are in Amhara and Oromia regions and most of them are located in the Upper Blue Nile basin. Those sites were selected from hundreds of potentially feasible sites reported by farmers throughout the Ethiopian highlands. Following a brief description of what the potential MHP sites would be for the woreda (district) energy office, they collected the possible ROR sites that could generate hydropower. In most cases, farmers reported many sites where traditional power generation existed to drive traditional mills using the natural river flow. Other sites were reported because of the level of discharge and the topographic drop-off of the river cross-sections. Out of hundreds of sites reported in Amhara and Oromia regions, we selected 15 based on their accessibility (Figure 1 and Table 1).The main objective of this study was to estimate the key feasibility indicators of MHP using important variables such as flow duration curve, water station layout, penstock height, and highest water level recorded at each site and to finally estimate possible power generation at 15 selected sites in the highlands of Ethiopia. The hydropower potential at any site can be calculated as (François et al., 2018) where P(t) is the power generating capacity of an MHP site (in kW), η H is the efficiency of the generator (no units), g is the acceleration of gravity (m 3 /s 2 ), h is the falling height (m), ρ is the water density (kg/m 3 ), and q(t,i) is the water flow through the turbines (m 3 /s). Although the other parameters are constant, the two important parameters in this equation need accurate estimation are the falling head (h) and the water flow available at the site (q(t,i)). The methodology for estimating these two important parameters and other related information is described in the following sections.The gross head is one of the key parameters for the design and construction of MHP as it governs the calculation of power to be generated. The elevation difference between powerhouse and forebay is gross head (H g ). To estimate net head (H n ), we used the following formula (Okot, 2013):where H g [m] is the gross head and H los [m] is head losses due to penstock and gate construction. Although this can be measured and estimated case by case, we used an average value of 1.5 m loss for all sites based on field observations. To obtain the gross head, we conducted a survey using theodolite leveling differences for accuracy.Discharge (q(t,i)) in equation 1 is a key in the MHP feasibility study. It can be obtained from a survey at a specific time of the year. In this survey, we used a current flow meter to obtain one-time instant discharge, particularly representing low flow. However, these data do not represent the whole spectrum of the hydrological properties at the designated sites. The flow duration curve (FDC), which is the graphical representation frequency or the fraction of time during which a specified magnitude of discharge is equal or exceeded, provides precise information regarding the long-term availability of enough water flow to generate hydropower at the designated cross-section (Searcy, 1959;Vogel and Fennessey, 1994). When proposed MHP sites were near discharge gauges, we used these historical discharge data to develop the FDC. However, in most cases, historical discharge measurements were not available or discharge measurement sites were far from the designated MHP sites. When discharge measurements were not available, we used a hydrological model that was calibrated in the same basin and used its estimation at the location of interest. We used a hydrological model (specifically, a JGrass-NewAge model; Formetta et al., 2014), which was already calibrated for the upper Blue Nile basin by Abera et al. (2017), and its performance was much better than that shown by previous modeling results. To drive the model, we used satellite precipitation data (Beck et al., 2017) and simulated discharge at each river link.The inputs for the hydrological model are precipitation and energy budget and the outputs are the discharge and actual evapotranspiration. The optimized rainfall-runoff model was used to estimate discharge for each river link node. Detailed information on the modeling procedure can be found in Abera et al. (2017).Once discharge was estimated from either the historical record or hydrological model simulation as described above, the FDC was constructed at the MHP sites. In our case, out of 15 sites, only three had gauge measurement (Gilgel Abay, Fetam, and Gibe) near the proposed sites. For those sites, the FDC was developed from measured data.For the rest, we used the model to forecast discharge at the point of interest. To construct the FDC, streamflow observation needs to be ranked in descending order, qi to qN, where i is the rank of an observation and qi and qN are the largest and smallest streamflow observations, respectively. Then, each ordered observation (qi) is plotted against its corresponding duration, Di, including in the exceedance probability of qi. Two types of FDC are available: the period-of-record FDC and annual FDC. In the period-of-record FDC, the complete period of record is used to compute a single FDC of streamflow, leading to steady state or long-term probabilistic statements concerning streamflow exceedances (Searcy, 1959). The annual FDC is an approach that is useful for making probabilistic statements about a given calendar (water) year (Vogel and Fennessey, 1994;Cigizoglu, 2000). Annual FDC (AFDC) is more useful than the period-of-record FDC because it provides the hypothetical median AFDC and its confidence interval (Vogel and Fennessey, 1994). Hence, we used the AFDC for this report. The mean probability p for a given Q is given byIn this report, the 16 years (1994 to 2009) of daily simulated discharge were used to construct annual FDC. Once AFDC was constructed, we obtained various flow summary indices and characteristics at a given location. Although the whole FDC provides the whole spectrum of streamflow (max, Q90, Q70, Q50, and min), the information can be used to determine the nature of flow and define the designated flow for MHP generation. The percentage of time that a stream is at zero flow conditions defines whether the river is intermittent or perennial (Smakhtin, 2001). In general, a minimum discharge exists below which there is no power generation to supply the environmentally required flow of downstream area (RenÖfÄlt et al., 2010). Similarly, there is no power production above a certain flow threshold because of potential damage to the power plant because of discharge exceeding the safety threshold discharge. Here, we set the minimum at 5% and maximum at 95%.The design and construction of mini-hydropower require evaluation of the number of people living around the area, their main sources of income, and estimates of power demand. The core socioeconomic data required for MHP assessment are the location of an MHP site and its administrative location; the nature of the population distribution around the site, particularly within a 1.5 km radius; the main income of local communities; a list of public institutions such as schools, churches, and clinics; and the distance to the nearest electrical grid. Regarding the distance from the MHP site to the electricityconnected village, we used two data sources: (1) data from Google Earth, which are included in the main text of the report, and (2) information from local elders, which is reported in a summary table at the end of the report. The location and its administrative names were obtained from a field GPS survey and interviews with local officials (kebele leaders or local water and energy experts), respectively. The method to obtain the number of households within 1.5 km was a combination of local interviews and Google Earth. The other socioeconomic data such as local income, local community interest in the MHP project, and overall condition of the site were collected through focus group discussions with the local elders.Estimation of the water level at flood is critical for the design and location of MHP. The location of the powerhouse should avoid the level and section where the water flows to avoid scouring and to prevent inundation of the powerhouse during high flows. For all the sites, the water level at flood was estimated using a combination of interviews with local residents (mainly elders who knew the flood history of the stream/river) and field observations of flood marks at the site by the team of experts, and these included traces of flooding and vegetation boundary. Based on this information, the highest water level at the site was recorded, pegged, and photographed as evidence to be used for detailed design and construction of the MHP plant.During this survey, the nature of the streambed, morphology of the river/stream (bends, etc.), natural features along the stream (soil, rock boulders, etc.), competing use of water, and any slope stability and siltation problems were assessed. The best site was pegged and photographed, and the exact location was recorded using GPS. On a detailed map (supported by photographs), a layout of the water station was produced with key justifications as to why this site was the best option. The final selection of the best site was to be participatory, which involves representatives of local communities.Most MHP sites are located close to hilly/mountainous areas. Evaluation of the major soil/rock types, their geotechnical behavior, and any potential slope stability is important for the safe design and construction of the MHP. Along this line, we used the following approaches to assess the stability and suitability of the sites: (1) assessment of overall slope stability, foundation conditions, flooding, erosion/sedimentation problems, etc., of the major MHP components; (2) overall assessment of the water tightness of the soils/ rocks along the main canal route and any slope stability problems as well as siltation/sedimentation risks; and(3) any competing or complementary issues involving assessment of any competing use of water for irrigation in upstream areas and the risk of decreasing flow to the plant, and any complementary opportunities such as linking irrigation development with power generation as some of the river diversions are planned to be upstream of the MHP components while the command/irrigable area is downstream of the MHP site. In the case of complementary opportunities, the diverted water could be used to generate hydropower as well as for irrigation.In this section, we have reported the layout, flow duration curve, and general socioeconomic conditions for each site.The general context such as location of institutions and their distance from the MHP site is estimated using Google Earth maps. Sketches and photographic evidence on MHP layout were used. The FDC is presented to portray flow properties. Geotechnical information about each site is presented in a concise table form. At the end of the section, additional summary information on core data for each site is presented in Table A1.This site is located in south Gonder in Fogera woreda, specifically in Guramba kebele. The site is not accessible by car, requires at least 30 minutes of travel on foot, and is surrounded by sparse villages. Figure 2 shows the general situation regarding its proximity to villages and public institutions (schools, clinics, and churches). The distance to the nearest school (Dire elementary school) is 2.6 km (Figure 2). The Tewodros church, to the east, is 0.73 km from the site.Although power is not available currently, the nearest electrical grid is in Guramba kebele center, which is about 3 km away. The villages within 1.5-2.0 km from the Gumera MHP site are geotagged in Figure 2 (in blue polygon) and the population is densely distributed, with about 300 households. The main income in the area is crop production, with rice, millet, sorghum, and safflower being the main crops cultivated.Schematic and panoramic views of the Gumera MHP site are shown in Figure 3, which clearly indicates the layout for each component for the MHP plant. The maximum head measured is 15.388 m (with net head of 13.888 m). The powerhouse is safe from flooding as it is located far from the flood level (Figure 3). At the powerhouse location, there is 1.0 to 1.5 m of soil, below which is a good foundation of weathered rock.  The in situ discharge measurement for Gumera River is located far downstream from the proposed MHP site after two major rivers joined Gumera River. Thus, measured discharge cannot be used to develop the FDC curve. Hence, we used model simulated discharge data. Figure 4 presents the AFDC estimated from 16 years of discharge simulations. The median year FDC (red line in the middle) presents the flow characteristics for the most typical year occurring at the Gumera MHP site,showing that 10% of the time the annual flow exceeds 24.6 m 3 /s, while 50% of the time it exceeds 1.3 m 3 /s. Table 2 presents various statistics of the FDC. The measured discharge during mid-March 2018 was 0.275 m 3 /s, which corresponds to 80%, indicating that 80% of the time the annual flow can be higher than this value. The local hydroclimatic conditions during the measurement period (2nd week of April 2018) could be considered representative of low flow and sunny days.  Gilgel Abay (sometimes called Gish Abay) is located in Awe Zone, Amhara region. The social institutions such as schools and churches are relatively far (from 2 to 6 km) from the MHP site. Figure 5 shows the spatial distribution of the villages around the MHP site using Google Earth. Within a 1.5 km radius of the site are about 420 households. Two institutions (one elementary school and one church) are available in this range. The main economic activity is farming, with maize, millet, and teff being the dominant cereal crops growing in the area. The nearest electrical grid is in Ligaba (Hamusit) Town, which is about 5 km away.For the MHP plant, we identified two alternatives: one from the right and one from the left. Figure 6 presents the schematic and panoramic views for the two sites. Comparing the two, the right side is preferable for two reasons:(1) it has higher total head (10.52 m) than the left (8.99 m) and (2) its workability is much better than the left side of the river because of the nature of the slope. The left side, on the other hand, has an advantage of an extremely steep slope, thus decreasing energy dissipation by penstock friction, which in return would increase total power generation. Gelgel Abay discharge measurement is near the proposed site; thus, we used historical gauge measurement to estimate the FDC. Figure 7 shows the FDC at the Gelgel Abay MHP site. The red line in the middle is the median FDC, while the gray around the line is the 95% uncertainty of the estimates. The median year FDC (red line in the middle) presents the flow characteristics for the most typical year occurring at the Gelgel Abay MHP site and the gray around the line is the 95% uncertainty of the estimates. The median line shows that 10% of the time the annual flow exceeds 37.54 m 3 /s, while 50% of the time it exceeds 4.47 m 3 /s. Table 3 presents various statistics of the FDC of Gelgel Abay. The measured discharge in March 2018 was 0.52 m 3 /s, which is a little less than the FDC minimum. During the measurement period, the local atmospheric conditions could be considered as representative for a low flow hydroclimatic regime.  This site is located in Guangue woreda, Awe Zone, Amhara region. It is relatively sparsely populated, with an estimated 327 households within a 1.5 km radius. Farming is the main economic activity. Maize, teff, and millet are the common crops in the area. There are two elementary schools and one church within the specified radius (see Figure 8: blue villages, red institutions). The nearest grid-connected town is Tiru Brehan (although the grid is not functional now), while the main grid-connected city is Chagni, which is 10 km from the site. Regarding the MHP site itself, we identified both sides of the river and measured the head for both. The total measured head was 13.678 m and 10.828 m for the right and left side of the river, respectively. The right side, the canal from the diversion weir to the forebay, requires a deep cut. Hence, we identified the left side as the best option for the MHP plant (see Figure 9).  The FDC and some selected FDC statistics for the Tinbil MHP site are shown in Figure 10 and Table 4, respectively. The maximum and minimum flow estimated from the model results are 53.72 m 3 /s and 0.10 m 3 /s, respectively. The 50% exceedance is 5.93 m 3 /s. The measured discharge data in March 2018 marked 0.39 m 3 /s, which corresponds to 83% of exceedance (Table 4). During the measurement period, the local atmospheric conditions could be considered as representative for a low flow hydroclimatic regime.  The Engrin River proposed MHP site is located in Sekela woreda, west Gojjam, Amhara region. The area is relatively densely populated (252 households estimated). Within a 1.5 km radius are two elementary schools and two churches (Figure 11). Crop cultivation is the main livelihood, with barley, potato, maize, and wheat being the common crops. The nearest grid-based electricity access to the site is Agut, which is about 5 km away.  The river channel created a series of cataracts and provided an opportunity to find a large head (40.42 m). The diversion and powerhouse sites are pegged in Figure 12 (middle and below, respectively). Regarding flow information, Figure 13 shows the whole spectrum of flow distribution using the FDC. The maximum flow and minimum flow observed were 62.87 and 0.01 m 3 /s. The measured discharge was 0.16 m 3 /s, which falls in the 83% range of the FDC (Table 5). During the measurement period, the local atmospheric conditions could be considered as representative for a low-flow hydroclimatic regime.  This site is located in Bure woreda, west Gojjam, Amhara region. No household resides within the 1.5 km radius (Figure 14). However, within 3 to 4 km, there are about 700 households. The nearest town to accessing an electrical grid is Kuch, which is about 4.5 km from the site. Crop production (maize, wheat, and pepper) and livestock rearing are the livelihoods of the local people. Although not within a 1.5 km radius, public institutions such as two elementary schools and three orthodox churches exist within a 4 km radius. According to our discussion with regional and woreda water and energy experts, the region is developing an irrigation plan, soon to be implemented, diverting water from the highland (above the escarpment) and irrigating the lowland plain areas along the right side of the river from the proposed MHP site.Figure 15 shows a detailed sketch and panoramic view. The penstock passes through a slope that is dominated by debris materials (boulders, overhangs, some rockfalls, etc.), which need (a) provision of rockfall protection including provision of a protection wall, removal of overhangs at the early phase of construction by properly estimating the contributing area to rainfall, and taking necessary measures during construction; (b) removing debris/blocks along the penstock: the foundation should be on a stable stratum; and (c) placing the foundation of the powerhouse on a stable stratum (removing debris/blocks/soil) to a depth of 2-3 m.  The maximum flow observed was 124.4 m 3 /s, while the minimum observed in 16 years of simulation was 0.04 m 3 /s (Figure 16). The 50th percentile of exceedance is 6.86 m 3 /s. Measured discharge during the field survey (mid-March 2018) was 2.57 m 3 /s (Table 6).  The total population size that would be served if the MHP were established is represented by four villages (Achefer, Gereb, Liamba, and the Metqoria kebele center), which constitute 345 households (Figure 17). According to the local farmers and local government experts, the main economic activity for the area is farming, with teff, sorghum, and wheat being the three main crops. The public institutions that would be greatly benefited by the MHP services are (1) the elementary school (grades 1 to 8) that is located 1.8 km from the site and (2) the kebele center (Metqoria), the nearby health center, and the two churches (one in Metqoria and the second in Liamba Village). The nearest electrical grid is about 10 km away.  For the Gereb River, the overall situation of the river and the penstock are shown in Figure 18. The peculiar feature for this site is that a significant amount of the waterflow comes from springs. This is advantageous in comparison to streamflow as springs are expected to be less variable due to climate. The total head for this site as estimated from the theodolite is 25.995 m, which can provide 24.395 m of net head, considering 1.5 m of head loss due to forebay construction. For this site, the FDC could not be calculated as there was no discharge measurement in the area. Estimating the FDC from a hydrological model was also not possible for springs as there was no wellestablished scientific relationship between the land surface parameters and the spring water volume. During the survey, we measured discharge in March 2018 and the flow value was 0.185 m 3 /s. Although there was no evident overflow generation, rain did occur and the local conditions were wet and cloudy during the measurement day.This is located in Goma woreda, Agaro Zone, Oromia region. It is on the Naso River. The site is densely populated and about 1,000 households reside within a 1.5 km radius (Figure 19). The main income of the people comes from coffee production, with limited maize cultivation. In addition, at this site are two local coffee processing plants, one near the powerhouse and the other near the diversion weir. The power generated would be quite useful for supporting and enhancing small agro-industry -mainly coffee-related business.The local administrative center (kebele center), where public institutions such as an elementary school, clinic, and mosques are located, is less than 1 km from the powerhouse (Figure 20). The nearest electrical grid is about 7 km away.  The maximum flow observed was 64.21 m 3 /s, while the minimum observed in 16 years of simulation was 0.06 m 3 /s (Table 7 and Figure 21). The 50th percentile of exceedance was 10.44 m 3 /s. The observed discharge measured in April 2018 was 0.51 m 3 /s. The local weather conditions during measurement were wet, with extremely low precipitation. This may not affect the discharge if the climatic conditions are for these specific days.  Overall site conditions, villages, and institution locations at Elkete Gobe MHP site. The blue polygon in the image is a small village near the site.This site is located in Seka Chekorsa woreda, Gondi Motoso Zone, Oromia region. The households near the site are estimated to be about 430. As can be seen from Figure 22, the population is evenly and sparsely distributed in the area. The main economic livelihood for the local people is maize, sorghum, coffee, and chat. There are three mosques, one elementary school, and one health center. The nearest electrical grid is in the woreda center (Seka Chekorsa), which is about 15 km from the site.The diversion weir as it is now is from only Sunki (or Manjor) River, contributory to Gibe River (Figure 23). If diversion from Sunki River is considered, then the flow is relatively smaller, but could be enough for a small plant (Figure 24). With this scenario, the measured discharge in April 2018 was 0.41 m 3 /s. However, the diversion weir can be established at the main river (Gibe) and the Sunki River could be bridged by canal bridges, thus more than just Sunki's discharge could be obtained. In this case, the discharge measured from the main Gibe River is 0.75 m 3 /s (Table 8). The third scenario is to combine the two rivers and increase the discharge much more than each one separately. The total discharge (Sunki plus Gibe) would be 1.16 m 3 /s. The total head obtained from measurement was 9.71 m. The local weather conditions during measurement were wet and very low intensity precipitation occurred.    The proposed Waro River MHP site is located in Dedo woreda, Oromia region. The total households in the 1.5 km radius are about 500 (Figure 25). The main sources of income are coffee, maize, teff, and potato production. Public institutions (particularly two elementary schools, two mosques, and one health center) exist near the site. The nearest electrical grid access to the site is at Waro kolobe, which is about 7 km from the site. Figure 26 shows a schematic and panoramic view of the site. The maximum head of the penstock (Figure 26) is 22.02 m.  The measured discharge in April 2018 was 0.557 m 3 /s, which does not fall in the lowest flow most likely due to the rainfall week during the field survey week at the site. Detailed statistics and the FDC plot are given in Table 9 and   This is located in Omo Beya woreda, Jimma Zone, Oromia region. The total population living within a 1.5 km radius is 210. Meti and Dura elementary schools and Ocha and Bekene mosques are located within the 1.5 km radius. There is also a health center. The nearest town with an electrical grid is Elke, 7 km from the site. Three feasibility penstock options are identified, as depicted in Figure 28, according to the following: (a) Option 1 is along the current mill and it has a relatively gentle slope and lower head (25.69 m) than the others; (b) Option 2 is in a concave topography with higher surface runoff accumulation, with less space for powerhouse construction, a relatively thick soil cover, the penstock requires some support in some parts and more than 1.5 m deep excavation, and it has the lowest head (24.94 m); (c) Option 3 is along a convex topography (with no surface runoff toward the powerhouse) and has a higher head, limited soil thickness for penstock foundation, and suitable powerhouse position (enough space, good foundation, and no flood). We selected Option 3. It has a few meters' increase in canal length and it will have the highest head (36.49 m) and be suitable for workability in both the forebay and powerhouse. Figure 29 shows the flow duration curve and Table 10 shows the discharge at the Omo Beya MHP site.  This site is located in Amoro woreda in Oromia region, with a population of 300 households. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. The farmers in the vicinity produce teff and maize. Elementary schools and churches also exist. Amoro Town, which is also the woreda's capital, is 2.5 km from the site, which would affect the feasibility of developing an off-grid MHP plant. Although both sides of the river can be feasible for MHP generation, we identified the right side as the best option due to easy diversion and obtaining higher head. The total head is 27.7 m. The weir position is downstream of a bridge and irrigated land. The weir site is on a narrow area where rock is exposed, with less than 0.5 m of rock at abutments and with bedrock exposed at the river center. Small-scale irrigation is practiced on the upstream side of the proposed weir, which needs further consideration. The powerhouse is located above the flood light, as depicted in Figure 30.  At the weir position, the center of the river is bedrock (basalt) while the river abutment is soil (clayey with depth less than 1.5 m). This site is located on the upper part of the main Gibe River with low variability (as can be seen from Figure 32). The measured discharge, for instance, is one of the highest (1.15 m 3 /s). On the other hand, the total head is relatively low, with an exact value of 9.9 m. Considering an average of 1.5 m head loss during construction, the net head will be 8.4 m. Figure 33 shows the flow duration curve and Table 12 shows the discharge for the Gibe MHP site.  This is in Sibu Sira woreda in Oromia region. About 170 households reside in a 1.5 km vicinity (Figures 34 and 35). As usual, agriculture, mainly crop cultivation, is the main economic activity in the area. The area has one elementary school, two churches, and one health center. The nearest electricity is in Seri Town, which is about 4.8 km away from this MHP site.    The FDC and some selected statistics for the site are presented in Figure 36 and Table 13, respectively. The measured discharge is 0.34 m 3 /s, which roughly corresponds to 85% of the FDC curve. The measured flow was recorded during mid-April 2018, which represents low-flow climatic conditions.This site is in Boji Dermiji woreda in West Wellega. An elementary school, Mekaneyesus church, and two health centers are available in the area. The site is precisely on the main asphalt road, making it the most accessible proposed MHP site. Schematic and panoramic views of the site appear in Figure 37 and the flow duration curve appears in Figure 38.     The discharge volume is one of the largest (1.06 m 3 /s) as measured in the second week of April 2018. This represents a median value of 870% of the FDC. The other statistics of the site appear in Table 14.For this site, the net head is 2.87 m, which gives it the shortest head from the 15 proposed sites (Figure 39). Thus, hydrological FDC was not estimated for it. The measured discharge in the second week of April 2018 was 0.31 m 3 /s. Based on the flow duration curve and natural drop of the river profile (i.e., head) and the site-specific suitability of the powerhouse location, we estimated the theoretical power generating capacity of each site (Figure 40). Instead of providing a single value of power generation, we provided the power generation for all the flow duration curve throughout the year. Overall, the 15 sites can generate greater than or equal to 2,286 kW of power during 75% of the time, 11,640 kW during 50% of the time, and 51,072 kW during 25% of the time of the year. The coupled opportunity of availability flow throughout the year and a series of cataracts along most of the river profiles in the highlands of Ethiopia provide a great opportunity to improve energy penetration using hydropower of varied capacity in the rural areas of Ethiopia. Here, we conducted a technical feasibility study of 15 selected sites in the highlands of the country for mini-hydropower generation. At all sites, hydropower generation can reach 11,640 kW half of the time of the year, and as low as 2,286 kW on a few dry days of the year.Based on this exercise, we recommend the following for future research directions:We conducted a feasibility study for selected sites, but it is important to develop an approach that is useful to assess MHP potential in a spatially continuous manner to assess the national potential of MHP.MHP primarily depends on rainfall availability; therefore, the impact of global climate change on hydroelectric power generation should be integrated as part of assessing MHP potential.Complementary renewable energy such as solar, wind, and geothermal is a key for improving the penetration rate of renewable energy in the country. Climate-based RE sources could have a complementary nature in terms of both temporal and spatial context. During the summer season, hydropower can be the main source of power. During winter, solar can be the main source of power.During autumn and spring, power generated by wind could be used more than the others.Spatially, the highland areas of the country such as Tekeze basin, Upper Blue Nile basin, Omo-Gibe basin, and some areas in Arsi highlands are the sources of hydropower, whereas the lowlands such as Afar, Somalia, and many others could be a good source of solar power. The mountain escarpment along the North Shao to Tigray could become a tower of windmills. No competition for water use in the upstream area.","tokenCount":"6371"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"899ebcfc35a22ffb37c195006455f328","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/beb5f511-93a0-494f-bc3f-580847b2c47a/retrieve","id":"-1324018329"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"92beb702-e0c1-43c5-ba7c-9e7b7d702846","pagecount":"30","content":"Potato (Solanum tuberosum L) originated in the highlands of South America and is cultivated in 157 countries of the tropical, subtropical and temperate zones of the world (Stevenson, et al. 2001). S. tuberosum, is a tetraploid (2n=4x=48) plant which produces tubers under longday conditions. It is traditionally grown from tubers, but it can also be grown from other vegetative organs such as stems or sprouts, and also from tme seed. Tuber is an underground modified swollen that serves as a storage and reproductive organ. According to F AO (20 1 0) potato plant has multiplication rate ranging from 1:10 to 1: 15 and tuber has buds, also called \"eyes\", arranged in a spiral manner, from which sprouts and shoots develop. After harvest, the tuber undergoes a dormancy period of two to three months, during which development is temporarily suspended. Tubers of 40-60 g are commonly used as seed potatoes, larger tubers are cut into two to four pieces containing at least one eye.There are many seed-borne diseases and pests of potato recorded in Ethiopia (Dereje and Gebremedhin, 2012;Ermias, 2010;Mesfin et al., 2009;Ferdu et al., 2009;Bayeh et al., 2008;Bekele and Eshetu, 2008), but the most important are outlined in Table 1 below considering the disease/pest, causal agent, affected area, symptoms and preventive measures.Good quality planting material is one of the foremost prerequisites of healthy and successful crop production venture. Because, planting materials are important vehicle for innovative technologies and may eventually disseminate serious pests including disease causing pathogens, arthropods pests, and noxious weeds. In Ethiopia for instance, bacterial wilt was spread to many new W eredas of the Amhara and Tigray regions in just few years through infected seed tubers from Shashemene, a known hotspot area for bacterial wilt (Dereje and Gebremedhin, 2012). This kind of disease dissemination can occur for many important and serious seedbome diseases and pests if phytosanitary measures are not incorporated in seed production and distribution system. A known solution for this kind of problem is the production and distribution of high quality disease-free planting materials. • Several earth-up the field • Keep tubers in clean DLS Thus, production and distribution of quality seed need serious attention and a well designed system that insures a separate value chain that is different from ware potato production. As a result, production of good quality planting materials should be properly designed to suit the circumstances of potato producers that exist in the country (Adane et al.,201 0). The system in tum influences many developmental, socio-economic, and environmental issues. A resilient and sustainable system addressing the specific needs of poor farmers for timely access to good quality planting materials with appropriate genetic, physiological and phytosanitary conditions plays a crucial role in ensuring food security and rural economic development.The problems of potato farmers in Ethiopian demand for a systematic approach to deliver good quality planting material that accommodates all stakeholders involved in generation, delivery and uptake of potato technologies (Schulz et al. , 2012). To attain this, Ethiopia at this point needs to promote an on-farm production of quality declared planting materials (QDPM) of potato to improve the access of smallholder farmers to quality seed through decentralized local schemes. In this QDPM system, farmers receive training in seed production and management that include variety and field selection, use of quality seed, rouging, variety maintenance, positive and negative selection, harvesting, and seed processing; storage, packaging and marketing. This chain of seed production activities are reinforced by locally on-farm operated quality control system. The quality control (at each step) is carried out at farm level by a Cooperative-level inspection team (COOPCOM) by means of applying good seed production practices (GSPP) and by a Wereda-level inspection committee (WERCOM) through properly designed inspection procedures. The inspection involves field and post-harvest assessment and data collection, which at the end validation of QDPM is done with official seal on labels (tags) for potato seed tubers. This system contains a procedure that farmers receive fresh and clean source materials every five years depending on the level of degeneration.The• success of this system depends on the ability of farmers to grow good potato crops, select the source of their planting materials, choose location and field at which they produce; pest and vector pressure in the production area, and the capability of WERCOM to maintain the service. If the system remains effective, it would revolutionize the supply of quality potato planting materials in Ethiopia and enhance trust of seed purchasers with better price, because farmers are accountable to their neighbors for the quality of their potato seed, the QDPM available at their locality.The QDPM scheme is a process that has an intention to guide the production of clean, disease-free planting materials of vegetatively reproduced crops (FAO, 2010). Its goal is mainly to raise the physiological and phytosanitary quality of planting materials available to smallholders, and hence, increases agricultural production and productivity. It is meant to be implemented primarily by seed producers at community level or field extension workers. A practical QDPM protocols and standards are used to allow easy monitoring and verification of the production and distribution process. It complements and is agreeable to formal seed quality control systems in line with national and local conditions to ensure that they are appropriate and achievable for target users. It links the activities of research and extension to seed multiplication activities of smallholders.QDPM protocols set clear roles fo; the public and the private sectors. Accordingly, the public sector is responsible for maintaining germplasm, introducing new materials, and producing clean source materials; while the private sector (especially seed producers) is responsible for mass multiplication and distribution of quality planting materials to ware-potato producers.1.5 Why is QDPM important to potato growers in Ethiopia? Studies on potato seed system in many parts of the world and in Ethiopia in particular clearly indicated that the first challenge to potato farmers at local level is the limited access to good quality planting materials (Adane, et al., 2010). For vegetatively propagated crops like potato, formal seed supply to resource-poor farmers in particular is challenging in Ethiopia where there is no single seed producer handles potato. This is because it is relatively difficult to produce healthy potato, storage is not easy, it quickly degenerates in a few numbers of cycles. In such a system it is difficult to create a stable demand for seed supply.According to FAO (2010) potato has an essential role in enhancing food security and human nutrition. It can also substitute other crops in cases of multiple use and economic needs. Producing the planting materials of potato presents intricate problems with many logistic issues for their extensive use. This is mainly important for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia (like in other developing countries) because:• The formal seed system in the country doesn't accommodate potato at present; • Farmers use traditional mixture varieties, including local ones;• There is a lack of consistent supplies of good quality planting materials, although there is high demand for clean potato planting materials in the country; • There is a lack of knowledge on phytosanitary measures and quarantine issues related to safe movement of germplasm, plants and planting material across borders; • Serious potato seedbome diseases are spreading with seed tubers to many new areas, and • The planting material in potatoes is bulky and perishable;Evidences from other countries show that different ways can be designed to support local seed systems. In all the systems, most important is to establish sustainable, small-scale seed systems that operate by farmers themselves and address the needs of these small-scale farmers (Schulz, et al., 2012). The challenge to it is may be that how to make the system sustainable in a big country like Ethiopia where many of the villages are at remote parts of the country. However, we have to take up these challenges and develop innovative, farmerbased supply system of potato planting materials that addresses the needs of rural potato growers.The basis of demand for quality planting material in potato is the recognition of its value for crop productivity. In many developing countries, perception of farmers in this regard is highly variable, ranging from specialized knowledge to lack of attention to even the basic features of quality. This is also true in Ethiopia (Adane et al., 2010;Agajie et al. , 20008). Although farmers have a notion that improved varieties give a number of benefits, they often undervalue the maintenance of good quality planting materials that may enables the expression of its genetic potential. At present, good work has been done in Ethiopia by research in raising awareness on the value of quality potato planting materials and varieties (Gebremedhin et al., 2008a;Gebremedhin et al., 2008b). In the last decade, HARC has been training farmers, men and women, in improving the quality of their potato seed by emphasizing tuber yield, disease and storage management, but now the time has come to consider separate value chains for seed and ware potato;by considering the developmental stage of agriculture in the country.The success of potato production in the country depends on timely delivery of good quality planting materials with affordable price (Schulz et al., 2012;Adane, et al., 2010;Ermias, 2010). Major bottlenecks for increased potato productivity and production in Ethiopia include (i) sustainable supply of clean planting materials, (ii) rising seed through good production practices, and (iii) quality assurance of these planting materials through inspection; QDPM at this early stage and possibly seed certification at a later stage. This new seed production model (scheme) needed to include a built-in quality assurance system through local seed producers and community institutions. It improves seed quality and helps them ensure welltimed delivery of good quality planting materials at their locality. In this system, production and distribution are totally integrated where farmers undertake production, processing, quality control and sales in the local community with the help of local Agriculture Offices and Research Centers. The client and supplier are neighbors, make the marketing easy, sell at competitive prices and enjoy trust in quality. Finally, resource-poor farmers become producers of good quality planting materials where quality assurance is carried out by their participation. They form wholesalers and retailers, and principal client groups within their locality maintaining the dynamics of QDPM and eventually preparing the ground for a formal seed system. In this new system, there is a seed flow of one direction (Figure 1).  As indicated in Figure 1 above, the primary breeding centers develop new varieties for different agro-ecologies and eventually produce disease-free in-vitro plantlets under good capacity/facility conditions. The facilities include tissue culture, aeroponic facility and insect proof screen houses/greenhouses. Materials produced under such conditions should be very useful and at the same time expensive. These invaluable materials are generation-I and/or are further multiplied in research centers as generation-2. At this stage, research centers usually increase potato seed under Good Seed Production Practices (GSPP), which subsequently supplied to QDPM producers. The QDPM scheme contains an in-built quality control system and two tiered inspection procedures. Finally, the Good Quality Potato Seed Tubers produced under QDPM scheme is supplied ware potato produces. The seed produced under QDPM scheme fulfills the demands of ware potato producers in their locality with affordable price.There is a huge demand for quality potato seed in Ethiopia, and hence, decentralization of seed production is a promising way forward by considering the size, diversity and cultural conditions of the country. This is because, it is difficult to fulfill the demand of potato seed as there is a trend of fast increase in potato production in many ports of the country and Ethiopia has a big potential of seed production because its endowed with many physical, edaphic and cultural diversities. However, the seed system is not well developed that the formal seed supply doesn't come reality very soon. So, QDPM serves as a transitional stage from informal to formal seed supply system for potato by preparing the potato industry to enjoy formal seed supply system in the future . The QDPM system outlined by F AO is not designed to replace a fully developed seed certification program, but proposes a complementary system which is less costly but still provides good quality planting materials in countries like Ethiopia with low capacity and limited resources for seed certification. Hence, the QDPM is an alternative way to reach small-scale farmers who do not have access to, and so do not use, certified seed for potato production. This system is expected to prepare a ground for the formal seed certification system which may come in the future .A field guide of Good Seed Production Practices (GSPP) for potato is an important tool serving as a checklist in field operation during production and quality control. It serves as guidance for potato seed producers with only important components that are directly related to the proposed informal seed inspection process. The content describes field selection and rotation, sources of planting materials, husbandry and protection practices, harvesting, postharvest handling and storage particularly in DLS.Choose fields that are isolated from ware-potato fields by about 50 meters and avoid sites within traditional seed production areas. Consider fields that have not been planted with any Solanaceous crop for at least three years. Study the field history whether it has any potato disease, particularly bacterial wilt in the past. This is because bacterial wilt is a difficult disease to control once it has established in potato field (Dereje and Gebremedhin, 2012). This information is useful to take necessary preventive measures against soil-borne pathogens. Rotation is very important in potato production to avoid contamination and soil borne diseases/pests. Preferable crops include cereals, Brassica species, and legumes.Always use healthy planting materials, preferably from known sources (particularly from research centers). Sort seed tubers before planting to minimize incorrect varieties (off-types) and avoid mixing varieties. This minimizes the risk of variety contamination and diseases in potato seed crop. Information about the source, the number of field generations, the results of any inspections that have been made are important in selection. Research Centers and/or Wereda Agriculture Office are main sources of information on any testing or inspection results and where it is found.Husbandry and protection practices are hearts of quality seed production that determines the planting value of a particular material. As a general rule, ridging, weeding, fertilizer and chemical applications for pest control should be implemented as recommended by trained members (Gebremedhin et al., 2008a;Bayeh et al., 2008;Bekele and Eshetu, 2008). However, specialized activities are necessary for seed crop unlike ware potato crop. These greatly influence the quality of seed produced. Most important ones are: (i) Regular field inspection: Inspect the seed crop regularly for the presence of colonizing vectors that transmit viruses by examining the undersides of leaves. Control vectors using pesticides if the population of vector is medium or severe. Check the presence of off-types and diseased plants (for details refer to section 4) then rouge out carefully. These abnormal plants reduce the quality of tubers produced by the candidate seed crop.(ii) Rouging abnormal plants: rouging is the recognition and removal of entire plants.Hence, remove all off-types (other varieties), volunteer plants and diseased looking ones from the seed crops starting four weeks after planting. Volunteer and diseased plants are sources of diseases. Destroy all plant refuses by burying and use of fire. Seed field entry should be restricted to the minimum. Conduct rouging every week during mornings of clear days. For additional information, reference should be made to a Crop Technology Book by EIAR (EIAR, 2005) and your seed production training documents.Rouging diseased potato plant (iii) Residue management: plant refuses/residues after harvest and grading should be collected and placed out of the field and processing areas in a protected pit. Use fire to destroy like in the figure below. This is because many pests survive on these trashes and complete their cycle. It serves as primary source of inoculums. Thus, proper residue management is one and very essential activity in pest management in modern seed production articularly in vegetatively propagated crops.Burning potato trashes/residues (iv) Disease and pest control: pests in wider sense include diseases, arthropods pests, weed species, etc. Pests in seed crops should be controlled not only to protect the yield but also to maintain the quality of seed harvested. Pesticides including fungicides and insecticides are indispensable weapon against these enemies in general. Against late blight, starting at the beginning of the disease spraying of Mancozeb at the rate of 3 kg/ha (repeated every 7-10 days) or Ridomil MZ at the rate of 2 kg/ha (ones or twice enough) can perfectly control in seed crop. To control potato tuber moth, tubers can be dipped in Diazinon suspension (20 ml in 10 liter water) before storage and in the field spray with Systemic carbamates, Organophosphates or Pyrethroids at recommended rate. The vectors can be controlled by spraying suspension ofPrimifos-methyl (1 liter/ha), Primicarb (2 kg/ha) or Roger (2 liters/ha) using water.Deeping tubers in Diazinon suspension for PTM controlTubers should be harvested when they are physiologically mature that means when the peel (skin) is well set because immature tubers are prone to peeling during harvest and storage operations that may risk it to disease infection. Tubers can be induced to mature by cutting, pulllng or killing the haulms 10-20 days before harvest. Early killing of haulms also can be used for pest control (particularly aphid borne viruses) and controlling seed size. A void harvesting the seed potatoes when the soil is still wet or during rainy days, as the tubers will carry soil and be at risk of disease infection. If tubers are harvested wet, they should be dried before storage under no direct sunlight or heat.To reduce infection by pathogens and water loss, cure seed potatoes for two weeks so that the outer layer of potato peel and the periderm thicken. Before storage, seed potatoes should be sorted to eliminate damaged, diseased and off-type tubers. Repeated seed examination and sorting is recommended during storage. Generally, seed tubers must be stored in diffused light store (DLS). DLS reduces sprouting and weight loss of tubers during storage, helps tubers tum green which increases resistance to pests, and allows farmers to store the seed for longer periods and thus increases yields. Storing tubers in the dark results in long weak sprouts and low tuber yield. Transportation is carried out with care to reduce physical damages to tubers.Tuber sorting v Failed v Ordinary SeedThe main purpose of regulatory scheme is imposing quality standards and control measures in production processes to guide the value chain. Thus, the QDPM suggested for potato here is the type of \"informal\" seed inspection system that deemed to ensure the timely supply of improved potato varieties and quality seed tubers from dependable sources, healthily produced and processed, truthfully labeled and declared, and trusted quality potato seeds to poor farmers at their locality. The system trusts on the continuous supply of source materials from trustworthy sources (research centers), technical trainings given by researchers and technical backstopping handled by the extension services, and financial availability from various sources (micro-finance, banks, and NGOs) either in support or otherwise. The quality assurance (seed inspection) is managed by a special Wereda-level Inspection Committee (WERCOM) and being assisted by a committee of each farmer group/cooperative (COOPCOM). The members in these two committees include:A. WERCOM: This committee consists of 5 members (one seed agronomist fromWereda-BoA = chairperson, one plant protection/agronomy/ expert from Wereda-BoA = secretary, one researcher from Research Center working in the Wereda (optional) = member, the Development Agent (DA) closely working with the producer = member, and one elected representative of the Cooperative/PLC = member. Decision of the WERCOM is taken by majority vote, except when research is not represented the chairperson keeps the balance. B. COOPCOM: inspection committee inspects all seed potato fields of members of the cooperative. The COOPCOM consists of 3 members elected by the members of the Cooperative. It is suggested that if possible one woman is included in the inspection team. Whenever necessary, decision of the COOPCOM is taken by majority vote.The local organizations responsible for this inspection that are vital in assuring the QDPM for potato include the following. (i) The main actors (producers): The kinds of producers directly involve in potato seed production under QDPM and responsible in the inspection and declaration processes .are recognized by some criteria. The Cooperative/PLC needs to fulfill the following formal criteria.  Duties and responsibilities of WERCOM include:• WERCOM inspects potato seed fields once during flowering stage and tuber quality once at post-harvest stage in DLS,• It inspects all seed crop and all diffuse light stores (DLS) at present when the number is few in each Wereda, but as the number increases inspection is done by taking a sample of about 20% in each FGC, • WERCOM performs inspection with majority members (at least three members present),• The team carefully inspects each field and verifies all tolerance levels given in Table 2 and recommends necessary measures for the field and tuber in DLS. If recommendations are not accepted and accordingly corrected, the inspection team rejects the crop as QDPM,• It registers the data collected from the field and DLS in forms prepared for it (one for field and the other for post-harvest recording),• Assesses and verifies the field and post-harvest records obtained from COOPCOM inspection, in case WERCOM inspects fields taking sample,• When one Coop has got >70% of its fields fulfilled the QDPM standards, WERCOM issues a letter of recognition as \"QDPM of Potato Producer Coop for the Year YYYY\", and• Provides tags only for the amount of seed tubers produced and qualified for QDPM standardsDuties and responsibilities of COOPCOM include:• COOPCOM inspects all seed fields 2 times in the season (first visit at 6-8 weeks after planting depending on the variety and location and then second visit at flowering), and tuber quality at post-harvest stage in DLS (regular inspection of tubers in DLS is necessary to maintain the quality),• Advise members for field, DLS and variety labeling, and take corrective measures such as rouging, vector and pest control,• Advise members to sort defective tubers and eventually grade seed tubers ( 40-70 g size) for QDPM quality standards in DLS,• COOPCOM performs inspection with all members present and take decisions by majority vote whenever necessary,• The team carefully inspects each field and tuber lot thereby verifies all tolerance levels given in Tables 2 and 3, • It registers the data collected from the field and DLS in the forms prepared for the purpose (one for field and the other for post harvest),• Provides the field and post-harvest records for WERCOM inspection team,• Receives the tags for potato seed sacks qualifying QDPM standards, and hands it to the officials of Cooperative, and• Reports the amount of seed tubers harvested, processed, labeled with tags, and available for sell in their DLS.Simple application procedures tend to sustain in any system. Thus, very simple mechanism of operation is developed to effectively develop the QDPM for potato. In a step-by-step procedure, the following are very important components of the mode under operation.• Establish availability of sources of clean potato materials,• Train farmers on Good Seed Production Practices (GSPP) and quality control to specialize in seed production (routine extension support), • Train the process of quality declaration through inspection procedures,• Establish a forum for recognition of WERCOM members by local institutions every year, • Establish a separate value chain for potato seed (QDPM) by registration and information exchange system at the Wereda Bureau of Agriculture, and • Evaluate the system at Wereda-level every year and improve through full participation of local institutions.4.1 Field inspection of potato for QDPM General requirement and tolerance level: Two basic requirements are always in picture when planning potato seed production that includes crop rotation of 3 years and isolation distance of about 50 meters (if possible) from other Solanaceous fields. Rotation is verified by studying the field history while isolation distance could be judged during inspection time.Usually two inspection visits are recommended for field inspection of potato for QDPM validation. The periods of inspection are (i) the first visit at 6-8 week after planting depending on the variety and location, and (ii) the second visit at flowering stage. Data to be collected during field inspection is judged against the tolerance levels indicated in Table 2 for each requirement and tolerance level. The set of tolerance levels serve as guiding tool during inspection and final labeling of the potato seed in the QI)PM system. How to perform field inspections: Sampling during inspection differs according to the size of potato fields . Accordingly, inspection committee (WERCOM and COOPCOM) members should take data by first selecting the field and then selecting rows from each field depending on the size of the field. Data collection is carried out following the procedures described below.The primary requirement in potato seed production is a 3 year rotation system and 50 isolation distance (which is difficult in many parts of the country) . Thus, WERCOM upon assessing the field history of a particular candidate potato field planted for QDPM validation, qualifies all fields where potato was not grown in that particular field for any of the last 2 years. Less than three years rotation is not accepted. And candidate potato field should be about 50 meters away fro m other ware potato (other Solanaceous crops) fields as a rule, but may be difficult in some parts of the country. In addition, proper field identification of a candidate crop is very important in inspection schemes for standard, where the following should be included in field labeling.• Name oflocation (Cooperative, Seed enterprises)• Name of variety • Date of planting • Evidence of rouging B. Plant Sampling within a Field (i) For a field with 2 ha or less: a total of 10 random rows of potato will be selected to assess. From each row 100 potato plants are checked for purity and diseases. Mean value of these 10 rows provides the single score for the field to be compared with the tolerance level.(ii) For a field greater than 2 ha: an additional 5 rows (with 100 plants per row) should be assessed for every additional 1 ha field. The inspection team members should make counts while walking between rows in the field and even rogue abnormal plants.C. Assessing for off-types and mark potential seed plants for future Early Stage Inspection: This is an important practice carried out at early stage of potato growth and development (often completed up to early flowering period). In this inspection, off-types/ mixture and volunteer plants are assessed; diseases and vectors are easily observed and recorded at this stage. As a result of careful assessment, COOPCOM suggests important corrective measures including late blight control, vector suppression measures and rouging of defected plants from potato seed fields. Eventually the COOPCOM advices its members to selects and peg potential (big and healthy looking) potato plants that may serve as future seed plant for their own consumption upon harvesting separately at the end. COOPCOM ultimately calculates mean value of off-types for each field. Then check if the mean value for off-type is less than 1 %~to consider the field for further inspection for QDPM standards. Any field having greater than 1 off-type plant from 100 total plants checked is discarded from seed crop under QDPM (Table 2), but it can only grow as ware potato.Flowering Stage Inspection: this inspection is carried out by WERCOM and COOPCOM . / during flowering stage of potato development. At this stage, each inspection committee collect data (similar to the first inspection period) through careful assessment of seed fields and a mean value will be calculated by each committee for each field. Similar recommendations are expected from them to maintain quality. WERCOM then check if the mean value for off-type/mixture is less than 1% to consider the field to qualify for QDPM standards. Any field having greater than 1 off-type plant from 100 total plants checked is discarded from seed crop under QDPM (Table 2), but it can only be considered as ware potato field. Especial attention should also be given for physiological age of the material, uniformity, and estimated harvest of the crop as seed. At this stage, COOPCOM advices its members to remove the pegs from selected plants, if they found to be diseaseq:In both early and flowering time visits, inspection teams should assess important potato diseases using the following descriptions. The symptoms of most important diseases are included support identification.Late blight is a very important disease in potato and control is a must, otherwise it can devastate the crop. It also infects tubers that severely reduce tuber seed quality at harvest. Stem infection by late blight is a serious issue in seed crop because most stem infections in the field leads to tuber infection at the end of the season that may spread to new crop through seed tuber. Therefore, late blight control is strongly recommended for seed crops.Grow resistant variety and control the disease with the use of fungicides.Susceptible variety wiped-out by late blight 2. Bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum) Bacterial wilt is a serious tuber-borne and soil-borne disease of potato. Once a field is infested with this pathogen, it is very difficult to control. Hence, bacterial wilt is not allowed in any potato seed crop. Typical symptoms of bacterial wilt is include either as whole plant wilted or tuber rotted, but to ascertain whether these symptoms were caused by bacterial wilt or not we need to dip-up some tubers and check for tuber symptoms. When there are no tubers then cut some stems and put them in water for about 10 minutes to observe whether bacterial ooze comes out from the vascular system. This is simple method of checking bacterial wilt in stem and tubers. No bacterial wilt is allowed in potato seed field, because there is no tolerance level for it (Table 2). Rouging is a must in any potato crop.Symptoms in the tubersMany viruses infect potato, but the symptoms of most important ones are given here. The inspection teams (WERCOM and COOPCOM) at both field inspection periods look for plants with virus symptoms during mornings of clear days. All suspected plants should be rouged out. Field with only 5% and less are accepted for QDPM standard (Table 2). Thus all fields with severe (>5%) incidence are rejected and are only used for ware potato.Severe mosaic symptomsBoth severe and mild mosaicsAs far as viruses are considered ip. potato, vectors and their activity determine the quality of seed tubes produced from a particular seed crop. Aphids are known vectors of important viruses damaging potato in the country. And hence, inspectors should take note on aphid infestation in addition to these tolerance levels using the following scale:• Slight (1 to 2 aphids on few plants)• Moderate (1-1 0 aphids on most plants)• Severe (> 10 aphids on most plant) When moderate to severe aphid infestation occurs in the field, the crop needs to be sprayed with registered and recommended pesticides. Primarily, areas with high vector activity are not suitable for potato seed production.Field data recording is done using the following QDPM Data Recording Sheet-1 (Table 3). The recording is done for each field and decisions are taken right in field. Potato tuber moss = early and correct hilling Virus vectors = early removal of potato haulms Finally, fields that do not fulfill these requirements should be rejected as QDPM fi elds.If more than 30% of the inspected fields of a given cooperative fail this inspection, the cooper ative should be rejected as QDPM producer fo r this year.  tags for each producer (i) DLS inspection includes the following criteria.• Construction: suitability for management and protection (including waste discharge),• Cleanness: hygiene of the store (ground, benches, surrounding),• Tuber grading: uniform in sizes, sorted for off-types, etc and • Variety separation: labeling and presence of physical barrier. The inspection teams evaluate each DLS using the above four criteria and rate as poor, fair, good or excellent. Poor DLS and tuber managements are rejected by WERCOM because they do not fulfill the QDPM standard.Poor DLS handling and tuber management (ii) Tuber quality inspection includes the following: shape, size, color, sprout, etc are important variety criteria in inspecting tubers for uniformity. The tuber quality aspect includes varietal uniformity, defects and disease situations. Tuber size is used as criterion for quality grading of seed potato and the best quality seed potato has a weight of 40 to 70 grams. This is a medium size tuber recognized by most farmers. The WERCOM uses the tolerance level in Table 4 when assessing the tubers during post-harvest inspection period and impose strong recommendations in case of above tolerance level. Uniform sample is drawn by taking about 3 from one bench. A minimum of 500 tubers are assessed for one variety.(d) Defective tubers Different potato viruses and physiological disorders/conditions may cause tubers defective. These reduce tuber quality. When defective tubers observed, WERCOM may impose recommendation of sorting tubers. If the action is not taken, WERCOM rejects the tubers from QDPM declaration. Symptoms of defective tubers are given below.Soil contamination reduces tuber quality as planting material because of carrying soil borne pathogens and nematodes. Thus, only up to 2% of the total weight is allowed to be soil in the QDPM standard. If soil weight exceeds 2% of the total weight, the tubers need to be cleaned.WERCOM verifies this contamination level and impose recommendation of tuber cleaning. If the action is not taken by the producer, WERCOM may reject the tubers from QDPM declaration.Tubers contaminated with soils iii. Data recording during post-harvest inspection by WERCOM and COOPCOM The data of post-harvest assessment on off-types (mixture), tuber rots, defective tubers, PTM, aphid, soil contamination and quantity of tuber that should get tags are recorded in a table referred as QDPM Data Recording Sheet-2 as given in Table 4. Re-inspection needs:Proper identification is a prerequisite in recognizing a particular material and labeling is hence very important in this case. Labeling of the fields and DLS should be considered as follows:5. Based the data collected from field and post-harvest inspection, properly labeled fields and DLS, tubers managed, labeled sacks containing sorted tubers for quality, would provide the basis for validation of a particular seed tuber as QDPM of potato. Therefore, the WERCOM provides Cooperative members with letter of recognition declaring that it is a QDPM of Potato Producer Cooperative for the Year YYYY. This would be an incentive for the Cooperative/PLC to continuously improve the quality of potato seed they produce. Of course, ultimately the WERCOM provides Cooperative or PLC with QDPM tags only for the tubers harvested from inspected fields under QDPM scheme of that particular season. COOPCOM receives these tags from WERCOM and verify the labeling at farm level.Generally, after successful completion of the DLS inspection and the estimation of the total quantity of seed stored, the owner will be given the corresponding number of tags (1 tag each for 1 quintal of seed). The tags need to be attached to the seed bags when they are being dispatched from the store. In case the store does not pass the inspection, the owner should be advised to rectify the situation and a date for are-inspection should be agreed on. If the store fails there-inspection, the seed will not be considered as QDPM seed.It is important to ensure a fruitful partnership between public, private and community-based organizations. Each one of them may directly or indirectly contribute to the success of the whole system, if their role is clearly recognized and appreciated by all stakeholders. Usually, farmers value the seed grown by trusted neighbors because they are more informed about the quality and the sources. Hence, farmers ' informal network to exchange information on planting materials enhances the success of community-based organizations. Under this QDPM scheme, all partners at Wereda level should exchange information regarding potato seed.1. The amount of seed tubers produced, 2. The quality status, 3. Name of the variety, 4. When and where it would be available, and 5. How can payments settled. This network serves as a strong market linkage of seed potato in the locality. It may include the FG/Coop leaders, extension agents, researchers, and Wereda Agriculture Officials.","tokenCount":"6015"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e1fdc7824a93d3f2039c15448b42a6e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74e15f0f-620d-4954-b2c2-d61f2e1affae/retrieve","id":"-1946134132"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"94602168-c6c9-48a6-b9c1-37c418cd336c","pagecount":"93","content":"During the past decade, interest in sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been expanding, the number of projects utilizing sweetpotato increasing, and the demand for training development practitioners and farmers subsequently rising as well. Sweetpotato scientists at the International Potato Center and national research centres often receive these requests and frequently hold 1-3 day training sessions, drawing on whatever training materials they have or can quickly pull together. The inadequacy of this approach has been quite apparent, but resources to address the problem were not available until now.The funding of the Reaching Agents of Change (RAC) project in 2011 has changed the situation. Jointly implemented by the International Potato Center (CIP) and Helen Keller International (HKI), RAC seeks to empower advocates for orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) to successfully raise awareness about OFSP and mobilize resources for OFSP projects. RAC also seeks to build the capacity of public sector extension and non-governmental organizational personnel to effectively implement those projects funded to promote the dissemination and appropriate use of vitamin A rich, orange-fleshed sweetpotato. The goal is to see sustained capacity for training senior extension personnel about the latest developments in sweetpotato production and utilization in each of the major sub-regions of SSA: Eastern and Central Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Hence, CIP has identified a local institution to work with in Mozambique, Tanzania, and Nigeria to host an annual course entitled: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about Sweetpotato. During the first cycle of this course, CIP scientists worked closely with national scientists in implementing the course. During the second cycle, the national scientists will lead the training activities and course management with backstopping from CIP personnel. During the third cycle, national scientists will organise and conduct the course with just financial support from the project. In subsequent years, we hope that the course will have become fully self-sufficient on a cost recovery basis.In developing the course content, a long-time collaborator of CIP, Dr. Tanya Stathers of the Natural Resources Institute (NRI), University of Greenwich, has led the review of existing training material, added in new knowledge from sweetpotato scientists and practitioners, and designed the course with a heavy emphasis on learning-by-doing. Dr.This manual contains 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato'. We hope that it will be useful for those involved in training extensionists and NGO staff at different levels, and that they in turn will train farmers in practical ways that help them to build their problem solving and decisionmaking skills so they can continue to learn, question, test and address different opportunities and challenges relevant to their livelihoods.The manual consists of fourteen topics which, after the initial two topics on training and the origin and importance of sweetpotato, follow the sweetpotato crop cycle. Each topic discusses the key need to know aspects highlighting the relevant gender issues and then presents suggestions for how this topic might be incorporated in a 10 day ToT course, with step by step guidelines for several hands-on learning-by-doing activities. The last two topics focus on the ToT training course programme and preparations. The fourteen topics are:Topic 1: Helping Adults to Learn discusses the characteristics of good facilitators, and provides suggestions to help improve one's facilitation skills. It covers how to plan a training course from the needs assessment, through the development of learning outcomes, awareness raising, participant selection, development of the programme, use of discovery-based/ experiential learning approaches, follow-up and long-term monitoring and scaling up and out. The learning-by-doing activities involve the participants practicing their facilitation skills while delivering different sweetpotato topics and understanding the importance of evaluating their training.Topic 2: Origin and Importance of Sweetpotato describes the historical origins and spread of sweetpotato and presents an overview of the current uses of and production figures for sweetpotato across the world.Topic 3: Sweetpotato Varietal Selection and Characteristics. Sweetpotato roots range in colour from purple to orange to yellow or white. A wide diversity of leaf shapes, root sizes and shapes, tastes, textures, maturity periods and flesh colours also exist. Farmers use such characteristics to select which varieties to grow. A method for comparing the different characteristics of different varieties on-farm is described.Topic 4: Orange-fleshed Sweetpotato and Nutrition. An overview of food groups and good nutrition is given, followed by discussion of the consequences of poor nutrition including vitamin A deficiency and the use of conventional breeding to biofortify crops. The benefits of eating orange-fleshed sweetpotato are discussed along with the complexities of trying to create demand for foods that help address frequently unrecognised nutritional problems such as vitamin A deficiency.Topic 5: Sweetpotato Seed Systems are reviewed including the different seed multiplication levels, the roles of the different stakeholders within the system. The factors influencing decisions on whether to use a single shot or an ongoing planting material dissemination approach, and the level of subsidisation required are discussed. Examples are given for planning different types of planting material multiplication and dissemination strategies. Methods for selecting clean planting materials and then conserving and multiplying them are presented.Topic 6: Sweetpotato Production and Management covers the importance of advanced planning to ensure sufficient planting materials are available at the start of the rains, land preparation, planting methods, intercropping, nutrients needs, the main growth stages and their associated management tasks.Topic 7: Sweetpotato Pest and Disease Management explains how recognising the lifecycles of the damaging insect pests and diseases such as the sweetpotato weevil (Cylas spp.) and viruses can help farmers learn how to manage them more successfully. The signs and management strategies for mole rats and erinose are also discussed.x Topic 8: Harvesting and Postharvest Management. The physical damage caused during harvest and transport can reduce the shelf-life and value of sweetpotato roots. Over-drying and prolonged storage can reduce the beta-carotene content of dried orange-fleshed sweetpotato products. Good postharvest handling and storage practices for dried products are discussed, and methods for curing and storing fresh roots to increase their quality, value and availability are presented.Topic 9: Processing and Utilisation. Many delicious, nutritious and potentially profitable food products can be prepared from orange-fleshed sweetpotato. The use of sweetpotato as animal feed is also discussed.Topic 10: Marketing and Entrepreneurship. The concepts of marketing, market orientation, entrepreneurship, and the 5 pillars of marketing (product, price, price, promotion and people) are discussed in relation to fresh sweetpotato roots and sweetpotato products.Topic 11: Gender and Diversity Aspects. The importance of recognising gender and diversity issues in agriculture and sweetpotato systems is discussed. Situations where sweetpotato is grown as a female crop, and others where it is grown as a male crop, or grown by both men and women are presented along with the different constraints, needs and priorities of female and male farmers. Best practice suggestions are made for how gender can be incorporated into sweetpotato programmes.Topic 12: Monitoring of OFSP Dissemination and Uptake. An explanation of the reasons for monitoring and the differences between monitoring and evaluation is provided. This is followed by a range of tools which can be used for monitoring the dissemination, performance and use of sweetpotato planting materials. In order to understand the long-term impacts and reach of sweetpotato training it is important that records are kept on who has been trained. These records can be used for follow up activities.Topic 13: Using the 'Everything you Ever Wanted to Know about Sweetpotato' ToT course.Detailed programs for a 10 day and a 5 day learning-by-doing ToT course are presented. They describe: the topics to be covered each day; the intended learning outcomes; the sequential activities and their timing; and the materials and advanced preparations required. These programs are not intended to be prescriptive and we hope that facilitators will creatively adjust them to their participants needs.Topic 14: Reflections. We hope that after field testing this manual trainers and participants will reflect on it and share their ideas for how it could be improved. Please send any suggestions you have to Jan Low j.low@cgiar.org and where possible we will incorporate them into new editions.Topic 13: Using the 'Everything you ever wanted to know about Sweetpotato' ToT course and manualThese learning by doing activities have been designed to provide hands-on discovery learning opportunities for the participants of the 10 day 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato' ToT course. We hope by learning about sweetpotato in a hands-on way, as trainers you will then train others using a practical learning-by-doing approach.The full 10 day suggested ToT course programme is described here (Table 13.1), and the 5 day suggested ToT course programme is described in section 13.2. This programme aims to help facilitators in their planning, but is not intended to be prescriptive. Please use your creativity to adapt it to your participants needs.Overall learning outcomes of the 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato' course: By applying the principles and strategies offered during this 10 day course, participants will: Understand the key aspects of sweetpotato production, utilisation and marketing in SSA  Be able to demonstrate key skills such as selection and preservation of clean sweetpotato planting materials, sweetpotato crop and pest and disease management, and preparation of different recipes made from sweetpotato  Know about the importance of vitamin A in the human diet and ways that OFSP and other foods can be used to avoid vitamin A deficiency  Understand how gender roles affect sweetpotato production, utilisation and marketing in Sub-Saharan Africa  Feel confident in delivering a training course on sweetpotato to field level public extensionists and NGO staff using a practical discovery-based learning approachTarget participants: District level government extensionists, NGO staff, national agricultural researchers, nutrition/health extensionists. These participants then have the responsibility of training other field level private and public extension staff who would then train farmers.The programme below describes the topics, intended learning outcomes and activities suggested for each day of the 10 day ToT course.Step by step details of each of the learning by doing activities can be found in the earlier chapters for example Activity 1.3.1 will be found in Section 1.3 of this manual. The step by step details for each learning-by-doing activity outline the intended learning outcomes, the expected duration of the activity (and each step of it), the advanced preparations required, the materials required, and step by step suggestions for the facilitator while supporting the activity.The advanced preparations required are detailed in the final column of the programme. They cover the need to have arranged field and market visits well in advance of the course, particularly if the fields have to be planted especially for the course. The sweetpotato hands-on field activities form a major part of the learning environment for both the 10 and 5 day ToT courses. These sweetpotato learning fields need to: be nearby; with a range of sweetpotato varieties planted within them; have sweetpotato plants which will have mature vines and storage roots during the course period; preferably have some virus infected and weevil infested plants; be owned by farmers who are happy for the participants to cut off a few vines while learning to select clean planting materials, and dig up a few plants in order to find out how the roots look and grow and to learn about harvesting, and who will of course be compensated for their roots and vines. Ideally there should be nearby farmers' fields, and a nearby plot in which the participants can practice setting up rapid multiplication beds, and fresh root stores etc. A suggested timeframe for the preparatory activities is given in Table 13.2. Identify a nearby field with several varieties of sweetpotato in it, and meet the farmer and see if they are agreeable to: their field being visited by the participants; themselves being interviewed by the participants; and some (try and minimize the number) of the plants being dug up to see the root characteristics and to remove some roots for tasting, possibly 1-2 plants per variety. The farmer will need to be compensated for the roots that are harvested and removed. Reminder to all the facilitators about the ToT programme and the dates they will be required on.Finalise list of course participants, and send them details of the course programme, venue and directions.Preparation of all learning-by-doing activity materials, equipment and ingredients for ToT course (see final column of Table 13.1 for details). Contact with all the facilitators reminding them about the ToT programme and dates they will be required.Preparation of all stationery, p/copying, name badges, accommodation and meal arrangements, certificates.Topic 13: Using the 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato' ToT course -326It is anticipated that that the district level extension and NGO staff who have participated in the 10 day ToT course, will then themselves train field level staff in their organisations using a 5 day ToT course, and these field level staff will then train farmers using a 5 day ToT course. We have therefore developed a suggested outline for a 5 day ToT course which includes lots of opportunities for hands-on learning. The programme for this course is shown below. Facilitators may decide to run it on 5 consecutive days or to cut it into separate training events to fit with the crop cycle. If you have more than 5 days available we strongly suggest you add in the Market Visit (Activity 10.10.1) and spend more time on helping the participants practice their own delivery of the training topics. We hope these materials are supportive and welcome your feedback on them -please see Topic 14 for reflections. -Presentation 3 on sweetpotato diversity, varietal characteristics -Presentations 5a and 5b: Planting material selection, conservation and multiplication -Activity 5.10.2: About 200 sweetpotato roots -some damaged and a range of sizes. 6 plastic basins. Newspaper. 5 buckets. 5 brooms. Set up one Triple S system about 3 months in advance of the ToT course so that the students can see the sprouting roots.-For Activity 3.5.1: Identify nearby field with several varieties of sweetpotato growing in it, and some virus and weevil infested plants, and meet the farmer and see if they are agreeable to their field being visited by the participants, themselves being interviewed by the participants, and some (try and minimize the number) of the vines being cut and plants being dug up to see the root characteristics and to remove some roots for tasting, possibly 1-2 plants per variety. The farmer will need to be compensated for the roots that are harvested and removed. -For Activity 5.10.1 Make arrangements with the owner of the field for the participants to visit, select and take vine cuttings. It should be a field with virus and weevil problems, so the participants can practice negative selection (i.e. roguing diseased material and discarding unhealthy material and only selecting planting materials which look healthy, and disease and pest free). Set up a rapid multiplication plot 8 weeks prior to the course planted with cuttings of two varieties with very different multiplication rates, e.g. 1sqm (50 cuttings) of Variety A, 1 sqm (50 cuttings) of Variety B. Set up half a rapid multiplication bed at the field, so the participants can complete it and then practice planting out the cuttings they have taken, shading, and watering it. -For Activity 5.10.2 Set up a Triple S system a few months in advance of the ToT course, so that the students can uncover the roots and find them sprouting, and can then use them to practice planting them out. A complete set of Powerpoint presentations have been created along with this manual. It is hoped these presentations will be used as suggested in the 10 and 5 day ToT programmes shown in sections 13.1 and 13.2.This ToT course has been designed so that learning is mainly by-doing, and facilitators should take care to maximize the hands-on learning activities and use the presentations only for support, to summarise the topics, to provide photographs of particular pests and diseases or crop stages and activities if they are not found in the field during the course, and to help focus the group on issues for further discussion.There is a Powerpoint presentation for each topic of the manual, and for some of the larger topics such as Seed systems the presentation has been cut into several sections. Facilitators may wish to customise these presentations to make them more specific to their local context. Gender and diversity aspects of sweetpotato varietal selection• Females and males are often interested in different characteristics of sweetpotato -For example: women tend to be interested in cooking qualities of the roots such as low oil absorption during frying and the tendency of cooked roots to crumble. Where men are responsible for root sales, they are more likely than women to be interested in market-related characteristics.• A sweetpotato needs assessment will help to understand the different roles sweetpotato plays in the livelihoods of the different groups in the community (e.g. men and women, children, different wealth, age, and religious groups).• On-farm trials can then be developed involving a diverse and representative group of the community -The gender representation should be proportional to those growing sweetpotato in the community. This also applies to wealth groups. -Where women are the major producers of sweetpotato, work directly with women. However, their husbands should be invited to the planning meeting to get buy-in and alleviate any suspicions• Meetings and field activities should be arranged at locations and times that are convenient and safe for those involved, including women.Additionally a set of 'memory aid cards' have been prepared as support materials to accompany the 'Everything you ever wanted to know about sweetpotato' manual and training course.They are a set of cards which sequentially cover different sweetpotato topics. Each card has a photo or diagram on the front and key points related to the topic on the back. It is hoped that trainers will use this set of cards as a useful notebook/ instant presentation tool at points during their training activities. The picture can be shown to the farmers/ trainees while the trainer uses the notes on the back to make sure they cover the key issues in their training. However, it should be noted that this set of cards have been prepared as memory aids and they should never replace practical learningby-doing activities and discussions with farmers.     pest-free conditions are maintained especially with regards to cutworms, and plant diseases; compost, soil and potted polythene tubes are well prepared and treated; careful transfer of the plantlets to the soil in the tubes is done; high relative humidity is maintained in the growth tunnels by using a clean polythene roof cover over each hardening tunnel.The compost soil can be a mixture of 1 part forest soil: 5 parts sandy soil sterilised by heating it to kill off all microorganisms, however it must be cool before use. Sterile hands and gloves need to be used to transplant the plantlets into the polytubes. The agar is gently washed off the roots by gently immersing them repeatedly in clean water until all the agar is completely removed, the roots are then dipped in a solution of fungicide (benlate) dissolved using sterilised water for 3 -5 minutes before planting each of them in a pre-made hole in the soil of a polytube, ensuring that at least 2 nodes are below the soil surface, and that the soil is gently pressed around the root base of the plantlet. It is best to avoid wetting the rest of the plantlet. The polytubes are then placed into a wooden plank made frame, and a mist spray of water is administered prior to covering the frame with a clean polythene sheet to help the humidity build up. The polythene's tightness and the moisture of the beds are checked daily. From the third to the 8th day the tunnel is gradually opened more and more, and mist watering continued.Foliar fertilizers should be applied when the plants are well established to stimulate faster growth. Dursban insecticide (or chlorpyrifos) 10g/litre is applied to control cutworms, aphids, and other pests that might invade the plants. Watering depends on the prevailing weather conditions. If it rains there may be no need of watering. The plants are kept in this final hardening-off house for one month.Transplanting: When the plants are evidently growing vigorously, and have attained at least 4 -6 new leaves, and do not show any signs of disease, pest or nutrient deficiency they can be transferred to open multiplication beds in the field. The field should be located at least 100m away from any other sweetpotato crop, and should have well drained soil, be free of difficult weeds such as couch grass and be near a reliable source of irrigation. A pre-planting artificial compound fertilizer (NPK 25:5:5) at the rate of 100 gm per m2 can be incorporated into the soil to stimulate vigour especially in sites with marginal soil fertility. The use of organic compost should be minimised at this point due to the risk of it being a source of disease infections. Five rows per bed should be planted at a spacing of 20cm between lines and 10cm within the row or a total of 300 plants per bed. When transplanting large numbers of plantlets, ensure that adequate labour is available to complete the activity as quickly as possible and thus avoid exposing the young plants to possible infection. In case of dry spells, watering should be done either early in the morning or late evening. Any diseased sweetpotato plants should be rogued out as soon as they are seen.For a more detailed guide on hardening-off tissue cultured sweetpotato plantlets see Namanda et al., 2013Planting material multipliers, who produce and distribute or sell planting materials have to ensure that their planting materials are not infected by viruses or infested by insect pests, otherwise they could act as a source of infection for the farmers who buy and plant the materials.In order to keep the planting materials clean and uninfected, and to accelerate multiplication rates, a net tunnel can be used. This is similar to a greenhouse structure but covered in a fine net instead of plastic. This net tunnel prevents aphids and whiteflies that spread sweetpotato viruses from accessing the covered sweetpotato materials and therefore protects them from being infected with sweetpotato viruses. Research stations often use large expensive screen houses, but smaller net tunnels can be constructed which are more suited to the needs of community-level multipliers.Instructions for constructing a simple net tunnel which can be used to keep planting materials clean are given in Box A5 below (full details can be obtained from Schulte-Gelderman et al., 2012).In Kenya in 2011, it cost ~USD$120 to construct and maintain one tunnel, resulting root yields of varieties from planting materials produced protected inside the tunnels were much higher than those obtained from planting materials of the same varieties produced outside the tunnels.Depending on the growing conditions harvesting can be done 80-100 days after planting, or last cutting. Care must be taken not to damage the netting when opening the tunnel. Apical (top) portions of vines at least 3 nodes long should be cut, while leaving some nodes on the remaining stems so they can grow again. If NPK fertiliser is available, after each harvest of vine cuttings 1 teacup (~200g) of NPK (17:17:17) per tunnel can be applied to the soil, along a furrow between the lines of plants. The furrow should then be covered over with soil.After harvesting, spray the tunnel with an insecticide (against aphids and white-flies) before covering again. The synthetic pyrethroid Duduthrin (1.75EC) can be applied at a rate of 10g/ 20l of water using a back pack or hand sprayer.Box A5. Constructing a Net Tunnel for Protecting Planting Materials from Disease Height: 1.2 to 1.6m Length: up to 3m Width: 1.8m wide at each sideNetting materials:For one tunnel = 4m x 3.20m for the top and long sides; 2m x 1.7m for the front end; 2m x 1.7m for the back end; OR you can make 20 tunnels from one 4m x 100m roll of OPTINET 50 Mesh size netting. Wooden poles for frame: 30 flexible wooden sticks, each 3.6m long and 4cm in diameter Binding wire: 5m length, or sisal twine can be used but will need to be replaced every time you harvest the vines.The site must have fertile, easy-to-work, well-drained soils and be near a perennial source of water. If soils are poor, mix in 1 wheelbarrow of manure per sq m. Avoid old sweetpotato fields as they will be sources of diseases and pests, weed the area around the tunnel.1. Mark two parallel lines 3m long with a distance of 1.8m between them on the site. 2. Bend the flexible wooden sticks into an arch shape, and push them into the ground (on the marked parallel lines) to a depth of about 20cm. Distance between the sticks = 50 cm. 3. Place one wooden stick (1.7m long) at each end (front and back) and push into ground, place one 3m long stick along the top. Fix them with an iron wire or sisal twine to the arched sticks to increase stability. 4. Place 4 additional 3m long sticks along the sides (2 on each side), and fix them with wire or sisal. 5. Plant the virus-free 3 node long cuttings, make sure 2 nodes are under the soil. Plant spacing should be 10cm x 15cm (total of 360 plants per tunnel) if you plan to cut vines every 80 days, or 10cm x 20cm (total of 270 plants/ tunnel) if you plan to cut vines less frequently. Add label with variety and date. 6. Put the netting on top of the tunnel frame and fix it to the structure with iron wire. Give allowances of an extra 20cm at each side. Also, give 20 cm allowances at front and back. 7. Carefully fix the net pieces at the front and back to the net piece over the top of the frame, and to the frame itself. On each side where the net tunnel touches the earth, place a pole along the length of the respective side and cover it with a depth of 20cms of soil to make the tunnels storm-proof. 8. Watering is done through the net twice per day (early morning and late afternoon) with a watering can from the top of the net, unless it is raining. The nets are only removed during vine harvesting. Before replacing the net, the crop is sprayed with an insecticide to kill any aphids or whiteflies that might have landed on the remaining leaves.     ","tokenCount":"4414"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dceb6de24fab10c52aad2bd7f59f6757","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb723a65-332b-4cda-acec-19ea954afd07/retrieve","id":"643934540"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8313bf2f-993f-421e-bc36-dd8e0da82bcf","pagecount":"2","content":"Micronutrient deficiencies constitute a major nutritional problem in Uganda. The Uganda Demographic and Health Survey report of 2011 indicates that 38% of children under five years of age are vitamin A deficient and 53% are anemic. This is high despite government efforts on supplementation and food fortification. Vitamin A deficiency increases the risk of blindness and susceptibility to diseases, mainly diarrhea and acute respiratory infections in children, while iron deficiency results in physical and cognitive impairment.Research has proved that biofortified crops can address vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Uganda has recently released drought tolerant high iron beans and more improved vitamin A orange sweetpotatoes. However, uptake of biofortified crops is still limited to projects that do not cover the entire country. There is, therefore, need to have biofortification incorporated in more key policy documents and government interventions and programmes for scale-out to the entire country.Currently HarvestPlus works in 12 districts: Kamuli, Kibale, Kabaale, Masindi, Kanungu, Isingiro, Ibanda, Rakai, Lira, Dokolo, Mukono and Kamwenge.Being relatively new, the success of biofortification depends on persuading different stakeholders to embrace and incorporate it into their programmes for scale up. HarvestPlus has been engaging key stakeholders through a number of activities like policy dialogues, technical assistance to sub-grantees, exhibitions (Fig. 1), jointHarvestPlus Sylvia Magezi, S.Magezi@cgiar.org In Uganda, biofortification has been endorsed by policymakers and other stakeholders at different levels, namely: How are we working towards sustainability?HarvestPlus' sustainability strategies are:• Working with key government ministries (agriculture, health and education) to mainstream biofortification into their sectoral policies, plans and interventions; • Working with local governments to include biofortification into the district plans and ordinances (Fig. 2); • Working with different partners on nutrition and agriculture to scale-up biofortified crops; • Empowering communities to produce, consume and market biofortified crops (Fig. 3).• National Biofortification Working Group in place;• National declaration of biofortification as one of the sustainable solutions to ending hidden hunger; ","tokenCount":"313"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"980c765516c875b003a769ac35f1e68a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01b6fd85-7e1d-496f-adcb-d363d9fa9006/retrieve","id":"1348872964"},"keywords":["conservation","development","participation","multi-stakeholder forums","transformational change"],"sieverID":"a747ff8c-18fd-43c2-927e-67c4293c75af","pagecount":"8","content":"Multi-stakeholder forums (MSFs) have received renewed attention in global development and conservation circles given the urgency to transform unsustainable land and resource use to address the climate emergency.• There is nothing particularly new about MSFs, as extensive research and practice on the participatory paradigm has emerged since the 1970s; yet there is little apparent learning from these past experiences. • The seven papers in this Special Issue examine a total of thirteen MSFs organized to address unsustainable land and resource use in forest landscapes in Brazil, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and Peru. • Contributors examine the power inequalities that are inherent to MSFs, providing more evidence for the importance of having a deep awareness of such inequalities when engaging MSFs as researchers, organisers, participants, supporters, and funders. • The evidence and analysis suggest that to get closer to transformational change, MSFs cannot be taken for granted -they should be thoughtfully considered, with substantive, grounded efforts to level the playing field, as part of a strategy for change.Forums multi-parties prenantes et promesse d'une utilisation plus équitable et durable de la terre et des ressources: perspectives au Brésil, en Ethiopie, en Indonésie et au PérouLes forums multi-parties prenantes (MSFs) sont devenus un mécanisme populaire dans les cercles de développement et de conservation à l'échelle globale, du fait de l'urgence à découvrir des approches transformatives pour faire face au changement climatique et au développement non durable. Dans le contexte actuel, il est important de prendre en compte les MSFs, un exemple de mécanisme participatif, émergeant comme une nouvelle « solution ». Les papiers de cette édition spéciale de l'International Forestry Review sont inspirés par un projet de recherche comparatif mené dans plusieurs pays, par le Centre pour la recherche forestière internationale (CIFOR), qui cherchant à comprendre comment soutenir au mieux les MFSs organisés pour obtenir une utilisation plus durable de la terre et des ressources. Les sept papiers évaluent le potentiel des MSFs à aboutir à des prises de décisions plus équitables, du point de vue de la durabilité dans l'utilisation de la terre et des ressources, et s'engagent dans des débats érudits sur ces formes de participation. Chaque papier s'approche des MSFs en partant de perspectives théoriques et d'intérêt analytique différents, mais tous s'engagent cependant dans les questions émanant des inégalités de pouvoir, inhérentes à ces forums. Ces papiers produisent plus de preuves, et d'appels à la vigilance, que, pour se rapprocher d'un changement transformationnel, il est nécessaire que les MSfs fassent plus que simplement réunir des personnes autour d'une table.Los foros multiactor y la promesa de un uso más sostenible de la tierra y los recursos: perspectivas desde Brasil, Etiopía, Indonesia y Perú J.P. SARMIENTO BARLETTI y A.M. LARSON Los foros multiactor (FMA) se han convertido en un mecanismo popular en el desarrollo y la conservación a nivel munidal, dada la urgencia de encontrar enfoques transformadores para mitigar el cambio climático y lograr un desarrollo sostenible. Dado este contexto, es necesario hacer un balance sobre los FMA, un ejemplo de un mecanismo participativo que está surgiendo como una nueva \"solución\". Los artículos de esta edición especial del International Forestry Review derivan de un proyecto de investigación comparativa de cuatro países llevado a cabo por el Centro para la Investigación Forestal Internacional (CIFOR) que tenía como objetivo comprender como apoyar a FMA organizados para lograr un uso más sostenible de la tierra y los recursos. Los siete artículos evalúan el potencial de los FMA para una toma de decisiones más equitativa con respecto a la sostenibilidad del uso de la tierra y los recursos, y abordan debates académicos sobre estas formas de participación. Todos los artículos abordan a los FMA desde diferentes perspectivas teóricas e intereses analíticos, pero lo hacen considerando cuestiones que se derivan de las desigualdades de poder inherentes a estos foros. Los articulos proporcionan más evidencia, y una advertencia, de que para acercarnos al cambio transformador, necesitamos FMA que hagan más que simplemente juntar personas alrededor de una mesa.This Special Issue of the International Forestry Review brings together seven papers that provide a timely examination of multi-stakeholder forums (MSFs). MSFs have received renewed attention in global development and conservation circles, given the urgency to find transformative approaches to address climate change and unsustainable development (Gonsalves et al. 2005, Bastakoti and Davidsen 2015, Larson et al. 2018). Also known as multi-stakeholder initiatives, partnerships and platforms, MSFs focusing on forests, land and natural resources commonly address a variety of issues, such as community forest management, participatory budgeting, or natural resource management (Nayak and Bernes 2008, Søreide and Truex 2011, Wampler 2010) both in the Global North and South. MSFs are defined here as 'purposely organised interactive processes that bring together a range of stakeholders to participate in dialogue, decision-making and/ or implementation regarding actions seeking to address a problem they hold in common or to achieve a goal for their common benefit' (Sarmiento Barletti and Larson 2019:5). All of the forums examined in this Special Issue took place in forest landscapes, and most aimed at addressing deforestation and degradation.The popularity of MSFs is driven by the recognition that environmental challenges are complex and multi-dimensional, as is the array of actors with multiple interests in land use and land-use policy and practice (Ferraro et al. 2015, Detoni et al. 2018). Proponents emphasise their potential as a method for more equitable and inclusive collaboration and coordination among multiple actors and sectors than what has been achieved from mainstream applications of the participatory paradigm (United Nations Global Compact 2013, see Sarmiento Barletti et al. 2020a for a review). The idea, then, is that including a wider scope of stakeholders and sectors in decision-making will lead to better and more legitimate outcomes than those produced by top-down or unilateral decision-making processes. There is nothing particularly new about this idea -extensive research and practice on the participatory paradigm has emerged since the 1970s. Nevertheless, its meaning has shifted over time (see, for example, Cornwall and Gaventa 2000). Importantly, there is still substantial naivete, and little apparent learning from these past experiences (Larson et al. 2018).There is much optimism regarding how MSFs may contribute to the wider response to the environmental and social impacts of the climate crisis (Atmadja et al. forthcoming), address resource conflicts (Ratner et al. 2018) and support Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) initiatives (Fujisaki et al. 2016). Multistakeholder mechanisms are central to integrated landscape approaches (Minang et al. 2015, Sayer et al. 2013, Kusters et al. 2018). Furthermore, this optimism has been emphasised in international forums (e.g., United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change) as well as national and subnational policies (see Brockhaus et al. 2014, Kowler et al. 2014).MSFs could be considered as another iteration of the participatory paradigm that was introduced to transform rural development practice four decades ago. The paradigm was implemented to enable more equitable development initiatives that were tuned to the priorities and needs of local peoples (Chambers 1983, Chambers et al. 1989). This approach to participation has been criticized as an expedient way to implement top-down approaches and create the illusion of participation, as a white-washed (or even greenwashed) version of ongoing practices (Cooke and Kothari 2001). Some analysts have described participatory approaches as neo-colonial impositions that only seek to control local peoples in their new guise as project 'beneficiaries' (Ferguson 1990, Escobar 1995). From these perspectives, MSFs only serve to confirm mainstream practices, including the discourses that discriminate against local knowledge in favour of 'technical' knowledge (Sillitoe 1998). 'Multi-stakeholder', then, may only be a catchphrase that does not address structures of inequality, reinforces top-down approaches, and takes the 'participation' of local stakeh olders for granted in box-ticking exercises to please donors (Kapoor 2001, Warner 2006). In practice, then, these initiatives could trivialise local participation, limit opportunities for meaningful public debate, lead to outcomes that confirm unequal development practices, and fail to challenge the status quo (see, among many others, Williams 2004, Hickey and Mohan 2005, Perret and Wilson 2010). These positions extend the multidisciplinary critique of the participatory development paradigm, hinging on whether increased participation has the transformative potential to change the status quo (Fox 2020).In this current context, it is important to take stock of these new MSFs -examples of a participatory mechanism that is emerging as a new 'solution'. This Special Issue aims to do that by analysing a variety of subnational landscape level MSFs from case study research in four countries. The seven papers (1) assess the potential of MSFs for more equitable decision-making in regard to land and resource use sustainability, and (2) engage with different scholarly debates over these forms of participation. All seven papers derive from a multi-country comparative research project carried out by the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) that aimed to understand how best to support MSFs organised for more sustainable land and resource use.Although approaching MSFs from different theoretical perspectives and analytical interests, all of the papers in this Special Issue engage with issues that stem from the power inequalities that are inherent to these forums. In what follows, we briefly lay out the two main positions regarding MSFs in the scholarly literature and then discuss the role of power and power inequalities with regard to the potential for MSFs to bring about real change. We close by introducing the papers.In the scholarly literature, the benefits of multi-stakeholder participatory processes span from the upholding of rights and participatory democracy -acknowledging the important roles that local peoples have in the sustainability of policies and projects -to improved coordination between different governance sectors and/or levels (see, e.g., Backstrand 2006, Chatre 2008, Pruitt and Thomas 2007, Reed 2008, Reed et al. 2008, Gambert 2010). Proponents claim that MSF outcomes may be more legitimate, as they include the voices of a wider scope of stakeholders than those usually involved in mainstream decision-making processes (Berkes et al. 1989, Botchway 2001, Hemmati 2002). Furthermore, proponents argue that MSFs have successfully brought to the table actors that would have rarely collaborated in the past, leading to more sustainable development and conservation outcomes. They claim that stakeholders are more likely to take ownership over initiatives they have participated in designing, and that participation in these spaces has allowed local peoples greater say over the initiatives that affect them and their territories (Mohanty 2004, McDougall et al. 2008).MSFs can also be understood in the context of calls for rights-based approa ches to development, including an expansion of participatory mechanisms to include Indigenous and local communities in the decision-making processes that affect their territories. These calls -from donors, academia, and grassroots organisations -support the growing recognition of the link between climate change and human rights, rooted in decades of demands for greater community participation in both conservation and development (e.g. Chambers 1983, Chambers et al. 1989) and the more recent recognition of the climate crisis' impact on Indigenous and local communities, who are among the most vulnerable to its effects (Gamble et al. 2009, ILO 2017). The impact of these calls is best illustrated in the Paris Agreement, which calls on its signatory Parties to \"respect, promote and consider their respective obligations on human rights\" 1 in their actions to address climate change.Nevertheless, the transformational potential of MSFs largely sits on whether they are able to address power inequalities between stakeholders (Fox 2020). These positions build on the notion that \"participatory development has often failed to engage with issues of power and politics and has become a technical approach to development that, in various ways, depoliticizes what should be an explicitly political process\" (Hickey and Mohan 2004: 4). Analysts acknowledge the problematic nature of power inequalities inherent to the interactions between their participants, and whether these forums can be resilient to the wide variety of contextual factors at play in the different landscapes where they are implemented (see Sarmiento Barletti et al. 2020a on the contextual characteristics that affect MSF outcomes). In fact, meaningful participation is conditioned by power contests and relations that are framed by a series of socio-cultural, political, economic, legal, and historical variables that determine the composition, interactions, procedures, outcomes, and impacts of an MSF (Sarmiento Barletti and Larson 2019). The danger is that unchecked power inequalities will limit the possibility of equitable collaboration among equals and may lead to agreements that benefit powerful actors -and that are legitimised by the participation of less powerful actors (see the contributions to Cooke and Kothari 2001 for examples).Both optimistic and more critical positions in the discussion regarding MSFs and participatory processes more widely recognise different kinds and scales of power inequalities between participating stakeholders. In the literature (e.g., Cornwall 2003, 2008, Chambers 2006), these inequalities are based on a series of different characteristics, including political (e.g. power to have the last say), resource (e.g. financial power to get things done), technical (e.g. power to know how to get things done), epistemological (e.g. power to decide on the 'acceptable' knowledge to be implemented in a project), and gender (e.g. power to exclude women from processes). address unsustainable land and/or resource use, they were organised at the subnational level, they included a forum for in-person interactions, and their participants included at least one government and one local actor. Subnational MSFs were selected because they were closer to the geographical spaces of resource and land-use planning and management, and due to the current interest in implementing multi-stakeholder processes as part of jurisdictional approaches to tackle climate change and deforestation (Fishman et al. 2017). A fourteenth case study, Brazil's Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon (PPCDAm), was also included in the project given its prominence as a national multi-sector coordination platform. It was not included in this Special Issue, which centres on subnational case studies.The papers engage with different MSFs from different disciplinary perspectives, but they are brought together by two key aspects. The first is that data derive from the application of the same set of research methods (Sarmiento Barletti and Larson 2019). This makes this set of papers unique in the scholarly literature, as there is a gap of systematic comparative analyses of MSF processes. For each case study, the research team interviewed MSF organisers and participants, stakeholders who were not part of the forum for different reasons (but conceivably should have been), and key context informants -a different semi-structured questionnaire was designed for each. Research materials were translated into Amharic, Indonesian, Portuguese and Spanish in order to interview more than 500 research participants in their national languages. The range of actors interviewed was a reflection of an awareness by the research team that there were important differences to be considered between participants in an MSF. This included (but was not limited to) who convened the forum, who funded it, what kind of participation in decision-making was available to different participants, and who was not taking part in the process (and why). Papers share the analytical starting point that coordination and collaboration, as part of a multi-stakeholder solution, must be established based on the recognition that not all participants are equal.In relation to this point, the second aspect is that the authors followed an analytical interest in power and power relations among MSF participants. The papers recognise the multidimensional nature of power as central to any understanding of how MSFs may or may not be able to support transformational change (see Partzsch 2017, Veneklasen and Miller 2002, 2006 on the multiple dimensions of power). Our analysis not only differentiates between sources of power, but also between the different mechanisms through which power is exercised. The papers argue that treating all participants as if they had the same access to informing the outcome of a collaboration process may lead to the reinforcement or exacerbation of existing power inequalities -those underlying structures upon which inequality and injustice are constructed. The problem, then, is not merely 'more coordination', but 'better' coordination. The papers seek to understand what this entails in different contexts.MSFs have been proposed as a participatory method that addresses power inequalities among stakeholders. According to proponents, by bringing people to the table MSF organisers and participants are able to understand the perspectives of those most affected by land-use policies and decisions and bring on board those with the power to affect the implementation and sustainability of the initiative's outcomes (Dougill et al. 2006, Tippett et al. 2007, Reed 2008, Reed et al. 2008). This ability to address power inequalities becomes central to their appeal, given the previous criticism of the participatory paradigm. Furthermore, power inequalities are especially challenging for MSFs organised to address unsustainable land and resource use in the Global South, in forest contexts framed by histories of inequality, conflict, and land dispossession, with inherent trade-offs. The stakeholders in these contexts are significantly diverse, including their land and resource access rights and priorities (Robbins 2012, Barnes andChild 2014). If MSFs can indeed address inequalities and promote collaboration, they may have impactful outcomes, as recent experimental research on collaboration and reciprocity has noted that inequalities undermine cooperation (Hauser et al. 2019). Nevertheless, this is easier said than done.In Africa, Asia and Latin America, Indigenous and local communities participating in MSFs related to forests and land use may be customary rights-holders to the spaces that are either impacted by unsustainable use or that will be impacted by the decisions made by the forums. If they do not have secure rights, their position may be more vulnerable. Even if they are statutory rights-holders, there are some questions as to whether MSFs might undermine those rights (Fay 2014). These concerns reflect the broader critique above that suggests the participatory development paradigm reaffirms power inequalities among stakeholders, or between project implementers and beneficiaries (see Cooke andKothari 2001, andCornwall 2003 for examples).The papers in this Special Issue think through these discussions of power inequalities and MSFs, approaching them from different perspectives.The seven papers that make up this Special Issue stem from a research project run by CIFOR in Brazil, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Peru in 2018-2020. Of the seven papers, one compares findings from 13 case studies across all four countries; the others all discuss cases, either comparatively or individually, with two papers from Peru, two from Brazil, and one each from Indonesia and Ethiopia. The team of contributing authors is diverse: representing eight women and three men, from Peru (4), Indonesia (3), Brazil (1), Ethiopia (1), Spain (1), and the United States (1). All were part of a research team that undertook a comparative project to assess the potential of MSFs for more equitable processes and outcomes regarding more sustainable land and resource use.The forums were selected after scoping research in each country, as they fulfilled four criteria: they were organised to Continuing an examination of the inner workings of MSFs, Tamara et al.'s Trust-building and leadership in multi-stakeholder forums: Lessons from Indonesia explores the roles of trust and leadership as nurturing conditions for collaboration in MSFs. Based on a comparative analysis of research results with three MSFs in Indonesia, they show how a charismatic leader who is trusted by MSF participants can effectively facilitate a forum's process by mediating different and often conflicting interests. Conversely, shared leadership might only work when participants already have a feeling of ownership towards the MSF. For a better chance at selecting the most appropriate leadership approach and improve trust building, Tamara et al. call for MSF organisers to take into account the historical relationships between stakeholders, including any positive informal relationships, to build a better strategy to handle antagonism and improve collaboration. Hence, different challenges within MSFs may require different kinds of leadership.Gonzales Tovar et al.'s Politics and power in multistakeholder territorial planning: Insights from two 'Ecological-Economing Zoning' processes in the Brazilian Amazon also considers how networks and relationships among stakeholders may affect an MSF, based on their different historical and social contexts. The paper compares lessons from comparative research with two territorial planning MSFs in the states of Acre and Mato Grosso, showing how they are shaped by historical power asymmetries. The historical context, local elites and alliances, trade-offs and subjectivities, and political will and institutions across levels and sectors shaped power dynamics, collaboration and sustainability outcomes -both inside and outside the MSF. Acre's territorial planning MSF emerged from and was nourished by a context that embraced 'forest-citizenship' and social-environmental local movements, and promoted equitable, collaborative and balanced power relations and environmental benefits. Conversely, Mato Grosso's case shows an MSF that arose from external demands and institutions, was framed as a technocratic process, and operated in jurisdictions where economically powerful elites dominate important political and societal spheres, leading to much less equitable processes and outcomes. Overall, both MSFs and land-use planning must be recognised, in theory and in practice, as political processes rather than technocratic tools.The last three papers examine three MSFs from the perspective of the Indigenous Peoples and local communities that engage in these processes. The papers explore the inclusion and exclusion of these underrepresented actors and the questions that these processes bring to the wider interest in MSFs. Londres et al.'s The costs of elite-oriented multistakeholder forums to address deforestation: the case of the Green Municipalities Program in the Brazilian Amazon highlights the risks of multi-stakeholder processes in highly unequal contexts that do not question the power of elites, and questions the legitimacy of initiatives that gain wide acclaim but are perceived by some local actors as highly unjust. Para's Green Municipalities Program -a major MSF designed to combat deforestation -deployed a strategy to address deforestation by collaborating directly with theIn the first paper, Organising for transformation? How and why organisers plan their multi-stakeholder forums, Sarmiento Barletti et al. present an analysis of interviews of MSF organisers in case studies across the four countries included in the research project. The paper aims to understand how and why they organised their forum and their perception of its transformational potential. Analysis found that MSF organisers held two non-mutually exclusive concepts of MSFs -as an event and as a method of practice. In the former, organisers saw participants as collaborating as equals towards their common goals. Yet, those events were short-lived, excluded some stakeholders, and did not always lead to tangible outcomes. The latter concept was framed by the political interests and development priorities that drove unsustainable land and resource use in each jurisdiction where MSFs were held. Most MSFs brought actors together for implementation of their organisers' ideas and only dealt with the effects rather than the structural causes of unsustainable use. The authors concluded that for MSFs to reach their transformational potential, they must first recognise that power differentials cannot be addressed simply by bringing people together. Rather, they must include strategies to address power inequalities between stakeholders, assure the effective participation of underrepresented actors, and have funding strategies that will allow for more than just short-term planning.Also considering the potential broader impacts of MSFs, Yami et al. examine how forums support community forest governance in Ethiopia. In Can multi-stakeholder forums influence good governance in communal forest management? Lessons from two case studies in Ethiopia, the authors compare the results of research in two MSFs in Oromia regional state that were introduced to address deforestation and forest degradation. Yami et al. show that gender inequity had a negative influence on the achievement of good governance in both sites. MSFs attempted to narrow the gender gap by setting minimum quotas for women's participation, which only led to representation without empowerment. The authors argue that the practice of assigning women to committees could aggravate the existing gender inequity, as putting women in time-consuming and less powerful positions could discourage them from engaging in decisionmaking processes. Furthermore, they argue that both case studies are evidence that MSFs would benefit from a combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches. A bottom-up approach would mobilise stakeholders, understand their multiple interests, and gather updated evidence on challenges and opportunities. A top-down approach could support the implementation of MSF decisions, as government authorities could use their decision-making power and mobilise implementation resources. Failing to substantially engage the government in MSFs could either lower the success of the MSFs in bringing change or limit the changes to the local community level. However, caution is required to prevent the government's excessive control over MSF processes and outcomes. powerful sectors that are driving it. Londres et al. show how the MSF prioritised addressing the interests of the large-scale productive sectors with greater economic power, to the detriment of Para's Indigenous and smallholder communities, who were systematically excluded from the process. The MSF's focus on the effects rather than the drivers of deforestation left the underlying socio-political structures driving both deforestation and social injustice unchallenged.Palacios Llaque and Sarmiento Barletti present a different experience of Indigenous Peoples' participation in MSFsand a different kind of exclusion. In The meeting of multiple governmentalities and technologies of participation in protected areas: The case of the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve (Peruvian Amazon), they examine different forms of governmentality in the Amarakaeri Communal Reserve, a protected natural area in the Peruvian Amazon that is comanaged by Indigenous communities and Peru's Protected Areas Service. The co-management partners are supported by a multi-stakeholder Management Committee, composed of a variety of different stakeholders to the Communal Reserve. However, while this co-management arrangement includes historically excluded actors such as Indigenous Peoples in participatory governance, it excludes another population: Andean migrants. This case study interrogates the role of MSFs related to protected areas and poses questions about the arenas of participation necessary for an equal interaction between the different interests in the governance of protected area.Rodriguez and Sarmiento Barletti's, Can multistakeholder forums mediate indigenous rights and development priorities? Insights from the Peruvian Amazon, examines the appropriateness of MSFs to support indigenous rights. Their paper engages with the multi-stakeholder roundtable for Isolated Indigenous Peoples (PIACI), which was set up to support the recognition process for five Indigenous Reserves to protect forested areas with officially recognised PIACI activity in the Loreto region. However, the MSF's objective clashed with Loreto's jurisdictional development agenda, setting up a conflict of rights and economic interests over the areas of the proposed Reserves, and raising concerns about the Roundtable's equity. The case study raises wider questions regarding the appropriateness of an MSF as a mechanism to foster respect for the recognised rights of vulnerable peoples and to promote a productive and equitable relationship between their rights and mainstream development interests. Rodriguez and Sarmiento Barletti's paper presents a key lesson for MSFs seeking to responsibly engage with the rights of vulnerable populations: recognised rights are not negotiable. The authors propose that to support such rights, MSFs must be designed so that their participants collaborate in identifying the challenges to rights coming from different levels, actors and discourses, learning from those challenges, and tailoring solutions and/or recommendations to address them.Together, these papers provide more evidence for the importance of having a deep awareness of power inequalities when engaging MSFs as researchers, organisers, participants, supporters, and funders. It is somewhat puzzling that to date so little comparative research has been conducted on MSFs and participatory processes in general, although methodologically this can be challenging. Even more puzzling is how little reflection appears to be behind the current call for multistakeholder platforms as a key solution for the sustainable governance of forests and forest landscapes. Certainly, in interviews with forum organisers, it was clear for some that they had not previously considered exactly why they had organised the forum as part of their initiative.The evidence and analysis presented in this Special Issue of the International Forestry Review suggest that such forums cannot be taken for granted -they should be thoughtfully considered, with substantive, grounded efforts to level the playing field, as part of a strategy for change. We have called this approach 'designing for engagement' in a paper that was written as part of the same research project (Sarmiento Barletti et al. 2020a). This approach can be supported by purposefully crafted tools that allow forum participants and organisers to reflect on their processes and outcomes, discuss the challenges brought about by power inequalities, and use that evidence to adapt their future work (see Sarmiento Barletti et al. 2020b for examples).We are aware that MSFs are here to stay and will continue to be promoted at different levels. Our papers are proof that to get closer to transformational change, we need forums that do more than simply bring people to the table.","tokenCount":"4721"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d08d9509261b01f2573d5ad5ecfd8e26","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/491a6062-a2b5-4b10-9c03-ebb24bef9d6d/retrieve","id":"-1603214397"},"keywords":["Action Track 1: Ensure access to safe and nutritious food for all ✓ Data & Evidence ✓ Environment and Climate ✓ Action Track 2: Shift to sustainable consumption patterns Finance Governance Action Track 3: Boost nature-positive production Human rights Innovation Action Track 4: Advance equitable livelihoods Policy Trade-offs Action Track 5: Build resilience to vulnerabilities","shocks and stress Action Track 1: Ensure access to safe and nutritious food for all Data & Evidence Environment and Climate Action Track 2: Shift to sustainable consumption patterns Finance Governance Action Track 3: Boost nature-positive production Human rights ✓ Innovation ✓ Action Track 4: Advance equitable livelihoods ✓ Policy ✓ Trade-offs ✓ Action Track 5: Build resilience to vulnerabilities","shocks and stress Women & Youth Empowerment"],"sieverID":"dfe0e6de-df9d-4031-adf7-4a69cea1554d","pagecount":"9","content":"To address malnutrition and obesity, a standard should be created to inform consumers about nutrition and establish social protection policies to secure nutrition levels. Besides, policies need to address food costs, as this is a huge barrier to nutritious food access for all members of society in Latin America.How did you organize the Dialogue so that the Principles were incorporated, reinforced and enhanced?The dialogue was constructed to contribute to current initiatives in the region. The use of discussion groups was extremely useful for participants to share experiences, add value to their work whilst complementing the work of others. Trust was built by highlighting that every participant can express their own voice, as diverse views are essential for a discussion. The Chatham house rule was applied and explained to build trust among participants in the discussion groups. It is recommended to other convenors to take the time to understand the complexity and contexts of the region or locality where the dialogue is held. In the case of Latin America, it was found to be key to take into account the multi-lingual context of the region. Furthermore, to ensure diverse and active discussion, building trust is highly recommended by emphasizing that different views are encouraged.How did your Dialogue re ect speci c aspects of the Principles?Principles for Engagement of the Food Systems Summit Urgency: We recognize the utmost urgency of sustained and meaningful action at all levels to reach the respective 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. Respect: Within our respective capacities and circumstances, we will promote food production and consumption policies and practices that strive to protect and improve the health and well-being of individuals, enhance resilient livelihoods and communities, and promote good stewardship of natural resources, while respecting local cultures and contexts. Complexity: We recognize that food systems are complex, and are closely connected to, and signi cantly impact, human and animal health, land, water, climate, biodiversity, the economy and other systems, and their transformation requires a systemic approach. Multi-stakeholder inclusivity: We support inclusive multistakeholder processes and approaches within governments and communities that bring in diverse perspectives, including indigenous knowledge, cultural insights, and science-based evidence to enable stakeholders to understand and assess potential trade-offs and to design policy options that deliver against multiple public goods across these various systems. Engage: We commit to practice what we preach personally and professionally to contribute to the vision, objectives and the nal outcomes of the Food Systems Summit. Complement the work of others: Recognizing that issues related to food systems are being addressed through several other global governance processes, we will seek to ensure that the Food Systems Summit aligns with, ampli es, and accelerates these efforts where practicable, avoiding unnecessary duplication, while encouraging bold and innovative new thinking and approaches that deliver Do you have advice for other Dialogue Convenors about appreciating the Principles of Engagement?The topics used for the dialogue are in line with the action tracks and cross-cutting levers of the Food System Summit. These topics represent the urgency needed for transition and are constructed to deliver actions to transform Latin American food production and consumption in order to reach the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) by 2030. The discussed topics covered a wide range of domains ( nance, nature, nutrition, society, gender, etc.) to understand the complexity about the transformation of food systems in the region. The complexity per topic was further elaborated by the connection to four themes: 1) Climate Change, 2) Nature Loss, 3) Covid-19 recovery and 4) the context of the region (social, political, geographical). The possibility for participants to listen to either English, Spanish or Portuguese was a way to acknowledge the diversity of Latin America. The use of the multi-lingual approach ensured respect to local cultures and their contexts. The participants were allocated to discussion groups based on their experience and preferred language to encourage active engagement. The multi-lingual approach contributed to multistakeholder inclusivity across the region from different sectors (academia, research, business, NGO, farmers and youth). The multi-stakeholder inclusivity was stimulated by personal invites from the convenors, Bayer and CCAFS, to contacts in the region. The most important factor brought up multiple times is the strong need for alliances between science, the private-and public sectors, farmers and other key actors to create a sustainable and resilient food system.To improve trust and create strong partnerships, transparency is stressed as essential. With the use of these alliances, stakeholders can align their programs, initiatives and experiences. Creating platforms for the exchanges of methodologies and experiences between different sectors and countries can contribute to the alignment of these programs and to the strengthening of the alliances. Sharing experiences will help in bringing actions and innovations to scale and generate economic incentives through innovation systems.Innovation is essential in order to stop converting natural lands, limit the use of water resources to produce food and minimize the loss of natural ecosystems. To accelerate sustainable innovation, investments are key to provide farmers access to new technologies and assistances, for which funding pathways should be established. Additionally, local value chains should be strengthened together with relations between producers and consumers to enhance healthy and nutritious diets. The inclusion and empowerment of women and youth in Latin America food systems is key to address the generational change issue. Agriculture should be visualized as an opportunity for young people to create their own pathway. Furthermore, education and communication campaigns are emphasized as important pathways to raise awareness among youth. Reducing inequality between men and women is of major importance which can be achieved by ensuring equal payment. It was found that trade-offs are important and should be addressed more. Measuring progress is still hard and therefore indicators or monitoring and evaluation systems should be implemented or improved to measure progress and success.Action Business as usual is no longer sustainable, particularly in the light of the pressures of Covid-19. Therefore, more synergy and public-private partnerships are key in order to create a sustainable and resilient food systems in Latin America. Game changing solutions are needed which should reach all stakeholders and deliver multifaceted bene ts for society including healthier diets and reducing inequalities at demographic level and in value chains. Innovation should be brought to scale in order to reach the SDGs. To empower actions at scale, place policies, regulations and incentives are needed which enable a sustainable recovery at regional level. Innovative solutions and technical assistance should be able to reach farmers and be delivered in partnership with the private sector. To stimulate investment from the private sector, good examples should be measured and reported as evidence of success. Additionally, a distribution mechanism is needed to ensure equitable value distribution all the way down to the farmers. To ensure the future vision of food systems, a generational change of producers is needed by empowering and including youth and women; ensuring equal payment and raising awareness is essential. Partnerships are essential in bringing diverse food systems stakeholders closer along the whole food chain through innovative partnership models which enable action. Stakeholders should step out of different siloes to ensure integration and cooperation between different sectors and enable their alignment. Strong partnerships require transparency and interdisciplinary communication. Different solutions are required for the diversity of the food systems in Latin America with its wide range of products and producers. These solutions already exist for different contexts; however, they need to be scaled up through investments and policies. The diverse region should nd a uni ed voice by doing these kinds of dialogues. The Food Systems Summit is a key opportunity to articulate the regional vision, innovations, actions and partnerships on the global stage. To stop agriculture from impacting critical ecosystems we should no longer convert lands, use water resources unsustainably or modify the natural ecosystem to produce food. Hereby, science should take the role of translating and bringing science-based solutions to farmers through technical assistance. Farmers will be empowered by providing access to new simple technologies that include scienti c and traditional information to ensure food and nutritional security while maintaining cultural diversity. ) and what their potential jobs will include in the future. c) Practices needed for food system sustainability include equitable value distribution along the whole food chain as well as between genders. Furthermore, critical ecosystems should be maintained, restored and further protected from the possible impacts of agriculture. Besides, the transformation of the food system should deliver healthy and nutritious diets for everybody in Latin America. d) Policies and incentives need to be tailored to the different types of farmers that we nd in the region in order to enable the transition towards a more sustainable food system. Additionally, especially the link and partnership between science, the public-and the private sector should be prioritized, as well as the link between producers and consumers.Action ","tokenCount":"1458"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d1c56a6f746236d5dcb63236635623f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a9503fd3-9948-4824-9965-a9020a951500/retrieve","id":"-1309608068"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"efefdd7c-ea2f-49d1-9415-6386df7982f7","pagecount":"34","content":"The CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture is a cross-cutting program of the global CGIAR consortium of non-profit research institutes looking into virtually every aspect of food security spanning: genomics, breeding, agroecology, climate science, and the socioeconomic drivers and context of food systems change. The Platform tends to data standards and data sharing, digital innovation strategy and technology transfer, and research into the intersection of digital technologies and agricultural development in emerging regions.CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food secure future dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources.Despite significant improvements in the collection of data on gender equality and women's empowerment, significant gaps in the types of data collected, geographic coverage, and frequency of data collection remain. Most large-scale household and agricultural surveys rarely collect sex-disaggregated data to enable governments to track indicators of gender equality (Hillesland et al., 2020). The few that do, such as the Living Standards Measurement Study -Integrated Survey on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA), Demographic Health Surveys (DHS), and Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) (Alkire et al., 2013), are implemented infrequently and cover few countries, thus impairing efforts to monitor progress on gender equality and women's empowerment globally.For these reasons, there is a growing need to identify new data sources and respective methodologies to fill gender data gaps. One relevant data source with significant potential is mobile phone usage data, also called call detail records (CDRs). CDRs are produced every time mobile phones are used to call, send short messages (SMS), or browse the internet. CDRs capture a wealth of information on calling patterns (e.g., time and duration of calls), mobility (captured by cell towers through which calls were routed), and social networks (e.g., number of unique contacts, etc.), which have been shown to be correlated significantly with the socioeconomic status of the users (Blumenstock et al., 2015;Khaefi et al., 2019). CDRs coupled with ground-truth data for training machine-learning models can be used to classify and predict the characteristics of large populations, potentially without the need for large-scale surveys. Past studies have used CDRs to assess various socioeconomic dimensions at both an aggregate geographic level and an individual level. Studies have used CDRs to look at population estimates (Deville et al., 2014), poverty (Blumenstock et al., 2015;Steele et al., 2017), human migration (Lu et al., 2016), the spread of epidemics (Balcan et al., 2009;Meloni et al., 2011;Wesolowski et al., 2015), disaster response (Bengtsson et al., 2011); literacy (Montjoye et al., 2013), and even personality (Montjoye et al., 2013).This study assesses the potential of using CDRs to predict the sex and economic empowerment of mobile phone users as well as whether sex and economic empowerment can be predicted jointly. Several earlier studies have used CDR data and developed models to predict the sex of mobile phone users (Al-Zuabi et al., 2019;Dalberg Data Insights, 2019;Felbo et al., 2017;Frías-Martínez et al., 2010;Jahani et al., 2017). Studies have also used CDRs to predict individual-level proxies for socioeconomic status (Gutierrez et al., 2013;Sundsøy et al., 2016a). This study contributes to the literature by assessing the feasibility of predicting unique indicators of economic empowerment such as employment, land and house ownership, and decision-making over income. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to model and predict indicators of economic empowerment jointly with the sex of users, thus providing insights into the use of CDRs to monitor indicators of gender equality and women's empowerment.This study uses two different types of data from subscribers of MTN Uganda, one of the largest mobile service providers in the country. First, we conducted a phone survey to collect ground-truth data from a representative random sample of subscribers of MTN Uganda. Then, using the respondents' phone numbers, we merged the ground-truth data with the respective CDRs. Building on the methodology developed by Dalberg Data Insights (2019) to predict the sex of mobile phone users, we train and test the predictive accuracy of five different models for predicting mobile phone users' sex, land ownership, house ownership, occupation, and decision-making power over household income. The sex of mobile phone users is predicted with 78% accuracy. Land and home ownership are predicted with 64% and 65% accuracy, respectively. Users' occupation, which comprises three categories (whether the user works in agriculture, in non-agriculture, or is not in the labor force), is predicted with 57% accuracy. The model for decision-making over household income does not perform any better than simply predicting the majority category, and this is likely because the indicator is highly unbalanced with more than 80% of the full sample reporting having some decision-making over household income.In addition, we test whether it is possible to improve the predictive accuracy of the models by sequentially predicting users' sex and economic empowerment status. When we first predict the sex of the user and then economic empowerment, no noticeable improvements occur in the predictive accuracies over the separate predictions for the five indicators. However, when we predict economic empowerment and then the sex of the user, we achieve high accuracy rates ranging from 81% to 87% depending on the respective indicators.The results are encouraging and illustrate that CDRs could be operationalized for targeting of development projects and programs as well as for tracking progress on gender equality and women's empowerment at the national and sub-national levels. There are, however, some important biases and ethical concerns regarding CDRs, which we touch upon in the discussion.The article is organized in the following manner. In section 2, we review the related literature. In section 3, we discuss the approach as well as the data sources. Section 4 presents the results, and section 5 concludes with a discussion of the results and potential concerns with using CDRs.At the center of this study is the assumption that certain characteristics of mobile phone usage, social networks, mobility, and recharging patterns are correlated with empowerment and its intersection with the sex of the mobile phone user. Following Kabeer (1999), empowerment -the ability to exercise strategic choices -requires resources (including current access and future claims to material, human, and social resources), agency (the process of decision-making and negotiation) and achievements (well-being outcomes). Although no other study has explicitly tested CDRs for predicting the empowerment of users, several studies have examined the linkages between CDRs and socioeconomic well-being and between CDRs and the sex of mobile phone users, and these studies are related to our work.Using a diverse set of indicators for socioeconomic status, several studies have examined the relationship between features of CDRs and socioeconomic status at both the community and individual level. This is motivated by the fact that mobile phone users of different socioeconomic status in terms of education, occupation, and wealth are likely to have distinct patterns of phone usage. For example, compared with well-off users, poor users can be expected to make fewer and shorter calls, have smaller networks of contacts, and travel shorter distances; they may also select different phone plans, including topping up phones more frequently but with lower amounts (Gutierrez et al., 2013). Hundreds of CDR indicators could be constructed and used to characterize users and to classify them in different socioeconomic groups. Using fixed-line CDRs from England, Eagle et al. (2010) find that social diversity, captured by the diversity of individuals' social networks, is a good proxy for the socioeconomic development of regions. A similar study from France finds that human mobility patterns, measured by the distance traveled by an individual (radius of gyration) and the diversity of movements over her locations (mobility entropy), are strongly correlated with socioeconomic indicators such as education, unemployment, income, and deprivation (Pappalardo et al., 2015). In Ecuador, the volume of mobile phone activity has also been linked to higher income and higher education with no differences for men and women (Castillo et al., 2018).Besides the diversity of CDR features used to map socioeconomic status, a considerable diversity of socioeconomic indicators is used across studies. Several studies have looked at poverty. Smith-Clarke et al. (2014) propose a methodology that aggregates mobile phone usage features at a cell tower level to estimate poverty rates in Côte d'Ivoire at granular geographic levels. In Sri Lanka, Fernando et al. (2018) show that CDRs can be useful in measuring indicators of socioeconomic development, proxied by the characteristics of the dwelling, and this can be done in both post-conflict regions as well as in fast-developing urban regions. Several studies have gone a step further and proposed machine-learning models for estimating socioeconomic development. Using aggregate cell-phone data, Soto et al. (2011) predicted indicators of the socioeconomic status of a population, achieving correct prediction rates of more than 80% for an urban population. More recently, Blumenstock et al. (2015) developed a model to predict wealth using a composite wealth index at an individual level. They used both CDRs and a phone survey, and used the model to predict the wealth of the out-of-sample population at both the national and district level. Steele et al. (2017) showed that combining CDRs with satellite data was better positioned to model traditional measures of poverty at disaggregated geographic levels.CDR indicators capturing social, economic, and mobility patterns of users have been used to predict users' employment status and even their profession. By deriving economic, social, and mobility features for each mobile user, Sundsøy et al. (2016b) predicted individual employment status with up to 70.4% accuracy. The study goes a step further by showing that the data could be aggregated at cell tower resolution, suggesting a potential opportunity to provide a mapping of labor market conditions, including labor market vulnerabilities, across geographic areas. In fact, Toole et al. (2015) developed a method to detect mass layoffs to predict changes in aggregate unemployment rates using CDRs. Focusing on the closure of a large manufacturing plant, they describe a structural break model to detect the date and the size of the mass layoff. They use a Bayesian classification model to identify affected individuals by observing changes in calling behavior following the plant's closure. Job loss is associated with a significant reduction in social and mobility behavior and, because these behavioral changes are captured in CDRs, CDRs could be used in monitoring unemployment trends in near real time, especially around significant economic shocks or policy changes.In addition to socioeconomic status, studies have examined how men and women may use phones differently. Differences in usage patterns could be used for predicting the sex of the user, which, along with other demographic information about the user, is often unavailable or unreliable, especially in developing countries where the use of pre-paid phones is common. Mehrotra et al. (2012) use transaction data from Rwanda to show that men are significantly more active phone users; but, although they are more active during the day, women are active in the evenings. The study also finds significant gender differences in phone activity around holidays and politically important days. Dalberg Data Insights (2019) find that women tend to have fewer calls, and most of the calls are incoming but with longer average duration. Women also have fewer contacts, travel less on average, and top up their phones less frequently and with smaller amounts than men (Dalberg Data Insights, 2019).Several recent studies have proposed machine-learning models to predict the sex of mobile phone users. Jahani et al. (2017) developed a framework with more than 1,400 features derived from CDRs that could be used to predict individual characteristics. They showed that models, trained on 10,000 users, predicted users' sex with 74.3% to 88.4% accuracy in a developed country and with 74.5% to 79.7% accuracy in a developing country. Rather than focusing on developing advanced features from the data, Felbo et al. (2017) exploited the raw CDRs focusing on the temporal modality. Their methods reached 78% predictive accuracy for sex and 62% accuracy for age. More recently, Al-Zuabi et al. ( 2019) applied different machinelearning models to predict mobile phone users' sex and age based on CDRs as well as customer service and billing data. They used data on 18,000 users provided by SyriaTel Telecom Company. The model achieved 85.6% accuracy in predicting the sex of users and 65.5% accuracy in predicting their age.Dalberg Data Insights, in partnership with GSMA, developed the Gender Analysis and Identification Toolkit (GAIT) (Dalberg Data Insights, 2019), which calculates more than 150 different indicators summarizing mobile phone usage for each subscriber, and feeds the indicators into a machine-learning model, which are used to predict the sex of subscribers. In the case of Uganda, the GAIT method was able to predict sex with 72% accuracy. Building exactly on this work, we extend the analysis to predict indicators of economic empowerment, including users' main occupation, ownership of key assets, and control over income as well as the intersection of these indicators with the sex of the users. To the best of our knowledge, no previous studies have examined the feasibility of predicting women's (and men's) economic empowerment from CDRs.As mentioned in the introduction, this study uses two sources of data: a phone-based survey with MTN subscribers in Uganda and de-identified CDRs of the MTN subscribers who participated in the phone survey. The CDRs were used to train machine-learning classifiers to predict indicators collected from the survey.In October 2019, we conducted a phone survey of randomly selected MTN subscribers in Uganda. Phone numbers were randomly selected from a database of more than 12 million subscribers using a sampling probability proportional to the population defined in the MTN database, stratified by rural-urban status for each of 11 administrative sub-regions (Southwest, Karamoja, East, Central 1, Central 2, Teso, Lango, Acholi, Elgon, Western, and West Nile). The objective was to reach at least 10,000 successful interviews. This was deemed a minimal threshold to have a representative sample suitable for training the machine-learning model. All ethical protocols were followed during data collection, management, and analysis, and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) (now part of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) provided the clearance letter.The phone survey was designed to minimize response burden and refusals to participate. It included seven questions (see Annex on p. 24). The questions were informed and aligned in phrasing with questions used in national surveys, such as Living Standards Measurement Studies (LSMS) and Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). The survey included questions about the respondents' age, sex, main occupation, land and house ownership, and decision-making about household income. Questions were asked to verify whether the person who answered the phone was the main user of the current subscriber identification module (SIM) card (i.e., the person who uses the phone more than anyone else). 1 If the person who answered the phone was not the main user or if the person was younger than 18 years old, the interview was stopped; enumerators were instructed to attempt (up to three times) to arrange a time to speak with the main user.A total sample of 10,417 respondents (main users of the SIM card) was successfully interviewed. The sample comprised 3,946 (38%) women and 6,471 (62%) men. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics. Almost half of the respondents are married (43%), followed by single (32%). Slightly more than a quarter of the respondents are subsistence farmers, while 23% are self-employed outside of agriculture.Significant gender gaps occur in occupation, decision-making, and asset ownership. Twenty-six (26%) percent of the men are self-employed outside of agriculture vis-à-vis 17% of the women; 19% of the men are non-agricultural wage workers in contrast to 13% of the women; and 12% of the men are commercial farmers vis-à-vis 5% of the women. Approximately 84% of the respondents report making decisions regarding the use of household income, either alone or jointly with their partner. Nearly half of the men indicate that they make decisions alone compared with only 40% of the women. Moreover, women are more likely than men to report that their spouse is the main decision maker (10% of the women versus 2% of the men). Forty-one percent of the men own both a house and land compared with 27% of the women. One half of the women do not own either a house or land compared with 32% of the men.Based on the questionnaire, we construct four different proxies for economic empowerment, focusing on land ownership, house ownership, decision-making over household income, and occupation. Land ownership is an indicator equal to one if the respondent owns any land, alone or jointly with someone else, and zero otherwise. House ownership is equal to one if the respondent owns a house, either alone or jointly with someone else, and zero otherwise. Decision-making over income is also defined as a binary indicator and is equal to one if, over the last 12 months, the respondent, alone or with his or her partner, usually made the decisions about the use of the total household income. Finally, we grouped the information on respondents' occupation in the last 12 months into three categories. The first category is agriculture and includes subsistence farmers, commercial farmers, and agricultural wage workers. The second category is non-agriculture, which includes non-agriculture self-employment and wage employment with or without a contract. The third category comprises people who have been unemployed or not in the labor force such as retired and unemployed people who are not looking for work, housewives, and students.The call detail records (CDRs) for the sampled subscribers cover the 2-month period from September to October 2019. This includes voice call metadata (timestamp, phone number calling, phone number called, duration), short message service (SMS) metadata (timestamp, phone number sending message, phone number being messaged), internet usage metadata (timestamp, phone number usage, and amount), topup metadata (timestamp, phone number topping up, and amounts), and antenna location. We leveraged upon the GAIT approach to develop individual subscriber-level indicators from CDRs that capture 167 distinct features with respect to phone usage, social networks, mobility, and recharging patterns (Dalberg Data Insights, 2019) Machine learning (ML) is primarily focused on prediction. Given some observed data on y and x, how do we predict y given new values of x? ML models try to find the set of x-variables (or \"features\") and respective coefficients that achieve the highest degree of prediction accuracy when using never-before-seen data.In building ML models, the data are typically divided into training and testing sets. The training set is used for estimating (or \"training\") a model. ML algorithms have different hyperparameters that control the model complexity and behavior. Choosing the best hyperparameter values is typically done using a process of k-fold cross-validation. First, the testing set is randomly partitioned into k subsamples (or \"folds\"). Then, the model is iteratively estimated for a range of hyperparameter values, holding out a single fold for validation. The model with the best average performance on the validation set is selected. Finally, the testing set is used to evaluate how well the chosen model performs.In this study, we use the extracted CDR features and phone survey data to train four different supervised learning models to predict five characteristics of mobile phone users (referred to as \"classification problems\"): sex, land ownership, house ownership, occupation, and decision-making power over income. The ML algorithms we test are K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest, and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost).Initially, we treat each classification problem as independent. We separately predict the sex of the mobile phone user, along with each of the four empowerment indicators: land ownership, house ownership, occupation, and decision-making power over household income.In the next step of our analysis, we explore the predictive accuracy of the models wherein CDRs are used to predict both the sex of the mobile phone user and each of the empowerment indicators. Across many developing countries, the sex of a mobile phone user is often not collected and registered by the Mobile Network Operator (MNO). Even if it is collected, it is inaccurate because of phone sharing and/or the use of pre-paid phone cards. One recent study in Bangladesh found that 78% of female mobile phone users were, in fact, registered as male (GSMA, 2018). Second, no clear evidence exists on how men's and women's mobile phone usage patterns and the underlying CDR features relate to economic empowerment. To address these issues, we train a model to predict the sex of the user and then use the subsample of users predicted as women to retrain the models to classify phone users according to the economic empowerment indicators. Next, we reverse the order. We first train a model to classify phone users according to economic empowerment indicators and then retrain the model to predict the sex of the users within each classified group.In the final step of our analysis, we use the best performing model to classify and predict across the entire user base of 12.7 million MTN subscribers according to economic empowerment status and sex.Our primary metric of model performance is prediction accuracy on the testing set. As a baseline comparison for evaluating different models, we used a naïve classification based on the majority class reflected in the data. For example, given that 38% of mobile phone users in the sample are female, a model that always classifies the phone user as male would be expected to achieve a prediction accuracy of roughly 62% (the proportion of men in the sample). The better a model performs, the more it will exceed this baseline accuracy. The XGBoost model achieved the highest average testing prediction accuracy for sex, house ownership, decision-making, and occupation; the SVM model achieved the highest average accuracy for land ownership.In addition to accuracy, we report sensitivity and specificity values for each model. Sensitivity is a statistical metric that assesses a model's ability to accurately predict positive results (i.e., the probability that an actual positive result is classified as such). Specificity measures how well a model accurately predicts negative results (i.e., the probability that an actual negative result is classified as such). 3 For example, given a binary indicator for the sex of the user, which is equal to one if the user is female and zero if the user is male, sensitivity refers to the proportion of correctly predicted female users and specificity refers to the proportion of correctly predicted male users.Table 2, column 2 presents the testing predictive accuracy achieved by independently predicting each of the five classification problems. The sex of the respondent is predicted with an accuracy of 78% vis-à-vis a baseline accuracy of 62%. However, 85% of the men are correctly predicted as men, while 66% of the women are correctly predicted as women, suggesting that the obtained accuracy can be ascribed to the identification of male subscribers. The most predictive features for distinguishing men from women are indicators of basic phone usage (such as the ratio of the duration of incoming over outgoing calls, duration of incoming voice calls) and social network indicators (such as the number of unique contacts) (see Table 3 for details).The best machine-learning model predicts ownership of a house with 65% accuracy and ownership of land with 64% accuracy, improving meaningfully on the baseline accuracy of 51% and 52%, respectively. Approximately 84% of the survey respondents reported participating in the decisions around household income, either solely or jointly with the spouse/partner. The best machine-learning model improves this accuracy by a mere 5 percentage points, which is not surprising given how skewed the indicator is toward one of the response categories.The final indicator of interest is the occupation of the respondent, which is aggregated into three categories: (i) agricultural work, (ii) non-agricultural work, and (iii) not in the labor force (housewives, students, and retired respondents). The model predicts these categories with an accuracy of 57%, which is a significant improvement over the 44% baseline accuracy. 4   Across all the models used for independent predictions, the XGBoost model for decision-making variable obtained the lowest sensitivity value (6%), while the XGBoost model for predicting the sex of the mobile phone user obtained the highest sensitivity value (66%). Similarly, SVM with rbf Kernel for land ownership obtained the lowest specificity value (60%), while the decision-making variable prediction using XGBoost showed the highest specificity value (98%).Table 2, column 3 shows out-of-sample predictive accuracy when we first predict the sex of the user and then retrain the classifier to predict the empowerment indicators. We compare the performance of the current approach with another, wherein first the sex of the user is predicted followed by prediction of economic empowerment indicators, without re-training the classifier, that is, predictions are made with the model trained with both sexes. These are shown in Table 2, column \"trained on both sexes, tested on predicted as women.\" The results are similar, suggesting that there is no benefit to re-training the classifier, as the accuracy of the model that is trained and tested on both sexes is similar to the one that is trained on both sexes, but tested only on those predicted as women (see Table 2 for additional details). Additionally, the predictions for both instances are significantly higher than the baseline predictions, except for the indicator for decision-making over household income (Column 1 of Table 2).We also examine how the model performs when the indicators of economic empowerment are predicted first, followed by the prediction of whether the user is a man or a woman. These results are reported in Table 4. We observe that the sex of the user is predicted with 70% accuracy (83% sensitivity and 50% specificity) when the user makes decisions alone or jointly over income, and with 78% accuracy (60% sensitivity and 80% specificity) when the respondent does not make the decision. Similarly, the predictive accuracy for sex of the user is also high when ownership of assets (either land or a house) is predicted first. The predictive accuracy is 83% when the user owns either land or a house (81% sensitivity and 86% specificity for land ownership and 83% sensitivity and 87% specificity for home ownership), while it is 86% when the user does not own a house (67% sensitivity and 92% specificity), and is 83% (60% sensitivity and 94% specificity) when the user does not own land. The predictive accuracy for sex of the user is even higher when occupation/work is predicted first. For users whose primary occupation is predicted to be agriculture, their sex is predicted with 87% accuracy (68% sensitivity and 94% specificity). The accuracy of 4 We also test other aggregations of the occupation categories. In one, we distinguish between people with (i) paid employment (such as non agricultural self-employment, non-agricultural wage workers, and commercial farmers) and people out of work or in unpaid work (unemployed, subsistence farmers, and housewives). Marginal classes -those that constitute <1% of the sample and students -are excluded. The model's predictive accuracy for this categorization is 67.5%. Its performance relative to the baseline predictive accuracy of 57.5% is significant. Its disadvantage, however, is that extending the model to the complete database of users will likely obtain lower accuracy because it will not know how to classify the marginal classes. When we add back the excluded categories into a separate and third category, then the predictive accuracy of the model drops to 57.7% (baseline 55%).predicting the sex for those engaged in non-agricultural work is 81% (97% sensitivity and 70% specificity). These results strongly suggest that training the classifier to predict economic empowerment and then the sex of the user provides higher prediction accuracies than the reverse approach, wherein prediction of sex is followed by prediction of empowerment indicators. This is a promising approach for obtaining more detailed information on women's and men's economic empowerment.Using the best performing model for independent variable classification, we predict that women are 31% of the entire user base. With regard to empowerment indicators, we predict that nearly all have input in the decisions about household income, 70% own a house, 54% own land, and 43% work in agriculture. Among those predicted as women, roughly 50% are predicted to have input in decisions about household income, 50% own a house, 50% own land, and 21% work in agriculture (see Table 5).Data from mobile phones offer a wealth of new behavioral and spatial information and may hold potential to transform the way economic and gender analyses are carried out.Women and men have distinct patterns of phone usage and, as a result, models to predict the sex of users achieve relatively high accuracy. The predictive accuracy for the sex of respondents is notably higher in this study than in the earlier study by Dalberg Data Insights ( 2019), which achieved a predictive accuracy of 72%. It is comparable to that of Felbo et al. (2017), whose model manages to predict the sex of users with 78% predictive accuracy. Our predictive accuracy is also within the range identified by Jahani et al. (2017), who estimate that standard machine-learning models using only CDRs and trained on 10,000 users are sufficient to predict users' sex with an accuracy of 74.5% to 79.7% in a developing-country context.Novel to our study is the joint prediction of users' sex and economic empowerment. Most promising is the approach of first predicting the indicators of economic empowerment such as a house or land ownership and occupation, and then predicting the sex of the user. With this approach, we achieve predictive accuracy for the sex of users of more than 80% (except for decision-making over household income). This potentially indicates that the diversity in empowerment indicators is much larger than the diversity in the sex of users, which, once sorted, improves the accuracy of the successive sex prediction significantly, more than if we first predict sex and then empowerment indicators, with or without refitting of the classifier.How can these findings be operationalized? To start with, approaches are needed to monitor progress on the SDGs for both men and women. Goal 5 aims at empowering all women and girls, and one key aspect is to improve access to and secure rights over land. Sex-disaggregated data on land ownership are not collected regularly by the national statistical offices (NSO) of developing countries (Doss et al., 2015;Hillesland et al., 2020;Kieran et al., 2015;Slavchevska et al., 2020), thus leaving significant gaps in the monitoring of progress toward improving women's land rights.The approaches could also be used to allocate resources and target interventions with the individuals and at the places where they are most needed. This study shows that economic empowerment indicators could be predicted with high levels of accuracy. Moreover, it shows that, after predicting the indicators of economic empowerment, predicting the sex of the respondents achieves high accuracy too, giving governments and development partners near-real-time sex-disaggregated information about well-being and economic empowerment. These methods could also be deployed to measure changes in unemployment for both men and women in response to a wide range of shocks varying from global financial crises and epidemics to local closures of factories.Although these new data and approaches demonstrate that they could be useful in monitoring indicators of economic empowerment, they also indicate areas where additional data and analyses are needed.First, in our study, the prediction of decision-making was difficult. Approximately 84% of the respondents indicated that they had a say in the decisions about household income; the machine-learning models could not improve over the naïve model of simply predicting the majority category. Although it is possible that most men and women in Uganda take part in the decisions about the use of household income, other issues such as phrasing of the question cannot be dismissed. The phrasing of the question on decisionmaking about household income was broad and was left to the respondents to report based on their own perceptions. Even if the question was phrased more narrowly, perceptions of one's decision-making role over household income may vary widely across individuals -from individuals who are sole decision-makers with complete autonomy over all household income to individuals with some but relatively limited control over some parts of the household income. The challenge of predicting this indicator raises questions as to whether this type of indicator could be meaningfully predicted from CDRs.Second, the model learns from the data. Therefore, any biases incorporated in the data will be reflected in the model predictions. In their study of mobile phone users in Rwanda, Blumenstock and Eagle (2010) find that mobile phone owners are on average younger, wealthier, more educated, and predominantly male compared to the general population. They also find that women are more likely to use a shared phone than men, suggesting that the voices of a key group of mobile phone users are not heard. This is also likely the case in Uganda, but we did not collect sufficient socioeconomic data to compare how the mobile phone users differ from the general population. Besides being better off, women mobile phone users are likely to be more empowered than the women in the full population. Thus, findings obtained from mobile phone usage data cannot be extrapolated to the general population in cases where gaps in mobile phone penetration remain significant.SIM sharing may further complicate the potential of CDRs for gender analyses. The current analyses are limited to mobile phone users who are the primary users of the SIM and usually do not share the phone with others. If women are more likely to share a phone with other family members, then women are also more likely to be excluded from the analyses. Therefore, more work is needed to describe patterns of phone sharing and how these data can be incorporated into rather than excluded from the analyses.Third, the predictions of the model are static and are based on 2 months of CDR data. They reflect the correlation between self-reported empowerment indicators and phone usage behavior. If any changes occur meaningfully over time, the model will not be accurate any more.Finally, although mobile phones have now penetrated even remote areas in many low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Silver et al., 2019), mobile phone data are not widely available due not only to privacy concerns but also to a reluctance by mobile phone providers to share the data. Further, a mobile gender phone gap persists in many LMICs. Women are 8% less likely than men to own a mobile phone and 20% less likely than men to access the internet on a mobile phone (GSMA, 2020).      ","tokenCount":"5697"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"773d0786e8a5cc874c7db9264e56f640","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e41f486-249d-4fd5-9d01-615dfc2031c3/retrieve","id":"-1324246165"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"85757d4f-67be-48ca-8f54-a74b99675040","pagecount":"7","content":"The term \"participatory erap improvement\" is used to cover all aspects of erep improvement where farmers are involved in a participatery role. In this paper, we describe the approach aud results for participalory crep improvemenl in wheat, in Lunawada subdistrict, Gujaral, India. Nine villages were selected for study, and within eaeh village, farmers were ranked into categories by wealth. An initial baseline survey on farming praetices was conducted by semistruetured inlerviews on a sample of rarmers. Selected farmers from eaeh weallh calegory kepl weeldy f3rm calendars of all operations in their wheal fields. Selecled fields were termed \"intensive data plols.\" They provided a basis for analyzing Ihe farming syslem and profitability by weallh calegory, as well as for identifying conslrainls. The baseline surveys revealed lha! upper-calegory farmers benefitted most from the sale of wheal produce. The lower-category farmers consumed a large par! oftheir produce. Intensive dala plots showed Ibal upper-category farmers accrued higher nel gains from wheat cultivation Ihan Ihe lower-calegory farmers. Participatory varietal selection (PVS) offered new varieties to farmefs for selection. PVS resulted in significanl replaceroent ofthe old variety Lok 1, grown in abou! 90% oflhe area, by many varietíes Iha! increased yield levels and on-farm biodiversity. Resource-poor farmers benefitted as much as Ibe better-offfarmers from PVS activities. Participating farmers experimented on a simple, cheap agronomic inlervenlian: seed priming. Mosl farmers intended to adopt it beeause of ils multiple beneficia! effeels, incJuding íncreased yields. This holistic approach to participatory methods was effeclive in analyzing poverty issues, idenlilYing constraints and new opportunities, and moniloring impact.Fanners in high-potential production systems (HPPS) of the Indian subcontínent adopted modero Green-Revolution cultivars in the 1960s and 1970s. Indigenous cultivars were quickly replaced with CIMMYT wheat and IRRI rice varieties. Rates of adoption of modero varieties have since slowed. For example, in India the average age of cultivated varieties is between lOto 27 years for most cultivated crops (Virk, Packwood, and Witcombe 1997). SIow tumover mtes of cultívars mean that fanners are growing older, and therefore inferior, genetic material.The extent of adoption of new varieties by farmers depends on multiple factors, including agronomic and socioeconomic constraints. We used a holistic approach to partícipatory crop improvement in wheat in the Lunawada subdistrict in Gujarat, India, to anaIyze constraints, provide new opportunities, and monitor the adoption of new cultivars chosen by farmers. D.S. Virk, D. Harris, and J.R. Witcómbe are al the Centre for Arid Zone Studies, University ofWales Bangor, Owyoedd, UK. s.s.Raghuwanshi .nd P .s. Sodhi are with lbe Grarnm Vikas Trust, Dahod, Gujarat, India. A.O.B. Raí l' loe.red in Hyderabad, AP, India. This d<lCument is an outpU! from projeet R6748, funded by lbe Natura! Resourees Systems Program and lbe Plant Seienees Researeh Program of Ibe UK Department for Inlematióo.l Development (DFID) for the benefit of deve!oping countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those ofDF1D.Two levels of participation were used in the study:• farmer-managed participatory research (FAMP AR) varietal trials in which farmers grow new varieties alongside their local variety under their managemcnt, with scientists and farmers evaluating many, cultivar traits• informal research and development (IRD) in which farmers evaluate new varieties with tittle intervention from scientists, and the evaluation is mainly from the examination of adoption trendsBaseline surveys were conducted in three villages-Kothamba, Ladvel, and Thanasavli-in 1997, at the beginning ofthe project to understand farmers' practices and to evaluate varietal biodiversity.A sample of 60 farmers was taken in each village, equally representing upper, medium, and lower wea!th categories offarmers. Size ofland holding was used as a proxy in categorizing farmers into wealth c1asses.Anothér survey was conducted in 1999 after three crop seasons of testing new wheat vaneties to assess their impact and changes in farmers' practices. The survey was conducted in six F AMP AR villages (Kothamba, Ladvel, Thanasavli, Vardhary, Chapatiya, and Dalvai Savlí), three IRD villages (panch Mahudia, Dokelav, and Panam Palla), one nonproject but project-influenced village (Dev-Jorapura), and three control villages (Golan Palla, Rajgadh, and Madhvas) that were solely rehant on govenunent extensionl. In each village, 18 farmers were sampled, síx !Tom each wealth category.Intensive data plots (IDPs) were set up to colleet information about all operations, inputs, and outputs on the farm. Seleeted farmers kept weekly farm ealendars on one oftherr wheat fields. A project researcher vetted the farm calendar regularIy. IDPs targeted the most popular variety, Lok l.The study was conducted in six villages (Kothamba, Ladvel, Thanasavli, Dalvaí Savli, Vakatapura-Chapatiya, and Yardhary) in 1996--97 and 1997-98. There were six farmers in each village, two in each wealth category, With a total of72 plots in the two years.The IDPs allowed an analysis ofthe farming system, profitability by wealth rank, and identification of important constraints.Utilization ofwheat. Wheat utilization pattems vary with the wealth category offarmers. The upper-category farmers sell a larger portion of theÍr wheat in the market, in comparison to the medium-and lower-category farmers. The medium-and lower-category farmers consume a higher proportion of the wheat !hat they produce (figure 1). They also keep a larger quantity of produce as seed for sowing the next year than do the upper-category farmers, who have the capacity to buy seed from Ihe market at the time of sowing.  Trends in wheat productivity. In comparison to the previous three years, a majority of farmers perceived that wheat yields had íncreased. However, the perceived increase was rnore •common with the upper-(73%) than the medium-(65%) and lower-category (58%) fanners in lhe three villages (Kothamba, Ladvel, and Thanasavli) of the Lunawada subdistrict. This recent íncrease in wheat yields reflects an ímprovement in agronomic practices rather than the replacement of old varietíes with more recent ones (see below).Cost of production and profits. Over all categories of fanners, the most expensive components of the total cost ofwheat production were lhe cost of seed and sowíng operations (24% oftotal cost), land preparation (23%), and fertílizer (23%). Harvesting and threshing together also accounted for a high proportion (21 %) of lhe cost of productíon. The other minor components were irrigation (4%), fannyard manure (4%), and weeding (1%).The net benefit from wheat cultivation is proportional to the status of fanners, the upper-category fanners benefitting the most, with a benefit-cost ratio of 101 % in comparison to 77% for mediumand 38% for lower-category farmers.Trends in scheduling ofwheat sowing. Wheat sowing in Lunawada starts around the second week ofNovember (figure 2) and progresses very slowly until the first week ofDecember; most is sown in the second week ofDecember. Wheat sown in December matures in mid-March. Because temperatures rise fast in February, adversely affecting grain formation, late-sown wheat produces lower yields. However.late sowing is prevalen! in Lunawada because rice varieties grown by fanners mature too late to allow the fields to be prepared in time for early sowing ofwheat. November i5 also a festival season in Gujarat, and wheat sowing only starts when the festivíties are overo   1996 and 1998) in wheat was carried out in six F AMP AR villages with fanners from al! wealth calegories. Because lhere were many new varieties, Le., 13 varieties ofwheat, a more complex system ofF AMP AR trials was tried. Each fanner was given two varieties to test along with the local check, ínstead ofthe one variety provided in marginalareas (Virk et aL 1997). The results showed thatthe 12 introduced varieties of wheat yielded significant1y more than the local check, Lok 1, by 7% to 17% (figure 3). (Variety Raj 3765 failed to yield significantly more because oflhe smaIl sample size ofthree fanners, although it had 17% higher yield tban the local variety.)In addition, fanners in tbree IRD villages conducted, on theirown, trials as complex as lhose conducted in PVS villages.PVS tríals lhat inc1uded new test varietíes were contínued in later years. The mos! preferred variety tested in lhe second year was K 9107 from Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh. Varieties lhat were preferred and adopted by fanners over tbree years were PBW 343 (Punjab), PBW 206 (Punjab), K 9107 (Uttar Pradesh), UP 2338 (Uttar Pradesh), Raj 3077 (Rajaslhan), and GW 496 (Gujarat). The demand for seed from the fanner-preferred varietíes in lhe project and nonproject villages was tremendous. RelalÍves and friends offanners in villages far from lhe project area, who had seen lhe trials or had had discussions with the project fanners, also asked for seed from lhe new varieties. Consequently, large quantities ofseed, up to 1 tonne for a variety, were sold each year. However, there was lower seed demand in the project villages because fanners had fann-saved the seed ofthe new varieties. The quantity of seed sold, all at the full price of certified seed, was limited by supply and not by demando A second survey in 1999 revealed that fanners had adopted project-provided varieties in lhe project viUages. An example of significant change in lhe varietal spectrtim in tbree F AMP AR villages shows significant replacement oflhe most popular, but old, variety, Lok 1, which fell from occupying nearly 90% oflhe area in 1997 to less lhan 50% in 1999 afier tbree seasons ofPVS (figure 4). Patterns of adoptíon did not <liffer across weallh categories, with lower-category fanners benefitting as much as ¡he upper category fanners. The fol!owing important facts emerge from lhe parterns of adoptíon ofPVS varieties: Note: AII results are significant atp\" .01. Flowering characteristics are ca1culated as an average ofthe scores given by farmers, where O -earlier than Lok l. 50 !le same as Lok 1, and 100 = later !han Lok 1. GW 496 and GW 503 are !he only varieties recommended in Gujarat.The number of farmers that grew each cultivar ís shown below the cultivar name.The base for percent increase for fue yield of the new vatiety vaned because the yíeld of the check variety varied in each trial.  UP2338 (1995) and 1% Sonalika [1967]; and for LCF, 3% WH147 [1979], 2% Raj 3077[1989) and 1% GW173 [1993].)• Fanners adop! many cul!ivars and thus increase on-fann biodiversity. In three seasons, the number of varieties grown by Ihe upper-category fanners increased from four lo eighl, and for the lower calegory, from Ihree lo nine. There was significant replacement of Lok 1 by more Ihan one variety.• The proportion ofland planted to new varielies increased significantly, wilh both upper-and lower-calegory fanners (figure 5). Thus, lower-category fanners benefitted from the increased yields of new varielies as much as the better-off fanners.• Out-of-state, nonreconunended varielies Iha! mee! fanners' selection eritería exisl in the country. However, the reeommendation domains delennined by the fonna! system for these varíeties are too narrow.• PVS is a polen! tool forpopularizing recommended cultivars. Variety GW 496 had been released in Gujarat bul its area inereased substantiall y after the PVS programo Participatory on-farm seed priming. Seed priming is a simple, cheap agronomic intervention lO improve gennination and ensure better emergence and proper plant stand, particularly in rainfed agriculture: seeds are soaked in water overnight followed by surface drying before sowing. We extended the approach to the HPPS area ofLunawada to compensate for the late sowing ofwheat because seed priming has been reported to stimulate earlier maturity (Harris et al. 1999).Particípatory experiments on wheat seed priming inHPPS ofLunawada showed a number ofuseful effects (figure 6). Almost aH particípating fanners felt that seed priming induced earlier maturity and that they would use the practice again in the next year. Seed priming a1so increased yield significantly by abou! 5%, since the crop had more tillers per plant and larger spikes from more vigorously growing plants Ihan the control. Participatory crop improvement should be based on a holistic approach to the farmíng system. Baseline surveys are needed to lUlderstand farmers' practices, and following particípatory ínterventions, follow-up surveys are requíred to quantifY changes in the farmíng system. This study has shown that participatory approaches to crop improvement can lead to improved livelihoods and can increase on-farm biodiversity.The study also shows that farmer-participatory approaches are effective in HPPSs (Witcombe 1999), where farmers are benefitting only partially from modem varieties in the period following the Green Revolution. The single intervention of growing a new variety can result in large yield gains. The findings raise questions conceming breeding and extension policies for HPPS, as well as for assuring food security in developing cOlUltries.","tokenCount":"2015"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"25d3f9fcfa6c8f9487c159d30d1ca1e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a625ae24-b084-42ec-b949-63e35c93bc66/retrieve","id":"1925814071"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7fab0d70-266d-4537-af35-ce2a0a849ba6","pagecount":"5","content":"In the next 20 years, increasing the productivity and incomes from smallholder crop, livestock, fishery and forestry production systems will be key to achieving global food security. Most of the world's poor are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture, and experience has shown that growth in agriculture is often the most effective and equitable strategy for reducing poverty and increasing food security. Climate change multiplies the challenges of achieving the needed growth and improvements in agricultural systems, and its effects are already being felt. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to dealing with these interlinked challenges in a holistic and effective manner. This brief is intended to give an overview of the approach and its main features, as well as answers to frequently asked questions about it.Climate-smart agriculture is an approach to help guide actions to transform and reorient agricultural systems to effectively and sustainably support development and food security under a changing climate. \"Agriculture\" is taken to cover crop and livestock production, and fisheries and forest management. CSA is not a new production system -it is a means of identifying which production systems and enabling institutions are best suited to respond to the challenges of climate change for specific locations, to maintain and enhance the capacity of agriculture to support food security in a sustainable way.The concept was first launched by FAO in 2010 in a background paper prepared for the Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change (FAO, \"Climate-Smart\" Agriculture Policies, Practices and Financing for Food Security, Adaptation and Mitigation. 2010), in the context of national food security and development goals, to tackle three main objectives (FAO, Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. 2013):• Sustainably increasing food security by increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; • Building resilience and adapting to climate change • Developing opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions compared to expected trends KNOWLEDGEAround 75% of the world's poor live in rural areas and agriculture is their most important income source. Experience has shown that growth in the agricultural sector is highly effective in reducing poverty and increasing food security in countries with a high percentage of the population dependent on agriculture (World Bank, World Development Report. 2008). Increasing productivity as well as reducing costs through increased resource-use efficiency are important means of attaining agricultural growth. \"Yield gaps\" indicating the difference between the yields farmers obtain on farms and the technically feasible maximum yield, are quite substantial for smallholder farmers in developing countries (FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture. 2014). Similarly, livestock productivity is often much lower than it could be. Reducing these gaps by enhancing the productivity of agro-ecosystems and increasing the efficiency of soil, water, fertilizer, livestock feed and other agricultural inputs offers higher returns to agricultural producers, reducing poverty and increasing food availability and access. These same measures can often result in lower greenhouse gas emissions compared with past trends.According to the recently released fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the effects of climate change on crop and food production are already evident in several regions of the world, with negative effects more common than positive ones, and developing countries highly vulnerable to further negative impacts from climate change on agriculture (IPCC Summary for Policymakers. IPCC Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects, eds Field, C. B. et al. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014). In the medium and long term, average and seasonal maximum temperatures are projected to continue rising, leading to higher average rainfall, but these effects are not evenly distributed. With globally wet regions and seasons getting wetter and dry regions and seasons getting drier (Porter, J. R. et al. in Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, andVulnerability. Part A: Global andSectoral Aspects, eds Field, C. B. et al. 485-533. IPCC, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014).There is already an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme events, such as drought, heavy rainfall and subsequent flooding and high maximum temperatures. The increased exposure to these climate risks, already being experienced in many parts of the world, poses a significant threat to the potential for increasing food security and reducing poverty amongst low-income agricultural-dependent populations.It is possible to reduce and even avoid these negative impacts of climate change -but it requires formulating and implementing effective adaptation strategies. Given the site-specific effects of climate change, together with the wide variation in agro-ecologies and farming, livestock and fishery systems, the most effective adaption strategies will vary even within countries. A range of potential adaptation measures have already been identified which can provide a good starting point for developing effective adaptation strategies for any particular site. These include enhancing the resilience of agro-ecosystems by increasing ecosystem services through the use of agro-ecology principles and landscape approaches. Reducing risk exposure through diversification of production or incomes, and building input supply systems and extension services that support efficient and timely use of inputs, including stress tolerant crop varieties, livestock breeds and fish and forestry species are also examples of adaptation measures that can increase resilience.Agriculture, including land-use change, is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, responsible for around a quarter of total anthropogenic GHG emissions. Agriculture contributes to emissions mainly through crop and livestock management, as well as through its role as a major driver of deforestation and peatland degradation. Non-CO 2 emissions from agriculture are projected to increase due to expected agricultural growth under business-as-usual growth strategies.There is more than one way agriculture's greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced. Reducing emission intensity (e.g. the CO 2 eq/unit product) through sustainable intensification is one key strategy for agricultural mitigation (Smith, P. et al. in Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change Ch. 11. IPCC, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014). The process involves implementation of new practices that enhance the efficiency of input use so that the increase in agricultural output is greater than the increase in emissions (Smith, P. et al. in Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change Ch. 11. IPCC, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2014).Another important emissions reduction pathway is through increasing the carbon-sequestration capacity of agriculture. Plants and soils have the capacity to remove CO 2 from the atmosphere and store it in their biomass -this is the process of carbon sequestration. Increasing tree cover in crop and livestock systems (e.g. through agro-forestry) and reducing soil disturbance (e.g. through reduced tillage) are two means of sequestering carbon in agricultural systems. However, this form of emissions reduction may not be permanent -if the trees are cut or the soil plowed, the stored CO 2 is released. Despite these challenges, increasing carbon sequestration represents a huge potential source of mitigation, especially since the agricultural practices that generate sequestration are also important for adaptation and food security.A fundamental issue for the CSA approach is identifying and addressing tradeoffs that arise between the three objectives and developing context-specific and pragmatic approaches to dealing with them. When taken together, the three objectives imply a need for more resource-efficient and resilient systems (FAO, Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. 2013). The CSA approach is designed to identify and enable implementation of strategies that explicitly account for each of the objectives, reducing tradeoffs and enhancing synergies between them, across varying conditions.The scale at which CSA actions are considered is also important in defining CSA. The question posed is usually whether CSA implies that the activities undertaken by every farmer in every field should generate food security, adaptation and mitigation benefits (\"triple wins\"). The short answer to this question is no. A CSA policy for agricultural development includes various interventions (on practices, delivery systems/institutions and policies) at various scales (community, landscape, agro-ecological zone, regional and national). The need for adaptation and potential for mitigation in relation to achieving food security/development vary amongst these activities and scales, and thus the potential to capture synergies. The CSA approach recognizes the priority of food security in agricultural strategies of developing countries, integrates adaptation required to maintain and enhance food security, as well as the degree to which mitigation co-benefits can be generated at national, regional and global levels.Finally, CSA recognizes that a key issue to resolve in thinking about synergies, and ultimately in accessing climate finance, is how the baseline or reference level will be defined in order to measure progress on any of the objectives.For those developing countries seeking international support for agricultural adaptation/mitigation, the way in which achievement of objectives is measured, would have to be in line with international procedures agreed by the UNFCCC or the funding mechanism in question, such as the Adaptation Fund, the Global Environment Facility and the Green Climate Fund. For those not seeking international support, national policy will tend to guide action and measurement as formulated in instruments such as national climate change and agricultural policies, strategies and investment plans.The CSA approach is still relatively new and under continuous development. The approach involves tools to identify climate-smart sustainable agricultural growth pathways for given locations and situations. CSA aims to identify technical and economic principles that can be applied in the development of climate-smart action options that are embedded in national and local institutional frameworks.1. Expanding the evidence base: One of the key pieces of information that agricultural policy makers need, and often lack, are the current and near-future projected effects of climate change in their country, and the implications for the agricultural priorities and programs of the country. Factors such as increasing rainfall variability, delayed onset of the rainy season, and increasing seasonal maximum temperatures, are all examples of climate change impacts that are already being realized and different responses are needed for effective adaptation for each of these. Identifying effective adaptation options to maintain and enhance the capacity of agriculture to generate productivity and income increases needed for food security is thus one fundamental objective of the CSA evidence base. Estimates of the potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (or increased carbon sequestration) that adaptation strategies can generate is a second key objective of the evidence base, as this is essential for accessing climate finance for mitigation. These two elements of the evidence base can be used to develop recommendations on the type of practice or change in agricultural systems needed for CSA. The final major objective of the evidence base is to generate information on the barriers to adoption of practice changes identified as CSA priorities, as well as the policy and institutional responses that can be made to overcome them.Implementing CSA requires the development of supportive policies and plans, as well as coordination across processes and institutions responsible for agriculture, climate change, food security and land use, to avoid contradictions or inconsistencies. This is accomplished through dialogue amongst key stakeholders in a participatory process to build consent in identifying and managing trade offs and capturing any synergies across major policy efforts for agriculture and climate change. Inclusion of farmers (women and men), resource managers and value-chain participants, including the private sector is crucial.Building the capacity of national policy makers to participate in global-level policy fora on climate change and agriculture, and to reinforce their linkages with local-level governance structures contributes to an enabling environment for coherent action across levels and the two policyareas. Strengthening local institutions to empower, enable and motivate farmers is essential. Emerging evidence indicates that there are five important enabling actions needed from local institutions to support CSA. These are: 1) facilitating the capacity of farmers (and herders, fishers and foresters) to work together in a coordinated fashion to manage land and water resources across landscapes, through land tenure systems, water-use groups, farmer's organizations etc. 2) increasing the flow of information between national and local levels -through institutions such as extension and weather information services, 3) increasing access to credit for investing in sustainable land and water management through micro-finance institutions, 4) improving timely access to the type and amount of inputs (such as seeds and inorganic fertilizer) needed for enhancing efficient use in agricultural production systems, and 5) supporting effective risk management at the farm level through coordinated actions that may include insurance, safety nets, income diversification and storage capacity.Transition to climate-smart agricultural development pathways requires new investments. A key opportunity for CSA, particularly among the international community, is to unlock both agriculture and climate finance for institutional change at the national and local level, including improving access to capital, insurance products and other safety nets among smallholder farmers. Climate finance represents a significant additional source of finance to the agricultural sector which faces a considerable funding gap. New climate financing instruments are currently under development, primarily the Green Climate Fund which could reach financing levels of $100 billion/year from 2020, if commitments are realized. Moreover, there is an increasing tendency of Official Development Assistance to take into account climate change in financing decisions. Working with financing sources to develop mechanisms and procedures that support the capacity of developing countries to measure, report and credit mitigation co-benefits they can realize through their agricultural development and adaptation activities is an important enabling measure that has a prominent role in the CSA approach. Instruments such as the nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) are the key national policy instruments for defining national priorities for adaptation and mitigation that can be expected to play an important role in linking to national and international sources of finance. Ideally, these should be aligned with national agricultural investment plans to facilitate the linkages between agricultural and climate finance to support CSA.Different elements of climate-smart agricultural systems may include:1. Management of farms, crops, livestock, aquaculture and capture fisheries: What is most \"climate-smart\" depends strongly on biophysical and socio-economic contexts. Options for crops include switching varieties or species, changing cropping calendars, and nutrient management such as micro-dosing, mulching or organic fertilizers application. Options for livestock include improving the quality of pastures and feed, changing herd management, and specific responses to heat stress. In fisheries, changes in locations, quotas and species are all relevant, while in aquaculture, combining species and managing temperature are climate-smart options. Overall farm-management options include diversification of production, integrated crop-livestock systems, agroforestry, restoring organic soils, limiting soil erosion, energy efficiency, use of biomass fuels, integrated pest management, and enhancing management of water resources and irrigation.CSA also encourages looking at agricultural systems in the context of larger landscapes and ecosystems, so as to better understand the inter-linkages between agricultural production and ecosystem services within and external to agro-ecosystems. The role of water-resource management and land-use change in food security, adaptation and mitigation across landscapes is an important element. Regulating ecosystem services such as hydrology or biodiversity, including in the soil, can generate production, adaptation and mitigation co-benefits. Multiple objective forest management can generate benefits for food security, development, adaptation to climate change (microclimate), water management, soil protection, agrobiodiversity protection (pollinators) and assist with carbon storage and greenhouse gas emission reduction.Increasing adaptive capacity of farmers, herders, fishers and foresters requires increasing a range of services. These include climate information services, such as seasonal forecasts or early-warning systems, advisory services that link climate information to agricultural decisions, and financial services such as credit and insurance. Social protection as well as new index-based weather insurance products can increase the ability of smallholders to invest in agriculture despite increasing climate variability.Changes in the wider food system: Agricultural production is not the only focus of adaptation and mitigation actions that support food security and livelihoods. Across the value chain, innovations in harvesting, storage, transport, primary and secondary processing, retail and consumer activities are essential elements of the enabling and incentivizing environment needed for CSA.4.1. How is CSA related to sustainable agriculture? Are they the same thing?The CSA approach builds upon the concepts, technologies and experience of sustainable agriculture, but explicitly focuses on integrating the impacts of unprecedented climate change. The CSA approach involves assessing sustainable agricultural practices to determine if and how climate change may affect their intended outcomes of improving livelihoods, environmental management and adoption/disadoption of agricultural practices. CSA involves building recommendations and possible options for reorienting existing sustainable agricultural strategies to respond to changing conditions, as well as to provide innovative policy and financing tools to implement them.As mentioned above, a more efficient use of resources is key to improving productivity and farm incomes, while reducing emissions. Agroecological principles and practices by enhancing ecosystem services to increase sustainably productivity can play a key role. Moreover, by strengthening agro-ecosystems, they also contribute to their resilience.No, CSA does not promote GMOs. The CSA approach involves the development of a set of feasible options for addressing the challenges of climate change for specific locations and conditions in conjunction with key stakeholders including national governments, agricultural research and development institutions at international and national levels, and households/communities, civil society and the private sector at the local level. The use of GMOs is determined by national policies in each country.No, carbon markets are only a very small part of the potential climate finance that can be channeled to agriculture with very limited potential for the smallholder sector. However, linking climate finance to agricultural investments for food security/development is a key element of CSA. Climate finance includes financing for both adaptation and mitigation, and it can be channeled through public sector financing such as bilateral donors, multilateral financial institutions, the Global Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, and through nationally-developed instruments such as National Climate Change Funds, national climate change and agricultural investment plans and more specific instruments such as National Adaptation Action/National Adaptation Plans and Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions.No. CSA does not advocate use of a narrow carbon lens to address agricultural and climate change challenges. The CSA approach calls for a strong focus on identifying potential synergies between food security, adaptation and mitigation, as well as estimating costs and tradeoffs between mitigation and other objectives to better inform countries on the potential for capturing mitigation co-benefits and associated financing. CSA clearly recognizes food security as a priority, integrating needed adaptation and possible mitigation. The CSA approach can support national policy on agricultural mitigation in the broader context of sustainable development, which is still under preparation in most countries.","tokenCount":"3002"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d38939492d4d13112fac7d2bcd271a13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/34ecfd86-0365-4d86-a38d-e4e6c9c1062f/retrieve","id":"-457790472"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0536f996-a0af-4e00-9ef8-6fb39b35b4f4","pagecount":"48","content":"Htee Pu village in Nyaung U Township of Mandalay Division was designated as Climate-Smart Village where participatory action research is undertaken to find solutions to the challenges posed by climate change on the lives and livelihoods of local farmers . The International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) and the Community Development Association (CDA) partnered together to establish a proof-of-concept site for developing adaptation options the Central dry zones.Farmers in Htee Pu village in the Nyaung U township of the dry zone have tailored their farming systems to the low rainfall pattern. This included combining short duration annual crops, raising small and large livestock primarily on crop residues. Offseason there is a reliance on trees, shrubs and farm residues for income, fuel and fodder needs. Nothing is wasted: recycling is practiced by every household.The current farming system in Htee Pu village features groundnut (peanut) prominently, because of its market potential. This relatively new crop has replaced the diversified cropping systems of the past (which featured drought tolerant crops like sorghum, millets, vinyl legume, horse gram and sesame). Other crops currently grown include pigeon pea, green gram and sesame, all grown between June to September. Because of the limited rain and soil moisture content, only one crop can be grown.Farmers regularly recycle crop residues valuing all resources they can access. Farmers know that shredding dry and green sorghum can help improve feed quality for cattle.Local indigenous knowledge helps farmers store peanut seeds for the next season (without spoilage from rancidity).To capture and harvest early rainwater, farmers typically practice early tillage/land preparation. Composted animal manure is applied for fertilization. However, with years of continuous farming, the soils have degraded. Poor soils, low organic matter, and sandy soil with low nutrient content characterize the soils of the region.Without adequate tree cover, these soils are further prone to erosion when it rains. From year to year, soil fertility and crop productivity declines. It is a vicious cycle which perpetuates poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition.There is an urgent need for the regeneration and restoration of these small farms in order to enhance their capacities to adapt to the impacts of climate change in the future.In the past, sorghum was one of the primary crops used for fodder, for feed and for sale. Sorghum was a reliable crop because of its capacity to resist drought. Sorghum is one of the most waterefficient crops and droughttolerant of grown cereals. Sorghum has a new market as high nutrient feed for livestock: it is rich in protein, mineral, vitamin and antioxidants. It was therefore considered as a candidate crop for re-introduction in Htee Pu village as an intercrop with groundnut.The re-introduction of sorghum in Htee Pu CSV included a systematic process for farmers to access varieties that performed well. Available varieties from Nyaung U dry zone agricultural research station were introduced and compared using highly simplified farmer-managed Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) methods.In the table below is an example of the results of the PVS undertaken on sorghum varieties sourced from the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) research station for the dry zones.Participatory Varietal Selections (PVS) are simple methods to find out which varieties do well in that locale. Usually, two or three seasons are needed to identify what works best. These farmermanaged adaptation trials were used extensively in the identification of varieties.Bringing back diversification to a farming system is a key element for enhancing resilience of small farms. Adaptation trials are undertaken in close collaboration with the agricultural research stations and with the active participation of farmers. Participatory varietal selections and crop performance trials were undertaken for groundnut, pigeon pea, green grams and sesame. Table below is an example of the results of the PVS undertaken on groundnut varieties sourced from the DAR research station for the dry zone.Farmers in the dry zone value eating protein rich legumes. They expressed interest in seeds of Dolichos Lab Lab or Hyacinth bean, a crop which had been \"lost\" from their farming system. Seeds were sourced from another township. Seeds in the form on mini kits were provided to 50 farmers. The reintroduction of lost crops (the restoration of agrobiodiversity) can be an important component in a resilience building effort. The Lab Lab bean, besides tolerating drought, can serve as cover crop to lower soil temperature and to enhance soil fertility biomass. Dolichos is nutrient dense, a high protein crop that stores well for long periods.Pigeon pea is another high protein crop and drought tolerant cultivated legume (due to its deep rooting habit).Farmers were encouraged to continue to grow this crop. PVS trials were organized for farmers to identify short duration varieties which \"escape\" the late -season drought.50 farmers in 2018 and 2019 received the Nyaung U Shwedingar variety of pigeon pea. Four cans of seeds were provided to each farmer, who tested these using local existing varieties as checks. Farmers chose the shorter duration varieties which escape drought but still provide high yields.Small and large livestock are a form of capital build up for small farmers. To ensure that the landless, marginal farmers and women also have safety nets, CSA programs can include small livestock such as native chickens, pigs and goats. Improved housing, health care management and locally formulated balanced feeds can enhance productivity.In Htee Pu village, the local breed of cattle and the Bagan breed of goats are valued \"assets\". They depend on livestock for tillage, for food, and as source of funds during emergencies. Fortunately, in a typical village in the dry zone the livestock base remains fairly intact. There are worries however, that adverse and extreme weather could prompt distress sales. More feed resources are needed if this rich livestock agrobiodiversity is to be conserved. By featuring its continued use, livestock can be components of resilience building effort.Small livestock provides an opportunity for project implementers to address social inclusion and equity.More than one third of the households in Htee Pu are landless or near landless. As result of seasonal and semi-permanent migration, many households are female headed. To demonstrate the value of better targeting of women, homesteadbased high density fruit tree production and small scale livestock efforts were developed specifically for women.Climate variability, poor crop diversity and an over reliance on market sensitive crops like groundnut and pigeon pea were major challenges in Htee Pu village (and other villages of the central dry zones). Diversification with trees was considered a pathway for reducing risks to climate change.Agroforestry-based diversification allows farmers to gradually adapt to a changing environment by the inclusion of economically valuable trees. The sequential inclusion of trees into annual crop systems proved to be a very popular risk aversion strategy.Trees provide off-season sources of income, food, fodder and fuel.Diversification with trees and crop diversity can increase farmers' adaptive capacities while reducing the risks of market and crop failure.Trees are considered important by both men and women.To support tree-based diversification, IIRR and CDA introduced fruit trees into the existing farming system of Htee Pu village starting with mangoes.Dryland horticulture methods were used to harvest and conserve water (deep dug pits 30 to 50 cm cube), use of farm yard manure, shading with palm leaves, etc.Farmers chose to grow mango trees because of their known tolerance to drought. However, they proposed growing the trees within an intercrop with their regular seasonal crops (i.e. their lands were being converted to agroforestry-based systems). The farmers identified a variety that adapted well locally. For assured markets, the farmers suggested the Seintalone variety of mango. The activity was started with 30 farmers.To support further intensification and diversification, guava, pomegranate and custard apple were included as intercrop between rows of mango trees. After the first two years, farmers themselves have started to invest in expansion efforts using their own resources.For intensive agroforestry systems, the spacing used was 15 x 15 feet for mango (big canopy tree) and 5 x 5 feet for custard apple and guava (both are small canopy species that cattle do not eat). Annual crops continue to be grown in the interim period. To permit deep rooting of mango trees, pits of 30 cm cube were devised. Deeper pits encourage deeper roots: pits 30 cm to 50 cm deep help trees resist drought better while promoting water harvesting.Free grazing after the main cropping season is a serious problem in Htee Pu, the resolution of which requires collective action. Among our introduced fruit trees, custard apple was not browsed by animals.To create a micro-climate, non-browsable green manure trees were grown on the farm boundaries.Cassia siamea tree is a common tree of dry zones region, with large biomass production capacities, rapid growth, even during the dry season and with capacity to withstand frequent pruning. Cassia siamea leaves from annual pruning is used to rebuild organic matter levels in the soil.CSA must help build back better: rebuilding our production base in environmentally sound ways including rebuilding the soil capacities.Homestead areas in the dry zone are relatively large. These \"spaces\" are controlled and managed by women. Homestead based climate-smart agriculture include small livestock, vegetables and fruit trees, for both income and nutrition. All IIRR CSV programs in Myanmar include this element. Pig 5 -Native chicken -5 -Sorghum, millet, Trichanthera 10 20 50Homestead production is a major element in an income and nutrition diversification effort. Women members from the landless sector, marginal farmers, poor families and women-headed households receive special attention. Preferential targeting helps make CSA socially inclusive. To make such intervention nutrition sensitive, vegetables, fruit trees and small livestock such as goat, pig and native chicken are prioritized. Native breeds are prioritized because of their climate hardy nature.There are challenges ensuring food security in the dry zone, but surprisingly households continue to value the need for dietary diversity.Htee Pu village, in spite of being in the dry zone, has a relatively surprising dietary diversity score, likely because of the nature of their farming system. The agro-biodiverse rich landscapes of the dry zones must be preserved by continuing to feature them in climate-smart agriculture programming.Smallholders farmer produce for consumption and sale, thus serving multiple objectives. The following chart presents data from Htee Puu.Building community capacities, strengthening local food systems, relying on the existent resources base and recognizing the need for being gender and social inclusiveness sensitive are elements of success. Participatory research processes and local learning groups can help local communities take charge of the process of local adaptation. The final direction a CSV takes is ultimately determined by how these empowered communities drive these processes.CSA programs should demonstrate a social inclusiveness angle, a preference for the poor and vulnerable households, for those who were left behind by mainstream research and development efforts.Targeting of poor families, including womenheaded households is prioritized. The risk of elite capture is reduced if household data serves as basis for targeting.Community-based adaptation efforts are well underway in Htee Puu. There is no turning back now: the communities are motivated and moving the process along.In this final year of the IDRC, CCAFS and DAR associated project, the focus will be on expansion of the number of households being reached via the distribution of planting materials, community learning and the tracking of social, nutritional and climate change outcomes.","tokenCount":"1856"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9747f0a1e0eb93be25d210e9aa7c2619","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6d93ea97-c136-41b4-b1a7-70eeaa1b8a74/retrieve","id":"-1335651564"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"57f2483b-d183-4018-b170-d35a3b603f69","pagecount":"50","content":"Ag ricultural growth rates 1950-55 1961 -65 1971 -75 19 81-85 GDP 4.4% 1. 6% -1. 4% 3. 1 i. l. 9% S ha re of GDP 22% 15 % Ｑ Ｓ ｩ ｾ ＠ 12 % a. Rates of growth calculated by a uthor. SOURCE : Cuen t a s Nacionales del Perú, I NE. Agricultural GDPThe economic policy context During the past 35 years the Peruvian economy has stagnated. Real per capita GDP grew at less than 1% per year, one of the lowest rates of growth in the world.In the past twenty years, the policies have been characterized by industrial protection within an import-substitution environment, with high government intervention accompanied by a chronically overvalued exchange rate, fiscal deficits, high inflation, rapid rural-urban migration, a heavy per capita foreign debt burden, and a long run of declining growth. These manifestations are all the result of the policy environment as well as of outside factors such as unstable terms of trade and variable climatic conditions. Careful analysis of economic performance ｾ ･ ｡ ､ ｳ ＠ to the conclusion that the unstable and slow growth should be attributed primarily to man-made policies (Nogues).Socioeconomic policies can be divided in four periods : before 1968, between 1968 and 1979 (under military rule), between 1979 and 1985 (under the Acción Popular Democratic Government), and after 1985 (under the APRA Government). \\{hile total real GDP grew over the period 1950-85 at an annual 3 . 5%, that of agriculture s tagnated at 2.0%, well below the 2 .7% annual growth of the population. In 1950-68, real GDP• grew at a sound 5.3% per year to slow down in 1969-74 to 4.3% per year . The country entered a deep recession in 1975. Real per capita GDP decreased at an annual 1.9% in 1975-85, while per capita agricultura! GDP decreased at an annual 1.0% in that same period (Table 1) . The worst year was 1983 when, due to climatic adversity, real per capita GDP decreased by 9.4% and agricultura! GDP contracted by 7.6% (Table 2). Annual inflation went from around 30% in 1975 to 163% in 1985.Until 1968, policies were characterized by moderate industrial protection, reduced state interventionism, and relatively liberal market policics . In 1968 the country's political administration changed sharply to a military government that designed a set of policies oriented to transform the structure of property-holding, reduce foreign dependence, and achieve sustained growth in an environment of improved social justice (Alvarez R.,Apuntes 16). Consequently, Peru went f r om having one of the lowest shares of state participation in total investment to a vast public bureaucracy such as Petro Peru, Pescaperu, Minero Peru , Centromin Peru , Electroperu, s ugar coops, EPSA, and ENCI (Lowenthal,A. F .,Apuntes,p. 27) . Government participation in investments went, particularly in banking and mining, from 13 % in 1968 to 23% in 1975 . goods   Severe distortions in factor and product market rose amidst a prolonged period of slow and unst able growth with accelerating inflation and failure by t he administration to keep the economy in macroeconomic balance. Among the most significant distortions were (Nogues; Alvarez):Increasing importance of state-owned enterprises and nationalization of foreign firms.Ambitious land reform processes that eliminated the most productive land markets.Highly negative real interest rate ceilings.High wage taxat ion and labor market segmentation coming from a strictly enforced labor tenure system. Workers were entitled to tenure after they have been in the job for 3 years.Important fiscal incentives for investment that led to the adoption of very capital intensive technologies.Significant barriers to foreign direct investment.Export and import restrictions and state trading, together with foreign exchange controls and periodic overvalued domestic currency, within an import-substitution strategy .The result of the policy-induced distortions and state interventions was to transform Peru, by the late seventies, from a social sxstem characterized by liberal principles and policies during the fifties, to a very tightly controlled and distorted economy.\"Distortions and controls eliminated not only foreign competition, but also domestic ｣ ｯ ｾ ｰ ･ ｴ ｩ ｴ ｩ ｶ ･ ＠ forces . The consequences have been disastrous. Income distribution objectives have apparently failed to be met. Also, during the sixties and seventies, while the world economy was booming, Peru lost a clear opportunity to continue the growth ímpetus that it showed during the fifties\". (Nogues, Trade liberalization: sorne lessons from Peru's experience).The country entered a new phase of economic activity with the arrival of a democratic governme.1t in 1978. A stabilization program was immediately drawn. The fiscal deficit was reduced, an i mportant real devaluation took place which led to significant improvements in the trade and current account balances as well as to major increases in forei gn exchange reserves which went from negative US$ -1.025 in 1978 to positive US$1.276 in 1980 . However, the stabilization plan lef t most of the policy-induced distortions mentioned earlier unchanged .In 19 80 , the government implemented a trade liberalization approach. Up to that moment the trade regime was characterized by across-the-board import-licensing procedures where all foreign goods similar to those domestically produced could not be imported. By September of 1980 the government substituted the imp ort prohibitions by added-va lue t a riffs characterized by a maximum tariff of 60% and reduced export •taxation considerab l y (J. Nogues). It is important to s tress the fact that the liberalization effort did not have a substantial impact on agriculture. For basic foods tuffs , the government maintained a monopoly to import and commercialize them.The system of mini-devaluation followed by a maxi-devaluation was adopted and fiscal measures were ímplemented (higher taxes and príces, l ower expenditures). Strict money supply goals were formulated with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and closely followed and monitored.The experiment of liberalization was short lived. The economy had a sluggish performance characterized by fiscal deficits, recession, and ínflation due in part to unusually strong weather adversities in 1983 related to the El Niño ocean strean when real GDP decreased by 12. 0% (Table 2). Acute current account deficits were compensated by ínflows coming from foreign loans.Halfway through 1985 the government changed hands from a conservative, market-oriented leadership to a left-leaning group dedicated to market and price control, with agriculture very high on its list of priorities.An emergency plan was designed to reactivate t he economy of the country and improve expectations. The following measur es were adopted: Elimination of the IMF standby agreement.Devaluation by 12% and freezing of exchange rate.Control of fiscal expenditures in current rather than investment items.Restrictions on imports, reversing the liberalization trend of the previous government.Increasing the mínimum wage by 50%, medium-level salaries by 30% , and freezing top-level salaries .Reduction of cost of other inputs to compensate for higher labor costs, especially interest rates. Agricultural loan rates went from 180% in J uly to 39% in October 1985. Later, a differentiated regional structure was developed, favoring f irst the mountain areas (Sierra), then the jungles (Selva) , and finally the coastal areas (20%, 3S%, and SS %, respectively) .Price controls. In particular, food prices were frozen and, for perishable commodities, a board formed by government representatives (Ministries of Economics and of Ag riculture) , intermediaries , and producers met every other week to determine wholesale and retail prices.A maximum of 10% of export revenues destined for servicing foreign debt requirements. By 1986, debt ser vice (principal and interests) was similar in size to total export revenues (about US$3.S billion but debt service was held at US$3SO million).In s ummary , the policies of industrialization by import s ubstitution that characterized the Peruvian economy since the sixties, led to a s teady decrease of the real exchange rate until 19 77 , when it recovered slightly in 1978 and 1979, coinciding with the trade liberalization strategy, and fell again during the eighties.Declines in the real exchange rate have harmed the agricultural sect or , especially in the production of agricultural t radeables , and have led to increased domestic consumption of those items (imported cereals and exportables) , reduced t he contribution of agriculture to growth and to the balance of payments, and made t he country more dependent on imported food (Valdes and Alvarez; Nogues). An a ggressive governmental presence in the sector contributed to the blocking of competitive forces without and within the sector . Important imbalances, rather than being r esolved, were perpetuated.The analysis of Peruvian agriculture must begin with a sharp differentiation of performance in agricultural production between geographical regions: Coastal, Selva, and sierra. The lack of a determined effort to achieve a balanced regional growth is evident: the three highly differ entiated regions communicate poorly among themselves.The coastal region, dominated by the high pressure system of the Pacific, is extremely dry . Coastal farmers are the richest and possess middle-sized farms which operate under relatively modern conditions and are totally dependent on irrigation. They supply the bulk of agricultural products. The majority (over 55%) of the country's population live in this region. Access to the other two regions is expensive .The Sierra is characterized by small farmers who have limited resources, were untouched by the agrarian reform, and whose contributions to the coastal markets have been declining, except for ' beef and dairy pr oducts.The Selva is a new frontier with a dynamic agricultural sector, but separated, almost isolated, from the main markets by the Andes . The local population (over 3 . 5 million) is self-sufficient and is growing surpluses of maize and rice (two of the crops with the highest direct government intervention) and important coca plantations. However, the infrastructure is inadequate, especially the roads leading to the coast. Transport from the Selva to Lima is not only expensive (at US$100 per ton), but also unreliable dueto frequent landslides and other disruptions to traffic flow. This is particularly constraining to the commercialization of perishable commodities such as roots, tubers , and vegetables and constitute a major obstacle to development .The agricultural share in GDP dropped from 24% in the fifties to 12 % in the eighties (Table 1). This is particularly disturbing, particularly as the country ' s overall economic performance during that period was dismal. Industrial protectionism has been implemented at the expense of agriculture, a bias that has been aggravated by specific policy actions within the sector such as the ambitious agrarian reform of the seventies, severe distortions in factor and product markets, and widespread government intervention that reduced or eliminated competitive forces in practically all markets.Regional imbalances, together with an agricultural policy that has had a clear urban bias, led Peru to become increasingly dependent on food imports . It is much easier to reach Lima and other coastal towns by sea than f rom the Selva or the Sierra.Sorne agricultura! policies are part of the general macroeconomic goals of the government while others appear like isolated policies to compensate for the negative effects of the general policies, for example, the agrarian reform is a general policy while subsidized credit is a specific policy. The policies can be grouped into input-and-product policies, commercialization, credit, and research and extension.Price and trade policies implemented after 1968. Producer prices for internationally traded crop commodities, that is, wheat, maize, rice, cotton, and sugar, with t he occasional exception of maize, have been kept at prevailing real exchange rates. (Orden et al.; Univ. Mino.) . This, in conjunction with trade policies adverse to agriculture and to an overvalued exchange rate, have added up to a severe policy discrimination against the agricultura! sector in the past two decades.Consumer prices, on the other hand, have been kept artificially low. The main beneficiaries have been wheat, rice, sugar, dairy products, oils, and imported maize. In 1969, the annual food subsidy of the central government represented approximately US$100 million in real 1973 prices. In 1983 this figure was approximately US$200 million , equivalent to 20% of the fiscal deficit (Franklin et al., 1983). Rice received 53% and imported wheat received 32% of the food subsidy budget. It was estimated that in 1980, the food subsidy amounted to 2.7% of total consumer expenditures and 1.8% of GDP. According to a recent study (Franklin et al.), the impact of these food subsidies may have been somewhat regressive. Such subsidies discriminate strongly against roots and tubers.Commercialization of rice was, and still is, performed by ECASA (Empresa Comercializadora de Arroz S. A., the state rice trading agency), while wheat (over 90% is imported), was, and is, handled by ENCI (another state agency). ENCI also trades with cotton, selling to local mills at prices below the price received for export sales.Producer prices were kept generally low (Valdes and Alvarez) . The active role of the state in the commercialization of certain crops such as maize, cotton, rice, and wheat, and visible distortions in the prices of such inputs as land, water, transportation , fertilizer, credit, and machinery (also pushing them to levels lower than their costs to the economy), inefficiently dictated resource allocation among intervened products and also away from those crops excluded f r om government favors .Transportation subsidies have encouraged sorne movement of resources from the coast to other regions, but at an insufficient level. The State absorbs mos t of the cost of transportation subsidies by standardizing producer and consumer prices for each crop throughout the country. However , the prívate sector cannot compete with the State in those crops where the system operates and, as a result, existing inefficiencies are often perpetuated.As a result of the implemented agricultural policies the production of cassava and potatoes decreased at annual rates of about 7 .5% and 6 . 0% in 1966-83 , while imports of wheat grew at a 3.0% per year and those of coarse grains, that is, maize and sorghurn grew at 3 . 7% in the same period. Among the five carbohydrate products considered in this study , only rice showed an increase in production over t he period--at around 3.7% per year. In this particular case, new varieties and improved cultivation technologies, together with government subsidies and commercialization, played a majar role in the relative success of the crop.The agrarian reform of Velasco, based on compulsory establishment of farmers associations without providing advice or credit to their leaders, caused a deterioration in the performance of those institutions (Paz) . Table 3 shows that expansion of production areas did not contribute to expanded agricultural output in 1970-80.The liberalization of imports and of domestic and external marketing in 1979-85 gave the prívate sector a chance to obtain their own inputs directly. However, state trading agencies kept a high degree of intervention through the retention of important price distortions that are still present in the economy . Staples were subjected to price control, that is, unhulled rice, y ellow and white sugar, domestically produced oilseeds, cotton as seeds and meal, hard yellow maize and grain sorghum, wheat and wheat flour, and butter and milk in several forms (Paz;CGIAR Study Paper 12) . The liberalization of the economy, although short lived, had a positive impact on agriculture, whose GDP , recuperated at an annual 3 . 0% in 1980-85 as compared with the -0.1% of 1975-80 (Table 1) .Another democratic government carne to office in mid-1985 . Almost absolute control of the food-producing sector was reimposed. ENCI assumed exclusivity in imports of wheat, maize, sorghum, oilseeds, and dairy products. Tariffs were revised for those products and an administered pricing system for food products was designed for both producer and consumer levels.The majar feature of the new government is the emphasis placed on agriculture and the effort to promete development of the traditionally neglected regions of the country: the \"South trapezoid\" of the Sierra, and the Selva . Important input and output price incentives were created to this end and credit rates and availability were designed to differentiate in favor of those regions. However, unless majar infrastructure improvements are undertaken, particularly in the case of roads. these policies cannot be taken as s erious and permanent endeavors to achieve a more balanced agricultural growth and to increase food production to above population growth rates .I n the l ong run, agricultural production in the Sierra and the Selva should be justified by their own efficiency (including lower transportation costs) rather than by the subsidies of monopolistic s tate trading agencies . These monopolies have narrowed the production base to a few protected grains , and have not allowed crops with obvious agronomic advant ages such as potatoes and cassava to enter , at a significant level, the Peruvian diet . Agricultura! credit. The abrupt changes in the direction of policies we re reflected in the operation of the financia! system as well. State intervention in this sector was high. This meant that commercial banking was rapidly displaced from agriculture. In 1950, 65.1% of agricultura! loans carne from commercial banks which lend mostly to cotton and rice in the coast (Table 4). By 1980, this percentage was clown to 5 . 7% (from 12.3% in 1950) and represented only 1 . 9% of their credit portfolio (Peru, el Agro en Cifras) . However, the Agrarian Bank (BAP), known earlier as the Agricultura! Development Bank, accounted for 34.9% of these loans in 1950 while by 1980 its share had gone up to 94.7%.In real terms, total agricultura! credit grew fast in 1950-68, only to stagnate afterwards, coinciding with the slowdown of agriculture (Table 5) .Composition of credit by crops of destination changed abruptly, with cotton receiving over 50% of agricultura! loans in the late sixties but participating with only 18.3% in 19 83. The contrary occurred to rice, which participation increased f r om about 15% in the late s•ixties to 46 % in 1983 with important gains in areas financed (Tables 6 and 7) .Interest rates were kept consistently below inflation rates, especially after 1975 (Table 8), constituting an added element of discrimination against crops not so favored by this subsidy such as cassava .Research and extension. Government expenditures in agriculture are low in comparison to other countries in Latin America in terms of expenditure • per person employed in the sector but they are about average when analyzed in terms of expenditures per area harvested (Elias) . These outlays grew fast in the sixties and seventies, particularly for irrigation and agrarian reform. The National Farm Research, Extension and Education System was given a high priority in the sixties, but in the seventies the government assigned priority to the agrarian reform. Its research activities concentrated on the requirements of the coastal region, covering sugarcane, cotton, rice, maize, beans, potatoes , and sweet potatoes. The private sector had strong research programs on sugarcane and cotton in the sixties , when Peru had among the highest yields worldwide.The Agricultura! Promotion and Research Institution (INIPA) was created in 19 81 . Five national priority programs were established: potatoes, maize, rice, grain cereals (wheat, barley, and oats), and grain legumes (Paz). The National Livestock Program was created in 19 85. The most successful of these programs has been rice, for which severa! new varieties have been introduced, helping to significantly increase y ields and production in the Selva, but having no significant effect on productivity in coastal areas. Yields of crops under the other programs have not shown significant improvements over the past t wo decades (Paz) .Tabl.e 4. Evolution in real tenns of agricultura! credit (in millions of 1970 Sols) granted by the nnin institutions of the natiooal financing system, 1950-1983, Peru. ro.nd.nd.- Valdes and Alvarez analyzed the growth of agriculture among different commodity groups over the past three decades. They show how production of food for urban consumption, that is, rice, beef, pork, poultry, and mil, had a fairly dynamic growth rate of 3.5% or more over the period. Production of export crops, that is, cotton, sugar, and coffee, grew very fast in the fifties, stagnated in the sixties, and had a slow growth in the seventies. Aggregate production of Sierra items such as wheat, barley, potatoes, and maize virtually had no growth at all during these 3 decades.In response to protectionism, the food industry grew fast but with a high degree of concentration in terms of market power as well as regionally. Important oligopolies, receiving significant levels of foreign capital, emerged in wheat milling, animal feeds and poultry raising activities, oilseeds and fat, and dairy products. The major processing plants were located in and around Lima (Lajo). These industries found it easier to lobby for imported foodstuÍfs which conveniently arrived at the port, were of homogeneous quality, and were accompanied by credit packages and other attractive concessions, than to purchase those inputs produced by their own country.As a result, the emergence of important food and animal-feed processing industries in the country was not accompanied by a significant response in the production of local raw materials.The general policy scheme leaves perishables (and therefore not tradeable at a market disadvantage within the system. Tradeables are protected by exchange rate distortions linked to protectionism and by the implicit and explicit set of consumer and producer subsidies directed to these crops. Nontradeables such as potatoes and cassava are therefore produced and marketed within a high cost structure.Status Quo of Cassava in Peru: Supply and Distribution Fresh cassava is an important staple in the rural sector of Peru, where it contributes about 3% of the caloric intake of the population. It is also important in the Selva where per capita annual consumption is over 150 kilos and in sorne areas represents 3% of food expenditures. According to the ENCA survey of 1972, Lima accounts for 8% of the total national consumption, while the rural areas account for 72% of that total. The survey established that about 65% of root and tubers, especially cassava, are consumed in the Selva where 75% of cassava in Peru is produced on family farms (Table 9).Total cassava production declined atan annual rate of 7.5% over the 1966-83 period (Table 10). Most of the production corees from the Selva (75%). Cajamarca is the major producer with 25% of the total, most of which comes from Jaen in the northern Selva. Then comes Loreto with 15% (in the Selva) and Cuzco (1 2% ) in the Sierra (Table 11).Clearly, the rapid process of urbanization which occurred in Peru during the past three decades has been detrimental to the consumption of  fresh cassava in the country. Transport costs from the Selva to t he coastal urban settlements are high due to high losses in commercialization. \\{hile other carbohydrates receive government support and are given massive subsidies such as wheat, maize , and rice, cassava is not subsidized and therefore is more expensive to the consumer (Table 12).Fresh cassava consumption. In theper capita consumption of cassava in Peru was around 40 kilos while in the mid-eighties it was about 18 kilos, which corresponds to a rate of growth of -4. 9% per year in 1966-83 (Tables 13 and 14 ) .Lima accounts for about 8% of the national market, or a r ound 30 , 000 tons, resulting in a consumption of 5 kilos per capita annually . A survey conducted by Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in 1986 among 170 household$ rev eals that cassava consumption decreases as income rises. It is consumed 1.5 times per week, mostly at lunch , and peaks during the months of December, January, and February (Table 15).The survey reveals that cassava is a preferred food by consumers but that it is difficult to store , its quality varíes greatly , and it is expensive (Table 14). All these features are closely related to the perishability of the product. Reducing perishability is therefore a must if fresh cassava consumption is t o increase in the Peruvian urban markets.By February 1986, when the survey was conducted, a picture of high marketing margins, t ypical of other years, was found in the Satipo-Li ma cassava traders chain (Table 15). Econometric anal ysis . The declining per capita consump tion of cassava in Peru (at an annual 4 . 9% in 1966-83) was accompanied by a rapid trend of urbanization in the country and by government monopolies to ensure abundant and cheap supplies of wheat and rice which showed markedl y low prices with respect to tha t of cassava (Table 12). At the same time, the country underwent a period of deep recession associated with a sharp decline in real per capita income at 1. 2% per year over 1966-83.The model used estimates per capita consump tion of cassava as being dependent upon its own price, the price of other carbohydrates, per capita income, and a proxy for urbanization . Money variables are all in constant prices .The proxy for urbanization is intended to capture the fact that due to the high perishability of the crop, an increasing degree of concentration of consumers in urban areas means a reduction in the level of competitiveness in the markets for fresh cassava. The reduction i s a consequence of the emergence of natural barriers to entr y and very high risks confronted by distant suppliers . Consequently , price increases are higher than they would have been in a more competitive environment.Results show significant responses in per capita consumption of f r csh cassava to its own price, the price of wheat and rice, and the variable for urbanization, while per capita income i s not a significant variable at this level of aggregation (Table 16). The results confirm the hypotheses that government policies which protect and subsidize wheat and rice are partly responsible for the lower consumption of this local staple, and that urbanization is also responsible for t he reduction in demand .Cassava has the potential to become a basic carbohydrate source in Peru in the near future . It can contribute directly to improve the calorie intake of t he population and, very important ly, it can also contribute to the production of animal meats by entering in feed formulations, complementing other energy sources that are currently deficit in their local production (mostly sorghum and maize).Carbohydrate foods . Carbohydrate consumption has experienced important changes in composition toward grains and away from roots and tubers during the past two decades, as a result of government policies directed to favor cereals and exclude roots and tubers from its plans.While per capita consumption of cassava and potatoes dropped from 4.9% in 1966 to 3.5% in 19 83 , that of rice and soft maize increased at 1 . 1% and 1.4%, respect ively, and wheat showed no significant change at 0 . 1% per year. Furthermore, t he relative prices of cassava and potatoes increased with respect to those of rice and wheat . Soft maize exhibits higher per capita consumption and higher real retail prices. This points at a difficu lt data problem rather than consumer behavior; it is difficult to separate data on soft maize from that on yellow maize for direct human consumption , onfarm feeding, and industrial use, even when accounting for changes in onfarm consumption and commercialization of the two kinds of maize . For that reason, data for soft maize exhibits atypical behavior (Table 12 and 13).Annual per capita consumption of wheat oscillated around 55 kilos over the 1966-83 period. Local production increased from 150 , 000 t ons in the early sixties to just over 80,000 t ons in the eighties, while imports increased from about 400,000 tons to almost 1 million tons during the same period . The price of both domestically produced and imported wheat was controlled until 19 84 at below world levels on entering flour mills . Domestic wheat (mostly soft whole grain) for uses other than f lour milling did not have a controlled price. In 1981, nearly 120,000 tons were produced locally and yet only 67 tons, that is, almost nil, went to milling (Orden et al . ): it is mostly consumed directly, cspecially in the Sierra. The milling industry is therefore totally dependent on imports .Imports are based on a quota syst em for millers a dministered by ENC I. Starting in 19 84 , millers (who now absorb 90% of local production) must buy a share of local wheat at free and higher-than-import prices. A consumer wheat-flour price subsidy exists so that mills have paid much less for flour going to bread and noodles, which are basic items in the diets of poor Peruvians (Asagro).In 1985 , the new APRA Government again reinforced this position of making wheat one of the basic foodstuffs by formulating a strategy of the popular bread based on a l ess restrictive milling rate of 87% (in contr ast to the usual 75%) and providing a higher subsidy fo r the res ulting bread. For a country with serious fo reign exchange restrictions, this strategy , based on imported food , may be difficult to maintain.Rice is the other staple cereal in Peru . ECASA has had monopoly rights t o ma r ket both domestic and imported rice. Milling of rice is performed by prívate firms under contract to ECASA . The price of unpolished rice is fixed by t he gover nment. To sell rice t o a local mill, the producer needs an income arder f rom the r egional ECASA office .In Lima ECASA sells the rice directly t o retailers and charges sorne transport costs. In other parts of the country , retaile rs mus t pick up the rice f rom ECASA or the designated rice mill .Produce r prices have maintained around a 15 % ma rgin in favor of Selva producers over coast al producers. Con sumer prices f or ordinary rice (up to 35% of broken grains) are fixed , while s uperior (up t o 2%) and extra (up to 5% broken grains) qualities are uncontrolled . The price structure that appears in Table 17 still prevails but due t o rampant inflation, producer prices of polished rice equi valent were S/3500 in ea rly 1985 wh ile the consumer price of ordina r y rice wen t up to S/2910 (Programa de Abastecimiento, Arroz, 1985) . In 1986 , paddy rice hada suppor t price of US$230, or about US$350 for whit e rice equivalent a t 14 % humidity, a price well above the import cif (Callao) pri ce of US$2 15 .Per capita consumption of white rice is clase t o 30 kilos per year (45 kilos of paddy rice) . About three quarters of production comes from the northern part of t he country with the Sel va (San Mar tin, Lo reto , Ucayali) showing a s i gnificant growth . Howev er , commercialization of surpluses from the Selva constitutes a majar bottleneck due t o inadequa t e roads to Lima (Programa de Abast ecimiento, Arroz 1985) .In the early eighties , rice was the s ubject of massive s t a te support and promotion . While in 1980 , t he per cent ages of food subsidies destined for imported whea t and r ice were 28% and 17% , in 1983 these per centages we re up t o 32% and 53 %, respectively. I n the same per iod, the rice production a rea financed by BAP increased by 25% and t ot al production a lmos t doubled f r om 420,000 to 791,000 t ons . Ri ce production peaked in 1984 with over 1 million t ons being produced . By 1985 , product ion was around 950 ,000 tons and for 1986 it was much lower and about 350 , 000 tons of rice had to be imported (Noticias Fedearr oz , Marzo , 1987) . The decrease in production is the r esult of both drought in t he nort h and a new support progr am for maize which s tarted in December 1985 that gave maize a higher s upport price (I3. 30/kg ver s us 13 . 20/kg for rice), as well as amp l e credit facili ties .I n Lambayeque , t he most important rice-producing department , rice production a r ea drop ped from 52 , 000 ha in 1984-85 t o 4 , 400 ha in 1985-86 , while maize i ncr eased from 7 , 000 hato 15 , 000 ha and cassava decreased f rom 488 ha t o 45 1 ha (CIPA II , Ing. J . Celis, unpublished) . Dr ought and the new price-and-credit policies have had a negative impact on r ice , a positive i mpact on ma ize and no effect on cassava . Per capita consumption of potatoes has been decreasing rapidly , at 3 . 5% per year in 1966-83, while its real retail price increased at an annual 1.8% during the same period. Most of this decrease carne as a reduction in production in central Sierra because of a rapid growth in production costs, a deterioration in the terms of trade for potatoes, and the deficient and decreasing government support activities for the crop in the area in terms of research, extension, and credit (Scott). Again, government action appears as the majar influence encouraging dietary patterns away from locally produced roots and tubers to local and imported cereals.Meat consumption. Total per capita consumption of meats has grown relatively fast in Peru in the 1966-83 period due to a rapid expansion in production of poultry neat. The three meats added up to about 18 kilos per capita each year by the mid-eighties with half of those coming from poultry (Table 18). Fish consumption is relatively high atan annual 12 kilos per capita, but has been decreasing (Tagle). In the mid-sixties, the relation of beef to poultry consumption was around 2 . 0 while in the mid-eighties it reversed to 0.55 (from half to almost twice as much poultry). The relation of prices of poultry to beef went from 1.4 to 0.7 . Clearly, consumption of poultry responded significantly to relative price variations.While per capita poultry consumption increased at an annual 7% in 1966-83 , that of beef decreased at an annual 2.6%, and per capita pork consumption decreased at an annual 0.9%. Consequently, animal feed demand grew at 4.6% per year . Since interna! production of maize and sorghum was stagnant, feed grain imports increased atan annual 3.7%.A demand equation for per capita poultry consumption was estimated, showing significant elasticities for its own price, for the cross price elasticities, indicating substitution effects caused by the higher beef and pork prices, and for the income elasticity (Table 19).Metropolitan Lima absorbs 47.5% of the national production of poultry meat and eggs. According to the Consumer Price Index Weights, these two products account for 6.3% of the total household expenditures (Peru: El Agro en Cifr as; Ma larin). An important se&men t of the market constitutes sales of live animals (over 75% according to APA) and this helps to explain the rapid growth of this t ype of meat among all segments of the population, especially in those which do not have access to refrigerators .The rapid growth of the poultry and feed industry has not been accompanied by a more competitive structure. In 1979, Bunge, Nicolini, and Purina had 80% of the feed producing market (Laja).On top of this oligopolistic structure, grain imports account for over a third of grain requirements for feed, and mai ze imports are controlled by quotas assigned to prívate animal-feed mixing mills. ENCI is in charge of both domestic and foreign maize purchases. For stimulating production, maize has an attractive support price: by 1986 it was 13.30/kg (or US$240/ton), higher than that of rice at 13 . 20/kg .Tab l e 18 . Pr oduct ion , trade , retail pr ices , a nd per capit a consumption of Mea t s , Peru . Maize is purchased throughout Peru by ENCI at the support price of I3.30/kg and is sold at that same price everywhere in the country, regardless of whether it is imported or domestically produced in coastal areas or in the Selva. This implies a subsidy for Selva maize of about 11.50/kg, which is the 1986 estimated transport cost from the Selva and for coastal maize of about I0.50/kg, which is the transport cost to Lima, the majar user of hard yellow maize. On imported grain, the government makes about I1. 20/kg (exchange rate is I13.90 to the U.S. dallar) .Maize import quotas are highly valued because the homogeneity in the quality of imported grain surpasses that of national maize. Therefore, commercial millers continually press for increased quotas (Orden et al.).The coast produces 60% of the yellow maize in the country under 40 % of the area while the Selva produces 40% under 60% of the area. Cu rrent yields are 2 . 8 tons/ha at the national level. In coastal areas, where technology is modern, yields are clase to 4 tons /ha, while in the Selva, with a more labor-intensive technology, y ields are around 2 tons/ha (Table 20).Although the trend in production during the 1966-85 period shows stagnation with no increases in yield nor in area, output grew at an accelerated pace between 1966 and 1976, decreased rather sharply between 1977 and 1980 (by 40.2%) due to a marked crisis in the poultry sector, to rebound in 1980-85 with a total increase in production of 64 .7% (Malarin). These changes were associated with the corresponding variations in area harvested.The rapid modernization of the poultry industry, which started in the sixties, brought about a marked reduction in costs of production, a phenomenon that was accompanied by increased demand for poultry meat and eggs due to the lower relative and real prices of chicken and due to the lack of response in production of other sources of protein. Government support became stronger after 1970 (Malarin). However, with the deep recession of the late seventies the industry faced a crisis that resulted in a 17.2% reduction in output between 19 77 and 1979. But the industry recovered to grow atan annual 9.7% in 1980-85.I n terms of value of production, poultry mea t represented in 1970 only 11.3% of the livestock subsector and 2.6% of the agricultural sector, while by 1984 those percentages were 26 . 6% for the livestock component and 7.4% for agriculture (Malarin) .The geographic pattern of consumption of poult ry meat is uneven.Lima, with 25 % of the population, absorbs 47 . 5% of total poultry meat. In the rural areas , consumption is 62% below the national average .After the recession, the industry carne out with a more competitive framework since many small industries were forced to merge if they were to s urvive (82% of existing farms stayed in the market). The economies of scale allowed them to produce their own feed . The market shares of Nicolini and Purina Peru dropped from 30 . 8% and 22.3%, respectively, in 1976 to 13 . 7% and 7 . 2% in 1984. The animal-feed industry, by 1970, represented, in terms of total value of production, 65% of the agricultura! processing industries and 1.2% of the manufacturing sector, while by 1981 those values were 12.4% and 2.45% (Malarin).By the mid-eighties, poultry feed represented 73% of the total, while it was 92% in 1977 (Table 21). Cattle and \"others\" have taken up the slack.Economic feasibility of expanding cassava use. The use of dry cassava in animal-feed rations is common practice in Europe, where current use reaches 4.5 million tons per year, and Asia. It is starting to take place in Latín America, where dry cassava is still an infant industry. Colombia now produces about 5000 tons per year of cassava chips and since 1986 there have been commercial drying floors in Ecuador , P'nama, and Mexico .Economic analysis reveals that, in most Latín American countries, cassava is economically attractive, when compared with local grains, in terms of the various links in the chain of activities: the producer, the drier, and the animal-feed manufacturer.The procedure of conserving fresh cassava in plastic bags treated with thiabendazole-based fungicide (mertect or tecto) has less commercial empirical evidence although, conceptually, it is obvious that a reduction in marketing costs will take place and that the market will become more competitive. A semicommercial project has been conducted in Bucaramanga, Colombia, with highly successful results, showing that it is possible to reduce marketing margins and offer a higher quality product to consumers at lower prices. Consumers have responded immediately to these changes. Field and transportation trials from Satipo into Lima have shown that the procedure is successful in reducing marketing losses and consequently costs.The cost structure of fresh cassava in Peru (Table 15) shows a high marketing margin that could be reduced with this treatment. The assumption that fresh cassava consumption will respond to a change in its own price was tested in the demand equation calculated and was accepted (Own-price elasticity of -0. 22) (Table 19) . \\Ull supply respond to a higher farro price? In a competitive framework, supply for agricultura! products responds to changes in price both in the short and in the long term, with long-term changes being more marked. However, in a controlled pricing environment, like the one faced by Peruvian agriculture for the past two decades, the short-term response depends rather heavily on the prices, marketing environment , and stimulus not only for cassava but also for its close substitutes in supply and demand.Given the current level of technology used in cassava production, it is expected that improvements in its commercialization will stimulate use of better management practices , making cassava a mo re highly competitive alternative.The potential of cassava resides in the Selva where conditions are more appropriate to its socioagronomic characteristic s: an ability to adapt to marginal soils with low use of inputs, making it a useful low-cost alternative. In coastal areas, where agriculture is highly mechanized and intensive in the use of inputs (for example, irrigation, fertilizer, and herbicides), cassava plays a minor role as a diversification crop against the risk of water shortages. Costs of production are much higher than in the Selva (Tables 22 and 23). Given the high local demand for fresh cassava, few surpluses are generated .Lambayeque, the most important cassava-producing department in coastal areas, is an importer of the root. It comes in undetermined but important quantities from Machala (Ecuador) whose cassava is preferred to local varieties and therefore carries a higher price. In 1986, cassava from Machala had a retail price of around I3 . 20 per kilo while the local varieties could be purchased at around 12.50 per kilo. Another curiosity is that prices of fresh cassava in Chiclayo, (the largest city in Lambayeque with 500,000 people) were similar to those in Lima despite the fact that transport costs are much lower than those for Lima.While a farmer near Chiclayo gets about I2.00/kilo, one clase to Satipo (central Selva near Lima) gets 11.20/kilo, in 1986. Transport costs are twice as much from Satipo at I1.00/kilo compared with I0.50/kilo from Chiclayo. Still, cassava from the Selva would be cheaper than that from the north coast when taken into Lima because of the lower costs of production. Besides, the north coast does not have the capacity to respond with important additional quantities of cassava (outcompeting crops such as rice, cotton, maize in the limited areas of the coast).In the Selva, it is feasible to expect important increases in supply, given t he wide availability of land and the low costs of production per unit faced by cassava growers, even under present crop management conditions, which are far from optimal.The potential of the dried cassava industry in Peru has been analyzed by Malarin, who concludes that dried cassava is profitable to farmers, processors, and feed manufacturers and that it could compete with maize if it were granted the same transport subsidy.Currently, dried cassava chips have a support price of I2 . 00 per kilo with ENCI buying them at its warehouses in Pucalpa, Satipo, and La }1erced (Selva). The decree was approved in March, 1986 . At the time maize from the Selva had a support price of I2.6 per kilo. Therefore, cassava chips were priced at 80% of the price of maize. By mid-1986 the price of maize went up to I3.30 per kilo but that of dried cassava chips was not changed. As a result, maize became a much more attractive alternative to the farmer .The proposal being presented to the government by the prívate sector consists in pegging the support price of dried cassava chips to the price of maize at a fixed percentage, namely 75 %. An adjustment in the price of maize would imply an automatic adjustment to cassava chips and would protect its profitability for farmers, driers, and feed manufacturers.   In Table 24 , the gross mar gins of dried cassava chips ver sus those of maize in the coast and in the Selva can be observed. Cassava competes with both of them, constituting a viable a lternative t o farmers.At 75% of t he price of ma i ze at 13.30 per kilo , dried cassava enters in the leas t-cos t r ation. It is a cost-reducing alternative , even when cassava chips cost 13. 20/kilo or 95% of the price of maize . This i s so , because protein in the form of f i sh flour i s cheap a nd abundant in Peru (Table 25) .Current trends in food production in Peru point toward an i ncr easing dependence on food import s , decr easing per capita produc tion , narrowing of the alternatives available to consumers , high levels of market powe r concentration in the food-processing indus tries , and a continuing deterioration of the participation of agriculture in GDP. This scenario is not onl y undesir able as a goal but it is probably unrealis tic for a country wit h s trong constraint s in its availability of fore ign exchange . Basi c assumptions. Using a model for t he demand of cassava and of poultry meat, estimated from time series data , we can pr oject cassava consumption needs (in both fre s h and dried forms) into t he f u tur e . From the basic model: Per capit a consump tion = func tion ( Prices , Income, Ur banization) one can assume changes in the independent variables, and calculate the new levels implicit in the dependent variable . Fo r t he case of f r esh cassava demand, three prices were assumed to exhibit price decreases in real terms , that affect this variable. They are the retail prices of cassava , rice , a nd whea t pr oducts . Also , while t o t al population grows a t 2 . 5% per year, urban population (a \" proxy\" for urbanization) grows a t a n annua l 3 . 0% . Per capita r eal income remains constant, that is , real ｩ ｮ ｣ ｯ ｭ ｾ ＠ gr ows a t 2 . 5% per year.Hith r espect t o the demand for poultry , assumption s for population and income growth a r e the same as above and the r eal retail p rice of poultry decreases at an a nnual 1 . 0% while t hose of beef and pork remain constant (Table 19) . The derived demand fo r cassava is based on t he assumptions tha t feed use by the poul try indus try will keep its present r atio of broiler s a nd layers , and tha t feed for poultry will represent a constant 80% of t o tal feed use in the country . Coarse gr ains (yellow maize and sor ghum) r epresent 45% of f eed formulas (Tab le 25) . I nternal production of yell ow ma i ze will gr ow a t an annual 2 . 0% (compar ed with 0 . 4% over the 1966-83 period) .Fresh cassava . Prospects for car bohydrate output des tined for human consumption a r e alarming . The strong performer of the past 15 years, rice, r eached a peak in 19 84 with over one million t ons of production , dec reased in 1985 and again in 1986 when about 350 , 000 t ons of this cer eal \\vere import ed . Potat oes, a major s t aple , exhibits important reductions in per capit a cons umption, from about 130 kilos in .ble 24 . Separation of direct cost of production fo r maize (coastal and Se l va) and for dried cassava chips (Selva), 1986 . Peru . the early seventies to near 70 kilos in the mid-eighties. \\fheat, another staple in the diets of urban consumers is mostly imported, with domestic production representing less than 10% of total use and declining in absolute numbers.Should current policies and marketing and production practices continue, these trends will prevail. But we can be optimistic about the adoption of the new cassava storage technology, based on survey data collected in Lima, and in Colombia and also in the pilot projects conducted in those two countries.The immediate future for adoption of the new technologies lies in the Selva , where cassava is already an important staple. The new technology of storing cassava in plastic bags and treating it with mertect can be implemented in this area where 75% of the cassava is produced. The target population initially will be the 3.5 million people living in Loreto, Ucayali, San Martín, Cajamarca, Amazonas, Huanuco, Paseo, Junin, Cuzco, and Madre de Dios. A second stage of adoption could take place in the north coast for local consumption. The final stage would be the extension, from the coast, of adopting the method for coastal cities such as Lima.The effects of adopting the new technology would be to increase market competítion by reducing natural and artificial barriers of entry already present in the current market structure. The barriers result from the high perishability of cassava. Their removal would reduce marketing margins because of important reductions in waste (from about 35% to 15%), and therefore would carry the consequent savings to consumers (who would pay a lower price) and to farmers (who would receive a higher price), and to increase volumes being traded (Janssen and Wheatley).The above-mentioned assumptions about prices, income, and population lead to an estimated per capita consumption of cassava of 14.3 kilos by the year 2000 (compared with 18.2 kilos in 1984). This is dueto the substitution effect caused by wheat and rice but mainly due to the negative effect of urbanization on consumption--an effect that should lessen but not disappear with the implementation of the new storage technology. This is so because of the difficulty in reaching coastal populations (the majority of Peruvians live in the coast) from the Selva with a bulky commodity. Even so, there will be a need to expand production by 19,700 tons in that year to meet demand due to population growth. This figure would be larger if we do not incorporate a reduction in waste of 10% as being additional supply.Savings associated with this level of waste reduction amount to about US$15 million annually by the year 2000 . Although this increase is not impressive one has to bear in mind that it represents a reversal of the strong trend in reduction of cassava production over the past two decades. Dried Cassava. The current interest of the government in providing a viable alternative to yellow maize in the manufacture of feed formulas is notorious. A decree in mid-1986, providing a support price for dried cassava chips and dictating the norms for quality, is certainly an encouraging sign. We have shown that dried cassava in Peru is:Profitable at farro level under the present price and cost structure of the country for fresh cassava as well as for yellow maize. To compete with maize, the support price for cassava chips has to be pegged to t hat for maize (plans are to set it at 75% of the price of maize).Profit able at the feed plant level. Dried cassava enters in the leas t-cos t formulations a t around 95% of the price of yellow maize (it s main substitute).Attractive to the end user , since quality remains virtually unchanged.The farro price of fresh cassava , currently well above the support price of chips , fluctuates widely, depending on availability and transportation. In periods of high rainfall, in certain areas of the Selva when roads cannot be used, the producer price of f resh cassava drops substantially wh ile at the other end of the chain consumers must pay high prices.Production of cassava chips will create a floor price for the fresh root, stabilizing quantities produced as well as prices.Identification of s uitable areas for drying compat ible with precipitation regime and land-use priorities remains to be done . However , semicommercial t rials have been successful and no problems are expected in this respect (Halarin) .To estímate feed needs, por k and poultry mea t production a re projected to the year 2000 , u sing time series data . Per capita pork consumption remains unchanged while for poultry the assumptions imply an increase in per capita consumption from 9 . 2 kilos in 1984 t o 12 . 6 kilos in the. year 2000 .In terms of feed requirements , total needs will go from 633,700 tons in 1984 to 1,289 , 600 tons in 2000, mostly due to poultry feed increases . With 10% of dried cassava in feed formulations, 128 , 960 tons of it are needed. The establishment of the industry allows a further decr ease in waste of cassava for the fresh market of 10 %.By the year 2000, fresh cassava for the feed industry will amount to 280,559 tons per year which implies 26 , 720 ha of new plantings, keeping yields at t he present level of 10.5 tons/ha . Crop losses will be reduced by 41,829 tons annuall y by that year.In summary, if both markets (fresh a nd dried), are added up, annual requirements of cassava by the year 2000 will be 657 , 020 tons, which implies an additional production of about 301,020 tons per year in 28 , 592 ha and 7 , 378 new jobs will be generated .Peru was radically trans f or med during the seventies from a social sys tem characterized by liberal principles and po licies t o one wit h a very t ightly controlled and distorted economy . Agriculture was hard-hit in the process. The once high-yielding crops by Latin American standar ds are now mere average performers (sugar, cotton, rice). The sector r educed its contribution to GDP by half in the past two decades and now represents 12% of the product .Policy-induced distortions and state interventions elimina t ed not only foreign competition but domestic competitive forces as well . While the world economy was booming in the sixties and seventies , Per u lost a clear opportunity to continue t he growth impetus of the fifties .Valdes and Alvarez conclude tha t ''the prevalence of implicit and explicit food subsidies on importables , particularly during t he period 1970-75, could have induced a change in cons umption patterns away from traditional foods produced in Peru, such as pota t oes , and tm.;ra rds heavier dependence on i mported foodstuffs, such as macar oni and bread . Policies aimed a t protecting t he urban consumer but ignoring t he consequences of an increased fiscal burden would have resulted in t he i mplicit taxation of s evera! agricultura! products\" (p . 49).Cassava is a majar s t a ple in the Selva , where it competes favor ably with other crops, even under the present policy environment. For dry cassava chips, its potential demand will be materialized into effective use if t he support price a lready established by the gover nmen t is set as a fixed proportion of the price of yellow ma i ze and i f ENCI buys t he chips , following the same guidelines applied to t he commercialization of local yellow ma i ze. In such a case, it has a b right future as an animal feed i nput in Peru.The case of f r esh cassava r equires the implementation of the new conservation technology developed at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) , Colombia. The me thod is being tested now in Satipo-La Me r ced . The method shoul d be i ntroduced first in the Selva, where a s trong na tural marke t already exists. Once the markets have assimilated the new t echnology and producers have responded by becoming mo re efficient in t heir production a nd mar keting t echniques , fresh cassava stored i n plastic bags and trea ted with mertect will be ready to reach coastal consumers .Under the existing set of policies t ha t block the r egulatory effect s resulting from the pr esence of competitive forces , it i s unlikely t hat an improvement in resource allocation and adoption of new technologies in neglected crops wil l t ake place , unless the crop is s ubject to similar treat ment as the one presently received by grains and cereals. In addition to t hat , developments in i nfrastruc ture , for example, in r oads such as the Carretera Marginal de l a Selva and the road linking the northern Sel va with t he northern coast , are urgently needed i f t here is t o be a more balanced regional and sector al gr owth in the near fu ture .","tokenCount":"9656"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce9072d045651082fcebb6914a285e90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a2424e6b-4c0e-4b7c-baca-239563e23237/retrieve","id":"-2012921200"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3027095f-be18-44de-8ef0-6f66ef44bf64","pagecount":"260","content":"This document presents workshop papers and discussion summaries on the development of low-level aerial survey techniques and present applications to livestock, wildlife and land-use surveys. It reviews survey designs and sampling procedures as well as problems of bias, information transfer and coordination with information collected at other levels, from ground survey to satellite imagery. Recommendations for further research and cooperation are included.Resource inventory, mapping and monitoring Light aircraft and resource monitoringLow-level aerial survey is a tool for gathering certain types of information to serve specific objectives. The more clearly these objectives are defined in each case, the more likely that the most useful and appropriate survey will be carried out. Techniques of low-level aerial survey have been, and still are to some extent, in their formative stages, so that many of the surveys conducted in the past could be considered experimental in nature. Furthermore, most of these surveys were initial or baseline surveys of areas for which either few or no previous survey data were available. They were basic resource and inventory surveys of the type which would form a useful prelude to management planning.ISC Parker, in considering wildlife research in eastern Africa, raised the question -Why aerial survey? -since, in his view, so few of the results from past aerial surveys have been of direct use in wildlife management. Of 432 papers or short communications published in the African Journal of Ecology (formerly the East African Wildlife Journal ) between 1963 and 1979, 40, or 9.3%, con cerned aerial survey, either directly or as a major component of the research workdescribed. Yet, Mr Parker contended that aerial survey results have in very few cases led directly to policy formulation or implementation. This is a complex issue, however, since, as already mentioned, low-level aerial surveys were in itially to some extent experimental and subsequently have been chiefly concerned with collecting baseline data. Furthermore, wildlife management authorities have generally been slow to develop plans or implement management strategies in any case, while research results, based partly on the use of low-level aerial survey, have sometimes indicated -as in Tanzania' s Serengeti National Park -that little active management is necessary or desirable (Sinclair, 1979).Experience with low-level aerial survey and wildlife management in eastern Africa highlights a much more general dilemma of research and management in many situations around the world: managers complain that research results are not useful, but at the same time they fail to define their information requirements in sufficiently precise terms to make it possible for useful research to be planned or carried out. Clearly, much closer communication is required between research workers and managers than has usually been the case in the past, to decide what information is needed and then devise the most suitable approach to collect it. Re searchers would also have a clearer idea of the information needs of managers if they were more closely involved in management decisions and responsibilities themselves.This general problem has immediate relevance for low-level aerial survey work. In addition to precise guidelines on what type of information is needed, more feedback is necessary from managers regarding the minimum levels of accuracy and precision required. Aerial survey data are usually much better than rough estimates, but are far from being highly accurate. Scientists may spend considerable time and effort attempting to refine survey techniques to achieve greater accuracy and precision, yet may have no clear understanding of the mini mum levels required by managers.Project managers may obtain aerial survey information in three ways.First the staff of the project may carry out a survey themselves, assuming that a suitable pilot and light aircraft are available. Second, a specialized national unit, such as those established in Kenya and Senegal, may carry out the survey. Third, a consultant firm may be hired which specializes in aerial survey work. Combi nations of these three approaches may also be possible: a consultant firm could organize a survey, but involve local project staff as observers. Project staff bene fit from the overview of a project area provided by aerial observation, and some level of local involvement is required by many governments. International organi zations can play a useful role, by providing technical advice and financial assist ance and by organizing training programmes. They can also help in the develop ment and testing of new techniques and in making the results of experimental work more widely available.Whether carried out by project staff, a national unit or a consultant firm, low-level aerial survey is usually the most practical and cost-effective method available for obtaining quantitative resource data, such as estimates of animal numbers, over large areas of rangeland, provided there is adequate provision for obtaining essential ground truth. Costs per unit area surveyed are generally lower than most forms of equivalent ground survey, assuming that the latter is feasible. Total costs depend on many factors -such as salaries of pilots and observers, aircraft operating costs, proportion of area sampled, time spent in training observers, and the cost of ground support and the transport of fuel.Tvpical costs, for instance, of a sample survey covering 5 to 10% of a rangeland area, fall in the range of US$1 to 3 per km2 of total area under investigation. The largest cost component is usually salaries, especially when allowance is made for data processing and report writing: aircraft hire costs are secondary. When an aircraft is purchased, together with special equipment such as a radar altimeter and a Very Low Frequency navigation system, the initial capital cost is high, but when averaged out over many surveys, the cost per survey remains reasonable.It is hoped that the proceedings of this workshop will be useful to research ers who carry out low-level aerial surveys and to managers and planners who use survey results, and that further improvements in survey methods will follow. In the final analysis, the value of low-level aerial surveys must be assessed in terms of their contribution to sound management plans and successful development projects .Sff J?3sSix papers presented in this section describe the experience of individuals and organizations in carrying out aerial surveys for resource inventory and mapping and for monitoring changes in resources overtime. This introduction is based on the remarks of the chairmen of the relevant sessions of the workshop -S M Cobb, M D Gwynne and K Milligan -and on comments by J J R Grimsdell, C F Hemming,A D Graham and P A Sihm.Resource inventory, mapping and monitoring surveys involve the collection of a wide range of ecological data. Most such surveys are conducted with manage ment objectives in mind. Here, the majority of papers concern initial, or baseline, surveys performed to describe a system or area under study. The results of these surveys contribute to the formulation of development or management plans, which should be based on reliable ecological knowledge: inventories of all the relevant re sources in an area and maps of their distribution are essential for development planning and defining development zones (Pratt, 1975).Several aerial techniques may be used for resource inventory and mapping.One, described at the meeting by C F Hemming, uses a light aircraft, such as a Piper Super Cub or a helicopter, as a 'flying Landrover' to collect both aerial and ground data. This method provides a means of describing and mapping static features, such as vegetation types and land systems, quickly over very extensive areas. For example, in Kenya's southern Turkana area, it was possible to map 2 geomorphological units over 9 500 km of very difficult terrain in only 33 days (Hemming, 1972). In addition to collecting information from the air, an experienced pilot was able to land a Piper Super Cub in inaccessible parts of the study area so that ground observations could be made and plant and soil specimens collected.Actual boundaries of geomorphological units were later defined, based on these observations and on the annotation of aerial photographs made as part of the same study .Animal distributions are often best recorded by low-level aerial survey.For instance, A D Graham described a national wildlife survey conducted in Botswana, whose object was to map the distribution of all the larger species of wild animals in relation to existing and proposed land use. An unstratified systematic sampling design was chosen since it is particularly suited to mapping animal distribution and provides good animal population estimates. Each survey sample covered some 2% of the total area under investigation. Problems of aerial navigation are acute in Botswana because the country is generally flat and feature less, and therefore the production of reliable animal distribution maps would not have been feasible without the use of special navigation equipment. Graham and his team used the GNS-500, a Very Low Frequency (VLF) navigation system, only recently available for use in light aircraft. This equipment allowed accurate place ment of flight transects and the accurate location of the animals observed. Obser vations were made from a Cessna 210 aircraft by a survey team of two -a pilot/ observer and a front-seat observer. On return from each flight, tape-recorded observations were typed out in a simple code and entered directly into a computer at Gaborone. In this way, it was possible to produce computer-generated distri bution maps, in grid-square format, within a few days of the survey. The combined results of surveys over a 4-year period were used to define a number of wildlife management areas as a component of national land-use plans.In their paper, M D Gwynne and H Croze outline the development of light aircraft survey methods from the early pioneers in East Africa to the present situ ation, where aerial surveys are carried out in many parts of the world as one com ponent of a sophisticated, multi-dimensional environmental information-gathering system. S W Taiti, in his paper, describes the development of aerial survey in Kenya in more detail. For inventory and mapping work and ecological monitoring, Again emphasizing the use of low-level aerial survey as one part of a multi-level data collection system, D C P Thalen considers how the various survey levels, from ground surveys to data collected by satellite, each make different contribu tions to the overall inventory and mapping process, and are, therefore, best used in combination.These papers describe baseline resource inventory and mapping surveys, as well as surveys designed to monitor changes in resources over time. No papers were presented on monitoring development implementation, and this is clearly a field where present experience is inadequate. The question of development planning and implementation was raised at the workshop in the context of rangeland and pas toral development, since aerial survey techniques are particularly useful for study ing rangelands and pastoral societies. Most rangeland areas are large and partly inaccessible to ground survey, and it is often difficult to obtain accurate infor mation from interviews with pastoral livestock owners. Low-level aerial survey is at present the most effective way to obtain accurate data on livestock numbers and distribution as well as other relevant information, such as human population size derived from house counts . The ratio of livestock to human numbers also pro vides an index of the nutritional status of a pastoral society which can be monitored over time.In order to be useful for development planning, however, aerial surveys must be carried out within the time frame for project formulation followed by many international funding agencies. Projects funded by the World Bank, for instance, are conceived as stages in a 'project cycle', which, for rangeland and pastoral development projects, includes :-identification phase (1 year) : project selection -preparation phase (1-2 years); feasibility studies and initial surveys -appraisal and negotation phase (1 year): review of all aspects of the project and arrangements for financing, culminating in approval and ratification of the project agreement between the government and the donor agency -implementation phase (5-6 years): management under the supervision of the government and donor agency.The structure and timing of such a project cycle permits a baseline study during the preparation phase and monitoring surveys during the implementation phase. Although implementation monitoring provides a useful feedback to manage ment, monitoring should begin earlier in the project cycle in order to influence pro ject design. Therefore, a longer preparation phase would seem desirable for rangeland and pastoral development projects, so that detailed development plans can be based on a thorough understanding of the dynamics of the production system in the project area. The potential of very-low-altitude flying for gathering habitat information has long been recognized. In eastern Africa, some of the earliest and best low-altitude aerial photographs were taken in the 1920s by the Royal Air Force (RAF) flying Fairey in F bi-planes fitted with floats. Operating as low as 50 feet (15 m), the RAF crews made a unique early record of the eastern African countryside and its wildlife. This was followed closely by M Johnson, who made a number of excellent documentary films which included low-altitude sequences taken from his aeroplane.The Royal Air Force pictures now form part of the official RAF photograph collection, while those of Johnson are housed at Eastman Kodak in Rochester, New York. Both these early collections represent valuable records and it is surprising that no ecologist has yet used these photographs as a baseline against which to measure indications of ecological change, such as the alteration of woody vegetation over time. Both H Williams (writing about the RAF venture) and M Johnson emphasized the potential usefulness of low-flying aircraft for gathering what would today be termed habitat data for land-management purposes. It was not, however, until well after World War II that events in eastern Africa led those con cerned with land management to the deliberate use of light aircraft for ecological information gathering. At first this work was concerned almost entirely with spot ting wildlife and with anti-poaching activities, although there were a number of pro gressive ranchers in the region who used aircraft as a ranch management tool.By the late 1950s, park wardens and wildlife biologists were using aircraft in attempts to obtain total counts of particular wildlife species in specific areas.This initiative by wildlife management specialists coincided with a realization by the three East African governments of the economic and strategic importance of developing their vast semi-arid and arid areas. The governments turned to the ecologists and range management specialists working in eastern Africa at that time to produce basic information on these arid and semi-arid areas as quickly as possible with minimum expenditure.Given this request, biologists and land managers took to the air to gain an overview of the areas which they were to study. To start with, these aerial surveys were no more than low-altitude reconnaissance flights and were mainly used to annotate aerial photographs taken from high-altitude survey aircraft. It soon became apparent, however, that it was possible to gather simultaneously a great deal of information about a number of habitat parameters and their interrelation ships from light aircraft.By this time, biologists concerned with wildlife census had begun to realize that greater economies in time and money could be ensured by using some form of sampling rather than always attempting total counts. At this time also, it was be coming apparent that trends in animal populations were perhaps more important than total numbers for management purposes. In order to understand more fully the dynamics of wildlife populations it would also be necessary to supplement animal number information with details of herd structure and composition, such as the ratio of young to adult females, and such details could not always be obtained from the air but rather called for special ground surveys.The two approaches -habitat data recording and animal censusing on a sam ple basis -were soon combined into a single operation. This allowed analysis of the reasons why animal species occur where they do. At the same time it led biologists to recognize the need for repetitive sampling over time in order to est ablish better correlations between the various habitat parameters and to under stand the ecological processes more fully. In this way, it became possible to dis tinguish changes in spatial and temporal relationships so that, for example, not only could changes in animal numbers be detected, but also changes in distribution, both seasonally and in the longer term. Thus the concept of ecological monitoring was developed.At this stage, in December 1968, a workshop was held on the use of light aircraft in wildlife management in eastern Africa. It is significant that nearly all the 19 papers presented at that workshop related to aspects of counting animals.Two papers considered the collection of other types of ecological information, and only one dealt in any detail with the need for repetitive monitoring flights. The relationships between data gathered from the air and those obtained on the ground by more conventional means were largely ignored. Nevertheless, the workshop was a landmark that conferred a respectability, previously lacking, on the use of light aircraft for animal census work.The workshop was important in another respect. Although it was not noticed at the time, this workshop also marked the end of the period when the primary pur pose of most light aircraft surveys was to collect animal census data and the begin ning of the emphasis on some form of environmental or habitat survey in which animal numbers are just one of the variables considered, albeit an important one.Up to 1968, the use of light aircraft in eastern Africa for counting animals had parallels in other parts of the world, most notably in North America. After 1968, however, low-level aircraft surveys in eastern Africa acquired their own distinctive character. Increasingly, data gathered by aircraft flights were related to information gathered separately, but often simultaneously, on the ground. These ground surveys provided information on parameters that could not be examined easily from the air with the technology available at the time -such as rainfall, aspects of primary production, plant species, plant part composition and animal population age structures.This two-level data collection system could provide information not only to land managers, who were primarily concerned with changes in the short term, but also to development planners who needed sound information on which to base pro jections for the future. It is no accident that at this time aerial surveys began to be used for range management and livestock development studies.In 1972, a new level of data acquisition was added with the launching by the United States of LANDSAT 1 (then called ERTS-1), the first of the earth resources assessment satellites. Biologists in eastern Africa were quick to realize the use fulness of this new technology, and added it to the information gathering system then in use. Initially, it provided the overview necessary to delimit land systems and land forms and to facilitate the demarcation of 'self-contained land systems' appropriate to the needs of particular surveys. As satellite remote sensing tech nology developed, new techniques also allowed some of the temporal and spatial habitat changes to be monitored from space (e.g. green flush events, burning, desertification).By 1974, therefore, the ecological monitoring unit approach was well est ablished, with information gathered from three levels -space, air and ground. The quality of the information collected improves as one proceeds from space to ground, but the cost of data collection also increases. For example, LANDSAT image analysis can produce low-resolution data at a cost of approximately US$0. 01 per 2 km , while a vegetation survey carried out by a ground team produces detailed data 2 at a cost of around US$100. 00 per km . The quality of the information collected by satellite can be improved much more readily than the cost of information collected on the ground can be reduced. A primary consideration in ecological monitoring is thus to balance effectively the low cost of extensive data collection methods with the need for high-quality information from more intensive techniques.The balance between intensive and extensive methods has to be considered in relation to the objectives of each particular survey undertaken and the potential uses of the information to be collected. These objectives and uses must be known before the survey begins and must be related to limitations of time, manpower and money so that an inventory survey or a monitoring system can be designed that meets the needs of those sponsoring the survey, that provides useful, reliable information and that stays within the available resource constraints. This flexibility of approach should be the mark of an ecological monitoring unit. When such a unit is functioning efficiently it becomes possible, for example, to relate micro-events in production recorded on the ground and meso-events in animal distribution recorded from the air to the macro-scale produced by a set of LANDSAT spectral reflectance signatures over hundreds of square kilometres.The combination of methods allows correlations which eventually should result in the phasing out of the more expensive intensive techniques. Management and plan ning decisions may then be made as a matter of course, using the cheapest data collection method, backed up and checked at a manageable frequency with quality control sampling from the air and on the ground.In this context, low-level light aircraft survey forms part of a more com prehensive survey methodology. The exact role of light aircraft and the weight assigned to the data gathered at this level depend on the characteristics of the survey being undertaken.Planners and managers often claim that they do not have time to wait for scientists to undertake lengthy investigations. If adequate information is not avail able planners have to make do with what they have, and make guesses where specific information is lacking. This may be regrettable, but it is a fact of life which must be recognized. Decisions will be made, and it is in everyone's interest to ensure that those who make them have access to the best available data.Extensive inventory and monitoring methods are aimed at collecting reliable information as cheaply and efficiently as possible and communicating it to those who can best use it with the minimum of delay. A monitoring project that does not release its data for 2 or 3 years (and there are now many examples of this) is not functioning properly, and there is little justification in continuing the exercise.Figure 1 is adapted from a rangeland monitoring project document used by the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS). It shows a typical work plan for the collection and analysis of information and its dissemination to managers and planners. The steps are logical and simple: the approach is planned, the initial stratification is executed from low-intensity survey flights, preliminary boundaries are fixed over the study area, data collection is initiated at three levels (ground, air and space), the data are analysed, preliminary results are produced, the depth and scope of the information obtained are reviewed (and data collection methods revised if necessary), reports are prepared for management and planning staff and follow-up programmes are initiated.Given careful organization in the initial planning phase and a degree of bureaucratic autonomy, the review state should be reached within 18 months of the inception of a monitoring project. Thus managers and planners should have re levant, sound reports and recommendations in less than 2 years. Moreover, due to the flexibility of the strategy, the full programme can be short-circuited in cases of urgent need for rapid policy decisions. In such cases, useful data can be available within 3 to 6 months. If ecological monitoring is to have practical impact, the results of each aerial survey must be analysed and written up from 3 to 6 weeks after the conclusion of the survey. This is not an impossible schedule: it has been achieved many times, as shown in the literature. Plan study logistics ' .-maps, aerial photos, LANDSAT images -equipment -aircraft supplies -aircraft -sampling strategies -arrange data analysis -etc. Rainfall probabilities,etc. 7In the past, too little importance has been attached to the flow of information to the users. The cause of delay is not so much the analysis of data as poor machinery and channels within government for transferring survey information to potential users and supplementing it with information derived from other sources, such as socio-economic data. census. An area is first stratified according to estimated attribute density after preliminary reconnaissance flights, or according to terrain type, administrative blocks or potential management units as required by the survey objectives. Each stratum is then surveyed at a sampling intensity proportional to a function of the estimated attribute density. This approach has proved successful for estimating animal numbers and densities and has been widely applied in Africa.A need was also identified for a sampling system which displays distribu tional data more readily, not just of animals but of other habitat features. This has led to the development of the systematic reconnaissance flight (SRF) technique whereby data are collected on a systematic basis and stored and displayed in a cellular pattern within a grid system design. As in the stratified random approach, the sampling units for numerical estimates are transects crossing the sample area.If the cellular display is used, information collected from ground, space and from other data sources can also be assigned to appropriate cells within the grid.Computer techniques allow the ready recall of cell groups for particular analytical purposes, and such analyses can be independent of any previous stratification. The SRF system has been used for a number of multi-facet resource surveys. Both methods have their positive and negative aspects, and both have particular uses.Both can and will evolve further in association with other resource inventory and monitoring methods now being developed.These two methods are not the only possible approaches to aerial survey design. Other possibilities include spiral surveys for use in difficult terrain, such as isolated hill masses, and for censusing animal species that are rare or in frequent and have an importance disproportionate to their density, such as lion or kudu. There are also zig-zag designs for valley bottom surveys in heavily dissected country, and total block surveys which are particularly useful for animal counts in densely bushed areas.The development of aerial survey in eastern Africa has been traced from early pioneers to the present situation, where aerial survey is one component of a multi-dimensional environmental information-gathering system. This has been done in order to point out the steady development of survey techniques, producing the range of methods now available from which the most appropriate can be chosen for a given purpose. The present information-gathering system typified by the ecological monitoring unit is a powerful, yet flexible, resource management tool whose real influence still lies in the future. For this reason, the system is now used by UNEP and its associated United Nations agencies as the basis for a global renewable resource monitoring network.GEMS is already involved in monitoring the renewable resources of the world's arid and semi-arid regions, which brings it into the realm of range manage ment and anti-desertification programmes. GEMS is also involved in forest-cover and soil-degradation monitoring and will soon be active in the co-ordination of re source monitoring in the Global Biosphere Reserve network. Genetic resource monitoring, including a focus on threatened species, and food-production monitor ing are two further activities with which GEMS will be concerned in the future. In all of these, it is expected that the techniques described here will play a major role. These forest cover surveys were carried out as part of a monitoring project in West Africa (Benin, Cameroon and Togo) for GEMS. Now that appropriate forest-cover monitoring methods have been developed, they will be expanded into other tropical forest regions in Latin America and southeast Asia.A world-wide network of ecological monitoring units is currently being initiated in arid and semi-arid regions for inclusion within GEMS, based on systematic reconnaissance flights. A few examples will show the kind of surveys being undertaken. In Bolivia, the monitoring unit will survey a central rift valley system which contains large flocks of domestic llama, alpaca, sheep and pigs, usually managed together. Serious ecological degradation has resulted from over grazing, coupled with the removal for fuel of all woody vegetation down to a depth of about 1 m below ground. This survey should present no special problems except that the floor of the valley system is at an altitude of 3962 m so that super charged aircraft must be used. Specific aerial census techniques will also be used to determine the population of wild vicuna in the study area. Additional special surveys are required for the adjacent rugged Andean valleys at even higher alti tudes. East of the Andes, large areas of degraded chaoo bushland and thicket, on sandy soil, will be inventoried and monitored during an initial 4-year period.The information gained from this project will be used to assist the Bolivian Govern ment to develop a practical plan of action to counteract desertification.A similar project will monitor the Argentinian northern rangelands and a large area of cold desert in southern Patagonia, a major sheep production region about which comparatively little is known. Sheep numbers and primary and secondary production data will be investigated. Low-level aerial surveys in cold weather present their own peculiar problems.In Peru, coastal hill lands, or lomas, are entirely supported by occult precipitation from the seasonally prevalent fogs: in many of these areas it has never been known to rain. The natural vegetation of the lomas is adapted to inter cepting fog moisture from July to September. At this time a dense vegetation of grass and herbs occurs, which dies down during the rest of the year. The lomas are grazed heavily by livestock as long as forage is available, and then the animals are moved down to valleys to graze the stubble of irrigated fields. In the dry months of April to June, the stock are taken up to high Andean meadows at altitudes of 3353 m, after which they return to the lomas. This livestock production system is not fully understood and the lomas have been badly degraded. The government wishes to rehabilitate these areas and is participating in a 5-year inventory and monitoring project that will provide specific management and development proposals. The nature of the terrain and the objectives of the project will require the application of special aerial survey techniques.In Pakistan, the Thai desert lies between two branches of the Indus River.Part of this desert is under irrigation agriculture while the rest is used by resident, but mobile pastoralists . In addition, the area is traversed seasonally by nomadic pastoralists taking their livestock from the west out of Baluchistan to feed on the stubble fields of the Indus irrigation network. The Thai is also the southernmost grazing area of other nomads who move their stock seasonally north to the pastures of the high Himalayas. The government wishes to establish an ecological monitor ing unit to obtain information on these livestock production systems which can be used as a basis for range improvement and anti-desertification measures. The development of agricultural survey methods will pose particular problems in the Thai project.In Afghanistan, a nomad corridor in the southern part of the country will be studied by an ecological monitoring unit to be established within the Ministry of Agriculture to determine the number of livestock present and the seasonal carrying capacity of the land. The main livestock species is sheep, which are wintered in the valley bottoms and moved to mountain meadows in the spring. Stock congregate in such numbers in the valleys during winter that aerial photography census methods will have to be used. The seasonal dispersal into the mountains can also only be understood adequately through investigation from the air.In Senegal, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is cooperating with UNEP in a project to inventory and monitor Sahelian pastoral ecosystems. This 4year project is adapting the methodologies developed in eastern Africa to the con ditions peculiar to the Sudano-Sahelian zones. The information obtained is being used by the government to improve its range management programme, including the formulation of anti-desertification measures, and to develop the national livestock industry. It is hoped that this project can be coordinated with similar efforts plan ned in Mali and Nigeria, and that this type of activity will increase throughout the West African region. The success of this approach depends on the availability of a standard methodology for resource survey which is readily applicable and allows results to be compared from different countries and regions. For this reason, GEMS places great importance on the standardization of survey methodology.Today among government officers, businessmen and land resource and en vironment managers, there is an unprecedented demand for comprehensive, accurate and timely information about environmental issues and resources over large areas of the country. This demand is likely to increase with expanding human population, industrialization and more complicated land-use planning and legis lation. Improved data collection methods are being sought and developed to meet the growing demand for information to provide a basis for planning, monitoring trends and prediction. One of the areas of technology development which promises to improve substantially on conventional data collection capabilities when dealing with large geographic areas is-remote sensing and one of the most important devel opments in this field is aerial survey.Aerial survey combines remarkable advantages of speed, convenience, economy and replicability. Its main drawback is limited accuracy, which is com plicated by the problem of controlling errors due to sampling procedures and the inconsistency of human observers. This drawback is the principal limitation on the extension of the method in the long run. Currently, but probably only temporarily, the application of the method is also being undermined by lack of consensus among leading practitioners on how to reduce sampling errors by choosing the best sampling design and approach to statistical analysis. This workshop was organized on the premise that an appropriate survey design and method of data analysis can only be chosen with a clear view of the objectives for which a survey is performed.A great deal of pioneering aerial survey work has been carried out in Kenya. This work has focused almost entirely on wildlife research because game managers and biologists have been searching for a simple, accurate technique for estimating wild animal populations since the turn of the century. After World War n, light aeroplanes became available commercially and wildlife managers began to use them informally for counting animals in their natural habitats. In Kenya and the rest of eastern Africa, light aircraft were first used for counting game in the 1950s. Early aerial surveys were mostly total censuses (Grzimek and Grzimek, 1960;Zaphiro, 1959;Darling, 1960;Talbot and Talbot, 1963;Talbot and Stewart, 1964). The technique had been developed for a decade by 1968 when a workshop on the Use of Light Aircraft in Wildlife Management was held at Kilaguni in Kenya.Developments since then are described by Pennycuick (1969), Watson et al (1969), Watson (1970a), Norton-Griffiths (1972, 1975), Cobb (1976), Gwynne and Croze (1975) and Western (1976).The most significant positive outcome of the 1968 workshop was to en courage the use of appropriate statistical analysis of aerial survey data. Since then, disagreements have persisted concerning the best approach to survey design and ways of making estimates more accurate and precise. The lack of accuracy and precision achieved has cast doubts in some quarters on the usefulness of aerial survey techniques to provide the information needed by planners and managers.As with any other research tool, the future use of aerial survey will depend not only on its value in terms of accuracy and precision, but also on its costs and benefits in relation to stated objectives and to the relative merits of alternative techniques. If present methodological disputes can be resolved and acceptable levels of accuracy and precision achieved, attention in future can be focused on the results of aerial surveys and how they can be translated into improved planning and management.A discussion of the aerial surveys which have been carried out in Kenya might serve as a basis for evaluating the various methodologies which have been used. The projects which have included aerial survey have also frequently over lapped geographically, causing unnecessary duplication of effort. Some projects have involved the collection of unnecessary data or have been totally ill-founded.Overall, there has been a proliferation of aerial surveys whose justification has often been artificial in terms of management or policy decisions. There is clearly  The role of light aircraft in collecting information about natural resources has been recognized for some time, particularly in the context of development planning (Watson et al, 1975). Wilson and Adams (1977) and Wilson (1979) have pointed out that surveys conducted from light aircraft can be interposed with great advantage between information collection exercises based on remote sensing, par ticularly aerial photography and, more recently, satellite imagery, and traditional ground-level surveys. These authors describe a series of surveys carried out in western Sudan where each increasingly precise level of survey guided the successive stages of work with appreciably lower overall costs. In this context, low-level aerial survey is one of a spectrum of area survey methods (see Figure 1).In this discussion, the role of light aircraft remote sensing methods will be This workshop appears to have been structured as though the ultimate survey objective or use to which information is to be put automatically determines methodology. The present authors consider this approach misleading. There is no inherent difference between a count of animals carried out for a census, for development planning or for project monitoring. In certain circumstances, moni toring surveys might require higher precision and tolerate larger uncorrected biases, development surveys occasionally tolerate lower precision but place more importance on distribution information, and censuses, in theory at least, might not require distributional information, though such a situation would be unlikely. In this way, the intended use of survey information does influence the way in which it is collected. However, in the experience of the authors, the intended use of a survey is seldom, if ever, defined with sufficient precision to be used as the sole basis of survey design. In practical terms, if the purposes of a survey are to pro vide a useful definition of the methods to be used, the following information must be provided at the outset : the subject or subjects of the survey (e.g. livestock numbers and dis tribution or a map of range vegetation) the time(s) and season(s) when the survey should be carried out, if relevant the numerical, spatial and possibly temporal levels of precision desired the level of accuracy required (in fact, all surveys seem to require high levels of accuracy) the funding available for the survey.Alternatively, if the user can provide a sufficiently detailed account of the objectives of the survey, the information listed above could be derived as a basis for survey design. Pratt (personal communication) suggests that an appropriate survey method could be devised on the basis of a classification of the uses to which the survey information will be put. The experience of the authors, however, does not suggest that such a classification could provide an adequate basis for survey design.In practice, survey design is defined primarily in terms of the budget, with the method adopted a compromise between the information parameters desired, as listed above, and the available funds. Very often, the critical trade-off is between numerical precision and cost. Light aircraft survey was devised in the unsophis ticated environment of field research operated on shoestring budgets, and it has become a tool in commercial survey operations largely because it is inexpensive.A review of survey objectives may well indicate in some cases that the use of light aircraft is less appropriate than other approaches, or that, although no other approach is technically or economically feasible, neither will the use of light air craft provide sufficiently extensive, precise, frequent or accurate information on enough topics to warrant its use, given the available funding.Essentially, light aircraft survey involves the operation of the aircraft as an observation platform in order to collect information about resources and their use.Broadly speaking, to complete such a survey, five groups of problems must be solved, though they overlap to some extent: administrative problems, including management, finance, purchasing, staffing contractual terms, clearances and insurance operational problems, including flying, fuelling and maintaining the aircraft, operating sensing and recording equipment and arranging the work, food, sleep and leisure of the crews at the survey site survey design problems, including flight patterns, stratification, sampling, aircraft heights and speeds observational problems, involving the translation of the information on the ground into a record which relates in a known manner to that information processing problems, involving the transformation of the records collected from the aircraft into a form which the client can use.The objectives of a survey influence only the problem of survey design, and even here their influence is limited by operational and observational considerations.The authors' experience has been that the main difficulties in light aircraft survey methods lie in the administrative, operational and observational areas, while the most serious controversies lie in the observational and, to a much lesser extent, the survey design realms. In conclusion, a classification of methods according to objectives, even if these are comprehensively and unambiguously defined, would seem to be of limited value, either for describing methods or for resolving some of the controversies which exist in the field of low-level aerial survey. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between survey objectives and methods.In the following sections, the chief features will be described of a number of low-level aerial surveys which have been carried out since 1968. These des criptions illustrate the versatility and usefulness of the basic light aircraft survey method and indicate some important variations in survey design.A survey of crocodile in western and central Uganda was carried out by Watson with ISC Parker under a contract between Wildlife Services Ltd, the Uganda Fisheries Department and the Uganda National Parks (see Parker andWatson, 1969, 1970). It involved an early attempt to account for major sources of bias by calibration.A total count of crocodile along river banks and lake shores was made from a Cessna 185 aircraft flying at 128-160 km/hr from 30 to 20 m above the water. This approach was considered feasible because the distribution of crocodile was sufficiently confined to the river banks. The main features of the survey design are illustrated schematically in Figure 3.The authors were well aware that their total count was a gross underestimate of the number of crocodile in the area, and so attempted to calibrate their figures (i.e. derive a bias factor) by counting a section of the river using supposedly more accurate methods. Counts were made from a helicopter in daylight, from a heli copter at night using spotlights and from a boat at night, also using spotlights. was assumed that all crocodile were seen from the boat at night because this method yielded the highest counts for a particular stretch of river. From these figures, a bias factor was derived which was used to correct the total count for the entire area. Graham (1968) corrected crocodile counts carried out at Lake Turkana in the same way.A survey of livestock on the Alledeghi plains of Ethiopia was carried out by Watson under a contract between RMR and the Awash Valley Authority (see Watson et al, 1973a). It consisted of a typical stratified survey using random strip sampling.A Piper Super Cub was flown at 97 km/hr at a height of 113 m, as determined by radar altimetry. Counting was carried out through an open window.The Awash Valley Authority wished to satisfy themselves that the pilot/ observer could count groups of livestock accurately. They therefore placed small groups of cattle, sheep, goats and camels on the plains accompanied by members of their staff carrying large identifying numbers. In addition, some larger groups of cattle were confined in enclosures for counting. Remote, visual counts were made of small groups of about 15 or less, while counts of larger groups were made from photographs. Both types of counts proved sufficiently accurate. This and other experience has suggested that for most people remote count ing becomes inaccurate for groups of 15 or more individuals. To illustrate this, the reader should count the small circles in Figure 4 without touching or marking the page, i.e. by remote counting. The results should be recorded and then the items recounted by touching and/or marking.A survey of land use and land potential in Karago-Giciye, Rwanda was Trials performed on randomly selected subsections of river bank and lake shore to find a method which reduces or eliminates bias Method n (night counts from o boat using spotlights to count eyes) was judged to give the least bias ( but does not eliminate it). This method was then applied to further sections of bank + shore to give a reasonably precise cor rection factor for the whole population.Photogrammetric quadrat sampling of sections of river bank + lake shore lines occupied by densest crocodile populations provided stotus information . Since no segregation took place these data were taken to apply to the whole population 4d made it more than usually important to randomize (with probability proportional to size) the selection of sampling strips and to orientate these strips at right angles to the primary ecological axis (Watson and Tippet, 1975). Second, for a more detailed investigation of soils, cropping patterns and socio-economic parameters, a random selection of quadrat sampling units was photographed vertically in stereo at a scale of about 1 : 3000. These sampling units were also surveyed on the ground to determine soil types, identify standing field crops, establish recent cropping histories and obtain simple socio-economic information by questionnaire from families whose houses and/or fields fell within the sampling unit.The two authors carried out this survey as a team, alternating as pilot and passenger. At the outset, it was planned that the passenger would operate stop watches to record land-use categories and would possibly count houses in the sam pling strip, in addition to his primary function of changing film magazines and checking camera functions. It was discovered, however, that the passenger's per formance fell off markedly after the first hour' s flying, and after the first 2 days the pilot made all the observations and took all the 35 mm photographs. The design used for this survey is represented schematically in Figure 5.  Too high or too low for tea-growing potential Sampled at low intensity to build up overall land-use picture since farmers in other strata also cultivate fields and graze livestock on these higher and lower lands. Only aerial strip sampling used.High strata with limited tea potential. Strata 6 and 7 were differentiated on the basis of soil differences, sampled at medium density by aerial strip sampling and at low density by aerial quadrats which were photo graphed and then visited on the ground. Area frame sampling was extended to cognate frame sampling by investigation of households whose number and distribution had been established from strip sampling.Low strata with limited tea-growing potential. Strata 12 and 13 were differentiated on the basis of soil differences. Sampling as for 6,7 and 8. Tippett under a contract between RMR and the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture (see Watson et al, 1974). The ministry asked for a detailed assessment of cropproduction systems in the five provinces, with special emphasis on the status of agricultural production during the 1973 famine.A two-stage stratified random sample was carried out, using quadrat sam pling units demarcated as vertical photographs of 13 cm format at scales between 1 : 3000 and 1 : 6000. Because altitude and the aspect of slope are the most im portant determinants of rainfall in the Ethiopian highlands, stratification was based mainly on these two factors. A random selection of the quadrat sampling units was identified for the second stage of sampling by trained agricultural enumerators on the ground. This involved a detailed ground-level examination of the photographed sites and interviews with the local people using a questionnaire. The ground teams were provided with a 1 : 50 000 aerial photograph and a 1 : 3000 -6000 sampling unit photograph to guide them to their sites, but some of them had difficulty finding the sites and the aircraft was used to guide them. The survey design is shown schematically in Figure 6.The enumerators proved unwilling to walk to the sampling sites which fell at substantial distances from the roads. Therefore, the ground-level investigation had to be based on units falling sufficiently close to the roads to be reached by Landrover. Because this departure from random selection might have introduced an element of bias, a helicopter was used to collect information from a few very inaccessible sampling units and tests were carried out to see if there were detect able correlations between accessibility (in this case distance from a motor road)and any of the measured parameters of the rural economy.  Because of the rugged terrain in the Ethiopian highlands and the short air strips in the area, a Piper Super Cub aircraft was used. In addition to carrying out the survey work, this slow-flying, manoeuverable aircraft proved useful in guiding the enumerators to their sites.An inventory of forests and woodlands was carried out by Watson and Tippett in southern Sudan with assistance from J J Beckett and F Jolly, as a contract be tween RMR and the Sudan Forestry Department (see Watson et al, 1976). A threestage random sample was constructed, based on the identification of woodland/ forest types from 1 : 40 000 aerial photographs which were already available.Initially, systematic aerial reconnaissance was carried out and these photographs were annotated and a 1 : 40 000 base map prepared. Each woodland /forest type became one stratum in the survey design.Within each stratum, quadrat sampling units were selected at random. At the first stage, a vertical monochrome photograph at 1 : 3000 -6000 was taken of all the sampling units. Within each of these quadrats (i.e. photographic frames), a smaller quadrat was selected at random and marked on the photographic print. At the second stage, these smaller quadrats were photographed vertically or semivertically using 35 mm Ektachrome film and the photographs were examined at 6 times enlargement and the species of 80% of the tree canopy identified. At the third stage, a random selection of these sampling units was visited on the ground by trained teams of foresters. Each team had a copy of the monochrome print of the original sampling quadrat which they annotated by identifying the species of trees in the smaller second-stage quadrat area and estimating timber volumes using standard forestry methods. The enlarged Ektachrome images were then compared with the annotated monochrome prints and a key was developed for species identification.Similarly, canopy size and timber volume relationships were constructed for each species and type of species. The key was then applied to the sampling units which were not visited on the ground, to provide estimates (of known precision) of species composition and timber volume for each forest type in the entire area. A schematic presentation of the survey design is given as Figure 7.A slow-flying Piper Super Cub with open panels was used for this work. In addition to aerial surveying, the aircraft was used to guide ground teams to the sampling sites and to drop monochrome prints to the teams at each site, as the film was processed at some distance from the field camp.A livestock and natural resources survey was carried out by Watson in Sierra Leone under a contract between Hunting Technical Services and the Government of Sierra Leone (see Watson, 1979). The government wished to bring together in formation on a wide range of resources simultaneously in order to evaluate and compare a number of development possibilities.The design of this survey was influenced by the fact that the ecological units, which are usually the basis of stratification in a livestock and natural resource survey, are very small in Sierra Leone and occur in repeated patterns in associ ation with a well developed drainage system. For this reason, in devising a strati fication of the country, greater emphasis had to be placed on administrative units and sheer convenience, and this had a profound influence on the subsequent develop ment of the survey method.For one thing, it was known that there were virtually no livestock in the southern districts, so it was possible to demarcate large strata in the south and sample them at very low density. In this way, sampling effort could be concentrated in the areas where most of the livestock occur, resulting in more efficient estimates.A similar focusing of sampling effort was used for the Sudan National Livestock Census and Resource Inventory (see Watson et al, 1977).  Each sampling stratum was extremely heterogeneous in terms of ecology and land use. This situation posed two problems: first, it was difficult to describe the system of livestock utilization in terms of distributions derived from the survey, and second, if calibration factors had been developed for entire strata or groups of strata, as is usually the case, the corrections for bias would have had high variance. These problems were dealt with by classifying each animal or group of animals observed according to an ecological or land-use type. As the proportion of each ecological or land-use type in each stratum was also recorded, it then be came possible io break down estimates of livestock numbers and densities at the stratum and national levels according to ecological or land-use types. This pro duced an initial understanding of the overall system of livestock keeping and land use. In addition, calibration factors could be developed for each ecological or landuse type, providing more precise correction factors for bias.This study also involved special observation problems. The livestock in Sierra Leone, and in particular the cattle, occur in very small groups or frequently as isolated animals. The animals are also smaller and of more uniform colour than the East African breeds, being a dwarf type and generally a pale tawny brown. In addition, the vegetation of the country is composed of dense forest, woodland or wooded grassland, with very tall mature grasses. Thus, the only time to carry out an aerial survey was at the end of the dry season, when most of the tall grass had been burnt and many of the livestock were grazing the fallow croplands. Even at this time, calibration methods showed very large bias. During the wet season, aerial survey methods would probably not be acceptable.In each sampling strip, a large number of resources and utilization features were recorded. Because of the high density of information observed, a slow-flying Piper Super Cub was used. A full list of the features recorded is given in Table 1 and the survey design is represented schematically in Figure 8. Houses -occupied dwellings Type 1 -Circular houses with conical grass roofs, set on mud, stone, brick or timber walls Tvpe 2 -Houses with conical grass roofs which extend to the ground, con cealing, or in place of, circular walls Tvpe 3 -Houses with ridged grass roofs, which extend the whole length of the building, over square or rectangular mud, stone, brick or timber walls Tvpe 4 -Houses with ridged grass roofs, but whose ridges do not extend the whole length of the building (and whose roofs therefore have a pitch on all four sides), over square or rectangular mud, stone, brick or timber walls Tvpe 5 -Houses with iron roofs 3.Other structures Tvpe 6 -Agricultural shelters: Various grass-roofed structures used by farmers in their fields, but not permanently occupied Tvpe 7 -Field stores of agricultural products and byproducts Tvpe 8 -Abandoned agricultural shelters Type 9 -Abandoned houses of other types 4.Compounds and villages Type 10 -Compounds presumably occupied by a single family or household characterized by one (or several) dwelling(s) with marked or fenced compounds, small stores, kitchens, etc Tvpe 11 -Villages and small towns in which individual household compounds are not always present or distinguishable 5.Livestock-associated structures Type 12 -Occupied livestock 'enclosures' (which in many cases have no surrounding fence, and can be identified only from the accumu lation of dung and the compaction of earth) Tvpe 13 -Abandoned livestock 'enclosures' Type 14 -Small fenced salting places, where a mixture of salts and soil from termitaria is provided to cattle 6. Land-use small proportion of these are intensively managed and exploited in plantations. In this survey, land use has been categorized as under oil palm when trees are spaced on average at less than 50 m. Clearly, other forms of land use can take place under such low densities of palm, and this category of land-use does not exclude other types 7. Wildlife All wildlife resources are recorded by species 8. Surface water sources Flowing rivers, wells, rain water pools, riverine pools, small shallow reservoirs, large (man-made) reservoirs, boreholes, etc.Source: Watson (1979).A vegetation map of the central rangelands of Somalia was prepared byWatson and Tippett in association with C F Hemming, J B Gillett, J J Beckett and V Scholes as a contract between RMR and the Somali National Range Agency (see Watson et al, 1979 andWatson andTippett, 1979).For this study, excellent 1 : 250 000 enhanced colour composite LANDSAT prints and 1 : 100 000 topographical maps were available. Initially, these materials were annotated by systematic aerial reconnaissance flights at 305 to 3 050 m, pro ducing precise maps of range-vegetation and land-system boundaries. Except Strata very heterogeneous in physical and biotic terms. ln general, areas of high livestock density were more intensely stratified. Because of this, and since some districts were specified as more important by the client, each district boundary was used in addition as a stratum boundary. Each stratum was classified accor ding to the proportions of land in different land -use /soil / vegetation /geomor etiological/ drainage zones, determined by line intercept sampling. Livestock observed and counted in sampling strips were ascribed to these same zones. Those strata with higher livestock densities were sampled more intensively.Mountainous strata sampled with randomly selected contour sampling strips of fixed length. These strata were fairly uniform and were treated as such.These districts support very few livestock, each district has therefore been considered as a single stra tum, and was sampled unintensively. Strata were not classified for ecological zones, nor were livestock so ascribed.ln the entire survey over 60 strata were identified.where vegetation or land-system boundaries of great complexity or poor definition were encountered, this reconnaissance work was done from a Cessna 210 aircraft looking through perspex panels. The aircraft flew in two basic patterns: a system atic series of parallel lines 20 km apart at 1 525 m, while the observers studied veg etation and land-system boundaries at least 10 km on either side of the aircraft, and a more variable pattern over all the land-system boundaries and most of the range-vegetation boundaries.Next, two-stage sampling quadrats were selected from the land-system units, using limited randomization. The sampling units were selected at random, but they were then moved to the nearest point at which they could be easily relocated, either from the air or on the ground. If this resulted in movement of a sampling unit to another range vegetation type or another variant of the original type, then it was rejected and another sampling unit selected. Once the sampling sites were identified, vertical or semi-vertical 35 mm Ektachrome photographs were taken at 1 : 4 000 -12 000. For most sites, photographs were taken at three scales. The more accessible halves of the sampling units were also visited on the ground, and land use, soils and the taxonomy and structure of the vegetation were described. Be cause of the importance of browse for the livestock of the area, the taxonomic com position of the vegetation was considered particularly important. A representative selection of these sampling units was visited by Hemming and Gillett, who recorded detailed botanical descriptions. The survey design is shown in simplified schematic form in Figure 9.The emphasis in this study on the relocatability of sampling sites was a res ponse to the Somali Government's wish to establish a range vegetation monitoring programme based on fixed sampling sites. Because this survey was carried out as a preliminary to a much greater research and management effort financed through the World Bank, a wide range of materials was prepared. These included:-a report on static range resources, including topography, climate, geomorphology , soils, drainage, erosion and land use stage of stratification: flight pattern follows boundaries of drofted landsystem units and refines these ^scanning confined to narrower zones.Strata were classified into biological classes (9) and ecological zones (26).Strip sampling effort wos proportionally greater in strata of higher livestock density ond greater human use.Quadrat sampling effort was fairly uniform over the entire survey area.-a set of maps at 1 : 1 000 000 accompanying the report -more than 4 000 colour transparencies, indexed and fully documented, from about 750 sampling sites, which will form the basis of a fixed-site range monitoring programme -a set of colour plates of a selection of ground and aerial sampling sites, illustrating the information available in the colour transparencies -a collection of more than 800 identified herbarium specimens -a preliminary checklist of plants in the area for use by range workers -the enhanced colour composite LANDSAT prints, with a mosaic added to match the longitude /latitude format of the 1 : 1 000 000 maps -200 copies of a land-systems/range-vegetation map at 1 : 250 000 in 18 sheets -acetate negatives and positives of 1 : 250 000 and 1 : 100 000 land system/ range-vegetation maps -computer printouts of wet-and dry-season census results, covering live stock, wildlife, houses by structural types, crop production patterns, surface water sources and boreholes -1:1 000 000 maps of the wet-and dry-season distribution of these features -a report on the survey methods used and the main implications of the information provided by the census for possible development alternatives.These examples of surveys conducted from light aircraft suggest the useful ness and versatility of this approach to information gathering, especially when used together with other survey techniques. Rather simple area frame sampling rules are followed and a system of stratification is devised appropriate to the information being collected.A number of controversies exist among different practitioners in this field, however. The position of the authors on five issues will be discussed, mentioned in order of importance.Bias, due to animals which are hidden or simply not noticed by the observer, is the most serious problem of current light aircraft survey methods. Livestock surveys have revealed biases (underestimation) of 3 to 59%, and the problem is more serious for wild species: 800% bias has been measured for reedbuck in tall grassland and 450% for elephant in medium bush woodland. It appears that medium or large groups of animals are much more likely to be spotted than individuals or small groups, regardless of the size, colour or even, to some extent, the behaviour of the animals . This increase in the probability of being spotted exceeds the level which would be expected from simple area or numerical relationships, and probably explains why undercounting is so much more substantial for wild animals than for livestock. Any aerial survey technique will always involve some degree of bias.The authors have found that it is not possible to record information on strip samples from aircraft moving at high speeds. When the items to be observed occur in very high densities, quadrat sampling with a photographic record becomes necessary. It has also been found that a perspex window is a significant barrier be tween the observer and the subject being observed and that objects on photographs taken through a perspex window are more difficult to count.Pilots, in our experience, produce more accurate counts when flying them selves than when they or other observers are being flown. The main reason for this is that an observer experiences stress when he attempts to perform a precise visual task while being subject to movement which he does not control and cannot anticipate. This stress is evident as nausea, sickness, fatigue and lack of con centration. The authors have never flown with an observer who was capable of more than 2 hours' continuous attention, and at least half the observers with whom they have flown have slept within the first 4 hours of flight.The present authors believe that competent observers are born, not trained.The aerial survey method is essentially nontransferable until sensors replace human observers .In the authors' view, stratified sampling is always preferable to systematic sampling. Any basis of stratification is better than none, but a stratification based on ecological information is preferable to one which is artificial. The authors believe that the grids and other presentations of distribution based on systematic sampling provide illusions of precision; more detailed analysis of grid data, based on small numbers of non-independent sampling units is not justified by any statistical or mathematical arguments encountered by the authors. Its purpose is the long-term monitoring of Kenya's rangelands, livestock and wild herbivores.While rational wildlife management policies were being developed in Kenya to maximize income benefits to land-owners from tourist and hunting fees and to preserve wildlife as an alternative land-use resource, certain wildlife species were found to be seriously endangered and the hunting policy as a whole came into question. This crisis situation added impetus to the establishment of a national ecological monitoring programme. Beyond national park and game reserve boundaries, wild herbivores were sharing available grazing resources with livestock, and in these areas there was an urgent need to monitor trends in rangeland conditions and animal populations and distributions to ensure the con servation of wildlife and formulate the most appropriate multi-purpose land-use strategies.The Kenya Government had recognized for some time the value of eco logical monitoring as a tool for resource management. Ecological monitoring methods had been developed in eastern Africa for over a decade, though on a re latively small scale, for example by the Serengeti and the Ilkisongo Ecological Very few precedents existed for planning and implementing a national eco logical monitoring programme in Kenya. The first tasks could be described as ' ground work' . These included acquiring the necessary office facilities and pur chasing and testing equipment. Further initial tasks will be discussed in more detail.Because KEEMU's terms of reference cover the entire rangeland area of 2 Kenya -some 500 000 km -it was necessary at the outset to define manageable study areas. A number of factors were taken into consideration, including KEEMU's capabilities in terms of manpower, equipment, time and other resources. Pri orities in the selection of survey areas were also dictated by the requirements of the Kenya Livestock Development Project, Phase II.A major initial task was to demarcate the Kenya rangelands into ecological units appropriate for monitoring purposes. Accordingly, a LANDSAT false-colour mosaic was prepared and 44 ecological units chosen, based on background know ledge and experience concerning types of vegetation, topography, animal migration patterns and seasonality factors affecting regional rangeland ecology (Figure 1). A series of survey flights was then undertaken to check and adjust the ecological boundaries of the units. These 44 units have since been used as a basis for KREMU's on-going ecological surveys. This work was done with the assistance of M D Gwynne under the auspices of the UNDP/FAO Kenya Habitat Utilization Project, working in cooperation with KEEMU's senior scientific staff.To some extent, KEEMU was able to adopt methods which had already been tested and applied in eastern Africa, but it became increasingly clear that new  Mombasa methods had to be developed, tested and standardized, particularly for the ground monitoring programme. A systematic ground survey (SGS) programme was launched, aimed at determining vegetation trends, soil moisture and rainfall pat terns. This information had to be standardized for varying vegetation communities to allow meaningful analysis and interpretation of results.Once staff members were selected, a residential aerial observer training course was organized, as described by Dirschl et al (1978a). On-the-job training was provided to biologists and ecologists in the techniques of aerial and groundlevel ecological monitoring. Trainees were also taught how to use LANDSAT images to enhance ground data collection.An appropriate data storage and retrieval system was designed, along with the necessary statistical procedures for the analysis of survey data. Most of KREMU's data processing has been carried out by the Central Bureau of Statistics with an IBM 370 computer. For simple data analysis, KREMU also has its own mini-computers (HP 9830 and Radio Shack TRS 80). The design of appropriate sampling strategies for the collection of biological and ecological data has been an on-going activity of the entire scientific staff, involving continuous exchange of views .The discussion of KREMU's accomplishments will focus on the ecological surveys and censuses carried out within the framework of the on-going ecological monitoring programmes.An initial systematic aerial census of about 20 wildlife species plus cattle, sheep, goats, camels and donkeys was completed in October 1977 for the entire country. The objective of this survey was to provide baseline data on numbers and distributions of animal communities in the study areas as a basis for future im proved sampling strategies. A sampling fraction of 2.2% was chosen for this survey. Preliminary results are reported in Dirschl et al (1978b).A second national census was conducted in 1978. This was carried out in the same locations and at the same season as the 1977 census, but the sampling fraction was increased to 4. 5% in an effort to increase precision. Some results of this census are reported in Stelfox et al (1979b). Based on the 1977 ecological survey and previous work on the distribution of wildlife in Kenya (Stewart and Stewart, 1963), KREMU has produced density distribution maps for over 20 wildlife species and for cattle, sheep, goats, camels and donkeys (Stevens and Mbugua, 1979).In addition to the national animal censuses, a number of special surveys have been conducted in priority areas, such as Meru and Bisanadi Conservation Areas (see Wetmore et al, 1977;Stelfox, 1979;Kufwafwa and Stelfox, 1979;Stelfox and Mugambi, 1979). Monthly surveys have also been conducted in the Masai Mara study area as part of the monitoring programme.Population status of endangered wildlife species Special reports have been written on the population status of Grevy's zebra (Dirschl and Wetmore, 1978), and on the distribution, densities and population trends of elephant and rhinoceros (Stelfox et al, 1979a), based on data from the national censuses. The purpose of these special reports is essentially to emphasize the decline in population of these species and to make some preliminary recommen dations to assist on-going conservation efforts. In its establishment and operations, KREMU has experienced its share of problems. This would be expected in any new organization whose mandate is the collection and analysis of ecological data on an interdisciplinary basis over a wide area.Problems encountered in recruiting counterpart staff have been a basic constraint on the transfer of knowledge from Canadian advisers to Kenyan personnel.Recruitment problems have been due to a scarcity of qualified people in certain fields and the relatively low levels of remuneration offered by the civil service.The demand for these categories of staff, e.g. pilots and systems analysts, is very high in the private sector, which generally offers high salaries.Purchasing and testing equipment Although equipment was purchased on time in Canada, delays in delivery were encountered. New equipment also had to be tested before it could be used, which further delayed KEEMU's schedule of operations.The logistics of carrying out survey work caused some problems as KREMU became operational. Logistical problems were particularly serious because KREMU' s initial surveys covered the entire country.In some cases, KREMU' s field operations have been impeded by local people who have not been adequately informed about KEEMU's objectives and activi ties. This has occasionally led to delays in planning and implementing field surveys.The potential users of the data collected by KREMU, particularly government administrators, also need to be better informed about the activities of the unit.The success of an ambitious programme such as KREMU' s depends heavily on the interest and motivation of the staff. Each staff member should feel that his or her contribution to the programme is valuable. Career and training opportunities function as powerful incentives, and these and other motivations are necessary if the programme as a whole is to succeed.The collection of data is only the first phase of KREMU's responsibilities.These data must then be analysed and presented in reports which are distributed to the relevant government ministries. When data-analysis and report-writing capabilities are inadequate, substantial delays occur between the collection and the dissemination of information. population levels, declines and trends of animal communities in the Kenya rangelands; populations of elephant, rhinoceros and Grevy's zebra have been shown to be declining (see Stelfox et al 1979a;and Dirschl and Wetmore, 1978) seasonal dispersal of wildlife and livestock in Meru and Bisanadi Con servation areas (see Dirschl and Wetmore, 1978;and Stelfox, 1979) animal distributions and densities in the rangelands of Kenya, particularly   A visibility bias of 50% is used for rhinoceros (Goddard, 1970) and 25% for elephant. Information should become available in 1980 which will provide a basis for correcting the population figures obtained for most other animal species, but at present these are not corrected. The data collected so far suggest that the KREMU aerial survey programme is obtaining estimates of populations and trends of sufficient reliability, even for scarce species such as rhinoceros which probably number fewer than 2 000 throughout Kenya.The accuracy of aerial survey data is affected by counting bias and sampling error. Both of these factors will be discussed. To examine levels of bias, aerial survey counts have been compared with data obtained from photographs and counts on the ground. This approach only achieves an approximation of counting bias,\" however, unless the true populations are known. For example, four observers were flown independently over a swampy area in Meru National Park containing a population of elephant, buffalo, zebra, waterbuck, impala and ostrich. A Cessna 185 was used, flying at 150 kph, 300 ft (91 m) above the ground. The four independent visual counts from the air averaged 86.6% of the figures obtained by repeated ground counts made from an adjacent raised platform using binoculars. On another occasion, it was known that 470 buffalo were present in the swamp; the visual population estimates of four aerial observers averaged 90.7% of this figure.Aerial and ground counts of herbivores were also compared along 150 m strips of the Mara plains adjacent to the Keekorok-Serena road during March, June and August 1979. The results for eight wild herbivores, as shown in Table 2, indicate a counting bias of 11%, assuming that the roadside ground count was accurate. In fact, the grassland vegetation contained only small, isolated patches of shrubs and trees so that most animals were readily visible from the road. How ever, some gazelle were evidently hidden in the tall grass in March and June be cause greater numbers were observed from the air than from the ground. The aerial counts of topi, gazelle and buffalo were closer to the populations recorded on the ground than were the aerial counts of giraffe, impala, kongoni, zebra and wildebeest. Figures in brackets are the aerial counts as a percentage of the ground counts.In August 1979, wild herbivore population estimates from aerial counts 2 were compared with ground counts on a 25 km block of the Mara plains. On two separate days aerial surveys and ground counts were carried out simultaneously,  On average for all species, the population estimate from the aerial survey was 71. 7% of the ground estimate and 70. 5% of the photographic count.The aerial population estimate for giraffe was only 10% of the ground count and 7% of the photographic count.Estimates of wildebeest and zebra populations were similar for all three surveys, while for topi the aerial count was only about 50% of the numbers obtained from the aerial photographs and on the ground.The photographic counts of gazelle and impala were respectively 38.8% and 13. 5% higher than the figures obtained from the air and on the ground. As these small herbivores were difficult to identify from photographs, it is likely that the high figures obtained were the result of misidentifying inanimate objects. Overall, the aerial counts of elephant, giraffe, wildebeest, zebra, topi, kongoni and buffalo were 72.4% of the ground counts and 88. 6% of the photo graphic counts. These species are all considered to be clearly visible from the air.Linear regression equations were applied to data obtained during KREMU's 1977 national aerial census in order to relate observer counts to photographic counts of cattle, sheep and goats, elephant, buffalo, impala and Thomson's and Grant's gazelle (Ng'ang 'a et al, 1979). These were the only species included in the aerial survey for which a sufficient number of photographs were available to make a comparison possible. A total of 2 794 photographs were analysed.In general, the visual counts were smaller than the photographic counts.The two estimates were closer for cattle, sheep and goats and elephant than for buffalo, impala and gazelle. Estimates of cattle and sheep and goat populations varied considerably among individual observers. The coefficients of determination were relatively low for all species and all observers, so these regressions have little predictive value. On the assumption that photographic counts are generally more accurate than observer counts, KREMU has adopted a policy of using photo graphic counts whenever they are available. As already mentioned, the observers normally photograph all groups of more than 10 animals.Counting bias has also been investigated in a number of accuracy-precision surveys. For instance, population estimates were compared from six repetitive surveys carried out in each of five ecological regions of Kenya. Each survey covered two subareas comprising 45 sampling units of 5 x 5 km each. East-west transects were spaced 5 km apart, and three strip widths were used, each at two flying heights. Differences in animal density were compared for different sampling units, species groups, left-and right-seat observer positions, flying heights and strip widths, using 5-way analyses of variance. Second-order interactions were also tested, but higher-order interactions were ignored (Peden et al, 1979).Population estimates and their standard errors were calculated for each combination of species group, flying height, strip width, observer position and subarea at each location. A regression equation was estimated to evaluate the relation ship between population estimates and standard errors. If it is assumed that sampling error is not significantly different among the six surveys and that overestimation of true animal numbers is unlikely, then the highest observed densities should be most accurate, although the true densities were unknown in these trials.These assumptions need to be tested, however.The narrower strip width consistently resulted in higher observed densities.Observed densities at middle and wide rod settings, which determine strip widths, also varied according to observer position in the aircraft, which is undesirable. It is possible that with wide rod settings observers find it difficult to maintain a con sistent strip of ground in view. There was generally little or no difference in ob served densities at different flying heights except in Tsavo East National Park where observed densities were higher at 300 than at 400 ft (91 and 122 m). Since the effects of height were not consistently significant, future surveys will generally be conducted at 400 ft (122 m) in the interest of flight safety.A 6-day accuracy-precision trial was also conducted at Galana Ranch, where the total cattle population was known to be 15 208 head. The analysis of variance did not reveal significant differences (P < 0. 05) among observed densities with different flying heights, strip widths or combinations of these factors. By treating the entire 6 days of data collection as a single census, the cattle population was estimated at 12 567. The 95% confidence limits ranged from 10 030 to 15 103, whic h did not contain the known population size . The average counting bias was 17.4% of the true value. Most of the animals missed were probably calves, which were known to number 1 609.Sampling errors. A frequent measure of precision is the standard error, expressed as a percentage of the population estimate (SE%). The SE% can be broken into several components :where CV is the coefficient of variation of the data, i.e. (standard deviation/sample mean) x 100, where n is the sample size and N is the total number of possible sampling units. Precision thus depends upon CV, n and N, and it follows that a decrease in CV or N, and an increase in n will increase precision. For given flying costs, precision will clearly be increased by observing as large an area as practical.For this reason, KEEMU has adopted a strategy of using the widest possible strip width which does not jeopardize accuracy.Based on KREMU's 1977 census of 16 species of animals in 44 eco-units, Peden (1980) found that:where G is the mean size of groups of animals in the ecological unit and D is the mean density of animals in the unit. The multiple coefficient of determination 2 (R = 0.87) was highly significant. It follows from these two equations that, for any given sampling effort, the greatest precision is possible when populations occur in small groups and at high densities.It would appear very difficult to obtain precise population estimates of species which are highly grouped or have a low density. Based on the 1977 data from the Tsavo ecological unit, for example, with a strip width of 112 m on both sides of the aircraft, about 25 000 km of transects would have to be covered to ob tain an SE% of 10 for livestock. This is equivalent to about 50 days of flying and could not be considered practical. Situations must be acknowledged where it would be too time-consuming or expensive to conduct aerial surveys of the required level of precision, and efforts should be concentrated on areas or species where more economic surveys can obtain valid results. From recent studies in high-priority districts of Kenya, KREMU has determined the best combination of survey height, strip width and sampling intensity for a few high-priority species. Once the opti mum combination for any given area is identified, the number of sampling units can be calculated which will result in the desired level of precision for any given species.Other herbivore species will also be monitored, but the weakness of the results ob tained must be acknowledged.A survey of the elephant population in and adjacent to Tsavo National Park was conducted in 1979. Based on a recent accuracy-precision study of the area, a combination of 400 ft (122 m) flying height and 294 m strip widths on either side was chosen. The required number of sampling units was determined to achieve 95% confidence limits of 10%, using the formula:where n is the sample size, N is the total area under study divided by the average 2 area of a sampling unit, SE is the standard error desired and Sy is the sample variance. A transect spacing of 10 km was chosen, based on the time available for the survey. With this sampling intensity, a standard error of about 2 000 was predicted for the total elephant population of approximately 10 000. The results of the survey gave a standard error of 1 996, indicating that this method of deter mining survey strategy is sound.Based on data collected during the 1977 and 1978 national censuses and the results of accuracy-precision studies and in-depth surveys of specific areas, it is now possible to design aerial surveys which will optimize accuracy and precision within given constraints of funding, time, man-power and equipment. Aerial surveys must be practical and must provide reliable data which can be combined with information collected from ground vegetation studies and remote sensing to provide an integrated ecological overview. Basically, aerial surveys must be simple, repeatable and reliable. The data must be analysed and presented in con cise, understandable terms and interpreted accurately in an ecological context which will be meanginful for land-use planning and management.More surveys are required to provide fuller information on herbivore stocking rates, distributions and ranges as these relate to seasonal changes in forage biomass and greenness, water, cultivation and fires. Because one of KREMU's responsibilities is to provide advice on proper balances between livestock and wild herbivores, more information is needed on habitat preferences and inter specific competition to provide a picture of existing range resource partitioning among the various herbivore species.The objectives of future surveys will be examined to identify which her bivores are considered to have high priority in a given region. The most desirable and practical levels of accuracy and precision will be determined and the region will be stratified into density zones based on data obtained from previous surveys.For example, in the Loita ecological unit, by stratifying, the area into livestock den sity zones and omitting the non-habitat areas, the standard error of the 1977 cattle population estimate was decreased from 24 742 to 20 700. This could result in saving 320 km of flying in future surveys. Finally, the results of previous accuracyprecision studies will be used to show what combination of flying height and strip width will yield the most accurate and precise population estimates for a given species, and the appropriate sampling intensity will be selected. Surveys are planned and carried out with certain objectives. In the case of rangeland surveys, these objectives are usually related to evaluating the suit ability of land for alternative uses or to formulating improved management prac tices. When little is known about the land to be surveyed and a large area must be covered, a three-phase approach might be considered, as illustrated in Figure 1.The first phase involves a reconnaissance-level inventory followed by a qualitative land evaluation. Recently developed techniques of land evaluation are discussed in FAO (1976), Beek (1978) and Zonneveld (1979). A land evaluation exercise should indicate the relative suitability of an area for specific uses. With this information, and their own additional input, planners and decision-makers may select priority areas to be surveyed in greater detail, usually in about 10 times greater detail than the original reconnaissance survey. This is the second phase. After a quan titative land evaluation, preferably in economic terms with a cost/ benefit analysis for each land-use type, the costed alternatives are again presented to the planners and decision-makers. Project design and implementation, or rather the execution of management practices, should follow as the third phase. The impact of these practices should be monitored to provide feedback of information to the planners and decision-makers.Rangeland survey is important at all three stages. Figure 2 shows in detail how a rangeland survey fits into an evaluation exercise. For each land unit mapped, the suitability of the land for current and potential uses is evaluated and compared.The survey and analysis of vegetation as a key resource is one important component of the evaluation, along with consideration of soil types, landforms, water avail ability, socio-economic conditions and other factors.    O almost useless (or Impossible) i little value \\-) some value 9 useful (j extremely useful aUsuallv panchromatic black and white at 1 : 20 000 to 1 : 60 000.Full colour, colour infrared, (verv) large scale, etc. cLargest scale available is 1 : 250 000; image enhancement possibilities rather limited.Scales to 1 : 50 000 still useful; image enhancement techniques offer good possibilities , eFew days' temporal resolution, several metres spatial resolution, narrow spectral bands observation, etc.The pilot and/or observer have no access to imagerv of the survev area, BThe pilot and/or observer have access to imagerv at a convenient scale (e.g. LANDSAT 1 : 250 000 colour enlargements) in the aircraft. Considered as a complementary technique, rather than a survey technique in itself. More promising when trees and shrub species are surveved. J Improvement depends on finances available for repeated flights.Provided a sort of 'crop calendar' for the natural vegetation can be established for calibration and reference.As illustrated in the   suggests that the most cost-effective approach overall for vegetation survey in arid rangelands is observation from light aircraft, using LANDSAT imagery or detailed topographical maps as complementary techniques. However, this approach only yields very general data on species composition and forage quantity and quality. A considerable improvement is achieved when it is combined with ground sampling, as done, for example, by Watson et al (1979) in their rangeland survey in Somalia. It is also possible that the role of observation from light air craft might be partly filled in the not too distant future by an improved satellite MSS system.As mentioned, this evaluation of the usefulness of future satellite MSS systems is based on work currently under way with LANDSAT and ground multispectral sensing which is still at the experimental stage. Satellite sensing is particularly appropriate for vegetation surveys on arid rangelands because of two characteristics of these regions: they are large areas under extensive use with low production per unit area, and relatively unpredictable short-term processes occur which affect the vegetation cover and availability of surface water, usually directly linked with rainfall.The evaluation of survey techniques presented in Tables 1 and 2 clearly suggests that there is no single most suitable technique. Instead a set of com plementary techniques is generally best suited to yield the required information at least cost in each situation. Rather than trying to improve specific techniques for use in isolation, future research should focus on information needs which no existing system is meeting adequately and on improved combinations of comple mentary techniques. Thus for example, LANDSAT imagery can be used most pro fitably in combination with conventional black-and-white aerial photography, rather than trying to replace the older technique.An example of the systematic integration of survey techniques is provided by the system of vegetation survey which has been developed at the International Institute for Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC) in the Netherlands (Zonneveld et al, 1979). Intensive stereoscopic image interpretation was combined with detailed ground sampling in the following steps:1.assembly of photographs or photomosaics, examination of selected photopairs under the stereoscope and preparation of a base map. This step should quicklv provide a general impression of the entire survey area.Light aircraft reconnaissance flights along transects can be useful at this stage;2. systematic stereoscopic photointerpretation, delineating areas with similar features (recurrent patterns) and describing preliminary mapping units in photographic terms, such as pattern, texture and grey tones;   The crucial step in this process is number 6, when all the ground sampling points are entered in a matrix with the preliminary photointerpretation units along one axis and the vegetation typology classes along the other (see Zonneveld et al, 1979). The photointerpretation is used to delineate the units and the ground sampling data to describe them. Recent vegetation maps prepared using this in tegrated approach can be found in various studies carried out at ITC, such as Baig (1977), Florence (1979), Spiers (1978), the project carried out in Mali (ITC, 1979) and the Botswana study conducted by DHV Consulting Engineers (1979).In the Botswana study, LANDSAT satellite imagery at different scales was used together with black-and-white panchromatic aerial photography at scales of 1 : 40 000 to 1 : 70 000, direct observations from low-flying light aircraft and field sampling on the ground. The combination of complementary techniques is depicted schematically in Figure 3. The survey results were presented in several forms, including interpreted black-and-white photomosaics, a colour map of the rangelands at a scale of 1 : 500 000 and more detailed maps of selected areas.This presentation is appropriate as a basis for land-use planning at various scales.The combination of these complementary techniques seems a most pro mising approach for vegetation inventory and monitoring of arid rangelands. This approach can be broken down into three phases -reconnaissance or general inventory survey, detailed or semidetailed inventory survey and monitoring. Some of the possibilities are depicted in Figure 4. Whereas the primary interest in 1968 was in wild animal census, more emphasis has subsequently been placed on livestock census in rangelands, as the pressure to develop these areas increases. The paper by J J R Grimsdell, J C Bille and K Milligan reviews possible alternative techniques for aerial livestock census and shows how these may sometimes differ from those developed for wild animals. Some of these alternative techniques are speculative, however, and re quire further testing. J G Stelfox, the chairman of this session, stressed the im portance of a flexible approach because no one census technique meets all require ments. Possible techniques must be evaluated in terms of the objectives of each survey, the location, the animals being counted, the financial, manpower and equip ment constraints, and the levels of accuracy and precision required.In their paper on elephant population census, I Douglas-Hamilton and A K K Hillman show how the value of a census is enhanced by the inclusion of carcass counts because a useful mortality index may be obtained from the ratio of dead to live elephants. This technique could be applied to other species and situations; for example, in evaluating oattle mortality in drought-stricken rangelands.on techniques for deriving age structures of elephant populations by vertical aerial photography. This is not a census method, but is closely related, since the combi nation of census and age-structure information provides a basis for evaluating the dynamics of the population under study. Although the method described was devel oped for elephants, it could be applied to other large mammals, both domestic and wild. Because they are relatively conspicuous, it is possible to count them from higher altitudes than is usually the case with wild animals. Thus, larger areas can be covered and larger proportions of livestock populations sampled in a limited flying time, which helps improve the precision of estimates. Livestock population estimates may also be based on counts of human habitations combined with estimates of average livestock holdings.Total counts of livestock populations may be practical for small areas where the accurate plotting of herd positions is feasible. In general though, sampling is usually superior to total counts (Norton-Griffiths , 1978). When sampling is used, two main factors affect the precision of the resulting population estimates: the sampling fraction and the degree of aggregation or clumping of the population being sampled. Curves of this nature are useful in deciding how to improve the precision of estimates. For instance in the example illustrated in Figure 1, it is clear that at least 15% of the census area must be sampled to obtain a reasonably low standard error (i.e. less than 10% of the population estimate).The spatial distribution of an animal population also influences the precision with which it can be estimated. Livestock on rangelands, for instance, would be expected to show a clumped or contagious pattern, owing partly to the patchy dis tribution of resources and partly to the management practices of pastoralists . For example, in the northeastern rangelands of Ethiopia the distribution of cattle groups was analysed over a 4450 km study area. Data were collected by systematically sampling 5x5 km grid squares, giving a relative index of the number of groups per unit of rangeland. Table 1 shows that the frequency distribution of cattle groups was far from random, as indicated by the fact that it does not fit a Poisson series. The fit is only somewhat better with the negative binomial (Bliss and Fisher, 1953). All this indicates that groups of cattle in the study area were highly clumped. Such a distribution pattern produces transect densities which are posi tively skewed, because low or medium livestock numbers are found on most tran sects, but high or very high numbers are found on a few. An example from a cattle survey is depicted in Figure 2. When the frequency distribution of transect densities is skewed in this way, the variance of the sample tends to be large, chiefly due to the extreme values.Therefore, population estimates based on such samples are likely to be imprecise.If, however, all the areas showing high values are identified and counted in a differ ent way, perhaps by a total count, then the variance of the remaining sample is greatly reduced (Cochran, 1977). This is, in fact, a form of stratification. Six alternative methods will be discussed for estimating livestock populations based on aerial surveys. For the first three methods, the discussion will focus on the problem of sampling fraction: for the fourth, the focus will be on problems related to animal aggregation. The last two methods are based on relating live stock population estimates to settlement counts.The first three methods are compared in terms of the precision of the population estimate obtained at a given cost, as shown in Table 2. The number of transects has been held constant at one every 5 km. Although the variance for mulae used here are exact for random samples, it is recognized that they may con tain some degree of bias when used for systematic sampling (Pennycuick et al, 1977).1.Low-level aerial survey with small sampling fraction Estimates of wild or domestic animal populations are often based on lowlevel surveys covering small sampling fractions. The aircraft is normally flown at 300 to 400 ft (91 to 122 m) and observations are made along 150 to 300 m wide strips on either side (e.g. Pennycuick and Western, 1972). This approach has two main advantages: the chances of missing groups of animals are reduced because of the low flying height and the narrow strip width, and groups, when spotted, can be counted by eye or from photographs taken with a standard (e. g. 50 mm) lens.The primary disadvantage is that with only one transect every 5 km the sampling fraction is only 8%, so that large standard errors usually result. Original data from 20% sample of 5 x 5 km grid squares, analysed by Jolly's (1900a) method 1.Based on ±3% standard error for number of groups and ±5% standard error for mean herd size, using the following formula (Goodman, 1960):where X = estimated total number of groups Var X -estimated variance of X Z = estimated average group size Var Z estimated variance of Z Source of data : Milligan, et al (1979).2.To cover a larger sampling fraction, a survey may be carried out at 500 to 1000 ft (152 to 305 m) with strip widths of 500 m on either side of the aircraft.Groups of animals must be photographed from this height with a telephoto lens (100 to 300 mm). This method has been used, for example, for counting cattle in Nigeria (Milligan et al, 1979). With one transect every 5 km, the sampling fraction is 20%, so the standard error is fairly small. In addition, more data are collected per grid square, giving a better idea of animal distribution than with the first approach. However, this method is only practical for large conspicuous groups of animals in open or moderately open country: in general, it is most useful for herds of cattle. Though small groups may not be spotted, the degree of bias can be checked by surveying the same area at a lower altitude with a narrower strip width.Livestock population estimates may be obtained by carrying out two indepen dent aerial surveys and combining the results. First, the aircraft is flown, for example, at 2000 ft (610 m) and 1000 m sampling strips are surveyed on either side.From this height with one transect every 5 km, 40% of the study area is sampled, but only the number of groups or herds is recorded as it is not possible to count individual animals. A representative sample of groups is also photographed and counted from a lower altitude, and from this sample an estimate of the mean group size is obtained. The total population is then calculated from the results of the two surveys by multiplying the estimated total number of groups by the estimated average group size. The standard error of the population estimated is calculated according to the formula given in Table 2.This approach yields a fairly precise estimate of the number of groups because the sampling fraction for the higher-altitude survey is large. If the average size of groups can be estimated precisely, then a population estimate can be cal culated with a moderately low standard error. Reliable information on livestock distribution can also be collected.In practice, however, it may be difficult to obtain a precise estimate of average group size. The frequency distributions of cattle group sizes were exam ined for four study areas in Nigeria (Milligan et al, 1979) and one in Ethiopia during both wet and dry seasons. It was found that herd sizes varied considerably in different locations and at different seasons. The frequency distributions of herd sizes were never symmetrical, so the estimated variance tended to be large. In addition, small groups were sometimes not spotted from the air. These surveys indicate that average cattle herd size can vary appreciably within one study area, so great care is needed to obtain a representative sample. This may involve flying systematically over the entire study area, photographing a large sample of herdsperhaps more than 100 -which will add significantly to survey costs.As already mentioned, the precision of a population estimate can be im proved if any large groups within the census area are counted separately. This is a form of stratification, but, owing to animal movements, the positions of the highdensity strata are not known at the outset of the survey. Rather, the positions of large groups are mapped during the survey and the groups are counted later.Norton-Griffiths (1978) describes this method, taking as an example a census of topi in the Serengeti. The locations of large herds, falling either inside or outside the survey transects, were marked on a map, but the herds were not counted. Then after the main survey was completed, each of the large herds was photographed to obtain a total count. Two population estimates were then produced: one based on the transect count but excluding large herds and one based on a total count of large herds. These were added together to give the final population estimate. The stan dard error was taken from the transect estimate, as the total count involved no variance.This method should be applicable to livestock counts, although it does not appear to have been used for this purpose up to now. Precise population estimates are achieved, provided all the large groups can be located and counted. However, in some cases it may be difficult to locate all the large groups, and counting them separately also increases survey costs.Livestock populations may also be estimated by locating all the human settlements in an area from an aircraft flying at about 5000 ft (1524 m), and then revisiting them at a lower altitude to make a total count of livestock holdings. This was done by Western (personal communication) in Kenya's Amboseli basin, where aerial photographs were made at each Masai settlement in the early morning when the cattle had just been let out of their night pens (bomas). A total cattle count was made from the photographs .This approach is only practicable, however, if there are not too many settlements in a study area and they can all be accurately mapped. It does not pro vide much information on livestock distribution, for instance in relation to environ mental factors. Counting from photographs may be difficult if the animals are too closely bunched together, and accurate counts are not obtained in situations where some animals are not penned at night.House counts in pastoral areas probably provide a good index of total live stock numbers, provided average household livestock holdings are known. Reliable estimates of average holdings may be obtained from ground or aerial surveys, while houses or settlements should be relatively easy to count from the air. One advan tage of this approach is that a large sampling fraction of houses can be covered in limited flying time. However, this method will not be very reliable if household livestock holdings vary considerably, for instance over time.A number of aerial survey methods may be considered for estimating live stock populations, some of which are quite different from those which have been developed for counting wild animals. The selection of a particular method depends on a number of factors, such as the types of livestock present in the study area, the accuracy and precision required, the time and money available, and any ad ditional information which needs to be collected in the course of the survey. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has been to supplement data already available, to provide current information on particular areas where research was carried out in the past, and to census previously uncounted areas.This information, combined with a questionnaire survey, will serve as a basis to monitor the trends of key elephant populations in Africa, and by extrapolation the elephant population of the continent as a whole.So far, 17 surveys have been carried out in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia supported by the World Wildlife Fund and the New York Zoological Society (WWF/NYZS), together with the national wildlife departments and national parks in each country. In addition, aerial censuses have been carried out by others in 17 other countries where African elephants are found.The purpose of this paper is to review methods of recording dead elephants, and to discuss how carcass records can be interpreted. In addition, the useful ness of this type of information will be discussed. The methods used for elephant carcass surveys are based on systematic counting from the air along sampling strips, as described by Norton-Griffiths (1975) and Western (1976). Although elephants are one of the least cryptic wildlife species, it is still possible for an observer to miss not only single animals, but even whole herds. Since for these surveys observers were used of varying experience and ability, easily scannable strip widths were chosen, usually around 150 m, irrespective of terrain. These strip widths were calibrated by flying 20 to 30 times over markers on a runway and taking the average strip width seen by the observers. It has been found that more accurate strip widths are obtained by adjusting the strut markers, rather than by making adjustments using mathematical formulae.In addition to censusing live elephants in the surveys which have been carried out, dead elephants were recorded as an indicator of mortality, often as supplementary evidence to confirm a trend. The methods suggested here for re cording elephant carcasses have been developed from previous work.It is a curious fact that elephant carcasses were very seldom recorded by researchers in the late 1960s,when some of the most important studies on elephant population dynamics were carried out.A reference was made to the apparent lack of dead elephants by Lamprey et al (1967), who remarked of the Serengeti that '. . . since 1961, wardens and biologists have flown for a total of over 2 000 hours over the Park and have only located eight elephant skeletons '. This obser vation was used to support the hypothesis that elephants had only recently arrived in the Serengeti. However, the elephant population had been on the order of 2 000 over the preceding 3 years, and it must be assumed that a natural mortality rate of 3 to 4% would have resulted in 60 to 80 skeletons a year, which had apparently largely gone unnoticed.A single exception to the general lack of carcass observations was Graham and Laws' s (1971) study in Murchison (now Kabalega) Falls National Park in Uganda. These authors were not so much concerned with measuring mortality trends through carcass observations as with identifying available quantities of ivory. In any event, they suggested some criteria for estimating carcass age since death and estimated that they had seen about 26% of all the dead elephants which were probably in the park.No other quantitative records of elephant carcasses were made in the late 1960s. Evidently they were not considered a sensitive enough indicator of the moderate rates of elephant mortality which prevailed during that time, so no base line was established in areas which have subsequently experienced a great in crease in elephant mortality. As elephant carcasses became more abundant in the early 1970s, counting them by various methods became more widespread.Following increased elephant mortality in Kenya' s Tsavo East National Park, triggered by the 1970-71 drought, Corfield (1973) carried out a study with the objective of measuring mortality through ground and aerial carcass counts. A year later in the neighbouring Tana River District, Watson et al (1973c) recorded carcasses and commented that the observed increase in the frequency of recent car casses was undoubtedly caused by increased killing for ivory, resulting from a recent rise in ivory prices.According to later counts, his estimate of 900 dead elephants out of a live population of 32 000 was decidedly low. However, this count was made in the rains and it is likely that many of the dead elephants were hidden.Subsequent aerial monitoring in Tsavo National Park and elsewhere, carried out by Cobb (1976), Leuthold (1976), the Kenya Wildlife Conservation and Management Department (WCMD), the Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit (KREMII) and the authors, all included counts of elephant carcasses seen within transects. Several of these studies, using somewhat different criteria, have attempted to identify carcasses that have been dead for less than a year, with the intention of estimating annual mortality. Standard methods of recording and classi fying carcasses will be discussed.A classification system for elephant carcasses is suggested which in cludes four categories recognizable from the air. These are described as follows.Category 1: fresh This category comprises elephants which have died recently, perhaps 2 to 3 weeks previously at the most. The skin is still present, and the flesh has not yet been eaten or rotted away, but gives the body a rounded appearance. Vulture droppings may cover the skin and surrounding area, which is often well trampled by scavengers. Carcasses only remain in this category for a short while, but their numbers can be of use to pinpoint waves of mortality which may merit investigation by management authorities.Category 2: bones with rot patchThe second category also covers elephants which have died recently. The presence of skin and the scattering of bones are not reliable indicators of age, especially in areas where predators are dense and the rainfall is relatively high, so these have not been used as primary criteria. As Graham and Laws (1971) pointed out, a rot patch caused by the release of decomposition fluids often kills grass around a carcass and stains the surrounding soil. This is usually identifi able and lasts until the next heavy rains. The rot patch is taken as the primary criterion for this category.Category 3: bones without rot patchAfter heavy rain the rot patch is usually washed away, and grass or other vegetation may grow over it. The skin may or may not disappear, depending on rainfall and scavenger density, but the white skull and bones are often clearly visible, depending on the vegetation cover. There is no sharp distinction between this and the second category.After several years, the bones begin to develop cracks and pieces chip and flake off. They turn a greyish colour and become extremely cryptic. From the air, the skeletons no longer stand out as distinct entities. Twelve-year-old bones at Lake Manyara were similar in appearance to 11-year-old bones at Galana Game Ranch which resulted from an elephant culling operation carried out by Laws andParker in 1967 (Laws, 1969).In order to attach ages to the four carcass categories, the factors affecting the rate of breakdown and visibility need to be considered. These factors will be discussed, and then the average rate of decomposition will be described for two samples of carcasses of known age from Amboseli and Manyara National Parks.The most important factors affecting the disintegration and disappearance of carcasses were found to be rainfall, scavengers, sunlight and shade. The first two of these will be discussed.An increase in rainfall generally increases the rate of carcass breakdown by softening the skin and allowing the action of invertebrate decomposers. Graham and Laws (1971) give an example from the high-rainfall area of Kabalega of a skeleton which was already grey and crumbling (i.e. category 4) after only 4 years.One 4-year-old carcass observed by the authors was classified as category 3 in1977, yet only a year and a half later in August 1978, following heavy rains, the skin had disintegrated and the bones were almost hidden by grass. Although the carcass was at least 5 years old, the bones were uncracked since they had been sheltered from the sun during most of that period by the skin. Shaded and sheltered bones may last indefinitely (like the relics of saints), but an elephant corpse which was well shaded and sheltered would not be visible from the air.The rapid disappearance of the skin associated with heavy rains occurred in all 20 elephant carcasses monitored in Amboseli during 1978. As the rains that year were heavy throughout Kenya, the presence of skin on any carcasses seen within the following 12 months could be used as an indicator of death since mid-1978. The other effect of heavy rainfall is the increased grass growth which reduces visibility. For this reason carcass counts should only be made in the dry season, preferably after the grass has been burned.By contrast, in an arid zone of relatively low scavenger density, such as Amboseli during recent dry years, many of the elephants which have died have dried up, with the bones held together by hardened skin. From their work on the taphonomy of carcasses in Amboseli, Behrensmeyer and Western (personal com munication) estimated that large skeletons, such as elephant skeletons, could re main visible for up to 10 years.If a carcass is scavenged by lions or hyenas during the first few days while the skin is soft, the skin may be partially or completely removed and bones scat tered. This exposes the bones to weathering, makes it easier for them to be hidden by vegetation and renders the skeleton more difficult to see from the air than if it were a compact mass. In an area of high scavenger density, for example Seronera in the Serengeti, carcasses are rapidly dismembered. An elephant that died only 2 months previously, but was immediately attacked by scavengers, left only a skull and a few scattered bones visible from the air. In this case, there was also no visible rot patch, which suggests that most of the animal must have been eaten before it had time to decompose. In Kenya's Aberdares National Park, hyenas are abundant and scatter a carcass within days; rapid vegetation growth then renders the carcass invisible (P Snyder, personal communication).The decomposition of 32 known-age carcasses in Manyara National Park and 25 in Amboseli National Park has been followed intermittently over a 3-year period. The dates of death and locations of carcasses at Amboseli were furnished by C Moss, and similar information was recorded during long-term elephant monitoring in Manyara.The population densities of scavenger species (lion and hyena) were similar in both areas.For each carcass, the following information was recorded at each observation:-category (1-4)-wear stage of bones, as defined by Behrensmeyer (1978) -scatter of bones The results of these surveys are summarized in Table 1. In Manyara, with a mean annual rainfall of 760 mm, the average age of category 1 carcasses was 7 days, for category 2 the average was 5 months, for category 3 it was 14 months, and for category 4 ages ranged from 12 to 25 months. In Amboseli, with annual rainfall averaging 300 mm, there is no record of how long carcasses remained in category 1, but for category 2 the average age was 9 months, for category 3 it was 23 months, and for category 4 the age range was from 20 to 60 months. Real age varied widely within each category and overlapped with adjoin ing categories. The transition from category 2 to 3 in Manyara generally occurred before the end of the first year, while in Amboseli category 2 carcasses could be older than 1 year. This pattern indicates the effect of heavier rainfall, which tends to increase the rate of carcass breakdown and disappearance.The proportion of carcasses in each category with skin visible was 3imilar in the two parks. In category 1, 100% of the carcasses had skin, in category 2, 80 to 90% had skin; and in category 3, 20 to 30% had skin.The most useful distinction is between carcasses less than and more than 1 year old. The identification of carcasses less than 1 year old gives a relative measure of annual mortality when compared with live populations, and indicates differences in mortality between areas. An absolute measure of mortality is not possible because not all carcasses are seen and some break down or disappear within less than a year.Results from several areas indicate that the transition between categories Africa. The results can be presented as a ratio of dead to live animals seen during a count. The use of this ratio may to some extent even out biases due to individual observers, since a good observer is likely to see more carcasses and more live elephants than a poor observer so the ratio should not change.Figure 1 gives a range of dead to live ratios in conditions of similar visi bility. Only the ratios for the Selous, Ruaha and Manyara areas appear to rep resent normal mortality. The ratios for Selous and Ruaha, in particular, are likely to be accurate since they are derived from large samples. At the other end of the scale, the Tsavo, Tana, Lamu-Garissa and Samburu areas show ratios that indicate heavy mortality.To illustrate the usefulness of information provided by elephant surveys using carcass data, three recent case studies will be described. The three situ ations and the information needed by wildlife managers and decision-makers were as follows:- The first question concerned the Kabalega Falls National Park, Uganda.In 1976 at the time of the third East African Wildlife Symposium, Eltringham and Malpas (1980) had recently completed a series of aerial sample counts of the Kabalega Falls National Park, which suggested a catastrophic elephant population crash. Doubt had been cast on the validity of their results, however, since it was suggested that the population crash might not be real owing to sampling errors, or that elephant numbers had not really decreased, but that the elephants had merely taken refuge in the neighbouring Budongo Forest.At the invitation of the Uganda Institute of Ecology. ISC Parker and Douglas-Hamilton made a total count which followed exactly the methods used by Parker 10 years previously. Only 1 713 elephants were counted, compared to the 1967 estimate of at least 8 000. This confirmed Eltringham and Malpas' s con clusion that the population in the park had declined, but was this due to mass migration, as alleged?Unfortunately, there was no previous baseline against which to measure carcass density, but according to Parker's recollection carcass density appeared to have increased: 912 category 3 carcasses were counted, estimated to be over a year old by the absence of rot patch, and it was estimated that only 26% of the car casses actually present in the park had been seen, according to Graham and Laws' s (1971) undercount factor. In fact, as the total count was primarily focused on live elephants, not carcasses, the proportion of carcasses seen was probably even less.These results strongly suggested that the elephants had not moved out of the park, but had been killed, and counts carried out in the Rwenzori National Park indi cated a similar trend. Some idea was also gained of rates of skeleton disappear ance in this particular area, because there were virtually no bones left at the site of the culling which took place in 1967.In Kenya's Tsavo National Park, it had been disputed whether an observed reduction in the elephant population was due to drought or poaching. In 1967 whenLaws was working in Tsavo, carcasses were so few that they were not considered worth recording. However, in 1970-71 an unusually dry period resulted in the death of some 6 000 elephants, almost entirely along the Galana River in the eastern part of the park (Corfield, 1973). Over subsequent years there were shorter periods of elephant starvation, the last of which was in 1975/6 when, according to Sheldrick (1976), about 9 000 elephants probably died of all causes.Yet mortality due to drought was not immediately apparent from aerial survey results. Successive estimates, using the same sampling techniques within the Tsavo census zone defined by Cobb (1976), are summarized in Figure 2.Cobb's series of counts during 1973-74 gave population averages close to the pre vious rough estimate of 35 000 (Laws, 1969) In the years following the drought, the park warden commented on an un precedented increase in poaching and a spread in poacher activities from a fringe along the northern boundary to all parts of the park (Sheldrick, 1976)    those of Caughley and Goddard (1975) who conducted a census in 1973. A compari son of information from the two counts is given in Table 2. Assuming that the two counts were of similar accuracy, it would appear that the population has shown an overall decline of 40% during the 6-year period. Further evidence for a decline in population, probably caused by poaching, is provided by the carcass analysis, which suggests a substantial ratio of dead to live elephants (see Figure 3). The situation in Luangwa is reminiscent of Tsavo in 1974 after the drought, but before the surge in poaching. The survey information indicates that wildlife managers in the Luangwa Valley should take measures to counteract poaching; culling pro grammes should not be considered until poaching can be shown to be under control.In conclusion, the main purpose of this paper has been to stimulate comments on ways to improve the methods of counting and interpreting elephant carcass densities and to encourage those conducting elephant surveys to record carcasses in a standardized way. This information should be important in inter preting long-term changes in elephant mortality which will help wildlife and re source managers make better decisions concerning the management of elephant  (Laws, 1969;Croze, 1972;Leuthold, 1976). Two methods have been used, both of which depend on relating the length of backs to age. They are:1.The ratio method, in which the largest females photographed from the air are assumed to have attained maximum (or asymptotic) back length. Lengths of other elephants on the photographs are then expressed as a proportion of this maximum length and these pro portions are converted to ages using an age /length ratio key (see Croze, 1972).The absolute length method, in which back lengths are calculated using the following formula: A radar altimeter must be used since the exact height of the air craft above ground is used in the calculation. Ages are then determined directly from curves of length compared with age (see Laws, 1969).The purpose of this paper is to review some of the sources of error in the two methods and also to compare the two methods by reference to elephants of known age in Manyara National Park in Tanzania and Amboseli National Park in Kenya. The ages of these elephants were recorded by registration at birth by Douglas-Hamilton in Manyara and Moss in Amboseli. Up to 10 photographic flights were made over known elephant groups while observers plotted the position of individual elephants on the ground. Individuals were then identified on the photo graphs and calculated ages were compared with known ages .Five types of photogrammetric errors occur in calculating the ages of elephants from measurements of length taken from aerial photographs. These are related to focusing, radial scale, measurement, the use of a radar altimeter and tilt. Focusing errors, however, do not affect aerial photography in the same way as they do ground photogrammetry provided the focus is maintained constantly at infinity and the focus ring is taped in position.Radial scale error is a property of every lens. If a scale with equidistant points is photographed at right angles to the optical axis of the lens, so that the scale image passes through the principal point of the negative, it will be found that the scale points will not be separated by equal distances on the negative and that the Measurement error can also be reduced by enlarging the image by exam ination under a microscope fitted with a very fine measuring scale. This approach is easy to carry out and to standardize and avoids many of the possible distortion errors which occur when the image is projected. However, it requires delicate manipulation, and the small field of view increases the chances of measuring an elephant more than once. Yet on balance, this method seems preferable; it gives accurate readings according to the calibrations of the measuring scale used.The accuracy of different radar altimeters varies according to the manu facturer. In practice, a radar altimeter must be calibrated for gross errors against the pressure altimeter. For example, calibration of a King Gold Crown altimeter installed in a Cessna 185 demonstrated that the altimeter was inaccurate at 600 ft (183 m) or more. For this reason and also because larger images give better results, photographs were taken at a maximum height of 500 ft (152 m). It is also possible to test the accuracy of a radar altimeter by photographing a scale set on the ground from different heights. This was done in Manyara National Park using a 35 mm camera with a 50 mm lens to photograph a 1 metre scale. The results of these trials are shown in Figure 1, which indicates a maximum deviation of only 2.5% from the theoretical power curve appropriate to a 50 mm lens. This suggests that the methods used were sufficiently accurate for measuring elephants. In lining up a camera vertically above an elephant group, the aircraft may occasionally have a slight bank at the moment of the altimeter reading. The alti meter projects and receives pulses in a cone, with the reading taken from the point on the ground nearest to the aircraft. Bank will not therefore affect the reading if it is kept within the limits specified for the radar altimeter in question.Tilt error occurs because elephants on the peripheries of a photograph will inevitably be viewed at a slight angle from the vertical. The higher the air craft, the smaller this angle will be. Eliminating the peripheral third of a photo graph will also minimize this possible source of error.A more important source of error due to tilt is the possibility of the camera being tilted from the vertical. Absolute perpendicularity could be ensured by attaching the camera to the aircraft and using the aircraft instruments to ensure that it is horizontal. However, this would make it extremely difficult to line up the camera in exactly the right place over a group of elephants, which can add to the time and cost of a survey. It has proved most practical to hold a camera by hand outside an aircraft with the door removed. The error caused by a 10% tilt of the focal plane of the camera is only 3.12% at 400 feet (122 m) above ground.Furthermore, the possibilities of tilt error are minimized by rejecting all photo graphs on which the elephants' feet can be seen laterally.Errors in calculating the age of elephants from length measurements taken from aerial photographs may also relate to different features of the elephants themselves. Lengths may be miscalculated due to anal flaps or different heights of elephants above the ground. Age calculations from length are based on the maximum (asymtotic) size of the largest females observed, which may vary, particularly between small herds. Elephant calves hiding under their mothers may also be missed from the air, and finally there may be some discrepancy in the relationship of back length to age among older animals. Each of these possible sources of error will be discussed.Application of the anal flap correction factor given by Croze (1972) made only a 1% difference in a sample of elephants measured. This procedure was therefore considered unnecessary, both from the standpoint of the extra time in volved and in comparison with the magnitude of errors arising from other sources.The height of an elephant above the ground and the height differential be tween adults and calves affect the calculation of length from aerial photographs.The lower the aircraft, the greater this effect will be. Assuming a mean asymp totic shoulder height of 250 cm and a difference in shoulder height of 150 cm be tween adults (250 cm) and calves (100 cm), percentage errors can be expected as shown in Table 1. This table suggests that flying height should be at least 300 ft (91 m). Using the ratio method, each sub-adult animal is aged in relation to an asymptotic length of adult females, based on 10% of the individuals in the frame.Thus, variations in the asymptote have a considerable effect on the rest of the age estimations. The smaller the group, the proportionally higher the possible vari ations. There are three main sources of this variation. For one thing, inclusion of bulls raises the value of the asymptote. The aircraft should make low passes over each group to note the presence of bulls and where necessary oblique photo graphs should be taken to locate the bulls in relation to the rest of the group.Secondly, the size of matriarchs can vary considerably, as has been observed in Amboseli. As mentioned, the smaller the group, the more the variation in sizes of adult females can effect the estimated ages of younger animals. Finally, error may result from a lack of adult females. In certain areas, such as Galana Ranch in Kenya, heavy, uncontrolled hunting has resulted in the elimination of the majority of adult elephants (M Stanley-Price, personal communication). An asymptote derived from such a population would result in overestimation of ages.The absolute length method must therefore be used to estimate the ages of populations of this kind .Errors also occur due to the undercounting of calves. Elephant calves less than 1 year old tend to hide under their mothers when an aircraft flies over. It is therefore easy to miss calves on aerial photographs. Low passes, allowing oblique observation, should be made in order to count all the young calves .Finally, the relationship between back length and age is assumed to be simi lar to the growth curve given by Laws (1969) for shoulder height compared with age. This is based on Laws's assertion that back length 'is found to be almost exactly equal to the shoulder height measurements . . . , but the elephant continues to grow in length after growth in shoulder height has ceased or greatly slowed down' . This length and shoulder height are similar up to about 15 years of age, but thereafter only growth in length continues. The rate of growth is also faster for males than for females. However, the discrepancy between back length and shoulder height in older animals is small, so that the shoulder height curve can still be used to estimate age from observed back length.The results of comparing calculated with known elephant ages are summarized for Amboseli and Manyara National Parks in Figures 3 and 4.Both the ratio method used in Amboseli and the absolute length method used in Manyara give calculated ages which allow accurate identification of calves less than 1 year old. The scatter increases with age, but the regression shows a close correspondence between calculated age and known age for both methods. This suggests that the technique is valid for the identification of first-year calves and for the reconstruction of age structures from large samples.On the basis of experience, and considering the sources of error and bias already discussed, the following recommendations can be made for future elephant surveys involving estimates of age from aerial photographs:1.The radar altimeter should be calibrated both against the pressure altimeter and by photographing and measuring scales on the ground from different heights.The optimum flying height is 300 to 400 ft (91 to 122 m).The most practical way to photograph groups of elephants from the air is by using a camera with a 50 mm lens, held by hand right outside the aircraft fuselage and pointing straight down. It has been foundeasier to work with the right-hand door of the aircraft removed.The pilot lines up for a straight run over the elephants and as they disappear from his view, under the nose of the aircraft, the camera operator leans out and directs the pilot' s final adjustments by hand  A radar altimeter reading should be made each time a photograph is taken. This can be done if the photographer signals the pilot at the moment a picture is taken and the pilot reads the altimeter, or by an electrical connection between the camera shutter, the alti meter and a recording device.The aircraft bank should be kept within the specifications of the radar altimeter.  Low passes should be made to count the bulls and young calves in each group.Fine-grain colour film should be used to minimize the inaccuracy of measurements and the difficulties of interpretation.A series of overlapping frames should be photographed whenever a group is too large to be included in one frame.Detailed notes should be made of aircraft height and the position and number of frames taken of each group.During the workshop, a strong plea was made for greater interchange of experience with survey design and sampling procedures among the various organ izations concerned with aerial survey. In particular, it would be useful, and should be possible, to achieve some convergence of opinion on the means by which strata are determined.There was no general agreement on the use of stratified or unstratified sampling or random or systematic sampling in aerial surveys, but the three papers presented in this section provide some guidance to workers in the field. The first two papers.by G M Jolly and G E J Smith, give general accounts of these sampling procedures. Jolly compares unstratified systematic sampling with stratified random sampling, favouring the latter for most purposes, while the third paper, by M Norton-Griffiths, argues in favour of unstratified systematic sampling for obtaining distribution data and for stratification after the survey is completed.Random sampling combined with standard analytical procedures is known to give unbiased results under all circumstances. However, a substantial body of opinion has favoured systematic (that is, regularly spaced) sampling units, trading off slightly reduced precision for better estimates of distribution of animals or other parameters.There was general agreement at the workshop on the greater efficiency of transects as sampling units, as compared with quadrats. Edge effects in transects, although potentially large, should not produce bias or materially increase random sampling error, provided strip widths are properly calibrated. Edge effects also occur in quadrats or blocks that cannot be clearly defined by ground features.Quadrat sampling tends to be more subjective, and bias may result when large quad rats are searched, due to missing or overlapping areas. The costs of surveys based on quadrats are generally higher than those of surveys based on transects -by as much as 40%. Finally, air sickness in observers is more common in quadrat surveys.A quadrat may be the most appropriate sampling unit in a few situations, how ever, such as when sampling segmented forest areas or when surveying the area* in a photographic frame.A further advantage of sampling based on quadrats is the possibility of spending more time searching over the sampling unit and flush ing out cryptic animals.Subunits of a transect cannot be considered as independent samples because of the possibility of autocorrelation. Most practitioners favour the use of complete transects as sampling units on which to base their estimates of sampling error. If grid square data from systematic transects are used in the analysis of population esti mates, then the estimate of sampling error changes according to the degree of subdivision of the transect. Sampling effort may be distributed over seasons, rather than collecting more precise data at one time, and two-stage sampling is also permis sible, provided the appropriate formulae are used.The usefulness of stratification to improve precision and to allow estimates to be made for separate areas was agreed, but subsequent discussion revealed a spectrum of opinion as to whether the most effective stratification was one based on permanent land features or on ephemeral factors affecting animal distributions.Also, a stratification which is appropriate for one parameter might not be appro priate for others. Strong views were expressed on the desirability of making use of relatively low-cost information from LANDSAT and ecological maps to produce initial strata which can be modified in the light of further information. Other, equally strong views suggested that a systematic sample, recorded in discrete attribute sections along each transect, gives the best indication of distributions on which to base any subsequent stratification. A combination of these methods is used by KREMU, which routinely covers the entire Kenya rangelands systematically, but uses stratifications, such as the designation of 44 ecological units, for special localized surveys.The probable cost-effectiveness of a stratification scheme should be estimated where possible. Information is often required by both planners and managers for separate administrative districts, but such information can be derived from a weighted average of estimates from the component strata. The heterogeneity of administrative districts in terms of development needs must also be recognized. Types of sampling unit will be discussed first. Methods of sample selec tion will also be considered briefly, and the relative merits of unstratified system atic and stratified random sampling discussed.The four main types of sampling unit are strip samples, quadrats or blocks, line intercepts, and line transects. All are artificial units, which is an advantage in terms of variability, since natural units are generally more homogeneous within themselves and therefore give correspondingly greater variation among units.The only distinction between a quadrat and a block is that a quadrat usually refers to a square or rectangular area and a block, according to the definition of Norton-Griffiths (1978), to an irregularly shaped area defined by features on the ground. For present convenience, the term quadrat will be used to include blocks.In most situations, the area of each quadrat must be known, at least approximately.Pioneers of aerial sampling such as Siniff and Skoog (1964) tended to use quadrats, probably following the general requirement that a sampling unit must be an exactly defined portion of the population (as indeed it must). They also seemed reluctant to have sampling units of unequal size. Quadrats are still favoured by some surveyors, as evidenced by Cook and Martin (1974) and Floyd et al (1979).Clearly, searching a large quadrat from the air presents difficulties in re gard to areas included twice from adjacent overflights or missed completely.There seems to be no convincing description of how observations from quadrats should be recorded so as to avoid these problems. To say that a 'systematic search' was made is merely to invite the original question: 'How should an aerial survey be conducted to provide quantitative information?' Given time, one might think of a satisfactory method of 'systematically searching\" a haystack, but would hesitate to assess the chances of finding the proverbial needle. Laws et al (1975) argue in favour of quadrats and list five advantages com pared with strip sampling. Unfortunately, they have not taken account of the now well-established methodology of strip sampling, which has led Caughley (1977b) to produce appropriate counter-arguments. In agreeing with Caughley as to the higher efficiency of strip sampling, a further contributory factor can be added. Since a long, narrow strip covers a greater range of habitat or animal groups than does the more compact quadrat, the sampling error for strip sampling will be less than that for quadrats for the same observing effort expended over the same total sample area. This effect of shape of sampling unit is discussed by Norton-Griffiths (1978).A further improvement in efficiency can be achieved by choosing the direction of strips parallel to the direction of maximum change in animal density. One theoretical curve to represent density of herds as a function of distance from the line because the observed density was consistently greatest some distance from the line instead of on it as expected. They could have tried fitting an empirical curve as explained by Burnham and Anderson (1976) or Gates (1979). However, without further understanding of why the sightability curve does not reach its maximum on the line, the authors are justified in reserving judgement on the method. They also used quadrats (3.2 km x 3.2 km) and strip sampling for comparison, concluding that, of the three methods, quadrats were the least satisfactory because of the difficulty of locating and covering them in four to six parallel passes without miss ing or overlapping. Clearly, a featureless ocean must be especially unfavourable for quadrats .In general, the assumption that everything on the line is seen makes the line transect of doubtful applicability for aerial survey . Since this assumption can hold only for the larger species in open conditions, correction factors for bias are still necessary in most situations. Thus, the only argument in favour of this method would be if sightings outside the strip of uniformly good visibility can con tribute enough information to offset diversion of the observer' s attention from the strip. Since recognizing and counting an object must surely take longer as distance from the strip increases -especially in dense cover -the price paid for the additional information seems too high. Or, to put it another way, if it could be shown that, for a particular width of strip, line transect methods could improve efficiency (that is, lower sampling error for given cost), then might this not suggest that the strip is too narrow and that strip sampling from a greater height or with a wider positioning of markers would give still greater efficiency?The literature on aerial survey shows some degree of consensus that the stratified random sample is generally useful, irrespective of type of sampling unit.Stratification is associated with major differences in population, and, in spite of words of caution on the part of some authors, there seems no reason in practice why stratification should not be carried out either after or during sample selection if no prior information is available on density variations. Jolly and Watson (1979) suggest a sampling intensity proportional to the square root of density in a stratum, that is, a number of sampling units proportional to the product of stratum size and the square root of density. However, such findings depend on the distribution of the population, so that experience may be better than rigid rules and some departure from the optimum will not greatly affect the final sampling error. The theory of optimum allocation in stratified sampling is given in Cochran (1977).Since sampling units usually vary in size, either method (2) or method (3) as described in Jolly (1969a) should be used. Jolly and Watson (1979) discuss briefly the relative merits of method (2), the ratio method, and method (3), sampling with probability proportional to the size of sampling unit, with respect to strip sampling;the same remarks apply to quadrats. However, for small sampling fractions, the difference in favour of one method or the other is likely to be undetectable: only with large sampling fractions (say over 15%) will the ratio method begin to show the advantage of sampling without replacement.One minor point not mentioned in the literature is that when sampling is without replacement, the formula for estimation of variance strictly requires the addition of a small term. The argument is that observations from a sample strip are not exactly repeatable for two reasons, even if the aircraft could be flown along exactly the same flight line with the animals in exactly the same positions. One reason is that variation in the width of strip actually seen due to random movements of the observer's head, rolling of the aircraft and similar factors leads to nonrepeatability of what the observer includes as being on the strip. The second reason is that, in circumstances when an adjustment for bias is necessary because of animals being missed, the same animals would not necessarily be missed in a re peat run. Normally, therefore, the sampling should be regarded as two-stage, in which one second-stage unit, corresponding to one of a virtual infinity of estimates, is made on each transect. For sampling with replacement, the variance is validly estimated from the same formula as in one-stage sampling, but when sampling is without replacement a further small term should be added. In most situations, the additional term is probably negligible, as evidenced in part by the Jolly and Watson (1979) reference to the smallness of the effect of random variation in strip width seen. Cochran (1977) gives variance formulae for two-stage sampling, but esti mation of the additional component is not a straightforward procedure in the present context and would require some investigation.Complete counts are still occasionally found useful, especially for elephant. Eltringham (1977) made complete counts of elephant up to 4 times a year over the period 1968-72. Ross et al (1976), who used both complete and sample counts of elephant (among other species) between 1967 and 1972, found that a 25% sample gave sampling errors in excess of 30%, which was unacceptably high. Likewise for buffalo, Kenyi (1978) made a complete count of herds from 150 m, covering the entire area of the Rwenzori National Park in 2-km-wide strips.A review of sampling methodology would not be complete without referring to the perpetually contentious subject of unstratified systematic vs stratified random sampling.The theory behind stratified random sampling is simple and fully valid in every respect regardless of animal distribution. The user has the option of adopt ing any reasonable stratification policy that will help to reduce sampling error.Strata, therefore, may be based on permanent features associated with differences in land use or on more temporary aspects such as seasonal concentrations of animals. Within strata, transects are selected at random at right angles to a suit ably chosen axis. Data are recorded along the transects and can be related to positions along the transects if desired.The main argument for stratified random sampling is that it is fully valid, giving unbiased estimates of population parameters and their sampling errors. The use of strata related to permanent features provides a rational basis for repeated monitoring and gives information on the distribution of animals, assuming that dis tribution is related primarily to permanent land characteristics.The theory behind systematic sampling is complex unless animals, as individuals or as herds, are distributed at random. Transects are demarcated at regular intervals, each extending continuously across the survey area, with obser vations made along the transects in such a way that they can be grouped as desired for sections of the transect.The main argument in favour of unstratified systematic sampling is that it gives a more precise (not necessarily more accurate) estimate of population size and a better indication of animal distribution over an area. Stratification can be carried out subsequently, if required, according to the distribution of animals. Also, re peated monitoring of the same transects leads to efficient estimation of changes.Bearing in mind that in random sampling data can be related to positions along a transect exactly as in systematic sampling, the two sampling designs are capable of achieving closely similar ends in slightly different ways. In stratified random sampling, a comparison of transects within a stratum enables distributions to be examined over the entire area as in unstratified systematic sampling. Having regard to the large variation among individual transects or parts thereof, any effect on precision of regular, as opposed to random, positioning of transects will usually be very small. Thus, for example, re stratification for a particular parameter after completion of a survey can be carried out with either method. The problems of ob taining an approximately correct sampling error from a systematic sample are evident from Pennycuick et al (1977).In conclusion, some of the alleged advantages and disadvantages of the two methods are imaginary rather than real. The full validity of stratified random sampling is a factual advantage. In particular, it eliminates disputes over published work following the suspected failure of a systematic sample to allow for the special characteristics of a particular animal distribution. In a random sample any pecu liarities of distribution are fully taken into account by the confidence limits.With regard to spatial patterns or relationships with other observations, the random sample will always produce valid results. The systematic sample, on the other hand, while it may be more sensitive in detecting one particular pattern, may completely miss another.Whether they are sampled systematically or at random, the most effective monitoring units for measuring changes in animal densities are based on some relatively permanent aspect of animal distribution. In other words, such units should be as free as possible from ephemeral movements of animals across their boundaries since, otherwise, detection of changes in density between one survey and the next is more difficult. There are numerous sampling designs and methods from which to choose and each has its merits. The choice is influenced by many factors, such as the objectives of the survey, the properties of the population to be sampled, the number and type of quantities to be measured, the auxiliary information available, and the limitations of funds, equipment and manpower. This discussion will be limited to two aspects of sampling which have been of particular interest in low-level aerial surveys -stratification and systematic vs random sampling. These two concepts lead to four basic sampling strategies:-random sampling without stratification -systematic sampling without stratification -stratified random sampling -stratified systematic sampling.The ensuing discussion will attempt to outline some of the advantages and disadvantages of each method. These issues will not be covered completely, since many books have been written on sampling. However, some thoughts will be pro vided for those involved in survey design, implementation, analysis and interpret ation.* The author wishes to thank G Butler for her valuable suggestions based on an earlier draft of this paper.Before proceeding further, several concepts should be clarified which are often confused by practitioners. For simplicity, reference will be made, when appropriate, to a specific hypothetical example -the estimation of the elephant population of Tsavo National Park on 1 November 1979. Five concepts used in this discussion are defined as follows:1. Parameter: any quantity in which there is interest, for example, the total elephant population of Tsavo on the date specified.True parameter value: the true value of the parameter independent of any survey, for example, the actual number of elephants in Tsavo Park on the given date.Estimate or estimated parameter value: this refers to a number based on the collection of data, such as from a survey. If the survey is carefully done, the estimate will be an approximation of the true parameter value.How good the approximation is will depend on the survey design, the sample size and the mathematical formula used to calculate the estimate.True precision (variance, standard error) of an estimate: suppose.after a survey is designed and the sample size n decided upon, the survey could be repeated many times under exactly the same conditions, each time selecting a different sample until all possible samples of size n were selected. If the estimated parameter value were calculated for each sample, then the average amount by which all these estimates differed from their average value would be the true precision of the estimate. The true variance and true standard error are measures of the true precision and could be cal culated using standard formulae if the results were known from all possible samples.Estimated precision (variance, standard error) of an estimate: in a real survey situation, data are not collected from all possible samples of size n, but only from one. Hence, the true precision (true variance, true standard error) of the estimate is not known. However, it is approximated from the data obtained, using appropriate formulae. Thus, when the standard error of an estimate is calculated from survey results, it is not the true standard error but an estimate of it, i.e. the estimated standard error.Stratification is the process of dividing the target population (or in the con text of the example, the Tsavo elephants) into subpopulations or strata. The reasons for stratifying fall into two broad categories, as discussed below.Populations are often stratified to improve the precision of an estimate. This is accomplished by delineating strata so that the area within each is as homo geneous as possible, but differences among strata are as large as possible. For example in the case of the Tsavo elephant population, it might be possible, prior to a survey, to subdivide Tsavo National Park into one stratum of generally high elephant density, one of medium density, and one of low density. This might be accomplished by using habitat type, annual rainfall, or some other criterion as a guide. There would then be three somewhat uniform strata, each widely differing from the others.The extent of homogeneity within each stratum with respect to the parameter being measured determines the potential effectiveness of the stratification (i.e. the increase in precision per unit sampled). For a survey in which a single parameter is being measured, suitable strata can probably be found. However, several para meters may be of interest, some of which may not be related, such as elephant, zebra and cattle populations. In these cases, one effective stratification for esti mating all parameters will be difficult to find because a set of strata which is appropriate for one parameter may not be for another.After stratification, the sample size within each stratum is determined.This process is called sample allocation. Often samples of the same size are chosen within each stratum, but if additional information is available, the pre cision of any estimate can be further increased by using an optimum sample allocation (Cochran, 1977). However, a good allocation of sampling intensity for estimating one parameter may be very poor for estimating another, and hence sample allocation of equal intensity may be appropriate in a survey in which many parameters are being measured.An unequal sample allocation may decrease the precision of any additional estimates made other than the one for which the allocation was specifically intended.When there are several parameters of interest, their relative importance must be considered, as well as the additional effort required to plan a stratified design.There may be one important parameter for which precise estimation is required, even if this means decreasing the precision of the estimates of other parameters.In many instances information is required for particular geographic sub divisions, such as states or management areas. If a certain precision is required for each subdivision, regardless of its size, then a sufficient sample size must be obtained within each. This will require different sampling intensities (sample allocation) within each subdivision which can only be obtained through stratification.In this case, the principal objective is to obtain estimates of a required precision for each stratum, at the possible expense of some loss of precision at the aggre gate level.So as not to confuse the issue of systematic vs random sampling with strati fication, it will be discussed in the context of an unstratified population. The dis cussion will also apply equally well to strata within a stratified sampling scheme.In making preparations for a survey, the area of interest is divided, at least conceptually, into sampling units. In a transect survey, the units are long narrow parallel rectangles of equal width. An example is given in Figure 1. For a random sample, transects are chosen by some chance or random procedure.. In a systematic sample, transects are often chosen at regular intervals, say every k transect, after an initial transect has been chosen at random from among the first k. If an area is relatively homogeneous with respect to the variable being measured, i.e. the variation is of a purely random nature, then there is little practical difference between the two methods. If there is variation of habitat, alti tude or other features which creates, in addition to the random effect, a trend or slow variation across the region of interest, then a systematic sample generally produces more precise estimates. There is, however, the danger of periodic variation which corresponds to the distance between adjacent sampling units. In this case, systematic sampling is less precise than random sampling. The survey designer must assess all these possibilities. If, for instance, a systematic approach is selected, care should be used in designing the survey to avoid periodic variation.An advantage of random sampling is the availability of relatively unbiased estimates of the true standard error, regardless of the underlying distribution of the data. For systematic sampling, additional assumptions are necessary before such estimates can be obtained. Cochran (1977) discusses several methods when the sampling units are of equal size and also describes the conditions under which these methods are valid. Often these estimated standard errors are biased up wards so that they tend to be conservative or to overestimate the true standard error.To clarify this idea, a hypothetical example may be considered where there is a trend in elephant density across a region such that a systematic sample will produce a more precise estimate. If both a systematic and a random sample of the same size are chosen, a situation might arise as shown in The systematic procedure gives an estimate of the population whose true standard error is half that of an estimate from a random sample. Only estimated standard errors can be obtained, however. In the case of random sampling, the estimated standard error is about right, whereas in the case of systematic sam pling the true standard error tends to be less than its estimate. Thus, in a situ ation where systematic sampling produces more precise estimates than random sampling, systematic sampling may be used to obtain a more precise estimate together with a conservative estimate of its precision, or random sampling may be used to obtain a less precise estimate along with a good estimate of its pre cision.CONCLUSIONS Some basic ideas in the choice of sampling design have been discussed with respect to stratification and the choice between systematic and random sampling.The most important point throughout is that no design can claim to be superior in all, or even most, circumstances. Each project must be assessed and, if a survey is required, this must be designed to suit the project's specific charac teristics and objectives. To do anything less is to invite disaster, and disasters occur often enough when they are uninvited. biotic and abiotic features of the environment. In this paper, the method will be discussed and its relative strengths and weaknesses compared with those of stratified random sampling.Throughout the biological and physical sciences, more data are probably collected by systematic sampling than by any other method. For example, hydrological, oceanographic, geophysical and geological data are largely derived from samples taken systematically through time and space. Also in the collection of meteorological data, ground networks are designed to cover areas as evenly as possible, spreading sampling effort systematically through space. At each ground station, data are then collected systematically over time -for instance every day or every month.The many applications of systematic sampling share one common theme:the analysis of pattern. In general, the most appropriate method of describing and analysing a pattern -be it an X-ray source, a rainfall intensity, an electronic signal, the structure of a cell or the movements of wildebeest across the Serengeti -is from data collected systematically through space and through time.In most applications of systematic sampling to ecological research, the sampling has been unstratified. There is a reason for this: stratification leads to a loss of information. For example, if a rangeland area is stratified into veg etation types or land systems, then information about events occurring within each vegetation type or land system may be lost or become much less accessible.An example of the advantage of unstratified systematic sampling is given by Maddock's (1979) analysis of wildebeest movements within the Serengeti eco system. The data are presented in two ways -on a grid of 10 x 10 km squares and, derived from the grid squares, on the basis of land systems. The grid square data could be restratified in a number of different ways. A vegetation map could be superimposed, or a soil map, or a grassland-productivity map, or a rainfall map. or a distance-from-permanent-water map, or a tourist-viewing-area map.In this way, many different associations can be studied. However, had the data been collected by stratified sampling -for example on the basis of land systemsit would no longer be feasible to restratify except by lumping the strata into larger and larger units.The flexibility offered by the unstratified approach can be particularly use ful for examining the factors which appear to influence the distributions of a range of animal species. Some species may be chiefly influenced by static features of the environment such as vegetation type, while the distribution of other species may be governed by ephemeral features such as grass condition and surface water.Stratified sampling would be inappropriate for this situation because the strata of static and ephemeral features would be unlikely to match each other, making it difficult to assess the relative influence of both types of features. How does the influence of these determinants vary through space and time? These questions can be answered by the analysis of variance (see Sokal and Rohlf, 1969).The analysis of variance can be illustrated by reference to the results from three aerial surveys recently carried out by Ecosystems Ltd, a consulting firm which specializes in ecological survey. These surveys were conducted in the area likely to be affected by a proposed hydroelectric dam in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania. The objectives of the surveys were to obtain baseline data on the numbers and seasonal distribution patterns of wildlife in the area and to analyse their existing relationships to the areas most likely to be affected by the dam.With this information, a preliminary assessment could be made of the probable impact of the dam on the animals in the reserve.Unstratified, systematic sampling was used, with the same flight lines (transects) surveyed during the wet season, the early dry season and the late dry season. The sampling intensity was around 10%. The raw data comprised the numbers of 12 different wildlife species observed along successive, 1-minute segments of each flight line, repeated during the three seasons. These data were stratified in 25 different ways, but for brevity only five of the stratifications will be considered here -the major vegetation zones, the major land systems, the dis tance from permanent water, the greenness of grass and the abundance of surface water.Three questions are of particular interest: How important are these strati fications in determining the distribution of all animals in the impact area? How does this vary on a seasonal basis? Which animal species are most affected on a seasonal basis? These questions are answered by the analysis of variance against the null hypothesis that all animals are distributed randomly with respect to all of the stratifications .The first question is answered by a two-way analysis of variance of each stratification against all animals. Taking vegetation zones as an example, the data on which the analysis is based are the densities along the segments of flight lines passing through each vegetation stratum. The individual 1-minute inter vals and grid squares are not used. This two-way analysis of variance breaks down the variation into four sources -variance resulting from different species within different strata, variance resulting from different species, variance result ing from different strata and variance resulting from the interaction between the individual species and the strata. What is left over is the error variance. Thus the components of the overall variation can be analysed separately.The variance component for the strata gives the proportion of the total variation in animal distribution that can be explained by the stratification. Table 1 shows the variance components for the five stratifications. It is clear from this table that the importance of the stratifications as determinants of animal distri bution varies on a seasonal basis . In the wet season, the vegetation zones and the land systems are the major determinants of animal distribution: in other words animals are responding to characteristics of the vegetation at this time of the year.However, in the dry season the major determinants of animal distribution are dis tance from permanent water and the greenness of the grass. Vegetation type selection has become relatively unimportant. Thus, even at this early stage in the analysis, a clear idea has been formulated of how the animals are responding to the environment within the impact area and how this response varies on a seasonal basis.To answer the third question, the sums of squares for each species are broken down for each stratification, with reference always to the null hypothesis. Table 2 shows this stage of the analysis for impala, hippopotamus and zebra. The distributions of impala are determined in the wet season primarily by the major land systems and the vegetation zones, while in the dry season distance from per manent water is a strong influence. Not surprisingly, the distribution of hippo potamus is mainly determined by the distance from permanent water. For zebra, the vegetation zones are the most important determinants of distribution in the wet season, while the greenness of grass is most important in the dry season.It is possible to analyse the information further, that is, by inspecting in dividual densities within each stratum of a given stratification. Questions can be asked, such as: Which of the vegetation types are being selected? Which are being avoided? What is the distribution of a wildlife species with respect to per manent water sources? It is also possible to investigate two, or even three, levels of stratification in more detail. In the study of the Selous Game Reserve, one land system was stratified on the basis of vegetation types, while another was stratified on the basis of distance from permanent water. Similarly, for a survey in Tanzania's Tabora Region, the relationship between livestock densities and hut densities was investigated in different agricultural areas. The region was first stratified on the basis of agricultural areas and then on the basis of hut densities, and within these strata the cattle densities were analysed. Unstratified systematic sampling gives considerable flexibility to methods of data analysis because no information on the variation in distribution is lost through stratification. Stratified random sampling is most useful for census pur poses. The role of both techniques may be illustrated, taking the Serengeti migratory wildebeest as an example. Three questions would need to be answered in order to conduct a wildebeest census, namely: Where are the wildebeest?Where are the areas of high and low wildebeest density? How many wildebeest are there?The first two questions were answered by systematic sampling with the objective of mapping the density distribution of animals. A random sample was then taken within each density stratum in order to answer the third question (Norton-Griffiths, 1973).Finally, the question of grid squares should be mentioned. Unstratified systematic sampling is often, but not always, carried out within a framework of grid cells. Grid cells provide a useful means of presenting distribution data, but that is all. They are not sampling units nor are they used in analysis; they are used purely as a convenient way of displaying information visually. In discussing bias which originates with the investigator, it was concluded that scientific impartiality has to be assumed. It was also agreed that bias related to stratification and the selection of sampling units should not occur, provided that standard procedures are followed.Studies on bias due to the operation of the aircraft have sometimes given conflicting results. For example, time-of-day effects, arising from changes in animal behaviour during the day, do not seem to be important when survey re sults are analysed. Similarly, while some studies have demonstrated a small effect on survey results due to observer fatigue or boredom, other studies have shown no such effects (Norton-Griffiths, 1976).Bias was discussed which arises from crabbing into wind, deviating off the planned flight path or flying low over hill crests and high over valley bottoms. The lack of satisfactory investigations into these sources of bias was agreed. However, it was felt that these sources of bias, while obviously present, are unlikely to be large and some are easily corrected.The 'decision-line' method of correcting bias due to aircraft crabbing was discussed. This technique involves the in-flight adjustment of a line which runs from a point outboard on the strut to the fuselage so that the line lies at right angles to the flight path. The line then represents a true cross-section of the transect, as opposed to the wing axis which is askew when the aircraft is crabbed.It was agreed that spotting and counting problems represent the single most important source of bias in aerial census. Numerous studies have demonstrated this type of bias. Spotting and counting bias is influenced by the density of the veg etation, by the size and colouring of the animals, by their herding behaviour, by their reaction to an overflying aircraft, and by the height, speed and strip width selected for the census. Height, strip width and speed are probably the three most important influences on this form of bias, although the influence of vegetation cover and camouflage have been less systematically studied. Spotting and counting bias may also be greatly influenced by the number of species and other variables to be counted: bias in a complicated census is likely to be higher than in a census for one, or just a few variables, though a higher workload, up to a point, may help maintain observer concentration. While economic considerations often lead to multi-species censuses, the special problems of bias in this type of survey have yet to be examined in any detail. Newsome et al, in their contribution to this report, use multiple regression to quantify the effect of mean group size and forage conditions on the percentage of cattle seen.There was also considerable discussion on the relative merits of aerial survey work carried out by a single pilot also acting as observer. Those prac titioners who work in this way estimate that they are able to carry out observations almost continuously while piloting their aircraft. At flying speeds below 130 kph, the risk of collision with vultures is sufficiently low to require no particular vigilance .Clearly, a pilot acting as observer can conduct aerial surveys effectively, but the considerable skill and experience required are not readily transferable.While it is impossible to eliminate bias from an aerial census, its effect can be minimized at the design stage and then partially corrected after the census.Opinion at the workshop was divided as to how much bias remained after correction.Considerable discussion centred on the use of correction factors -the factors by which an estimate obtained by an observer is multiplied in order to bring it closer to the true number of the population. Different correction factors are required for each animal species to be countred and for each type of vegetation cover.Different views were expressed at the workshop on whether general correction factors could be determined for different animal/vegetation combinations or whether correction factors had to be calculated for each survey. The approach suggested by Caughley (1974) was discussed in some detail. It was felt that, although this approach indicated the relative importance of the various factors influencing spotting and counting bias, it was not adequate for calculating correction factors due to the large standard errors associated with the regression technique used.Photographic correction factors are widely employed, and photography, as an aid to counting, is used almost universally in aerial census. However, a photo graph in itself does not remove all bias. Animals remain hidden by vegetation or within large herds. Also, photographic correction factors apply only to the animal groups detected. They do not correct for animal groups or herds missed altogether.Observers are probably unlikely to miss large herds, especially of domestic stock, but are more likely to miss smaller herds and individual animals, particularly in multi-species censuses.A method was described whereby the number of ' missed animals' could be calculated from the probability of sighting a single individual, but concern was expressed over ways of testing the reliability of such a method. The merits of counting blocks of land containing known numbers of animals were also discussed as a method of obtaining a single correction factor, covering both animal groups detected and those missed. Another method, when the true numbers are unknown, is to observe a large number of animal groups : each is first counted, and perhaps photographed, as in a survey, then immediately recounted in an intensive search from very low altitude to obtain a 'true density' . In both methods, the two counts are used to calculate a correction factor which is then applied to subsequent aerial censuses of the species under similar conditions .In general, all workshop participants saw the need for more research into methods of correcting spotting and counting bias. Other examples of aerial correction factors estimated for particular situ ations include those of Le Resche and Rausch (1974), who compared sample data 2 with known numbers of moose in 1 mi enclosures, Sargeant et al (1975) who checked against carefully conducted group counts of red fox families, Leighton et al (1979) who intensively searched sample areas on the ground for the number of breeding aeries of bald eagles, and Floyd et al (1979) who counted radio-tagged deer in quadrats. Norton-Griffiths (1974) also used this type of correction to adjust visual counts by photographic counts on a sub-sample. In each case, corrections are based on the assumption that the actual count of the sub-sample is accurate. Caughley et al (1976) have conducted experiments observing kangaroos at unknown densities and sheep at known densities at different heights, speeds and transect widths, and also similar laboratory experiments with dots on a screen.Multiple regression equations are established to express observed densities of animals, y, as functions of height, speed and transect width and, by extrapolation, estimates of y are obtained corresponding to zero values of the three independent variables. In spite of a few inconsistencies, the authors claim generally good agreement between estimated and true densities.However, on closer examination, the standard errors of the estimated den sities are very high -understandably so since the regressions have been extra polated well outside the range of observations. For example, in one experiment 2 having a true density of 141 per km , estimates from the regression for two ob servers were 145 ± 60. 8 and 149 ± 58. 2. When applying this regression to adjust estimates from an actual survey, these estimates will already have their own samp ling error prior to adjustment, so that the sampling variance of the adjusted esti mate is the sum of two (independent) variance components. Many more data would therefore be required to produce acceptable levels of precision. Also, given more data, it is possible that the simple regression fitted will prove to be unsatisfactory; in fact, it would be surprising if further curvature were not found when data closer to the zero values of height, speed and strip width are included.A possible result is that the technique will tend to approach the simpler Watson-type correction factor when suitably refined by using more data, especially nearer to the zero values of the independent variates. Large quantities of data would be required to examine such models. DOUBLE SURVEY Magnusson et al (1978) suggest employing the principle of two surveys by independent observers using either the same or different methods. The objects ob served must be capable of identification so that they can subsequently be classified as seen by only one or both observers. The combined estimate in its simplest form If each object has the same probability of being observed by a given observer, the bias in their separate estimates will be fully corrected. Otherwise, N will still underestimate the true number; this possibility can be seen by considering a situ ation where certain of the objects are completely concealed.By making some fairly restrictive assumptions on the distribution of animals, Cook and Martin (1974) produce a complex model from which certain parameters, including proportion of animals seen, can be estimated by computer. To test a model which depends on several assumptions not easily verified, it would be necessary to check the authors' estimate by comparison with a known population.Although they apply their method to several sets of real data, they do not attempt any such validation, thus leaving the reader to speculate on the success of the method. This approach may be too dependent on its assumptions to be generally applicable.  Caughley et al (1976). By randomly varying air speeds, heights above the ground and widths of transect, these authors generated a multiple regression whose intercepts on the ordinate provided an estimate of the percentages of wild kangaroos (Macropus spp. ) and sheep seen and counted.Differences between observers were also examined.Biased estimates of the density of a species due to its dispersion haveapparently not yet been examined systematically. The actual dispersion, i.e. sizes of groups, may be one problem (Miiller et al, 1976;Evans, 1979), and habitat usage could also be related (Newsome, 1965). In the present study, possible bias due to dispersion was examined using extensive data on cattle collected by Low, and adjustments to estimates were sought.The numbers and distribution of free-ranging shorthorn cattle in a paddock from September 1970 to April 1975 (Low, 1972). The total area was surveyed each time, methods being standardized at an air speed of 130 kph, a height of 120 m, and a transect width of 0.4 km per observer on each side of the aircraft. The transects were always flown shortly after dawn using the same observers. On 10 occasions during the study, the cattle were mustered and totally counted. On those occasions, some cattle were culled or added, depending on forage conditions.Numbers also changed due to breeding.During the study, climatic conditions varied from drought to good rainfall, with forage conditions varying accordingly. The quantity and quality of forage were assessed as part of every survey. Three classes of greenness and four of ground cover were combined to form a forage index as follows : The size of each group of cattle seen was noted, as well as their position to an accuracy of one quarter of the total transect width, or 0.2 km.The data used in this paper were gathered during 12 aerial surveys carried out just before the cattle were mustered, plus 12 extra sets obtained by inter-polation between successive musters during which numbers of cattle were the same or little changed (see Table 1). The data were analysed by multiple re gression, which incorporated the first principal component of habitat usage by cattle. The application of principal components in multiple regression has been discussed by Dudzinski (1975).The data and some statistics are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The per centages seen between 9 March and 16 August 1971, when cattle numbers were virtually constant, included low and high values of 42.9 and 72.3%. Similarly the range between 15 November and 30 December 1971, when numbers were constant, was 59.0 to 75.5%.Let the numbers seen on each survey be Y and the numbers at each muster be X. Their relationship (Figure 1) was as follows: Y = -16.6 + 0.679 X (r = 0.821; P< 0.001)The intercept (-16.6) was not significantly different from zero (P > 0.05), and the slope indicates that about 68% of the cattle were seen on average in aerial surveys. The percentage seen bore no relationship, however, to the actual numbers. There was a good relationship between the percentage seen and the average size of groups of cattle (r = 0.73; P < 0. 001) (Figure 2). There was also a relationship between average group size and the forage index (r = 0.415; P < 0.01), though neither of these relationships was linear (Figure 3). There appeared to be a threshold effect with large groups forming when forage conditions were good, i.e. , below a forage index of about 2.The first principal component from the analysis of habitat usage, Z(l), accounted for 34.9% of the variation. The hills and mulga scrub which had an understorey of perennial grasses (corresponding loadings: -0.556 and -0.254)were strongly contrasted with the floodplains and adjacent woodland savanna   Counting when groups are small might therefore seem an appropriate solution. In this study, however, even greater proportions were missed when groups averaged about five, with errors of about 55% caused by cattle scattering into scrublands and hills where visibility was poor. Because the percentages of cattle seen were knownCentral to all applications of low-level aerial observation is the problem of spotting the item or items which are then to be photographed, timed, or, in the case of small groups of individuals, counted. No trials have ever been undertakenwhich have tested the observer's ability to perform this task in the context of strip sampling, which is now the commonest method in use. Such trials as have been carried out have tested the observer' s ability to spot known numbers of animals or people confined to fixed, clearly defined areas, which are then searched by the aerial observer in the fashion used for total counts (see Watson et al, 1969;Watson, 1970b;Le Resche and Rausch, 1974). The results of these trials have been disappointing, and have led some workers to doubt the usefulness of low-level aerial observation methods. For example, Watson et al (1969) showed that experienced observers and pilot /observers were able to count an average of 75% of 155 people * The authors are grateful to M Russel, A Russel, P Tilley, C Hemming, D Thalen, D Brown, B Davidson, V Scholes and I Romalin for helping to carry out the field exercise described in this paper; to the pilots and observers who took part; to I Douglas-Hamilton and H Croze who provided their own aircraft; to D Hopcraft for making available the facilities of his ranch; and to UNEP for providing financial support for the exercise. restricted to a small (5 km ) area of medium-density wooded shrubland, whileLe Resche and Rausch (1974) showed that only 68 and 43% of known numbers of moose in small paddocks were counted from the air. In these trials, the group sizes of animals and people were so small that errors due to counting, as distinct from errors due to spotting (or sighting), were considered to be minor.It must be emphasized, however, that these trials have tested the ob server' s ability to spot animals and people when flying, or being flown, not along sampling strips, but in a searching pattern over blocks or quadrats of land. The strip has been widely adopted as a sampling unit, largely because it was believed that errors due to spotting problems would be standardized and minimized within a narrow strip. Although users of the sampling strip believed they were reducing bias by using this method, it has been almost impossible to demonstrate this in quantitative terms. This is a consequence of the nature of the sampling strip and of the items usually being observed. The sampling strip exists for the observer only at the moment the aircraft is flying over it: it is not fixed on the ground and could only be fixed if some expensive photographic technique were used. In general, this has not been justified because the animals in the strip are mobile, being judged as inside or outside only at the moment when the decision line on the sam pling demarcators passes over them (Watson and Tippett, 1975). As a result, tests of strip sampling methods have necessarily been performed on different sampling strips, and therefore precise comparisons have been impossible.Ingenious methods of assessing spotting or sighting bias (also commonly called visibility bias) have been devised, which are described in this paper and elsewhere in this report. However, this discussion will focus largely on one approach tested during the workshop, based on a static model sampling strip.Game Ranching Ltd at Athi River was offered by the owner for the establishment of a static model sampling strip. The ranch is just outside the Nairobi flight control zone and surrounded by a conspicuous game-proof fence some 55 km long.The night before the exercise, a number of models were positioned and 2 fixed inside the perimeter fence. The models were of three types: 1 m sheets of light brown card, 2 x 1.5 m sheets of shiny black polythene, and 2x1.5 m sheets of clear polythene. They were positioned along the transect in three ways:-The cards were positioned in groups of up to 4, all within 100 m of the inner edge of the perimeter fence.-The black polythene sheets were laid out in groups of up to 40 (but mostly of 6 or less) within 150 m of the inner edge of the fence.-The clear polythene sheets were placed singly up to 250 m from the inner edge of the fence.The distance of all sheets more than 80 m from the fence was recorded.In all, 1027 models were laid out, including 192 cards, 621 black polythene sheets and 214 clear polythene sheets. Their distribution is shown in Table 1.2 The average density of all the models was 118 per km or 18 per km of transect, 2 while the average density of groups was 47 per km or 7 per km of transect.These can be considered as moderately high densities for counting purposes.The 55 km sampling strip was flown 13 times in one day, involving 4 differ ent aircraft and 12 observers. Because of adverse early morning weather, the whole exercise began much later than anticipated, and so it was only possible to test a limited number of observer/aircraft combinations. Each observer/aircraft com bination calibrated strip widths by reference to a grid of marker, spaced at 10 m intervals, which were laid out along the side of the airstrip at the ranch. Speci mens were positioned close to this grid so that pilots and observers could familiar-ize themselves with the appearance of the models. Pilots and observers were briefed about the essentials of the trial and were given maps, as shown in Figure 1. Pilots used VHF (very high frequency) contact to maintain safe separations, for three aircraft were in the air simultaneously throughout the day.During the trial flights, pilots attempted to keep the observer's inner strip marker just inside the boundary fence. In this way, the expected numbers of the three types of models could be calculated for a given strip width, and these could then be compared with numbers observed. Results of these trials are pre sented in Table 2.The results of the static model sampling strip trial raised a number of issues. Concerning the relative advantages of counting through perspex or open windows, Graham and Bell (1969) and Watson and Tippett (see their paper in this report) considered that counting through perspex would be less efficient than counting through an open window, partly because of light reflected back from the perspex panel. Yet the results of the trial failed to reveal any significant difference between counts made through an open window and those made through perspex. This is shown in Table 3 for experienced observers and pilot/observers. Sample sizes are small, however, so the results must be considered preliminary. Perspex windows can also make photography more awkward and may affect the quality of photographs, although these effects were not tested here.The efficiency of pilot/observers has been questioned by Norton-Griffiths (1978), but the trial showed that pilot/observers are just as effective as straight observers (see Table 3). Unfortunately, the sample sizes are small, but the re sults suggest that any differences between pilot/observers and straight observers are not large. The static model sampling strip also provides a good means of testing this issue more thoroughly in future.  It was intended to test the influence of aircraft speed on the accuracy of counts, as other tests (Watson, 1970b;Caughley, 1974) had indicated that this is an important factor. Given the time available, however, it was not possible to test the effect of aircraft speed. It was noted that the aircraft performing the trials were in a nose-up, slow-flight attitude, and that both calculated and indicated speeds were below those recommended for cruising (see Table 2).It was possible to divide the observers into three groups based on experience : very experienced, experienced and inexperienced. The comparative performance of these three groups is shown in Table 4. As would be expected, experienced observers appear to be more accurate and consistent than inexperienced ones.Again, the static model sampling strip offers an excellent means of further testing observer performance.In summary, the static model sampling strip appears to provide, for the first time, a means of testing cheaply and precisely the influence of many of the variables associated with low-level aerial survey. In addition, this method could have appreciable value in training programmes and in monitoring observer per formance. Its most important potential, however, probably lies in the field of estimating visibility bias. Bias of this type has been examined in the past chiefly in two ways, called for convenience the Caughley method (Caughley, 1974;Caughley et al, 1977), and the Watson-Jolly method (Jolly, 1969b;Watson and Tippett, 1975;Jolly and Watson, 1979). The Caughley method suffers from a lack of precision, due to the high variability of sampling strip counts which cannot be eliminated because of the ephemeral nature of the sampling unit, and from the weakness of the mathematical assumptions in the critical area of the extrapolation it implies. The Watson-Jolly method, which is a form of calibration, is more expensive than the Caughley approach, as it involves additional flying. It is also restricted in its usefulness to those animals which have coherent and stable social groups, and which respond to the aircraft's herding actions in specific ways.Other approaches have been attempted to measure sighting bias along sam pling strips. Robinette et al (1974) carried out trials of strip sampling over an area of known populations of mobile and immobile objects. Watson (1970b), surveyed sampling strips first in the usual way, but, each time animals were sighted, searched the area within the strip boundaries (as judged from memory) more thoroughly at lower levels. Watson and Tippett (1976) used a polaroid camera to establish the boundaries of sampling strips at critical positions, which were then searched more carefully at lower levels, using the aircraft to flush out small and example to census work requiring a high degree of accuracy, surveys over rough terrain, or surveys involving frequent landing to observe features on the ground.Although their relative operating costs have decreased considerably in re cent years, in 1980 helicopters still cost about 50% more to operate than fixed-wing aircraft. However, for surveys which require hovering capability or frequent land ings, there is no substitute for a helicopter. Tethered balloons with remote sensors were also mentioned as being of potential use, but so far there has been no develop ment of such systems for ecological survey work.Discussion on sensing equipment ranged widely during the workshop, but centred around three types of sensor systems, still and cine' photography, videorecorders and thermal scanners.Still and cin6 photography -including special film types -already plays an important role in survey and census work, which is likely to increase. Regular 8 and Super 8 cine systems are useful alternatives for continuous and spot recording along aerial transects, as the capital and operating costs of these systems are relatively low. The cost-effectiveness of using cing could be improved if a timeinterval regulator were attached to the camera so that the minimum number of frames were taken in order to cover the sampling strip. The film could then be stopped at particular frames to allow counting.Video-recorders were first used for aerial census on an experimental basis in eastern Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but the equipment available at that time was heavy and very expensive. Resolution on professional standard colour video-tape (2 in wide) was excellent as long as the tape was moving. If it was stopped, however, to allow large herds to be counted, the repetitive scanning necessary to freeze the action resulted in major distortion and loss of clarity. A 2-hour colour video tape for a professional system cost at that time about US$3 000 and had a use-life of about 1 000 hours. The new generation of portable video-re corders are said to be much more efficient and, since they are solid state, they last longer and give clearer images. The new 2-hour colour video tapes only cost US $ 150, but the camera, recorder and ground replay equipment cost about US $ 60 000. The operational life of the new tapes is not known. Video-recorders have been linked to thermal infrared scanners for livestock surveys in Europe so that hot spots are indicated on the video tape.The workshop participants agreed that video-recorder systems show pro mise as tools for use in aerial census and survey work, although few of those pre sent had actually used these systems. High capital costs tend to prevent both government agencies and private firms from acquiring video-recorder systems.In view of the need for experimental work in this field, it was urged that the inter national organizations, such as UNEP, contact the manufacturers to arrange suit able tests and trials. These should include comparisons with cine systems.Thermal scanners have been used to determine the presence and/or numbers of animals not readily observable, such as beavers and muskrats in their lodges during winter. Thermal scanning has been used in Canada to count bison, moose, deer and elk in comparison with aerial survey and ground counts. The total number of ungulates in one trial was estimated at 2 175 using a thermal scanner, compared with 1 010 and 1 231 using conventional air survey methods (Intera Environmental Consultants, 1976). Sources of error included hot spots from other sources, such as solar heated objects, vacated sleeping spots and non-target animals. Sex and age information could not be obtained, and it also proved difficult to identify species of animals detected, although this was possible to a certain extent based on social behaviour characteristics. Costs were about US $ 50 per 2.5 km.Discussion also drew attention to the possible adaptation for aerial survey and census work of technology developed for military purposes, such as 'sniffers' to detect odours specific to different animal species and sensitive microphones trailed from aircraft or located on the ground. Light intensifiers and night-vision equipment have already been adapted from original military use.In general, the workshop participants agreed that more information is needed on sensors and sensor systems, including side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) and ultra-violet detection (see Lavigne et al, 1977). More conventional sensor systems -particularly cine and video-recorders -offer great potential in aerial survey work, though trained human observers will play a major part in aerial surveys for a considerable time to come. Though human observers are affected by many types of bias, they also adapt more rapidly to changes in ob serving situations than sensing devices: for instance, there is generally no obvious time-of-day effect on aerial animal counts by human observers. from the data and may limit the flexibility of analysis. With small data sets, analysis is often better carried out using a pocket calculator. Also, if statisti cal packages are used, they should be carefully selected to be suitable for the desired analysis. Finally, data collection and editing procedures should be thoroughly documented and made available to future users.A special problem concerns confidence limits. As animals are often dis tributed irregularly, the frequency distribution of transect densities tends to be positively skewed. In this situation, the usual method of calculating confidence limits may give an unrealistic lower limit, or even a negative value in some cases.One way of dealing with this problem was proposed during the seminar by G M Jolly: sensible confidence limits are derived by adding and subtracting t . I Var (fr)~to /ft J HT J where N is the estimate of numbers or density. These limits are then squared, with the result that the upper limit is greater than the lower one. It must be realized, however, that this is only a rough, empirical way of dealing with a com plex distribution problem. It was also noted that some practitioners prefer to give standard errors rather than 95% confidence limits and to leave the user to choose appropriate confidence limits. For instance, some users might be prepared to accept 80% confidence limits.Good communication between managers, statisticians and aerial survey workers is essential for the efficient flow of data. This implies that resource managers should be involved in planning aerial surveys. Data transfer and use will only be efficient if the objectives of the survey are well formulated and clearly stated. Managers should also be informed of the limitations of the survey method so that they are aware of the limitations of the data which are made available. require the collection of data over a long period, for instance over 10 years. Thus conclusions are not available for some time, a situation which should not be con fused with an inefficient flow of information.The following suggestions were made for improving the flow of data from those who carry out aerial surveys to those responsible for decision-making and resource management:-better communication between managers and survey workers -thorough documentation of all data collection and processing procedures -preparation of a clean data set which is available to future users -provision of adequate incentives to key individuals to ensure their role in maintaining the flow of data.The International Workshop on Low-Level Aerial Survey Techniques, held in Nairobi, Kenya from 6 to 12 November 1979, was  In addition to 5 days of discussion, a 2-day field exercise was held on a game and livestock ranch near Nairobi. Four light aircraft were used to count plas tic and card models which had been placed along a fixed transect. Counts were made by a number of different plane /pilot/observer combinations in order to:-demonstrate various survey configurations and techniques -assess differences in performance in surveying more and less cryptic models.The workshop participants agreed that aerial survey is a relatively accu rate and cost-effective technique for obtaining a wide range of environmental in formation. However, aerial surveys are most effective when undertaken together with complementary ground surveys, which provide detailed information, as well as the analysis of satellite imagery and high-altitude aerial photographs which expand the possibilities of inexpensive and repeatable extrapolation.Two main types of aerial surveys were identified. Inventory or resource surveys might be undertaken to enumerate one or a few animal species or a broad range of environmental attributes. Only one or two surveys are usually carried out, giving broad coverage and the most appropriate combination of precision and accuracy. Monitoring surveys, on the other hand, are usually carried out at in tervals over an extended period of time. Their aim is to detect change, or lack of change, and therefore a higher level of precision may be required. Sample design and the location of sampling units must be consistent over repeated surveys.Two main issues emerged during the workshop as particularly important to the future development and application of aerial survey methods. They can be described in general terms as problems of accuracy and precision and problems of information transfer.There was general agreement that efforts to improve aerial survey method ology over the next few years should aim at reducing or accounting for bias and controlling the precision of estimates. Accuracy is influenced by flying and ob serving procedures; precision, by survey design.The problems of spotting objects from the air were discussed in detail during several workshop sessions. Issues covered included the relative merits of different types of aircraft, the use of pilot/observers or pilots with ob servers who fly as passengers and the development of various types of remote sensing devices.Discussions of survey design tended to focus on two major controversial issues -the use of systematic or random sampling and the selection of bases for stratification.Both systematic and random sampling produce numerical and distribution data. Random sampling usually produces more useful numerical data, while prac titioners who use systematic sampling feel that this approach produces more use ful distribution data. Two possible disadvantages in systematic sampling were discussed. Sampling units which are spaced at regular intervals might resonate with regular habitat features, but experienced aerial survey specialists who are familiar with the terrain should be able to position their sampling units so as to avoid this problem. Svstematic sampling may also lead to the overestimation of variance, though some workers may prefer to have an overestimation of this statistic.If information is available on factors in the survey area which influence the distribution of the attributes to be surveyed, it is probably advantageous to stratify the area according to these factors in order to minimize variance within the sample. The advantages of stratification decrease, however, in complex surveys which include a large number of attributes. A general resource survey, for in stance, may cover wildlife, domestic livestock, land use and infrastructure: in such a situation, it becomes difficult to identify one set of strata which is appro priate for all the attributes being surveyed. In most stratified samples, the strata are determined by administrative boundaries, land-system boundaries or bound aries based on ephemeral events, such as animal movements or the availability of surface water. The choice of an appropriate stratification for a particular region depends on the extent to which different types of boundaries explain the variability of important attributes.The different approaches to aerial survey design may usefully be viewed in the context of information needs at different stages of development planning and implementation. First, in the predevelopment stage, the requirement is usually for broad resource surveys, yielding general numerical information and fairly precise data on the distribution of a number of attributes. Even if pre-development information needs are focused on one attribute, say livestock, planners also need information on factors which make up the geophysical, biotic and socio economic context of livestock development. During the development phase, in formation is most likely needed on a few key attributes and how they change over time. A series of surveys may be conducted, using a sample which is stratified according to land systems or distribution data from the predevelopment surveys. If decision-makers and resource-managers are to use technical information produced by aerial surveys, findings must be presented in a format which they can readily understand, such as summary tables, coloured maps or thematic overlays.At the same time, a complete set of raw data should be made available to scientists and technicians, perhaps through an environmental data bank maintained by a suit able international organization. The flow of information, particularly within This compendium should be issued in 1982.A number of important issues involved in aerial survey methodology were not discussed in detail at the workshop. These included:-the possibility that the ratio of various attributes may be estimated with less bias than the absolute numbers involved -the possibility that bias levels may be different when several attributes, such as different animal species, are counted rather than single attri The following recommendations arose from the workshop:1 .More research and development are needed on ways to reduce or account for bias in aerial sampling and on ways to control the precision of estimates.This should lead to the development of techniques which involve a minimum of bias and correction factors for a wide range of attributes and situations.Observer and pilot fatigue are regarded as a major source of bias in aerial survey. The military services of different countries around the world have acquired a wealth of basic physiological and medical experience concerning the effects of fatigue on efficiency. This experience should be collected, summarized and made available to those conducting aerial resource surveys.More attention should be given to the development of methodologies and schedules for training aerial observers, with particular attention to methods for alleviating in-flight boredom.Attention also needs to be focused on the development of methods to deter mine appropriate sampling strata.Standardization and quality control need to be improved in the collection, analysis and presentation of aerial survey data. ","tokenCount":"34019"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7a12ef5bdf051195ca4e294c9cf787b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8205dd64-470e-4d25-892a-3e33d1de63ab/retrieve","id":"-898820743"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9e62eed5-60a0-4d6e-99ea-b60e9fe7c841","pagecount":"13","content":"Proponents: The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) Scope: to strengthen and broaden the scope of existing Aichi Biodiversity Target 7 and include considerations of mainstreaming biodiversity across the full spectrum of food systems including inputs, finance and insurance, production, post-harvest storage, processing, transport, marketing and consumption, to address loss of biodiversity and enhance its contribution to improving food and nutrition security, human and environmental health and resilience of food systems.Focus: sustainable food systems, agroecology, agrobiodiversity, genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, human diets, nutrition and health.Welcoming the proposal put forward by the Co-Chairs of the Open-ended Working Group (OEWG) on the development of a possible new structure for the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework [Non-paper 02 -Zero draft (CBD Secretariat WG2020-01, July 2019)];Noting the following Decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity:• CBD/COP/DEC/XIII/3 (CBD Secretariat, 2016a) that recognizes the need to mainstream biodiversity into agriculture practices• CBD/COP/DEC/XIII/6 (CBD Secretariat, 2016b ) and CBD/COP/DEC/XIV/4 (CBD Secretariat, 2018) that recognize the links between biodiversity and human health Recognizing the importance of the above decisions to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (in particular SDGs 2, 3, 12, 13 and 15); Noting Resolution A/RES/73/253 (United National General Assembly, 2019) [Agriculture development, food security and nutrition] adopted by the UN General Assembly on 20 December 2018, that recognizes the need to strengthen the resilience and adaptive capacity of food systems and people's livelihoods in response to climate variability and extremes, to achieve a world without hunger and malnutrition in all its forms by 2030;We, the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, support the proposal of the Co-Chairs of the OEWG to adapt the five goals of the current Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and update the current Aichi Biodiversity Targets (ABTs or targets) to reflect the above-mentioned decisions and make them as relevant and SMART as possible, measuring the targets against a range of identified milestones and indicators.We also support the OEWG's view that the new framework should be more ambitious in scope and extended to cover a period of 30 years, thereby extending the framework to 2050 and adopting a new set of targets to support the achievement of the agreed CBD vision for 2050.Specifically, we propose to strengthen and broaden the scope of existing Aichi Biodiversity Target 7 \"By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity\", taking advantage of the lessons learned in implementing CBD/COP/DEC/VII/32 (CBD Secretariat, 2004) and VIII/23 (CBD Secretariat, 2006), which established the Cross-cutting initiative on biodiversity for food and nutrition. The new target would embrace a food systems perspective, which puts biodiversity at its core and makes more explicit the links to sustainable production and consumption mentioned in ABT 4 and biodiversity conservation in ABT 13.Opportunities should also be sought to reinforce the ties between the Aichi Biodiversity Targets 4, and 13 (as well as 3, 6 and 18) and Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG 2 Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture). As explained extensively in the rationale below, biodiversity underpins human well-being and contributes directly to support food systems, agricultural productivity, ecosystem functioning, food security and livelihoods among others. In re-wording Target 7, we specifically welcome explicit links and alignment to SDG target 2.4: By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality, and target 2.5: By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed. We also welcome links and alignment to SDG 3 (Good Health and well-being: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages), SGD 12 (Responsible consumption and production: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns), SDG 13 (Climate Action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts) and SDG 15 (Life on earth: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss).One of the monumental challenges facing humanity is how to secure universal access to sufficient, nutritious, safe, healthy and affordable food produced sustainably in resilient systems and landscapes, ensuring the conservation and use of biodiversity. Existing agriculture and food systems produce large quantities of food, but not enough of the nutrient-rich foods needed for healthier and sustainable diets. Indeed, satisfaction of these nutritional needs is even more poorly distributed among low income groups. Such systems also undermine biodiversity, including agricultural biodiversity, while contributing to the global public health crisis and to widespread environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity.Today three staple crops (rice, maize and wheat) account for more than 50% of the plant derived calories consumed globally, while the wide range of nutrient-rich varieties, cultivars and breeds of plants and animals and wild species used by humanity throughout history are being forgotten and lost, and traditional knowledge on the use of these species eroded. The SoW-BFA warns that, despite growing evidence of biodiversity's key role in food security and nutrition, the diversity of food production systems worldwide is in decline. Of the thousands of plant and animal species cultivated or raised for food in the past, fewer than 200 currently contribute substantially to global food output and only nine account for 66% of total crop production. In 48 years, from 1961 to 2009, diets worldwide have become increasingly similar, dominated by rice, maize and wheat at the expense of a rich global food biodiversity marginalized by specialized modern agricultural production systems (Khoury et al., 2014).The second note of the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition on Critical and Emerging Issues for Food Security and Nutrition states that:\"modern agricultural practices are reducing available agrobiodiversity while it is the most needed to address challenges.[…] Thousands of plant species and livestock breeds have been raised throughout human history, for food, feed, fibre, shelter and fuel. Since the 1900s, some 75 percent of plant genetic diversity has been lost as farmers worldwide have discarded their multiple local varieties and landraces for genetically uniform, high-yielding varieties. Today, about 30 crops provide 95 percent of human food energy needs and 75 percent of global food production is based on 12 commercial crops and five animal species.The consequences of the gradual erosion of the rich biodiversity of plant varieties and animal breeds need to be better assessed, in particular for the inhabitants of threatened ecosystems, such as deserts, mountains, forests, coastal belts, wetlands and arid regions. Mapping and assessing agrobiodiversity within and between ecosystems, and better understanding their role for sustainable agricultural production could be a priority area for FSN\" (HLPE, 2017a).The IPBES assessment reports the extinction of 559 of the 6,190 domesticated breeds of mammals used for food and agriculture (over 9%) while 1,000 more are threatened (IPBES, 2019). Data from the USDA indicated that over 80% of crop varieties utilized in the 19 th Century had disappeared by 1990 (Fowler, 1994). In Mexico, less than 20% of maize landraces cultivated in the 1930's was still cultivated in the 1990's while in China the number of wheat varieties cultivated dropped from over 10,000 in the 1950's to less than 1,000 in the 1970's. And a study for Latin America indicated that 16 to 22% of wild relatives of peanut, potato and black-eyed bean are threatened with extinction by 2055 (FAO, 1997).The IPBES report goes on to highlight that the loss of local varieties and breeds of domesticated plants and animals, as well as their wild relatives, poses a serious risk to global food security and undermines the resilience of many food systems to threats such as pests, pathogens and climate variability, including extreme weather events (IPBES, 2019).While biodiversity rapidly disappears, the number of undernourished people has increased to 821 million (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2019), signaling a rise in world hunger and a reversal of trends following a prolonged decline. Child stunting remains unacceptably high with approximately 151 million children affected and 51 million children wasted. At the same time, one in eight adults are obese-over 672 million people worldwide-and three out of four deaths are caused by noncommunicable, diet-related diseases (e.g. diabetes, cancer, cardio-vascular diseases), particularly in emerging economies and in low-to-middle income countries (HLPE, 2017b). While about 2 billion people lack the key micronutrients they need for physical and mental development such as iron and vitamin A, a case of concern is the huge increase in the supplement industry selling pills with health claims unsupported by science to otherwise healthy people (Couzin-Franzel, 2015;Guallar et al., 2013), rather than focusing on biodiversity as a sustainable solution.Underutilized food biodiversity 1 provides valuable macro-and micronutrients, as well as beneficial bioactive non-nutrients that contribute to dietary health, a requisite target for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2 by 2030. This food biodiversity represents a natural wealth for many countries yet most fail to value and conserve it adequately for this purpose. Even a relatively small terrestrial land area such as the Pacific islands demonstrates the unique wealth of food biodiversity. Many Pacific islands harbor globally significant unique and novel varieties of locally important species (e.g. banana, pandanus, breadfruit, taro, yam), which often have higher nutrient contents than more commonly consumed imported varieties that dominate their markets. Yet, many of these nutrientrich traditional varieties are disregarded for a variety of socio-economic or political reasons. In the case of some local banana varieties, the pro-vitamin A carotenoid content ranged from as little as 1μg to as much as 8500μg per 100g of edible portion, more than a 1000-fold greater than the common Cavendish variety bananas. This is a nature-based solution that is locally and culturally appropriate for addressing micronutrient deficiency.Business-as-usual clearly carries too much cost with serious repercussions on human health and nutrition -resulting in additional burdens on health services and care -but also reinforcing negative drivers with impacts on climate change and the environment.Modern food systems contribute significantly to major environmental issues, including biodiversity loss, 19-29% of global greenhouse gas emissions, contamination and shortages of water, ecosystems pollution, and land degradation. Of the different earth ecosystem components assessed in the sixth Global Environment Outlook (GEO 6) report, biodiversity health is the most affected by environmental degradation with adverse impacts on the resilience of ecosystems, including agricultural systems and food security (UN Environment, 2019). The irreversible loss of biodiversity has been identified as the global environmental problem that has already exceeded safe planetary boundaries (Rockstrom et al., 2009;Steffen et al., 2015).Such a situation, with its massive contribution to biodiversity loss and poor diets, is no longer tolerable. We need to move urgently beyond standard practices to achieve a global food system transformation (IPES-Food, 2016;Caron et al, 2018). One that is centered on safeguarding, creatively using, and celebrating the rich diversity of food plants and animals that sustain all of us and that puts biodiversity at the heart of food systems so that they are more sustainable, resilient, and equitable and better equipped to provide healthy, culturally appropriate and delicious food to all, thus contributing towards the achievement of relevant SDGs.The negotiations of the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework offer a unique opportunity for parties and partners to commit and mobilize, provide real political will and leadership and coalesce action around the transformation of agriculture, food systems and diets based on conservation and use of biodiversity. Creative approaches are required to utilize biodiversity for food and agriculture and to diversify food systems, supply chains and public food procurement, including innovative approaches that incentivize demand and desirability for food biodiversity. Only when we are actively using biodiversity for sustainable farming and food systems that deliver diverse, nutritious foods can we hope to effectively safeguard this green gold for future generations and reverse current alarming rates of biodiversity loss.Recent pilot-scale initiatives such as the GEF-supported Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (BFN) project 2 have demonstrated the often-superior nutritional value and additional benefits of much of our underutilized food biodiversity by using innovative research partnerships and approaches to increase the knowledge, appreciation, awareness and utilization of this diversity encompassing both cultivated and wild edible species. BFN partners Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Turkey have prioritized a rich diversity of neglected and underutilized species and varieties for healthier diets and improved nutrition, and used this knowledge to mainstream these species and their diversity into production and consumption systems, including linking biodiversity to school meals and public food procurement, into food-based dietary guidelines, and into markets including sustainable gastronomy and tourism. These innovations and approaches are visionary in meeting the challenges of environmental sustainability, improved diet-related health and nutrition and improved livelihoods in the 2030 sustainable development context, as well as putting the conservation of biodiversity on a much stronger footing. In Brazil and Kenya, for example, the project's mainstreaming efforts resulted in the endorsement of national policy instruments that promote the conservation and sustainable use of food biodiversity (Hunter et al., 2019).Not only does mainstreaming biodiversity in this way bring health and nutrition benefits, it contributes significantly to reducing the environmental impact of the food system as well as improving its resilience. Much of this food biodiversity is maintained by smallholder farmers, including indigenous peoples and local communities, using agroecological principles and practices, in diversified farming systems and landscapes, with limited external inputs of water and chemicals, and is locally adapted to climate variations. A food system transformed in this way contributes significantly to reducing biodiversity loss, greenhouse gas emissions, contamination and shortages of water, ecosystems pollution, and land degradation. In addition, it provides income generation benefits, especially for the youth, as a result of diversification options; it also contributes to empowerment of vulnerable groups including women and Indigenous people and local communities.Yet, players in the global food system are slow to respond to needed change. Harmful subsidies and perverse incentives are still employed, and structural barriers to diversification are still present in the system (The Food and Land Use Coalition, 2019). The global food system remains locked into delivering largely cheap, unhealthy food with a huge environmental footprint and escalating public health budgets, at the cost of diversity on farms and in agricultural landscapes (IPES-Food, 2016; TEEB, 2018a). While the recent Food and Land Use Coalition report (2019) shows that producing healthy, sustainable food would cut food prices, as land ecosystem health improves. The IPES Food study (2016) focused its attention on the path dependency and lock-ins of the current food system, dominated primarily by concentrated corporate power and profit motivations above human and natural values. This, as well as the need for transformative change, was also highlighted in the Theory of Change section of the TEEB AgriFood Framework report (2018a).Achieving the transformative change needed requires certain key actions and pathways, including the diversification of food production and consumption, as proposed by FAO and others (FAO, 2014;FAO, 2018ab;FAO, 2019b;IPES-Food, 2016;Bioversity International, 2017). A first critical pathway is to urgently safeguard and conserve the remaining globally important genetic diversity including varieties, landraces and breeds, and wild relatives of crops and livestock in situ (in protected areas under sustainable management and use, on farm and through other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs)) and ex situ in order to halt and reverse biodiversity loss -currently a remit of ABT13. The second pathway, which simultaneously addresses concerns expressed in ABTs 4, 7 and 13, is to provide support for more comprehensive biodiversity mainstreaming innovations as well as investments in sustainable and diverse production landscapes and practices that value, conserve and creatively and sustainably use genetic resources for food and agriculture. For instance, support for biodiversity-friendly management practices in crop, livestock, forestry and aquaculture production systems that make use of nutrient-rich species and varieties. This involves identifying innovations such as using the power of farm bill subsidies and public food purchasing to drive diversification; the linking of smallholders to school markets to supply local foods derived from native biodiversity for healthier school meals; the education and public awareness of consumers, leveraging peoples' attachment to food cultures, traditions, and the identity of terroir; the incorporation of food biodiversity and traditional knowledge into food-based dietary guidelines and additional market opportunities. The final pathway in this transformative change is the promotion of sustainable and healthy diets, empowering consumers to improve the healthiness and biodiversity of their diets, and thus creating greater demand and desirability for food biodiversity (linking to ABT 4).It is with this rationale in mind that we propose to substitute the language of the existing Aichi Biodiversity Target 7 with one that secures and promotes more sustainable and nutritious food systems based on biodiversity. The new target would make the links to Aichi Biodiversity Targets 4 and 13 more explicit and would actively promote the sustainable management and use of biodiversity, incorporating measures that conserve biodiversity for food and agriculture to ensure and strengthen the resilience and adaptive capacity of food production and simultaneously contribute to diversified, healthy and culturally-relevant nutrition for today's and future generations, thus contributing to the achievement of the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development.This proposed new target focuses on mainstreaming currently underutilized food biodiversity that holds significant potential for improving diets and nutrition while making food systems resilient and protecting ecosystem services. Doing so will help food systems move beyond producing just more food towards finding solutions that nourish people and protect the planet in ways that can be sustained environmentally, economically and culturally.By 2050 food security and nutrition are ensured to all people in an inclusive manner based on diversified, resilient and sustainable food production systems that apply agroecological principles and practices while conserving and sustainably using biodiversity and ecosystem services This target can be achieved by doubling the total food production by 2050 in developing countries and emerging economies, and by achieving a stepwise increase in the percentage of food produced meeting the criteria of this target, having 2020 as the baseline -20% by 2030, 50% by 2040 and 100% by 2050 [linked to SDG 2, 3, 4, 12, 13, 15 and 17 and 2050 Biodiversity Vision]. Possible milestones are elaborated below.1. By 2025 all parties have put in place laws, policies and programs that promote food security and improved nutrition from healthy, diverse and safe diets in an inclusive manner to all, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, so as to address by 2030 the nutritional needs of all and in particular of children, adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons[linked to SDG 2, targets 1 and 2; SDG 3, targets 1 and 2, and possibly 4; SDG 4, target 2; SDG 12, possibly targets 5 and 6] 2. By 2025, all parties have put in place laws, policies and programs that incentivizes diversification of food production systems applying agroecological principles and practices and conserving and sustainably using biodiversity and ecosystem services, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality linked to SDG 2,12,13,15] 3. By 2030, at least 20% of total food production come from diversified, resilient and sustainable food production systems, applying agroecological principles and practices and conserving and sustainably using biodiversity and ecosystem services, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.[linked to SDG 2, target 4; SDG 4, targets 4 and 7; SDG 12, targets 1 and 2, and possibly 3; SDG 13, targets 1 and 2, and possibly 3; SDG 15, targets 1, 4 and 9, and possibly 3] 4. By 2030, parties have built up nutritional compositional value information of available food biodiversity and have information and capacity built on its propagation/reproduction, cultivation/growth, harvesting, storage, marketing and use.[linked to SDG 15,target 9;SDG 17,targets 6,7,9 and 18] 5. By 2030, food procurements mechanisms incorporate increased diversity of nutritious and safe foods from local, sustainable and resilient sources, with increased use of local underutilized food biodiversity, of domesticated and wild species[linked to SDG 12,target 7] 6. By 2040, 50% of total food production should come from diversified, resilient and sustainable food production systems, applying agroecological principles and practices and conserving and sustainably using biodiversity and ecosystem services, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality linked to SDG 2,target 4;SDG 4,targets 4 and 7;SDG 12,targets 1 and 2,and possibly 3;SDG 13,targets 1 and 2,and possibly 3;SDG 15,targets 1,4 and 9,and possibly 3]We acknowledge and support the indicators under current ABT 7 (e.g. Proportion of agricultural land under productive and sustainable agriculture). The proposed ones below would however strengthen the new proposed ABT 7 towards more sustainable food production systems: The Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) together with key partners such as FAO, country governments, civil society and industry, including other CGIAR centres, would be well placed, if invited by the CBD, to lead, coordinate and provide technical support to the implementation, monitoring and reporting of the proposed target.The Alliance deliver solutions that harness agricultural biodiversity and sustainably transform food systems to improve people's live. It brings in-depth expertise in the generation and dissemination of relevant knowledge, including support of policy dialogue to ensure evidence-based decisions and impact. For example, Bioversity and CIAT are managing partners of the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health, working on issues of nutrition-sensitive food systems with country partners across Latin America, Asia, and Africa. The Alliance carries out research and communications on how to make food and nutrition policies, programs, and investments more effective to improve diets and nutrition. The Alliance has worked with the UN Rome-based agencies (FAO, World Food Programme, International Fund for Agricultural development, FAO Committee on World Food Security, and United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition) to mainstream nutrition-sensitive agriculture into their work, and is joining with the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security, led by CIAT, in its support of its partnership with the Rome-based agencies.The Alliance could therefore mobilize global, regional and national coalitions for action for effective implementation of the proposed target and could collectively facilitate an integrated approach across agricultural and other sectors and countries, to promote good practices, collect data, continue to develop metrics and indicators and report on progress, as well as promote capacity development, sharing of knowledge and cross-fertilization of ideas. Both the Alliance and FAO recognize the importance of biodiversity mainstreaming for safeguarding diversity and promoting nutrition and have considerable experience and expertise supporting the implementation of the CBD's Programme of Work on Agricultural Biodiversity. Often leading global implementation of multi-country projects, they have worked with countries to mainstream biodiversity in production landscapes (Mijatovic et al. 2018). These activities are closely aligned with recent CBD decisions on health and biodiversity, which highlight mainstreaming biodiversity in the health sector as essential for halting biodiversity loss and promoting human health and well-being. This implementation partnership would bring together a significant portfolio of biodiversity mainstreaming experiences including research expertise, partnerships and networks, relevant voluntary guidelines and other instruments including mainstreaming guidelines and toolkits. Both organizations have extensive expertise in knowledge management, policy analysis, conservation actions, value chain development and system-wide capacity development that empowers people and strengthens organizations and institutions.Bioversity International and FAO -as co-lead organizations for the CBD's Cross Cutting Initiative on biodiversity for food and nutrition and implementing and executing agencies respectively for the GEF-supported pilot project, Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (BFN) -bring considerable expertise, partnerships and networks in the field of mainstreaming biodiversity across relevant sectors and food systems for improved diets and nutrition.Bioversity International and FAO are also key partners of the Interagency Liaison Group on Biodiversity and Health, which oversees the growing programme of work on health and biodiversity within both the CBD and WHO, which also includes nutrition and diets. This partnership would also bring considerable capacity to mobilize short and long-term resources for the implementation of the proposed target.Furthermore, the Agrobiodiversity Index (ABD Index), developed by Bioversity International, could be a useful tool to measure agrobiodiversity and identify concrete actions to achieve diverse and sustainable food systems. The ABD Index can meaningfully contribute measures and indicators to monitor progress on the proposed target. It can measure to what extent and how companies, countries and projects contribute to ensure food biodiversity for healthy diets, use agrobiodiversity for sustainable production, and safeguard diverse genetic resources for current and future options. With informed measurements, governments, investors and companies can compare strategies and select those that will deliver more sustainable, more nutritious food systems, built on agrobiodiversity. The ABD Index can also track how agrobiodiversity contributes to meeting the many interconnected global targets to which countries have committed themselves.","tokenCount":"4199"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"30a4e361563a11f96b0c079335798d3e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11356-021-16558-8.pdf","id":"1444538786"},"keywords":["Fresh water","Raw wastewater","Treated wastewater","Irrigation","Emerging pollutants","MENA region"],"sieverID":"cb132775-d8ac-4bca-8bd1-ba24d26f0d7a","pagecount":"21","content":"Little is known about the occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) in waters in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region despite the extensive use of low-quality water there. Available data dealing with the sources, occurrence and removal of EPs within the MENA region in different categories of water is collected, presented and analyzed in this literature review. According to the collected database, the occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the water matrix in the MENA region is available, respectively, for 13 and six countries of the 18 in total; no available data is registered for the rest. Altogether, 290 EPs have been observed in different water matrices across the MENA countries, stemming mainly from industrial effluents, agricultural practices, and discharge or reuse of treated wastewater (TWW). Pharmaceutical compounds figure among the most frequently reported compounds in wastewater, TWW, surface water, and drinking water. Nevertheless, pesticides are the most frequently detected pollutants in groundwater. Worryingly, 57 cases of EPs have been reported in different fresh and drinking waters, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) and European Commission (EC) thresholds. Overall, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds, and pesticides are the most concerning EP groups. The review revealed the ineffectiveness of treatment processes used in the region to remove EPs. Negative removals of some EPs such as carbamazepine, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole were recorded, suggesting their possible accumulation or release during treatment. This underlines the need to set in place and strengthen control measures, treatment procedures, standards, and policies for such pollutants in the region.Over the past 30 years, factors such as population growth, urbanization, and intensification of agriculture have substantially increased water abstraction, use and pollution in the MENA region. The most water-scarce in the world, the region houses 6% of the global population with just 1% of the Earth's renewable freshwater resources. The average availability of renewable water resources per capita in most of the MENA countries is less than 1000 m 3 /inhabitant/year, a threshold set by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and often used as an indicator of scarcity (Mualla 2018). This has repercussions across various sectors of the economy (World Bank 2012), with the situation only deteriorating due to climate change (Waha et al. 2017).The region produces about 19 km 3 of municipal wastewater annually but has the capacity to treat only about 50% of it (AbuZeid et al. 2019;AQUASTAT 2020). Since a part of the installed capacity is either inoperational or ill-maintained, the portion of the wastewater receiving treatment is quite low, and goop part of it is discharged untreated into the environment. Pollution from industries and agriculture further exacerbates the problem. As a result, more than 17% and 14% of the water bodies in the region are heavily affected by pathogen and organic pollution respectively, posing a risk to ecosystems and humans where the water is used for drinking, bathing, or irrigation (UNEP 2016).The challenges posed by the occurrence of, and the exposure to conventional pollutants such as nitrates or pathogens in the MENA region are relatively well-documented (Hamed et al. 2013;UNEP 2016). However, data on the occurrence of EPs such as antibiotics, pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PCPs), or hormones (Geissen et al. 2015;Belver et al. 2016) are still patchy and scattered.Emerging pollutants or emerging contaminants are typically defined as synthetic or naturally occurring pollutants, with known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects, which are currently not included in routine environmental monitoring programs nor regulated in the environment (Unesco.org;Peña-Guzmán et al. 2019;NORMAN network 2019). The NORMAN network lists more than 1036 such compounds as EPs (NORMAN network 2019).EPs include (a) substances recently introduced into the environment; (b) compounds present in the environment for a long time but not established to be potentially dangerous to the ecosystem and/or humans earlier (Sousa et al. 2018); and (c) compounds released into the environment for a long time but not recognized until the development of new detection methods (Geissen et al. 2015;Belver et al. 2016).There are numerous sources of EPs ranging from hospitals and industries to agriculture and households. A given EP could also have more than one source. For instance, human pharmaceuticals could enter the environment through blackwater from households, hospital effluents, and effluents from pharmaceutical industries; caffeine could come from graywater, blackwater, and hospital effluents, while phenols could come from industrial activities and graywater. Graywater is generated from household sources (water from kitchens, bathing, washing clothes, and handwashing), and includes all sources other than toilets (which is considered as blackwater) (Craddock et al. 2020).EPs are known to occur widely in freshwater, sewer overflows, and wastewater in Europe, North America, Brazil, Australia, India, and China (Petrie et al. 2015;Hughes et al. 2013;Copetti et al. 2019). Toxicity tests conducted under controlled laboratory conditions for different types of EPs (Della Greca et al. 2007;López-Serna et al., 2013;Hughes et al. 2013;Sanchez and Egea 2018) suggest that many of these compounds are potentially very toxic to aquatic life as well as human health. While EPs are generally present in freshwater within the ng/L range, with the risk of acute toxicity considered to be low or negligible, there are nevertheless notable exceptions. For example, the antibiotic ciprofloxacin has been found in high concentrations (6.5 mg/L) in a lake located in Patancheru in India's Telangana state (Hughes et al. 2013). Other EPs such as carbamazepine are persistent and tend to accumulate in the environment, increasing toxicity hazard. Additionally, despite significant knowledge gaps, research suggests that the presence of some compounds, at or close to the current levels detected in the environment, may lead to chronic health effects (Kümmerer 2009a;Kümmerer 2009b). EPs also typically appear as a complex mixture, which can often lead to undesirable synergistic effects (Brain et al. 2004). Compounding the problem is the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) which has been linked to the occurrence of antimicrobials in water and wastewater, posing a major public health concern (Marti et al. 2013;Bengtsson-Palme et al. 2018;Corno et al. 2019).The presence of EPs in water and wastewater in other regions with similar characteristics and the associated potential negative effects on human health and the environment thus underlines the need for a better understanding of their occurrence, sources, and fate in the MENA region.This review outlines the current knowledge on the occurrence of different EPs in wastewater, environmental waters and drinking waters in different countries in the MENA region, and discusses their sources and potential exposure pathways, with a focus on irrigation. The removal efficiency of different EPs in the treatment plants implemented at a fullscale level in the same region is also evaluated.The initial bibliographic search analyzed 14,400 papers in the Scopus database in the period between 1976 and September 2020, encompassing the very first EP monitoring initiatives as well as studies conducted on EPs in the region.Studies were examined step-by-step based firstly on their titles, then the abstracts and finally the full texts. Search terms were selected in a way to ensure that all potentially relevant articles are accessed. The search was undertaken from country-to-country to include all the 18 MENA countries (Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) using the following search format for titles or abstracts: [(\"Emerging pollutants\" OR \"Contaminants of Emerging Concern\" OR \"Emerging Contaminants\" OR \"pharmaceuticals\" OR \"hormones\" OR \"microplastics\" OR \"PAHs\" OR \"PCBs\") AND (\"Country's name\") AND (\"drinking water\" OR \"wastewater\" OR \"groundwater\" OR \"surface water\" OR \"treated wastewater\")]. The initial search utilizing the titles resulted in the pre-selection of 4320 studies. Abstracts-the summary of the publications-were then used for studies selection. Eligible studies including relevant description in the abstracts are subject to full-text evaluation. Abstracts that did not focus on water or the countries assessesd in this review were excluded. After analyzing the abstracts, 546 studies were selected to examine the full text. The criterion for inclusion in the publications collection was that a study should have explicitly analyzed, detected, and quantified at least one EP in either wastewater, TWW, surface water, groundwater, and/or drinking water in one or more countries in the MENA region.The search identified a total of 89 studies, published from 1976 to September 2020, involved in our final database. The extracted data were compiled in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The data were classified by water type and EP group. Fourteen studies from our final database were used to calculate the EP removal efficiency-if it had not been calculated by the authors-for 79 compounds in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the MENA region.This review classified EPs into different groups based on Sousa et al. (2018) and Teodosiu et al. (2018). These groups are food additives, pharmaceuticals, PCPs, hormones/steroids, pesticides, plasticizers, phenols, illicit drugs, and other organic compounds (that cannot be classified in previous groups). Since some of these groups are not mutually exclusive, we listed some of the compounds in more than one EP group to avoid ambiguity (Table 1).EPs are known for their risk to the environment and human health. An assessment of such risk factors is mostly based on the persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of the EPs (Rachel and Enda 2015). Substances that are toxic present a greater hazard when they are both persistent and bioaccumulative (Arnot and Gobas 2006). Persistence, a widely used parameter for EP prioritization and hazard characterization, is expressed in hours, days, or years and refers to the time that it takes an EP in the soil to change half of its mass to a different form or compound (UNEP 2012). Data on the persistence of EPs in soil are available mostly for pharmaceutical and personal care products (PCPs) and pesticides (Boxall et al. 2012). Globally, there is a dearth of literature on regulations surrounding the presence of some EPs as well as pharmaceuticals in water (Virkutyte et al. 2010). Table SI1 depicts available thresholds for EPs in drinking water, surface water, and groundwater in some countries in and beyond MENA region, together with their persistence in the environment. Thresholds in drinking water for EPs (pesticides and benzo[a]pyrene) are available for Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republicn Arab Republic (WHO 2006;Omani Standard No. 8/2012).In MENA region, regulations and guidelines for water reuse in agriculture are available for some contries, namely Tunisia, Oman, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Jordan, Palestine and Egypt (Shoushtarian and Negahban-Azar 2020). None of these regulations or guidelines have included EPs for agricultural water reuse, except phenols (expressed as total phenol) where thresholds are set by Oman (0.001 mg/l for category A: vegetables and fruit likely to be eaten raw and within 2 weeks of any irrigation and 0.002 mg/l for category B: vegetables to be cooked or processed, fruit if no irrigation within 2 weeks of cropping fodder, cereal seed crops, pasture, no public access), Saudi Arabia (0.002 mg/l), and Kuwait (1 mg/l) (Shoushtarian and Negahban-Azar 2020).Our screening process resulted in 89 papers selected for our review. Figure 1 presents the number of studies reviewed by groups of EPs which shows that pharmaceuticals, pesticides, phenols, organic compounds, and food additives were the most frequently studied and reported compounds.Between 1976 and 1998, there was scant research on the topic (Fig. 2), echoing a trend in other countries where this field of research was in its infancy. Since 2010, however, research in this field has gained great momentum globally, yet studies in the MENA region continue to be limited.The distribution of studies on the occurrence of EPs in the water matrix of countries in the MENA region is presented in Fig. 3. Egypt, Israel, and Tunisia registered the highest number of studies. A lack or absence of data was observed for Sudan, Libya, Mauritania, Yemen, and Bahrain. Notably, this review is limited by a paucity or lack of studies in the majority of MENA countries, in part due to the lack of sensitive, selective, precise, and automatic methods (Lorenzo et al. 2018) to analyze the EPs. Published studies on EPs within the environmental matrix in this region are largely part of international projects funded and/or partnered by the EU, the USA, or other entities.In \"EPs occurrence in different water types,\" we offer data on the concentration levels of EPs in different water matrices using box and whisker plots showing median values for the whole MENA region, as well as the variation (quartile groups) of the data. Due to data limitations, these plots present data derived from individual samples taken at different times and sites in the region using various extraction and/or analytical methods; therefore, the results need to be interpreted with caution. Medians and variations are disclosed to give an idea of the typical values and distribution for EPs in water. The relevant cases are then discussed in the text with emphasis on sources and concentrations of specific EPs.The subsections below illustrate the occurrence of EPs in wastewater, environmental waters, and drinking waters, wherein the concentrations, main sources, and the removal efficiency of EPs in implemented WWTPs in the MENA region are presented.EPs in raw wastewater D a t a o n E P s i n r a w w a s t e w a t e r i s g i v e n i n Supplementary Table SI2. A total of 99 EPs, including one food additive, 57 types of pharmaceuticals, eight types of PCPs, four types of hormones, 25 types of pesticides, and one type of plasticizer and two types of phenols, were investigated in raw wastewater. Concentrations of the 20 most-studied EPs in individual samples of raw wastewater are given in Fig. 4.Eight pharmaceutical compounds were among the 20 most frequently studied EPs in raw wastewater. Of these, the highest concentrations were observed for clavulanic acid (26,620-51,460 ng/L), diclofenac (800-35,333 ng/L), ibuprofen (700-34,000 ng/L), carbamazepine (73-3600 ng/L), erythromycin (1.5-3010 ng/L), atenolol (62-2198 ng/L), and sulfamethoxazole (12.1-900 ng/L) (Alahmad and Alawi 2010;Gasser et al. 2010;Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014;Al Qarni et al. 2016;Fries et al. 2016;Moslah et al. 2017;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2018;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b;Al-Maadheed et al. 2019;Craddock et al. 2020). There is greater interest in controlling pesticides in surface and groundwater than in raw wastewater as they are more likely to be exposed to such pollutants from agriculture. However, the presence of high levels of pesticides in raw wastewater is nevertheless worrying. The highest concentrations observed were for malathion (466,000 ng/L), DDT (2,300-61,000 ng/L), aldicarb (8900-42,400 ng/L), carbaryl (19,800-48,300 ng/L), chlorpyrifos (41.53-164,150 ng/L), endosulfan 200 ng/L), and pentachlorophenol (18,200-1,308,000 ng/L).Natural hormones, like estriol, estrone, and testosterone were detected in raw wastewater with concentrations ranging from 18 to 360 ng/L, 42 to 152 ng/L, and 8 to 21.2 ng/L, respectively. 17β-estradiol (E2) is as well detected with concentrations ranging from 2.8 to 1,029,000 ng/L (Elnewishy et al. 2012;Dotan et al. 2016). The highest concentration of E2 (1,029,000 ng/L) was observed in the Bahr el-Baqar drain system in Egypt (Elnewishy et al. 2012).In the case of PCPs, benzylparaben, butylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, and methylparaben were observed in three coastal WWTPs in Tunisia. Concentrations ranged from 300 to 560,000 ng/L for propylparaben and methylparaben respectively (Hassine et al. 2011). Triclosan was detected in concentrations ranging from 200 to 2,800 ng/L in raw wastewater in Palestine and Israel. The lowest concentration was detected in graywater in Palestine while the highest concentration in influents was found in six WWTPs in Israel (Dotan et al. 2016). 1-H-benzotriazole and tolyltriazoles, used as corrosion inhibitors, have been detected in wastewater influents in concentrations of 65,500 ng/L and 10,400 ng/L respectively (Fries et al. 2016).According to our bibliographic database, 118 EPs were detected in TWW derived from WWTPs in the MENA region, including three types of food additives, 80 types of pharmaceuticals, five types of PCPs, three types of hormones, 14 types of pesticides, two organic compounds, eight types of plasticizers, two phenols, and one illicit drug (see Fig. 5 and Supplementary Table SI3 for more details).Caffeine has been detected in TWW in MENA countries including Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and Tunisia. Nineteen information points are available on caffeine in TWW in the MENA region, with concentrations ranging from 45.5 to 346,000 ng/L (Alidina et al. 2014;Alahmad and Alawi, 2010;Malchi et al. 2014;Fries et al. 2016;Moslah et al. 2017;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b;Craddock et al. 2020). The highest levels of caffeine were recorded in the Jordanian WWTPs, with an average concentration of 155,600 ng/L detected in the country's largest treatment plant, As-Samra WWTP. The As-Samra TWW effluents are discharged into the King Talal dam which provides irrigation water for most of the agricultural activities in the Jordan Valley. A high concentration of caffeine (346,000 ng/L) was also reported in the Baqa'a WWTP in Amman (Alahmad and Alawi 2010).Pharmaceuticals were also detected in TWW, with carbamazepine (concentration range 41-17,000 ng/L), atenolol (23.5-2380 ng/L), diclofenac (70-40,000 ng/L), erythromycin (2.4-1187 ng/L), ibuprofen (<10-40,000 ng/L), naproxen(2.94-1300 ng/L), and sulfamethoxazole (5.5-517.5 ng/L) counting as the most-investigated compounds in the MENA region (Avisar et al. 2009;Alahmad and Alawi, 2010;Alidina et al. 2014;Malchi et al. 2014; Al-Tarawneh  Zemann et al. 2014;Zemann et al. 2015;Al Qarni et al. 2016;Fries et al. 2016;Moslah et al. 2017;Al-Maadheed et al. 2019;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b;Khazri et al. 2019;Picó et al. 2019;Craddock et al. 2020). Significantly, TWW in most cases is reused for irrigation (of green areas, farms, trees n public parks, or fields) or groundwater replenishment. The highest concentrations of pharmaceuticals in TWW were reported for atenolol, carbamazepine, and sulfamethoxazole in Saudi Arabia; carbamazepine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen in Jordan; and erythromycin in Tunisia (Table SI3). The variation could be linked to varying levels of consumption across the countries coupled with the properties of these compounds and the treatment processes adopted.PCPs like parabens and triclosan too were detected in TWW. Parabens can originate in different EP groups as well as PCPs, pharmaceuticals, and food additives (Alan 2008). Certain metabolites of parabens are toxic to plant growth and development (Cecchi et al. 2004). The few studies investigating these pollutants in the MENA countries found methlyparaben concentrations to be ranging from 40 to 443,000 ng/L and propylparaben concentrations ranging from<20 to 585 ng/L in Saudi Arabia and Tunisia. The highest levels of methlyparaben were recorded in Tunisia and of propylparaben in Saudi Arabia (Hassine et al. 2011;Alidina et al. 2014;Fries et al. 2016).Triclosan is an important antibacterial compound that is commonly used in hand soaps and industrial products such as toothpaste and antiseptic wipes (Daniel et al. 2017). It is a toxic compound characterized by its potential to create antibiotic resistance in bacteria (Gao et al. 2015). Given the same, triclosan was banned in the USA in September 2017 (Daniel et al. 2017); a ban is also being contemplated in Europe. It was observed in TWW in Saudi Arabia (Alidina et al. 2014) The phenomenon of water reuse or discharge of completely treated wastewater allows any remaining compounds to enter the environment, especially when those compounds are not restricted/banned and are still in use. This TWW is used for different purposes, including irrigation of crops and green areas, groundwater recharge, or even indirect potable reuse in many countries across MENA (Alahmad and Alawi, 2010;Fries et al. 2016;Moslah et al. 2017;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b;Craddock et al. 2020). Nevertheless, there are several potential environmental and health-related risks associated with this practice. The use of TWW in irrigation may increase expand ARB and antibiotic-resistant genes levels in the soil (Gatica and Cytryn 2013).EPs are capable of reaching surface water via many different pathways: agricultural activities, treated or untreated municipal wastewater, industrial effluents, human excretion, and domestic activities (Moreno-Gonzalez et al. 2013).According to our bibliographic database, 84 different EPs were found in surface water in the MENA region, including 32 types of pharmaceuticals, 30 types of pesticides, one food additives, 5 PCPs, one plasticizer, two phenols, one microplastic, and 12 types of other organic compounds. The concentration levels of the 20 most-investigated EPs in individual samples of surface water are given in Fig. 6. The data is presented in detail in Supplementary Table SI4.While the EPs in Fig. 6 have mean values already exceeding safety limits for surface water, unsafe cases of high EP concentrations are also reported for other pollutants. Walli (2015) reported an extreme case of industrial pollution of 53.7 mg/L for the sum of 13 priority PAHs in surface water samples, at the Al-Dalmaj marsh in Iraq's Al-Diwaniya province. A high concentration (9.91 mg/L) was also reported for the sum of 14 priority PAHs in the El Bey river water in Tunisia (Khadhar et al. 2018). A later investigation in the same river by Gdara et al. (2018) revealed that industrial effluents contributed three times more to the contamination by PAHs of the river than agricultural effluents. Fandi et al. (2009) found that the water discharged from the King Talal dam in Jordan was highly polluted with phenols (a sum of 65 compounds including cyclohexane and benzene), with an average concentration of 2.09 mg/L at the outlet of the dam and 1.82 mg/L in the reservoir. The sum of the so-called indicator PCBs registered the highest concentration of 0.47 mg/L in the El Bey river in Tunisia (Khadhar et al. 2018). These concentrations of phenols and PAHs far exceeded the safety limits set for surface water by the European Union (European Commission, Council Directive 2013/39/EC) (Table SI1). According to the previously cited studies, wastewater is a major contributor to surface water contamination by phenols, PAHs, and PCBs (Fandi et al. 2009;Khadhar et al. 2018;Gdara et al. 2018); a low degree of elimination of these compounds from WWTPs is responsible of their presence after treatment and consequently their dissemination and accidental pollution in the receiving environment.Our dataset also revealed the presence of caffeine in different surface water bodies (Buerge et al. 2003); it was found in dam water in Jordan and in river water in Lebanon and Tunisia with a maximum concentration of 23,000 ng/L recorded in the Meliane river in Tunisia (Fries et al. 2016;Mokh et al. 2017;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019a). The presence of caffeine typically indicates the strong influence of domestic wastewater on the quality of surface water (Viviano et al. 2017), since caffeine is widely used in a variety of foods (chocolate), beverages (coffee and tea), and drugs. While this study classifies caffeine under food additives, it could also emanate from pharmaceuticals.A range of pharmaceutical compounds was also detected in surface water, of which carbamazepine is one of the most studied. It is characterized by its high persistence in diverse environmental matrices due to its low sorption and biodegradability (Bahlmann et al. 2014;Thelusmond et al. 2018;Zhang et al. 2008). Carbamazepine registered the highest concentration in the King Talal dam in Jordan (7500 ng/L) (Batarseh et al. 2013) Pesticides too have been detected in surface water. The major pesticides observed were hexachlorobenzene (HCB), gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE). DDT was detected in numerous river waters used for irrigation and drinking in Lebanon (Badr et al. 2014;Youssef et al. 2015). Similarly, despite being banned in Egypt in 1980, DDT was detected in the country's surface water in 2011 (El Bouraie et al. 2011). β-Endosulfan, a toxic pesticide, registered concentrations ranging from 24.46 to 55.32 ng/L-exceeding the probable effect level (PEL) of 3 ng/L-in three rivers that supply drinking and irrigation water in Lebanon (Badr et al. 2014;Youssef et al. 2015). In fact, at this PEL (set by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment), adverse effects have been observed in 50% of marine environments (Helou et al. 2019). The agricultural activities around surface water sources have been reported to be the main sources of pesticides. Indeed, the massive and uncontrolled use of pesticides observed in some MENA countries like Lebanon only aggravates the situation (Helou et al. 2019).Bisphenol A (BPA) is a plasticizer commonly used as a stabilizer and antioxidant in the production of plastics and food packaging (Chen et al. 2016). Human toxicity and ecotoxicity have been observed in the case of this compound over the past several years (Rochester 2013). As a result, Canada and the EU have prohibited the use of BPA in infant feeding bottles since 2011 (European Commission 2011). The American states of New York, Washington, and Minnesota have also strictly banned the use of BPA in products (Selvaraj et al. 2014). However, it is among the most well-documented chemicals reported in surface waters, although such studies in the MENA region are rare. BPA was detected in the Meliane River in Tunisia with a mean concentration of 784 ng/L. Its major sources are wastewater effluents and direct discharge of untreated wastewater into surface water (Fries et al. 2016). Aquatic predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) values for BPA are available for several organisms like crustaceans, rotifers, insects, fish, algae, and aquatic plants. Selvaraj et al. (2014) reported BPA PNEC values of 100 ng/L and 10 ng/L for mollusks and insect larvae, respectively. Levels of BPA reported in the Meliane river far exceed these BPA PNEC values, and pose a threat to mollusks and insect larvae. Where river waters are used for irrigation and drinking purposes in the MENA region, constant monitoring of BPA should be considered.Typically, groundwater is used as a source of drinking and/or irrigation water in the MENA countries. Ninety-seven different EPs were observed in groundwater in the region, including one food additive, 12 types of pharmaceuticals, four types of PCPs, 39 types of pesticides, one plasticizer, 11 types of phenols, and 29 types of other organic compounds. Detailed information is presented in Supplementary Table SI5. The concentration levels of the 20 most-investigated EPs in the individual samples of groundwater are shown in Fig. 7.Twelve such pesticides are listed in the 20 most frequently researched EPs in groundwater in the MENA region. The highest concentration was reported for dimethoate (418,000 ng/L) in groundwater samples used for drinking purpose in Saudi Arabia (El-Saied et al. 2011), far exceeding the threshold set by the European Commission, regulation of 98/83/ EEC for drinking water supply. By and large, as per health standards for drinking water, permissible pesticide levels are considered to be 100 ng/L (minimum concentration level, MCL) in the case of a single compound and 500 ng/L for the total concentration of organo-chlorinated pesticides. In marked contrast, a high concentration (11,840 ng/L) of DDD (a metabolite of DDT) was reported in groundwater samples used as well for drinking purpose from Akkar province, Lebanon, outstripping the maximum limit of 100 ng/L set by the European Commission directive 98/83/EEC for individual pesticides. The province is considered a major hotspot of pesticide use in Lebanon, with agricultural practices being the main source of groundwater contamination (Helou  2017) estimated that about 10.7 kg/ ha of pesticides were used in this zone. Since people use this groundwater for both irrigation and drinking purposes (Helou et al. 2019), they are at risk of contamination by the pesticide residues. Although agriculture is an important source of pesticide contamination, pesticide manufacturing too can cause localized spikes in concentrations. In fact, in the Nir Galim area of Israel, groundwater near a pesticide plant was found to be contaminated by four pesticides (atrazine, alachlor, prometryn, and bromacil), with an average concentration of 31,250 ng/L, 204,500 ng/L, 37,750 ng/L, and 60,750 ng/L, respectively (Muszkat et al. 1993).Organic compounds like PAHs and PCBs rank as well among the top 20 most-examined EPs in groundwater. Khadhar et al. (2018) studied their occurrence in 12 wells in the Grombalia aquifer in Tunisia and reported concentrations ranging from 20,400 to 1,930,000 ng/L for the sum of 14 priority PAHs and from 5200 to 196,000 ng/L for PCBs. Samples collected close to industrial areas and wastewater discharge locations were observed to have the highest concentrations of PAHs and PCBs. The concentrations recorded in this case for PAHs far exceeded the limits set for surface water (European Commission, Council Directive 2013/39/EC).The practice of reusing TWW in agriculture (Elgala et al. 2003;Avisar et al. 2009;Gasser et al. 2010;Fries et al. 2016;Craddock et al. 2020) and aquifer recharge (Fries et al. 2016) also contributes to the accumulation of pharmaceutical compounds such as carbamazepine, clofibric acid sulfamethoxazole, and triclocarban in groundwater. In a recovery well in Israel, carbamazepine registered a concentration (1045 ng/L) surpassing the limit set by the US-FDA of 1000 (Gasser et al. 2010), while a lower concentration of 152 ng/L was detected in groundwater used for irrigation in Tunisia (Fries et al. 2016). Sulfamethoxazole was found in an area which had been irrigated by TWW for more than five decades, where monitoring wells and irrigation wells registered sulfamethoxazole concentrations of 32 ng/L and 12.5 ng/L respectively (Avisar et al. 2009). In Egypt's El Gabal El Asfar region, clofibric acid concentration levels ranged from 40 to 75 ng/L in groundwater where raw wastewater has been used for more than 80 years (Elgala et al. 2003). Triclocarban too was detected in groundwater samples in the Jericho Governorate (Palestine) with a concentration level of 47.2 ng/L. Off-grid graywater treatment systems are in use in the studied zone; hence, the treated graywater used for irrigation could be the potential source of groundwater contamination with pharmaceutical compounds (Craddock et al. 2020).Access to safe drinking water is a vital social and environmental requirement. When drinking water does undergo contamination by EPs, the main agents are surface and groundwater pollution. Despite the importance of drinking water control, a study of the phenomenon in the MENA region first appeared as late as 2010 and even then dealt only with the presence of PAHs in drinking water in Iraq (Mohammed et al. 2010). Very few works are dealing with the occurrence of EPs in drinking water in the MENA region. Nine EPs were reported in drinking water (tap water and bottled drinking water) in the region, including four pharmaceuticals (ibuprofen, ketoprofen, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin), three PCPs (methylparaben, propylparaben, butylparaben), one plasticizer (BPA), and one organic compound (PAH). The EPs investigated in individual samples of drinking water are given in Supplementary Table SI6 along with their concentration.Finished drinking water samples from drinking water treatment plants in Algeria and Iraq were tested for pharmaceutical compounds by Kermia et al. (2016) and Mahmood et al. (2019). Their analysis revealed the presence of ibuprofen, ketoprofen and ciprofloxacin in concentrations ranging from 273 to 1312 ng/L.Ciprofloxacin registered the highest concentration, of 1312 ng/L, in the drinking water used for human consumption (Mahmood et al. 2019), exceeding the maximum concentration of ciprofloxacin reviewed in our database for groundwater (23.8 ng/L), surface water (1058 ng/L), and even TWW (987 ng/l).Sixteen priority PAHs were found in drinking water in Iraq in concentrations varying from 8.46 to 3654.8 ng/L (Jazza et al. 2016;Mohammed et al. 2010). BPA was detected in drinking water in Egypt and Saudi Arabia with concentrations ranging between 290 and 41,190 ng/L (Radwan et al. 2020;Alammari et al. 2020), much greater than the levels registered in surface water in the MENA region and worldwide. Given their possible direct impact on human health, these levels of BPA are worrying. PCPs as well as methylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben were also detected in high concentrations in drinking water in Egypt, with the highest concentration (6380 ng/L) being observed for butylparaben (Radwan et al. 2020).Scientific studies offering the current satatus for EPs removal at WWTPs implemented in the MENA region were collected. The information on the percentage of removal using secondary, tertiary, and extensive systems is provided as supplementary information (Table SI7). The removal efficiency of the most-studied EPs-caffeine, carbamazepine, ciprofloxacin, d i c l o f e n ac , e r yt hr o m y ci n, e s t r i o l , e s t r o n e, a n d sulfamethoxazole-in existing WWTPs using varying treatments and technologies are given in Table 2. The removal efficiencies presented in Table SI7 and Table 2 are derived or calculated from the collected data, using concentrations of investigated EPs before and after treatment using the following formula:The chief secondary treatment processes used in WWTPs in the MENA region are activated sludge (AS), tricking filter (TF), sequential biological reactor (SBR), rotating biological contactor (RBC), aeration pond (AP), off-grid graywater treatment systems (off-grid GWTS), etc. Tertiary levels are offered with membrane bioreactor (MBR), aerated lagoon (AL), waste stabilization pond (WSP), reverse osmosis (RO), ultraviolet radiation (UV), ultrafiltration (UF), polishing with sand filtration (SF), disinfection with chlorine, etc. Soil-aquifer treatment (SAT) is seldom used as an extensive system.Data on the EP removal efficiency of WWTPs is available for 79 compounds, with their concentrations in influent and effluent wastewater being distributed as follows: 61 pharmaceuticals, three hormones, three pesticides, six food additives, four illicit drugs, one phenol, and finally, one plasticizer.For caffeine, secondary treatment was found to have a removal efficiency ranging from 25 to 69% (Craddock et al. 2020;Moslah et al. 2017;Alahmad and Alawi, 2010). Tertiary treatment, however, with SF and disinfection with chlorine was reported to remove up to 99% of the caffeine in wastewater (Al Qarni et al. 2016 andAl-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b).In many WWTPs across the MENA area, the removal efficiency for carbamazepine was shown to be negative (i.e., the pollutant's concentration was higher in the effluent than in the influent). This was observed in seven WWTPs in Tunisia, where removal efficiencies were −40% in six plants that utilized AS process and −78% in the seventh WWTP which deployed AS/AL (Moslah et al. 2017). Negative removal (−43%) was also observed in the Al-Salt WWTP in Jordan which used RBC with extended aeration as treatment processes (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014). Low removal of carbamazepine was also observed in different WWTPs in Jordan; in the old As-Samra WWTP (0% with AS/WSP), the new As-Samra WWTP (22.5% with AS/extended aeration), Abu-Nsair WWTP (27% with RBC/extended aeration), and Al-Aqaba WWTP (33% with AS/WSP) (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b).Higher removal rates of carbamazepine of 60% and 75% respectively, were recorded in WWTPs applying RBC such as the Irbid WWTP and TF as in the Al-Karak WWTP in Jordan (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014). The same deduction is valid for carbamazepine elimination in WWTPs using AS process, where different removal efficiencies were recorded by Moslah et al. (2017) (−78% and −40%), Al-Tarawneh et al. (2014) (0%), and Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b (22.5%). The low removal rates for carbamazepine may be linked to the low water solubility, low sorption and low biodegradability of the compound, and by consequence its high persistence in diverse environmental matrices and high resistance to treatment (Bahlmann et al. 2014;Thelusmond et al. 2018;Zhang et al. 2008) Ciprofloxacin removal efficiency was studied in two WWTPs in Doha which received the same flow rate of 54,000 m 3 /day and utilized similar technologies comprising of AS/SF and disinfection with chlorine as tertiary treatment. However, the removal efficiency of ciprofloxacin was found to be varying, with up to 70.5% removal with the old WWTP, but only 22% removal achieved with the new plant (Al-Maadheed et al. 2019). This could be due to dissimilarity in the influent origin, where the new WWTP received a major part of domestic and hospital wastewater while the old WWTP was limited to receiving tankers of septic tanks. Since influent wastewater characteristics differ (molecular weight, biodegradation, natural or anthropic origin, hydrophobicity, etc.), removal of different EPs using the same process consequently vary greatly, fluctuating TWW quality and the risk posed by water reuse.A removal level of more than 99% was registered for ciprofloxacin using AS/SF and disinfection with chlorine in Saudi Arabia (Al Qarni et al. 2016) and using AS technology in Tunisia (Moslah et al. 2017). However, Harrabi et al. 2018 registered lower removal levels (55%) for ciprofloxacin in a WWTP in Sfax, Tunisia using the AS process. The latter WWTPs, recording lower ciprofloxacin removal, receives higher daily flow rate (60,000 m 3 /day) and higher pollution load (population equivalent of 526.800) compared to the WWTP studied by Moslah et al. (2017) that receives a daily flow rate (49,500 m 3 /day) with a population equivalent of only 195,000. Ciprofloxacin persists in activated sludge samples since it is a non-volatile compound (Batt et al. 2007) but is susceptible to photochemical degradation (Jelic et al. 2012). However, large amounts of organic matter in activated sludge may block the sunlight and therefore dampen the photochemical degradation (Kulkarni et al. 2017). These possible conditions could explain the lower removal efficiency of ciprofloxacin in the WWTP of Sfax. The treatment processes, the capacity of a WWTP to match the pollutant heaviness coupled with the pollutant characteristics, especially biodegradability, are therefore key factors to reach satisfactory removal rates of EPs.Activated sludge seems to have been ineffective in the removal of diclofenac, with a removal efficiency of −174% to 30.3% reported in WWTPs in Algeria (Kermia et al. 2016). In Jordan, secondary treatment (RBC and TF) was observed to remove diclofenac by 44-100%. According to Alahmad and Alawi (2010) and Al-Tarawneh et al. (2014), the use of RBC led to more than 93% elimination of diclofenac in Abu-Nusair, Baqa'a and Al-Salt WWTPs, except for the Wadi Alseir WWTP in Jordan, where the efficiency was 44%. The TF process seems to be markedly less effective, with the diclofenac removal rates being 66% in Al-Karak WWTP and 75% in Irbid WWTP. In addition, the WSP too was found to be unsuitable for diclofenac removal-only a 65% removal efficiency was seen in the As-Samra WWTP (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014).Erythromycin registered a negative removal rate (−25%) using the AS treatment in Tunisia (Moslah et al. 2017).WSP as well was observed to achieve a very low removal of the compound (17%), while the TF technology proved to more promising, with removal rates ranging from 60 to 75%. However, a huge variation in the removal rate (20-100%) was observed using RBC (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014). The best removal results of 86.1-90.0% were obtained with tertiary treatment (SF/UV/Chlorine or SF/ Chlorine) (Al-Maadheed et al. 2019).Secondary treatment is considered to be adequate for both estriol and estrone removal. The removal rates ranged from 74.6 to 100% with secondary treatment (SBR, AS/bottom aeration, AS/rotating disks) and reached more than 94.7% with tertiary treatment (SF, SF/UV, MBR). SAT was shown to achieve removal rates of 98-100% for both estriol and estrone (Dotan et al. 2016).Our bibliographic database revealed low removal success rates for SMX in the MENA region using secondary treatment (AS, off-grid GWTS, WSP). Removal efficiency did not exceed 45.8%; indeed, even negative removal (−31%) was registered (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014;Moslah et al. 2017;Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b). Other studies in the literature have also observed negative removal efficiency for SMX (Bendz et al. 2005;Sim et al. 2010;Tewari et al. 2013). More serious negative removal rates for SMX were reported as -145.6% in China (Zhang et al. 2017), −107% in Switzerland (Göbel et al. 2007) and −133.4% in Turkey (Nas et al. 2021). According to Nas et al. (2021), negative removal efficiency for SMX is observed especially during the summer period. Furthermore, SMX, while being absent in the WWTP influent, was detected in the effluent in Al-Salt WWTP in Jordan, which used RBC with extended aeration as the treatment process (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014). This could be due to an accumulation of microcontaminants in biological sludge without real degradation and their transmission by far (Jelic et al. 2011). Tertiary treatment has the potential to improve the removal efficiency of SMX. Both SF/Chlorine and WSP have proven effective in removing more than 98% of SMX residues (Al-Tarawneh et al. 2014;Al Qarni et al. 2016).According to our database, 290 EPs have been reported all over the MENA region in raw wastewater, TWW, surface water, groundwater, and drinking water; nevertheless, the distribution in time and space of these data is quite heterogeneous and patchy. There are no consistent monitoring programs at the national or the regional MENA level which allow for the development of time series for the analysis of trends for a given EP in a given water type of water body. The published studies are mostly part of international projects funded and/or partnered by western donors which result only in partial snapshots. The paucity of data in the majority of MENA countries is chiefly driven by the lack of proper legislation and capacities. The monitoring of EPs is costly and requires knowledge and skills and sophisticated analytical equipment, protocols, and procedures to analyze EPs, by being able to detect pollutants at a very low concentration in different water matrices (Lorenzo et al. 2018). Furthermore, proper monitoring requires the capacity to store, process, and interpret data to inform policy and practice through evidence. Many MENA countries do not yet have these capacities, nor the regulations that make monitoring compulsory. Recently, Al-Maadheed et al. ( 2019) attributed the lack of analytical studies on the presence of EPs in wastewaters to social (absence of policies and/or regulations) and technical factors (measuring and reporting on such contaminants) within the Gulf Cooperation Council; the same phenomenon is valid for additional water matrices like drinking water (Mohammed et al. 2010), in other such countries in the region.Due to the lack of consistent monitoring, reported data on EPs remains limited. Nevertheless, the scientific community and general public are increasingly becoming more aware of the presence of EPs in drinking water and the aquatic environment, along with the associated risks (Hendry, 2017). This increase in knowledge is driving a change, with the number of studies dealing with EPs in water increasing, as visible as a trend in Fig. 2.Although some EPs (like caffeine) may be naturally present in environmental waters, the occurrence of EPs is mainly due to increasing pollution loads from anthropic sources such as cities, agricultural activities, and industries. Wastewater, livestock waste, and agricultural drainage lead to a concentration of residues from pharmaceuticals, pesticides, microplastics, PCPs, and other EPs. As shown in our database, raw municipal wastewater in the MENA region has been reported to concentrate pesticides like endosulfan or DDT, pharmaceuticals such as acetaminophen, ibuprofen, paracetamol, naproxen, diclofenac, or carbamazepine, and other pollutants. The limited actual treatment of these wastes and wastewater in many MENA countries results in a large portion of these EPs making their way to water bodies, in turn increasing the risk of exposure downstream.Even in the cases where wastewater is collected and treated, the removal efficiency for EP in existing WWTPs is at best limited. Existing secondary treatments are effective for some compounds like E1 and E3 but ineffective for others like CAF, CAR, CIPRO, DIC, ERY, and SMX. Activated sludge in particular, which is the most commonly used technology in MENA, is inadequate in its effectiveness in the removal of most EPs. CAR, ERY, and SMX appear to be the hardest compounds to eliminate utilizing existing secondary treatments; at times, even negative removals were observed. The negative removal of pharmaceutical compounds could be a result of the persistence (Gulkowska et al. 2008), recombination, and accumulation of compounds during secondary treatment (Kagle et al. 2009;Jelic et al. 2011;Verlicchi et al. 2012;Gao et al. 2016).Better removal rates are achieved with tertiary treatment for certain EPs, but the performance of different technologies is very inconsistent and heterogeneous. As a result, it is difficult to find cost-effective combinations of technologies that work well for all or most of the EPs. For instance, WSP is not suitable for ERY and CAR elimination. SF/UV/chlorine is more suitable for ERY and CAR but is not suitable for CIP. SF/chlorine has also been shown to be effective for ERY-the process can almost completely degrade this contaminant (86.1-90.9%)-however, the same process is less effective for some compounds like amoxicillin (46.3-45.1%) and CIPRO (26-70.5%) and only negligibly effective for Tetracycline (0-19.2%) (Al-Maadheed et al. 2019).The reported removal efficiency for the same compounds by the same combination of technologies is at times different. We speculate that these differences and the negative removal cases for EPs removal during treatment may be due to (i) the type of influent wastewater containing pollutants which may inhibit the effectiveness of biological treatment or favor transformation, recombination, degradation and/or accumulation of EPs; (ii) treatment conditions (e.g., climatic conditions, or the age of the treatment plant) that can affect the performance of WWTPs; and (iii) the specific practices or operational conditions (e.g., shorter retention times when the treatment plant is overloaded and overloading the plant beyond its capacity with excess flows).Caffeine is a case in point. The most-studied waterborne EP, there are a total of 59 data points for caffeine concentration in different types of water in the MENA region. Figure 8 shows the aggregated data for different water types across the MENA. The available data allows us to infer that while the existing secondary treatment shows little removal efficiency, the tertiary treatment's effectiveness averages a 2 log reduction in the caffeine concentration. Concentration in tertiary effluents is similar to the concentration reported in surface waters across MENA.EPs from deficiently treated or non-treated waste and wastewater contribute to polluting the receiving waters, which may have significant health implications for water users downstream. Humans may be exposed to these waterborne EPs, by drinking polluted water or by using polluted water in food production, processing, and preparation.MENA is one of the most water-scarce areas in the world; as a response to this, it is also a region with many projects facilitating the direct use of treated wastewater in irrigation. Jordan, Israel, and Tunisia are considered advanced in TWW reuse in the MENA region. For instance, in Jordan, about 95% of wastewater is treated and more than 92% of it is reused in agricultural activities (Al-Mashaqbeh et al. 2019b). Nevertheless, even in these countries, the quality of the reused water is very heterogeneous and in most cases, the existing treatments have limited removal capacities to treat EPs. There are also numerous informal instances of direct use of untreated wastewater in agriculture where farmers take wastewater directly from sewerage systems to irrigate. The most common practice, however, is the indirect reuse of untreated or partially treated wastewater, wherein the wastewater is released into surface water, diluted, and subsequently reused, e.g., in agriculture. A typical regional example of this practice is the irrigation along the Nile and the Nile delta. There is increasing evidence that pharmaceutical compounds, PAHs, PCBs, and pesticides can accumulate in TWW irrigated soil, as illustrated in the case of Nabeul, Tunisia, where water reuse has been prevalent in agriculture for more than 30 years (Fenet et al. 2012;Haddaoui et al. 2016). The long-term health effects of EPs in sites where wastewater (treated or not) is used directly or indirectly in agriculture are still not well-documented.Sewage sludge, which is a by-product of wastewater treatment, tends to accumulate the EPs and ends up becoming a pathway to the dispersion of the EPs in the environment when such sewage sludge is reused in agriculture.Surface and groundwater receive the EPs not only from municipal wastewater but also through agriculture (e.g., pesticides), livestock waste (e.g., antibiotics), and industrial wastewater (e.g., pharmaceuticals from the pharma industry). Groundwater contamination with EPs may have long-term and hard-to-revert impacts (Neshat and Pradhan, 2015). The long residence time of EPs in certain types of aquifers, like fossil aquifers or confined aquifers where pollution persists for tens or hundreds of years, can make water unsafe for extensive periods of time. If we consider the use of many such aquifers for drinking purposes, the issue becomes even more worrying and calls for strong precautionary measures to protect the aquifers in the first place.In spite of the same, according to our database, 57 cases of surface water, groundwater, and drinking water have been reported to have concentrations of EPs that exceed the tolerable limits summurized in table SI1, out of wchich 52 cases are reported after 2010: carbamazepine with four cases in surface water in Jordan; ∑PAHs with 14 cases in surface water in Algeria, Jordan, Iraq, and Tunisia, two cases in groundwater in Saudi Arabia and Tunisia and two in drinking water in Iraq; endrin with one case in groundwater in Lebanon; aldrin with one case in surface water in Lebanon; dieldrin with one case in surface water in Lebanon; lindane with one case in surface water used for drinking purpose in Egypt; dimethoate with 12 cases in groundwater in Saudi Arabia; DDD with one case in groundwater in Lebanon; DDT with five cases in surface water in Egypt, three in groundwater in Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, heptachlor three cases in surface water in Egypt, one case in groundwater in Lebanon,  (Mokh et al. 2017;Craddock et al. 2020;Moslah et al. 2017;Hassine et al. 2011;Alahmad and Alawi, 2010;Al Qarni et al. 2016;Fries et al. 2016;Alidina et al. 2014;Malchi et al. 2014) heptachlor epoxide two cases in surface water in Egypt, two cases in groundwater in Lebanon; and β-endosulfan with two cases in surface water in Lebanon. Such levels are disturbing, if this water is used in irrigation of crops to be eaten raw, and indeed, dangerous in the case of water bodies used for bathing and drinking water.While our results show an increasing number of studies lately on water-borne EPs in the MENA region, it is important to keep raising awareness about the occurrence of potential longterm risks associated with uncontrolled EPs disposal in the environment. As the MENA countries become increasingly aware of the issue and start transitioning to a more comprehensive set of water quality norms that include EPs, they will need to undertake priority setting, select EP indicators based on defined criteria such as occurrence and exposure, persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity along with conducting environmental and health risk assessments (Mansour et al. 2016;Semerjian et al. 2018). The countries should then progressively build their capacities to robustly monitor these priority EPs. This includes not only the development of accredited and well-equipped labs but also building the capacity to store, process and interpret data to inform policies and practices.The WWT technologies that have been considered effective for traditional pollutants such as COD, nitrogen, or pathogens have not proven effective in removing several EPs in MENA, these findings are in agreement with worldwide studies (Zhang et al. 2017;Anderson et al. 2010;Nas et al. 2021). A selection of more effective technologies is required for the better elimination of EPs and achieving safer water reuse in the region. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and advanced reduction processes (ARPs) appear to be promising in reducing organic compounds, pharmaceuticals, CECs, PCPs, EDCs, and pathogens. The combination of AOPs and ARPs in advance oxidation and reduction processes (AORPs) allows overcoming some limits for certain compounds like dichlorophenol, some PFAS or perchlorate (Capodaglio 2020). Carbamazepine is among the pollutants which need to be considered well for removal improvement during treatment in WWTPs in the region, using more suitable processes. Tertiary treatment technology using a combination of SF and disinfection with chlorine demonstrates a removal efficiency of more than 86% (Al Qarni et al. 2016).Wastewater treatment is one option to address water pollution from EPs, but a combination of solutions works better than wastewater treatment alone. Pollution can be prevented at the source by not only effecting a change in consumption and production patterns (e.g., by reducing the use of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, or plastics) but also by improving agricultural drainage management (Zandaryaa and Mateo-Sagasta 2018;Mateo-Sagasta et al. 2018, Nikiema et al. 2020). Exposure to EPs can be managed through, for example, drinking water treatment in conjunction with adopting safe water practices in food production and processing since there is a potential formation of new compounds (e.g., disinfection by-products) by oxidation during treatment (Sirivedhin and Gray 2005;Qu et al. 2009).Data on the EPs control in environmental, raw, and drinking waters are even now sparse and scattered. Many countries in the region have had no studies done on waterborne EPs. Nevertheles, despite the paucity of data, there is increasing evidence highlighting the presence of EPs in waters across the region. Two hundred and ninety EPs have been reported all over the MENA region, of which, 99 EPs are detected in raw wastewater, 118 in TWW, 83 in surface water, and 9 in drinking water. Pharmaceutical compounds are among the top reported compounds. In groundwater, 97 different types of EPs have been reported with pesticides as the most frequent ones. The occurrence of EPs in groundwater is particularly disquietening since the retention times of the pollutants in groundwater are larger than in other water bodies; even if pollution loads are arrested, the EPs may take years to be removed.There is anecdotal evidence that the concentration of EPs has at times reached beyond safe limits. Fifty-seven cases of waters used, or potentially used, for drinking purposes have been reported to have a concentration of EPs that surpass the tolerable limits for drinking water.Despite the available studies on EPs in water, the problem is nevertheless not fully characterized. Indeed, the reported occurrences may be only the tip of the iceberg. More studies are necessary for a stronger assessment of the contamination status of different types of water bodies.Given the large portion of the generated wastewater in the MENA countries which is directly or indirectly reused in irrigation, the exposure pathways to EPs through the use of contaminated water in food production merits special attention.Removal efficiency differs significantly by the treatment technology and type of EP. The existing data on EP removal effectiveness in the MENA countries suggest that secondary treatment is ineffective in the reduction of most EPs (e.g., pharmaceuticals compounds like carbamazepine, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole). Tertiary treatment improves the elimination of many EPs, but this improvement is inadequate for some pollutants (e.g., tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, and amoxicillin). The construction and operation of tertiary treatment are costly processes; many MENA countries may face fiscal challenges in being able to implement such expensive treatments. The extent of the wastewater treatment coverage and the types of WWT and drinking water treatment technologies in the MENA region are far from sufficient to effectively address the health risks posed by the EPs. Given the limited financial capacities of the middle-and low-income MENA countries, and the limited effectiveness of EPs removal by the tertiary treatments, it is not practical nor affordable to promote wastewater coverage with treatment as the only way to address waterborne EPs. Instead, we recommend prioritizing a more cost-effective combination of solutions that includes a change in consumption and production patterns to prevent pollution at the source, wastewater treatment expansion to the extent required for conventional pollutants including pathogens, adoption of good irrigation practices, and universal coverage of drinking water treatment.Since it is one of the first such comprehensive reviews of the sources, occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the MENA countries, this study could serve as baseline data to design future water resource monitoring programs in the region. Apart from addressing the data and geographical gaps, such future monitoring programs can focus their attention on the EPs which emerging evidence indicate to be posing higher health risks.","tokenCount":"9095"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f354fb4b29ca5414c1f1f954774003cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c9f33ac-ca55-44c2-8d7b-4f20cfa4d086/retrieve","id":"-1445016138"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"eb5b0269-21ed-4cf7-857e-0feccfa6e176","pagecount":"4","content":"This study was undertaken to estimate the additive genetic variances of milk yield and heat tolerance and the genetic correlation between these effects at different thermal loads as a first step in exploring the possibility of including heat tolerance in selection indices for dairy cattle selection in the sub-Saharan African climate of Tanzania. Data obtained from aWhere, an agricultural weather data platform (http://www.awhere.com) was analysed with 15,703 test day milk records of 9,922 dairy cows collected between 2016 and 2020. Temperature humidity index (THI) was calculated from daily maximal temperatures and daily minimum humidity. Variance components were estimated using a fixed regression model with random regressions on a function of THI for additive genetic and permanent environmental effects modelled with an intercept and a slope. Results suggested that milk yield is antagonistic with heat tolerance, and selection for only increased milk production might reduce heat tolerance in this population.Climate change is expected to have major impacts on livestock, including increased heat stress in animals in many parts of the tropics and in low and middle-income countries (LMICs), where the cost of heat stress abatement measures may be prohibitive (Thorton et al. 2021). One alternative approach to mitigating the impact of climate change in dairy cattle, especially in smallholder dairy systems of LMICs which are more vulnerable to the impacts of a changing global climate than other dairy systems would be selection for improved heat tolerance in production traits, to which several authors have demonstrated substantial between animal genetic variation and low to moderate heritability (Ravagnolo and Misztal, 2000;Bernabucci et al., 2014). Using temperature-humidity index (THI), a single value that combines the effects of air temperature and humidity as an indicator of heat load, Ekine-Dzivenu et al. (2020) evaluated the effect of heat stress on milk production and described the pattern of response of milk yield to increasing heat load in small holder dairy cattle populations in the sub-Saharan African climate of Tanzania. Results from their study indicated that cows experienced heat stress between THI values of 67 and 76 after which milk loss plateaued. Identifying sires and dams to improve thermotolerance in smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa in the face of rising temperatures is of vital importance for small holder dairy profitability and will require availability of genetic parameters which is presently lacking. Within the described background, the goal of this study, was to evaluate changes in genetic parameters for milk yield and heat tolerance in small holder dairy cattle population of Tanzania under different THI thresholds as a first step toward including this trait in selection indices for dairy cattle in the region.Data. This study was carried out as part of a wider project called African Dairy Genetic Gains (https://www. ilri.org/research/projects/african-dairy-genetic-gains) which is developing and testing a multi-country genetic gains platform using smallholder dairy cattle performance and genomic information. Performance data consisting of 134,987 test day records of 14,741 cows from 8,735 farms, with pedigree information comprising 67,910 animals were extracted from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) database (https://www.adgg.ilri.org/uat/auth/auth/login) for cows registered on the ADGG project from November 2016 until May 2020 in Tanzania. The Data was subjected to several edits as previously described by Mrode et al. (2021). Climate data was obtained from aWhere (http://www.awhere.com), an agricultural weather data platform using GPS coordinates of the farms at 10 km grid cell resolution. This included daily maximum (Tmax, °C) and minimum relative humidity (RHmin, %). Daily THI was calculated by applying the National Research Council (1971) formula as follows: THI = (1.8 × Tmax + 32) − [(0.55 − 0.0055 × RHmin) × (1.8 × Tmax − 26.8)](1)Each THI was calculated using a 4-day average of Tmax and RHmin from measures on the test day and 3 days prior. After production and weather data were merged and duplicate THI values per animal removed, 15,703 records for 9,922 animals remained for analysis.Genotypes. Genotypic data for this study were from 1,916 cows and bulls genotyped with the GeneSeek Genomic Profiler Bovine 50K chip. These were imputed to the Illumina HD chip using a reference population consisting of crossbred cattle from East Africa and several European purebred animals (Aliloo et al., 2018). After quality control, 681,511 SNPs remained for inclusion in the analysis.Statistical model. Variance components were estimated using a fixed regression model with random regressions on a function of THI for additive genetic and permanent environmental effects using the Wombat program (Meyer, 2006). The model fitted was as followswhere y ijklmno is the o th test-day milk yield of cow n; wym i is the random effect of the i th combination of ward-year-month of milking; breed i is the fixed effect of the i th breed group; par k is the fixed effect of the k th parity; age l is the fixed effect of the l th age group nested within parity; dim m is the fixed effect of the m th dim group nested within parity; \uD835\uDC4E n is the random additive genetic effect of cow n without consideration of heat tolerance (intercept); \uD835\uDC4Eh\uD835\uDC61 n is the random additive genetic effect of heat tolerance for cow n (slope); \uD835\uDC5De n is the random permanent environmental effects of cow n without consideration of heat stress (intercept); \uD835\uDC5Deh\uD835\uDC61 n is the random permanent environmental effect of cow n for heat tolerance (slope); \uD835\uDC53(\uD835\uDC47\uD835\uDC3B\uD835\uDC3C) i is a heat stress function for ward-year-month of milking and e ijklmno is the random residual effect. The THI function was defined as follows:using various heat stress threshold points (69,71,78), previously reported by Ekine-Dzivenu et al. (2020) for the same population. Genomic analyses were implemented with single-step genomic best linear unbiased prediction (ssGBLUP) where inverse of the pedigree-genomic relationship matrix H was used for the estimation of genetic parameters. Heritability for production of milk at heat stress levels, genetic correlations between the intercept and slope of the additive genetic effects and between the intercept and slope of the permanent environmental effects was calculated based on Ravagnolo and Misztal (2000).https://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/978-90-8686-940-4_410 -Monday, February 20, 2023 1:24:05 AM -IP Address:159.180.118.24A summary of the mean, standard deviation, and range of test-day milk yield including a summary of weather data characterizing THI during the period of this study is presented in Table 1. Estimates of genetic parameters for milk yields along the THI gradient are presented in Table 2 and shows a decrease of variance for additive genetic effect of the intercept (9.83±1.21 to 7.52±1.39) but an increase for additive genetic variance for the slope (0.10±0.61 to 2.15±0.95). Covariance between the intercept and the slope for additive genetic effects were negative and ranged from -0.24±0.72 to -2.10±0.93 and correlation ranged from -0.06 to -0.99 but variances and covariance between the intercept and the slope for permanent environmental effects were negligible across THI levels (not shown). Heritability estimates for milk yield showed an increase across THI gradient and ranged between 0.38 to 0.50.Our study detected antagonistic relationships between milk yield (intercept) and thermal tolerance for heat stress (slope) which suggests that selection for increased milk yield disregarding heat tolerance will result in deteriorating heat tolerance in this population. Antagonism between milk production and heat tolerance has also been found in several other studies in cattle (Ravagnolo and Misztal, 2000;Bernabucci et al., 2014;Carabaño et al., 2014). Estimates for permanent environmental variances were very small which might indicate that sensitivity for heat stress is not cow-specific but genetic. It is important to note that not observing animals across the THI gradient due to low retention of cows in the small holder farms may contribute to the low permanent environmental variances observed. The moderate heritability estimates for milk yield over different heat stress levels found in this study show potential to genetically improve ","tokenCount":"1280"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"af26d7c86cca140715c5fb54c1c550bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5fde4d89-11e9-4ac2-b417-827df5e900ff/content","id":"402267358"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1aad76e8-3edf-45d6-854f-9f1bf857cf91","pagecount":"152","content":"CIMMYT) es una organización internacional sin fines de lucro, que se dedica a la investigación científica y la capacitación. Tiene su sede en México y lleva a cabo a nivel mundial programas de investigación sobre el maíz, el trigo y el triticale, con miras a mejorar la productividad de los recursos agrícolas en los países en desarrollo. El CIMMYT es uno de los 13 centros internacionales sin fines de lucro que realizan investigaciones agrícolas y capacitación con el apoyo del Grupo Consultivo sobre la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR, Consultat;ve Group on International Agricultural Research), que a su vez cuenta con el patrocinio de la Organizaci6n de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO), el Banco Internacional de Reconstrucción y Fomento (Banco Mundial) y el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD). El CGIAR está compuesto por un grupo de 40 donadores, entre los que figuran países, organismos tanto internacionales como regionales y fundaciones privadas.A través del CGIAR, el CIMMYT recibe fondos para su presupuesto básico de varias fuentes, entre eUas,La fusariosis o roña del trigo causada por Fusarium graminearum Schw., el estadio asexual de Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch, está muy difundida en el Cono Sur (ver el mapa). Según las condiciones climáticas de las diversas regiones, más del 75% de la superficie total sembrada con trigo (unos 10 millones de hectáreas) puede ser afectado por la enfennedad. Teniendo en cuenta la falta de una resistencia adecuada en las variedades comerciales actuales, la lucha química preventiva es la única alternativa viable para reducir las pérdidas anuales. El costo anual aproximado de las medidas de lucha química llega a US$12 millones en un país grande como Brasil, ya 1,5 millones en un productor pequeño como Paraguay. Esto convierte a la roña en un factor de importancia econ6mica para la producci6n de trigo en esa regi6n. La roña también es una importante enfennedad del trigo en otras regiones del mundo, como el Lejano Oriente, el este y el sur de Mrica, América del Norte y partes de Europa.El grupo de análisis (véase la lista de participantes) fue organizado por el Programa Regional de Trigo del CIMMYT, con la colaboraci6n del Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería (MAG) de Paraguay. El propósito era reunir toda la infonnaci6n existente sobre el progreso logrado hasta el momento en los conocimientos relacionados con la enfennedad, y planear las estrategias• futuras. Otro objetivo era presentar el programa del CIMMYT sobre la fusariosis, que ahora tiene su sede en Paraguay, a los colaboradores regionales con el fin de proyectar la integración y los ensayos del gennoplasma seleccionado en localidades clave.A continuaci6n se sintetizan los puntos más importantes del análisis efectuado.El progreso de la lucha contra la enfermedad ha sido hasta el momento lento y modesto a causa de: i. El carácter imprevisible de la enfennedad y la falta de conocimientos acerca del agente patógeno.ii. La carencia de fuentes adecuadas de resistencia en el gennoplasma con características agron6micas superiores y adaptaci6n local.iii. La dificultad de la inoculaci6n artificial en condiciones de campo. iv. La gran presi6n de la enfermedad en las condiciones semicontroladas del invernadero, que dificulta la identificaci6n de los distintos grados de resistencia. v. La presencia muy difundida de huéspedes o cohuéspedes alternativos, las gramíneas aut6ctonas, que incrementan la carga de in6culo en los años de mucha hwnedad y reducen las posibilidades de la lucha mediante prácticas culturales.vi. La falta de conocimientos acerca de la variabilidad genética del hongo. vii. La diversidad de los métodos de selecci6n y evaluaci6n usados por los distintos investigadores.La infecci6n se produce durante la et\"pa de floración de la planta o cultivo. Cuanto más amplio sea ese período en una variedad, mayor será el riesgo de infecci6n en cierta cantidad de espigas al menos.1.Toda la infonnación reunida hasta el momento ha demostrado que las anteras son las partes más afectadas por la infecci6n como consecuencia de la presencia de colina y betaína, compuestos químicos que contienen nitr6geno; esto hace que la fusariosis sea una infección de la flor.11.Los estudios recientes efectuados en México en colaboraci6n con el CIMMYT revelan la iniciación de la infecci6n en las glumas.iii.Esto tal vez explique las diferencias entre las variedades en cuanto a su susceptilidad durante el espigamiento. la floración y el período posterior a ésta. El interrogante es ahora cuál es la importancia relativa de éstas y otras partes de la espiga en el proceso de floraci6n.Existe una estrecha vinculación entre las conrliciones ambientales y la gravedad de la enfermedad. Los factores ambientales más importantes que influyen en el curso de la enfennedad son la humedad relativa, la temperatura y la luz.-La humedad relativa tiene una impOJtancia fundamental para la aparición de la enfennedad. Parecen ser críticas una humedad relativa elevada (85% o más) y la disponibilidad de agua por lo menos durante un período de 48 horas. Las lluvias o, incluso, el rocío durante el período de floración provocan la liberación de ascosporas que aparentemente causan la infección primaria en las condiciones de campo en Brasil.-Un régimen de temperaturas rntre los 25 y 28º e es muy favorable para el desarrollo de la enfennedad, que también puede presentarse en forola menos intensa con temperaturas inferiores o super.¡ofes (5-35º C) siempre y cuando existan los factores propicios representados por el agua y la humedad relativa elevada.-Luz: la fonnación de peritecios se produce sólo en las partes aéreas de la planta, los rastrojos o los granos que están expuestos directamente a la luz, es decir, que se encuentran sobre la superficie del suelo. Cuando el rastrojo se incorpora por completo, el hongo no produce peritecios que infectan las espigas, pero puede causar infección en la raíz al estar en contacto directo con ella.En consecuencia. es posihle disminuir la presión del inóc\\110 mediante métodos adecuados de manejo de los rastfCIjos. No obstante, de este modo aumenta la función del in6culo proveniente de otros huéspedes, en particular, las gfamÚleas.En los últimos años se ha identificado gennoplasma con un mayor grCldo de resistencia en las vari.edades locales de trigo; sin embargo, no se ha logrado incorporar esa resistencia en variedades de alto rendi.miento y, por consiguiente, se dispone ahora de fuentes de resistencia a la fusariosis pero no de variedades resistentes a la enfennedad. Las variedades locales como Toropi. Encruzilhadll. KI. Atlas y E. Young, son todas de ciclo prolongado y su resistencia podría ser parcialmente genética y, en parte, el resultado de haber escapado a la enfennedad.En toda la región se ha usado gennoplasma japonés desde hace diez o más años. Con este gennoplasma se ha obtenido un mayor grado de resistencia a la fusariosis, pero se han deteriorado las características agronómicas. Las líneas nuevas de Brasil parecen combinar la resistencia a la enfemledad con un tipo agronómico algo mejor.Las fuentes de resistencia más recientes, provenientes de China, proporcionan una excelente resistencia genética combinada con un tipo agronómico entre aceptable y bueno. Las poblaciones segregantes obtenidas mediante cl1lzamientos con gemlOplasma chino demuestran el progreso que se puede alcanzar en la producción de variedades nuevas con resistencia a la fusariosis.El empleo de escalas de evaluaci<Ín diferentes en los diversos prngramas complicó la interpretación de los datos de las distintas localidades. Los criterios aplicados para unificar las escalas incluyeron la sencillez, la uniformidad en condiciones de campo y de invemadero y la relación entre la enfennedad y las pérdidas.Se adoptó la escala de Oa 5 como escala común que se empleará para la evaluación en la región. Los investigadores japoneses y chinos también usan esa escala.La evaluación en el campo comprende el porcentaje de espigas infectadas por unidad de supelficie y la proporción de la espiga qúe presenta infección. En la evaluación en el invernadero se agrega el porcentaje de granos i.nfectados. En el cuadro I se muestra la escala brasileña, que se considera adecuada para para evaluar la enfermedad en la región.Se consideró que t¡mto el Vivero Regional de Resistencia a la Fusariosis (OTCOS) como el Vivero lntemacional de Selección para la Resistencia a la Fusariosis (ISSN) eran importantes porque representan distintos materiales genéticos. El GTeOS incluye la mayoría de las fuentes regionales de resistencia a la enfennedad. mientras que el ISSN constituye un progreso en la transferencia de pane de esa resistencia a gennoplasma de alto rendimiento. Hubo consenso general para qlJe continuaran por el momento ambos viveros en fomla independiente y se evaluaran nuevamente después de un par de años de labor.Teniendo en cuenta la herencia de tipo poligénico de la resistencia a la fusariosis (son tres los !!enes de resistencia comunicados por investigadores chinos y japoneses), se juzgó conveniente efectuar la selección en generaciones avanzadas como la F4 y la F5.Los cruzamientos para la fusariosis pueden ser cosechadas en masa en estas generaciones y enviadas a los colaboradores interesados desde Paraguay. Desde el CIMMYT en México, debe continuar la distribución de poblaciones segregantes F2 con resistencia a la fusariosis, de tal modo que sea posible seleccionar e integrar todo tipo de variabilidad regional.La selección en el campo En vista de la estrecha vinculación entre el clima y la enfemlednd, es muy importante utilizar para la selección en el campo lugares donde sea elevada la incidencia de la enfemledad. Mediante el análisis de los resultados obtenidos en el vivero LACaS (Líneas Avanzadas del Cono Sur), se observó que la región del sur de Brasil, la del Río de la Plata y Paraguay constituían tres grupos distintos. Si bien las diferencias eran menores entre las dos primeras regiones, el sur de Paraguay se distinguía por la temperatura más elevada, el ciclo de crecimiento más breve y criterios distintos en cuanto a la adaptación del gennop1asma. Las localidades consideradas útiles para la selección en esas regiones son las siguientes:Brasil: Cmz Alta, rasso Fundo, Pelotas, Sao Borja y una localidad en el sudeste de Paraná Río de la Plata: Pergamino, Balcarce y La EstanzuelaLa selección en condiciones semicolltroladas Para examinar parte de los materiales seleccionados en condiciones semicontroladas, se están usando instalaciones de invemaderos en Passo Fundo, Pelotas y Marcos Juárez. En estas localidades se puede ensayar s6lo una cantidad limitada de líneas adicionales y, por consiguiente, será muy impo11ante contar con una mayor presión de la enfennedad en las condiciones de campo.La mayoría de las investigaciones sobre la fusariosis efectuadas en la región se concentraron directamente en la resistencia del gennoplasma. Hace poco se ha iniciado en Brasil el estudio de la biología y la epidemiología de la enfermedad. No obstante, se observó que el retraso de los conocimientos sobre la enfermedad inc.!uía otros a~'Pectos, como el manejo de los cultivos, las rotaciones, etc. Se considera esencial establecer contactos futuros con otras regiones del mundo donde exista la fusariosis, y tratar de reunir la infonnaci6n disponible. Algunos de los países que tienen programas de investigación de la fusariosis y que podrían colaborar en ese esfuerzo son Canadá, los Estados Unidos de América, Hungría, Japón, la República Popular China y Yugoslavia. Pueden existir otras regiones que será necesario ai1adir a esta lista.En el Anexo 1 se incluye una lista de los contactos en Japón, preparada por el jefe del programa del nCA.Areas para la investigación futura LH eyaluaciún rápich. de la enfenneclf'lCl Considerando el gran tamaño de la población que será preciso evaluar en las poblaciones segregantes, es fundamental contar con un:l plUeba rápida de evaluación basada en la reacción de las plántulas o en una técnica de cultivo de tejido. Todo progreso vinculado con la purificación de las toxinas, su empleo en el proceso de evaluación y sus relaciones con la resistencia o la susceptibilidad contribuirá a la obtención de una prueba de ese tipo.El I>m<.'cso ele infecci6n Es muy importante verificar la infon11ación reciente obtenida en México en cuanto a la iniciación del proceso de infección en las glumas. Es preciso que prosigan las investigaciones histopatológicas para identificar otras partes de la flor o la espiga que des¡.mpeñen una función importante en el proceso de infección. Esta infonnación podría tener gran trascendencia para la producción de variedades resistentes.La vnriahilidad genética ele la patoJ!enicidad del hongo Es fácil observar en los medios de cultivo las diferencias entre los hongos de la fusariosis recolectados en distintas regiones. Esas diferencias conciemen principalmente al color de la colcmia, la tasa de crecimiento, la producción de peritecios, etc. Hasta el momento no han sido concluyentes los infonnes relacionados con las diferencias en cuanto a la patogenicidad o las razas fisiológicas. Esos datos tienen un irunenso valor en vista de las diversas reacciones de las variedades.Se dehen estudiar las reacciones a la enfennedad en un conjunto de variedades usando las fonnas de conidios asexuados y ascosporas sexuales para detenninar si se observan diferencias.El conjunto de variedades diferenciales propuesto para la región incluye las diez variedades siguientes:1. Sumai 3 También es necesario poner a prueha este conjunto de variedades en las condiciones de campo en diversos lugares donde sea elevada la incidencia de la enfennedad, con el fin de detenninar con exactitud sus reacciones.Ln gravednel de la enf<'rmedad y las condiciones amhientales Con el nuevo gennoplasma disponible yen condiciones bien controladas, es esencial estudiar el progreso de la enfennedad en relación con las modificaciones del régimen de tell)peraturas, la humedad relativa y el período de humedad. Esta labor está en la etapa de planificación en Brasil.En Canadá y Estados Unidos se ha investigado a fondo la importancia de las tl'xinas causadas por la fusariosis en el trigo para alimento y forraje. Aún es preciso obtener en nuestra región la infonnación concemiente a las técnicas de detenninación de las distintas toxinas, las concentraciones aceptadas y la utilización del trigo afectado por la fusariosis. Serán muy útiles para ello la disponibilidad de datos básicos y el contacto con lus laboratorios de los países desarroUados, Ln genéticn de In resisfencin n la fusariosis Se cuenta con muy poca información sobre la herencia de la resistencia a la fusariosis en las fuentes usadas en la actualidad. Su semejanza o disimilitud podría ser la clave para lograr una resistencia sostenida con base amplia. Es fundamental emplear un método adecuado de evaluación para identificar el mecanismo genético que origina los distintos grados de resistencia y la variahilidad existente, con el fin de planificar de nlilllera apropiada el mejoramiento de la resistencia.ClJAORO J. ESl'aln usada parn evaluar la fusariosis en Ins espigas en condiciones de campo. La fusariosis de la espiga es una enfermedad producida por el género Fusarium, siendo la especie que predomina en Argentina F. graminearum. Además de las pérdidas de rendimiento que puede ocasionar en años de primaveras muy húmedas, este hongo también produce varios tipos de micotoxinas; entre ellas, el deoxinivalenol fue la de mayor frecuencia de aparici6n en muestras de lotes de producci6n en 1985, año de caracterfsticas epiftricas.En el sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires (subregión ecolágica triguera IV), se produjeron infecciones generalizadas en los años 1963,1976,1977 y 1985, que afectaron principalmente a trigos fideos, contribuyendo a la disminuci6n del área sembrada de éstos respecto al trigo pan.En el sur de Santa Fe y norte de BuenflS Aires, área bajo la influencia de la EEA Pergamino (parte de las subregiones /l Norte y /l Sur), se registraron frecuentes epifitias desde el año 1945, siendo de gran seyeridad la ocurrida en 1985, con una incidencia promedio de 49,6% de espigas afectadas y una severidad de 33% de espiguillas destruidas por espiga. Se realizaron experiencias que indican que el efecto de la enfermedad fue mayor sobre el número de granos por espiga que sobre el desarrollo de los mismos.En el área de las provincias de Santa Fe y Córdoba que corresponden a la subregi6n II Norte se registraron ep~fitias en 1950, 1967. 1977, 1978 Y 1985. Durante las dos últimas, se realizaron en la EEA Marcos Juárez trabajos de estimación de pérdidas de rendimiento en base a muestras de lotes de praducción. Se estim6 que en 1978, en el área Este de la subregi6n, las pérdidas fueron de aproximadamente 30%, mientras que en el área Oeste, éstas significaron un 10%. En 1985, las pérdidas estimadas en las áreas central aeste, central este y central sur fueron de 9,3%,13,3% y 5,4%, respectivamente.Se presenta la evaluación de das métodos de estimación de pérdidas de rendimiento. El primero de ellos se basa en la diferencia entre los rendimientos teórico (sin enfermedad) y calculado (con enfermedad) yen el segwulo se consideran los granos perdidos (abortados y sin peso por la infección). Relaciones con rendimientos reales i1ulican que el segundo método alcanza un nivel de confianza aceptable.La primera mención del género Fusarium en Argentina como patógeno en gramíneas se debe a Spegazzini, quien lo detenninó sobre Paspalum platensis en 1880. En 1927, Marchionatto señala la presencia de Fusarium graminearum en el complejo de hongos que produjeron podredumbre del pie del trigo en una vasta área del oeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires. La forma peritécica Gibberella zeae fue encontrada por Lindquist al año siguiente en trigos cultivados en la Facultad de Agronomía de La Plata (Buenos Aires).En su manifestación sobre la espiga, llamada también golpe blanco o tiz6n, la fusariosis fue mencionada en los primeros años de la década del 30, pero hasta el periodo [1945][1946], no fue observada en forma generalizada en los cultivos. En esta oportunidad, en que la regi6n afectada fue el norte de Buenos Aires y sur de Santa Fe, se efectuaron los primeros registros epifitiol6gicos organizados. Posteriores epifitias fueron señaladas en las áreas y años que se muestran en el cuadro l.La fusariosis se presenta con mayor frecuencia en el norte de Buenos Aires y el sur de Santa Fe, llegando hasta el sector sudeste de C6rdoba (subregi6n ecol6gica triguera n Norte y parte de la II Sur, mapa 1). Esta área de mayor riesgo se extiende hacia la subregi6n III correspondiente a la provincia de Entre Rios, que posee un régimen pluvi6metrico mayor que los anteriores y, en consecuencia, mejores condiciones para el desarrollo de la enfermedad. Sin embargo, existen menos referencias de epifitias, tal vez debido a que el trigo no es un cultivo de importancia en la zona (2% de producci6n nacional en el último decenio). La zona sur y sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, que corresponde a la subregi6n IV, también es afectada esporádicamente por epifitias, aunque en esta área, la gravedad de las mismas se debi6 principalmente a la susceptibilidad de los trigos fideos que ocupaban una superficie importante en los años que se señalan grandes perdidas (1963, 1976 y 1977).Otra observación que se desprende del cuadro 1 es la frecuencia esporádica de las epifitias, teniendo en cuenta la gran dependencia para la infecci6n de condiciones ambientales específicas en el estadio de floraci6n, fundamentalmente elevada humedad relativa.En este aspecto, una relaci6n entre las áreas en que se presenta la enfermedad y condiciones de ambiente favorables a la misma se señalan en el mapa 2 las regiones hidrol6gicas en el área triguera argentina en base al balance hídrico para los 30 dias en que es posible la espigaz6n según la latitud (Pascale y Damario, 1961). Se observa que la zona en que se han detectado con mayor frecuencia epifitias de fusariosis (norte de Buenos Aires y sur de Santa Fe) se encuentra en el sector de la regi6n hidrol6gica que nOffilalmente presenta un exceso de agua entre 12,5 y 25 mm, en tanto que el sudeste de C6rdoba y sudeste de Buenos Aires se hallan en el área con un balance hídrico entre cero y 12,5 mm. Gran parte de la superficie de la provincia de Entre Rios se encuentra en la subregi6n húmeda, con exceso de agua del orden de 25 a 50 mm en el periodo de espigaz6n.El Ensayo Territorial de Resistencia a Enfermedades (ETRE), cuyo objetivo es evaluar el comportamiento de cultivares y líneas inéditas frente a distintos pat6genos en diferentes áreas de la regi6n triguera, proporciona otros elementos de juicio que corroboran las zonas de difusi6n de esta enfermedad. También presenta la ventaja de comparar la reacci6n de los mismos cultivares en distintas áreas y calificar el nivel de infecci6n.En la gráfica 1 se muestra el comportamiento promedio a fusariosis de cuatro cultivares susceptibles según la escala utilizada por el Departamento de Irununología del CICA (Castelar) para evaluaciones a campo, desde 1977 hasta 1985, excluyendo los años 1982, 1983 y 1986 en que no se presentaron infecciones de importancia en ninguna de las localidades. Además, en años de epifitias no se consideraron todas ellas. Se observa que Paraná presenta las mejores condiciones para la evaluaci6n de líneas y cultivares.No puede dejar de mencionarse la región del nordeste (NEA), zona relativamente nueva para el trigo. Abarca pequeñas área.<; de las provincias de Fonnosa y Chaco, cuyo clima es subtropical, con primaveras de elevadas temperaturas y normalmente con tiempo seco y ventoso. Sin embargo, la variabilidad climática de esta zona permite que eventualmente se produzcan elevadas precipitaciones en periodos coincidentes con la floración y formación del grano, favoreciendo la enfermedad. Hasta el momento, se carecen de datos sobre importancia y difusión de la misma en esta región.En los análisis de las muestras realizados por la Ing. Agr. Dora Barreto, se determinaron cinco especies, cuyo orden, según frecuencia de aparición, fue: Fusarium graminearum, F. poae, F. equiseti, F. semitectum y F. mOllmfor,!,e. El nivel de infección de las distintas especies detenninadas en granos normales y fusariosos en las muestras se indican en el cuadro 2.Como se sabe, además de las pérdidas inherentes a la producción, el género Fusarillm produce en los granos afectados diversas micotoxinas, de las que pueden mencionarse dos tipos: tricotecenos y zearalenone.Luego de la epifitia de J985, se efectuó un trahajo para determinar la presencia de micotoxinas asociadas a partidas de granos con alto grado de contaminación observado visualmente y entregadas para su comercialización en la zona norte de Buenos Aires y sur de Santa fe. Los resultados obtenidos de las 82 muestras analizadas, indican que F. graminearum estuvo presente en la totalidad de las muestras, con una frecuencia de aparición entre 2% y 44%. También se determinaron otras especies, en porcentajes que en ningún caso superó el 5%. Ellas fueron: F. poae, F. tricinctum, F. nivale, F. heterosporum, F. semitectum, F. moniliforme y F. equiseti.La micotoxina encontrada en el 100% de las muestras fue el deoxinivalenol, llamada también DON o vomitoxina, que pertenece al grupo de los tricotecenos; fue detectado en niveles que variaron desde 0.1 a 25 ppm. La mayor frecuencia (47,5%) de las muestras estuvo entre el nivel de 4,1 a 10 ppm.Cabe destacar qne esta micotoxina es una de las menos potentes dentro de este gmpo, al que tambien peI1enece la denominada T2, de gran peligrosidad y que fuera detectada en solo siete muestras con niveles de 0,3 a 0,5 ppm.En estas detenninaciones, no se observó la presencia de zearalenone.1mportancia de la fusariosis según áreasSi bien no se tienen registros completos de t(ldas las epifitias ocurridas, asi como sobre la intensidad y los daños producidos en las distintas regiones. las infonmlciones de las Estaciones Experimentales de Balcarce (subregión IV). Pergamino (subregión 1I N Y1I Sur) y Marcos Juárez (subregión II N), contribuyen a clarificar las situaciones regionales.Para detenninar la magnitucl y difusión del prohlema, se realizó un muestreo de granos cosechados en campos de productores de tod<1 el área. En los análisis de las muestras participaron los laboratorios de la EEA Balcarce, de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias de Balcarce y de la Facultad de Agronomía de La Plata. Sobre 330 muestras colectadas, se detenninó que los trigos fideos fueron los más afectados y sólo el 24% de ellas alcanzó el nivel inferior del standard de comercialización, quedando el 60% fuera del mismo.El area sudeste, Z(lna de influencia de la EEA Balcarce, fue la más perjudicada, encontrándose que el 22% de las muestras de trigos fideos estaba infectado, en tanto que en el área sur, este porcentaje descendió al 7%.Este problema sanitario fue uno de I(lS motivos por los que el área sembrada con trigos fideos se redujera drásticamente. En 1976, el porcentaje de estos trigos sobre el total de la producción era de 21,7%, mientras que en 1984, había disminuido a 3,5%.En el año J985, C(lITIO en toda el área pampeana. la fusariosis también alcanzó niveles de importancia. Según datos proporcionados por la lng. Agr. C. Garda, en el laboratorio de análisis de semillas de la EEA Balcarce se analizaron 479 muestras de trigo provenientes de lotes de producci6n del área sudeste. El 66,4% present6 diferentes grados de infecci6n de Fusarium graminearum, en un rango de 1% a 93% y un promedio de 22%. De las muestras analizadas, sólo cinco conespondieron a trigos fideos, con infecciones que oscilaron entre el 3% yeI20%.La zona de influencia de esta estaci6n experimental aharca el sector sudeste de la subregión II Norte y nordeste de la II Sur, áreas donde se han registrado con mayor frecuencia infecciones generalizadas de fusariosis.De ellos, 34 lotes presentaron entre 1 y 5% de espigas fusariosas, oscilando los restantes entre 5 y 20%, con casos excepcionales superiores al 20%.Estimación de daños. La difusi6n e intem:idad que alcanzara la enfermedad en esta área indujo a la realización de experiencias con el ohjeto de evaluar el efecto de la enfermedad sobre los granos de trigo. Para ello se realizaron estimaciones, en 1985 y 1986, en ensayos semhrados en la EEA Pergamino en tres épocas de siembra y en los que intervinieron diferentes variedades comerciales. Por parcelas fueron individualizadas 25 espigas sanas y 25 espigas enfermas, las que se cosecharon y trillaron a mano, registrándose el peso total de granos/espiga y el peso de 1000 granos. Los datos obtenidos fueron analizados según un diseño en parcelas divididas, en el que la parcela principal correspondió a variedades y la subparcela a las alternativas espigas afectadas y sanas. En el cuadro 3 se presentan los promedios generales de todos los cultivares por épocas de siembra y por años.Los niveles de incidencia v severidad observados durante los dos años considerados fueron similares a los que \"nonnalmente ocurren en los campos de producción de la zona.El efecto del patógeno sobre el peso de 1000 granos fue menos notorio que sobre el peso del grano por espiga. En consecuencia se estima que el patógeno tuvo mayor intluencia sobre la cantidad de granos que sobre el desarrollo del mismo.Las observaciones realizadas a c<lmpo aharcan la suhregión TI Norte, con exclusión del sector sudeste y sur de la suhregión I. que comprende el centro de la Prov. de Santa fe.En 1967, se constató la primera epifitia en esta área, pero no se poseen datos precisos de su incidencia. Diez años después, se produjeron nuevamente condiciones muy favorables a su desarrollo. En detenninaciones sobre 155 cultivos, distribuidos en toda el área mencionada, el grado de infección promedio fue de 10%, con un máximo de 28% en el cultivar Surgentes INTA Ycon un mínimo de 2,6%, en el cultivar Piamontes INTA.En 1978. se repitieron lac; condiciones amhientales favorahles a la enfermedad. oportunidad en que se efectuaron observaciones para detenninar el comportamiento varietal, su difusión e intentar una cuantificación de las pérdidas.Para encarar este último aspecto se realizó un muestreo en dos áreas representativas de la situación, una al este de la subregión JI N cercana a la EEA Oliveros, donde la incidencia fue de 53,7%, y otra en el oeste, próxima a la EEA Marcos Juárez, con incidencia de 24,7%. Las precipitaciones medidas en Oliveros superaron en un 16% a las registradas en Marcos Juárez, cuyos valores fueron un 13% superiores al promedio de 10 años.Las observaciones sohre las pérdidas aproximndfls en el área de Oliveros fueron de 1,142 kg/ha (30%) y, en el área de Marcos luárez, de 473 kg/ha (10%).En 1985, las condiciones ambientales en el periodo de floración fueron muy favorables a las enfenne<1ades en toda el área triguera. A pesar de que el patógeno más difundido y que ocasionó mayores daños fue Septoria tritici, F. graminearum también estuvo presente con intensidad variable. En el área central de Ja suhregión II Norte, el promedio general de la fusariosis fue de 9,1 %, registrándose el valor máximo de 18,3% en el cultivar Leones INTA y el mínimo en La paz INTA con 1,5%.Antes de la cosecha, se extrajeron muestras de 29 cultivos en los que se estimaron pérdidas de rendimiento de 167 kg/ha (9,3%) en la zona central oeste, 292 kg/ha (13,3%) en la zona central este y en la central sur de 107 kglha (5,4%). Los porcentajes promedio de espigas fusariosas en las zonas mencionadas fueron de 25,0%, 27,2% Y25,9%, respectivamente. La severidad de las infecciones, medidas por la proporción de espiguillas por espigas afectadas fue baja, con un promedio general de 14,3%.Evaluación de métodos de estimación de pérdidas de rendimiento La estimación de pérdidac; es uno de los aspectos más relevantes para detenninar la importancia de una enfennedad; por lo tanto, es necesario contar con un método confiable para su realización.Con el ohjeto de probar los métodos utilizados en Marcos Juárez para las estimaciones de pérdidas a campo en los años 1978 y 1985 Yestablecer su relación con rendimientos reales, se utilizó un ensayo para el control qUÚ11ico de la fusariosis en el cultivar Klein Chamaco. En cada parcela, se extrajeron antes de la cosecha tres muestras de un metro lineal cada una, en las que se efectuaron detelminaciones sohre las espigas y la estimación de los rendimientos teóricos y calculados. Las variables rendimiento real y peso de 1000 granos se tomaron en base a la parcela original de 5 m2, que luego del muestreo quedó reducida a 4,40 m2. Los resultados se muestran en el cuadro 4.Para esta evaluación se excluyeron los trMamientos de propiconazol + carbendazim y de flutriafol + carbendazim, a causa del control que ejercieron sobre Septoria trifici, reflejado en los rendimientos y que no se evidenció en los restantes tratamientos.Los métodos que se utilizaron para la estimación de pérdidas fueron los siguientes:Método A -Por diferencia entre el rendimiento teórico y el calculado.Se considera que el rendimiento teórico es el que se huhiera podido alcanzar sin la presencia de la enfennedad. Para su estimación, se consideran los siguientes datos:-Promedio del número de espigas por m2(a)-Promedio del número de granos por espiga en base a 10 espigas sanas (b)-Peso de un grano expresado en kgRendimiento teórico (kg/ha) ::: a x b x c x 10 000El rendimiento calculado es el que se estima se alcanzó en real ¡dad, teniendo en cuenta los granos sanos o con leve decoloración. pero con peso y contados luego de la trilla manual de las espigas de las muestras (b 1). Relaciones analizadas. En primer lugar, las variables porcentaje de espigas fusariosas y porcentaje de granos fusariosos, considerando flores abortadas y granos sin peso, fueron relacionadas con los rendimientos reales. Por la naturaleza de ambas variables, los datos fueron muy dispersos encontrándose, sin embargo, asociación entre ellas y el rendimiento.Para el porcentaje de espigas fusariosas (gráfica 2), el coeficiente de correlación fue -0,5 (significativo al 0,01), en tanto que para el porcentaje de granos fusariosos. la correlación fue algo más estrecha: r = -0,66 (gráfica 3). Por esta razón, se utilizó esta última variable para comprobar su relación con las pérdidas de rendimiento.Método A -Relación entre rendimiento real y rendimiento calculado. En la gráfica 4 se observa la escasa relación entre el rendimiento real y el calculado, cuyo coeficiente de correlación, no significativo, fue de 0,38. Tal vez el dato determinante de la ineficacia del rendinúento calculado se deba a la gran variabilidad observada en el número de granos sanos por m 2 . Esta situación podría mejorar incrementando el número de muestras, pero no sería práctico por el tiempo que demandarían las determinaciones.Relación entre el porcentaje de granos fusariosos y la estimación de la pérdida de rendimiento. La observación de la gráfica 5 muestra que no existe relación entre ambas variables, siendo el coeficiente de correlación 0,26 no significativo.Método 8 -Relación entre el porcentaje de granos fusariosos y las pérdidas de rendimiento. En la gráfica 6 se observa una estrecha relación lineal entre ambas variables (r = 0,98), situación que no sorprende debido a que ambas variables inc1uyen el número de granos fusariosos. Su cálculo se realizó para tener una base para determinar si la variable \"pérdidas\" puede ser estimada en forma independiente al porcentaje de granos fusariosos.Relación entre pérdida de rendimiento y rendimiento real. Entre ambas variables se determinó que el coeficiente de correlación de -0,60 fue significativo a nivel del 1%. Se observa en la gráfica 7 que los puntos entre 20 y 80 kg/ha de pérdidas aproximadamente muestran una pobre asociación entre las variables y corresponden a los tratamientos con fungicidas. Esta relación se estrechó cuando se consideró el testigo al ampliar el rango de las pérdidas.De este análisis surge que el método A. de estimación indirecta de pérdidas a través de cálculos de rendimiento, no es un método contiable.El método B, aunque no es totalmente sati~fact(lrio. pennite un nivel de confianza aceptable. por lo que fue adoptado para las estimaciones a campo en la crunpafía 1985 en la EEA Marcos Juárez. Debe mencionarse que las estimaciones realizadas en el afio 1978 en las áreas de Marcos Juárez y Oliveros se hicieron aplicando el método A.En base a la infonnación disponible se puede concluir que la fllsariosis en Argentina es una enfermedad que se encuentra difundida en las principales áreas de producción del país, alcanzando algunos años niveles de severas epifitias.Estas se presentan C(ln mayor frecuencia en el sudeste de la suhregión ecológica JI Norte y pane norte de la suhregión n Sur. En el centro oeste de la sllbregión 1I None, así como en el sur de la suhregión IV, las epifitias se producen más esporádicamente, pudiendo alcanzar gran severidad.En la suhregión lIT la fusariosis puede ser considerada endémica, alcanzando frecuentemente niveles de importancia, pero como se mencionara anterionnente, la superficie ocupada con trigo en esta área no tiene mayor gravitación en la producción nacional.Aunque se conoce que las pérdidas procillcidas por esta enfennedad pueden llegar a ser importantes, las mismas aún no han sido fehacientemente evaluadas. Por lo tanto se deherán intensificar los trabajos en este aspecto y así poder establecer su real influencia en la producción.   1950,1967,1977,1978, and 1985 - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------    -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------    Ol\"'---\"TI---\"\"'\"---\"TI---...,.,---\"\"\"'1\"\"1_._-\"'1'\"  % granos fusariosos Gráfica 5. Relación entre el porcentaje de granos fusariosos y la estimación de la pérdida de rendimiento.  El control de las enfermedades puede real izarse a través de distintos métodos, siendo los principales el control genético, el control químico y el control cultural.En Argentina se está trabajando en los dos primeros y aún no existen experiencias en cuanto al control cultural. Sin embargo, este aspecto deberá tomarse en consideración, si se tiene en cuenta que las áreas de mayor incidencia de la fusariosis son zonas productoras de maíz y, además, en la rotación de cultivos más difundida, el trigo se siembra sobre rastrojo de maíz. Por otra parte, existen áreas erosionables donde se están introduciendo labranzas conservacionistas que, podrían contribuir a agravar el problema.Con respecto al control genético mediante la obtención de cultivares resistentes, se están realizando trabajos en la EEA Marcos JU:lrez aplicando un esquema de selección recurrente, pero aún no se tienen resultados concretos. Los viveros de la EEA Paraná y en menor medida el de la EEA Sáenz Peña proporcionan. aunque no todos los años con igual intensidad, buenas condiciones para la selección bajo infección natural de m<lteriales segregantes y estabilizados de los participantes del programa cooperativo de mejoramiento de trigo.El control químico de esta enfemledad presenta dos aspectos, uno referido al uso de fungicidas para el tratamiento de semillas y otro para su control en espigazón.Este método, por su bajo co~to. puede llegar a ser adoptado por los productores, sobre lodo en años que siguen a cosechas afectadas por esta enfennedad. Aunque la limpieza y clasificación de la semilla hace disminuir el riesgo de la aparición del tizón de las plántulas, la protección química es el complemento adecuado en estas circunstancias.En 1986, se realizaron ensayos en EEA Balcarce para evaluar el efecto de fungicidas para el control del tizón de la plántula en condiciones de invernáculo y de campo con los resultados siguientes:Se utilizó semilla del cultivar Buck Patac0n con 52% de infección natural que fue sembrada en tierra infestada con el patógeno. Se evaluaron a través del número de plántulas emergidas, un fnngicida sistémico, el tiaben<.lazol y dos dosis del fungicida de contacto mancozeb (cuadro 1).Los resultados muestran que los dos productos ejercieron un buen control sobre la enfermedad, destacándose el tiabendazol y la dosis mayor de mancozeb.Se realizaron dos ensayos, uno con el cultivar San Agustín TNTA, y otro con Las Rosas INTA, ambos con buen poder genninativo. Las semiJlas fueron inoculadas con una suspensión de esporas antes del tratamiento con los fungicidas, los que fueron aplicados 48 horas antes de la siembra. Se utilizaron los siguientes tratamientos:Tratamiento \", -, se\"-On-, -, úl \", , ' -' -' la\"' ----- Se realizaron recuentos de plántulas por m 2 a los 14 y 2J días posteriores a la siemhra y se compararon los promedios mediante el test de Tukey en un nivel de significancia del 5%.Los resultados en los dos ensayos fueron parecidos: los fungicidas y dosis probados tuvieron un comportamiento similar, sin diferencias significativas entre sí. En camhio, todos difirieron del testigo en el que fue evidente el efecto de la inoculación de la semilla.En razón de la elevada susceptibilidad de la mayoría de los cultivares difundidos hasta el momento y debido a la probabilidad de ocurrencia de epifitias en las principales áreas trigueras, la protección química del cultivo en el periódo de espigazón podría ser económicamente redituable, en casos de severas infecciones. En los últimos años se han real izado experiencias para la evaluación de fungicidas en las EEA de Balcarce, Pergamino y Marcos Juárez, cuyos resultados se han agrupado en el cuadro 2.Se observa que las variahles porcentaje de granos fusariosos y porcentajes de espigas fusariosas han presentado diferencias estadísticamente significativas con respecto al testigo en la mayoría de los ensayos. La situación es inversa al analizar rendimiento y peso del grano. Este hecho crea incertidumbre en la toma de decisiones, por cuanto las aplicaciones dehen ser reaJizadas en forma preventiva, sin tener certeza de que las condiciones ambientales continúen siendo favorables él la enfennedad, debido a la variabilidad del clima, especialmente en el área central nOl1e del péiís. Este hecho, unido al elevado costo de los fungicidas sistémicos, hace difícil prever la adopción de esta tecnología por el momento, salvo en casos específicos.Two aspects of genetie improvement and chemical control are heing addressed for controlling fusarium in Argentina: the prevention of seedling blight using .'leed treatments and disease reduction during heading. Existe poca información científica sobre el daño causado solamente por la fusariosis debido al problema de que existe con un complejo de otras enfermedades. Pero en base a los trabajos recientes, se ha estimado este daño entre 7-13% en años normales en campo de agricultores en Rio Grande do Su!' También se está desarrollando una metodologfa para evaluar el daño causado solo por la fusariosis en condiciones naturales y sin el uso de fungicidas.estudios durante algunos años sobre el asunto, pero no lograron buenos resultados en función de la baja incidencia de giberela exactamente en el área en que fueron instalados los ensayos. En 1984, Luz (9), estudiando las pérdidas debidas a patógenos de trigo en condiciones naturales en Passo Fundo y Rio Grande do Sul, logró los resultados que aparecen en el cuadro 1. 18. TOCHETIO, A. Septoriose, Oidio e Fusariose do Trigo. Boletún de Campo. Rio de laneiro. 15(122): 16-21. 1959.Fusarium head sea'J is one of the majar diseases offectinR wheat-producing areas in Brazif. It can be found jrom the temperate humid u'gions Iike Rio Grande do Sul alld Santa Catarilla ro hot subtropical regions Iike Sao Paulo and Mato Grosso do Slll. DurillR the rainfed eye/e, disease levels in the tropical areas ofMato Grosso, Goias and Millas Gerais, where wheat is a llew crop, can beeome alarming.There is !ittle scientific informatioll 01/ damage coused only by fusarium beeause it exists in a complex with other diseases. However. bosed on recent studies, damage has 17een estimated to be 7-13% on farmers' ftelds in Rio Grande do Sul in normalyears. A methodology for assessillg damage caused oHly by fusarium under natural eonditions and without fungicides is being developed.- -----------------------------------------------------------------------CUADRO 1. Pérdidas de producción, en trigo de primavera, cultivares CNT 10 y Nobre, por enfermedades fungosas del trigo. Passo Fundo, RS, Brasil.  Desde el comienzo del Programa Nacional de Trigo ('n Paraguay en 1966, la superficie sembrada, el rendimiento y la producción han aumentado, llegando al autoabastecimiento de este cereal en 1986. Los años húmedos se consideran muy cr(ticos por la incidencia epidémica de las enfermedades. Lafusariosis y otrosfactores han sido responsables del fracaso de la producción triguera durante varios años.Los datos presentados muestran que la pérdida de rendimiento causada por la fusariosis está muy relacionada con la época de siembra y la humedad prevaleciente durante la floración. El mejor control qu(mico fue logrado usando Benomyl (0,5 kgl/w). Recientemente, los trabajos de desarrollo de }?ermoplasnw resistente se han estimulado con la colaboración del CIMMYT y disponibilidad del material chillO con alto grado de resistencia.En el cuadro 1 se puede apreciar que excepto en los años 1972 y 1975, cuando por razones de las fuertes epidemias de manchas foliares y fllsariosis se redujo el rendimiento promedio, éste pennaneció estable hasta el año 1983. El incremento en rendimiento durante los últimos tres años se puede apreciar en las gráficas 1 y 2.El cultivo del trigo en el Paraguay está localizado en su mayor parte en la Región Oriental, siendo el Departamento de Itapúa el mayor productor (cuadro 2), con 57% de superficie sembrada (mapa 1). El Departamento de Alto Paraná está en segundo lugar con 25% de superficie.Las zonas sur y este del país se caracterizan por su clima húmedo y presentan un complejo de enfennedades (manchas foliares, royas, fusariosis, etc.). En las otras zonas productoras, que presentan un clima más seco, el efecto de las enfennedades es menos crítico.Importancia y distribución de la fusariosis en el Paraguay invernadero en el CRrA y en condiciones de campo en el IAN. Para ayudar a mantener condiciones favorables de humedad anlbiental para el desarrollo del patógeno en el campo, el material fue cubierto por un telado y se usó un sistema de riego.Para la inoculación fueron utilizados dos métodos: el método del algodón y el método de atomización (spray). Aun la utilización de una suspensión de micelio en el CRIA, resultó altanlente infectiva, especialmente cuando Jos mtlteriales fueron atomizados. Los materiales que demostraron buen comportamiento fueron:A. Fuentes de resistenda conocida Todos los materiales que fueron seleccionados en el eRIA y en el IAN en el primer año de prueba, están siendo sometidos a nuevas evaluaciones.Durante los años 1977-79, ensayos para el control químico de la fusariosis sobre una variedad susceptible fueron realizados. Cuatro productos benzimidazoles (Benomyl, Tiabendazol, Carbendazim y Metiltinfanato) fueron aplicados una sola vez en estado de floración. El mejor control de la fusariosis fue obtenido con la aplicación de medio kilo de Benomyl por hectárea.Severidad de la fusariosis en relación con la época de siembra La época de siemhra es un factor que incide enomlemente en la severidad o escape de la enfennedad aun en variedades muy susceptibles.La incidencia de la fusariosis en los materiales de ensayos sembrados en tres épocas diferentes, fue observada durante los aIlos 1983 y 1985 (cuadro 3).En el año 1983, la mayor incidencia de la fusariosis se presentó en la segunda época de siembra por coincidi.r con alta precipitación (116,3 mm) durante el periodo de floración a mediados de agosto. La baja de infección en la tercera época se debe a solamente 27,7 mm de precipitación en el período de la floración y la baja humedad relativa en el mes de septiembre en general. La~ grandes )Juvias de fines de julio y principios de agosto en 1985 cayeron después de la floración en primera época y en estado de embuche a espigazón de la segunda, lo que explica la relativamente haja infección en la primera época y alta en la segunda. El período húmedo a mediados de septiembre, coincidente con la floración de la tercera época, fue responsable de elevar el nivel de la fusariosis en materiales en esta época.De los datos presentados en los cuadros 4 y 5, se puede deducir la estrecha relación del nivel de susceptibilidad en los materiales con los períodos húmedos y lluviosos durante la floración. Unos días de variación o disminución de la humedad durante la floración son suficientes para bajar grandemente los niveles de infección de fusariosis.Con el ohjetivo de cuantificar las pérdidas producidas por la infección natural de la fusariosis en una parcela comercial, durante 1986 se tomaron muestras de 100 espigas sanas y 100 espigas infectadas en un metro cuadrado para detenninar la incidencia de la enfermedad, tomándose como espiga infectada, la que tuviera desde una espiguilla infectada.Los datos de rendimiento de las espigas infectadas y de las sanas y la disminución producida por la enfennedad, están presentados en el cuadro 6. A pesar del efecto visible de casi 25% de espigas infectadas, la pérdida de rendimiento fue baja (3,8%). Considerando el alto grado de infección durante los años húmedos. cuando casi la totalidad de ensayos están infectados. las pérdidas causadas pueden ser de considerable importancia, requiriendo control quúnico.Durante 1975. hajo severa infección de un complejo de enfenneclades, la variedad ltapúa 25 se destacó por su comportamiento siendo uno de los pocos materiales que produjo alto rendinüento y un buen.peso hectolitrico en los ensayos. Asimismo. la variedad Itapúa 1 expresó un excelente comportamiento por su buena adaptación a la zona de ltapúa.En los tres últimos años, otros cultivares de alto potencial de rendimiento como Cordillera 3, Cordillera 4, JAN 7 y ltapúa 30 han expresaclo su moderada susceptihilidad a la fusariosis. Los cultivares 281/60 y Itapúa 5, considerados muy susceptibles a la fusariosis, están siendo retirados del mercado.El nuevo cultivar JAN R -Pirapá que fue liberado en 1987, ha presentado buen comportamiento contra la fusariosis desde el año 1985.Con la intensificación de los trabajos sobre 1<1 fusariosis en Paraguay, se espera identificar nuevo gennoplasma con mayor grado de resistencia a la enfermedad, combinado con un potencial de rendimiento de moderado a alto.  ... La fusariosis de la espiga, causada por Gibberella zeaefa. Fusanum graminearun, es una de las enfermedades de mayor importancia económica en el Uruguay. Su incidencia y severidad fundamentalmente en los años húmedos y cálidos le ubican como una de las enfermedades más destructivas cuya frecuencia, desde 1977, ha aumentado. Para la evaluación del daiio causado se utilizan parámetros como el porcentaje de espigas afectadas, porcentaje promedio de area afectada en las espigas infectadas y porcentaje de granos infectados. La selección de materiales genéticos se hace en condiciones de campo, usando la inoculación artificial solamente en generaciones avanzadas. El programa de mejoramienw ha comemado la incorporación de la resistencia proveniente de los trigos de origen chino, además de los hrasileños. El control qu{mico probado como complemento del desarrollo de variedades resistentes muestra un excelente comportamiento de Fenetrazol (Folicur) en dosis de 1 l/ha de producto comercial coml}inado con TMTD(2 kg/ha) que en doble aplicación (primera a principios de la floración y la segunda en estado de medio grano) resultó con un 26% de aumento en rendimiento sobre el testigo. Es necesario confirmar la eficacia del control en una sola aplicación en mejor época en comparación a las aplicaciones y la interacción del colltrol qu{mico con las nuevas variedades.La fusariosis de espiga o golpe blanco, causada por Gihherella zeae f.a. Fusarium graminearum, es una de las enfemledades del trigo de mayor importancia económica en el Uruguay. .Tanto la mancha de la hoja (causada por Septrwia t,.itici), las royas de la hoja y del tallo (causadas por Puccinia recondita y P. graminis f.sp. trifiel), como la fusariosis, causan pérdidas de rendimiento y calidad considerables, variando entre años la importancia relativa entre ellas.Si bien no se ha realizado la evaluación de pérdidas causadas por la fusariosis, la incidencia y severidad qne presenta fund:unentalmente en años húmedos y cálidos la ubica como una de las enfennedades más destl1Jctivas. Prueba de ello son los rendimientos promedio obtenidos a nivel nacionár~n años críticos (1977,1985; fig. 1).Estos años son coincidentes con infecciones altas defusariosis, tal como lo demuestran los datos que se comentan a continuación.Durante el período 1968-1979 se llevó a caho tln seguimiento de enfennedades en el área triguera, que pennitió obtener una idea clara de Ja magnitud de los principales problemas sanitarios que afectan al trigo (Perea y Díaz de Acketmann, 1980).La infonnación recogida uhicó a la fusariosis en cual10 lugar en incidencia (30% de chacras afectadas) y en severidad de infección (promedio de 4% de espigas infectadas, fig. 2).A causa de la grave e inédita situación planteada por 1<\\ fusariosis en el año 1977, se trató de establecer, en base a parámetros climáticos. la probabilidad de que se repitiera un ataque similar, en que se estimaron pérdidas del 50% de la cosecha posible en muchos casos (Tavel1a el al., 1979). Analizando la infOJ1l1ación de temperatura media del aire, humedad relativa del aire, precipitaciones y exceso de agua del suelo del mes de octubre, en que se concentra la espigazón de los cultivos en el país, Tavella et al. (1979) concluyeron que la posibilidad de ocurrencia de concliciones ambientales con valores cercanos a los del año 1977 serían de un aí10 en dieciseis. En base a estos resultados, enfatizaron el carácter esporáclico que presentaba la fusariosis en el país.Sin embargo, esta conc1usiñn no resultó extrapolable, daelo que a partir del año 1977 se observan con mayor frecuencia chacras con ataques importantes de fusariosis, con incidencia variable según las condiciones de humedad y temperatura. Como probable causa de la mayor importancia adquirida por la <:>l1fermedad, se maneja que se haya acumulado un mayor nivel de inócu10 en toda el área triguera, lo que detemÚIlaría que éste no sea un factor limitante para la infección.A pesar de que desde 1979 no se poseen registros de infección a nivel de agricultores, la infol1nación recogida a nivel experimental (cinco ensayos en la Estanzuela, en distintas épocas de siembra y tres ensayos regionales que representan toda el área triguera) ilustra la impOl1ancia relativa <..le la fusariosis en los distintos años (cuadro 1).La metodología utilizada para la evaluaci6n de la enfennedad hasta el año 1982, tanto a nivel de chacra como a nivel experimental (ensayos de evaluación varietal y de control químico; viveros en general y en especial de fusariosis), era el conteo de espigas que mostraban síntomas de la enfel1uedad (porcentaje de espigas afectadas).A pm1ír del año 1983, se estableció un índice que comprendía el indicador utilizado anteriormente y además el porcentaje promedio de área afectada en las espigas que presenrabafl ataques. El último porcentaje es especialmente útil para la identificación de materiales resistentes a la fm;ariosis, ya que pHede considerarse como un índice de la velocidad de avance de la enfemledad en la espiga. Este sistema pennite tener una idea más real del daño causado.Complementaria a esta medición es la estimación del pnrcentaje de granos afectados con Fusarium posterior a la cosecha. La misma se realiza en los viveros para fusariosis y ensayos de control químico. Presenta la deficiencia de no considerar los granos abortados por efecto de la enfennedad.La selección del material general manejado en el Programa de Mejoramiento se realiza en condiciones de infección natural. Se utiliza infección aItificial para detectaI' fuentes de resistencia y evaluar el material más aVaIlzado (a partir de F6).El inóculo utilizado se multiplica a partir de espigas infectadas en trozos esterilizados de ta110s de maíz con nudos o en P.D.A. Se utiliza una suspensión de esporas en agua con una concentración de l 000 000 conidios/ml para la inoculación. Esta se realiza para cada material, por aspersión con una pulverizadora de ultra bajo volumen (ULVA) a comienzos de la floración, repitiéndose siete días después.La infección ocurre en condiciones ambientales nonnales, dado que no se cubre a las parcelas para asegurar un ambiente favorahle para la enfennedad. Este es un factor limitante, ya que cuando se presenta una primavera seca se producen ataques leves.También se dificulta la identificación de materiales de mejor comportamiento porque aun pequeñas d~ferencias de ciclo en los materiales determinan diferencia en la infección. Este es un punto realmente importante en el caso de Uruguay, dado que se manejan materiales con mucha variación en su ciclo.Existe sólo un antecedente de un trabajo realizado en condiciones semi-controladas (utilizando carpas de nylnn) para detectar posibles fuentes de resistencia (Bertón y Perdomo, 1981). Allí se utilizó además una metodología de evaluación más precisa (granos infectados, infectados abortados, sanos y abortados, dentro de cada espiga). De los 18 cultivares estudiados, sobresalieron por su compOJtarniento Toropí y Encruzilhada, ambos de origen brasileño.Si bien se reconoce la importancia de la enfennedad, el hecho de que sólo recientemente se disponga de mnterial con un nivel de resistencia aceptable y la carencia de una infraestructura adecuada impusieron restricciones importantes al mejoramiento para obtener resistencia a la fusariosis de la espiga.Hasta el momento, sólo se ha ejercido una selección negativa, eliminando los materiales más susceptibles.Tradicionalmente se utilizaron como fuentes de resistencin cultivares de origen japonés (Nyu Bay, Nobeoka Bozu) con problemas de tipo agronómico prácticamente insuperables en un programa convencional (cruzas simples o triples), y otros de origen brasileño (por ejemplo PEL 74162). Los materiales ele origen chino recientemente distrihuídos por el CrMMYT presentan un comp01tamiento superior al de los anteriores en cuanto a porcentaje de infección de Fusarium (cuadro 2) y este aI10 comenzarán a ser utilizados en cruzamientos.A la escasez de fuentes de resistencia se suma la restricción que impone al manejo del carácter, el tipo de herencia del mismo, aspecto sobre el cual la infonnación a nivel mundial es escasa.La otra limitante, como ya se mencionó. ha sido el trabajo en condiciones de infección natural. S i bien años como 1977 o 1985 ofrecieron lIna excelente oportunidad para descartar los materiales más susceptibles, en condiciones naturales, las características de la enfemledad en cuanto al momento de infección, como la diversidad de ciclos del material que se maneja en el Programa de Mejoramiento, hacen imprescindible que se trabaje bajo condiciones controladas que aseguren una buena infección.Dehido a las 1imitaciones en el uso de la resistencia genética, se priorizó a los trabajos de control quúnico para esta enfennedad en particular.Desde hace varios años se realizan en La Estanzuela ensayos de comparación de fungicidas. No obstante, en algunos ensayos de los primeros años hubo problemas de baja infección en los testigos sin fungicidas, y en otros casos las aplicaciones fueron demasiado tardías.En 1984 (Díaz de Ackerrnann. 1985) se realizó un ensayo de comparación de cuatro fU,ngicidas benzimidazoles. combinndos con TMTD, en aplicación única (fin de la floración) o dohle (mitad de la floración y grano lechoso, cuadro 3). La mayoría de las mezclas dieron mayor eficiencia de control en su aplicación doble, aunque no hubo diferencias significativas en el grado de infección, rendimiento ni peso hectolítrico. Con aplicaciones anticipadas (desde comienzos de la floración) probablemente se habría logrado mejor control.En 1985 (Díaz y Perea, 1987) se agregó a la comparación el fenetrazol (Folicur), también combinado al TMTD; \"todos los productos con una apl icación única (floración tenninada) o doble (principio de la floración y medio grano) (cuadro 4). Solmnente el fenetrazol y carhendacím (Derosal), en aplicaciones dobles, dieron significativo control de la enfeJllledad y sólo con el primero de ellos se logró un incremento significativo del rendimiento.De estos resultados, sin embargo. no es posihle concluir que la aplicación doble de los productos sea más eficiente que la aplicación única. En In doble aplicación no es posible separar el efecto adicional de la aplicación más tardía, de la mayor eficiencia lograda por la primera aplicación en el mismo caso, por el hecho de haberse realizado hasta en un momento más oportuno que la aplicación única. Además sería necesario desarrollar infonnación sobre la pérdida causada por la fusariosis en las nuevas variedades que fueron seleccionadas por su mejor compoltilllliento en años como 1984-85. - -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------  -.,..-\"\"'T\"\"\"\"\"\"'-'--\"\"T\"-\"\"\"\"\"\"\"'-\"\"\"\"\"\"--' En esos tres años se encontr6 una significativa correlaci6n negativa entre el CRI y la fusariosis de la espiga y el número de dfas ala espiRazón y la altura de la planta; la combinación de los dfas a la espiRaz6n y la altura caus6 cerca del 50% de la variabilidad (1'2) observada en el CRI para la jusariosis.Se definió un parámetr(l de resistencia para separar el efecto de estos mecanismos de escape de la verdadera resistencia Renética, lo que hizo posible identificar el germoplasma más resistente con base en las notas de enfermedad tomadas en un solo momento crftico.El germoplasma proveniente de áreas con alta incidencia defusariosis, todas localizadas en la cuenca del rfo Paraná o en zonas con gran influencia marftima, pose fa en promedio más factores de resistencia y mecanismos de escape, lo cual resultó en una reducida infecci6n en el campo. Sin embargo, se estima que algunas Uneas tempranas y más cortas, con niveles intermedios de infección, son superiores para el fítomejoramíento.Desde 1981, los países del Cono Sur realizan un importante esfuerzo de intercrunbio y evaluación de gennoplasma de trigo, a través de la distribución alJual del vivero LACOS, Lmeas Avanzadas del Cono Sur. Hasta 1986, el Proyecto Trigo del PROCISUR hahía delegado la organización de este vivero al programa de trigo INIA-CIMMYT de Chile. Desde ese año en adelante la organización quedó a cargo del programa de trigo MAG-CIMMYT de Paraguay.Con los años se ha observado un incremento en la cantidad y calidad de las notas tomadas y devuelta.'>. Todos los años se reciben datos suficientes para poder llegar a conclusiones confiables y precisas sobre el comportamiento del gennoplasma frente a las enfennedades más comunes en la región del Cono Sur, como sun las tres royas y manchas foliares causada.'> por Septoría tritid. Además, los datos de altura, ciclo, selección, etc., ayudan a interpretar la adaptación de los materiales en cada localidad.Desde el inicio del LACaS, se han recihido n0tas de fusariosis, la mayoría de las cuales se ha podido considerar en la presentación de los resultados. Hasta la fecha, las localidades que retomaron datos de fusariosis han sido: En este análisis de los resultados se busca profundizar la interpretación de los datos en comparación a los ya reportados en los infonnes de resultados de LACaS que se publican anualmente. Además de caracterizar el germoplasma en términos de su reacción a fusariosis, se pretende llegar a conclusiones sobre la relHción entre esta reacción a fusariosis y el ciclo del mateIial, la altura de la planta y el lugar de selección del material.Tamhién se podría entresacar conclusiones sohre las diferentes localidades proveedoras de notas, las que son llamadas \"hot spots\", y si éstas dan origen a genlloplasma con mejor nivel de resistencia a fusariosis. hace que todos los valores se vuelvan relativos. Este valor rel<ltivo se denomina coeficiente relativo de infección (CRO. Al multiplicar este valor por 100 se obtiene un porcentaje que es más fácil de manejar.El sacar promedios de diferentes coeficientes de infecci6n proporciona valores mas equilibrados que los valores absolutos. También el valor relí:ltivo en sí es una importante indicación del compol1amiento de un material, mientras que un valor absoluto tiene muy poca significancia. Una lectura de 5/5 es alta cuando la lectura máxima es de 6/6, pero es baja cuando la lectura máxima es de 9/9, lo que se refleja en valores del CRI de 69 y 131, respectivamente.Para cada año se calcularon los siguientes parámetros: * Correlación entre las lecturas de diferentes localidades. Esto facilita sacar conclusiones sobre la representatividad de los diferentes sitios de evaluación.Regresi6n lineal de los CRJ promedio sobre los días a espigazón (promedio de múltiples localidades).Regresión lineal de los CRJ promedio sobre la altura de las plantas (promedio de múltiples localidades).Compottamiento diferencial de materiales de diferentes orígenes, distinguiendo las siguientes zonas agroclimatológicas: Desviación de la línea de regresión de CRI sohre días a espigazón, expresada en unidades de la desviación standard del valor de CRI. Este parámetro pennite al máximo una interpretación por sí de la resi~tencia genética del material, eliminando el efecto de escape por ciclo tardío. Un material con un valor -2,0 implica que quedarían dos unidades de la desviación estándar por debajo de la Hnea de regresión lineal. lo que significa que combina su ciclo con un nivel de infección bien por dehajo de lo normal para aquel cido. De aquí en adelante este valor se denominará el vaJor de Desviación de la IÚlea de Regresión de la Infección sobre la Espigazón (DRIE).Para los interesados, hay listados disponibles de los resultados detallados sohre datos de fusariosis de los 4 2 , 52 Y6º LACaS. Hay un listado en orden de número de entrada, y otro en orden aJfahético de cruza. De ahí que es fácil huscar la reacción de cualquier material que estuvo incluído en el LACaS durante uno o más de estos ailos. Como se puede notar, el resultado de Encamación quizás no merece ser incluido para el cálculo del promedio: hubo mucho escape. Después de analizar las notas y viendo que la correlación con otras localidades era insignificante, se excluyeron los datos de esta localidad.El dato de días a espigazón es un promedio de datos de seis localidades, Bethlehem (RS Africa), Cd.Obregón (México), Toluca (México), Corvallis (EUA), Londrina (Brasil) y Santiago (Chile). La altura de planta es el promedio de 10 localidades.En la figura 1 se clasificaron los 308 materiales en cinco grupos de espigazón, para así poder graficar los resultados. De inmediato se observa la fuerte relación lineal que aparece entre días a espigazón y CRI de fusariosis. Se incluyó la formula de la línea de regresión del CRI sobre días a espigazón en el cuadro 1.También surgen claramente las diferencias de reacción entre materiales provenientes de las diferentes zonas. El grupo más susceptible incluye los materiales de Chile, seguidos por los de Brasil Central, Centro-Sur y Paraguay. Las líneas de Argentina y Uruguay fueron ligeramente mejor, y los materiales del Sur de Brasil sobresalieron como grupo, mostrando un nivel de CRI de unos 15 puntos inferior. Este resultado no nos debe sorprender. Confinua la hipótesis de que la presión constante de la enfermedad en la humedad del Sur de Brasil dio origen a materiales con un nivel mejor de resistencia. El otro caso extremo, Chile, muestra el máximo de susceptibilidad en sus trigos, lo que puede ser consecuencia de la ausencia de la fusariosis en aquel país.En el cuadro 2 figuran aquellos materiales para los cuales el valor del DRIE es inferior a -1,5. Hay materiales de diferentes periodos a espigazón, pero todos son los mejores, comparándolos con materiales de su ciclo.Al comparar estos resultados con la selección hecha en base a infección solamente (véase infonne de resultados del 4 2 LACOS), es evidente una gran divergencia como consecuencia del método de análisis.Las correlaciones entre notas de las tres localidades se presentan en el cuadro 3. El valor de r =0,455 para Colonia y Pergamino es altamente significativo.La regresión lineal del CRI sobre la altura de la planta muestra un valor bajo, pero negativo, para el coeficiente de regresión (cuadro 1). La altura no parece ser un factor de mucha influencia sobre la expresión de la resistencia. No es posible sin embargo llegar a conclusiones excluyentes en este tema porque los materiales del Sur de Brasil combinan un mejor nivel de resistencia con una altura de 20 cm superior y un ciclo que tiende al tardío. La causa o el efecto sólo se puede detenninar con la inoculación artificial. El dato de días a espigazón es el valor promedio de observaciones en seis localidades: Toluca (México), Roque Saenz Peña (Argentina), Londrina (Brasil), Chillan (Chile), Hidango (Chile) y Santiago (Chile). La altura de planta se registró en ocho localidades.En la figura 2 se clasificaron los 283 materiales de trigo en cinco grupos de espigaz6n, para facilitar la presentaci6n de diagrama. Más pronunciada que para el año 1984 surge la relaci6n lineal entre los días a espigaz6n y el CRI de la fusariosis. La figura 2 muestra también la distribuci6n de los materiales por su regi6n de selecci6n; se observa la misma tendencia del 4 2 LACOS, pero con diferencias más significativas entre orígenes. Los materiales sur-brasileños mostraron el mejor nivel de resistencia, los chilenos, central brasileños y paraguayos son los más susceptibles, con los argentinos y uruguayos en una . posici6n intermedia.La línea de regresión 1ineal de CRI de fusariosis sobre los días a espigaz6n, presentada en el cuadro 1, tiene valor para la varianza explicada (R2) de 0,48, cuando se excluyen los 20 materiales mas tardíos. El resto de la varianza pennite sin embargo seleccionar materiales dentro de cada grupo de espigaz6n que muestra un nivel relativamente bajo de CRI.La regresión de los CRI sobre la altura de la planta resulta otra vez en valores bajos, pero significativos, de varianza explicada (cuadro 1). Los materiales más altos tienden a ser más resistentes, pero la relaci6n es ]0 suficiente débil para pennitir la selecci6n de materiales de mejor resistencia entre los trigos semi-enanos.Las correlaciones entre la~ lecturas de las tres localidades, presentadas en el cuadro 4 son bastante más alentadoras que los valores de 1984. Las tres localidades estando en zonas semejantes en sus condiciones agroclimáticas, los valores del coeficiente de correlaci6n alcanzaron niveles entre 0,455 y 0,675, todos altamente significativos. El dato de días a espigaz6n es el valor promedio de observaciones en cinco localidades: Cd. Obreg6n (México), Cochabanlba (Bolivia), Hidango (Chile), Sta. Catalina (Ecuador) y Sta. Cruz (Bolivia). El dato de altura de planta se registr6 en seis localidades.En la figura 3 se clasificaron los 230 materiales de trigo en cinco grupos de espigaz6n, para facilitar la presentación en diagrama. Surgió otra vez la relaci6n lineal, aunque menos pronunciada que en el año anterior. También se pr:esenta la distribución de los materiales por su regi6n de selecci6n. Se observa la misma tendencia de años anteriores, aunque la superioridad de los materiales sur-brasil.eños esta vez no se muestra para los materiales precoces.La linea de regresi6n 1ineal de CRI de fusariosis sohre los días a espigaz6n, tiene un valor para la varianza expücada (R2) de 0,43. Las f6m1Ulas de las lineas de regresión indican que por cada 10 dias de demora en la fecha de espigazón se espera una reducción en el CRI de fusariosis entre 15 y 30% (cuadro 1).Las correlaciones entre las lecturas de las tres localidades se presentan en el cuadro 6.Los valores de los coeficientes de correlaci6n fueron inferiores a los del año 1985, pero siguen siendo altamente significativos. Otra vez las lecturas de Encarnación muestran menor correlación con los otros dos lugares. Por la cercanía de Pergamino y Paraná esto no nos debe sorprender.Por su época de siembra y latitud diferentes de la mayoría de localidades que proporcionan datos de fusariosis, la elecci6n de Encarnaci6n como lugar central para generar gennoplasma resistente a la fusariosis parece complementar las ventajas de otras localidades. Por su ubicación cercana al Río Paraná hay un ambiente bastante propicio para la infecci6n de fusariosis en condiciones de campo con apoyo de inoculaciones artificiales.Los trigos semi-enanos, con alfO potencial de rendimiento. se adaptan muy bien a la zona, lo que pennite seleccionar un mejor grado de resistencia en trigos de alto rendimiento, sin que factores adversos como niveles excesivos de aluminio o excesiva presi6n de otras enfelmedades foliares limiten el alcance del pr greso sobre la fusariosis.Además se cuenta con niveles moderados de muchos patógenos de importancia para la zona (roya de la hoja y del tallo, ofdio, ambas septorías. helmintosporiosis, bacteriosis, VEAC) lo que debe ayudar a desarrollar gennoplasma deseable para la región.Conclusiones y recomendaciones 1.Es importante mencionar alglmas limitaciones de los datos presentados. El gennoplasma evaluado no es fijo, sino cambia de un año para otro. Se relacionó los niveles de infección con datos promedios de altura y ciclo. Hubiera sido interesante hacer un análisis por sitio, empleando los datos para espigazón y altm del mismo sitio. Lamentamos no contar con estos datos.Para llegar a conclusiones confiables sohre resistencia a fusariosis se deben tomar en cuenta solamente las lecturas de aquellas localidades que tuvieron una alta y continua presión de la enfennedad que no pe1TI1ite mu hos casos de escape.En dos de los tres años observados se encontró una alta correlación entre el nivel de infecci6n de fusariosis (CRI) y los días a la espigaz6n. siendo los materiales tardíos los de menor ataque. Casi el 50% de la variabilidad para el CRI se pudo explicar por las diferencias en el período vegetativo. Para el futuro se recomienda que cualquier localidad que proporciona lecturas de fusariosis, tome también notas de espigaz6n, pues es indispensable para un análisis significativo. También son importantes los datos de altura de planta.Un vivero de este tipo puede ser muy lÍti\\ •..1 d ldentifica.r materiales resistentes porque como se siembra en muchos sitios, se encuentran casi siempre algunas localidades donde se presenta la enfennedad con suficiente severidad. Es importante que el análisis de los resultados sea rápido y un poco más a fondo que sólo los promedios. Los valores CRI promedio, junto con el dato de días a espigazón, son más infonnativos que los datos absolutos de ataque. El valor DRIE es un parámetro indicador de la resistencia independiente del ciclo vegetativo.La mayoría de los infonnes de fusariosis provienen de la zona sur de Brasil, Uruguay y la provincia de Buenos Aires, complementados por algunos informes provenientes de Encamación y Palatina. ambos en las cercanías del Río Paraná.Es la primera zona que hasta la fecha dio origen a muchos materiales de buena resistencia a fusariosis. Tamhién en otras zonas existen buenos materiales, aunque con menor frecuencia. El desarrollo de un plan de intercambio de los materiales, tanto fijos como segregantes, entre estas dos regiones puede ayudar a identificar gemlOplasma con base amplia de resistencia.La estandarización de las escalas para la eVlllu<lción de fusariosis puede facilitar el procesamiento de los datos. Sería de gran utíl idad adoptar una escala común que indique la incidencia y la severidad de la enfermedad.Resulta evidente el gran valor de las inoculaciones artificiales, incluso en sitios \"hot spots\", para garantizar la infección y poder contar con datos confiables todos ]os años. Todo este esfuerzo de identi ficación de materiales resistentes traerá frutos en la medida que haya una cooperación tluida con los mejoradores.Tl1ree years' data   = días de siembra a espigazón, promedio de cinco a ocho localidades.ALT.= altura en cm, promedio de seis a diez localidades. CUADRO 2. Las mejores entradas para resistencia a fusariosis en el\"!! LACaS.  .9 ---... .:.::  --,¡\"¡;,;,~~,¡\",,¡,,;,,¡¡;¡,;¡¡L.-~¡,,,,¡,;;;,•:•¡,;;;¡•   Un número considerable de enfennedades c,msadas por hongos ocurre en el trigo en Brasil debido a condiciones favorables principalmente de temperatura y humedad. La fusariosis, causada por Fusarium graminearum Schwabe (fase teleomórfica Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch), puede manifestarse intensamente en regiones con un exceso de precipitación pluviométrica y temperaturas elevadas principalmente en la fase de la floración del trigo.Aunque esta enfennedad no se manifieste unifonnemente en todas las regiones trigueras o en fonna intensa todos los años, es factihle definir con mayor precisión la probabilidad de epifitias de fusariosis en la región sur de Brasil. En Rio Grande do Sul, se puede caracterizar la Región Sur (Pelotas), Región de las Misiones y Región de Planalto, como áreas propensas a ataques intensos de esta enfennedad.Los daños más intensos están relacionarlos con la muel1e de la\" plántulas, la reducción del rendimiento debido al abOl10 de las flores o la producci0n de granos huecos o chupados, variando en intensidad según las condiciones climáticas del año o de las regiones sembradas. Estas pérdidas justifican la necesidad de incorporar resistencia genética a los trigos recomendadas para la siembra.A pesar de que la incorporación de resistencia a fusariosis fue tratada con una mayor prioridad por los antiguos programas de mejoramiento, las condiciones naturales de la región contribuyeron su efecto positivo a la selección genética, pues entre los cultivares recomendados a los agricultores, existen considerahles fuentes de resistencia comprobadas, no sólo en Brasil, sino también en varios países. Entre los antiguos cultivares resistentes utilizados por largo tiempo destacan las variedades Toropí y Encruzilhada.A diferencia de otras enfermedades que ocurren f'n diferentes regiones trigueras del sur de Bra<;il, la incorporación de la resistencia a la fusariosis ha permanecido como objetivo de varios programas oficiales o privados de mejoramiento.Por esta razón, la caracterización de valÍedades con más elevados niveles de resistencia a fusariosis es importante para su transferencia a nuevos cultivares más productivos.Una metodología para evaluar la resistencia, ya sea para la caracterización de nuevas fuentes de resistencia en poblaciones segregantes o de nuevas líneas, depende de las prioridades establecidas en cada programa y de las instalaciones y equipos disponibles. Muchas investigacÍ<'llles o evaluaciones se hacen en condiciones semicontroladas y con inoculación artificial elel patógeno, para proporcionar óptimas condiciones de temperatura y humedad para el desarrollo del hongo. Posteriormente, los mejores materiales son probados bajo condiciones de infección natural o inoculación a.l1ificial, en el campo.Actividades desarrolladas en el CNPT, Passo Fundo, RS La metodología de selección y evaluación de fuentes o genotipos con un mayor nivel de resistencia a fusariosis utilizada por el CNPT, tuvo su origen en los trabajos de Luzzardi y Pierobon. Estas evaluaciones se hacían utilizando inoculaciones artificiales mediante pulverizaciones periódicas de una suspensión de conidios en condiciones semicontroladas (invernadero) o en el campo, a partir de la fase de espigamiento del trigo.Como resultado, fue posihle la caracterización de fuentes de resistencia utilizadas en los programas de mejoranlÍento y de líneas avanzadas.Entre las variedades identificadas corno más resistentes a la fusariosis las siguientes se destacan: de origen brasileño: Toropí, Encruzilhllda, Pe173087, Pe1 73081, Pe! 73151, Pel 74182; de origen japonés: Nobeoka Bozu, Nyu Bay, Abura, Tokay 66 y Pekín 8.El número total de pulverizariones (dos a tres por semana), considerando la diferencia en ciclo entre cultivares bajo pruehas, asoci<ldo a las condiciones favorables para el desarrollo del hongo (temperatura y humedad), resulta en susceptibilidad hasta en variedades definidas como resistentes.A partir de 1980, la inoculación artificial a tnwés del sistema de pulverizaciones, fue substituida por el método de jeringa dosificadora, bajo condiciones semicontroladas.Usando una jeringa dosificadora, se instila una gota (0,1 m)) de suspensión de esporas en una espiguilla central en fase de antesis. La suspensión de esporas es ajustada a una concentración de 4 x 10 3 conidios/ml, correspondiendo a aproximadamente 400 conidios por gota (0,1 mI). Son inoculadas dos a tres espigas por planta de cada variedad. Para facilitar la identificación de las espigas inoculadas, se corta la parte apical (extremo) de la espiga.Para el mejor desarrollo del hongo y eficiente caracterización y evaluación del grado de resistencia de los diferentes materiales, el ambiente se mantiene a una temperatura de ±25 2C y una humedad relativa superior a 80%.La producción artificial del inóculo se hace sohre un substrato compuesto por rastrojo de maíz autoclavado que pennite una abundante producción de conidios.La evolución de la enfermedad en la espiga a partir del punto de inoculación es el principal criterio en la detenninación del grado de resistencia. En los materiales más resistentes, solamente la espiguilla inoculada o a lo máximo una o dos junto a ella, muestran señales de la enfemledad. En los susceptibles, prácticamente toda la espiga queda tomada por el hongo.Para una mayor seguridad, la evaluación se hace a través del conteo de granos atacados por el hongo en lac; espigas inoculadas. Estas espigas son trilladas manualmente y es establecido el porcentaje de flores abortadas por infección, más los granos con síntomas visibles de la enfennedad, en relación al número total de granos de la espiga. La escala utilizada para analizar la resistencia se presenta en el cuadro 1.En la evaluación de poblaciones segregantes, como F2 y F3, realizada bajo condiciones semicontroladas, la evolución de la enfennedad en las dos o tres espigas inoculadas es considerada como criterio para selecci(mar í'lquellas plantas en lac; cuales el ataque del hongo queda restricto a la región próxinla al punto de inoculación.Todas las colecciones de gennoplasma para fusariosis de origen hrasileño o introducidas, las líneas avanzadas en ensayos de rendimiento intermediarios y finales y las poblaciones segregantes específicas para incorporación de resistencia a fusariosis son probadas bajo condiciones semicontroladas de temperatura y humedad.La diferencia fundamental entre las condiciones semicontroladas y las evaluaciones en campo consiste en la fonna de inoculación. Como las condiciones de humedad y temperatura en el campo, en el inicio de la noración, no siempre son favorables al desarrollo del patógeno, toda el área es pulverizada con una sm;pensión de esporas. Usando Wl pulverizador de mochila, la suspensión es aplicada directamente sobre las espigas.Diferentes colecciones de cultivares, nuevos cultivares y poblaciones segregantes, generalmente de F4 en adelante, son evaluadas en el campo.Para la evaluación, se considera el pOrCenl(lje de infección en la espiga, como también el porcentaje de infección en los granos en espigas trilladas manualmente (cuadro 1).Las variedades nuevas con un aceptable grado de resistencia a fusariosis, son recomendadas para su reciclaje en futuros cruzamientos y también para ser incluidas en colecciones específicas de materiales resistentes que serán distribuídas.Como resultado, ha sido posible caracterizar nuevas línea,; con un buen nivel de resistencia. como también comprobar, bajo condiciones locales, la resistencia de fuentes provenientes de otros programas. En este caso, varios cultivares de origen chino han destacado recientemente.La metodología utilizada a pesar de que haya sido eficiente, también presenta algunas limitaciones que pueden ser cuestionadas.La principal limitación del método de inoculación por jeringa dosificadora es la gran necesidad de mano de obra para la inoculación de un número considerable de espigas. Al mismo tiempo, muchos sugieren que al instilar el patógeno intemamente en la e~;piguilla, podríamos estar perdiendo o dejando de evaluar o identificar características morfológicas de la propia planta que podrían determinar upa mayor resistencia a la enfermedad.Considerando que la penetración del hongo en la espiga es básicamente a través de las anteras, las variedades que presentan un periodo de floración reducido (principalmente en cada espiga), la retención de la antera en el interior de la gluma o el rápido desprendimiento de la antera, reducen la exposición de la espiga al hongo, el cual es diseminado por el aire, principalmente en días lluviosos y calientes.La evidencia indica una preocupación cada vez maY(lr en relación a la importancia de la fusariosis en el cultivo de trigo. Los conocimientos sobre la biología y epidemiología del patógeno han sido enriquecidos con investigaciones recientes, suministrando infonnación valiosa para desarrollar una metodología más eficiente en la identificación y selección de variedades resistentes.FlIsarillm head scah occurs mainly in southem Brazil and its severity vartes depending on moisture and temperature conditions. At the National Wheat Research Center, artificial inoculation of the pathogen is used in evaluating wheat varieties, fines. and segregating poplllafions for disease resistance. In fhe greenhouse 0,1 mI ofa conidial suspension 4 x 103/ml is injected into the main spikelet, and in fhe ¡;eld a conidial suspension is sprayed on the spikes at flowering. Resistance is assessed by qllantifying disease development on the spike and by determining the pereentage of grains that are infected 01' show disease symptoms.ClJAORO 1. Escala usada para gradllaci6n de Gibberella zeae a través del conteo de granos rusa riosos. El análisis de la infección en granos fue hecho después de la trilla en laboratorio en bandejas con algodón humedecido cuhierto con papel filtro. Asimismo, los planos del desarrollo longitudinal de la enfermedad, desde el punto de Ílifección hacia los extremos de la espiga,jueron desarrollados.El método de instilación fue más enérgico rara producir infección que el de pulverización el cual es más simple. Utilizando este método, los materiales más avanzados del programa fueron probados y una lista de los mejores materiales está incluida.La fusariosis del trigo causada por Fusarium gral11inearum es una grave enfermedad en la región sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. En los años epifíticos como 1976, 1978 Y 1985, los rendinlÍentos de trigos, especialmente candeales son muy hajos y la calidad de los granos muy deficiente. Se detectaron cultivos con el 50% de los granos infectados y con pérdidas de rendimiento superiores al 70%. Como consecuencia de las epifitias se redujo, hasta prácticamente desaparecer. el área semhrada con trigo candeal en el sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires que era la principal zona productora del país.Uno de los medios de controlar hl enfennedad es el uso de cultivares resistentes. Es muy difícil obtener material de prohnda resislencia a fusariosis en nuestro país, porque las condiciones ecológicas soJanlente son favorahles a las epidemias cada tres o cinco mIos (1). Por lo tímto, es necesario utilizar un método de ino('ulación artificial que asegure el desarrollo de la enfennedad cada año y elaborar técnicas que pennitan evaluar sobre bases confiables los distintos grados de susceptibilidad o de resistencia del material que se está ensayando.En la Estación Experimental Agf0pecuaria, Ba1carce, (2) se probó la eficacia de dos métodos de inoculación artificial en el periódo agrícola 1984/85, cuya consistencia fue revaluada durante el período 1985/86 por nuestro equipo.Para la preparación del inóculo se utilizaron varias cepas monospóricas del hongo, que se replicaron en cajas de Petri con agar papa glucosado al 2% (APa 2%; pH 5,5-6). Después de mantenerlas en estufa a 24 2 e durante 48 hora.,;, se expusieron a luz fluorescente(1.600 lux) y temperatura ambiente para estimular la esporulación del hongo. A los 10 días se colectaron conidios con un pincel esterilizado desde la superficie de las cajas de Petri a un vaso de precipitado con agua estéril. La suspensión resultante fue homogeneizada y ftltrada con una malla fina. La concentración se ajustó a 300 000 a 500 000 conidios/mi.Se compararon en condiciones de campo métodos de inoculación del patógeno por instilación y por pulverización de espigas.La parcela o unidad experimental const~na de lOa J5 espiga.') en el estado fenológico de antesis, período considerado de mayor susceptibilidad a la enfennedad.La inoculación por instilación consistió en depositar con lIna jeringa hipodénnica. una gota de suspensión de inóculo entre las glumas de una espiguilla ubicada en el tercio medio de la espiga.La inoculación por pulverización se realizó pulverizando las espigas con un pulverizador manual, aplicando aproximadamente 4 mI de suspensión por parcela.Las espigas de las plantas testigo fueron pulverizadas con agua corriente. Después del tratamiento. todas las parcelas fueron sometidas a condiciones de cámara húmeda durante 48 horas, siendo cubiertas las mismas con bolsas de polietileno de color blanco.La trilla de las parcelas se efectuó con una trilladora manual, espiga por espiga, para evitar pérdidas de granos chuzos o livianos.Resultados de ensayos realizados en la EEA Balcarce indicaron que el método de evaluación de la incidencia de la enfemledarl en condiciones de laboratorio es más sensible y confiable que el método de evaluación basado en la observación directa en el campo de espigas afectadas por el patógeno (2).Para efectuar la evaluación del porcentaje de infección en condiciones de laboratorio, se tomaron ]00 gramos de cada unidad experimental, se desinfectaron por inmersión durante un minuto en hipoclOlito de sodio (2% de cloro activo) y se lavaron con agua corriente.Los granos se colocaron en bandejas con algodón humedecido cubierto con papel de filtro, a una distancia de 1,5 cm entre ellos. Las banclejas se cubrieron con polietileno para mantener alta humedad relativa y se incubaron a 10 ºC y oscuridad durante ocho días. Los granos que presentaban micelio de F. graminearum fueron contados identificándolos por el tipo de crecimiento, color y fonna y con el reconocimiento microscópico de conidios de muestras de granos tomados al azar.Las espigas inoculndas por instilnción fueron desinfectadas y sometidas a la metodología explicada anterionnente, conservando la ubicación de los granos que tenían en la espiga. Se ol\"lservaron los granos que presentaban micelio y se realizó un esquema de la espiga diferenciando granos sanos y granos infectados por el hongo. Se le asignó un valor a la difusión longitudinal del patógeno dentro de )a espiga, expresando la longitud colonizada como porcentaje de la longitud total de la espiga.Los dos métodos de inoculaci(,n resu1tar(ln efectivos para detectar diferencias en el comportamiento de cultivares frente al patógeno y la reacción de cada variedad fue la misma, independientemente del método utilizado.El método de inoculación por instilación fue más enérgico para producir infección que el de pulverización. Sin embargo, el de pulverización sería el método más ventajoso por su mayor simplicidad y por su semejanza con la inoculación natural.Las líneas avanzadas de trigo de la EEA Balcarce h,m sido evaluadas durante 1985/86 y 1986/87, usando la pulverización de espigas. Los resultados de la inoculación se presentan en los cuadros 1 a 4.1. BORLAUG. N.E. (1964). Repolte del progreso logrnclo en la investigación para solucionar los problemas inherentes a la producción de trigo en Argentina. Resistencia a GíhlJerella zeae. Argentina. Secretaría de Estado de Agricultura y Ganadería de la Nación. Informe técnico NQ 80.2. DIMARCO, P. (1985). Eficacia de métodos de inoculación y evaluación del \"Tizón de la espiga de trigo\" (G. zeae) (Schw Petch) Tesis. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. 41 pp.Fusarium head scah ís a serious disease in the southeastern parf of the Buenos Aires Province, li'here in critical years it can cause wheat yield losses of n/Ore thall 7%. Fusarium epídemics were responsíble for the disappearance of durum wheat from the region, which had been the major wheat-producil1g areo ín the country. Consíderíng the ímportance of the disease and the instabifity of testing genetic materials ín the field, artificíal inoculation ;s l1eCeSSal'Y.Tw() metlwds of art~ficial inoculatían, injecting il1()culllnl iT7fo the spike ond spraying íl1ocu/um at anthesis. were compared. TITe il10culum was a mixture (~f sel'eral monospor;c strains which had heen multiplied under optimal/aboratm)' conditions. blOculatíon was done in the fíe Id and spik.es were cOl'ered to maintc1ín moísture.Grain infection was assessed after threshing the grain in the laboratory, using trays c01lfaininR mois! coUon covered wi!hlilter papero AIso, the longitudinal disease de velopment planes Irom the point of infection to tite ends of the spike were developed.The injection method produced infection more effectively titan the simpler spraying method. The most advanced materials Irom the breeding program were tested using the injection method and a list of the top fines is included.ClJADRO 1. Comportamiento de líneas avanzadas de trigo fideo frente a Fusarium graminearum dllrnllte el período agrícola 1985/86. (GS\"S\") -CR\"S\"} (21563-AA\"S\"} x CTT\"S\" CM AS RABI x FG\"S\" CM AS (RLL-FG/GR-AFN x CH 67-GTA) BOY\"S\" CO AS CARC\" S \" CO AS SCAR\"S\"-GOOVZ 579 x MEXI 75 CO AS C 11 x GTA\"S\"-PG\"S\" CO AS SAPI\"SW -YAV\"S\" CO AS YAV\"S\" -SAPI\"S\" CO 38909 AS OACK'''S''-TEAL''S'' x MAL\"S\" CO AS CUADRO 1 (continúa)[(61;130-LDSxGS-CR\"S\"-MEXI\"S\")DOM\"S\"]CHI\"S\" CD ROK\"S\" -FG\"S\" x STILL\"S\" CD YAV\"S,,2 x SCAR\"S CD YAV\"S\" -MAL\"S\" x ENTE\"S\" -MEXI\"S\" CD (MCAx21563-AA\"S\")PG-FG CM [S15-CR\"S\"(61;130-LDSxGS\"S\"-CR\"S\"/GS\"S\"-MEXI\"S\")] LDS MUT-GTA\"S\" LDS MUT-GTA x YAV/LDSMUT-GTAxROK\"S\" JAV\"S\" x AA\"S\" USDA 595-DACK\"S\" X GUILL\"S\" CNOO-JAV\"S\" x PAL\"S\" YAV\"S\" /DOM\"S\" x CHI\"S\" E 3728-Cp3/GZ-47772 x QFN-AA\"S\" ROK\"S\" -DOM\"S\" x PAL\"S\" BD 1543-INRAT 69 x COO\"S\"/GTA\"S\" YAV\"S\" x CNDO\"S\"  CRUZA CHI\"S\"-SAPI\"S\"xJAM\"S\" (A-3Y-1M-1Y-OM-Ob) (J. JUSRAM-GLLxFATUN/CR\"S\"-GS\"S\")STIL\"S\" (S15-CR\"S\") x (MCAx31563-AA/PG-FG\"S\") (GOOSE x RABI-31810)xMEMO CHI\"S\"-SAPI\"S\"xJAV\"S\" (A-2Y-1M-1Y-OM-OB) YEL-BAR(OV165-CPxFG/RUFF-FG) (RUFF-MEXIxSNIPE/PAL\"S\")xCHI\"S\" MEDIUM-KIF\"S\" x SAPI\"S\" HER x CRANE\"S\" (3B-13b-4b-3b-3b-Ob) BUCK BALCARCE x GIORGIO 533 (RUFF-MEXI x SNIPE/PAL\"S\")CHI\"S\" (2M-2Y-4M-2Y-Orn-OB) RI43-RUFF\"S\" x STIL\"S\"iA-1M-1Y-OY-Ob KUNDURU x BITTERN\"S\" MARTE\"S\"-FG\"S\" x CHI\"S\" (SCO\"S\"-MEXI\"S\"xRU\"S\")xSOMO\"S\" (lb-1b-Ob) (FAO 25811/CR\"S\")-GS\"S\" x FO\"S\")xRU\"S\" CORM\"S\" x P76/5110 MAL\"S\"-SNIPE\"S\"xJAV\"S\" (A63040-SDYxLDS/WIN\"S\") (ERP-RUSO) RABI x FG\"S\" R143-RUFF\"S\" x STIL\"S\" (A-1M-1Y-2M-1Y-OM-Ob) {[TEAL\"S\"-AFN\"S\"[GTA(Z-B-LK x 60120/ GLL\"S\"»)) EID} CHI\"S\" La roña o tizón de la espiga del trigo es causada por Fusarium graminearum Schw. Para ohservar el proceso de penetración del hongo se inoculó la variedad Salamanca S-75 con una dosis de 1,96 x JOS macroconidios/ml. Para realizar los cortes histológicos se tomaron muestras con un intervalo de 2. fJ, 10,22.34.46,70,94,118 Y 142 horas después de la inoculación. Cinco días después de la inoculación, se ohservó el micelio del honga en todo el tejido parenquimatoso de la lema y palea, asf como en los granos de polen, mas na en el ovario. Lo anterior hace suponer que la penetración del hongo también puede ser en forma directa o a través de alguna abertura natural de las glumas.La presente investigación se efectuó en el Colegio de Postgraduados, Montecillo, México, como parte de la tesis de nwestrfa del primer autor.Fusarium graminearum Schw. cansa la fusari0sis (\\ tizón de la espiga del trigo y es uno de los mayores limitantes para la producción de este cereal en los valles altos y húmedos de Mexico y concretamente en los estados de Michoacán. México y Jalisco, que son áreas potencialmente productoras. El cultivo tradicional en esas áreas es el maíz, otro de los hospederos de Gibberella zeae, estado imperfecto de F. graminearum.La presente investigación se condujo en el Colegio de Postgraduados. como patte de la tesis de maestría del primer autor, con el ohjetivo de ohservar la penetración del patógeno en los tejidos tlorales y el tiempo que éste necesita para establecerse.Se utilizó la variedad susceptible Salamanca S-75 bajo condiciones de invernadero. El patógeno se aisló de granos infectados de trigo y se incrementó en harina de maíz-agar y luz constante. La inoculaci6n se real izó durante la antesis con una suspensi6n de esporas de 196000 macroconidios/mJ en agua destilada estéril y aplicada directamente sobre la espiga con un atomizador manual.Las plantas inoculadas pennanecieron durante siete días consecutivos en una cámara con una humedad mayor al 90%.Para realizar los cortes histológicos, se tomaron muestra..;; que consistieron en dos espiguillas completas por espiga, con un intervalo de tiempo de 2, 6, 10, 22, 34,46, 70, 94, 118 Y 142 horas después de la inoculación.Las espiguillas muestreadas se conservaron durante 53 días en el fijador Craf 111 y después se procesaron por la técnica deshidratación-hidratación con alcoholes, para después incluirlas en parafina y real izar cortes de ocho micras de espesor en un microtomo (American Oplical Company, Model 820).De cada muestra se cortaron dos espiguillas, una longitudinalmente y la otra transversalmente. Los cOltes se colocaron sobre portaohjetos de vidrio utilizando al adhesivo de Haupt y se tiñeron con la técnica \"Safranina-verde fijo\"; finalmente se colocó bálsamo de Canadá y un portaobjeto para conservarlos pernlanentemente.La epidennis exterior e interior de las glumas está formada por una capa de células cortas casi redondas con una pared celular muy gruesa. El interior de las glumas está fonnado por células de parénquima y en ciertos puntos se encuentran gmpos de vasos conductores a todo lo largo.En los cortes ohservados, dos horas después de la inoculación solo se encontró una gran cantidad de cloroplastos, principalmente en los lugares donde había mptura de células, pero aún no se encontraron indicios del patógeno (fig. 1a).Seis horas después de la inoculación, los doroplastos comenzaron a disminuir en número, y las células donde eran más visibles mostraron una apariencia de inicios de colapso aunque no era muy evidente, principalmente en las células del parénquinla de las glumas (lema y palea) (fig. lb).En los cortes longitudinales de la misma muestra se ohservan los cloroplastos aunque en menor número y cerca de la base del ovario, exactamente en el punto donde nacen las glumas. Ni en las anteras ni en los granos de polen o microsporocitos se encontraron rastros del hongo.Los primeros síntomas de la enfermedad fueron. 10 horas después de la inoculación, la presencia de células colapsadas en el parénquima de las glumas (Hg. lc).El colapso y mptura de las células es fuerte, con abundante invasión de micelio; sin embargo, las célula') de la epidennis, así C0mo los vasos conductores, no fueron invadidos, posiblemente porque estas células tienen un alto contenido de silicatos.Las hifas del h0ngo se observaron en 1as glumas rero no en el ovario o en los granos de polen, que se suponía que serían los prirnef0s sitios de invasión. Esto hace suponer que la invasión tronbién puede ser a través de la gluma, aunque la evidencia no es tan fuerte pues no se ha encontrado el punto de penetración.Se piensa que la penetración se realiza directamente, por los estomas o alguna otra abeltura natural.Se encontraron conidios de Fusarium sobre la epidermis de la gluma pero sin germinar.Aproximadamente cinco días después de la inoculación, el hongo estaba invadiendo todo el tejido de las glumas, evitando sólo los va\"os de conducción. Los granos de polen también fueron invadidos por el micelio del hongo, aunque no en las misma proporción que las glumas. En el ovario aún no se encontró la presencia del hongo.La\" condiciones ambientales son detenninantes en el proceso de penetración y en general en la infección. Algunos investigadores reportan que a nivel de campo yen condiciones favorables, los primeros s.últomas se aprecian a los dos o tres días, situación que no concuerda mucho con el presente trabajo donde se encontró que a los cinco días la infección había avanzado en las glumas y sobre los granos de polen. El trigo de temporal en México se cultiva en una superficie aproximada de 40 mil hectáreas; el exceso de humedad y el clima templado a frío favorecen la presencia de la fusariosis de la espiga causada por Fusarium graminearum Schw. (Gibberella zeae) (Petch.). La estimación de pérdidas causadas por la enfermedad no se ha realizado con precisión; la base para efectuar esta estimación es la selección deL modeLo de crecimiento de la fusariosis.Los experimentos se llevaron a cabo en ToLuca, Edo. de México, utilizándose cuatro genotipos de trigo proporcionados por el programa de trigo del CIMMYT. Se usaron cuatro niveles de severidad de enfermedad: enfermo, sano, controlado y testigo. El desarrollo de La enfermedad se midió semanalmente contando las espiguillas enfermas por espiga durante seis fechas de muestreo. Para describir el desarrollo se utilizaron los modelos Log[sticos, Exponencial. Inverso, Gomperts y Bertalanffy-Richards. Ninguno de los modelos seleccionados se ajustaron para describir la enfermedad en todos los genotipos. El análisis de la enfermedad por parcela y por genotipo con varios tratamientos obligó a realizar la preselección de los modelos estudiados. Las diferencias entre el ajuste de los modelos a las curvas observadas de la enfermedad indica que la respuesta de los genotipos es diferenciaL a su resistencia o susceptibilidad a la enfermedad.El trigo de temporal en Mexico se cultiva dur:mte la estación de lluvias en una superficie aproximada de 40 mil hectáreas; el exceso de humedad y el clima templado a frío favorecen la presencia de la fusariosis de la espiga causada por Fusarium graminearum Schw. (Gibberella zeae) (Petch.). Las áreas productoras, donde la incidencia de la roña es muy alta, son la Sierra Tarasca en Michoacán, los Altos de Jalisco, la Sierra del Tigre en el Estado de Jalisco, y el Valle de Toluca en el estado de Mexico. La incidencia de esta enfemledad se incrementa constantemente y la estimación de pérdidas no se ha realizado con precisión. La selección del modelo de crecimiento de la fusariosis es la base principal para la estimación de las pérdidas en la producción del trigo de temporal.Los experimentos se realizaron en Toluca. Edo. de Mexico, utilizándose cuatro genotipos de trigo con diferente reacción a la enfermedad, proporcionados por el programa de trigo de CIMMYT. Estos fueron: Salamanca S-75, M~xicali C-75. YD\"S\"/3ffRM//KAL/BB (llamado Línea X), y MAYA ISI/SPRW I S\"/4{n resel/3/BB/pI//SX (llamado Línea Y).Se utilizó el diseño de parcelas divididas con 16 tratamientos y tres repeticiones, donde el genotipo fue la parcela grande y el tratamiento fue la parcela chica.Se usaron cuatro niveles de severidad de la enfennedad; enfenno, sano, controlado y testigo. El primer nivel se obtuvo con tres inoculaciones de una suspensión de 220 000 macronidios/m1. En el nivel sano se hicieron dos aplicaciones con el fungicida Tiabendazole con una dosis de 0,5 kg/ha cada diez días después de los primeros sÚltomas. El nivel controlado se obtuvo con la misma inoculación conidial y después del fungicida Tiabendazole con la misma dosis anterior, 40 días después de la aparición de los primeros síntomas. El nivel testigo se mantuvo con la incidencia nonnal de la enfennedad en campo. Cada parcela consistió en tres surcos de 0,80 m x 5,0 m cada uno y semhrados a doble hilera con una densidad de 96 g de semilla por surco. La roya amarilla (Puccinia striiformis West.) fue controlada con una aplicación de Triadimefon 25% pH, con una dosis de 0,5 kg/ha de producto comercial.Se seleccionaron al azar 30 espigas en cada parcela. El desarrollo de la enfennedad se midió semanalmente contando las espiguillas enfennas por espiga durante seis fechas de muestreo después de los primeros sÚltomas. Para describir el desarrollo de la enfennedad se utilizaron los modelos Logísticos, Exponencial, Inverso, Gomperts y Bertalanffy-Richards. El criterio de selección del mejor modelo se basó en el coeficiente de detenninación R2 y la suma cuadrada de residuales (SCR). Todos los modelos se aplicaron a los valores de severidad de la enfennedad en una sola parcela que fue la LÚlea X con el tratamiento controlado. De esta fonna se realizó una preselección y los modelos resultantes fueron: Logístico, Exponencial y Gompertz, los que se aplicaron a los valores de severidad en cada genotipo. La tasa de crecinüento (r) fue calculada con los tres modelos preseleccionados y el coeficiente de infección (CI) se calculó de la siguiente fonna: CI = Número máximo de espiguillas enfennas por espiga Número total de espiguillas por espigaAl realizar la preselección de los cinco modelos sobre los valores de severidad de la enfennedad en la LÚlea X \"controlado\" se eliminaron los modelos Inverso y Bertalanffy-Richards. El primero se eliminó porque presentó una tasa de crecimiento negativo y el segundo porque presentó valores muy semejantes a los del modelo Gompertz, además de su mayor dificultad de aplicación (cuadro 1).De los tres modelos restantes, los que mejor se ajustaron a las curvas de crecimiento de la enfennedad fueron el Gompertz y el Bertalanffy-Richards, pero este último fue eliminado, pues se observó una ligera diferencia en los residuales además de ser más complicada su aplicación (figura 1 a y b).Los modelos preseleccionados, Logístico, Exponencial y Gompertz, se aplicaron a todos los tratamientos en cada genotipo de trigo, los resultados mostraron que para la variedad Mexicali y la LÚlea X, el modelo de Gompertz fue el que mejor describió el desarrollo de la enfennedad; en cambio, para la variedad Salamanca, el mejor modelo fue el Logístico y para la LÚlea Y lo fue el modelo Exponencial (cuadro 2).Al parecer ninguno de los modelos seleccionados se ajustaron para describir la enfennedad en todos los genotipos. Debido a las diferencias observadas entre los modelos y genotipos, se decidió aplicar el modelo Gompertz a todos los valores de severidad en los ensayos de campo, pues su comportamiento fue más estable, y así analizar el desarrollo de la epifitia en cada genotipo y en cada nivel de severidad para obtener las tasas de crecimiento (r). En todos los genotipos la r fue mayor en el nivel enfemlo, seguido del controlado, del testigo y finalmente del nivel sano, como se observa en el cuadro 3.La variedad Salamanca estuvo bien descrita por el moclelo Logístico. sin emhnrgo la descripción de la roña en Mexicali y la Línea X fue representada por el modelo Gompeltz, debido tal vez a que en ambos genotipos la enfermedad fue similar a un determinado nivel. Berger (1981) encontró que para la descripción del crecimiento de ciertas enfennedades, el modelo Gompertz se ajusta mejor que el Logístico, que es sin embargo el más usado.Probahlemente el modelo Exponencial se ajustó a la curva de la enfennedad ohservada en canlpo, dehido a la huena resistencia de la Línea Y, pues la enfennedad en ella se ÍJlcrementó únicamente hasta la quinta y sexta fecha de muestreo (cuadra 4), de tal fomla que este modelo sólo detectó ese rncremento, que en todas las epifitias es de tipo exponenc ial.El análisis de la enfermedad por parcela y por genotipo con varios tratamientos obligó a realizar la preselección de los modelos estudiados. Las diferencias entre el ajuste de los modelos a las curvas observadas de la enfernledad indica que la respuesta de los genotipos es diferencial a su resistencia o susceptibilidad a la enfemledad.Esta es una de las razones por las cuales el modelo Exponencial se ajustó a un genotipo con una buena resistencia como lo fue la Línea Y. In Mexico rainfed wheat is planted on approximately 40,000 hectares; excess moisture and the temperate to cold climate favor the OCCllrrence of head scah caused by Fusarium graminearum Schw. (Gibberella zeae) (Petch.). Losses caused by the disease have not heen estimated with precision and selecting an adequate model for describing disease development is essentialfor doing so.Experiments were conducted at Toluca, in the State of Mexico, using four wheat genotypes provided by the CIMMYT Wheat Programo Four leve/s ofdisease severit)' were used: diseased, /tealthy, controlled, and check. Disease development was evaluated evel'Y week by counting the number of infected spikelets per spike on six sampfing dates. The models Logisticos, Exponencial, Inverso. Gomperts and Bertalanffy-Richards were used for descrihing disease development. None of the selected models described the disease on al! the genotypes. Analyzing the disease per plot and per genotype with several treatments made it necessary to preselect the models studied. The differences in how the models adjusted to the ohserved disease curves indicate that the response of genotypes is dijferential to their disease resistence 01' susceptibility.CUADRO 1. Comparación de modelos de crecimiento de la roña de la espiga del trigo (F. graminearum Schw.).  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CUADRO 2. Aplicación de tres modelos de desarrollo sobre la severidad de la roña en cuatro genotipos de trigo con cuatro nivetes de infección. LINEA X enfermo 0,97 0,97 0,99 0,0002 0,0003 0,0000 controlado 0,84 0,84 0,90 0,0003 0,0003 0,0000 testigo 0,79 0,79 0,86 0,0004 0,0005 0,0000 sano -X= 0,866 0,866 0,916 0,0003 0,0003 0,0000 LINEA Y enfermo 0,94 0,94 0,9f 0,0001 0,0000 0,0000 controlado 0,98 0,98 0,97 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 testigo 0,95 0,99 0,97 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000 sano X= 0,956 0,970 0,953 0,0000 0,0000 0,0000CUADRO 3. Tasa de crecimiento (r) de F. graminearum obtenida con el modelo de Gompertz en cuatro genotipos de trigo.  .s..Semanas Semanas Figura 1 a. Valores de severidad observados con el modelo Gompertz en la línea X controlado.Figura 1 b. Ecuación de regresión de los valores de severidad de la enfermedad y el tiempo, con el modelo Gompertz, en la línea X controlado. El control de esta enfermedad es diffcil y ha sido imemado a través de la búsqueda de la resistencia y por medio de pulverizaciones confungicidas apropiados en el estadio de la antesis.La fusariosis es causada por el hongo denominado Fusarium graminearum (Schwab) cuya fonna teleomórfica corresponde a Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch. Los huéspedes de mayor importancia económica de F. graminearum en Brasil son el Higo, el triticale, la cebada, el maíz y el sorgo.días; cuando es posible, se verifica la existencia de ascosporas en su interior. ca fonnación de peritecios es más abundante sobre los granos infectados, seguidos en orden decreciente por espiguillas que contienen granos infectados, el raquis y los nudos. Es común observar peritecios sobre glumas infectadas de las plantas aun antes de la cosecha.La velocidad de formación de peritecios y su maduración son funciones directas de la temperatura y de la humedad. Cuando los granos infectados llegan a la superficie del suelo, en el periodo más caliente (diciembre y enero), maduran más rápidamente que durante el periodo más frio. Por ejemplo, en mayo o junio necesitan 11 días para formarse. Esto permite la sobrevivencia más segura durante el invierno. Otro factor importante en la formación de peritecios es la luz. Estos sólo se forman en la porción de los tejidos infectados que recibe luz directa (longitud de onda = 300-320 nm), o sea no se encuentran en la parte inferior que está en contacto con el suelo. Por esta razón, si los restos de los cultivos fuesen enterrados, se eliminaría la presencia de la luz y, consecuentemente, la formación de los cuerpos fructíferos. Así se puede concluir que la siembra directa favorecería la fructificación de este patógeno.El hongo, incorporado en el suelo como micelio asociado a tejidos infectados, es la fuente de inóculo considerada más importante para la infección de las raíces del trigo y de los demás cereales de invierno (causa la pudrición radicular, juntamente con Helminthosporium sativum).En la figura 1 se muestra la curva de sobrevivencia de peritecios de Gibberella zeae en rastrojo de maíz dejado en la superficie o cuando están enterrados a 15 cm de profundidad. En la fase saprofítica, el hongo puede permanecer viable por el tiempo que existan nutrientes disponibles. Después de la descomposición completa o mineralización de los rastrojos de los cultivos, el hongo perece por inanición. El hongo no produce estructuras especiales para su sobrevivencia (clamidosporos) en el periodo en que no se cultivan especies huéspedes.Los diferentes tipos de inóculos son: micelios, conidios y ascosporas. Los conidios son fonnados en la superficie de los órganos infectados, pero no son adaptados a la diseminación anemófila por estar embebidos por una substancia gelatinosa que los protege de la desecación, y que sólo es disuelta por el agua. Por tanto, este tipo de inóculo es diseminado por la salpicadura de la lluvia y consecuentemente a corta distancia. Contrariamente, las ascosporas contenidas en los peritecios requieren agua para ser lanzadas al aire y transportadas por el viento en todas las direcciones. De las esporas colectadas en Passo Fundo, en 1984, sobre un cultivo de trigo, apenas 1% estuvo constituido de conidios y el restante 99% de ascosporas.La expulsión de ascosporas al aire es activada cuando se hidratan. Por esta razón, la fusariosis está relacionada con el tiempo lluvioso durante el espigamiento y la floración del trigo. Este m~canismo de lanzamiento de ascosporas en respuesta al agua, demuestra cuál es la estructura y cómo el hongo, partiendo del suelo, alcanza nuevamente las espigas del trigo. No existiendo ascosporas en un número millimo necesario en el aire durante la floración del trigo, no habrá epidemia. El proceso de maduración y de liberación de ascosporas es cíclico, o sea, se descargan después de la hidratación y luego vuelven a recargarle nuevamente. Este fenómeno de carga y descarga depende de la presencia de agua libre y de la temperatura, y continúa hasta la completa descomposición de los rastrojos que nutren los peritecios.La distancia que el viento puede transportar a las ascosporas eficientemente no se ha determinado. Se sabe que en los campos con monocultivo del trigo o del maíz, el inóculo existente es muy elevado. En campo de monocultivo de trigo, el número máximo colectado en 1984, en una sección de aire de 140 cm 2 en una noche después de una lluvia de 24 mm fue de 92 ascosporas. La densidad de ascosporas es mayor en los rastrojos más próximos al suelo.Otra fuente de ascosporas son los peritecios formados sobre los huéspedes secundarios o sustratos saprofíticos de plantas no hospederas como Brachiaria plantaginea (LK.) Hitch, Pennisetum purpureum Chumach, P. clandestinum_Chiov., Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scap, Paspalum spp., Andropogon bicornis L. y Eryathus sp. En la mayoría, éstas son malezas en los campos de soja. El inóculo proveniente de esos huéspedes en algunas situaciones puede alcanzar niveles elevados, constituyéndose un factor importante en la epidemiología del hongo. La principal fuente de inóculo para la infección de trigo debe venir de estos sustratos colonizados saprofíticamente.Las ascosporas diseminadas por el viento (ver j, i y k en la figura 2) son depositadas sobre las flores de trigo (anteras). Esto es función del azar y es proporcional a su número en el aire (densidad del inóculo). Aquellas esporas que no caen sobre las estructuras masculinas del trigo no darán continuidad al ciclo de vida del hongo.Una vez sobre las anteras (ver k en la figura 2), con una humedad relativa superior al 90% y una temperatura de 25-28 QC, las esporas germinan y penetran rápidamente en la flor del trigo, usando los fIlamentos como vehículo para pasar del exterior al interior de la flor. Se puede decir que el periodo de susceptibilidad del trigo es principalmente durante la floración. Por tanto, si no hay anteras expuestas, el hongo difícilmente llegará al interior de la flor. La fusariosis es pues una enfermedad de infección floral.Investigadores en Inglaterra relatan que Fusarium graminearum (Gibberella zeae) depende nutricionalmente de dos compuestos químicos que contienen nitrógeno, colina y betaína. Los contenidos más altos de estos compuestos son encontrados en las anteras y en el ovario de la flor. Estas substancias apenas promueven el crecimiento rápido del hongo, desde el exterior (antera) hasta el interior (ovario). Este crecimiento rápido es fundamental para la infección, pues las anteras no permanecen expuestas sobre las glumas por un periodo indefinido. Por ejemplo, en 1984 en el cultivar de trigo BR 4, la antesis duró cuatro días en una espiga, 12 días en una planta y 30 días en un cultivo comercial. Cuanto más tiempo la antera queda retenida externamente, mayor será la oportunidad de las esporas para alcanzarla. Tanto la liberación de las esporas como la infección de la espiga requieren un clima húmedo y caliente. La fusariosis ocurre, principalmente, en primaveras calientes y lluviosas, requiriendo más que 48 horas de mojado continuo durante la antesis. No habiendo lluvias, no existirá incidencia de la enfennedad.Las medidas de control incluyen rotación de cultivos, destrucción de los húespedes secundarios, resistencia genética y quimioterapia con fungicidas benzimidazólicos aplicados en el inicio de la antesis. Figurn 1. Supervivencia de peritecios de Gibberella zeae en tallos de maíz naturalmente infectados y mantenidos en dos profundidades del suelo (Reis y Martinelli, 1983). Fase saprofíticaCiclo biológico de Gibberella zeae Petch en cereales de invierno (Reis, 1985). Uno de los primeros trabajos de investigación que deben ser efectuados es la cuantificación de pérdidas causadas por un detenninado patógeno en un cultivo. El principal obstáculo en la detenninación de las pérdidas es el desarrollo de una metodología practicahle y confiahle. En la mayoría de los casos, los fungicidas, por su acción parcial o selectiva, pemüten al investigador eliminar otros patógenos, dejando o controlando apenas aquéllos que son deseables para el fín del estudio. Los fungicidas han sido usados en la detenninación de pérdidas causadas tanto por patógenos que ocurren en los órganos aéreos, como en los radiculares (Dieh1 et al., 1983; Tinline et al., 1975 y  Reis, 1982). En el caso del uso de substancias químicas, pennanece la duda sobre el efecto parcial del producto químico sobre el hongo estudiado o sobre el huésped mismo. Algunos productos pueden tener un efecto depresor en el rendimiento y otros, estimulante o nutricional, como ocurre con benzimidazol y otros (King etal., 1983;Reis and Ross, 1980); esto puede enmascarar los resultados.Muchas enfennedades consideradas importantes economicamente. debido a la intensidad de los síntoma<; que producen en los huéspedes, infelizmente, todavía no tuvieron sus pérdidas debidan1ente detenninadas.Un ejemplo de éxito obtenido ha sido la deteJminación de pérdidas causadas en el rendimiento de granos de trigo por la pudrición común de raíces, tanto en Canadá (Tinline et al., 1975) como en Brasil (Diehl et al., 1983). La metodología empleada en estos casos pennitió la detenninación de pérdidas aisladamente de las demás y sin usar substancias quúnicas capaces de enmascarar el efecto real del patógeno.El conocimiento real de las pérdidas causadas por nna enfennedad es de importancia fundamental en la detem1Ínación de prioridades en lo que se refiere a colocación de personal y de recursos por los administradores de la investigación. No habiendo en disponibilidad tal infonnación, la investigación queda a merced de valores empíricos o afuera de la realidad.El ohjetivo del presente trabajo fue probar una metodología específica que permita la determinación de pérdidas causadas al trigo por Gibberella zeae.La metodología propuesta fue, primeramente, probada en el ciclo de trigo de 19R4, en un área de multiplicación de la línea de trigo PF 8049. Durante la época del espigéUniento, las plantas fueron diariamente observadas con el objetivo de detectar el surgimiento de los síntomas de la enfermedad, o sea, el blanqueamiento de las espiguillas. CUéUldo éstas mostraron el mayor contraste con los tejidos verdes de las espigui.llas no infectadas, se marcaron al azar cinco áreas de 1 m 2 . En cada área, fueron señaladas las espigas que mostraban síntomas, amarrando un hilo de lana de color en el pedúnculo. Cuando el trigo maduró, se recolectaron por separado las espigas sanas y las infectadas de cada una de las áreas de la muestra. Cada gmpo de espigas fue separado en bolsas de papel e identificado.En el laboratorio, se contó el número total de espigas/m 2 . el número de espigas sanas/m 2 y el número de espigas infectadas/m 2 . Posterionnente, se trillaron por sepéU'ado las espigas sanas y las infectadas de cada muestra. La operación de trilla y de limpieza fue realizada con un desgranador-soplador de granos (EL. Erickson Products modo B, ser. no. 380, Brookings, S. Dakota, USA). Este aparato removió los granos fusariosos huecos y de hajo peso específico, a semejanza de lo que ocurre en los céUnpos comerciales durante su cosecha con segadora-trilladora automotríz. El mecanismo de limpieza de estas máquinas deja así, en el céUnpo, la mayor parte de los granos liviéUlOS y huecos que constituyen la mayor parte de las pérdidas en el rendimiento.La incidencia de la fusariosis fue de 21,3% Y3R,3% de espigas infectadas, respectivamente, para el cultivar Coker 762 y para la lÚlea PF 8122.La metodología se mostró viable y pudo ser empleada en los campos comerciales. Tomando muestras de diversos cultivos en un periódo de varios años se obtendrían datos que reflejarían los efectos del clima y del cultivo en las pérdidas causadas por Giberrella zeae en trigo, en Brasil.Se observó preliminarmente, que en espigas infectadas, algunas espiguillas abajo del punto de penetración y colonización por el hongo en el raquis producían cuatro granos, en tanto que las espigas de plantas sanas producían sólo dos a tres granos. Esto lleva a suponer la existencia de un posible mecanismo compensatorio en el número de granos producidos abajo del punto de colonización, pues el flujo en el raquis de la substancia elaborada debe ser igual, tanto en e~;pigas sanas como en las enfemlas.Además se observó que las espigas infectadas, con espiguillas blancas, se distinguen fáciJmente de las demás, lo que detenllina una ilusión visual de estimación de niveles de infección y de pérdidas superior a la real.Bibliografía DIEHL, J.A., TINLINE, R.D. YKOCHHANN, R.A. Pérdidas causadas por la putrefacción común de las raíces en Rio Grande do Sul, 1979-1981. Fitopato1. Bras., Brasilia, 8:507-11, 1983. KING, J.E., COOK, RJ. y MELVILLE, S.e. A review of Septoria diseases of wheat and barley. Ann. App1. Bio1., Wellesbourne, 103:345-75, 1983.REIS, E.M. Efecto del tratamiento del suelo con fungicidas sobre la emergencia de plántulas, crecimiento, putrefacción común de las raíces y rendimiento del trigo (Triticum aestivum L.). SUmI11a Phytopathol., Piracicaba, 8(1-2):107 -15,1982.   RElS, E.M. YFLOSS, E.L. Efecto nutritivo de fungicidas carharnatos en plantas de trigo (Triticum aestivum L). Summa Phytopathol., Piracicaba, 6:116-22, 1980. Cálculo basado en 500 espigas gibereladas.x Determinado dividiendo el peso de granos de las espigas sanas por su número total de espigas. y Determinado por la suma del peso de granos de las espigas sanas con los de las espigas infectadas. z Determinado a través de la diferencia entre el rendimiento potencial y el real (z = x -y).CUADRO 2. Variables consideradas en la determinación de pérdidas causadas por Gibberella zeae, cultivar de trigo Coker 762, 1985. x Determinado dividiendo el peso de granos de las espigas sanas por su número y multiplicado por el número total de espigas.y Determinado por la suma del peso de granos de las espigas sanas y los de las espigas infectadas.z Determinado a través de la diferencia entre el rendimiento potencial y el real (z = x -y). El área total útil de la unidad experimental fue de /2,0 m 2 . Toda el área experimental fue abonada con 300 kg/ha de la fónnula 5-20-20 y con 22,5 kg/ha de nitrógeno en cobertura, 30 días después de la emergencia. Los ftl1lgicidasfueron aplicados en los estadios 10.5.1 y /0.10.1 de la Escala de Feekes para los ensayos 1 y TI. respectiiiamente, con equipo de precisión. a una presión constante de 3,5 atm y mezclado con-250 !lha de agua. Se evaluó el rendimiento de granos, el peso del hectolitro y el de mll semillas. En el ensayo 1fue evaluada la incidencia de la fusariosis a través del porCl'ntaje de granos infectados en espigas colectadas de 2 m lineales de cada parcela; en el ensayo ll, esta evaluación fue hecha en 20 g de grO/lOs_de trigo. Los datos obtenidos fueron transformados a arco seno .Jx//00 para análisis estadísr;cos. En el ensayo ll, se evaluó el porcentaje de control de la fusariosis mediante el conteo en el campo de las espigas sanas e infectadas. Se usó la f(¡rmula de Ahhott para calcular el porcentaje de control. La combinación de propiconozole /25 g i.aJha + procloraz 450 g i.aJha presentó un porcentaje de control de fusariasis de R2o/r, superando a todos los demás tratamientos. La incidencia de la fusariosis causó pérdidas de rendimiento de granos de hasta 44,09%.La fusariosis de trigo, causada por el hongo Fusarium graminearum (Schwab.), fonna perfecta Gibberella zeae (Schw.) Petch., ocurre comúnmente en cultivos de trigo en Rio GramJe do Sul, aparentemente sin causar pérdidas grandes en el rendimiento de Jos gnmos. En Jos últimos años, las variedades susceptibles fueron severamente atacadas por el hongo, causando preocupación por la pérdida en el rendimiento fmal de los granos.No se encuentran datos en la literntura que cUilntifiquen las pérdidas causadas p0r la enfennedad en el rendimiento de granos de trigo. Según Schroeder y Christensen, la prevalencia de infección de espigas en el campo puede oscilar entre valores pequeños a virtualmente el 100%, variando las pérdidas en fonna correspondiente. Nakagawa et al. repOllan que la enfetmedad es de gran importancia en el Japón, pudiendo causar pérdidas de hasta 45% en cultivos severamente infectados . .Iones y Clifford. por otro lado, infonnan que a pesar de que datos precisos estimativos de las pérdidas son escasos en la literatura, nlgunos trabajos reportan pérdidas de rendimiento de granos, en cereales, de hasta el 50%.Entre las medidas de control del hongo, la aplicación de fungicidas benzimidazoles en la parte aérea al inicio de la floración, es oficialmente recomendada (CSBPT-l Y86).Para dctenninar la eficiencia de los fungicidas en el control de la enfennedad, se realizaron dos ensayos en el campo de CEP-FECOTRIGO, Cmz Alta, en el año 1986. En el primer en<;ayo, se probaron diferentes dosis de fungicidas henzamidazoles recomendados, combinados con propiconazole; en el segundo, además de la dosis, se probaron nuevos productos y se evaluó el nivel de daño causado por la ellfennedad, bajo condiciones de infección natural.l\\1atcriales ~. métodosLos ensayos fuewn instalados en el delineamiento de bloques al azar con cuatro repeticiones, en el área sin siembra de trigo en los últimos tres allos. El ensayo 1 fue sembrado el 08/07/86 yel ensayo I1 el 24/06/86. La variedad CEP 11, subsceptible a la fusariosis, fue usada en ambos ensayos. La densidad de la siembra fue de 330 semillas viables/m 2 . El área total útil de unidad experimental fue de 12,0111 2 . Toda el área experimental fue fertilizada, antes de la siembra, con 300 kg/ha de la fónnula 5-20-20, realizándose además una cobertura con 22,5 kg/ha de nitrógeno, 30 días después de la emergencia.En el ensayo 1 fueron instalados ocho tratamientos, de acuerdo con el cuadro l. Se efectuó apenas una aplicación de fungicidas en la floración, estadio 10.5.1 de la Escala de Feekes (Large, 1954). En el ensayo II se instalaron 16 tratamientos, conforme al cuadro 2. Se hicieron dos aplicaciones, en el embuche (estadio 10.10.1) y en la floración (estadio 10.5.1).Los fungicidas fueron aplicados con pulverizador de precisión, operando bajo una presión COll~tante de 3,5 atmósferas y mezclados con 250 l/ha de agua. Las condiciones meteorológicas registradas durante el periodo de floración del cultivo se presentan en el cuadro 3.En amhos ensayos se evaluó el rendimiento de granos, el peso hectolítrico (PJI) y el peso de mil semillas (PMS). En el ensayo 1, la incidencia natural de fusariosis fue evaluada a través del porcentaje de granos infectados de e~;pigas colectadas en 2 m lineales, en todas las parcelas y repeticiones, las cuales fueron trilladas manualmente. Estos datos, para fines de análisis estadísticos, fueron transformados en arco seno de '¡x/lOO. En el ensayo lJ, la incidencia del hongo fue evaluada en 20 g de trigo en todas las repeticiones y los datos reunidos también fueron transformados de la misma fomla que en el ensayo Tpara fines de análisis estadísticos. Además, en este ensayo se observó el porcentaje de control de la fusariosis a través de la fórmula:Porciento control =Testigo -Tratamiento x 100 Testigo La comparación de medias fue hecha por el test de Duncan a 5% de probabilidad.Ensayo 11.0s resultados de este ensayo se encuentran en el cuadro 4. El análisis estadístico de los datos de rendimiento de granos no muestra diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos observ<ldos. A pesar de que la temperatura haya sido favorable en el periodo de floración, la baja humedad relativa del aire y la ausencia de precipitaciones pluviales (cuadro 3), causaron que la incidencia del hongo en este ensayo fuera bastante baja. El aniUisis estadístico del porcentaje de granos infectados reveló diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos. El testigo difirió estadísticamente de todos los demás tratamientos, con la presencia de 7,27% de granos infectados. El tiabendazol (599 g i.a./ha) y carbendazim (250 g i.a./ha), equivalentes entre sí, fueron los mejores tratamientos para el c011trol de la fusariosis, con porcentajes de infección de 2,65% y 3,44%, respectivamente. Los henzimidazoles y carbendazim (500 g i.a/ha), benomil (250 g i.a/ha) y tiabendazol (250 g i.a/ha) se igualaron al tratamiento metiltiofanato, el cual, tanto en la dosis de 350 como de 700 g i.a/ha, presentó menor eficiencia de control, siendo todos superiores al testigo.Observando los resultados de rendimiento de granos de este ensayo, se puede ver una tendencia de disminución del rendimiento con las dosis más elevadas de los bCllzimidazoles carbendazim y metiltiofanato, que puede ser atribuida a un probable efecto fitotóxico, que no fue visible a nivel de campo.A pesar de la falta de diferencias estadísticas en el rendimiento de granos, la pérdida en rendimiento del testigo en relación a los tratamientos con fungicidas, que varió de 17,23 a 25,23% (321-470 kg/ha), puede ser considerada económicamente significativa. Como la varied<ld CEP 11 es resistente a otras enfermedades, la pérdida en rendimiento de granos del testigo puede atribuirse casi totalmente a la incidencia de la fusariosis.Los resultados de este ensnyo se presentan en el cuadro 5. A raíz de las altas temperaturas y sequía que aceleraron la floración, la segunda aplicación de los tratamientos de fungicidas fue realizada cuando aproximadamente 60% de las espigas se encontraban en la fase de antesis. Las condiciones cliináticas registradas después de la segunda aplicación de los fungicidas (cuadro 3) favorecieron una alta incí(lencia de fusariosis en la espiga, que pennitió una excelente evaluación de la eficiencia de los fungicidas hajo plUeba. El testigo presentó 45% de las espigas con síntomas de fusariosis cuando con el mejor tratamiento se obtuvo sólo 8% de infección.El anáJisis estadístico eJe los datos de rendimiento de granos, porcentaje de granos infectados y peso hectolítrico mostró diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos. La mezcla de propiconazol (125 g i.a/ha) + procloraz (450 g i.a/ha) fue estadísticamente el mejor tratamiento, difiriendo de todos los demás, con un aumento de 44,09% de rendimiento en relación al testigo. El aumento en valores del PH y el PMS fue de cuatro pnntos. El rendimiento de grano y el peso hectolítrico del testigo fueron estadísticamente illferiores a los de todos los demás tratamientos del ensayo.Aunque no se ohservó ningún síntoma de fitotoxicidad en el campo, una tendencia de disminución del rendimiento de granos con dosis más elevadas de los benzimidoles carbendazim y metiltiofanato también fue registrada en este ensayo. Este hecho fue verificado también con los fungicidas DPX N 7872-11 YDPX N 7872-15, cuyos principios activos son flusitazol 125 g i.a./ha + carbendazim 150 g i.a./ha y 125 g La./ha + 250 g La./ha, respectivamente.En cuanto al rendimiento de granos, con excepción de la dosis más elevad\" de metiltiofanato, todos los fungicidas benzimidazoles son estadísticamente iguales.La combinación de los fungicidas propiconazole (125 g i.a./ha) y procloraz (450 g i.a/ha) presentó ulla eficiencia de control de fusariosis de 82%. Esta cifra supera a todos los demás tratamientos y puede ser considerada como satisfactoria. Propiconazol (125 g i.a./ha) aplicado aisladamente presentó un control de 33% de fusariosis.Las mezclas de propiconazol. ( 125 De los resultados de los ensayos es posible sacar las siguientes conclusiones:Ensayo 1-A pesar de no existir diferencias estadísticamente significativas en rendimiento de granos entre diferentes tratamientos, el incremento ele 25,23% de producción en relación al testigo puede ser considerado económicamente significativo.-Los fungicidas tiahendazol (500 g i.a./ha) y carbendazim (250 g i.a./ha) resultaron con el menor porcentaje de granos infectados.-La mezcla de propiconazol 125 g i.a./ha + procloraz 450 g i.a./ha con valores más altos, tanto de rendimiento de granos como de peso hectolítrico, fue la mejor sobre tooos los demás tratamientos.-A pesar de que ningún síntoma de fitotoxidad haya sido ohservado en el campo, una tendencia de disminución del rendimiento de granos con dosis más elevadas de los benzimidazoles carbendazim y metiltiofanato fue observada en los dos ensayos.-Con excepción de la dosis más elevada de metiltiofanato, todos los fungicidas benzimidazoles presentaron equivalencia estadística para el rendimiento de los granos.-La combinación propiconazol 125 g i.a./ha + procloraz 450 g i.a./ha, resultó en un porcentaje de control de fusariosis de R2%, superando a todos los demás tratamientos. La elevada acción del control de esa combinación de fungicidas deberá confumarse en el futmo.-Considerando la resistencia del cultivar CEP 11 a otras•enfennedaoes. la pérdida en rendimiento del testigo de 44,09%, en comparación al tratamiento de maynr productividad, puede ser atribuida, en su totalidad, a la incidencia de fusariosis en la espiga. (1) Valores corregidos en función del peso del hectolitro.(2) Porcentaje directo de control, determinado a través del conteo de espigas sanas y fusariosas en el campo.(3) Porcentaje de granos fusariosos en 20 gramos de trigo. Datos transformados en arco seno de ~x/100.CUADRO 5. Resultados de aplicación de diferentes fungiddas aislados o mezclados en el \"Ensayo de fungicidas para el control de fusariosis de la espiga en el trigo\". CEP-FECOTRIGO, Cruz Alta, RS. 1986. El tizón de los cereales o tizón (le la espiga (fusari0sis) del trigo es tal vez la enfermedad del trigo menos estudiada. La enfemledad es causada principalmente por Fusarium graminearum Schw., el estadio asexual de Giberella zeae (Schw.) Petch. Si bien durante mucho tiempo se ha observado la enfennedad en varias regiones del mundo, su importancia reciente se debe a la extensa difusión del trigo en zonas no tradicionales.Desde un punto de vista práctico, en los últimos diez años se han intensificado las investigaciones relacionadas con la fusariosis del trigo. Durante ese período, el CIMMYT comenzó a dedicar atención a esta enfennedad, además de las royas y otras enfermedades foliares.El enorme daño causado por la enfermedad en China, observado por primera vez por el Dr. N.E. Borlaug y, más tarde, por varios especialistas en trigo del CIMMYT, y la importancia de la fusariosis en el Cono Sur, coadyuvaron a que el CIMMYT definiera sus trabajos en la obtención de gennoplasma con resistencia a la enfemledad.Los primeros trabajos sobre la fnsariosis en el CIMMYT en México con el trigo harinero, el trigo duro y el triticale comenzaron en 1979. Med iante una técnica sencilla de inoculación, en 1980 se estudió la resistencia a la enfermedad en las condiciones de campo en Toluca. El método de inoculación usado fue la instilación con una aguja hipodérmica en las espigas, que luego se cubrieron con bolsas de papel de las usadas comúnmente para la polinización. Este estudio preliminar reveló la presencia de una gran susceptibilidad a la enfennedad en el gennoplasma de trigo del CIMMYT.Como resultado de ese trabajo, se seleccionaron 88 líneas de trigo harinero y triticale que se enviaron a tres sitios de incidencia elevada de la enfennedad en China. Todas las lIneas resultaron entre moderadamente y muy susceptibles, excepto en una localidad. La gran susceptibilidad de esas líneas en China probablemente obedeció a la severa patogenicidad de los aislamientos chinos y a las condiciones climáticas muy favorables. Fue también evidente que la técnica de selección de resistencia a la fusariosis usada en el CIMMYT no había producido una presión adecuada de la enfennedad. Sin embargo, fue suficientemente fuerte para eliminar más del 90% del gennoplasma de trigo harinero, el 100% del gennoplasma de trigo duro y el 98% del de triticale. Las 88 líneas seleccionadas de trigo harinero y triticale mostraron resistencia bajo condiciones mexicanas.En cuanto a la incorporación de resistencia a la fusariosis en el gennoplasma de trigo del CIMMYT, resultó claro que no se disponía de las fuentes de resistencia para iniciar el programa de mejoramiento. Si bien se observó la importancia de la fusariosis en 1980, la labor sistemática de mejoramiento no se inició hasta 1983. La introducción de gennoplasma chino contribuyó a que se cimentaran las investigaciones sobre la fusariosis en el CIMMYT.Fusar;um graminearum no es un agente patógeno muy especializado. La naturaleza facultativa del hongo dificulta el estudio de esta enfermedad en el trigo y otros cereales. En general. el hongo pasa el verano o el invierno en rastrojo de cereales y en otras gramíneas (verdes o secas). La naturaleza facultativa de Fusarium contribuye considerablemente a la multiplicación de sus esporas en diversos medios artificiales y esto pennite producir grandes cantidades de inóculo para la evaluación.En el laboratorio. Fusarium es aislado de espigas de trigo infectadas y purificados en agar de harina de maíz (CMA). Se conserva el aislamiento original purificado en CMA en plano inclinado dentro de tubos de ensayo. Cuando se necesita inóculo en mayor volumen para inocular grandes cantidades de material bajo prueba, se produce el inóculo en extracto líquido de frijol mungo en un matraz colocado en un agitador. Se adaptó este método a partir de otros similares usados por los investigadores chinos. En otro método que introdujo el Dr. Luzzardi, se multiplica el inóculo de Fusarium en nudos secos de maíz. También se puede cultivar el hongo en granos esterilizados de trigo para infestar parcelas cultivadas con este cereal.Se efectúa la inoculación de las plantas de trigo ya sea en el invernadero o en el campo, según el número de IÚleas de trigo que se ensayen y el tipo de gennoplasma que se evalúa. En el CIMMYT, la mayor parte de esta labor se realiza en el campo. Esto pennite trabajar con una gran cantidad de entradas de trigo y poblac.;iones segregantes.Se ensayaron varios métodos de inoculación con el fin de crear un alto grado de infección por la fusariosis. Entre las diversas técnicas de inoculación probadas, se seleccionaron las tres siguientes, que son las usadas con más frecuencia en el CIMMYT:1.El método del algodón, que consiste en implantar pequeñísimos copetes de algodón impregnado con esporas de Fusarium bajo una de las glumas de la espiga de trigo: luego se cubren las espigas inoculadas con bolsas de papel encerado para polinización.El método de inoculación mediante el rociamiento de las espigas de plantas individuales con una suspensión de esporas, usando un atomizador de gran densidad o un rociador de mochila. Se prefiere este último para inocular viveros grandes.El método de infestación del suelo (parc~la afectada por Fusarium). usado comúnmente por los investigadores chinos que estudian la fusariosis. Se producen esporas de Fusarium en granos esterilizados de trigo y se colocan sobre el suelo del vivero de evaluación de la fusariosis. Es preciso investigar más a fondo este método para adaptarlo a diferentes ambientes.Se usa cada una de estas técnicas de inoculación de acu~rdo con el tamaño del vivero y la disponibilidad de personal e instalaciones. Además, es importante señalar que el empleo de condiciones artificiales favorables para que se produzca un desarrollo epidémico unifonne de la enfermedad es muy útil para las investigaciones relacionadas con la fusariosis. En el CIMMYT, el sistema de riego por aspersión sirve para mantener las espigas inoculadas en condiciones de humedad.La experiencia adquirida durante este período ha permitido expandir el estudio de la fusariosis en el CIMMYT.La fusariosis no está restringida a las regiones bajas, cálidas y húmedas, sino que también se presenta en regiones altas con condiciones de nubosidad y precipitación elevada.La mayor pm1e del gennoplasma de trigo harinero del CIMMYT tiene una susceptibilidad entre moderada y alta a la fusariosis. En general, la susceptibilidad en los trigos duros es alta.Se establecieron y adaptaron técnicas para cultivar esporas de Fusarium en el laboratorio.Se elaboraron técnicas para la inoculación y la evaluación.Se evaluaron los trigos resistentes a la fusariosis de origen chino en diversos sitios del mundo con elevada incidencia de la enfem1edad. Se comprobó que es superior su resistencia a la fusariosis y otras enfermedades.Se inició en el CIMMYT un amplio programa de cruzamientos con el propósito de incorporar la resistencia al gennoplasma de alto rendimiento.Se creó un vivero internacional de selección para la resistencia a la fusariosis, que se distribuyó a colaboradores de todo el mundo.La evaluación en el laboratorio y en el campo ha pt:'rmitido obtener resultados muy confiables. Las línea') chinas y las de origen mexicano mostraron resistencia en las condiciones de Toluca y Pátzcuaro, México, y durante una fuerte epifitia natural en Argentina (cuadro 1).Relaciones con el programa de investigación de la fusariosis en China La fusariosis constituye uno de los factores más importantes que limitan el rendimiento del trigo producido en la Repúhlica Popular China. Por lo menos siete millones de hectáreas semhradas con trigo en el valle del Yangtze resultan afectadas cada año. Además del deterioro de la calidad, se estima que la pérdida anual del rendimiento fluctúa entre el 5% y el 50%. En uno de cada cinco años, la pérdida del rendimiento llega al 50%.Los científicos chinos han investigado la fusariosis y han tratado de mejorar la resistencia a la enfennedad durante un largo período. Si bien su gennoplasma de trigo muestra una excelente resistencia a la fusariosis, en general tiene características agronómicas deficientes.Ha sido fructífero el intento de incorporar la resistencia a la fusariosis al gennoplasma de alto potencial de rendimiento mediante la cooperación entre China y el CIMMYT. Desde 1977, se ha llevado a cabo un anlplio intercambio de infonnación y gennoplasma que promete dar resultados en los próximos ailos.Los avances en el conocimiento de la enfermedad del trigo causada por FlIsarium y en el mejoramiento de la resistencia en el CIMMYT han sido significativos. La estrecha colaboración entre los fitomejoradores y patólogos y los diversos programas nacionales sin duda ha permitido obtener resultados positivos más rápidos.La extensión del trigo a zonas no tradicionales requiere de mayor labor y la participación de los científicos de esas regiones para encontrar una solución al problema de la fusariosis.La participación futura del CIMMYT en las inve~tjgaciones re1acionadas con la fusariosis, en particular en América del Sur, se hasa en la labor conjunta con los programas de trigo de los países de la región. Es imprescindible que patólogos y fitomejoradores trabajen juntos para resolver este problema.La mayor parte del esfuerzo del CIMMYT sobre la fusmiosis ha sido trasladado a Paraguay, donde los objetivos futuros del progranla son los siguientes:1.Introducir gennoplasma resistente a la fusariosis en Paraguay y la región.Crear condiciones artificiales favorables para el desarrollo unifonne de la enfennedad con el fin de lograr una evaluación eficiente de ésta.Intensificar el mejoramiento de la resistencia a la fusariosis en el CIMMYT, México, y Paraguay.Intercambiar con los colaboraoores material de generación temprana y líneas avanzadas con antecedentes de resistencia a la fusariosis.Evaluar las líneas de trigo resistentes a la fusariosis seleccionadas recientemente en China, para efectuar nuevas pruebas y evaluación adicional.Distribuir el Vivero Internacional de Selección para la Resistencia a la Fusariosis a localidades del mundo donde es elevada la incidencia de la enfennedad.Capacitar y asesorar a los científicos jóvenes de la región.Visitar a otros investigadores que estudian la fusariosis en la región y efectuar consultas con ellos con el fin de aunar todos los esfuerzos.Si bien en este informe se ha hecho hincapié en el tizón de la espiga causado por Fusarium, es necesario comhinar la resistencia a la fusariosis y a otras enfermedades con un alto potencial de rendimiento y buemls características agronómicas para obtener una variedad que puedan utilizar los agricultores.ClMMYT' s involvement in developing fusarium head hlight resistant germplasm in eollaboration with China is a step forward in studying this disease.  ). The intention of both the donor agency and the teams of coUaborating scientists was to facilitate 1) a direct appraisal of the importance of FHB by wheat scientists from developing countries, 2) an enhanced awareness of these scientists about mycotoxin risks to human and animal health that emanate from the use of fusariutllcontaminated grain, and 3) a discussion on the current progress in screening wheat gennplastll for FHB resistallce.By making these papers available to a wider audience, the authors and CIMMYT are responcling to a clemaml, sensed during the workshop, that an updated analysis be done on pathoIogical and toxicological perspectives of this topic. We ask for your comments allll opinions 011 the issues raised and on the utility of this publication to serve as a quiddine for future dissemination of infonnation evolving from this colJaborative projecl.Another In the mid-Iower Yangtze River Valley winter wheat region of China, a high frequency of FHB causes severe Losses in wheat yield and seriously affects grain quality. Seven years of severe epidemics anu 12 years of motlerate epidemics occurred during the 35year period of 1951-85. FHB incidence was 50-\\00% and 20-40% with yield reductions of 10-40% anu 5-15% in the severe and moderate epidemic years, respectively.The use of fl.lngicides is impractical due to the difficul ty of protecting enti re fields with asynchronous heading and flowerillg. Changing sowing dates to avoid rainy periods during flowering has been explored as a preventive cultural practice, but it is not feasible in countries where early frosts or umeliable rainfall regimes may also endanger the crop.Countries such as Mexico and Ethiopi<l, whose fooo policies are likely to encourage wheat as a crop for the humid or wet highlands, must take steps to avoid major FHB epidemics. In fact, FHB is a wel1 known wheat disease in Mexico and Ethiopia and yield losses under experimental conditions have been assessed at 60% and aboye.In conclusion, FHB must be regarded as a serious potential constraint to wheat production under rainfed conditions in tropical and subtropical regions whenever cropping pattems are narrow and place excessive emphasis on wheat and other cereals.BIOCHEIVIICAL NATlfRE OF MYCOTOXINS AND HOST TOLERANCE The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates th3t 25% of the food crops in the world are contaminated by mycotoxins. An artiele in New Scientist suggested that betwcen 10 and 50% of the crops in Africa and Asia are so contanlinated (Mannon and Jolmson 1985). These estimates are certainly Jow. Examination of studies of mycotoxin contamination of cereals illustrate that few samples are uncontanlinated (Table 1, Jelinek et al. 1989, Tanaka et al. 1988a,b).The results shown in Tahlc 1 represent analysis of three metabol ¡tes that could arise from at least three Fusarium spp. either alone or in combination. Zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON) can be produced by Fusarium graminearum. F. culnwrum, and F. crookl1'ellense. Nivalenol can be produced by certain strains of F. graminearum and F. croo/(¡,I'ellense (Marasas et al 1984, Bottalico eral. 1988). These species take dozens of other metaboJites that were not considered in these analyses. Other species of Fusarium cOllld llave been present in tile grain including F. sporotrichioides and F. equisteti (Duthie et al. J986, Neish et al. 1982). 1'hese species produce the potent mycotoxins diacetoxyscirpenol and 1'-2, which were not anaLyzed by the investigators in the studies lísted in Table 1. The F. monilijorme toxin moniliforrne was present in most of the South African samples (1'hiel et al. 1982).There is the prohahilíty thélt mycotoxins from other genera could have heen present in some of lhe séUllples in Table 1 as well. This was the case for the samples identified as heing fr0111 the USA. Aflatoxin B 1 was reported in 23 of 33 samples; 2J of 33 samples containecl both DON and atlatoxin (Hagler et al. 1984). lf the material had heen illlproperly stored, other compounds such as sterigmatocystin and ocJU\"()toxin fmm Aspergilllls and Penicillium spp. may have heen present in some samples. AH of this infonnation illustrates that the presence of multiple toxins fram different species is él matte!\" of conseqllence for public health. In particular, co-occurrence of fusarium toxins has been flagged as an issue (Jelinek et al. 1989).Aflatoxin exposure h<ls been recognized as a human health hazard for many years and much effort is expended worJdwide to prevent aflatoxins in food. Despite this, liver cancer attributed to aflatoxin is one oC the leadillg causes of mortality in Africa and Asia (Gmopman et al. 1988).TlJe Fusarium granzinearum toxin DON is regulated in food in the USA and Canada.Workers at the Ministry of Public Health in China have proposed similar regulations (Luo 1988). Recently, epidemics of fusalÍum head blight (FHB) in China and India have been reported to cause severe human health prohlems (Bhat et al. 1989, Luo 1988). EpidemioJogical studies of esophageal cancer in the Transkei and in parts of China have revealed a link to exposure to F. nzoniliforme, which has been demonstrated to produce a numher ofpotent toxins including fusarín C. Fusarin e is nearly as mutagenic as atlatoxin and fumonisins which apparently are nmtagens and neural toxins (Gelderhlom el al. 1988, Marasas el al. J<)88). Many grain samples that contain atlatoxins also cOlltain fusarillm toxins in Africa and Asía (Widiastuti et al. 1988). The significance of exposure to aflatoxín alone versus exposure to aflatoxins plus fusarium toxins has not been evaluated.Most mycotoxins are so-called secondary metabolites of fungí. When a funga.l ceH is provided with all necessary nutríents for growth. and pH ane! oxygen conditions are appropriate, no secondary metaholites are proe!uced. In the case where a specific nutrient becomes lüniting, alJ other things heing equal, the cell does not die. Because the ceH is constrained from growth (dry weighl production) hy the ahsence of a particular nutrient, pools of primary metabulítes (e.g., cerlain amino acids. acetate. mevalonic acid) aecul11ulate and become available for secondary metabolismo DON is a sesquiterpene, which means that it is synthesized from acetate via mevalonic acid. The nutrient limitation induces the synthesis oftrichothecenes in nitrogen (MiHer ami Blackwell 1986). A detailed discussion of the principies involved can be found in Bu 'Lock (1975).In vivo, the events descrihed ahoye also occur (as easily seen in a fermentor). The growth of filamentous fungi occurs al Ihe hyphal tip, where most of the metabolic activity takes place. As a hypha penetrates through plant tissue, the J1utrients surrounding the cells beyond the hyphal tip are exhallsteo. This creates the necessary nutrient Jimilation for secondary metaholite production (Miller and Greenhalgh 1988). The acclImuJation of DON in wheat or maize is a function of the activities of millions of individual cells and not the coJony per se. Chemical analysis of wheat or maize infected with F. gramillearllm integrates the small amount of toxin produced by the many cells. There are some mycotoxins that are nol conventional secondary metabolites and they are produced while the fungus is growing.Toxins from Graminea('eous Fusariul1l Spp.There has heen an explosioll in the knowledge of toxins from the Fusarium spp. associated with wheat and maize in the past few years. For example, thc toxins DON and ZEN from F. graminearum were both discovered in the early 1970s ando in the past few years, many new compounds isolated from this fungus are capable of producing polyketides (ZEN), sesquiterpenes (DON, nivalenol, culmorio), amino acid-derived cOll1pounds (hutenolide), ami compounds of mixed synthesis (fllsarin C). Rem~ukably, strains of this fungus make DON by a different pathway.Most strains from North America produce 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, whereas most strains from Japan, Europe, and China produce 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (MiJler ef al. 1983, Miroeha ef al. 1989). Tltis is not a trivial difference. The monoacetate of DON is present at some concentration in F. gramillearum-contaminated grain and lhe toxkities of tite two are different. Each strain of this species produces different amounts and mixtures of toxins. The consequence of this is that knowledge of the toxigenic potential of taxonomically-equivalent strains must be acquired in each region affected by FHB. Each strain makes different mixtures of toxins, whkh means that grain from di fferent ficIds infected hy F. graminearum wiJI have different toxicities (Foster et al. 1986). This is further complicated by the faet that FHB ean refer to a variety of species each of which can produce some similar and some differellt metabolites.The following species represent important head blight fusaria (i.e., FHB in the striet sense). Infonnation on the toxins from other toxigenie fusaria can be found in Marasas et  al. (1984).Compounds fmm this fungus are listed in Table 2. This list does not include tite possibility of toxic peptides from these species, which are just being investigated. Some other toxins that affect bone structure in poultry are a1so known (Miroeha 1984).F. crookvvelfense F. crookwellense was split off from the aboye two species a few years ago and the first toxin found in this species in 1985 was ZEN. Now it is known that this species produces many myeotoxins (Table 3).This fungus is also an important head blight organism, especially under wanner and drier eonditions. According to Mal•asas etal. (1984), butenolide and moniliformin have been found from authentic strains of this fungus. Recently, a number of strains of this species have been found to produce a number of cyclie depsipeptides, some of whieh al'e t.oxic.Por at least 40 years, it has been well known that there are two general types of resist,mce to FHB (F. graminearum/F. cumorum): 1) type Iresistanee to initial infection alld 2) Type Il-resistanee to hyphal spread tluoughout the plant tissue (Schroeder alld Christensen (963). This has been defined by several groups by eomparing the effeet of placing spores on the outside of Ihe plant ano injecting spores direetly into the tissue (Wallg and Miller J988b). There is a lot of speeulation as to what comprises Type 1 resistance from a tlower stl1lcture that dries off quickly after wetting to plant height to the eoncentrations of choline and betaine in the anthers. These latter compounds are stinmlatory to the gemlination of F. graminearum. Some of these factors are escape Illcchanisms rather than resistallee per se.Likewise. it is not a<\\t\"quately understond whélt comrrises Type Il resistance. Some of it is related to the chemical/physical slrul.:lure of lile plant and may include Ihe eoncentrations of such compounds as phenols and tnticenes. 111e latter compounds from wheat are toxic to F. gramilleanml (Spendley alld Ride 1984). It js thought thal there are no phytoaJlexiJls in wheat. However. it is known that lignification, a process that takes place after infection and requires protein synthesis, is important in resistance to F. graminearu11l (Ride and Barber 1987).Since 1983, a numher of discoveries have identified that there is, in effeet, another component of Type II resistance. The important head blight organisms F. graminearum alH.I F. culnwrum produce the tríchothecenes DON and 3-or 15-acetyledeoxynivalenol. These compounds are mycotoxins, but it tums out that they are a1so very toxic at 10-6 to 10-7 M. lt has been known fOf some time that trichothecenes affeet ribosoma1 protein synthesis by binding to the peptidyl transferase enzymes.FHB-resistaJlt cu1t ivars have been founcl to he very tolerant lo DON and its monoacetate (Wang ano MiUer 1988a.b). This tolerallCe allows such eultivars to continue synthesizing new proteins after infection. This would allow such processes as Ii.gnification to proceed where they would not in trichothecene-susceptible cultivars. The biochemicaJ basis of this tolerance depenos on at least two properties. Some cultivars possess enzymes that apparently conjugateor degrade the trichothecene, thus rendering it inaetive at the bioehemicallesion (Miller and Amison 1986, Miller ami Greenhalgh 1tJ88).Some cultivars also have a mutant peptidyl tr:msferase that is less sensitive to the trichothecene (Miller L989). 1t appears as well Ibat there are differences in tlJe memhranes of trich01hecenetolerant cull ivars thal conlrihute 10 the overalJ tolerance. Anotl1er example where trichothecene lolerance ís associated with resistance to a fungal disease--whieh produces tricholhecenes--has been reported for Illuskmelon <U1d Myr01/¡ecuim (Kuti el al. 198<).Severa! hundred cultivars have been examined for lolerance to trichotl1eeenes in tlle last few years from Chinese, Canadian, and CIMMYT sources. So far. aH those with tield resist,Ulee to FH.J3 show triehothecene tolerance.Brecding for FII13 ResistanteThe trnditional and highly suceessfuJ method for detetmining whether a plant is resist:mt to a fungal disease is to, in some way, infeet tlle plant and rate the symptollls. In the case of FHB, the deterioration of Ihe quality of tlle erop is now recognized to be a function of tlle concentrations 01' toxins more than yield loss for exatnple. Unforlunately, the visual FHB symptoms <In not eorre1ate very well lO the atllOlmt of toxin present.   x Table 3. Some Fusorium crookweHense metabolites frol11 strains from differcnt countries. plot design was established where each plot consisted of 10 plants; for each parent there were five plots; for each FI. one to four plots: and for each F2 family. one to eleven plots--depending on the amount of seed avaiJable. Three ears on each plant (marked with paint) were inoculated when 50% of the plants within a given plot were flowering. 1noc111ation was repeated afier 4 days. One pathogenic strain of F. eulmorum (Fc39) was used as inoculurn (250,000 spores/rnl). Head blight was observed at 14, 21, and 28 uays after the first inoculation.From the results of the F 1 (ear blight values observed 21 days after first inoculation), it was conc1uded that resistance lo F. eulmorum heacl blight is dominant. F2 generation anaJysis for head blight values observed 21 days after first inoculation showed that Ihe estimates for Ihe heritabilities for overall selection varied between 0.05 ami 0.89. F2 generation analysis for the area under the disease progress curve showed that the estimates fOl' the heritabiJities for overall se1ection varied between 0.07 ano 0.88. There was no correlatiol1 between head blight and earliness nor between head blight and plant height.In a glasshollse trial using 12 winter wheat genotypes, systemic fllngal growth of F. eulmor/ml in the culms was delllonstrated. Fusarium foot rot (FFR) can Jeau lo infection of the higher stem intemodes even under conditions where the climate is not suitable for fusariulll to spread. Seeds were sown in water-saturated perlite, and vemaJized.To induce FFR, the roots of 20 seedlings of each genotype were dipped in a spore sm:pension oí the virulent slrain Fc39 of F. culmorum and planted in containers with nlltrient-saturated perlite. After a few weeks, FFR symploms occurring as rnycelium growth ami brown longiludinallesions developed on the base of the culm. At flowering, the primary ClIlm of each plant was harvested. Each culm was cut at the nodes. After surface sterilization, the stelll internodes were cut longitudinally and plated on a Fusarium selecting medium.Significant differences in resistance to this syslemic fllngaJ growth were shown. 111e resistance to the systemic fllngaJ growth showed no correlation wilh fiele! resistance to FIIB in Ihis small sample of J2 genotypes. The brown lesions 011 Ihe outside of Ihe culm were quantified by counting the number of nooes and intemooes with brown flecks. lllÍs revealed a correlation with the systemic fungal growth of r=0.67 (n=240). A selection of planls, grown in inoculated soil, with symptomless culms could be regaroed as a first sekction for resistance against systemic fungal growth.The fol!owing data collected over the 1979-J986 period were used [01' mllltiple regresslUn:• FJIB:% infected fanners' fie1ds % infecteo spike1ets of infected fields % infected fanners' fielcis of the prececiing year % infected spike1ets ol' infected fie1ds of preceding year• FFR: % infected fílrrners' fields % infected culms of infectecl fielos % ÍJlfecled farrners' fields 01' the preceding year % infected culms of infected fields of the preceding year autoclaving, the toxin was added to a mecliurn eontaining a 100% MS (Murashige amI Skoog) salt mixture and R giL of purified agar. Ahout 125 mI of lhe mediul11 was added to a culture vessel. After 4R hours, four genninated seeds 01 each genotype were trallsplanted lo the mediurn where incubation took place at 16°C.DON retanled gennination amI reuueed coleoptile and root growth at a concentration of 3.6 mg/kg. A cOlleentrntion of J4.3 mg/kg DON eompletely inhibitcd seedJjng growth.ZEN deereasecl coleoptile and root growth at a concentration of 13.2 mg/kg. A concentratíon of 26.4 mg/kg eompletely ínhíbited seedling growth.A 5-mg lJON/kg concentratíon demonstrated significant differences in response to the toxin among 19 wheat genotypes. The growth progress curve is described with a 10gistic curve: The same experiment was repeated using 8 rng DON/kg. Results were still inconclusive. Apparently. to find large differences among genotypes, an even higher concentration wilI be needed.","tokenCount":"25398"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d4f28e78b10b3d388fb07530846004d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dda55b91-c0db-4004-b9ff-8bf0aca7a308/retrieve","id":"885390050"},"keywords":["Dairy","beef","production system","marketing","processing","utilization"],"sieverID":"e852e0d4-d0ec-48df-bf8e-73a5ee96bde7","pagecount":"230","content":"A study on characterization of cattle milk and meat production, processing and marketing system was conducted in Metema district based on data collected between September and  October, 2006. A multistage sampling procedure was employed to select representative kebles and households from CBFS, SBFS and Gendawuha town. A total of 270 households were randomly selected using systematic random sampling method. Questionaire based formal survey as well as PRA techniques were employed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data on cattle milk and meat production and processing systems in the district, while RMA techniques were used to characterize the marketing system of dairy products, meat and live cattle. In addition, 30 households were voluntarily selected from the two rural farming systems and were continually monitored to collect quantitative data on milk and other dairy products produced per household. Accordingly, the latter data were used to corroborate the survey based information on related parameters. Two types of livestock production systems were identified in the district, namely crop-livestock mixed farming, which is exercised by resident farmers, and transhumance production system practiced by seasonally in fluxing farmers from neighboring highlands. The current study was concerned entirely on the former production system type. The average cattle herd size of households was 15.53 heads, but it varied significantly (P<0.05) among the three areas. Cows (30.45%) and calves (32.29%) mainly dominate the herd composition, while heifers (13.90%), oxen (12.02%) and bullocks (10.30%) represented minor proportions. Cattle type (Zebu) locally called Agew, Simada and Fogera were dominantly found in the district, although some cattle types introduced from neighboring countries known as \"Ruthana\" and \"Felata\" cattle were observed in minor proportions. Where as introduced temperate breeds were entirely lacking in the district. The breeding system was entirely natural mating. 65.8% of the interviewed farmers practiced selective mating, while the rest one-third left their cows for open mating with no concern for selecting the best bull, although some variation exist from area to area. Major feed resources used by the households were natural grazing (31.0%), crop residues (29.5%), crop aftermath (21.8%) and hay (17.8%). The available vast communal range lands provide high potential for conserving excess fodder during the wet season in the form of hay. Despite this, households make insignificant quantity of hay and face critical feed shortage during the dry season. Critical shortage of water was also noted during the dry season, particularly in highly arid lowlands. Three types of diseases were identified as the major health problem of cattle and these included tick infestation (37.2%), babesiosis (31.6%) and FMD (15.6%). Average milk off-take of indigenous cows was 1.9±0.045 liter/cow/day and on average cows gave a lactation yield of 324.0± 10.274 liters/cow during an average lactation period of about 5.9±0.14 months. Cows in Gendawuha town gave significantly higher daily milk yield as well as were milked for longer lactation period than in the two rural areas. As a result, the lactation yieldFirst of all, I would like to express my heart feeling thanks to the almighty God; with out his assistance nothing would be happened.The IPMS Ethiopia project is gratefully acknowledged for funding this study.I would like to express my gratitude to my major advisor, Professor Fekadu Beyene for his resourceful comments and suggestions through out the research period and at the time of write up process of this thesis. My heart-felt thanks is also forwarded to my co-advisors Dr.Azage Tegegne, who arranged financial support to the research and provided his valuable comments at the time of the research as well as during thesis write-up process. I would like to extend sincere thanks to my co-advisor Dr Berhanu GebreMedhin, who arranged training sessions regarding marketing prior to the research and helped me in preparation of topical guidelines. I am also great full to Dr. Eshte Dejene in his technical support and in finding the sponsor of the research.My special thank goes to Dr. Yoseph T/Giorgis, who helped me in undertaking the statistical analysis and has given his precious time for editing the whole draft of my paper. I am also highly indebted to Mr. Melkamu Bezuayehu for his technical support. Above all, I am grateful to my friends and colleagues who have given me encouragements.xiii  was significantly higher in the former than in the latter areas and these differences were mainly attributed to better feeding (supplementation) and management provided for the cows in the town. Overall, mean CI was 17.97±0.313 months, but it was significantly higher in the town than in the rural areas because of extended lactation. Mean AFC of cows in Metema was quite late (4.54±0.05 years) even by local standard. Out of the total milk produced, most of it was processed (63%), while some quantity was consumed with in the household (18%) and used for calf rearing (13%). On the other hand, most of the butter was consumed with in the household (58 %), while small proportion was sold out (25%). In general, the market share of whole milk and other milk derivatives (cottage cheese, butter milk and fermented milk) was almost negligible, while butter was comparatively the most marketable commodity in all the three areas. The dairy marketing system identified in the study area was entirely informal marketing system. Churning methods includes churning by placing the churner on the floor, hanging the churner on tripods and churner is shacked with both hands. Cattle fattening experience was not developed well, because of lack of experience (34.9%), shortage of labor (30.8%), feed shortage during dry season (17.5%) and shortage of capital (15.9%). Out of the total fresh meat produced, 49.8 % was consumed by the household in the form of fresh, while 50.2% was retained for processing. Milk and meat production and marketing system were constrained by theft of cattle, infectious and parasitic disease, lack of milk processing services, poor market information on the price and supply condition, lack of services (extension, inputs, and veterinary) and lack of feed processing and utilization management. Extension intervention should focus on dairy and meat production and processing as well as on improving the marketing system of these products.Livestock products are appealing and convenient sources of nutrients. Protein and micro nutrient deficiencies remain widespread in developing countries because people subsist on diets that are almost entirely made of starchy staples. The addition of milk and meat provides protein, calcium, vitamins, and other nutrients that are lacking in diets, which are exclusively made up of staples such as cereals.Livestock perform multiple functions in the Ethiopian economy by providing food, input for crop production and soil fertility management, raw material for industry, cash income as well as in promoting saving, fuel, social functions, and employment. Various estimates show that the livestock sub-sector contributes 12-16% of the total and 30-35% of agricultural GDP, respectively (MEDAC, 1998;AAPBMDA, 1999). The contribution of dairy products to the gross value of livestock production is not well known but in peri-urban areas of Ethiopia, about 20% of average income was derived from dairy products (Win rock International, 1992).More over, previous research result showed that sales of dairy products, especially butter, contribute to 20% of the rural household income in the Ethiopian highlands (ILCA, 1989).Nevertheless, the production of milk for human food is often the primary reason for keeping livestock by pastoralists to meet their subsistence needs in arid and semi-arid regions and by urban and peri-urban smallholder farmers as a source of income from milk sales.According to Nell (1992), dairying in smallholder farmers is a biologically efficient system, which converts large quantities of low-grade roughage to milk. It is to a certain extent a more efficient and intensive system, in terms of nutrients and protein production for human consumption from a given area or quantity of feed, than beef farming. Nell (1992) added his idea that milk production is a continuous production process and requires a continuous supply of feed of consistently good quality. Interruption of feed supply even for a short period causes a marked decrease in milk yield during the remaining part of the lactation. Beef production, on the other hand, is a non-continuous process and is often better adapted to the seasonal fluctuations that are so common in sub-Saharan Africa (Nell, 1992). As Walshe et al. (1991) pointed out, where there is access to a market, dairying is preferred to meat production since it makes more efficient use of feed resources and provides a regular income to the producer. It is also more labor intensive and supports substantial employment in production, processing and marketing (Leeuw et al., 1999).Although considerable variation is noted among existing estimates of livestock population, the latest estimates indicated that Ethiopia has the largest livestock population and the highest draft animal population in Africa. There are about 38.1 million cattle, 26.2 million sheep and goats, 5.5 million equine, 0.46 million camels, 35.6 million chickens and 4.2 million beehives in the country (FAOSTAT, 2004). Despite its huge numbers, the livestock sub-sector in Ethiopia is not productive as compared to its high population potential, and the direct contribution to the national economy is very limited. The poor genetic potential, in combination with the sub-optimal management situation that the animals are exposed to are the main contributors to the observed low productivity.Demand for animal products in Sub-Saharan Africa and generally in the developing countries is likely to rise significantly as a result of population growth, urbanization and rising income in the face of relatively low levels of consumption at present (Agajie et al., 2002). Because of the growing demand for dairy products, farmers need to be motivated to produce more. However under the present situation, poor marketing system and price structure are the major constraints to improve rural milk production (Tsehay, 1998).Ethiopia is not self-sufficient in milk and a considerable amount of foreign exchange has to be spent on the import of dairy products. Per capita consumption of milk is low in Ethiopia (17kg) and Tanzania (22kg) compared with Kenya (80kg) and the average for Africa (26kg) (Gebre Wold et al., 2000). The low per capita consumption of milk in Ethiopia and Tanzania is partly due to the predominance of the low milk producing zebu cattle with production level of about 200-250 kg per annum.Total milk production in Ethiopia is estimated to be 1.19 million metric tons with the contribution of milking cows (81.2%), does (7.9%), ewes (4.6%) & female camels (6.3%) (MOA, 1999). Despite the huge potential that the country posses for increased milk production that can even be stretched to quantities beyond its domestic needs, there is a chronic shortage of the product in most part of the country arising mainly from insufficient production coupled with inhibitive cultural taboos related to consumption and absence of processing facilities and marketing infrastructure.Generally, livestock productivity in Ethiopia is very poor in all characteristics of economic importance as compared to Eastern and Southern African countries. The cattle industry, in particular as producer of meat and milk, is very poor (ILCA, 1993).It was clearly stated by different authors that livestock plays a vital role in improving the nutritional status of the ever-increasing urban population, general substantial income and create job opportunities through the process of production, processing and marketing of dairy products. However, information is meager to indicate the general picture of the production system, mainly characteristics of the dairy farms and herd structure. According to Azage (2001), the major national concern in the development of the livestock sector is to improve milk production. However, systematic & exhaustive studies on the milk yield potential of the indigenous breeds are not available.Moreover, according to Staal and Shapiro (1996), the smallholder dairy farmers living in the villages contribute 97% of the total national milk production of Ethiopia. Therefore, improvement of the sector is imperative for better production and supply of the products to the consumers. However, current knowledge on market structure, performance and prices is poor and inadequate for designing policies and institution to overcome perceived problems in the marketing system (Ayele et al., 2003).In Amhara region, dairying is nearly always part of mixed farming systems. Aklilu (2004) revealed that the majority of total milk production in Amhara region takes place in the high land areas of the region, where exotic and crossbred dairy cattle are kept. Even though there were small ruminants and camel, cows continue to be the only source of milk and milk products in Amhara region. Rural, peri-urban and urban milk production systems were common in the region. In these production systems, fresh milk, naturally fermented milk (Ergo), butter, ghee and ayib are the types of dairy products produced (Aklilu, 2004). Milk was seldom sold in many parts of the Amhara region due to cultural taboos and milk production was mainly aimed at subsistence consumption.Metema is one of the districts of North Gondar Zone of the Amhara Regional State. In Metema district cattle were the dominant livestock species (56.57%), followed by goats (22.74%), chicken (13.23%), sheep (4.11%), donkey (3.22%) and camel (0.1%). The smallholder mixed crop-livestock production system being practiced in Metema district involved entirely indigenous cattle type, composed of small (< 5 cows/HH), medium (5-10 cows/HH), and large ( > 10 cows/HH ) herd size of cows, in which the respective category comprises 56.9%, 36.0%, and 7.1% of the farms, respectively. The rainy season transhumance cattle production system is also a common phenomenon practiced by the highlanders of North Gondar zone. Livestock in the study area, in general, provides multiple functions (milk, draft, meat & cash sources).Despite its considerable roles, little has been known so far about the role of cattle production in Metema, as well as processing and marketing of cattle products. On the other hand, evaluation of the prevailing production system and identification of the limitations in production and marketing of cattle milk and meat would assist to design appropriate improvement strategies. Such a study is limited for livestock production of Amhara region and particularly unavailable for Metema area because Metema area is located quite far from the capital town Addis Ababa (925 km) and regional town Bahir Dar (360 km). This study was therefore, carried-out to assess production, processing and marketing system of cattle milk and meat, identify major constraints and suggest appropriate area of intervention for improvement of cattle husbandry in Metema district. The objectives of the study were stated as follows.Objectives:1. To characterize the existing cattle milk and meat production systems practiced in the study area.2. To describe the current milk and meat marketing system in the study area.3. To investigate milk and meat processing methods & materials used in the study area.4. To assess the constraints of milk and meat production and marketing system and recommend possible intervention mechanism to mitigate the problems.Dairy production systems in the tropics are concentrated near consumption centers. It is no coincidence that cattle and rural human population densities are highly correlated with specialized smallholder (large-scale) dairy farms generally located close to (peri-urban) or with in (intra-urban) major markets, or more distant when there is an efficient market infrastructure (Kruska et al., 1997). On the Other hand, the systems of production and their productivity are influenced by agro-ecological factors and traditional consumption habits (Leeuw et al., 1999).Dairy production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) can be categorized into traditional and improved production systems. The traditional system includes subsistence, pastoralist and agro pastoralist systems. The improved production system includes intensive smallholder systems and urban/peri-urban, semi-intensive/intensive dairying systems (Debrah, 1992).According to Debrah and Berhanu (1991), despite milk's contribution to gross domestic product and its value as a food, sub-Saharan Africa has failed to attain self-sufficiency in dairy production. The region has, therefore, depended on dairy imports (commercial and food aid) to satisfy rising domestic demand.As compared to breeds originated from temperate areas, cattle breeds originate from the tropics generally have a limited genetic potential for milk production and remain mediocre producers (500-1500 kg per lactation) even when the best possible husbandry conditions are available to them (Pagot, 1992). In a general way, the genetic improvement of local breeds for milk production has essentially been obtained by crossing with breeds, which originate from temperate countries (Pagot, 1992). However, the Tropical Africa indigenous breeds have special adaptive traits for disease resistance, heat tolerance and ability to utilize poor quality feed (Tedonkenk Pamo and Pieper, 2000).Inability to feed animals adequately throughout the year is the most widespread phenomenon.Dry-season feed supply is the paramount problem. The feed shortages and nutrient deficiencies are more acute in dry seasons (Tedonkenk Pamo and Pieper, 2000). The natural pastures of the tropics have significant seasonal variations of productivity and nutritive value. Pagot (1992) showed that modern agronomic techniques (selection of forage species, fertilization and irrigation) enable the attainment of productivity very much higher than the best obtained in temperate countries. The author added his idea that tropical climates are favorable to the production of abundant food energy notably in the form of starchy root crops, but the level of production of forage proteins is not high.Numerous experiments have shown that a prolonged period in which temperatures are more than 25 o C, particularly in humid air conditions leads to a reduction of dry matter intake by milking cows and, as a consequence, a drop in their production. High ambient temperatures have another depressive action on milk production by reducing the fertility of the cows, thus lengthening the interval between lactations (Pagot, 1992).The other similar study indicated that dairy cattle, like other warm-blooded animals, function most efficiently in environments where they can maintain their body temperature at a round 38°C. Tissue and cellular metabolism and the underlying biochemical reactions that sustain life and productive functions need body temperature to be maintained within very narrow limits. Relatively small increases in body temperature, for example, one degree celsius or less result in detectable and deleterious effects on metabolism and tissue integrity, in particular, the breakdown of body protein and a significant depression in production (Vercoe, 1999).According to Pagot (1992) report, livestock herding peoples in the tropics are often nomadic or transhumant and do not practice agriculture. This system of production does not permit a place for intensive forage production and has limited possibilities for improvement. In general, sedentary stockmen are agriculturalists and rarely exploit their animals for milk, except when they are sedentary pastoralists.The most serious animal disease constraints to livestock productivity are the parasitic and viral diseases mainly vector-transmitted that have a wide geographic distribution and whose severities are strongly influenced by the environment (Tedonkenk Pamo and Pieper, 2000).The disease transmitted by ticks (babesiosis, anaplasmosis, heart water) have been the main justification, for a long time, of the crossing of Zebus with specialized European breeds for milk production. In improved methods of animal production (Zero grazing), the need to favor these practices is considerably reduced (Pagot, 1992). A research conducted at Metema area indicated that LSD, Babesiosis, Trypanosomosis, Mastitis, and Entritis were the major cattle diseases, which contributed to decrease the productivity of livestock (Gizachew, 2007).Most of the researchers used different approaches at different time for the classification of livestock/milk production system in Ethiopia. Beyene (2004) identified four major dairy production systems, namely: Smallholder dairy farming system in the crop-livestock mixed farming system in the highlands; Urban and peri-urban dairy system found around and inside the big cities; Pastoral/agro-pastoral system in the lowlands; Parastatal large-scale dairy farms.Moreover, he concluded that the production of milk in East African countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular is dominated by smallholder dairy production system.Based on agro-ecology characterization of the area, socio-economic structures of the human population and the species of livestock and type of breed used for milk production, Getachew and Gashaw (2001) distinguished the Ethiopian milk production system in to five categories.These are traditional pastoral livestock farming, traditional highland mixed farming, the emerging smallholder dairy farming, urban and peri-urban dairy farming and specialized commercial intensive dairy farming.According to Mekasha (1999), livestock/milk production system in sub-Saharan countries classified in to five systems based on a different approach (on farming systems, the principal ecological zones and the underlying livestock production systems), which are also applicable According to Getachew and Gashaw (2001), the lowland accounts for 27% of the milk produced. Because of the erratic rainfall pattern and related reasons, resulting in shortage of feed, milk production per unit is low and highly seasonal. More milk will be produced in the wet season where pastoralists would mostly conserve (in Borana as Ititu) and convert the surplus milk into butter, and trade off to the highlanders in the peripheral markets for grain. In the pastoral areas, milk production is the major activity as food and income source, where the livelihood of the semi-nomadic transhumance population is dependent on livestock (Coppock, 1994). The same author also identified that cattle dominate the population (55.4% of the TLU) followed by camel (15.3%), goats (13.7%) and sheep (6.4%).Highland smallholder production system operates in most highlands of Ethiopia, with increasing population, there is an ever-decreasing share of pastureland for grazing; and with the corresponding increase in the cultivated area, there is a need to continuously produce more animal draught power. As a result, the rural farmers in these areas incorporate small-scale dairy production with crop farming with the objective of producing animal power (oxen) for tilling the land (Zegeye, 2003).As reported by Getachew and Gashaw (2001), the highland area can be regarded as a mixed farming system, in which crop and livestock are interdependent. The highland smallholder milk production using indigenous cattle is the predominant milk production system. Though the majority of the system's of cattle and milk production are composed of the local Zebu, very few of the nation's crossbred cattle are believed to account for much of the milk production in the mixed farming system. More over, similar author added his idea as cattle constituting 72.4% of the total TLU, out of which cows (28%) dominates the other herd composition. On the other hand, 40-45% of the cow's populations are on milk each year (Getachew and Gashaw, 2001).By the virtue of their location, producers are not expected to have access to agricultural or pasture land, as the operation takes place within cities and as a result, they are forced to buy their feed (Zegeye, 2003). Based on the scale and level of operations, this production system could be subdivided into small scale and large scale and used 100% zero grazing (Zegeye, 2003). Tsehay (2002) described that urban milk production system inside and around Addis Ababa consists of 5167 small, medium and large dairy farms producing about 35 million liters of milk annually. Out of the total volume of milk produced in and around Addis Ababa, 73%, 10%, 9.4%, 7.6% were marketed, left for HH consumption, goes to calves and processed in to butter and ayib (Ethiopian cottage cheese), respectively (Azage and Alemu, 1998).Although some farmers produce good quality milk, hygienic quality and composition of most milk marketed in such production systems is poor (Tsehay, 2002). Moreover, price is high even when quality of milk is low. No standards and quality control mechanisms or dairy policy exist to safeguard consumers.Peri-urban dairy production system is mainly operational in areas where the population density is high, agricultural land is shrinking due to expanding urbanization, and labor cost is on the increase (Zegeye, 2003). Nell (1992) reported that Peri-urban dairy system occurs around cities, where demand for milk is high.Peri-urban milk production system includes smallholders and commercial dairy farmers working in the proximity of the city of Addis Ababa and other regional towns. Most of the improved dairy stock in Ethiopia is used for this type of production system (Tsehay, 2002).However, contribution to the total domestic milk supply for Addis Ababa remained at only 14% (Belachew et al., 1994).The producers may or may not hove access to cultivable or pastureland and some of them are usually left their few animals for grazing on the roadside. Animals they keep ranged from 50% crosses to high-grade Holestien Friesian (Zegeye, 2003). On the other hand, the main sources of feed are agro-industrial byproducts (e.g. brewery waste and oilseed cakes), cultivated fodder crops and crop residues (Nell, 1992).Urban and peri-urban dairy production system is an important component of livestock production system in Ethiopia (Yoseph et al., 2003). Urban and per-urban milk production has developed in and around major cities and towns, which have high demand for milk. The system comprised small and medium sized dairy farms using crossbred and high grade dairy cattle. Herd sizes are small due to urbanization (town dairy with usually less than 5 milking cows), land size limitations and economic capacity. Increasing demand for more and diversified dairy products, particularly in urban centers, will be a major driving force and a challenge for the development of peri-urban dairy production systems (Azage and Alemu, 1998). The substantial demand-supply variation in milk and milk products for the major urban centers in Ethiopia shows the untapped potential for the development and flourishing of periurban dairy farms. Large commercial and smallholder peri-urban dairy production systems have tremendous potential for development and could play a significant role in minimizing the acute shortage of dairy products in urban centers (Azage and Alemu, 1998).The former two production systems are the most predominant milk production system accounting for over 97% of total national milk production (Staal and Shapiro, 1996). These systems are based on low producing indigenous breeds of zebu cattle. Livestock are kept under traditional management conditions and generally obtain most of their feed from native vegetation, aftermath grazing and crop residues. The systems are not market-oriented and most of the milk produced in it is retained for home consumption. The level of milk surplus is determined by the demand for milk of the household and its neighbors, the potential to produce milk in terms of herd size, production season and access to a nearby market. The surplus is mainly processed using traditional technologies and milk products such as butter, ghee, ayib and sour milk are usually marketed through the informal market after the households satisfy their needs (Tsehay, 2002).In general, according to some investigation by the year 1985 and 1998 the total milk available, share of cow's milk and the share of imported milk from the total were summarized in Table 1. According to FAO (1993), the main source of milk in Ethiopia is the cow, constitute 83.4% of the total annual milk output. Zegeye (2003) also stated that cattle are the main source of milk even though very little or no consideration given to improve their milk production capabilities.As a result, their genetic potential for milk production as seen at present is low. However, their adaptability and survival under the traditional management system is excellent when compared with the introduced exotic cattle species.According to A recent study indicated that the number of calving performance at Cheffa farm (Oromia) was 3.58, which was lower than previous records (Gebeyehu, 2005). A recent study of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia showed that 50%, 75% and 87.5% Holstein Friesians crosses on the average produced 4.7, 3.4 and 2.0 calves, respectively (Ababu Dekeba et al., 2004).Under controlled breeding system, heifers are usually mated when they are mature enough to withstand the stress of parturition and lactation. This increases the likelihood of early conception after parturition. In traditional production systems, however, breeding is often uncontrolled and heifers are bred at the first opportunity.  (Wilson, 1986).Calving interval can be divided into three periods: gestation, postpartum anoestrus (from calving to first oestrus) and the service period (first postpartum oestrus to conception).  (Wilson, 1986).In rural areas, milk may be processed fresh or sour (O'Connor, 1995). The choice depends on available equipment, product demand and on the quantities of milk available for processing.According to Lemma et al. (2005), in East Shoa Zone of Oromia, fresh milk and fermented milk were not consumed on the daily basis; as they were reserved for further processing. In the highlands of Ethiopia, milk produced by smallholders is used for family consumption and for the production of butter and a cottage-type cheese. For butter making, milk is collected over a period of three or four days in a clay pot. When the milk has soured and sufficient milk has been collected, the clay pot is shaken back and forth until butter granules are formed. This method of butter making may take from two to three hours, depending on such factors as temperature, the fat content of the milk, the acidity of the milk and the amount of milk in the clay pot. The time taken to make the butter together with the time involved in taking this butter to the market place is a considerable drain to the smallholders, specifically on that of the wife and family. In order to reduce the time for processing the milk into butter and to improve the efficiency of the process ILCA has developed and modified a wooden internal agitator that can be fitted to the usual clay pot used by the smallholder (O'Connor, 1992). The buttermilk remaining after the butter has been separated from the whole milk is used to produce a cottagetype cheese (ayib) by heating the buttermilk. Lemma et al. (2005) noted that in areas where the climate is hot and humid, the raw milk spoils easily during storage unless it is cooled or when possible treated with preservatives.Nevertheless, these preservatives are not readily available in rural areas, due to this, cooling systems are not feasible because of lack of facilities. In these areas, the farmers have to rely on traditional technology to increase the storage stability of milk and milk products either by converting the milk to its stable products like butter or by treating with traditional preservatives. The same explanation was given by Debrah and Berhanu (1991) that sour milk or yoghurt (Ergo in Amharic) is produced in the traditional system by leaving fresh milk to sour for a few days. Soured milk keeps longer time than raw milk, so this process is useful for storing milk during the day of Wednesdays and Fridays, when Orthodox Christians fast are forbidden to consume animal products.As Tsehay (2002) pointed out, butter making is an ancient practice that goes back as far as 2000 BC to the time of Egyptian civilization. This butter making may have begun at a similar time in Ethiopia According to O'Mahony (1988), there are different reasons forwarded why smallholder milk processing is based on fermented milk. These are mainly high ambient temperature, small daily quantities of milk produced, consumer preference, the improved keeping quality of fermented milk and the type and capacity of the locally available processing materials and methods used.Traditional system of butter making differs from place to place and their efficiency in terms of milk fat recovery and time requirement could vary. A survey conducted by MOA (1997) in highland peri-urban areas indicated that in most periurban areas 74.6% of the milk produced is either used at home or marketed in liquid form while 17.5% fed to calves, 8% churned and marketed in to butter oil state and 0.3% is wasted.Specifically, in Arsi 38.5% and in Gojjam 19% of the milk is converted into butter and marketed. In Addis Ababa, 94.5% of the milk produced in intra-urban and peri-urban areas is marketed in fresh milk form. In Wolaita, 85% is used for butter making where whole milk is not usually consumed.According to Gtetachew and Geda (2001), 68% of the total milk produced is used for human consumption in the form of fresh milk, butter, cheese and yogurt while the rest is given to calves and wasted in the process. The consumption of milk and milk products vary geographically between the highlands and the low lands and level of urbanization. In the lowlands, all segments of the population consume dairy products while in the highlands major consumers include primarily children and some vulnerable groups of women. Similarily, milk production and consumption levels, the range of products consumed, and consumers' habits and attitudes in relation to milk products, vary considerably from country to country and even with in a country (Malcon, 1999). For example, wealthy consumers in poor countries regard milk as a basic food product; poor people in poor countries regard milk as a supplement to the traditional diet. The rural poor people use milk and dairy products from their own livestock as a major source of food.Milk consumption is around 35, 20, 92 and 300-400 liters per person per year in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Western Europe, respectively. Demand for milk and dairy products has increased in the tropical areas where people's incomes have been growing (Malcolm, 1999) rapid increases in the demand for dairy products and the desirability of substantially increased domestic production. However, poor marketing linkages between rural producers and urban consumers due to inadequate infrastructure and inefficient marketing system might have accelerated imports. Getachew and Geda (2001) indicated that demand for milk is inelastic with respect to income and price. So that increasing population growth, rising real income and decreasing consumer prices are expected to expand the demand for milk and milk products.Unless milk and milk products find a market outlet, they are retained for household consumption and the level of production is kept low (Fekadu, 1994). This low level of production together with the general decline in the local production over the years as a result of the fast growing population, have lead to an increase in import dependence in dairy products. Belavadi & Niyogi (1999) pointed out that rapid urbanization in some developing countries has created domestic demand for high value food items creating market opportunities for indigenous production, particularly, milk and milk products. Unfortunately, in most part of the country's existing production and rural marketing systems cannot respond readily to the rising demand. In this reason, local government has resorted to an easy option of importing milk and milk products from developed countries either in the forms of food aid or commercial.The degree of vertical and horizontal integration in a dairy marketing system may vary from country to country, or between regions and milk sheds with in a country (Mohammed et al., 1997). For example, in one case most of the milk may be sold and consumed as raw milk while in another case, in addition to raw milk, several processed dairy products such as cheese and butter may be marketed and consumed.In the lowlands, milk is sold through the traditional methods where women or children directly sell to consumers traveling long distances in the hot climate. Market access in the lowlands is a critical factor in dairy marketing. Those pastoralists, who reside closer to towns, though distances matter, have the advantage of selling liquid milk as compared to those households living in distant areas. A study carried out by FLDP and ILCA (1986) in Borana area indicated that type of marketing, distance to market, season and family wealth in dairy sales are main indicators that determine the sales of milk and dairy products. On the other hand, in Borana area, frequency and amounts of dairy products traded depended on herd size and distance to the market (Holden and Coppock, 1992). Due to this reason, butter is replacing liquid milk with increasing distance and women from households with large herds trading more often.Butter was sold to lorry drivers and bus passengers on the route to Addis Ababa, some 500 km away. According to Belachew (1997), it was reported that proximity, prices, lack of alternative options and a combination of these factors affect selection of one or the other sales outlets.Marketing of dairy products, therefore, requires as much emphasis as for the production of milk. Biological interventions to improve the nutritional and health status of dairy animal may not bring about the desired improvements of income to the producers unless viable markets absorb the produce. Lack of market can mean wastage of the milk, and the resources that went in to its production (Labor, land, time). As Tsehay (1998) stated, provision of improved and sustainable milk marketing arrangements in smallholder villages is, therefore, indispensable for advancement of the national dairy industry. An effective milk-marketing net work benefits both producers and consumers, and through its linkages with related sectors, the national economy as a whole (Berhane and Workneh, 2003).According to Broken and Senait (1992), dairy marketing system in Ethiopia can be classified in to two subsystems: formal and informal marketing system.Formal marketing system, which is usually controlled by the government, includes organized collection, processing and distribution of fresh milk and other dairy products at official, government-controlled prices. The Dairy Development Enterprise of Ethiopia is an example of formal marketing systems in Africa. The formal marketing system, in which the milk from the state farms, private farms and subsistence producers within the radius of 150 km around Addis Ababa, is collected at the roadside (milk collection and chilling centers) and taken to a central processing plant (Bennett, 2001).According to Brokken and Senait (1992) report, there are a number of operational problems contributing to inefficiency dairy marketing in the formal marketing channels such as irregular and delayed payments, inefficient plant operations, insufficient local supply and low capacity utilization.In the informal marketing system, the smallholder sells their surplus supplies to neighbors or in the local market, either as liquid milk or in the form of butter or a cottage-type cheese (ayib) (Bennett, 2001). Similar study by Mohamed (2000) indicated that the informal market involves direct delivery of fresh milk by producers to consumer in the immediate neighborhood and sale to itinerant traders or individuals in nearby towns. In the informal market, milk may pass from producers to consumers directly or it may pass through two or more market agents. The informal system is characterized by no licensing requirement to operate, low cost of operations, high producer price compared to formal market and no regulation of operations.According to Brokken and Senait (1992) the main problems for efficient dairy marketing in the informal sector of SSA are the small quantities supplied per farmer, seasonal fluctuations in supplies, the low volume of milk per square kilometer (low density), poor and seasonally impossible roads, in availability of transport and low level of education about collection and preservation of quality milk. The advantages of the informal system are low cost, with short marketing channels and potentially good prices for producer and consumer, possibility for small farmers to participate in milk production and marketing and limited competition with imported products. Where as the disadvantages are no payment for quality and fat content, possibilities for adulteration, problems with seasonal fluctuations in production and no public health control.According to Bennett (2001), both formal and the informal milk marketing system exist in Ethiopia. Both commercial (urban and peri-urban) and smallholder (rural) farmers use the formal and informal channels to sale milk and milk products.Tsehay (1998) explained that a third marketing channel (milk marketing group) is introduced and being popularized in the Ethiopian highlands. Farmers, milk-marketing group is a group of smallholder farmers who individually produce at least one liter of saleable milk and are willing to form a group with the objective of collectively processing and marketing milk.According to Pagot (1992), fattening is defined as the preparation of animals for butchering, whichever method may be used. Increased in yield can be obtained by improvement of the genetic qualities of the animals and by improvement of environmental conditions which include the fight against pathological factors and, above all, by improvement of feeding. Cattle fattening, is dependent up on the development of forage resources.Fattening techniques relies on a minimum time of three months up to a maximum of about 18 months to 2 years. The length of the period depends up on the characteristics of the animals used and the food resources available. So that based on feeding regimes and the nature of the main products used, fattening operation could be classified in to three systems (Pagot, 1992).This system is still the most widely practiced. It consists of reserving the best pastures for the animals destined for slaughter and giving them the most attentive care during the space of time necessary to reach the live-weight required. Feeding is basically forage with, sometimes, a small supplement of mineral or concentrate. The animals are maintained permanently at pasture. Grass fattening is a technique which is economical in material and human resources, but which generally implies a certain loss of energy by the animals when they move from one place to another to change pasture. Further more, daily live-weight gains are often low (Pagot, 1992).In this system, the animals are confined in feedlots or pens and receive in the trough a completely balanced ration of forage, concentrate feed or diverse agro-industrial by-products.These techniques should experience considerable development in all the regions where agricultural activities, which produce residues and by-products (rice, cotton, and sugar) (Pagot, 1992).The development of certain crops, such as sugarcane, cotton, and oil palm, leads to the establishment of industrial processing activities (sugar refineries, cattle cake factories, oil mills) which generate by-products, which can be used for livestock feeding (Pagot, 1992).Cattle are kept mainly for draft power, milk, and manure production and are usually only sold when they are too old for these purposes, or drought or cash shortages force people to sell.Oxen are usually sold after the plowing season when they are in poor condition. Meat yield are low, the beef is poor quality and farmer returns are often inadequate to buy a replacement ox.There is obvious scope to improve this traditional and inefficient system through strategic feeding of good quality forage to fatten animals before they are sold, or to buy and fatten animals sold by others.In the lowland, where pastoralists do not use cattle for draft and sometimes fattened on natural pasture in good seasons, however much body weight is lost during long distance trekking to Addis Ababa and the animals may reach market in little better condition than culled highland stock. In average or poor seasons, lowland cattle are rarely fattened and often have to be sold in poor condition at low prices.These traditional systems are very inefficient because they do not use the proven opportunity to add weight and condition to cull animals before slaughter. Several improved systems are in use, but none of them are widespread yet.In 1976 E.C., Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) began to help peasant farmers in Debre Zeit area to fatten purchased cull oxen using molasses and milling by-products. This has produced profitable results for the individuals involved, and the number of animals fattened has increased every year to about 2,000 per annum (MOA, 1990). By-product-based fattening in Debre Zeit area is feasible because; it is close to the main source of agro-industrial by-products (molasses, cereal milling by-products and oilseed meal); grazing land is almost completely unavailable and crop residues are the only significant roughage source; and it is close to the largest and highest priced market for finished beef animal and lies on the major trekking route to that market. By-product based fattening is not recommended for other parts of Ethiopia, except places where oilseed cake is abundant and cheap (MOA, 1990).iii. The Hararghe fattening systemIntensive feeding of the available feed supply to young oxen they are using for draught power could best describe the Hararghe fattening practice. The feed types used for the fattening are entirely obtained from crop production especially from maize and sorghum. Pagot (1992) substantiated that in Ethiopia the farmers fatten young bullocks at the edge of the fields with lower leaves taken from the stems of sorghum.Among the most common feed types used for fattening, thinning, leaf strip and part of maize and sorghum plants are major feeds offered to fattening animal during the main and early dry seasons. This tradition is seasonal undertaking to utilize seasonally available feed. During abundant feed supply, the animals are offered in ad-libitum. Farmers extend animal's daytime feeding up to nighttime and supplement the animal with common salt or locally available mineral licks twice a week. The nighttime feed offering is used to supplement the amount of daytime dry matter consumption and to compensate under supply of feed during daytime as in the case when the farmer is away from his house.During short rainy season, they allow their oxen to graze at the edge of farm plots or roadsides for 1.5 to 2 hours every morning before sunrise. In the cases where the farmer has more than one ox, he transfers the second one to his relative or person in the same village to feed for him after using for traction (Fekadu and Alemu, 1999).According to Abbey (2004) The study was conducted in Metema district, which is found in North Gondar zone, Amhara Regional State (Figure 1). Metema is situated about 925 km north west of Addis Ababa and about 180 km west of Gondar town. Metema is found north of Quarra and Alefa, west of Chilga, south of Tach Armachoho districts of north Gondar zone and east of Sudan Nation.Metema is a border district and it accounts to more than 60 km of the international boundary that Ethiopia shares with Sudan.Metema is located between 120 0 40' 00\" N latitude and 360 0 8' 00\" E longitudes ( 1 MDOA, 2006). The area is semi-arid and the people in the area grow a variety of crops for home consumption and sale, mainly sorghum, sesame and cotton, as well as maize, teff and millet to some extent.The September. However, most of the rainfall is received during the months of July and August, during when the rainfall is erratic. Evapotranspiration rate is high in Metema, as a result, the area is dry land with eratic and shortage of rainfall, which implied major constraints of agriculture in the district. On the other hand, when the rainfall is heavy, water logging becomes a problem for crop production. Rainfall is usually intense and short even though the rainy months seem to be extended. Livestock production is an integral part of the production system. Production of cattle (milk, meat), goat (meat) and poultry is a common practice. Cattle were exported formally & informally (smuggled) to Sudan, while goats are mainly sold in local markets. There is a smallholder milk and butter production system mainly for the local market. Transhumance cattle production system is a common phenomenon by the highlanders. They are coming to the lowlands during the main rainy seasons from May to October mainly in search of feeds. There is a huge feed resource in the district and haymaking has recently been introduced in some Total area of the district is about 440,085 ha, of which 103,908 ha is cultivated land, 312,300 ha allocated to forest and grassland 23,877 ha as uncultivable land. More over, almost 60 % of the district is plain area, while the rest of the areas are hill (15%), sloppy (20%) and valley (5%) (MDOA, 2006).Farmers in the district cultivate sesame (extensively), cotton and sorghum. They produce sorghum as the staple crop, which is the major food crop in the area. In few areas of the district, vegetables and fruits are grown on the irrigated land by using major rivers (Guange and Gendawuha) with the provision of technical assistance from IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian farmers) Ethiopia.According to ILRI (2005), Metema district was categorized in to cotton, rice/ livestock based and sesame, cotton, sorghum and livestock based farming system. The livestock production system is similar in both farming systems.The cotton, rice/ livestock farming system prevail in four of the 18 kebles of Metema district, namely Meka, Awlala, Gendawuha and Kemechela. They are found northeast of the district.These kebles predominantly grow cotton followed by sorghum and sesame in few areas. The cotton based areas is relatively higher in altitude and thus the temperature is relatively cooler and receives better rainfall. The soil is largely dominated by black vertisol and water logging is a problem. As a result of its cooler climate and relatively better moisture, most of the early settlers preferred the cotton based areas of Metema district than the sesame dominating areas.Cotton is grown extensively in large farms, while sorghum and sesame are planted in smaller plots of land. According to MDOA (2006), livestock population more abundant in two of the four kebles found in this farming system, namely, Awlala and Kemechela.On the other hand, sesame, cotton, sorghum and livestock based farming system prevail in 14 of the 18 kebles of Metema district, namely, Awassa, Achera, Shashge, Metema-Yohanes, Gubay-Jejebit, Lencha, Shinfa, Kokit, Zebach-Bahir, Tumet-Menduka, Das-Gundo, Agam-Wuha, Kumer-Aftit and Mender (6, 7, and 8), amongst of all, the first eight kebles have high livestock population. Sesame, cotton and sorghum are the major crops in this farming system (listed in the order of importance). Environmental conditions are equally suitable for these crops. Majority of the land mass have lower altitude than the areas in cotton based system and hence it receives lower rainfall than the cotton dominated areas. This area also has extensive abundant natural forest trees of gum and incense. There is still vast area of open or uninhabited land. As a result, most of the recent settlements took place in these places unlike the cottonbased areas where most of the early settlements took over.A multistage sampling procedure was employed to select representative kebles and households. Kebles were purposively selected from each of the two farming systems based on the population of livestock in each Keble. Accordingly, two of the four kebles (Awulala and Kemechela) that had relatively higher livestock population in the cotton based farming system were considered for the study. Like wise, the six kebles mentioned earlier as having higher livestock population in sesame based farming system were considered for the study. Thus, nearly 50% of the kebles from each farming system were sampled in the present study.In addition to the selected eight kebles from rural areas, Gendawuha town, which is the capital of the district, was also considered as the ninth sampled site for the study. Gendawuha town has two kebles and 30 households were selected from both kebles. The town is almost found in the cotton based farming system areas but it is somewhat different from other rural kebles. It is an urban center and that is why it was purposively selected as one of the study site. Most of the inhabitants of Gendawuha town possess farmland in the adjoining rural areas, while living as a resident in the town. Therefore, they produce both livestock and crops on their holdings in rural areas.Based on the above stratification by location, lists of farmers in each of the selected kebles were obtained from keble administration heads, agricultural extension officers and development agents (DA) and from official land registry list. A systematic random sampling method was employed to select 30 households from each of the selected rural kebles. Where as, 15 households were selected from each of the two urban kebles found in Gendawuha town.In due regard, total sample size of 270 households were selected from the study district, of which 60 households were selected from cotton based farming system areas, 180 were from sesame based farming system areas and the rest 30 were selected from Gendawuha town.Three sources of information were considered to collect the required data. Secondary data was collected to acquire a general understanding of the area. PRA techniques such as individual and group discussion with key-informants was held to collect wide range of qualitative data.Focused formal survey was conducted using semistructured and pretested questionnaire to quantify some of the important parameters for the study.The specific procedure used for data collection depended on the type of data sought and the sources of information. Basically the study composed two main components as characterization of cattle milk and meat production system and processing techniques as well as description of marketing system of these products. Accordingly, the procedures of data collection pertinent to the two component studies are discussed separately.Primarily, over view of the area was perceived through discussion held with agricultural extension officers, experts and development agents. Group discussion with key informants were also employed to know the over view of milk and meat production system in the area. A questionnaire-based survey was used to collect data needed for assessment of production and processing of milk and meat in the area. Before starting data collection, the questionnaire was translated in to Amharic and pre-tested using purposively selected key informants, such as elderly persons and farmers with long time of experience in livestock husbandry. Accordingly, many of the questions in the questionnaire were also restructured or rephrased for the purpose of clarity.Questionnaire based data collected for assessment of production and processing systems included the following variables, namely, socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, family size, educational background, primary occupation, income sources, landholdings), cattle herd structure, cattle breeds, experience and purpose of cattle rearing, productive and reproductive performance of cows, breeding system and types of bulls used, feeds and feeding system, water sources, manure management, cattle health and disease problems, the type and amounts of milk and meat products produced, handling and processing of milk and meat, utilization of cattle milk and meat, the type and market share of milk and meat.The survey was conducted between September and October 2006. While interviewing, the researcher were assisted by development agents (diploma holders) and apparent ship students, who had been trained in interviewing techniques before data collection. In addition, data collection was performed under close supervision of the researcher. Accordingly, enumerators were visited and monitored regularly while conducting the survey as well as each questionnaire was promptly checked up on submission to verify biased and ambiguous information and when necessary, concerned enumerators were promptly contacted for explanation while they have fresh memory about the issues.In addition to the formal survey, group discussions were held with key informants in each farming system areas with the help of topical guidelines (checklists) for some qualitative milk and meat production, processing and utilization parameters. This provided additional information to characterize milk and meat production systems and processing methods in the study area.In addition to data taken using informal and formal survey, quantitative data were collected from fifteen voluntarily selected households from the two farming systems and they were continually monitored to collect data on milk and other dairy products produced and processed per households. The researchers himself as well as family members of the selected households were involved in data collection process. Accordingly, one of the family member, who had at least attended grade 6 or above level of education was selected and adequately trained about taking measurements on each variable and filling the format prepared for data collection.The data collected includes milk yield/day/cow in the selected household, amounts of fermented milk churned at a time and butter yield during each churning. The purpose of collecting these data was to corroborate the information on these variables collected through questionnaire.Regarding milk yield, 45 indigenous milking cows were used to collect daily milk yield from the selected 15 households. The stage of lactation was not taken in to account because of limitation in accessing cows with different lactation stage with the limited time. Milk yield was recorded both in the morning and in evening milking time every other day for a period of one month. Milk produced during each milking was measured using a one liter holding plastic container locally known as \"Joge\"(holding 1 liter) and merti tasa (holding 800 ml), which are available in every household . The container in each household was graduated at a quarter of a liter interval so that the recorder read the amount of milk to the nearest 0.25 liter.Similarly, the quantity of fermented milk (Ergo) and butter were measured before churning and at the end of churning, respectively, using the provided weighing balance.In order to characterize the marketing system of marketable milk, milk products, meat and live cattle for meat purpose, Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) techniques was employed (Holtzeman, 1986;Menegay et al., 1988;Miles, 2000). Before administering RMA on the different marketing agents, the number of permanent butter traders, ergo sellers, cattle traders, butchers in the study area were identified. The qualitative data obtained from these market agents was used to summarize marketing chains, marketing channels, marketing problems and possible solutions.In the study area, producers, traders, butcher houses, cattle exporters and consumers were identified as a marketing agents. Available butter and cattle traders were interviewed with the help of separate topical guidelines (checklists) at the four main market places in the district, namely, Gendawhuha, Kokit, Meqa and Shinfa. In addition, available small amount of ergo sellers, butcher houses and cattle exporters were interviewed with the help of separate topical guidelines (checklists) at their respective sites. Where as, the producers (N=270) as a whole were interviewed with the help of semi structure questionnaire, which contained questions about production and marketing system.The checklists were used to collect data on aspects like: the type of business, place of purchase and sale, volume of purchase and sale, time of purchase and sale, types of buyers, prior arrangement, mode of payment, availability and sources of market information, factors affect price as well as constraints in buying and selling the different products.Moreover, to study marketable oxen's live weight and body condition in relation to their market price, heart girth measurement of male oxen were taken at the four major market places of the district. This information was used to estimate the liveweight and condition of marketable oxen and price offered at each market place.Statistical analysis of the primary data was made using the statistical package for Social Science, (SPSS, 2003) version 12. Survey results were reported using descriptive statistics.General linear model (GLM) was employed to evaluate the relations between dependent and independent variables. ANOVA test used to investigate the effect of farming system difference on different variables.Data related with pricing, collected for the characterization of dairy marketing system were analyzed using descriptive statistics and data collected using RMA technique were reported with flow charts and summarized discussions.Chi-square tests and General Linear Model (GLM) were employed to test different variables in the three locations. Significances were declared at 5 % level and up on identifying significant F, tukey multiple comparison test was performed to separate significantly differed means. The specific ANOVA model used for the test was as follows:Where, Y ij = Induvidual observation on the respective dependant variables (Variables in the i th location). ε ij = Random error term.Two types of cattle production systems were identified in Metema district namely, transhumance and crop-livestock mixed production systems, each type is described below.Transhumance production system in Metema is characterized by seasonal displacement of herds from the highland part of North Gondar Zone to the lowland area (Metema district). The herders move from the highland to Metema in search of better or suited grassland. In the highland, the herders are not usually able to find enough forage around the village for their livestock through out the year. Thus, temporary migration is an option for them.The transhumant come to Metema exclusively during the rainy season due to shortage of sufficient quantity and quality of forage during the rainy season in the highland because croplands in the highland are extensively cultivated and covered with different crops and the small available grazing lands become too wet and muddy. As reported by the farmers, at times grazing lands are covered with flood and the threat of bloat is common because of consumption of young trifolium, rejuvinated following the rains.The transhumance moves to the lowlands during the on set of rains (usually during the first week of May) and returned back to their village during the end of rainy season (usually at end of October). However, throughout the dry season animals were kept around their village (in the highlands). This is because, there is comparably enough alternative feed resources in the form of crop aftermath, crop residues and hay. During the dry season, the environmental condition in the lowland is not conducive for the highland animals. Thus, the transhumance preferred to stay around their village instead of going to the lowland (Metema) during the dry season.The transhumance usually came from the highland districts such as Chilga, Dembia, Gondar Zuria, and to some extent Alefa district. This type of production system is entirely exercised by the highlanders of those districts living outside the study area (Metema). Because of this reason, thorough characterization of the transhumance production system could not be made during the limited field survey period and thus, the present study was mainly focused on cattle production in the crop-livestock mixed production system, which is practiced by the residents of Metema district.Unlike the transhumance production system, the crop-livestock mixed production system is the predominant system and exists in all over the district through out the year. Therefore, throughout this document the two production systems are referred as cotton-livestock and sesame-livestock production systems for ease of presentation.With the exception of natives, the farmers in Metema district, who practice mixed croplivestock production system were settlers, originally came from different highland areas of the northern part of the country (Gondar, Wollo, North shewa and Gojjam). As a highlander, these settlers had been exercising crop-livestock mixed production system before they resettled in Metema or at least they are descendents of highlanders who were practicing mixed farming.As a result, they kept on practicing the same production system even in the lowland (Metema).Therefore, the previous experience of the settlers greatly influenced them to continue exercising mixed crop-livestock production system, which is a feature not typical among original lowlanders found in such arid low land marginal areas in other parts of the country.Since the present study was mainly focused on resident of Metema district, the discussion given here in after refers to the mixed farmers. Means with the same superscript within the same row are not significantly different at 5% level of significance. HH = Household, SE = Standard error, * CBFS = Cotton based farming system, ** SBFS = Sesame based farming system, HHC = Household count, AFS = Average family size Among the investigated households, 89% were male-headed, while the remaining (11%) respondents were female-headed households (Table 3). The overall average age of the household head was 41.2 years and it ranged from 19-85 years. Concerning the overall age categories, 51% of the household members were in the age group between 16-60 years old, while 30.8% of household members were between 6-15 years old. Where as, 18.2% of household members were in the age categories less than 6 years and above 60 years old (Table 3). This indicates that family members in the productive age group were higher than that of the non-productive age groups (dependents) and this in return implies that in Metema households have good sources of labor to utilize for different farm activities.Educational background of the households is summarized in table 4. The overall educational status of the households indicated that about 45% were literate, amongst of which the majority (67.2%) were those that had adult education or read and write, and followed by primary education (28.7%). Comparing the education of household heads in different areas, proportionately there were more illiterate in cotton based (63.3%) than in sesame based (52.8%) or Gendawuha town (50%). Household heads that received adult education were comparable in cotton based (31.7%) and sesame based (31.1%) but the proportion was less in Gendawuha town (23.3%) than in the two rural areas. On the other hand, household heads that received primary education or above was relatively higher in Gendawuha town (26.6%) than in sesame based (16.1%) or in cotton based system (5%). In this regard, household heads in sesame based had better educational background than in cotton based (Table 4). As shown in table 5, the average land holding in sesame based farming system (9.11 ha) and Gendawuha town (13.60 ha) appears to be over inflated, because of few respondents that possessed large size farmland for commercialization. For instances, 8.7% of inhabitants in sesame based farming system and 10% in Gendawuha had > 15 ha and all of them were involved in enterprise farming. Thus, excluding these households, average landholding per household calculated for the rest of the households was 5.6 ha for sesame and 6.0 ha for Gendawuha. These values may better represent the average holdings of the majority of residents in these two places. Where as, in the cotton based all the sampled households owned < 15 ha and they were not involved in enterprise farming. Thus, the calculated mean holding (4.03 ha) can be considered as a representative holding for the majority of the residents. In addition, ANOVA test excluding enterprise farm holders declared significant differences in holdings among the three places (F = 5.924, P = 0.003) (Appendix table 4). Mean separation test excluding enterprise farm holders indicated that residents in cotton based possessed significantly less land than those in sesame based rural kebles and Gendawuha town but differences were not significant between the latter two (Table 5). Similarly, excluding few households that possessed > 15 ha and involved in large enterprise farming, the average holding for Metema area was calculated as 5.28±0.215 ha (Table 5). This figure is better representative of the average holding of the majority in Metema area. The landholding in Metema area is quite large compared to many places in the country. For example, the overall average land size in Shashemene-Dilla areas was 1.14 ha per household (Sintayehu, 2007), which is much smaller than the average holding of Metema residents found in the present study. The reason for large landholding/household in Metema may be the fact that Metema is relatively a recently inhabited area. In addition, it is arid marginal land and the population is fairly sparse compared to cooler highlands, which are inhabited several generations back.Comparing holdings with in Metema, relatively more inhabitants owned larger than 15 ha of land per household in sesame based farming system (8.6%) and Gendawuha town (10 %) than in cotton based farming system (Table 5). On the other hand, more inhabitants owned < 4 ha of land in cotton based farming (63.3%) than in sesame based farming system (39.6%) and Gendawuha town (33.3%). Thus, farmers in sesame based farming system and Gendawuha town afford to posses larger farmland than those in cotton production system (Table 5). This is because, areas in cotton based farming system are relatively cooler and were inhabited relatively earlier than the drier and hotter sesame based areas, which were inhabited by highland resettlers relatively more recently. 90.89% of sampled farmers in the district allocated their farmland to annual crops, 0.01% for perennial crops, 1.13% for grazing land and the rest 7.97% left for fallowing. In the present study, it was noted that farmers commonly abstain ploughing their farmland for about 1-3 years for the purpose of rehabilitating their farmland. From the results reported above the proportion of land allocated to grazing land seems small as compared to arable land. This is because the district as a whole has abundant forage resources during wet season from large area of communal grazing and forestlands.Major sources of income and prioritization of commodities used as a source of cash in Metema district are presented in table 6. Live animals and crop sale were the major source of cash income for inhabitants of Metema district and these two sources accounted more or less equal share in all the three areas, i.e., in cotton based, sesame based rural communities as well as Gendawuha town. Following these, sell of butter contributed considerable amount to the income of households in cotton based and sesame based rural areas, although its contribution is slightly larger in the former than in the latter area (Table 6). Unlike this, income from butter sale had insignificant contribution as a cash source for residents of Gendawuha town (Table 6).This indicates that town residents used butter for home consumption than source of cash for household needs. In addition to these, families also used other sources of cash income, such as selling of water, monthly salary bases and income from daily wages. These sources had insignificant contribution as cash sources in the two rural communities than in Gendawuha town, which is to be expected as these commodities are more sellable in urban than rural areas.In the interviewed farmers, selling of any commodity for the sources of cash in the household was dependent on the amount of money needed to cover their expense. For example, in most instances, respondents sell cattle to cover large expenses, where as they sell crop and/or butter for relatively smaller expenditures. However, butter and crop were used as a source of cash when there is a surplus from household consumption. Management of income from different commodities in Metema district is summarized in table 7. Considering the overall interviewed farmers, income obtained from crop sale was managed by both husband and wife (60.5%) or husband alone (34.0%). Lower proportion (5.5%) of sampled farmers reported that income from crop sale was managed by wife. This being the over all picture, notable differences observed when comparing the rural and urban residents.For example, the role of husband in managing cash income from crop sale was considerably high in cotton based (32.2%) and sesame based (40%) rural communities than in Gendawuha town where this aspect was almost entirely taken care by both spouses (Table 7). The same is true in managing cash income from animal sale. Both spouses participated in managing cash income from sell of animals in 69% and 53.5% of households in cotton based and sesame based rural areas, respectively, yet the sole participation of husband alone was quite considerable ,i.e., 27.6% and 39.6%, respectively, in cotton based and sesame based systems (Table 7). Unlike the two rural areas, in Gendawuha town, this aspect was almost entirely taken care by both spouses (93.1%) and the sole participation of husbands alone was quite negligible (6.9%). As opposed to the other sources, the role of wives in managing cash income from sell of butter is quite considerable and the role of participation of husbands alone is negligible. For example, both spouses participated in the management in 75% of cotton based and 42.2% of sesamebased households and yet wives alone taken care the income in 15.9% and 49.4% of the households, respectively in the mentioned rural areas. Where as, in Gendawuha town, this was again the job of both spouses in all households (Table 7).In general, these findings elucidate the fact that the role of woman in handling and managing major cash sources can not be under estimated in Metema district compared to several societies and cultures in other parts of the country, particularly in highland areas, where woman possess decisive role in managing only minor income sources such as sell of eggs, chicken and butter. Where as, cash generated from major commodities such as sell of crops and larger animals (cattle and small ruminants) is entirely handled and managed by husbands alone (Ayantu, 2006).Livestock compositions of the sampled households in Metema district are presented in table 8.From the overall interviewed households, it can be seen that the livestock species observed in Metema district were composed of cattle (56.6%), goats (22.7%), sheep (4.1 %), donkeys (3.2%), camels (0.1%) and chicken (13.2%) (Table 8). However, the composition differed in the three areas. Cattle were more dominant in cotton based (60.6%) and sesame based (57.4%) than in Gendawuha town (47.6%). On the other hand, goats and sheep were found in greater proportion in the town than in the two rural communities (Table 8).In Metema the genotype of cattle were entirely indigenous zebu cattle and crosses with temperate cattle breeds were totally lacking. The reasons why the sample farmers highly depended on indigenous cattle type were lack of technological awareness and inaccessibility of getting improved genotypes. As reported by the farmers, the indigenous cattle types dominantly found in Metema district were locally known as \"Agew\", \"Simada\" and \"Fogera\" crosses and probably the naming referred to the places from where the cattle originated. In addition to these cattle types, minor proportions of \"Ruthana\" and \"Felata\" cattle types were also available in the marginal areas of the district (Metema-Yohans, Shinfa, Gubay-Jejebit and Tumet-Menduka kebels). These two cattle types were believed to be native to Sudan and Niger, respectively. Out of the average total cattle holding per household cows (4.8 heads/HH) and 2 calves (5.01 heads/HH) were found significantly higher than the other herd types (Table 9). Following these heifers were found in considerable number (2.16 heads/HH), because households keep them for replacement purposes. Overall, there is a significant difference in herd composition of household cattle holding (F= 6.327, P= 0.000) (Appendix table 6). The dairy herd (cows, calves, and replacement heifers) dominated the cattle holding of households (Table 9). Oxen are also found in considerable number (1.87/HH) as the farmers need them for ploughing.Young intact bulls rather than steers are mostly demanded in markets across the border of Sudan and families keep intact young bulls without castrating them. Breeding bulls composed the least herd structure of households as there are shared among households in the community for breeding purpose. Overall, the proportion of cows (30.45%) out of the entire dairy herd is lower compared to the reported value for national average (42%) (Azage and Alemu, 1998).As opposed to the present work, lower proportion (24.3%) of cows was reported around Debre Birhan (Greysee, 1988). Calves are the other most important cattle herd group in the district.Farmers in study area ensured the replacement stock from the proportion of calves (32.29%) followed by heifers (13.90%). The proportion indicates that there is a good potential source for the replacement stock of the herds, which will be lost because of environmental stress and culling. Out of the total number of calves in the interviewed households, 683 (50.44%) were males, while 671 (49.55%) were female.The distribution of dry and milking cows in cotton based, sesame based farming system and Gendawuha town areas are presented in table 10. The average milking cow holding in Gendawuha town (3.8±0.634) was higher than holdings in cotton based (3.3±0.261) and in sesame based (2.8±0.183) farming system areas. However, the differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05) (Appendix table 7). Among farmers that had long experience of cattle rearing, proportionately greater percentage dwell in Gendawuha (83.3%) and in cotton based (74.6%) than in sesame based (62.6%)farming system (Table 11). By contrast, relatively fewer farmers had recent experience of cattle rearing in Gendawuha and in cotton based farming system than sesame based farming system. For example, 10.6% of sample farmers had < 3 years of experience in sesame based compared to 3.4% in cotton based farming system and none in Gendawuha town (Table 11).Like wise, 26.8% of sample farmers had 4-5 years of experience in sesame based compared to 22.2% in cotton based farming system and 16.7% in Gendawuha town (Table 11). This indicates that a cattle rearing is a relatively recent venture in sesame based than in cotton based farming system and Gendawuha town. As explained earlier, highlanders were settled first in cotton-based farming system areas and further advanced to Gendawuha town and sesame based farming system areas, as the former is relatively cooler than the latter areas. Even during the survey time, new settlements were observed in different of sesame based farming system kebles. Overall, most farmers in Metema district had more than 10 years of experience in cattle rearing (67.5%). Relatively fewer farmers started cattle husbandry quite recently. For instance, 24.6% of sample farmers had 4-5 years of experience in cattle rearing and 7.8% had < 3 years of experience (Table 11). When the experience of households in cattle rearing was compared, significant difference were observed between the two farming systems (χ 2 = 8.329, P = 0.016).During the survey period, when respondents were asked about their experience of cattle husbandry, verbally they were responding as having long time experience, extending many generations back. Where as, when they were asked to convert this in to years, those that responded as having long experiences said more than ten years. This gave a notion that, a greater than 10 years of experience may refer to a much longer period than 10 years.Therefore, greater than 10 years of experience category would better be understood as a longer period than what the figure shows. Nonetheless, such limitation was not observed regarding the shorter periods of experiences (< 5 years) as farmers were quite capable of recalling the shorter durations easily. In this regard, it was noted that the farmers were able to recall even the exact year since they started rearing was shorter than 5 years.Major objectives of cattle rearing in Metema district is presented in table 12. According to the interviewed farmers, livestock were kept to fulfill multipurpose function, amongst of which the main functions were as a source of milk and milk products (48.9%), income (26.9%) and draft power (24.3%). On the other hand, the role of cattle to provide other commodities such as manure, meat, hide and skin were considered as secondary in the area.  13). As a matter of fact, difference in degree of utilization of these feeds among the three studied locations was trivial. In addition to the major feeds resources, farmers also used by-product feeds to a lesser extent, and these included local oil extract by-products (sesame cake), Niger seed cake and local brewery products. The result obtained in the study area were more or less comparable with the research conducted in the highlands of north and west Shoa zones, where natural grazing, crop residues and hay make the basal diet of livestock (Agajie et al., 2002).Natural pasture is the first and the most common feed resources used for all livestock species during wet and dry seasons. Natural pasture in the studied area was entirely communally owned. Farmers also provide their animals with leaves of trees locally called chara towards the end of the dry season during when the pasture deteriorate with in quality and quantity.During the group discussion, it was pointed out that the availability of livestock feed was influenced by season. For example, in wet season (June-November), households entirely depended on natural green pasture. This is because, in wet season, there was ample grazing pasture through out the district. Where as, in dry season (December-May), natural pasture dries up and becomes standing hay and animals graze up on this. Therefore, farmers during this time supplement their animals with hay, crop residues, tree foliage and to some extent with concentrates. As discussed above, tree foliage composed a significant portion of the livestock feed towards the end of the dry season (beginning of the wet season) and to a lesser extent during the end of the wet season. In addition, almost in all parts of the district, burning of natural pasture is a common practice due to accidental and / or purposeful firing. As indicated in table 13, crop residues composed the second important feed source for livestock in Metema district. Sorghum stover is equally important in cotton based and sesame based farming systems and Gendawuha town (Table 14). This is because sorghum is one of the dominant crops produced in the three studied areas. Considerably higher proportions of Maize stover was used around Gendawha town (96.7%) and in cotton based farming system (66.7%), but its contribution was relatively low in sesame based farming system areas. Teff and millet straw were relatively less important as residue feeds compared to the stovers, but their contribution can not be underestimated in cotton based areas where these crops are produced to a considerable amount (Table 14). The experience of haymaking and reasons forwarded by the households for not practicing hay making in Metema are presented in table 15. The proportion of households that practiced hay making in sesame based farming system (70.9%) was lower compared to households in cotton based farming system (86.0%) and Gendawuha town (86.7%). The farmers were asked why haymaking was not practiced well and replied that higher proportion of inhabitants in sesame based farming system (48.0%) was due to lack of experience than in cotton based farming system (14.3%) and none in Gendawuha town. Overall, out of the total households interviewed, 75% of the sampled farmers exercised forage conservation in the form of hay, while 24.1% of sample farmers did not practiced haymaking. This shows that considerable proportion of households (one fourth) did not at all practice haymaking. Even among those who practiced haymaking, most of them produced small quantity of hay. On the other hand, there is usually excess pasture growth during wet seasons and since the natural pastures are wide, the amount of pasture produced during the wet season is usually much more than the amount grazed by the animals.  As shown in table 15, the main reasons why the farmers did not practice hay making were lack of experience (41.7%) and availability of stand dried hay (33.3%). The latter reason may appear convincing, however the quality of stand dried hay is much inferior than hay produced by cutting the herbage at the right stage of maturity. As a result, if farmers are given the necessary training, a lot of the pasture can be conserved in to hay rather than left to dry up in to low quality standing hay, which eventually is burned and wasted, as it is the case in all parts of the district. So due consideration should be given to accustom the farmers to hay making as it can substantially improve the feeding situation of livestock during the dry season. It is even important to go beyond providing farmers with simple illustration of haymaking practice and help them to have access to the use of machinery that can mow and carry the mowed grass from distant communal pasture to homestead. It is probably lack of this kind of tool, which hindered the practice of large-scale haymaking, despite the availability of excess pasture in the wet season. Since the resource base is available in the area (cattle, pasture), if such a technology could be introduced to the community (either in the form of credit) , it is possible to boost up cattle husbandry as farmers become encouraged to expand their holdings and eventually specialize in to large scale commercialized producers.During the group discussion, it was pointed out that concentrates used in the area were oilseed cake (purchased from Gondar town), sesame cakes (by-products of local oil extraction) and sorghum seed (roasted and none roasted). In general, concentrates were given to emaciated dairy cattle (cows, calves) and to cattle that were fattened in newly established smallholderfattening farms (oxen, steers).Mineral salt was commonly given for livestock in wet season. However, as reported by the sampled farmers, because of the hot climate and the scarcity of forage resources, animals were not given salts during the dry season. As gathered from key informants, salt is given to enhance feed consumption, initiate cows to be in heat and increase milk production. The frequency of providing salt for livestock depended on the capacity of the households and it ranged between 15 and 30 days.River (running water) is the main sources of water for livestock (88.8%) in Metema area than other sources (Table 16). On the other hand, river water users were proportionately less in cotton based areas than in the other two sampled locations. According to farmers report, rivers used in cotton based farming system are mostly ephemeral and dry up early during the dry season. Thus, there is critical shortage of water sources in this farming system, and households alleviate the problem by digging wells. As a result, considerable proportion of inhabitants (26.7%) in cotton based areas used wells water as compared to those in sesame based farming system (10.2%) and Gendawuha town (6.7%) (Table 16). In sesame based farming system, although the rivers are ephemeral, most areas are flat plain and the drying rivers leave behind ponds that remain active for extended period and can be used as water sources during most of the dry season. Nonetheless, water shortage is critical in both farming systems during the dry season.The overall result showed that out of the total number of sampled respondents (N=269), 67.7% responded as there was no water problem, where as the rest (32.3%) responded as there was water problem during the dry season (Table 16). Comparing the three areas, nearly half of the respondents in cotton based areas responded as experiencing water shortage while the proportions were about one in three and one in four for the sesame areas and Gendawuha town, respectively (Table 16). This indicates that water shortage was critical in cotton based areas, although the problem prevail in all the three areas Overall, the majority (90.5%) of households were provided water for livestock once a day in wet season, while lower proportion of households provided water twice a day (Table 17).Where as in dry season, the majority (69.2%) of households provided water twice daily and 19.4% and 11.5% watered their animals once and three times per day, respectively (Table 17).Most of the households expressed unreliability of river water as rivers tended to dry during the dry season. The overall average distance to watering points from the camping area was 3.1±0.15 km (Table 17). * CBFS = Cotton based farming system, ** SBFS = Sesame based farming system, HHC = Household countThe experience of housing for different livestock species in Metema district is presented in table 18. In Metema district, all farmers used open fenced barn that did not have roofing to shelter larger livestock like cattle (except calves), camel and donkey during night time . On the other hand, most of the farmers (95.5%) kept their calves and small ruminants in closed barns that had roof cover (Table 18). The latter types of houses were separate huts in which the upper part of the wall was entirely open sided for maximum ventilation and the roof was made of grass tachet. The floor of the house was simply compacted soil or earthen floor with out any kind of pavement. Provision of closed barns for calves and small ruminants varied from place to place. Overall calves were most favored (92.6%) in getting roofed night time shelter followed by goats (57.8%), while sheep were least favored, i e., only 9 % of the households provided this type of night shelter for sheep (Table 18) .According to the interviewed farmers, sheep can tolerate chills conditions as well as rain than goats or calves and can be kept in roofless fenced barn together with larger livestock during night time. Regarding the reasons for not using roofed shelter for larger livestock, majority of respondents (72.4%) said that they did not accustomed to keep larger livestock in roofed houses, some 16% also said that they are not stationed in a fixed location to provide permanently fixed closed barn while few (7.1%) replied that such kind of housing make the animals hardy and tolerant to harsh situations, which they may face when they are moved to distant pasture grounds. Still there were few (3.7%) who replied as having large herd and could not afford roofed houses for all animals (Table 18). Farmers in the studied areas reported that breeding system was entirely natural mating using local type bulls available in the area. Usage of AI service or exotic breed bull station that provide breeding bull service were entirely lacking due to the absence of technological intervention to introduce foreign (improved) breed in the area. Over all, 65.8% of the farmers had intention and excersized practicing to select bulls for breeding and the rest one third lefttheir cows for open mating with no concern for selecting bull however, variations exist from area to area (Table 19). More households (75.0%) in cotton based farming system practiced in bull selection than in sesame based farming system (64.8%) and Gendawuha town (53.3%). In households that practiced selective mating, the criteria were milk yield, body conformation, color and breeding potential (listed in the order of importance) (Table 19).Proportionately more inhabitants used their own bull for breeding in cotton based farming system (47.1%) than Gendawuha town (26.5%) and sesame based farming system (19.2%) (Table 19). On the other hand, proportionately more households either borrowed neighbor's bull or relied on open mating in sesame based area (45.2% and 35.6%, respectively) and Gendawuha town (29.4% and 44.1%, respectively). Usage of own breeding bull for mating purpose may be associated to the size of cattle holding. According to key informants, households that possessed large cattle holdings afforded their own breeding bull. In general, overall result showed that most of the inhabitants (73.0%) in Metema district did not have their own bulls. Thus, they relied on bulls that belonged to their neighbors from the village (39.5%) or left their cows for open mating at communal grazing (33.5%). As gathered from farmers, charging for breeding bull service is uncommon in Metema district. The type of indigenous breed bull preferred for mating and reasons for discriminating one against the other are summarized in table 20. Proportionately more inhabitants (15.2%) in sesame based farming system preferred Ruthana (Sudan origin) cattle type for breeding than in Gendawuha town (6.7%) in order to get traits like milk yield, large frame size, traction power, where as there was no inhabitants in cotton based farming system preferred Ruthana cattle. This is because of the availability of Ruthana cattle in sesame based farming system gives a chance to be well awared by the residents (Table 20). Results from the group discussion indicated that milk yield potential, body framework, color and behavior were used alternatively as a selection criterion for the breeding bull. Red, white, mixture of red and white colors were highly selected, where as black color was not selected for breeding purpose. A breeding bull, which has big frame size, good behavior for management and good milk producing ability was selected for breeding. How ever, a breeding bull, which has low milk producing heredity, could be selected if it has a good body framework and attractive color.Reports from group discussion showed that cattle breeding (conception, calving) was highly dependent on the season of the year. The month from June to August coincided with wet season during when abundant and nutritious fodder is available in the natural pasture. Where as, January to May is a dry period, when the natural pasture dries up and become poorly nutritive, particularly deficient in nitrogen content. Thus, the reproductive pattern of cows followed the seasonal pattern of rainfall, which tended to influence nutrition. Therefore, in most instances, cattle in dry season do not come in heat because of feed shortage and environmental stresses (hot environmental condition). At the onset of rains, grasses and leaves of plants start to revive and the improved feeding situation initiate heifers and cows to be ready for breeding. As a result, the time June, July and August marked the months of heightened breeding in the studied areas followed by September to December, although the intensity of breeding activity was reduced during the latter period.Major cattle diseases in cotton based, sesame based farming system and Gendawuha town is presented in table 21. Out of the total households sampled, 86% reported disease occurrence as a major problem of cattle production in the area (Table 21). However, the intensity and type of diseases varied from area to area. Proportionately more households (94.9%) reported disease occurrence in cotton based than in Gendawuha town (86.2%) and in sesame based farming system (83.8%) and the difference is nearly significant (χ 2 = 3.6, P = 0.06). Inhabitants in cotton based farming system areas complained that the transhumant from the highland areas during their entry and exit could have a chance of disease transmission to their cattle and this way explain the reason why high disease incidences was observed high prevalence in cotton based compared to the other two areas.  Based on the over all data, three types of diseases were identified as major health problem of cattle in Metema district and these involved tick infestation (37.2%), babesiosis (31.6%), Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) (15.6%) (Table 21). In addition, other diseases reported with minor degree of importance includes, Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) (6.9%), blackleg (5.6%), trypanosomosis (1.7%), mastitis (0.9%) and oedema (0.4%). This being the over all situation, notable differences were observed regarding the type of diseases prevailing in the three areas.For example, considering the major diseases, babesiosis was reported as the major threat in cotton based areas (57.1%) and to a considerable extent in sesame based (27.3%), where as no occurrence of this disease was reported in Gendawuha town (Table 21). On the other hand, tick infestation was a major problem in Gendawuha town (68.0%) and sesame based areas (40.0%) than in cotton-based areas (16.1%). The occurrence of FMD was fairly comparable in the three areas.In order to minimize the economic losses due to diseases, farmers used different control and prevention measures for most of the diseases, as summarized in table 22 There are governmental veterinary clinic and lately started private veterinary drug vendors at Gendawuha town. Governmental clinics were categorized in to main clinic, satellite clinic and paravets. There was one main clinic located at Gendawuha town and two-satellite clinics located at Shinfa and Kokit Kebles, while the paravets were located at some other Kebles' of the district. Government clinic provides veterinary examination and treatment at the clinics. In addition, the clinic provides vaccination services moving from Keble to Keble when there is disease outbreak. The paravets at Keble level provide veterinary service at their village. The paravets were trained and supplied with drugs and vet equipments with the assistance of Integrated Livestock Development Project (ILDP) project.During group discussion, it was pointed out that livestock health problem was not fully addressed, because of inadequate veterinary service provided through out the district.Government officials in the district also anticipate the problem and attribute it to shortage of veterinary expertise and related facilities. Since disease is one of the major threats of livestock production in the district, livestock health management in Metema district as a whole needs due attention.Inhabitants in Gendawuha town (76.6%) and majority (56.7%) in cotton based farming areas utilize manure for different purposes, where as the proportion that utilizes manure in sesamebased areas (39.35) was less (Table 23). Maize and pepper are mostly produced in cotton based farming system areas and around Gendawuha town and these two crops need soil, which is fertilized with manure. As a result, manure was efficiently utilized in these two areas than in sesame-based areas. Overall, most of the inhabitants (52.6%) in Metema district did not use manure for fertilization or other purposes such as fuel source (Table 23).Over all data in table 23 shows that among farmers that make use of cattle dung, 83.2% the produced manure was used as manure fertilizer, while insignificant proportion was used as fuel (1.3%) or other purposes (2.6%). Thus, even among the users, 12% of the produced manure was wasted. In general, manure in the studied areas seems unimportant and wasted because of the availability of easily accessible fuel wood as well as farmers rely on its natural fertility of the soil. According to key informants, the natural fertility of the soil has not been exhausted.Thus, with the exception of crops like maize and pepper, farmers do not normally apply manure for crops like cotton or sesame. In the latter case, farmers usually abstain farming for 1-3 years to rehabilitate soil when the yield decreases.   shows the newly fenced crash for the coming days, while B shows the fertilized back yard for some number of days before.Labor allocation involved in cattle herding, barn cleaning, milking, fermented milk churning and butter selling in Metema district are summarized in table 24. In Gendawuha town, herding was mainly performed by hired labor as compared to cotton-based and sesame based farming system, in which this activity mostly taken care by male children and/or husbands (Table 24). This is probably because of the town residents afford to pay for hired labors than farmers in rural communities. During the group discussion, it was pointed out that most of the farmers in the area used hired labor for livestock herding during wet season. This is perhaps due to family labor is engaged in other agricultural activities. On the other hand, since most of the crops are harvested during the dry season, household heads also participate in herding. Overall, herding is more of hired labor responsibility (46.7%) than male children and/or husbands. As opposed A B regular selling activity (in bits) is usually taken care by wives and husbands involve during bulk sale. * CBFS = Cotton based farming system, ** SBFS = Sesame based farming system, HHC = Household count. The percentage was calculated from the frequency of households.Average daily milk yield produced per cow in sesame based farming system (2.01±0.058) and in Gendawuha town (2.1±0.092) were significantly higher (P<0.05) than in cotton based farming system (1.4± 0.052) (Table 25, Appendix table 8).The overall average milk off-take of indigenous cows in the study area was about 1.9± 0.045 liter/cow/day (Table 25). As indicated in the methodology section, empirical record was taken from selected cows regarding the volume of milk produced during the wet season. Based on the empirical recorded data the average volume of milk off take/cow/day estimated as 2.5±0.17 liters and had a difference of 0.6 liter with the estimate of farmers. This shows that the average estimate derived from the survey data did not seriously deviate from the estimate obtained from empirically recorded data. Thus, the survey data can be considered as a reasonable approximation and fairly dependable result. The value obtained in the current study is more or less comparable with the average daily milk off-take of local cows was 2 liters (Brokken and Senait, 1992). By contrast, Lemma et al. (2005) reported lower average milk off-take (1.0 liter) for local Arsi cows in East Shoa Zone of Oromia.The average lactation yield obtained in Gendawuha town (590.5±37.028) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than in sesame based (314.7±9.838) and in cotton based farming system (217.7±10.305). In addition, the difference between the latter two areas was significant ( As indicated in table 25, the average weaning age of calves in Gendawuha town was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the average weaning age values obtained in cotton based and sesame based farming system but differences between the latter two was comparable (Table 25, Appendix table 8). The overall weaning age of calves in the studied area was 9.9 ± 0.283 months (Table 25).As indicated in table 25, mean AFC of cows in cotton based farming system was significantly (P<0.05) higher than in sesame based farming system, while that of cows in Gendawuha town was comparable with cows in both cotton based and sesame based farming system areas As indicated in table 25, in the present study, calving interval significantly differed (P<0.05) in the three areas (Appendix table 8). The mean calving interval of cows in cotton based farming system and sesame based farming system areas was comparable but the mean value for cows in Gendawuha town was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the values obtained in the two rural areas of Metema (Table 25). This is perhaps because of the higher lactation length observed in Gendawuha town than the other two farming system areas. The overall mean CI of indigenous cows in the studied area was 17. 97±0.313 months ( Despite the presence of considerable goat and camel population in Metema district (Table 8), farmers milked and used only cow's milk. By contrast, most pastoralists in such lowlands and marginal areas else where in the country are accustomed to use goat and camel milk. The reason why the studied communities were not familiar with using goat and camel milk could be the fact that they were descendants of highlanders who were unaccustomed to raising camel and goats for milking purpose and thus unfamiliar to use milk from these animals. This may explain the fact that the highland migrants did not live long time in Metema to become accustomed to use the milk of goats, which is a common milk animal in the lowland.Farmers reported that milking in Metema district was performed two times a day i.e., during morning and evening hours. Morning milking took place between 6:00 and 7:00 o'clock, before biting flies affecting the cows. Where as, evening milking took place between 18:00 and 20:00 o'clock after flies stops biting the cows. The present result is in agreement with the result in East Showa, where milking takes place twice a day (Lemma et al., 2005). As opposed to this Ayantu (2006) noted that milking was commonly done three times per day around Wolayta.The type of milking system in Metema district was entirely hand milking (Table 26). Overall, most households practiced once partial suckling (77.1%) than twice-partial suckling (9.9%) while milking their cows, however this varied from place to place (Table 26). For example, more inhabitants in sesame based farming system practiced once-partial suckling (88.5%) than in cotton based farming system (69.0%), where considerable proportion also practiced twicepartial suckling (20.7%) than in the former area. In case of Gendawuha town, most farmers (73.3%) used both systems, while some (26.7%) still practiced once partial suckling method during milking (Table 26). Unlike such observable differences, interviewed farmers believed that this practice is not linked to location differences, it is rather related to the custom of individuals in extracting as much more milk as possible. Individuals that practiced twicepartial suckling reason out that some cows stop letting down milk and retain for their calves, if they are suckled once and milked. Thus, they argue that suckling once more in between initiates the cows to release more milk, which they holdback for the calves.  26). The present finding was in agreement with the report of Gebre-Egziabher et al. (2000), who noted that calf suckling results in higher milk yield and long lactation length of the dam as well as higher weaning weight and pre weaning gain of the calf.As gathered from key informants, households do not practice complete milking during the time following calving and this is meant to benefit the newly born calves get enough milk until the calf commences feeding grass. Thus, milking was performed in three steps depending up on the stage of lactation. According to farmers estimate, during the early stage of lactation following after calving, 25% of the milk was taken until the calf become strong. After the calf become strong, 50% of the milk was withdrawn until the calf start to feed grass. There after, complete milking was done when the calf commenced feeding grass.The types of milk vessels used in the three studied locations are presented in table 27. In all inhabitants in cotton based and sesame based farming system and most inhabitants (96.7%) in Gendawuha town used a milking equipment called 'gerera' (Amharic name) for milking.Overall, 99.0% of the respondents used gerera as a milking equipment, while the remaining (2.2%) of the respondents were using small nickel and plastic materials. Gerera is an important milk vessel, which is pot like and made from fruits of the plant called Lagenaria siceraria (Qele -in Amharic). When the fruits of the mentioned plant ripe, the out side fruit cover becomes hard and shelly. Then drying the ripe fruits and removing the seeds from inside, gives shelly pot, which is quite hard and strong. It can hold up to 1-5 liters (Figure 3). Overall, fresh milk was transported from the milking location to the temporary shelter or permanent residence of the farmers with gerera (76.6%) and plastic jerican (35.1%), while few sample farmers used gurna (4.3%) and kabbo (2.1%) to transport milk (Table 27). In most instances, kabob and gurna were used for transportation of milk in sesame based than cotton based farming system. Gurna and kabob are also made from the fruits of Lagenaria siceraria plant like that of gerera but they are larger in size than gerera (Figure 3).Overall, the highest proportions (61.1% and 54.7%) of the sample farmers were using gurna and kabbo to store milk for fermentation, respectively. Where as, the remaining lower proportion (1.1%) of sample farmers were using plastic jerican containers (Table 27). Note that the percentages of the households who are using milk vessels were calculated from the interviewed number of households. * CBFS = Cotton based farming system, ** SBFS = Sesame based farming system, HHC = Household countAs indicated in table 27, the highest proportion (98.9%) of the sample farmers in all categories were using gurna for churning fermented milk, while the remaining lower proportions (6.4%, 3.2% and 1.1%) of sample farmers were using grera, kabbo and plastic jerican, respectively.According to the key informants, in most instances butter was transported to market using plastic jerican (containing 5 liters). Glass Jar bottle was used for measuring butter at the market, considering that one bottle of butter is equivalent to 1 liter, it approximately weighed one kg.Nearly all inhabitants in cotton based, sesame based farming system and Gendawuha town areas smoked milk vessels as a traditional preservative method to improve the taste and quality of milk and milk products (Table 28).Overall, seven different types of plants were used in Metema area for smoking milk vessels, amongst of which three plants were commonly employed for smoking purposes. These include Terminalia schimperiana (Abbalo) (98.5%), Terminalia laxiflora (Wenbela) (40.2%), Gorgoro (33.2%) and Dichrostachys cinerea (Ader) (12.7%) (Table 28). This being the overall situation, choice of smoking plant was considerably different in the three areas. For example, the choice of T. schimperiana plant in all the three locations was nearly comparable. On the other hand, in Gendawuha town area, majority of households (75.0%) used Terminalia laxiflora (wenbela) than in sesame based (37.9%) and cotton based farming systems (29.6%) (Table 28). In general, the study indicated that households in sesame based farming system area were more versatile in their choice of smoking plant than those in the cotton based farming system and Gendawuha town.Prior to smoking, the equipments were thoroughly washed using fruits of a plant locally known as \"Lifa\" and were sun dried for about five to ten minutes. According to respondents, milk vessels were smoked for the purpose of getting pleasant flavor and taste of dairy products, extende shelf life of dairy products, bacteriostatic effect, and slow milk fermentation process. As gathered from key informants, well smoking of milk vesseles will slow down fermentation process and this in return gives higher butter yield as compared to carelessly smoked vessels or unsmoked vessels. However, this needs scientific explanation in the future by conducting a research.  9). Where as, the average milk volume produced/HH in Gendawuha town (10.0±1.157 liters) was significantly (P<0.05) higher than in the two farming system areas. This may be attributed to higher average holding of milking cows in Gendawuha town than in the two framing system areas. The overall average volume of milk produced/day/HH was 6.3±0.33 liters and ranged from 1 to 32.5 liters (Table 29). Daily milk yield per household (3.0 liters) were reported in East Shoa Zone of Oromia (Lemma et al., 2005), as well as in Shahsemene-Dilla areas (1.97±0.24 liters to 2.84±0.28 liters) (Sintayehu, 2007). On the other hand, higher daily milk yield (25.1 liters) was reported in Awassa (Ike, 2002), but the studied cows were crosses of Holestien Freshian and this may happen the increased milk production of households.As indicated in table 29, milk utilization pattern of households is similar in the three studied areas. Overall, 63% of the milk produced by the household was reserved for subsequent processing, 18% was consumed with in the household, while 13.2% was given to calves (Table 29). Other than these, minor quantities of fresh whole milk were given to neighbors (4.8%), calf herders (5.4%) or marketed (0.4%). Fresh milk utilization pattern in Metema area more or less resembled that of observed in highland rural areas of Amhara region, and some rural highland communities in the country, where the preponderance of the daily milk production is processed in to butter and other milk derivatives. For example, a report by Aklilu (2004) indicated that in Amhara region, out of the estimated total amount of 493 million liters of milk produced on a daily basis, 57.5% was processed in to butter and other milk derivatives. Similarly, according to Lemma et al. (2005), in East Shoa Zone of Oromia Region, large proportion of the daily milk production (83.3%) was processed and some amount (16.7%) was consumed with in the house. Again the latter study indicated, more or less a similar pattern of utilization as in the presently studied areas, although the proportion retained for further processing is fairly higher than in the presently studied areas.In Metema area, as in the case of the mentioned rural highlands areas, inhabitants largely depended on crop products as a stable food and do not relay on milk as a major source of food for the household. Therefore, they process it in to butter and sell it. In view of this, althoughMetema is arid marginal area, it shares more of the highlanders feature than that of lowland marginal areas, where pastoralists largely depend on fresh milk as a sole source of food for their families. For example, a study in Borena area of Ethiopia indicated that 69% of the total milk off take was used for household consumption as fresh and 24% was stored and soured to make butter (Coppock et al., 1992).The present study also indicated that the amount of milk consumed with in the family was considerably higher than even urban and peri-urban areas where farmers have largely crossbred cows that produce fairly high amount of milk compared to the locals in Metema. For example, Negussie (2006) reported that only 4% of the daily produced fresh milk was consumed with in the household in peri-urban/urban areas of Mekele. Also, unlike in Metema, in urban and peri-urban areas, the proportion of fresh milk soured and processed into butter and other milk derivatives is low. For instance in Mekele, only 1% of the daily milk production is processed (Negussie, 2006) and in peri-urban and intra urban areas of Addis Ababa, the proportion processed was 20% and 3%, respectively (Belachew, 1998). In such urban and peri-urban areas, there is relatively adequate market that can absorb the daily milk production in fresh form except during certain occasions when the market cannot absorb the produced milk, in which case farmers are forced to sour the milk and convert it into butter and cheese. Such occasions are for example, extended fasting periods for followers of Orthodox Church during when consumption of animal source food is abstained.As indicated in table 29, the farmer estimated about 13% of the daily milk production was given to calves and this is what the calves suckle during milking. This indicates that farmers in the studied areas give better management for calves. A similar practice is also exercised in and around Addis Ababa where 12% to 13% of the daily produce was provided for calves (Belachew, 1998), as well as in Mekele where 17% of whole milk obtained daily was used for calf feeding (Negussie, 2006).As a matter of fact, the market share of fresh whole milk in Metema area was almost negligible (Table 29), not only because of market problem, but also because of cultural restriction against sell of fresh whole milk. Thus, the preponderance proportion of fresh milk is processed or consumed at household level (by family, neighbors, calves) leaving little or no whole milk market. Previous studies conducted in different parts of the country, also indicated the presence of cultural taboo against selling fresh whole milk in different cultures. For example, a study by Lemma et al. (2005) indicated that about 96.7% of the respondents in Adami Tulu and Arsi Negelle as well as about 93.3% in Lume districts did not sell fresh milk largely due to cultural taboo and market limitation. On the other hand, cultural restriction against selling whole milk does not exist in urban and peri-urban communities. For example, a report around Mekele indicated that high proportion (78%) of milk obtained was sold in fresh form (Negussie, 2006).As shown in Table 30, utilization pattern of naturally fermented milk (Ergo) fairly similar in the three studied areas. Overall, about 75% of ergo was reserved for butter processing and some 20% was consumed with in the household. Slightly higher proportion of ergo was given to neighbors in Gendawuha town (10%) than in sesame based (6%) or cotton based areas (4%),where selling ergo was uncommon as in the case of fresh milk (Table 30). Fresh milk, fermented milk and major part of the produced butter was consumed with in the household than marketed, although notable difference were observed among the three areas (Table 30). The proportion of butter consumed with in the household was higher in Gendawuha town (70.0%) than in cotton based (49.5%) and sesame based (59.0%) farming system areas (Table 30). On the other hand, the proportion of marketed butter was higher in cotton based (33.4%) and in sesame based (25.4%) farming system areas than in Gendawuha town (3.5%). This is probably due to the fact that most inhabitants in Gendawuha town had Time taken for milk fermentation, butter yield and length of butter storage in different locations is presented in table 31. As in the case of milk processing in different rural areas of Ethiopia, farmers in Metema district fermented fresh whole milk into sour milk prior to churning. During the group discussion, farmers reasoned out why they fermented milk prior to processing it into butter and other milk derivatives. Firstly, they said fermenting milk facilitate butter making process as it is impossible to recover butter if the milk is not soured. Secondly, they said sour milk gives pleasant flavor and good taste for the different milk products and added that the flavor and taste is enjoyable when milk is consumed in the form of Ergo, buttermilk and butter as well. Apart from the taste and flavor, they also considered fermentation is a necessary prerequisite to obtain other milk derivatives like butter milk, cheese and whey. Thirdly, they also pointed out that fermentation increases the shelf life of the processed products like butter and cheese.In the study area, the average fermentation time of milk was 26.53±1.23 hours in dry season and 34.9±0.82 hours in wet season (Table 31). Higher ambient temperature during the dry season fastens the fermentation process and thus shortens the duration of fermentation time in the dry season.Before the churning process was started, the fermented milk was shaken and broken down the coagulated milk in order to facilitate easily transfer of milk into the churning pot and ease of churning. As farmers reported, churning methods were different depending on the volume of fermented milk. If the amount of fermented milk was small, churning done on the floor using pot (placing soft pads or some old clothes under churning pot) and the pot was racked back and forth until butter granules were formed. In addition to this, gerera was also used as a pot if the volume of fermented milk is small. Where as, if the fermented milk was large, a larger pot called gurna was used as a churning pot. Then a tripod (Mekahale-in Amharic) was made and the pot was hanged with rope on the tripod and swung back and forth until butter granules were formed. As an alternative, a doorpost was used to hang the churning pot (Figure 5).  While churning, the gas formed in the pot was released from time to time by removing a small wooden plug, which is found at the center of the lid or side way of the churner for few minutes until the pressure inside the pot was totally withdraw. Also, the wooden plug was pulled out to release a few drops of milk and to check whether butter granules have formed or not.Accordingly, the drop was rubbed in between the thumbs and pointing finger and inspected if fats granules have appeared or not. Thus, up on noting fat granules some amount of water (up to half a liter) was added into the churning pot to float the butter granules and the churn was swayed on its base to float the fat granules and form lumps of butter. Then, the butter was skimmed off, kneaded in cold water and washed to remove residual buttermilk.As indicated in table 31, based on data collected from farmers, the amount of milk required to produce one kg of butter was 17.7±0.66 liters in dry season and 20.3±0.36 liters in wet season.As indicated in the methodology section, empirical record was taken from 15 selected households regarding the volume of milk churned at a time and amount of butter produced during the wet season. Based on the empirical recorded data the average volume of milk needed to produce one kg of butter was estimated as 17.6±0.10 liters. Since this estimate corresponded to wet season, the value was compared with the wet season estimate of farmers and the difference was 2.7 liters. This shows that the average estimate derived from the survey data did not seriously deviate from the estimate obtained from empirically recorded data. Thus, the survey data can be considered as a reasonable approximation and fairly dependable result.As noted Zelalem and Inger ( 2000), in the central high lands of Ethiopia, 21-25 kg of milk was required to produce 1kg of butter and this value was fairly large compared to the estimate obtained in the present study.Churning was usually preferred early in the morning when the temperature was cool. Farmers reasoned out that high ambient temperature melts the butter and lowers the amount of butter recovered after churning. From the overall data, most of the sample farmers (83.33% and 59.54%) churned their fermented milk every 24 hours interval in dry and wet season, respectively (Table 32). The farmers reported that high ambient temperature and fermented milk volume were factors to decide on how often to churn.  In the studied areas, farmers customarily melted and seasoning it with spices that they use for household consumption and stored. Other wise, if the butter is to be sold, it is stored in the form of ghee. During ghee making, the butter was melted in a nickel pan (\"Biret Dist\", Amharic name) and heated on open fire. Different spices were added while the melting progressed and in most instances these included Trigonella foenum-graecum, Allium sateivum, Zingiber officinale, Rumex abyssinicus, Aframomum corrorima, and Allium cepa. The spices were added to improve the taste, color, smell and shelf life of the finally recoverable ghee. The melting process continued until the moisture in the butter was completely evaporated out, which was marked by the disappearance of foaming bubble and appearance of yellowish butter oil. Then the pot was taken off and cooled down for some 10 to 15 minutes to allow unwanted solid residue settle down after which time the supernatant was decanted and transferred into a different containers. As indicated in table 31, butter produced in such a way was stored for an average period of 6.1±0.24 months and ranged between 2 and 18 months. As gathered during the survey, farmers store butter for different reasons, majority (49%) said they stored it searching for better price, while 35% said for the sake of reserving it for later use especially during the dry season when milk production and thus butter yield decreases. Still some 16% said they stored ghee as a liability to sell it when they face problem.The experience of fattening and the reasons for not having fattening practice in Metema district are presented in table 33. Cattle fattening practices in cotton based, sesame based farming system and Gendawuha town were more or less comparable. Out of the total number of interviewed farmers (N = 265), only 1.1% were involved in cattle fattening, while the rest (98.9%) had no experience of fattening cattle (Table 33). According to farmers, different factors accounted to the low level of involvement in fattening activities. Inhabitants in cottonbased areas attributed this to lack of experience (23.5%), lack of labor (34.1%), feed shortage (17.6%) and money shortage (24.7%), while in sesame based farming system, these four constraints accounted to 40.8%, 26.5%, 16.8% and 14.8%, respectively. Where as in Gendawuha town, the first three factors were mentioned as problems (29.4%, 47.1% and 20.6%, respectively) and shortage of money was not considered as a constraint (Table 33).As indicated in table 33, when cattle became out of production and culled, most farmers in all the three areas sold them directly with out improving their body condition, although proportionately more inhabitants in cotton based (38.3%) conditioned culled cattle before selling them in sesame based areas (17.9%) and Gendawuha town (3%). One peculiar feature noted in Gendawuha town was that some households (12.1%) slaughter culled cattle and share the meat among neighbors. Although this practice exists in rural communities, it is less frequent and done during special occasions such as during religious or cultural festivals.Overall, proportionately more inhabitants (77.6%) in Metema district sell their cattle immediately when they got out of production if there is market access. Where as, lower proportion of households (20.6%) provided better feeding for some days to improve their body condition before selling. The present result was in agreement with the report of Tesfaye et al.(2005) at Bako Agricultural Research Center, who noted that culled cattle are usually sold for slaughter with out improving their body condition when they are too old for ploughing or poor in milk production or when cash shortage forces farmers to sell their animals with out any further finishing.During the group discussion, it was pointed out that farmers in the study area had an experience of purchasing emaciated oxen at times when the price of cattle become cheaper in their locality or near by high land area. Then, these cattle were separately tended from other age group of cattle and grazed at places, where the natural herbage is ample and lush for a period of time ranging between 15 to 30 days. Farmers said, the body condition of the oxen usually improved fairly good to fetch attractive prices with only provision of better grazing for such a short period of times. This experience was quite a recent venture started following the increased demand for Ethiopian cattle in the Sudan livestock market. As gathered from the key informants, in most instances, farmers in the area purchased relatively young and uncastrated oxen for marketing purposes, this is because uncastrated and relatively young oxen showed improvement with in short period than others. As shown in table 33, with the exception of some households (1.2%), almost all sample farmers in the study area had no extension support regarding better skills of fattening, credit or any inputs provision. In general, extension service given for the farmers regarding cattle fattening venture by governmental and non-governmental organization was at its rudimentary stage and nominal until now. However, currently with the technical assistance of IPMS Ethiopia project, MOA has started to provide some viable extension activities, since the starting fattening extension service by the beginning of 2007. Pioneer farmers were trained and closely supervised by expertise. Their practice of fattening was forage based fattening and supplemented with crop residues, noug and sesame cakes and cotton seed cakes.As observed in the study area, cattle fattening has good opportunity for future expansion.Firstly, the district has extensive and large size communal grazing lands that are highly productive and good sources of green pasture as well as sources of conserved forage (hay).Secondly, oil seeds (sesame) are cultivated extensively and cakes produced as a by products of local extraction as well as from near by industries found in the town were used as a good sources of supplementation for the fattened cattle. Particularly, there is ample source of sesame cakes (Embaze), which is a by-product of local oil extraction processes (Ansara-Amharic name). As gathered from the key informants, locally produced sesame cake was better feeding value than other cakes produced from modern industries, since the local processing tools and machineries are not as efficient as the modern machines in extracting the oil from the seeds.As a result, availability of oil seed cakes can be considered as a good prospect to promote fattening in the district, because the cakes have high crude protein, which is usually deficient in natural pastures and together with the ample grazing can provide a good source of feed for fattening. Thirdly, there is a high cattle source in the district and good cattle market just across the border in Sudan that can absorb large supply of fattened cattle. As observed during the fieldwork, farmers have recently started to exploit this market in that the farmers in the area after they finished with ploughing around August, they improve the body condition of oxen and provided for sale. Thus, such initiation from farmers can be considered as a prospect for using the existing high potential of beef production in the district.Despite all these prospects to improve beef cattle production in Metema district, cattle fattening is at its rudimentary stage at present owing to a number of problems, which could be solved if farmers are given the necessary technical support through adequate extension service.As discussed earlier, the area is stricken with feed and water shortage during dry season and lack experience in cattle fattening (Table 33) as well as disease problem (Table 21). As a matter of fact, these problems are rather apparent than real constraints because the resource base is available to solve these problems and it only requires to give them adequate attention and work on them. For example, dry season feed shortage constrained productivity because farmers in the district do not practice fattening in part because of knowledge gap as well as necessary technical support. Again, diseases and dry season water shortage are apparent problems, which require due technical support.As a result, realization of the existing potential and improving the farmers life lies with provision of adequate extension service. In fact, the existing live animal market (particularly cattle) is largely based on smuggling across the border to Sudan. Nonetheless, if cattle fattening can be improved and the market can be made formal, the country can benefit from its livestock resource considerably, apart from improving the livelihood of farmers even to an extent far better than \"simply food self sufficient\".Meat consumption behavior in cotton based, sesame based farming systems and Gendawuha town was comparable. Almost all sampled farmers (99.6%) had the experience of consuming meat (Table 34) and this indicated the presence of no taboo in the culture of the inhabitants against consumption of meat except during Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity fasting period.Inhabitants in the two rural communities largely consumed meat during holidays or occasionally during the regular non-holiday days and that consume meat as regular diet during non-holiday times were proportionately less (Table 34). By contrast, in Gendawuha town, households that consume meat during the holiday times (34.1%), where as those that consume meat during other ordinary time (34.1%) or occasional consumers (31.8%). This is largely a reflection of the standard of living of the residents in the town compared to those in rural communities. Even though the proportions were relatively lower, compared to rural communities else where in the country, it can be said that the proportion of households in rural areas of Metema that frequent meat diets during ordinary non holiday times was still high.This may indicate the fact that the standard of living of rural households in Metema is relatively better compared to several farming communities particularly in the high land of Ethiopia.As reported by farmers, cattle were frequently slaughtered between the months of December through January and in April for occasion like weedding, which is frequently arranged during these months. Also, religious holidays like Christmas and Epiphany take place during these months and it is customary to slaughter cattle during these times. On the other hand, other species like goats and sheep could be slaughtered during other major holidays such as New Year (in September) and Easter (in April). Also, capable farmers slaughter cattle and share the meat during the wet season when the animals are in good body condition. As in the case of most areas in the country, inhabitants of Metema obtained meat from three sources, i.e., slaughtering animals in groups and share the meat or slaughtering animals individually (commonly small ruminants) or meat purchased from butchers (Table 34). In the two studied rural communities, the first two sources were used as the sole sources, as butcheries were uncommon in rural areas, which is often the case in most rural areas in the country. Unlike the rural areas, in Gendawuha town, all the three sources were equally important as source of meat for the family (Table 34). Overall, inhabitants in Metema district obtained meat for the family either by slaughtering cattle in groups and sharing the meat (43.2%) and/or by slaughtering small ruminants individually (44.9%), while the rest one-tenth purchased meat from butcheries. Unlike in most metropolitan areas where municipalities forbid slaughter of cattle in the neighborhood, there was no restriction of this sort in Gendawuha town. The cost of shared beef only accounts the purchase cost of cattle and there is no even additional labor cost as the sharing process is entirely handled by group members.As a result, the cost of group shared beef is far cheaper than beef purchased from butcheries and this together with lack of restricting slaughter place may have contributed to the low significance of butcheries as a meat source in Gendawuha town, unlike most towns and cities in the country, where butcheries are the major source of beef for household consumption.As indicated in table 34, cattle were the most frequently slaughtered animals for group share (94.5%), while small ruminants were rarely shared among groups of individuals (5.7%). This is perhaps households could afford to slaughter small ruminants individually. As farmers reported in table 34, inhabitants in Metema district participated in-group sharing of meat with neighbors or related families on average 6.2±0.421 times per year and the average number of participants in the group-share at a time was 31±0.9 households (Table 34) and these were fairly comparable in the two rural communities.Meat utilization and processing practices in the study area are presented in table 35. Overall, half of the total fresh meat produced by the inhabitants in Metema district was utilized as fresh (49.8%) and the rest half was retained for further processing (50.2%) (Table 35), but this varied from place to place. In the two rural communities, slightly more than half (52.9-56.9%) of the produced meat was consumed in fresh form, where as the rest (43.1-47.1%) was reserved for processing prior to consumption in which the processing involved largely drying the meat in various ways. By contrast, in Gendawuha town, inhabitants processed most of their meat (90.1%) prior to consumption, while only one-tenth of the meat was prepared for consumption in fresh form (Table 35). On the contrary, Tesfaye et al. (2006) reported that the proportion of meat preserved in East Shoa zone was 94.7%.As indicated in table 35, meat processing was a customary practice and most households (96.2%) had meat processing experience, except for few households (3.8%), who did not involve in this activity because of shortage of meat for processing. Air-drying was the most common method of persevering surplus meat and all households in the two rural areas, and most in Gendawuha town applied this method to preserve excess meat. Even some 20% used smokes together with air-drying. As gathered from farmers, surplus meat should be immediately processed and preserved to arrest microbial spoilage or other wise the meat develops molds and produced bad smell due to high ambient temperature in the area.Fresh meat variously seasoned and air-dried gives a product locally known as 'quanta', which is a tradition of most cultures and practicable in most rural and urban communities in Ethiopia.Preserving fresh meat in the form of quanta is common, although some other methods are practiced in some places such as Tesfaye et al. (2006) noted in east Showa zone, where inhabitants ground the meat and preserved it, as a traditional method of processing.As reported by the farmers, during quanta preparation, first the meat was sliced in to long strips and was seasoned using salt, oil and pepper powder (Table 35). Households in cottonbased areas used salt alone (82.4%) or oil (17.6%) and it was uncommon to use powdered pepper to season the sliced meat. Similarly, in sesame based, the first two items were used as a seasoning substance, although the proportions who used salt alone (58.1%) or oil (40.9%) differed from those in cotton based. In Gendawuha town usage of powdered pepper was also common, in addition to salt and oil (Table 35). Yet there were few (4.2%) households in Gendawuha town, who were not seasoning the meat at all. As gathered from farmers, the purpose of seasoning the meat with these substances was to repel flies away. After seasoning, the strip of meat was hanged on a rope or thin stick of bamboo fixed in the house under a shade. Unlike this, Ahmed et al. (2003) noted that camel meat was hanged in open and dried direct sun in Afder zone of Somalia.After ensuring complete drying, which usually took some 3 to 5 days, the resulted strips of quanta packed in bags and utilized in different forms. In most instances, the processed meat (Quanta) was cut into pieces and cooked as stew, which is Ethiopian traditional dish famously known as \"Quanta wot\". Some times Quanta was consumed directly or after roasting it on open fire. As gathered from key informants, Quanta was not stored for extended period of time and consumed after preparation and this was because of the small quantity of meat processed into quanta. Due to this reason, the amount of meat purchased or sharing meat with the neighbors was not too much. As mentioned earlier, people in Metema area process fresh meat in the form of quanta when there was surplus meat in excess of consumption. However, in some places quanta has been used as a means of preserving excess meat when people are forced to slaughter their animals up on anticipating drought and disease mishaps. For example, according to Ahmed et al.(2003), inhabitants in Afder zone area slaughtered their camel and process the meat in to quanta during when they face drought and disease out break. Mostly they kill weaker and most affected animals before they die and use quanta making as a means of crises management. In the old days, people commonly used to carry quanta as a dry ration when traveling to distant locations for various reasons.The experience of milk and milk product selling in Metema district is presented in table 36.Proportionately more inhabitants (71.7%) in cotton based farming system areas were involved in selling dairy products than inhabitants in sesame based farming system (49.7%) and Gendawuha town (16.7%) areas. This may indicate that the need for immediate cash sources was higher in cotton based and sesame based farming system than in Gendawuha town. This is because inhabitants had more diversified income sources in Gendawuha, followed by sesame based farming system than in cotton based farming system area. As a result, inhabitants in cotton-based areas are compelled to sell dairy products as a means of cash source for immediate needs. Overall, nearly half of the households in Metema district were involved in marketing dairy products and the rest half used the produced dairy products with in the family (Table 36).Among households that were involved in selling dairy products, in the two rural areas, over 90% sold butter while insignificant proportion of the households were involved in selling other dairy products (Table 36). Where as, in Gendawuha town butter milk was equally important marketable dairy product sold by 60% of households as butter (60%). In general, unlike many areas in the country, household was not observed in selling traditional cottage cheese (Ayib) in all the surveyed areas rather it was consumed by the family and given to animals (calves and pet animals) together with the whey (Aguat). Note that the percentage was calculated from the respondents indicated. * CBFS = Cotton based farming system, ** SBFS = Sesame based farming system, HHC = Household count.As indicated in table 36, proportionately very few inhabitants (2.2%) in Metema district brought whole milk to the market for sale. Attributing to the reasons why it was uncommon to sell whole milk, majority of the households said shortage of milk (49.8%), as the main reason, while some said lack of access to market (21.2), cultural restriction (20.8%) and the desire to convert whole milk into other dairy products (8.2%) as the reasons for not selling whole milk (Appendix table 10). Considering the farming system, the extent of cultural inhibition of selling whole milk in the case of Gendawuha town and sesame based farming system areas were lower than that of cotton based farming system area. This is probably due to Gendawuha town and most sesame based farming system areas were located along the main and sub roads of the district where there is better access to sell whole milk. Earlier studies in Amhara region indicated that out of the total amount of whole milk produced, lower proportion (0.75%) was allocated for sale (Aklilu, 2004). CSA (2003) also reported that only 5% of the total national production of milk in a given year was marketed as fresh whole milk.During group discussion at each farming system, it was explained that selling of whole milk is considered as an indication of maximum poverty. Due to this reason, even though some producers had intention to sell whole milk, they were often discouraged because of the bad image it may inflict them in the community. This attitude of the society shall be changed through provision of appropriate and continuous educational training.On the other hand, transhumant (highlanders), who came to the district during rainy season had no problem of selling whole milk, and often provided milk to customers through delivery system. Thus, inhabitants in rural and small towns, who had no milking cows, purchased whole milk for consumption as well as for the production of other dairy products. Specially, teahouses and hotels in the main town (Gendawuha) and small towns were the main customers of the transhumants for whole milk.As indicated in table 36, buttermilk was one of the marketable products sold by majority of households in Gendawuha town (60%) than in the two rural communities. The urban nature of Gendawuha town may have created good market option for buttermilk. Nonetheless, looking at the over all picture in Metema only few proportions of households (3.6%) considered buttermilk as a marketable dairy commodity.As gathered from key informants, buttermilk was largely sold between September and December. During this time, the milk production starts to decline and people who had no cows for milking purchased buttermilk from the producers. Some farmers also believed that consumption of buttermilk during the rainy season could causes health problem by predisposing the person to malaria infection, swelling of pancreas and bulged stomach. As a result, buttermilk was mostly given to calves and pet animals during the rainy season. This idea created by the farmers needs further scientific explanation.As discussed earlier, butter was the most marketable dairy product in Metema district and over 90% of the producers in the district generally sold their butter. In Gendawuha town, less proportion of households had involved in butter selling business than in the two studied rural communities because the town residents could afford to consume it with in the household than using it as a cash source, as they were better off than the rural farmers. As indicated earlier, out of the total amount of butter produced by the producers in the studied areas, only 24.8% was marketed (Table 30). Research conducted in Amhara region (Aklilu, 2004) revealed that out of the total amount (16,685,400 tones) of butter produced per year, 37.92% was marketed, a proportion which is slightly higher than that of found in the present study.  11). Although relatively few, some inhabitants in sesame based farming system used delivery system as a sales outlet and directly delivered butter to consumers, teahouse and hotels, which was rather uncustomary practice in cotton-based areas or Gendawuha town. In general, during the wet season 87.4% of the sales outlet was market place, 8.4% was farm gate and the rest 4.2% was delivery system. Where as, in dry season, these three options accounted to 91.2%, 4.4%, and 4.4%, respectively of the sales out let for butter selling (Table 37).As gathered from producers and other marketing agents, the dairy marketing system identified in the studied areas was entirely informal marketing system. This means that the producers sold dairy products directly to consumers and/or traders with out any intervention of the government. The price of dairy commodities was set through negotiation between the producers (sellers) and potential buyers such as consumers and traders. As a matter of fact, marketing systems of dairy and other livestock products is largely informal in several different places in Ethiopia, such as reported for Mekele area where the dairy marketing system was informal (Nigussie, 2006). By contrast, the marketing system of dairy and some livestock products can be formal in and around some large metropolitan cities, such as Sintayehu (1993) noted the existence of a formal dairy marketing system in Addis Ababa milk shed. As reported by key informants, unless there was a constraint of money, farmers mostly stored butter for a certain period of time until considerable volume of butter was stored and the price elevated. Of course, butter was sold if there was a surplus left from household consumption.As a while, traders were the most important buyers of butter from market places during both wet and dry seasons followed by urban consumers, where as tea houses and hotels as well as rural consumers had insignificant contribution as a potential buyer of butter from market place out let (Table 38). However, variations were noted in the type of buyer from place to place depending on the season. For example, during wet season, traders rather than urban consumer were more important as buyers of butter from market places in cotton based areas (64.4% and 35.6%, respectively). Where as, both types of customers were equally important in sesame based areas (each contributing 49.2% of the purchase) as well as in Gendawuha town, where urban consumers accounted to 100% of the transaction (Table 38). During the dry season, traders accounted to most or all of the purchased butter from market places of cotton based areas (96.3%) and Gendawuha town (100%). By contrast, in sesame-based areas, urban consumers also accounted a fair bit transaction (28.8%), although still traders made up the bulk of the purchased butter (66.1%) from market places during dry season (Table 38). Over all, producers preferred selling butter to traders than to urban consumers during dry than during wet season.As shown in table 38, the proportion of households who sold butter to traders and urban consumers during dry season was 75.9% and 19.5%, respectively, where as during wet season, the ratio was 65.7% to 33.3%. As might be expected, butter production increases during wet season and following this the price become cheaper in wet season than in dry season. As gathered from farmers, when price become cheaper during wet season the participation of urban consumers in butter transaction increases as the prices are affordable. Where as, during the dry season , when butter supply becomes in short and prices elevated, less urban consumers afforded to use butter and hence their participation in the market accordingly reduces, but traders kept on purchasing butter even with higher prices to sell to the capable consumers and hence most households sold butter to traders. In general, the bulk of butter was sold to traders than to other clients during both seasons, although their significance increased in dry season because of the reduced capacity of urban consumers as potential butter users. As opposed to the present observations, consumers accounted to a large share (75%) of milk purchased from producers than traders in Addis Ababa milk shed (Sentayehu, 2003).Similarly, Staal and Shapiro (1999) reported that higher proportion (90%) of marketed milk in sub-Sahara Africa was provided informally to customers than traders, which is contrasting observation to the findings of the present study. Cash was the common mode of payment for butter transaction in all the three locations during both dry and wet seasons, respective of the type of sales out let used (Appendix table 13).As shown in table 39, producers butter price was some how influenced by sales outlet, season of the year and location. Overall, information collected from the total number of sample producers (N=208) indicated that the overall average butter prices ranged from ETB 22.5 to 25.0/liter in wet season, while ETB 24.0 to 27.0/liter in dry season depending up on the sales out let (Table 39). Thus, butter price was higher during dry season than during the wet season, in particular market places than in other sales out let, ie, the market price of butter increased on average by 3 ETB during the dry season compared to the wet season price in the two rural areas, where as the increment at Gendawuha town was 5 ETB.Hence, season is one of the factors, which determined the price of butter in Metema district.As gathered from farmers, during the dry season little or no milk was produced from cows because of shortage of feed resources and higher ambient temperature. As a result, little quantity of butter was produced during the dry season and much of the butter utilized or available in market was what the producers stored from their wet season production. Due to this reason, the price of butter elevated during the dry season. In addition to the increased butter production during the wet season, transhumant (highlanders) also contributed to the supply of butter during wet season in Metema district. Hence, butter supply in every sale out let was higher during the wet season and this obviously cheapened the price during the main rainy season and to some extent during the early part of dry season. Apart from season, butter prices also differed at the three sales outlets, thus sales outlet was the other factor that determined butter price in Metema (Table 39). In this respect, farm gate price was the lowest during both seasons. During wet season, farm gate price was on average ETB 2.50 and ETB 1.60 less than delivery system price and open market price, respectively (Table 39). Where as, the price difference at the latter two sales out lets was fairly small and only ETB 0.90. By contrast, during the dry season, open market price was ETB 3.00 and ETB 1.60 higher than the average price at farm gate and delivery system sales out lets, respectively. Also the average price at the latter sales out let exceeded that of the former by ETB 1.40 (Table 39).Despite price differences at different sales out lets, the amount of butter supplied using farm gate and delivery system sales out lets was insignificant compared to the quantity of butter sold at open markets. As a result, farmers (producers) cannot make use of these differences to wards their advantage. For example, during wet season, the price when using delivery system was higher, but framers were unaccustomed to deliver butter to clients or at least the system was not well established even in Gendawuha town, to benefit from the increased price. Hence, sales out let as determinant of butter price in the district have less significance in benefiting the producers.As a third factor, location difference was the other determinant of butter price in the district.Regarding this, butter price was similar in the two rural areas but the market price in Gendawuha town was on average ETB 3.00 more to the price in the two rural areas during dry season. Where as, differences between the town and rural price in wet season was trival (Table 39). Although such is the case, rural farmers (producers) would not benefit from the increased market price at Gendawuha town during dry season, because they do not bring their butter to Gendawuha market. Rather traders were the one who benefit from the difference. Hence, the effect of location as determinant of butter price has little advantage to words benefiting rural producers.Color of butter was also considered as an indicator of butter quality by big traders, who took butter to markets outside the district. As discussed with the traders, they believed that yellow color of butter was not favored by traders. Yellow color might be resulted from too much usage of spices or adulteration of butter by mixing of oil and imported butter. Since the big traders have taken butter to Gondar town, Tigray and Gel bat (one of the border town of Sudan), yellow color of butter was not preferred by the customers of the big traders in these town, instead they preferred butter oil with out spices. However, the effect of butter color on price was not observed during the survey period, except that yellowish butter color was discriminated by the big traders who take butter out side the district.In general, when comparing the price of butter in the district to that of current prices in different areas in the country, the average price of butter is much cheaper in Metema than many places. For example, Ayantu (2006) reported that the average price of butter in Wolayta area was 23.7 ETB in wet season and 29.7 ETB in dry season, which is quite expensive than the price in Metema.The general picture of butter marketing chains in the study area was summarized in figure 6.The figure indicated that even though the marketing chain seems short, market agents from the study area, Gondar town and Tigray region were participated. the district. Butter produced in the study area was also taken to other areas (outside the district). Firstly, butter produced in Metema district was taken to markets in the highlands of North Gondar zone (Chilga, Gondar town). Secondly, next to North Gondar, places in Tigray region were the second level terminal markets for butter produced in Metema. Thirdly, butter in the form of butter oil (with out addition of spice) was exported to Gelebat (a border town in Sudan), and the transaction was legal and conducted based on the 2000 cross border trade agreement signed between the two countries (Ethiopia and Sudan).As discussed with producers and itinerants, accessing actual butter market information was a very difficult task for farmers and itinerants in the studied areas, since there was no direct information source. The farmers at times discuss with each other when they get together at the village or market place about the time of increased demand for butter and try to predict the time when the price increases. Some producers and itinerants created some customers (big traders), and they usually trust the information they get from these customers. Thus, the price that these customers offered was often accepted by the farmers. In general, producers had no access to butter market information from direct sources, in particular the market situation prevailing in the surrounding towns, and regional cities that receive butter from Metema. As discussed with the big traders, such kind of information was accessed from recipient traders in terminal markets through telephone and other means of communications. Thus, producers (farmers) and to a lesser extent itinerants in Metema are always at the mercy of the big traders, who transport butter to areas outside the district.The present observation is similar to the findings of Aklilu (2004), who also reported a general lack of livestock market information from direct sources in Amhara region, which he classified the information source as underdeveloped and traditional. Obviously, when the only source of market information for farmers is through informal communication with the big traders who purchase their product, no doubt that the farmers can be unfairly treated and exploited. Thus, concerned governmental agencies should periodically transmit market information through mass media (such as radio, television) at least concerning the major products produced in different parts of the region, such as butter from Metema. Nowadays, FM radio stations have been established in different regions and getting radio airtime to broadcast such information should not be an impossible as it used to be some years back.As discussed in meat utilization section, none of the interviewed farmers were involved in selling raw meat or processed meat (Quanta), and farm households in Metema produced fresh meat or processed meat for own household consumption. As opposed to the present work, processed camel meat (Olobe), which is produced by farm households is available for sale in urban markets of Afder zone in Somalia region (Ahmed et al., 2003).During group discussion, it was pointed out that there were some farmers, who occasionally slaughter non-productive cattle and sell fresh meat in the form of local system called kome (Medebe). The quantity of kome was small and its average cost was estimated as ETB 10-25.Even though these individuals basically work for business purpose, they were not licensed as well as their supply was small and irregular. These individuals mostly concentrated in and around small towns in the district.Although few in number, there were permanent butcheries in Gendawuha town and Metema Yohans (boarder town), who slaughtered cattle and provided meat to consumers. The butchers in the study area reported that cattle could be slaughtered at any time except during the main Ethiopian Orthodox fasting period (February through early April) and other shorter fasting periods (such as, the first 15 days of Nehasie and 30 days preceding (Christmas) as well as during Wednesday and Fridays of the lean months. Although the number of cattle slaughtered per day differed from butchery to butchery, the number of cattle slaughtered per day/butchery was one. Cattle were slaughtered at an open area reserved by the municipality for this purpose, however the place was simply open field with out shade, fence or other basic infrastructure (such as slaughter house bristling and cleaning facilities). Even ante mortem and postmortem inspection was not performed. Generally, the place did not fulfill the basic minimum requirements to be considered as abattoirs. Despite this, the municipality collected 10 ETB as service fee per head of cattle slaughtered. As a result, the municipality should give due attention to minimize the occurrence of public health hazard from Zoonotic and other contaminated diseases.The quantity of meat sold was measured in kilogram or 'kome' but the latter was widely employed. Kome composed mixtures of bone and flesh and one kome in butcher house was estimated to weigh between 0.5 and 0.75 kg and was sold between 6-7 ETB. Note that the quantity of kome as well as the price in butcher houses was smaller than the kome set by rural business individual, who occasionally provided butchering service in rural areas. Where as, the average cost of one kg meat at butcher houses was between 28 and 30 ETB. As gathered from butchers, once fixed the price of meat often remained constant or probably showed increment.The farmers in the district reared cattle for multipurpose tasks, i.e., for milk, meat as well as draft power. As indicated in table 33, the farmers usually sell cattle when they become poor in productivity and/or when there is shortage of money in the household. As gathered from key informant, cattle were sold as the last option when the amount of money needed was not covered by other income sources (crops, butter and others).As discussed earlier, Metema district is one of the gates to Sudan for cattle market flow and formal and informal (smuggling) export was practiced in the area. As farmers reported, up to 1996 E.C., export of cattle to Sudan markets was totally informal, in which cattle were smuggled through Tiha and Gelebat towns. Where as, in 1997 E.C official cattle export was started through Metema Yohanse by the agreement of both countries (Ethiopian and Sudan).As discussed with cattle producers, traders, exporters and other market agents, because of the abundant supply of natural feed resources together with favorable environmental conditions during the wet season (June-November), Metema district was a good source of oxen and bullocks for livestock purchasers. During the wet season, cattle body conditions usually improve with in short period of time and attracted good market price. However, during the dry season, the body condition of cattle severely deteriorates because of the high ambient environmental temperature and scarcity of feed resources and Metema ceases to be a source of marketable cattle to export to Sudan markets. Due to this reason, traders and exporters preferred to buy oxen and bullock from the highland areas for export during the dry season.In Metema district, different age groups of cattle were supplied to the four major livestock markets (Gendawuha, Kokit, Meqa and Shinfa). Observation made during the fieldwork regarding the different cattle group supplied at these four different market places indicated that the supplied cattle at the market were 27.6% bullocks, 26.5% oxen, 21.3% cows, 17.2% heifers and 7.4% calves. During this month (December), the price of oxen was assessed and presented in figure 7.As discussed with farmers, traders and exporters, in four market places oxen for meat purpose were supplied to markets majorly from September to December and cows for meat purpose from October to February. Where as, oxen for draft and cows for breeding purpose were supplied to markets from May to July. Like wise, heifers for replacement purpose could be supplied to markets from January to July.  Nonetheless, in most instances, uncastrated bullocks were the top priority choice by the Sudan importers and at times they sell with a price difference of ETB 200 -300 compared to the castrated ones.Regarding breed preference, Ruthana crosses and the Monastery cattle type were highly demanded at Sudanease markets because of their large size and good framework of their body.They could attract market easily and even the cattle seller could sell other non-attractive cattle type together with out intention of buying these non attractive ones if an individual had Ruthana and Monastery cattle types.Season was the other most important influencing factor for the supply and price of cattle in the study area. According to key informants, the months of the year were classified into four major periods. (1) The period from June to August: during this season, farmers need more money to pay for daily laborers hired for weeding and other agricultural activities. Thus, most farmers sold out different age groups of cattle. On the other hand, the Sudan importers were not interested to purchase large number of cattle during this season and therefore, the price of cattle was low. (2) The period from September to November: during this season, farmers harvest and sell their crops and have more income. On the other hand, the Sudan importers start to purchase more cattle and hence, the demand for oxen and bullocks starts to increase.As a consequence, the price of cattle becomes high during these months. oxen for draft purpose are highly demanded in Metema and farmers show less interest to sell their cattle. Thus, the supply of oxen and bullock reduces at market places and the price starts to rise.Out of the four major markets, three of them were located along the main road to Sudan, which divided the district in to two. Keble's located far from these market areas, such as Awassa, Achera, Shashge and Lencha were forced to sell their cattle at their farm gate with lower market price than the other kebles located nearer to these major markets.In the studied area, six different marketing agents were participated in the transaction of cattle marketing. These included producers, middlemen (brokers), itinerants, cattle traders, exporters as well as consumers and the role of each agent is elaborated separately below.The producers in the study area raised and provided different age group of cattle in to their respective market to meet the family need for cash income. Farmers' opinion obtained in the present work is more or less comparable with the idea of pastoral producers reported by Belachew and Jemberu (2003), in which livestock are usually sold to meet family needs for cash income, which is used to buy food grains and industrial products such as clothing.As reported by farmers, cattle were not raised specifically to beef animals, rather they were meant to fulfill multi functions. On the other hand, some farmers were observed to integrate the two functions of oxen, i.e., provision of oxen draft power and beef out put, and optimized the benefit obtained from oxen. These farmers used the oxen for ploughing during the wet season for a period of two to three months and there after fed the oxen for about a month time to improve their body condition and then sold them for a premium price. Since these farmers fed and sold the oxen while they were still young and in good body condition, they could benefit from their beef potential, while still fulfilling the requirements for draft power.Nonetheless, most farmers have not yet realized this dual advantage and were selling oxen only when they were out of production (old) and culled.In cattle marketing system, market middlemen (Delala) an important agents in facilitating the buying and selling activities. While buying, cattle traders usually inform the type of cattle they need and the middlemen guided the place where the specified cattle were coming from through their long experience as well as mediated the agreement between the seller and buyer. Besides, the middlemen acted as one of the members of eye witness while the transaction performed and the guarantee given. These middlemen have rendered this type of service with a commission. In most instances, they received 5 to 10 ETB per cattle when mediating cattle traders and producers (farmers), while they received 10 to 20 ETB/cattle when mediating exporters and Sudan importers.According to the interviewed cattle traders, in most instances middlemen mediated 30% of the buying and 70% of the selling transactions. Where as, the interviewed exporters said 90% and 100% of transaction deals were performed through middlemen while purchasing and selling, respectively.This group included individuals, who are farmers or persons involved in other business but occasionally involved in cattle business. These agents usually traveled to distant locations in local areas to collect cattle with cheaper prices. They selected this activity to generate income and supplement income collected from other agricultural activities. The sources of their capital could be own sources or credit from individuals or ACSI (Amhara Credit and Saving Institution). The collectors could purchase different age group of cattle from different small local market place and farm gate of the producers in the district. However, the number of cattle purchased at any one time was very small, because of shortage of capital resources. The purchased cattle groups were sold at different market places of the district, particularly the meat purpose oxen and/or bullock sold to traders and exporters. Where as, cows and calves for breeding purpose, oxen and steer for drought purpose were sold to farmers.As discussed earlier in the case of itinerants, cattle traders composed of individuals, who were farmers or businesspersons performing other business activities. They started these activities to supplement other income sources of the household. These market agents purchased cattle from farmers and itinerants but in most instances from itinerants. The traders collected marketable different age groups of cattle at different market places and farm gate level of the producers and/or itinerants in the district. The volume of purchasing was higher than that of itinerants, because of the strength of capital resources. The sources of their capital could be own sources, credit from individuals or ACSI.The purchased cattle were sold at different sales outlet (market places and/or farm gate) in the district. Moreover, oxen for meat purpose were sold to other traders and exporters, while cows and calves for breeding purpose, oxen and bullock for drought purpose were sold to farmers.The interviewed cattle traders reported that purchasing cattle had different objectives. Some of the traders purchased oxen for the purpose of selling them to other market agents. Some of the traders purchased oxen for using them for ploughing and then selling them after wards, while still some other traders said they purchased oxen for the purpose of renting them for draft purpose and then selling them after wards.Since cattle traders in Metema district were not licensed, due to this reason, they did not travel from one market to another market area easily. With the aim of protecting illegal cattle trading (smuggling), Custom Authority branch at Metema district restricted movements of traders with out any license. Due to this condition, if the traders developed strength in capital sometimes traders rented license from legal exporters with payments of 120-150 ETB per head of oxen exported and sold their oxen and/or bullocks at Metema yohannes town to Sudan importers.This group composed of individuals, who were previously farmers, cattle traders or government workers. Most of the interviewed exporters were inhabitants of North Gondar Zone (Gendawuha and Gondar town). According to interviewed exporters, oxen and bullocks were the only official exportable cattle groups. The other cattle group such as cows, heifers and calves were not exported formally, rather they were exported informally (smuggling) to Sudan.As discussed with the producers, itinerants, cattle traders and exporters CS 5 , CS 8 , CS 7 , CS 11 and CS 2 , listed according to their importance, were the most common marketing channels through which the large proportion of cattle flows from the producers to consumers.Data collected from cattle producers, itinerants, cattle traders, exporters and others key informants in the study area indicated that oxen and bullocks produced in the district flowed with in and out side the district. Any cattle group be it for breeding, draft or meat purpose flowed with in the district when inhabitants demanded them. Besides, great number of oxen and/or bullocks flowed to Sudan areas as beef source (said Sudan importers). Some of the key informants interviewed in the studied area believed that the Ethiopian cattle in Sudan have directly taken to the meat processing plants for slaughtering and meat processing. After the meat was processed, the canned meat could be exported to some part of Arab countries carrying the Sudan brand. On the other hand, some of the key informants also believed that the Ethiopian live cattle were exported by the Sudan exporters to Arab countries carrying Sudanease brand, i.e., as cattle raised or produced in Sudan.In most instances, the market agents did not bother about relative relation ship at the market place, except only customer relation ship. So that with the exception of cattle exporters, any market agents have given a guarantor while selling any types of cattle. The guarantor should be a known individual in the near by area. Besides, a guarantee (written agreement), which were signed by both parties, guarantor and other three eyewitness members (Emagn) was given to the buyers. Off course, the copies of the agreement were also kept in the hands of the seller and one of the eyewitnessed members. If some thing goes wrong, solution will be made with the help of their previous written agreement (guarantee). In most instances, the guarantee was given for rabbis, theft and other related cases.As cattle marketing agents reported, there are two mode of payment system exercised in Metema district cattle market, i.e., cash and credit system. Exercising the system was depended on the relation ships of the two market agents (buyers and sellers). If the agents were having frequent relation ship between the agents as a customer, the purchaser could have a chance of taking cattle with credit until it was sold. Other wise, it will not be given cattle for credit. However, in most instances, Sudan importors were interested to take oxen and uncastrated bullock with credit and payment will due with in one or two month's period.However, it was reported that some Ethiopian exporter had lost lots of money through this credit system by the Sudan importers. As cattle exporters reported, some times oxen and/or bullock selling with credit system seems very important. This is because if Sudan exporters were not willing to take oxen with cash, extra costs for awaiting the unsold animals, such as costs of feeds, herder and other expenses start to pile up with in day's interval. Therefore, in order to minimize extra costs, exporters preferred to give oxen and/or bullock on credit basis to Sudanease importers, even knowing the possible risk of not paid back. Therefore, exporters should be supported to have access to cattle awaiting station with affordable service charge so that they will not be forced to accept unfair transaction (unfair price, risky mode of payment etc). It is important that their animals be maintained in good body condition until sold or other wise the exporters can be easily bankrupted. As gathered from the key informants, out of the total amount of cattle exported, the majority of cattle export (about 60%) was through illegal routes. However, the illegal traders explained that along the Tiha routes, there were different risks such as theft of cattle when the cattle are trekked and money when coming back after selling of cattle, mistreatment of Sudan and Ethiopian troops at the border were happening.According to Metema branch of Custom Authority Office report, it was explained that informal cattle export was practiced before 1996 E.C. However, starting from 1997 E.C. official cattle export was started. The exportable cattle groups, which have been given exit permission, were only oxen to Sudan market. Even though the office informed that the exportable oxen should be castrated and on average should weigh greater than 200 kg, as observed during the survey time, the office was reluctant to strictly follow up these restrictions and non-castrated oxen were also exported. This needs some precautions because of the uncastrated bullocks and the types of oxen exported to Sudan. Because it is believed that, every country should have its own brand concerning the commodity it is exporting. So we can keep this by exporting castrated oxen only as it was stated by the law of Ethiopian government cattle exporting principles.Even though it was not possible to retrieve information about the type of oxen exported   It is obvious fact that loading and unloading facility are the most important managerial activity to minimize risks for cattle and human beings, who are working. However, loading and unloading facilities were not well organized in the area. The exporter and official government bodies did not give much attention about this facility. Due to this limitation, exporters used places that were a little bit sloppy as a dock to load and unload exportable oxen (Figure 11).In this regards, the loading place at Gendawuha (Figure 11, a and b) some how had a sort of dock (although not properly made) to load the cattle. However, the worst situation existed while unloading the animals at the boarder town where this kind of dock was entirely lacking and the animals were simply forced to jump off the track (Figure 12).  Market information systems, particularly for agricultural commodities are not easy to implement effectively. Too often, the information is not current or does not include sufficient detail on product characteristics (Gordon, 2007). According to Barret (1997), efficient arbitrage depends fundamentally on farmers and /or traders having access to reliable information on market conditions, especially prices, prevailing at multiple locations.As gathered from the interviewed producers, current cattle market price information at different market location was difficult to access, simply provided their cattle in their respective market places whenever they need cash. Some farmers provided cattle for sale at farm gate or market place level when ever they think there will be good market price from their past experience such as holiday or when the demand of traders was high. This observation paralles the report by Aklilu ( 2004), who noted that in Amhara region the majority of farmers obtained market information from neighbors, who went to market earlier or from local itinerants traders or traders from adjacent towns for market news.Itinerants and cattle traders were relatively better in getting cattle market information from exporters and Sudan importers than producers. However, cattle market information values in terms of time and transparency was limited. As observed from the discussion with itinerants and traders, the authonticity of market information obtained from informal sources was 25%.Cattle exporters were relatively better in getting reliable market information from domestic areas and Sudan importers through telephone communication. However, the information sources (i.e. Sudan importers) were themselves potential buyers and market prices so obtained can not be fully trusted. Thus, majority of exporters reported that the reliability of the information was more or less medium. Off course, some exporters assigned a fellow agent as a they were asked why different aged groups were supplied to the market at a given time, they replied because of theft problem.As gathered from key informants, some years ago, cattle were simply left to graze in the communal grazing land and forestland all day long with out any herdsman attending them and when the animals felt satisfied some time in the evening, they used to gather at some comfortable place to rest for the night. Thus, the duty of the herdsmen was simply to locate the spots where the cattle rested to protect them from predators. Despite this, now a days, farmers were seen herding their cattle closely in near by areas of their village. Even herding was performed during day and night time with strong herdsman in order to protect theft. More over, even though it was temporary, every farmer used open fenced areas (with out shade) for over night guarding from theft and even then, they are not immune from looting.According to some farmers explanation, among the different cattle age group, oxen were highly exposed to theft. This was because oxen in Sudan areas at different market were highly demanded. In most instances, cattle looted from somewhere else in the district or other neighboring districts were smuggled to Sudan areas. Therefore, in order to sustain livestock production and marketing development, in general, this problem should be given due consideration and addressed by the stakeholders at district and regional level.Among the interviewed farmers, 20.33% ranked cattle disease as a top prioriety problem. As gathered during group discussion, farmers believed that the transhumant cattle were one of the major sources of cattle diseases. Farmers stressed that most of the parasitic sources of diseases were transmitted from transhumant cattle. The most important diseases identified were babesiosis, Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) and thrypanosomiasis.As it was observed during the survey work, disease caused cattle mortality was not severe rather loss in productivity due to sickness was immense. These results were were more or less comparable with the previous study conducted in north and west shewa zone, where the major factors responsible for the declining of livestock population were feed shortage (50%) and disease (22%) (Agajie et al., 2002).Considerable proportion of the interviewed farmers (18.64%) also rated human diseases as the first priority problem of loss in productivity in the district (Appendix table 14). Among others, farmers pointed out that malaria infection and acute diarrhea were the most prevalent diseases in the district. In most instances, these diseases occurred towards the end of rainy seasons.However, malaria cases were also observed at the beginning and ending of rain. Due to these disease problems, the productive ages group some times became idle and unproductive during the main production season (rainy period). Naturally fermented milk (Ergo) was a common dairy product in the study area, however at times the cured formed becomes watery and when this type of fermented milk is churned, it gives poor butter yield. As a matter of fact, several factors can cause undesirable fermentation of milk, such as, ambient temperature, unheiginic handling of milk, disease etc., however the exact cause for this problem has not been considered in the studied area. Since the problem is quite frequently observed in many households, it requires due research attention.As gathered from farmers during group discussion, low efficiency of butter fat recovery was the other main concern that challenged butter out put. The reason given by the farmers for low butter fat recovery in the area was because the prevailing hot environmental temperature causes fat granules to melt during churning and pass with the buttermilk. However, the exact reason for this problem has not been identified through scientific investigation and research work need to be conducted to find out the cause as well as methods of processing (churning) that improve efficiency of butter fat recovery.Even though Metema district had abundant natural feed resources during the wet season, animals suffer from shortage of feeds coupled with very hot environmental conditions during the dry season (December-May). Shortage of feeds is more severe in the months of March-May. During this time, the animals were provided with crop residues, small amount of concentrate (oil seed cake and embaze to very emaciated animals), tree leaves and acacia tree seedpod. In addition, cattle were taken to distant areas where dried stand hay is available.As a matter of fact, the area has abundant natural feed resources (vast grazing land had various fodder species) that can be conserved and used as feed source during the dry season. Even though most of the interviewed farmers reported as they seen conserving fodder in the form of hay, the quality was quite poor as well as insufficient quantity to supplement the animals through out the dry period. This problem is quite soluvable as there is substantial fodder source from the vast grazing lands only if the farmers are adequately supported through extension interventions.The other problem, which contributed to shortage of animal feeds, was frequent firing of grazing and forest lands. Farmers said that firing was mostly started around November. Even though the reasons seemed unorthodox, farmers said firing occurred due to carelessness by wild beekeepers (Honey hunters) and at times deliberately by farmers and cattle looter.Farmers used firing for the purpose of avoiding snakes and other reptiles, while looters set fire at near by grazing grounds for the purpose of placing cattle away from people residence.Whatever the cases, uncontrolled firing of grazing areas and forestland should be protected so that forage in the form of stand hay can be available in the vicinity of the villages to be used during the dry period. It should be stressed that standing hay is the main source of fodder during the dry season and it needs to be protected from fire.Butter and cattle market information was not obtained from direct and trusted sources (such as government media) as well as not to merly delivered to the producers in the district. During the group discussion with producers, itinerants and traders, in most instances, the producers were most vulnerable to loss of market price due to limitation in accessing market information.Even though, itinerants, traders and exporters were relatively in a better position, they also suffred from market price transparency. Though public media (radio, bekur magazines) was serving announcement of price of the major commodities at different location weekly, almost none of the market agents were utilizing information due to unawarness.As discussed with farmers, most farmers lack appropriate services of extension, veterinary and inputs. Farmers reported that livestock production was not assisted by appropriate extension services regarding feed management, improved husbandry practices, product processing, marketing and so on. According to the farmers report, the extensional service was not focused in assisting how to conserve feeds, fattening cattle, how to utilize milk and milk products and husbandry practices. Due to this reason, they followed traditional production system instead of improved system.Previously, experiences with any objectives of the traits had not been practiced to change the genotypes of the indigenous cattle; rather the production system was dependent on only indigenous cattle types. How ever, recently with the collaboration of IPMS Ethiopia and MOA, Borena cattle type (bull) was introduced.Despite the existence of high disease incidences, there was no adequate animal health service provided parallel to their way of production system. In order to minimize disease incidence the herdsman was equipping themselves with common medicine and syringes, if the cattle showed any sign of abnormality, they injected common medicine by themselves. Therefore, instead of letting farmers to do this by them selves, a mobile clinic by technician or any veterinarians needs to be arranged.out of the total volume of butter produced, more than half of it was consumed with in the household (58%) and one-fourth (25%) was provided to market. However, the market share of whole milk and other milk derivatives such as cottage cheese, buttermilk and fermented milk was almost negligible. Particularly, whole milk was not a marketable commodity in Metema district. These results indicated that dairy production in Metema is less market oriented. Since these limitations have great impact on the improvement of dairying, in general, there is a need Meat is not consumed during the long fasting period by the followers of Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Meat consumption was mainly during seasonal occasions. The main source of meat in Metema was small ruminants slaughtered individually (44.9%) and by close neighbors and related families for distribution among themselves (43.2%), while 11.9% of the respondents reported purchasing meat from butchers house. Out of the total fresh meat produced, 49.8% was consumed by the household in the form of fresh, while 50.2% was retained for processing.Traditional method used for processing meat was air-drying method and the product produced is locally called 'Quanta'.52.2% of households had experience of selling milk and milk products, while the remaining (47.8 %) had no experience of selling dairy products. 93.1% of inhabitants of Metema district depended on butter as a marketable commodity, while (7.0%) used whole milk, naturally fermented milk (Ergo) and buttermilk as a marketable commodity. However, no experience of selling traditional cottage cheese (Ayib) was reported. The dairy marketing system identified in the study area was entirely informal marketing system, in which the producers sell dairy products directly to consumers and/or traders. From the over all data, average butter prices ranged from ETB 22.5 to EB 25.0/liter in wet season, while the price was fairly higher during the dry season (ETB 24.0 to 27.0/liter). The most common butter marketing channels were 3 BS2, BS 3 , and BS 5 through which the large proportion of total cooking butter flows from the producers to consumers. Where as, the most common cattle marketing channels were 4 CS 2 , CS 5 , CS 7 , CS 8 and CS 11 through which the large proportion of cattle flows from the producers to consumers.In general, milk and meat production and marketing system were constrained by theft of cattle, infectious and parasitic disease, lack of milk processing services, poor market information on the price and supply condition, lack of services (extension, inputs, and veterinary) and lack of feed processing and utilization management. Therefore, to improve the situation, use of betterfeed conservation and utilization techniques, use of improved feeding system and improved animal health services are believed to solve these problems. In order to achive these, provision of training to the farming communities is imperative so as to improve their knowledge and skills on the management of dairy and beef animals.Based on the current survey study, the following key recommendations have been developed.Cattle keepers in Metema district produced more surplus milk per capita than their fellow highlanders during the rainy seasons. If this significant amount of milk could be supplied to the market, a good source of income can be created for the inhabitants.There is a need to strengthen extension activities to increase milk production in the area and to change the attitude of farmers toward fresh milk sale. The establishment of organized milk collection and marketing infrastructures would encourage them to change these trends. Hence, support must be given to improve the attitude of inhabitants through awareness creation.Dairy producers in Metema district complained that the prevailing high temperature causes undesirable fermented milk, which often gives low butter yield when churned.Thus, comparative investigation on the different processing techniques should be required.The communal grazing land produced abundant pasture in wet season, but not during dry season. This resulted in feed shortage during the dry season. One of the means to minimize feed shortage is conservation of forage in the form of hay at the end of rainy season. However, lack of experience in haymaking hinders the practice. Hence, due consideration should be given to train the farmers in haymaking. It is also important to go beyond providing farmers with simple illustration of haymaking practice, and support them to form cooperatives that could help them to have access to the use of machinery that can mow and carry the mowed grass from distant communal pasture to homestead.Even though disease is one of the major constraints of livestock production system in Metema area, inadequate veterinary services were rendered because of shortage of veterinary expertise and related facilities. Thus, efforts should be made to establish adequate services at least at the farmers training center areas. The trained paravet at keble level should be distributed in the other kebles too, with adequate medications.The senior vet staff of agricultural office should supervise them regularly.Informal export of cattle to Sudan areas was a common phenomenon and not only oxen but also cows, calves and heifers were informally across the boarder exported. Due attention should be given to restrict movement of cattle across the border through legal provision as per the agreement of Ethiopian and Sudan government. According to the respondents during the month of September, biting flies contributes to the decrease in milk yield of cows. However, the claim of reduction in milk yield due to biting flies needs further investigation. ","tokenCount":"30894"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9afa4ac25ef7f8fce513ff9e79cbf62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cca67128-7ed7-4d80-814d-25ac9a58abbc/retrieve","id":"-882768454"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8bd65c1c-e0f2-46b0-b502-8ea366b97c76","pagecount":"19","content":"The TRANSFORM Work Package team and the AgWise team of the Excellence in Agronomy (EiA) Initiative of One CGIAR organized a 3-day training course for Use Case teams and their demand partners to enhance their knowledge on EiA data management tools and especially AgWise.The course was held at the Mercure Hotel and Residence, Nairobi, Kenya from 1 st to 3 rd November 2023. The training was also broadcast online to allow participation of people who were not able to travel, with 3-4 participants attending online each day.Specifically, the course aimed to equip participants with:• Knowledge of the AgWise decision support framework and how Use Cases could engage with it, • An understanding of EiA data management tools and solutions, including how and what was needed to use them, • An understanding of protocols and SoPs for Use Cases to consistently validate and assess performance of their MVPs in the field, • An overview of Human-Centered Design, including its importance in the work Use Cases do,• Possibilities for Use Cases to disseminate and sustain their products more effectively.Agronomic decision-making and evidence-driven advisories require high-quality data from field trials and experiments. These data need to be integrated and combined with other sources for input to analytical models and decision support tools to improve predictive capacity and generate improved management options that enhance crop productivity and agronomic gains. Collaborative efforts and data sharing across stakeholders generate insights by leveraging data pools including locationspecific and multivariate data sources.However, for this to happen, data must be shared and conform to the same community-agreed standards. This enables reuse across the data life cycle and accelerates innovation, and the ability to derive insights. It allows easier and faster development of management options for stakeholders, including the ultimate beneficiaries -who are often poor farmers.EiA aims at developing and delivering locally relevant and demand-driven agronomic solutions at scale based increasingly on standardized data. Demand is formulated and operationalized around Use Cases that develop Minimum Viable Products (MVPs). Development of such MVPs requires data from new or legacy household and/or baseline surveys, field trials, validation trials, and farmer follow-up surveys.EiA's TRANSFORM Work Package provides support for data management during all the phases of MVP development by the Use Cases and their demand partners. The overall goal is to ensure that collected data adheres to the FAIR Principles 1 and can be easily found and reused from a global agronomy database. TRANSFORM also houses the AgWise generalized decision support framework, allowing the development of fertilizer, planting date and other recommendations for farmers. Use Case MVP efforts both contribute to and use AgWise routines. Further, the Work Package has developed field validation protocols to support Use Cases consistently and robustly assess performance of the MVPs they develop.This training focused on building awareness about the data management tools available to Use Cases, current advances in the AgWise decision support framework, validation protocols, MVP dissemination and sustainability, and the importance of Human Centered Design in Use Case MVP development.52 people participated in the training with 24 women and 28 men. 17 Use Cases were represented, working in 25 countries and 3 continents: Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Figure 1). Most participants had post-graduate qualifications in agricultural science.   The second day was about dissemination and sustainability of tools and products developed by the Use Cases. Partners like Ignitia, the AKILIMO Association and Digital Green shared thoughts on effective product dissemination and sustainability. Exercises in small groups allowed participants to reflect on the challenges and gaps related to MVP dissemination and sustainability their Use Case. A session was also dedicated to explaining what Human Centered Design is and how to include it in the development of the MVP.The last day was dedicated to data management tools supported by EiA: DataScribe, AgroFIMS, FAIRscribe, ONA, and the agronomy database, or DataPool. These tools allow Use Cases to improve data collection, and the standardized data collected renders it easy for TRANSFORM developers to create the impact dashboard.The last session described the field validation exercises that each Use Case employs to assess MVP performance, and the tools designed by TRANSFORM Work Package to support Use Cases in this.The training agenda is available in Annex 2.The training included a variety of learning techniques from lectures (Figure 2), individual and team reflection exercises (Figure 3), feedback on experience from external partners, quizzes, question and answer, and plenary discussions. Most exercises were reported online via shared documents by participants to allow engagement of both on-site and online participants. On the first day, after a detailed presentation of AgWise and its use, each Use Case team listed the opportunities and gaps that AgWise could help overcome. The results are available here: EiA_UC_DSTs_gaps_2023-11-01.docx.On day 2, Use Case teams were tasked to a group exercise to reflect on the dissemination-related gaps and challenges on their Use Case.The results show that the main dissemination partners of all EiA Use Cases are private organizations such as fertilizers suppliers, OLAM, Digital Green, or RAB. Some Use Cases also partner with public organizations like the national extension services (Ethiopia), government agencies (Cambodia and Vietnam), University (Planting South Asia) and farmers cooperatives.All Use Cases plan to use digital dissemination tools. Six Use Cases will use a Chatbot, 7 will employ SMS, 6 will design a mobile application, 6 will use social media, 4 will develop an API, others will have IVR (3), a website (2), video (1), dashboard (1). Among the Use Cases who use analog tools, 4 will use a lookup table, and 9 will use printed documents (guide, banner, or map) (Table ).The main dissemination-related gaps that Use Cases face are: improving their MVP, including social sciences in their work and scaling their MVP.The main dissemination-related challenges (defined as actions Use Cases are taking but could improve) were articulated as: improving their MVP, the fact that the MVP does not respond to targeted users, and the lack of funds.Inputs from Use Cases can be found here: EiA_UC_Dissemination_GapsChallenges_2023-11-02.docxThe next exercise was for the Use Case teams to reflect on the top 2-4 longer-term (postproject/initiative) sustainability-related gaps and challenges for their Use Case.The report from the teams shows that all Use Cases present in the workshop have a sustainability model that is budget dependent (except for the GAIP Ghana Use Case).The major sustainability-related challenges Use Cases face are: lack of funding, keeping private partners engaged, developing a business model and lack of training for staff or end users.The main sustainability-related gaps Use Cases deal with are: government involvement, capacity of end users and staff, developing strong partnerships, and improving their MVPs.The results report is available here: EiA_UC_Sustainability_GapsChallenges_2023-11-02.docx. The principles of Human Centered Design were presented to participants prior to an exercise where Use Case teams had to reflect on the questions below:The inputs from Use Cases can be found here: EiA_UC_HumanCenteredDesign_ExerciseAfter the session, Anna Mueller, Human Center Design expert, provided the synopsis below: ➢ Use Cases address a variety of direct and indirect users. Most Use Cases have their users not clearly profiled and target very generic direct and indirect users. ➢ Use Cases deal with a variety of stakeholders and indirect users that pose different demands on the design of the solution.• Who engages with your solution and who has an interest in your solution?Who are your users? Think particularly about your stakeholders.• What are your excitements and worries when you think about using HCD in your Use Case / country activities?• What are your current barriers and pain points for learning from users and integrating these insights into the design of your solution?Current barriers to learning from users and stakeholders and integrating their insights into the design of the MVP include:• No or little capacity and resources within the team to generate user insights and translate them into design decisions, this includes availability (or knowledge of) tools. • Accessing users is difficult.• Time pressure to deliver results hinders iterative and user focused approach.• Power dynamics within the use cases (whose voice is heard and considered in the design)• Enhanced user understanding and tailoring solutions: HCD enables a deeper understanding of user needs and preferences, allowing for the development of tailored solutions that are more likely to be adopted and used effectively. • Improved chances of scaling impact: HCD helps to ensure that solutions are designed for scalability, allowing for broader reach and greater impact across a wider user base.• Continuous improvement and iterative process: HCD promotes a continuous learning allowing for the identification of potential bottlenecks and the ongoing refinement of solutions based on user feedback.• Balancing HCD principles with competing priorities and existing systems: HCD may need to be carefully integrated with existing systems and priorities, particularly in scenarios where government policies or timelines may not fully align with HCD principles.• Addressing the diversity of user needs and contexts: HCD needs to effectively account for the diverse needs, preferences, and contexts of different user groups, particularly in a region like Latin America where agricultural practices and cultural norms vary across countries and regions.HCD may require additional resources, expertise, and time investment, which could impact the overall feasibility of implementing HCD in resource-constrained settings.Additionally, scaling HCD solutions to a wider audience may pose challenges, especially if these solutions need to be adapted to local languages and contexts. roundtable discussions to identify and address common challenges and opportunities in HCD implementation.To apply HCD Use Case teams miss: During day 3, the different data management tools available through the TRANSFORM Work Package were presented. After the presentation, Use Cases shared their interest in tools that may help them in MVP development.Use Cases are interested in using the following EiA data management tools, in order of importance: DataScribe, ONA, FAIRscribe, Carob, AgroFIMS and the DataPool (Table 3Error! Reference source not found.).Use cases are interested in using EiA data management tools to better standardize their data, to easily aggregate data, and access to data monitoring tools.The actions that TRANSFORM could take to improve data management within the Use Cases are: building more capacity and awareness on the tools available, ensuring data quality, developing incentives to share data, providing better access to data and developing guidelines on data sharing at the CGIAR level. A graphic designer assisted throughout the training to capture information and lessons learned in highly graphic format. These visual notes are a powerful tool to summarize the training content. The 3 figures (Figs 4,5,6) could be seen as a single panoramic figure were participants start their learning journey in a dry land and end in a green landscape thanks to the knowledge and tools (represented by the backpack) they have accumulated during the training.  A quiz was given to participants before the tools were presented and again after, to assess lessons learned by participants. The questions were different on the 2 quizzes. Mentimeter was used to ensure private responses and encourage participation and fun. Participants increased their knowledge of all EiA tools during this training. The table seemingly indicates a decrease of knowledge for the DataPool. However, this result is due to the complexity of the \"after\" question, which quizzed participants on the difference between a database and a repository (Figure 7). Participants knew the purpose of the DataPool but did not remember the definitions of a repository vs a database. The training provided an invaluable chance for the organizers to take home some learnings:• Ask participants to share their exercise results in an online document: This allows participants to share their thoughts in detail and makes it easy for organizers to gather feedback. • Quizzes keep participants engaged and are a good way to evaluate knowledge.• Few Use Case leads were aware of EiA tools and what each of them can provide. One solution could be to share a written description of the tools at EiA level (on EiA website).In conclusion, the training was a success as it brought Use Case members to know about the tools available in EiA to help them manage data, and to reflect on the dissemination and sustainable challenges they are facing as well as knowing about Human Center Design principles. ","tokenCount":"2006"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"679e0d6b246f59bc71b9c3bc8a291065","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb85ef7e-9d11-4977-8518-98c803aee635/retrieve","id":"2080151794"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ff3c0634-2560-4803-9d29-5d02f7bbfe93","pagecount":"12","content":"Effective policies rely on good information. Agriculture and forestry policy makers from the region identified weak communication, poor engagement of stakeholders, and lack of timely information as constraints to the development of effective agriculture and forestry policies and the enforcement and implementation of existing ones. A robust regional information exchange was identified as a valuable tool to strengthen communication in agriculture and forestry policy issues.The Pacific Agriculture and Forestry Policy Network (PAFPNet) was established in 2006 with the aim of facilitating communication, information dissemination and capacity building, and enhancing awareness on issues related to agriculture and forestry policy. These efforts are intended to contribute to the development and implementation of sound policies, plans and decisions in the countries and the region. These aims are in line with the principles underpinning the Pacific Plan, in particular:• to strengthen regional cooperation and integration in areas where the region could gain the most, through sharing resources of governance, alignment of policies, and delivering practical benefits; • to build strong partnerships between member countries, Pacific territories, regional and international organisations and non-state organisations.The network comprises policy officials and representatives from regional and international organisations, non-governmental organisations, the private sector, civil society and local community groups. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community/Land Resources Division (SPC/LRD) acts as the secretariat supported by a Core Group of members. The Core Group members are: SPC/LRD, the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP), Foundation of the People of the South Pacific International (FSPI), PNG National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI), Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS), South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), University of the South Pacific (USP) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).To support the network in future, and to ensure PAFPNet is focussed on issues of strategic importance to its members, this Strategic Plan was developed at its second stakeholder meeting in December 2009. Members of the network present re-examined the network's original goals and objectives to ensure they remained valid, and identified key objectives and outputs for the network over the next three years (2010 to 2012).Despite making significant contributions to employment, incomes and livelihoods in the Pacific, agriculture and forestry departments in the region remain under-resourced. In deciding how to allocate limited funding, priority is often not given to the policy and planning units of departments. Yet in the absence of strong policy and planning and effective prioritisation of activities the ability of the department to deliver services effectively and efficiently is severely constrained.The absence of strong coherent policies has a direct influence on the effectiveness of government support to the sector. The policy development process provides an opportunity for all interested stakeholders to have their views heard, so that governments can make informed decisions on budget allocations. Resulting policy documents and implementation plans provide a reference point for all external agencies to ensure that their activities are aligned with government priorities. To facilitate communication, information dissemination, capacity building and awareness, to support the identification, formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of agricultural and forestry policies.The performance indicators for the goal are:PAFPNet will focus on three key objectives for 2010 to 2012:• Objective 1: Access to policy-related information improved.• Objective 2: Dialogue among actors and stakeholders on sustainable agriculture, forestry and land issues advocated and encouraged. • Objective 3: Capacity building and information needs identified and addressed.A fundamental purpose of the network is to improve the access of policy makers to relevant information necessary for informed policy development, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. This access includes sharing experiences within the region to ensure that lessons are learnt from previous interventions, successes built upon and repetition of mistakes avoided.PAFPNet contains a number of mechanisms through which access to information is enhanced. An email distribution list allows any PAFPNet member to circulate relevant information to other members. The website is regularly updated to upload any documents of interest to members and an email circulated to inform them of new uploads. Annual meetings provide a further opportunity for national focal points, and for key members to exchange ideas and information.The website is one of the main ways of disseminating information and publications. Members will be informed about regular updates. Attention will also be given to making the website more interactive by using Web 2.0 tools. A planned PAFPNet Wiki will be developed to make existing information more accessible to members and interested stakeholders including researchers and students. The website will provide members with dedicated country pages, which they can edit as they see fit, for an overview of the agriculture and forestry sector in their country or territory and links to further information. Links to social networking sites (such as Facebook) will be explored as a specific way of enhancing the participation of young people in the network.PAFPNet will provide a repository for all existing agriculture, forestry and land use policies and plans where available. Efforts will be made to encourage members to publish existing policies and plans.PAFPNet members receive timely information and training to support policy development, implementation and monitoring and evaluationPositive feedback from members via annual member surveyThe effectiveness of the network depends on members using it to circulate relevant documents, information and experiences. The PAFPNet Secretariat will encourage a greater number of people to post to the network and share relevant information.A wide range of data already exists that could help to strengthen the evidence base for policy making. Some is contained in agricultural censuses, forest inventories, household income and expenditure surveys, etc. The PAFPNet Secretariat will support members in developing a database of useful statistics from these sources.All forms of media will be used to disseminate relevant information to members, including news articles, policy briefs, and radio and television shows.New members will be encouraged to join the network. The PAFPNet Secretariat will use every opportunity (meetings, workshops, membership drives) to showcase the network and encourage new members to join. National focal points will be encouraged, to establish national policy networks and encourage their contacts and stakeholders to join the regional network. The membership list will be updated weekly. Other initiatives to strengthen membership will be considered including rotating moderation of discussion forums.Discussion forums will be used to generate dialogue on key policy issues, and PAFPNet members will be invited to moderate on key topics. PAFPNet members will be encouraged to share experiences from the multitude of regional events that touch on these topics (for example from national and regional food summits, national policy consultation processes etc).The PAFPNet Secretariat will work with national focal points to identify other regional and international networks and databases that are interested in partnering with the network. Sharing information between networks will provide greater access to policy research and resources, technical information and expertise and provide an important avenue for learning from experiences from around the world.PAFPNet will support training and research needs where appropriate and practical, ensuring that these are delivered in partnership with others. The PAFPNet Secretariat will approach a number of research organisations in the region to formalise partnerships with them and encourage sharing of research results and joint research projects.A researcher will be appointed and will work with PAFPNet members to identify areas of regional importance for research activities.Stakeholders have identified the documentation of success stories and case studies that can be used for advocacy purposes and as benchmarks of examples of sound policy development, implementation and monitoring and evaluation as a key priority. PAFPNet will work with its members to organise specific activities to develop these case studies.PAFPNet will seek to ensure that agencies involved in capacity building initiatives relating to agriculture and forestry policy development coordinate their activities to maximise their effectiveness and avoid duplication. A strong network to enable development partners involved in these areas to communicate regularly, is an important tool in building the relationships and trust that can facilitate this process.A database of experts will be reviewed and expanded to provide PAFPNet members with an up to date and accurate list of technical experts in the agriculture and forestry sector. The use of technical experts that lack Pacific experience is a constant challenge for policy makers in the region. The database will assist countries to identify experts with relevant expertise who understand the region's challenges, and will provide information about those with specific technical expertise, which might be difficult to source within the region.A weakness of relying on external technical assistance for policy development is the potential for external experts to have limited knowledge of the region, its specific circumstances and capacity constraints. The stakeholder workshop identified increased use of South-South cooperation between PICTs as a possible solution. For example policy experts from one country could assist countries through attachment programmes for specific policy development activities. The PAFPNet Secretariat with explore with partners the potential of establishing such a mechanism.The network operates according to a number of guiding principles developed at its establishment in 2006. These principles were discussed and validated at the stakeholder workshop in December 2009:• empower communities including women and youth to participate fully in the agriculture and forestry sectors, and thus increase their income-generating capacity; • facilitate national policy processes rather than getting directly involved in them; • maintain consistency with principles of sustainable development and good governance; • respond to requests in a timely manner; • encourage cooperation, partnership, participation and consensus building; • be people focussed and outcome-oriented;• remain relevant to the needs and aspirations of Pacific communities; • be open and flexible and remain focussed.PAFPNet is managed by a core group of agencies (SPC, FAO, SPREP, SOPAC, FSPI, NARI, and CTA) and a national focal point in each country provides the main contact point for the PAFPNet Secretariat (see Annex 2). The Secretariat of the Pacific Community's Land Resources Division (SPC-LRD) currently hosts the network and its Agriculture and Forestry Policy Adviser acts as the network administrator. The PAFPNet website is also hosted by the SPC website www.spc.int/PAFPNet. National focal points are responsible for updating their national country pages, sharing relevant policy-related information, posting to the network as appropriate and encouraging stakeholders at the national level to join the regional network.Where there is a demand, country focal points are also responsible for establishing national networks to complement the regions and ensuring that a forum exists for policy debate on nationally-specific issues.Any individual with a strong commitment to agriculture and forestry development in the Pacific can join and post to the network.PAFPNet provides a way of strengthening partnerships and collaborating on activities to ensure that limited resources are used most effectively and lessons learnt from experiences in different countries.CTA provided funding to establish the network and has continued to support it with specific activities.To ensure the longer-term sustainability of the network, PAFPNet must establish and enhance partnerships with researchers, private sector organisations and businesses, non-governmental organisations and donors. PAFPNet members have commented that the true value of the network will be realised only through joint activities, research and publications. Key outputs of the strategy are listed below.The PAFPNet Secretariat will identify and formalise partnerships with key stakeholders to progress collaborative initiatives. These initiatives may take the form of joint research projects, case study compilation, funding for specific PAFP-Net activities, providing resource personnel and technical assistance for PAFPNet activities.Where specific PAFPNet activities have been identified (for example, the implementation of work relating to the Youth in Agriculture Strategy) the PAFPNet Secretariat will approach development partners and other key stakeholders to attract funding to support the implementation of concrete activities, in particular those at the national level.The PAFPNet Secretariat will provide opportunities for students and recent graduates to expand their knowledge of policy-related issues by providing for short term attachments with the PAFPNet Secretariat. Joint supervision of specific student assignments will be explored with educational institutions.Certain organisations have been identified as those to approach with a view to establishing formal relationships, and exploring how PAFPNet can support their activities and vice versa. This list is not exhaustive, and other organisations may be identified later. Existing PAFPNet members are not listed below but resource mobilisation efforts will also focus on expanding collaborative initiatives with existing members. ","tokenCount":"2015"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"95e8d114356f8223f9b135bf5136821a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/547bca83-70bb-4c5b-ad64-af64f9c93976/retrieve","id":"-1132901527"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bab6f45d-146e-433c-b832-96719acb7832","pagecount":"27","content":"In early 2020 the CGIAR Independent Science for Development Council (ISDC) commissioned foresight reviews and a trade-off analysis report. The goal of the research was to provide ISDC members with an evidence base that would allow them to build foresight reflections and identify key challenges to consider in developing the CGIAR 2030 Research Strategy. As a first step, ISDC commissioned two expert reviews that synthesized a broad sample of existing foresight literature on the five One CGIAR impact areas. The foresight reviews were the initial phase in a stepwise approach to providing a grounding for consensus building, followed by a trade-off analysis report. This research concluded in June 2020 and was presented to CGIAR leadership.The reviews used a horizon to 2030 and beyond, drawing on both previous CGIAR-sponsored foresight research and studies by external organizations that paid significant attention to agrifood systems (AFS). Referenced studies, a subset of the thousands published, used a range of foresight methods. The three most prominent methods involved (1) projecting the likely impacts of megatrends, (2) scenario planning of prospective pathways, and (3) visioning and backcasting to identify feasible pathways to desired outcomes. A summary of foresight findings is listed below.• The foresight literature largely ignored the impact areas of nutrition and food security; poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; and gender equality, youth, and social inclusion. In addition, agriculture as a broader component of multifunctional landscapes received insufficient attention, limiting insights on the essential interplay with other land uses. Research focused instead on intermediate outcomes, such as prices or crop and livestock output, or on other outcomes such as per capita income or money metric net surplus. CGIAR must be alert to these omissions.• Some studies showed that trends in population growth, urbanization, migration, climate change, and natural resource depletion will have mainly adverse consequences for gender equality, poverty reduction, and nutrition, especially in low-and lower-middle-income countries.• AFS face the core challenges of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and addressing climate change through adaptation and mitigation. High uncertainty exists across spatial and temporal scales about whether adaptation can offset the adverse net effects of climate change on AFS and greater emphasis will be required on mitigation. AFS will need to adapt to greater water stress, more frequent extreme weather events, existential threats to coastal agro-ecosystems, and transformative change to agro-ecosystems due to biotic and abiotic stresses and endogenous ecological shifts. At the same time, greater emphasis will be required on mitigation. Policymakers will face tough trade-off choices among emission reduction targets, nutrition and food security goals, poverty and gender equity objectives, and resource use decisions (mainly regarding land and water).• Pressures on agricultural land management will further increase, although scenarios showed varying degrees of expansion of cultivated area and impacts on biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and water resources. Sustainability concerns associated with land and water management practices demand a search for innovative production methods to meet growing nutrient requirements. Research should seek better management of fish stocks and more sustainable forms of aquaculture and mariculture. The effective management of trees for• Nutrition and food security• Poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs• Gender equality, youth, and social inclusion• Climate adaptation and greenhouse gas reduction• Environmental health and biodiversityForesight and Trade-off Implications for One CGIAR IV coproduction of food and ecosystem services in actively managed agricultural landscapes likewise demands further exploration.• Technology and innovation played significant roles in future scenarios across all impact areas in the literature, yet the unique needs of women and youth were missing. Increasing total factor productivity of farm-level food production and decreasing food waste and loss will be crucial. Research must explicitly consider complementary technology and innovation adoption and adaptation pathways. The foresight literature gave insufficient attention to these issues. Although governance and policy were recognized as major barriers to adoption, innovations in these areas were less explored. Indeed, foresight research exhibited considerable naiveté around the potential for national and global governance to modify policies and institutional arrangements to resolve barriers to the adoption and equitable distribution of gains from AFS innovations. Foresight studies generally did not focus sufficiently on crucial issues such as intellectual property regimes, antitrust regulations, land and water rights, value chain organization, and conflict management, which risk impeding the adoption, adaptation, and diffusion of innovations and practice changes that are major performance indicators for One CGIAR.These foresight findings were a focus of the ISDC semiannual, virtual meeting held April 20-23, 2020. ISDC members, CGIAR leadership and advisory services staff, the co-leads of the CGIAR Foresight Community of Practice, and commissioned ISDC foresight and trade-off researchers engaged in presentations and discussions on the One CGIAR reform and potential foresight implications. To further distill the foresight outcomes into actionable knowledge, ISDC members and invited guests convened in small groups, focusing on each of the various One CGIAR impact areas. The guided group work was presented and discussed, laying the basis for the final ISDC consensus-building activity during a closed session. The consensus building and further discussions used the aggregate expertise of the ISDC members and led to eight foresight-driven ISDC reflections and corresponding questions and implications that arose from the tradeoff analysis report. Detailed reflections and trade-off questions and implications can be found on p. 7.1. One CGIAR's success will depend on a highly functional, continuous decision-making process that uses foresight, trade-off analysis, and the Quality of Research for Development (QoR4D) Framework to formulate strategy, make investment decisions, and monitor and evaluate. The One CGIAR impact areas should be integral to an adaptive and participatory research management cycle that draws on a broad range of perspectives.2. Ongoing foresight and trade-off analyses should prioritize attention to key barriers to adoption, adaptation, and diffusion of innovations for impact within AFS. Such barriers include poor access, lack of affordability, poor governance and policy implementation, prevailing inequities, and lack of suitability to context, including adequate risk assessments.3. The One CGIAR impact areas of nutrition and food security; poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; and gender equality, youth, and social inclusion appeared less in the foresight research than did climate change adaptation, greenhouse gas reduction, environmental health, and biodiversity. Further, when the One CGIAR impact areas were included, they were siloed. The intersections of these impact areas need elevated attention in future foresight and trade-off analyses.4. CGIAR is globally renowned for its ability to effectively convene and coordinate diverse dialogues across AFS research and policy organizations. To further increase the effectiveness of these dialogues, One CGIAR should make foresight and trade-off analysis routine elements of this facilitation process.5. Sustainable agriculture and food systems are characterized by a high degree of diversity. Such diversity should be better leveraged to meet the growing demand for nutrients. Hence, One CGIAR should consider expanded attention to-and investment in-research on fruits, legumes (including pulses), nuts, and vegetables to broaden the System's commodity composition.6. One CGIAR research needs to align with and influence emerging trends in AFS. CGIAR core strengths are largely in the domains of farm-level primary production, sustainable management of resources, and preservation of genetic and environmental diversity. Future research should encompass all AFS aspects (i.e., the entire pathway through which farm products are transformed and reach consumers) without compromising core expertise. Ongoing strategic discussions will be needed to determine exactly how to achieve this without losing focus on core competencies and crowding out partners. In early 2020, ISDC commissioned two foresight reviews on the five One CGIAR impact areas. One review focused on the societal impact areas, and the other centered on the climate and environment impact areas. The reviews were the first phase in a stepwise approach to extracting actionable knowledge from existing foresight studies.These studies were followed by a subsequent review of tradeoff analyses that also drew on the foresight summaries. For this last step, the trade-off analysis report built on the earlier foresight synthesis and ISDC consensus building. The aim was to investigate the possible impacts of different CGIAR future investments across the five impact areas, along with plausible alternative development pathways. The report reviewed the conceptual foundations of trade-off analysis, described current data and modeling tools from farm to global scales, and identified their strengths and limitations. The aggregate findings from this research were finalized in June 2020 and presented to CGIAR leadership.Societal Foresight Review The foresight and trade-off research was led by ISDC focal points Chris Barrett (lead), Suneetha Kadiyala, and Lesley Torrance. Terms of reference (TOR), developed in January 2020, guided the foresight reviews to ensure they met the goals of ISDC (Appendix A). In late February, a TOR was disseminated for the trade-off analysis report, which commenced when the foresight review drafts were internally shared (Appendix B). The foresight reviews used a horizon to 2030 and beyond, drawing on both previous CGIAR-sponsored foresight and studies by external organizations that paid significant attention to AFS. The literature varied substantially in their specific focus within AFS, from value chains to consumer diets.The future of AFS is highly uncertain; they will evolve in ways that cannot be entirely anticipated-and certainly not controlled-mainly because of the complex relationships between human and natural systems and the vastly decentralized and uncoordinated nature of decision making throughout these interconnected systems. Foresight approaches are ideally suited to explore these complex relationships and possible pathways, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Insights thus generated provided essential background information for evidence-based decision making. Referenced studies, a subset of the thousands published (Wiebe et al. 2018), used a range of foresight methods, including trend and megatrend analysis, scenario planning, and visioning and backcasting (Table 1). Visioning starts with the present and uses current trends to develop pathways to attain the preferred future. Visioning and backcasting studies define a desired future state and then work backward to define feasible paths from the present to that desired state. Unlike scenario planning, which expressly maps out multiple future states, some of which may be undesirable, the backcasting approach starts with a single desired future state.How can we reach a desired future outcome?The foresight findings were the focus of the ISDC virtual, semiannual meeting held April 20-23, 2020 (Appendix C). ISDC members, CGIAR leadership and advisory services staff, the co-leads of the CGIAR Foresight Community of Practice, and commissioned ISDC foresight and trade-off researchers engaged in presentations and discussions covering the One CGIAR reform and potential foresight implications. To further distill the foresight outcomes, ISDC members and invited guests convened into small groups for each of the One CGIAR impact areas based on expertise. The guided group work was presented and discussed, laying the foundation for the final ISDC consensus-building activity during a closed session.The consensus building used the aggregate expertise of the ISDC members and led to eight foresight reflections and the foundation for the trade-off analysis report.The megatrends across foresight studies included climate change, increasing competition for and degradation of natural resources, increased demand for food, and shifting dietary preferences. These megatrends point to the need for AFS to identify routes to sustainably increase healthy food production. The need to address climate change and reduce greenhouse gases has raised the simultaneous challenges of adaptation to and mitigation of climate change within AFS. High uncertainty exists across spatial and temporal scales about whether adaptation can offset the effects of climate change. AFS will need to adapt to greater water stress, more frequent extreme events, existential threats to coastal agro-ecosystems, transformative change to agro-ecosystems due to abiotic and endogenous ecological shifts, and the impact of climate change on crop and livestock pests and diseases.Pressures related to agricultural land management and expansion will increase, although scenarios presented varying degrees of expansion and impacts on biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and water resources. Sustainability concerns associated with land management practices demand a search for new protein sources that fulfill nutrient requirements. Researchers should explore better management of fish stocks and more sustainable forms of aquaculture and mariculture, as well as the role of forestry and trees on farms. Policymakers will face tough trade-off choices among emission reduction targets, nutrition and food security goals, poverty and gender equity objectives, and land and water use decisions.Despite the projected negative societal consequences of climate change and environmental degradation, the foresight literature largely ignored the CGIAR impact areas of nutrition and food security; poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; and gender equality, youth, and social inclusion, as well as how these areas intersect with climate change adaptation, greenhouse gas reduction, environmental health, and biodiversity. Research focused instead on intermediate outcomes, such as prices or crop and livestock output, or on other outcomes such as per capita income. Studies generally showed that trends in population growth, urbanization, migration, climate change, and natural resource degradation and depletion will have adverse consequences for gender equality, poverty reduction, and nutrition, especially in low-and lower-middle-income countries. CGIAR must be alert to these omissions.Technology and innovation played significant roles in future scenarios across all CGIAR impact areas in the literature. Increasing total factor productivity of farm-level food production and decreasing food waste and loss will be crucial.Research must explicitly consider complementary adoption and adaptation pathways, especially among women and youth. The foresight literature gave insufficient attention to these issues. Although viewed as important, much-needed innovations in the governance and policy spaces also were less explored. Indeed, foresight research exhibited considerable naiveté around the potential for national and global governance to modify policies and institutional arrangements to resolve barriers to the adoption and equitable distribution of gains from AFS innovations. This lack of attention is likely to impede the adoption of innovations and practice changes that are major performance indicators for One CGIAR. Social drivers are integral to AFS, and their importance is reflected across the literature reviewed. Many foresight studies highlighted that the ability to transform AFS depends strongly on people's dietary choices in the face of growing food demand, combined with equity and gender dynamics. These elements are key to the impacts that will follow unavoidable megatrends.The future nutritional status of global populations is uncertain. The few nutrition-focused foresight studies argued for slower-in some cases, negative-growth in the production of starchy staple cereals, roots and tubers, and livestock, and faster expansion in the supply of other commodities that may stimulate consumption of more diverse and healthy diets. Several studies charted pathways that expand the supply of affordable, healthy foods, ensure those foods reach consumers, and encourage consumers to eat them. Those diets were composed of modest consumption of animal-source products and increased consumption of fruits, nuts, legumes (including pulses), and vegetables. Many foresight studies focused more on production of cereals and livestock (i.e., the caloric aspects of food systems) with less attention to dietary quality and the role of nonstaple crops (Palazzo et al. 2014;NAS 2019). How to shift consumer demand toward more diverse diets remains an area of debate. Suggestions included mixtures of policy nudges, price changes, cuts in waste, expansion of nutrition-sensitive agriculture, and improved accessibility and adoption of new breeding technologies such as speed-breeding.Most of the foresight studies that were reviewed focused on yields of staple crops, growth in gross domestic product (GDP), and staple food prices. Decreases in food prices might benefit low-income consumers but could also lead to overconsumption of increasingly inexpensive calories, with adverse overnutrition consequences, depending on how consumer behaviors change. This shift could also affect the profitability of production. Similarly, growth in GDP could disproportionately increase demand for livestock products (the South Asian, Andean, and Central American scenarios make this assumption). If increases in GDP are paired with increases in inequality, the number of overweight and obese people may rise as more people adopt cheaper and more convenient diets heavy in less healthy, highly processed foods. The intersection of gender and nutrition is not explicitly discussed in many scenarios, although increases in food insecurity are likely to negatively influence nutritional outcomes of women and girls.Given that current diet trends have a large ecological footprint, a shift to sustainable diets is an emerging area of research. The triple burden of malnutrition-undernutrition, micronutrient deficiency, and overnutrition-continues to grow, with the latter two conditions rising especially quickly globally even as progress on undernutrition stalls. The average dietary pattern is a strong driver of GHG emissions and natural resource degradation. Studies suggested a range of different approaches to address dietary change, hinging on policy actions and technological, institutional, and sociocultural innovations (including personalized nutrition and nutrigenetics). A common theme was the promise of alternative protein sources (e.g., plant-based protein or cultured meat) for sustainable and healthy diets. These products could have major implications for AFS that are historically the focus of CGIAR research.Several themes emerged around poverty. Poverty-related outcomes are presented in terms of food security (Palazzo et al. 2014), food prices (Hasegawa et al. 2018), or GDP, sometimes (but not often) adjusted for inequality. Poverty outcomes are evaluated for either consumers or producers but rarely both. The impacts of food price increases differed based on whether an individual is a consumer, producer, or other AFS actor. Similarly, different sectors of the economy may experience different rates of growth. If GDP increases primarily in urban areas, urban consumers may benefit while rural producers are left behind. Across the literature, little discussion occurred on the different roles and experiences of AFS actors throughout value chains (e.g., processors, traders, and transporters). Further, few foresight studies advocating the adoption of sustainable agricultural techniques accounted for labor requirements (HLPE 2019). More emphasis on labor as an AFS input may help researchers understand the potential challenges to adoption and the potential for poverty alleviation.Two common trends emerged: population growth and migration. These trends will affect poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs. They also will increase urbanization and likely increase the global middle class, while also boosting demand for highly processed foods. This jump in demand could increase prices, harming poor consumers and increasing the cost of healthy diets, with nutritional consequences (Maggio et al. 2019;Willett et al. 2019).Gender Equality, Youth, and Social Inclusion Among the CGIAR's five impact areas, gender is least discussed across the foresight literature reviewed. In studies that considered gender, authors argued that prioritizing gender equality is essential for the successful transformation of AFS (HLPE 2017(HLPE , 2019;;FOLU 2019;Quisumbing et al. 2019;Rawe et al. 2019). But few analyses go into detail. One study reasoned that a gender-transformative food system requires a combination of four elements of gender equality: \"increasing access to control over productive resources, investing in women's leadership, addressing gender and social norms, and removing structural and institutional barriers\" (Quisumbing et al. 2019, 211). The same study noted that the latter two are least considered in AFS but most important. Few studies assessed social norms or considered the structural and institutional barriers women face when adopting new technologies. If gender issues are left unaddressed as new technologies and new agricultural management techniques are introduced, the result will be increased gender inequality because of more work for women (Tittonell 2019;Skeer and Leme 2019;WEF 2018;NAS 2019).Understanding unintended consequences is important for supporting marginalized populations and addressing social exclusion within AFS. Similarly, aging populations may increase the time burden for (often female) caregivers and increase demand for convenience foods, potentially at the expense of health (Meenakshi and Webb 2019). Gender norms and gendered inequalities often shape what roles are available to men and women within agricultural value chains. Categorizing women as either only farmers or only consumers risks overlooking opportunities to support transformations within AFS and to reduce poverty. An intersectional approach to understanding how gender interacts with other demographic characteristics such as age, status, poverty, and ethnicity will better support the most marginalized (Huyer et al. 2019). Gender-transformative work also will require engaging men. Yet few foresight studies considered how gender shapes the behaviors and barriers men face or how to engage men and boys as partners in gender-transformative AFS practices.The impacts of growth and migration on poor farmers and other AFS income earners and the trends' effect on gender are less clear. More men migrate than women (HLPE 2017;Huyer et al. 2019), and migrants are generally younger, leaving women and older people in rural areas (Arslan et al. 2019). The overall implication of this demographic shift is uncertain for rural poverty and women. If people migrate to better urban jobs, rural areas may benefit from remittances, increased urban demand for food, or both. A greater share of men migrating may open income-earning opportunities for women in AFS, particularly as demand for food increases. However, gendered barriers to accessing credit, extension, and information may undermine these opportunities (Quisumbing et al. 2019).The linkages between AFS, the environment, and climate change are complex and in constant flux. AFS rely on environmental inputs such as land, water, and genetic materials. At the same time, poor management of agricultural land, freshwater, and marine resources and the continuing expansion of agricultural land are powerful threats to environmental health. Furthermore, AFS are responsible for a considerable proportion of global GHG emissions, creating a reciprocal relationship.Interactions between climate change and AFS are a heavily researched area, and the literature identified climate change as a key driver of AFS change. However, the likely impacts of climate change vary among the literature. The foresight literature underscored the need for adaptation measures, which are considered crucial to maintaining the ability to feed a growing global population. Nonetheless, the literature included questions about whether current efforts can keep up with expected impacts across countries and agroecological zones.While adapting to climate change is essential, AFS must also do more to mitigate climate change. The foresight literature anticipated rising GHG emissions from agriculture if current trends continue. In many developing countries, addressing adaptation and mitigation needs will demand a careful balancing act; decision makers will need to find solutions and channel scarce resources into a mix of options that can also maintain and enhance food security levels. This will require prudent navigation of priorities, new technologies, and incentive structures.Although various studies discussed the impacts of changing physical climate variables, they said little about the impacts of climate change on crop and livestock pests and diseases. These pests and diseases, sometimes mentioned under the umbrella of needed adaptations for the food sector, warrant further attention, especially as CGIAR has core competencies in this area.Evidence from crop models suggested significant capacity to adapt to climate change (WRI 2019). But high uncertainty existed about the extent to which adaptation can offset the adverse effects of climate change. In contrast, some studies raised the question of where agriculture adaptation can take place, if at all. In addition, questions were raised about the extent to which improved climate predictions and climate risk assessments might assist in ensuring more stable food supplies.The literature emphasized AFS's contribution to GHG emissions. Studies described detailed approaches to lowering GHG emissions, with varying outcomes. While all literature reviewed referred to the Paris Agreement as setting the target for emissions reduction to a maximum of 4 Gt CO2 in 2030, all stressed the need for net-zero-emissions food systems by 2050. Yet various studies used different assumptions and consequently provided different trajectories of future trends.The environment and AFS have a two-way relationship that produces various outcomes. A healthy environment supports AFS by providing a wide range of inputs, and a degraded environment limits AFS. Similarly, sustainable AFS can improve environmental outcomes. Among the many elements of environmental health, this synthesis highlights water scarcity, biodiversity loss, depletion of soil, nutrient cycling, and land resources, as well as emerging drivers such as pollution from aquaculture.Water scarcity will become an even greater problem. According to some estimates, half of the world's population will live in water-stressed areas by 2050 (FOLU 2019). As the demand for food and crop cultivation continues to rise, water scarcity will become a bigger threat to AFS. The literature suggested addressing this challenge by improving water use efficiency and reducing water demand, a research emphasis critical for One CGIAR.Loss of both wild and agricultural biodiversity is expected to continue. Even in the best-case scenario reviewed, biodiversity may marginally decrease (FOLU 2019). The loss is driven primarily by expansion in agricultural land to increase food production, but also by changes in use of existing lands, such as the rise of monocultures. The loss ofTrends in Drivers biodiversity has several implications for AFS. Losses will negatively affect crop and farm animal diversity, as well as functional diversity on farms. Even with the advent of new biotechnologies and precision gene editing, genetic material from wild relatives retains its potential to unlock future foods and nutrition, but the continued loss of biodiversity severely reduces this potential (IPBES 2019). The literature did not highlight issues of food safety and the use of functional foods. As the COVID-19 pandemic shows, the overall integrity and functioning of AFS requires more attention to food safety issues.As rising seawater reduces the Earth's terrestrial surface, availability of land for agriculture will be a main concern. The studies reviewed unanimously underlined the intimate connections among agricultural land use, biodiversity, and GHG mitigation. Soil degradation is anticipated to worsen in the coming decades. Like most environmental drivers, soil degradation has a complicated relationship with AFS. Agricultural trade is a driver of soil degradation: the demand from countries in one part of the world results in soil health decline, biodiversity loss, and other environmental degradation in other parts of the world (Wilting et al. 2017;Lenzen et al. 2012). Innovations that could help monitor and improve soil health include regenerative agricultural practices and the reform of natural resource governance systems (WRI 2019;FOLU 2019). The role of forests and trees was noticeably absent from the literature.Many of the world's fisheries are overfished, and fish stocks will continue to decline. At the same time, wild catch fisheries have stagnated. Fish remains an important nutrient-dense food worldwide. Aquaculture, which has grown rapidly in recent years as a complementary source of fish protein, will become an important source of fish to meet growing demand (WRI 2019) and supply essential nutrients. This growth will also raise demand for suitable fish feed and increase the amount of land required for feed production. Although not included in the literature, increased awareness of nutrient flows between terrestrial and aquatic systems may stimulate a debate about a more circular economy that incorporates waste streams. Estimates showed aquaculture using fewer resources than livestock in 2050, although the effects are uncertain and potentially large (Froehlich et al. 2018).ISDC Foresight Reflections and Trade-off Implications for One CGIAR ISDC developed the following reflections and implications based on the foresight reviews and trade-off analysis report, ISDC semiannual meeting consensus-building activities, aggregate expertise, and subsequent discussions.1. One CGIAR's success will depend on a highly functional, continuous decision-making process that uses foresight, trade-off analysis, and the Quality of Research for Development ([QoR4D] ISPC 2017; ISDC 2020) to formulate strategy, make investment decisions, and monitor and evaluate. The One CGIAR impact areas must be integral to an adaptive and participatory research management cycle that draws on diverse perspectives to identify shared goals and viable indicators for monitoring and evaluating progress toward those goals. Foresight and trade-off analyses should be iterative processes that engage key CGIAR stakeholders at local, national, and regional levels and represent all stages throughout AFS-from input suppliers and natural resource managers to food processors and retailers to food consumer groups.In addition to using the extensive previous foresight research, One CGIAR may adopt a formal foresight and trade-off research modality that coordinates with ISDC and the CGIAR Foresight Community of Practice to provide the ongoing science-based evidence required to inform participatory decision making at all levels of CGIAR management, not just during the current reform. The context for decision making can change dramatically and quickly, as the present COVID-19 pandemic vividly illustrates. The continued and integrated use of foresight and trade-off analyses is aligned with the principle of adaptive governance, one of the cornerstones of the current reform process.2. Ongoing foresight and trade-off analyses should prioritize attention to key barriers to adoption, adaptation, and diffusion of innovations for impact within AFS. These barriers include poor access, lack of affordability, poor governance and policy implementation, prevailing inequities, and lack of suitability to context, including adequate risk assessments. To achieve research for development goals, future foresight and trade-off analyses must explicitly identify intended adoption and impact pathways and their prospective barriers and facilitators. A necessary step in strategy development is to understand capacity barriers and people's ability and willingness to embrace change at the local level. Participatory and demand-driven implementation may aid in building partner capacity and expanding adoption. However, there is also a need to inform policymakers and local actors about what is possible to minimize the gap between current demand and potential innovative solutions.The multidisciplinary, field-based, and partnership-intensive nature of One CGIAR positions the System well to identify adoption barriers. One CGIAR is foremost an applied research organization. Hence, proactive, effective partnerships and engagement with local agencies that have the mandate and expertise to facilitate adoption and adaptation of research outcomes will be essential for the organization's future impact and success. The articulated and desired impacts of One CGIAR can be accomplished only if, and when, such strong partnerships and engagements are established and functioning. One CGIAR should assess adoption and adaptation failures and successes to learn which partnership and capacity development modalities are most effective. By identifying impactful methods, One CGIAR will discover innovative pathways for strengthening partnerships in adaptive and basic research alongside partners through possible co-design and co-learning language.3. The One CGIAR impact areas of nutrition and food security; poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs; and gender equality, youth, and social inclusion appeared less in the foresight research than did climate adaptation, GHG reduction, environmental health, and biodiversity. Further, when those impact areas were included, they were siloed. The intersections of these impact areas need elevated attention in future foresight and trade-off analyses.4. CGIAR is globally renowned for its ability to effectively convene and coordinate diverse dialogues across AFS research and policy organizations. To further increase the effectiveness of these dialogues, One CGIAR should make foresight and trade-off analysis routine elements of this facilitation process. CGIAR's geographical reach and collection of scientific expertise across disciplines-as well as its multinational, independent, and nonprofit status-makes the System especially well positioned to broker collaboration and coordination among a range of institutions: developing-country national agricultural research and education systems (NARES), subregional research organizations (SROs), advanced research institutes (ARIs) spanning sectors and disciplines, multilateral agencies, and private and nonprofit organizations throughout global AFS. However, elevating this role will require targeted resourcing. Sufficient investment in supporting existing and building new research partnerships will be vital to deliver on the new research strategy.5. Sustainable agriculture and food systems are characterized by a high degree of diversity. Such diversity should be better leveraged to meet the growing demand for nutrients. Hence, One CGIAR should consider expanded attention to-and investment in-research concerning fruits, legumes (including pulses), nuts, and vegetables to broaden the System's commodity composition. Interspecies portability in breeding technology increasingly makes this new emphasis more attainable. The question remains whether CGIAR should build or buy increased expertise and capacity in these spaces.Aquaculture, poultry, and small ruminants play an essential role in women's livelihoods, and animal-source foods are important for improving nutrition in low-and lower-middle-income countries. These realities mean that One CGIAR should maintain or build excellence in this area while giving attention to the possible tradeoffs these nutrient sources pose. By taking stock of its staple crop-breeding activities, CGIAR can identify and champion those areas where it retains comparative advantage while optimizing the roles of public and private partners, allowing it to rebalance the System's commodity portfolio. CGIAR might consider opportunities to graduate certain commodity-breeding activities to NARES partners. One CGIAR should stress the pre-breeding prowess the System can offer (e.g., adoption of new breeding technologies, big data, genomics) to accelerate downstream breeding activities, commodity diversification, and the bringing of new climate-resistant and nutritious cultivars to market. This approach suggests natural partnerships with public and private sector actors with relatively greater downstream and operational expertise.6. One CGIAR research needs to align and influence emerging trends in AFS. CGIAR core strengths are largely in the domains of farm-level primary production, the sustainable management of resources, and the preservation of genetic and environmental diversity. Future focus should encompass all AFS aspects (i.e., the entire pathway through which farm products are transformed and reach consumers without compromising the core expertise).Exactly how this can be achieved without losing focus on core competencies and crowding partners needs to be subject to ongoing strategic discussions.Although CGIAR's major research strengths are in the areas of sustainable intensification of primary food, feed, and fuel production and natural resource management in associated land and water systems, the organization must maintain and grow its understanding of broader AFS, encompassing the entire pathway through which farm and forest products are transformed and reach consumers, and it must do so without losing focus on its core competencies. This will ensure that CGIAR research aligns well with emerging trends in broader AFS. For example, One CGIAR needs to pay careful attention to advances in nontraditional, off-farm technologies (e.g., cellular and plant-based proteins, indoor vertical farming) that have the potential to transform food markets, land use, and the returns on traditional CGIAR investments. The System must tap expertise on post-farmgate AFS technology, policy, management, and institutional issues that will increasingly influence the ultimate impacts of CGIAR's more upstream research activities in its five impact areas. Again, the crucial question is whether CGIAR should build or buy increased expertise and capacity in these spaces. But post-farmgate functions will factor ever-more importantly into the impact pathways for CGIAR programs on each of the System's five impact areas. However, access and affordability of technologies is essential for wide adoption.7. One of the four Global Capabilities proposed for One CGIAR is in the area of Sustainable Intensification and Landscapes (SIL). This area of activity brings together two paradigms. Sustainable intensification is based on the principle of improved resource-use efficiency to address food security, climate change, and nutrition while maintaining or reducing the environmental footprint of production. The second paradigm takes a stronger agroecological systems approach that focuses on the underlying natural resources, ecology, and biodiversity to sustain food production systems and human nutrition and includes important areas of landscape and water use such as agroforestry systems and irrigation. Both, sustainable intensification and stronger agroecological systems approaches, have their place in CGIAR. The 2030 Research Strategy should consider providing equitable space for both pathways to coexist and flourish. Further, the synergies and trade-offs associated with these two paradigms should be incorporated into relevant foresight analyses, taking into account the local context.8. Although these reflections are intended for the 2030 Research Strategy, they also may be useful for other topics of the One CGIAR reform Transition Advisory Groups.Trade-off Implications 1. Modalities of stakeholder engagement are critical in strategic and programmatic decision making. What are CGIAR's mechanisms and capacities for identifying and engaging key partners at the farm system, regional, and global scales in weighing trade-offs?2. Tools for ongoing trade-off analysis may be embedded deeply into CGIAR research management protocols and decision points involving monitoring, reporting, and stage-gating, as well as at evaluative moments when outcomes and impacts are under discussion. What opportunities exist in emerging research modalities and tools to streamline and mainstream ongoing trade-off discussions?3.The information needed to study trade-offs related to the One CGIAR societal impact areas require highquality, nationally representative individual-or household-level data. Does the System have data from all appropriate levels (household, regional, and global) to engage in well-informed debates about trade-offs?4.Much of the data and expertise needed for foresight and trade-off analyses will reside outside CGIAR. Capacity building through convening should aim to facilitate essential activities such as data collection and analysis by CGIAR research projects. How will One CGIAR play a convener role in sourcing the necessary data and expertise needed for foresight and trade-off analyses across geographies and disciplines?Demand-side and cross-scale linkages are at the cutting edge of trade-off analysis modeling. The doublepronged One CGIAR entry points of global and regional priority setting afford the potential to look at impacts at a level more granular than global strategy. Given the high diversity among sustainable AFS, mechanisms for trade-off analysis at regional levels would recognize the context-specific nature of decision making in highly complex systems.As innovation evolves in AFS, how will the trade-off analysis systems of CGIAR continually assess and weigh the inevitable unintended consequences that new technologies spur?A gap in the megatrend literature reviewed was the impact of shocks, such as COVID-19. In future foresight and trade-off analysis research, it will be critical to study and project the possible impacts of shocks across AFS-from production to consumers-to align research with and influence emerging AFS trends.Trade-off analysis also identifies areas of synergy. Which aspects of the One CGIAR portfolio will provide space for examination of synergistic effects?A strong integration of science and stakeholder-based knowledge is required to enable priority setting and to effectively support decision-making processes using trade-off analysis.Appendix A: Foresight Reviews Terms of Reference As a prelude to the current reform of the CGIAR, the Independent Science for Development Council was created, being a reformulation of the mandate of the past Independent Science and Partnership Council (ISPC). The ISDC delivers according to a CGIAR System Council-defined Terms of Reference. Its membership has been defined as of October 2019. In order to operate, the ISDC receives the operational support of CGIAR Advisory Services Shared Secretariat (CAS Secretariat), hosted at the Rome, Italy, office of the Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Tropical Agricultural Research Center.The ISDC is seeking expert consultants with experience in applied research for development and long-term strategic thinking, in particular in one or more of the domains of food and agriculture systems (nutrition, poverty, gender, climate, and environment) that are identified impact areas of One CGIAR. Under the overall thought leadership and guidance of ISDC Member Professor Chris Barrett and under the operational supervision of CAS Secretariat Director Allison Grove Smith, the expert consultants will conduct a desk review that aligns and translates the agriculture and food systems foresight work of ISPC and other actors within and without CGIAR to clusters of specified Impact Areas of CGIAR.ISDC is especially interested in translating the considerable mass of recent high-quality foresight studies to the new One CGIAR context, deploying science to transform food, land and water systems in a climate crisis with a tight focus on specific impact areas. The objective is not new foresight work but rather synthesis and translation of existing work to help inform CGIAR research strategy to 2030.The deliverable expected is a report of 15-25 pages (not including citations) with a 2-page executive summary. Leading a presentation and discussion of the content with ISDC and guests at the ISDC April meeting is required.Two desk studies will be commissioned. The first will focus on the implications of recent foresight studies for CGIAR research for development as it relates to impact areas of nutrition, poverty and gender. The second will focus on the implications of recent foresight studies for CGIAR research for development as it relates to impact areas of climate and environment. ISDC recognizes that there is overlap in these areas.In particular, the consultant for the Environment and Climate Change Foresight Synthesis will:• Undertake a critical desk review to synthesize existing analyses through the lens of climate and environment impacts on which the One CGIAR will focus, with a horizon to at least 2030 or beyond, drawing in particular on: • Author study of 15-25 pages that (i) defines different scenarios for agri-food systems evolution over the coming 10-25 years, recognizing likely variation across agroecological and socioeconomic contexts, (ii) synthesizes the findings of prior foresight and ex ante impact assessment work through the lens of climate and environment impacts, (iii) identifies key prospective roles -and specific innovation spaces -for the CGIAR in those scenarios, and (iv) highlights gaps in foresight work that ISDC might explore in the coming 2-4 years. The study should include complete citations and references for key innovations and findings.• Prepare a two-page executive summary that points to the strategic planning implications of foresight work.• Present the findings in a meeting with ISDC members in April.• Arrange three virtual meetings during February and March with Prof Barrett and Professor Lesley Torrance to update on progress and discuss emergent findings and themes.Building on the two foresight reviews and Addis presentations and discussions, the consultant(s) will include the following key aspects in the trade-off analysis (please note that the consultant(s) is not expected to develop a new model; the consultant(s) should use an unbiased lens when conducting this research):• Advance knowledge on how trade-off analyses may provide diverse pathways in obtaining the One CGIAR research-for-development goals in the five impact areas of nutrition, poverty, gender, climate, and environment • Include a review and analysis of several (minimum of 3 but open for discussion during outline phase) with each model presented with an accompanying case study (i.e., scenario) that summarizes where CGIAR is wellpositioned to influence within and across its impact areas o Models and accompanying case studies should showcase a variety that focus on internal (within impact areas) and external (across impact areas) o Models should range in timescales and techniques o While quantitative models are preferred, some CGIAR impact areas may not have the evidence and qualitative (preferably ordinal) models will be acceptable o Case studies should contain different trajectories for complementary private and public investments to spark explicit consideration and discussion of where CGIAR research for development fits across its research portfolio. The trajectory data sources should be included in the outline• Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each model and case study from the perspective of CGIAR stakeholderso Define what models are used most and why, and their relevance for CGIAR priority setting• Translate complex trade-off examples into understandable implications for all CGIAR stakeholders (including but not limited to donors, policymakers, implementers, and evaluators) • Report should be framed to provide strategic planning implications for practical decision-making for One CGIAR. This element should be incorporated in the executive summary.The consultancy is expected to commence on April 15 when drafts of the two foresight studies will be internally disseminated.An expectation is the consultant(s) should not do heavy work prior to the Addis ISDC meeting, except reading of foresight drafts and commencing conceptualization of analysis. Ideally, the consultant should attend the meeting in person.Deliverable 2: Detailed Outline, April 28 (3:00 p.m. CET) Draft a 3-to 5-page detailed outline for ISDC feedback that provides what models, case studies, and trajectory data sources will be included. ISDC will give feedback on outline no later than 1 May. If required, a call will be scheduled.Deliverable 3: 1 st Draft, 8 May (3:00 p.m. CET) A full draft of the report is due. Placeholders for citations are acceptable. ISDC will respond with all feedback on 18 May.Deliverable 4: 2 nd Draft: 22 May (3:00 p.m. CET)A near final draft (including 2-page executive summary and full citations) is due. This will be shared with full the full ISDC as a pre-read for the presentation and discussion. Deliverable 5: ISDC Presentation, 27 May Consultant will present and lead discussion during virtual ISDC meeting (time TBD).Deliverable 6: Final Report, May 29 (3:00 p.m. CET) Final report that is fully proofed, formatted, and incorporates any remaining items conversed during presentation and discussion.• Deadline: 6 March 2020, 3 p.m. CET via email to isdc@cgiar.org • Proposal packages must contain a maximum 2-page approach to analysis, including applicant(s) expertise in trade-off analysis. In addition, please submit two relevant writing samples and CV(s). • This consultancy is not to exceed 25 days. The contract can be designed as a daily rate or lump sum.• With proposal, please provide daily rate and estimated days or preference for lump sum. If team applies, separate contracts can be developed. o If awarded, evidence of day rate must be provided for similar consultancies. • Contracting is subject to the policies and procedures of the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, which is the host institute of the CAS Secretariat. • Consultant(s) will need to sign conflict of interest during contracting stage. ","tokenCount":"7325"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6cacb8ca9c7df5721fc1ab73cdb26e2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/862dbdbd-73d5-4e2a-8281-437b20195089/retrieve","id":"-891489761"},"keywords":["Wheat","genome-wide association","quantitative trait locus mapping","abiotic-stress tolerance","genomic selection","QTL cloning","disease resistance","CRISPR/Cas9"],"sieverID":"97062ecc-e4d6-416b-8f43-42fdbe75e1f6","pagecount":"23","content":"Recent technological advances in next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have dramatically reduced the cost of DNA sequencing, allowing species with large and complex genomes to be sequenced. Although bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the world's most important food crops, efficient exploitation of molecular marker-assisted breeding approaches has lagged behind that achieved in other crop species, due to its large polyploid genome. However, an international public-private effort spanning 9 years reported over 65% draft genome of bread wheat in 2014, and finally, after more than a decade culminated in the release of a gold-standard, fully annotated reference wheat-genome assembly in 2018. Shortly thereafter, in 2020, the genome of assemblies of additional 15 global wheat accessions was released.As a result, wheat has now entered into the pan-genomic era, where basic resources can be efficiently exploited. Wheat genotyping with a few hundred markers has been replaced by genotyping arrays, capable of characterizing hundreds of wheat lines, using thousands of markers, providing fast, relatively inexpensive, and reliable data for exploitation in wheat breeding. These advances have opened up new opportunities for marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genomic selection (GS) in wheat. Herein, we review the advances and perspectives in wheat genetics and genomics, with a focus on key traits, including grain yield, yield-related traits, end-use quality, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. We also focus on reported candidate genes cloned and linked to traits of interest. Furthermore, we report on the improvement in the aforementioned quantitative traits, through the use of (i) clustered regularly interspaced short-palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9)mediated gene-editing and (ii) positional cloning methods, and of genomic selection. Finally, we examine the utilization of genomics for the next-generation wheat breeding, providing a practical example of using in silico bioinformatics tools that are based on the wheat reference-genome sequence.Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the key crop for feeding the Earth' growing population, remaining a staple food in many regions of the world. It is cultivated on more than 220 million hectares worldwide, and global production exceeds 749 million tons annually. 1 Bread wheat is a hexaploid species (2n = 6x = 42, genome AABBDD) that evolved via natural hybridization between tetraploid domesticated wheat T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum (contributed the AA and BB sub-genomes) and the wild grass species Aegilops tauschii (DD sub-genome), followed by the domestication of the resulting hexaploid spelt wheat (T. spelta; Petersen et al., 2006). The wheat genome is ~17 Gbp in size and contains a high degree of complexity, particularly in terms of chromosomal duplications and rearrangements, and the very high percentage of repetitive sequences (IWGSC, 2014;Akpinar et al., 2015).Wheat breeding targets are numerous and varied, given the wide geographic area across which wheat is grown. However, the principal common targets are grain yield (GY), quality determinants, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The complexity of the wheat genome makes improving qualitative and quantitative traits through molecular approaches challenging. An example of this is drought tolerance, which is conferred by diverse signaling molecules, including micro-RNA (miRNA), transcriptional factors, quantitative-trait loci (QTL), transcripts, proteomes, ionomes, and other metabolites, resulting in a complex signaling cascade for the control of traits such as abiotic stress (Budak et al., 2015). Furthermore, multiple genes are involved in the production and regulation of these molecules, which leads to a complex signaling cascade, responsible for conferring abiotic/biotic-stress tolerance. Hence, knowledge of the sequence, as well as the precise location, annotation, and casual polymorphisms of the genes involved is vital for utilizing the genomic data in breeding programs, aimed at achieving specific and desired traits or phenotypes.Due to its large genome size in comparison with other major crops with smaller genomes, efforts to sequence and annotate the wheat genome have been extremely time-consuming, often involving sequencing of individual chromosomes (Berkman et al., 2011(Berkman et al., , 2012)). Thus, the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium (IWGSC) reported a draft sequence of bread wheat (cv. Chinese Spring; CS) in 2014, derived from sequencing flow-sorted chromosomes/chromosome arms. The draft assembly totaled 12.7 Gbp, comprising 124,201 gene loci distributed across A, B, and D sub-genomes (IWGSC, 2014). However, this assembly contained only approximately threequarters of the whole wheat genome. Furthermore, the genome sequences of the chromosomes/chromosome arms were fragmented with many gaps as well as many incomplete, absent, or incorrectly assigned genes, making it hard for scientists to find and elucidate specific genes (Berkman et al., 2013;IWGSC, 2014;Lai et al., 2015). Despite the incompleteness of this version, it was highly useful for breeders, as it provided valuable information at the chromosomal/chromosome-arm level. A draft whole-genome sequence of wheat was obtained by combining long Pacific Biosciences (PacBio) reads (>10,000 bases long) with short (150 bp) Illumina reads, with 15.34 Gbp and an average contig size of 0.23 Mbp (Zimin et al., 2017). Low-coverage sequence data for 16 varieties were released in 2012 and used as the basis for the first draft wheat pan-genome (Edwards et al., 2012). This study highlighted the fact that, due to gene presence/absence variation, a single reference does not represent the gene content of the species (Bayer et al., 2020;Danilevicz et al., 2020;Golicz et al., 2020).The high-quality reference sequence of wheat genome was achieved by the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium in several steps. A whole-genome sequence based on Illumina technology and a draft assembly was released in 2016 (IWGSC WGS v0.4), which was comprised of Illumina short sequence reads assembled with NRGene's DeNovoMagic (Appels et al., 2018). 2 This was then combined with physical maps of the chromosome/chromosome arm and other genomic resources that had been developed over 13 years by numerous laboratories around the world, to develop IWGSC RefSeq v1.0. In 2018, the fully annotated reference-genome assembly was released (IWGSC RefSeqv1.1; Appels et al., 2018), with the precise location and annotation of 107,891 high-confidence genes and more than 4 million molecular markers along the 21 chromosomes. The chromosome-scale assembly covered approximately 94% of the bread-wheat genome (cv. Chinese Spring), with a total assembly size of 14.5 Gbp. A key feature of this new genome assembly was the long scaffolds, of which 90% were larger than 4.1 Mbp, the longest super scaffold being 166 Mbp (i.e., larger than the 135 Mbp Arabidopsis thaliana genome and half the size of the rice genome; Appels et al., 2018). Accordingly, RefSeqv1.0, with the highest sequence contiguity, has become a tool for wheat genomics and breeding activities worldwide. In 2020, the release of genome assemblies for 15 additional wheat accessions, with diverse origins across the globe (Walkowiak et al., 2020), has further consolidated the position of wheat in the genomics era, providing additional resources to underpin breeding strategies. The availability of 2 https://wheat-urgi.versailles.inra.fr/Seq-Repository/Assemblies multiple, high-quality genome assemblies for wheat has highlighted the genomic diversity present in the global breeding program. Introgressions from wild relatives, structural rearrangements, and variation in gene content, originating from various breeding efforts aimed for diverse and multiple traits have contributed to wheat genomic diversity (Walkowiak et al., 2020). An advantage of having multiple assemblies is that it enables the discovery of new sequences and genes that were not present in previous versions of the wheat genome, thus creating new opportunities to identify, characterize, and exploit the beneficial alleles/haplotypes present for wheat improvement. IWGSC RefSeq v2.0 available since 25 July 2019, as shown at \"IWGSC RefSeq v2.0 now available at URGI. \" 3  In summary, these genome assemblies represent an essential, highly efficient resource for wheat researchers and breeders, to identify and clone major genes and QTL, to elucidate regulatory regions, including miRNAs and transcription factors, and gene networks involved in yield, as well as biotic-and abiotic-stress tolerance in wheat, thereby facilitating their use in wheat improvement programs (Figure 1). Capturing phenotypes (as QTL) at the genomic level has brought a sharp focus on the repetitive nature of the gene-coding space in the wheat genome, allowing both copy number variation, as well as sequence variation per se, to be correlated with phenotype variation. The distribution of essentially identical genes on different non-syntenic chromosomes provides for further flexibility, as well as complexity, in fine-tuning phenotypes to specific environments.In this paper, we consider the potential of current wholegenome assemblies to improve the accuracy and resolution of genetic mapping, QTL mapping, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and the use of sequence-based markers for efficient MAS and genomic selection. A key focus for the review is the identification and cloning of major candidate genes (CG), for traditional wheat-breeding programs, and modern ones using Clustered Regularly-Interspaced Short Palindromic-Repeats (CRISPR) associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9)-mediated genome editing, and bioinformatics tools for wheat improvement complement the advances in genotyping and phenotyping. They herald the start of what might be considered a golden era of wheat genomics-assisted breeding, promoting the aim of sustainably intensifying global-food production.The so-called next gene generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, as well as high-resolution optical mapping generate large data sets (Dorado et al., 2019). They have driven improvements in bioinformatics tools used to deal with the challenge of analyzing such large data sets. Advancements have been made possible by a dual-strategy approach, focused on hardware and software. They have included clock-frequency increases for the Central Processing Units (CPU) of computers, node reduction, multicore (a few), many core (higher number) and integration through System on a Chip (SoC) with unified memory between the CPU and Graphics Processing Units (GPU). Machine learning, artificial intelligence, dedicated artificial neural network (ANN) analyses, and massive parallelism are enhanced using multi-core architectures (Gálvez et al., 2016(Gálvez et al., , 2021)). All this has contributed to our ability to sequence de novo, assemble, and annotate extremely large and complex genomes.Abundant transcriptome sequence data have been generated in wheat, being freely available in open-access servers such as Wheat Expression, 4 which can be utilized to narrow down the candidate genes identified in GWAS analyses, for further validation projects. The availability of sequenced mutant populations has opened doors to conduct validation studies. 5 Predesigned single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)based primers are available in the Ensemble database 6 for validating mutations, which can then be combined to develop double-or triple-null mutants, for research and breeding applications. Efforts in this direction are expected if \"causal\" genes are to be identified. Transcriptomics and other expression analyses have generally been combined with QTL and metaQTL (mQTL), to narrow down and validate the candidate genes (Oyiga et al., 2018;Gálvez et al., 2019;Mérida-García et al., 2020). We expect it to be applied more frequently in marker-assisted and genomic selection. Continued advances in fingerprinting genome regions of interest, through improved designs of SNP arrays and associated statistical analyses of imputation, is establishing haplotype analyses as a more appropriate method to represent QTL, rather than relying on single-candidate genes.A significant challenge that scientists have faced with the availability of the wheat genome reference (IWGSC RefSeq v 1.0) is its integration with the previously published genetic maps harboring QTL for various traits. Large datasets including physical maps, sequence variations, gene expression, markers, and phenomic data have already been integrated on the IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 (Wheat@URGI portal; Alaux et al., 2018). Furthermore, haplotype-based integration of different marker types and the capacity to align early genetic maps with the reference genome are refined, capitalizing on existing information of trait-linked SNP, DArTseq and/or Genotype By Sequencing (GBS) markers (PRETZEL; Figure 2). 7  FIGURE 1 | Overview of the parallel progress in the analysis of the wheat genome and high throughput phenotyping. The top panel provides the timeline for wheatgenome studies, opening up of the next generation omics; the image on the far right is the modeling of wheat granule-bound starch synthase, using Phyre 2 (Kelley et al., 2015). The lower panel emphasizes the progress of both field-based phenomics (image of drone with spectral-recording equipment, kindly provided by S. Kant, Agriculture Victoria, Grains Innovation Park, Horsham, VIC, Australia) and laboratory-based high-throughput analyses (part of Figure 6 of Banerjee et al., 2020), showing false-color composite from hyperspectral data of wheat leaves, kindly provided by S. Kant.FIGURE 2 | Aligning genome maps for SNP, DArTseq and/or GBS markers with IWGSC RefSeq 1.0 using PRETZEL https://plantinformatics.io. The right most map provides the location of a QTL for the emergence of additional seminal roots (midpoint = 26.6 cM; Golan et al., 2018) from a Svevo x Zavitan map based on a 90K SNP chip. The second map (from the right) is the durum genome sequence for 1B, available at the URGI with the SNPs annotations included. The second map from the left is the IWGSC RefSeq 1.0 with the HC ver1.1 gene annotation, the 90k SNP annotation, the LC ver1.1 gene annotations and the SSR annotations included. The left most map is the genome sequence for the 1RS.1BL sequence from wheat cv Aikan58 (Ru et al., 2020) with three sources of gene annotations included. The red dots identify the gene models predicted to be located in the QTL identified in the Svevo x Zavitan QTL.As indicated above, the availability of reference genome sequences in many crop species, including wheat, has sparked the publication of many works about genomics and breeding of such species, using bioinformatics tools, with special emphasis on previously unknown areas of the genome. For instance, in silico analyses of the published wheat reference genome, IWGSC RefSeq v1 (Appels et al., 2018), have allowed the identification and characterization of the gene families. They include: (i) Domain of Unknown Function (DUF-966, TaDUF966) gene family, involved in salinity-stress tolerance (Zhou et al., 2020); (ii) MADS-Box gene (TaMADS-box) family members, involved in wheat growth, development, and abiotic stresses (Raza et al., 2021); (iii) Gretchen Hagen3 (TaGH3) gene family, important in various biological processes, including phytohormone responses, growth, development, metabolism, defense, and abiotic-stress tolerance, such as salinity and osmotic ones, with polyploidization contributing to their high number (Jiang et al., 2020); (iv) superoxide dismutase (SOD) gene (TaSOD) family, encoding antioxidant enzymes scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), also involved in plant growth, development, and abioticstress tolerance, including drought and salinity (Jiang et al., 2019); (v) non-specific lipid transfer proteins (nsLTP/LTP) gene (TansLTP/TaLTP) family, involved in transporting phospholipids across membranes, growth, development, and abiotic stresses, such as drought and salinity, showing high numbers, due to gene duplications (Fang et al., 2020a); (vi) REMorin (REM) gene (TaREM) family, involved in vernalization, plant-microbe interactions, hormonal regulation, development, and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, including cold acclimation (Badawi et al., 2019); (vii) S-phase Kinase-associated Protein 1 (SKP1) gene (TaSKP1) family, encoding core subunits of the Ubiquitin Proteasome 26S (UPS) and have expanded through duplications, being involved in development and stress signaling (El Beji et al., 2019); (viii) subtilase or subtilisin-like protease (SBT) genes (TaSBT), involved in many biological functions, such as defense and tolerance to biotic stresses caused by pathogens, among which are Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, which is the fungus generating the wheat stripe-rust disease (Yang et al., 2020); (ix) highly and structurally conserved \"Soluble N-ethylmaleimide Sensitive Factor (NSF; SNF) Attachment Protein (SNAP) REceptor\" (SNARE) and Novel Plant SNare (NPSN) gene families (TaSNARE and TaNPSN, respectively), involved in growth and development, regulating vesicle trafficking, fusion, and targeting to vacuoles and exocytosis (Gaggar et al., 2020); (x) \"DNA binding with one finger\" (Dof) gene (TaDof) family, encoding zinc-finger transcription factors (TaDof), involved in phytohormone response, growth, development, metabolism, defense, and stress responses, including both abiotic (such as salinity and drought) and biotic ones, with their high numbers due to polyploidization, showing many segmental duplications and both miRNA and cis-regulators involvement in modulating their gene expression profiles (Fang et al., 2020b); and (xi) basic leucine ZIPper (bZIP) gene (TabZIP) family, encoding transcription factor, being involved in plant growth, development, metabolism, chlorophyll content, photosynthesis, membrane stability, and tolerance to stresses, including abiotic ones such as drought, salinity, and heat, also involving oxidative stress (Agarwal et al., 2019). These gene families complement many gene models identified by highly conserved domains, using model organisms such as rice and Arabidopsis, and provide a matrix across the wheat genome, to associate with phenotypic variation in order to establish a new matrix of functionally, with annotated gene models predicted to affect wheat phenotype.Bioinformatics analyses of the published wheat reference genome, IWGSC RefSeq v1.0, have also enabled the comparisons of cDNA, identification, and annotation of genes. These comparisons revealed different metabolic pathways, including starch and sucrose, as well as genes related to abiotic-and biotic-stress tolerance, signaling and transportation (Kaur et al., 2019). Delivering the range of bioinformatics outputs from the wheat genome sequence has required innovation in the production of genotyping microarrays, such as the Axiom Wheat high-density Genotyping Array, Axiom Wheat Breeder's Genotyping Array, and GeneChip Wheat Genome Array from Affymetrix-Applied Biosystems-Thermo Fisher Scientific. 8 The efficacy of the SNP arrays can now be evaluated using a three-way classification system, permitting sorting of SNP into three quality groups (Lange et al., 2020).The concept of having the wheat genome on a chip is currently under development by the Arbor Biosciences IWGSC exome array group, working with the IWGSC, with a first release in 2019 of the Baits Expert Wheat Exome capture panel, based on the complete high-confidence exon-annotated wheat genome. It included two million probes, targeting more than 200 megabases of high-confidence exons. 9 An extra level of fine-tuning for gene regulation of different biological processes, including metabolism, growth, development, transport, cell signaling, structural proteins, and abiotic-and biotic-stress tolerance, is afforded by the characterization of new microRNA (miRNA), including polycistronic miRNA, in cultivated and wild species. The genes targeted by these small RNA can be predicted, and some are monomorphic, whereas others are polymorphic, all represented on the Expert Exome capture chip (Singh et al., 2020).The small RNAs are spatially and temporally regulated, being involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation, including transcription factors, and thus complement the genome-wide transcriptomics approach established to dissect the dynamics and underlying regulation of key processes, such as wheatspike development. Genes involved are related to meristem maintenance, initiation and transition, development of flowers, and flowering response to stress (Li et al., 2018b).Wheat grain yield is controlled by numerous genetic components, most of which are quantitative in nature. Due to this underlying complexity, QTL mapping is commonly used for the dissection of grain yield and yield components, in order to identify markers for MAS. Prior to the 2014 draft sequence, several QTL studies have reported using redundant SSR-markers for QTL mapping of GY and related traits, as recently reviewed (30, see also Supplementary Table S1), but most of these regions were not incorporated into wheat cultivars in breeding programs using MAS. The IWGSC draft sequence published in 2014 (IWGSC, 2014) enabled the use of genotyping arrays and GBS, with deep coverage to construct high-density linkage maps and identify several candidate genes (Addison et al., 2016;Su et al., 2016;Assanga et al., 2017;Cui et al., 2017;Hussain et al., 2017b;Kuzay et al., 2019;Jin et al., 2020). Major and stable QTL for plant height, anthesis date, flag-leaf length and width, as well as spike length, density and spikelet number per spike were mapped on chromosome 2D and 4B, with individual phenotypic variation (PV) range of 10.10%-30.68%. Other QTLs were mapped on chromosomes 4A and 6D. The markers were associated with candidate genes coding for TGTCTC auxin response elements, F-box protein TIR1, flowering locus T-like protein, MADS-box transcription factor 8 and 12 genes encoding SAUR-like auxin-responsive family proteins (Jin et al., 2020). Three independent studies identified haplotype SNP markers and major stable QTL for seed number per pod (SNPP), thousand-grain weight (TGW), grain length, flag leaf length, width, and area on chromosomes 7A (Su et al., 2016;Hussain et al., 2017b;Kuzay et al., 2019) and 5A (Hussain et al., 2017b). These QTL were associated with candidate genes, such as Wheat ortholog of Aberrant Panicle Organization 1 (WAPO1) and TaGASR7. Among these, a well-studied and reproducible yield QTL on the long arm of chromosome 7A has been located to an 87-kbp region (674,019,106,327 bp, IWGSC RefSeq v1.0), containing two full and two partial genes. The ortholog of one of these genes (TraesCS7A01G481600) was APO1, which is known to significantly affect panicle attributes (Kuzay et al., 2019). This APO1 ortholog was the best candidate for the spikelets per spike phenotype, being associated with two amino acid changes (C47F and D384N) in the coding region. In the genomic region carrying the chromosome 7A APO1 gene, three major haplotypes were associated with the spikelets per spike phenotype, and two of these show enrichment in modern germplasm (Kuzay et al., 2019;Voss-Fels et al., 2019). More recently, genetic analyses were carried out using a wheat multi-founder population genotyped with a 20K SNP array. They found that allelic variation at the homoeologous location on chromosome 7B was associated with haplotype variation at the WAPO-B1 gene (Corsi et al., 2021). Another recent example of the use of high-density SNP arrays for the genetic mapping of yield components was the use of a 660K SNP array that led to the identification of a stable major QTL for grain number per spike on chromosome 4A that corresponded to 65 putative genes (Cui et al., 2017) and contributed 8.0%-21.2% to PV.Networks linking quality attributes of the grain to the yield of the grain are evident, as genes initially identified in the quality space have been characterized for their roles in the improvement of yield and related traits. Examples of several such genes include TaGW2 (Su et al., 2011), cell-wall invertase TaCwi-A1 (Ma et al., 2012), TaGASR7-A1 (Dong et al., 2014), TaGS-D1 (Zhang et al., 2014), IAA-glucose hydrolase gene, TaTGW6 (Hu et al., 2016a), and TaTGW-7A (Hu et al., 2016b). Marker-trait associations (MTAs) for yield and related traits have been linked to candidate genes/loci such as Rht-B1, Rht-D1, Vrn-A1, Ppd-D1, TaSus1, TaSus2, TaGS-D1, and TaGW2-6B (Lopes et al., 2015;Zanke et al., 2015). Importantly, a GBS-based GWAS for 768 wheat accessions identified 395 QTL for plant height, DH, SNPP, spike length and number, grain length, grain width, and TGW under seven environments (Pang et al., 2020). These QTL were closely linked with several candidate genes including, but not limited to, yield-related genes: APO1, AUX1, Ehd2, GSN1, GL3, Gn1a, MADS14, MADS15, MADS18, MADS57, Rht-D1, Rht12, TaGA2ox8, TaSus1-7B, Vrn-B1, and Vrn-D1.Within the matrix of the functional wheat genome, projection of yield-related QTL onto a set of well-defined wheat genes (99,386) identified 32 metaQT including 18 grain-yield mQTL associated with 15,772 genes (28,630 SNP), 37 of which were major candidate genes (Quraishi et al., 2017), including ATPase, GIF1, Ppd-D1, Prog1, Gn1-a, NYC1, emp4, DEP1, GW2, GS2, and Rc3 (Pang et al., 2020).In candidate gene-based association mapping approaches, resequencing of genes with known or predicted biochemical function is performed, and SNP variation identified within a candidate gene is used to investigate associations with traits (Iehisa et al., 2014; Supplementary Table S2). Using this approach, allelic variation in four drought-related genes has been investigated in wheat. Edae and colleagues (Shokat et al., 2020) reported associations of SNP in three genes, DREB1A, ERA1, and 1-FEH, with multiple agronomic and physiological traits. These are known to be drought stress-induced genes in ABA-dependent (ERA1) and ABA-independent (DREB1A, 1-FEH) pathways. In another CG-based association mapping study, allelic variation in TaSnRK2.8 (a SNF-1 type serine-threonine protein kinase) showed association with plant height, flag leaf width, and water-soluble carbohydrates, under drought conditions (Zhang et al., 2013). Other CG involved in wheat AB/ ABA-dependent/ABA-independent signaling pathways have been described, including DREB1, WRKY1, DREB1A, HKT-1, DREB2, DREB3, ERA1-B, ERA1-D, 1-FEH-A, and 1-FEH-B (Budak et al., 2015). Finally, a drought tolerance QTL on chromosome 6D was associated with regulation of expression of late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) genes such as TaABA8, OH1, CYCB2, and CDKA1 (Iehisa et al., 2014), suggesting that these genes play a role in drought tolerance. Several clusters of drought-responsive genes (DREG) have been found on the long arm of the group 5 chromosomes, with orthology to a known QTL of rice (Oryza sativa). In particular, this region contains the genes PSY3, NCED, VRN1, UGDH, and the dehydrin DHN38 that increase their expression under field drought stress conditions (Gálvez et al., 2019). Similarly, transcriptomics analyses of high yielding and drought tolerant United States wheat-cultivars TAM 111 and TAM 112 identified several DREG. For instance, under drought stress, aquaporin, dehydrogenase, kinase, phosphatase synthase, phosphorylase, and sugar transporter were downregulated. On the other hand, dehydrin, ABA-inducible protein kinases, LEA protein, heatshock protein, caleosin, lyase, amylase, and oxidoreductase were upregulated in such environments (Chu et al., 2021). These studies now clearly engage the very broad aspects of wheat biology, providing a subset of genes for more detailed study in characterizing variation in drought tolerance, facilitating the identification of suitable parents for breeding.Large-scale haplotypes-based GWAS studies, combined with epistatic interactions, have been undertaken to untangle the genetic architecture of grain yield under multiple stress environments (including mild and severe drought stress), using a large panel of 6,333 advanced lines, from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT; Sehgal et al., 2020a). This study reported haplotype associations with grain yield, under mild (four datasets) and severe (10 datasets) drought stress environments. Most importantly, the authors identified a significant association of a haplotype block close to the Vrn-B1 flowering time gene on chromosome 5B, with GY in more than 70% of the trials under severe drought stress. Vrn-B1 is significantly correlated with adaptation to low temperature, thus indicating a shared tolerance mechanism for both abiotic stresses.A candidate gene approach to heat tolerance allowed the examination of variation in Fv/Fm, a parameter for assaying the maximum quantum efficiency potential of Photosystem II (Supplementary Table S3). It was linked to three major QTL mapped on chromosomes 3B and 1D (Sharma et al., 2017), involving two light-reaction genes, chloroplastic NAD(P) H-quinone oxidoreductase subunit 2B (ndhB2) and photosystem I iron-sulfur center (psaC). Two other genes, known to control chloroplastic 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase 2 (IMDH2), were also suggested to be involved in metal binding during photosynthesis. Other candidate genes, such as beta-glucosidase 26 (βglu26) and fructokinase 2 (frk2; Sharma et al., 2017), were involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Response to thylakoid membrane damage, plasma-membrane damage and SPAD chlorophyll-content QTL were mapped on chromosomes 1B, 1D, 6A, and 7A. Cell membrane stability was on chromosomes 1D, 2B and 7A (Talukder et al., 2014). These QTL were associated with candidate genes such as srg6, calcium/calmodulindependent kinase (CDPK), topoisomerase I (Top1), and aquaporins. A GWAS study identified 20 significant MTA for cell membrane stability on chromosomes 1A, 1B, 2A, 4A, 4B, 6B and 7B, 13 of which were situated solely on 6B (ElBasyoni et al., 2017). All these SNP were then annotated as candidate genes, glycerophosphoric-diester phosphodiesterase (GDE1), TRAF-type zinc-finger protein, SWI3B, and ATPase (Supplementary Table S3). The network nature of grain yield, heat, and drought susceptibility indices, as well as yield stability coefficient, were also reported (Sehgal et al., 2017), as being associated with the flowering time genes Vrn-B1, Ppd-D1, and Vrn-D3.Salt tolerance is a complex trait (Hussain et al., 2015). In recent years, SNP-based genotyping platforms, including 9K (Asif et al., 2018), 35K (Hussain et al., 2017a;Chaurasia et al., 2020), 90K (Oyiga et al., 2018) and 660K (Yu et al., 2020;Hu et al., 2021) arrays, have been used to identify novel and major QTL, MTA, and CG that can be used in MAS and genomic selection for salinity tolerance (Supplementary Table S4). Wheat F2 lines (WTSD91 × WN-64) were genotyped using an Axiom 35K SNP array, to develop a high-resolution linkage map, and 49 QTL for sodium ion (NAX) and potassium ion (KC) status under salinity stress were mapped (Hussain et al., 2017a). Two NAX QTL on chromosome 2A coincided with a reported major HKT1 (Nax1/ HKT1) QTL (Genc et al., 2010), and two NAX QTL on chromosome 7A which contributed 11.2% and 18.8%, respectively, to phenotypic variation. QTL for KC were located on chromosomes 2A, 3D, 4B, and 6A, whereas a novel Zn QTL on chromosome 7A controlled 11.2% of variation for salt tolerance. The most important Ca 2+ (chromosome 6B) and Mg 2+ (2A) QTL contributed 11.9% and 8.4%, respectively, to salt tolerance. Furthermore, QTL for Cu, Mn, B, P, S, and Fe were mapped for the first time (Hussain et al., 2017a). Based on SNP and expression analyses, Nax1/HKT1, K + outward-rectifying channel (SKOR), potassium transporter 12 (KUP12), chloride channel protein (CLC-e), transparent testa 12, glutathione S-transferase U6 (GSTU6), peroxidase 12, auxin transport (BIG), auxin-response factor 5-like, ARF21, NAC78, Mg transporter (NIPA4), and Zn transporter 6 were identified as candidate genes (Hussain et al., 2017a). In another study, QTL for shoot growth, NAX and KC were mapped on chromosome 2B, 5A, 6A, and 7A in a wheat DH population. QTL were associated with several candidate genes. They included salt overly sensitive 1 (SOS1) or sodium/hydrogen exchanger 7 (NHX7), potassium transporter 1 (KUP1), HKT2, pyrophosphate-energized proton pump (H + pyrophosphatase), KUP12, SKOR and two-pore potassium (TPK) channel and proton pump H + -ATPase 4 (Asif et al., 2018). Importantly, both of these studies (Hussain et al., 2017a;Asif et al., 2018) identified major QTL for KC and NAX on chromosomes 6A and 7A, respectively.GWAS has been used to identify novel MTA and candidate genes for salinity tolerance (Oyiga et al., 2018;Chaurasia et al., 2020;Yu et al., 2020;Hu et al., 2021). The genotyping of 150 wheat accessions using the 90K SNP array, and a subsequent GWAS, identified 187 SNP and 37 QTL for leaf NAX and KC, including four QTL on chromosomes 2A, 3A and the short arm of chromosome 1B, in addition to novel QTL on the short arm of chromosome 1B and the long arm of 1D (Oyiga et al., 2018). Transcriptomics analyses revealed missense mutations responsible for salt tolerance variations in candidate genes, including ZIP7, SAP8, HAK18, GST1, SWEET17, and KeFC. Chaurasia et al. (2020) reported 42 MTA for shoot fresh/dry weight, chlorophyll content, seedling biomass, K + and Na + concentration that contributed 2.4%-42.8% to phenotype variation. These genomic regions were associated with 58 candidate genes, including transparent testa 12, chloroplast iron-superoxide dismutase, serine/threonine protein kinase (Nek6), ethylene responsive transcription factor (ERF3), bHLH30, and GDP-mannose transporter (GONST1).Furthermore, haplotype analyses have also been coupled with GWAS to identify allelic variation for salt tolerance in wheat (Yu et al., 2020;Hu et al., 2021). A significant number of MTA (102 of 117) for germination and salt tolerance indices were found on chromosomes 1A, 3B, and 6B. They were associated with 53 candidate genes, including abscisic acidinsensitive 5-like (TaABI5-like), DUF674 family protein, SUMOactivating enzyme subunit 1A, glutamate formiminotransferase 1, protein KRI1, and NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase. Haplotype variations and expression of candidate genes under salinity have also been validated (Yu et al., 2020). Another GWAS analysis for yield and related traits under salinity found genomic regions and haplotypes for adult-stage salt tolerance on chromosomes 1B, 3B, 4A, 4D, 5A, 5B, an 7A. The markers were linked to several candidate genes, serine/threonine protein kinases, ricin B-like lectin gene, phytochelatin synthase, MADA-box genes, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT), U-box E3 ubiquitin ligase, and lipid-transfer proteins (TaLTPs) [73]. Additionally, 19 QTL for Mg2 + and Ca2 + were mapped at the same location as of Cl-QTL (Genc et al., 2014), with potential candidate genes chloride channel (CLC) and cation chloride co-transporter (CCC).An important limiting factor for wheat production in North America, North and Eastern Europe, and Russia is low temperature (Babben et al., 2018). As polar regions become more unstable due to climate change, the risk of extreme weather events including freezing temperatures increases (Francis and Skific, 2015). Therefore, resilience to frost is an important crop trait to consider. Frost tolerance is a complex biological process, involving pathways encompassing a large number of genes. The main pathway is frost response and a prolonged period of low temperature (vernalization), which can be regarded as an avoidance mechanism to prevent frost damage to sensitive reproductive organs. Two major frost tolerance loci, Frost Resistance 1 (FR1) and FR2, were identified on the long arm of chromosome 5A (Vágújfalvi et al., 2003). Zhao et al. (2013a) described an additional frost tolerance QTL on chromosome 5B in wheat germplasm from central Europe. During the last decade, several QTL associated with frost tolerance were identified on different wheat chromosomes (i.e., 1A, 1D, 2A, 2B, 3A, 5A, 5B, 6A, 6B, 6D, and 7B; Case et al., 2014;Kruse et al., 2017). The majority of genes assumed to be involved in frost tolerance have been identified on chromosome 5 (Vágújfalvi et al., 2003;Zhao et al., 2013a;Würschum et al., 2017;Babben et al., 2018; see also Supplementary S5). Until recently, only a few studies reported the identification of QTL regions associated with frost tolerance by GWAS (Babben et al., 2018;Kandel et al., 2018). Babben et al. (2018) demonstrated the utilization of the IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 in the specific primer development for highly conserved gene families in wheat. It showed that a candidate-gene association genetics approach is a useful tool for identifying new alleles of genes important for response to flowering time. Sequence analyses concluded that C-repeat binding factors (CBF)-A3, 5, 10, 13, 14, 15, and 18, vernalization response genes (VRN-A1, VRN-B3) and photoperiod response genes (PPD-B1 and PPD-D1) were associated with frost tolerance in wheat. In addition to winter hardiness as described above, an additional and critical frost-resistance phenotype relates to damage caused by transient frosts that generally occur on early spring mornings. While this trait is more complex to study, the above genes described for winter hardiness would be expected to contribute to this tolerance as moderators.During the last decade, several components encompassing messenger molecules, protein kinases, and phosphatases, as well as transcription factors, which are involved in cold-stress signaling pathways, have been reported by studies using wheat sequence information (Wei and Han, 2017;Babben et al., 2018;Jin et al., 2018;Guo et al., 2019). The CBF (C-repeat binding factor), Inducer of CBF Expression (ICE) and cold-responsive (COR) genes or ICE-CBF-COR are part of the main coldsignaling pathway, playing a major role in controlling frost tolerance for crop species (Jin et al., 2018;Guo et al., 2019). ICE genes belong to the MYC family transcription factor and MYC subfamily of bHLH (Basic Helix-Loop-Helix; Guo et al., 2019). ICE factors are known as positive CBF expression regulators, considered to act upstream of the low-temperature signaling pathway. Two ICE homologs such as TaICE41 and TaICE87 have been identified in wheat (Guo et al., 2019). The TaICE41, TaICE87, and five MYC-like bHLHs were positively regulated upstream of the CBF mediated transcriptional cascade, controlling cold tolerance in wheat (Wei and Han, 2017).Examples of the positional or map-based cloning of disease resistance-related genes in wheat are arguably more common than for non-disease resistance traits-presumably due to the gene-for-gene interaction of such major resistance genes with specific avirulent factors in the pathogen, or other major effects (Supplementary S6). These include genes such as Lr21 (Huang et al., 2003), Yr36 (Fu et al., 2009), Yr15 (Klymiuk et al., 2018), YrU1 (Wang et al., 2020b), Fhb1 (Su et al., 2019), Fhb7 (Wang et al., 2020a), SuSr-D1 (Hiebert et al., 2020), Yr7, and Yr5/YrSP (Marchal et al., 2018). They have been cloned in wheat, to improve resistance against leaf and yellow rusts, in addition to fusarium head-blight diseases (Supplementary Table S5). Additionally, various genes were cloned for resistance against stem rust (Sr22, Sr33, Sr35, Sr45, Sr46, Sr60; Periyannan et al., 2013;Saintenac et al., 2013;Steuernagel et al., 2016;Arora et al., 2019;Chen et al., 2020), necrotrophic blotches (Tsn1, Snn1, Stb6, Stb6q;Faris et al., 2010;Shi et al., 2016;Saintenac et al., 2018Saintenac et al., , 2021)), powdery mildew (Pm1a, Pm2, Pm3, Pm3b, Pm5e, Pm21, Pm24, Pm38/ Lr34/Yr18/Sr57, Pm41, Pm46/Lr67/Yr46/Sr55, Pm60; Yahiaoui et al., 2004;Krattinger et al., 2009;Hurni et al., 2013;Moore et al., 2015;Sánchez-Martín et al., 2016;Xing et al., 2018;Zou et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Lu et al., 2020;Xie et al., 2020), being detailed in Supplementary Table S5. Access to a high-quality genome reference of wheat (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0) has also enabled researchers to explore susceptibility factors that may contribute to the onset of disease. For instance, Henningsen et al. (2021) explored the upregulation of wheat genes with orthology to known susceptibility factors in other plant species, in response to stem-rust fungus. They hypothesized genes that may play a conserved role in susceptibility. Similarly, a study by Corredor-Moreno et al. (2021) combined gene expression analyses and the genome reference of wheat (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0) and provided the basis for showing that the branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase gene (TaBCAT1) contributed to susceptibility to both stripe and stem rust. The authors from both studies suggested that manipulation of susceptibility genes can result in novel strategies to control disease. Fine-mapping and leveraging of available wheat pan-genome datasets, together with TILLING resources, have been utilized to analyze these complex situations. For example, a possible gene driving the complex interactions underlying Sm1-mediated resistance to orange wheat-blossom midge (OWBM, Sitodiplosis mosellana Géhin) wheat insect pest has been identified as a canonical NLR, with kinase and major sperm protein integrated domains (Walkowiak et al., 2020).GBS-based GWAS identified 27 MTA for powdery mildew (7 MTAs), stem rust (5 MTAs), septoria (3 MTAs) and leaf rust (12 MTAs) resistance on all chromosomes (except for 4B and 5D; Bhatta et al., 2019). MTA were associated with several candidate genes for leaf rust; namely GDSL esterase/lipase, vesicle-associated 1-1-like protein, E3 ubiquitin ligase family protein, phosphatidic acid phosphatase, 12-oxophytodienoate reductase-like protein, septoria (F-box/RNI-like/FBD-like domains-containing protein) and stem rust (zinc transporter, putative). Leaf and stem-rust candidate genes associated with MTA were members of the NLR (nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat) gene family, nuclear monodehydroascorbate reductase 6 (MDAR6), solanesyl-diphosphate synthase 1 (DSDS1), enhancer of AG-4 protein 2 (AG4), phosphatase 2C (PP2C), and importin-9 (IPT9), being listed in Supplementary Table S5.Advances in wheat genomics have facilitated the cloning of nine stripe-rust resistance genes (Yr5, Yr7, YrSP, Yr15, Yr18/ Lr34, Yr36, Yr46, YrAS2388, and YrU1), out of the >80 genes that have been identified and mapped so far in different genetic backgrounds of wheat (Wang et al., 2020b). Cloning of the broad-spectrum stripe-rust resistance (R)-gene (Yr15), derived from wild emmer wheat, has led to the discovery of a novel protein family, the tandem kinase-pseudokinases (TKP) that emerged as a new class of disease-resistance protein family (TKP), providing plant innate immunity, being present not only in wheat, but also across the whole plant kingdom (Klymiuk et al., 2018). Five plant-disease resistance genes have been identified so far to contain a structure with tandem kinase domains, including three wheat genes, i.e., the wheat-striperust R-gene WTK1 (Yr15; Klymiuk et al., 2018Klymiuk et al., , 2020)), wheatstem-rust R-gene WTK2 (Sr60; Chen et al., 2020), and wheat powdery-mildew [Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (Bgt)] R-gene WTK3 (Pm24; Lu et al., 2020). More than 20 WTK copies have been found to be scattered across the three wheat genomes, AA, BB, and DD, including the orthologous group in chr 1 and the paralogous groups on chromosome 6 (Klymiuk et al., 2019). WTK1 orthologs, paralogs, and homologs were found also in the diploid wheat relatives, Triticum urartu (AA), Aegilops speltoides (SS), and A. tauschii (DD), representing the ancestral A, B, and D genomes, respectively, as well as in rye (Secale cereale), barley (Hordeum vulgare), and other cereal species. The protein sequences of TKP were obtained from genome assemblies of wild and cultivated wheat species, being used for phylogenetic analyses (Klymiuk et al., 2018), because it is important for successful deployment of R-genes in wheat breeding programs to identify if a cloned gene differed from other genes localized in the same chromosome region, or may represent different alleles of the same gene. For example, it was found that Yr15-, YrG303-, and YrH52-mediated resistances to yellow rust are encoded by a WTK1 as a single locus (Klymiuk et al., 2020). In future, we expect that many more such cases will be revealed, narrowing down the list of designated R-genes in wheat.Ten powdery mildew (Pm) genes have been cloned so far, alongside with advances in wheat genomics resources (Supplementary Table S5). Pm3/Pm8, Pm2, Pm21, Pm60, Pm5e, Pm41, and Pm1a encode NLR-immune receptors from different wheat relatives (Yahiaoui et al., 2004;Hurni et al., 2013;Sánchez-Martín et al., 2016;Xing et al., 2018;Zou et al., 2018;Li et al., 2020;Xie et al., 2020), while a tandem kinase protein is encoded by Pm24 (Lu et al., 2020). Furthermore, two non-NLR genes-Pm38 and Pm46, showed broad-spectrum multi-adult plant resistance to powdery mildew and rust diseases. An ABC transporter is encoded by the Lr34/Yr18/Sr57/Pm38 multiresistance gene (Krattinger et al., 2009), and a hexose transporter is encoded by the Lr67/Yr46/Sr55/Pm46 multi-resistance gene (Moore et al., 2015). The cloning of these Pm genes enables the development of high-throughput diagnostic functional markers that can be used in MAS for fungi-resistance breeding programs (Supplementary Table S5). Some of these Pm genes have been widely used for the protection of wheat cultivars for many years. For example, Triticeae grass Dasypyrum villosum (2n = 2x = 14, VV) harbors Pm21, which confers broad-spectrum resistance, and was transferred in China into wheat cultivars (T6AL.6VS wheat-D. villosum translocation line) in 1995 (Chen et al., 2013). Some of these NLR proteins could be overcome by the fast evolution of virulent Blumeria graminis (Bgt) isolates, especially when the gene is widely deployed in wheat fields. For example, wheat-rye 1BL•1RS translocation carrying Pm8 has lost the resistance function for wheat variety production (Zeng et al., 2014). Different alleles of those cloned Pm genes that might be resistant to different Bgt isolates have been identified and could also be used for MAS. For example, 17 alleles of the Pm3 gene have been identified mediating resistance to distinct race spectra of Bgt. Pm3a has a range of resistance that fully encompasses that of Pm3f, but also extends to additional races (Brunner et al., 2010). Therefore, enriching the Pm gene pools is very important for resistance breeding. Pm24 is a rare natural allele of tandem kinase protein (TKP), with putative kinase-pseudokinase domains, conferring broadspectrum resistance to wheat powdery-mildew disease. However, there are some other Pm genes that have not been cloned yet, such as Pm30, found in ~80% of Chinese cultivars, as detected by closely linked markers (Cheng et al., 2020). The absence of functional molecular markers is limiting the diagnosis of potential Pm alleles, and their deployment in wheat breeding, via MAS and genome editing.Two independent GWAS analyses utilizing iSelect 9K and 90K Illumina arrays have reported SNP and genes for Soil-Borne Wheat Mosaic Virus (SBWMV) resistance (Liu et al., 2014(Liu et al., , 2020)). Liu et al. (2020) completed a GWAS analysis of SBWMV resistance using the 90K Illumina array. Thirty-five SNP in 12 wheat genes and one intergenic SNP in the Sbwm1 region were identified on chromosome 5D, being associated significantly with SBWMV resistance. Resistance to SBWMV was strongly associated with a predicted kinase family protein (Liu et al., 2014). Furthermore, GWAS analyses identified major resistance SNP for Wheat Spindle Streak Mosaic Virus (WSSMV) on chromosome 2D, in addition to regions on 5B and 7D. The 2D genomic region was linked with 18 candidate genes, including 11 NBS-LRR ones (Hourcade et al., 2019), being listed in Supplementary Table S6.Insect resistance (Supplementary Table S7) has been explored, utilizing the wheat stem sawfly (WSS) transcriptome and its interaction with the regulatory elements, microRNA<-abbreviation indicated above--and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). Interestingly, the study found that WSS miRNA may target wheat transcripts and vice versa, thereby potentially modulating plant responses against WSS (Cagirici et al., 2017). The solid-stem trait, associated with WSS resistance, was linked to copy-number variation of a putative Dof Transcription Factor (TdDof) within the 3BL QTL, through the use of high-throughput sequencing in different genetic backgrounds. Transgenic lines over-expressing TdDof firmly established that increased expression of TdDof was responsible for solid stemness, likely through regulation of programmed cell death in pith parenchyma cells (Nilsen et al., 2020). Similarly, genome sequencing in resistant and susceptible cultivars revealed a candidate gene in the Sm1 locus that is known to confer resistance to orange wheat blossom midge (OWBM). This time, knockout mutant lines demonstrated that mutations within this gene resulted in susceptibility against OWBM. The candidate gene contains NB-ARC, and LRR motifs, in addition to a serine/threonine (S/T) kinase that is similar to those found in rust resistance proteins, and a major sperm protein (MSP) domain (Walkowiak et al., 2020).Wheat grain markets and food industries demand not only high yielding and resistant varieties, but also those with specific end-use qualities. End-use quality is, therefore, an important focus in breeding programs. Methods, for testing quality, however, require large amounts of grain and are time-consuming and costly. Significant efforts have been made to identify QTL linked to various end-use quality traits such as grain protein content (GPC), dough rheological properties, and baking quality (Supplementary Table S7). Several comprehensive analyses (Sun et al., 2008;Raman et al., 2009;Carter et al., 2012;Simons et al., 2012) of mapping several quality traits related to protein and starch have been conducted. Sun et al. (2008) analyzed GPC, flour protein content (FPC), grain glutenin macropolymer content, wet gluten content (WGC), dry gluten content (DGC), Zeleny sedimentation volume, flour-water absorption (FWA), dough development time (DDT), and mixing tolerance index and flour paste viscosity (Supplementary Table S7). They identified 30 QTL for starch traits and 15 QTL for protein traits, with QTL clusters for starch traits located on chromosomes 3D, 6B, and 7B, and protein traits on 1D and 3B. Raman et al. (2009) analyzed GPC, milling yield, FPC, flour color, FWA, DDT, dough strength (DS), and dough extensibility (DE). They found several QTL associated with DS, DE, DDT, and FWA, close to glutenin (Glu-B1) locus on chromosome 1B. Simons et al. (2012) analyzed 20 end-use quality traits including six grain, seven milling and flour, four dough mixing strength, and three bread-making traits. They found that the 1DL QTL cluster containing Glu-D1 had a large genetic influence on dough mixing strength and bread-making performance. Furthermore, two QTL clusters located on chromosomes 3B and 4D associated with several milling and baking quality traits (Carter et al., 2012) were reported, being associated with the Wx-B1, Glu-B1 and Glu-D1 genes.Specific attributes of starch contribute unique properties to certain wheat-breeding lines and the genome level characterization of one such property, udon noodle quality, is detailed in (Appels et al., 2018). The Granule Bound Starch Synthase (GBSS; TraesCS4A01G418200) gene on chromosome 4A is absent from some lines, being the null allele for GBSS-4AL (Wx-B1b) that associates with udon noodle quality. Significant sections of TraesCS4A01G418200 were absent from the exome sequences of 3.9% lines of a set of 644 (hexaploid) wheat varieties and landraces, assessed using 10 SNP identified from snapshot exome sequence data (Appels et al., 2018). The specific deletions within the GBSS-4AL gene mean that the respective lines provide new germplasm sources for wheat breeding. The gene-specific deletions would not be expected to show detrimental effects, due to the deletion of adjoining gene models, and thus be expected to perform successfully at the agronomic level, to satisfy the high-value commercial udonnoodle market. Other attributes of starch, such as a high amylose content for an improved source of fiber in the diet, can now be introduced into commercial wheat lines.Importantly, a metaQTL analysis (Quraishi et al., 2017) identified stable QTL, by combining 27 quantitative genetic studies with four genetic maps. It located 73 and 82 QTL for baking quality and GPC-related traits, respectively, on a consensus map. They reported 8 metaQTL for baking quality and 6 for GPC. The most precise metaQTL having the smallest confidence intervals were located on chromosomes 3D (3.78 cM) for baking quality and chromosome 2B (5.83 cM) for GPC. The candidate genes identified are listed in Supplementary Table S7.Recently, high-density SNP arrays and GBS have also been utilized to identify QTL for bread-making quality, using biparental populations (Jin et al., 2016;Boehm et al., 2017;Guo et al., 2020b). These high-resolution genetic maps helped to precisely identify major QTL and candidate genes, thus providing a valuable resource for MAS and genomic selection in wheat. Guo et al. (2020b) used GBS1.0 DArT arrays and 90K iSelect SNP array to map QTL for protein and starch-related traits. The authors reported 26 stable QTL, for GPC, sedimentation volume, DDT, DST, FWA, flour viscosity, break down, and peak time, detected in more than two environments on chromosomes 1A, 1B, 1D, 4B, 5D, 6A, 6B, 6D, 7A, and 7D. These genomic regions were linked to several candidate genes, including embryonic flower 1 (EMF1), trehalose-6-phosphate synthase 6 (TPS), nitrate transporter 1:2 (NRT1; 2 transporters), zinc-finger protein 830 (ZNF830), phospholipid-transporting ATPase, transcription factor (TFIIIB), acylamino-acid-releasing enzyme (APEH), F-box protein (SKIP22), and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). Similarly, Jin et al. (2016) used the 90K iSelect and the 660K SNP arrays to identify QTL for dough rheology and starch-pasting properties (Jin et al., 2016). Subsequently, 119 additive QTL were mapped on 20 chromosomes (i.e., all except 4D), including 55 and 17 novel QTL for mixolab parameters and 17 for Rapid Visco-Analyzer parameters. SNP markers in these regions were located on eight candidate genes, involved in biosynthesis of fatty acids and amino acids, in addition to starch and sucrose metabolism, i.e., anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase (AnPRT), 3-ketoacyl-CoA, ornithine aminotransferase, lipoxygenase 2 (LOX2), sucrose-phosphate synthase II (SPS2), lysosomal beta glucosidase, and 5′-methylthioadenosine/S-adenosylhomocysteine nucleosidase (mtnN; Jin et al., 2016). Using the power of GBS, Boehm et al. (2017) identified co-localizing QTL for multiple end-use quality traits (GPC, FWA, and flour yield) on chromosomes 1B, 2D, 7A, and 7B, including allelic variation for the glutenin genes Glu-A1, Glu-B1, Glu-A3, Glu-B3, and Glu-D3.The availability of reference genome in wheat and subsequent construction of several high-density genetic maps developed from the sequence-tagged SNPs (see section Characterization of Genes and Gene Families Using the Wheat Reference-Genome) has opened new opportunities for map-based cloning of the genes. Therefore, here we have discussed the presently used and potential gene cloning methods in bread wheat. Dissecting the genetic and molecular mechanisms regulating grain yield and growth is the key for positional cloning or map-based cloning, as well as wheat breeding and improvement. Traditional forward genetic tools have been widely used to clone genes regulating traits of interest in wheat, e.g., VRN1 (Yan et al., 2003), Gpc-B1 (Uauy et al., 2006), and Lr21 (Huang et al., 2003). Map-based gene cloning, however, usually needs multiple steps such as generating mapping populations, fine mapping to narrow the target region to identify genetic markers co-segregating with the phenotype, screening candidate gene(s) and gene(s) identification by sequencing. This process often requires more time and is labor intensive, especially in wheat. Hence, a limited number of positional cloning studies have been successfully undertaken. Furthermore, BREEDWHEAT program 10 summarized 8-year efforts in which novel source of genetic diversity identified and introduced to elite materials to generate superior varieties.Bulked segregant analysis (BSA) was recommended as a shortcut to identify the linkage of molecular markers with phenotype, being extensively used to map loci that have major effects (Michelmore et al., 1991). In this analysis, DNA of each individual showing extreme phenotype in a segregating population (i.e., F2) are bulked and genotyped, including their parents, with molecular markers (Chhetri et al., 2017). Any marker is considered to be linked with the studied trait if it shows the same allele in the bulk and parent of a similar phenotype. Recently, with the great advances of NGS technologies, several BSA-based modifications have been developed to identify major-effect QTL, regulating quantitative traits. These modifications are based on whole-genome resequencing bulks in a large population, reducing cost of genotyping, time spent, and increasing statistical power of analyses (Zou et al., 2016;Chhetri et al., 2017).In crops with large genomes such as wheat, complexity reduction is very important to identify and clone target genes more quickly and efficiently. QTL-seq is one such approach that incorporates the potential of BSA. The power of highthroughput whole-genome resequencing to identify genomic regions showed contrasting results of an SNP index in two bulk populations (each with 20-50 individuals), featuring extreme phenotypes (Takagi et al., 2013a). Recently, QTL-seq was used in bread wheat to identify the candidate genomic region tightly linked to the awn inhibitor loci. Diagnostic markers were designed to understand the role of QTL in the awnless trait formation (Wang et al., 2021). Moreover, this approach was applied to identify loci involved in tiller angle in bread wheat, which represents an important factor influencing yield. Also, in this case, functional markers for MAS were developed and validated (Zhao et al., 2020). Multiple QTL-seq (mQTL-seq) used for several mapping populations from crosses with at least one common parent (Das et al., 2015). The use of multiple mapping populations with a broad genetic diversity was critical for the validation of QTL, along with narrowing down the detected QTL. To date, however, this technique has not yet been used in wheat.Where the cost of whole-genome resequencing becomes prohibitive, bulk segregant RNA sequencing (BSR-seq) can be an alternative strategy for identifying expression QTL (eQTL) regions, generating data of gene expression for genomic loci of interest (Trick et al., 2012). Differential expression of genes in two bulks can be used to identify candidate genes responsible for favorable phenotypes. BSR-seq has been successfully used for mapping of stripe-rust-resistant loci YrMM58 and YrHY1 on chromosome 2AS (Wang et al., 2018b), Yr15 on chromosome 1BS (Ramirez-Gonzalez et al., 2015), and leaf senescence gene (els1) on chromosome 2BS (Li et al., 2018a), in segregating 10 https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/11/1/149 wheat biparental populations. Similarly, BSR-seq enabled finemapping of a locus controlling grain-protein content (GPC) in wheat (GPC-B1) to 0.4 cM from the previously reported interval of 30 cM (Trick et al., 2012). This study pinpointed 13-18 candidate genes for GPC in wheat.NGS platforms have also accelerated the identification and cloning of genes in mutant collections. TEnSeq pipelines are examples of advances that have allowed for rapid gene cloning identification, as recently reviewed (Zhang et al., 2020). Mutagenesis chromosome flow-sorting and short-read sequencing (MutChromSeq) is a recently developed tool (Sánchez-Martín et al., 2016;Hiebert et al., 2020), based on mutagenesis followed by flow sorting of chromosomes and their subsequent sequencing, to identify induced mutations. This rapid approach was successfully described to clone the powdery-mildew resistance locus Pm2 in wheat (Sánchez-Martín et al., 2016). MutChromSeq has the advantage that it does not rely on an assumption that the resistance gene belongs to the NLR class (as for other approaches, see below). Hence, it would be appropriate for identification of non-immunemediated resistance genes. The most recent application is the cloning of the Med15 protein encoded by SuSr-D1, a suppressor gene of stem-rust resistance (Hiebert et al., 2020) from the wheat cultivar \"Canthatch. \"A similar approach to MutChromSeq, which does not require mutagenesis, is the target chromosome-based cloning (TACCA) method. It uses flow-sorted chromosomes, next-generation sequencing, and cultivar-specific de novo assembly. Using this approach, Lr22a, broad-spectrum leaf-rust resistance locus was cloned in wheat. Two SSR markers flanking Lr22a, covering 0.48 cM interval on chromosome 2D, were previously mapped. Sorting chromosome 2D, followed by sequencing and identification of genes, was performed within 4 months (Thind et al., 2017).Other cloning strategies such as MutMap (mutational mapping) involve mutagenesis, sequencing, and mapping, to identify SNP between wild-type and homozygous mutants, and then zero in on the region containing the gene of interest. Although this approach was initially considered to be applicable only in crops with small genomes, it was successfully utilized to map and clone Ms1 from bread wheat, using F2 plants derived from heterozygous ms1e mutants (Wang et al., 2017). MutMap will be less efficient at identifying the causal mutation, however, if the wild-type reference genome has gaps at the position of the causal mutation. Thus, de novo assembly of the wild-type genome is used in MutMap-Gap (Takagi et al., 2013b), and could be applied to wheat in the future.Finally, MutRenSeq is a fast gene-cloning tool for the isolation of nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat (NLR) genes (Steuernagel et al., 2016). Chemical mutagenesis, exome capture, and sequencing are required. Most genes associated with diseaseresistance encode proteins in the NLR family. Hence, exome capture is necessary to enrich the NLR-specific bait library. Then, resistant wild-type parent and susceptible loss-of-function mutants are sequenced, as a last step. Mutant reads are aligned with the equivalent wild-type pool of the NLR gene family from the parents. This method has been utilized to clone two fungal stem-rust resistance genes (Sr22 and Sr45) and three yellow-rust genes (Yr7, Yr5/YrSP) from bread wheat (Steuernagel et al., 2016;Marchal et al., 2018). This method does not require fine positional mapping and can be applied to isolate NLR-type resistance genes from most crops and their wild relatives. Nevertheless, two major limitations must be taken into account. Firstly, the design of oligonucleotide baits is based on a reference genome sequence. Considering the large-scale presence/absence variations among different accessions, the recent release of pan-genome in wheat is the ideal reference on which to design baits (Walkowiak et al., 2020). Secondly, this approach is limited to isolating only resistance genes, encoding NLR proteins. Therefore, genes that do not belong to the NLR family are missed (Dinh et al., 2020). However, it is possible to add capture baits targeting other classes of genes, thought a priori to be involved in disease resistance, such as wallassociated kinases.Unlike map-based cloning and MutRenSeq, the association genetics with the R-gene enrichment sequencing (AgRenSeq) method has been developed to align with GWAS platforms (to utilize genome-wide natural variation). Thereby, RenSeq eliminates the need for biparental mapping populations or mutagenesis. This approach was demonstrated successfully to clone the, Sr46 R-gene and to identify the candidate-gene sequence for SrTA1662, using a diverse panel of A. tauschii ssp. strangulata (Arora et al., 2019). It explores a pool of diverse wild relatives, carrying many resistance genes. As a result, it enables cloning of multiple genes at the same time (Dinh et al., 2020). These strategies have many advantages over traditional marker-based mapping. In addition to taking much less time, they find genes or functional nucleotides/haplotypes, responsible for a given agronomic trait. In several cases, genes were rapidly cloned and diagnostic markers were developed. The benefits of cloning genes in wheat, particularly those with a role in disease resistance, have been recently shown (Luo et al., 2021). As demonstrated by Luo et al. (2021), construction of transgene cassettes can simplify breeding bottlenecks, associated with the deployment of multiple genes to be inherited as a single unit. In this case study, a gene cassette containing five previously cloned R-genes (Sr45, Sr50, Sr55, Sr22, and Sr35) provides high levels of resistance to stem rust, suggesting that this could be a viable solution to confer durable multipathogen resistance.The relatively recent availability of large numbers of genomewide molecular markers in wheat genetic resources has led to the application of an alternative marker-assisted approach for wheat genetic improvement, namely genomic selection (Meuwissen et al., 2001;Jannink et al., 2010). For a long time, the lack of high-density markers were a major hindrance to carrying out in-depth genetic and genomic analyses. GS is an advanced form of MAS, wherein genome-wide markers are used to calculate genomic-estimated breeding values (GEBV; Meuwissen et al., 2001). Rather than explicitly identifying and tracking markers associated with genetic loci controlling a given trait, GS aims to use large numbers of genome-wide markers, in conjunction with phenotypic data collected in a collection of lines/varieties (termed the \"training set\"), to establish parameters that allow forward selection of the progenies derived from the training set over multiple forward generations, in the absence of additional phenotyping (Meuwissen et al., 2001;Jannink et al., 2010). This potentially allows selection to be applied faster and at higher intensities, as more lines can be incorporated for advancing to subsequent generations, without the need for time-consuming phenotyping steps. Additionally, advancement in statistical and bioinformatics methods to deal with high-density marker data for genomic selection has been equally important for plant breeders for the development of GS in wheat. GS is a valuable and attractive plant breeding approach that provides an idea for the conversion of genotypic value to phenotypic value (Nakaya and Isobe, 2012). Although this approach has great potential, plant breeders must carefully consider relationship between training and breeding populations. Additionally, it is important that breeders should investigate all traits of interest during the training phase in order to exclude phenotyping during the breeding cycle.Since its first use in 2006 (Crossa et al., 2006), GS has been extensively used in wheat, for a wide range of traits with different architectures including grain yield (Crossa et al., 2016;Rutkoski et al., 2016;Saint Pierre et al., 2016;Guo et al., 2020a;Sehgal et al., 2020b), resistances to different diseases as rusts, fusarium head blight, Stagonospora nodorum blotch, Septoria tritici blotch, and tan-spot resistance (Jiang et al., 2017;Juliana et al., 2017a,b), macro-and micro-nutrients (Manickavelu et al., 2017), as well as end-use quality traits (Battenfield et al., 2016;Kristensen et al., 2018). Application of GS for hybrid prediction has also been investigated in wheat (Zhao et al., 2013b;Adhikari et al., 2020), pointing to challenges when predicting hybrids derived from untested parents (Zhao et al., 2015). Using more refined Genotype x Environment (GxE) interaction-based GS models promises to partly reduce this shortcoming (Basnet et al., 2019). The optimization of underlying factors on which genomic selection relies, such as marker density, predictive models, training population size, and the relationship between training and validation population sets, is ongoing (Larkin et al., 2019).Recent investigations have focused on optimization of GS in genetic resources. In order to harness new diversity from wheat gene banks. Crossa et al. (2016) investigated GS models to predict days to heading and days to maturity, on a large set of wheat landrace accessions (8,416 Mexican landrace accessions and 2,403 Iranian landrace accessions) from CIMMYT gene bank, using two strategies. The first one involved random cross-validation of the data in 20% training (TRN) and 80% testing (TST; TRN20-TST80). In the second strategy, two types of core sets called \"diversity\" and \"prediction, \" including 10 and 20%, respectively, of total collections were used. Prediction accuracy of the 20% diversity core set was close to accuracies obtained for 20% training and 80% testing set (0.412-0.654 and 0.182-0.647 for Mexican landraces and Iranian landraces, respectively). For traits controlled by a mix of a few major and many minor genes, it can thus be beneficial to include preexisting knowledge on known candidate genes, to increase accuracy of genome-wide predictions (Bernardo, 2014). The potential of such an approach has been demonstrated when predicting flowering time and plant height for wheat (Zhao et al., 2014). These results suggested a way forward for parental selection in pre-breeding, by predicting the value of all genotyped accessions in a gene bank, followed by pre-breeding programs, based on those genotypes that have the highest predicted value, or harbor promising novel candidate genes or alleles. Once promising parents are identified, efficient pre-breeding programs need to be designed. This is a non-trivial task, mainly depending on diversity of plant genetic resources. Some of the latter have diversity that makes them directly useful as a source of parents for breeding new varieties; however, this tends to be the exception. It is evident that genetic resources must therefore be improved, through appropriate pre-breeding programs, to the point where they can be used as productive parents in breeding programs. Two complementary approaches can be used: (i) pre-breeding of populations created from genetic resources and (ii) pre-breeding of populations created from crosses between plant genetic resources and elite materials. In both cases, genomic prediction enables rapid selection gain, but requires the presence of extensive training populations, related to the base population. Crossing parents selected from agronomic and physiological screening of genetic resources, and advancing through generations, using high throughput phenotyping of physiological parameters, is another approach (Reynolds and Langridge, 2016). Such strategy is complementary to genomic selection of progeny, since many complex physiological traits that may have been used in strategic crossing do not lend themselves to high-throughput progeny screening (Reynolds and Langridge, 2016).Substantial efforts have shifted to development of highthroughput phenotyping platforms in wheat, which are used to measure different traits, including plant height (Holman et al., 2016), disease resistance (Devadas et al., 2015), growth rate (Holman et al., 2016), and nitrogen deficiency (Devadas et al., 2015). These significant advancements in high-throughput phenotyping have brought a paradigm shift in breeding strategies. Wheat scientists have incorporated high-throughput phenotyping data in GS models, to explore their potential in improving prediction accuracies for complex traits (Rutkoski et al., 2016;Crain et al., 2018). Rutkoski et al. (2016) investigated the role of canopy temperature and green and red normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), measuring chlorophyll concentration, canopy leaf-area and yield, as secondary traits in GS models, for improving prediction accuracy for grain yield. The authors observed 67% improvement in prediction accuracy, without correcting for days to heading (DTH), and 37% improvement upon correction with DTH. Crain et al. (2018) used over 1.1 million phenotypic data points generated by high-throughput phenotyping on 1,170 advanced CIMMYT lines in drought and heat stress environments, observing an increase in prediction accuracy from 7% to 33%, as compared to the standard univariate model.Genomic selection has revolutionized animal breeding and will likely be a major source of genetic improvement of crops, including wheat, over the coming decade (Mackay et al., 2021). We envisage that incorporation of additional datatypes and technologies into GS pipelines will open opportunities for further gains to be made. For example, increasing precision of phenotypic characterization in training set via highthroughput phenotyping platforms (Devadas et al., 2015;Holman et al., 2016;Rutkoski et al., 2016;Crain et al., 2018), as well as incorporation of environmental covariates (de los Campos et al., 2020), may lead to improved prediction accuracies. Similarly, incorporating additional molecular or \"omics\" data may further refine prediction equations. These include: (i) molecular data tagging functionally validated alleles, whether they are natural variants, or novel ones, generated via technologies such as gene editing or TILLING (Krasileva et al., 2017;Hussain et al., 2018) and (ii) integration of transcriptomic and metabolomic data with molecular markers, as has been reported in maize (Schrag et al., 2018). Ultimately, combining these approaches with methods for shortening of wheat generation times will further increase selection intensity. Currently, \"speed breeding\" methodology, whereby plants are grown under extended photoperiods via the use of supplementary lighting, allows spring wheat generation time to be reduced from four to around 2 months (Watson et al., 2018). Combining speed breeding with \"speed vernalization\" methods can even more shortened the breeding process. Any further dramatic shortening of cycling times would require development of new approaches, such as generation of recombinant individuals, by in vitro production of gametes and their subsequent fusions (De La Fuente et al., 2013). Combining such in vitro generation-cycling with genomic selection methodologies may well represent an achievable medium-term step-change in genomics-informed breeding.Availability of complete genome assemblies of diverse wheat genotypes, originating from different parts of the world, is essential to identify and characterize functions of various wheat genes, for different growth stages and environmental conditions, at the whole-genome level. Furthermore, transcriptomic analyses help to identify genes and gene networks regulating traits in different conditions. Therefore, knockout, knock-in, or activation of such genes through CRISPR/Cas9 gene-editing system provides unique opportunities for wheat genetic improvement (Scheben et al., 2017;Scheben and Edwards, 2017;Hussain et al., 2018). Because of the very large genome size of such species, orthologous gene copies present in the polyploid genome, and the presence of many repetitive sequences, genetic manipulation through CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing system is more challenging in bread and durum wheat, as compared to cereals with smaller genomes. Using wheat-cell suspension cultures which led to InDel mutations, an attempt was made to use the CRISPR/ Cas9 method for specific gene modification, in wheat inositol oxygenase (inox) and phytoene desaturase (pds) genes (Upadhyay et al., 2013). The first successful application of CRISPR/Cas9 to generate wheat knockout lines having three homoeoalleles of powdery-mildew resistance locus O gene (TaMLO), by a transient protoplast expression system, was done independently by Shan et al. (2014) and Wang et al. (2014). The latter successfully applied the CRISPR/Cas9 system in bread wheat, for the generation of plants mutated in a single TaMLO-A1 allele, with increased resistance to powdery mildew. A similar strategy has been used to knockout drought-responsive transcription factors in wheat, like dehydration-responsive element-binding protein 2 (TaDREB2) and ethylene-responsive factor 3 (TaERF3), for improved drought signaling (Hussain et al., 2018;Kim et al., 2018).The knockout of all three homoeoalleles of TaGW2 through the CRISPR/Cas9 system increased the thousand kernel weight (TKW) and seed size (Wang et al., 2018a), implying the utility of the system for crop improvement. Such CRISPR-generated lines can either be exploited as new varieties or used as germplasm. Moreover, recent advances in editing allow simultaneous multiple-gene targeting or genome multiplexing (Xie et al., 2015), opening new horizons for employment of CRISPR/Cas9 in polyploid wheat, carrying many homoeologous and paralogous copies of the same gene, such as α-gliadins. In another study, CRISPR/Cas9 mediated mutations in 35 out of 45 α-gliadin genes, genes controlling gluten content in wheat, generated transgene-free, low-gluten wheat without any off-target mutations (Sánchez-León et al., 2018). Using this genome multiplexing by CRISPR/Cas9, three genes, viz., TaGW2 (grain traits negative regulator), TaMLO (resistance to powdery mildew), and TaLpx-1 (lipoxygenase; offers resistance to Fusarium graminearum), were targeted (Wang et al., 2018a). The first application of zinc-finger nuclease (ZFN)-mediated, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)-directed loss-of-function gene knockout of acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) in allohexaploid bread wheat through a supplied DNA repair template resulted in resistance to imidazolinone herbicides, due to an amino acid change in the target-gene coding sequence (Ran et al., 2018). Efficient and novel ribonucleoprotein-based (RNP) CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing procedures that required only 7-9 weeks were developed, with no off-target mutations and no transgene integration, implying the efficiency of the system (Liang et al., 2017).The CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing methodology is also important for pre-breeding, namely, to reduce time to transfer beneficial alleles, increasing success rate. The idea is to directly induce/modify the alleles to beneficial ones in elite wheat germplasm both efficiently and quickly. CRISPR/Cas9mediated permanent genome integration results in a stable expression of CRISPR/Cas9. However, RNP-based biolistic delivery offers a transient expression of CRISPR/Cas9, and its rapid degradation, which controls off-target mutations (Liang et al., 2017). Thus, RNP-based gene editing has been successfully applied for gene-editing in bread wheat (Liang et al., 2018). Similarly, knockout of three homologs of wheat enhanced disease resistance 1 (TaEDR1), a negative regulator of defense response against powdery mildew, conferred resistance against powdery mildew, without any off-target mutations (Zhang et al., 2017). DNA-virus [e.g., Geminivirus, i.e., wheat dwarf virus (WDV)]-based amplicons were later identified as an efficient construct-delivery method for gene editing, with an enhanced CRISPR/Cas9 expression, as compared to ubiquitin reference gene, proposing that it could be a potential tool for CRISPR-mediated genome editing in wheat (Gil-Humanes et al., 2017). Moreover, CRISPR/Cas9 has been successfully applied by generating heritable, targeted mutations, in wheat male-sterility 1 gene (Ms1), responsible for complete male sterility in commercial wheat cultivars, like Gladius and Fielder (Okada et al., 2019), thus speeding up hybrid-wheat production. These studies demonstrate the utility of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for rapid generation of male sterility in commercial wheat cultivars, for breeding programs. Although CRISPR-mediated genome or gene editing was demonstrated to be successful, its widespread implementation still encounters difficulties, involved in low regeneration efficiency of crops, such as wheat. Recently, growth-regulating factor-grf-interacting factor (GRF-GIF) wheat transformation system has become the game changer by using GRF-GIF chimeric protein construct, which improves regeneration efficiency up to 100% (Debernardi et al., 2020) in the transgenic-wheat lines.Again, such CRISPR-generated lines can be released either as a variety or can be used as germplasm stocks. Although the utility of this revolutionary technology for crop improvement was demonstrated, regulatory approvals for the use of gene-edited plants still vary among different countries (Jouanin et al., 2018). CRISPR can also be utilized for testing the effect of a mutated allele on the resulting phenotype. If regulations are too strict, like in the European Union, this could be used later on, to search for such alleles in natural populations of wheat progenitors and germplasm stored in gene banks (\"natural variation\"). Recent initiatives to sequence thousands of gene bank accessions (Milner et al., 2019) can help to facilitate this approach. An additional benefit of using CRISPR/Cas9 is that genome editing for the first time allows direct transfer of favorable alleles into elite breeding material, without typical linkage drag, associated with cross-breeding. Wheat is crossed with maize to induce haploids, and colchicine is applied to get doubled haploid plants that serve as breeding material, or could be introduced as a variety, thus speeding up wheat breeding (Devaux and Cistué, 2016). Taking advantage of the well-established wheat × maize crossing system, maize pollens carrying gRNA for plant height genes (BRI1 and SD1) were crossed to wheat, for inducing site-directed targeted mutagenesis in wheat (Budhagatapalli et al., 2020), without the need of segregating out the transgene. It helped in reducing the genotypedependent site-directed mutagenesis. This approach can also be used for introducing mutations in multiple genes with one cas9/gRNA-transgenic (pollinator) plant, thus providing an opportunity for multiplex gene-editing in wheat. An important part of genetic analyses is identification of candidate genes and/or diagnostic marker(s) in linkage equilibrium to the trait(s) of selection interest. Many studies for abiotic stresses lack identification of candidate genes, slowing down MAS in wheat.Reviewing the very extensive genome-level analyses undertaken since publication of the CS reference genome sequence has identified the broad importance of considering the network nature of grain yield, heat and drought susceptibility indices and yield stability coefficients (Sehgal et al., 2017). Likewise, their association with flowering time genes (Vrn-B1, Ppd-D1 and Vrn-D3). Observations are consistent with the long history of wheat improvement through breeding at the phenotypic level, and genome-level analyses can now complement this existing knowledge, through refining biological networks and fine-tuning germplasm to micro-environments and defined wavelength environments of LED lighting in speed breeding.Typically, candidate genes are identified by locating the QTL region on the genome assembly and analyzing the genes residing in the region. If only a few genes are selected to validate their expression under a certain condition, the possibility of human bias (Baxter, 2020) can come into play, slowing down progress of genetic advancement. For example, looking for K + /Na + transporters for salinity studies could lead to ignoring important genes in tolerance mechanisms. Complementing genomic selection with in silico transcriptomic analyses for all potential genes of interest would cast a wider net to capture a more complete set of genes that are relevant to the phenotype under study or selection.The role of synthetic wheat in imparting stress tolerance is well known in wheat. Wheat gene banks harbor hundreds of such synthetic wheat lines. In the post reference genome era, extensive genotyping efforts have been undertaken to genotype entire gene bank accessions, generating the so-called \"digital gene banks.\" For example, CIMMYT has generated GBS data on ~100K accessions stored in its gene bank, in order to bridge the gap between genetic resources and breeding pipelines. Although success has been achieved in quantifying genome contributions of wild germplasm (synthetics and landraces) to the current elite germplasm, it is still unknown how to devise a genome-based strategy to deploy favorable introgressions from synthetic wheat, to enhance breeding value. Development of new genomic selection and machine-learning models and tools will be required to predict the best exotics from gene banks, without having to invest in laborious and costly multienvironmental field testing. These technologies will refine the already-successful breeder pipelines, for establishing new varieties.Complex metabolic engineering can be exploited to improve cereals like wheat, to produce essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including the healthy omega 3 (ω-3) and omega 6 (ω-6). Genetic engineering and synthetic biology tools can be used to reach such a goal (Kraic et al., 2018). Similarly, these technologies can be used to generate Marker-Free and Transgene Insertion site-Defined (MFTID) transgenic plants.Thus, the lipoxygenase (LOX) gene expression was repressed using an RNA interference (RNAi) cassette reduce lipid peroxidation (improving storability) and increase nutrient quality, such as the amount of healthy fatty acids (e.g., containing linoleic and linolenic residues) of wheat seeds (Cao et al., 2020).Cereals can also be improved so that their agricultural waste (plant cell wall, being mainly made of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) contains more cellulose and less lignin, thereby allowing its use as feedstock for biofuel or bioproduct production. Currently, high costs and low yields are associated with their use, due to the molecular structure of the natural lignocellulosic biomass. As expected from an evolutionary point of view, it is hard to enzymatically hydrolyze cellulose into glucose, as it is resistant to most microorganism degradation (Rocha-Meneses et al., 2020).In short, these developments hold interesting potential applications for wheat improvement, within molecular breeding programs, in addition to enhancing yield traits, and biotic-and abiotic-stress tolerance, which are particularly relevant in the present scenario of global warming and climate change.","tokenCount":"12722"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f7a6b6ccb63bff6ce8e08547996c6bfc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70f7bb73-1135-48ff-b25c-682c0fb121df/retrieve","id":"-1551972900"},"keywords":["Agriculture","Climate change","outcomes","impact pathway","policy","investment","partnershipsiii"],"sieverID":"32dc07f4-5206-4256-9b97-3152b9e9a374","pagecount":"57","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.As the CCAFS Program is coming to an end and in the effort to synthesize reflections on CCAFS achievements, challenges, and gaps that can inform the design of future agricultural for research and development (AR4D) initiatives, we sought to understand the types of changes in behavior, relationships, activities and actions of immediate and indirect beneficiaries. This working paper presents a meta-synthesis and analysis of CCAFS outcomes achieved over the years 2011-2020. The assessment relies on information reported by CCAFS scientists (project leaders, regional leaders, projects staff) via different reporting tools (annual reports, outcome reports, case studies, etc.). Specifically, the study sought to: (i) identify and describe the different changes (actions, processes, decisions, both expected and unintended) that CCAFS, as change agent, has enabled over the years. (ii) assess the extent to which CCAFS outcomes have contributed to higher-level institutional and international targets, including the CGIAR System Results Framework (SRF), CCAFS sub-intermediate Development Outcomes (sub-IDOs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and (iii) carve out major pathways that deliver policy-investment and service-farm outcomes, with the view to reveal key elements-including activities, outputs, innovations, and partnerships-that played in important role in the CCAFS outcome legacy. This synthesis targets two types of audiences. First, it is directed to One CGIAR leadership, programme managers and implementers interested in learning from successful models of outcome-oriented research and impact pathways that have been enabled by CCAFS research and collaborations (partnerships) throughout the years. In this sense, the report can also serve as a feedback loop for planning future climate change initiatives within the new One CGIAR. Second, the synthesis document can also be relevant to an external audience, such as CCAFS partners interested in learning about how CCAFS initiatives have added value to the climate and agricultural development space. The report guides them through success stories, case studies and reflections on pathways to achieve different outcomes and impacts (at policy, investment, partnerships level). Moreover, the report can also be relevant to development practitioners seeking more general insights into the benefits of outcome harvesting approaches to inform planning and adaptive management of projects and programmes.We screened documents with narratives of project outcomes submitted by CCAFS Project leaders as part of the CCAFS annual reporting process, covering CCAFS Phase I (2011-2016) and Phase II (2017II ( -2020) ) and belonging to all four flagship programs: Priorities and Policies for Climate Smart Agriculture (FP1), Climate Smart Technologies and Practices (FP2), Low Emissions Development (FP3), and Climate services and safety nets (FP4). These documents describe the activities conducted, the related research outputs, next users (e.g., governments at all levels, development banks, investors, non-governmental organizations, etc.), partners, quantifications (e.g., number of beneficiaries, of outputs produced, of area covered, etc.), and innovations developed. These reports also provide evidence on the contribution of the research efforts to the outcome, reported in the form of narratives and supporting documents. The structure and content of these outcome reports have changed throughout the years, with more level of detail and more rigorous documentation of outcomes observed in CCAFS Phase II (2017-2020, more precisely). Hence, our data source varied with the reporting year. For example, for the first CCAFS reporting year, we considered annual reports submitted by theme leaders and regional leaders, to document any evidence of early outcomes. For the subsequent years, we referred to outcome reports (2012)(2013)(2014), outcome case studies (2015)(2016) and outcome impact case reports (OICRs) (2017)(2018)(2019)(2020).We assessed the eligibility of the reports for our study in two stages. First, we assessed the level of information provided in the reports. We excluded the reports if (i) they did not provide sufficient information in any of the thematic areas of interest to this assessment (i.e., information that describes the outcome, outputs and activities). In the second stage, we looked at the outcome narrative and excluded those reports where (ii) the overall narrative of the report was referring to a project output rather than an outcome, with no documented effect (e.g., publication of a scientific article, a progress report, release of a methodology, a presentation given at a workshop, etc.); and (iii) the report was a duplicate (i.e., submitted twice, for the same year and project and with the same level of detail).The document screening aimed at collecting information that describes what changed (the outcomes), for whom (the beneficiaries of those outcomes), where (the geographical context and decision-making level), when (which CCAFS Phase, year), and how (what activities and outputs led to these changes). The information extracted relates to the theory of change (i.e., information describing the activities and outputs that led to the outcome reported), geographical scope, contribution to CGIAR and CCAFS Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) frameworks, innovations associated with the outcome case study, and general project descriptors. A detailed overview of the research protocol with data sources, selection, exclusion criteria and information extracted is illustrated in Figure 1. Information collected from the reports was categorized to enable a systematic analysis of the qualitative information (i.e., types of outcomes reported and ancillary information). The information types for which we created typologies refer to: outcome type and subtype, outcome stage, activity type, output type, direct beneficiary type, contributing partners type, innovation type, and innovation stage. An overview of these typologies is presented in Table 1. Most of these typologies draw on CCAFS monitoring and reporting documentationparticularly CCAFS internal reporting platform, Managing Agricultural Research for Learning and Outcomes (MARLO)-, external evaluation reports, and peer-reviewed publications, with the view to ensure programmatic consistency in terminology and concept use. We also analyzed information in its raw format, as it was reported by project leaders in the respective outcome reports. This refers to: outcome identification (ID) number, reporting year, geographic scope (region, country), and contributions to CGIAR SRF and Sub-IDOs.Contributing partner names were extracted from each outcome study report and included in the database, and then coded into categories to facilitate analysis. Because there was a range of zero to 20 partners in each of the 300 outcomes, in total, 918 partners were listed; some partners participated in multiple projects. We used Python, an object-oriented programming language, to search each partner name in our database and extracted the corresponding \"institution types\" for each partner, based on the CCAFS partners acronym list 1 . The Sub-IDOs tagged in the OICRs were mapped to SDG Targets using an existing mapping developed by the Systems Management Office (SMO). The contributions to CGIAR SRF Targets were also mapped to SDG Targets, based on the CGIAR Performance Report 2017 (CGIAR 2018).We followed the CGIAR definition of innovations, where these are described as \"new or significantly improved outputs or groups of outputs -including management practices, knowledge or technologies\". CGIAR distinguishes between six main typologies of innovations, including: genetic varieties and breeds (which covered 65% of 4154 CGIAR innovations developed between 2017 and 2020), research and communication methodologies and tools (representing 13% of all CGIAR innovations), production systems and management (12%), social science (7%), biophysical research (2%) and other (1%) 2 (CGIAR 2021) (Table 1). These typologies were also used by CCAFS teams to report on innovations developed as part of their projects. In our analysis, we used the innovation typologies as they were reported by project staff and adjusted the categorizations when the information was reported inconsistently across years (i.e., same innovation was reported under different typologies in different years), making those judgments based on the best knowledge of the authors and their experience with CGIAR and CCAFS-level reporting. The study also draws on the knowledge and reflections of CCAFS staff who reviewed the findings of the analysis and helped to enrich the insights, by substantiating the outcome claims reported by project/programme leaders and the impact pathways carved out in this study. The study benefited from input and critical review from the Performance, Innovation and Strategic Analysis for Impact (PISA4) Program Unit of the CGIAR and CCAFS scientists during the CCAFS Science Meeting (Barcelona, 14-18 November 2021).The synthesis identified 300 outcomes linked with 82 projects. Forty-five outcomes could not be mapped against a project, as some of the reports-specifically the ones submitted in the early stages of CCAFS, between 2011 and 2014-did not provide a project number in the description. Thirty nine percent (39%) of the projects report one outcome, 40% report between two and four outcomes and 21% report 5 or more outcomes (Figure 2). Five  (9), Bangladesh (8). Eighty-one percent (81%) of the subnational, national and multi-national level outcomes focus on one country, seven percent (7%) on two countries simultaneously, and 12% on three or more countries. Of all immediate beneficiary (or next user) groups identified, policy actors (national and subnational governments) showed up most frequently in the database (Figure 4). They are followed by farmer and farmer organizations, international development partners, service providers (private, public), NGOs, multi-stakeholder platforms, and private sector actors.Outcomes typically target one specific beneficiary group (in 56% of the cases); combinations of two beneficiary groups are common across 30% of the cases (policy-services; policydevelopment partners; policy-NGOs; services-farmers), while three or more stakeholder groups are targeted in 13% of the cases, suggesting the multi-scale nature of projects. Most outcomes reported were related to development of/ changes/ improvements in policy, mentioned in relation to more than half (176) of the outcomes studied (Figure 5a).Outcomes related to improved climate, information and financial services are reported 26% of the times, improved programming is covered by 22% of the outcome cases. Outcomes related to farm-level changes (in livelihoods, in agri-environmental conditions) and global/ regional policy processes (i.e., UNFCCC negotiations, regional processes under the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), the Asian pacific Economic Community (APEC), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)), are reported 15% and 10% of the times, respectively. Almost a quarter of the reports (24%) cover two outcomes simultaneously, typically combining policy + programme (e.g., analyses and models to inform prioritization, design and operationalization of investments with policy actors, private sector and development partners) and policy + services outcomes (e.g., strengthening delivery of climate information and agro-advisory, improvement of early-warning systems, use of downscaled climate information for national policy planning/ enhancement, etc.).Most policy outcomes refer to the development and implementation of national and subnational agriculture and climate change plans and strategies (103 outcomes, representing 66% of all outcomes), followed by commitment and disbursement of budgets and investments for work related to agriculture and climate change (66 outcomes, representing 42%) (Figure 5b). Some fewer outcomes refer to the establishment of legal environments (i.e., laws and regulations) for implementation of climate change and food security-related policies, as well as to the design and implementation of curricula on climatesmart agriculture, targeted at extension services, higher education institutions, and technical vocational schools. More than half of the outcomes reported (167, representing 56% of all outcomes) are at level 1 in their maturity, primarily focusing on design and planning of policies, strategies, or investments (Figure 6). Forty-two percent (41%) of the outcomes are at level 2, focusing on committed/ disbursed investments, improved availability, accessibility, and adoption of services (e.g., climate information), inputs (e.g., improved varieties), and farm technologies and practices. Some outcomes (3%) report changes at scale (level 3). This suggest that most outcome-oriented work at CCAFS has been primarily focused on generating evidence and engagements for changing knowledge of next users (i.e., use of research in design and planning phases and negotiations) and practices of end-users (i.e., improving availability, access and use of services). Fewer outcomes present evidence of impact at scale.  2). They largely mark progression to a next level of maturity (typically from level 1 to level 2, from policy/ initiative design to actual investment), a diversification of outcome types (i.e., from policy to farm, from policy-plan to investment, from services to farm, etc.), or of partnership. Other outcomes changed the geographic scale (from global to regional, national to multinational) or expanded to new regions (e.g., gender and social inclusion work being taken up in UNFCCC submissions of the African Group of Negotiators in Eastern, Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa). Expansion to new countries was also detected, such as the case of CIAT-CCAFS-led research on agroclimatic predictions informing technical agroclimatic committees in Colombia and then in Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua in the next year. One outcome reported in relation to uptake of research on nutrient management by fertilizer companies included new innovations in the second year (See Annex).However, these results must be interpreted cautiously, as they may not tell the full story of how CCAFS outcome-oriented work has evolved in specific contexts (projects, geographies, etc.). Because outcome tagging by ID number in CCAFS reports and case studies has been inconsistent throughout the years 4 , this database might not fully capture relationships between outcomes and nuances about their evolution. For that matter,  The CGIAR SRF framed the context and structure of CCAFS Phase II, when the programmatic approach shifted towards a results-based management framework focused on outcome delivery and monitoring progress of outcome contribution to higher-level goals and impacts.Three SRF targets have had highest coverage by the outcomes reported (Figure 7a). These refer to: reduced agricultural greenhouse gas emissions (SRF target 9), adoption of improved varieties and breeds by farmers (SRF 3), and support for people to exit poverty (SRF 6). Some outcomes also targeted increase in water and nutrient use efficiency in agro-ecosystems (SRF 8), support to ensure people meet minimum dietary energy requirements (SRF 4), and improved rate of yield increase for major food staples (SRF 7). Deforestation (SRF 2) and land restoration (SRF 1) targets were only reported few times (4 and 2, respectively).Targets related to nutrition, such as reduced micronutrients deficiency (SRF 5) and consumption of adequate number of food groups by women of reproductive age (SRF 10),were not covered by any outcome reported. While approximately 20% of the CCAFS Phase II budget was initially intended for achieving the system level outcome (SLO) on food security and nutrition according to the CCAFS Phase II Proposal 5 , most work plans and annual budgets did not address this SLO. In fact, the CCAFS Flagship on Policies and Priorities for Climate-Smart Agriculture (FP1) was the only Flagship Programme to include a target on food and nutrition security, allocating approximately a fifth of its budget to achieve it: less than 3% of the total CCAFS budget in all (Personal Communication from FP1 Leader).However, it must also be noted that reporting against SRF targets was included in CCAFS annual reporting starting with Phase II, which explains the high amount of missing data and likely underreporting of contribution to some of the mentioned targets.5 \"For the food and nutrition security SLO, CCAFS aims to have removed by 2022 nutritional deficiencies of one or more essential micronutrients in 6 million more people, of whom 50% are women\" (CCAFS Phase II Proposal, p.9)In relation to sub-IDOs, most outcomes reported contribution to a conducive agricultural policy environment (sub-IDO #37), enhanced capacity to deal with climate risks and extremes (#35), enabled environment for climate resilience (#34), and reduced net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forests and other forms of land-use (#45) (Figure 7b). These findings match the policy-oriented nature of outcomes discussed previously (Figure 5). Sub-IDOs mentioned only once refer to: enhanced conservation of habitats and resources (#5), increased access to diverse nutrient-rich foods (#15), increased safe use of inputs (#19), and increased above-and below-ground biomass for carbon sequestration (#43).  Yet the fact that most of the outcome targets have been achieved by now-some even significantly overachieved (See Annex 4) 6 -might suggest that outcomes could have been considerably underreported in CCAFS project documents or that sub-IDOs tagging has been biased by the subjective interpretation of these contributions. We observed that the sub-IDO tagging has been patchy, with many outcome case studies missing the opportunity to report contribution to relevant sub-IDOs (e.g., sub-IDO #21, #23, #24), even though the evidence shows that significant activities to achieve these targets have been successfully undertaken 7 .In addition, many of the frequently reported sub-IDOs are not reflected in the CCAFS priority targets. These include sub-IDOs related to a conducive agricultural policy environment (#37), to reduced net greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture (#45) and enhanced adaptive capacity to climate risks (#7). This reveals a need to better define sub-IDOs and provide sufficient guidance to ensure adequate reporting, but also highlight the importance of periodically revisiting theories of change to ensure that actions and targets are aligned to emerging project needs. 6 As revealed in Annex 4, the CCAFS program has performed better than expected in relation to most sub-IDOs, and especially in relation to influencing new investments, land restoration, reduced production risks, reduced GHG emissions, and increased capacity for innovation in partner organizations. Overall, outcomes contributed to 14 SDGs and 45 SDG targets (Figure 8). As expected, most reported contributions refer to SDG 13 (action to combat climate change), followed by SDG 17 (strengthen means of implementation and sustainable development finance), SDG 1 (end poverty) and SDG2 (end hunger and achieve food and nutrition security). SDGs 5, 14 and 15were also mentioned as key focus SDGs in the CCAFS Phase II Proposal (CCAFS 2016), but they were linked with fewer outcome reports, as this analysis shows. Four SDG targets have been reported by more than 30% of the outcomes, namely: strengthening climate resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters (SDG 13.1), improved education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change adaptation and mitigation (13.3), building resilience of resource-poor people and reducing their exposure and vulnerability to shocks and disasters (1.15), and support for developing countries for attaining long-term sustainability through coordinated policy (17.4). The different typologies of outcomes and ancillary elements discussed in the previous sections allowed distilling two major impact pathways representative of CCAFS outcomeoriented work: (i) policy and investment (Figure 9) and (ii) farm and services (Figure 11).These impact pathways were drawn based on a qualitative analysis of 300 outcomes in the database and are aimed to synthesize the types of activities and outputs that have led to broadly defined outcomes and to illustrate relationships between these elements. The We identified four major types of outcomes relative to policy and investment and aligned the three levels of maturity discussed previously, namely: (i) policy and plans are designed/ developed and they support food and nutrition security and poverty reduction under climate change (maturity level 1), (ii) policy and plans are implemented and institutional changes are in place to support food, nutrition security and poverty reduction goals (level 2), (iii) new investments are committed and disbursed (level 2), and (iv) livelihoods and agrienvironmental outcomes are visible at scale (level 3). Figure 9 illustrates these typologies in relation to clusters of outputs and activities, suggesting no single recipe for success. Not one type of outcome has been informed by a single type of output or activity, but by a combination of these (usually a mix of participatory, stakeholder-focused activities/outputs and science-led approaches). Outputs range from climate analyses and models to user-centered decision-support tools, reports and syntheses laying out recommendations for priority setting, capacity building and awareness raising, science-policy dialogues and learning alliances, participation in high-level events, as well as metrics for monitoring and evaluation. Activities have been clustered around evidence generation (climate risks and vulnerability assessments, institutional analyses, evaluation of context-specific options), engagement (participatory identification and testing of options and priorities, long-term engagement with partners), and outreach (knowledge dissemination in workshops and for a, technical support and training).The impact pathways mapping also reveals a high concentration of innovations around Outcome 1, suggesting that most of the innovative outcome-oriented work at CCAFS has helped to inform the design/ development of policies and plans. This is not surprising, given that most of the outcomes in the database are at level 1 of maturity (which match outcome 1 in the policy-investment pathway). Several of the innovations identified have helped to achieve various types of policy outcomes (suggested by grey-colored clouds). These include, among others: suitability and exposure maps (informing outcomes 1 and 3), climate-smart (CS) maps (outcomes 2 and 4), CSA Profiles (outcomes 1 and 2), CSA Investment Plans (CSAIP) (outcomes 1 and 3), Climate-Smart Villages (CSV) approach (outcomes 1, 2, and 3), RUMINANT model (outcomes 1 and 2), etc. Moreover, three types of partners have been most frequently reported (almost) consistently across all policy outcomes: government, academia and research, and development organizations. Other partners were also mentioned sporadically across the outcomes.The CCAFS Phase II ToC contains three hypotheses relevant for the policy-investment pathway (Figure 10). They relate to (i) improved targeting and implementation of policies and programs at various scales (FP1-H1), (ii) scaling of CSA (FP1 -H2) and (iii) implementation of low emissions development (LED) policies and programs at large scales (FP3 -H2). We identify a fourth outcome derived from CSA adoption/scaling, namely the achievement of livelihoods and agri-environmental benefits at scale. In addition, the impact pathway mapping and comparison to CCAFS ToC also allowed us to distil more granular information regarding the types of outputs that have contributed to achieving flagship outcomes. These include a focus on recommendations on priorities and options, usercentered DST, science-policy dialogue platforms and capacity-building and awareness raising, which complement the broadly0defined approaches initially envisioned in the ToC (e.g., projections and scenarios methods, priority setting tools, evidence, capacity and incentives for LED, etc.).Five major types of outcomes stood out in relation to the services and farm pathway: (i) or for formulating site-specific recommendations (e.g., GreenSeeker, MeghDoot app, etc.).While most innovations support outcomes that reached level 1 of maturity at the time of reporting, there are indications of innovative outputs developed to deliver livelihoods and agri-environmental changes at farm and at scale (Figure 11). In addition, the types of partnerships that have been most frequently reported in relation to these typologies of outcomes are similar to the ones for the policy and investment impact pathway, namely:government, academia and research, and development organizations.The CCAFS Phase II ToC contains six hypotheses relevant for the services-farm pathway (Figure 12). While we did not identify gaps in the outcomes originally envisioned in the ToC, we mapped additional outputs (Figure 12, dotted boxes) and relationships (dotted arrows) between ToC elements that have been achieved through CCAFS research, engagement, and outreach activities. These suggest the multifunctional nature of activities and outputs and their ability to unlock multiple types of outcomes. In addition, we observed no proven direct linkages between practices and on-farm (mitigation and livelihoods) outcomes (see FP3, H1) based on the report we reviewed, but rather identified a \"missing middle\" from the initial ToC, which refers to the knowledge and ability to use the information on improved practices and technologies that allows the change in behavior/ action, which, in turn, unlocks higher-level outcomes related to mitigation, resilience, livelihoods. In a broader sense, results from this exercise reaffirm the importance of periodically and critically reviewing theories of change and assumptions, as a key strategy for adaptive management and learning, which allows to effectively respond and align to emerging needs and changes in context and to maximize impact. We argue that, to achieve transformation across all nodes of the food systems and within the different relationships between the players of the system (from farmers to consumers, from policy makers to private sector actors, etc.), a variety of outcomes will be needed. This diversity is important not only in relation to the types of outcomes targeted (e.g., policy, investment, services, farm, etc.) but also with regards to the level of maturity reached by those outcomes. While changes in behavior achieved at scale (level 3) are desirable and critical for the transformation, design of new plans, policies, changes in attitudes and knowledge, or livelihood improvements in pilot contexts are important in their own way, as they provide the foundations, the experiences, and learnings necessary for bringing change to the next level. This approach has been actively used by CCAFS over the years and has helped to provide a healthy balance between resource-intensive M&E (required by level 3 outcomes, which are heavily information-and time-intensive) and more strategic, lowhanging outcome opportunities, which are highly valuable in sourcing additional funds and provide the necessary groundwork for scaling.To unlock this richness of outcomes, an increased allocation of research funds will be required to conduct impact studies that will allow assessing the maturity of outcomes more accurately (i.e., with improved, robust evidence). In addition, new and more varied partnerships will need to be considered (e.g., private sector, civil society, consumer groups, etc.), while conserving the more traditional ones that have proven fundamental for delivering, disseminating, and using research for achieving outcomes on the ground (i.e., policy actors, research, and development organizations at large). Throughout the years, CCAFS has proven creative, strategic, and opportunistic when it comes to the stakeholders engaged in the research development and dissemination process, forging partnerships and alliances that not only helped to co-design the research agenda and to increase its visibility, but also facilitated its use in concrete actions (in policies, programs, investments, and onfarm actions). In order to harness the potential of research in food system transformation, scientist will need to push the boundaries even further, to cast a wider web of partnerships, even when those are not soft/ easy options.Significant investment in strengthening monitoring, evaluation, reporting and learning capacity will be needed to further realize the potential for outcome-oriented research. While reviewing the outcome reports we noticed that the quality of the write-ups was highly variable, that the evidence provided was often insufficient to prove the outcome claim, that reporting of contributions to pre-established targets has been patchy and incoherent, and that predefined typologies (e.g., of outcomes, of partners, of innovations, etc.) were not used consistently across projects and years. This has put various limitations on the analysis, particularly in relation to mapping the evolution of outcomes and innovations over time and to distilling learnings from these evolutions. It has also limited our ability to draw definite conclusions about linkages between outcomes reported, targets set and achieved, and budgets allocated, as many contributions have been likely under-reported (Annex 5). In addition, many valuable outcome stories may have been missed from this harvest, given the poor quality of the write-ups.While CCAFS has made major efforts to improve outcome reporting in its second phase through its online reporting platform, MARLO, opportunities for improvements remain, particularly when it comes to the use of consistent tagging and more synthetic and structured methods to collect information on activities and results. Clearer definitions of outcomes (sub-IDOs) and targets (CCAFS targets, SRF targets) and improved guidance on mapping activities to these will be required to improve the quality of reporting. In addition, building human capacity to monitor and report outcomes and to periodically revise theories of change will be critical for the learning process. This may include increased allocation of staff time to M&E but also additional investment to achieve a harmonized understanding of M&E concepts, indicators, and methodologies to measure, monitor and evaluate results. Technologies that reduce women`s labor and energy expenditure adopted c) SDG targets 1.4 -By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance 1.5 -By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters 1.b -Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels, based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions 2.1 -By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round 2.3 -By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment 2.4 -By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality 2.5 -By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed 2.a -Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity in developing countries, in particular least developed countries 2.c -Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility 3.9 -By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination 5.b -Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women 5.c -Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels 6.3 -By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally 6.4 -By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity 6.5 -By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate 6.6 -By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes 8.2 -Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labourintensive sectors for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime ","tokenCount":"5075"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"660a78a01f1ad64785895f2bf5baca25","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b89ae6d0-00ef-447b-9dba-616db3119da3/retrieve","id":"1909181229"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5ae708e4-d949-486d-9f6e-357041a57876","pagecount":"53","content":"The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or its Board of Governors or the governments they represent.ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by ADB in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the term \"country\" in this document, ADB does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.Global water demand is projected to grow by 55%, due to increasing requirements from manufacturing, thermal electricity generation, and domestic use but most freshwater resources will continue to be used for irrigation. Competing demands for finite water resources in Asia are increasingly putting the livelihoods of billions of people in Asia at risk. While Asia is the world's most dynamic region with the fastest economic growth in the world, 29 of the 48 countries assessed by the Asian Water Development Outlook 2016 are water insecure. If left unmanaged, and with the adverse impacts of climate change, this poses a real threat to continued growth and prosperity.Water and energy are intrinsically linked. Almost all energy generation processes require significant amounts of water, ranging from hydropower to thermal electricity generation. At the same time, energy is typically needed to make water available for human use. Lifting water for irrigated agriculture is a particularly energy-intensive process. Yet, there is limited information to quantify the use of energy in irrigated agriculture.With growing pressures on increasingly scarce and finite water resources, the region must move toward the reduction of water use per unit of crop produced. A key avenue is through the installation of High-Efficiency Irrigation Systems (HEIS) such as drip and sprinkler irrigation systems. While such technologies generally use more energy than traditional surface irrigation (which is still largely gravity-fed), the drive toward increasing crop production with less water has resulted in the encouragement to adopt HEIS more widely. There is, however, a need to better understand the feasibility of and incentives for farmers for adopting such technologies for various cropping systems and associated tradeoffs.To better understand energy utilization in irrigated agriculture, ADB financed a study for Pilot and Demonstration Field-Based Research: Quantifying Water and Energy Links in Irrigation for Improved Resource Utilization in Viet Nam. The study was conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) with support from a Viet Nam-based consultant within a suitable area identified in the central highlands of Viet Nam.The study is linked to an ADB-financed project preparation technical assistance for Water Efficiency Improvement in Drought Affected Provinces (WEIDAP). The project is under implementation in Viet Nam and aims to provide improved water saving practices and technologies for high value crop cultivation in the central highlands region.The supporting activities undertaken by IFPRI complement the project by: (i) developing an energy use check list for irrigation systems, a first of its kind tool for irrigation developers;(ii) identifying linkages between HEIS and improved water and energy productivity; and (iii) developing elements of a business model for introducing HEIS.The Government of Viet Nam has recommended the adoption of HEIS on approximately 0.5 million hectares (ha), with a particular focus on the Central Highlands that are best suited to this technology. Key challenges in the agriculture sector include a need for increased diversification of the sector (away from rice) and the continued need for higher quality and increased productivity for major crops with comparative advantage. The government has also invested substantially in energy development and the national energy grid. As a result, all districts in the country have access to electricity and the country's rural access to electricity is one of the highest in the region.To improve knowledge of energy and water use in irrigation activities in Viet Nam, two sites that form part of the WEIDAP project in Viet Nam were examined. These include the improvement of the Du Du-Tan Thanh Irrigation Canal in Binh Thuan where dragon fruit are grown through pumping from various small reservoirs and groundwater. The second location, in Dak Lak, is currently mostly used for coffee, irrigated with groundwater. The irrigation water-energy linkage assessment was informed by a review of planned irrigation improvements, stakeholder consultations, and farmer interviews.The energy use assessment includes both direct energy use (electricity or diesel) and indirect energy use (fertilizers and pesticides) in the calculation since changes in the irrigation technologies could lead to concomitant changes in indirect energy use. The broader energy assessment shows that dragon fruit production inherently uses more energy than coffee production (by a factor of 5). For coffee cultivation, electricity use is only for pumping of water. For dragon fruit cultivation, the largest electricity cost component is for artificial light to support stimulation of flowering and accelerate the production process, which consumes eight times more electricity than pumping of water, on average. Across crops indirect energy use accounts for two-thirds or more of energy expenditures of conventional irrigators.A cost-benefit analysis (CBA) comparing conventional and HEIS irrigation for coffee and dragon fruit finds a slight negative value for the adoption of drip by coffee farmers in Dak Lak. This is because the capital costs outweigh the net benefits from lower electricity, fertilizer, and labor costs. Meanwhile, the CBA finds a positive net return from investment in HEIS for dragon fruit in Binh Thuan, largely due to savings in fertilizers. If the water savings are converted into irrigated area expansions then the investment in drip irrigation is also favorable for drip in coffee production in the Dak Lak region.Results are sensitive to the parameters used in the analysis. Key elements driving the conclusions are (i) initial investment costs for the system; (ii) actual fertilizer savings; and (iii) the period for reinvestment into the system. The main conclusion is that adoption of HEIS is unlikely to be driven by water savings. Overall changes in energy costs, and specifically savings in fertilizer and labor costs (but not changes in the electricity costs), may be more important incentives for adoption.The adoption of HEIS has increased significantly over the last several years in Viet Nam and now covers approximately 100,000 hectares. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development supports the adoption of HEIS as part of its agricultural transformation strategy while the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment promotes it as part of its water saving strategy. HEIS is concentrated in the Central Highlands and the southeastern provinces of the country; and is chiefly applied on perennials (coffee, tea, pepper, dragon fruit, and other fruit trees); vegetables; sugarcane; and to a lesser extent, groundnut and maize. These crops are likely increasing in area over time while rice area is expected to continue to decline (but not necessarily rice production). It is also likely that adoption of HEIS would increase as long as overall government support and markets continue to favor this development.However, compared to overall irrigated area in the country, adoption rates remain low for a range of reasons:(i) The majority of farmers interviewed are satisfied with the performance of the conventional system and consider no need to switch to HEIS. (ii) High capital cost-about 22% of farmers consider the costs to be high. The capital investment ranges from $2,200 to $3,500 per hectare. (iii) Lack of knowledge of HEIS-up to 20% of farmers note that they have not seen such a system and there is a lack of capacity to operate it including to use it for reduced fertilizer applications through fertigation methods.A business model for HEIS would have several characteristics:(i) Focus on areas of real water scarcity. A recent analysis pointed to areas in the eastern plateau of Dak Lak (no such analysis seems to be available for Binh Thuan). (ii) Provide access to credit (or a subsidy-but for sustained uptake a subsidy is suboptimal) to support uptake of HEIS. (iii) Increase access to technology suppliers. Continued support after installation of the HEIS system is an important indicator for the sustainability of the system. (iv) Review the role of the extension system for HEIS. Currently, the extension service is not considered a major entry point for the adoption of HEIS. This could change if a clear role for extension could be defined. (v) Focus on more holistic water management in the central highland and coastal areas by taking a watershed approach. (vi) Improve governance of groundwater management in the region.Energy-irrigation checklist: This is the first energy checklist developed for irrigation projects in the region and elsewhere. It identifies all sources of energy associated with irrigated farming such as energy used to deliver water on field, used for irrigation technologies, as well as for pesticides, fertilizers, other machinery, and equipment. The checklist needs to be further piloted and applied, and then improved based on a broader sample of irrigation projects including different cropping patterns and water sources. Suggested options include projects in the Central and South Asia regions.Business case for HEIS: Direct energy use (electricity and diesel) currently accounts for a small share of total energy consumption and total production costs in the study region. Fertilizer is the main component of total energy expenditures. HEIS cost, while significant, is generally not a significant factor affecting adoption as areas and incomes for perennial crops (like coffee, pepper, or dragon fruit) allow financing of HEIS systems. However, there is a limited understanding of the full benefits and full costs of HEIS. Farmers generally lack incentives for the adoption of HEIS. Key areas include:(i) Limited lack of water shortages (shortage only for some farmers during small time windows in the dry season). (ii) Electricity costs are not high enough to incentivize HEIS. (iii) There are no water charges that might incentivize water savings and, in turn, HEIS. (iv) Labor costs are not sufficiently high and shortages insubstantial to incentivize HEIS.Adoption of HEIS could be profitable, largely from savings in the use of fertilizers-if HEIS uses fertigation. Key assumptions include the cost of the technology (costs are expected to further decline as more competition is introduced into the market); the actual energy savings (particularly fertilizer savings-and potential changes in fertilizer prices); the actual water savings; and the actual labor savings. A doubling of the electricity tariff would not make a significant difference and thus would not incentivize adoption. Adoption of HEIS would also need to (i) focus on new plantations as old trees do not respond well to drip irrigation, (ii) provide capacity building for farmers, and (iii) be linked to locations of water scarcity.The following are the recommendations of this report:(i) Raise awareness on water (and fertilizer) requirements for optimal yields (including groundwater governance mechanisms). (ii) Collect data on HEIS adoption levels (to be carried out by provincial government agencies). (iii) Assess the potential impact of a water service charge on HEIS adoption. (iv) Conduct additional studies of HEIS impacts on all energy components. (v) Highlight key energy savings, e.g., those from reduced fertilizer application (which also reduces water pollution levels, labor cost, etc.) in promoting adoption of HEIS. (vi) Assess the potential of enhanced groundwater governance system to reduce overwatering and induce water savings.1 Introduction W ater and energy are intrinsically linked. Almost all energy generation processes require significant amounts of water. The most straightforward water-related process is hydroelectricity generation, providing 16% of electricity globally, 14% in East Asia and the Pacific and 13% in South Asia (World Bank 2014, 2013 estimates). Biofuels and coal are also well-known water guzzlers; and fracking has joined the list more recently. Water requirements per unit of fossil-fuel based electricity generation are particularly high at 75 cubic meters per megawatt hour (m 3 /MWh) to 450 m 3 /MWh. Similarly, most water supply activities require large amounts of energy with ranges from 0.4 kilowatt-hour per cubic meter (kWh/ m 3) to about 8.3 kWh/m 3 to provide safe water for humans from rivers, lakes, or seawater, for example. This includes water treatment up to a standard so that it can be used for drinking or other purposes as well as treating sewage water and effluents before releasing such waters back into water bodies.Another important use is the pumping of large amounts of water for irrigation-worldwide approximately 40% of irrigated areas depend on groundwater, for example. South Asia alone accounts for half of all groundwater used globally. Agriculture uses the bulk of withdrawn freshwater consumed globally, about 85%, and more in developing countries and the Asia region, such as South Asia, which consumed 91% in 2013 (World Bank 2014).With growing pressures on water resources, there is a push to reduce water use per unit of crop produced. While there are many ways to increase water use efficiency or productivity, a key avenue is through the installation of High-Efficiency Irrigation Systems (HEIS). Globally, one-fifth of all irrigated area are now under some form of HEIS (Table 1). HEIS shares are largest in Europe and the Americas. Shares are much lower in Asia, but are increasing in the region. However, HEIS generally uses more energy than traditional surface irrigation as a large share of surface systems are still gravity-fed.As economies develop, increasing demands will be placed on water for food and water for energy. In Asia, primary energy production is expected to double and power generation to more than triple by 2050. The increased demand for energy will put additional pressure on already constrained water resources. Estimates for Asia predict a 65% increase in industrial water use, 30% increase in domestic use, and a 5% increase in agriculture use by 2030 (World Bank 2013). This illustrates the growing and acute competition among principal water users. In the irrigation subsector, energy use is primarily for ground or surface water pumping and use of petroleum for on-farm irrigation technologies and other farm machinery. Energy is also used in the production of agricultural chemicals. Continued expansion of groundwater use, its impact on water tables, the growing demand for energy and the cost to the power sector are highly relevant for Asia where energy prices often do not reflect the true cost of supply. Energy Checklist for Irrigation Projects T he energy checklist was developed to guide ADB project officers and other stakeholders who work on irrigation design, development, or modernization on how to assess the energy use in irrigation systems. The checklist includes three major components: (i) energy access of the site in question; (ii) information on energy linkages to the specific irrigation project; and (iii) environmental impacts like greenhouse gas emissions (Appendix, Table 1). To get feedback on the checklist, it was presented at a Water-Energy-Food Nexus workshop that was held at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) headquarters in Washington, DC. in July 2016. The draft checklist was also shared with the Irrigation Listserve for feedback as well as with selected experts at ADB.The following comments were received from the Irrigation Listserve and then incorporated into an updated list:(i) Differentiate between river basin and irrigation system issues. (ii) Distinguish between hydropower upstream, from the same source reservoir, and within the system (turbining canal water, for example). (iii) Identify issues related to not just water sharing/supply but also operation. Timing of hydropower generation may generate significant perturbations to canal irrigation supplies service that tend to propagate chaos throughout system deliveries, and need to be managed. (iv) Clarify, for pumping, official/public pumping versus pumping done privately by farmers. A project objective may try and decrease farmers' energy costs by providing improved surface service (at a lower cost). (v) Sensors are not necessarily associated with high-efficiency irrigation but may have to do with Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition or automation, i.e., operation. (vi) Include pollution considerations due to the higher energy cost in water treatment. (vii) Consider the possibility of using crop residues on irrigated fields for energy generation. (viii) Clarify if irrigation is needed and what are environmental flow requirements and potential competition at the basin level. (ix) Identify the share of renewable energy sources for electricity generation.The implementation of the energy checklist could follow a framework and sequence similar to that of ADB's Climate Risk Management (Figure 1). As such, it would include different steps at different time phases of the project cycle, with the checklist (focus of this activity) used during the project design stage. If the project were deemed to not be at risk regarding energy use or dependency, then it would proceed as usual; if a medium or high risk or dependence on energy were identified, then a screening report would be developed. During the project preparation phase, if the activity would still be considered medium or high risk, an energy risk and vulnerability assessment would be implemented that would include energy-related mitigation measures. During project implementation, these measures and indicators would need to be monitored, and after project completion, insights from the analysis and monitoring would feed back into future project design and preparation.The checklist was applied to the two study sites in the central highlands of Viet Nam. Based on the checklist, key energy-related differences for the two project areas relate to the type of intervention-Binh Thuan focused on upgrading of a canal system (Binh Thuan) and Dak Lak focused on reservoir-serviced irrigation. Other energy-related differences relate to the cropping pattern (dragon fruit versus coffee). Based on the draft documents on the case study sites, it was not possible, however, to fill in all sections of the energy checklist conclusively. For example, it remained unclear if the ADB suggested interventions and investments would substitute fully for ongoing groundwater based irrigation.   The Dak Lak subproject aims to improve water use efficiency of irrigation works in the five component areas to ensure reliable supply for 9,172 hectares (ha) of high value crops (e.g., coffee and pepper), representing an expansion of 1,710 ha that can be achieved through pumping from existing reservoirs. The subproject would finance pump stations and associated equipment to bring water from existing reservoirs to upland areas selected according to their potential for improved production of high economic value crops, with particular emphasis on areas with ethnic minority people and a high proportion of poor households. The subproject also targets institutional capacity building in project implementation activities and operation and maintenance of irrigation works (DARD Dak Lak undated).The Binh Thuan subproject would add a new canal (Du Du-Tan Thanh canal) to the system to irrigate an area of 1,000 ha (and to overcome domestic water shortages that occur each dry season) in and around Tan Thanh commune in Ham Thuan Nam district. The objective of the subproject is to improve livelihoods and reduce poverty for 1,500 households (7,500 people) in the Tan Thanh and Ham Minh communes, Ham Thuan Nam district through the provision of reliable year-round water supply for irrigation of 1,000 ha. In addition, about 350 households (2,000 people) would benefit from access to water for domestic needs and the raising of cattle and poultry. The following outcomes are expected:(i) improved agricultural production supported by reliable water supply;(ii) improved access to markets and services, enhanced employment opportunities, and improved conditions for business development; (iii) improved living conditions of people due to assured domestic water supply; (iv) enhanced skills in agricultural production, land preparation, water management and construction of roads, canals and structures; (v) greater community participation and self-reliance in water management and regulation; and (vi) replenishment of ground water tables (DARD Binh Thuan undated).Major crops and associated areas of the two districts in which the study sites are located are presented in Table 2. Viet Nam is one of the world's largest coffee producers (Robusta variety) and is now the world's largest exporter of Robusta coffee. The Central Highlands and specifically Dak Lak is currently the largest coffee-producing area in Viet Nam. Pepper, another high value crop, is also cultivated in Dak Lak often on the same farm with coffee. Viet Nam is the world's largest pepper exporter and the largest producer, together with India. Binh Thuan is located on the country's south central coast and the main crop in the WEIDAP subproject area is dragon fruit. Dragon fruit production in Viet Nam is concentrated in Binh Thuan Province but areas are also significant in two other southern provinces: Long An and Tien Giang (Phong 2016). The main activities of the irrigation water-energy linkage component of the study are shown in Figure 3.Irrigation water-energy linkage assessment is informed by stakeholder and farmer interviews. 1 The focus of WEIDAP and of this study are smallholder irrigators where adoption of HEIS is highly uncommon. HEIS is more prevalent in large public and private sector-owned plantations in the region and overall adoption of HEIS is around 5%-10% for coffee in the Central Highland region of Viet Nam.Following the results of the pretest, the questionnaire was revised and was then implemented by IWRP for this study. The final version of the questionnaire is in Appendix 1. The questionnaire was separated for conventional irrigators and HEIS farmers to elicit their respective attitudes and preferences toward or experience with HEIS adoption. 2 The irrigated crop survey was implemented from 10-20 August 2016 in the proposed command areas of the identified subprojects: Du Du-Tan Thanh channel and Krong Buk Ha reservoir. Irrigating farmers were randomly selected for participation. As the sample did not include HEIS irrigators, nonrandomly selected HEIS farms were added in consultation with Department of Agriculture and Rural Development officers and HEIS providers in the two provinces.Locations of surveyed farms are shown in Figure 4. A total of 59 farmers were interviewed in Dak Lak, consisting of 49 conventional irrigators and 10 HEIS farmers. Similarly, in Binh 1 Stakeholder consultations and the questionnaire pretest took place on 6-11 June 2016. During this field mission, Hua Xie, IFPRI and Nguyen Van Manh, IWRP, travelled to the two proposed study locations in Dak Lak and Binh Thuan provinces and held meetings with governmental officials who are in charge of agriculture, water resources, and irrigation development and management, to learn about their thoughts and insights on HEIS development. 2 The questionnaire underwent an ethics review with the IFPRI Institutional Review Board.   Conventional irrigation. The conventional irrigation system involves the use of a motorized pump and rubber pipes. This system is in place for most perennial crops in the Central Highlands and coastal area (coffee, pepper, and dragon fruit). The water source can be shallow or deep groundwater, or surface water with a maximum distance of 2 kilometers (km). Water is typically applied directly to the tree or to a hole surrounding the tree. The system requires intensive use of labor for irrigation, weeding, and fertilizing but is not knowledge intensive and the cheapest conventional irrigation system in use. Two photos depict conventional irrigation for dragon fruit and coffee.High-efficiency systems. These include the drip system, the sprinkler system, and the modified or micro sprinkler system.Drip irrigation. This is the most common HEIS system found in the irrigated crop survey. Of the 12 HEIS farmers interviewed, 11 reported the use of drip irrigation. Fertilizers are generally applied together with irrigation water during drip irrigation, an important element for the cost-benefit analysis as will be seen in the later sections. Drip is knowledge intensive and the quality of available drip systems vary. More expensive systems (about $3,000/ha) ensure that pressure is maintained in the entire drip line. Capacity requirements are significant. Some farmers note that they would need to hire labor for drip irrigation; and prefer to continue to pursue conventional irrigation. As drip applies little water at high frequency, the reliability of the source is even more important than for conventional irrigation. While farmers could afford such a system by recouping investment cost over 3 years, there is a limited history of savings combined with significant price fluctuations for the agricultural commodities in question. Two photos depict drip irrigation for the two crops studied.Sprinkler system. Sprinkler irrigation is the second HEIS technology in operation in the Central Highlands. Sprinklers are applied in some areas where the water source is close and ensured over a multiyear period. Sprinklers are the preferred technology for vegetable crops, for example, in Lam Dong Province, but are also commonly used for dragon fruit. This method consumes a lot of water as the watered area is large and thus also requires more labor for weeding but requires less labor for irrigation. This method is costly in terms of energy consumption for irrigation. A modified sprinkler system is being tested by the Western Highlands Agroforestry Science and Technical Institute (WASI), with the microsprinkler close to the tree trunk and water transferred to the microsprinkler via a plastic pipe system. This system tries to overcome the challenge of traditional sprinklers by avoiding that too much of an area becomes wet and some of the challenges of drip irrigation, i.e., it allows to supply the root systems of mature trees and also includes some of the benefits of drip, such as fertigation. The plastic piping might require improvement to ensure that sufficient water is applied. Similar to the drip and sprinkler systems, continuous water availability is a constraint for this technology.Conventional irrigation method for coffee and dragon fruit in the project area.Nguyen Van Manh, IWRP Drip irrigation systems for dragon fruit and coffee.An assessment of the energy consumption patterns of conventional irrigators at the two study sites were carried out. Direct energy (electricity or diesel) and indirect energy use (fertilizers and pesticides) are included since changes in the irrigation technologies could lead to concomitant changes in indirect fertilizer use. The calculated distributions of electricity, fertilizer, and pesticide expenditures are shown in Figure 6, and the medians of the distributions are shown in Table 5.  More intensive energy consumption is observed in the production of dragon fruit in Binh Thuan than for coffee production in Dak Lak. There is a much wider spread across energy use components in Binh Thuan compared to Dak Lak (Figure 6). Farmers were generally reluctant to report on the use of pesticides. This could be due to the fact that some farms are certified as green or organic enterprises with restrictions on pesticide application levels. Another reason could be that pesticides are often not applied in standard quantities across years, but instead are used in direct response to an actual or perceived pest threat. While electricity expenditures in coffee cultivation refer exclusively to pumping costs, electricity expenditures for dragon fruit cultivation include costs for artificial lighting. The use of electricity for lighting is shown in Table 5. The shares of expenditures for different energy uses are shown in Figure 7. Indirect energy use, i.e., for fertilizers, accounts for the largest share of energy expenditures of conventional irrigators.  Energy expenditures of HEIS irrigators cannot be assessed directly from the study sites as farmers in these areas generally do not currently use HEIS. Table 6 presents the reported differences for the few observations from the field survey. For Dak Lak, energy use was reported to be lower for all three components of energy use assessed. For the two observations in Binh Thuan, reported energy use was higher under the HEIS system. Increased energy use under HEIS is feasible if the source of irrigation water is surface water. The number of observations is, however, too small to draw conclusions. This relates to a main challenge of the study which is to assess the potential for HEIS when there is limited HEIS irrigation in the study site. The limited sample size of HEIS farmers does not allow for quantitative estimates of energy use expenditures of HEIS. To address this challenge, a series of phone interviews were conducted with HEIS farmers only. HEIS farmers were asked to estimate their energy and labor use before and after adoption of HEIS, considering that labor savings is a major motivation of HEIS adoption. Farmers had difficulty providing such estimates in terms of absolute magnitudes; therefore, information was instead requested about the relative change in energy and labor use. By synthesizing the knowledge obtained from the irrigated crop survey, stakeholder consultations, the additional phone interviews, and a literature review, the following assumptions were developed and used for a benefit comparison analysis:(i) The capital costs for building an HEIS is taken as D70 million per hectare (about $3,100 equivalent). A 5-year investment cycle is assumed, thus the annual capital investment is D14 million/ha (or about $636 equivalent). The annualized capital cost for building a conventional irrigation system is assumed to be D3 million per hectare per year (about $136 equivalent). (ii) Research suggests that fertilizer use could be reduced by 50%-70% as a result of the adoption of drip HEIS, and also through appropriate fertigation in sprinkler systems, i.e., systems that apply water directly to the trees. Here, a 60% reduction in fertilizer use is assumed. (iii) Based on discussions with experts and a review of existing literature, a 20%-30% decline in energy costs for pumping is assumed, largely as a result of the reduction in groundwater pumping. For the analysis, a value of 20% is used. (iv) According to WASI, watering for coffee with traditional irrigation should take an average of 24 working days per hectare per year. When water saving measures are applied, the number of working days is reduced to about 15 days per hectare per year, or approximately a 60% reduction in labor costs. The daily wage rate is assumed to be D160,000 (or about $7 equivalent). (v) No savings in pesticides use are assumed as several coffee farmers reported little pesticide use and could not describe changes in pesticide use across different irrigation technologies. (vi) Water use for conventional versus HEIS is estimated using climate data from the two study sites (Table 7).(vii) Currently, no tariff is charged for irrigation water use and thus none was assumed here. (viii) Water savings incurred through HEIS at field level are assumed to be used for the expansion of irrigated area for coffee and dragon fruit production, assuming the same benefits accrue to existing production levels. The values of key parameters used in the cost-benefit analysis (CBA) are shown in Table 8.  The CBA results are presented in Table 9. Considering that electricity prices in Viet Nam are subsidized and the power industry is undergoing a reform that may lead to an increase in the power tariff (UNDP 2012), results are also provided for an alternative scenario where electricity costs are doubled. For Dak Lak coffee irrigation, adoption of a high-end HEIS ($3,100 per hectare) would lead to a small negative benefit of -$27 per hectare. If water savings from the HEIS on farm were used to expand the irrigated area, net benefits would be positive, at $1,200 per hectare. The results of the CBA are based on several assumptions and discussions with experts and farmers and not on a large randomized sample of farmers. Results are sensitive to the parameters used in the analysis. Key elements driving the conclusion are (i) initial investment costs for the system, (ii) actual fertilizer savings, and (iii) the period for reinvestment into the system. Moreover, similar to electricity tariffs, fertilizer prices are subject to change. A doubling of the electricity tariff would not lead to a significant difference in results. Rather than a net cost of $27 per hectare, the investment would lead to a benefit of $10 per hectare, when water savings are not used to expand the irrigated area.For the case of dragon fruit in Binh Thuan, the large potential savings of fertilizer through fertigation would make the investment into HEIS profitable. This is without expanding the irrigated area using water savings with a net benefit of $1,600 per hectare, if fertilizer savings can be achieved.The conclusion here is that adoption of HEIS is unlikely to be driven by water savings. Overall changes in energy costs, and specifically changes in fertilizer costs and labor costs are more important incentives for adoption.Elements of a Business Model L imited detailed research has been undertaken to assess the viability of introducing highefficiency irrigation systems (HEIS) and there is a tendency to provide a blanket approach to its adoption. The study highlights the importance of undertaking upstream research to determine the viability of introducing new technologies.Viet Nam has considerable temporal and spatial climate variation. The northern part of the country has a humid subtropical climate, and the climate in Southern Viet Nam is classified as tropical savanna. Annual rainfall in Viet Nam is close to 1,800 millimeters (mm), rendering the country abundant with water resources. Precipitation is concentrated in the summer monsoon. The large intra-annual variation of rainfall creates the demand for irrigation (Figure 8). Key challenges in the water sector include increased variability in the availability of water resources due to increased demand for water by nonirrigation users, chiefly cities and industries; growing demand for increased water control by irrigators; increased understanding of the need to support environmental demands; and growing, non-addressed water pollution challenges. The situation is further exacerbated by climate variability and change.The total area equipped for irrigation in Viet Nam is 4.8 million hectares (ha). 3 The main irrigated crop is rice with smaller shares for vegetables, maize, coffee, cassava, and groundnuts (Figure 9). Of key interest for HEIS are high-value upland crops. The Government of Viet Nam is keen to increase adoption of HEIS to approximately 0.5 million ha. The particular focus is on the Central Highlands that are better suited to such upgrading compared to the large deltaic areas of the Mekong and Red River basins. Key challenges in the agriculture sector include the need for diversification of the sector away from rice and the continued need for increased quality and productivity for major crops with comparative advantage.Over the last decade the Government of Viet Nam has invested substantially in energy development and the national energy grid. As a result, all districts in the country have access to electricity. Viet Nam's rural access to electricity is one of the highest in the region ( While energy sources overall are diversified, renewable energy resources are currently not highly diversified. In 2014, 46% of the energy generation mix was from hydropower (Figure 10), a share that is expected to decline over time as most suitable locations for hydropower have   In addition to the decisions and decrees from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment (MONRE), the custodian of water resources in the country, also supports adoption of HEIS due to its water-saving characteristics.Furthermore, two national standards have been developed on technical requirements for HEIS (drip and sprinkler irrigation). 4 There is no conclusive information on the status of HEIS adoption in Viet Nam. This is because no agency is tasked with collecting information on this subject. There, however, are several estimates of the irrigated area equipped with HEIS systems. MARD estimates the area at around 60,000 ha, most of which is located in the Central Highlands (28,863 ha), the Southeast of the country (23,346 ha), and the Central region (6,124 ha). By contrast, estimates for HEIS areas in the Mekong Delta is 257 ha and Red River Delta is 158 ha only.The provinces with the largest expansion of HEIS are Lam Dong (16,013 ha), Binh Phuoc (9,781 ha), and Dong Nai (nearly 7,000 ha).  Despite the variation in estimates, there is consensus that the use of HEIS increased significantly over the last several years, supported by the government's strategies as part of its agricultural transformation strategy; that the application of HEIS is concentrated in the Central Highlands and the southeastern provinces of the country; and that the key crops where this technology is currently applied include perennials (coffee, tea, pepper, dragon fruit, and other fruit trees), vegetables, sugarcane, and to a lesser extent, groundnut and maize. As these crops are likely going to grow in area over time while rice area is expected to continue to decline (but not necessarily rice production), it is also likely that adoption of HEIS would increase. There is also a caution that a distinction needs to be made between water-saving irrigation technologies and HEIS, i.e., water-saving technologies might include Alternative Wetting and Drying for rice, for example.Adoption of HEIS technologies is very limited in the Water Efficiency Improvement in Drought Affected Provinces (WEIDAP) project areas. The identified areas of HEIS application in each subproject are presented in Table 13.   14 summarize the survey results of farmers' perceptions about irrigation, and particularly about HEIS. The questions are multiple choice (Appendix 2) and farmers could thus choose several response options. Figure 11 shows the major production risks identified by irrigating farmers. Water shortage was most often identified as the key production risk. Surprisingly, while farmers are aware of price fluctuations and associated risks, this factor was not mentioned in survey responses. Have never seen in action 26%Have never seen in action 8% Results in Figure 12 describe some of the reasons of why conventional farmers have so far not adopted HEIS. The majority of farmers interviewed are satisfied with the performance of the conventional system and think that there is no need to switch to HEIS (52% of farmers interviewed in the case study site of Dak Lak Province and 61% of farmers interviewed in the case study sites in Binh Thuan). Moreover, in both locations about one-fifth of the farmers interviewed, or 22% mention the high cost of HEIS. The capital costs required to build an HEIS system was reported to range from D50 million to D80 million per hectare ($2,200/ha to $3,500/ha). One-fifth of farmers note that they have not seen such a system in action or do not even know the system.A frequent response to the question of what kind of support farmers would need for adoption of HEIS was, \"not interested\" (Figure 13). About 42% of farmers gave this response in Dak Lak and an even larger percentage, 54% of farmers, gave this response in Binh Thuan, even though fertilizer application savings could be substantial based on the cost-benefit analysis. Almost one-fifth of respondents in both case study sites suggest that better access to bank loans or a subsidy could support the adoption of HEIS systems. Additionally, 17% of respondents in Dak Lak and 9% of respondents in Binh Thuan suggested a need for better access to technology suppliers. Dak Lak farmers also suggested a need for advice by the extension system. Clearly, the extension system is not considered a major entry point for adoption of HEIS at this point.Figure 14 and Table 14 present insights from those irrigators who have adopted HEIS. Most systems were adopted during 2012-2015 and as such are still fairly new. HEIS adopters reported that they made the change to these advanced systems for chiefly four reasons: to  Two farmers are subsized by government and received HEIS system for free. Source: ADB, based on survey data collected for this study.(i) save water, (ii) save labor, (iii) save energy, and (iv) save money. Water and labor savings were identified as the key reasons for adoption. It is unlikely that thoughts on energy savings always included expected changes in fertilizer applications.While energy savings are listed as one of the motivations for HEIS adoption, energy is not perceived as a main constraint in the adoption decision (Table 14). Only one of the farmers interviewed noted that energy costs had declined. Other findings from interviewing HEIS farmers include: (i) 2 out of the 12 HEIS farmers interviewed took out loans for the HEIS investment and 2 other HEIS farmers received a subsidy from the government; (ii) there were no reportings of repair costs soon after adoption, i.e., over the last 12 months, with adoption during 2012-2015. Moreover, all farmers received support from HEIS vendors following the installation of their systems.Energy and irrigation are closely interlinked in the Central Highlands of Viet Nam. All farmers interviewed during the field visit used pumped irrigation with pumping supporting the extraction or distribution of water, applied fertilizers and sometimes pesticides, and used electricity to artificially light dragon fruit in Binh Thuan.While energy access and use is essential to irrigation in the Central Highlands, energy access is not a limitation in any of the sites. Viet Nam has achieved a very high rate of rural electricity supply across the rural landscape. Electricity cost is not cited as a major cost concern. However, one Department of Agriculture and Rural Development member did mention that some farmers have switched from electric to diesel-or gasoline-powered pumps due to recent declines in prices for these fuels.Farmers and the local government officials visited in the field showed a strong interest in government investment in irrigation (i.e., in the subprojects visited). Farmers mentioned that they would be willing to pay a fee for water for surface delivery if the fee would be lower than their current pumping costs (details would need to be further elaborated).Researchers, government officials, and farmers have mixed messages on HEIS. Information remains fragmented on the research front. Local government officials are not very familiar regarding its role, benefits, and current extent. Farmers have limited information on the technologies and use a mix of imported and locally produced HEIS technologies. Some farmers develop their own HEIS systems and sell these to other farmers.The capital costs for HEIS development are quite large-at least for imported systems-at up to D50 million per hectare (approximately $2,200/ha), and later quoted values were up to D80 million per hectare with potential need for reinvestment after 5 years. To evaluate the suitability of the investment in HEIS, it is therefore necessary to analyze the costs and benefits of HEIS adoption under the following aspects: (i) water savings, (ii) energy use, (iii) fertilizer savings, and (iv) labor savings. Some HEIS allow fertilizer to be applied with irrigation water. In this case, the adoption of HEIS may lead to a reduction in fertilizer use of up to 30% to 40% and sometimes larger savings might be feasible. Finally, several farmers cited labor savings as the key reason for the adoption of HEIS.The following questions were posed to key informants who were drawn from government, the private sector, and research agencies:(i) What share of irrigation in Viet Nam (or in the provinces you are operating) currently uses HEIS (sprinklers or drip)? (ii) How much will HEIS increase over the next 5 to 10 years in the country? (iii) What are the main challenges for farmers to adopt HEIS? (iv) What could be solutions to the identified challenges of HEIS in the country? (v) Who are the main suppliers of HEIS equipment in the province and country? (vi) Do farmers who obtain HEIS tend to use less or more energy? (vii) Is there anything else you would like to add regarding HEIS? Suggested rates of increase of HEIS adoption over the coming 5 to 10 years is an important element for the development of a business model for HEIS. If experts believe that adoption levels are already saturated then there is no need to provide information or awareness campaigns, subsidies, and access to bank loans or to scale up technology support from vendors for such systems. The key informants were generally reluctant to provide their own assessment of potential possible increases in adoption levels. One respondent suggested a potential area of adoption of 1.6 million ha based on suitable crops and agroecological zones but without a timeline of adoption. Key informants provided a wide range of responses regarding the challenges of adopting HEIS in the Central Highlands of Viet Nam, in general, and specifically in relation to the adoption for coffee trees. The following are the key challenges for adoption that were identified by key informants:(i) The high cost of initial investment that is linked to a lack of history of savings across multiple seasons. (ii) There is no shortage of labor that compels the adoption of advanced technologies. (iii) There is no water shortage. Research suggests that there is no long-term depleting trend in groundwater at a regional scale. This suggests that increased groundwater pumping over the past decades has not had a negative impact on average groundwater availability. However, as groundwater recharge can take 60-100 days following the onset of the rainy season, over-irrigation still requires addressing because it is likely that excess irrigation water is retained in the unsaturated zone until onset of the rainy season. This is particularly an issue in areas where the unsaturated zone is thick and thus unnecessarily amplifying the seasonal groundwater shortages (Figure 15). (iv) Electricity for pumping is not a major component of farm budgets, thus there is no incentive to reduce pumping fees through the adoption of HEIS. (v) No water fees are charged, thus there is no incentive to reduce water usage through adoption of HEIS. (vi) Highland perennial crops do not need year-round irrigation. For example, coffee only requires water application 3 to 4 times a year. A 12-month HEIS system would therefore be quite labor intensive to maintain.(vii) There is a lack of knowledge on the full set of cost savings (direct and indirect energy, labor, water, quality, etc.). (viii) There is a lack of awareness about HEIS. (ix) Capacity to run advanced HEIS and understanding of true water needs for irrigation and fertilizer needs for perennial crops are limited. (x) Agricultural commodity prices are known to fluctuate. (xi) Linkages between smallholder farmers and markets are either insufficient or nonexistent. (xii) There is a lack of appropriate technologies: sprinklers do not lend themselves well to fertigation (i.e., nutrients land on leaves) and water a large area; for drip irrigation, pressure is not always well-designed (at least for local systems), they are only appropriate for new plantations, and theft and rat damage are not uncommon. All these technologies are not necessarily appropriate for a system that only requires three to four applications per year and could even further reduce water availability during shortages. As a result, HEIS can be a risky proposition. (xiii) The impact of water stress on yield and quality is still not sufficiently known, and the same is true for nutrients and pesticides. (xiv) There is a lack of governance to support water sharing to address underground water thefts.While key informants proposed a wide range of constraints to the adoption of HEIS, only a few proposed solutions to these challenges. The key solutions proposed include:(i) Development of government policies to encourage water saving.(ii) Cost reduction of HEIS.(iii) Undertaking further study on full costs and benefits of HEIS.(iv) Development of policies to promote public-private partnership in construction, management, and exploitation of HEIS infrastructures for key and marketable crops. (v) Promotion of linkages between research organizations and enterprises for largescale production and supply of HEIS equipment, facilities, and technologies. (vi) Coupling of HEIS with appropriate moisture sensors. (vii) Combining basin irrigation (i.e., conventional coffee irrigation) with drip irrigation using a piped system with a larger diameter, for example, made out of steel (rather than a plastic pipe) to increase water at the tail end of the system. (viii) Combining drip with a rejuvenation program for coffee. (ix) Focusing HEIS on pepper (instead of coffee). Respondents clarified the importance of distinguishing between coffee and other perennials: both pepper and dragon fruit are substantially more profitable per hectare, which directly facilitates the adoption of HEIS. This is an insight that was also borne out in the CBA for coffee versus pepper.Netafim is the major supplier of HEIS systems in the Central Highlands. There are also local suppliers, as well as imports from the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Korea, and the Central Highland research organization is developing local systems. According to those interviewed there is a general agreement that while using HEIS also requires energy (largely for pumping), energy cost is lower than for traditional groundwater pumping as less water is used in HEIS. There is also an understanding that more measurements are needed and that not all HEIS relying on using groundwater save electricity costs. If surface systems are used, then electricity costs would be higher with HEIS compared to conventional systems that do not use electricity. Several respondents also suggested that labor costs would be lower under HEIS.Looking AheadDespite the many clear and strong linkages between the water, energy, and food sectors, no checklist identifying challenges on and from the energy sector from changes in irrigation had been developed up to now. Experts who commented on the draft checklist suggested to differentiate between an irrigation system and basin focus and to identify all potential \"stress points\" between irrigation and energy, but generally with a focus on water for energy generation and not on water for food production.A clear need was voiced to identify all sources of energy associated with irrigated farming. These include electricity or diesel use for groundwater or surface water pumping and energy needs for agricultural production. Energy savings through changes in irrigation technologies or water source may increase overall energy needs on farm through increased use of pesticides, fertilizers, other machinery, increased water pollution, or the need to use yield sensors, supervisory control and data acquisition or other energy-intensive operational devices. Energy-water tradeoffs occur along many different fronts.The list will be further piloted and applied on a range of irrigation systems prior to finalization. This will be carried out in a subsequent pilot study to test the checklist on alternate cropping patterns and subregions of Asia.A business case for high-efficiency irrigation systems (HEIS) requires clear information on current levels of adoption of HEIS; on the potential of a specific technology, for example, based on a cost-benefit analysis; and a comprehensive understanding of the various constraints to adoption, based on which solutions to the constraints can be identified.There is no conclusive information about current levels of adoption of HEIS in the Central Highlands of Viet Nam. What is conclusive is that the government would like to increase uptake to 0. Direct energy use (electricity and diesel) currently accounts for a small share of total energy consumption and a small share of total production costs. Instead, fertilizer is the main source of energy expenditures.While HEIS cost is high this is not a significant factor affecting adoption as areas and incomes for perennial crops (coffee and dragon fruit) allow for a better margin to finance the systems. Despite this, up to 40% of smallholders interviewed suggested a need for enhanced banking support or subsidies for the equipment.Key constraints to adoption of HEIS in the study areas include:(i) Limited lack of water shortages (shortage only for some farmers during a short time window in the dry season). (ii) Electricity costs are not large enough to incentivize HEIS. (iii) There are no water charges that might incentivize water savings and, in turn, HEIS. (iv) Labor costs are not sufficiently high and shortages are not sufficient to incentivize HEIS. (v) Adoption of HEIS could be profitable, largely from saving of fertilizers-if HEIS uses fertigation. Key other parameters that affect adoption include the cost of the technology (costs are expected to further decline as more competition is introduced into the market); the actual energy savings (particularly fertilizer savings, which could be affected by changes in fertilizer prices); the actual water savings; and the actual labor savings. A doubling of the electricity tariff would not make a significant difference for adoption in the study areas.For sustained adoption HEIS systems would need to (i) focus on new plantations as old trees do not respond well to drip irrigation, (ii) be accompanied with capacity building-some farmers with drip enlarge drip holes as they do not believe that the drip system provides sufficient water (and it likely does not if applied on mature trees), (iii) ideally be accompanied by fertigation, and (iv) be linked to locations of real water scarcity.As mentioned in the previous chapter, the only large international seller of HEIS identified in the two study sites is Netafim. There are several local producers, imports from the People's Republic of China and a local research organization developing systems. This is clearly not a competitive market. All HEIS adopters interviewed received direct support from vendors following the installation of the systems but did not report repair costs. All systems examined had only been adopted recently, i.e., from 2012 to 2015. Reinvestment costs and longer-term challenges of systems have to be studied in greater detail.The following are the recommendations from this study:(i) Raise awareness on water (and fertilizer) requirements for optimal yields (this could be supported by groundwater governance mechanisms; experimental games; demonstration plots; yield monitors and soil moisture sensors; and educational tools, such as movies or radio shows). (ii) Collect data on HEIS adoption levels (to be carried out by a designated government agency at district and province levels). (iii) Assess the potential impact of a water service charge on HEIS adoption, including the modus operandi of such a charge. (iv) Conduct additional studies on HEIS impacts on all energy components (pumping, agrochemical inputs, mechanization, post-harvest energy use, water treatment, operations) as well as on water use in the Central Highlands and across additional locations and crops in Viet Nam (i.e., beyond coffee and dragon fruit and the Central Highland location). A key question that needs to be studied here is whether or not HEIS contributes to resilience, i.e., yield stability. (v) Based on these studies, develop a typology of key likely savings from the adoption of HEIS across labor, all forms of energy and water to provide farmers with better guidance on when to adopt or not. (vi) In recommending adoption of HEIS, consider key energy savings, such as those from reduced fertilizer application (which also reduces water pollution levels, labor cost, etc.). (vii) Assess the potential of an enhanced groundwater governance system to reduce overwatering and induce water savings. Elements of such a system include (i) involvement of water users, (ii) monitoring of groundwater levels and resource status, (iii) scientific assessment of safe groundwater yield, and (iv) establishing of a permit system to regulate groundwater withdrawals. ","tokenCount":"9000"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d67302dd9823ad382217f3fc5a202c9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c5d50a2-5528-44d5-bf91-f3ed5d557cc5/retrieve","id":"1878294770"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2f640dac-8e6b-4c24-b702-50b0b8e83238","pagecount":"4","content":"Tilapia remains the most popular fish species reared in fish ponds in Kenya, with Nile tilapia accounting for about 75% of total aquaculture production in the country. Farmed tilapia contributes to filling the growing gap in fish supply associated with dwindling wild fish stocks and high population growth and provides access to affordable source of protein, jobs and earnings from local and regional markets for millions of people, including many smallholders. The Economic Stimulus Programme (ESP) of the Government of Kenya under Vision 2030 agenda led to increased interest as a result of training and provision of inputs such as feeds and young fish for stocking into ponds to tilapia farmers andhas since been witnessed in many parts of the country. Tilapia farming contributes 0.8% to the gross domestic product, provides direct employment opportunities to over 500,000 people and supports over 2 million people directly (7) . At global production of 6.4 million tonnes with an estimated value of 9.8 billion US dollars in 2015, tilapia fish is a mainstay of global food security and nutrition (3) . But this is set to change. This is due to the danger of a threatening, emerging viral disease known as Tilapia Lake Virus Disease (6) . This disease is caused by a virus of the influenza family called Tilapia Lake Virus (TiLV) (5) . The disease has been responsible for massive losses in farmed tilapia in Israel since 2009 (10) . It has led to huge declines in tilapia populations in Egypt and in other parts of the world (4) .First recorded in Ecuador and Israel in 2013 and 2014 respectively, tilapia lake virus disease has affected global tilapia production. Unlike what its name may suggest, the virus is not only found in lake fish but also in other water bodies including culture systems such as ponds (10) . The disease has been confirmed in three continents including Africa (Figure 1). Due to its potential to wipe out entire tilapia populations, the virus is considered a major threat to food security, nutrition and livelihoods. Records already indicate that Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia are at high risk while Kenya is on high alert to outbreaks WHAT IS THE ISSUE? of this disease (1). Of concern to Kenya is that the virus has recently been detected in both farmed and wild Nile tilapia from Lake Victoria (8) . Furthermore, Egypt, a country connected to East Africa by the River Nile, has been hard hit by the virus and is a potential source of infection to Kenya. Young fish have been found to be most vulnerable to infection. Unlike other viral diseases of tilapia, TiLV appears to be widely spread and may therefore be present in many countries where it is has not been reported. Like other viruses, TiLV has no treatment and has the potential to evolve, making it difficult to control.■ It is an emerging disease of cultured tilapia that significantly threatens the USD 9.8 billion global tilapia industry. ■ Handling and movement of fish is a significant risk factor for outbreaks. ■ The virus survives in both fresh and brackish water environments. ■ Direct transmission from fish to fish is an important route of infection ■ Infected fish shows loss of appetite, slow movements, dermal lesions and ulcers, ocular abnormalities, and eye lens opacity (Plate ","tokenCount":"553"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9368aa3c136ae7b799206489fcc1ed8b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/54925715-9423-4995-af64-23a0a178838d/retrieve","id":"215636215"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"33990124-e424-459f-92cd-d2e963a62de6","pagecount":"1","content":"• Protozoan parasites are found worldwide and in all types of chicken producOon system • 7 species are known, but are difficult to differenOate based on appearance under the microscope • Some species cause severe disease and death, whilst others are only mildly pathogenic, but may reduce growth ratesEimeria oocysts X100 magnifica2on X200 magnifica2on• Faecal samples were collected from healthy adult chickens from two Ethiopian woredas in May (n=383) and October 2011 (n=384) • Where possible, chickens sampled in May were resampled in October, giving 110 further samples • McMasters counts were performed on each sample to quanOfy oocysts [1] • A selecOon of samples from those collected in May from each woreda were speciated using real Ome PCR [2] Detec2on of Eimeria oocysts in faeces • 427 (56%) of samples were posiOve for oocysts, but more samples were posiOve in October (65%) compared to May (47%) • There was moderate clustering of posiOve birds within households, suggesOng common risk factors or exposure • There was no difference in overall prevalence between the regions or villages, but different species were more prevalent in each region • Birds posiOve in May were just as likely to be posiOve in October as randomly--sampled birds, perhaps suggesOng infecOon with different species, or immunologically disOnct strains Frequency of PCR detec2on of Eimeria species in chicken faecal samples 1 Considered to be highly pathogenic [3].2 Significantly different (p <0.05).• Eimeria oocysts, including those with the potenOal to be highly pathogenic, can be frequently detected in faecal samples from village chickens in the absence of clinical signs of disease • There is variaOon in the prevalence of some species between regions, perhaps suggesOng local risk factors associated with the birds, management or environment • Further invesOgaOons are required to assess the role of Eimeria in clinical disease and subclinical effects on producOon in village chickens • Research is also required as to whether intervenOons may have any posiOve impacts, or impact negaOvely by disrupOng exisOng endemic stabilityWeighing faecal samples in the Debre Zeit laboratory in prepara&on for parasite examina&on• All seven species were detected, and highly pathogenic species were detected in 20/47 (43%) of samples • Mixed infecOons were common (in 36 samples known to come from a single bird), and tended to occur with the most prevalent species in each region","tokenCount":"386"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a4213262ec057aeeb4584f7d563bf2f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-023-01164-y.pdf","id":"-778804453"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f43eefaf-e5dc-4e06-bc8a-a2df52643723","pagecount":"10","content":"The effects of climate change depend on specific local circumstances, posing a challenge for worldwide research to comprehensively encompass the diverse impacts on various local social-ecological systems. Here we use a place-specific but cross-culturally comparable protocol to document climate change indicators and impacts as locally experienced and analyze their distribution. We collected first-hand data in 48 sites inhabited by Indigenous Peoples and local communities and covering all climate zones and nature-dependent livelihoods. We documented 1,661 site-agreed reports of change corresponding to 369 indicators. Reports of change vary according to climate zone and livelihood activity. We provide compelling evidence that climate change impacts on Indigenous Peoples and local communities are ongoing, tangible, widespread, and affect multiple elements of their social-ecological systems. Beyond potentially informing contextualized adaptation plans, our results show that local reports could help identify economic and non-economic loss and damage related to climate change impacts suffered by Indigenous Peoples and local communities.limate change is a global phenomenon, but its impacts on biophysical and sociocultural systems are governed by local conditions 1,2 . Modeling work shows that some world regions will experience higher temperature increase than others, and that some regions will receive more rainfall while others will experience more frequent droughts 3 . Regional changes will also have differentiated impacts on human societies, with naturedependent communities being more prone to be directly affected by, e.g., droughts or other extreme weather events, than communities less immediately dependent on nature for their livelihood 4,5 . In addition, climate change may be differently perceived and experienced across social groups, as societies have developed unique cultural and epistemological frameworks for understanding and interacting with the world 6 . Consequently, a comprehensive understanding of climate change and its impacts should consider not only spatial heterogeneity, but also variations derived from how climate change and its impacts are experienced and understood by people affected by them.Current research streams face different challenges in presenting a global picture of climate change and its impacts. On the one hand, research based on instrumental measurements, while fundamental to our comprehension of the global impacts of climate change on physical and biological systems 3,7 , falls short in providing a comprehensive view of how climate change and its impacts are locally experienced. Predictive models constructed using instrumental measurements 8 lose accuracy and precision when downscaled, particularly in areas with scarce ground data 9 . For example, since meteorological stations are sparsely distributed in areas inhabited by Indigenous Peoples and local communities 10 , predictions for such areas have low accuracy 11,12 . In addition to their coarse resolution, predictive models focus on a few variables, typically defined by the scientific community, often overlooking locally important phenomena or concerns. For example, modeling work forecasting climate change impacts on agriculture focuses on the world's most common cereal crops (e.g., wheat, maize, rice) [13][14][15] , neglecting crops critical to food sovereignty, economic security, and cultural identity in many local food systems 16 . Finally, instrumental measures are unable to capture the diverse and complex ways in which people understand, experience, and relate to the environment, which limits their suitability for risk analysis and adaptation planning 6,17 . For instance, instrumental measurements might capture changes in rainfall patterns but miss crucial relationships between climate change awareness, sensitivity, and vulnerability 18 .On the other hand, the growing body of research relying on grounded information from Indigenous Peoples and local communities, while successfully emphasizing the idiosyncrasies of climate change impacts, does not provide globally comparable information, thus hampering our ability to discern general trends and patterns and to upscale local research results to global climate change research 19,20 . Following calls from the 2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report to develop the evidence base for the potential contribution of local knowledge to climate change research 21 , the last decade has seen an increase in the number of works examining the intricate knowledge systems that allow Indigenous Peoples and local communities to identify changes in natural systems, the drivers of such changes, and the local responses to them 10,22 . These works provide rich, multi-sited, qualitative, and place-based information on locally experienced climate impacts, although they have limited capacity to discern general trends because they do not rely on a common strategy to gather globally comparable information.Here, we present the results of a large, globally coordinated study including 48 Indigenous Peoples and local communities on all inhabited continents. The study, which used a place-specific but cross-culturally comparable research protocol 23 , documents observations of climate change and its impacts as locally experienced and examines their distribution across climate zones and livelihood activities. We provide compelling evidence that climate change impacts on Indigenous Peoples and local communities are ongoing, tangible, widespread, and affect multiple elements of their social-ecological systems and that reports of change vary according to climate zone and livelihood activity. Our analysis deliberately adopts a global quantitative perspective, oriented to leverage the inclusion of Indigenous Peoples and local communities and their knowledge into climate change research and policy. This work relies on the wealth of qualitative information collected across case studies and published elsewhere 24 . We emphasize the importance of working with both quantitative and qualitative data to identify common trends as well as idiosyncrasiesboth of which are important to understand global trends and the myriad of climate change impacts across the world 25 .We selected 48 field sites across all inhabited continents. Sites covered four climate zones of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification 26 (i.e., tropical, arid, temperate, and snow/polar), with a slight predominance of tropical climates sites (n = 16) and the lowest number in snow/polar climates (n = 7) (Fig. 1; Supplementary Table 1). All the sites, except the Tsimane' Indigenous territory (Bolivia, Site_ID 24), are in areas with increasing average decadal temperature (see Methods), most of them (n = 20) experiencing a medium average increase (i.e., 0.15 to 0.3 °C/ decade). The predominant livelihood activities in studied sites were agropastoralism (n = 16), agriculture (n = 13), and fishing (n = 12). Pastoralism (n = 4) and other nature-dependent livelihoods (e.g., hunting and non-timber forest product collection, hereafter 'other NRD'; n = 3) were less common.Reports of climate change and its impacts. Across the 48 sites, we documented 1,661 observations of climate change and its impacts, although the number of citations largely varied across sites (Supplementary Fig. 1). For each site, only observations for which there was agreement across focus group discussions were considered (see Methods). Across sites, observations of changes in elements of the atmospheric system, i.e., indicators of climate change, were most frequently cited (accounting for 46.4% of all observations; Fig. 2), with observations of changes in the subsystems precipitation (20.4%) and temperature (13.0%) being predominant. Observations of changes in the physical and life systems, i.e., climate change impacts, were less cited. In particular, climate change impacts in the physical system were the least frequently cited (19.6%), with observations of changes in the subsystem freshwater (9.1%) being the most common observations in this system. Changes in the life system accounted for about one third of all the observations (33.9%), with observations of changes in the subsystems plant cultivation (9.9%) and terrestrial flora (7.9%) being the most predominant.Site-agreed observations of climate change and its impacts were classified in 369 local indicators of climate change impacts (LICCI), corresponding to 94 indicators of climate change (i.e., reports of change in elements of the atmospheric system) and 275 indicators of climate change impacts (i.e., reports of change in elements of the physical and the life systems) (see Methods).The most frequently reported indicators of climate change include changes in mean temperature (45 citations, 2.7%) and changes in mean temperature in a season (34 citations, 2.0%), whereas the most frequently reported indicators of climate change impacts include changes in crop productivity (52 citations, 3.1% of the 1,661 observations documented) and changes in the abundance or density of wild plant or fungi species (33 citations, 2.0%).This classification conceals the complex, nuanced, and integrated nature of the reported observations of climate change and local explanations of its impacts. For example, reports classified as changes in mean temperature conceal very different observations and explanations of change across sites. For instance, Dagomba-Gur agriculturalists (Kumbungu, Ghana, Site_ID 23) report a general temperature increase which they attribute to a warmer Harmattan (dry wind blowing from the Sahara), whereas farmers in Chiloé (Chile, Site_ID 8), while also reporting a general temperature increase, attribute it to a Subsystems in black refer to the atmospheric system, in blue to the physical system, and in green to the life system.   precipitation and streamflow decrease. In a similar way, Bassari farmers (Bassari Country, Senegal, Site_ID 2) report changes in the productivity of sorghum long-cycle landraces, which they attribute to the shortening of precipitation cycles, whereas Csángó farmers (Gyimes, Romania, Site_ID 16) report declining potatoes yields due to pests' infestations, which they relate to warmer winters that allow pests to breed over winter.Distribution of reports of climate change and its impacts. While our classification masks nuanced observations of changes, it also allows for a global analysis of the distribution of reports of local climate change and its impacts. The number of site-agreed observations of change (see Methods) showed large variation across sites (avg. = 34.9 LICCIs/site, sd = 18.8, min = 9, max = 84). However, the frequency distribution across systems and subsystems of site-agreed observations of change (Fig. 3, column 'Total') resembles the overall distribution of observations (Fig. 2, subsystems).We tested whether site-agreed observations of change were differently distributed across climate zones using a Poisson general linear model followed by a series of post-hoc tests (Fig. 3). The average number of indicators of climate change/site referring to changes in precipitation, temperature, air masses, and seasons were not statistically different across climate zones. However, in sites in tropical climates, the average number of indicators/site referring to changes in freshwater was higher than in sites in snow/polar climates. Grounded observations exemplify the many ways in which changes in the freshwater subsystem are observed in tropical zones. For example, ribeirinhos from the Juruá River (Brazil, Site_ID 7) reported changes in the river dynamics, including changes in flood duration, height, and sedimentation patterns; farmers in Coastal-Vedda (East region, Sri Lanka, Site_ID 14) reported changes in groundwater quality and lower water levels in village tanks; and agriculturalists in Milot (Haiti, Site_ID 28) reported the drying of lakes, ponds and wells, increasing sediments in rivers, and larger but more erratic floods.In arid and in snow/polar climates, the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in pastures and grasslands was significantly higher than in tropical climates, while the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in plant cultivation was lower than in temperate climates.Finally, in snow/polar and temperate climates, the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in ice and snow was higher than in arid and tropical climates, where ice and snow are unusual, and the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in terrestrial fauna was also higher in snow/polar and temperate climates than in tropical climates.We followed a similar approach to test whether reports of change were differently distributed across different levels of exposure to change in decadal temperature (Supplementary Fig. 2). The average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in pastures and grasslands was higher in sites experiencing high decadal temperature increases (>0.3 °C/decade) than in sites experiencing medium (0.15 to 0.3 °C/decade) or mild (0 to 0.15 °C/decade) temperature increases. Also, the average number of LICCIs/site referring to land cover change and land degradation was higher in sites experiencing high decadal temperature increases than in sites experiencing medium decadal temperature increases.We found important differences when using the same approach to test differences in reports of climate change and its impacts across site's main livelihood activity (Fig. 4). Where agriculture predominates, the average number of indicators of climate change/site referring to changes in precipitation was higher than where other NRD livelihoods predominate and the average number of indicators of climate change/site referring to changes in temperature was higher than in predominantly pastoralist sites. Additionally, the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in freshwater and soils was also higher than where agropastoralism predominates. For example, Akha farmers (Nannuoshan, China, Site_ID 31) report decreasing levels of water in mountain creeks and rivers and Gurung farmers (Laprak, Nepal, Site_ID 24) report increased soil erosion due to heavier rains during the monsoon season.Where fishing predominates, we found higher average number of indicators of climate change/site referring to changes in air masses (relative to sites where agriculture, agropastoralism, or pastoralism predominate), higher number of impacts in oceans and seas (relative to agropastoralism and other NRD), and higher number of impacts in marine ecosystems (relative to agriculture). For example, iTaukei fishers (Ba, Fiji, Site_ID 1) report an increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones, Catalan fishers (Costa Brava, Spain, Site_ID 11) report changes in coastal storms with fast winds and strong waves, and Swahili fishers (South coast, Kenya, Site_ID 21) report an increase in sea water temperature during the Kaskazi (wind) season resulting in increased shell mortality.Where pastoralism predominates, the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in pastures and grasslands and land cover change and land degradation was higher than in sites with any other livelihood activity. For example, Kolla-Atacameños pastoralists (Puna, Argentina, Site_ID 36) report a decrease in pasture productivity related to decreasing rainfall and Mongolian pastoralists (Mu Us Desert, Ordos, China, Site_ID 32) report the increased presence of non-edible grasses which displace edible pastures under drier conditions.Finally, in sites where other NRD livelihoods predominate, the average number of LICCIs/site referring to impacts in ice and snow was higher than in all other sites, although the difference was not statistically significant. In fact, this high average seems to be largely driven by reports from Inuit (Baffin Island, Canada, Site_ID 34), who reported numerous impacts, such as slower freezing and faster melting of sea ice, more ice break-ups, and changing thickness of the sea ice.In a final analysis, we used a multivariate approach to investigate how the assemblage of LICCIs reported in a site, including the type of LICCI and the frequency in which they are reported (hereafter LICCI composition, see Methods) relates to the site (i) climate zone, (ii) change in decadal temperature, and (iii) main livelihood activity. We found that LICCI composition was significantly related with both the climate zone where a site is located (NPMANOVA F 3,47 = 1.8, p < .01, Supplementary Table 2) and the site's main livelihood activity (NPMANOVA F 4,47 = 1.2, p = .04), but not to the change in decadal temperature. In other words, the distribution of LICCIs reported in a site is related with both the site's climate zone and the way people use the resources of their environment through their main livelihood activity.The results of this large global effort add to the growing evidence that Indigenous Peoples and local communities observe climate change and that the impacts of climate change on them are ongoing, tangible, and pervasive 1 . They also suggest that, despite idiosyncrasies, there are important patterns in how Indigenous Peoples and local communities experience and report climate change and its impacts.Before discussing these findings, we examine three important caveats of our work. First, our method cannot discern whether reported impacts can be fully attributed to climate change, as complexity and confounding drivers of environmental change (e.g., land-use change or overextraction) make attribution difficult 27,28 . While recognizing that reported impacts might not always be driven by climate change, we also argue that, for Indigenous Peoples and local communities, climate change impacts do not occur in isolation from other drivers of change, but rather they often exacerbate situations of environmental change resulting from colonialism, racism, inequality, and environmental injustice 29,30 . Indeed, research increasingly emphasizes that environmental change reflects the outcome of multiple drivers of change and synergistic relations among them 31,32 , for which interventions might be more effective if they  consider both social context and climate change interactions with other drivers of change. A second important limitation of our work refers to the fact that our sample of sites is small, geographically biased, and potentially imbalanced as there is some overlap between climate zones and livelihoods. Despite this limitation, this research constitutes the largest global effort to compile, harmonize, and categorize local observations of climate change and its impacts by Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Finally, we also acknowledge challenges common in research with Indigenous Peoples and local communities, including overgeneralizations and misinterpretations deriving from the transformation of locally meaningful information to fit into scientific classifications 32 . While acknowledging ontological differences and positionalities, we argue that the current climatic emergency requires exploring multiple forms of collaboration between knowledge systems aiming towards similar pragmatic goals 33 , even if collaboration is based on categorical equivocations 34 .In contrast with narratives analyzing future changes in climate and potential impacts under different scenarios, results from this work emphasize that Indigenous Peoples and local communities report a myriad of indicators of climate change as well as ongoing environmental impacts, which they (fully or partially) attribute to climate change. Changes reported stem from people's close interactions with the environment and include richly described, nuanced, and locally contextualized changes in many elements of the atmospheric systems and their impacts in the physical and the life systems. In that sense, the 369 local indicators of climate change and its impacts documented here, which range from indicators of changes in rainfall or fog, to how these changes impact freshwater availability, soil humidity, abundance and phenology of wild and cultivated plants and terrestrial and aquatic animals, or increases in crop pests, reflect the detailed understanding of changes captured by Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Our findings stress the importance of empirically grounded research to obtain a complete picture of climate change and its impacts. They also provide strong empirical support to perspectives that emphasize the need to enlarge our research focus to account for impacts that change the interwoven relationships between humans and nature at the local scale 35 as well as for diverse perceptions of which impacts matter 36 .In addition to presenting a more complete picture of climate change that includes indicators and impacts as locally experienced, the work presented here also allows to identify general patterns on how Indigenous Peoples and local communities perceive them. For example, our global analysis shows the predominance of reports of changes in precipitation, which represent about 20% of all reports, and their impact on elements of the life system. The finding could be read in terms of the direct and cascading impacts of changes in the water cycle on local socialecological systems 32 . Results of the global analysis also show that Indigenous Peoples and local communities reports of climate change and its impacts are largely contingent on the climate zone where they live and on their main livelihood activity. For example, changes in precipitation and impacts on freshwater systems were more frequently reported in sites where agriculture predominates, whereas changes in air masses and impacts on marine ecosystems were more frequently reported in sites where fishing predominates and impacts in pastures and grasslands and land cover were more frequent where pastoralism predominates. This finding provides empirical basis to the previously untested hypothesis that the way people interact with the environment -in this case through livelihood activities-is an important predictor of the changes they observe.We conclude with three policy recommendations derived from our work. First, Indigenous Peoples and local communities can expand, enrich, and deepen understandings of climate change and its impacts on local social-ecological system. This knowledge can contribute to the formulation of feasible and locally relevant adaptation plans and interventions [37][38][39] . Our results show that reports of climate change and its impacts are dependent not only on climate zones, but also on main livelihood activities, for which such reports could help made adaptation and mitigation plans more locally meaningful. While several mechanisms have been created to engage Indigenous Peoples' and local community representatives and delegates in climate policy, they mostly have a global character (e.g., the Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples Platform under the UNFCCC 40 or the Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS) program at UNESCO). Parallel actions at the local and national levels are strongly needed, with mechanisms to increase coordination across scales. Second, as discussions on the need to address loss and damage to achieve climate justice are gaining recognition in the academic literature 41,42 and in climate negotiations (e.g., Decision 2/CP.27, UNFCCC. Conference of Parties), our work provides a methodology that allows both the identification of climate change impacts at the local level and the cross-cultural comparison of reported impacts. This methodology has been applied to various tools, including the OpenTEK platform and Oblo, both of which have served to help assess local climate change impacts, either by researchers, citizen scientists, or communities themselves. In this sense, the methodology has the capacity to be applied to existing or new tools and adapted in a way that would inform about the specific economic and non-economic loss and damage related to climate change impacts on local social-ecological systems 43 . By combining the methodology with a climate impact valuation process, as defined either by communities or regional stakeholders, the work has the potential for providing empirical basis for parties to discuss appropriate compensatory measures. This would contribute to a broader recognition of the diverse histories of social, environmental, and ecological harm while opening just pathways into uncertain futures. Finally, considering that the foundations of Indigenous and local knowledge systems are being compromised and disrupted in many places 44 , there is a greater need than ever before to support Indigenous Peoples and local communities in mobilizing their knowledge basis to adapt to ongoing impacts and contribute to global mitigation efforts. Our compilation of ethnographic data documenting diverse Indigenous and local expertize about present and future climate change impacts and adaptation plans could inform elite-driven debates about loss and damage, CO2 emissions mitigation, and the turn to renewables. Developing locally specific data ultimately serves the goal of reducing harm to Indigenous Peoples and local communities that comes from both acute climate impacts and top-down climate adaptations.This research was carried out within the framework of a research project aiming to bring contextualized information from Indigenous Peoples and local communities to climate change research by creating a research network that coordinated data collection 19 . The research network included people with different nationalities, disciplinary backgrounds, and positionalities, who recognized the need to increase the transferability, integration, and scalability of information from Indigenous Peoples and local communities into climate research using standardized methods for the collection and coding of locally relevant but cross-culturally comparable data. We are aware that our framing of local climate change and its impacts is largely influenced by Western epistemic traditions and that, therefore, the indicators used are situated and partial. We understand that Indigenous Peoples and local communities might assess, conceptualize, and weigh local manifestations of climate change and its impacts differently.The Ethics Committee of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona approved the research protocol used in this project (CEEAH 4781). Before data collection started, we obtained permits from local authorities in each site to conduct research, as well as the Free Prior Informed Consent of all participants. Where necessary, we also obtained authorizations from national ethics committees. Following open science principles, the protocol for the research project is openly available 23 and the team has made available a series of online training materials to facilitate the use of the protocol (https://www.licci.eu/resources/) so here we focus on explaining the methodological aspects that directly relate to this work.Data collection. We collected first-hand data in 48 field sites with predominantly nature-dependent livelihoods during 2019-2022. A site was defined as a group of villages or households showing relative environmental and socio-cultural homogeneity. We selected sites to maximize variability in climate zones and naturedependent livelihoods.In each site, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 15-25 key participants to document climate change, understood as changes in elements of the atmospheric systems, and its impacts on the environment. Our interviews focused on changes registered over decades, and noting the direction (e.g., increase or decrease) and the driver(s) of reported changes. We started by asking, \"Compared to your youth, what changes have you noticed in the environment?\" and continued asking, \"Have you noticed any other change?\" Once the participant stopped mentioning changes, we directly asked about changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, seasons, soils, water, and wild and domestic animals or plants. For each change mentioned, we asked about the perceived driver(s) of the change (i.e., \"Why do you think this change happened?\"). If the participant responded with another environmental change, we asked again for the perceived driver(s) of the latest mentioned change, until the respondent did not identify any additional driver. A full description of the protocol is publicly available 23 . As observations of changes and its drivers came in contextualized narratives, they often included multiple drivers. For example, the observation that \"Plants \"cook\" on the ground. The ground is hot, it rains, and then it is hot again, and this \"cooks\" the plants\" made by Tsimane' informants (Bolivia, Site_ID 24) was classified as a report of \"changes in precipitation\", \"changes in soil temperature\", and \"changes in crop mortality rates\".In each site, we created a list of local indicators of climate change and its impacts (LICCIs) that were locally agreed upon. The list includes reports of change in elements of the atmospheric system, considered as 'indicators of climate change', and reports of change in elements of the physical and the life systems associated with those, considered as 'indicators of climate change impacts'. As our original question referred to environmental changes, our first step was to remove observations of environmental changes that participants did not consider to be at least partly driven by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, or seasons. We classified the remaining observations into indicators. Verbatim observations depicting the same change were classified into the same indicator. Indicators were organized using a system with four hierarchical levels. The two highest levels corresponded to the system (i.e., atmospheric, physical, and life systems) and the subsystem in which the change was observed (e.g., precipitation, temperature, air masses, and seasonality are subsystems within the atmospheric system). The third level corresponded to the impacted element (e.g., mean temperature, temperature extremes, seasonal temperature, and sunshine intensity in the temperature subsystem), and the last level to the indicator 23 .In each site, we organized 3-5 focus groups to discuss observations and indicators for which semi-structured interviews resulted in contradictory or unclear information. In this work, we only consider indicators of climate change and indicators of climate change impacts agreed upon focus groups discussions. In sites where we could not conduct focus group discussions due to COVID restrictions, we conducted additional semi-structured interviews to further discuss indicators for which we had found contradictory or unclear information. We considered that there was agreement on an indicator when (i) there were no contradictions in reporting a given observation of change in semi-structured interviews or (ii) participants agreed with the reported change in focus group discussions.In each site, the list of indicators of climate change impacts used in the analysis reflects changes for which participants agreed that are -at least partly-driven by changes in temperature, precipitation, air masses, or seasons, and that reflect temporal depth (i.e., the change refers to \"compared to your youth\"). The participatory and iterative nature of the data collection process helped identify climate change indicators and impacts that reflect the collective intergenerational knowledge held and owned by Indigenous Peoples and local communities living in close interaction with the local environment.Each site was assigned to a climate zone using the site location and the Köppen-Geiger climate classification 26 . We differentiated between sites located in tropical, arid, temperate, and snow/polar climates. We combined sites in the snow and polar climates because we only had one site in the polar climate. For each site, we calculated the decadal temperature change using estimates reported by the IPCC 45 and constructed using the CRU-TS dataset that spans 1901 to 2018 46 . We then categorized sites into high positive (>0.3 °C/decade), medium positive (0.15, 0.3 °C/ decade), mild positive (0, 0.15 °C/decade), and negative (<0 °C/ decade) average decadal temperature change.We used information gathered through open ended and semistructured interviews to characterize the main livelihood activity of the communities we worked with. Most communities in this study included households relying in complex livelihood strategies which often combine different capabilities, assets, and activities to make a living 47 . While recognizing this complexity, for the analysis presented here, we only focus on the main livelihood activity, differentiating among sites where the predominant livelihood activity was agropastoralism, agriculture, fishing, pastoralism, and other nature dependent livelihoods (e.g., hunting, gathering, non-timber forest products collection). We note that our classification reflects the current economic activity of the sites, which might differ from group's identity and from previous classifications of some of the groups in the sample. Data analysis. We started the analysis by providing a description of the local indicators of climate change and its impacts (i.e., LICCIs) reported in the full sample (n = 48 sites). We then used the site as a unit of analysis to explore whether the agreed reports of indicators of climate change and its impacts were differently distributed across (i) climate zones, (ii) decadal temperature change, and (iii) main livelihood activities. We did so by using a set of general linear models (GLM) with Poisson distribution to systematically compare the site average number of LICCI cited in a subsystem with a selected category of comparison (i.e., snow/ polar for climate zones; high positive decadal temperature change; and agriculture for main livelihood activities). When the GLM assessing the average LICCIs in a subsystem showed significant relationships with an explanatory variable, pairwise comparisons between the different levels of the variable were carried out with a Tukey's honest significance test.In our final analysis, we explored the relative importance of the selected variables in explaining the variation in number and type of LICCI reported at each site. Drawing on methods from community ecology and species composition analysis 48 , we created a variable that captured the number and identity of LICCIs reported at a site, named site LICCI composition. To create the variable, we constructed a dissimilarity matrix using the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index, calculated at the subsystem level and including only impacts on the physical and the life system. The new variable considered both the number and the type of LICCI and compared them between sites. We then explored whether variation in site LICCI composition was associated with climate zone, decadal temperature change, and main livelihood activities by using a non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance (NPMANOVA). Multivariate analysis was performed using the vegan package 49 in R version 4.2.1 50 . GLM analyses were run using the stats package 49 and tukey post-hoc tests were run with the emmeans package 50 .Reporting Summary. Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.","tokenCount":"5180"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ed02ac3bed577e73822dd731f2459cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5557b868-0dc0-4566-bb17-92af7112e161/retrieve","id":"-1876938677"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a11e3001-79ed-493b-81db-739ab9969699","pagecount":"15","content":"Combining ability studies under low soil P conditions provides useful information on the inheritance of important traits to improve soybean for low P tolerance. The study aimed at determining the combining ability and gene actions of biomass yield and root traits in soybean under low phosphorus conditions. Nine parental genotypes and their 36 half diallel F2/ F3 progenies were evaluated at two locations in Ethiopia on soils of low P availability. Highly significant (P<0.01) general combining ability (GCA) were found for all the traits and specific combining ability (SCA) for root dry weight and root fresh weight; while the SCA effects of all the rest of the traits were significant (P<0.05). The higher relative contributions of GCA over SCA revealed the preponderance of additive gene action in the inheritance of biomass yield, root dry weight, biomass dry weight, root volume, and root fresh weight with respective relative GCA:SCA contributions of (60.6, 39.4), (50.4, 49.6), (54.9, 45.1), (51.1, 48.9), and (52.1, 47.9); while the narrow-sense heritability was high (34.3%) only for biomass yield. Hardee-1 displayed significant (P<0.05) and positive GCA effects for most of the studied traits, and several crosses involving this parent showed superior performances. The traits i.e., biomass yield, biomass dry weight, root volume and root fresh weight showed highly (P<0.001) correlation with grain yield. Thus, breeding programs aiming to improve soybean for biomass yield and root traits under low-P condition can use Hardee-1 as a parent.Soybean (Glycine max L. Merril) is one of the world's most economically important legumes and oilseeds, and its global production and yield have increased considerably in the last three decades [1]. It is an essential source of protein, vegetable oil, and micronutrients produced both commercially and under subsistence farming conditions, primarily used for human food and animal feed. The soybean biomass has great potential as a high protein animal feed in the form of graze, hay or silage [2][3][4].Soybean provides a pivotal ecological function in the cropping system, including the diversification of crops in the agro-ecosystems, decreasing soil-borne diseases, breaking the pest and disease cycles in cropping systems of continuous cereals production, improving soil nitrogen fixation, soil P availability and soil carbon sequestration [5][6][7][8][9][10].Despite the rapidly growing trend of annual production and demand of the crop, both the grain and biomass yield of soybean were low in most soybean growing agro-ecologies of Ethiopia. Low phosphorus availability in the soil, caused due to soil acidity, which covers an estimated more than 50% of the global [11] and 28% of the Ethiopian [12,13] arable land is among the major soybean production constraints affecting the biomass/forge yield of soybean in tropical soils [14]. Phosphorus forms insoluble compounds in acid soils reacting with other nutrients, such as aluminum and iron, converting it into a form that is not usable by plants [15].Phosphorus (P) is among the essential soil nutrients required in large quantities for crop growth and development, throughout their life cycle, especially during the reproductive and seed development stages. However, most tropical and sub-tropical soils that lack proper fertilization and manuring treatments do not contain sufficient readily available P to meet the high demands of the crop, especially during certain periods of the growing cycle [16]. Thus, crop production in these regions generally depends on the timely application of P fertilizer. Development of P-efficient soybean varieties that can efficiently utilize the native P and added P in the soil would be a feasible and sustainable approach to boost soybean production and forage yield [14].In soybean, low P stress is more detrimental than other nutrient deficiencies, toxicities or diseases; however, it is difficult to select high P efficient soybean varieties based on phenotypes. The soybean demand for P reaches the maximum during pod and seed development [17,18], as more than 60% of the P ends up in the pods and seeds [17]. About 39% of P uptake takes place during the R4 (full pod stage) in soybean that is the critical stage for seed yield [18]. Its uptake and utilization by soybean is essential in ensuring proper nodule formation, as well as crop yield and quality improvement [19], as it plays a very important role in the storage and transportation of energy generated in photosynthesis [18]. Remarkably, high soil phosphate depressed seed protein and oil content, while yield would be low, if available phosphorus was less than 30 kg P ha -1 [20]. Phosphorus is the most important nutrient in forage biomass yield, followed by nitrogen, as high biomass production extracts high amount of P from the soil and P improves biomass production in forages [14]. Suman [18] reported association of biomass yield with nutrient accumulation in soybean.Soybean is primarily produced for grain purpose, however, in the 1800's or before world war-II it used to be cultivated mainly for forage purposes in the United States [2,4]. Moreover, soybean has great future potential as a high protein and nutritious forage in the form of pasture, hay or silage that can be used alternatively with alfalfa, possessing equivalent forage quality [2,4]. Unlike other legume crops, soybean leaves and pods provide highly digestible protein and energy, when the soybean is closer to maturity, before yellowing of the leaves and at 90% pods fill [2,4]. Especially, in seasons of terminal moisture stress the soybean crop that failed to attain proper grain filling due to moisture stress can be used as a very good forage [2]. Moreover, studies verified the possibility of harvesting more than 9.88 t ha -1 of forage from soybean [3]. Varietal difference was identified as one of the factors affecting forage quality, and forage soybean varieties were exclusively developed and registered in Minnesota [21]. One IITA soybean variety, TG X1990-114FN was also registered as a forage variety in Ethiopia, after verified for its nearly the same nutritional quality and high invitro digestibility with Lablab.Plant root traits play important roles in increasing soil P availability and acquisition and adaptation to soil P deficiency. Root characteristics such as high root biomass, length and volume enable the plants to occupy greater soil volume and enhance P acquisition by plants [10].Root distribution and architecture have critical roles in optimizing the absorption of soil resources in specific environments, for instance under low P stress conditions [22,23]. Greater number of basal root whorls and hypocotyl-borne roots reported increasing the total root length in the topsoil resulting in greater P acquisition in common bean [24].Combining ability studies provide valuable information that helps in making decision on the choice of parental line and allows understanding the gene action influencing trait inheritance resulting in greater efficiency in soybean breeding programs [1]. Plants with tolerance to low-P can grow better under low-P conditions, and understanding the genetic mechanisms of low-P tolerance will not only facilitate identifying the relevant genes, but also helps in developing low-P tolerant cultivars [16]. Breeding crop cultivars that could uptake/utilize soil P more efficiently is critical in improving the productivity of soybean under low P conditions and increasing resource use efficiency in agriculture. Unpredictable growth environments, decreasing moisture availability, altered precipitation patterns, ongoing soil degradation, and the rising cost of nitrogen and P fertilizers are some of the key reasons for developing crop varieties resilient to abiotic stresses [23,25]. Even though root traits associated with shoot traits contributing to productivity have been identified in soybean [26], their beneficial role in breeding for yield improvement is yet to be exploited. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the gene actions controlling fresh biomass yield, dry matter accumulation, and root characteristics under low P conditions in soybean.The parental lines (Table 1) used in this study included four varieties (Clark 63 K, Crowford, Davis, and SCS-1) released for high yield and adaptability in the mid-altitude (1400-1900 masl) soybean growing agro-ecologies of Ethiopia, and five of the parents i.e., Hardee-1, Alamo, PR-142 (26), H 3, and G 9945 were identified as low P tolerant genotypes in a screening experiment involving 36 soybean genotypes evaluated under low (zero) and high (100 kg ha -1 ) applied P conditions. The parental line, H 3, was received from Mozambique Agricultural Research Institute, was specifically identified for its low P tolerance. All the parental lines used in this study had been tested in yield trials for over three years and in at least six locations in each year and showed good performance and adaptability for the mid-altitude and high rainfall soybean growing agro-ecologies of the country. While being among the parental lines, the released varieties (Clark 63 K, Crowford, Davis and SCS-1) might serve as standard checks for the tested genotypes in this experiment. The nine parental lines were crossed in a 9 x 9 half diallel mating scheme. The diallel experiment was conducted using F2/F3 progenies due to inadequate quantities of seeds in the F1. The diallel trials consisting of 45 genotypes (parents and progenies) were grown at two locations, i.e., Assossa (altitude 1550 m.a.s.l, location 10˚02'N34˚33'E), and Metu (altitude 1550 m. a.s.l., location 8˚3' N 30˚E) in Western Ethiopia in a 5 x 9 alpha lattice design with two replications. The two experimental sites were known for their strongly acidic reddish-brown soil with low P availability (Table 1). Each plot consisted of four rows, of which the middle two rows were harvestable each with 4 m length, and 60 cm X 5 cm inter and intra-row spacings. Uniform application of all the best soybean management practices such as good land preparation, planting at the right sowing time, thinning to maintain a spacing of 5 cm between plants at five leaves stage, optimum weed management during the growing period were followed. Rhizobium inoculum was applied to the seeds of all the experimental materials (parents and progenies). Before the experiment, three soil samples were collected from the top layer (0-20 cm) of the fields in each of the study locations. The soil samples were submitted to the soil laboratory of Jimma Agricultural Research Center for the different analyses. Bray II method was used for P analysis, while Kjeldhal method for N, flame photometry for K and Walkley and Black method was used to determine organic carbon (OC) and organic matter (OM). Other soil parameters such as pH, exchangeable acidity, Al and H were also determined for the soil samples. Results of the soil analysis at the experimental sites (Assosa and Mettu), where this research was conducted are presented in Fig 1 . Phosphorus levels of 6.07 ppm and 8.40 ppm were recorded at Assosa and Mettu, respectively.Data were collected for biomass yield and other root traits at R6 growth stage of the crop, including biomass yield (gm): the weight of fresh above ground shoot biomass samples collected from five representative plants, while biomass dry weight (gm), which is the weight of oven dried above ground shoot biomass collected from five representative sample plants. Other root parameters collected from five randomly selected representative plants included: root fresh weight (gm) the fresh weight of root samples, root dry weight (gm) which is the weight of oven dried root samples, root length (cm) the mean length of the central longest tap roots, and root volume (ml) the volume of water displaced from a measuring cylinder by the roots.Analysis of variance for the individual locations was performed for each of the traits, and highly significant differences were found among genotypes for all the studied traits. Test of homogeneity of error variances of the individual locations (Assossa and Mettu) was performed for all the traits as suggested in [27] and there was non-significant differences among the error mean squares, indicating the possibility of proceeding with the combined analysis. Combined analysis of variances was performed for biomass and root traits using SAS 9.3 statistical software [28]. GCA and SCA effects were determined across the test locations using Griffing's method II, model I, based on the Diallel SAS 05 program [29]. LSD at 5% level of significance was used for mean separation. The model for the diallel analysis for Griffing's Method II, Model I (modified for over locations analysis from [30] is:Where, X = the population mean, gi = the general combining ability effect of the i th parent, gj = the general combining ability effect of the j th parent, Sij = the specific combining ability effect of the cross between i th and j th parents, such that Sij = Sji, (gL)ijk = the interaction effect, if general combining ability of i th parent with K th locations, (gL)jk = the interaction effect of general combining ability of j th parent with K th locations, (SL)ijk = the interaction effect of the specific combining ability with locations, and eijk is the residual associated with ijk th observation. The formula provided in [31,32] were used to compute the variance components of GCA and SCA, the additive and non-additive variances, and heritability. The relative importance of GCA and SCA was determined using the equation: 2 gca is the variance of GCA and σ 2 sca is the variance of SCA. Since the total genetic variance among F1 hybrids is equal to twice the GCA component plus the SCA component, the closer the ratio is to unity, the greater the predictability of a specific hybrid's performance based on GCA alone [33,34]. Pearson's correlation analysis among the studied traits was performed using performance analytics package in R.The analysis of variance revealed highly significant (P<0.01) differences among the genotypes (G), environments (E) for all the studied biomass yield and root related traits (Table 2). Similarly, GCA showed highly significant (P<0.01) differences for all the studied traits, while SCA showed highly significant (P<0.01) for only root dry and fresh weights. The SCA effects of the other traits, i.e., shoot dry weight, root length, root volume and biomass fresh weight were only significant at 5% level of significance. The G × E mean square was significant (P<0.05) for only root length, while all the other traits were non-significant. The GCA × E mean squares was highly significant (P<0.01) only for shoot dry weight and significant (P<0.05) only for plant fresh weight. The SCA× E mean squares was significant (P<0.05) only for root length.The mean performance of 66 crosses and nine parental lines evaluated under low P conditions are presented in Table 3. In addition, biomass yield differed among the parental genotypes with PR 142 (26) having the lowest value of 71.9 gm and Crowford the highest value of 168.8 gm, and a mean of 125.5 gm. The parental lines SCS-1, Hardee 1, and G-9945 produced 153.0, 148.7 and 146.8 gms of biomass, respectively. The lowest value of 42.6 gm biomass was produced by a cross of Davis x Alamo; while the highest value of 206.9 gm was recorded for Hardee-1 x Pr-142 (26). The other crosses with high biomass yield were Hardee-1 X Clark 63 (205.6 gm), Hardee-1 X Crowford (195.6 gm), and Hardee-1 X G-9945 (192.8 gm). Root dry weight among the parental genotypes varied from 2.0 gm for PR 142 (26) to 4.8 gm for Crowford with a mean of 3.3. Other parental lines with high root dry weight included: G 9945 (4.1 gm), SCS-1 (3.8 gm), Clark 63 K (3.5 gm) and Davis (3.4 gm). Similarly, the root dry weight among the crosses varied from 1.2 gm for Davis x Alamo to 4.5 gm for Hardee-1 x Clark 63 K, with an average of 2.9 gm. Hardee-1 X Pr-142 (26) (4.3 gm), Hardee-1 X SCS-1 (4.3 gm), and Clark 63 K X Crowford (4.2 gm) were some of the crosses with high root dry weight. The biomass dry weight varied from 28.2 gm for H 3 to 66.9 gm for Crowford, among the parental genotypes, with a mean of 47.5 gm. Some of the other parental lines with high biomass dry weight includes: SCS-1, G 9945, and Hardee-1 with respective weights of 55.6, 52.8 and 52.6gms. The biomass dry weight yield for the crosses varied from 18.3 gm for Pr-142 (26) x Crowford to 76.5 gm for Hardee-1 x Clark 63 K, with a mean of 40.4 gm. Furthermore, root length among the parental genotypes ranged from 14.2 cm for PR 142 (26) to 19.0 cm for SCS-1, with a mean of 17.4 cm. H 3, Crowford and G 9945 were among the parental lines that showed long root lengths of 18.4, 18.2 and 18.0 cms, respectively. The root length among the crosses ranged from 12.6 cm for Davis x Alamo to 21.4 cm for H-3 x SCS-1, with an average of 16.9 cm. The crosses with the longest root length include: Alamo X H-3 and Pr-142 (26) X SCS-1 (19.2 cm each), Clark 63 K X Crowford and Alamo X Clark 63 K (19.1 cm each). Root volume among the parental genotypes varied from 7.8 ml for H 3 to 16.5 ml for each of Crowford and G-9945 with a mean of 13.0 ml. The other parental lines with high root volume include: SCS-1 (15.5 ml), and Hardee-1 (14.0 ml). The root volumes of the crosses ranged from 6.8 ml for Davis x Alamo to 17.5 ml for Hardee-1 x G-9945 with a mean of 11.3 ml. Hardee-1 X Crowford (16.5 ml), Hardee-1 X Pr-142 (26) (16.0 ml) and Clark 63 K X SCS-1 (16.0 ml) were among the crosses that produced high root volume. Root fresh weight among the parental genotypes ranged from 6.5 gm for PR 142 (26) to 16.1 gm for Crowford, with a mean of 10.7 gm. G-9945 and SCS-1 were two of the other parental lines that produced relatively high root fresh weights of 13.4 gm and 12.9 gm, respectively. The lowest root fresh weight of 4.0 gm and the highest root fresh weight of 14.8 gm were obtained for Davis x Alamo and Hardee-1 x Clark 63 K, respectively, with 8.9 gm mean root fresh weight of the crosses. Other crosses such as Clark 63 K X Crowford, Clark 63 K X SCS-1 and H-3 X SCS-1 produced respective root fresh weights of 14, 13.1 and 13.0 gm. Estimates of GCA effects of root traits for the nine soybean parental genotypes evaluated under low P conditions are presented in Table 4. Hardee-1 was the only parent with highly significant (P<0.001) and positive GCA effect for dry biomass weight, and fresh biomass weight, and significant (<0.05) and positive effect for root fresh weight. The GCA estimates for Alamo showed significant negative GCA effects for all the traits, except shoot dry weight. PR 142 (26) displayed significant negative GCA effects for root volume and root fresh weight.Among the crosses, Hardee-1 x H-3, Davis x Clark 63 K, Alamo x SCS-1 showed significant negative SCA effects for root length, whereas Alamo x Clark 63 K showed significant positive SCA effects for root length (Table 5). Similarly, Hardee-1 x H-3 and Clark 63 K x G-9945 displayed significant negative SCA effects for root volume. In addition, Hardee-1 x Pr-142 (26) showed significant positive SCA effect for plant fresh weight.The relative contributions of GCA and SCA, and narrow sense heritabilities of the studied root and shoot biomass traits were presented in Fig 2 . The study revealed the highest (60.6%) contribution of GCA over SCA to the inheritance of biomass yield, followed by biomass dry matter yield (54.9%). The relative contributions of SCA was higher over GCA variance for only root length (55.7%). Nearly equivalent contribution of GCA and SCA was found for root dry matter, root volume and root fresh weight. The highest narrow-sense heritability of 34.3% was recorded for biomass yield; while biomass dry matter yield, root fresh weight, root dry weight, root volume and root length showed heritabilities of 28.2%, 27.0%, 24.6%, 24.0%, and 17.9%, respectively.The correlation analysis revealed a strong, highly significant positive association of grain yield with biomass yield (0.79), biomass dry matter yield (0.74), root weight (0.70), root fresh weight (0.57). Similarly, grain yield showed significant (P<0.05) association with root dry weight, while no association was found with root length (Fig 3). The correlations among all the rest of the traits were strong, and highly significant, except for the correlation of root length with root dry weight (0.34) and shoot dry weight (0.32) that were significant only at 5% level of significance. The 6.07 and 8.40 ppm P levels recorded for Assosa and Mettu experimental sites, respectively, were far lower than the optimal P levels. The optimum level of P reported for soybeans was 15 ppm and soil P levels should be maintained between 15 and 30 ppm [35]. Accordingly, the two experimental sites (Assossa and Mettu) can be regarded as low P soils (soils that are deficient in P). Significant differences observed among the parental genotypes as well as in the progeny populations for all the studied traits in the present study might be as a result of the high genetic variation created in the progeny populations that may allow the genetic improvement of the populations for the studied biomass yield and root related traits for low P tolerance. The presence of genetic variability is of prime importance for good genetic progress in improving a trait in a selection program. The use of parental genotypes from diverse sources in the crossing might have contributed to the observed significant differences and high genetic variations among the crosses and progeny populations. Similarly, highly significant differences among parents and progeny populations were also reported for grain yield, 100-seed weight, pod length, days to maturity and plant height under low P conditions [36]. Significant GCA and SCA effects were found for all the studied traits. Susanto [37] also reported similar significant GCA, and SCA effects for maturity in soybean, indicating both the additive and non-additive gene actions were important in the inheritance of the traits. The G X E interaction was significant (P<0.05) only for root length, implying the relative performance of the genotypes for root length was different in varying environments. The GCA X E interaction was higher than the Genotype X E interaction for all the studied traits, except for root length and root volume. Similar findings were previously reported for other traits in dry beans [38] and in soybean [36] under P stressed soil conditions that might indicate the predominant contributions of GCA than the environments in the expression of these traits. The highly significant GCA X E interaction for biomass dry matter yield and the significant GCA X E interaction for biomass yield indicates that more than one location was required for a reliable selection of parental lines to improve these biomass yield traits [39]. The non-significant GCA x E effects for root dry weight, root length, root volume and root fresh weight indicates that the GCA effects associated with the parents were consistent across environments. Thus, selection of these parents for progeny population and line development could be done in any of the environments. Similarly, the non-significant SCA x E interaction of the studied traits, except for root length suggested that the relative performance of the F2/F3 progeny populations was consistent across environments. The diallel analysis revealed highly significant GCA effects for biomass and biomass dry matter yield and root related traits. In line with this, highly significant GCA mean squares were reported for root dry weight, shoot dry weight and relative root surface area in soybean for Aluminium toxicity tolerance under acidic conditions [40]. Highly significant GCA effects were also previously reported for grain yield, pod length, days to maturity and plant height in soybean under low P conditions [36]. Similarly, the SCA effects were significant for all the root and biomass yield related traits. The GCA effects are associated with additive gene effect; while SCA effects were associated with non-additive gene action. Hence, the significance of both GCA and SCA effects for all the traits indicates both the additive and non-additive genetic effects were important for the expression of all the studied traits.The relative importance of GCA and SCA was examined by expressing it as the ratio of additive variance to the total genetic variance. The closer this ratio was to unity, the greater the predictability based on GCA alone [33]. The ratio ranged from 44.3% for root length to 60.6% for biomass. The relative contributions revealed the predominance of GCA over SCA effects for biomass yield, biomass dry matter yield, root length, root fresh weight, indicating the predominance of additive genetic variance in the inheritance of these traits. This also implicates the high possible flow of favorable additive genes from parents to progenies, and also depicts high heritability, low environmental effect, less interaction among genes and, thereby, the effectiveness and predictability of selection to improve these traits [41][42][43]. The predominance of GCA over SCA also indicates early generation testing may be more effective in identifying promising progeny populations and breeding lines for biomass yield and root related traits, mainly based on the prediction from GCA effects under P stressed soil [43][44][45]. Considerable additive genetic variance was also reported for root traits in common bean under P stressed conditions [46]. The relative contributions of both GCA and SCA were nearly the same for root dry weight, root volume, and root fresh weight, which indicates both the additive and non-additive gene actions were equally important in the inheritance of these traits. In line with this [47], reported the complex nature of the inheritance of root traits and revealed comparable importance of both the additive and non-additive genetic variances in the expression of these traits in Capscicum under moisture stress conditions, and hence suggested recurrent selection is the effective breeding approach to improve these traits. The SCA effect showed high relative contribution over GCA for root length, which indicate the predominance of non-additive gene actions in the expression of this trait and, hence, selection will be relatively unpredictable.When non-additive gene actions are preponderant; selection needs to be performed at later generations, when the effects of the non-additive gene effects get fixed [43,48,49].Crowford was identified as the best performing parent based on the mean values for most traits, followed by SCS-1 and Hardee-1. GCA effects for all the traits varied significantly among the parental genotypes and between environments for biomass dry matter yield and biomass yield. Hardee-1 showed significant positive GCA effects for biomass dry matter yield, root volume and biomass yield; while Alamo displayed significant negative GCA effects for root dry weight, root length, root volume, root fresh weight and biomass yield. In a recent study, Hardee-1 was reported possessing significant positive GCA effects for grain yield, number of seeds per pod, pod length, plant height and pod number; while Alamo showed significant negative GCA effects for hundred seed weight, pod length, and plant height [36]. Hardee-1 was identified as the best general combiner for root traits, grain and forage yield, and root related traits was capable of contributing favorable alleles and, hence, could be used as parents in a breeding program to improve the respective traits under low P conditions. Susanto [37] also reported Grobogan and Malabar soybean varieties as the best general combiner parents for early maturity. Of the top ten performing F2/F3 progenies, seven were derived from crosses involving the parent Hardee-1 that was the best general combiner with significant positive GCA effects with other poor general combiners for most of the traits. The high SCA effect of the good by poor general combiner crosses were attributed either to the favourable additive gene effects of the good general combiner parent or to the epistatic effects of poor general combiner that fulfils the favourable plant attribute [43]. Conversely, five out of the ten worst performing F2/F3 progenies were derived from crosses involving Alamo that displayed significant negative GCA effects for most of the studied traits.Average heritability estimates were categorized as high, medium and low with respective values of 5-10%, 10-30%, and 30 to 60%, that represent different crops and across locations and seasons [50,51]. Accordingly, biomass yield was the only trait that possessed high narrow sense heritability, while the narrow sense heritabilities of all the rest of the traits i.e., biomass dry matter yield, root fresh weight, root dry weight, root volume, and root dry weight might be regarded as medium. The highly significant and positive association of grain yield with biomass yield, biomass dry matter yield, root volume, and root fresh weight indicates the importance of these traits for indirect selection to improve yield of soybean under P stressed soil conditions. Moreover, the strong positive association of biomass and grain yield in soybean imply the possibility of developing dual purpose soybean that can serve both as a forage or grain soybean. In line with this [3], reported that the standard grain type soybean varieties produced optimum forage yield and quality than the soybean varieties exclusively developed for forage purpose. This indicates that the regular grain soybean breeding programs can simultaneously target developing dual purpose soybean for grain as well as forage purposes. Hence, considering biomass yield as one of the priority traits for breeding soybean will have paramount significance in developing dual purpose soybean.A half-diallel experiment involving nine parental genotypes and their F2/F3 progeny populations was conducted at two environments under low P soil conditions. The results revealed wide genetic variability among the parental genotypes and progeny populations used in the study. Both the GCA and SCA effects were significant, indicating the importance of both the additive and non-additive gene actions in the inheritance of the traits. Among the parents, Hardee-1 was the best general combiner for root traits, yield and yield-related traits, and hence the best parent to improve soybean for low P tolerance. High narrow sense heritability and high relative contributions of GCA over SCA was found for biomass yield, indicating the importance of additive gene effects in the inheritance of this trait, and recurrent selection in the segregating population would be the best approach to improve the trait for low-P tolerance. The high and positive correlation of biomass yield with grain yield indicates that improving biomass yield can help improve the productivity of soybean under low P conditions. More importantly, soybean biomass can greatly help improve the forage yield and value of soybean as an alternative animal feed to Alfaalfa and other forage crops.","tokenCount":"5001"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8a7718b51cd1c18cc948589766ce1e88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ffabac5b-e82c-4da6-8d69-2d8d6503e940/retrieve","id":"-1200549299"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1d8c7989-c912-496d-9a9a-65a11e487d45","pagecount":"27","content":"The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) is a partnership collaboration led by the International Potato Center implemented jointly with Bioversity International, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), that includes a growing number of research and development partners. RTB brings together research on its mandate crops: bananas and plantains, cassava, potato, sweetpotato, yams, and minor roots and tubers, to improve nutrition and food security and foster greater gender equity especially among some of the world's poorest and most vulnerable populations. www.rtb.cgiar.orgMichael Friedmann, on behalf of the flagship project leader, shared the advances of Flagship 2: Adapted productive varieties and quality seed. Key scientific achievements in the 2017-2018 period, such as reports and papers on the application of frameworks and toolboxes for enhancing farmer access to quality seeds and improved varieties, ranking of preferred banana hybrids, rapid multiplication techniques for cassava varieties and seed certification. Information about successful new potato varieties and linked technological packages in Africa and Asia and scaling of technologies for sweetpotato and yam were shared.Flagship 3: Resilient crops scientific highlights across clusters were presented by James Legg. James focused on examples of advanced modeling and the use of ICTs, such as GIS assisted \"Agronomy @ scale\", mapping of Fusarium advances and resistance, early detection and response to BBTV in Togo and the use of smartphones apps as diagnostic tool for cassava biotic stresses.Tawanda Muzhingi shared the Flagship 4: Nutritious food and added value structure and scientific highlights.Tawanda emphasized the different areas of cross cutting research and highlights in research findings, publications and capacity building. Finally, he highlighted collaborations across RTB and with partners in which   In particular, mapping of progress made in molecular markers development for key traits across the breeding programs was presented.A final presentation was given on the RTB Scaling fund (Figure 6 contains a summary), including the objectives and mechanism of the fund, updates on the 1 st and 2 nd call, and a description of the learning that is emerging from the three current projects that are being implemented in 6 locations. In the afternoon, the meeting was held in mini-workshop format on special topics in parallel sessions: 1) Strengthening cross-CRP collaboration: CCAFS -RTB;2) Strengthening CRP -Platform collaboration: BigData -RTB;3) Strengthening collaboration on impact assessment: SPIA -RTB.All the sessions were looking to discuss:• What are the areas of collaboration that have been identified? Why are these areas important?• What are the bottlenecks for action?• What are some opportunities for resource mobilization? From existing projects? New sources?This session explored opportunities for collaboration with CCAFS. CCAFS deals with issues of adaptation to, and mitigation of climate change, by looking at policy and priority setting, climate-smart technologies, low emissions development, climate services, and gender and social inclusion. CCAFS works in similar regions as RTB, namely West and East Africa, South Asia and SE Asia. Adaptation to climate change is a strong objective of the RTB program, that delivers climate-smart technologies through breeding of resilient varieties and planning of seed systems, pest and disease risk assessments and surveillance tools, and processing of products to reduce waste and post-harvest losses. RTB applies a gender-lens to its activities and actively promotes scaling of technologies through a dedicated scaling fund.The panelists for this session were: Andrew Jarvis, Deissy Martinez, Ana Maria Loboguerrero, Ted Carey, Thierry Tran, Acho Okike, Tawanda Muzhingi. The session began with a presentation of CCAFS, by Andy Jarvis, followed by presentations by RTB scientists of RTB-related innovations that address climate mitigation or adaptation.Thierry Tran presented the Case of biogas and N 2 O by Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in which he showed how GHG emissions from cassava processing can be measured and mitigated (see Figure 7). Waste Peel Processing, which posited the use of cassava peel for feed to reduce contamination and emissions.These presentations were followed by comments from CCAFS scientists from a climate-smart lens, in which the climate-resilience of RTB crops was highlighted.The following options for collaboration between RTB and CCAFS were identified for further discussion: 1) Some RTB crops show potential for adaptation to climate change and extreme weather events. There is an opportunity for collaboration in area of awareness raising and policy influencing including developing adaptation plans with policy makers. RTB is collecting evidence on resilience of RTB cropping systems to extreme weather events such as hurricanes in SE Asia where root crops are safe underground (Diego Naziri). This evidence may be combined with CCAFS development of adaptation plans with policy makers.2) Making cropping systems more resilient (e.g. potato and soil loss); highland farming incorporating potato and dairy requires looking at gas emissions, nutrient loss, water efficiency, soil loss (Monica Parker).3) Climate smart villages for participatory testing. Crowdsourcing work already done also compiling climatic data-possibilities for follow up.4) Ongoing exchanges and collaboration around scaling approaches and practices to be continued (Murat Sartas).There is growing interest and evidence accumulating on this topic. Requires further thought.Complete notes of the session can be found here.The  presented the experience of the ACAI project in data driven agronomy and how ICT tools may help in setting high level standards for data collection and management.Following recommendations were formulated during the discussions that followed the presentations:• RTB scientists should strengthen their interaction with the BigData community of practices (COP) such as Ontologies, Modeling and Social Economic data. They may also think about the need for creating new COP;• BigData and RTB should collaborate for the development of guidelines on how to scale up the ACAI approach and tools;• Data management and data integration across RTB flagships and across disciplines (social sciences, breeding, pest and disease, etc.) should be further explored as area for collaboration;• Pest disease data need to be more discoverable, the development of trans-national use case for pest and diseases could be an opportunity for RTB-BigData collaboration.Complete notes for this session can be found here.This session explored opportunities for collaboration with SPIA. The session was led by Karen Marcours, NancyJohnson and Elisabetta Gotor. Karen Marcours presented an introduction to SPIA, its team and impact assessment in the CGIAR, as well as results and approach to strengthening IA in CGIAR and plans for 2019-2024.SPIA at the request of donors focuses only on ex post impact assessment. Elisabetta Gotor presented RTB Cluster CC5.1 with its broader perspective which links impact assessment with foresight in a continuum. One of the challenges discussed is the differing needs of impact assessment relevant for accountability to our funders and impact assessment for learning, and each deserves different approaches, set of methods and tools. A central concern in the discussion is how can we improve measurement, causal inference and impact at scale.It was proposed that CC5.1 develop a pipeline of candidate IA studies planned several years ahead to ensure appropriate resourcing and synergies (e.g. with common CGIAR portfolio). This would help address the ongoing demand from donors for credible evidence, which requires a continuous supply of IA studies.Options to be explored for collaboration between RTB and SPIA are:1) to aggregate data coming to W3/bilateral projects: strengthening M&E CoP and IA;2) integrating between scaling strategies and early impact assessments for learning;3) using periodic existing national representative agricultural surveys e.g. Complete notes of the SPIA and IA session can be found here.In the morning, after an introduction to the agenda for the day and setting up of working spaces for the groups, parallel sessions for 5 groups, one per flagship, were organized. Each group, covered the following key points:1) Cross-cutting areas and RTB programmatic value added, assessing interactions among CC and cropspecific clusters. What to improve and how? What to consolidate? What's new, including \"golden egg\"?2) A review of the calendar of major events for the rest of 2018 and 2019, and who will participate.3) Identification of key achievements to be reported in 2018, in particular innovations and outcomes, and expected in 2019. Which ones are well documented? What are the needs for documenting the others?Each group had a note taker and presenter who then shared key points in plenary, and for each group there are summary notes in a pre-designed template.A central point of discussion was the funding situation of the clusters and how to better respond to the internal funding opportunities (e.g. scaling fund, earmarked funding). The point was made by most cluster members in the flagship, namely that cross-cluster collaboration should be enhanced. In this regard, it should be noted that DI1.4 cluster is not only about in situ conservation, but also characterization and utilization of genetic resources, and this can definitely be linked with Nextgen tools for this purpose, and the BCoP to coordinate and disseminate the approaches and knowledge.Several innovations were discussed, including:• Prototype of in situ monitoring system;• Promoting marker-assisted selection + electronic field collection across RTB crops;• Molecular characterization of BSV integrants with modified profiles;• Methodologies and tool for identification of diversity hot spots;• Promoting marker-assisted selection + electronic field collection across RTB crops;There was argument around what can be considered a research outcome. For example, the uptake and utilization of the genomic databases (e.g. cassavabase, musabase and sweetpotatobase) by the RTB breeders could be considered a research outcome, since the tools developed are now in use in breeding programs, and national partner users are being trained in their use.The outcome stories that were decided upon were:• Use of genome based SNPS to assess improved variety adoption. Evidence: Publication and data. LuisAugusto-the evaluations of cassava variety adoption in Colombia and in Nigeria show the use of molecular tools for this purpose;• Use of cBSV marker to perform marker assisted selection in early stage. Evidence: 2 articles and plants.Mathieu-it was explained that now genotypes free of this endemic virus can be distributed, thanks to the use of the molecular marker;• Marker assisted selection in and across RTB crops. Evidence: Use of database. Ismail. There is a list of available markers, and a large number of samples have been genotyped (Intertek).Main cross-cutting areas of the flagship work for the next 3 years were discussed:• Genetic Basis of quality traits for key RTB product profiles-using RTB Foods tools developed and information, apply this to genetic diversity panels to elucidate the genetics of these traits (link DI1.1, 1.2 and 1.4);• Dynamic integrated system from genetic resources for integrated food and nutrition security. By describing the diversity in hotspots (RTB crop mix) and assessing threats and challenges (e.g. climate change), desired traits can be explored using genotyping and phenotyping tools;• Incorporation and adaptation of tools from EiB and the CGIAR Gender and Breeding Initiative (profiles/stage gates/other tools) into breeding programs through the Breeding CoP. Idea is to implement common sets of recommendations from the Breeding Program Assessment Tool (BPAT) reports, by responding and learning from each other through a shared forum.Detailed notes of the session can be found here.The new breeding mindset around demand led breeding and the use of stage gate thinking was a central point of discussion. In this light the Breeding CoP which nominally sits in FP1 is at least as important to FP2. Hence a major focus of cross cutting work in breeding going forward would be around developing product profiles and the FP2 leader to be designated would play a key role, since donor's expectation in terms of breeding outcomes have shifted from developing varieties to demonstrate their adoption by smallholders or use in value chains.One challenge identified by the group is that published papers generally reflect work done several years earlier.The RTB databases developed with BTI demonstrate successful cross-cutting development of practical RTB breeding tools and will be highlighted as an innovation in 2018. Crop specific innovations include:• Impact network analysis;• Gender responsive product profiles for cassava in Nigeria;• Proof of concept of population hybrid breeding in sweetpotato;• Banana breeding tracking system;• Identification of target populations of environments for yam breeding.It was more difficult to identify clear and significant outcome stories. Two related to the seed system cluster were proposed: E-certification in Nigeria, and TC lab multiplication rates improved. Breeding bananas is especially challenging so getting a release of a new variety is a much major accomplishment than in other crops, with PITA3 registered in Cote D' Ivoire.Going forward in the breeding area in addition to product profiles, cross cutting collaboration is proposed around the use of ground penetrating radar for early bulking and root growth estimation, this could be extended to look at the growth of banana corm. In the area of seed, a major area of collaboration is around quality assurance looking at standards and regulations, building on work with PIM in addition to getting evidence of impacts of inappropriate quality assurance standards in RTB crops, additional effort would be needed in shared communication and advocacy strategies.Other details for the Flagship 2 discussion can be found here.The flagship team started the session by reviewing the results achieved in 2018 and by identifying the innovations and outcomes that can be highlighted in the annual report. Cross-cutting and cross-cluster innovations have been described and the level of progress discussed. The group agreed on the following set to be highlighted:• Linking temperature dependent virus transmission to Insect Life Cycle Models (CC3.1);• Platform for monitoring Pest & Diseases (PestDisPlace) (CA3.5);• Tools for diagnostic & molecular typing of bacterial diseases of cassava (CA3.5/6) and banana (BA3.3);• Decision Support Tools (Version 1 and 2) used in validation trials in Nigeria and Tanzania;• Similarly, for the outcome cases, several options have been proposed and a list has been developed for further analysis and documentation. Eradication of BBTV in Togo (link w 5.5);• NURU used by thousands of farmers and extensionists especially in East Africa and SEA to diagnose and control diseases (3,000 reports of success);• Commercialization of weed control and formation of weed control service providers;• Application of pathogen diagnostic tools for research and certification in more than 10 countries of Africa, Asia and South America;• Capacities in use for policy influence within governmental institutions.The first area of work discussed is the assessment of the bottlenecks encountered when promoting the use of Pest Risk Assessment by partners. The more promising area that was highlighted is the integration of databases and digital tools (Apps) for pest and disease monitoring and management, including the collaboration with BigData. Other areas identified were: Use of drones and remote sensing; and Pathogen-informed GWAS-based discovery of genes in interest.Flagship 3 detailed discussion notes can be found here.Flagship structure, cross-cluster and cross-crop collaborations were at the center of the initial discussion among team members. Central role in facilitating these collaborations was reaffirmed for CC4.1.The group identified and selected the most significant innovations that they will highlight in the 2018 reporting process:• Processing improvements of cassava, sweetpotato and other RTB crops;• Advocacy tools for biofortified crops (cassava, sweetpotato) for influencing policy documents on nutrition;• Toolkit for identifying user descriptors of RTB crops and food products (including gender and postharvest processors);• Development of phenotyping tools for screening quality traits of RTB germplasms;• Validation of post-harvest losses assessment method for sweetpotato and banana;• Validation of the gender in value chain analytical tools.The group agreed on four outcome cases and champions to help in documenting the cases:• Utilization of cassava waste for HQCP: WhatsApp information exchange enables processors and investors to solve problems quickly towards technology adoption (Nigeria) -Champion: Acho Okike and Thierry Tran;• Impact of policy document for advocacy to deliver biofortified crops (cassava, OFSP) (Nigeria and Tanzania) -Champions: Elizabeth Parkes and Fred Grant;• Improving utilization of biofortified RTB crops: OFSP crisps commercialization in Malawi: How it was developed and came to the market. And Harvest+ Titbits (cassava crisps in Nigeria at commercial stage) -Champion: TBD;• Silage of sweet potato vines and potato (Uganda) -Champion: Fred Grant and Jan Low.In terms of cross-cutting work with other FPs, examples have been mentioned for FP1 (Exploring the diversity of the cassava germplasm collection from the point of view of biophysical properties and users quality traits, to identify promising genotypes for breeding), FP2 (Breeding improved varieties for specific food and industrial applications; phenotyping tools and HTPP of user quality traits to feedback to breeding) and FP5 (Ex-ante economic assessments, impact assessments, scaling projects).Flagship 4 detailed discussion notes can be found here.Flagship project 5 team presented their performance and reporting in a slightly different format, with science, development and mobilization performances listed separately. Flagship 5 detailed notes of the session are available here as well as the introductory presentation here. Some of their highlights reported in plenary were:• Innovations to report-Linking farm level modelling to strategic foresight which relates biophysical and socio-economic analyses, 2 Examples of how ex-post shaped breeding agenda, FarmSIM Banana, Toolbox for gender-responsive youth research, Robust qualitative tools and methodologies building on GENNOVATE, Scaling Fund (incl. Scaling Champion), Scaling Readiness Approach, Capacity building materials and approaches were developed to engage young people in dialogue with policy makers.• Outcome stories-\"Establishing global youth connections to improve policy and youth engagement in agriculture\" and Multi-stakeholder approach of the ENDURE project to bring together R/D organizations and value chain actors to jointly identify, assess, select and test best-bet options for expanding utilization and reducing postharvest losses of selected RTB crops.• Cross cutting areas of flagship work -The scaling readiness approach will be used to assess technologies and plan scaling interventions in the newly approved scaling fund projects. The gender-responsiveness of scaling processes will be enhanced through the support of the gender team. The analysis of youth aspirations and opportunities for engagement in agriculture will provide guidelines to enhance the outreach of specific technologies for young people. Gender analysis conducted in 5.3 contributes to develop more gender-responsive seed systems interventions in 2.1. Product profile development in 5.1 will be supported by information from gender analysis generated in 5.3. In the afternoon session, Small group work on key cross cutting themes (current work and future perspectives) was carried out in an \"Open Space\" format, with each group provided with a template for discussion and posterior recounting in plenary. Here are the main topics treated in each group.Ted Carey and Luis Augusto Becerra were the leaders of this discussion implementing stage gate approach in RTB breeding programs and guidelines for establishing product profiles (test run EiB app), including gender responsive product profiles. Several presentations and notes can be found in this folder. A RTB concept note that aims to use cross cutting features of RTBs to jointly develop product profiles that will assist RTB breeders while conforming to desires of donors and the larger group of CGIAR breeding programs was envisioned. The cross-cutting teams to be involved, besides the breeders would include:1) gender specialists;2) breeders, genetic resources -FP1 and FP2;3) economists from 5.1 -for priority setting, cost/benefit analysis, forecasting; 4) interdisciplinary specialists in FP3 and FP4 and especially relevant projects that inform breeding priorities like RTBFoods.Next Steps are: 1) share the G+ forms and engage with the EiB product profiles templates to provide feedback on the tolls to develop product profiles. The first output are shared tools and interactions to support development of product profiles;2) harmonize development and delivery of gender responsive product concepts for each RTB crop;3) develop draft product profile contracts for short term targets of one to five years for progress toward reaching the product profile in consultation with Center or Institute management; 4) develop a more inclusive decision-making process or stage gate process that is relevant to RTB crops while supporting efficient, high quality and rapid breeding progress.Timeline and other notes of the Developing RTB Gender Responsive Product Profiles discussion can be found here.The group revised progress and agreed on the work needed to improve the seed system toolbox:• Harmonizing and ensuring the quality of data capture tools to facilitate meta and cross-country comparison opportunities. CIP has already done this with the multi-stakeholder framework by making it a mandatory exercise for seed systems interventions;• Guidance on tool selection for potential users: at which phase in the project they should be applied, who are users, what it actually evaluates, etc.;• Monitoring tool use after launch: how the tool contributed to achievement of project objectives, learning;• Expand SeedTracker beyond release and purchase into labelling and tracking seed use;• Socialize and promote the advanced toolbox with validated tools to potential next users (both within RTB and external).Additional tools could be included:• Willingness to pay for seed and choice experiments: and match/gap with actual costs;• Templates for cost breakdowns and planning of early generation seed production and multiplication.This could build on a linked excel datasheet for each stage of production with sweetpotato which is available;• Including a specific gender lens in existing tools -e.g. risk, stakeholders in seed systems, seed use and management, socioeconomic status (beyond data disaggregation and basic existing methods of participant selection, etc.);• Apps: pest and disease mapping and recognition software could mesh well with seed systems.The group worked on elements of a crosscutting project on choice games for evaluating willingness to pay for RTB seed. The objective is to assess market potential & seed market segments among social groups/strata (and for different seed varieties/health statuses) -to inform distribution strategies and phytosanitary/varietal introduction initiatives.Detailed discussion notes can be found here.The group started with presentations on: PestDisPlace, Cassava/Crop Disease Surveillance, SeedTracker, NURU and NURUplus, PathostDB (molecular database) and Citizen Science. There was an agreement on the need for a more integrated approach and better coordinated development of these tools:• Better ways to identify and quantify known pests and diseases, for which control recommendations exist;• Better ways to detect outbreaks for early and effective contingency response for pest and diseases which are unknown or unfamiliar and with the potential to cause catastrophic harm;• Reduced data redundancy; increased analytical power;• Accessibility of data to wider user base.The definition and compliance with harmonized terminology and data management standards was discussed. It appeared that datasets with standardized ontologies and structure are needed to ensure interoperability among pest surveillance data systems and to enhance analytical power. Challenges in terms of data ownership, authenticity, access and intellectual property were highlighted.A list of four key outputs for the next 2 years was formulated:• RTB pest and disease surveillance ontology 'dictionary';• RTB 'best practice' on pest surveillance data collection;• Easy wins for interoperability of RTB 'surveillance assets' identified and tested;• Common interface for current and future Apps (Overarching brand).These results could be achieved if partnerships are developed with other institutions and the BigData platform.Minutes of the session are available here and for the follow-up meeting here.During a brainstorming exercise, participants suggested the topics that could be addressed in a concept note for cross-cutting and cross-center collaboration:• Decision making tool to list and rank traits preferences / quality trait ontology (cf. PhenoHarmonis Symposium 2018);• Profiling for more products (than RTBfoods) + in more targeted countries;• Impact of storage on processing ability & acceptability: how storage affect quality? And more broadly, post-harvest / transportation? (shelf-life) Can we optimize the current practices in storage? Storage of raw product + of the final product. Does it affect processing ability? User acceptance? Ex: cold storage, is it possible to apply at large scale?• Aroma: WP2 RTBfoods currently doing this for some products, still need results from WP1 field surveys;• Variety / processing methods interactions: How does physiological interactions after processing affect acceptance of RTB products? (need for more fund availability to do wet chemistry to inform spectral acquisition);• Shift in Urban & Rural consumption of RTB products (Integration of private companies?) Capture consumption patterns and anticipate changes in urban/rural areas. Understand consumer choice and future changes in RTB consumption to develop a behavioural strategy / anticipating changes in RTB consumption;• Selection of varieties for processing: Design & improve of processing methods with people: reduce drudgery, gender sensitive;• Nutrition as a priority: (not captured in RTBfoods) + study of local recipes that are nutritious.The group decided to focus on a concept note: Anticipate changes in Food Choices for RTB breeding.The aim of such a project would be to develop the following outputs:1) Knowledge on Urban & Rural RTB consumption habits of RTB products and trends;2) Knowledge on impact of post-harvest handling on quality characteristics;3) Knowledge on quality traits identified across the value chain; 4) Improved design of processing methods to reduce drudgery and inform breeders; 5) Key engendered quality traits main streamed into RT breeding programs; 6) Decision making tool / quality trait ontology to list and rank traits preferences.The project should count on partnership arrangements that include both traditional partners (Universities, NARS, NGOs) but also local enterprises, food processors and CBOs (Community Based Organizations).Detailed discussion notes can be found here.The group discussed about the \"Scaling Readiness Approach\" which aim is to improve scaling performance of the projects in RTB portfolio and to contribute to the Science of Scaling. In fact, the assessment of more cases implementing Scaling Readiness will enhance the quality of evidence on its effectiveness.Mobilizing funds for the following priorities was discussed:1) Present Scaling Readiness Approach to the key managers of projects under RTB portfolio;2) Receive feedback on the pathways for scaling the approach in CGIAR;3) Identify potential key projects that can use the approach and contribute to the evidence base.And concrete steps to define joint actions with bilateral projects, centers and partners are foreseen.Detailed discussion notes can be found here and presentation here.What was positive?• G+ Tools and formats• The idea of the golden egg as a guide• The discussions held in each Flagship about what to report for the next reporting cycle• The agenda design which allowed time for cross pollination, sharing and interaction• The multiple opportunities to interact with other people and build together• We are gradually being convinced that maybe this really is the best CRP What needs to be improved for the next meeting?• It would have been good to spend more time on the outcome stories to outline the story lines• Set time to see the impact of our work in the field (visit)• Share forms for group work in advance to agree on the content with FP Leaders• Hold the RTB meeting before other meetings so we have more energy• Bring in some opinion leaders to give us some context reading and guidance","tokenCount":"4342"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dbb24925029afb9ada959056d25a24fa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a94a26f-e25d-4740-88aa-add7b0332ef1/retrieve","id":"-697734285"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b0b79864-39ed-400d-920a-a765092630ac","pagecount":"17","content":"In this study, the effect of ripening stage (R), cultivar (C), bunch type (T), and location (L) on the variability of provitamin A carotenoids (pVACs) in 16 plantain cultivars grown in Cameroon and Gabon was investigated. For the sixteen plantain cultivars, fruits were collected at stages 1 (unripe), 5 (ripe), and 7 (overripe) from three different bunch types (French, False Horn, and True Horn) across 13 locations in Cameroon and Gabon. For all cultivars, the highest concentration of carotenoids was found in ripe pulp (p < 0.05). For bunch type, a higher level of pVACs was observed in the French type compared with the False Horn and True Horn types at all ripening stages. In addition, the concentration of pVACs at each ripening stage varied greatly across locations. In both countries, the interaction between the four factors, particularly between R × C, R × T, R × L, R × C × L, and R × T × L, contributed significantly (p < 0.05) to the variability of pVACs in plantain. Daily consumption of 100 g of ripe plantain could meet 36.2-101.7 % of the dietary reference intakes (DRIs) for children 1-5 years old, 20.7-58.1 % for adult women, and 16.1-45.2 % for adult men. These findings can serve as a guide to reducing vitamin A deficiency (VAD) in Africa.Carotenoids, the main bioactive constituents in fruit and vegetables, play a vital role in the prevention of many diseases (Singh et al., 2016). Some carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A biosynthesis. Many epidemiological studies report that the consumption of diets rich in carotenoids can improve immunity and reduce the risk of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, age-related macular degeneration, and cataracts (Meyers et al., 2014;Müller et al., 2016). However, a deficiency of carotenoids, particularly provitamin A carotenoids, leads to vision disability in humans, especially in young children and pregnant women, and causes mortality owing to a weakened innate and adaptive immunity (Stephensen, 2001). In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified vitamin A deficiency (VAD) as a public health problem affecting one-third of children aged 6-59 months. The highest VAD rate was reported in countries with low per capita income, particularly sub-Saharan Africa (48 %) and South Asia (44 %) (Black et al., 2013). In Cameroon, the number of people facing food insecurity is estimated at 3.9 million, including 211,000, who are severely food insecure. Stunting remains a major public health issue, with levels reaching 38.4 % in the East Region; acute malnutrition is estimated at around 4.8 %. High malnutrition rates are primarily a result of limited consumption of nutritious food resulting in micronutrient deficiency. About 39 % of pre-school aged children and 18 % of pregnant women are deficient in vitamin A (World Food Program (WFP, 2018). Aguayo et al. (2005) reported that an estimated 937,600 children below 5 years of age are vitamin A deficient. Because of the lack of an appropriate policy and program action, VAD would annually cause about 12,000 deaths among children between 6 and 59 months old, representing 23.1 % of all causes of mortality in this age group. Likewise, a study by Abessolo et al. (2009) showed that more than 45 % of Gabonese children aged from 0 to13 years old experienced delayed growth, and this is positively correlated with low retinol concentrations.Generally, the leading causes of VAD are linked to insufficient intake of vitamin A-rich foods, poor absorption of vitamins, and/or significant loss due to illness (Low et al., 2017). Many preventive strategies such as supplementation with high-dose vitamin A, fortification of foods during processing, dietary diversification and modification, and public health and disease-control measures have been proposed to counteract such problems (Wedner and Ross, 2017). Gibson et al. (2000) indicated that dietary diversification and modification by changing food production practices, food intake patterns, and traditional cooking methods were the most sustainable, economically feasible, equitable, and culturally acceptable strategies to combat VAD.In countries with low per capita income, vitamin A intake is mainly acquired from fruits with yellow, orange, and red colors as well as from dark green leafy vegetables in the form of provitamin A carotenoids (pVACs) before conversion into retinol in the body (Ekesa et al., 2015). Among those fruits, plantain (Musa spp. AAB) is one of the major, cheap staples in African countries, especially in Cameroon and Gabon (Okolle et al., 2009), and is rich sources of carotenoids (Ekesa et al., 2015;Singh et al., 2016). Amah et al. (2019) reported that approximately 80 % of the carotenoids in plantain are αand β-carotene. In addition, total carotenoids in tested cultivars varied from 5.1-16.0 μg g − 1 fresh weight (FW).Ngoh Newilah et al. (2009) also exhibited that the plantain genotype Mbouroukou 1 and Musa hybrid CRBP 755 in Cameroon contained the highest levels of retinol activity equivalents (RAE) compared with dessert banana. Borges et al. (2019a) stated that many factors such as cultivar, ripening stage, and location could contribute to the differentiation and variation of carotenoids and other biochemical compounds in plantain.Plantain is a staple food in Cameroon and Gabon, but its contribution to pVACs in the diet is unknown. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate the influence of ripening stage (R), cultivar (C), bunch type (T), and location (L) on the content of pVACs and (ii) investigate the influence of their interaction on pVAC content.Sixteen plantain cultivars from three different bunch types (French, False Horn, and True Horn) (Table 1) were collected in March 2019 (the beginning of the rainy season) from five locations in Cameroon (Bandounga, Njombe, Ntui, Bafia, and Batchenga) and eight locations in Gabon (Oyem, Ntoum, Bitam, Mitzic, Komi, Medakoe, Remboue, and Tsouka) (Fig. 1). The average temperature and rainfall, and soil classification at each sampling location are presented (Table 2). Fully developed bunches were harvested from farms cultivated either with or without fertilizer applications and grown in backyards, fields, or forests. Plantain was cultivated in monoculture or polyculture but also as a shade crop for cocoa production. Three bunches per cultivar were collected from each farm. Then deep green undamaged fruits were randomly sampled from the second and third hands of each bunch. The samples were packed in an aerated carton, labeled, and transported by road to the laboratory at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Yaoundé, Cameroon. Three stages of ripening were considered according to the external color of the peel: 1 = mature green (unripe); 5 = all yellow with green ends (ripe); and 7 = yellow with black spots (fully ripe). The fruits were allowed to ripen naturally in a well-aerated room to reach each stage. At each ripening stage, three fingers from different bunches were randomly picked, and the fruits were cleaned, hand peeled, cut, kept in labeled zip-lock bags, and frozen at -25 • C before freeze-drying.All samples were freeze-dried using a laboratory freeze-dryer (model Mudulyo, Edwards, England, UK) at a working pressure of 0.1 kPa and condenser chamber temperature of − 45 • C for 72 h. The freeze-dried samples were then packaged, sealed in aluminum film bags, and stored in dark conditions at − 20 • C for 2 weeks before transport to the Food and Nutrition Science Laboratory in IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, for carotenoid analysis.Freeze-dried plantain samples were extracted according to the procedure described by Amah et al. (2019) with some modifications. Briefly, 5 g of each homogenized sample was weighed and thoroughly macerated in a mortar with 3 g of Celite in 50 mL of cold acetone. The solution was filtered with suction through filter paper in a Büchner funnel. This extraction procedure was repeated 3-4 times until the final residue appeared colorless. The acetone extract was then partitioned to 20 mL of petroleum ether in a separatory funnel. Distilled water was slowly added along the surface of the funnel allowing the two phases to separate without emulsion formation. Following this, the lower aqueous-acetone phase was discarded by washing four times with distilled water and, finally, with 150-200 mL of brine solution (NaCl) to break the emulsions formed. The upper organic (petroleum ether) phase was then filtered through anhydrous sodium sulfate into a 50 mL volumetric flask, and the volume was adjusted to 50 mL with petroleum ether. All the necessary precautions were taken as recommended by Rodriguez-Amaya (1999) to prevent errors during the carotenoid analysis.The carotenoid analysis was carried out on a High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) separation module (model Waters Alliance e2695, Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, USA) equipped with a polymeric YMC TM C30 5 μm column (4.6 × 250 mm) and a photodiode array detector (PDA). The system was operated by Empower software (Waters Corporation, Milford, MA, USA). Fifteen mL of the petroleum ether extracted sample was concentrated and dried under nitrogen gas and reconstituted in 1 mL dichloromethane: methanol (50:50 v v − 1 ). The solution was filtered through a 0.22 mm polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) syringe filter (Millipore) into 2 mL vials (Waters PTFE/silicone septum) for HPLC. Sample injection volumes were 20 μL, and the flow rate was set at 1.0 mL min − 1 at a temperature of 25 • C. Isocratic elution was performed for 10 min on extracts with 50: 50 v v − 1 methanol: methyl tert-butyl ether. The UV spectra were observed at 200-600 nm, and carotenoids were detected at 450 nm. Lutein, α-carotene, trans-β-carotene (trans-BC), 13-cis-β-carotene (13-cis-BC), and 9-cis-β-carotene (9-cis-BC) were identified using a standard external method based on the calibration curve established from pure standards. Identification of individual carotenoids in samples was possible by comparing their chromatograms with the retention times and absorption spectrum of pure commercial standards on the photodiode array detector library. Results were expressed as μg per g FW of the sample. Following the difference in fresh and freeze-dried weights, the moisture content of each sample was established, and the carotenoid values of fresh matter were determined [value of dry matter/(100/100− moisture%)].To validate the method, the selectivity, linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), accuracy (recovery), and repeatability were analyzed. The selectivity of the LC system was evaluated by analyzing carotenoid isomers (all trans-lutein, all trans-α-carotene, all trans-BC, 13-cis-BC, and 9-cis-BC). Peak identification of each carotenoid standard was obtained from the chromatography by comparison of the diode array detector spectra with published data. Linearity was assessed by checking the detector response in the area units of duplicate injections of carotenoid standard as different concentrations through a linear regression using at least five-point analytical curves of all translutein, α-carotene, and all trans-BC. The LODs were estimated applying the IUPAC Harmonised Guidelines for single-laboratory validation of methods of analysis (Thompson et al., 2002). It was calculated based on  the standard deviation of the response of the analytical curve (Sy) and the slope (S) of the calibration curve according to the formula: LOD = 3.3(Sy/S). The LOQs was computed according to the formula: LOQ = 10 (Sy/S). The standard deviation of the response was determined from the standard deviation of y-intercepts of regression lines. Recovery was determined by spiking samples of plantain with known amounts of carotenoid standards prior to extraction in three additional levels for each carotenoid. The within-day test for repeatability of the chromatographic systems was analyzed using all trans-BC of known concentrations using the HPLC, and the result was expressed as percentage of relative standard deviation (%RSD).The validation results showed that the linear regression was significant (p < 0.05) in the evaluated concentration ranges, which was also corroborated by the high values of the determination of coefficient (R 2 ≥ 0.9994). The residual plots of all the analytical curves followed a Gaussian distribution. The calculated LODs and LOQs for all carotenoids were in the range of 0.005-0.020 μg mL − 1 and 0.014-0.050 μg mL − 1 , respectively. The recovery values varied from 90 to 95 % for all carotenoid standards, which could imply approximately 5-10 % of carotenoid losses during the analytical procedure. The RSD for retention time was 0.11, peak height 0.26, and peak area 0.37 %, which were within an acceptable limit of 5%.Total carotenoids (TC) with provitamin A activity were computed as pVACs (μg g − 1 FW) = α-carotene+13-cis-BC+9-cis-BC+trans-BC; TC were computed as TC (μg g − 1 FW) = total pVACs + lutein. Provitamin A content expressed in terms of β-carotene equivalents (BCEs) was calculated as BCE (μg g -1 FW) = 0.5 trans-α-carotene+trans-BC+0.53cis-BC, where cis-BC is the sum of 13-cis-BC and 13-cis-AC. These values were then converted into retinol activity equivalents (RAEs), assuming that 1/ 12th of the total all-trans-BCEs ingested is taken up into the body (Yeum and Russell, 2002). The RAEs in μg per 100 g FW were compared with the vitamin A DRI for children 1-5 years old at 400 RAE μg day -1 , for adult and pregnant women at 700 RAE μg day -1 , and for adult men at 900 RAE μg day − 1 (FAO/WHO, 2002).The analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference (LSD) was used to examine the presence of statistically significant mean differences in carotenoid content by R, C, T, and L at a 5 % significance level using the SAS program (Ver. 9.4, SAS Inst., Cary, NC, USA). The influence of the key factors: R, C, T, and L on pVACs content was analyzed. In addition to the mean difference in pVACs across R, C, T, and L, their interaction effects were also examined using ANOVA.Considering the effect of T and R (without C and L effects), the results showed a higher level of pVACs was found in the French type at all maturity stages when compared with corresponding values in False Horn and True Horn types (Fig. 2). For example, the level of pVACs in unripe pulp (stage 1) of the French type was higher by 60.1 % than the False Horn type and by 57.1 % than the True Horn type (Table 3). In the ripe pulp (stage 5) of the French type, the pVACs were about 13.2 % higher than in the False Horn type and 32.6 % higher than in the True Horn type. In overripe pulp (stage 7), pVACs were 24.8 % higher than in the False Horn type and 33.7 % higher than in the True Horn type.Slightly higher values of individual carotenoids such as lutein, α-carotene, 13-cis-BC, and 9-cis-BC in plantain have also been reported by Amah et al. (2019) who assessed the variability of Musa acuminata cultivars and hybrids. When the proportion of relative carotenoids across the different bunch types at each ripening stage is considered, a significant increase of trans-BC was observed from stage 1 to stage 5 while levels of lutein, 13cis-BC, and 9-cis-BC decreased during ripening before slightly increasing at stage 7 (Fig. 3). An increase of the cis proportion in overripe pulp might be due to enzymatic or non-enzymatic isomerization of transcarotenes to cis-isomers (Ekesa et al., 2015). In addition, lutein and 13-cis-BC greatly decreased by 60.3 and 52.0 % in False Horn and by 36.5 and 55.1 %, respectively, in True Horn when the fruits were ripened to stage 5; α-carotene and trans-BC increased by 13.5 and 56.5 %, respectively, in False Horn and by 16.9 and 62.4 % in True Horn. In the French type, no variation was clearly observed when compared with those of False Horn and True Horn. It is interesting that more than 90 % of the carotenoids isolated in the French type at all ripening stages contributed to pVACs, while less than 10 % was made up of the non-pVACs lutein. Although about 90 % of carotenoids in ripe and overripe pulp of False Horn and True Horn was pVACs, the contribution of carotenoids to pVACs in unripe pulp was less than 80 % in False Horn and 85 % in True Horn. Amah et al. (2019) also showed that the highest proportion of pVACs (88 %) is in plantain when compared to Musa acuminata cultivars (78 %) and hybrids (67 %) sampled at the fresh ripe stage.The major carotenoid isolated at all maturity stages was α-carotene (45.5 %), followed by trans-BC (25.3 %), 13-cis-BC (14.1 %), lutein (12.5 %), and 9-cis-BC (2.6 %) (Table 3).There was a wide variation in carotenoid content in all plantain cultivars analyzed. It ranged from 0.3-22.1 μg g − 1 FW at maturity stage 1, 29.9 to 106.0 μg g − 1 FW at stage 5, and 19.7 to 93.6 μg g − 1 FW at stage 7. The average TC varied from 0.7-24.5 μg g − 1 FW at stage 1; from 32.9-119.3 μg g − 1 FW at stage 5; and from 23.9-99.1 μg g − 1 FW at stage 7. These concentrations are within the range of values for banana and plantain reported by Ngoh  2019), and Borges et al. (2019b). Likewise, the concentration of α-carotene, trans-BC, 13-cis-BC, lutein, and 9-cis-BC in all cultivars significantly increased (p < 0.05) from stage 1 (unripe) to stage 5 (ripe) and then decreased at stage 7 (overripe).Considering the effect of C and R (without T and L effects), it could be seen that unripe French Sombre (22.09 μg g − 1 FW), Red Essong (15.0 μg g − 1 FW), and Batard (9.6 μg g − 1 FW) exhibited the highest value of pVACs (Table 4). The value was very low in Mbouroukou 3 (1.4 μg g − FW), Njock Kon (1.4 μg g − 1 FW), and Egnongui (1.4 μg g − 1 FW). At the ripe stage, French Sombre (104.6 μg g − 1 FW), French Clair (83.6 μg g − FW), and Egnongui (80.7 μg g − 1 FW) showed the highest value of pVACs among all cultivars. The overripe pulp of French Sombre (66.5 μg g − FW) still contained the highest value of pVACs, followed by Mbouroukou 2 (59.0 μg g − 1 FW) and Elat (54.6 μg g − 1 FW). Overall, the level of pVACs in all cultivars decreased by an average of 31.9 % when the fruits continued to ripen from stage 5-7. The highest loss of pVACs during ripening was observed in Big Ebanga (59.2 %), followed by Mbouroukou 1 (48.9 %), Batard (48.6 %), and French Clair (45.3 %).An increase of carotenoids in ripe pulp indicates the degradation of chlorophylls with a concomitant rise of carotenoids (Singh et al., 2016;Alos et al., 2019). Likewise, the level of difference in carotenoid accumulation during ripening in each cultivar might be caused by the different expression and regulation of carotenogenesis gene transcripts as well as the structure and function of diverse metabolic enzymes (Zhang et al., 2012;Ma et al., 2018) caused by the different growing conditions at the various sampling sites. Indeed, Ngoh Newilah et al.(2009) made a causal link between increases of αand β-carotene as well as of lutein in the ripe pulp during the fruit production cycle and fertilizer application. The reduction in carotenoids during the overripe stage could probably be explained by oxidation and/or the isomerization process of carotenoids (Schieber and Carle, 2005;Borges et al., 2019c). In contrast, Ngoh Newilah et al. ( 2009) exemplified the reduction in carotenoid levels to the carotenoid degradation during ripening. This mechanism occurs via enzymatic cleavage and may stimulate the synthesis of other carotenoid isomers, such as volatile compounds (Borges et al., 2019b).The result showed that carotenoid concentrations in plantain at each stage of ripening varied greatly among locations (Table 3). At stage 1,     French Sombre from Tsouka (22.1 μg g − 1 FW), Red Essong from Ntui (21.7 μg g − 1 FW), and Batard from Njombe (20.8 μg g − 1 FW) exhibited the highest value of pVACs among the cultivars. At stage 5, the maximum value of pVACs was found in Red Ebang from Bitam (106.0 μg g − 1 FW), French Sombre from Tsouka (104.5 μg g − 1 FW), and Essong from Mitzic (101.2 μg g − 1 FW). At stage 7, the richest in pVACs were Essong from Mitzic (93.6 μg g − 1 FW), Essong from Bitam (68.4 μg g − 1 FW), and French Sombre from Tsouka (66.5 μg g − 1 FW).Higher levels of pVACs were more likely to be observed in growing areas with a hotter and more humid environment like Njombe and Bandounga than in Ntui, Bafia, and Batchenga (Tables 2, 3, and 5) . However, this might not be the case in Gabon as higher levels of pVACs were observed in locations where average temperature and rainfall are lower, like in Bitam and Mitzic. This indicates that environmental factors affect pVAC content, but we cannot yet attribute this to one or more specific factors. A study by Passo Tsamo et al. (2015) reported that soil fertility, temperature, and annual rainfall at Njombe, Cameroon, were more suitable for growing plantain with more diverse bioactive compound profiles than in the Bansoa area, Cameroon. Besides, Borges et al. (2014) determined the profile of carotenoids in different cultivars of banana and plantain aiming to select superior cultivars for the development of biofortified crops. They concluded that the level of provitamin A carotenoids and other carotenoids varied depending upon the environmental conditions of the growing regions. This result might be explained by the fact that other related factors such as soil fertility, agronomic practices, developmental stage, abiotic and biotic stresses, and storage conditions could also affect the variation of bioactive compounds in fruits (Coyago-Cruz et al., 2018;Kumar et al., 2019). For instance, a study by Coyago-Cruz et al. (2018) showed that the levels of carotenoids changed more frequently as a function of the fruit developmental stage, cultivar, and season, although irrigation treatment had no effect.The interaction effects of the four factors are presented in Table 6. The two-way interaction effects between R × C, R × T, and R × L were statistically significant (p < 0.05) in both countries. In addition, the three-way interaction effects between R × C × L as well as that of R × T × L were significant (p < 0.001). However, insignificant effects for the following interactions: C × T, C × L, and T × L were observed. The results reported in Table 6 are mostly consistent with the descriptive evidence presented in the previous sections and so offer useful insights to     Maturity stage: 1=mature green; 5=all yellow with only tips remaining green (ripe); and 7=yellow and lightly flecked with brown (fully ripe). 13-cis-BC = 13-cis-β-carotene; 9-cis-BC = 9-cis-β-carotene; trans-BC = trans-β-carotene; pVACs = provitamin A carotenoids; TC = total carotenoids; BCE = β-carotene equivalents; TP = total phenolic. Means (± standard deviation) within a column followed by different lower-case letters (ripening stages) and different upper-case letters (cultivars within the same bunch type/between bunch types), differ by LSD test (p < 0.05).Retinol activity equivalent (RAE) and dietary reference intake (DRI) of plantain cultivars grown in Cameroon and Gabon at ripening stage 1, 5, and 7.  explain variations in pVACs content in the study areas.Depending on consumers' preference and eating habits, plantain can be consumed at different ripening stages. For example, unripe plantain is mostly consumed in cooked form or processed to other products such as chips and flour, while plantain can also be consumed fresh as an energygiving food at the ripened stage. It can also be transformed into different local dishes, depending on sociocultural contexts and norms (Honfo et al., 2011). In this study, the average RAE values for all plantain cultivars varied widely from 0.02 to 0.88 μg g − 1 FW at maturity stage 1, from 1.2-4.1 μg g − 1 FW at stage 5, and from 0.8 to 3.7 μg g − 1 FW at stage 7, depending on cultivar, location, and ripening stage (Table 5). At stage 1, the highest value of RAE was identified in French Sombre from Tsouka (0.9 μg g − 1 FW), followed by Red Essong from Ntui (0.9 μg g − 1 FW) and Batard from Njombe (0.8 μg g − 1 FW). Red Ebang from Bitam (4.1 μg g − 1 FW), French Sombre from Tsouka (4.1 μg g − 1 FW), and Essong from Mitzic (4.0 μg g − 1 FW) had the highest RAE value at stage 5. The higher level of RAE was obtained in the overripe stage of Essong from Mitzic (3.7 μg g − 1 FW) and Bitam (2.7 μg g − 1 FW), and in French Sombre from Tsouka. Varying by cultivars, the RAE value significantly increased (p < 0.05) by between 3.2 and 55.9 times during the ripening process, although a reduction in RAE value by about 1.5 times was observed in overripe pulp when compared with ripe pulp. Without the location effect, the most substantial loss of RAE value during ripening was found in Egnongui (55.9 times), Njock Kon (40.8 times), and Mbouroukou 1 (39.6 times). The least loss of RAE value was found in Red Essong (3.2 times), French Sombre (4.6 times), and Batard (6.3 times) (Table 7).With regard to the DRIs of vitamin A for children 1-5 years old (400 μg RAE), women of productive age (700 μg RAE), and men (900 μg RAE) (FAO/WHO, 2002), the results showed that 100 g of plantain, both unripe and overripe, was not sufficient to provide the DRIs for all types (Table 5). Although 100 g of ripe fruit (which is less than one fruit) from Red Ebang from Bitam and French Sombre from Tsouka could provide enough vitamin A to meet more than 100 % of the DRIs of the children aged 1-5 years old, neither would provide the DRIs of vitamin A for both adult women and men. Daily consumption by women and men of 100 g of ripe plantain (taking an average weight per finger into account)would be able to meet 20.7-58.1 % of the 700 μg RAE DRI for women  Maturity stage: 1=mature green; 5=all yellow with only green tips remaining (ripe); and 7=yellow and lightly flecked with brown (fully ripe). RAE = retinol activity equivalent; DRI = dietary reference intake. Means (± standard deviation) within a column followed by different lower-case letters (ripening stages) and different upper-case letters (cultivars within the same type/between types), differ by LSD test (p < 0.05).for adult women, and 2.8 fingers for adult men. Ngoh Newilah et al. (2009), Fungo andPillay (2011), andEkesa et al. (2015) also reported a high potential of different banana and plantain cultivars to meet from one-half to total vitamin A requirements of children 1-5 years old and adult women. Each cultivar could potentially be used for different cooking purposes, depending on traditional eating patterns and consumer preferences to enhance the nutritional status of the population through promotion or incorporation in agricultural systems. For example, the unripe pulp of French Sombre, Red Essong, and Batard was more suitable for making plantain chips, flour, and porridge as it exhibited the highest level of pVACs; ripe pulp of French Sombre, French Clair, and Egnongui was found to be the most suitable for frying as dodo or roasting. For some who prefer to use overripe plantain pulp as an ingredient in producing bakery products, such as muffins and cakes, French Sombre, Mbourokou 2, and Elat would be suggested. However, thermal processing could contribute to both beneficial and adverse modifications of the respective RAE and DRI values (Ekesa et al., 2012). For instance, Borges et al. (2019c) suggested that thermal processing, mainly by boiling, can increase the functional and nutritional value of plantain. This could be delineated by the fact that most phytochemical compounds are bound to other molecules or cell structures. Heat treatment has demonstrated its potential to damage the cell membrane, thus generating an opportunity for the bound phytochemical compounds to be released from chromoplasts into the cytoplasmic medium. Therefore, the released bioactive constituents become more amenable for extraction. In addition, a two-fold increase in total pVACs in boiled plantain was described by Ekesa et al. (2012). They also mentioned that the bioaccessibility of all-trans β-carotene depends on the food recipes, and it could be positively modified when pVACs-rich ingredients like palm oil or amaranth were added. On the other hand, a higher loss of carotenoids and other bioactive compounds was also reported in some processing methods such as hot air drying (Udomkun et al., 2015) and frying (Ekesa et al., 2013;Barakat and Rohn, 2014).This study provides data on the pVAC content of plantain by collecting fruits at different ripening stages in 16 different cultivars with three different bunch types across 13 locations in Cameroon and Gabon. The concentration of pVACs varied depending on cultivar, bunch type, ripening stage, location, and interaction effects. Although fresh and ripe plantain contained high levels of pVACs that could meet the daily estimated vitamin A requirements for pre-school children, adult and pregnant women, as well as adult men, the consumption quantity still depends on cultivar and cooking method. To conserve the nutritional value of plantain, therefore, optimization of each cooking process, especially with respect to temperature and time, must be considered. In addition, the effect of storage conditions and packaging materials on the pVACs and other bioactive compounds should also be incorporated into future studies.","tokenCount":"4838"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bf10defdf1492eaa71970b117cdb04af","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e437273-c224-4a4e-9256-4a6ba8b85ca9/retrieve","id":"116649341"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8be36e17-fac3-42dd-8b44-99ce27ff4a40","pagecount":"29","content":"El cultivo de antera. ha sido presentado como un medio útil para la obtención de lineas homocigotas en forma rápida.El Programa de Arroz del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) ha venido trabajando en el desarrollo de un método sencillo para produci~ un volumen grande de material genético a través del cultivo de anteras. Se e.tudiaron forma. para mejorar la siembra y el medio de cultivo. Se ob.ervó que para reducir contaminación se debe trabajar con panicula. rec!en cosechadas I la sill!mbra se efectúa \"golpeando\" la. flores cortada. en su parte basal .obre los bordes de lo. frasco.. No se detectó interacci6n entre el medio de cultivo y el genotipo..e identificó el medio de extracto de papa + 4 ppm NAA + 1 ppm Kinetina como el más eficiente en la inducciÓn de callos.Se encontró que sometiendo anteras de variedades con capacidad androgénica a temperatura. de 80C por perido. de 5 a 13 dia. .e puede aumentar la formaciÓn de callos. De lo. cuatro solidificantes estudiados, Agar Comercial, Agarosa, Gel Rite y AlgOdón, el primero mostr6 tendencia a aumentar la mortalidad de callo. y disminuir la regeneraci6n de plantas en seis variedades.El método de siembra, el medio nutritivo y las condiciones ambientales que mostraron mayor eficiencia para la producción de plantas haploides dobladas se utilizaron para producir lineas tolerantes al frio y de buena calidad para Chile, y para estudiar la incidencia del cultivo de anteras sobre algunas característica •• Al Trabajo presentado en la XVIII. Reuniao da Cultura do Arroz.Porto Alegre, Brasil. Setembro 25-29/89 b/ FitomeJorador y Agrónomo del Programa de Arroz CIAT, respectivamente. A.A. 67-13. Cali-Colombia.Se ~an obtenido lineas pro.isorias para Chile, varias de las ~uales provienen del ~ultivo de anteras y se en~uentran en la etapa final de evalua~ión.El uso .u~esivo del ~ultivo de anteras no afecta significativamente el rendimiento de la. linea. resultantes. Hasta el momento los factores limitantes para el uso extensivo de la técnica de cultivo de anteras en mejoramiento de arroz son la alta proporción de plantas albinas y la po~a respuesta del germoplasma de riego.La obtención de lineas \"haploides dobladas\" (el namero de ~romosomas ocurre espont6neamente doblamiento durante el ~ultivo in vitro de las anteras) a través del cultivo de antera. constituye una técnica que puede utilizarse de distintas formas, la utilización m4s inmediata, y tal vez la mÁs importante, consiste en la obtención de homicigosis en menos de un a~o. El objetivo principal del Laboratorio de Cultivo de Anteras del Programa de Arroz del CIAT es utilizar dicha técnica como una herramienta adicional que complemente los métodos convencionales de mejoramiento.Por muchos años se ha venido sosteniendo que el cultivo de anteras de arroz tiene muchisima importancia, sin embargo, un gran vacio existe aan entre lateoria y la prÁctica. Si bien es cierto que en el Asia se ha obtenido algan éxito a través del uso de material genético del tipo Japónico, la técnica aan no ha sido incorporada en programas de mejoramiento de arroz como una prÁctica rutinaria. Esto se explica, entre otras cosas, porque (a) muy pocos genotipos responden bien al cultivo de anteras y (b) faltan métodos adecuados para generar el alto volumen de material genético que se requiere en un programa de mejoramiento. Por otra parte, en la literatura se mencionan varios casos en los cuales se ha asociado el cultivo de anteras con la presencia de ciertos caracteres negativos en los materiales obtenidos a través de esa técnica. desarrollo de una metodología apropiada en el Laboratorio de Cultivo de Anteras del Programa de Arroz y b) discutir su utilizaciOn en el desarrollo de germoplasma tolerante a temperaturas bajas por el Programa de Arroz del CIAT. Desarrollo de una Metodologia Apropiada en el Cultivo de Anteras.Con el fin de desarrollar un método sencillo y r~pido que permita prodUCir un volumen grande de material genético se realizaron estudios sobre el almacenamiento de panículas, métodos de siembra de anteras, efectos de la temperatura y medios de cultivo para la inducciOn de callos y regeneraciOn de plantas.Es bien sabido que la inducciOn de callos es mejor cuando las microsporas se encuentran en el estado unicleado tardío o binucleado temprano; si las anteras que llegan a ese estado se pudieran cosechar y guardar bajo condiciones asépticas, se dispondría de m~s tiempo para sembrarlas. Se estudiaron varios métodos de almacenamiento de las panículas pero siempre se encontrO una contaminaciOn bacterial muy alta; la contaminaciOn fue mínima cuando las panículas cosechadas se inmediatamente o a més tardar, al dia siguiente.En el cultivo de anteras este paso es uno de los m~s laboriosos y demorados. En un principio un técnico entrenado 5010 podía sembrar aproximadamente 1.500 anteras'dia, cantidad insuficiente para generar un volumen adecuado de líneas haploides (dobladas); por esta razOn se evaluaron varios métodos de siembra: la) siembra directa de las flores cortadas en su parte basal en el medio liquido de inducciOn; eb) igual al método anterior pero utilizando un agitador para extraer las anteras de las flores cortadas y (c) extracción de las anteras de las flores cortadas mediante \"golpecitos\" en el borde de los frascos.Con los métodos a y b se sembró un mayor número de anteras pero la contaminación por bacterias fue muy alta ()507.); el uso de esterilizantes y antibióticos redujo la contaminación a niveles aceptables pero se desconoce si afectan negativamente la capacidad de respuesta de los materiales. En promedio los tres medios tuvieron en la formación de callos el efecto que se observa en el Cuadro 1. Influencia de la Temperatura sobre la Inducción de Callos El porcentaje de inducción de callos es mayor cuando las anteras de las variedades japónicas se someten a temperaturas bajas, este tratamiento puede no ser adecuado en el caso de la variedades indicas susceptibles a temperaturas bajas. Se estudió el efecto de varias temperaturas (B, ~O, ~5 y 40oC) sobre la inducción de callos en las variedades CICA B. CICA 4, Oryzica 1 y Fanny; CICA 4 Y Oryzica 1 no respondieron, en tanto que la producción de callos en CICA B se incrementó cuando las anteras se sometieron a BoC durante 15 dias; Fanny (japónica) respondió muy bien pero la respuesta fué mejor cuando se trató durante 10 dias a BoC (Cuadro 2).Exposiciones cortas a ~O. 35 o 400C afectaron negativamente la formaciOn de callos en todas las variedades.Por otra parte, la temperatura a la cual se incuba el material también es importante, puesto que temperaturas mayores de 250C reducen la formación de callos a~n en Fanny.Los datos sugieren que la temperatura baja (aoC) puede estimular la producción de callos en materiales que poseen cierta capacidad androgénica (habilidad para producir callos) pero que no va a convertir un genotipo que no produce callos en uno que si produce, como es el caso de CICA 4 Y Oryzica l. Influencia de los 50lidificantes en la RegeneraciOn de Plantas.El ambiente, tanto físico como químico que rodea la etapa de regeneración de plantas, juega un papel muy importante. Por otra parte, el efecto residual del medio de inducción parece tener m4s influencia sobre la regeneración de plantas que el mismo medio de regeneración; los callos que permanecen expuestos al medio de inducciOn por mucho tiempo raras veces producen plantas.Por consigUiente, los callos deben sacarse del medio inductivo lo m4s pronto posible, pero no antes de alcanzar un tama~o adecuado; si se transfieren muy peque~os se mueren. Por lo tanto, medias que aseguren la sobrevivencia de esas callos son muy importantes. Se han evaluado varios medios de regeneración, pero ninguno ha sido mejor que el medio sólido Murashige-SkoDg (MS) el cual contiene 1 ppm NAA y 4 ppm Kinetina.Se estudiaron varios solidificantes y se determinó su influencia sobre la mortalidad de los callos y el porcentaje de regeneración de plantas (Cuadros 3 y 4). En general el agar comercial mostró cierta tendencia para producir mayor mortalidad de los callos, mientras que los agares mAs puros (Agarosa y Gel-rite) y el algodón ocasionaron menor mortalidad de callos y ademAs, incrementaron el porcentaje de regeneración de plantas.No obstante, en el caso del algodón se tuvo mayor dificultad en la remoción de las plAntulas regeneradas.Para las cinco variedades utilizadas no se observaron diferencias muy marcadas entre los cuatro medios utilizados (Cuadro 3) con respecto a la mortalidad de callos, pero la regeneración de plantas verdes en la variedad Col. 1 x M312A .s O en agar cpmercial, algodón y gel-rite y solo alcanza 2.57. en agarosa (Cuadro 4).Efecto del Cultivo de Antera. sobre el Rendimiento La literatura materiales genéticos cita varios casos obtenidos mediante en los el cultivo cuales,los de tejidos presentan ciertas caracteristicas negativas cuando se les compara con los cultivares que les dieron origen; en el caso del tabaco el cultivo de tejidos se traduce en una reducción del vigor y crecimiento; en arroz se reportó un incremento en la expresión del centro blanco en lineas obtenidas a través del cultivo de anteras; mientras que en cebada no se encontró ningún efecto negativo.Diez y nueve líneas RZ obtenidas a través del cultivo de anteras tomadas de plantas F2 y F3 provenientes de siete cruzamientos se utilizaron para producir 59 líneas (RZ de RZ) (es decir líneas procedentes de cultivos de anteras sucesivos) con el fin de determinar como influye el cultivo de anteras sobre el rendimiento. La evaluaci6n se hizo en CIAT bajo condiciones de fangueo y trasplante utilizando un diseño de bloques al azar con tres repeticiones; las parcelas tuvieron seis surcos de 5 m de largo y se siguieron las prácticas normales de cultivo en lo referente a la fertilizaci6n y control de malezas e insectos.El análisis estadístico indic6 que no hubo diferencias significativas entre padres (Lineas R2) e hijos (Líneas R2 de R2) (Cuadro 5).En otro ensayo se compar6 el rendimiento de 11 lineas F3, 37 líneas F4 y 42 lineas haploides dobladas; las lineas F3 dieron origen a las 37 líneas F4 a través del sistema de pedigree y a los 42 haploides doblados mediante el cultivo de anteras. Todo el material provino de los mismos siete cruzamientos. El ensayo de rendimiento se realiz6 en condiciones similares al anterior.El análisis estadistico y datos de rendimiento se presentan en los cuadros Los cruzamientos se manejaron tanto por el cultivo de anteras como por el método del pedigrí (Figura 2) lo cual permiti6 realizar ciertas comparaciones entre los materiales genéticos obtenidos a partir de ambos procedimientos y evaluar la potencialidad de la técnica de cultivo de anteras antes descrita. En general. los cruzamientos se trabajaron fÁcilmente a través de la técnica del cultivo de antera. gracias a su alta androgénical el porcentaje de inducción de callos fue el 9% de los callos produjeron capacidad del 37% y planta. aproKimadamente obteniéndose 941 cruzamientos (CT lineas haploid.s dobladas (Cuadro 10). Algunos 6741, CT 6746 y CT 6749) fueron superior.s a los otros en términos del número de lineas homocigotas obtenidas y potencial de las mismas. Los cruzamientos fueron muy e.térile. y sólo se obtuvieron 234 familias F2 en el método del pedigri. Tanto el material proveniente del cultivo de anteras como el generado a partir del método convencional del pedigri fueron seleccionados por tipo de planta, precocidad y calidad de grano en CIAT-Palmira. Se identificaron 190 lineas R3 y 270 lineas F5 que presentaban las caracteristicas deseada'l porte bajO, buen tipo de planta, precocidad, grano largo, delgado y translúcido, temperatura de gelatinización intermedia y contenido de .milosa entre 21 y 25%.La diferencia principal entre los dos procedimientos (anteras y convencional) fue el tiempo empleado en cada uno. Las lineas R2 se produjeron en nueve meses mientras que las lineas F5 requirieron cuatro generaciones (16-18 meses). Luego de las evaluaciones por tolerancia a temperaturas bajas en los estados de germinación, plántula y floración, vigor y potencial de rendimiento realizadas por el Programa de Arroz del INIA en el Centro Experimental Quilamapu, en Chillán, Chile se identificaron 55 lineas como promisorias (Cuadro 11). Semilla de este material se envió al IRRI para su inclusión en el 1 RCTN (Vivero Internacional de Tolerancia al Frio) y a varios programas nacionales de arroz (Brasil, Cuba, MéKico, Perú) y al IRAT para evaluaciones en distintas condiciones.Se realizó un ensayo bajo condiciones de campo en el Centro Experimental Quimalupu para determinar la tolerancia al frió de 59 lineas en la etapa reproductiva.En el Cuadro 12 se presentan aquellas líneas que son sim1lares a los testigos tolerantes al frio (Oro, Diamante, Quella y Perla) en la etapa reproductiva. la esterilidad de la panícula en los testiQos tolerantes fluctuó entre 17 y 33%, mientras que en los testigos susceptibles fué del 75 al 91X. La prueba se considera buena ya que las temperaturas observadas en el ~rea de Chill~n. Chile en esa misma época causó esterilidad en campos comerciales.Tanto lineas derivadas mediante el cultivo de anteras como por el sistema de pedigree mostraron tolerancia al fria.El programa de arroz del IIA (Instituto de Investigación del Arroz de Cuba) realizó una evaluación de 291 lineas por su tolerancia a temperaturas bajas en los estados de plAntula y reproductivo; en el Cuadro 13 se presentan las lineas seleccionadas como tolerantes en ambos estados; la mayoria de las lineas seleccionadas pertenecen a los cruzamientos CT 6744 (Q 66304/LemontllQ 65101) y CT 6749 (Q 663Q4/LemontIIDiamante). los testigos comerciales Amistad 82 y J-I04 fueron muy afectados por el fria. Dado que la producción de arroz en Cuba es afectada por ciertos factores limitantes distintos a 105 presentes en Chile. Uruguay y el Sur de Brasil. las lineas seleccionadas se estAn utilizando como progenitores con el fin de desarrollar germoplasma mas adecuado a sus necesidades especialmente para el ciclo de invierno (Octubre-Marzo) en el cual se presentan temperaturas frias. vientos fuertes y baja luminosidad.Por otra parte, también se realizaron ensayos de campo para determinar el potencial de rendimiento de lineas haploides dobladas en varios sitios en Chile; los datos se presentan en el Cuadro 14. El El Programa de Arroz del CIAT tiene la responsabilidad regional de asistir a los programas nacionales en el mejoramietno de la producción arrocera, sin embargo, en el caso del arroz riego 5embrado en la zona subtropical y templadas su acción se ha visto afectada por la localización tropical del CIAT. Por muchos a~os se ha tratado de producir germoplasma adecuado a las necesidades de Argentina, Chile, Sur del Brazil, Paraguay y Uruguay con resultados poco 5ati5factorios; entre los defectos más comunmente observado5 en los materiales provenientes del CIAT se cuentan el ciclo largo y la susceptibilidad a las bajas temperaturas. No obstante. los datos presentados indican la existencia de germoplasma mejorado tolerante a temperaturas bajas. de buena calidad de grano y ciclo temprano, este material utilizado convenientemente en cruzamientos con otros materiales de buena adaptación local puede servir de base para la obtención de germoplasma más apropiado a las condiciones de la región. Los datos también indican que el cultivo de anteras es un instrumento valioso para acelerar la obtención de dicho germoplasma. En coordinación con los programas de arroz de Chile, Cuba y del IRGA se están programando y procesando via cultivo de anteras cruzamientos que presentan las combinaciones siguientes:1.Material chilenollineas enanas sabana//material chileno 2.Material chileno/lineas IRGA//lineas enanas sabana 3.Material chileno/lineas enanas sabana//lineas IRGA .4.Material chileno/material cubano/lmaterial chileno Se trata de aprovechar la buena respuesta al cultivo de anteras del material chileno y de las lineas enanas de sabana) además, el matRrial de sabana aporta tolerancia a piricularia y a la toxicidad de hierro y precocidad; la tolerancia al frio y buena calidad es aportada por el material chileno. Por último, los materiales del IRGA y de Cuba contribuyen con potencial de rendimiento y adaptación a las condiciones locales. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4ff6d0b2ae2ea63c19d94d87a00fc37d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/da9a9b0d-bcb6-43dd-b3c5-bf66f0308728/retrieve","id":"1072886502"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d03146db-d52f-41c0-a531-2ad9bb1ea694","pagecount":"78","content":"In 1982 the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) established a Livestock Policy Unit (LPU).The objectives of the LPU are: 1. To heighten the awareness in African governments and in other organizations of the importance of livestock policy issues. 2. To collate in an easily assimilable form what is already known about policy issues and to present it to policy makers. 3. To carry out research of its own (including that commissioned from consultants) on priority livestock policy issues and to present the results to policy makers. 4. To encourage others to carry out similar research and to assist in presenting their results to policy makers.Chapter 1 Introduction1.01 This paper examines post-drought rehabilitation policies to aid recovery in livestock production and in crop production mainly insofar as this is related to livestock. The paper is aimed at decision makers in government and external agencies who wish to consider the rehabilitation options open to them. It starts by discussing what is meant by rehabilitation and the role played by reserves in affecting a population's vulnerability to drought. The second chapter examines the effects of drought on livestock and farming communities, stressing not only the direct effects, such as rising livestock death rates, but also those effects which operate through shifts in relative market prices and the income levels of affected groups. It goes on to discuss the macroeconomic implications of a drought-induced loss of livestock for the government budget, domestic markets and external trade. The following chapter investigates the likely speed of recovery in livestock and crop production in the absence of outside intervention. The range of policies open to governments and development' agencies is' considered in Chapter 4 and an assessment made of the likely impact and problems associated with each one. Chapter 5 presents material from a number of case-studies in order to show the nature of costs and returns involved and the particular issues associated with policy implementation in each case. Finally, Chapter 6 presents the main conclusions and suggests the priority areas for action for decision makers.1.02 The paper focusses on policies which may be carried out in the short-to medium-term to mitigate drought-related losses, working ' on the assumption that losses of a certain magnitude have already taken place. The policies to be examined are those which will have a relatively rapid impact on reestablishing production and income levels among those affected by drought. This paper does not consider pre-drought measures, such as monitoring and early warning schemes, nor short-term relief measures, such as the provision of food for human and fodder for livestock populations. Nor will this paper investigate long-term policy questions, such as changes in the attribution and management of pastureland water resources in pastoral areas or resettlement schemes. These are' obviously subjects of enourmous importance, affecting the management' of future drought-induced crises and the overall vulnerability of production systems to rainfall shortages.1.03 The paper has selected three countries upon which to focus its attention, although evidence from elsewhere is also used to support or challenge conclusions reached. The countries chosen are Botswana, Ethiopia and Mali. The choice of these three was made because livestock production represents an important sector of activity in each case, in both rangeland and farming areas. All three countries have suffered bad drought in the past two decades and some evidence is available on drought-induced losses and the subsequent period of recovery. These countries have pursued a variety of policies in the past to speed up the rate of recovery in drought-affected sectors of the economy and this case-material provides useful lessons for policy makers. In the last few years, all three countries have had to cope with a further period of very low rainfall which has adversely affected large numbers of people and major sectors of the economy. Consequently, at this moment' the question of post drought rehabilitation policy is uppermost in the minds of many decision makers in government and in development agencies. Assuming that 1985 sees a return to more normal levels of rainfall, a major programme faces the development community in helping governments and producers to re-establish viable and less-vulnerable systems of production.1.04 There are several possible definitions of rehabilitation depending on how one interprets the restoration of former levels of production and income. Rehabilitation could mean restoring particular systems of production practised by people to their former level of operation by, for example, replacing those factors of production (livestock, seed, equipment) that have been lost as a result of the drought. Alternatively, rehabilitation could imply the re establishment of the peoples' concerned capacity to produce and earn an income, a definition which includes the first definition as only one among a number of other possibilities.1. 05 The question of what is meant by rehabilitation must also consider the aims of the different parties involved. Rehabilitation for the government will comprise several macro-economic objectives, such as restoring its tax revenue and the nation's earnings from livestock exports and ensuring a sufficient supply of meat on the domestic market' as well as the, regeneration of employment and income levels for producers hit by the drought. For individual producers directly affected by drought, the latter issue is likely to be of much greater importance than objectives at the macro-economic level. Thus, the government may consider the main goal of rehabilitation to have been achieved once total livestock numbers have regained their former levels. However, while national herd numbers may have been re-built, individual herders may not have re-established their pre-drought position and for them the need for rehabilitation remains.1.06 Rehabilitation will mean different things to different people and the various measures taken to rehabilitate different aspects of production may occasionally be in conflict. Rehabilitation should not necessarily be taken to mean the restoration of the exact situation which existed before the drought took place. Rather, it can be more usefully interpreted to mean the reestablishment of general levels of production and incomes for drought-affected parties be they governments, herders or farmers, but along lines which may in detail differ significantly from those that existed before the drought took place.1.07 While it is not the purpose of this paper to identify the frequency of droughts of varying severity nor likely future trends, it should be noted that the intensity and consequences of a drought cannot be forecast simply on the basis of the percentage shortfall in rainfall. A 25% rainfall deficit does not necessarily cause a 25% fall in crop production or a 25% fall in pasture and associated livestock production. In assessing the consequences of a given rainfall deficit, account must be taken of the pressure of demand on the systems of production involved. For example, where livestock numbers are at the limit of what can be supported by natural grazing in a good year, a 25% drop in rainfall will cause heavier losses than where livestock numbers at the start of the drought were proportionately lower. Similarly, where farmers can only expect to satisfy basic subsistence needs in a normal year, a 15% fall in yields will have far more severe consequences than where farmers operate on a wider margin of surplus. Thus, the level of demand upon resources and the size of reserves within the system under study are important factors in determining the actual impact of a given rainfall deficit.1.08 In general, the level of demand upon resources has been rising due to growth in human and animal numbers, so that even with no obvious downward trend in rainfall levels, one would nevertheless expect to see a greater incidence of drought-induced losses (Sandford, 1977). Where there are both adverse rainfall trends and rapid demographic growth, as has been the ease in the Sahel over the last two decades, the frequency and severity of crises due to rainfall shortage will inevitably increase, unless more drought-resistant systems of production are established.Effects of drought on the pastoral sector 2.01 Diagram 2.1 summarises the main effects of drought on pastoral groups, the importance of each item depending on the intensity of the drought and patterns of livestock production and marketing. A fall in fodder availability due to low rainfall is the first main effect of drought on livestock production systems; in some areas, low rainfall also causes a drop in the availability of drinking water, precluding the effective grazing of certain pastures. Fertility levels and the timing of conception are strongly related to the nutritional status of female animals. In normal years, cattle in the Sahel betray a highly seasonal calving pattern, most conceptions taking place in the mid to late rainy season (July to October) followed by calving in the late dry season leading up to the rains (April to June). In a drought year, animals suffer both a lower rate of conception, due to a tardy and incomplete return to peak bodyweight during the rains, and higher rates of miscarriage and stillbirth in the subsequent period of pregnancy and calving, due to the high level of stress experienced by animals as the dry season proceeds. Thus, drought in one year will lead to lower calving rates in the following year. This fall in the number of new calves entering the herd is further aggravated by high mortality rates among young stock.2.02 Milk output falls as a female's access to fodder is reduced and, below a certain level of intake, lactation ceases completely. This fall in milk availability affects not only the calf's nutritional status but also the consumption level of the herder's family, which relies for part of its food requirements on offtake of milk from their animals. In normal years, humans are often in tight competition with calves for the small amount of milk available from females in the herd. A drought-induced milk shortage will intensify this rivalry.2.03 Animal liveweight falls as grazing becomes scarce, reducing the value of stock as meat animals. This loss of condition also makes them less valuable for the transport of goods and pulling of loads, such as in ploughing, drawing water, etc.Diagram 2.1. Effects of drought on pastoral areas 2.04. Death rates increase with the fall in liveweight and increased susceptibility to disease. Death rates in times of drought are usually particularly high among certain species and classes of stock, cattle, horses and donkeys being in general less resistant than sheep, goats and camels. Young animals, elderly stock and pregnant females are the most vulnerable within any particular species. Death rates increase as the period of drought continues, as the period of nutritional stress lengthens and as the degree of stress intensifies. A number of surveys have been carried out on stock losses during times of droughts and data from these sources are summarised in Appendix A. As expected, rates vary widely from one species to another and from one drought situation to another.2.05. Increased demand for grain for human consumption. In most pastoral systems, grains provide an important, though seasonally variable part of the diet. For example among the WodaaBe Fulani of Niger, it is estimated that cereals provide at least 50% of overall calorie requirements, this varying from 20-25% in the rains to more than 70% in the hot dry season (White, 1984). In times of drought, a pastoral household's dependence on grain intensifies, due to falling supplies of milk from having fewer calves born and lower milk offtake per cow. The increased need to buy grains during drought coincides with a fall in pastoralists' purchasing power, resulting from a fall in stock condition, stable or falling livestock prices and rapidly rising grain prices, caused by a drought-induced fall in farm output.2.06. Sales from herds rise sharply as herders seek to salvage some value from their animals before they die and to buy food for their family. Initially, the least essential members of the herd are sold -male calves and adults, elderly females and those with a poor calving history. As the drought period lengthens, however, herd productivity falls further as does the number of nonessential stock available for sale. Hereders will then be forced into sales of breeding females, a strategy which indicates a situation of acute stress, since females represent herd capital, crucial to the continued maintenance and future growth of herd numbers. On the other hand, the herder is usually faced with little choice but to liquidate his livestock capital, given the immediate food needs of his family, in the context of a rapid fall in alternative sources of income and ability to purchase food. Several writers have documented this shift in relative prices of grain and livestock in times of drought. For example, Seaman et al (1978) found that the amount of grain which could be purchased with the proceeds from the sale of one adult camel had fallen from 1,700 kgs to 500 kgs over the period 1972-74 in Hararghe, Ethiopia. Similarly, in the case of Niger the value of a young ox was reported to have fallen from the equivalent of 832 kgs of millet in 1972 to 406 kgs in 1973 (SEDES, 1976). Sen (1981) combines data on losses due to livestock deaths with those from falling purchasing power and shows that the ability of pastoralists to feed themselves fell by a staggering 84 to 92% during the drought years of the early 1970s in the Ogaden and Wollo regions of Ethiopia (Table 7.7p. 108). The high proportion of animals sold made up by females in times of drought is shown by data from a survey done at Niamey abbatoir in June 1973, where 70%-of slaughtered stock were females, in comparison with around 30% in more normal years (Boeckm et al., 1974). Germen (1975) notes the same high sales of females in the case of the drought in southeast Ethiopia, with a large number of such stock either being slaughtered in local towns or being sent to the meat market of Addis Ababa.2.07. Outmigration of labour from the pastoral sector. One means by which the pastoral human population can temporarily adapt to the fall in herd productivity caused by drought is to send some of its members elsewhere, thereby reducing the number dependent on the herd for their support. At the same time, the emigrants may start to earn an income which can help the family left behind to buy some of its food needs. There are, however, likely to be negative effects on herd productivity from this outmigration of labour, which tends to consist of young adult males, the most productive workers in the pastoral economy and crucial to the efficient management of livestock in semi-arid conditions. Researchers in both East and West Africa have noted the drop in efficiency of herd management following the outflow of labor in Mauritania and northeast Mali where the pastoral sector has lost much of its servile labour force (Bonte, 1975;Marty, 1975); in Niger where many households must send part of their workforce on migration during the dry season when the labour demands of watering and herding stock are acute (White, 1984); and in Kenya, where the flow of migrants from the Boran economy has meant that more distant pastures can no longer be effectively used and protected, leading to bush encroachment or invasion by neighbouring pastoral groups and that areas close to Boran settlement sites are overused, leading to low herd productivity and localised pasture degradation (Dahl, 1979;Hogg, 1980).2.08. Migration by herds to other grazing areas. In times of pasture shortage, a common strategy by herd-owners is to take their animals to other grazing areas where they hope to find better conditions. In the case of the Sahel, herds are Usually moved south in drought years, to higher rainfall zones or to areas of higher grazing potential such as flood retreat pastures and irrigation schemes. Conflicts are likely to arise where there is a large inflow of animals into an area occupied by other herders or by farming groups. Herd-owners will be competing among themselves for limited pasture and water resources. Farmers will fear the damage done to their crops when herds enter an area before the harvest is ended; additionally, the often substantial livestock holdings of farming communities will face increased competition for grazing around the settlement as a result of the inflow of herds from elsewhere. The significance of these conflicts between herding and farming communities depends on the extent to which mutually beneficial relations can also be set up, based on the exchange of output from the farm (grain, crop residues) for livestock products (milk, manure, live animals).2.09 Long distance migration by pastoral groups into unfamiliar areas also poses risks to the herd from exhaustion and from the change in pasture species and diet for incoming stock. In addition, movement into higher rainfall zones often brings herds into contact with a new range of diseases and parasites. In the West African case, Sahelian herds are particularly vulnerable to infection from tsetse when entering southern pastures and experience high losses as a result.2.10. Changes in the distribution of wealth. Drought brings about important changes in the distribution of wealth and access to income among those affected. This is due to the unequal incidence of drought and the differing capacities of producers to protect themselves and their assets in time of crisis. It is widely agreed that droughts tend to have a stratifying effect within communities, the weaker members becoming impoverished further while the rich are able to minimise their-losses and may even increase their assets during such periods of stress (O'Leary, 1980;Sandford, 1977;Boeckm et al, 1974;van Apeldorn, 1981). Drought is often seen as a mechanism through which there is a periodic \"sloughing off\" of the poorest households from the traditional pastoral sector, this human population outflow serving to restore equilibrium between man, animals and pasture (Barth 1961;Johnson, 1973). This outmigration may be only temporary and as conditions improve so do the prospects for re-absorption of these people into the pastoral economy. Thus, Dupire's work (1972) among the Fulani of Niger details several case-studies of households which had been forced to leave the pastoral sector through stock losses but who were then able to re-establish themselves as cattle-owners over time by their involvement in farming, trading and the successful management of small stock holdings. Reestablishment after drought may not always be so easy and for many, drought losses of livestock capital will mean having to turn permanently to new ways of earning an income.2.11. Drought affects herd-owners differently depending on their level of livestock wealth and their access to other resources. In general, the data supports the view that large herd-owners suffer proportionately fewer losses than small herd-owners (Tyc, 1976, Campbell, 1978;Tacher, 1983). Even when a similar proportional loss takes place among herds of all sizes, owners of larger herds are more likely to end the drought period with a herd big enough to form a breeding nucleus, while those with only a few animals at the start of the drought may see their holdings fall to zero, due especially to the need for stock sales to purchase food needs. Large stockholders will also be better able to minimise their losses by policies of herd dispersion and species diversification. Moreover, to the extent that wealthy herders also have assets in other sectors of the economy-such as a trading business or urban property -when drought hits their livestock assets they can fall back on incomes received from elsewhere. In large part, it is this capacity of the wealthy to transform animal assets into less drought-vulnerable capital which Insures their greater viability in the face of drought.Effects of drought on the farming sector.2.12 Diagram 2.2 summarises the main effects of drought on the farming sector, each element of which is discussed below.2.13 Fall in crop production. The most immediate effect of drought on the farming sector is a fall in crop production, due to inadequate and poorly distributed rainfall. Farmers are faced with an inadequate harvest to feed their families and to fulfill their other commitments. Livestock sales act as a buffer in times of hardship, farmers disinvesting in these assets to buy food. The first animals to be sold are usually those which make the least contribution as inputs to farm production, such as sheep and goats. However, as the period of drought-induced food deficit lengthens, farmers will have to start selling transport and draft animals, such as donkeys and work oxen-and breeding stock -which constitute the basis of the household's wealth. Thus, in the Ethiopian highland areas, stock are usually disposed of in the following order: sheep and goats, then younger cattle, with horses, donkeys and work oxen being sold as a last resort (Wood, A.P., 1976), oxen being of especial importance as they permit the timely preparation of land before sowing and thus maximise the chances of a good yield. Similarly, among Bambara millet farmers in central Mali, work oxen are only sold when all other avenues for getting cash have been exhausted (Fulton and Toulmin,l982). In Botswana, while both work oxen and breeding stock are highly valued, Vierich provides evidence of farmers preferring to sell their oxen in order to keep their few breeding females from whom they can re-establish their oxen holdings in the post-drought period (Vierich and Sheppard, 1980).2.14 Fodder production falls. Where crops have been badly affected by drought, fodder is also likely to have suffered, although output from natural pastures tends to be less vulnerable to drought than crop production. Low rainfall causes poor pasture growth and may also lead to a decline in fodder supplies from crop residues. However, the evidence on this latter point is mixed, with some writers suggesting that even in years of harvest failure crop residues may be an important source of forage for village and visiting herds, these residues often being the only output to be gained from fields (van Apeldorn 1981). Insufficient fodder around the village leads to a loss in weight and deaths among some stock, especially where immigrant herds put further pressure on limited local pastures. While the response of most pastoral groups to fodder shortage is to move themselves and their herds elsewhere, this is not an option so easily pursued by livestock-owning farmers, due to their lower herd number and less familiarity with regular transhumance. In addition, many farm households will have insufficient labour both to take their animals to other grazing areas and also to continue with necessary farming operations. Thus, sedentary herds can be particularly badly hit in times of drought. An example of this is found in the Nioro area of north-west Mali, where a recent survey estimates deaths among draft animals (oxen, donkeys and horses) at between 50 and 70% over the period 1983-84 (FAO, 1984c)). These losses are caused by pasture shortages, exacerbated by herds from the north on their way to southern pastures, the sedentary nature of these draft animals and the normal dependence of horses (and to some extent donkeys) on a regular grain ration to supplement natural grazing, a supplement which is no longer available given the very poor harvests of recent years.The overall effect of the above two points is to reduce the draft capacity of the farming sector, leading to lower crop output in the subsequent cultivation season. Loss of livestock around the farming settlement also reduces the household's supply of dung, a product of considerable importance 'both as a fuel where wood is scarce and as a means to retain the fertility of regularly cropped soils.The role and importance of dung. This varies across farming systems according to a number of factors. Shortage of fuelwood makes dung a highly valued commodity in many parts of the Ethiopian highlands where other sources of fuel are scarce. Dung is estimated to be the second most important product gained from livestock after draft power in such areas providing 80% of the households fuel needs (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983). In addition, sales of dung cakes make a contribution to the household's cash income. In many parts of West Africa, dung is a major element in the exchanges established between pastoral and farming communities. Transhumant herders agree to station their herds overnight on farmers' plots in return for grain, cash or water. This manuring of fields produces a considerable increase in crop yields and is of especial value in marginal farming zones in the Sahel as it enables a large area to be cultivated with rapid crop varieties, such as 60-to 80-day millets which are able to reach maturity within the very short growing period. Research in a Bambara farming village in central Mali reported a fivefold increase in millet yields as a result of manuring soils, giving an implied mean value to the dung produced by each cow equal to 20-40 kgs of grain, worth US$8-10(Toulmin, 1983a and forthcoming).2.17 Drought affects the availability of dung to the farm household in two ways. Firstly, the number of animals owned by the farming population falls with deaths and sales among stock. Even where poorer households continue to own some animals, the extreme vulnerability of such households in times of drought may force them to sell the dung from their stock rather than use it for raising their own crop yields (Hill 1972, van Apeldorn, 1981). Thus, drought is likely to increase the gap between poor and rich households in terms of their access to dung.2.18 Secondly, drought affects the size and movements of pastoral herds. The quantity of dung potentially available from pastoralists' animals will fall in line with losses of stock during drought. In addition, the geographical distribution of dung supplies will change as a result of changes in patterns of transhumance. In the Sahelian context, drought conditions will force many herd-owners to move further south than normal out of the Sahel, in their search for fodder and water Farmers in the southern Sahel, who regularly rely on visiting herds for their supplies of dung, will find their access to this commodity greatly reduced. By contrast yet further to the south, dung supplies will increase for those farming communities savannah areas which are hosts to immigrant pastoralists.2.19 For many countries, with limited use of chemical fertilisers, dung is of great importance in maintaining crop yields as well as providing a renewable fuel source. A drought induced reduction in the availability of this input will have consequences for levels of farm output, for household incomes and for the pressure of demand on other sources of energy. However, little or no discussion was found in the literature surveyed of the relative value of dung in different uses nor of the consequences for different groups of a fall in the supply of this commodity.2.20 Oxen losses from deaths vs. sales. The distribution of work oxen losses between deaths and sales will vary according to the circumstances in which drought has taken place and with the constraints faced by different producers. A report by the Relief and Rehabilitation Commission of Ethiopia for the province of Wollo for 1974 presents data showing almost all losses to have been due to deaths rather than sales, with 71% dead from starvation as opposed to 19% sold, leaving 2% disposed of by other means and 8% remaining (Wolde Mariam, 1984). By contrast, Wood's survey of farmers in the northern highlands of Ethiopia found that most livestock losses were the result of distress sales rather than deaths from inadequate fodder (Wood, 1976).2.21 For Botswana, the number and proportion of work oxen in the national herd declined as a result of the 1978/79 drought, from 19.3% to 14.85% for herds surveyed in the hard veld and from 17.8% to 13.8% for those in the sand veld (Vierich and Sheppard, 1980). These figures indicate that there must have been considerably higher rates of offtake through sales of work oxen as opposed to other cattle during the drought, since oxen tend to have higher rates of survival than most other classes of stock. Little or no evidence is available on work oxen losses for the Sahelian drought of 1968-73, probably as a result of the fairly low losses involved. However, the recent survey in north-west Mali, quoted earlier, points to very heavy losses among draft animals due to deaths rather than sales (FAO, 1984c).2.22. Outmigration of labour. As in the case of the pastoral sector, one means by which farm households try to make ends meet in times of crop failure is by releasing labour to earn income elsewhere; at the same time this reduces the burden on household food reserves. The net effect on farm productivity depends on whether this migration continues into the next cultivation season, thereby reducing the capacity of the household to farm on its former scale. This will be the case where shortage of food is so acute that the household must depend on the earnings of some of its members to feed the rest of the family until the next harvest.2.23. Changes in the distribution of wealth. The experience of different farm households in times of drought will be determined by their ownership of assets, access to incomes from other sources and the extent to which these assets and incomes are less affected by drought than are harvests. The most vulnerable amongst those hit by drought will be those with few assets of value to sell, those who most need to purchase grain due to an absence of their own household reserves, and those who cannot gain access to food through other means, like borrowing, coercion or theft. Wood (1976) shows in his study of farmers in northern Ethiopia over the drought years of the early 1970s that the speed with which farmers became seriously short of food varied very considerably, due to their differing access to income sources. The richest farmers were even in a position to benefit by acquiring land and other assets from distress sales by their poorer neighbours. Sen (1981) formalises the analysis of differential impacts on incomes and wealth in times of crisis in his essay on \"Poverty and Famines\". He introduces the idea of \"food entitlement an individual's overall access to food depending not only on his direct crop production but also on his access through the market -by sales of labour and other commoditiesand through non-market channels such as social networks and re-distributive systems. Relative price movements change the entitlements of certain groups, making it more difficult for them to satisfy their food needs. This is seen in the case of pastoralists who face rising grain prices but falling prices of livestock as drought intensifies. Many farmers are in a similar situation, needing to sell livestock, labour or land in markets where an excess supply of these commodities has reduced their power to purchase foodstuffs.The coincidence of livestock and arable droughts 2.24. A given rainfall shortage is likely to affect livestock and cropping sectors differently. In areas where crops and animals occupy the same ecological zone, farming is likely to be a more risky business, herds being able to compensate for localised rainfall shortages by movement to better favoured areas. Thus, droughts hitting crop production are reckoned to occur more frequently in Botswana than are those seriously affecting the livestock sector (Jones, 1979). Droughts in the livestock sector tend to be the product of a series of years with below average rainfall, causing a growing imbalance in the availability of grazing to animal needs. In the case of Sahelian counties, however, the farm sector occupies the higher rainfall zones to the south of the main grazing areas. Since variability in rainfall becomes more marked as rainfall totals decline, the pastoral sector is particularly prone to drought from the low level and erratic distribution of rainfall within and between years. Thus, in the drought years of 1968 to 1973, it was the pastoral zones of the northern Sahel which were especially badly hit, while many southern farming regions experienced very few drought-induced losses. As in the case of Botswana, it was the progressive effect of a number of years with low rainfall which caused the massive scale of losses felt by more northerly areas.2.25 Account must be taken of the interaction between drought losses in the crop and livestock sectors for two reasons. Firstly, grain forms an important part of the pastoralist's diet even in normal times. In periods of drought, as herd productivity falls, herders come to rely even more heavily on grain for their food needs. Where both the livestock and farm sectors have been hit by drought, the pastoralist's rising demand for grain is confronted by a drop in locally available supplies and by a rapid escalation of cereal prices as both farmers and herders must buy their food on the market, resulting in a sharp decline in herders' purchasing power. If drought has only hit the livestock sector, grain prices will be subject to much less upward pressure. Secondly, farmers commonly own a considerable number of livestock, both those used for cultivation such as work oxen and those kept as an investment, such as breeding stock. As was seen in an earlier section, these animals provide the farmer with a margin of security being sold in times of need to pay for food and other needs. Widespread drought thus worsens the position of both farmers and pastoralists. The only farmers to gain from widespread drought are those fortunate enough to have sufficient stocks of grain remaining from previous harvests to invest in livestock while relative grain to livestock prices are in their favour. Evidence from the 1968-73 drought in the Sahel shows that certain farmers were able to expand their animal holdings rapidly by the exchange of grain for stock on highly advantageous terms, as drought conditions intensified (Marty, 1975;Arnal and Garcia, 1974;Lewis, 1979).The macro-economic impact of drought 2.26 Several countries have suffered a substantial drop in the size of the national herd following drought. For example, the Niger cattle herd was estimated to have fallen by 48% in 1972-3, from 4.5 million head to 2.3 million. Recent estimates put the losses in cattle herds over the period 1982-84 at 62%, from a population of 3.5 m head in 1982. Similarly, the cattle population of Botswana fell by 32% between 1962 and 1966 from a population of 1.35 m head in 1962 (Campbell, 1979). From 1981-84, the national herd is estimated to have decreased by 20% to 2.4 m head, following 3 years of drought (FAO, 1984a). These reductions in livestock numbers do not represent a total loss to the national income and wealth of the country, since some proportion of these losses will have been slaughtered for domestic consumption while others will have been exported. The reduction in the national herd does, however have implications for the country's ability to satisfy future demand from domestic and foreign markets in the short-to medium-term, as herd numbers will take time to re-build, the government is also likely to suffer a loss to its income from the tax it normally raises on livestock-related activities. A summary of the main effects of drought on macroeconomic variables is shown in Diagram 2.  short-term rise in prices with rising demand and fall l in supply  medium-term fall 1 in prices as harvests return to normal. pressure on foreign trade balance from need to import grain and other relief supplies.2.27. The government budget. Drought causes a fall in government receipts from those areas and sectors affected by the shortfall in rain. Livestock and crop production represent a major proportion of GDP and 'provide many of the opportunities for employment in 'sub-Saharan' Africa. Governments gain revenue from these sectors either directly, in the form of taxes on livestock holdings and farmer populations or in the 'form of grain quotas, or indirectly, from taxes on the slaughter of stock and exports of livestock and grain. The direct taxation of livestock populations is estimated to provide between 5 and 10% of government revenue in states such as Chad, Burkina Faso and Mali ' (Berg, 1975). This tax was lifted in several Sahelian countries over the period 1974-75, partly to reduce the stress on herding populations in the wake of heavy livestock losses and partly as a result of the very great problems posed by the levy of this tax, given large scale movements by herds across the region and the difficulties of conducting a new census of livestock numbers. Compensation was paid to those countries lifting the tax by the European Development Fund as part of the latter's programme of aid in the post-drought period. Export duties on livestock and their products provide government with additional revenue. However, as may be seen, this source of income is also vulnerable to drought losses. In the case of Mali, the percentage of government tax revenue derived from livestock and meat exports fell from 6.0% for the period 1968-73 to 3.3% for 1974-76, as a result of the decline in livestock exports after the drought (Delgado, 1980).2.28 In the case of Botswana, taxes are levied on a wide range of livestock products: on domestic production and exports of meat, blood-, bone-and meat-meal, hides and skins (Anteneh, 1985). Revenue from the livestock sector has grown from 315,000 Pula in 1970/71 to 2.01 m Pula in; 1981/82, representing 1.02% and 0.8% of the government's overall revenue. While a fall in livestock exports, such as that experienced in 1978 and' 1980 following outbreaks of foot-andmoth disease, reduces government revenue, Botswana is in the relatively fortunate position of having substantial earnings from its diamond export industry which cushions the impact of this fall.2.29 Domestic markets for livestock: Diagram 2.4 shows the relative price movements of livestock and grain typically found over the years spanning a drought and subsequent period of recovery. Stable or declining stock prices during the drought are caused by rapid increases in offtake as herders try to salvage some value from their stock and as they face rising prices for their staple food, grain. Marketing systems are usually unable to cope with the large increases in animals supplied, due to a lack of transport and storage facilities with which to spread this increase over space and time. As noted earlier, as the period of drought lengthens and as the purchasing power of herders is increasingly eroded, pastoralists will be forced to sell their productive stock, composed of young and breeding females. Only once grain supplies become relatively more plentiful with the next harvest or with substantial food imports do relative livestock to grain prices reverse themselves. Price levels for all stock are likely to be high in the years following a drought as stable or rising domestic and foreign demand is faced by a low rate of offtake from herds depleted in the former period. Prices will be especially high for those species and classes in particular demand, such as small stock, valued for their rapid rates of reproduction, and female stock of all species (Sutter, 1982;Marty, 1975).Diagram 2.4. Relative price movements of livestock and grain over a period of drought and subsequent recovery 2.30. In the case of Mali, urban meat prices doubled over the first half of 1975, following losses of stock estimated at 30-35% over the previous two years, due to a high level of urban demand coupled with high export prices for stock. This large rise in price occurred despite efforts by government to set a controlled price for meat and a short term ban on the export of livestock. Data presented by Sutter (1982) for Niger shows a rapid rise in the price received for an export bull, showing a tripling from 20,000 FCFA in 1974 to more than 60,000 FCFA in 1977. Meat prices in Ndjamena showed a parallel trend, quadrupling over the five years from 1970-75 (Tyc, 1976). These price increases for livestock and meat compare with a general increase in price levels of 20-30% per year over the period 1972-76 (ILCA, 1979)).The price movement of grain over a period of drought has been described above. The extent to which grain prices rise during drought obviously depends on the size of drought-induced crop losses and how far these can be made good by imports of grain from elsewhere. The speed with which farm production returns to normal levels after the drought is determined by the level of loss in productive capacity -draft animals, seed, outflow of labour, damage to soils -which can only be reconstituted over a period of years. The question of speed of rehabilitation is looked at in more detail in a later section of this paper In general, however, crop production will return to normal more rapidly than does output from the livestock sector, due to the slow rates of reproduction and herd reconstitution in the latter case.2.32 Recent trends in the prices of grain and livestock in the Sahel show the development of a situation very similar to that witnessed in the early 1970s. Considerable price rises for grain as seen in Diagram 2.5 below have been coupled with an almost total collapse of livestock markets throughout the Sahel. Several observers have noted that by early 1985, livestock were trading at one-tenth of their value in previous years, a prime male export animal being sold for 10,000-15,000 FCFA whereas it would have fetched up to 150,000 FCFA a year or two earlier. While part of this large fall in market prices is attributable to high rates of herd offtake leading to excess supply, it is also partly due to changes in the demand for meat in coastal markets. Of particular importance has been the closure by Nigeria of her frontiers and increasingly tight controls over movements of foreign exchange. In addition, countries like Ivory Coast have continued to import large quantities of frozen meat from overseas, thereby reducing the level of demand for Sahelian livestock.Diagram 2.5. Market prices for millet in Bamako, Mali, 1982-84 2.33 External trade. The external trade balance will also be affected by a drought induced fall in livestock production. A fall in the national herd reduces the number of animals available for satisfying domestic demand and for meeting export targets. In addition, disease problems may be aggravated by drought, because of the ensuing large scale movements of stock between areas. These disease problems may lead to the closure of certain export markets. The way in which the stock shortfall is distributed between the two markets (i.e. domestic and export) depends on a variety of factors which include income and price elasticities of demand in the two markets, changes in income levels, inflation rates, the degree of substitutability between animals destined primarily for the domestic as opposed to the external market and government interventions aimed at shifting stock in one or the other direction. Where a strong level of urban demand exists, this may absorb most of the available offtake from herds in the immediate post-drought period, so that livestock exports fall by an amount far greater than the percentage drought losses of stock (ILCA, 1979).The data available on both domestic slaughters and exports of live animals and meat is often very inadequate, so that the exact distribution of livestock losses between the two markets cannot be gauged with certainty. Diagram 2.6 below presents data for cattle on estimated total domestic consumption and exports for Mali and Botswana. In the case of Mali, it can be seen that the export trade was relatively static following the 1973 drought, not expanding until 1979, after which the numbers exported have risen rapidly. This increase in exports seems to have coincided with a fall in domestic consumption of beef, probably as a result of a shift in the relative prices of beef in domestic and export markets. The low level of cattle exports in the post-1973 period may be accounted for by several factors: (i) the drop in national herd size by an estimated 30-35%, reducing the number of animals available for meeting domestic and foreign demand; (ii) the priority given by the government in the immediate post-drought period to satisfying domestic demand, given the rapid inflation in meat prices noted earlier and the importance of urban consumers as a political force; and (iii) the turning by Ivory Coast to non-African supplies of meat -mainly frozen meat imports from Argentina -to make up for the temporary shortfall in meat supplies from its traditional Sahelian sources. As a consequence, Malian exports of meat now face a somewhat \"softer\" market in Ivory Coast than was formerly the case, consumers being ready to turn to cheaper supplies of frozen meat should imports of Sahelian stock become too expensive. However, it should be remembered that the figures must be treated with caution, since controlled* domestic slaughters of cattle probably account for only 50% of total slaughters while controlled* exports of cattle are thought to represent only 25% of the total actually exported (Delgado, 1980).* \"Controlled\" exports and slaughters are those which take place through officially recognised channels and for which the relevant taxes have been paid. Thus, uncontrolled exports refer to those which cross international frontiers away from border posts and uncontrolled domestic slaughters are those which take place, for example, in herders' camps and farming villages. The proportions of controlled to uncontrolled activity are estimated by Delgado (1980) for the mid-1970s. However, he emphasizes that there is no reason to believe that controlled activity remains a constant proportion of total trade, given changes in government policy, customs duties, etc.Diagram 2.6. Domestic slaughters and exports of cattle from Mali and Botswana, 1971-82.2.35. In the case of Botswana, all cattle exports pass through the Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) and confidence can thus be placed on the export figures. However, domestic slaughters cannot be known with accuracy as many of these take place in rural areas. Export figures in Diagram 2.6 refer to metric tons of boneless beef while domestic slaughters are presented in thousands of head. The figures show the effect of certain drought years on increasing export volume, such as in 1973 and 1979. In addition, there is a marked effect on meat exports from outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease, which occurred in 1978 and 1980. Not only are there lower volumes of meat exported in these years, hut also the unit value of meat exports is reduced as particular high-price markets such as the EEC, forbid the importation of meat from areas infected with this disease. The figures for domestic slaughters show a generally rising trend with a sharp fall in the post-drought year of 1980, as expected.3.01. It is important to assess the capacity and speed of rehabilitation in crop and livestock production in the absence of intervention from sources external to the system or community involved for two reasons. Firstly, one must have some measure of expected rates of rehabilitation against which to evaluate the impact of various forms of intervention aimed at boosting the speed of recovery. For example, suppose that rates of herd reconstitution in the absence of intervention can be estimated at 2.5% per annum but that a programme of selective supplementation is expected to raise this to 3.5% per annum. The net gain in livestock productivity as a result of this intervention can then be compared against the cost of its implementation and its return assessed in relation to other possible policy measures.3.02. Secondly, indigenous strategies in the post-drought period provide policy makers with guidelines as to processes of local adaptation which may be supported. Communities often display considerable resilience in the face of drought, enabling them to survive severe crises and to regain their ability to produce in the subsequent period. The policies of governments and development agencies can either re-enforce those strategies or render them less effective. For example, it is common in conditions of acute pasture shortage for herders from the Sahel to take their animals much further to the south of their usual circuits of transhumance, hoping by this means to get access to fodder in higher rainfall zones. Administrative control over the movement of herds from region to region and between nations curb the possibilities for migration and thus heighten the risks of heavy stock losses in times of drought. Similarly, temporary migration of labour from rural areas is pursued on a regular basis in many countries. For example, seasonal migration is an important source of off-farm income for many farmers in the savanna and sahelian zones of West Africa. In times of drought, this migration flow becomes crucially important, as it both reduces the number of people who must be fed by the household granary in the drought-affected area and it provides a supplementary source of income for buying food.Government policy can either aid or hamper this flow of labour from poor to better-off regions, by either minimising the paperwork and cost of movement, or conversely, by making it difficult for people to travel, cross regional or national frontiers or obtain temporary employment.Rehabilitation of the pastoral sector in the absence of outside intervention 3.03. The reconstitution of herd numbers over time can be looked at, both at the level of the national herd and at the level of the individual herd-owner. The distinction must be made between the two cases of reconstitution because it can be assumed, in most cases, that imports of livestock will make little appreciable impact on the growth in total herd numbers at the national level, while much of the growth in an individual's holding may be due to acquisition of animals from various sources. In this latter case, there is no net gain in total national herd numbers, although a redistribution in livestock holdings will have occurred. The use of herd models to simulate reconstitution of livestock numbers after drought will be examined first before turning to strategies pursued by individual producers to restore their animal holdings.3.04 Modelling the post-drought reconstitution of herds. Several writers have developed models aimed at simulating drought-induced losses and the subsequent period of herd reconstitution in the ensuing years (Dahl and Hjort, 1976;Tacher, 1975;Clark, 1984). The general format of such models is to take a herd containing a certain proportion of animals belonging to different ageclasses. Usually only the female breeding herd is taken as it is the number of breeding stock available which determines current and future herd growth rates. After subjecting a herd of normal structure to drought losses of a certain order, reconstitution is stimulated by attributing given values for' fertility and mortality rates in each age-class.3.05. The models proposed by different writers vary in terms of the different parameters chosen as typical of herds under normal conditions and in whether or not some compensatory increase in herd productivity is assumed to take place in the immediate post-drought period. It has been noted by some researchers' that herds typically experience abnormally high rates of fertility in the year or two following a drought, due to low rates of conception and birth during the drought period and to the favourable post-drought balance between livestock and pasture conditions. Thus, immediate post-drought growth rates may be very high, herds being largely composed of breeding females and many of these calving in the year after the drought. Dahl &;Hjort (1976) give examples of herds growing by as much as 25% following a drought before falling back to more normal rates of increase of between 2 and 5% per annum. However, given the uneven impact of drought losses, the numbers, age composition and output of herds will undergo considerable fluctuation over the ensuing years as the herd gradually regains its former structure.3.06. Table 3.1 gives the estimated number of years required for cattle herd reconstitution after losses varying from 10 to 90% and is taken from Tacher's model of Sahelian cattle herds. Diagram 3.1 presents this data in another form. There is a progressive flattening in the slope of the lines showing the time-path for reconstitution. This indicates that as mortality rates rise, the reconstitution period increases more than proportionately. For example, while losses of 20% will take 3 years to make good, losses of double this figure (i.e. 40%) will take far longer than double the time to reconstitute. Diagram 3.2 contrasts the speed of reconstitution for goats and cattle following different orders of loss. The rapid reproduction rates found among small stock allows them to reconstitute their number after drought relatively quickly. It can be seen from the diagram that after losses of 70% (or a survival rate of 30%), goat populations will be back to their former level in about 8 years. The slower growth of cattle herds means that they take much longer to reconstitute after losses of lesser significance.  3.07 The higher survival rates of small stock in times of drought as compared with cattle and the faster rate of growth among the former explains changes in the composition of livestock populations in the post-drought period and in particular the dominance of goats as reconstitution takes place. This shift in the species composition of herds is seen in the following sectionThe reconstitution of the Sahelian livestock sector after the 1968-73 drought 3.08 The general conclusion of the herd models discussed above and the derived rates of growth may be compared with the evolution of animal numbers in the Sahel, following the losses of the prolonged drought period of 1968-73. As may be seen from Table 3.2 most Sahelian states had by 1983 seen a restoration of the national herd, although a shift had taken place in the relative importance of different species and in their geographic distribution. The evolution of livestock numbers since 1973 provides support for the conclusion that overall drought losses were around 30% for cattle in most countries, with somewhat lower rates among sheep and goats, although the incidence of loss varied considerably between regions within any single country. Only in the more northerly zones did cattle losses exceed 25 to 30%, so that cattle numbers were approximately restored over the ten-year period, as would be predicted by the model described above. Very high losses among cattle of 80 to 100% for herds in northeast Mali (Marty, 1975), while of critical importance to the herders concerned, were probably of low national or international significance. These losses were composed not only of livestock deaths but also of distress sales of stock, some of which were subsequently slaughtered for meat while some were bought by other herd-owners. In the latter case, while the sales of an animal to another represents a net loss to the individual producer, at the national level this transaction represents a redistribution of available livestock rather than a net loss of herd capital. In addition, some animals which had been thought lost to the national herd by their migration to states further south are likely to have returned to the Sahelian countries with the better rainfall and pasture conditions of the mid-70s.Herders' options for herd reconstitution 3.09 Earlier, reference was made to several herd models used to estimate the speed of herd reconstitution in the absence of outside intervention, after losses of varying intensity. It was seen for example that for losses of 30%, it will take about 10 years for a herd to regain its former numbers. Individual herders, however, can pursue a number of strategies in the event of loss in order to reduce the length of time taken for their own herd numbers to re-build on the basis of natural reproduction alone. These include: supplementing livestock output with income earned elsewhere, concentration of resources on rapid reproducers, like sheep and goats, the acquisition of stock from other households or attempts to raise the productivity of remaining livestock holdings. Most of these strategies involve the re-distribution of existing livestock and thus do not exert an overall impact on the overall rate of growth of the national herd. If however stock are available from elsewhere (for example if Malian herders can buy breeding stock in Burkina Faso), individual herders' strategies for herd-rebuilding can add to total number of animals owned at the national level.The pastoralist is faced with a major problem in the post-drought period, that of having reduced herd numbers producing a lower income in the form of milk supplies and saleable stock. Herd size may have fallen below a level capable of supporting the human group formerly dependent on it. As a result, the herder has several options:3.11 Firstly, to increase the rate of herd exploitation by increasing milk offtake or selling more stock. This policy will lead to the disappearance of the herder's capital sooner or later.3.12. Secondly, to supplement income from the herd with that obtained elsewhere, for example by the outmigration of some household members or by the pursuit of a number of supplementary activities carried out in association with care of the herd. The success of such a strategy depends on the extent to which herd management patterns change as a consequence. As discussed earlier, the outflow of adult male labour from the pastoral household can have adverse effects on the way the herd is managed. Where herders must combine farming with the care of their animals, the heavy labour demands of cultivation will reduce the possibilities for efficient herd management.Transhumance over long distances during the rainy season may have to be abandoned because labour is tied Up in farming. However, in some eases, the combination of farming with herding may be relatively easy. For example, several households can group their animals together and send one or two of their members with the Joint herd' thereby minimising the labour demands on individual households. Alternatively, agricultural production can be fitted into transhumance circuits in such a way as to minimise disruption in grazing patterns (as described by Cunnison (1966) for Baggara nomads of the Sudan).3.13. The third option is to convert remaining holdings into small stock, whose rates of reproduction are considerably higher than those for cattle and which can supply a more even supply of milk throughout the year. Having built Up a large holding of sheep and goats over a period of years, the animals can then be sold in order to buy cattle. The viability of this option depends on the relative price ratios of small to large stock in the period immediately following the drought and in subsequent years. The success of this strategy is hampered by the tendency for small stock prices to be fairly high after a drought' due to strong demand among herders for these species as many producers try to reconstitute their holdings in this way. In addition, as noted by Dahl and Hjort (1979), this strategy is very risky, as small stock tend to be more susceptible to disease.3.14 Fourthly, herders can acquire animals from other herd-owners, through legal or illicit means. The pastoral literature presents many examples of livestock \"loans\" between different producers and details the variety of terms and contexts within which these exchanges occur (see Toulmin 1983b, pp 12-18, for a summary of these animal loans). Some of these loans are redistributive in function and motive, involving the transfer of rights to offspring of loaned animals to the borrower, enabling the latter to build up his own livestock capital over time. An example of this is exhibited by the habbanaae system of loans among the pastoral WodaaBe of the Sahel, whereby a cow is loaned to another herder, the latter receiving the first three calves born before returning the cow to her owner (Dupire, 1962). Other livestock transfers do not offer the same prospect for gaining an independent herd, the temporary allocation of animals to another being made on less favourable terms, such as granting access to a quantity of milk, or payment in grain or cash. The latter examples are essentially herding contracts, involving the exchange of a herder's labour for a wage denominated in cash or in kind. It is generally held that the frequency of loans will decline in the period following a drought, given the fall in total numbers of livestock available and the lack of surplus animals at the level of the individual household. However, Marty (1975) finds that they remained the most important means by which herders gained access to animals after the 1973 drought for the group of pastoralists surveyed in northeast Mali.3.15 Theft or raiding of stock is an alternative means by which an individual herder or group of pastoralists can make good their losses relatively quickly. In the past, this was probably a much more frequent means by which people could expand their herd numbers, but is of much less importance today' except perhaps in remote border areas where control by the government is weak.The fifth option open to herders is to try to raise productivity levels of existing stock, so that herd numbers increase more rapidly and/or a higher level of offtake can be maintained without running down herd capital. For example, herders can acquire access to inputs -medicines, supplementary fodder with which to reduce mortality rates, increase milk production or raise fertility. However these inputs are often expensive and in very short supply. Herders who have recently suffered heavy stock losses are unlikely to be able to finance the purchase of such inputs on a significant scale. Alternatively, herders can change management practices to raise herd performance, for example by reducing milk offtake to raise calf growth and survival rates, by adapting circuits of transhumance and by devoting more time and attention to their livestock. However, as noted above, herders face pressures in the opposite direction following a drought. With few breeding cows left, the herder may have to raise milk offtake to feed his family. With the outflow of labour, a shortage of herding labour acts as a constraint on the pursuit of more efficient herd management practices, such as herd division and transhumance to salt deposits.The effectiveness of herders' options 3.17. It is debatable how effective are the strategies pursued by herders in the post-drought period in significantly increasing the speed at which the individual herder can regain his former herd numbers. Individual case-studies are presented by a number of researchers but little can be concluded from these except at the anecdotal level. However, a comparison of two studies among the pastoral Fulani of Niger in the 1980s and twenty years earlier does suggest certain factors which have reduced the effectiveness of herders' strategies over the past few decades.3.18 White's study (1984) notes that WodaaBe herders have faced severe constraints since the drought of 1973 because their herd size has fallen below the minimum for household viability.As a result of this, herders are forced to sell many of their animals at a very young age and must sometimes sell breeding stock in order to finance grain purchases. Herders also take on entrusted cattle from sedentary livestock-owners to supplement their incomes. However, the presence of these animals in their herd constrains the pattern of transhumance they can follow, as the owners of entrusted stock do not want their animals to be taken far from their control and supervision. This constrained transhumance limits herd productivity.In addition to these factors, the outflow of migrant labour in the dry season further reduces the efficiency of herd management techniques and contributes to the persistence of the household in a vicious circle, in which it is unable to reestablish a herd of sufficient size to become fully selfsupporting,3.19 Dupire's work (1872) among the Fulani of Niger in the 1950 and 60s presents a picture of greater; flexibility, with many households following a cycle of loss and subsequent rehabilitation' by their temporary settlement in agriculture and the gradual re-building of herds using small stock. The difference between the situation described by the two writers is probably attributable to several factors: (i) the relatively favourable climatic conditions over much of West Africa in the 1950s and 60s, in contrast to the period after 1970; (ii) the exceptional severity of the 1968-73 drought in terms of livestock losses in contrast to less devastating droughts of previous decades; (iii) the growth in human and livestock populations over the past twenty years which has put heavy pressure on available pasture resources; and (iv) the growing involvement of nonpastoral producers in the livestock sector which has led to rising livestock prices and increased competition for the use of grazing and water resources.3.20 Post-drought recovery by herders will be accelerated where the fall in livestock numbers allows a favourable balance to be restored between available grazing and animal fodder needs. However, while very heavy animal losses provide good conditions for those with some surviving stock, they make rehabilitation more difficult for those who have lost their entire herd. Herders in the latter situation will face high livestock prices, especially for breeding stock, relative to the other commodities available to them, such as their labour power, grain, etc. The pursuit of supplementary incomes by pastoral household with some surviving stock can have both positive and negative effects on the speed of herd reconstitution. On the one hand, diversion of labour from managing the herd reduces the level of herd productivity. On the other hand, the receipt of income from elsewhere reduces the pressure of demand from the pastoral household on available milk supplies and on animals to be sold to finance cereal purchases. With calves receiving more milk, calf mortality will be lower and calf growth to maturity faster, leading to a higher overall level of herd growth and productivity.Rehabilitation of the farm sector in the absence of outside intervention 3.21 An earlier section summarised the likely effects of drought on livestock productivity and holdings within farming areas. It focussed on the consequences of draft animal losses for crop production in the years following drought, due to the weakness or death of some animals and to the distress sales of others by farmers needing to get cash to buy grain. Diagram 3.3 presents a schematic picture of the different lengths of time required for rehabilitation of farming areas, according to the level of draft animal loss experienced. The modelling of the farming sector's rehabilitation after drought is of greater complexity than that of herd development over time. This is because the significance of draft losses will depend on the nature of the farming system and the effectiveness of different options pursued by farmers in order to maintain crop output. In order to assess the likely fall in crop output due to work oxen losses, questions such as the following must be answered:i.What proportion of land is normally ploughed and weeded by oxen? ii.how much time is available for land preparation before sowing? iii.what effect is there on yields from late sowing, from sowing on unploughed land or from weeding by hand rather than by plough? iv.can land be prepared by hand and, if so, what is the area that can be dealt with? v.what proportion of households have the necessary animals and equipment for their own ploughteam and thus what slack is there in the system for ploughing using borrowed or shared animals?Diagram 3.3. rehabilitation of farm output after drought losses of work oxen: the time pattern for recovery after varying levels of loss 3.22 The three countries looked at in this paper -Ethiopia, Botswana and Mali -all depend to a greater or lesser extent on work oxen for their draft power requirements. The draft animal populations of each country are shown below in Table 3.3. Ethiopia has an ancient heritage of plough cultivation going back for more than 1,000 years; in the case of Botswana, plough technology was brought in during the late nineteenth century, for Mali, ploughs have only become of importance in the last 20 to 30 years, the number of farmers using this technology increasing by an estimated 9 to 10% per annum over the last decade (Delgado, 1980).3.23 Soils vary considerably between the three countries, the Sahelian and savanna soils of Mali being far lighter than those of highland Ethiopia and of Botswana, where heavier clays and vertisols are found. In the case of Ethiopia, soils must often be worked 4 to 6 times to achieve a fine enough seedbed for the traditional crop of teff, in contrast to the rapid ridging of sand soils done by many farmers in Mali. The total volume and timing of rainfall also vary very considerably within and between each country. For highland areas of Ethiopia the short rains of February to April provide the opportunity for much land preparation to take place before fields are sown in June when the main rains begin. In arable areas of Botswana and in the more northerly farming zones of Mali, time available for land preparation before sowing is much more limited and working of the soil is often minimal as a result. Part of the millet crop may even be sown on unploughed land in order to maximise the plant's growing period, although the subsequent weeding problems are severe.3.24 Given the above factors and their varying importance between farming regions, one would expect the consequences of work oxen losses to vary considerably according to the characteristics of the farming system involved.3.25 There are a number of options which farmers can pursue to restore levels of crop production and holdings of draft animals: the share or loan of draft animals between households, use of other stock for pulling the plough, hand cultivation of soils, hire of tractor services, changes in crop composition, purchases of fertiliser, supplementation of remaining stock, turning to income earned elsewhere or waiting for livestock holdings to re-grow. Each of these is discussed below.3.26. Sharing or loans of work oxen from other households. Where oxen losses have been relatively slight, farmers may be able to borrow a single animal or plough team from another household. Such loans are common in many farming systems, loans being repaid on a variety of terms often involving the exchange of several days hand labour against each plough team day borrowed (see Vierich and Sheppard, 1980 for Botswana;Fulton and Toulmin, 1982 for Mali). Alternatively, two households with A single ox each can arrange to take turns in using the oxen pair, as described by Gryseels and Anderson (1983) for Ethiopia. With very heavy work oxen losses in a particular region, loans are likely to be less easy to arrange for those having lost their own animals. For the case of Botswana, a recent survey notes that there may be considerable reserve capacity in the availability of draft animal power in normal times, so that minor losses, of say 20%, have little effect on the overall area cultivated. More extensive sharing of draft power takes place and animals can be worked more intensively in order to maintain total output at expected levels.3.27 Use of other animals for draft. If losses of oxen have been high, a farmer can continue to cultivate his land using other animals for the ploughteam, such as milk cows, horses, donkeys or camels. These animals will have a lower productivity in work but will partially compensate for the loss of trained oxen. In extreme cases, even human labour has been known to be used for pulling the plough for example in the period following the great rinderpest epidemic in Ethiopia in the 1890s when an estimated 90% of the country's draft oxen were lost (Wolde Mariam, 1984). However, if work oxen holdings have been badly affected by drought, it is likely that other stock will also have either suffered high mortality or have been sold to purchase food grains.3.28 Hand cultivation. In the absence of draft power, farmers may be able to cultivate part of their land by means of hand tools. However, this will be at the cost of lower crop output, due to the smaller area cultivated and the less effective tillage that can be achieved by hand as against plough techniques. Estimates of the land area which can be cultivated by hand vary from 10 to 50% of that which can be managed by a plough team, depending on the nature of soils and time available for land preparation. Where weeding is usually done with a plough, resort to hand techniques will lead to lower yields from the less optimal timing of this operation.3.29. Hire tractor services. This option is open only to those farmers with access to this service at a reasonable cost. Hiring a tractor tends to be more expensive than hire of a ploughteam for the same work and usually requires a cash outlay rather than repayment in labour or other services (Vierich and Sheppard, 1980). For this reason, farmers who find themselves without work oxen may also be without the funds to finance ploughing by tractor. Data from Botswana would suggest however that a considerable number of farmers resort to hire of tractors both in normal years and in times of drought, a survey done after the 1979 drought finding that while 1.7% of households in a given region owned tractors, 11% of households had ploughed their land by this means (Jones, 1980). Migrants' earnings were especially important in financing the hire of tractors by poor households.3.30. Change in crop composition. Different crops vary in their tillage requirements. For example, in the case of Ethiopia, teff needs a finely-worked seedbed; in Mali, much of the millet crop may be sown on unploughed land whereas groundnuts require a prepared seedbed. Farmers can moderate the effects of work oxen loss by switching to less tillage-intensive crops, the possibilities for doing this depending on their access to seed, their family's consumption requirements and their marketing possibilities.3.31. Fertiliser purchases. 'Farmers can reduce their shortfall in output arising from a decline in area cultivated by higher levels of fertiliser use leading to higher yields. The effectiveness of this option in maintaining total crop production depends on crop response to fertiliser use and the relative costs of purchase, transport and application of fertiliser. The adoption of a short term policy of heavy fertiliser use in the years immediately following drought may be a reasonable policy for governments to promote, as will be investigated later. Lack of cash available to the farmer in the post-drought period is the main constraint on this option being widely pursued in the absence of extensive government subsidies on the purchase and distribution of this input.3.32. Supplement remaining animals. Where some livestock are still left to a farmer, their work capacity can be increased by giving them supplementary fodder. This fodder could come from crop by-products or natural pasture and browse-both likely to be in short supply following drought-or from purchases of locally available agro-industrial by-products, such as cotton-seed, molasses and bran. However, the latter are also likely to be heavily in demand in the last few months of the dry season, when oxen most need supplementation, as many livestock owners will be trying to carry their stock through to the next rainy season. Exports of these commodities will further raise their prices and restrict supplies. Work is currently in progress in Ethiopia and in several Sahelian states to develop supplementation programmes based on blocks made from a mixture of molasses and urea (FAO 1985 a,b,c). While urea must usually be imported, molasses are in abundant supply in many countries as a by-product of the sugar processing industry. These molasses blocks have the advantage of being relatively easy to transport and store, in contrast to molasses in their liquid form. However, the molasses-urea mix is not meant to be a substitute for other sources of fodder but rather to stimulate consumption of low quality roughages like natural hays and crop straw. Preliminary estimates within the Sahelian context put production and sales costs at 35-40 FCFA per kg, equivalent to US$0.07-0.08 per kg (FAO 1985 a,b,c).3.33. Earn income elsewhere to buy replacement oxen. Farm households may be able to finance the purchase of new stock by income earned from other sources. For example, migration earnings are a major source of income to many farming areas of southern Africa and the Sahel. Migration may either be seasonal or take the form of a male household member being away for a number of years, during which time cash remittances are sent back to the agricultural sector to purchase both food and farm inputs. The ease with which these earnings can be used to finance the purchase of new work animals depends on the relative value of remittances, the price of work oxen and the urgency of other calls upon cash income. In times of drought, urban labour markets experience a large number of job-seekers and real wage levels tend to be lower than at normal times For this reason, the availability of migration earnings will be lower in the post-drought period and possibilities for acquiring the funds for oxen purchase more limited than in normal times. It also will be harder for farmers to reconstitute their holdings where both the arable and the livestock sectors of the economy have been simultaneously hit by drought losses. In this case, there will be heavy demand from both the farming community and the meat market for a limited supply of young male animals and prices will rise accordingly. Delgado (1980) noted in the case of Mali that farmers provide strong competition for young oxen with those involved in meatfattening schemes, substantially constraining the availability of animals and the profits to be made from meat enterprises.3.34. Wait for herd to regrow: For those households with their own breeding herd, the offspring of these animals can provide future working animals. In this case, the speed of recovery in work oxen numbers depends on the number of oxen required for ploughing, the size of the breeding herd and its rate of increase. Usually one would expect both work oxen and breeding herds to have been adversely affected by drought, although there may be circumstances in which households prefer to sell their oxen rather than lose their breeding herd. In such an event, the household must wait for a sufficient number of male calves to be born and brought to an age when they are ready to work, although in the intervening years some arrangement must be made to either plough by other means or to purchase food from elsewhere. Where some cattle must be sold to buy food on a regular basis, the household may never be able to reestablish itself as a viable farming unit and it will be faced by the prospect of increasing impoverishment (Vierich and Sheppard, 1980).How long does it take the farming sector to recover?3.35. Table 3.4 gives rough estimates of the likely length of time taken for the farming sector to recover from a range of drought-induced losses in the absence of outside intervention. The spread in the number of years given for each case results from the dependence of reconstitution speeds on a variety of factors discussed earlier. Reconstitution will be more rapid in the following circumstances:-where sharing of animals provides a temporary means by which those without draft power can continue to cultivate their land;-where the agricultural sector is sufficiently productive for farmers to have access to a regular surplus for investment and where the relative price of crops to oxen is in favour of the former, so that a good harvest may enable the farmer to replace his lost animals in a single year;-where there are external sources of income available to members of the household which can be used to buy new animals and equipment and which can provide for the household's food needs in the intervening Table 3.4 Estimated time taken for recovery of farming sector after drought in the absence of outside intervention.> 50% 5 -10 3.36 Conversely, rehabilitation speeds will be longer, the heavier are oxen losses, the greater the area affected by crop losses and livestock deaths and sales' and the higher the price of oxen relative to crop output and migration earnings.3.37 Post-drought surveys provide some data on the evolution of harvests over subsequent years and on the time taken for crop production to get back to normal levels However, there are often a number of factors affecting total harvest size in the post-drought period which makes it hard to assess the relative importance of work oxen losses as compared with other variables, such as lack of seed, rainfall levels, social and political dislocation, etc.3.38 In the case of Ethiopia, data on crop output and areas cultivated is scarce for both the preand the post-1973 period. One-source estimates a fall of 60% in arable land planted in the worst year of the drought in the regions of Wollo and Tigre (IBRD, 1979) due to shortages of work oxen and seed. Wolde Mariam (1984) cites a report showing that previous losses of work oxen accounted for between 44% and 87% of the cases in which land was not cultivated in 1973, seed shortages being mentioned as being of only secondary importance. Crop production figures suggest that 1974 saw a return to more normal levels of output at the national levels with the total crop harvest up by 14% over the previous year (IBRD, 1980). However, these figures must be treated with care because they are based on a slender sampling frame and apply to national production rather than being limited to the most drought-affected provinces. In subsequent years' additional factors such as land reform and political instability have themselves contributed substantially to the difficulties faced in assessing changes in farm output in the drought-prone areas of Wollo and Tigre.3.39. For Botswana, harvests in the post-drought years of the late 1960s show very high variability, attributable to continued fluctuations in rainfall. While figures on total areas cultivated are not available, those on total output suggest that the farm sector was not operating at normal levels of output until 1971 (Jones, 1979). The drought year of 1978/79 in Botswana saw an estimated 60% fall in area cultivated in one region surveyed, caused by the poor condition of work oxen and the poor timing of rainfall at the start of the farming season. However, the following farming season appears to have seen an increase in area cultivated above normal levels, farmers having an incentive to increase their field size, given shortages in food supplies (Jones, 1980). This increase in area was made possible by the relatively low losses (10-15%) suffered among draft animals and the extensive systems for loaning draft power between households.In the ease of the Sahel, no material is available on the speed with which areas cultivated returned to normal after the drought of 1968-73. However, grain production figures would suggest that harvests were back to pre-drought levels in 1974 which would imply no significant adverse impact on farm productive capacity as a result of the drought. This may be explained by the relatively low losses of harvests and livestock in most -farming areas, so that area farmed and output could return rapidly to normal once rainfall conditions improved. It may also be the case that producers were able to minimise the consequences of drought-induced crop losses with the help of migration earnings and systems for help and redistribtution within peasant society thus avoiding sales of work oxen. By contrast, recent material from north west Mali would suggest a fall in area cultivated of between 30 and 50% in 1984, due to heavy losses among draught animals the previous year (FAO, 1984c).Chapter 4 Comparing the impact of policy measures 4.01. Tables 4.1 to 4.7 present a comparison of alternative policy instruments aimed at restoring various aspects of livestock production and use. They analyse policy measures applicable in each area of concern and show their relative impact on different sectors of the economy in the short term.4.02 The government budget: refers to changes in government revenue and expenditure as a result of implementing a particular change in policy. Most changes involve expenditure in one form or another, through, for example, provision of subsidies or financing credit to producers. Against this increase in expenditure should be set (a) the possible receipt of finance for some of these policies from external agencies (b) the cost to government budgets from not acting, e.g. the continued provision of relief supplies to affected populations unable to reconstitute their capital and income, (c) the longer term benefits in the form of increased revenue-from reestablishing the viability of livestock and farming sectors.4.03. Producers are divided into those of livestock and of grain. This is in order to identify the effects of changes in relative prices and levels of demand for the two products. There is evidently considerable heterogeneity within each group of producers which this distinction overlooks, for example in terms of herd size, herd management objectives and access to resources. Similarly, grain producers are not a homogenous body, some farmers producing a regular surplus while others must buy a part of their grain needs in most years. In addition, many producers are involved in both areas of activity, pastoralists growing some grain and farmers holding livestock assets.4.04. Consumers: High income consumers are predominantly urban, purchasing above-average quantities of meat, predominantly beef. They are usually politically powerful group on whom governments depend for their support. This implies that governments will aim to avoid adverse changes in their welfare. Low income consumers are composed of the urban poor and the vast majority of the rural population. Their consumption of beef is relatively low and they depend instead on cheaper sources of meat -small stock, poultry -and other forms of protein -eg dried fish. Grains form a major part of their diet and of their expenditure; consequently, a large rise in the price of cereals will adversely affect the welfare of their group of consumers. While they represent a politically less powerful group, less influential and with poorer organisation and contacts than the high income group, the urban poor can occasionally wield great political power. Several governments have avoided or reversed cereal price rises following the threat of urban riots over the escalating price of food. Considerations of equity would imply the pursuit of policies in the interests of low as opposed to high income consumers.4.05. External trade: This item measures the net expected changes in the flow of imports and exports as a result of each policy being carried out. Some measures will have a substantial foreign exchange cost, such as the diversion of animal feed from export to domestic use, imports of grain and meat, etc. As in the case of the government budget, external funding may be available to carry out some of these activities, thereby reducing the overall foreign exchange cost.4.06. Discussion of Tables 4.1-4.7: These tables present the short term impact of various policy instruments on different sectors of the economy, the nature of the impact noted as being positive (+), negative (-) or neutral (0). The tables consider only the likely effects in the short term and thus ignore the longer term repercussions of different measures. For example, a ban on the export of female stock will reduce foreign exchange earnings in the short run. Over a period of years, however, this ban may promote faster reconstitution of herds and a more rapid return to predrought levels of livestock exports.4.07. The impact of a particular policy instrument will be strongly affected by the structure of marketing and prices. For example, the effect on external trade from raising farm prices will depend on whether these farm products are exported, whether price increases paid to farmers are passed on in higher export prices (or absorbed by marketing boards) and, if the former, on the elasticity of demand in world markets for this export commodity. The overall size of the impact will often depend on the relative sizes of gains and losses. For example, some policies such as the lifting of direct taxes on livestock will involve a loss of revenue to governments on the one hand. On the other hand, there may be some fall in administrative costs as a result of the tax being lifted. 4.08. A number of conclusions can be drawn from Tables 4.1--4.7 with respect to the cost and effectiveness of the different policies considered.There is usually a variety of policy measures open to governments to achieve a desired aim or objective. These are not necessarily alternatives to each other but may be used in combination. For example, pressure on herders' incomes can be reduced by a mixture of policies including the abolition of livestock taxes, provision of cheap grain supplies and the development of supplementary income sources.4.10. Policies aiming at a single objective differ considerably in their distributional impact, depending on the policy instrument used and the course by which it achieves its effect. For example, the promotion of livestock exports may be achieved either by offering relative higher returns to producers and traders in export markets, or by imposing a mixture of taxes and controls on domestic sales and slaughters. In the latter case, producers will suffer a net income loss, since the flow of livestock through markets is directed by fiat rather than by providing price incentives.Policies vary in the size of their spill-over effects into other parts of the economy. Some policies achieve their objectives fairly precisely, with the minimum of side-effects, while others cause a range of changes in other factor and product markets.Spill-over should be kept to a minimum, since they cause unintended changes in relative price levels and incentives affecting the efficiency of resource use in other areas. However, in some cases the government may have little choice but to adopt a broad-based policy with considerable spill overs where it lacks the administrative infrastructure to pursue a more precisely focussed policy. Table 4.8 shows, for the achievement of particular objectives, how policies can vary in their specificity and degree of spill-over. General subsidies on the exports of all commodities.Exchange rate measures to increase earnings from exports.Reduce livestock tax on all herd owners. Reduce pressure on the incomes of all herd-owners by subsidies on inputs, grain, fodder.General tax increase for domestic consumers, reduction in government paid salaries.Ban on the export of all stock.4.12. There is a wide range in the administrative costs of policy implementation, there being in general a trade-off between the precision attainable and the cost of achieving this. For example, it could be argued that livestock tax relief should go to herders with the smallest number of stock, tax being levied once herd numbers rise above a certain level, this graduated schedule providing relief only to those most in need. However, the assessment and collection of livestock tax is sufficiently problematic in many countries already, without additional demands being made on administrative staff to verify actual ownership of livestock in the close detail which would be required for the introduction of such a policy measure. Similarly, in designing a credit programme to aid farmers who have lost their work oxen, a decision must be made about how much time to spend, on the selection and screening of applicants for loans. While a tighter procedure might ensure a lower degree of fraud, it also places a greater strain on limited administrative resources and hampers the speed at which reconstitution of holdings can take place. Some degree of fraud may be acceptable in order to achieve a rapid disbursement of funds where speed is a crucial actor in the success of a policy. This would be particularly the case where, for example, work oxen must be distributed before the start of the farming season in order to ensure a timely preparation and sowing of fields.4.13.The probability of receiving external funding will differ between policy measures. Many donors will be more willing to fund direct interventions in farm and livestock production than in provision of general financial support to the government's budget.4.14. Policies differ in terms of their timing, the speed with which they can be implemented and the time period over which their impact is intended. Certain actions can be taken immediately, such as the abolition of taxes on livestock, land, slaughters, etc. Others will take much longer to implement, requiring the setting in place of administrative structure, for example to control the movement and prices of livestock or to establish a system for the distribution of subsidised animal feed. Policies which build up productive capacity on a permanent basis are to be preferred to those which provide inputs over a limited period. For example, when helping farmers to reconstitute their work oxen holdings, funds may be used to enable them to purchase new animals or to hire draft power (work oxen or tractors) from elsewhere. The latter policy evidently does not provide the farmer with permanent access to draft power; it may however be a useful complement to a work oxen credit programme where, due to limited numbers of oxen available for distribution immediately, considerable demand for draft power remains unsatisfied. Over time, as an increasing supply of oxen becomes available, the tractor hire scheme can be phased out.A comparison of policy options should include an explicit assessment of the cost of not taking action in a particular field. In the cases looked at here, the costs of inaction are composed of an extension of the period with below average production in livestock and farming sectors, leading to reduced opportunities for income and employment for part of the population who must as a result depend on others for support (from the state, famine relief agencies, kinship links, etc), a reduced taxable base, lower export earnings and higher domestic prices for output from drought-affected sectors of the economy The financial, economic and social costs-of inaction are high. However, as recent experience in several drought-affected African countries has shown, it may be relatively easier for the government to get funding for the provision of food relief than it is for longer term development programmes.The above points illustrate the different characteristics of policy measures aimed at restoring the performance of drought-affected sectors of production, in terms of their costs, spillovers and distributional impact. Particular governments will be faced by additional constraints on the choices to be made among possible policies; these constraints are imposed by limited resources, poor marketing and administrative infrastructures leading to weak control by government of trade flows within the country and to foreign markets, weak institutional development at the level of producer organizations and political constraints imposed by the need to act in the interests of certain groups.4.17. Resource constraints, almost all policies require the direct allocation of funds for their implementation and many of the policies investigated in Tables 4.1 -4.7 are costly in administrative and material resources. By contrast, inaction makes no immediate demands on the government budget; however, its long term cost may be much greater in terms of foregone output, incomes and foreign earnings. In all poor countries, there will be a high opportunity cost to the use of most resources. Foreign exchange is usually in especially short supply. Thus, policy measures which rely on using exportable commodities (such as agro-industrial by-products) or on importing inputs (such as machinery, fuel and spare parts for a tractor hire scheme) must be looked at with particular care. Foreign exchange limitations are relaxed where part of the finance required is available through grants in aid from external agencies.4.18. Marketing and administrative structures. Several of the policy options outlined in Tables 4.1-4.7 involve government intervention in controlling trade, prices and the imposition of taxes and subsidies. This presupposes a structure through which governments are able to act effectively at little extra cost. In practice, in few countries do governments have the required degree of control in these fields to carry out such policies. Thus, for example, it is estimated that controlled exports make up only a small proportion of total livestock exports both from Ethiopia and from many Sahelian countries. This is due to long frontiers which are impossible to police effectively except at very great cost. By contrast, Botswana meat exports -are channelled entirely through the Botswana Meat Commission official exporting body and this is made possible by the high prices paid to producers by the BMC. On the hoof exports of stock across the frontier to neighbouring states are of negligible importance. Control over domestic slaughters is less complete as many of these take place in rural areas. Prospects for policies aimed at redirecting livestock flows between export and domestic markets are far greater for a country like Botswana, where movement within the country is also tightly controlled, due to the need for careful monitoring of livestock quarantine regulations to comply with the import standards of the European Community. Some countries have tried to set up parastatal bodies to enable governments to have more control over livestock marketing but attempts by government to impose tighter controls on domestic slaughters or exports of stock have often had little or no effect. Instead such policies tend to drive a higher share of the market into the uncontrolled sector. Thus, Stryker (1974) reckons that attempts to intervene in the Malian livestock market, over the period 1960-68, were largely nullified by the ability of merchants to displace their activity to other locations. Similarly, the short-term export ban on various categories of stock from many Sahelian states after the drought of 1973, while it led to a dramatic fall in controlled exports, probably caused a substantial increase in the number of exports passing through illegal channels.4.19. Level of institutional development at the producer level. The structure of livestock production differs between countries, in the case of Botswana, 15% of the cattle are held by large commercial farmers and 85% by smaller herd owners in the communal areas. In Ethiopia, the traditional farming sector accounts for about 70% of the country's cattle population, most of the rest being held in rangeland areas while State Farms are of significance in some areas. In most Sahelian states, livestock are in the hands both of pastoralists and farmers' although an increasing proportion of animals are thought to be held by non-traditional producers (traders, civil servants, etc.) who invest in cattle as one asset within a wider portfolio of investments. Different patterns of ownership imply differing herd management objectives and supply responses to changing market conditions. The structure of production, mean herd size and the extent of producer organisation affect both the options open to government to intervene successfully in this sector and the extent to which producers can themselves lobby for their own interests. A network of herder co-operatives, for example, provides a framework within which credit and other inputs can be channelled to herd owners. In their absence, active intervention in the livestock sector becomes much more administratively costly as systems for selection, allocation and distribution of resources must be established. For this reason, several development agencies working in the Sahel have made it an explicit component of their project work to set up some institutional structure that can act not only as the vehicle for current intervention, but also for evolving systems of communal resource management.4.20. Political constraints. All governments depend on particular groups for their support, for example the army, the middle classes or producers of commodities critically important to the performance of the economy. Almost all policies are likely to affect the distribution of welfare within society' whether it be by changes in relative prices or by changes in employment and income prospects for certain groups of workers. On the whole, the power of the urban professional class has tended to ensure that priority is given to the level of food prices in urban markets. For this reason, governments have been unwilling to adopt policies which might lead to domestic shortages of key commodities, such as grains and meat.5.01 This chapter takes three examples of rehabilitation policies pursued by governments and development agencies in order to examine in more detail questions of cost and return and the particular implementation problems involved in each case. The three policies examined here are: the reconstitution of pastoral herds, rehabilitation of farmers' draft power; and livestock supplementation-aimed at raising levels of productivity. There is a certain amount of project experience in each of these fields and material will be taken from a variety of sources in order to discuss the main issues involved.5.02. The 9 schemes looked at here, and summarised in Table 5.1 all involve the distribution of loans or animals to herders to partially restore their livestock capital and to provide them with' income. In almost all cases, the credit scheme has followed a period of heavy losses among stock, badly affecting certain areas and groups within a country. Several projects were specifically designed for former pastoralists who had become totally destitute and remained in famine relief camps once other people had departed. In all but one ease, that of Oxfam-Kenya, livestock were intended to be distributed on credit rather than being a gift but repayment performance has often been poor, aggravated in many cases by continuing drought. For all but Oxfam-Kenya, relatively few animals were distributed per household, the stock being intended to supplement other sources of income and to provide a nucleus for herd growth rather than to be the primary source of support for the household.5.03. Several important points emerge from a comparison of these schemes which relate to (i) the scale of the operation, (ii) the institutional framework within which it is carried out and (iii) the alternatives available to governments, agencies and populations if a herd reconstitution programme is not carried out.5.04. Choice of scale: This must involve consideration of the number of people a scheme is aimed to help and the number of animals to be distributed per household. The aim of reconstitution schemes can be either to give an additional source of income to those in need or to provide for the total reestablishment of a certain number of households.  Marty, 1975;Nieuwekerk et al, 1983;Oxfam, Gourma, Mali -Mike Winter, personal communication of initial developments;Oxfam, Habbanaae, Niger -Oxfam, n.d.;Harmaworth, 1984;Scott and Gormley, 1980;USAID, Niger -Swift and Maliki, 1984; UNHCR, SE Ethiopia; LMB, NE Ethiopia-LMB, 1974;Oxfam, Kenya-Hogg 1985;Government of Niger-Rep. du Niger. 1985. 5.05. One constraint on choice of scale is imposed by the total number of affected persons.Where a very large number of herders have been badly hit by drought, a choice must be made between distributing a small number of stock over a large area and the complete reconstitution of herds for a few households. Most projects have opted for the former policy basing their decision on the desire to have an impact, albeit low, on a large population. Those households receiving a few animals must continue to pursue a wide range of income-earning activities' a strategy which will be easier for larger extended family groups than for smaller households. Thus, a survey of Tin Aicha village, in north east Mali several years after the initial distribution of livestock to households found that those who had built up a successful mixture of activities were those with sufficient labour, so that some members could be allocated to pasturing animals, some to cultivating the family's fields and some to engage in trade. Small households with very few members were not able to easily combine the demands of managing a few animals in addition to looking after their fields and as a result the animals they had received in the initial distribution had not flourished so well (AFSC, 1982).5.06. The continued pursuit of a variety of activities by the household may be the best means by which to protect overall income from the risks attached to a particular sector. There may be a certain price to be paid in terms of lower productivity in each sector when these activities are combined in the same household enterprise than were they to be pursued individually. For examples herders who combine farming with looking after their herds experience lower levels of productivity in both livestock and crop production than if either had been pursued as a single activity, unconstrained by the labour demands of the other. However, the benefit of combining these different sources of income may be considerable in terms of reducing the risk to household income from dependence on one source of income alone.5.07. Thus, in planning a herd reconstitution project, account needs to be taken firstly of the extent to which other income-earning activities are available and could be encouraged to provide the household with a mixed livestock farming-trade based enterprise. Where such mixed strategies are not possible, or only at great cost due to environmental conditions, it may be better to provide a viable herd for a limited number of households and to aid the rest of the population to move and re-establish themselves elsewhere. Secondly, in those areas where herding is one among a number of possible options, a variety of distribution strategies could be considered, although these would present certain problems for the selection of recipients. For example, the largest households could be given a small number of stock, since these domestic units are best able to deploy their labour among a variety of different income-earning activities while small households would receive a herd large enough to provide a viable source of subsistence and income so that the family's management of the herd need not be constrained by the pursuit of incomes from other sectors.5.08. Another constraint on the choice of scale is imposed by the local availability of livestock for distribution and pasture conditions. Where all herds have been gravely affected by drought losses, few animals will remain in the local region which are available for purchase and redistribution. However, stock may be available after a lesser drought in the hands of both herders and of livestock investors (farmers, traders) who were able to acquire animals during the drought, due to relative price movements of livestock and grain. Where livestock are bought locally, there is no increase in overall stocking rates, the existing animal population being redistributed among producers. If stock are bought from distressed herders, forced to sell animals due to an unviable herd size, the project could consider purchasing animals for loaning back to their former owners, as was done in the Habbanaae scheme in Niger (Oxfam-America, n.d). The alternative is to buy stock from better-off livestock-owners, who benefit from the high postdrought prices of livestock in general and of breeding females in particular. While the spread of benefits to the better-off is of questionable merit in a post-drought rehabilitation scheme, there may be few alternative means to acquire the stock needed to carry out the programme. The number of stock available locally will determine the level of prices which must be paid. If there are few animals for purchase within a given area, the project must consider the possibility of buying significant numbers from less-affected regions where prices will be lower.5.09. The advisability of bringing in livestock from outside the region depends greatly on the speed of pasture recovery after drought and on the suitability of livestock coming from a different area and possibly a different ecological zone. If livestock losses have been very heavy and rainfall returns to normal levels in the post-drought period, some pastoral areas will find themselves with insufficient stock to make use of available grazing. This represents a waste of resources and a loss in potential milk, meat and herd growth of particular significance if livestock are kept under less favourable grazing conditions in other parts of the country. There are strong arguments in favour of herd reconstitution programmes in such circumstances that involve the movement of livestock from more to less crowded areas through a restocking scheme, such as that pursued by the Livestock and Meat Board in Ethiopia in the post-1974 period (LMB, 1974). Moving livestock from one region to another will not be advisable where (a) such stock are not suited to the ecological conditions in the area to be re-stocked; for example, the Tin Aicha scheme in north-east Mali found that many of the sheep and cattle bought in markets further to the south could not survive the extremely arid conditions found at the project site (AFSC, 1982); and (b) where the effects of a prolonged drought on pastures has been so severe that a few years should be allowed to elapse before encouraging a substantial growth in herd numbers.5.10. The costs per household of alternative schemes are compared in column 3 of Table 5.1. From this may be seen the great variation between projects, ranging from a low of US$ 75-100 per household to over US$1,200 for the Oxfam-Kenya project. The schemes with a low cost per household involve the transfer of relatively few stock, such as 1 or 2 cattle and/or several small stock. These are obviously insufficient to enable households to become fully self-sufficient and the future of such small holdings depends on whether households can gain sufficient income from elsewhere to allow livestock numbers to grow into a viable herd. The alternative policy of providing a herd sufficiently large to satisfy basic consumption requirements would be very expensive and, given the limited funds available to the smaller agencies, would prohibit the pursuit of a programme affecting a large number of impoverished households. Marty (1975) contrasts the livestock package asked for by herders in north-east Mali, containing 8 large and ten small stock and costing 342,000 Malian francs, with the policy actually carried out, involving a loan of 50,000 MF, capable of buying 8 to 10 small stock. Apart from the constraint on resources, a large scale project involving the reconstitution of herds for a large number of households is also likely to run up against the shortage of stock for sale, as noted earlier.5.11. The institutional framework. Several issues need to be raised about the optimal institutional structure within which to carry out a herd reconstitution programme. Firstly, several writers have emphasized the importance of a close knowledge of the community which it is intended to aid, arguing that projects should aim to support local \"adaptive strategies and traditional mechanisms for coping with harsh climatic conditions and periodic drought\" (Harmsworth, 1984). Turton and Turton present a similar view in relation to formulating successful programmes of rehabilitation, using their observations among the Mursi of south-west Ethiopia as a guide; even ''to speak of the 'rehabilitation' of a people such as the Mursi is to run the risk of overlooking precisely those qualities of resilience, technical sophistication, inventiveness and sheer human determination to survive which must be tapped, rather than ignored, if outside intervention in their affairs is to be anything but counterproductive\" (Turton and Turton, 1984, p. 178). The experience of past projects thus suggests that it would be useful to devote some resources at the start of a herd reconstitution project to gaining knowledge about the recipient community and discussing with them the species of stock best suited, the preferred method for buying stock and a workable system for the reimbursement of loans.5.12. Secondly, the overall structure within which producers operate needs to be considered and the extent to which there are existing groups or social institutions through which to channel funds to recipients. This second point, in part related to the previous issue raised, has been recognised as of increasing importance by many researchers who have come to see how critical it is to establish an institutional framework for producer groups. Thus four of the schemes in the West African Sahel shown in Table 5.1 form part of a wider project aimed at building up cooperative structures in pastoral areas. These will not only provide a channel for current development work but, more importantly, a framework within which producers can generate initiatives and guide future interventions by governments and external agencies.5.13 Thirdly, the advantages of giving credit in the form of cash or in livestock should be investigated. Clash has the advantage that the herder can then choose the stock he wants, rather than having to accept those bought by others. As is noted for the Tin Aicha scheme in north-east Mali, project staff made several mistakes in the choice of animal species bought (sheep and cattle rather than hardier goats) and in the particular beasts purchased, some of which were sterile females and some of which were so young that they could not be expected to calve for two or three years. These mistakes would have been reduced had the recipients themselves been allowed to choose the stock to be brought as herders will be more experienced than project staff in recognising the qualities of stock well-suited to their ecological zone (AFSC, 1982). The disadvantage about giving cash is the possible fraud involved, with recipients using the money for some other purpose. However, the risk of this can probably be kept fairly low by requiring all stock to be brought for inspection and marking after purchase.5.14. Fourthly, au herd reconstitution projects face the problem of which households to select as recipients of stock. The target group is likely to be those households who have lost most if not all of their stock but who have access to sufficient labour and skills to be able to care for animals received. In two of the Sahelian schemes, the recipients were composed of totally destitute herders who had remained in famine relief camps at the end of the drought and had no resources with which to re-establish themselves except their own labour. Members of the community may themselves be best-able to choose those in greatest need. However, this will not always be the ease and it is probable that in some circumstances, those with economic and political power will try to direct project resources to their own benefit. For example, Rochette (1981) in his evaluation of the 'Relance des Co-operatives' of the 6th and 7th Regions of Mali, found that there was considerable variation in the development of co-operatives and their activities over the project area. While some functioned very successfully, with much member participation, others barely functioned or had been taken over by traditional elite groups as a new source of power and wealth. Thus, in a few cases, poor pastoral households no longer had access to loans for herd reconstitution, these being monopolised by those with power and used for purposes other than those planned by the project.5.15. Fifthly, the choice between credit as against gift must be made. Where herd reconstitutionforms part of a wider programme, the development of a credit scheme serves the purpose of establishing a revolving fund potentially available for other uses and may help develop the management and accounting skills required in the development of co-operatives. Some writers have also mentioned that use of credit rather than gifts reduces feelings of dependency among recipients and thus minimises the loss of self-respect for those receiving this kind of aid. It is argued that gifts destroy a people's self-reliance and can undermine traditional systems of distribution within society and ways of coping with drought (Scott and Gromley, 1980). On the other hand, Turton notes that this preference for credit as opposed to gifts usually reflects an ideological belief on the part of the recipient population. He finds that there is a \"growing resistance to the concept of relief with no strings attached\"; for example most agencies opt for a food-to-work scheme rather than the distribution of free rations (Turton and Turton, 1984, p. 188). However, the gift of food or cash may be the best way of helping a society cope with a temporary inability to feed themselves.5.16. If loans are to be used, the length of time and terms of repayment must be specified. A very short repayment period obliges the recipient to repay before the animals have had; much chance of growing in numbers. Too long a period deprives other potential recipients of the chance of a loan, where a revolving credit fund is in operation. Thus, Marty (1975) recommends a 3-year loan in the case of small stock, given their rapid rates of reproduction while a longer period of 4 to 6 years would be necessary for cattle and other large stock. The habbanaae system of the Wodaabe works on the basis of the number of offspring produced rather than a fixed length of time, a cow being loaned for the period required for her to calve 3 times, before being returned to her owner, the borrowing household keeping the 3 calves (Dupire, 1962;White, 1984). The system of serengoro, found among the Bambara of central Mali, works in the same way, but is less generous to the borrower, the first offspring being given to the female's owner and the second kept by the borrower when the female is returned to her owner (Fulton and Toulmin, 1982).5.17. Account must be taken of repayment obligations in the event of livestock losses. Recurrent drought or an epidemic outbreak may make it impossible for recipients to repay and debts should be cancelled under those circumstances. The action to be taken in the event of occasional animal losses is less clear; some schemes have demanded that the loan be repaid regardless of loss, whereas others cancel the debt. The free distribution of livestock to households, in place of a system of livestock loans, has the advantage of having zero costs associated with the collection of repayments. Where administrative skills are scarce and where repayment is likely to run into numerous difficulties, due for example to a high risk of drought losses in future, the option-of giving livestock should be very seriously considered.5.18. Alternatives to herd reconstitution. One alternative for the government or agencies is to take no action, either leaving the affected population to their own devices or continuing to provide famine relief to the destitute. The provision of food relief at a basic 0.5 kgs of grain per adult per day implies a total of 900-1,000 kgs per annum for a household of 7 people, containing 5 adult equivalents. The cost attributable to providing this grain ration depends on the price of grain, the size of transport costs and who pays the bill. For example, grain provided free to a particular government for distribution as food aid will cost the government little or nothing, depending on who is responsible for its transport and distribution within the country. By comparison, grain which must be bought on the open market will be much more expensive and will cost the government dear in foreign exchange and transport charges. The price of grain used in-this paper is US$300-400 per ton, to cover the cost either of buying local grains or of buying world market grain plus transport costs to local markets, which may be as high as US$150-200/ton for landlocked states with poor road networks (FAO, 1985d). A year's supply of grain to support the household thus costs US$300-400, which may be compared with US$150-200 per household for the cost of distributing a limited number of stock' insufficient to fully support the household' and with US$1,200 per household for the more ambitious Oxfam-Kenya project, in which the number of animals distributed can provide for most of the household's food requirements. In the latter case, the cost per household represents the consumption requirements estimated at the most basic level for a period of 3 to 4 years.A second alternative is for the development of other income generating activities for drought-affected groups. Given the aridity of many of the areas concerned, these have usually revolved around some form of irrigated' agriculture, although a variety of other options have also been suggested, such as resettlement of herders elsewhere or the establishment of industries making use of local resources, such as the Turkana fishing project in northern Kenya. Irrigated agriculture has long been considered an obvious solution to providing a livelihood for those living in semi-arid regions. However, it has met with only a limited degree of success, due to severe technical problems (Goldsmith, 1984), and to very high capital and maintenance costs. For example, the capital costs of irrigated agricultural settlement schemes in northern Kenya are put at between US$17,000 and US$60,000 per hectare (Hogg, 1985), with running costs which exceed the expected value of annual output. This implies a capital cost alone of establishing a household in irrigated agriculture of US$9,000-20,000, a figure far in excess of the re-stocking alternative taken up by Oxfam. The 2 schemes in north-east Mali both include a component for small-scale irrigation of crops, using very simple techniques and costing relatively little. These provide a supplementary source of food to families but are insufficient to support all the family's food needs.5.20. Resettlement of impoverished herders elsewhere is put forward by many writers as the only long-term solution for the pastoral sector, given rising human populations, high risks of drought and livestock loss and a declining resource base (Perrier, 1985). Movement by the poorest members of pastoral society into agriculture has been taking place in the absence of government intervention over many centuries, as work among the Basseri of south Persia (Barth, 1961), among the Oromo of southern Ethiopia (Legesse, 1973) and north African pastoral groups (Johnson, 1973) has shown. For south-west Ethiopia, Turton documents the spontaneous settlement in farming of one-fifth of the Mursi population following the droughts of the 1970s and contrasts the success of this settlement with \"the widespread failure of externally organised agricultural settlement schemes for 'pastoral nomads' in Africa\" (Turton and Turton, 1984). They make the useful point that \"it may be that the only sensible role for outside authorities in the settlement of 'pastoral nomads' is that of facilitating local initiatives, on the assumption that the only successful settlement schemes will be those... which have been initiated by the settlers themselves\".5.21. An alternative to the settlement of pastoralists, either in irrigated agriculture in semi-arid regions or in dryland farming in higher rainfall zones, lies in the development of income earning activities based on locally available resources, The extent to which viable schemes can be set up depends on the resources available and the cost of exploiting them. The development of resources in pastoral areas has tended to have little or no impact on aiding the herding community to develop alternative sources of income. Indeed, in several eases, resource development has reduced the viability of -the existing pastoral system, as when game parks have been carved out of a herding group's territory. Some projects, such as the Lake Turkana fishery, were established explicitly with the aim of providing those who had lost their livestock with another source of income. However, this does not seem to have provided a promising alternative to pastoralism for the Turkana (Hogg, 1985). Other options that have been considered provide at best a way of supplementing incomes, such as handicraft work, but are not likely to enable many people to support themselves on the proceeds.5.22. The above discussion of re-stocking projects suggests the following conclusions:a. The scale of a herd reconstitution programme must take into account the extent to which households can successfully combine the care of stock with other activities. This will differ from one pastoral zone to another, depending on the other resources available in the region. It will also differ across households, with larger domestic groups being better able to pursue a number of income earning activities. The diversification of household income sources is valuable under risky conditions, such as those found in many semi-arid zones. In areas where the pursuit of multiple activities is possible, re-stocking programmes can spread a small number of stock over a large population. However, where ecological and socio-economic conditions preclude such a diversification of income sources, it would be better to help a limited number of households to re-establish a herd of sufficient size to provide for their subsistence needs while seeking alternative sources of income for the remaining population. b. Re-stocking is an obvious policy to pursue where the post-drought distribution of livestock is very uneven and does not make effective use of large areas of pasture. c. knowledge of the local community and its effective participation in planning and implementing the credit scheme may have important advantages in the short term by reducing administrative costs and in the long term by consolidating the role that indigenous social structures can play in channelling resources and ideas. d. the choice between livestock loans versus gifts should be made on various grounds and should include the relative cost of administering the collection of repayments and what to do in case of deaths among distributed stock. e. the cost of complete herd reconstitution programmes are equivalent at most to the cost of providing a basic grain ration over 3 to 4 years to affected households. They are substantially lower than the costs of major irrigation schemes carried out in semi-arid areas.Draft power reconstitution 5.23. Major drought-induced losses of work oxen can cause a significant shortfall in crop production in subsequent years. Several schemes have been pursued in the past in Ethiopia and Botswana to give farmers access to draft power with the aim of shortening the post-drought period of rehabilitation. A variety of options exists for governments and agencies interested in mitigating the impact of work oxen losses on subsequent harvests. These were presented and analysed in terms of their effects on different sectors of the economy in Table 5.2. Here the options will be compared in terms of their relative costs and the particular problems associated with the implementation of each. As in the previous case-study on herd reconstitution, the various policy options will also be compared with the alternatives, such as continued provision of famine relief.5.24. Details of each policy option are shown in Table 5.2. Data on costs are taken from a number of different sources and should be treated with caution, as they indicate rough orders of magnitude rather than precise coatings. Each option will be discussed in brief below.5.25. Work oxen credit to farmers. This involves the issue of loans to farmers in cash or in the form of animals for repayment over a period of years. A number of work oxen credit schemes have been carried out in different countries within general programmes of agricultural development, but -few have had the restoration of drought-induced oxen losses as their explicit objective. The main example of the latter was that pursued by the Ethiopian government over the first 6 months of 1974, during which an estimated 40,000 loans were given out to farmers in drought-affected regions (EPID, 1974). The questions raised by a work oxen credit scheme are the following: 5.26. What are the possibilities for distributing one ox per farmer rather than a full team, farmers either sharing their animals or the scheme being accompanied by the introduction of single ox* cultivation techniques?*such as the plough equipment developed by ILCA for the Ethiopian highlands which is designed to be pulled by one ox alone (ILCA, 1984).5.27. What are the number of oxen available for purchase either within the region or in neighbouring rangeland areas and the relative prices in each case, including transport costs? As in the case of herd reconstitution, projects need to consider the position of local impoverished farmers having to sell their last ox to finance food needs. Where the project buys such animals for redistribution to another, there will be little net benefit from the project's intervention, Alternatively, provision could be made for those farmers truly in distress to sell their ox to the project while remaining eligible for a loan in the subsequent distribution of animals.5.28. How satisfactory are the grazing resources in the region receiving the oxen? In the absence of natural pastures the cost of providing access to alternative supplies of fodder must be considered, such as keeping the oxen in neighbouring areas where pasture conditions are better or transporting fodder to animals in pasture-deficit areas, the latter probably being more expensive than other options given the high bulk of fodder and its high transport cost to remote areas.5.29. Whether to give cash loans to farmers with which to purchase oxen or whether to distribute oxen directly? There are many advantages to the farmer being the purchaser of his own ox. He makes the choice among available animals and thus is not forced to take an animal which he feels to be unsuitable for any reason. In addition, farmers will have a good knowledge of local opportunities for the purchase of oxen not so easily available to project staff. The overall effect on oxen prices is also likely to be lower where a large number of individual farmers spread their purchases over a region over weeks or months, in comparison with the large scale operations of governments or external agencies. On the other hand, the government or project may have access to sources of animals at lower prices from more distant areas, which cannot be so easily reached by individual farmers. However, transport costs will be higher when oxen must be brought in from far away. The overall effect of each option on price levels will depend on the relative availability of stock in local and more distant areas and the extent to which there are substantial regional variations in the market price of stock of which large agencies are better able to take advantage. For the oxen loan scheme carried out in Ethiopia in 1974, it was decided to give cash loans to farmers rather than be directly involved in the purchase and distribution of animals. The decision was based on the argument of the increased speed with which cash loans could be given out, in contrast to the more lengthy procedure of purchase, transport and distribution of oxen, and on the perception that purchases by individual farmers would have less effect on the level of oxen prices than if the government were to buy the animals directly.5.30. However, the granting of loans directly to farmers is not without risks of fraud, as it will be hard to monitor whether or not an ox presented as having been bought was in fact bought, borrowed from a neighbour or was already owned and so on. A given level of fraud is probably acceptable if it keeps down the overall cost and allows a large number of recipients to be reached. In addition, fraud involving the use of funds by needy recipients for purposes other than those intended is of much less importance than fraud involving the diversion of cash to those not truly in need.5.31. Should oxen be given as loans or as an outright gift and if the former, what should be the terms of loan repayment? The choice between loans and gifts of stock was discussed earlier in the context of herd reconstitution projects. It was seen that there may be circumstances in which the option of giving stock should be seriously considered, such as where the cost of collecting loan repayments is high and where high risks to stock from future drought will create many problems for reimbursement of credit.* *The possibility of providing insurance cover would help answer these problems, although in few African countries are livestock insurance policies currently available, due both to the general lack of insurance cover for risk and the particular monitoring problems associated with insurance of animals.5.32. In the case of loans, the project must decide on what terms recipients should repay the credit. If loan repayments are set too high, the farmer may be unable to save sufficient surplus to invest in new draft animals essential to the long-term rehabilitation of the farm's productive capital. The various schemes involving work oxen credit programmes which have been carried out in East and West Africa have had repayment periods of between 3 and 5 years, an upper limit on the length of time given to repay being set by the increasing risk of death among oxen as they reach the age of 9-10 years. For example, the oxen loan programme run by the Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank in Ethiopia requires farmers to repay the loan over a 4-year period, covering both the principal sum borrowed and an annual interest charge of 11%. This scheme is aimed at areas of agricultural surplus in highland Ethiopia and therefore faces fewer problems concerning the ability of farmers to both repay loans and invest in new stock. The overwhelming level of demand by farmers to participate in this-scheme indicates that farmers perceive the repayment term as being relatively easy. By contrast, oxen credit programmes set up by the colonial administration in parts of francophone West Africa in the 1930-50s were not taken up by farmers in the more marginal farming areas because they feared the consequences of being unable to make loan repayments on the dates due' given the high risk of harvest failure. As a result, farmers preferred to build Up their oxen holdings slowly, by direct purchases of young male stock, rather than be faced with a high probability of being unable to meet debt repayments in some years (Toulmin, forthcoming).5.33. Government-run tractor pools: These schemes are based on the government purchasing a fleet of tractors which are then made available to farmers to plough their land for a fee. Benefits from such a scheme will be greatest where the terrain is suited to tractor cultivation, i.e. not too hilly and with few rocks and tree stumps, and where pasture and oxen shortages are so acute that no alternative sources of draft power exist. The costs of such schemes are, however, likely to be substantial, given the high foreign exchange costs of purchasing the tractors, spare parts and fuel which will be needed for their operation. Skilled labour is also necessary for the operation and repair of equipment. Shortages of any of the inputs required for keeping the tractors in working order will increase the cost per hectare of pursuing this option.The EPID (1974) programme in Ethiopia of 1974 estimated the costs of setting up a tractor pool at E$ 20,000 per tractor, in comparison with E$ 60-70 per hectare using tractors rented from elsewhere. Using these figures, the establishment of a government-run tractor pool would only be cost-effective under the following conditions: if each tractor could plough a sufficient number of hectares to reduce the per hectare cost below E$ 60-70; in the above case, this would require each tractor to plough 8 minimum of 280-330 ha.  if the value of dry season work by the tractor pool, such as the transport of goods, is sufficiently great to compensate for a lower level of ploughing capacity in the farming season.  if available draft capacity from other sources is so low, whether from oxen or from locallyowned tractors, that the relevant comparison to make is not that of the relative costs of preparing land by alternative techniques but rather the cost of ploughing using governmentowned tractors versus the cost in foregone output of land not being cultivated at all.5.35. While schemes for providing draft power to farmers after drought have focussed on the use of tractors, there may also be other alternative mechanical options worth considering, such as hand-held cultivators which can be used on small steep plots of land.5.36. Loans for the hire of local tractor services. In some circumstances, there may be tractors available which can be hired by those farmers with insufficient draft power of their own. For example, in Botswana, even in normal years, farmers regularly hire tractors belonging to others in order to prepare their land. The governments of both Botswana and Ethiopia have in the past granted loans to farmers for hiring tractor power to compensate for drought losses of work oxen. The cost of these has varied from US$20-40 per hectare which the farmer is supposed to repay after the harvest, except in the case of crop failure. The government ran such a scheme in Botswana in the late 1960s but found the ensuing harvests were so poor that most debts had to be cancelled. Similarly, the Ethiopian government scheme in 1974 allowed for the hiring of tractors by 7,400 farmers in Harerghe province, but few of these or the work oxen loans made elsewhere, were subsequently repaid, due to the land reform and the general political situation in the post-1974 period. Evidently, the feasibility of a scheme such as this depends on the number of tractors available within a reasonable distance, their spare working capacity and the suitability of farmers' plots to this ploughing technique. There will be costs in the form of fuel, spare parts and skilled labour requirements but these will be borne by the tractor owners rather than the government.The main disadvantage of this scheme is that it does not provide farmers with a renewal of their productive capacity and they will need to find help from this or another draft source in the following years until they have re-built their oxen holdings.5.37. Provision of hand tools. Hand tools are cheap in terms of the cost per unit and of the cost of equipping a farm household. The viability of a switch to hand-prepared land depends on how much land can be cultivated by hand in comparison with a ploughteam and on the possible decline in yield per hectare when land is prepared and weeded by hand rather than by the plough. The extent to which yields will be lower for hand-,as opposed to ploughteam-prepared and weeded land, will be determined by the importance of timely sowing and weeding, by the area of land cultivated per worker, and consequent tightness of land preparation and weeding constraints, and whether the passage of the plough in itself has additional benefits for plant growth and yields due to the creation of an improved top-soil structure.5.38. In some areas ploughs may make little contribution to raising yields per hectare or per person, for example, where cultivated area per person is low, where soils are fairly light and where the timing of sowing and weeding operations is not of crucial importance to subsequent crop yields. However, under other conditions, where each worker farms a large area and where seed must be planted early to ensure a reasonable yield, preparation of fields with a ploughteam will be the only way in which a large surface can be effectively sown and weeded. For example, under the extensive farming practices of central Mali, where area per worker can be as high as 3-5 ha., ploughteams have a strong positive effect on yields of millet, as they permit this very large surface to be sown and weeded within a cultivation season lasting 6 to 8 weeks (Toulmin, 1983a). Farm households without their own ploughteam must borrow equipment from others, usually rather late in the season and suffer lower yields as a result, due to sowing much of their grain on unploughed land and to taking longer to finish the weeding of their fields, in both cases increasing the competition faced by millet from heavy weed growth.5.39. In the case of Ethiopia, average land holdings are much smaller than the extensive areas found in the Sahel, with households farming between 2.1-2.5 ha in the highland region. While this smaller area in the Ethiopian case would lead one to expect a greater possible role for hand cultivation techniques, soils are so heavy that hand preparation of land is in fact very rare, being limited to the steepest hillside plots. Under these soil conditions' farmers resorting to hand cultivation will probably face a significant fall in the area that can be farmed.5.40. In addition to a decline in area cultivated when land preparation must be done by hand, there are two other costs from the use of hand as opposed to plough cultivation techniques. Firstly, as mentioned above, soil preparation is likely to be less effective using hand tools' leading to less successful seed germination and more competition from weeds, producing lower crop yields per hectare. Secondly, the work involved in hand preparation is very considerable and makes demands on the household workers at a time when energy and food reserves are low.5.41 As a complement to hand tool cultivation consideration can be given to the provision of fertiliser, aimed at compensating the farmer for a lower area cultivated and low yield per hectare.The advantage of such an approach is that farmers do not have to cultivate such a large area to get a given harvest. Disadvantages include the foreign exchange cost of fertiliser imports and the high costs of transport and distribution to areas of need. The overall profitability of such a project depends on the expected crop response from the application of a certain quantity of fertiliser per hectare. With fertiliser prices of around US$ 60 per 100 kg and application rates of 100 kg/ha, crop output must rise by at least 150-200 kgs/ha to make this scheme financially profitable. Economic or social profitability will require a lower percentage increase in yields where account is taken of alternative sources of food for farming populations and the value placed on re-establishing viable farming communities.The fourth column of Table 5.2 gives estimated areas which can be cultivated for every US$100 spent on each policy measure. There is remarkable similarity between the alternatives in terms of their costs which, given the imprecision of the data used, would suggest that there is little to choose between the options as far as their financial cost is concerned. In making a choice between the alternatives the relevant issues are those concerning: (a) the availability of oxen, fodder and tractors in the region; (b) the suitability of soils for cultivation by tractor or some other machine; and (c) the shadow price of foreign exchange and skilled labour to the economy.5.43. In all cases, the cost of action taken to rehabilitate farm production compares very favourably with the cost of providing continued famine relief for the affected population. On the assumption of an annual food need of 900-1,000 kgs per household, costing US$ 300-400, and the average yield of 400 kgs per hectare, all of the interventions give a benefit cost ratio far in excess of unity in a single year even if account is not taken of the wider benefits associated with the re-establishment of production in rural areas. *Assumes only those oxen below critical weight threshold are fed and consequently there is significant improvement in working performance. N.B. In all cases, there are major problems which arise from the high costs of transport and distribution of animals fodder which will be especially severe for extensive and very mobile systems of livestock production, as found in large parts of the semi arid range areas of sub-Saharian Africa.5.48. The cost of supplementation depends on the commodity taken, the country concerned, transport costs and on whether the domestic or the export price is taken. An FAO study of domestically available livestock feeds for several Sahelian states quotes prices per kg for groundnut and cotton seed cake, rice and wheat bran ranging from 20-40 FCFA, equivalent to US cents 4-8 (FAO 1985 a,b,c). In contrast to these figures, trade statistics indicate an export value per kg of groundnut and cotton seed cake of US cents 15-17 (FAO, 1982). While the lower price of US cents 4-8 per kg will be taken in the examples here, the high export price of these commodities should be kept in mind, to be discussed later in this chapter. Taking the above cost of supplementary feed and a daily ration per cow of 2-3 kgs over a 90 day period, the overall cost for 40 cows will be US$288-864.5.49 It can be seen from the example taken above that the cost of supplementary feed given to all breeding stock will far exceed the benefits gained from extra calf production (estimated at $40 see para 5.47 above) on the basis of the assumptions used. This makes it crucial for the success of such a policy that only those cows be fed for which there will be a marked effect in terms of improved calving performance. These cows will typically be those which normally calve only once every other rainy season and which take a long time to regain bodyweight and fertility at the start of the rainy season. Returns to supplementation will also be higher where the extra milk produced per cow due to better feeding finds a ready market, for instance where the herd is close to a town.5.50. Reducing calf mortality rates. Calf mortality Under Sahelian conditions is high, averaging from 20-40% for those from birth to 12 months (Wagenaar, 1983), resulting partly from their poor level of nutrition, as they must compete for limited milk supplies with the herder, and partly from specific health problems, such as parasites and diarrhoea. Mortality rates are quite variable from one year to the next, depending on the severity of pasture shortages during the dry season. 5.51. Supplementary feeding of calves has been suggested by a number of researchers as a means to reduce these high rates of mortality and several research programmes have been carried out to assess the merits of alternative supplementation regimes. Mesnil's study (1979) of calf supplementation in the Abala region of central Niger had as its main objective to compensate the young calf for high milk offtake by the herder. Calves of more than 3 months were given a ration of 0.5 kg/day of mixed animal feed (rice flour, groundnut cake, salts and vitamins) and their performance was compared with a control group of non-supplemented calves. The findings of the study were not very significant, as the number of the calves involved in the study was small. Also, herders increased their milk offtake from the mothers of calves receiving supplementation.In addition, the good weather and pasture conditions means that all cattle were under less stress than is often the case by the end of the dry season. Nevertheless, there was an estimated improvement in calf survival rates of 5 percentage points as a result of the supplementation.Mesnil refers to another study in which supplementation had a far more marked effect on raising survival rates (Bres, 1972). This latter study was carried out under much harsher ecological conditions; as a result, non-supplemented calves had a mortality rate as high as 22% in a single month, in contrast to no deaths among supplemented calves.5.52. The calculations made here will be based on the assumption of a decline in calf mortality rates from 30 to 20% over the first 12 months of life as a result of receiving supplementary feed, this assumed improvement lying between the results of the two studies described by Mesnil (1979). In years of good rainfall, the gain in survival rates from supplementation will be less marked, while in poor years supplementary feeding of calves will produce a major gain in calf survival rates.5.53. Taking a herd of 100 animals, in which 24 calves are born in the year, the fall in calf mortality over the first 12 months of life reduces the loss of calves to 12 months from 7.2 to 4.8, giving a net gain of 2.4 calves aged 12 months. Assuming no change in the calf mortality rate among calves from 12 to 24 months (taken as 10%), 2.4 calves aged 12 months will leave 2.16 calves aged 24 months. Each of these 24 months calves are valued at US$25-30, giving a total value of extra calf production of US$54-65. Using a time discount rate of 20% per annum gives a net percent value at time of feeding of US$45-54.5.54. The cost of supplementary, feeding is calculated for a ration of 0.5 kgs/day over a 90-day period for the 24 calves, giving a total cost of US$43-86, if 1 kg costs US cents 4-8. This cost range compares with the estimated value of extra calf production of US$45-54, suggesting a small margin can be gained on the project when the lower price is taken for the cost of feed. The return to supplementation would increase if account was taken of other benefits to herd productivity arising from the supplementation programme, such as the faster rate of calf growth which should lead to earlier age at sale and earlier age at first calving. The return from supplementation will also rise if only the most vulnerable calves could be selected for feeding.5.55. Work oxen supplementation. Supplementation of draft oxen aims to moderate dry season weight loss, thereby improving draft performance at the start of the cultivation season. Potential benefits accrue to farmers in the form of an increase in the area that can be cultivated by each oxen pair and increased crop yield from improved timeliness of sowing and weeding operations. The size of the actual benefits gained by the farmer will depend on: the improvement in oxen performance resulting from their supplementation' the availability of extra land that can be brought into cultivation and the significance for crop yields of timely sowing and weeding.5.56. The improvement in oxen performance is itself dependent on the amount of weight lost by supplemented and non-supplemented animals and the demands made upon them in terms of the intensity of draft required and the length of the working day. There is likely to be some critical threshold below which weight losses substantially impair the work ability of draft animals. Supplementation of animals whose weight has fallen below this threshold will have a significant effect on their ploughing performance. Where the weight lost is less than this amount, however, supplementation may have little or no impact on draft performance. The size and significance of weight losses during the dry season will depend on the fodder availability at different seasons, as this affects the speed with which animals can regain their weight at the start of the rains, the reserves they carry through into the dry season and the amount by which dry season fodder intake falls short of that required to maintain body-weight. However, this critical weight threshold must also be related to this demands made upon the animals. These demands will be greatest where much of the ploughteam's work is done while pasture resources are still scarce, where land preparation is the main task done by draft and where the actual force required for ploughing is high, due to heavy or water-logged soils.5.57. Improved oxen performance can be translated into high crop output either by an increase in the area cultivated per team or by improving the timeliness and care with which land is prepared, and crops are sown and weeded. The relative size of each of these benefits will be determined by the availability of land with which to increase cultivated area and by the significance of timeliness for final yield, factors which will vary across different regions according to population densities and the pattern and volume of rainfall in relation to plant requirements.5.58. A number of studies have been done to estimate the fodder requirements of draft oxen of different weights according to the work demanded of them under varying climatic conditions (Goe and McDowell, 1980). A series of supplementation trials carried out in a Sahelian farming village in Mali has shown, under the conditions operating there, that supplementation leads to no statistically significant increase in work oxen performance (Traore and Soumare, 1984). This can be explained by: the availability throughout the dry season of low quality-forage around the village which limits the total weight loss of non-supplemented animals, the light sandy soils of the region and the low demands made on oxen, due to the minimal tillage carried out. In addition, a variety of factors other than nutrition are of importance in affecting oxen performance, such as the qualities of the workers guiding the oxen and holding the plough and the stimulating effect on one oxen team of working alongside another oxen pair. While no result of statistical significance was found between the performance of supplemented oxen and the control group, the former were found to cultivate an area slightly larger than the latter by an amount of 1.15 ha. The value to the farmer of this marginal increase in area depends on the crop with which it is cultivated. Taking an average yield of 400 kgs/ha., gives an additional output of (1.15 x 400) kgs or 460 kgs, valued at US$138-184.* *Grain being valued at US$300-400 per ton, as explained in the section on herd reconstitution.5.59. Within the Ethiopian context, supplementation of work oxen is likely to lead to improved tillage and more timely sowing of fields, rather than a significant expansion in area cultivated, given the shortage of unoccupied arable land in most farming regions. However, it is estimated that substantial improvements in yields are possible from better cultivation techniques' such as more timely sowing and better seedbed preparation (Whiteman, 1977). Yield increases from improved techniques are estimated as ranging from 17-18% for wheat and teff to 45% for sorghum (Min. of Ag., 1979), or by an average of 210 kgs/ha. Given a mean holding per work oxen pair of 1.5-2.00 ha., the increment in output due to better oxen nutrition and performance can be estimated at around 300-400 kgs, worth US$90-160 (taking the price of grain as US$ 300-400/ton).5.60. Costs of supplementation are based on an assumed ration of 3 kgs/day over a 90-day period for each ox, the ration consisting of a mixture of groundout and cottonseed cake, rice and wheat bran' priced at US cents 4-8. This gives a total cost per oxen pair for the period of supplementation of US$21.60-43.20.The returns from work oxen supplementation can be calculated from the above figures. These indicate that there are positive benefits from this policy if output increases by an amount worth more than US$21.60 -43.20, as a result of the improved performance of the draft team. Significant benefits will be less probable where there is sufficient dry season grazing available so that animals can maintain their body-weight above some critical threshold and where the work demanded of them at the start of the rainy season is not too arduous. Benefits will increase where supplementation is restricted to those animals which have lost a substantial amount of their bodyweight and whose subsequent work ability is likely to be much impaired.A Comparison of alternative uses of fodder. The calculations made above suggest that supplementary feeding has its highest value in the supplementation of work oxen which would otherwise be in poor nutritional state. The returns from alternative measures depend crucially on the assumptions made about likely performance in the absence of supplements and the extent to which performance is improved by the distribution of rations to stock. Thus, for example in the case of calf supplementation, in a year when pasture conditions are good, calf mortality rates will be low and supplementary feeding will have negligible impact on survival rates. Conversely, when pasture and milk supplies are scarce, supplementation of calves will have a much higher return. If those calves most at risk can be identified and selectively fed, the returns from this policy measure will also be much higher.5.63. Against the comparison of alternative domestic uses of fodder in livestock production must be set the other uses of these resources. These will comprise for example, the foreign exchange earnings on exports of agro-industrial by-products and the value of other commodities which can be derived from the raw materials, such as oil for human consumption from cotton-seed, alcohol from molasses, etc. With export prices of around US cents 15-17/kg for feeds such as groundout and cottonseed cake (FAO, 1983), the only livestock-related domestic use of higher value is that of work oxen supplementation. Non-selective calf supplementation produces a gain lower than that obtained from exporting these commodities while the non-selective supplementation of breeding cows produces very much lower returns.5.64. The question of the returns from feeding stock during drought periods, as compared with the post-drought period, has not been looked at explicitly here. It has been the object of some research and discussion (see for example FAO, 1982). It will just be noted here that such a policy raises a number of complex issues to do with the optimal survival rations for stock, selection of animals to be fed, longer term consequences for pasture regeneration, priority to be given to transport of fodder versus human food supplies and so on.6.01.This paper has discussed a range of policy measures aimed at rehabilitation of livestock and farm, production following drought. From this discussion it can be seen that there are a variety of policies open to decision-makers, each with particular costs and welfare implications. Policies also differ with respect to their spill-over effects on other sectors of the economy, some being precisely targetted, like a subsidy to a certain producer group, while others cause widespread changes to the structure of prices and incentives within the economy. Out of these policy alternatives, decision-makers will face a more restricted choice, determined by the conditions faced in the post-drought period, in terms of the resources available domestically-pastures, livestock, grain, seed etc.-the local administrative capacity and the country's marketing and transport infrastructure. External finance will loosen the tightness of particular constraints, such as when governments can supplement local food supplies with aid in the form of grain and milk powder.6.02. It would be wise for decision-makers to consider as many policy options as possible, since the conditions faced by different regions and producer groups will vary greatly. For example, where local tractor power is available, government credit or subsidies for tractor hire is an obvious option to pursue, especially where local draft oxen supplies are very limited and prices high. In areas where fodder supplies are scarce and highly vulnerable to drought, alternatives to oxen as sources of draft power should be considered, such as small-scale cultivating machines. While most herd and oxen reconstitution schemes have involved the provision of credit, gifts of livestock should be considered under certain circumstances, where repayment is likely to be subject to high risks and costs of collection.6.03. An assessment of policy alternatives should include the consequences for the affected communities and the whole economy of making no intervention. Governments may either continue to provide food relief for destitute farmers and herders, or wait for them to reconstitute their systems of production by their own efforts. In either ease, there is a cost to taking no action, in terms of forgone output' the resources needed to purchase, transport and distribute food relief, and longer term social costs from the dislocation of local communities from self-sufficient production. Rehabilitation options looked at in this paper represent at most the cost of providing a basic grain ration to the household over 3 to 5 years and many policies, particularly those in the farm sector, produce a much faster return on invested resources invested in rehabilitation. When the social costs to the affected populations are also taken into account, the value to be attached to funding rehabilitation, as opposed to relief measures, is heightened further.6.04. Policies for rehabilitation of local production systems need to be looked at in relation to short-term relief measures and long-term policies for establishing less drought-vulnerable systems of production. The speedy provision of relief food supplies to producers in greatest distress would reduce the subsequent need for rehabilitation measures. For example, if herders can get access to relief grain supplies, they will be under less pressure to liquidate their livestock capital at very low prices in order to buy food for themselves. Rehabilitation policy should also be formulated in coordination with longer term measures, since the post-drought period can offer a breathing-space within which to initiate changes in patterns of production and resource management. Longer term options are themselves constrained by trends in climate, population growth and resource productivity. For example, in the case of the Sahel since the end of the 1960s, rainfall has remained well below its long-term level for this century. Consequently, efforts to rehabilitate livestock production must take into account the lower productivity and greater fragility of the pastoral resource base in comparison with conditions typical of the pre-1968 period. Thus, rehabilitation should not necessarily be taken to mean the re-establishment of production systems along the exact lines of those existing in the pre-drought period.6.05 The areas for action open to national governments and foreign donors overlap, but are obviously not identical. However, while price, taxation and trade policy measures are the preserve of national administrations, external financial aid can be of value in reducing the conflicting objectives faced by governments in the post-drought period. An example of this can be seen in the compensatory finance paid by the European Development Fund to several Sahelian governments after the 1973 drought to reduce the adverse imapct on national budgets of lifting direct livestock taxes. The temporary abolition of this tax probably had a significant effect on all owners of stock, producting widespread benefits for a relatively low outlay.6.06. Non governmental organisations (NGOs) have played a valuable role in developing smallscale projects suited to the particular conditions and problems of drought-affected communities, This is especially the ease for the Sahel, where a number of innovative herd reconstitution schemes have been set up since 1973. The experience of these schemes provides other agencies with possible models for intervention. However, the relative success of much NGO work may depend precisely on its small-scale operation. Large-scale herd credit programmes will face greater problems from a shortage of animals available for redistribution and consequently higher prices.6.07. Decision-makers in both government and development agencies are faced with a shortage of resources and a wide range of potential uses for funds. Following a period of drought, the conflict between alternative uses of resources is likely to be particularly acute' given the shortfall in meat, grain and foreign exchange earnings. In deciding on the priorities to be given to each objective, a number of factors need to be taken into account, as is seen in the following examples.6.08. Domestic vs. export markets: Wwhile political considerations might encourage the diversion of meat and fodder supplies to domestic consumers and producers, account must also be taken of the possible loss of export markets to alternative suppliers. The Ivory Coast, for example now gets a substantial proportion of its meat supplies from non-African sources, having formerly depended almost entirely on imports of Sehelian livestock. This switch in the source of meat imports took place after the 1968-73 drought, when supplies of meat from the Sahel were scarce and highly priced. Meat exporting countries like Mali are now in a much weaker position in the Ivory Coast market since they face strong price competition from other meat exporters' such as Argentina.6.09. Male cattle for meat vs. draft purposes: Where oxen are an important input into farm production, some competition is likely to exist between the use of male cattle for meat, by their fattening and early slaughter, and their being used for draft purposes. The relative strength of demand from each sector will depend on the incomes and purchasing power of domestic and foreign consumers of meat and of the investment funds available to farmers. Where drought losses of work oxen have been high, farmers' ability to reconstitute their oxen holdings will be made more difficult where they face strong price competition from consumers of meat. In such cases, governments may need to intervene to achieve the desired balance between satisfying immediate demands for meat with the requirements for rehabilitating the productive capital of the farm sector.6.10. Resources to aid the farm vs. the livestock sector: In a number of areas decision-makers are likely to be faced by policy choices which either favour the rehabilitation of farm production or benefit livestock producers. For example, governments can choose to subsidise the distribution of animal feeds to certain groups of producers, such as owners of draft oxen or herding communities. It can be argued that re-establishing grain production should receive prior claim on resources, given the importance of grain in the diet of all consumers and of the poorest groups in particular. Re-establishing grain production is also likely to benefit livestock producers to the extent that increased grain supplies and lower grain prices will reduce pressure on herders\" income and reduce the number of animals needed to constitute a viable livestock holding. On the other hand, it can also be argued that livestock production is the only Way of effectively using the resources of certain semi-arid areas. Grazing animals may be the only way of exploiting the sparse natural vegetation, converting these resources into valuable products for the rest of the economy as well as providing support to a proportion of the human population. Pastures which are not grazed constitute a waste of resources, a loss which can be reckoned in foregone milk and meat output. The overall balance in the distribution of resources to aid rehabilitation in farming as opposed to pastoral areas should consider these arguments.","tokenCount":"27380"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1ec259bad5b8a958a9d2635279f33493","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a506ed9d-1506-4d7a-bf56-a5bbf60fc97c/retrieve","id":"-178123116"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aeb56323-8433-427a-98b7-d85bf446e7e9","pagecount":"1","content":"Bioversity International is a CGIAR Research Centre. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. www.cgiar.org Bioversity Headquarters Via dei Tre Denari 472/a 00054 Maccarese (Fiumicino)An impact study carried out by Bioversity International in 2016 on the use of ITC accessions by Musa collections in the Latin America and Caribbean region showed the importance of well-documented accessions in regional and national collections.At the Instituto de Investigaciones de Viandas Tropicales (INIVIT) in Cuba, ITC materials were used to test tolerance of varieties to black Sigatoka before it spread to the country. They also received the ITC accession Zanzebar (ITC1471) as part of the IMTP evaluation trial, which is now a common and important variety known as PV 0630.At USDA-ARS Tropical Agricultural Research Station the diverse ITC accessions are used in the field and the lab to train students, interns, and Extension Agents from the University of Puerto Rico and the Department of Agriculture. They also produced a catalogue of their diverse field collection using the phenotypic descriptors from the collaborative field verification exercise (photo bottom right).At the Corporación Bananera Nacional (CORBANA) in Costa Rica, the collection is an important backup resource for farmers in this high banana production country. They are testing disease resistance in their diverse collection, which includes many ITC accessions. The wealth of data generated from the Genetic Integrity exercise will also be used to investigate other topics of interest to crop genebanks. Genetic stocks of the off-type accessions that were identified through the routine monitoring of the ITC collection will be held in perpetuity for future studies on subjects such as the detection of somaclonal variation at an earlier stage.Moving further with our partners at USDA-ARS TARS and also at the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) in Tanzania, we aim to validate the banana cryopreservation method by comparing the ITC accessions that have been held for years in cryopreservation, with plants held in vitro and plants only grown in field. ","tokenCount":"324"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f1e1a327e3ceb2c3a02fab1dd46b6fd3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d3f080ad-396e-4066-ae58-07e14570ae9c/retrieve","id":"-995270736"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"90e154ad-8642-4e07-99e2-4e96c410f59a","pagecount":"6","content":"This study examined the patterns, trends, and drivers of agricultural intensification and productivity growth during the recent decade (2012 -2019) using three rounds of household data collected from four agricultural regions of Ethiopia. The descriptive results indicate a positive trend both in adoption and intensity of inputs and outputs, albeit from a low base and with considerable heterogeneity by access to information, rainfall levels and variability, labor, soil quality, and remoteness, among others. The econometric results show significant association between intensification, yield growth, household dietary diversity, and consumer durables. The results on the association between current yield levels and per capita consumption expenditures are however mixed (i.e., while an increase in cereal yield improves food consumption expenditures, an increase in cash crop yield improves only non-food consumption expenditures). In sum, while the increasing input intensification and the resulting yield gains are associated with improvements in household diets and consumer durables, it falls short to have strong impact on incomes (as measured by total consumption expenditures), indicating that additional efforts must be made to see meaningful impacts on higher order outcomes. Additional welfare improving productivity gains through increased input intensification may require investments in appropriate fertilizer blends; investments in improved seeds (to accelerate varietal turnover), ways to mitigate production (rainfall) risk, and investments to remodel Ethiopia's extension system to provide much needed technical support to farmers on production methods.To stimulate overall economic growth and overall welfare, Ethiopia has made substantial efforts in the last three decades to increase agricultural productivity through modern input intensification led by its public extension system. However, despite the high growth rate trends in recent years, Ethiopia's yield levels and overall intensification remain rather lowand show signs of slowing down recently (Berhane et al., 2020).Agricultural transformation is associated with sustained increases in land and labor productivity through policy-induced intensification. However, in countries like Ethiopia where land is a major constraint, intensification efforts are further limited by demographic as well as biophysical determinants (Heady et al., 2014(a); Heady et al., 2014(b)). Theoretically, when set in motion, intensification is expected to first increase cultivated land and then cultivated land decreases due to both land constraints and decreases in aggregate prices (Rudel et al., 2008). In other words, intensification provides farmers with higher yields per hectare and growth in overall income, which in turn induces farmers to expand production through increased cultivation of additional land. Increased supply of agricultural produce in aggregate, with relatively inelastic demand, would result in decline of prices driving intensification to focus on knowledge or technology to respond better to additional inputs. In practice, the net effect is not clear from the outset and often population pressures hinder policy-induced intensification leading to undesirable outcomes. The study used three rounds of the Ethiopian Agricultural Commercialization Clusters (ACC) surveys conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA). The analysis uses panel data from 1,899 households interviewed in three rounds.We define agricultural intensification as an increase in the level of inputs applied with the goal of increasing productivity and income. We conceptualize intensification as a constrained household utility maximization problem where production and consumption are non-separable in which levels of input use or intensification are affected, in addition to input and output prices, by various socioeconomic and household characteristics. We measure yield or land productivity at the household level as real value of output per unit of land used for production. We calculate yield for all crops, mainly for cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, root crops and fruits, as well as separately for cereals and cash crops. Household welfare indicators used include household diet diversity score (HDDS), consumer durables, and adult equivalent food, non-food, and total consumption expenditures. Monthly rainfall data extracted from the CHIRPS dataset is used to proxy for production risk. In the estimation, we implement a more recent variant of the CRE model, known as the hybrid model (Allison, 2009), where the within-effects and between-effects are estimated in a random-effects model framework.At a macro level, data from the Agricultural Sample Survey (AGSS) of the Central Statistics Agency (CSA) indicates that fertilizer applied area has increased by 55 percent between 2007/08 and 2016/17, with overall increase in fertilizer intensification from 0.45 to 0.95 quintal per hectare in the same period. Our analysis depicts similar positive trends in the adoption and intensity of fertilizer use. Among crops, cereals account for the most part of fertilizer intensification. The ACC data shows the share of households using fertilizer on cereals increased by 20 percentage points between 2012 and 2019 (Figure 1). Likewise, the share of cereal area fertilized increased by about 6 percentage points and rates of application as measured by amount of any fertilizer use per hectare of land has doubled.Source: Authors' analysis of data from the ATA-ACC SurveyUse of improved seeds has also increased. Between 2012 and 2019, the share of households that adopted a newly purchased seed has increased by 17 percentage points for maize and 3 percentage points for vegetables. Teff has also seen some improvements while the remaining crops have seen declines. The share of area covered by newly purchased seed varieties has also increased by 11.4 percentage points for maize and by 6.2 percentage points for vegetables. The share of area covered by root crops has also increased slightly, while for the remaining crops it has either remained the same or slightly declined. Clearly, maize and vegetables are the only crops with relatively high level of improved seed coverage, presumably the hybrid nature of maize seeds and the difficulty in collecting and storing vegetable seeds necessitate farm households to buy them on yearly basis. The share of households that jointly adopted both improved seeds and fertilizers in at least one of their plots is also limited.Agrochemical intensification varies by crop type and is greatest on vegetables (203 birr per hectare) followed by wheat (188.9 birr per hectare), and teff (131.7 birr per hectare), perhaps due to susceptibility of both crops to pests and diseases. And, machinery use, measured by average cost of use, is highest for oilseeds (39.1 birr per hectare), followed by wheat (24.3 birr per hectare) and sorghum (18.7 birr per hectare).Several factors stand out as important determinants of input intensification, including access to extension services, access to mobile phones and radio, soil quality, remoteness of plots, and availability of labor in the household. On the other hand, fertilizer and agrochemical intensification are statistically significant determinants of growth in yield. Contrary to our theoretical expectation, use of purchased seeds is statistically significant with a negative sign. Other production inputs such as household labor, oxen ownership, and use of organic fertilizers also exhibit statistically strong association with yield growth.Weather risk (measured by rainfall variability) is also an important shock, negatively associated with input intensification and hence yield growth. Radio ownership (an important source of extension information in Ethiopia), commercialization (share of output sold) and age (measuring experience) of the head of the household are also found to be statistically and strongly associated with yield growth.Does yield growth correlate with improvements in household welfare? Two important findings are drawn from this analysis. First, controlling for a host of household and location characteristics, total yield growth is strongly associated with household-level diet diversity score (HDDS), household durable assets, and adult equivalent non-food expenditures. However, total yield growth is not significantly associated with household income (measured by adult equivalent food and total expenditures). On the other hand, while cereal yield is weakly associated with adult equivalent food expenditures, cash crop yield growth is strongly associated with adult equivalent non-food and total expenditures, suggesting that improvements in cereal yields are likely to improve food consumption, while incomes from cash crops are likely to be allocated to non-food investments.Yield growth in both cereals and cash crops is also strongly associated with increases in HDDS. This is plausible given HDDS is likely to be improved either through production diversification (via cereal production diversification), or through access to diversified food markets (via cash crop income increases).Cereal yield growth is also strongly associated with increases in household durables, implying, in smallholder contexts, early income increases are likely to improve household durables before substantive increases are made on consumer goods.Second, intensification measures, mainly fertilizer and seed have positive and significant relationship with most of the welfare indicators. Seed intensification measured by value of seed per hectare has a strong and positive relationship with consumption expenditure.Ethiopia has in the last few decades registered significant progress in improving agricultural production. Despite these growth trends, yield levels and overall intensification remained rather low. Using three rounds of household data, this study assessed the patterns, trends, and drivers of agricultural intensification between 2012 and 2019. We find positive trends in adoption and intensity of fertilizers, agrochemicals, and improved seeds, albeit from a low base for improved seed adoption and intensification. Among important positive determinants of all input intensification include improvements in access to extension services, availability of labor, and access to mobile phones and radio. Rainfall variability, poor quality of soils, and remoteness of plots are shown to have strong negative associations with fertilizer and improved seed intensification. Yield growth is also associated with intensification of organic and inorganic fertilizers and agrochemicals, and access to own labor and oxen.Our results also show that intensified use of inputs and subsequent improvements in total yield have improved household level diet diversity, non-food expenditures, and consumer durables, but not food consumption expenditures. However, improvements in cereal yield have immediate important implications for food consumption, improvements in dietary diversity (partly because of the diversification in production), and improvements in household durables.We conclude by noting the following policy implications. A lot has been done to improve Ethiopia's input intensification landscape. Our analyses suggest that progress has been made in terms of familiarizing fertilizers such that fertilizer adoption may not be a core challenge of policymakers anymore. Household datasets, including ours, repeatedly show that most farmers in Ethiopia adopt and experiment with fertilizers available to date in blanket recommendations. Thus, achieving profitable intensification remains a challenge. A deeper look into this problem therefore suggests that lack of availability of the right blend of fertilizers suitable to specific soil nutrient requirements, along with of customized technical support (something lacking in Ethiopia's extension system) in applying the right soil nutrient-fertilizer mixes are among those limiting transformative fertilizer intensifications.Lack of access to appropriate improved seeds is also another hurdle to increasing productivity through proper input mix intensification. Again, our findings suggest that lack of availability of improved seeds is limiting varietal turnover and seed replacements rates and sustained intensification. Improving the structural constraints of generating locally suitable improved seeds and putting in place the right supply chains to reach out farm households on timely manner can take the sector a long way.It should also be noted that rainfall risk, or the lack of reliable moisture is another important hurdle in the intensification of Ethiopia's predominantly rainfed agriculture. Investments in smallholder/small scale irrigation structures remains a core priority for the years to come.Our study has also shown that all those efforts in input intensification (along with several other factors) have led to productivity (yield) increases but from a low base. It maybe that additional transformative productivity gains would come not only from improvements in the supply of the right inputs but also from putting in place the right research-extension systems to provide farmers with much needed technical support. Additional investments to remodeling Ethiopia's extension system to fit these purposes remain among top priorities of Ethiopia's policymakers and its development partners. ","tokenCount":"1923"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e3560e3b86a3725fd4de424aee8bb19","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e2ec37bf-72b5-4009-9e79-da28f4df10d3/retrieve","id":"1181952674"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"571bcdb2-1dc9-4463-af08-795f2e2056aa","pagecount":"6","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).Smallholder mixed farming systems dominate food systems in Africa and trends of massive demographic growth, natural resource degradation, and climate change affect the productivity of these systems. The above challenges are also a threat to achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 particularly in Africa. SDG 2 aims to end hunger, improve food and nutritional security, and promote sustainable agriculture. Dealing with these complex challenges of mixed farming systems requires whole-farm and system thinking skills and approaches to integrate agro-ecological dimensions with understanding of social organization of agricultural production. Instead, commodity and biophysical research training of most scientists working in the continent has led to improvements in single system components of mixed farming systems, while leading to trade-offs among different livelihood objectives.To address the above challenges, the Mixed Farming System (MFS) initiative of one CGIAR in collaboration with Wageningen University and Research (WUR) organized an international post graduate training course titled \"Farming Systems and Rural Livelihoods: Farming Systems in Transition\" for PhD students and early career scientists. The main objective of the course was to equipe the next generation of young scientists with system thinking skills and approaches that help them to link farm and field observations on key livelihood indicators (income, food and nutritional security) with wider demographic, socio-economic and agro-ecological trends to better understand the historical dynamics of smallholder farming practices and their changing significance in mixed farming systems in Africa. This then informs the design of pathways towards sustainable development in which flourishing livelihoods are integrated with a healthy environment.The course was organized from 10 th -22 nd September 2023 in Tamale -Ghana. A total of twenty-five graduate and early career scientists across the globe attended the course (Photo 1) (List of participants, pages 12-13) The training was facilitated by renowned resource persons from WUR and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). The resource personnel from WUR were Ken Giller, Gerrie van de Ven, Katrien Descheemaeker, Jens Andersson, Jeroen Groot, Aart van der Linden, Simon Oosting and Jacqueline Verhoef-te Brake whilst those from IITA were Samuel Adjei-Nsiah and Micheal Kermah. The course structure consisted of a series of lectures, discussions, field trips and on-site group work using the DEED (Describe, Explain, Explore and Design) cycle to identify the main issues at stake in four different sites with respect to farming system, livelihoods of the people, ongoing developments, and transitions of farming systems. For detailed program and course structure, use the link: FSRLA program pages 5-11. Each of the four groups gathered data on farming systems and livelihoods of communities in their respective sites (Photo 2), analyzed, obtained feedback from other groups and the resource persons, and then reported back to the communities (Photo 3) by presenting observations and possible pathways towards enhancement and sustainability of the farming systems. Also, groups presented their findings in a mini-seminar attended by the course participants and resource personnel and other scientists invited from national agricultural research institutions such as the CSIR-Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, Department of Agriculture and IITA Ghana. Course participants expressed satisfaction with the training and the gained practical skills and knowledge of systems thinking that they will apply to address the challenges of smallholder mixed farming systems in Africa, in a manner that minimizes tradeoffs and maximizes synergies among system components. They recommended that having such training once every other year would be very helpful the new generation of young scientists in addressing the challenges of smallholder mixed farming systems in Africa. cgiar.org/initiative/mixed-farming-systems","tokenCount":"685"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6ede1b252e22f88de30f35053aef2a9a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b0a0bb9d-51a5-4b64-83d8-03f7a10b8df9/content","id":"-2088662741"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bcd1011e-10a5-4f05-8dcd-c853bb4cf535","pagecount":"45","content":"In recognition of the complexity of factors which affect the improvement of maize yields and productivity in different farming systems throughout the developing world, panels of crop research and extension experts assessed the relative importance of abiotic, biotic, crop management and socioeconomic constraints in a dozen major maize production systems in developing regions which are characterized by severe poverty, as indicated by child stunting. Maize plays an important role in household nutrition and poverty reduction in each of these farming systems.Drought has been identified as a major priority for maize improvement programs in international agricultural research, and especially in Africa and Asia. However, it is generally accepted that a variety of other \"secondary\" constraints limit maize productivity in good seasons, as well as in drought years. The well known CABI data base contains comprehensive but rather general information on losses and distribution. CIMMYT has conducted a number of studies with valuable information on constraints, and CIMMYT scientists have scored the severity of maize production constraints. However, few of these studies provide sufficient contextual information to extrapolate the results across zones, seasons and years.In these circumstances, this study organized the systematic tapping of the tacit knowledge of experienced research and development practitioners to provide valuable information on the relative importance of different production constraints and traits. The results of this study can be a checklist and guide to those involved in maize breeding and crop systems research and development by prioritizing key traits for the improvement in each of the systems.From humble origins in Mexico, maize has colonized most tropical, sub-tropical and temperate agricultural regions of the world, and produces more than 700 million tons of grain from about 143 million ha (FAO 2007). Of this about 325 million tons (with an annual growth rate of more then 2 %) is produced in developing regions from about 98 million ha of irrigated and rainfed crop land. Even though a large and growing proportion is used for livestock feed, maize underpins the household and national food security in many areas -for example maize provides an average of 1105 kcal/cap/day in Malawi. While average maize yield in the US, Spain, Italy and Chile exceeds 9 t/ha, more than one quarter of countries in continental Africa average less than 1 t/ha and many substantial maize producing countries in the developing world average less than 2 t/ha, e.g., India, Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia. Even within developing countries, there are large gaps between potential yields, whether defined from a biophysical or a socioeconomic perspective, and farmers' yields (Pingali and Pandey 2001). The gaps are caused by a variety of constraints: abiotic, e.g., drought; biotic, e.g., stem borer; management, e.g., tillage; and socioeconomic, e.g., market access. Notwithstanding the diversity of production constraints, low maize yields of smallholders can be substantially increased by the availability of the improved maize germplasm with traits which address specific causes of yield loss.Globally, the level of public resources allocated to agricultural research is diminishing, while private sector research which produces appropriable products and services is increasing: however, in both cases major research efforts are concentrated in relatively few countries (Pardey et al 2006). Whilst returns to cereal research in the past four decades have been exceptionally high (Anderson et al 1988;Alston et al 2000;Evenson and Gollin 2003), the decline of public resources for agricultural research underlines the importance of systematical prioritization of research objectives and maize improvement traits.There are limitations associated with currently available published crop loss assessment studies. The assessments are often highly season and location specific, and frequently lack contextual detail. On another level, the CABI data base covers a large number of pests and diseases yet the information on distribution and losses is relatively general. Nevertheless, there are generally implicit priorities and assumptions among scientists working with the genetic improvement of a particular crop, and priorities can be deduced from breeding objectives and resource allocations to the identification of traits and the development of advanced lines and cultivars with specific traits. Notwithstanding the scarcity of authoritative studies, there are, however, a very large number of production constraints which potentially cause significant losses that could be reduced or eliminated through improved maize germplasm. Systematic priority setting among these constraints has been frustrated by the scarcity of systematic crop loss assessments.The frame of reference for this study is the FAO/World Bank farming systems classification of 72 farming systems across six regions of the world (see Dixon et al., 2001; see www.fao.org/farmingsystems/). In this study the farming systems were characterized using broad natural resource and institutional characteristics, with a particular emphasis on examining the potential of various development pathways for the achievement of the first Millennium Development Goal of the halving of poverty by 2015. Of these 72 systems, the Generation Challenge Program (GCP) identified 15 key systems which are characterized by extensive poverty, indicated by the prevalence of child stunting, and in which key GCP crops are widely grown (Hyman et al unpub). Anecdotal information suggests substantial crop have different experience and views on production constraints even in the same system... In practice the initial list of panelists had to be supplemented through further contacts in the regions and with public sector, NGO and private sector maize breeders, agronomists, social scientists and extension specialists.Fourth, a rapid, interactive, procedure was employed for capturing the knowledge and experience of expert panels for the assessment and prioritization of recognizable constraints to maize production within each farming system. The method of interaction adopted was a modified version of the Delphi technique (see Annex 3 for a full description and relevant references) originally developed by the Rand Corporation to support decision making on subjects characterized by a high degree of uncertainty. In this modified version of the Delphi technique, expert panels were polled in four rounds. In the second, third and fourth rounds experts received the panel results of the previous round for revision and adjustment, as well as some additional questions. The explanations and questionnaires were drafted in English and translated to Spanish for Latin America, after ascertaining that a majority of potential panelists for the selected systems in Asia and Africa understood English.In the initial round the potential panelists (initially 227 who responded to the initial round, but ultimately more than 390 were contacted in Asia, Africa and Latin America) were provided with descriptions and distribution maps of 14 major farming systems (see Annex 2 for maps and descriptions) and were asked to assess their level of familiarity, i.e., their knowledge and experience, of each of the selected farming systems. For one or more systems with which they were most familiar, they were asked to indicate the key maize production constraints for the system, augmenting the initial constraints list as appropriate. In this way a master list of constraints was established. This round also ensured that experts retained on panels had knowledge and experience related to one or more of the systems under investigation; and ensured that each panel comprised a mix of breeders, agronomists, social scientists and extension specialists drawn from a variety of international, regional and national stakeholders. A considerable number of the initial experts contacted did not have personal knowledge of the particular 14 maize farming systems under investigation or were too busy to complete the questionnaires, with the result that quite a number of additional, substitute, panel members were identified, with some delay, targeting 15 members for each system panel. Average panel size was 17: some had more than 20 members; one (for Highland Mixed Farming Systems in South Asia) had only 12 panelists.In a second round, panelists were asked to identify and rank the top ten constraints, across all the four categories of constraints, for each system with which they were familiar. To clarify the relative importance of constraint groups, panelists were asked to estimate the relative importance of abiotic, biotic, crop management and socioeconomic constraints. They were also asked to estimate the reduction of yield (in kg/ha) due to each of the top ten constraint. These results were summarized for each farming system.In the third round, these summaries were shared with the panelists who were asked to review, reconsider and revise as appropriate the ranking of the top ten constraints and the estimated yield loss. As an additional theme, panelists were asked to speculate on the potential impact of current dynamics and future trends in the farming system.In the fourth round, panelists were asked to consider the summarized results from earlier rounds, notably: the relative importance of abiotic, biotic, socioeconomic and crop management constraints on maize productivity; and the rankings and the estimated reductions in yield due to these constraints under small farm conditions. In this process the responses had converged to a substantial degree. Finally, panelists were asked to estimate the proportion of fields and the proportion of years with serious yield losses from each of the top ten constraints.Production constraints can be considered from the viewpoint of yield gaps, with an analysis of the differences in yields as constraints are progressively relaxed. Many types of yields can be considered, ranging from the biophysical yield potential, calculated theoretically from solar radiation and temperature for a particular germplasm, to drought-and pest-afflicted yields of small holders. Four examples of useful intermediate yields in any given farming systems are: economic yield potential with all inputs and management provided at optimal levels in a risk free environment; yields obtainable under best management on research stations; yields achieved by best farmers in a given farming system; and yields of resourcepoor smallholders. Constraints to increasing crop production can be grouped into four broad categories: abiotic (e.g., soil and climatic), biotic (e.g., pests, weeds and diseases), crop management (e.g., low plant population, late planting) or socio-economic (e.g., shortage of labour, lack of market access, pricing policies, terms of trade). Some of these constraints are periodic, e.g., drought and many biotic stresses, whereas others tend to be relatively constant in the short term, e.g., low soil nitrogen. Some proportion of constraints may be avoidable through management action, e.g., weed pressure. The relative importance of these constraints varies widely across different farming systems. Some constraints vary in intensity between fields and farms; and others vary in severity between seasons, e.g., drought. The resistance or tolerance to these constraints may be regarded as potentially important for the focus of future breeding and management strategies in marginal or drought prone areas where poverty is currently widespread.A summary of the identified maize production constraints (abiotic, biotic, socioeconomic and crop management), approximate maize areas and estimated percentage yield depression due to these constraints under small farm conditions for each farming system are presented in Annex 4, Table A 4.1. Note that the collections of constraints in this table are not placed in any priority order.It is important to distinguish the relationship of different types of constraints to observed farmers yields. Those constraints which are more-or-less permanent in nature and for which no practical feasible mitigation actions exist, e.g. low soil N in Africa where inorganic fertilizers are not available, tend to depress yields to the actual observed levels. In some cases the yield depression may be large even several times existing farmer yields. A second type of constraint, e.g. weeds, may be more-or-less permanent but feasible management options exist for the alleviation of the constraint, but the options may not be economic. These also depress yields. The third category, periodic constraints, e.g. drought, stem borer, reduce yields in some years.The magnitude of the impact of the constraint accounts for the difference in yields between stress, e.g. drought, years and non-stress years, i.e., good seasons. Many of the constraints have an associated frequency of impacts, by proportion of years, e.g., drought, or by proportion of fields affected, e.g. low soil N, or both, e.g., army worms. It is important to take the relative frequency into account when calculating average yield reduction associated with a constraint.The CABI data base is one of the most comprehensive source of information: yet, the distribution of pests and diseases and systematically updated and yield losses are often reported in general terms. The incidence of abiotic constraints can be estimated from climatic data or from environmental constraints data bases, e.g., from FAO. However, data on yield losses are sparse and often contentious. The Harvest Choice Project (BMGF, IFPRI, University of Minnesota) has assembled more than 2000 papers on food crop yield losses: however, only a small proportion has sufficient contextual detail to extrapolate the yield losses to wider regions or systems (Beddow pers comm.). There have been a number of CIMMYT studies and papers on the relative importance of secondary traits for maize (see, for example, Bänziger and Lafitte 1997;Bolaños and Edmeades1996). These are of particular interest in relation to selection for drought tolerance, but also in relation to other important abiotic and biotic constraints. A series of Asian maize production systems, constraints and research priority studies ranked production constraints in terms of efficiency and poverty reduction. These studies covered Nepal (Paudyal 2001), Indonesia (Swastika et al 2004), Vietnam (Ha et al 2004), Thailand (Ekasingh et al 2004), Philippines (Gerpacio et al 2004), India (Joshi et al 2005) and China (Meng et al 2006). Other CIMMYT studies have examined the impacts of Striga and stemborer in Africa. The tacit knowledge of scientists working with crop improvement and management should not be underestimated. Moreover, priorities can be deduced from breeding objectives and resource allocations to trait identification or the development of advanced lines and cultivars with specific traits. In the case of maize, CIMMYT pathologists and breeders have scored the severity of major pests and diseases and abiotic stresses (CIMMYT unpub) in different mega-environments but these have not been translated into yield, food or livelihood losses. There are, nevertheless, a very large number of production constraints which potentially cause significant losses that could be reduced or eliminated through improved maize germplasm. Overall, however, systematic priority setting has been frustrated by the scarcity of objective crop loss assessments and the spatial, system and seasonal specificity of losses.It is important to bear in mind that the information is primarily qualitative, based on the practical knowledge of an experienced group of panelists. The results may be seen as complementary to existing databases and empirical data. They provide indications of potentials avoidance of losses and in this way are useful inputs to decisions on key future breeding and improvement strategies. This kind of information and data are highly unusual as it relies, not on empirical data from field trials and observations, but the years of experience and judgments of a range of scientists, extensionists and professional field staff. Some discussion of the responses on the systems follows:African systems. Maize mixed farming system (MM). The most significant system area (approximately 6.3 M ha of maize, estimated on the basis of recent IFPRI crop area surfaces) is found here. Potential yields are highly variable between 5 and 10 t/ha, and typical farm yields are in the range 1-3 t/ha. Low soil fertility, acid soils, heat stress and low nitrogen are common. The biotic pest complex is substantial, markets for maize are poorly developed and prices of maize are severe constraints. Seed supply problems are frequent. Common crop management constraints include late planting, low plant populations, poor weed management and large post harvest losses.Low soil fertility, drought and low soil nitrogen are the top constraints. We can assume, of course, that low soil fertility and low soil nitrogen are usually strongly associated. Abiotic factors appear to have a key role in this system in contributing to potential crop losses, but both pests and diseases have significant, but lower, effects. In this system, late planting is prevalent. The possible solutions to this problem are connected with crop management, and could involve even shorter term maturing varieties of maize. Cereal root crop mixed farming system (CRCM). This system's characteristic constraints are low soil fertility, leaf rusts, grey leaf spot, poor prices of grain and a weak market structure for maize. Both early and late planting are named as constraints in relation to crop management and harvesting difficulties also affect maize productivity.Poor soil fertility and nitrogen are prominent constraints, but weeds and Striga spp. also appear as important. Abiotic constraints are again the principal factors affecting yields of the crop on small farms. Zinc deficiency appears here, as well as storms and high winds. Agropastoral millet sorghum farming system (APMS). This is the driest of all the African systems and as might be expected, drought, soil acidity, low soil fertility and low N are serious constraints. There are fewer identified pests than in several other systems, but stem borer and Chilo partellus are frequently cited. Maize streak virus is also a common problem.Of the socioeconomic problems, poor access both inputs and to markets are considered important. Late planting, low fertilizer use and late weeding are common problems. In this system, competition with livestock is cited as a problem. This system has the lowest average on farm yields of any African system.Biotic constraints play a more prominent role, although abiotic stresses are still the most important. The storage of grain is an important issue within these systems. In many years, grain crops may fail due to drought so older systems had developed long term grain storage facilities at local level and millets and sorghums were selected for their ability to survive in store for many years. Grain pests are a major constraint for maize and this is still an area where further progress can be made. A few abiotic constraints, notably drought, nitrogen, zinc deficiency and high winds play important roles in depressing yields here, but there is also a complex of pests that affect the growing plant and grain in store. Weeds are also cited as having a key negative effect.Weeds are an example of a constraint which is connected to cultural and management issues, notably labour availability at critical periods in the growth cycle. Highland temperate mixed farming system (HTM). This has the lowest area of maize in the set of African systems (1.0M ha.) Among abiotic constraints found here, low soil fertility stands out. Leaf rust, Fusarium spp. and Turcicum are some of the important diseases. The absence of a market for grain is considered important and high input prices mean that poverty is common. Late planting and late harvesting is a feature of this system as the crop is in the ground for many months due to low temperatures and a long growing season. Despite these constraints, this system has the highest potential on farm yields (1.0-3.5 t/ha) of the African systems.This is the only system (of the 13) in which drought does not feature in the top ten key constraints. After low soil fertility, acid soils are considered to be the second constraint, and late planting again appears as a major factor. Asian systems. Given the range of environments within which maize is grown, it is not surprising that there is greater variability (than in the African context) in the range of key constraints in these systems. Drought is still named as important in all systems. Estimated yield levels on small farms are higher than in the African cases and sometimes similar to research station yields.Temperate Mixed (TM) (EA) 1 . This system represents the most significant area of maize; estimated to be about 10.2 M ha. Apart from the common abiotic constraints, high winds and hail storms are found here. Corn borers, earworms, aphids, rusts, maydis, Turcicum and stalk rot are also important here. Price support policies, poor market infrastructure, late input availability and access to inputs are common socioeconomic constraints. Key crop management problems are the lack of minimum tillage techniques, late sowing, poor weed and nutrient management.Apart from drought as the top constraint, this system seems to be affected by a few pests (borers, moths and bollworm) and a wide range of blights, smuts and rots that affect the stems, leaves and ears of the crop. Most prominent are Turcicum and Maydis leaf blights. 1 EA is East Asia; SA is South Asia.Lowland Rice (EA). Stem borers, cut worms, army worms and various rots, rusts, blast, blights and viruses are common problems. This system has 8.5 M ha of maize, the second largest area of the Asian systems.Although drought and low fertility are cited as very significant constraints, a number of diseases (Mildew, rusts and mosaic virus) are also considered to be important here. In this system, flooding appears as a key constraint, as it does in the other two rice-based systems.Resistance to flooding, either temporary or seasonal, must be a major goal if maize is to have a future in any of these systems. Borers are also found to be within the top ten constraints here. Upland Intensive Mixed (EA). Key constraints are low soil nitrogen and soil fertility and acidity. Many biotic constraints are important including, leaf rust, maize streak virus, grey leaf spot, mildews, blights, rots, aphids and white grubs are all important constraints here. Access to inputs and market failure is common as are seed shortages and high production costs. There appears to be a failure in the transfer of technical knowledge that is important and this results in many flaws in crop management techniques.Although drought and low soil nitrogen are the top constraints, high winds and lodging are also important. The flexible stem maize varieties of Nepal (bred for hail resistance) might have a role in other systems where the same problem has been reported (e.g. R-W). Both pests (corn borer, leaf aphids, and wireworms) and diseases (Banded leaf and sheath blight, Fusarium and Gibberella stalk rots and Maydis Leaf blight) are featured here as constraints.The unique feature about the responses to questions about this system was that more pests and diseases were named by panelists as important constraints than with any other system. Rice-Wheat (SA). In this system, saline and acid soils and low fertility are important. Stem borers, birds and rodents, mildews, rusts and stem rots are typical constraints. Technical knowledge, seed availability and cost and high production costs are key constraints here.Poor water, weeds and crop management are also significant. This is one of the two systems in which late planting is named as the top constraint. The timing of these operations is clearly problematic and this presents an opportunity to develop a maize variety that can occupy this niche. Once again, flooding is a prominent constraint, together with high winds, making this one of the most challenging environments in which to cultivate maize. In this system, together with other rice based systems and the Latin American system, birds feature as important constraints. Drought is still mentioned here, but as a lesser constraint. Highland Mixed (SA). For the highland systems, low soil fertility and low temperatures are significant. Stem borers, downy mildew, rusts and weed competition are all major constraints. There are many specific socioeconomic constraints that are recognized here, including, access to inputs (seed) and credit, market access, technological knowledge, high production costs and specific consumer preferences. Weed management is cited and the most important crop management constraint.This system has a similar set of constraints to the rainfed mixed system of South Asia with drought and low soil fertility being the top ones. However, Turcicum Leaf blight, Fusarium and Gibberella ear rots, Banded leaf and sheath blights and Downy mildews feature strongly. Grain weevils, are significant constraints and white grubs are less important. Late planting again features in this set of top constraints. Rice (SA). In this rice based system, maize generally plays a minor role and the area of maize is estimated to be 0.17M ha. Low soil fertility, waterlogging, acidity and low nitrogen are key abiotic constraints. Cut worms, stem borers, army worms, birds and rodents at planting, downy mildew, stem rots and rusts, blasts, blights and viruses are the major biotic constraints. Access to inputs and credit, market access and knowledge about technology, seed shortages and high production costs constitute the main socioeconomic constraints. Weeds, poor fertility management, low plant population and continuous cropping are the main crop management constraints. It was decided that as this system occupied a very low area, it would be dropped from the subsequent discussions in this study. The Dry Rainfed Asian system had also been dropped earlier.This is the other system in which late planting is named as the top constraint and is also followed by low soil nitrogen. Birds play an important role in reducing yields in this system, and storm damage is also critical. This is the only system where low temperatures are found one of the key constraints, Flooding is again important and weed problems are also found to affect yields negatively. Drought is the lowest of the top ten constraints. Maize-Beans (MB). In the widespread ( 4.4 M ha.) maize -bean system of Central America, Low soil fertility, acid soils and high winds and storms and a very wide range of biotic constraints are important in this system. These include many fungal diseases of the stem, leaf and ear and borers, armyworms and weevils in storage. Pricing policies, poor market infrastructure, late input availability and access to suitable new crop varieties are all considered key constraints. Lack of minimum tillage and poor standards of weed, crop and nutrient management are key management constraints.Low soil nitrogen and fertility are the top constraints in this system. Weeds featured very high in the list of constraints and Stenocarpella ear rot appeared uniquely. Drought was a medium priority constraint, but many different rots were named as important (Fusarium and Gibberella stalk and ear rots and Tar spot complex).Grain weevils and bird were also named as important constraints. There were many variations in the estimates of yield decrease due to specific constraints. This is perhaps inevitable as many people are making judgments based on their own experience, not necessarily on empirical evidence. As might be expected, drought appears within the top ten constraints in all but one system (Africa HTM) of the 13 systems.However, here we are trying to look beyond drought as the major constraint and consider the relative importance of other traits.There are a number of important points of interest that are prompted by this study.Given that there were many prominent and experienced plant breeders who participated in the study, we do have their thoughts and idea about priorities, some of which emerged in response to the formal questions, but more information has been collected from the informal comments during the second round.The outputs do show that there is still general agreement on the need to focus on systems where poverty remains a major problem despite many years of crop improvement and the development of widely adapted plant materials. Many panelists feel that there is a continued link between crop productivity and poverty even though most feel that this cannot be seen in isolation from many other factors. The GCP studies point to the importance of recognizing that there are many systems in which maize is grown as a component, but in which (apart from a very few exceptions) there is little known about how to further develop the potential for maize production and directly address poverty issues.There was some discussion on the very common problem of low and declining soil fertility, particularly with respect to low nitrogen and acidity. The strategy to combat this may be either to breed maize for even greater tolerance to low fertility, or to make greater efforts to combine with many development agencies to improve soil fertility through a more systemic approach (e.g. rotations, intercropping, integration of livestock) to environmental improvements. Some combination of strategies would also seem to be rational in order to realize some synergy.( see also below).The summarized outputs from the first round of questions shows that there is some degree of convergence in relation to a few key constraints that affect yield of maize across many environments. However, there are also many specific constraints that apply only in specific systems (e.g. wind and hail in high altitude Asian systems or waterlogging in rice based systems in Asia). It may well be very productive to focus on these unusual constraints in order to produce specific plant materials for niche environments in where there might be many poor people living. A good example would be the maize with an exceptionally flexible stem that can survive heavy hailstorms in the Upland Integrated Maize system in Nepal. Some panelists considered that there is much scope for improving the relevance and application of crop breeding research by moving it closer to the farm situation. This would require changes in the style and location of research (from stations to farmer's fields) and partnerships of researchers from national and international institutions working more with local and international NGOs . Such approaches are found in many places, but there is still much scope to develop this action learning process in many more places, particularly in systems in which there has been little focus so far.Maize, in fact, has continued to spread into drier and higher altitude systems in Africa, and displace, or be grown alongside, other cereals, since it was first introduced over 300 years ago so there is no reason to suspect that this will not continue to happen.The crops that dominate maize based small farming systems in Latin America almost always involves maize and beans or another legume in combination. Such systems are not found in many other areas where maize is currently grown, but as soil fertility continues to decline, maize is increasingly grown in combination with legumes such as pigeon peas or beans of various kinds. Several panelists consider that such systems will continue to develop. In some areas maize has been introduced into complex agroforestry systems and have continued to thrive. Perhaps breeders need to look at the requirements of such systems more closely.Many panelists have placed emphasis on diversification, from several viewpoints. One was to recognize that there is much scope for the development of diverse products from maize, as fodder, fuel, popcorn, local food products, and that there is a need to see these as opportunities for breeding a wider range of materials. Another aspect of diversification was the need to look at more diverse systems of production which were more stable than those currently seen (see above). Yet another was to see maize production within a more diversified livelihood system. All these options have implications for the way in which farming families perceive maize and its value and this prompts the need for much more efficient means of communication both ways between researchers and farming families. Knowledge exchange is still very weak in many contexts.The current study on secondary traits of maize poverty, drought and farming systems provided by an earlier Generation Challenge Program study. A detailed explanation of the methodology and results of the analysis, along with the full list of contributing researchers, can be found in the earlier study (Generation Challenge Program 2006). The methodology involved:• Using an FAO worldwide classification of farming systems.• Determining the absolute and proportional poverty in each system, as indicated by child stunting.• Assessing the productivity and cultivated area of the major crops of the systems locate in areas where poverty was greatest.• Assessing drought risk-the risk of failed seasons-by geographic area and examining the correspondence to farming systems where poverty was greatest.The classification of farming systems was the spatial foundation for the overlay of the other data sets (on poverty, failed seasons, crops, and crop productivity). Farming systems were classified on the basis of (1) the natural resources available for agriculture (water, land, grazing, and forested area; climate; landscape; and farm size, tenure, and organization) as well as the institutional setting and (2) on the dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods.To determine the crops of importance in the target farming systems, the study used production and area data, and market value data will shortly be available as well. The original source of the data is the national governments that participate in FAO statistics programmes.Their data is acquired from censuses, surveys and other sources within the government and private sector. The impact targeting study authors have converted the country level data to sub-national data in grid cells of 100 km2 for the developing countries. The conversion uses a sub-national database of crop production based on censuses and surveys. You and Wood (2006) explain the conversion of the data. The production is expressed in metric tons.Regarding limitations of the data in the context of the major crops of the developing countries: Three groups of crops are represented in aggregated categories. They are the lesser pulses, the major crops of the Musa genus, and several crops that are different types of millet. These crops are assigned to aggregated categories because as individual crops there are few consistent data sources across the broad range of countries throughout the developing world. These crops also tend to be confused within their broader reporting category. The pulses are an aggregation of cowpea, chickpea, pigeon pea, lentils and some other minor crops. Musa refers to plaintain and banana. Millet refers to pearl millet, finger millet and other lesser millets. One way to disentangle these data is by using documentary information.Selecting the appropriate poverty indicator was a challenge. Traditional indicators of income or wealth are familiar alternatives but have marked drawbacks: they are difficult to elicit and verify, challenging to standardize in a way that permits comparison, and highly variable as a factor contributing to well-being. Instead, the team chose to use child stunting (poor growth in length or height for age) as the indicator of poverty. Stunting occurs when a child has been malnourished over a long period. Unlike underweight children, whose low weight for age may be a temporary phenomenon, stunted children rarely catch up to their peers. Stunted children come from households lacking sufficient food or income to purchase food for adequate nutrition.To simulate drought stress, a 'failed seasons' model served as the most appropriate proxy.The failed seasons model highlights areas where fewer than 50 days were available for crop production or in which the number of drought stress days exceeded 15 percent. The potential for drought stress was assessed by simulating a hundred years of daily rainfall, temperature, and radiation data and calculating potential evapotranspiration and daily water balances. Crop-specific data were not included in the model.A final challenge was to determine whether crop improvement research could be an appropriate response to poverty in a given farming system. The productivity of major crops in the poorest systems was assessed to verify that child stunting corresponded to areas of low agricultural yields, where genetic improvement could potentially help to alleviate poverty. Bearing in mind the mandate crops of GCP, Table A.I.W displays the relative prevalence of the crops, expressed as the number of farming systems in which each crop appears at various proportions of cultivated area. Notes: 50% column indicates those crops which appear in the top 50% of cultivated area in the 14 farming systems identified. The number under each column is the number of farming systems in which that crops appears in the top 50% of cultivated area. This is true also for the 60%, 70%, and so on.This Annex draws heavily on Dixon et al ( 2001) -see references in main report. For each region the selected farming systems are summarized in a table and the distribution is indicated in a regional map. This farming system occupies 44 million ha (only two percent) of the land area of Sub-Saharan Africa and accounts for six million ha (4 percent) of cultivated area, but supports an agricultural population of 28 million (7 percent of the total in the region). Most of the system is located at altitudes between 1800 and 3000 masl in the highlands and mountains of Ethiopia. Smaller areas are found in Eritrea, Lesotho, Angola, Cameroon and Nigeria, generally in subhumid or humid agro-ecological zones. Average population density is high and average farm size is small (1 to 2 ha). Cattle are numerous (estimated population of 17 million) and are kept for plowing, milk, manure, bridewealth, savings and emergency sale. Small grains such as wheat and barley are the main staples, complemented by peas, lentils, broad beans, rape, tef (in Ethiopia) and Irish potatoes. The main sources of cash are from the sale of sheep and goats, wool, local barley beer, Irish potatoes, pulses and oilseeds. Some households have access to soldiers' salaries (Ethiopia and Eritrea) or remittances (Lesotho), but these mountain areas offer few local opportunities for off-farm employment. Typically there is a single cropping season, although some parts of Ethiopia have a second, shorter season. There are major problems in the farming system: for instance, soil fertility is declining because of erosion and a shortage of biomass; and cereal production is suffering from a lack of inputs. There is, however, considerable potential for diversification into higher-value temperate crops.Household vulnerability stems mainly from the risky climate: early and late frosts at high altitudes can severely reduce yields, and crop failures are not uncommon in cold and wet years. As with other food-crop based farming systems, a hungry season occurs from planting time until the main grain harvest. Poverty incidence is moderate to extensive -in comparison with other systems in Africa -except for the periodic droughts which afflict the Horn of Africa 12 . The potential for poverty reduction and for agricultural growth potential is only moderate.This farming system is situated in, and extends from, Sierra Leone to Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon, typically in the moist subhumid and humid agroecological zones. The area is bounded by the Tree Crop and Forest Based Farming Systems on the southern, wetter side and by the Cereal-Root Crop Mixed Farming System on the northern, drier side. There is a similar strip in Central and Southern Africa, on the south side of the forest zone -in Angola, Zambia, Southern Tanzania and Northern Mozambique -and a small area in Southern Madagascar. The system accounts for 282 million ha (around 11 percent) of the land area of Sub-Saharan Africa, 28 million ha (16 percent) of the cultivated area and 44 million (11 percent) of the agricultural population. Rainfall is either bimodal or nearly continuous and risk of crop failure is low. The system contains around 17 million cattle.The prevalence of poverty is limited to moderate. Agricultural growth potential and poverty reduction potential are moderate; technologies for this system are not yet fully developed. Nonetheless, market prospects for export of oil palm products are attractive, urban demand for root crops is growing, and linkages between agriculture and off-farm activities are relatively better than elsewhere.This farming system extends from Guinea through Northern Côte d'Ivoire to Ghana, Togo, Benin and the mid-belt states of Nigeria to Northern Cameroon; and there is a similar zone in Central and Southern Africa. It accounts for 312 million ha (13 percent) of the land area of Sub-Saharan Africa -predominantly in the dry subhumid zone -31 million ha (18 percent) of the cultivated area and supports an agricultural population of 59 million (15 percent of the region). Cattle are numerous -some 42 million head. Although the system shares a number of climatic characteristics with the Maize Mixed System, other characteristics set it apart, namely; lower altitude, higher temperatures, lower population density, abundant cultivated land, higher livestock numbers per household, and poorer transport and communications infrastructure. Although cereals such as maize, sorghum and millet are widespread, wherever animal traction is absent root crops such as yams and cassava are more important than cereals. Intercropping is common, and a wide range of crops is grown and marketed.The main source of vulnerability is drought. Poverty incidence is limited, numbers of poor people are modest and the potential for poverty reduction is moderate. Agricultural growth prospects are excellent and, as described in the relevant section below, this system could become the bread basket of Africa and an important source of export earnings.This farming system is the most important food production system in East and Southern Africa, extending across plateau and highland areas at altitudes of 800 to 1500 masl, from Kenya and Tanzania to Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho 13 . It accounts for 246 million ha (10 percent) of the land area, 32 million ha (19 percent) of the cultivated area and an agricultural population of 60 million (15 percent of the Sub-Saharan African total). Climate varies from dry subhumid to moist subhumid. The most typical areas have monomodal rainfall, but some areas experience bimodal rainfall.Population density is moderately high and average farm sizes are rather modest -often less than two ha. The farming system also contains scattered irrigation schemes, but these are mostly small-scale and amount to only six percent of the irrigated area in the region. Where a bimodal rainfall pattern occurs farmers have two cropping seasons, but in drier areas they usually harvest only once a year from a given field. The main staple is maize and the main cash sources are migrant remittances, cattle, small ruminants, tobacco, coffee and cotton, plus the sale of food crops such as maize and pulses. About 36 million cattle are kept for plowing, breeding, milk, farm manure, bridewealth, savings and emergency sale. In spite of scattered settlement patterns, community institutions and market linkages in the maize belt are relatively better developed than in other farming systems.Socio-economic differentiation is considerable, due mainly to migration, and the whole system is currently in crisis as input use has fallen sharply due to the shortage of seed, fertiliser and agro-chemicals, plus the high price of fertiliser relative to the maize price. As a result, yields have fallen and soil fertility is declining, while smallholders are reverting to extensive production practices. The main sources of vulnerability are drought and market volatility. There is a moderate incidence of chronic poverty, linked to small farm size and absence of draught oxen and migrant remittances. Recently transitory poverty has sharply increased as a result of retrenchment of off-farm workers coupled with policy reforms affecting maize. In spite of the current crisis, long term agricultural growth prospects are relatively good and the potential for reduction of poverty is high.This farming system occupies 198 million ha (8 percent) of the land of Sub-Saharan Africa, generally in the semiarid zone of West Africa from Senegal to Niger, and in substantial areas of East and Southern Africa from Somalia and Ethiopia to South Africa. It has an agricultural population of 33 million (8 percent) and their density is modest, but pressure on the limited amount of cultivated land is very high. Crops and livestock are of similar importance. Nearly 22 million ha are used for crops -12 percent of the cultivated land in the region. Rainfed sorghum and pearl millet are the main sources of food and are rarely marketed, whereas sesame and pulses are sometimes sold. Land preparation is by oxen or camel, while hoe cultivation is common along riverbanks. The system contains nearly 25 million head of cattle as well as sheep and goats. Livestock are kept for subsistence (milk and milk products), offspring, transportation (camels, donkeys), land preparation (oxen, camels), sale or exchange, savings, bridewealth and insurance against crop failure. The population generally lives permanently in villages, although part of their herds may continue to migrate seasonally in the care of herdboys. The main source of vulnerability is drought, leading to crop failure, weak animals and the distress sale of assets. Poverty is extensive, and often severe. The potential for poverty reduction is only moderate. Agricultural growth potential is also modest and presents important challenges. This farming system, generally intermediate between the rice-wheat plains of the lowlands and the sparsely populated high mountain areas above, extends across the entire length of the Himalayan range, from Afghanistan to the extreme northeast of India, as well as in isolated areas of Kerala and Central Sri Lanka. Major products include cereals, legumes, tubers, vegetables, fodder, fodder trees, orchards and livestock. Total system area is 65 million ha with an estimated 19 million ha -about 29 percent -under cultivation. While most cultivated land is rainfed, an estimated 2.6 million ha, or 14 percent, is irrigated. There are about 45 million bovines and 66 million small ruminants. Of the total human population of 82 million, nearly 53 million are classified as agricultural. The prevalence of poverty, which is aggravated by remoteness and the lack of social services, is rated between moderate and extensive.This farming system is dominated by intensive wetland rice cultivation12 by farmers and sharecroppers in fragmented fields with or without irrigation. Of the total system area of 36 million ha, an estimated 22 million ha -or more than 60 percent -is under cultivation. Some 10 million ha, or 43 percent of the cultivated area, is irrigated. Of the total system population of 263 million inhabitants, 130 million are classified as agricultural (17 percent of the South Asian total). The system is concentrated in Bangladesh and West Bengal, but smaller areas are found in Tamil Nadu and Kerala States of India, and Southern Sri Lanka. The system contains 50 million bovines, used for draft power, milk and manure, and considerable number of small ruminants. Poor farmers operate extremely small areas, and rely on off-farm income for survival. Poverty is extensive and also quite severe.Characterised by a summer paddy crop followed by an irrigated winter wheat crop (and sometimes also a short spring vegetable crop), the Rice-Wheat Farming System forms a broad swathe across Northern Pakistan and India, from the Indus irrigation area in Sindh and Punjab, across the Indo-Gangetic plain to the northeast of Bangladesh. Total system area is 97 million ha with an estimated 62 million ha -more than 60 percent of the land of the system -under cultivation. An estimated 48 million ha, or 78 percent of the cultivated area, is irrigated. The system has a significant level of crop-livestock integration, with an estimated 119 million bovines which produce draft power and milk, as well as manure for composting. Around 73 million small ruminants are kept, principally for meat. Of the total system population of 484 million people, 254 million are classified as agricultural. The Rice and Rice-Wheat Farming Systems together contain 40 percent of the cultivated land in South Asia and produce the bulk of the marketed foodgrains that feed the cities and urban areas of South Asia. This farming system is found in moist and dry subhumid agro-ecological zones in Central-Northern China and restricted areas of Mongolia. Total system area is 99 million ha, with an agricultural population of 162 million. Cultivated area is 31 million ha, of which about onethird is irrigated. The transitional boundary between this system and the Lowland Rice Farming System in Central-Eastern China is not easily defined, and the system also blends into the Extensive Cereal-Livestock Farming System of Southern Siberia and parts of Central Asia (in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia region) Major crops are wheat and maize, with smaller areas of rice, cotton, soybeans, sweet potato and rape -depending on local temperature and water conditions -as well as citrus and some temperate fruits. Livestock are important, particularly cattle, pigs and poultry. The prevalence of poverty is moderate.This farming system is found in upland and hill landscapes of moderate altitude and slope, in humid and subhumid agro-ecological zones. Total system area is 314 million ha, with an agricultural population of 310 million -the second most populous system, after Lowland Rice, in the region. Cultivated area is 75 million ha of which just under one quarter are irrigated. This is the most widespread and most heterogeneous farming system in the region (even including some remnant shifting cultivation), with major areas located in all countries of East and Southeast Asia. The system is characterised by the cultivation of a wide range of permanent crops, but the specific crops preferred depend on geographic area, agro-climatic conditions, slope, terracing and water regime. A significant crop area -mainly rice -is irrigated from local streams and rivers. Livestock production is an important component of most farm livelihoods (there are 52 million large ruminants and 49 million small ruminants in this system) and contributes draught power, meat, cash income and savings. Off-farm work is an important source of income for many poor households. Poverty is extensive, varying in severity from moderate to very severeThis farming system is found in both humid and moist subhumid agro-ecological zones in well-watered mainly flat landscapes. It covers an estimated 197 million ha and, with an agricultural population of 474 million, it is the most populous system in the region. Cultivated area is 71 million ha, of which about 45 percent are irrigated. Large areas of this system are found in Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, South and Central East China, Philippines and Indonesia. Smaller areas are located in Cambodia, Korea DPR, Republic of Korea, Laos DPR and Malaysia. The farming system is dominantly rice-based, with cropping intensity dependent on rainfall distribution, length of growing season and the availability of supplementary irrigation. Important subsidiary crops include oilseeds, maize, root crops, soybeans, sugarcane, cotton, vegetables and fruits in all areas, while wheat is significant in Central East China. Both livestock and off-farm income contribute to household livelihoods. Regional food security depends upon the production from this system. The prevalence of poverty is moderate overall, although it is extensive in Myanmar and Cambodia. Stretching from Central Mexico to the Panama Canal and with an estimated agricultural population of about 11 millionincluding a substantial indigenous population -this system covers 65 million ha and is historically and culturally based upon the production of maize and beans for subsistence. Although there are 2.4 million ha of irrigation within the system (40 percent; the highest concentration of irrigation outside the irrigated farming system), the historical loss of the better valley lands to nonindigenous settlers and commercial operations has led to extensive and severe poverty and serious land degradation in many hillside areas.The Delphi Method is based on a structured process for collecting and synthesising knowledge from a group of experts by means of a series of questionnaires accompanied by controlled opinion feedback (Adler and Ziglio 1996). The questionnaires are presented in the form of an anonymous and iterative consultation procedure, generally, by means of surveys (postal and/or e-mail).The Delphi Method originated as part of a post-war movement towards forecasting the possible effects of technology development in relation to economic and social re-generation. Such forecasting has to confront and overcome uncertainty, as well as reconcile diverse sources of information. The Delphi method was designed to 'align' the sometimes conflicting positions of experts into a coherent and unified perspective.The technique is relatively simple. It consists of a series of questionnaires sent to a preselected group of experts. These questionnaires are designed to elicit and develop individual responses on a specified issue and to enable the experts to refine their views as the group's work progresses. The rationale behind the Delphi method is to address and overcome the disadvantages of traditional forms of 'consultation by committee', particularly those related to group dynamics.Delphi is primarily used to facilitate the formation of a group judgment (Helmer 1977). It developed in response to problems associated with conventional group opinion assessment techniques, such as Focus Groups, which can create problems of response bias due to the dominance of powerful opinion-leaders (Wissema 1982). It may be used in forward planning to establish hypotheses about how scenarios are likely to develop, and on their socioeconomic implications. For example, it has been widely used to generate forecasts in technology, education, and other fields (Cornish 1977). Fundamentally, the method serves to shed light on the evolution of a situation, to identify priorities or to draw up prospective scenarios.Although the approach was originally developed to capture expertise in uncertain and emergent domains, it tends to be used in evaluation when significant expertise exists on the subject, for example in the case of programmes that are not innovative. The method is recommended when the questions posed are simple (a programme with few objectives, of a technical nature) and for the purpose of establishing a quantitative estimation of the potential impacts of an isolated intervention (e.g. increase in taxes or in the price of energy). It is also recommended in an ex ante evaluation context if the evaluation concerns public intervention of a technical nature. Thus, it was very often used in the framework of energy policies, for example, for prospective studies on the impact of changes in taxation. In the case of the evaluation of Structural Funds, the Delphi inquiry has been recommended for obtaining macro-economic estimations when the phenomena involved are complex; for example, to quantify the impact of a major infrastructure project. It may also be used to specify relations of causes and potential effects in the case of innovative interventions. It is particularly useful and respondent reactivity in the questionnaires used for data collection; difficulty in assessing the degree of expertise held by participating experts (Makridakis and Wheelright 1978).A major problem identified by research into the implementation and application of Delphi surveys has been the tendency for experts to over-simplify particular issues, and treat them as isolated events. This is particularly the case in forecasting, where experts tend to think in terms of linear sequential events, rather than applying a holistic view that involves complex chains and associations. This has led to the development of techniques such as 'cross impact matrix forecasting', which are intended to compare a range of 'possible futures' against each other, and to consider the displacement, substitution and multiplier effects associated with the scenarios identified by the experts involved (Gordon and Hayward 1968;Gatewood and Gatewood 1983;Adler and Ziglio 1996).On the other hand, there have been several studies (Ament 1970;Wissema 1982;Helmer 1983) supporting the Delphi method. These studies seem to suggest that in general, the Delphi method is useful to explore and unpack specific, single-dimension issues. There is less support for its use in complex, multi-dimensional modeling. In these cases, the evidence does suggest that data gathered by Delphi surveys is a useful input, when supported by data gathered from other sources, to complex scenario-building. Many panelists offered additional comments, for example when they were asked to provide their opinion on the links between maize yield improvement and poverty reduction on small farms with particular emphasis on the farming system that they knew well. Naturally, all these comments were directed towards small farm systems which were found in areas where poverty was common. Quite a number of panelists stated that there was a very strong link between maize yield improvement and poverty reduction, although generally without providing concrete supporting evidence. However, a few panelists made carefully considered responses which addressed not only what the main ways in which maize production needed to be changed in order to contribute to poverty alleviation but also how research and extension might be improved to develop more relevant and sustainable outputs. Some of these comments related to specific systems, but many were relevant to maize based systems in general. These are some of the themes (not in any priority order) that emerged from these comments are presented for general information, with out endorsement, rebuttal or elaboration by the assessment team, as follows:-It was pointed out that the availability of new, high yielding varieties (not only hybrids) is widely known, but many are still not accessible to poorer farmers. Moreover, cost and price controls remain a problem for many.There was wide evidence to shown that nitrogen was severely limiting in many soils. One approach might be to develop maize varieties that had greater nitrogen use efficiencyThe Latin American farming system illustrates an example of a deeply embedded, old, intercropping system with beans and other legumes that complement maize production. This has not yet happened in many areas in which maize has been an introduced crop over the past 300 years and yet it might be one key to improved productivity, particularly in Africa and wherever soil fertility is a continuing problem. The recognition of a systems perspective among professionals who are engaged in maize system improvement is still weak and this slows the understanding of what might be possible with linked changes to complex systems. Adaptation to more extreme environments or climate change Changing climate, particularly in relation to increasing droughts and in Asia, increased flooding occurrences, presents a major challenge to all those involved in maize production systems. Improving the stability and productivity of maize that will perform in increasingly hostile environments can make a major contribution to the alleviation of poverty.One panelist pointed out that where small farmers were highly dependent on farming for their livelihoods, yield improvement of maize could have a major effect on poverty alleviation and food security. However, wherever families had diversified their livelihoods and income sources from employment outside agriculture, maize improvement might only make a marginal difference to income, but might improve food security significantly.Access to seeds and other inputs remains a major issue with poorer farming people. This might involve transport, costs and the absence of credit.There is evidence, particularly in Asia, that there are growing markets for maize as feed for livestock. Crop improvers need to recognize and study this opportunity along with others that present themselves such as fodder and intercropping types.There is still some concern among many agencies that farmers are not made aware of new technologies and how to access new markets and products that might be relevant to their systemThe long time assumption that farmers of all kinds will \"modernize\" (high inputs, machinery, chemical fertilizers and pest and disease control) in the same way in which farming has changed in capital intensive systems, is still widely held despite much evidence to the contrary. This simplistic approach is not appropriate to many small farm systems. Maize varieties are still required that can fit into complex crop sequences and also be managed by small farmers who have very limited resources. Such systems can be highly productive on small amounts of land.Much of current research is still based on specially constructed environments (research stations and the replication of station environments on farmers' fields). There is a need to reduce on station research and reallocate resources into the context of small farm environments. Partners need to be not only from National Research Programmes, but also NGOs and CBOs who have a greater knowledge and understanding of real environments in which poor people operate. This calls for a continuing transformation of how research is conducted and how relevant research outputs are developed. It again calls for a systemic approach to livelihoods improvement and the need to understand that low yields and poverty are not only related to technical or natural resource limitations, but are they are also interdependent on socioeconomic and institutional contexts.","tokenCount":"9772"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cbd042bf7384385461705a20b295efa8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/65dc681b-1ed3-4862-b142-b1fa990e98ef/retrieve","id":"680506143"},"keywords":["African yam bean","Single Nucleotide Polymorphism","Underutilized legume","Nutrition"],"sieverID":"c2316bd1-4c2d-40da-a576-38c2b36d4d36","pagecount":"3","content":"African yam bean (AYB) is an underutilized tropical legume rich in protein and starch content. This study's aim was to use Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) sequencing to study the genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of nutritional traits. The study was carried out on 137 accessions in IITA, Ibadan. Seeds were harvested at maturity and analysed for protein, oil, and starch using Kjeltec, Soxtec, and Phenol-sulfuric acid assay method. Mixed Linear Model (MLM) was used for GWAS analysis by employing the TASSEL software. AYB protein content ranged from 17.13-27.15%, while the oil and starch content ranged from 0.74-2.27% and 60.58-69.84%, respectively. A total of 3.6K SNP was generated using a high-throughput DArTseq genotype-by-sequencing SNP approach in the AYB population. These generated SNPs were filtered for quality control, and the remaining useful 2.48K SNPs were used for the preliminary GWAS. We identified a promising source of genetic material for important grain nutritional traits that could be used in AYB breeding research. Identification of QTL/gene of protein, oil, and starch will contribute to our understanding of the genetic basis of natural variation in AYB grain nutritional traits.The void between the amount of food supply and the growing human population is now a global threat; and this gap can be bridged by exploiting underutilized food sources. 1,2 Food insecurity and malnutrition are major challenges in Africa which need to be addressed via a multi-sectoral approach. 3,4 In Africa, malnutrition resulting from habitual consumption of diets low in essential nutrients is a significant challenge. Malnutrition in children and adults is characterized by impaired cognitive mental development, belly protrusions, physical stunted growth, poor pregnancy outcomes, reduced productivity, and increased mortality rates. 5,6 Several methods of resolving malnutrition are being employed in Africa. Among these are food import, genetic biofortification, supplement distribution, and dietary diversification. 7 Despite these, there are calls from different quarters for crop improvement strategy to improve the nutritional content of commonly eaten food crops to reduce nutrient deficiencies in sub-Saharan Africa. 8,9 In achieving this, so much emphasis is placed on the major staple crops, neglecting indigenous underutilized low-cost energy-protein legume and vegetable crops, including African yam bean, Cucurbita pepo, Solanecio biafrae, and Telfairia occidentalis. [10][11][12][13] African yam bean (AYB) is an underutilized tuberous legume, indigenous to tropical Africa. It can alleviate malnutrition due to its rich nutritional content. The neglect of AYB is considered a disadvantage as it limits access to cheap protein sources by category of Africans under high poverty and malnourished index margin. 14 The seed of AYB is high nutritional content: protein range between 20% -29%; 50% carbohydrate; 2-5% crude fat content. 15,16,17 Significant variations have been reported for these nutritional contents, 18,19,14 suggesting possibilities for improvement. However, quantitatively inherited traits are controlled by several genes, environment, and interaction between these genes and the environment, 20 rendering them subject to continual change and making conventional selection difficulty. Hence, there is a need for a genomewide level understanding of the genetic basis of variation for these traits for the development of improved genotype. Due to the availability of high-throughput genomic platforms, genome-wide association study (GWAS) has become a standard tool for identifying genes and loci responsible for the quantitative variation of complex traits. 21 Once genes and loci are identified and validated, they could be fixed to provide AYB germplasm with durable nutritional content. There is no study on the identification of Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) for any trait in AYB. This work was proposed as a preliminary study for the identification of putative QTLs controlling protein, starch, and oil contents in AYB. Young leaves of each accession were collected, and genomic DNA was extracted using the CTAB method. 22 The quality of the DNA was measured with nanodrop spectrophotometer and agarose gel electrophoresis and its concentration was adjusted to 50-100 ng/mL in volume of 50 mL before sending them for DNA sequencing. All the 137 DNA extracts were sent for the SNP genotyping using genotype-by-sequencing (GBS) method at Diversity Array Technology (DArT) Pty Ltd, Canberra, Australia. Genotyping characterization was done using DArTseq high-depth GBS technology (https://www.diversityarrays.com/technology-and-resources/dartseq/) and further raw sequenced FASTQ data of each samples were processed using proprietary DArT analytical pipeline (Diversity Array Technology, Australia) and generated total over 3600 genome-wide SNPs in 137 African yam bean accessions.All the 137 AYB accessions were planted in IITA, Ibadan. Seeds were bulked at harvest and analysed for the protein, oil, and starch content. Protein, oil, and starch analyses were performed using Kjeltec, Soxtec, and Phenol-sulfuric assay method. 23,24,25 Correlation analysis was performed using SAS v9.4.Mixed Linear Model (MLM) was used for the preliminary GWAS analysis using TASSEL software. A -log (p-value) of 2.03 was used for the significant threshold. Total generated 3.6K SNPs were further filtered using call rate (≥ 80%), average reproducibility (≥ 95%), minor allele frequency (MAF) (≥ 0.01) and SNP missing data 30% and maintained total 2485 quality SNPs for GWAS analysis of the seed oil, protein, and starch content. The association between SNP markers and quality traits was analysed using Mixed Linear Model (MLM) that provide advantage in association analysis over general linear model (GLM) and avoid spurious association by using population structure (Q) and relatedness kinship (K) matrix as covariates in GWAS analysis. TASSEL software 26 was used for the preliminary GWAS analysis of quality traits of African yam bean and a -log (P value) of > 2.03 was used for the significant threshold to confirm association between SNP and traits.AYB protein content ranged from 17.13-27.15%, while the oil and starch content ranged from 0.74-2.27% and 60.58-69.84%, respectively. The correlation between seed protein and oil was observed to be significantly negative with -0.04953 (Table 1). A total of 3.6K SNP was generated using a high-throughput DArTseq genotype-by-sequencing SNP approach in the AYB population. These generated SNPs were filtered for quality control, and the remaining quality 2,485 SNPs were used for the preliminary GWAS. Out of the 2,485 SNPs used for this study, 405 SNPs aligned with a common bean, the reference genome, while 2,065 SNPs did not align with the common bean reference genome. A total of 50 putative QTLS were observed to be associated with AYB seed protein, oil, and starch content using a significant threshold of -log (p-value) of 2.03 and P-value (< 0.009). Out of the 50 putative QTLs, 31 QTLs were associated with protein trait, while oil and starch content showed 8 and 11 QTLs, respectively (Figure 1). The efforts in underutilized crops for genetic linkage mapping and QTL/gene identification of value traits of biotic, abiotic, yield related, agronomical and nutritional traits are key factor for initiating crop improvement program using genomic assisted breeding tools. 27 The seed protein, oil, and starch are quantitative traits that are controlled by multiple genes and their interaction with the environment. 21 We need to identify the genes responsible for each trait to understand how each of these traits is segregated, 28 hence the GWAS of AYB. The GWAS for AYB seed protein and oil revealed that some QTLs were found on chromosome 1 that aligned on common bean reference genome, while others where unknown because the reference genome of AYB is not available yet.  The identified regions may be of particular interest to geneticists and breeders for the alteration of the seed protein, oil, and starch levels. So far, this is the first and preliminary report on the GWAS on AYB nutritional traits. Research is still on-going to validate the QTLs and determine if the QTLs exhibit genetic stability.","tokenCount":"1244"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"db82b33cd35f311153ae17b7bd208fc8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/24cf13f6-bfe6-4d92-9dc5-2ffd47031900/retrieve","id":"1791166161"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bd5545c9-963e-43ff-9cfc-45c237e9eaed","pagecount":"8","content":"A study of the perspectives of young indigenous men and women in rural communities in Kenya shows that strong institutions for local governance, inclusive decision-making and collective action are key for social equity and climate adaptation. To achieve this, we need to:(1) invest in the capacities of stakeholders to promote locally-led climate and equity initiatives; (2) promote young women's and men's leadership and networks, together with intergenerational exchange of experiences; and (3) build strategies and partnerships that are responsive to locally-identified youth needs.The African Union's Agenda 2063 aspires to capture the development potential offered by the continent's youth. Likewise, but on a national level, Kenya's Youth Development Policy seeks to ensure a socio-economic transformation that benefits the youth. Equitable and inclusive transformation is essential, but how do young people understand social equity and what can decision-makers learn from their perspectives?Listening to the voices of the young \"Youth members in the village are supposed to be the game changers who should encourage more fairness in the village. This is because the youth in the village are the majority.\" Man, 25 years, Cheso village This policy note is based on focus group discussions (FGDs) with men and women, aged between 18 and 25, from Endorois indigenous communities, a Tugen sub-group. Their livelihoods depend on livestock and often include pastoral or nomadic practices. The FGD participants come from three agro-pastoral villages in Baringo County, Kenya (referred to as Korok, Cheso, and Sipkawat, all pseudonyms). The FGDs took place in September 2023 and explored their understandings of social equity and fairness, empowerment, collective action, local governance, natural resource management, and climate adaptation. Listening to the voices of youth is vital if climate change policies are to reflect their goals and aspirations.Baringo County lies in central western Kenya. It has a young population; nearly half are below 15 years. 1  The Endorois, both historically and now, have had to be flexible and innovative to cope with insecure land rights, impacts of climate variability and other rural uncertainties. Investment in social relations and the collective management of resources, while profoundly gendered, have long been integral to Endorois communities, helping to sustain people through hardships and challenges.Testimonies from the young FGD participants highlight how community members' relations and livelihoods are bound to stresses arising from climate change and natural resource pressures. Here's one example:The river dried in 2022 hence leaving the spring as the only source of water. All the members of the village were depending on the spring for water. The pasture lands and the swamp also dried up leaving behind bare land. This brought a lot of stress on the livestock since there was no pasture for them. Hence farmers had to climb trees to cut branches for them to eat. It was during this season that most of the animals died due to hunger.(Woman, 24 years, Korok village).When discussing ideas of fairness, young women and men described the enduring social ties whereby villagers treat one another equitably and, despite rapid change, consult one another and share resources, such as food aid and school bursaries. They referenced circumstances when social equity calls for upholding the principal of equality, and associate equity and fairness with inclusive decision-making and good leadership, which in turn fuels trust and harmony, together with social and economic community development.The youth, especially young men, also feel empowered by their education. However, significant gender inequities emerged. Young men mostly expressed a capacity to shape important decisions in their lives and to participate meaningfully in the economic, civic and political arenas of their villages. Young women's testimonies show that they perceive limited capacity to make important decisions about their lives because of having little freedom, influence, or means to access opportunities.The vulnerable first. The FGD participants agreed that vulnerable community members should be \"considered first\" when aid or other resources become available. According to a 21-year-old woman, her community prioritizes the most vulnerable households, including \"family with large numbers of children and no source of income, or a family who is taking care of an elderly or sick member, or people with disabilities.\" \"[N]obody complains,\" relates another 21-year-old while reflecting on the local custom, \"since it is very clear why that is being done.\"Equality. Study participants' reflections on equity also detail circumstances which call for equality in how people are recognized and treated, and how resources and opportunities are allocated.Other examples of equity include common grazing lands, boreholes, and rivers that all villagers can access equally. In Sipkawat, young women stress concerns for gender equality in their reflections on equity. A 23-year-old community warden and farmer in this group considers equity to require all people to be \"treated the same way … especially men and women, without favouring any of them, especially when sharing household chores, resources, or education opportunities.\"\"If you have a public office you need to serve all people equally,\" states a 25-year-old man in Cheso.Inclusive decision-making. Young people consider equity and fairness to be underpinned by participatory local governance and effective leaders, which in turn fuel greater trust, harmony and support among community members. All groups reference their public community meetings ('barazas') when discussing equity: \"The chief calls meetings and villagers freely attend and are able to discuss issues in the village and come up with solutions and this satisfies everyone,\" remarks a 24-year-old woman from Cheso. Another 24-year-old in this group draws attention to the importance of effective and responsive leaders: \"The chief knows the population of every household. So, the chief prioritizes the most vulnerable and the worst off in the village. In the case of [a household with many children], the chief and his committee decide to give them a little more.\"The FGD participants widely agreed that equity and fairness nurture trust, harmony and mutual support among villagers. However, some of them also described practices that are less equitable and even unfair. Several referred to instances of political favouritism by local leaders who, for instance, channel resources and opportunities to family and clan members or certain groups. They also lament assistance programs that provide insufficient aid and can exclude vulnerable community members thereby fuelling tensions in their village. Moreover, heated debates arose in conversations surrounding gender inequities.All three FGDs with young women referred to laws or expectations that provide for equal treatment of women and men, and they voiced frustration with customs that curtail their freedom to be mobile and manage their own livelihoods. They acknowledge education to be equally accessible to girls and boys and helpful in the \"fight for their equity\" but testify to diverse norms of their villages that constrain women's freedoms whether or not they are well educated.In one focus group the women especially stand out for their numerous testimonies about persistence of restrictive norms that limit their influence, physical mobility, resource control, and civic engagement. According to a 24-year-old mother of two with a college degree:Men in this village believe that women are people who should stay at home and take care of the house. Women are not allowed to move around anyhow and must ask permission first before going anywhere. Even the educated women once they are married their husbands tend to restrict their movement. If you want to go and start a business, the man will start to feel like you are sitting on them [a local way of saying you want to rule them].They just want the woman to stay within the compound to burn charcoal or take care of chickens but not going out to start businesses.\" [There was a lot of agreement with this response.]Others women testified that they generally have little control over the money they earn. In one case because \"the whole family is depending on her for food\". Other testimonies include \"some men even forcefully take money from their wives\"; and the husband \"ends up owning\" the livestock that women care for or even purchase themselves. Nor do women have much room for political engagement: \"Most women cannot get the time to go to those meetings due to the work they have at home. Hence, they lack the space to air out issues that affect them. Most public participation are attended by men; very few women go\" (24-year-old woman).The young men's testimonies, meanwhile, mostly display little tolerance for gender equality.\"Men are the majority in the village; they are the ones making the decisions. And it's supposed to be like that because men are more than women. If a woman makes a proposal, and it is decided that way, then most men will not accept it\" (23-year-old man, Korok village).In Cheso and Sipkawat, some men challenge the fairness of aid, including from government agencies, which targets women while leaving men behind.Box 1. Gendered Ladders of Power and Freedom A participatory activity, entitled \"Ladder of Power and Freedom,\" engages focus group members in rating the capacity of \"most local young women's\" (or men's if a young men's focus group) to make consequential decisions. Step 5 indicates very strong power and freedom to shape their lives; step 1 very little.Participants of the three young men's groups on average rated most young men's power and freedom in their village to be at step 4, or quite strong. The young women's ratings averaged step 2 across the three groups, with many young women testifying to the culture of their village as a key constraint on their capacity to make decisions and to access resources and opportunities in both the private and public spheres of their lives. Both the young men's and women's testimonies about power and freedom reveal young people to be deeply embedded within their families, but in ways that differ markedly by gender.In discussions about their sense of agency and capacity to shape their lives, young men across the three focus groups generally convey this to be high while women observe more modest levels of agency (box 1). Many young people's testimonies about their \"power and freedom\" express the strongly differentiated roles and conducts expected of young men and women in their villages.Testimonies about most common rating on Ladder Power and Freedom, Young men's focus group (left) and young women's focus group (right), Korok villageStep 5 (2 votes)Step 4 (6 votes) Most of the youth in Korok make major life decisions hence they have placed themselves on the 4th rung … They are at a point in life of making choices about careers, a marriage partner, what to do to get daily bread and also what to do in the face of changing climate. (25-year old)As youth we make decisions but not most decisions hence why we are in level step 4. Many of our youth have gone through school so they make informed decisions. (23-year-old)There are those who have power because they are members of the Nyumba Kumi (a national community policing program) and may influence the outcome of some decisions they make. (19-year-old)Step 3 (1 vote)Step 2Step 1Step 5Step 4Step 3 (4 votes)Step 2 (5 votes) Most women are in step 2 because of culture. Culture does not allow women to have a voice in a family or in the society. There is a level that women cannot go beyond when making decision at a household level. For example, they cannot decide if to sell livestock or land but have to wait for their husband. (24-year-old) Women are in step 2 because they don't own any property. They are just there. They just take care of their husband's property; and then the husband sells it and decides whether to give her some money, despite the fact that she has been the one taking care of this property. When it comes to goats, women are the ones who graze the goats and take them to the river to drink water, but they cannot decide about selling it. (21-year-old) We are in step 2 because even when you wish to go back to school to further studies, the husband will refuse. He will say that if you go, the house will be lost, the livestock will also suffer. You end up staying to take care of livestock, which you don't decide anything about. (24-year-old)Step 1The FGDs reflected on the youth's experiences with effective local networks as well as initiatives in their village to manage natural resources and address climate change. Again, clear gender differences emerged, with young men displaying stronger engagement in civic life, which also affords them more opportunities for adapting to climate change.Young men's peer networks. Young men spoke highly of their local youth groups in Korok and Cheso. Korok's focus group contained members of a decade-old youth group that provides savings and loan opportunities and helps members with their businesses.\"When a member wants to do a project,\" explained a 24-year-old farmer and casual worker, \"we first look at the project or business plan they have, discuss this as a group, and then decide whether the member can be awarded the loan or not.\" In Cheso, young men spoke of two groups that provide many benefits to their members and enjoy support from (unspecified) external partners. One, a youth group, is open for all to join and supports members \"to stay on course\" with plans for their lives.Young women's low levels of collective action. Unlike the young men, the young women who joined the study did not report being members of any groups. Yet, they did testify to more and less helpful group-based savings, livestock, vegetable farming, and capacity building initiatives of local women, some of which benefits from external support. Groups have disappeared due to hard times, lack of resources, and members losing savings when a member defaults on a loan.Value of Conservancies (land designated for wildlife, people and cattle to co-exist). Two conservancy organizations (unnamed here for reasons of anonymization) emerged at several junctures of the youth FGDs. The conservancies are managed by community representatives (one-third women) and young people testify to how their interventions are improving management of local land and water resources, protecting wildlife, and investing in children's education.Equitable water management. The youth focus groups also reflected on the local institutions and natural resources which they consider to be the most equitably managed. Four of the six focus groups selected a borehole as most equitable. In each case all community members access these water points for household and livestock needs throughout the seasons. Yet, village boundaries and the distribution of settlements cover extensive territory, meaning that access is very difficult for many villagers and livestock-and especially in the long dry seasons that have become increasingly common.Enduring seasons of scarcity. All the young people report the climate to be unpredictable and refer to the first five-to-seven months of the year as times of limited if any rain. The youth share diverse strategies used to tide over their families and animals until the rains begin. Some village men migrate with livestock in search of pasture and water, others migrate temporarily for casual jobs, often in construction or retail. Some important coping measures pose health risks, strain natural resources, and/or are illicit. Charcoal burning, an arduous and unlawful activity, is identified as a crucial way for securing cash to put food on the table. Depending on the village, either men or women are reported to prepare and sell alcohol; this is carried out privately as it is also illegal. Men's migration, and especially young men's, together with the stress of protracted drought likely contribute to the greater freedom as well as need for women to take up livelihoods traditionally associated with men in their villages. Some local women report moving into beekeeping and honey sales, a domain traditionally associated with men.The Kenya Youth Development policy 2 recognizes the \"need for inter-generational and intra-generational conversations between the youth and elders in society for exchange of ideas on cultural values and mentorship\". Our recommendations take this whole-of-community approach. Our analysis has built on the conclusions from the FGDs in Baringo County, meaning they account for youth concerns raised in these specific contexts. But the recommendations may also hold relevance for investing in climate adaptation and social equity more widely in indigenous communities of rural Kenya and elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. The initiative encourages participants to explore their own power to identify risks and take actions to ease them.• Multi-stakeholder planning. Diverse community representatives, including youth leaders, should unite in a local planning and experience-sharing platform that enables equal participation of all.Stakeholder and risk mapping exercises can help to build a shared understanding of existing challenges and opportunities, and support locally led adaptation planning that strengthens equity, resilience and young women's and men's leadership.• Water infrastructure. Water needs emerged repeatedly in the youth testimonies. Participatory needs assessment and risk mapping with diverse community members can inform types, locations, and maintenance needs for investment.• Forums for local solutions to climate change.Forums that provide opportunities for local networks and leaders, including young women and men, to learn about successful adaptation initiatives, and how to scale up and improve them.• Networks for mentoring across generations to ensure that knowledge about indigenous ways of life is retained and contributes to strengthening recognition, dignity, and resilience into the future.• Learning and development partnerships in remote communities to encourage and advise on community-led adaptations that advance equity. These partnerships should engage local actors from public, private, and civic sectors, such as leaders from faith-based institutions, food-for-work and environmental initiatives, and producer networks.• Political and civic forums providing opportunities for youth. Forums that promote and inspire leadership and representation from different ethnic groups and ages to ensure that governance processes, policy strategies and programmes include young women's and men's goals and aspirations. ","tokenCount":"2929"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"77d032a72286dfd462be39e175feb186","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/db22bcd6-0a3e-4450-88aa-64fb095df7bf/retrieve","id":"-1568492913"},"keywords":["NIRS assisted stratified sampling","normal distribution","derivatives and gaps","calibration","validation","brown rice"],"sieverID":"a7c036ba-d789-4f2c-83b3-e0844fa1a9f8","pagecount":"10","content":"Germplasm variability-assisted near infrared reflectance spectroscopy chemometrics to develop multi-trait robust prediction models in rice.Rice is a major staple food across the world in which wide variations in nutrient composition are reported. Rice improvement programs need germplasm accessions with extreme values for any nutritional trait. Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) uses electromagnetic radiations in the NIR region to rapidly measure the biochemical composition of food and agricultural products. NIRS prediction models provide a rapid assessment tool but their applicability is limited by the sample diversity, used for developing them. NIRS spectral variability was used to select a diverse sample set of 180 accessions, and reference data were generated using association of analytical chemists and standard methods. Different spectral pre-processing (up to fourth-order derivatization), scatter corrections (SNV-DT, MSC), and regression methods (partial least square, modified partial least square, and principle component regression) were employed for each trait. Best-fit models for total protein, starch, amylose, dietary fiber, and oil content were selected based on high RSQ, RPD with low SEP(C) in external validation. All the prediction models had ratio of prediction to deviation (RPD) > 2 amongst which the best models were obtained for dietary fiber and protein with R 2 = 0.945 and 0.917, SEP(C) = 0.069 and 0.329, and RPD = 3.62 and 3.46. A paired sample t-test at a 95% confidence interval was performed to ensure that the difference in predicted and laboratory values was non-significant.Rice (Oryza sativa) is the major staple food for nearly 50% of population of the world, primarily in Asia and Africa, where it is highly cultivated and consumed. Particularly, south-eastern Asian countries have a heavy dependence on rice, while trends in Africa also reflect a continuous increase in rice consumption. In 2019, globally, 755,473,800 tonnes of rice were produced of which nearly 90% (677,276,789 tonnes) were produced in Asia, where major producers from China (211,405,211 tonnes) and India (177,645,000 tonnes) together contributed to nearly 50% of world rice production (1). In India, it is grown in more than one-fifth of the total gross cropped area (43,388,000 hectares) and contributes to 689 kcal/capita per day of food supply.Rice is a significant contributor of food and nutrient to a major population of the world and is therefore used in the preparations of different culinary with wider applications in food industry than in any other grain. The massive consumption of rice as a major staple food has shown a strong association with high incidences of diabetes, protein-energy malnutrition, and deficiencies for iron, iodine, and vitamin A (2). Out of 10 countries having the largest diabetic population, rice is a major staple food in six of them (3). Amylose, fat, and fiber contents influence the glycemic response that makes it essential to identify rice with high protein, fat, and dietary fiber with different levels of amylose content (AC;4). Enrichment of rice for protein and limiting glycemic index would have a significant impact on major health challenges of rice-eating population.World over efforts are being made to improve the quality of major staple foods, as that can have a major impact on improving the nutritional status of vulnerable people, who draw major calorie needs from them. Healthy rice is suggested to have an increased proportion of dietary fiber, amylose, phospholipids, and protein (5). Diversity in nutrient composition in rice germplasm collections can play an important role in selecting nutri-dense varieties with utility for different food formulations. However, global germplasm collections for rice are huge where International Rice Research Institute alone maintains more than 132,000 accessions. Thus, conventional methods of estimation for different nutrients are not appropriate for evaluating them as they not only require very high input cost for laboratory instrumentation, reagents and chemicals, technically skilled analyst, and high consumption of power but are also highly time-consuming.Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) is a widely used technique for the non-destructive, fast, and robust analysis Abbreviations: AOAC, association of analytical chemists; SNV-DT, standard normal variate and detrend; MSC, multiplicative scatter correction; PLS, partial least square; PCR, principle component regression; MPLS, modified partial least square; RSQ, coefficient of determination; RPD, ratio of prediction to deviation; SEP(C), standard error of prediction.of various biomolecules through prediction modeling (such as protein, fat, starch, dietary fiber, fatty acids, amino acids, glucosides, carotenoids, and cyanides) in different food matrices such as meat, fruits, vegetables, grains, and flours (6). Several NIRS-based prediction models have been reported in rice for protein content (PC), AC, fat content, flavonoids, total soluble phenols, antioxidants, and dietary fiber (7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13). These models work well for commercial varieties and market samples but are not suitable for screening germplasm collections where the range of variability is very high. Further, germplasm accessions with extreme value act as a gene source for any trait which is vital for crop improvement programs. National gene bank at ICAR-NBPGR has a total of 106,557 (as per 25 June 2022) rice accessions and thus robust prediction models bearing applicability over extreme ranges are required for screening a large germplasm collection of rice.Models developed on normally distributed data get more learning from middle-range values and fail in performance when tested with extreme value samples. Hence, it is important to follow a sample selection method to achieve uniform distribution frequency in the entire range of variability for each trait (14). Sample selection based on variations in NIR spectral data by the use of statistical methods like Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) enables the grouping of similar accessions (15). Selection of samples from cluster/sub-cluster centers and extreme boundaries provide a diverse set with increased frequency for extreme value samples.Spectral pre-processing is often employed for removing light scattering effects using techniques such as derivatization (feature extraction), standard normal variate and detrend (SNV-DT), multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), and weighted and inverse MSC (16). Spectral derivatization at multiple levels enhances weak regions of spectra and decodes hidden information (17). Prediction model applicability to get near accurate and precise values also depends on the selection of responsive regions by binning (gap intervals) and noise reduction/smoothening by taking moving average (18).Processed and standardized NIR spectra contain multiple variables in the form of reflectance that is regressed with targeted traits. Multivariate regression techniques such as partial least square (PLS), principal component regression (PCR), and multiple linear regression are used to generate robust and effective models. Modified PLS (MPLS) is commonly used in NIR modeling and is considered stable and less prone to over fitting due to the influence of intragroup variations (19).In this study, we have tried to address the limitations posed by normal distribution through NIR spectral-based sample selection for reference analysis and used a combination of pre-processing (derivatives, gap, and smoothening), scatter correction methods, and multivariate regression techniques with the objectives of developing robust prediction models for estimating total protein, starch, amylose, dietary fiber, and oil. Based on hierarchical clustering/sub-clustering of NIR spectral data, our strategy of selecting samples helped in achieving a highly diverse calibration set, and the developed models also performed well for extreme values. These models have the applicability for multiple sectors that include gene banks, food and seed industry, and plant breeders working on improving the nutritional value of rice varieties.Almost 500 accessions of rice landraces were collected from different states of India representing North Eastern Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, Northern plains, Central India, and Southern India to accommodate variability in rice landraces due to evolution in specific niche areas. All paddy samples were oven dried at 60 • C overnight to aid de-hulling using laboratory rice mill model JGMJ8098, where the husk and dirt were separated by an in-built aspirator. The obtained brown rice was homogenized and sieved through a 1-mm sieve in Foss Cyclotec mill to obtain the flour of each sample for further analysis.We have used a novel approach to selecting representative samples based on stratified purposive sampling where the variation in NIR spectral data were based on clustering similar types of accessions. For this, spectral data of 500 samples were normalized using the standard spectra processing method of MSC. Normalized spectra were subjected to hierarchical clustering by Ward's method and using squared Euclidean distance. Main clusters were separated and further subclustered using the same method. Samples from cluster/subcluster center and extreme boundary were taken to form a representative set. All accessions were taken where cluster/subcluster had up to four members. A set of 180 accessions was selected for generating reference composition data with wet chemistry analysis.Five gram of intact flour was scanned on FOSS NIRS 6500 spectrometer equipped with Win ISI Project Manager Software version 1.50 to obtain reflectance spectra. The reference cell (white mica) was scanned before each sample scan to ensure accuracy. Ground sample was loaded in the ring cup with an internal diameter of 3.8 cm and pressed slightly to ensure uniform packing. Each sample was scanned 32 times at 400-2,490 nm at 2 nm intervals, and an average spectrum was recorded for further analysis. The reflectance spectra were expressed as Log (1/R), where R is the respective reflectance. Post scanning the moisture content of samples was estimated to be 9.5-11.9% by AOAC 2005 method 934.01 (20).The total nitrogen percent (%N) was estimated using Foss Tecator 2300 Kjeltec Nitrogen Auto-Analyser, and it was converted into protein percent by %N * 5.95 (AOAC 978.02;21). Total dietary fiber (TDF) and total starch of brown rice were estimated using Megazyme Kit K-TDFR and K-TSTA as per AOAC 985.29 and AOAC 996.11, respectively, (22). The AC was estimated iodometrically using pure potato amylose for standard curve development (23). The total oil content was estimated in completely moisture-free, dehulled grain using pulsed NMR spectroscopy which is based on the relaxation of protons when kept in an external magnetic field. The instrument Newport Analyzer Oxford 4000 and the standard operating protocol mentioned in the United States Department of Agriculture NMR Handbook were used (24).All the estimations were carried out in duplicates to ensure the reproducibility of the results. Suitable standards and reagent blanks were used to ensure accuracy where ASFRM-Rice-2 from PT-8 obtained from INMU, Thailand, was used for method validation and check recovery of protein and TDF, while Total starch control kit (K-TSCK) flours viz. wheat starch, high amylose maize starch were used for method validation of starch. Rice reference materials (BCR-465, 466, and 467) obtained from Sigma-Aldrich were tested for method standardization and validation of amylose estimation. The pulsed NMR-based total oil estimation method is validated using ISO10565:1998 and ISO10632:2000 standard for oilseed and their defatted residues. The instrument was calibrated thrice with reference rice bran oil before the estimation to ensure accuracy of the instrument (25).A unique methodology to ensure uniform distribution of diversity in calibration and validation set was applied. The data of wet chemistry analysis of 180 brown rice accessions were arranged in ascending order for each trait and were divided in the ratio of 2:1 for developing calibration and validation sets, respectively, where every third sample was taken out for preparing the validation set. Thus, two-thirds samples (120) constituted the calibration (training) set, and one-third samples (60) formed the validation (test) set for each trait. This assured that both the sets had equal variability in terms of biochemical parameters which lead to the prevention of bias in data subsets.Calibration equations were developed on Win ISI Project Manager Software version 1.50 on the Global Equations program using full spectra. The upper limit for the principal components (PCs) was set at 5, and the components required for the development of the equations were automatically calculated by the software. Multivariate analysis was performed by regressing spectral data with laboratory values. Equations were developed by testing PLS, MPLS, and PCR regression methods coupled with SNV-DT and MSC scatter corrections.The models were developed by performing various mathematical treatments such as \"2,4,4,1\" \"2,6,6,1\" \"2,8,8,1\" \"3,4,4,1\" \"3,6,6,1\" \"3,8,8,1\" \"3,10,8,1\" \"3,12,8,1\" \"3,14,8,1\" \"3,16,8,1\" \"3,16,8,2\" \"4,6,6,1\" \"4,8,6,1\" \"4,8,8,1\" \"4,12,8,1\" \"4,16,8,1, \" and \"4,16,8,2, \" where the first digit is the derivative, second is gap, and third and fourth are first and second smoothening, respectively, (26). Coefficient of determination (RSQ), SEC, SD, and SECV were calculated for developing calibration equations. The generated equations were validated over an external sample set, and reference and predicted values were compared under the Monitor Results program of the WIN ISI software. The best-fit equation was considered qualified as prediction model on the basis of external RSQ, RPD, SEP, bias, and slope values.The reference laboratory and predicted values from validation set were regressed separately to cross-check the RSQ values and were presented in scatter plots using Veusz plotting package software. Further, a paired sample t-test using SPSS Version 17 was performed for predicted and laboratory values to ensure that there is no significant difference between their means at a 95% confidence interval.Apart from RSQ, the accuracy and applicability of prediction models were ascertained by ensuring low SEP and high RPD values (27):where n is the number of validated samples, x 1 and x 2 are the predicted and measured values of the i th observation, and b is the model bias, respectively. These equations give the uncertainty that can be calculated in predictions.The stacked biochemical data of nutritional traits, namely, protein, dietary fiber, starch, amylose, and oil obtained by wet chemical analysis are presented as box and whisker plots along with their respective histograms to showcase nearly uniform distribution frequency and extent of variability in the sample set (Figures 1A,B). The results indicate that broad-based equations generated over HCA-clustered data for nutritional traits have the potential to provide more accurate models. The sample selection method also eliminates conventional wet chemistry analysis of large sample sets, which are used to generate reference values (28).The average NIR reflectance spectrum of 500 accessions of brown rice in the NIR wavelength range of 400-2,490 nm is shown in Figure 2, which gave six major bands at wavelengths 1,196, 1,466, 1,634, 1,904, 2,288, and 2,322 nm. The 1,196-nm band arises due to the C-H second overtone corresponding to aliphatic hydrocarbons. The 1,466-nm band arises due to the O-H functional group from starch, and N-H arises from protein stretching at the first overtone; 1,634-nm band is due to the O-H bending at the second overtone related to water; 1,904-nm band is due to the O-H and C-O bending the second overtone related to starch; 2,288 and 2,322 nm bands are due to the N-H stretching at first overtone relating to protein and C-H bending at second overtone corresponding to oil. Similar bands were observed for PC and protein composition of brown rice flour from Japan (29).Table 1 shows the mean data of protein, fiber, starch, amylose, and oil estimations in brown rice flour by conventional methodology (N = 120), which was used as the reference values to train the model (calibration). All of the three regression algorithms (MPLS, PLS, and PCR) and different preprocessing methods including MSC, weighted MSC, inverted  An average NIRS reflectance spectrum of brown rice flour after 32 scans with five major bands corresponding to vibrations due to respective functional groups.   Frontiers in Nutrition 06 frontiersin.org MSC, and SNV-DT were tested (data not shown), and the best results were obtained by the combination of MPLS and SNV-DT. Results of internal cross-validation of calibration set with developed equation were in good agreement, except for a few outliers (≤10), which may occur because of sample scanning or analytical errors. Such samples generate outlying reflectance spectra and come as a common outlier across the traits, and thus were removed. Hence, a slight shift in the established calibration range after internal cross-validation was observed. Table 2 shows the established calibration range of training set after the removal of outliers, which were 7.33-13.9% for protein (3 PCs), 4.43-5.85% for TDF (3 PCs), 67-80% for starch (5 PCs), 7.56-30.7% for amylose (5 PCs), and 3.05-7% for oil (4 PCs). This predicts that there is no significant difference between the reference and predicted values (at 5% confidence level); t, test statistic; DF, degrees of freedom; and p, probability of attaining results under the null hypothesis.Different combinations of derivative, gap, and smoothening gave the best performance for each trait. Out of many permutations and combinations used, the finalized treatments identified based on performance in external validation were 4,8,8,1 for protein and oil, 3,16,8,2 for dietary fiber, 4,6,6,1 for starch, and 2,8,8,1 for amylose based on high RSQ, low SD, and SEC(V) values. Scattering effects of the sample are usually compensated in the calibration by using only first and second derivatives. Whereas derivatization up to third and fourth order enhanced weak bands that are not prominent in the average spectrum and helped in establishing good regression with reference data as in the case of dietary fiber, starch, and protein. However, the use of higher derivatives also enhances the non-responsive regions of the spectra resulting in over fitting of the models. This was observed in the case of dietary fiber (data not shown); and therefore, to reduce the impact of nonresponsive regions, the selection of wavelength segments at constant intervals (gap; up to 16) was used to select responsive segments in spectra that provided better results. Smoothening (S1, S2) was employed to reduce the signal-to-noise ratio in the spectral region due to high-frequency perturbations (30).The generated calibration equations were externally validated over a smaller set of samples which also represented almost the entire range of variability (N = 60). Outliers in external validation are often removed to show the high prediction power of developed models but here the external validations were achieved without the removal of outliers to ensure robustness. Based on predicted values, the established validation ranges were 8.15-13.7% for protein [comparable to Bagchi et al. (7)], 4.64-5.55% for TDF [comparable to Longvah et al. (30)], 71.2-78.9% for starch [comparable to Deepa et al. (31)], 9.5-28.94% [wider than that reported by Bagchi et al. (7)] for amylose, and 3.72-6.89% for oil [consistent with Abubakar et al. (32)], which show a good agreement with the calibration ranges (Table 3). The best-fit models were selected on the basis of coefficients of determination such as RSQ, RPD, slope, and bias values. RSQ value defines the correlation between the predicted and reference values around the straight line, which determines the validity and accuracy of prediction. It was observed that high RSQ values were obtained for each trait as 0.945 for dietary fiber, 0.917 for protein, 0.835 for oil, and 0.820 and 0.822 for starch and amylose, respectively. Similar RSQ value of 0.85 for predicting AC of Japanese brown rice has been reported (33). Prediction models have been established for estimating fat content in Chinese brown rice cultivars with RSQ value of 0.80 (34). A similar validation range of 7-12.6% and RSQ of 0.941 was given for the PC of brown rice (9,35). RSQ value of 0.967 was reported for TDF in Korean brown rice (13); however, our study seems to be the first report on NIRS-based prediction models for TDF in Indian brown rice landraces. Previously reported models also have high RSQ values but they are majorly validated on samples bearing value close to the mean, which limits their usability to general market samples and is not suitable for germplasm resources. The regression plots between the reference and the predicted values for protein, fiber, starch, amylose, and oil are given in Figures 3A-E, respectively.Apart from high RSQ values, RPD value also governs the prediction accuracy of the models. RPD is defined as the ratio of prediction to standard deviation of reference values, where RPD < 1.0 indicates very poor model/predictions with no recommended use; RPD between 1.0 and 1.4 indicates poor predictions where only high and low values are distinguishable; RPD between 1.4 and 1.8 indicates fair predictions which may be used for assessment and correlation; RPD values between 1.8 and 2.0 indicates good predictions where quantitative predictions are possible; RPD between 2.0 and 2.5 indicates very good, quantitative predictions, and RPD > 2.5 indicates excellent predictions (36). Our results exhibited RPD value > 2 for each trait as for starch (2.12), amylose (2.36), and oil (2.39) indicating their usability in screening large collections and quantitative predictions. RPD value > 3 was observed for protein (3.46) and TDF (3.62) indicating that the model is providing results that are at par with wet chemical analysis. Similar RPD values of 3.76 and 2.42 were observed for PC and AC in Kadus rice from Iran (37), respectively.The slope represents a change in predicted values with a unit change in reference values. An ideal slope value should be 1, but any value close to 1 would also represent the accuracy of the model. The slope values in our study are 0.994 (protein), 1.16 (TDF), 0.806 (starch), 0.988 (amylose), and 0.903 (oil), which show optimum accuracy. Comparable slope values of 0.995 and 1.011 have been reported for AC and PC (38), respectively.Biasness is the average of residuals of laboratory and reference values, which also account for prediction accuracy, and should have a value close enough to 0. A negative value of bias relates to underestimation by the model, whereas a positive bias value depicts overestimation by the model (39). The bias values were −0.012 (protein), 0.018 (TDF), −0.024 (starch), 0.120 (amylose), and 0.025 (oil) depicting that the models for protein, starch are slightly underestimating while TDF, amylose, and oil models are slightly overestimating.Table 4 summarizes that the means of laboratory (reference) data are similar to the analytical (predicted) data. The reference and predicted values for all traits were found to be in great agreement with each other as paired sample t-test at a 95% confidence interval gave p values > 0.05. The highest p value was observed for starch (0.859) followed by protein (0.781), amylose (0.777), oil (0.509), and fiber (0.111). A p-value > 0.05 corresponds to the rejection of the hypothesis that the difference in the means of the reference and predicted values are significant confirming the applicability of the models.The present study was carried out to develop a rapid assessment tool for screening rice germplasm collections and develop NIRS-based prediction models for brown rice flour. The developed models are robust with applicability for a wide range of variability in each trait. The best models were developed for TDF followed by protein, oil, amylose, and starch. Stratified purposive sampling based on NIR spectral data provided nearly uniform distribution of samples for the entire range of variability in each trait, including extreme values which ensured proper learning for training the model. The selection of multiple derivatives and gaps contributed to enhancing the model performance by enabling feature extraction and regression with responsive regions. The developed prediction models are useful for screening vast germplasm collections of rice and categorize them for specific nutritional needs and culinary purposes. In the future, models for whole grains are to be developed, which would be truly non-destructive and of direct use for plant breeders and eliminate the requirement for sample homogenization.","tokenCount":"3789"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"529ce8b7717e90105ff3ee6595d9b68b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/29bea5e8-ccb0-43c1-a545-805a57a56726/retrieve","id":"-433587227"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a002cb6f-f687-4b3d-a1ff-dcf5431083f5","pagecount":"2","content":"Le programme de recherche sur l'intensification durable en Afrique pour la prochaine génération (Africa RISING) comprend trois projets de recherche pour le développement qui sont soutenus par l'Agence américaine pour le développement international (USAID) dans le cadre de l'initiative de sécurité alimentaire mondiale 'Feed The Future' ('Nourrir l'Avenir')' du gouvernement américain. Ces trois projets parallèles se concentrent sur la zone de la savane soudano-guinéenne, les hauts plateaux éthiopiens et l'Afrique orientale et australe.Africa RISING cherche à offrir des opportunités de sortie d'une situation de faim et de pauvreté chronique pour les ménages de petits exploitants, grâce à la recherche-action et au développement de partenariats. Notre approche repose sur l'intensification durable des systèmes agricoles dans le but d'améliorer l'accès à la alimentation nutrititive ainsi que de promouvoir la sécurité du revenu, en particulier pour les femmes et les enfants tandis que les ressources naturelles sont conservées, voire améliorées.Les trois projets menés en partenariat sont coordonnés par l'Institut international d'agriculture tropicale (en Afrique de l'Ouest, de l'Est et australe) et l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (dans les hauts plateaux éthiopiens). L'Institut de recherche sur les politiques alimentaires effectue le suivi, l'évaluation et l'analyse d'impact. Chaque projet collabore avec divers instituts de recherche nationaux et internationaux et diverses organisations de développement publiques, privées et de société civile pour des résultats orientés vers la recherche-action participative. Cette collaboration est un défi majeur.Africa RISING vise à identifier puis rendre les technologies d'intensification durables et les pratiques de gestion pertinentes accessibles aux petits exploitants agricoles dans une variété de contextes agro-écologiques, économiques et sociaux. Ces stratégies comprennent :Les méthodes de recherche participatives qui favorisent l'évolutivité et la durabilité sociale des innovations agricoles. Les stratégies incluent une vaste consultation des agriculteurs locaux (en particulier les femmes) durant la conception et la mise en oeuvre des projets, une focalisation sur les technologies sélectionnées par les agriculteurs eux-mêmes et les méthodologies de recherche-action telles que « les essais sur champs et expériences simultanées à petite et grande échelle».L'adaptation locale des technologies éprouvées pour faciliter l'adoption de la technologie. vise les technologies pouvant inclure des variétés améliorées de cultures, des cultures intercalaires ou associées de légumineuses, les plantes fertilisantes, l'intégration de l'élevage ou des légumes, les stratégies de gestion des sols et de l'eau, la mécanisation à petite échelle, Les stratégies de gestion intégrée des ravageurs, les pratiques post-récoltes et phytosanitaires et les systèmes de production de semences locales. Le projet vise à soutenir l'intégration et l'adaptation des combinaisons appropriées de ces technologies de manière à miser sur leurs synergies pour améliorer la productivité de l'ensemble du système.L'accent est mis sur les résultats généraux de développement qui permettent de mieux saisir et apprécier les gains de productivité dans un contexte particulier au sein du système de subsistances des ménages agricoles en général. Chaque technologie est évaluée pour sa contribution non seulement au rendement, mais également aux objectifs environnementaux et de développement tels qu'une amélioration des budgets de la main d'oeuvre pour les femmes, une meilleure nutrition pour les familles, une infiltration et conservation hydriques plus élevée des sols, des revenus plus élevés, l'endurance au marché et aux fluctuations de climat.Africa RISING réunit les compétences de10 centres CGIAR et associés internationaux, locaux et/ou universités internationales, les Etats, les instituts nationaux de recherche agricole, les ONG et le secteur privé. Il vise explicitement à aligner ces interventions sur les priorités du PDDAA à l'échelle nationale et continentale et à compléter les investissements de la mission de l'USAID nationale et développer un modèle de Recherche pour le Développement intégré qui soit évolutive et adaptable.Peter Thorne -ILRI Ethiopie, p.thorne@cgiar.org Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon -IITA Nigeria, i.zeledon@cgiar.org Mateete Bekunda -IITA Tanzanie, m.bekunda@cgiar.org Asamoah Larbi -IITA Ghana, a.larbi@cgiar.org Carlo Azzarri -IFPRI USA, c.azzarri@cgiar.org Simret Yasabu -ILRI communications, s.yasabu@cgiar.org http://africa-rising.net","tokenCount":"622"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ec889705581752c7c5b9df03ebb69437","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/268ec261-432e-4f06-849d-8e7333662677/retrieve","id":"-850209928"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3a277338-f282-45c6-abfa-c271461962f4","pagecount":"4","content":"The livestock sector in Ethiopia contributes a significant amount to the country's economy accounting for about 15% of export earnings and 36% of the agricultural GDP. Moreover, Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa with about 35 million tropical livestock units. Although with the largest livestock population in Africa, Ethiopia has not benefited from its livestock resource to the scale that is expected due to several factors. Lack of a well-established market information system, which provides timely and reliable information across the primary and secondary markets, is one of the main challenges facing the livestock sector in Ethiopia. The absence of timely information to the livestock producers and traders makes it difficult to create market linkages and found to be challenging to increase the off-take rates particularly in the pastoral regions where higher livestock (camel, cattle, sheep, and goat) supplied for export purpose.To overcome these challenges, the use of information communication technology (ICT) is important and plays a critical role in bridging the information gaps on the livestock marketing and early warning related information to monitor the situation in the value chains. It also creates enabling environment to collect the market data in such large country in cost effective ways and reduce paper workloads for the government enumerators. Furthermore, the use of short message service (SMS), web-portal, etc., increases the information dissemination to the stakeholders (pastoralists, traders, government and non-government) in near real time to support the decisionmaking.The national livestock market information system (NLMIS) was designed to collect timely price and volume data from designated national livestock markets across the six regions and two city administrations. The data is then conveyed to the NLMIS server at Addis Ababa using a short message system (SMS) through enabled cell phones and a data coding system. Pastoralists, livestock traders, and other interested stakeholders can then request the price and volume information for specific markets using SMS or through a market information portal http://www.lmiset.gov.et including historical time series data for policy and research. Therefore, the system is expected to enhance decision-making at multiple levels in the livestock trade and improve the bargaining power of sellers or livestock producers to negotiate for better prices and to create a stable market environment in the country. In addition, the system will also help to support the Agriculture, and strengthen the coordination with the regional Trade and Market Bureau or Agency. The project also intended to ensure the will be owned and sustainably implemented by the MoTI at the federal level, while at the same time creating the ownership by the regional bureaus and offices. Furthermore, it enabled MoTI to liaise with each region's office, training them and building their awareness of the NLMIS. Under the aLIVE project the system coverage has expanded to cover 56 major primary and secondary markets and trained 157 government enumerators across Ethiopia.In recent years the use of mobile technology in the livestock sectors particularly in the livestock producing areas or pastoral, the use of mobile phone both for marketing and social interaction has increased rapidly. Given the expansion of the mobile technology infrastructure in the country including in the remote areas the adoption rates have increased significantly. The NLMIS has created an excellent environment for the government to transit from paper-based data collection to mobile using the existing infrastructure.The system uses all types of mobile apparatus, cheap or expensive, both for data collection and accessing market data. The government has been using a traditional method to collect and compile price and volume data in the country which was mainly paper based and not only incurs costs for printing but is also found to be cumbersome for transporting hardcopies from Woreda to Zone and Region. Furthermore, the information doesn't reach to the stakeholders on time to make market-oriented decisions.Werkalemahu Mulugeta is a government extension officer and enumerator based at Babile Oromia, one of the largest livestock market centers. He indicated \"The conventional data collection formats are not easily available, and the cost of printing is expensive.\" He also remarked \"Now, with the help of ICT, the data collection is performed using mobile technology through SMS at the same time the information can currently be easily accessed on a realtime basis using any mobile phone\". Thus, the use of the ICT in data collection has given enumerators like Werkalemahu the advantage to overcome the abovementioned challenges. \"The traditional method of data collection and dissemination in the past has hindered the timely information flow to the intended stakeholders to make prompt, informed decisions. Currently, the MoTI has taken the advantage of the ICT tool such as web-portal including social media, etc., to disseminate the price and volume covering the markets in the NLMIS system. Additionally, the MoTI has begun to disseminate the information through the national media aired on weekly basis reaching the public at large. As the NLMIS system has the capability to disseminate information through a short code using SMS, the information now can be accessed in efficient and cost-effective ways to increase the market linkages and create enabling environment in the livestock sector. However, awareness creation on the overall use of the system requires an increase in the number of users engaging with it regularly with a focus on targeting traders, producers (pastoralists), and other potential stakeholders in the livestock value chains.  ","tokenCount":"881"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"79e5cadc8b65ee57b0acaeb2ea4d991d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/122f6781-8c6b-4f41-a188-dc29dcb8e597/retrieve","id":"1852088735"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2c84b5f3-89ae-44f5-add3-622dc04e1208","pagecount":"20","content":"Dear Reader, As reported in previous issues of this Newsletter, the CGIAR has undergone a change management process aimed at reforming the system. To date, the process has reached substantial milestones. In particular, the Strategy and Results Framework was endorsed, major thematic areas of work have been developed and new governance mechanisms put into place.The Strategy and Results Framework provides the vision for the results-oriented research agenda of the CGIAR. The Framework, prepared as a collective effort by the CGIAR Centers, was presented and discussed during the first Global Conference on Agricultural Research for Development, held in Montpellier, France, in March 2010. The Conference provided a special opportunity to engage with partners and stakeholders of the CGIAR. An estimated 1000 participants gathered in Montpellier, including researchers, policy-makers, farmer representatives, donors and members of civil society from every region of the world. The Conference was aimed at developing a new agricultural research-for-development architecture and reversing the trend of under-investment in agricultural research. A report prepared for the Conference characterized the current agricultural research agenda, of which the CGIAR accounts for only 4-5% of total public expenditure worldwide, as too fragmented and proposed a roadmap to transform it.This broader initiative links closely with the reforms underway within the CGIAR, which put an emphasis on improving development impact, more strategic and effective partnerships, greater accountability among stakeholders, improved aid coordination, and increased human and financial resources for international agricultural research.The Consortium of the CGIAR Centers has now been formally established, with a Consortium Board appointed and the decision on the Consortium Office location currently underway. Progress has also been made toward operationalizing the CGIAR Fund, with CGIAR donors working to finalize the legal framework and agreements. The Consortium and the Fund represent the two fundamental pillars of the future CGIAR, thus clearly separating those who implement and those who fund international agricultural research. The new structure of the CGIAR is expected to become fully operational in 2012.Among the first items considered by the Consortium Board was a set of concept notes that outline research programmes in all major areas of work of the CGIAR. These big thematic areas have been defined as \"Mega Programmes\". The Consortium Board approved 11 Mega Programme concept notes, which have also been externally reviewed before they move forward to full proposal development for submission to (continued on page 20) During Phase IV, EUFORGEN will focus on 1) promoting appropriate use of forest genetic resources to facilitate adaptation of forests and forest management to climate change; 2) developing pan-European gene conservation strategies; and 3) making available reliable information on forest genetic resources in Europe. The work will be carried out through small working groups and workshops instead of the earlier Networks, as agreed by the Steering Committee in 2009. As of June 2010, a total of 21 countries have officially joined Phase IV.EUFORGEN has been finalizing several additional Technical Guidelines for genetic conservation of Mediterranean firs (Abies spp.), Italian alder (Alnus cordata), walnut (Juglans regia), Macedonian pine (Pinus peuce) and European white poplar (Populus alba). It will soon initiate data collection on forest genetic resources for the next report on the State of Europe's Forests, which will be released during the Oslo Ministerial Conference on 14-16 June 2011. EUFORGEN is also preparing its comments to the green paper on forest protection and information in the EU.The EUFORGEN Steering Committee will have its seventh meeting in Vienna, Austria on 16-17 September 2010, to develop a detailed workplan for the next two years. The meeting was originally scheduled for April 2010 but had to be postponed due to the flight problems caused by the volcanic ash clouds across Europe. Further information on Phase IV is available on the EUFORGEN website (www.euforgen.org).A new scientific disciplineforest ecosystem genomics -and its application to climate change and the world's forests have topped the agenda at an international conference held in San Lorenzo de El Escorial (Madrid), Spain, on 9-11 June 2010. The aim of the conference, entitled \"Forest ecosystem genomics and adaptation\" was to present new scientific findings and to look at the structure and evolution of gene diversity at the forest population and community level.The event gathered about 230 participants from 37 countries attending the conference from as far afield as Argentina, China, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam, as well as Europe and North America. The event also attracted a number of stakeholders, users of the knowledge generated by research, invited to join a dedicated stakeholder session for policy-makers, nongovernmental organizations, forest managers and nature conservation agencies.Ecosystem genomics is an emerging field of research linking genetics, genomics, ecology and evolution to study the response of individual organisms and communities to biotic and abiotic influences. In the past decade, genomics has become a sophisticated tool to decipher diversity at the most refined scales. Now there is a growing interest in exploring the functioning of ecosystems and their adaptation to changing environmental conditions, not just in terms of their species diversity but, starting with DNA molecules, studying organisms in the context of ecosystems.The conference, coorganized by the research partners in the Network of Excellence EVOLTREEThe Royal Monastery in San Lorenzo de El Escorial (Madrid) -an imposing architectural backdrop to the international conference venue, located nearby. Photo: B. Vinceti, Bioversity International (www.evoltree.eu), funded by the European Commission's (EC) 6 th Framework Programme for Research, lined up top-notch speakers from across the world and representatives of the EC.The sessions spanned a range of themes from phenotypic variation in different adaptive traits, to novel screening techniques to identify gene-functions, from different approaches to understanding evolutionary responses to environmental changes in trees and associated species to the recent findings on dispersal, colonization dynamics and pollination ecology, which allow formulating predictions on how the changing climate will likely affect the suitable habitat for many tree species. The most recent technological developments, including new sequencing technologies, high throughput genotyping methods, data handling and management applicable to ecosystem genomics were presented. Finally, different options to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change on forest health and productivity were examined.This scientific event showed that our understanding has progressed considerably and we have now available large catalogues of genes that are responsible for determining adaptive responses of forest ecosystems. However, despite the technical achievements more thinking is needed to address some issues not properly tackled yet, such as how genes move across landscapes through different mechanisms of dispersal, facilitating species migration under the pressure of environmental change. Moreover, further use of modeling is needed to be able to project future scenarios, filling the gaps in our knowledge and allowing application of current understanding to forest management.Finally, the event showed that the interdisciplinary nature of research should be further strengthened. The investigation of forest ecosystem responses to climate change requires multidisciplinary approaches and while genetics, genomics and evolutionary biology were well represented in the conference sessions, ecology needs to be better linked to the other disciplines.The stakeholder session, an unusual component within a highly scientific programme, was very well attended. The stakeholders appreciated the serious efforts made since the inception of the EVOLTREE project to engage the end users of the research findings produced. Several topics emerged from the comments of the stakeholder panel members: the need to maintain the genetic diversity and adaptation capacity of existing forests; the need for guidelines on how to use, and possibly move, forest reproductive material in the face of climate change; the growing need for regulatory mechanisms for access and benefit sharing of forest genetic resources; the urge to implement coordinated efforts for the conservation and use of forest genetic diversity at national and international levels; and finally, the need to bring the scientific research findings to the attention of policy-making fora (such as Forest Europe), in a format largely accessible to non-experts in genetics and genomics.The EU funding of the EVOLTREE project will end in September but the dialogue with the Stakeholders will continue. Just before the conference started, the members of the EVOLTREE Governing Board met to discuss long-term durable integration of the common infrastructures established within the four years of operation of the Network of Excellence. Some EVOLTREE partners are committed to carry forward networking efforts through the establishment of a consortium. A dialogue is taking place with the European Forest Institute, which it is expected will become a host for EVOLTREE in the long term.The book of abstracts and other useful materials can be downloaded at: www. ecosystemgenomics2010.fgua. es/.  The programme included 20 presentations in four themes: 1) Pre-breeding in cereals -status and examples of existing collaborations; 2) Breeding goals and needs; 3) Challenges of funding; and 4) Future needs and application.Half a day was spent in smaller groups discussing the future needs and prospects, based on the presentations. In the biotic stress group there was a broad and lively discussion on emerging diseases in cereals. The common interest was found on Fusarium head blight, Ramularia leaf spot in barley and leaf blotch diseases and rusts in wheat. As a first step in cooperation on pre-breeding for biotic stresses, the group suggested that a joint disease resistance database could be built up from various sources and experiences, including e.g. data on plant genetic resources (PGR) reactions to different diseases, and the availability of molecular markers. Such a database could also be used as a tool to identify missing data and the need for urgent complementary research. The group also felt that there was a need for access to joint differential sets and nurseries for the various diseases of importance.In the yield stability, drought and salinity group it was noted that, in the light of climate change, problems due to drought are also increasing in Europe. There is a need to develop phenotype tests suitable for abiotic stress tolerance and to apply them to relevant germplasm. The target on yield stability depends on countries and regional socioeconomic conditions. However, limiting factors are funding schemes, which are not comprehensive enough to carry out activities with a global impact, and a lack of specific funding programmes devoted to pre-breeding. A proposed solution to these limitations was lobbying in favour of prebreeding at EU and national levels, and supporting the establishment of private-public collaboration, where they do not yet exist. The main conclusion of the group was that the breeding aims are more associated with the needs of developing countries, but prebreeding should also become a European priority.The germplasm availability group discussed important Marja Jalli MTT Agrifood Research Finland Plant Protection Jokioinen Finland marja.jalli@mtt.fi initiatives to support utilization of PGR in pre-breeding. These would be: to increase the online availability of characterization/ evaluation data, to combine the \"Focussed Identification of Germplasm Strategy\" (FIGS) with evaluation data to develop precise models, to improve the dialogue between genebanks and breeders, to strive for transparency and build trust in the legal frameworks, and to make genotyping information available where differences in genome regions for adapted material vs. landraces have been demonstrated. However, the lack of feedback to the genebanks and of geographical and environmental information on accessions (quality of information), as well as problems concerning conservation of wild species were listed as limiting factors in the use of PGR. As a solution to these limitations, the group suggested using global unique identifiers (GUIDs, persistent identifiers), proactively contacting germplasm users in order to obtain information and making the best use of the data already available.The fourth group discussed future collaboration possibilities. It was concluded that the stakeholders are genebanks (including AEGIS collaborative partners), plant breeding researchers, the European Seed Association (ESA), farmers' organizations, the Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building (GIPB) and the CGIAR Centres, and that the proposals for collaboration should be framed within the International Treaty or on a regional basis.One of the conclusions of the workshop was the decision to form a task force to produce concept notes on pre-breeding issues. Ten participants volunteered for this and a concept note on small grain cereals is now ready and publicly available on the ECPGR webpage at: www. ecpgr.cgiar.org/Networks/ Cereals/PreBreeding_Concept_ Note.pdf. As commissioned by the Steering Committee at its 11 th meeting in September 2008, an independent external review of the ECPGR Programme will be carried out to analyze its effectiveness in terms of its strategy, priorities, objectives, modus operandi and overall management aspects, including funding mechanism, hosting arrangements and impact for PGRFA in Europe. The independent external review will be carried out in Rome, during the month of July 2010, by a panel of three international experts, Thomas Gass, Marianne Lefort and Orlando de Ponti.In preparation of the review, a Stakeholders' Survey was conducted, the results of which, together with an overview document on ECPGR's current status, issues and future perspectives, prepared by the ECPGR Secretariat, are available for download on the ECPGR homepage (www.ecpgr.cgiar.org).More AEGIS MoUs signed and Grant Scheme launched On the more technical front the Secretariat, in close collaboration with a number of Working Groups (in particular with the Brassica and Forages WGs) and genebanks (IPK, NordGen and IGER), is in the process of finalizing a template that will guide genebanks in the process of preparing operational genebank manuals. This is one of the elements that the Steering Committee agreed upon as being a critically important component of the AEGIS Quality Management System, i.e. AQUAS. It is foreseen that this process as well as the actual genebank manuals will facilitate the generation of the generic genebank standards. The latter will form another important component of AQUAS.One of the next steps for completing AQUAS will be the definition of crop specific standards. The ECPGR Working Groups will be driving this process for each specific crop or group of crops.The designation of the accessions that will become part of the European Collection, AEGIS' main output, is a process that still requires further finetuning and coordination between the respective national programmes and the various ECPGR Working Groups. Obviously this step is fundamental for the actual operation of AEGIS as it provides the foundation for the European Collection.In 2008, the ECPGR Steering Committee in 2008 approved an AEGIS Competitive Grant Scheme with a total amount of €103 000 to be allocated to smaller project proposals that contribute to the implementation and effective operation of AEGIS. The first call for funding under the Grant Scheme assigned three grants for projects aimed at supporting activities that will directly contribute to the establishment and/or operation of AEGIS. The following projects were granted: A project planned by the Brassica WG as an activity for Phase VIII of ECPGR involves the comparison of various populations of wild brassicas in the same environmental conditions, with the aim to establish a core collection of well characterized and diverse wild accessions. The accessions, selected mainly on the basis of their availability and obtained from various genebanks, were observed by the Group in a field on the farm of the University of Catania. It was remarked that these accessions can be very interesting for breeders, since they contain important resistance genes that are not available in the cultivated types. It was therefore decided to organize a \"field demonstration day\" in Catania in the near future, in order to show the wild Brassica project collection to breeders from Europe. The material will also be made available (either seed or freeze-dried samples) to anyone interested in carrying out characterization or evaluation work, and will make the resulting data publicly available.Another project planned by the Group consists in characterizing accessions of B. rapa selected from the BrasEDB. Ninety-seven accessions were selected among the unknown accessions, on the basis of absence of a name or a cultivar group and on the basis of easy availability. N.I.Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry (VIR), Russian Federation, volunteered to carry out the characterization for morphological and phenological descriptors. The selected samples will be requested from the respective genebanks and dispatched to VIR by June 2010.Thanks to major updates carried out in 2005 and 2007, and more recent updates made by taking data from EURISCO, the ECPGR Brassica Database (Bras-DB) contains 23 753 accessions from 55 institutes in 28 countries. Accessions belonging to the core collections defined during the AIR (oleracea) and GENRES (oleracea, rapa, napus, carinata) projects are flagged. Duplicates within B. rapa accessions have been searched, based on name, country of origin and sometimes collection number. Among the 3622 B. rapa accessions, 545 duplicate groups covering 1698 accessions were found. The duplicate search function of the Bras-DB will be extended to B. oleracea by December 2010. Regarding the possibility to extend the Bras-EDB to Raphanus, the group felt that other interesting genera are also not covered (e.g. Eruca, Diplotaxis and Sinapidendron), but the prevailing opinion was that information about Brassica should be improved as a priority before extending the database to other species, also considering that basic information on other species is available through EURISCO.The status of wild Brassica conservation at the Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal -Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (BGV-UPM), Spain was reported by Maria Elena González-Benito. The collection includes 4863 accessions of Brassicaceae, covering 1027 species. Among these, approximately 300-350 accessions are wild relatives of Brassica. In the short-and medium-term, it is planned that the facilities and the data management will be improved. A bar coding system will also be implemented. Regarding the exchange of accessions, transfer agreement documents need to be adapted to recent Spanish laws. Multiplication of the seed is also a priority. While BGV-UPM is working to improve the facilities and the management of the collection, it was suggested that seed requests could be sent to the sites where duplicates are stored. Considering the temporary unavailability of material, the Group agreed to engage in tracking down duplicate samples stored and available for distribution in Europe and elsewhere. A Group Task Force was formed, with the aim of identifying locations where wild (n=9) Brassica accessions are stored in the world, verifying the availability of the above accessions for seed exchange, verifying whether the genepool of wild Brassica can be considered safely conserved in ex situ genebanks or if further collecting is needed, and to identify the accessions requiring multiplication and prepare a detailed time-frame for such multiplication.The proposed steps for the creation of an AEGIS Quality system were outlined by the ECPGR Secretariat, including the presentation of a draft template for an operational genebank manual. The group agreed on the general terms of the proposed workplan and G. Poulsen offered NordGen's availability to test the template, report their experience to the rest of the Brassica WG, in order to reach an agreement on a standard way to fill it in. On the other hand, it was decided to postpone the start of the work on a cropspecific template, waiting for some experience to be gained with the generic standard exercise. The group re-elected Ferdinando Branca (Italy) as its Chair and Noortje Bas (The Netherlands) was reconfirmed as Vice-Chair. The draft report will be available on the ECPGR website.Images from the Avena collecting missions in Sicily and Andalucia. Top: Andreas Katsiotis, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece (katsioti@aua.gr); Ferdinando Branca, (DOFATA), University of Catania, Italy (fbranca@unict.it); Pedro Garcia, University of Leon, Spain (pgarg@unileon.es); and Gideon Ladizinsky, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel (ladizins@agri.huji.ac.il) In May 2010, two missions, one to Sicily, Italy, the other to Andalusia, Spain, were carried out in order to survey and collect Avena populations of A. insularis and A. murphyi, A. hirtula and A. longiglumis, respectively. The missions fulfill the targets set in the AGRI GENRES 057 project \"An Integrated European In Situ Management Work Plan: Implementing Genetic Reserves and On Farm Concepts\" (AEGRO), co-funded by the European Commission, DG AGRI within the framework of council regulation 870/2004, as well as the collecting and in situ conservation priorities set during the Second meeting of the ECPGR Cereals Network in Izmir, Turkey (April 2008 -see NL36 page 8).Avena insularis was first described in 1998 by . This species was first collected around Lago Comunelli in Sicily and later on was also found in Tunisia. During the present trip we visited the areas where this species was initially collected, to survey the population sizes and collect again, as well investigating areas with a similar habitat, to confirm or exclude its presence. Avena insularis is found on uncultivated clay soil, coexisting with Lygeum spartum, and sometimes with A. sterilis (Figure 1, see page 6). In at least four sites around the lake, A. insularis populations were found. One of the sites had a pure (no A. sterilis present) large A. insularis population, while at least two more populations were found in an area fenced in by the Regione Siciliana, Assessorato Agricolotura e Foreste, planted with pine trees. Another population, mixed with A. sterilis, was found at Mt. Giase, also fenced in by the same agency, where eucalyptus and pine trees were planted. A new site with A. insularis was found close to Borgo Franchetto. In areas investigated north of Mt. Etna with similar soil types, no A. insularis plants were found. Thus, it seems that this species is only present south of the Catania-Palermo highway.Andalusia, in Spain, was visited mainly to survey A. murphyi populations and also to check sites with A. longiglumis and A. hirtula. Three years ago (in 2007) A. murphyi was collected in the southwest part of Andalusia, between Tarifa and Vejer. This year the same sites were visited to survey the populations. In at least one case, where A. murphyi coexists with A. sterilis, similar proportions of the species were observed compared to three years ago. Moreover, at least two fields, close to the road going to Bolonia, were found with pure dense populations of A. murphyi, while in neighbouring fields no A. murphyi plants were present (Figure 2, see page 6). In this area all fields are used as pasture land for cows. In the fields where A. murphyi was present the cows are brought in for grazing after A. murphyi sheds its seeds on the soil, thus large populations are maintained. New sites with small A. murphyi populations were located close to Atlantera and Barbate. Another site with this species present was north of Alcalá de los Gazules, a place that was indicated to us during our visit with Guillermo Ceballos of the Consejeria de Medio Ambiente of the Junta de Andalusia in Sevilla. This site is interesting because it is not the typical A. murphyi habitat. None of the sites where this species is found are protected, but with proper management of the pasture land A. murphyi can also thrive in the area, thus recommendations to farmers are needed in order to maintain satisfactory population levels. Avena longiglumis was spotted in the Parque Natural Acantilado, west of Barbate and at the Parque National de Donana, while A. hirtula was present at the Parque National de Donana, in close distance to A. longiglumis plants.The first year's activity of a two-year project funded by the Global Crop Diversity Trust for the regeneration and safety-duplication of regionally prioritized crop collections was concluded in March 2010. The project, jointly prepared by the ECPGR Cereals Network and the Oil and Protein Crops Network, and submitted for funding through the ECPGR Secretariat, is aiming at carrying out regeneration and safety-duplication of over 5000 threatened accessions identified in ten European countries (Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Israel and Portugal). The total grant is nearly US$130 000 and the ECPGR Secretariat is acting as the backstopping agent for the project. As a result of the first year of activities, the 12 partner institutions involved have successfully regenerated 414 grain legume accessions (chickpea, common bean, cowpea, faba bean, grasspea and lentil) and 1522 cereal accessions (Aegilops, barley, maize, sorghum and wheat). Low viability of the samples revealed to be a problem in many cases (especially for grain legumes and wild barley), indicating that the project was timely, if not too late in some cases. All the regenerated samples are planned to be safety-duplicated both at the Svalbard Seed Vault and at a CGIAR centre or at another genebank meeting the international management standards. All germplasm regenerated under the project will be made available and otherwise dealt with in accordance with the terms and conditions of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Suitable regeneration protocols were recommended and the data obtained (passport and characterization) are planned to be made publicly available through international databases. The project was an occasion to raise awareness on the need to use appropriate standard regeneration practices and it has also been able to involve local farmers in the activity and contribute to highlight the richness of certain European collections and the importance of maintaining them. Since the 1990s the Working Group on Forages has been working towards the sharing of responsibilities in conservation and management of European collections. Specific Working Group mechanisms for identifying the most original samples (MOS) and holders of primary collection (PRIMCOLL) have been developed and shaped in order to identify forage accessions for the European Forage Collection (EFC). The present meeting reviewed achievements to date and made important decisions to complete the process to identify the unique European forage accessions and to promote AEGIS goals.The Central Forage Crop Databases (CFCDBs) are the tools to provide information on European forage germplasm to the user community and to identify germplasm for the EFC. The establishment of the EURISCO catalogue has called for the streamlining of the dataflow from national sources both to central crop databases (CCDBs) and to EURISCO. Even though there are still disparities in the contents of national data sources (visualized in the CCDBs) and EURISCO catalogue, the Forages Working Group decided to use EURISCO as a starting point when updating information in the CFCDBs. At the same time the forages database managers should encourage different forage germplasm data providers to enhance the inclusion of the missing data in EURISCO. New data sharing facilities for the specific forage crop data will also be utilized in database management.The second important meeting decision concerned the organization of the CFCDBs. Prior to the WG meeting the number of databases was 24. However, it was decided to merge several of the databases on the basis of the genus and the type of forage crop. This should rationalize the identification of accessions for the EFC and diminish the work load when updating databases. The institutes responsible for the management of the remaining eleven forage crop databases agreed to confirm their responsibility for the respective database.Unlike many field crops, wild forms of common forage European Cooperative Programme for Plant species still exist and they are readily useful for breeding. In addition, conservation of forage crops in genebanks is a costly activity due to their propagation systems For these reasons in situ conservation of forage crops is an activity that the Working Group has decided to promote in order to complement the ex situ conservation work. Beat Boller (Switzerland) presented a solution for database management of in situ inventories. In addition, Lothar Frese (Germany) -leader of the AEGRO project (An Integrated European In Situ Management Work Plan: Implementing Genetic Reserves and On Farm Concepts) -provided insights into the tools AEGRO will utilize for future in situ conservation of crop wild relatives. Several examples on national in situ and on-farm conservation activities were also presented during the meeting.The Forages Working Group, which has many plant breeders as members, emphasized the importance of the inclusion of forage crop specific descriptors and characterization and evaluation (C&E) data in CFCDBs. For the time being, the Working Group decided to observe the ongoing development, within the other ECPGR Networks, of the mechanisms to include C&E data in the CCDBs, rather than setting up its own activities in this challenging task. However, forages database managers were introduced to the present possibilities to include C&E data in the databases and were encouraged to use these possibilities whenever feasible.Overall, the WG meeting was very fruitful due to the excellent local arrangements and also to the active participation of WG members. Inputs from ECPGR thematic Networks and on-going research projects provided cross-fertilization for the future activities in the Working Group. The proposed initiative to create a Characterization and Evaluation (C&E) data repository, as part of EURISCO, was discussed. This will consist of creating a data exchange format that is able to cope with nonstandardized C&E data, at the same time providing a description of genotype, trait, method and experiment. It was noted that a \"road map to the inclusion of C&E data in EURISCO\" was followed up to the stage of harmonization with the Global Information on Germplasm Accessions (GIGA) project, which is co-funded by the Global Crop Diversity Trust, the International Treaty and Bioversity International, and is developing the global gateway to genetic resources called \"GENESYS\" (www. genesys-pgr.org). This process will eventually enable provision of European C&E data to EURISCO and GENESYS. Given the obvious complementarity and relatively small differences between GENESYS and EURISCO, it was considered advisable to let the two approaches converge and a number of action points to take the necessary steps forward in this direction were agreed. Joe Thome (CIAT, Colombia) reviewed the results of HarvestPlus, the project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation on micronutrient deficiencies in the human diet. HarvestPlus deploys both natural and artificially induced variation to increase iron, zinc and provitamin A content in crops. Remarkable results have been achieved via transgenic strategies and marker-assisted breeding. Carmen de Vicente (GCP, Mexico) summarized how, in the Generation Challenge Programme (GCP), advances in molecular genetics have released a new generation of plants, especially for orphan crops. The GCP has developed a molecular marker toolkit, which aims to provide easy access to existing information on molecular markers used in breeding programmes. Additionally, the Genotyping Support Service (GSS) of the GCP offers costefficient genotyping services, both for fingerprinting and analysis of genetic diversity and for molecular breeding.Enrico Porceddu (University of Tuscia, Italy) and Ed Runge (Texas A&M University, US) presented two oustanding programmes (PhD in Agrobiodiversity and Monsanto's Beachell-Borlaug International Scholars, respectively) for training young scientists in the application of genomics to crop improvement. Along this line, an engaging roundtable discussion among experts from the public and private sectors addressed the compelling issue of how to educate the next generation of plant breeders.In the closing presentation, Andreas Graner (IPK Gatersleben, Germany) addressed the future challenges in exploiting plant biodiversity. The vast diversity resting on the shelves of genebanks has only marginally been tapped into. Both the improvement in phenotypic analysis and the generation and deployment of genetic information will be instrumental in more effectively harnessing germplasm diversity. Positional cloning of the genes that underlie agronomic traits will help to unveil their allelic diversity by systematically mining genebank collections for novel alleles. When the access to genes is hampered by low recombination, genetically modified approaches will facilitate the transfer of genes, especially from wild relatives into adapted breeding lines.Details of the Congress and all abstracts are available at the Congress website (www. gpgr2.com). A special issue of the Plant Genetic Resources journal will be published containing the the abstracts and manuscripts from the Congress' invited speakers. The next Congress (GPGR3) will be hosted by Seoul National University in Korea in 2013.The GPGR2 organizers wish to thank the sponsors for their generous financial support, as well as all the participants for their stimulating discussions.to organic farmers' needs. Maintenance and survey of traditional germplasm typical of the different regions, as well as its wild or semidomesticated relatives, can be of strategic importance to ensure a useful genepool for breeding programmes specific for organic farming. Advances in conservation methods have generated new opportunities for genetic resources conservation and use. Both in vitro tissue culture and molecular biology have made available techniques that will greatly aid in the evaluation, collection and storage of germplasm. Seed storage has been the conventional method for plant germplasm conservation at low temperatures. However, some species (clonally propagated crops) can be maintained through field collections. Techniques such as in vitro culture and cryopreservation may represent an alternative for conservation of such species. For animal genetic resources the combined use of embryos and semen for cryogenic conservation of farm mammal genetic resources can be a valid alternative conservation method.The role of biodiversity in the \"Italian Technology Platform Organic Farming\" In January 2009 a discussion forum within INROF was launched, leading to the decision set up an Italian Technology Platform on Organic Food and Farming. Consistent with the indications of EU institutions, the Platform's aim is to gather the needs of farmers, industry and other economic and societal actors and to define a basic framework for establishing priorities and action plans on issues of strategic importance.The Italian Technology Platform on Organic Farming will identify the most promising research lines and prepare a strategic research agenda to be implemented nationally, based on a wide survey on research needs and available results.Several national organizations involved in organic farming and representing the most important Italian research centres, universities, associations and enterprises took part to the Platform start up meeting. The Platform will be a forum open to all actors interested in the development of the organic sector in a systemic view of sustainability, environment protection and rural development. The Italian Platform intends to participate in the development of \"TP Organics\", the European initiative for a Technology Platform on Organic Farming.The safeguarding and enhancement of biodiversity is a priority for organic farming that considers it not only a value per se but an important tool for the implementation of organic farming concepts. It is common understanding that organic farming on the one hand contributes to planned (cultivated species and produced breeds) and associated (the wide range of species that inhabit the farmed area) biodiversity and at the same time benefits from ecofunctional biodiversity (the diversity on and around the farm that delivers prevention services to the crops). Many studies conducted worldwide over the past twenty years have concluded that organic farming can have a significant positive impact on biodiversity at different levels (genetic, species and ecosystems) and with reference to various life forms (bacteria, other microorganisms, plants, insects, as well as small and large fauna, birds and so on). Research has also demonstrated that the positive effect of organic agriculture increases significantly with increased percentage of organic cultivation at the landscape level. As regards \"biodiversity for organic farming\", the extent to which functional biodiversity may be used to improve and sustain yields and quality of organic crops is practically applied by all organic farmers.An important issue to be considered, especially in those countries with an old culinary tradition such as Italy, is the linkage between organic farming and local plant varieties and animal breeds. Raw materials, including local germplasm, with highly specific characteristics, are to be identified and preserved, also for future breeding purposes, in systems able to produce materials that fit Presentations included the application of molecular genetics tools to conservationrelated questions, including surveys of genetic diversity across species' ranges to provide baseline data for defining conservation objectives; identifying species-and location-specific markers for timber-tracking; understanding pollen flow across landscapes to assess impacts of fragmentation and habitat loss; and characterizing chloroplast haplotypes for defining historical migration routes. These molecular genetics techniques do not take full advantage of the growing body of genomics knowledge and emerging technologies, largely because the field of genomics has been focused primarily on knowing \"almost everything\" about a few well-studied commercially important species. The key conservation and livelihood questions, on the other hand, require transferable tools and techniques across a broader array of less-characterized species.Participants in a special session on \"Research initiatives on forest genomics and conservation\" recognized that most genomics research has not yet been developed for conservation purposes and that the genomics knowledge gap between commercially important species in the wealthier countries and tree species important for livelihoods in the majority of the world is immense. Discussion focused on the availability and value of genomics approaches to answer questions such as:1) How can the rapidly advancing field of genomics be applied to reduce poverty and conserve native tree species in tropical Africa and other areas where high numbers of tree species are locally valuable, almost all of them are declining and little is known about the genetics of any of them?2) How can genomics tools be used to understand the genetic status of such species and identify vulnerability of genetic resources and set priorities?3) How can genomic tools increase landscape restoration success by facilitating discovery and use of sources of adaptation within multiple tree species, without the benefit of field trials?Tools and techniques that could be applied to such questions are under development but opinions varied regarding the length of time before they will be useful and the feasibility of transferring specific genetic knowledge across species within genera or, especially, among genera within families.The approach used for the DNA Barcoding Initiative represents the opposite end of the spectrum from genomic characterization of tree species. Barcoding involves identifying one or two genes that are constant within, but variable among, species. The goal is to identify a unique sequence at one or two genes, for each species, so that any biological sample will be easily identifiable. Application of genomics tools to conservation and improvement of livelihoods requires characterization of a discrete set of variable genes that are involved in important known functions across a large number of species. The technology that is needed falls between the typical barcoding and genomics techniques. The idea of using variable well-characterized genes, that are known to be important for survival and productivity, as markers in genetic diversity studies is innately appealing, but there are still significant challenges. For example, how does one decide which traits will be needed for future conditions? A more serious issue is the high numbers of genes involved in almost any adaptive trait, with no way to identify which ones are the most important -yet.Daunting questions remain, but the conference ended in a hopeful vein, with participants noting how far the field has progressed in a relatively short time, and recognizing the power of current technologies. The technological challenges can likely be overcome given the political will to focus attention and funding on conservation and livelihoods in the majority world.The  One of the COST Action tasks was to collect and jointly evaluate data on survival, phenology (spring and autumn), growth increment, health state and trunk as well as branching characters. The data was used to estimate the adaptability of the species to the different environments at the field trial sites. The results show that European beech is generally a plastic species, able to acclimatize well to different site conditions.Among the sites, the survival and growth increment varied strongly depending on site quality in terms of location and climatic as well as soil characters. The variation among provenances gives a complex, differentiated picture, which cannot be explained simply by current regional adaptation patterns or influences of the site in which a provenance is growing. Consequently, at certain sites, some geographically distant provenances are performing unexpectedly well, whereas local provenances frequently are not among the best.The results suggest that a general improvement in growth would result from movement of a provenance north-and westwards by the magnitude of 50 to 100 km. However, interactions between genotype and environment are considerable, which complicate any schematic provenance recommendations.Based on survival and growth increment data, a regional grouping of provenances shows a latitudinal division of two groups north of the Alps, dividing the beech of the low altitude northerly latitude, and the higher altitude beech of the lower latitudes, as well as a western, central and eastern group in the Mediterranean area. However, this grouping is based on relatively few provenances especially in the Mediterranean region, where a grouping in more than the three groups can be expected. The results of this first joint evaluation is presently being collated in a comprehensive Final meeting of COST Action E52 \"Evaluation of the genetic resources of European beech for sustainable forest management\" Georg von Wuehlisch Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries Institute for Forest Genetics Grosshansdorf, Germany georg.wuehlisch@vti.bund.de publication.At an age of 12-15 years, the field trials offer manifold possibilities for scientific study for comparing growth expressions of a set of beech seed sources growing simultaneously at numerous locations throughout Europe. The data is kept in a permanent database at Grosshansdorf, Germany and is available for scientific analyses. It may especially serve to verify predictions about the future distribution range of beech.During the excursion to the beech forests east of Burgos it became evident that due to abandoning of farmland and decreasing animal husbandry, beech is expanding on northfacing sites with favourable soil. However, at the same time damages due to drought were observed, especially on nonadapted provenances at the provenance trial visited.Another output of the COST Action will be a publication on the state of beech genetic resources in Europe, including papers of all countries where beech occurs, giving information on distribution, silviculture, commercial uses, health state, availability of reproductive material, identification of gene conservation units and more.The meeting was attended by 70 scientists and decision makers from 21 countries, underlining the importance of beech in the countries where it occurs. The organization of the meeting was shared among the local forestry divisions of Castilla y León, Burgos, and La Rioja, Logroño, and funding for the meeting and the COST Action E52 was provided by the European Science Foundation (ESF) Brussels.COST is an intergovernmental framework for European Cooperation in Science and Technology and is supported by the EU Framework Programmes. Its objective is to coordinate and integrate nationally-funded research on a European level. This research initiative makes it possible for the various national facilities, institutes, universities and private industry to work jointly on a wide range of Research and Development (R&D) activities. COST is structured around nine scientific domains (eg. \"Food and Agriculture\" or \"Forests, their Products and Services\" among others). The calls for proposals are published twice a year and follow a bottom-up approach, which means that topics are not pre-defined and can be chosen by applicants from any scientific area in any domain. COST does not fund research itself but provides a platform for European scientists to cooperate on a particular project and exchange expertise. These projects are called \"Actions\" and have a duration of four years. Each COST Action is a network composed of the institutes from at least five COST countries (currently 36 European countries are COST Members). Two examples of such COST Actions are COST Action E52 on European beech (see above) and COST Action 871 on Cryopreservation (see page 15).A new COST Action, number FA1003, entitled \"East-West Collaboration for Grapevine Diversity Exploration and Mobilization of Adaptive Traits for Breeding\"-GrapeNet, coordinated by Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy is due to start soon. Scientists and breeders from 21 COST countries, as well as New Zealand and the Caucasus and Black Sea region will work together to generate knowledge about the valuable diversity, its patterns, processes and correlations with traits such as resistance and grape quality. GrapeNet partners will explore the genetic diversity and mobilize adaptive traits for breeding and sustainable use of this very valuable horticultural crop. Sharing experiences, responsibilities, information and materials for the development of phenotyping methods and association genetics studies in core collections will greatly improve the impact of the research conducted by each partner and will introduce innovative areas of research at the European level, while contributing to long-term conservation and a greater quality of grape production in Europe. Up-to-date information on the calls for proposals, rules for participation, application procedures is available on the COST website (www.cost.esf.org). Gatersleben, Germany keller@ipk-gatersleben.de action of cryoprotective substances in model systems and living human cells, to the effects of LEA proteins on plant cell membranes. Practical aspects such as the beneficial influence of Vitamins C and E as antioxidants and cryopreservation of cocoa and yam were also discussed.Since IPK Gatersleben hosts one of the largest cryopreserved plant collections of Europe (at present amounting to 1250 accessions of potato, garlic and mint), the subject \"Integration of cryopreservation in genebank strategies\" was very much justified at the meeting in Gatersleben. Keynote lectures focussed on two angles -political background of germplasm preservation in Europe in ECPGR and AEGIS (Jan Engels, Bioversity Rome) and technical needs to optimize technology transfer between laboratories (Barbara Reed, USDA Corvallis). The most prominent example of routine collection was given by Bart Panis. The local host stressed one of the main aspects of very diverse genebank collections i.e. the exact botanical knowledge of donor material, and described special requirements needed on how to handle diversity. This was perfectly illustrated during the visit to the Gatersleben genebank facilities. The presentations on national programmes (Florent Engelmann, France; Hely Häggman, Finland; Monika Höfer, Germany) showed substantial progress made in several pioneer countries, which can be used by other countries as a model. The last session dealt with genetic and epigenetic aspects of cryopreservation. Corresponding to their scientifically fundamental character for cryopreservation, such issues are of high importance for routine application as their results touch the principal reliability of the technique. The generally accepted idea that genetic characteristics are preserved and that if the changes are observed, they are of epigenetic character could be confirmed.This combined meeting was a good example of fruitful collaboration of fundamental science and application. Meeting abstracts are freely published in issues 1 and 2 of the specialized journal CryoLetters, vol.31. For further information, please contact the author.While it is widely agreed that storage of genetic resources in liquid nitrogen (cryopreservation) is very useful because at such low temperatures there is no alteration or cellular change to stored material, there is indeed a vigorous movement in the related science and application itself. The Chair of COST Action 871 (CRYOPLANET), Bart Panis, host of the banana cryobank, ITC Leuven, Belgium, described these activities in the Newsletter for Europe (NL39, page 6). Cryopreservation becomes increasingly important as a cost-efficient, safe storage method for plant material which cannot be stored as seeds, i.e. mainly germplasm which needs to be maintained clonally or whose seeds cannot be stored because of recalcitrance or because they do not represent the proper genotype of the parental plants. Cryopreservation becomes of increasing impact as vegetatively propagated germplasm is especially endangered by global warming and genetic erosion.Members of this COST action meet regularly in two working groups in one of the participating countries. One group is focusing on fundamental Taking cryo samples out of the tank.Photo: E.R. Joachim Keller, IPK Gatersleben, Germany Svalbard Global Seed Vault doubles its content after two years Ola T. Westengen Svalbard Global Seed Vault Nordic Genetic Resource Center Alnarp, Sweden ola.westengen@nordgen.orgThe Arctic archipelago Svalbard is among the places on earth where the early effects of global warming are best known. Climate scientists from all over the world come to do research here. Spitzbergen, the largest of the islands, is home to the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. There is something symbolic about the location of this conservation facility for the seeds of tomorrow's food supply in this barren but spectacularly beautiful natural setting close to the North Pole. No effect of climate change will more directly affect the human condition than the impact on agricultural production and ecosystems and, to many, it is a symbol of hope that this project to ensure the conservation of the fundamental assets needed for adaptation to these impacts, are located in this place where the first signs of the looming crisis are being seen. This is probably one of the reasons why the opening of the Seed Vault in 2008 drew so much international media attention. Hundreds of stories were published and aired on TV and radio networks, and the story appeared on the front page of newspapers around the world. It is unquestionable that such extensive media attention increased public awareness about the importance of crop diversity. The Seed Vault is now in its third year of operation and it still functions as an ambassador for the cause of conserving plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA).Since the opening day, the collection of seed samples in the Seed Vault has doubled and in May 2010 the total holding stood at 526 000 samples originating from nearly every country in the world. This is already one of the largest single global collections of PGRFA and the reason is, of course, that the Seed Vault is a back-up storage for insurance against loss of crop diversity held in regular genebanks. Since the opening there has been a concerted effort from genebanks around the world to send duplicate samples of their own accessions to Svalbard. Thus, the Seed Vault is not a stand alone facility, it is a project that only makes full sense as part of a global network of well managed genebanks and organizations working to conserve and make crop diversity accessible to breeders and farmers. The role of Bioversity International, the CGIAR and the regional PGRFA networks is essential in this effort. The Global Crop Diversity Trust is directly involved in the operation of the Seed Vault, both as a funding agency and as a major partner for ensuring that important genebanks in developing countries are provided with the resources to regenerate their collections and send fresh seed samples for back-up at Svalbard.The importance of the Seed Vault for a sound conservation of crop diversity is recognized in the latest State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (SoW) from 2009, stating that the Svalbard Global Seed Vault represents a major achievement since the first SoW report was published and that \"the world's PGRFA is undoubtedly more secure as a result\". Later the influential \"Global Biodiversity Outlook\" published by the Convention of Biological Diversity in 2010 gives special mention to the important role played by Svalbard Global Seed Vault and the complimentary Millennium Seed Bank for the conservation of plant species and crop varieties for future generations.The largest share of the current holdings in the Seed Vault is from the International Agricultural Research Centres (IARCs). This is a consequence of the focus of the project on unique genetic resources conserved in collections operating under the terms and conditions of the International Treaty on PGRFA. The IARCs have a unique role as holders of material in trust for the world community through an agreement with the Governing Body of the International Treaty (ITPGRFA). However, all genebanks in the world are invited to make use of the Seed Vault after signing the standard deposit agreement. Among the ECPGR countries, institutes in Georgia, Germany, Ireland, The Netherlands, the Nordic Countries, Russian Federation, Switzerland and the Ukraine have already sent seeds to Svalbard, while several others have expressed their intention to do so. The Nordic Genetic Resource Centre (NordGen) is responsible for the daily operation of the Seed Vault, a mandate laid down in an agreement with the Norwegian government and the Global Crop Diversity Trust, the two other partners behind the project. As an active institution in the European Network, NordGen certainly believes in a seamless integration of the regional networks with a well functioning global system of institutions working with ex situ conservation, with Svalbard Global Seed Vault as the ultimate security net.For more information about the Svalbard Global Seed Vault visit: www.seedvault.no.For specific information about the current content in the Seed Vault and on how to make a deposit, visit the Seed Portal: www.nordgen.org/sgsv. The key event is the tenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD, to be held in Nagoya Japan, in October 2010. It is expected to assess achievement of the 2010 target to significantly reduce the rate of biodiversity loss, adopt an international regime on access and benefit-sharing and celebrate the International Year of Biodiversity.SBSTTA is the scientific and technical body that supports the implementation of the CBD. It reviews the programmes of work of the Convention and reviews important new areas which the Convention parties need to consider. The 14 th meeting of SBSTTA was held in Nairobi, Kenya at the headquarters of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), on 10-21 May and was followed by the 3 rd meeting of the Working Group on Review of the Implementation of the CBD (WGRI 3). More than 700 participants attended the meeting, representing governments, UN agencies, intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations (including Bioversity on behalf of the CGIAR Centers), indigenous and local community groups, public sector research, academia and business.SBSTTA 14 launched the third edition of the Global Biodiversity Outlook (GBO). This publication, available from the CBD website, documents the world's failure to achieve the 2010 biodiversity target of reducing the rate of loss of biodiversity. This target was itself composed of a number of specific sub-targets and, while there were one or two areas where these were achieved, such as the area under protection, most specific targets were not achievede.g. reducing the rate of loss of species diversity or of animal genetic resources diversity. SBSTTA14 adopted 18 recommendations that will be submitted to the meeting of the Conference of the Parties. The recommendations address: in-depth reviews of implementation of the programmes of work on mountain biodiversity, inland waters biodiversity, marine and coastal biodiversity, protected areas, biodiversity and climate change, and Article 10 (sustainable use); agricultural biodiversity, including biofuels; biodiversity of dry and sub-humid lands; forest biodiversity; invasive alien species; outcomeoriented goals and targets for the period beyond 2010; incentive measures; the Global Taxonomy Initiative; the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation; consideration of the GBO messages and implications; new and emerging issues; and ways and means to improve SBSTTA effectiveness.The discussions on agricultural biodiversity and biofuels were of most direct relevance. On agricultural biodiversity there was strong support for the development of a joint programme of work by the CBD and FAO and its Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The decision lists a large number of areas where it feels collaboration should be strengthened including on-farm, in situ and ex situ conservation, underutilized crops and nutritional aspects of diversity, and the work on defining targets and indicators for the CBD's new strategy. There was also considerable interest in further work on sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity.On biofuels there was considerable disagreement between Parties and the final decision contained much text still in square brackets (i.e. not agreed to by all Parties). Discussions centered on conceptual frameworks and guidelines for sustainable production and use, the development of a toolkit, assessing impacts, and the precautionary approach. There is likely to be much further discussion on these and it may be important for the plant genetic resources community in Europe to provide inputs to their own relevant national bodies on the targets, their measurement and the relevant indicators that might be developed for them.Another relevant event this year was the meeting of the Ad Hoc Open-ended Working Group on Access and Benefitsharing (ABS) of the CBD, held in March 2010, in Santiago de Cali, Colombia. The meeting continued negotiations on an international regime on ABS, in view of its mandate to submit an instrument for consideration at the meeting of the Conference of the Parties in October. Delegates identified a series of issues with respect to the draft protocol text and established contact groups to address them. Although progress was achieved on a number of issues, including an internationally recognized certificate of compliance, the meeting was inconclusive. Due to procedural wrangling, an inter-regional group that had been established never managed to enter into textbased negotiations and talks temporarily broke down. It was then agreed to convene a resumed session, in mid-July 2010, in Montreal, Canada. As this Newsletter goes into print, the outcomes of the session are not yet available.For full details, please visit the Convention website: www.cbd.int. Neutral and effective coverage of many international events is provided by the Earth Negotiations Bulletin: www.iisd.ca This Newsletter is produced by the staff of the Regional Office for EuropeChange and reform -the CGIAR Consortium begins to take shapeOn 31 August 2010, the Europe Regional Office bids farewell to Jozef Turok, after more than 15 years of service with Bioversity. Jozef joined Bioversity (then IPGRI) in 1995, starting as the EUFORGEN Coordinator and working in the position of the Regional Director for Europe for the last eleven years. In his own words, he tells of his satisfaction of having had daily opportunities to communicate and collaborate with partners in a very wide and diverse range of national programmes, in Europe, and more recently in the CWANA Region, as well as having been privileged to have led a talented inter-disciplinary team of professionals. Under his leadership, the Europe Group's key achievements during the past eleven years include the strengthened commitment of the European countries towards the two principal Regional networking programmes, ECPGR and EUFORGEN, the securing of several restricted grants which allowed the Regional Office to recruit new staff and to invest more resources for the conservation, research and capacity building on plant and forest genetic resources in Europe, the core of Bioversity's business in the Region.Jozef moves on from Bioversity International to Head the CGIAR Programme Facilitation Unit for Central Asia and Caucasus based in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. The interim direction of the Regional Office for Europe will be taken over by Dr Jan Engels, Principal Scientist and AEGIS Coordinator.Farewell... We announce to our readers and colleagues, many of whom have followed and contributed articles to the Newsletter for Europe for many years, the new online era of the Newsletter. NL40 brings to a close the era of the printed Newsletter, since the first copy was printed in March 1994.A more frequent, up-to-date Newsletter will be available online in pdf format that can be easily downloaded. This decision was taken in order to bring our readers more frequent, up-to-date information, and to minimize costs and pollution due to the production and distribution of the paper version.From now on, every time a new issue of the Newsletter is available, we will send all interested recipients a notification of its availability for download via email. You should have already received an email from us, if your email address is already in our database. If you did not receive a message, please kindly register for the Newsletter at: www.bioversityinternational.org/around_the_world/europe/newsletter_for_europe.html. Or just send us an email at Bioversity-europe@cgiar.org and we will add you to the list of recipients. Your contact details will not be visible online.Last printed issue of the Newsletter for Europe (continued from page 1) the Consortium Board's consideration at its next meeting in October 2010. Four additional Mega Programmes on Rice, Maize, Wheat and Climate Change are \"fast-tracked\", i.e. their development is already more advanced with full proposals available.\"Mobilizing agricultural biodiversity for food security and resilience\" was one of the thematic areas originally proposed, which would encompass a large proportion of Bioversity's mandate. However, a meeting of donors and the Consortium did not approve the idea of a separate Mega Programme on agricultural biodiversity. However, certain aspects of biodiversity and genetic resources, such as promoting nutrition and health through more crop diversity, will be incorporated into the other Mega Programmes that are being developed.Among the 15 CGIAR Centres, there is significant overlap in research and administrative infrastructures and even projects and activities. The CGIAR currently has 253 locations in 80 countries. As the reforms are implemented, the Consortium will have a unique opportunity to increase its competitive advantage, rationalize and decrease the cost of operations by developing and using shared services, at global and regional levels. It is expected that regional support to the Centers and Mega Programme activities will be consolidated within a given geographic area and that \"Regional Hubs\" will be set up to provide such services and support. This ","tokenCount":"9947"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aa487efcee69bb54cabbba40058d1cfc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9297428b-cbf0-4844-96b6-ac4d4b1373ac/retrieve","id":"-164579562"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fc69cc9c-8238-42f9-8993-fc3c73e71ce2","pagecount":"2","content":"The project seeks to increase the productivity and profitability of the Ugandan smallholder pig enterprises through: the identification of the most appropriate pig breed-type(s); the development of a genetic improvement strategy to ensure the availability and accessibility of genetically superior pigs; and support for the uptake and optimal management of the genetically superior pigs by smallholder pig keepers. Key project activities will include:• Evaluating the profitability and productivity of different pig production systems in Uganda, including contributions and benefits from an intra-household perspective, and identifying the most appropriate system for households with different risk profiles. • Designing, with stakeholders, a genetic improvement strategy for the smallholder pig sector of Uganda. • Developing, with stakeholders, a scheme the registration of pig suppliers of known breed-type / genetic quality and piloting it. • Building the capacity of women and men pig keepers, as well as other stakeholders, on the productivity and profitability of different household pig production systems and the identified genetic improvement strategy.The project will be undertaken in two key pig-keeping districts. Data will be collected over a 14-month period from about 150 pig keeping households and at least 400 breeding sows to assess the productivity and profitability of different pig production systems.A genetics improvement strategy for pigs in Uganda will be developed in conjunction with a broad range of stakeholders with the involvement of women aand young people and the harnessing of public-private partnerships to build capacities and the requisite infrastructure for sustainability. A scheme to register the pig suppliers of known breed-types/ genetic qualities will be undertaken, facilitating access by smallholders to the breed types of their choice. In line with its mandate as per the 2001 Animal Breeding Act, the National Animal Genetic Resources Centre & Databank (NAGRC&DB) will lead the registration and certification of all animal breeds, breeders and breeding centres. The scaling out of the scheme is expected to take place after the project ends, as part of further implementation of the genetic improvement strategy.The project shall build capacity of women and men smallholder pig keepers (including village boar keepers) and other stakeholders-such as artificial insemination service providers, extension agents, etc.-on the use of pig genetics resources. ","tokenCount":"361"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f4cee33e2c65fecbbb3a4cbc41cdeb7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85f8fb5f-8a73-4c05-873e-f6b96309d576/retrieve","id":"-958047448"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c9704e95-4044-4dba-8f5b-9df6588d249c","pagecount":"2","content":" Natural hazards are a natural part of life on earth!  Most natural hazards are known and some even give advance warning!  Living and/or working in hazard-prone areas increases the risk of disastrous impacts!  Changing climate increases the frequency and severity of natural hazards and their impacts!  Agricultural activity is vulnerable to natural hazards which often lead to disastrous impacts!  Disasters are costly and put development at risk!  The Caribbean needs to take more seriously the issue of hazard and risk management!  Disastrous impacts can be reduced through better understanding of natural hazards, their different triggers and vulnerability factors.A 2004 United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Report titled \"Reducing Disaster Risk-A Challenge for Development\" acknowledged that disasters that result from natural hazards exact a tremendous cost on development. 8 The Report estimated that 85% of the world\"s population exposed to disasters triggered by one or more natural hazard, such as, floods, earthquakes and droughts live in countries categorized in the low to medium human development ranking. The associated annual economic losses from disasters averaged US$ 75.5 billion in the 1960s, US$ 138.4 billion in the 1970s, US$ 213.9 billion in the 1980s and US$ 659.9 billion in the 1990s. The Report admitted, that \"the consequences of such widespread exposure to natural hazard for human development are only now beginning to be identified\".Linkages between development and disaster risk are not difficult to visualize (UNDP). Any development activity has the potential to either increase or reduce disaster risk. Rapid urbanisation, for example, can generate new disaster risks. Concentration of populations on flat coastal areas may worsen the effects of flooding and sea surges; extensive settlements in hazard-prone zones and/or poor building codes and construction may place a significant number of the population in harm\"s way.The growth of informal settlements and inner city slums, whether fuelled by international migration or internal migration from smaller urban settlements or the countryside, has led to the growth of unstable living environments. These settlements are often located in ravines, on steep slopes, along flood plains or adjacent to noxious or dangerous industrial or transport facilities. Rural livelihoods are put at risk by the local impacts of global climate change or environmental degradation. Coping capacity for some people has been undermined by the need to compete in a globalising economy, which at present rewards productive specialisation and intensification over diversity and sustainability. The Caribbean is vulnerable to natural hazards. In the last two decades, there has been a marked increase in the region\"s exposure to a range of natural hazards.  The region\"s land, water and forests resources and their dependent sectors of agriculture, forestry and fisheries are highly exposed and vulnerable to extreme events caused by natural hazard.  Climate change impacts are projected to increase the frequency and severity of weather-related events.  Caribbean leaders must recognise inescapable link between management of natural hazards and their countries\" development prospects and systematically incorporate hazard management into development planning. Climate change is an evolving phenomenon which is exacerbating the frequency and severity of natural hazards and consequently, the vulnerability of Caribbean countries to their potentially devastating impacts. Climate Change usually refers to changes in modern climate. It may be qualified as anthropogenic Climate Change, which is an admission that the changes are caused by man\"s activities, or more generally referred to as \"global warming\". Agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, but also by altering the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light. The Carbon cycle is a means of looking at the movement of carbon and carbon dioxide throughout the planet. Climate change is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature, carbon dioxide, glacial run-off, precipitation and the interaction of these elements. These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals.For Caribbean countries, the social, financial and economic costs of disasters are unavoidable and high.Some impacts of tropical storms and hurricanes were: Some impacts of the 2009 to 2010 drought were: 7 -25 % loss in onion crop, 30 % loss in tomato with consequent price hike in Antigua; -drop in the contribution of hydro power from 28.69% in Feb 2009 to 12.01% in Feb 2010 in St. Vincent; -substantial reduced flow at Mirabeau, 60 % below average, in Grenada; -Caroni Arena lake was 29.46 % of capacity in Trinidad; -drop in the Mona Reservoir to 40% of capacity and Hermitage Dam to 34% of capacity, in Jamaica; -record bush fires all across the Caribbean Given the small size of Caribbean states, such losses from disasters demonstrate the economic importance of managing risk as a major plank in the development agenda. Tropical depressions, storms or hurricanes. These are large-scale weather systems developing over tropical or sub-tropical waters are a constant threat and cause a severe disruption in economic activity and cause severe destruction of physical infrastructure. The cost of hurricaneinduced disaster, measured in percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), ranged from a low of 2.39% of GDP from Tropical Storm Allen in Jamaica in 1980, to 96.8% of GDP from Hurricane Ivan in Grenada in 2004. Some crops, such as bananas, are vulnerable to strong winds experienced during tropical depressions. Drought, the insufficiency of rain for an extended period that causes water shortages, stream-flow reduction and depletion of groundwater and soil moisture, have severe impacts on primary agriculture activities.Agriculture in the Caribbean is still largely rain-fed, rendering it highly vulnerable to prolonged drought conditions, as occurred in the Caribbean in the late 2009 to early 2010 period. Floods, whether flash, minor or major flooding are becoming more prevalent and harmful over time and are listed as among the world\"s most frequent and damaging forms of disaster. Flood hazards may be difficult to minimize in the absence of enforced policies and laws that deal with zoned land use, denudation of hillsides and the de-silting of watercourses. Landslides, downslope movements of soil, rock or mud, triggered by prolonged or heavy rainfall and earthquakes, among others, displace agricultural lands and destroy crops. Losses in the form of buried cropland and delays that span months to a few years before replanted crops are harvestable lead to substantial loss of livelihoods for many small farmers. Invasive species are non-indigenous species that \"arrive, survive and thrive\" successfully out-competing native organisms for food and habitat. The Caribbean, one of the World\"s biodiversity hotspots, has an exceptionally high level of species endemism which is fragile and particularly vulnerable to invasive species.It is usually the small and poor farmers who settle and farm in hazard-prone areas most vulnerable to natural hazards. They are also the ones with limited coping mechanisms. When their livelihoods are damaged, the socioeconomic, environmental and cultural elements of farming systems, and fabric of rural communities, are compromised.","tokenCount":"1165"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7c398b598fc4795d6afebd4c7a2d0c7d","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://agrumig.iwmi.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/2023/06/AGRUMIG-Policy-Brief-Series-No-24.pdf","id":"-928371347"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"11c8f55f-be2a-45ba-af71-0d4023671da4","pagecount":"8","content":"The AGRUMIG project undertook a comparative analysis of 19 rural regions in seven countries to identify the economic, institutional, cultural and agroecological factors that shape the two-way relationship between labor mobility and changes in the agriculture and rural sectors. First QCA workshop in Viena, Austria, June 2019 (photo: Raffaella Pagogna). IWMI • 2 AGRUMIG Policy Brief Series -No. 24 • Making sense of diversity in agrarian and rural change outcomes of labor out-migration through comparative analysis: First lessons from China,The AGRUMIG project adopted a comparative analytical approach for two reasons.First, according to the literature, the impact or outcomes of migration on rural areas is highly diverse, bewilderingly even. Any impact or outcome one can realistically think of can be found somewhere in the world. A general pattern of the kind 'all in all, in most cases, migration does X to agrarian and rural change' would be a simplistic and unhelpful generalization. The diverse outcomes require some explanation. Under what conditions is outcome X found? Under what conditions does outcome Y occur? Under what conditions is outcome Z seen? What explains the structural differences in the role of migration in agrarian and rural change?Second, there is a need to understand the diversity of outcomes in relation to labor out-migration in agrarian and rural change because it is highly significant for policy making and implementation. For example, the migration and development policy of the European Union (EU) and international organizations emphasizes that migrants can significantly contribute to development in their home region, through remittances and as return migrants for instance, and that such development can subsequently reduce migration to regions like Europe. It is important to understand whether that emphasis is warranted. The research conducted by the AGRUMIG project shows that sometimes it is, and sometimes it is not, depending on local/regional conditions. For policy making and implementation, it is important to answer the 'it depends' question. On what exactly does it depend? In what situations can one expect a policy proposal to be a feasible approach, and in what situations is that an unrealistic expectation?We sampled diversity by selecting 19 regions in seven countries for our comparison. The countries are Morocco, Moldova, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Thailand and China.What a Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) approach 1 provides is a combinatorial way of thinking. It is how combinations of conditions are associated with particular outcomes. Rather than independent variables and factors with different weights, it is the particular combination of causes that matter in making sense of the diversity we observe. QCA is a set-theoretical approach (Figure 1).QCA works on the premise that the same cause can be associated with different outcomes and the same outcome can have different causes. Some examples will help to illustrate this concept. In this research, one of the conditions or causes that shape the contribution of migration to agrarian-rural change is the proximity of the region to a city or a large market. However, this condition or cause can have two opposite effects or outcomes.  AGRUMIG's comparative approach combines 1) QCA = Qualitative Comparative Analysis (Ragin 1987), and 2) CMO reasoning from Realist Evaluation (Pawson and Tilley 1997).Proximity to a city and market can mean that left-behind household members are interested in investing financial remittances in productive activities. This might be intensive cultivation of cash crops for example, because there is a market nearby. Some migrants may even return to take up commercial agriculture to supply this market. Thus, a vibrant agricultural development process may be triggered. We find this causal pattern in several of the regions studied in this research.The same proximity to a city and market may also mean there are ample nearby employment opportunities for the left behind. They have no interest in investing remittances in agricultural and rural development. Remittances may then go to consumptive purposes, such as housebuilding or education. No vibrant agrarian or rural change process is triggered.It is the job of researchers to unravel what exactly 'it depends on' that certain outcomes occur. The general answer to this question is that it depends on the combination, that is, the configuration of the proximity condition with other conditions. When the combination or configuration is different, the outcome may be different.The analysis becomes more complicated when we realize that the same outcome for instance, a vibrant agricultural development process triggered by remittance investment, can be caused by different conditions. It may well be that proximity to a city or market is not a relevant condition in some cases. An important condition may be that there is a government policy that doubles or triples the investment fund that migrant remittances generate. It may also be the case that proximity and supportive government policy are needed to trigger a vibrant agrarian-rural development process. That is the case in the central region of Moldova, for example.The core idea of the QCA method is that the same cause can have different effects depending on the combination of conditions and the same effect or outcome can be generated by different combinations of conditions. When we can identify these combinations, we can explain on what 'it depends'.The comparison allows us to distinguish between relevant and nonrelevant conditions. That's why the AGRUMIG project researched 19 regions in seven countries. We tried to maximize diversity to make this finding of the relevant configurations easier.What is referred to as 'CMO reasoning' in this case is taken from the realist evaluation literature. 2 This approach has an interest in explaining diverse outcomes in common with QCA, e.g., a single policy intervention implemented in multiple places.CMO reasoning asks the following questions:• What is the outcome?• What mechanism produces it? • What contextual conditions shape the working of the mechanism?Realist evaluation puts greater emphasis on causal processes and causal pathways than QCA. It separates the immediate mechanism (causal process) that produces an outcome from the contextual conditions that make that mechanism express itself (or not).Before the Covid-19 pandemic, the AGRUMIG QCA team identified six questions we wanted to answer in a project workshop in Kathmandu, Nepal, in December 2019 (Table 1).2 For an introduction to realist evaluation, see, for example, Pawson and Tilley (1997).1. Livelihood strategies and 1. How does migration shape the socioeconomic differentiation of households and rural social differentiation transformation, including social (in)equality? 2. Farming systems 2. How does migration differentially shape farming systems and the trajectory of agricultural change in a region? 3. (Dis)empowerment, gender, 3. How does migration impact the (dis)empowerment of the different genders and youth? youth, elderly 4. Village and community 4. How do migration and migrant strategies shape the functioning of local institutions and how does this affect the 'vibrancy' of local communities? 5. Public service provision 5. How does migration impact public service provision in terms of education, health and care for the elderly? 6. Rural-urban relations 6. How does migration shape the convergence or divergence or rural and urban development pathways?Table 1. Six questions identified by the AGRUMIG QCA team.Over two years later when the data collection was finally finished, there was time to address a single question only: What is the role of migration in regional-level agrarian and rural change?The objective of this question is to help understand to what extent and how labor out-migration is a recognizable causal factor in shaping agrarian and rural change in the research regions. The diverse outcome to be explained is thus the qualitatively different roles that labor out-migration can play in agrarian-rural change.The QCA process envisaged in the project design had several steps. The first step was training on the QCA method that the AGRUMIG project sought to develop. This was attached to the project's first Project Meeting in Vienna, Austria, in June 2019.During the second Project Meeting in Kathmandu, Nepal, in December 2019, the QCA research team decided that six questions would be addressed using the QCA/CMO approach. In months 12 to 18 of the project, intensive fieldwork was scheduled in all countries and regions to produce comparable datasets. A traveling postdoc had been appointed to the project to visit all the countries and regions in the study in order to work with the country team members. This was meant to increase the 'buy-in' into the comparative method by the different team members and to produce a common way of thinking on the topic, given that the participants had different disciplinary backgrounds.In this process, the first ideas for identifying relevant outcomes, mechanisms and contextual conditions across the seven countries and 19 regions could start to be articulated.It was planned that after month 18 of the project the QCA analysis would be executed over a period of 18 months, in a strongly interactive and collaborative way, in a series of meetings of the QCA team (which comprised of eight postdocs, one in each country and one traveling, the QCA Principal Investigator and several interested others).Due to the emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic which fell on the 13 th month of the project, this plan and process could not be implemented, as the pandemic resulted in two years of severe mobility restrictions. The remaining time available for analysis was six months rather than 18 at the end of the project, during a period when many other project deliverables could finally be worked on. Thus, the ambitions of the QCA component of the project had to be scaled down considerably, notwithstanding an extra 10-day writing retreat in Morocco in October 2022. The findings in this policy brief are therefore interim and tentative. A first completed analysis is scheduled to be ready in mid-2023.Outcomes and mechanisms: Diversity confirmedIn the 19 regions investigated, the role that labor out-migration plays in agrarian-rural change was threefold. In Table 2, these have been labeled A) none (five regions), B) reproductive (nine regions), and C) transformative (five regions).The B (reproductive) category is the most frequent among the 19 regions. In these regions, labor out-migration covers the running costs of households and farms, particularly through remittances. Sometimes this is a survival strategy that barely supports the household and farm, sometimesFirst QCA workshop in Vienna, Austria, held in June 2019 (photos: Peter Mollinga).it happens in a more 'comfortable' setting where some resources generated through migration are diverted to nonrural purposes. In terms of agrarian-rural dynamics, things stay more or less as they are. To see qualitative change, one would need a longer-term, generational perspective.The C (transformative) category includes regions where labor out-migration plays a shaping role in agrarianrural dynamics. This can be through remittance-based investments, through return migrants taking development roles and responsibilities, but also through positive feedback loops in the social and economic networks that migrants create and, more indirectly, through labor loss and agricultural extensification creating space for land concentration for new forms of commercial agriculture.The finding that the transformative role of migration only occurs in some regions suggests the importance of explaining the diversity of outcomes. When transformation is the desired policy scenario, it is worth knowing what factors cause it. This is strengthened by the finding that there is not only diversity across countries but also within countries. Morocco (MAR), Moldova (MOL), Kyrgyzstan (KYR), China (CHI) and Thailand (THA) are clear examples. Nepal (NEP) is the only country with four regions in one category. However, it is likely that in Nepal regions belonging to other categories can be found. In Ethiopia (ETH), the research could be completed in only one region and it is likely regions are falling into other categories.The policy relevance of this finding would suggest that standardized national policies to enhance the contribution of labor out-migration to agrarian-rural development are unlikely to have the same impact in all regions. Thinking through the regional specificity of policy measures thus makes good sense.We believe the analysis of the diversity of the role of migration in agrarian-rural change is robust, but the analysis of the contextual conditions that shape the causal processes that generate these outcomes is still very much at the beginning and much more tentative. Table 3 is the first identification of 17 such conditions.Notwithstanding its tentative and incomplete character, the list allows inferences. First, there are many conditions. Not all are relevant in all regions, and the relevant configurations for each region still need to be determined, but the likelihood of single-condition explanations of outcomes is low. Not a single region out of the 19 investigated exhibits such a single-condition situation. THA-MAC 3a) Regional development dynamics overwhelmingly generated by other processes. 3b) Region is in a phase 'beyond migration'.ETH-GAM 1) Remittances predominantly go to 'running expenses' Migration primarily/dominantly serves to KYR-BAT of households and their farms. keep afloat smallholder agriculture and MOL-FNS the households that practice it.Migration is key for households in the B category, but NEP-DHA serves either as a coping strategy that contributes to NEP-DOT reproduction only, or 'expanded reproduction' of the rural/ NEP-KIM agrarian activities of the left behind is not part of the NEP-SAB livelihood strategy of the translocal household.One or more of the following elements. There is a discernible transformative KYR-JAL 1) 'Productive' use of remittances sufficiently large scale to regional rural/agrarian change dynamic MOL-CEN make a difference at regional level. related to migration.2) Active role of return migrants in shaping agrarian/rural MAR-TAI change. 3) Emergence of positive developmental feedback loops through migrants and migration. 4) Migration-related labor loss allowing for land concentration and scale enhancement of agricultural production.Second, the conditions are diverse. Quite a few are economic, but there are also institutional, governance, cultural and environmental conditions. This confirms the need for an interdisciplinary analytical approach to the processes involved and for integrated policy involving different departments, ministries and other agencies crafting approaches that address the combinations of the most important factors in a specific region.The summary of the comparative analysis above, incomplete as it still may be, allows the following conclusions on the two-way relationship between labor out-migration and agrarian-rural change in home-sending regions.First, the role of migration in agrarian-rural change is diverse and can be categorized in a threefold typology of roles:• Migration plays no role.• Migration plays a reproductive role.• Migration plays a transformative role.Second, a diversity of roles is found across countries and significantly within countries. This underpins the need for regionally specific approaches to strengthen the role of migration in rural development.Third, the contextual conditions that shape the role of migration are multiple and diverse. The implication of this is that enhancing the role of migration in rural development requires an integrated approach that brings together and combines different agencies and organizations in jointly crafted strategies.Fourth, the main mechanisms driving the transformative role that policy prefers to pursue are the following:• The productive use of remittances (investment).• An active role of return migrants in agrarian-rural development.• The existence of positive migration-development feedback loops (e.g., trade networks).• Land concentration through labor loss, facilitating agrarian transformation.1. Develop and strengthen tertiary-level education programs in sending countries on migration, mobility and development that address the multidimensionality and complexity of migration-development relations in an interdisciplinary manner.2. Develop and strengthen the policy research capacity in sending countries for mapping the regional diversity in the structural features of the two-way migration-rural development relationship to advise different levels of government on regionally specific policy approaches.3. Ensure that databases on migration and mobility contain regionally specific information, rather than national statistics only.","tokenCount":"2534"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1fde3466457541b838df2c5baeb20b18","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b9f01c78-bdd1-4fb5-9ebc-c005ea8e360a/content","id":"-411105907"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f2f32db7-4f94-42a8-84c6-362337e82f39","pagecount":"7","content":"T h is paper in troduced a GGE b ip lo t as a graph ic m ethod fo r analyzing w heat peak visco sity based on data from regional trials. T he average perfo rm ance at each environm en t w as sub tracted from the o riginal pasting p roperties data first so that the derived data con tain s on ly geno type m ain effect G and geno type by environm en t in teraction GE, w h ich w ere co llectively nam ed GGE. T he GGE data w as then sub jected to singu lar value decom po sition and w as app rox i m ated by the first tw o p rincipal com ponen ts. P lo tting the first p rincipal com ponen t again st the second fo r all geno types and environm en ts resu lted in a GGE b ip lo t . In ligh t of the b ip lo t, peak visco sity of starch pasting characteristics fo r tw en ty cu ltivars from ten location s in Ch inese sp ring2sow n sp ring w heat region s w as analyzed. T he resu lts ind icated that T iechun l perfo rm ed bo th h igh and stab le fo r peak visco sity, fo llow ed by J inchun9, w h ile N ingzuo17 perfo rm ed the poo rest. H arb in w as the best environm en t facilitating iden tification of peak visco sity.环境互作 [ 2～ 9 ] , 因而难以对基因型进行全面评价。 可靠的基因型评价方法必须同时考虑基因型和基因 型与环境互作, 因此部分学者把基因型和基因型与 环境互作合称为 \"GGE \" [ 10～ 15 ] 。由于峰值粘度可较 好反映淀粉品质 [ 16～ 18 ] , 本文采用 GGE 模型, 试图  将我国春麦区 1998    ","tokenCount":"289"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7b225518b6340d9bbbf7c489cdba80fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c76880a2-6787-4b99-9319-79597117fedb/retrieve","id":"2118981553"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"58fa79be-1f42-40e7-9952-181ac06f4c2b","pagecount":"21","content":"preparaci6n de este trabajo y en lo conducci6n de los programas de adiestramiento que aquí se discuten.. 1En consecuencia, los participantes en estos cursos deben dedicar parte de su tiempq. energía y capacidad a la adquisición de habilidades y conocimientos en .Ciendas Sociales que les permitirán identificar y analizar los problemas en lo misma .. situación en que ocurren, asegurarse de que las soluciones sean consistentes con 10 situaci6n, y diseñar estrategias apropiados paro legrar lo introducción de cambios.Todo lo anterior exije cama prerreq~isito q\"e los profesionales en su odlestramiento logren adquirir actitudes positivos, a .... tocr.r'cas y flex:bles hacia el proceso de desarrollo y que, adem6s, se provean de un marco conceptual amplio o lo luz del cual puedon ubicar el papel de la producción agropec.iaria en ei desarrollo generol de '¡jS propios poíses.Se ho considerodo que el especiolisto en p.oducción agropecuario; poro que tenga éxito en su trabajo, debe reunir por lo menos cinco aptitlldes, aue constituyen los objetivo. fundament::tles de los programas de adiestram.ento en producc;ón q!.<e se ilevan a cabo en e lA L Estos cinco aptitudes son: 1/ aptitud fécnico, paro diagnosticar problemas de producción y paro aplicor correctamente los traramientos apropiados; 2) optllud económica, para evaluar alternatlvas de praducción y comerc1ollzac;ón;. 3) oplltud científica, poro generar fórmulas de producción apropiadc. a 10$ condiciones de los ogricullores y val¡darlas en el propio ambiente de sus fincas; 4) opthvd como productor, para ejecutar Jos lobores de producdén; y 5) aptitud en com,;r;coc,¿'n, ~\"\" : , ., t I 1 -3-En el presente articulo nos proponemos describir las premisas b6sicos, el enfoque y lo c;oordinaci6n de lo ensei'lonza en Ciencias Sociales en los cursos de adiestramiento en' producci6n que ofrece el C lA T, asT como algunas implicaciones paro futuros cursos \" de adiestramiento pora profesionales en Ciencias Sociales. lo secuencio de temas se incluye al final como un a~ndice.El concepto de desarrollo que se utiliza corrientemente pr_nta serias dificul-\\ \\ todes para su comprensión. Grunig (2) al examinar el concepto de desarrollo en las ciencias sociales concluye que ha tenido tontas definiciones como disciplinas est6n involucradas en su estudio. Algunas definiciones incluyen resultados en cuanto a uno o varios aspectos del de\"::frollo económico, moderni:taci6n, com~¡o $Oclol l cambio, cultural, productividad, ingreso, desarrollo politTco, etc. En todas estón implícitosel progreso material, el aumento general del bienestor y lo ideo de una socieHad mós vanzada.En este trabajo conceptualizomos el desarrollo como un proceso, esto es, un oniunto de fases sucesivas e interrelacionadas que definen, a través del tiempo, un nómeno que: 1) posee movimiento autónomo dirigido desde estadios considerados feriares hacia estadios considerados superiores; y 2) cuyo resultado es consecuencia ., la manifestación y realiz?ción de las tendencias internas del propio fenómeno. En ! 01ras palabras, el desarrolla incluye juicios de valor de la gente involucrada en él Por otro lado, puesto que en el proceso de producción los hombres interactúan y se organizan de maneras determinados para realizar actividodes conjuntas, la produc-ci6n agropecuaria posee un carácter eminentemente social. Esta es la segunda premisa b6sica en la enseñanza de ciencias saciQie~ e\"• lo, programos de adiestramiento del CIAT.Estos planteamientos nos llevan a afirmar aue los llamados \"agentes de cambio\" en lo agricdrura -extensionistas, divulgadores agricolas, agrónomos de producción, etc. -ac\"emás de ser competentes técnicamente, necesiton est'Jr sensibilizados hacia el hecho de que lo producción agropecuaria es s610 un medio para lograr desarrollo, cuyJ razón de ser y fin última es el hombre.Innovación. toma de deciclanes e información.Así, cuando se trata de introducir innovaciones tecnológicas en la agricultura, no puede olv;dorse que los cambios en los procesos técnicos de la producción estón estrechcmente enlozados con cambios en el comportomiento humano: cambios en lo que lo gente sabe, entiende, siente, quiere y pe'ede hacer.Operatlvamente vemos estas modificaciones de comportamiento como res.;ltados de procesos de decl;lón. -a nivel ¡\"d;viduc! \" o nivel de grupa-acerco de &i se acepto e se rechazo vn determinado cambio prOPl'eS'o. Pero cuando se tiene er, cuenJo el proceso de decisión es necesario trot\", de ero\"erder no so! ,me\"'\" el comp;,ctam'ento Con respecto a la administraci6n de fincas esto significaría que -por vía de ejemplovariables importantes como los preferencias de los consumidares y las relaciones insumo-producto padrran ser preestablecidos.Estos consideraciones nos han movido o delr énfasis en los cursos de adiestramiento d. CIAT al hecho de que en lo agricultura prevalecen, en forma aún más crítico que en otras actividades de producci6n, condiciones de riesgo e incertidumbre.Ya hoce varios años Myren (5) puntualizó cómo lo función b6s¡ca de la información en lo toma de decisiones consiste en reducir el riesgo y lo Incertidumbre meiorando lo precisión de 10$ expectativos acerca del pasible resultado de cado o:ternat;vo.Paro con~ribuir a reducir el riesgo y la incertidumbre en lo toma de decisiones es indispensable que sea comunicada la informaci6n que se requiero; donde se requiera! cuando se requiero y a la persono que lo requiero. Esto exige que lo comunicación sea oportuno y que lo información reúno los atributos de validez y valor.Estos tres atributos -oportunidad, voildez y valor-los consideramos bó~icos poro qlle el agente de cambio logre credibilidad en sus oudiencl,:¡s. Lo validez implíca que la persono que toma lo decisi6n pueda tener confianza en el mensaje qve se p:;ne a su djspo~;d6n, El volar se refier\" o que el men$.Jie sea apropiada paro su sit.,'r.ción problemático.1 \" ......... ' ,-- Consideramos que das prerrequlsitos son, entl\"e otros, condiciones necesarias para ue las innovcciones sean accesibles a los agricultores: 1) una ecología favorable al cambia , ecnológico que se requiere introducir, y 2) un sistema polítlco-ecollÓmico seriamente inferesado y comprometido en el progresa de la agricultura.Pero si el productor no cuento con los recursos que la innovación requiere '\"Yen América Latino éste es el caso m6s frecuente-tiene que ccudir a otras fuentes, por .I-Ple,. organis,.,os de crédito, casas vendedoras de insumos y otras semeiantes. En esta Sl~ación las decisiones que tomen los personas que ocupo n posiciones en los organismos de _vicios -públicos o privados-determinan si es factible o no el cambio paro el agricul- -9-Para integrar un programa con esta complejidad de elementos y sus interrelaciones, se cansider6 mós apropiada un enfoque de sistemas. Al emplear el término \"enfoque de sis embs\" no queremos sugerir que ense~=os las técnicas de análisis de sistemas. Más bi ,presentamos el concepto de producci6n agrícola como un coniunto de subsistemas inl rrelocionados con el objeto de ayudar al estudiante mismo a colocar en perspectiva sus' onocimientos técnicos. Esto también le provee un punto de referencia para el estudio fu o del proceso de toma de decisiones cuanda regrese a su institución.Dentro del orogramo de adiestramiento I el sistema de producci6n ogricola se cons dera compuesta par tres grupas de suh-sistemas que interactúon entre sí, como se ilusl en lo siguiente figuro:El primer grupo consta de las actividades individuales df! producción que forman el componente tecnológica de la empresa agrícola, coma el cultiva de plantas especTfl-cas, el manejo de animales y pastos, etc. Se hoce énfosÍi en lo eficiencia práctica y ... teórica de los correspondientes especialidades osi como en lo habilidad poro diagnosti-car problemas asociadas con toles actividades y eval'Jor las aspectos técnicos de diferentes prácticas de producción.El segundo grupo inelu~ el sistema de producción al nivel de finco. Lo uni dad finco, como sistema, está compuesto por actividades individuales de empresa y factores sociales, económicas y ecol6gicas que influyen en los decisiones del agricultor.Los componentes sociales del curso destocan los factores que ofecton 01 agricultor individual en sus decisiones, el papel de lo información en tal proceso, la aplicación de principios de economía de lo producción, ploneomiento de lo finco y anólisis de lo finco como negocia.Sin embargat lo finco como unidad, na existe oisloda del ambiente socioeconómico-ecológico regional en dande estó localizada. Por lo tonto, el último nivel de análisis del curso estudio el sistema de producción agrícola 01 nivel regional. Al estudiante se le presento una región como uno entidad ecológica y socio-económica dinámico, contenida en los suprasistemos de la noción y del mundo. Se discuten los requisitos Y los motivaciones poro cambios al nivel regional, así como algunos elementos de mocro-economio y uno breve discusión sobre la sociedad como sistema.Durante todo el <:urso se hace énfasis en el métada de aprender por ejec,-,c;ón.El conocimiento, yo sea en aspectos de técnicas de prodvcdón agrícola e de los amb,entes socio-econámicos, no se adquiere solamente a través de textos a conferencias. En el curso se incluyen temas identificados como \"Factores Personales\" paro yudor al estudiante a desarrollar una filolofio y sentido de responsabilidad de sr mismo, trabajo, sus colegas, su organización y su pors.A través de las discusiones, se pane de relieve la responsabilidad sod 01 de los comunicadores, yo sean éstos administradores, extensionistas, profesores o investigadores.daméls, se espera desarrollar un fuerte sentido de urgencia y responsabilidad personal ro conseguir que las soluciones se pongan en próctica.Mientras cambian las habilidades y actitudes del estudiante, durante el tiempo de sus estudios, se le estimula poro que analice el procesa de adiestramiento y su rela-ci6n con los cambios que reconoce en si mismo y en sus colegas.Se procura que se vean coma estudiantes en ese momento y como futuros admini,tradores del proceso de adiestramiento. Esto significo ayudarles a desarrollar apt\"v-~ pora analizar los organizaciones en que trabajan y los personas con quienes traba-I jo1\"\" Estos se presentan como sistemas de comunicación y de decisión de ;05 q¡;e el mi+o estudiante forma port~. . 1-12 -LA COORDINACION.La realización de un programa como Elite, que incluye aspectos tan diversos,. requIere la participación de un gran número de especialistas. Pero la heterogeneidad ~ d; disciplinas y puntos de vista puede introducir una tremenda confusión y frustración en los becarios y aún en los mismos instructores, a menos que se dedique cuidadosa atención a coordinar los diversos aspectos desde la fose de pláneaci6n de I programa hasta' su ejecución y evaluación.Pensamos que esta función la puede cumplir mejor un genero listo que, por una parte, sea capaz de mantener un apropiado balance entre los distintos temos del programa y establecer las conexiones entre los mismos, y que, de otro lado, estimule el trabo jo en equipo tanto dentro de los grupos de instructores y becarios como entre unos y otros.En la fase de planeación de lo enseñanza de c;encias sociales en CIAT se han concentrado los esfuerzos de coordinación en procurar que instructores y profesionales que ya han cumplido su periodo de adiestramiento tomen parte activa en las actividades de formulación de principios filosóficos y metodológicos que orienten el progroma, formulación de metas generales, definición de objetivos especfficos, identificación de contenidos consistentes con los objetivos, seleccJón de instructores y asigncción de responsabilidades a los mismos, elaboración del programa, preparación de materiales, pruebo de los mismos particularmente cuando los temas sean nuevos o los instructores tengan poca experienciIJ camo tales, elaboración de mecanismos de control y evoL,;~-Porte sustancia! del adiestramiento es el trabajo en 10$ fincas de los agricultcres.Los becarlos mediante la participación en las lobares de producción tienen aportunidod de aprender cómo se toman los decisiones de los agricultores y sus familias. Cuáles son ' j sUil..mativocianes, aspiraciones, actitudes y restricciones. Allí los estuólontes conocen'¡ cuales son los actividades del agricultor T cómo los llevo a cobo y por q:Jé procede osi.Al mismo t;empo puede relacionar el comportomien~o del agr!cul!or con el medio ambiel\"e en que él apera y can el DOpe I que desempei'\\:m las instHucjones.Por otra porte J planifican y realizan dIOS de campo y demostraciones dentro de la gran;a de e IAT, ocasión que sirve a los instructores poro evaluar los avances y follas del adiestramiento. Tomb;én organizan dios de campo y demostracIones en las fincas uando los agricultores osi lo solicitan.Los becarios escriben informes de sus experiencias y hocen presentaciones ante Il,s instructores y demás personal profesional del CIAT. A la vez que como ejercicio de comunicación, esta es una oporh:nidad para que los becarios discuta ... 'es ir,terrek.c'cl'1li5 entre los factores técnicos y sociales de la agricultura y para que hagan más flex,bi es ylaperotivos sus conceptos aCt'rca del desarrollo.\\ En lo fase de ejecucoán se ha hecho evidente lo necesidad de que el coordnaaor pcírticipe éln el mayor número posible de activIdades de adiestramiento p\"'\" sera;or Iv~ c exiones de lo~ temas de cieocios sociaies enrre si y con ¡os ospeclo; de' ¡:)¡oce>~ té<o de produccíón que oc~pa lo m\"yor po,!e del ~¡empo de lo, becad,,!'\" Ademó.\", p! c rdinodor se ha encargad,:, de Ile~\"or regis'foS de control y orol\"jone. ,•¡tic•;; qt:e r'~\"~•~ , . ' \" : ' ¡' '~, • -14-La ensellanza en Ciencias Sociales que CIAT está ofredendo a las personas que se van a dedicar a trabajar en el sector agropecuario, es pués un esfuerzo multidisclpllnorio que se encuentra en desarrollo. Con base en las experiencias que resultan de cada nuevo curso se modifican los programas para hacer operativa el aporte de las ciencias SOc;a-... les al progreso de lo agricultura en nuestros paises.Si el programa delineada anteriormente representa un enfoque útil paro mejorar la aplicacl'n de las ciencias sociales por parte de los profesionales que trabajan en agricultura, surge la siguiente pregunta: ¿ Cómo se puede producir profesionales en ciencias sociales rurales capaces de establecer programos similares y ensef'lar eficientemente en los mismos ?Como eiemplo, en el programa de economía agrícola del C IAT se ha establecido una actividad de Internada postgraduado, cuyos objetívos principales consisten en que el estudiante: l. Sea capaz de identificar y establecer prioridades y llevar a cabo ínvestigadones en economía agrícola y economía general del pars o de la región.2. Sea capaz de relacionar la investigación én economía agrícola con los estudios • en otras ciendas sociales yen ciencias biológicas, y obtener experiencia en un programa i de investigación multidisciplinaria.3. Sea capaz de fami I iarizarse con el medio de vida rural y comunicarse con los agricultores.Los economistas se esfuerzan en promover un olto nivel de motivación e ;nic.a';va profesional. Los e$ludiontes participan en todas ías fases deuno o mós proyectos de ir1\\l~tigocioo, en seminarios yen grupos de trobaio relacionados con los aspectos biológícos, económicos y técnicos de lo agricultura. Cada estudiante dedica tiempo a uno de los . . ~royectos de investigación del CIAT que se lleva a coba fuera del Centro. Con frec:¡enia forman perte del equipo de investigación.Dentro de estos líneas geneloles, el od:e$'ramiento está pl::lníficada de ceJerdo coda estudiante, según sus conocimientos profesionales, su interés y los expectativas ele lo institución donde trabajará cuando haya completada eí programa.Si ampliamos nuestras actividades pa,o abarcar otras c,enc;os soc:ole!, cansidere-IfIl)s cómo el programo q\"e se sigue en econom;a og\"cola puede adoptarse poro soci6ícgcs riales, antropólogos sociales y graduados de otras c¡e~c¡as $oc;0Ie5 interesados d¡reda-m~nte en el proceso de desarrollo agrícoia.En este momento estvdiamas lo integroción de ¡;n gr~pa de unos iD a 15 jóvenes groduados en econcmía agrícola, sociología rurol .. educac',én y a'r:::! ciendes af:\"es, pJa un curso intensivo de un afio. Lo meta seria obtener personas capaces de rr:lto¡cr I efirazmente en programas agrícolas y rurales de desarrollo, en ploneación, invest'gac¡ón, , es1ategi:lS de desarre:'e c ad';estramienlo. Par:: se: eficientes deberé\" :ene, coooc;m;er.tostde agrict..:ituro y de ;0:; problemos prác!::cos o resolverse)' de ías ins::f\";c ::,ne~ y C•~(1-I nizfciones y de cómo gener~r rel\"c'ones de trabaje cooper.:;;'vo entre és'as; co~oc\",' .\" ge4e y cómo comunicarse con élla y lo~ problemas q;,:e ,\"vol;;cra eí \"abaje .00': ,,,' ;: rurales.  Junta de ¡nstTuctares y becarios estos últimos deben ser capaces de demostr:rr com-prensi6n I a nivel operativo, de por lo menos los siguientes conceptos:1 -E l Enfoque de Sistemas . El Sistema de Producción a Nivel de lo Finca l. El proceso de producción agropecuario: componentes biofisicos (lo finco),. económicos (el negocio ogricolaL y humanos (el productor, su familia y los trabo jodores) _ 2. El proceso de decisión: situación, el proceso cognoscitivo y consecuencias, 3. Comportamiento de dec,sión: solución de problemas, dec.isiones forzadas, hábitos de ignorancia, hábitos de rutina, fatalismo.4. El concepto de información y su papel en lo tomo de dec.:.icnes: es!odas de : ~.conocimiento, esquemas de seguro, voildez y valor de la información.Los principios de la economía de lo producción: funciones de producdón y de costos\" Optimos económicos con y s¡'\" restricciones de pres.:puefto.6. Procesos y mitodos de planeoc;óm fiujo de octiv¡dades, programe y presu-I I puesto.l. El control al nivel de lo finca; con'eo; • ¡dad y registros de p,:.auccló\", ' .•i~•• . 9. An6lisis del negocio agropecuario: medidos de ingreso, resumen del negocia, retribución a los factores de lo producción • • B. El Sistemo de Producción a Nivel Regional ,.l. Componentes biofrsiccs (ecología) y sociales (institúciones, normas y valores, infraestructura) • 2. Flujos de productos, ingresos, e Informaci6n.3. Prerrequisitcs, requisitos y aceleradores de la introducción de cambios en el sistema.4. Funcionamiento del sistema económico regional: demanda, oferta, precios, mercados, tipos de competencia, elasticidad y flexibilidad.5. Funcionamiento de lo sociedad como sistema: estructura y cultura, procesos sociales (conflicto, competencia, cooperaci6n, acomodación), procesos• culturales (innovaciones, adopción, difusión), decisiones a nivel de grupo, el cambio como procese de acción sociol.6. Papel de la comunicación en lo introducción de cambios en lo agricultura: proceso, prop6sito y modelos de comunicación, formulación de objetivos de comportamiento, percepción, significado, aprend:zaje, actitudes y cambio de actitudes, estrategias y técnicas de comunicación.7. Elaboración e implementación de planes regionales, revisión de casos {Filipinas, Pakistán, México, Solvador, Honduras, Colombia f PerúL defln¡ción de objetivos, funciones bÓlolcas (evaluación, ¡nve$~igac¡ón .. d1vu!goc;ón, coordinación), financiación.B. Nociones metodológicas para un esludio sacioeconómico a nivel regional. ","tokenCount":"2905"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ff9819357c1958d35e18ce7317b6530","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27379781-8151-4139-a42b-4164aaa473e7/retrieve","id":"-2096725640"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"69239a6f-c68f-468d-84b1-2967987e0e54","pagecount":"29","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).This report presents findings from the parcel and plot level boundary mapping exercise conducted in the Malawi districts: Mzimba, Dedza, Kasungu, Balaka, Mangochi, and Zomba. A total of 356 farming households were randomly selected from the established list of farmers (1,296) who were previously interviewed during a baseline survey conducted in 2022. The survey covered a total of 356 parcels containing 469 unique. 76% of households participated in the co-design of sociotechnical bundles of technologies spearheaded by the Mixed Farming Systems (MFS)Initiative. During the parcel and plot boundary mapping, the enumerators recorded the farm structure (cultivated crops, inputs, productivity, and technologies or practices) and assessed the types and drivers of land degradation (LD). 356 farming households were randomly selected from the established list of farmers (1,296) who were previously interviewed during a baseline survey conducted in 2022. The survey covered a total of 356 parcels containing 469 unique. 76% households participated in co-design of socio-technical bundles of technologies spearheaded by the Mixed Farming Systems (MFS) Initiative. During the parcel and plot boundary mapping, the enumerators recorded the farm structure (cultivated crops, inputs, productivity and technologies or practices) and assessed the types and drivers of land degradation (LD).The plot level data was intended to validate the farmers' recall data collected during the baseline survey, particularly the estimation of acreage, crop yield, and the proportion of land under different management systems. Data obtained from this exercise will further be used as ground truth in a follow-up study to demonstrate the effectiveness of applying remote sensing to characterize the status of the mixed farming systems.The comparison of farmers' self-reported and GPS -measured plot sizes indicated zero agreement since farmers underestimated in 54% and overestimated in 46% of the cases. On average, the self-reported plot size was overestimated by 0.11 ha. In addition, the farmer self-reported data under-estimated average maize yields compared to the global positioning system (GPS) measured ones partly due to inaccurate estimation IV of farmers' plot size. The biased estimation of plot sizes significantly impacts the computation of crop yields per hectare. The biased self-reported crop area has an important implication when evaluating the impact of inputs such as improved varieties and fertilizers on crop yield. Agricultural investment policies formulated based on the biases farmer reported measurements of crop yield and area are likely to cause unintended outcomes. Results highlights the acute need for more accurate but time and cost-effective measurements of measuring plot sizes and yields such as those utilizing remotely sensed data and analytics.Land degradation (LD) in croplands was mainly caused by poor soil management practices (42%) that were mainly accentuated by missing or insufficient soil conservation and erosion control measures (25%) followed by tillage practicesploughing/harrowing on steep or along the slope (12%) and cultivation of highly unsuitable or vulnerable soils (5.4%). Natural causes of LD were caused by changes in seasonal rainfall (17%) and topography (16%).Data further revealed a varying pattern in adopting soil conservation practices across the study districts. Farmers in Balaka, Zomba, Dedza, and Kasungu districts predominantly employed mulching, tied ridges, and trenches, while those in Mangochi and Dedza had a higher preference for contour ploughing. Data revealed that the NPK and Urea were predominantly used as the main and second fertilizers, respectively. The application of these practices reflects the local context and the farmers' understanding of effective soil conservation techniques.Given the shortcomings of the farmer self-reported data, we recommend exploring the use of remote sensing data for agricultural monitoring to complement the traditional survey data.Agriculture in Malawi is predominantly rainfed, and parcels are fragmented, with an average parcel size below 2 ha. The small parcels have plots with distinct crops and management systems. Farmers practice mixed farming systems comprising of growing diverse crops and rearing livestock supplemented by off-farm activities. The resilience of these farming systems is under severe threat due to confounding impacts of extreme poverty, increasing population, and climate change and variability. Therefore, up-todate data is vital for designing sustainable management of these diverse cropping system. Information on the cropping systems is mainly available from household surveys that rely on farmers' recall. Recent studies have shown that farmer reported data have systematic measurement errors on plot size and crop yields (Gourlay et al., 2019;Carletto et al., 2013) . Therefore, policies formulated from imprecise data could lead to mis-adaptation of technologies or inappropriate extension advisories. This calls for methods to accurately measure and characterize the structure and content of the fragmented land parcels. Remote sensing offers an option for synoptic and repetitive monitoring of farms over extensive areas (Nakalembe et al., 2021;Pelletier et al., 2023); however, it requires ground truthing to identify the crops and management practices on the ground._ 2The survey was conducted in six districts in Malawi (Figure 1) from May to June 2023. A total of 356 farming households were randomly selected from the established list of baseline survey sample households (1,296) conducted in 2022. Table 1 outlines the spatial distribution of randomly selected farming households per administrative districts, extension planning areas (EPA), sections, and villages. One parcel was purposely mapped for each sampled household, along with plots located within the boundary. A buffer distance of 50 meters was maintained between the centre of adjacent plots to avoid two plots being in the same pixel of satellite imagery. The unique plots within the parcels were not closed by a river or road or close to the forest edge to avoid mixed pixels. Field data was collected by trained enumerators using a survey questionnaire that was administered using computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) based software (Survey Solutions). This questionnaire was designed in CAPI to easily capture details like the parcel's area or plot and automatic distance calculation from the homestead to the parcel based on global positioning system (GPS) coordinate of the home captured during the baseline survey.Quantitative data analysis was performed using Stata where descriptive statistics were used to generate the results presented in the following chapter. This section provides detailed findings from mapping parcels and plots. After mapping the perimeter of the parcels and plots data were collected on cultivated crops, crop inputs, crop types, size and production systems. receiving more inputs such as farmyard manure, partly due to reduced transport costs and ease of access. Most farmers in the 6 districts cultivated diverse annual crops ranging from maize, rice, sorghum, and soybeans (Figure 2). About 1.1% of plots in Balaka district had perennial crops (coconuts, mangoes, oranges, and cashew nuts).Homesteads and fallowing were recorded only in Kasungu district, though percentage coverage was less than 1% of total land._ 8 On the other hand, Mangochi and Dedza exhibited a higher preference for contour ploughing. This technique involves ploughing along the contours of the land, which helps to slow down surface runoff, which in turn minimizes soil erosion. The farmers in these districts have recognized the benefits of contour ploughing in their specific geographical contexts.It is important to note that adopting agroforestry practices was not explicitly mentioned in the data collection tool, so further information on this aspect is not provided in this document. However, it is worth noting that agroforestry is an important soil conservation practice that integrates trees and shrubs with crops. Agroforestry can provide numerous benefits, such as enhancing soil fertility, improving water management, and diversifying farmers' livelihoods. Fertilizers play a crucial role in providing essential nutrients to the soil, which are necessary for the healthy growth of crops. A recent study showed that the amount of fertilizer applied is a key determinant of maize yield in Malawi (Gachoki and Muthoni, 2023). However, due to various reasons such as limited financial resources and lack of knowledge, many farmers in Malawi do not use fertilizers effectively or at all. This results in nutrient-deficient soils, leading to lower crop yields.Application of primary and second fertilizers was observed in all 6 districts (Figure 4). The results show that Urea and NPK were the most dominant fertilizers used in all districts at varying rates and either as primary or second fertilizers. In terms of Urea application, it was noted that over 60% of its usage was observed as a second fertilizer across all districts. On the other hand, NPK was applied as a main fertilizer between 30% and 40% in all districts. The _ 10 utilization of Urea and NPK fertilizers as main and second fertilizers, respectivelyshowcases their significance in enhancing agricultural productivity. These fertilizers are crucial in providing essential nutrients to crops, thus promoting healthy growth and maximizing yield. The application of Urea as a second fertilizer implies that it is often used to supplement the crops' nitrogen (N) requirements during the vegetative and grain-filling growth stages. This practice allows farmers to address N deficiencies and ensure optimal growth and development. Meanwhile, NPK being applied as a main fertilizer indicates that it is commonly used as a primary source of essential nutrients for crops.NPK fertilizers contain a balanced ratio of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), which are vital for various physiological processes within plants.The dominance of Urea and NPK fertilizers in all districts emphasizes their popularity among farmers. These fertilizers are known for enhancing crop productivity and improving overall agricultural sustainability. During the plot level mapping exercise, the area of the plot in square meters was automatically generated using the CAPI software. This was later converted into hectares to compare with what farmers had self-reported during the baseline survey. The average size for the plots measured with GPS was 0.11 ha higher than the self-reported measurement (Table 4). Results in Table 4 indicate that farmers generally overestimated the plot size in 46% of the cases (216 plots) while underestimating the plot size in 54% of the cases (253 plots).Zero cases of the measurements were identical, therefore highlighting the importance of using GPS to measure the plot area. The implication is that most farmers, therefore, underestimate or overestimate their yields. This may have huge implications, especially when it comes to analysing the impact of inputs such as improved varieties and agronomic practices on yield. Policies formulated based on farmer-reported crop area measurements are likely to be biased, leading to unintended outcomes. Table 5 below provides evidence that the computation of crop yields per hectare has been significantly influenced by the incorrect estimation of plot sizes in farmers' self-reported plot sizes. This issue arises from farmers' overestimation and underestimation of plot sizes, thereby leading to inaccurate yield estimations. Consequently, it is evident that there is an apparent problem in the estimation of crop yields. There is a slight underestimation of the average maize yields when computed using the farmer's self-reported data (1.3 t/ha) compared to GPS measurements (1.5 t/ha).However, the former grossly under-estimated the variability of the yields since the maximum was 5.4 t/ha compared to 29.9 t/ha (Table 5). This trend is evident for most crops. The data reveals that the maize yields computer from farmers self-reported plot sizes under-estimated average yield compared to the GPS measured due to inaccurate estimation of farmers' plot size. This discrepancy highlights the importance of accurate plot size estimation to facilitate more precise crop yields.The implications of inaccurate plot size estimation are significant.Overestimating plot sizes may lead to excessive use of resources, such as shown remarkable accuracy in predicting field boundaries (Estes et al., 2022) and crop yields (Lobell et al., 2020) at different development stages during the growing season. 2.23.0 Sorghum 7 0.9 0.5 7 1.5 1.5 141.21.1In Malawi, the main crops cultivated are maize, beans, cowpea, soybeans, and groundnuts. However, these crops have relatively low average yields per hectare, ranging from 0.4 to 1.5 tons.Various studies have been conducted to understand the reasons behind these low yields (Khonje et al., 2022;Manda et al., 2016). One common factor that has been identified is the low adoption of improved agricultural technologies, particularly fertilizer and improved seeds. The lack of access to and utilization of these technologies significantly affects crop yields, including cereals and legumes.Similarly, the use of improved seeds is essential for achieving higher yields.These seeds are specifically developed to better resist pests, diseases, and adverse weather conditions. They also have higher productivity potential compared to traditional seeds. However, the adoption rate of improved seeds in Malawi remains low, mainly due to farmers' limited availability, high costs, and lack of awareness. Additionally, initiatives should be taken to enhance the availability and affordability of improved seeds and create awareness about their benefits among farmers. Figure 5 shows that the average yield between farmers using inorganic and organic fertilizers for maize crops is significant (0.8 vs 1.3 tons/ha). However, farmers should ensure the use of inorganic fertilizers to have assured productivity for crops like maize and millet. Organic fertilizers have some significant effects on some crops like cotton. The decomposition of organic amendments improves soil organic matter content and, consequently the structure and fertility of the soils. However, their impact takes a longer duration to be realized.Overall, fertilizers play a crucial role in providing essential nutrients to the soil, which are necessary for the healthy growth of crops. However, due to various reasons such as limited financial resources and lack of knowledge, many Table 8 presents the results on the effect of applying fertilizers on crop yields between farmers who applied versus those who did not apply any form of fertilizer (organic or non-organic). Generally, fertilizer users produce much higher yields (1.5 tons/ha) than those without fertilizer (1.1 tons/ha). This section provides details on the assessment of the types, extent, and drivers of land degradation (LD) in farmers' plots over different environmental gradients (slope, cropping system, soil types in six districts of Malawi. Biological degradation and soil erosion by wind constituted less than 19% of all land degradation problems, with the former mainly being driven by reduction of vegetation cover, loss of habitats, decline of vegetative biomass, effects of Fires, species composition change or diversity decline, and bush encroachment (Table 9). However, biological degradation was mostly recorded in plots with flat slopes (52%).Limited degradation reported in plots with steep slopes, could be the effect of sampling bias since the survey focused exclusively on croplands mostly located in flat to gentle slopes. The direct causes of LD in the surveyed plots are presented in Table 10. LD in croplands was mainly caused by soil management practices (42% of sites) that is mainly accentuated by missing or insufficient soil conservation/runoff and erosion control measures (25%) followed, by tillage practices -ploughing/harrowing on steep or along the slope (12%) and Cultivation of highly unsuitable or vulnerable soils (5.4%). Natural causes of LD are prominent and largely caused by changes in seasonal rainfall (17%)and topography (16%). Topographical causes are related to the steepness of slope and topographical positions such as cultivation on hillsides. Over-exploitation of vegetation, especially conversion of forests to agriculture was recorded in 6.8% of plots. ","tokenCount":"2566"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e030427cec805c622b11650afc1c8c4f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc136dca-0602-45cc-9a5e-5dbd71d16230/retrieve","id":"-1521577345"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"21830ec2-d3f3-47a7-9766-0bea816b2535","pagecount":"63","content":"We are grateful to all organisations and individuals who contributed to this study. We express our gratitude to the 35 households who availed themselves to be interviewed and shared valuable information with the research team during the community workshop.iii List of Tables Table 1. Kitengela and Nairobi National Park wild herbivore and livestock population 1990-1997.Table 2.Mean annual percentage loss of cattle and sheep by different causes on the Lolldaiga Hills ranch, Laikipia District: 1971-1993.Table 3. Descriptive statistics of 171 households from original survey and clustering variables.Table 4.Average values for critical variables by cluster.Table 5. Average land and livestock holdings (absolute numbers) per household by cluster.Table 6.Livestock holdings (TLU) by cluster.Table 7.Livestock holdings (TLU) in other areas and group ranches.Table 8. Annual offtake and acquisition of livestock by value, rate and transaction type.Table 9.Livestock losses (% of the total herd/flock size in September 1999).Table 10. Cattle herd structure by cluster, September 2000.Table 11. Average prices of livestock and products (KSh) in the year 2000.Table12.Summary of gross annual livestock output in a good year (KSh).Table 13. Summary of gross annual livestock output in a bad year (KSh).Table 14.Milk sales revenue and consumption value by cluster.Table 15.Mean annual livestock input cost by cluster (KSh).Table 16. Average input cost comparison (KSh/TLU).Table 17.Net livestock income in a good year by cluster (KSh).Table 18.Net livestock income in a bad year by cluster (KSh).Table 19.Annual livestock net income per TLU and per acre.Table 20.Average crop output per household, kgs/year.Table 21.Average annual gross crop revenues (KSh) value by cluster.Table 22.Average annual net crop income by cluster (including labour costs).Table 23.Average annual net crop income by cluster (excluding labour costs).Table 24.Type of off-farm income activity, number of people involved and estimated off-farm income earnings by cluster (KSh).Table 25. Contribution of off-farm income to total household income. A formal household survey was carried out on a relatively small sample of 35 out of the original 171 households interviewed in 1999. Detailed (and sensitive) information was sought regarding revenues, costs, income sources and income levels under various land-use options. The 35 households were then statistically grouped into four clusters, with each cluster made up of relatively homogeneous households with respect to socioeconomic and location characteristics. The range of economic activities covered by the survey included livestock production, subsistence crop production, quarrying and offfarm income (including wage labour, informal sector employment, remittances from relatives and income from investment in businesses).The results show considerable variation across households' landholdings, herd size, herd management, level and diversification of income sources and cropping practices. Thus the cluster analysis was useful in terms of distinguishing different types of livelihood strategies with respect to both socio-economic characteristics and geographic determinants of opportunities (e.g. distance to market).Income from livestock production was generally low and much lower in years in which the long rains failed. Net livestock income averaged around KSh 20,000 per adult equivalent (AE) per year, or roughly US$ (256), per AE per year. On a per acre basis, the average net income from livestock activities alone was KSh 1400/acre per year, or US$ 17.95. Milk revenues were important to most households and highly dependent on the timing and levels of rainfall across all clusters, and surpassed the value of reported milk consumption.While 80% of surveyed households grew crops, for most households it is not a profitable undertaking because when crop output was valued at market prices, the costs of production generally outweighed the potential revenues.The different types of households (i.e. clusters) varied both in the importance of alternate income sources and in levels of income. The market-oriented cluster had the highest levels of annual net income (and highest off-farm income). The traditional cluster had the lowest annual net income (with 90% of total household income coming from livestock). One-third of the respondents had no access to off-farm income, but for the remainder, it can be a very important livelihood option, with some of the 'wealthiest' households deriving well over half of their income from off-farm sources.Overall net income per AE levels ranged from KSh 1772-4956/month. This places all of the Kitengela clusters above the rural poverty line (the amount of money considered by the Government of Kenya to generate inadequate income levels to feed, clothe, educate and pay for basic health care for their families). Two groups fall under the urban poverty line (which is arguably more appropriate for households located so close to Nairobi), and the third group is barely above it. The market-oriented group, with its smaller average family size, earns roughly twice the income per adult of the established urban poverty line. However, over half of the households (54%) earned less than a dollar a day per adult equivalent, a widely used global measure of poverty. Another 26% earned less than US$ 2 per day, 14% earned between US$ 2 and US$ 4 per day and only 2 households (6%) earned over US$ 4 per day per AE.Looking at the spatial distribution of livestock returns per acre, along with an examination of the spatial distribution of five species of migratory wildlife during the dry season, revealed that there are some households earning very little from livestock even in areas with relatively few wildlife. There were also areas with a lot of wildlife where households earn high livestock income. These observations do not lend support to the notion that households in the densest wildlife areas are worse off. There was no easily discernible spatial pattern to net incomes per person.The findings of this study were presented in a workshop with community members and were well received. Information received from the community was very useful in interpreting the survey results. Several lessons were also learned regarding methodology, and future analyses will attempt to incorporate more ecological variables in the initial cluster analysis (e.g. measures of soil fertility and degradation, water availability), and averages from several years of aerial survey data, as well as explore methods of using remote sensing data.Rapidly increasing human population and changing socio-economic lifestyles (leading to greater natural resource exploitation) have been identified as the greatest threats to wildlife conservation within rangelands the world over (WRI 1997;Ellis et al. 1999;Foran and Howden 1999). Within East Africa, changes in land policies, high human population growth rates, and rapid changes in people's expectations over the past few decades have resulted in the expansion of cultivation, growth in the number of permanent settlements, urbanisation and diversification of land-use activities around conservation areas. All of these factors have contributed to unprecedented human-wildlife conflicts (Western 1982;Ellis et al. 1999).The change in land policy from communal to individual landholdings has facilitated a market-oriented economy, which tends to promote expansion of crop agriculture and commercialisation of livestock production systems within rangelands (Galaty 1994). Consequences of these changes on land-use patterns include declining ecological, economic and social integrity of rangelands due to fragmentation of landscapes, declining rangeland productivity, diminishing wildlife migratory corridors, wildlife populations and diversity, and cultural and economic diversification due to immigration (Gichohi et al. 1996).In Kenya and many parts of the world, protected areas have proved to be too small to sustainably maintain long-term, viable wildlife populations and diversity (Newmark 1993). In Kenya, for example, more than 70% of wildlife is found outside parks and game reserves on private and communally owned lands within pastoral areas/rangelands (Western and Pearl 1989). In the past, under communal landholdings, wildlife coexisted freely with people outside the protected areas. Recently, Kenya has experienced rapid changes in land policies that have transformed former pastoral communal lands into group and individual ranches and private holdings. These changes in tenure systems have led to emergence of a myriad of land-use systems including rain-fed and irrigation crop agriculture, permanent settlement, land sales, quarrying and tented camping sites within private ranches. These changes in land-use are thought to impact negatively on wildlife conservation and pastoralism as a way of life. Given reduction in land sizes and connectivity, pastoral mobility and livestock grazing areas have been reduced/curtailed due to fragmentation, fencing and cultivation. Left with few or no alternatives, pastoralists are struggling to survive in this harsh environment by diversifying their land-use activities, despite the fact that the conditions are not always suitable for the land-use choices they are making. Therefore the role of wildlife dispersal areas and migratory corridors outside the protected areas is critical to wildlife conservation in Kenya. Given the observed high rate of land sales and fragmentation within the rangelands, viable wildlife corridors need to be established before it is too late.Wildlife-human conflicts have escalated in recent years in areas adjacent to the parks because of changes in land-use, and particularly in response to the expansion and intensification of arable farming, inadequate wildlife control and a ban on hunting. These changes have contributed immensely to the hardships of landowners, who tend to invest and lose more money as they try to cope with the wildlife challenges in their land-use enterprises. Despite the changes in socio-economic lifestyles of the pastoralists, few systematic, comprehensive and objective studies on the returns to the various land-use options (including wildlife) have been done. Past studies mainly focused on the effects of pastoral land policy changes on livestock productivity (Bekure et al. 1991;Rutten 1992;Homewood 1995). Understanding relative economic returns of different land-use options is an important prerequisite to rational and transparent policy formulation and integration of the present conflicting demands of wildlife habitat, tourism/recreation, livestock grazing, crop agriculture and other developments within pastoral rangelands (Western and Gichohi 1993;Ellis et al. 1999). A primary objective of this study is to provide critical and timely information to decision-makers regarding these often conflicting pastoral land-uses.The study builds on a previous household socio-economic survey undertaken by the African Conservation Centre (ACC) in 1999 within the Kitengela pastoral area adjacent to the renowned Nairobi National Park (Mwangi and Warinda 1999). With the changes in socio-economic conditions, conflict between landowners and wildlife in this area is increasingly becoming a major issue. This study aims at informing the search for land-use activities that will lead to protection of wildlife corridors and dispersal areas and, at the same time maximise returns from the land. In addressing the challenges that surround changes in land-use patterns and economic activities pursued by landowners, the study attempts to address the following questions:1. What are the socio-economic characteristics of the families living within the Kitengela wildlife dispersal area?2. What is the range of economic returns to the different land-use options?3. What incentives exist or can be introduced to encourage wildlife conservation on private lands?The study attempts to provide information that will help answer these questions for community members, policy makers and other stakeholders involved in wildlife conservation. An opportunity-cost approach was taken to estimate economic returns to existing land-use options and other income-generating activities pursued by Kitengela landowners. In Kenya, valuing alternative uses of land is viewed as one possible approach for estimating the compensation value for wildlife, since wildlife hunting is illegal and wildlife do not have a recognised market value (other than from tourism) (Norton-Griffiths 1995). The research team used a partial budgeting approach proposed during a stakeholder workshop held in March 2000. A formal household survey was carried out on a relatively small sample of households in order to obtain information on revenues, costs and incomes of the households (comprehensive and sensitive information, hence the small sample). Information on the relative returns of land under various uses is expected to contribute towards a more realistic appraisal of the marginal value of the land (i.e. the value of one additional acre 1 of land) as well as the wildlife that depend on it. A second objective of the study was to look at spatial income-distribution patterns, i.e. do relative economic returns show any discernible spatial patterns and how do they relate to certain geographic factors such as the distance of the household to Nairobi National Park, water sources, the nearest shopping centre, and the closest tarmac road?Land tenure policies have changed considerably within Kenyan pastoral areas over the last 40 years. Until the mid-1960's, land in the pastoral systems was held communally. After Kenya achieved independence from colonial rule, the government encouraged private land ownership in pastoral systems, with the aim of intensifying and commercialising livestock production (Galaty 1994;Homewood 1995). The first major step in privatisation was the introduction of the Group Lands Representatives Act in 1968, which provided for the adjudication of group ranches (Thompson et al. 2000). Under the Kenya Livestock Development Project (Phase I) funded by the World Bank, each large communally owned piece of Maasai land was adjudicated into several group ranches 2 (Grandin 1989). At the same time, some individuals were also able to register titles over privately owned ranches. Group ranches ranged from 3000 to 151,000 ha, while the individual ranches averaged 800 ha.Group ranches were seen as a compromise between the Government's preference for individual tenure and the production requirements of a semi-arid zone that necessitates greater mobility of animals than can be attained under a tenure system that is entirely private. Communal land tenure of large territories and a group ranch approach allowed wildlife to coexist freely with the livestock. However, as a result of inefficiencies and failures in the operation of the group ranches, the Maasai started pressing for subdivision. The government officially authorised subdivision of ranches in mid-1983. The Kitengela group ranch, made up of 18,292 ha and 214 registered members, was subdivided in 1988. After subdivision of the group ranch, land fragmentation and sales have continued at a steady and escalating, pace.Transitions in land tenure have led to changes in land-use activities in the Kitengela ecosystem. This ecosystem acts as a wildlife dispersal area and migratory corridor for Nairobi National Park. Maasai pastoralists in this area have diversified into economic activities other than traditional livestock production. In addition, its close proximity to the city of Nairobi has attracted non-Maasai and increased the pressure for land for permanent settlement, industrialisation and speculation. This area is threatened with increasing human population, permanent settlement and fences, social pressures on traditional Maasai lifestyles and industrialisation of the Athi-River and Kitengela townships. These new developments interfere with the seasonal wildlife migratory routes and reduce wildlife ranges and available habitats. These changes in socio-economic conditions and land-use activities appear to be contributing to escalating conflicts between landowners and wildlife in the area neighbouring Nairobi National Park.The Kitengela conservation area covers approximately 390 km 2 (GOK 2001b). When Nairobi National Park was established in 1946 under the National Parks Ordinance of 1945, it was immediately recognised that it was too small to meet the ecological requirements for existing migratory wildlife species. Kitengela plains and the Ngong Hills were thus declared conservation areas. However, the status of Kitengela was never legalised and although referred to as a Game Conservation area, the land is now privately owned. The Kitengela area therefore presents a great challenge to conservation. The threats arise from several factors, including increasing human population and settlement along the Mbagathi River (predominantly by the expatriate community who pay high prices to live within view of Nairobi National Park) and the development of the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) in Kitengela town. The EPZ is an industrial park for the manufacture of export goods. Locating the EPZ within this wildlife area has created the following problems:• Rapid expansion of Athi-River and Kitengela towns into the wildlife habitat as a result of development of subsidiary/ancillary industry and various types of infrastructure supporting the industrial zone.• Rapid subdivision of land in the neighbourhood-the land is purchased largely by non-Maasai, and in turn the funds are used by the old landowners to fence off the remaining tracts of land, for the purpose of defining individual boundaries or keeping wildlife off the land. Land sales have also provided capital for investment in business in nearby towns and led to settlement expansion.• Expansion of stone quarrying activities within Kitengela, resulting in conversion of good grazing land into wasteland.The human population within the Kitengela area has more than doubled in the last 10 years, from 6548 in 19896548 in to 17,347 in 19996548 in (GOK 1994a;;GOK 1994b;GOK 2001a;GOK 2001b). At the same time, the number of households increased nearly five-fold from 1989 to 1999 (1044 to 5005 households). The high population growth rate experienced in this area has been attributed mainly to in-migration, due to Kitengela's proximity to Nairobi and increasing urban development occurring in the proximity of the town. The immigrants are mainly from the Kikuyu and Kamba communities.Livestock and a large number of wild herbivores dominate the Kitengela ecosystem, with wildebeest and zebra constituting over half the total wildlife population. Other wildlife species include: Maasai giraffe, Coke's hartebeest, black rhino, African buffalo, Grant's gazelle, Thomson's gazelle, eland, impala and waterbuck and predators such as lions, cheetahs and leopards as well as a high diversity of bird life. The ecosystem forms an important part of the wet season dispersal area for wildlife that lives part of the year in Nairobi National Park.Aerial surveys conducted in the Kitengela dispersal area and Nairobi National Park in June 1996 and July 1997 revealed that domestic herbivores (i.e. livestock) accounted for up to 80% of the total herbivore population in 1996, and 86% in 1997 (Gichohi and Sitati 1997). Nineteen species (5 domestic and 14 wild herbivores) were counted within an area of 2750 km 2 in 1996 and 2925 km 2 in 1997 at the beginning of the dry season. Total herbivore (wild and domestic) estimates were 192,862 in 1996 and 272,981 in 1997. However, only 11 wild herbivore species were observed in 1996 compared to 14 in 1997. The increase in herbivore population of 42% was reported to be statistically significant and resulted in a change in herbivore density, from 70/km 2 in 1996 to 90/km 2 in 1997. Domestic herbivores accounted for the largest increase of 52%. This could be attributed to a larger sample area in 1997 compared to 1996 and the absence of three wild herbivore species in 1996. The three species (warthog, waterbuck and oryx) occur in small numbers and could have been totally missed during the 1996 survey. The area has experienced a 50% loss of wildlife populations over the past few years (Table 1). These changes in herbivore populations have been largely attributed to changing conditions resulting from increasing human population and livestock and other human activities, as well as climatic changes. Frequent droughts have also occurred in the recent years especially from 1991 to 1994 and in 1996/1997. Table 1 also shows that livestock numbers declined markedly in the area until recently. Between 1990 and 1996, 45% of all livestock were also lost from the system. In one year, 1997, livestock populations recovered by more than 50%. Source: Gichohi and Sitati (1997).The objectives of the 1999 ACC pastoral household survey were to examine the impacts of the wildlife corridor on the welfare of the local community, assess the acceptability of an easement programme to the landowners in the area based on their willingness to accept financial compensation in exchange for allowing free movement of wildlife and examine and propose solutions to the major socio-economic challenges that have hindered development in the area (Mwangi and Warinda 1999). The survey focused on the socio-economic factors associated with sustainable livestock production systems and wildlife conservation in the area and succeeded in describing the range of economic activities pursued by Kitengela landowners although it did not estimate the returns to these activities.The 1999 survey found that landowners in this area suffer frequently from wildliferelated problems. Over 93.5% of the households interviewed reported a very significant increase in human-wildlife conflicts caused by increased livestock numbers, lack of economic benefits from wildlife, increasing human population, increased risks of human attack, severe competition for water and grass and frequent predation. Each respondent reported an average loss of KSh 15,903 annually through wildlife-related damages. Livestock predation by wild predators is common during the wet season, with some livestock killed in the homestead paddocks at night, and others as they graze during the day. Up to 50 attacks were reported, compared to 20 during the dry season. To reduce human-wildlife conflicts, over 94% of the landowners decided to fence their homesteads, 83% their cultivated lands, 16% the grazing lands, while 3% the fallow land. Over 68% of the respondents reported willingness to leave part of their land (between 0.5-250 acres) unfenced, if in return they were paid a modest sum of money for accommodating wildlife.The second objective of the 1999 survey, therefore, was to find out what 'a modest sum of money' for accommodating wildlife amounted to. Thus it tested a contingent valuation approach to valuing wildlife by asking respondents how much money they would be willing to accept in order to compensate for wildlife losses incurred on their land (i.e. to keep their land open for the use of wildlife as well as their livestock). Unfortunately, the range of responses (i.e. value of compensation) was so large that this methodology for valuing the land under alternative uses was deemed questionable, and another approach was sought. The average annual amount of financial compensation demanded per household/respondent was KSh 60,022 (roughly US$ 920) per acre.Based (in part) on the findings of the ACC survey, Friends of Nairobi National Park (FONNAP, a non-governmental organisation) initiated a pilot land-leasing project in 2000. Landowners were paid KSh 300/acre (approximately US$ 3.80/acre) per year in return for agreeing to leave their land open to wildlife and not engage in quarrying, fencing, land subdivision and sale or poaching activities. The pilot project started in April 2000 with a total of 214 acres initially signed up under the lease programme. This increased to 2708 acres in January 2001. As of April 2001, there were 8415 acres on the waiting list. Plans are underway to raise at least US$ 3 million and invest it in an endowment fund where the interest will be used to pay for the leases, consequently ensuring sustainability of the programme. FONNAP partners include the Wildlife Trust based in California (USA) and Kenya Wildlife Trust in the UK, Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW)-East Africa, Africa Wildlife Foundation (AWF) and African Conservation Centre (ACC) among others. The lease programme will be strengthened with the purchase of critical pieces/parcels of land. This ambitious lease programme was officially inaugurated at the launching of the Nairobi National Park Migration Appeal in November 2000.The problem of human-wildlife conflicts has also been reported in Koiyaki (group ranch), Lemek and Olchoro-Oiroua (individual holdings) in Maasai Mara (Thompson et al. 2000). Apart from competing with the livestock for water and pasture, wildlife facilitates the transmission of certain livestock diseases, increasing veterinary care costs. Wildlife also increases the cost of maintaining fences around bomas and other structures, indirectly through labour. While predation was cited as a serious problem in these areas, damage caused by disease was much higher. About 5% of livestock deaths were due to predation and approximately 50% due to disease.In Maasai Mara, revenue-sharing programmes have been initiated through the formation of wildlife associations that include Koiyaki-Lemek and Olchoro Oiroua Wildlife Trusts. These associations generate income through a game-viewing fee charged to tourists camping and staying in lodges located on these lands. In addition, there are smaller associations of landowners that deal with individual or groups of tour operators. These form the main mechanism by which income from tourism is made available to group ranch members.The income is paid out as dividends to individual members, or through investment in community infrastructure-roads, schools, health facilities and water projects. The positive benefits from wildlife in these areas thus have the potential to offset the negative impacts of predation. In a privately owned ranch that manages livestock and wildlife in Laikipia district (Mizutani 1998), loss of livestock to carnivores was reported to be relatively small compared to losses from disease (Table 2). The magnitude of loss to carnivores depended on the type of habitat, policies of livestock management and availability of natural prey. In Mbirikani and Kimana group ranches near Amboseli National Park, similar human-wildlife conflicts were reported (Mbogoh et al. 1999). In these areas, causes of such conflicts included the transmission of diseases from wildlife to livestock, loss of livestock due to predation and loss of human life. In Mbirikani, income from wildlife tourism did not sufficiently offset the losses incurred by wildlife. In Kimana, apart from wildlife tourism enterprises, there is a wildlife sanctuary within the ranch that generates income directly from tourism. In addition to the wildlife-tourism enterprises, these group ranches receive annual grants of up to KSh one million from Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), from the gate fee collections of Amboseli National Park as well as employment opportunities. There is a comprehensive ecological-economic study currently underway examining the underlying factors of land-use changes within several group ranches near Amboseli that takes a similar approach to the one used in this study (Burnsilver 2000).The first challenge for this study was to limit the number of economic options to be analysed because the original ACC survey of 171 households demonstrated a wide range of resources and income or food generating activities; thus a 'representative enterprise' approach was sought. This is a partial budgeting approach that is commonly used to characterise and analyse crop farm enterprises, but has not been applied widely for semipastoral households such as those found in Kitengela (these households are described as semi-pastoral since livestock still move beyond the boundaries of the land that the household owns, but the household is based on a permanent site, usually with some cropping activities).While a large number of socio-economic factors were examined in the original ACC study, 15 variables were chosen as critical factors for a cluster analysis (described below). A brainstorming session with a stakeholder group judged these variables as the most important factors influencing households' livelihood strategies. The aim of the cluster analysis was to come up with clusters (groups) of relatively homogeneous households Source: Mwangi and Warinda (1999).Table 3. Descriptive statistics of 171 households from original survey and clustering variables.engaged in similar economic activities. The cluster analysis minimises the variation within a cluster, and maximises variation between clusters (Solano et al. 2001). A sample of households from each cluster was then targeted for a detailed survey (using structured questionnaires) aimed at calculating the revenues and costs of the livestock, crop and other income-generating options utilised by landowners in each cluster, using a partial budgeting approach. The 15 factors hypothesised to have a significant influence on households' livelihood (or income-generating) opportunities are presented in Table 3.Details of the statistical procedure used to come up with the household clusters are similar to those found in Solano et al. (2001). The steps involved are briefly described here. First, an initial factor analysis identified a smaller number of factors explaining the majority of the variation observed among the groups. Out of the 15 variables selected, 8 'factors' were obtained in this initial step. This was followed by a cluster analysis of the 8 factors to identify relatively homogeneous groups of cases based on the 15 selected variables. Four principal clusters were identified, with 29, 39, 15 and 46 households. The total number of households captured in these clusters was 129. Table 4 shows the means of these 15 critical variables by cluster relative to the overall population means (of the 171 households surveyed). Source: Mwangi and Warinda (1999).The description of the clusters as compared to the whole sample are given below:• The first cluster includes pastoralists with relatively high landholdings, smaller than average cattle herd size, larger households, relatively low crop income, an older and less educated household head, and was given the description 'traditional'. This group is located on average 8.2 km far from the park and 9.1 km far from the nearest tarmac road and 7.6 km far from the nearest shopping centre.• The second cluster was a more diversified group, with relatively large cattle herds, higher revenues from milk sales and some crop and quarrying income. This group of households is located close to Nairobi National Park and has relatively good water point access. The name given to this cluster was 'near park'. 3• The third cluster was called 'market-oriented' since it has more educated household heads, less land but with more of it under cultivation, tends to be closer to a tarmac road and a shopping centre, and is a non-quarrying group.• The fourth group of households has the lowest gross revenues, is located farthest from the park, has the youngest household head, a smaller household size, average landholdings and cattle herd size, and low crop and milk earnings.Households in this group are quite distant from the nearest tarmac road, water point and shopping centre. It is referred to as the 'average' cluster.Spatial distribution of the households by cluster in relation to the park within the wildlife dispersal area is shown in Figure 1. There are slight differences in climate within the dispersal area, with areas near the park receiving slightly more rainfall than areas to the south of the park.Given the sensitivity of the questions, length of the survey, and the limited resources for the study, a relatively small sample (35 households) of the original households interviewed was targeted in this follow-up survey. A proportional number of households were selected from each cluster: 8 from the traditional cluster, 9 from the near park cluster, 6 from the market-oriented cluster and 12 from the average cluster. Primary data on revenues and expenditures for livestock production, crop production, and quarrying activities was collected from the households in September 2000. Secondary sources of data such as crop prices and historical rainfall patterns were based on interviews with key informants.Interviews of the Maasai households were typically based on a single visit to each household, with follow-up visits for information where the respondents gave conflicting information or when a household member who was not available during the first visit needed to be consulted. Spatial and descriptive analyses of the socio-economic variables are discussed in the sections that follow. The sample size was too small for meaningful econometric analysis.There were difficulties during the survey arising from the drought that started in 1999 and lasted throughout 2000. By September 2000, there were a significant number of livestock deaths attributed to the drought. This made it difficult for the respondents to give accurate information regarding herd structure, size and breed, since the livestock had been moved considerable distances from home in search of pasture and water.Since an objective of the survey was to capture the range of activities and returns to those activities and not their drought coping strategies, the respondents were asked for information regarding a typical good year (defined as both the long and short rains occurring) and a typical bad year (defined as the long rains failing). Source: ILRI (2000), based on 1994 aerial photography (Gichohi 1996).This section discusses the results obtained from the survey regarding household characteristics, production system (livestock and crop production), off-farm income and quarrying activities.Among the Maasai, a household is defined as all those living within the same homestead, i.e. within the same 'enkang' and typically includes the children, husband, wife and also members of the extended family. Out of the 35 respondents, 27 were males (77%) and 8 were females (23%). The household size, expressed in adult equivalents 4 (AE), ranged from 1.7 to 27.5 with an overall mean of 6.1 AEs per household. There were slight variations in household size between clusters with the near park cluster having large households (7.7 AEs) and the market-oriented cluster the smallest (4.2 AEs). The average household size in Kitengela is lower than that reported for Mbirikani (10.8 AEs), but higher than those reported for Kimana (4.1 AEs) (Mbogoh et al. 1999). The respondents were aged between 20 and 70 years with a mean of 40 years. There were no discernible variations in age between the clusters. The level of education (years of formal education) among the respondents averaged 6 years and ranged from no formal education at all to 20 years of education. About 24% of the respondents had no formal education, 47% had less than 10 years of education and 29% had more than 11 years of formal education. The market-oriented cluster had the highest average level of education (11.5 years), while respondents in the traditional cluster had the lowest level of education (4.4 years). Half of the respondents in the traditional cluster had no formal education at all. There was a significant correlation between age of respondent, level of education and household size. The younger respondents were more educated (r = -0.52, p < 0.01), with relatively smaller household sizes (r = 0.49, p < 0.01).Pastoralism has historically formed the central element of the Maasai production system living in the Kitengela area adjacent to Nairobi National Park. New employment opportunities have opened up in recent years in the area with the development of an export processing zone (EPZ) next to Kitengela town. This, coupled with opportunities to purchase land relatively close to Nairobi, has attracted non-Maasai immigrants to Kitengela. Some of the new landowners are interested (and more experienced than the Maasai) in growing crops. Others appear to be land speculators. There is also a small amount of commercial production of horticultural products for export occurring but not captured in this study.While the local community (Maasai) still focus on livestock production, they have been diversifying into cropping (mostly maize, beans and potatoes for subsistence) and selling their land and investing in small businesses, wage labour and quarrying activities. Wage labour appears to be an increasingly important activity, including employment in both public and private sectors. The range of economic activities covered by the survey included livestock production, subsistence crop production, off-farm income (from wage labour, remittances from relatives and income from investment in businesses) and quarrying. All 35 households were engaged in livestock production, 28 households (80%) practiced crop production, 21 (60%) received some off-farm income and only 2 households (6%) were engaged in quarrying. To obtain more information regarding returns to quarrying, an additional four households were interviewed solely on their quarrying activities. While livestock production is still the dominant form of production (all households are involved), subsistence crop cultivation has become a central part of livelihood strategies, along with off-farm income from wage labour and business investments.The Maasai keep cattle, sheep and goats (hereafter lumped together as 'shoats') and sometimes donkeys for transportation. The average number of cattle owned per household decreased from 71 in 1998 5 to 58 in September 1999 and 48 in September 2000, i.e. a 17% decrease in the drought year. The size of cattle herd per household ranged from 3 to 290. Similarly, the average number of shoats owned per household had decreased from 152 in 1998 to 88 in September 1999 and to 69 by September 2000, a 22% decrease from 1999 to 2000. Herd sizes continued to decrease after September 2000 and a halt in livestock deaths due to drought did not come until the end of the year. Average landholdings and herd sizes by cluster are shown in Table 5. 5 Herd and flock sizes for 1998 were derived from the original ACC survey of 171 households in March 1999. Average landholdings among the clusters ranged from 75-247 acres. Households in the drier area had approximately 3 times (219 acres) more land than households in the wetter area near the park (75 acres). The average cluster with the second highest landholding (219 acres) had the largest number of cattle (70) and shoats (88). Sheep represented 75% of the shoats while the rest (25%) were goats. The traditional cluster with the highest landholdings (247 acres) had 42 and 79 head of cattle and shoats, respectively. The average, traditional and near park clusters reported significant decreases over the year in the number of shoats, i.e. 19, 21 and 30%, respectively.Livestock holdings were converted to tropical livestock units (TLU), where 1 TLU is equivalent to 250 kg live weight. The TLU enables us to come up with a homogeneous unit for livestock owned for comparison across clusters. In this study, a bull is equivalent to 1.29 TLU, a cow = 1 TLU, a mature steer = 1.05 TLU, a heifer = 0.7 TLU, an immature steer = 0.68 TLU, a calf = 0.4 TLU and a shoat = 0.11 TLU. The TLUs were derived using average weights of the different sex and age categories of cattle and shoats estimated from previous studies (King et al. 1984;Bekure et al. 1991;KARI/ODA 1996). These are shown in Appendix I. Household herd sizes in September 2000 ranged from 2.4 to 236.7 TLUs. Livestock holdings per acre across the clusters ranged from 0.17 to 0.46 while TLU per adult equivalent across clusters ranged from 4.8 to 12.6 (Table 6). The traditional cluster with the highest landholdings had the lowest TLU per acre. The TLU per adult equivalent for this cluster was almost half that of the average cluster. The near park cluster with the smallest average landholdings and the highest TLU per acre had the lowest TLU per adult equivalent resulting from the relatively large household size (7.7 AEs). The highest TLU/acre thus corresponds to the wettest area of Kitengela wildlife dispersal area. The average cluster with the second largest landholdings had the highest livestock holdings and TLU per adult equivalent, respectively. The market-oriented cluster had the lowest livestock holdings (29.6 TLU) and the second highest TLU per acre (0.29). There was a significant positive correlation between herd size and landholding (r = 0.4, p < 0.01). Similarly, households with more dependents had larger herds (r = 0.6, p < 0.01).The average livestock holdings, TLU per acre and TLU per adult equivalent across all households were 44.4, 0.3 and 8.4, respectively (Table 7). The TLU:AE ratio in Kitengela is 50-70% lower than those reported for Talek, Aitong, Lemek, and Nkorinkori locations in Mara (Thompson et al. 2000). However, the average TLU per acre of land in Kitengela is much higher than those reported for Olkarkar, Merueshi and Mbirikani group ranches in eastern Kajiado in 1982 (Bekure et al. 1991). This can be attributed to decreasing/smaller landholdings over time. A similar study (Mbogoh et al. 1999) in Kimana and Mbirikani group ranches with average landholdings of 73.8 and 66.6 acres, respectively, reported higher livestock holdings per acre. Although the Kitengela study was conducted in a drought year, the observed livestock unit per adult equivalent was much higher than those reported for Kimana and Mbirikani group ranches in 1999. Since resource endowments and use under individual land tenure is expected to be different from that in a group ranch and there are ecological differences between the two areas, the comparisons above should be interpreted carefully. The average TLU per acre for all households in Kitengela decreased from 0.31 in September 1999 to 0.26 in September 2000. Across all households, average livestock holdings decreased from 75 TLUs in 1998 to 52.8 in 1999 and 44.4 in 2000, i.e. a decrease of 41% in the past two years. The declining trend in livestock holdings was attributed to diseases (especially after the El Niño rains in 1997/98), increased livestock sales due to cash demand for household needs, recent droughts (1996/97 and 1999/2000), predation, slaughter for home consumption and possible underreporting of actual numbers of animals by some landowners.Maasai livestock transactions can be grouped into two major categories: offtake and acquisition. Several methods have been used to compute offtake. Bekure et al. (1991) computed total offtake rate of a herd as sales, exchanges, gifts given out and slaughter. Acquisition was defined as purchases, exchanges and gifts received. Nyariki and Munei (1993) computed offtake rate of a commercial ranch as sales only as a measure of output destined for the market. The present study considers sales and slaughter for offtake and purchases for acquisition. Our approach did not capture exchanges and gifts. Over the September 1999 to September 2000 period each of the 35 households sold, on average, 5 cattle and 8 shoats. Table 8 shows reported rates and values for annual offtake and acquisition of livestock per household across the clusters by type of transaction. Sales represented the most important reason for offtake of livestock. Across all clusters, sales accounted for over 80% of reported offtake value while slaughter accounted for only 3 to 18% of the offtake value. Annual livestock sales value among the clusters ranged from KSh 37,867 to 80,498. The market-oriented and average clusters had higher livestock sales, with annual sales value of KSh 80,498 and 57,560, respectively. The traditional and near park clusters had lower livestock sales, valued at KSh 46,994 and 37,867 (Table 8). Livestock sales revenue and herd sizes were highly correlated (r = 0.6, p < 0.01), i.e. households with large herds sold more livestock. The average annual value of livestock sales per household in Kitengela (KSh 54,013) was higher than that reported for Talek (KSh 33,020), but slightly lower than those reported for Lemek (KSh 56,315) in Maasai Mara (Thompson et al. 2000). Offtake rate (as % of total livestock holdings) ranged from 5.7 to 16.2% for cattle and 4.4 to 18.6% for shoats. The average and market-oriented clusters had higher offtake rates than did the traditional and near park clusters for cattle and shoats. Livestock acquisition rates were much lower than offtake rates.The number of cattle that died from September 1999 to September 2000 accounted for 15% of the total herd with cluster averages ranging from 10-20% (Table 9). Livestock losses were significant in the traditional (19.8%) and market-oriented (19.5%) clusters. Seventeen percent of the sheep flock and 22% of the goats died during the period as well (and the fact that so many shoats died is a strong indicator of the seriousness of the 1999 drought). Disease and starvation were the major causes of livestock death in the study area during this particular year. East coast fever (ECF) was the prevalent disease affecting livestock, and other diseases mentioned were foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), brucellosis and malignant catarrh fever (MCF).  The proportion of the different sexes and age categories ranged from 20-27% for calves, 17-23% for steers, 2-3% for bulls, 12-19% for heifers and from 33-42% for cows. All herds had a large proportion of females (heifers and cows), ranging from 50-57%. The observed herd structure is consistent with those reported for Central division of Kajiado district (Rutten 1992) and Kajiado district as a whole (ASAL 1990).Gross annual output of the livestock production system was calculated as the aggregate values of:Livestock and by-products sold by the household, including milk, live animals, manure, hides and skin sales.• Livestock and by-products consumed within the household, including livestock slaughtered and milk consumed.• Borehole and dip revenues, revenues from traction and revenue from any other livestock or their products (e.g. eggs, chickens).Actual and average market prices were used to value output sales and consumption. The average livestock sales prices and prices of livestock products reported during the survey are shown in Table 11.Mature steers fetched the highest prices in the study area. Prices for immature steers were slightly higher than for heifers. There were slight price differences across the different categories of shoats. Gross livestock annual output values for a good and a bad year are summarised in Tables 12 and 13.   In a good year, about 74% of the gross value of livestock output can be considered commercial and 26% for home consumption purposes (Figure 2). Revenues from borehole, dip, traction and other livestock or their products accounted for less than 1% of total gross output. A major difference between a 'good year'(defined as both rains occurring) and a 'bad year'(defined as the long rains failing) was reflected in annual revenues from milk sales and the amount and value of milk consumed. Gross revenues from livestock in a good year (including the value of livestock products consumed) per household ranged from approximately KSh 150,000 to 200,000 (Table 12). Cash revenues 6 ranged from approximately KSh 102,000 to 140,000 and made up 67-78% of gross livestock output across clusters. Gross livestock output per acre ranged from KSh 633 for the traditional cluster to KSh 2029 for the near park cluster.The mean gross livestock output value for the 35 households surveyed was KSh 172,625. Gross output per TLU ranged between KSh 2948 and 6809. The marketoriented cluster had the highest gross output value per TLU, which may be due to the much higher value of cattle sales (and relatively high offtake rates seen in Table 8) for this group of households. Table 13 summarises livestock related revenues in a bad year.Even in bad years, cash revenues from animal, milk, manure, hides and skin sales make up roughly 76% of the total value of the livestock enterprise for the Maasai households. Annual livestock sales revenues in a bad year ranged from KSh 33,700 to 58,834 for cattle, and from KSh 4167 to 21,664 for shoats (Table 13). Livestock sales represented 32% of gross annual livestock output. The market-oriented cluster had the highest value of livestock sales of KSh 80,498. Table 13 shows that income from the sale of manure is not insignificant (in some cases it is higher than income from milk sales), with average manure revenues varying between KSh 9375 and 22,500 per cluster. Skin and hides revenue was similar and low across all clusters. Revenues from manure, hides and skin accounted for approximately 11-14% of the value of gross annual livestock output. Revenues from boreholes, traction, dips and other livestock and their products were negligible.The value of milk sales in a good year across clusters ranged from KSh 43,875 to 61,500, with an overall mean of KSh 55,329 (Table 14). The more traditional pastoralists earn the most from milk in a good year, but not necessarily in a bad year, when they typically earn half as much money from milk as they do in a year when both rains occur. In a bad year, households located closer to the park earn about two-thirds as much as in Good year Bad year a good year from milk sales, but they still appear to fare better than other members of the community due to higher sales and consumption of milk. Total milk production (sales and consumption) accounted for 54 and 42% of the gross annual livestock output in a good and a bad year. Milk sales alone accounted for 32% in a good year. Average milk production in a good year during the wet (17.5 litres/day) and dry (8 litres/day) seasons was approximately twice as much as production levels in a bad year, with a wet season production of 9.6 litres/day and dry season levels of 4.5 litres/day.The household consumed about 33 and 39% of the total milk produced per day in a good year during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. In a bad year, household milk consumption increased to 41 and 49% of total output in dry and wet seasons. The average value of milk consumed in a good and a bad year represented about 22 and 20% of the total value of gross livestock output. For all households, average milk sales Figure 3. Annual milk sales revenue by cluster (KSh).revenue fell from KSh 55,329 in a good year to KSh 30,129 in a bad year (a 46% decrease). Across clusters, the average decline in milk sales revenue ranged from 31% for the near park cluster to 58% for the market-oriented cluster (Figure 3). Fifty-nine percent of the milk produced is sold, and 41% is retained for household consumption in a good year. The value of livestock slaughtered for home consumption was negligible, at 3% of the total value of gross annual livestock output. Out of this, shoats accounted for 34% of the value of livestock slaughtered for consumption.Livestock input costs include the following:• veterinary care (vaccines and curative drugs)• spraying (acaricides), deworming and dipping costs Cash expenditures on individual inputs are summarised in Table 15. The major difference in livestock input expenditures in a good versus a bad year are reflected in the cost of drugs, dipping and watering, minerals and supplemental feeds. There were no large differences reported for the amounts spent on inputs between a good and a bad year, but it is probable that not all the variations in management practices were captured in this 'one-shot' survey. It is also possible that their practices do not vary much from year to year, despite the fact that environmental conditions do vary. Drug costs were reported as slightly higher in a bad year, as were supplemental feeds for the few households that actually purchased feed.Total livestock production costs (including hired labour, all inputs related to livestock production, livestock purchase and capital maintenance and operating costs) were lowest for the traditional cluster (KSh 45,950/year) and highest for the near park cluster (KSh 65,860/year) in a good year. In a bad year, the input costs were again lowest for the traditional cluster (KSh 47,529) but highest for the average cluster (KSh 76,821). Livestock health (drugs, dewormers and acaricides) in a good year accounted for 48% of total expenditures, while labour and livestock purchases accounted for 24% and 18%, respectively. In a bad year, livestock health, labour and purchases accounted for 45, 22 and 16% of total expenditures. For all the households, input costs averaged KSh 59,713 in a good year and KSh 65,253 in a bad year (a 9% increase). Average livestock expenditures reported for four locations in Maasai Mara (Talek, Aitong, Lemek and Nkorinkori) in 1999 ranged from KSh 21,735 to 39,630, excluding labour costs (Thompson et al. 2000). Expenditures/TLU on acaricides, drugs, labour and minerals were compared to those reported for Mbirikani and Kimana group ranches (Mbogoh et al. 1999) in a similar survey carried out in Kajiado in 1999 and are presented in Table 16.  Input costs in Kitengela (52 TLUs) are perhaps most appropriately compared to those of Mbirikani (51 TLUs) since average herd sizes are so similar. Acaricide and labour costs per TLU were lower in Mbirikani, while drug and mineral costs were lower in Kitengela. The differences in acaricide input costs may be explained at least in part by average levels of rainfall and ecological differences between the two areas. Kitengela is generally a wetter area than Mbirikani and Kimana, and therefore has a higher population of ticks, thus requiring more acaricides for controlling tick-borne diseases.Direct livestock production expenses were deducted from the annual gross output value to derive net livestock income (net income includes value of livestock and products consumed by the household valued at market prices). Annual livestock net income ranged from KSh 87,100 to 138,000, with a mean of KSh 112,916 (Table 17) in a good year.1. Includes value of livestock products consumed by the household. In a bad year, levels of net income from livestock decreased significantly, ranging from KSh 65,000 to 96,757 (Table 18). The market-oriented cluster had the highest total net livestock income, reflecting the higher revenues due to more animal sales. This cluster also reported the highest livestock income per adult equivalent, with their smaller household sizes. The cluster nearest the park had the lowest livestock net income, with relatively high costs coupled with low revenues due to fewer livestock sales, smaller herd sizes and smaller landholdings. The cluster also reported the lowest livestock net income per adult equivalent, resulting from a larger household size.Analysis of variance indicates that there is no significant difference in livestock gross revenues, input costs and net income across the clusters or across rainfall scenarios (good versus bad year). This is likely due to the small sample size.  Our estimated range of returns to livestock activities falls within the range estimated for several group ranches near Maasai Mara. The Mara study estimated annual net returns from livestock per household ranging from KSh 15,000 to 125,000 (labour costs excluded) (Thompson et al. 2000). A 1981-83 survey of Olkarkar and Murueshi group ranches in Kajiado District found gross revenues per household ranging from KSh 29,000 to 37,000 (Bekure et al. 1991). If we inflate these revenues to reflect what that income would be worth today, using current cattle prices, 7 these figures translate to a range of KSh 287,100 to 366,300, suggesting that these pastoralists may be earning less than half the revenues from livestock than they earned 20 years ago.The productivity of the livestock enterprises was measured based on net livestock income per TLU and per acre, allowing a comparison of productivity across clusters with different herd and land sizes (Table 19). The market-oriented group had the highest net livestock income per TLU of KSh 4525 and the traditional cluster the least at KSh 2891. Net livestock income per acre ranged from KSh 377 to 2985. The traditional cluster with the highest landholdings (247 acres) had the lowest net livestock earnings per acre. The near park cluster with the least landholdings (75 acres) had the highest livestock income per acre. This non-intuitive finding, i.e. that those focusing the most on livestock earn the least income from them, reinforces the large variability in this changing pastoral system and requires further study, and may also imply that in some cases, successful intensification of livestock production is happening. It should also be kept in mind that the lower earning households (on a TLU and per acre basis) tend to be located in the drier part of Kitengela (with the near park households located in a wetter area).Farming is not a major economic activity in Kitengela, although 80% of the households engaged in some cultivation. Land under crop cultivation was relatively small and represented less than 2% of the total landholdings. The major crops grown in this area were maize, beans, potatoes and sometimes cowpeas, mainly for subsistence.Table 20 shows the distribution of cropped area among the clusters and average crop production levels per household in good and bad years. It can be seen that output estimates for a bad year still average from 255-852 kgs per household, i.e. even with the failure of the long rains, most households feel that they get some maize output-one has to keep in mind that the optimal way of calculating this would be to measure actual household output over several years.Yields across Kitengela are extremely low. For the traditional cluster, with an average cropped area of 2.21 acres, maize yields range from roughly 115 to 340 kg/acre. Bean yields range from 316 to 571 kg/acre from a bad year to a good year. Yields appear to be the highest for the group nearest the park (with an average area under cultivation of 2.38 acres). Maize yields vary from around 358 to 605 kg/acre and bean yields from 546 to 830 kg/acre. For the market-oriented group, with the highest amount of land under cultivation (averaging 3.92 acres), maize yields range from 166-333 kg/acre and bean yields from 224-398 kg/acre. For the average cluster (with an average area under cultivation of 2.67 acres), maize yields vary from around 167-334 kg/acre and beans from 216-454 kg/acre. It should be noted that the yield variation seen among the clusters likely reflects both biophysical differences within the dispersal area (with the wetter areas having higher crop yields than the drier areas) and management differences that are difficult to separate out. 1. Good year crop revenues were calculated using the following 1998 local harvest time prices for a 90 kg bag: KSh 600 for maize, KSh 1000 for beans and KSh 500 for potatoes (130 kg bag). Production used for home consumption was valued using the same prices.2. Bad year crop revenues were calculated using the following 1999 local harvest time prices for a 90 kg bag: KSh 910 for maize, KSh 1800 for beans and KSh 725 for potatoes (130 kg bag).When total crop production was valued using harvest-level prices from 'representative' good and bad years, the cluster located nearest the park had the highest valued crop production, followed by the market-oriented cluster, with the average group earning the least from crops. This ordering holds for both good and bad years. The value of crop production was actually higher for the near park cluster in a bad year, since although output was lower, prices were significantly higher in the bad year at harvest time.The annual crop expenses (labour, seed and ploughing costs) were deducted from the gross output value to derive the net crop income. The net income and crop returns are shown in Table 22. The cluster located nearest the park, with the least land under crop production (averaging 2.38 acres per household) had the highest net crop income (and income/acre) in a good year, followed by the traditional group (which probably reflects their low input use and costs). The market-oriented group (with the most land under crops, at an average of 3.9 acres per household) earned the least income from crops, except in a bad year when the traditional cluster earned the lowest income and income/acre. When labour costs are excluded (i.e. family labour time is not valued), the returns to cropping marginally improve in all clusters, ranging from KSh 4770-7508 in a good year and KSh 3709-7753 in a bad year (Table 23). Similarly, the differences in crop returns in a good and a bad year are smaller (less than KSh 350), except for the traditional cluster.Out of the 35 households interviewed, 60% of the respondents had someone in their household involved in off-farm activities that brought in some income to their households. Off-farm income levels were estimated from respondent's description of the type of activity and monthly income range (<1000, 1000-5000, 5000-10,000, 10,000-20,000, >20,000 KSh/month). Besides the monthly income ranges, the respondents were also asked to estimate the proportion of off-farm income as a percentage of their total household income.Out of the 24 people with some type of off-farm employment, 11 (46%) engaged in various business activities, which included selling charcoal or firewood, operating a small shop, livestock trading, and real estate business. The remaining 13 (54%) were formally employed in the public and private sectors. The type of off-farm activity and number of people involved, and the estimated household monthly and annual off-farm income levels by cluster are shown in Table 24. Over 80% of those engaged in business activities were from the near park and average clusters, while almost half of the formally employed were from the average cluster. Approximately 70% of people with some offfarm income were from the near park and average clusters. Respondents near the park were more likely to be involved in real estate business. The off-farm income levels ranged from KSh 939 per month for the traditional cluster to 10 times higher for the market-oriented group (Table 24). Extrapolating to estimate annual off-farm earnings suggests a substantial contribution to household earnings for 3 of the 4 clusters (75,000 to 115,000 KSh/year). This extrapolation needs to be treated with caution, however, as it assumes regular monthly payments throughout the year, which may or may not occur, and accurate estimates of non-farm earnings are acknowledged to be very difficult information to obtain.Respondents were asked to estimate how much of their overall income came from off farm sources (Table 25). The ratio of off-farm income to total household income 8 varied from 0 to 90% for all households. One-third of the households received no income from off-farm sources, while another one-third received between 10 and 30% of their total household income from off-farm sources. For the 35 sampled households, off-farm income accounted for an average of 38% of total household income (Figure 4). Among the clusters, off-farm income accounted for 9 to 47% of total household income. The near park and market-oriented groups had higher percentages of total household income attributable to off-farm sources, which equals to 47 and 46%, respectively. In the average cluster, where at least 75% of the households received some off-farm income, off-farm income accounted for 38% of total household income. In contrast, the ratio of off-farm to total household income in the traditional cluster was low, i.e. 9%.Out of the 35 households randomly selected from each cluster, only two (6%) were engaged in quarrying. To obtain more information on returns to quarrying, an additional four households engaged in quarrying were interviewed. Annual gross revenues from quarrying ranged from KSh 98,400 to 880,200. Annual costs (excavation, drilling, blasting, shaping and loading) ranged from KSh 39,740 to 64,200. For those who leased out land, there were no expenses involved. Net income earned from quarrying varied considerably, from KSh 34,200 to 840,460. We were not able to estimate net returns per acre. A number of landowners nearer the Park (especially at Emakoko) decided to fill their quarries after realising how destructive the activity could be to their land. Most of those who own quarries do not engage themselves directly in quarrying, but lease out small parts of their land so that they can receive monthly payments from companies engaged in the excavation activities. The richest area in building stones in Kitengela remains the Enkurunka valley, which runs along the Kapio tributary (of the Empakasi River). Besides recent demand for building stones from the cement factories nearby (East African Portland Cement Company and more recently Bamburi Cement), there is also an increased demand for quarry chips which are used in the manufacture of cement. We estimate that less than 15 landowners have leased their land to quarry operators in the stone-rich zone (Enkurunka and Emakoko). There is suitable land that has not been put under quarries and may be susceptible in the future if landowners do not have other sources of income.Net household income is an aggregate value of livestock, crop and off-farm income. Quarrying income is not included here since only two households out of the 35 were engaged in quarrying. For the 35 households surveyed, total livestock and off-farm income averaged 61% and 38% of household income (Figure 4).The traditional cluster had the lowest off-farm income, contributing to the lowest overall income of KSh 123,332 per year (Table 26). Earnings from agriculture (crops and livestock) amounted to KSh 112,082, or (US$ 1437 9 annually, which works out to roughly US$ 5.82/acre per year for this group with an average landholding of 247 acres).The group located nearest to the park earns the least from livestock, but the most from crops in a good year, coupled with a fairly high off-farm income. Their total earnings of KSh 178,564 is equivalent to US$ 2289/year. Average annual income from the farm (crops and livestock) for this cluster works out to KSh 94,564 (US$ 1212, or US$ 15.54/acre per year) for this group that has the smallest average landholdings (75 acres). Thus in a good year, it is this group that earns the most income on a per acre basis from farming and livestockThe market-oriented household cluster earned the most from livestock and off-farm income, but earned the least from crops, probably because their crop input costs are higher than the other groups (and they are growing maize in a dry area, where millet or sorghum would be more appropriate). This cluster earned the most overall due to their high off-farm income earnings. Their average total annual earnings of KSh 249,799 convert to US$ 3203. The average annual crop and livestock income of KSh 134,799 (US$ 1728) works out to KSh 1133/acre (US$ 14.52/acre), for a mean land size of 119 acres within this cluster. The cluster named average, distinguished largely by its average landholding and herd size characteristics, has low crop revenues, and livestock and offfarm income levels that fall in between the lowest and highest extremes for each group.  Their average total annual earnings of KSh 197,427 convert to US$ 2531. This group has an average agricultural earnings of KSh 122,427 (US$ 1570, or US$ 7.17/acre for an average landholding of 219 acres). Income from livestock accounted for 49-90% of total household income across clusters. Household off-farm income ranged from 9-47%, and crop income accounted for less than 2% of total income with the exception of the near park cluster (4%). Livestock income in the traditional cluster represented 90% of total household income (Figure 5). The near park cluster had similar contributions to household income from livestock (49%) and off-farm income (47%). Off-farm income is substantial for all but the traditional cluster. Despite the considerable variation between clusters in these income calculations, an analysis of variance revealed that statistically there were no significant differences among the clusters regarding net incomes from livestock, off-farm opportunities and crops. Across all households, there was no statistically significant relationship between wealth level (measured using herd and land sizes as wealth proxies) and percent contribution of income from livestock to total household income (excluding quarrying). The above results are likely due to the small sample size.A recent welfare monitoring survey established a rural poverty line for Kenyans of KSh 1239/adult equivalent per month, and an urban poverty line of KSh 2648 per month (GOK 2000). Kenyans living below these standards are thus considered to generate inadequate income levels to feed, clothe, educate and pay for basic health care for their families. All the Kitengela groups are above the rural poverty line and two are under the urban poverty line. One group is barely above the urban poverty line, which is arguably more appropriate for households located so close to Nairobi. The market-oriented group, with its smaller average family size, earns roughly twice the income per adult equivalent of the established urban poverty line. Figure 6 shows livestock returns per acre for the surveyed households, along with the spatial distribution of five species of migratory wildlife (aggregated, including zebra, wildebeest, Grant's gazelle, Thomson's gazelle and kongoni) during the dry season. While the sample size was too small to undertake statistical analysis of the explanatory power of spatial determinants of household income levels, the relative level of returns was mapped out in order to see if any interesting patterns could be observed. 10   Figure 6 shows that 9% of the respondents (3 households) were making greater than US$ 40/acre (>3200 KSh), 11% (4 households) were making between US$ 20-40/acre (1600-3200 KSh) and 14% (5 households) were making between US$ 10-20/acre (800-1600 KSh). The other 66% (23 households) made less than US$ 10/acre (800 KSh). Four of the households with higher livestock earnings were near the park, but a few were located relatively far from the park.In relation to where the most wildlife are found during the dry season, it can be observed that there are some households earning very little from livestock even in areas with fewer wildlife. There are also areas with a lot of wildlife where households are earning high livestock income, which does not support the notion that households in the densest wildlife areas are worse off.When incomes were examined on a per adult equivalent (AE) basis, annual net income (including livestock, crop, off-farm and quarrying incomes) per adult equivalent ranged from KSh 25,762 to 795,300 (Figure 7). Over half of the households (54%) earned less than a dollar a day per adult equivalent, a widely used global measure of poverty. Another 26% earned less than US$ 2 per day (KSh 28,500-57,000/AE per year), 14% earned between US$ 2 and US$ 4/day (KSh 57,000-114,000/AE per year). Only 2 households (6%) earned over US$ 4 per day (>KSh 114,000/AE per year). In over half of the households, cropping costs were greater than the value of the output they produce in a good year (excluding family labour costs). There is no easily discernible spatial pattern to net incomes per person, with the few higher income households distributed throughout the study area. Other than the fact that the wealthiest households do not fall in the 'pixels' with the most wildlife, a relationship between income and wildlife cannot be seen using this income measure either.  5 Feedback from the community and implicationsA workshop with community members, including those involved in the survey plus several chiefs and a councillor from the area was held in April 2001 in Kitengela town. The objective of the workshop was to present the survey findings to the community and elicit feedback from them. The major issues that arose and main topics of discussion during the daylong workshop are summarised below by topic.Livestock deaths due to predators were major concerns expressed by many community members at this time of the year (beginning of long rains). High presence of wildlife was reported in the dispersal area, including buffalo, zebra, and eland which were roaming outside the park. Wildebeest were also calving in areas around Lenchani and Enkirgirri. Predation by leopard, lion, cheetah and hyena had increased, with more than 20 sheep killed the night before the workshop. Residents think the reason conflicts have increased is that wildlife prefers to graze in the areas outside the park where livestock graze. Wildlife avoid the park because high grass provides cover for ambush predators such as lion.Despite decreasing cattle herds over the years (1998, 1999 and 2000), cattle numbers probably did not drop as much as indicated by the survey figures. The declining trend in cattle numbers was attributed to the following factors:• Increased cattle sales due to high demand for cash to meet household needs such as school fees, medical care and others Herd sizes for shoats derived from the survey were said to be consistent with the actual situation. Shoat numbers have drastically decreased over the three years. Outbreak of the blue tongue disease after the long El Niño rains in 1997/98 coupled with drought and predation from wildlife has contributed to declining shoat numbers.11 Derived income includes value of output sold and value of output consumed within the household.Participants largely agreed with the survey definitions of a good versus a bad year, i.e. good year when both long and short rains fall and bad year when the long rains fail. Among the Maasai, good year scenarios are characterised by good precipitation, plenty of milk and lower incidence of disease. On the other hand, bad years are characterised by the failure of the long rains ('Inkokua'), because the long rains generate the most pasture. Even when the short rains ('Oltumuret') come, the year could still be considered a bad one since precipitation is almost always low without the long rains.Milk and live animal sales profits depend on rainfall. Milk provides income to most households in the study area. Participants perceived the value of livestock slaughtered for home consumption to be very low. After discussions, which included the range of values as compared to the average values presented to them, the figures were thought to be representative of what happens within the community.Manure sales were dependent on proximity to either shopping centre or good road (accessibility). The price of manure was higher for those households nearer to the roads than those farther away. Average prices as reported by the participants ranged from KSh 3500-4000 per lorry carrying 7 t of manure.Ticks had increased rapidly since the onset of the rains and the cost of acaricides and curative drugs had also increased. Participants generally agreed with the concept of derived income 11 , which includes sales and consumption, given the fact that if you do not produce for household consumption, you would buy from the market, hence by producing for consumption, the household saves some money.Crop yield figures from the survey were considered to be very high by many workshop participants. A consensus was reached after considerable discussion that in general, maize yields vary from 4-5 bags/acre while bean yields vary from 6-7 bags/acre in a good year, which is lower than the average yields of 9 bags/acre for maize and 13 bags/acre for beans from the survey findings. Crop cultivation differs between the Maasai and the immigrants from other tribes. Among the Maasai, crop cultivation is purely for subsistence as opposed to their immigrant counterparts. Maasai devote most of their time to livestock-related activities and very little time is spent on crop production. Lack of technical knowledge on crop cultivation among the Maasai has led to:Intercropping of more than two crops, e.g. maize, beans, potatoes and bananas leading to low yields,• Late land preparation, planting and weeding and • Use of poor quality seeds.Land preparation costs were considered high, ranging from KSh 1500-4000/acre for cultivated land and new land, respectively.Off-farm income levels, especially for those involved in small businesses, may have been negatively affected by the drought. Participants reported that some small shops might have closed during the drought due to lack of business.The participants agreed that the relatively high returns we presented could be attributed to some landowners who leased land to big cement producing companies. Other landowners sold a lot of hard-core in addition to leasing out land.• Across the community, record keeping is poor for sales or production amounts (for both crops and livestock).Drugs and technical assistance are very costly and there are no veterinarians to assist, therefore most people treat livestock themselves.• Lack of water is a major problem for livestock and crop production.The immigrants make more profits from crop cultivation than the Maasai.• More education was needed for the local people and organisations such as ILRI and ACC could assist through provision of funds to the needy students and development of schools.• Land sizes are shrinking and therefore intensification is inevitable.• Wildlife predation, crop damage and spread of diseases were reported to have increased resulting in people-wildlife conflicts. Good fencing around homesteads and sharing of wildlife revenues with the local community were perceived as possible solutions.• Commercial livestock production, a gradual change to improved livestock breeds, and education on animal and crop husbandry were seen as ways to increase agricultural productivity in this area.The long rains (April, May and June), normally with the highest amount of rainfall. It is the wettest season of the year and fits the farmer's definition of a wet season.The short rains (October, November and December) are wet also, but the amount of rainfall received is slightly less than during the long rains.• Calving rates do coincide with the rainy season, and more calves borne during the long rains as compared to the short rains within a given year. Milk production therefore is likely to be higher during the long rains as compared to the short rains although both seasons are wet.• Using the calving rates, the numbers of calves borne during the short rains are two-third of those borne during the long rains.Using the same argument, the three months of milk production during the short rains are equivalent to two months of milk production during the long rains. Therefore the total number of the 'real' wet months in a good year was 5.The dry months are January, February, March, July, August, and September. March and September are very dry months with zero milk production.• As compared to January and February, milk production in July and August is slightly high. January and February are the dry months according to the farmer's definition.• Using the ratio of calving rates as a proxy for milk production, the two months of milk production (July and August), just after the long rains are equivalent to three months of milk production during the dry months. Therefore the total number of dry months in a good year is 5.Recall, from our survey definition, a bad year is when the long rains fail.• In a bad year the wet season is 3 months in duration (October, November and December).• Four months (July, August, September and March) are very dry months with zero/no milk production.• However, there are 5 months with little milk production (January, February, April, May and June).• Although April, May and June are very dry months, more calves are borne during this time, and therefore some little milk will still be produced.• Milk sales-valued as the product of milk output sold directly to shopkeepers and hotels and the sales price, only for the households that sold milk. The seasonal sales values were summed up to derive the annual milk sales value.• Milk consumption-valued as the product of milk output consumed within the household and the milk sales price. For those households that were not selling milk, the average milk sales price for the 'milk-selling' households was used to value their consumption. The seasonal consumption values were summed up to derive the annual milk consumption value.• Manure-derived as a product of the average quantity of manure (number of lorries) sold in a year and the sales price. Manure revenues were calculated only for those households that were selling manure.• Hides and skin-the total number of hides and skin available to the household at any given point in time depends on the number of cattle and shoats that have been slaughtered for home consumption as well as those that have died.However, not all are sold, some are retained by the household for other uses. Since most of the households surveyed are near to at least a market centre and based on discussions with the key informants, the analysis assumed that 75 percent of the of the hides and skins are sold.• Revenues from animal traction, dips, boreholes and revenues from other livestock-chickens and eggs, pigs or donkeys were also estimated.The individual outputs were summed to give the total annual gross output from the livestock production system.The inputs included in the analysis were; vaccines (preventative medicine), drugs (curative medicine), dewormers, acaricides (for spraying), dipping costs, hired labour, mineral supplements, supplementary feeds, watering costs, livestock purchases and capital maintenance and operating costs.Livestock holdings were converted to tropical livestock units (TLUs) to allow for comparisons between the households and clusters, where 1 TLU equals 250 kg live weight. The average weights of the different management groups from previous studies (Table A2) were used to estimate the TLUs together with the breed information collected during the survey (Table A1). Approximately 64% of the respondents reported having bulls that were either crosses or pure Sahiwals. Only 36% of the respondents reported having bulls of the indigenous breed. In comparison, 69% of the households reported having cows that were either crosses or pure exotic breeds (Friesians and Sahiwals), and only 31% having cows of indigenous breed.The approximate weight for all breeds of adult males was used to calculate the TLU for bulls (King et al. 1984). The approximate weight of the Small East African Zebu (SEAZ) was used to calculate the TLUs for heifers, cows and steers (Bekure et al. 1991). Besides, the survey data was collected in a bad year when majority of the cattle were in poor body condition. Other parallel studies on livestock marketing indicate that towards the end of the year (2000), most of the animals presented for sale were the SEAZ. The majority of the crosses and pure exotic breeds died as a result of the drought.","tokenCount":"13103"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f8addcb8e5d79744a904c0cd19a42be5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b3a20a2-8234-402f-99c6-08f2f36f6420/retrieve","id":"678254824"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c9784e3b-2cee-4947-93a1-91a4a8b94040","pagecount":"1","content":"Outcomes § Modern training techniques increase engagement and understanding of concepts. § Incentives for change (economic and social) are critical to adoption of best practices taught. § Marketing strategies increase revenue and customer-vendor trust. § Capacity building initiatives to strengthen food systems need to be actualized, both in methods and focus, to harness social and economic benefits.A capacity development program with three elements:• 15-hour group trainings (milk hygiene, business skills);• Regular visits and milk testing; and• A consumer-oriented milk marketing campaign.• 60-70% of milk in Kenya is distributed and sold through informal channels (largely unregulated businesses). • These markets feed a large proportion of the population and employ hundreds of thousands. • Their informal nature prevents meaningful and efficient government support to enhance nutrition, health and economic services.Incentive-based capacity building to professionalize the informal sector: the MoreMilk projectDairy vendors and consumers in Eldoret, Kenya (photo credit: ILRI).Insert images or graphs in different locations in the margins• Joint Kenya Dairy Board and International Livestock Research Institute program for professionalizing the informal sector.• Four-year pilot phase in Eldoret  Compliance officer, Kenya Dairy Board Email address: kibet.george@kdb.co.kePrincipal scientist, epidemiology Co-lead, CGIAR Resilient Cities Initiative Email address: s.alonso@cgiar.org Silvia Alonso","tokenCount":"196"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"04515c19a7c76873d9d3d32ad5838ae9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9c1897d-4150-4343-b352-294952f53c60/retrieve","id":"-161703692"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"88176764-34b9-4d6e-99a7-d1492fd5fe3f","pagecount":"44","content":"Photo: Andrew Ainslie (CCAFS) Photos (left to right): N. Palmer (CIAT); P. Casier (CGIAR); N. Palmer (CIAT); N. Palmer Global Message from the Program Director 2011 was the first year of operation of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). CCAFS brings together the work of all 15 international Centres in the CGIAR, and is a joint programme between the CGIAR and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP). 2011 was a start-up year in terms of introducing a new way of working across Centres, but it was also a year of considerable research effort. Work was initiated in the field at many sites, and baseline surveys were completed in three regions on two continents. Regional partnerships and learning platforms for climatesmart agriculture were established or strengthened in all regions. CCAFS conducted or participated in a number of highprofile events in 2011 and set up the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change, chaired by Sir John Beddington. International policy engagement targeted various processes linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). A significant achievement was recorded in the Durban Agreement from the 17th Conference of the Parties (COP 17), namely the inclusion of 'agriculture' for further negotiation. Many publications were produced in 2011, including over 50 journal articles and a number of books. External communication and media activities in 2011 have helped communicate science results and positioned CCAFS as an expert source of knowledge in global agriculture-climate discussions. Blog stories attracted 25 670 unique visits from 204 countries. Our monthly AgClim letters reached people in at least 124 countries and were sent to over 5000 recipients. 2012 will be a crucial year for negotiations on agriculture and climate change in the UNFCCC and for deepening activities with farmers at the multitude of research sites. 2011 has laid the framework, and it is particularly exciting to see the CGIAR starting to work as one system.Agriculture is a significant cause of climate change, directly responsible for some 12-14% of greenhouse gas emissions. It is also a victim, with farmers around the world already facing an uncertain future as a result of rising temperatures, changing patterns of rainfall and the shifting distribution of pests and diseases.Despite its significance for climate change, attempts to include agriculture in the text of international negotiations failed in 2009 and 2010. However, there was a breakthrough in December 2011, when the 17th Conference of the Parties (COP 17) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) met in Durban, South Africa. Following intense deliberations, delegates agreed to include agriculture in future negotiations, and it was referred to the Convention's Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) for detailed discussion.\"Without all the preparatory work that was done prior to the Durban meeting, including all the input by CCAFS, we would never have had this outcome,\" says Patrick Verkooijen, the World Bank's Head of Agriculture and Climate Change.Prior to the meeting in Durban, and during the meeting, many organizations called for the creation of a 'work programme' for agriculture, similar to one that already exists for forestry. Among other things, they argued that a work programme would help to create a much-needed stream of financial support to promote climate-smart agricultural practices and encourage research on agricultural adaptation and mitigation. (See box: Calling for a work programme.)Although there was no decision to set up a work programme, Sonja Vermeulen, CCAFS Head of Research, believes that significant progress was made in Durban. \"The fact that agriculture is now on the SBSTA agenda is a major step forward,\" she says. She identifies a number of activities involving CCAFS which helped to push agriculture to the heart of climate change negotiations.During 2011, the Meridian Institute convened a process to assess policy options for agriculture and climate change, focusing in particular on issues that should be addressed by the UNFCCC. CCAFS Program Director Bruce Campbell and Vermeulen contributed as expert authors and the Institute's report was published as a policy brief during the Durban conference.Discussions at Durban were also influenced by the findings of the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change. The Commission was convened by CCAFS in early 2011, with additional support from the Global Donor Platform for Rural Development. The Commission was given the task of examining scientific evidence and exploring ways of achieving food security in the face of a changing climate. In its Summary for policy makers, released in November, it outlined seven key steps that need to be taken if farmers are to cope with climate change and deliver sufficient high-quality food to satisfy the needs of a growing population.1. Integrate food security and sustainable agriculture into global and national policies 2. Significantly raise the level of global investment in sustainable agriculture and food systems in the next decade 3. Sustainably intensify agricultural production while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other negative environmental impacts of agriculture 4. Target populations and sectors that are most vulnerable to climate change and food insecurity 5. Reshape food access and consumption patterns to ensure basic nutritional needs are met and to foster healthy and sustainable eating habits worldwide 6. Reduce loss and waste in food systems, particularly from infrastructure, farming practices, processing, distribution and household habits 7. Create comprehensive, shared, integrated information systems that encompass human and ecological dimensions reference: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/commission/reports During the course of the year, CCAFS provided support which enabled the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network (FANRPAN) to promote climatesmart agriculture and make the case for raising the profile of agriculture in international climate change negotiations. CCAFS also helped to organize a science meeting on climate-smart agriculture in Wageningen, the Netherlands, and prepared background material for a ministerial meeting in Durban, as well as meetings of regional farmers' organizations in Africa.All of these activities helped to inform the discussions which were held during Agriculture and Rural Development Day (ARDD), a side event at Durban co-convened by CCAFS. ARDD, which attracted almost 600 participants, brought together diverse interests -farmers, researchers, policy makers, the private sector, national and international donors -so that they could share examples of climate-smart agriculture and promote policies to strengthen the voice of farmers in climate change negotiations. Bruce Campbell summed up the aim of ARDD in these terms: \"We want agriculture to have a voice, and we want leadership and investment in the innovations and policies that can help poor farmers adapt to climate change and achieve food security, while contributing to mitigation and healthy ecosystems.\"Campbell was one of many speakers who called for the creation of a work programme on agriculture. Although this didn't happen at Durban, there is reason to hope that substantive deliberations on agriculture will now take place, given that agriculture is now on the formal agenda of SBSTA. During 2011, CCAFS focused its field research in East Africa on six benchmark sites: two each in Uganda and Kenya, one in Tanzania and one in Ethiopia. Between them, they cover a wide range of agricultural systems, from intensively farmed hill country in Tanzania's Usambara Mountains to sparsely populated rangelands in Ethiopia. However, they all have one thing in common: they are host to a large number of research and development projects, which was one of the reasons why CCAFS chose to work there. \"We believe that we can achieve far more by working in partnership with other organizations than by working alone,\" says James Kinyangi, CCAFS Regional Program Leader for East Africa.In each of the benchmark sites, CCAFS conducted baseline surveys -these are described more fully in 'Getting to grips with the facts' (see page 16) -to gather information about farming practices, diet, incomes, the risks faced by households and communities, the way in which communities are organized, and much more. At a later date, survey teams will revisit the same villages and households and ask the same questions. This will enable CCAFS to make valid comparisons about behavioural changes and the influence of research and development projects.During the year, CCAFS launched several climate-related projects at its benchmark sites, working in partnership with a wide range of organizations. In Kenya's Lower Nyando Basin, for example, projects involved research on the evaluation of drought-tolerant sorghum, a breeding programme to improve the adaptation of local sheep and goats, and an agroforestry scheme to help farmers take advantage of the carbon market. All, in one way or another, are designed to help farmers increase their incomes, adapt to climate change and variability and, in the case of the agroforestry scheme, reduce their carbon footprint.Kinyangi and his colleagues were struck by the sheer number of organizations -research institutes, government agencies, farmers' organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) -operating in the benchmark sites. \"They were introducing all sorts of different technologies, asking different questions, and working in different ways,\" reflects Kinyangi. \"We saw this as an opportunity to establish a learning platform, so that we could share the lessons learnt and feed our findings into the broader policy arena.\" Before long, 16 organizations had joined the learning platform, which held three workshops during 2011 to discuss the best ways of linking research and policy making. \"By creating a platform, I believe we can help policy makers drive the demand for research,\" suggested Sabrina Chesterman of OneWorld at the first workshop, held in Nairobi in April 2011. \"We can find out what policy makers need and determine how we can frame our research to answer their needs.\"The learning platform is guided by four main precepts. First, the partners recognize the importance of setting priorities for research. \"We want our research to be demand-driven,\" says Kinyangi. \"That means we need to address issues which are of concern to farmers and policy makers.\"Second, the learning platform acknowledges the importance of generating and sharing knowledge in a way that enhances the capacity of the partner organizations and the communities with which they are working. The amount of information generated will be vast, and an 'evidencefiltering' process ensures that farmers, extension agencies and policy makers get the information they need.Finally, the partners have agreed that information must be packaged in such a way as to influence policy. Over the coming years, the learning platform will benefit from the CCAFS scenario work -this looks at different 'what ifs' for the future -which is currently being coordinated by the University of Oxford's Environmental Change Institute.At present, says Kinyangi, many agencies are failing to meet the needs of the agricultural community. He cites the example of national meteorological agencies, which tend to package their information to satisfy the needs of certain sectors, such as those involved in aviation, defence and health. Agriculture is very low on their agenda. The learning platform will seek to convince meteorological agencies of the importance of providing information in a way that becomes useful to farmers. \"Ultimately, this is all about sharing lessons and knowledge, and bridging the gaps between different organizations, so that we add value to what everybody is doing,\" says Kinyangi. During recent years, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and its partners have developed a watersaving technology, alternate wetting and drying, which enables rice farmers to significantly reduce methane emissions from their fields without any fall in yields. This is a matter of considerable importance, as the anaerobic decomposition in irrigated rice systems is responsible for around 11% agricultural greenhouse gas emissions.Prior to 2011, rice farmers could not take advantage of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the UNFCCC, which has the twin goals of promoting sustainable development and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Of the hundreds of different CDM methodologies, only one dealt with cropping practices. However, in 2011, a new methodology -'Methane emission reduction by adjusted water management practice in rice cultivation' -was added to the list.In the future, as work progresses on transferring the methodology and on how it could be put into practice in other regions, rice farmers could get paid under the CDM for reducing their methane emissions.Photo: M. Lusmore (WorldFish Center) Photo: L. Cramer (CCAFS)In East Africa, CCAFS is bringing together diverse regional groups to share knowledge and experiences.Over recent years, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has made a significant contribution to the development of Sri Lanka's climate change adaptation policies.The partnership between IWMI and government agencies dates back to a national 'Water for Food' conference organized by IWMI, the Irrigation Department and the Department of Agriculture in Colombo in 2009. \"We had decided to get more involved with government agencies as we wanted to make a greater contribution to the development processes in the country,\" recalls IWMI's Nishadi Eriyagama. \"We invited officials from several ministries and water/agriculture agencies to the conference, and that helped to raise the profile of our research.\"Eriyagama and her colleagues had recently embarked on a major review, shortly to be published as Impacts of climate change on water resources and agriculture in Sri Lanka. \"I presented some of the material we were working on -focusing, in particular, on our analysis of vulnerability to climate change -and many people from government agencies and NGOs picked up on this,\" recalls Eriyagama. The timing was propitious. The Ministry of Environment had begun to prepare the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Sri Lanka. It was also in the process of drafting the country's Second National Communication to the UNFCCC.Eriyagama and her colleagues were subsequently invited to attend workshops organized by the Ministry of Environment, and they provided information and commented on draft reports. The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy used IWMI's methodology for mapping vulnerability to climate change, while the Second National Communication presented information drawn from IWMI's research.The IWMI 'Impacts of Climate Change' review indicates that mean temperatures are likely to increase by 0.9-4.0°C by the end of this century. Rising temperatures, and changes in the quantity and distribution of rainfall, could have a significant impact on farming activities. For example, they could lead to an increase in irrigation water requirements for rice and a decline in coconut productivity.The study identified the country's agricultural vulnerability hotspots using an index which measures exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. The vulnerability maps, which have been reproduced in a sub-report of the Second National Communication, indicate that certain farming districts are particularly vulnerable to climate change. \"As the government itself initiated the strategy, I have no doubt that it will influence future policy, and encourage the government to formulate strategies which help farmers in the most vulnerable areas adapt to climate change,\" says Eriyagama. IWMI's vulnerability study and the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy have helped to raise awareness about the implications of climate change for the country. The media has certainly taken note: in 2011, the Daily Mirror, the country's leading English-language newspaper, commissioned IWMI scientists to write a series of five articles about the implications of climate change for Sri Lanka as a whole, and farmers in particular.  Climate change will have a dramatic impact on the way we farm. Indeed, in some parts of the world, increases in temperature, changing patterns of rainfall and the shifting distribution of pests and diseases have already led to significant changes in farming practices. While some farmers may benefit from a warmer climate, others -and they will be the majority in many developing countries -will find their livelihoods under threat.Until recently, we have relied on models to predict what will happen in any given location, but models, by definition, cannot be fully validated until the projected year arrives. Nor can they tell us how farmers will respond to climate change. \"This means that discussions have tended to be abstract, about what might happen, not what will happen,\" says Andy Jarvis, CCAFS Theme Leader. \"But if you say: in 30 years' time, the climate here, in this particular location, will be like it already is there, in another part of the world, then you can visit the place, explore what sort of crops they grow and see how farmers are coping with the climate.\"A project managed by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) -Climate analogues: Finding tomorrow's agriculture today -has devised a methodology that makes this possible. The project developed a web-based tool which connects sites with statistically similar climates, across both space and time. The tool allows users to choose from a variety of different climate models, scenarios and input data. The analogue methodology and concept of broad application were jointly developed by CIAT, the Walker Institute for Climate System Research at the University of Reading, and the Climate Change and Impacts Group at the University of Leeds, which is a core member of the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP).The analogues team initially focused its attention on some of CCAFS' benchmark sites. One of these is Lawra-Jirapa, Ghana, where climate projections predict higher temperatures and rainfall, coupled with a rising population and greater competition for water. The team identified a range of other sites in West and East Africa and the Indo-Gangetic Plains where the climate today is similar to the one projected for Lawra-Jirapa in 2030. Some of the crops currently grown in Lawra-Jirapa, such as yam, were not grown in any of the analogue sites. This suggests that climatic factors may prohibit the production of these crops in Lawra-Jirapa by 2030. Farmers in most of the analogue sites were growing just one of three important crops -rainfed maize, rice and wheat -grown in Lawra-Jirapa, which suggests that the Ghanaian farmers may not be able to rely on the same three staples in the future. The research also identified crops currently grown in the analogue sites that might prosper in Lawra-Jirapa in 2030. In short, current practices in the analogue sites provide a glimpse of what could work best for the next generation of farmers in Lawra-Jirapa.During 2012, Jarvis and his colleagues will organize a series of exchange visits between sites in East and West Africa and Southeast Asia to help farmers gain first-hand experience of the changes they are likely to face, and the sort of measures they will need to consider to cope with climate change.\"I've always found that farmers are incredibly adaptive -far more so than we give them credit for -and my hunch is that the farmers won't be all that shocked by what they see at the analogue sites,\" says Jarvis. \"Our goal is to develop an inventory of local knowledge from around the world while linking regions that face similar challenges. In many ways, we're turning the world into a laboratory for climate change adaptation.\"The analogues tool (http://gismap.ciat.cgiar.org/ analogues/) has already attracted the attention of a range of organizations, including Bioversity International, which is playing a leading role in encouraging the implementation of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The treaty seeks to provide farmers, plant breeders and scientists with access to germplasm through its multilateral system of access and benefit sharing.\"Countries that have signed up to the treaty have agreed to the rules of the game, but so far they have been reluctant to share their genetic material and information about what they have,\" explains Michael Halewood, a policy expert with Bioversity. \"They're waiting for others to do so first.\"There is considerable evidence that all countries benefit from what Halewood calls 'the multiplier effect' of participating in the multilateral system. Most countries get more material -and far more diverse material -from the system than they deposit into it.Bioversity is supporting research in eight countries to investigate the extent to which they are dependent on genetic resources from beyond their borders. In particular, the research focuses on identifying the shifting range of genetic resources that countries will need to adapt to climatic changes.Halewood believes the analogues tool will be very useful in this regard. \"It will help us to raise awareness about countries' interdependence and the importance of sharing germplasm and information,\" he says. \"We will use the analogues tool to identify potential sources of useful germplasm for the countries concerned, based on predicted changes in their climates.\" The research teams will also use the tool to identify other parts of the world where their germplasm might be useful. Ramírez-Villegas J, Lau C, Köhler A-K, Signer J, Jarvis A, Arnell N, Osborne T, Hooker J. 2011. Climate analogues: Finding tomorrow's agriculture today. Working Paper No. 12. Cali, Colombia: CCAFS. A study coordinated by CCAFS has identified areas where food insecurity is likely to be exacerbated by climate change. This is an important subject as research organizations, governments and donors urgently need to work out where to focus activities that will help farmers adapt to a changing climate. Mapping hotspots of climate change and food insecurity in the global tropics is one of the first studies to provide this sort of guidance.The research was led by a team of scientists from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). They created a series of detailed maps illustrating different aspects of food security -and food insecurity -and some of the climate change thresholds that could threaten food production over the next 40 years. The maps also illustrate which areas and populations may be most vulnerable to climate change.\"When you put these maps together, they reveal places where the arrival of stressful growing conditions could raise concern,\" says ILRI's Polly Ericksen, lead author of the study. \"These are areas highly exposed to climate shifts, where livelihoods are strongly linked to crop and livestock yields, and where chronic food problems indicate that households are already struggling.\"The scientists began by identifying the components of food security that could be mapped at the global level, and the most appropriate indicators of climate change impact relevant to food security. They were then able to identify 'hotspots' where food-insecure populations face significant changes in rainfall, temperature and length of growing season.Vulnerability to climate change was conceived as a function of three factors: the exposure to a hazard, such as rising temperatures; the sensitivity to the hazard -for example, areas with large areas of cropland will be more sensitive than those with less; and the ability of farmers to cope with change. \"If a population is highly exposed to a particular hazard, such as rising temperatures, and has little ability to cope, then it may be vulnerable,\" explains Philip Thornton, CCAFS Theme Leader.Measuring vulnerability across the global tropics was a tall order, for a variety of reasons. For one thing, food insecurity is a function of a range of different factors, and the way it is measured varies between countries. For another, the scientists were obliged to use a 'proxy' as a measure of coping capacity. In this case, they used child malnutrition, Understanding the impact of climate change ABOVE: Beans are essential to the food security of large areas of Africa and latin America. But according to CCAFS research, even the modest temperature and rainfall changes predicted for major bean-growing regions could significantly reduce the area suited for this crop.for which there is comparable global data. \"Despite these and other limitations, I think we have devised a semiquantitative system for measuring vulnerability that provides a clear indication of where the greatest stresses may come in the future,\" says Thornton.The study found that the length of growing season declined by 5% or more across a broad area of the tropics, including heavily cropped areas of Mexico, Brazil, Southern and West Africa, the Indo-Gangetic Plains and Southeast Asia. In drier areas this may lead to a decline in crop yields and an increase in the number of people -many will be farmerswho have insufficient food for a healthy diet.Higher temperatures could also cause severe problems in many areas. It is estimated that 170 million food-insecure and crop-dependent people in West Africa, India and China live in areas where maximum daily temperatures during the growing season could exceed 30°C by the mid-2050s. This is close to the maximum temperature that can be tolerated by beans, and maize and rice yields are likely to decline when temperatures exceed this level.The ILRI team also found that some areas that are currently relatively food secure -this applies, in particular, to parts of Latin America -could suffer from higher temperatures and shorter growing seasons. By 2050, prime growing conditions are likely to drop below 120 days per season in intensively farmed parts of northeast Brazil and Mexico. This could reduce the yields of maize and several other staple crops, as well as the availability of livestock fodder. The impact of climate change on rural households in Central Asia is likely to vary from one place to another, with some benefiting from higher temperatures and others experiencing a significant decline in their yields and incomes. This was one of the findings of a The study found that the impact could range from largely positive -for example, in the semi-arid regions of North Kazakhstan -to largely negative in more arid regions of the country. The research also found that small-scale farmers, especially those with a large proportion of female-headed households and poor access to agricultural extension services, were likely to suffer most. In contrast, larger farming operations run by men, with better access to extension services, will fare better in the future. In some areas, the impact of climate change may vary over time. For instance, farmers in Uzbekistan may experience a slight increase in their incomes between 2010 and 2040, but a decline towards the end of the 21st century.According to the lead scientist, Aden Aw-Hassan of ICARDA, there is an urgent need for more comprehensive quantitative analyses of the way in which climate change will affect different socioeconomic groups in rural areas. \"This research would help to strengthen efforts to empower farmers with the skills and services needed to adapt to climate change and reduce their vulnerability to its effects,\" he says.Climate change threatens the future of some of the most important cash crops grown in developing countries, according to research published by CIAT in 2011. The studies predict that rising temperatures will change the face of cocoa farming in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, tea production in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda, and coffee growing in Colombia. This has profound implications not just for large numbers of farmers, but for everybody associated with the processing, transport and sale of these crops. In Uganda, 60 000 small-scale tea farmers provide the raw material for a 'value chain' that supports 500 000 people. In Côte d'Ivoire, some 600 000 farmers grow cocoa, a crop which contributes 7.5% of the country's gross domestic product.Between them, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana produce over half the world's cocoa beans. The research anticipates that a temperature rise of 1°C by 2030 will make cocoa growing at low altitudes increasingly difficult; by 2050, when temperatures will have risen by 2.3°C, farmers in New studies predict that rising temperatures will change the face of tea production in the highlands of Kenya and Uganda (above), and coffee growing in Colombia (below). major cocoa-growing areas, such as Moyen-Comoé in Côte d'Ivoire, may no longer be able to grow the crop. The ideal growing areas will shift to higher altitudes, where the temperatures in 40 years' time may be similar to those in the lowlands today.But this poses problems too. \"Much of West Africa is relatively flat and there is no 'uphill',\" says CIAT scientist and lead author Peter Laderach. He warns that the search for new cocoa-producing sites at higher elevations, where these exist, could trigger the clearance of forests. \"For these reasons, it's essential that we focus on increasing the resilience of existing production systems as much as possible,\" he says.A similar story can be told for tea in Uganda and Kenya. In a separate study, the CIAT scientists found that average temperature rises of 2.3°C by 2050 could wipe out tea production in some of the most profitable tea-growing regions of Uganda. Rising temperatures will lead to declining yields and an increase in the prevalence of pests and diseases. This could encourage farmers to move to higher altitudes -threatening forests and areas of importance for wildlife.Laderach points out that there is always a degree of uncertainty when predicting how the climate will change; it is even more difficult to predict how farmers will react to change. \"However, I believe that these results, when combined with other authoritative studies, should help to ensure that the need for action is taken seriously,\" he says.The Cafédirect Producers' Foundation, which commissioned the study on tea production, has already met farmers' groups in Uganda and Kenya to discuss the implications of these findings. The Ghana Cocoa Board, having initially dismissed the findings of the CIAT report, According to MAXENT, it is predicted to decrease the suitability by 2050 on most of all growing areas.Figure 13: Measure of agreement of models predicting changes in the same direction as the average of all models at a given location for 2030 and 2050.Coast in 2050. Source: CIAT subsequently commissioned a study to explore how the country's cocoa farmers could adapt to the changing climate.Laderach and his colleagues have identified a number of options. In West Africa, farmers should consider improving shade management, as this will reduce the temperatures experienced by the cocoa pods. At present, many farmers are almost entirely dependent for their income on cocoa. It would make sense for them to spread their risk by investing in other crops, such as oil palm and cashew. Similarly, tea farmers in East Africa should consider diversifying their farming enterprises.Just as importantly, the scientists recommend that farmers should be encouraged to plant more droughttolerant varieties of cocoa and tea. If this is to happen, it is essential that research institutions devote greater efforts to developing new varieties and making them available to farmers. During 2011, CCAFS scientists published a series of studies on 'climate-proofing' crops that are critical to food security. These include potatoes, beans, bananas and cassava. \"We've brought together the best climate science with the best knowledge of crop improvement to spell out how crops will be affected, and what plant breeders can do to avert, or at least cushion, potentially devastating blows,\" says Julian Ramírez, CIAT scientist and one of the authors.The studies suggest that the most direct impact on yields will come from changes in temperature and rainfall, but climate change could also alter the prevalence of pests and diseases. Among the crops that are likely to suffer most is the potato. Higher temperatures are projected to reduce the growth of the tubers and the formation of starch; they could also encourage the potato tuber moth, a major pest, to spread northwards and to higher elevations. In contrast, cassava might actually benefit from higher temperatures. But this is the exception rather than the rule, and there is an urgent need to develop new climate-proof varieties of potatoes, beans and other crops. In Lower Nyando, Kenya, 80% of households interviewed during a recent survey reported that they had made changes to the way in which they farm. They had introduced new crop varieties, planted fruit orchards, adopted new forms of pest management, or introduced other changes. They were responding to a range of challenges, some related to changes in the weather, others to the demands of the market or the availability of farm labour.There is nothing unusual about this: farmers across the developing world are continually fine-tuning the way in which they farm. What is new, however, is the scale and nature of the research which elicited this information. The Lower Nyando farmers were among over 5000 households who took part in baseline surveys conducted by CCAFS in East Africa, West Africa and the Indo-Gangetic Plains.\"We want to be able to track behavioural change over time, at the household and community level,\" says Philip Thornton, CCAFS Theme Leader. \"At a later date, we will be able to revisit the same families, in the same villages, and find out what they have done, and why they have done it.\" Few research programmes have ever attempted this by asking the same questions and using the same survey methodology across such a broad range of different agricultural systems.gathering the data CCAFS worked closely with other organizations -and especially Centres belonging to the CGIAR -to identify sites where there was already considerable research activity. \"We then developed a standardized set of survey and analysis tools so that we can make valid comparisons between the different sites,\" explains CCAFS Theme Leader Patti Kristjanson, who co-led the surveys. At the household level, questions were designed to gather information about food security, farming practices, incomes and a whole range of issues relating to the well-being of the farm and the family. The survey teams conducted separate interviews, with a different set of questions, at the community level; they also collected data about the institutions, organizations and networks active within the villages.The process of analysis has only just begun, but some interesting trends have emerged. It seems that the least food-secure households are those that make the fewest changes to their farming practices. According to Kristjanson, there are two ways of interpreting this. On one hand, it suggests that very poor households simply can't afford to adopt new practices, which involve more labour and other costs. \"So if you want to reach these households, governments need to think about creating safety nets -for example by improving access to food through food-forwork and other programmes -before they will be in a position to adopt new farming practices,\" she says.There is also another way of looking at it: households that have adequate food may be the most innovative. But if that's the case, then why? \"This will be one of the challenges we face, coming up with answers to questions like this,\" says Kristjanson. She stresses that it is all too easy to say that such-and-such a change has been made, or practice adopted, in response to climate change. Frequently a range of factors encourage farmers to adopt new practices, variability in the weather being just one of them. Kristjanson believes that one of the main achievements of the project has been its openness: all the data that have been gathered, and the subsequent analyses, have been made available on the Internet, using Harvard University's Dataverse Network. \"Scientists are often very reluctant or unable to share their data soon after they are collected,\" she says. \"We've shown that it's possible to gather large quantities of data and swiftly make them available.\" CCAFS is encouraging its research partners to make full and immediate use of the data.The management of the baseline survey was a major logistical feat, with Kristjanson and her colleagues providing training for 12 survey teams -one team for each of the 12 countries involved -100 enumerators and 24 'trainers of trainers'. The latter are responsible for training much larger teams, many of which will continue to have a role in the future.One of the great constraints for many research endeavours is lack of time, with many projects lasting just three years. \"It's very difficult to study changes in behaviour if your time horizon is so short,\" says Thornton. He anticipates that the survey teams will revisit the households and villages that took part in the 2011 baseline surveys in five years' time, and again in 10 years. \"This gives us a realistic opportunity to understand what changes people have made to their farming practices, and how they're adapting to changes in the climate,\" he says. It will also provide researchers with an opportunity to reflect on the influence of the various projects that are currently taking place at the survey sites. \"Climate change affects men and women differently,\" says CCAFS Theme Leader Patti Kristjanson, \"and their response to the impact of climate variability and change also differs.\" This is why we need to start thinking about specific strategies and approaches which will ensure that interventions aimed at making households more resilient to a changing climate will benefit women as well as men.\"There is much talk about climate-smart agriculture, but are climate-smart practices also women-smart?\" asks Kristjanson. She cites the example of payments made to farmers to reduce their carbon emissions or sequester carbon. If the money goes to the landowners-who, in many developing countries, will be the men-then the women will lose out. Likewise, women may find themselves doing all the hard work of planting trees, but may not share the rewards in terms of the income derived from the sale of fruit and timber. Righting these wrongs is essential if women are to get a better deal.During 2011, CCAFS worked on a major research programme with the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to develop a training guide for gender and climate change research. Much of the climate-related research on agricultural and farming systems has examined a range of options that come under the heading of climatesmart agriculture, such as conservation agriculture and agroforestry. In contrast, little emphasis has been placed on understanding the different strategies adopted by men and women who are trying to cope with climate change.The approach that FAO and CCAFS developed in the guide -Gender and climate change research in agriculture and food security for rural development -was tested in the field in Bangladesh, Ghana and Uganda.\"In many of these places, women farmers face a range of challenges which are different from those confronting men,\" explains Moushumi Chaudhury, a CCAFS Science Officer based at the World Agroforestry Centre. \"For example, in Ghana, the research team found that both men and women learn about promising agricultural practices when they visit other villages. But women tend to travel less frequently and less far than men, so they don't have the same access to knowledge about the strategies and new opportunities that can help them deal with changes in weather patterns, as well as various other socioeconomic changes.\"The first part of the training guide provides usersresearchers, NGOs, development agencies, government extension services -with the resources and participatory action research tools they need to gather, analyse and share gender-related information about individuals, households and communities who are facing agriculturalproduction and food-security challenges. The second part of the guide focuses on three key CCAFS research areas. It provides information that will enable organizations to facilitate the exchange of knowledge between farming communities about 'In search of the future' areas (see page 10). The guide also provides guidance on how to help farmers make best use of daily and seasonal weather forecasts, and how to understand and encourage climate-smart agricultural practices that provide benefits for women as well as men. In 2011, CCAFS established a competitive small grants programme to encourage gender-related climate change research, with funds being awarded to five female researchers. The programme is helping to expand CCAFS gender research in its three priority regions; it is also building research capacity among young women scientists.The women are studying a broad range of topics. In Uganda, Annuciate Nakiganda is focusing on how climate change is affecting men and women who are involved in livestock farming, and identifying adaptation strategies that will help women. In Bangladesh, Gulsan Ara Parvin is examining what microfinance institutions are doing to help women in rural areas cope with climate change. Nani Raut, an expert on watershed management, is assessing the role of gender in crop intensification in the Nepalese hills. In Burkina Faso, Some Laeticia, a human rights expert, is exploring ways of promoting gender perspectives in national climate change adaptation policy and practice. Finally, Senegalese researcher Arame Tall is examining whether there are genderspecific needs for climate information in communities at risk of flooding and drought. Her story is told in full on the following page.Over the past decade, Senegal's 'peanut basin' has suffered an increase in severe weather events, such as droughts and floods. Over 85% of the population in this predominantly arid region depend on natural resources for their livelihoods and survival -most being farmers, cattle herders or fishers -and the changing climate poses a significant threat to their welfare. Women, it seems, are particularly vulnerable, according to research conducted by Arame Tall, one of five women scientists to benefit from the CCAFS gender grants programme in 2011.A consultant at the International Federation of the Red Cross with a PhD from Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, Tall is working with three communities in Kaffrine. \"I decided to focus on this district because it is highly prone to floods and droughts, and a good place to explore their impact on women, and the sort of climate services they need,\" says Tall. She is also benefiting from the fact that Kaffrine is one of the sites where CCAFS has conducted baseline studies (see page 16).The main objective of Tall's research is to establish whether there is a need for climate services, tailored specifically to women's needs, in communities which are at risk of floods, droughts and other climatic shocks. And if there is, what form should they take, who should they be for, and how can they be communicated at the local level to improve the communities' ability to manage climate-related risk?Gathering information in the field proved a serious challenge, not least because travel was difficult during the rainy season. Fortunately, Tall was able to enlist the help of the Senegalese Red Cross Society, which provided transport and the services of 24 volunteers, who were trained to carry out the 'Vulnerability and Capacity Assessments'. The assessments provide information about the respective vulnerability of men and women to climate changes, their ability to cope, the availability of climate change services, and the specific needs of women. \"Initially, it wasn't easy to get women to speak out about their lives and the challenges they face,\" explains Tall. \"Getting tongues untied, even as a woman speaking the local language and within women-only focus groups, was a tough challenge.\" Nevertheless, Tall gradually gained the trust of the local women and began to gain an insight into how the climate was affecting them.Tall found that one of the main problems faced by women in this area is that they don't control the means of production. The carts and draft animals which are used to cultivate the fields all belong to the men. When the first rains come, normally in early July, the men use their horses and donkeys to cultivate and sow their own land, much of which is devoted to the main cash crops, peanuts and millet. As a result, it may be a month or more before they get round to sowing crops for the women on the plots of land which they manage. \"In the old days, when the rains were reasonably plentiful and predictable, this may not have been a problem,\" says Tall. \"But nowadays, with greater climatic variability, late planting can be a disaster, especially if the rains finish early, as they did in 2011. This means that it's the women who tend suffer most from the erratic climate.\"The National Meteorological Office of Senegal provides forecasts warning of heavy rainfall, and possible flooding, using a range of different methods, one of the most effective being SMS texts. Tall discovered that these were being provided in French, a language which many people cannot read, and both men and women expressed a preference for receiving texts in the local language, Wolof. Measures are now being taken to ensure that this happens in the future.\"Our early analysis suggests that climate forecasts are reaching men much more easily than they are women, so we are designing a number of strategies to overcome this,\" says Tall. One of these involves setting up blackboards near water wells, where women tend to gather. These will carry climate warnings taken from SMS services.During 2012, Tall will continue to work with the women in Kaffrine to design climate services which will provide them with the information they need to safeguard their farms and their families. The research findings could also help government agencies to formulate policy to improve climate-change adaptation strategies.  There are dozens of different activities that could help farmers adapt to climate change, or reduce their emissions. Little wonder, then, that farmers are sometimes bewildered by the advice they receive. On the Indo-Gangetic Plains, CCAFS has come up with a concept that should make the prospect of adopting climate-smart activities less daunting. This is being done under the banner of 'climate-smart villages'.The process begins with meetings at which the farmers discuss the sort of activities in which they would be interested. \"We then offer them a portfolio of different projects and strategies for tackling current climatic variability,\" explains Pramod Aggarwal, CCAFS Regional Program Leader for the Indo-Gangetic Plains. \"We talk them through all the costs and benefits of different activities, then it's up to them to identify the ones that interest them.\"During 2011, CCAFS and its local partners established strong relationships with six villages in the Indian states of Punjab and Bihar, and began discussions in three villages in Nepal. Work in Khulna District, on the southern coast of Bangladesh, was scheduled to begin in 2012.The process is always the same. A steering group, led by CCAFS and its partners, identifies a list of possible activities to be tested in the village. A farmers' group, including village officials, is then introduced to the concept of climate-smart villages and the portfolio of activities on offer. After a series of discussions, the group decides which activities they favour and enter into an agreement with CCAFS and its partners. This stipulates that the farmers will keep a detailed diary of all the activities, thus providing CCAFS researchers and their colleagues with a rich source of data. This will enable them to assess the relative merits of different climate-smart practices.Among the activities that are being promoted are carbonsequestering practices such as agroforestry, conservation farming and better manure management. Farmers are being encouraged to improve their nutrient management, for example through the use of leaf colour charts. In some villages, farmers are particularly keen to improve water management through better irrigation and by setting up rainwater harvesting schemes. The project is also encouraging the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as mobile phones, and rainfall and temperature insurance. Mobile phones can be used to receive accurate weather forecasts, as well as information about climate-smart practices and markets.Farmers in the Indo-Gangetic Plains are embracing information and communication technologies like mobile phones, which could help spread information and build their resilience to changing conditions.Several women farmers from the climate-smart villages attended the first of a series of a capacity-enhancement workshops on 'Gender and climate change adaptation' organized by CCAFS. The two activities -the climatesmart villages and the capacity-enhancement workshops -complement each other. In the end, says Aggarwal, it's all about identifying activities that enable farmers to address current climatic variability and make a decent living at the same time. \"They are interested in everything that will help them to increase their profits,\" he says.Until recently, a number of obstacles have made it difficult, if not impossible, for small-scale farmers to take advantage of the carbon market, which is based on organizations or individuals selling the carbon they capture -for example, through planting trees -to countries or companies that wish to offset their own carbon emissions.\"They can't produce the minimum volume required to enter the market, their landholdings are small and scattered, and they conduct all sorts of diverse activities to feed themselves and make a living, which makes measuring carbon stocks a complicated business,\" explains Pal Singh, the World Agroforestry Centre's Regional Coordinator for the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Furthermore, the costs of registering projects, drawing up contracts and monitoring carbon stocks are prohibitively high for smallholders acting alone or in small groups.To get round these problems, the World Agroforestry Centre devised a project -'Enabling smallholders to improve their livelihoods and benefit from carbon finance' -which has encouraged large groups of farmers to adopt activities which improve their yields and incomes and, at the same time, either reduce their emissions or sequester carbon. By mid-2011, over 5000 farming households in four areas that are home to poor tribal communities had adoptedDuring recent years, farmers in many parts of Mexico have been affected by an increase in the frequency of droughts, abnormal frosts and other severe weather events. Matters could soon get worse, with some experts predicting that climate change could reduce the country's crop production by more than 25% -unless farmers change the way they farm.In April 2011, the Mexican President, Felipe Calderón, launched a major new research and development initiative -Sustainable Modernization of Traditional Agriculture, or MasAgro -at the headquarters of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The initiative is designed to help small-scale farmers significantly increase their yields of maize and wheat. The measures being promoted will also help farmers adapt to the changing climate and reduce their carbon footprint.\"MasAgro is based on a combination of our bread-and-butter research -developing improved varieties -and introducing climate-smart farming practices such as conservation agriculture,\" says Jonathan Hellin, an economist at CIMMYT. \"The project recognizes that there is no point in providing farmers with excellent heat-and drought-resistant varieties of wheat or maize if they're going to be grown on poorly managed land.\"Conservation agriculture is based on three principles: reduced tillage, the retention of cover all year round, and the rotation of crops, including nitrogen-fixing legumes. Between them, these activities can significantly reduce water and nutrient losses, boost crop yields, and help farmers cope with greater climatic variability.CIMMYT is playing a lead role as the 'network broker', bringing together over 150 different organizations and interests -private seed companies, extension services, research institutes, farmers' organizations -to promote the adoption of new 'climate-proofed' varieties of maize and wheat and conservation agriculture. MasAgro is being run through a series of decentralized hubs, which enable partners to test and adapt technologies to suit their local conditions. By early 2012, over 2500 farmers were running more than 3000 implementation plots.MasAgro will also improve the efficiency of value chains, reduce post-harvest losses and research the best ways of scaling up innovative technologies, such as conservation agriculture. The 10-year project aims to increase Mexico's annual maize production by 5-9 million tonnes in rainfed areas and annual wheat production by 350 000 tonnes. The project will raise the incomes of tens of thousands of poor farmers and make a significant contribution to Mexico's food self-sufficiency. measures that fell into three main categories: planting trees to sequester carbon; switching to agricultural practices that reduce emissions, such as ploughing crop residues back into the soil rather than burning them; and reducing energy consumption by using fuel-efficient stoves and energysaving compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) bulbs.\"At the household scale, these measures may sound trivial,\" says Singh. \"But when you add together the activities of many thousands of farming families, they become highly significant, both for the environment and for the farmers.\"In Andhra Pradesh, for example, it is estimated that farmers where the project is operating could save the equivalent of 11 500 certified emission reductions (CERs) per year. Assuming a value of USD 5 per CER, the households here would receive over USD 55 000 a year -a huge sum of money in a remote tribal area. Even if they don't, farmers say they will continue to adopt measures that reduce their carbon footprint because they make financial, as well as environmental, sense.One of the strengths of the project is that nothing other than technical advice has been given free of charge. Farmers who receive fuel-efficient stoves, CFL bulbs or tree seedlings pay a share of the costs, generally around 50%. Money raised this way is placed in the bank accounts of organizations, run by the villagers, which have been established to handle all the financial aspects of carbon management.A number of companies, including Danone, the Ambuja Cement Foundation and Sony, have expressed an interest in buying carbon credits from the project. International donors have also been impressed. The German agency GIZ recently commissioned a similar scheme, which will be managed by the World Agroforestry Centre in a heavily degraded, drought-prone part of Rajasthan. \"The way the carbon project works, taking a grid of 1000 hectares or more with 700 or 800 households, makes a lot of sense to us,\" says Sanjay Tomar of GIZ.\"Scaling up these kinds of activities so that they reach tens of thousands of households will involve matching institutional design, future activities and implementation partners with local conditions and international climatefunding regimes,\" says Henry Neufeldt, Head of the Climate Change Unit at the World Agroforestry Centre. \"This is something we will be working on in future, together with our national and international partners.\" ❝ At the hoUseholD scAle, In 2011, the WorldFish Center led a study to explore the impact of climate change on the aquaculture industry in Vietnam's Mekong Delta. Climate change is likely to lead to a rise in sea level, which in turn could lead to an increase in flooding and intrusion of seawater into coastal areas. The study looked at the vulnerability of two species that are important for export -the freshwater striped catfish and the brackish-water tiger shrimp -and the costs and benefits of measures to help aquaculture enterprises adapt to climate change. The results suggest that shrimp farmers will be able to bear the cost of adaptation over a longer time frame than catfish farmers. In both cases, the costs of introducing various practices and mitigation strategies to help adapt to climate change could be reduced or offset through the construction of coastal and river dykes to control flooding and salinity intrusion. These could also provide benefits for other sectors of the economy.The preliminary study, which was the first of its kind in the region, was based on secondary data and consultations with farmers and policy makers. \"We now need an interdisciplinary approach that uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to gain a better understanding of farmers' preferences and their willingness and ability to adapt to climate change,\" says WorldFish scientist Nhuong Tran. \"We also need to refine the methodology used to assess the economics of climate change impact in the aquaculture sector in order to inform and support better policy analysis.\"Much of the work in CCAFS is focused on developing and trialling new technologies and practices with farmers.How will Ethiopian farmers cope with the climatic conditions that are likely to prevail in 20 or 30 years' time? Bioversity International's 'Seeds for Needs' project provides one of the answers: by making use of the genetic diversity of crops stored in the country's gene banks.The project, implemented jointly with Ethiopia's Institute of Biodiversity Conservation and the National Agricultural Research Institute, has developed a tool to help farmers choose varieties to suit their future needs. The research initially focused on providing new varieties of barley and durum wheat to 100 women farmers at three sites of varying elevation.During the first phase of the project, information about more than 12 500 samples of seed of different varieties was screened to identify the ones collected from areas currently experiencing the climatic conditions -in terms of rainfall and temperature -which are projected to occur at the pilot sites in a generation's time. The most promising 100 varieties of each crop were then tested on-farm by the women, using their land and labour.After the first growing season, the women selected the varieties with the traits they considered most valuable. These were then distributed to other women within their communities to be grown during the next cropping season. Even though the women did not choose varieties for their ability to cope with future climatic conditions, the initial selection provided them with a range of seeds, and options, they didn't have before. \"If they grow a few varieties that are tolerant of climate change, then they will be in better shape to face the future than they would be otherwise,\" says Laura Snook of Bioversity.Traditionally, gene banks have been established to store material for plant breeders to use when developing new varieties, not for direct distribution of seeds to farmers. However, this project is reconnecting farmers with landraces -unimproved varieties developed by farmers over millennia -that have been largely lost from the landscape, and frequently replaced by improved varieties. \"It's also drawing the attention of agricultural ministries and research institutions to the important role gene banks can play in climate change adaptation strategies,\" says Snook.In Papua New Guinea, farmers and scientists are using a similar methodology to identify varieties of sweet potato and yam -both clonally reproduced crops that can't be stored or sown as seed -that will help farmers cope with climate change. 'Seeds for Needs' projects have also been launched in Mali and India.Ethiopian farmers winnowing orange lentils. Bioversity International's Seeds for Needs project in Ethiopia is working with farmers to pre-select crops and varieties that are likely to perform well under future conditions.Over the past 30 years, farmers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam's main rice-growing area, have adapted to changing environmental conditions by modifying their farming practices, changing the way they manage water, and diversifying their production systems. However, the viability of their farms -and the country's food security -is now threatened by climate change.In March 2011, IRRI launched a major new project: 'Climate change affecting land use in the Mekong Delta: adaptation of rice-based cropping systems' (CLUES). The four-year project, funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), builds on work already undertaken by IRRI and its Vietnamese and Australian research partners on improving the resilience of rice production and on numerous nutrient-cycling projects in the region.Scientists used advanced hydrological models to simulate water levels -sea levels are likely to rise -and concentrations of salinity under different climate change scenarios. They also modelled the effect of different water control systems, such as canal excavation and water extraction, on water levels and salinity. The results suggest that water levels will be strongly affected throughout the entire Mekong Delta if the sea level rises. In contrast, salinity is likely to be affected in specific locations, according to the season and annual fluctuations.To cope with these changes, the CLUES project is developing varieties of rice capable of coping with rises in water level and increases in salinity. Modern breeding methods are helping speed up the delivery of these improved new varieties. Farmers will be actively involved in choosing the varieties that suit local conditions. This will help to facilitate their rapid and widespread adoption.The CLUES project will also develop a range of different management options, explore the factors determining farmers' ability to adapt to climate change, improve the capacity to analyse soil nutrient cycling and greenhouse gas emissions, and provide information which will benefit land-use planning in coastal areas.New rice varieties will withstand rising water levels and salinity, helping rice farmers adapt to climate change.Photo: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)Agriculture is directly responsible for 12-14% of humangenerated greenhouse gas emissions, with farmers in the developing world being responsible for around three-quarters of these. \"We know farmers can reduce agricultural emissions with a range of existing practices,\" says CCAFS Theme Leader Lini Wollenberg, who is based at the University of Vermont. \"The challenge is how to make the practices attractive to farmers, especially on large scales and in ways that improve their economic options and food security.\" CCAFS' collaboration with the Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture (MICCA) programme, which is managed by the UN's FAO, is addressing this challenge. During 2011, CCAFS and its participants explored what sorts of incentives are required to encourage smallholders to adopt agricultural practices that reduce their impact on the climate. Ideally, these incentives will help farmers to increase their productivity and incomes, reduce emissions and adapt to the changing climate.At present, the international financing mechanisms that enable organizations and individuals to take advantage of the emerging carbon market -worth USD 120 billion by 2010, according to The Economist -have been largely inaccessible to smallholders. A report commissioned by CCAFS and presented at a MICCA workshop in Rome -Mechanisms for agricultural climate change mitigation incentives for smallholders -describes the difficulties smallholders face in accessing the carbon market and the potential sources of funding which could support more climate-friendly agricultural production. The study was led by Tanja Havemann.Another CCAFS report -Towards policies for climate change mitigation -describes the findings of a study led by Charlotte Streck. This explores how to use climate finance at the national and international level to promote climatefriendly agricultural practices. Examples include the setting up of transition funds to reimburse the cost of adopting climate change mitigation activities, public support through payments for environmental services, and schemes that support specific activities, such as those associated with getting large numbers of smallholders together to take advantage of the carbon market.Wollenberg believes that the workshops, and the research papers prepared for the workshops, helped to advance our understanding of how to design measures which will encourage smallholders to reduce their emissions. \"It's a question of providing the right forms of support,\" she says. \"Whether smallholders can take advantage of the carbon market is just one part of this. If we want to reduce emissions from farmers' crops, livestock and fisheries, we have to find solutions that also improve their livelihoods.\" Climate change mitigation cannot occur at the cost of development or food security.If policy makers, governments and farmers are to make climate-smart agriculture a priority, they need to prove that it is possible. They need to know which activities reduce greenhouse gas emissions and by how much. Farmers need clear evidence that the activities which they are urged to adopt -such as conservation agriculture and agroforestry -are profitable as well as climate friendly.In 2011, the MICCA programme launched four pilot projects to measure the performance of different agricultural systems in terms of food production, reducing emissions and helping farmers adapt to climate change. In Kenya, the project is working with smallholder dairy producers in the Rift Valley; in Tanzania, it is evaluating the benefits of conservation agriculture in the Uluguru Mountains. In each of these sites, the World Agroforestry Centre is evaluating the impact of different farming practices, and developing and refining methodologies to measure greenhouse gas emissions.One of the key outputs of the MICCA projects will be a protocol that forms the scientific basis for estimating the mitigation potential of smallholder systems to reduce their carbon footprint while achieving the goal of food security. \"We need to come up with affordable, replicable ways of measuring greenhouse gas emissions that can be used over large areas,\" says Wollenberg. This is important for two reasons. First, it will provide clear evidence about the climate-smart benefits of different farming systems.Second, it will provide smallholders and others who seek access to climate finance with a means of quantifying the benefits of mitigation activities.In October 2011, CCAFS organized a MICCA workshop in Rome on the landscape approach to quantifying greenhouse gas emissions. This brought together scientists working on the subject from across the world, and enabled them to provide an update on their activities in the field. \"I think this is one of our most important roles -bringing together people who are working on the same research issues, but who haven't had the time or the means to get together,\" says Wollenberg. By creating these 'communities of practice', she believes that CCAFS can help a wide range of different organizations and individuals achieve more than they could by working on their own.  At present, farmers living in the West African Sahel have little or no access to seasonal forecasts that provide predictions of precipitation for the next growing season. At best, they receive short-term weather forecasts that cover large areas rather than specific locations. \"As the climate grows increasingly unpredictable, farmers will need seasonal forecasts to help them plan their cropping cycle and reduce the impact of weather variability,\" says Ousmane Ndiaye of Senegal's ANAMS.Ndiaye was a member of a team of climatologists, researchers, extension agents and development workers who ran a climate communications workshop, supported by CCAFS, for farmers in Kaffrine, a district in Senegal's 'peanut basin', in June 2011. One of the main aims of the workshop was to teach farmers how to use probabilistic seasonal forecasts.Unlike weather forecasts, which predict what will happen at a particular time over the next few days -for example, that it will be 32°C and dry at 11am on Monday -seasonal forecasts provide information about the probability of there being more or less rain, lower or higher temperatures, and other weather events over a long period of time. In short, they provide the sort of information that should help farmers to decide which crops to plant and when, and what farm inputs to use.During the two-day workshop, 33 farmers, chosen from six randomly selected villages around Kaffrine, were introduced to probabilistic seasonal forecasts. However, this was a two-way learning process, with the team of experts from the extension and meteorological departments discussing forecasts and local management responses in the six villages to gain a better understanding of local knowledge and the sort of climate information farmers consider useful.After the participatory training workshop, ANAMS sent the farmers the probabilistic seasonal forecast for their region. Six months later, Ndiaye and his team returned to Kaffrine to run another workshop, to which they invited 15 of the farmers who had attended the June training and 13 others who hadn't received any information about seasonal forecasting. This enabled the team to assess whether farmers had benefited from the use of seasonal forecasts.The year was marred by the lateness of the first rains and a long dry spell, which meant crop yields were lower in 2011 than they had been the previous year. Nevertheless, farmers who had received the seasonal forecast clearly benefited. Twelve of the 15 who had attended the first workshop had planted short-cycle crops to cope with the erratic rains that were forecast.The three who decided to ignore the seasonal forecast did not change their farming practices, and they suffered as a result. Amy Ndiaye said that she did not adopt different practices because her husband, who had not attended the workshop, was sceptical about the forecasts. \"That prevented me from using a short-cycle variety,\" she recalled. \"But after we had a low yield, he agreed that next time we will use seasonal forecasts.\"The 13 farmers at the workshop who had not received probabilistic seasonal forecasts behaved as though 2011 would be similar to 2010. As a result, their yields suffered. They expressed their desire to receive seasonal forecasts in future.\"It is often claimed that farmers would have difficulty understanding probabilistic forecasts,\" says CCAFS Science Officer Kevin Coffey, based at Columbia University's International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), \"but our research in Senegal -and on a similar project in Kenya -has shown that this simply isn't the case. They understand the forecasts and they know how to use them to plan their farming practices.\" The project has also shown the virtues of a participatory approach, where meteorological services, such as ANAMS, work together with farmers to determine what sort of information they need.In sub-Saharan Africa, cassava is grown by many millions of small-scale farmers, who sell their surplus production in local markets, and it is estimated that 37% of Africa's dietary energy comes from this edible root. Anything -including climate change -which threatens cassava poses a direct threat to the food security of the continent.Over the past three decades, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), which has its headquarters in Nigeria, the world's largest cassava producer, has devoted considerable energy on developing improved varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases, low in cyanide content, drought-resistant and high yielding. Climate change will almost certainly affect the distribution and prevalence of many pests and diseases, including those that affect cassava. During 2011, IITA scientists conducted research on the impact of climate change on a species of whitefly which transmits viral diseases in cassava, and on a range of other pests and diseases that threaten the crop. Using innovations in breeding methods, coupled with a strong regional testing programme, IITA seeks to develop varieties of cassava which will help farmers cope with emerging threats from pests and diseases, as well as with drought.In all of IITA's research projects, there is a strong element of capacity building, without which the organization could never have achieved so much. To give just one example, IITA has trained more than 9000 researchers and technicians in at least 25 African countries in processing high-quality cassava flour. This has led to an increase in production and consumption during droughts, when other staple food crops have failed. IITA's current climate-related cassava research is also benefiting from its partnerships with a wide range of different organizations. Good communication is essential for the CCAFS programme's success. And as a cross-cutting research programme that includes 15 CGIAR Centres and several university partners, collaboration is key for good communication.Photo: N. Palmer (CIAT)In 2011 CCAFS published a report on climate change 'Highlighting the hunger hotspots' (see page 12), identifying areas that are food insecure and highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Early on, the study was identified by researchers involved in the analysis -which was carried out by scientists from ILRI and coordinated by CCAFS -as an important research output that carried key messages for a range of audiences. Before the report was finalized, the researchers and communicators from ILRI and CCAFS met to discuss those key messages and audiences, and to identify opportunities for outreach and dissemination. The group worked together collaboratively to draft a press release and develop a media outreach strategy. Communicators from CIAT were also involved, and assisted by translating the press release into Spanish, contributing multimedia resources to the press room, and helping reach out to Latin American audiences.Scientists from across the CCAFS programme supported media outreach for the story, giving interviews in four languages. Additional CGIAR Centres and partners joined in by helping to disseminate the story via social media and other online channels.These joint efforts were successful in securing high-profile media coverage, including in the Guardian, on the BBC, in TIME magazine's 'Ecocentric' blog and on the Nature website. This resulted in over 2300 report downloads in 2011 and significantly boosted traffic to CCAFS' website, which peaked at over 1700 visitors in one day (300% above average). Moreover, the campaign set a precedent for joint communications from the CCAFS programme, serving as a model for all communications in the future. The major challenge for implementation was the uncertainty of funding which resulted in reporting a slow start and having significant under spending in some of the participating Centres.CCAFS 2011 budget was US$62 million including funds from the CGIAR Fund ($41 million) and other bilateral grants ($21 million).Only towards the end of the year CCAFS received firm confirmation of the proposed budget. The first tranche of funds from the Fund Council (30%) was received early in August and the second tranche (58%) was received in December.By the end of the year 85% of the CGIAR Funds (including Window 3 funds) were executed while the execution of bilateral funds was in the order of 102%.In the following two tables the financial execution by Natural Classification and by Centre are shown, expressed in US$ Thousands: The original 2012 CGIAR Fund budget for CCAFS as approved by the CGIAR Consortium and Fund at the inception of CCAFS amounts to $55 million. However the finally allocated budget is $41 million. This required the CCAFS Program Management Committee to make various reallocations amongst Theme Leaders/ Regional Program Leaders and Centre Activity Plans. Despite the significant reduction in allocated CG funds to CCAFS, the funding certainty seems to be much improved in 2012. Thus, hopefully all the elements are in place for implementation at a much faster pace in 2012 than in 2011.A key success factor will be to obtain additional bilateral grants in order to deliver on the promised impact, therefore a major effort is needed to reach out to donors.In 2011 the estimated greenhouse gas emissions of the CCAFS Coordinating Unit were 110 tCO 2 -eq; this includes staff travel, major events and office emissions. Air travel is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions, with a total emission of 88 tCO 2 -eq. This is followed by events (9% of emissions), office electricity and heating (4% each) and other office use (less than 1%).To tackle its emissions, the Coordinating Unit has begun to implement the following measures:l Air travel: Reduce travel and increase the number of online conferences. Offset options will be proposed to every participant of events organized by CCAFS.l Events: Look into options for environmentally friendly hotels and restaurants for events. One mandatory vegetarian meal will be served per event to increase awareness and reduce by 50% the meal emissions. Conference packs will be replaced by USB sticks and will be available online. A checklist for reducing the footprint of events has been developed which includes essential points and actions that can be taken during an event; this will be integrated as a tool in the planning of future events.l Electricity, heating and office supplies: A green code of conduct will be implemented in the Coordinating Unit in July; staff will voluntarily agree to improve their behaviour in the office to reduce their daily emissions. This code of conduct will be drawn up in partnership with the University of Copenhagen's Green Campus initiative.All remaining emissions will be offset twice a year via the purchase of credits from the agroforestry project 'Emiti Nibwo Bulora', in partnership with the Plan Vivo programme, with an estimated cost of €850 per year.The Coordinating Unit's performance in reducing its carbon footprint will be assessed annually, via a report that includes a full description of greenhouse gas accounting, an assessment of measures taken, and an action plan for the coming year. ","tokenCount":"12257"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5cafe6abd202bb6fdb02244c1d33b9d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0da2f126-21fd-4be2-adf6-856cd5eb5668/retrieve","id":"1204170565"},"keywords":["Cylas spp","Hydroxycinnamic acid esters","resistance","sweetpotato varieties","weevil damage"],"sieverID":"df357b33-f947-49af-8a69-94429c204936","pagecount":"1","content":"Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas, L) is the third most important crop in Sub-Saharan Africa contributing significantly to food security, nutrition and income. Weevils, Cylas spp., are the most important insect pest of the crop. The weevils damage both vines and roots, causing unacceptable odour, discoloration, and bitter taste making them unfit for consumption. Depending on conditions, weevils can cause complete losses of the harvestable crop. Host plant resistance seems to be the only viable option for management of the pest. Studies in Uganda reveal existence of active resistance in some sweetpotato genotypes. Field and laboratory experiments show that clones HMA 519, ARA  230, LIR 302, APA 356, ARA 228, RAK 865 (local), and New Kawogo (improved), have varying levels of resistance compared to the susceptible varieties NASPOT1, Kakamega, and Tanzania. The resistant clones were evaluated for field resistance against the susceptible checks; root and vine damage was less in the resistant clones. No-choice bioassays using roots conducted in the laboratory to show that feeding and oviposition was less on the resistant clones indicating that the observed field resistance was not simply escape. The resistance has been linked to some hydroxycinnamic acid esters which occur in higher concentrations in the roots of resistant compared to the susceptible clones. The compounds were extracted from the roots, analysed and synthetic derivatives used to conduct toxicity & deterrence tests. Different concentrations (0.001, 0.01, 0.1mg/ml) of synthetic derivatives of the compounds were applied to the root surfaces of the susceptible variety (NASPOT 1) and showed that weevil species from both Uganda and Malawi fed less and laid fewer eggs on the treated roots compared to the untreated ones confirming the activity of the compounds against weevils. Preliminary studies indicate that the compounds have an additive effect with Cry7a proteins which are the target for the development of clones transformed with the Bt toxin. The findings have important implications for the breeding program in Uganda and will be used to map QTLs in segregating populations from a cross between the US variety Beauregard and the Ugandan variety New Kawogo.","tokenCount":"342"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b38ffc796d1bdd59454baed07700ccf1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c2b887f-6853-4843-a393-31d6a9dd4e70/retrieve","id":"724829255"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3cf94e2b-5bfc-4cb7-87f7-fdeda00a02da","pagecount":"5","content":"Accurate quantification of soil organic carbon (OC) pools is essential to study the dynamics of OC in soils. Therefore, organic matter is often separated into physical fractions with distinct turnover times, e.g. particulate (POM) and mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM), after which their OC content is measured. Calcareous soils are under-represented in such fractionation studies, because the required analytical differentiation between OC and inorganic carbon (IC) is not straightforward and implies more processing time, sample mass and equipment. Here, we review the performance of four methods to quantify OC in POM and MAOM fractions of soils containing 3-16 g IC kg − 1 and 10-25 g OC kg − 1 (n = 16). We assessed the similarity and consistency of the data obtained with the different methods. Furthermore, we checked how their ability to distinguish OC from IC was influenced by the fractionation and in particular by the dispersion with sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP). The four methods were: 1) Elemental carbon analysis after removal of IC by acid fumigation (OC fum ); 2) Elemental carbon analysis after removal of IC with aqueous acid (OC aq ); 3) Elemental carbon as determined by Rock-Eval 6 thermal analysis (OC RE6 ); and 4) Elemental carbon analysis after removal of OC by loss on ignition and subsequent quantification of OC by difference between total carbon and IC (OC LOI ). We found that the OC fum , OC aq , and OC LOI methods produced similar OC contents for bulk soils, whereas OC RE6 results were slightly but significantly lower. Total recovered OC RE6 contents of the summed POM and MAOM fractions were similar to the bulk soil OC RE6 contents. In contrast, the recovered OC fum , OC aq and OC LOI contents were slightly higher than respective bulk soil OC contents (108-112%), especially in soils with high IC/OC ratios. We show that this was not caused by operational artefacts or chemical changes that occurred during OC fractionation, but rather likely indicated error propagation. We conclude that all 4 methods can reliably quantify OC in POM and MAOM fractions in calcareous soils and that the optimal choice depends on the required accuracy of the results and the available sample mass, lab equipment and processing time. Based on our findings and practical considerations, we provide guidance for the selection of the most optimal OC quantification method to study OC dynamics in calcareous soils.Soil organic carbon (OC) is of fundamental importance in global carbon cycling and related ecosystem functioning (Shukla et al., 2022). To understand the response of soil OC to climate change and land use, OC is often quantified in soil organic matter (SOM) fractions with contrasting turnover times (Lavallee et al., 2020;Ramírez et al., 2021). The separation of SOM into particulate organic matter (POM) and mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM) is a relatively easy and frequently used method to isolate two fractions with contrasting properties with regard to their persistence, functioning and formation (Lavallee et al., 2020): POM mainly consists of relatively large SOM compounds with no or little association with the soil mineral matrix, whereas MAOM mainly consists of small SOM compounds that are associated with soil minerals in organo-mineral complexes and fine aggregates. Separating POM from MAOM based on their size has, in spite of this operational distinction, proven to provide fractions with distinct turnover times (Poeplau et al., 2018). This fractionation was therefore recommended as a time-and cost-effective method for broad-scale studies (Lavallee et al., 2020) and has since then been adopted in multiple studies (e.g. (Duan et al., 2023;Li et al., 2023;Xiao et al., 2022)). However, the presence of inorganic carbon (IC) complicates the quantification of OC in fractions of calcareous soils. Usually, IC is removed prior to elemental CN analysis, or OC is estimated by difference between total carbon (TC) and IC content (Harris et al., 2001;Mayer et al., 2019;Vuong et al., 2013). These extra analytical steps require additional sample mass and processing time, limiting feasibility of broad-scale fractionation studies. Calcareous soils are therefore under-represented in OC fractionation studies, although these soils cover more than 30% of the earth's land surface (Marschner, 2011).Different OC quantification methods exist that differentiate between OC and IC (Mayer et al., 2019;Xu et al., 2021), but not all methods are suitable for fractionation studies, for example due to limitations in available sample mass for the separate fractions. Moreover, the accuracy of OC quantifications in calcareous POM and MAOM fractions has, to the best of our knowledge, not yet been evaluated (Baldock et al., 2013;Poeplau et al., 2018;Sanderman et al., 2013). Obtaining 100% OC recovery after fractionations can be a challenge (Poeplau et al., 2013;Rumpel et al., 2004) and the risk of deviating recoveries is further increased in calcareous soils by the extra analytical steps to differentiate between IC and OC. OC losses during fractionation and incomplete IC removal may cause deviating recoveries, but also the dispersion of the soil samples with sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP), as part of the fractionation procedure: Firstly, SHMP remains present in the MAOM fraction and exerts a buffering effect on pH (de Morais et al., 2020) which may influence IC removal of acid-based methods used to differentiate between OC and IC. Secondly, SHMP may change the nature of OC and IC, since it desorbs OC from soil minerals by the phosphate surplus (Hinsinger, 2001) and dissolves and adsorbs to IC (de Morais et al., 2020;Hatch and Rice, 1939;Thomson, 1936).Here, we present the performance characteristics of four different methods to quantify OC in calcareous POM and MAOM fractions. We selected methods that are suitable for low sample masses and high sample numbers and that do not require a conversion factor to quantify OC. The similarity and consistency of the OC results obtained by these methods were assessed for bulk soils and fractions. Additionally, we explored the influence of the fractionation procedure, especially the dispersion step using SHMP, on the distinction between OC and IC. Finally, we provide guidance on the selection of the optimal OC method based on the required accuracy of the results and the available sample mass, lab equipment and processing time.The four methods to quantify OC in POM and MAOM fractions are: 1) Elemental carbon analysis after removal of IC by acid fumigation (OC fum ); 2) Elemental carbon analysis after removal of IC with aqueous acid (OC aq ); 3) Elemental carbon as determined by Rock-Eval 6 thermal analysis (OC RE6 ); and 4) Elemental carbon analysis after removal of OC by loss on ignition and subsequent quantification of OC by difference between TC and IC (OC LOI ) (see Table 1 and Supplementary Information for more information on the OC methods). For bulk soils, we also estimated OC by difference between TC and IC measured by volumetric quantification in a calcimeter based on the Scheibler method (OC sch ), to include a more standard indirect OC method than OC LOI for a broader method comparison in bulk soils (the OC Sch method requires too much sample mass to analyse the separate fractions).We used sixteen different soil samples from calcareous fluvisols in the Netherlands with a clay content between 10 and 31%, and that contain 3-16 g IC kg − 1 and 10-25 g OC kg − 1 (Table S1). These soils are classified as Mn25a and Mn35a according to Dutch soil classification (De Bakker and Schelling, 1989), have been reclaimed from the sea and frequently contain shell fragments. A subsample of 10 g air-dried <2 mm soil was fractionated into POM and MAOM (Poeplau et al., 2018;Baldock et al., 2013;Sanderman et al., 2013). In short, soils were dispersed in 40 mL of 5 g l − 1 sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) and wet-sieved over 50 µm in an automated wet sieving system (FRITSCH) to separate POM from MAOM. The fractions were dried at 105 • C. Bulk soils and fractions were ground to powder before determining OC content with the different OC methods. We similarly dispersed bulk soils in SHMP, skipped the wet fractionation step, and analysed OC in the 105 • C dried and ground bulk soils, to investigate whether SHMP dispersion affects OC quantification. To further evaluate the OC methods, we applied all methods on two calcareous reference soils of the global proficiency program WEPAL (ISE-989: calcareous river clay; and ISE-879: calcareous marine clay). More details on the physical size fractionation, carbon detection methods and data processing are described in the Supplementary Information.Since there is no golden standard, all OC methods were compared against all other methods with linear correlations (y = ax + b, using the correlation coefficient as measure for consistency) and two-tailed paired t-tests to detect differences between the OC methods with pairing per sample (n = 16). A Bonferroni correction (α / number of tests) was used to correct for the large number of t-tests. Recovered OC and TC contents were calculated as the weighted sum of the dry weights and respective carbon contents of the two fractions. Recovered OC and TC contents were compared with bulk soil OC and TC contents via two-tailed paired t-tests with pairing per sample. OC and TC recoveries were calculated by dividing the recovered OC and TC contents by the carbon contents of the respective bulk soils.Comparison of OC methods. Generally, all OC methods (OC fum , OC aq , OC LOI , OC RE6 , OC Sch ) led to accurate results, since all but one OC contents of the WEPAL samples (n = 69) were within the 95% confidence interval of the consensus value (see Supplementary Information). Similar OC contents were produced for all OC methods for both bulk Fig. 1. Soil organic carbon (OC) contents in calcareous bulk soils (n = 16) in g kg − 1 , as measured by different OC methods: OC LOI , OC aq , OC fum , OC Sch , OC RE6 . See Table 1 and the Supplementary Materials and Methods for a further explanation of the methods. Gray solid line: visualization of linear correlation (y = ax + b) to assess consistency among OC methods. Black dashed line: The 1:1 line. p t-test : p-value of two-tailed paired t-test with a Bonferroni-corrected significance level α = 0.005. r: correlation coefficient obtained from linear correlation (y = ax + b). Note that the intercept is not shown. soils and POM fractions (p t-test > α; range r: 0.99-1.00), except for the OC RE6 method which produced OC contents that were significantly (p ttest < 0.001) and consistently (range r: 0.99-1.00) lower than the other methods (Fig. 1 and Fig. S1). The results of the different OC methods were less consistent for the MAOM fractions (range r: 0.86-0.98) and less in agreement (lower p t-test -values). The OC RE6 contents were again slightly but significantly lower than OC contents obtained with all other methods (r ≥ 0.95, Fig. S2), in line with findings in literature showing that Rock-Eval 6 underestimates OC by ± 10% (Disnar et al., 2003;Saenger et al., 2013). This underestimation of OC coincides with an overestimation of IC, since TC as measured by elemental carbon Analyser (LECO) and Rock-Eval are equivalent (Table S1). This underestimation of OC is likely due to the fact that during pyrolysis, part of the OC evolving as CO 2 and CO at high temperature is erroneously attributed to IC. As (Disnar et al., 2003) suggest, this systematic misattribution can probably be solved by using a correction factor.Carbon recovery. OC recovered based on the sum of the fractions (Fig. S3) was good when using the OC RE6 method (103 ± 7%,), but the other OC methods led to recoveries that were significantly higher than 100% (OC fum : 108 ± 8 %; OC aq : 112 ± 15 %; OC LOI : 107 ± 10%). OC contamination during fractionation, spilling, subsampling errors and other systematic operational errors did not explain these overestimated OC recoveries, because the sample mass recovery was 98 ± 1% and the TC recoveries as measured by Rock-Eval and elemental carbon Analyser were 99 ± 3% and 100 ± 4% respectively (Fig. S4). We also excluded possible effects of operational errors on OC LOI recovery due to varying LOI conditions (e.g. duration and ignition temperature (Hoogsteen et al., 2015)) between bulk soils and fractions, since these samples were measured simultaneously. We subsequently explored the potential effect of dispersion with SHMP on the OC fum, OC aq and OC LOI recoveries. OC recoveries of bulk soils that were dispersed did not differ significantly from the respective OC contents before dispersion, with recoveries of 97-101% (Fig. S5), indicating that the OC fum, OC aq and OC LOI methods are not affected by chemical changes induced by SHMP. However, the concentration and buffering capacity of SHMP can be higher in MAOM fractions than in bulk soils after fractionation, since the same amount of SHMP ends up in a smaller soil mass (50-80% of bulk soils ended up in MAOM fraction). Because a higher buffering capacity could theoretically reduce acid dissolution of IC, and thus cause an overestimation of OC, we measured OC aq content in MAOM fractions after increasing the acid to soil ratio by factors of 2, 2.5 and 3 (Supplementary Information). Adding more acid did not lower the OC aq contents (Table S2), indicating that proton-binding to SHMP did not limit the dissolution of IC. We thus conclude that the OC fum, OC aq and OC LOI methods were not affected by dispersion with SHMP. We conclude that the elevated OC recoveries most likely derived from error propagation caused by the larger number of processing steps for these methods compared to the OC RE6 method, and that this error propagation becomes increasingly apparent at higher IC/OC ratio's (Fig. S6).Choosing the optimal OC method. We conclude that all four OC methods can be used to accurately measure OC content in calcareous bulk soils and POM and MAOM fractions. Nevertheless, one method may serve specific needs better than others. In practice, choosing the optimal OC method depends on the desired accuracy of the results and the available sample mass, laboratory equipment and processing time. We provide guidance on selecting the most optimal method based on these practical considerations and the results of our study in the Supplementary Information (Fig. S7 and Table S3), to facilitate including currently under-represented calcareous soils in global assessments of soil organic carbon dynamics.","tokenCount":"2388"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d4b476077f5bff54c47bcf236b352178","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8f7a5170-a219-4bf7-84b5-1b5ceec1d249/retrieve","id":"1377386907"},"keywords":["payment for ecosystem services (PES)","economic instrument","market-based instrument (MBI)","integrative environmental governance","Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD)","rules-in-use","functional role","Costa Rica"],"sieverID":"bd3a78a0-c7d5-4424-b2f9-094b4fd53cca","pagecount":"38","content":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications.Policy mix analysis has been applied by research on energy, climate, urban and transport policy, and more recently biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services. However, policy mix analysis has been employed at a high conceptual level, focusing on describing interactions between instrument types (Gunningham and Sinclair, 1998;OECD, 2007;Flanagan et al., 2010;Schröter-Schlaack and Ring, 2011). Policy mix analysis rarely describes instrument 'structure' or functional characteristics, in a way that would answer the question \"what constitutes an instrument\"? Using Costa Rica's well known Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) as an example, this paper aims to demonstrate how the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework (Ostrom, 2005) can contribute to policy mix analysis and the wider research field of integrative environmental governance (Visseren-Hamakers, 2015). Ring and Barton (2015) review the development of policy mix literature. Policy mix emerged in economic policy literature in the 1960s concerning the interaction of fiscal and monetary policy (Flanagan et al., 2010). Since the 90s policy mix analysis has be taken up in international constraints and opportunities for introducing further market-based instruments in conjunction with existing policies under the EU Birds and Habitats Directive and Common Agricultural Policy. Jordan et al. (2014) evaluate a federal level policy mix to overcome the barriers of small and medium-sized enterprises to resource efficiency innovation in Germany. Kivimaa and Virkamaki (2014) analyse the intended paths towards low-carbon transport systems in Finland with multiple policies. Santos et al. (2015) evaluate the mix of European agri-environmental measures directed at private landowners and ecological fiscal transfers directed at local governments for improved land-use zoning and land management practices in Portugal. Mazouni (2015) analyses the policy mix for a transition towards energy efficient buidings in a city district of Stockholm Sweden. Our reading of this substantially and conceptually broad environmental policy and governance literature is that policy mix analysis lacks a common terminology for describing what constitutes the functional characteristics of instruments.Addressing the impacts of policy instruments, economic instruments for biodiversity conservation have been compared in terms of their legitimacy, environmental effectiveness and cost-effectiveness (OECD, 2007;Angelsen, 2009;Ring and Schröter-Schlaack, 2011;Vatn et al., 2011). Yet, as the analytical approach of these studies compares economic instruments in terms of their outcomes, they pay little attention to the functional characteristics of the instruments themselves. Although these studies point out that institutional and socio-ecological context influences instrument choice and implementation, they do not offer descriptors of the institutional context factors that potentially interact with the instruments' functional characteristics. We take this analytical void in the policy mix research as our starting point.Payments for ecosystem services (PES) is a much debated economic instrument for biodiversity conservation which serves as the empirical setting of this paper. Based on a review of different PES definitions across academic traditions Wunder (2015) defines and 'ideal type' of PES as (1) voluntary transactions, (2) between service users, (3) and service providers, (4) that are conditional on agreed rules of natural resource management, (5) for generating offsite services.There is strong debate about whether PES should be classified as market-based in practice or neoliberal in intent. Wunder (2015) notes that the classification of PES has at times been used to argue for or against market-based instruments versus apparent alternatives in a normative fashion. Early PES research has noted that context matters for the interpretation of PES' impacts (Landell-Mills and Porras, 2002) . The growing literature on the classification of PES also emphasises the need to characterise context (Wunder, 2005;Porras et al., 2008;Sommerville et al., 2009;Swallow et al., 2009;Muradian et al., 2010;Vatn, 2010;Karsenty, 2011;Shelley, 2011;Pirard, 2012;Tacconi, 2012;van Noordwijk et al., 2012;Wunder, 2015;Hausknost et al., 2017;Huber-Stearns et al., 2017). Syntheses of PES findings increasingly point to institutional and socio-ecological contextual factors in explaining its impacts (Wunder, 2006.;Wunder et al., 2008;Angelsen, 2009;Greiber, 2009;Muradian et al., 2010;Pascual et al., 2010;Vatn, 2010;Ferraro, 2011;Corbera, 2015;Raes et al., 2016). Impact assessments of PES have recently included administrative heterogeneity and presence of other instruments (Alix-Garcia et al., 2012;Pfaff and Robalino, 2012;Robalino et al., 2015). Fletcher and Buscher (2017) note that much of the recent literature (Vatn, 2010;Dempsey and Robertson, 2012;Pirard and Lapeyre, 2014;Gomez-Baggethun and Muradian, 2015;Van Hecken et al., 2015) argues that PES is not a market instrument or neoliberal because of the substantial mix of public funding and regulation of PES implemention on the ground. Yet, the interaction between the institutional context factors and the design of the PES arrangements has not been thoroughly analysed (Huber-Stearns et al., 2017).The intention of this paper is not to offer another definition of PES (Wunder, 2005;Muradian et al., 2010;Fletcher and Breitling, 2012;Pirard, 2012;Pirard and Lapeyre, 2014;Wunder, 2015), nor an interpretation of its ideological objectives (Dempsey and Robertson, 2012;Matulis, 2012;Matulis, 2016;Fletcher and Buscher, 2017), we focus our attention on describing PES' institutional context and interaction with other policy instruments. Just like any successful new policy instruments, enduring PES regimes have resulted from processes of adaptation and co-evolution with the existing policy mixes (Primmer et al., 2015;Ring and Barton, 2015). For example, PES may have an explicit role in a broader conservation instrument mix, making general restrictions more 'palatable', through temporary compensations for expropriated property owners in newly created protected areas, or they can provide alternative means of income generation for people displaced around protected areas (Porras et al. 2011). Rather than as compensation for strongly implemented regulatory policies, PES may complement insufficient or weakly enforced forest laws. PES may compete with subsidies for forestry and forest clearing, or be part of a cross-compliance scheme for example tied to credit (Wunder et al., 2008). PES may follow a policy sequence replacing or being integrated into pre-existing conservation and development projects (Wunder, 2006.), or develop from a subsidy scheme towards a performance-based scheme (Fletcher and Breitling, 2012;Matulis, 2012). PES have also been developed as a reaction to a failed regulatory approach that has neither generated the envisioned conservation outcomes, nor gained legitimacy (Primmer et al., 2013). Wunder (2015) makes a case for 'ideal type' definitions of PES that are consistent and precise, distinctive in function, robust to inter-temporal variations and simple enough to remember. We would add that the definition of PES should be comparable to the characteristics of other conservation instruments using a common typology. Fletcher and Bluscher (2017) call for investigation of common elements in PES design, rather than emphasising particularities of implementation. We would add that a typology identifying commonalities across economic, regulatory and information instruments is needed. Our main concern in this paper therefore is to test a framework that identifies the functional characteristics of instruments as a basis for comparison and analysis of interaction. The decomposition of instrument characteristics is intended to support discussion of conservation policy instrument characteristics in terms of their function, without the need for normative instrument labels. Ostrom (1990) defined institutions as \"the set of working rules that are used to determine who is eligible to make decisions in some arena, what actions are allowed or constrained, what aggregation rules will be used, what procedures must be followed, what information must or must not be provided, and what payoffs will be assigned to individuals dependent on their actions\". Ostrom (2005) argued that a large number of different resource use situations -or 'action situations' -may be described by a limited set of rules for cooperative governance. In her Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework, she proposes that the same types of rules also define cooperative institutions at different hierarchical levels. Vatn (2010) discusses the institutional characteristics of PES. Framing conservation policy instruments as institutions, Ring and Barton (2015) suggested that the 'rules-in-use' taxonomy of the IAD framework could serve as a detailed approach to classifying functional characteristics of economic instruments in a policy mix. They argued that the IAD framework allows wider comparison with regulatory and information instruments, as well as the common pool property resource management institutions that gave rise to IAD. The approach is inspired by diagnostic multilevel analysis of institutions (Ostrom, 2007;Cox et al., 2010;Cox, 2011) and employing a 'grammar' of institutional analysis (Basurto et al., 2010). In this paper, we aim to show how the analysis of formal rules-in-use can avoid the \"instrument labelling\" debate by describing the functional characteristics of instruments such as PES, and conservation instruments more widely. To our knowledge our paper is the first application of the 'rules-in-use' aspect of the IAD framework to the analysis of economic instruments in conservation, using Costa Rica's PES as a demonstration case. In our further analysis we use the Spanish abbreviation (PSA)pagos por servicios ambientales -to identify Costa Rica's program, and PES when referring to definitions and cases in the international literature.The paper is laid out as follows. In Section 2 we describe the Costa Rica Forest Law and PSA program used to test IAD framework as a diagnostic tool for functional and interaction analysis.We then present the IAD analytical framework and its 'rules-in-use' as functional characteristics of PES. To get started we show how the framework maps to a simple ideal type definition of PES. We then describe how IAD can be used a generic tool for classifying functional characteristics of conservation instruments. In section 3, we demonstrate the application of IAD 'rules-in-use' classification to Costa Rica's PSA by mapping design features cited in the literature to the 'rules-in-use' classification of IAD. Our analysis illustrates how PSA could be called a policy mix of incentives, addressing different compliance and land-use situations, as well as environmental and rural development policy goals. In section 4 we discuss limitations and potential of the IAD framework for instrument analysis, and how the 'policy mix' framing of PES opens different avenues for the analysis of instrument interaction. Section 5 concludes the paper.The IAD framework proposes that the functional role of rules-in-use in cooperative institutions is understood in relation to 'action situations' involving particular actors and actions (Ostrom, 2005;Poteete et al., 2010). Ostrom (2005) makes a distinction between organisations and institutions. Institutions encompass 'rules-in-use' at different levels of organisation, while organisations are made up of actors who have different roles according to rules-in-use (both formal and informal). Our framing of 'rules-in-use' as the functional characteristics of conservation instruments, suggests that they could serve both as a terminology to describe the instrument that is the focus of analysis, but also the 'wider institutional context' understood as the formal and assumed roles of actors in organisations.The IAD framework's 'rules-in-use' taxonomy include position, boundary, information, aggregation, scope, payoff and choice rules (Table 1). ' Boundary rules Who is eligible; entry rules; succession rules; exit rules. Defining holder and nonholders of positions.Assign external rewards and sanctions to particular actions or to particular readings on outcome of state variables.Position rules Decision-making positions that actors can fill and which are assigned action sets at particular decision-making junctures. Multiple positions are possible for individual actors.Required, permitted and forbidden actions at a particular time based on conditions that have or have not been met.Known outcome variable(s) that must, must not, or may be affected by action (i.e. policy goals). Define which variables are observed and their range (includes intermediate and final outcomes in the 'policy cycle').Affect level of information available to participants about; Overall structure of situation, current state of resource, previous and current experience of others' participation, own past moves (channels, frequency accuracy, subject of communication, official language).Whether decision requires single or multiple participants. Lack of agreement rules.Source: action situation 'rules' based on Ostrom (2005).Boundary rules govern the entry, succession and exit of landusers in a particular instrument regime. Payoff rules identify the rewards and sanctions associated with outcomes of actions.Payoff rules encompass all incentives rather than just a narrow focus on payment conditions.Position rules determine decision-making positions, such as the types and roles of intermediaries. Choice rules define required, permitted, forbidden and guaranteed actions on particular types of land. Scope rules define outcome variables and their ranges, such as the maintenance of forest cover as a proxy for a bundle of ecosystem services. Information rules govern information access and disclosure. Aggregation rules refer to collective voting rules and lack of agreement rules governing an instrument regime.The rules are inter-related with specific function, which are context specific -or in IAD language are specific to an 'action situation' (Figure 1) (Ostrom, 2005). An 'action situation' is a land-use decision to be taken for example by a landuser in a forest location. In the 'action situation' participants and actions are assigned to positions. Outcomes are linked to actions.Information is available about action-outcome linkages. Control is excercised over actionoutcome linkages. Costs and benefits for actors are outcomes from acting according to sets of rules, which make up conservation policy instruments such as a protected area regulation or PES Ostrom (2005) defines a default condition with no rules, which under a common-law system presumes general freedom unless a rule specifically prohibits or mandates an act or event.Ostrom's default rule-less conditions have many features in common with assumptions of a perfect market (where property rights are the sine qua non rule). In an ideal type, performancebased instruments place emphasis on defining scope rules about what target to meet, and payoff rules for achieving those targets. This implies that actors are left to choose how to achieve targets, rather than choice rules being specified. Regulatory or command-and-control instruments place emphasis on choice rules regarding how a policy target is to be met -for example which land-use practices are permitted or prohibited. Regulatory instruments also have pay-off rules through definition of sanctions. Information-based instruments by definition place emphasis on information rules, with information provided to \"nudge\" (Hiedanpää and From this discussion we see how the IAD framing can be used to distinguish between 'ideal types' of conservation instruments in general, and payment for ecosystem service in particular, as defined by Wunder (2015). Furthermore, rules-in-use are sufficiently generic to describe other instruments applied in conjunction and for cross-compliance purposes (Ring and Barton, 2015). We note that Bollman and Hardy (2012) used the transactions cost 1 and institutional performance benchmarks 2 aspects of the IAD framework to assess \"Pagos por ServiciosAmbientales\" (PSA) in Costa Rica, but did not take advantage of the rules-in-use aspects of the framework.Costa Rica's payments for ecosystem services program is a very well-known, analysed and publicised case of PES that have been used to set and discuss PES definitions (Rojas and Aylward, 2003;Pagiola, 2008;Wunder et al., 2008;Daniels et al., 2010) and normative characteristics and ideologies of PES (Fletcher and Breitling, 2012;Matulis, 2012;Matulis, 2016). However, PSA case analysis has not lead to consensus on the nature of this instrument. PSA provides a rich example of research broadening over time to consider policy context (Pagiola, 2008;Daniels et al., 2010;Le Coq et al., 2010;Porras et al., 2011;Robalino et al., 2011;Fletcher and Breitling, 2012;Matulis, 2012;Le Coq et al., 2013;Rosendal and Schei, 2014;Robalino et al., 2015;Matulis, 2016)  (Pagiola, 2008;Daniels et al., 2010) . PSA Phase II -priority-setting at regional level (2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010): From 2003, the National Forest Fund of Costa Rica (FONAFIFO) assumes full management of the PSA programme including selection of PES beneficiary (Robalino et al., 2011). Spatial targeting criteria were reduced to a handful of criteria. Criteria were not applied in order of importance. Contracts were selected on a first-come-first-evaluated-basis and then prioritised 4 . The first non-environmental criteria, in the form of low Human Development Index was introduced. Regional FONAFIFO offices each had their PSA area quotas to fill per modality.Phase III -priority-setting at national level (2011-present): In 2011, the system of firstcome-first evaluated was dropped. In its place, a matrix of weights per priority-setting criteria was introduced and used to select among \"pre-applications\". A criteria for priority to small farms is introduced to improve distributional equity. Moreover regional quotas were dropped in favour of a national level priority-setting across all \"pre-applications\" using weighting of criteria.Our brief description of PSA has emphasises how the program has changed over two decades, adopting and discarding different policy objectives and mechanisms.We made an initial identification of PES design features based on a highly cited international review of 13 PES cases that include user-financed, government financed and PES-like programs (Wunder et al., 2008). As an initial test we mapped these design criteria to the rules-in-use definitions of the IAD framework. We then augmented the list of international PES characteristics with those specific to the Costa Rica PSA program, based on a review of research in Costa Rica, as documented in Porras et al. (2013) and Barton et al. (2014). The identification of 'rules-in-use' focused on the \"forest protection\" modality of PSA. It was based on a review of the Forest Law #7575 and Biodiversity Law #7788, and all Presidential Decrees on PSA from 1997-2013 (Table 1). We also carried out an analysis of the PSA Procedures Manual (FONAFIFO, 2009) to identify the integration of cross-compliance rules with PSA. This included comparing the pre-selection criteria for evaluating the property titles of PSA applicants' for their consistency with cadastre and national property registers. Cadastre criteria were tested against a case study for the Osa and Nicoya Peninsulas, Costa Rica, and discussed in a workshop with FONAFIFO regional staff, as documented by Benavides et al. (2014).Based on this information we constructed a draft diagnostic of the IAD framework 'rules-inuse' of the forest protection PSA. A draft diagnostic of PSA in terms of 'rules-in-use' was discussed with the director of FONAFIFO Oscar Sanchez and revised based on feedback.As a starting point we revisit Wunder's (2015) PES \"ideal type\" as (1) voluntary transactions,(2) between service users, (3) and service providers, (4) that are conditional on agreed rules of natural resource management, (5) for generating offsite services. The ideal type PES definition maps to the 'syntax' of the IAD rules-in-use framework as illustrated in Table 2.Source: PES definition based on Wunder (2015) In PES ideal type definition, entry, succession and exit of landusers are voluntary (boundary rule). The payoff rules includes many types of transaction including monetary payments, compensations, rewards and also sanctions conditional on outcomes of actions. The essential positions are service provider and user (because PES is voluntary, actors are usually, but not necessarily private). Additional positions might include those of interpreting and assigning rules by actors who manage PES, or function as an intermediary. These positions can be held by the public sector administration or some other organisation (Vatn, 2010;Primmer et al., 2013). Agreed choice rules of natural resource management define required, permitted, forbidden and guaranteed actions on particular types of land. Scope rules define off-site ecosystem services as the outcome variable of interest, although transaction costs often mean that the transaction is conditional on following agreed rules for resource management.The simple ideal type mapping (Table 2) can be expanded to consider the detailed characteristics of Costa Rica's PSA program.   Wunder et al. (2008). Porras et al. (2013) and Barton et al. (2014) for further documentation of the detailed characteristics right hand column) of PSA. FONAFIFO -National Forestry Financing FundLong-standing PES programs develop and change over time (Primmer et al., 2013;Raes et al., 2016) . In this section, we provide an example of analysing instrument development in terms of rules-in-use. Table 4 is   Conservation area specific criteria Whole country / no spatial priorities Criteria/ Boundary rule in force. Boundary rules defined by other instruments: protected areas social, tenure Scope rules: R -system of ranked criteria. W -system of weighted criteria and aggregate scoring; minimum score threshold to comply with PSA annual budget constraints and area targets . See Porras et al. (2013) for further details on criteria.The PSA Operations Manual (FONAFIFO, 2009)  FONAFIFO personnel argue that PSA is an effective tool for land tenure regularisation 9 .This cross-compliance argument runs counter to a Coasian view that property rights are a necessary for market-based instruments such as PSA (Pagiola, 2008).The Operations Manual provides detailed information on grace periods for obtaining necessary tenure documentation to resume the application process (information rules).Applicants may also qualify if they can document posessionary rights, but the process of documentation and witnesses is laborious. Smallholder applicants may choose to pay surveyor and legal services to obtain formal title, sometimes borrowing money in informal credit markets against the first PSA payment 10 . How important PSA is for tenure regularization beyond examples cited here remains to be studied.Another example of cross-compliance boundary rule which has not been previously documented is the requirement that PSA participants have no outstanding debts with the national social security system (FONAFIFO, 2009). PSA applications with outstanding social security debts are rejected. Although land under PSA is exempt from property tax (payoff rule), a long term effect of PES-driven tenure regularisation may be an increase in the tax base once properties leave the PES scheme, hence also an example of cross-compliance. PSA applicants from expropriated properties within national parks that remain uncompensated is an example, though less frequent, of crosscompliance related to a payoff rule.Based on the detailed analysis of the Costa Rican PSA as a mix of rules-in-use and cross-compliance mechanisms, we demonstrate an example of payments for ecosystem services as a policy mix (Table 5).Indeed, PSA is a combination of characteristics from regulatory, market-based and information-based conservation instruments. PSA is (1) a voluntary transaction (on voluntary private land with title and cadaster maps, as well as some designated public land), (2) with conditional compensation payments & sanctions, (3) between service providers and users (with multiple overlapping roles), (4) subject to agreed rules of natural resource management and cross-compliance, (5) for generating off-site environmental services and protecting on-site biodiversity, (6) which is monitored and certified (e.g. carbon offsets as part of reductions of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) .We have demonstrated that PES and economic instruments in general can be described by the IAD framework's rules-in-use. We use the framework in an explorative fashion for 'institutional diagnostics' (Young, 2002), rather than a prescriptive search for 'optimal' design criteria for PSA (Engel et al., 2008;Wunder et al., 2008). However, it is difficult to propose a framework completely free of normative content (Fletcher and Buscher, 2017) and the IAD framing is no exception. The IAD framework casts instrument analysis in the light of cooperative governance theory. From this perspective PES can be discussed as an example of a (hierarchical) cooperative institution -the type of institution for which IAD was originally developed. For example, PSA has been interpreted by economists as a national political level as a quid pro quo or pre-condition for forest stakeholder representatives accepting the land use change ban (Pagiola, 2008;Daniels et al., 2010). Le Coq and colleagues documented the surprisingly wide political support across different stakeholder interests for the ban on landuse conversion prior to introduction of the Forest Law (Le Coq et al., 2010;Le Coq et al., 2015). While recognising PSAs neoliberal conservation agenda at macro level (Fletcher and Buscher, 2017), the IAD framework also casts the origins of PSA in the light of cooperative governance at national level.The IAD framework may also provide an additional perspective on Vatn (2010) or Interactions between economic, regulatory and informational instruments in a policy mix have been defined as complementary, synergistic, path-dependent, redundant or in conflict (Ring and Barton, 2015). A diagnostic of rules-in-use provides a common language for defining functional characteristics of instruments, but does not explain the quality of the functional interactions between these characteristics. The focus in IAD is on describing institutional 'structure', while a balanced policy mix analysis must also consider 'agency' (Van Hecken et al., 2015;Fletcher and Buscher, 2017). This is related to how design and transaction costs are increased/reduced by other instruments and the practices in use, which are an essential factor to be considered when evaluating institutional performance (Bollman and Hardy, 2012;Coggan et al., 2013). For example, Matulis (2016) provides a detailed analysis of how the role of forester intermediaries -'regentes forestales' -developed over time as part of PSA. The law defined position rules allowing private forest contractors to administer application, contracting and monitoring of PSA. PSA Procedures Manual defines pay-off rules for intermediaries' fees as a fixed maximum percentage of the PSA contract. Over time this has led to regentes favouring large landholders because of economies of scale, illicitly charging smallholders more than the maximum fixed rates in some cases, and private contractors outcompete non-profit NGO intermediaries representing smallholders. This dynamic is a result of the interaction of position and pay-off rules, but is not explained by the rules per se, but additionally by more active role and agency that can be captured by the 'theory of coercive competition' (Matulis, 2016). However, rules-in-use provide a framework for describing the institutional structure as sources of agency and transaction costs of PES.4.4 PES as a policy mix -avoiding ideal types and ideology? Matulis (2012Matulis ( , 2016) )  There has been more detailed use of spatial priority-setting criteria to generate ecosystem services and conservation in accordance with stated policy goals for PSA, in contrast to the initial a first-come-first-serve supply determined enrollment. Payment levels in the PSA program continue to be administratively determined, rather than demand-supply driven. For example, PSA payment levels have been maintained in nominal terms by decree, but fallen in real terms (Porras et al., 2013).There is an undeniable political tension between PSAs voluntary nature, use of competitive intermediaries and partial private funding, one the one hand, and public funding and public regulation of PSA selection criteria, on the other. We have suggested that rules-in-use terminology of IAD framework, provides a language for describing the structure of economic instruments for conservation that avoids arguments based on ideal types. Implicitly we have been arguing for policy analysis that avoids ideological starting points for policy design research. The IAD's rules-in-use focuses on instrument structure and makes descriptions of instruments more ideologically neutral. But policy design research must also address policy objectives and the types of agency needed to support their achievement (Van Hecken et al., 2015;Fletcher and Buscher, 2017). This requires a complementary set of analytical tools that address political dimensions of instruments (Vatn, 2015;Hausknost et al., 2017).We ","tokenCount":"4362"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e730c38be430eb865bb86744812ae041","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1212c7d8-d460-4e4a-96eb-8f2318f7e1d0/retrieve","id":"470596924"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6a7cd316-3d49-4f1a-9602-7629956f5a1d","pagecount":"29","content":"Output from the sinana kb showing the topics and the number of statements in each topic. . Table 6 Table showing the    Africa faces considerable challenges overcoming food insecurity in the coming decades. The decline in the natural resource base, on which agriculture depends, is significant. More than 95 million ha of arable land, or 75% of the total in sub-Saharan Africa has degraded or highly degraded soil, and farmers lose eight million tons of soil nutrients each year estimated to be worth $4 billion (Toenniessen et al. 2008). If present trends continue African food production systems will only be able to meet 13% of the continent's food needs by 2050 (Global Harvest Initiative, 2012;Montpellier Panel Report, 2013). One response to this challenge is sustainable intensification (SI). There are a number of definitions of SI but perhaps the most widely accepted definition comes from Pretty et al. (2011) which describes SI as '……producing more output from the same area of land while reducing the negative environmental impacts and at the same time increasing contributions to natural capital and the flow of environmental services'. Not surprisingly there are a number of challenges associated with moving SI from theory into practice within Africa -not least the considerable heterogeneity of African farming systems. Acknowledging this there remain questions about how SI will look like on the ground, and how it might differ amongst production systems, in different places, and given different demand trajectories. SI is being developed as a 'systems' oriented approach to decision making which accommodates a mix of strategies required for different biophysical, social, cultural and economic contexts (McDermott et al. 2010). Given the high vulnerability of many African farming systems, it is important to recognise that capacity for SI will vary from shoring up resilience to enhancing productivity (Ginkel et al. 2013). SI strategies are only likely to be successful in areas were vulnerability has been addressed through resilience strategies.Successful implementation of SI strategies needs to be implemented across a range of scales. One of the key constraints to implementation of SI in sub-saharan Africa is insufficient data at a local landscape scale. Prioritising where to implement SI interventions will require a sufficient characterisation of the variability in capacity of farming systems across these landscapes. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) is one tool for rapid characterisation of spatial and temporal variation within a landscape. LEK can also be used to identify trends and spatial patterns of land use and land cover change, observed by local people over many years, and the impact that these changes have wrought on ecosystem service provision (Pagella and Sinclair, 2014).This study was focussed on identifying existing sustainable intensive agricultural methods in Sinana woreda, Oromo region. The study also collected local knowledge on agricultural methods so as to assist in the development and implementation of appropriately adapted technologies to intensify production of crops, livelihood and household production without extending the areas subject to cultivation.The sites in this study were pre-selected for the Africa RISING project based on a specific set of criteria. The study sites were delineated based on political/administrative boundaries. Four 'woredas' (districts) were therefore chosen as the size of woredas is large enough to encompass a range of bio-physically defined areas with contrasting farming systems and a range of social institutions. The selection of target woredas was done based on the following criteria:-It has 25% or more area dedicated to wheat production -It is one of the government selected AGP (Agricultural Growth Plan) woredas -It has an annual rainfall of more than 600mm and an elevation greater than 1700 m.a.s.l The chosen sites were known to exhibit large variations in existing levels of intensification including cereal-legume rotations and other crop-combinations and crop-livestock integration. Furthermore, the factors driving intensification such as agricultural potential, access to available technologies, demand for livestock products, and integration with markets were also known to vary. The sites were chosen to represent contrasting levels of intensification to enable the characterization of different trajectories and identification of technology combinations that lead to sustainable development pathways. The local knowledge research was conducted in order to better understand this variation and provide a richer characterization of the study sites at different scales.The two target kebeles selected in Sinana woreda were Ilu Sambitu kebele and Selka kebele. Data was collected from the kebele government offices to help with characterisation, some was sourced by the development agents themselves, some was compiled by woreda office or Ethiopian statistics agency (Table1). One of the main objectives of the local knowledge study was identification of gaps in initial data (from project and from secondary sources), which was achieved mainly a course resolution characterization (for example no agroforestry systems were visible).The existing woreda level data had ambiguous and inconsistent definitions for land types and methods for characterizing land cover (at a kebele level) for example: extra categories for 'roads' or 'uncultivable land' (Figure 2). Cultivated land size is not a measurement based on area of land. Fields are counted more than once to accommodate for multiple annual cropping seasons. In this study the local knowledge of farmers and extension workers was acquired using the Agroecological Knowledge Toolkit (AKT5) knowledge-based systems methodology and software (Sinclair and Walker 1998;Walker and Sinclair, 1998;Dixon et al., 2001). The major focus of knowledge collection comprises an iterative cycle -that is eliciting knowledge from a small purposive sample of farmers, through semi-structured interviews, and the representation and evaluation of the local knowledge obtained using an explicit knowledge-based systems approach. Each new round of interviews is informed by the previous evaluation cycle and the process is complete when further interviews do not result in a change to the knowledge base. The knowledge base remains a durable and accessible record of the knowledge acquired and can be subjected to validation in a generalization phase where key results are tested with a large random sample of informants to explore the occurrence and consistency of knowledge amongst the wider populations of the research communities (Walker and Sinclair, 1998). Field activities included transect walks, focus group discussions and a range of participatory methods used to complement the AKT methodology (Table 2). Farmers were selected across two kebeles in the Sinana woreda. Mapping exercises were carried out with groups of farmers as well as individual farmers of both genders (Plate 2). Record species listThe following stratification categories were used to sample farmers for participation in both individual interviews and focus group discussions.• Gender of informant • Gender of household head • Location in landscape • Age (for historical timeline exercise only)In Sinana a total of 71 farmers were involved in the study with 15 farmers involved in individual interviews and the remaining 56 farmers involved in five focus group discussions (Table 3). Location was an important consideration to account for variation in topography and soil types in sloped land compared to flat land; as well as the increased access to kebele assets that farmers had living in the kebele village centres (where the majority of community assets are located) in Sinana woreda.Gender was another consideration because of the different roles and responsibilities held by male and female farmers. Gender roles were found to be quite distinct and uniform in agricultural production, with men involved more heavily in ploughing and women in sowing, both were involved in weeding and harvesting. Gender of the household head was considered because of general trends in access to training and knowledge as well as the wealth status of the household. Some of these trends included the tendency for female headed households to enter into plough or labour sharing agreements because of insufficient labour in the household.  4). Statements may have conditions attached -which in this knowledge base provided spatial or temporal circumstances in which the statement was true. Statements were then categorized into topics of knowledge (Table 5). There is a total number of 227 statements in the Sinana knowledge base, 102 of which had conditions attached to them. Topics in the knowledge base ranged from crop management, livestock management, tree utilities, water security and soil types. is the region with most topographical and soil variability within the kebele, it is also not easily accessed from the good dirt road. Ilu is a small settlement of around 40 households which is parallel to Shaya river and suffers from perennial flooding. Sambitu zones 1 and 2 are where the majority of community resources are located (such as a local market, FTC and health centre).Selka kebele had a good dirt road running from Robe town through some of the settlement zones. It also had lesser roads connecting these to the central zone of Selka Bakaye. Selka Bakaye zone is where the majority of community resources were located (such as a local market, FTC and health centre). The main comparisons to be drawn between the two kebeles are that population was less dispersed in Ilu Sambitu kebele as the populations were considerably smaller in Ilu and Zula zones compared to Sambitu 1 and 2 (which form the main commercial centre). Selka, in contrast was characterised by a sprawling residential areas punctuated by cropland. Selka had more undulating topography and was generally slightly higher in altitude than Ilu Sambitu, which delayed Selka's planting season by 2 weeks. Ilu Sambitu was predominantly flatland with a small hill in Zula zone.Both kebeles depended primarily on piped water which travelled through a network of underground pipes and had its origins in the Bale mountain chain/ National Park. Ilu Sambitu also had Shaya river to provide extra water especially when pipes were damaged. Selka kebele had one large man made pond in the village centre which supplied surplus water though was seen as unreliable.Soil types and quality differed because of the difference in topography. Ilu Sambitu had more stable soils (being flatland) with some floodplains where nutrient rich sediment was deposited annually. Selka had more evidence of degradation and erosion on the high slopes; and more problems of deposition of sandy sub-soils on the fields beyond the slopes making its quality generally poorer. Both Kebeles relied predominantly on the large market in Robe town to sell surplus cereal crops. The local market located in the village centre attracted only local buyers and so large quantities of wheat and barley and fava bean were transported to Robe as a main source of income. Distance to Robe town was less in Ilu Sambitu (around 15 minuites drive, by car -from the village centre) compared to Selka (around one hours drive, by car -from the village centre).There was found to be a mostly heterogeneous land use and livelihood system in Ilu Sambitu kebele, with similar land types and resource bases across the community (Figure 4). Farmers main source of income was through the sale of wheat and barley, so the majority of cropland was given to growing cereals. Farmers would also grow small amounts of fodder (maize and oats) for their livestock, and some subsistence crops around the home compound -often with water support from piped water. Regardless of wealth and family size, labour scarcity was found to be a common problem amongst all farmers interviewed. The issue was mainly that mechanization was limited whilst average landholdings were extensive. Ploughing was mostly done by oxen (although there were some farmers hiring tractors), and a single field would be ploughed multiple times (the frequency depending on the soil type see Table 6 ). Seed sowing was done by hand and some farmers were moving away from the traditional practice of broadcasting seeds, to the more labour intensive practice of rowplanting. Herbicide and fertilizers were routinely applied but only those farmers beginning to rowplant their crops were engaged in hand weeding (another labour intensive task). Numerous strategies of labour sharing were practiced by households in the site to cope with large landholdings and minimal mechanization. The main types discussed with farmers are listed below: Family labour: in which members of immediate and extended family assist in agricultural activities for no profit.  Hired labour: in which landless youth or seasonal labourers from the lowlands are employed by the farmer for cash or a percentage of the agricultural returns.  Plough sharing: in which ox owners will assist in ploughing fields (normally of female headed households) in exchange for a percentage of the agricultural returns.  Community labour sharing: in which neighbors with adjacent fields share labour and synchronize field activities like ploughing, sowing and weeding in order to increase the number of workers and reduce the time taken.  Leasing: in which and owners (normally town dwellers) give land over to be cultivated by landless farmers (who are responsible for the cost of inputs) for half of the agricultural returns-not a common practice.Main difference between female headed household and male is in the labour capacity and the labour sharing strategies taken -Female headed households tended to turn rely more on plough sharing and community labour sharing to cope with labour insufficiency whereas male headed households more commonly had hired labour. Both would use family labour with members of working age (typically aged 8 to 50).The soil that was dominant in both sites was 'Delacha' a clay-loam vertisol with high productivity and some waterlogging issues. Only small areas of different soil varieties ('Dima' and 'Guracha') were found in areas with undulating topography (Table 7). Farmers equate soil fertility with frequency of ploughing per cropping season with a higher frequency of ploughing causing higher soil fertility (statements 166 and 208).   Wheat rust is a seasonal problem in this region and was known to attack some wheat varieties more aggressively than others (Figure 5). Farmers attribute the rust to waterlogging and frost forming on flat land. Row planting is a new technique introduced to the area 3 years ago -there has been widespread adoption by farmers but most only have sufficient labour to practice row planting on a fraction of their lands (Plate 3). The increase in yield/ decrease in expenditure on fertilizer is well known however the labour involved is a major constraint and farmers are interested in a mechanized technique for row planting. Weeding by hand is practiced when row planting and again is known to be labour intensive. There are a number of weed varieties known to be resistant to herbicides, some of which are foreign invasive species to the area (Table 10), and these can therefore only be controlled by hand weeding.Plate 2 Model farmer and member of the Africa RISING participatory trials for varieties of wheat and fava bean has been running his own experiment of the productivity of broadcasted wheat versus row planted wheat.In Ilu Sambitu kebele the main source of water is Shaya river which flows along the border of the kebele. Farmers use Shaya river for small-scale irrigation, domestic use and livestock watering. Farmers living in Sambitu town (which are the majority in the kebele) also have access to piped groundwater which connects into their home compounds. Flooding is an issue which affects a small settlement called Ilu in the kebele. There are around 40 households which are affected by seasonal flooding during August and September. Flash flooding occurrence has increased over the last 3 years and is believed to be caused by excess surface runoff from the asphalt road which enters Shaya river on the outskirts of Robe town (statements 35-37 and 187). Shaya river bursts its banks around Ilu settlement and the slight downward slope allows waterto encroach on crop fields, dirt roads and residential areas (statements 38-41) (Plate 4). The unpredictable and early floods this year caused un-threshed wheat (left on the field in preparation for threshing) to suffer water damage and become inedible so it could not be sold. In addition crop residue (if it wasn't propped on a platform), decomposed which made it inedible for livestock (statements 46-54) (Plate 5). Houses have suffered water damage and strong flows have washed away property (statement 43). Because of high levels of waterlogging after flooding occurs the farmers were only able to grow crops in the first ('Gana') cropping season (March to late June) (statement 44 and 249 and 255). Wheat and maize as they have the longest cropping season are most affected by floods (statements 55-58). Maize is only grown for livestock feed and as a subsistence food crop, so it is not the dominant crop in the area (statement 105). Wheat is dominant. The alternative crop -barley -has other problems -in particular barley is prone to lodging on these fields due to excess soil fertility (statement 172). The high soil fertility is caused by sediment delivery from River Shaya making this a high potential but high risk area of the kebele. The current situation on the stretch of river where flooding occurs is that there is no riparian cover (the other side has a strip of Eucalyptus trees but the side where water travels is bare), and no bank protection of any kind. Farmers believe the flooding issue is beyond their capacity to deal with and riparian cover alone could not solve the issue, they think constructing a gabion may reduce the flooding. The farmers in this area are mainly new settlers to the kebele (land has not been cultivated for long) or youth from the kebele who have been given a grant of land. They are a distinct lowincome group in this area. In Selka kebele the main water sources were piped water sourced from the upper watershed in Bale national park and a hand dug pond which collected rainwater and surface runoff (Plate 5). The pond was mainly used to water livestock and for washing but it could be used for drinking water when the pipes were damaged or not functioning. The community did not use chemical purification methods.Soil erosion and surface runoff occured on sloped land due to insufficient tree coverage on mountain tops (statements 64, 85 and 86) (Plate 5). Sedimentation was a result of surface runoff and affected the productivity of flat crop land around the mountains (statements 73 and 75). Older farmers recognised a noticeable decline in groundwater recharge which they attributed to deforestation of the upper slopes and mountains (statements 63-66). The low tree density had reduced available groundwater and over time had dried all the natural springs (statements 66 and 94). Attempts to reforest the mountain tops to reduce runoff had been made in 2012 however without adequate exclusion of livestock the planted seedlings had not survived (statements 95 to 99).Information from farmers in both kebeles on the impacts of land use change on soil and water resources was compiled into a causal diagram using the AKT software programme (Figure 1). Much of the information was elicited during FGDs and historical timeline exercises carried out with farmers over the age of 45. These farmers linked the loss of indigenous tree coverage with the reduction in groundwater surface recharge which is affects community water security; they also linked the asphalt road expansion through Bale region with concentrated surface runoff in the river Shaya and the consequential flash floods which cause property damage, community displacement and a loss in cereal productivity. Farmers in both kebeles linked historic loss of fallow rotation system to cropland exhaustion and increased reliance on chemical fertilizer. KEY: Nodes represent natural processes (ovals), or attributes of objects, processes or actions. Arrows connecting nodes show the direction of causal influence. The first small arrow on a link indicates either an increase (↑) or decrease (↓) in the causal node, and the second refers to the effect node. Numbers between small arrows indicate whether the relationship is two-way (2), in which case an increase in A causing a decrease in B also implies that a decrease in A would cause an increase B, or one-way (1), where this reversibility does not apply The only known tree nursery used by farmers and Development agents in the area was located in Robe town. A visit to the nursery revealed that the management was quite poor, with much of the site overgrown by grass and surplus seedlings left untended (Plate 6). The nursery was privately run but reportedly fulfilled orders from the Woreda office in Robe and sold directly to individual farmers. The following species were observed at the nursery site:-Acacia decurrens -Casaurina equisifolia -Cupressus lusitanica -Leucaena leucocephala -Pinus patula -Scinus molle -Eucalyptus globulus -Grevillea robusta -Sesbania sesban Farmer preferences were for Eucalyptus globulus and other fuel and timber trees like Cupressus lusitanica. The other species were mostly used by the government in soil and water conservation activities. In Selka kebele 3,000 seedlings were planted in 2012 to reduce erosion run-off on an overgrazed hillside. The tree species planted in the soil and water conservation site in Selka kebele were: Sesbania sesban, Grevillea robusta, Pinus patula and Casaurina equisifolia. Most of the seedlings did not survive due to insufficient management over the dry period and damage by free roaming livestock (Figure 7).   Only Selka kebele had scattered trees commonly retained on cropland. In Ilu Sambitu kebele the practice was very rare and only Ficus sur was found in Ilu zone where fields were adjacent to the river Shaya. In Selka kebele the tree species found on cropland were mostly Juniperus procera and Euphorbia abyssinica (Plate 7) and were managed to reduce shading competition with irregular pruning to accommodate the slow growth of these trees (statements 127, 145, 147 and 150). The scattered trees were retained for shade for people and animals and shelter during the rainy season.Trees occurring in rows on sloping land were retained to help reduce erosion and stop soil deposition (Table 9).Farmers in both kebeles were found to have common agro-ecological knowledge on the negative impacts of Eucalyptus on cropland through its shading effects and the allopathic effect of leaves (statements 125 and 128). Lack of awareness of tree/crop interaction (beyond knowledge of negative effects of Eucalyptus) was thought by farmers to be the main reason for the lack of trees on fields in Ilu Sambitu kebele. The main source of livestock feed in both kebeles is straw (of varying palatability) from cereal and pulse crops (Table 10). Wheat straw dominates but needs to be mixed with salt, water and barley flour to increase palatability (statements 260 and 261). All straw is stored after threshing in home compounds and fed to livestock throughout the year (statement 262). Farmers keep small blocks of maize in cropland or in home compounds for livestock feed provision (maize is used in household but cobs are small and yield is low) (statements 57, 58, 105). Maize is grown from mid-March till mid-November (statement 55). Oats are also quite commonly grown for livestock feed in cropland or in home compounds and is known to be highly palatable (statements 256 and 257). Ensete gilletii is found in home compounds and can only be fed to Holstein Frisian cows (Plate 8). Farmers recognise the nutritive value of some of the natural weeds however farmers were found to manage weeds on cropland using herbicides and therefore did not utilize them for livestock feed unless they grew in grazing land (Table 11). The most nutritious grass species (gargara and sidisa) have become less common due to cropland expansion (statements 33, 34, 190 and 191).   The main source of grazing land is cropland after harvest (January to February) where livestock are tethered to reduce encroachment on others property. Farmers with insufficient feed may graze their livestock in a neighboring kebele called Shanaka which has a large area of unproductive grazing land that used to be a state farm during the Derg regime. The distance from Sambitu town is 1 hour walking distance. There is an un-official collective grazing regime where farmers combine their herds to take to Shanaka to graze (and take turns bringing them).The amount of official grazing land makes up 0.4% of total land in the Ilu Sambitu kebele. Some farmers also keep small grazing fields. Some of these farmers plant their grazing land with Eucalyptus which causes grass production to be low (statements 128 and 129). Farmers may also allow their cattle to graze in the home compound if it is large enough. In Selka kebele children would typically take the household livestock to graze on the upper slopes beyond the agricultural land. The practice was known to cause land degradation and soil erosion, as well as browsing pressure on naturally occurring tree species (Plate 9).The participatory resource mapping showed a variation in access to resources, and subsequent variation in land use and livelihood systems between the two kebeles.Ilu Sambitu kebele is mostly flatland and therefore quite uniform, which meant that it had limited internal geographic differences. Locations on the margins, outside the village centres, had higher variation. Some differences in soil types occur in Zula zone because of its slight undulating topography. Perennial flooding of Shaya river affect only households in in Ilu zone because of the placement of the settlement on a floodplain near to river Shaya.Selka kebele was mostly undulated topography so there was a greater level of internal variation than Ilu Sambitu in soil types across its zones. Farmers in the higher zones suffered from soil erosion and those with fields in the surrounding flatlands suffered soil deposition.There was variation between the two kebeles in Hydrological issues. In Ilu Sambitu the river Shaya provided a year round water supply and the potential for irrigation. However this river also flooded -causing loss of property and limitations to annual productivity on crop land. Selka kebele had only a hand dug community pond occurring in the kebele. The natural springs and groundwater had dried up after deforestation. In both areas the farmers depend on the piped water network servicing Bale region and farmers in both kebeles mentioned instances of lost water supply due to damaged pipes.There was a difference between the two kebeles in their relative historic and current tree cover. During the historical timeline exercises farmers in Ilu Sambitu stated that the historic vegetation of their kebele was open grassland and that trees did not naturally occur. In Selka the area was historic forest and so remnant Juniper trees still occurred. The difference in tree cover changed the opinion on the compatibility of trees with crops as well as their ecological functions and advantages. Farmers in Selka were able to link the diminishing groundwater sources with the lack of indigenous tree cover on the higher slopes.Key constraints to productivity across the site -There were farmer knowledge gaps in effective management of mixed cropping systems for provision of fodder and the use of multi-purpose trees recognised by the community -Arsi valley provides a useful location for farmer exchange (similar intensive system with leguminous tree intercropping)-Crop rotation is practiced by small numbers of model farmers -to be widely adopted farmers need community knowledge exchange -Livestock fattening and small scale irrigation are also uncommon practicesirrigation has technical limitations which may hinder increasing uptake -1 to 5 grouping and media sources already a successful way of disseminating information and training to the community -Strengthening co-operatives and irrigation committee to provide Many of the traditional sustainable intensification techniques found in this study arise through the interaction of trees, crops, water and livestock within the mixed farming system which farmers have important and relevant knowledge about. Other intensification techniques such as row planting, crop rotation and manure application are only partially disseminated within the community and are heavily dependent on excess labour making labour a key consideration when addressing uptake. Successful uptake of sustainable intensification technologies and management practices must be compatible with and build on existing local perceptions of sustainability. During the feedback sessions with the farmers discussions revolved around the local perceptions of sustainability. Farmers identified the following requirements needed to achieve food and water security and then to sustainably intensify their farming system. Riparian coverage needed along River Shaya along with gabion structures built to reduce flood risk in Ilu zone  Implementation of livestock exclusion on the tops of mountains to enable reforestation for watershed management  Expansion of soil bund and trees along contours to reduce erosion  Improved market access for less dominant crops such as pulses to encourage crop diversification  More efficient use of niches for growing livestock feed and more livestock feed varieties Mobilisation of community over free-grazing on cropland with pilot exclusion zones for soil and water conservation/ improved feed planting  Piloting intercropping techniques with compatible and multi-purpose tree species on land with erosion issues and land adjacent to riverbanks -fast biomass producers for fuel and fodder would be ideal  Increasing niche utilization (such as home compound) for fuel and fodder sources  Increasing crop diversity and crop rotation methods with training and improved seed to avoid field exhaustion  Address labour issue to increase uptake of row planting with a mechanized or efficient method of sowing the seed and/or weeding  Increasing compost utilization through training on proper storage","tokenCount":"4806"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"64009f1fac8d679a8ba4065d395689ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c2abc679-3e67-4150-9262-72dab1485da7/retrieve","id":"-1315138758"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aecfc64a-27a7-4412-84cc-b77c81cacd86","pagecount":"12","content":"How the world is organised (Western Spanish-speaking) Under ground On the ground Skies Under water Women How the world is organised (Awajun) Research must be grounded on the experiences of Indigenous Peoples and their underlying cosmovisions.• Co-occurrence of household water and food insecurity is fairly well established (Boateng et al. 2022;Brewis et al. 2019;Bethancourt et al. 2022 Public Health Nutrition;Miller et al. 2021).\"gets under the skin,\" that is, becomes embodied and takes a toll on health, because most studies have not quantified household water insecurity experiences alongside health outcomes. • To our knowledge, this is the first study that empirically explores the association between household water insecurity and stunting.What are the direct and indirect impacts of household water insecurity on the risk of stunting?How do water challenges and Indigenous women's experiences around water affect the entire trajectory of malnutrition causes, from underlying to immediate? Does the importance of Indigenous traditions and beliefs on food choices play a role on nutrition outcomes?• Newton Funded project in Amazonas, Peru (Cenepa)• Duration: 2019-2023• Awajún Peoples:• Living in the northern Peruvian Amazon, primarily in an area spanning the selva alta (upper jungle), which is covered in dense vegetation with rainfall >100 inches annually. • Women manage \"chacras\" (farms), men hunt or involved in paid work • The importance of water: rivers have served as a source of food, water, transport, and spiritual practice. • Yet recent political-economic and ecological changes have led to problems with water access, contamination, and use among the Awajún and drastic changes in Indigenous diets and cultures.• ","tokenCount":"257"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ab01c849b4b36110088a5d748943199d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88bdcafd-12a8-49ae-ad17-aeabebba0a75/retrieve","id":"109819369"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"69706c55-c63c-4097-be71-0e6c64b5cb2a","pagecount":"4","content":"In his village in Svay Rieng Province, Cambodia, Sopheap Veasna supervised the harvesting of mustard green, chili, cucumber, and tomato at his farm where he had been using drip irrigation. He enthusiastically encouraged his brother and sons, who were helping him harvest the crops, to work faster. It looked like he was going to have a bumper harvest, and even as early as the previous month, a trader had promised to buy all his produce. He would be able to raise money to send his two sons to school.Relatively modest investments in local projects in Cambodia, focusing on achieving adoption of water and food In Cambodia, the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF), through its Small Grants Program, supported iDE (an international nonprofit development organization), in partnership with the World Vegetable Center (AVRDC), and the International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC), to design a strategy to enable smallholders to benefit from effective market participation.The strategy included the training of Farm Business Advisors (FBAs), who encouraged farmers like Sopheap to participate, guided them in their cropping and connected them to suppliers of irrigation drip-kits and fertilizer briquettes.They also assisted farmers in establishing market links for their products. The incomes of target farmers more than doubled as a result. The market for vegetables is sustained by the rapidly increasing demand in urban markets for high value crops, so more producers do not cause a supply surplus, which would result in decreased prices.The project in Cambodia employed a strategy that enabled Sopheap to become a more effective market participant through an initial investment in high quality fertilizer, and the planting of high value crops identified through market assessments.Technical training in horticulture techniques was provided by Farm Business Advisors to farmers investing in drip irrigation. Almost 500 farmers in Sopheap's area now produce five different high value crops for the market. After one year of the project, farmers' income from selling vegetables had more than doubled from USD4.44 to USD10 per 100 m 2 .Before the project, vegetable production made up only 9 percent of family income on average. After one year of project implementation this increased to 19 percent of family income. Sixty-six farmers grew vegetables under drip irrigation and practiced fertilizer deep placement (FDP) that further improved their income by 27 percent, compared to traditional fertilizing practices. Farmers who combined drip irrigation with FDP and high value crops, with technical assistance, further increased their average net income by 33 percent. The Cambodia project brought about an increased understanding of how to achieve the maximum financial benefit from improved water productivity.The original assumption was that poor water management was the major constraint in commercial farming in the project area, and drip irrigation was viewed as a solution. The project showed that the benefits of improved water management could be enhanced by combining it with attention to soil fertility, crop selection, and technical advice to farmers. The Farm Business Advisor (FBA) model was found to be a financially sustainable way to provide these supporting inputs.Though drip irrigation is indeed water efficient and is a very effective labor saving strategy, under traditional farming practices, it was not cost effective on its own. When it was used in conjunction with soil fertility improvement, planting of high value crops, and technical advice, Sopheap and his fellow farmers were better able to cover the cost of investment in drip systems. This was the result of higher overall productivity from a more market-driven approach. Activities were oriented to market needs and assessments of the marketability of crops were performed in conjunction with technologies to optimize crop production.An improved understanding of water productivity in agriculture, and of what is important to farmers, helped in designing key messages to promote greater uptake of water-productivity technologies.The project recruited respected farmers who were trained as FBAs to serve as mobile \"retailers\" of horticultural products and services and providers of competent It promoted the benefits of technology investments in drip irrigation systems and encouraged their adoption. After the project was phased out, the FBAs continued to supply inputs and give technical advice to farmers, even after project stipends had been phased out. The continuing services were funded by the margins that FBAs charged on the products that they sold.The most significant innovation to emerge from the project was a better understanding of how to make the most of the benefits derived from improved water productivity.Drip irrigation alone was not cost effective, but when implemented in conjunction with improved soil fertility, high value crops, and The CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food was launched in 2002, with the aim to increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production (crops, fisheries and livestock). We do this through an innovative research and development approach that brings together a broad range of scientists, development specialists, policy makers and communities, in six river basins, to address the challenges of food security, poverty and water scarcity.The CPWF is part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems. WLE combines the resources of 11 CGIAR centers and numerous international, regional and national partners to provide an integrated approach to natural resource management research. The program goal is to reduce poverty and improve food security through the development of agriculture within nature.","tokenCount":"881"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4be2052ba3c8201556b24b63b62e24b1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b2c59ff-f160-4ca2-92d9-792dd6500728/content","id":"1403260189"},"keywords":["AM, association mapping","FI, female index","LD, linkage disequilibrium","LM, linkage mapping","LOD, logarithm of the odds","QTL, quantitative trait loci","QTN, quantitative trait nucleotide","RIL, recombinant inbred line","SCN, soybean cyst nematode","SNP, single-nucleotide polymorphism","SSR, simple-sequence repeat","ZH, Zhonghuang13","ZP, Zhongpin03-5373"],"sieverID":"d2a8515b-0231-4f6c-bb2a-fdd8510c017a","pagecount":"11","content":"A set of 585 informative single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci was used to genotype both a panel of diverse accessions and a set of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) bred from the cross Zhongpin03-5373 (ZP; resistant to SCN)  Zhonghuang13 (ZH; susceptible). The SNP loci are mostly sited within genic sequence in regions of the soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] genome thought to harbor genes determining resistance to the soybean cyst nematode (SCN, Heterodera glycines Ichinohe). The three strongest quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) identified by association mapping (AM) involved the genes Glyma18 g02590 (a component of the multigene locus rhg1-b), Glyma11 g35820 and Glyma11 g35810 (an rhg1-b paralog), as well as some other loci with smaller effects. The linkage mapping (LM) analysis performed using the RILs revealed two putative quantitative trait loci (QTL): one mapping to rhg1-b and the other to an rhg1-b paralog; both of these loci were also identified by AM. The former locus explained 25.5% of the phenotypic variance for SCN resistance and the latter 5.8%. In combination, the two major loci acted nonadditively, providing a high level of SCN resistance.S oybean cyst nematode is a highly destructive pathogen of soybean (Niblack et al., 2006). Of the 14 recognized SCN races (Golden, 1970), race 3 predominates geographically. The deployment of genetically based resistance, in conjunction with a suitable crop rotation regime, has proven to be the most effective and economical means of limiting the damage caused by this pathogen (Concibido et al., 2004). Screens of some 30,000 ex situ conserved soybean accessions have revealed resistance to be present in at least 500 accessions (Chen et al., 2006;Li et al., 2011;Ma et al., 2006), and some of these sources have been exploited for resistance breeding. Soybean cyst nematode resistance is determined by a large number of QTL (www.soybase.org) along with rhg1-b, a multigene complex harboring four genes (Cook et al., 2012) and Rhg4, a single gene locus (Liu et al., 2012).The mode of inheritance of quantitative traits has been most commonly addressed via LM. The method relies on patterns of segregation displayed by a population bred from a biparental cross and results in the placement on a genetic map of the determining genes or QTL. The achievable level of resolution is limited by the number of recombination events that took place during the construction of the mapping population. In some genomic regions, recombination is suppressed, leading to major noncongruence between the genetic and physical map. A further limitation of the LM approach is that it is, by definition, only able to detect those QTL alleles harbored by the mapping parents (i.e., two, if the parental loci are in the homozygous state, up to a maximum of four if they are both in the heterozygous state), whereas this may represent only a small fraction of the full set of alleles present in the species as a whole. In contrast, the more recently developed linkage disequilibrium (LD) or AM approach captures a potentially long history of recombination and harbors a much wider spectrum of alleles (Huang et al., 2010;Jia et al., 2013;Tian et al., 2011). The AM approach has, however, only a limited ability to detect rare alleles (Lu et al., 2010). Various strategies have been proposed to combine the advantages of LM and AM, these include simultaneously using a conventional mapping population and an association panel (Zhang et al., 2013b), integrating the data from the two population types (Lu et al., 2010) and constructing populations specifically designed for joint LM-AM analysis (Bardol et al., 2013;McMullen et al., 2009).The acquisition of the soybean genome sequence has led to the elaboration of an essentially unlimited number of SNP variants, which can be readily exploited for gene discovery and mapping purposes (Chung et al., 2014;Kim et al., 2010;Li et al., 2013Li et al., , 2014b;;Schmutz et al., 2010). Here, a set of SNP loci, selected largely on the basis of their presence within genomic regions harboring a known SCN gene or QTL, was used to query both an AM germplasm panel and a conventional biparental mapping population. The major objective was to detect alleles associated with SCN race 3 resistance by exploiting a combined LM and AM approach.The AM panel comprised 209 entries represented by 172 landraces and 37 cultivars (Supplemental Table S1); 133 of the entries belong to a set established to study the genetic basis of SCN resistance (Ma et al., 2006). Over 84% (177) of the accessions have a Chinese provenance: 16 were derived from the northeastern part of the country, 146 from the central part, 10 from the southern part, and five lacked a precise provenance. The panel also included some exotic accessions: 12 from Japan, 10 from South Korea, two from Russia, four from the United States, and one each from Argentina, Austria, Poland, and France. Most of the exotic accessions have previously been typed for their reaction to SCN race 3 (Chen et al., 2006). The LM population, consisting of 242 RILs, was bred from the cross ZP (resistant to SCN)  ZH (susceptible) by advancing the F 2 generation to F 4 via the bulk descent method and thereafter to the F 10 by the singleseed descent method (Liu et al., 2013).Plants were exposed to SCN race 3 infection under both field and greenhouse conditions as described elsewhere (Shi et al., 2004) at Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences in 2011 and 2013. Four resistant entries ('Peking', 'Pickett', PI90763, and PI88788) and one susceptible one ('Lee') were used as controls. For the field experiment, the AM panel entries and the RIL population lines were set out in a completely randomized design with three replications. A row of ZH was included every 40 rows. Each row was 65 cm wide and 1.5 m long with a within-row interplant spacing of 5 cm. For the greenhouse experiment, each entry was represented by three replicated plots, each containing five plants. Thirty days post emergence, 10 plants were sampled from the middle of each row (field experiment) and 15 plants for each line or accession in the greenhouse to enable a count of the number of SCN cysts present on the roots. The response was quantified in the form of a female index (FI), also referred to as an index of parasitism (Schmitt and Shannon, 1992). This was calculated by dividing the number of cysts present by the number formed on the roots of ZH plants. Entries classified as resistant in both seasons were rescreened in both the field and greenhouse in 2014.Genomic DNA was extracted from 10 seedlings per entry using the DNAquick Plant System (Tiangen Biotech), as described elsewhere (Li et al., 2008b). The AM panel's population structure was characterized by assigning the allelic status of each entry at the same set of 39 simple-sequence repeat (SSR) loci (Supplemental Table S2) employed by Li et al. (2008b) to establish their core collection. The protocols given by Xie et al. (2005) were used to obtain SSR amplicons, which were subsequently separated using an ABI PRISM 3700 DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems). Allele lengths were classified as described elsewhere (Li et al., 2010a). The SNP genotyping was based on a set of 768 nucleotides known to differ between ZP and ZH (Supplemental Table S3). Of these, 630 were sited in genic sequence distributed over eight genomic regions (GR08, GR11, GR14, GR15, GR16, GR17, GR18a, and GR18b) known to harbor a gene or QTL conferring SCN resistance (Table 1). Most of the remaining (124/138) SNPs were chosen to fill gaps in the linkage map constructed previously (Li et al., 2014a), and the final 14 were included along with the 39 SSRs used to characterize population structure (Supplemental Table S2). Single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping was achieved using the GoldenGate assay (Illumina Inc.), following the manufacturer's protocol. Difficulties experienced in distinguishing between the homozygous and heterozygous states (GenCall < 80%, GenTrain < 0.6) led to the exclusion of 99 of the loci, and a further 84 were removed because of either an excessive failure rate or to apparent heterozygosity. The final data set therefore comprised the allelic state at 585 SNP loci.The 39 SSR and 14 SNP loci used to assess population structure were evenly distributed across the genome (Supplemental Table S2). A Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo approach, incorporated in the software package STRUCTURE v2.1 (Falush et al., 2003), was implemented and the admixture and independent allele frequency model was employed. A set of 20 runs was performed for each level of K, ignoring any previous population information; the burn-in period (100,000 iterations) was followed by 100,000 iterations. Since the estimated log likelihood values increased as the values of K increased (indicating no clear genetic structure), the derivative of the log likelihood (K) was used to determine the most K value (Li et al., 2010b). A phylogenetic tree was constructed based on shared allele distances by invoking the neighbor-joining algorithm implemented in the Powermarker v3.25 package (Liu and Muse, 2005). The output was displayed using Mega v4 software (Tamura et al., 2007).The subpopulation membership (Q) and kinship (K) matrices were derived through the use of STRUCTURE v2.1 software (Falush et al., 2003). Marker-trait (FI) associations were sought for each of the 585 SNP loci (Supplemental Table S3) by applying the TASSEL v4.0 program (www.maizegenetics.net). The subsequent AM analysis was based on a mixed linear model method correcting for population stratification through the Q and K matrices (Yu et al., 2005). The threshold p-value applied to call a significant marker-FI association was 0.001.The software package QTL IciMapping v3.1 (www. isbreeding.net) was used to construct a linkage map based on 1062 marker assignations (the abovementioned 585 SNPs, along with those obtained previously at 312 SNPs, 166 SSRs, four expressed sequence tag-SSRs, and 24 insertion-deletion markers) (Li et al., 2014a) and a logarithm of the odds (LOD) threshold of 3.0. Markers within each linkage group were ordered using the SERiation algorithm (Buetow and Chakravarti, 1987), and genetic distances were derived from the recombination frequency using the Kosambi function (Kosambi, 1943). Quantitative trait loci placement was based on composite interval mapping (Li et al., 2007(Li et al., , 2008a) ) implemented in QTL IciMapping v3.1. The walk speed was set to 1 cM, and the probability for markers entering the model via stepwise regression was set to 0.001. A LOD threshold of 2.5 was applied to call a QTL, and a pair of neighboring QTL was deemed to be coincident when they mapped within 20 cM of one another (Schwegler et al., 2013). Quantitative trait loci designations were based on the McCouch et al. (1997) system.The AM panel and RIL population was merged to perform a joint LM and AM analysis. While the presence of two subpopulations was revealed in the AM panel (K = 2), the addition of the RILs added a third subpopulation (K = 3). The kinship matrix was reestimated using TAS-SEL. The mixed linear model implemented in TASSEL was used to detect marker-FI associations. The Association Mapping Panel Harbored Multiple Sources of SCN3 Resistance SCN3 resistance was screened in an AM panel comprising 209 entries. The FI of these AM entries varied continuously (Fig. 1B), with 132 of the accessions (63.2%) deemed resistant (FI < 10). Since many of the landraces were resistant, the likelihood is that the genetic base of SCN resistance was broad.On the basis of the 39 SSR and 14 SNP assays chosen to characterize the genetic structure of the AM panel, the size of the K parameter implied the presence of two genetically distinct subpopulations (Fig. 2A). This conclusion was supported by the phylogenetic analysis (Fig. 2B). The two subpopulations broadly reflected the entries' geographical provenance (Fig. 2C): one was dominated by material originating from central China (124/144 accessions), while the other grouped entries from southern (9), northeastern (10), and central (12) China, together with most of the exotic materials (South Korea, 8; Japan, 7; Russia, 2; and United States, 2).Of the 585 SNPs meeting the quality threshold (Supplemental Table S3), 558 reflected nonsynonymous substitutions (altered amino acid residue), two were synonymous substitutions, and 25 were sited in noncoding DNA (UTR, 1; intron, 5; intergenic region, 19). The gene diversity displayed by the SNPs ranged from 0.02 to 0.50 with a mean of 0.38. Linkage disequilibrium varied from chromosomal region to region, falling to r 2 = 0.1 over an average distance of 2.4 Mb, as indicated by the fitted trend (Fig. 3A). In all, 28 significant (p < 0.001) marker-FI associations in 23 genes were observed (Fig. 4A; Table 2), individually explaining between 4.8 and 10.6% of the FI variance; each was considered as a putative QTN (Glazier et al., 2002). All but one of the variants was nonsynonymous substitution (the exception was Map-5030 located in an intergenic region). The location of 22 of the SNPs corresponded with four of the eight targeted genomic regions, namely GR08 (in Gm08, 12 SNPs), GR11 (on Gm11, eight SNPs), GR14 (on Gm14, one SNP), and GR18a (on Gm18, one SNP). The other six mapped to regions not identified as relevant for SCN resistance: Gm05 (Map-5015), Gm08 (Map-5106), Gm14 (Map-5257), Gm15 (Map-5301), Gm16 (Map-5375), and Gm19 (Map-5596).The clustering of the GR08 and GR11 polymorphisms (Table 2) suggested the presence of an important SCN resistance locus in these two regions. The eight putative QTNs, along with two other significant SNPs (p < 0.01) on GR11, spanned a 83.2 kb region (position 37,335,483 to 37,418,685), in which LD was high (r 2 = 0.59 for Map-5140 vs. Map-5147, and 0.98 for Map-5142 vs. Map-5143, Map-5142 vs. Map-5145, and Map-5143 vs. Map-5145) (Fig. 3B). The presence of two haplotype blocks was inferred: the first (HapBlock1) involved six of the SNPs, while Hap-Block2 involved three. The four HapBlock1 SNPs (Map-5141, Map-5142, Map-5144, and Map-5146) were putative QTNs, as were the HapBlock2 SNPs Map-5147, Map-514, and Map-5149. Map-5147 (p-value of 2.5  10 −5 ) and Map-5149 (3.9  10 −6 ) explained 8.8 and 10.6% of the FI variance, respectively. Map-5147 and Map-5148 were both nonsynonymous substitutions present within Glyma11 g35810, which is a paralog of Glyma18 g02600 and one of genes present in the multigene locus rhg1-b (Cook et al., 2012). The nonsynonymous Map-5149 lay within Glyma11 g35820, a close paralog of Glyma18 g02590, which is also part of the rhg1-b complex (Cook et al., 2012). The 12 putative GR08 QTNs were associated with rather lower p-values (<10 −4 ) than were the GR11 ones. They were located in the upstream region of Rhg4 (Glyma08 g11490), spanning a 373.4 kb segment from positions 7928,720 to 8302,134. Map-5053 lay 54 kb distance from Glyma08 g11490. The putative QTNs explained between 4.8 (Map-5036 and Map-5039) and 6.5% (Map-5041) of the FI variance. Linkage disequilibrium within the region was also strong (r 2 The parents of the RIL population differed significantly with respect to their level of resistance to SCN race 3: ZP was immune (FI = 0), while ZH was highly susceptible (FI = 239). Among the RILs, 28 were deemed resistant (FI < 10), while 189 were fully susceptible (FI > 60) (Fig. 1A).The linkage map generated from the RIL population and based on >1000 molecular markers spanned 2910.7 cM and identified 20 linkage groups. There were 11 gaps longer than 20 cM, and some minor differences in marker order were detected in comparison with that recorded previously (Li et al., 2014a; Supplemental Table S4). Two SCN3 resistance QTL were revealed and designated as SCN3-11 and SCN3-18 (Table 2; Fig. 4B). The former (LOD score of 3.94) mapped to GR11, explained 5.8% of the FI variance, and was associated with an additive effect of 13.17   effect of the two loci (36.86) was higher than the additive effect of SCN3-18 alone and almost as high as the combined additive effects of both QTL.When a joint LM and AM analysis was performed on the combined set of 451 entries, applying a mixed linear model (Fig. 4C), six significant (p < 0.001) marker-FI associations (Table 2) were detected. Four of these, involving Map-5118, Map-5255, Map-5431, and Map-5432, were not identified in either the LM or the AM analysis. Map-5431 lay within Glyma18 g02650, between rhg1-a (Srour et al., 2012) and rhg1-b, while Map-5432 lay within Glyma18 g02690, adjacent to rhg1-a (Srour et al., 2012).The Genetics of Soybean Cyst Nematode ResistanceThe use of AM to identify the genetic basis of SCN resistance identified 28 putative QTNs located in nine genes and mapping to four of the eight genomic regions (GR08, GR11, GR14, and GR18a) previously associated with SCN resistance. Meanwhile, the LM approach revealed two QTL (SCN3-11 and SCN3-18), each sited in a region harboring putative QTNs. The most likely reason why LM identified fewer loci than AM is that there was more allelic diversity among the set of AM germplasm with respect to SCN resistance genes than there was between the LM parents. The SCN resistance carried by ZP was derived from one or more of its progenitors ('Huipizhiheidou', Peking, and PI437654) (Zhang et al., 2013a), all of which have been widely used in resistance breeding (Concibido et al., 2004;Yuan et al., 2009). In addition to these lines, the AM panel clearly harbors a number of likely independent sources of resistance (Ma et al., 2006), for which the present AM approach has produced some candidate markers; these could be informative in the context of marker assisted breeding.The phenotypic values of SCN resistance followed a distribution, which is typical for quantitative and continuous character (Fig. 1A). This clearly suggested a Table 2. Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci linked to resistance against soybean cyst nematode (SCN) as revealed by association mapping (AM), linkage disequilibrium (LM), or the joint AM-LM approach. complex genetic architecture of SCN resistance in the used soybean panel. As a complex trait, a great number of associated QTN or genomic regions, including novel QTNs or regions, were expected. Accordingly, six novel QTNs from six different genomic regions were identified to be associated with resistance to SCN race 3 in our study. Although these novel QTNs could not be validated using current biparental RIL population derived from the cross ZP  ZH and known QTLs information, some of them exhibited a high level of significance in the AM analysis. This suggests that they were promising putative loci controlling the resistance to SCN race 3 and of interest for improving the SCN resistance using markerassisted selection. Nevertheless, further validations are needed to verify our findings.The Relative Advantages of Linkage Mapping, Association Mapping, and the Joint ApproachLinkage mapping is an effective tool for QTL detection but can only survey a limited number of alleles (at best four); since it relies exclusively on the recombination events that occurred during the formation of the mapping population, its resolving power is low unless very large populations are tested. In contrast, AM handles a much broader range of genetic diversity; and since it exploits historical meioses, its level of resolution is higher; however, its ability to detect rare QTL alleles is lower (Lu et al., 2010;Yu and Buckler, 2006). An illustration of the relative resolution achieved by LM and AM is that the two LMderived QTL could only be placed within a 1-Mb range window (SCN3-8, 3.1 Mb; SCN3-11, 2.1 Mb), whereas the equivalent segment lengths defined by AM were, respectively, 373 and 83.2 kb. Since largely nonsynonymous SNPs were used to map the target loci, their presence within a relatively narrow window clearly underlines their potential role as candidate genes underlying the QTL. Lu et al. (2010) have proposed a joint LM-AM approach as a means of combining the advantages of LM and AM. The application of this method here revealed four QTNs ; see Table 2), which were not identified by either AM or LM on their own. Map-5432 maps within Glyma18 g02690, a member of the rhg1-a complex shown to confer partial SCN resistance in cisgenic plants (Srour et al., 2012). The conclusion is that the joint LM-AM approach can aid in revealing the genetic basis of a complex trait.Soybean has undergone at least two ancient genomewide duplication events during its speciation, resulting in a substantial degree of gene duplication (Schmutz et al., 2010). Over evolutionary time, gene duplicates can be retained, lose their function through mutation or deletion, or acquire a novel function (Moore and Purugganan, 2005). The genetic control of SCN resistance includes the rhg1-b complex on GR18a and a paralog on GR11 (Cook et al., 2012). Among the four genes making up the rhg1-b haplotype, three (the exception is Glyma18 g02600) contribute to resistance (Cook et al., 2012). Resequencing of 55 soybean accessions (including ZP and its SCN resistant progenitor Huipizhiheidou) was unable to reveal any nonsynonymous mutation in either Glyma18 g02580 or Glyma18 g02610, although two were identified in Glyma18 g02590 (Li et al., 2013). One of the latter SNPs (Map-5428) has been suggested as a marker to distinguish between resistance based on either a low-copy (three copies) vs. a high-copy (7-10 copies) rhg1-b segment, or between susceptible accessions and those carrying a single copy rhg1-b segment (Cook et al., 2012(Cook et al., , 2014)). The same SNP was also implicated by the present AM scan as being a major determinant of SCN resistance.The SCN3-11 QTL provides resistance to races 1, 2, and 5 as well as to race 3 (Ferdous et al., 2006;Guo et al., 2005Guo et al., , 2006;;Wu et al., 2009;Yue et al., 2001). Unlike rhg1-b, this appears to be a single gene effect (Cook et al., 2012). Here, the QTNs identified in the neighborhood of SCN3-11 explained 4.8 to 13.9% of the phenotypic variance for SCN resistance. Although LD was quite extensive in this genomic region (Fig. 3b), a nonsynonymous SNP (Map-5149) was nevertheless detected mapping to Glyma11 g35820, a paralog of Glyma18 g02590 (a component of rhg1-b), along with two further nonsynonymous ones (Map-5147 and Map-5148) within Glyma11 g35810, a paralog of Glyma18 g02600. In combination with epistatic interaction analysis, the conclusion is that these two major loci act nonadditively, providing a high level of SCN resistance.The deployment of genetic resistance provides a valuable component of control over SCN. Given the race structure of the pathogen population, resistant cultivars need to harbor a suite of genes. Here, the use of LM and AM has allowed the recognition of numerous marker-SCN race 3 resistance associations, providing the basis for developing simple, effective markers for resistance breeding. Some of these likely relate to sources of resistance that have yet to be exploited by breeders. A more detailed definition of these loci can be obtained by developing the appropriate mapping populations.","tokenCount":"3751"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"32fdba8fea5c75b48472c4f988a0fc21","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b79636cd-473a-460e-892c-2c9d22011861/retrieve","id":"1760501462"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9b9f238e-e990-4e90-9929-47463da5972d","pagecount":"2","content":"In Kenya, it is mainly used for hay production. Rhodes grass is a high energy and fiber fodder.• Rhodes grass will grow on most well drained soils, providing fertility is adequate • Rhodes grass can be planted from seeds or propagated vegetatively. • For vegetative propagation, larger clumps are cut into pieces and planted at 1 m distance from each other. • You need 1-2 kg of seeds per hectare.• If you are using seeds, because Rhodes grass seeds are fluffy, they may need to be coated or mixed with a carrier to improve the flow through the seeder.• Seeds can also be broadcasted or shallowdrilled (5 -10 mm depth). • Rhodes grass is very tolerant to either cutting and grazing • The stand begins to produce valuable forage within 6 months, though the highest yield is obtained during the second year of cultivation.• The stand should be maintained in a leafy condition by fairly regular cutting or grazing, since feeding value declines rapidly with onset of flowering • Too frequent cutting or grazing (say every 14 days) leads to production losses and stand decline • The grass makes good hay if cut at or just before very early flowering, giving up to 6, 25-to 50-day harvests. • Rhodes grass is a persistent, drought resistant and highly productive species.The highest recorded yield is about 30-40 t DM/ha while the average yield is in the 10-16 t DM/ha rang.• Up to three crops/year can be produced in most cultivars, but only one or two in 'Callide'. Crops are fertilized with 50 kg/ha N on fertile soils, or 100 -150 kg/ha N on infertile soils. • Header harvested yields of 100-200 kg/ha can be achieved from properly managed crops.• Crude protein levels vary with age of regrowth and level of available soil nitrogen, from about 17% (on a DM basis) in very young leaf, to 3% in old leaves. Similarly, digestibility may vary from 80% in very young growth to 40% in older growth.• Young growth is very palatable, particularly in 'Callide'. Palatability declines with age, more rapidly with the onset of seeding • It can carry about 1 -4 cattle/ha depending on pasture productivity and size of animal.Annual live weight gains of up to 170 kg/head are achievable. Production levels decline without a vigorous legume or the use of fertilizer nitrogen.• Hay can be mixed with other protein rich forages and concentrates as part of Total mixed ration.• Rhodes grass is mainly conserved as hay but can also be used in silage making • Hay should be made when its dry to ensure the moisture content is low to avoid rotting • The crop should be dried for at least one day before baling. • Hay can be made at home or using tractors and balers • Hay should then be kept in store with proper wind circulation, and raised beds for proper wind circulation • The store should also protect the hay from insects and rain • Steps in making hay are illustrated in the figure below.","tokenCount":"507"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6a14a80f587e3fcdd51c6cccf73ae8ac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H036183.pdf","id":"115300017"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c814c0a8-7cfa-4b1c-92be-3157567bb85b","pagecount":"40","content":"In irrigated agricultural areas in semi-arid zones, where the canal water supplies are generally not sufficient to meet the crop water requirement, the necessity of pumped water application arises. If these irrigated agricultural areas are having shallow watertables, the salts are being added to the root zone: (i) from the bottom due to groundwater contribution and (ii) from the top due to pumped water and canal water applications. Under such irrigated agricultural conditions, there is a need of adopting practical ways and means for irrigation applications so that the root zone salinity is managed throughout the cropping season within the acceptable limits for good crop productivity. In this context, a set of guidelines for irrigation scheduling aimed at managing salinity in the root zone can provide such tools for irrigation applications.However, for developing and implementing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater, there is a need to develop linkages between the net soil moisture depletion and the threshold levels of the root zone salinity at different stages of the crop growth under different soil moisture depletion levels. Therefore, after reviewing the literature available on the factors concerning the salinity in the root zone, a preliminary framework for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater is presented. The monitoring and evaluation of this preliminary framework will help in developing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater. The methodology of developing such guidelines is formulated so that it can be generalized for uses in other similar aquifers in the Indus Basin of Pakistan.The project is designed for the Mona Experimental Reclamation Project (MREP) and/or the Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia (South) Irrigation and Drainage Project (FESS) areas (Figure 1). The technology and management packages, under the project, comprise three inter-linked components: (i) the skimming well technologies, (ii) the pressurized and innovative irrigation application systems, and (iii) the root zone salinity management.First component focuses on identifying and testing a limited number of promising skimming well technologies for skimming thin lenses of relatively-fresh groundwater from aquifers underlain by saline groundwater layers while controlling the saline groundwater upconing as a consequence of pumping. The options that considered while selecting the promising skimming well technologies include single-strainer/multi-strainers skimming wells. dugwells. scavenger well. and radial well. etc.Under the second component. the in-country manufacturers will be encouraged and supported to develop low-cost pressurized irrigation application systems adaptable within the local setting of Pakistan. The options for low-cost pressurized irrigation application systems include sprinkler (raingun), drip/trickle, and bubbler, etc. Keeping in view the vastness of surface irrigation and the perceptions of the farmers with low discharge rates, the adoption of innovative irrigation application systems (like bed-and-furrow, furrow-ridge, bed-and-corrugation etc.) is also being viewed favorably.The third component deals in developing and implementing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater to manage root zone salinity. The options for applying skimmed groundwater comprise the pressurized and innovative irrigation application systems. In the MREP area, there are 73 % farmers with small land holdings (less than 5 hectares), 18% with medium land holdings (5 to 10 hectares) and 9% with land holdings of more than 10 hectares (Kahlown et aI., 1998). While in the FESS area, there are two farm types: the large farm with an average area of 11 hectares, and the small farm having average area of 3.5 hectares. The large and small farms cover 59% and 41 % of the project area, respectively. By number, small farms constitute about 70% of the total number of farms in the area (WAPDA, 1997).The cropping patterns, in the MREP area, include mainly rice-wheat and maize-wheat with sugarcane as a cash crop. Fodder crops also occupy a place in their cropping pattern. Citrus occupies an important position in the cropping pattern and considered as most prOfitable crop of the area (Kahlown et aI., 1998). In the FESS area, the major crops are wheat, cotton, sugarcane, fodder and rice The crops account for more than 94% of the cropped area, the rest is under maize, pulses and other minor crops (WAPDA, 1997).At the small farms in the MREP area, the annual cropping intensity is 152%, which comprises 65 and 87% under kharif and rabi seasons. respectively. In kharif, rice, sugarcane, and maize occupy 26, 9, and 30% of the cropped area. While. wheat and fodder covers 72 and 15% of the cropped area in rabi season (Kahlown et aI., 1998). Whereas in the FESS area, the annual cropping intensity is 129.3%, with 55.3% in kharifand 74% in rabi, counting sugarcane in both seasons (WAPDA, 1997).The surface irrigation application method is the most prevalent form of irrigation practiced within the MREP and FESS project areas (WAPDA, 1997;and Kahlown et aI., 1998). Over-irrigation is commonly practiced during rouni (pre-planting/soaking irrigation), 1 st and 2nd irrigations, while under-irrigation is practiced during the last few irrigations (when soil surface conditions enhance the water advance behaviour).In the MREP and FESS project areas, excluding the monsoon period, the canal water supplies are generally not sufficient to meet the crop water requirement. The watertable is shallow and therefore it also contributes to the evapotranspiration from the crops. But, when both the canal water supplies and the groundwater contribution due to capillary rise do not match the crop water requirement, the necessity of pumped water application arises. Thus, in the MREP and FESS project areas, the salts are being added to the root zone (i) from the bottom due to groundwater contribution and (ii) from the top due to pumped water and canal water applications.Different skimming well technologies are beillg used to extract relatively-fresh groundwater lenses from aquifers underlain by saline groundwater layers. However, the discharge-rates from these skimming wells are too low to apply efficiently on surface irrigated croplands. Pressurized irrigation systems are highly advantageous over surface irrigation application systems while using these small discharges. These systems are handy in applying exact needed amount of water to the plants. The adoption of such systems also helps in providing technical assistance in managing root zone salinity under the agricultural lands with commonly grown crops, vegetables and orchards, as water can easily be measured before it enters the pressurized irrigation application system. However, by introducing adequate interventions in design parameters and operational management strategies of skimming wells, higher discharges are also feasible. These higher discharges may induce minimum mixing of the saline groundwater layer either within the well or within the aquifer with the overlying relatively-fresh groundwater lenses. Therefore, the quality of this skimmed groundwater is expected to change with time while responding to recharge and discharge mechanisms. But, proper guidelines regarding the design parameters and operational management strategies of skimming wells can help in pumping a required quantity of groundwater of the desired quality. Where such systems exist, even surface irrigation can be practiced, or at least by using innovative irrigation application systems.The soil moisture in the root zone is either utilized by the crops and/or evaporates from the soil surface, while leaving the salts behind. Resultantly, the salinity in the root zone is expected to increase with the application of such skimmed groundwater for irrigation purposes. Therefore, the use of skimmed groundwater will require unique but practical ways and means for irrigation applications so that the root zone salinity is managed at different crop growth stages throughout the cropping season within the acceptable limits for good crop productivity. In this context, a set of guidelines for irrigation scheduling aimed at managing salinity in the root zone can provide such tools for irrigation applications.Irrigation scheduling is a procedure used to determine the time and depth of water application for each irrigation event. The time of water application is normally based on the depletion of stored soil water, whereas the depth of water application is usually equal to the value of soil water depletion, water application efficiency plus some additional water for leaching fraction, if required. Therefore, for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater, knowledge of water and salt balances in the root zone is of crucial importance, as getting the salt balance right in the root zone is essential to both the short-term and long-term viability of an agricultural area. Thus, by knowing the salinity of the pumped water and the salt tolerance levels at different stages of the crop growth; the soil salinity and soil moisture in the root zone with depth; the evapotranspiration rates during various crop growth stages; and the groundwater capillary contributions in case of shallow watertables, the farmer can be given the guidelines for irrigation scheduling skimmed groundwater.Guidelines for developing irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater could be defined as tools and yardsticks that play pivotal role in decision making regarding timing and amount of irrigation water applications aimed at managing root zone salinity and productivity of land and water. Such guidelines for irrigation scheduling could list the hours of pumping for each irrigation event that would satisfy crop water requirement, including an appropriate allowance for leaching in order to maintain the root zone salinity at acceptable levels for good crop productivity.However, for developing and implementing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater, there is a need to develop linkages between the net soil moisture depletion and the threshold levels of the root zone salinity at different stages of the crop growth under different soil moisture depletion levels. Therefore, literature review is conducted before developing a preliminary framework for Irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater under irrigated agricultural areas in semi-arid zones with (monsoon and winter) rainfalls and watertables having root zone within or beyond the capillary reach 1.The building blocks of the framework that defines such linkages are identified as under:• Irrigation with saline water;• Salt tolerance of crops;• Crop evapotranspiration under stress conditions;• Groundwater capillary contribution;• Management practices for root zone salinity control; and• Monitoring and evaluation of management practicesThe aspect deals with the following information:1. Quality of irrigation water;3 Soil texture; 4. Leaching fraction; andPlants differ widely in the their ability to grow and develop under saline and/or sodic conditions. The following parameters describes the impacts of soil and water salinity and/or sodicity on crop yield: 1. Soil salinity; 2. Soil sodicity; and 3. Quality of irrigation water.The estimation of crop evapotranspiration plays pivotal role in developing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater. The following stress conditions limit crop evapotranspiration and reduce root water uptake:1. Soil water stress condition; and 2. Combined soil water and salinity stress condition.In determining net soil moisture depletion, knowledge about the groundwater capillary contribution is also needed. However, the estimates of such contribution will depend on the following factors: 1. Soil texture; 2. Quality of groundwater; and 3. Root zone salinity resulting from capillary rise.The above stated knowledge, tools, and yardsticks are used in managing land, water, and crops to control salinity. However, for root zone salinity management, the following practices also become part of guidelines:1. Irrigation management practices; 2. Rainfall management practices: and 3. Shallow watertable management practices,The estimation of water and salt balances are used to monitor and evaluate different management practices. The role of successful management for salinity control in the root zone should be to maintain the fluctuations in the water and salt balances within limits that neither allows excess drainage, nor reduces the crop growth. In irrigated agricultural areas, particularly when relatively-fresh water is applied for irrigation. the salts continue to build up in root zone provided salts are not removed in equivalent amounts as are applied with irrigation water. When irrigated agricultural areas in semi-arid zones with rainfalls and watertables are irrigated with relatively-fresh water, the root zone salinity cycle can be divided into the following three periods:• Salt builds up period The root zone salinity builds up with each irrigation event.• Salt redistribution period The soil salinity redistributed in the root zone with winter rainfalls The evaporation of the shallow watertable also redistributes the salinity in the root zone.• Salt leaching period: During the monsoon, when in most places rainfall is in excess over the potential evapotranspiration, leaching occurs which moved the salts below the root zone. The roun; also provides leaching effect.All these periods need different practices to manage root zone salinity.The main factors, which control the extent to which salinity may develop in the root zone while irrigating with saline water under deep watertable conditions, include: (i) quality of irrigation water, (ii) number of irrigations, (iii) soil texture, (iv) leaching fraction, and (v) rainfall. The regreSSion relationships between these factors and the salinity in the root zone. as mentioned by Gupta and Gupta (1997). are described hereafter. . However, all the regression relationships of these factors with the salinity in If the root zone are site-specific and crop-specific under the given root ~on! management practices.uidehnesThe salinity of the irrigation water (EC I ) and the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract of the soil2 (EC e ) are related to each other. A regression relationship, which relates both the EC e and EC The soil salinity in the root zone achieved at the end of \"salt builds up period\" is related with the number of irrigations. A regression equation that takes into account the quality of irrigation water and the number of irrigations under field conditions, could be expressed as given below:(2)Where, a, band c are the regression coefficients and N is the number if irrigation. For medium texture soil and where number of irrigations is not more than 6, Gupta (1990) determined the values of the regression coefficients a. b. and c (in Equation 2) as -2.26, 0.90, and 1.24, respectively However, similar type of regression relationships may be worked out for a particular soil and climatic region.The rate of root zone salinity build up is faster in heavy (i.e .. fine loam. clay loam, and silty clay loam) than light (i.e., sandy to loamy sand) textured soils A regression relationship, which relates both the EC e and ECj under different soil textural classes, could be expressed similar to Equation (1) Gupta and Gupta (1997) stated that the regression coefficient, b, varies from 036 for sandy to loamy sand soils but is 0.69 for fine loam, clay loam, and silty clay loam soils under the similar situations. The value of regression coefficient. a, may not vary much for heavy and light textured soils (Le. from 2 to 2.2)Leaching fraction, LF. is defined as the fraction of the irrigation water and/or rainfall that leaves the root zone (Singh, 1993;Somani and Totawar, 1993;and Tanji. 1995):Where, Do is the deep percolation (mm), Dp is the rainfall (mm), Djr is the depth of irrigation water to be applied (mm), and EC d is the salinity' of the water draining from the root zone as deep percolation.However, Gupta and Gupta (1997) stated that the LF could also be easily known from the water application efficiency provided the water distribution efficiency is reasonably high. A relationship, which relates both the EC e and ECj under different leaching fractions with the water application efficiency, was presented as:(4)The values of K are 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5 for low, medium and high leaching fraction, respectively. The qualitative terms low, medium and high leaching fractions are for 0.1,0.3, and 0.5, respectively. It also means high (90%), medium (70%), and low (50%) water application efficiencies. For instance, an application efficiency of 70% means that the LF is around 0.30.However, for the same amount of water applied, the leaching fractions will be more in light textured soils than in heavy textured soils. Therefore, the value of K could also be higher for the lower leaching fractionsHigh rainfall leaches the salts accumulated in the root zone and reduces the number of irrigations. A regression relationship, which relates both the EC e and EC j under different intensities of rainfalls, could be expressed similar to Equation (1). Gupta and Gupta (1997) found that with an additional 10 cm of rainfall under the wheat and mustard fields, the regression coefficient, b, is reduced by about 0.6 units for both the crops, which indicates the leaching of salts from the root zone after heavy rainfall (Table 2). The number of irrigations for wheat crop having low and high rainfall is 4 and 3, respectively, which means that high rainfall also reduces the number of irrigations. Different crops have different salt tolerance. Plants differ widely in the their ability to grow and develop \\.lnder saline and/or sodic conditions.In reviewing articles on impacts of salinity in the root zone on crop yield by Maas and Hoffman (1977) and Mass (1990), it is concluded that under optimum management conditions, the crop yields remain at potential levels until EG e reached at threshold level, i.e., EG e threshold: Y r = 100 0::::; EC e ::::; EC e threshold(5) where Y r is the percentage of the yield of the crop grown under saline conditions relative to that obtained under non-saline, but otherwise comparable, conditions.It means that EGe threshold is the average root zone salinity at which yield starts to decline. If the average EG e of the root zone increases above this critical threshold value, the yield decreases linearly in proportion to the increase in salinity The rate of decrease in yield with the increase in salinity is usually expressed as a slope. b, having units of % reduction in yield per unit increase in EG e beyond EG e threshold. The salt tolerance of common agricultural crops is generally expressed as follows (after Maas and Hoffman, 1977;and Mass, 1990)Where EG zero is the EG at or beyond which crop fails to give any yield. Table 3 lists the EG e threshold and slope b for common agricultural crops (adopted from Ayers and Westcot, 1985;and Rhoades, et aI., 1992).It is interesting to note that the values of EG e threshold and slope b parameters mentioned in Table 3 were determined primarily in research experiments where soil moisture at the 0.3 to 0.6 m depths (depending upon the crop) were maintained at levels close to field capacit/. Therefore, Table 3 does not help in predicting an accurate estimate of the expected yield, as the crop yield depends not only upon level of salinity but also upon many other cultural and environmental factors. Thus, the interaction between EGa and soil, water, crop and climatic factors could modify the ability of the plant to tolerate salinity. However, for the same average root zone salinity, crop production at or near to threshold levels could be possible, if the effective root zone is ---somehow kept relatively salt free, as the crops adjust for their water requirement and draw more water from the salt free zone. And, the average root zone salinity can be managed at a pre-determined level within a wide range by controlling the LF. Mathematically (after Gupta and Gupta, 1997):Table 3.Salt tolerance of common agricultural crops (Ayers and Westcot, 1985;Rhoades, et al., 1992). Where, S, is the salt initially present in the root zone. Table 4 provides crop tolerance to soil salinity for working out leaching fraction at some selected stations in India (adopted after Gupta and Gupta, 1997).The yield of crops would be affected over time when salinity build up in the total root zone proceeds upward. When some yield reduction is permissible, then EC e threshold in Equation ( 8) could be replaced by the salinity at which the desired yield reduction (EC e Yield reduction) would occur.The EC e Yield reduction can be calculated by the by the data reported in Table 4 utilizing the following relationship (after Gupta and Gupta, 1997): Table 4.Crop tolerance to soil sannity for working out leaching fraction at some research sites in India (adopted after Gupta and Gupta, 1997). It is known that outcome of the entire cropping season depends upon the initial crop stand. Therefore, most favorable conditions should be created during the germination and initial establishment stages. In case the salt tolerance of the crop at the germination stage is different than the average values given in Table 4, it is proper to use the threshold salinity levels at the germination stage.Similar to soil salinity, some plants are more tolerant to soil sodicity than others. Excess exchangeable sodium percentage, high pH, lack of calcium, and the resulting poor physical properties are the main causes for reduction in yields due to soil sodicity (Gupta, et aI., 1995). The critical exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) values for 10, 25, and 50 percent yield reduction for some crops are presented in Table 5 (adopted from Mehrotra and Gangwar, 1964). However, Gupta (1990) pOinted out that these critical tolerance limits of ESP should be used on tentative basis because of the following reasons:• Mehrotra and Gangwar (1964) did not maintained the complete control on soluble calcium. Tolerance of some crops, which were grown in later years after reclamation presumably with more calcium in the soil solution, may be under estimated; and• ESP in the top 15cm\" soil profile was used as the criterion for tolerance. However, the effective depth of root zone in some crops may be different. Generally. where high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) in irrigation water is accompanied with high EC, it is primarily the effect of salinity, which governs the plant growth. But where salinity is low and SAR and/or residual sodium carbonate (RSC) is high in irrigation water, plant growth is likely to be regulated more by the sodicity problem 4 (Gupta, 1990). Table 6 lists the salinity limits of irrigation waters at three yield reduction levels of 10, 25 and 50 percent for crops irrigated under natural field conditions on different types of soils at different places widely differing in agro-climatic conditions in India (adopted after Gupta and Yadav, 1986). The critical limits, as mentioned in Table 6, are obviously for EC I but these will closely identify with EC e when LF is close to 0.30 to 0.35 (Gupta, 1990). Therefore, these critical limits may decrease for lower leaching fractions and increase for higher leaching fractions.Generally, when sprinkler uses saline water to grow the established crop, salt deposits on leaves may adversely affect some crops (Maas, 1985). Deciduous fruit trees are especially susceptible (Hoffman et ai., 1980). Table 7 describes the relative susceptibility of crops to leaf injury from saline water applied with sprinkler irrigation application system during the daytime irrigation (after Maas, 1990;and Rhoades et ai., 1992). Susceptibility of plants to leaf injury from saline sprinkled water depends on leaf characteristics affecting rate of absorption and is not generally correlated with tolerance to soil salinity. The degree of spray injury varies with weather conditions, especially the water deficit of the atmosphere. Visible symptoms may appear suddenly following irrigations when the weather is hot and dry. Increased frequency of sprinkling, in addition to increased temperature and evaporation, leads to increase the salt concentration in the leaves due to adsorption, and results in leaf damage. However, irrigation at night (or any other low evaporation period) minimizes the salt concentration in the leaves due to adsorption (Kruse, 1995). Table 6.Critical limits of salinity of irrigation water for at three yield reduction levels of 10, 25 and 50 percent (Gupta and Yadev, 1986). Crop evapotranspiration under stress conditionsThe estimation of crop evapotranspiration plays pivotal role in developing guidelines for irrigation schedulil1g with skimmed groundwater. Both, the soil water and salinity stresses may reduce root water uptake and limit crop evapotranspiration.After irrigation and/or heavy rainfall, the soil drains from saturated soil moisture storage (Os) till the field capacity is reached. The soil moisture in the root zone decreases from the soil moisture storage at field capacity (8 F d as a result of evapotranspiration. The total soil moisture storage (TSMS) can be defined as the difference in soil moisture storage at the field capacity and wilting point. However, the TSMS is not available to fulfill the crop evaporative demand (CED). The proportion of TSMS that a crop can extract from the root zone without reduction in the actual evapotranspiration (AET) is the available soil moisture storage (ASMS). At ASMS, the soil moisture has a high potential, is relatively free to move and is easily taken up by the plant roots.As the ASMS decreases, the potential level also decreases, and the soil moisture becomes more strongly bound by capillary and adsorption forces to the soil matrix, and is more difficult to extract. When the ASMS drops below the threshold level, the soil moisture can no longer be transported quickly enough towards the roots to respond to the CED and the crop begins to experience \"water stress\". Actually, the remaining soil moisture is held to the soil particles with greater force, lowering its potential level and making it more difficult for the plant to extract it. Eventually, the potential level reaches a pOint where the crop can no longer extract the remaining soil moisture. This point is known as wilting pOint. Therefore, the plants wilt permanently when wilting point is reached.Therefore, the TSMS is the difference between the soil moisture at field capacity and wilting point, and the ASMS is the difference between the soil moisture at field capacity and threshold level (Allen et aI., 1998):where, TSMS is the total soil moisture storage in the root zone 3 (mm), OFC is the soil moisture at field capacity (m .m\"\\ OW? is the soil moisture at wilting point (m 3 .m,3), OTH is the soil moisture at threshold level (m 3 .m•\\ Z, is the (effective or total as the case may be) depth of root zone (mm), and p is the average fraction of TSMS that can be depleted from the root zone before reduction in AET occurs.The magnitude of TSMS depends on the soil type and the depth of the root zone. Typical ranges for field capacity and wilting point are given in Table 8 for various soil types (Allen et aI., 1998).Table 8.Typical soil moisture characteristics for different soil types (Allen et al., 1998). Ranges of the maximum depth of root zone for various crops are listed in Table 9 (Allen et aI., 1998). The values for p are also listed in Table 9 (Allen et aI., 1998). The fraction p is a function of the crop evaporative demand (CEO). A numerical approximation for adjusting p at different CEO is given as under (Allen et aI., 1998): p p (from Table 9) + 0.04 (5 -CED)where, the adjusted p is limited to 0.1 s P s 0.8, and CEO is in mm.day'1. The value of p is also a function of the soil type. Generally, it can be stated that the p values listed in Table 9 can be reduced by 5-10% for clay, while for sand, they can be increased by 5-10% (Allen et aI., 1998).Soil moisture content in the root zone can also be expressed by root zone depletion, Dr, Le., reduction in soil moisture relative to field capacity (Figure 2). At field capacity, Dr is zero. When soil moisture is extracted by evapotranspiration, the Dr increases and stress will be induced when Dr becomes equal to ASMS. After the root zone depletion exceeds ASMS, the root zone depletion is high enough to limit evapotranspiration to less than potential values and the crop evapotranspiration begins to decrease in proportion to the amount of soil moisture remaining in the root zone.Therefore, for Dr > ASMS, the transpiration reduction factor, K s , is given as (Allen et aI., 1998):Table 9.Ranges of the maximum depth of root zones for various crops (Allen et al., 1998).Maximum depth of root P (for EEO \"\" 5 mm. where, Ks is a dimensionless transpiration reduction factor (0-1), Dr is root zone depletion (mm), TSMS is the total soil moisture storage in the root zone (mm), and p is the average fraction of TSMS that can be depleted from the root zone before reduction in AET occurs.- --------------The estimation of Ks requires a daily water balance computation for the root zone. For soil moisture limiting conditions, Ks < 1 Where there is no soil moisture stress, Ks =1 However, Kg describes the effect of water stress on crop transpiration rather than evaporation from soil surface. But, in situations where evaporation from soil surface is not a large component of AET, the following equation provides reasonable results (Allen et al., 1998):where, Kc is the basal crop coefficient.Combined soil water and salinity stress condition Soil salinity can reduce AET by reducing root water uptake. The presence of salts in the soil increase osmotic potential and hence additional force is required for the crop to extract water from the soil.Os 8TH 8wpGroundwater caPilla)contribution Where. Ky is a dimensionless yield response factor that describes the reduction in relative crop yield according to the reduction in AET caused by soil moisture stress, EC e represents the average salinity in the root zone (dS,m-1 ), EC e threshold is the threshold electrical conductivity of the saturation soil water extract where crop yields remain at potential levels (dS.m-\\ and b is the slope having units of % reduction in yield per unit increase in EC e beyond EC e threshold, The Ky values are crop-specific and may vary over the growing season. Table 10 provides values of Ky for common agricultural crops (adopted from Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979). However, the seasonal value for Ky is generally used to predict the reduction in AET, and For many crops, the seasonal Ky is nearly 1. Therefore, for crops where Ky is unknown, its value may be considered equal to 1 (or equal to the Ky for a crop that has similar behaviour). The values of b for common agricultural crops are already mentioned-in Table 3 and 4 Where, EC e represents the average salinity in the root zone.Limitations in using Equation ( 15) and ( 16) are listed as under:• It is assumed that \"p\" do not change with increasing salinity. This mayor may not be a good assumption for some crops.• Generally, the seasonal value for Ky is used to predict the reduction in AET, but the impact of salinity on plant growth, crop yield, and AET is a time-integrated process.• Both of these equations are suggested as only approximate estimates of salinity impacts on AET, and represent general effects of salinity on AET as occurring over an extended period of time (weeks, months, seasons or years). These equations are not expected to be accurate for predicting AET for specific days.• These equations may not be valid at high salinity, where the linear relationships between EC e , crop yield and Ks may not hold.• However, the use of these equations is generally considered valid when EC e < ECe threshold +50/b.In determining net soil moisture depletion, knowledge about the groundwater capillary contribution is needed. Due to capillary rise, groundwater evaporates at the land surface and/or utilized by the plants, leaving most of the salts behind in the root zone. The assessment of maximum groundwater capillary contribution can help to control the extent to which salinity may develop in the root zone. The main factor that affects the maximum groundwater capillary contribution is the depth to watertable. Other factors include (i) the soil texture, (ii) the quality of groundwater, and (iii) the root zone salinity resulting from capillary rise (after Gupta and Gupta, 1997). Skaggs (1980) stated that the depth to watertable from 1.0m to 1.5m provided the maximum contribution from groundwater for a wide range of soil types. The shallower depth to watertable applies to sandy soils. Generally, the rate of maximum groundwater capillary flux decreases more steeply in a coarse than a fine textured soil with the increase in depth to watertable (Hoffman, 1995). Gupta and Gupta (1997) have given the following relationship to estimate the effect of soil texture on the maximum groundwater capillary flux that reaches the soil surface, qmax (mm.dal\\ are coefficients, and A is also a coefficient which depends on n. Some typical values of these coefficients for different soil textural classes are presented in Table 11 (adopted after Gupta and Gupta, 1997). With maximum contribution from the shallow groundwater, the salt tolerance of the crop and the availability of shallow groundwater limit total water use. In the cropped areas under shallow watertable conditions, the zone of salt build up in the root zone depends mainly upon the fraction of groundwater that reaches the soil surface. The rate of groundwater capillary flux that reaches the soil surface decreases with the increase in depth to watertable Therefore, for maintaining favorable water and salt balance in the root zone, understanding and knowledge of the maximum groundwater capillary flux is most importantSalinity in the root zone increases with decreasing depth to watertable. However, the salinity in the root zone increases with increasing salinity of the groundwater at the same depth to watertable. Gupta and Gupta (1997) reported that the effect of groundwater quality on the salinity in the root zone was more pronounced at shallower than at deeper depths to watertables. When the depth to watertable is at or above 12m, the concentration of salts at the soil surface is Significantly related to the quality of the groundwater.For the same amount of water applied through irrigation or drawn from the shallow watertable to meet the crop water requirement, the distribution of salts in the root zone in both the' cases would be entirely different (Asghar, 1996). In case of water applied through irrigation, the salinity in the root zone increases with the increase in depth as the salts move downward resulting from leaching. Whereas, in case of water drawn from the shallow watertable, the salinity at or near the soil surface increases resulting from the upward movement of the salts from the groundwater due to capillary rise, and there is no leaching in this case.Generally, the density of crop roots decreases with the depth. and the most active crop roots are concentrated in the top of the root zone (Salam and Wahid, 1993) Therefore, as a result of salt distribution patterns under irrigation and shallow watertable conditions, crops suffer more in the latter case than in the former case, even if the average salinity in the root zone is the same (Gupta and Gupta, 1997).A summary of the factors affecting the selection of irrigation application systems for irrigating with saline water is presented in Table 12 (adopted from Kruse, 1995). However, management of different irrigation application systems also depends on the crops' characteristics, planting practices, and tillage practices. Timing of irrigation is another important factor when the management of different irrigation application systems includes salinity considerations too (Kruse, 1995).Crops' characteristics: All crops do not tolerate salinity equally well at different growth stages. Therefore, management of different irrigation application systems often depends on the crops' characteristics. Sprinkler can apply small depths of water uniformly, keeping the seed bed adequately moist and salt-free Therefore, sprinklers are sometimes used to geminate and establish salt-sensitive crops and surface irrigation is then used to grow the established crop (Robinson and Mayberry. 1976).Planting practices: For the drip/trickle irrigation application systems, if emitters are located near individual plants of perennial crops, salts tend to move away from the roots and concentrate in intermediate soil areas (Kruse, 1995). To avoid problems with germination or salt stress on seedlings of annual crops, it is important to plant precisely where previous drip/trickle irrigation application systems has left low concentrations of salt. Planting seeds of furrow-irrigated crops on the sides of beds may keep seedlings out of the most saline soil zone (Gupta and Gupta, 1997).Factors affecting selection of irrigation application systems for irrigating with saline water (adopted from Kruse, 1995 Tillage practices: Deep surface cultivation can redistribute salt in the soil profile. The practice should be evaluated on a small land area before cultivating the entire fields (Singh, 1993;and Gupta and Gupta, 1997). Minimum tillage practices allow furrow formed for one crop to remain undisturbed fat the next. However, organic residue left on the soil surface by minimum tillage practices may present a problem for furrow irrigation (Tanji, 1995) Timing of irrigation: The timing of irrigation needs special consideration while using saline water for irrigation, as soil water stress may occur more quickly and, add to the soil salinity stress, cause immediate crop damage. Proper timing of irrigation can help to avoid low levels of soil moisture that cause salts in the soil solution to become highly concentrated.Frequent irrigation reduces soil water stress and soil salinity stress caused by the saline irrigation water. Frequent irrigation also keeps the salts moving through and away from the root zone. If irrigation is applied frequently, each irrigation must be light. Shainberg and Shalhevet (1984) reviewed the effect of the frequency of saline water application on yield, and concluded that higher frequencies result in higher yield. Irrigation intervals of several days to allow for internal drainage are unnecessary because large soil volumes are not saturated.Light irrigation can seldom be applied as uniformly with surface irrigation application systems as with the sprinkler, drip/trickle irrigation application systems. Drip and trickle irrigation application systems help in maintaining suitable matric potential in the root zones of plants, even with saline water application (Kruse, 1995). If drip/trickle irrigation application systems cause high salt concentrations to accumulate near the soil surface, unexpected rainfall can move the salt down into the root zone. Irrigation should be scheduled during or after rainfall to leach the salts before they damage the crop (Somani, 1993).In many situations, the canal water supplies are either not assured or in short supply such that farmers are often forced to pump groundwater of varying quality for crop production. This calls for using the limited quantities of non-saline (canal) waters most judiciously in combination with poor quality waters. For the combined use of relatively-fresh water (saline and/or sodic) and freshwater (canal water), two options are available to the farmers: (i) blending of different quality water supplies, and (ii) cyclic use of different quality waters.Though blending of saline water and canal water may not always be beneficial to crop production, as it does not reduce the total salt load (Gupta, 1990). However, it improves the stream size that would enhance the uniformity in irrigation by the surface irrigation application systems and allows for more area to be planted (Gupta and Minhas, 1993). The process, however, may lead to improvement in the quality of sodic waters. It seems that blending of canal water with the pumped groundwater of high RSC and low calcium concentration would result in under-saturation with respect to calcite. Consequently, the blended water on irrigation will have greater tendency to pick up calcium through dissolution of native calcite from soils. There is, however, no direct evidence available at present to support the above proposition.However, the blending of sadic water (having high RSC and low calcium concentration) and canal water can dilute water to acceptable quality and can broaden the choice of crops. Therefore, it may be considered as an effective solution to the water quality problems if facilities for blending are available and the blending ratio is known. Thus, to achieve this, a prior information of the salinity threshold values of the crops to be grown in sequence and salt build up in the root zone with use of a given quality water during the cropping seasons is essential.The strategy of cyclic use of different quality waters involves the use of canal water at the most sensitive growth stages/crops grown and saline water is used at other stages such that the effects of the resultant soil salinity build up can be minimized. In most of the crops, the germination and vegetative periods have been identified as the most sensitive stage to salinity. A failure at these stages will lead to poor crop stand and considerable reduction in yields (Rhoades, 1987).Leaching practices: When watertable is deep, leaching of salts from the soils irrigated with saline water could be accomplished by ponding.But, when watertable is shallow; care should be taken while applying such leaching practice, However, the timing of leaching does not appear to be critical provided crop tolerance is not exceeded for extended period of time, Where water is available only during a specific period, there is no alternative than to go in for leaching only at the time of water availability (Somani, 1993), Ponding may be continuos or intermittent. Somani and Totawar (1993) described that half as much water was required with intermittent ponding as with continuos ponding for the same reduction in root zone salinity, Actually, intermittent ponding reduces bypass flow through macro pores because it creates the predominance of unsaturated flow in the root zone, Intermittent ponding also provides ample time for salts (adsorbed/absorbed) to dissolve in the soil water, and these dissolve salts, now, requires less water for the reduction of root zone salinity,As irrigation waters are applied to soils supporting crop growth, the crop removes much of the water and leaves a majority of the soluble salts behind, Maximum utilization of rainfall is the single most important practice for agricultural areas irrigated with the saline water. Actually, rainfall helps in the leaching of accumulated salts, because it is the best quality water available for leaching of soluble salts from the root zone, Therefore, every possible effort should be made to make effective use of rainfall (Somani, 1993) Rainfall in many cases may be adequate to accomplish all the needed leaching. Where rainfall is not expected to be adequate, the initial leaching should be carried out with saline groundwater before the onset of monsoon. The monsoon will, then. help in leaching the salts further with high efficiency. Moreover, a pre-monsoon leaching coincides with the period when watertable is deep to facilitate leaching of salts to a greater depth while delaying upward rise of salts (Prathapar and Qureshi, 1999).Crop use of shallow groundwater: The amount of shallow groundwater available to a crop can be determined by knowing: (i) the depth to watertable. (ii) the quality of the groundwater, (iii) the depth of root zone, and (iv) the salt tolerance of the plants The more closely the depth of root zone and crop salt tolerance match the depth to watertable and the quality of the groundwater, the more likely the plants are to extract groundwater (Kruse, 1995).The reduction in crop yields with shallow watertables may be attributed to limited aeration and restricted root volumes, while reductions under deeper watertable depths might be due to limited groundwater capillary contribution to the roots (Tanji, 1995).The potential for increasing salinity in the root zone increases if significant quantities of saline groundwater are used (Hoffman and van Genuchten. 1983). Therefore, while maximizing the use of groundwater without a loss in productivity due to salinity, care should be taken to manage the root zone salinity below the salt tolerance level of the crop. Rhoades (1984) suggested that leaching should take place during a fallow period or early in the growing season, when crop's root system is shallow and the water demand is small and the watertable is relatively deeper to avoid raising the watertable to the extent that the crop is damaged.Irrigation scheduling: Irrigation scheduling under shallow watertable conditions can be designed either for (i) the maximum contribution from the shallow groundwater, (Ii) the little or no groundwater contribution, or (iii) the intermediate value of groundwater use. However, good irrigation management allows the crop to use shallow groundwater.With maximum groundwater contributions, irrigation can best be scheduled using plant-based measures. The depth of irrigation water to apply is estimated from soil moisture measurements. The optimum time to irrigate is at the highest stress level that does not reduce yield. Irrigation at lower stress levels would result in more frequent irrigation, more deep percolation and less contribution to AET from the watertable. The time of first irrigation is critical for unrestricted plant growth and root development. Soil salinity measurements at the end of the previous irrigation season can be used to calculate the leaching required for re-establishing a favorable soil salinity profile for the next growing season Rainfall plus rouni can provide necessary leaching. Most type of irrigation application systems allows this management (Kruse, 1995) To obtain little or no groundwater contribution, management is somewhat simpler. Only irrigation and rainfall supplies the crop water requirement. Deep percolation is minimized. Daily irrigation application, to compensate water used by the, crop. can do this most easily. The daily irrigation application also prevents significant contribution from the watertable. Periodic leaching during the season can prevent the buildup of salts in the root zone. An irrigation application system that can provide highly uniform applications is required Sprinkler or drip/trickle irrigation systems are preferred (Kruse. 1995) Lack of data on the plant's temporal extraction of groundwater presents an obstacle to obtaining an intermediate amount of groundwater use, which can achieved on a seasonal basis by eliminating the final irrigation of the season Hutmacher et aI., (1986) found that wheat grown in the presence of a shallow saline watertable did not suffer a reduction in yield when the last irrigation of the season was eliminatedThe estimation of water and salt balances are used to monitor and evaluate different management practices The water and salt balances are so closely related that it is not possible to separate them out (Gupta and Gupta, 1997) Under irrigated agricultural areas where annual salinisation desalinization cycles occur, the amount of salts stored in the root zone fluctuates continually. The goal of successful water and salt management for salinity control in the root zone should be to maintain this fluctuation within limits that neither allow excess drainage nor reduce the growth of the crops (Hoffman, 1995). moisture depletion level in the effective root zone is an1ndicator for deciding the timing of irrigation. In the context of irrigation with skimmed groundwater, the management allowed deficit (MAD) for a predetermined salinity level is defined as the soil moisture depletion where root zone salinity is either equal or less than the crop salts tolerance. Figure 3 presents the flow diagram that can be used while deciding the timing of irrigation. Figure 4 presents the flow diagram for deciding the amount of irrigation water application. The decision regarding the amount of irrigation water, aimed at managing root zone salinity and productivity of land and water, is made by using two different strategies representing different watertable conditions.Under shallow watertable conditions where the root zone falls within the groundwater capillary reach, the depth of irrigation water to be applied (D,r) depends upon the net soil moisture depletion (Dr\\ Practically. the Dr\" is estimated by using tensiometers at different depths in the total root zone, as the soil moisture depletion level in the total root zone is an indicator for deciding the amount of irrigation. For the given application efficiency (AE), the D ir is estimated as:(18) Under deep watertable conditions where the root zone falls beyond the groundwater capillary reach, the D ir depends upon the AET. Equation ( 14) is used to calculate daily AET. Where there is no soil moisture stress or soil salinity stress, the transpiration reduction factor, Ks, is equal to 1. When the soil moisture stress affecting the AET, then Ks is calculated by using Equation (13). However, under soil salinity stress, Ks is calculated either by using Equation (15) or Equation ( 16), depending upon the soil moisture and salinity stress conditions. The relationships between the AET and water stress, and the AET and the combined stresses of water and salinity are depicted in Figure 5 and 6, respectively. If n is the number of days between two irrigations, then for the given application efficiency (AE), the D ir is estimated as:Soil moisture depletion to be met in the total root zone Only soil moisture depletion in the effective root zone to No water to be applied Soil moisture depletion to be met in the total root zone be met   Irrigation application systems play a vital role in increasing the irrigation performance of the irrigation scheduling practices. The following discussion relates that how different irrigation application systems apply the desired depth of water to the crop field aimed at managing root zone salinity and productivity of land and water without any adverse environmental effects.For the following reasons, the pressurized irrigation application system is preferred over surface irrigation:• It helps to apply exact amount of water as determined by \"how much to irrigation?\", as there is no concern for a spatially varied flow due to soil surface conditions; and• Light irrigation 6 is possible with these kind of irrigation application systems, where as it is difficult with surface irrigation. However, the following constraints limit the scope of pressurized irrigation application systems:• Initial capital cost is high;• High operation and maintenance costs;• Energy dependence;• Skilled labour requirement;• Traditionally non-familiar water application system;• Requirement of silt-free water; and• Field application constraints.The innovative irrigation application systems provides the following opportunities:Relative to surface irrigation, the innovative irrigation application systems enhance capability of the farmer to control water applications;• Relative to pressurized irrigation application systems, farmers 7 are more familiar with innovative irrigation application systems;• Low initial, operation and maintenance costs;• Less skilled labour requirement;• Benefits derived by using silt-loaded water; and6 Light irrigation is needed when there is a minimum crop water requirement This is also a requirement when groundwater contribution meets the crop water requirement under shallow watertable condition to dilute the salinity in the effective root zone.7 Old generation of farmers (from Indian Punjab) used to use low discharges (6-14 Ips) by using innovative irrigation application systems.• Less energy requirements.However, the following constraints may limit the scope of innovative irrigation application systems:• Specialized machinery requirement; and• Field application constraints.The combined use of pressurized and surface irrigation application systems has the following benefits:• The application of pressurized irrigation application system can help to geminate and establish salt-sensitive crops by applying small depths of water uniformly, and by keeping the seed bed adequately moist and salt-free; and• Surface irrigation can help in growing the established crop, as when pressurized irrigation application system uses relatively-fresh water to grow the established crop, salt deposits on leaves may adversely affect some crops.The estimation of water and salt balances is used for assessing the need for any adjustments regarding the timing and amount of irrigation water applications aimed at managing root zone salinity and productivity of land and water. The monitoring and evaluation of this preliminary framework will also help in developing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater.For the agricultural areas irrigated with canal water but also have shallow watertable with thin lenses of relatively-fresh groundwater overlying the native saline groundwater, the components of water and salt balances under the cropped lands, irrigated with canal and/or skimming groundwater, are summarized in Table 13. The water balance expre'ssed in terms of root zone depletion is:Dr =D j +Dc +Dp +Ds +Dgw -Dd AET±D 1 (20)Where, Dr is the root zone depletion (mm), Dj is the initial soil moisture (or initial depletion) in the root zone (mm), Dc is the depth of canal water irrigation (mm), Dp is the rainfall (mm), Ds is the depth of skimmed water irrigation (mm), Dgw is the groundwater capillary contribution (mm), Dd is the deep percolation (mm), AET is the actual evapotranspiration (mm), and D, is the net lateral groundwater contribution (mm), To initiate the water balance in the root zone, Di should be estimated. The initial depletion in the root zone can be estimated from the average soil moisture in the root zone (0,) by: (21)If the amount of Dp is less than 0.2 times the CED, then it can usually be ignored in the water balance calculations as it is normally entirely evaporated. The Dc and Ds are the average irrigation (of canal and skimmed water, respectively) depth expressed for the entire field surface. The amount of Dgw depends upon the soil type, the depth to watertable, and the wetness of the root zone. The Dgw can normally be ignored when the watertable is more than 1.5m below the bottom of the root zone.It is assumed that the water can be stored in the root zone until field capacity is reached. Although following irrigation or heavy rainfall, the soil moisture in the root zone might exceed field capacity, but the amount of water above field capacity is assumed to be lost the same day by D d , following by AET for that day. As long as the soil moisture in the root zone is below field capacity, the soil will not drain (Dd =0)The salt storage in the root zone of irrigated areas can be worked out by various components of water balance (as already described in Table 13) by multiplying with their respective salt concentrations. The resulting salt storage or leaching from the root zone can be mathematically written as follows Ss DiS; Dc(ECJ+ Ds(ECJ+D~,,(ECg\\\\)-Dd(ECd)±Dl(ECI) (22) where, Ss is the change in salt storage in the root zone, Si is the salt initially present in the root zone, Dc(EC c ) is the salt added through canal water irrigation, Ds(EC s ) is the salt added by the application of skimmed water, Dgw(EC gw ) is the salt added by the groundwater capillary contribution, Dd(EC d ) is the salt removed from the root zone as a result of deep percolation, D,(EC,) is the addition/removal of salts due to net lateral groundwater contribution.It should be remembered that irrigation may induce mineral dissolution (Sm), Salts may also be added directly to the root zone such as through application of amendments (Sa) and/or fertilizer (S,). On the other hand, salts are removed from the root zone by crops (Sc). Salts may also be precipitated (Sp). However, if salts in the root zone are considered as conservative salts, Sm and Sp can be neglected. But still, it may not be possible to neglect Sa, S\" and Sc without causing wide differences in the calculated and actual salt balance.Moreover, unknown parameters in Equation ( 22) add another dimension to the complexity in the use of this equation. For example, Ogw, Od, OJ, EC gw , EC d , and EC I are not exactly known. Therefore, it is recommended to monitor the salt status of irrigated lands to work out the salt regime. It would not only help in diagnosing the problem, but also help in identifying factors that are responsible for salt accumulation in the root zone or those which would help to leach down the salts from the root zone. Therefore, while preparing the salt balance sheet, causes, rate and degree of accumulation or leaching should also be worked out.The salt balance in the root zone is usually determined for short term duration (monthly basis), medium-term duration (seasonal basis) and long-term duration (annual basis). The following salt balance situations may occur:• Balance in favour of leaching (if Ss is negative)Stable salt balance (if Ss is zero)• Balance in favour of salt accumulation (if Ss is positive)In irrigated agriculture, time frame within which salt balance of the root zone is determined, could be very important not only from the point of view of saving water but also for the crop health. The time frame would normally depend upon how fast the salinity build-up occurs in the root zone. For salt sensitive crops irr~gated with relatively-fresh water, salt balance at the each irrigation event may be important For salt tolerant crops, it may be possible to allow build-up of salt in the root zone, and carry out leaching at appropriate time when water is available.While developing guidelines for irrigation scheduling with skimmed groundwater under the given management practices, there is a need of developing site-specific and crop-specific relationships between the salinity in the root zone and the factors affecting salinity in the root zone while irrigating with relatively-fresh water. These relationships develop linkages between the net soil moisture depletion and the threshold levels of the root zone salinity at different stages of the crop growth under different soil moisture depletion levels These relationships would provide ample scope to manage salinity in the root zone at a pre-decided level.","tokenCount":"9288"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2b52864f0c3085c078a70df7470b37a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2d10a43a-81b4-423c-9fbf-5be820d3a738/retrieve","id":"1085460915"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4c6b9ccf-d562-4a3b-b27c-d1b8f78c989c","pagecount":"27","content":"En este trabajo se evalúa el impacto económico potencial del uso en tres regiones productoras de yuca del país -Costa Norte, Llanos Orientales y Huila-Tolima -de una variedad transgénica resistente al barrenador del tallo.Se trata de una plaga de importancia económica que origina sustanciales bajas en la productividad del cultivo, en las regiones afectadas.El estudio aparte de una breve introducción, en donde se destaca la importancia socioeconómica del cultivo, incluye los siguientes temas: 2) Análisis de las tendencias de la producción de yuca, a escala global y en Colombia. 3) Descripción de la plaga y de su daño económico. 4) Evaluación del impacto económico y 5) Conclusiones.Se examinan las tendencias de la producción, el área y los rendimientos del cultivo en las regiones en desarrollo y en Colombia en particular. Se concluye que la expansión histórica de la producción se origina principalmente en el incremento de las superficies sembradas, en tanto que los avances en productividad han tenido un rol secundario.La rápida expansión de la avicultura, ha generado una creciente demanda por granos para la producción de concentrados, a la cual países como Colombia no han podido responder vía producción doméstica y han adoptado un patrón recurrente de importación de estos insumos. Dentro de este contexto, aparece la yuca como una alternativa promisoria para la sustitución de importaciones, la generación de ingresos para productores pobres y el empleo de recursos relativamente abundantes como mano de obra y en menor medida tierra.Para lograr estos propósitos, es prioritario incrementar la productividad y la competitividad de la producción nacional, para hacer viable la inserción de éste producto como insumo en los procesos industriales y en la fabricación de alimentos concentrados para animales. Dentro de ésta perspectiva ha venido trabajando en los últimos años el Proyecto de Yuca del CIAT y más recientemente CLAYUCA (Consorcio Latinoamericano para la Producción de Yuca). Esta labor ha resultado en nuevas opciones tecnológicas de producción, algunas de ellas ya listas para su empleo en los campos de los agricultores y otras en fases avanzadas de desarrollo: Variedades de alto rendimiento, materiales resistentes a herbicidas, mecanización de la siembra y de la cosecha y variedades transgénicas resistentes al barrenador del tallo, aparecen como opciones con muy alto potencial, para modernizar el cultivo de yuca en Colombia y en los trópicos.Estudios previos han evaluado el impacto económico potencial de algunas de éstas tecnologías (Pachico, et al. 2001). Este trabajo, empleando la misma base metodológica, evalúa el impacto potencial del uso de variedades transgénicas resistentes al barrenador del tallo, en tres regiones seleccionadas del país.Se utiliza el modelo de excedentes económicos DREAM, para estimar el impacto económico potencial del uso de los nuevos materiales. El valor presente de los beneficios totales que recibiría la sociedadconsumidores y productores -como recompensa por su inversión en investigación, se estiman en US$ 175 millones, de los cuales el 55% es capturado por los consumidores y el 45% por los productores.Los beneficios totales son equivalentes a un flujo anual de US$ 16.9 millones, durante un período de 15 años, cifra muy superior a las inversiones efectuadas anualmente en investigación en el cultivo.La Costa Norte colombiana captura el mayor volumen de beneficios (US $91 millones), debido a su gran importancia como región productora y por la magnitud de los daños ocasionados por el barrenador.Un análisis de sensibilidad de los beneficios potenciales con respecto al tiempo de rezago de la investigación (\"time lag\"), muestra que los procesos de investigación no solo deben estar enfocados a resolver problemas pertinentes, sino que las soluciones propuestas deben llegar rápidamente. Un rezago de 5 años reduciría los beneficios sociales esperados en 45%.Palabras Clave: Colombia, yuca, barrenador del tallo, variedades transgénicas, adopción, impacto económico.(Chilomima clarkei. Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)Libardo Rivas 1 Carlos Julio HerreraEl cultivo de la yuca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) a través de la historia ha tenido gran importancia socioeconómica en las regiones tropicales del mundo, dado que se trata de un vegetal con alto grado de rusticidad, que le permite adaptarse y alcanzar elevados niveles de productividad, bajo adversas condiciones climáticas y edáficas, por lo cual se le considera como un cultivo tropical típico de pequeños y medianos productores, con recursos económicos muy limitados.En Colombia la producción de yuca se halla ampliamente dispersa a través de la geografía nacional, ubicándose principalmente en pisos térmicos entre 0 y 1800 msnm, emplea tecnología artesanal, siendo catalogado como un cultivo de susbsistencia.La yuca por su capacidad de sustituir a los granos, en la forma de yuca seca y harina, su menor precio y su alta calidad energética y aglutinante, se constituye en una alternativa importante para la fabricación de concentrados.Para materializar ese potencial, un aspecto clave es la modernización de las actuales condiciones de producción de raíces, para posteriormente obtener un producto (yuca seca y harinas) de mayor calidad, y a precios que le permitan competir exitosamente con los cereales importados.Dado lo anterior, el Proyecto de Yuca del CIAT, encamina gran parte de su trabajo hacia el mejoramiento de la productividad y la competitividad de la yuca, como insumo para la industria. Con éste propósito ha desarrollado nuevas tecnologías de producción, que incluyen diversos elementos críticos tales como variedades de altos rendimientos, variedades mejoradas resistentes a plagas y enfermedades, materiales transgénicos con resistencia a herbicidas, sistemas alternativos de siembra y de cosecha. Actualmente el Proyecto trabaja en el desarrollo de materiales transgénicos resistentes al barrenador del tallo (Chilomima clarkei), una plaga que ha tenido un importante impacto negativo sobre la economía del cultivo, especialmente en la Costa Norte, los Llanos Orientales y la zona Huila -Tolima.Inicialmente el barrenador del tallo se detectó en los Llanos Orientales, posteriores estudios demostraron que en la Costa Norte del país ocasionaba reducciones del rendimiento hasta de un 85% (Ramírez, C. 2002).El propósito de este trabajo es elaborar una evaluación ex -ante del impacto económico de la adopción, de una variedad transgénica resistente al barrenador del tallo, en tres regiones productoras del país, afectadas por la plaga. Este nuevo material incrementa los rendimientos y reduce los costos unitarios de producción de la yuca fresca.El estudio incluye 5 secciones: 1) Introducción. 2) Tendencias a escala global y en Colombia de la producción de yuca. 3) El barrenador del tallo y su importancia económica. 4) Evaluación del impacto económico del uso de variedades transgénicas, resistentes al barrenador y 5) Conclusiones.En 2002 el área mundial sembrada con yuca se estimaba 17.3 millones de hectáreas de las cuales 11.2 millones, 65 %, se ubicaba en África; 3.5 millones, 20%, en Asia; y el resto, 2.6 millones de hectáreas, en América Latina (Cuadro 1).La distribución de la producción mundial de raíces de yuca sigue un patrón similar al del área cultivada. De una producción total de 100.7 millones de toneladas en 2002, más de la mitad (54%) era producida en África; seguida por Asia con el 28% y de América Latina que aportaba el restante 18% (Cuadro 1).Entre las regiones en desarrollo, África sobresale por su volumen de producción, la magnitud de las superficies cultivadas y los altos índices de producción y consumo por habitante, pero con niveles de productividad (producción / ha.) que pueden catalogarse como modestos (Cuadro1).  FAO (2003) La mayor dinámica del cultivo se observa en África en donde en un extenso período, 1980 -2002, la producción creció sostenidamente al En Latinoamérica, casi la mitad de la yuca disponible (46%), es empleada en la alimentación de animales. El 38% se destina al consumo humano y la fracción restante (16% ) esta representada por otros usos y por pérdidas de producción, debidas al deterioro en la fase de poscosecha.El principal uso de la yuca en Colombia es en alimentación humana (80%). Una pequeña fracción de la disponibilidad total, que no supera el 10%, es utilizada en las actividades pecuarias. El Cuadro 3 muestra el panorama global de los distintos usos de la yuca en varias regiones del mundo y en Colombia en particular.Colombia es el tercer productor en importancia en la América Tropical (6% de la producción regional,) pero muy lejos de Brasil (73%) y de Paraguay (10%) -Cuadro 4 -.Aunque las áreas yuqueras de América Latina son bajas comparadas con las de África, su nivel de productividad supera el promedio mundial y se acerca al de Asia. Los rendimientos de Colombia son muy similares a los promedios de las zonas en desarrollo consideradas como un todo.El cultivo se encuentra ampliamente extendido en todo el país, pero se destaca la Costa Norte que aporta un poco más del 40% de la oferta total nacional de yuca fresca. Siguen en orden de importancia, en cuanto a volumen de producción, los Santanderes y los Llanos Orientales Se puede considerar que las zonas de Cauca -Valle, Huila -Tolima y el Eje Cafetero, son marginales en términos de su aporte a la producción nacional (Cuadro 5).La producción colombiana de yuca fresca en el año 2002 se estimó en US$ 433 millones, lo cual constituye una cifra significativa dentro de la economía agrícola del país.La industria nacional de concentrados para la alimentación de monogástricos, es dependiente en alto grado de materias primas importadas tales como maíz, soya y sorgo. La avicultura es el subsector que jalona la demanda de concentrados, dadas sus elevadas tasas de crecimiento de largo plazo. En efecto en el período 1980 -2002, la producción de pollo en Colombia creció a una tasa promedio anual del 8.2%, los inventarios de aves al 6.7% y la producción de huevos al 3.8% anual. En contraste, la porcicultura es una actividad que tiende a estancarse (Cuadro 6). La demanda por granos para alimentos animales se ha incrementado muy rápidamente y ante la imposibilidad de cubrir las necesidades, Colombia ha entrado en una fase de importaciones crecientes de éstas materias primas básicas, particularmente de maíz, y en éstas circunstancias la yuca aparece, como una buena alternativa para sustitución de importaciones y ahorro de divisas (Figura 1). Fuente: Cifras de FAO ( 2003)Como ya se anotó, este cultivo está ampliamente diseminado en el territorio nacional, ocupando principalmente áreas marginales, con grandes limitaciones en cuanto a la calidad de los suelos y generalmente afrontando difíciles condiciones climáticas. Es una actividad comúnmente adelantada por productores de pequeña escala, en explotaciones con bajo nivel tecnológico y en situaciones donde los campesinos disponen de muy pocas opciones productivas para su supervivencia.En este cultivo predominan los métodos de producción tradicionales de muy bajo costo, con escasas prácticas culturales y baja productividad.Se usa semilla no seleccionada, no se aplican pre ni post emergentes, el control de plagas es precario y los niveles de fertilización son nulos o muy reducidos.La principal consecuencia del atraso tecnológico son los bajos rendimientos por hectárea, que finalmente se traducen en elevados costos por tonelada de yuca producida, lo cual a su vez deteriora la competitividad de este producto como insumo en la fabricación de alimentos concentrados para animales, ante opciones más baratas como maíz, sorgo y yuca seca importados.Uno de los elementos críticos dentro de una estrategia para incrementar la competitividad de la yuca es el mejoramiento de la productividad del cultivo y la expansión de su producción. En ese sentido ha venido trabajando, desde hacia varios años, el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, de forma conjunta con diversas instituciones del país y del exterior.Numerosas tecnologías orientadas a reducir los costos de producción y a mejorar la rentabilidad del cultivo se han diseñado y son opciones viables para las diferentes regiones productoras de Colombia. En un estudio previo elaborado por Pachico et al ( 2001), se evaluó el impacto económico potencial de la adopción en las regiones productoras del país, de algunas tecnologías de producción promisorias, todas ellas orientadas a incrementar la productividad y a reducir los costos unitarios de producción. Dada la gran heterogeneidad de las regiones productoras del país, se requieren múltiples opciones tecnológicas, que permitan cubrir un amplio espectro de demandas. El barrenador es un insecto que perfora los tallos, construyendo galerías (túneles) en los que pasa la mayor parte de su ciclo de vida, de ésta característica se deriva el nombre de barrenador del tallo de la yuca (Löhr, 1983).Según López (1996), una infestación del 41%, se considera alta, ya que la plaga destruye todas las estructuras internas y lleva la planta al colapso. Existen evidencias de que plantas atacadas, con más del 35% de tallos partidos, presentan reducciones en rendimiento de raíces del orden del 45 -62% (Löhr, 1983).En muchas regiones de Colombia existe la práctica generalizada de que los productores producen e intercambian semilla con otros agricultores. La consecuencia directa de ésta costumbre es la rápida difusión de la plaga a través de grandes extensiones geográficas.En Colombia las principales zonas afectadas son la Costa Norte, los Llanos Orientales y el área de Huila -Tolima. Los departamentos en donde la intensidad de los ataques es mayor son: Guajira, Cesar, Magdalena, Atlántico, Sucre, Bolívar, Córdoba, Tolima, Arauca y Casanare (Figura 2).Se han registrado ataques de menor intensidad en los Santanderes, Meta y Huila. Es latente la preocupación de que la gravedad del problema del barrenador y su daño económico se hayan subestimado, y que actualmente se estén expandiendo muy rápidamente en áreas que se consideran con baja incidencia o libres del flagelo.En América Latina Tropical se ha detectado la plaga en los Llanos venezolanos, el Sur de Brasil y el Norte de Argentina. Evaluación del impacto económico potencial del uso de variedades transgénicas resistentes al barrenadorEn este trabajo se utiliza el Modelo Dinámico de Evaluación de la Investigación, DREAM por sus siglas en inglés, desarrollado por Wood & Baixt (1998). Está basado en la teoría clásica de excedentes económicos, a productores y consumidores. Es un modelo muy similar a MODEXC, implementado por Rivas, et al 1999. Se utiliza DREAM por las facilidades que ofrece para regionalizar los mercados y porque estudios previos para evaluar nuevas tecnologías de yuca, utilizaron este modelo, lo cual permite establecer comparaciones sobre una misma base analítica, de los resultados obtenidos.Para cada región bajo análisis el modelo define su mercado a través de funciones lineales de oferta y demanda, tal como se plantea en (1) y ( 2).( Factor de desplazamiento de la función de oferta debido a la it K adopción tecnológica en la región i en el período t Los otros parámetros del sistema de ecuaciones se definen así:(3)El suscrito cero, se refiere a los valores observados en el período inicial de la evaluación. io ε es la elasticidad precio de oferta en la región i 0 i η es la elasticidad precio de demanda en la región i La función tecnológica se define como :, en la cual : i c corresponde a la reducción porcentual de costos en la región i debido a la adopción de la tecnología mejorada.it A es la proporción de productores que adopta la nueva tecnología En la aplicación del modelo se considera un total de 7 regiones productoras de yuca en Colombia, y una demanda agregada total para el país en su conjunto.De las regiones consideradas, solo en tres de ellas: Costa Norte, Llanos Orientales y Huila -Tolima, el barrenador causa daño de importancia económica y en consecuencia, se espera que en ellas las nuevas variedades transgénicas tengan una amplia adopción.En las restantes regiones del país se asume que no habrá adopción, pero como los mercados de las diferentes áreas productoras están interconectados, los cambios en productividad, costos y producción que se originen en las regiones que adoptan la nueva tecnología, en definitiva tendrán repercusiones sobre todas las regiones participantes en el mercado global nacional.Para efectuar las estimaciones de los beneficios tecnológicos, el modelo requiere dos tipos de información básica. Una de naturaleza técnica referida a la probabilidad de éxito en el proceso de investigación y diseño de la nueva tecnología, la intensidad de uso de los nuevos materiales, en términos de proporción de áreas afectadas o de productores adoptadores, la duración de la difusión y el tiempo necesario para que la tecnología esté disponible para los agricultores.La otra información requerida es de tipo económico y tiene que ver con la magnitud de la reducción de los costos de producción unitarios, ligados al empleo de las nuevas variedades, los precios y cantidades de equilibrio en los mercados evaluados y los parámetros que definen la naturaleza de los mismos, tales como elasticidades precio de oferta y demanda.El desarrollo y adopción de variedades resistentes al barrenador del tallo tiene implicaciones directas sobre la estabilidad y el nivel de los rendimientos del cultivo y sobre los costos por tonelada de yuca producida.El punto de partida de la evaluación económica es la identificación de las estructuras de costos de las tecnologías tradicionales empleadas en las diferentes regiones del país, y los cambios que ocurren en esas estructuras, cuando se adoptan las nuevas variedades transgénicas.Como la información disponible muestra que esta plaga solo tiene importancia económica en tres áreas yuqueras de Colombia: Costa Norte, Llanos Orientales y Huila -Tolima, la presente evaluación se circunscribe a ésas áreas geográficas. En el Cuadro 7, se resume la información referente a los costos de producción, con las variedades actuales y con la variedad resistente.Se detectan grandes diferencias, en términos de costos de producción, entre las regiones bajo evaluación. En los Llanos Orientales las prácticas de encalamiento, debido a la acidez de los suelos, incrementan considerablemente los costos totales de producción. Esto no ocurre en las otras regiones, ya que no es necesaria la utilización de este insumo.De manera opuesta, los costos de control de plagas y enfermedades en los Llanos, son bajos en comparación con los que se observan en la Costa Norte y en Huila -Tolima.No se observan diferencias muy grandes en los costos de preparación. El uso de las variedades transgénicas implica, mayores costos de semilla, y de cosecha y rendimientos más altos y estables. Dado que la yuca tradicionalmente se cosecha a mano, los altos rendimientos de las nuevas variedades, ocasionan un incremento del número de jornales en las labores de cosecha.Se estima que el uso de tecnologías con resistencia a barrenador del tallo reducirán los costos por tonelada de yuca fresca en 18.7% en la Costa Norte, 9.4% en los Llanos Orientales y 6.3% en la zona Huila -Tolima (Cuadro 7).Para efectos de comparación, se incluyen estimativos del impacto potencial de diferentes alternativas tecnológicas de producción de yuca en Colombia, expresados como una reducción porcentual de los costos por tonelada de producto (Cuadro 8).La información económica que caracteriza a los mercados de yuca del país se incluye en el Cuadro 9. Los parámetros técnicos referidos a la adopción de la tecnología bajo evaluación, se presentan en el Cuadro 10. Con ésta información técnica y económica, se simula un escenario en donde el proceso de difusión tecnológica cubre un período de 10 años y la evaluación 15 años.Los beneficios tecnológicos de la adopción de variedades transgénicas de yuca resistentes al barrenador del tallo se expresan en términos de beneficios a productores y consumidores, los cuales en la terminología económica se conocen como excedentes económicos.El valor presente de los beneficios se estimó en US$ 175.4 millones, de los cuales el 55% (US$ 96.3 millones) los reciben los consumidores y el 45% (US $79.1 millones) es capturado por los productores adoptadores (Cuadro 11).Los beneficios económicos totales estimados, equivalen un flujo anual durante 15 años de casi US$ 17 millones, que supera ampliamente a las inversiones anuales para desarrollar esta clase de tecnología.Las ganancias económicas recibidos por los consumidores se originan en la baja de los precios. inducida por los adelantos en productividad, que implican mayor producción total y por hectárea y menores costos por tonelada producida. Los beneficios tecnológicos netos de los productores, están representadas por las ganancias en productividad, descontando las pérdidas que afrontan por la reducción de los precios en el mercado.Bajo éstas circunstancias, en donde todas las regiones productoras están interrelacionadas, la adopción de tecnologías resistentes al barrenador induce bajas en los precios en todas las áreas productoras, por lo cual los productores ubicados en zonas donde no es necesario la adopción de ésta clase de tecnologías, al no incrementar sus niveles de productividad, pierden competitividad y sus beneficios disminuyen.En el presente caso los beneficios se concentran en las tres regiones adoptadoras: Costa Norte (US$ 90.7 millones), Llanos Orientales (US$ 25 millones) y Huila -Tolima (US$ 2.9 millones).Las otras regiones (Cauca -Valle, Santanderes, Eje Cafetero, etc), en conjunto reducen sus beneficios en US$ 39.4 millones.Se evidencia que los procesos de cambio tecnológico, una vez que se desencadenan pueden ser muy dinámicos y sin solución de continuidad en el tiempo. Las regiones que no adoptan una tecnología específica, precisan efectuar algún tipo de cambio técnico, que les permita conservar su posición competitiva en el mercado, o de lo contrario en el largo plazo tienden a desaparecer.El caso de arroz en Colombia es útil para corroborar lo anterior. Históricamente el desarrollo tecnológico en este cultivo enfatizó en nuevas tecnologías para los sistemas de riego, los cuales capturaron todos los beneficios de la adopción. El sistema de secano, que aportaba un muy alto porcentaje de la producción en las décadas del 50 y 60, al mantener sus técnicas de producción tradicionales, como resultado de la falta de oferta tecnológica, perdió competitividad y en la actualidad sus participación es muy marginal en la industria arrocera nacional. (Véase Rivas L., 2001).Desde el punto de vista del diseño de estrategias de investigación, es importante mantener un portafolio muy variado de opciones tecnológicas, que permita atender una gama muy amplia de demandas, dada la heterogeneidad de los ambientes en donde se cultiva yuca en el país y en las regiones tropicales en general.El Cuadro 11 muestra el panorama de beneficios potenciales atribuibles a diversas alternativas tecnológicas, que pueden emplearse en distintas regiones de Colombia y que permitirán mejorar la competitividad de la producción nacional de yuca en las próximas décadas.Se concluye que dada la magnitud actual del problema del barrenador en la Costa Norte del país, las variedades que ofrezcan resistencia a ésta plaga tendrían una alto beneficio potencial, superior al de alternativas como variedades de alto rendimiento, materiales resistentes a herbicidas o la mecanización de la siembra y la cosecha. Nótese que a nivel de país en conjunto las últimas alternativas señaladas superan, en términos de beneficios potenciales, a las variedades resistentes al barrenador.Un aspecto crucial en el proceso de investigación y que tiene que ver con la magnitud del valor presente de los beneficios tecnológicos esperados, es el tiempo necesario para que los nuevos materiales estén disponibles, para ser usados por los productores. (\"time lag\", como se denomina en inglés).Para dar una idea del impacto que la rapidez y la eficiencia de la investigación tienen sobre los beneficios esperados por la sociedad, se efectuó un ejercicio de sensibilidad de éstos con respecto al tiempo que es necesario esperar, para tener las nuevas variedades en los campos de los agricultores. La Figura 3 ilustra la situación. Si el tiempo de espera se de 1 año el valor de los beneficios esperados es de US$ 175 millones, pero si la espera se extiende a 5 años, los beneficios esperados se reducen en un 45%. Esto implica que un proceso de investigación bien enfocado no solo debe apuntar a la solución de problemas prioritarios, sino que esa solución debe ser rápida, para buscar la maximización de los beneficios sociales.Cuadro 12 Valor presente estimado de los beneficios de la adopción de diversas opciones tecnológicas para el cultivo de yuca en Colombia (US$ millones)  Lo anterior pone una vez más de presente la importancia de un adecuado y seguro flujo de financiación de la investigación, para mantener y diversificar permanentemente la oferta tecnológica.Este trabajo resalta la importancia económica del cultivo de la yuca en las regiones tropicales del mundo en donde a las raíces, frescas o con algún grado de procesamiento, se les da diversos usos: alimentación humana, elaboración de productos industriales y como materia prima en la fabricación de alimentos concentrados para animales.Por tratarse de un cultivo con un amplio rango de adaptación geográfica, particularmente a zonas pobres y con limitaciones edáficas y climáticas, la yuca frecuentemente representa una de las pocas alternativas productivas rentables para los agricultores de más bajos recursos.Analizando las tendencias de la producción yuquera en las áreas en desarrollo en conjunto, se concluye que la principal fuerza que impulsa la producción es el incremento de las superficies sembradas, en tanto que la productividad ha jugado un papel secundario en la expansión del cultivo.El crecimiento de la producción avícola a través del cambio técnico es un fenómeno, que se ha observado y documentado en América Latina en general y en Colombia en particular (Véase entre otros a Rivas, et al, 1989).país, en donde este problema tiene importancia económica: Costa Norte, Llanos Orientales y Huila -Tolima.Se utiliza el modelo de evaluación DREAM para estimar los beneficios potenciales que recibiría la sociedad por invertir recursos en el diseño y adopción de variedades de yuca con resistencia al barrenador.El valor presente de los beneficios esperados en un lapso de 15 años se estimó en US$ 175 millones, de los cuales el 55% lo capturaran los consumidores y el 45% los productores.La Costa Norte recibiría el mayor beneficio, en razón de que es la región más importante de Colombia por su aporte a la producción total y porque en ella el problema de barrenador es más agudo. Se estima que en ésta región, los beneficios al productor derivados del uso de materiales resistentes a barrenador, triplicarían a los que se obtendrían con la mecanización de la siembra y la cosecha o con el empleo de materiales resistentes a herbicidas.Valor presente de los beneficios potenciales de diversas opciones tecnológicas en la Costa Norte de Colombia (US$ millones) Los resultados obtenidos muestran que cuando se desencadenan procesos de cambio técnico, que afectan la productividad y la competitividad en las regiones adoptadoras, esto tiene implicaciones negativas sobre las que no adoptan, dado que varían los niveles de competitividad relativa. Para sobrevivir, a mediano y largo plazo, éstas últimas tendrán que introducir mejoras técnicas, para recuperar su competitividad y conservar su posición en el mercado.El análisis de sensibilidad de los beneficios esperados. con respecto al tiempo de rezago de la investigación, muestra claramente que para el diseño de planes y programas de investigación, se deben priorizar adecuadamente los problemas, para enfocar el trabajo en los más pertinentes, pero que además las soluciones a los mismos, deben llegar rápidamente a nivel de finca, porque los retrasos en el desarrollo de los programas, deteriora considerablemente los beneficios esperados por la sociedad. El tema de la financiación de la investigación en este aspecto es crítico, dado que se requiere un flujo adecuado y estable de recursos financieros, que permita encontrar soluciones pertinentes, prontas, eficaces y con alto impacto potencial.","tokenCount":"4433"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d2e560d3d0deb5da6bca1e57a3e65ad4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d0cd82c-15b5-4df6-ba04-bcd74dadd44e/retrieve","id":"-65059062"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8ce5eff0-187c-4a6c-8e26-32e2abb54574","pagecount":"8","content":"T he world's population is projected to increase from the current 7.3 billion to 9.7 billion people by 2050; most of this increase is expected to occur in the developing world (United Nations, 2015) and this suggests the need to increase food production (FAO, 2014a). In areas of high population densities, there is limited potential for expansion of agricultural land, making sustainable intensification crucial (Pretty et al., 2011;Cook et al., 2015;Vanlauwe et al., 2014). Integration of grain legumes in farming systems offers a potential pathway for sustainable intensification, as they are vital in contributing to soil fertility improvement owing to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, making them an excellent component within the cerealbased farming systems in the Guinea savannas of West Africa.The contribution of grain legumes to soil fertility in the West Africa Savannas has extensively been reported by several researchers (Sanginga et al., 2001;Yusuf et al., 2006;Adjei-Nsiah et al., 2008). In the past, they were cultivated on subsistence basis as food crops. However, over the past decade grain legume cultivation has assumed commercial importance because of their demand by the agro-processing industry and for human consumption. Grain legumes have excellent nutritional values in terms of protein, amino acids, and micronutrients (Phillips et al., 2003;Gibson and Ferguson, 2008;Belane and Dakora, 2011). The dry haulms after harvest and the husk after threshing the pods are an excellent source of livestock feed for ruminants, particularly in the northern Guinea Savanna zone.Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), peanut (Arachis hypogea L.), and soybean (Glycine max L.) are the three most important grain legumes in West Africa, where they form major components of the predominantly cereal-based farming systems. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates for the 2014 world total area under cultivation of these three legumes was 12.6 million, 26.5 million, and 118 million ha for cowpea, peanut, and soybean, respectively. The world total production of these crops for the same period was about 5.6 million, 43.9 million, and 300 million tons annually for cowpea, peanut, and soybean, respectively. While ~85 and ~23% of the total world production of cowpea and peanut is estimated at 4.5 and 6.5 million tons, respectively, for cowpea and peanut occurs in West Africa, only about 0.26% of the world's total soybean production occurs in West Africa (FAO, 2014b). These crops are Response of Grain Legumes to Phosphorus Application in the Guinea Savanna Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana S. Adjei-Nsiah, B.U. Alabi, J.K. Ahiakpa*, and F. KanampiuGrain legumes (cowpea, peanut, and soybean) play important roles in household food and income security in smallholder farming systems in the Guinea Savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana. However, yields are low, rarely exceeding 600 kg ha −1 , prompting the need to evaluate responses of grain legumes to P fertilizer applications for two seasons. Conducting P studies is critical to help farmers adopt economic-based recommendations. Treatments evaluated in 2015 for the three crops were (i) farmers' practice (no input and planted by farmer); (ii) control (no input and planted by researcher), and (iii) triple super phosphate (TSP) fertilizer. However, for soybean, an additional two treatments (inoculant only and inoculant plus TSP fertilizer) were included. In 2016, the treatments were the same, except on-farm demonstrations were not conducted on cowpea. The demonstrations were laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with each demonstration representing a replicate within a region. On average, P-fertilizer application increased yields by 296; 527, and 390 kg ha −1 for cowpea, peanut, and soybean grains, respectively. On average over the two seasons, P-fertilizer increased yield by 9.85; 13.00, and 17.56 per kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied for cowpea, soybean, and peanut, respectively, and these applications were cost effective. Peanut showed little response to P in the Upper East Region compared with a greater response in the Northern and Upper West Regions, suggesting that benefits from P-fertilizer for peanut may be location-specific. On average, rhizobium inoculation increased grain yield by 157 kg ha −1 across the three regions and significantly positive effects of inoculation were observed in both seasons. Our results show that substantial increases in grain legume yield may be achieved by applying P fertilizers, but farmers cannot afford them because of their relatively high cost. Planting adapted and improved varieties and using rhizobium inoculants may provide the most economically viable and low risk options for increasing yields of grain legumes in the savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana S. Adjei-Nsiah, B.U. Alabi, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Tamale, Ghana; J.K. Ahiakpa, Research Desk Consulting Ltd., Kwabenya-Accra, Ghana;F. Kanampiu, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya. Received 22 Nov. 2017. Accepted 17 Feb. 2018. *Corresponding author (jnckay@gmail.com).Abbreviations: TSP, triple super phosphate.• Rhizobium inoculation is effective in increasing soybean yields with little financial cost. • Grain legumes respond significantly to P-fertilizer application in the savanna agro-ecological zone of Ghana. • Promiscuous soybean responds well to inoculation in the savanna agro-ecological zone of Ghana. • A significant number of smallholder farmers could benefit from application of rhizobium inoculants to soybean, both agronomically and economically.soIl FertIlIty And crop nutrItIonPublished online April 5, 2018grown mainly for food and cash income but in the dry savannas of Africa, the haulms and husk after harvest are excellent sources of quality feed for livestock and are traded by farmers for cash or exchanged for manure, especially during the dry season.Legumes play an important role in household food and income security in smallholder farming systems in the three northern regions of Ghana, where about 95% of the total national production of grain legumes occurs (MoFA, 2012). Furthermore, in smallholder farming systems in northern Ghana, grain legumes improve soil fertility characteristics by fixing and supplying nitrogen through return of haulms to the soil after harvest if they are not fed to livestock.Despite their importance, yields of grain legumes are far below their potential. According to FAO (2014a), the average yield of cowpea in West Africa is estimated at 0.42 t ha −1 , which is far below the yield of 2 t ha −1 achieved on research stations in parts of West Africa (Karikari et al., 2015). Peanut and soybean yields in West Africa are estimated at 1.1 and 0.95 t ha −1 , respectively. Use of low yielding varieties, low soil P, and high cost of inputs (seeds, fertilizers, and inoculants), have been suggested as the causes for the low yields of grain legumes (Kamara et al., 2007;Kolawole, 2012). Legumes are often considered as secondary crops to cereal crops, and thus commonly promoted as crops that require no fertilizer application. Soils in most parts of the savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana where grain legumes are cultivated have low fertility. This situation is aggravated by nutrient depletion through continuous cultivation with inadequate replenishment.Grain legumes can access atmospheric N through symbiosis with soil inhabiting bacteria collectively known as rhizobia and, therefore, require minimal N fertilizer inputs. However, this process can be limited by low availability of other nutrients, particularly P. Several studies have shown that legume yields can be improved using high yielding crop varieties (Buruchara et al., 2011), P-based fertilizers (Kamanga et al., 2010;Kamara et al., 2007), rhizobia inoculants (Sanginga et al., 2000;Osunde et al., 2003), and/or their combinations (Ronner et al., 2015).During the past decade, several initiatives including the use of high yielding varieties, phosphate-based fertilizers, and inoculants have been introduced to farmers in the three northern regions of Ghana to improve the productivity of grain legumes (Ahiabor et al., 2014;Aziz et al., 2016). While these initiatives are being promoted by research and extension and other projects, their economic viability has not been assessed under farmers' field conditions. The objective of the present study was, therefore, to evaluate the response of the three commonly cultivated legumes in northern Ghana to P-fertilizer and to assess the economic viability of P-fertilizer use to guide farmers in the regions towards profitable adoption of introduced grain legume technologies.The study was conducted in three northern regions of Ghana: the Northern and Upper West Regions in the southern Guinea Savanna zone and the Upper East Region in the northern Guinea Savanna zone in the 2015 and 2016 cropping seasons. Rainfall in the study areas is unimodal and occurs between May and October with a dry period between November and April.Northern Region is the wettest of the three regions with a total annual mean rainfall of about 1163 mm while the Upper East is the driest with annual rainfall of 900 mm. The rainfall distribution (number of rainy days and total amounts) for the three sites during the trial period for the 2 yrs is presented in Fig. 1.The soils in the trial sites (Table 1) are classified as Savanna Ochrosol and Groundwater Laterites in the interim Ghana soil classification system (Adjei-Gyapong and Asiamah, 2002) and as Plinthosols in the World Reference Base for soil resources (WRB, 2015). These soils which are formed under the influence of ground water and lateral water flows from adjacent uplands are poorly drained with iron accumulations that irreversibly harden during repeated drying and wetting to form iron concretions and hard pans. These soils are shallow and, therefore, inhibits root penetration and induce temporal water logging during heavy rains. The shallow depths of these soils and the abundance of iron pans and concretions limit the agricultural potential of these soils. The chemical and physical soil properties of the demonstration plots are presented in Table 1.Major crops cultivated in the three regions include rice, maize, sorghum, millet, yam, peanut, and cowpea. Soybean is emerging as an important cash crop in the three regions.As part of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation sponsored project, \"Putting Nitrogen Fixation to work for smallholder farmers in Africa\" (www.N2Africa.org), dissemination campaigns were undertaken both in 2015 and 2016 cropping seasons. The number of households that participated in the dissemination campaigns of grain legumes technologies in the Northern, Upper West, and Upper East Regions in 2015 were 25, 18, and 25 for cowpea, peanut, and soybean, respectively. Eight districts participated in the 2015 dissemination campaign, comprised of three districts from the Northern Region, three districts from the Upper East, and two districts from the Upper West Region (Fig. 2). These districts were selected based on their potential for the cultivation of one or more of the three grain legumes after consultations with local partners. In 2016, dissemination campaigns were conducted on only peanut and soybean and the number of households that participated in the dissemination campaigns in the three regions were 28 and 40 for peanut and soybean, respectively.All the districts that took part in the 2015 dissemination campaigns (except Chereponi district) participated in the 2016 campaign. A total of seven districts participated; three districts in Upper East and two each in the Northern and Upper West Regions. No dissemination campaign was undertaken on cowpea in 2016.In each season, between three to five communities managed by one to three extension agents were selected in each district. Within each community, participating farmers were selected by the extension agent based on the farmer's interest in the cultivation of one of the three grain legumes, and willingness of the farmer to release his/her field for the demonstration and accessibility to the field (for visibility of the field and possibility of other farmers to visit and learn from the demonstration).Farmers were organized into groups of 15-30 farmers comprising of a lead farmer (trained directly by the project) and 14-29 satellite farmers who also received training from the lead farmer. In 2015, the treatments evaluated were (i) cowpea: farmers' practice (no fertilization and planted by farmer), control (no fertilization and planted by researcher), and cowpea fertilized with P and planted by researcher; (ii) peanut: farmers' practice (no fertilization and planted by farmer), control (no fertilization and planted by researcher), and peanut fertilized with P and planted by researcher; and (iii) soybean: farmers' practice (no fertilization and planted by farmer), control (no fertilization and planted by researcher), soybean seeds treated with inoculant alone and planted by researcher, soybean fertilized with P alone, and planted by researcher and soybean seeds treated with inoculant and fertilized with P and planted by the researcher. In 2016, the treatments were the same except that no demonstration was undertaken on cowpea.Plot size was 10 × 12 m with planting distances of 60 × 20, 60 × 20, and 60 × 10 cm, respectively, at two seeds per hill for cowpea, peanut, and soybean. The planting periods of the three legume crops were as follows: Peanut, May to July; soybean, July; and cowpea, July to August. The P was applied as TSP (46% P 2 O 5 ) at 30 kg ha −1 P within the first 2 weeks of planting. The fertilizer was banded in a 3 cm deep trench 10 cm away from the planting line and covered. The rhizobium inoculant (Nodumax) containing 10 8 cells g −1 of Bradyrhizobium japonicum (strain USDA 110) was applied to the seeds at the rate of 7 g kg −1 of seeds. The demonstrations were planted by the farmers with the assistance from field extension officers. Management of the demonstrations was done by farmers.  All the demonstrations were monitored during the growing seasons. Information on planting, weeding, and harvest dates; conditions of the field; and the cropping history of the field was recorded in a field book. The field book also contained questions on socio-economic characteristics of the households. Farmers filled the field books with the help of the extension officers. At the end of the season, farmers harvested the plots separately and evaluated the different treatments in the demonstrations. The pods were threshed and the grains kept separately until they were weighed and the weight recorded by the extension agents. Grain yields represent air-dried weight (11-14% moisture content). The data was cleaned to only include demonstrations where yields of all treatments were reported. At the establishment of the demonstrations, soils samples were taken from 0-20 cm depth of the soil from every field. On each field, five soil core samples were taken randomly, thoroughly mixed, and composite samples taken. These samples were air-dried and sieved with a 2 mm mesh and analyzed for pH, organic carbon, total N, P, and exchangeable cations.An economic analysis was performed on the profitability of use of P-fertilizer for each of the grain legumes. Costs of fertilizer was determined using prices of local TSP fertilizer and labor costs for fertilizer application was based on the existing labor rates in the communities. Price for the grain legumes are the average market price for 2017. All the amounts are expressed in US dollars (USD, $) at the average exchange rate Jan.-Nov. 2017 (4.4 GHC = $1.00) (Bank of Ghana, 2017). The economic analysis were performed using Microsoft excel spreadsheet (vers. 2016) and the graph was plotted using SAS-JMP software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). The effects of region, P and their interactions on yield were determined by performing analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat statistical software (vers. 12; VSN International Limited, Hemel Hempstead, UK).Both the soil chemical and physical properties at the three locations were generally poor (Table 1) as reported earlier by Buri et al. (2009). However, soils in the Northern Region were relatively better compared with the two remaining regions in terms of pH, total nitrogen, organic carbon, exchangeable cations and clay content. The low organic carbon and total nitrogen contents of the soils in the Upper East Region could partly be attributed to low organic matter and high temperatures that accelerate decomposition of organic matter (Agboola and Aiyelari, 2000).Cowpea grain yield under farmers' practice was generally low and ranged from 0.68 t ha −1 in Upper East Region to 0.96 t ha −1 in the Northern Region (Fig. 3). Phosphorus application resulted in the highest grain yields ranging from 1.02 t ha −1 in Upper West Region to 1.5 t ha −1 in the Northern Region. Grain yields across the three regions ranged from 0.84 t ha −1 in the Upper West Region to 1.2 t ha −1 in the Northern Region. Response of cowpea to P application in the three regions were 11.93, 9.47, and 8.17 kg ha −1 kg −1 P application in Northern, Upper West, and Upper East Regions, respectively. Grain yields from the farmers' practice plots were generally low, particularly in the Upper East and Northern Regions, partly due to low plant population, although we did not take data on plant population. peanut Both P application and location had significant effects on peanut pod yields in both 2015 and 2016 (Table 2). In 2015, pod yields from farmers' practice plots ranged from 0.57 t ha −1 Fig. 2. Districts where demonstrations were conducted in 2015 and 2016 in Northern Ghana in the Upper East Region to 1.93 t ha −1 in the Upper West Region while yields from control plots ranged from 0.83 t ha −1 in the Upper East Region to 2.04 t ha −1 in the Northern Region (Table 2). In 2015, while peanut did not respond to P application in the Upper East Region, the response of peanut to P application were 41.87 and 36 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied in the Upper West and Northern Regions, respectively.The pod yield in 2016 followed a similar pattern as that of 2015 with both P application and location significantly influencing pod yield. Across regions, P application resulted in the highest pod yield with the highest yield occurring in the Northern Region and the lowest pod yield occurring in the Upper West Region. Response to P were 38.57; 9.63, and 6.53 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied for Northern, Upper West, and Upper East Region, respectively. soybean Phosphorus application and location significantly influenced soybean grain yield both in 2015 and 2016 (Table 3). In 2015, application of P alone resulted in increases in grain yield of 301; 307, and 577 kg ha −1 in Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions, respectively, translating into responses of 10.03; 10.23, and 19.33 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied. When rhizobium inoculant was applied in combination with P, the response of soybean to P application were 12.46; 9.03, and 10.67 for Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions. Rhizobium inoculant application alone resulted in grain yield increases of 275; −34, and 230 kg ha −1 for Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions, respectively.In 2016, application of P alone resulted in grain yield increases of 372; 468, and 313 kg ha −1 representing 12.4; 15.6, and 10.43 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied for the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions, respectively. When Rhizobium inoculant was applied in combination with P-fertilizer, the additive effects resulted in 654;, 612, and 379 kg ha −1 increase in grain yield of soybean for the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West Regions, respectively. The resultant responses of soybean to P plus rhizobium inoculant application were 21.8, 20.4, and 12.6 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied. In 2016, application of Rhizobium inoculant alone resulted in marginal increase in grain yield, ranging from 72 kg ha −1 in Upper West Region to 201 kg ha −1 in the Northern Region.The current input price of $2.50 kg −1 P (and labor for application of $0.95) and cowpea grain price of $0.64 kg −1 suggest that, the mean response of 9.85 kg ha −1 kg −1 P is higher than the 5.39 kg ha −1 kg −1 P needed to break even. Consequently, the response of 11.9 kg ha −1 kg −1 P observed in the Northern Region would equate to a benefit cost ratio of 2.21 while the  responses of 8.17 kg ha −1 kg −1 P and 9.47 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied obtained in the Upper East and Upper West Region will equate to benefit cost ratios of 1.52 and 1.76, respectively (Table 4). Likewise, for soybean, the input price of $2.50 kg −1 P added to the labor cost of $0.95 for applying the fertilizer and the grain price of $0.34 kg −1 both suggest that the average response of 13 kg ha −1 kg −1 P is higher than the 10.15 kg ha −1 kg −1 P needed to break even. This gives a mean benefit cost ratio of 1.28 (Table 4). For peanut, the average response of 17.56 kg ha −1 kg −1 P is higher than the 10.15 kg ha −1 kg −1 P needed to break even giving an average benefit cost ratio of 1.73.The study suggests that P application may contribute to increased yield in grain legumes on farms. Yields were generally higher in the Northern Region over the 2-yr period due partly to better soils (Table 1) and better rainfall distribution (Fig. 1). The response to P application, although varying from region to region, shows an average positive effect of 296; 527, and 390 kg ha −1 for cowpea grains, peanut pods, and soybean grains, respectively. These values are, however, lower than what has been reported in recent literature (Ronner et al., 2015;Karikari et al., 2015;Kyei-Boahen et al., 2017). On average, yield response to P were 9.85; 13.00, and 17.56 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied for cowpea, soybean, and peanut, respectively, over the 2-yr period. The observation that there was little response of peanut to P in the Upper East Region (3.27 kg ha −1 kg P) while the response was as high as 23.67 and 25.75 kg ha −1 kg −1 P applied over the 2 seasons in the Northern and Upper West Regions, respectively, suggests that benefits from P-fertilizer for peanut may be location-specific. The low response of peanut to P in the Upper East Region may partly be due to late start and early cessation of rains in the region (Fig. 1), which might have resulted in poor pod development and hence low yields. Grain legume response to P fertilization has been reported by several authors (Kamara et al., 2007;Mahamood et al., 2009;Kamanga et al., 2010;Kamara et al., 2007;Karikari et al., 2015). The increased yield with P fertilization is attributed to several factors, including increased uptake of micronutrients, rapid plant growth, increased nitrogen fixation, enhanced flowering, and podding as P is known to play important roles in many processes in legumes such as energy transfer, nodulation, atmospheric nitrogen fixation, flower initiation, fruit development, and seed  formation (Beegle and Durst, 2002;Krasilnikoff et al., 2003;Ndakidemi and Dakora, 2007;Nyoki et al., 2013).The yield response of soybean to rhizobium inoculation, although variable, shows an average positive effect of 157 kg ha −1 during the two seasons. While this value is lower than what was reported by Ronner et al. (2015) in northern Nigeria, it is consistent with what has been reported in sub-Saharan Africa recently by van Heerwaarden et al. (2017). The soybean variety used in this study was the promiscuous type, yet it responded to inoculation. This confirms an earlier report by Ronner et al. (2015) that promiscuous soybean varieties respond to inoculation in the savanna agro-ecological zones of West Africa. This is contrary to earlier report that promiscuous soybeans do not respond to rhizobium inoculation (Okungu and Sanginga, 2003).The low cost of rhizobium inoculant which is currently sold at $12.50 ha −1 in Ghana means that even with grain prices as low as the current $0.34 kg −1 , the observed mean response would translate into a net benefit of $40.88 ha −1 and a benefit cost ratio of 3.3. Thus, a great majority of farmers could benefit from application of rhizobium inoculants to soybean both agronomically and economically, as they are cheaper. Thus, rhizobium inoculation is effective in increasing soybean yields with little financial cost provided farmers have access to good quality inoculants. Unfortunately, this input is not widely used in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to low level of awareness and inaccessibility to good quality inoculants in rural areas.This study has shown a widespread response of grain legumes to P fertilizer application and soybean to rhizobium inoculation in the Guinea Savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana. While these inputs appear to result in high benefit cost ratio, they are not widely used by farmers due to low level of awareness, high cost, and their unavailability in rural areas. This suggests the need to facilitate public-private partnerships to commercialize these inputs and make them readily available in rural farming communities in the Guinea Savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana in a sustainable way. The low response of peanut to P application in the Upper East Region over the two seasons suggests that response of peanut to P may be location-specific and, therefore, may not be profitable for farmers to invest in this input in all locations. Moreover, while P application may contribute to the productivity of grain legumes with a high benefit cost ratio, its high cost may preclude some farmers from using it. Therefore, planting more adaptable improved grain legume varieties and using rhizobium inoculants may provide an economically viable and low-risk option for increasing grain legumes yields in the savanna agro-ecological zones of Ghana.","tokenCount":"4157"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2ef6b095768ad5a6eacd35b47b12a657","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22eb5c4a-10e2-47ed-9347-ddd1a9787aaf/retrieve","id":"-769076711"},"keywords":["Circular economy","gender","informal waste workers","recycling","photovoice","social justice"],"sieverID":"2066e7b6-ce27-4954-9b6e-e0d7314de890","pagecount":"29","content":"Within the circular economy framework in Africa, sustainable waste management can contribute to improving the environment and creating green jobs. However, recycling activities are mostly carried out by informal workers, who are often forgotten in discussions about the circular economy. To ensure the development of a socially just circular economy, their voices must be heard and their needs accounted for. This study took place in Rwanda, a circular economy leader in Africa, and explored the experiences of workers engaged in biowaste recycling, with a particular focus on the distinctions between the experiences of female and male workers. We used photovoice as a methodology, allowing waste workers to visually report on the benefits and drawbacks of being involved in biowaste recycling. Seventeen waste recyclers took pictures representing different working experiences, which was followed by individual in-depth interviews to elicit the meaning behind each picture. Data analysis consisted of a reflexive thematic content analysis of interview transcripts and a participatory data analysis with the workers. The results show that the workers valued their jobs for their social relations at work, being responsible for a task, being productive, and generating savings. Workers negatively highlighted the health risks associated with waste sorting, difficult working conditions, and low salaries. We found gendered differences in workers' marital status and access to paid work opportunities. Although working in waste recycling encompasses occupational risks, this photovoice study highlights that access to work improves workers' relative well-being and that this type of circular economy can help create meaningful jobs.Transitioning to a circular economy (CE) can contribute to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (Desmond and Asamba 2019;Gower and Schröder 2016;Schröder, Anggraeni, and Weber 2019). However, one sector requiring improvement is solid waste management, which poses serious challenges to many low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) (Cointreau 2006). In countries with growing demographics and increasing consumption, improving the functioning of solid waste management systems is essential (Srivastava et al. 2015). It is estimated that a CE transition will not only create job opportunities by developing solid waste management but will also reduce pollution and associated health, environmental, and financial costs (Gower and Schröder 2016).In many LMICs, dysfunctional state-led municipal waste systems push individuals, cooperatives, and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to dominate the collection, transport, sorting, processing, and recycling of waste (CWG and GIZ 2011). Medina (2007) estimates that up to 2% of LMICs' populations live by collecting and selling waste, and most of this work is done by informal workers. In this study, informality is understood as \"activities by informal economy workers and units [that] are not covered or are insufficiently covered-in law or in practice-by formal arrangements\" (ILO 2009, 47). For most workers, this means their informal work should not necessarily be considered a negative characteristic, as informality is often the norm rather than the exception, and informal work provides employment and income. According to the International Labour Organization, approximately 90% of rural and urban workers in sub-Saharan Africa work in the informal economy (ILO 2009). In that sense, waste management and recycling in LMICs are the basis of livelihood for millions of people (Scheinberg et al. 2011).The critical role played by waste pickers within CE is often undervalued, particularly in urban areas of LMICs (Gutberlet et al. 2017;Velis 2017). According to Korsunova et al. (2022), the current CE is \"worker blind\" because it is driven by policies and innovations characteristic of developed industrial markets. This contrasts with the situation in most LMICs, where CE is \"necessity-driven\", meaning that many people perform circular practices daily (Korsunova et al. 2022). Similarly, Frey and Stutzer (2002) raise CE's lack of focus on subjective well-being, understood here as \"what leads people to evaluate their lives in positive terms\" (Diener 1984, 543). Frey and Stutzer (2002) highlight that when social dimensions are mentioned within CE, only job creation is considered, which does not give a clear understanding of the extent to which CE could contribute to subjective well-being. Therefore, some scholars advocate for a more holistic and human-centred approach to CE (Oliveira et al. 2021;Schröder, Lemille, and Desmond 2020), one that integrates the perspectives and needs of waste workers. Only by doing so can we ensure the development of an inclusive and socially just circular economy.Some authors have focused on the experiences and livelihood strategies of informal waste workers and provided data on what it means to be engaged in this sector in LMICs (Dada et al. 2023;Noel 2010;Scheinberg, Muller, and Tasheva 1999;Srivastava et al. 2015;Wittmer 2021;Yu, Blaauw, and Schenck 2020). For example, Wittmer's (2021) work with female waste pickers in India shows how this occupation can improve workers' mental and social well-being, even though it might impact their physical health negatively. Similarly, Noel (2010) interviewed 390 solid-waste workers in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, to describe their livelihood strategies. The author shows, first, that solid waste management is inclusive in relation to age, while highly segregated between genders, who perform different activities. Second, female workers suffer from different health issues than males (females: fever, headache, stomach problems, chest complaints, coughs, diarrhoea, skin irritation, and rashes; males: sprains/strains, itching eyes, boils, and colds). Third, waste workers suffer difficult working conditions and receive too little financial return in comparison to the multiple services they render society (Noel 2010). Another study compared the contribution of the informal waste sector in six cities within six countries (Romania, Peru, Zambia, Puna, Quezon, and Cairo) (CWG and GIZ 2011). Its authors reported positive elements, including that waste pickers recognise and appreciate the relative autonomy and freedom of their activity, and showed that informal workers' and service providers' wages usually exceed the legal minimum, which balances their difficult working conditions (CWG and GIZ 2011).Overall, the literature introduced above demonstrates that informal waste workers perceive positive and negative dimensions in their activities and that geographical context matters in shaping waste workers' experiences. One cannot just say that this job is bad or good in absolute terms. Rather, as argued by Ashton et al. (2022), CE advocates should critically interrogate CE frameworks and discussfor each sustainability pillarwho the winners and losers are. Rather than demonising the informal employment conditions of many waste workers, it is relevant to recognise workers' contributions to CE, and assess how CE plans can improve the working conditions of waste workers and increase their social well-being. This study contributes to the topic of waste workers' well-being by focusing on biowaste recycling in Rwanda. The study's goal is to understand how waste workers perceive and experience their jobs and how their jobs affect their personal lives. We addressed two research questions:1. What are the experiences of workers employed in biowaste recycling? 2. To what extent do female workers' experiences differ from those of males?1.3. Research design: Exploring workers' perspectives from the inside through photovoice While informal workers are at the heart of CE, their perspectives are not sufficiently considered. When they are, it is mostly from a semiquantitative approach, using interviews and surveys with more than 100 respondents (Hayami, Dikshit, and Mishra 2006;Noel 2010;Schenck et al. 2019;Wittmer 2021). We advocate the importance of complementing these research insights with a more inductive participatory approach that gives waste workers more space to express themselves. To answer our research questions, we chose to use photovoice as a qualitative research method grounded in the theoretical underpinning of Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy and feminist theory (Wang and Burris 1997). To our knowledge, this photovoice study is the first that focuses specifically on the lived experiences of waste workers and the first on waste workers in Rwanda. This innovative approach involved risks and uncertainties that we could not anticipate from the previous literature. We will reflect on these challenges in the discussion section.We chose the photovoice research design for four reasons. First, when investigating workers' experiences and/or work satisfaction, one must acknowledge that \"satisfaction\" is not a universal concept and neither is a \"good\" or \"bad\" job (Burchell et al. 2014). Workers in Rwanda might have different expectations of what their job should encompass, and researchers might unconsciously ignore certain dimensions of that work because of their \"Western gaze\" (Mohanty 1984). This is critical when considering the position of the lead researcher in this study: a white, middle-class, Swiss woman who positions herself as a mediator with the power to elevate the lived experiences of often unconsidered Black communities. Second, to decrease researcher bias, it is necessary to follow an inductive approach that leaves space to discover the \"unexpected\". This is referred to by Plunkett, Leipert, and Ray (2013) as a phenomenological approach with photovoice to understand the \"situatedness\" of a certain phenomenon. Indeed, participatory data collection and analysis within photovoice allows for balanced power relations between \"researcher\" and \"participants\" (Castleden and Garvin 2008). Third, an anticolonial application of photovoice (Fricas 2022) challenges the opposition of so-called \"scientific knowledge\" to \"local knowledge\" that co-researchers might share (Chilisa 2017). Both views of the phenomenon should co-exist. Fourth, using photovoice in this study was an attempt to embed the research in the \"epistemologies of the South\" (Santos 2014) to allow communities with low literacy to express themselves visually and orally (Wang and Burris 1997).As it is not this study's goal to contribute to photovoice on a methodological level, we refer to articles from Fricas (2022) and Evans-Agnew and Rosemberg (2016). Both articles discuss the ethical challenges of using photovoice and provide guidance and reflection questions that steered us in our application of photovoice. Thus, we decided to name the seventeen waste workers who participated in this study as \"co-researchers\", following Fricas (2022, 1): \"Using the term 'co-researcher' is intended to convey respect, mutuality, and an intentionality about decolonizing methodologies\". Figure 1 summarises the steps in this adapted version of the photovoice methodology.This study is embedded in research for a development project called Rural Urban Nexus RESilience (RUNRES), funded by the Swiss Development and Cooperation Agency (Wilde et al. 2021). RUNRES seeks to recycle organic waste from urban areas to produce animal feed and soil amendments for rural areas, thereby restoring rural-urban-rural nutrient fluxes. RUNRES Phase 1 (2019-2023) supports SMEs that recycle biomass, such as crop residues and biowaste from households. This study focuses on three SMEs in Rwanda supported by RUNRES, which will be referred to as Companies A, B, and C, to maintain their anonymity. All three are in Rwanda's Southern Province in the district of Kamonyi, approximately 30 kilometres from Kigali (Figure 2).Rwanda is a landlocked country in the East African Community, with approximately 13.2 million inhabitants in 2022 (NISR 2023). Despite strong growth in the last two decades, Rwanda still ranks as a low-income country with a purchasing power parity-adjusted gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of USD 2,363 (the corresponding average for sub-Saharan Africa is USD 4,019) (ILO 2020). A Figure 1. Summary of the six phases carried out in this photovoice study (own figure). Box 1. Workshop introducing photovoice, clarifying goal, and assignment \"Take two pictures showing positive experiences as a worker in biowaste recycling and two pictures showing negative experiences\". Box 4. Individual, in-depth interview about the pictures. Box 5a. Inductive thematic content analysis of the interview transcripts by the lead researcher using software NVivo. Box 5b. Clustering themes and prioritising issues in groups. Box 6. Four photo exhibitions were organised, three in Kigali (Rwanda), and one in double blind. The virtual audioguided exhibition is available here: https://youraudiotour.com/tours/listen-through-their-eyes-stories-from-rwandan-biowasteworkers/ study of the Rwandan labour market estimates that only 10% of total employment is in the formal sector (Danish Trade Union Development Agency 2021). In 2018, 49% of Rwandan workers were in extreme povertyliving with their families on less than USD 1.90 per person per daycompared to under 33% in Africa as a whole (ILO 2020). Agriculture is the main economic activity in Rwanda, employing around 70% of the population and contributing to 26% of the national GDP (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2022).Kamonyi District has an unemployment rate of 24% and a labour force participation rate, representing the percentage of the population either working or actively looking for work, of 55% (Republic of Rwanda 2018). Approximately 34% of the population in Kamonyi is identified as extreme-poor, 23% as poor, and 53% as nonpoor (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2021). An extreme-poverty line was set as the cost of buying the food consumption basket if nothing was spent on nonfood at all; this line corresponds to RWF 83,000, and the poverty line corresponds to RWF 118,000 (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2021, 14). Compared to other districts in Southern Province, Kamonyi is second in terms of nonpoor levels, just after Huye, the main city in Southern Province (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2021). Agriculture is the main economic sector, with 78% of the population aged 16 and above usually working in agriculture, followed by trade (7%) and construction (4%) (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2021, 30). However, as over 80% of Kamonyi's economy is based on agriculture, arable land is largely subjected to soil erosion, which negatively affects productivity (Republic of Rwanda 2018, 14).The government of Rwanda is well aware of CE's potential, as it is already considered the cleanest country and a CE pioneer for Africa (Desmond and Asamba 2019). In December 2022, Rwanda hosted the \"World Circular Economy Forum\", during which it officially launched the \"Rwanda National Circular Economy: Action Plan and Roadmap\". The action plan identifies four priority sectors for CE development: agriculture, waste, construction, and water. The plan aims to ensure that waste is collected separately and sorted properly to achieve high-quality waste fractions, which is a prerequisite for a higher recovery rate across all waste streams (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2022). Regarding agriculture, the focus is on producing food based on regenerative and resource-efficient principles, integrating closed loops into farming operations, and optimising transport and storage to reduce post-harvest losses. The report mentions the transformational societal impact that can be observed in both sectors. Youth and women have the potential to play an important part in the recycling and reuse economy (Republic of Rwanda, Ministry of Environment, and UNDP 2022). Some of the plan's policy interventions mention informal workers and the need to secure and improve their working conditions by sorting waste at source and integrating them into the formal economy. These governmental concerns highlight the relevance of our photovoice study.The co-researchers selected for photovoice are part of the RUNRES research project, which gave access to three enterprises and their workers. Multiple interactions occurred with each company's leaders prior to the study to explain the need to make the workers' perspectives visible. These interactions were necessary to build trust and avoid being perceived as working \"against\" the leaders. They were updated about our activities throughout the research, and we organised a workshop at the end of the study to discuss potential improvement measures. Once this was clarified, the first and second authors started working with the co-researchers by visiting them at the three sites in November 2021 and explaining the photovoice research process. As all the workers wanted to be involved, we had to randomly pick a subset of female and male co-researchers for each site (six in Company A, five in Company B, and six in Company C).The three biowaste companies considered in this study belong to different business types within CE. Company A is a cassava flour production company that recycles cassava peels to produce an animal feed component. Company B recycles raw fruit waste from a local juice factory and household food waste to feed black soldier fly larvae, which grow and are sold as a protein source for animal feed (pigs, poultry, fish). Company C collects municipal waste. After the organic and inorganic fractions are separated, the decomposable portion is used to produce compost. Of the seventeen co-researchers involved in the photovoice study, there were nine women and eight men, as Table 1 shows.Once the co-researchers were selected, we organised an introduction workshop (November 2021) in Kinyarwanda to explain the goal of the photovoice research, raise awareness of ethical guidelines when taking pictures, and practice using the digital camera. We distributed to each co-researcher an informed consent form and a photo release form, both in Kinyarwanda. These explained that their pictures were their property, with \"user rights for noncommercial use\" granted to the first author. The co-researchers were asked if they wanted to have their full names mentioned or not and if they wanted their faces to be blurred for academic/outreach purposes. All co-researchers wanted to be named and have their faces shown for any use of their pictures. Although publishing real names in academic journals can raise ethical questions, we decided to mention their first names in accordance with the situatedness of this research, which is linked to the guidance of Fricas (2022, 13): \"From an anticolonial perspective, the use of pseudonyms and anonymisation is ahistorical and acontextual-precisely what we are trying to avoid\". Once all ethical dimensions were clarified, we gave the co-researchers the following photo assignment: Please take two pictures representing positive experiences of your work in the biowaste company and two pictures representing negative experiences of your work. From a methodological viewpoint, it is important to note that the assignment must remain as open as possible to avoid thematic guidance, as co-researchers should be free to take pictures of what they believe is important.We revisited each site three times during December 2021 and January 2022. First, we confirmed with each co-researcher their final selection of pictures. Second, once all the pictures were printed, the second author conducted in-depth interviews in Kinyarwanda with the seventeen co-researchers individually. Every interview was audio-recorded to be able to transcribe and translate them later into English. During the first two interviews, we followed the \"SHOWED 1 \" acronym to explain the content of the pictures (Hergenrather, Bardhoshi, and Pula 2009). We rapidly realised that the set of questions in \"SHOWED\" was too complex for the co-researchers. As others have done (Wilson et al. 2007), we switched to the \"PHOTO\" acronym 2 , which was better adapted to the co-researchers. To ease coresearchers into the conversation, we started by asking general questions about their access to the job, previous working experience, education, family, and partnership status. Finally, the first and second authors returned in December 2022 to conduct three group participatory data analyses. This took place a year later to give the lead researcher time to access all interview transcripts and reflect on the meaning of the data collected. In June 2023, the first author returned to Rwanda for three photovoice exhibitions, during which co-researchers were able to present their pictures and share their stories with the general public (two exhibitions) and with RUNRES related audience (one exhibition).To account for the ethical dimensions of conducting participatory research with fragile communities (Hammett and Sporton 2012), we financially compensated co-researchers at the end of the individual interviews (December 2021) and at the end of the group participatory data analysis (December 2022). This accounted for the time co-researchers spent in workshops and taking pictures. The co-researchers were also allowed to take four pictures for themselves that were printed First, the lead researcher conducted a reflexive thematic analysis (TA) according to Braun and Clarke (2022) with NVivo software (version 12, release 1.71) (QSR International, Ltd. 2023) to elicit the main positive and negative experiences from the seventeen transcripts. By reading the textual data, the researcher identified codes that were, in a second phase, clustered into themes considered \"patterns of meaning anchored by a shared idea\" (Braun and Clarke 2022, 16). The themes and codes identified are shown on the left side of Table 2. Second, we conducted three participatory data analysis (PDA) workshops (one per company site) with the co-researchers in December 2022 to complement and cross-validate the thematic analysis. We brought each co-researcher's four pictures and asked them to present the meaning of their pictures to their colleagues. After the first round of sharing, they were asked to find similarities between their pictures, cluster them, and name each cluster. To guide this exercise and take notes on the discussion, two Rwandan facilitators were hired. The workshop ended once everybody agreed on a way to cluster the groups' pictures and an appropriate theme was found to name each cluster. (right side) shows the thematic clusters on each company site. The themes highlighted in grey in Table 2 are those that were mentioned only in the PDA or the TA.This section is structured into three parts. First, we present the combined results from the thematic analysis (TA) and the participatory data analysis (PDA) shown in Table 2. In the description, we refer to the TA or PDA to highlight some of the differences (themes in grey in Table 2) between the two data analysis approaches. This will allow a response to the first research question: What are the experiences of workers employed in biowaste recycling? Second, we present thematic differences across study sites (companies) raised by the co-researchers, mostly during the PDA. Third, we present gendered experiences in terms of marital status differences between female and male workers and gendered access to job opportunities. This allowed us to respond to the second research question: To what extent do the female workers' experiences differ from the males? All citations presented below were extracted from the interview transcripts and translated into English.3.1.1. Life improvements (TA) / outputs from salary (PDA)Many pictures taken by the co-researchers showed assets they purchased thanks to their income: a goat (Figure 3), new clothes, or land (Figure 4). During TA, we called these \"life improvements\", and during PDA, co-researchers from Company A called these \"outputs from salary\". Even though wages were low, co-researchers were able to save money monthly in local saving groups, called \"ibimina\" in Kinyarwanda or with mobile services (momo). Being part of saving groups helped the co-researchers set aside small amounts daily to receive a larger saved amount monthly, thereby enabling investments in larger assets. Having a monthly wage, even small, improved the lives of the co-researchers, who were able to access assets. Anecdotally, one worker from Company C took his work gum boots to his hometown over the weekend to show his community that he had economic revenue. In that sense, the gum boots symbolised his improved societal status from having a job.3.1.2. Work satisfaction (TA)responsibility for a task (TA/PDA)knowledge (PDA) \"Work satisfaction\" as a theme was induced via the following codes in the TA: \"responsibility for a task\", \"work as the essence of everything\", \"easy tasks at work\", \"compost as the essence of farming\", and \"productive at work\". During the PDA at Company B, co-researchers chose the theme of \"pride and memory\" to cluster three of their pictures, in which they were posing with their best clothes and a rabbit, purchased with their savings. During the PDA, co-researchers from Company B agreed that \"knowledg\" was the best theme. Similarly, Yusuf from Company C also mentioned \"knowledge\" when explaining the meaning of one of his pictures. Yusuf is responsible for compost production, and he explained that having knowledge of compost production allowed him to become responsible for the process. This eventually allowed the company site supervisor to trust him in this work. When discussing with co-researchers from Companies A and C during the PDA, \"responsibility for a task\" was the theme represented in multiple pictures. Indeed, practically all the co-researchers used one of their pictures to show the task for which they were responsible (Figures 5 and 6 below). On all company sites, it seemed that being responsible for a task gave them satisfaction and a sense of pride in \"having knowledge\" for something. For example, Pierre from Company C took Figure 5 and gave the following explanation: I took this picture, because you see that stack of compacted bottles? I am the one who knits them like that, so I like to do it as it is my job, and I have the knowledge to do it. (Pierre N., Company C)In both the TA and PDA, the sense of productivity was clearly thematised. Co-researchers mentioned productivity at work as a positive experience. For example, Yusuf, in Figure 7, presents his \"best working team\", with which he can make a productive day at Company C. Similarly, Figure 8 was taken by Ismael and Alphonsine, who rear black soldier flies (BSF) at Company B. It represents a key moment: the day when they collect the flies' eggs. It captures their hard work taking care of the BSF. Both hope to harvest many eggs (productivity), so their boss will be pleased. Alphonsine compares the BSF-rearing process to motherhood:You see, when a person gives birth, you have to take care of the baby until he or she has grown. So I like this job because if we get many eggs, and more larvae, we make our boss happy because that is production. (Alphonsine M., Company B) Likewise, co-researchers referred to \"being unproductive\" as something demotivating. Productivity bottlenecks were mostly discussed by co-researchers from Company A, who mentioned problems such as \"weather dependency\", \"power cuts\", and \"not enough cassava available\". For example, relying on electricity to mill or the sun to dry cassava was raised multiple times as something frustrating. For this reason, the PDA co-researchers chose to put one of their picture clusters under the theme \"climate change reduces production\". When there is no cassava available on-site, there is no work for most co-researchers from Company A.Social interactions appeared to be an important dimension of work during the TA and PDA. The coresearchers mentioned that relationships with their colleagues helped them cope with hard work and be productive as a team. Interestingly, some women also mentioned that social interactions helped them to be mentally strong. Women spend hours sitting together to sort waste, and this allows them to talk, as the task is not physically challenging. This is what the TA thematised as \"mental well-being\". In the words of Alphonsine (Figure 9): Because when I am alone, I think too much about negative stuff, but when I am with others, my day goes well. That is why I like this photo. (Alphonsine M., Company C) Figure 10 was taken by Liberata in Company A to highlight, similarly to Alphonsine, that she values relationships with her colleagues on the worksite. As she works on a casual basis, she depends on the phone call from the young male workers (permanent employees), who let her know when there is cassava available to peel. This highlights a certain solidarity or \"community empowerment\" (TA) between workers. Recycling in countries where there is no waste sorting at the household level requires long hours to separate the mixed waste composed mostly of organics, plastics, paper, and glass. Sorting is time consuming and can be dangerous for workers handling waste with practically bare hands. Coresearchers from Company C were the most concerned about the risks, and many pictures witnessed the lack of occupational safety. For example, during the PDA, co-researchers highlighted their lack of protective materials or the fact that the gloves they receive are not sufficiently renewed, which does not ensure good hand protection. This is especially dangerous when medical wastecontaining needlesends up in unsorted municipal waste. This problem is highlighted by Yusuf in Figure 11. In Figure 12, Alexandre shows a waste-compacting machine whose use is dangerous, especially as his employer does not cover his health insurance and he cannot afford it on his own.In company B, where workers rear BSF, the co-researchers also complained about health issues. Compared to the risks observed at Company C, they seem minor, but they are nonetheless problematic. During the PDA, some co-researchers reported sickness linked to sieving the BSF frass (Figure 13). As there is no electricity at the site, the only available machine must be manually activated. Ismael is responsible for using this machine, and in Figure 14, he shows the unhealthy, dark smoke it produces, which worries him.On all sites, co-researchers highlighted difficult working conditions encompassing physical tasks, lack of access to clean water and/or proper toilets, and, in their opinion, a too-low salary compared to the nature of the job. In Company C, Alphonsine took Figure 15 of a water tank to show the poor quality of the water accessible on-site, which can make workers sick because it is contaminated. Figure 16 shows the heavy bags of BSF frass that Ernest from Company B must transport with his body strength.Another frequent complaint concerned the wage: co-researchers explained that such physical labour does not match their salaries. This criticism was mostly made by co-researchers from Company C, who manipulated mixed municipal waste. In Figure 17, Pierre shows his daily wagethe equivalent of USD 1.37. Yusuf explains that this is insufficient for his family, and hence he also must grow tomatoes. Alexandrein Figure 18 shows one of the most backbreaking activities happening approximately every three weeks on the site: the manual loading of stacks of compacted cartons.So, here, I wanted to show how bad it is to do it because it can destroy your back. If the package weighs like 300 kilograms and I weigh 65 kilograms, you can imagine that when we push it by two or three people, it is way out of our capacity. (Alexandre A., Company C) Only the youngest and strongest can participate in such a physical task, and they are paid extra when the truck comes to collect these cartons. However, even Pierre, in his late twenties, says that this task is particularly hard and that \"no woman can do this unless she wants to die\".The themes raised as negative differed depending on the company site. This is not surprising, as the three biowaste companies transform different waste streams: Company A processes cassava peels, Company B rears BSF flies that feed on fruit waste and household waste, and Company C sorts mixed municipal waste and transforms the organic materials into compost. In Company C, the theme most frequently represented during the PDA was: \"health issues and risks\" (seven pictures). This differs from Companies A and B, where more pictures represent positive themes, such as \"outputs from salary\" in Company A (five pictures) and \"knowledge\" in Company B (four pictures). Nevertheless, even if concern about health issues and risks was stronger in Company C, workers in Company B also mentioned respiratory illnesses involved in their work.Only co-researchers rearing BSF at Company B mentioned the theme of \"gender roles\" during the PDA (see Table 2). Likewise, Company A was the only site to raise the theme of \"climate change reduces production\" during the PDA, which can be explained by their dependency on sun drying for cassava and cassava production more generally. Overall, co-researchers from the three company sites shared more similarities than differences in terms of work experiences during the PDA and the TA.This photovoice study involved nine female co-researchers and eight male co-researchers, which allowed a glimpse into their gendered experiences. During the TA and the PDA, there was no major difference between the themes raised by the female or male co-researchers. Nevertheless, when asking additional questions about their access to the job and their backgrounds, we found gender differences in their profiles (marital status) and access to paid labour opportunities. This allows us to respond to our second research question that female and male experiences differ in the types of activities performed within biowaste management. The female labour preference for some tasks within biowaste management seemed to be essential for the survival of female workers (single-headed female households).It is interesting to observe thatat the time of data collectionnone of the female co-researchers had a partner who economically supported the household. They were either widowed or single mothers. Seven out of nine female co-researchers could be called \"female breadwinners\", meaning they were economically responsible for their children. According to traditional Rwandan gender-normative roles, women are responsible for the unpaid care of the household and children and men are responsible for providing economically (Kagaba 2015;McLean, Heise, and Stern 2020;Stern, Heise, and McLean 2018). In this sense, it was not surprising that the female co-researchers involved in biowaste recycling were single or widowed mothers. This was likely the reason why they were working on these sites, \"like men\". They needed to provide for their families, and working in biowaste management secured a monthly wage. However, they were carrying the double burden of being breadwinners and caregivers, as illustrated in this statement from Alphonsine: Yeah, we interact well [with men], and about playing cards, I do know how to play cards, and I enjoy it. But for me, at lunch hours, I go home and cook for my daughter. So, you understand that I do not have time to play cards with male workers. (Alphonsine, Company C) Half of the men in the sample were married, with their children being taken care of by their wives. Three younger ones were single without children and living with their parents, and one was a single dad taking care of his child (Table 1). Some of the male co-researchers had migrated to access the biowaste job, which illustrates their higher mobility compared to women, as they are traditionally less responsible for being caregivers at home (Stern, Heise, and McLean 2018). The fact that some workers migrated from one province to another to access this job also implies that biowaste recycling is a relatively attractive job. When asking the workers how they perceived this job, it seemed to represent a \"bridge to a better life\" or, as Ismael from Company B expressed it, \"the bad job brings the good one\" (Ismael M., Company B).During the interviews, we asked how workers heard about their jobs, and we collected the same answers from women and men. Paid labour is extremely scarce in rural areas, with the available options being casual work on larger farms, casual work in construction, and/or subsistence agriculture for those with land. For casual workers in agriculture, a wage gap of 23% exists between women and men, which they justify by the gap in physical abilities, as investigated by Bigler et al. (2019). For casual workers in construction, men and women explained that all occupations require physical strength; hence, male labour is preferred. For women seeking employment, the options are scant, as explained by Alphonsine:If, for example, I ask for a job in the construction sector, they cannot hire me if I am competing with a man. In fact, they say that women don't have strength. (Alphonsine, Company B) Interestingly, unlike the construction sector, biowaste recycling involves tasks in which female labour is preferred. The reasoning behind this, according to the co-researchers, is that \"women care more\", \"they are more patient and delicate\", and \"they can do a single task during a longer period\" than men. This was mentioned by co-researchers of Company B during the PDA under the theme \"gender roles\". These gender norms allow Rwandan women to access specific tasks within biowaste recycling to the disadvantage of men. Work complementarity exists at the workplace: men are responsible for most physical activities, and women are responsible for sorting, peeling, and cleaning. In this sense, the female jobs created within waste management can be considered essential to the livelihoods of rural female-headed households. The statement below from Vestine highlights these gendered tasks:Because of the types of jobs that are available here, people say that women are powerless. For example, we cannot work in composting, and similarly, men who work in compost cannot do the sorting. Indeed, they say that they cannot bend for a long time. (Vestine, Company C)This study presented the results of a photovoice study conducted with seventeen biowaste workers in Kamonyi District, Rwanda. Our goal was to understand how waste workersoften forgotten in CE discoursesperceive and experience their job and how it affects their personal lives. This study demonstrated that these workers value their jobs. Also, they do not have many alternatives. For women specifically, this job is precious, as there is a preference for female labour for tasks requiring patience, care, and cautiousness. For men and women, this job allows them to improve their livelihoods via savings and gain personal pride from being productive and responsible for a work task. With employment comes socialisation that is highly valued, with some women mentioning improvements in mental well-being. Regarding negative experiences, workers were concerned about the health and other occupational risks involved in their jobs. However, this situation is a consequence of not having largerscale waste sorting in Rwanda, which should not be blamed on individual companies. From the employers' perspective, solid waste management should be the responsibility of the public sector, meaning that some costs should be covered by the state (personal communication, 2022). Now, most of these costs are covered by companies that do not make a large profit on waste recycling, especially when considering compost production (personal communication, 2022). Therefore, improving working conditions by renewing protective materials and covering social security for workers cannot be a priority for employers (personal communication, 2022).Our results regarding workers' insufficient wages and occupational risks are in line with the literature, with Noel (2010) focusing on waste workers in Haiti and Dada et al. (2023) investigating waste pickers in Nigeria. More interesting are our results regarding the theme of \"being responsible for a task\" or \"having knowledge\" thatto our knowledgehas never been mentioned in the literature. What was mentioned by Wittmer (2021) when trying to understand the embodied experience of female informal waste pickers in India was their experiences of physical, mental, social, and spiritual well-being. Wittmer (2021) explains that it is necessary to adopt a \"relational\" conceptualisation of well-being, as theorised by White (2017). By viewing well-being as an emerging dimension of place, culture, a network of relationships, social structure, and the environment (White 2017), one can grasp why working in waste recycling can contribute to relational well-being. Indeed, White (2017) emphasises how relational well-being is grounded in a relational ontology that recognises its different meanings for different people across various spaces and contexts. Based on our results and considering the lack of working opportunities in Kamonyi, we argue that employment in waste management SMEs improved the well-being of the seventeen co-researchers. This does not mean we neglect the need for companies to improve workers' occupational safety and/or increase their wages. However, our results infer that recycling and transforming waste into highly valued products, such as composts and animal feeds, can be motivating and dignifying for workers, especially those in rural communities who understand the essential value of agricultural inputs, as many of them have small plots for subsistence farming. This was mentioned during some interviews under the code of \"compost as the essence of farming\" (Table 2).In relation to the current literature on decent work in CE (Circular Economy 2022; ILO, CE, S4YE 2023), this study concludes that CE can contribute to the creation of \"socially perceived useful jobs\" (Graeber 2013;Graeber 2018). Such jobs are also referred to as \"meaningful jobs\" (Nikolova and Cnossen 2020), which ultimately increase the well-being of workers in LMICs. It is important to contextualise this interpretation within the very specific type of CE under consideration here. This study focuses on jobs in the organic waste recycling sector in Rwanda, where locally generated municipal, household and agricultural waste is recycled. The risk of workers being exposed to heavy metals is lower when handling organic waste than, for example, e-waste (Weghmann 2020). In addition, although the workers were informally employed in SMEs, they worked as a group, which increases their social interactions, a proven essential component of \"meaningful work\" (Nikolova and Cnossen 2020). Finally, the aspect of \"socially perceived usefulness\" and necessity (Graeber 2013; Graeber 2018; Léné 2019; Walo 2023) of agricultural input production is likely to contribute to the meaningfulness of their activity. Taking all these dimensions into account, our findings highlight that this type of CE can support the creation of meaningful work, stimulate local innovation and economic growth for surrounding farmers, workers, and industries in LMICs.Regarding the second research question, our study highlights the gender-segregated nature of most tasks in biowaste management companies. Our results are aligned with the existing literature (Dias and Ogando 2015;Muhammad and Manu 2013;OECD 2020;Scheinberg, Muller, and Tasheva 1999;World Bank Group 2021). These reports and articles describe how women and men are involved in different tasks along the waste value chain (collection, transport, sorting, picking, recycling) and in different waste streams (plastics, papers, organics). In our Rwandan study, we argue that the gender-segregated nature of waste management should be seen as an opportunity rather than a problem. In Rwanda, most people agree with the idea that \"gender complementarity\" is more relevant than \"gender equality\" (Plancke 2021), which Plancke (2021) argues is the way in which Rwanda's gender roles and norms are \"modernising\". The author argues that gender complementarity might be the best way in the Rwandan context to guarantee women's empowerment and that adopting Western, globalised views on gender equality might have disempowering effects (Plancke 2021). We argue that gender-segregated roles within the biowaste value chain provide empowerment opportunities for women, who are less involved in other economic sectors where there is a male labour preference, such as construction (Republic of Rwanda and National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 2022). Hence, if female and male workers working full-time earn the same wage, which is the case in the three companies involved in this study (see Surchat et al. 2023), it would be imposing a Western gender-equality agenda to criticise this reality. First, we want to emphasise that photovoice should be considered a transdisciplinary research approach rather than just a method. At the end of the study and during the photovoice exhibitions in Rwanda in June 2023, the co-researchers thanked us for the process, in which they felt respected and listened to. This aspect was shared by Bennett and Dearden (2013), who worked with remote fishing communities in Thailand. Learning to take pictures, deciding what to show, and analysing the meaning of the pictures facilitated reflection and community awareness. We acknowledge we have not assessed the long-term empowerment impact of photovoice, which some scholars criticise (Coemans et al. 2019). However, we argue that the seventeen workers' qualitative feedback attests that photovoice, when applied in an anticolonial way (Fricas 2022), can reach its emancipatory goals. Photovoice allows balanced power relations between researcher and \"research subject\" and can thereby challenge dominant epistemologies. In the African postcolonial context, such an approach is essential for \"mental decolonization, liberation, and emancipation of Africans so that they do not see themselves only as objects of research, but also as producers of knowledge\" (Chilisa 2017, 7). Photovoice allowed the researchers to make visible perceptions about job satisfaction from the rural Rwandan perspective, something that standardised surveys or rigid questionnaires embedded in Western epistemologies and ontologies cannot achieve.Second, by reflecting on the workers' pictures, we see that in 80% of them (57 out of 68 pictures), the workers portrayed themselves in the centre. This suggests they wanted to show themselves as responsible and knowledgeable workers within waste recycling. This balances the prevailing negative colonial heritage of images taken by Western travellers \"about Africa\", which too often display  2003). In that sense, photovoice allowed for the production of new visuals and narratives from Africans themselves, which facilitates the restoration of epistemic justice, as other scholars using photovoice have argued (Cornell, Mkhize, and Kessi 2019;Fricas 2022;Seppälä, Sarantou, and Miettinen 2021).Our study's limitations link to the innovative design of this study: using photovoice with informal waste workers. First, co-researchers were involved as workers on their worksite, which in some cases restricted their photographic possibilities temporarily or spatially (migration from household assets). Some were stressed by their business leader; others worked too late and could not take pictures at home because they did not have electricity.As other white researchers using photovoice with Black communities have discussed (Cornell, Mkhize, and Kessi 2019), it is critical to reflect on the influence of the researcher's positionality during the photovoice phases and outcomes. In this study, we ask ourselves how the positionality of the first author associated with the RUNRES project affected how the co-researchers carried out their photo assignment. The second author, for example, wonders whether the co-researchers overemphasised the positive aspects of their jobs during the in-depth interviews, as they did not want to reveal their challenges to a \"muzungu\" (\"outsider\" in Kinyarwanda). Complementary to this, it has been emotionally and cognitively challenging for the first author, to live up to the ideal-type of an anti-colonial photovoice (Fricas 2022). Indeed, approaching rural communities in Rwanda as an outsider for six months rather felt like perpetuating the white privilege of the Western researcher (Schmidt and Neuburger 2017). Even when engaging at the \"same-eye level\" with co-researchers using participatory research methods, the research relationship is not mutual (Palaganas et al. 2017). Researchers have the privilege to construct and ask the questions, whereas co-researchers are constrained to respond to them (Law 2016). For these reasons, any white Western researcher using photovoice to restore epistemic justice should be prepared to engage in deep personal, critical, and epistemological reflexivity (Palaganas et al. 2017). They should explore their own uncomfortable feelings (Law 2016) and seek to understand them and navigate them.Finally, photovoice is a qualitative illustrative approach that does not seek to produce representative results. Neither are these results generalisable. That said, we believe our results are transferable to the lived experiences of other waste workers in LMICs. Indeed, the power of this photovoice study is to challenge how we perceive work within the waste value chain and to see the dignifying dimension of having a job. We call other scholars studying work satisfaction of informal waste workers in LMICs to (1) reflect on the epistemological foundations on which they \"observe and describe\" a specific type of work, ( 2) contextualise what matters locally in defining what a \"good\" job is, and (3) apply photovoice to complement or triangulate a more quantitative approach to measuring worker satisfaction.1. SHOWED acronym to trigger a discussion (from Hergenrather, Bardhoshi, and Pula 2009) ","tokenCount":"7670"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3427a2d363ff18d2e3afde419ee11002","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/09f2ec70-5e76-4a69-82af-5c4740504c10/retrieve","id":"-488213765"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"94b9788e-22e3-4ba5-b488-18c594c18fdb","pagecount":"1","content":"desde la perspectiva regional-localGenerar y analizar el valor de un índice de la percepción de la influencia de los actores sociales relacionados con la política pública del cambio climático y la agricultura en Honduras a través de la metodología del Mapeo de la Influencia de los Actores Sociales de Diferente Nivel (MSIM, por sus siglas en inglés).Más frecuentemente mencionado y el más inflyente de todos los actores (Estadísticas en relación a las políticas de cambio climático y agricultura) 40% 33% 27% Organismos bilaterales y multilaterales Agencias del gobierno Academia El sector privado, la sociedad civil y las ONG no figuran dentro de los actores altamente influyentes.El Congreso Nacional de la República es el grupo de actores más influyente. El mayor contribuyente a la alta influencia son las formas de las ideas que tienen los actores con acceso a este recurso junto con elLos principales actores puente potenciales son entidades del","tokenCount":"150"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"68e63582407b6d07967b07e5d02fe137","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5cd42cef-0db6-45ae-94a3-2a09c9df296a/retrieve","id":"-1556554275"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7f201b9d-6308-4e15-bfd7-c2ee11be3b8b","pagecount":"41","content":"CCAFS Reports aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) initiated the research program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS) in 2011. The stated goal of the research program on CCAFS is \"to promote a food-secure world through the provision of science-based efforts that support sustainable agriculture and enhance livelihoods while adapting to climate change and conserving natural resources and environmental services.\" To help achieve this goal, CCAFS has been divided into four themes: (1) adaptation to progressive climate change, (2) adaptation through managing climate risk, (3) pro-poor climate mitigation, and (4) integration for decision making.By phase two in mid-2015, the original themes of CCAFS had been replaced by four flagship programs: (1) climate-smart agricultural practices, (2) climate information services and climateinformed safety nets, (3) low-emissions agricultural development, and (4) policies and institutions for climate-resilient food systems. Topics of importance to CCAFS such as gender, innovation, and knowledge will be integrated across all flagships.The Policy Information and Response Platform on Climate Change and Rice in ASEAN and its Member Countries (PIRCCA) Project is one of the trial projects funded under Flagship 4.PIRCCA has an overarching goal to enable policymakers in ASEAN countries to make informed decisions on (1) food security policies focusing on the supply and availability of rice, (2) climate change adaptation policies, and (3) gender action plans. The relevance and foundation of this project stem from the outstanding role of rice for food security in ASEAN countries and the specific vulnerabilities of rice production to climate change impacts. ASEAN member states have committed to act as one community in improving their capacity to adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change in their respective countries. However, these initiatives are hampered by limited access to relevant data, information, and scenarios that could help them decide on R&D approaches/methods in addressing climate change challenges at different scales. The PIRCCA project aims to establish a platform of information exchange among stakeholders locally, regionally, and nationally; scientists; and partners from different ASEAN countries. The proposed platform will bridge the gap between science and policymakers and also establish informal and operational links with other stakeholders such as the private sector.The PIRCCA project has three sets of activities over the period 2014-17. The first set, titled \"Setting the stage,\" includes (1) the identification of key stakeholders and engagement mechanisms, (2) the identification of key national priorities and knowledge gaps in terms of climate change and food security, and (3) the identification of geographical domains for upscaling and out-scaling of proven good practices that can inform decision making on adaptation to climate change. The second set of activities, denoted \"Knowledge generation for policy application,\" includes information profiling toward the needs of specific user groups, data management, and capacity building. The last set of activities, which represent the heart of the PIRCCA project, is denoted \"Strategic alliances for paradigm adjustment,\" and it aims to create a network for efficient information exchange among ASEAN stakeholders in different institutions.The PIRCCA project in its impact pathway is expected to contribute to two major outcomes by 2019. First, recommendations from the PIRCCA project will lead to rice policies that will be mainstreamed into at least three provinces in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and one municipality in Myanmar. In order to achieve this outcome, the PIRCCA project recommendations are expected to contribute to the rice restructuring program in Vietnam in 2015 as well as in Myanmar in 2016. Second, at least one equitable food system policy incorporating climatesmart practices is to be fully implemented in Vietnam, Myanmar, and at least two other ASEAN member states by 2019. This target is to be measured through the frequency of times in which climate information is considered in decision making by subnational and national governments, the number of policy dialogs negotiating the use of climate information in decision making, the number of training participants who agree to follow up with their respective ministries and institutions after PIRCCA training, and collaboration among strategic alliance groups quantified as the number of letters of agreement between alliance group partners. This report summarizes the major activities undertaken during 2014 under \"Setting the stage\" and highlights major findings and implications for subsequent activities in the coming years.Ideally, the PIRCCA project would have been implemented in all ASEAN countries. However, resource constraints dictated that PIRCCA be implemented on a smaller scale. As such, Vietnam and Myanmar were selected as the target areas for the PIRCCA project. This decision was based largely on the variation in the rice sector between the two countries. Vietnam, the second-largest rice exporter in the world, has a very well developed rice economy. Conversely, Myanmar's rice economy is less developed than that of many of its ASEAN neighbors. This dichotomy between the two countries allowed for analysis to be conducted concurrently on the rice sector at two very different levels of development.Vietnam's geographic location with different topography and climates matched with its long coastline contributes to its being one of the most hazard-prone countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Given that a high proportion of the country's population and economic assets, including irrigated agriculture, is located in coastal lowlands and deltas, Vietnam has been ranked among the countries that are most likely to be affected by climate change (GFDRR 2012). A study conducted by the Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment in 2012 reported that the country's annual average temperature has increased by 0.5 to 0.7 degrees Celsius, with more rapid increases in recent years. From 1993 to 2008, sea-level rise was at the rate of about 3 mm/year, comparable with global estimates.At present, many regions and countries have developed climate change scenarios at regional, national, and climatic or smaller scales to formulate targeted programs in response to climate change. In Vietnam, several climate change scenarios have been developed and applied for different purposes of climate change-related activities (Tran et al 2012). In addition to the development of different climate change scenarios, Vietnam has developed several strategies to adapt to the impacts of climate change so as to reduce the vulnerability of society to climate change. These strategies are aligned to the main objective of integrating options for mitigation and adaptation on climate change in all its socioeconomic development activities, plans, programs, and projects through the identification of appropriate coping strategies and responses, with special consideration for the impacts of sea-level rise on coastal infrastructure and livelihood of coastal communities. • to assess climate change impacts on sectors and regions in specific periods;• to develop feasible action plans to effectively respond to climate change in the short term and long term to ensure sustainable development of Vietnam;• to take opportunities to develop toward a low-carbon economy; and• to join the international community's efforts in mitigating climate change and protecting the climate system.The main tasks of the NTP consist of the following:• assessing climate change extent and impacts in Vietnam;• identifying measures to respond to climate change;• developing a science and technology program on climate change;• strengthening the capacity of organizations, institutions, and policy on climate change; • raising awareness and human resource development;• enhancing international cooperation;• mainstreaming the NTP in strategies, plans, socioeconomic development planning, and other sectoral/local development plans;• developing action plans of ministries, sectors, and localities to respond to climate change; and • developing and implementing projects of the program.This law, which was approved in 2011, sets a number of targets for the country to be achieved until 2050. The following are the overall objectives of the strategy:• sustainably use natural resources;• carry out adaptation measures and GHG mitigation options;• safeguard people's life and property;• ensure the sustainable development goals;• strengthen human and natural system resilience to climate change;• develop the low-carbon economy to protect and enhance quality of life; and• ensure national security and sustainable development.• proactive disaster preparedness and climate monitoring;• food and water security;• suitable proactive response actions to sea-level rise in vulnerable areas;• protection and sustainable development of forest by increasing carbon removals and biodiversity conservation;• GHG emission reduction to protect the global climate system;• increasing the lead of the government in climate change response;• community capacity development to cope with climate change;• scientific and technological development for climate change response; and• international cooperation and integration to enhance the country's status in climate change issues.In order to carry out the National Climate Change Strategy and achieve its objectives and tasks, the government of Vietnam approved the National Action Plan to Respond to Climate Change in 2012-2020 in October 2012. The Action Plan includes 65 programs, projects, and tasks in 2012-20, with 10 priorities in 2012-15. The Plan was approved by MONRE and has the following approved objectives:• carry out the UNFCCC and other related treaties that Vietnam is involved in;• take opportunities to develop a low-carbon economy and green growth in the country;• join the international community's efforts to mitigate GHG emissions and contribute to sustainable development; and• achieve set mitigation targets in 2020.The Vietnam Green Growth Strategy (VGGS) aims to accelerate the process of economic restructuring in order to use natural resources efficiently, reduce greenhouse gas emissions through research and application of modern technologies, develop infrastructure to improve the entire efficiency of the economy, cope with climate change, contribute to poverty reduction, and drive economic growth in a sustainable manner.Approved in September 2012, the VGGS is an effort to synthesize green action plans of the major sectors and society in order to promote \"green growth\" as a means to achieve the lowcarbon economy and to enrich natural capital, and for it to become the principal direction in sustainable economic development as well as to reduce GHG emissions and increase capability to absorb GHG (CDKN 2013).Various studies have focused on the capacity gaps and needs throughout government ministries and agencies that must be addressed in order to effectively implement projects and programs on climate change adaptation. In particular, there should be concerted effort to coordinate the ministries that are mainly responsible for working for climate change adaptation such as the MONRE, MARD, and MPI (Grajales 2013).In terms of capacity and management, the national expertise to undertake vulnerability and adaptation assessment is still considered weak. A part of this is the limited staff capacity in analysis, planning, and monitoring and evaluation because of gaps in knowledge, skills, and technical expertise (Huong 2008). For instance, a higher degree of expertise is required regarding impact and vulnerability assessment and modeling tools for climate change projections and adaptation options. Translating scientific reports into a more comprehensible format to be available for the use of end users is also a challenge.At the provincial level, there is a gap in scientific research conducted provincially and locally, particularly in the fields of water resources, agriculture, and aquaculture that would support provincial strategy planning and sector mainstreaming. Likewise, capacity building is needed in skills, knowledge, and measures to support vulnerable communities, especially for government agencies at the provincial level owing to Vietnam's system of decentralization. Efforts in community awareness raising and training on risk from climate hazards need to be frequent and systematic. Further, outreach and extension services are needed to better inform farmers of climate risks in the agricultural sector, and similar efforts are needed for the aquaculture sector (World Bank, 2011).Regarding assessment and research, the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) identified the following gaps and limitations:• improved local information on impacts of climate change for key sectors;• sufficient information provided by adaptation assessments, models, and tools, particularly for cross-sectorial or inter-regional assessments;• capacity to assess the country's technological needs for adaptation;• research (and dissemination to farmers) on flood-and drought-tolerant crop species and improved production methods;• better access of research groups to real-time data in order to refine their predictions; and• accurate zoning maps to depict areas that are at risk from various natural hazards.In terms of monitoring, there is an identified need for improved geographic coverage of hydrometeorological observation infrastructure in order to collect more accurate data. There is also a need to implement multi-sector pilot projects in key vulnerable areas in order to contribute to observations of environmental and climate change, the impact, and local coping responses.The government of Vietnam has identified several action points as priority areas in order to fulfill its task to respond to climate change adaptation and mitigation. The following are the identified priorities:• develop and issue the Action Plan to Respond to Climate Change of ministries, sectors, and localities;• develop the climate change monitoring system with a high-accuracy digital elevation model;• develop flood, disaster risk, and climate change maps according to the climate change scenarios with GIS;• continue to research and update the climate change scenarios;• implement the pilot programs to adapt to climate change in Quang Nam and Ben Tre provinces;• issue the policies related to climate change adaptation and GHG mitigation for prioritized sectors: agriculture, forestry, land use, water resources, energy, and transportation;• strengthen institutional capacity and financial institutions to encourage and mobilize international donors to provide and invest in resources and technologies on climate change; and• raise awareness on climate change.The office of the NCCC is housed within the Department of Meteorology, Hydrology, and Climate Change (DMHCC) of MONRE. The office is led by the director of DMHCC. In addition, the office also serves as NCCC Secretariat, which is responsible for supporting and assisting the NCCC in fulfilling its assigned tasks.MOST is a government agency tasked with performing functions for the state regarding the management of issues relating to science and technology. These responsibilities include ( 1  The process for the formulation and implementation of policies on agriculture and rural development nationally can be seen in Figure 1. It can be described as follows:The NCCC sends requests for policy formulation to the office of the NCCC within MONRE. It will then ask MARD to provide necessary inputs, including but not limited to data, information, comments, and technical advice on agricultural and rural development-related issues. MARD also engages in designing climate change policies on agricultural and rural development matters as assigned and requested by the NCCC. MOST and other ministries such as VASS and VUSTA will participate in this process if the concerned issues are related to their expertise and participation is requested by the NCCC.MARD cooperates with MOST and other ministries during the process on technical issues while MONRE and the office of the NCCC work closely with MOF for financial issues and with MPI for planning issues. In theory, the participation of MOF and MPI is important to ensure that the designed policies will follow the related national plans of the central government and money will be allocated from the state budget. This ensures overall proper implementation of the policies.PPC is an important partner for the office of the NCCC for ensuring that national policies are implemented provincially. MARD will cooperate with PPCs across provinces in the implementation of the policies through the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development at the provincial level. PPC and MARD report mainstreaming activities and implementation resultsto the office of the NCCC. DMHCC is an organization under MONRE that has the functions of (1) advising and assisting the minister of state management in hydro-meteorology, climate change, and ozone layer protection policy and (2) overseeing the public service of hydro-meteorology, climate change, and ozone layer protection as stipulated by law (Fig. 2).DOST DOP is an organization under MONRE that has the functions of advising and assisting the minister of state management in the areas of strategy, planning, investment, and development under its state management.DOF is an organization under MONRE that has the functions of advising and assisting the minister of state management in the fields of finance, accounting, and pricing within its state management.DONRE is a specialized agency of the PPC that has the function of advising and assisting the committee in performing state management in the geographic area under its control in the fields of natural resources and environment, including land resources, water resources, mineral resources, geology, environment, hydro-meteorology, geodesy, and cartography; synthesizing and unifying management of sea and island issues; and implementation of public services in areas under the jurisdiction of the department in the geographic area under its control.The process for policy formulation and implementation in MONRE can be seen in  DARD is a specialized agency of the PPC that has the function of advising and assisting the committees in performing state management in the geographic area under its control in the fields of agriculture, forestry, salt, and fishery; irrigation and rural development; flood and storm protection; food safety; and implementation of public services in areas under the jurisdiction of the department in the geographic area under its control.The process for the formulation and implementation of CC policies in MARD can be seen in To implement policies, the SCCC will ask for the cooperation of related PPCs in mainstreaming and implementation. DARD is the key one that is responsible for implementing policies at the provincial level under the supervision and instruction of both PPC and MARD (through the CC office).In principle, the policy formulation process at both the central and ministerial levels requires the engagement of many stakeholders, including technical, financial, and planning ones, to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of policies.Policy formulation follows the top-down mechanism and there is almost no policy consultation with community and mass organizations locally at the designing stage.The existence of the office of the NCCC nationally and the Climate Change Office at MARD signals a strong interest of the government and MARD in climate change issues. However, these offices have limited power because they are not independent organizations. Rather, they are housed within DMHCC and DOSTE, leading to limited influence on the policy formulation process. Moreover, although tasks assigned among stakeholders are well defined, enforcement is weak. Therefore, many are involved in principle but in fact many of them do not actively contribute to the formulation process, which may result in ineffectiveness and inefficiency of policies. No agency is responsible for evaluation and monitoring activities of policy formulation as well as implementation results. Twenty-five people responded to the local survey of expert stakeholders in Vietnam. The respondents represented government agencies, extension services, and researchers. Most (n = 24) of these respondents reported that their areas had been affected by climate change. In general, reported impacts of climate change were most often related to water (Table 1) as flood, drought, and salt intrusion were all of concern. Respondents also reported that, although climate change was affecting their areas, less than half (n = 11) had a specific division or staff member within their organization that worked specifically with climate change issues. This could be because even though 21 of the respondents reported that there were climate change policies at the local level, they also reported that the majority of policies were the result of a top-down approach with national development and local implementation of climate change policies. Most national campaigns were well known among the local stakeholders, with 24 of the respondents answering that they were familiar with the IPM campaign; 20 were familiar with the three reductions, three gains campaign, the SRI campaign, and the one must do, five reductions campaign; and 18 were familiar with the one must do, six reductions campaign. When stakeholders were asked to rank how important they believed information to be regarding future climate-related challenges on a scale of 1 -4 (1 = not important, 2 = less important, 3 = important, and 4 = very important), almost all climate-related challenges were considered important (i.e., greater than 3), with the exception of salinity-prone areas. The top three ranked climate-related challenges were flood (μ = 3.68), drought (μ = 3.56), and rainfall (μ = 3.29).When stakeholders were divided by type of institution, there were only minor differences in how they perceived the importance of the climate challenges (Fig. 4). The CCA measures considered most important for coping with these climate-related challenges by respondents were improved varieties (n = 20), changes in the cropping calendar (n = 16), water management (n = 9), and climate information training (n = 5). Having a climate change office or division within the surveyed institutions appears to be common, with 19 of the respondents reporting that their institution has an office or division specifically for climate change issues. More than half (n = 17) of the respondents reported that they currently use economic models when formulating policy. In addition, just over half (n = 14) of the respondents are also working with a financial office in policy formulation. However, most(n = 23) of the respondents reported that their institutions did not have power to set budgets for policy implementation. When respondents were asked how important climate factors were regarding rice production on a 4-point scale (Table 2), salinity was reported as the highest concern (μ = 3.5). The respondents were also asked to report on a 4-point scale what climate-threat information was most important to them. On average, information on sea-level rise was found to be the most important (μ = 3.44), followed by salt-water intrusion (μ = 3.42). Both of these problems are most relevant to the deltas of Vietnam. Figure 5 shows information importance by institution type. Research institutes and universities found floods, storms, sea-level rise, and salt intrusion to be the most important information areas. This is in contrast to governments and NGOs, which found this information less important. Information considered most important in relation to climate response was water management (μ = 3.55) and quality seeds (μ = 3.30) (Table 3).Furthermore, the CCA measures most cited by respondents as being important for rice production were production practices (n = 9), cropping calendar change (n = 6), water management (n = 6), and varieties with high tolerance (n = 5). Both water management and seeds were cited by respondents in multiple responses and are relevant to earlier stated demand for information on sea-level rise and salt-water intrusion.  The preferred methods of receiving climate-related information for decision making in agriculture varied across institution type (Fig. 6), but, on average, the most popular forms of information were maps (n = 17), report documents (n = 14), and tabular information (n = 13). But, disaggregating by institution type, it is easier to develop user-specific information packages.Figure 6 reveals the differences in information needs by different institution types. There does appear to be some disconnect in the way in which the surveyed institutions like to receive information and how they find information to be best distributed. Respondents reported that the best way to distribute climate information to raise public awareness was through blueprints for media releases in local languages (23 favorable responses). Conversely, only eight of the respondents reported that they liked to receive information from media outlets.  ","tokenCount":"3798"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3e88b3627dd9dd9c796c809d4651f005","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/70a10311-dc95-4a7f-bf60-76169e8e24ea/content","id":"-1538265397"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"38987c38-8f2c-441a-9adb-220bdc9fef12","pagecount":"25","content":"Introduction.The CIMMYT External Review Panel was appo inted by � e . Director General of CIMMYT. Tr..e Panel was charged with rev iewm g the research, outreach and related progr:}ms. It met in Mexi co April 24-28. The first two days were devoted to a revi.::w of the whc?..t program at the Obregon station. The last three days were spent reviewing the maize and related programs at El Batan; 2.CIMMYT was established r.s r.n internatio nal insti tute with responsibility for research and training in wheat and maize in 1966 • It evolved from an earlier cooperative program between the Rock efel _ lerFoundation and the Government of Mexico. The evolution from a nation al program to an international center occurred primarily betwee n 1963 and 1966. It was apparent to the panel, however, that the program, as it has evolved between 1 966 and 1972 has continued to reflect both the strengths and limitations of its earlier history and commitments• This transition is expected to be essentially complete within the next several years.In examining the program the panel has worked within the general framework of the scope of CIMMYT and its mandate. Thus we recognize that CIMMYT is the only International Institute with wheat as its mandate while three institutes have maize. The success of CIMMYT has placed a very heavy burden on it in terms of its outreach program and not the least in terms of the number of visitors to CIMMYT.There is a continuing problem of maintaining viability in the program, solving the problem associated with the research and yet not . growing beyond the terms of its mandate and its competence. No cent re can be all things to all people; the most di fficult decision which faces the staff is when to say No.-2 -THE WHEAT PROGRAM d • th's pr og ram , 5At present there are three crops feature in 1 1 • • • 'th four th bar ey namely bread wheat durum wheat and triticale w1 a t ly '• b t t d sep ara .e • under serious considerat ion. Each of these will e rea e Bread wheats 6.The bread wheat program started in 1944 so that ther e had been 22 years work i.e. 1944-66 completed when CIM MYT was form ed in $6. The program has been most fortunate in having contin uous direction by the same individual, Dr. Borlaug,from incepti on to date. The program demonstrated its success first in 1956 when Mexico went into a surplus position on wheat production and again in 1 962 when the dwarf wheats were released and moved for testing into many develop ing areas where they achieved notable success. There are probably man y factors which have led to this success, the continuity of direction , the clarity of breeding objective, the recognition of the need for an improved technology to accompany the new germplasm, and the training program. The program has been equally successful since 1966, especially in the area of training and outreach.We are much impressed by the success in incorporating disease resistance and the newer dwarfing genes into the bread wheats. This has added greatly to the stability of yield even though it has not led to appreciable increases in yield potential.It is only in the past two years that plant physiology per se has become a part of the program albeit that agronomy and the need for management practices has long been recognized. The statement was made that the average yield of cross No. 8156 has n ot been signif icantly exceeded in the past five years. Does this suggest that a yield platea u _ in the experimental fieldshas been reached? Is this a platea u repr esen ting the potential of the species or one imposed by the present selecti on techni ? Dr. Fischer indicated that the pattern of yield in the Yaqui valley was: ;� p p hys i ology . new approach es will be found throu�h the resear ch m c ava ilable i n 10.There appears to be a wide range of plant types d dise a s e the present population -both in relation to plant stru cture an . tance resistance .It is not clear whether thi � exis _ ts for i � sect res � s the • However it is becoming increasingly ev1d8nt m certain area s 10 Middle East that insect damage presents a serous proble m.There has been little if any success in impro ving the a uali �Y ... Qi: wheat; in fact it would appear to be quite stable in this chara cteri 5 hc. In this sense one could say that the wheat program has faile d to mee t a part of CIMMYT 's mandate which as stated is \"to impro ve the quantity and quality of maize and wheat --\". While this is no doubt a disappointment, it pales when one recognizes the very great succes s in \"quantity\".Considerable stress has been placed on training in the wheat program.It has been strongly oriented to field training to put to use academic learning in a production oriented research program. The success in moving wheat into developing countries through the outreach program has no doubt come from the presence of former trainees in those countries.Dr. Borlaug stressed the need for more trained personnel in the developing countries.In this we completely agree and further feel that this may be the most lasting international benefit of CIMMYTThere are increasing demands on CIMMYT to extend its outreach program.While these are funded outside of the core budget they do place an increas ing demand on research staff.It is a moot question whether there should be developed a regional aspect with a person servin� a group of countries of similar e�ology . and stationed in one of the countries where he has an on go ing program.It is recognized that such a person maintains his credibility only as long as he maintains his active participation in a program.Recommendations on bread wheats:( 1 ) We commend CIMMYT on the action already taken to add crop physiology to the wheat program, and recommend tbat even more emphasis be given in order to develop the new selection criteria and techn iques .(2) There seems to be a considerable body Qf infor matio n available on wheat physiology but the key pers onnel hav e not been brought together.We would stron gly urge that a workshop of wheat physio�ogists with a few other specialists c. g. a \"carbohydrate sink\" specialist, be held at an early date.(3) We recommend that a continued emphasis be placed on the training program.(4) We recommend that the operations of the outreach program be examined with a view to the possible establishment oft. reg1ona opera ions.15.This program is relatively new, having beIDJn in 1968. The field success to-date is most impressive with an obvious spin off to durum from both the materials and techniques used with .the bread wheat. We have every reason to believe CIMMYT' s projectio n that within five years very important new advances will be made with the durums in the developing countries.There is an intimate relationship between the durum program and the triticale program in that it produces new parental stocks for triticale.1 7.Recommendation on durum wheat:(1)That the durum program continue at its present level and objective. The program should be prepared to utilize any technique arising from the bread wheat physiology when applicable.18.CIMMYT started a limited program on triticale in 1964. In 1968 the first major break in triticale came when highly fertile plants were discovered in F 4 segregating lines. This fertility has now been transferred to many populations. At the same time, dwarfing has been introduced, disease resistance has been introduced and day length insensitivity has been achieved. Further. many lines with superior biological quality have been identified and the antimetabolic element has been eliminated from many populations.Biological evaluation with voles and chicks have show n remarkable nutritional quality -exceeding conventional grainsin so me of the breeding populations.-5 -20 . . . . • • g from tri tica le .There 1s still however one characteristic missm which would make it a fully acceptable \"crop\". The breede rs have not yet overcome the shrivelled grain. While it is obviously desi rabl e to have a grain which has \"good\" appearance, and this would no doubt make it more acceptable in the market place, there is neve rtheless a question whether the lack of plumpness makes it less useful nutri tional ly and especially as an animal feed. There would therefore seem to be justification to put into production a line or lines of triticale for feed purposes when they have shown nutritional superiority and are eq ual in yield to wheat or the other grains grown within the area in which they are likely to be used. At the same time a considerable effort should be mad e to overcome the shrivelled grain pro'!:llem. The possibility of doing this through the funds available to Canadian research institution s should be explored.The projected staffing and ph asing of such staffing for the program seems adequate to meet the needs of the program. We judge that there is no need to change this.Recommendations on triticale:That a line or lines of triticale be put into production for feed grain praducii.QJ1 as soon as nutritional superiority has been proved and irrespective of the kernel characteristics. Such material must of course, be yield-competitive in the areas for which it is intended.(2)That increased emphasis be placed on the search for desirable kernel characteristics and that ways be explored to do this with the funding for Canadian research institutions.Prior to the establishment of CIMMYT the Rockefell er group conducted a barley improvem ent program in Mexico from 1952-196 2. In 1972 a research program was re-initiated in barleyunfortu nately the Panel did not have time to see the material at the CIANO station.The ranel does noi question the role that barley pla as a human food nor for the need for improvement. The new \"hyproly\" � g,.:n• e offers exciting possibilities in improving the nutritional value of barley as a human food.The Panel is however concerned with the effect that su ch a program will have on the staff growth of CIMMYT or di verting resources from existing programs. In its view such a prog ram will rapidly grow to a major endeavour and certainly well beyon d a sin 1 g e man.--26.-6 -Recommendation on barle y :(1) no more'\"\") than 10% of the private maize fie'. lds, chiefly because of the lack of an/ effective production and distribution system for hybrid seed, and the unwillingness of many farmers to repl3ce their seed each year, at relatively higher cost.Maize Germ Plasm Bank. Among the most significant factors which nave been responsible for the genetic improvement of maize not onl y in Mexico but also in many developing countries was the building up of extensive collections of maize races and varieties, as also of related wild species and genera, from the primary world centers of origin and diversity of this crop. A major part of this work was accomplished by CIMMYT predecessors. Today, CIMMYT's maize germ plasm bank contains more than 12,000 accessions f.rom 47 countries. Current activities under the germ pl;tsm bank programme include inventory, seed renewal and propagation of new accessions, seed storage on long-term basis under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity, and supply of seed for breeding programmes to more than 30 countries.Objectives of the present maize program. The objective s of CIMMYT's maize improvemen t program are:(1)(2)To assist in the development of national and regi onal m aize improvement programmes, and to supply techno. l\"'gy for thos programmes which will benefit the . largest possible num b er e of farmers, especially in developing countries.To increase the efficiency of maize yields, as meas ured b yield per land unit, and by reduction of produ ction costs :r measure of grain, pTo jmprove the nutritional quality of maize, espe ciall y in protein quality ,md quantity,. CIM MY T ha s be en se ek ing ,Improv ement of the maize pla_ nt. poll inat ed va rie tie s, since 196( to improv e the maize plant in openalong the following major lines:t of ea rs. 1• g the pla cem en (i) Reducin g plant height and owerin . an d p<\" st A-.. t th majo r dis eas es (ii) Incorpor ating genetic resistan ce o e f tw o .. the con tent o ijii) Raising the pr otein quality by increasm g ) .•ct (l • nd try ptopha ne • essential ammoac1 s ysme a•t 1 • pL•o tPi n qu:::\\ h Y (iv) Obtaining acceptable kernel type with out osin g or yield.. A ult of bas ic 32.Genetic impro�ement �f popula_ hons: . s a res • Indi a, genetical and plant breeding studies carried out in the U • S. A ' Mexico and some other countries during the early 1960s, it be�a me clear that it was possible to develop populations of maize , to yiel� levels comparable to those \"\"obtained from the best among the hy� s.pn 1966 CIMMYT discontinued work on hybrids and devote d atten tion7 bholly to improving populations.Breeding for improved protein quality: The disco very in 1963 that major nutritional differences associated with the genetic mutants, Opaque-2 and Floury-2, exist in maize, resulted in a proliferatio n of efforts to exploit them for developing populations with high nutritive value of the grain. However, the original hopes of an immediate break through in this direction could not be readily achieved due to several defects -unattractive kernel appearance, loss in kernel weight and hence lower yields, and susceptibility to ear rots -associated with either mutant. Duri.ng the past two years, genetic modifying factors have been discovered by CIMMYT and by maize breeders in some o f the developing countries. This has enabled the CIMMYT breeders to develop five high-nutritio n populations with a yield potential of about 5 1/ 2 metric tons per hectare withcut much loss in kernel weight. Feeding trials on anim als are currently in progress, using the meadow vole, for evaluat ing the protein efficiency ratio in them. CIMMYT   Funds: The total provision budgeted for the maize programme in 1972 stands at US$ 1,248,700. This includes the special Rockefeller Foundation grant (US $ 128,000) restricted to Plan Puebla and UNDP special quality protein maize. The provision seems adequate.Experiment Stafions and Land: The research programme operates at the headquarters (El Batan) and at 5 outstations representing altitude ranging from 30 m. to 2640 m. The land available for experimentation ranges from 5 to 45 hectares per station. Some Constraints:Intensive operation of materials in the field and laboratory at 6 stations, two crops per year, and also the need for extensive local and internation al travel puts a great pressure on the physical capabilities of the professiona l research staff and supporting staff.There is a growing, and justifiable, feeling that tropical maize res earchers of the 1950s and 1960s were unable to produce a dramatic breakthrough in maize yields comparable to those achieved in wheat and rice during the same period of time. This seems to have been due to : -10 -. l ls because wheat and rice 3ttained high product ion eve 43.CIMMYT's outreach program covers the internatio nal ser vices it renders to wheat and maize growing countries. It includes the fol low ing approaches: 1) Consultations between CIMMYT's staff and indiv idu3.l :.:rcvernments, 2) International nursery trials, 3) Developing nati onal sfaff capability, 4) Developi ng national cereal improvement camp aign s as well as regional networks, 5) Internationa l workshops.The outreach pro gram has grown tremendously in size duri ng the last few years. In 1972, CIMMYT has 23 resident staff mem bers assigne _ d to ten countries (other than Mexico) to help develop natio nal cereal improve ment program s. Several other countries use CIMM YT hea d queaters staff as consultants. It is estimated that CIMMYT staff in Mexi co collectively spend approximate ly 24 man-months each year in consult ation s around the world. The international nursery trials in wheat and maize included 596 separate trials in 78 different countries in 1971. CIMM YT also assists in five \"regi onal networks\" in maize improvement and one \"regional network\" in wheat. This last one serves over 20 countries cooperating in the Near East Regional Wheat & Barley Improvement Progra m, in which FAQ takes leadership. Each of these regional groupings has been holding international workshops to exchange information and plan future work in their own national programs. Two world-wide workshops are planned for the next two years, for wheat and maize improvement in the 1970's.It has been the policy of CIMMYT, as established by its Trustees, that outreach activities conducted for the benefit of othe r countries be financed by individual special grants earmarked for that purpose and not be charged to core budget. This principle has led to a complicated p9.ttern of financing and some international activities were routinely charged to the core budget. CIMMYT has never presented an overall budget of its out reach activities, but if such a picture were presented for 1972, it would have shown$ 2,151,578.00 in funds available for• international activities, of which $ 1,623,414 are in special grants and$ 528, 164 from the core budget ( or roughly one fourth of the total outreach expenditures.It must be pointed out that CIMMYT outreach program has made a tremendous impact in the countries in which it has been operating, not only by supplying them with new sources of germplasm and segregating material for their breeding programs and with new improved high yielding varieties for testing under their own environmental conditions and in training their manpower and building up their technical advice on starting wheat or maize production programs.. CI MM YT to th e 47.It must also be stressed that the picture of .•n the de-.• g co untries 1 world at large, and to the wheat and maize �rowm �• • t • 6 and i ts veloping areas in particular, is through its out:ceac h ac.ivi ie• or cer e al success or failure in raising thei r producti y:_ty of the se two m a f J r the The Panel believes that the core and outreac pr . t ithinternational center :1re insepare. ble as one of them does not ex � � w For out the other. Hence, they should have the same sourc e o f f u n mgd the outreach progr3m to be financed entirely by special gran ts, an f should these for one reason or another be wantin g, then the exi5t enc e 0 the center itself becomes meaningless. ThE:: core progra m of the cen ter would cease to be international and would become strictl y natio nal. Granted this is a hypothetical and highly improbable case, it helps to illuminate the issue. Ideally the core and outreach progra ms of any international center should be funded from the same source or sources.In view of the changing status of CIMMYT and of its reco gnized leadership in the improvement of wheat and maize production in all de veloping nations of the world through its outreach program, it is ad visable that a thorough study be made of the current policy of CIMMYT of financing the outreach program through individual special gr ants and not through the core budget. However, should the present policy continue, sufficient provision should be made in the core budget to fully take care of the special needs and requirements of other countries growing wheat and maize under environments different from those in Mexico. To cite some examples: breeding for resistance to several wheat deseases in North Africa, breeding durum wheats for the same area, and breeding hardy spring wheats or winter wheats for Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan. These three cases represent tremendous additions to the original CIMMYT wheat breeding program, as carried out at its headquarters and they should therefore be adequately financed in the core budget. ' 50.Recommendations on international activities:(1) That a .thorough study be made of the curre nt policy f CIMMYT for financing its outreach progra m prim 0 •1 through individual special grants and not thr ou 3 h t � ri y core budget. • f\" a uni orm po icy m mancin g their outrea ch activit ies . The may be brought to the attentio n of the CIMMYT is the responsible n. gency. The proj ect is now cxf Uy to conpected to end as an experiment in December 1973, and hope u f tinue as a regubr r.ctivity of th e M e xic:i..n l!o v crnment, T he t o t :::. l c :::> st 0 0 • t d at the project for the seven years of the experiment is now estt ma e $ 1. 1 million furnished by the Rockefeller Foundati on, the UNDP ::ind CIMMYT 's core budget. It is estim£tted thn.t tot::l.1 direct and ind irect costs to CIMMYT's core budget ::unount to some$ 355, 000 during the pe riod 1967-71. 5 3 • Some of the benefits of PP cnn be estimc.. ted while others cnnnot • By 1971, the number of participating farmers reached 5,259 (.:)ut Qf 47, 000 in the project 2.. rca) and the are::i. of particip�ts involved 14, 438 hectares (out of some 120, 000 ha. of cropland in the project :u-e�). In the two first ye::i.rs, 1968 and 1969, there w�s an increase of 1. 2 -L 4 tons /hectare in the yield of mn.ize of particip::i..nts over that of ::th-�rs, but in the two successive years, 1970 and 1971, the incren.se dropped t0 0. 8 -O. 9 tons /hectore. This amounts to :m increo.se of nbout 50% in the yield of the pc..rticipants and falls short of the expected doubling of productivity within five years of the initi2. tion of the project. It is also estimated that the increase in m::-.ize producti:: m for the whole project area has reached :lt least 9% by 1970, which is again far short of the ex pect ed doubled production.However, irrespective of the c..chievements of the project nnd even if the expected gon.ls a.re fully reached, it is the consi dered e> pinion of the Panel tho.t the management of deve bpment projec t s of t his nature falls outside the responsibility of on interno.tbn :il rese o.rch nnd training institute such as CIMMYT, except in a. consulto. tive manne r. CIMMYT should be able to advise on the required impr::>ve d techn olo gies needed to upgrade maize productbn in the area selected for the proje ct. It may also be called upon to make some evilluation studies of the _ project. Bn _ t to be the ':\" gency resp � nsible for the project is something else. Th i s 1s the dommn of the nc.tlonal pre>gr::i.m, with or without ::,ut side assist:mc _ e from international or regional development o.gencies. •' opproxim::.tdy one third of the btnl cost of the PP• 55.Recommendci.tions on Plan Puebla :That, except in an advis'.)ry cE>.po.city, CIMMY T sho uld _ not ge f t f r involved in executing or mruioging any more developm ental p r o�e� t _ s 0 this nnture :mywhere, and that it should termino. te its resp o nsibil ity f'.)r the Pbn Puebla by the end of 1973 as intended.HIGH LYSINE MAIZE (UNDP specid contr o.ct) 56.On March 12, 1970 CIMMYT signed n. contrr:1ct with the UNDP oo the. research, development and utiliz:1tion of high lysine mo.ize • The UNDP grnnt to CIMMYT provides $ 1, 543, 000 over a period of 3 yen.rs ruid the project is limited to Central ond South Americ'.l. The project is divided into 3 distinct areas of activity, nrunely: n.) g<:;netic research nnd breeding to provide a rnnge of mru.ze populations high in lysine and nutritive vclue but D.lso with improved yield and agronomic characteristics, b) chemical research and analytical service to provide nn�ly ticcl techniques for identifying single mru.ze grcins-with high lysine :md tryptophone content, and as an ano.lyticru service for breeders to help them in m�king their selections, and c) training :md nssistance in the initiation n.nd operation of Nu tritive Maize Production Programs (NMPP 's).The genetic and breeding progr� has so far demons trate d th. t high yielding, vit � ous q � ality grain mc..i � e with the Opaque -2 gene c'Wl ba e produced for use m a wide. range of environments and rapid progr e being made for release of populations for testing and sel ection.. ss isTechniques for the routine evaluation of popula tions (by -lyzing small bulk samples) and segregn.ting material (by the nd nnat t.on esrue 1ve ana ysis of the endosperm of single kernels) have been d 2nd are alreo.dy in use. (1) That the role of CIMM YT in the fir5 t two � e tha t CI M M YT under the UNDP iJroject is cle::,.r-cu t and we rec om me 1 n ,.,) .crc n� tic ref h'•ec t nrm e y, .... '-' . continu� to work on these arcc.s o t 1s proJ • • 1 tic al se rv ic es . se3rch :md breeding ond b) chemical rcse :,,.rch � d :.ui a Y • d f r co ntin uin g the (2) CIMMYT should seek ren0wnl of fun s :J ::, d tr :tlni n8 rese�ch, internntionnl testing, consul ti n g, �o r � sho p�, � e r.e c ::,m progr� but the production effort should confi ne itsel f � 42 ite ms 4 m�nd�tbns under m�ze of this document (see p2I� r �p ' ilot o.nd 6). CIMMYT should not involve its elf in NMPP ' s th :i t :u-e P type projects.During the course of these discussbns with stn.ff D.Ild bn._ sed ::,n the experience of the P�el it h� become cle2.r to us th�t there 1s c. great need to impr::>ve the \"delivery systems\" for n ew agricultur:-..1 tech nology. • This must be d:: :me in order th�t the farmers in the deve loping c:: :mntry will benefit. w� clso fully realize tho. t in large me asure this is r. ;,roblem which is unique to each country. We clso are ()f the ::>pinion th:i.t this pr:)blem will arise in the other institutes, particulorly IITA and CIAT. It is n:>t fully cle:i.r to us who.t the role of int ernntion:-..1 rcsec.rch would be in the development of such \"delivery systems II although we :-.re of the opinion that there could be identified ['.Il intern�tio n�l rcsec.rc h c::>mponent. At the same time we c.re strongly of the opin ion th�t CIMMYT should :i.void involvement in the mrui:1.gcm ent of delive ry syste since we believe thd it would r:ipidly lec.d beyond the m 211d�te of CIMM � �nd result in a considerable increase in st�.ff. We ::b, how ever f 1 thD.t it is entirely approprbte for CIMMYT to conduct rese arch '0 e t� effectiveness of a.ltcrnn.ti:ve delivery syst ems :md t.::i c:m sult w i th n . _ e tiono.l org;:mizations on the imp rove ment of syste ms for th e dc l i v e� a the new technology to fcrmers.• Y ofRecommendations on Delivery Systems:( 1) That the Trustees of CIMMYT and the Dir ect G urge the C;:,nsultative Group to undertake studi es on ho w t � r en er al may be attacked.8 _;:lr :::>b le m(2) That CIMMYT should be prepare d to coo such a research undertaking.pe rat e fu lly wit h -17 -SUPPORTI NG HEADQUA RTERS SE RVIC ES era te as t wo 63.In many respects the wheat and maize progra ms op •ce s commodit y institutes linked by a set of supportin g profe ssi onal � er vi r and administrative services. The supporting prtofessio nal ser vi � es 0 program areas, include economics, biometrics, labora tori es, lib rar y and communications. Economics 64.The economics program was initiated only within the la St . ye _ ar.It is anticipated that a second economist will be added to the staf f w1th1n the next year. Three lines of activity have been initiate d. The firS t has emphasized the interface between economics and agricultu ral te chnolo gy the economics of wheat and maize production, of farm org anizat ion an � commodity marketing. This line of work has been carrie d out pri marily with data generated by the Plan Puebla and in associatio n with graduat e students from the National University at Chapingo. A second area of agricultural research is focusing more broadly on the economic dimensions of the CIMMYT outreach program. A third area of activity has involved the addition of an economics component to the wheat and maize training programs.It is clear that the limited resources available for an economics (or social science) program at CIMMYT imposes severe constraints on the choice of activities in the program. It seems clear that a major objective of the economics program must be to enable the leaders of the wheat and maize programs and th e CIMMYT administration to correctly assess the economic significance of the technical and institutional constraints on the growth of wheat, maize and related commodities in the develo ping countrie s and regions. The program that has been initiated is clearly consist ent with thi� objective. It is possible that �omewhat higher priority might be given to a collaborative effort, with economists in other countrie s, to asses s the policy implications of institutional c• onstraints on the progr ess of wheat and maize production programs.The panel commends the CIMMYT adminis tratio n for tak\" dd . mg the steps necessary to a economic compete nce to the staff . or an aly zi ng the 68.-18 -(1)The review of computer service requirem ents at CIM MYT should not be delayed. ( 2)CIMMYT should proceed to assess the contribu tion whi ch additional capacity in biometrics might make to other . e. program areas, including its training progra m. The bre e<il n_ methodology introduced first in the wheat program and l� ter in the maize program suggests that dramatic incr eases in the efficiency of experimental design and method have be en achieved, when evaluated against the overall objec tive of rapid identification of superior varieties. It is possib le th3t a careful biometric interpretation of these innov ations . could contribute to their systematic develop ment , to their_ interpretation in the training program, and to their diffus ion to other breeding programs.Laboratory Services 69.CIMMYT has developed a highly efficient central laboratory program �hat serves both the wheat and maize programs. It clearly has strong leader s!1ip. The panel has no specific suggestions in this area.As a result of the establishment of CIMMYT as an interna tional institution and relocation at El Bata n , CIMMYT lost convenient access to the library that had been built up in the old Office of Special Studies. \"Office of Special Studies\" was the name given by the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture to the cooperative program between the Ministry and the RF during 1943-60. The gap has been partially remedied by access to the National Agricultural Library at Chapingo. However the procedures remain time consuming and cumbersome.Within the near future CIMMYT must decide: (a) whether it will maintain at El Batan a small working library, or, (b) Whether it will attempt to become a document ation center for wheat and maize.(1) That CIMMYT engage the necessary staff and external consultation to arrive at a rational decision on this issue • within the next year.(2) CIMMYT should also engage the necessary techn ical com _ tence in the library field to work out a system to ach . pe ff administrati -:m, while continuin g the imp or : an st of the n u effort inv::,lved in effectively serv icing the mte re merous visit8r categories.C IM MY T ne ws le tte r (2) The panel supports the pr::ip:>sal for a f t he prog ra m devct cd t') the technical and s cie ntific asp ec ts 0( 3 ) ( an IRR! type newsletter).. t •:> making the The Panel suggests that considera tion be � ive n d scie ntific annual report a document of greater tech n ical an substance.The training program has expanded rapidly since 1,66. Bo � h . the wheat and the corn programs appear t'.) have ev0lved a highly efficient system of in-service training that av0ids the limitatbns of departam ental fragmentation and lack of relevance that characterizes many acad emic training programs. We referred to the training program in the sections on wheat and maize. Here we have several additional com ments.The grants is serbus for both maize and wheat since it is our 0 �. � re sent both regional programs are probably near the point 0f tak e-0 1 �� :>n thatRecommendations 'Jn Training:(1) The Panel recomme nds that the ClM MYT t .. ra 1n 1n g :::>ff ice rs to some degree, to meeting the logist ica :i: 0 be lie ve s th at CIMMYT breeding programs. The Pane l ff'ci ent dat a hn nn l the trainees should be exoosed t? more e \\h oug h s uc h ing, storage and retrieval tech niques even co tm trie S •t of ma ny • techniques may be beyond the capac1 Y at the present time.t en gth en ing of The Panel recommends that the fur�h er_ s � f high er effective working relationship with ins tituti on s � and in education in Mexico, in other develoo ing cou ntr� es , high the develooed countries, should continu e to be give n priority by CIMMYT staff and ::1dministr ation .• 1 r 3 new sour ce That CIMMYT seek funding either by renew a 0 to enable the programs described in paragr aph 77 above to be carried for at least four additional years (i.e. wheat, maize training in Latin America, funded by EID; and wheat training in the Mediterranean and Near East R egion, funded by Rockefeller Foundation).There are several issues related to the develo9 ment and management of CIMMYT resources on which the panef would like to expre ss its concern.The CIMMYT program is conducted at si x locati ons in Mexi co and in 78 different countries. None of the Mexica n loc2t ions are con venient to the housing of a substantial number of the CIM MYT senio r staff. It appears to the panel th:it the travel and re fated logi stic al _ blems resulting from the geograph ic dispersi on of scie ntifi c eff t r o imooses a heavy cost in terms of profess ional time to the Inst it��e and a heavy persi:mal burden on the families of CIMM YT staff .The panel is not in a p')Siti on to make speci f ic re com m with respect to the problems of a less diffus e geog rp h ic d. t. e� ca tio ns scientific effort. It does recommen d that the staff and t h e t t ff size is w ell 83.The Panel notes, however, that the prese n 5 a bey :m d th e levels that might have been pr oj ected even a few y ears a g�d It can also visualize continued pressure for expan sion of b::>th c::>re an outreach staff beyond the levels presently contempla ted. The Panel . anticipates that the CIMMYT staff and administrat ion will have t::> arriv e at a mor� carefully c,.msidered C'.)nsensus regarding the principle s in volved in research, training and outreach resource albcati )n if CIMMYT activities are to continue to result in the high pay-off or benefit-cos t ratios that have characterized past activities.The rapid gr-Jwth of staff and program since 1966 has al s -::, been ass aciated with a d_ iversification of funding sources: Some 0f this funding has been of a relatively short term nature. Yet the product ivity of a biological research pr-'.)gram depends on substantial continui ty of both personnel and program.The Panel is concerned that S')me of the short ter m fund• h f d • • t • m g as been expensive in term 0 a m1ms rati:: m resourc es dev oted t,.,. th•J e process of negotiating and of staff resources devoted to cons ultat ion and review. The Panel urges the CIMMYT administ ration to clar ify 'th donors the implications of short ter� funding on progra m prod uc ��it and to work toward a pattern of funding base d on grant s and cont t y , are consistent with at least a 5-year plannin g horizo n. The rec rac 5 th at ation applies with the somewhat greater force to the cor e pro om mendh h t. •t• g ra m than to t e outreac ac 1v1 1es.This review panel is of the opinion that pe ri od• . . f ic re vi ew f th program and operat i on o a centre can be most use ful. W O e that there are three such reviews which coul d oper ate. e w ou ld sugg e s t","tokenCount":"6297"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0fce68c9fd0054bbc9322d0aaea78cad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/29f73dac-09d8-4526-99c1-1cc0599a8ecf/retrieve","id":"1595007199"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"94ce0aeb-461d-4233-946a-195ffbd67e81","pagecount":"21","content":"The  Women's leadership for women's rights excerpt from FGD with women in MPThe women in the village have done a lot for the forest because they have faced numerous challenges. That is why the women themselves initiated tree plantation in the forest, and they continue to do so. They collectively appointed a guard to protect the forest, and they took care of its conservation. The women also established a rule that the villagers would go to the forest on alternate weeks to collect wood and other resources, ensuring that the forest's usage is limited and future generations can benefit from it.The women then solved this issue. My village mobilised, women from the entire village came, and we ensured that all of them were put to jail.We went to the police and filed a FIR against them. I mobilised the women from the entire village to remove the encroachment. There was one member from each family.Women's leadership for collective action  ","tokenCount":"159"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ec0d32849ac392ef07064fb7a67e5e5b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/73a9c93c-2f4b-43f8-b555-94e63e196c30/retrieve","id":"1365118233"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4e55bf0c-587c-4595-a92c-edcb853e8e6f","pagecount":"6","content":"Africa, despite of having low GHG emission and its small contribution to global warming, remains the most vulnerable (AFDB) continent to climate change. This higher vulnerability is mainly because of their low adaptive capacity and their higher dependency on agricultural activities for their sustenance and livelihood. Agriculture and allied activities, which are highly dependent on climate, has a significant share in the country's GDP and employment in the African continent. Many countries in the continent have been a net importer of food grains. This can be ascribed to the fact that cultivable area under irrigation is only 6% in Africa compared to Asia (37%) and Latin America (14%; IFPRI, 2019). Therefore, any change in regional weather will have a profound impact on the food production in the region and thus food security of its inhabitants.Atmospheric teleconnections, namely El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) etc. play an important role in modulating the regional climate, and thus can be used to describe the interannual climate variability observed in African continent, especially in the eastern and southern parts of Africa.El Niño characterised by weakened trade winds, results in concentration of warm water over the tropical eastern Pacific ocean, and thus affects climate across the globe. Although Africa is far away from the Pacific ocean, the changes in sea surface temperature and atmospheric pressure in Pacific ocean during El Nino episode affects the weather pattern in eastern and southern Africa.In January 2024, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issued warning that El Niño is anticipated to continue for the next several seasons, with a 73% chance that ENSO-neutral condition will be favoured during April-June 2024 ( https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/ensodisc.shtml.El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.ENSO is a recurring climatic pattern involving changes in the sea surface temperature in the central and eastern tropical pacific ocean. During a typical El Niño year, there is warming of sea-surface temperature (SST) above the average, resulting in weakened monsoon winds, and associated warm and dry conditions (below-normal rainfall) in Western and Southern Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia, the northern regions of South America, and Central America.Conversely, wetter conditions are usually observed in some parts of east Africa, eastern Asia, southern and central Asia, as well as southern parts of North and South America. This is a irregular recurring event happening every two to seven years. An El Niño episode may last from nine months to a year or more in exceptional cases. Most of these events begin during boreal spring/summer and reach peak between November and January (Trenberth, 1997).El Niño episodes are characterized by Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) greater than or equals to +0.5⁰C (Lindsey, 2009). ONI developed by NOAA is one of the measure of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is the 3 month running mean of ERSST.v5 Sea Surface Temperature (SST) anomalies in the Niño 3.4 region (5 o N-5 o S, 120 o -170 o W), based on centred 30-year base periods updated every 5 years. For the present analysis, the base period used was 1991-2020. These events are categorised into four categories based on the SST anomaly: weak (anomaly ranging between 0.5 to 0.9), moderate (1 to 1.4), strong (1.5 to 1.9), and very strong (≥2; NOAA). The magnitude of this index (3 consecutive overlapping 3-month periods; OND) in December is +1.9, hence this is classified as a strong event as of now. The evolution of present El Niño is somewhat similar to the El Niño event observed in year 1972 (https://origin.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ONI_v5.php). The present El Niño event is the fifth strongest event (2015-16, 1997-98, 1982-83, 1965-66, 1972-73) as of now, since 1950.The current strength of the El Niño episode and its expected development, according to World Meteorological Organisation's (WMO) probabilistic multi-model ensemble (MME) suggest high probability of wetter than normal precipitations in Eastern Africa, parts of East and Central Asia, and parts of South America in November continuing till March 2024 (https://www.wmolc.org/seasonPmmeUI/plot_PMME). Such wetter conditions may enhance crop yields in these regions. They also may enable groundwater, reservoirs, and catchment recharge, thus improving the water supply for household, agricultural and industrial uses. In particular, this have facilitated gradual recovery from three-year droughts in the Horn of Africa and in Afghanistan. However, the risk of flooding, desert locust multiplication, and outbreak of several vector-borne diseases may also increase. Elsewhere, warm and dry conditions are expected to prevail during the coming November-May (i.e., the rainy season of the southern hemisphere). This concerns especially in Australia, parts of South-East Asia, Central America, and Southern Africa.Vast geographical extension of the African continent (23W-52E, 35S-38N) along with its uneven topography, bestows the continent with wide variety of climatic condition i.e. desert in the north to tropical rainforest near the equator, and again relatively dry conditions in its southern corner. Furthermore, seasonality observed in the climatic conditions (rainy, winter and summer months) between the two hemispheres, and differential distribution of rainfall even within the countries, makes each country and its regions unique, in terms of challenges and opportunities. To give a brief account of the rainfall distribution, rainfall is bimodal in East Africa i.e., has two wet seasons -March to May and October to December. The western Africa (Sahel) region however, receives about 90% of its mean annual precipitation during the June-September period. In southern Africa, the rainy season typically lasts from October to April.The ongoing El Niño is expected to result in above-normal temperature across the continent during October to may, but will have differential impact on rainfall in the region. It is very likely (>70%) that air-temperature will be above-normal in the countries located between 15 o N -30 o S. This includes parts of western, central, east, and southern Africa (https://www.wmolc.org/seasonPmmeUI/plot_PMME).With regards to rainfall, the WMO probabilistic multi-model ensemble (MME) forecast indicates that Eastern Africa is expected to receive more rainfall i.e. will have wetter-than normal condition. As of November 2023, cumulative rainfall across much of the Kenya and Uganda were above 150% and between 90-200% respectively, of the long-term average, with great spatial variability (FEWS-NET, 2023). Flooding affected about 19 counties in the Kenya, and displaced around 136,000 people. Since October, heavy rainfall received in the central and southwest Somalia, and in the southern and southeast Ethiopia -which were earlier under the grip of historical drought during 2020-23-have led to the displacement of millions of population, cutting them off from the market and food supply (UNOCHA, 2023a &b). In Somalia, raingauge station in Baidoa (Bay region) indicate that over 1000 mm of rainfall have been received in the past two months (October and November), which is estimated to be 4-5 times higher than the normal. Meanwhile, northern areas of the country received relatively lower but still above-average rainfall. South Sudan has also witnessed heavy rainfall induced flooding and resulting losses. The western part of the east-Africa region (Rwanda, Burundi, and Southwest Uganda) is however, expected to receive normal rain (Fig. 1). Concurrently, El Niño-induced drought is likely to affect the northern pastoral lands and meher crop-producing areas of Ethiopia.Food security conditions in all these countries remains to be of concern. The varying nature and degree of climatic shocks that have affected the region in the past have already pushed back the countries agriculture sector and total food production. Most of the countries are dependent on import to meet their dietary requirements. Although the ongoing rains replenish surface and ground water resources, boosts growth of field crops as well as the pastures, and support livestock, flood-affected regions may have to bear crop damage and livestock loss. The above-average rainfall forecasted through December is likely to damage the maturing legume crops in east African countries (FEWS-NET, 2023). In Uganda, early green harvest have slightly improved food availability. In Kenya, the staple food prices remain high compared to the 5-year average: Maize prices were about 95%; and dry beans around 15-80% higher (FEWS NET, 2023). Also, there is an increased risk of water and vector-borne diseases for human and livestock.Across the southern Africa region, 2023 harvest was already below-average due to the weather shocks and other social and institutional issues (FEWS-NET, 2023). By the end of November, the region (including Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Southern Angola, and Sothern Madagascar) have not received enough rainfall to start farm operations for its main agricultural season. The ongoing El Niño is anticipated to cause a further delay in the receipt of effective rainfall, with a 40-50% probability that the season will receive below-normal rainfall (Fig. 1). Below-normal rainfall during their main planting season, combined with above-normal temperature is likely to cause widespread crop failure in the region and thus below-average 2024 harvest. The price of coarse grains in West Africa and staples in East Africa were stable to decreasing (FEWS NET, 2023). However, the maize prices in Southern Africa -especially in countries such as South africa, Zambia, Malawi, and Zimbabweincreased due to supply constraints. Supply of staple food was already low due to the past weather shocks, low food reserve among the households, increasing staple food prices, and low purchasing power of the households. The ongoing El Niño event is anticipated to further aggravate the current situation by negatively affecting the food production in these countries which are mainly rainfed. The negative impact of ongoing El Niño is expected to be most ","tokenCount":"1554"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9f3a7022b6844c407dfb38c1440cffd8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7927abd2-781f-4a79-9450-6acddbc543c4/retrieve","id":"955406618"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"409ef966-390c-4986-b4fb-e382dd4d7160","pagecount":"36","content":"L'agriculture familiale n'est plus un problème. Elle est, au contraire, devenue une solution aux défis de la planète. Mais, pour cela, la plupart des exploitations doivent sortir de la pauvreté et leur rôle, vital, être reconnu.• AnAlyse : DessIneR l'AGRICUlTURe fAmIlIAle De DemAIn 3• Interview : \"Cultiver en famille\" par Dyborn Chibonga, administrateur délégué de l'Association nationale des petits exploitants agricoles du malawi (nAsfAm) 8• Reportage en Allemagne : suivre le rythme du changement 9• Interview : \"Une agriculture familiale plurielle\", par Jean-michel sourisseau, socio-économiste au Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD) 10• AnAlyse : PRODUIRe PlUs eT mIeUX 11• Reportage en Côte d'Ivoire : la noix de cajou, pierre angulaire de l'économie familiale 16• Interview : coopératives, \"l'union fait la force\", par elizabeth Atangana, Présidente de la Plateforme des organisations paysannes de l'Afrique centrale (PROPAC) 17• Reportage en Ouganda : TIC et formation pratique, une combinaison efficace 18• AnAlyse : Un lIen vITAl DAns lA ChAîne 19• Reportage aux samoa : de la ferme à la table 23 • Interview : \"Adopter une approche rentable\" par haron Wachira, Directeur Général d'Aliki holdings 24• Reportage au Kenya : le pouvoir de l'action collective 25• AnAlyse : le RÔle DÉTeRmInAnT De l'ÉTAT 27• Études de cas : des politiques originales et innovantes 31• Interview : \"Pour une approche holistique de l'agriculture familiale\" par Graziano Da silva, Directeur Général de la fAO 33• le CTA met l'accent sur l'agriculture familiale 34 Longtemps, le monde a négligé l'agriculture. Il a fallu la flambée des prix des denrées alimentaires en 2007-08 et l'inquiétude qu'elle a suscitée pour redynamiser l'intérêt. Pour les petites exploitations familiales qui veulent transformer leurs activités en entreprise viable, c'est une opportunité unique. En misant sur la productivité et la compétitivité, les exploitations familiales peuvent contribuer grandement à relever les défis de la sécurité alimentaire et de la nutrition, et à assurer une croissance économique mondiale durable.Les Nations Unies ont déclaré 2014 \"l'Année internationale de l'agriculture familiale\" afin d'attirer l'attention sur le rôle majeur que peuvent jouer les petites exploitations familiales pour garantir la sécurité alimentaire, lutter contre la pauvreté et améliorer la gestion durable des ressources naturelles. Cette année encourage la mise en place de partenariats entre différents intervenants -associations d'agriculteurs, ONG, gouvernements, agences internationales et entreprises agroalimentaires -pour mettre en oeuvre des politiques incitatives et stimuler des investissements agricoles.Le CTA s'associe à ses partenaires pour appuyer l'Année internationale de l'agriculture familiale par plusieurs initiatives, dont cette édition spéciale de Spore. Notre travail sur les politiques, les chaînes de valeur inclusives, les TIC et la gestion des connaissances s'efforce d'aider les exploitations familiales à devenir rentables et prospères. C'est pourquoi nous accordons une importance particulière à cette année dédiée à l'agriculture familiale.1 | DES DéFIS COLLECTIFS 2 014, année internationale de l'agriculture familiale. ONG, chercheurs, bailleurs, gouvernements, organisations internationales se penchent sur la situation de ces familles, riches ou pauvres, au Nord comme au Sud, à la tête d'imposantes exploitations à haute technologie ou de micro-parcelles, gérées par des ingénieurs agronomes ou des paysans illettrés. Une catégorie fourre-tout, a priori, qui lui a valu d'être reléguée au second rang durant des décennies, voire des siècles, et appelée par nombre d'experts à disparaître pour céder la place à une agriculture moderne, productiviste, capitaliste, type agro-business.La chronique d'une mort annoncée a prévalu jusqu'à la prise de conscience de l'importance numérique et qualitative de cette catégorie socio-professionnelle, de son poids dans la production de denrées alimentaires et surtout de la durabilité intrinsèque de son modèle. Car l'agriculture familiale est avant tout \"un mode de vie\", souligne Jan Douwe van der Ploeg, professeur de sociologie rurale à l'Université de Wageningen, aux Pays-Bas. Un mode de vie qui -chapeau bas ! -permet de produire, aujourd'hui encore, 70 % de l'offre alimentaire mondiale. Elle est aussi une source majeure d'emplois ruraux et donc un frein à l'exode vers les centres urbains. En outre, si dans bien des cas l'agriculteur familial n'a pas pour préoccupation première la conservation de l'environnement, trop afféré à nourrir jour après jour sa famille, il n'en demeure pas moins que par tradition, par sa connaissance du milieu, quasiment par réflexe de survie, il travaille en symbiose avec son environnement.L'agriculteur familial est encore, souvent, associé à pauvreté. Et pour cause : 70 % des plus démunis au monde sont des agriculteurs familiaux ou pastoraux et 95 % de ces exploitations familiales font encore aujourd'hui moins de 5 hectares. Ils vivent souvent avec de faibles ressources monétaires, avec peu d'accès au crédit et aspirent, globalement, à de meilleures conditions de vie. Au-delà, si du chemin a déjà été parcouru ces dernières années, leur poids dans les mécanismes de prises de décisions demeure faible.Il faut donc reconstruire l'image de l'agriculture familiale. Et les 5 % d'agriculteurs familiaux, riches, modernes, performants, situés globalement dans les pays développés du Nord, permettent d'avoir une autre idée de l'agriculture familiale. Preuve à l'appui -leurs propres conditions de vie -ils démontrent que le modèle est viable et constitue une vraie alternative à l'agriculture entrepreneuriale.\"Dans le contexte africain, et donc pour le NEPAD, la reconstruction du concept d'agriculture familiale représente un enjeu particulier alors que des notions concurrentes et souvent connotées y sont utilisées : agriculture de petite taille, agriculture de subsistance, agriculture paysanne entre autres\", souligne Ibrahim Assane Mayaki, secrétaire exécutif du Nouveau partenariat pour le développement de l'Afrique (NEPAD).les \"qualités\" de l'agriculture familiale Mais qu'entend-on par \"agriculture familiale\" ? Comment définir ce type d'exploitation agricole qui recouvre des réalités si diamétralement différentes du Nord au Sud ? Sans doute en ne partant pas du principe qu'il s'agit seulement d'un \"autre\" type d'exploitation agricole mais de ce véritable \"mode de vie\" évoqué par Jan Douwe van der Ploeg. Et ce dernier de préférer énumérer une dizaine de \"qualités\" caractérisant l'agriculture familiale plutôt que se hasarder à définir le concept. Des \"qualités\" qui, d'ailleurs, permettent de se projeter dans l'avenir.L'agriculture familiale fait référence, tout d'abord à la famille. C'est elle qui contrôle -sans nécessairement les posséder -les principaux moyens de production, que ce soit la terre, le bétail, le matériel et la force de travail. Un contrôle qui s'exerce aussi sur un savoir-faire notamment à l'égard de la biodiversité locale, de la préservation de l'eau. C'est la famille en tant que telle qui est membre d'une coopérative et qui peut avoir accès à un réseau de personnes influentes ou décisionnelles.La famille fournit l'essentiel de la main-d'oeuvre, mais on conçoit qu'elle puisse recourir à une main d'oeuvre extérieure, salariée ou non, ponctuelle. La cueillette collective, par roulement entre familles, lors la récolte en est l'illustration parfaite.Autre \"qualité\", l'équilibre entre la ferme et la famille : il s'agit de trouver l'équilibre entre le nombre de bouches à nourrir et le nombre de bras pour travailler, la ferme procurant l'essentiel des revenus et de la nourriture à la famille. Un élément qui trouve un écho certain aujourd'hui auprès de tous ceux favorables aux circuits courts et aux produits de terroir.Surtout, l'agriculture familiale est un lieu de vie et non seulement une unité de production; elle a souvent une histoire, une tradition. L'expérience s'y est accumulée. Enfin, l'agriculture familiale est partie intégrante du paysage et donc a un rôle de conservation de la biodiversité ; elle s'incorpore aussi dans une économie rurale plus large avec ses codes culturels et ses notions de terroir.Certes, avertit le chercheur, ces \"qualités\" sont rarement réunies à un moment t sur une même exploitation. D'où la pluralité de l'agriculture familiale qui ne saurait se résumer aux seuls deux critères de propriété et de travail familial. La révolution industrielle était à la fois demandeuse de main-d'oeuvre peu qualifiée et procurait un débouché à ses produits. Le Plan Marshall en Europe, après la deuxième guerre mondiale, a considérablement contribué à ce miracle du couplage. \"Il y a vraiment eu rencontre entre les aspirations des agriculteurs eux-mêmes et un projet national, voire international de société\", souligne le chercheur du CIRAD, François Affholder, qui rappelle qu'après-guerre, au moment de la guerre froide, on parlait même d'\"arme alimentaire\" ! C'est dire combien le politique était impliqué dans l'agriculture, qui était encore très majoritairement une agriculture familiale.\"Dans des réunions d'agriculteurs il y a une cinquantaine d'années, il était clairement anticipé que des agriculteurs devraient quitter l'exploitation car elle ne pouvait pas être divisée, lors des successions, en autant de parts que de descendants\", explique le chercheur. \"Il fallait donc veiller à ce que ceux qui quitteraient ne perdraient pas en rémunération, en qualité de vie, en sécurité, etc. mais que ceux qui resteraient sur la ferme bénéficieraient d'une véritable politique publique de soutien, leur garantissant un revenu décent, acceptant la nécessité de négocier les termes de l'échange entre l'activité agricole et le reste des biens et services dans la société.\"Ce couplage entre développement agricole et développement industriel ne se reproduit guère, ni en Afrique, ni en Amérique Latine, ni en Asie, à l'exception des grands pays émergents comme le Brésil, l'Argentine ou la Chine. Si le développement industriel demeure un enjeu de taille, aujourd'hui -et la crise 2007-2008 l'a mis en exergue -c'est la sécurité alimentaire de chacun, couplée à l'indispensable préservation de l'environnement si on veut continuer à produire, qui sont parmi les défis prioritaires. La Déclaration d'Evenstad de mars 2014 qui a clôturé l'assemblée générale annuelle de la Coordination européenne Via campesina en a pris bonne note : \"Les responsables politiques ont commencé à reconnaître la nécessité de préserver toutes les agricultures -et plus seulement le modèle industriel -dans un but de sécurité alimentaire mondiale.\"L'agriculture familiale devrait donc, bel et bien, être l'agriculture de demain. Comment définiriez-vous l'agriculture familiale ?L'agriculture familiale fait référence aux efforts collectifs de familles qui travaillent ensemble sur une ferme afin de subvenir à leurs besoins par la production d'aliments, tant pour leur consommation que pour générer des revenus. C'est un concept fort dans les milieux ruraux où les familles -régies par des valeurs familiales telles que la confiance, l'engagement, l'amour, la persistance et la détermination -travaillent ensemble pour se subvenir à elles-mêmes. Ces familles d'agriculteurs ne disposent souvent pas de sources importantes de revenus autres que l'agriculture.Que réserve l'avenir à l'agriculture familiale ?À moins que des mesures radicales ne soient prises, l'avenir de l'agriculture familiale semble incertain. En concevant l'agriculture comme une entreprise, et en obtenant le soutien des organisations locales et régionales, les exploitations familiales pourront bénéficier d'un avenir plus sûr. Dans le secteur agricole high-tech et très compétitif de l'Europe, l'avènement d'une génération plus jeune et mieux instruite est la meilleure chance dont dispose l'agriculture familiale pour maintenir sa place dans un monde en perpétuelle évolution.AOÛT 2014 | spOre NUMÉrO HOrs-sÉrIe | L'agriculture familiale est plurielle. En déclarant 2014 \"Année de l'agriculture familiale\", ne court-on pas le risque d'aboutir à des propositions \"globales\", peu applicables au plan local? L'agriculture reste majoritairement familiale en terme d'emplois et il y a peu de danger qu'on arrive à une forte normalisation. La normalisation viendrait de la modernisation et de l'industrialisation des processus agricoles avec concentration des terres, augmentation des surfaces, diminution du nombre d'espèces cultivées, normalisation des processus en aval, etc. Ce processus entraînerait la disparition de l'agriculture familiale. Si on veut préserver la forme familiale de production, cela suppose le respect de la diversité de son mode de fonctionnement.Il faut se méfier d'une lecture linéaire de l'évolution des structures agraires. La concentration des structures et les formes de modernisation qu'on connaît aujourd'hui ne datent finalement que de la révolution industrielle et ne se sont produites, bien souvent, qu'après la deuxième guerre mondiale. C'est une histoire assez courte à l'échelle des histoires des agricultures du monde. Il semble qu'il y ait encore un avenir pour des formes très diversifiées d'agriculture familiale.Ceci est d'autant plus vrai que d'ici 2025 en Afrique sub-saharienne, ce sont, selon les travaux du programme Ruralstruc, 330 millions de jeunes qui arriveront sur le marché du travail. Ces jeunes seront en grande partie en milieu rural. Est-ce qu'une politique agricole productiviste \"classique\" est jouable au niveau macroéconomique pour gérer ce défi de l'emploi ? On peut en douter. En France, en quelques décennies, les agriculteurs sont certes passés de 50 % à 2 % de la population active. Mais est-ce aujourd'hui imaginable en Afrique subsaharienne, voire au niveau planétaire, d'avoir seulement 2 % d'actifs dans l'agriculture ? Mais l'agriculture familiale est impactée par des phénomènes globaux tels que l'utilisation croissante des NTIC, l'urbanisation, le vieillissement des paysans... L'agriculture familiale est affectée par tous ces phénomènes globaux mais leurs conséquences varient. Par exemple, l'Afrique s'urbanise mais cela ne signifie pas une désertification des campagnes comme on l'a connue ailleurs car la population rurale augmentera aussi, nécessairement, ces 20 à 40 prochaines années en raison du seul facteur démographique. D'autre part, on pense que la modernisation va nécessairement vers une concentration des structures agraires. Mais ce n'est vrai ni en Afrique de l'Ouest ni en Inde, où on constate même un émiettement de ces structures. Au Brésil, on a une stagnation de la taille moyenne des exploitations. Dans des pays comme les états-Unis, le nombre des grandes et surtout des très petites exploitations augmente. Actuellement le nombre d'exploitations agricoles motorisées et ayant tous les atouts de la révolution verte ne représente que 2 % des structures dans le monde. Donc même si on souhaitait apporter des solutions globales, uniformes, ce dont je ne suis pas sûr, il y a encore une diversité et des différentiels de productivité que l'on ne peut pas nier et qui ne sont pas près de se résorber... La performance de l'agriculture familiale est-elle conditionnée à la nature de la structure familiale? Comment l'évolution de la condition des femmes et des enfants affecte-t-elle cette structure?On raisonne souvent comme si l'agriculture familiale est bonne pour chacun et pour tous. Or, il convient sûrement d'être plus objectif. Ainsi la plupart des agricultures familiales ne sont guère favorables à l'émancipation des femmes car les structures sont souvent très patriarcales, avec une centralisation des décisions et des moyens de production au niveau du chef d'exploitation, qui est souvent un homme. Mais une partie de l'efficacité des agricultures familiales se fonde, précisément, sur l'utilisation souple de cette main-d'oeuvre familiale sous une seule autorité, mobilisable facilement et souvent sous rémunérée monétairement.Avec la montée de demandeslégitimes -d'émancipation individuelle au sein des exploitations, des jeunes ou des femmes, les rapports sociaux au sein de la famille sont repensés. Mais ce n'est pas pour autant la structure familiale qui est remise en cause. L'idée est de garder la force de l'organisation familiale, de ce rapport au travail et au patrimoine, tout en rééquilibrant quelque peu les rapports sociaux au sein de la famille.Les agricultures familiales des pays ACP peuvent produire plus, différemment. Hommes et femmes mieux formés et informés, compétences et savoirs locaux valorisés, environnement favorable, politiques adaptées sont autant de conditions qui leur permettront de répondre aux multiples défis d'aujourd'hui -changement climatique, explosion démographique, urbanisation, entre autres. L 'agriculture industrielle, majoritaire dans les pays développés, a longtemps constitué l'unique modèle de développement. Et pourtant près de 98 % des 500 millions de producteurs dans le monde sont des agriculteurs familiaux ! On comprend mieux pourquoi, depuis quelques années, les dérives et les risques d'une agriculture industrielle, productive mais exigeante en intrants, néfaste pour l'environnement et inextricablement liée à des marchés mondiaux volatiles, sont davantage mis en lumière et discutés. Dans la foulée, on redécouvre que les agricultures familiales sont dotées de nombreux atouts. Dans les pays ACP, dans un contexte mondial d'urbanisation galopante et de changement climatique, ce sont elles qui maintiennent des équilibres sociaux, économiques et environnementaux souvent fragiles. Mais leur essor ne pourra se faire sans conditions particulières, comme ce fut le cas en Europe.L'agriculture familiale fait vivre aujourd'hui 2,6 milliards de personnes et offre du travail à 40 % de la population active mondiale. Mais cette population, composée d'une bonne moitié de femmes, et d'une grande partie de jeunes, est peu formée et n'a qu'un accès très rare à des formations. Les technologies de l'information et de la communication (TIC) ont été une révolution pour le développement des capacités et compétences des petits producteurs des pays ACP. Accédant aux sites les plus reculés, les téléphones portables viennent en aide à des agriculteurs jusqu'alors laissés à eux-mêmes. En Ouganda, une association originale entre l'état et la fondation Grameen permet, via la téléphonie mobile, d'offrir des services de vulgarisation de qualité aux communautés les plus isolées (voir encadré). équipées d'un seul téléphone portable, les productrices de karité du Burkina Faso peuvent désormais s'informer et se former sur leurs droits, les prix des marchés, la commercialisation. Elles vendent à des prix plus rémunérateurs des produits de meilleure qualité. En Haïti, en accompagnant les unités de transformationAvec le soutien de l'ONG internationale SOS FAIM, le Syndicat des exploitants agricoles de la zone Office du Niger (Sexagon) et l'institution de microfinance Kafo Jiginew ont lancé en 2009 un Fonds d'appui aux initiatives rurales (FAIR) pour permettre aux petits producteurs de la zone rizicole de l'Office (centre du Mali), d'accéder à des services financiers adaptés à leurs besoins. En cinq ans, plus de 6 200 crédits ont été octroyés pour l'achat de semences, d'engrais, de boeufs ou de motoculteurs. \"FAIR est un succès car les taux d'intérêts de nos crédits sont inférieurs à ceux appliqués sur le marché bancaire malien et les garanties sont adaptées aux revenus des producteurs et à leur production\", explique le Directeur général de Kafo Jiginew, David Dao. En outre, \"la présence sur le terrain de plus de 300 agents commerciaux formés pour répondre aux exigences des petits exploitants a permis d'instaurer une relation de confiance avec les producteurs locaux\".soumaila Diarradans la présentation et la qualité des produits transformés, le projet Racines et Tubercules conduit par IICA/MARNDR/CARDI s'intéresse à toute la chaîne de production pour la pomme de terre, le manioc, l'igname et le mazonbèl (Colocassia esculenta) et à la promotion de leur consommation.La structuration du secteur, opérée par les organisations paysannes (OP) aux niveaux local, régional et international, est en bonne voie. Les OP des pays ACP partagent désormais leurs expériences, succès et échecs au niveau mondial. Leurs plaidoyers en faveur des agricultures familiales sont davantage construits et plus écoutés par les gouvernements. En Afrique, la Plateforme régionale des organisations paysannes d'Afrique centrale (PROPAC), la Fédération des producteurs de l'Afrique de l'Est (EAFF) et le Réseau des organisations paysannes et de producteurs de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ROPPA) mobilisent leurs membres et la communauté internationale autour d'un message clair : \"L'agriculture familiale innovante, lorsqu'elle est soutenue par des recherches appropriées, des investissements favorables et une protection adéquate, peut surpasser la production industrielle. Elle constitue la base de la souveraineté alimentaire des communautés, des pays et sous-régions d'Afrique.\" Les OP ont développé des services de plus en plus indispensables aux agricultures familiales, comme le financement. Au Mali, Kafo Jiginew (institution de microfinance) et le Sexagon (syndicat des riziculteurs de l'Office du Niger) ont élaboré une stratégie pour la mise en place de services financiers pour les petits exploitants. En éthiopie, la coopérative des producteurs de café d'Oromia a créé sa propre banque, qui offre des crédits aux producteurs de café.Au fil des générations, les agricultures familiales ont assuré la reproduction de semences locales adaptées à leur environnement. Après avoir été abandonnées au profit de semences supposées plus productives, elles reviennent sur le devant de la scène. Souvent peu exigeantes en eau, résistantes aux conditions climatiques locales et aux ravageurs, disponibles à moindre coût, elles sont un élément indispensable à la sécurité alimentaire. Au Niger, les variétés traditionnelles de mil ont montré de grandes capacité d'adaptation aux variations climatiques. Au Mali, l'Association des organisations paysannes professionnelles du Mali (AOPP) a créé des coopératives semencières qui, s'appuyant sur un réseau de paysans expérimentateurs, vendent des semences certifiées adaptées aux conditions locales.Améliorer la valeur ajoutée des produits locaux est aussi un enjeu important. \"Café Ziama Macenta\", \"Miel blanc d'Oku\", \"Poivre de Penja\" ou encore \"Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee\", les produits de qualité liés à l'origine (dont les indications géographiques) tendent à se développer depuis quelques années en Afrique et dans les Caraïbes. Ils bénéficient de l'appui d'un certain nombre d'organisations régionales (OAPI, ARIPO, CARICOM) et de partenaires techniques et financiers (AFD, CIRAD, CTA, UE, FAO, OMPI). Ces approches permettent, en théorie, aux producteurs, de vendre à des prix plus rémunérateurs tout en bénéficiant d'une protection légale. Si les coûts organisationnels et les frais de certification (obtention des certificats, suivi et contrôle qualité, coûts liés) ne sont pas négligeables, ces approches permettent toutefois d'appuyer des dynamiques locales, de renforcer les compétences et, dans certains cas, d'accéder à de nouveaux marchés.Diffuser les innovations des agriculteurs familiaux, Le financement est un levier majeur pour le développement des agricultures familiales, qui, le plus souvent, n'y ont pas accès. Les TIC ont permis de faciliter l'accès à des zones reculées des pays ACP. Au Kenya, l'Equity Bank se déplace dans les villages ruraux grâce à des \"agences mobiles\", installées dans des véhicules utilitaires. Les gouvernements tâchent également de renforcer l'accès des agriculteurs familiaux au financement. En Tanzanie, l'état a voté, dès 2005, une loi favorisant les certificats d'entrepôt (ou \"warrantage\"). Les petits producteurs de café ou de coton, seuls ou en coopérative, déposent leur récolte dans un entrepôt en échange d'un prêt équivalent à 70 % de la valeur marchande de leur produit. Une fois la vente effectuée, la banque récupère le montant du crédit plus les intérêts et verse la somme restante au producteur ou à la coopérative. Yao Adjoua, nonobstant son âge avancé, déclare intervenir dans tout le processus de production : de l'entretien des arbres sur sa parcelle de 1,5 hectare à la récolte, jusqu'à la vente. Elle travaille sans répit avec des outils simples, associant la noix à d'autres cultures (igname, manioc, gombo, etc.). Cette culture lui permet de subvenir aux besoins de sa famille sans recourir à une quelconque aide extérieure. Elle récolte et commercialise en pleine saison, de février à juin, mais peut vendre aussi de petites quantités stockées tout au long de l'année. Son revenu saisonnier est de l'ordre de 60 000 francs CFA (91,50 €) auquel il faut ajouter 5 000 FCFA (7,50 €) à 10 000 FCFA (plus de 15 €) hors-saison. Avec ceci, elle parvient à subvenir aux besoins de sa famille en matière de nourriture, de santé ; elle peut scolariser ses sept petits-enfants qui l'aident à entretenir  Comment les coopératives répondentelles aux défis de l'agriculture familiale en Afrique ?En mobilisant du capital humain, des ressources financières, des ressources de production, du foncier, les coopératives mutualisent, en quelque sorte, des forces à la fois humaines, matérielles et financières. Ceci permet d'accompagner les membres de la coopérative à répondre aux exigences de l'économie agricole.Accéder aux marchés implique améliorer sa productivité, sa qualité, à un bon coût. En rassemblant nos forces, nos moyens, nos ressources, il est probable que nous soyons en mesure de répondre aux exigences des marchés internationaux.À travers les coopératives, nous bénéficions aussi de formations qui initient, via l'apprentissage, à la concurrence. Pour répondre au déficit en terres, à l'insécurité foncière, pour conclure des contrats, notamment la fourniture d'intrants, plusieurs exploitations familiales regroupées en coopératives parviennent à mieux négocier que seule. Lorsque vous êtes seul, c'est plutôt le partenaire qui vous impose son prix. Seul, je ne peux pas produire les quantités commandées mais ensemble nous pouvons y arriver. Ces éléments font que la coopérative est une forme d'organisation aujourd'hui conseillée aux agriculteurs familiaux. Il existe des institutions rurales qui prennent aussi la forme mutualiste des coopératives. Mais aujourd'hui, elles doivent s'arrimer à la loi coopérative de l'OHADA qui prévaut en Afrique centrale.Le facteur humain est une force très importante. Les organisations peuvent se rassembler pour développer des centres de formation, les ressources humaines et assurer non seulement les connaissances, les innovations mais aussi la pérennité. Les coopératives peuvent contribuent à créer des emplois durables, à mobiliser des capitaux, à négocier un crédit bancaire.Les coopératives sont aussi force de proposition. Elles connaissent les besoins de la base, les font remonter et constituent de fait un partenaire pour les pouvoirs publics afin de mieux s'atteler aux différentes questions qui se posent aux agriculteurs sur le terrain. Elles assurent la sécurité et la souveraineté alimentaire parce qu'elles concourent à mobiliser la production vers les marchés locaux. Mais ce n'est pas une liste exhaustive des qualités.Côté faiblesses, il faut encore renforcer leurs capacités en termes de management, de gouvernance, de capacité de négociation, d'organisation. Cela nécessite de l'argent et il leur faut donc des ressources.Nous devons aussi mobiliser les coopératives par rapport aux chaînes de valeur, c'est-à-dire partir de la production jusqu'à la table du consommateur. Il faut améliorer la production qualitativement et quantitativement, le marketing, la présentation des produits afin qu'ils soient compétitifs.Les coopératives devraient être sources de richesse. Or, certaines disparaissent, appauvrissant leurs membres. Quels sont les mesures préventives à adopter ?Les fondateurs de coopératives investissent en argent mais aussi en temps de travail, en volonté, en engagement jusqu'à devenir crédibles et mobiliser des partenaires. Lorsque les partenaires arrivent, ils peuvent vouloir accélérer les choses. Il faut alors une bonne gouvernance, une bonne organisation où chacun maîtrise et joue son rôle : les décideurs stratégiques ou politiques aussi bien que l'équipe technique. C'est dans le cadre de cette synergie autocontrôlée que la coopérative peut avancer et atteindre ses objectifs.La discipline c'est d'abord la réglementation. La réglementation de l'État mais aussi le règlement intérieur. Il faut être rigoureux pour pouvoir réprimer ou réprimander ceux qui ne respectent pas la discipline, permettre à chacun de se rattraper mais aussi pouvoir radier ceux qui ne sont pas aptes à rester dans la coopérative. Mais le principe d'adhésion reste de rigueur. Il faut donc un apprentissage, une formation permanente des responsables, des techniciens et de tous les acteurs qui gravitent autour de l'action coopérative.En rassemblant leurs forces au sein de coopératives, les agriculteurs familiaux sont à même de répondre aux exigences des marchés internationaux, estime Elisabeth Atangana, Présidente de la Plateforme sous-régionale des organisations paysannes d'Afrique centrale (PROPAC). Charles Chebet est le travailleur du savoir de la paroisse de Chepkwanda ; il a été sélectionné par sa communauté et formé à fournir des conseils en matière agricole. \"Mon travail consiste à surveiller ce que font les agriculteurs et à repérer les ravageurs et maladies qui touchent les cultures. Nous formons aussi les agriculteurs et leurs familles et nous recherchons des marchés à l'extérieur de notre paroisse pour permettre aux agriculteurs d'obtenir de bons prix.\" L'unité familiale étant aussi la clef du succès du projet, les travailleurs du savoir veillent à ce que les conjoints travaillent ensemble dans leurs jardins et prennent les décisions en commun.Le bureau de Grameen gère également un centre d'appel pour les agriculteurs, dont le personnel est constitué d'une équipe d'experts agricoles capables de communiquer en neuf langues ; les agriculteurs bénéficient d'une ligne téléphonique sans frais. Pour Fiona Byarugaba, chargée de la commercialisation et de la communication pour la Fondation Grameen en Ouganda, le modèle des travailleurs du savoir est unique dans sa vocation à fournir à la fois des services de vulgarisation et de collecte de données. \"L'utilisation de la technologie a permis de soutenir les familles d'agriculteurs pour un prix abordable\", dit-elle. \"L'élément crucial est le réseau humain ; la technologie seule ne pourra susciter l'adoption efficace de nouvelles pratiques.\"Les travailleurs du savoir ont aussi pour fonction de fournir des intrants et de regrouper les récoltes pour la vente. \"Nous aidons les familles à produire des cultures commercialisables et nous les mettons en rapport avec des marchés compétitifs où ils peuvent obtenir des prix justes\", déclare Sam Satya, un agent de terrain qui supervise environ 100 travailleurs sur trois districts. Une étude, menée en décembre 2013 par l'Institut international de recherche sur les politiques alimentaires (IFPRI), a montré qu'après le démarrage de l'activité des travailleurs du savoir, les agriculteurs ont un peu moins vendu aux intermédiaires et un peu plus aux négociants, parce qu'ils étaient mieux informés des prix du marché. Grâce à son travailleur du savoir, la famille de Josephine Chebet a appris à cultiver du café biologique qu'elle transforme et vend par l'intermédiaire d'une boutique du marché local. Elle vend aussi du piment rouge en poudre, des légumes et des bananes et a pu louer des terres supplémentaires dans le voisinage. Deux enfants de Josephine suivent maintenant des cours pour obtenir un diplôme qui leur permettra de contribuer à la gestion de l'exploitation. \"Je suis heureuse car nous cultivons des produits de bonne qualité et que grâce à eux nous pouvons éduquer nos enfants. Même au plan de la santé, notre situation s'est améliorée parce que nous avons assez de nourriture\", explique Josephine. Des exemples en provenance du Ghana, de la Jamaïque, de Madagascar et de l'Ouganda montrent qu'avec des mesures d'incitation adéquates et des systèmes d'attribution de contrats favorables, les exploitants familiaux peuvent prendre part avec succès aux chaînes de valeur internationales de haute qualité. D ans les hautes terres rurales de Madagascar, 10 000 exploitants familiaux produisent des légumes pour les supermarchés européens. Parce que les agriculteurs s'intègrent dans une chaîne d'approvisionnement mondiale, leurs microcontrats s'accompagnent de dispositions importantes d'assistance et de supervision des exploitations afin qu'ils puissent satisfaire à la complexité des exigences de qualité et à la rigueur des normes phytosanitaires. Cela a pour effet que les exploitants familiaux de l'un des pays les plus pauvres du monde sont parvenus à un niveau de vie plus élevé et à une plus grand stabilité dans leurs revenus que ceux qui restent en dehors du régime de l'agriculture sous contrat. Des progrès notables ont aussi été notés dans l'adoption de technologies, dans la gestion des ressources et l'augmentation de la productivité rizicole. Parallèlement, à Vanuatu, les exploitants familiaux des zones éloignées ont adopté des pratiques agronomiques améliorées et produisent de la vanille, du gingembre et d'autres épices certifiés biologiques et de premier ordre pour l'exportation et la vente aux touristes.Malgré les contraintes rencontrées par de nombreux petits exploitants agricoles dans leurs efforts pour intégrer des chaînes d'approvisionnement efficientes -dont l'insuffisance des infrastructures rurales, des installations de transformation et d'intrants -ces cas positifs montrent qu'avec les bonnes incitations et des mécanismes contractuels appropriés, les exploitants familiaux des pays ACP sont capables de prendre part avec succès aux chaînes de valeur internationales de haute qualité. Les marchés régionaux et intérieurs offrent d'autres possibilités de valorisation des chaînes de valeur par l'amélioration de leur efficacité et de l'accès aux marchés, qui garantiraient de meilleurs rendements économiques à tous les participants, dont les acheteurs, transformateurs et agriculteurs.SABMiller, une société multinationale de brasserie bien connue en Ouganda pour sa bière \"Eagle\" fabriquée à base de sorgho, achète 20 000 tonnes de sorgho par an à plus de 20 000 agriculteurs, satisfaisant ainsi plus de 60 % des besoins de ses brasseries locales. Au Mozambique et au Sud Soudan, le manioc est maintenant l'ingrédient le plus utilisé pour la fabrication de la bière de SABMiller, bien que cela exige des agriculteurs qu'ils respectent des normes rigoureuses. Pour les y aider, SABMiller a investi dans la fourniture de matériel végétal amélioré, d'outils, d'engrais et de pesticides, tout en offrant un marché garanti aux groupes d'agriculteurs avec lesquels elle travaille. Les outils sont en propriété commune et chaque groupe s'est engagé dans un accord \"graine pour graine\" selon lequel il est tenu de fournir autant de matériel végétal qu'il en a reçu, afin de le partager avec un autre groupe. Les groupes constituent aussi des forums utiles pour partager des informations sur les pratiques améliorées.Jusqu'à récemment, le manioc n'était pas utilisé pour la production de bière, parce que le tubercule commence à se dégrader dans les 24 heures qui suivent sa récolte. Toutefois, une machine facilement transportable permettant une première transformation des racines au champ a allongé de plusieurs semaines la période de stockage. \"L'Afrique a un potentiel agricole énorme mais actuellement sous-exploité\", déclare Mark Bowman, le directeur général de SABMiller Afrique. \"Le secteur privé a un rôle crucial à jouer : en créant des débouchés commerciaux pour les petits agriculteurs dans nos chaînes de valeur, nous pouvons augmenter leur productivité, ce qui leur permet de nourrir leurs familles et d'obtenir des revenus plus élevés.\"Même si certaines fermes restent trop pauvres, trop éloignées ou tout simplement trop petites pourAu Ghana, l'Union des agriculteurs Kuapa Kokoo, une coopérative d'associations de producteurs de cacao représentant plus de 85 000 agriculteurs, est fière de détenir 45 % des actions de Divine Chocolate, une entreprise internationale de chocolat équitable. De ce fait, lorsque l'entreprise réalise des bénéfices, les exploitants familiaux de cacao au Ghana en font aussi et quand la récolte est bonne, Kuapa leur verse une prime.Régie et contrôlée par les agriculteurs, l'Union veille à ce que ses membres participent de manière égalitaire à son développement, à sa gestion et au processus décisionnel. Les revenus de sa prime sociale et du commerce équitable bénéficient à tous les membres ainsi qu'à leurs communautés et financent des installations telles que des puits et des écoles. Non seulement les dépenses de santé des membres sont payées par l'Union, mais celle-ci a aussi financé la formation de plus de 60 groupes de femmes pour développer leurs compétences et aptitudes aux fonctions de direction. \"Le commerce équitable est une bonne chose ! Nous estimons que nous sommes payés équitablement et nous avons des personnes avec qui évoquer nos inquiétudes\", dit Fati Issah, un membre de Kuapa Kokoo. s'intégrer aux chaînes de valeur modernes, de plus en plus de possibilités s'offrent aux exploitations familiales pour leur permettre d'éviter les ventes ponctuelles et devenir des agriculteurs commerciaux. En se mettant en rapport avec les marchés urbains (voir le reportage au Kenya, pages 25-26) ou en approvisionnant les hôtels et restaurants locaux (voir le reportage aux Samoa, page 23), les agriculteurs peuvent tirer profit de la demande croissante des consommateurs en produits variés -lait, viande, fruits, légumes -ainsi qu'en aliments transformés prêts-à-consommer.La mise en place de chaînes d'approvisionnement viables comporte toutefois des risques à la fois pour les agriculteurs et les entreprises impliqués. C'est pourquoi il est crucial de développer des relations de confiance sur le long terme. Si les entreprises font confiance aux agriculteurs pour la livraison des produits, elles seront prêtes à investir et à aider les agriculteurs à cultiver, transformer et commercialiser ces produits au prix convenu. De même, si les agriculteurs sont convaincus que les entreprises honoreront leurs contrats, ils s'engageront à satisfaire les conditions agréées. Malheureusement, ces relations de confiance peuvent trop facilement être compromises, par exemple si les agriculteurs se laissent convaincre de vendre à d'autres acheteurs lorsqu'ils sont à court d'argent ou perturbés par des changements soudains survenant dans le marché.Les organisations de producteurs jouent un rôle important dans le renforcement de la position des agriculteurs familiaux dans les chaînes de valeur, en servant à la fois de prestataires de services et de réseaux de défense des droits. Leur action est fréquemment déterminante pour l'augmentation de la valeur produite tout au long de la chaîne, par exemple en veillant à ce que la qualité des produits corresponde bien aux normes exigées. Elles peuvent aussi mobiliser l'appui d'autres parties intéressées et aider les agriculteurs à négocier une part équitable du total des profits (voir l'encadré page 21).Les organisations régionales ont aussi un rôle à jouer. En octobre 2013, le Réseau des organisations paysannes et de producteurs agricoles de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ROPPA) a organisé un forum d'affaires à Abidjan, en Côte d'Ivoire, pour appuyer le développement de partenariats entre les organisations de producteurs et le secteur privé. Tout en créant un forum favorisant le réseautage et le partage des meilleures pratiques afin d'avoir des chaînes de valeur efficaces, l'événement, co-financé par le CTA, a aussi offert une formation sur l'approche des chaînes de valeur et l'agriculture sous contrat. Des rencontres entre entreprises ont été organisées, conçues spécifiquement pour les organisations d'agriculteurs afin de les aider à attirer des investisseurs du secteur privé (voir l'encadré ci-dessus).Le renforcement des partenariats est indispensable au bon fonctionnement et à l'efficacité d'une chaîne de valeur. Cela n'est pas seulement valable pour les chaînes opérant sur des produits végétaux ; la demande croissante de lait et de viande entraîne une augmentation des opportunités offertes aux pasteurs et autres éleveurs familiaux de travailler avec des transporteurs, des prestataires de services, des organismes de réglementation et d'autres intervenants pour mettre en place des systèmes efficaces de commercialisation des produits animaux. Une nouvelle publication du CTA et de l'Institut international pour la reconstruction rurale, Moving Herds, Moving Markets, proposant de nombreux exemples de bonnes pratiques et soulignant les enjeux auxquels sont confrontés les pasteurs, est actuellement utilisée par la FAO et d'autres organismes pour des cours de formation en Afrique.susanna ThorpLe spécialiste des chaînes de valeur du CTA, Andrew Shepherd, a passé de nombreuses années à défendre l'agriculture sous contrat qui, selon lui, peut avoir de nombreux avantages pour les exploitations familiales et l'efficience des chaînes de valeur. Les entreprises fournissent généralement les intrants à l'avance et en déduisent le coût lorsque l'agriculteur vend ses produits. Certaines entreprises offrent même des prêts pour embaucher de la main d'oeuvre, pour acheter des intrants pour les cultures alimentaires et pour d'autres activités agricoles ne relevant pas du contrat. Elles peuvent aussi assurer des services de vulgarisation, aider à la préparation de la terre et organiser le transport des produits.En 2013, par exemple, près de 56 exploitants familiaux ont cultivé des piments pour une entreprise jamaïcaine, Grace Kennedy, l'un des producteurs de la fameuse sauce au piment fort du pays. Chaque exploitation s'engage à fournir des piments répondant à des normes spécifiques de maturité, de qualité et de limites maximales de résidus de pesticides. La livraison suit un calendrier convenu et l'entreprise règle aux agriculteurs le prix fixé à l'avance et les aide avec des semences et autres intrants fournis par sa propre exploitation. Elle assure aussi une assistance technique, en partenariat avec l'Autorité de développement agricole rural de la Jamaïque. Ces contrats sont une réussite, mais l'entreprise cherche encore à s'entendre avec d'autres agriculteurs pour permettre à ses installations de transformation de fonctionner à plein régime. Dans le cadre du programme \"De la ferme à la table\", 20 petits agriculteurs biologiques des Samoa ont commencé à fournir les hôtels et restaurants locaux grâce à un modèle de chaîne d'approvisionnement qui, au départ, avait été mis au point aux Caraïbes. Presque tous les fermiers des Samoa peuvent être considérés comme des \"exploitants agricoles familiaux\". Ils sont nombreux à être au stade \"pré-entrepreneurial\" : très peu d'entre eux possèdent de comptes bancaires, tiennent des registres commerciaux ou comprennent ce que sont des accords d'approvisionnement. C'est pourquoi la réussite, pour la WIBDI, passe par des efforts sur de nombreux points : procéder à un marketing pratique, assurer la liaison avec les restaurants, calibrer et livrer les produits agricoles, s'occuper de la facturation et même former les chefs cuisiniers. Le programme \"De la ferme à la table\", qui n'approvisionne que 13 établissements, reste pour l'instant délibérément limité, afin de pouvoir être évalué et adapté.L'agent de vulgarisation Tilomai Sikuka se rend chaque semaine sur la ferme de Mme Lomiga. Elle considère que le contact direct est vital pour aider les agriculteurs à comprendre la nécessité d'une qualité et d'un approvisionnement réguliers. Les agents négocient également les prix avec les agriculteurs en se fondant sur l'examen bimensuel des prix du marché en ville. Toutes les fermes liées à la WIBDI sont soit certifiées bio, soit en cours de certification, un processus que Mme Sikuka supervise également. \"Nous allons aussi offrir à nos agriculteurs une formation en matière financière pour qu'ils apprennent à planifier, à établir un budget et à fixer des objectifs\", dit-elle.Elle s'assoit avec Mme Lomiga pour discuter des produits de cette dernière : oranges, bananes, citrons, caramboles, gingembre et cacao. Elle a aussi du curcuma, de la cannelle et du kaloupilé (Murraya koenigii). \"J'apprends comment ces plantes peuvent être utilisées dans les restaurants\", précise Mme Lomiga. Pendant ce temps, son mari passe ses journées au marché en ville à essayer de vendre le reste de leurs produits agricoles. \"Là, il doit chercher à vendre avec tous les autres agriculteurs. Mais avec ce programme, nous gagnons de l'argent sans perdre notre temps à parcourir la ville. Ils viennent commander et nous n'avons plus qu'à livrer les produits.\"D'ici cinq ans, selon la directrice générale de la WIBDI, Adimaimalaga Tafuna'i, ces agriculteurs fourniront une grande partie des hôtels et restaurants du pays. Pour l'instant, ils livrent leurs produits une fois par semaine et prévoient d'effectuer une seconde livraison hebdomadaire ces prochains mois. Il est même parfois difficile de répondre à la demande actuelle, comme l'explique Mme Sikuka : \"Nous proposons un système d'approvisionnement garanti, ce qui veut dire que nous garantissons de livrer ce que les restaurants commandent. Cela signifie aussi que nous devons pouvoir disposer de nombreux fournisseurs en réserve, capables de fournir des produits de manière ponctuelle.\" Par chance, l'ONG a un fichier de près de 1 000 agriculteurs et a acheté un petit camion frigorifique. \"C'est un programme susceptible de créer un revenu stable pour de nombreux agriculteurs qui, sans cela, devraient dépendre de l'envoi d'argent de leurs familles vivant à l'étranger\", souligne Mme Tafuna'i.La WIBDI a aussi organisé des ateliers de formation pour les jeunes agriculteurs qui comportent aussi une distribution de plants. Elle a également développé une série d'applications mobiles, dont l'une offre une base de données sur les agriculteurs et une autre un journal des bonnes pratiques commerciales. Une troisième application propose des recettes utilisant des produits locaux et un système de commande pour les restaurants. Se relier à une chaîne de valeur aidet-il les exploitants familiaux à faire face à leurs enjeux ?En Afrique, la plupart des activités agricoles de type familial est dysfonctionnelle et structurée de telle manière qu'elles ne peuvent pas être rentables. Beaucoup de temps et d'argent sont gaspillés dans la production et la commercialisation. Il est donc vital de relier les familles aux chaînes de valeur. D'abord, c'est un moyen de les relier aux savoirs. Ainsi, notre travail avec les producteurs laitiers a mis en évidence que les aliments du bétail acheté sur le marché contiennent 16 à 20 % de protéines, soit beaucoup moins qu'un concentré fabriqué à la maison à partir de Moringa et de Desmodium mélangés à du napier.Ensuite, la plupart des agriculteurs africains, en particulier les exploitants familiaux, a du mal à accéder facilement à de bons marchés. Les producteurs laitiers se lèvent à quatre heures du matin pour traire leurs vaches mais doivent ensuite attendre la collecte du lait pendant des heures. Tout cela représente une perte de temps mais qui n'est jamais quantifiée. En se reliant à une chaîne de valeur, ils peuvent accéder à un système Il faut d'abord mettre en place des sites de démonstration et d'apprentissage. Par exemple, lorsque nous avons fait la démonstration de la production hydroponique de fourrage, les gens ont très rapidement répliqué cette technique. Nous avons aussi besoin que des personnalités publiques locales soient sensibilisées à démarrer de tels programmes. À Kipipiri, par exemple, le député a débloqué des financements pour acheter des refroidisseurs de lait pour les producteurs. Il est ainsi possible, en travaillant avec les responsables disposant d'un accès aux ressources, de mettre en oeuvre des programmes d'appui aux chaînes de valeur et d'y intégrer de nouveaux agriculteurs.Quel avenir pour les exploitants familiaux en Afrique si les acteurs ne suivent aucun modèle efficace de chaîne de valeur ?Si les gouvernements ne changent pas leur approche, la plupart des exploitations familiales sombrera car la grande partie de leurs activités est subventionnée, ce qui n'assure pas leur viabilité. L'agriculture familiale pourra être la nouvelle voie susceptible de résoudre les problèmes en Afrique si les responsables administratifs apprennent à mieux comprendre le fonctionnement de cette agriculture, en particulier le rôle de chaînes de valeur efficaces et fonctionnelles.L'utilisation d'actifs comme les terres permettrait de transformer l'agriculture familiale en entreprises agricoles rentables et faciliterait leur intégration aux chaînes de valeur modernes.Haron Wachira, entrepreneur et Directeur Général d'Akili Holdings au Kenya, a mis au point une approche qui permet de gérer d'un bout à l'autre des chaînes de valeur reliant les agriculteurs au secteur privé.Au Kenya, les LFIA ont toujours été vendus sur les marchés informels et consommés par les travailleurs à faible revenu des quartiers pauvres et des zones rurales. En 1999, toutefois, la chaîne de supermarchés Uchumi -qui possède 23 succursales dans tout le pays -a commencé à stocker environ huit variétés de LFIA dont la popularité a rapidement augmenté en raison de leur valeur nutritionnelle supérieure à celle de nombreux légumes conventionnels. Entre 2003 et 2006, une étude menée par le Centre international de recherche sur les légumes (AVRDC) a montré que la consommation de LFIA était passée de 31 à 600 tonnes par an (pour une valeur de 100 000 €) uniquement à Nairobi.Pour faire face aux craintes de contaminations dues à la pollution et aux eaux usées, qui peuvent détourner les consommateurs urbains des produits frais cultivés dans les villes, Uchumi fait très attention à l'origine de ses produits. Par exemple, dans ses succursales de Nairobi, la plupart des LFIA sont cultivés sur des exploitations familiales du comté voisin de Kiambu et proviennent d'environ 80 fournisseurs, dont plusieurs ne possèdent que de très petites parcelles (moins de 0,05 ha). Selon le responsable des produits frais d'Uchumi, Paul Mukono, les LFIA provenant des exploitants familiaux des hautes terres comme Kiambu sont à la fois sûrs et fiables, parce que les pluies y sont abondantes.Un grand nombre de ces producteurs familiaux de produits ont été mis en contact avec Uchumi en 2004, dans le cadre d'un projet pilote géré par Farm Concern International (FCI) qui a impliqué plus de 4 000 exploitants familiaux. Environ 200 ménages ont été regroupés dans des \"villages commerciaux\" de 20 à 30 membres, ce qui leur a permis de regrouper leur production et de répondre ainsi à la demande quotidienne en LFIA du supermarché. FCI a sensibilisé les agriculteurs aux potentiels nutritionnel et commercial des LFIA et s'est adressé à Uchumi pour qu'il leur achète leur production. FCI a aussi formé les agriculteurs en matière de lutte contre les ravageurs, d'épandage de fumier et de standardisation des bottes de LFIA ; Uchumi exige des bottes d'environ 500 g et exemptes de parasites.Le groupe d'entraide Kwaaregi Pioneer Organic, un village commercial d'exploitants familiaux de 21 membres, est l'un des regroupements qui fournissent maintenant le supermarché. Ses membres, dont les parcelles couvrent en moyenne 1,2 ha, cultivent de manière essentiellement biologique des LFIA tels que l'amaranthe, la morelle noire, le chou frisé d'éthiopie, la phalangère et le niébé. Les LFIA se régénèrent et poussent plus rapidement que les légumes exotiques : il n' y a que 45 jours entre la plantation et la récolte de la variété la plus lente. Selon James Ngata, facilitateur pour un village commercial, les avantages des LFIA sur les marchés surpassent aussi ceux des légumes exotiques tels que les choux et les choux verts en feuilles (sukuma wiki). En moyenne, Uchumi achète uneAu Kenya, l'augmentation de la consommation des légumes-feuilles indigènes d'Afrique (LFIA) à haute valeur nutritive a généré des opportunités lucratives en matière d'agriculture, si bien qu'avec le soutien des organisations agricoles, les agriculteurs familiaux les cultivent de plus en plus et vendent leur production en vrac à l'une des plus grandes chaînes de supermarchés du pays. botte de LFIA au groupe de M. Ngata pour 20 shillings kenyans (Ksh, soit 0,17 €); les agriculteurs peuvent aussi gagner 8-10 Ksh (0,08 €) par botte en les vendant sur l'exploitation. \"En ce qui concerne le sukuma wiki, nous le vendions aux intermédiaires pour seulement un shilling (0,01 €) par botte\", dit M. Ngata, dont la famille gagne maintenant 3 000 Ksh (25 €) par semaine en vendant des LFIA cultivés dans leur parcelle de 0,1 ha. Auparavant, quand ils cultivaient des légumes exotiques, il fallait deux mois pour gagner 3 000-5 000 Ksh (25-40 €).Grâce aux revenus stables garantis par les fréquents cycles de récolte des LFIA, le village commercial de M. Ngata peut accéder aux facilités de crédit Kilimo Biashara (l'agriculture comme une entreprise) et Kilimo Kisasa (l'agriculture moderne) d'Equity Bank. Les prêts accordés à un taux d'intérêt mensuel de 1-1,6 % aident le groupe à mettre des fonds en commun et à se procurer du fumier dans des endroits tels que Narok et Mai Mahiu, à plus de 70 km de distance. Grâce aux prêts, six des membres ont aussi pu installer des méthaniseurs chez eux. \"Nous n'avons pas eu de défauts de paiement sur les prêts, seulement quelques retards de remboursement\", déclare M. Ngata.Les faibles revenus provenant de la vente de légumes exotiques ont également conduit Zachariah Mungai et son neveu à cultiver des LFIA. Pour répondre à la demande du supermarché, la famille de M. Mungai et leur village commercial de Murimi Mugi cultivent des LFIA en organisant un système de plantation échelonnée. \"Des jours différents de la semaine sont alloués à nos agriculteurs pour la plantation\", explique M. Mungai. \"Ainsi, nous disposons des quantités nécessaires pour fournir Uchumi quand c'est nécessaire.\" L'appartenance à un village commercial permet aux agriculteurs de faire face aux exigences des acheteurs en vrac, mais cela présente aussi d'autres avantages. \"Ces villages commerciaux nous donnent un pouvoir de négociation quand nous traitons avec d'autres acheteurs, car nous ne vendons pas en dessous des prix que nous avons fixés\", dit John Njenga, agriculteur et facilitateur de ces villages. Les agriculteurs peuvent aussi acheter des intrants agricoles en vrac à prix réduit.Selon M. Mukono, les approvisionnements en LFIA sont encore insuffisants pour faire face à la demande des consommateurs. À la succursale de l'Aga Khan Walk, dans le centre de Nairobi, l'ensemble du stock est vendu avant midi. La succursale voudrait stocker 1 000 bottes de divers LFIA par jour, mais les agriculteurs ne fournissent actuellement que 800 à 900 bottes. Lorsque la demande s'accroît et que les prix augmentent, Uchumi augmente le prix aux agriculteurs par botte, ce qui responsabilise les membres du groupe quant à la qualité du produit fourni. Une fois les produits livrés, le traitement des paiements par Uchumi prend une quinzaine de jours.Selon une étude de Bioversity International, la popularité des LFIA a entraîné, entre 1997 et 2007, une augmentation de 70 % des superficies de terres consacrées à leur culture dans les hautes terres situées autour de Nairobi. Le nombre d'agriculteurs cultivant au moins un LFIA a également augmenté de 23 % et les femmes ont grandement bénéficié de ce phénomène puisque 80 % des gains produits par les LFIA leur sont revenus. Mary Wanjiku Githwe, par exemple, cultive des LFIA depuis 2007 chez elle, à Kamburu, dans le comté de Kiambu. Avec sa famille, elle a subdivisé sa parcelle en dix pépinières dont huit sont consacrées à la culture de la morelle noire et le reste à celle de l'amaranthe, de la phalangère et du chou frisé d'éthiopie. Quand Uchumi passe commande chaque semaine, Mme Wanjiku peut fournir de 300 à 400 bottes de LFIA, ce qui lui rapporte environ 20 000 Ksh (165 €) par mois.Selon Patrick Maundu, un chercheur et ethno-botaniste des Musées du Kenya, les femmes de la région de Nairobi gagnent actuellement environ 1,2 million de shillings kenyans (1 000 €) par jour grâce aux LFIA qui, jusqu'à il y a quinze ans, étaient la nourriture des pauvres. Pour ce qui touche à leur contribution aux régimes kenyans, les résultats d'une étude de 2012 de l'Université de Wageningen et son réseau de centres de recherche sont surprenants : les LFIA représentent maintenant 30 % de tous les légumes commercialisés au Kenya, un pourcentage qui ne cesse d'augmenter. L'Agricultural Act 2014 américain se veut révolutionnaire avec un budget drastiquement révisé à la baisse (-23 milliards de dollars à 956 milliards de dollars). L'essentiel des versements directs et subventions accordés aux agriculteurs est remplacé par des outils pour gérer les risques, notamment climatiques, et la volatilité des prix. Ceci conduit certains à y voir un soutien aux grandes exploitations capitalistiques, à haut rendement et à moindre coût, au détriment de l'agriculture familiale. Mais la Farm Bill, c'est surtout le financement du programme national alimentaire, les food stamps, sortes de tickets destinés aux plus pauvres pour payer leurs achats alimentaires. L'administration s'intéresse donc de près aux prix de ces produits dans les rayons des supermarchés. Si le Secrétaire américain à l'Agriculture, Tom Vilsack, qui ne se cache pas de vouloir soutenir le leadership mondial des agriculteurs américains, la Coalition américaine de l'agriculture familiale (NFFC), pour sa part, s'insurge contre l'absence de programmes s'assurant que les fermiers américains reçoivent un prix équitable couvrant leurs coûts de production.Dans le cadre de sa Politique agricole commune (PAC) 2014-2020 (363 milliards d'euros, mais en baisse de 13,7 %), l'UE entend ne pas oublier l'agriculture familiale. Et pour cause... Selon Dacian Ciolos, Commissaire européen à l'Agriculture et au développement rural, 95 % des fermes dans l'UE à 27 sont familiales. D'où le maintien d'un système d'aides directes mais avec une large autonomie donnée à chaque état membre quant aux mesures à mettre en oeuvre. On retrouve dans la PAC 2014-2020 des préoccupations semblables à celles des pays ACP, comme l'appui aux jeunes agriculteurs (moins de 40 ans) qui voudraient reprendre la ferme familiale et l'incitation Les états ACP ne sont donc pas seuls à affronter les défis lancés par l'agriculture familiale. Mais ce coup de projecteur sur les législations américaines et européennes témoigne de la place centrale que jouent les politiques publiques agricoles.L'Afrique en est consciente. Lors du Sommet de l'Union africaine à Maputo en 2003, le Programme détaillé de développement de l'agriculture africaine (PDDAA) a été adopté. Il prévoyait, entre autres, que 10 % des budgets nationaux soient investis dans le secteur agricole pris globalement. En 2008, on en était encore à 4 %, selon la Banque mondiale, et donc moins encore pour la seule agriculture familiale. A Haïti, en 2012/13, seulement 7,5 % du budget du gouvernement était alloué au ministère de l'Agriculture alors que ce secteur représente 25 % du PIB. Et les exemples sont légions.Mais la question budgétaire n'est pas la seule qui compte. L'essor de l'agriculture familiale nécessite aussi une mobilisation gouvernementale plurisectorielle. Car son développement dépend des nouvelles technologies ; de l'accès aux intrants, aux financements, à la transformation industrielle ; de la formation, des transports, des droits fonciers, de la fiscalité, des douanes, des chaînes de valeurs, des normes, etc. à telle enseigne qu'un concept type \"guichet unique\", dédié à l'agriculteur familial, est encore à imaginer dans nombre de pays.\"Au Tchad, le ministère de l'Agriculture est chef de file pour l'agriculture familiale\", explique Kolyang Palabelé, président du Conseil national de concertation des producteurs ruraux (CNCPRT). \"C'est un ministère d'état, donc il regroupe quelque peu les autres ministères. Mais les autres ministères travaillent aussi de leur côté. Un mécanisme de suivi du secteur rural a été mis en place en 1998 regroupant tous les partenaires au développement et nous, CNCRPT, sommes membres du comité de pilotage national qui comprend tous les ministères. Nous sommes aussi membres du Comité économique, social et culturel ce qui nous permet de faire des suggestions au gouvernement. Donc à tous les niveaux, l'agriculture familiale est représentée. Mais ce n'est pas pour autant que les problèmes de l'agriculture familiale sont résolus. Il faut, maintenant, aller sur des actions concrètes.\"Des actions concrètes notamment pour inciter les jeunes à revenir sur l'exploitation familiale. Ils doivent être assurés qu'au fond de leur campagne, leurs enfants auront une bonne école, un bon service santé, qu'il y aura l'eau courante et l'électricité. Le monde rural doit devenir attrayant... Profession? Agriculteur... Pour qu'une telle politique soit élaborée, l'agriculture familiale doit être reconnue, structurée. Tout commence donc par une reconnaissance légale du statut, de la profession. \"Il faut la reconnaissance du statut d'agriculteur dans une politique élaborée d'un commun accord. Actuellement, le petit paysan n'est pas considéré comme un agriculteur, mais comme un pauvre qui peut être exploité à tout moment\", poursuit Kolyang Palabelé. \"L'agriculteur familial, une fois reconnu dans son métier, doit pouvoir accéder aux avantages dont bénéficient les autres acteurs de la vie économique.\" Une condition sine qua non pour attirer les jeunes et faire entendre leurs voix.Un statut ? Mais par rapport à quoi si des titres fonciers n'existent pas ou si l'accès à la terre n'est pas sécurisé. En Afrique, 2 à 10 % seulement de la terre fait l'objet d'un titre. Au Cameroun, souligne Pierre Blaise Ango, coordinateur national du Programme d'appui à la formation professionnelle (AFOP), le foncier demeure dans \"l'ambigüité car deux lois foncières cohabitent : la légale et la coutumière\". A cet égard, on a pu noter au fil des années une meilleure place faite aux us et coutumes, pourvu que les situations foncières soient clairement établies. En 2012, à la FAO, les \"Directives volontaires pour une gouvernance responsable des régimes fonciers\" ont été adoptées avec pour objectif de servir de référence aux gouvernements. Aux Caraïbes, à travers les Land Bank Programs, les gouvernements aident les jeunes à acheter des terres agricoles \"dormantes\". Une politique souvent délicate dans certains pays : \"le Camerounais résiste au changement de son lieu de résidence. Ainsi, les politiques d'aménagement des espaces pour pouvoir, comme au Brésil et ailleurs, mobiliser les jeunes vers des espaces nouveaux, posent des problèmes\", note Pierre Blaise Ango.Un statut, des terres... Mais seul, l'agriculteur familial n'est que peu de chose. Rappelons qu'avant le rapport 2008 de la Banque mondiale qui a remis l'agriculture au coeur du débat sur le développement, le principal cheval de bataille des bailleurs et des gouvernements du Sud était de gommer l'aspect \"famille\" de l'agriculture, trop associé à la pauvreté, pour favoriser l'émergence d'une agriculture entrepreneuriale.L'agriculteur familial doit donc se doter d'organismes représentatifs pouvant se battre à tous les niveaux AOÛT 2014 | spOre NUMÉrO HOrs-sÉrIe | 29 de prises de décision -locales, nationales, internationales -pour défendre ses intérêts et ses droits. Des débats d'autant plus difficiles à mener, indique Marcella Villareal, directrice du bureau des partenariats à la FAO, qu'il y ait bien souvent question de véritables choix de société, nécessitant d'imaginer des dispositifs en faveur des jeunes, des femmes, contre l'exode rural, pour l'environnement, contre le productivisme à tout prix. Ces organisations de producteurs ont fleuri un peu partout au fil des années, à l'échelon régional comme avec l'Eastern African Farmers Federation (EAFF), la Plateforme régionale des Organisations paysannes d'Afrique centrale (PROPAC), Confédération des syndicats agricoles d'Afrique australe (SACAU) ou encore le Réseau des organisations paysannes et de producteurs de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (ROPPA), mais aussi à l'échelon national. \"L'Association nationale des organisations professionnelles agricoles de Côte d'Ivoire (ANOPACI) est devenue l'interlocuteur incontournable du ministère ivoirien de l'Agriculture\", souligne la Fondation Farm. \"Les organisations paysannes permettent de se battre pour être présent dans le cadre des débats politiques.\"Mais, aussi efficaces soient-elles, ces organisations ne représentent que rarement l'agriculture familiale, per se. Celle-ci est comprise dans la mission globale des organisations -parfois elle est même au coeur de leurs préoccupations, comme pour le ROPPA, par exemplemais cette mission ne tient pas toujours compte des spécificités, notamment les fortes \"asymétries de pouvoirs\" entre l'agriculteur familial et le reste du monde, comme souligné par Frédéric Apollin, directeur de l'ONG française Agronomes et vétérinaires sans frontières (AVSF).Ces organisations n'en jouent pas moins un rôle central notamment dans la détermination des prix, lorsqu'ils sont administrés. Car l'essentiel n'est pas tant d'avoir des prix fixes mais qu'ils soient à des niveaux rémunérateurs pour faire vivre une famille. Et lorsqu'ils ne sont pas administrés, il incombe aux pouvoirs publics ou aux corporations de communiquer, notamment envers les classes moyennes émergentes, sur l'importance d'acheter des produits alimentaires locaux qui permettent de faire vivre les familles d'agriculteurs. Les autorités peuvent aussi intervenir sur les coûts de mise en marché des produits en instaurant, comme dans les Caraïbes, des infrastructures publiques facilitant la commercialisation des produits.Les pouvoirs publics peuvent aussi aider l'agriculteur familial à se doter d'instruments efficaces pour développer son exploitation et gérer les risques, notamment en instaurant ou facilitant les systèmes d'information de marché et des système de certificats d'entrepôts. L'assurance agricole, quant à elle, en est encore à ses balbutiements dans les pays ACP. Une assurance agricole vieille de plus de 200 ans et qui a fait ses preuves aux états-Unis, dans l'UE et plus récemment, au Brésil, en Inde, etc. \"L'Afrique est à la traîne, ne représentant que 0,5 % de la valeur mondiale des primes d'assurance agricoles\", souligne Jean-Christophe Debar, directeur de la fondation Farm. \"Or, une politique agricole qui ne s'empare pas du volet risque ne sera pas viable.\"Le soutien des pouvoirs publics en la matière peut prendre la forme d'aide aux primes ou de prise en charge de la réassurance. Car la corrélation est claire : en Afrique, 3 % seulement des primes d'assurance agricoles bénéficient d'un soutien financier public et le marché de l'assurance agricole n'était que de 180 millions de $ US en 2010, contre, respectivement, 73 % et 13,6 milliards de $ US aux Etats-Unis. Mais les initiatives en Afrique se multiplient avec, dès 1987, le Nigeria Agricultural Insurance Scheme, ou, plus récemment, l'assurance mutuelle agricole du Bénin, la Compagnie nationale d'assurance agricole du Sénégal, l'Assurance récolte du Sahel, le Ghana Agricultural Insurance Program, PlaNet Garantee, etc. Kilimo Salama, lancé au Kenya en 2008 par la fondation Syngenta, se targue de faire ainsi revenir des jeunes à l'agriculture familiale jugée moins risquée; l'assurance peut aussi cibler des activités au sein de la ferme familiale, essentiellement réalisées par des femmes. En Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée comme en Jamaïque, des schémas assurantiels de ce type sont à l'étude.Enfin, face à la place croissante que prennent les multinationales dans le paysage agricole et pour préserver l'agriculture familiale face à cela, \"on peut attendre des gouvernements qu'ils rééquilibrent le rapport de force avec notamment des politiques d'achats publics d'une partie des récoltes à un prix déterminé ou par la réglementation des rapports vendeur-acheteur ou encore en protégeant l'accès aux ressources via des lois foncières\", explique Olivier De Schutter, rapporteur spécial des Nations Unies. D'où le vibrant appel du secrétaire-général de l'Onu, Ban Ki-moon, à Budapest, en mars dernier, lors du Forum global sur l'agriculture familiale : \"Les gouvernements peuvent promouvoir les agriculteurs familiaux, notamment les femmes et les jeunes, en créant des politiques constructives pour un développement rural équitable et durable.\"   Le CTA a, par ailleurs, commandé une série d'études de cas d'expériences réussies de coopération entre des petits exploitants et des entreprises, l'objectif étant de partager ces enseignements avec d'autres régions ACP. Ces études de cas témoignent de la grande diversité des chaînes de valeur agricoles, en termes de structure et de pratiques. En dépit de ces différences, elles démontrent que l'intégration des petits exploitants dans les chaînes de valeur peut avoir des résultats bénéfiques, tant pour les exploitants eux-mêmes que pour d'autres acteurs de la chaîne de valeur.Quant à la création de nouvelles applications des TIC par de jeunes entrepreneurs, le CTA et ses partenaires soutiennent la mise en place d'un environnement propice au développement et à l'utilisation efficace de ces TIC ainsi que leur généralisation, adoption et utilisation par un grand nombre de parties prenantes. Le Centre s'emploie à développer les capacités des parties prenantes, y compris celles des exploitants familiaux, afin qu'ils puissent utiliser les applications leur permettant d'améliorer leur productivité et de commercialiser plus facilement leurs produits. Dans le cadre des efforts visant à encourager la participation des exploitants familiaux aux procédures d'élaboration de politiques qui leur sont favorables, le CTA travaille également en coopération avec des organisations de producteurs des ACP. La coopération met l'accent sur le développement de programmes de formation pour leurs dirigeants, ce qui couvre l'analyse politique, la formulation et la défense de positions pertinentes, l'analyse et le suivi de l'affectation de fonds à l'agriculture dans le cadre d'un budget national ainsi que les modèles alternatifs de financement agricole pour les exploitants familiaux.De nombreux petits agriculteurs étant toujours confrontés à de graves problèmes de financement, le CTA s'est aussi attaché ces dernières années à promouvoir le financement de la chaîne de valeur agroalimentaire dans les pays ACP. Il a ainsi travaillé en coopération avec le Conseil des céréales de l'Afrique de l'Est afin de renforcer les capacités de ses partenaires dans le domaine du commerce structuré des céréales, ce qui comprend l'utilisation de normes agréées, d'entrepôts certifiés, du crédit sur inventaire et des bourses de marchandises (voir Edition spéciale 2013 de Spore). Avec l'Association africaine de crédit agricole et rural et d'autres acteurs, le CTA s'emploie à développer les capacités et à faciliter l'échange de connaissances sur les meilleures pratiques en matière de financement de la chaîne de valeur agricole et sur la formulation de politiques qui contribueront à généraliser les pratiques qui ont fait leurs preuves. D'autres enseignements (dont il sera plus amplement question dans le Spore 172) sur les approches de promotion des meilleures pratiques de financement agricole émergeront de la conférence 2014 du CTA \"Révolutionner le financement des chaînes de valeur agricole\" organisée récemment à Nairobi.Enfin, 2014 n'est pas seulement l'AIAF. C'est aussi l'Année internationale des petits états insulaires en développement. Afin de mettre en avant et rendre hommage à la vitalité et au dynamisme des exploitants familiaux dans les petits états insulaires en développement, notamment des Caraïbes et du Pacifique, le CTA a récemment lancé un mini site web http://cta.int/fr/actualites/aiaf.html. Il y présente les points de vue de ses experts pour revitaliser et soutenir l'agriculture familiale, tout en alimentant la réflexion sur les nombreuses possibilités de coopération.susanna Thorp Le CTA met l'accent sur l'agriculture familiale En 2014, le CTA s'est associé à la FAO et au Forum rural mondial -les coordinateurs internationaux de l'Année internationale de l'agriculture familiale (AIAF) -aux côtés de nombreuses organisations internationales, nationales et régionales afin de célébrer cette année si particulière et en tirer des enseignements.Découvrez les 4 pistes proposées par les experts du CTA En savoir plus sur www.cta.int/iyff","tokenCount":"10978"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f77fe012f1cd0f5cf5e6bfebb6841ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ff6a612-cc7f-404a-bab6-685b329e0b2f/retrieve","id":"290238436"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8a379b12-3422-41cd-ad5f-7f107aa787ca","pagecount":"18","content":"Who are we and what do we do? T he International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and CARE Norway, in collaboration with national partners in Africa, are implementing a project to increase the effectiveness of seed-based interventions in acute and chronically stressed African farming systems. Consensus is emerging from applied research and rigorous ex post facto evaluations that conventional seed relief poses concerns. These include: ■ Missing, inadequate or incorrect diagnosis of seed insecurity, with the problem often (mistakenly) assumed to be one of seed unavailability. ■ Predominance of supply-side approaches, with a strong reliance on the commercial seed sector for relief seed. ■ Lack of understanding of farmer seed systems and the important roles they have to play in agricultural relief and recovery. ■ Lack of appreciation of the central importance of local markets in informal and more integrated seed systems. ■ Repetitive relief interventions leading to chronic seed aid.CIAT serves as the project coordinator with funding from USAID/Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). CIAT's interest in seed systems under stress dates to the Rwanda Seeds of Hope project of 1995-6, where the impact of disaster on seed systems and agrobiodiversity were both key issues. CRS, also with funding from OFDA, is actively engaged in agriculture recovery wherever there is a need in Africa, and emphasizes approaches that stimulate enhanced production and income generation. CARE Norway, with funding from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, has developed expertise across broad areas of agriculture recovery.The project seeks to influence and enhance the knowledge, attitudes and practices of donors and practitioners as they support and undertake seed assistance. It does so by increasing understanding, firstly of the impacts of disaster and sustained stress on seed systems; and secondly of the effectiveness of varied seed-aid responses on efforts to strengthen seed systems in the short and longer term.New knowledge, as well as synthesis of better practice is being generated by this project, and Briefs 3 to 7 share insights on different topics related toCase studies show seed-based agricultural recovery to be more complex than is commonly assumed.These Briefs provide practical advice on how to improve seed aid, including specific technical guidance as well as tools and checkists spanning steps from assessment to evaluationthrough to new proposal design.Briefs 4 and 5 consider focused topics that cut across seed assistance and seed security. No. 4 addresses issues of relief and agobiodiversity: the importance of diversity in stabilizing systems and the possible effects of various relief approaches in maintaining, enhancing, or undermining such diversity. No. 5 focuses on the opportunities and risks of using seed aid to move beyond the status quo ante by introducing seed of new varieties (or indeed, new crops altogether).Briefs 6 and 7 present short overviews of practice. No. 6 looks at the range of seed systems routinely used by small farmers in Africa and highlights the escalating importance of local markets. Effective interventions depend on a solid understanding of such standard seed procurement practices. No. 7 sketches the current major seedsystem based response options, and reflects on their appropriateness in relation to the stresses on hand.The last set of briefs focus on tools and guidance. No. 8 examines how effective interventions depend on sound and timely assessment, which requires both a tool to assess seed system security and the knowledge and skill to use it. No. 9 starts to bring the cycle to a close by giving guidance on evaluating seed-aid projects, suggesting the types of evaluation needed and their content. The final brief then looks to the future and suggests a checklist for the development of proposals for seed assistance. It is this last which builds on the range of lessons learned.Overview of Seed Systems Under Stress Project: Case Studies S eed relief studies, managed by CIAT, CRS, and CARE Norway, have been published in a volume entitled Addressing Seed Security in Disaster Response: Linking Relief with Development (see below for availability). The eight case studies were undertaken to evaluate various forms of emergency seed aid and to document how seed stress is diagnosed and how interventions are designed in concrete contexts. The objectives were to understand whether and how vulnerable farmers are being helped by the kinds of assistance they receive -and how to move forward to improve practice.The work unfolded over a two-year period in seven countries in Africa. In each case study the seed-aid practitioners were directly engaged in the evaluations and reflections, so that lessons learned could immediately influence the next steps of practice. It is to the credit of participating national agricultural research systems (NARS) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that they were willing to take a hard look at the effectiveness of their interventions. Equally, the donors, USAID/OFDA and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Norway, are to be lauded for promoting substantive follow-up on emergency assistance, because such follow-up is rare.Table 1 gives a broad overview of the major features of the case studies: the countries in which they were undertaken, the stresses that originally triggered a decision to supply seed-related assistance, and the types of interventions that were implemented. The eight seed relief case studies ask if and how vulnerable farm families are being helped by the emergency assistance received Each case was chosen to be somewhat unique, in order to build up our body of knowledge concerning seed system relief. However, they all provide details on how the seed problem was initially assessed, the type of interventions that unfolded, and an ex-post facto evaluation of their effectiveness. Five of the cases address key features of specific interventions (such as introductions of new varieties), while three present overviews of the practice and evolution of seed aid on a country-wide basis. The project also synthesized findings from across the different cases. We present several of the most important results below, but refer the reader to the full volume for more elaborate insight (Sperling et al. 2004, see below for availability).Relief organizations are generally using an 'acute' response -seed aid -to treat what are more often 'chronic' poverty-based problems.Emergency seed system assistance was delivered in six out of the eight cases examined in response to what was characterized as an acute stress (that is, an event of short-duration). However, more indepth analysis, in each of the six cases, showed the problems to be more chronic and systemic in nature, for example declining productivity, water-related stress, ongoing civil unrest, and misplaced political policies.The other two cases, both of crop breakdowns (one in western Kenya with beans and the other in northern Mozambique with cassava), were the only ones in which prior assessments actually took place.These revealed that the 'acute manifestation' was also due to more systemic pressures, including the build-up of plant disease, lack of crop rotations and declining farm sizes. The result of an 'acute' response in a more chronically stressed context is that the problem is not alleviated and that seed system assistance is then needed repeatedly.Chronic seed distribution is resulting in the emergence of a Relief Seed System.Seed aid distribution is taking place in an alarmingly large number of countries: one season, two seasons, three seasons, and beyond. Giving seed aid is itself becoming a chronic activity. Table 2 summarizes the number of years seed aid has been given in several countries. There seem to be few checks for stopping such assistance (simply when funds dry up?) and deliberate exit strategies have not been planned.The rise of a chronic seed aid system has been identified as a profitable business opportunity for entrepreneurs, who specialize in quick delivery of a small range of crops. It has also led to the rise of a separate Relief Seed System (see cases from Ethiopia and Zimbabwe).The lack of any diagnosis related to the seed system is a widespread problem (see Brief No. 7). In the absence of seed-related needs assessment, the default option has been to assume that there is a lack of available seed. Two sources of information indicate that this automatic assessment of lack of availability is often incorrect in the extreme.■ A growing number of studies have traced where farmers in disaster situations sourced the seed they planted -in areas where seed aid distribution had taken place. Table 3 indicates that in contexts where precise data were examined (and with larger sample sizes), relatively little of the seed sown came from emergency aid. Seed had been available in local channels, and particularly from local markets.■ Seed availability has also been assessed via those who may supply seed in crisis periods: the local seed and grain traders. In Burundi, where seed aid has been given since 1995, 41 traders recounted their experience with seed sourcing over the past 10 years of drought and war. Thirtyseven indicated that there had never been aproblem with availability. The other four nuanced their answers, with only one trader suggesting an absolute lack at one point in time (see case study from Burundi). Misplaced seed-quality parameters in emergency response result in overemphasis on seed health to the detriment of genetic quality.Issues of seed quality shape the types of seed assistance that can unfold. Quality issues most often focus on whether the seed is certified or not (as many donors require formal verification as a prerequisite for emergency seed procurement). Stereotypes typically equate certified and formal sector seed as being of high germination and good seed health, while farmer seed (home-produced and procured from the market) is typically judged to be of poor quality. Case studies show that such labels can be deceptive. The quality of formal-sector seed may not be as advertised (as in the case from western Kenya), while emergency-grade seed overall is of highly variable health and genetic quality (the case from eastern Kenya). Farmer seed and market seed has also proven to be of good quality, as assessed in laboratory analyses (western Kenya).The focus on seed health has diverted attention from what is probably the more important quality issue for seed: at the very least, the seed on offer must be adapted to the environmental conditions at hand. Genetic quality, in practice, has been given second priority in emergency responses. Varieties emerging from formal research sectors or on offer from commercial companies are assumed 'good enough', whether or not they have been selected for use in the regions of stress or for growing under the recipients' management conditions.Sperling, L., Remington, T., Haugen, J.M., and Nagoda, S., eds. 2004, Addressing seed security in disaster response: linking relief with development. Cali, Colombia: International Center for Tropical Agriculture. Available for download from http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/africa/pdf/emergency_seed_aid_ case_studies.pdf Understanding Seed Security I nherent in the decision that seed aid is needed is an assumption that farmers themselves are not able to secure seed for their normal planting periods. Farmers' ability to secure seed is described by the concept of seed security. The concept of seed security (and its inverse, insecurity) is often nuanced by two broad sets of parameters: duration (are the problems short or longerterm?) and the different features needed to ensure security (if there are concerns, what types of diverse problems might farmers encounter?). We discuss both in this introduction to the concept of seed security.To understand seed security it is important first to distinguish between acute (short-term, transitory) and chronic (longer-term, long-lasting) seed security issues.Acute seed insecurity is brought on by distinct, short-duration events that often affect a broad range of the population. It may be spurred by the failure to plant in a single season, the loss of a harvest, or by high levels of infestation of stored seed stocks. While during normal times households may variously be identified as seed secure, semi-secure, or always seedshort, all may be affected during an acute event such as a flood or short civil disturbance. Those farmers who recover quickly, with or without one-off seedrelated assistance, are often those who have suffered only acute stress. Note that acute food stress (and the need for food aid) is not necessarily followed by seed stress (and the need for some form of seed aid). Seed systems can be very resilient, and, for some crops (e.g. sorghum), small amounts will satisfy farmers' practical sowing needs.Chronic seed insecurity is independent of acute stress or disaster, although it may be exacerbated by it. Chronic seed insecurity may be found among populations who have been marginalized in different ways: economically (for example, poor, little land, little labor); ecologically (for example, repeated drought, degraded land); or politically (in insecure areas, or on land with uncertain tenure arrangements). Populations that suffer chronic seed insecurity may be characterized by: ■ Continual shortage of adequate seed to plant. ■ Difficulties in acquiring seed off farm due to lack of funds. ■ The routine use of low quality seed and unwanted varieties. The result is households with a built-in vulnerability to seed system calamities.Seed insecurity comes in many guises. Chronic insecurity differs from acute insecurity and the elements of seed availability, access and quality need to be examined independently.Understanding seed systems and seed security properly will lead to more effective seedrelated assistanceAcute and chronic seed insecurity will very often exist together during an emergency. Indeed, in cases where emergencies are recurrent events, for example in drought-prone areas, acute situations are nearly always superimposed on chronic problems that are rooted in poverty. Figure 1 aims to show conceptually the relationship between acute and chronic seed insecurity. At any given normal time a portion of the agricultural population, usually the majority, are seed-secure, with the poorest being those who fall below the theoretical security line. In a disaster, all may be affected to some degree, as harvests may decline overall and some seed stocks may be lost.However, those just above the margins of security may fall into chronic seed stress if alleviating actions are not sufficient. Similarly, those already in chronic stress may not recover above the line into seed security if they are simply assisted with one-off injections of seed aid.Analysis of seed insecurity in the field reveals two trends in the relationship between acute and chronic contexts.■ First, there is increasing evidence of a general transition from acute to chronic seed insecurity, rather than the presumed goal of recovery.  Line A represents a stylized relationship between poverty (x axis; expressed in terms of assets) and seed security (y axis).The point S represents an arbitrary seed security threshold: above the broken line is seed security, below it seed insecurity.In locales for most interventions, in normal times, a proportion of the population, represented by the thicker portion of line A, is chronically seed insecure. In an emergency, two things may happen: (1) livelihood assets may decrease, so the entire population will move down the line, such that more of the population will be seed insecure by virtue of their increased poverty;(2) there may be a shift downwards of the entire line to B, perhaps due to short-term problems of seed availability or access. Either way, a larger proportion of the poor, the vulnerable population, will become seed insecure, as represented by the additional, dashed part of line B. The concept of seed security embodies several diverse aspects: differentiating among these is crucial to promote those features that foster seed security as well as to anticipate the varied ways in which such security might be threatened.The Seed Security Framework in Table 1 outlines the fundamental elements of seed security: seed has to be available, farmers need to be able to access to it, and the seed quality must be sufficient to promote healthy seed system functioning. Availability is defined narrowly as whether sufficient quantity of seed of target crops is present within reasonable proximity (spatial availability) and in time for critical sowing periods (temporal availability). It is essentially a geographically-based parameter, and so is independent of the socio-economic status of farmers.Seed access is a parameter specific to farmers or communities. It largely depends upon the assets of the farmer or household in question: whether they have the cash (financial capital) or social networks (social capital) to purchase or barter seed.Seed quality includes two broad aspects: seed quality per se, and variety quality. Seed quality consists of physical, physiological and sanitary attributes (such as the germination rate, and the absence or presence of disease, stones, sand, broken seed or weeds). Variety quality consists of genetic attributes, such as plant type, duration of growth cycle, seed color and shape, palatability and so on (see Brief No. 6).In using the framework, it is important to emphasize that the distinction between availability and access is dependent on scale. At some level, if one is willing to pay enough to transport seed from far enough away, seed is always available. Likewise, the concepts of availability and quality are interrelated. If seed is available which will grow and mature to harvest, but which is of otherwise low quality or of unwanted crops or varieties, this constraint would usually be considered under the quality parameter, but one could question whether appropriate seed is available at all.Formal definitions of seed security are fairly recent, as is the notion that seed security assessments need to be distinct from those that focus on food security. In standard field practice, food security assessments inevitably assume that food insecurity means seed insecurity. The cause of this seed insecurity is also invariably diagnosed as a problem of availability; that is, there are not enough seeds in a region. A better understanding of the seed security concept, along with informed used of a seed system security assessment tool (see Brief No. 7), should help lead to more targeted diagnoses of problems at hand as well as to more targeted responses.Using the two aspects of seed security outlined above, Table 2 gives examples of more targeted responses to seed insecurity, to address explicit constraints in seed availability, access and quality in the short-term (acute) and long term (chronic). (See also Brief No. 7 for a more extensive analysis.) So, for example, if 'seed availability' is assessed as the problem, seed-based interventions, such as seed importation (for acute shocks) or development of community-based seed production enterprises (for chronic stress), may be appropriate. However, a diagnosis of 'seed access' might wisely trigger a more holistic analysis of livelihood strategies.In the acute phase, providing farmers with cash or vouchers to get their desired seed might be on the mark to address short-term problems of access. However, an identification of chronic access problems should lead practitioners to look well beyond seed and seed security constraints. The inability to access a certain necessary good on a repeated basis is usually equated with problems of basic poverty. Initiatives to help farmers generate income and strengthen their livelihood base would be essential here.Finally, we emphasize that lack of use of a Seed Security Framework (availability, access, utilization) and an acute vs chronic perspective has generally resulted in few explicit assessments of seed security to date. Getting a better handle on the concept of seed security is but a first important step toward designing seed security related interventions that effectively address the real problems at hand.isaster, as well as subsequent relief and recovery activities, can have significant impacts on agrobiodiversity. In this context, by agrobiodiversity we mean the full diversity of crops and their varieties that may exist in a farming system. We are not specifically addressing livestock, nor other unmanaged components of systems (such as bees or wild plants).In terms of disaster effects and humanitarian aid, the issue of agrobiodiversity is important for three groups of stakeholders:■ For those focusing on quick recovery; greater agrobiodiversity contributes to production stability. It helps farmers to avoid and mitigate different risks, because different crops and varieties resist different diseases, insect attacks and environmental stresses such as drought better than others.A range of agrobiodiversity can also help farmers to stagger their harvest of incoming food supplies and labor needs, which is important when resources are few and far between. ■ For those focusing on plant genetic resources, maintaining the diversity of crops and varieties is important in itself because this genetic diversity provides the raw material for agriculture's future adaptations as well as the genetic traits for crop improvement programs. ■ For those focusing on longer-term system strengthening, the introduction of new varieties potentially increases productivity, and captures market opportunities -but also may affect agrobiodiversity negatively and positively.This brief examines the more immediate and practical dimensions of agrobiodiversity in farming systems.During normal times, a range of agrobiodiversity allows farmers to spread risk, increases their resilience to shock, and often translates into more nutritious diets. These are key issues when people live from what they sow. During emergency stress times the stabilizing features of agrobiodiversity become potentially even more important. So what features of agrobiodiversity should be considered in responding to emergencies? And what impact do different kinds of activity have on agrobiodiversity? This brief explores those questions. In terms of agrobiodiversity, perhaps it is fortunate that seed aid has a circumscribed role in an emergency response. Seed aid is never provided to all farm community members -and often the better-off and less-affected farmers receive nothing.Also, even when a family does receive seed aid, it rarely covers all of their seed requirements. So giving farmers less than their total seed needs in an emergency distribution can actually be beneficial for keeping local varieties in production.Local crops and seed often remain in circulation and can be accessed via markets or exchange channels to complement the free (and often 'exotic') emergency seed assistance.Not all relief approaches are equally effective in bolstering and stabilizing seed and farming systems. We comment below on those that practitioners assert may do 'less harm' and that, in select cases, may actually support and enhance the range of crops and varieties in use.Food aid is underrated as a seed relief strategy. Delivery of such aid can allow remaining seed stocks and variety diversity to be maintained (and not eaten). The rationale for the SPR is that food aid is given particularly for the months prior to sowing time, during the 'lean times'.There is scant evidence to date that disasters themselves significantly alter agrobiodiversity profiles. It is rather the subsequent humanitarian responses which often have negative consequences.A note of caution is important here in lauding the virtues of food aid as a seed rescuing (or maintaining) strategy. In farmers' minds, food aid and seed aid may not be separate entities -and gifts of food may subsequently be planted. Hence, in several countries of southern Africa, genetically-modified food aid from the US has not been accepted in recent drought years because of fears that it would find its way into the fields. Consideration also needs to be given to food aid from in-country purchases: large procurements may impact on the overall availability of grain and local prices of seed grain.Direct Seed Distribution takes many forms -some of which can damage local seed (and economic) systems. Bringing seed in from outside can undermine functioning markets and introduce cultivars that are not well adapted to local conditions. In terms of agrobiodiversity, however, one variant of DSD seems to minimize damage to crops and varieties. When seed procurement draws from local markets, or regional traders, and when it distributes varieties from similar agro-ecological zones, farmers may get access to varieties they know and have used and that are well adapted. In variants of this local procurement strategy, implementers have distributed variety mixes (where these are routinely sown), and have tried to distribute local varieties. An inherent weakness in seed procurement is that the implementing agency must act as a competent broker for farmer clients and must know and understand seed quality and the specific preferences of farmers. Further, it is well known that local middlemen sometimes buy seed from small farmers to sell to NGOs who then distribute the seed back to the same or similar small farmers. One has to wonder whether the small farmers or the middlemen benefit most from this kind of intervention.Seed vouchers permit farmers themselves to select among the crops and varieties available within a region. These may be local (sourced from local markets or traders) or improved (sourced from commercial companies or specialized outlets). The point is that farmers themselves can choose and manage the crops and varieties they desire. Advertised seed fairs, which bring farmer buyers and sellers together in dedicated events, provide a range of seed from which farmers can choose. While fairs cannot put on offer the full set of diversity available in a farming system, the profile of crops (often 5-15) and varieties (20 upwards) available in one place is relatively broad. Of course, putting diversity on offer does not guarantee that farmers will access it. Recipients often focus on one or two crops, and choose the more popular varieties of these. In brief, the use of agrobiodiversity, that is the use of a range of crops and varieties, is a proven risk mitigation strategy that works in all sorts of situations, from drought to conflict.Food aid is an underrated strategy for seed-related assistance. It can allow people to save their remaining seed stocks and variety diversity, rather than be forced to sell or eat them.High levels of agrobiodiversity can also aid farmers nutritionally and economically. Seed aid should never dramatically alter such diversity either by adding or removing substantial amounts of diversity. Agrobiodiversity profiles can be dynamic, but the process has to be planned, and with farmers having the knowledge, skills and tools to make informed decisions about the crops and varieties they sow. Principles for sustaining and promoting agrobiodiversity in seed relief response F armers are keen to obtain and evaluate new crop varieties. This process of experimentation and subsequent introduction of adapted and accepted varieties can potentially strengthen farmers' cropping systems by increasing yields, improving drought resilience, boosting resistance to pests and diseases and also by capturing new market opportunities.Introducing new varieties can also play a role in restoring food security at times of crisis. Crises may alter preferences, for instance when populations relocate, or crisis may even be caused by crop and variety breakdowns (for example spurred by plant disease or sharply declining soil fertility). Both situations leave farmers in want of appropriate planting material. Crises may also be seen as an opportunity to introduce new varieties, via the extensive seed aid channels, in order to promote what are considered more 'modern' practices and thus to strengthen systems plagued by low production.Regardless of the potential for improving smallholder productivity through the introduction of new varieties, it is important to start by questioning the legitimacy of such introductions during crises. In periods of emergency and prolonged stress, small farmers are already at levels of increased risk. They are generally poorer, having lost household assets, livestock or crops in the field, and they cannot afford to waste further often scarce land or labor resources. Further, they need to have some confidence that the next planting season will yield better than the present, stressed, one. Outside aid, minimally, should put on offer products or processes at least as good as those already in farmers' hands. While formal sector varieties are referred to as 'improved' and the quality of the seed is certified, these varieties often yield poorly in many smallholder cropping systems. Such new varieties may not be adapted to the local agro-ecological conditions and farmers may not possess the management inputs (for example fertilizers and pesticides) crucial for their growth. So an 'improved variety' does not mean that performance is guaranteed.This brief suggests 'better practice' for introducing (or not) new varieties in situations of acute and chronic stress. It presents a series of technical guidelines that need to be considered prior to any variety introductions. The brief is also framed by a set of precautionary notes: if humanitarian assistance involves crop or variety introductions, even 'emergency' short-term interventions should be programmed within a longer-term plan of action.Seed aid that is considering the possible introduction of crops or varieties has to be programmed to embrace a well-planned set of steps. These are summarized in Box 1 and elaborated in the text that follows. Often, a disaster and its ensuing seed aid are viewed as an opportunity for large scale distribution of seed of modern varieties. An assumption may be made that farmers have experienced crisis in part due to a weakness in their crop systems -which would include under-performing crops and varieties.Before contemplating any introduction, implementers should conduct rigorous seed system security assessments (see Brief No. 7). This should be done with the recipient communities and with informed research and development personnel who know the local agroecological systems well. It is important to get an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of current agricultural and seed systems. Teams also need to have an indepth understanding of the root causes for any stress to the seed system. Fundamentally, a decision to introduce new varieties needs to be founded on sufficient evidence that new varieties offer promising opportunities, and, equally, that their introduction will not expose farmers further to increased risk.Initial prior assessments must also provide good insight into farmers' awareness of, access to and use of new varieties. Answers to key questions (Box 2) will help guide further strategy -and may be particularly important for ensuring that the right farmers (i.e. the vulnerable) are well-served by the intervention.A Seed System Security Assessment for any given region should result in an inventory of varieties by crop, including varieties currently used by farmers, as well as new varieties not yet available to farmers for testing. New varieties of potential interest to farmers usually come from the formal sector; international research centers, national research organizations and commercial seed companies. Institutions proposing candidate varieties for use in specific farming regions should submit documentation detailing performance of the new materials to those considering the distribution of such entries (e.g. NGOs). Such documentation might also be usefully reviewed by knowledgeable local extension agents as well as key farmers (depending, of course, on its language and format).The suitability of new materials for use in a particular zone and for a well-defined client group needs to be assessed. Not everything new is good. Appropriate varieties should have: ■ Evidence of adaptability to cropping system and prevailing agro-ecological conditions. ■ Evidence of acceptability according to the preferences and experiences of farmers who are most affected by the stress. If, traditionally, farmers produce for domestic consumption, varieties should be acceptable for these standards. ■ Evidence that they can be used under the management regimes in routine practice, including by the vulnerable (i.e. not be highly dependent on inputs such as fertilizers that the poorest farmers often cannot access).■ Conduct a Seed System Security Assessment.• What are the current seed system weaknesses and strengths? Note that maize hybrids, in particular, are often promoted as new items on offer in stress contexts. However, their performance under low-input, high stress farming has been uneven, and has often failed almost completely (see Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe cases in Brief No. 2). Simply, hybrids usually demand inputs and better soils. Furthermore, the seed supply needs to be 'bought' the next season because hybrids cannot be resown and retain their productive vigor.In an agricultural recovery project, introductions should give farmers access to seed of new and desired varieties, so that they can experiment with them and add them to their systems if they choose to. The objective should not be to satisfy 100% of a farmer's seed needs with commercial seed (nor, as a hidden objective, to expand the customer base for the commercial sector). It should also not be to replace local varieties that may be seen by outsiders as inferior.Even use of 'best bet' varieties (that is, those prescreened for potential adaptability, acceptability and usability) is not risk free. In an acute crisis, farmers need access to test packets of seeds, a basket of variety choices among which to select test candidates and enough information to make informed decisions about the varieties offered.Seed delivered in small quantities will enable farmers to learn about the new materials without compromising their production stability. Sizes should be small enough that any production loss will not dent harvests. Farmers in many African regions are used to the format of such 'peanut-sized packages' and have favorably received new varieties this way in the East, Central and Southern African regions.Farmers should always have a choice as to whether they want to accept a new variety or not. In addition, experiences drawn from actual field practice suggest that a basket of varieties should be on offer to contribute to crop and variety diversity and to potentially increase resilience.Farmers need solid accompanying information to make knowledgeable choices and management decisions. Written information sheets (preferably in local languages) have proved useful, as have pictures and diagrams for the less literate. Information leaflets should communicate to farmers the existence of new varieties that may be of interest, describe the attributes of the new materials and give guidance on how to manage them (including signaling management practices that may differ from farmers' norms).All too often seed aid is an extension of food aid: monitoring and evaluation focus on logistics and subsequent reports are administrative and perfunctory. Increasingly, however, seed aid is seen as very different from food aid. Better, more nuanced assessments of seed systems and seed security are resulting in recommendations of more complex and integrated responses. Especially when an objective of variety introduction is included, it is important to monitor and evaluate -with farmer participation -the performance of the new varieties and to report on results and recommend next steps and changes to improve the process. It is important to signal if the varieties are yielding -but for whom, and where, and under which management conditions. Farmers' Awareness of, Access to and Use of New Varieties: Guide Questions An 'improved' variety does not guarantee better performance.Practitioners and farmers will want to be sure that the variety is adapted to the conditions on the ground.Clearly, the introduction of new varieties cannot be a one year, one-off activity. It is essential that the performance under farmer management of the new varieties informs subsequent recovery steps and that the response to future disasters also takes this information into account. Assuming that the objective is to strengthen and integrate farmers' own seed systems, investment needs to be made to determine how to maintain the variety at least cost to farmers and how the seeds themselves can be made available and accessible on a continuing basis.Chronic and prolonged stress affects farmers who are subject to repeated 'disaster' situations such as frequent drought, or who experience slower stress build-ups, such as increases in pests and diseases over time. Many of these populations are also economically marginalized, trapped, and often facing destitution. Although introductions of improved varieties alone may not be enough to solve the underlying problems faced by these farm families, they can be both an effective addition and a useful entry point for more ambitious interventions to ensure longer-term development. Access by all farmers to adapted and appropriate plant material (including new variety introductions) is vital in these contexts. However, given the longer-term stress and the likelihood of such stresses recurring, the process for variety selection and introduction requires sustained and continuous commitment by scientists and farming communities alike. Chronically-stressed farmers are not economically attractive clients for seed companies (farmers just don't have the needed cash) so the onus of maintaining varieties often rests with the communities themselves.A number of key steps can help to make the introduction of new varieties in conditions of chronic stress an effective process and decrease the chances of failure. Note that the focus of Box 3 is a solidly developmental one.Marginal farmers in chronically-stressed areas are not commercially attractive clients. Therefore communities themselves have to be linked to research programs and should have access to research products. These links might be direct or through intermediary organizations such as NGOs and development organizations. In all cases, these links have to be made explicit -and institutionalized. Exposure to innovation needs to be continuous, not one-off. ■ Keep farmers, local seed producers, and agroentrepreneurs abreast of advances in breeding and give them access to a dynamic supply of promising new varieties. ■ In the particularly 'hard case' areas, where the adaptation stress is high (such as regions where soils are scarce or very poor) involve farmers in sustained participatory plant breeding and selection programs to ensure that the material is adapted on site and to secure a tradition of experimentation and direct client evaluation. Support for the decentralized selection by farmers of preferred varieties (as well as their production and marketing) should be seen as part of a wider set of interventions to decentralize service delivery to farmers. The ultimate goal goes beyond varieties and seed. The aim is to enhance the capacity of communities to implement their own recovery and development in ways that mitigate the effects of cyclical and prolonged stress periods. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"45ad3066f0abb4ea1635a6890b64f96d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/34e0d48d-f960-44de-9636-8551d77dfd2c/retrieve","id":"1573271451"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0a3d8c8c-0c62-4cb6-91be-f05658a9d692","pagecount":"66","content":"The CIAT Sean Program was established by the CGIAR in 1974 with the world mandate to make a lasting increase in food availability and incomes 01 the poor by improving bean productivity through technology developed in collaboration with nalional institutions. To effectively work on a global scale, a Sean Program pioneered a strategy lor grouping countries into regional researeh networks having agroeeological and socioeconomic affinities lo facilitate the development and transfer of new technologies across a large area in a more efficient and economical manner. In Africa, the {i rsl regional bean network was established in the Great Lakes Region (RESAPAC) in 1984, and soon {ollowed by the Eastern Afriea Bean Research Network (EASRN) and the Southern Africa Bean Network (SADC).Priorto the establishment olthe research networks, bean production in sub-Saharan Alriea was poorly understood. National programs had Httle success in developing technologies eapable 01 overcoming important production conslrainls. When new technologies were developed many were found nol to be appropriate lo farmer needs. The underlying reason for the lack of progress was that individual national programs were generally understaffed, with multiple legume crop development responsibilities, very limited budgels, no direct access to new technologies being developed elsewhere, and lacked Iraining and orienlation in on-farm research. The CIAT-managed regional bean networks were critical for slrengthening nalional programs and organizing research activities in some of the poorest countries of the world.The networks lunction as volunlary associalions among national agricultural research systems (NARS) and with CIAT, and have a common objective to increase bean productivity in particular agro-ecological zones and/or socio-economic regions. AII decisions on teehnical priorities, resource allocation, and assessment 01 research progress are the responsibility of the regional Steering Committees. Policy deeisions concerning network aclivities are determined by regional committees of NARS Directors. Research planning is done through participatory Project Planning by Outputs (PPO) which gives individual scientists and other groups, such as extension agents and local NGOs, a sen se of ownership and identification with the network. The core set of activities within a network is collaborative research, organized as regional sub-projecls, and led by selected NARS scientists from institutions offering eomparative advanlages for a particular line of research.The significan! accomplishments achieved lo date by the regional bean networks are a direct result of the close collaboration belween CIAT scientific staff in the region and national program researchers. Daily interaction provides NARS with quicker access to new technologies and lo on-Ihe-job research training. It is not, however, a one-way flow of information. CIAT depends on the regional networks as much as the NARS to develop and test new lechnologies. The networks also facilitate the development and exchange of technologies within/among NARS members. Greater across-nelwork exchange of new technologies i5 evolving as the networks mature and strengthen.The situatíon concerning bean research in Africa is very differenl today than ít was ten years ago. The networks and their 5teering committees are now seasoned in network management, and the research sub-project mechanism has become instítutionalized. Increasingly, coordination of lhe networks is being turned over to local management. The (irst network to be devolved was SADC in 1994, followed by RESAPAC in 1995. EABRN will become selfmanaging in 1996. The natural evolution of the networks towards self managemen! is fully supported by CIA T, the donors, and the regional directors.Vet, previous experience has shown tha! for the networks to be successful after devolution, there must be in place three critical components: 1) a commitment by Ihe donors for continued support lo lhe networks, 2) eommitment by the NARS lo conduct high quality researeh and to exchange Ihe results with other member countries, and 3) a conlinuous supply of new teehnologies and research inputs by CIA T scientists to Ihe NARS in a frequent and participatory manner.As the regional networks evolve, research needs and priorities al50 change. Greater dedicated research efforts are now needed lO lackle and solve some of lhe mosl diffieult constraints limiting bean productivily. Many of Ihese constraints, such as low soi! fertility, drought, specifie diseases and insects, seed proouction methods, etc. are not regional in nature, but rather, go across regional boundaries and are common throughout mueh of sub-Saharan Africa. Increasingly, experienced CIAl and NARS scientists from one region are being called upon to supply technologies and information lo other regional networks. Efficient collaboration among networks and scientists in Africa can greatly help lo define common problems, priorities, and action strategies to combat these and other important constraints. Inler-regional collaboration has become more important as overall donor support to bean research declines and the number of CIAT 5taff within the regional networks is reduced. A joint donor (ClDA, SDC, USAID)/ClAT meeting was held in Nairobi in 1991 (Graf et al, 1991) to discuss the future of Ihe lhree bean networks. The overall purpose of the meeting was lo develop a framework of action by Ihe donors lo establish sustainable support to bean research in Africa. The donors agreed that there were two overall problems with the present situation of maintaining three separate donor-funded projects on beans. First was the duplication of administralive activities among networks: Each of the three donors requires separate project proposals and budgets, and separate monitoring and evaluation reports for each network. This increases administrative overhead and ties up resources that could be made available for bean research activities. Second, was the cut backs in ClAT outreach staft: A full complement of CIAT lechnical staff 10 each regional network could nol be sustained with declining budgets, but any further 1055 of CIA T staff would cause a non-acceplable reduction in research output in the medium time frame.The overall opinion of the donors was expressed as: \"Donor support for bean research in Africa has in the past Focussed on a regional network framework. Over time this scenario is changing lo require support on a inter-network moda lit y in addition to support for sub-project activily in the intra-network context of the current scenario. As the networks progressively assume the responsibility of coordinatíon and management of funds for sub-project actívities, donors wiJl need to find venues for channeling funds. As the same time ClA T personnel wil/ assume an inter-network mode, which wil/ require the donors te recognize that staff supported by them wil/ increasingly be used on an ínter-network basis until such time as ClA T core fundíng is sufficíent 10 cover íts activíties.\" (Report oi Joint Donor/ClA T Meeting on Bean Research in Africa, Nairobi, 20-22 November, 1991).The report recommended tha! several actions be taken by ClA T, Ihe networks, and the donors to investigate the possible merger of the three donor projects into one pan-Africa project. Within the Jarger pan-Africa project framework, the regional networks wouJd be maintained as self-managing research units or sub-networks. Technical interactíons among the networks has been encouraged through the formation of Pan-African Working Groups consisting of experienced scientists whose functíon is 10 review research progress and lo advise steering committees.Since Ihe donor meeting, other events have continued to promote inler-network coJlaboration and self management. The Eastern Africa Committee of Directors, now functioning as the Association for the Slrengthening of Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Afríca (ASARECA) was formed lo develop regional polícy guídelines on agricultural research and lo provide governance lo Ihe different networks operating in the region. Through ASARECA there now exists the possibilily of direct donor funding lo the regional networks Ihrough this association.Underway, is Ihe recommended merger of RESAPAC wilh EABRN lo form the Eastern and Central Africa Bean Research Network (ECABREN/RESAPACE). An immediate advantage oi Ihis merger is that the Directors of Research (rom Rwanda, Burundi, and Zaire cao insure that the particular needs of Ihe Great Lakes Region receive sufficient attention as members of a larger regional initiative. Anolher advantage is that research efforts, disrupted in Rwanda due lo the outbreak of civil war and the contínuíng post-war reverberations on neighboring Zaire and Buruodi, can be sustained io other ECABREN member countries. Indeed, this is already the case. Both Uganda and Tanzania have been active participants in the Seeds of Hope Project to resupply Rwanda with local genetic diversily that may have been 1051 or threatened due lo the war.In Southern Africa, MaJawi recently reorganized its research on common bean and created a new program within the Minislry of Agriculture. The reorganization and funding of this program has been back-slopped by a bilateral projecl funded by British ODA. Technical support lO the newly formed national program is supplied by one CIAT scientist in the project. Research capacíly in southern Africa has also been slrengthened through Ihe joining of the Republic of South Africa lo Ihe SADC-Bean Regional Network. South Afríca, having excellent research infraslructure and well Irained slaff, may be able lo supply important technical backstopping to SADC. This is especially important as the number of CIA T scienlist in SADC has declined significantly after ClDA support lo the network ceased in 1993. South Africa can .'lIso benefit from being a member of Ihe network by acquiring technologies Ihal are especially appropriate lo the mi 11 ions of small-scale South African bean farmers.The future of bean research in Africa is based on two importanl evolutions: 1) Ihe formalion of malure, self-goveming regional research networks, and 2) grealer involvement of ClAT staff in pan-Africa research efforts to solve recalcitran! and comple)( bean produclion conslraints. This sítuation now permits the donors, CIA The nutritional trend in 5ub-Saharan Africa, unlíke other regions of the developing world, has deteriorated since 1980, according to the United Nations Second Report on the World Nutrition Situation (UN ACOSCN, 1992). One-third of the population of sub-Saharan Africa is nol consuming adequate calories lo maintain Ihe already modest recommendation level of 2,100 kcal per day. Yet, the nutrilion problem is not just one of total calories. Protein and micro-nutrient deficiencies are al 50 increasing. When cereal consumplion is not combined with legumes, protein deficiencies due to incomplete amino acid balances are common. Declining legume produclion and consumplion in favor of cereals lead5 lo decreased intake of dietary iron and increased anemia, especially in women and young children (Pinstrup-Andersen, 1993;Calloway, 1994).Beans are characterized as being a nearly 'perfect! food by the Nutrition Action Healthletter (1993). Beans are nutritionally rich, especially in protein, iron, and folic acid, and are a good source of dietary fiber and complex carbohydrates (Carpenter, 1981;Nutritional Action Healthletter, 1993;Uebersax and Hosfield, 1984). Furthermore, the presence of beans in the diet in creases the utilization of maize and rice proteins due to complementarily in amino. acids. Moreover, beans are one of the best sources of iron, with a single serving providing 23-30 percent of daily recommended iron levels.Beans play an increasingly important role in the human nutrition in sub-Saharan Africa. In Eastern and Southern Africa, beans are the second most importan! source of protein after maize, and the third most important source of calories, after maize and cassava (Pachico, 1993). Beans outrank such stables as plantains, sweet potatoes, sorghum and millet in the caloric contribution, and exceed fish, milk, and beef as sources of total protein. In the Creat Lakes region of Central Africa, beans play an extremely important role in daily dietary regimes as they provide up lo 65\"10 of the dietary protein and 32\"10 of caloric intake (MINIPLAN, 1988) In Rwanda and western Kenya, per capita annual consumption of beans exceeds 66 kg and is among the highest in the world.Consumption oi beans is high in large part because beans are a relatively inexpensive foad (Pachico, 1993). Beans are the cheapest source of calories and protein in Uganda and Rwanda, and the cheapest source of protein in Tanzania. Nevertheless, recent production shortages in certain regions of Africa (e.g. Malawi and Rwanda), caused by the lack of high yielding varieties, environmental constraints, and civil strife, have driven bean prices up and aboye what poor consumer can afford to pay. Consequently, malnutrition has sharply increased in these areas.The principal bean producing countries in Africa are Kenya, Zaire, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia (T able 1). The official statistics, however, underestimate bean production in countries where area statistics tend lO reflect only monoculture beans, and exclude large areas inter-cropped with maize, sorghum, or bananas.Bean production in Africa generally has been increasing by 2.1 % per year, primarily Ihrough area expansiono Bul in recent years, area expansion has slowed lo 1.9 % per year, while bean yields have remained static. Present-day production practices can no longer keep up with consumption demands. ClAT economisls warn that demand for beans in Africa will increase by 72% between 1985 and 2000, requiring an increase in average yield of 308 kg per hectare, including the new production areas (Pachico, 1993).Meeting this demand through increase productivity now appears feasible as shown by on-farm research results oi new technologies and by adoptionlimpact studies of new bean varieties and cropping practices in Rwanda (reier lo Section 2 on Impact). Economic incentives will also continue to encourage bean production. The high annual rates of bean production increase in Kenya (5.9%) and Ethiopia (7.1 %) during the past decade reflect a strong eompetitive position relative to altemative enterprises. A strategie study by Uganda's Ministry of Agriculture suggests that beans and bananas, the two dominant food erops, are likely to continue to be the most profítable crops (including the traditional cash crops).Beans are grown predominantly by women farmers throughout sub-Saharan Africa, traditionallyas a subsistence erop. Vet, recen! economic surveys by EABRN indicate tha! about 50% of producers sell part oi their harvest, mostly to urban populations: Tanzania and Uganda have an active informal trade to Rwanda, Kenya and Sudan; Kenyan beans are eonsumed in Somalia; Ethiopia's formal exports generated income of USD 20 million in 1989; Madagascar exports to Reunion and Mauritius. The income-generating aspect of bean productíon ís becomíng more important especially near urban markets, where populations are increasingly reliant on beans as an ínexpensíve source of protein. Fresh (non-dry) beans command a premium price due to their taste and fast eooking time. Snapbeans provide many enterprising small farmers with their first experience of cash-crop vegetable production; Kenya's rapidly expanding industry exported 19,000 tons in 1990 at a value of USD 28 millíon, while Ethiopia and Rwanda have smaller export markets. Tanzania produces snapbean seed on contract to European seed produeers. Sources: Grisley, 1990;Grisley and Mwesigwa, 1990;Gitu, 1992;Eldin, 1983;Halila and Bouslama, 1983;Central Statistical Office, 1989;Bouazza, 1983. For Ethiopia, estimates   • Formal seed systems in all member countries are proving (now that new varieties are flowíng from researchl to be slow, expensive or simply unable to supply bean seed lo farmers. The problems are particularly acute in the case of beans beca use scale and profil margins are reduced by the crop's true-breeding nature, by the subsistence nature of some of the production, by the low multiplicatíon rates, and by farmers' preferences for a range of grain types often grown in mixtures.• Work in Rwanda, Uganda, and more recenlly in Tanzania and Malawi has demonstrated lhat new bean varieties can be disseminated at very low cost through non-formal channels. Prior to the civil war in Rwanda, several hundred thousand farmers were growíng the new variety, Umubano, and several other bean varieties were also being adopted as a result of farmer-to-farmer dissemination systems. In Uganda, 64% of collaborators in on-farm tríals passed on seed of new varieties to others, half of them being inhabitants of other villages. Several NGOs and development projects have now accepted the role of multiplying and disseminating varieties proven with farmers. These seed distribution approaches need lo be followed-up and demonstrated in other countries.• Considerable advances in socioeconomic studies have been made by nalional programs as a result of fiheen diagnostic surveys undertaken in seven network countries. There is also increased feedback to research on new technologies from the much increased participatory research with farmers. Regional planning workshops and the development of national research strategies in the larger countries help reduce research duplication and inefficíencíes. A specíal opportunity now exists to extend farmer-particípatory research methods developed by CIAT to Anglophone countries in Africa.• Traders are important members of bean commercialization. They qUíckly dístribute a few commercíal varíelies, bul as they are risk adverse, they can also restríct diffusion of new varieties that could be acceptable lo consumers. Greater involvement of traders in promotion of new varieties and increased competition among traders as new markets open, could help reduce this barrier to variety acceptation. Increasing cross-border trade opportunities may also provide new markels for farmers lo sell their produce.• It is expected tha! the yield advantage of improved varieties will benefit the lives of women in their capacities as principal bean farmers and home managers. As women traditionally market beans in some African countries (Due, 1985;Robertson, 1995), there is less risk of converting a \"woman's crop\" to a \"man's crop\" as yield potential and market value of the crop ¡ncrease. However, household level impact studies are needed to investigate implications of increased yield on labor intensification, gender division of labor, control over income from bean marketing, and how these aspects in turn affect household welfare and food security.• After land, labor is a farmer's principal investment in bean productíon. In most areas, except northern Sudan and northem and central Ethiopia, women provide the majority of labor in bean production -for example, women consistently contribute a greater share of time to the production of beans than to maize across three very different farming systems in Tanzania, and do so in all farm operations. Aggravating the demands on women's time is the fírewood requirement for cooking beans (which takes up to 3 hours in Rwanda). For this reason, short cooking time and long retentíon of flavor after cooking are varietal attributes commonly sought by women, who are normally responsible for selecting planting seed.The role of women in maintaining genetic diversíty is evident from naming of varieties, recognition of new bean types, the large number of varieties maintained, interest in acquiring new varieties, and seed selection criteria which often place culinary qualities second only to yield (Ferguson and Specher, 1987). Since bean varíeties grown in Afríca originated from a small part of the genetic diversity occurring in the crop's latín American home, the liberal approach to variety development advocated here offers the prospect of maintaining (in some countries, even increasing) genetic diversity on farms.As beans are typically slower to cook than other foods with which they are often mixed in the pot, this component of the diet generally determines the amount of fuel required.In the case of traditional varieties, up to 7 kg of firewood are needed per kilogram of beans. Introducing varieties with shorter cooking time, and/or flue-efficient stoves, would therefore have an immediate effect on rates of deforestation. While this project has no comparative advantage in stove development, considerable genetic variation for cooking time in beans is available and most national programs already inelude this characteristic in routine evaluation procedures.• As a quick-maturing (3-monthl crop, beans offer an ideal complement lo maize, bananas, and other carbohydrate staples in both traditional and intensified cropping systems. Early ground cover by beans minimizes soil exposure and consequenlly 50il los5es from erosiono In eastern Zaire, bean weeds stimulated by the flush of soil nitrogen following the onset of rains, are cut, stored, and applied later lo coffee or banana crops (Fairhead, 1987); examples of indigenous knowledge of this kind are learned from farmers through participatory research and appl ied to the development of sustainable, but more productive systems.The introduction of high-yielding climbing beans is providing an incentive lo farmers to use agroforestry-based systems which offer low-cosl soil conservalion in the medium term but are labor-intensive in the short term, The project works wilh several NGOs and AFRENA interested in promoting agroforeslry by association with climbing beans, which can double average bean yields if staked.• Currently, little fertilizer is applied directly lo bean crops. Increasing Ihis amount is economically desirable, but problems with excessive use and fertilizer run-off need to be avoided. I ntroducing varieties that are efficíent at utilizing soil nutrienls would assist bolh objectives by increasing Ihe rate of response to relatively 5mall fertilizer applications, as well as improving levels of subsistence production by those unable to afford any ferti lizer. In particular, improved nitrogen-fixing bean varieties would enable good yields to be obtained from applications of rock phosphorus fertilizer (immobile in the soil and hence non-contaminating of water sources), while minimizing need for addition of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer.• While pesticides are rarely used in dry bean production in Africa, and are unlikely to be increased as a result of this project, the production of snap beans currently involves an excessive number of applications (up to 12 per season in Kenyal and al50 inappropriate use of insecticides and fungicides. Sub-project research aims to develop integrated pest management OPM) methods for these farmers, based on the elimination of pesticides in cases where pest-resistant varieties are available; reduced applications of chemicals ¡hat are less harmful to ¡he environment where pesticides are still necessary; and promotion of IPM principies among extension workers.• CIAT and this project expect to be an active partner with ICRAF, other IARCs and commodity networks, and NGOs in the Africa Highlands Initiative. This consortium of institutions is taking a more integrated approach to tackling the dual problems of dedining productivity and increasing environmental degradation of the Eastern Africa Highlands. Current priorities are: maintaining soil productivity, developing IPM approaches to pest problems aggravated by crop intensification, and more detailed diagnosis of the complex problems of the densely populated highlands.Prior lo the slart-up of the regional networks, the NARS lacked conlinuity, focus, access lo information, and were largely confined lo on-station research. There was liule recognition of the importance of women as primary bean farmers or ínvolvement of farmers in participatory research. Today Ihere still exists considerable differences among NARS for bean research capacily: relatively large programs exist in Ethiopía, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and South Africa, however, many researchers in these countries have only a firsl degree.Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Malawi consider research on beans lo be among lhe top two priority food crops, and Tanzania places beans among a sel of food security crops Ihat are ranked second only lo research in Iraditional export crops. In a 1995 priority setting exercise conducled by ASARECA and its member countries, beans were ranked number two among all crops. Yel, nalional budget allocations for agricultural research have decreased recently in real lerms in mosl countries in sub-Saharan Africa.The ClAT network approach toward building national research capacity focusses on four principal opportunities:• improved setting of prioritie5• specialization with agreed division of responsibilities • information sharing and scientific accountability al the regional level • regional training activities adapted lo more specialized modes of operation Improved settjng of prioritjes: Six bean producing counlrie5 have developed nalional stralegies for bean research and developmenl: Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, and Zambia. These strategies aim lo focus limited resources on the most importan! and promising technical opportunities and lo share research responsibilities among nalional instilutions according lo Ihe comparative advantages of each one. Regional priorities have also been established by mean s of participatory planning by objectives (PPO). CIAT believes thal this methodology encourages wider participatíon by nalional researchers and others in the planning process and al50 encourages a greater sense of commilment, and ownership by Ihe national programs for Ihe research agenda and oulputs. The participatory planning exercise also encourages a better balanced research portfolio, with increased attenlion given 10 soil fertilily maintenance and socioeconomic opportunities.Research specialjzatiQn: Limited resources can be utilized more efficiently by an agreed division of responsibilities and effort among countries on the basis o( regional priorities and national comparative advantages for addressing them. Planning for specialization ensures better focus on the most importan! research opportunities, enables each topic to be investigated more thoroughly and increases Ihe potential impact of each innovation. This principie has been fundamental to CIA T's stralegy and operations in Africa 5ince p051ing ils first 51aff member lo Rwanda in 1984.The foundation of the regional bean networks will continue to be coHaborative research subprojects, by which the more experienced national scientísts specialize in complementary areas of research of high priority to a region. Specialized topics cover biotic stress es, abiotic stress es, socio-economic constraints and marketing opportunities, on-farm and farmer participatory research, varietal development, integrated pest managemenl, and integrated crop and soil management (Table 4). Currently, over 90 regional subprojects are in operation.Advances in researeh have led to the identifícation of more stable sourees of resistanee, which are being used in NARS and ClAT in crossing programs. For example, the Ugandan-Ied subproject on bacterial blight now provides a crossíng service lo other countries, which submit varieties for improvement of this character. Duplication of erfort is also minimized as in Ethiopia's decision to rely on ¡he Uganda subproject fer ils CSS resistan ce needs. Malawi is responsible for receiving ClAT introductions and multiplying the seed for subsequenl distribution throughout southern Africa.In most priority research areas, the development of new technology is further advanced Ihan eould have been expected if each country had worked independently. In 1988 (only two years after network start-upJ Uganda released ils firsl new variely in 20 years from a Rwandan entry inlroduced in a nelwork trial; Rwanda borrowed a control treatment for bean slem maggot from Surundi and proceeded directly to on-farm testíng and release, circumventing the normal period needed for on-station development. Climbing bean lines originaUy tesled and released in Rwanda are in on-farm trials in western Kenya and Malawi.Information sharing and scientifjc accoyntabiljty: Prior to the establishment of the networks, bean researehers from member countries rarely met, if at all. Regular interaction among NARS researchers is now possible through problem-focussed working groups, multidiseiplinary workshops, and field monitoring tours; the lalter are usually organized around research subprojects. Peer group evaluation of network researeh takes place in all three types of meetings.Annual interdisciplinary workshops and planning meetings have been held in the Great Lakes Region since 1985, only being disrupted by recent civil strife. In eastern Africa, regional workshops were initiated in 1987, and eontinues to be held every third year. A series of pan-Africa workshops focussing on discrete themes in bean improvement has been developed lo review the body of knowledge and to coordinate strategies on a series of topies, such as: bean stem maggot and other insect pests; bean diseases; breeding and varíety development; drought; soil fertility in bean cropping systems; biological nitrogen fixation; farmer partícipatory methods in varíetal development, etc. Twenty four published proceedings from the workshops have been widely dístributed. These activities will contínue in their present format, easily aeeommodatíng evolution in technical priorities and breakthroughs. The networks also enable lechnical inpul from ClAT lo be more efficiently delivered, A CIAT specialisl in each major discipline interads wilh nalional colleagues in several NARS, provides training and carríes out difficult or pilot-scale collaborative research that can benefit a whole region or regions. The Ugandan-based regional breeder, for example, has developed adapted breeding malerial with resistance to an African race of BCMV to supply lo national programs through out Africa; the regional agronomist conduds pilol research on sustainable approaches to soil fertility in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and more recently in Malawi; Ihe regional economisl supports emergenl nalional research on seed disseminalion melhods. CIAT has been successful in its objective to institutionalize Ihe regional research network model within Africa. By 1966, al! three of the original bean networks in Africa will have appointed a local coordinator to manage network activities.Already, the NARS collectively make all decisions regarding the allocation of network funds through their Steering Committees (SC). These decisions are then reviewed and monitored by the Directors' Committees (DC). In 1992, the DC for Eastern and Central Africa, ASARECA, agreed that at least 25% of the nominal cost of each regional sub-project should be contributed by the lead NARS wilhin Ihis network. This proportion would increase over lime in recognilion of and in conformity with the priority given to beans by member countries.NARS also manage a large part of the expenditures approved by Ihe se. At the policy level, an underlying concem behind CIA 1's efforts to encourage NARS to adopt a multiple variety release stralegy is meeting Ihe multiple and diverse needs of farmers, specifically the disadvantaged, which includes the poorest subsistence-oriented farmers who tend to be, for the mosl part, women.Gender analysis is crucial in five areas of research undertaken by CIATs regional social scientist in collaboration with NARS, NGOs, and local extensíon agencies.Gender-sensitive data gatheri ng techn iques are used to ensure ¡hat the differenl conceros, priorities, and interests of men and women, and other categories of bean producers are represented. These indude: wealth ranking and survey sampling (use of stratifjed sampling to indude different income/wealth categories and female headed households); other participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques; and focus groups (e.g. for investigating the importance of fuelwood problems in relation to bean consumption).Selection of trial farmers: The importance of considering socio-economic characteristics, such as wealth, gender of the head of household, market orientation etc., in the selection of trial farmers is stressed when the trials are designed and when regional subproject funds are assigned.Recent studies designed in collaboration wilh the Malawi National Sean Program test both researcher-designed and farmer-designed varietal trials; the objective of the latter being the collection of acceptability data for the new technologies. In the absence of a specified Irial design, it is expected that farmers wí 11 grow tesl varieties in the way they normally grow beans and hence will be able to provide researchers wíth more reliable evaluations (i.e. unbiased by the trial design). For example, in farmer designed Iríais, farmers are allowed lo harvest fresh bean pods and leaves, which may play an important role in the {ood security stralegy of women and poorer households. In short, farmer designed trials are expected to replicate farmers' own forms of experimentation.Since 1994 CIAT's social scientist has worked with 4 groups (3 women's groups and one mixed group) to establish small-scale artisan bean seed enterprises. These enterprises are proposed to address two issues affecting bean productivity in Eastern and Southern Africa: the development of alternative systems for supplying seed of improved bean varieties to smallscale farmers and involving farmers in maintaininglincreasing genetic diversity of beans in situ.Farmer involvement in the production and distribution of bean seed is likely to have several advantages over formal seed production: lower cost of production, the likelihood of timely seed delivery, the selection by farmers themselves of varieties for multiplication in accordance with local preferences, and the maintenance or improvement of genetic diversity through the dissemination of improved as well as local varieties. The less structured nature of farmer seed production may also mean that traditional means of exchanging seed (e.g. in-kind exchange, labor exchange) could be employed, with the result that the poorest farmers may benefit from introduced varieties. Small-scale farmer seed enterprises are also likely to have a spin-off effect on income generation and small enterprise building capacity by women farmers, the group most in need of diversified small-scale income generating opportunities.Action research on informal seed díssemination channels has included a gender components in terms of the use of women's groups and health clínics as seed delivery points and in the sex desegregation of data on seed buyers. In 1994, seed of Iwo new bean varieties was given lO 3 women's groups and one health cliníc in Uganda. Secause of high female participation in social groups in East Afríca, and since women spend considerable periods of time attendíng to the health needs of their children and themselves, it was fel! that both institutions constitute logical distribution outlets for seed of new bean varieties. In the clinic context, the majority of sales were made from matemity dinics and most purchases were made by women. By contrast, sale of seed through rural markets and shops in Uganda revealed that most (over 50%) purchases through those outlets are made by men due lo the high participation of Uganda men in trade and their greater freedom relative to women to travel away from home.NGOs and the exlension system (ie. sale of seed by extension agents in markets) are also investigated as altemative dissemination channels.Data collection approaches used in adoption and impact studies are designed to capture gender differences in adoption rates and pattems and the possible differential impact of new lechnology on men and women wilh regard lo the gender division of labor, labor input, absolute ineome, control of income, householdlindividual nutritional status, organizatíon of produetion etc. These approaehes indude: participatory impact assessment and social impact assessment. Statjstics on jnvQlvement of women scientists in Eastero Africa Bean NetwQrk:Percentage of investigators crained in ClA T/Network short courses that were women: 25% Note: This frequency is higher than ¡hal of other commodity research programs in the region. While we have no control over Ihe numbers of women recruited by NARS, women scientists are relatively more numerous in bean research because the crop is known as one predominantly grown by women farmers.Percentage of sdentísts sponsored/supervised by e/A T/Bean Networks for doctora/swdies that were women: 75% Note: Thís is substantially higher than the frequency of women in the bean research community, and a major contribution lo the advancement of women in local research and leadership posilions. Also, every one of the women scienlists returned lo ¡heir country and job after study (unlike some of their male colleagues).Note: This is a substantial higher frequency compared to the total number of women scientisls in the region and indicates that women are disproportionately aClivelsuccessful in research, and so recognized by their peers.Note: This figure indicates the high degree of confidence shown by the NARS directors for women leaders. As these women also represent their countries on Network sleering committees, this represents a very unusual degree of women involvement in management. Furthermore, the Chairperson of the EABRN Steering Committee is a women.Technological disseminationYarjetal releases: Over 40 new bean varieties have been released by the nationa! programs in 14 countries throughout Africa since 1984 when CIAT began work in Africa. Nineteen of the varieties were direct releases of CIAT breeding lines developed at HQ, another 23 varietíes were selected (rom CIAT introductions (e.g. germplasm and breeding lines from other countries in Latin Americal.In Rwanda, Zaire, Burundi, Uganda, and Kenya, the introduction of ímproved climbing beans and dimbing bean production technology is being rapidly adopted by farmers. These new materials represent a unique set of genetic díversity that was not available in Africa prior to1984. The lines are liked by farmers because of their greater yield potential and disease resistance, and their highly favorable cul inary qualities. The introduction of Latín American dimbing beans made a significant impact on bean production before civil war erupted. An adoption survey conducted in 1992 showed that 43% of Rwandan bean farmers (480,000-500,000 householdsl were growing the improved climbing beans on 17% (approximately 15,600 ha) of the total nationwide bean production area. This new technology produced an additional 50 thousand tons of beans, depending on the region, equivalent to an extra $12 million dollars income for Rwandan farmers (Sperling, 1993, CIAT Bean Program Annual  Report, 1993).A recent survey after the war conducted by the Seeds of Hope Initiative for Rwanda indicates that planting seed of the new climbing beans is scarce and that a concerted effort is needed to multiply seed of these materíals for redistríbution. Fortunately, seed of the improved climbers is available in southwest Uganda and westem Kenya where these new technologies are also rapidly being adopted.In addition to the improved climbing beans, other bean varieties with bush (or dwarf) architecture have also been released in various countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa. In Zambia, the variety Carioca is gown over a large area in the northern region. New bush varieties in Uganda, MCM 5001 (the first varíety released for resistance to the necrotic strains of BCMV) and CAL 96 (a large-seeded highly commercial grain type) will 500n be 5urveyedfor their adoption by farmers. In Ethiopia, several CIAT lines have been released as \"pea bean types\" for canning and exportíng. These, and other new varíeties, will be evaluated tor their adoption and impact in different countries by the project.Sdentjfic knowle<!ge: CIA T's research collaboration with national program scientists has been highly successful in the increasing scientific knowledge about bean production and constraints in Africa. Prior to 1984, very little scientific or technical information was available. Since 1989, over 25 scientific papers have been published in international refereed journals (Appendix 3). In addition, more than 200 proceedings from workshops and conferences, book chapters, and reports have also been published by CIAT and the nalional programs. These papers represen! a significan! and very i mportanl slep forward in understanding bean production constraints in Africa and for orienting research to solve these problems. The papers also represent progress achieved by the national programs in developing their scienlific capacity to do quality research.Ten years of collaborative bean research in Africa have shown that research can make a difference. Yet, lo meet future bean demands in Africa even greater research effort is needed. Basic research to achieve scientific breakthroughs mus! be carried out lo solve some of the more recalcitrant, bul important production constraints; olher bean production problems are already well researched and now need more applied application of science with significant participation of farmers in lechnology testing. The Pan-Africa Sean Research Alliance is dedicated lo developing technologies lo increase bean productivily in Africa in a sustainable manner. The Allianee eollaborates with all serious researeh and development efforts on common bean in Afriea t and makes freely available all germplasm and teehnologies developed wilhin its activities. CIAT provides the techníeal leadershíp for the Alliance t and works in close collaboration wilh national scientísts lo develop effeclive research outputs.Pan-Africa decisions concerníng bean research are made by Ihe PABRA Steering Committee (PABRA-SC). The PABRA-SC ís composed of the CIAT Pan-Africa Bean Coordínator who is also the coordinator of the committee; one representative from eaeh of the donors (including future new donors to the network); and the regíonal network coordinators. The PABRA-SC meets annually to discuss issues, new inílíatives, and research progress.The responsibilities of Ihe PABRA sleering committee are:• Develop new projects and atlraet other potenlíal donors to PABRA • Explore and catalyze inter-network t ínter-IARC, and other ínitialives lo strenglhen bean research • Review eandídates for ClAT-HQ training • Review budgets and mid-term reports for the donors • Organíze PABRA external evaluatíons • Inform networks on up-eoming events • Arbitrale regional conflicts and differenees affecling network funclionWithin ¡he overall PABRA budget t funds are set aside lo support network activities. The newly merged network, ECABREN, encompassing the most importan! bean production areas of Africa t will receive direct funding from PABRA to supports it research and network activities.ECABREN/ASARECA will submit a buy-in project proposal lo the PABRA steering committee.The PABRA steering committee t upon review of the ECABREN proposal and budget, will allocate funds lo support the work plan. A regional eoordinator for ECABREN will be employed 10 manage Ihe network.Other Africa bean networks t such as SADC t and non-network countríes such as Cameroon, also participate in PABRA. However, at present t no network support funds are available lo support research activities in these regions. CIAT will work closely wilh SADC lo find financial support for this network¡ but in the meanwhile¡ SADC will conlinue to receive lechnical assistance from CIA T.Project Goal: To improve food security, protein availability, and incomes of rural and urban populations in eastern, central, and southern African countries through the development of improved common bean technologies.Project Purpose: To increase the productivity and commercialization of common bean through adoption of sustainable production technologies developed in close collaboration wilh national research institutions and farmers.1. Principal constrainls to increased bean productivity and yield stabi líty are overcome.2. Methodologies for more efficient transfer of improved bean technology to farmers are developed.3. Research capacity and effectiveness of national programs is enhanced.4. Sustainability of the regional networks is increased.S. Local and export market potential of dry and snap beans is exploited.Output 1: Principal constraints to increased bean productivity and yield stability are overcome.Activily 1.1: ¡ncrease yield and stability af African bean varieties• Bush and climbing beans are genelically improved through planl breeding for resislance lo Ihe principal biolic and abiolic constrainls limiling bean productivity in Africa, and for increased yield polential. Advanced breeding lines fram CIAT and some of the more advanced natianal programs are multiplied and distribuled throughout Africa in a series of tai lared n urseries. • Segregaling populalions and advanced lines containing novel saurces of resistance genes from research conducled at CIAT and collabaraling labarataries are made available far testing in Africa. CIAT core resources and other complementary projects will finance basíc research activities in physiology, microbiology, bíotechnology, and gene modeling aimed to understand and exploit the bean genome. • ClA T provides on-the-job training support 10 national program breeders to increase their effectiveness in organizing and managing modern breeding programs. • ClA T entomologist and plant pathologist working with national breeders develop effective host plant resistance breeding strategies to control major ¡nsect and disease problems.Intensive effort is made to identify and íncrease resístance to the bean stem maggot. IPM techníques are al so developed to manage thís pes!. • Pathogen faces of bean diseases such as angular leafspot, anthracnose, halo blight, and bean common mosaíc virus are characterízed for their genetic diversity using epidemiological and biotechnological methods. Maps of pathogen diversity is used to deploy appropriate sources of stable resistance and to orient resistance breeding strategies. • Other diseases such as root rots are controlled through a combination of resistance and integrated crop management practices. • Highly specialized and long term research activities led by CIAT are designed to complement regional priorities and NARS-Ied subprojects. Collections are stored in bottles containing silica gel for greater medium-term storage potential.Activity 1.3: Intensify and sustain production systems for both high potential and fragile environments• Identify high-potential areas in each country where climbing bean technology can be transferred.• Develop low-cost prototype crop management techniques. CIAT agronomist coordinates the Plant Nutrition Working Group of national scientists to screen germplasm for efficiency of nutrient use, and assists natíonal programs in inslitutionalízing effective, low-cost approaches to on-farm soil fertility diagnosis and experimenlation. An example of the latter will be farmer participatory testing of intercropping systems with Crota/aria and other promising green manure crops. • 50il produclivity and nutrient eycling researeh are used to develop more suslainable soil management systems.Output 2: Methodologies for more efficient transfer of improved bean teehnologies to farmers are developed.Activity 2.1: ¡ncrease participation of farmers in on-farm and on-stalion technology evaluation• low-eost parlicipatory methods that enable farmers to contribute aetively to teehnology design and evaluation are adapted for Anglophone eountries by the CIA T 50cio-eeonomist. National programs are assisted lo apply these teehniques in new situatíons. Resulls are dísseminated in regional meetings. • The effect of new technologies on women and ehí Idren will be assessed in adoption and impae! studies. 5peeial assessment of gender related issues are included in the design of on-farm and farmer participatory Iríais.  • CIAT Socio-economist conducls collaborative research with selected national programs to refine techniques thal minimize costs of attaining adequate farmer participalion in researeh validation. • Studies to improved extrapolation of soil fertility researeh from pilol village sites lo other regions are led by Ihe CIAT soil fertility agronomist. • Modeling and computer-assisted mapping techniques are used, partly in collaboration with other regional and international organizations and ClA T-HQ, to chose sites and predict results. • CIAT breeders assist nalional programs to idenlífy lhe critical sites for mullí location tríals and hOlspot evaluations, lhus minimizing operalional costs. • Transfer of cost-saving techniques to NARS is achieved through in-serviee training, regional workshops, and in the planning and design of researeh sub-projects.Activity 3.5: Deve/op new varieties adapted to regional and national priorities• National program breeders become more adept al making eros ses and evaluating segregating populations. The eros ses are tailored lo incorporate new sources of resistance supplied by CIA Tinto local varieties having commercial grain types. • CIAT breeders assist national programs lo avoid unnecessary duplication in the generation of new materials adapled to lhe region and assure that the sources of resistanee needed by the national breeders are available and well characterized.Aetivity 3.6: Monitor, assess, and repor! impac! oi research• National program eoordinalors are responsible for reporting and assessing in-country aclivities of lhe network, while the Director Committees evaluate Ihe overall slrenglh of the nalional programs lhrough use of Iransparent and objective criteria. • National economists, wherever available, supported by the ClAT Socio-economist, eonduct adoptionfímpact surveys in PABRA member countries. Survey size usually involves between 1 00-150 farms. • A database is developed at national and regional levels to record germplasm evaluation seo res and advanced line pedigrees, socioeconomic data from adoption and impact studies, and other research results. National programs are responsible for periodic update of lhe database.Output 4: Sustainability of the regional networks is increased.Activity 4.1: ¡n crease NARS management of the network• CIA T relínquishes all network coordination activities to locally recruiled regional coordinators and regional steering committees.• National and regional planning activities are earried out using the PPO methodology lo revise and update research priorities and activities.• Steering committees receive, evaluate, and assign funds for research subprojects. Subprojects enhance sustainability of the networks by catalyzing problem sharing across national boundaries, encourages regionalleadership, and minimizes duplication of efforts. NARS contribute funds to the costs of each subproject. • Network steering committees make decisions concerning regional workshop and training events lo be held and the partieipants attending eaeh event. • The Steering Committees encourage experienced national researchers with successful regional sub-projects lo become active regional leaders, eventually taking over some functions of CIA T scienlisls. ';Activity 4.3: Implement regional research that minimizes duplication of effort• National institutions conduct regional research based on regional priorities established by the se. Resources for this research are provided by the NARS and the projecl. CIA T provides technical support, as well as conducts strategic research to develop materials and methods to backstop regional research (refer to AClivities 1.1 -1.3 aboye).Activity 4.4: Speed transfer of research results among national ínstitutions• New breeding línes and promising germplasm are regularly exchanged among NARS through regional nurseries and by CIA T breeders. Sub-project results receive wide dissemination throughout the Sleering Committee and regional workshops, and particularly in the problem-focussed Working Group meetings.Aclivity 4.5: Provide cost-effective coordination and auditing • ECABREN regional coordinator maintains a small oífice lo execute the decisions of the regional SC, organize regional training events and workshops, disburse sub-project funds, prepare budget and quarterly reports for the OC and PABRA coordinator. • The PABRA coordinator is a member of the regional steering committees as well as the coordinator of the PABRA Steering Committee. The responsibilities of the PABRA coordinator inelude coordination of ClAT-lead activities and inforrnation exchange, disbursemenl of specified funds for so me regional research activities, preparation of reports for donors, organize formal and informal project evaluations in collaboration with the regional coordinators. The PABRA coordinator is responsible for CIAT-Ied research and linkages with NARS. • CIAT makes available to the networks an accounting software package to serve as a financial management tool for ¡he networks.Qutput 5: local and export market potential of dry and snap beans is exploíted.Activity 5.1: Identífy fuli range of consumer preferences• CIAT Socio-economist work with national programs to adapt and apply low-cost particípatory methods to identify the full range of consumer preferences for bean grain types. Breeders incorporate consumer preferences as selectíon criteria early in their breeding programs. • Pilot feasibility studies in two countries assess new urban consumer food products that use beans in their redpes as a means of gaining greater added value and for diversifying markets for high yielding, but non-commercial small seeded varieties.Activity 5.2: Reduce post-harvest 105se5 10 bruchíd p~IS  4/. Evaluations: Both CIAT and Network activities will be evaluated during the third and fifth year of the project. In consultation with the donors a decision will be made as lo whether a full external review is needed for both evaluation periods, or, for one evaluation period, a less formal, internal review may be recommended. 8/. Technology DisseminatjQo: Research results and outputs will be shared within and among networks through a series of regional workshops and Working Group meetings. The proceedings of !hese events are published. 9/. Trainjng: Four local MSc scholarships will be awarded based on a series of criteria set by the PABRA se. Regional training courses for technicians and extension personnel will be organized by the network steering committees.10/. NARS Equipment Support: For effective on-farm and farmer participatory research, four vehicles are budgeted. Distribution of the vehicles will be decided by the PABRA-Se.The networks will develop a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) and logical Framework Matrix (LFM) lo outline expected outputs and activities for the (¡ve year project phase. The LfM wil! be the base for which overall research and out pUl i5 evaluated. The WBS/LFM can be modified each year by the SC ii research progress and/or unforeseen events made the original plan no longer val id or out-of-date.The ECABREN network has funds to carry out both formal and informal adoption and impact studies with farmers/traderslconsumers. The CIAT socioeconomist will a5sist the national programs in the design and implementation of these studies. The final reports will be distributed lo ClAT, PABRA-SC, DC, and the donors.In addition to the lFM, proceedings from regional meetings, working groups, and subprojecl reports are also used for monitoring and evalualing research results. Each recipient of subproject funds must justify their expenditures and outputs lo Ihe nelwork SC against what was slated in the original sub-project proposa!. If a recipient can not adequately justify expenditures or research outputs, the SC may decide not to continue funding tha! project, and those funds may be transferred lo other projects.Twice during the fíve year project, the donors wíll cal! for an independent evaluatíon of the network. The donors will decide upon the number of reviewers and their disciplinelspecialty.The PABRA coordinator will accompany the review team during Iheir visils. The final report with recommendations will be made available to lhe donors, CIAT, PABRA-SC, network SCs, and De.CIAT will use a WBS and lFM to outline íts research actívities within PABRA that is independent, bUI complementary, to those developed by the networks. It i5 expected that the CIAT staff will devote considerable portion of Iheír líme 10 solvíng strategíc produclion constraints and proportionately less time lo network strengthening actívíties. Thís represenls a change ín CIAT's overall philosophy and historical perspective lowards natíonal programs, Ihe network5, and bean research in Africa. In previous phases of the Africa bean projects, national program and network slrengthening was of priority importance to CIAT. Now, after 8-10 years of network development, CIAT, the donors, and the DCs consider this activity to have been done well, and that the networks are ready for independent management. The devolution oi network management will free-up ClAT scientists lo concentrate more oi Iheir efforts on basic and slrategic research needed to solve many complex and difficult bean production constraints. Without Ihis concentraled effort it will not be possible for Africa to produce sufficient quantities of beans lo meet the growíng demands of poor consumers who depend of beans as a principal source of proteín and carbohydrates in their dieto PABRA wíll be evaluated twíce during the course of Ihe projed by an independent team put together by the donors. The PABRA evaluatíon will encompass both the networks and CIA T's adívítíes and OUlputs. This report will be made available to the donors, CIAT, and the PABRAse.ClA T will submit a quarterly report to ClDA, SDC, and USAID corresponding to the lotal PABRA ( Research Support and Support lo the Networksl budget. To reduce admínistratíve work, only one budget statement will be prepared for Ihe donors. The budget report will showed the expenditures charged 10 the total PABRA funds available for that fiscal year. No separation of expenditures by donors will be made. ClAT will contract ECABREN/ASARECA to prepare a quarterly budget reporl of Ihat network's expenditures. This report will be included in Ihe PABRA report sent lo the donors.Technical Progress Reports will be submitted semi-annually on March 15 and September 15 by CIAT-HQ lo the donors. The report will contain two sections: aclivítíes of CIAT and adivítíes of the networks. ECABREN and SADC are responsible for submilting their report to ClA T forfinal compilation. Plans and monitors ClAT trainiog, researeh, inlormation and germplasm exchange activities for Afríea. Uaises with national program research directors to ensure consistency of PA8RA activities with national and regional priorities. Represents PABRA al olher events within Alriea. Member of regional steering committees. As CIAT representative, the PA6RA coordinator is responsible for supporting regional planning mechanisms, feedback systems and national researeh plans. Facilitates pan-Africa meetings and information dissemination.Socio-Economist: Conducts research and develops methods lO assisl nalional programs in adjusting technology design and evaluation to objeclives and needs of Alrica growers, and lO assiSI NARS in impact assessments.Emphasizes farmer participation and gender sensilivity in bolh on-slation and on-farm research Irials; facilitates farmer feedback lo scíentists on technology design parameters and performance. Desígns, tests and monitor. small scale seed productíon and distríbution systems. Conducts research on marketing oi beans. Participates in ¡raining evenl •.Entomologist: Conducts >!rategie researeh and assists national programs in dealing with regional pesls problems. Develops methods to improve host planl resistance and integrated pes! managemen! practices with priority given lo the bean stem maggol species complex. Provides seientific and teehnical input to entomological working groups. Collaborates with national scientists, NGOs, and other regional projects in testíng, training, and diffusion oi integrated pest managemenl systems for dry bean and snap bean croppíng systems.Pathologist: Leads strategie research on foliar diseases and rool pathogens. Assists national programs in overeoming major regional disease constraints. Focuses on problems unique to Afriea, ineluding races of BCMV, halo blight, angular leafspot, anthracnose, and rool rol complexes. Characterizes palhogenic diversity, develops screening methods, and appraises management strategies, especially lor genetic mixtures and root pathogens. Supports pathology Working Groups and training events to develop regional expertise.Agronomist-Soil Scientist: Conducts strategie research on management oi bean based eropping systems, emphasizing fertility management to improve nutríent use efficiency and bíologieal nitrogen fixatíon. Characterizes major lertility constraints and appraises ellect of farmer practices on nutrienl cycling and erosion; desígns improved lertility management systems integrating adapted bean genotypes and improved BNF ioto multicrop systems to improve sustainable bean productivity. Assists national programs in improving fertility management in bean cropping syslems and strengthens plant nutrition and fertility management research capacíty in the regioo.Plant Breeder (large-seeded types): Develops breeding lines and segregating populations in large-seeded bush and climbing beans with high yield potential and multiple disease and inseet resistanee. Conduets strategie research on ¡he genetics of resistance to majar African biotic constraints, with emphasis on bean stem maggot, angular leafspot, scab, halo blighl and root rolS. Supplies ímproved germplasm lo national breeders with technical assistance in selection and evaluation methods. Develops strategies for ímproving traditional míxtures; participates in training events.Plant Breeder (Small-seeded types): Develops breeding lines and segregating populations ín small-seeded bush beans with improved yield potentíal and grea!er tolerance to abiotic constrai nts. Tests improved snapbean germplasm for adapation to Afriean productioo conditions. Conducts strategie studies on resistanee to drought aod low soil fertility, and improves genetic nitrogen fixation potentia!. Supplies improved germplasm 10 national breeders, and provides lechnieal assistance io selection and evaluation methods. Organizes and di.tributes specialized pan-Alriea breeding nursuries; participates in training events.","tokenCount":"9235"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd0afcaac1276ffd7c754e6e128531e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28d8a169-1b05-42d6-9f70-731e1baa62c1/retrieve","id":"373407539"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"81b12ee1-79cd-43ac-adb2-2d5280bc0e02","pagecount":"37","content":"and revised October 2015 * Iddo Dror prepared this case study with case writer Shreya Maheshwari and IBLI team leader Andrew Mude as the basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. It was prepared in collaboration with the IBLI team and benefited from useful insights by a range of partners and collaborators of the IBLI program. We gratefully acknowledge their contributions.On a hot morning in Nairobi in 2014, Andrew Mude, team leader for the Index-Based Livestock Insurance program ('IBLI' hereafter), looked out of his office window at cows grazing on Ngong Hills' green pastures, but his mind was elsewhere.In a few hours, he had to attend an executive management meeting where he was expected to recommend IBLI's next steps. But Mude was still undecided; should he recommend that the IBLI team focus exclusively on its current sites in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia, and work to develop IBLI into a large-scale, proven and sustainable program in these regions? Or should he go along with demands to expand quickly to multiple sites worldwide? It was necessary for IBLI to grow, but Mude was not yet sure of the direction and trajectory of its growth. IBLI, developed by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in collaboration with Cornell University and the BASIS Research Program at the University of California, Davis, was the first index-based insurance product that protected pastoralists in drought-stricken areas in Africa from losing their primary asset-livestock. Studies 1 had shown that IBLI coverage had a significant impact on these pastoralists' assets, investments and consumption capacity. IBLI had received funding and support from some of the largest international donors, including the governments of the UK, the EU, Australia, the US and the World Bank Group (WBG). The Government of Kenya too had acknowledged IBLI's social welfare benefits, and together with the WBG, was exploring avenues to fund and scale-up IBLI rapidly as a public-private type program within Kenya. While IBLI had been hailed by the media, donors, and partners alike as an effective and much-needed product, it had yet to mature into a large-scale, sustainable program with well-developed institutions in Kenya.Despite residual challenges in outreach and institutional development, IBLI's donors and other key stakeholders were eager to expand it to East and West Africa (including countries like Somalia, Mali and Burkina Faso) that were also home to large pastoralist populations. Some in the IBLI team supported this strategy, as they were concerned that if IBLI did not expand now, its low sales figures in Kenya would be insufficient to demonstrate its impact, and might even raise questions about its sustainability-causing donors to lose interest. Yet, Mude worried that if they expanded too quickly, the current IBLI sites might suffer, damaging IBLI's reputation and demand everywhere and causing the entire program to collapse.Mude wondered which of these paths was the best way to expand IBLI into a sustainable, well-received product. Should the IBLI team focus on strengthening the program in Kenya, or on expanding it to new territories? Was it possible to do both successfully?The International Livestock Research Institute Founded in 1974 2 and based in Nairobi, Kenya, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) was a world-class agricultural research organization that enhanced food security and reduced poverty in low-income countries through path-breaking research that improved the value, efficiency and sustainability of livestock.To fulfil its motto of \"better lives through livestock\", ILRI partnered with governments, civil society, academia and the private sector to deliver economic, health and environmental benefits to the poor through better livestock science and investments.ILRI was a member of one of the world's largest agricultural research consortiums, the CGIAR Consortium, whose research generated billions of dollars of economic benefit around the world.Droughts in the ASAL region More than three million pastoralists lived in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia, which suffered from crippling droughts routinely. These pastoralists had faced four major droughts in the last 10 years alone.Severe droughts had devastating effects on pastoralists. They relied primarily on livestock for their livelihood but these frequent droughts often weakened or killed many of their animals. As a result, pastoralists were often forced to sell what remained of their livestock in distress sales for little money. Once they lost their sole source of income, some pastoralist households were compelled to cut back on meals and other essential consumption. Thus, losing their livestock often pushed pastoralists into a chronic poverty trap, rendering them some of the most vulnerable populations in the world.To help these pastoralists, ILRI developed an index-based insurance product called IBLI. IBLI insured pastoralists against the risk of losing their primary asset, livestock, during drought. Studies 3 had shown that such an insurance product would spur both consumption and investment for these pastoralists, helping to improve their living standards.IBLI was not like traditional insurance, as it did not pay individual clients for actual loss experienced on a case-by-case basis. In the infrastructure-deficient ASAL region, it was too costly to verify individual loss claims. There was also a high possibility of moral hazard 4 and adverse selection 5 in individual insurance that does not apply for index-based insurance. Instead, IBLI pays out to all policyholders in a geographically-defined area whenever the index/data indicated a certain level of livestock loss across the region. The index thus reflected livestock mortality in the region, and would be used to determine when to pay pastoralists.3. Janzen and Carter (2013).4. Moral hazard refers to the situation in which one party in a transaction has an incentive to take more risk than it otherwise would, because it is protected against that risk by another party. Because index-insurance makes payments based on an index that individuals cannot cheaply manipulate, the incidence of moral hazard is drastically reduced vis-à-vis traditional insurance. 5. Adverse selection: refers to the tendency of more risk-prone individuals to self-select into an insurance contract.To accurately compensate pastoralists for their loss, the IBLI team had to construct the index using data that was closely correlated with livestock mortality. Livestock in the ASAL region depended entirely on forage for nutrition. Thus, the level of forage available in the region strongly predicted livestock mortality. This forage availability data used was derived from satellite imagery released by NASA. These satellite images showed the density of greenery in a given location on land. Exhibit 1 provides details of the data used. ILRI scientists applied filters and algorithms to this satellite data to construct the IBLI index, which was designed to pay out when forage availability data predicted livestock deaths beyond a certain level (reflected by the index reading going beyond a certain 'strike point ').One IBLI contract covered livestock for a year, but had two potential pay-out periods-at the end of the long and short dry seasons, in March and October respectively. Clients could buy IBLI only during a two-month 'buying window' before the start of the two dry seasons; this helped mitigate adverse selection, as clients couldn't predict weather conditions for the next season at the time of buying IBLI.Exhibit 2 shows the structure and coverage of IBLI in Kenya. IBLI's index was designed to provide the maximum possible insurance to pastoralists while still being cost-conscious. Households chose how many livestock to insure. The contract had a 'strike level' or deductible that represented the threshold level of predicted livestock mortality (in %) above which the insurance would pay out. Actuarially fair premiums were calculated for the insurance. Exhibit 2 provides further details about the IBLI contract, deductibles and premiums.The IBLI team wanted to test whether the index accurately reflected the risk of the target client and whether the contracts met the pastoralists' needs. For this reason, IBLI's team carried out in-depth community and household surveys between 2007 and 2009 in the Marsabit district of Kenya-the first site for the IBLI pilot-to gauge the nature of loss and risk perceptions, test the appetite for an IBLI product, and assess their willingness to pay. Exhibit 3.The survey confirmed that the IBLI index was highly correlated with actual livestock mortality losses experienced by pastoralists in the region. 6 While conducting the survey, IBLI researchers also introduced potential clients to IBLI and gauged the demand and willingness to pay among the population. Prior to the launch of sales in January 2010, the team conducted a baseline survey of 924 households in the area that it has since revisited annually and provides a wealth of data to test the welfare impacts of IBLI.Past research had indicated that the IBLI team would need to educate potential clients about insurance in order to ensure initial uptake and continued engagement. Since these communities had little prior experience with insurance, IBLI teams had to explain basic insurance concepts like risk, before introducing the IBLI product. The IBLI team used a variety of creative education tools such as insurance simulation games, edutainment videos, radio programs, plays and cartoon strips to present IBLI to clients. The team also experimented with IBLI knowledge by giving some of the sample households access to a full-day educational session conducted as a game, while others were not provided such a session.The results of the marketing and outreach campaigns, documented in Exhibit 4, were as ILRI expected. Pastoralists who bought the IBLI product had better knowledge of the product than those who did not buy it. Thirty-nine per cent of those who attended the specially designed IBLI educational game bought the product, as opposed to 26% amongst those who did not attend. Similarly, those who purchased insurance heard about IBLI from 2.89 sources on average, versus 1.72 sources for those who did not. Clearly, more education and marketing yielded better purchase of IBLI, and to ensure that IBLI gained traction, the IBLI team would have to undertake extensive outreach efforts.However, ensuring that such extension campaigns reached a critical mass of clients was both difficult and costly. IBLI clients had low financial literacy, were spread out across vast areas, had difficulty understanding the concept of risk, confused insurance with savings products or lottery, were unfamiliar with insurance jargon, and did not understand or trust satellite data. Additionally, Marsabit suffered from many infrastructural deficiencies that made home-to-home selling difficult. IBLI and its partners also had trouble finding, recruiting and incentivizing the right local agents to sell policies. Pastoralists in turn expressed clearly that they viewed one-shot sales efforts suspiciously and instead wanted continuous education efforts and free access to agents before they would trust IBLI.6. Chantarat, S., Mude, A.G., Barrett, C.B. and Carter, M.R. 2012. Designing Index-Based  In January 2010, IBLI was first offered for sale in the Marsabit district of northern Kenya. ILRI signed on Equity Insurance Agency (EIA) as the insurer and UAP Insurance Company was the underwriter in Africa. Swiss Re, the world's second largest reinsurance company, known for its due diligence and quality underwriting, signed up to offer reinsurance for the product. The launch was greeted by much excitement in local and international media, as well as in the international development community.Exhibit 5 gives information about the number of contracts sold and the value of premiums collected during the first IBLI rollout. While the numbers were promising, the IBLI team encountered several challenges during this commencement period.Their partner EIA did not deploy the point of sale (POS) devices as per their contract, and were unable to arrange any backup sales method either. With failing sales systems, the IBLI team rushed to transport EIA agents, who were the only ones authorized to make sales, throughout the vast sales zone. Some key towns were visited only once during the six-week sales window, and some interested customers were unable to purchase IBLI, causing them to lose confidence with the product.Problems with delivery systems persisted, and the August/September 2010 sales campaign had to be cancelled. In the January 2011 sales period, the IBLI team and its partners introduced several changes to the sales process. Trainers were trained using an interactive curriculum, extension workers were put through a more stringent selection process, and local chiefs were trained to endorse the product in their communities. UAP also introduced its telephone-based transactions platform to process IBLI's transactions (which eventually processed over 70 percent of the sales). Despite all these efforts, IBLI sales declined substantially, as shown in Exhibit 5.Part of the reason for lower sales was that clients had to purchase insurance before the start of the rains, so they did not know if the current contract would pay out or not. Furthermore, as with other index-insurance products, demand fell because no payout had been made yet, causing clients to question IBLI's benefits.After a severe drought in 2011, the IBLI pilot made its first payout in the Marsabit district in northern Kenya in October 2011. Details of the payout are in Exhibit 6.A study 7 conducted after the payout found that IBLI delivered the intended value to pastoralists. Exhibit 7 details the findings of the study. Insured households were 20-40% less likely to sell their livestock assets, or reduce spending on meals. Research would later show that IBLI reduced damage to the pastoralists' asset base, prevented harmful longterm consequences and brought down malnourishment rates in the region. The first payout results made a strong case for IBLI as an effective social welfare program.7. Janzen and Carter (2013).With positive feedback and strong evidence of success from IBLI's first payout, the IBLI team expected sales to increase. However, EIA and UAP were not prepared to execute new sales on time. As a result, there were no sales in the next sales period, and IBLI failed to capitalize on the payout's positive effects. The IBLI team had initially signed an exclusive contract with EIA and UAP, but decided to end the contract after the companies failed to fulfil their duties. This experience raised a crucial issue for Mude and his team. IBLI was a part of ILRI, a research organization, where 'last mile implementation' was considered a 'mission drift'. The IBLI team had therefore wanted to leave implementation to its partners. Yet Mude realized that IBLI was operating in a tough environment. Pastoralists were an entirely new clientele and even existing players in the region, like EIA, had difficulty reaching them. After experiencing the adverse consequences of being 'hands off', the IBLI team realized it needed to be more proactive in helping partners' develop their implementation capacity. This was no easy task for a research organization and Mude worried that implementation was not their core competency. Mude also knew that partners would have to take ownership of their roles to ensure IBLI's sustainability, yet he wondered if it might be useful for ILRI to systematically work to develop capacity for key implementation competencies and for organizations critical to sustainable delivery of IBLI over time.When APA Insurance Company came on board in 2012, ILRI agreed to play a greater supportive role and the IBLI team collaborated closely with them during the August/September 2012 sales period. Yet despite all efforts, sales fell further, as detailed in Exhibit 5.The biggest reason for low sales was that IBLI and APA changed the compensation structure for sales agents-or village insurance promoters (VIPs). As Exhibit 8 shows, these same VIPs had received higher compensation under Equity and UAP, because their salaries had been subsidized by a grant from ILO's Microinsurance Facility. But APA and the IBLI team cut down on subsidized salaries in an effort to accelerate the program towards commercial sustainability. This move backfired. By mid-September, half of the previous VIPs declined to work.Mude said, \"We realized a bit too late that commercial commissions could not be the sole remuneration for agents who had to hunt for clients that were spread out across a vast space, had low uptake and paid small premiums to begin with.\" It became clear to the IBLI team that IBLI was operating in a specialized context, and it was premature to impose very ambitious targets for commercial viability on IBLI. This experience also convinced IBLI's donors to continue providing more support to commercial partners in the initial years.Refining the IBLI product IBLI continued to refine and improve the program with each successive rollout, using measures such as providing colour-coded maps describing payout (provided in Exhibit 9), introducing a sharia-compliant version of IBLI in predominantly Muslim regions through Takaful Insurance of Africa Ltd., etc. A selection of IBLI-covered clients also received payouts in 2013 and 2014, which were met with approval by policyholders, who agreed that the index readings were effective and compensated them fairly. IBLI continued expanding, by adding new sites like Wajir and Isiolo within Kenya in 2013 and increased its partner network, working with international organizations like Mercy Corps and World Vision Kenya. This expansion received good press, including from reputed publications like The Economist, along with much donor and political support. In 2012, IBLI started a pilot in southern Ethiopia, an area which was geographically similar to northern Kenya. ILRI already had its principle campus in Ethiopia with hundreds of staff members based in the country, so IBLI could benefit from a strong country presence and was able to expand to Ethiopia comfortably. In some ways, the IBLI staff considered southern Ethiopia an extension of their sites in Kenya. Despite all of this, as Exhibit 5 shows, sales figures did not improve, and remained in the low hundreds in 2013 and 2014. Mude worried that if IBLI didn't make enough sales in the first few years in Kenya, pastoralists would write-off the program and the IBLI team would fail to demonstrate IBLI's welfare impact (thus potentially losing funding support for the research program as well).Most agricultural insurance around the world required huge upfront investments to catalyse informed demand and reach a critical mass. IBLI was no different.Research and experience had shown the IBLI team that initial public subsidies were needed to stimulate demand and to cover the fixed costs of marketing and developing IBLI in the ASAL region. This was at odds with the initial intention of developing a commercially viable IBLI scheme. Yet the IBLI team felt these subsidies were justified by the fact that IBLI reduced the total cost to society-a position that was echoed by the Government of Kenya, the WBG and other stakeholders. Many of the pastoralists who benefited from IBLI would have otherwise relied on cash or food subsidies from the government, or worse yet, have sustained irreversible health and economic damages. IBLI's subsidies were thus economically justified to the extent that they saved the government and international donors aid money. The IBLI team also considered commercial sustainability to be secondary to the overall well-being of pastoralists. Donors too supported temporarily postponing IBLI's quest for commercial sustainability.However, the sales agent remuneration issue had served as a cautionary tale to the IBLI team. It showed how subsidies could distort a program, and potentially destroy it once they were withdrawn. Many other parts of the IBLI program, including product research and development, marketing and outreach costs, were subsidized by donor funding and Mude worried about what would happen if such subsidies were withdrawn in the future.The Government of Kenya / World Bank approach Impressed with the evidence of IBLI's efficacy at delivering social benefits to an underserved population, the Government of Kenya and the WBG began talks to create a National Livestock Insurance Program, based on the IBLI contract. Under the Program, the Government of Kenya would purchase an index-based livestock insurance cover for approximately 100,000 targeted pastoralists in several of Kenya's counties. The Government intended to subsidize nearly 100% of the costs of the program for the first 3-5 years, though it intended to scale back and gradually remove subsidies when the commercial market for such an insurance became mature. It therefore wanted insurance companies to interface directly with potential clients to catalyse informed demand, though it was unclear whether insurers had the capacity to do so.The plan was for the IBLI team to be intimately involved in designing the new contracts for this program, and advise the government on implementing the program, including how to target and select various populations, how to engage the private sector, how to cut down the operational costs of distributing payouts through platforms like M-pesa 8 , etc.While the Government of Kenya and the WBG were keen to start the program by 2015, they still had to figure out a lot of small details and negotiate the sometimes conflicting interests of different stakeholders. However, both these plans of internal expansion in Kenya would initially be entirely donor-driven and dependent on government support, and would likely involve heavy premium subsidies. While excited about the opportunity, Mude kept wondering what would happen if the government were ever to withdraw support.8. M-pesa is a mobile-based money transfer and microfinance service, launched by Safaricom Ltd. in Kenya in 2007, which allows users to transfer, withdraw and deposit money easily with just a mobile phone. Over 70% households in Kenya-most of whom are poor, in rural areas, and without access to traditional bank accounts-use m-pesa. M-pesa thus leverages technology for financial inclusion by providing underserved low-income households an inexpensive, safe and instant way to transfer money.Expanding into new geographical areas: broadening strategy While IBLI still had much left to accomplish in Kenya, it was already attracting the interest of key stakeholders (e.g. governments, donors and partner non-profits) around the world owing to its proven welfare benefits and potential for social impact. Some of these donors were eager to expand it to other countries like Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, India, Botswana and Tunisia-all of which had poor pastoralist populations-as soon as possible. While still in early stages, IBLI was approached about whether it would set up operations in a couple of these countries, including some with very large pastoralist populations. In both countries, in addition to donor support, the initial messages indicated a favourable political climate with a supportive government, as well as credible players from civil society interested in becoming part of the outreach/distribution network, and reputable insurance companies interested in underwriting the risk.Mude saw the potential, but was also concerned about many unknowns, not only with the partners in these potential new locations, but also with what it would mean to set up a new country operation in a location where ILRI and IBLI did not yet have a strong presence.Jimmy Smith, the Director General of ILRI, was in favour of expanding IBLI as quickly as possible. \"Andrew, be bold!\" Smith would often tell Andrew. Others within IBLI also subscribed to Smith's view. Brenda Wandera, IBLI's Market and Capacity Development Specialist explained, \"There is a real opportunity to be seized. Donor interest is a huge incentive for expansion, but more importantly, we will be able to reach and serve pastoralists in many other countries. Besides, we have to remember that if we wait too long, donor funding and interest for expansion might wane. So we should expand more aggressively while IBLI is in demand and donors want to back it.\"There was also the worry that sales in Kenya might be too slow to sustain funding in the long run. New sites would reduce the risk of donors getting frustrated. It would buy the IBLI team more time to increase overall sales and generate global research insights to prove IBLI's value for money, thereby pre-empting potential criticism of its high upfront costs.Brenda noted, \"We should hedge our bets, rather than invest everything into one site. International expansion will give us the opportunity to test the strength of the concept in diverse sites, and help us better showcase the real benefits IBLI provided to pastoralists. We face very tough conditions, in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia, with many accompanying challenges. If we keep IBLI limited to this region alone, we will be doing disservice to the program's overall legitimacy and value.\"Since IBLI was a donor-funded program, Mude acknowledged that these considerations were important for the team. Yet Mude believed in evidence-based scaling up. \"I want to use a model that has been perfected in one place and can be replicated in others,\" said Mude. \"I'm not sure that the Kenyan model is ready yet since feedback from each successive sales period has prompted new changes in our research and operational strategy in Kenya.\"Others in the team feared that the program had not yet hit a critical uptake mass, which the deepening options in Kenya could potentially provide much quicker than any alternative. If IBLI moved to other countries too quickly, without putting into place the conditions and institutions needed to ensure IBLI's sustainability in Kenya and Ethiopia, it would lose its momentum and credibility in these two countries. Even though partners seemed keen for IBLI to expand, some within IBLI wondered if the risk would be worthwhile, especially when there was a concrete opportunity to scale up in Kenya.The IBLI team also faced a significant human resource crunch. IBLI had a small team of 15 people, catalogued in Exhibit 10, which was already busy with new extension efforts in Kenya and Ethiopia. Many people in the team were relatively new recruits and several key members of the team had recently left to pursue further studies or other interests. Furthermore, it had proven challenging for Andrew to recruit skilled people for IBLI who were willing to relocate to sites like Ethiopia, who possessed some basic cultural competency like local language skills, and most importantly, who had the right overlap of research, marketing and implementation skills required to grow IBLI further.Mude sat back at his desk mulling over the different options and challenges before him. He recognized that all the members of his team wanted to ensure IBLI's best interests, but held greatly differing views about what that meantthey were looking to him to lead the IBLI program to the next level.The goal was clear: to grow IBLI. But when and how should this growth take place? If IBLI stayed in Kenya, how could it keep donors happy and build a sustainable program? If they moved to new countries, how could they use their insights to be successful elsewhere, while ensuring that the Kenyan and Ethiopian programs were not adversely affected? Could they do it all, or would they have to choose? Being either overzealous or overcautious could harm IBLI. As ILRI's senior management team gathered together to plan its 2015-2017 cycle, it was time for Mude to present a clearer, better direction for IBLI.The country of Mongolia developed the first index-based livestock insurance contract for pastoralists based on direct measured livestock mortality. Some data on herd mortality is available for northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia, however the coverage is inadequate and inconsistent. The quality of data about livestock mortality and drought predictions was insufficient by itself to adequately reduce the risk borne by the target population. If any insurance product used this data alone, it would likely be low on efficacy, value and demand.For IBLI to work, it needed another indicator variable that was highly correlated with the insured event.To accurately design and price insurance contracts, the IBLI team had to instead find a measure that was:• Highly correlated with local livestock mortality;• Reliable and cheaply available for a large number of locations;• Not manipulated either by the insurer or the insured; and• Historically available to test the pricing of the product.The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) met all these conditions. The NDVI is constructed from data that is remotely sensed from satellites, and is an indicator of the level of photosynthetic activity in the vegetation in a given location.Since the late 1980s, the United States' NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have produced composite NDVI images of Africa, and have built a valuable archive of these data from June 1981 to the present, which are available in real time and free of charge.Since livestock in pastoralists systems depend entirely on available forage for nutrition, the NDVI would theoretically be a strong indicator, not only of the vegetation available for livestock to consume, but consequently of livestock mortality as well.Using NDVI to create a livelihood-optimized index While NDVI had properties that made it reliable as the basis for an insurable index, it also had to have value for the insured in this particular instance. In other words, NDVI data had to predict livestock mortality rates reasonably precisely so that any index insurance based on NDVI would be able to accurately compensate the policyholders for their loss.To test how closely NDVI data predicted livestock mortality rates, the IBLI team turned to household-level livestock mortality data collected monthly since 2000 in several communities in Kenya's ASAL districts by the Government of Kenya's Arid Lands Resource Management Project (ALRMP) and by the USAID-funded Pastoral Risk Management (PARIMA) Project. They used this data set to statistically estimate the relationship between NDVI measures and observed livestock mortality. The team found that there was a statistical predictive relationship between average livestock mortality within a specific area and the satellite-based indicator of forage availability NDVI.The team then worked with these herd history data to create an optimal insurance index that is defined as the function of the NDVI data. This index is simple, replicable, and inexpensive to establish and has a high correlation with herd mortality data so that it provides the maximum possible insurance value to the pastoralist population.Exhibit 2. IBLI structure and summary of key featuresThe risk Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) is a product that is designed to protect against drought-related livestock mortality. IBLI compensates pastoralists for predicted livestock losses due to severe forage scarcity due to drought.The index in IBLI is predicted livestock mortality. It is calculated by using a measure of pasture availability that is recorded by satellites, called the Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI). This vegetation measure is fed into a response function that relates pasture availability with drought related livestock mortality.The index threshold above which payouts must be made is called the strike level. The strike levels for IBLI are either 10% or 15%. The clients select which contract they would like to purchase. In other words, IBLI will compensate if predicted livestock mortality is above 10% or 15%, depending on the type of contract purchased.The larger Marsabit district will be covered by ten separate contracts. These are based on the divisional boundaries consisting of Central, Gadamoji, Laisamis, Loiyangalani, Mt. Kulal, Kargi, Maikona, Turbi, North Horr, and Dukana divisions.The significance of geographical clustering 1.The index-predicted livestock mortality-is given at the division level. That means that Central, Gadamoji, Laisamis, Loiyangalani, Mt. Kulal, Kargi, Maikona, Turbi, North Horr, and Dukana divisions could all have a different index level. Because insurance payments are made according to the index level, this means that IBLI may make different payments across all the divisions. Every insurance policyholder within the same division, however, will receive the same rate of insurance payment (if the index is above the strike or trigger that they chose).As will be explained below, premiums are different in all the divisions of Marsabit.The standard livestock types for a pastoral herd will be covered. These are: camels, cattle, sheep and goats. To arrive at a value for the insured herd, the four livestock types will be transformed into a standard livestock unit known as a Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU). TLU is calculated as follows:• 1 Cattle = 1 TLU.• 1 Camel = 1.4 TLU.• Once total TLU are calculated, you need the value of a TLU to determine the value of the total herd. Using average prices for livestock across Marsabit, we have arrived at a set price per TLU insured of KES 20,000. Using the examples above, the total value of the herd will be as follows:Example 1: 5 TLU x 20,000 = KES 100,000Example 2: 15 TLU x 20,000 = KES 300,000The premiums are then applied to this to arrive at the amount one would pay for IBLI coverage for the year.The figure below presents the time coverage of the IBLI. The contract is an annual contract whose coverage spans from beginning of March of one year to February of the next year or from beginning of October of one year to end of September of the next year. IBLI will only be sold within specific time frames-the first sales period is from 1 January to 28 February and the second sales period is from 1 August to 30 September. Contracts must be sold within this timeframe as the rainy season beginning right after that may give the potential buyer information about the likely conditions of the season to come that would unfairly affect his/her purchase decision.This annual contract has two potential payout periods: At the end of the long dry season in October and at the end of the short dry season in March. At these points of time, if the index reads greater than 10% or 15% depending on the type of contract purchased, the insurance will pay clientsExhibit 3 IBLI research, data collection and impact evaluationThe IBLI pilot was conducted after a rigorous impact evaluation system was put in place. This began with a series of surveys and community engagement exercises with various households across Marsabit in 2008 and early 2009. This first wave of data collection was intended to identify and analyse the risk profile of the community, testing their appetite for risk, and soliciting information necessary to help guide the design of appropriate and precise IBLI products for the community. In addition, to ensure that IBLI would make sense to them and have some practical value, the surveys were also used as a means to introduce potential clients to IBLI and gauge the demand and willingness to pay for such a product.Once these data were analysed and used to design the IBLI contract and, on this evidence-base, rally the interest of key stakeholders (such as insurance companies, and development and donor agencies), IBLI researchers designed an elaborate multi-year impact evaluation survey. The survey strategy was designed to ensure that they could attribute impacts estimated across various welfare indicators, to IBLI. This survey (first implemented in October/December 2009), in particular provided an important baseline, underlining various parameters of interest for subsequent monitoring and evaluation.At the onset, IBLI was a product that promised, in theory, considerable social and welfare benefits for pastoralists.However, its actual impacts and effects of securing livestock assets in pastoral settings by way of an IBLI-type product were not quantified and remained relatively unknown. It was believed that IBLI could act as a productive safety net for households affected by livestock losses after drought years and help them effectively manage the resulting shock.IBLI was also hypothesized to provide households with incentives to invest in livestock by reducing the risk inherent in keeping livestock in a vulnerable system. Furthermore, by increasing the collateral value of an otherwise risky asset, IBLI could potentially enhance financial deepening in pastoral areas, making credit more available and catalysing related market opportunities. There may also be several unexpected market, environmental and behavioural impacts that would be important to study. These, in a nutshell, were and continue to be the objectives of the research agenda that continues to this day and has thus far produced a suite of important insights.This sample size was distributed across the 16 sub-locations in Marsabit on the basis proportional allocation using the 1999 household population census statistics. There were only two exceptions to this rule: a minimum sample size of 30 households and maximum of 100 households per sub-location; to participate in a panel survey. The next step was to draw the actual sample. In all survey sites, a list of all inhabitants was developed with chiefs and local elders. The IBLI research team with the local enumerators went to each and every sub-location and in a painstaking process accompanied by local elders and assistant chiefs and wrote down names of all household heads. Other lists, such as food aid distribution, were also included or used to augment what was collected. In addition, key informants were asked to classify households into three wealth groups based on livestock holdings; 1. Low (less than 10 TLU 9 ), 2. Medium (between 10 and 20 TLU), and 3. High (more than 20 TLU). For each sub-location, random sampling was stratified by wealth class. However, because in several instances there were too few among the high wealth category, all such households were included.The data available includes household-level information collected annually (beginning in 2009) for 924 households. Each household has been revisited annually to track the dynamics of change across a range of key variables. Household attrition-rate has been less than 5% annually. In each round of the survey, households were asked to answer questions about health, education, livestock holdings, herd migration, livelihood activities, income, consumption, risk preferences, market interactions, assets, and access to credit and many more aspects.In order to incentivise uptake of IBLI, a direct subsidy encouragement was provided through the use of discount coupons given to a sub-sample of the surveyed households in each of the 16 study sites. Coupon recipients were randomly selected from all the surveyed households in each study site as follows: forty percent (40%) of the sample did not receive any discount. The remaining 60% received discounts with the distribution being 10% of the sample in each of the following discount levels (10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60%). The coupons provided, upon presentation to insurance sales agents, entitled the household to a discount on premium for the first 15 TLU insured.In addition, half of the sample communities were randomly selected, and within them half of the sample households were selected to attend a full-day educational session, including experimental games used to convey the complex concepts of index insurance. The games were designed to explain the inter-temporal benefits of insurance by simulating herd sizes over several years. They also explained that payouts were triggered by droughts, and that if a drought did not happen and payouts were not triggered, their premiums would not be returned. Exhibit 7 Key highlights from an IBLI impact study• There was a 22-36% average reduction in the number of insured households who anticipated selling livestock to cope with the 2011 drought (a 50% drop overall), which enhanced their ability to recover from the drought.• Insured households were 27-36% less likely to reduce meals on average (overall drop of nearly 33%), which indicated there would be a reduction in malnourishment in the food insecure region.• Insured households would be 42-50% less dependent on food aid and 0-26% less reliant on other aid.• The study concluded that these results \"suggest that insurance can help households to protect assets during crises, without having a deleterious effect on human capital investments.\"About the study ","tokenCount":"6425"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a60508fc62e125c2235bd3d44b2ec78b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042639.pdf","id":"-68514714"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"afbbc64e-20c3-430a-a858-a7d5bd011f23","pagecount":"22","content":"Water productivity in agriculture would be the single most important factor driving water use globally in the future (Molden et al. 2000;Rijsberman 2004). Hence, research to evaluate crop water productivity and analyze the drivers of change in the same, has fascinated many researchers and scholars worldwide (Ahmad et al. 2004;Ambast et al. 2006;Grismer 2001;Howell 2001;Kijne et al. 2003;Zwart and Bastiaanssen 2004;Singh 2005;van Dam et al. 2006). As a result, most of the research studies on crop water productivity were undertaken in naturally water-scarce regions of the world. Such regions include western United States, drought-prone areas of arid Australia, semi-arid areas of Punjab State in India, Punjab Province in Pakistan, Turkey and Mexico.Water productivity in crop production can be expressed in terms of biomass production per cubic meter of water diverted or depleted (kg/m 3 ), known as physical productivity of water; and net or gross present value of the crop produced per cubic meter of water diverted or depleted (Rs/m 3 ) known as economic productivity of water (Kijne et al. 2003).Definition of water productivity is scale dependent (Molden et al. 2003). Water productivity can be analyzed at the plant level, field level, farm level, system level and basin level. According to the scale, the determinants of water productivity would also change.Analyzing water productivity at the plant level would require knowledge of the total biomass per unit of water transpired, and doing the same at the field level would require knowledge of crop yield (kg/ha) or net return from crop production (Rs/ha) against the total amount of water applied or unit of water depleted. Whereas, analyzing water productivity at the farm level would involve the net return from the entire farm against the total water diverted or depleted. The reason is that, as Rothenberg (1980) notes, farmers grow a variety of crops within their farm, and sometimes in combination with dairy farming, which depends on crop residues as inputs. But, if water productivity has to be analyzed at the level of the irrigation system or the river basin, it has to be in relation to the total amount of water depleted rather than the total amount of water diverted. The reason is that not all the water diverted for irrigation would be depleted, and instead might be available for reuse in the form of recharge to groundwater, which can be pumped out by the downstream well irrigators (Allen et al. 1998) or residual moisture in the soil profile available for the next crop.Again, water productivity can be analyzed for one season or for the entire crop cycle, thereby changing the time scale of analysis. Accordingly, the value of the denominator of water productivity, i.e., 'depleted water' would change. This is because of the following reason. The residual moisture available in the soil might get treated as nondepleted water in a cropwise analysis. But this soil moisture might eventually get depleted in soil evaporation during the fallow period, and therefore get included in the denominator if the entire annual crop cycle is considered for analysis. This also means that the farm level water productivity analysis should consider the entire crop cycle to capture this time-scale effect.The classical concept of irrigation efficiency used by water engineers to analyze the 'productive use' of water, omitted economic values (Van Dam et al. 2006) and looked at the actual evapotranspiration (ET) against the total water diverted for crop production (Kijne et al. 2003). Over and above, it does not factor in the 'scale effect' (Ahmed et al. 2004;Van Dam et al. 2006). In the recent past, there have been major advancements in the theoretical discourse on ways to assess how productively every unit of water is used up in crop production, leading to more comprehensive definitions of water productivity.A recent synthesis of available literature by Zwart and Bastiaanssen (2004) of showed that, water productivity in terms of biomass output per unit of depleted water (kg/ET) or physical productivity of water in crop production has been mostly analyzed across the world at least for some of the major crops; and enough is already known about the factors that explain its variations across locations. But, it also showed that no attention is paid to know how the crops compare in terms of economic returns from every unit of water depleted. But, this is crucial, because the measures to enhance water productivity of a crop such as higher dosage of nitrogenous fertilizers; improved soil management; better agronomic practices, including the use of high yielding varieties, and pest control; water harvesting and supplementary irrigation; and investment in water delivery control measures, have economic imperatives.The reason for this heavy focus on the physical productivity of water is most of these analyses were done by agricultural scientists, who are concerned with raising the dry matter yield of crop per unit of evapotranspiration. The other factors, which might have been responsible for this bias are: 1) water is a limiting factor at the societal level for enhancing crop production in these regions (Howell 2001), which still have large cropped areas under unirrigated conditions (Loomis and Connor 1996: pp10), and water productivity improvement enables farmers to divert part of the saved water to expand the irrigated area; and, 2) with volumetric rationing and the prices that farmers have to pay for water, they are likely to get higher net returns along with higher yields through efficient irrigation technologies that reduce consumptive use. 1 Another factor could be the fluctuating price of agricultural commodities in the market, which changes the net return per unit volume of water.But, the avenues to improve agricultural WP through farming system changes are not explored. This is a major shortcoming when we consider the fact that most of the farms in developing economies like India and most of Africa are complex with several crops; and also composite with crops and dairying instead of one or two crops. After Rothenberg (1980), as farms are organized to maximize net economic return, they are the best fundamental units for economic analysis. Hence, how productively farmers use their water cannot be assessed in relation to a particular crop alone, but in relation to the entire farm. In sum, this dominant paradigm of 'more crop per drop' certainly does influence WP research in Asia and Africa.On the other hand, there has also been a greater recognition of the distinction between securing field level 'water-saving' and field-level WP improvement, and water-saving and WP improvement at the basin-scale (Allan et al. 1998;Howell 2001;Molle and Turral 2004;Seckler et al. 2003). The concept of 'open basins' and 'closed basins' is often used to explain how the determinants of WP could be manipulated and water saving achieved, or otherwise, in different situations. The information obtained discloses that in 'closed basins', field-level water saving does not result in water-saving and WP improvement at the basin level, except when the return flows meet with saline aquifers or are nonreturnable; and otherwise basin level water saving and WP improvements comes only from a reduction in consumptive use (Molle and Turral 2004).This new paradigms in water resource management also seems to have influenced research in many countries in Asia and Africa: 1) in deciding what one should look for as key 'determinants' in WP analysis; and; 2) in identifying the drivers of change in WP. They have hardly captured the complex technical, social, economic, institutional and policy settings that govern water allocation policies by the government and water use decisions by the farmers. This concerns the poor technical efficiency and reliability of public canal systems; heavy subsidies in pricing of water and electricity in the farm sector; huge public investments in water harvesting; and, lack of institutional regimes governing the use of water from canal schemes and groundwater.The overarching objective of this paper is to have a critical look at these two paradigms in agricultural water management to see how far they are useful in exploring new avenues for WP improvements and water saving, particularly in situations like India. It also explores new opportunities for WP improvements and water saving for fields, farms and regions, by analyzing the complex variables which drive these WP parameters, and also identifies new areas for research. Some of the specific research questions being addressed in this paper are as follows.1. Given the heavy subsidies in electricity and water used for agriculture and lack of well-defined rights in surface water and groundwater in developing countries like India, does research on raising 'crop per drop' make sense, or what should be the new determinants of WP for both farmer and basin water managers?2. What considerations should be involved in analyzing basin level WP and water saving impacts of efficient irrigation?3. What are the likely impacts of improved reliability of irrigation, and changing water allocation on crop water productivity and water saving?4. What are the opportunities and constraints for improving agricultural water productivity at the level of farming systems?5. What should be the priority areas for research on enhancing regional WP in agriculture, in countries like India where food security, rural employment and poverty alleviation are still major issues?The main consideration involved in analyzing WP in the West is reducing the amount of water required to produce a unit weight of crop, as this would automatically ensure higher net return per unit of land. But this is not the concern in many developing economies in Asia, where land use intensity is already very high in many regions. Surface water is heavily subsidized, and pricing is also inefficient (Kumar 2003). There is zero marginal cost of electricity used for pumping groundwater for irrigation (Kumar 2005). Hence, the measures to enhance water productivity through ET reduction and yield enhancement may not result in significant improvement in net income for the farmer for a unit area of irrigated land, though net water productivity in rupee terms may increase. While major investments are required to achieve irrigation efficiency improvements and yield enhancement, the increased benefit farmers get is only in terms of market price for higher yield. The reason is that the real water-saving and energy saving, 2 which are major impacts of technological interventions, do not get converted into savings in private costs of water. Enhancement in WP (kg/ET) in field crops like wheat can mainly come from crop technologies. A study by Sander Zwart (2006), which involved analysis of system level WP in irrigated wheat in six different regions around the world using SEBAL (Surface Energy Balance) methodology, shows that the variation in WP is not so much due to variations in ET, but due to variations in the yield (see Table 1). The average ET was highest in Pakistan (443 mm) and lowest in Sirsa (361 mm), which is approximately 10 % higher/lower than the average (source: analysis by Sander J. Zwart 2006). Though the potential evapotranspiration (PET) depends on the climate, especially the relative humidity (air temperature and solar radiations remaining in 2 Whether use of efficient irrigation technologies can reduce or increase energy use for irrigation depends on the type of irrigation technology and the extent to which the traditional water supply is pressurized (Loomis and Connors 1996). a narrow range across these six regions), actual ET could have been manipulated by changing the water available to crops through irrigation. But, this does not seem to have happened.The reason that ET remains the same is that there is a shift from evaporation (E) to transpiration (T), which leads to greater biomass production. As soon as the environment for crop production is improved (fertilizers, weeding, better seeds, water management, etc.,) there will be a shift from non-beneficial to beneficial water depletion. This, of course, requires farmer investments. Now, the only way to create an incentive among farmers to adopt efficient irrigation technologies for WP improvement is to subsidize it. The idea is to make private benefits offset the private costs (Kumar 2007). While yield enhancement is also a benefit of efficient irrigation technologies (Loomis and Connor 1996: pp 398), it can also come from improved agronomic practices mentioned above. The extent of subsidy for a system which can save 'X' amount of water could be kept higher than the difference between the private costs and benefits. It should be guided by the positive externality that 'X' creates on society.But, government subsidies for efficient irrigation technologies are extremely limited in countries like India. For instance, the Government of India had provided Rs.5 billion towards subsidy for drip and sprinkler systems in the eleventh 5-year plan. But, this amount is just sufficient to cover an area of 100,000 ha against a total net irrigated area of nearly 55 m ha, accounting for just 0.20 %, if one considers an investment of Rs.100,000 per ha of area under MI system, and a subsidy to the tune of 50 %. Hence, such measures to enhance WP do not result in increased land productivity. Under the much-publicized Andhra Pradesh Micro-Irrigation project of the Government of AP, a total area of 166,100 ha was covered under MI systems over a time period of nearly 30 months. The total subsidy benefit to farmers was to the tune of 209.96 crore rupees, meaning Rs.18,070 per ha. The result is that most of the farmers have installed drip systems for horticultural crops, for which returns would anyway be high even without drips 3 and sprinklers, which are low cost but not technically efficient for small farms (Kumar et al. 2008). If adoption is limited to horticultural crops, which cover small areas in India, the potential of MI systems in WP enhancement would further be limited. 4  This means that if MI system is used for conventional crops, the farmers have to divert part of the water saved to another plot to sustain their income as net return is WP multiplied by the volume of water. However, in situations where the entire holding is already used, farmers will not have much incentive to go for measures that do not increase their returns from the land but only increase their returns per unit of water. This is the situation in India, where the average holding of farmers is quite low (less than 1 ha) when compared to that in western US or Australia. The size of median landholding in Australia is 300 ha (ABS 2002). This clearly means that what is socially optimal is that farmers look for alternatives that enhance the productivity of their land remarkably, simultaneously reducing the water requirement, or diverting part of the water to other water-based farming systems that have minimal dependence on land. In a nutshell, there is a clear trade-off between enhancing the physical productivity of water, and maximizing income returns. This argument also holds true when it comes to analyzing the WP impacts of water harvesting for supplementary irrigation, which is analyzed in the case of public investments. This is dealt with in the subsequent section.In the west, the focus in WP research has been on efficient irrigation technologies, including those for supplementary irrigation. However, in some African countries (Oweis et al. 1999;Rockström et al. 2002), Mexico (Scott and Silva-Ochoa 2001) and in India, the focus has shifted to potential impact of water harvesting. This is applicable to some of the recent work in eastern African countries. Rockström et al. (2002) have shown the remarkable effect of supplementary irrigation through water harvesting on the physical productivity of water expressed in kg/ET, for crops such as sorghum and maize. However, the research did not evaluate the incremental economic returns due to supplementary irrigation against the incremental costs of water harvesting. It also does not quantify the real hydrological opportunities available for water harvesting at the farm level and its reliability. The work by Scott and Silva-Ochoa (2001) in the Lerma-Chapala Basin in Mexico showed higher gross value product from crop production in areas with better allocation of water from water harvesting irrigation systems. But, their figures of surplus value product, which takes into account the cost of irrigation, are not available in their analysis. In arid and semi-arid regions, the hydrological and economic opportunities of water harvesting are often over-played. A recent work in India has shown that the cost of water harvesting systems would be enormous, and reliability of supplies from such systems would be very poor in the arid and semi-arid regions of India, which are characterized by low mean annual rainfalls, very few rainy days, high inter-annual variability in rainfall and rainy days, and high potential evaporation, leading to a much higher variability in runoff between good rainfall years and poor rainfall years (Kumar et al. 2006).With the high capital cost of WH systems needed for supplemental irrigation, the small and marginal farmers would have less incentive to adopt such systems. In addition, the incremental returns due to yield benefits may not exceed the cost of the system. This is particularly so for crops having a low economic value such as wheat and paddy, which dominate arid and semi-arid regions in India. But, even if the benefits due to supplementary irrigation from water harvesting exceed the costs, it will not result in higher WP in economic terms in closed basins. The exception is when the incremental returns are disproportionately higher than the increase in ET. This is because, in a closed basin, increase in beneficial ET at the place of water harvesting will eventually reduce the beneficial use down stream. In countries like India, lack of this economic perspective in decisions, however, results in too much public investment towards subsidies to farmers to harvest water locally. To sum up, gain in crop per drop (kg/ET) cannot drive water harvesting for supplementary irrigation in semi-arid and arid regions. Also, incremental net benefit considerations can drive water harvesting at the basin scale only if there is no opportunity cost of harvesting.The real water savings through efficiency improvements at different scales had been thoroughly discussed by several scholars (Allen et al. 1998;Molle and Turral 2004;Molle et al. 2004;Seckler 1996). The main argument is that in 'closed basins', increasing efficiency would only reduce return flows and not reduce the depleted portion of irrigation withdrawals. Thus real water saving is not possible through improvements in irrigation efficiencies in closed basins (Molle and Turral 2004). While there are sufficient evidences on the relationship between ET and yield (Connor and Jones 1985;Grismer 2001;Rockström et al. 2002), at least a few scholars argue that reduction in consumed fraction and, therefore, 'real water saving', is not possible without reducing the yield, unless we use better crop varieties or agronomic practices.But, these technologies might be able to reduce the consumptive water use as well as consumed fraction 5 (CF), without reducing the beneficial evapotranspiration (ET) and the yield (see page 76 of Allen et al. [1998] for details on ET and consumed fraction), thereby leading to 'real water savings' at the field level. Such reductions in consumption could be achieved through reduced evaporation from excessively wet soil, or reduction in nonreusable deep percolation from water application in excess of the soil moisture deficit in the root zone. However, the distinction between ET and CF is often not made in analyzing the impact of depleted water on yields. Hence, an automatic conclusion is that real water saving at the basin level is not possible without changing ET (Zhu et al. 2004), or affecting other uses in water-scarce basins (Molle et al. 2004). Whereas in reality, improvements in crop water productivity in physical terms and water saving might be possible at the basin level through efficient irrigation technologies. Hence, research on basin level WP impacts of efficient irrigation technologies should consider CF as a determinant.Are There New Opportunities for Improving Water Productivity in Countries like India?It is widely acknowledged that reliability and degree of control over field-level water allocation are, by and large, very poor in surface irrigation systems in India (Brewer et al. 1999;Meinzen-Dick 1995), leading to poor technical efficiencies (GOI 1999;Ray 2002). Whereas the irrigation systems in the USA and Australia are far more reliable and are designed for a high degree of water delivery control. Two major dimensions of irrigation service, which have significant impacts on crop yields are, timeliness of water delivery (Perry and Narayanamurthy 1998) and excess water deliveries, with the impact of first being positive and that of the second being negative, as illustrated by a study on irrigated rice production in Sone irrigation command in Bihar (Meinzen-Dick 1995). But, the opportunities available with improved reliability of irrigation and 'changing water allocation' in enhancing WP have not been examined.This research is particularly more important when there are theoretical (Malla and Gopalakrishnan 1995;Perry 2001a) as well as practical issues involved in using pricing as a tool for demand regulation (de Fraiture and Perry 2004; Perry 2001a). But, the task also lies in developing quantitative criteria for assessing quality and reliability. Kumar, Trivedi and Singh (this book) had developed an index, named 'Irrigation Quality Index' for assessing the quality and reliability of irrigation water at the field scale. Implicitly, its application is limited to fields-scale assessments only, where the crops remain the same. The same cannot be extended to farms where the crops change.There are evidences from different parts of the world that well irrigation results in higher yields than canal irrigation. Though there are sufficient evidences to the effect that well irrigators get a higher yield, and in spite of higher cost of irrigation get higher net returns as compared to canal irrigators (Kumar and Singh 2001; IRMA/UNICEF 2001), there is limited research data on the differential economic productivity of groundwater irrigation over surface irrigation. A recently published study for the Andalusian region (southern Spain) shows that each cubic meter of groundwater used for irrigation provides five times more money and almost four times more jobs than a cubic meter of surface water used for irrigation (Hernández-Mora et al. 1999).However, the statement about higher reliability of well irrigation is not a universal one. In some canal command areas, particularly in their head reaches, reliability of water supply is found to be very high due to the availability of water throughout the season. Further, the chemical quality of surface water can sometimes be much better than that of well water due to the presence of minerals, which provide micro-nutrients for plant growth as the water comes from mountainous catchments through surface runoff (Kumar, Trivedi and Singh, this book). Against this, the well water can be of poor chemical quality, due to the presence of excessive salts in dissolved form, which can be harmful for soil health and, therefore, affect crop growth. This differential chemical quality of water can improve the overall quality of surface irrigation.Nevertheless, well irrigation is generally of higher quality as compared to canal irrigation. But, in the case of well irrigation, the manner in which this positive differential reliability gets translated into WP gains is a major point of inquiry. There are two possibilities. First, it is an established fact that the crop yield increases in proportion to the increase in transpiration, and, at higher doses, irrigation does not result in beneficial transpiration, but in non-beneficial evaporation. Irrigation water dosages are normally higher in canal irrigation. This way, increased CF does not result in a proportional increase in the yield of crops (Vaux and Pruitt 1983). Non-recoverable deep percolation is another non-beneficial component of the total water depleted (CF) from the crop land during irrigation (Allen et al. 1998). This also increases at a higher dosage of irrigation, which occurs in the case of canal irrigation. Moreover, with controlled water delivery, efficiency of fertilizer usage would be better in the first case. Hence, with improved reliability and water delivery control, both the denominator (CF) and numerator (yield) of the water productivity parameter (kg/m 3 ) could be higher. This can be better understood by the negative correlation between surplus irrigation and crop yields in the Sone command where surplus irrigation led to reduced yields (Meinzen-Dick 1995). Since, there are no extra capital investments it would also lead to higher productivity in economic terms.The second possibility is that with greater quality and reliability of irrigation, the farmers are able to provide optimum dosage of irrigation to the crop, controlling non-beneficial evaporation, and non-recoverable deep percolation. And as a result, the CF remains low and the fraction of beneficial evapotranspiration within the CF or the depleted water remains high. Also, it is possible that with the high reliability regime of the available supplies, even under scarcity of irrigation water, the farmers can adjust their sowing time so that they are able to provide much needed watering. This can bring out high yield responses. Both result in higher WP in kg/ET.But, are the differences in WP in economic terms (Rs/m 3 ) caused by well owners growing more water-efficient and water-sensitive crops with assured water supplies? Evidence in support of this argument is found in a recent study comparing the water productivity of shareholders of tubewell companies and water buyers in north Gujarat. The study showed that the shareholders of tubewell companies got much higher returns from every unit of pumped water, i.e., overall net water productivity in economic terms (Rs.4.18/m 3 ), as compared to water-buyers (Rs.1.3/m 3 ). The reason was that water allocation for shareholders was quite assured in volumetric terms, and irrigation water delivery was highly reliable, owing to which they could budget water properly, select water-sensitive and high-valued crops and judiciously make investments for inputs; whereas water buyers were at the mercy of the well owners (Kumar 2005). Now, with expanding well irrigation in many arid and semi-arid countries like India, including canal command areas, new opportunities for improvements in the reliability of water supplies are available. If well irrigation gives positive differential WP over surface irrigation, we can incorporate such features that contribute to higher water productivity in well irrigation in gravity irrigations systems as well. They include creating an intermediate storage system for storing canal water; and lifting and delivery devices for the stored water. That said, in real economics terms, what does the gain in productivity mean given the fact that the economic costs of irrigation is much higher than the private costs for both canal irrigation and well irrigation? Understanding these linkages will help design better policies for water allocation (whether to supply water by gravity or promote conjunctive use) and pricing in surface irrigation. If reliability results in higher WP (Rs/m 3 ) in well irrigation, which cannot be explained by price variations, then that makes tariff increase in canal water contingent upon improving the quality of irrigation.Water management decisions are often taken on the basis of average water productivity estimates. For the same type of system, water productivity for the same crop can change at the field scale (Singh et al. 2006: pp272) according to water application and fertilizer use regimes. Hence, it is important to know the marginal productivity with respect to water and nutrient use. It helps to analyze the role of changing water allocation strategies at the field level in enhancing WP. But, there are no data available internationally.For a given crop, the irrigation dosage and the crop water requirement (beneficial use plus beneficial nonconsumptive use) corresponding to the maximum yield may not correspond to the maximum water productivity (Rs/m 3 )- (Molden et al. 2003). The WP (k/m 3 ) would start leveling off and decline a lot before the yield starts leveling off (see Figure 1.2 in Molden et al. 2003). Ideally, WP in terms of net return from crop per cubic meter of water (Rs/m 3 ) should start leveling off or decline even before the physical productivity of water (kg/m 3 ) starts showing that trend. When water is scarce, there is a need to optimize water allocation to maximize water productivity (Rs/m 3 ) through changing the dosage of irrigation. But, this may be at the cost of reduced yield and net return per unit of land, depending on to which segment of the yield and WP response curves the current level of irrigation corresponds.Recent analysis with data on applied water, yield and irrigation WP for select crops in the Narmada River basin in India showed interesting trends. In many cases, trends in the productivity of irrigation water in response to irrigation did not coincide with the trends in crop yields in response to irrigation (Figures 1 and 2); whereas in certain other cases, the trends in irrigation WP in response to irrigation and the trends in yield in response to irrigation did actually coincide at least for some range in irrigation (Figures 3 and 4). Knowing at what segment of the WP response curve the irrigation dosage to a given crop lies, helps understand how changing water allocation would change the crop yield and WP.The regression values for the response of yield to irrigation dosage being very small (Figures 1 and 3), one could argue that many factors other than irrigation explain yield variations. But, the data that are presented here are for different farmers, who represent different soil conditions, different planting dates and different seed varieties, all of which have a potential to influence the crop yield. If one takes into account this, one could say that the actual yield response to irrigation would be much stronger if the planting date, soils and seed varieties are  the same. Also, the slope of the yield curve is very mild in the case of Figure 1. This is quite contrary to what can normally be found given the wide range in irrigation water dosage among the sample farmers. This can be explained by the variation in PET, and the moisture availability across farmers in the sample, which changes the irrigation water requirements.In the first case, where the level of irrigation corresponds to the ascending part of the yield curve, but to the descending part of the WP curve (Figures 1 and 3), then limiting irrigation dosage might give higher net return per unit of water. But, farmers may not be interested in that unless it gives a higher return from the land. Hence, if the return from the land does not improve, the strategy can work only under three situations: 1) the amount of water that farmers can access is limited by the natural environment, like limited groundwater reserves; 2) there is such a high marginal cost of using water, due to high prices for water or electricity used for pumping water, that WP is much closer to the values attained at the highest levels of irrigation; and, 3) water supply is rationed. In all these situations, the farmers should have extra land for using the water  saved. Under condition of supply rationing, farmers would anyway be using water for growing economically efficient crops. But, the issue being addressed here is that for a given crop how far water productivity can be enhanced to a level that the best managed farms do achieve.In all these three situations described above, the WP improvements would lead to farmers diverting the saved water for irrigating more crops to sustain or enhance their farm income. The reason is that the amount of water being handled by farmers is too small that they need to use the same quantum of water as previously since the WP differences are just marginal. This behavior of the farmer can better be understood from the following equation, which defines net improvement in farm income:Where, 'V' is the volume of water diverted for irrigation prior to the adoption of productivity improvement measures; ΔV is the reduction in the volume of water diverted for irrigation after adoption (+ive); Φ is the productivity of water when volume V was used for irrigation; Δ Φ is the rise in water productivity after adoption (+).Analyzing the equation, the only way a small farmer can maximize his net farm return in the improved WP scenario is by making ΔV zero. In the case of a large farmer in US or Australia, who might use 100 to 500 times more water than an average farmer in India, there is still an option available for enhanced returns, even if he decides to reduce the volume of water used for irrigation (i.e., ΔV> 0) because V is very large, making V* ΔΦ very large.Hence, the impact would be greater economic outputs for the same quantum of water. Nevertheless, the impact can be different if the farmers get higher returns along with higher WP through changing water allocation as illustrated earlier. Hugh Turral 6 (per. com) argues that to achieve real demand regulation, water for agriculture needs to be formally allocated or re-allocated. If that means less water for agriculture, improving WP will be one of the responses. Howell (2001) cites the example of the Texas high plains. The increased use of irrigation technologies for wheat had resulted in the enhancement of water use efficiency (Kg/ET), which followed significant yield increase, in wheat (Table 8, Howell, 2001). He argues that in such situations, farmers would achieve real water saving. This could result in water saving at the system level, if the farmers do not expand the area under irrigation. But in this case, the farmers can afford to reduce the area under irrigation as the net return per unit of land also might have improved.In the second case, where both the yield and WP curve are descending (Figures 3 and 4), the impact of change in water allocation on both WP and yield would be similar, i.e., reduced water allocation would result in both yield and WP gain. This is the most ideal situation where farmers have a strong incentive to become adapted to the water allocation strategies enforced by an official agency as in the case of canal irrigation, and voluntarily cut irrigation dosage in well irrigation. But, this is a situation which is not very common in semi-arid and arid conditions. Overirrigation is more common in rich alluvial areas like central Punjab and Haryana, where farmers get free electricity and canal water is heavily subsidized.For instance, analysis of soil water balance in rice-wheat fields in the Sirsa District of Haryana by Singh (2005) using the SWAP (Soil Water Atmosphere Plant) model shows that the total water applied was in excess of the estimated ET (in the order of 290 mm to 561 mm). Interestingly, the ET value was higher for the field which had a lower dosage of irrigation (see Table 2). It shows that there is ample opportunity for real water saving through a reduction in non-beneficial E of ET-the part of soil moisture storage change, which would eventually get evaporated from the field. By reducing irrigation dosage in such conditions as cited above, the farmers gain both higher land productivity (return per unit of land) and higher return per unit of water. In the ultimate analysis, it may appear that to affect demand reductions, it is important to ration water allocation in canals along with changes in the practice of farmers by educating them on better crop management. Proper regional and sectoral water allocation can drive WP improvement. Experiences from the Murray-Darling Basin (Haisman 2003) and Chile (Thobani 1997) show significant improvements in water use efficiency and value of water realized, respectively, in irrigated production after the introduction of volumetric rationing enforced through properly instituted water rights. Nevertheless, marginal WP analysis of the kind presented above can help decide on the allocation and delivery strategies for canal water, provided farmers are quite aware of water allocation and irrigation scheduling policies.Hence, there is much more one can achieve in WP enhancement and water demand management in gravity irrigation without resorting to water pricing options technically. As Perry (2001a) notes, assigning volumes to specific uses, and effectively rationing water where demand exceeds supplies, would be an effective approach to cope with water shortages. But, its actual potential might depend on the situation in terms of access to land and water, and the institutional and policy environment, such as water and energy prices and water rights regimes. It is clear from the foregoing analysis that water control can help achieve WP enhancement even without pricing and volumetric water rights, if there is a physical shortage of water or extra land for cultivation is not available.The recent past has shown significant debates over the usefulness of irrigation water pricing as a way to regulate water demand. While, some argue for it (Malla and Gopalakrishnan 1995;Tsur and Dinar 1995;Johansson 2000), some others argue against it, pointing out shortcomings at both theoretical and practical levels (Bosworth et al. 2002;Perry 2001a). There are three major, and important contentions for those who argue against pricing: 1) questioning the logic in the proposition that \"if the marginal costs are nil, farmers would be encouraged to use large quantities of water before its marginal productivity becomes zero, consuming much more than the accepted standards and needs\" (source: Molle and Turral 2004); 2) the demand for irrigation water is inelastic to low prices, and the tariff levels at which the demand becomes elastic to price changes would be so high that it becomes socially and politically unviable to introduce (de Fraiture and Perry 2002; Perry 2001a); 3) there are no reasons for farmers to use too much water, which can cause overirrigation (Molle and Turral 2004). But, these arguments have a weak scientific basis. We would discuss them in the subsequent paragraphs.As regards the first point, the impact of zero marginal cost is not in 'creating incentive to wastewater', but in 'creating disincentive to prevent wastage'. These two concepts are distinctly different for public irrigation systems as control of water delivery devices is not in the hands of the farmers. One exception is the situation where Water Users' Associations (WUAs) function, which considers water use to the point about 'disincentive'. The reason for disincentive is that the direct cost or the opportunity cost of taking measures to prevent wastage would be more than the benefits that can be derived from it in the form of reduction in yield losses. In certain other situations, in the absence of proper control structures in the tertiary systems, water delivery is not regulated. Given that farmers are unsure of getting the next release in time, they apply water excessively and irrespective of the field capacity of the soil. This is common in paddy, which is widely grown in canal commands. So, the impact of a price increase would be the creation of a strong economic incentive to reduce wastage, equal to the irrigation charges they have to pay for the wasted water.The second point is about linking irrigation charges and demand for water. Merely raising water tariff without improving the quality and reliability of irrigation will not only make little economic sense but also would find few takers. As returns from irrigated crops are more elastic to quality of irrigation than its price (Kumar and Singh 2001), poor quality of irrigation increases farmers' resistance to pay for the irrigation services they receive. Therefore, the 'water diverted' by farmers in their fields does not reflect the actual demand for water in a true economic sense, so long as they do not pay for it. In other words, the impact of tariff changes on irrigation water demand can be analyzed only when the water use is monitored and farmers are made to pay for the water on volumetric basis.It also means that if positive marginal prices are followed by improved quality, the actual demand for irrigation water might actually increase, though efficiency would improve. To what extent it would increase depends on the availability of land and alternative crops that give a higher return per unit of land. This increase in demand is due to the tendency of farmers to increase the volume of water used to maintain or raise the net income (Kumar and Singh 2001). Hence, water rationing is important to affect demand regulations in most situations (Perry 2001a). The challenge lies in understanding the science of WP, particularly WP response to irrigation and actual consumptive use of water, and managing irrigation water deliveries accordingly. In the case of well irrigation, it is important for farmers to understand this linkage, whereas the official agencies have to ensure that power supply is available for critical waterings.As regards the third point, often farmers do not make correct judgments about the level of irrigation dosage that corresponds to zero marginal returns. This has been found in the case of well owners, who are not confronted with the positive marginal cost of pumping, resulting in lowering the yield with incremental irrigation (Kumar 2005). Price reforms only make farmers more conscious about the negative economic consequences of giving an overdose of irrigation water.We have seen that there are clear trade offs between options to enhance physical productivity of water and WP in economic terms at the field level itself. We would see that there is a trade off between maximizing WP at the field level and that at the farm level, though farm level water productivity is dependent on the processes that govern WP at the individual fields. We would also see that the options available to maximize WP in a region, which often is the concern of water policymakers, are far fewer in the case of individual farms. The water policymaker looks for approaches that would not only enhance the economic returns, but also increase the social welfare. Many of the decisions relating to public investment in irrigation systems in countries like India are driven by larger societal concerns such as producing more food, employment generation and poverty alleviation. Often, policymakers are more driven by social and political considerations than purely economic considerations (Perry 2001a). We would elaborate on these issues in the subsequent paragraphs.From the analysis presented in the previous section, it is evident that the scope for improving field level WP is extremely limited given the social, economic, institutional and policy environment in India. Limitations are greater when we want to use it as a driver for changing water demand. Therefore, WP enhancement should focus on crops that are inherently more water efficient in economic terms and also have a high return per unit of land. As Molden (per. com) notes, \"increasing WP is not often relevant to farmers. If it is important to the society, then society should figure out ways to align everyone's incentives.\"It is established that many fruit crops have higher WP (Rs/m 3 ) than the conventional cereals such as wheat and paddy in arid areas. For instance, pomegranate grown in north Gujarat gives a net return of nearly Rs.40,000 per acre (i.e., USD900/acre) of land against Rs.8,000 per acre (i.e., USD180/acre) in case of wheat. The WP is approximately Rs.100/m 3 for pomegranate (Kumar 2007) against Rs.4.46/m 3 for wheat in the same region. Also, there are crops such as potato, cumin, cotton and castor which are more water efficient than rice and wheat, which can be grown in Punjab (see Table 3). With greater reliability, and control over water delivery, farmers using well irrigation would allocate more water for growing water-efficient crops. Perhaps, farmers have already started shifting to high-valued cash crops.But, there are limits to the number of farmers who can take up such crops due to the volatile nature of the market for most of these crops, its perishable nature, and the high risk involved in producing the crop. For instance, cumin grown in north Gujarat is a very low water consuming crop, with a high return per ha. But, crop failure due to disease is very common in cumin. In case of vegetables, that are fast perishable, markets are often very volatile, and price varies across and within seasons. The problem of price fluctuation is also applicable to cotton grown in western Punjab, which has high WP. Also, the investments for crops are also very high, demanding a high degree of risk-taking.But, farmers organize their entire farm, rather than the field, to maximize the net economic returns (Ruthenberg 1980). The extent to which farmers can allocate water to economically efficient crops would perhaps be limited by the need to manage fodder for animals. It may also get limited by the poor market support for orchard crops. Many farmers in Punjab and other semi-arid parts of India manage crops and dairy farming together. But, even globally, there is a dearth of research, which analyzes WP in composite farming systems that really take into account water depleted in biomass production. Literature on water use efficiency and WP in dairy farming is also extremely limited. In regions for which they are available, the conditions are extremely different to those in countries like India. Studies from northern Victoria and southern New South Wales analyzed water use efficiency in dairy farms that are irrigated (Armstrong et al. 2000). In these regions dairy farming is not integrated with crop production. Green fodder produced in irrigated grasslands is used to feed the cattle by dairy farmers in Australia and United States, unlike sub-Saharan Africa and developing countries in South Asia.Recent analyses from western Punjab seem to suggest that the overall net WP in Rupee terms becomes enhanced when the byproducts of cereal crops are used for dairy production (see Table 4).The reduced area under cereal, crops such as paddy and wheat, would translate into a reduction in the availability of fodder. Farmers may have to grow special crops that give green fodder, and in that case, they might in turn be increasing the intensity of water use in Punjab. In a similar semi-arid situation in north Gujarat, it was found that dairy production, which used  irrigated alfalfa, was highly water-inefficient, both physically and economically (Singh 2004;Kumar 2007). Otherwise, farmers may have to procure dry fodder from outside, which would involve more labor. Hence, there could be a 'trade off' between maximizing crop WP and farm level WP, but there is not much literature about economic productivity in dairy farming, especially with cereals and dairying, to understand this trade off. At the regional level, enhancing WP through either a shift to water efficient crops (like orchards and vegetables) or to a crop-dairy based farming system might face several constraints from a socioeconomic point of view. Food security is an important consideration when one thinks about options to enhance WP. Punjab produces surplus wheat and rice, which are exported to other parts of the country to meet their cereal requirements (Amarasinghe et al. 2004). Nearly 22.1 % of India's wheat production and 10.8 % of its rice production comes from Punjab (source: Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India).The labor absorption capacity of irrigated agriculture and market price of fruits are other considerations. Paddy is labor intensive. As per some recent estimates by Kumar and Singh (2008), 2.614 million ha of irrigated paddy in Punjab (as per 2005 estimates) needs 159 million labor days during the peak kharif season. This is based on the primary data, which shows that a hectare of paddy creates Rs. 5,000 worth of farm labor in Punjab. This is exclusive of the machinery employed in ploughing and harvesting. With a wage rate of Rs.80 per day, the number of labor days per ha of irrigated paddy is estimated to be 61 (source: primary data from Punjab). This labor requirement is met by migrant laborers from Bihar. Replacing paddy with cash crops would result in a reduction in farm employment opportunities.On the other hand, the lack of availability of labor and fodder would constrain intensive dairy farming to maximize WP at the regional level, though some farmers might be able to adopt the system. This contradicting situation with regard to labor is caused by the fact that most of the labor used for paddy is obtained from seasonal migrants, who go back to their homes after the main field operations in paddy, whereas dairying would require daily labor, and constant care and attention for the animals. As regards fruits, its large-scale production might lead to a price crash in the market, and farmers losing revenue unless sufficient processing mechanisms are established. Hence, the number of farmers who can adopt such crops is extremely limited.In the context of a developing country, the potential for poverty reduction or impact of irrigation on food security are more important than the return per unit of water. Food security and poverty reduction are in-built goals for large-scale subsidies in irrigation (Gulati 2002), which enable poor farmers to intensify cropping. Therefore, WP in irrigation too needs to be looked at from that perspective, and not merely on a 'crop per drop' basis. One can argue that with more reliable irrigation, farmers could also produce more food or generate more employment, and with that, achieve higher physical and economic productivity along with meeting social objectives. But, the heavy subsidies in irrigation reduce the ability of the agencies to improve its quality through regular investments.Perhaps this welfare-oriented policy of keeping irrigation charges low needs a re-look. With extensive well irrigation in India and with the poor paying heavy charges for pump renting or well water to irrigate their crops, the policies to subsidize canal irrigation may not bring about the desired equity and welfare outcomes. In fact, a large portion of the subsidies in canal irrigation goes to large farmers, due to the following of a crop-area based pricing system (Kumar and Singh 2001). These farmers also have access to well irrigation in the command area.Another fact that supports the above argument is that often the unreliable canal water supplies force farmers to adopt only paddy, and not domestic food security concerns. The stable and high procurement prices offered by the Food Corporation of India for cereals such as rice and wheat allow farmers to stick to this cropping system. But there are major macro-economic imperatives of trying to meet these social objectives (Gulati 2002). The intensive paddy cultivation in Punjab is associated with the intensive use of electricity for pumping groundwater even in canal commands during the summer. Irrigating one ha of winter wheat requires 74 Kwhr to 295 Kwhr of electricity, which costs Rs.300 to Rs.1,175 to the economy (source: field data). The region is already facing a power crisis, which adversely affects the reliability of power supplied to the farm sector. Enhancing productivity of pumped groundwater also means enhancing energy productivity and reducing revenue losses to the government in terms of power subsidies.If farmers are able to secure a higher net return from every unit of water applied or depleted in well irrigation, this could be a major starting point for irrigation bureaucracies to start charging higher rates for irrigation along with improving the quality, adequacy, reliability and control of water. Following the norms of rationing in water allocation would be crucial in achieving higher WP. Perhaps, what would be required would be higher prices for food crops or special incentives for farmers who grow such crops so as to reflect their social benefit, while reducing the irrigation subsidies heavily. So, the net result would be a compromise between socioeconomic productivity and productivity enhancement in monetary terms, with a positive impact on the water resource system.The data from limited research presented in this paper shows that technically there is great scope for enhancing agricultural water productivity without crop shifts. This can be achieved through improved quality and reliability of irrigation and changing water allocation to crops, and not so much through water harvesting and supplementary irrigation, and MI technologies. But to create economic incentives for large-scale adoption of such measures among farmers as well as irrigation bureaucracy, the electricity/water pricing policies have to change towards pro rata pricing of electricity and volumetric pricing of canal water. Unless we resort to pricing instruments, the avenues for significantly enhancing WP can be generated only through crop shifts, and in certain cases through a crop-dairying mix. But such measures have trade-offs such as increase in farming risk, regional food insecurity and unemployment.Research to explore potential improvements in physical productivity of water (kg/ET) in crops without due consideration to income returns per unit of water will not be relevant for Indian farmers under the current electricity and water pricing policies in agriculture, and institutional regimes governing water use. The reason is it does not link WP improvement to raising the aggregate of farm income. In countries like India, major determinants for analyzing improvements in basin level WP due to WH and supplementary irrigation should use: i) incremental economic returns from enhanced crop yield; and ii) opportunity costs of water harvesting at the basin scale. Analysis of basin level impacts of efficient irrigation technologies on basin WP and water saving should involve and consider CF as a determinant of WP rather than that of evapotranspiration.Research on the potential impact of improved quality and reliability of irrigation water and changing water allocation on WP is relevant for India, as it gives due consideration to maximizing farmers' income, while reducing the total water depleted. Nevertheless, their overall potential in improving WP and more so in reducing water demand in agriculture is open to question, unless policies and institutions are aligned to make society's interests and farmers' interests match. This is because farmers can expand the area under irrigation also in areas where land is still left unirrigated due to the shortage of water. For the composite farming systems that are characteristic of countries like India, WP research should focus on optimizing water allocation over the entire farm to maximize returns, through changes in the crop mix and crop-livestock compositions. But due consideration should be given to the risk taking ability of the farmer, investment capabilities etc.In countries like India, research on measures to enhance regional level WP should integrate socioeconomic considerations such as food production, employment generation along with wealth generated per unit of water used in irrigation. But, often farmers' choice of food crops like paddy is not by design, but by default. Meeting food production needs or other social objectives cannot be an excuse for poor productivity. Given these goals, regional WP scenarios can examine the scope for improving WP through increment in the productivity of crops such as wheat and paddy with reliability and control regimes in irrigation, along with other measures.There are limited numbers of options available to significantly enhance agricultural WP in countries like India, given the larger objective of addressing food security, poverty alleviation, and employment generation concerns in rural areas. The options are: improving quality and reliability of water; and, changing water allocation. In the short term, focus should be on technical interventions to enhance the WP of existing crops that are based on improving reliability, adequacy, and water allocation for reducing non-beneficial consumptive use, and non-beneficial nonreusable portions of water supplies. The inherent advantages of well irrigation systems need to be built while designing surface irrigation systems and designing water allocation norms. But, in most cases, they could regulate water demand only if water allocation is rationed volumetrically. Hence, in the medium and long term, electricity and water pricing policies have to be made more efficient so as to expand the opportunities for WP improvements without increasing farming risks, domestic and regional food insecurity and unemployment. Only this can link WP improvements to raising the income of the farming households.","tokenCount":"9187"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bfbc5f71b8d022bdfd274f32f3357bc4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ded8480e-8917-46b0-95ab-23e3a3b665ee/retrieve","id":"-547980463"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b04fd1a7-1480-4d4e-9777-90c251d30902","pagecount":"4","content":"Transhumance cattle production system consists of a seasonal displacement of livestock from one area mainly in search of better grazing area by herders who have permanent residences. In Africa, there is dry and rainy season transhumance (PAMO AND PIEPER, 2000). Dry season movement is the most important due to the lack of forage or water or both. Rainy season displacement is complex and the reasons for it are multiple. In Ethiopia, pastoralism is dominant in the arid and semi-arid areas in the eastern, northeastern and southeastern parts of the country, while agropastoralism represents an increasing practice in the semi-arid areas in the northwestern, southern and eastern parts of the country (TESFAYE MENGSITIE, 2008). The highlands (> 1500 masl), that occupy 39% of the land area, are important for cereal cultivation and mixed crop-livestock enterprise, while the arid to semi-arid lowlands (that occupy 61% of the land area), are dominated by livestock production. North Gondar Zone, in Amhara Regional State, is comprised of both highland and lowland districts. According to a report by the Metema Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (WOoARD, 2006), the highlanders in the Zone have been practicing transhumance cattle production system for a long time by migrating to the lowland districts during the rainy season. However, little is known about this cattle production system and the problems associated with it. This study was therefore undertaken to characterize the rainy season transhumance cattle production system, identify the major constraints and forward suggestions for future interventions.The study involved three highland (Chilga, Dembia, Gondar Zuria) districts that practice transhumance and one lowland (Metema) district that receives the transhumance. Informal and formal surveys were employed to collect qualitative and quantitative data. From these districts, a total of 180 representative households from nine rural Kebeles (villages) were selected using systematic random sampling methods. Semi structured questionnaires and topical guidelines (checklists) were used to collect the necessary data. Accordingly, nine Kebeles in the highland districts and three Kebeles in the lowland and a total of 12 rural Kebeles were considered for the study. Representative sample of farmers were taken by using systematically random sampling method, and 20 representative farmers from each Kebele and a total of 240 households were selected for the study. Secondary data were collected from the concerned offices and formal survey with semi-structured questionnaires and informal surveys were conducted to collect primary data. Quantitative and qualitative data on socio-economic characteristics of the highlanders, livestock production and management system, time and causes of mobility, cattle management practices; feed availability, animal and product marketing, opportunities and major constraints were collected. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, 2003).Livestock production system in the highlands is characterized by mixed crop-livestock production and transhumance production system. Transhumance production system was practiced to a large extent by migrating to adjacent lowland areas. Although farmers practiced both dry and rainy season transhumance production system, the later is the dominant one. In the highlands, the mean family size per household was 7.4±0.17. About 42.2% of the household heads were illiterate, while 32.2% had adult education and 20.6% attended primary school. The average land and cattle holdings per household were 2.2±0.18 ha and 8.7±0.48 heads, respectively. The highland districts, i.e., Gondar Zuria, Dembia and Chilga districts have 217, 260 and 75 inhabitants per Km 2 , respectively, while Metema has 21 inhabitants per Km 2 . The average human population density in the three highland districts was 147 inhabitants per Km 2 . The total cattle population in the three highlands districts was 525,000 with a density of 92 heads per Km 2 , while in Metema the cattle population was 103,756, with a density of 26 heads per Km 2 (Table 1). The highland farmers transhume during the rainy season to take advantage of the lower human and livestock density in the lowlands. The proportion of households that practice transhumance was 91.7% in Chilga, 77.6% in Dembia and 55.2% in Gondar Zuria districts. The major reasons for cattle mobility to the lowlands are presented in Table 2. Metema was the preferred destination for 84% of the respondents due to availability of good quality feed. Movement to the lowlands commences in May (69.5%) and June (29.6%), and depends on availability of feed and labor and cattle holdings. About 60% of the cattle are trekked to the lowlands during the rainy season. Herder groups are formed among relatives and neighbors at village level to optimize labor use and protection against theft. Herder groups carry drugs and veterinary supplies to treat sick animals in the lowlands. The average herd size per herder group was 58.8± 3.88. As shown in Table 2, the major reasons why cattle were trekked to the lowlands during the rainy season were due to availability of feed (99.2%), free land for stocking (92.4%), low disease risk (25.0%) and non-waterlogged areas (0.8%).Preferred places for transhume during the rainy season were Metema (84.0%), Armachiho (9.6%), and Quara (4.0%) districts, while very few farmers considered Alefa and Chilga districts (0.8% each). Three major routes for transhumances were identified, and the selection of routes depended on distance, availability of forage and non-crop covered areas. The first destination is Agamwuha Kebele (Lemlem Terara) in Metema district, irrespective of the routes followed. In the lowlands, fresh milk is fermented into sour milk prior to churning. Milking, butter making and selling of dairy products in the lowlands are performed by only male herders. In the highlands, butter (95.6%) is the most important salable dairy products followed by raw milk (18.4%), fermented milk (ergo) and buttermilk (6.1%). However, during the transhume period, butter (95.3%) is the major marketable commodity followed by raw milk (61.3%), buttermilk (18.9%) and fermented milk (14.2%). Regarding live animals sales, dry cows, oxen, heifers and young bullocks are marketed locally.The transhumance return back home to the highlands in October (45.8%) and September (35.9%), and the major triggering factors (Table 4) are high ambient temperature (43.0%), availability of crop aftermath in the highlands (25.1%) and high infestation of flies in the lowlands (10.6%). Most of the respondents (86.3%) estimated that the trend of transhumance has been increasing due to feed shortage (50.4%), expansion of crop cultivation (27.4%) and increasing human and cattle population (21.2%) in the highlands. The major constraints identified and prioritized by the transhumance highlanders were conflict with the lowlanders, theft of animals, human and livestock diseases and lack of markets. Highlanders face various constraints in cattle production both in the highlands and the lowlands. The major constraints in the highlands are shortage of land, cattle theft, human and livestock diseases, tick and fly infestation and bloating. In the lowlands, the major challenges are cattle theft, human and livestock diseases tick and fly infestation and lack of market. Proper animal health care, good management of grazing land, community based conflict management, provision of improved technology and ideas through awareness and appropriate training to the community are critical to this production system. Human and livestock populations have been increasing both in the highlands and lowlands and the current accelerated infrastructure development in the lowlands (tarmac road, electricity, phone, etc) will further encourage more migration to the lowlands. Unless alterative development strategies are devised, the conflict over resources will intensify, probably leading to the demise of this production system.","tokenCount":"1211"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/8757154768.json b/data/part_1/8757154768.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..132b664aaffafd27725b914f3712761f34baa50c
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fbe9814b916e4a9c435cb90658d0c7dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b90da6fa-0036-4f65-803c-185efdf0ebf4/retrieve","id":"-860001228"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a784ed1d-e75b-494d-a652-5624f2fd8b11","pagecount":"2","content":"The marketing team conducted a market chain analysis to assess the conduct and performance of actors and services involved in producing, handling, and No. 22 June 2005 The Highlights series summarises research results and policy implications from the work of CIAT and its partners in Africa CIAT's agro-enterprise team provided a local service provider with staff training in \"market facilitation\" and technical marketing assistance in developing a new potato enterprise.or farmers in south-western Uganda and neighbouring Rwanda, round or Irish potatoes are mainly grown as a food security crop. Farmers typically sell ungraded potatoes at the farm gate and, due to lack of organisation and limited storage facilities, the bulk of the harvest is sold at peak harvest times. Consequently farmers receive low prices and there have been few incentives for investment in the sector. However, with the rapid expansion of urban areas, particularly Kampala, food habits are changing. This is creating new market options for better organised farmers. One such farmers' group in Kabale district is selling graded, high quality potatoes directly to a fast food outlet in Kampala. To meet the stringent quality parameters for this contract, the farmers have introduced several innovations at the technical, organisation and marketing levels. Making these changes has been possible through effective support from both research and development services and the ability of the farmers' group to invest in new options through their newfound income.The Nyabyumba farmers' group is located in the highlands of Kabale district, Uganda. The group started in 1998 as a farmer field school focussing on seed potato production. They became a member of the Uganda National Seed Potato Producers' Association (UNSPPA) in 1999 and, for several years, successfully produced and sold potato seed. In 2002, demand for potato seed began to fall and the group sought assistance from the Regional Potato and Sweet Potato Improvement Programme (PRAPACE) to seek alternative market options. CIAT's agro-enterprise team provided a local service provider, the NGO Africare, with staff training in \"market facilitation\" and technical marketing assistance in developing a new potato enterprise. The process was conducted in 3 phases:The farmers' group worked with Africare's market facilitator to study the changes in demand for potato, current production status, profitability, organisational strengths and the types of support they could obtain from their research and development partners. A marketing team was established, which comprised members of the farmers' group and service providers.selling potatoes to various market outlets. This study identified several market opportunities for potatoes in Kampala. One of the most promising was 'Nandos', a multinational fast-food restaurant, which buys 5 to 10 tonnes of potatoes every month. Based on their initial analysis, further meetings were held with Nandos staff to undertake a cost-benefit analysis and confirm the viability of direct sales. Using participatory methods, such as market mapping (see Figure 1), and results from the market survey, the farmers and service providers developed an action plan.Having developed their plan, the marketing team returned to Kampala, with their market facilitator to negotiate contractual terms with Nandos. This included aspects such as: price, variety, volume, quality, frequency of supply and terms of payment. To meet these specifications, the farmers group had to make several changes and face several challenges:-Financial: The group had to open a bank account, as payment was by cheque. For the first 3 months, the farmers used their own resources and had borrowed USh 3 million ($1,600).Communication: To overcome the communications problems related to living in remote upland villages, the group purchased a mobile phone. This was vital in maintaining links with Nandos and transport companies.The farmers made changes to provide a regular monthly supply through a combination of: adopting new varieties; staggered planting; planting in wetlands; using drip irrigation; building stores and buying potatoes from other farmers when their stocks were low. Through these means the group managed to deliver a total 76.5 metric tonnes (mt) of potatoes to Nandos at a value of USh 24,052,176 (US$13,000) between July 2003 and April 2004.The farmers learned how to sort and grade their potatoes. Failure to meet the grade was a costly exercise for them, but over the first 8 months the level of rejects fell from as high as 80% to less than 10%. By December 2004, the farmers were consistently supplying potatoes that met Nandos' stringent quality requirements.Experimentation: To achieve this performance, the farmers adopted micro-irrigation in upland areas, which improved the quality of off-season tubers. To synchronise production members have taken on strict planting schedules. Farmers also dehaulm the crop prior to harvesting, which reduces tuber moisture content and extends storage life. The experimental work was supervised by specialists from the National Agricultural Research Organisation of Uganda (NARO).Impact: By May 2005, the farmers group has expanded to a membership of 120 members, 80 of whom are women. They have supplied 190 mt of potatoes to Nandos, bringing their income to USh 60,000,000 or approximately US$ 33,000.The Nyabyumba farmers' enterprise is now more firmly established-although they face many challenges, they are seeking to develop strategies for growth. The group's experiences demonstrate that:  We gratefully acknowledge financial support from CIDA for this work.","tokenCount":"851"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/8761976479.json b/data/part_1/8761976479.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..461854db1bff519af609918de8c1c91ec3d1e692
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7640e74b6b18dbae544772ff2a0ae505","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/86765b4e-ddcb-4686-92ea-6e3b2aa631f3/retrieve","id":"490624331"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b5e2b3fe-3229-4f82-9aa1-067653c1913c","pagecount":"20","content":"The Africa RISING program of the USAID-Feed the Future initiative proposes to initiate and test interventions to enable Sustainable Intensification (SI) of agriculture in three major regions of Africa by working in three \"mega-sites\" which exemplify the main climatic and human characteristics of these regions. Some districts in Northern Ghana and Southern Mali are the target areas in the West Africa mega-site. This report provides the site selection analysis for the districts and communities in Northern Ghana, while the site selection in Southern Mali is managed by the ICRISAT-Mali office.Nadowli, Wa, and Wa west from upper west region; Bawku West, Kassena Nankana, Bongo, and Talensi Nabdam from upper east region; Savelugu Nanton, Tolon-Kumbungu, Yendi, and Tamale from the northern region have been selected as focused areas in the country. The districts are highlighted in Figure 1. Collaborators on the ground chose communities within each district, also illustrated in the map. The full list of the 52 proposed sites/communities is shown in Table 1 with district names, community names and their associated location.  Review of biophysical and socio-economic characteristics in the proposed northern districtsIn order to stratify and characterize the focused districts, a review of available spatial biophysical and socio-economic data layers is presented. The main purposes are to: 1. Understand the spatial pattern and homogeneity of each of the candidate data layers; 2. Choose the appropriate dataset for the stratification analysis.Among the candidate layers on population density, Agro-Ecological Zones, precipitation, elevation, slope, farming system, market access, Length of Growth Period (LGP), and land cover datasets (listed in Table 2), only some of them were deemed to be appropriate to characterize and stratify districts in Northern Ghana, given their spatial variability.The relevant variables are first mapped in order to visualize their spatial distribution, and then they are aggregated by classes. There are many datasets available on elevation for Ghana: the USGS Hydro1k data layer has been chosen because most of the other data used in Africa RISING site selection analysis is at 1km resolution. In order to avoid arbitrary selection of cut-off values, the quintile of elevation distribution at 1km pixel level has been used. In Northern Ghana, the spatial heterogeneity in the measurement of altitude is relatively low, as the elevation ranges from 87 meters to 393 meters.Even though there are several publicly available precipitation data layers, most of them are more suitable to global studies than to country or sub-national analysis, being at a very coarse resolution. There are two methods to derive precipitation data point at the pixel level. One is from weather station records with spatial interpolation. The second method is from satellite observation.The data from WorldClim has the highest spatial resolution, at 1km (Error! Reference source not found.4).Nevertheless, these data need to be used with caution, as their reliability has been questioned from various parts.Other possible climatic data sources are CRU, NASA POWER, and GPCC, being all at half degree resolution. Their main drawback is the very coarse resolution, which makes them inadequate for the analysis on the focused districts.To overcome the low resolution problem, the suggested option is to look at the length of growth period, analyzed in the next paragraph. The length of growth period, a good proxy of agriculture potential, measures how many continuous suitable days are available for the crop to grow based on soil water capacity holding, soil moisture, temperature, and elevation. Two sources of length of growth period datasets are proposed. One is by IIASA at global scale at 10km 2 resolution. The other one is by ICRISAT and is at a finer resolution level (5km 2 ). Both maps are displayed in Figure 5 and 6. For this analysis, the LGP by ICRISAT is used, as it is at a higher resolution and deemed to be more reliable. Northern Ghana shows a clear gradient in terms of agriculture potential from North to South looking at ICRISAT data, which makes its use particularly appropriate in the stratification analysis.The continuous distribution of LGP in Figure 6     Proposed stratification for site selection After a review of the candidate variables, the variables of length of growth period by ICRISAT and market access are the final chosen variables used for the stratification process. The LGP is classified into 4 classes: low, med-low, medhigh, high. The market access layer is classified into 3 classes: low, med, high. The cut-offs are shown in Table 3 In order to reduce the number of combinations, the final variables used are length of growth period and market access. The latter variable has been chosen as being a proxy of population density (relatively homogeneous in Northern Ghana, therefore not suitable for stratification purposes).LGP is classified into 4 classes (low, med-low, medhigh, high), while market access is classified into 3 classes (low, med, high).LGP and market access classes are then matched to stratify the districts in Northern Ghana. Average values and combined classes of LGP and market access at the district level are listed in Table 6 and the associated map is displayed in Figure 10. The stratification process uses length of growth period (LGP) and market access as proxies of agriculture potential and socio-economic integration in the food value chain, respectively. Combining the two criteria, six unique classes are derived. It is suggested to choose the intervention communities in five classes/strata, perhaps avoiding the Tamale district (the only one with mid-high LGP and high market access), because its small size does not allow ruling out contamination of control sites given the inevitable proximity to action sites.Given the close proximity between the 29 intervention and the 23 counterfactual communities/sites previously identified, and the new stratification proposed in this document, a re-selection of communities in the 11 districts is advised. The re-selection would need to guarantee an adequate coverage of the spectrum of biophysical and socioeconomic conditions prevailing in the targeted districts, allowing for a broad assessment of the interventions in areas with different agricultural potential.In particular, it is recommended to keep the identified 52 communities, but disregard the previous distinction between intervention and counterfactual communities. Action sites/communities should be chosen within the red circles, while control communities should be chosen within the white circles, shown in Figure 10. This way the control communities would be located within the same stratum identified, but with enough remoteness to reasonably avoid potential contamination between actions and counterfactual sites, although the final selection between intervention and control areas should be informed by local knowledge (e.g. to check if they share markets or other public facilities and verify their actual agricultural potential). Only after intervention communities will be chosen, control communities will be selected randomly within the identified control areas.","tokenCount":"1104"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/8771648433.json b/data/part_1/8771648433.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6bcb207130bbbe53b4f97faa68d52e722d00ad51
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f6d1ed2524b64bbeb7f7b5568688d243","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e771ae65-b642-4c40-970f-7ada92371946/content","id":"738587619"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9b2d56e8-f723-489c-8aa4-a9e3fc734e1a","pagecount":"10","content":"Key message Among the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions of a major QTL qhir1, only qhir11 has significant effect on maternal haploid induction, segregation distortion and kernel abortion.within the qhir1 QTL region, named qhir11 and qhir12; qhir12 was proposed to be mandatory for haploid induction because the haplotype of qhir11 was also present in some non-inducers and putative candidate genes coding for DNA and amino acid binding proteins were identified in the qhir12 region. To characterize the effects of each sub-region of qhir1 on haploid induction rate, F 2 recombinants segregating for one of the sub-regions and fixed for the other were identified in a cross between CML269 (noninducer) and a tropicalized haploid inducer TAIL8. To quantify the haploid induction effects of qhir11 and qhir12, selfed progenies of recombinants between these subregions were genotyped. F 3 plants homozygous for qhir11 and/or qhir12 were identified, and crossed to a ligueless tester to determine their haploid induction rates. The study revealed that only the qhir11 sub-region has a significant effect on haploid induction ability, besides causing significant segregation distortion and kernel abortion, traits that are strongly associated with maternal haploid induction. The results presented in this study can guide fine mapping efforts of qhir1 and in developing new inducers efficiently using marker assisted selection.Large-scale production and utilization of doubled haploid (DH) lines has become common practice in maize breeding programs during the last decade owing to the associated acceleration and cost reduction in development of inbred lines and deployment of hybrid varieties (Melchinger et al. 2013). In vivo maternal haploid induction (HI) is the backbone of DH line production in maize (Prigge et al. 2012b), which involves pollination of desired populations with special genetic stocks called haploid inducers that induce relatively high frequencies of haploid seeds in the progeny (Coe 1959;Chaikam 2012;Prigge and Melchinger 2012). The phenomenon of in vivo maternal HI is unique to maize and has not been reported in other plant species so far (Hu et al. 2016), although its physiological and molecular bases are still elusive. Elimination of inducer chromosomes after fertilization (Zhang et al. 2008;Li et al. 2009;Xu et al. 2013a;Qiu et al. 2014) and single fertilization followed by parthenogenesis (Sarkar and Coe 1966;Bylich and Chalyk 1996;Barret et al. 2008;Swapna and Sarkar 2012) were proposed to be involved in the production of seeds with haploid embryos and normal triploid endosperms.To understand the genetic basis of HI, several studies have been conducted. HI was determined to be a quantitatively inherited trait, controlled by a small number of genes and improvable through selection (Lashermes and Beckert 1988). It was also suggested that additive and epistatic gene action affect the HI process (Prigge et al. 2011). In first QTL mapping studies on HI with segregating progeny of crosses between non-inducers and inducers, a major QTL on chromosome 1 was identified in bin 1.04 (Deimling et al. 1997;Barret et al. 2008). An extensive QTL mapping study with four bi-parental populations involving inducers CAUHOI and UH400 detected two major QTL, named qhir1 and qhir8, and several minor QTL (Prigge et al. 2012b). The major QTL qhir1 on chromosome 1.04 was the same as reported in the previous studies and explained 66% of the genotypic variance. Besides its effect on HI, qhir1 has also been associated with segregation distortion (SD) and has a strong selective disadvantage (Barret et al. 2008;Prigge et al. 2012b;Dong et al. 2013;Xu et al. 2013a). It was also noted that in vivo HI is associated with embryo and endosperm abortion (Prigge et al. 2012b;Xu et al. 2013a). Less pronounced than the effect of qhir1 was the effect of the second major QTL found by Prigge et al. (2012b), qhir8, which maps to chromosome 9 and explained only 20% of the genotypic variance. However, all these linkage mapping studies resulted in large support intervals for the detected QTL.To delineate the map position and to identify closely linked markers more useful for marker-assisted selection in development of new inducers, qhir1 was fine-mapped to a 243 kb region (Dong et al. 2013) and qhir8 to a 789 kb region (Liu et al. 2015). Considering the confirmation of qhir1 in multiple studies, qhir1 may be considered mandatory for HI ability (Prigge et al. 2012b), while other loci like qhir8 may enhance the function of qhir1 to increase the HIR (Liu et al. 2015).Recently, the large qhir1 support interval described by Prigge et al. (2012b) was dissected by Hu et al. (2016) into two closely linked regions, named qhir11 and qhir12, using a novel type of genome wide association study (GWAS) to detect selective sweeps and address the problem of perfect confounding between population structure and trait expression, as in the case of inducers (cases) and non-inducer (controls). Sub-region qhir11 harbored the 243 kb interval fine-mapped by Dong et al. (2013) and had one major haplotype present in the majority of the inducers and one minor haplotype present only in two inducers studied. The latter occurred also in several non-inducers whose HIR was similar to spontaneous occurrence of haploids. Hence, the minor haplotype of qhir11 was deemed to be neither diagnostic for differentiating inducers and non-inducers nor effective for conditioning HI ability in maize. However, no conclusions were drawn about the major haplotype of qhir11 based on this study. By comparison, qhir12 had a single haplotype allele found in all the 53 inducers and absent in all 1482 non-inducers included in the study and was proposed to harbor three candidate genes related to putative functions involved in HI. To further determine the effects of the qhir12 and qhir11 haplotypes, the authors suggested testing the effect of these haplotypes on HI in near-isogenic lines or selfed progenies of recombinants that segregate at one locus while the other is fixed.The main objective of our study is to adopt this strategy and test the effects of qhir11 and qhir12 haplotypes on HIR using selfed progenies of recombinants in a huge F 2 population derived by crossing a non-inducer with a tropically adapted haploid inducer. In addition, we examined which of the specific sub-regions of qhir1 is specifically associated with segregation distortion and kernel abortion, traits associated with maternal haploid induction.We denote henceforth the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions as A and B, respectively. We use the following notations for the various genotypes possible for each sub-region: AA = homozygous for the putative inducer allele at all markers assayed in the qhir11 sub-region; aa = homozygous for the putative non-inducer allele at all markers in the qhir11 sub-region; BB = homozygous for the putative inducer allele at all markers assayed in the qhir12 subregion; bb = homozygous for the putative non-inducer allele at all markers in the qhir12 sub-region; Aa = heterozygous at all markers assayed in the qhir11 sub-region; and Bb = heterozygous for all markers assayed in the qhir12 sub-region.One tropically adapted inducer, TAIL8, and one tropically adapted non-inducer, CML269, were used as parents in this study. TAIL8, harboring the A and B alleles in homozygous state has a mean HIR of 9.9% (Chaikam et al. 2016). CML269 has no HI ability and harbors the a and b alleles in homozygous state. The non-inducer (CML269) x inducer (TAIL8) cross was made in the winter season of 2011 at CIMMYT's experimental station at Agua Fria, Mexico (20.26°N, 97.38°W) to generate the F 1 generation. From the F 1 , 100 seeds were planted and selfed to generate the F 2 generation in the summer season of 2011. A total of 7160 F 2 seeds of good quality were genotyped as described below. Recombinants between the qhir11 and qhir12 subregions identified on the basis of the marker assays were grouped into four F 2 genotype classes: AABb; aaBb, AaBB, Aabb, and used for further assays.From each of the four F 2 genotype classes of recombinants, 10 individual plants were randomly selected for selfing to obtain F 2:3 families segregating for the heterozygous sub-region. Only F 3 seeds homozygous for the segregating sub-region were planted in the field at Agua Fria in the winter season of 2016. Hybrid (PDH3 × PDH8), homozygous for liguleless gene lg2 (Prigge et al. 2012a;Chaikam et al. 2016;Melchinger et al. 2016), was used as a female tester to produce testcross seed for evaluating the HIR. The tester was stagger-planted four times at weekly intervals to synchronize flowering with the F 3 plants. Each F 3 plant that produced pollen was crossed on to 10-15 tester plants (based on pollen availability) and was also self-pollinated. Some F 3 plants were found to be haploids based on their weak plant stature, narrow and erect leaves and sterile tassels (Prigge et al. 2011;Chaikam et al. 2016) and were therefore not pollinated. Some plants could not be used for testcrossing because of severe virus infection. Testcross seed was bulked from all the tester plants pollinated by the same F 3 plant. A graphical representation of the scheme followed for developing the genetic material is shown in Fig. 1.According to Hu et al. (2016), the physical boundaries for qhir11 are between SNPs PZE-101,081,177 (physical co-ordinate: 1: 68,134,633) and SYN25793 (physical co-ordinate 1: 68,670,617). For qhir12, the borders are between SYN4966 (physical co-ordinate 1: 71,795,509) and PZA00714.1 (physical co-ordinate 1: 75,768,235). All the physical co-ordinates of the SNPs assayed are with reference to B73 AGP V2 (http://ensembl.gramene.org/ Zea_mays). Sets of six markers covering the qhir11 subregion and eight markers covering the qhir12 sub-region were used to genotype each sub-region (Supplementary table 1). Based on the selected SNPs, the haplotypes of TAIL8 and CML269 at each sub-region were compared with the large set of non-inducers and inducers reported by Hu et al. (2016) and verified. All markers used in this study were genotyped using KASP assays (LGC Genomics, UK) developed from the Illumina MaizeSNP50 BeadChip Fig. 1 Strategy used for genetic delineation of qhir1 and analysis of the effects of qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions on HIR in maize (Ganal et al. 2011), except for one SNP developed from HapMap V.2 (Suppl. Table 1).DNA was extracted from 7160 individual seeds of the F 2 population of cross TAIL8 × CML269 following standard procedures (Gao et al. 2008) and genotyped with the abovementioned SNPs. Among the polymorphic SNPs between the two parents available to CIMMYT for the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions, two SNPs (PZE0166290049 and PZE0166357949) were selected to represent qhir11 and two SNPs (SYN26730 and PZE101085336) to represent qhir12 in the genotyping of the F 2 seeds. Based on the results, 428 recombinant F 2 seeds in the four F 2 genotype classes described above were selected and planted in the field. Leaf DNA of these plants was extracted at the four-leaf stage following CIMMYT's laboratory protocols (CIMMYT 2001). Because the two SNPs of each sub-region in the seeds did not cover the respective physical interval entirely, we analyzed additionally four SNPs for qhir11 and 10 SNPs for qhir12, which were part of the SNPs on the MaizeSNP50 BeadChip polymorphic between the two parents. This assay was also used to ascertain the classification of the recombinant F 2 plants; plants showing any discrepancy were discarded. Moreover, some F 2 plants did not survive or failed to produce selfed seed. Thus, selfed ears were harvested from 21 AABb, 72 aaBb, 56 AaBB, and 44 Aabb genotypes in the F 2 generation, adding up to a total of 193 ears.Ten ears were randomly selected from each of the four afore-mentioned F 2 genotype classes for raising F 2:3 families. DNA was extracted from ~45 individual seeds from each of the 40 F 2:3 families and genotyped with three SNP markers for both qhir11 and qhir12, covering the entire physical interval of the sub-regions as identified by Hu et al. (2016). From each family, only the seeds homozygous for the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions were selected as male parents for pollination of liguleless tester PDH3 × PDH8. Among the 756 F3 plants that were test-crossed, 83.7% resulted in more than 1000 seeds, 12% resulted between 500 and 999 seeds, and 4.2% resulted in less than 500 seeds. For each F 3 plant with more than 1000 testcross seeds, 1000 seeds were germinated in styrofoam trays in a shade house at the Agua Fria experimental station. Each tray accommodated 100 seeds. After 14 days of germination, each tray was evaluated for the number of germinated seedlings and the number of seedlings with and without ligule. For the F 3 plants with less than 1000 testcross seeds, all seeds were germinated. The HIR was calculated as HIR = N L /(N L +N NL ), where N L and N NL refer to the number of plants with and without ligule, respectively.We refer here to endosperm abortion as kernel abortion, because most endosperm aborted seeds in our study lacked an embryo similar to the observation by Xu et al. (2013a). Selfed ears obtained from the F 3 plants in each of the four genotype classes were visually rated for a kernel abortion score (KAS) on a scale of 1-5, where 1 represents no aborted seed visible on the ear, and 5 represents complete abortion with no seed set on the ear. To measure the extent of kernel abortion quantitatively, the number of normal seeds and number of kernel aborted seeds were counted on each ear from the AAbb and aaBB genotype classes as suggested by Xu et al. (2013a). Kernel abortion rate (KAR) for each entry was calculated as KAR = N a /(N a + N n ), where N a refers to the number of aborted seeds and N n to the number of normal seeds.The HIR for each F 3 genotype within each F 2 genotype class was calculated as the least-squares means in the following generalized linear model assuming a binomial distribution:where Y ijk is the ith observation in the jth genotype class for the kth F 2:3 family, µ is the general mean, g j is the effect of the jth genotype, f k is the effect of the kth family and e ijk the residual error. The model was fitted using the glm function in the R software package, version 3.3.0. Least-squares means and corresponding confidence intervals were calculated with the lsmeans package, version 2.23-5, and compact letters displays were produced with the multcompView package, version 0.1-7, at significance level α = 5%. We used an over-dispersion factor to account for variance in the data in excess of the binomial sampling variance that may result in an inflation of the standard errors.For each of the four recombinant genotype classes selected from the F 2 , we tested the following hypotheses: (i) H 0 : ḡaabb = ḡAAbb vs. H A : ḡaabb ≠ ḡAAbb (from F 2 genotype class Aabb); (ii) H 0 : ḡaabb = ḡaaBB vs. H A : ḡaabb ≠ ḡaaBB (from F 2 genotype class aaBb); (iii) H 0 : ḡAABB = ḡaaBB vs. H A : ḡAABB ≠ ḡaaBB (from F 2 genotype class AaBB); and (iv) H 0 : ḡAABB = ḡAAbb vs. H A : ḡAABB ≠ ḡAAbb (from F 2 genotype class AABb).F 3 plants heterozygous for either of the sub-regions were not tested in this experiment. Significant differences1 3in these tests determine whether the qhir11 or qhir12 sub-region alone is sufficient to exhibit HIR equivalent to qhir11 and qhir12 together. KAS for each F 3 genotype was calculated with the same generalized linear model as for HIR except that a Poisson distribution was assumed and KAS was used as response variable. KAR for the two F 3 genotype classes AAbb and aaBB was calculated with the same generalized linear model but without the family term because of confounding between family and genotype.Segregation distortion (SD) in the F 2 generation was investigated with a G-test for goodness-of-fit to the segregation ratios expected under Mendelian inheritance and applying a significance level α = 5%. The G-test of goodness of fit to expected segregation ratios and the expected allele frequencies was carried out with the R software function GTest from the DescTools package, version 0.99.17.The gene annotations by the MAKER gene annotation pipeline (Cantarel et al. 2008) in the physical interval of qhir11 in the B73 genome sequence (V2) available in http://ensembl.gramene.org/Zea_mays was used to search for putative candidate genes in the studied interval.A total of 475 recombinants in the F 2 generation falling into different genotype classes were identified between qhir11 and qhir12 based on the segregation analysis of 7154 F 2 seeds (Table 1). No recombination was observed between the two sub-regions in most of the F 2 seeds (93.4%), which had the same genotype as the F 1 cross or the parent lines. Single recombination events between qhir11 and qhir12 were observed in 6% of the F 2 seeds, and double recombination events between qhir11 and qhir12 were observed in 0.1% of F 2 seeds. In addition, 0.6% of F 2 seeds had recombination events which occurred within either of the sub-regions. Based on the recombination observed between the distal SNP of qhir11 and the proximal SNP of qhir12, the recombination rate between the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions was 3.1%. From the 428 single recombinant F 2 plants between qhir11 and qhir12, a total of 193 plants remained for further analyses, with the following numbers in the four F 2 genotype classes: 72 aaBb, 56 AaBB, 44 Aabb and 21 AABb. Among F 3 plants, highly significant (P < 0.001) segregation distortion against the homozygous inducer genotype was observed for the qhir11 sub-region (Table 2). The segregation distortion observed for the qhir12 sub-region was also significant (P < 0.01) but against the non-inducer genotype. The same trends were observed for the allele frequencies at both sub-regions.F 3 plants with genotype AAbb, derived from F 2 plants in genotype class Aabb, revealed on average a significantly (P < 0.01) higher HIR (6.45%) than aabb plants having a mean HIR = 0.12% (Table 3). Thus, the AA genotype showed a strong positive effect on HIR. In F 3 plants of F 2 genotype class AABb, HIR was significantly (P < 0.01) higher in AAbb plants (7.16%) than in AABB plants (5.92%). Thus, a relatively small negative effect on HIR was observed for the BB genotype in the presence of the AA genotype. This negative effect was not observed in the absence of the AA genotype, because in F 3 plants from F 2 genotype class aaBb, the mean HIR of the aaBB genotypes (0.12%) was not significantly different from the mean HIR of the aabb genotypes (0.09%). In F 3 plants of the F 2 genotype class AaBB, the HIR of AABB genotypes was also significantly (P < 0.01) higher than the HIR of aaBB genotypes.Regarding the HIR of all F 3 plants irrespective of their origin from the four F 2 genotype classes, the highest HIR (5.96%) was observed for genotype AAbb, followed by a significantly (P < 0.05) smaller value (HIR = 5.02%) for genotype AABB (Table 4). A large decrease in HIR was found in the aaBB genotype (HIR = 0.19%) and a further significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the aabb genotype (HIR = 0.12%). Thus, in the presence of AA at qhir11, BB had a reducing effect on HIR but in the presence of aa, it had an increasing effect on HIR, whereas no significant effect was observed in the analysis of means in F 3 genotypes derived from individual F 2 genotype classes.Most ears harvested from AAbb and AABB genotypic class F3 plants showed some level of kernel abortion while most ears of aaBB and aabb classes did not record any abortion (Suppl. Figure 1a and 1b). Regardless of the genotype at the other sub-region, F 3 plants of genotype AA had a significantly (P < 0.01) higher KAS than the aa genotype.Quantitative evaluation of kernel abortion in the F 3 generation showed that genotype AAbb had a six-fold higher KAR than the genotype aaBB (Table 4).Genetic delineation of the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions required large population sizes in the F 2 generation considering that they are physically located very close to each other on chromosome 1.04 (Hu et al. 2016). Regarding the incomplete penetrance of qhir1 for HIR (Prigge et al. 2012b), the choice of the parents for this study was critical to guarantee sufficient variation in HIR of progenies recombinant for the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-regions. The non-inducer parent CML269 had shown highly significant difference in HIR values between progeny selected for qhir1 in combination with multiple haploid inducers (CIM-MYT, unpublished data). Therefore, CML269 was chosen as non-inducer parent to develop a large F 2 population with the selected tropicalized haploid inducer TAIL8. The 14 SNP markers selected for our analyses provided good coverage of the qhir1 region and were sufficient to delineate the sub-regions qhir11 and qhir12. The recombinants observed in the F 2 generation showed a genetic distance of   1 3 3.1 cM between them, which is consistent with the estimate for qhir11 and qhir12 reported by Hu et al. (2016). We did not study the effect of qhir11 and qhir12 in homozygous recombinants (AAbb or aaBB) of the F 2 generation because they were too few to make valid inferences. Given the huge efforts required in phenotyping for HIR, we had to restrict the number of individuals analyzed from each F 2 genotype class to 10 F 2 plants, resulting in 40 F 2:3 families which could be analyzed within and among the four genotype classes. Seed DNA was genotyped for each of these F 3 families to eliminate heterozygotes before planting and conducting testcrosses and selfings with the F 3 plants. A liguless tester was used in testcrosses for measuring HIR because this method was recommended for accurate measurement of HIR in comparison to other methods (Melchinger et al. 2016) and has been reliably used for determining the HIR in previous studies (Prigge et al. 2012a;Melchinger et al. 2013;Chaikam et al. 2016). Staggered planting of the liguleless tester multiple times allowed achieving synchrony in flowering with the majority of the F 3 plants differing widely in anthesis date (data not shown).For the majority of F 3 plants (83.7%), we could evaluate HIR based on the recommended number of testcross seed (1000) and for only less than 1% of the F 3 plants we had to measure HIR with fewer than 200 testcross seeds, which was the lower limit suggested by Prigge et al. (2012a).The F 3 progenies, which were homozygous recombinants for the qhir11 and qhir12 sub-region, showed unambiguous differences in HIR (Table 3). HIR is known to be a trait with incomplete penetrance and hence, has a tendency to show highly variable expression in different genetic backgrounds (Prigge et al. 2012b). In the population studied here, there appeared to be no alleles masking the HIR trait, because HIR ranged from normal inducer levels to non-inducer levels. In contrast to the hypothesis put forward by Hu et al. (2016), the 535 kb segment of the qhir11 sub-region was in our study the only sub-region of qhir1 mandatory for HI ability. The inducer qhir11 allele (A) increased the HIR significantly in the presence of inducer (B) or non-inducer (b) alleles at the sub-region qhir12. The inducer qhir12 allele alone, in the absence of the inducer qhir11 allele did not cause a HIR higher than the spontaneous occurrence of haploids observed in normal noninducer maize lines (Chase 1969). Actually, qhir12 significantly decreased HIR in the presence of the inducer allele at qhir11 but significantly increased HIR in the presence of the non-inducer allele at qhir11. In both cases, the significant differences due to the qhir12 allele were not strong enough to change the overall expression of HI due to the qhir11 allele, but merely modified the HIR.A genome-wide study on 53 haploid inducers publicly available and 1,482 normal maize lines provided strong evidence that qhir11 and qhir12 were fixed in all the inducers and this was exclusively attributed to selection for HI (Hu et al. 2016). The qhir11 sub-region, also found significant in the study by Hu et al. (2016), revealed two haplotypes, where the minor haplotype was shared by two non-inducer lines, which did not have HI ability. Additionally, Hu et al. (2016) identified qhir12 as the most probable genomic segment carrying gene(s) responsible for HI, as this region had a single haplotype that was unchanged in all the inducers. In contrast, the results of our validation study clearly show that the major haplotype of qhir11 found by Hu et al. (2016) is mandatory for HI and that the presence or absence of inducer qhir12 did not affect the HIR significantly. Our study cannot make any inference on the effect of the minor haplotype of qhir11 that was present only among two publically available inducers analyzed. Also, our study cannot make any specific conclusion regarding the 243 kb finemapped genomic region for HIR (Dong et al. 2013), as we have not studied this region in particular, but rather a larger genomic region harboring this fine-mapped region.Various authors suggested investigating segregation distortion as a means to further fine-map the qhir11 sub-region influencing maternal haploid induction in maize (Barret et al. 2008;Prigge et al. 2012b;Dong et al. 2013). Strong segregation distortion was reported against the haploid inducer allele in many genetic studies (Barret et al. 2008;Prigge et al. 2012b;Dong et al. 2013). Xu et al. (2013) studied segregation distortion in regard to HI and mapped a major QTL associated with segregation distortion, sed1, on chromosome 1, overlapping with the fine-mapped qhir1 QTL. It is not clear yet, if segregation distortion is due to the same gene causing HI, or if another gene reducing fitness is closely linked to the gene(s) in qhir1 causing HI. It is also not clear exactly what type of reduction in fitness is linked to HI. Barret et al. (2008) suggested impediments in male gametic transmission associated with HI, while Xu et al. (2013) proved that there is both gametic and zygotic selection responsible for segregation distortion associated with HI. Our study did not aim to distinguish whether segregation distortion was caused by the same gene responsible for HI, or by another tightly linked gene. However, we observed in this study that both HI ability and strong segregation distortion against the inducer qhir11 allele, both of which were not observed for qhir12. For qhir12, the observed segregation distortion was significantly smaller, and in the opposite direction, favoring the inducer allele, while a much smaller effect was found on the HIR.In addition to SD, high maternal HI also is strongly associated with the formation of defective kernels, including embryo and endosperm abortion (Xu et al. 2013) and reduced seed set (Satarova and Cherchel 2010). Similar to its effects on SD, the qhir11 sub-region in our study strongly increased kernel abortion while qhir12 had negligible effect on this. It is possible that the same gene(s) conditioning the HIR or another tightly linked gene within the qhir11 region can condition kernel abortion. One hypothesis for this relationship is that one of the sperm cells from the inducer pollen could be defective while the other sperm cell is normal (Geiger 2009). When the defective sperm cell fertilizes the central cell, endosperm abortion can result, and when the defective sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell, a haploid embryo or aborted embryo can result. This hypothesis was supported by the occurrence of morphologically different sperm cells (Bylich and Chalyk 1996), aneuploid microsporocytes which may produce aneuploid sperm cells (Chalyk et al. 2003), and an increase in heterofertilization when haploid inducer pollen is used (Kraptchev et al. 2003;Rotarenco and Eder 2003). Another hypothesis involves epigenetic, dosage-dependent modification of the chromosomes exerted by the sed1 locus which overlaps with the qhir1 locus resulting in incomplete penetrance of the sed1/qhir1 locus (Xu et al. 2013). It was proposed that expression of the sed1 locus can differ between the pollen grains resulting in some pollen grains having strong epigenetic modification while others are less modified. A strong modification of the sperm cell chromosomes may lead to kernel abortion or haploid formation while less epigenetically modified pollen leads to normal kernel formation. Further studies are required to understand the exact mechanism(s) behind kernel abortion associated with HI, for which cloning the gene(s) underlying these loci could be critical.The physical interval of qhir11 in the B73 genome sequence (V2) has 13 protein-coding genes annotated by the MAKER gene annotation pipeline (Cantarel et al. 2008) as available in http://ensembl.gramene.org/Zea_mays (Suppl. Table 2). Out of these genes, 11 are predicted to have protein domains with known functions. Among these, gene Zm00001d029411 is predicted to have a protein which falls into the CULLIN family of ubiquitin ligases.CULLIN-dependent ubiquitin ligases form a class of structurally related multi-subunit enzymes that control the rapid and selective degradation of important regulatory proteins involved in cell cycle progression and development (Thomann et al. 2005). In mice, knocking out a cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase leads to infertile male mice, due to fewer numbers of mature spermatozoa, most of which exhibit morphological defects, rendering them immotile and unable to fertilize eggs. In addition to the morphological abnormalities, chromosomal defects were also observed which may also contribute to infertility (Yin et al. 2011). The gene Zm00001d029411 in B73 had maximum similarity to AtCUL1 in Arabidopsis thaliana, based on a BLAST N alignment (E = 0.0012). CUL1 forms part of the SCF (SKP1-CUL1-F-box) complex in plants and animals, where SCF-dependant ubiquitylation plays a critical role in the control of the cell cycle (Thomann et al. 2005). Consistent with such a role, Arabidopsis cul1 lossof function mutants arrest early during embryogenesis at the zygote stage (Shen et al. 2002). Genetic analysis also indicated a reduction in transmission of the atcul1 mutation through both male and female gametes. Considering the specific roles the protein domain plays in cell cycle and gametophyte development and transmission, this gene could be an interesting putative candidate gene for HI ability. Several recent studies indicate that manipulation of Centromere Histone CENH3 could lead to in vivo haploid induction in Arabidopsis (Ravi and Chan 2010;Seymour et al. 2012;Ravi et al. 2014), and in maize- (Kelliher et al. 2016). However, native CENH3 may not have any role in in vivo HI using maternal haploid inducers in maize. CENH3 is localized on chromosome 6.06 (Prigge et al. 2012b) and no mapping study has so far detected a major QTL for HI in this region. Also, study by Kelliher et al. (2016) showed that altered CENH3 when introduced into maize showed a maximum of 3.6% HIR, which is significantly lower than the high HIR (~10% or more) obtained using the improved maternal haploid inducers (Röber et al. 2005;Prigge et al. 2012a;Chaikam et al. 2016). Our study also showed that none of the annotated genes at qhir11 are related to CENH3. Therefore, cloning of the gene(s) responsible for maternal haploid induction, underlying qhir11, may provide a better insight into the genetic mechanism underlying gynogenesis in maize. It also needs to be explored whether CENH3-mediated HI can be synergistic to the qhir1 mediated HI in maize.In this study, the qhir1 region was genetically delineated, and the haploid induction ability of qhir11 and qhir12 subregions was dissected through analysis of recombinants from a large F2 population derived from a non-inducer x haploid inducer cross. The study clearly revealed that qhir11 is the only sub-region with a strong effect on HIR, whereas qhir12 had a negligible effect on HIR, in contrast to the hypothesis of Hu et al. (2016) based on a selective sweep based GWAS approach. Furthermore, our study proved that qhir11 is more strongly associated than qhir12 with segregation distortion and kernel abortion, two traits that are associated with maternal haploid induction. The results of this study give direction in further fine mapping and cloning of the gene/s underlying qhir1. The molecular markers delineating qhir11 can be used for more efficient development of new inducer lines adapted to diverse agro climatic zones using marker assisted selection.Author's note When this publication was in production, three articles (Kelliher et al. 2017;Gilles et al. 2017;Liu et al. 2017) were published about cloning the gene underlying qhir1 QTL that codes for a sperm specific phospholipase and triggers haploid induction.Author contribution statement AEM, SKN, VC and PMB designed the experiments. VC, ML and LLA coordinated the field trials and phenotyping. SKN and VC coordinated the sample collection, DNA extraction and genotyping. WM, SKN, VC and AEM analyzed the data. SKN, VC and WM wrote the manuscript. AEM and PMB edited the manuscript.","tokenCount":"5406"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e9547eae499f24987f427b900df137d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/eecd4042-d5ae-498c-b8df-51713cb54b6c/content","id":"-1910604045"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"361ba0ef-0a3e-479b-a83a-b84375c8b26b","pagecount":"47","content":"Cuadro 2. Variedades de triticale y lineas avanzadas de comun origen.Cuadro 3. Variedades de triticale y lineas avanzadas ordenadas segun los numeros de cruzamiento.Cuadro 4. Abreviaturas que indican los tipos y lugares donde se realizaron los cruzamientos.Cuadro 5. Abreviaturas que indican donde se realizaron las selecciones. Cuadro 6. Abreviaturas (referentes al triticale) que aparecen en el cuadro 1, pero que nose definen.Cuadro 7. Abreviaturas (referentes a los trigos tetraploides presentes en las genealogias de triticale) que aparecen en el cuadro 1, pero que no se definen.Cuadro 8. Abreviaturas (referentes a los trigos harineros presentes en las genealogias de triticale) que aparecen en el cuadro 1, pero que no se definen. Cuadro 9. Abreviaturas (referentes a los centenos presentes en las genealogias de triticale\\ que aparecen en el cuadro 1, pero que no se delinen. Cuadro 10. Variedades de triticale que han sido liberadas y que portan germoplasma del CIMMYT y/o de !NIA de Mexico en susgenealogias. Cuadro 11. Variedades liberadas de triticale que no son originarias ni del CIMMYT ni de !NIA de Mexico.* sobrescritos Por tanto, si el progenitor A se cruza con el progenitor B y el hibrido F 1 se cruza con el progenitor C, su genealogia se expresa asi: A/Bl /C. Los cruzamientos subsecuentes con material progenitor D, E, F y G se manifestarian como sigue: ACuadro 1. Variedades de triticale y lineas avanzadas producidas por el CIMMYT y Io INIA, asi como tambien variedades liberadas por colaboradores.Una de las funciones primordiales del CIMMYT es producir germoplasma para los programas nacionales de mejoramiento de cultivo y otras instituciones colaboradoras. En la creaci6n de germoplasma de triticale, se hace hincapie en la producci6n de materiales avanzados que puedan integrarse sin dificultad a estos programas de mejoramiento. Los materiales segregantes de generaci6n temprana tambien estan a la disposici6n de los colaboradores.Cada afio el CIMMYT lleva a cabo miles de cruzamientos de triticale y genera cientos de lineas avanzadas. Estos materiales se distribuyen anualmente a los colaboradores mediante el sistema de viveros internacionales del Centro. Los programas nacionales y otros colaboradores estan en libertad de utilizar el germoplasma de estos viveros en la forma que mas les convenga. Sus opciones incluyen desde el cruzamiento con variedades locales hasta el inicio inmediato de la multiplicaci6n de las entradas para liberarlas posteriormente como variedades cultivadas. El lector debe tomar nota de que el CIMMYT no libera ni designa los nombres de las variedades cultivadas, funciones que son derecho y responsabilidad de los programas nacionales; cabe mencionar que cada instituci6n tiene su propio sistema de nombrarlas. Por otra parte, el CIMMYT si designa los nombres de las lineas avanzadas de triticale (por lo general, utiliza nombres de animales) con el fin de distinguir las lineas prometedoras y simplificar el sistema de registro geneal6gico y la realizaci6n de los cruzamientos.Este boletin contiene una recopilaci6n de todas las variedades y lineas avanzadas de triticale creadas en el CIMMYT y en el Instituto Nacional de lnvestigaciones Agricolas (INIA), de Mexico asi como tambien los nombres y genealogias de las variedades provenientes del CIMMYT que los programas nacionales han liberado. El objeto de publicar este boletin es facilitar el intercambio de informaci6n mas exacta entre los investigadores de triticale que trabajan con estos materiales y ayudarles a tomar notas y llevar registros.Con la publicaci6n de este boletin, el Centro manifiesta que ha cambiado el sistema que utiliza para indicar el orden de los cruzamientos en cada genealogia por el de la mayoria de las organizaciones de mejoramiento de cultivos. Este Sistema no solo agilizara el intercambio de datos, sino que es mas facil de usar. El cuadro que aparece a continuaci6n compara el sistema nuevo con el antiguo.Simbolo en Orden de el sistema el sistema cruzamientos antiguo nuevo El progenitor hembra se indica poniendolo primero ( del lado izquierdo) seguido del progenitor polinizador (del lado derecho del cruzamiento). Asi pues, A representa el progenitor hembra y B, el progenitor polinizador en el primer cruzamiento; la linea A/B representa el progenitor hembra y C, el progenitor polinizador en el segundo cruzamiento, y asi sucesivamente.Los retrocruzamientos se sefialan con un asterisco (.) y un numero que indica la dosis del progenitor recurrente. El asterisco y el numero se colocan junto al simbolo de cruzamiento que separa a los progenitores recurrentes de los progenitores donadores. En seguida aparecen algunos ejemplos de retrocruzamiento (dos dosis):A como progenitor recurrente:   s LMG\"S .. /SPD\"S \"/4/BGL\"S II /MUS \"S \"I X-6 3 77 3-D-l YP-lMP-OY MEXICO /FS477/3/BTA\"S\" LE CHON\" S\" LECHON\"S\" s LNC\"S\"/ABN\"S\" X-2 7 6 0 5-1 lM-l Y-lM-1 Y-MEXICO 3M-OY LEMMING\"S\" LMG\"S\" s STR \"S \"/FS 10 0/3/M2A/CIN/ /CML\" S\" PUMA\"S\" s I NIA/RYE* 2//ARM\" S\"  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CT Geaealogia Bo. de crusa y selecci.Sa Aiio Pais s LNC\"S\"/ABl'PS\"s lfV\"S\"/LNC\"S\" X-3l100-SY-1M-2Y-OM MEXICO RAT\"S\" RAT\"S\"    El CIMMYT es una organizaci6n Internacional sin fines de lucro que esta dedicada a la investigaci6n cientlfica y al adiestramiento. El CIMMYT, con sede central en Mexico, esta comprometido en un programa de investigacion a nivel mundial para maiz, trigo y triticale con enfasis en produccion alimentaria en paises en desarrollo. Este es uno de los 13 centros internacionales sin prop6sitos de lucro que estan involucrados en la investigaci6n agricola y adiestramiento, patrocinada por el Grupo Consultivo para la lnvestigacion Agricola Internacional (GCIAI). El GCIAI esta apoyado por la Organizaci6n ","tokenCount":"882"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0ff12dcf9da0f70ba21b2aff5372bf47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6dac87a1-6172-40bc-852b-0887938f50fc/retrieve","id":"-336315489"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aeb53902-8eb2-458c-baff-63fadc9bea6d","pagecount":"125","content":"The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IPGRI or the CGIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these participating organizations.Opening and Welcoming address Information on ECP/GR The Chair's reportProfessor Konrad Bachmann, acting Head of the Genebank of the Institut für Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung (IPK), Gatersleben, welcomed the participants and gave a brief introduction of the history of the institute and its current activities. He emphasized that IPK is located in an area (Magdeburg) in which seed production and plant breeding have a long-standing tradition. The Genebank is an important department of the Institute which has the overarching mandate to develop science and technology as a basis for crop improvement. The Genebank holds close to 98 000 accessions and responds annually to about 20 000 requests (status in 1996). All regeneration activities are carried out by the institute itself (about 10 500 accessions annually, including 1230 accessions of Barley). Recently more emphasis is being placed on the assessment of diversity and the characterization of the collections using molecular techniques. Barley is a model crop for such work, as will be illustrated later during the meeting by the presentation of IPK's new Research Programme 'Plant Genome Resource Centre' focusing on barley.Lorenzo Maggioni, ECP/GR Coordinator, thanked Dr Helmut Knüpffer and Prof. Karl Hammer of IPK for the excellent organization of the meeting. He then welcomed all the participants on behalf of IPGRI. He noted with pleasure the presence of observers from the Vavilov Institute (VIR), Russian Federation, from ASSINSEL and from various German institutes. He mentioned that invitations were sent to Dr Theo van Hintum of CGN (Centre for Genetic Resources, the Netherlands) and Dr Jan Valkoun from ICARDA, who were unable to attend. He added that members from Hungary, Portugal and Turkey had corresponded with IPGRI regarding the present meeting, briefly informing about the status of their national collections and confirming their interest in the outcome of the meeting (a report received from Turkey is included in Part II of the present report). Since the Group had met for the last time in 1993, before the beginning of the present Phase V of ECP/GR, L. Maggioni illustrated the objectives and the new structure of ECP/GR, defined during the Technical Consultative Committee (TCC) meeting of September 1995 in Nitra, Slovakia. He summarized the activities of ECP/GR during Phase V, with specific reference to the Cereals Network and to the recent workshops of the Documentation and Information Network, held in Budapest, Hungary (October 1996) and in Bonn, Germany (June 1997). In particular, he showed the structure of the European Information Platform on Crop Genetic Resources, prepared in collaboration with CGN, Nordic Gene Bank and ZADI (Centre for Agricultural Documentation and Information, Bonn, Germany) and recently made available by IPGRI on the Internet. He explained that the Platform offers direct access to the on-line ECP/GR Central Crop Databases, including the European Barley Database (EBDB). In view of the Steering Committee meeting of ECP/GR in June 1998 and of a possible new Phase VI of ECP/GR, starting in 1999, L. Maggioni suggested to the Barley Working Group the opportunity to formulate recommendations for its future role as well as for the continuation of ECP/GR.Karl Hammer provided a brief outline of the former meetings of the ECP/GR Barley Working Group, with special reference to the fourth meeting of the Group held in Gatersleben in 1993. The objectives of that meeting had been to review the progress made by the Group during Phase IV of ECP/GR  and to formulate a workplan for the next period. Main topics discussed were the accessibility of data to users, the identification of duplicates, safety-duplication of base collections, the inclusion of evaluation data into the EBDB, the use of wild relatives and landraces in breeding programmes, the barley core collection, cooperative evaluation projects, molecular approaches and accelerated multiplication.• The European Barley Database is the backbone of the work of the Group. Following the recommendations to seek an EBDB coordinator, many efforts were made to obtain the necessary funds for such a position at IPK. These include approaches at the local and national level as well as the submission of a project to the EU genetic resources programme EC 1467/94. Financial support for this position over a limited period has been provided by IPK since the beginning of 1997. This allowed the initation of the updating and upgrading of the EBDB. A prototype of the new version of the EBDB has recently been presented at an ECP/GR-ZADI Training Workshop for Central Crop Database Managers and is accessible via Internet at <http://www.dainet.de/eccdb/barley/>. A list of presumably unique accessions will be sent to curators of genebanks in due course. • The European part of the Barley Core Collection has been created under the coordination of Prof. Fischbeck at the Technical University of Munich. This material has been physically transferred to the IPK Genebank where it is being multiplied and will soon be available for distribution. • Progress has also been made in the development of mechanisms to extend genetic characterization to the molecular level and to further evaluate the barley collections in national programmes. • East European genebanks have been given support in several projects. They consider the European Barley Working Group as an important platform for the work with barley germplasm. Passport data (excluding wild barley species) have recently been received from the Vavilov Institute for inclusion in the EBDB. • Overall the European Barley Working Group made good progress during Phase V of ECP/GR, considering the tremendous amount of accessions and respective data. At the time of the meeting, the database contains data of 72 000 accessions from about 20 European Countries.K. Hammer asked all the participants, many of whom were attending an ECP/GR meeting for the first time, to briefly introduce themselves.Helmut Knüpffer presented the status of the European Barley Database. In March 1997 IPK hired Mr Luis López for six months to assist IPK's genebank in the updating of the European Barley Database. The database managers contacted more than 90 institutions by email, fax or letter, asking for their barley passport data. The address list was received from IPGRI. Until the time of the meeting, contributions from 28 institutions in 22 countries were received, with a total of approximately 80 000 accessions. Data of 37 231 accessions from 12 institutions were already included in the database. For the rest of the data, some clarifications of descriptors definitions or coding schemes were still needed before inclusion. Some participants handed their data over to the EBDB managers during the meeting. It is expected that by September 1997 more than 100 000 accessions will be included. Incoming data sets were subjected to a thorough analysis of the data structure, the coding schemes, and questions were sent to the contributors when necessary. Data were received in various formats (DBF, Excel, ASCII, few on paper), largely via email.The structure of the new EBDB (field names and descriptor definitions) is based on FAO/IPGRI's Multicrop Passport Descriptors List, extended by a few additional passport descriptors found in the data received. For institution acronyms, the INSTCODE.DBF maintained by FAO (J. Serwinski) is taken as the basis.H. Knüpffer also reported about the previous version of the EBDB which was finalized in 1987, and about its use in identifying duplicates between European collections. Owing to lack of personnel resources in IPK, the EBDB was not updated until the beginning of 1997. By the end of September 1997, when L. López left IPK, the number of accessions included in the EBDB was 88 996, belonging to 29 institutions in 24 countries. Details about the EBDB are given in Part II of this report (see p. 18).\"The Group thanked IPK for its long-standing commitment to the development of the EBDB as an input in kind to ECP/GR. It also recognized how essential it is that the European database be as complete as possible, in order to be utilized to its full potential. A screening of the collections in Europe, made to identify unique samples or to locate duplicates, is a clear example of where wide coverage and completeness of data is needed. The Group therefore recommended that all members ensure that the passport data from barley collections of their respective countries be sent to the EBDB manager. These should be forwarded no later than 31 October 1997, in electronic format using the agreed descriptors as far as possible.The Group recommends looking into the possibility of hiring a full-time EBDB manager to ensure the continuing development and management of the Barley Database.It was agreed that the following tasks, some of which were identified during the fourth meeting of the Group, should be included in the Group's workplan:Task leader Time frame Request from genebanks, by the end of August 1997, passport data about the national collections, to be included in the EBDB (including data about the breeding institute, environmental descriptors of collecting site, minimum characterization, principal attributes, and location and date of safety-duplicate) (see Appendix I).December 1997Identify possible duplicates and unique accessions (in the subset of cultivars bred in Europe), and circulate a report to the Working Group Members.Request from genebanks, by the end of August 1997, by way of a questionnaire, meta-data about evaluation and characterization.December 1997Establish technical solutions to solve problems of linking evaluation and characterization data to the EBDB.Assist upon request in the drafting of safetyduplication agreements. IPGRI ongoingL. Maggioni introduced the subject of multicrop descriptors and the background leading to their compilation. As reported by Hazekamp et al. 1 the process of developing descriptors at IPGRI over the last 20 years was characterized as constantly evolving. This has led to a situation where some common descriptors are defined in different ways for different crops.A request was then made, by a number of documentation specialists, that IPGRI harmonize the passport descriptors in a multicrop passport list. This would facilitate the documentation management, especially in cases of genebanks dealing with several crops. A Multicrop List was drafted by IPGRI, in collaboration with FAO and presented at the Workshop in Budapest (1996); a revised list was adopted there and a final version was published in the report of the Workshop. The list is intended for use in all future IPGRI crop descriptors and is proposed as a standard format for data exchange. L. Maggioni then reported on the generally favourable acceptance of the Multicrop Passport Descriptors List by other ECP/GR Working Groups. The Prunus Working Group adopted the list for the European Prunus Database and decided to include additional passport and characterization data. 2 The Brassica Working Group accepted the list in November 1996, to be used as a standard format for data exchange. The Forages Working Group decided in March 1997 to extend the passport list with a number of additional descriptors, in particular including environmental information.The Malus/Pyrus Working Group approved the list and agreed to extend it with two passport descriptors, PLANT USE and PARENTAGE, and together with a number of additional characterization descriptors, to be used for data exchange.A group on Potato genetic resources, during the coordination meeting of the EC project CT95-34 in February 1997, also decided to consider the use of the Multicrop Passport Descriptors List for the definition of descriptors to be included in the European databases on potato varieties and wild species.L. Maggioni concluded that the trend in Europe is for the general adoption of the Multicrop List, as a whole or with the inclusion of descriptors considered essential to specific crop groups. This tendency is expected to improve the management of plant genetic resources documentation in Europe and to make data exchange faster and easier.After a plenary discussion, a small task group met in a separate session and reached the following conclusion with regard to the Multicrop Passport Descriptors List:• The Multicrop Passport Descriptors List should be adopted for data exchange.• A reference to genetic stocks is important. This can be added under descriptor 14 'Status of sample', by using a separate state 6.Given the importance of the status 'genetic stock' for several crops, it is proposed that the documentation specialists amend the multicrop list as follows:1. Wild 5. Advanced cultivar 2. Weedy 6. Genetic stock 3.Traditional cultivar/Landrace 0. Unknown 4.Breeder's line 99. OtherThe Multicrop Passport Descriptors should include the following additional descriptors: • 'Breeding institute' (BREEDINST), following the model proposed by the Working Group on Forages.• The 'Principal attribute' or value of the accession (valid for all crops), for example, 'translocation 6-7', 'mildew-resistant', 'drought-tolerant', 'mutant brachytic', etc. • The location and date at which the safety-duplicate was made.In addition, the Group feels that all records for barley should include the following descriptors:• Barley-specific attributes (basic management tools) * Row number (2-row; 6-row; other) * Seasonality (winter or spring type) * Kernel covering (naked or hulled)A subgroup met to discuss the issue of compiling pedigree information and formulated recommendations. These were adopted by the Group as follows:The Group recognized the importance of pedigree information relating to the documentation of plant genetic resources. The development of pedigree information was seen as an important additional tool complementing the EBDB and the German EVA initiatives (see below) and providing added value in enabling the tracking and identification of lineages, traits and alleles as well as in relation to diversity and structure of the cultivated genepool. It will also be important to include information concerning selection from landraces or local varieties.The Group recognized a number of additional factors that were relevant in considering how pedigree data should be approached. i. The problem is not barley-specific but important to the majority of crop species.ii. There are two different main notation systems in use and a survey of the different systems and their relative merits should be considered. iii. The collation and standardization of pedigree information is a significant undertaking requiring independent coordination in the initial phase and close cooperation with the CCDB managers, with members of other Working Groups and with initiatives such as SINGER (CGIAR) and ISIS (CIMMYT). In addition, it would be desirable to include information about pedigrees collated by previous initiatives (e.g. Arias et al. 1983, Baum et al. 1985 3 ).There is also a database system for wheat pedigrees (S. Martynov, Saratov, Russia, in cooperation with Prague-RuzynAE, Czech Republic). iv. A link between the pedigree database for cultivars and the EBDB must be made.The Group recommends the initiation of a small task group representing a range of ECP/GR Working Groups to undertake the following: 3 Arias, G., L. Reiner, A. Penger and A. Mangstl. 1983. Directory of Barley Cultivars and Lines.Ulmer, Stuttgart. Baum, B.R., L.G. Bailey and B.K. Thompson. 1985. Barley register. Agriculture Canada Publ. No. 1783/B. Biosystematics Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.Karl Hammer reported on the outcome of the project proposal on 'Barley database, characterization and evaluation', submitted to the first call for proposals within the framework of EC Regulation 1467/94 which had been coordinated by H. Knüpffer. The project aimed at a coordinated and complementary evaluation of barley accessions for resistance to pathogens important in EU countries; upgrading of the existing European Barley Database with inclusion of missing data sets and of new characterization/evaluation data; identification of duplicates, gaps and unique accessions; and urgent multiplication and characterization.The project received an overall impression rate C and therefore was unsuccessful. Positive comments were made by the Commission, with respect to the very comprehensive partnership proposed, the detailed coordination plan and the well-thought-out and quantitative details provided. However, the identification of the 'nature of resistance' (which was not part of the proposed project) was considered a research programme incompatible with the requirements of EC regulation 1467/94. Also, novel aspects which conform to the priorities of this EU programme, such as the prospects of improving diversification/product quality, were considered too limited, although the contribution to take better care of the environment by use of fewer pesticides was acknowledged.The Commission considered the inclusion of funding for non-EU partners in the project as not in accordance with the Regulation and also raised the question of ownership/utilization potential of germplasm in non-EU member states.In view of a third call for proposals from the EC, expected for the autumn of 1997 4 , the Group considered it worthwhile to formulate a new application proposal. Possible interested partners for a new project are H. Knüpffer (IPK-Gatersleben, Germany), R. von Bothmer (Sweden), J. Spunar (Czech Republic), A. Jahoor (Risø, Denmark), U. Walther (BAZ-Aschersleben, Germany), L. Jestin (INRA, France), J.L. Molina-Cano (IRTA, Spain), F. Debre (Slovakia) and C.E. Ciotir (Romania).A subgroup of the meeting met to discuss the strategies of a new application for an EU barley project for the third call within the EC regulation 1467/94.The following points were agreed upon:• The new project should be clearly distinct from the previous one. The title should be 'Evaluation and Conservation of Barley Genetic Resources to improve their accessibility to breeders in Europe'. The project duration will be three years. • It will consist of three subgroups:i. evaluation for biotic stresses, ii. evaluation for abiotic stresses, and iii. overall coordination and work related to the development of a European barley information system, such as identification of duplicates, recommendations for responsibility-sharing in conservation, identification of unique accessions, questions of safety-duplication, including links to characterization and evaluation data gathered within the project and from other sources, and establishment of an Internet searchable information system.The group considered that in the evaluation work, emphasis should be given to the international Barley Core Collection, landraces and Hordeum vulgare L. subsp. spontaneum (C. Koch) Thell. The project should be extended to include partners from all European countries significantly involved in the barley crop.A small group consisting of Helmut Knüpffer (overall coordinator and information system), Ursula Walther (subcoordinator for biotic stresses), Louis Jestin and Mike Ambrose will draft the new project. A subcoordinator for abiotic stresses will have to be identified. 5   H. Knüpffer and U. Walther will prepare the first draft and distribute it by end of July 1997 to the other members of this group and a few other volunteers for comments. The revised draft will then be circulated to potential partners together with a letter asking about their willingness to participate. The potential partners will include all partners of the first application, participants of the Barley Working Group meeting who had expressed their interest, and other possible partners.Patrick Heffer from ASSINSEL offered to inform members of his organization about the project and possibly identify breeding companies willing to contribute to the evaluation work. 6   Improved ways of inclusion of non-EU partners have to be sought. The group recommended to approach ECP/GR for possible co-funding for these partners. The Third call for proposals for the Community programme on the conservation, characterization, collection and utilization of genetic resources in agriculture was published on 9 April 1998 (closing date for proposal submission 9 July 1998).Michele Stanca, Italy, Member of the Barley Working Group, was approached immediately after the meeting and agreed to be subcoordinator for abiotic stresses.A circular letter distributed by P. Heffer immediately after the Working Group meeting resulted in expression of interest by several breeding firms and research institutes which were subsequently included as evaluation partners in the project.in the project, e.g. doing extensive evaluation work, if sufficient funds for their participation can be provided. However, co-financing by ECP/GR would be the most suitable option, since the other EU programmes supporting the cooperation with non-EU countries are research-oriented.The project will conduct one meeting at the beginning. The second meeting will be organized at the same venue as the next ECP/GR meeting, just prior to the meeting. A final meeting will be held some months before the end of the project, in order to finalize findings and results and to define objectives and opportunities for future initiatives. 7The status of national collections (for more detailed information see also Part II, Presented Papers)Rudolf Schachl reported on the Austrian ex situ collection, maintained in three genebanks in Vienna, Linz and Rinn. The collection comprises 905 accessions in total (786 spring types, 119 winter types), including 329 accessions of landraces and 576 of cultivars (160 accessions of Austrian-bred cultivars and 166 accessions of German bred-cultivars). The presentation concentrated on landraces, describing their development during the last 150 years, the mechanisms of their spreading and their genetic variability, found to be lower than expected in a gene centre.Zapryanka Popova informed on the basic collection of barley in Bulgaria maintained in IPGR-Sadovo, comprising a total of 5120 accessions. There are small collections, mainly selection lines, in the Institute of Barley in Karnobat and in the Agricultural Institute in Plovdiv. A working collection contains 1425 accessions originating basically from Ethiopia. The Gene Bank in Sadovo holds collections in long-term (-18• °C) and medium-term (6• °C) storage. Evaluation is being carried out.The project under the title \"Evaluation and Conservation of Barley Genetic Resources to Improve Their Accessibility to Breeders in Europe\" was submitted to the European Commission in June 1998.The project coordinator was informed in October 1998 that the project was selected for funding. The project is supposed to start on April 1, 1999.The project aims at coordinated and complementary evaluation of several hundred to several thousand barley accessions for resistance to various pathogens and pests (fungi, viruses, aphids) and environmental stresses (drought, cold, heavy metals, salinity, etc.), using agreed-upon evaluation methods. Accessions to be evaluated will jointly be selected from the International Barley Core Collection (BCC) as well as from partners' genebanks. The project uses the existing European Barley Database managed by the coordinator (IPK). It will include also existing characterization and evaluation as well as those resulting from the project. Other activities include: identification of duplicates, providing information on gaps and unique accessions; identifying needs for urgent multiplication and characterization; provision of promising material to interested breeders, some of them already participating in the project. Information will be disseminated using Internet and other media. Availability of resistant material from this project with diverse genetical background and accessibility of information should eventually lead to better utilization of existing germplasm in breeding with lower agrochemical inputs.The 28 project partners include eight genebanks, eleven public research institutes, nine private breeding companies and one non-governmental organization from EU Member States. Up to seven countries not belonging to the EU may join the project with ECP/GR financial support to their participation in annual coordination meetings.Josip Kova¹eviº presented the barley breeding activities in Croatia, which have a long tradition, starting at the beginning of this century. A Dalmatian barley population had an important role for breeding in Europe, since from it the famous variety of two-row spring barley 'Ragusa' was selected by German breeders in 1929. The Osijek Agricultural Institute maintains collections of 38 varieties and lines of winter barley and 65 varieties and lines of spring barley of Croatian origin. The new buildings of the Osijek Agricultural Institute were completely destroyed during the war; therefore storage facilities are not available and the material is continuously multiplied. The National Programme requires national capacities for collecting, conservation and utilization of local germplasm to be strengthened.Andreas Hadjichristodoulou illustrated the considerable progress made in Cyprus in collecting germplasm of local landraces of barley, collecting and evaluating wild barley germplasm, and finally its use in breeding programmes, aimed at developing improved barley cultivars for drylands. The ARI Genebank in Cyprus holds 26 accessions of barley collected in 1978 and 3354 inbred lines (progenies of single spikes collected during regeneration of the 26 accessions). Also landraces, selected in Cyprus for thousands of years, are stored in the genebank. They have recently been evaluated and found very adapted to dry and hot Mediterranean climates.Jaroslav Spunar presented the activities in conservation and utilization of barley genetic resources in the Czech Republic, where close collaboration exists between the Agricultural Research Institute KromAEéíû, Co. Ltd. which is the main institution involved in barley breeding at the national level, and the Research Institute for Crop Production in Prague which holds the national base collections and coordinates the national plant genetic resources programme. J. Spunar emphasized the value of testing winter barley germplasm in the Czech Republic where temperatures of -12 to -15°C are frequently experienced during winter. He offered to collaborate in regional evaluation trials to which his country could contribute by screening for winter-hardiness and certain disease resistances. From 300 to 500 accessions could be tested annually.Louis Jestin informed the Group about the way in which the conservation and utilization of barley genetic resources is organized within the French National Programme on Genetic Resources. A collaborative initiative involving national partners from the public and private sectors is being organized around a National Charter for cereals and a National Cereals Database. Currently the national collection includes 78 old landraces, 201 cultivars deleted from the national catalogue, 171 breeder's lines with recognized valuable attributes, and 17 accessions of other material including genetic stocks. L. Jestin expressed France's interest in participating in regional evaluation trials and in a possible re-submission of the EU project.Karl Hammer gave an overview of the composition of the barley collection of IPK's Genebank. The genebank comprises 12 402 barley accessions, among them 11 470 Hordeum vulgare and many wild species. Details of the species composition and the origin of the material were provided, and information about reproduction and storage, characterization and evaluation, documentation, and availability of the material was given. Barley has always been an important crop for IPK, and a detailed review of literature about evaluation, research and other aspects of barley genetic resources of IPK was presented. IPK organized and hosted all ECP/GR Barley Working Group Meetings and some other IBPGR workshops devoted to barley. The European Barley Database and active participation in the development of the International Barley Core Collection are further activities worth mentioning.Lothar Frese presented the Braunschweig Genetic Resources Collection (BGRC), now under the responsibility of the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ) since July 1996. Currently, the total barley collection amounts to 8892 accessions of which 1294 accessions are temporarily out of collection (material provided by the Ethiopian genebank in the early 1980s with the request to keep safety-duplicates, for which clarification of status is needed). Hordeum vulgare L. is the prevalent species with 92% of all material. The collection contains 52, 20 and 16% of landraces, cultivars and breeder's lines respectively. L. Frese provided detailed data on the origin, characterization and evaluation, regeneration status, seed accessibility, availability and quality of accessions. The BAZ genebank cooperates at a national level by participating in the central database PGRDEU developed by ZADI/IGR, and at international level in the EBDB.Abraham Korol informed on the three genebanks conserving barley collections in Israel: Lieberman Germplasm Bank, Institute for Cereal Crops Improvement, Tel Aviv University (8000 Hordeum spontaneum lines and 500 H. vulgare varieties collected in Israel); Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa (3500 genotypes of Hordeum spontaneum from various sources) -in this Institute, studies of genetic diversity are undertaken through RAPD analyses, and the polymorphism of natural populations of H. spontaneum through genetic mapping of QTLs for stress tolerance and disease-resistance genes; and the Israeli Gene Bank for agricultural crops, Volcani Center (ARO) -about 700 accessions, including 150 landraces [H. vulgare convar. distichon (L.) Alef. and H. vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Aschers.] and 550 H. spontaneum.Alge Leistrumaitë indicated that spring barley collections are maintained in three locations: the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Dotnuva (644 accessions), Vilnius University (233 accessions) and the Lithuanian Agricultural University, Kaunas (19 accessions). All accessions are kept in working collections. A recent inventory of the collections showed that there were 12 spring barley varieties of Lithuanian origin. Two old spring barley varieties of Lithuanian origin were lost. Spring barley accessions of Lithuanian origin are kept in longterm seed storage at Nordic Gene Bank for the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture.Jens Weibull gave a brief overview of the barley material available at the Nordic Gene Bank. The number of accessions of cultivated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare L., amounts to 1634 when excluding duplicated Nordic accessions. About 60% or 985 accessions are of Nordic origin, 16% (262 accessions) have unknown origin and the remaining 24% (387 accessions) are of foreign origin. Two special collections were also mentioned: the barley mutant collection comprising almost 9900 accessions, and the collection of wild Hordeum taxa. Additional information was given on recent evaluations/descriptions of particular interest, and on two research projects: a joint Nordic project on development of molecular markers, ended in 1997; and a project of the Cereal Working Group at the Nordic Gene Bank initiated in 1997 to study the processes and problems associated with repatriation of germplasm for which barley was selected as a pilot crop.Claudia Ciotir presented the Romanian barley genetic resources activities which involve three separate national institutes under the coordination of ICCPT Fundulea. All three institutes have active breeding collections which are regularly regenerated. The national base collection is maintained at the Suceava Genebank and includes 1014 accessions of which 180 are of indigenous origin. C. Ciotir expressed Romania's pleasure in being represented in the Working Group and the country's strong interest in collaborating with the other barley programmes in Europe in initiatives such as the EU project.Frantisek Debre explained that the Slovak barley collection is an integral part of the National Programme of 'Conservation of Cultivated Plant Genetic Resources', presently coordinated by RIPP Pieëïany. The new genebank, opened at Pieëïany in 1996, hosts 1470 accessions of spring and winter barley, fully documented with passport data. Characterization of morphological traits and evaluation for quality and disease resistance is regularly carried out. The most promising accessions are handed over to plant breeders for inclusion in their breeding programmes. The genebank is also developing expertise in molecular techniques, to be applied in the identification of accessions and duplicates, as well as in genetic and diversity studies.José Luis Molina-Cano reported that the National Germplasm Bank (BNG) at the Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos (CRF-INIA) in Alcalá de Henares holds a collection of 2000+ barley accessions, mostly landraces collected in Spain. To facilitate the study of the genetic diversity and its use by barley breeders, a core collection was built. The different steps followed in this process were described.Additional information was received from Ireland, Poland, Russia and Turkey.T. Gass introduced the subject by informing the Group about the discussions that have been held to date within other ECP/GR Working Groups.The sharing of responsibilities in conserving and making genetic resources available to users has increasingly become an issue in the following context:• Europe is a large region including over 30 different countries which all have an interest in plant genetic resources • National Programmes within the region vary widely in their structure, mode of operation and level of development • Genetic resources programmes are frequently affected by the general reduction in funding to agricultural research • At the regional level, a high potential exists for the risk of a duplication of efforts as well as for neglecting to conserve and adequately make available genetic resources • The globalization of economy and agriculture has emphasized further the interdependence of countries with regard to genetic resources.It is assumed that:• The long-term conservation is primarily a public sector responsibility• A restriction of access to the genetic resources conserved in genebanks throughout Europe would seriously impede the efforts of breeders • The economic constraints facing national programmes call for clear prioritization of genebank activities and the sharing of responsibilities • ECP/GR is the platform to facilitate the implementation of the Global Plan of Action on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (TCC, Nitra 1995; GPA, Leipzig  1996). 8   This implies that ECP/GR should move to play a role in formalizing the sharing of responsibilities for the conservation and promotion of the use of crop genetic resources. This could include mechanisms such as the establishment of centralized or decentralized regional collections. The establishment of such collections would need to give appropriate consideration to aspects such as the scope of the collections (species coverage, type of accessions and status of accessions). Each country would need to accept responsibility for accessions of national origin after they have been identified and accepted as primary holdings. Furthermore, the role of the different parties concerned by these collections (the collection holders, the hosts of the safety duplicates, the manager of the Central Crop database and the respective ECP/GR crop Working Group) needs to be clearly defined.The Group took note of the recommendations developed by the ECP/GR Working Group on Forages and agreed to establish a task force consisting of J. Weibull (coordinator), F. Debre, Th. van Hintum (to be confirmed), O. Kovaleva, M. Miklis and E. Ciotir, to study the implications of a mechanism 9 for the conservation of barley genetic resources in Europe. It was agreed that the task force would circulate a discussion document and a draft action plan by the end of October 1997. A revised document could then be included in the present report in time for publication. 10 This document would also be submitted to the Steering Committee of ECP/GR.Helmut Knüpffer provided brief information about the present state of the International Barley Core Collection (BCC). He reminded the participants that the idea to create a European 'synthetic' barley core collection, based on European holdings of germplasm, was presented to the third meeting of the Barley Working Group (1989) by Th. van Hintum. The concepts of a BCC were developed by a small group consisting of Th. van Hintum, G. Fischbeck, R. von Bothmer and H. Knüpffer. The Sixth International Barley Genetics Symposium recommended in 1991 to extend the scope of the BCC into an International BCC, and an international BCC Coordinating Committee was established. Members of this committee as well as specialists from different regions were made responsible for creating subsets of the BCC. At the Seventh International Barley Genetics Symposium (Saskatoon, 8 Gass, T., G. Kleijer, M. Waldman and E. Frison, editors. 1995 A discussion document prepared by the task force is included as Appendix II of this report. Canada, 1996), the status of the BCC was presented. 11 Some parts of the BCC are ready for distribution to the four active BCC centres. The European part of the BCC was handed over to IPK for initial multiplication; IPK also received 380 East Asiatic accessions belonging to the BCC. Other subcoordinators reported that they are well on the way. A paper giving some background information about the BCC has been published elsewhere. 12 The BCC will be an important tool in the standardization of research on barley. 13Ahmed Jahoor indicated that the national research centre (National Laboratory Risø, Denmark) has a long tradition for the evaluation of genetic material for different biotic and abiotic stresses. Many different disease resistances have been identified for wild barley. The sources have been incorporated to enlarge genetic polymorphism in cultivars. Roland von Bothmer gave a presentation about the importance of conserving wild barley genetic resources and about their potential utilization. He reminded the Group how timeconsuming, laborious and costly it is to utilize exotic germplasm in conventional breeding programmes. For this reason practical breeders are reluctant to use these gene sources. This leads to an increasing gap between genebanks and the breeding industry. However, public sector resources should be invested in the organization of pre-breeding programmes in order to broaden the genetic base of the crop and in this way act as an interface between genebanks and the practical breeding. • Encourage national programmes to increase their efforts in the conservation, evaluation and utilization of wild barley species • Encourage the further development of breeding techniques for wide crosses in barley together with pre-breeding programmes to improve utilization of the extended genepools • In the case of H. spontaneum (and barley landraces), this could be achieved through initiation of composite cross programmes ('dynamic genepools') • Hordeum spontaneum (together with barley landraces) should also be the main object of evaluation in the new EU project proposal (see above).For the first part of the sixth session the Group moved to IPK-Gatersleben where it was welcomed by Prof. Ulrich Wobus, Director of the Institute. Prof. Wobus presented IPK's objectives, the role the Genebank plays within the overall structure of the Institute and the new focus on the development and application of molecular techniques. The Group was also provided with a short visit to IPK's genebank facilities, guided by K. Hammer.Andreas Graner presented the IPK Plant Genome Resources Centre (PGRC), a platform for the generation of biological resources and the development and application of DNAtechnology. Its major goal is to maintain and provide biological resources such as probe repositories, DNA libraries and mapping populations together with the appropriate technology including the development of molecular markers, the refinement and application of megabase technologies for map-based cloning, and the production of transgenic plants. Research activities at the PGRC mainly concentrate on cereals, particularly barley, mainly because its cultivated form (Hordeum vulgare L.) and its wild ancestor (Hordeum spontaneum ) represent one of the major collections of the Genebank comprising more than 12 000 accessions. The integrated structure of the PGRC will facilitate genetic research extending from the analysis of a phenotypic trait to the isolation of the corresponding gene. The close interaction with plant breeders will facilitate a rapid transfer of know-how and technology and provide new avenues to access barley germplasm maintained at the Gene Bank for genetic studies and breeding purposes.Helmut Knüpffer presented two databases searchable on-line. A prototype of the European Barley Database <http://www.dainet.de/eccdb/barley> was made searchable on-line by ZADI, in close cooperation with the EBDB managers, before the ZADI-ECP/GR Workshop on Central Crop Databases (Bonn, June 1997). It allows searching for many descriptors, and some of its search functions were demonstrated. The prototype contains only about 30 000 accessions. When the update of the EBDB is finished (September 1997), the full database will be forwarded to ZADI. Some remarks of users concerning the appearance of query results will be taken into consideration when re-designing the WWW database. For example, coded information should not appear as output. The on-line EBDB is linked with the ECP/GR information platform <http://www.cgiar.org/ecpgr/platform/Index.htm>.Another presentation was devoted to the passport database server of IPK's genebank <http://fox-serv.ipk-gatersleben.de> which was developed by two computer-science students from the Leipzig University. 14 Selected descriptors from IPK's passport database can be retrieved for about 84 000 accessions of the genebank. There are three search possibilities: (1) for accession numbers; (2) for scientific names and/or countries of origin; (3) flexible search -combined search for up to four descriptors to be chosen from a total of 15 searchable descriptors, with the possibility of using wildcards for search strings. The output format for the search results is rather compact. Particular attention was paid to proper handling of characters with diacritical marks. The possibility of downloading the results of the actual search was a novel feature for plant genetic resources databases. This database is increasingly being used as a basis for requesting accessions. 15Siegfried Harrer informed about a project named EVA, Information system for evaluation data of plant genetic resources. This is a cooperative project involving four German institutions. EVA aims at making evaluation and characterization data of barley (and fruit trees and potatoes) available in a centralized German information system. The project partners are: the Centre for Agricultural Documentation and Information (ZADI) in Bonn as overall coordinator and information system developer, the genebank of the Institut für Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung (IPK) in Gatersleben and its branch stations for fruit trees and potatoes, the Institute for Epidemiology and Resistance (IfEu/R) of the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ) in Aschersleben, and the Biometrics and Data Processing Group of the Institute of Crop Science of the University of Halle-Wittenberg in Bad Lauchstädt. The genebank of the BAZ in Braunschweig is an associated partner.14 Knüpffer, H. 1997 The WWW server for passport data has been accessed approximately 430 times per month between March 1997 and December 1998, among them 77% from outside IPK. About 21% of the seed requests for genebank accessions were based on previous database searches by the requesters.EVA will be an on-line database with worldwide access via Internet. Different data sources will be combined in the system, and links established to other relevant data (e.g. literature, research projects, etc.). Most of the evaluation data relevant for the project have to be registered electronically.IPK-Gatersleben contributes observation, characterization and evaluation data of its more than 12 000 accessions of barley. IfEu/R-Aschersleben is responsible for recording detailed race-specific resistance data of IPK's barley accessions. The BAZ genebank in Braunschweig contributes computerized data of about 7500 barley accessions. Data from official barley performance trials are being made available by the group from the Halle University. Also the re-analysis of performance trials and the development of statistical procedures for combining and evaluating all data will be done there.The project started in May 1996 and is funded by the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry.Prof. M. Neumann, Director of the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Crops (BAZ) welcomed the Group to the Head Office of this centre in Quedlinburg, where the second part of the sixth session of the meeting was held. Prof. Neumann presented the Centre, its objectives and structure. The Centre was established in 1992 as part of the research sector of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry. It includes ten institutes as well as the Genebank in Braunschweig. BAZ produces the scientific basis to aid political and administrative decisions by the Ministry of Agriculture and promotes the agricultural policy for an ecologically compatible and sustainable agriculture. BAZ also supports private plant breeders through the development of new methods and by providing plant breeding material.Ursula Walther reported about the evaluation work for disease resistance on the barley collection of IPK's genebank carried out by herself and her colleagues during three decades, before and after the establishment of the BAZ in 1992. Before 1991, in research institutions of the former Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the GDR, many accessions of the barley collection were tested for race-specific resistance to a number of diseases, such as mildew, leaf rust, stripe rust, net blotch, barley yellow mosaic viruses and barley yellow dwarf virus. For some of these diseases, several thousand accessions were tested, resulting in accessions with different field-and race-specific resistances. At present this work is being carried out for viruses (BYDV, BaMMV, BaYMV-1, BaYMV-2), fungi [Puccinia hordei Otth., Pyrenophora teres (Sacc.) Drechs., Puccinia striiformis West., Erysiphe graminis DC.] and aphids [Rhopalosiphum padi L., Sitobion avenae F., Metopolophium dirhodum (Walker), Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch)]. Results of evaluation are given in detail in Part II of this Report (p. 93).The Barley Working Group has been successful in bringing together scientific and technical expertise in genetic resources throughout Europe as a region. The forum has proved useful at the practical level for sharing information, development of common work programmes and coordination of a number of joint projects. The development of the EBDB has been an important exercise in centralizing and standardizing information on barley and in improving access and awareness of barley genetic resources. The Group's contribution to the development of the Barley Core Collection, particularly relating to European accessions, will continue with the initiation of evaluation of the material for winterhardiness in the Czech Republic. This will add to the identification and utilization of useful traits as well as extending the data and value of the collection.Both the EBDB and Core Collection initiatives have raised awareness within the group of successes and difficulties and the necessity of shared responsibilities. The Group supports the initiative of sharing responsibilities and is actively involved in contributing to these discussions.The Group will increase its focus on the conservation and evaluation of wild relatives of cultivated barley, in particular H. spontaneum and H. bulbosum, with reference to biotic and abiotic stresses. The Group will strongly promote the importance of pre-breeding efforts in improving access and utilization of these diverse genepools.The primary objective of the Group remains the completion of the EBDB and its use in addressing questions related to identification of duplicates, primary country holdings and gaps in collection. If personnel capacities become available, the EBDB will also be extended by developing links to available evaluation data.The Group therefore strongly recommends the continuation of the Barley Working Group in order to complete the work it has started and realize the potential from these developments in terms of genetic resources management and their utilization.The draft report was presented to the Group and adopted with some modifications.Roland von Bothmer was elected Chair until the end of the next Barley Working Group meeting.Karl Hammer thanked the Group and IPGRI for their input in the meeting and throughout his time as Chair of the Group. R. von Bothmer, on behalf of the Group, expressed his thanks to the local organizing committee for the warm hospitality and the selection of a lovely and peaceful venue for the meeting. He also expressed his sincere thanks to K. Hammer for his achievements on behalf of the Barley Working Group.The first version of the European Barley Database was built up by the Genebank of IPK Gatersleben from 1984 to 1987 (Knüpffer 1988). Meetings of the ECP/GR Barley Working Group (held in Gatersleben in 1983, 1986, 1989and 1993) formulated its objectives, and status reports were given (e.g. Anonymous 1986;Knüpffer 1989aKnüpffer , 1993)). In 1987 a catalogue, the European Barley List (EBL), was published (Knüpffer 1987). An international meeting of barley database managers organized by IBPGR was held in Gatersleben in 1993 to investigate the possibilities of creating an international barley database.Owing to the large size and number of European barley collections, and based on previous experience, it was expected that the establishment of a second, completely new version of the EBDB would be time-consuming, and, therefore, would require a full-time database manager, at least for a certain period. Attempts to obtain an EU project grant for this failed 16 and IPK kindly provided funds to hire a specialist for six months (April-September 1997) to create the new EBDB. The first achievements were presented at the Fifth Meeting of the ECP/GR Barley Working Group. The work was continued until September 1997.In 1988 and 1989, extensive work was carried out to identify possible duplicates within the EBDB, using the so-called KWIC (key word in context) index approach, details of which are given by Knüpffer (1988). A large number of potential duplicates was identified, based on identical or similar accession names, numbers, etc. The approach also allowed duplicates such as 'Weibulls Herta' and 'Herta' to be found. This resulted in a tentative grouping of accessions into \"duplicate groups\". The approach was further elaborated by van Hintum and Knüpffer (1995).The Working Group considered in 1989 that for verifying and refining the duplicate groups of named accessions, experts from different countries would have to be involved. The aim was, for cultivars released after 1950, to identify two or three \"most original\" accessions representing each group.No efforts have been made so far to identify duplicates in the new version of the EBDB. The duplicate groupings identified in version 1 could be transferred to version 2, as a starting point. Continuation of these activities is planned within the EU project mentioned.In 1989 the Working Group recommended to update the EBDB every three years. EBDB extracts should be sent to contributing genebanks for corrections and additions. It was hoped that this would enable curators to improve their own documentation systems.Furthermore, the group recommended to include additional descriptors for cultivars, such as Year of Registration and/or Year of Release. This would add to the EBDB some 16 Updating the EBDB and inclusion of characterization and evaluation data is part of the resubmitted EU project GENRES CT98-104 which is expected to start in April 1999 (see Part I, p. 6).functions of a variety register. It would justify requesting data from existing variety registers for barley. Principal attribute was also considered important.The first version of the EBDB was sent in electronic form to many users on request, especially after the 1989 meeting and the Sixth Barley Genetics Symposium in 1991. Other users requested the printed catalogue (now out of stock), or specific selections from the database. A prototype of the second version, including data from three institutions, was made searchable on-line in cooperation with ZADI: <http://www.dainet.de/ecpgr/barley>.There was some feedback from users of the EBDB and the EBL who reported that they used it to locate genebanks keeping desired material, or to improve their own documentation system by comparing their data with those for the same accessions from other collections represented in the EBDB. A few users also reported on errors which they had detected in the EBDB.Following the recommendation of the 1989 group meeting, information about the EBDB was published in different journals and newsletters (Barley Newsletter, Rachis, see Knüpffer 1989bKnüpffer , 1990aKnüpffer , 1990b)), and presented at conferences (Knüpffer 1991a(Knüpffer , 1991b)).During the first half of 1997, 91 institutions from 34 countries in Europe and Israel dealing with barley genetic resources (based on an address list provided by ECP/GR) and holding a total of about 157 000 barley accessions, as well as those which had contributed to the first version of the EBDB, were approached by letter, fax and email. By 30 September 1997, 36 institutions from 25 countries had sent their data (Table 1). A breakdown of contributing institutions with number of accessions is given in Table 2. The last column gives a comparison with the first version of the database (1987). It can be seen that some important institutions which had participated in the first EBDB did not send their data in 1997 (Table 3). Some contributions were not yet included in the database because they arrived too late (just before or after end of September 1997), or because requests for clarifications of questions remained unanswered. The completeness of the data provided by different donors and the original structures varied. Managers of different Central Crop Databases reported in detail about this fact elsewhere. Part of the data were received in a structure based on the Multicrop Passport Descriptors, others used their own descriptor system. Among the different formats there were DBF tables, EXCEL spreadsheets, tables or plain text in ASCII or in word-processor formats. Most of the descriptors, as far as they belonged to passport or the \"barley-specific additional descriptors\" as defined in Appendix I, were transferred to the EBDB. Some contributions contained data which were difficult to interpret, or were in local languages, or belonged to descriptors initially not included in the EBDB. This needs further investigations. Table 4 gives an overview of the descriptors in the present version of the database, with reference to the barley descriptors.The species composition of barley accessions represented in the EBDB is given in Table 5. No attempt was made to standardize the species concepts used by different donors of data. In addition, the species composition is heavily biased towards cultivated barleys because at least two important wild species collections are not yet included, namely the Scandinavian Hordeum Collection, and the wild species collection of the Vavilov Institute, St. Petersburg, which has not been computerized at all. Infraspecific names at different levels (subspecies, convarietas, varietas) are given for 28 868 accessions, among them only 392 accessions of wild species. After modest standardization of infraspecific names provided (standardization of spelling, author abbreviations, capitalization), there seem to be 33 different infraspecific taxa in wild species and 238 in Hordeum vulgare. Some may turn out to be synonyms of others. Barley taxonomic expertise was not available at the time of compiling the database.The most frequently represented countries of origin are given in Table 6. The table lists 58 countries with at least 200 accessions. In total there are 127 different country acronyms, including some needing further clarification from the data donors. According to the seasonality, there are 44 456 spring and 12 874 winter barleys, 2120 intermediate forms and 90 perennials; 29 083 records do not contain seasonality information, and 373 accessions have other states. Other descriptors, such as Collecting Source, Status of Sample, Row Number, or Kernel Covering, have too few values, and therefore an analysis would not make much sense. It is necessary to further develop the EBDB as a tool to identify duplicates, support decisionmaking concerning safety-duplication of unique material, identify gaps in the collections and make information on European barley holdings, and thus the material itself, better available to the diverse user community. This involves inclusion of data from further institutions and extension by addition of characterization and evaluation descriptors. Identification of duplicates should be carried out as far as possible on a worldwide scale, in order to avoid duplication of efforts between Europe and large non-European collections. The development of the EBDB into an international database is desirable.The Austrian ex situ barley collection, maintained by the three genebanks in Vienna, Linz and Rinn comprises 905 accessions in total (786 spring types, 119 winter types). This includes 329 accessions of landraces and 576 of cultivars (160 accessions of Austrian-bred cultivars and 166 of German-bred cultivars).We will concentrate here on the landraces since this material is unique and not represented in other collections. The comparison of the reports given by different authors shows the development of the barley landraces over the last 150 years (Table 1). The first exact descriptions have existed since the early 1930s, when local material was collected for plant breeding purposes. At the same time the first Austrian ex situ collection was established by Mayr in Rinn, Tyrol, comprising landraces from the Alpine region. In the Subalpine region Werneck was collecting; a few accessions of his collection were recently found by chance and are now being germinated.While in the Subalpine region of Lower Austria and Upper Austria the six-row barley and two-row barley with triangular ears were lost at the beginning of this century (Werneck reports six-row barley only spread between four-row barley), in Tyrol Mayr could find and collect them. These types are still in our collections today, as Pumper and Fisser barley. The question is whether these six-row and triangular types of the Alps are identical with those previously reported in the Subalpine region. The theory of variety replacement, as developed on wheat landraces (Schachl 1975) implies that older varieties are replaced by newer ones, and pushed down from the intensive lowlands into the extensive mountainous areas, almost following a ring distribution like the waves in a pool (Fig. 1).Transferring this theory to barley, it can be expected that the Tyrolian types are related to a certain extent to those of the Subalpine region and Danube valley. In this context it might be more correct to talk of groups of landraces consisting of a number of local races with genetic affinity.We should also consider the spreading mechanism of landraces. Landraces, assuming they are adaptable to a large scale, start from a certain area where they have developed their distinctive properties influenced by farmers' mass selection. Spreading follows along the socalled 'oxen-roads', traditional communication lines exchanging agricultural commodities. These communications are little influenced by borders; such borders did not exist within the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and the Inn river between Austria and Bavaria never hampered cultural and kinship relations. The example of accessions BVAL 353018 and 353019, called 'dowry barley', illustrates that landraces were even given as marriage dowry and this way could be transferred over long distances, in some cases more than 70 km, a rather big distance in the 1920s.To what extent can we expect genetic variation in landraces? Landraces previously collected and maintained in genebanks, e.g. in Rinn as well, show high uniformity. Without doubt, one reason can be that originally the material was maintained in genebanks with the aim of plant breeding to make the accessions uniform without taking care of their variability. Referring to the wheat landraces again, but also studying the barley landraces, we found in the early 1970s that they still contain some variability, but that this variability is much less than would be expected, and in any case not comparable with the variation found in a gene centre. The reason for this may be seen on one hand in the previously mentioned mass selection, constantly applied for decades, and on the other hand in the pressure of natural selection getting increasingly stronger with altitude when a landrace migrates deeper into the Alps valleys. Besides, certain events also contribute to reduction of genetic variability. In the second half of the last century, in Bavaria and Western Austria almost all barley landraces were eliminated by catastrophic mildew epidemics; this might also explain the genetic relationship between the local races representing the landraces group. Again in 1926 and 1927, heavy hailstorms damaged the landraces in this region. Farmers did not rebuild their landraces from the surviving plants, but replaced them with cultivars and landraces from other regions, namely Franconia and the Salzburgian Lungau.With the beginning of plant breeding activities (Pammer 1905-08), special attention was paid to the two-row nutans types, such as the 'Böhmerwaldgerste' originating from the area along the Bohemian forest, and the 'Hannagerste', a landrace from Moravia. Whereas the Böhmerwald barley spread into the Danube Valley and formed the basis for the cultivars 'Otterbacher Gerste' and 'Bavaria Gerste', the latter was largely introduced into the European plant breeding programmes.  Himalaya barley, a naked type, can be traced in reports from Styria back to 1828 and is mentioned as identical with the 'Phönix barley' offered around Berlin about 1850. Naked barley did not seem to be of importance for the lower regions like the Danube valley and was not mentioned by the early authors. Only Werneck reports its existence in the mountains but he and Burggasser were no longer able to find it. An accession of Himalaya barley maintained by the Technical University of Munich did not prove identical with that naked type found by Mayr and presently known as 'Tuxer barley' in our collections.During an evaluation tour organized recently, landraces could no longer be found in the periphery of the Subalpine region where they still existed at the beginning of the 1970s. Considering the results obtained in the past with plant breeding, the reintroduction in situ barley landraces conserved ex situ, for the sake of a wider biodiversity, is reasonable only when a high level of adaptation to specific environments (climate, soil, production requirements, etc.) is needed.The basic collection of barley can be found in IPGR-Sadovo with a total number of 5120 accessions. This includes a working collection of 1425 accessions which originate from Ethiopia.There are small collections in the Institute of Barley in Karnobat and in the Agricultural Institute in Plovdiv, mainly selection lines Over 3000 accessions are documented for the following characters: morphological (27), biological (5), chemical and technological (3) and a small part of the accessions are documented for 4 characters.In general the agronomic evaluation of the accessions has been carried out for two years. Accessions that have already shown high economic qualities are still being examined in microexperiments (comparative selection experiments). The last stage is the collection based on qualitative characters. Each year, from 30 to 40 accessions pass through that examination and in the last stage there are about 14-15 accessions left.After receiving the necessary number of seeds (about 150 g) from a seed probe, accessions are deposited in the Genebank of the Institute under the following conditions:• long-term storage: -18• °C, humidity not controlled, dried seeds packed in laminated foil bags and glass jars • medium-term storage: 6• °C and 50% relative humidity, seeds packed in paper bags; seed dried to 6-7% moisture content.Classification of the accessions of the barley collection in IPGR-Sadovo according to donor country is shown in Table 1. Germany has the highest number of accessions (1311), followed by Czechoslovakia, USA, Hungary, etc. About 475 accessions have an undefined origin. There are about 39 Bulgarian varieties, 10-15 of which are modern varieties. The 3695 accessions in long-term storage are: varieties (1964), populations or local varieties (384), research material (885), wild relatives (7), not defined (455).Accessions are also classified according to their growth habit: 994 winter, 1013 spring, 111 facultative, 1577 undefined. They are also distributed into:• the XIX group -two-row, represented by about 1083 accessions.• the XX group -multi-row (six-row and intermediate), about 1946 accessions.• not defined: 466 accessions.In the collection, naked-grain accessions have been also studied. They are of interest to breeders because of their high protein contents (17-18%) and their lysin content in raw protein over 4%. Two standards are used for the evaluation of the accessions:• for the multi-row, the Bulgarian variety 'Hemus' and the French variety 'Plaisant'• for the two-row, the variety 'Alpha'. The German variety 'Alexis' is the standard for the spring forms.The species of wild barley that occur in Bulgaria are shown in Table 2.In 1996, 60 barley accessions were transferred from IPGR-Sadovo to the Institute of Barley in Karnobat and the Agricultural Institute in Plovdiv, and 25 Bulgarian varieties were sent abroad to the Agricultural Institute Osijek in Croatia and the Australian Winter Cereals Collection.Varieties grown in Bulgaria include: 11 Bulgarian varieties and one French variety 'Plaisant' (Table 3). • To continue collecting, evaluation of the whole collection, regeneration of some accessions and data computerization.• To find a sponsor for the publication of a catalogue of the first 2000 barley accessions.• To continue contacts for joint work with the Institute of Barley in Karnobat, the Agricultural Institute in Plovdiv and the Institute of Beer in Sofia.Activities in the field of barley breeding in Croatia date back to the beginning of this century. They began with the collecting of initial breeding material of domestic and foreign origin (Germany, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, USA, etc.) at the Faculty of Agronomy Zagreb (Academician Aloiz Tav¹ar), at the Brestovac Plant Breeding Station in the eastern part of Croatia (Baranja), which was located only a few kilometers from Osijek and was established in 1922 (Šeput et al. 1995), and at the Osijek Agricultural Institute (Prof. Dr Mato Valen¹iº).The important variety of two-row winter barley in Croatia was 'Maksimirski 45' which was created at the Faculty of Agronomy Zagreb by Aloiz Tav¹ar. Afterwards, the varieties of two-row winter barley 'Satir', 'Mursa' and 'Alkar' (Valen¹iº 1973a(Valen¹iº , 1973b;;Valen¹iº and Ma»ariº 1973), and the varieties of two-row spring barley 'Velebit' and 'Jaran', were created at the Osijek Agricultural Institute and registered in 1970Institute and registered in , 1972Institute and registered in , 1973Institute and registered in , 1977Institute and registered in and 1983, respectively. , respectively. The old variety of two-row spring barley 'Belje 607' was selected from the domestic landrace, which was grown at the beginning of this century in the east of Croatia (Baranja) at the Brestovac Plant Breeding Station. This variety of two-row spring barley had an important role in the origin of two-row winter barley varieties ('Mursa' and 'Alkar') and the other newer two-row winter barley varieties ('Pan', 'Sladoran', 'Rodnik', 'Rex',' David', etc.) and sixrow winter barley varieties ('Baranjac' and 'Podravac') (Table 1). This old variety also had an important role in the spring barley breeding programme at the Osijek Agricultural Institute.For the European collection and barley breeding, the Dalmatian barley population (Croatia) had an important role. A variety of two-row spring barley was selected by German breeders in 1929 near the Croatian town of Dubrovnik, on the Adriatic sea, formerly known as Ragusium. The name of this variety is 'Ragusa' (Baumer, pers. comm.). Now, the Osijek Agricultural Institute has winter and spring barley collections, which contain 266 varieties and lines of winter barley and 451 varieties and lines of spring barley. However, only 38 varieties and lines of winter barley and 65 varieties and lines of spring barley have a Croatian origin (created by the Osijek Agricultural Institute).We cannot guarantee the genetic purity, especially in the older samples of our barley collection, but we can guarantee it in the younger samples of our barley collection, which are presented in Table 1. Owing to the lack of adequate storage space, this material is being continuously multiplied.All the new buildings of the Osijek Agricultural Institute were completely destroyed during the war in Croatia and long-term storage of seed samples is impossible. Now, we can expect that the national plant genetic resources could benefit from the FAO Global System, through the strengthening of national capacities for collecting, conservation and utilization of local germplasm (Sikora 1994).The barley varieties (spring and winter) of Croatian origin are well-known in the region for their high genetic potential for grain yield, short and strong stem, high resistance to lodging and good resistance and tolerance to the most important diseases (Kova ¹eviº et al. 1995). Cyprus with its limited human resources has made considerable progress in collecting germplasm of local landraces of barley, in collecting and evaluating wild barley germplasm, and finally using it in breeding programmes aiming at developing improved barley cultivars for drylands. A brief account of this work is given below, together with available references.Detailed lists of material stored in the Gene Bank of the Institute have been provided by A. Della to H. Knupffer for presentation at this meeting. In all, the Institute holds 26 accessions of barley collected in 1978 and 3354 inbred lines (progenies of single spikes collected during regeneration of the 26 accessions).Landraces played an important role in Cyprus, as feed and food sources for thousands of years. Our ancestors have selected valuable genetic material which was evaluated during 1989-92 with improved recently selected varieties (Hadjichristodoulou 1993b(Hadjichristodoulou , 1994a)). It was concluded that this material does not have any undesirable traits and can be used in breeding programmes for adaptation to dry and hot Mediterranean climates. The landraces are stored in the ARI Gene Bank of Cyprus.The subsp. agriocrithon lines originated from natural crosses between subsp. vulgare and subsp. spontaneum and were subjected only to natural selection. They are six-row, tough rachis genotypes resembling wild barley. Selected genotypes from the natural hybrids gave grain yields approaching those of the best genotypes selected by scientists (Hadjichristodoulou 1994a). These naturally bred genotypes expressed valuable measurable traits, such as 1000-grain weight, crude protein content, volume weight, lodging and disease resistance, which could be used in breeding programmes. Furthermore, non-visible gene complexes for adaptation to moisture, heat and other stresses that are present in natural hybrids could be exploited by breeding. The natural hybrids apparently contributed towards maintaining genes present in landraces that became extinct long time ago.Selected germplasm of H. spontaneum subsp. spontaneum and subsp. agriocrithon, and also landraces, were used successfully in crosses with improved barley cultivars in Cyprus and the results have been published (Hadjichristodoulou 1993a(Hadjichristodoulou , 1993b)). More recent data of selection from a cross with wild barley (H. spontaneum subsp. spontaneum) demonstrate the usufulness of such crosses. 'Trachonas', selected from a cross with wild barley, outyielded the improved breeding line 'Lefkonoico' and the improved cultivars 'Athenais' and 'Kantara' (Table 1). Earliness, spike fertility (number of grains per spike) and volume weight were among the traits for which 'Trachonas' was superior to cultivars. The mean grain yield superiority of 'Trachonas' over 'Athenais' was improved by 29% and 1000-grain weight was lower, but in an extremely dry environment, 'Trachonas' outyielded 'Athenais' by almost 100% and the size of its grains was equal to that of 'Athenais'. Thus, this is an indirect indication that hidden non-measurable genes in the wild barley incorporated into improved cultivars could improve their performance, particularly under stress conditions. Permanent pastures were successfully established with mixtures of bulks of crosses of Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare with subsp. agriocrithon (given the name 'Mia Milia') and with mixtures of natural crosses involving H. vulgare subsp. agrioctithon (given the name 'Akhera'). These crosses were made to exploit the brittle rachis gene of wild barley in order to develop self-reseeding pasture barley (Hadjichristodoulou 1994b(Hadjichristodoulou , 1995)).No reseeding of the pasture was necessary but a light cultivation to cover the seed in the first year of sowing improved plant establishment. No cultivation was necessary in the following years. Genotypes with a tough rachis were rapidly eliminated from the 'Milia' pastures (F 2 bulks) because of their poor seed dispersal. Nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer increased dry matter yield. Levels of seed dormancy in the wild barley were adequate to provide a safeguard against extreme dry weather conditions and other natural hazards. Forage quality was very high, with a crude protein content of 18% and digestible organic matter of 80% in harvested dry matter. Permanent barley pastures that exploit the brittlerachis gene of indigenous genetic material have considerable potential for increasing the animal-carrying capacity of permanent pastures and marginal cropped lands.Agricultural Research Institute KromAEéíû, Ltd., Czech RepublicThe major objectives of the collection are to obtain new accessions, and study their characteristics, effective utilization and maintenance.Activities are carried out in the framework of the Czech National Programme for the conservation and utilization of plant genepools.The collection is maintained at the Agricultural Research Institute KromAEéíû, Ltd. It includes 2465 accessions, 69 varieties and 3 botanical species of Hordeum from 70 countries.  1974 1984 1990 1994 1995 1996 1997 Surface area ('000 ha) The French barley national collection: present status and organizationINRA, Amélioration des Plantes, Clermont-Ferrand, FranceThe composition of the French Barley Collection was established for the first time at the beginning of 1997 as defined in the frame of the Cereal Genetic Resources Programme developed since 1983 in France. This collection comprises at present 467 entries (i.e. much less than the corresponding bread wheat list of 1968 entries). In the present situation this collection is intended to concern:1. Old barley land varieties from France (in practice pure lines extracted from the original multiline populations): 78 accessions. 2. Barley cultivars previously marketed and registered on the French Official Catalogue of Cultivated Species which have been bred in France, and which had been struck off this Catalogue: 201 accessions. 3. Breeder's lines from France, with the agreement of their originator, and recognized worth to be included: 171 accessions. 4. Special barley material from scientific programmes in France, e.g. Induced mutants, cytogenetics material, lines derived from interspecific crosses and/or carrying identified alleles (17 accessions only, to date).The everyday management of this collection is organized by the Cereal Genetic Resources Unit, under the present responsibility of Annick Le Blanc (GEVES-Le Magneraud, France) (also for other cereals).A scientific steering committee has defined an appropriate series of rules and specifications, which serve as operation guidelines for the management unit; this committee observes in addition the cereal genetic resources actions carried out in France. To exemplify briefly some of these rules:1. Composition (see above). 2. Conservation standards (quantity, environmental conditions, germination tests, duplication). 3. Sharing of responsibilities for conservation, as much as possible: every originator (in general a breeding company or institution) of a given material is requested to maintain properly the barley genetic resources he created. Otherwise the conservation is ensured at GEVES, INRA or by other organizations. Measures are taken to prevent the loss of entries in case one or other curator can no longer fulfil his task. The aim is to associate concretely every partner or user concerned with barley genetic resources as much as possible. The various curators are encouraged to participate, in particular to make suggestions as to the inclusion of new accessions (including the extended list of the network mentioned below), or potential non-inclusion or even suppression of some lines. 4. Access by and exchanges with other organizations, in particular foreign genebanks: the principle is free access, on a reciprocity basis.A National Cereal Genetic Resources database, using ERGE, a Microsoft-Access application written by A. Le Blanc, is managed and regularly updated by the GEVES management unit at Le Magneraud. This database is unified for all small grain species, with a corresponding index code, unique for each cereal entry, irrespective of its species. After checking and approval by the community of organizations and companies interested in barley genetic resources, a Catalogue of the French National Barley Collection is issued. This document should be issued by end July 1997 (Le Blanc 1997); it comprises also the Bread Wheat Collection list. A further issue should include the other species for which work is in progress: durum wheat, oats, rye and triticale.The organization of this database should be basically the same as for the European Wheat Database (EWDB) (Le Blanc and Faberová 1997), and is the same as the INRA Cereal Genetic Resources Database using the ERGE application, and other barley or cereal curators of the French network are strongly advised to adopt the same system.The 467 accessions listed in the Catalogue are documented with the main passport data, including the pedigree whenever possible. No agronomic evaluation data, gene information -apart indirectly from winter vs. spring habit, two-row vs. six-row and naked vs. hulled kernel-or principal attributes have been considered for the present issue.An Internet access will be scheduled as soon as the appropriate support is available. At present, any request may be addressed by email to A. Le Blanc (annick.leblanc@geves.fr).For practical reasons and for internal use within the French genetic resources network only, it has been felt necessary or useful to append a complementary list of genotypes to the Barley collection list -which nevertheless does not form a part of the latter. This complementary set comprises:• marketed cultivars originating from France, still registered, with the aim to prepare their later fully documented introduction in the national collection, as soon as they will have been crossed off from the Official Catalogue of registered and marketed cultivars • some foreign entries which either have been registered and widely cultivated in France and then serve as reference for comparisons in networks, or have been widely used as parents in crosses or standard controls for diseases and pests. In the first case their conservation is generally granted abroad, but it is convenient to have information at hand. In the latter case, the accession is not either claimed to belong to the national list, however it may seem safer to ensure its conservation whenever it is not granted that this is done somewhere abroad. • barley material which has been collected by French expeditions or travellers, in particular from Nepal, Ethiopia and Northern Africa, and conserved in local collections since.This series is not published with the national collection, but the accessions are present in a local collection or another -especially in INRA collections -where information can be requested.The Cereal Genetic Resources Network The cereal genetic resources programme in France is run as a network associating all potential organizations interested, or users via their representatives. These include in particular:• the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries• BRG (Bureau des ressources génétiques) -an office depending on the Ministry of Research and Industry, in charge of the policies for genetic resources (wild and domesticated, plant, animal, fungi, etc.) and of genetic diversity conservation • GEVES (Groupe d'étude et de contrôle des variétés et des semences) -in charge of plant variety testing for registration)• INRA (Institut national de la recherche agronomique) -state-funded agricultural research institute (Lefort and Doussinault 1994) • SPSS (Syndicat des producteurs de semences sélectionnées) -union of the French private breeding companies • CTPS (Comité technique permanent de la sélection des plantes cultivées) -plant registration advising committee • ONIC (Office national interprofessionnel des céréales) -national office for cereal production • GNIS (Groupement national interprofessionnel des semences, graines et plants) -seed producers union.In this way, the programmes carried out meet more easily the requests of the interested groups, including priorities, research actions, support for financing.This structure appears both decentralized and cooperative. However the tasks usually devoted to a formal genebank are shared in practice between GEVES and INRA (Jestin et al. 1994), with some delegation to breeding companies as seen above, under the coordination and attention of the cereal genetic resources management unit.As well as the coordination of cereal collections and databases, the network is active in two other fields: implementation of multisite cereal resources evaluation networks, and involvement in international cooperation.These nurseries comprise 50-100 entries for each crop, of which 20-35% are reference controls for various traits. They have been sown every year since 1989 for winter barley and winter wheat and despatched by the Cereal Genetic Resources management unit (A. Le Blanc). For spring barley, new sets are distributed every two years only. In 1996-97, for instance, the winter barley series RGOH97 18 comprising 51 genotypes (of which 17 were controls) was hosted by 22 participants -16 private companies and 6 public institutions; some installed this nursery in two or three sites, in particular with regard to yellow mosaic free conditions, or soil infectious for Y1 or Y2 of this virus disease.The standard and basic nursery design is a bed, with three consecutive rows per genotype; when feasible, a total of two replications is recommended. For diseases, only degree of apparent resistance vs. susceptibility scorings after natural infection are recorded, although a more accurate evaluation with artificial infections in one site, for major foliar diseases, would be desirable in the future.The purposes of such multisite nurseries, covering fairly well the French territory (except in the southeast) are:• To give a rapid access to novel germplasm, potentially useful for research or commercial breeding. These include notably INRA material or from other participants incorporating disease resistance genes or adaptation traits. For instance the German variety 'Borwina' displayed a high resistance level to frost in a well-adapted general background and was incorporated therefore in our frost-resistance scale (controls); for yellow mosaic, a number of resistant Japanese varieties were crossed with European progenies, and some lines associating BaYMV resistance with a better overall adaptation than the original resistance source were circulated and evaluated. • To carry out agronomic evaluations, serving to document these accessions, in particular in the database. Most participants can contribute every year with at least one or two scorings (trivial observations for highly heritable characters already studied, such as plant height, number of rows, growth habit, earliness, etc. are not requested). Grain yield is not estimated, at this stage, it is considered sufficient to have a visual appreciation of the adaptation level, in 3-4 classes, from entries equal or superior to current standards to those visibly not adapted and yielding 50% or less of the controls.No testing for utilization quality is performed on barley on these series, as is the case for bread wheat.One or two years of pre-evaluation, in an INRA nursery, is carried out before proposing any entry in the multisite evaluation nursery. Fully unadapted genotypes, e.g. very susceptible to lodging, extremely susceptible to a local disease, etc. are discarded from the beginning and may eventually be crossed in a pre-breeding programme before circulating acceptable or near-acceptable recombined progenies incorporating the desired trait.A brief report summarizing the multisite data recorded is then circulated in autumn among the participants.Alterations likely to improve the efficiency of such nurseries and the satisfaction of the contributors are regularly discussed by the cereal genetic resources steering committee.Cooperation on barley genetic resources concerns at once regular exchanges of evaluation nurseries. These are carried out in the frame of the national programme, where INRA laboratories generally observe nurseries, although not always: CIMMYT or ICARDA nurseries are often studied by several breeders.For many years, a European Barley Disease Nursery (EBDN), with chiefly spring barley, was organized yearly by the former SVP in Wageningen (The Netherlands) and two or three INRA stations participated in this network. In the last years, the genotypes included did not change much, but this network represented a useful opportunity to test new resistance sources, to be informed quickly and on a broad base of the collapse of such resistance. So this EBDN was missed, although the material included often needed more than one selection cycle to reach commercial material standards. A similar winter European Nursery was run for some years by the Technical University of Munich (Germany) by E. Schwarzbach and collaborators, bringing in particular powdery mildew resistance especially recommended for a coordinated use within European breeding programmes.At present the INRA Genetics and Breeding Station in Clermont-Ferrand still participates in some evaluation nurseries from abroad:• CIMMYT International Barley Observation Nursery (IBON) (irregularly)• MTS (Mehltausortiment) and ZTS (Zwergrostsortiment) spring barley nurseries for powdery mildew and brown rust from IPK Gatersleben/BAZ Aschersleben.The French RGOH nursery is also being observed in Belgium for the two Y1 and Y2 BaYMV pathotypes. Other cooperation involves tentative European projects on barley genetic resources, and participation to the EBDB (European Barley Database) based in Gatersleben, Germany (Knüpffer 1988).The present situation of the French barley collection appears acceptable concerning primary conservation and base passport data stored in an appropriate database. Ensuring safetyduplicates is in progress.The involvement of users -chiefly breeders -seems to work, and most participate. They declare that they regularly use two to five entries from the evaluation network yearly in their breeding programme, which is considered satisfactory.However, some gaps remain: a standard agronomic evaluation of all barley resources is far from complete and progresses too slowly. It is hoped that international cooperation on such practical aspects as sharing conservation tasks for some entries, developing common evaluation networks if possible, or exchanging more germplasm will increase, on a pragmatic basis in the future.A point of concern is that the rule for carrying out work on genetic resources may become more stringent in the future, a tendency which is also observed as far as biotechnology is concerned. This may represent a threat on such genetic resource programmes, as an exchange or compilation of data limited to old germplasm without an acceptable level of adaptation, only, would make little sense. However full attention should be paid to such rules as those proposed by the US National Wheat improvement committee (Sears and Peterson 1994).The Gatersleben genebank in its 54th year comprises almost 100 000 accessions, including about 20 000 accessions in external branch stations which have belonged to IPK since 1992. Among these, barley is one of the most important crop collections, with over 12 000 accessions. The branch stations do not hold barley material.Through the history of the Gatersleben institute and its genebank, barley has always been one of the main targets of different kinds of research and evaluation. This can be seen from the large number of publications on barley genetic resources by IPK staff, mainly from the genebank, and by cooperation partners for evaluation (Annex 1, this paper).The international recognition of Gatersleben as a centre of excellence for barley genetic resources is reflected by the fact that the ECP/GR Barley Working Group designated Gatersleben as the place to hold all five meetings in 1983, 1986, 1989, 1993and 1997(IBPGR 1983, 1986b, 1989b;;Frison et al. 1993) and a Barley Workshop in 1985 (IBPGR 1986a). The IBPGR International Barley Working Session in 1989 (IBPGR 1989a) as well as the meeting of the IBGRN (International Barley Genetic Resources Network) database task force in 1993 also took place at Gatersleben.The present species composition of the 12 832 barley accessions is given in Table 1. The 573 accessions referred to as Hordeum sp. are recent introductions which will be determined during the next multiplication period. Most of the material belongs to the primary genepool of barley, i.e. H. vulgare (11 554 accessions, among them 66% are landraces and 34% cultivars and lines, 22% winter and 78% spring barleys) and the related species H. agriocrithon, H. × lagunculiforme and H. spontaneum comprising altogether 507 accessions. The secondary genepool is represented by 67 accessions of H. bulbosum . The remaining wild species belong to the tertiary genepool which is represented by 131 accessions.Table 2 lists the barley accessions according to their countries of origin. Of these, 25% originate from Ethiopia, followed by Turkey (8%), Germany (6%) and the USA (5%).Additionally, a collection of barley mutants with about 700 accessions was taken over by the genebank from another department of the institute five years ago.The barley collection, like other collections of the genebank, has two main sources:1. collecting activities, mainly of Gatersleben staff (e.g. Central Europe, Mediterranean, Near East, Caucasus, Central Asia, China, Korea, Ethiopia), but also old collections from the first half of this century (e.g. Turkey, Tibet, Nepal, Hindu-Kush, Ethiopia, Balkan), 2. breeders, botanical gardens, research institutions.Large parts of the collected material under (1) have to be considered as unique.In self-pollinating species such as barley, populations of morphologically different types are being split up into lines which are maintained as separate accessions, in order to reduce the danger of genetic changes in accessions during multiplication.  The barley accessions are multiplied in the field, about 1000 accessions per year. Seeds are stored in the long-term storage under conditions of 0°C or -16°C, respectively. Germination results covering 20 years of cold storage are shown in Figure 1.The multiplication of wild species accessions is labour-intensive. However, expertise exists at Gatersleben as could be shown with a selection from the Scandinavian Hordeum Collection (Svalöf, Sweden) which was handed over to IPK for that purpose.The accessions are characterized routinely in the field during multiplication and rejuvenation. Morphological characterization includes the botanical determination of varieties and convarieties. The following descriptors are observed, among others: phenological data (such as days to flowering), 1000-grain weight, lodging, wintering, mildew and rust field resistance. Every new accession is determined botanically during the first cultivation.In cooperation with other groups of the Gatersleben institute, and with partners from other institutions, large parts of the collection have been extensively evaluated for resistance  The traditional manual documentation is carried out with a sophisticated system of card files and books, with cross-references. Passport data and some management and characterization/evaluation data are registered in a database system, using the database software FoxPro in a LAN (local area network) of PCs, which is part of IPK's LAN and thus connected with the Internet. Selected descriptors of the genebank's passport database for all crops (about 80 000 accessions) are searchable on-line on the Internet (see Knüpffer and López,this volume,p. 42). At present, emphasis is given to recording \"historical\" characterization and evaluation data of the genebank for incorporation into a German \"Federal Information System for Evaluation Data of PGR\" within the project EVA, focusing mainly on barley (see Harrer, this volume, p. 89).The Gatersleben genebank also maintains the European Barley Database of the ECP/GR since 1984. It has been updated in 1997 (see Knüpffer and López, op. cit.) The development and the present state of the International Barley Core Collection, in which IPK's genebank took an active part, are described separately (see relevant section in Part I, p. 15).A herbarium or spike sample and a seed sample are taken from every accession for later reference, e.g. to check the identity after regeneration.Various research activities have been carried out on barley genetic resources at Gatersleben. They range from taxonomic research (classification of cultivated barley), to genebank-specific questions of reproduction, pollination ecology, genetics, mutation research or physiology. The literature consists of about 100 papers covering more than 50 years (see Annex 1, this paper). A complete overview of relevant literature about the genebank covering the period from 1943 to 1993 was given in Ref. (92). The following topics have been selected (the numbers of the relevant papers are indicated in parentheses):-Taxonomy and evolution (1, 52, 73) -Morphology and anatomy (2,26,30,46) -Resistance (3, 4, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 44, 45, 47, 54, 59, 62, 63, 68, 69, 70, 75, 76, 79, 80, 84, 85a, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101); see also paper by Walther et al. (this volume,8,9,10,11,12) -Physiology (17, 21, 23) -Quality characters (26,30,42,43,58) -Alternative uses (90a) -Pollination ecology (31, 32, 37, 39, 40, 41, 49, 51, 88a) -Collecting missions (50) -European Barley Database (53,55,56,57,60,61,64,65,66,67,71,72,78,82,85,89,90,97, 100, 103) -Barley Core Collection (74,77,81,83,86,88,91,94) -Documentation (87,93,97,100,103).The references are given in chronological order. The following list was extracted from a database of publications related to plant genetic resources of the Gatersleben genebank.The Braunschweig Genetic Resources Collection (BGRC) was founded at the Federal Agricultural Research Centre Braunschweig-Völkenrode (FAL) in 1970 and was managed by the Institute of Crop Science of the FAL until 1996. Breeding research at FAL ceased shortly after the reunification of Germany. Therefore, the responsibility for the BGRC was assigned to the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ) in July 1996. The official name of this new BAZ branch office is 'BAZ Gene Bank -Plant Genetic Resources Collection'.The plant genetic resources collection at Braunschweig was established with the objective to improve access to information and germplasm held in Germany and abroad. To allow for efficient data documentation, retrieval and dissemination, a computerized documentation system was developed between 1972 and 1979 (Seidewitz et al. 1993). In parallel a technical seed handling and conservation unit with a capacity of 48 000 accessions stored at -10°C and 12 000 accessions at +3°C was built. In 1972 the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of the ICAR recommended to establish a world network consisting of regional genebanks of which the Institute of Crop Science was intended to serve as a subregional centre for northwestern Europe. At that time excellent storage facilities such as those available at Braunschweig were rare in Europe. The genetic resources collection therefore accepted a broader responsibility for germplasm conservation in Europe and offered its seed storage and data documentation capacities to collection-holders in Germany and in Europe. In particular, research institutes without adequate storage facilities requested the Braunschweig genebank to accept collections that they could no longer maintain. A typical case is the durum wheat collection from Switzerland (Zürich-Reckenholz) for which the germplasm material and the responsibility was taken over. Many similar germplasm stocks were accepted, documented, maintained and kept available for international exchange over more than two decades. When more European countries created their own storage facilities, duplicates of their collections were also sent to Braunschweig for security storage.A multitude of crops and wild species collections were joined at Braunschweig. The incoming data and the material were correctly documented and stored as provided by the germplasm donors; however, a critical review of the information, taxonomy, etc. on the accepted collections could not be performed systematically. Throughout its existence the genebank at Braunschweig had to function with a very limited number of permanent scientific staff. The ratio 'number of accessions/number permanent scientific staff' is still unique in the world. Today, the BAZ Gene Bank team consists of two scientists. Limited manpower capacity was partly buffered by the availability of modern data documentation and seed production equipment during the past two decades. This allowed coping with the workload with respect to seed stock maintenance and national/international seed exchange. Varying from year to year, 6000 to 10 000 accessions were distributed to users between 1986 and 1996. Wheat and barley proved to be the most frequently requested germplasm stocks. Obviously, our fast access to information and germplasm, flexible response with respect to 'urgent requests' and seed sample amounts, the user-tailored advice that can be given by the BAZ Gene Bank documentation group, are attractive to users and constitute our strength. Cost-effective genetic resources management, easy, free access to information and material, and services like mediation to germplasm held at other genebanks are the assets of the BAZ Gene Bank.In the early years, the genetic resources collection served as a seed storage and documentation unit for collections that had been gathered and further developed in the course of research and breeding programmes. The material has been investigated, characterized and purposefully evaluated by donors. This part of our collection should not only be considered as a seed sample stock but also as the result of expensive investments into crop improvement that are preserved along with the physical sample. From 1980 onwards, several collecting missions have been implemented by the Institute of Crop Science of the FAL in cooperation with partner genebanks. This, as well as other unique material, forms an important fraction of the BAZ Gene Bank holding which deserves highest attention during regeneration and maintenance. Today, the collection comprises about 50 000 accessions of which cereals account for about 56%. The technical management of such a large, diverse collection with limited staff capacity is a problem and currently forces the BAZ Gene Bank to function as a genepool management unit rather than a genebank in the wider scientific sense. Since July 1996, improvement of the data documentation and germplasm stock management are underway, which should enhance the technical efficiency and cost-effectiveness.During its affiliation with the Institute of Crop Science, much emphasis was given to the maintenance and evaluation of the genetic resources of neglected crops with industrial potential. As a result, the Institute of Crop Science only contributed data to the ECP/GR Barley Working Group in the past and never participated actively in workshops. As a genebank of the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants, priorities will automatically shift more towards cereals since these crops determine the research profile of the BAZ to a large extent.The main donors of the collection are presented in Table 1. Currently, the total barley collection amounts to 8892 accessions of which 1294 accessions are temporarily out of the collection. In the early 1980s this material was provided by the Ethiopian genebank with the request to keep safety-duplicates. Since the principles of security storage have been misinterpreted under the former genebank heading, there is a need for clarification of the status of the Ethiopian material. The germplasm could either be stored as security-duplicate samples according to international rules or -as the agreement of the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute provided -as Plant Introduction Accessions (PIAs). The Ethiopian counterpart has already been approached and their response is awaited. The BAZ Gene Bank has recently identified 173 accessions as duplicated material that has also been maintained by the Dutch counterpart during the past two decades. As the maintenance of the germplasm collected during a Dutch/British expedition in the Hindukush area is the responsibility of CGN (the Netherlands), this material is no longer considered as part of our active collection. The material is kept in our storage but it is no longer accessible to users. Requests will therefore be forwarded to CGN. Our decision contributes to a more rational genetic resources management in Europe.The largest fractions of the barley holding came from the Max-Planck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung (Köln) with 42%, the Institut für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenzüchtung (München) with 17%, and Ethiopia (15%) (Table 1). For the time being, the germplasm gathered by donors CHEFAP, DEUBSAH and DEUGTZJEM is considered as unique. It is categorized according to our new system as 'Primary Genetic Resources' material that needs to be maintained at highest technical standards.Hordeum vulgare L. is the prevalent species with 92% of all material. Respectively 52%, 20% and 16% of the collection have been described as landraces, cultivars and breeder's lines.Ethiopia, Germany, Switzerland, Turkey are the main origins of the BAZ Gene Bank barley collection; these accessions are complemented by a fairly large fraction of very diverse geographic origin. Only parts of the data contained in the BAZ Gene Bank database have been gathered at the site of Braunschweig. Most data were received from many different donors, resulting in an accumulation of heterogeneous data sets in the documentation system. The information can be retrieved without problems and can be traced back to the original data source which sometimes is helpful for clarification reasons. However, the new central database like PGRDEU developed by ZADI/IGR or any other central database requests information in a standardized manner which forces us to harmonize and compile data that were not gathered by us. Most of the information is valid. However, from time to time we are faced with the 'historical load' of the former BGRC database in which the first barley data were entered in 1977 (Seidewitz 1987;Seidewitz et al. 1990). Upgrading the passport data with the objective to offer them for on-line data searches in PGRDEU or to contribute them to the European Barley Database is almost completed. This work will meet its limits since for the time being we cannot offer higher-quality information than the data provided by donors allow.Likewise the taxonomic description provided by some donors may require some verifications.During seed increase a minimal description of the material is performed. Since production of high-quality seeds requires plant protection measures, observations on disease susceptibility are only taken occasionally (mainly Erysiphe graminis f.sp. hordei). Evaluation has always been implemented in cooperation with private plant breeders and breeding institutes. Where adequate, the collection will of course be integrated into screening projects planned or conducted by BAZ institutes. Recently, parts of the barley collection have been screened in the GFP research project G64/94 AiF for amylose/amylopectin content. The data are currently entered into the database. The revision of the evaluation data will be the next activity. Sixty-two descriptors have more than 100 records; within this subset the number of records per descriptor runs up to 7506 in the case of row number.The cereal seed regeneration programme is fully mechanized. Sowing, harvesting and threshing of the plots in the field are done with modern equipment normally used by plant breeding companies. In general, seeds are multiplied on a single 2-m 2 plot. If a high request for specific accessions can be anticipated, two plots are sown. Because of the GFP research activities, 684 accessions were sown in 1996 and 389 accessions in 1997 at Braunschweig.Private plant breeders and breeding institutes have always assisted the BAZ Gene Bank in coping with the workload. In 1996, 79 barley accessions were seed-increased by the company Ackerman & Co. Irlbach and in 1997 the Pflanzenzucht Dr.h.c. Carstens, Schwartau is assisting in the multiplication of 50 accessions.The BAZ Gene Bank now discerns between 'accessible' and 'available' fractions of the holding, thus 15% of the barley holding, i.e. the germplasm from Ethiopia is currently not accessible because of the reasons given above, and 29% of the germplasm is currently not available because of limited amounts of rest seeds and/or low germination. The germination of 89% of the barley holding ranges between 40 and 100% (Fig. 1). At the national level the BAZ Gene Bank made two major contributions. First, passport data records on 7467 accessions were provided to ZADI/IGR to support the establishment of PGRDEU. This set does not include 31 accessions which are probable duplicates received from the IPK, another 100 accessions for which the status/responsibility is not yet clear either, and the set from Ethiopia. This updated barley file was also sent to the European Barley Database.The BAZ Gene Bank is not an official partner of the EVA project. The BAZ Gene Bank has no backlog in data computerization and hence no support was felt to be necessary. The BAZ Gene Bank provided its characterization and evaluation data to ZADI/IGR in 1996 and the data can be used by the project team for research purposes.Between 1992 and 1996, 780 accessions were sent to users abroad. Most of the material was requested by research institutes and public organizations. In the same period 3285 accessions were sent to users in Germany. The majority was requested by private plant breeders (Table 2). The futureNext to wheat and sugarbeet, barley belongs to the most frequently requested germplasm held at Braunschweig. Barley is thus an important part of the total holding. A framework concept required for streamlining the collection and the database has been developed and will be implemented stepwise with the aim to (i) focus our capacities on unique samples and (ii) improve the technical quality standards and services.The Irish National Programme for repatriation of cereal accessions*Irish Seed Saver Association, Raheen, Piltown, Co. Kilkenny, IrelandAt the time of the fifth meeting of the Barley Working Group in July 1997, Ireland did not have a national collection or genebank. Thanks to the information provided during the meeting and the following discussions held afterwards at home, Ireland now has a National Programme for repatriation of cereal accessions.In situ: care of the The first four accessions were grown out in 1997 and harvested; some material is now stored in the Gene Bank and propagated further in situ. The in situ programme has been awarded a Heritage Grant which will greatly help the harvest, storage and cleaning possibilities.In the autumn of 1997 the Irish Seed Saver Association sent out over 30 requests for genetic material of Irish origin. We received four replies and only one genebank supplied us with genetic material. Institutes which have not replied yet are reminded to please do so.The Gene Bank is open to discussions on the \"black box system\" and as partners for research programmes.Ireland is now able and willing to participate in conservation and sharing of responsibilities.* This update was received after the meeting.There are three main barley collections in Israel. They are presented below according to the size of the collections.This collection includes 8000 Hordeum spontaneum lines and 500 H. vulgare varieties collected in Israel. Some of the H. spontaneum are single lines collected randomly, some are selections for disease resistance made in natural habitats, and most lines belong to transects sampled from different natural populations. The collection was evaluated for leaf rust of barley (Puccinia hordei) and for powdery mildew ( Erysiphe graminis hordei). The Hordeum vulgare accessions in the collection are differential varieties and varieties from different international nurseries. The collection is preserved at 5°C at 35% relative humidity.The collection of Hordeum spontaneum held by this institute consists of 3500 genotypes from various sources: The collection was evaluated for many genetic, physiological and important agronomic traits. Out of the 3500 genotypes, 2200 genotypes were evaluated for all or some of the following traits: genetic diversity analyzed by 50 allozymic loci; genetic diversity analyzed by RAPD; morphology; germination; heat production; milling energy; protein content; resistance to powdery mildew and leaf rust; salt and drought resistance.Polymorphism of natural populations of H. spontaneum is one of the central problems studied on this material. Recently, new aspects have been started including genetic mapping of QTLs for stress tolerance and disease resistance genes.This collection includes about 700 accessions, of which 150 are landraces (H. vulgare convar. distichon and H. vulgare var. hexastichon) and 550 are H. spontaneum.The National Plant Genetic Resources Programme was started in Lithuania in 1994. It is subsidised by the Lithuanian Research Foundation. The Programme is coordinated by the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture. The Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture (Dotnuva), Vilnius University (Vilnius) and the Lithuanian Agricultural University (Kaunas) maintain cereals collections. All spring barley accessions are kept in working collections in these three locations. The type of material and the number of accessions are shown in Table 1. The inventory of the collections was completed during the last three years. It was found that they contained 12 spring barley varieties of Lithuanian origin, and that 2 old spring barley varieties of Lithuanian origin had been lost. The Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) now provides facilities for long-term seed storage to the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture. Spring barley accessions of Lithuanian origin have already been placed in the NGB (seed number per accession = 10 000).In the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture the spring barley collection is a working collection, used only for breeding purposes. It is not stored in long-term storage. In the past we used to evaluate collections according to the rules elaborated by the N.I. Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry for agronomic evaluation. Accessions with valuable agronomic characteristics were the only ones to be maintained for longer periods. The number of accessions was not constant. Since 1989 we have been collecting and maintaining all the spring barley varieties which come to the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, which increased the number of accessions up to 644. Most of the accessions (405) were received from VIR. Every year we plant and evaluate about 300 accessions in the field. In order to maintain high viability of seed the varieties must be regenerated every 3 years.In the Lithuanian Agricultural University the spring barley collection is used exclusively for educational purposes. It consists mostly of morphologically different lines representing different subtaxa.In Vilnius University the spring barley collection is used for genetic research. Approximately 100 mutants of this collection will be passed to long-term seed storage.Documentation and evaluation of the material has not been completed yet either. A catalogue of Lithuanian Plant Genetic Resources, including the spring barley collection with some evaluation data, was published in 1997 by the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture.Details about the Hordeum sensu lato collection at the Nordic Gene Bank (NGB) have earlier only been provided through the European Barley Database (EBDB) and not as separately published reports. Thus, this is the first of its kind aiming at giving a brief overview of the barley material available. Two special collections are not treated in this report: (1) the barley mutant collection comprising almost 9900 accessions, coordinated by Dr Udda Lundqvist, and (2) the collection of wild Hordeum taxa presently maintained by Professor Roland von Bothmer. NGB is only involved in keeping the base collection of the wild material and does not carry out regeneration of these species, some of which are notoriously difficult to multiply.The number of accessions of cultivated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare L., amounts to 1634 (Table 1), a figure devoid of duplicated Nordic accessions. Hence, about 60% or 985 accessions are of Nordic origin, 16% (262 accessions) have unknown origin and the remaining 24% (387 accessions) are of foreign origin. As more information is being brought together these figures are continuously subject to change.Table 2 summarizes the distribution of accessions between status categories accepted for long-term conservation, those pending a decision and those stored temporarily, indicating that a number of accessions are in the process of being reclassified. All wild Hordeum spp. were donated 8-10 years ago by the Royal Agricultural College in Copenhagen and no additional material of the Nordic species has been collected since then.The collection of spring barley accessions has been evaluated three times (1995-97) at Kvithamar Research Station near Trondheim (Norway) for resistance against scald (Rhynchosporium secalis). Although infection levels varied between years the results allowed for valuable discrimination between susceptible and resistant genotypes.Furthermore, during 1997 the spring barley collection was multiplied at Risø National Laboratory (Denmark) to prepare homogenous seed for quality analyses. As a first step the collection will be characterized for a range of malting quality traits. It is anticipated that other characteristics, which are also expensive to analyze, will be studied later.A 3-year joint Nordic project on development of molecular markers ended in 1997. Using varieties 'Regatta' and 'Alexis' as crossing parents, maps were constructed to locate identified QTLs (quantitative trait loci) of genes for disease resistance (powdery mildew, leaf rust, scald, cereal cyst nematodes) and malting quality (viscosity, malt colour, protein content). Since it turned out to be rather difficult to find enough polymorphic markers to cover the whole genome, it appears that the two varieties share a high degree of common sequences. Project coordinator has been Henriette Giese at Risø National Laboratory, Denmark (h.giese@riso.dk).In 1997 the Cereal Working Group at NGB initiated a project to study the processes and problems associated with repatriation of germplasm (e.g. identification and duplication). Barley was selected as a pilot crop and accessions have been searched for and obtained from the NSGC (National Small Grain Collection, Aberdeen, Idaho, USA), VIR (Vavilov Research Institute of Plant Industry, St. Petersburg, Russia), and genebanks in Germany, the Czech Republic, United Kingdom and Japan. Project leader is former NGB associate Birgitte Lund (bli@kvl.dk).  MaÓgorzata MaÓysaThe Genebank of the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute in Radzików (IHAR) holds many barley varieties from different geographic origins. They are differentiated in respect to ecological, morphological and biochemical characters. They represent rich genetic resources to improve useful characteristics such as quantity, quality and fidelity of yield.All work related to plant material collection is conducted in the Centre for Plant Genetic Resources, IHAR Radzików. The tasks related to the regeneration and evaluation of winter barley (since 1987) and spring barley (since 1993) are conducted in the Plant Breeding Station in B•ków. Regeneration concerns varieties kept in long-term storage. The purpose of regeneration is the rejuvenation of seeds and the improvement of their germinative ability. The evaluation data allow identification of the morphological attributes which are important for breeding purposes. The evaluation of genetic resources is necessary to increase their use and benefits to breeders.The value of particular forms for different characters, and the interdependence of these characters, must be known before they are introduced into breeding programmes. Winter barley varieties are evaluated over 3-year or 1-year periods. Studies of two-and six-row winter barley varieties were carried out in 3-year periods.In 1990-93, 69 two-row and 47 six-row winter barley varieties were evaluated. The following characters were analyzed: number of days from sowing to heading; winterhardiness; lodging (twice: since heading to harvest); resistance to powdery mildew and brown rust; plant height; ear length; number of grains per ear, and 1000-grain weight.The analysis of variance showed significant differences between varieties with regard to vegetation period from sowing to heading, resistance to powdery mildew, lodging and grain yield per ear, resistance to brown rust, number of grains per ear and 1000-grain weight in the group of two-row varieties. The influence of environment was high for winterhardiness and plant height in both groups and yield structure traits in the group of six-row varieties.The heritability expressed by the degree of genotypic variability was high for resistance to lodging, resistance to powdery mildew after plant heading, vegetation period from sowing to heading and grain yield in the group of six-row varieties and also for resistance to lodging, resistance to brown rust, 1000-grain yield per ear in the group of two-row varieties. The heritability of plant height was low in both groups.Useful correlations between the traits important from particular points of view were determined. The yield of six-row varieties was most significantly influenced by the number of grains per ear and 1000-grain weight; the influence of winterhardiness was lower. The yield of two-row varieties was mainly determined by 1000-grain weight, followed by length. The influence of the number of grains per ear and number of days to heading was lower.Based on statistical analysis, some varieties were selected as potential sources for winter barley breeding.Since 1993 regeneration and multiplication of spring barley varieties from the Genebank have been carried out (Table 1). Spring barley samples are investigated in 1-year periods. The Romanian barley collection at the Genebank SuceavaRecent data indicate that in Romania the barley crop represents about 23.3% of the cereals cultivated, on an area of about 3 million ha.In Romania, there are 14 registered advanced cultivars, seven of Hordeum vulgare (winter barley) and seven of Hordeum distichum; the latter includes three winter advanced cultivars and four spring advanced cultivars.The institutes involved in the cultivation and breeding of barley are:•The Institute for Cereals and Industrial Crops (ICCPT Fundulea)•The Agricultural Research Institute Suceava (SCA Suceava)•The Agricultural Research Institute Turda (SCA Turda).The national programme coordinator is ICCPT Fundulea. All three institutions have breeding collections that are renewed every year. Their holdings are listed in Table 1, together with those of the Suceava Genebank. The three institutions are situated in three distinct regions. Therefore the advanced cultivars are distinct from one region to another because of the specific climatic conditions (temperature and humidity) which are different for the Transylvania plateau, the Baragan and Dobrogea fields, the Moldavians hills and the Subcarpathian hills.It can be noted that winter barley has almost replaced the spring barley cultivated for fodder.The maximum productivity of these crops is about 6.5-12 t/ha, varying with climatic factors.The Suceava Gene Bank collaborates with the other three institutes. All the abovementioned advanced cultivars and other foreign advanced cultivars are present in the collection. This collection is relatively new since the first barley accessions were received in 1989, when the genebank was founded.The Suceava Gene Bank has a permanent collection and a working collection.As indicated above, the total number of accessions is 1014, of which 180 are indigenous and 834 foreign (from the USA, UK, Canada, Russia, etc.)The seeds are preserved in sealed glass containers at 4ºC and 7-8% humidity. Freon is used for cooling. The cooling machines are made in Romania.Provided some financial help is received, the genebank is willing to receive any European collection, guaranteeing its proper conservation.Since 1997, barley was given greater attention. There are 118 landraces in the experimental field, including 30 for study and research purposes, and 88 for multiplication. IPGRI descriptors are used for evaluation.Diseases recorded were Erysiphe graminis, Pyrenophora graminea (conidian form Helminthosporium graminea), Pyrenophora teres (conidian form Helminthosporium teres).Our Institute originated and developed from the Bureau of Applied Botany established in 1894 under the Ministry of Agriculture and State Property of Russia. In 1917, the Bureau was transformed into the Department of Applied Botany and Plant Breeding. At present, the Institute bears the name of the N.I. Vavilov All-Russian Research Institute of Plant Industry. It is the only research institution in Russia involved in collecting, studying and preserving in live conditions the genetic resources of cultivated plants and their wild relatives.Initiation of the VIR barley collection dates back to the days of the Bureau of Applied Botany. Before 1917, the collection included 3000 accessions. During that period, landraces and bred varieties from West European countries came to Russia. The collection mainly contained local barley accessions from different climatic zones and areas of Russia, while foreign samples from Western Europe accounted for 20%. That collection kept expanding, for instance, thanks to samples rec eived from seed companies, private breeders and also during the participation in various agricultural exhibitions.The first botanical investigation of the barley diversity was carried out by Prof. R. Regel, a famous Russian botanist, first director of the Bureau who described new barley varieties. His research was of great value for the systematics and classification of barley.When Vavilov was director of the institute, he organized collecting missions for cultivated plant genetic resources all over the world. Vavilov himself and his successors explored almost all continents for plants. As a result, VIR's barley collection was composed to represent the ecological, genetic and botanical diversity of barley worldwide. In 1947 the number of accessions in the collection amounted to 9000, representing 38 countries besides Western Europe.Practically all activities of the Institute have been closely associated with Vavilov's theories on plant genetic resources and the global genetic diversity of cultivated plants. As of 1952 the study of the centres of diversity of cultivated plants began. Botanical diversity of local barleys showing different biological characters was collected in China, Mongolia, Ethiopia and Japan.In 1960-70 the countries of the Mediterranean region were investigated carefully. This allowed VIR to enrich the collection with drought-resistant accessions from Syria, Tunisia, Morocco and other countries from the region. Other missions were organized for collecting barley from the New World -Canada, USA and Latin American countries.The fundamental objectives of our scientific activities are as follows:• to collect plant genetic resources both within and outside the country • to preserve accessions of the world collection in viable conditions • to study the global plant genetic diversity with the goal of identifying promising materials for breeding and donors of most important traits required for breeding • to supply the breeding centres with initial genetic material for practical breeding.The VIR barley collection now consists of more than 17 000 accessions. The composition of the collection is as follows: wild species (1%), Russian local and old varieties (11%), foreign local and old varieties (8%), foreign breeding lines (12%), Russian varieties (42%) and foreign varieties (26%).Thus, VIR's collection includes landraces, bred varieties, breeding lines combining a complex of valuable characters, mutants, sources and donors of valuable characters, and almost all botanical forms. Morphological characteristics were described according to a Descriptor List which was developed on the basis of UPOV, EVIGEZ and IPGRI Descriptor Lists, by using a more precise description and completing the range of characters studied. In the Description Part, 43 characters are currently studied for winter barley and 42 for spring barley (Annex 1). Seven quantitative and two qualitative characters, determined by weight, measurements or in percentage, are treated by the programme so that it is possible to use their point values (after transformation) or directly those obtained originally.Besides morphological and agronomic traits, we use different types of molecular markers (protein and DNA) for the evaluation of genetic diversity in the barley collection. For identification, verification and distinction of genotypes we use analyses of hordeins in acid-PAGE and DNA-based techniques. A set of barleys can be differentiated by hordein analyses into several subsets followed by complete differentiation into individuals by DNA-based techniques. Polymorphic SSR (simple sequence repeats) markers are very effective in revealing DNA polymorphism between barley accessions. SSR markers produced by five SSR primers also clearly separate spring genotypes from winter genotypes (genotypes no. 32-40 in Fig. 1) and differentiate 40 genotypes evaluated into 35 groups (Fig. 1).Researchers from breeding stations (Sládkovi¹ovo, Trebišov, Radošina) and breeding and research institutes (SELEKT Bu¹any) were informed of the results every year. In 1994-97, genetic resources were distributed to be used mainly in breeding and research programmes as well as for education purposes (Table 2).  The Spanish Barley Core Collection The National Germplasm Bank (BNG) at the Centro de Recursos Fitogenéticos (CRF-INIA) in Alcalá de Henares holds a collection of 2000+ barley accessions, mostly landraces collected in Spain. The study of the genetic diversity present in this (or any) collection, and its use by barley breeders would be facilitated by the assembly of a core collection of a manageable size (Frankel 1984). The process of making this collection followed a series of necessary steps, which are described below.These steps essentially follow the recommendations made by van Hintum (1996).The domain of the core collection is the Hordeum vulgare types grown in Spain prior to the introduction of modern varieties. A set of about 160 entries was considered likely to be sufficiently representative.It was decided to include several groups of entries, according to different selection criteria. The groups were: A. Cultivars or landraces extensively grown in Spain.Entries in common with the European Barley Core Collection. C.Entries in common with the USDA Barley Collection. D. Two-row entries from the BNG collection. These entries are a small part of the collection, as most of the barley traditionally grown in Spain was six-row. E.Six-row entries from the BNG collection, other than in group A.The inclusion of entries in group A ensures that materials presenting best adaptation to Spanish conditions are included in the core collection. Entries also present in other collections (groups B and C) were included to become reference points for comparison across collections. Groups D and E were the only genetically distinct types which could be identified from passport data, and their size was proportional to their representation in the BNG collection.For this purpose, we proceeded in a subjective manner, based on the relative importance and diversity of the groups. The final allocation of entries is summarized in Table 1.Selection in groups A through D was agreed among the authors, taking account of diversity and completeness of passport data, and of previous knowledge on the past importance and denominations of some entries. For group D, for instance, care was taken to include entries representing the ladillas and pámulas, two of the main traditional two-row types grown in Spain.Selection in group E was more elaborate, owing to the abundance of entries present in the BNG collection. The procedure used was as follows.According to the literature (Brown 1989;van Hintum 1996), it is advisable to make a stratified sampling, based on an agro-ecological classification of the origins of the entries. Usually, the actual geographic origins of entries in the collection are used as the basis for classification. This approach assumes that the BNG germplasm collection is an undistorted representation of barley germplasm grown in Spain.In our case, however, we used historical data on barley cultivation to determine agroecological regions in Spain. We extracted data on barley yields per province (Spain has 50 provinces) from the Yearbooks of Agricultural Statistics. We assembled a database with sixrow barley provincial yield estimates for 47 contiguous years from 1948 till 1994. Provinces where either barley cultivation was negligible, or the six-row barley acreage decreased until almost disappearing, were not taken into account.For most of the 34 remaining provinces, there was a significant increase in yield over time (but differing in magnitude across provinces). Thus, to remove confounding effects of improved crop management or introduction of better varieties, the yield time-series for each province were detrended as follows: first, a linear regression of year on yield was fitted for each province. Then, the residuals from the regression were added to the mean average yield across years for each province. This new set of data actually has the same average provincial yields as the original one, but without time trends.We did a cluster analysis (Ward method) on the new dataset, using years as variables, to produce groups of provinces with both similar average yield, and consistency in the fluctuation of yield across years. The analysis produced four clearly distinct groups, presented in Table 2.The first three clusters include contiguous provinces, whereas the fourth includes the four provinces from Cataluña and another three geographically scattered high-yielding provinces. Another group was made with six provinces in which six-row barley cultivation was important in the past, but not recently.A stratified logarithmic sampling on the regions so determined would increase the probability of capturing allelic variation conferring both wide and local adaptation (Brown 1989). We sampled according to logarithmic proportion of the area devoted to barley in each agro-ecological region. Within each region, the allocation of number of entries per province was done according to strict proportionality to barley hectarage.Barley hectarage means were not derived from the same dataset as the agro-ecological regions for yield. The distribution of barley hectarage in Spain has changed markedly for the last 30 years. Thus, the dataset including the last 47 years would not be representative of barley cultivation during the period prior to the introduction of modern varieties, which we propose as the domain of the core collection. For that reason, we gathered barley hectarage data available for the period prior to 1960, when it can be assumed that most varieties grown were primitive cultivars and local landraces. Data from only 15 years were found, which were enough for an assessment of area devoted to barley per province and agro-ecological region (hectarage did not vary much among years during that period). These areas are summarized in Table 2.The choice of entries within each province was made among those accessions presenting complete passport data. The criteria for selection aimed at maximizing the inclusion of potential genetic diversity. For this purpose, we paid special attention to the altitude of the collecting site, one of the main factors influencing crop adaptation in Spain, and also to agronomic data from the evaluation of about 900 BNG accessions carried out by the authors in previous years. Promoting the use of barley genetic resourcesNordic Gene Bank, Alnarp, SwedenIn 1984 Don Duvick, a maize breeder at Pioneer Hi-Bred, wrote an article entitled 'Genetic diversity in major farm crops on the farm and in reserve' (Duvick 1984). His aim was to get an estimate about the genetic vulnerability of North American plant breeding. In 1981 he therefore distributed a questionnaire to a large number of leaders of breeding programmes in the five 'big' crops: maize, wheat, sorghum, soyabean and cotton. Altogether he received 101 answers from both the private and the public sector, equalling a response frequency of slightly more than 80%.One has to keep in mind that his paper describes a situation 15 years ago and only American plant breeding, but nevertheless one can learn a lot from the highly informative paper he wrote and many connections can be made to the situation in Europe.Of all the tables Duvick presented in the paper, a few were selected for the present article, the first one relating to how breeders choose to broaden the diversity of their breeding material (Fig. 1). If one considers all five crops it is obvious that old landraces and local or primitive varieties played a very important role in broadening germplasm diversity. But differences occur, as can be seen from the data on wheat where breeders seem to have relied more heavily on elite material (Fig. 1b). The wild relatives constituted only a minor proportion of the germplasm used, which may perhaps be explained by the fact that crossing barriers or incompatibility effects limited their usefulness -at least then.Where did the North American breeder turn to in his, or her, quest for new resistance genes? Well, according to Duvick's paper elite breeding material was the first option, comprising almost two-thirds (Fig. 1c). Again the wild relatives seemed to be utilized only to a limited extent and, in fact, even much less when it came to breeding for resistance to stress tolerance (Fig. 1d) where elite material was by far the most preferred source.Duvick followed this up by asking a number of questions relating to the role of genebanks and genebank collections in providing additional genetic variation. Asking 'Do you use genebank collections?' (Fig. 1e) he found that approximately two-thirds regularly received germplasm from genebanks to be introduced into the breeding programmes. Less encouraging was the response he obtained on the subsequent question, namely 'Are the collections satisfactory?', where only about 40% of those responding seemed to be happy with what they could get (Fig. 1f).Overall, the American breeders did not appear to be particularly concerned about the risk of decreasing diversity in their breeding programmes, although wheat breeders tended to be slightly more worried perhaps because of the regular epidemics of new stem and leaf rust races on the North American continent.Duvick concluded by discussing a number of ominous tendencies in American breeding programmes and crop cultivation, trends that may apply equally well in a European situation:• the diversity of varieties is decreasing as they become phenotypically more uniform • they are also to a large extent genotypically related • farmers tend to favour the same varieties.Elite mtrl 30% Landraces 63%Rel. species 7%Landraces 18%Rel. species 11% Fig. 1, a-f. Graphical presentations of some selected tables from Duvick (1984).But he also foresaw some other trends which could counteract a worsening scenario with respect to crop diversity:• there is diversity in time as varieties are being replaced rapidly • there is diversity in reserves as hitherto unexploited genetic resources • there is diversity in anticipation because, thanks to modern information networks, we can foresee epidemics and other problems much earlier than before.What he could not foresee, however, was the Convention on Biodiversity and all that has followed in its aftermath such as restrictions on germplasm exchange, extended discussions on the establishment of a multilateral agreement, etc.In a slightly similar study the ECP/GR Barley Working Group, in the mid-1980s, actually sent out a questionnaire to 150 European breeders to assist in developing a strategy for the European Barley Database. In doing so the Working Group also indirectly took a bearing of the breeders' preferences, priorities and general position regarding barley genetic resources and how they should be best utilized.From this survey (UNDP/IBPGR 1986) one can conclude that European breeders behave remarkably like their North American colleagues in the search for novel disease resistance genes. They seemed, however, to be more critical about the status of germplasm collections held at genebanks -whether they meant European or international is not quite clear -with regard to both the quality and the quantity of information. The survey did not reveal if breeders also were dissatisfied with the nature of samples kept in the collections.A ranked list of the 10 most important traits demonstrates the reality in which our European breeders try to survive, where they put their breeding emphasis and what priorities they make. There are really no distinct differences between the national and the international set of priorities. The main diseases are being repeated as well as some basic agronomic features as a testimony of the information wanted by the breeding community.Two years ago, when the author came to the Nordic Gene Bank (NGB), he made a survey of the degree of completeness of the barley database concerning evaluation data on pest and disease resistance. The result was rather disappointing (Table 1). Although the situation for some diseases, such as leaf rust (Puccinia hordei) and scald (Rhynchosporium secalis), has improved lately, there still remains a huge number of empty spaces to fill in. Some diseases, such as spot blotch (Drechslera teres) or barley yellow mosaic virus, or pests such as cereal aphids or wheat gall midges, have not even been considered. This is not because the NGB Cereal Working Group is lazy or ignorant or unconscious of the problems, but simply because lack of funding and this is a fact causing permanent dissatisfaction. One final example will be provided (Weibull 1993). During the author's time as a resistance breeder at the former Weibullsholm Plant Breeding Institute (Sweden), the rule was to regularly screen for disease resistance all breeding material entering preliminary yield trials. One programme concerned resistance against barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) and aimed at identifying genotypes with promising background which would complement the known dominant or semi-dominant Yd2 resistance gene. Unfortunately most material was fully susceptible but one day an erectoid breeding line, W8172, was found to show highly interesting levels of tolerance. Crosses with lines carrying the known Yd2 gene gave exciting results and we believed we had found something new.Considering the pedigree of W8172 one can highlight a few things (Fig. 2). As one parent we find the old Norwegian variety 'Domen' which itself has a very interesting background, and while moving further back in its ancestry one rapidly ends up in local Nordic varieties and landraces. Barley yellow dwarf is a viral disease with a long history in the Nordic countries and it seems probable that unconscious selection over the decades may have resulted in the accumulation of minor genes, the effect of which suddenly is expressed in a single breeding line.The author was approached by Professor Helms Jørgensen at Risø National Laboratory (Denmark) who wondered whether it would be possible to screen the whole barley collection of NGB, which certainly would have been an exciting exercise. However, applications for funding from Swedish research funds were turned down with the argument that this type of research was not 'innovative' enough to justify support. To conclude, therefore, a few things that may have been said before should be emphasized: 1. Breeders and genebank curators live mutualistic lives and should, to obtain synergistic effects, work even closer. 2. This interdependence may possibly increase as a result of implementing the CBD and a possible future multilateral agreement on access. 3. But, to make this happen we need to complement our databases and fill all the blank spaces with useful and valuable information, otherwise the breeding community will ignore the collections. 4. We need to cooperate when evaluating germplasm, in pre-breeding programmes which a private breeder otherwise never could afford to pursue, and in relevant research. 5. Breeders could take active part in maintaining collections, for instance by creating adapted male-sterile populations aimed for specific purposes, such as virus resistance, resistance against necrotrophic fungi, malting quality, winter hardiness, etc. which would be a cheaper way of preserving and accumulating minor genes. 6. And, finally, genebanks should take more advantage of the vast knowledge breeders have about varieties and plant characters and make use of them in training programmes.Although some breeders are 'lone wolves' many are also willing to share their competence with others.Spring barley is the most widely grown cereal in Lithuania. It occupies about 500 000 hectares every year. Most of the barley grain is used for feed and about 6% for the beer industry. Among all cereals cultivated in Lithuania, barley ranks second after winter wheat in terms of yield. Varieties play an important role in increasing the yield capacity. The primary objective of spring barley breeding in Lithuania is to develop high-yielding varieties for malt and feed, with good straw strength and resistance to diseases such as mildew, spot blotch, scald and loose smut. Barley breeding started in Lithuania in 1924, two years after the Dotnuva Pla nt Breeding Station was founded (Mackevichius 1939). Initially the barley collection maintained was that which had been brought by Prof. D. Rudzinskas from the Moscow Plant Breeding Station. Real spring barley breeding started in 1924 with the work of the agronomist J. Bulavas (Rudzinskas 1977). Up to 1928 barley breeding in Dotnuva was carried out by means of individual selection and in 1927 multiplication of the two spring barley varieties 'Auksiniai' and Nr. 12 ('Plikieji') was started. Since 1928 intervarietal hybridization also has been used. Breeding activities expanded every year. Thus, 167 different varieties and lines were grown in 1924, while in 1933 this number amounted to 949. During the Second World War the volume of the varieties and lines decreased to 495 in 1943. During the post-war period barley breeding expanded again. In 1953, 879 varieties and lines were investigated (Leistrumas 1968). Now every year we evaluate 6000 to 8000 varieties and lines and perform 110-150 crosses.Success in breeding is very much dependent on the abundance and value of the initial material. At Dotnuva Plant Breeding Station much attention was paid to the initial material for barley breeding (Bulavas 1953). From 1924 to 1934 356 specimens were collected under the guidance of the plant breeder J. Bulavas. So far 401 local specimens have been collected and studied (Leistrumas 1992). Much consideration is also given to the material obtained from other breeding institutions and from abroad; 2848 spring barley varieties and lines were obtained from almost the whole world. Most of them were obtained from the N.I.Vavilov All-Russian Institute (1947). The lines obtained in the breeding process have been registered in Dotnuva since 1934, and 3240 of such lines have already been registered in the catalogue.Since the beginning of spring barley breeding in Dotnuva in 1924 14 varieties of spring barley have been developed, 2 of which have been lost -Nr. 12 ('Plikieji') and 'Lietuvos 799'and 7 which were or still are registered. One of them entered the Official Trials in 1997 as variety 'Aura'. Three spring barley varieties have been registered since 1994: 'Aidas' (1994) 'Ûla ' (1995) and'Alsa' (1996).A further barley breeding objective is to develop new spring barley varieties with a yielding capacity of 6.5-7.5 t/ha, with good resistance to lodging and diseases and suitable for on-farm cultivation with different levels of farming.Barley breeding activities are carried out at the Cereal Breeding Department of the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture. The soil of the experimental site is soddy-gleyic light loam. The preceding crop was seed clover, and fertilizer application was N60-P60-K60.The main method used for spring barley breeding at the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture is intervarietal hybridization, with subsequent individual selection. Spring barley breeding is carried out according to the following design: (1) collection; (2) initial material nursery (F 1 , F 2 ); (3) first year selection nursery; (4) second year selection nursery; ( 5) check (control) nursery; (6) preliminary trials, and (7) competitive trials (Leistrumas 1992). The spring barley variety collection is grown for the maintenance of Lithuanian varieties and for the evaluation of new varieties obtained from other institutions and countries. In this nursery we evaluate period of maturity, plant height, resistance to lodging and resistance to diseases. After harvesting, grain yield is measured and grain quality is evaluated: 1000kernel weight, hectoliter weight, content of crude protein and starch in the grain.After field and laboratory investigations we select varieties for crosses. Crosses are performed according to the \"twirl method\" (Guliajev and Guzhov 1978). For one crossing combination we emasculate 5-6 spikes in each 10-12 flowers. The obtained hybrid kernels are sown in a greenhouse or field (F 1 ). The F 1 kernels are sown in a F 2 nursery, where individual selection of elite plants or spikes is done. When selecting the plants the following characters are taken into consideration: tillering, resistance to lodging and diseases, thickness and shape of spike. These characters positively correlate with grain productivity (Nettevich 1981;Gluchovcev 1982;Gorshkova and Gorodov 1986).The best lines selected are sown in selection and check nurseries and evaluated for 1 year. After selection, the best lines are tested for another 1-2 years in preliminary trials. The most promising lines are tested for another 3-4 years in competitive trials. The best new varieties are evaluated in ecological trials in foreign breeding institutions. The best-performing varieties in all the breeding stages are entered into Official Trials.In all nurseries the same observations are made as in the collection nursery. New varieties from the competitive trials and collection are evaluated for disease resistance in an infected background.Sizes of field plots are: in collection nursery 1-2 m 2 F 1 , F  1). The List of the Recommended (Registered) Varieties of Lithuania includes four Lithuanian spring barley varieties: 'Auksiniai 3 ' (1987), 'Aidas' (1994), 'Ûla' (1995) and 'Alsa' (1996). A new variety has entered the Official Trials in 1997.This variety was developed by intervarietal crossing of the 'Carina' (Germany, France) and 'Tarra 26' (Japan) varieties in 1973. In 1974-81 the selected line 2257-10 was studied in the initial breeding nurseries and in the competitive variety trials. In 1983 the line entered the Official Trials as the variety 'Auksiniai 3'.Every year the variety shows a high yield capacity of 4.6-6.1 t/ha (Table 2). It is a semiintensive type. 'Auksiniai 3' is good at tillering and gives a good 'crowding-out' effect of weeds. 'Auksiniai 3' matures in 83 days and is a mid-season variety. 'Auksiniai 3' is medium resistant to lodging and diseases such as loose smut and foliar diseases. Plant height is 80-86 cm. The grains are large (1000-kernel weight = 45-50 g). 'Auksiniai 3' is distinguished for its high hectoliter weight (713-740 g/L). The variety contains 11.5-11.7% of crude protein, and 60.1-63.0% of starch. 'Auksiniai 3' has the best malting quality of the registered Lithuanian barley varieties -extract yield 80.7%. 'Auksiniai 3' belongs to the nutans variety. Spikes are two-row, 7.5-9.5 cm long. Awns are 13-15 cm long. 'Auksiniai 3' has been registered in Lithuania since 1987. In 1992 the line entered the Official Trials as the variety 'Ûla'. The average 3 year's yield of the new variety in competitive trials was 6.1 t/ha. It outyielded the check variety by 0.77 t/ha (14.4%). The variety is high-yielding. In 1996 in the Pasvalys Plant Variety Testing Station 'Ûla' produced 8.69 t/ha. The study in plant breeding stations in Latvia and Estonia shows a large potential ecological plasticity of the new variety. 'Ûla' is resistant to lodging (score 9), plant height is 79 cm. The variety is also resistant to foliar diseases. 'Ûla' barley matured 1-2 days earlier than the standard variety and can be grown as a continuous crop. The grains are large -1000-kernel weight is 49-54 g, hectoliter weight -688 g/L, they contain 11.6-12.6% of crude protein, 57.3% of starch. 'Ûla' belongs to the nutans variety. Spikes are two-row, yellow, 7.2-8.8 cm long. The seeds are of straw-yellow colour with grown-in glumes. Awns are 13-16 cm long. 'Ûla' has been registered in Lithuania since 1995. Since 1996 'Ûla' has been a check variety in the Official Trials (Table 2).The new barley variety 'Alsa' has been developed by complex intervarietal crossing and individual selection. In 1985 our line 3762-37 ('Mirena' × mutant derived from 'Gintariniai') was crossed with the breeding line ('Abava' × 'Emir') from the Stende Plant Breeding Station. In 1986-91 the selected line 5995-49 was studied in the initial breeding nurseries and in the competitive variety trials. The 'Alsa' variety entered the Official Trials in 1993.This variety is high-yielding (yielding capacity 8.05 t/ha) and with good resistance to lodging (score 9) and foliar diseases, especially powdery mildew. Plant height is 70-80 cm. 'Alsa' matures in 77-99 days and the variety is rather late. The grains are large -1000-kernel weight is 46-48 g, hectoliter weight 665 g/L. They contain 11.8-12.3% of crude protein, 59.0 % of starch. The variety was studied in Svalof Weibull AB in Sweden and shows a very good malting quality -extract yield 81.1%.'Alsa' belongs to the erectum variety. Its spikes are two-row, dense, 7.5-8.5 cm long. Awns are 12-14 cm long. The seeds are of straw-yellow colour with grown-in glumes. 'Alsa' has been registered in Lithuania since 1996. This variety has almost the highest yield among Lithuanian varieties (Table 2).Quite a large number of good breeding lines have been selected. Some promising lines with high yield capacity and good malting qualities are now being investigated in competitive trials. One of them has entered the Official Trials in 1997 as the variety 'Aura'.In total 14 barley varieties have been developed in Dotnuva, 4 of which -'Auksiniai 3', 'Aidas', 'Ûla' and 'Alsa' -are registered. The main task of spring barley breeding in Lithuania is to reach high yield levels in combination with a good grain quality, disease resistance, lodging endurance and suitability for cultivation on the farms with different levels of farming practices. Future plant breeding must be planned so that agriculture can be supplied with the varieties bred in Lithuania. It is necessary to conduct research into the development of a technical basis for breeding in order to maintain a good productivity.In addition to its major feature, the Gene Bank, the IPK comprises four departments (Taxonomy, Cytogenetics, Molecular Genetics and Molecular Cell Biology), which are methodologically and thematically linked at the junction of molecular biology and genome analysis. This unique association, now known as genomics, is already undergoing changes during which we will apply knowledge gained from the analysis of model genomes, such as yeast and Arabidopsis, to enable us to understand and manipulate the complex genomes of agriculturally important crop species.Genomics extends from simple DNA-fingerprinting through phenotypic analysis and genetic mapping to gene isolation and transformation. To account for this increasing complexity and to efficiently support future research activities in this field, the IPK Plant-Genome-Resources-Centre was established in 1997 (Box 1). Its major goal is to maintain and to provide biological resources such as probe repositories, DNA libraries and mapping populations together with the appropriate technology including the development of molecular markers, the refinement and application of megabase technologies for map-based cloning, and the production of transgenic plants. In this way, the PGRC forms a base from which to initiate and implement interactive research activities both within individual groups of the IPK and with collaborators from academic and industrial sectors. Individual research projects are attached to a central service unit providing the above-mentioned biological tools combined with technical facilities and computer support needed to undertake, for example, DNA-fragment or DNA-sequence analyses. This service core is linked to seven satellites termed modules, each contributing scientific expertise in a specific field related to genomics (Box 2).To provide a scientific focus, research activities at the PGRC mainly concentrate on cereals, particularly barley, mainly because its cultivated form (Hordeum vulgare L.) and its wild ancestor (Hordeum spontaneum) represent one of the major collections of the Gene Bank, comprising more than 10 000 accessions. In addition, genetic research on this crop has a longstanding tradition at the IPK. The seven chromosomes of the barley genome represent the basic complement of the Triticeae species including all major cereals. Hence, genetic data obtained from other cereal species can often be directly transferred to barley or, conversely, from barley to other cereals and even more distantly related grasses. As a basis for the application of molecular marker techniques, well-developed molecular marker maps are available for genetically mapping nearly any trait that is inherited in a Mendelian way. Moreover, a correlation of the genetic and physical maps has been achieved by PCR analysis of microisolated chromosomes, a feat that has not been realized for more complex genomes. Finally, as a prerequisite for map-based isolation of individual genes, a comprehensive YAC library is available and attempts are being made to improve further the transformation efficiency.With the establishment of PGRC, the IPK has performed a major step towards satisfying the future demands of plant genomics. Its integrated structure will facilitate genetic research extending from the analysis of a phenotypic trait to the isolation of the corresponding gene. The close interaction with plant breeders will facilitate a rapid transfer of know-how and technology and provide new avenues to access barley germplasm maintained at the Gene Bank for genetic studies and breeding purposes. The use of barley genetic resources in practical breeding as well as in breeding research programmes becomes more and more necessary. New breeding aims such as industrial use, resistance against viruses, insects or fungi or even improvement of adaptation to abiotic stress (e.g. drought, salinity, acidity, etc.) require a steady enlargement of the genetic variability in such programmes. To meet this demand, barley breeders and researchers are highly dependent on the availability of information on barley genetic resources, because it is necessary to preselect the material according to this information before evaluating it in their own nurseries. Therefore, the availability of reliable information about the traits relevant for breeding is essential. For breeders, data of evaluation traits such as yield, agronomic performance, resistance and quality are the most relevant.In Germany different data sources are available for the kind of information mentioned above: first of all, genebank documentation, but also research institutes and, for example, the data of the performance trials system conducted by German official authorities for variety certification and recommendation.At the moment, the use of all this information is difficult because of the multiplicity of data sources and structure, and of the different ways of accessing data (information available on hard copy, diskettes, off-line or on-line databases).Another major problem consists in the lack of a common analysis of all data available for each genotype. A possible solution could be an information system combining all available and relevant data in one database with free access from everywhere at any time.According to the way of accessing the information, databases show different features (Jiménez Krause and Lipman 1997). Regarding the present developments in information technology, on-line systems on the Internet offer optimal access and searchability, even if the availability of such systems, at least up to now, might be limited because of some technical constraints.Other advantages of on-line systems on Internet are worldwide access, easy updating and the possibililty of linking to other relevant information on Internet.The aim of the EVA project therefore is the development of an information system for evaluation data as an on-line database with worldwide access via the Internet. Different data sources have to be combined in the system. Therefore, a standard data structure has to be developed, data have to be checked and their structure has to be reorganized and, finally, methods for a combined statistical analysis must be developed. Data will also be linked to other relevant data (e.g. literature, research projects, etc.).The system will combine the information of relevant local information systems (some of them are even on Internet now, but only with a part of their information) under a common shell (see Fig. 1). Additional information will be available by statistical analysis of all data and by linking to other national and international information sources. There will be no further need to get used to different data structures of different information systems. The common data structure will make it easy for the users to request information.The project is a case study, where at the beginning mainly data of barley and to some smaller extent also data of potato and fruit trees will be considered. Most of the evaluation data available for the project are not stored electronically yet. Therefore, data entry is also one of the tasks in the project. The project started in May 1996 and is funded by the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry. The genebank of the Institut für Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung (IPK) in Gatersleben contributes with observation, characterization and evaluation data of more than 12 000 accessions of barley. IPK genebank's branch stations in Dresden-Pillnitz and Groß Lüsewitz will register their data of 2500 accessions of fruit trees and 2000 accessions of potato, respectively, to the project. The Institute for Epidemiology and Resistance (IfE/R) of the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ) in Aschersleben is responsible for entering resistance data of IPK's barley accessions. The genebank of the BAZ in Braunschweig contributes with data of about 7500 accessions of barley. Data of official barley performance trials are being made available by the \"AG Datenspeicher\", Institute of Crop Science of the University of Halle-Wittenberg in Bad Lauchstädt. The re-analysis of the performance trials and the development of statistical procedures for combining and evaluating all data will also be done there.Finally, the coordination of the project, the development of the database structure and the establishment of EVA as an on-line database linked to the Information System for Genetic Resources (GENRES) 20 within the German Agricultural Information Network (DAINet) 21 and to other relevant databases will be carried out by the Information Centre for Genetic Resources (IGR) at the Centre for Agricultural Documentation and Information (ZADI) in Bonn. with GRIN, EVA should be able to provide more detailed information, therefore the development of the 'second' and 'third' information level is another major task of the future work.The experience of the past three decades shows that genetic diversity is the basis of the balance between the development of pathogens and that of agricultural crops. It is the prerequisite of an efficient, ecologically minded agriculture with a low input of pesticides. The period of effectiveness of resistance genes was short, because only one or two genes conditioned the resistance in all registered barley cultivars. For instance the 'Trumpf' resistance to mildew and leaf rust was effective for 4 and 2 years only, respectively. In this time the number of available resistance genes decreased and the amount of fungicides applied and hence the environmental pollution increased.The knowledge of the coevolution of pathogens and host plants in natural plant populations led to new strategies in plant breeding and agricultural farming. Such strategies are: the use of different genes in winter and spring cultivars, growing of cultivars with different genes in one region, or use of different mechanisms of resistance, e.g. quantitative resistance. However, the implementation of these strategies requires a sufficient number of genes. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated Plants (BAZ) is to identify and characterize new sources of resistance, using the diversity available in genebank accessions. Wild relatives and landraces are screened. The genetic basis and the type of resistance are determined by means of classical, biochemical and molecular genetic methods. Pre-breeding programmes are developed to transfer new genes for resistance in cultivars.This evaluation work of BAZ is the continuation of a long and fruitful tradition of cooperation between the genebank and phytopathologists. In 1955, Nover and Mansfeld started the first screening for resistance of barley to mildew (Nover and Mansfeld 1955). The work was continued and extended for leaf and stripe rust by Nover and Lehmann. For a full list of references about this evaluation programme, see Hammer et al. (1994). In the early 1970s, the Institute of Cereal Research Bernburg-Hadmersleben and the Institute of Phytopathology in Aschersleben carried out this work (Walther and Lehmann 1980;Walther 1982Walther , 1990;;Hartleb and Walther 1983;Proeseler andLehmann 1986, 1987;Geißler et al. 1989;Proeseler et al. 1989;Habekuß and Lehmann 1991). The results of this screening to the end of 1991 are summarized in Table 1. Since the foundation of BAZ, the investigations of barley germplasm for resistance to aphids, viruses such as BYDV, BaMMV, BaYMV-1 and BaYMV-2, and fungal diseases such as leaf rust (Puccinia hordei) and net blotch (Pyrenophora teres) have been continued (Table 2).In addition, the resistant samples found are tested for resistance to mildew (Erysiphe graminis) and stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis). The tests are carried out in different ways:• in field trials with artificial inoculation, normally with one high virulent isolate (leaf rust) or a mixture of relevant isolates • as a seedling test with defined single isolates of the different pathogens in greenhouses or climatic chambers • by means of special methods in laboratories, such as leaf segment tests, measurement of enzyme activities or ELISA.The first step is the selection of barley samples with resistance to one pathogen. In the next step, the material resistant to one of the important diseases is tested for resistance to all other important diseases. The aim is to identify genotypes with a complex resistance to most of the pathogens. The results show that genotypes combining resistance to several diseases are very rare. Therefore, pre-breeding programmes were developed to combine resistance from different sources in one genotype.The aphids are important in a twofold sense, first as a sucking pest and second as vectors of plant-pathogenic viruses. Up to now the number of tested barley accessions is relatively low because the effort in the work with aphids is very high. The results in Table 3  (Schliephake and Geißler 1975) show significant differences in comparison to the susceptible control 'Erfa'. The multiplication rate of the aphids is a good indicator for the host resistance.Resistance mechanisms of plants to virus-transmitting aphids include the inability of the aphids to transmit the virus and the inability of the virus to multiply in the plant. Important for the infection of plants by viruses is the number of aphids settled on a single plant, and the penetration of the aphid stylets in the plant tissue (Fig. 1). Comparisons of the stylet penetrations with the 'electrical penetration graph' (EPG) on different Hordeum genotypes show that especially the salivation time in the phloem is very short in the resistant clone of Hordeum bulbosum. The saliva is the means of transport for the virus particles.In Germany the barley yellow dwarf viruses are the most important viruses transmitted by aphids. In contrast to the other barley diseases, there is no resistance to BYDV, only tolerance. In all selected BYDV-tolerant genotypes the presence of virus was detected by means of ELISA, but yield losses were lower than in susceptible cultivars. The tests were carried out under field conditions. The infection success was guaranteed by early planting of infection stripes in the middle of August and of the accessions to be studied in the first decade of September. The activity of aphids and, therefore, the infection pressure is high at this time. In addition the barley samples were tested in climatic chambers by means of aphids infected with defined viruses. Since 1992 two genotypes with tolerance to BYDV were found in 856 accessions tested. Equally as important as the BYDV are the soilborne barley mosaic viruses, transmitted by the soil fungus Polymyxa graminis. Evaluation started at the beginning of the 1980s when the first symptoms were found in contaminated areas. The barley entries were tested in trials on contaminated fields and in climatic chambers by inoculation with defined virus strains (Habekuß and Proeseler 1995). The results are presented in Table 4. In contrast to BYDV, real resistance was found, and the plants are virus-free. The reaction of barley genotypes to BaMMV and the two strains of BaYMV was different. Four reaction types were observed. For 46 barleys the investigations were finished and the reaction patterns were classified. Nine genotypes are resistant to all three viruses. The accessions with BYDV tolerance were tested to the barley mosaic viruses, Pyrenophora teres and Puccinia hordei (Table 5). Only three barleys were tolerant or resistant to all viruses, one of them was additionally resistant to net blotch. In summary, six out of ten genotypes possess -besides the resistance to one or two barley mosaic viruses -resistance to net blotch, but none was resistant to leaf rust. The fungal diseases of barley are very important and, in contrast to BYDV, the protection of plants by means of agronomic measures such as optimal time of planting is not possible. Therefore the search for new genes for resistance has the longest tradition. In the 1960s, mildew was the most important disease. With the creation of mildew-resistant cultivars, the importance of leaf rust increased. At the beginning of the 1980s, leaf rust and mildew resistant cultivars were grown and the importance of net blotch increased. Assisted by weather conditions this disease gained more and more importance because the actual cultivars have no resistance. An overview of the most important evaluation methods is given in Box 1.The seedling test for determination of vertical resistance genes and the field tests have a long tradition. Especially the latter have a central importance. Because of weather conditions, artificial infection in field trials is not successful in every year. Therefore, in order to shorten the selection time, different methods -such as leaf segment tests with leaves of different stages of plants and enzyme tests -were developed or modified (Kopahnke and Nachtigall 1995;Müller et al. 1996b). In general, the correlation of results of field trials and these methods ranged between 0.7 and 0.9.In the last six years, 496 accessions of Hordeum spontaneum and 400 accessions of H. vulgare were tested for resistance to net blotch. The resistance to net blotch is a quantitative resistance, and differences between the entries are gradual. Since the field trials depend on the environmental conditions, laboratory methods are very helpful. The results of the leaf segment tests show highly significant genotype × isolate interactions (Fig. 2).The number of samples resistant to the low aggressive isolate 'Amelung' is significantly higher than to the more aggressive isolate Re Bu. Therefore, the resistant samples were tested with isolates possessing different degrees of aggressiveness. The determination of enzyme activity as a measure for the resistance level is shown in Figure 3. In most cases the results are in accordance with those from the leaf segment tests. The evaluation work for resistance of barley to leaf rust started in the 1970s. In the past 6 years, more than 1000 accessions were tested. The results are shown in Table 6. The very intensive breeding and the ability of leaf rust to overcome new resistance genes led to a quick breakdown of efficiency of genes (Prochnow and Walther 1996). This was followed by an intensive search for new sources of resistance. The results show that new sources of effective vertical resistance were not found in Hordeum vulgare. Therefore, it is necessary to work with other, not so closely related barley species. Partial resistance was found in H. vulgare and H. spontaneum. The accessions of H. spontaneum with leaf rust resistance were tested also to mildew, net blotch and stripe rust (Table 7). Barleys with a complex resistance to some diseases were found more frequently in H. spontaneum than in H. vulgare. Most of the 41 resistant entries were also resistant to at least one of the other diseases, and one genotype was resistant to all four diseases.It is not only important to find new genes for resistance. The value of such work is determined by the characterization and localization of these new genes (Walther 1983(Walther , 1990)). In Table 8, the genetic hypothesis for one part of the leaf rust resistant Hordeum spontaneum accessions is demonstrated. At least four new genes (two dominant and two recessive ones) were found.Two research projects deal with the development of RFLP markers for this material. The use of new vertical genes is one possible strategy. In the future, emphasis will be given to increasing the durability of efficiency of these genes. Breeding for partial or quantitative resistance seems to be the best way in this direction.In summary, 442 barley accessions with different levels of partial resistance were selected in the past 20 years. As a rule not so many genes are responsible (Walther 1991a;Müller et al. 1996). For instance, four genes were determined in the cultivar 'Emir' (Walther 1991b). It is important to combine genes complementing each other. Therefore, it is necessary to    Fig. 6. Improvement of the level of partial resistance to leaf rust of new breeding lines compared with the highly susceptible L94 and the partially resistant 'Vada'.Table 10 gives a short overview of results obtained since 1992 and the practical use of the selected resistant material. In a project with the German Society of Breeding the lines handed over were tested in the breeding stations. The best lines were included in crossing programmes. On the other side, results from many locations and conclusions about the stability of resistance under different environmental conditions were thus received. The use of this material in breeding increases the diversity in breeding material and last but not least in agriculture.At present the evaluation results on disease resistance found in the barley collection of the genebank of IPK Gatersleben are being registered for inclusion in a national information system for evaluation data within a cooperative project \"EVA\" financed by the German Location of safety duplicates (DUPLSITE) Code of the institute where a safety duplicate of the accession is maintained. The codes consist of 3letter ISO 3166 country code of the country where the institute is located plus number or an acronym as specified in the Institute database that will be made available by FAO. Preliminary codes (i.e.codes not yet incorporated in the FAO Institute database) start with an asterisk followed by a 3-letter ISO 3166 country code and an acronym. Multiple numbers can be added and should be separated with a semicolon.A standard notation for pedigrees was not agreed upon for the Barley Working Group, therefore, different notation schemes occur in records of the European Barley Database.Usually provided by donors of data to the European Barley Database as codes for 2 vs. 6 rows. The more detailed codes proposed in the IPGRI Descriptors for barley correspond to the convarieties used in the classification systems by several genebanks. This correspondence has been added here. For the data from the genebanks using this infraspecific classification system, the information on row number can be derived from the convariety name. This, and several other morphological characterization descriptors form the basis for classifying cultivated barleys into botanical varieties in the classification systems used by several genebanks. For the data from the genebanks using this infraspecific classification system, the information on these morphological descriptors can be derived from the varietas name.FAO WIEWS Descriptors are used in the FAO World Inventory and Early Warning System. They are optional descriptors for the EBDB.The objectives of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) include ensuring safe long-term conservation and promoting exchange and utilization. At the establishment of the ECP/GR in 1980, it was recommended that barley genetic resources be given high priority by the Programme, which in turn led to the creation of the Barley Working Group. The Group has proven to be a valuable forum for discussions on the constraints associated with each national or regional collection of barley, the exchange of germplasm, the development of joint research projects, the sharing of research results and other relevant information, and the organization of scientific exchange and training activities. Status reports of conservation activities in the Member countries are regularly being presented to the Group and workplans established to address identified problems. The European Barley Database (EBDB), compiled by joint national efforts and maintained by the Genebank in Gatersleben (Germany) as input in kind, provides the regional overview of the barley genetic resources of the member countries. Besides the reports of the Working Group meetings, this database represents the interface between the Group and potential users of the germplasm, such as breeders and researchers. Once fully developed, it will allow the rapid location of germplasm which can be selected on the basis of passport and characterization data. Finally, the ECP/GR Barley Working Group has been highly proactive in the creation of the Barley Core Collection, representing a tool to facilitate and make more effective a rational conservation and use of barley genetic resources.Today, genebanks throughout the 33 ECP/GR member countries conserve approximately 125 000 barley samples ex situ, excluding the nine associated which hold another 40 000 accessions. About 84% of the accessions belong to the cultivated species, Hordeum vulgare, whereas the closest wild relative, H. spontaneum , is represented by 22% of the accessions, and the remaining more than 30 wild species are represented by 2% of the accessions.Despite the large regional differences among European countries they all share a common interest in barley genetic resources, supporting the long history and tradition of collaboration and germplasm exchange. Because of the varying quality of National Programmes in the region -both with respect to structure, mode of operation and level of development -several threats presently act upon the collections:• general reductions in funding of agricultural research frequently affects genetic resources programmes • a strained economic situation is further aggravated by the duplication of both efforts and germplasm • the rapid transition of plant breeding from the public to the private sector, and thus more addressing of short-term goals, may lead to the negligence of genetic resources conservation • restrictions on the exchange of germplasm and collaboration of breeders may result in a narrowing of the genetic base of commercial varieties and ultimately an increased vulnerability of the barley crop.• of the following types:-cultivated varieties currently in use and newly developed varieties; -obsolete varieties; -primitive varieties or landraces; -wild populations; -breeding material (if well documented and at the discretion of the breeder); -genetic stocks.• of the following status:-material for which distribution is not restricted; -material of indigenous origin (bred or collected); -material collected or obtained from other countries, if the safe conservation of or access to this material is unsure.The inclusion in the collection of registered varieties is useful as these provide valuable traits for breeding. In many countries, however, access to this material requires prior informed consent (PIC) from breeders.1. The database Manager for the EBDB would suggest a genebank as the 'primary collection (see Annex 1) for each original accession, which would be the first step of a close interaction between the database Manager, the genebank and the respective national PGR programme to determine the 'home' of the accession. In general, this would be the country in which the accession was collected or bred. 2. National commitment would be sought for long-term conservation and access to the accessions. It is understood that this responsibility would imply a custody only, and would not be meant to have any implication of 'ownership'. 3. National programmes would be requested to provide the database Manager a list of accessions for which the country would agree to take long-term conservation responsibility on behalf of the ECP/GR member countries. A copy of this list would be deposited with the ECP/GR Coordinator. 4. The database Manager would record the institute that holds the primary collection in the EBDB for that accession under the descriptor 'Holder of primary collection'.The primary collection would: 1. Ensure that the material is maintained under medium-to long-term conservation conditions in compliance with international standards (FAO/IPGRI Genebank Standards); 2. Ensure that an appropriate safety-duplicate is deposited in a genebank, preferably within another ECP/GR member country, and that relevant information about this safetyduplication is provided to the EBDB Manager. 3. Respond in reasonable time to germplasm requests. In the case of shortage of seeds the requesting party may exceptionally be asked to assist in the multiplication of the accession. Requests which are clearly counter to the present initiative (e.g. Requests for most accessions in a collection) may be referred to the Barley Working Group for settlement. 4. Provide unrestricted access to the declared accessions to bona fide users from ECP/GR member countries (exemption is made for registered varieties, see above) and ensure through the use of Material Transfer Agreements that receiving parties do the same.(based on draft by R. Sackville-Hamilton 31 , member of the ECP/GR Forages Working Group, with comments by J. Weibull (JW) in italics and bracketed)According to the CBD, each country owns and is responsible for the management of its own biodiversity. Following this principle, the primary holder of each collected accession should normally be a genebank in the country of origin of the accession, provided that the genebank has the facilities and capacity to meet the terms of the European Barley Collection. Notwithstanding this, and recognizing that (a) designating a genebank as primary holder of an accession only concerns curatorship and implies nothing about ownership, and (b) maintenance of genetic integrity is of paramount importance, the choice of primary holder should not be constrained by questions of ownership. The primary holder must be able to guarantee storage and regeneration conditions that optimize maintenance of genetic integrity regardless of the origin of the accession. As such, repatriation of a seed sample will always be recommended if it has been lost from all genebanks or collections in the country of origin, but this will not necessarily be associated with repatriation of responsibility. A genebank will in most cases be designated primary holder of accessions it has collected but not of accessions donated to it. Exceptions include:• it will not be primary holder if repatriation of seed with associated repatriation of responsibility is recommended • it will not be primary holder if another genebank that collaborated in the same collecting expedition is to be sole primary holder • it will be primary holder of seed that were donated to it with explicit or implicit transfer of responsibility for maintenance.The EBDB Manager must first distinguish between accessions collected by a genebank and accessions donated to a genebank. This is done using a SOURCE passport descriptor. 32 An accession with no value in this field will not be assigned a primary holder.It is assumed that all collecting expeditions conform with the CBD and the International Undertaking. In particular, all collecting expeditions include at least one participant from the country in which the expedition is undertaken, and that visiting collectors agree to repatriate samples of seed on request. A collecting expedition undertaken without collaboration may only take place in the collector's own country.For all accessions where SOURCE = Collected by holding genebank (i.e. 1), the EBDB Manager should seek duplicated data in the COLLECTING NUMBER field. 34 The search for [JW: The Barley Working Group did not consider including this descriptor among the Multicrop Passport Descriptors; however, it should be reconsidered.] 33 [JW: Perhaps of higher relevance for the Forages Working Group; however, since the Barley Working Group also has a mandate for some wild species, these and landraces are the focus for this category.] jointly as primary holders may also be considered an option. Final designation is subject to mutual agreement between the collaborators and the EBDB Manager.Accessions that have duplicate COLLECTION NUMBERS, but SOURCE ≠ 'Collected by holding genebank', are accepted as having been derived from the original accession. The agreed primary holder of the original collection will be entered as the primary holder of all such donated accessions with duplicate COLLECTION NUMBERS.All accessions where SOURCE ≠ 'Collected by holding genebank' are considered to have been donated. The previous section deals with donated accessions that share a duplicate COLLECTION NUMBER with original collections, and therefore have been assigned a primary holder. This section deals with donated accessions that have not been assigned to an original collection. For these accessions, the EBDB Manager must distinguish between varieties (both primitive and advanced) and other accessions.For varieties, the EBDB Manager should conduct a simple search for historical duplicates using only the ACCESSION NAME passport data field. The search should not involve detailed inspection and correction of similar names, where differences have arisen through errors of transcription, transliteration, translation, etc. Accessions should be regarded as duplicate varieties if parsed components of the accession name are identical. For each distinct name, the EBDB Manager should inspect the origin(s) of accessions with that name. If there appears to be a single origin for accessions sharing the same name, the EBDB Manager should suggest a primary holder based on that origin. If there appears to be more than one distinct origin for accessions sharing the same name, the EBDN Manager should suggest a primary holder for each group.• For all types of accession, the EBDB Manager must distinguish between donations made with or without associated transfer of responsibility. This is achieved by reference to the SOURCE passport descriptor described earlier.• For accessions where SOURCE = donated with responsibility, the genebank will be the designated primary holder. • For accessions where SOURCE = donated without responsibility, the genebank will not be designated primary holder. No attempt will be made to search for duplicates, so the accession will not be linked to any primary holder. • For accessions where SOURCE = donated with unknown responsibility, transfer of responsibility is assumed in the following situations:-The donor is a breeder or other scientist, as identified by (a) a non-missing entry for the BREEDING INSTITUTE passport data field, or (b) a DONOR INSTITUTE CODE that refers to an institute that has no genebank. It is assumed that the donation was made by a breeder or other scientist specifically because the genebank provides facilities for guaranteed long-term preservation. -The DONOR INSTITUTE CODE refers to an institute that (a) does not participate in the ECP/GR, or (b) that no longer exists. IPGRI will provide a list of recognised current genebanks participating in the ECO/GR. • For all accessions not meeting the above conditions, the genebank is not designated primary holder.The above protocol will leave many accession having no primary holder. Their historical uniqueness will remain unknown. The EBDB Manager may conduct a more elaborate search for potential historical duplicates, but this is not recommended as a priority activity. Moreover, one should keep in mind that each sample of a wild population or primitive variety is likely to be biologically unique because of genetic changes associated with each regeneration and each donation. This applies both to accessions with no designated primary holder, and to accessions where the holder is not the primary holder. It will be particularly true for genebanks that do not follow highest possible regeneration standards. As such, extreme caution is urged in relation to rationalizing collections based on primary holdings. In particular, no attempt should be made to eliminated an accession from a collection on the basis that is has not been assigned a primary holder.Rather, the identification of a primary holder should be used as a means of prioritizing characterization, evaluation, regeneration and distribution. A genebank should assign top priority to its accession for which it has been designated primary holder. It should assign lowest priority to those for which another genebank has been designated primary holder, and will normally refer requests for seed of such accessions to the primary holder unless there is a particular need for seed from its own sample. It should assign intermediate priority to those with unassigned primary holder. It is envisaged that the primary holder will be the normal supplier for most external users (breeders and other scientists), whilst usage of other seed samples will be restricted mainly to genebank research.[JW: An alternative approach to the concept of a primary holder and the transfer of conservation responsibility, as suggested by my colleagues M. Veteläinen and M. Huldén of the Forages Working Group, could be the use of a 'pointer system'. A 'pointer' would represent an institute holding the accession closest ('of most true origin') to the original seed sample. This system could perhaps be easier to accomplish since it would not involve the concept of 'transfer of responsibility', which often involves a political and economic dimension. According to the CBD it would always be the responsibility of national or regional genebanks to preserve germplasm from their own areas. This responsibility could also include repatriating material from other genebanks using a 'pointer to primary holder', which would be recommended by ECP/GR, but should not require any agreements between donors and receivers concerning responsibility transfer.]","tokenCount":"29260"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"754fbdd5ab89d33549fd8d89382f9c1f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57627700-b3c1-413c-b5cb-2c369639654d/retrieve","id":"-672272353"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b9ddd71e-a749-4e74-aba5-4897d395c5f1","pagecount":"38","content":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). Its mission is to advance food security, resilience and inclusive economic growth in Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific through innovations in sustainable agriculture.CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU.The use of small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) in aerial mapping applications 1 is increasingly being used as an appropriate surveying method in many sectors, particularly for agriculture. Since the use of sUAS is new to many agricultural sector players, it is useful to reflect on the costs and benefits, and related technical and operational challenges, as well as the advantages that present themselves in the practical implementation of this technology. In Africa, agricultural entrepreneurs are beginning to be exposed to sUAS technology. However, there is currently a lack of evidence of the benefits outweighing costs for emerging drone-based services, which hinders widespread adoption. Published cases of sUAS use in agricultural mapping scenarios have, to date, remained too limited to provide a sufficiently large body of work to claim that the technology has established itself as a widelyaccepted surveying method. After providing an overview of the basic characteristics of sUAS-derived mapping products in agricultural settings, this paper presents two case studies to compare the appropriateness and efficiency of sUAS-supported mapping techniques relative to other established terrestrial survey methods. A cost-benefit analysis of sUAS use of in Osona Village Development and Double DV Ranchette projects is used to exemplify the practical potential of UAV-supported mapping technology in agricultural applications.It should be pointed out that sUAS technology does not replace conventional surveying methods but provides an additional resource complimenting conventional instruments in the surveyor's equipment inventory, namely total station and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers. Furthermore, the analysis provided in this paper focuses only on those applications, or aspects thereof, in which conventional terrestrial surveys methods are currently accepted as feasible and appropriate. Conventional, manned aerial mapping techniques, LIDAR (light detecting and ranging) surveying and satellite mapping are thus not included in the cost-benefit analysis. Radiometric aspects of sUAS-supported mapping technique have also not been considered in this analysis. This analysis focuses on the spatial or geometric aspects of surveying and mapping.Because of the considerable capital requirements in classical photogrammetric map production, for which aerial imagery is acquired by means of manned aircraft carrying specialised personnel and expensive sensors, the production of raster maps has been limited to centralised institutions such as international companies or central government agencies. Moreover, because of the high mobilisation and operational costs, classic photogrammetric mapping is feasible only for projects large enough to provide the necessary economies of scale. Classical aerial mapping methods, which are technically limited to ground sampling distances (GSDs) of at best 10 cm and larger, can thus not efficiently address the need for geospatial information at the local level. This is particularly the case if the need arises frequently over relatively small areas, at short notice and if a high degree of measurement resolution is required.Digital raster maps (as produced by sUAS mapping methods) are built of contiguous data cells of equal dimensions, called pixelseach cell containing, in addition to its spatial reference information, further attributes of interest. The non-spatial attributes can be qualitative or quantitative and combinations thereof can be attached to the pixels. Hence raster maps provide continuous coverage with homogeneous resolution across the mapping area. Consequently, they typically contain much more information than is required for immediate purposes. The optimum accuracy in a raster map is determined intrinsically by the resolution i.e. the size of the individual pixels. The projected size of a pixel at scale 1:1 is referred to as the ground sampling distance (GSD). Whereas for hard copy maps, the scale of the map is used to determine the accuracy with which the position of a feature could be determined from it, GSD is the equivalent accuracy factor in digital mapping. The inherent accuracy of a good digital raster map is of the same order and proportional to a map's GSD. In other words, the smaller the GSD, the higher the accuracy of the raster map. Moreover, the accuracy of a good digital raster map can be assumed to be homogeneous across the entire mapping area. Note, however, that features with dimensions smaller than the given GSD will not be detectable on raster maps and thus cannot be surveyed by means of raster mapping with the given GSD. Typical examples of features that are difficult to survey with raster mapping are stock fences and telephone lines. Note also the obvious fact that all details obscured by overhead features, such as tree canopies, cannot be surveyed by means of raster maps derived from aerial imagery.Digital vector maps, on the other hand, are made up of pre-selected features whose locations, sizes and shapes are defined mathematically and they typically focus on specific themes mostly depicting only those features which are required for immediate purposes. The cover in vector maps is thus not necessarily continuous across the mapping area. Various features on a vector map may have been determined to varying degrees of accuracy, hence a vector map is not, by default, of homogeneous accuracy. For example, the fences of a cattle ranch may have been extracted from a 1/50,000 topographic map to an accuracy of 25 m (assuming a map reading error of 0.5 mm), whereas the centre lines of all the fire breaks may have been surveyed by means of pseudo-range-corrected GNSS to sub-metre accuracy. Furthermore, the depiction of features on a vector map is only possible by means of symbols of abstract nature. Where appropriate, symbols are generalised and thus do not correctly represent feature dimensions. For example, a brown line with a gauge of 0.5 mm may be used to depict 10 m wide district roads even though the width of the district roads may vary over the extent of the mapping terrain and even though the gauge of the symbol, when mapped at scale, does not correctly reflect the width of district roads.To date, the demand for geospatial products at local level has been met by locally-based, smaller enterprises employing proven, technically appropriate and feasible methods such as total station and/or GNSS surveying. These terrestrial methods involve the intelligent and carefully cost-optimised field collection of spatial information about selected features of interest on a 'one point at a time' basis. The feasibility of terrestrial surveying strongly relies on the powerful ability of an experienced expert who, from the perspective of eye-level altitude can optimise the number of points measured in the field to construct vector datai.e. points, lines and polygons -to adequately reflect the physical situation in the field. In raster mapping, on the other hand, the data collection is spatially continuous and homogeneous and thus does not require discipline-specific skills in the field. As long as an appropriate sensor acquires data at an appropriate resolution, all analyses can be performed off-site and by various stakeholders who do not necessarily have to visit the terrain of interest in person.The affordability and ease of use of sUAS-supported mapping technology are, for the first time, enabling small, local enterprises to also add raster mapping to their menu of geospatial services. The resulting decentralisation of raster mapping capacities will not only drastically improve on turn-around and availability of raster mapping at local level, it will also deliver such raster mapping at hitherto unknown levels of resolution and accuracy. These developments will introduce new and improved approaches in the generation and use of spatial information in the agricultural sector.Where present, air traffic regulations limit the maximum flight altitude of sUAVs to levels, typically 400 feet (or some 122 m) at which conflict with manned air traffic is very unlikely. As flying height (distance between camera and object) determines resolution, the GSD of sUAS-generated raster maps correspondingly typically varies from 1 to 10 cm. By implication, the accuracy of good quality sUAS-derived digital raster maps thus ranges from 1-20 cm. This high level of raster mapping accuracy is for all practical purposes equivalent to that achieved by conventional terrestrial survey methods. Hence sUAS mapping technology can be expected to play a significant role in conventional surveying applications.Moreover, since GSD is a function of camera geometry and flying height, the desired accuracy in sUAS raster mapping can easily be tailored to the specific purpose of a raster map. In GNSS surveying, on the other hand, there are only three distinct accuracy levels: cm level for carrier phase-based, integer ambiguity resolved (fixed) solutions, sub-metre for pseudo-range corrected solutions (referred to as differential GPS) and 3-10 m for satellitebased augmentation service (SBAS) corrected positioning. In total station surveying the accuracy is constantly at cm level. This means that, of the available surveying methods, the relatively affordable sUAS-supported option offers the most flexible control over the level of resolution, and therefore, accuracy, in the output.Because a digital raster map provides continuous coverage, it tends to contain more information than is needed for any specific or immediate purpose. Except for the choice in sensor (infrared, multispectral, hyperspectral or visible light), raster maps are not themedriven and any exposed feature of sufficient size or spectral signature to be detectable in the aerial (raster) imagery, will appear on the resulting raster map. While this level of completeness has unquestionable advantages over conventional vector mapping, it comes at the cost of sizeable data volumes. In this regard, it is important to realise that the relation between data volume and resolution is exponential as shown in Figure 1. From a data management perspective, the fundamental difference between vector and raster maps is that the former is in the form of purposefully selected, highly concentrated, mathematically defined feature sets, whereas the latter is in the form of much larger and much less defined information. Vector data is much more efficiently analysed and processed than raster data. In fact, the challenge of using high resolution raster maps in agriculture lies in the efficient extraction of essential, vectorised information from massive data sets. Wherever such extraction cannot be achieved by means of automated classifications typically used in remote sensing and other terrain analysis techniques, this challenge is most efficiently addressed by what is referred to as 'virtual surveying'.Models created by means of the structure-from-motion (SfM) method from UAV acquired aerial imagery can be imported by powerful visualisation and geographic information systems (GIS) and thus allow for highly efficient 'virtual surveying' techniques. Instead of traversing the physical terrain on foot or ground vehicle, the 'virtual surveyor' uses his computer mouse to place himself effortlessly anywhere in the model.While the burden for completeness in raster mapping comes in the form of large data volumes and processing loads, the advantage is that the outcome of a sUAS mapping project is an authentic, impartial, highly realistic and objective digital record of the mapping area as it appeared during a very compressed period of observationi.e. during the duration of the image acquisition campaign. This record can easily be disseminated to diverse stakeholders. When visualised in 2.5D 3 or 3D, the record becomes a scalable replica of the real world, in other words, a virtual world. To obtain information about a site conventionally i.e. by direct, personal observation, an observer (surveyor, geologist, engineer, farmer, land owner, soil scientist or hydrologist) is dispatched to the field where the amazing interpretative capacities of the human brain are employed to gather purposespecific information as economically as possibleall of it mostly from a vantage point with an altitude set to the height of the human eye. Not only does this approach for information gathering require specialised skills in appropriate observation and measurement techniques, the logistical challenges of navigating the observer and his equipment over real terrain to the specific points of interest must be overcome as economically as possible. Difficulty in detecting and gaining physical access to features of interest in rough terrain can often render a mapping project uneconomic or unfeasible. Moreover, to collect information related to a variety of disciplines (e.g. engineer, geologist, botanist etc.), a site may have to be physically visited by various experts and, in some cases, multiple times by the same observer. In contrast, much of the real-world information can instead be brought to the relevant observer in the form of the virtual world produced by sUAS mapping techniques. While such virtual worlds may not be of sufficient resolution for all purposes, they certainly do facilitate extremely efficient observations by a number of diverse people, from stakeholder to professional service provider, all in the comfort of their home or office. And since sUASderived virtual worlds are generally of a very high resolution and very efficiently explored (visualising the landscape from endless viewpoints), they can be easily interpreted without any map interpretation skillsthus breaking down communication barriers between lay persons and experts and virtually inviting much wider and more informed participation in land use planning than has been possible in conventional mapping contexts.The advantage of sUAS, in combination with SfM, over conventional mapping methods in producing virtual worlds is, of course, not easily and directly quantifiable for cost-benefit analysis purposes. The qualitative benefits, most importantly perhaps the improvement of informed participation of the land occupants, are certainly irrefutable and should be considered in addition to quantifiable cost factors when choosing an appropriate mapping technique for a project.Having elaborated on some of the qualitative advantages of sUAS-supported mapping techniques, we now look at quantifiable comparisons between these and conventional surveying methods as applied to two specific mapping applications.To provide land for much needed affordable housing in Namibia, a tract of 1,500 ha, formerly used for cattle grazing, was purchased from a farmer in April 2012. The land became available for residential development purposes after it was incorporated into abutting municipal lands of an established town.In November 2013, a firm of land surveyors was appointed to perform a topographic survey over an extent of 795 ha of land (see Figure 2). The survey results were to be used by civil engineers and town planners in the design of municipal bulk and distribution infrastructure (sewage collection, roads, water supply, electricity and storm water drainageoften the same elements as encountered in intensive agricultural development). Accordingly, a horizontal accuracy of 20 cm and a contour interval of 50 cm were specified for the topographic map. The topographic survey was to include fences, gates, power lines, roads, railways and all other visible man-made features. All mapping was to be performed on the official coordinate system of Namibiai.e. the Schwarzeck Lo22/17 Coordinate System.  Prior to image acquisition, 32 evenly distributed ground control points (GCPs) were placed and surveyed for precise geo-referencing. Figure 5 shows the spatial distribution of the GCPs. An all-terrain vehicle (ATV) and a handheld GPS navigator were used to place GCPs in their pre-planned positions. Real time kinematic (RTK 5 ) GNSS survey methods were used to determine accurate coordinates of the GCPs on the given coordinate system. carried out in four batches which, on completion, were merged into one continuous project using GCPs for registration. Figure 6 shows the alignment of the 6,023 aerial images and the distribution of the 32 GCPs. The 6 cm orthophoto 6 was directly exported from Photoscan Professional to geotiff 7 and subsequently ecw 8 formats. After thinning out the surface mesh to a density of approximately 10 points per m 2 , the image was exported to a GIS package for filtering and editing purposes. To begin with, all above-ground artefacts (in this case, mainly the vegetation) had to be removed from the surface model. The first filtering iteration was carried out by extracting local minima of elevation in given cell sizes. Subsequent filtering iterations were based on manual inspection. Filtering out the artefacts in the way described above results in loss of definition of breaklines. These had to be re-established manually to produce a realistic and accurate terrain model in order to generate 50 cm contours. Figure 7 shows the final, adopted digital surface model (DSM).6 See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthophoto: An orthophoto, orthophotograph or orthoimage is an aerial photograph or image geometrically corrected (\"orthorectified\") such that the scale is uniform: the photo has the same lack of distortion as a map. Unlike an uncorrected aerial photograph, an orthophotograph can be used to measure true distances, because it is an accurate representation of the Earth's surface, having been adjusted for topographic relief,[1] lens distortion, and camera tilt.7 See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoTIFF and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIFF 8 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECW_(file_format) The orthophoto and DSM produced by means of UAV mapping were then used in a GIS (Global Mapper) to trace all features of interest and save them in vector format. This process is generally referred to as 'heads-up digitising'.The most efficient pre-UAV method for producing topographic maps in the type of terrain under consideration in this analysis would be by means of RTK or post processed kinematic 9 (PPK) GNSS surveying.To optimise efficiency, a topographic survey is typically divided into two separate operations. Firstly, terrain surface capturing and, secondly, feature capturing. As general terrain surface points do not require special coding, the equipment is set up in continuous mode, continuously recording a position at a specified time or distance interval without any human interference. Breaklines are automatically generated through relative high linear point density. If the linear point density of a breakline is higher than the neighbouring general terrain point density, the breakline is defined inherently without coding or stringing. Making use of this principle significantly reduces the human effort in kinematic terrain modelling. Feature points, on the other hand, require some form of coding to reliably 'connect the dots'.Coding requires a stop-and-go operation with the operator entering a point name and/or point code to correctly allocate the point as a vertex to a feature. The separation of the above operations is an essential requirement for efficient topographic mapping.To improve mobility -a very significant efficiency factor in 'one point at a time' surveying methods, such as terrain modelling -an RTK or PPK GNSS rover is typically mounted to an ATV, which is then intelligently and systematically driven across the mapping area to capture the terrain as accurately as is dictated by the contour interval (see Figure 8). To provide for sufficient redundancy, to ensure full coverage and to monitor progress, a grid is typically superimposed on the terrain and used as a 'flight plan' to capture terrain points in a systematic fashion. The 'flight plan' is uploaded to a wide area augmentation service (WAAS) enabled handheld GPS navigator (or navigation-enabled cell phone)much like uploading a flight plan to a UAV flight controller -to aid the operator in steering the ATV to an accuracy of about 5 m true to the flight plan. While the grid lines provide the spatial backbone for systematic navigation in the terrain point acquisition, the most important features, the breaklines, are systematically picked up and traced to the left and right of a gridline as they are encountered. The efficient tracing of breaklines requires experience and intelligent terrain interpretation. Being too sensitive will render the operation uneconomical; being too efficient (by liberally generalising) will result in inaccurate modelling. To avoid duplication, the navigation device continuously displays the updated ATV track, thus showing the operator whether a grid line or breakline has already been captured or not.Grid spacingand therefore level of effortcritically depends on surface complexity. Smoothly shaped surfaces require sparser line spacing than broken surfaces. Drainage patterns are a particularly critical workload factor in conventional terrain modelling. Each channel has at least two tops of banks and two bottoms of bankthus adding significantly to the mileage to be traced by the ATV. For the type of terrain, such as in the Osona village case, a maximum line spacing of 50 m would seem to be appropriate. This terrain type would allow for an average ATV speed of 5 km/h (or about 1.4 m/s). Most GNSS RTK or PPK setups record at a rate of 1 Hz, thus yielding trajectories with a linear density of one point about every 1.5 m. Where sharp bends in linear features are critical, the speed needs to be reduced, or the ATV stopped momentarily, to make sure that the vertex is captured correctly. In addition to the terrain, all infrastructural features are 'picked up' at regular intervals and at vertices defining their shapes. Each vertex is named and/or coded for proper identification during the drafting process. This aspect involves carefully managed sequencing in the surveying of the features and in making sure that the individual points are correctly connected to accurately reflect the features' shapes and positions.Table 2 and Table 3 show a comparison of various production efforts between the two techniques described above. Note that the time variables for the terrestrial GNSS RTK are estimates based on extensive experience and expertise in this type of mapping and that these could be significantly larger if the survey was performed by an inexperienced person.For this project, the UAV mapping approach relied on an extensive network of GCPs. The high vertical accuracy required for the specified 50 cm contour interval may have been the main consideration in the extensive design of the GCP spatial distribution. Surveying the GCPs required the use of the same equipment that would have been used in a conventional survey. Hence the UAV-related equipment must be seen as additional tools rather than as replacement of existing tools. Table 4 provides the minimum estimated prices of the additional equipment and software that were needed to produce the map with UAV methods.Notwithstanding the fact that the drone was executing the actual image acquisition in automatic mode, fixed wing platform operations do require a considerable degree of flying skills. The costs for developing not only such flying skills, but also the skills to perform the SfM workflow should thus be added to the acquisition costs tabulated above. Figure 9 shows a comparison of the number of days from start to finish, as well as the number of field and office person days, between the conventional and the UAV/SfM survey methods. In return for the extra US$20 000 investment in UAV and SfM processing resources, and additionally for development of the relevant skills, the following gains were made in terms of mapping productivity and utilisation of capital: The UAV mapping method could complete the project in 13.5 calendar days versus 24.8 days that would have been needed if the work had been performed conventionally. In other words, the UAV method could deliver in 50.4%, or just over half of the turn-around time that a conventional approach would have required.  The UAV approach results in a significant reduction in time spent in the field. Only 3 days were needed for data collection with a UAV versus 20.8 days that would have been needed had the work been carried out conventionally.  The cost ratio between field person day and office person day varies from project to project. Factors, such as the distance between project location and nearest available accommodation facilities, local road conditions and risks related to weather and crew safety, have significantly larger effect on overall execution costs than factors related to time spent in a controlled environment such as a local or a remote office.  Field operations require significantly more capital and resources than office work. This means that it is easier to boost office production than it is the case with field operations. An extra computer and related software to equip a second person in the time-consuming task of filtering terrain points and editing the surface model derived from the SfM process would cost a fraction of equipping a second conventional crew in the field. Hence, in cases where delivery time is critical, the UAV approach has the advantage of scaling up production rates at a lesser cost than the conventional approach.  Assuming a nominal labour charge-out rate of US$30/hour (US$240/day) for office work and US$60/hour (US$480/day) for field work, the use of the UAV/SfM technique resulted in a saving of US$6,984 as shown in Table 5. At the assumed charge-out rates, these savings amount to 35% of the acquisition costs incurred in the gearing up towards added UAV/SfM capacities.  The final delivery included, in addition to the minimum specified topographical information in vector format, a high accuracy digital terrain model as well as a high accuracy, high resolution orthophoto. These raster data sets, delivered at no extra charge as by-products of the UAV mapping method, contain a wealth of information that, although not required in terms of the immediate purposes of the survey, was later used for other purposes, such as environmental impact assessments and geo-hydrological investigations.The Double DV Ranchette, located in central Missouri, USA, comprises an agricultural smallholding of some 11.6 ha. Originally consisting of cropland (alternating maize and beans), the land has been converted to a sheep farm. An additional undeveloped tract of some 8.9 ha was acquired in March 2016 to increase grazing capacity for a herd of some 100 sheep.A survey of the new, undeveloped tract was needed to: verify the correct alignment of perimeter fencing relative to cadastral boundaries  design grazing paddocks  determine the number and distribution of trees to be removed from the pastures; and  provide enough control points for setting out of new fence corners.The survey brief entails the following specific items: search, identify, survey and verify parcel corners  place and survey 38 suitably distributed survey points for setting out purposes  provide 0.5 m contours along the central service path over a distance of 340 m; and  survey all invader species trees in the area outside the forest.The terrain is smooth. In places, it is covered densely by sage orange and thorny locust trees of varying sizes. The long thorns of both species present serious access problems for survey crews. Dense, impenetrable rows of juniper trees occur along dilapidated fence lines. Figure 10 to Figure 12 illustrate the nature of the terrain as it appears from eye-level height. Having his land previously mapped by UAV-supported mapping technique, the owner decided to also have the additionally purchased land surveyed in this way. To meet the planning and mapping purposes appropriately, the expected mapping precision was determined to be in the region of 10 cm.In this case, the UAV was equipped with technology that provided for very accurate determination of camera exposure positions (CEPs). Accurately determining the camera position by means of PPK GNSS can significantly reduce, or eliminate, the dependence on GCPs for geo-referencing. The expected absolute accuracy of mapping in this way is less than 10 cm. Since none of the purposes of this project depended on absolute superpositioning of other geospatial data sets, it was decided to forego the use of GCPs and to rely only on the use of CEPs.A flight plan was designed to obtain a GSD of 12.5 mmsufficient to positively identify the trees to be removed from the pastures and, if ever necessary, to detect and correctly map existing fences. Using a Sony a6000 camera with a 16 mm fixed focal length lens mounted on a quad copter, the effective altitude above ground turned out to be about 57 m. The total number of images was 533 acquired in a single 20-minute flight. Figure 13 shows the equipment used in this survey. Before acquiring the aerial imagery, the 38 demarcated survey control points and the unobstructed parcel boundary corner monuments were pre-marked with targets large enough to be positively identifiable on the imagery and resulting orthophoto as shown in Figure 14. Figure 15 shows one of the parcel boundary corner monuments prior to being pre-marked. It is obviously too small to be detected on imagery with GSD even as high as 12.5 mm. Hence the need for pre-marking.  For absolute positioning of the map on the local datum, the coordinates of a reference point had to be determined. This was achieved by occupying a suitably located point with a dual frequency GNSS receiver for a period of at least 30 mins. The raw observations recorded by the reference receiver were uploaded to a positioning service, which returns absolute coordinates automatically via e-mail. 10 To provide differential corrections for the drone-mounted GNSS receiver, a GNSS reference station had to be set up for the duration of the image acquisition flight.In practice, the same reference station observations can be used to: firstly, determine the absolute coordinates of the reference station; and, secondly, provide differential corrections for precise positioning of the drone-mounted GNSS rover. Hence, the reference station was set up once only and operated for a period that included the entire duration of the image acquisition flight.After completion of the flight, the aerial images were downloaded and inspected for quality. The raw GNSS observations of both reference station and drone-mounted rover were also downloaded and converted to receiver-independent exchange (RINEX) format. The reference station receiver observations were then uploaded to a cloud-based positioning service. Once the reference station coordinates were returned by the positioning service, the computation of the rover trajectory and the individual CEPs relative to the local coordinate system could begin. The CEPs were then allocated to image file namesi.e. the images were geo-tagged with precise coordinates. The geo-tagged images were then processed in a fully automated SfM processing batch. Since the images were tagged with precise coordinates, there was no need to manually observe GCP image coordinatesa considerable saving in the manual SfM workflow input. Figure 16 confirms very good correlation between the measured CEPs and their equivalent relative positions as determined in the SfM mapping workflow. On completion of the SfM workflow, an orthophoto and a DSM were exported to a GIS so that coordinates of the pre-marked survey control and boundary points could be extracted by means of 'virtual' surveying.The survey of an obscured parcel corner (hidden from above by a tree) was carried out by means of trilateration. Using a 50 m long measuring tape, the distances from two nearby, pre-marked survey points to the obscured parcel corner were measured. These distances represent the radii of two circles centred on their respective survey points. One of the two intersections of the two circles represents the position of the point in question (see Figure 17). Although very primitive, this approach to using map and tape significantly reduces the level (and cost) of technology and skills needed in the field for surveying obscured features or for the setting out of construction works.Using the cadastral survey diagram and the field-identified, pre-marked boundary monuments, the parcel perimeter was drawn on a layer in GIS. For verification purposes, the distances measured (in GIS) between the boundary corners were compared with the distances shown on the original land survey diagram. Once the boundaries were verified in this way, an optimum alignment for a predator-proof perimeter fence could be designed.Finally, all the 920 trees to be removed from the pastures could be identified on the orthophoto and mapped in order to estimate costs for their removal. The first step using conventional mapping methods would have been to set up a GNSS reference station to obtain absolute reference coordinates via an on-line positioning service and to provide for differential corrections for a rover with which to perform the survey work.Using the official cadastral survey information, the parcel corners could then be systematically searched and, if found in a GNSS-enabled location, surveyed with the GNSS rover. For the obscured parcel corner, at least two nearby auxiliary points would have had to be placed and surveyed to provide control for a small total station survey of the obscured corner.The surveyor would then have to download the parcel corner coordinates and total station measurements and verify that the positions of the found parcel corners correspond to official cadastral survey data.The next step would be the collection of enough terrain points to produce 0.5 m contours along the service road. Finally, the trees would be surveyed with sufficient auxiliary measurements to correctly position their inaccessible centres. My estimate is that a very motivated person could survey a tree, on average, in three minutes.After downloading the field data, the surveyor would have to spend some time drafting the final plan to be delivered to the client. Table 6 and Table 7 offer a comparison of inputs and related quantities needed to complete the assignment using the two different techniques.   Perhaps the most significant benefit of using a PPK-enabled UAV/SfM solution is that the image acquisition and processing workflow does not include the provision of GCPs and is thus virtually fully automatable; hence requiring only a fraction of skilled human input time that would have been required in a conventional survey.  The final deliverables included (in addition to the minimum specified topographical information in vector format) a high accuracy digital terrain model, as well as a high accuracy, high resolution orthophoto. These raster data sets, delivered at no extra charge as by-products of the UAV mapping method, contain a wealth of information (compare Figure 19 and Figure 20) that, although not required in terms of the immediate purposes of the survey, could eventually be used for multiple other purposes, such as environmental impact assessments and pasture quality monitoring.  A high resolution, high precision model, such as the one produced in this survey, avoids the need for expensive survey equipment for construction stake-outs. Pre-marked points can be placed in strategic positions from which nearby construction works can be staked using simple measuring tapes instead of expensive survey equipment (total stations and/or RTK GNSS) operated by highly skilled personnel. As illustrated in these case studies, UAV and SfM mapping methods have some obvious quantitative and qualitative advantages over conventional survey methods, which result in significant operational cost savings. As shown in Table 4, a small UAV/SfM mapping operation, capable of acquiring and processing aerial imagery to produce orthophotos and 3-D terrain models, can be equipped for US$20,000. Such an operation would rely on the provision of GCP surveying by means of conventional methods, such as total station or RTK surveying. As was the case in the DD-Ranch mapping project, this dependence on conventional surveying for GCP-based geo-referencing can be eliminated by the addition of a light-weight drone-mountable dual frequency GNSS receiver paired with a reference station for accurate RTK or PPK surveying of the CEPs. This optional addition to the basic equipment would cost less than US$10,000 and has the advantage that, except for the actual launching and landing of the UAV, the complete image acquisition and georeferencing elements of the UAV/SfM workflow can be staged with zero physical impact on the terrain and, perhaps more importantly, be executed virtually automatically without need for any surveying or remote piloting skills in the field. In other words, the equipment needed to perform 'A-to-Z' SfM mapping can be purchased for some US$30,000.Nevertheless, UAV SfM technology in general only enhances or improves conventional survey methods. It does not altogether replace the need for conventional surveying (yet). One general limitation in SfM mapping is that only those features that are directly depicted on the aerial images can be modelled. Conventional methods are still needed for the","tokenCount":"5858"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"21e02245717cc1ef911e760b85ccef31","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/453c766b-67c4-4b37-a26f-0aaf678cee70/retrieve","id":"-96539607"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ceb19b30-7aaf-4a42-8bea-9b1e0b3c9832","pagecount":"22","content":"1. Summary A workshop was held for regulators and researchers in livestock genetics from several different African and European countries to look at the current state of implementation and the related challenges of national policy and/or regulation on Access and Benefit Sharing.Most of the countries represented were at the early stages of implementing ABS for research with animal genetic resources for food and agriculture (AnGRFA).The following key themes emerged as areas where there are needs for further capacity development, especially in term of trans-or supra-national action and support:• Harmonisation and standardisation of policies, regulations and procedures internationally and/or between collaborating countries, • Capacity development (local and national),• Communication with and sensitisation of stakeholders at all levels,• Ownership and benefit tracking, • Digital sequence information, • Web based information and process management, • Integration of ABS into project planning form the start.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTLGH) collaborated to run an international workshop to explore the issues related to the successful implementation of the Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) elements of the Nagoya Protocol and related national ABS regulation with respect to livestock research. The workshop was also supported by the multi-donor ABS Capacity Development Initiative, hosted by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and by the CGIAR Livestock CRP.The aim of this workshop was to bring together leading researchers and national regulators from countries in which ILRI and CTLGH are accessing AnGRFA to address the following objectives:• To determine the current state of play in terms of institutional capacities to implement and to comply with such existing national ABS systems• To identify possible gaps in the national ABS systems concerning access to (privately owned) AnGRFA and other genetic resources for food and agriculture which are not covered by the Multilateral System of the ITPGRFA • To identify capacity building needs to work with or to improve existing national ABS systems • To discuss an action plan for a collaborative approach to address capacity building needs • To identify the sources of available support and how to access themTwenty-seven researchers, regulators and subject matter experts convened for a two-day workshop at ILRI in Nairobi, Kenya. There was formal representation from Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Nigeria and Malawi with additional international input from researchers and experts supporting national approaches to ABS implementation. Appendix 1 lists the participants.In preparation, each participating country regulator was asked to fill out a form (Appendix 2) outlining the current position with regards to ABS activity related to AnGRFA.• ABS for AnGRFA is regulated in 5 of the 6 countries present: ET: ABS Proclamation and Regulations KE: ABS Regulations MW: ABS Regulations and other NG: ABS Policy UG: ABS Regulations and Animal Breeding Act TZ: no ABS framework • Across the five countries completing the form, there was a range of between zero and three AnGRFA-based ABS contracts having been negotiated. This indicates that it is early days for all of the countries and that there is a significant opportunity for the regulators to share experience to date, whilst also working together to refine processes and documentation. This would support the general desire for intercountry harmonisation of standards and processes.• Four of the five countries are aiming for a maximum period 'from demand to permit' of 90 days. The fifth country is aiming at a period of 30 days.This section draws out some of the highlights from the table sessions. (Appendix 3 contains the full feedback from the table session)• Session 1: What are the issues for you that would be most helpful for you if they were resolved and priorities?From a researcher perspective, the priorities focused on improving the understanding of ABS processes and ensuring donor organisations also understood them. Additionally, the need to standardise required documentation across provider countries and institutions was seen as desirable.From a regulator perspective, key issues related to development a clear system for defining ownership (genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge) and tracking benefits, promoting awareness of the role of the ABS regulator and improving capacity both nationally and in local communities.There was considerable congruence across the country groups for there to be improved communication of ABS principles and practice to both national and local stakeholders. This also extended to the desire for increased 'trans-boundary' harmonisation. Additionally, there was the desire for there to be sufficient funding to support 'ABS service' delivery and capacity developmentThis session focused on how to incorporate ABS into daily operations rather than it being a discrete business process. The suggestions ranged from training all staff in ABS and/or having subject matter experts on hand to act as an institutional \"help desk\". A key proposal was for ABS and its attendant costs to be incorporated into project proposals and planning from an early stage.• Session 4a: What has been the learning relevant for your country/institution?In addition to general awareness raising, regularly expressed was the desire to move to a web-based PIC, MAT and ABS permit support service and for countries to harmonise their national laws with international ABS law. There was recognition of the need for partnership working, not just between research institutions and regulators, but also between countries.• Session 4b: What should be done supra-nationally?In this session teams were asked to nominate issues that they felt should be addressed on a trans-national basis. A vote was held in order to achieve a collective understanding of priorities. The issues deemed to have the highest priority for international action were as follows:One of the primary issues raised has been the need to ensure that focus is broadened beyond just the 'access' issues to include 'benefit identification and tracking'. This may be an indication that many organisations and jurisdictions are still coming to grips with the basics of implementing procedures to support the PIC/MAT and permit processes and that active monitoring of benefits has not yet been addressed.The following gives an indication of issues to be taken into account for any future workshops. (The full results are presented in Appendix 5)What topics would you like to see addressed at any future events?• Would be interesting to follow-up whether this workshop resulted in any change in practice (at both scientists and national partner level)  Country 1:• Research and commercial benefits that can be shared need to be requirements and make available to researchers 4. Continued regional ABS coordination meetings 5. ABS national focal point to publish clear guidelines on ABS on the/a website to guide researchers --------------------6. Establish a platform of trained ABS experts from relevant sectors (both technical and legal) 7. Curriculum of universities (module under Bio-Ethics) 8. Embedded in list of considerations in project design 9. Reflect timelines of ABS on project design --------------------12. An \"awareness community\" ---------------------13. Countries to provide timelines for the ABS process 14. Capacity at the national office on ABS processes ----------------------15. Awareness and sensitisation at national level 16. ABS issues at project conception at institute level (research, private) 17. Involvement of local institutions and staff in guidance development  • I congratulate the organizers and the facilitators for the well done workshop organization. We can think to conduct the next workshop in the UK or Netherlands where they are more advanced than African countries • Would like to attend more workshops of this nature to be able to help my organization do things right • Well done • Thanks for the invitation","tokenCount":"1242"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d813fe742d1023c835201c393aed7b10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4308b0d9-9ea7-40a3-bf06-d389301f5f20/retrieve","id":"-138047390"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"76d7d323-d605-4593-9974-77a7ee652a9f","pagecount":"7","content":"Cassava breeding and varietal dissemination in Vietnam has made continuous progress. During the past decade (1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000) the Vietnam Cassava Program (VNCP), in cooperation with CIAT, Vedan and other cassava processing factories, has developed and disseminated six new highyielding varieties: KM60, KM94, SM937-26, KM95, KM95-3 and KM98-1. In the crop year 2001/02, the area planted to KM94 and other new improved varieties reached about 94,500 ha or close to 33% of the total cassava area in Vietnam. Cassava yield and production in several provinces has doubled, brought about by the construction of new large-scale cassava processing factories, especially in the south of Vietnam.Currently, the cassava breeding program in Vietnam is evaluating annually about 12,000 hybrid seeds introduced from CIAT/Colombia, and is producing itself more than 3,000 hybrid seeds from 9-15 cross combinations. At Hung Loc Agricultural Research Center there are ten cassava breeding experiments conducted every year, and 18-24 Regional Trials are conducted in different cassava producing regions in collaboration with various institutions, universities and provincial extension offices. New clones, like KM98-5 (early harvestability, high-starch content, high fresh root yield) and KM98-1 (early harvestability, high fresh yield, low cyanogenic potential) are rapidly being multiplied to provide planting material for various purposes. More than 780 promising new clones have been selected, of which KM140, KM146 and KM163 will be further tested and possibly selected for release. The objectives of further genetic improvement of cassava varieties in Vietnam are: 1) to increase the yield potential and starch content, and obtain early harvestability; 2) to improve quality and the nutritional value, especially the carotene and micronutrient content of cassava, in order to reduce blindness and Fe and Zn deficiency in people living in marginal environments.In Vietnam, cassava is the third most important food crop, following rice and maize. It is planted in about 263,700 ha of agricultural land in Vietnam, producing about 2.8 million tonnes in 2001 (Table 1). Cassava plays an important role in the strategy of national food security (Figure 1).Vietnam is an agricultural country with a population of 80 million. About 20% of farmer households are poor and 5% suffer from hunger. During the past decade of economic renovation, Vietnam has successfully escaped lingering food deficiency. Cassava is also an important source of cash income to small farmers, who either use it for animal feeding or for sale to starch factories.  Cassava in Vietnam has been changing its role from a food crop to an industrial crop for starch production and animal feed. In 2001, total cassava starch production in Vietnam was about 500,000 tonnes of which 70% was for export and 30% for domestic use.In the period of 2001-2005, the Institute of Agricultural Sciences of South Vietnam (IAS) was appointed to be the leader of the Vietnam Cassava Varietal Improvement Project (VNCP) by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD). This is one of the 42 most important projects of the National Program of Crops and Animal Breeding Improvement in Agriculture.Based on the target for cassava production and utilization in the country, the objectives of further genetic improvement of cassava varieties in Vietnam from 2001 to 2010 are: 1) to increase the yield potential and starch content, and enhance early harvestability; 2) to improve eating quality and the nutritional value, especially the carotene and micronutrient content of cassava, in order to reduce blindness and Fe and Zn deficiency in people living in marginal environments. This can be achieved through an effective integration of advanced biotechnology techniques and conventional breeding methods.Cassava breeding and varietal dissemination in Vietnam have made stable and reliable progress. During the past decade (1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000) the Vietnam Cassava Program (VNCP), in cooperation with CIAT, Vedan and other cassava processing factories, has developed and disseminated six new high-yielding varieties: KM60, KM94, SM937-26, KM95, KM95-3 and KM98-1 (Hoang Kim et al., 2001b).New clones, like KM98-5 (selected from F 1 hybrid seeds introduced from the Thai-CIAT program in 1996; pedigree Rayong 1 x Rayong 5; high fresh yield, high starch content, early harvestability) and KM98-1 (selected from F 1 hybrid seeds introduced from the Thai-CIAT program in 1995; pedigree Rayong 1 x Rayong 5; early harvestability, high fresh yield, low cyanogenic potential) are rapidly being multiplied to provide planting material for various purposes (Table 2).  Kim et al., 2000;2001b. In the crop year 2001/02, the area planted to KM94 and other new improved varieties reached about 94,500 ha or close to 33 % of the total cassava area in the country. Cassava yield and production in several provinces has doubled, partially brought about by the construction of new large-scale cassava processing factories, especially in the south of Vietnam (Hoang Kim et al., 2001a).Currently, the cassava breeding program in Vietnam is evaluating annually about 12,000 hybrid seeds introduced from CIAT/Colombia, and is producing itself more than 3,000 hybrid seeds from 9-15 cross combinations. At Hung Loc Agricultural Research Center there are ten cassava breeding experiments conducted every year, and 18-24 regional trials are conducted in different cassava producing regions in collaboration with various institutions, universities and provincial extension offices.More than 780 promising new clones have been selected, of which KM140, KM146, KM163 will be further tested and possibly selected for release. KM140 is a hybrid between an advanced cultivar and a CIAT-Thai introduction. The fresh root yield is 33-38 t/ha, while it has a high dry matter content. Crop duration is 8-10 months. It has good plant type and good stake quality (Table 3). KM146 was selected from F 1 hybrid seeds introduced from the Thai-CIAT program in 1997. It has a high fresh root yield and very early harvestability, good root shape and white flesh. KM163 was selected from F 1 hybrid seeds introduced from the Thai-CIAT program in 1998. It has high fresh root yield and a crop duration of 9-11 months (Table 4).  Kim et al., 2001b.Plant breeders in Brazil and Mexico have developed new cassava varieties by using inter-specific hybridization (Nassar, 1986;2001;Nassar et al., 2001). We are studying this method in Vietnam by developing an in vitro grafting method (Phan Ngo Hoang and Bui Trang Viet, 2001), crossing and applying biotechnology in breeding.Cultures of Manihot esculenta and Manihot glaziovii were established from the shoot tips or lateral buds collected from two-month old in vitro plants. The shoot multiplication was achieved from shoot tips, on the MS medium supplemented with 0.2 mg/l BA, 0.1mg/l NAA and 0.05 mg/l GA 3 . The growth of shoot tips or axillary buds occurred on the hormone-free MS medium, from the explants containing shoot apical meristem or 1-2 axillary buds. The role of the plant growth regulators have been studied (Nguyen Xuan Dung et al., 2002).Mutation breeding is also underway with the specific objectives of developing early harvestability, high starch content and high fresh root yield. Seeds and in vitro plants of five cassava varieties have been studied under different doses of Gamma rays of 60 Co to create different mutants for selection.In the immediate future, research in cassava genetic improvement is very important. The people of Vietnam have an idiom: \"Nuoc, Phan, Can, Giong\" (Water, Fertilizer, Good Labor, Variety). These are the four main factors affecting field crops production. Cassava breeding and varietal dissemination are among the key solutions for development.Cassava plays an important role in the processing industry and in livestock production in Vietnam. Especially, cassava starch for food and industry is becoming increasingly important in creating future demand for cassava (Pham Van Bien et al., 2001). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) initiated a five-year project, starting in 2001, to rapidly multiply stakes of the improved varieties that have high starch yield and to distribute these to the farmers. CIAT, Vedan and other cassava processing factories have also helped to implement this project.Today, cassava varieties with high starch yield have been adopted widely in Vietnam, because these varieties have higher fresh root yields and starch contents. However, varieties with shorter duration need to be developed (Hoang Kim et al., 2001b). Farmers in the Mekong Delta region need very early varieties with a crop duration of less than seven months to escape floods in the rainy season. These varieties also need to have fresh root yields of 26-30 t/ha and starch contents of about 27%. By evaluating the germplasm collection, VNCP is trying to collect and maintain the short duration character and improve other characters by crossing with high starch yielding varieties, mainly from CIAT.A long-term objective is to improve the nutritional value of cassava, including low cyanogenic potential, high protein content, high vitamin A and other micronutrients for malnourished human populations (Graham and Rosser, 2000;West, 2001). The methods to achieve these objectives are to introduce new breeding materials, mainly from CIAT (Bedoya et al., 2001;Calle et al., 2001), crossing and applying biotechnology in breeding, to multiply planting material of new varieties, and to enhance the adoption of sustainable cassava production practices. We participate in a collaborative program with Dr. Hernan Ceballos in evaluating new breeding varieties in Vietnam. It is hoped that within the next few years, the new high quality varieties will be released to farmers.The method of recombination breeding was most effective in developing stable high yielding varieties. The pre-requisite for this breeding program is the maintenance and screening of a large cassava germplasm collection to identify donors with desirable features, such as short duration, high dry matter content, low HCN, high protein, high yield and carotene and vitamin A content, tolerance to abiotic stresses and problem soils etc. The method of recombination breeding is being studied in Vietnam.","tokenCount":"1584"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2d0bd03bce0bc54ac6e3c3121923d6e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c37a6b68-e1d3-4c7c-af53-6fd233c3a864/retrieve","id":"1539875575"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aaa55a35-b47a-4c19-9b0d-02e440281d39","pagecount":"22","content":"El Programa de Gestión Rural Empresarial, Sanidad y Ambiente (PROGRESA), con una duración de tres años y financiado por el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos (USDA, por sus siglas en inglés), fue creado en conjunto por un grupo de actores dinámicos del sector privado, cooperativas, organizaciones no gubernamentales y agencias del gobierno nicaragüense, con el propósito de que 4.700 pequeños productores agropecuarios de los departamentos de Matagalpa, Jinotega, Madriz y Nueva Segovia, mejoraran sus medios de vida, aumentaran su productividad y expandieran el comercio de su productos.El programa PROGRESA es ejecutado por Catholic Relief Services (CRS) y sus socios locales: Cáritas Estelí, Cáritas Matagalpa, la Fundación de Investigación y Desarrollo Rural (FIDER), el Instituto Nacional de Promoción Humana (INPRHU), la Asociación para el Desarrollo Social de Nicaragua (ASDENIC), la Asociación para la Diversificación y Desarrollo Agrícola Comunal (ADDAC), la Cooperativa de Servicios Múltiples La Unión R.L. y la Comisión Nacional Ganadera de Nicaragua (CONAGAN). PROGRESA trabaja en el fortalecimiento de las cadenas de valor 1 de frijol, hortalizas y frutas, y ganado de doble propósito (leche y carne), para que los productores y productoras aumenten la calidad de sus productos, cumplan con las medidas sanitarias y fitosanitarias que exigen los mercados formales y sean más competitivos.La producción de hortalizas y frutas en Nicaragua ocupa una superficie de siembra de 15.000 hectáreas aproximadamente (más de 21.000 manzanas), de las cuales la zona atendida por el proyecto PROGRESA representa aproximadamente el 60% del potencial de producción del país (UASAN, 2012).Sin embargo, esta producción es insuficiente para atender la demanda nacional, por lo que el país se ve forzado a importar cantidades significativas, principalmente de cebollas y tomates, de países de la región (El Salvador y Honduras) donde la comercialización está en manos de intermediarios (compradores que luego revenden) y donde la oferta de los productos llega al consumidor por medio de• El Margen bruto, que indica cuál es la ganancia real para el productor, aumentó de 32,9 % en la línea de base, a 41,2% en la línea final de PROGRESA.• Se establecieron 1.611 ha de hortalizas, en las que 878 productores, entre ellos 124 mujeres, están aplicando técnicas y tecnologías en sus cultivos.• Aumento del 18,86% en los rendimientos por hectárea, lo que representa un incremento de más de 4.113 toneladas métricas anuales.• Se vendieron 92.827 toneladas de hortalizas y frutas por un valor de US$29'954.362, lo que representa un aumento del 36,9% anual.mercados informales (a través de puestos de venta sin infraestructuras básicas sanitarias, ubicados en las cabeceras departamentales).Por lo anterior, para el fortalecimiento de esta cadena PROGRESA organizó la Comisión Técnica de Hortalizas y Frutas como una estructura de apoyo para orientar, gestionar y desarrollar las intervenciones del programa (implementación de tecnologías, asistencia técnica, capacitación, inversión directa en infraestructura productiva y poscosecha), así como para velar por la articulación eficaz de la cadena.En el presente documento se sistematiza la experiencia generada por los aportes de PROGRESA al fortalecimiento de la cadena de valor de hortalizas y frutas, donde no solo se consideraron factores comúnmente incluidos en proyectos de desarrollo agropecuario -como la inserción de nuevas tecnologías y la asistencia técnica-, sino que se involucraron componentes como el fortalecimiento organizativo, el enfoque de mercado y el establecimiento de alianzas, para generar una propuesta de implementación más innovadora e integral, orientada a la competitividad.A continuación se describe el panorama hallado por PROGRESA en la cadena de hortalizas y frutas antes de la implementación del proyecto. Las principales fuentes de la información que se presenta a continuación fueron la Línea base, elaborada por PROGRESA para definir las principales intervenciones en la cadena, y la Estrategia de competitividad 2 que también se elaboró al inicio del proyecto con la participación de actores de la cadena de valor, a través de la cual se identificación las principales limitantes y las posibles oportunidades de mejora para la gestión en los diferentes eslabones (Producción, Acopio, Procesamiento y Comercialización).En cuanto a los análisis con respecto a la cadena de valor, los integrantes de los eslabones identificaron que la problemática principal era la baja competitividad para comercializar los productos hortofrutícolas, ya que a menudo los productores no podían cumplir los estándares de calidad exigidos y en consecuencia, tampoco podían consolidar negociaciones con mercados formales e informales.Sin embargo, la baja competitividad no era una problemática únicamente asociada a los productores, sino que estaba presente en todos los eslabones de la cadena, puesto que involucra otros factores subyacentes como la baja productividad, la gestión desleal de comercialización por la presencia de intermediarios y la limitada visión de desarrollo empresarial de los actores de la cadena.A continuación se describe el estado de algunos elementos claves que influían en la operatividad de la cadena antes de la implementación de PROGRESA.La principal limitante del desarrollo productivo del sector hortícola era la poca implementación y apropiación de tecnologías adecuadas en las diferentes etapas de producción, desde el establecimiento del cultivo hasta el manejo poscosecha. Esta situación no permitía obtener rendimientos productivos óptimos que cumplieran con los estándares de calidad requeridos por el mercado. Los altos costos de producción y la escasez de mano de obra también afectaban la productividad porque limitaban a los productores para que pudieran hacer un manejo adecuado de sus cultivos hortofrutícolas.A lo anterior se sumaba el escaso capital disponible de los productores y el insuficiente apoyo para financiamiento al rubro, ya que el sistema bancario lo considera una actividad productiva de alto riesgo, y el sector microfinanciero no permite inversiones en nuevas tecnologías. Así, los productores se veían obligados a producir siempre de manera tradicional y esto ocasionaba que en áreas mayores, los agricultores le dieran al cultivo un manejo agronómico y fitosanitario deficiente.Pero de la misma forma en que la falta de inversión en tecnologías e infraestructuras para la preselección y clasificación de productos impedía agregar valor a la materia prima, también afectaba al resto de la cadena, que tampoco contaba con espacios (centros de acopio) y herramientas apropiadas para agregar valor durante el manejo poscosecha. Las pocas infraestructuras existentes hasta el momento, generalmente no eran utilizadas en todo su potencial por la escasa cultura de asociatividad para comercializar.En consecuencia de lo anteriormente descrito, los intermediarios locales eran quienes principalmente realizaban el acopio en las comunidades, en especial con los productores individuales, y abastecían a la mayor parte del mercado municipal, las cabeceras departamentales y los mercados más grandes, ubicados en la capital (Mercado Mayoreo y Mercado Oriental).Otra de las causas directas de la baja competitividad son los reducidos niveles de productividad en campo, asociados a la ineficiencia del sistema de asistencia técnica existente en el país. Este sistema sitúa a los productores y productoras bajo la asesoría del poco personal técnico del que disponen las instituciones del gobierno, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) y Ministerio de Economía Familiar Comunitaria, Cooperativa y Asociativa (MEFCCA) para abordar temas como el manejo agronómico y fitosanitario del cultivo, y la certificación en Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas (BPA).Los escasos resultados de la asistencia técnica también se mostraban a través de las prácticas y tecnologías inapropiadas usadas por los productores (o la no aplicación de prácticas y tecnologías), así como por sus inversiones desmedidas en agroquímicos (que aumentaban los costos de producción), el desconocimiento de elementos técnicos vitales para el manejo de los cultivos y el deterioro del ambiente causado por el mal uso de los recursos suelo y agua.Además, la producción de monocultivos impedía que las familias productoras mejoraran sus ingresos económicos, ya que la mayor parte del tiempo los mercados estaban saturados de los mismos productos; así, los agricultores corrían el riesgo de perder gran parte de su inversión cuando establecían un solo cultivo por ciclo, bajo sistemas no planificados y sin acceso seguro a mercados.Según todo lo anterior, era evidente para las familias productoras la necesidad de una asistencia técnica dirigida y acompañada en procesos de transferencia tecnológica adecuados para optimizar su producción y alcanzar los estándares de calidad requeridos por los mercados.El escaso desarrollo tecnológico de los sistemas de producción y acopio de hortalizas y frutas hacía que los productores vendieran únicamente materia prima, y que llegaran al mercado local solamente a través de intermediarios. A esto se sumaba la falta de capacidades locales y desarrollo organizativo, tanto en las organizaciones de productores como en el resto de la cadena.El poco interés de las familias por asociarse ocasionaba que los esfuerzos para acceder a insumos o gestionar créditos fueran individuales, y que se dificultara la comercialización en bloque (suma de productos de varias fincas para comercializarlos en una sola venta). Esto también afectaba de manera negativa la articulación entre actores directos e indirectos de los diferentes eslabones de la cadena, puesto que casi todas las negociaciones se basaban en los intereses de los intermediarios; y de esta forma, las familias se veían forzadas a vender su producción desde que aún estaba en los plantíos, sin conocer el precio del mercado y sin la oportunidad de agregarle valor a la producción en poscosecha para acceder a un mejor precio.Además, la actitud desleal de algunos productores, que a pesar de estar asociados vendían su producción a intermediarios, (ya sea porque les pagaban inmediatamente, o porque les compraban todo el producto sin exigirles estándares de calidad, aunque les pagaran un menor precio) no solo provocaba pérdidas económicas para sus propias familias, sino que también conllevaba a que la organización a la que pertenecían, incumpliera acuerdos verbales establecidos con mercados formales.Finalmente, cabe destacar que como las mujeres históricamente no han sido dueñas de recursos de valor gravable (tierra, particularmente) y esto les imposibilita el acceso a créditos por falta de garantías, la mayoría de mujeres en esta cadena se dedicaba a la realización de labores agrícolas en los plantíos hortofrutícolas u ofrecían su mano de obra en los centros de acopio.Cuando los productores tienen una limitada visión de desarrollo empresarial frente a sus unidades de producción, esto normalmente también afecta la actitud emprendedora colectiva en las organizaciones cooperativas, por eso, en este eslabón se identificó como principal problema el poco interés de los productores y productoras para comercializar sus productos en bloque, así como la volatilidad de los precios que impedía la realización de alianzas de comercialización con el mercado formal, nacional y regional.Tradicionalmente, la mayoría de las ventas se llevan a cabo de manera individual en los plantíos; ya sea mediante ventas esporádicas según el número de cosechas, o por medio de una sola venta del total del plantío. En este caso, vale la pena tener en cuenta que los estándares de calidad son más exigentes para el mercado formal y por eso los productores y productoras vendían sus cosechas a los intermediarios.En octubre de 2013 se dio inicio al proceso de intervención de PROGRESA, con la participación de 548 productores, que anualmente cultivaban más de 537 hectáreas de diferentes cultivos (tomate, chiltoma, pepino, repollo, papa, cebolla, lechuga y zanahoria) pertenecientes a la cadena de hortalizas y frutas.Para facilitar el proceso de intervención en los distintos eslabones de la cadena de valor, se organizó la Comisión Técnica, integrada por personal de ASDENIC, Cáritas Estelí, Cáritas Matagalpa, FIDER y la Cooperativa La Unión.Parte del trabajo de esta comisión fue implementar, con apoyo del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), procesos de análisis y de mapeo de la cadena, identificar las problemáticas del sector, y definir un camino lógico de objetivos y acciones de intervención, que quedaron consignados en la Estrategia de competitividad desarrollada por esta Comisión con otros actores de la cadena. Además, la Comisión Técnica promovió la coordinación entre líderes de las cooperativas y la Asociación de Productores y Exportadores de Nicaragua (APEN) para la gestión de acciones conjuntas y la participación en espacios donde los productores pudieran ganar representación y capacidad de incidencia.El proceso de fortalecimiento de la Cadena de Valor de Hortalizas y Frutas estuvo enfocado en lograr el mejoramiento del sistema productivo y el manejo poscosecha a través de: (1) la Implementación de tecnologías, (2) el acompañamiento técnico, (3) el desarrollo de capacidades socio-organizativas, y (4) el desarrollo de capacidades empresariales de las organizaciones de productores, también conocidas como Empresas Asociativas Rurales (EEAARR).La implementación de tecnologías adecuadas para los diferentes cultivos hortofrutícolas fue posible mediante la inversión hecha por PROGRESA en infraestructuras (como invernaderos) y equipos (bombas y sistemas de riego por goteo); así como en análisis de suelo y agua que brindaron información para la toma de decisiones acertadas en cuanto a riego y fertilización, elementos clave en el manejo de los cultivos.Por otro lado, dado que el manejo agronómico y fitosanitario de los diferentes cultivos hortícolas es vital para alcanzar mejores rendimientos productivos, se promovieron una serie de tecnologías y prácticas, como el uso de semilla certificada o de variedades e híbridos de alto potencial de rendimiento y tolerantes a las principales limitantes productivas. Esto representó una inversión de más de US$31.580.De igual manera, se realizaron inversiones de más de US$47.300 para la construcción de 17 invernaderos que aseguraran que las productoras y productores pudieran hacer uso de plántulas sanas. En esta misma línea, se invirtieron alrededor de US$34.800 en la construcción de tres infraestructuras Diagrama de la cadena de valor de hortalizas elaborado por los socios de PROGRESA que trabajan con el rubro.3 Los macrotúneles son estructuras que protegen tres surcos; generalmente tienen forma de arco, y están construidas con tubos de PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) de 1 pulgada y tela sintética agril o agribón. Esta tecnología evita que insectos vectores de enfermedades afecten a la planta en los periodos más críticos del cultivo. 4 Para mayor información sobre esta experiencia ver el documento de sistematización de PROGRESA sobre Mujeres que implementan negocios con enfoque de cadenas de valor. 5 Los megatúneles son estructuras similares a los macrotúneles, pero con mayor capacidad de protección y durabilidad. Generalmente tienen forma de arco, protegen nueve surcos y están construidos con tubos galvanizados y tela sintética antiáfidos. 6 Los microtúneles son pequeñas estructuras (0,5 a 1 m de altura) que protegen un surco y son construidas con alambre galvanizado y tela agril o agribón. Se usan para proteger las plántulas de hortalizas en sus primeras etapas de desarrollo. 7 Las casas chinas son pequeñas infraestructuras de tela especial (agril o agribón) para protejer las plantas de hortalizas en un surco, por un periodo entre 40 y 45 días. Se utilizan dos mantas de polietileno que se colocan sobre cabuyas amarradas del tutoreado de estacas de madera, a una altura de 1 a 1,5 m. La primera manta se coloca a un lado al momento del trasplante, y la segunda, tras el trasplante, para sellar la casa; ambas mantas quedan unidas en el borde superior. 8 Para mayor información sobre la experiencia de PROGRESA con la implementación de sistemas de agricultura protegida como macrotúneles y megatúneles, ver el documento de sistematización: Producción Protegida en Hortalizas: Implementación de sistemas de agricultura protegida en tomate, chiltomo y chile de colores.9 Para mayor información sobre la experiencia de PROGRESA con la implementación de Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas, ver el documento de sistematización: Certificación de fincas en Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas (BPA) e implementación de Buenas Prácticas Pecuarias (BPP). 10 Maquilar: limpiar, lavar, seleccionar y hacer una clasificación manual de determinado producto.(macrotúneles 3 ) para la producción de plántulas de alta calidad para el trasplante, de diferentes especies hortofrutícolas.Es importante mencionar que la producción de plántulas bajo invernadero no solo se abordó desde una perspectiva tecnológica, sino también desde una perspectiva empresarial, puesto que una de las estrategias que se usó para brindar este servicio en diferentes municipios hortaliceros donde no lo había (Jalapa, Palacagüina y La Concordia), fue la conformación de grupos de mujeres (uno por cada municipio), a quienes se les asesoró técnicamente y se les proveyó de la infraestructura necesaria para convertir la producción de plántulas en iniciativas empresariales 4 . Un cuarto grupo de mujeres, que se estableció en la comunidad Las Delilcias, del municipio de Dario, se dedicó a plantar las hortalizas (chiltoma criolla, chiltoma Nathalie, tomate de mesa y chiles mundiales) en megatúneles 5 , donde se mantienen las plantas por el periodo completo de producción.Los cultivos de tomate y chiltoma eran los que más requerían una inversión para la producción bajo sistemas protegidos como microtúneles 6 , casas chinas 7 , macrotúneles y megatúneles 8 , dado que estos cultivos son más susceptibles a perder potencial productivo si no se les asegura sanidad desde las primeras etapas de desarrollo de la plántula, y también son más afectados por plagas y enfermedades. Por eso el proyecto invirtió US$489.801 en la implementación de estas infraestructuras.De otro lado, PROGRESA ejecutó su Programa Rural de Agua con el objetivo de construir infraestructuras que soportaran la producción y permitieran hacer un uso eficiente del agua para riego. Dentro de este componente se invirtieron US$74.520 en la perforación de 59 pozos para riego, más de US$42.281 en la construcción de 43 reservorios, US$65.364 en la construcción de 18 pilas de captación de agua y US$92.994 en la instalación de 191 sistemas de riego por goteo.Además, como el programa pretendía lograr un desarrollo integral de las fincas y el aseguramiento de productos de calidad para los mercados, también invirtió más de US$490.000 para la certificación de 289 fincas en BPA 9 (de las cuales 166 eran fincas hortofrutícolas). Dicha inversión se utilizó en bodegas de agroquímicos, áreas de clasificación y empaque, áreas de mezcla, filtros para aguas de residuos químicos, letrinas y lavamanos, así como registros, seguimiento, capacitaciones y certificación. Las familias productoras aportaron la mano de obra para la construcción de las infraestructuras mencionadas y parte de los materiales necesarios para esta construcción, un hecho que aporta a la sostenibilidad de las inversiones, ya que la experiencia muestra que cuando a un productor o a una productora le cuesta una infraestructura, la cuida más.Finalmente, con el propósito de fortalecer el eslabón de acopio y procesamiento de la cadena, el programa invirtió US$36.000 en la construcción del centro de acopio de la cooperativa COOSMPROJIN, ubicada en la comunidad de Sasle, en el municipio de Jinotega. Esta estructura fue construida para acopiar y maquilar 10 repollo, lechuga y remolacha destinados al mercado formal (Walmart), y también para ofrecer dichos servicios a productores individuales. Para la construcción de este centro de acopio también hicieron sus aportes el Programa regional de Vredeseilanden en Mesoamérica -VECO MA, y la 11 Para mayor información sobre la experiencia de Producción y Exportación de Ejote Francés, ver el documento de sistematización de PROGRESA en este tema. 12 Las Escuelas de Campo describen un proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje en zonas rurales, bajo el método de aprender haciendo, que sirve para la transferencia de tecnologías. En medio del trabajo para fortalecer las capacidades técnicas de las familias productoras, PROGRESA dispuso personal técnico de calidad para acompañar oportunamente a las familias en sus actividades de planificación y administración eficiente de sus recursos. Dicho personal técnico también buscó que los productores tomaran conciencia de la necesidad de implementar BPA para producir alimentos inocuos.Durante el proceso de capacitación de las familias productoras se implementaron diferentes metodologías participativas como talleres, giras de intercambio de experiencias, días de campo y asistencia técnica personalizada en las fincas. A través de estos espacios, se abordaron temas como el manejo agronómico de los cultivos, uso racional de los recursos suelo y agua, validación de prácticas de producción, manejo integrado de cultivos, uso adecuado de tecnologías, riego y fertirriego, BPA, planificación de fincas, y manejo y uso racional de plaguicidas.Específicamente para la formación en planificación de las fincas se utilizó el cuaderno Plan de Fincas; que servía como herramienta didáctica para los productores durante los talleres, porque contenía los pasos secuenciales para que una familia realizara un plan completo de su finca, desde el diagnóstico biofísico e identificación de problemas en cada parcela, hasta la definición de las tecnologías a implementar y el presupuesto requerido para su ejecución.Para el uso y manejo de plaguicidas permitidos, se tomó como referencia el documento Evaluación de Plaguicidas y Plan de Acción para Uso más Seguro (PERSUAP, por sus siglas en inglés), que contiene los nombres de los plaguicidas que son permitidos para la producción de hortalizas y que no representan riesgo para la salud de los productores, al aplicarlos;o para la salud de la población, al consumirlos; ni ocasionan daño al medio ambiente.De otro lado, para la transferencia y promoción de tecnologías adecuadas, se recurrió a espacios y ambientes de aprendizaje propios de los productores, como sus fincas, y se construyó con ellos mismos una agenda temática (o listado de contenidos) que respondía a sus necesidades productivas más sentidas, entre ellas:• Agricultura de conservación: cobertura permanente, labranza mínima y rotación de cultivos.• Implementación de Sistema de riego por goteo.• Manejo Integrado de Cultivos: Camellones altos, nutrición completa y balanceada, trampas pegajosas, tutoreo de calidad, distancias de siembra, fertilización, barreras vivas, uso de insecticidas botánicos y bilógicos, identificación temprana de los problemas, y eliminación temprana de rastrojos después de la cosecha.• Uso de productos botánicos para el manejo de plagas.• Uso de productos a base de microrganismos.• Conservación de suelos.• Uso de variedades de alto potencial de rendimiento de acuerdo con la demanda del mercado.• Introducción de nuevos cultivos: ejote francés 11 , chía, arveja china y minizanahoria.• Uso y Manejo Seguro de Plaguicidas (según el PERSUAP).• Calibración de equipos de aplicación.• Buenas Prácticas Agrícolas.Todo este proceso de transferencia y promoción de tecnologías se implementó mediante 35 Escuelas de Campo (conocidas popularmente como ecas) 12 , cuya ejecución representó una inversión de casi US$21.500; y 10 Comités de Investigación Agrícola Local (CIAL) 13 que costaron más de US$4.700. Por medio de estas dos metodologías se capacitaron 550 productores, de los cuales 110 fueron mujeres.Por otra parte, el acompañamiento técnico a los grupos de mujeres que manejaban los negocios de plántulas y producción de hortalizas, fue determinante tanto para la instalación y uso de las infraestructuras y tecnologías, como para el manejo agronómico, ya que la mayoría de estas mujeres nunca antes había estado al frente de este tipo de negocios.Para el fortalecimiento socio-organizativo, las organizaciones cooperativas y asociaciones de productores participaron en un proceso denominado Graduación de cooperativas 14 (implementado mediante una metodología de Alianzas de Aprendizaje 15 ), a través del cual se generaron espacios de reflexión en los que las organizaciones definieron estrategias tanto para mejorar sus niveles de producción como para mejorar los servicios de asistencia técnica y comercialización brindados a sus asociados.Además, PROGRESA le apostó también al fortalecimiento de capacidades de las organizaciones de productores en aspectos de agregación de valor y manipulación de productos frescos en los centros de acopio, con el propósito de asegurar la calidad.Lo anterior se llevó a cabo mediante distintos eventos como: 238 talleres, y 34 días de campo, que contaron con la participación de 754 productores, de los cuales 124 fueron mujeres.En este ámbito se hizo énfasis en fortalecer las organizaciones de productores con un enfoque de cadena de valor, para articularlas con otros actores de los demás eslabones de la cadena, y así buscar mejores relaciones con el mercado informal o un posicionamiento en el mercado formal. Los principales actores con quienes se promovieron relaciones fueron:• Algunos bancos y financieras (como el Banco Produzcamos y la Cooperativa CARUNA) con los que el programa realizó reuniones y talleres para establecer acuerdos formales que facilitaran el acceso a servicios financieros. Uno de los temas centrales en la gestión interna de la cadena fue aumentar la competitividad para alcanzar mejores mercados y asegurar canales de comercialización. Para ello, los aportes iniciales de PROGRESA se orientaron a mejoras en la infraestructura productiva de 166 fincas y el centro de acopio de la cooperativa COOSMPROJIN, que fue priorizada por el proyecto como beneficiaria debido a su ubicación en Jinotega -una zona altamente hortalicera-y a su capacidad para cofinanciar la inversión.Además, el programa trabajó en el robustecimiento de las capacidades de cooperativas más desarrolladas 16 , para lograr productos de calidad en volúmenes suficientes para ampliar las relaciones con el mercado formal: La Colonia e ICI-Walmart. Dicho fortalecimiento de capacidades fue gestionado a través de talleres, pasantías y giras de intercambio en temas relacionados con el manejo poscosecha, la manipulación de productos en acopio, Buenas Prácticas de Manufactura (BPM), y manejo de personal y seguridad del mismo en el centro de acopio.De la misma manera, se hicieron esfuerzos para mejorar las relaciones comerciales entre las cooperativas y el mercado informal, que es el mayor abastecedor de los consumidores de estrato social medio a bajo, quienes a su vez conforman la mayor población consumidora de los productos que generan las fincas de los pequeños y medianos productores.Dichos esfuerzos consistieron, entre otros, en financiar la participación de las organizaciones en ferias nacionales coordinadas (cada año) por la Asociación de Productores y Exportadores de Nicaragua (APEN) y en ferias locales organizadas (mes a mes) por el Ministerio de Economía Familiar, Comunitaria, Cooperativa y Asociativa (MEFCCA), donde los consumidores y compradores mayoristas, así como formales, podían conocer los productos de las cooperativas. Así que en estos espacios las organizaciones vendieron sus productos, y tuvieron la oportunidad de conocer avances tecnológicos y participar en ruedas de negocios con posibles compradores a nivel nacional y regional. En las ferias organizadas por el MEFCCA participaron las cooperativas SOOPROCOM, Blanca Aráuz y Señor de Esquipulas.Del mismo modo, un total de 13 productores, 2 productoras, 14 miembros del personal técnico y 4 gerentes de organizaciones cooperativas hortaliceras participaron en dos giras de estudio, intercambio de experiencias y gestión de mercados; una de ellas recorrió El Salvador (donde se hicieron ruedas de negocio con compradores de pepino, tomate y chiltoma), Guatemala (donde los participantes asistieron a un curso corto) y Honduras (donde se visitaron 3 cooperativas apoyadas por VECO MA); y la otra se realizó en Honduras, con compradores de papaya y sandía.A través de estas giras los participantes tuvieron la oportunidad de fortalecer sus conocimientos en nuevas tecnologías para el manejo de las hortalizas En total, PROGRESA invirtió cerca de US$7.750 para la participación de los productores en las 2 giras regionales que se acaban de mencionar y en 5 giras nacionales más; además, invirtió más de US$6.800 en la realización de cinco misiones comerciales, en las cuales los gerentes de las organizaciones de productores se desplazaban hasta otro país para tener contacto personal y directo con un comprador y así ofrecerle su producto y establecer negocios.Según lo anterior, el programa acompañó actividades de mercadeo y generó espacios de interlocución con actores locales para gestionar alianzas en el ámbito nacional y regional y facilitar relaciones comerciales más inclusivas con los productores a pequeña escala. En este sentido, PROGRESA también promovió la implementación de un piloto de la Metodología LINK 17 en el marco de la relación comercial entre la cooperativa COOSMPROJIN e ICI-Walmart 18 , en el cual participaron productores de lechuga, repollo, zanahoria y remolacha, entre ellos 15 hombres y 1 mujer.Finalmente, PROGRESA buscó poner a disposición de las organizaciones de productores información de mercados oficial y actualizada a través del Sistema de Información de Precios y Mercados (SIPMA) administrado por el Ministerio Agropecuario de Nicaragua (en ese entonces MAGFOR). Para facilitar el acceso de las organizaciones de productores a este SIPMA (que publicaba información de precios de productos e insumos, recolectada en distintos mercados de Nicaragua), se elaboró un manual que abordaba conceptos básicos para la interpretación de información de mercado y daba instrucciones para usar el Sistema.Tal como se mencionó anteriormente, los esfuerzos para incrementar la competitividad de las familias productoras, estuvieron encaminados hacia la mejora de los sistemas productivos en las fincas, el fortalecimiento de sus capacidades productivas y empresariales, y su articulación con los diferentes eslabones de la cadena. A continuación, se presentan los resultados de la intervención del programa.Entre las principales tecnologías implementadas por los productores se encuentran los sistemas de riego (por goteo y micro-aspersión), fertirriego, plástico mulch, invernaderos para producción de plántulas, tela antivirus, túneles para producción protegida (micro y macrotúneles, casas chinas y megatúneles), reservorios para cosechas de agua, pilas de captación de agua, semillas de hortalizas certificadas, plásticos ultravioleta para semilleros, y análisis de suelos y agua.La implementación de estas tecnologías permitió obtener algunos beneficios que no hacían parte del propósito inicial; así por ejemplo, los sistemas de riego por goteo, además de asegurar el uso racional del recurso hídrico, ha permitido manejar mayores áreas de cultivo con menos mano de obra, lo que representa un alivio en comunidades donde esta mano de obra es escasa por diversas razones socioeconómicas.al aumento de los niveles de producción y al mejoramiento de la calidad de los productos, que son claves para obtener mejores precios y relaciones comerciales más estables. Al cierre de PROGRESA las ventas totales de hortalizas superaron los 29 millones de dólares (US$29.954.362), lo que representa un aumento del 36,9% anual en comparación con la línea de base.La asistencia técnica y el seguimiento al manejo de los cultivos en campo contribuyeron a que 878 familias productoras de hortalizas y frutas mejoren sus sistemas de producción, puesto que ahora la mayoría de ellas establece sus cultivos bajo un sistema de siembra escalonada y diversificada. Así mismo, estas familias han mejorado los estándares de calidad de sus productos, que como se mencionaba anteriormente, facilita el acceso a mercados más rentables; acceso que también incide en el aumento de las ventas antes citado.Igualmente, es evidente que el manejo agronómico que realizan los productores en la actualidad es más eficiente, ya que mantienen las tecnologías con sus propios recursos, y esto demuestra que hay rentabilidad como consecuencia de un mejor manejo. Este manejo incluye una mayor adopción de las normativas que contiene el PERSUAP, con lo cual los productores y productoras disminuyeron el uso de agroquímicos y pueden brindarle al consumidor mayor confianza en su producto.Adicionalmente, el proceso de certificación en BPA, además de propiciar la generación de productos con calidad e inocuidad, ha repercutido en las capacidades de las 166 familias asesoradas técnicamente por el programa, las cuales ahora se integran al manejo de los registros de producción, guardan en depósitos los agroquímicos utilizados en el manejo integrado de sus cultivos, emplean equipos de protección personal para el uso seguro de plaguicidas, y analizan riesgos de contaminación y prácticas poscosecha. Todos estos esfuerzos contribuyen a la salud de las familias productoras y de los consumidores (entre ellos, estas mismas familias).Ahora bien, aunque las ecas y los CIAL tuvieron inicialmente un propósito de ampliación de cobertura en el acompañamiento técnico, al final contribuyeron también a la asociatividad de los productores y los han mantenido unidos para la obtención de conocimientos y para la verificación de resultados, ya que los procesos de transferencia tecnológica que promueven estas metodologías, son apropiados para el intercambio y la generación de ideas y nuevos retos, orientados a alcanzar mejores rendimientos e ingresos para las familias participantes. Además, estas metodologías facilitaron la formación de promotores (productores encargados de transmitir conocimiento) en diferentes temas de interés.Los espacios de reflexión que tuvieron lugar en el marco del proceso de Graduación de cooperativas y durante la implementación del piloto de la metodología LINK, han dado sus resultados. A nivel de los órganos de dirección se han hallado alternativas y estrategias más apropiadas para generar cambios de tipo individual y colectivo, orientados a mejorar la producción y a conseguir mercados más rentables; estas alternativas y estrategias han sido documentadas en los planes estratégicos y planes de producción.Por otro lado, se nota una mayor conciencia de los productores en el manejo adecuado de los cultivos para aumentar los rendimientos, y un mejor manejo poscosecha en las fincas y en los centros de acopio para asegurar productos de calidad. Así mismo, más asociados de algunas cooperativas (como COOSMPROJIN, Sacaclí, COOPRAHOR y Ecovegetales) están participando como proveedores de sus organizaciones, para asegurar los volúmenes requeridos por sus compradores formales, lo que ha fortalecido las relaciones con clientes como ICI-Walmart y La Colonia.Por otro lado, producto de la participación plena y consciente de productoras y productores en las diferentes actividades promovidas por las cooperativas y el equipo técnico de PROGRESA, actualmente las organizaciones de productores disponen de planes estratégicos enfocados en lograr una mayor rentabilidad del negocio y, en consecuencia, en la mayoría de los casos las ventas han sido el resultado de la planificación, el establecimiento de cultivos escalonados y la diversificación según la demanda del mercado (identificada en la Estrategia de Competitividad).Finalmente, la gestión socio-organizativa al interior de la cadena logró que varios directivos de las cooperativas hortofrutícolas se integraran a la Mesa Nacional de Hortalizas, y uno de ellos ocupara un puesto en la junta directiva. Esta Mesa es una estructura nacional que facilita procesos participativos (en ella están representados tanto los productores como las cooperativas que se dedican a este rubro en todo el país), genera espacios de incidencia política (donde se discuten las problemáticas, se buscan alternativas de solución y se hacen aportes a las normas y regulaciones existentes) y contribuye al desarrollo del sector hortofrutícola, en general, mediante procesos de capacitación, ferias empresariales, análisis de la cadena, entre otros.Al momento de escribir este documento se visualiza claramente que han mejorado las relaciones entre actores de la cadena, las cuales ahora son más sostenibles e inclusivas. Por ejemplo, hoy en día hay más casas comerciales proveyendo servicios e insumos en concesión y a menor precio para las organizaciones de productores y sus socios; y la mayoría de organizaciones de productores está vinculada a través de alianzas con casas comerciales y proveedores de tecnologías como Duwest, Formunica, Sagsa Disagro, Cisa Agro, Agro-Avance, Tecnoriegos, Agritrade, Agro Mayo, Agroalfa, John May & Co, Remagro y Jinotagro.De igual forma, se han establecido alianzas con proveedores de servicios financieros -quienes tienen un rol importante para que las organizaciones avancen hacia su visión empresarial-. Estas alianzas han favorecido un trato preferencial de los proveedores de servicios financieros a los productores organizados: entrega más ágil del financiamiento, plazos diferentes a los establecidos para los productores individuales, y financiación de tecnologías cuando los productores tienen un canal seguro de comercialización. Por lo tanto, estas alianzas han facilitado a la vez que los productores establezcan acuerdos comerciales formales con sus compradores, vigentes hasta la fecha.La gestión de alianzas comerciales también ha surtido efecto. Los esfuerzos conjuntos de las organizaciones cooperativas y el personal técnico para implementar tecnologías apropiadas bajo los requerimientos técnicos, se han visto reflejados en la cantidad de productos destinados a los mercados formal e informal: en un inicio los productos que más se ofrecían eran tomate y chiltoma, pero al día de hoy la lista de productos incluye ejote francés, tomate, lechuga, remolacha, chiltoma criolla, chiltoma de relleno, berenjena, chayote quelite, chayote verde, papaya, granadilla, hierba buena, culantro, maíz para chilote y elote.En cuanto al acceso de las organizaciones de productores a información sistematizada de precios y canales de venta, aunque PROGRESA promovió el SIPMA y desarrolló un manual para ayudarles a los productores a usarlo, el acceso de los productores a este tipo de información y el incremento de su capacidad para negociar los precios de sus productos se logró más a través de su participación en ferias y ruedas de negocios. Actualmente no se puede acceder al SIPMA por razones ajenas al proyecto, quien no era el operador directo de este Sistema. Sin embargo, hay disponibles dos publicaciones -una de la Unión de Productores Agropecuarios de Nicaragua (UPANIC) y otra de APEN-que ofrecen información de precios de algunos mercados de Managua.Gracias a los anteriores resultados las familias productoras han aumentado la disponibilidad de capital -el margen bruto, que indica cuál es la ganancia real, aumentó de 32,9% en la Línea base a 41,2 en la Línea final del proyecto-para suplir sus necesidades básicas y reinvertir en la ampliación de sus áreas de producción, donde implementan las diferentes tecnologías impulsadas por PROGRESA.• Es necesario hacer el esfuerzo de organizar a los productores para realizar una planificación de siembra acorde con las necesidades del mercado. La experiencia muestra que las actividades orientadas hacia el fortalecimiento productivo deben ir acompañadas de acciones enfocadas al robustecimiento socio-organizativo y empresarial. Esto permite que productoras y productores individuales pasen a ser empresarios rurales, con objetivos consensuados y la posibilidad de comercializar sus productos en bloque.• No existe una relación directa entre la implementación de tecnologías y de BPA, y mejores ingresos para los productores. De un lado, los mercados formales no consumen el total de los vegetales generados en las fincas bajo dichas tecnologías; y del otro, los consumidores no suelen ser exigentes con los productos de consumo y por eso normalmente no están dispuestos a pagar un precio más alto a cambio de un producto de mejor calidad; de manera que el productor no tiene un incentivo económico para invertir en BPA y generar productos inocuos.• Al implementar nuevas tecnologías no se deben descuidar parámetros claves del manejo fitosanitario de los cultivos, ni del manejo integrado de la fertilidad de suelos y la gestión integrada de los recursos hídricos. En PROGRESA, por ejemplo, al principio se consideró que por utilizar macrotúneles y megatúneles, no era necesario realizar el muestreo de plagas y que se podían reducir las dosis de plaguicidas y fungicidas; sin embrago, la experiencia permite concluir que el muestreo debe ser continuo y que también es necesario realizar un programa de aplicación de plaguicidas y fungicidas de forma preventivo, especialmente contra organismos como ácaros y lepidópteros, y enfermedades.• Las barreras vivas alrededor de los macrotúneles deben ser establecidas por lo menos 40 días antes de la siembra, esto hará que el daño en la tela sea menor y permitirá que el productor pueda reusar la tela para hacer casas chinas. Es importante mencionar que una vez que se vaya a reusar este material hay que desinfectar con fungicidas e insecticidas. En el caso de los macrotúneles no es recomendable volver a usar los materiales, porque durante el ciclo de cultivo la malla está directamente expuesta y se contamina con hongos, bacterias y huevos que quedan atrapados en ella.• Se debe ahondar en el tema de uso integral de los recursos hídricos, según parámetros y requerimientos de los cultivos. En el caso de uso de sistemas de riego en los túneles, este reduce la humedad relativa, pero los técnicos no sabían con exactitud cuál era el porcentaje de reducción, y esto limita la apropiación de la tecnología, para lo cual es clave la comprobación.• El programa de fertilización pudo ser más útil a los productores si hubiese sido implementado desde el inicio. A mediados del proyecto se hizo extensiva la utilización de un programa de análisis de resultados de fertilización en línea, que generó Inauguración del centro de acopio y lavado de vegetales de COOSMPROJIN, con la participación de representantes de esta cooperativa, CRS, FIDER, VECOMA y Walmart.recomendaciones como realizar la fertilización de manera fraccionada (en pequeñas cantidades a lo largo de todo el ciclo del cultivo, de acuerdo con sus necesidades en las diferentes etapas fenológicas) para lograr una mayor optimización de cada nutriente, y así aumentar los rendimientos y disminuir los costos de producción en las fincas. Sin embargo, cuando se contó con estas recomendaciones ya se habían desarrollado las agendas temáticas de las ecas y los CIAL y, por lo tanto, no se pudo demostrar dentro de estos espacios de aprendizaje, la funcionalidad las estas recomendaciones, lo cual afectó los niveles de adopción por parte del productor.• Haber estipulado una contrapartida por parte de los productores, como requisito para el establecimiento y manejo de áreas hortofrutícolas, fue un éxito del programa, pues dado que esto representaba un esfuerzo por parte del beneficiario, ha contribuido a que este cuide, implemente y adopte las tecnologías promovidas; por lo cual también facilita la sostenibilidad de la inversión.• La mayoría de los productores aún necesita desarrollar su capacidad para establecer negociaciones con compradores formales. Si bien las cooperativas de productores suelen hacer un papel de facilitación de estas relaciones, en la medida en que los socios incrementen su entendimiento del negocio y de la manera como funcionan las relaciones comerciales, van a aumentar también su capacidad para presionar a los líderes y directivos de la organización a generar cambios para alcanzar sus objetivos comerciales, y no solo de producción.• La experiencia piloto dentro de la cual se aplicó la metodología LINK para mejorar el nivel de inclusión de la relación comercial entre la cooperativa COOSMPROJIN e ICI-Walmart, demostró que para desarrollar relaciones comerciales sostenibles con compradores formales, es indispensable la visualización de los modelos de negocio, que les permita a los productores advertir cuál es su desempeño como oferentes de un producto o servicio y, a su vez, les brinde información concreta sobre las fortalezas y debilidades de su modelo, para que puedan asumir retos de mejora que los lleven a concretar compromisos y a materializar co-inversiones con los diferentes actores que participan en el negocio.• El movimiento constante de productos y servicios al interior de una cadena de valor es vital para que la dinámica sostenga la participación de todos los actores y supla constantemente al mercado. La experiencia muestra que las alianzas con instituciones públicas y privadas favorecen dicha dinámica interna de la cadena, puesto que facilitan que los productores conozcan a otros actores (proveedores de insumos y servicios), establezcan relaciones para el crecimiento mutuo, coordinen sus acciones, y accedan a mayores oportunidades de comercializar en diferentes mercados.• Es relevante que los productores manejen información clave que los ayude a tomar decisiones con respecto a la venta de sus productos. El solo hecho de que los productores puedan acceder a los precios de plaza durante las épocas de cosecha puede tener implicaciones significativas en sus ingresos, puesto que estarían al tanto de las alzas o bajas de los precios.En este punto cabe señalar la importancia de que los productores puedan acceder a herramientas de información adaptadas a ellos, que les permitan ganar capacidad de negociación de precios y acceder a mejores mercados. Actualmente, la realidad es que la información sobre precios y mercados no es accesible para todos, puesto que parte de los productores viven en comunidades donde no hay señal de celular ni acceso a otras tecnologías como el internet; esto sin contar con que ni el celular ni el internet son herramientas que los productores suelan usar para acceder a información de precios y mercados.• Es importante promover giras de intercambio de experiencias internacionales, en las que participen productores de diferentes niveles de las organizaciones y directivos; de esta forma podrán conocer las tecnologías y estándares de calidad que exigen otros mercados, y tomar conciencia sobre la importancia de generar productos inocuos y de calidad. Sin embargo, cuando se realicen estas giras comerciales, es importante homologar objetivos con los participantes, lo cual evita dificultades en la toma de decisiones finales ante los posibles compradores, pues en una ocasión, algunos directivos se comprometieron ante los comerciantes a entregar un volumen de hortalizas, pero los productores no los respaldaron.• La participación de productores en espacios de incidencia nacional es relevante para que ellos conozcan información y canales de comercialización, y a la vez puedan contribuir a que se originen los cambios necesarios para mejorar la operatividad de toda la cadena. Así por ejemplo, la gestión de un grupo de productores de PROGRESA ante la Mesa Nacional de Hortalizas, logró que se cambiara la medida estándar establecida para la compra de tomate, que perjudicaba al productor y beneficiaba al intermediario.• Los procesos de fortalecimiento de capacidades (como talleres, días de campo, pasantías) además de aumentar el conocimiento de los participantes, favorecen la creación de vínculos de empatía y confianza entre ellos, que van cultivando un mayor deseo de agruparse para sostener calidad, volúmenes de producción, y crecer juntos ante el mercado que demanda sus productos. Así es como estos procesos le aportan también al desarrollo socio-organizativo de las cooperativas y asociaciones.Osman Palma, técnico de ASDENIC, brindando asistencia técnica al productor Miguel Sáenz Vallecillo. Comunidad Las Torrez, Palacagüina.","tokenCount":"7305"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f630a364ee2aed4808a010bd341b8698","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e032020-b791-4196-a592-5e404b08cc49/retrieve","id":"-879404858"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6888ba64-431a-4b71-b9a9-340bfdac9ac3","pagecount":"9","content":"The process of EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform, which has been under way since 1992, has radically altered the level and structure of EU support. Market support interventions have been largely replaced by various forms of direct aid to farmers. There has been a major reduction in the most trade-distorting form of support (export refunds), and intervention measures have been converted into instruments that provide financial safety nets for farmers. The process of reform has been greatly helped by rising global food prices, linked to evolving patterns of global demand. CAP reform, along with the rise in global food prices, has contributed to the attainment of a major EU policy objectivethe development of a globally oriented and competitive value-added food and drinks industry. Since 2010, the EU has emerged as a major net exporter of food and agricultural products as a result of this successful transition.By 2012 to 2013, the effects of previous CAP reforms were still working their way through the EU agro-food economy, with EU corporate responses to policy changes acting as an important transmission belt for the external effects of CAP reform. Specific aspects of this corporate dimension have led the EU to develop new policy tools, including regulatory mechanisms for strengthening the functioning of agricultural supply chains, including those parts within the retail sector.A major focus of the 2012-13 CAP reform discussions was on refining the structure and distribution of direct aid payments and linking them to the adoption of more sustainable farming practices, strengthening safety net measures and further elaborating new policy tools. The process of CAP reform, although now well advanced, remains ongoing: its production and trade effects need to be carefully monitored and evaluated in order to reconcile underlying EU policy objectives for the promotion of its globally oriented EU food and drink industry with ACP aspirations to move further up food and drink value chains.update October 2013 CAP reform and its implications for developing countries 1. Background and key issues 1. Background and key issuesThe evolving context of CAP reform and CAP implementationChanging policy tools and their useThe CAP reform process and outcomesThe impact of the abolition of EU sugar production quotasThe impact of changes to direct aid payments Extending exemptions to full cost recovery on food and feed control measuresMonitoring the external effects on ACP countries of expanded EU safety net policiesThe possible extension of the use of new EU policy tools in the ACP contextRecognising and managing evolving trends in the interest of ACP structural developmentAllowing ACP governments to use the agricultural trade policy tools available to the EU The trade success enjoyed as a result of CAP reform and rising global prices has not fed into trade liberalisation at the most favoured nation (MFN) level.The EU maintains in place a sophisticated system of protective measures through bilateral and multilateral concessional trade arrangements, under which most food and agricultural imports into the EU take place. This enables the EU to manage trade in sensitive sectors in ways that protect the interests of EU producers while at the same time responding to evolving patterns of EU demand.Potentially important lessons can be drawn by ACP policy makers from the EU's CAP experience, in particular: the use of traditional agricultural trade policy tools in support of agrofood sector development;the design and utilisation of new policy tools to strengthen the functioning of agro-food supply chains, in order to consolidate and expand the agricultural basis of production;the design and implementation of measures to insulate domestic producers from the adverse effects of price instability in an era of rising input costs.The evolving context of CAP reform and CAP implementationThe process of CAP reform has been designed in large part to reposition the EU agro-food sector in the light of changing global patterns of demand for food products. While some developments have taken EU policy makers by surprise (particularly the level of price volatility within the overall trend of rising prices), the rise in food demand in Asia and Africa was anticipated and built into the reform process.A range of basic reforms introduced were intended to improve the competitive position of EU exporters of qualitydifferentiated and value-added food and drink products. An important contextual factor in the 2012-13 CAP reform discussions was the ongoing fiscal crisis facing a number of EU member states. While this featured prominently in the discussions, it is unclear to what extent it actually influenced the outcome of the 2012-13 CAP reform negotiations.The European Parliament (EP) Secretariat analysis of the 2014-2020 financial perspectives in the agricultural sector maintained that \"committed expenditure to direct payments and market measures in 2020 is 13% less than in 2013, while committed expenditure to rural development measures is 18% less\" (based on 2011 real prices). However, some analysts have suggested that if an alternative baseline for measuring the changes in the financial allocation is used -for example the 2013 agricultural budget allocations, multiplied by the 7 years of the next financial framework -then \"Pillar 1 expenditure falls by 6.4% and Pillar 2 expenditure by 7.5%\", a much smaller decline, and one which takes into account the reductions in expenditures already under way over the 2007-13 period (i.e. the planning period set out prior to the onset of the financial crisis). In this context, the financial perspectives for the 2014-2020 period demonstrate a remarkable consistency with the 2007-13 trend towards reduce agricultural expenditures. It is against this background that the June 2013 political agreement on CAP reforms has been described as \"a triumph for the Cioloş strategy of legitimising Pillar 1 payments\" at a time of severe financial pressure on some member state governments.The In October 2012, the EC published a review of price transmission in the sugar sector since the 2006 reforms. The price transmission effects were not as anticipated. Prices remained above the reference price from October 2009, while retail prices \"did not seem to be influenced by policy events\", with the pricing behaviour of retailers tending to be \"independent… from the dynamics of ex-works sugar price\". In addition, the expected \"convergence of price transmission proper between EU domestic sugar markets and the international sugar market has not yet occurred\". What was clearly identified was the \"acceleration of the ongoing process of concentration of the sugar industry\" -it was suggested that \"EU sugar producers might again be exerting remarkable market power\" (for details see Agritrade article 'EC review of the impact of 2006 reforms on price transmission in the sugar sec-tor', 7 July 2013). This appears to have informed both the decision to abolish EU sugar production quotas from 1 October 2017, and also the accompanying measures being set in place to strengthen the functioning of internal EU sugar supply chains.A central element of the process of CAP reform has been the emphasis on the 'quality' and safety of EU food production. The EU's Agricultural Product Quality Policy, a key element of the CAP reform process, is explicitly designed to both differentiate EU food and agricultural products from third-country products and yield significant price premiums for EU producers. This takes a wide variety of forms, from corporate branding strategies, through quality differentiation related to production processes (e.g. organic, fair-trade or sustainability certification) to geographical indications (GI) designations (for more details see Agritrade Executive Brief 'Product differentiation', forthcoming 2013).The economic significance of support to product differentiation strategies was highlighted by the October 2012 EC report on the benefits of GI labelling. It estimated that the \"average value premium rate\" for GI-designated \"agricultural products and foodstuffs\" in the EU27 was 1.55. This means that GI-protected \"agricultural products and foodstuffs\" on average attract over one and a half times the price of the same volume of comparable but non-GIprotected products. The total value premium of EU27 GIs for \"agricultural products and foodstuffs\" was estimated at €5.6 billion in 2010, with the sales value for GI-protected agricultural products and foodstuffs having grown by 19% between 2005 and 2010.On 15 January 2013, the EC launched a public consultation on the future of its organic products regime. These consultations will feed into EC \"proposals for a renewed political and legal framework for organic agriculture in Europe\", scheduled for the end of 2013 (see Agritrade article 'EU launches public consultation on organic production', 24 February 2013). As part of the CAP reform process in June 2013, it was agreed that organic producers should be automatically eligible for the 30% of direct aid payments that are linked to \"greening\" requirements.The issue of the quality and safety of imported products is increasingly coming to the fore, with the EU looking to strengthen food and feed controls through a new Feed and Food Control regulation. This is of concern to ACP producers for two reasons: first, because ACP producers do not enjoy the public sector support extended to EU producers in financing investments in compliance with EU requirements. Second, because the EU is increasing the number of mandatory controls and moving towards recovery of full costs for inspections carried out. This could potentially increase the costs of access to the EU market for a wide range of ACP exporters, with the burden falling particularly heavily on small-scale producers. With financial constraints being felt in terms of the levels of EU agricultural support, EU farmers have been particularly vocal in calling for the stricter application of SPS and food safety controls to \"level the playing field\" between EU and third-country producers. This can be seen as a logical extension of the CAP policy focus on agricultural product quality.The 2012-13 CAP reform discussions were the first to take place under the new institutional arrangements set up under the Lisbon Treaty. This gave a greater role to the EP in policy formulation. In the first quarter of 2013, it became apparent that there was a lack of consensus on the details of the EC proposals. This gave rise to a difficult process of trilateral dialogues (so called 'trilogues') -between the EC, the EP and and the EU Council. Analysts have suggested that the June 2013 political agreement \"represents no more than some minor fine-tuning of the status quo CAP regulations, in return for greater flexibility of implementation by member states and a considerable increase in administrative complexity\". While the 2013 reform package did not lead to a \"decisive paradigm shift\", it did successfully resist pressure to reintroduce greater market regulation.A number of the changes introduced potentially carry implications for ACP agricultural producers and agro-food processors.The impact of the abolition of EU sugar production quotasAccording to the EC, the abolition of EU sugar production quotas \"will ensure improved competitiveness for EU producers on the domestic and world market alike\". A EC report in December 2012 maintained: \"the expiry of the sugar quota will lead to a reduction of the domestic sugar price in the EU, and make imports less attractive\". Indeed, with the EU projected to \"move even closer to self-sufficiency and indeed from time to time be a net exporter\", overall EU sugar imports are projected to decline markedly from an average of 3.63 million tonnes per annum from 2009 to 2011, to 1.55 million tonnes p.a. by 2020-22 (for details see Agritrade article 'EU sugar sector developments and projections', 7 April 2013). The 2-year deferment of quota abolition to October 2017 will only slightly delay the onset of these projected changes in EU sugar import levels.This will carry profound implications for ACP sugar exporters, particularly given the expansion of EU sugar TRQs currently under way as part of new EU FTA agreements. This reinforces the long-term trend in the declining significance of EU sugar sector preferences for ACP sugar exporters.Given the move to market-determined prices in the ACP-EU sugar trade and the inequalities in power relationships along many ACP-EU sugar supply chains, ACP countries that continue to export sugar to the EU will find that the benefits derived will increasingly be determined by the specific nature of contractual relationships established between ACP exporters and EU importers. The EC's growing emphasis on developing the regulatory framework for strengthening the functioning of sugar supply chains could therefore potentially take on considerable significance for ACP governments. This relates both to the regulation of the functioning of sugar supply chains within ACP countries and the functioning of ACP-EU sugar supply chains.As part of the June 2013 reforms, the EC announced that \"the organisation of the sugar sector will be strengthened on the basis of contracts and mandatory inter-professional agreements\" (for details of the importance of interprofessional agreements in the sugar sector, see Agritrade article 'Importance of inter-professional agreements in managing unequal power relationships highlighted', 28 October 2012). This is to include the stipulation of \"standard provisions for agreements between sugar factories and growers\" (see Agritrade article 'Impact of CAP reform agreement on the sugar sector', 6 August 2013).Similar regulatory provisions could prove of value in ACP sugar producing countries, given the very different experience in ACP countries of the pooling and sharing of revenues between growers and millers derived from non-traditional products of sugar cane production (co-generated electricity, ethanol, commercial alcohol sales, etc.). Regulatory provisions could also prove of value in promoting greater transparency in international sugar trade arrangements, in a context of increased corporate linkages between ACP sugar estates/millers and sugar refining companies in export markets.In terms of the EU sugar export trade, an important consequence of the removal of EU production quotas is the lapsing of WTO constraints on EU sugar exports. Corporate representatives have spoken of major new opportunities for the export of EU refined and value-added sugar products (although this is not yet reflected in EC projections of likely EU sugar exports up to 2020).A second area of concern relates to the impact of changing patterns of EU direct aid payments. With greater flexibility being introduced into how member states can deploy CAP funding, concerns have been raised about \"the potential for distortion\" in the functioning of the EU single market. It is argued, for example, that if some member states increase product specific payments ('coupled payments') while other member states do not, this could potentially give recipients of coupled payments a competitive edge on the EU market.This implicitly raises the issue of the impact of EU direct aid payments on the relative competitive position of EU farmers and farmers in countries that do not receive direct aid payments (e.g., in ACP countries).\"EU direct aid payments sustain EU agricultural production at higher levels than would be the case in the absence of such direct aid payments\"The least that can be said at this general level is that, at any given market price level, EU direct aid payments sustain EU agricultural production at higher levels than would be the case in the absence of such direct aid payments. The EU system of direct aid payments is fully WTO compatible.There are, however, other effects of the changes introduced. The increase in the scope for EU member states to make 'coupled' payments, if used extensively in the cotton sector, would be likely to further set back the efforts in the WTO of the African cotton producing countries to secure the elimination of cotton sector support payments.In addition, the automatic nature of the 30% direct aid payment to organic farmers, which would provide a major financial boost to EU organic producers, needs to be seen against the background of EC efforts to both increase mandatory controls on food and feed imports and move towards full cost recovery for all public sector food and feed control inspections. The twin effects of these two policy measures could serve to distort competition between EU and non-EU organic producers, to the detriment of ACP efforts to develop export production to serve this growing market component.Given the need to develop policy responses to the challenge of preference erosion that is facing the ACP-EU agricultural trade relationship, there would appear to be a case for extending to ACP suppliers the planned exemptions for EU micro-enterprises from the application of full cost recovery for food and feed inspections. This could occur either collectively or on the basis of clearly defined criteria linked to the country's development status (e.g., least developed country, island or small economy) or as part of cooperation on sector restructuring initiatives.The revision of the use of public intervention and private storage support to provide safety nets at times of market crisis, along with the creation of the new annual €400 million crisis reserve, is in part intended to cushion EU producers from the worst effects of global market price volatility. While this facility is 20% lower than initially proposed and draws on existing direct aid payment allocations, its use could nevertheless pose problems for particular third countries at particular times of market disturbance in particular sectors, by shifting the burden of adjustment to lower world market prices to the non-EU producers, including those in the ACP.In this context, a key policy challenge faced in the EU is how to establish effective safety net measures for EU agricultural producers that avoid displacing the burden of adjustment to ACP producers. This suggests a need for careful monitoring of the external effects of deploying EU safety net measures in ACP countries seeking to develop industries in the sectors where measures are being introduced (e.g. in the dairy sector).Indeed, given that processes of agricultural reform in OECD countries interact with many other factors and developments in terms of how they impact on ACP countries, there would appear to be a need for an ongoing process of monitoring the specific effects of the application of policy tools on specific sub-sets of producers, if negative external effects on ACP agricultural producers are to be minimised.The challenge is to establish independent institutional mechanisms appropriate to this task. To date, it can be argued that insufficient attention has been paid to this dimension of the agricultural reform process in OECD countries.A potential area of interest to ACP governments in the CAP reform process relates to the possible application in an ACP context of some of the new EU policy tools being developed to strengthen the functioning of markets at a time of market liberalisation.In the EU it has been recognised that in a context of market liberalisation, inequalities in power relationships along supply chains can lead to unfair trading practices, which over time can undermine the production base in some agricultural sectors. In an era of agricultural market liberalisation, this constitutes an increasingly rich body of regulatory experience which ACP governments could draw on to strengthen the functioning of specific agricultural supply chains, where inequalities in power relationships potentially undermine the development and consolidation of domestic agricultural production and agro-food sector development. It potentially constitutes an important new area for ACP-EU cooperation. This applies both in terms of the policy measures required to strengthen the internal functioning of agricultural supply chains in ACP countries and in terms of strengthening the functioning of ACP-EU agricultural supply chains.In the context of trade negotiations and the formulation of domestic and regional agricultural trade policies, special attention will need to be paid to monitoring trends in EU food and agricultural exports and the process of global expansion of EU agro-food sector firms, and to evaluating the implications of these trends for ACP governments' aspirations to structurally transform the basis of engagement of their agro-food sectors with global supply chains. Carefully defined, sector-specific policies will be required, if growing EU corporate interest in specific ACP agro-food sectors is to be translated into the structural development of individual ACP agro-food sectors.The formulation of regional strategies for sector development is likely to prove particularly challenging, where governments and corporate players in neighbouring ACP countries have divergent interests in terms of the import patterns they develop and the engagement they seek with EU agro-food sector companies. (For example, in recent years, dairy sector companies in South Africa have used imports of EU skimmed-milk powder to increase their regional trade in value-added dairy products, to the detriment of neighbouring countries' dairy sectors.)Establishing a structure for dialogue in order to get to grips with these issues could then help other ACP regions to develop their own regional agricultural policy frameworks.Allowing ACP governments to use the agricultural trade policy tools available to the EUThe EU retains the right to use a wide range of agricultural trade policy tools to manage markets and insulate sensitive EU agricultural sectors from the adverse effects of global price volatility. Many ACP governments potentially have an interest in retaining similar rights to flexibly deploy available agricultural trade policy tools (special agricultural safeguards, import licensing arrangements, TRQs, etc.)\"The EU retains the right to use a wide range of agricultural trade policy tools\"Several ACP governments have called for the right to use the types of agricultural trade policy tools that the EU retains the right to deploy: this constitutes an important test case for the EU's commitment to policy coherence for development.","tokenCount":"3470"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d2154070cc21ab4db0bde6aebaabd840","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2bc80de3-48c4-4c21-9cdf-96fe64727f11/content","id":"-1314636743"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c4b1f64e-cf63-4e4c-82e0-02963a7d796e","pagecount":"27","content":"• Aphid species:-Greenbug [Schizaphis graminum (R.)] -Bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi L.) -English grain aphid [Sitobion avenae (F.)] -Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia M.) -Rose grain aphid [Metoplophium dirhodum (W.)] -Corn leaf aphid [Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch)] -Root aphid [Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis (Sasaki)] -Sugar cane aphid [(Sipha flava (Forbes)] -Sitobion fragariae (W.The sensory systems of the insects are engaged, i.e. olfaction, vision, gustation, thigmoreception, etc.• Classical aphid resistance phenotyping is very challenging: time consuming and labor intensive. Exploration of new phenotyping tools. • Type of phenotyping depends on the objectives: breeding, research, etc. • It is important to consider what aphid species is going to be evaluated • Having a rearing in good shape is fundamental • Testing conditions can be relatively simple and cheap for quick evaluations and no so complex experiments","tokenCount":"131"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6b3332b9e87ea33991215167f18b1205","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b42163ba-2b28-4f24-8e84-08b6b054ca42/retrieve","id":"-1153510760"},"keywords":["Landsat 8","Google Earth Engine (GEE)","vegetation productivity","fall armyworm","normalized difference vegetation index"],"sieverID":"5b7df98f-df51-476d-86e8-724cfadb0afb","pagecount":"16","content":"2023) Use of time series normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to monitor fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) damage on maize production systems in Africa,Fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), is endemic to the Americas, but following its first detection outside of its native range in 2016 (Goergen et al. 2016), it has rapidly spread across different continents (Sharanabasappa et al. 2018;Naeem-Ullah et al. 2019;Sun et al. 2021;IPPC 2022), thereby becoming a true global pest of many important crops, among them chiefly maize and sorghum. Studies have attributed this rapid spread to recent increases in global temperature which provide suitable environmental conditions to the pest (D ıaz-Alvarez et al. 2020; Nurzannah et al. 2020). Commonly, FAW thrives under tropical humid conditions to complete its development (Du Plessis et al. 2020). In Africa, the pest was first detected in Nigeria in 2016, followed by São Tom e and Pr ıncipe, Benin, Ghana, Togo and subsequently also in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (Goergen et al. 2016). To date FAW has been recorded in 47 out of the 54 African countries (Cabi 2022), driven by the strong dispersal ability of the adult moths which are capable of travelling up to 70 km per day (Ge et al. 2021). In 2018, FAW was first reported in Asia, i.e. India and Yemen, and by 2019 had widely spread with records from China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea and Australia (Harrison et al. 2019).Being an invasive species that mostly damages cereal crops, FAW has negatively impacted food and nutrition security, particularly among small scale farmers in Africa (Cock et al. 2017). For instance estimates in 12 African counties indicate that, maize yields have been reduced by 8.3 to 20.6 million tons annually following the FAW invasion (Day et al. 2017). Maize is one of the most important staple food crops in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), covering approximately 36 million hectares and supporting the livelihoods for about 208 million people on the continent (Day et al. 2017;Assefa and Ayalew 2019). The economic losses by FAW in 12 major maize-growing countries of Africa are estimated at US$2.5 to 6.2 billion (Shylesha et al. 2018).Earlier studies have demonstrated the use of various geo-spatial and remote sensing tools for effective monitoring of important crop pests like FAW and plant diseases (Acharya and Thapa 2015;Rani et al. 2018;Roberts et al. 2021;Rano et al. 2022). Some of these previous studies predicted habitat suitability of FAW using various modelling approaches at global scale (Tepa-Yotto et al. 2021;Guimapi et al. 2022;Paudel et al. 2022). However, the potential crop damage caused by FAW at finer scales remains to assessed and quantified by means of remote sensing technologies. Remotely sensed data, acquired either with handheld (Filho et al. 2020) or airborne (Bhattarai et al. 2019) sensors, have been used for assessing insect crop damage. Essentially, symptoms of crop damage by insect pests can be visual and/or invisible depending on the attack stage. To develop early warning tools using satellite systems for early insect pest damage detection, there are several sensors such as WorldView-3 that provide imagery of high (<3 m) spatial resolutions. However, to test such operational early warning systems, readily available satellite data should be utilized. Landsat 8, which operates with a multispectral sensor of 30 m spatial resolution, could provide unique data for FAW damage detection at local and regional scales. This could be achieved by integrating Landsat 8 based spectral features and geo-spatial analytics to characterize landscape structure in relation to FAW damage. This approach would enable the assessment of the spatio-temporal FAW damage status in crops like maize and sorghum, which are among the most preferred host plants of the pest (Day et al. 2017). Specifically, time series optical Sentinel-2 spectral bands and vegetation indices can provide a robust, efficient and cost-effective technique for monitoring FAW damage (Horelu et al. 2015;Prabhakar et al. 2020). Though a Sentinel-2 multispectral image has a high spatial resolution of 10 m it's, however, not suitable for long term time series analysis compared to Landsat images due to image availability since the satellite was launched in 2015, hence lacking historical images.One of the most commonly used differential vegetation index for crop health monitoring is the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (Tucker and Sellers 1986). Generally, NDVI is an indicator of crop vigor, stress and damage as a function of the reflectance at the near infrared (NIR) and red bands (Wall et al. 2008;Huang et al. 2014;Ji et al. 2021). For instance, Prabhakar et al. (2020) used NDVI calculated from Sentinel-2 data to show the viability of site-specific pest management and found that NDVI is quite effective for detecting FAW infestations with an R 2 of 0.80. In another study, Zhang et al. (2016) developed a mapping approach for tracking fall armyworm (FAW) infestation at a regional scale using a univariate model and two-date HJ-CCD (Huanjing satellite charge coupled device) NDVI. HJ-CCD is also an optical multispectral sensor of 30 m spatial resolution which generates images comparable to Landsat 8, however such images are not available in google earth engine software. This method was found to be effective and promising for use in a typical FAW outbreak event in Tangshan, Hebei Province, China. Furthermore, Zhang et al. (2016) expressed the need for robust and cost-effective remote sensing tools for monitoring FAW damage at a regional scale. Thus, this research aims to create a robust and cost-effective remote sensing instrument for FAW damage on a regional scale in Africa. The study fills the research gap as it utilizes Landsat 8 time series data for pre-and post-FAW invasion period at a regional scale, unlike previous studies that have used Sentinel-2 or other remote sensing technologies for crop damage detection at a site-specific/farm level (Horelu et al. 2015;Prabhakar et al. 2021). The objective of this study is to use multi-date Landsat 8 images and NDVI datasets to evaluate the spatial and temporal status of FAW damage in maize growing areas to cover the pre-and post-FAW infestation to evaluate the pest damage. Additionally, the study seeks to measure the crop damage caused by FAW in both West and South African study areas. The Landsat 8 image was considered for the study due to its narrower spectral bands, improved calibration and signal-to-noise characteristics, higher 12-bit radiometric resolution, and more precise geometry (Roy et al. 2016).This study was focused on the following areas: Atlantique region of Benin, Centrale in Togo, Salima in Malawi, Chongwe in Zambia, and Limpopo in South Africa (Figure 1). These study areas were selected based on the presence of maize and sorghum cropping systems (Table 1) in the respective areas and their history of FAW attack. Atlantique is one of the 12 departments in Benin, located between latitude 6 20 0 00 00 N to 6 50 0 00 00 N and longitude 2 0 0 00 00 E to 2 20 0 00 00 E in the south of the country. It covers an area of 3,233 km 2 with an estimated population of 1.397 million, annual precipitation of 1,200mm and an annual temperature range between 28 and 32 C. Approximately 60% of its population depend on agriculture for food and income (Atindogbe et al. 2012).The Centrale region of Togo is located between latitude 8 0 0 00 00 N to 9 0 0 00 00 N and longitude 1 0 0 00 00 E to 1 0 0 00 00 E with an area of 13,420 km 2 , annual rainfall between 1,200-1,500mm and an annual temperature range between 20 and 39 C. The main economic activity within the study site is agriculture with a population totaling 617,871 as of the 2010 census (Ataba et al. 2020). The Salima district of Malawi is located between latitude 13 30 0 00 00 S to 14 0 0 00 00 S and longitude 34 10 0 00 00 E to 34 40 0 00 00 E, covers an area of 2,196 km 2 , with a population of 478,368 (Government of Malawi, 2018), and a mean annual precipitation of 1,188mm as unimodal rainfall. With an average annual temperature of 22 C, the district has a tropical climate. The district is dominated by small holder agriculture, covering approximately 107,400 hectares (Musa et al. 2018).The Chongwe district in the Lusaka province of Zambia is located between latitude 15 0 0 00 00 S to 16 0 0 00 00 S and longitude 28 0 0 00 00 E to 30 0 0 00 00 E, covers an area of 8,669 km 2 , with a population of 192,303, and precipitation ranges between 800-1,000mm with an annual temperature of 20.4 C (Jacqueline and Mubanga 2020) . Agriculture is the most important economic activity, primarily with crops like maize, cassava, and sweet potatoes (CSO, 2003). Finally, the Limpopo Province of South Africa lies between latitude 23 0 0 00 00 S to 25 0 0 00 00 S and longitude 27 0 0 00 00 E to 31 0 0 00 00 E, covering an area of 125,754 km 2 , an estimated population of 5,778,400, an annual temperature ranging between 24.6 À 28.2 C, 500 mm of total annual rainfall, with commercial farmers occupying >70% of the province's prime agricultural land, while smallholder farmers occupying the remaining arable surface (Cai et al. 2017).Landsat 8 satellite data Landsat 8 multispectral top of the atmosphere images (LANDSAT/LC08/C01/T1_TOA) were utilized for the analysis. The Landsat 8 has a spatial resolution of 30 m with 11 spectral bands distributed between the visible, near-infrared (NIR), shortwave infrared (SWIR) and thermal infrared (TIRS) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). The sensor has an altitude of 705 km and a temporal resolution (revisit time) of 16 days (USGS, 2021).The methodology framework of this study consisted of four main steps (Figure 2).Table 1. Cropping Surface of Maize and Sorghum for the study area in hectares (ha).Maize cropping surface ha Sorghum cropping surface haStep 1: Landsat 8 (Table 2) images were obtained and processed using Google Earth Engine (GEE) software (https://code.earthengine.google.com), which is a cloud computing software (Kumar and Mutanga 2018). The image processing involved cloud masking of which band quality band (BQA) was utilized, also atmospheric correction was utilized to remove the effects of atmospheric scattering and absorption on the images, as these factors can affect the NDVI values. A total of 415, 613, 909, 320, and 517 images were used for the Atlantique, Centrale, Chongwe, Salima, and Limpopo regions, respectively.A composite image was then computed using the median values of the pixels for each year, covering the months January to December of 2013 to 2020 for the selected study  Table 2 lists the spectral bands of a satellite sensor, along with their band numbers, names, wavelength ranges in micrometers (lm), and spatial resolutions in meters. The sensor has eight multispectral bands (bands 1-7 and 9) and one panchromatic band (band 8). The multispectral bands cover a wide range of wavelengths from the visible to the near-infrared (NIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The spatial resolution of the multispectral bands is 30 meters, while the panchromatic band has a higher resolution of 15 meters. Additionally, the sensor has a Cirrus band (band 9) that is sensitive to high-altitude clouds.regions to compute the NDVI using the Red (band 4) and NIR (band 5) bands (Table 1) of Landsat images (Equation 1).where NIR and red are reflectance values at near-infrared and red bands 5 and 4 of Landsat 8, respectively.Step 2: The NDVI values were reclassified into four classes, i.e. Low, sparse, moderate, and dense vegetation, using the reclassify tool in QGIS (QGIS.org, QGIS 2020) to quantify FAW crop damage in terms of vegetation change. The sparse and moderate vegetation productivity comprised of bare soil and grassland classes, while the dense vegetation entailed annual cropland, perennial cropland, forestland and woodlands (Akbar et al. 2019). The natural breaks threshold technique (Singh and Javeed 2021) was then used to reclassify the NDVI values into the four vegetation classes. The method was used to find class breaks that best group standard deviation data with comparable values while also maximizing the difference between classes (Table 3).The NDVI threshold values listed for each vegetation class in the study regions are based on empirical observations and previous research. NDVI values provide an estimation of vegetation density and vigor, with higher values indicating denser and healthier vegetation cover. The threshold values are used to classify different vegetation classes based on their NDVI ranges. These values can vary depending on the specific region, climate, and vegetation types. Therefore, the values listed for each study region and vegetation class have been determined through previous research and field observations to best fit the local vegetation patterns and characteristics (Singh and Javeed 2021).Step 3: The specific year of which the FAW was identified for each study site was obtained from literature. (Goergen et al. 2016;Koffi et al. 2020;Dassou et al. 2021). The vegetation density class for each study region for the period before and after the introduction of FAW was then computed using mulusce plugins in QGIS software, an algorithm subtracting annual NDVI values for pre and post FAW infestation expressed in hectares. The 2013 annual average NDVI values were used as a reference to quantify subsequent crop damage, since it was a year with high NDVI values in many of the study regions during pre-FAW introduction.Step 4: The validation data were obtained from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) collected in the selected study sites across Africa (FAO 2018). We utilized FAW data for the year 2018/2019 (January -December) for which geographic location together with field collected information about different crop types were available. Hence, the points were filtered to focus on maize farm field samples. The original excel data were then converted into a shapefile in QGIS software. The field data points were later overlaid on the NDVI raster data sets, of which the NDVI values were extracted for each point of FAW prevalence, using the extract values by points tool in QGIS. Linear regression was then applied to validate the correlation between NDVI values and the prevalence of FAW that was computed using the scouting data obtained from the field that signified the presence of FAW by rating the proportion of plants affected by the pest.Figure 3 highlights the variation in the classified NDVI images. In Atlantique, Benin (Figure 3a), there was a higher sparse and moderate vegetation density in 2013 than the densely vegetated class in 2016. In the other years, there was no consistent overall trend in vegetation density with the dense vegetation class more dominant in the region in 2014 and 2019. In the Centrale region of Togo (Figure 3b), the density of vegetation was decreasing over the years with density values in 2013 being considerably higher than in 2020. In Salima, Malawi (Figure 3c), the vegetation density was lower in 2017 than in 2013. A similar trend was observed in Limpopo (South Africa) (Figure 3d), and also in Chongwe (Zambia) (Figure 3e), the vegetation cover in 2018 was lower than in 2013.In 2016, the variation in the yearly average NDVI for Atlantique (a) and Centrale (b) was minimal in both areas, as seen in Figure 4 The lowest average NDVI for Chongwe (c) was reported in 2014, then climbed in 2015 before continuing to decline until 2020. The lowest NDVI values were recorded in Salima (d) and Limpopo (e) in 2017 and 2018, respectively.We observed a decrease in moderate and dense vegetation classes by 4% and 19%, respectively, for the Atlantique (Benin) and Centrale (Togo) regions in 2016, and for the latter country also an increase in sparse (4%) and low vegetation (19%) (Tables 4 and 5). For Chongwe (Zambia) and Salima (Malawi) we noted a decrease in moderate and dense vegetation classes (Tables 6 and 7), and for Limpopo (South Africa) a decrease in dense, moderate and sparse vegetation between 2013 and 2018 (Table 8). There was a significant (P, 0.05) positive correlation between the NDVI values and FAW prevalence with a strong R 2 of 0.83 (Figure 5), implying a higher FAW prevalence with lower NDVI values and vice versa.  The study could conclusively show that NDVI can be used as a proxy for monitoring FAW induced crop damage. With multi-date NDVI data we could detect changes in vegetation density from before to after the FAW invasion in the study regions. For each of the latter, we used the year 2013 as the pre-FAW infestation reference year and hypothesized that after FAW was introduced, i.e. 2016 for Benin and Togo, 2017 for Malawi and Zambia, and 2018 for South Africa, drops in NDVI could be attributed to the impact of the pest (Goergen et al. 2016;Abrahams et al. 2017;Murray et al. 2019;Koffi et al. 2020;Dassou et al. 2021;Kasoma et al. 2021). This is consistent with other studies that utilized spectral vegetation indices such as NDVI to monitor crop health and vigor (Wall et al. 2008;Huang et al. 2014;Ji et al. 2021). For instance, Prabhakar et al. (2020) used NDVI to detect FAW damage in sorghum. The authors utilized Sentinel-2 derived NDVI to detect FAW infestation at farm level in southern India, and could correlate pest infestation with NDVI at an R 2 of 0.80 very similar to the R 2 0.83 in our study. Like other noctuid pests, FAW damages maize and sorghum crops and cause defoliation and stem damage, resulting in substantial yield losses (FAO 2018). These crop morphological and physiological symptoms can cause considerable changes in the crop spectral features, particularly in the red and NIR portions of the EMS. The red and NIR portion of the EMS, which is used to calculate the NDVI, are known chlorophyl and water sensitive features that can mimic the changes in the crop chlorophyl and water content due to pest damage (Yamanura and Patil 2021).In Zambia, a 40% decline in NDVI magnitude was reported during the 2016/2017 cropping season and continued to decline until 2018 (Kansiime et al. 2019). This is corroborated with our findings, which show that the frequency of NDVI values decreased from 2017 to 2020. It is highly likely, that the massive FAW outbreaks in 2016/2017 in Zambia, with >124,000 ha of maize affected, could have been the reason for the observed NDVI reductions (Kansiime et al. 2019). Also, the level of NDVI reductions can vary depending on the FAW intervention measures applied. For instance, in Zambia, the NDVI values continued to decline following the 2016 invasion until 2020, possibly because of shortcomings in information dissemination to affected farmers, and inadequate control methods coupled with a lack of reliable access to insecticides (Kasoma et al. 2021). Yet, in countries like Benin, Togo, and Malawi, NDVI values increased after the FAW invasion, possibly because of more successful pest control intervention utilizing synthetic and biological insecticides which led to a considerable drop in FAW population levels (CABI 2018). Similar observations were made in Togo, with FAW levels decreasing from 68.5% to 55. 8% and 17.8% in 2016, 2017, and 2018, respectively, due to the increased use of synthetic insecticides (Koffi et al. 2020).Nonetheless, it is worth noting that NDVI is not only affected by insect pest damages but also by other biotic and abiotic factors such as crop diseases, weeds, drought, flood, nutrient deficiencies etc. (Pei et al. 2019). For instance, the NDVI decrease in Chongwe (Zambia) and Limpopo (South Africa) in 2014 and 2015 prior to the FAW invasion were a result of El Niño oscillations (Archer et al. 2017). Moreover, the region experienced a severe drought from 2014 to 2015, which caused a considerable reduction in NDVI and crop yield (Liu and Zhou 2021). However, the effect of precipitation on NDVI cannot be confounded with other biotic and abiotic factors as the index steadily increases if rainfall is abundant and vice versa (Pei et al. 2019;Achille et al. 2021). Also, the impact of temperature changes on NDVI is minimal (Wang et al. 2003).Our study demonstrates that NDVI can be utilized as a proxy for monitoring crop damage caused by FAW. Essentially, the study reclassified NDVI imagery to four greenness classes viz., low, sparse, moderate and dense vegetation, to quantify crop damage due to FAW infestation. The study hypothesized that the change in NDVI between 2013, 2014, 2015(pre FAW invasion), and 2016, 2017and 2018 (post FAW invasion) were caused by FAW damage. We found considerable reductions in NDVI in all study regions of Benin, Togo, Malawi, Zambia and South Africa post FAW invasion. Our results can be used as a guide for monitoring the effectiveness of pest control methods that are currently rolled out across Africa to mitigate FAW effects on important staple crops like maize and sorghum. They can also be used to estimate crop yield as a function of FAW damage in affected regions. Finally, we believe that future studies should look at testing our approach in other FAW affected regions of SSA and field validated with data on FAW damage and yield.Zentrum f€ ur Entwicklungsforschung (ZEF), Bonn, Germany. It has been carried out in partial fulfillment of a Ph.D. thesis by the first author in close collaboration with the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) Nairobi, Kenya, and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Cotonou, Benin.","tokenCount":"3549"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"56af17369ed44b623e91cd7fce3e7b88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6f607772-f0b4-4e92-a634-1dd34f499800/retrieve","id":"616038474"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ff997888-5efd-41d9-b992-8513be9a26cd","pagecount":"12","content":"Ce document présente les résultats d'une étude réalisée sur les produits de croisement en élevage bovin laitier dans les régions de Thiès et de Diourbel au Sénégal. C'est une aide utile à la prise de décision destinée aux éleveurs de produits de croisement en élevage bovin laitier.Ont collaboré à la réalisation de cette étude:Est-ce que je pourrais recevoir une formation ou des conseils sur la préparation de la vache à l'insémination artificielle?Est-ce que je pourrais accéder à la semence de taureaux zébu ou exotiques de qualité?Comment vais-je les accoupler?Est-ce que je pourrais recevoir une formation ou des conseils sur comment élever des animaux croisés?Qui serait en charge des animaux et de leur traite?Pourrai-je leur fournir une alimentation appropriée même pendant la saison sèche?Pourrais-je adhérer à une association pour bénéficier de meilleurs coûts des intrants?Pourrais-je bénéficier de crédit pour l'achat d'intrants?Pourrais-je réussir une traite hygiénique?Pourrai-je mettre les vaches dans de bonnes conditions d'élevage?Pour plus d'informations Qui serait en charge de la vente et de la transformation du lait?Qui pourrait acheter le lait?Est-ce je pourrais adhérer à une association d'éleveurs pour une meilleure vente et un meilleur prix du lait?A qui reviendraient les bénéfices générés par la vente du lait?Est-ce que je pourrais vendre facilement le lait?Comment tout cela pourrait-il influencer les autres activités de la concession?","tokenCount":"215"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa9e96d862ee91f89432146296742ce6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4454841e-9d7f-402c-b415-e8dbe3f3924e/content","id":"-1634318653"},"keywords":["heat stress","booting","pollen viability","tillering","SPAD and Fv/Fm","wheat"],"sieverID":"d9d03542-01a3-44c3-acf7-020d37428273","pagecount":"13","content":"Rising temperatures due to climate change threaten agricultural crop productivity. As a cool-season crop, wheat is heat-sensitive, but often exposed to high temperatures during the cultivation period. In the current study, a bread wheat panel of spring wheat genotypes, including putatively heat-tolerant Australian and CIMMYT genotypes, was exposed to a 5-day mild (34 • C/28 • C, day/night) or extreme (37 • C/27 • C) heat stress during the sensitive pollen developmental stage. Worsening effects on anther morphology were observed, as heat stress increased from mild to extreme. Even under mild heat, a significant decrease in pollen viability and number of grains per spike from primary spike was observed compared with the control (21 • C/15 • C), with Sunstar and two CIMMYT breeding lines performing well. A heat-specific positive correlation between the two traits indicates the important role of pollen fertility for grain setting. Interestingly, both mild and extreme heat induced development of new tillers after the heat stress, providing an alternative sink for accumulated photosynthates and significantly contributing to the final yield. Measurements of flag leaf maximum potential quantum efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) showed an initial inhibition after the heat treatment, followed by a full recovery within a few days. Despite this, model fitting using chlorophyll soil plant analysis development (SPAD) measurements showed an earlier onset or faster senescence rate under heat stress. The data presented here provide interesting entry points for further research into pollen fertility, tillering dynamics, and leaf senescence under heat. The identified heat-tolerant wheat genotypes can be used to dissect the underlying mechanisms and breed climate-resilient wheat.Wheat is one of the most important crops for human consumption, grown on 220 million hectares with a total production of 760 million tons in 2020 (FAOSTAT). In scenarios of climate change, wheat plants are prone to be exposed to warmer and more variable temperatures (Trnka et al., 2014). Beyond a physiological threshold, high temperatures cause stress and impair plant growth and development. Both historical data and future predictions have revealed the negative effects of heat on wheat productivity at the global and regional scale (Liu et al., 2016;Zampieri et al., 2017;Pequeno et al., 2021). Therefore, it is crucial to identify and breed heat-adapted varieties to sustain wheat production and ensure food security.In nature, the adverse effects of heat stress on plants can be variable depending on the intensity, duration, and developmental stage (Stone and Nicolas, 1995;Yeh et al., 2012). Most of the heat-related studies in wheat have been field-based and used late sowing to expose plants to high temperatures during the flowering and grain filling stages; however, short episodes of heat during earlier reproductive stages can also cause significant damage (Zampieri et al., 2017). Indeed, anther and pollen development are considered to be the stages most vulnerable to heat stress (Zinn et al., 2010;Rieu et al., 2017). Stage-specific treatments have found that wheat is particularly sensitive to heat around 8 days before anthesis, which coincides with the early meiosis to tetrad stage of pollen development (Saini and Aspinall, 1982;Prasad and Djanaguiraman, 2014). Because pollen development occurs during the booting stage, while spikes are still inside the developing pseudostem in wheat, the length of the auricles between the flag leaf and the penultimate leaf (referred as auricle interval length, AIL) has been used as a proxy for pollen development. AIL between 3 and 6 cm has been associated with this sensitive stage (Bokshi et al., 2021;Erena et al., 2021). Brief heat exposure during this sensitive period resulted in abnormal meiosis behavior (Omidi et al., 2014;Draeger and Moore, 2017) and a significant reduction in pollen fertility (Prasad and Djanaguiraman, 2014;Begcy et al., 2018;Browne et al., 2021). A few studies have examined the natural variation in pollen viability under heat stress and its association with yield, as booting usually occurs during the cooler time of the cropping season and it is difficult to apply precise stagespecific heat stress (Bheemanahalli et al., 2019;Bokshi et al., 2021). However, considering a warmer and increasingly erratic climate, this area warrants further investigation.Spike number is one of the main components in determining wheat yield; it is highly variable and responsive to the environmental factors (Slafer et al., 2014). Interestingly, contrasting responses of spike number under heat stress have been reported. When exposed to continuous high temperatures during the terminal flowering and grain filling stages, spike formation and tillering were always reduced (Cai et al., 2016;Sharma et al., 2016;Dwivedi et al., 2017;Kumar et al., 2021). In contrast, after a short episode of heat stress during earlier developmental stages, spike numbers increased (Bányai et al., 2014;Chavan et al., 2019;Hütsch et al., 2019). Enhanced spike formation after early heat stress is surprising, but the underlying tillering dynamics and impact on final yield have not been discussed.In addition to the effects on pollen fertility and spike number, heat-induced yield loss has also been ascribed to accelerated leaf senescence, shortening the duration of grain filling (Cossani and Reynolds, 2012;Pinto et al., 2016;Shirdelmoghanloo et al., 2016;Bergkamp et al., 2018;Sade et al., 2018). As indicators of senescence, chlorophyll soil plant analysis development (SPAD) (chlorophyll content index) (Richardson et al., 2002) and Fv/Fm (the maximum potential quantum yield of photosystem II) (Murchie and Lawson, 2013) have been widely used to evaluate this trait. Under terminal heat, SPAD and Fv/Fm were often reduced in leaf tissue during senescence and were closely related to yield-contributing traits, such as thousand grain weight (Talukder et al., 2014;Hassan et al., 2018;Mirosavljević et al., 2021;Touzy et al., 2022). Studies for the genetic analysis of these leaf senescence related traits are also available (Azam et al., 2015;Bhusal et al., 2018;Touzy et al., 2022). Nevertheless, time course measurements of SPAD and Fv/Fm, which enable model fitting and senescence parameter prediction, have rarely been captured in wheat under heat stress (Pinto et al., 2016;Šebela et al., 2020;Touzy et al., 2022), especially after brief heat during the early reproductive stage. In the present study, a wheat heat panel, including putatively heat-tolerant Australian and CIMMYT-nominated spring wheat genotypes, was exposed to a 5-day extreme (37 • C/27 • C) (Erena, 2018) or mild (34 • C/28 • C) heat stress during the early pollen developmental stage and analyzed for the effects on (i) pollen viability and seed set; (ii) spike formation and underlying tillering dynamics; (iii) leaf senescence measured with SPAD and Fv/Fm; and (iv) relationships among the reproductive, developmental, physiological, and yield-related traits.In this study, three greenhouse experiments (i.e., Exp1, Exp2, and Exp3) were conducted during 2020-2021 at the controlled environment and glasshouse facilities at Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, United Kingdom (51.8094 • N, 0.3561 • W). For Exp1 and Exp2, the same set of 14 wheat genotypes was used, and 22 lines (seven overlapping with Exp1 and Exp2) were grown in Exp3 (refer to Supplementary Table 1 for genotype details). These lines are putatively heat-tolerant elite spring varieties (Sunstar, Sokoll, and Waagaan), parental lines and their prebreeding materials (Cossani and Reynolds, 2015;Erena, 2018), as well as two lines from the United Kingdom included as controls.This experiment was conducted between June and September of 2020 and followed a split randomized complete block design (split RCBD) with four blocks/biological replicates. Fourteen genotypes (Supplementary Table 1) were randomly assigned to the whole plot within each block, and temperature treatments (control/CT and heat/HT) were assigned to the subplots within each whole plot. Two seeds were sown in separate pots filled with Rothamsted Standard compost (75% medium grade peat; 12% screened sterilized loam; 3% medium grade vermiculite; 10% 5 mm screened lime-free grit) and fertilized with Osmocote Exact for 3-4 months at the rate of 3.5 kg/m 3 . One week after sowing, seedlings were thinned down to one per pot and grown under natural light glasshouse conditions with a 16-h light period; they were supplemented with artificial light (230W LED; Kroptek Ltd., London, United Kingdom) if natural light intensity fell below 175 µmol/m 2 /s 1 . The temperature in the glasshouse was set at 21 • C/15 • C (day/night, actual value: 21.5 ± 0.4/16.3 ± 0.5 • C) and the relative humidity (RH) was around 60/75% (day/night) (Supplementary Figure 1A). At the booting stage, plants with the primary tiller reached the targeted AIL (Supplementary Figure 2A) of 6 cm (actual value for each genotype in Supplementary Figure 2B) and were sequentially moved into Fitotron Modular Plant Growth Chambers (HGC1514; Weiss Technik UK Ltd., Loughborough, United Kingdom) for HT treatment (36.97 ± 0.03/26.95 ± 0.17 • C, day/night). The light period was 16 h and the intensity was maintained around 600 µmol/m 2 /s 1 at the plant level. The RH was maintained between 70 and 75% (Supplementary Figure 1D). Plants for CT treatment were kept in the glasshouse. After 5 days of HT treatment, heat-stressed plants were moved back to the glasshouse until final harvest.This experiment was conducted between August and December of 2020 and with the same set of 14 genotypes (Supplementary Table 1). The experiment design and plant cultivation conditions were similar as in Exp1. The temperature in the glasshouse was also set at 21 • C/15 • C (day/night, actual value: 20.6 ± 0.8/15.4 ± 0.7 • C) and the RH was around 57/69% (day/night) (Supplementary Figure 1B). When the AIL of the primary tiller reached 2-3 cm (actual value for each genotype in Supplementary Figure 2C), plants for HT treatment were sequentially moved into the same growth chamber as Exp1 with the temperature of 37.02 ± 0.01/27.00 ± 0.01 • C (day/night) (Supplementary Figure 1E). Plants for CT treatment were also moved into a similar growth chamber with the temperature of 21.01 ± 0.01/15.01 ± 0.01 • C (Supplementary Figure 1E). The light period, intensity, and RH were similar between CT and HT treatments with settings of 16 h, 600 µmol/m 2 /s 1 , and 70-75% respectively. After 5 days in the growth chambers, plants were moved back to the glasshouse until final harvest.This experiment was conducted between January and May of 2021 and with 22 genotypes (Supplementary Table 1). The experiment design and plant cultivation conditions were the same as the previous two experiments. The temperature in the glasshouse was also set at 21 • C/15 • C (day/night, actual value: 21.7 ± 0.4/15.4 ± 0.3 • C) and the RH was around 42/49% (day/night) (Supplementary Figure 1C). When the AIL of the primary tiller reached 2-3 cm (actual value in Supplementary Figure 2D), plants for HT treatment were sequentially moved into the growth chamber with a mild temperature of 34.00 ± 0.02/28.00 ± 0.01 • C (day/night) (Supplementary Figure 1F). Plants for CT treatment were also moved into a similar growth chamber with the temperature of 21.01 ± 0.02/15.01 ± 0.01 • C (Supplementary Figure 1F). The light period, intensity, and RH were similar between CT and HT treatments with settings of 16 h, 600 µmol/m/s, and 70-75% respectively. After 5 days in the growth chambers, plants were moved back to the glasshouse until final harvest.On the day before (day 0) and after (day 6) HT treatment, the primary tiller of each plant was tagged and measured for AIL. Plant height (PH) was also recorded at these two time points in Exp2 and Exp3 (Supplementary Figure 1G). Chlorophyll SPAD and Fv/Fm (maximum potential quantum efficiency of Photosystem II) were measured at the same time as AIL and weekly thereafter (Supplementary Figure 1G). The SPAD measurement was performed with an MC-100 Chlorophyll Concentration Meter (Apogee Instruments, Inc., Logan, UT, United States). Fv/Fm was measured with a Pocket PEA (Hansatech Instruments Ltd., Norfolk, United Kingdom) after 15-20 min dark adaptation. For each plant, the mean SPAD value of measurements at the tip, middle, and bottom of flag leaf was obtained and one measurement of Fv/Fm was made in the middle of flag leaf. After the HT treatment, the heading date of each plant was recorded to calculate days to heading in Exp2 and Exp3. Physiological maturity of the spike on the tagged tiller was recorded as days to maturation. These measurements were conducted with four biological replicates of each genotype and treatment combination.During anthesis in Exp2 and Exp3, the fourth or fifth spikelet (counted from the bottom) was sampled from the tagged tiller. One anther from two florets at the bottom was photographed for a representative image and length of the anther was measured. In Exp3, the remaining five anthers from two florets at the bottom were pooled together for pollen viability analysis using staining with Lugol's solution. Fully stained pollen was scored as viable, whereas partially stained or aberrant shaped pollen was scored as non-viable. At maturity, the number of filled grains of the tagged spike was counted and recorded as the number of grains per spike, and also, spike length (cm) and number of spikelets were measured. Four biological replicates were used for these measurements.In Exp1, development of extra young spikes after heat stress was observed. In Exp2 and Exp3, tiller number was therefore continuously counted for four biological replicates of CT and HTtreated plants of each genotype on the day (day 0) before and after (day 6) the 5-day HT treatment, and on weekly intervals thereafter until maximum tillering (Supplementary Figure 1G).At maturity, the spikes per plant were distinguished into \"old\" spikes (labeled just before starting the HT treatment in Exp2 and Exp3) and \"new\" spikes, harvested separately, and then dried in oven at 40 • C for 7 days prior to mechanical threshing and cleaning. The weight, number, length, and width were then determined for grain samples from old and new spikes separately with a scale and a MARViN digital seed analyzer (MARViTECH GmbH., Wittenburg, Germany). Grain yield per plant was calculated as the sum of grains from old and new spikes. The aboveground biomass for each plant was determined as the weight of all straw materials dried in an oven at 80 • C for 48 h. The yield-related measurements were analyzed with four biological replicates.The data from the time course SPAD measurements were fitted using a generalized additive model (GAM) for each of the three experiments to estimate maximum SPAD (SPADmax), senescence onset (SenOnset), and senescence rate (SenRate) (Supplementary Figure 3). SPAD was predicted by a smooth function of time (days counted from stress initiation), with a separate smooth function fitted for each combination of genotype and treatment. The Exp1 model used eight basis functions, whereas Exp2 and Exp3 used seven basis functions. SPADmax was estimated from the fitted predicted model. SenOnset was calculated as the day that SPAD fell to 95% of the maximum SPAD. Senescence period was defined over 14 days from the onset or until the end of the measurement, whichever was shorter. SenRate was then calculated as the daily reduction of SPAD over the senescence period. GAMs were fitted in R package (version 3.6.1) using the \"mgcv\" package (version 1.8-35) (Wood, 2011).All trait measurements and calculated parameters (Supplementary Table 2) were used for statistical analysis in R 4.0.3. 1 . First, descriptive statistics were summarized with the \"describeBy\" from the \"psych\" package (Revelle, 2020). The effects of genotype treatment and the interaction were obtained from ANOVA with the model fitted with \"lmer\" from the R package \"lmerTest\" (Kuznetsova et al., 2017); genotype, treatment, and their interaction were treated as fixed factors, while block and genotype nested in block were treated as random effects. Later, Tukey's post hoc test was carried out for multiple test comparisons to identify genotypic variation. Estimated marginal means were calculated for each combination of genotype and treatment. Subsequently, for either CT or HT treatment, Pearson correlation coefficient table was calculated by using \"tab_corr\" from \"sjPlot\" package (Lüdecke, 2021) among measurements and pairwise-deletion method was used to account for missing data. For each experiment and temperature treatment, correlations among different traits were visualized as networks with the \"qgraph\" package (Epskamp et al., 2012).1 https://www.R-project.org/To understand the effects of heat on pollen development and grain setting, the primary tiller of each plant was tagged and measured. In Exp1 and Exp2, the imposed severe heat treatment of 37 • C/27 • C caused nearly complete loss of grain setting for all genotypes, except for Paragon and Cadenza (Supplementary Figure 4). The anther morphology was also severely changed by the HT treatments indicating complete absence of viable pollen (Figures 1A,B). In Exp3, relatively mild heat stress (34 • C/28 • C) also significantly reduced anther length; however, this was less severe compared with Exp2 (Figures 1A,B) and pollen viability was therefore analyzed by staining with Lugol's solution. The results showed considerable variation among genotypes, ranging from 0 to 60%. One line (SWBL1.1, a progeny between the cross of Sokoll and Weebill1) had the highest pollen viability (relative to control value), followed by SWES, SUN (Sunstar), and WBL1.2 (Weebill1) (Figure 1C). The number of grains of the tagged primary spike was also variable among the genotypes, with SUN showing the highest value relative to control value (Figure 1D). Further analysis found a positive correlation between pollen viability and the number of grains per spike under HT (Figure 1F), but not under CT treatment (Figure 1E).During the ripening stage of Exp1, the senescence status of tillers/spikes was clearly separated into two groups (Figure 2A) and tillers were therefore distinguished into old (pre-heat) and new (post-heat) spikes for each plant. About 1 week after heat treatment, new tiller outgrowth was noticed from the bottom of HT-stressed plants (Figures 2B,C). A final count of spikes found significantly more new spikes in the HT-treated plants compared with the CT plants in Exp1 (p < 0.001), Exp2 (p < 0.001), and Exp3 (p < 0.001) (Figures 2D-F), while the number of old spikes was similar between HT and CT conditions (Supplementary Figure 5). In addition, there was no significant interaction between treatment and genotype (Figures 2D-F), indicating that all genotypes responded similarly to the HT treatment in terms of new spike formation. The analysis of tillering dynamics in Exp2 and Exp3 showed that onset of new tiller development commenced at 2-3 weeks after the HT treatment, with a stronger effect observed in Exp2 ( Figures 2G,H). Moreover, the more severe heat stress in Exp2 (37 • C/27 • C) also caused tiller retardation on day 6, 1 day after the end of the HT treatment (Figure 2G), but this was not observed under the milder heat stress condition in Exp3 (34 • C/28 • C) (Figure 2H).As new tillers developed after the HT treatment and extended the days to maturity of the plants, the aboveground biomass per plant (including both old and new tillers) was very similar between HT and CT treatments (Figures 3A-C). Nevertheless, the overall grain yield per plant was significantly reduced after the HT treatment in all three experiments (p < 0.001 for all) (Figures 3D-F). This was primarily due to heat-induced sterility in the old spikes (Figures 3G-I). However, heat-induced formation of new spikes gave rise to similar (Exp2, Figure 3K) or even significantly higher grain yield from new spikes in Exp1 and Exp3 (Figures 3J,L). The proportion of yield from new spikes after the HT treatment was therefore significantly higher than under CT conditions (Supplementary Figure 6). As sink size was reduced by limited seed setting of old spikes under HT condition, source supply became more than sufficient for the survived developing grains, and their width and length were significantly higher than grains of old spikes from control plants (Supplementary Table 2). By contrast, the grains from new spikes showed variable responses in terms of width and length (Supplementary Table 2).  4A,B,D). In contrast, the AIL (p = 0.065) and PH (p = 0.279) were marginally affected under the milder HT of 34 • C/28 • C in Exp3 ( Figures 4C,E). HT treatments also changed plant phenology as indicated by the significantly reduced number of days to heading (DTH) (p < 0.001 for Exp2 and Exp3) ( Figures 4F,G  and days to maturation (DTM) (p < 0.001 for Exp1, Exp2, and Exp3) (Figure 4H).To understand the physiological basis of changes in phenology, dynamic changes in SPAD and Fv/Fm were compared between CT and HT treatments. On day 6 (1 day after treatment), in comparison to the corresponding CT conditions, SPAD value was significantly reduced by the severe heat (37 • C/27 • C) in Exp1 (Figure 5A) and Exp2 (Figure 5B), but surprisingly increased slightly after the mild heat (34 • C/28 • C) in Exp3 and maintained a higher maximum SPAD value (Figures 5E,F). At later stages, however, an accelerated decrease in SPAD was observed under HT conditions in all three experiments, irrespective of heat stress intensity (Figures 5A,B,E). Based on the time course of SPAD measurements, GAMs were fitted to estimate maximum SPAD (SPADmax), senescence onset (SenOnset), and senescence rate (SenRate) for each combination of genotype and treatment. In Exp1 and Exp3, SenOnset from HT treatment was reproducibly and significantly advanced in comparison with CT conditions, whereas SenRate was similar between treatments (Figures 5C,F). By contrast, Exp2 showed an opposite response with similar SenOnset between treatments, but an increased SenRate under HT (Figure 5D). This variation between the three experiments may be due to variable intensities of natural sunlight. Even within the same experiment, some genotypes showed earlier SenOnset, while others showed faster SenRate under HT treatment (Supplementary Figures 7-9). In addition, the Fv/Fm value at day 6 was always significantly reduced by HT treatment in all three experiments indicating a negative effect of the HT on PSII (Supplementary Figure 10).To understand the relationships among different traits across genotypes, correlations were calculated (Supplementary Table 3) and visualized as networks (Figure 6). Number of grain per spike (GpS) showed different correlations under control and HT conditions; In Exp1 and Exp2, there was no correlation between GpS and any other trait under HT, but under CT, it was strongly and positively correlated with the number of spikelets (SpikeletN) (r = 0.98 * * * for Exp1 and 0.81 * * for Exp2) and length (SpikeL) (r = 0.94 * * * for Exp1 and 0.79 * * for Exp2) of the tagged spike, as well as with biomass (r = 0.88 * * * ) and yield (r = 0.88 * * * ) in Exp1. In Exp3, GpS was also associated with different traits between CT and HT. The importance of induced new tillers and spikes after heat stress was corroborated by the reproducible strong positive correlations (r = 0.98 * * * , 0.92 * * * , 0.80 * * * for Exp1, Exp2, and Exp3, respectively) between grain yield of new tillers (GY.NT) and total grain yield (GY), observed in all three experiments (Figure 6 and Supplementary Table 3). This suggests a critical role of new spikes in mitigating heat-induced yield reduction. In addition, the morphological traits, increase in AIL and PH, were generally positively correlated with yield or biomass-related traits, regardless of temperature treatments. Ultimately, SPAD and Fv/Fm parameters were not consistently correlated with other traits from different experiments and treatments. In Exp1, SenOnset showed HT-specific weak positive correlations with a grain yield of old tillers (GY.OT) (r = 0.62 * ) and a spike number of new tillers (SpikeN.NT) (r = 0.69 * ); SenRate was closely related to yield traits in both Exp2 (r = 0.62 * with GY.NT under CT; r = 0.79 * * with GY.NT and 0.69 * with GY under HT) and Exp3 (r = 0.47 * with GY and 0.53 * with SpikeL under CT; r = 0.45 * with GpS and 0.49 * with SpikeL under HT), but not heat-specific; in Exp2, SPADmax was important, as it was strongly correlated with Spikelet (r = 0.66 * under CT, 0.75 * * under HT) and SpikeL (r = 0.70 * under CT, 0.74 * * under HT) of tagged spike (Figure 6 and Supplementary Table 3).In the present study, anther morphology was gradually affected under two levels of heat stress, 34 • C/28 • C (day/night) and 37 • C/27 • C, applied for 5 days during early booting stage coinciding with pollen development. The more severe heat stress condition in this study led to a complete loss of pollen viability, while results from a parallel study, in which the same 37 • C/27 • C heat treatment was applied that lasted for only 3 days (Erena, 2018), were similar to the 5-day, milder temperature (34 • C/28 • C) treatment, suggesting that both stress intensity and duration are critical to screening reproductive heat tolerance. Under the 34 • C/28 • C condition, pollen viability was considerably variable among genotypes. Two of the lines (SWB1.1 and SWES) with high pollen viability share one common parent, Sokoll, in their pedigree. Sokoll is an advanced wheat line derived from synthetic hexaploid wheat and has shown a yield advantage under terminal heat stress in other reports (Cossani and Reynolds, 2015;Thistlethwaite et al., 2020), although it did not show particularly high pollen viability after early booting-stage heat stress in this study. These results suggest stage-specific heat tolerance; therefore, it is necessary to pyramid tolerant traits across different developmental stages. Another parental line included in this study, Weebill1 (WBL1.1 and WBL1.2), has previously been reported to be tolerant to a wide range of variable environmental conditions (Singh et al., 2007). One of the most tolerant genotypes identified in this study was Sunstar, in agreement with data reported by Erena (2018) who also demonstrated the reproductive heat tolerance of Sunstar. These identified genotypes with heat tolerance during pollen development may be suitable donors for breeding and warrant further studies to understand the underlying genetic and molecular-physiological mechanisms. The importance of pollen viability is supported by its positive correlation with the number of grains per spike under heat stress. Interestingly, similar relationships have been reported in other crops (Xu et al., 2017;Shi et al., 2018) and abiotic stresses (Ji et al., 2010), indicating that pollen fertility is a general limiting factor for final grain number under suboptimal growth conditions. Therefore, it should be an important target trait for heat-related research and breeding. Nevertheless, the response of pollen viability to heat stress is highly dependent on the developmental stage when stress is applied (Saini and Aspinall, 1982;Prasad and Djanaguiraman, 2014) and it is thus important to consider genotypic differences and carefully target meiosis to microspore stage when applying heat stress to exclude confounding effects. Currently, the most widely used morphological marker for pollen developmental stage is AIL, which is also known as auricle distance (Ji et al., 2010;Erena, 2018;Bokshi et al., 2021). However, AIL corresponding to a specific pollen developmental stage varies among different genotypes (Erena, 2018) and must be determined for each genotype, which is laborious. Fortunately, progress has been made by non-destructive X-ray micro-computed tomography Orange solid edges represent positive correlations, while blue dashed edges represent negative correlations. Trait abbreviations: SPADres: (SPAD at day 6-SPAD at day 0)/SPAD at day 0; Fv/Fmres: (Fv/Fm at day 6 -Fv/Fm at day 0)/(Fv/Fm at day 0); SPADmax, maximum value of SPAD; SenOnset, senescence onset time; SenRate, senescence rate; AILincrease, auricle interval length increase during the 5-day treatment; PHincrease, plant height increase during the 5-day treatment; PS, observed frequency of paired spikelet from all spikes; SR, observed frequency of sham ramification from all spikes; DTH, days to heading; DTM, days to maturation; SpikeL, spike length (tagged primary spike); SpikeletN, number of spikelets (tagged primary spike); GpS, number of grains per spike (tagged primary spike); SpikeN.OT, number of spikes from old tillers; SpikeN.NT, number of spikes from new tillers; GY.OT, grain yield of old tillers; GY.NT, grain yield of new tillers; GY, grain yield per plant (sum of old and new tillers); Biomass, the dry weight of all straw per plant; PV, pollen viability from the middle spikelet of tagged spike.scanning (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2020), and integrating this with modeling could be a promising way to overcome difficulties with accurate identification of developmental stages of wheat pollen.The number of spikes per plant, interacting with spikelet number and floret fertility, determines grain number and thereby final yield. Our data show that a short episode of heat stress during early booting stage induced the development of new tillers and spikes, which is in agreement with other studies (Bányai et al., 2014;Chavan et al., 2019;Hütsch et al., 2019). Although tillering was initially inhibited under severe heat stress, new tillers started emerging at 2 weeks after recovery, corresponding to about 1 week after anthesis. This timing suggests that available photosynthates stored in vegetative tissue that cannot be translocated into grain due to spikelet sterility can be reallocated into the development of new tillers and spikes. Additional photo-assimilates for new tillers and spikes would be produced during recovery and this is reflected by its positive correlation with delayed onset of senescence (Figure 6C). The observed formation of new spikes after heat stress compensating for heat-induced biomass and yield losses under controlled environment conditions now needs to be corroborated under field conditions to ensure that it is a valid target trait for breeding. In addition, a higher frequency of paired spikelets (Boden et al., 2015) and sham ramification (Amagai et al., 2017) was observed in heat-treated plants and this may also be related to excessive source supply. Although these traits were not correlated with yield, they could contribute to understand mechanisms underlying such developmental abnormalities.Screening wheat for heat tolerance in the field is generally implemented by late-sowing to impose continuous terminal heat stress during grain filling, often resulting in accelerated leaf senescence (Bergkamp et al., 2018). In the present study, a similar stimulation of flag leaf senescence was observed after a brief episode of heat stress was applied during early booting. It is possible that plants are able to measure and memorize phenology or leaf age to program the senescence process (Woo et al., 2019). In our study, model fitting using SPAD time course data proved to be successful in identifying senescence parameters. Both earlier onset and faster senescence rate were identified and were closely related to accelerated leaf senescence, in agreement with similar results reported by Šebela et al. (2020). Heat-specific positive correlations between senescence onset (SenOnset), new spike formation (SpikeN.NT), and yield of old tillers (GY.OT) in Exp1 support the important role of late senescence. The observed positive associations between senescence rate (SenRate) and yield traits (grain yield/GY, number of grains per spike/GpS, spike length/SpikeL) in Exp2 and Exp3 suggest fast nutrient remobilization in high-yielding lines. Finally, both SPAD and Fv/Fm were reduced by heat immediately after the treatment (day6) in Exp1 and Exp2, but the mild temperature of 34 • C/28 • C only decreased Fv/Fm, not SPAD. These results indicate that Fv/Fm may be more sensitive and therefore a better parameter for heat tolerance evaluation (Cao et al., 2019). Therefore, these senescence-related parameters are useful for crop phenotyping, and integrating modeling with high-throughput imaging measurements will enable largescale analysis.In this study, a spring wheat panel, including heat-tolerant elite varieties and their pre-breeding lines, was dissected for reproductive, developmental, physiological, and yield responses along with their inter-relationships after a 5-day heat stress application during the early booting stage. In comparison with the control treatment, pollen viability from the tagged primary spike was significantly decreased by heat and subsequently reduced number of grains per spike. The heat stress, however, resulted in late tillering after the disruption of sink strength. Consequently, more new spikes were formed contributing to final yield and biomass, though an additional week was needed for the maturation of the late tillers. Flag leaf SPAD (Chlorophyll content index) and Fv/Fm (maximum potential quantum efficiency of Photosystem II) were reduced by heat stress. Model fitting with time course SPAD measurements showed accelerated leaf senescence by either earlier onset or faster senescence rate, and these parameters were associated with yield traits. Ongoing genomic and genetic studies will subsequently be used to dissect the mechanism of identified heattolerant genotypes (Sunstar, SWBL1.1). Taken together, these reproductive, developmental, and physiological traits could be further used as targets for understanding basic mechanisms and breeding heat-tolerant wheat.","tokenCount":"5320"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a5f6aa34c4df8fb81eabfce1d7460652","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4b1f41f2-ca33-4511-a960-6948ecf2f648/retrieve","id":"1685156253"},"keywords":["P574 -Activity 4.3.2: Policy advice on environmental issues OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","Livestock -Livestock Contributing Flagships:","F4: Livestock and the Environment Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined>"],"sieverID":"355419e3-a617-47e6-b5ba-a87b69533d67","pagecount":"4","content":"KLIP, a Government of Kenya funded drought insurance program, paid out Kshs. 494 million to 22,000 vulnerable pastoralist households in 2017 alone . These pay-outs ensured that farmers could buy their own food as well as fodder, drugs and water for their livestock during periods of drought. Covering eight counties in Kenya, the program has enabled the beneficiaries to keep their animals alive after the failure of the short and long rains in 2016 and 2017.KLIP is an insurance program for pastoralists located in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL) counties of Kenya. Implemented with technical assistance from ILRI, the program limits livestock losses through early compensation allowing pastoralists to protect their assets. Pay-outs are pegged to measurements of forage conditions made via satellite data on vegetation cover to derive an index of seasonal forage availability/scarcity. Once pay-outs are triggered, registered pastoralists in the affected areas are eligible for compensation.The program began in 2015 in two pilot counties: Wajir and Turkana, each with 2500 beneficiaries. The first insurance contract was signed by the State Department of Livestock (SDL) and a consortium of insurance underwriters (led by APA) at a cost of Kshs. 58,393,734. It expanded in 2016 to cover Isiolo, Marsabit, Mandera and Tana River counties. The second KLIP contract was signed in 2016. It covered 14,000 people and was also signed by the APA-led consortium of insurance underwriters. The cost of premiums for this contract was Kshs. 164,440,734.In 2016 KLIP paid a total of Kshs. 3.5 million to 275 households in Wajir due to the failure of the long rains in that year. In February 2017, it paid out more than Kshs. 214 million to 12,000 households in six counties. Later in August 2017, it made another pay-out worth slightly more than Kshs. 319 million to 11,407 beneficiaries across seven counties (1). A third KLIP contract covering eight counties and 18,000 households was signed with Takaful insurance in 2017 for one year. The premiums in this contract are worth Kshs. 246 million. Failure of the short rains (October-December 2017) has triggered Kshs. 175m worth of insurance claims, to be paid to 9,700 beneficiaries.The program has improved pastoral drought mitigation through enhanced access to forage, water and veterinary services for animals during dry periods. It has also contributed to food security and resilience building in pastoral communities. A tele-survey conducted in Marsabit and Wajir revealed that KLIP pay-outs are utilized on household needs including food, education and debt payment, averaging about 76%, 44% and 66% respectively. Utilization of KLIP payment on livestock-specific needs averaged at 33%, 33%, 15% and 16% respectively. Overall, there is diverse use of KLIP indemnity pay-outs across all seasons in the two counties. (2) Currently KLIP is operational in eight counties, with plans underway to reach all 14 ASAL counties of Kenya.","tokenCount":"466"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"220798235b96576de1f6fe9abe5a1df2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28be7416-24a5-4f17-8461-05ea2848413f/retrieve","id":"-1064654738"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6ca030bd-07bf-4a13-8084-b9d0f51bd14e","pagecount":"101","content":"The CGIAR Research Program on Rice Agrifood Systems (RICE) represents a single strategic and work plan for global rice research. RICE brings together hundreds of scientists to embark on the most comprehensive attempt ever to harness the power of science to solve the pressing development challenges of the 21st century. Cutting-edge science is deployed to develop new rice varieties with high yield potential and tolerance of a variety of stresses such as flooding, salinity, drought, soil problems, pests, weeds, and diseases. Improved natural resource management practices will allow farmers to fully realize the benefits of such new varieties on a sustainable basis while protecting the environment. Future rice production systems are designed to adapt to climate change and to mitigate the impacts of global warming. Policies conducive to the adoption of new varieties and cropping systems will be designed to facilitate the realization of development outcomes. RICE will train future rice scientists and strengthen the capacity of advisory systems to reach millions of farmers. For impact at scale, RICE scientists collaborate with hundreds of development partners from the public and private sector across the globe. RICE was launched in 2010 (phase I: 2010-2016 -also known as the Global Rice Science Partnership, GRiSP; Phase II: 2017-2021) and is coordinated by three members of the CGIAR Consortium-the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, the lead institute), Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)-and three other leading agricultural agencies with an international mandate and with a large portfolio on rice: Centre de Cooperation lnternationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Cirad), L'lnstitut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), and the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS). Together, they align and bring to the table consortia, networks, platforms, programs, and collaborative projects with over 900 partners from the government, nongovernment, public, private, and civil society sectors.A study was carried on adoption of several improved rice management practices in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In four of the 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, nearly 70,000 hectares qualify as fully adopting the 3 Reductions-3 Gains or 1 Must-do 5 Reductions technologies. In Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, the study found a total land area under 'Project 10' or Project 10+' practices to be over 60,000 hectares. Across Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo, the Smart-Valley system has been adopted on about 3,000 hectares.The digital management advisory service 'RiceAdvice' and basic good agricultural practices were disseminated to a total of 14,900 farmers in Nigeria and Senegal. In Uruguay, improved management practices increased profitability by 7.6% as compared with conventional management.Good progress was achieved with rice value chain upgrading in Nigeria, where AfricaRice established the Goronyo Rice Innovation Platform, which processed around 23 tons of paddy each month and generated $3,800 revenue and $584 profit.For the Global Rice Array, we built a successful network with 22 sites distributed across Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Partners contributed yield, climate, and soil data from 53 trials for 42 entries of the Antenna Panel and from 18 trials 300 entries of the Reference Panel.A global 'OneRice' breeding strategy was launched, realigning/mapping breeding pipelines across CGIAR were adopted by 460 rice farmers, covering 179 hectares. The adoption of the smart-valley practices increased rice income with 440 US$/ha in Sierra Leone and Liberia.RiceAdvice is a free Android application that provides farm-specific advice on rice management practices. In 2020, there were 14,900 beneficiaries of RiceAdvice in Nigeria. Impact assessment using randomized control trial in northern Nigeria showed that households who were just given the personalized advice increased their yield by 7% and increased their profit by 10%.In the previous two decades, RICE created and disseminated regionally-designed and locally-appropriate portfolios of agronomic practices in collaboration with local partners. These agronomic practices include 3 Reductions -3 Gains (3R3G) and 1 Must Do -5 Reductions (1M5R) in Vietnam, Project 10 and 10+ Practices in Brazil, and Smart-Valley or Sawah in West Africa. Based on recent monitoring data from four of the 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, we find nearly 70,000 hectares qualified as fully adopting 3R3G or 1M5R. Using project monitoring data from the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, we found the total land area under Project 10 or 10+ to be over 60,000 hectares. Across Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo, we are able to confirm that Smart-Valley/Sawah had been adopted on about 3,000 hectares.Findings from economic surplus analysis indicate that the net present value of IRRI's contributions to rice varietal yield changes in Bangladesh over the 1990-2018 period ranged from US$ 3.3 to 6.5 billion. The net present value of IRRI investments in Bangladesh in the water-saving practice of Alternate Wetting and Drying ranged from US$ 14 to 146 million, and in Site Specific Nutrient Management technology from US$ 140 million to US$ 148 million.We determined the annual rate of genetic gain for rice grain yield in a drought-prone rainfed system in a series of multi-environment trials conducted from 2005 to 2014 under the Drought Breeding Network of Indian sites: 0.68 % under irrigated conditions, 0.87 % under moderate reproductive-stage drought, and 1.9 % under severe reproductive-stage drought.Findings from economic surplus analysis conducted at IRRI indicate that the net present value of IRRI's contributions to rice varietal yield changes in Bangladesh over the 1990 to 2018 period ranges from USD 3.3 billion to USD 6.5 billion. A new study at AfricaRice recommended that policymakers should include gender mainstreaming as part of the core mandate of research institutions. This will enable research institutions to consider gender issues from the onset and make gender forms an integral part of research and development process. Government should invest in the development and promotion of gendersensitive improved rice technologies for inclusiveness, equity and sustainability of rice sector. A study was carried on adoption of several improved rice management practices in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In four of the 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, nearly 70,000 hectares qualify as fully adopting the 3 Reductions-3 Gains or 1 Must-do 5 Reductions technologies. In Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, the study found a total land area under 'Project 10' or Project 10+' practices to be over 60,000 hectares. Across Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo, the Smart-Valley system has been adopted on about 3,000 hectares. The digital management advisory service 'RiceAdvice' and basic good agricultural practices were disseminated to a total of 14,900 farmers in Nigeria and Senegal. In Uruguay, improved management practices increased profitability by 7.6% as compared with conventional management.In terms of value chain strategies, a major piece of work was CIRAD, AfricaRice and IRRI's assessment of the state of rice value chain upgrading in 15 West African countries, which can assist policymakers in West Africa. Great progress was achieved with rice value chain upgrading in Nigeria, where AfricaRice established the Goronyo Rice Innovation Platform, which processes around 23 tons of paddy each month and generates US$3,800 revenue and US$584 profit. A major output was IRRI's book on sustainable rice straw management, which can assist policy makers in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution in South and Southeast Asia. Good progress was also made in Myanmar, where mechanized practices were found to significantly reduce postharvest losses and increase net income by 30-50%. With respect to novel product upgrading and development, IRRI published a database to help value chain actors introduce novel products in Indian diets. AfricaRice demonstrated a methodology for the production of fortified rice-based products.An IoT (Internet of Things) based irrigation advisory service (AutoMonPH) decision that entails efficient water management, continuous monitoring, reporting and verification of water management practices, and a multi-stakeholder interface was developed and piloted in the Philippines. In Africa, a basket of options on climate-smart technologies was presented at the ECOWAS Consultative Meeting on Rice Offensive (West Africa region's Rice Development Strategy). The management advisory system RiceAdvice and basic good agricultural practices were disseminated to a total of 14,900 farmers in Nigeria and Senegal. In Uruguay, improved management practices increased profitability by 7.6% as compared with conventional management, whereas there was no yield difference between the practices. This increase was mainly due to the use of less seed and less nitrogen per area unit. A short video was developed to support the dissemination of the decision support system WeRise and a designated website was developed to obtain relevant management solutions and information. The short video was released through Facebook and YouTube and viewed 1,200 views.For the Global Rice Array, we built a successful network with 22 sites distributed across Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Partners sent yield, climate, and soil data from 53 trials for the antenna panel (AP) of 42 entries and from 18 trials for the reference panel (RP) of 300 entries. Partners received analysis tools (R-Scripts) for phenotypic data and were able to analyse their trials. This guided development of varieties, adapted to specific environments, since 35 entries from the AP were selected by partners as promising lines and used in local breeding pipelines. High-throughput-phenotyping tools were successfully used by three CGIAR centers and one NARES partner in India. Preliminary analysis of 2019 AP and RP data, using both within and across site AMMI (additive main effects and multiplicative interaction) analyses for GxE, showed site groupings of traits. Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) revealed site specific and common QTLs across studied environments. Tools for GWAS analysis were added to CropGalaxy and virtual training was performed. The diseases Bacterial Leaf Blight, Rice Yellow Mottle Virus, Brown Spot and Blast were characterized in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Its diversity was used to design molecular markers and to improve pathotracer ability to predict varietal deployment. Microbiome diversity was explored in China.A global OneRice breeding strategy was launched, realigning/mapping breeding pipelines across CGIAR Centers and NARES partners. Regional NARES partner networks were expanded, including the establishment of an ASEAN RiceNet. The global rice growing areas were segmented in meaningful pieces based on rice producers' and consumers' preferences. Product concepts were developed for each of the priority market segments. The analysis of breeding work done by the Drought Breeding Network in India and IRRI during 2005-2014 showed positive trend in grain yield with annual genetic yield increases of about 0.68% (irrigated control), 0.87% (moderate reproductive stage drought stress), and 1.9% (severe reproductive stage drought stress). Seventeen new genes for major diseases and pests in the IRRI154 background were released and made available to the breeders. These have never been available in elite backgrounds before, and this marks a step-change in breeding for these traits. Four high-yielding varieties were evaluated and released in Niger for irrigated lowlands including one salt tolerant and aromatic variety. AfricaRice-FOFIFA started developing red rice varieties with high yield potential. Through FLAR, CIAT nominated new breeding lines for multi-environment testing and release, and issued high-Zn varieties in Latin America and the Caribbean. Cirad-FOFIFA developed three new varieties for Madagascar's mid-high altitude areas, similar to Nerica4 but more productive. IRRI bred 9 varieties and 3 hybrids which were released by various national programs in Asia and Africa.Findings from economic surplus analysis conducted at IRRI indicate that the net present value of IRRI's contributions to rice varietal yield changes in Bangladesh over the 1990 to 2018 period ranges from USD 3.3 billion to USD 6.5 billion.A new study at AfricaRice recommended that policymakers should include gender mainstreaming as part of the core mandate of research institutions. This will enable research institutions to consider gender issues from the onset and make gender forms an integral part of research and development process. Government should invest in the development and promotion of gender-sensitive improved rice technologies for inclusiveness, equity and sustainability of rice sector.An adoption study led by University of Arizona revealed that based on monitoring data from four of the 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, nearly 70,000 hectares qualify as fully adopting 3R3G or 1M5R (8% of total rice area). Using project monitoring data from the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, the study finds total land area under Project 10 or 10+ to be over 60,000 hectares (6% of total rice area). Across Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo, Smart-Valley has been adopted on about 3,000 hectares (0.04% of potential inland valleys).With the support of SPIA and the RICE CRP, IRRI and University of Arizona conducted the first phase of the project \"Evaluating the Impact of Stress-Tolerant Rice Varieties Through Remote Sensing and Econometric Methods\". Remote sensing techniques were used to examine flooding and the density of green vegetation in the flood-prone areas of Bangladesh.A noticeable policy engagement is the recent IRRI contribution to the dialogue on Rice Tarification Law (RTL) in the Philippines. Based on two studies on RTL published in 2020, the Foresight team proposed policy measures that the Philippine government can use to help rice farmers to adapt and develop profitable business in agriculture or outside, particularly those who are negatively impacted by the reform. In particular, the IRRI's study emphasized that investments and policy support measures are needed in rural areas of the Philippines to create more opportunities for on-farm diversification towards higher value crops than rice.A new study at IRRI examined the effect of IRG ancestry on the rice productivity of farmers in Eastern India in an econometric framework. The study also examines the country of origin of all IRG accessions in the ancestry of improved rice varieties grown and characterizes the most widely used progenitors. Results indicate that a 10% increase in the genetic contribution of IRG accessions to an improved rice variety is associated with a yield increase of 27%.Rapid population growth in Africa and Asia is projected to lead to an unprecedented number of youth entering the labour market in the next few decades. Youths' role in agriculture or the agri-food sector has received increased interest as a way to provide employment opportunities for young job seekers given the \"demographic dividend\" most developing countries are showcasing. Engaging youth is a broad concept which depends on broader socio-economic factors ranging from age, gender, educational level, access to credit, ownership of land, kinship, marriage, and type of affiliations with social or institutional networks, to list a few. In 2020, IRRI developed a strategy plan for Youth in rice agri-food systems in Asia and Africa. The strategy lays out two important components 1) The framework of engagement encompassing the objectives, research areas, and theory of change and 2) A plan for operationalizing the strategy. The IRRI's 5-year youth strategy aims to increase our knowledge and generate evidence about the situation and needs of youth engaged in the rice AFS so that the sector can become an attractive and remunerative livelihood opportunity, including employment and entrepreneurship. Through implementing this Youth Strategy, IRRI seeks to become a knowledge and innovation pioneer and take a leadership role in bringing young people to the forefront of rice AFS. The first two years (2020-22) will involve research to establish the foundational understanding of youth in rice AFS and designing action research plans and interventions for the following years. The medium term (2022-2025) will be focused on facilitating the creation of opportunities for youth in rice AFS in Asia and Africa. This will involve setting strong partnerships for research for development and testing interventions with the aim to learn from them.A recent study at AfricaRice investigates the linkages between gender, development and utilization of technological innovations in Ghana and made the following recommendations:(1) Gender issues are not identified and addressed during the technology development process. Lack of consultation with the target group throughout the agricultural innovation development process is likely to create room for the development of undesirable characteristics of improved rice technologies.(2) Although participatory varietal selection (PVS) is conducted, bringing various target groups, women are generally unable to freely express themselves when in the company of male counterparts. Women are also constrained by time due to their relative pre-occupation with domestic activities. Women are hence disadvantaged in terms of contributing to the innovation development process.(3) Research institutions' mandate does not emphasize gender mainstreaming, but food security and livelihood improvement. In the absence of institutional transformation and incentives, gender issues are not addressed in ARD. (4) Low implementation of gender mainstreaming policies and/or strategies by the research institutions is due to the lack of gender training and capacity building for scientists and research managers.(5) Since gender mainstreaming is more theoretical than practical, policymakers should include gender mainstreaming as part of the core mandate of research institutions. This will enable research institutions to consider gender issues from the onset and make gender forms an integral part of research and development process. (6) Given that women rice farmers' needs and concerns differ from that of their male counterparts, the government should invest in the development and promotion of gender-sensitive improved rice technologies for inclusiveness, equity and sustainability of rice sector.Due to the COVID pandemic, several household surveys planned in 2020 could not be implemented due to travel restrictions. For example, The Rice Monitoring survey in India and Bangladesh, which was planned to assess the impact of stress-tolerant varieties in South Asia, was postponed to 2021. The household survey about climate change adaptation in Bangladesh was postponed to 2021. In India, the phone-based interviews for household surveys were experimented, but the participation rate was small, as farmers were not used to this system, and for those who agreed to participate, many were reluctant to provide certain types of information. With the restrictions imposed in several countries due to the COVID pandemic, many of the policy engagement activities planned under 1.4 could not be implemented. In the Philippines, the presentation on RTL and engagement with the National Economic and Development Authority were slowed down. Virtual seminar and webinars were organized instead. In Latin America, COVID limited our capacity to return to the field and organize travels to implement research activities. In Africa, panel data in different countries could not be collected for 2020 due to lockdown in many countries. The time in 2020 was used to develop articles and press release to assess the potential impact of the pandemic and propose solution to different players. The paper on \"Policy options for mitigating impacts of COVID-19 on domestic rice value chains and food security in West Africa\" was published in Global Food Security. Some on-farm trials in collaborations with FP3 on the dissemination of digital tools like RiceAdvice/Weed Manager were postponed due to the restriction to travel. Some activities in the Innovation Platforms were canceled due to the restriction of group meetings. The activity on deployment of the web-based platform in the Dagana IP in Senegal was canceled.Despite the COVID-19 restrictions and thanks to the investments that were made prior to 2020, FP2 made good progress, albeit at the cost of a reduction in the number of sites. In terms of value chain strategies, a major piece of work was CIRAD, AfricaRice and IRRI's assessment of the state of rice value chain upgrading in 15 West African countries, which can assist policymakers in West Africa. Great progress was achieved with r ice value chain upgrading in Nigeria, where AfricaRice established the Goronyo Rice Innovation Platform, which processes around 23 tons of paddy each month and generates US$ 3,800 revenue and US$ 584 profit. A major output was IRRI's book on sustainable rice straw management, which can assist policy makers in reducing GHG emissions and air pollution in South and Southeast Asia. Good progress was also made in Myanmar, where mechanized practices were found to significantly reduce postharvest losses and increase net income by 30-50%. With respect to novel product upgrading and development, IRRI published a database to help value chain actors introduce novel products in Indian diets. AfricaRice demonstrated a methodology for the production of fortified rice-based products. JIRCAS' activities on pop rice were postponed to 2021.In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, several studies were initiated by FP2: 1. AfricaRice, CIRAD and IRRI published the policy brief \"Policy options for mitigating impacts of COVID-19 on domestic rice value chains and food security in West Africa\" in Global Food Security, which was featured by the World Trade Organization in Trade for Development News. The study builds on evidence of the current state of domestic rice value chain upgrading in West Africa to anticipate the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on rice value chains' resilience and their capacity to sustain food security in the region. Several policy options are proposed to help West African governments mitigate the impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on food security. 2. AfricaRice, CIRAD and IRRI followed up the study in Global Food Security by a COVID-19 focused study \"Reducing rice import dependency in West Africa: focusing beyond production\", which is under review at Scientific African. The study argues that increasing local rice supply requires support to downstream segments (millers and traders) in the value chain to assist them in upgrading local rice quality and competing against and replacing imports. While food security could be increased through self-sufficiency in rice, addressing climate, weather and market challenges are also required to increase resilience of rice value chains and sustainably secure local rice supplies in West Africa. This is of crucial importance during and after pandemic outbreaks such as COVID-19. 3. IRRI initiated a study on the impact of COVID-19 on rice-based diets and consumers' attitudes towards nutrition interventions. This study is a synergy between the BBSRC funded SuperNutrientRice project and a Special Research Fund sandwich program with Ghent University, Belgium.Flagship Project 3 (FP3) \"Sustainable Farming Systems\" had 6 milestones in 2020 (see Table 5). Despite challenges of COVID-19, we completed almost all milestones. As for new innovation, an IoT based irrigation advisory service (AutoMonPH) decision that entails efficient water management, continuous monitoring, reporting and verification of water management practices, and a multi-stakeholder interface was developed and piloted in the Philippines. In Africa, A basket of options on climate-smart technologies were presented in ECOWAS Consultative Meeting on Rice Offensive (West Africa region's Rice Development Strategy) in 4 -5 Feb, 2020. RiceAdvice\" together with basic good agricultural practices (GAP) were disseminated to a total of 14900 farmers in Nigeria and Senegal in 2020. In Uruguay, improved management practices increased profitability by 7.6% as compared with conventional management, whereas there was no yield difference between two management practices. This increase is mainly due to the use of less seed and less nitrogen per area unit. WeRise short video was developed for potential users to increase their awareness of this ICT and let as many users as possible access a designated website to obtain a relevant solution and information. The short video was released through Facebook and YouTube and obtained 1,200 views.Detailed Annex: IRRI: The Sustainable Rice Platform (SRP) was promoted in Vietnam through a field demonstration (13 ha) combining the 'Small Farmers -Large Field' model, the management practices '1 Must Do -5 Reductions' (1M5R), and SRP guidelines. This generated several scientific based evidences of the management practices '1M5R and mechanized transplanting such as: mean grain yield and net income increased by 5-10%; reduced seed rate by 40-60%, reduced pesticide application by 30-40%, and reduced greenhouse gases by 30%. A survey was conducted in the Philippines to review the government policies supporting agricultural mechanization and assess the management and utilization of mechanical transplanters including the perception of various stakeholders. Reasons for poor adoption of Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) in Bangladesh were identified. Results of field study conducted for three years (2016)(2017)(2018)(2019) in Polder 30 in Bangladesh identified promising cropping systems with improved varieties.AfricaRice: In Rwanda, country-specific good agricultural practices (GAP were developed. 45 demonstration plots were established to disseminate the GAPs and 1080 rice farmers were trained though farmer field days in Rwanda. Promising site-specific nutrient management practices were identified in Rwanda, Senegal, and Tanzania. Impact of AWD on yield, water productivity, and weeds were quantified in Côte d'Ivoire. Crop diversification options were jointly tested with farmers in Cote d'Ivoire, Madagascar, Senegal, and promising options were identified together with farmers. Promising pieces of small-scale sowing equipment (seeders and fertiseeder) were developed which can reduce the labour input for sowing by 70-80% compared to manual sowing in Madagascar.CIAT: A pilot project with a private company in Panama was launched in 2020 to increase productivity and reducing production costs. Results from the first demonstration plots showed average production cost was reduced by 22.3% and profitability was doubled as compared to conventional management. The FLAR's (Latin America foundation for irrigated rice) Rice/Soybean Rotation Project began in 2015 with the objective of validating the adaptation of soybean cultivars and establishing agronomic management practices for rotation systems with rice in the tropical zone of Latin America and the Caribbean. As a result of this project, Nicaragua, through its Rice Farmers Association, is facilitating the registration and seed commercialization, by a private company, of at least one soybean variety introduced by FLAR from Brazil. Same result was obtained in Colombia, where the National Rice Farmers association facilitated the registration and multiplication of two soybean varieties introduced by FLAR. In Venezuela, soybean became the most valuable alternative for rotation with rice, as a consequence on this project. At this point, research and commercial agreements for soybean variety release and seed production are ongoing with funding and capacities allocated by FLAR partners themselves. CIRAD: In Madagascar, multi-year experiments on bio-diversified upland rice based cropping systems were evaluated. Participatory designing identified promising diversification options including maize, cassava, pulses and legume cover crops as rotational crops. In Cambodia, farm typology in the major rice production area was carried-out. In Ivory Coast, upland rice based direct seeding systems under conservation agriculture had more climate resilience than conventional systems with tillage. In Burkina-Faso, on farm trials on lowland rice system showed (i) a high carry-over effect of potatoes rotation with rice for soil fertility; and (ii) a good profitability (return on investment) of low dose urea land-filling at sowing for rice subject to floods. JIRCAS: In Madagascar, field experiment revealed that Stylosanthes guianensis (stylo) absorbed 10-26 times higher P uptake than rice, maize, or soybean under typical P-deficient uplands in the region. Subsequent field experiment in the next season showed that the yield of upland rice in where stylo was previously cultivated was greater than those grown after maize or rice. Considering the high biomass and high P absorption capacity, and the effect on subsequent rice yield, stylo can be a promising option as cover/relay crop to enhance P cycling in upland rice-based cropping system under P-deficient condition in the region.Due to Covid-19, FP3 annual workshop was cancelled in 2020. We used this fund to conduct impact assessment of COVID-19 on crop production and food security in Senegal and Tanzania, where rice production could be impacted by localized and time-sensitive lack of labour, limited or delayed availability of inputs through planted area reduction, delay in planting, or the inability of carrying out critical crop management practices, potentially leading to reduce yield.. This pilot assesses the impact of COVID-19 on rice production using remotely-sensed rice area/production changes, combined with field surveys identifying production factor changes and socio-economic impacts. Up to now, the datasets (field, ancillary GIS data, and imagery) were assembled and completed. In 2021, the team will work for the rice area maps and changes in Tanzania, the yield maps and changes in Senegal and Tanzania, as well as the socio-economic surveys, analysis and reporting. The pilot is providing a first great opportunity to gain experience and apply the RICE experience, developed in Asia, to the African context, where rice monitoring data and capacities are very limited, if not inexistent on the continent. In particular, it allowed to start a collaboration between IRRI, AfricaRice, and SARMAP on these geospatial applications. In Latin America, from March 15 2020, all in-person training activities and field days were cancelled. These training activities were adapted to virtual formats. In total, 32 virtual training sessions in crop management were offered, at no charge, for participants from all LAC countries. In addition, five virtual field days were offered. An estimated of more than 2,500 people were reached in these virtual events. A video was produced on the decision-support system WeRise short video alongside a designated website to access the tool.We built a successful network with 22 sites distributed across Asia, Africa and Latin America. Partners sent yield, climate and soil data from 53 trials for the antenna panel (AP) of 42 entries and from 18 trials for the reference panel (RP) of 300 entries. Partners received analysis tools (R-Scripts) for phenotypic data and were able to analyse their trials. This guided development of varieties, adapted to specific environments, since 35 entries from the AP were selected by partners as promising lines and used in local breeding pipelines. High-throughput-phenotyping tools were successfully used by three CGIAR centers and one NARES (India). Preliminary analysis of 2019 AP and RP data, using both within and across site AMMI (additive main effects and multiplicative interaction) analyses for GxE, showed site groupings of traits. GWAS results revealed site-specific and common QTLs across studied environments. Tools for GWAS analysis were added to CropGalaxy (a web-based platform for bioinformatic and statistical tools), and virtual training was performed. The diseases Bacterial-Leaf-Blight, Rice-Yellow-Mottle-Virus, Brown Spot and Blast were characterized in Africa, Asia and Latin America. With diversity used to design molecular markers and to improve PathoTracer's ability to predict varietal deployment. Microbiome diversity was explored in China.For Coa 4.2: The main limitation was to maintain local personnel in NARES experimental stations. For instance, data on the RP for 4 sites was stored in a database. Software was developed to optimize image analysis, and new tools to estimate climate response variables such as panicle fertility were developed. For Coa 4.5: Genotype data is in crop galaxy and phenotype data is available through the Project website, it is not yet in Galaxy. Progress was hampered due personnel constraints.Virtual workshops on bioinformatics were used for virtual training on analysis tools. Some planned trials for CoA 1 and 2 could not be completed depending on the quarantine status of trial locations. These were postponed and are now underway during dry season 2021. No new studies of relevance to Covid -19 could be integrated into this FP. F5 -Flagship progress: FP5 (New Rice Varieties) launched a global OneRice breeding strategy, realigning/mapping breeding pipelines across CGIAR Centers and NARES. Networks of regional NARES partners were expanded, including establishment of ASEAN RiceNet. The global rice growing areas were segmented in meaningful pieces based on rice producers and consumers preferences. Product concepts were developed for each of the priority market segments. Research done by the Drought Breeding Network and IRRI during 2005-2014 showed positive trend in grain yield with annual genetic yield increase of about 0.68% (irrigated control), 0.87% (moderate reproductive stage drought stress), 1.9% (severe reproductive stage drought stress). Seventeen new genes for major diseases and pests in the IRRI 154 background were released and made available to the breeders. These have never been available in elite backgrounds before, and this marks a step-change in breeding for these traits. Four high yielding varieties were evaluated and released in Niger for irrigated lowlands including one salt tolerant and aromatic variety. AfricaRice-FOFIFA started developing red rice varieties with high yield potential. Through FLAR, CIAT nominated new breeding lines for MET and release, and issued high Zn varieties in LAC. Cirad-FOFIFA developed three new varieties for Madagascar's mid-high altitude areas, similar to Nerica4 but more productive. IRRI bred 9 varieties and 3 hybrids which were released by the various national programs in Asia and Africa.Several initiatives are being done commonly be multiple Centers: Global maturity system: Efforts were initiated to define and establish a global relative maturity system in collaboration with RICE CGIAR Centers and private sector partners. Lowering the glycemic index (GI): One protocol for rice processing was identified and used by AfricaRice to evaluate different rice varieties. Three very promising Low GI rice (GI=20-22) products were identified and can be used as parents for breeding low GI rice. IRRI investigated the GI of breeding and develop materials in vitro and found that many of them are in the high GI levels. Screening of 320 Genebank materials identified 3 donor lines validated through in vivo human feeding trials as low GI. Product management initiative: Product managers were hired for Asia and East and Southern Africa to develop product profiles of key rice popular varieties and developed recommendations for product positioning of new products. High Throughput Phenotyping for head rice recovery and grain Zn estimation: IRRI acquired several Zaccaria PAZ-1/DTA test mills to enable HRR phenotyping -5 units are for use in HQ and 3 units are for India and Bangladesh. Several XRF machines were also acquired for Zn phenotyping. Zinc biofortification: In Latin America and the Caribbean, CIRAD and CIAT developed new breeding material and conducted regional multiplication trials to release varieties with increased grain Zn concentration. JIRCAS also collaborated with CIRAD on Zn biofortification in Madagascar (with HarvestPlus and FOFIFA). New high-Zn donors having more than twice the grain Zn concentration compared to local variety X265 were identified using Genomic Selection. High-Zn breeding lines from CIAT/CIRAD were tested and 5 lines combining local adaptation with high grain Zn were selected for a possible fast-track variety release. Evaluations under the direction of the seed board of Madagascar are ongoing. Publications: Six peer-reviewed articles were published in scientific journals, two more papers are currently under review. One paper came out in early 2021 reporting findings of a study conducted on genetic gain over the period 2005 to 2014.At IRRI, shutdowns associated with the covid-19 pandemic have had severe impacts, with the loss of the entire 2020 greenhouse experiments (RGA cohorts, New F1s and seed purity) and 2020 dry season trials at HQ. The lockdown delayed re-entry of skeleton staff in mid-May, almost like a domino-effect, caused delay in regional seed shipments (1.5-2 months), and trial establishment. This resulted in delayed data collection and uploading from the regional NARES partner teams, and thereby in analyses timeline. The effects continued to be felt through short staffing, creating difficulties in establishing the 2020 wet season crop. The travel bans and lock downs severely affected the ability to work at optimal level. AfricaRice cancelled (1) multi-location and on-farm trials which required farmers groups to indicate new variety preferences, resulting in varietal release only in Niger, and (2) MET trials of NARES partners with the Breeding Task Force due to severe restrictions of movement between regions. CIAT recovered field and laboratory activities in April to June. Following biosafety protocols of reduced number of staff, some activities were reduced in size. Most donors allowed movement of travel budgets to other kinds of support for projects. In CIRAD, there was delay in genomic selection, breeding for low input in Madagascar, developing high Zn rice for LAC and Madagascar, activities on the Gene Network Model, and training on new GE tools. In IRD, developing the Python version of the NOISYmputer algorithm was delayed making it impossible to impute whole-genome sequencing data with a newer, optimized algorithm. In JIRCAS, breeding activities progressed almost as planned. Collaborative decision-making with NARES counterparts was affected since all joint field visits were cancelled. Capacity building was affected -hands-on training of 4 young (2 female) counterpart scientists at JIRCAS were cancelled and replaced by online training.A) Have any promising research areas been significantly expanded?We examined the disease's impact on the rice sector and several research articles and policy briefs were published. New research questions and funding opportunities have emerged as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. Our foresight research has been expanded with scenarios of the development of the covid-19 pandemic. Also, national policy engagement activities have been expanded. Research on food choice for healthier diets has expanded as response to the demand as articulated by the CGIAR Executive Management Team.No field surveys were conducted because of the many travel restrictions that were imposed to limit the spread of covid-19. Also because of these travel restriction, and because of reductions in allocated budget, research activities planned under CoA 1.3 \"Collective Innovation and Seed Systems\" have been reduced. Activities planned under the Impact-Oriented Monitoring and Evaluation (IOMEL) strategy of CoA 1.6 that could not be implemented were postponed to 2021, in particular, the capacity development initiatives and the promotion of impact culture. However, we were able to conduct a virtual training on \"Fast Track impact\" with the University of New Castle.Except for specific covid-19 related activities, no major changes in direction were implemented. AfricaRice, Cirad, and IRRI published the policy brief \"Policy options for mitigating impacts of covid-19 on domestic rice value chains and food security in West Africa\" in Global Food Security, which was featured by the World Trade Organization in Trade for Development News. Several policy options were proposed to help West African governments mitigate the impacts of the covid-19 crisis on food security. AfricaRice, Cirad, and IRRI followed up the study in Global Food Security by a Covid-19 focused study \"Reducing rice import dependency in West Africa: focusing beyond production\". This study argues that increasing local rice supply requires support to downstream segments (millers and traders) in the value chain to assist them in upgrading local rice quality and competing against and replacing imports. IRRI initiated a study on the impact of covid-19 on rice-based diets and consumers' attitudes towards nutrition interventions. This study is a synergy between the BBSRC-funded SuperNutrientRice project and a Special Research Fund sandwich program with Ghent University, Belgium.276 peer-reviewed papers were published of which 73% were open access (https://grispnetwork.groupsite.com/folders/285858).Altmetrics score 295: Oliva, Norman, Maria Florida Cueto-Reaño, Kurniawan R. Trijatmiko, Mercy Samia, Ralf Welsch, Patrick Schaub, Peter Beyer, Donald Mackenzie, Raul Boncodin, Russell Reinke, Inez Slamet-Loedin, and B. P. Mallikarjuna Swamy. Molecular characterization and safety assessment of biofortified provitamin A. rice Scientific Reports 10, no. 1376 (2020): 13 p. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-57669-5. Part of the studies involved in safety assessment of genetically engineered crops includes characterizing the organization, integrity, and stability of the inserted DNA and evaluating the potential allergenicity and toxicity of newly-expressed proteins. Molecular characterization of the introduced DNA in provitamin A biofortified rice event GR2E confirmed insertion of a single copy of the transfer-DNA in the genome and its inheritance as a single locus. Nucleotide sequencing of the inserted DNA confirmed it was introduced without modifications. The phytoene synthase, and carotene desaturase proteins did not display sequence similarity with allergens or toxins. Both proteins were rapidly digested in simulated gastric fluid and their enzymatic activity was inhibited upon heat treatment. Acute oral toxicity testing of the protein in mice demonstrated lack of adverse effects. These evidences substantiated the lack of any identifiable hazards for both proteins and in combination with other existing comparative analyses provided assurance that food derived from this rice is safe. This conclusion is in line with those of the regulatory agencies of US Food and Drug Administration, Health Canada and Food Standard Australia and New Zealand Altmetrics score 200: Van Der Straeten, Dominique, Navreet K. Bhullar, Hans De Steur, Wilhelm Gruissem, Donald MacKenzie, Wolfgang Pfeiffer, Matin Qaim, Inez Slamet-Loedin, Simon Strobbe, Joe Tohme, Kurniawan Rudi Trijatmiko, Hervé Vanderschuren, Marc Van Montagu, Chunyi Zhang, and Howarth Bouis. Multiplying the efficiency and impact of biofortification through metabolic engineering, Nature Communications 11, no. 5203: 1-10. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19020-4. Ending all forms of hunger by 2030, as set forward in the UN-Sustainable Development Goal 2, is a daunting but essential task, given the limited timeline ahead and the negative global health and socio-economic impact of hunger. Malnutrition or hidden hunger due to micronutrient deficiencies affects about one third of the world population and severely jeopardizes economic development. Staple crop biofortification through gene stacking, using a rational combination of conventional breeding and metabolic engineering strategies, should enable a leap forward within the coming decade. A number of specific actions and policy interventions are proposed to reach this goal.A) List any important CRP research findings IRRI conducted a study on gender-based constraints in rice seed production in Bangladesh. Farmers' limited scope of using quality seeds relates to the demand and supply gap. Inequitable access to quality seeds is due to lack of awareness and weak market linkages. An investigation by AfricaRice of the linkages between gender, development, and utilization of technological innovations was conducted in Ghana. It found that gender issues are not identified and addressed during the technology development process.Little is known about the role of gender in demand for premium rice quality attributes such as fragrance. A better understanding of the drivers of demand may help connecting farmers to high value markets. To respond to this data gap, IRRI published the results of a survey with 4,231 urban and rural consumers in 37 cities across seven countries in South and Southeast Asia (Bangladesh, India, Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam). Demand for rice fragrance is found to be mainly driven by women; the more women are empowered in grocery decision-making, the more demand for aromatic rice is expected to rise. These insights can assist market-driven and gender-responsive rice breeding programs in simultaneously enhancing rice farmers' livelihoods and gender equity.African women associations tend to be involved in postharvest activities and marketing in rice, which is a powerful entry point for value chain upgrading to empower them. AfricaRice conducted a consumer study on branding and labeling, which provides crucial insights into the upgrading strategies that can empower women associations in the marketing of rice in Benin and other countries in Africa.AfricaRice analyzed the labor inputs in rice-based farming systems within a gender perspective. Results show that women and men spend on average 1-3 h per day in rice production, making 45-135 working days of involvement in annual rice cultivation. Looking into the distribution of labor input provision in productive activities, it is found that apart from the specific activity of rice parboiling, which is practiced in certain countries mostly by women, men are the ones more engaged in rice farming. These results provide the first evidence that women farmers do not necessarily spend more time than men in rice cultivation in Africa, as it is often assumed. Certainly, across countries and systems, and also within male and female farmers categories, there are heterogeneous labor inputs and associated determining factors and incomes. Male farmers earn higher income than female farmers in the different productive activities, except rice parboiling. This finding indicates that increasing labor input for rice would not result in higher income for female farmers. Female farmers might find better options in other agricultural activities such as processing.Seed systems do not directly lead to women's empowerment and gender equality. To achieve this, seed system interventions require specific and targeted objectives, such as the promotion of women's access to resources; women's voice in household and community decision-making; and addressing structural barriers to women's participation.Our consumer studies have shown time after time that women can play an instrumental role in driving demand (e.g., fragrance in Asia) or driving marketing (e.g., Africa). We now more explicitly account for these gender-specific drivers in product upgrading (e.g., the development of gender-responsive product profiles for breeding or extrinsic quality attributes through branding and labeling) and process upgrading (e.g., we focus on parboiling to empower women).Results from labor distribution analysis suggest that while rice research community often focuses on reducing labor inputs for rice cultivation by female and increasing female labor productivity through introduction of mechanization or its service provision business, such an approach has limitations and misses the whole context of household labor allocation. We need to consider a holistic approach for enhancing entire labor productivity by female (income per labor time) in the context of the broad farming system.There was no problem in relation to gender issues or integrating gender into the CRP's researchIRRI and AfricaRice developed a Strategy for Youth Engagement in Rice Agri-food Systems Research for Development on the horizon 2020-2025. The objective of the RICE youth strategy is for youth to contribute to, and benefit from, inclusive and sustainable transformation of rice agri-food systems. New research areas have been identified from the youth strategy: • Youth relationships to rice agri-food systems and their aspirations; • Drivers and predictors of youth engagement in transforming rice agri-food systems; • Establish the profitability of rice value chain at different nodes in different contexts -scenarios with collective action and horizontal and vertical coordination; • Understanding how youth engage in and benefit from existing supply chains or service provision; • Designing and testing new models of finance and land tenure to engage youth in rice agri-food systems; • Testing public-private partnerships to catalyze investments for youth in rice agri-food systems at different scales; • Analyzing, designing, and testing urban-rural linkages in the context of urbanization and digital revolution -create an ecosystem of collaboration among urban and rural youth; and • Evidence generation to understand pathways for change benefiting and driven by youth.To support indigenous communities in the Cordillera Autonomous Region and preserve rice cultural heritage in the Philippines, IRRI conducted a consumer survey in Metro Manila to develop a segmented marketing strategy for heritage-rice farming. Findings indicate that women, business owners, and consumers who buy packaged rice and eat pigmented rice are willing to pay more for heritage rice produced by indigenous communities. Proper information framing will be necessary to create demand and support the valorization of heirloom rice to preserve cultural heritage and in situ biodiversity of rice landraces in the Philippines.AfricaRice closely works with youth service providers for scaling of the decision-support system RiceAdvice. In 2020, 73% are youth (124 youths) in Nigeria, whereas all 20 service providers are youth in Senegal, who were identified by Rice Cooperatives Unions from Senegal. In Nigeria, these youth are mainly identified by farming groups.A) List any important CRP research findings Innovation platforms are excellent entry points for youth involvement. AfricaRice's Goronyo Rice Innovation Platform in the Middle Rima Valley Irrigation Scheme (MRVIS) in Nigeria is a good example. The platform brings together farmers, microfinance institutions, seed suppliers, agro-input dealers, production advisers, millers, aggregators/marketers, parboilers, consumers, equipment fabricators, and policy makers, enabling the formation of cross-group (vertical) and within-group (horizontal) linkages for efficient collaboration. The various rice value chain upgrading activities often involve training of young farmers, value chain actors, or students. It is expected that introducing young actors to innovations has large multiplicator effects in the long run as these actors may inspire their peers to become innovation champions.Investigation of the involvement of youth in extension activities revealed that they only participate in a limited way in on-farm trials and have low access to extension. The finding confirms the opportunity for utilizing ICT tools in extension; capacity building for the youth is needed on using these tools. In turn, the ICT tools need to be simple and accessible (https://grispnetwork.groupsite.com/folders/28...).Recent interviews conducted in Mali and Senegal revealed that the AfricaRice-CTA project contributed to facilitate youth's access to finance and ensured a proper capacity building through specific training and coaching/mentorship to support economic activities for a better livelihood.We can go further in involving youth. Youth can play an important role as influencers in consumption. FP2 is increasingly including youth in the impact pathways as influencers for socially responsible consumption. For example, through social media campaigns, millennials or generation Z can contribute to climate change mitigation by promoting the consumption of rice produced with lower greenhouse gas emissions. This idea has been incorporated in a few project proposals.For effective use of the ICT tools, capacity building is essential for the youth. AfricaRice provided training on use the ICT tool (decision-support system) RiceAdvice to youth service providers. In 2020, 73% of trained people were youth (124 youths) in Nigeria, whereas all 20 service providers are youth in Senegal.There was no particular problem in relation to youth issues or integrating youth into the CRP's research.Capacity development was affected by covid-19 in the sense that many on-site events had to be postponed or even cancelled, while most events that did proceed were organized virtually with online courses and materials provided. Nevertheless, RICE centers and partners till managed to provide shortterm capacity development to 57,597 participants, of which 34% were female. Participants were professionals, scholars, farmers, partners (government, NGO, private sector, etc), and other actors in rice value chains. Throughout the year, a total of 267 scholars (45% female) were enrolled in long-term capacity development (BsC, masters, PhD, interns and on-the job-trainees).AfricaRice's experience with capacity development in the Goronyo Rice Innovation Platform in the Middle Rima Valley Irrigation Scheme (MRVIS) in Nigeria provides a good example of how capacity development can be deployed as an engine for rice value chain upgrading. The platform brings together farmers, microfinance institutions, seed suppliers, agro-input dealers, production advisers, millers, aggregators/marketers, parboilers, consumers, equipment fabricators, and policy makers, enabling the formation of cross-group (vertical) and within-group (horizontal) linkages for efficient working. This example demonstrates how building capacity of value chain actors opens up many opportunities that range from increased efficiency and output to access to new market channels and industry knowledge. https://cgiar-my.sharepoint.com/:b:/r/persona...;web=1e=7Um8Gl Another example of capacity development is the training of 170 service providers and extension agents from Nigeria and 20 from Senegal in the use of the rice management support system RiceAdvice. In Rwanda, 1,080 rice farmers were trained in good agricultural practices though farmer field days. A Sustainable Rice Platform training course was organized in alliance with GLOBALG.A.P with 15 participants from eight countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. An online training for the use of the decision-support system WeRise was provided to 51 agricultural extension workers and 22 national researchers in Philippines and Indonesia.Intersectoral upgrading of rice value chains through the development of novel rice straw management practices and markets for rice straw is probably the area where rice value chain upgrading can contribute most to climate change mitigation. IRRI's book on rice straw management evidences this impact pathway by (1) identifying, developing, and verifying technologies and business models for sustainable rice straw management; (2) conducting market studies on existing and potential rice straw product markets; (3) establishing data on greenhouse gas emissions from different rice straw management and processing practices; (4) determining environmental footprints using life cycle assessment; and (5) formulating policy recommendations.Trial sites for the antenna (AP) and reference panels (RP) of the Global Rice Array to study the effects of climate change 'through the eyes of the crop' were conducted using manual, and in some cases unmanned aerial vehicles, phenotyping. Entries in the AP panel cover tolerances for stresses such as blast, heat, drought, submergence. The diversity of the plant microbiome of modern and traditional varieties were compared, and the microbiome community was found to significantly vary depending on the variety. Rice crop models were improved to better capture the effect of high temperature.Various climate-smart management practices were further developed and tested. Impacts of Alternate Wetting and Drying on yield, water productivity, and weeds were quantified in Côte d'Ivoire. In Senegal, a new cropping calendar for double cropping could lead to a cumulative annual yield increase by 3.2 t/ha (30%). In Ivory Coast, upland rice-based direct seeding systems under conservation agriculture had more climate resilience than conventional systems with tillage. Through on-farm validations in two provinces in Indonesia and three in the Philippines, the application of the decision-support system WeRise increased fertilizer use efficiencies and grain yields by optimizing sowing time of rainfed rice.No changes in the RICE management or governance structure occurred in 2020; terms of references of governance and management bodies can be accessed here (http://www.grisp.net/file_cabinet/folders/265910 ). The RICE independent steering committee did not meet this year because of travel restrictions imposed by covid-19 response measures.Through the six RICE centers, there were 263 contractual arrangements (through bilaterally-funded projects) that involved 466 global, regional, and national partners from international, government, NGO, civil society, academic and private sectors. https://grispnetwork.groupsite.com/folders/285858.Cross-CGIAR partnerships concentrated on the platform Excellence in Breeding (EiB) and the new initiative Excellence in Agronomy, and on the CRPs Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM) and FISH. IRRI actively contributed to the activities and publications of the CGIAR Foresight Team, including the development of the CGIAR Foresight Report, and the Future of X that provides perspectives on food, land and water systems in developing countries. On the basis of these studies, new collaborations have been established with other centers (World Fish, CIP, etc.) to examine the future trend of rice-based systems and, in turn, guide the agri-food transformation. RICE staff also actively participated in the PIM COVID-19 value chain fractures working group: collecting and reviewing evidence of COVID-19 inflicted fractures in food value chains in the developing world.The collaboration with EiB focused on the modernization and upgrading of breeding systems, the use of Crop Galaxy by CG and partners, and the development of market intelligence and product profiles.The Excellence in Agronomy 2030 Initiative was launched in 2020. A 2-yr incubation project has been funded by BMGF.Have any intellectual assets been strategically managed by the CRP (together with the relevant Center) this year?The RICE CRP is not a legal entity and the management of legal assets relevant to the CRP is managed by its participating CGIAR centers. All RICE CGIAR centers annually prepare and submit a detailed (usually labeled confidential) intellectual asset report to the System (Management) Board and the information contained therein is not repeated here.Indicate any published patents and/or plant variety right applications (or equivalent)List any critical issues or challenges encountered in the management of intellectual assets in the context of the CRP See aboveA foresight study -together with PIM and other CGIAR Centers -analyzed the impacts of rural transformation on the future of cereal-based agri-food systems. The study stressed that the staples maize, wheat, and rice will continue to play an important role in supplying most of the daily calories intake around the globe.As RICE has stabilized by now and has entered a 'winding down' phase, there were no new efficiency gains beyond what was reported in previous years. Moreover, the covid-19 pandemic negatively affected previously-developed efficiency gains through travel and meeting restrictions.Risks were primarily related to the covid-19 pandemic. Travel restrictions affected field work, surveys, partner interaction, and capacity development. Face-to-face training and workshop events were replaced by online mechanisms, field work was mostly done by local partners, while most surveys were postponed to 2021. On the other hand, more time was available for data analysis, synthesis, and publication writing, and for development of new project proposals. Also, several covid-19 specific research activities were undertaken (see covid-19 sections in this report).Institutionally, uncertainty about the OneCGIAR reorganization, institutional and programmatic changes, and funding uncertainty led to considerable anxiety among staff members. Uncertainty existed about continued collaboration with nonCGIAR partners beyond the CRPs.In general, W1,2 funding provided the backbone of RICE and catalyzed impact through strategic investments along the whole impact pathway, from upstream research to downstream development of business models and multistakeholder partnerships for innovation and scaling out. W1,2 investments included both the research and product development component of the impact pathway as well as the strengthening of the enabling environment (as per Theory of Change). The long-term nature of W1,2 funding provides the continuity to the program, and guarantees both short-term and long-term impacts on 5-10 year time scales. With the declining W1,2 budget, the available fund for most Flagship Projects was used conservatively to support staff time and planned activities. In several cases, the W1,2 fund was used to leverage with existing bilateral grants. With the limited number of staff available, several research activities were implemented through consultancies funded by W1,2. Selected examples in Table 12 provide some details of activities across the RICE Flagship Projects supported with W1,2 funds.For the fourth year in a row, the actual W1,2 funds received were below the programmed allocation as per 2021 Revised FinPlan endorsed by the System Board on 23 November 2020 (pursuant to decision SB/M18/DP5) and approved by the System Council on 17 December 2020 (pursuant to decision SC/M10/EDP9). This year, the received W1,2 funds were 10.122 M USD, around 4 M USD short of the allocated 13.915 M USD. The total amount of W3/bilateral funds was 42.509 M USD, which was some 3 M USD below the target of 45.815 M USD. This drop may be explained by a decrease in mapped bilateral projects because of the winding down of the CRPs by the end of 2021.The data in Table 13 may still undergo minor changes as at the time of writing, the budget distribution among clusters of activity by one of the partners still needs to verified. In the previous two decades, RICE created and disseminated regionally-designed and locally-appropriate portfolios of agronomic practices in collaboration with local partners. These agronomic practices include 3 Reductions -3 Gains (3R3G) and 1 Must Do -5 Reductions (1M5R) in Vietnam, Project 10 and 10+ practices in Brazil, and Smart-Valley or Sawah practices in West Africa. Based on recent monitoring data from four of the 13 provinces in the Mekong River Delta in Vietnam, we find nearly 70,000 hectares qualify as fully adopting 3R3G or 1M5R. Using project monitoring data from the state of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, we find total land area under Project 10 or 10+ to be over 60,000 hectares. Across Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, and Togo, we are able to confirm that Smart-Valley/Sawah has been adopted on about 3,000 hectares and by by 6,110 farmers in Benin and Togo. https://economics.arizona.edu/dissemination-and-adoptionbundled-agronomic-practices•Geographic Scope: Multi-national.•Countries: Benin, Brazil, Nigeria, Togo, Viet Nam, Ghana.RiceAdvice is a free Android application that provides farm-specific advice on rice management practices to farmers. RiceAdvice can identify the best choice of fertilizers to be purchased, their amounts and application timing, based on nutrient requirement and fertilizer prices. Using the app, farmers can also select their own target yield level based on their budget. RiceAdvice does not require internet connection to generate the guidelines, except for updating the app. In 2020, there were 14,900 beneficiaries of RiceAdvice in Nigeria. https://www.africarice.org/riceadviceScope: National.•Countries: Nigeria. 30 million people, of which 50% are women, assisted to Iron toxicity is one of the most important constraints limiting rice production in lowland sub-Saharan Africa. To improve rice productivity in the affected areas in the context of climate change, new rice varieties with genetic resistance to iron toxicity were developed and released in SSA. This study used a randomized controlled trial to assess the effect of an •Geographic Scope: Regional. •Regions: Sub-exit poverty iron toxicity-tolerant variety, ARICA6, on the rice production and income of smallholder farmers. Results showed that the use of the ARICA6 variety increased rice yield by 330 kg ha-1 and net income by US$ 120 ha-1. Average technical efficiency increased by 7%. The large-scale dissemination of ARICA6 could be a policy option to revive rice production and reduce food insecurity for rice producers, but additional measures such as reducing the constraints due to unpredictable rainfall through improved water management are needed to further increase the benefits. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3592455Saharan Africa.Adoption of the Smart-Valley (or Sawah) approach increased from 110 ha in 2012 to 474 ha in 2014. Recent evidence shows that the approach has reached 45,000 ha in Nigeria. In 2019, the total area increased to 1,031 ha in Benin and Togo where it was adopted by 6,110 farmers. In Sierra Leone, the adoption area was 179 ha by 460 farmers. Results show that the impact of Smart-Valley on rice income is an additional 440 US$/ha for adopters in Sierra Leone and Liberia.•Geographic Scope: Multi-national. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa.Benin, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Togo.RiceAdvice is a free Android application that provides farm-specific advice on rice management practices to farmers. Impact assessment using randomized control trials in northern Nigeria showed that households who were just given the personalized advice increased their yield by 7% and their profit by 10%.Scope: National. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa. •Countries: Nigeria.Building the capacity of small-scale seed producers for certified seed production is seen as a viable solution to help attain the twin objectives of the availability of quality seed and farmer empowerment. Additionally, by strengthening small-scale seed producers, they can potentially play a major role in ensuring seed security for the underserved farmers. Led and managed by women, The Adarsh Dharmagarh Women Farmers Services Producer Company Ltd (ADWFSPCL), is being incubated by IRRI, the Odisha Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Empowerment, and Access Livelihoods Consulting India since 2019. In the same year, around 180 women members of ADWFSPCL produced about 350 tons of paddy seed planted on 72.5 ha in the kharif season and on 157 ha in the rabi season. The ADWFSPCL was registered as seed producer by the Odisha State Seed and Organic Products Certification Agency with support from the Department of Agriculture. http://books.irri.org/Odisha-Annual-Report-2019-2020.pdfScope: National. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa. •Countries: India.Improve the rate of yield increase for major food staples from current < 1% to 1.2-1.5% per year Iron toxicity is one of the most important constraints limiting rice production in lowland sub-Saharan Africa. To improve rice productivity in the affected areas in the context of climate change, new rice varieties with genetic resistance to iron toxicity were developed and released in SSA. This study used a randomized controlled trial to assess the effect of an iron toxicity-tolerant variety, ARICA6, on the rice production and incomes of smallholder farmers. Results showed that the use of the ARICA6 variety increased rice yield by 330 kg ha-1, while the average technical efficiency increased by 7%.•Geographic Scope: Regional. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa.A variety of Green Super Rice called NSIC Rc 480 was able to almost double its maximum yield per hectare, from 4.4 tons to 8.3 tons, during the Palaysikatan Field Day of the Philippine Rice Research Institute in Sto. Tomas, Davao Del Norte, Philippines.Scope: National. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa. •Countries: Philippines (the).A randomized control trial was used to evaluate the effectiveness of a mobile application that provides personalized advice on rice nutrient management (RiceAdvice) in Africa. Results show that households who were just given the personalized advice increase their yield by 7%. On average, personalized advice increased yields without increasing the overall quantity of fertilizer used. (https://doi.org/10.1111/ajae.12151 )Scope: National. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa. •Countries: Nigeria.Using a three years panel data from 520 farmers, results showed a positive impact of the adoption of the improved iron toxicity-tolerant variety ARICA 6 on yield, net income, and technical efficiency. The study found evidence that the use of the ARICA 6 variety increased yield by 330 kg ha-1. The average technical efficiency increased by 6%. (https://ssrn.com/abstract=3592455 )Scope: National. •Regions: Sub-Saharan Africa. •Countries: Guinea.We determined the annual rate of genetic gain for rice grain yield in a drought-prone rainfed system in a series of multienvironment trials conducted from 2005 to 2014 under the Drought Breeding Network of Indian sites. Our results show a positive trend in grain yield with an annual genetic yield increase of about 0.68 % under irrigated control, 0.87 % under moderate reproductive stage drought stress and 1.9 % under severe reproductive stage drought stress due to breeding efforts. The study also demonstrates the effectiveness of direct selection for grain yield under both irrigated control as well as managed drought stress screening to improve yield in typical rainfed systems. IRRI's drought breeding programme has exhibited a significant positive trend in genetic gain for grain yield over the years under both drought stress as well as favorable irrigated control conditions. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2020.107977 The value chain approach provides a promising way of achieving sustainable development in the food sector in developing countries. Through an expansion strategy that would involve increasing the area cultivated for rice, instituting GAP and other improved production methods, the upgraded rice value chain would increase the value added by USD 378 million by 2030, reduce the carbon footprint of paddy from 1.4  The value chain approach provides a promising way of achieving sustainable development in the food sector in developing countries. Through an expansion strategy that would involve increasing the area cultivated for rice, instituting GAP and other improved production methods, the upgraded rice value chain would increase the value added by USD 602 million by 2030, and increase employment -with approx. 240 000 additional jobs created by 2030. Green gas house emission will be reduce by 2.       The Internet-of Things based irrigation advisory service (AutoMonPH) that entails efficient water management, continuous monitoring, reporting and verification of water management practices, was developed and piloted with a multi-stakeholder interface in the Philippines.The Sustainable Rice Platform (SRP) was promoted in Vietnam through a field demonstration (13 ha) combining Small Farmers, Large Field model; 1M5R; and SRP.RiceAdvice and basic good agricultural practices were disseminated to a total of 14,900 farmers in Nigeria and Senegal Delivery 45 demonstration plots were established to disseminate Good Agricultural Practices, and 1,080 rice farmers were trained though farmer field days in Rwanda Capacity developmentIn Madagascar, multi-year experiments on bio-diversified upland rice based cropping systems were evaluated. Participatory designing identified promising diversification options that include maize, cassava, pulses, and legume cover crops as rotational crops.In Madagascar, field experiment revealed that Stylosanthes guianensis (stylo) absorbed 10-26 times more P than rice, maize, or soybean under typical P-deficient uplands in the region. Subsequent field With the support of SPIA and the RICE CRP, IRRI and University of Arizona conducted the first phase of the project \"Evaluating the Impact of Stress-Tolerant Rice Varieties Through Remote Sensing and Econometric Methods\". Remote sensing techniques were used to examine flooding and the density of green vegetation in the flood-prone areas of Bangladesh.A noticeable policy engagement is the recent IRRI contribution to the dialogue on Rice Tarification Law (RTL) in the Philippines. Based on two studies on RTL published in 2020, the Foresight team proposed policy measures that the Philippine government can use to help rice farmers to adapt and develop profitable business in agriculture or outside, particularly those who are negatively impacted by the reform. In particular, the IRRI's study emphasized that investments and policy support measures are needed in rural areas of the Philippines to create more opportunities for on-farm diversification towards higher value crops than rice.A new study at IRRI examined the effect of IRG ancestry on the rice productivity of farmers in Eastern India in an econometric framework. The study also examines the country of origin of all IRG accessions in the ancestry of improved rice varieties grown and characterizes the most widely used progenitors. Results indicate that a 10% increase in the genetic contribution of IRG accessions to an improved rice variety is associated with a yield increase of 27%. Rapid population growth in Africa and Asia is projected to lead to an unprecedented number of youth entering the labour market in the next few decades. Youths' role in agriculture or the agri-food sector has received increased interest as a way to provide employment opportunities for young job seekers given the \"demographic dividend\" most developing countries are showcasing. Engaging youth is a broad concept which depends on broader socio-economic factors ranging from age, gender, educational level, access to credit, ownership of land, kinship, marriage, and type of affiliations with social or institutional networks, to list a few. In 2020, IRRI developed a strategy plan for Youth in rice agri-food systems in Asia and Africa. The strategy lays out two important components 1) The framework of engagement encompassing the objectives, research areas, and theory of change and 2) A plan for operationalizing the strategy. The IRRI's 5-year youth strategy aims to increase our knowledge and generate evidence about the situation and needs of youth engaged in the rice AFS so that the sector can become an attractive and remunerative livelihood opportunity, including employment and entrepreneurship. Through implementing this Youth Strategy, IRRI seeks to become a knowledge and innovation pioneer and take a leadership role in bringing young people to the forefront of rice AFS. The first two years (2020-22) will involve research to establish the foundational understanding of youth in rice AFS and designing action research plans and interventions for the following years. The medium term (2022-2025) will be focused on facilitating the creation of opportunities for youth in rice AFS in Asia and Africa. This will involve setting strong partnerships for research for development and testing interventions with the aim to learn from them.A recent study at AfricaRice investigates the linkages between gender, development and utilization of technological innovations in Ghana and made the following recommendations:(1) Gender issues are not identified and addressed during the technology development process. Lack of consultation with the target group throughout the agricultural innovation development process is likely to create room for the development of undesirable characteristics of improved rice technologies.(2) Although participatory varietal selection (PVS) is conducted, bringing various target groups, women are generally unable to freely express themselves when in the company of male counterparts. Women are also constrained In Madagascar, field experiment revealed that Stylosanthes guianensis (stylo) absorbed 10-26 times higher P uptake than rice, maize, or soybean under typical Pdeficient uplands in the region. Subsequent field experiment in the next season showed that the yield of upland rice in where stylo was previously cultivated was greater than those grown after maize or rice. Considering the high biomass and high P absorption capacity, and the effect on subsequent rice yield, stylo can be a promising option as cover/relay crop to enhance P cycling in upland rice-based cropping system under P-deficient condition in the region.For Coa 4.2: The main limitation was to mantain local personel in NARES experimental stations. For instance, data on the RP for 4 sites was stored in a database. Software was developed to optimize image analysis, and new tools to estimate climate response variables such as panicle fertility were developed.For Coa 4.5: Genotype data is in crop galaxy and phenotype data is available through the Project website, it is not yet in Galaxy. Progress was hampered due personnel constraints.New rice varieties Several initiatives are being done commonly be multiple Centers:Global maturity system: Efforts were initiated to define and establish a global relative maturity system in collaboration with RICE CGIAR Centers and private sector partners.Lowering the glycemic index: One protocol for rice processing was identified and used by AfricaRice to evaluate different rice varieties. Three very promising Low GI rice (GI=20-22) products were identified and can be used as parents for breeding low GI rice. IRRI investigated the glycemic index (GI) of breeding and develop materials in vitro and found that many of them are in the high GI levels. Screening of 320 Genebank materials identified 3 donor lines validated through in vivo human feeding trials as low GI.Product management initiative: Product managers were hired for Asia and East and Southern Africa to develop product profiles of key rice popular varieties and developed recommendations for product positioning of new products.HTP for HRR and grain Zn estimation: IRRI acquired several Zaccaria PAZ-1/DTA test mills to enable HRR phenotyping -5 units are for use in HQ and 3 units are for India and Bangladesh. Several XRF machines were also acquired for Zn phenotyping.Zinc biofortification: In LAC, CIRAD and CIAT developed new breeding material and conducted regional multiplication trials to release varieties with increased grain Zn concentration. JIRCAS also collaborated with CIRAD on Zn biofortification in Madagascar (with HarvestPlus and FOFIFA). New high-Zn donors having more than twice the grain Zn concentration compared to local variety X265 were identified using Genomic Selection. High-Zn breeding lines from CIAT/CIRAD were tested and 5 lines combining local adaptation with high grain Zn were selected for a possible fast-track variety release. Evaluations under the direction of the seed board of Madagascar are ongoing.Publications: Six peer-reviewed articles were published in scientific journals, two more papers are currently under review. One paper came out in early 2021 reporting findings of a study conducted on genetic gain over the period 2005 to 2014.","tokenCount":"11904"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5da421f900b491c1604bc6d924b3053","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/652b99e0-e2a4-4214-8f18-1e0985689756/retrieve","id":"1389452574"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"570e5a04-20ea-41a1-8a20-3a430edf4761","pagecount":"28","content":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU. For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.intIn October 2017, the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA) in partnership with the NEPAD Agency 1 , conducted a survey to understand the perceptions surrounding the use of drones for agriculture. Approximately 13,000 individuals (mainly English and French-speaking readers of CTA e-publications or members of CTAmanaged communities of practice) received an invitation to participate in the survey. The aim was to understand the general perceptions on the use of drones amongst stakeholders in agriculture and development cooperation with an emphasis on African regions. 16%, or a total of 1432 individuals (of whom 91% have worked or are currently working in Africa), completed the survey and had at least a working knowledge of drones in agriculture.Results show that there is general optimism about the prospects of the deployment of the technology. 85% of survey participants said that they view the use of drones in agriculture favourably. They believe drones play an integral part in modernising agriculture and increasing yield and efficiency. Respondents consider that some of the most important applications include the assessment of crop health, the generation of topographical maps and the detection of varying rates of fertiliser applications on large holdings. In addition, the use of drones to detect and control pests and diseases, and the ability to rapidly collect information over large areas was most often cited as a reason for the favourable views.Those that think less favourably about the technology most often expressed concerns that drones may not be an adequate tool to support current needs of smallholder and subsistence farmers. High costs and complexity of the technology were often perceived as challenges for its use by smallholders and less prosperous farmers. While agriculture is developed and modernised with the introduction of this technology, the interests and livelihoods of artisanal fisheries and smallholder farmers should be protected, according to some respondents.84% of the respondents agree that awareness about the technology is generally low. They pointed out that additional information to understand the technology and its use and applications in agriculture are needed and would be welcomed. Especially, robust awareness raising and capacity building appear to be the suggested inputs. Agriculture is one of the most promising emerging markets for the international drone industry. Projections show that agriculture will soon form the second largest market globally for drone-related services 3 . A large agricultural area that would take days to inspect by car or on foot can be surveyed within hours or minutes using drones, making it possible to monitor vast fields of crops on a regular basis. In so-called precision agriculture, specialised sensors that are mounted on drones help to glean information about where crops require intervention even before signs of distress become visible to the naked eye. This allows for early and more precise treatments where irrigation, fertilisation and pesticide needs are most urgent, thus lowering overall input of resources and reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use. Disease outbreaks can be detected and therefore countered at early stages before major damage occurs. Increasingly, drones are also used for post-disaster assessments and transporting medical supplies. Invitations to participate in the survey were sent to 13,010 individuals who usually receive CTA digital newsletters and publications or who are members of CTA-nurtured communities of practice.The survey, administered via a specialised service, SurveyMonkey, in both English and French, remained open for 15 days from 10 -25 October 2017. Participation in the survey was open to invited respondents mostly active in the agricultural domain in African, Pacific and Caribbean (ACP) states 4 . 68% of the recipients of the invitations were anglophone and the remainder francophone. The response rate was 13.6%, which is in line with most3 PwC market study: https://www.pwc.pl/pl/pdf/clarity-from-above-pwc.pdf. See also https://pwc.to/2F7UNAw 4 These include East Africa, Central Africa, West Africa and Southern Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific.Various terminologies are used when referring to unmanned aircraft. The public and media often use \"drone\". The term unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) refers to the unmanned aerial vehicles. The term unmanned aerial system (UAS) denotes the larger system of the airborne portion, the UAV, the pilot located elsewhere, controlling the aircraft via a ground control station through wireless linkages (control and command links) plus the sensor(s) mounted on the UAV and the software that may be used to analyse the data gathered by the sensor(s). A UAV can be operated manually, be programmed to operate automatically, or be fully autonomous.external online surveys nowadays (10%-15%) 5 . A screening question at the onset of the survey ensured that only those who had a working knowledge of what drones in agriculture are, would continue and take the complete survey. A total of 337 responses were thus screened for insufficient knowledge about the technology. In this manner, a total of 1,432 survey responses were recorded and analysed.More than one third of the respondents self-identified as scientists or researchers, and nearly one fourth identified as development practitioners. About 10% of respondents are farmers and a small fraction are drone pilots 6 . The most represented sectors are academia and research (25%), ministries and extension services (14%) and civil society organisations (14%) 7 . The great majority, 1,298 (91%) of survey respondents, said they work in Africa.Western and Eastern Africa were most represented followed by Southern and Central Africa. The Pacific, Caribbean and Europe were represented by a small fraction each, and Northern Africa was the least represented with 3% of respondents claiming that they work in the region. 21% of survey respondents were women.Out of the 1,432 responses which were considered for the analysis, 13% were already using drones either for agriculture or for other activities. 63% claimed to have a good understanding of the technology, and 20% claimed that they only had a basic working knowledge of the technology.Data was analysed with the purpose to understand the reasons for various perceptions on drone use in agriculture, as well as the opportunities and challenges perceived by the respondents. For the categorical and numerical data, the chi-square test of independence was used to probe if there were linkages between professional, language, or regional background and perceptions.Textual answers to open-ended questions were aggregated into word clouds. In addition, manual text classification was used to identify the most common responses. Respondents were invited to provide written justification about their choices or to provide additional comments. Providing participants with sufficient space to voice their opinions freely was seen as important to allow for the widest range possible in the expression of opinions. Overall, more than 4,000 text comments were collected. In the analysis, most common response types are mentioned in decreasing order of prevalence for each section. In many cases, representative quotes of common responses are used to exemplify the various opinions. French comments were translated into English for the purpose of this report.3 Key findingsThe majority, 59%, said that they view the use of drones very favourably, and 26% somewhat favourably. Merely 10% were neutral, and even less respondents, 5%, think of drones in agriculture somewhat unfavourably or very unfavourably.The data does not indicate any significant differences in perception based on region, profession and experience. However, surprisingly, language seemed to play a role as there are significant differences in terms of perception between French and English speakers. The French survey respondents showed a greater overall tendency to view agricultural drones less favourably than English speakers (p < 0.01). The respondents were asked to also describe and be specific on what influenced their opinions. This field was optional, but 790 English speakers and 446 French speakers offered sometimes quite elaborate explanations. A summary of the most common response types is provided in the sections below.Among the survey participants, those who stated that they view the use of drones unfavourably were rare (5%). However, many of those who did have a neutral or somewhat favourable view, shared some of the concerns that those with unfavourable views voiced, which merits a wider discussion of the perceived adverse effects. A summary of the most cited concerns and criticisms is given below.The majority of unfavourable views are based on a concern for the needs of smallholders and the perceived lack of benefit for them. For example, a researcher from Eastern Africa stated that \" [d] technology\". Similarly, a business person and farmer in West Africa writes that \"[i]n Africa, we still have enough problems with electricity and the internet in rural areas. It will be difficult for us to use drones in order to make farms profitable, especially the family type, which characterises our agriculture\". In addition, quite a few also perceive that costs would be a hindrance to smaller farmers, as exemplified by the following comment by a government official and researcher from Western Africa: \"[Drone-related-technology] is expensive and excludes the small producers\".Other survey participants criticised the technocratic approach to solving issues in agriculture that they felt may eventually lead to more, not fewer problems.An entrepreneur from Central Africa wrote: \"I wonder if this is not another invention that will cause more environmental problems than it can solve\". On a related note, a researcher wrote: \"They are expensive, and I am not convinced that a great many of them won't end up in landfills within the next ten years\".A development practitioner working in Southern Africa commented as follows, raising concerns not only of lost skills and displacement of small farmers, but also of the large business interests involvedan issue also brought up by several of the participants: \"Technology to improve agriculture yields is a choice of society decided by technocrats that may have a positive short-term impact on some farming practices and yields. But on the long term it changes the social and cultural relations between farmers, their environment and their ability to understand the constraints and develop their own solutions in an autonomous way. Plenty of examples around the world of farming communities, technologies, agroecological alternatives, show that farmers did and can still do without such technologies to find solutions to their constraints. Introducing drone in agriculture is another step towards more dependency towards technologies and withdrawing the expertise from farmers to sell it to business companies. Therefore, the use of drone in agriculture is a seducing but false solution that will little by little increase the vanishing of the peasants to the profit of technocrats\".A few of the commenters were also concerned about privacy and data implications. An education specialist based in Europe writes that \"[d]rones risk participating in the surveillance of the citizens, without [the population] being aware of it\".Lastly, job loss and replacement of labour force was also a concern brought up on several accounts in comments similar to the following: \"Small scale farmers constitute over 60% of the labour force, using drones will mean displacing the farmers from their means of livelihood\".About 10% of survey participants adopted a neutral view on the use of drones in agriculture.Many who fall into this category chose to refrain from giving an opinion in favour or against agricultural drones, because they feel that they do not have enough information or experience. Many commented along the lines of \"I am not informed about its use in agriculture\".Others felt that there may be some benefits to using drones, but they were concerned about capacity and costs. Others with neutral sentiments balanced their expectations of the positive impact against potential negative impacts the technology could have. Participants cited examples of negative impact that they fear the widespread use of drones might have on the environment and wildlife. \"I think using drones can help improve performance, but I'm wondering about their impact on the environment\" and \"Where I am working, there were incidences of human and wildlife conflict that were attributed to agitation caused by drones, and elephants destroyed homes\".Lastly, some of those with neutral views felt that they had not seen enough evidence of the positive impacts. Further, there was a sentiment that the development should be done slowly over the years under careful evaluation of the impacts the technology could have.85% of respondents stated that they view the use of drones in agriculture somewhat or very favourably, indicating a general optimism and openness to explore the potentials of dronebased technology for agriculture. The use of drones to detect and control pests and diseases, and the ability to rapidly collect information over large areas was most often cited as a reason for the favourable views.Especially researchers are vocal about the benefits they perceive would come from the technology as the following examples show: \"Drones will make agriculture more environment-friendly and sustainable, by reducing the application of pesticides, fertilisers, water and other inputs\". Another researcher based in West Africa wrote that \"[a]s a pathologist, it will help in disease assessment hence effective control and improved/ increased yield\". Similarly, a researcher and drone pilot working the Pacific shared that \"[a]t the institute where we work, we use drones to manage some plantations and they help us to reduce time in assessing them. They are a great tool for plantation management and disease detection\".Drones were also mentioned often as effective for fertiliser management. A teacher from East Africa wrote that \" [d]rones are an effective way of advancing agriculture particularly when it comes to accurate analysis of fertility of soils and application of fertilisers. Furthermore, proper analysis and identification of areas in agriculture that need critical attention is very key for farmers in accessible areas\".Especially the ability to access and assess difficult to reach areas very rapidly and the potential to save time for monitoring tasks was a factor that was particularly often cited. One survey participant states that drones are \"convenient, [and] allow … to reach the most distant areas very quickly\" and another wrote that \"drones help in rapid decision-making in many cases\".Having access and data available fast leads to \"effective and rapid contribution to the resolution of agricultural problems: management of perimeters, management of diseases and enemies, soil fertility, area measurements; monitoring ...\"Experienced drone users often mentioned the advantage of drone images provided compared to satellite data: \"Speed of action and precise aerial view [achieved with drones] compared to satellite images\" is seen as superior. Cost benefits were also mentioned: \"Drones are cheap compared to conventional survey methods e.g. taking pictures from an aeroplane or purchasing high quality satellite images\". This indicates that especially practitioners who have been using remote images such as from satellites and airplanes in the past perceive a strong benefit from drone technology.Several participants stated that they think positively about the use of drones in agriculture, because they have participated in workshops or have been able to research, read about or hear about the uses in various media without having used the technology themselves. \"My research into drone technology has made me understand the huge potentials that drones offer for precision agriculture in terms of cost savings, ease of monitoring crops and livestock, timeliness of data, etc\". There are indications that those who have been exposed to information material tended to think more favourably about the technology.Many also outlined certain challenges that need to be solved in order to bring about the most benefits from the technology. Lastly, people said that they felt that one should not forego innovative practices and solutions, if they can support agriculture. Some survey participants saw drones as forming part of a trend of innovation that is seen in a positive light by virtue of being innovative. \"Africa's agriculture is fragilediseases, pests and sometimes unpredictable weather conditions. We need to make timely analyses if we are to minimise losses. We have to take advantage of technological advancement if we are to benefit from our agriculture.\"A government official in West Africa wrote that \"any development in any sector of the economy has to have some form of integrated science and technology ingrained in [it]. Use of drones in agriculture could well be one of the most innovative and advantageous novelties for agricultural development. I'd saygo for it.\"Survey participants were asked to evaluate and rank UAS-specific applications according to perceived importance in agriculture. There seemed to be little differentiation in terms of importance that participants assigned to the proposed drone-technology-based activities. However, all the proposed options were rated to be at least moderately important. The analysis was thus limited to participants who have used drones for agricultural activities before. This group of experienced users rated the use of drones to assess crop health as the most important function. The use of drones for stockpile volume calculations was seen as relatively less important than other applications, even though on average it was still rated as moderately important. Based on text answers, participants believed that there were especially opportunities to use drones in the monitoring and assessments of crops and livestock, in the management of pests and diseases, increasing crop production and in research activities. Drones were also often mentioned as useful tools surveying irrigated crops such as maize and rice and in the related management of water.When asked to elaborate on what problems people perceived regarding the implementation and use of drones in agriculture, regulations, security and costs were most often cited, followed by awareness issues and lack of information about agricultural drone applications.French speakers more often cited the cost factor as a potential problem compared to English speakers.Labour displacement was a concern mentioned serval times: \"Small scale farmers constitute over 60% of the labour force, using drones will mean displacing the farmers from their means of livelihood.\" Some participants were also concerned about privacy and security issues and misuse of the technology, either wilfully or due to lack of knowledge on responsible use. Regulations, the lack thereof, or the over-regulating of drones' use was mentioned often. Conversely, others commented that they did not see any problems with the deployment of drones at the moment.In the comments' section, participants often mentioned that awareness was still lacking and that more information, training and capacity building would be needed and welcomed. The need for awareness was stressed most often.\"As with any technology, there is a minimum necessary investment in capital and capacity development to use the tech, but 90% of any funds should be on the social preparation for the use of technology, for support, and for long-term developments with people using technology.\"\"While promoting the technology, please think about how the low-income farmers should afford the technology.\"There are some differences between the francophone and anglophone respondents that are worth noting. Overall, the French-speaking survey participants seemed to be less informed on the use of drones. 21% of French survey takers noted that they did not have even a basic idea about what drones in agriculture are, in contrast to only 13% of the anglophones. Further, only 9% of the francophone respondents had used drones at the time of the survey whether for agriculture or other applications. This again contrasts with the significantly higher percentage of 15% of English-speaking survey takers who have had experience with drones. Furthermore, French speakers were significantly less favourably inclined regarding the potential use of drones in agriculture. Interestingly, while language did play a role, neither the indicated work region, nor gender or professional position, showed any significant differences in perception data.While there are many possible causes for this discrepancy, one possible explanation might be that there is in general much less information and material available in French about drone technology in agriculture. There seem to be some linkages between how aware people are of the technology and how favourably they view its potential applications.91% of the survey respondents are based or work in Africa compared to only 3% in the Pacific and Caribbean respectively. The global survey data is nearly indistinguishable from the African data for this reason. The results for Africa only are listed in Annex 2 of this report.Broadly speaking, the survey reveals that among those queried there is support for the development and use of drones in agricultureprovided that certain key challenges are addressed. Only very few individuals felt that the potential negative implications outweigh the potential positive impact to the degree that they had a negative view of the technology. Most people felt optimistic in general about the potential uses.The need for awareness was a major theme across all survey questions. Most survey takers agreed that awareness on the use of drones in the agriculture sector is generally low and awareness may potentially be lower among non-English speaking populations due to fewer materials available.A general concern for potential opportunity costs that may disadvantage smallholders was a second theme that emerged, and responses indicate that drones are not seen as a universally applicable technology. Participants were often sceptical that the technology would benefit smallholders or at least concerned that other needs in support of smallholders would be neglected \"when promoting this technology\". High cost of the technology was also mentioned often as a potential impediment leading to a general belief that the high costs in association with the lack of knowledge and information would make the technology unreachable to many farmers in rural areas. There are clear indications that a great amount of survey takers perceive drones in agriculture primarily as a technology to be deployed on very large areas, industrial crops, large-scale operations, or where smallholders growing the same crop are grouped in cooperatives or other forms of associations.In moving forward, the concerns that have been raised should be well understood, researched, and if necessary mitigated. These include environmental impact due to obsolete electronics and batteries, the displacement of labour due to increased efficiency and a substantial change in agricultural practice or loss of skills in interpreting the signs of nature due to increased reliance on automated crop diagnostic. In addition, any future upscaling in the deployment of drones in agriculture should be done proportionally to the benefit that they provide. Especially, capacity building, training and education seem to be perceived as crucial steps forward.Annex 1: Questions and graphical responses summaries   ","tokenCount":"3684"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0b3b6203c3d63686c7c772e14c217d61","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f7e446d4-4fbc-47d8-a179-77dfc6bb8548/retrieve","id":"-2005667195"},"keywords":["multi-disciplinary","trans-disciplinary","agricultural innovation systems (AIS)","farmer participation","multi-stakeholder","crop protection"],"sieverID":"7a0ff59b-a1a2-4496-9fd7-db34897113e5","pagecount":"13","content":"Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the \"Content\") contained in the publications on our platform. Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Versions of published Taylor & Francis and Routledge Open articles and Taylor & Francis and Routledge Open Select articles posted to institutional or subject repositories or any other third-party website are without warranty from Taylor & Francis of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, or non-infringement. Any opinions and views expressed in this article are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor & Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.It is essential that you check the license status of any given Open and Open Select article to confirm conditions of access and use.Systems approaches to pest management innovation have been advocated to complement purely curative À and often technology-oriented À interventions since the late 1990s (Lewis et al. 1997). A systems approach considers a specific crop protection problem not just as the outcome of a cropÀpest interaction but also takes into account the context within which it is embedded. This implies considering multiple stakeholders, including farmers, extension and crop protection officers, agrochemical dealers and policy-makers. It also implies considering biophysical and socio-economic processes (e.g. pest life cycles, hydrology, communication, technology and knowledge transfer, marketing) and the formal and informal institutions or \"rules of the game\" that can include policies, regulations, patents and certifications (Hounkonnou et al. 2012). Such an approach would cover multiple integration levels, including plant, crop and farm level, and also community, region and country level. The hypothesis supporting the need for a systems approach is that a pest problem at the plant or crop level cannot be solved in a fundamental way if no enabling environment for addressing that pest outbreak at a higher integration level is created. In a systems approach, innovations are considered as outcomes of the combined advances of technological, social or institutional elements in the system that runs from the field and farm to the community, region and even higher levels (Leeuwis 2004), and of the interactions between different stakeholders in the agricultural sector (Hounkonnou et al. 2006;Klerkx et al. 2012).Systems approaches are particularly useful as methodology for diagnosing and addressing complex problems with a capricious context that cross-cut different disciplines and integration levels and engage a variety of stakeholders (Pautasso & Pautasso 2010;Schut, Klerkx, et al. 2015;Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Kayeke, et al. 2015;Schut, van Paassen, et al. 2014). The usefulness of systems approaches has become increasingly recognized not only by social scientists but also by natural scientists in fields such as crop science and applied ecology as a way to enhance the relevance and impact of science (Nederlof et al. 2007;Jordan et al. 2012;Hulme 2014;Runck et al. 2014;Smith et al. 2014). The systems approach is also appropriate for managing research efforts with an applied objective such as crop protection. However, a recent systematic review of the crop protection literature showed that, despite the clear potential advantages outlined above, truly systems-oriented approaches to crop protection problems, as well as robust assessments of them, are scarce (Schut, Rodenburg, et al. 2014). Crop protection problems and possible solutions to them have been studied using farmer-participatory approaches (e.g. Abang et al. 2007;De Groote, Rutto, et al. 2010), but have rarely been approached as multi-level and multi-stakeholder systems and are seldom studied in an integrated way and used to inform integrated pest management approaches. The only noteworthy exception we found is a study from Australia reporting on multi-stakeholder workshops focusing on integrated pest management (Norton et al. 1999). Published studies showing the value of integrated systems approaches to crop protection problems in developing countries, with generally weaker institutions and resource-poorer stakeholders, are not available (Schut, Rodenburg, et al. 2014).In the PARASITE program, 1 a research collaboration between Wageningen University, Africa Rice Center and National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems from Benin, Cote d'Ivoire and Tanzania À starting December 2010 À an innovation systems approach was used to study parasitic weed problems in rainfed rice production systems. Parasitic weeds in rice can be considered a complex crop protection problem (Rodenburg et al. 2015;Schut, Klerkx, et al. 2015;Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Kayeke, et al. 2015). The problem is embedded in a capricious context as it involves a multitude of stakeholders and organizations, is affected by a multitude of interactions across different integration levels (e.g. climate, soil, crop, farm, markets, policy) and is encountered in subsistence farming systems with rainfed and therefore risk-prone and uncertain crop production environments. Rice production in Africa is hampered by several technological, institutional, socio-cultural, political, economic and biophysical constraints (Seck et al. 2012). Weeds are one of the most important biological production constraints causing production losses conservatively estimated at US$1.45 billion, equating approximately half the current imports of rice into Africa (Rodenburg & Johnson 2009). With a minimum estimated annual production loss of US$391 million, parasitic weeds are estimated to be the cause of at least a quarter of these weed-inflicted economic losses (Rodenburg et al. 2014(Rodenburg et al. , 2015)). The economically most important parasitic weeds in rice production systems are the obligate hemi-parasitic Witchweeds Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth. (in West Africa) and S. asiatica (L.) Kuntze (in East Africa) and the facultative hemi-parasitic Rice vampireweed, Rhamphicarpa fistulosa (Hochst.) Benth (Rodenburg et al. 2010). Parasitic weeds primarily occur in rainfed agro-ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). These rainfed systems comprise roughly 74% of the total rice area and account for an estimated 66% of total rice production in the region (Diagne et al. 2013). Subsistence farmers with limited financial means and poor access to (quality) information and education are the most affected by parasitic weeds (e.g. Stringer et al. 2007).In the case of parasitic weeds, informal interviews with rice farmers and nearby agricultural extension agents in Benin and Tanzania (AugustÀSeptember 2009), revealed that there were large time gaps between the first appearance of the problem, the identification of the parasitic weed in the field, and finally the development and dissemination of appropriate weed containment and prevention strategies on a crop, community and country level. This pattern is symptomatic for a sub-optimally functioning crop protection system. In response to these problems, the PARASITE program was designed to address challenges at several levels, and contribute to the development of a crop protection system that is better prepared for future outbreaks. The parasitic weed problem was investigated at the plant and crop level, the farm level, the farm household level and at the institutional level. The ultimate aim of this approach was to close the knowledge gaps in the fields of biology, ecology, economics and management of parasitic weeds in rice-based cropping systems in SSA, and to identify and facilitate the institutional innovations required to address similar emerging biotic production constraints in a timely manner. To the best of the authors' knowledge the PARASITE program represents the first study whereby the problem of parasitic weeds is approached in an integrated way, across different integration and administrative levels and involving multiple stakeholders. With the end of the project approaching, after 4 years of research, the central question of this retrospective paper is whether the participants perceived the merits ensuing from the application of a systems approach. For this reason, the paper synthesizes the lessons learned by project staff and participating stakeholders, and generates recommendations that result from this initiative. Specific questions that are targeted in this paper are: (1) Where and how does an integrated research approach contribute to broaden the problem analysis and to refine the solution? (2) Have we identified bottlenecks of the problem of parasitic weeds in rice, which would have remained undisclosed when using a less integrated approach? and (3) What can be done to further improve the efficacy of an integrated research project? With \"integrated research\" we refer to research at different integration levels (from the plant level to the country level) whereby scientists from different disciplines and stakeholders from different categories work together. Following definitions of Pohl andHirsch Hadorn (2008), Tress et al. (2009) and Smith et al. (2014), integrated research is (1) inter-disciplinary when scientists from different disciplines within one science category collaborate (e.g. ecology, biology), (2) multi-disciplinary when scientists from different disciplines and multiple science categories work together (e.g. natural sciences, social sciences, humanities), and (3) trans-disciplinary when scientists from different disciplines and multiple science categories work together with stakeholders from different levels. The paper starts with an overview of the PARASITE program, including a synopsis of its underlying projects. Next, it systematically answers the above-outlined questions, mostly illustrated by concrete examples derived from the program.Because of interactions and interdependencies between factors, stakeholders and processes at the plant, crop, household, village and country level we hypothesized that only with an integrated approach one can explore effective and durable solutions to parasitic weed problems. The PARASITE program that emerged from this notion was designed as a composition of four interlinked projects that operate at different integration levels, cover different disciplines and involve a variety of stakeholders: Project 1: Understanding how hostÀparasite interactions for economically important parasitic weed species in rainfed rice in SSA are differentially affected by present and expected future environmental conditions. Project 2: Developing and disseminating locally adaptable and socially and economically acceptable strategies for prevention and damage control of parasitic weeds in rainfed systems in SSA. Project 3: Assessing socio-economic impacts and determinants of parasitic weed infestation in rainfed rice systems in SSA. Project 4: Evaluating and addressing the institutional organization and preparedness of extension and crop protection systems in SSA for emerging biotic constraints under future changing environments, using an innovation systems perspective.The first three projects specifically focused on finding solutions for parasitic weed problems in rice production systems. Project 2 occupied a central position as it involved the development and evaluation of management strategies for dealing with parasitic weeds at the farm and field level. This required a sound understanding of the biology and ecology of the parasitic weed and the interaction of the parasite with the host (rice) plant, the focus of project 1. At the same time, the control measures needed to fit in the socio-economic environment the farmers operate in. The participatory development of management strategies thus also required knowledge on causes of adoption and rejection of previous (technological) innovations, the kind of insights gathered in project 3.Rather than merely finding solutions for the parasitic weed problem in rice, the overall program had a wider scope. As the problem with parasitic weeds in rice had been picked up much too late by extension and crop protection services, an important objective was to render future crop protection services more proactive and effective such that newly emerging crop protection constraints could be identified in an early stage. Project 4 therefore complemented the program as it assessed the constraints and opportunities for institutional innovations required to effectively address current and future crop protection problems.The first three projects were conducted by PhD students, whereas project 4 was conducted by a postdoctoral researcher. All projects were supported and supervised by a multi-disciplinary team. An additional activity included a desktop study on the importance of parasitic weeds in rice in Africa, including a global herbarium and literature review combined with spatial and economic modeling, carried out by senior scientists. Moreover, several surveys and experiments were conducted by MSc-level students. Several program workshops, at the start, mid-term and near the end, and frequent smaller (online and face-toface) meetings were organized to achieve program coherence and stimulate integration and communications between the different projects.Insights in weed biology and ecology enable the design of effective control measures (Mortensen et al. 2000). While the biology of the most important Striga species was fairly well understood, basic information on R. fistulosa was still lacking at the onset of this project. During two seasons, 2012 and 2013, we conducted field observations on the ecological niches of S. asiatica and R. fistulosa in Kyela, a site in southern Tanzania where both species are present in the same agro-ecological and socio-economic environment, and confirmed these with controlled experiments in the greenhouse and vice versa. These observations included an assessment of the associated weed species' communities, soil fertility and texture of each habitat and the parasitic weed-free transition zone we identified between each habitat, as well as the range of favorable soil-water contents for each parasitic weed. We further conducted controlled experiments with S. asiatica and R. fistulosa, in greenhouses in Tanzania and the Netherlands, with the aim to compare the seed conditioning and germination requirements of obligate and facultative parasites of rice, to assess the effects of the parasites on host plant performance and to assess the effects of the host on the fitness of the parasites. Information so acquired added to our understanding of the ecology and environmental versatility of the species, in particular of the lesser known R. fistulosa, which forms the basis for better informed and prepared stakeholders.Farmer participatory approaches have been advocated for problem definition and technology development for pest problems in subsistence farming systems in Africa (Van Huis & Meerman 1997), and used previously, for instance, in the context of S. hermonthica management in maize in Kenya (De Groote, Rutto, et al. 2010). In the current project we interviewed local extension officers and rice farmers in one of the identified hot-spots for parasitic weeds in rice, in Kyela District (southern Tanzania). The interviews provided insights in the current level of understanding regarding the parasitic weed problem and were intended to identify possible locally originating or adopted management strategies already in use. Based on this, a selection of potentially suitable practices was tested in the field in researcher-managed on-farm trials (in aInternational Journal of Pest Management 331Downloaded by [41.184.122.50] at 08:24 31 August 2015S. asiatica-infested upland and a R. fistulosa-infested lowland field) during three cropping seasons, and evaluated by participating farmers. The trials not only contained promising control options, but were also used to verify drawbacks of alternative measures that were mentioned by farmers as obstacles to implementation. For the fourth and last season (December 2014 to July 2015), 50 volunteer farmers were grouped in 10 groups of five farmers each to test three component technologies of their own choice and one combination of these technologies against their own practice in one of the group members' field.Five such farmer-managed on-farm test plots were established this way in a R. fistulosa-infested zone and five in a S. asiatica-infested zone. During the season, two farmer exchange days were organized to assess the effectiveness of technologies and combinations and to get feedback from individual farmers through interviews on their experiences with them. Alongside these trials, farmer-participatory workshops were held, with 89 farmers in Kyela District (28 with S. asiatica problems, 28 with R. fistulosa problems and 33 with both S. asiatica and R. fistulosa problems), 30 S. asiatica-affected rice farmers in Morogoro Rural District and 30 R. fistulosa-affected rice farmers in Songea District, to assess farmers' knowledge and preferences concerning management strategies. Baseline surveys were carried out in hot-spots in Benin, Cote d'Ivoire and Tanzania in collaboration with project 3.Insights in the effects of parasitic weeds on social and economic functioning of the farmer communities, and vice versa, i.e. the effects of the economic and social conditions on likelihood and severity of parasitic weed infestations, were unknown prior to this project. Production data, farmer perceptions of direct impacts and future levels of parasitic weed incidence and their preferences for management practices were gathered and field data on infestation levels and damage were collected In order to investigate why large time gaps may exist between the first appearance of a pest problem and the initiation of research and extension initiatives to address this constraint we analyzed the system's capacity to identify and address problems. We drew thereby on insights from agricultural innovation systems (AIS) thinking, an approach with increasing application in the context of better understanding complex agricultural problems in developing countries (Hall et al. 2001;Sumberg 2005;Ekboir et al. 2008;Amankwah et al. 2012;Klerkx et al. 2012).The AIS approach highlights the importance of adequate linkages and cooperation between heterogeneous stakeholder groups, from identifying, describing and explaining the problem to exploring, designing and implementing solutions. The lack of an operational methodology to conduct ex-ante AIS diagnostics led us to develop a toolbox for the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation Systems (RAAIS; Schut, Klerkx, et al. 2015). RAAIS was developed and applied in Tanzania and Benin across the same six parasitic weeds hot-spots that were earlier selected for our research activities. 4.1. Where and how does an integrated research approach contribute to broaden the problem analysis and to refine the solution?An integrated research approach implies that actors from different scientific disciplines, as well as non-academic actors, work together, combining different integration levels, perspectives and factors. The assumption is that this will lead to more holistic insights and consequently to more relevant and realistic solutions to the problem at hand. To answer the above question, we provide examples derived from the PARASITE program. By combining global public herbarium and (weed science) literature data with geographic information systems, ecological knowledge and economic data and modeling, we are now able to provide best-bet estimates of the economic importance of parasitic weeds in rice in Africa. The herbarium and literature data provided information on the geographical distribution of different parasitic weed species (e.g. Mohamed et al. 2001;Rodenburg et al. 2014Rodenburg et al. , 2015)). We found out that Striga species are spread over 33 African countries that produce rice in the rainfed uplands where these species can be encountered. R. fistulosa was found in at least 32 countries that produce rice in rainfed lowlands where the species thrive. The next step was to overlap these distribution maps with national or regional maps of rainfed rice areas. Combined with knowledge on the environmental preferences of each weed, obtained from project 1 (e.g. Kabiri et al. 2015), and figures obtained on their appearance, frequency, infestation rates, yield losses and the socio-economic factors affecting these variables obtained from project 3 (e.g. N'cho 2014), we can estimate a stochastic impact of parasitic weeds on rice production, using a diverse set of modeling techniques. Based on a first raw model, the maximum annual regional economic losses caused by R. fistulosa in rice were estimated at US$569 million, while for Striga spp in rice these were estimated at US$169 million.Findings from farmer surveys (project 3) corroborate findings from our ecological studies (project 1) and agronomic work (project 2). The likelihood of infestation by R. fistulosa is higher on poorly fertile soils and fields located in the valley bottom and it is reduced through management practices such as late sowing and the application of medium-rate fertilizer (N'cho, Mourits, Rodenburg, et al. 2014). Based on pot experiments combined with field measurements and observations, Kabiri et al. (2015) concluded that the valley bottoms are the preferred habitat for R. fistulosa and that the soils in these valley bottoms can be characterized as poor in terms of fertility. An earlier study based on pot experiments, by Rodenburg et al. (2011), showed that R. fistulosa can indeed be reduced by the application of inorganic fertilizers leading to increased (chemical) soil fertility. However, only by broadening our perspective and zooming out from the plant level to the farm household level, we were able to understand the social repercussions of these findings. N'cho, Mourits, Rodenburg, et al. (2014), for example, recorded higher infestation rates on rice plots managed by female-headed households than on plots managed by male-headed households. A more in-depth analysis revealed that 61% of these female-managed plots were located in the valley bottom. From previous work it was indeed established that population pressure often drives farmers to marginal land or fields in less favorable positions on the uplandÀlowland continuum, such as the valley bottom, and often women are the recipients of the more marginal fields characterized by low soil fertility and weed problems (Demont et al. 2007). The combined insights in economic impacts, ecological and social relations, can be used to communicate the problem more clearly and more convincingly to extension services, policy-makers À at regional and national levels À and donors of future research for development endeavors. The finding about the relation between parasitic weeds and poor soil fertility (projects 1 and 3) formed the basis for farmer-participatory development of soil fertility-based management strategies to combat these weeds (in project 2).In the process of reviewing scientific literature on systems approaches to innovations in crop protection (Schut, Rodenburg, et al. 2014), it proved challenging for the PARASITE researchers from different disciplinary backgrounds to align perceptions and conceptualization of \"what are systems approaches to innovation?\" It turned out that the natural science researchers and the social science researchers had very different perceptions and interpretations about this. Natural science researchers considered systems as functional units with clear boundaries (e.g. the photosynthesis system within a plant, or a plant production system as a population of plants within an agricultural field) and bio-physical modeling or factorial experiments as approaches to understand mechanisms and (bio-physical) processes and identify elements that can be improved (e.g. through engineering) to innovate those systems. Social science researchers had much more attention for the contextual embedding of a certain study topic (e.g. a pest problem) and no or less attention for technical details and biophysical mechanisms. They considered systems as a network of social and institutional relations and functions of actors or stakeholders associated to a specific context (e.g. a pest problem), with no clear boundaries. Systems approaches to innovation are seen by social scientists as multi-stakeholder/actor processes and research activities are hence geared towards understanding these social relations and functions with the aim to improve the communication and collaboration between the stakeholders/actors relevant to achieving innovation to solve the (pest) problem (Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Hinnou, et al. 2015).Together, a research framework was developed that guided the analyses of how different ways of thinking about systems approaches to innovation are reflected in the crop protection literature. One of the main conclusions of the review was that crop protection is often about exploring and optimizing technologies within the farming system, rather than about fostering structural transformations of the agricultural (innovation) system. This integration of different disciplinary expertise and views helped us to improve the implementation of research methods and the interpretation of the outcomes. The most obvious example is the generation of farmer questionnaires that were used across projects 2, 3 and 4. For this we worked in concerted action with project staff of different disciplines and this helped in improving the relevance of the questions and therefore the quality of the questionnaire. For the social scientists (six program partners), it proved important to better understand some of the technical dimensions of the problem at hand (parasitic weeds) as well as the solutions. This helped them to improve the logic (separate causal from non-causal relations) and the relevance (separate direct from indirect factors) of the questionnaire and the interpretation of the data deriving from the questionnaire. For the plant and crop scientists (nine program partners) it proved worthwhile to get a feel for the socio-economic and institutional context of the problem and to make sure the questions asked were understood by the farmer and interpreter. Social scientists have more experience with survey work and they follow certain methodological rules to ascertain that questions are unambiguous and to triangulate the data. This proved very useful for improving the quality of the questions designed by natural scientists. Our experience supports the conclusion by De Groote, Vanlauwe, et al. (2010)  By implementing a newly developed method (RAAIS), challenges, constraints and opportunities for innovations related to parasitic weeds in rainfed rice production systems were explored, in project 4, through an integrated analysis of different problem dimensions, interactions across levels, and the needs and interests of multiple stakeholders. The uptake and impact of solutions or management strategies is often determined by the technological effectiveness or economic feasibility of a solution as well as by the way the process towards identifying or developing that solution was organized (i.e. in isolation or together with stakeholders). In the PARASITE program, a transdisciplinary approach ensured that solutions generated by the team were robust, applicable and locally adapted. For instance, the observation that parasitic weeds are associated with poor soils (project 1 and project 3) combined with the notion that affected farmers are among the poorest and most disadvantaged and cannot afford expensive inputs such as mineral fertilizers (project 3), we discussed with farmers what alternative (low-cost and available) inputs would be available to raise the soil fertility of their fields (project 2). From these researcherÀextensionÀfarmer discussions it became apparent that cattle manure and rice husks were freely available. While farmers were reluctant towards the use of manure, as they were expecting this would increase ordinary weed infestation, we agreed to test these two readily available and low-cost soil fertility amendments against mineral fertilizers and in combination with reduced doses of such fertilizers. From three seasons of farmer participatory trials the combination of rice husks and reduced doses of mineral fertilizer emerged as the most effective and preferred one. Parasitic weed levels were reduced and rice yields improved, while the costs were affordable. Farmers then picked this solution to test it against their own practice in their own fields. These onfarm try-outs were carried out in 10 farmer groups, each of which was led by the more progressive and innovative farmers that emerged during the previous three seasons.The RAAIS identified institutional and political prerequisites that could provide an enabling environment for the broader dissemination of such strategies and for raising awareness of the problem. By discussing the problem and context of the problem with different stakeholder groups, previously unknown bottlenecks were identified. For instance À at national and regional levels À the lack of education and training of extension, sub-optimal interactions between stakeholders, the lack of coherent policies and implementation of them, and the weak structural allocation of human and financial resources for extension services, emerged as constraints (Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Hinnou, et al. 2015). These bottlenecks could consequently be taken into account when developing solutions. For instance, a previous project funded by DFID targeted the problem of S. asiatica in rice by involving schools in teaching about such problems and how to deal with them (Riches et al. 2005).Figure 1 visualizes the PARASITE program's (expected) steps from the start to the finish (and beyond). The start is demarcated by the first superficial identification of the problem (\"Parasitic weeds in rice are being increasingly observed\"), followed by the identification of multiple facets of that problem (\"Farmers do not know how to address the problem\" and \"Extension and crop protection services are unaware, researchers lack conclusive insights\") and the more fundamental underlying causes (\"Suboptimal communication between stakeholders, laws and regulations not appropriate or not implemented, lack of strategies, lack of resources\"). This clarifies what is lacking to solve the problem of parasitic weeds (i.e. \"Insights in biology and ecology, and technical and institutional innovations\") and through the proposed and implemented approaches (i.e. \"Multi-stakeholder workshops, interviews and surveys\" and \"Surveys, field observations and pot experiments; farmer-participatory tests of weed management strategies\") what measures are concretely needed (i.e. \"Policy priorities; training and education on weed prevention; stakeholder communications\" and \"Locally adapted and acceptable management strategies based on ecological principles\") and how this can feed into the next steps (i.e. through \"Up-scaling and outscaling through partner networks and communications\"). A connecting arrow between \"Locally adapted and acceptable management strategies based on ecological principles\" and \"Policy priorities; training and education on weed prevention; stakeholder communications\" underlines that the insights derived from the field-based development of parasitic weed management strategies feed into the development of training curricula and awareness raising (e.g. through videos), underpinning the integrated approach of the project. The dashed arrows then indicate the contribution, either directly or indirectly, to solving the initial problem, i.e. the increase of parasitic weeds in rice. The upscaling of policy recommendations should lead to an enabling policy environment, which in turn facilitates the out-scaling of the adapted and acceptable strategies. The box \"Enabling policy environment\" is shaded differently to indicate that this cannot be targeted directly by our program. To trigger the processes in the final steps, prior to conclusion of the PARASITE program we will organize multi-stakeholder workshops, bringing together the most important stakeholders in each intervention country, to discuss the results of our work as well as the way forward.Have we identified bottlenecks of the problem of parasitic weeds in rice, which would have remained undisclosed when using a less integrated approach?A limited number of previously published peer-reviewed papers from other scientific fields support the view that many contemporary issues can best be studied through integrated research (e.g. Pautasso & Pautasso 2010), and that such an approach results in insights that would not have been obtained with a more disciplinary approach (e.g. Merz et al. 2006). Insights gained through the PARASITE program clearly show the merits of an integrated approach. In the grant proposal of the program we wrote: \"Farmers generally lack the knowledge and means to effectively address parasitic weed infestations. Extension services are not always aware of the actual extent of the problem and they are often unable to backstop farmers with adequate solutions.\" The project enabled us to conclude that the \"inability\" of the extension services is part of a more structural problem. In project 4, we observed limited attention for weed prevention and control in agricultural research in Tanzania as a consequence of the national and zonal agricultural research priorities outlined in strategic plans. A Striga-control policy was developed by the Ministry of Agriculture but never implemented due to lack of operational resources. Universities and technical training curricula of extension officers paid little attention to weeds in general, or parasitic weeds in particular (Schut, Rodenburg, Klerkx, Kayeke, et al. 2015). This corroborated findings of project 3 showing that adoption of control or prevention strategies is a function of farmers' access to information and training in weed management (S. N'cho, personal communication). The RAAIS interviews however identified a number of researchers at the university and the national research institutes that were highly motivated, or triggered by our research, to pay more attention to parasitic weed problems in rice in future research and training activities. A second problem we identified in project 4 is that, although country-wide the extension staff in Tanzania had been increased recently, this increase was not associated with an increase in funds and means, such as extension materials, training and transport. The lack of funds and means seriously hampered extension staff to function well. If the problem had not been analyzed across multiple stakeholders and using an integrated approach, linkages between such bottlenecks would not have been revealed and confirmed.A barrier towards solving the problem of parasitic weeds is the apparent reluctance of farmers to use certain inputs (e.g. fertilizers). During workshops and interviews, it became apparent that this was partly resulting from contradictory advices to farmers by À for example À researchers, extension officers and development organizations. An example of the latter is the case where a government project promoted the use of inputs in rural areas while a donor project promoted organic agriculture practices in cacao cropping systems with negative advices on the use of inorganic fertilizers. As a consequence of the latter, many farmers who were reached by the donor project started to abandon the use of mineral fertilizer, also in other cropping systems than just cacao. In the PARASITE program work, we identified multiple additional reasons why farmers in Kyela (Tanzania) are reluctant to use agricultural inputs: Institutional; the lack of quality control of agricultural inputs was mentioned as a constraint. The adulteration of crop protection chemicals, fertilizers and seeds often prevent farmers from investing in such products. Economic; purchasing power of farmers is low. Socio-cultural; farmers are concerned that the use of improved varieties will contaminate the aromatic qualities of the local rice varieties. Political; frequent changes and incoherence of agricultural policies create confusion and lead to unstable market conditions and fluctuating prices. Agronomic; farmers may be afraid for undesired side effects to the crop, e.g. higher weed infestation with the use of cattle manure as soil fertility amendment.Evidently, there is a variety of reasons why farmers are hesitant to use agricultural inputs. Being aware of these perceptions is important, as it allows the research team to address these aspects in their research. The latter example for instance already became clear at the onset of our work, when we asked farmers in Kyela District in informal interviews (n D 89) what they know about the control of parasitic weeds. As previously explained, they indicated that cattle manure can be used for this objective but that they do not use it because of its stimulating effect on ordinary weed infestation. This has led to the design of one of the farmer participatory field experiments conducted in project 2, whereby we test with farmers whether their hypotheses hold or not. The idea was that if the hypothesis would be rejected, i.e. if cattle manure would decrease parasitic weeds without increasing ordinary weeds, we would be able to unleash a suitable and readily available control option (i.e. cattle manure), thereby enhancing the basket of options for farmers. Preliminary results seem however to confirm the farmer hypothesis (Kayeke et al. 2013).Through the PARASITE program the participating natural and social scientists gained a general better understanding of the context of parasitic weed problems and crop protection problems. In line with findings from Jabbar et al. (2001), we conclude that much of the agronomic research is focused on technology generation and adoption at farm level without recognizing that addressing administrative or more structural (institutional) levels may have higher leverage (e.g. by improving training, awareness, communications). On the other hand, social scientists enhanced their methodological portfolio, either by combining their usual (more) qualitative and associative (e.g. snowball) approaches with more structured and quantitative (objectively measurable) methods or by expanding from surveys to more experimental methods. Social scientists also benefited from working on a concrete problem that needs a concrete solution. In other words, it helps to frame and focus research contributions, and operationalize concepts (such as AIS) in such a way that they can contribute to the development of effective intervention strategies ex-ante.We learned that at each integration level one should zoom in or out to consider the specific or wider context and to critically assess whether solutions proposed are relevant and even whether the problem itself is relevant. At the plant level, parasitic weeds have a dramatic impact (up to death of the host plant) whereas at the farm level, parasitic weeds are only one component of a set of constraints. At the level of extension services it might be overlooked or ignored and at the level of agro-chemicalindustry, where overarching issues like soil fertility and weeds are targeted, it may not be a specific issue at all. The solutions to the problem found at plant level (e.g. specialized varietal resistance mechanisms or herbicide formulas) may not be accessible or available at the level where they are needed. Farmers consider trade-offs between management of their parasitic weed problem and other problems, based on costÀbenefit analyses, as they often have limited resources. Second, due to market failures or a lack of interest by industries to develop and deliver certain technologies, the solutions found at crop or plant level may not even be, or become, available to farmers (e.g. Demont et al. 2009;Oude Lansink 2011). Recognizing these market failures, as well as state and community failures, we are further analyzing (under project 4) the incentives (and disincentives) of private, public and community actors to provide specific products and services for the prevention and control of parasitic weeds.One of the obvious challenges encountered during the program concerns the trade-off between integration and specialization and, related to that, the balance between an apparent time-efficient and output-oriented, mono-disciplinary approach and a slower and higher risk entailing trans-disciplinary approach. Truly integrated research, whereby non-academic stakeholders and scientists from multiple disciplines come together and make an effort to understand each other and cross their own subject boundaries with the aim to create new insights and knowledge (as formulated by Tress et al. 2009), implies a certain risk of failure and consequently a loss of time. The risk entails that the project objectives are not achieved because of misunderstanding of project partners (stakeholders and scientists), due to different jargon and different integration or abstraction levels of thinking. Overcoming such problems obviously takes additional time. Current day research funding and administration, with clear and rather strict time frames, deadlines and publication requirements, may not encourage scientists to undergo such a lengthy and risky process (Bardsley 1999;Roux et al. 2010;Botha et al. 2014;Schut, van Paasen, et al. 2014). The envisaged added value of such an approach, e.g. adaptation to changing context and stakeholder needs and interests, more space for learning À should however lead the decision to embark on it. Donor agencies can play an important role in stimulating these approaches, by putting these aims À of adaptation and learning processes À high at their agendas. In our PARASITE program the balance between disciplinary integration and output-oriented work was sometimes difficult to maintain. This was perhaps partly the outcome or the cause of the narrow interfaces between the different projects. There are obvious direct links between the plant sciences project (project 1) and the agronomy project (project 2), and between the agronomy project and the two social sciences projects (project 3 and 4), but the links between project 1 and project 3 or 4 were virtually absent. This is perfectly acceptable and shows that there are limits to the integration of disciplines. Natural sciences are an integral part of agronomic knowledge and, hence, indirectly impact broader levels of research through their overall contribution to a better understanding of the natural environment in which farmers operate. Moreover, just the identification of links is no guarantee that interaction and integration of disciplines really occur. Trans-disciplinary research projects require supervisory teams with members of relevant and representative disciplinary and stakeholder categories that are willing and able to get out of their disciplinary comfort zone and engage with each other and with other stakeholders. Individuals in such teams should try to understand members of other disciplinary backgrounds and be willing and able to share and explain their own perspective and expertise in a way that facilitates the necessary dialogue that should lead towards synergy. To avoid that individual project members continue working merely within their own, usual disciplinary boundaries, the period of planning and preparation of an integrated project should be enhanced. This preparation time should be used for multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder discussions coming to construction of a clear framework and work plan, e.g. by using problem trees, stepwise planning of activities and (ex-ante) impact pathways, in order to go beyond multidisciplinarity and make the project truly trans-disciplinary. This may also lead to an adaptation of the research agenda, as far as this is possible, once the research evolves. In fact, trans-disciplinarity will only be truly beneficial when interaction between disciplines and between researchers and other stakeholders is guaranteed in all stages of the research project (i.e. defining objectives, implementation of methodologies and analysis and interpretation of outcomes). Finally, for a fair assessment as to whether an integrated approach should be preferred over a more mono-disciplinary approach, the additional costs should be taken into account and compared to the available budget. In the case of the PARASITE program the total research costs were approximately US$340,000 of which 27% was used for project 1, 40% for project 2, 20% for project 3 and 13% for project 4. Hence, while our experience points out that project 4 has been particularly instrumental for the actual implementation of the systems approach, this was also the least expensive of the program components. However, essential additional expenses, made to ensure integration of the different program components, involve communication costs (i.e. workshops, telecommunication and traveling). These are estimated to be around US$90,000. If the PARASITE program is exemplary, from this we can conclude that on a total project budget (in our case US$430,000, excluding salary costs) roughly one-third may be required to pursue an integrated systems approach.By using an integrated systems approach to innovation we have identified and confirmed a number of bottlenecks to the solution of the problem of parasitic weeds in rice, at different stakeholder and integration levels. We conclude that the approach is instrumental for applied subjects such as crop protection. A systems approach proved essential for the assessment of the extent and causes of the actual crop protection problem as well as for finding solutions. We found that problems almost always affect agronomic, economic and social issues and cut across different integration levels and multiple stakeholder groups. Upon identification of a problem at any level (e.g. the crop level) one should zoom in and out to consider the specific or wider context and to critically assess whether the problem should be prioritized and whether and how solutions proposed resonate with the needs and interests of different groups of stakeholders. This process can only be conducted by a team consisting of closely collaborating researchers with different disciplinary backgrounds that, in turn, closely collaborate with other stakeholders representing multiple levels. The use of different disciplinary approaches, tools and methods also provided broad-based evidence on causes of the problem or entry points for innovation to address them. This, in turn, may help to strengthen recommendations for improved management of complex crop protection problems, and to align with stakeholders that can promote or implement solutions to address these.We found that there are several challenges to operationalizing a systems-oriented and trans-disciplinary program. In order to ensure that trans-disciplinary research efforts succeed, members of research teams should be willing to understand and communicate with members of other disciplinary backgrounds, strive to share and explain their own perspectives, and collaborate closely with different groups of societal stakeholders. Participatory identification and planning of the different steps and activities, well before the actual implementation, is a precondition for a successful integrated research program. Furthermore, an important policy implication is that funding agencies should install a degree of flexibility into their funding schemes to adapt research agendas to emerging needs from stakeholders in a changing context, as well as allowing sufficient time for trans-disciplinary research to become effective.","tokenCount":"7152"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f3da22a9f94863ed9e3c66cf29b4fd60","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6eda8e3c-9cf5-4ee1-ae36-8d689856f681/retrieve","id":"-1540760670"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5ec227a9-91b8-4adc-b2d1-c0669fb3ad7c","pagecount":"15","content":"Despite having one of the highest number of livestock in Africa, the Ethiopian traditional livestock management system is not responding to the expected contributions of the sector. Difficulties of getting reliable and quality livestock feed resources, poor post-harvest feed handling, and utilization practices are critical constraints of Ethiopia's livestock sector, along with other key constraints such as animal health and breeding services. The feed resource base in the mixed farming system of the Ethiopian highlands has been declining due to the continual conversion of grazing lands to arable lands and concomitant loss of fertility/land degradation on the remaining pasture lands. This has forced farmers to heavily rely on feeding crop residues to their livestock. For a sustainable improvement in crop-livestock productivity, it is therefore imperative to improve the feed resource base of the mixed farming system in the highlands by introducing well-adapted and high yielding fodder crops and efficient utilization practices (Mekonnen et al., 2021).Lack of knowledge and awareness about the benefits and methods of cultivation and utilization practices for feed and forage related technologies is among key constraints of the sector. This necessitates continued capacity building for farmers and extension staff to create awareness and build their technical capacity. Therefore, training was organized for farmers and Kebele development agents on feed and forage innovation at Basona Worena Woreda of Noth Shewa zone. The participants were from Chiraro Debir, Abamote, Gudo Beret and Dibute Kebeles. A PowerPoint slide presentation using the translated Amharic version of the training material was the main approach used during the whole theoretical training sessions. Additionally, photos and videos from previous Africa RISING project and last year mixed farming systems (MFS) initiative activities were also used to show the experience of successful farmers on feed and forage innovations.Presenter: Zegeye W/Agegnehu Zegeye's first presentation emphasized the growing importance of cultivated forages for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. These forages offer a multi-pronged benefit. Forages can be cultivated as a cash crop, providing an additional source of income. Beyond economic advantages, cultivated forages contribute positively to the environment. They help mitigate climate change by reducing methane emissions from livestock, while also increasing carbon sequestration and improving overall soil health.The presentation outlined the two main production methods -rainfed and irrigated -and delved into the essential practices involved in cultivating forages. This included selecting suitable forage species for the specific context, preparing the planting site, proper planting techniques, and ongoing management practices. Notably, the presentation provided specific recommendations for well-adapted forage varieties in the Ethiopian highlands, including details on planting, harvesting, and expected yields.Read more: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/149347 Integrated forage production methods in the Ethiopian highlands Presenters: Etenesh Getachew and Meseret Girma Etenesh and Meseret's second presentation explored various integrated forage production techniques particularly suited to the Ethiopian highlands. These techniques aim to maximize land use and optimize forage production. Some methods involve planting forages alongside existing crops, like under-sowing (planting legumes after a main crop) or intercropping (planting legumes in rows with the main crop). Others involve sequential or rotational cropping, where legumes or forages are planted after cereals. Relay cropping, a variation of this, involves planting the next crop before the previous one is harvested.The presentation also highlighted strategies for utilizing smaller spaces. Backyard forage production involves growing forages near homes and fences. Alley cropping integrates browse trees or shrubs into fields as hedgerows. Additionally, narrow strips of forages can be established between main crops (forage strips). Degraded land can be revitalized through over-sowing, where suitable forages are planted to restore productivity.Finally, the presentation emphasized the importance of integrated pest management (push-and-pull technology) for sustainable forage production. By combining these integrated methods, farmers can significantly intensify forage production, reduce feed gaps, and contribute to a more sustainable crop-livestock system. Importantly, the presentation stressed the need to carefully consider the applicability and relevance of these methods to ensure their adoption by farming communities.Read more: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/149350Presenters: Sasu Tadesse and Biruk Dessie Sasu and Biruk's third presentation addressed the challenge of utilizing crop residues, a major feed source for livestock in Ethiopia. However, these residues are often low in quality, particularly in terms of protein and energy content. The presentation explored various methods to improve the nutritional value of these residues. Physical methods like chopping and rinsing can enhance intake and digestibility. Chemical treatments, such as urea application, primarily target increasing protein content. Additionally, the use of beneficial microbes offers a biological approach to improve flavor, intake, and overall nutritional efficiency.The presentation emphasized that even with these improvements, treated crop residues may not be sufficient for highly productive animals. Depending on the type and level of production (milk or meat), farmers may need to supplement these basal diets with high-quality green forages or concentrate feeds to ensure optimal animal health and performance. Furthermore, the presentation highlighted the importance of proper agronomic practices, including selecting suitable crop varieties, harvesting at the right stage, and storing residues effectively to maximize their quality and utilization. Read more: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/149348Presenters: Kifle Fikre Kifle's final presentation focused on the complexities of forage seed production in Ethiopia. While there are various approaches practiced by different producers, careful analysis is crucial to identify the most feasible and sustainable method for each specific situation. Seed producers need to make informed decisions based on factors like the intended forage varieties and the suitability of the chosen site.Site selection is critical and goes beyond considering the agroecological zone. Specific characteristics like soil type, landscape features, and even the plot's history play a role in determining whether a particular site is suitable for producing seeds for a specific forage variety. Planting for seed production differs significantly from planting for forage itself. It requires meticulous attention to every step, from preparing planting materials and land preparation to planting, field observation, and ongoing management. Determining the optimal harvest time for seeds requires a deep understanding of the chosen variety's characteristics and the farmer's field experience. Seed growers should actively seek knowledge by visiting research centers or experienced producers to familiarize themselves with different varieties and their developmental stages.Post-harvest seed management is equally important to minimize losses and ensure high-quality seeds. This includes everything from handling the harvested crop before threshing to careful threshing, cleaning, and grading of the seeds. The presentation highlighted the challenges in the current market, where some seed producers and traders might offer low-quality or mislabeled seeds. To ensure the sustainability of the forage seed sector, proper post-harvest seed management practices and accountability for seed quality are essential. The presentation also addressed the issue of free seed access by NGOs and government extension services. For the forage seed business to thrive, a policy shift is needed to encourage farmers to purchase high-quality seeds, which will incentivize sustainable seed production practices. Finally, the presentation emphasized the importance of market research and collaboration for seed producers. Producers need to understand existing and potential markets and work closely with all stakeholders along the value chain to ensure a successful and sustainable forage seed business.Read more: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/149342During the training session for Chiraro Debir Kebele 100 farmers; 4 development agents; 5 Woreda experts; one zonal expert; one Woreda livestock office head; and one zonal livestock office head participated in the event. In the same way 93 farmers; 5 development agents; 5 Woreda experts and one zonal expert were part of the training session for Abamote Kebele. Ninety-nine farmers, four development agents, five Woreda experts and one zonal expert attended the training session for Dibute Kebele. Moreover, 99 farmers; 6 development agents; 5 Woreda experts and 1 zonal expert actively attended the training session for Gudo Beret Kebele. A total of 436 of which 265 were males and 171 female (39 %) participants attended the fiveday training sessions (Table 1).Oat and vetch seeds were distributed to each of the training participant farmers on a 50% revolving seed arrangement. Each farmer received 7 Kg of seed (5 Kg of oats and 2 Kg of vetch) for an area of 625 m 2 . Interested farmers and who have irrigation access took 100 gm of alfalfa seed for an area of 100m 2 . Workneh Dametew (Head of North Shewa zone livestock development and promotion office) in his opening speech reminded participants that ILRI's projects (MFS, TAAT and AICCRA) contributed a lot in four Woredas of North Shewa zone by introducing, validating, demonstrating and scaling of feed and forage related technologies. He acknowledged ILRI and the zonal livestock office for the excellent work they have done related to demonstration and scaling of feed trough technology to more than 3000 farmers. Workneh told training participants that the mixed farming system (MFS), AICCRA and TAAT initiative and projects will build up on the previous efforts of Africa RISING project on feed and forage innovations to bring meaningful impact on the livelihood of the farming community. Workneh has also added North Shewa Zone have immense potential in the livestock sector and the government's new initiative called \"Yelemat Turufat\" will be an excellent opportunity to closely work with the feed and forage activities on the ILRI projects and initiatives. He stressed the training will be one means to narrow the gap on attitude, skill and knowledge on feed and forage innovations for farmers and Kebele development agents. Finally, Workneh assured livestock development and promotion office with all its structure from Zone, Woreda and Kebele is ready to actively work with ILRI.Getachew Solomon (Head of Basona Worena Woreda livestock development and promotion office) reminded training participants to actively attend the training sessions and practically implement on the ground the feed and forage innovations using the seed/seedling/planting materials sourced from government nurseries, research, University, NGO's and different projects. He informed the farmers the plan of providing seed of oat and vetch after the training and expected to return 50 % of the seed next year. Getachew tried to convince the farmers by giving the example of irrigated bread wheat development activity based on the revolving seed arrangement. He also confirmed the support of the Woreda livestock office to closely work with the ILRI projects and initiatives.The trainers and ILRI site coordinator explained to the training participants about mixed farming system (MFS) initiative jointly implemented by three CG centers (ILRI, ICARDA and Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT) at Basona Worena Woreda. The main aim is to demonstrate different technology options (on crop, livestock, and NRM) at Abamote Kebele and scale to other areas. In addition, more information has been shared about TAAT and AICCRA projects.Training and its Impact• Participants appreciated the well-timed training and its effectiveness in addressing knowledge, skill, and attitude gaps related to feed and forage.• The use of Amharic version of training materials, visuals, and farmer-to-farmer learning enhanced training effectiveness.• Feed Resources: Shortage of improved forage seeds.• Water Scarcity: Limited irrigation water for cultivated fodder production.• Market Access: Difficulty in accessing molasses, EM, urea fertilizer, milk containers and improved dairy cows.• Technical Support: Need for more technical assistance for new forage varieties and techniques.• Infrastructure: Inadequate AI services aggravated due to security issues• Crop Residue Management: Effective utilization of crop residues through EM treatment and proper storage.• Forage Production: Promotion of fodder beet cultivation during the main season and alfalfa under irrigation where possible.• Livestock Improvement: Increased access to improved dairy cows (live animals) and AI services.• Knowledge Sharing: Continued farmer-to-farmer learning and knowledge exchange.• Collaboration: Stronger collaboration between farmers, extension office , University, projects and research institutions.• Policy: Addressing national-level issues such as fertilizer shortages.• Successful experience with phalaris grass as a biomass source.• Utilization of tree lucerne as a dry season feed.• Increase seed supply: Coordinate efforts on production and distribution of early-generation seeds, seedlings, and grass splits.• Strengthen seed systems: Establish revolving seed arrangements and commercialization channels through cooperatives.• Train farmers and extension agents: Provide continuous and coordinated training on forage production and utilization.• Improve knowledge dissemination: Utilize various media channels to reach a wider audience.• Promote farmer-to-farmer learning: Organize field days and exchange visits.• Support dairy cow improvement: Enhance AI services.• Support on EM and molasses access to farmers: Market linkage• Address critical gaps: Conduct research on the nutritional value of phalaris grass.","tokenCount":"2010"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6f1150970cea74c3ffb6a28a5f7c11f6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a4d6ec3-e864-46c4-9273-8f3f3e2fa00a/retrieve","id":"1225044653"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c516c1f0-6d61-4297-8b8e-192b60c6606f","pagecount":"19","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above.The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Photo 2: Conversation during the review workshop at the ILRI Addis campus, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (photo credit: ILRI/Lina Gazu). Photo 3. Plenary discussions at the end of the three rounds of conversations to harvest the ideas during the review workshop at ILRI Addis campus, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (photo credit: ILRI/Lina Gazu). The 'Urban food markets in Africa: Incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach' or Pull-push project works to improve food safety in urban informal markets in Ethiopia and Burkina Faso. The project is assessing if an improved consumer demand for safer food will drive improvements in food safety along the food value chain. A world café approach was used for the meeting where three rounds of conversations were held and a plenary discussion at the end of the conversations to harvest the ideas. The workshop participants were from EPHI, MoA and EFDA. Also, participants from Wageningen University and Research (WUR) and ILRI joined the meeting virtually. Project staff from ILRI (Getachew Dinede, Kebede Amenu, Gezahegn Alemayehu and Lina Gazu) organized and facilitated the meeting.Overall, the participants said that the course was well organized including its web-platform, design, content and materials. They also praised the communication and interaction during the training. But they suggested areas of improvement such as making the course materials (reading, videos, webinars) downloadable, including food safety examples for cereals (e.g. pesticides contamination of crops) and adulteration of food as well as strengthening follow-up during the training. Other suggested areas of improvement were providing individual-level feedback for the assignments, making the assignments practical in selected food value chains, having in-person meeting with the participants in the middle of the training and using robust selection techniques to minimize participant dropout rates.The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in collaboration with national and international partners is implementing the 'Urban food markets in Africa: incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach' (pull-push project). The project is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) and the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) of the UK government.The project aims to improve food safety in urban informal markets in Ethiopia and Burkina Faso, specifically in vegetable (tomatoes) and poultry value chains. As well as investigating if consumer demand can provide the same incentive ('pull') for food safety in low and middle-income countries as it has in high-income countries, the project also builds the capacity of market-level value chain actors to respond to demand (e.g. by improving practices or adapting technologies) and of regulators to provide an enabling environment ('push'). Building the capacity of regulators in food safety is one of the activities in work package 5 of the Pull-push project. As part of this activity, working with the Royal Veterinary College, London, an online course in food safety and risk assessment has been produced and run for Ethiopian government professionals working in food safety in Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), the Ethiopian Food and Drug Authority (EFDA), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and ILRI postgraduate fellows.We organized a workshop on 31 August 2022 at the ILRI campus in Ethiopia to understand the Ethiopian participants' experiences of the course including its design and content, materials and communication during the training; uses of the training, and opportunities and barriers in using skills gained from the training.The objectives of the workshop were to:• Discuss the web-platform, course design, course content and materials, and communication and interaction during the training.• Discuss the uses of the training at individual and organizational levels.• Discuss the potential opportunities and barriers in using the skills gained from the training at the participating organizations.In this workshop, we discussed course-related (web-platform, course design, content and materials, and communication and interaction) activities, uses of the skills gained from the training and opportunities and barriers in using the skills from the training at the participating organizations (Annex 1).Overall, the participants mentioned that the course was well organized including its web-platform, design, content and materials. They also praised the communication and interaction during the training.Their feedback included the following views:• The time allocated for assignments was sufficient.• The instructors were experts in the course: they understood and answered the participants questions and participants were satisfied with the answers and responses provided.• Participants found the discussion forum very useful to get answers for their questions and to get further understanding on what their peers asked. However, the course organizers found the discussion forum was underutilized, with participants rarely asking questions or seeking advice from the experts that was available via this medium -maybe this is a medium they were not comfortable with, or perhaps it took more effort.The participants also suggested areas of the training that need improvement including the following:• Reading texts, videos and webinars should be made downloadable for offline reading.• Providing portable internet modem could help participants who do not have access to the internet or those in the field to attend the course.• The web platform needs to be configured to show accurate information on reading progress of required reading materials (online text). In many cases, it showed no progress for participants who had read all the required material.• Almost all examples provided in the assignment focused on animal-source foods, but such examples may be difficult to understand for participants from disciplines outside of animal or public health. Participant working in horticulture suggested adding food safety examples related to cereals and vegetables such as contamination of crops with pesticides, heavy metals, etc.• Participants also pointed out that food adulteration and food fraud (e.g. in milk, honey, etc) are becoming major problems suggesting the inclusion of these concepts in the course.• They mentioned individual follow-up during the training was inadequate. Because of competing priorities, participants may get caught up with other activities and if they see that they are left behind in the program, they may become desperate and drop out of the course. They recommended email reminders or phone calls if the participant is not submitting assignments; and frequent reminders regarding their progress in the course to ensure commitment and course completion. Participants suggested programming the platform to frequently remind (at intervals) users of progress made to keep them motivated.• Feedback on assignments is given as a summary for all participants but they suggested sending the feedback for each participant. This would help them clearly understand their weaknesses and strengths in the assignment.• The registration steps were challenging to follow especially for those without experience in taking online courses.• Some parts of the course such as risk analysis requires skills which participants may not have. They suggested exploring in-person training in such cases to help the participants understand well the calculations and related issues compared with learning virtually. They also suggested arranging group work (e.g. for the assignments) for participants who have major skill gaps in some parts of the course. This may be addressed if the participants know who is participating in the course from their organization as they may work together on the assignments. They also suggested assigning mentors to work with in person to address training gaps.• Since assignments or activities of the course cover different food value chains, it is useful to understand food safety in different commodities and food value chains in informal markets. Participants suggested doing these assignments practically in selected food value chains than using scenarios or examples from literature. The results of such realworld exercises can help guide food safety policy development or interventions.• In addition to meeting for post-course review, participants recommended meeting in-person in the middle of the course. They said such meeting would motivate the participants and significantly minimize dropouts during the course.• They proposed creating a platform to link participants with their instructors, peers and course coordinators to make the network sustainable even after the end of the course.• Participants said that dropouts are associated with many factors including competing priorities and their responsibilities at work (e.g. fieldwork), lack of incentives beyond the certificates of participation which do not improve pay since they are not recognized by government as part of continuous professional development.Personal attitudes could also contribute to the dropout rate. They suggested using robust selection procedures to recruit interested and motivated individuals. Selected candidates for the training should sign agreements with their organizations to ensure their commitment to complete the course. Pre-tests could be used for selection.Photo 1. Findings of the conversations during the review workshop on course design, contents, materials and communications (photo credit: ILRI/ Lina Gazu).• At least four persons joined this training from each participating organization and 20 participants (even if all have not completed the course) from Ethiopia. This creates an opportunity for the participants to work together to apply the skills gained, which is especially useful for those working in the same organization.The participants also identified potential barriers that can hinder application of the skills gained from the course at their workplaces as listed below:• Inadequate enforcement of food safety regulations.• Limited financial resources.• Organizational re-structuring and staff turnover.• Lack of individual commitment.• Inadequate coordination of food safety activities among the organizations.The participants suggested the following points to sustain the lessons learned from training:• Advocacy of the benefits of the training within participating organizations and their partners.• Incorporating the training competences into the participating organizations' capacity building (training) plans.• Using the skills gained from the course in food safety activities such as document development by the participating organizations.• Cascading the information gained from the course to the staff working at different levels in the participating organizations.• Individual commitment to apply the skills gained from the course.Photo 2: Conversation during the review workshop at the ILRI Addis campus, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (photo credit: ILRI/Lina Gazu).Photo 3: Plenary discussions at the end of the three rounds of conversations to harvest the ideas during the review workshop at ILRI Addis campus, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (photo credit: ILRI/Lina Gazu). ","tokenCount":"1672"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"01a8cc91bada6229291722c2a9e891e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff828aa5-5864-4b3d-bb3a-7e83736a61fe/retrieve","id":"253752430"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"906153c2-b560-4a7e-8b29-6ef0d7d861b3","pagecount":"2","content":"Tropical root and tuber crops (RTCs) arethe second most important crops in the developing world, after cereals. In Vietnam, cassava has both industrial and food uses, and it is the third most important crop in terms of cultivated area, which doubled in size from 237,600 ha in 2001 to 560,000 ha in 2014. It is also among Vietnam's top agricultural exports. In contrast, the land area for other RTCs is declining, particularly for sweetpotato. However, sweetpotato remains an important food and animal feed crop in Vietnam. There are no specific national policies in support of RTCs, and local programs are limited. Aside from land use change and lack of policy support, climate change is also considered a major vulnerability factor by RTC farmers, who observe the climate becoming hotter and dryer.The scoping study results presented here will further aid in developing recommendations for increasing resilience among poor RTC-producing and -consuming households.Relevant data were gathered in Quang Binh and Ha Tinh provinces, which correspond to the geographic area of the IFAD investment project Sustainable Rural Development for the Poor (SRDP). SRDP's main objective is \"investment in climate-smart, socially equitable and profitable rural development models that promote pro-poor market linkages, value chains, and enhanced rural business competitiveness\". Based on the findings of the scoping study, FoodSTART+ activities will be designed to complement SRDP activities to ensure that research outputs change; decreasing during the dry season and increasing during the rainy period (MONRE, 2009). The project aims to enhance food resilience among poor households in upland and coastal communities of the Asia-Pacific region through introducing root and tuber crops (RTCs) innovations. To achieve this goal at scale, the project develops, validates and implements effective partnership strategies with IFAD investment projects to promote RTCs for food security.The project's key components are:1. Project start-up and scoping studies including mapping on food vulnerability of RTC production and use; contribute directly to the SRDP objective and targets.Ha Tinh and Quang Binh are two of the six provinces of the North Central Coast, where poverty rates are relatively high. Despite this, both provinces are developing rapidly. Table 1 shows relevant socio-economic data from the two sites (most recent data available).Both provinces have a tropical monsoon climate with an average annual temperature of about 23-25°C in the lowlands and 14-15°C in the uplands. The warmest temperatures occur in June and July, while droughts mostly occur between February and August. Both provinces are exposed to tropical typhoons, usually between July and October. According to climate change scenarios for Vietnam, rainfall seasonality and intensity willResearch Highlights:• North Central Coast of Vietnam is increasingly facing the effects of climate change, such as increased temperatures, droughts and irregular precipitations.• Although consumption of roots and tubers as food has dramatically decreased during the past 30 years, cassava and sweetpotato remain important for farmers' livelihoods strategies.• Use of cassava and sweetpotato is diverse (on-farm consumption, animal feeding, commercialization), contributing to the resilience of smallholder farmers.• Farmers face crop management and postharvest challenges. A better organization of the value chain could promote adoption of small-scale technologies and the inclusion of smallholders.Production, area, and yield. Both in Ha Tinh and Quang Binh, cassava and sweetpotato production areas are concentrated in a few districts (Fig. 1). In Ha Tinh, cassava and sweetpotato areas are 4,082 ha and 6,465 ha respectively, accounting for 8% of the total agricultural area. In Quang Binh, RTCs represent 11% of the total agricultural area, with 5,794 ha of cassava and 2,882 ha of sweetpotato. In both sites, official data on yields were far lower than yields reported by farmers during this study.Cassava producers are often smallholders who produce local varieties for food in very small areas and improved cassava for industrial (mainly starch) processing in larger plots. Cassava roots are used either for starch production, animal feed, or human consumption, depending on quality and variety. Cassava is mostly seen as a cash crop and adoption often depends on prices offered by starch processing factories and the quality of soil. Most farmers grow sweetpotato on very small areas for their own consumption. Shoots and leaves are consumed as vegetables, older leaves and stems are used to feed livestock, and roots are consumed as a snack. Surpluses are sometimes sold in local markets on an irregular basis.There has been a dramatic decrease in sweetpotato consumption and production in the past 30 years, especially in Ha Tinh. However, it seems that there is a new demand from urban areas resulting in relatively higher sweetpotato prices.Most of the cassava roots are sold by farmers to traders and are processed in large-scale starch factories. Price negotiations between farmers and traders are limited and when prices are too low, farmers opt to process their own cassava into chips for storage or animal feed. Piece-meal harvesting of local varieties is common for roots consumed on-farm or for sale in local markets, mostly by women. Conversely, sweetpotato is usually processed on-farm where roots are sliced and sun-dried for animal feed. Most of the sweetpotato produced is consumed locally, within the commune for shoots and leaves, and within the district for roots.• Cassava and sweetpotato are climateresilient crops that can endure extreme temperatures, floods and drought. • Cassava and sweetpotato have a short production cycle and can be grown with minimum investment of inputs and labor, providing an alternative income source after a disaster.• Diets of rural farmers have greatly improved and diversified, with more people wanting to consume meat, particularly beef, but also fruits and vegetables.• In some communes, women perceive cassava production as hard work and expect innovative approaches in reducing drudgery, while men are more interested in improving yield and market value.• Labor migration plays a significant role in diversifying income sources, but leads the youth away from agriculture.Farmers need better varieties, particularly cassava varieties with shorter cycle, higher yields and higher starch content in order for smallholders to raise the economic productivity of their land and reduce processing costs for factories.Cassava crop management should also be improved, with farmers seeking ways to increase productivity with reduced input.Intercropping systems (i.e. with legumes) could be investigated.Sweetpotato farmers are also willing to try new varieties with better market potential. Better access to planting material seems to be a key leverage point.Postharvest and on-farm processing are problematic for both RTCs. Difficulties in drying sliced cassava and sweetpotato properly result in high postharvest losses.Cassava-starch value chains could be enhanced in terms of both sustainability and inclusiveness. Farmers complain about low and unstable prices for fresh roots. They also have little knowledge of the final use of the produce and of the different market opportunities available.An RTC market assessment should be conducted at the provincial level in order to identify current trends in terms of RTC consumption, including consumers' perception of RTC products, both for raw and processed food. This will enable farmers to make informed choices of varieties and marketing strategies.Potential of RTCs for animal feed should be investigated further, as the demand for animal feed increases and the price and supply of maize for animal feed fluctuate.Research on understanding the social contexts of RTCs will be central to identifying gendered needs and interests and addressing social power relations played out in the process of agricultural innovation.","tokenCount":"1204"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d3f36f6ecd39af2e1298cdb3ad346b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/191a5677-d29a-485d-a0b6-980c3358f9e7/retrieve","id":"-667398702"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"553f34ed-7712-40ab-b2c2-a047f8aacc71","pagecount":"79","content":"• We should recognize that we are in a inter-connected world • Anyhow, also to accept that we cant know/do everything! • For broader consideration of health I believe DVMs better placed than MD -wider scope of duties ranging from animal health to VPH Proposed the term zoonoses and \"between animal and human medicine there is no dividing line\" .Defined One Health as \"the collaborative effort locally, nationally, and globally -to attain optimal health for people, animals and our environment.\"Proposed One Medicine as a unified approach to human and veterinary approach for zoonoses.Ernst Haeckel (German Biologist, 1834-1919).  • 11 th -17 th Century: Human medicine integrated into the medieval universities, whereas veterinary medicine focussed on horses and remained in the hands of equerries;• 18 th century : The first veterinary school in Lyon (1762) followed by• 19th century:-Rudolf Virchow , father of cellular pathology, that, \"Between animal and human medicine there are no dividing lines -nor should there be.\"• 20th century: both sciences specialised to an extent that their association was hardly visible• 1976: Calvin Schwabes' re-thinking of the concept of \"one medicine\" in, that fully recognized the close systemic interaction of humans and animals for nutrition, livelihood and health • 1990-2000: Jokob Zinnsstag, West Africa, \"One Medicine\"  Globalisation & international trade • Many similarities but different traditions/background • Integrated approach (scope different)• At present, the concepts of ecohealth and one health are still evolving.• There is no single universally accepted definition of either \"One Health\" or \"EcoHealth.\" (Even the spelling of the terms is not yet standardized: some prefer to write ecohealth without any capitalization.)• The Ecohealth approach focuses above all on the place of human beings within their environment. It recognizes that there are inextricable links between humans and their biophysical, social, and economic environments, and that these links are reflected in a population's state of health. International Development Research Centre (IDRC)• EcoHealth is an emerging field of study researching how changes in the earth's ecoszstems affect human health. It has many prospects. EcoHealth examines changes in the biological, physical, social and economic environments and relates these changes to human health. Wikipedia.• One Health is the collaborative effort of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally, to address critical challenges and attain optimal health for people, domestic animals, wildlife, and our environment One Health Commission (http://www.onehealthcommission.org/ )• The One Health concept is a worldwide strategy for expanding interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans and animals. One Health Initiative (http://onehealthinitiative.com/)• One Health' is a cost-effective, sustainable, and practical approach to find solutions for problems which need holistic, multidisciplinary An approach to understand complex systems (socio-economic, socio-ecological ect)• The 3 pillars are defined as follows:• Transdisciplinarity implies an inclusive vision of health problems by scientists from multiple disciplines, community and policy actors• Participation aims to achieve consensus and cooperation within the community and the scientific and decision-making groups;• Equity involves analyzing the respective roles of men and women, and various social groups; An approach to understand complex systems (socio-economic, socioecological ect)• System thinking: System thinking suggests that the way to understand a system is to examining the linkages and interactions between the elements that make up the system -In contract to reductism which looks more in details of its parts.• Knowledge to action: Knowledge to action refers to the idea that knowledge generated by research is then used to improve health and well-being through an improved environment  'Combining the total societal benefits, the intervention in the animal sector saves cost, provides the economic argument and thus opens new approaches for the control of zoonoses in developing countries through cost contributions from multiple sectors.'","tokenCount":"609"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f4a4e669e7381ce75fd564d18ec21c3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd17f734-e78d-4264-95bf-d565e389c326/retrieve","id":"-691673164"},"keywords":["Original Research Article Section/Category: Community and International Nutrition Agricultural biodiversity","agrobiodiversity","diet diversity","micronutrient adequacy","farm market orientation Agricultural biodiversity, agrobiodiversity, women's diet diversity, micronutrient adequacy, farm market orientation"],"sieverID":"0e5ed051-be1e-45a6-895f-28b40193274b","pagecount":"43","content":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications.Abbreviations: Dietary Species Richness (DSR); Diet Diversity Score (DDS); Estimated Average Requirements (EAR); Incidence-Rate Ratios (IRR); Latin American and Caribbean Food Security Scale (ELCSA); Low-and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs); Mean Probability of Adequacy (MPA); Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women (MDD-W); Ordinary Least Squares (OLS); probability of adequacy (PA); Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI)Agricultural biodiversity refers to the biological diversity within agriculture and food systems. This diversity includes variability of crop and livestock species, intraspecific diversity (i.e., varieties, breeds), associated wild species, as well as the different agroecosystems that farmers manage (1). Smallholder farmers typically manage agricultural biodiversity for a range of reasons, including for yield stability, risk avoidance, soil conservation, and pest and disease management. Agricultural biodiversity is also valued as a genetic resource needed to provide new resistance genes and functional traits in response to pests, pathogens and climate change (2).Yet, agricultural biodiversity is also essential for supplying the diverse foods needed to sustain healthy diets and prevent malnutrition in all its forms (3). Diverse diets, comprised of different foods and food groups, are widely recognized as essential for optimum nutrition and health (4)(5)(6).A recent comprehensive synthesis of the empirical evidence underlying the relationship between agricultural production diversity and diet diversity in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) found that more diverse family farms were consistently associated with more diverse household diets (7). The association was small, ranging from 0.1 to 0.25 additional food groups in household diets for each additional crop species cultivated on farms. While the consistency of this positive association across studies is striking, the evidence underlying this relationship is limited by: 1) the limited generalizability of the findings (i.e., studies were undertaken almost exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa); 2) the near absence of quantitative, individual-level dietary intake estimates; and, 3) limited assessments of the potential market-related mechanisms underlying the observed associations between agricultural biodiversity and diets (7). While subsistence production of diverse food crops has been hypothesized as the principal mechanism linking agricultural production diversity with diets (8,9), market-oriented mechanisms have also been proposed (e.g., income is generated through the sale of diverse agricultural products, which in turn is used to purchase more diverse foods) (10). Yet, our understanding of the extent to which earnings from sold agricultural production may mediate or moderate the association between agricultural biodiversity and diets remains limited.The specific aims of this study were to: 1) determine the association of farm-level agricultural biodiversity with diet diversity and quality among women of reproductive age in central Peru; and 2) determine the extent to which market orientation of agricultural production mediates or moderates this association. We further examined characteristics of households with differing levels of agricultural biodiversity to provide context for interpreting results related to the second specific aim. We hypothesized that greater farm-level agricultural biodiversity would be associated with more diverse diets among women and diets that are more likely to meet women's micronutrient requirements. Focusing on women's diets in particular is especially important given that women's social status, control over resources, and health and nutrition are central to many of the pathways linking agriculture and nutrition (11). We further hypothesized that earnings from agricultural production would not mediate the association between agricultural biodiversity and diet outcomes, but that the magnitude of the association between agricultural biodiversity and diet outcomes would be diminished among households with a greater market orientation of agricultural production.The study was conducted in the Huánuco region of the central Peruvian Andes. Three study regions, or landscapes, across a transect were selected from information gathered through site visits, key informant interviews, and analysis of municipal data and topographic maps. These intra-regional landscapes were representative of socio-environmental variation in the explanatory variables of the study (i.e., farm-level agricultural biodiversity; market access and orientation of agricultural production; and agroecological conditions). The geographic extents of the landscapes, each encompassing 150-250 km 2 , were estimated initially using Google Earth and were later mapped and measured using ArcMap 10.5.1 and geocorrected using Sentinel 2 satellite imagery (31 May 2017). Population data from the 2007 National Census of Peru (12), cross-referenced with municipal-level data, were used to identify all communities within each landscape boundary to establish a community sample frame. We applied a stratified random sampling procedure to select ten communities in each landscape. Selection was stratified across elevation zones based on terciles of intra-landscape elevation distributions.A census was conducted in each selected community and in randomly selected replacement communities to accurately enumerate the number of eligible households in each community based on the following inclusion criteria: 1) household members are permanent residents of the household; 2) a woman of reproductive age (18-49 years) is a member of the household; and, 3) field and/or garden crops were cultivated by at least one member of the household during the 2016-2017 agricultural season. In total, 82% of censused households cultivated at least one field or garden crop in the 2016-2017 agricultural season. Field and garden crops were defined as domesticated plants cultivated in production areas recognized locally as fields (i.e., chacras, parcelas) and gardens (i.e., huertos, huertas), respectively (13). Twenty households in each community were randomly selected for participation in the study. Our target sample size was calculated based on previous research indicating that cultivation of two additional crop species on smallholder farms-a difference we anticipated observing across terciles of crop species richness in this population-is associated with a mean (SD) difference in diet diversity of 0.6 (2.1) using a diet diversity score similar to that used in this study (see below) (14). Assuming a design effect of 1.5 to account for within-community correlations, we calculated we would need a sample of at least 579 households to observe such a difference in our outcome variable across households with differing crop species richness. Among the 600 households we sampled in this study, an in-person, multi-module household survey was conducted during an eight-week period between April to June 2017 corresponding to the local harvest season. On average, four days were required per community in each region to complete the administration of the household survey (including dietary assessments).In addition to the multi-module household survey questionnaire, a separate team of trained nutritionists conducted a comprehensive assessment of index women's diets applying a quantitative 24-hour recall of food intake. An index woman in each household was identified as the wife of the male head of household if aged 18-49 years, or, if this criterion did not apply, the woman in the household between 18-49 years of age with the most responsibility for household management. Households wherein a respondent was not available after three separate visits on subsequent days were replaced with a randomly selected eligible replacement household from the community. For communities in which surveys were not completed with 20 households after exhausting the replacement household list, one or more replacement communities were randomly selected within the same study landscape-elevation zone for completion of the 20 requisite interviews.One half of the households interviewed within each community were randomly selected for participation in a substudy aimed at characterizing and quantifying the agricultural biodiversity of each household using participatory mapping and plot-level sampling of each field. The methodology was applied to all fields and crops that were cultivated by the household at the time of sampling. Tailored, intra-plot sampling methods were used for fields characterized by the following predominant crops: 1) Andean root and tuber crops (including potatoes); 2) maize fields including interspecific mixtures with pulses, vegetables, and grains; and 3) home gardens. These sampling methods have been previously validated in analogous field systems for determining total species and varietal diversity, relative abundance of species and varieties, as well as land use patterns and the spatial distribution of agricultural biodiversity (15)(16)(17).Women's diet diversity and diet quality were the principal dependent variables examined in this analysis. Indicators of both variables were constructed using data from quantitative 24-hour dietary recall interviews. The interviews were conducted using the multiple-pass method (18).We randomly selected 100 women to receive a second dietary survey on a non-consecutive day following the first interview.A Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) was calculated for each woman based on the food group diversity reported in the first administered 24-hour recall. The DDS was based on 10 food groups that contribute most strongly to the micronutrient adequacy of women's diets (19). The food group was coded as 1 if the woman reported consuming at least 15 g of a food from the food group, and 0 otherwise (19,20). The scores were then summed across individual food groups to yield the DDS. Based on the DDS, the Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women (MDD-W) indicator was also calculated defined as 1 if the woman consumed five or more food groups in the previous 24 hours, and 0 otherwise (19). Dietary Species Richness (DSR), a count of the number of different plant and animal species consumed by an individual (21), was also calculated using day-one 24-hour recall data. Only foods that were categorized into one of the 10 food groupings used to generate the MDD-W were incorporated into calculations of the DSR.For example, maize, potato, and wheat-species that were categorized into the \"starchy staple foods\" grouping of the DDS-were counted as distinct species for purposes of calculating the DSR. Distinct species of animals (e.g., chickens, goats, sheep) were also counted and contributed to the DSR.We further calculated the probability of adequacy (PA) for nine micronutrients (i.e., thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium, iron, and zinc) for each individual. We converted each day of food intake data to nutrient intakes using food composition tables of the Instituto de Investigación Nutricional (IIN) that include data from other Latin American countries as well as the U.S. Department of Agriculture (22). Values for the nutrient content of varieties of foods that were not included in IIN food composition tables were identified from published catalogues for potatoes (23,24), the La Molina National Agrarian University (UNALM) (for analyses of Andean grains), and from Internet searches. Where nutrient values were not available for a specific variety, the nutrient content of a similar food item was imputed.Then, using variables that we power transformed to approximate normal intake distributions, we calculated individual and population means for the intakes of each nutrient, as well as withinand between-person variances for the transformed variables based on data from the subsample of women with two days of intake data (25). The best linear unbiased predictor of each respondent's usual intake was calculated using a measurement-error model approach (26), and from those predictors, the PA for each nutrient was calculated. PA was defined as the probability that a respondent's usual intake met the WHO/FAO micronutrient requirement distributions based on the woman's physiological status (27). Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) were back-calculated from Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI) as previously described (28). The Mean Probability of Adequacy (MPA) was calculated as the mean of the PAs for all nine nutrients. Limitations in the available food composition table data meant that we were unable to calculate additional PAs for vitamins B6 and B12 as was done for the validation study of the MDD-W indicator. However, we used the same threshold as this prior study to define \"better\" MPA, namely, a cut-off of >60% MPA (28).The principal independent variables used in analyses were crop species richness, and crop and livestock species richness. Crop species richness was defined as a count of the number of different crop species cultivated by the household on any field that was cultivated or owned by the household during the 2016-2017 agricultural season. The general household survey collected plot-level data on the specific crops grown on each field during the 2016-2017 agricultural season. The current number of different livestock species owned or raised by the household was added to the crop species richness of field crops to generate the crop and livestock species richness variable. Respondents were explicitly asked about 12 species of livestock and were prompted to list additional species. Sociodemographic data for each household were collected, and an asset-based wealth index was calculated for each household using data on the ownership of 23 assets. Using weights assigned to these assets from a principal components analysis, we generated standardized asset scores, and calculated quintiles of this score based on the sample-specific distribution (29). We used the Latin American and Caribbean Food Security Scale (ELCSA) to assess household food insecurity and defined food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately food insecure, and severely food insecure households using established cut-off values (30).We calculated several additional agricultural variables including 1) total agricultural land area; 2) total production and yields during the 2016-2017 agricultural season; 3) proportion of harvest destined for sale and earnings from sold crops (i.e., indicators of market orientation of farms); 4) whether a household cultivated a garden, specific field crops, or produced any milk, cheese or eggs from their own production in the previous 12 months; 5) livestock units (31); and, 6) whether households earned income from non-agricultural sources.All analyses were carried out using the Stata statistical software package, version 15.1. (2018; StataCorp, College Station, TX, USA). We compared sociodemographic, agricultural, and agricultural biodiversity characteristics of households by terciles of crop species richness using ANOVA for comparisons of continuous variables and Pearson's chi-squared tests for comparisons of proportions. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) was used to assess the association between crop species richness as measured based on survey recall and plot-level sampling of each field, respectively.We used multiple regression analysis to examine the associations of measures of agricultural biodiversity and production (i.e., crop species richness; crop and livestock species richness; production of specific groupings of crops and livestock) with indicators of diet diversity and quality (i.e., DDS, MDD-W, DSR, MPA and MPA >60%). Given the discrete, bounded nature of the DDS and DSR variables, Poisson regressions were fit to models that included DDS and DSR as dependent variables. Values are reported as incidence-rate ratios (IRR). These models were adjusted for covariates that are hypothesized determinants of women's diet diversity and quality, and potential confounding factors of the relationship between agricultural biodiversity and women's diet outcomes. Similar sets of covariates have been used in previous studies examining these relationships (10,14). These covariates included: household size; sex of head of household; the age, pregnancy, marital and education status of the index woman; household wealth quintiles; household food security status; agricultural land area of the household; livestock units (excluded from models that also included crop and livestock species richness); whether the household had a non-agricultural source of income; whether the household cultivated a garden during the preceding agricultural season; and study region. Models with MDD-W and MPA >60% as the dependent variables were fit with logistic regressions and adjusted for the same covariates as the Poisson models. Finally, ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions were fit to models using MPA as the dependent variable and adjusted for the same set of covariates. The sampling approach using landscapes was not intended to produce region-specific estimates from stratified analyses, nor to derive representative region-specific estimates. Rather, the sampling approach was intended to ensure representative variation in the principal independent variables. Therefore, all analyses were conducted on the full sample of available households, and we did not calculate sampling weights. For all models, variance estimates were obtained using the robust estimator of variance (32), adjusting SE and variance-covariance matrices of the estimators for within-study region correlations.We conducted a path analysis to examine potential mediation of the association of agricultural biodiversity with diet outcomes by the proportion of agricultural production sold or earnings from sold agricultural production. Standardized path coefficients (i.e., regression coefficients converted to standardized Z-scores) were calculated using maximum-likelihood estimation of direct, indirect, and total effects of agricultural biodiversity on each of the five diet outcomes described above (in separate models) with potential mediation by the proportion of agricultural production sold, and earnings from sold agricultural production, respectively. We used the Huber-White sandwich estimator to calculate robust standard errors for each model.In sub-analyses, we also examined moderation of the association of agricultural biodiversity with diet outcomes by farm market orientation. We used the multiple regression models described above, but, in separate models, included additional model terms for the interaction of proportion of household production sold and earnings from sold agricultural production, respectively, with crop species richness and crop and livestock species richness. Because not all sample households grew field crops during the 2016-2017 agricultural season, we examined these dynamics in separate models from the main analyses, which retained the full sample and did not include an interaction term.Associations were considered to be consistent with random variability at P>0.1.The study protocol was approved by the University of Michigan Health Sciences and Behavioral Sciences Institutional Review Board and from the Research Ethics Committee of the Instituto de Investigación Nutricional (IIN) in Lima, Peru. Comprehensive informed consent was obtained from all study participants.Data for diet diversity and quality and agricultural biodiversity were available for 600 women from 48 communities. Approximately five different food groups were consumed by women on the day prior to the survey (DDS: mean ± SD: 4.6 ± 1.6), encompassing 12 distinct species (DSR: 12.1 ± 3.8) (Table 1). Slightly more than half of women (55.2%) met the threshold for a minimally diverse diet, and 9.3% of women achieved a MPA > 60%. Among households that grew field crops during the 2016-2017 agricultural season (64 of 600 households did not), 2.5 ± 1.4 different species of crops were cultivated (Table 1). This value, calculated from household survey data, was lower than, but positively correlated with the value calculated from plot-level sampling of cultivated fields (3.5 ± 3.1; r = 0.29, P<0.01). Slightly more than two-fifths of the amount of field crops harvested (42.2%) were sold. Nearly all households raised livestock (97.8%) (Supplemental Table 1), and the total number of different species of livestock and field crops raised, in aggregate, was 5.8 ± 1.5.In adjusted analyses, farm-level crop species richness of field crops was associated with a higher DDS (IRR: 1.03; P<0.05), and MPA (OLS  coefficient: 0.65; P<0.1), as well as higher odds of achieving a minimally diverse diet (MDD-W: OR (95% CI): 1.17 (1.11, 1.23)), and a diet that met a minimum threshold for micronutrient adequacy (MPA >60%: 1.21 (1.10, 1.35)) (Table 2).Species richness of both field crops and livestock was similarly associated with higher odds of meeting the MDD-W indicator (1.08 (1.05, 1.12)) and the minimum MPA threshold (MPA >60%: 1.16 (1.06, 1.27)) (Table 2). We observed no consistent evidence of a statistical interaction between indicators of the market orientation of farms and measures of agricultural biodiversity on associations with indicators of diet diversity and quality (Supplemental Table 2). In the few models where a statistically significant interaction was observed, the magnitude of the interaction was small. Similarly, we did not observe consistent evidence of mediation of the association of agricultural biodiversity with diet diversity and quality by these indicators of farm market orientation (Supplemental Table 3). In path analyses examining the proportion of agricultural production sold as a potential mediator of the association between crop species richness and diversity and quality, the indirect effect of proportion of agricultural production sold was negative and statistically significant in three of five models tested (i.e., models using DDS, MDD-W, and MPA as outcome variables). However, the magnitudes of the effects were modest and these same trends were not observed for other models. Among all crop categories, cultivation of pulses and vegetables demonstrated the strongest associations with diet outcomes (Table 3). The rearing of specific livestock species was not consistently associated with diet diversity or quality; however, home production of animalsource foods, especially eggs, demonstrated strong associations with diet outcomes (Table 3).Households in the lowest tercile of crop species richness (i.e., those households growing only one field crop) cultivated less agricultural land, were less likely to cultivate pulses, other vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, and other fruits, and sold a higher proportion of their produced field crops as compared to households in the highest tercile of crop species richness (lowest vs. highest terciles of crop species richness: 60.3% ± 38.3% vs. 31.8% ± 30.0%) (Table 4).Households growing only one field crop, however, had lower total production of field crops as compared to households with more diverse production (lowest vs. highest terciles of crop species richness: 3.8 ± 5.4 metric tons vs. 4.4 ± 5.1 metric tons), though had higher yields, and similar earnings from sold agricultural production (Table 4). More than three-quarters (78%) of households cultivating only a single crop grew either maize or potato. Those growing pulses, other vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, or other fruits sold a larger share of their production of these crops as compared to households in the highest tercile of crop species richness (Table 4). No consistent differences were observed across terciles of crop species richness in the educational level of the index woman, the wealth status of the household, ownership of livestock, household food security status, or whether the household had a non-agricultural source of income.We examined the relationship between farm-level agricultural biodiversity and indicators of women's diet diversity and quality in diverse communities of the Peruvian central highlands.Consistent positive associations between the crop species richness of farms and both the diversity and quality of women's diets were observed. Similar to previous studies that have examined the association of agricultural biodiversity with diet diversity (7), the magnitudes of these associations using a food group diversity score and a continuous measure of the micronutrient adequacy of diets as dependent variables, respectively, were modest (i.e., a oneunit increase in crop species richness was associated with a 3% increase in DDS, and an additional 0.65 percentage points of MPA, respectively). However, the magnitudes of associations of agricultural biodiversity with dichotomous variables of women's diet diversity and quality-indicating whether diets met a minimum level of micronutrient adequacy-were stronger (i.e., a one-unit increase in crop species richness was associated with 17% higher odds of achieving the MDD-W indicator and 21% higher odds of achieving a MPA >60%). Therefore, while more diverse agricultural production was only moderately associated with more diverse and higher quality diets in absolute terms, it may have been important for achieving more adequate diets at the margin among women with less adequate diets. These findings are aligned with previous experimental research demonstrating that both direct dietary interventions as well as indirect, nutrition-sensitive interventions are more likely to yield dietary improvements among households and individuals with less adequate diets (33,34).We hypothesized that the magnitude of the association between agricultural biodiversity and women's diet outcomes would be diminished among households with a greater market orientation of agricultural production. Such an interaction has been observed in previous research using aggregate data from Indonesia, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Malawi (8), though not in other studies from Malawi, Benin and Ghana (10,35,36). Two findings from our study suggested that we might have observed such an interaction. First, the association between agricultural biodiversity and diet outcomes in this study likely operated through subsistence production (therefore selling larger shares of agricultural production would diminish the potential for diversified agriculture to directly influence diets). The lack of evidence of mediation of this association by earnings from sold production, and the modest mediating effect of proportion of agricultural production sold observed in some, but not all models, supported this assertion. In addition, cultivation of pulses was strongly positively associated with both MDD-W and MPA.Pulse production, therefore, was likely a principal driver of the overall positive association observed between farm-level agricultural biodiversity and diet outcomes. This finding lends further support to the subsistence mechanism given that among households with high crop species richness, a low proportion of pulses were sold. Second, there were important differences in the market orientation of households with differing levels of agricultural biodiversity.Households in the lowest tercile of crop species richness sold nearly double the proportion of their production vis-à-vis households in the highest tercile (60.3% vs. 31.8%). Despite these findings, however, we did not observe a consistent interaction between farm market orientation and agricultural biodiversity on associations with women's diet diversity and quality. One possible explanation for this finding is that farm market orientation, independent of other covariates, was not strongly or consistently associated with diet outcomes. Yet, another likely reason for this finding is that households with higher levels of agricultural biodiversity earned nearly as much from sold agricultural production as households in the lowest tercile of crop species richness, in part because these households had greater overall agricultural production, especially of high-value horticultural crops. This is consistent with evidence from previous studies that farm diversification is associated with high agricultural revenues, even compared to less diversified farms (37,38). Thus, in this context, larger shares of sold agricultural production did not necessitate a meaningful trade-off between production destined for markets and production intended for subsistence consumption. Greater overall production among diversified farms meant that non-trivial quantities of crops were able to be both kept for own consumption and sold to market. Similarly, households with lower agricultural biodiversity, while both selling a larger share of their production and earning more from crop sales as compared to households with higher agricultural biodiversity, still retained a substantial proportion of their agricultural production for own consumption (~40%).Households in the highest tercile of crop species richness had approximately 0.5 and 1 hectares more agricultural land than households in the lowest and middle terciles of crop species richness, respectively. These households with more land were not wealthier or more highly educated in our sample, but appeared to utilize the greater land available to diversify production. Similar dynamics have been observed in some settings (10,39), but not others (40,41), wherein access to more land can facilitate agricultural diversification. While the socioeconomic profiles of households and individuals were not associated with farm-level agricultural biodiversity, the magnitudes of the associations of household wealth and education status of index women with diet outcomes were larger than the associations of crop species richness with these outcomes. These findings corroborate previous evidence demonstrating the considerable independent influence of socioeconomic status on diet outcomes (14,(42)(43)(44)(45). Similarly, the magnitudes of the associations of home production of animal-source foods, especially eggs, with women's diet outcomes were also larger than the associations of crop species richness with these outcomes. This finding is consistent with evidence that these animal-source foods provide a rich source of bioavailable micronutrients that contributes strongly to nutrient adequacy (46,47).This study had several limitations. First, because the data were collected using an observational design, our ability to draw a causal inference from the observed associations is limited. Second, the recall period for our outcome variables (i.e., the previous 24-hours) and that of our exposure variable (i.e., the previous agricultural season) did not fully align. This could have led to underestimates of the association between agricultural biodiversity and diet outcomes. We purposefully planned data collection to coincide with the peak of the harvest season in the study region to ensure that agricultural production was available to households both for direct consumption, and as a source of income that might indirectly influence diets through food purchases. However, not all crops were harvested simultaneously, and given that the survey implementation spanned eight weeks, the timing of data collection varied modestly across households within the sample. For garden crops in particular, which may be harvested multiple times throughout the year, such misalignment of recall period may have attenuated estimates of association. Finally, we were able to carry out repeat 24-hour recalls among only a subset of women (n=100), which may have limited our ability to accurately calculate intra-individual variance of nutrient intakes. Nonetheless, the approach we adopted for modeling probability of adequacy of intakes has been shown to be valid for assessing the relationship between diet diversity and the micronutrient adequacy of diets (26). Furthermore, the diet outcomes described pertain only to adult women, thus limiting the comparability of these results to previous studies that have examined household-level diet outcomes (7).In conclusion, consistent with previous research from sub-Saharan Africa, we found that farmlevel agricultural biodiversity was associated with moderately more diverse and more micronutrient-adequate diets among women in the Peruvian Andes. This association was not strongly mediated by earnings from agricultural production, thus indicating that in this context, agricultural biodiversity likely contributes to women's diets through consumption of homeproduced food crops. Nonetheless, our findings support previous evidence suggesting that agricultural diversification is consistent with market-oriented production (7). Households in our study with highly diverse farms were considerably market oriented and farm market orientation did not consistently moderate the association of agricultural biodiversity with diet outcomes.In practice, risk-averse smallholder farmers often diversify into commercial crops with the aim of diffusing risk, while maintaining subsistence production of key safety net food crops (48). Indeed, diversification may offer new opportunities for market engagement (14), and the decision to diversify production may be directly in response not only to production risks such as climate change (49), but also to market signals (35). Longitudinal research is needed that prospectively models the extent and pathways through which changes in farm crop portfolios influence diets at individual-and regional-levels. Insights from such studies are needed to inform policies that strengthen the ability of smallholder farmers to align their production with market demand, while providing incentives for diverse regional food systems that allow vulnerable households to meet their needs for diverse and healthy diets.  (OR) from multiple logistic regression models adjusting for the covariates shown in Table 2; values for models with Mean Probability of Adequacy as the dependent variable are from ordinary least squares regression models adjusting for the covariates shown in Table 2; variance estimates for all models were obtained using the robust estimator of variance, adjusting SE and variance-covariance matrices of the estimators for within-study region correlations; independent variables are dichotomous variables indicating whether or not one or more field crops from the crop category was cultivated by the household in the agricultural season preceding the survey, and whether or not the category of livestock was currently reared by the household, respectively; crop categories are based on the food group definitions of the Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women indicator; 2 Given the small number of households that cultivated dark green leafy vegetables as field crops (n=4), this variable was perfectly associated with achievement of the >60% Mean Probability of Adequacy threshold; therefore, no ORs were calculated for these models; 3 Two households were missing data for household food security, two households were missing data for the wealth index, and one household was missing data for the pregnancy status of the index woman;   1 Values are proportions or means ± SD of each characteristic among households within the given tercile of crop species richness; terciles of crop species richness are based on diversity of field crops only; 2 Households that cultivated no field crops in the agricultural season preceding the survey were excluded; sample size varies for the variables under the heading \"Proportion of…production sold (field crops), %\" as not all households cultivated the crop categories shown; 3 P-values indicate the statistical significance of F-statistics testing differences in means across terciles of crop species richness or of Pearson's chi-squared test statistic testing differences in proportions across terciles of crop species richness; *P<0. 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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9a911c8879e8363a2d4e5dd7a9fcfdf4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1aa36064-2f3a-4a08-9b77-4f5c062b976c/retrieve","id":"1944067674"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c5f560ed-11a3-401a-9bd4-6944b2ac8323","pagecount":"24","content":"Fase de diagnóstico del estudio: \"Contribución de la diversidad arbórea a los medios de vida para la adaptación y la mitigación al cambio climático\" ContenidoEste estudio ha sido financiado por el Programa CGIAR para el cambio climático, la seguridad alimentaria y la agricultura (CCAFS, por sus siglas en inglés).Fase de diagnóstico del estudio: \"Contribución de la diversidad arbórea a los medios de vida para la adaptación y la mitigación al cambio climático\"El estudio \"Contribución de la diversidad arbórea a los medios de vida para la adaptación y la mitigación al cambio climático\" busca describir y cuantificar la contribución de los árboles a la capacidad de adaptación al cambio climático de las familias rurales en tres territorios de Nicaragua y uno en Costa Rica. La fase inicial de este estudio se concentró en desarrollar una línea de base que contribuirá a lo siguiente:1. Describir las principales características de los hogares, la diversidad de los medios de vida a nivel de hogar y cuáles son los principales sistemas de producción en los sitios de estudio 2. Entender cuáles han sido los principales cambios que las familias han realizado en los últimos 10 años con respecto a cultivos y manejo de cultivos, tierras y agua en sus fincas 3. Determinar cuáles han sido los principales factores determinantes de los cambios observados y cuáles de estos factores están directamente relacionados a la variabilidad del clima Los cuatro sitios de estudio fueron escogidos como una representación de diferentes fases de la transición forestal (Meyfroidt and Lambin, 2011;Meyfroidt et al., 2011), (Figura 1), que en el caso de Nicaragua también va de la mano con una gradiente intensificación y cercanía a los mercados de productos agrícolas. La caracterización de los sitios muestra diferencias entre sitios en sistemas de producción, medios de vida, población y anuencia al cambio que varían de acuerdo a la gradiente de intensificación y cambio en la cobertura arbórea.Figura 1. Representación esquemática de la transición forestal y cómo los sitios se ubican a lo largo de esta transición.Figura 1. Representación esquemática de la transición forestal y c ómo los sitios se ubican a lo largo de esta transición.Durante los meses de setiembre a noviembre de 2012 se realizó la encuesta de línea de base a nivel de hogar usando una herramienta diseñada por el Programa de Investigación CGIAR para el Cambio Climático y la Seguridad Alimentaria (CCAFS, por sus siglas en inglés, (Kristjanson et al., 2010).La línea de base en cada país se realizó en sitios representados por bloques de 10 x 10 km escogidos a lo largo de una gradiente de intensificación y cambio de la cobertura boscosa. Siguiendo la estrategia de muestreo para la línea de base CCAFS, se seleccionaron siete comunidades al azar dentro del bloque y en cada comunidad se escogieron 20 hogares también al azar para aplicar la encuesta de línea base a nivel de hogar.Para el análisis de los datos se siguió el protocolo diseñado por la Universidad de Reading (Barahona et al. 2011) usando IBM SPSS Statistics Versión 19. Los datos, en la mayoría de las secciones, han sido resumidos a través de tablas de frecuencia y porcentajes, promedios y medidas de dispersión.Capital natural: sistemas de producción y uso de suelo en las fincas (Sección 6 de la línea de base)Existe una gradiente bien definida en el cambio de la distribución de los tamaños de finca y la tenencia de tierra para producción. En general para los cuatro sitios el tamaño de las fincas varía entre 0,02-357 ha 1 . El área promedio de las fincas disminuye en Nicaragua desde el sitio con menor densidad poblacional y más lejano a los mercados (Siuna con 40,25 ha) hacia Waslala (13,41ha) y La Dalia (4,73ha). En Hojancha el área promedio es de 13,8 ha, pero con un alto porcentaje de familias sin tierra (29%), que refleja una situación donde hay otras fuentes de ingreso a parte de la agricultura. El porcentaje de familias sin tierra es más bajo en Nicaragua (4-8%).Los granos básicos están presentes en 90% de los hogares en Nicaragua y 59% de los hogares en Hojancha (Costa Rica) y ocupan áreas relativamente pequeñas (2,8 ha en promedio). La importancia de la producción de otros cultivos o pasturas (definida por el área promedio ocupada en la finca y el número de productores ( Figura 2) varía con un patrón de reducción del área de bosques naturales y pasturas en las fincas, desde Siuna (fincas grandes) a La Dalia (fincas pequeñas). Hojancha es un área donde bosques (naturales y plantados) y pasturas son nuevamente los principales usos de suelo como en Siuna, aunque bajo condiciones completamente diferentes (un área de recuperación de cobertura de árboles por uso de suelo). Los cultivos comerciales ocupan en áreas pequeñas en la finca e incrementan desde Siuna a Hojancha, mientras que el número de productores se mantiene bajo en Siuna y Hojancha.Al observar en el conjunto del tamaño de la finca los diferentes usos de suelo se pueden agrupar los hogares en cuatro tipos de fincas:1. Fincas muy pequeñas donde predomina la producción de granos básicos. Están presentes en todos los sitios pero son mucho más frecuentes en La Dalia y en menor grado en Waslala.2. Fincas medianas de alta diversificación. Esto es granos básicos con cultivos comerciales y pasturas en áreas pequeñas y en pocos casos grandes áreas de bosques que están presentes en todos los sitios pero más frecuentemente en La Dalia y Waslala.3. Fincas grandes donde predomina la producción de pasturas y remanentes de bosques, así como en áreas pequeñas con granos básicos y otros cultivos. Está presente principalmente en Siuna, Waslala y Hojancha. Hay pocas fincas de este tipo en La Dalia.Fincas grandes donde predomina la tierra bajo descansos y bosques (como en áreas de frontera agrícola). Principalmente existe en Siuna y pocos casos en los otros sitios. Este es un grupo pequeño.Figura 2. Área promedio y número de hogares por uso de suelo en las fincas de los cuatro sitios encuestados.Los árboles en las fincas son un elemento común en los sistemas productivos presentes de varias maneras: intercalados con cultivos, dispersos en pastos, en líneas y diversos tipos de bosques. Existe un amplio rango de variación en el número de usos de suelos con árboles en una finca desde no árboles (0) hasta 11 usos de suelo (Figura 3).Siuna es el sitio que reportó un mayor número de usos de suelo con árboles en sus fincas en promedio (5,7) y baja hasta un mínimo en La Dalia (2,6), donde las fincas son más pequeñas. En Hojancha también se reportó un número bajo de usos de suelo con árboles (3), pero fue el sitio en el que menos hogares reportaron no tener árboles en su finca. Esto es un patrón que va en línea con una mayor especificidad sobre los usos de suelo que tienen árboles (patios, cercas vivas y pasturas con árboles).Los cultivos más comúnmente asociados con árboles fueron granos básicos en todos los sitios (particularmente en Waslala), aunque dado que la existencia de sistemas agroforestales con granos básicos no es común en estas zonas, es probable que estos resultados reflejen la existencia de árboles dispersos en bajísimas densidades que pueden existir con cultivos de granos básicos. El café en La Dalia y Hojancha y el cacao en Waslala y Siuna también fueron importantes pero en mucho menos grado. Estos árboles provienen mayormente de regeneración natural ya que hay muy pocos árboles plantados. Los patios, las pasturas y las cercas vivas son los principales usos de suelo con árboles en la finca con variaciones que van acorde al cambio en la importancia del uso de suelos en las fincas (por ejemplo, en La Dalia donde hay pocas pasturas predominan los árboles en patios y las cercas vivas). En todos estos usos de suelo la presencia de árboles ha incrementado en los últimos 10 años. En los patios, los árboles son plantados o existe una combinación de árboles plantados y de regeneración natural. Los árboles en pasturas provienen mayormente de la regeneración natural, seguidos de una mezcla de árboles de regeneración y plantados. Solo en Hojancha se hace referencia de árboles plantados en pasturas.Figura 3. Frecuencia de hogares por número de usos de suelo con árboles en las fincas para los cuatro sitios encuestados.En La Dalia y en Hojancha los árboles más importantes para los agricultores son frutales como el aguacate, cítricos, el mango y laurel (maderable en La Dalia), mientras que en Waslala y Siuna son especies maderables como el laurel y el cedro, la guaba (leguminosa) y el níspero (frutal).La mayoría de los hogares consumen y venden sus productos. La agricultura de subsistencia basada únicamente en la producción de cultivos alimenticios no existe, es decir, se produce cultivos alimenticios y otros cultivos o animales menores para consumir y también para vender. Además, son poquísimos los hogares que se han especializado en un solo producto, situación que solo se da en Hojancha y La Dalia. Waslala y Siuna tienen un abanico de opciones productivas, donde la mayoría de los hogares reportan tener siete o más productos en sus fincas. Los principales cultivos son los granos básicos y frutas en el caso de La Dalia y Siuna, mientras que la producción de vegetales es minoritaria en todos los sitios. En la producción Hojancha pecuaria es muy común tener animales menores y sus productos derivados, mayoritariamente para el autoconsumo. En Nicaragua, la producción de granos básicos, frutas y animales menores son la base de la dieta local. La poca producción de vegetales, miel, pescado reflejan una preferencia cultural a nivel nacional donde el consumo de estos productos es bajo. El patrón de producción ganadera y de leña va en concordancia con la gradiente en tamaños de finca y cercanía a los mercados, incrementando desde La Dalia a Siuna. Hojancha es el lugar donde menos familias recolectan leña (la mayoría de los hogares tiene cocinas a gas o eléctricas).En Costa Rica es muy común que los hogares tengan otros medios de ingresos (fuera de la agricultura un 96,4% de los hogares); en Nicaragua este porcentaje varía entre 86-90%. La diversificación de fuentes de ingreso en efectivo en La Dalia y Waslala es baja, donde 63-70% de los hogares tienen de una a dos fuentes de ingreso (siendo más común tener una sola fuente). En Siuna y Hojancha existe una mayor diversificación de las fuentes de ingreso con dos fuentes de ingreso en el 54-57% de los hogares y de tres a cinco fuentes de ingreso en aproximadamente 28-41% de los hogares. El trabajo como jornalero fuera de la finca es una de las fuentes de ingresos en efectivo más importante en todos los sitios y particularmente en La Dalia y Waslala. Los prestamos formales e informales importantes en Waslala y Siuna, mientras que en Hojancha predominan los pagos de por parte de proyectos y/o gobierno y el trabajo con salarios fijos (Figura 4).El uso de créditos para la producción agrícola no es común entre los hogares encuestados (3-14% de los hogares) y solamente un hogar de los 559 entrevistados reportó haber adquirido un seguro contra eventos climáticos (Sección 7 de la línea de base). Capital humano: la familia, tipo, tamaño y nivel educativo (Sección 2 de la línea de base)La mayor parte de hogares están conformados por un hombre y una mujer que viven juntos y donde el hombre es el jefe de hogar. Los hogares liderados por mujeres alcanzan alrededor del 15% y corresponden a mujeres divorciadas, viudas, solteras o aquellas en que el esposo está lejos del hogar. El tamaño promedio de las familias es de cuatro a seis miembros en todos los sitios.Cuadro 1. Número de miembros del hogar en promedio para todo el hogar y por categoría de edad y su rango de variación (valores entre paréntesis).Fuerza laboralLa fuerza laboral expresada en número promedio de personas en edad laboral (mayores de cinco años y menores de 60) bordea las cuatro personas por hogar (Cuadro 1). En Nicaragua la población fuera de la edad laboral son principalmente menores de cinco años y en Costa Rica adultos mayores de 60 años (Figura 5). En Costa Rica existe un mayor nivel educativo alcanzado por algún miembro del hogar que en cualquiera de los otros sitios en Nicaragua. Waslala es el sitio con el nivel educativo más bajo en Nicaragua. Capital social: participación en organizaciones y redes de soporte en casos de crisis (Sección 9 de la línea de base)De manera general, la mayoría de los hogares en los cuatro sitios no pertenecen a grupos comunitarios relacionados a la producción agrícola y pecuaria. De aquellos que si pertenecen, los tipos de asociación o cooperativa más comunes, en orden de importancia, son las de ahorros y crédito, grupos dedicados al incremento de la productividad de la finca (ganadería y cultivos) y las organizaciones vinculadas al mercadeo y venta de productos agrícolas.El apoyo de los grupos comunitarios a crisis climáticas fue escaso y en algunos casos inexistente. Aunque no podemos determinar las causas de esta inacción por parte de los grupos existentes en las comunidades, el hecho de que las familias afectadas no hayan percibido apoyo es un indicador negativo al evaluar el capital social de los sitios encuestados.Capital físico: infraestructura en el hogar y para la producción (Sección 6 y 10 de la línea de base)En Nicaragua, la principal infraestructura para provisión de agua para el consumo del hogar y la agricultura son los pozos, particularmente en Waslala. Otros bienes para manejo de aguas para la agricultura son escasos en todos los sitios (particularmente en La Dalia y Waslala) e incluyen principalmente las represas como reservorios de agua y los tanques para recolectar agua y bombas de agua. Los bienes para la producción son casi inexistentes en todos los sitios, con excepción del molino de granos (70% hogares) y la despulpadora de café (13% hogares) en La Dalia.Capital físico: uso de semillas mejoradas e insumos externos para la producción (Sección 7 de la línea de base)El uso de semillas certificadas no es una práctica común entre los hogares encuestados en los cuatro sitios. Sin embargo, la compra de pesticidas/plaguicidas e insumos veterinarios si fue una inversión frecuente en los últimos 12 meses. Por otro lado, los fertilizantes químicos fueron adquiridos por más productores en La Dalia y Hojancha y solo por unos pocos en Waslala. Los fertilizantes más utilizados son la urea y las mezclas de nitrógeno, fósforo y potasio (NPK), principalmente para la producción de granos básicos (maíz, frijol y arroz), café y cítricos.Siuna y Waslala en Nicaragua dependen principalmente de la producción de la finca para abastecerse de productos alimenticios (Figura 8). En La Dalia los hogares usan la producción de finca para el consumo durante los meses de lluvia ya que durante la época seca la mayoría de hogares tiene que comprar su comida. En Hojancha los hogares se abastecen de productos que provienen de fuera de la finca todo el año (compran su comida), posiblemente por el mayor nivel de ingresos y la diversificación de fuentes de ingreso.El sitio con donde la mayoría de los hogares pasa menos meses de hambre es Siuna, donde apenas 37 hogares mencionaron dificultades para abastecerse de alimentos en algún mes del año (Figura 9). Llama la atención que siendo La Dalia el sitio más dinámico en términos de cambios (uso de fertilizantes para producción de granos básicos y acumulación de bienes en Nicaragua) es también el sitio con mayor número de hogares con problemas para alimentar a la familia (apenas seis familias reportaron no pasar problemas ningún mes del año).  Figura 8. Porcentaje de hogares por fuente de origen de los alimentos (granos básicos) durante los 12 meses del año. Los granos básicos (principalmente maíz y frijol) siguen siendo los cultivos más importantes en los cuatro sitios y esto no ha tenido variación durante los últimos 10 años. Por otro lado, los animales más importantes en los cuatro sitios fueron las gallinas, cerdos y el ganado de carne y leche.La introducción de cultivos incrementa desde Siuna hasta La Dalia que es el sitio que sobresale por el alto número de casos de introducción de cultivos como resultado de tener un mayor número de hogares que hicieron el cambio y un mayor número de cultivos en promedio por finca a los que se les aplicó el cambio (Figura 10). El abandono de cultivos temporal o permanentemente decrece de Siuna a la Dalia. Hojancha tiene un patrón de cambio similar a Siuna y destaca por ser el sitio donde menos hogares reportaron introducción/abandono, pero con un número de cultivos por hogar similar a La Dalia.En La Dalia los principales cultivos introducidos fueron maíz, frijoles y café. En los otros sitios los principales cultivos introducidos fueron los pastos mejorados y de corte, el cacao y los cítricos (este último solo en Hojancha). El dinamismo de La Dalia nuevamente resalta, especialmente en aquellos cambios vinculados a variedades de cultivos y el manejo de suelo y aguas. Siuna es el segundo sitio en término de cambios mientras que Waslala y Hojancha reportan juntos el menor grado de cambio entre todos los sitios (Figura 11). Los hogares en Hojancha no mencionaron mayores cambios en árboles sombra, mientras que los productores de Waslala fueron más activos en este componente. Se destaca que el número total de cambios en manejo de animales es similar en todos los sitios menos en Waslala, ya que en este sitio se reportó el número más bajo de cambios.Figura 11. Suma de número de hogares (absoluta y cumulativa) que reportaron diversos cambio en variedades de cultivo; el manejo de cultivos, suelos y agua; de cultivos perennes; de árboles de sombra y de animales, en los cuatro sitios.Los tipos de cambios más importantes en general fueron la introducción de nuevas variedades, en todos los sitios, y particularmente resistentes a plagas y enfermedades en La Dalia, el incremento en el uso de insumos externos (pesticidas, herbicidas y fertilizantes), mayor densidad de árboles de sombra y la introducción de nuevas razas o tipos de animales (Cuadro 2).El mejor rendimiento (mayor productividad en el caso de animales) fue la razón más importante en todos los sitios entrevistados para efectuar cambios en la selección de variedades de cultivos; manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de sombra y manejo/introducción de animales (Cuadro 3). La mano de obra es un factor de cambio importante en Siuna, las sequías más frecuentes en Waslala y las oportunidades de venta en Hojancha. Los precios fueron una razón de cambio en el manejo/ introducción de animales. Waslala La Dalia Hojancha suma hogares para todos los cambios cambios en variedades de cultivos cambios en manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas cambios en manejo de cultivos perennes cambios en manejo de sombra asociada a cultivos cambios en los animales de nca Cuadro 3. Lista de las dos razones más importantes para efectuar cambios en variedades de cultivo; manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales en los cuatro sitios. Se consideraron 11 aspectos de cambio en las variables climáticas, como razones de cambio (Sección 4 del estudio de base).Considerando todos estos aspectos de clima, el clima fue segundo tema de cambio más común (después de los aspectos de productividad y mercado) en el manejo de cultivos, tierras, aguas y el manejo de la sombra de árboles (Figura 12). De acuerdo a la percepción de los agricultores, la influencia del clima en los aspectos de manejo de animales es minoritaria.Figura 12. Suma del número de hogares (cumulativa para todos los tipos de cambios) que reportaron cambio en variedades y manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales de finca en los cuatro sitios.En los sitios analizados, el número de razones climáticas dadas por los agricultores incrementa desde Siuna hacia la Dalia (el sitio donde más razones climáticas se reportaron, Figura 13). Hojancha en Costa Rica (a pesar de estar en la zona agroecológica del bosque seco) fue el sitio donde menos razones climáticas de cambio se reportaron.Figura 13. Suma del número de hogares (cumulativa para todos los tipos de cambios) que reportaron cambios relacionados al clima en variedades y manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales de finca en los cuatro sitios.Figura 12. Suma del número de hogares (cumulativa para todos los tipos de cambios) que reportaron cambio en variedades y manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales de nca en los cuatro sitios.Figura 13. Suma del número de hogares (cumulativa para todos los tipos de cambios) que reportaron cambios relacionados al clima en variedades y manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales de nca en los cuatro sitios. Figura 12. Suma del número de hogares (cumulativa para todos los tipos de cambios) que reportaron cambio en variedades y manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales de nca en los cuatro sitios.Figura 13. Suma del número de hogares (cumulativa para todos los tipos de cambios) que reportaron cambios relacionados al clima en variedades y manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales de nca en los cuatro sitios. El aspecto de cambio en manejo de cultivos y de los árboles de sombra por clima más importantes en Nicaragua fueron las sequías más frecuentes y mayor/menor lluvias (Cuadro 4). Esto tal vez esté relacionado a la percepción de los agricultores que las estaciones secas son más prolongadas y en las épocas lluviosas existen episodios de lluvia mucho más intensos (fuertes lluvias en corto tiempo). En Siuna también se menciona los vientos más fuertes como una razón de cambio, lo cual puede estar en relación a los efectos de huracanes que afectan la zona atlántica de Nicaragua. En Hojancha se mencionaron la menor cantidad de lluvia y vientos como principales razones de cambio relacionadas al clima.Cuadro 4. Razones más importantes para efectuar cambios relacionados al clima en variedades de cultivo; manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas; manejo de árboles de sombra y manejo de animales en los cuatro sitios.Más cantidad de lluviasLluvias empiezan más temprano /vientos fuertesNo reportado No reportadoNo reportadoAlrededor del 23-67% de hogares encuestados mencionaron haber sufrido algún tipo de crisis relacionada al clima. Los hogares que reportaron crisis climática incrementaron desde la Dalia con 43 hogares a Waslala con 79 hogares y Siuna con 94 hogares. El sitio que menos crisis reportó fue Hojancha con 32 hogares. Entre todos los sitios, de los hogares que reportaron una crisis climática solo de uno a tres hogares fueron asistidos por algún grupo comunitario o cualquier otro tipo de ayuda.Los hogares en los cuatro sitios reportaron recibir varios tipos de pronósticos de clima y de plagas. La información de eventos extremos es la más común en Siuna y se reduce su importancia hacia la Dalia. El inicio de la época de lluvias y el clima para los próximos dos o tres meses también son comunes en todos los sitios con excepción de Waslala. De hecho, en Waslala en general muy pocos hogares reportaron recibir algún tipo de información climática.Los principales canales para recibir la información climática en todos los sitios son la radio, la televisión y amigos o vecinos. De los hogares que si recibieron información (1-48% de los hogares), poco más de la mitad de los casos reportaron que la información climática no contenía ningún tipo de recomendaciones sobre producción o prevención (particularmente en Hojancha). De los hogares que indicaron si haber recibido recomendaciones con la información, la mayoría de hogares si las aplicaron en la producción agrícola. Los cambios efectuados en el manejo de cultivos y animales se refieren más que nada al cambio en las fechas en las que se realizan las actividades agrícolas, en menor grado cambio de variedades.  La mayoría (71-81%) de los hogares están conformados por una pareja de hombre-mujer en que los dos están presentes en el hogar y el hombre es el jefe de hogar. Los hogares liderados únicamente por mujeres (divorciadas, viudas, solteras, o con el cónyuge lejos) representan alrededor del 15% en todos los sitios (Cuadro 6).Cuadro 6. Tipo de hogar y quien es el jefe del hogar en los sitios de estudio. Mujer, esposo está lejos, esposo toma la mayoría de las decisiones del hogar y agrícolas 0,7 1,4 1,4 2,1Mujer, esposo está lejos, esposa toma la mayoría de las decisiones del hogar y agrícolas 2,9 4,3 0,7En la mayoría de las actividades productivas dentro de la finca la mayoría del trabajo se hace por varios miembros de la familia o los hombres (Figura 15). En todos los sitios, las mujeres hacen la mayoría del trabajo en el procesamiento de cultivos alimenticios, crianza de animales menores (aves de corral y cerdos) y el procesamiento de productos de origen animal (leche, huevos, carne) y su participación en otras actividades de la finca es minoritaria. En el caso de actividades de recolección fuera de la finca la participación de la mujer es casi nula (Figura 16).Esto puede deberse a una fuerte división del trabajo en la producción o tal vez al poco reconocimiento del trabajo de la mujer en el ámbito productivo, ya que su contribución se encuentre dentro de la categoría de varios miembros del hogar.Figura 15. División del trabajo en las principales actividades productivas de la finca.Figura 15. División del trabajo en las principales actividades productivas de la nca . Figura 16. División del trabajo en la recolección de productos fuera de la finca.En general para los cuatro sitios la forma más común de tenencia de la tierra es la tierra propia y mayoritariamente le pertenece al hombre (Figura 17). En la Dalia y Siuna se da el mayor número de casos en que la tierra le pertenece a la mujer. La tierra prestada es más común en La Dalia y Waslala, mientras que en Siuna y Hojancha otros arreglos, como usufructo o tierra prestada, son más comunes después de la tierra propia. En general, la tenencia de la tierra en manos de la mujer es poco común. Para los otros miembros de la familia lo más común es la tierra rentada o bajo otros arreglos.  Hojancha en Costa Rica y Siuna en Nicaragua comparten varias características en sistemas de producción, capital natural medido por la cobertura boscosa, baja percepción de los impactos del clima y más importante en el estado de las familias agricultoras en la seguridad alimentaria (medido por los meses de hambre) aunque este resultado se debe a procesos completamente diferentes. En el caso de Costa Rica las familias dependen mayoritariamente de los ingresos fuera de la finca, con mejores salarios y mercados para acceso a la comida y donde se ha desarrollado paisajes especializados a la producción ganadera y producción forestal (plantaciones y bosques secundarios regenerados); mientras que en Siuna igualmente con una alta cobertura de bosques y bajo desarrollo de mercados agrícolas la población aprovecha sus (todavía) diversos paisajes y alto capital natural para sostener el consumo de alimentos con productos de la finca. Actualmente, estos dos sitios evidencian una baja percepción de los impactos negativos del clima y de fluctuaciones de precios.Waslala y La Dalia se encuentran en el estado intermedio de intensificación e incremento de la presión poblacional y son los sitios que evidencian una mayor percepción a los impactos de las fluctuaciones de precios y clima. Waslala (el sitio intermedio entre Siuna y La Dalia) es un sitio donde se encuentran las comunidades más empobrecidas de los cuatro sitios, con menor acceso a la educación, comunicación, poca infraestructura para almacenar agua y una actitud de poca respuesta al cambio.Con poblaciones que todavía dependen fuertemente en la producción de la finca para su seguridad alimentaria.La Dalia a pesar de estar relativamente cerca de los mercados agrícolas en Nicaragua, es un sitio que ejemplifica la fragmentación de la tierra y concentración de la población en mercados de trabajo poco desarrollados, de manera que las unidades productivas no son suficientes para que las familias produzcan suficiente alimento ni existe suficiente empleo para solventar las necesidades familiares. También en este territorio existe una bajísima inversión en infraestructura para almacenar agua para la agricultura. La Dalia es también el sitio más dinámico para realizar cambios en manejo de cultivos, suelos y aguas lo cual puede ser una oportunidad ya que las familias activamente buscan soluciones.En todos los sitios el rol de la mujer en la producción de la finca aparece como secundario, esto por la aparente poca participación de la mujer en las actividades productivas (aunque esto puede estar enmascarado en la labor familiar compartida), así como poco control sobre la tenencia de la tierra. Las implicaciones de la división de trabajo y tenencia de la tierra puede tener consecuencias negativas para los hogares liderados por mujeres solas tanto particularmente por el menor conocimiento sobre como producir y pobreza al no ser dueñas de la tierra.La comparación de los sitios en Nicaragua y Costa Rica nos muestra diferentes realidades sobre los medios de vida, sistemas de producción y percepción del cambio en poblaciones rurales. La consideración de estas diferencias locales es crucial en el momento de planificar actividades o intervenciones enfocadas a reducir la vulnerabilidad de pequeños productores para lograr un mejor impacto.","tokenCount":"4882"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"53bcb88ada33f98fa962f173750faf69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6c513d1b-8ce3-48d9-bf42-008762710c06/retrieve","id":"583663336"},"keywords":["demand","quality","safety","livestock products","Bangladesh viii"],"sieverID":"c7bbc7a3-b41f-47d5-a9a1-ff8cd64bd007","pagecount":"86","content":"vii 1 Background and objectives 2 Data source and methodology 2.1 Sampling procedure 2.2 Questionnaire design and survey procedure Shankar Raha of the Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh provided useful comments and suggestions on the study design and development of the survey instrument and assistance in conducting the survey in Mymensingh town. Derek Baker and an anonymous referee provided useful comments and suggestions on an earlier draft.Demand for meat and dairy products has been increasing rapidly in Bangladesh as in other developing countries, propelled by income and population growth and urbanization.Although nearly 40% of the population live below the poverty line, reasonably good economic growth during the past few years has also created an expanding middle and high income population, especially in the urban areas, where dietary patterns have been changingrapidly toward higher levels of consumption of high value products like milk, meat, eggs, fish, fruits and vegetables. Per capita daily consumption of milk increased from 22 gms in 1983-84 to 32 gms in 2005 and that of meat and eggs from 10 gms to 18 gms during the same period (Hossain and Deb 2009).Such an expanding market for animal products should create an opportunity for transformation of the livestock production and marketing sectors. This should particularly create an opportunity for smallholder mixed crop-livestock farms to commercialize livestock enterprises for income and employment generation, and so contribute to poverty alleviation.This will require a change in the production-marketing behaviour of producers and market agents-they have to change from 'trying to sell what is available from production' to 'producing and selling what is demanded in the market'. Such a transformation has been occurring slowly. Traditionally smallholder mixed farmers used to keep livestock for multiple functions-draught power, own consumption of milk and meat, saving and investment, replacement of own herd etc. They used to sell any small surplus product after home consumption and any live animals whenever there was a need for cash, or occasionally at the time of festivals when prices rose. Over time, the extent of commercialization among some smallholder livestock keepers and mixed farmers has been increasing slowly, but that has been inadequate to match the rapidly expanding demand. Therefore, a commercial livestock production sector, especially in case of poultry, has emerged to fill the gap. The relative importance of the commercial sector is expected to increase gradually though the dual structure-smallholder mixed farms and commercial medium to large-scale farms-is expected to continue for a considerable period.Along with increased demand for quantities of traditional animal products, it is generally observed that consumer demand for new products are also increasing. Moreover, demand for reliable quality, food safety and scale of delivery has also been increasing in the urban areas. A manifestation of this is the price premia in formal markets (supermarkets and other such outlets) for products similar to those sold in traditional wet markets. The emergence of supermarkets may be a response to consumer demand for better quality, safety and convenience, and their willingness to pay price premia for these attributes. However, quantitative evidence on the nature and extent of demand for specific quality and safety attributes are scarce. This is more so in the case of products in informal markets.There are officially-defined standards for pasteurized and powdered milk and legal restriction on the use of water or other foreign material for adulteration but there are no standards for other traditional dairy products and for fresh meat or live animals. A similar situation prevails in many developing countries. In the absence of adequate officially defined grades, standards and quality characteristics and in the absence of mechanisms to assuring those standards in the country, local standards are appearing in some situations-both in formal and informal markets. Both consumers and suppliers perhaps use certain criteria and indicators to differentiate those qualities and standards, e.g. various notions of 'quality' that may not be easily measurable (e.g. texture, taste), convenience and of trust and reputation in sellers. Some of these may be associated with rather significant 'price premia.' However, an understanding of the nature of products and their quality and safety attributes that consumers prefer and are willing to pay for is essential for market actors and producers to respond to those preferences. Also understanding these attributes and their price premia may provide a basis for initiating specification and harmonization of local grades and standards. Such research work will help refine official standards on quality and safety for regulatory purposes based on local empirical information rather than hypothetical western norms which are sometimes used but cannot be enforced and have no real relevance for the level of economic development in the country.The objectives of this study are the following:To analyse the nature of preferences for different livestock products among urban i.consumers, especially the nature of preferences for quality and safety attributes of the products, the criteria and indicators consumers use in differentiating quality and safety and the prices they pay for such attributes To assess the nature of demand for different livestock products within the household ii.budget, and its implications for the production and marketing sectors.Data sources and the methodology used are presented in Section 2 of this study. Results based on descriptive statistics on dairy and meat product preferences based on various attributes appear in Section 3. Effect of attributes of different products on perceived prices are assessed in Section 4. Consumption patterns based on statements about recent purchases are presented in Section 5. Results of an econometric demand model for estimation of elasticity of demand including effect of a quality and safety based index are presented in Section 6. A final section presents conclusions.Data source and methodologyThe current study was conducted in two cities-Metropolitan Dhaka (comprising parts of Dhaka, Narayangonj and Gazipur districts), and Mymensingh. Metropolitan Dhaka is the capital city of Bangladesh and represents a good combination of heterogeneous classes of urban people with different local culture especially in terms of food consumption behaviour, religion, and socio-economic conditions. On the other hand, Mymensingh is a representation of typical medium sized old towns in Bangladesh.A sampling frame was carefully developed in consultation with the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), the central statistical agency of the Bangladesh Government, which conducts countrywide census and sample surveys on various issues. The BBS has already developed a good sampling frame popularly known as the Sample Vital Registration System (SVRS). The SVRS was introduced by the BBS in 1980 to determine annual population change during inter-census period. Initially it covered 103 primary sample units (PSU) each comprising of about 250 compact contiguous households with permanent residents. Its scope was limited to recording births and deaths. Since then the scope of the survey has been expanded several times by including various other parameters and the number of PSUs to cover wider areas.An integrated multi-stage sample design was introduced with effect from July 2000 with 1000PSUs distributed between urban and rural areas throughout the country.Currently there are 26 and 10 PSUs in Metropolitan Dhaka and Mymensingh city, respectively. Considering the diversity of settlement pattern and economic conditions of the households, especially income groups, across the defined PSUs, 12 PSUs were selected purposively from Metropolitan Dhaka and 6 from Mymensingh city. The selected PSUs of Metropolitan Dhaka are located in seven Thanas (Police stations), namely, Mirpur, Mohammadpur, Dhanmondi, Badda, Demra, Narayangonj and Gazipur. The selected PSUs of Mymensingh are located in Kotwali Thana. However, because of purposive sampling of the PSU, the sample to some extent under-represents the lowest income households, especially those living in shanty towns and poorer parts of the two cities. For those households, concern about quality of animal products is perhaps less important as they consume small quantities of such products. This aspect needs to be taken into account while interpreting results, especially household budget shares and related information for demand analysis.From each of the selected PSU, 50 households were selected at random for the survey. Thus a total of 600 samples were drawn from Metropolitan Dhaka and 300 from Mymensingh.Sampling with replacement technique was adopted to handle problem of missing households.In order to design the survey questionnaire, questions on quality and safety of meat and dairy products and possible ways of quantifying consumer perceptions and preferences for these had to be determined. The Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institute has defined standards representing quality and safety of some food products, especially processed products like pasteurized and powdered milk, but there is no officially defined standard for most fresh food products produced and marketed in the country through the traditional or formal supply chains. However, it is generally believed that producers and consumers use local informal standards based on preferences of consumers, as well as needs of transecting agents and that consumers use specific criteria and indicators to differentiate quality and safety attributes of products.The literature on demand for food suggests that consumers' perceptions of quality, safety and convenience are important factors that influence willingness to pay for and consume livestock products (for a review, see Grunert 2005). In developing country markets for animal products, consumers and producers differentiate products on the basis of specific criteria representing quality, safety and convenience which should be observable and measurable.In the absence of any literature on such criteria and indicators in the Bangladesh context, a rapid appraisal was conducted among 10 consumer households at their residences, markets, shops and eating places, 10 traders and 4 supermarkets in Dhaka and Mymensingh cities, soliciting their opinion on criteria and indicators they normally used or had in mind when considering quality and safety of different dairy and meat products. The qualitative answers indicated that distinction between quality and safety was not always very clear in the minds of most consumers. Indeed, most consumers considered safety as an essential part of quality.This was also reflected in the criteria and indicators they used to differentiate product attributes as some criteria might be associated with quality, others with safety and some might represent both. Thus, no clear distinction between quality and safety was made in the detailed survey for collecting data. Rather, based on a synthesis of the various opinions on quality and safety criteria during the PRA, a set of criteria and related indicators was chosen for inclusion in the detailed survey to solicit information on consumer preferences for each product. The chosen criteria and indicators for the selected products are summarized in Table 1. a. Not all criteria and indicators were applicable for all the selected products. For example, if a product is not likely to be used for direct drinking or making cheese, the product would not be rated for those characteristics. Such exclusions are built into the data matrix in the questionnaire. For some attributes, levels or categories were defined for rating, e.g. in case of fat content two levels (high vs. low) were considered, for breed, two options (local vs. cross/exotic) were considered.Preference rating is a response variable that can be measured on an ordinal scale showing the strength of preference for an item in comparison to one or more other items of a similar nature. Ideally preference for any product or service is an individual affair. Even for products that are collectively consumed in a household, actual preference level may differ among household members. Collective consumption and the inherent preference then represent only an average level of preference for the household as a whole. Whether preference rating data should be collected from individuals or from households (representing the average or norm for the household) can be debated. However, in this study, preference rating data have been collected for the household on various forms of milk, milk products and different types of meat. The preference rating for a particular product has 10 possible outcomes or categories: 1 = strongly dislike,…, 10 = strongly like. For example, a consumer household might strongly prefer pasteurized milk for drinking but not for making yoghurt, in which case, rating for drinking could be 10 or close to 10 but rating for making yoghurt could be very low. If a consumer household strongly prefers beef of local breed rather than crossbreed, rating for beef from local breed could be very high and that for crossbreed very low. Rather than ranking, a rating procedure was adopted because it is possible to rank products based on preference rating but the reverse is not possible. Moreover, rating allows determination of not only relative preference but also the distance or strength of the relative preference. Thus rating data can be subjected to analysis by a variety of analytical methods (see for example, Jabbar and Diedhiou 2003).The detailed survey was conducted during May and June 2006. The questionnaire included information on household characteristics, preference rating for various dairy and meat products according to alternative use of the product as well as attributes of the product, detailed expenditure on dairy and meat products and semi-aggregate expenditure on other food and non-food items, and an aggregate estimate of overall household income and expenditure. In a conventional household expenditure or budget survey, usually sufficiently disaggregated records are collected in order to ensure a high degree of accuracy of the estimates. Given the focus of this study on quality and safety issues and the need to collect detailed data to address those aspects, more disaggregated data on food and non-food expenditures could not be collected due to time constraint and possible interviewee fatigue. Also data for a full year is usually collected to take into account seasonality in consumption and expenditure but in this survey, detailed consumption data were collected for 30 days prior to the survey. However, it was observed that urban households had a regular pattern of monthly expenditure and most people bought many items at regular intervals, e.g. some items daily, some weekly or biweekly and others monthly, so the reported figures should be considered as reasonably accurate estimates.Enumerators were drawn from the graduate student pool of two universities and were trained both before and during pre-testing the questionnaire. The final survey was conducted under close supervision of the research team members. Although the household head was approached for the interview, the principal household food manager was actively involved during the interview. In many instances, several household members contributed to the answers, which helped to capture the position and preference of the household rather than of an individual household member.Descriptive analysis of preferences for livestock products 3.1 Household demographics Some general characteristics of the sample households are summarized in Table 2. There are few differences between the two cities except that in Mymensingh there are a higher proportion of non-Muslims than in Dhaka and share of high income sample is higher in Dhaka than in Mymensingh. Given the inherent nature of the two cities and Dhaka being the capital city, these differences seem plausible. 3.2 Households' preferences for dairy productsMilk and milk products are preferred items in the daily diet of average Bangladeshi households. However, not every household or all members of a household, especially in lower income brackets, can afford to consume them even if they wish to do so. In the past, only raw fresh milk and traditional sweets and ghee (clarified butter) made from fresh milk were consumed. More recently various new products (pasteurized milk, powdered milk with 1. BDT (Bangladesh Taka). In August 2010, USD 1 = BDT 69.65.various fat contents, ice-cream) have been introduced into the Bangladeshi market, offering greater variety and substitution opportunities.The study's respondents were asked whether they consumed certain dairy products, and if so whether they consumed them regularly. Then, respondents were asked to express preferences by rating products. This order of enquiry was used because it is likely that households that did not consume a product at all would not know enough about that product to be able to rate it. The results on frequency of consumption are summarized in Table 3. Raw fresh milk is the most widely and regularly consumed product in both cities, followed by pasteurized milk and full cream powdered milk. Raw fresh milk is more widely and regularly consumed in Mymensingh compared to Dhaka and opposite is the case for pasteurized milk. Full cream powdered milk is also very important in both the cities though the extent and the regularity of consumption are higher in Dhaka. Amongst other products, fermented milk, non-pasteurized packed fresh milk (NPP fresh milk), half cream powdered milk and lassi are more widely and regularly consumed in Dhaka than in Mymensingh. Condensed milk is almost equally important in both the cities. Preference ratings for the four most prevalent uses of milk were compared for perceived close substitute products. Substantial variation was observed in the two cities (Table 4). Average ratings are presented for those who rated a product for a specified use (those not consuming the product for that use are excluded, so each average rating may not be for the entire sample or the same number of sample households). Apart from rating differences between the two cities, rating differences were also compared for low, medium and high income groups but they were not found to be significantly different, so these are not reported. In cases where differences between income groups were significant, the results are discussed in that regard. Condensed milk 1.5 6.0 5.6 5.9 6.0 6.0Note: -Not rated as these are not used for the specified purposes. Source: Field survey.Among the four forms of liquid milk-raw fresh, NNP fresh, pasteurized and UHT milk-all are most preferred for drinking and less so for other uses, in both the cities. Also in both cities, raw fresh milk is the most preferred for drinking followed by pasteurized milk, UHT milk and NPP fresh milk. NPP fresh milk is not a widely accessible, nor widely used, product, so the real choice is between raw, pasteurized and UHT milk: the products are preferred in that order in both cities. For mixing with tea/coffee/hot drinks, consumers in Dhaka appear to be indifferent between the four forms of liquid milk but consumers in Mymensingh have a clear preference for raw fresh milk. A similar result is obtained for use of milk in production of yoghurt and for baking/making sweets. Taking all the uses together, overall order of preference is raw, pasteurized, and then UHT milk.From the two types of powdered milk, there are differences in average preference rating for alternative uses and also between the two cities. For drinking, overall average rating is about the same as the rating for UHT milk, which received the lowest rating among the four liquid milk types. However, preference for drinking is higher for half cream powdered milk in Mymensingh and full cream in Dhaka. Full cream milk received higher rating for mixing with tea/coffee/hot drink, for making yoghurt but less for baking and making sweets in both the cities. In general powdered milk received very poor rating for making yoghurt in Mymensingh where making yoghurt with liquid milk is still a tradition. Taking all the uses together, full cream powdered milk is preferred to half cream powdered milk.Lassi and fermented milk are used only for drinking and they are the most preferred in Mymensingh and Dhaka respectively. Condensed milk is equally preferred for mixing with tea/coffee/hot drink in both the cities but for baking and making sweets, it is more preferred in Dhaka than in Mymensingh.Each product was rated for the following attributes representing both quality and safety: taste, nutritive value, health risk, hygiene, shelf life, availability, handling convenience, price, and overall rating taking into account all the attributes. All the attributes except health risk are self-explanatory where higher rating implies higher preference. Although milk and some milk products are generally described in Bangladesh as complete, healthy, nutritious food, nowadays educated, higher income, better nourished people have also started associating such products with health risk 2 due to high fat and cholesterol content. Thus perception about the health risk of specific milk and milk products might differ widely among consumers depending on their own health and income status as well as perception about the properties of these products irrespective of their actual or intrinsic properties or credence qualities.While for other attributes, better quality or value is given higher rating, in case of health risk attribute the rating was done in a reverse way: lower health risk was given higher rating hence more preferred as a product. This allowed interpretation of ratings for all the attributes in a uniform manner.The rating results are summarized in Table 5. In general, absolute rating values for most products with respect to most of the attributes are lower for Dhaka compared to Mymensingh.2. Health risk due to possible foodborne disease and toxins associated with food poisoning are covered in the attribute 'hygieneness' which defines the sanitary conditions of a product including cleanliness. Some highlights of the results are as follows. Among the four forms of liquid milk-raw fresh, NNP fresh, pasteurized and UHT-raw fresh milk is considered the most tasty and nutritious, and the least risky for health. Pasteurized and UHT milk are rated highest (by a small margin) in terms of hygiene, shelf life, availability and handling convenience. In terms of health risk, raw fresh milk is considered least risky by consumers in Mymensingh, where boiled raw fresh milk drinking has a strong tradition. Skimmed milk has been rated moderately for health risk although it is generally believed that skimmed milk is good for health or has very low risk for health. Perhaps these ratings are likely to be based on limited awareness of health risks associated with milk. Fermented milk has been rated low in terms of taste, nutritive value and health risk. The rating for flavour and nutritive value seems reasonable but rating for health risk may reflect lack of awareness about the public health risk, and fears concerning the way this product is usually prepared and marketed. Between full and half cream powdered milk, ratings differ between attributes but for a particular attribute, differences between the two cities are small. Condensed milk has been rated higher in Mymensingh than in Dhaka implying that Mymensingh consumers consider it less risky for health. This may be a reflection of the differences in the degree of awareness about this product, which is generally promoted and sold as a form of milk product.Rating of a product in terms of its prevailing market price indicates consumer perception of the product's real value for money. A product's higher rating indicates that its price is low, or at least acceptable, relative to the utility generated by its consumption. In Mymensingh, the price-related ratings for raw fresh, NNP fresh and fermented milk are reasonably high. The rating for other products in Mymensingh, and generally all products in Dhaka, are such that it seems consumers consider the prevailing prices of these products to be high in relation to their utility generated.When all the attributes are considered for overall rating of each product, raw milk tops the list followed by pasteurized milk and full cream powdered milk. This order was the same for overall rating based on different uses (see above). The overall rating values based on uses and attributes are similar even though these ratings were performed independently during the same interview session without cross referring to each another. Therefore, the ratings can be considered robust and representative of consumer perceptions about the characteristics of these products and their market and use values.Raw fresh milk, pasteurized milk, full and half cream powdered milk are the most widely consumed milk products in the urban areas. They are also the most preferred among various dairy products as indicated by preference ratings based on different attributes. Although ratings indicate the order of preference, alone they do not indicate the significance of differences in preferences. In order to assess the strength of the differences in preference, LOGISTIC procedure in SAS (SAS 1995) was used. This procedure fits a parallel lines regression model based on the cumulative distribution probabilities of the response categories, in our case the preference ratings. Following Jabbar and Diedhiou (2003), the model was defined as:where, for product I, Y is the response variable with j possible outcomes or categories, X is a continuous predictor variable. In our case, there are 10 response categories for an attribute: 1 = least preferred or strongly dislike,…, 10 = most preferred or strongly like.For such a data set, PROC LOGISTIC in SAS fits the following model:and so on, to describe a set of parallel regression lines as described above.PROC LOGISTIC models the cumulative probabilities assuming a common slope parameter associated with the predictor variable, hence called the proportional-odds model as the ratio of the odds of the event Y inferior or equal to j is independent of the category, j. This means that the odds ratio is constant for all categories.Raw fresh milk was used as a reference product, so other forms of milk were compared with respect to this form of milk. Preference ordering was assessed with respect to the following attributes: taste, nutritive value, health risk, product hygiene, shelf life, availability, handling convenience, price and overall taking into account all attributes. Because the least preferred or strong dislike (Y = 1) end of the rating scale was associated with lower ordered values (ratings) in the response profile distribution, the probability of disliking the milk product was modelled with respect to each of the above attributes. This means, in this analysis, the response levels were sorted in ascending order, so a positive value of a coefficient indicates lower preference compared to raw milk, the base category, and a negative coefficient indicates the opposite.The results of logit analysis of preferences for different forms of milk are presented in Table 6.The p-values of score chi-square for all the product attributes were statistically significant at less than 5% level, which indicates that the data fitted the model well. Given that there were 10 response categories, the cumulative probability estimation procedure generated 9 intercepts for each equation-α 1 to α 9 in Table 6-which sum to provide the overall intercept and need no further interpretation.For each attribute, the estimated coefficients of the three forms of milk indicate the preference ordering as well as the distances in preference from raw milk, the base category.The p-values of the estimated coefficients are highly significant, at least at 5%. The results indicate that preferences among the four forms of milk differ according to the specific attributes. For example, in terms of taste and nutritive value, the order of preference was raw milk first, pasteurized milk second, full cream powdered milk third and half cream powdered milk fourth. On a scale of 1 to 10, compared to raw milk, average rating for taste was about 1.2 points lower for pasteurized milk, 1.9 points lower for full cream powdered milk and 2.9points lower for half cream powdered milk. Rating for nutritive value for these products was lower by 1.6, 2.2 and 2.8 points, respectively. In terms of health risk, the order of preference was the same as in the case of taste and nutritive value but the absolute differences were small and difference between pasteurized milk and full cream powdered milk was not significant. In terms of product hygiene, shelf life, availability and handling convenience, all three forms of milk-pasteurized, full and half cream powder-were more preferred than raw fresh milk. In terms of hygiene, full cream powdered milk was the most preferred followed by pasteurized milk, and half cream powdered milk though the values of absolute differences were small and the difference between pasteurized and full cream powdered milk was not statistically significant. In terms of shelf life, on average, compared to raw milk, rating for full cream powder, half cream powder and pasteurized milk was higher by respectively 2.8, 2.4 and 2.0 points. In terms of price and overall preference, the order of preference is raw milk first, pasteurized milk second, full cream powder milk third and half cream powder milk fourth. On average, compared to raw milk overall preference rating for pasteurized, full cream powder and half cream powder was lower by 1.0, 1.4 and 2.1 points respectively.In addition to the attributes discussed above, respondents were asked to rate three main forms of milk-raw fresh, pasteurized and powdered-in terms of several criteria which also represent quality in some way. These are cattle breed, fat content, colour, smell/flavour, source of the product, brand, packaging, labelling and whether vitamin-enriched. Each criterion was represented by two or more indicators (Table 7). These criteria and indicators were derived from the PRA conducted before the detailed survey was conducted and were included in the survey for collecting quantitative information. Rating was done for each criterion and related indicators out of a maximum of 10 points. Higher rating indicated that the product was preferred more on the basis of that criterion and indicator. Local cattle used to be the main source of liquid milk for both rural and urban areas but recent introduction of exotic germplasm for crossbreeding has widened the choice about liquid milk for marketing and consumption in fresh or in pasteurized form. Assuming that consumers might differentiate milk from local and crossbred cows, rating for both raw fresh and pasteurized milk from local and crossbred cows was solicited. It was recognized that consumers could to some extent differentiate or verify the physical properties of raw fresh milk from local and crossbred cows on the basis of some criteria and associated indicators, such as colour and flavour (see below), but the same could not be done in case of pasteurized milk. Labelling of pasteurized milk does not include information on breed of cows from which milk is sourced. Therefore, the rating should be interpreted as preferences if full information was available. It appears that consumers in both the cities, for both raw and pasteurized milk had stronger preference for milk from local cows, and that the strength of this preference was stronger among consumers in Mymensingh, where access to milk from local cows, especially in fresh form, was better than in Dhaka where pasteurized milk was more widely used. For powdered milk, breed of animal for milk used in its preparation would be difficult to verify by consumers, so rating information for powdered milk by breed was not sought.Fat content is an important quality criterion in the minds of consumers. Powdered milk is usually differentiated into full cream and half cream and labelled, and fat content in pasteurized milk is also labelled on the pack. But fat content of raw fresh milk in the informal retail market cannot be objectively measured by consumers, but they may use an indicator such as colour (creamy vs. watery) to make subjective judgement about milk's fat content. Ratings for the three forms of milk showed that full or whole milk was generally preferred by consumers in both the cities, and more so in Mymensingh. Non-fat or skimmed milk was least preferred. This was also consistent with the higher preference for creamy colour milk, which was used by consumers as a subjective indicator of fat content and quality.Some consumers judge quality based on flavour. Flavour may reflect quality in two ways:certain feeds may contribute to undesirable flavour of milk; and spoilage can affect flavour (this can also affect improperly-stored powdered milk). Addition of preservatives may also change flavour. Ratings of good and bad flavour suggest that good flavour was an essential quality criterion in the minds of the consumers.Consumers sometimes associate the origin or source of supply or purchase point of milk with quality. In some case, the source is known, e.g. a specific supermarket but in other cases, it is merely an information as the real original source is not known, e.g. a vendor selling raw milk may inform the buyer about a locality or a farm as the source of supply in order to assure quality but the buyer may not be able to readily verify that except to trust the vendor. Rating the three products in terms of source of milk, the producer or the manufacturer was the most preferred source of supply in case of raw and pasteurized milk, while secondary sources such as vendors, grocery shops and supermarkets were less preferred. In case of powdered milk, grocery shops and supermarkets were almost equally preferred.Liquid milk sold in ordinarily sold polythene bag, in sachet or without any pack, in which case buyers bring their own container or unspecified packing material like used polythene bag to collect raw milk. For powdered milk standard tin or polypack is the norm but loose milk is also sold in non-standard unspecific packing material. Ratings on package options suggest that sachet was preferred for liquid milk and tin was preferred for powdered milk. In Mymensingh non-packed raw milk was most preferred perhaps because consumers could physically see and examine (colour, flavour, smell) what they were buying.Pasteurized and powdered milk sold in the market were labelled giving brand name and some information on composition and nutritive values but raw fresh milk was not labelled, yet consumers expressed strong preference for labelled products instead of non-labelled products in case of all three forms of milk. In case of raw milk, it might be an indication of revealed but unfulfilled preference. Similarly vitamin enrichment of pasteurized and powdered milk was strongly preferred compared to non-enriched products perhaps because market promotion for such products often highlighted the nutritive values of vitamin and other mineral enrichment, especially for children.Three major brands of pasteurized milk are available in the market-Milk Vita, Aarong and Pran. Milk Vita has been on the market since the early 1970s. It is produced by a milk producers' cooperative established following the Indian Amul principle to some extent (Jabbar 2010). Aarong brand is marketed by BRAC Dairy, an enterprise of the BRAC, which is the largest NGO in the country but its dairy enterprise is run as a profit making activity registered under the company law. BRAC dairy has been in the market since 1998. Pran dairy is another private sector enterprise which has entered the market in the last two to three years. There are a few other minor brands on the market such as Fresh, Rangpur and Aftab dairy. All of these enterprises collect raw milk from rural areas through their network of collection centres and chilling plants for processing at central facilities. Sometimes, especially during lean season, they mix powdered milk with raw milk to produce pasteurized milk. Whether consumers are aware of this is unclear.Preference rating of the three main brands show that Milk Vita was the most preferred followed by Aarong and Pran (Table 8). About 30% of milk consumed in the country is imported and most of this is in the form of powdered milk in bulk, which is packed in the country and sold under various brand names. Some nine major brands, and a number of minor ones, were identified during the PRA prior to the main survey, and some of these brands have been on the market for longer than others. The marketers/distributors differentiated their brands with respect to some characteristics such as source of raw material (Australia, New Zealand, Denmark etc.), enrichment with certain vitamins and calcium, and these were highlighted in aggressive promotional advertisements. But it was unclear if raw materials (powdered milk) imported from different countries had real intrinsic difference in terms of quality. Fresh milk 5.9 6.7 6.5Source: Field survey.Respondents were asked to rate preference among the major powder milk brands commonly traded in the country (Table 8). It appears that the older brands like Nestle, Dano, Diploma and Red Cow were more preferred than the other relatively new brands in the market. Like powdered milk, condensed milk was also branded, labelled and sometimes vitamin or mineral enriched, and consumers have rated labelling and vitamin enrichment very highly.Beef (cattle meat) and mutton (goat meat) 3 are the most commonly consumed meats in the country. Small quantities of buffalo meat and sheep meat are sold in city meat markets, but butchers sell buffalo meat as beef, and sheep meat as mutton to consumers who may not know how to identify or differentiate them. The sample households were asked if they consumed different types of meat and if so, regularly. It was assumed, but not objectively verified, that the consumers knew clearly the type of product they bought or consumed, especially that they were able to differentiate beef from buffalo meat and goat meat from sheep meat. 4 The responses showed that beef, mutton and chicken consumption was common in both the cities, and very few consumers consumed buffalo meat and sheep meat, especially in Mymensingh (Table 9). Then respondents were asked to rate their general preference for beef, buffalo meat, chevon and sheep meat and chicken at their existing prices on a scale of 1-10, 10 representing most preferred and 1 least preferred. It appears that chicken was the most preferred meat in both the cities but the strength of preference in Mymensingh was stronger than in Dhaka.Consumers in Dhaka had much stronger preference for beef compared to buffalo meat and for mutton compared to sheep meat than consumers in Mymensingh (Table 10). Goat and sheep meat was given a slightly higher rating by high income, than low income, consumers while the reverse was true for buffalo meat. Price differences of these products may be a partial explanation for this difference. Next, the sample households were asked to rate their preferences for only beef (cattle meat), goat meat and chicken given existing prices based on a number of criteria. In case of cattle meat, the criteria were breed of animal, sex and age, feeding system, fat content, meat cut, colour, appearance of meat, appearance of display space for meat and certification by an appropriate authority such as food, public health or municipal authority. In the case of goat meat, the above criteria were used except breed and age because it is generally known that Black Bengal breed is the only goat breed available in the meat market. There are only a few Jamnapari animals in the country which are usually consumed during festival times and are rarely sold in ordinary meat markets. Also, age grouping of goat carcass was rather difficult in the meat market but sex distinction was possible so was used as a criteria. Relevant indicators for each criterion for cattle and goat meat are shown in Table 11 in which the rating results are also summarized. In the case of cattle meat, among the three breeds-local, Indian and crossbreed-consumers in both the cities strongly preferred meat of local breed. Of all the sex and age groups, meat of young bull was strongly preferred and cow meat, which mostly comes from old culled cows, was least preferred. Meat from naturally fed animals was strongly preferred to meat from artificially fattened animals. Medium fat content (extramuscular cover) was most preferred and high fat content was least preferred but the differences in the ratings for different fat content levels were lower in Dhaka than in Mymensingh, which was not easy to explain. Artificially feed or fattened animals and medium and high fat content were less preferred by higher income consumers, perhaps because of their greater awareness than low income consumers about health risks from fatty and artificially fed animals. Also higher income households consume fat from various sources so can afford to reduce fat intake with meat while poorer households consume few fatty foods, so some fat with meat is considered harmless.Among the different cuts, meat from foreleg, hind leg and brisket was more preferred than cuts from other parts of the carcass as well as organs. This result applied in both cities, although in Dhaka the differences in the rating of different cuts were less pronounced than those in Mymensingh. Preference for boneless meat was moderate in both the cities because making curry was the most common use of beef and a combination of cuts including bones from different part of the carcass reduces the quality of curry. That is why combination of cuts including bone was preferred by most consumers. Boneless meat was primarily used for making minced meat to prepare certain types of menu (e.g. kabab), which was not consumed regularly but was more commonly served during special occasions and festivals. Cooking minced meat on its own as curry was not common in Bangladeshi households.Red or greyish colour meat and meat chunks with presence of fresh blood were preferred as they were considered as fresh. Meat from carcass with certification stamp from an authorized public health or municipal authority as a sign of safety was strongly preferred compared to meat from unstamped carcass. Consumers also paid significant attention to the hygiene and cleanliness of the display space for meat in the butcher shop. However, it was generally observed that municipal and public health regulations on meat hygiene were poorly observed by butchers due to lax enforcement of the regulations.In the case of goat meat, meat from male animals fed naturally and with medium fat content was most preferred in both the cities. But artificially fed or fattened animals and medium and high fat content in carcass was more preferred by lower income consumers. There was slightly higher preference for hind leg, foreleg and brisket ribs, compared to cuts from other parts of the carcass but overall rating differences between cuts from different parts of the carcass was minimal. This was especially apparent in Dhaka, perhaps for the same reason as for beef cuts. Also as for beef, meat with presence of blood as a sign of freshness and certification of the carcass by an appropriate authority as a sign of safety were also strongly preferred. High value was also accorded to the hygiene and cleanliness of the meat display space in the butcher shop.Chicken was generally sold live. In the past, chicken used to be slaughtered at home but in recent times, some informal chicken traders in wet markets in the cities slaughter and clean the bird once the price has been agreed. Some customers take this service to avoid dirt and hazard at home and also because many households nowadays may not have regular house help to undertake such tasks. Some traders provide this service at a small extra fee while others may negotiate the price inclusive of the service or provide it free to attract customers.The actual cleanliness and hygiene of these slaughter service providers and their facilities were observed to be very poor due to lack of enforcement of municipal regulations. Dressed broiler and local chicken meat was sold at the (small number of) supermarkets in Dhaka and generally higher income consumers bought such products at those outlets. In answer to a question to rate preference for live and dressed frozen chicken, respondents in Dhaka on average gave 8.5 and 4.4 respectively out of 10 compared to 9.6 and 2.3 in Mymensingh.In answer to another questions on preference for different cuts from dressed chicken, respondents in Mymensingh rated 9.5, 7.7 and 6.6 for leg, breast and other parts respectively out of 10 compared to 8.3, 6.8 and 5.5 respectively in Dhaka. These differences between the two cities probably reflected the differences in their level of urbanization, life style, food habit and changing market mechanism to respond to those demands.With respect to live chicken, respondents were asked to rate preferences based on a number of quality criteria such as breed, sex, type of bird and feeding system. The indicators related to each quality criterion are shown in Table 12. It appears that preference for local chicken was still higher at current prices but the rapidly-expanding commercial broiler industry has also created a general acceptance of broiler. However, like local chicken, many ordinary consumers still preferred to buy live broiler chicken for slaughter at home or get them slaughtered at the shop in their presence. Naturally fed/raised chicken was more preferred than are commercially raised chicken but differences in preferences between male and female chicken and between young and older chicken seemed to be small.Respondents were asked if they consumed different types of eggs available in the marketlocal hen egg, layer or commercial farm hen egg and duck egg. Eighty-eight percent of respondents in Mymensingh reported consuming local hen and farm eggs and 68% consumed duck eggs while in Dhaka 96, 99 and 80% consumed local, farm and duck eggs. Respondents were asked to rate preferences for the three types of eggs in terms of two alternative uses-either for cooking or for making poached, fried or omelette eggs. Local hen egg was marginally more preferred than farm egg, and duck egg was least preferred for both uses and in both the towns (Table 13). In general average ratings for all types of egg in Dhaka were slightly lower than in Mymensingh. Respondents were also asked to rate preferences for the three types of eggs in terms of attributes such as taste, nutritive value, health risk, hygiene, shelf life, availability, handling convenience, price and overall rating taking into account all the attributes. The results are summarized in Table 14. The results show that local hen egg was more preferred only in terms of taste and overall attributes, and farm egg was most preferred for almost all other attributes. Duck egg was least preferred in terms of a number of attributes. In terms of price, farm egg was rated slightly higher than the other two types indicating that consumers considered farm egg price in relation to its attributes more reasonable than for the other two. 4 Effects of product attributes on perceived price of milk and meat 4.1 General specification of hedonic price model It has been shown earlier that respondents expressed different degrees of preferences for different types of dairy products and meat in terms of selected attributes as indicated by attribute specific ratings. A relevant question is whether such preference ratings have any relationship with or influence on the existing or perceived price of the relevant product. A product may be highly rated in terms of certain attribute while lowly rated in terms of another attribute. Therefore, the price the buyer would be willing to pay for the product would be influenced by all the relevant attributes, and able to be measured by the associated ratings.Hedonic or implicit price analysis could be employed to study such relationship. Hedonic price analysis is based on the hypothesis that products have attributes that confer utility and that the values of those attributes contribute to the price of the product. The observed product price is therefore a composite of the implicit prices of the product's attributes (Rosen 1974;Lucas 1975).More formally, let Y represent a livestock product class. Any model of Y can be completely described by a vector of its characteristics. Let Q = q 1 , ...., q j , ...q n represent the vector of characteristics of Y. Then any model of Y, say y i , can be described by its characteristics, that is y i = y i (q i1 ,..., q ij ,...,q in ) where q ij is the quantity of the jth characteristic provided by model i of good Y. The hedonic price function for Y gives the price of any model, as a function of its characteristics. Specifically for y i , P y = p y (q i1 ,...., q ij , ...., q in ) If p y (.) can be estimated from observations of the prices and characteristics of different models, the price of any model can be calculated from knowledge of its characteristics. The partial derivative of the hedonic price function with respect to any characteristics gives its marginal implicit price that is the additional expenditure required to purchase a unit of the product with a marginally larger quantity of that characteristic.In a competitive market, the implicit price of a product is a function of its attributes alone, and not of the attributes of any individual consumer or supplier of the product (Rosen 1974;Oczkowski 1994). This implies that only products are differentiated, while their markets, buyers and sellers are not. However, most empirical studies have found that price was also related to attributes of the buyers and sellers, implying some non-competitiveness in the market (e.g. Brorsen et al. 1984;Francis 1990;Andargachew and Brokken 1993;Parker 1993;Parker and Zilberman 1993;Williams et al. 1993;Oczkowski 1994;Rodriguez et al. 1995;Jabbar 1998).In the present study, the respondents were asked to rate the products in terms of various physical attributes as well as in terms of prevailing price assuming that the prevailing price was also an attribute of the product. However, the rating for the price attribute was assumed to implicitly encompass the ratings for all the other attributes. As such, the rating of a product in terms of its prevailing price could be treated as the respondents' willingness to pay that level of price for that product given the ratings on the other attributes of that product. Hence, the relevant data were subjected to hedonic price analysis to see how ratings in terms of various attributes influenced the rating in terms of the price. Separate price functions were fitted for the four major types of milk-raw fresh, pasteurized, full cream and half cream powdered milk, and for beef, mutton and chicken.In the case of milk, the product attributes considered were taste, nutritive value, health risk, shelf life, availability and handling convenience. Different sets of socio-economic variables were tried and the ones that gave the best fit were included in the final model. These are age and education of the household head, family size, total food expenditure, a dummy for source of supply or purchase of the product, and a city dummy. Normally season could be a major influence on price but our data was for a one month period prior to the survey, excluding inter-seasonal effects.The results are presented in Table 15. The estimated models were statistically significant as judged by R2 and F-values. Among various product attributes' ratings, taste appeared to be the most important factor affecting rating of prices. This result holds for all forms of milk. The magnitudes of this coefficient are the largest for all the equations and similar for all forms of milk. The results imply that higher rating on taste was accompanied by a significantly higher rating on price of a form of milk. Perception on nutritive value was found to significantly affect prices of raw fresh, pasteurized and full cream powdered milk. The results implied that higher rating on this attribute for a form of milk was accompanied by a significantly higher rating on price of that form of milk. Perception on health risk was found to significantly affect prices of all the forms of milk, except half cream powdered milk. For higher rating of this attribute (indicating lower risk), there was a significant increase in the rating on prices of raw, pasteurized and full cream powdered milk. Perception on shelf life and handling convenience were also found to contribute significantly to prices of pasteurized and full cream powdered milk.The coefficient of the city dummy variable was significant for raw, pasteurized and full cream powdered milk implying that respondents of Dhaka were willing to pay higher prices for these products compared to those in Mymensingh. Among other socioeconomic variables, only age of the household head had a significant negative effect on rating on the price of half cream powdered milk implying that older household heads had lower preference for this product. The coefficient of grocery shop as a source of purchase of half cream powdered milk was negative and significant implying that higher rating of this source led to a lower rating on price. Prevalence of adulterated products in the market and a generally-held perception that products sold at grocery shops were not always trustworthy might partly explain this result.The results for beef and mutton are presented in Table 16. The estimated models were found to be statistically significant judged by R 2 and F-values.Rating for price of beef significantly increased along with higher ratings for local breed animal, mature bull as the animal type, natural feeding system, medium fat content of the carcass, boneless cut, and whitish colour of meat (indicating meat from younger animals or veal meat). On the other hand, rating for price significantly declined along with increased rating for cow as the animal type, red colour of the meat (an indication of meat from older animals), old/dry as well as water added as the appearance of meat, and age of the household head. Respondents in Dhaka city were willing to pay a significantly higher price for beef than those in Mymensingh.Rating for mutton price significantly increased along with higher ratings for high fat content in carcass, front leg and thigh as cuts, fresh/presence of blood as appearance of meat, and significantly decreased along with higher rating for neck/hump/buttock as a cut. As for beef, respondents in Dhaka city were willing to pay a significantly higher price for mutton than those in Mymensingh.The model for live chicken displayed a poor fit, with almost no factors having significant coefficient except breed-a higher rating for local breed led to higher rating of price. The results for the chicken meat function are shown in Table 17. Rating for price of chicken meat significantly increased along with higher ratings for cross/exotic chicken, male chicken, leg as cut, frozen chicken as form and older age of household. Rating for price significantly decreased as rating increased for cock or hen as bird type, breast and other parts as cuts, and as the size of the family increased.  Respondents were asked to report the time and the source of their most recent purchase of each dairy product. It appears that 76% of the sample households recently purchased pasteurized milk while only 25% purchased raw fresh milk (Table 18). Also 70-90% of the households purchased full cream powder milk, yoghurt, ice-cream and sweets but few purchased other products. Among the purchasers of raw fresh and pasteurized milk and ice-cream about 50% each bought during the week before the survey, and about two-thirds of the households did so within the month before the survey. For most of the other products, most recent purchase occurred longer than one or two weeks earlier. It should be noted that those who purchased during the week before the survey or during any other week did not always do so daily, so the proportion of households purchasing on a particular day was fairly small, which is consistent with figures shown earlier that a small proportion of households consumed milk regularly though a significant proportion did so irregularly. Moreover, liquid milk and some other products are consumed on the day of purchase or within a short period while for products like powder milk and ghee consumption may be spread over a longer period. A small proportion of households purchased cheese and cream because production and consumption of processed cheese and cream is not common in Bangladesh. Dairy processors like Milk Vita produced a small quantity of processed cheese. Mostly unbranded salty cheese produced by smallholder producers was available in the market. Very small quantities of imported cheese were available in supermarkets and special grocery shops.Based on recent purchase it was found that in case of pasteurized milk, 83% of the purchasing households bought Milk Vita brand, 11% bought Aarong of BRAC dairy and 6% bought Pran. This pattern was similar across the two cities. Actual countrywide market share of these brands was slightly different with Aarong's share being slightly larger and that of Milk Vita's slightly smaller than the sample results. NPP fresh milk was sold only by Aftab dairy.Only one brand of UHT milk (Pran) was available in the market and it was found that 36% of households of Dhaka and 14% of Mymensingh purchased it recently.In case of powdered milk, various brands of full cream and half cream milk were sold in the market but Dano, Nido and Diploma were the most popular brands with some differences in the order of preference in the two cities (Table 19). The important brands of ice-cream purchased by the households were Milk Vita, Quality, Igloo, and Polar (Table 20). Various brands of condensed milk were available in the market. Among these brands Starship, Danish and Goalini appeared to be first, second and third most popular brands among the sample consumers (Table 21). However, order of preferences for different brands differed between the two cities.For yoghurt, butter, sweets, ghee and cream, defining brand was somewhat difficult because sellers of these products could be categorized into: (a) single outlet shops serving largely local people (in Mymensingh these are common); (b) enterprises with chain stores or multiple branches in different parts of the city (more common in Dhaka); and (c) small shops or traders, some of them tea shops or restaurants without any brand name or recognition in a wider market. Therefore information on brand name was not collected for these products, however, information on brand vs. no-brand could be collected.   Respondents were asked to mention the source of their most recent purchases of various dairy products and the reasons for choosing that source. In theory, every time a product is purchased, a household may choose a different source if there is an opportunity to do so.However, since respondents were asked to report source for only the most recent purchase, only one source was reported. For raw fresh milk, home delivery by producer and trader/ vendor were the most important sources of most recent purchase in both the cities but home delivery was more important in Mymensingh than in Dhaka (Tables 22 and 23). Supply of fresh milk from the peri-urban areas of Mymensingh was still a common phenomenon while it has become a less common practice in the large Dhaka city. Grocery shops and supermarkets were important sources of purchase of pasteurized milk, UHT milk, powder milk, yoghurt, butter/ghee and ice-cream in both the cities though it was observed during the PRA that the supermarkets in Mymensingh were not really supermarkets proper rather they were better organized grocery shops. Other products were purchased from a variety of traditional sources. Known seller or shop, and proximity to home, were the most common stated reasons for choosing the purchase outlet in both the cities: especially for raw milk, sweets and yoghurt (Table 24). Some households also reported low price as a reason for choice.  Forty-one percent of the buyers of raw fresh milk in Mymensingh paid in cash and 59% paid in arrears weekly, fortnightly or monthly. The corresponding figures for Dhaka were 60 and 40%. Credit purchase is a common practice in case of home delivery by producers or vendors. In case of all other products, cash purchase was the norm though in a small number of cases (1-6% for different products in Mymensingh and 3-15% in Dhaka) credit purchase was reported. Most probably such purchases were made from local grocery shops or corner stores nearby who normally allowed a small credit to known buyers.Respondents were asked to report if they used one or more of the following criteria for judging the quality of the products purchased: freshness; purity; good flavour or smell; good taste; high fat content; low fat content. Taste might be used as a criterion in current purchase based on past experience, and other quality criteria like freshness, purity and fat content might be used as quality criteria in current purchase partly on the basis of verification at the time of purchase, or on the basis of experience if the seller or the source was trusted. High and low fat contents are treated as separate attributes here as there may be differences in fat content between products of the same type. Responses showed that the sample households used one or more of these quality criteria for each product. Freshness, purity, flavour and fat contents were the most commonly and frequently used criteria in judging quality, but the frequency of use of a particular criterion differed across the products and also between the two cities (Tables 25 and 26). For example, freshness, good taste and purity were considered important for judging quality of raw fresh milk by a much larger proportion of households in Dhaka than in Mymensingh.For pasteurized milk, a much larger proportion used good taste as a criteria of quality in Mymensingh than in Dhaka. Overall, good taste was the most widely used quality criterion for most products in both the cities.Respondents who purchased a variety of dairy products recently were asked to rate their degree of satisfaction with the quality of their purchased products. Responses were classified into three satisfaction levels-high, medium and low. Not satisfied at all was not put as an option, as during the pretest of the questionnaire it appeared that a decision to purchase would not be made if the purchaser was totally dissatisfied with the quality based on the criteria in his/her mind. It appears that the majority of purchasers for most of the products were highly satisfied, good proportions were moderately satisfied while a small proportion were just satisfied (Table 27).Respondent households were asked to give actual or estimated consumption of various milk and milk products at home and, separately, away from home during the 30 days prior to the survey (i.e. during April-May 2006). Estimated per capita consumption at home and unit prices paid are summarized in Table 28. Per capita per month consumption of all milk and milk products averaged 5.3 kg liquid milk equivalent (LME) in Mymensingh and 9.5 kg in Dhaka. In Mymensingh, most of the consumption volume was in the form of raw fresh milk and a small amount of pasteurized milk. In Dhaka most of the consumption also was in the form of liquid milk, of which pasteurized milk had a larger share than was the case in Mymensingh. The level of consumption of all the other milk products was also higher in Dhaka. Unit prices of raw fresh milk, yoghurt, ice-cream, lassi and ghee were found to be lower in Mymensingh city than in Dhaka city. The probable reason could be that nearly all these items except a portion of ice-cream were locally produced in surrounding areas of Mymensingh so were less costly to produce and market. On the other hand, pasteurized milk, skimmed milk, powdered milk, cheese, butter and chocolate milk were processed in and around Metropolitan Dhaka and were relatively cheaper there than in Mymensingh.Total values of milk and milk products consumed at home per capita per month by households in Dhaka and Mymensingh averaged BDT 884 and 538 respectively (Table 29).An additional BDT 79 and 30 respectively was spent on consumption of dairy products away from home. In Mymensingh, most of the consumption away from home was in the form of ice-cream while in Dhaka about 40% of the expenditure was in the form of ice-cream and about half was in the form of sweets, lassi and chocolate milk. This difference between the two cities in the level and pattern of consumption away from home was most likely associated with differences in the average level of income and associated food habit or life style. Liquid milk and half cream powdered milk was most commonly consumed as a drink and to some extent mixing with other food items and mixing with tea/coffee/hot drink (Table 30).On the other hand, full cream powdered milk was less frequently used for drinking.  5.2 Meat and eggsLocal wet market and retail or grocery shops were the most common sources of purchase of most meat and eggs (Table 31). Supermarkets were used by very few households. As mentioned earlier, Mymensingh features well-organized grocery shops which are well patronized.The overwhelming majority of households in both cities-more in Mymensingh than in Dhaka-mentioned proximity to home as the main reason for choice of outlet for purchase (Table 32). Lower price and familiarity with the seller (perhaps involving trust) were also reasons for choice of outlet for a good proportion of the households in Dhaka, and for a smaller proportion in Mymensingh.Most respondents reported that they judged the quality of meat at the time of purchase primarily on the basis of freshness (assessed by various indicators such as smell or flavour in case of meat) as there were few other verifiable indicators of quality. Earlier, in response to questions on preferences for types of meat based on several quality criteria, households indicated preferences by rating those criteria. But it appears that under the prevailing marketing practices where there was no product grading, standardization or labelling of meat and eggs, observed freshness was the only criterion used by most households at the time of purchase.Asked about the extent of satisfaction on a scale of three levels-high, medium and lowabout the quality of their recent purchases of various meats and eggs, majority were highly satisfied with respect to most products, a good proportion were medium satisfied and a few reported low level of satisfaction (Table 33). The degree of satisfaction was less in the case of beef from Indian cattle, sheep meat and local chicken (village chicken reared under (semi)   Respondents were asked to report actual or estimated quantities of consumption of different types of meat and eggs at home and outside home during 30 days prior to the survey in May-June 2006. While some items were purchased by weight, some (live chickens, other birds, eggs) were purchased by number. Thus, only the value of consumption is reported for all products (Table 34). Households in Mymensingh spent more on local egg and duck egg than did those in Metropolitan Dhaka. On the other hand, the households in Metropolitan Dhaka spent more on farm eggs. Total expenditure on meat in Dhaka was 42% higher than that in Mymensingh. Households in Dhaka spent more on beef and on chicken than those in Mymensingh. Per capita expenditure on mutton/lamb consumption in the two cities was similar. In order to put the demand (expenditure) for animal products within the context of overall household budget or expenditure, respondents were asked to report actual or estimated expenditure on all food and non-food items during the 30 days prior to the survey. Food expenditure accounted for 56% of overall household expenditure for the entire sample (Table 35). For low, medium and high income household groups, share of food expenditure in total household expenditure was respectively 58%, 49% and 39% (Table 36). The sample average can be compared with the national household expenditure survey which found that food expenditure accounted for 53.8% of total consumption expenditure nationally and 45.2% in urban areas (BBS 2007, 36). However, the 2005 survey by BBS found that meat and eggs and milk/milk products respectively accounted for 10.6% and 4.4% of total food expenditure in urban areas, while our survey arrived at the corresponding figures of 22.3 and 32.0%(Table 35). There could be three reasons for such divergence from the BBS survey. First, in the current survey, very detailed data on livestock products were collected. For example, milk and milk products included all types of liquid and powdered milk, sweets, yoghurt, ghee, ice-cream etc., and both consumption at home and away from home were included. The BBS survey did not go into such details, so numerous items might not have been includedor reported under 'milk and milk products'. Second, our survey covered only Dhaka and Mymensingh, the capital and an additional advanced city: so the sample had some bias towards higher income households. Lastly, the survey data was for a specific month rather than a full year, so there was the possibility of some deviation from the national level average.Another feature of the current survey was that the share of expenditure on animal products within food expenditure increased as income level increased, but the share of expenditure on animal products in the overall household expenditure declined. However, higher income households still spent higher absolute amounts on animal products compared to lower income groups. We will see later the implications for these expenditure patterns on the estimated characteristics of demand. 6.2 Estimation of demand elasticities 6.2.1 Specification of the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) model Working (1943) and Leser (1963) specified a demand model to estimate the incomeconsumption relationship and to establish how this relationship changes with household income. Deaton and Muellbauer (1980) extended the Working-Lesser model through the addition of price variables. Since accurate income measures and data are difficult to collect, total expenditure is often used as a proxy for income. To mitigate potential heteroskedasticity problems, the model is also estimated in share form (Deaton and Muellbauer 1980;Delgado and Courbois 1998). This model, generally known as the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) model, has been widely used as a framework for estimating price and income elasticities when expenditure or budget share data are available (see for example, Deaton and Muellbauer 1980;Huang and David 1993;Fan et al. 1994;Halbrendt et al. 1994;Fan et al. 1995;Wu et al. 1995;Gao et al. 1996;Cai et al. 1998;Delgado and Courbois 1998;Han and Wahl 1998;Huang and Rozelle 1998;Huang and Bouis 2001).The basic share equation for the AIDS model can be specified for the present study as:where w i is the share of food commodity group i in total expenditure, p j is the price of food commodity j, X is the total expenditure within the food commodity demand system, and P is an overall price index. This expression is a linear approximation of the translog price index.As in most empirical work using the AIDS, P is approximated by the Stone price index:In equation 1, intercept α 0 is the budget share when all prices and real expenditures are normalized to 1, which means that one share equation in the system is dropped for estimation purposes. Parameter γ ij is the change in the ith budget share with respect to a percentage change in the jth price holding real expenditure constant, α i represents the change in the ith budget share with respect to a percentage change in real income or expenditure with prices held constant. Equation 1 can be estimated, imposing the adding up, homogeneity and symmetry restrictions, which are essential properties of the AIDS model. Hazell and Roell (1983) showed that when the demand equations are estimated in the share form as above, the following adding up restrictions are automatically imposed:51 Following Greene and Alston (1990), conditional uncompensated price elasticities (η ij ) and conditional expenditure elasticities (e i ) from LA-AIDS model are given by:andwhere δ ij is equal to one when i = j, and zero otherwise. Note that the β i s in equation 3 will be equal to zero only if preferences are homothetic (Deaton and Muellbauer 1980). Fan et al. (1994) modified the AIDS model to incorporate consumer habit formation over time and Huang and Bouis (2001) allowed food consumption behaviour to change geographically by introducing time and regional dummies. In order to incorporate characteristics of the consumer household to account for changes in purchase and consumption behaviour as we did in hedonic model, the AIDS model in equation 1 can be extended to:where Z is a vector of personal characteristics of the household, and D is a city dummy, X and P are as defined earlier and u i is a random error term. The Z variables permit demand to vary by household head's demographic characteristics such as age, education, family size that usually affect purchase and consumption. The expenditure share in equation 5 can be rewritten for empirical estimation as:An interest in this study was to assess the effect of quality and safety perceptions on the demand for dairy products and meat. Inclusion of such a demand shifter in the AIDS model was considered useful by Alston et al. (2001). Piggott and Marsh (2004) accommodated three indices accounting for beef safety, pork safety and poultry safety. In this study, perception on quality and safety as reflected in the preference ratings for different dairy products and meat according to their various attributes were regarded as a household characteristic that affected purchase and consumption behaviour like any other demographic characteristic. Therefore, in the expenditure share equations specified above, indices of quality and safety perceptions that usually affected purchase and consumption of livestock products were included in the vector Z along with other independent variables in equation 6.Indices accounting for the household head's perceptions on quality and safety of livestock products were constructed on the basis of their preference rating elucidated for different products discussed in Section 3. The index for commodity i with respect to its attribute k = 1,….n can be defined as:where Z k = index of household head's perception on quality and safety for i livestock products and X ik = household head's score given for kth attribute of ith commodity, N = grand total scores assigned for all n attributes of ith commodity.In this study we constructed quality and safety perception indices separately for dairy products, and meat and eggs. For measuring quality and safety perception index of dairy products we considered 15 milk products and 7 attributes for each product assuming that knowledge and preference for quality and safety about these products would give a good representation of the household's preference for quality and safety attributes of products in general. The products considered were raw fresh milk, pasteurized, UHT, fermented milk, full and half cream powdered milk, condensed milk, yoghurt, cheese, butter, ghee, icecream, sweets, chocolate milk and lassi. And the ratings of eight attributes considered were taste, nutritive value, health risk, hygieneness, shelf life, availability of product, handling convenience and price. 5To construct a quality and safety perception index for meat and eggs, we considered beef, mutton, and chicken and eggs. The product attributes considered for beef and mutton were breed, sex and age of animal, natural and artificial feeding systems, fat content, different cuts, colour of meat, appearance of meat, hygiene of display location and certification by a food authority. The attributes for chicken were local and crossbreeds, sex of bird, age of bird, feeding system, cuts, and appearance (live and frozen). Three types of eggs were considered:local hen egg, farm hen egg and duck egg. The product attributes considered were taste, nutritive value, health risk, hygieneness, shelf life, availability of product, handling convenience and price.Each of the estimated share equations represented a group of commodities so each sample household had positive purchase values except in the case of some equations representing a specific individual commodity like liquid milk and pasteurized milk or a commodity group with few commodities such as beef and mutton. However, even in such cases zero purchase samples were 7-10 out of 900, which were excluded from the relevant equations (see Appendix A). This small size of the zero purchase samples did not appear to affect the regression estimates.5. Whether inclusion of rating on product price was appropriate for construction of the quality index might be a question. Rating on price in the present context was expected to reflect a product's quality and safety as in the case of ratings on other product attributes, so it was assumed that a composite index of quality could be constructed incorporating ratings on all the attributes including price.In case of time series data, usually problem of heteroskedasticity may arise. We have estimated share equations using cross-section data. No apparent heteroskedasticity problem was observed from plots of residuals versus predicted values and plots of residuals vs. some of the independent variables, so no formal rigorous test for heteroskedasticity was conducted.The specified share equations were estimated with and without the quality index as a variable to test whether the inclusion of the quality index was appropriate. For goodness of fit, the R 2 and F values for various estimated share equations that included the quality index variable are shown in Table 37. The table also shows if the coefficient of any of the two quality index variables-dairy and meat-was statistically significant. R 2 varied from 0.24 to 0.74 and these were statistically significant at least at 5% level. These are reasonably good figures for cross-sectional data. Secondly, inclusion of the quality and safety indices for dairy and meat products as explanatory variables improved the value of R 2 to varying degrees for most equations, had no effect in a few cases and marginally reduced the value of R 2 for only one equation.Moreover, out of 15 equations, in 5 cases the coefficient of both the quality index variables were significant, in 9 cases either of the two was significant and in only 1 case neither was significant at 5% level. Thus it can be reasonably asserted that perception of quality and safety of a food product can be used as a household demographic characteristic, along with other socioeconomic characteristics, to explain purchase and expenditure pattern within the limit of the household budget.Expenditure elasticities of different food items estimated from the budget share equations (calculated at mean of data) are shown in Table 38. The expenditure elasticitiy of an item measures the percentage increase in the weight of that item due to one percent increase in total expenditure on the group of which the item is a part. Thus the expenditure elasticity of 1.02 for food suggest that, other things including relative prices of commodities remaining unchanged, the relative share of food in total household expenditure increases in approximately the same proportion as the real total household expenditure increases, i.e.the demand for food is unitary elastic in the major urban areas of Bangladesh. However, although overall expenditure elasticity of food is unitary, there are possibilities of substitution between food groups and between individual food items. sugar are highly price elastic and demand for edible oil is highly price inelastic. Normally cereals and vegetables are considered as necessities so are expected to be price inelastic but in this study, these two items appeared marginally price elastic while meat and dairy products appeared to be close to unitary elastic. Perhaps this is because the sample is exclusively composed of urban households whose food habit within budget is slightly different from rural households. Delgado and Courbois (1998) in the aforementioned cross-country study found own price elasticity of -0.86 for milk, which is close to the estimate for milk in this study, but they found -0.14 to -0.39 for different types of meat, which are quite the opposite compared to the estimates in this study. However, differences in the nature of sample units and datanational aggregate in Delgado-Courbois case and individual urban households in the current study-and the difference in the reference period and location (in some countries meat features more importantly in the diet than others) may partly explain these differences in the estimates.The cross-price elasticity of an item measures the change in demand for that item in response to relative price changes of another product. As expected, other things remaining the same, price rise for a particular item is associated with decrease or increase in demand for other item(s) in varying degrees. The demand for meat, milk and fish appears to be highly sensitive to the change in prices of cereals-a one percent increase in the price of cereals decreases demand for meat by one percent, demand for milk by 1.8% and demand for fish by 1.3%.Thus, given the low average income of Bangladesh households, given budget constraint, a rise in the price of cereal, the basic staple, induces a decrease in the demand for protein commodities. In general, most of the other cross-price elasticities are found to be less than unity with either negative or positive sign, indicating substitution and complementary relationship (respectively) between the items concerned. In a few cases the values are close to zero implying no demand relationship between the two products. Demand for animal products has been increasing rapidly in Bangladesh due to urbanization and increases in per capita income. There are rudimentary indications that demand for improved food quality and safety has also been increasing and that consumers were willing to pay higher prices for such attributes of products. However, there is little empirical evidence on the criteria and indicators of quality and safety that consumers use in their buying decisions, or that suppliers use in differentiating products to promote sales, or the extent to which consumers are willing to pay for such attributes. The present study attempts to bridge that knowledge gap.A detailed survey was conducted in 2006 among 900 households selected through a multistage stratified sampling procedure from Dhaka and Mymensingh cities to collect information on consumer preference expressed through rating of different dairy products, meat and eggs according to their alternative uses and their attributes reflecting quality and safety as well as household expenditure on food and non-food items. Although some degree of differentiation for quality and safety might prevail among both rural and urban consumers, it was assumed that the differentiation would be sharper in the urban areas, so given available time and resources, the survey was focused in urban areas.Preferences for dairy products Among various products considered, raw fresh milk, pasteurized milk and full and half cream powdered milk were the major dairy products consumed by urban consumers. Raw fresh milk was regularly consumed by about 58% of the households, pasteurized milk by 37%, and powdered milk by about 55% of the households, with or without raw or pasteurized milk. Less frequent consumption was prevalent among another 25-35% of the households.Other dairy products were consumed by a smaller proportion of households.Milk and milk products were consumed in different ways, e.g. direct drinking or eating, mixing with other food, mixing with tea/coffee/hot drinks, for making yoghurt, or for baking.Respondents reporting consumption of products were asked to rate their preference for each product on a scale of 1-10 in terms of each use option, as well as an overall rating taking into account all uses. Lower rating indicated lower preference and vice versa. The results indicated that the degree of preference for a product varied according to use option. With respect to a particular use option, the degree of preference for different products also varied between the two cities; this was true even for products which are close substitutes such as raw milk, pasteurized milk and powdered milk.Respondents were also asked to rate each product in terms of the following attributes: taste, nutritive value, health risk, hygiene, shelf life, availability, handling convenience, and price, as well as an overall preference rating taking into account all the attributes. The resultsshowed that the degree of preferences for a particular product varied in terms of different attributes, and with respect to a particular attribute. The degree of preference varied between different products, even for close substitutes.The overall rating values of the different dairy products, especially such major dairy products as raw, pasteurized and powdered milk, according to different uses and different attributes mentioned above were almost similar even though these ratings were done independently during the same interview session without cross referring to one another. Overall, taking into account all use options and all attributes, the order of preference was raw fresh milk, pasteurized milk, full cream powdered milk and half cream powdered milk. This was further confirmed by the use of a logistic regression model that analysed preference ordering based on preference rating. Therefore, the ratings done on the basis of use options and on the basis of attributes should be considered as highly consistent and representative of consumer perceptions about the characteristics of these products and their market and use values.Consumers were also asked to rate preferences for four major forms of milk-raw fresh, pasteurized, full and half cream powder-based on a number of other factors that reflect quality and safety of dairy products (e.g. breed of cow, fat content, colour and flavour, source of supply, packaging, brand and labelling where applicable). For raw fresh milk, consumers preferred milk from local cows, with high fat content, creamy colour with good flavour, supplied directly from/by producers themselves. In case of pasteurized and powdered milk, full cream milk with creamy colour and good flavour received the highest rating. Products packed in certain material with labelling were also strongly preferred to non-packed products or those using alternative packaging material and those without labelling. There was also more preference for Milk Vita brand of pasteurized milk than for other brands. In the case of powdered milk, Nestle, Dano and Red Cow were the most preferred brands.Among the major types of meat consumed in Bangladesh, urban consumers most preferred chicken followed by beef, goat meat, buffalo meat and sheep meat. Respondents were asked to rate various meat products in terms of a number of attributes: e.g. breed (local, exotic, Indian), age and sex, feeding system (natural, commercial), fat content on the carcass (high, low), various cuts (hind leg, foreleg, mixed cuts, rib, boneless etc.), certification by a health authority, hygiene of the display location in the shop. For beef, the meat of local breeds, young bulls, naturally produced animals and moderate fat content was most preferred. For goat meat, naturally fed male animals were preferred. For both beef and goat meat, fresh meat certified by a health authority and sold in a hygienic butcher shop were found to be the most preferred attributes.Preference rating for live chicken was about twice the rating given to dressed frozen chicken but the rapidly expanding commercial broiler industry has also created a general acceptance of broilers. When buying broliers, consumers' preference was to buy them live and get them slaughtered at home or in the shop in their presence. Differences in preferences between male and female chicken and between young and older chicken appeared minor, although chicken from natural production systems was preferred to commercially raised chicken.Respondents were also asked to rate preferences for three types of eggs (local hen egg, farm hen egg and duck egg) in terms of a number of attributes such as taste, nutritive value, health risk, hygiene, shelf life, availability, handling convenience, price and overall rating taking into account all the attributes. Local hen eggs were slightly more preferred, although only in terms of taste and overall attributes and farm eggs were most preferred in terms of nearly all the other attributes. Duck eggs were least preferred in terms of a number of attributes. In terms of price, farm eggs were rated slightly higher than the other two types, indicating that consumers considered farm egg price in relation to its attributes more acceptable than was the case for the other two.For the livestock products examined, respondents rated each product in terms of different physical attributes as well as in terms of prevailing price of the product: the analysis presented price as an attribute. The rating for the price attribute was assumed to implicitly encompass the ratings for all the other attributes. As such, the rating of a product in terms of its prevailing price could be treated as the respondents' willingness to pay that level of price for that product given the ratings on the other attributes of that product. In order to test this relationship, a hedonic or implicit price model was fitted for major milk products (raw milk, pasteurized milk, full and half cream powdered milk) and beef, mutton and chicken meat.For each product, the dependent variable was the respondent's rating on prevailing price and the independent variables were ratings on relevant attributes of the product and relevant socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. It was hypothesized that at the margin, respondents' rating on price is affected by his/her ratings on the attributes.Results show that, for all four forms of milk, among various product attributes perception on taste appeared to be the most important factor significantly affecting prices. The results implied that higher rating on taste was accompanied by a significantly higher rating on price of a form of milk. Perception on nutritive value was found to affect significantly prices of the sample (particularly ignoring seasonal effects), some bias toward the wealthier consumer by virtue of sampling in and within large cities.Expenditure and price elasticities were estimated by using an Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) demand model. Along with other variables, an index of quality and safety for dairy products and another for meat and eggs derived from the preference ratings of respondents given on various attributes of these products were included as independent variables. These indices were assumed to serve as demand shifters reflecting aggregate demand for quality and safety. Inclusion of the demand shifter increased the explanatory power of most of the budget share equations implying that such indices derived from preference ratings could be used as proxies for demand for quality and safety reflected in budget shares or purchase decisions.Estimation from the best fit AIDS models showed that animal products in general, and meat in particular, were highly expenditure elastic in urban Bangladesh although some of the specific meat and dairy items showed nearly unitary elasticity, which might imply that a steady rise in demand for such products would accompany further income growth. High own-price elasticities of fish, cereals and vegetables implied that, given budget constraint, high prices of these products would significantly reduce expenditure and consumption of these items; and high cross price elasticities between cereals, milk and fish implied that a rise in the price of basic staple, would adversely affect the consumption of protein goods.This study is the first attempt to comprehensively characterize and quantify Bangladeshi urban demand for animal products with a focus on quality and safety. Based on a survey methodology, successive analyses present statements of preference based on ratings, identified quality criteria, stated sources of supply and recent purchasing behaviour both at home and away from home, and econometric analysis of relationships between price ratings and quality ratings across attributes, so as to generate willingness to pay for those attributes.Although targeted at urban populations, considerable variation between locations was identified.Demand for animal products in Bangladesh follows patterns familiar to many developing countries in that it employs informal markets, has an income-sensitive character and varies by location. Its characteristics with reference to food quality and safety are familiar from studies of developed countries as well, in that consumers seek out, can identify, and are willing to pay for quality and safety. Some of the attributes considered by consumers represented quality and safety criteria, although the distinction between quality and safety was not always clear. Some attributes such as freshness represented quality and some attributes such as certification of a health authority represented safety while others like purity might represent both. A similar situation prevails in the informal market in other developing countries where official grades and standards are either absent or poorly defined.The findings about preference, prices and expenditure patterns on dairy products and meat have implications for producers, processors and retailers as the supply chains connecting consumers and producers are getting longer. They also have implications for policy. For example, long term growth in the dairy sector has been very small and past policies on tax, tariff and import of dairy products did not have any significant impact on the growth of the sector (Staal et al. 2008;Jabbar 2010). Part of the reason was that government policies on import of dairy products (especially powdered milk, the main imported product) and policies on tax and tariff on imported and domestically processed products were not prepared on the basis of empirical evidence on the nature of consumer demand for the products and the nature of response of domestic producers, traders and processors to government policies and market prices, so domestic producers failed to take advantage of the increasing demand for quantity as well as quality to trigger rapid growth in the dairy sector. Differences in ratings for raw, pasteurized and powdered milk-the most widely consumed dairy products-according to their various uses and attributes imply that these products are not substitutes across the board. This combined with the finding that ratings on prices of these products were significantly influenced by their ratings on quality and safety attributes like taste, nutritive value, health risk and shelf life and handling convenience imply that relative shares of consumer purchases of these products will depend on how the supply chains of these products respond to and handle desired quality and safety attributes on the one hand and prices on the other. Imported powdered milk constitutes a significant share of the dairy market, and domestically processed milk still constitutes a small share of the market but has been increasing rapidly in the urban areas. If the increased demand is to be used as an opportunity to transform the dairy sector in an increasingly open market conditions, it is imperative that appropriate policies have to be formulated and actors in the supply chains have to respond to those policies keeping in view the desires of the consumers.In the case of meat, especially beef, naturally fed local breed bulls with medium fat appeared to be the most preferred product profile. But supply of such beef has become rare in the market with the dominance of high fat beef of artificially fattened imported Indian cattle.Majority of import of live cattle from India occurs illegally or informally, which allows the large and expanding urban beef market to be a dumping ground for culled Indian cattle. If consumer preference is to be used as a vehicle to foster growth of the domestic livestock sector, appropriate policy actions need to be made to formalize and rationalize live cattle import from India. Since male off-springs of dairy cattle is a source of draught and beef cattle, policies to support dairy and beef cattle production also need to be harmonized.Demand led transformation of the livestock sector also brings into the picture the issue of grades and standards defining quality and safety. In Bangladesh, official grades and standards for animal products are virtually non-existent or very poorly and partially defined in some cases. Enforcement of those standards are even poorer. This was vividly shown, for example, during a crisis created in the milk market due to melamine contamination. Following a scare created by discovery of melamine in some brands of imported powder milk in October 2008, some consumers of powder milk quickly shifted to raw milk and to pasteurized milk to a lesser extent creating extra demand for these products so raw milk price suddenly jumped by about 75% on an already increasing price trend triggered by price rise in the global market. This situation lasted for about six months and then raw milk price fell suddenly to its original six months earlier level, remained there for about three months, then fell again to the June 2006 level as in the case of global powder milk prices. Informal traders in Dhaka made supernormal profit during the melamine crisis through unscrupulous means. Dairy processors also made money at the expense of both producers and consumers showing serious callousness about food safety in their purchasing and handling of raw milk. Dairy processors and traders failed to appreciate that the dairy industry cannot prosper without taking producers and consumers with them (see Box 1). Lack of appropriate official standards and their enforcement remains a hindrance to properly link production and consumption through processing and marketing chains as a vehicle to transform the dairy sector. In case of meat, the situation is even worse and requires proper response.Box 1 Milk quality and safety: Melamine contamination and artificial milk productionIn October 2008, following the discovery of melamine contaminated milk in China, there was serious public concern in Bangladesh about quality of imported powdered milk.Laboratory tests found different levels of melamine in a number of brands imported from different countries. But test results also varied between different laboratories so lack of consensus about test results delayed policy action on the suspected brands, which created public outrage and concern. Powdered milk traders continued to sell suspected brands even after a High Court ruling, in response to a public interest writ petition, ordered to stop trading of suspected brands. It took several more days for law enforcing agencies to come out to enforce the court order which allowed the traders to hide much of the stocks.Liquid milk traders, especially traditional gowalas, took advantage of this uncertainty and increased milk price. Moreover, they also increased milk supply by mixing increased quantities of powdered milk with liquid milk, and selling those as fresh cow milk. Since water and powder milk adulteration is a fairly common practice, consumers concern increased as they suspected that the melamine contaminated powdered milk would end up in the market through the traditional liquid milk sellers.To make the situation worse, The Daily Prothom Alo, a popular daily newspaper, reported (on 1-2 November 2008) that on 31 October 2008, their investigation in Pabna and Sirajgonj districts, the main milk shed for Dhaka city, revealed that traditional milk traders have been producing artificial milk using chemicals and they reportedly have been supplying that milk to BRAC, Pran, and Akij dairies for processing and selling as pasteurized milk. The paper also published picture of a trader's artificial milk production factory. This practice has emerged in response to inadequate supply of fresh milk in relation to demand of the processing plants. The process of making artificial milk apparently runs like this: traders separate cream and solid (sana) from milk purchased from producers, then in the remaining milk-water (normally called ghoal) they mix iron cutting oil at the rate of two drops per litre, which makes the colour of milk-water fully white like full milk. Then they add cream, powdered milk, sugar, salt, sodium carbonate and milk essence in appropriate proportion to prepare artificial milk. Further, peroxide and formalin are added to extend shelf life for delivery to milk collection points of processors.After the above news paper report, public health and law enforcing authorities have reportedly identified and captured several staff/agents of BRAC, Pran, Aftab and Akij dairies and several milk traders with artificially prepared milk and/or materials and equipment for preparation of such milk, and imposed financial penalty at varying rates. While this quick response was commendable, it was disappointing to see that the management authorities of the relevant dairies did not take responsibility for failing to maintain food safety norms and to protect the health of ordinary consumers. The artificial milk issue had subsided for a while but another newspaper, The Daily Star, reported on 25 February 2009 arrest of a milk trader in Jhenidah district with fake milk manufacturing equipment and raw materials which he has been using to regularly supply fake milk to the local BRAC purchase centre. The BRAC purchase centre staff reported to the law enforcers, when questioned, that they were unaware about the practice and could not detect the adulteration with their normal testing procedure. So quality control of milk along the supply chains remains a major concern.Source: Jabbar (2010).How to define quality and safety standards and enforce them is yet another practical problem. Defining standards based on developed country public health norms will be fruitless because neither producers nor the processing industry and other actors in the informal market chain may be able to comply with those standards under current system of production and marketing. The government institutions responsible for enforcement of standards also do not have the technical skills and organizational infrastructure to enforce those standards. On the other hand, the study revealed that consumers differentiated dairy products and meat and eggs on the basis of a number of product-specific attributes, and their preferences for a product varied depending on those attributes. Moreover, consumers' preferences for products in terms of different attributes were also reflected in their willingness to pay different prices of those products.It can be reasonably assumed that with economic development, consumer demand for standardized and graded products with quality and safety assurance will increase. Estimation of demand and expenditure elasticities revealed that although further income increases will tend to raise consumption of animal products, producers and food industry actors must supply the growing market at low cost. Own-price elasticities were found to be high enough to discourage high-priced marketing efforts. Therefore establishment of standards and grades will become necessary to meet consumer demand on the one hand and facilitate producers and market agents to respond to consumer demand on the other. The informal criteria and indicators or product attributes that consumers and market agents use to differentiate quality and safety might be considered as starting point for definition of official grades and standards. Then gradual improvement of such grades and standards may be possible with efforts from all the actors in the supply chain from producers to consumers.As demand for quality and safety increase gradually along with economic development, periodic updating will lead to establishment of standards that reflect both evolving consumer demand and the requirements of public health, hygiene and nutrition. The distinction between quality and safety standards is also likely to evolve along with more transmission of knowledge and information on standards. Complementary regulations may be formulated and enforced at producer level and at market intermediary levels to ensure delivery of standard quality and safe products to consumers because lack of adequate transmission of information will lead to unequal distribution of benefits from better standards, especially smallholder producers are likely to loose most from any information asymmetry.Whether smallholders will have any comparative advantage in supplying an expanding market requiring more homogenous and better quality and safer products need to be studied regularly along with studies on consumer demand because of the dynamic nature of the emerging and evolving market, the industry and the sector. Applied studies of developing country demand may benefit from the current study's use of indices of demographic variables that further characterize the little-studied developing countries' consumer demand.Appendices: Estimated parameters of budget share equations for selected food groups using an Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) model         ","tokenCount":"16908"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5b563703689069b5a8a91b462c6bd615","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fa8039a9-2216-4e88-89a2-b8ad12acbe20/retrieve","id":"-984446825"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d33677ce-6375-470d-bb84-8664b4345b6f","pagecount":"2","content":"Innovación tecnológica para el desarrollo sostenible del agro y la soberanía alimentariaEl objetivo de este trabajo fue colectar poblaciones de P. leptostachyus en Costa Rica. Este frijol silvestre está distribuido desde México hasta Costa Rica, debido a que hasta allí llega su distribución más hacia el sur. En México se destaca por su capacidad de tolerar condiciones extremas de calor y sequía, de forma similar a lunatus y microcarpus. Su rescate se justifica por los rápidos cambios en usos de la tierra en este país, por la urbanización y demás actividades humanas. La metodología propuesta fue la de cruzar gradientes topográficos o de vegetaciones, incluyendo los sitios y poblaciones ya identificados por especímenes de herbarios. La prioridad fue de colectar semilla para conservación de germoplasma y especímenes de herbario para museos de historia natural. Esta metodología implica por lo general dos visitas: la primera para identificar y localizar las poblaciones y tomar datos sobre su fenología, y la segunda para cosechar semillas para conservación. La época adecuada de identificación para esta especie fue de octubre a inicios de diciembre, por su precocidad. Se encontraron 22 poblaciones, entre el año 1987 y el 2017, en un rango de altitud entre 36 a 1640 m. Mostró un hábito de crecimiento de un bejuco rastrero pero determinado, es plurianual debido a su raíz tuberosa, por lo que puede pasar las estaciones secas, rebrotar, volver a entrar en floración y producir frutos por un periodo de 2 a 4 años. Esto le permite sobrevivir a un pastoreo moderado o a un corte del pasto por mantenimiento vial, lo que ha contribuido a su subsistencia en orillas de caminos. Crece en abras naturales como taludes y derrumbes. Después del llenado de las vainas, varias colectas tenían foliolos afectados por mildeu polvoso. Especies de plantas asociadas fueron: Begonia, Verbesina, Polypodium, Desmodium (con lo cual a veces puede confundirse). Dos poblaciones (# 3352, # 3356) colectadas en el área al sur de Acosta, parte occidental de la cadena montañosa Bustamante, son de interés porque podrían marcar el límite al sur y al este de esta especie en América Central, debido a que no hay registros en Panamá, aunque no existe una exhaustiva búsqueda de esta leguminosa en este país). De las bioprospecciones recientes lo más notable fue encontrar a esta especie cerca del nivel del mar, en áreas de alta temperatura y con salinidad en la Región Chorotega de Costa Rica (en Nicaragua se ha colectado entre 120 y 1400 m de altitud y en El Salvador entre 1195 y 1775 m altitud y en Guatemala entre 150 y 1910 m altitud, Debouck 2007, 2012, Carrillo E. 1987). Esta leguminosa ha mostrado tolerancia a la salinidad (Bayuelo et al. 2002) por lo cual estas colectas pueden aportar nueva variabilidad genética.","tokenCount":"463"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"575af4ba599664c1225e09e7d6d85d89","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/529d03be-4848-4787-baa4-e13dde6079ae/retrieve","id":"1731867755"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fa0afbc9-4835-486f-9b49-643c8eb66518","pagecount":"158","content":"Ce guide est aussi traduit en portugais et espagnole.Les réseaux sont des mécanismes puissants pour partager l'information et les connaissances. Ils stimulent également la communication et la coordination pour atteindre un développement durable. Les réseaux agissent comme des catalyseurs efficaces pour mettre en place des rapports et des engagements entre les parties prenantes publiques et privées au niveau local, national, régional et international. Ils permettent d'établir des relations de confiance à la base du partage d'information et des connaissances, et servent comme mécanismes d'apprentissage mutuel et de renforcement des capacités.Les réseaux sont dynamiques et soulignent le fait que l'ensemble vaille plus que la somme de toutes ses composantes. Ils servent, non seulement de rassembler de multiples acteurs clé mais également d'activer la relation entre les connaissances et l'action.Les parties qui ont conçu le projet NeRO 'Networking, Information and Knowledge Management by Regional Organizations in the Field of Natural Resources Management', ont été guidées par leur intérêt dans la multitude des possibilités que les réseaux offrent. Financé par la Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH (Coopération Technique Allemande), le travail a commencé par un échange d'information sur la question comment les organisations de développement régionales utilisent les approches et outils de gestion des connaissances pour partager l'information: ce partage s'est focalisé sur la gestion des ressources naturelles dans le contexte asiatique.Le projet s'est avéré être un processus d'apprentissage pour toutes les parties impliquées. Une approche en réseau a été utilisée pour explorer comment l'information et les connaissances sont partagées avec succès entre les organisations de développement régionales.Une tentative soigneuse de partage d'informations sélectionnées sur le quoi, c'est-à-dire la gestion des ressources naturelles, a fait partie du processus.Au fur et à mesure que le travail a progressé, un fort sentiment de nécessité a conduit l'équipe à explorer plus en profondeur le comment du réseautage. Pour analyser ce comment, trois études ont été entreprises, et les résultats de celles-ci ont fourni la base de ce guide. Ces études ont porté sur:■ La planification, le développement et la gestion des mécanismes de centre d'information et d'échange;■ L'implication des décideurs dans les réseaux; et ■ La communication, le leadership et la culture dans les réseaux.Ce guide pour le réseautage est seulement un parmi plusieurs produits du projet NeRO. C'est le résultat d'un processus intense de recherche et a été écrit par des praticiens du réseautage pour les praticiens du réseautage.Ce guide est basé sur la ferme conviction que les défis auxquels les participants du projet NeRO et d'autres praticiens font face dans la gestion des ressources naturelles en Asie peuvent être mieux abordés en partageant les expériences et les meilleures pratiques à travers des réseaux.Une gestion durable des ressources naturelles demande à être innovateur: innovateur en réflexions et stratégies. Une condition sine qua non pour de telles innovations est l'existence de systèmes pluralistes et dynamiques qui catalysent les actions appropriées. Dans ces nouvelles manières de collaborer, nous devons considérer non seulement les dimensions transfrontalières des ressources naturelles, mais également le rôle des multiples acteurs clé à tous les niveaux, un seul acteur ne pouvant aborder de tels défis.L'opinion selon laquelle les réseaux offrent une opportunité de rassembler les gouvernements, le secteur privé, la société civile, les ONGs et les organisations internationales et multilatérales, gagne du terrain. Les réseaux peuvent servir à coordonner les actions des différentes parties prenantes et peuvent promouvoir la prise de décision informée en permettant aux différents acteurs de contribuer à la résolution des problèmes basée sur leurs mandats, rôles et forces.Mais est-ce que les réseaux peuvent vraiment répondre à des attentes aussi élevées. Evidemment, ceci dépend du contexte dans lequel ces réseaux travaillent, tout comme d'une série d'autres facteurs. Toutefois, nous sommes convaincus que d'une manière générale, il y a un potentiel considérable pour améliorer la gestion des réseaux existants.Ce guide n'a pas été anticipé au début du projet. Plusieurs d'entre nous se sont rendus compte que les réseaux sont perçus comme la panacée pour gérer les aspects de communication des actions de développement. Notre impression a été que les décisions pour mettre en place des réseaux sont souvent prises au hasard, que très peu de conception et de planification sont faites, et que du temps et des ressources sont gâchés.C'est ce qui nous a incité à écrire ce guide. Nous voudrions partager notre savoir avec les praticiens qui sont en train d'établir de nouveaux réseaux. Peut-être pourront-ils apprendre de nos expériences, aussi bien positives que négatives, et éviteront de réinventer la même vielle roue!Ce guide est le résultat de trois années de travail intensif impliquant plusieurs personnes et organisations. Tout d'abord, nous tenons à exprimer notre gratitude à tous ceux qui ont contribué au projet NeRO 'Networking, Information and Knowledge Management by Regional Organizations in the Field of Natural Resources Management'. En partageant leur savoir et leur expérience pratique, ils ont établi la base de ce guide sur le réseautage.Nous sommes particulièrement reconnaissants à Lucie Lamoureux de Bellanet, qui a été impliquée dans la première phase du projet et a agit comme facilitatrice d'atelier, et à Layton Montgomery qui a conduit l'étude sur la Communication, le Leadership et Culture. Nos1.1 A propos de ce guide C eci est un guide pratique pour mettre en place, gérer et utiliser les réseaux formels de manière efficace et efficiente. Il se concentre sur les questions structurelles et opérationnelles des réseaux et explique les aspects les plus importants pour les rendre fonctionnels.Ce guide s'adresse aux praticiens du réseautage, mais également à d'autres professionnels souhaitant établir un réseau. Nous espérons également que ceux qui sont impliqués dans des réseaux déjà établis puissent trouver des conseils pratiques.Chaque réseau est unique, et ce guide n'est certainement pas fait pour fournir une recette universelle pour le réseautage. Il couvre les aspects que nous estimons les plus importants, suggère des méthodes pratiques pour le processus, et donne des idées sur la manière de travailler en réseau. Nous avons essayé d'utiliser un langage simple et non technique dans le but d'atteindre une plus large audience.Ce guide a plusieurs aides pour accéder à l'information.A titre d'illustration et d'accentuation, nous avons parfois directement cité des textes d'autres sources, listés dans la section 10.1. Nous avons cependant omis les notes de bas de page et les guillemets dans le texte pour éviter un style académique diffus. Nous remercions sincèrement tous les auteurs dont le travail a contribué à l'élaboration de ce guide. Sans leur travail, nous n'aurions pas pu aller très loin.Nous espérons que vous trouverez des conseils pratiques pour vous aider à faire face au défi du réseautage. La mise en place et la gestion des réseaux requièrent beaucoup plus de savoir-faire et d'expériences que ce guide contient. Les conseils donnés ici requièrent votre jugement et vos compétences dans la gestion de projets et en communication, et surtout, de la patience et de la persévérance. L es réseaux peuvent être définis de plusieurs manières. Ce guide se concentre sur les réseaux formels. Cette section donne une définition et présente trois exemples. Les différences entre les réseaux, les institutions et les organisations y sont également brièvement expliquées.La notion de 'réseau' est devenu omniprésent tant dans la coopération au développement que dans notre vie de tous les jours. Toutefois, d'innombrables définitions et catégories de réseaux existent et il n'y a pas une définition qui correspond à tous. Dans ce guide, trois catégories de base sont distinguées: les réseaux sociaux, les communautés de pratique et les réseaux formels. Même si ces définitions ne constituent pas la vérité ultime, il est utile de travailler avec elles et souvent elles sont appliquées en pratique. Ce guide se concentre essentiellement sur les réseaux formels.Pas vraiment ce qu'on voulai t... ...mais ça marche!Les réseaux sociaux forment la base sur laquelle les réseaux formels sont construits. Les réseaux sociaux sont des représentations des relations personnelles, amicales ou professionnelles consistant en des relations individuelles entre hommes d'affaires ou amis ou entre les membres d'une grande famille. Les réseaux sociaux n'ont généralement pas de but délibérément précis. Ils se développent de manière organique et, dans la plupart des cas, ne sont pas activement planifiés ni gérés. Les réseaux sociaux jouent un rôle important dans la gestion du quotidien privé et dans la vie professionnelle: ils sont récréatifs et peuvent produire des informations, permettant en cas de besoin d'accéder à d'autres personnes ou ressources.Dans ce guide, les communautés de pratique sont considérées comme une partie des activités des réseaux formels.Une communauté de pratique (CdP) est un groupe de personnes qui se font confiance et qui partagent un intérêt commun dans un domaine spécifique de connaissances ou de compétence. Les membres de tels groupes se rencontrent volontairement pour partager et développer leurs connaissances, résoudre des problèmes communs et s'entraider dans la recherche de solutions.Un exemple de communauté de pratique est un groupe de gestionnaires de réseaux qui se rencontrent deux fois par an et qui communiquent régulièrement par courrier électronique pour poser et répondre aux questions concernant la gestion de réseaux. De cette façon, les membres de la CdP s'aident mutuellement à faire un travail meilleur.Un autre exemple est quand quelques membres d'un réseau formel (comme défini dans la prochaine section) se rencontrent régulièrement et participent activement dans un forum de discussion électronique pour partager leurs expériences sur des thèmes spécifiques relatifs à l'ensemble des objectifs du réseau.Ces exemples montrent que les CdPs sont définies par les connaissances et l'expérience et non pas par une tâche spécifique qui doit être achevée en un certain temps. Un tel groupe orienté vers Lien avec un réseau partnenaire la tâche à accomplir serait appelé une équipe de projet. Les gens participent dans une CdP car ils ont un réel besoin de savoir ce que les autres savent. Les CdPs sont souvent organisées de manière informelle, sans beaucoup d'administration. Un sens commun du but et de la valeur que ses membres attachent à la communauté tiennent le groupe ensemble.Plus d'informations sur les CdPs et comment elles sont mises en place sont fournies dans la section 9.2.Dans ce guide les réseaux formels sont définis comme des groupes de plusieurs institutions indépendantes ou d'organisations, reliés entre eux et qui sont établis pour un dessein ou besoin spécifique. Les membres du réseau partagent une vision, des objectifs et des règles communes, et ils exécutent une série d'activités conjointes, comme par exemple des évènements réguliers. Un réseau formel peut même avoir une forme légale.A l'opposé des communautés de pratique, les réseaux formels ne sont pas seulement basés sur les besoins de ses membres. Ils ont plutôt également l'objectif d'apporter des changements dans leurs propres contextes, i.e. l'agenda politique de pays ou régions.Sur le plan de la coopération au développement, les réseaux formels se composent d'organisations non gouvernementales (ONGs), d'organisations gouvernementales et d'agences de développement, ainsi que d'autres organismes nationaux, régionaux ou internationaux.Les membres du personnel qui à leur tour sont liés à leurs réseaux sociaux représentent ces organisations dans le réseau formel. Les réseaux formels peuvent aussi générer des communautés de pratique sur un thème ou aspect spécifique qui représente un intérêt pour les membres du réseau ou pour d'autres personnes.  Les réseaux créent un certain nombre de bénéfices pour ses membres et ses acteurs clé, contribuant à une vision d'ensemble sur un développement plus durable. Quelques bénéfices, souvent associés aux réseaux, sont mentionnés ci-après.■ Avoir accès à l'information et au savoir-faire  La réussite de l'établissement d'un nouveau réseau dépend de l'existence d'une équipe de base motivée de le mettre en place, et de tirer et pousser le processus tout entier vers l'avant. La plupart des réseaux formels sont issus de réseaux sociaux qui ont déjà existé. Ainsi, connaissez-vous peut-être déjà quelques personnes qui voudront se joindre à vous dans l'établissement du réseau. Garder l'équipe de base restreinte: trois à cinq personnes. Plus le groupe est grand, plus difficile et plus coûteuse -si des déplacements sont requis -sera sa coordination. ❏ Y-a-t-il un contexte favorable pour mettre en place votre réseau spécifique?❏ Avez-vous vérifié si d'autres réseaux ne couvrent pas déjà le domaine thématique de votre réseau?❏ Etes-vous un pionnier plein d'énergie et avez-vous une équipe de base de trois à cinq personnes entièrement engagées qui sont fermement convaincues de mettre le réseau en place?❏ Avez-vous le support de votre supérieur?❏ Avez-vous identifié un certain nombre d'acteurs clé soutenant votre concept? Existe-t-il des alliés qui pourraient être de valeur stratégique pour le réseau?❏ Avez-vous réservé une quantité raisonnable de temps pour l'établissement du réseau?❏ Avez-vous une compétence technique dans votre équipe de base dans le domaine dans lequel le réseau veut être actif?❏ Avez-vous planifié d'une façon réaliste vos ressources?❏ Avez-vous un financement suffisant pour établir votre réseau?❏ Savez-vous si des contributeurs publics ou privés sont prêts à soutenir le réseau?A combien de ces questions avez-vous répondu OUI? Si vous ne pouvez pas répondre à la majorité avec un OUI clair, vous devez honnêtement reconsidérer si établir ce réseau aura un sens. Il serait peut-être préférable que vous abandonniez l'idée et considériez autre chose, comme par exemple un projet spécifique ou une communauté de pratique informelle.Avez-vous passé le test dans la section 3. La section suivante décrit les éléments les plus importants d'une proposition de réseau. Par la suite, les aspects cruciaux du type de composition requis pour faire une proposition de réseau sont expliqués. Vous trouverez également de l'information plus détaillée sur tous les aspects de ce processus dans d'autres sections de ce guide.La proposition de réseau doit fournir une information courte et concise à propos des aspects importants du réseau. Une bonne proposition de réseau devrait se limiter à 15 pages tout au plus et comporter les éléments décrits ci-dessous.La plupart des lecteurs de votre proposition n'auront pas beaucoup de temps pour l'étudier. Pour réussir à établir un réseau, une équipe de base de trois à cinq personnes est cruciale. Une bonne équipe de base est nécessaire car établir un réseau implique un travail considérable. Pendant la phase de démarrage, vous serez confronté à plusieurs défis inattendus, et une équipe de base qui fonctionne bien trouvera les moyens d'y faire face.Les compétences des membres de l'équipe de base devraient être complémentaires et couvrir les fonctions suivantes: gestionnaires de projets et organisateurs, administrateurs, communicateurs, promoteurs, spécialistes en levée de fonds, et spécialistes techniques.La composition de l'équipe de base est également essentielle car le soutien en faveur du réseau dépendra de la réputation et de la pertinence de l'expérience de l'équipe de base. Dans votre proposition de réseau, mettez en exergue l'expertise des membres de votre équipe de base avec des exemples pratiques de leur expérience. Même si la proposition est excellente, vous recevrez seulement du soutien pour votre réseau si les décideurs, les acteurs clé et les contributeurs potentiels font confiance aux personnes qui sont derrière et s'ils comprennent leur motivation.Cette section de la proposition du réseau décrira brièvement comment l'organisation, la gestion et la communication dans le réseau seront effectuées. Les aspects suivants doivent être traités (☞sections 5 et 6). ❏ Utiliser l'enthousiasme initial.❏ Organiser un atelier de lancement.❏ CCC: Communiquer, communiquer, et communiquer.❏ Commencer avec quelques activités concrètes.❏ Développer un plan d'action à mi-parcours.❏ Devenir opérationnel.L es réseaux formels s'efforcent d'apporter un changement ou d'avoir un impact dans un certain domaine. Les décideurs dans les administrations publiques et politiques, les agences de développement et les organisations internationales, le cercle des affaires et les sociétés civiles joueront ainsi un rôle crucial pour les réseaux, car ils ont le pouvoir décisionnel pour influencer l'agenda politique et sa mise en oeuvre.Vous avez dit impliqué, pas complètement ficelé... Pour assurer l'implication des décideurs vous aurez à comprendre leur environnement et leur fonctionnement au quotidien.Le travail quotidien des décideurs comprend de fréquentes réunions, travailler en réseaux informels, donner des commentaires sur des questions politiques, faire ou reporter des décisions, chercher de l'appui pour des initiatives ou conserver le pouvoir. Ainsi, il peut s'avérer difficile de les accéder et d'obtenir un rendez-vous. Pour impliquer les décideurs dans les réseaux, il faut se souvenir de deux choses. Premièrement, étant donné qu'ils cherchent à inciter des changements politiques et stratégiques, les réseaux doivent être attractifs et intéressants pour les décideurs. Deuxièmement, les décideurs ont besoins du réseau pour accéder à l'information mais peuvent avoir des ressources trop limitées, tels que le temps et le financement, pour obtenir le bénéfice complet de la participation.La bonne gestion, la transparence, et la confiance sont les caractéristiques les plus importantes qui rendent les réseaux attractifs pour les décideurs.Une bonne gestion n'est pas seulement importante pour le succès du réseau; elle est également une importante priorité pour les décideurs et leurs collaborateurs. Ils participeront seulement dans des réseaux qui sont gérés visiblement de manière professionnelle et ce par une équipe engagée (☞sections 5 and 6).La transparence des réseaux est un préalable important pour convaincre les décideurs de s'impliquer. Les décideurs doivent d'être capables de comprendre rapidement la vision, la mission et les objectifs du réseau. Ils veulent également savoir comment le réseau est organisé, qui est impliqué, qui a de l'influence sur quoi, qui finance ses activités. Qu'est ce qui incite les décideurs à participer aux réseaux? Premièrement, il est important de comprendre qu'il y a différents degrés d'implication des décideurs. Deuxièmement, la plupart des décideurs -ou bien leur personnel les représentant -participeront aux réseaux seulement s'ils estiment qu'il y a un bénéfice personnel pour eux. Troisièmement, les décideurs et leur personnel ont aussi besoin de ressources, tels que le temps et le financement, pour participer aux réseaux, par exemple, en participant à un forum de discussion électronique ou en assistant à des conférences.Les décideurs sont impliqués dans les réseaux de manières différentes. Souvent, ils n'ont pas ou ne prennent pas le temps de s'impliquer directement dans les activités. Ils sont également réticents de s'exposer eux-mêmes, car leur point de vue est souvent interprété comme le point de vue de l'organisation à laquelle ils appartiennent ou leurs commentaires sont associés à une agenda politique.Toutefois, les décideurs peuvent rester indirectement impliqués au réseau en suivant les discussions électroniques passivement, en participants aux ateliers ou conférences de temps à autre, ou en étant membres du conseil consultatif. En dernier lieu, les décideurs peuvent participer aux réseaux à travers leur personnel, en les envoyant aux réunions du réseau et aux ateliers ou en les assignant à participer dans les groupes de discussion, fournir et récupérer l'information, faciliter les discussions, ou même d'assurer le secrétariat du réseau.Le plus grand stimulant pour les décideurs de céder une partie de leur temps aux réseaux ou d'assigner leur personnel à en faire autant est de recevoir une valeur ajoutée. Certains décideurs peuvent❏ Les données techniques, l'information, et le savoir-faire Les bénéfices les plus importants que les réseaux puissent fournir aux décideurs sont l'accès à l'information et au savoir-faire, le développement de leurs réseaux personnels et l'établissement de partenariats. D'autres bénéfices sont aussi évidents même s'ils ne sont pas souvent mentionnés.Un des plus puissants stimulants pour s'impliquer au réseau est d'avoir accès à l'information, au savoir-faire, et aux nouvelles idées qui peuvent être utiles pour le travail des décideurs. De cette façon, les réseaux ont un rôle important en collectant, filtrant, validant et créant l'accès à l'information, et en disséminant de l'information de bonne qualité pour les décideurs.Les décideurs ne récupèreront pas toutes les informations de la même manière. Les informations techniques seront principalement récupérées à travers leur personnel d'appui. D'autres informations plus 'soft', comme avoir une idée de ce que les autres pensent ou font, ou rassembler de nouvelles idées et options alternatives pour une action, seront collectées pendant les ateliers ou les conférences. Dans plusieurs réseaux, il n'y a pas d'adhésion formelle ou les devoirs formels et les implications de l'affiliation sont limitées. Ceci est un avantage pour les décideurs car ils peuvent participer dans le réseau tout en maintenant leur indépendance. De tels réseaux ne menacent pas les organisations traditionnelles, plus hiérarchiques et structurées dans lesquelles les décideurs travaillent souvent. Cependant, cette indépendance signifie également que les décisions prises conjointement par les membres du réseau ne lient pas les décideurs, sauf si celles-ci sont écrites par accord formel.Les réseaux offrent aux décideurs une plate-forme pour discuter de nouvelles idées ou initiatives. Ainsi, les réseaux servent également de terrain d'essaie ou de vérification de la réalité avant que les décideurs ne rendent publiques leurs idées.Les groupes de discussion électroniques ou des échanges bilatéraux d'e-mails sont une bonne façon d'obtenir rapidement des réactions informelles des paires. Toutefois, il est préférable de tester des idées plus sensibles dans une discussion informelle pendant des réunions ou des ateliers, ou durant des réunions restreintes.Les décideurs sont tenus par leurs organisations et leurs ressources financières et personnelles disponibles, souvent rares. Les réseaux peuvent leur servir de multiplicateurs car ils sont capables de mettre en commun les ressources de différents partenaires du réseau pour trouver des solutions communes ou lancer des projets ou des initiatives conjoints.Il est souvent assez difficile pour les décideurs de savoir comment leurs organisations fonctionnent et à quel point leur travail est efficace et efficient. Les réseaux peuvent aider les décideurs à comparer leur travail avec celui des autres et à voir comment leurs efforts sont perçus. Cette référenciation informelle donne aux décideurs des indications sur les améliorations nécessaires.En participants aux réseaux, les décideurs peuvent améliorer leur prestige. Ce sera particulièrement le cas si le réseau a une bonne réputation publique.En travaillant en réseau, les décideurs peuvent également recevoir des bénéfices personnels, qui ne seront pas directement en relation avec leur travail. Par exemple, ils peuvent profiter de l'environnement attrayant dans lequel se déroule une conférence ou un atelier. En particulier, les conférences qui ont lieu dans des endroits attrayants, affichent souvent complet. Les évènements et les réunions des réseaux sont également appréciés pour briser la routine quotidienne.Ces bénéfices personnels contribuent à la motivation non seulement pour les décideurs, mais également pour tous les membres du réseau. Créer une atmosphère de travail positive est une part importante du réseau, et les dirigeants du réseau doivent y prêter attention.❏ Accéder à l'information et au savoir-faire Impliquer les décideurs dans les réseaux requiert une relation personnelle basée sur une bonne compréhension des priorités de chacun. Une fois que vous avez établi des relations de confiance, elles ont besoin d'être continuellement entretenues.Impliquer Comme il en est souvent le cas, la première étape sera la plus difficile: impliquer le premier décideur dans le réseau sera un défi, mais dès que plusieurs décideurs seront dedans, le principe de la boule de neige s'appliquera, facilitant l'implication de plus de décideurs.❏ Déterminez quelle sorte de contribution aux objectifs du réseau attendez-vous des décideurs.❏ Etablissez un contact avec le décideur en considérant les exigences formelles nécessaires en:-écrivant une lettre formelle -en le contactant de manière informelle durant un atelier ou une conférence -trouver un messager ou un intermédiaire qui connait le décideur et qui est prêt à vous présenter, ou -contactez le personnel d'appui du décideur qui peut agir comme porte d'entrée.❏ Arrangez la première réunion avec le décideur ❏ Comprendre les décideurs.❏ Inclure les décideurs dans les processus.❏ Etre court et simple (Keep it short and simple -KISS).❏ Faciliter les conversations activement.❏ Contacter les décideurs régulièrement.❏ Permettre beaucoup de temps pour socialiser.❏ Créer des espaces privés.Merci de visiter mon site WEB... E nsemble, le cadre stratégique et la structure de gouvernance procurent au réseau un objectif et une direction clairs. Cette section décrit les éléments les plus importants dans le cadre stratégique d'un réseau formel. De plus, la structure de gouvernance est décrite en détail: c'est-à-dire le degré de la régionalisation, l'organigramme, le secrétariat, les aspects légaux, et l'affiliation.Chaque réseau a besoin d'un cadre stratégique pour le guider, pour mettre tous les membres en accord les uns avec les autres, et pour maintenir le réseau ensemble en tout temps. Le cadre stratégique consiste en la vision, la mission, les buts et les objectifs.La vision du réseau décrit les espoirs, les rêves et les images partagés que les membres du réseau se font par rapport à l'état idéal d'une situation ou du monde en général.La vision de l'International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) est 'l'amélioration de l'accessibilité et de la mobilité des communautés pauvres en Asie, Afrique et Amérique Latine'. La déclaration de mission décrit brièvement ce à quoi le réseau pourrait contribuer pour que la vision se réalise.La mission de l'International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) est de 'faciliter et promouvoir la réussite de l'application des politiques améliorées, des cadres de planification, des mécanismes de financement et des technologies.' La mission du réseau Streams and Knowledge est 'de mobiliser une quantité critique d'organisations oeuvrant dans le cadre de l'eau et de l'assainissement en accélérant les améliorations équitables en approvisionnement en eau et en assainissement'.La mission du Global Knowledge Partnership est de 'promouvoir un accès large aux -et l'usage efficace des -connaissance et l'information comme moyens de développement équitable et durable. Il vise à partager l'information, les expériences et les ressources pour réaliser le potentiel des technologies de l'information et de la communication (ICT) pour améliorer les vies, réduire la pauvreté et habiliter la population'. Le réseau organise des conférences annuelles.Le réseau participe activement dans le groupe de travail pour la préparation de la conférence mondiale.Le réseau publie un appel public à l'action.Plusieurs partenaires du réseau commencent un projet de recherche commun pour la formulation de normes.Les membres du réseau participent dans un groupe de travail international pour l'établissement de normes.Objectif 1) Tous les partenaires du réseau ont un accès à une information de haute qualité.2) Le développement durable des régions montagneuses est le thème principal de la prochaine conférence mondiale sur la durabilité.3) Les normes pour une pêche durable sont effectives. Un organigramme montre les éléments structurels les plus importants du réseau. Typiquement, un réseau a plusieurs éléments organisationnels avec différentes fonctions.Ceci sont des éléments organisationnels typiques et ils peuvent varier selon les pratiques locales, les préférences des membres, et les ■ Qui peut avoir accès à l'information fournie par le site Internet?■ Que se passerait-il du site Internet, des données, ou de la bibliothèque du secrétariat si le réseau est dissout?■ A qui appartiennent les produits crées par le réseau, par exemple, les logiciels, les outils, les cartes, les spécifications ou les brevets?■ A qui appartient le logo ou l'identité du réseau?Les réponses à ces questions doivent en général être que toute information produite ou standards produits par le réseau ou au nom du réseau sont accessible gratuitement à tous les membres du réseau, et si possible à tous les acteurs clés. L'accès libre à toute information doit être la base de la mission des réseaux! Dans le cas des droits d'auteur, vous devez prendre en compte les régulations des donateurs publics. Certains gouvernements ou institutions gouvernementales suivent le principe selon lequel''l'argent public produit des biens publics'. D'autres donateurs peuvent avoir des régulations spécifiques qui doivent, au même titre, être prises en considération. Ainsi, il est possible que des publications financées publiquement restent la propriété des donateurs. Ces aspects sont plus importants que vous ne le pensiez, et l'expérience de certains réseaux montre que cela vaut la peine d'être clarifié en avance.Les membres sont au coeur de tout réseau. Le succès et l'échec dépendent de leur motivation et de leur engagement au réseau.La question cruciale qui devrait être répondue quand vous mettez en place un réseau est qui peut être membre du réseau: des individus, des organisations, d'autres réseaux, ou la combinaison des trois?■ Dans des réseaux formels, la majorité des membres viendront normalement d'organisations représentées par un ou plusieurs membres de leurs personnel.■ Les réseaux formels peuvent également avoir des individus comme membres tels que des personnes ressources techniques ou des décideurs importants.■ Et enfin, il est judicieux de former des alliances avec d'autres réseaux et de les inclure en tant que membres. 6 Gérer le réseau L es réseaux atteindront de bons résultats seulement s'ils s'engagent à faire une gestion professionnelle. Une gestion efficace n'est pas compliquée. Autrement dit, on peut faire beaucoup avec des pratiques assez simples.Cette section décrit les thèmes de base de la gestion comme la planification, l'organisation de réunions efficaces, la promotion du réseau, le financement du réseau, l'entretien des relations, le suivi et évaluation, et l'évolution et l'innovation continues.Un réseau a besoin d'un plan opérationnel qui traduit sa vision, sa mission et ses buts en objectifs opérationnels, services et activités, et projets, et qui inclut également des responsabilités et un chronogramme. Ce plan opérationnel vous aidera à garder une vue d'ensemble et est également une partie importante du système de suivi.Quand vous établissez le plan opérationnel, évitez les pièges typiques! Les objectifs (qu'est-ce qui sera accompli en un certain laps de temps?), les activités (qu'allons-nous faire pour atteindre ces objectifs ?) et les résultats attendus (quelles seront les retombées des activités?) ne devraient pas être confondus entre eux (voir aussi la section 6.6.1). Pour chaque activité, un partenaire responsable devrait être désigné et une échéance fixée.Mettez en place vos objectifs, résultats et activités d'une façon réaliste et atteignable. Ayez en tête l'objectif général du réseau, réfléchissez quelles activités pourraient contribuer le plus au but et choisissez quelques activités essentielles sur lesquelles se concentrer. Concentrez vos efforts et ne dispersez pas votre énergie dans trop d'activités.Le plan opérationnel devrait être actualisé régulièrement et complètement révisé en collaboration avec tous les membres du réseau chaque année.Trop de réunions sont mal préparées et mal dirigées. Cela cause de longues réunions, des résultats peu satisfaisants et finalement de plus en plus de réunions. Il est fortement conseillé de préparer les réunions du réseau aussi soigneusement que possible. Souvent, les participants doivent se déplacer de partout dans le monde et vous devriez faire votre possible pour avoir le maximum de résultats des réunions.Les points les plus importants pour préparer et tenir des réunions sont résumés dans le Check-list ci-dessous.■ La préparation de la réunion -Annoncez la date de la réunion bien en avance.-Rassemblez les points de discussion possibles venant des participants.-Faites une esquisse d'ordre du jour en avance en mentionnant le temps disponible pour chaque point.-Préparez les documents à temps pour que chacun puisse les lire avant la réunion.■ La tenue de la réunion -Dirigez la réunion, expliquez les procédures et résumez les discussions.-Conformez-vous à l'agenda.-Planifiez le suivi des décisions prises en définissant les tâches, les responsabilités et les échéances.-Mettez-vous d'accord sur une date pour la (les) réunion(s) suivante(s).■ Le suivi -Envoyez les documents et les présentations à tout le monde.-Écrivez les comptes rendus de chaque réunion, y compris les tâches, les échéances et les responsabilités. Envoyez les comptes rendus à chaque participant pas plus tard que deux semaines après que la réunion -Reconsidérez régulièrement la liste des tâches.Les réunions et les ateliers seront beaucoup plus efficaces et satisfaisants si vous utilisez différentes techniques de travail, telles que la technique du métaplan, du brainstorming, de l'entraide entre paires, de 'after action review' (revue après action), du 'fish bowl', du café du monde ou du forum ouvert. Familiarisez-vous avec ces techniques en consultant un des nombreux guides disponibles sur Internet, en lisant un livre sur les méthodes pour tenir un atelier, ou en assistant à un atelier de formation (☞ ressources section 10.1).Quelques-unes de ces techniques sont brièvement décrites ci-dessous.Le ❏ Développer une stratégie de promotion.❏ Connaître vos groupes cibles.❏ Fournir des produits d'information ciblés.❏ Inclure la promotion du réseau dans toutes les activités.❏ Donner un label aux activités, publications et projets.❏ Travailler avec les médias.❏ La promotion est une tâche continue pour tous les membres.Le réseautage implique des coûts et exige un financement. Un financement fiable est essentiel pour le succès à long terme des réseaux.Les réseaux ont divers besoins financiers. Avant tout, le réseau a des frais de fonctionnement pour l'infrastructure de base comme le secrétariat et le site Internet. Il est conseillé de garder ces frais d'exploitation aussi bas que possible.Être en réseau implique également des réunions, des ateliers et des conférences. Des réunions face à face reviennent en général chères, particulièrement les frais de voyage des participants. Il peut s'avérer nécessaire pour le réseau de financer la participation de ses membres s'ils ne peuvent pas couvrir eux-mêmes les frais. Comme les ateliers ou les conférences sont assez coûteux, un financement supplémentaire est souvent requis.Et enfin, la plupart du financement est absorbé pour les projets voir les programmes complets qui ont été lancés par le réseau.Comment peut-on couvrir les besoins financiers du réseau? Il est conseillé aux réseaux de financer leurs services et projets par différentes sources de financement. Cela les rendra plus indépendants et contribuera à la pérennisation financière du réseau. Il n'y a pas de solution toute faite à ce problème, et chaque réseau doit avoir sa propre manière de financer la participation de leurs membres aux réunions, ateliers et conférences. Les suggestions pour faire face à cette situation sont les suivantes:■ Tous les participants devraient recevoir les mêmes allocations, même si cela peut créer une motivation non voulue. Dans ce caslà, le secrétariat du réseau doit chercher un financement pour la participation de ses membres.■ Tous les participants doivent trouver le financement eux-mêmes. L'expérience montre que beaucoup de participants trouvent des moyens de financer leur participation s'ils s'intéressent vraiment à la conférence ou à l'atelier et s'ils peuvent espérer des avantages personnels concrets de leur travail.■ Un modèle combiné pourrait être appliqué dans lequel le réseau finance la participation des membres des pays plus pauvres tandis que ceux des pays plus riches financent eux-mêmes leur participation.■ Le secrétariat organise une compétition. Les participants intéressés écrivent des documents de travail et les auteurs des meilleurs écrits reçoivent un financement pour participer. Une levée de fonds réussie est essentielle à chaque réseau. La levée de fonds est un art à lui tout seul et il serait au-delà de la possibilité de ce guide d'en discuter les détails. Ci-dessous quelques éléments importants pour la levée de fonds.❏ Familiarisez-vous avec les techniques de levée de fonds en lisant un guide pour ce faire ou en assistant à une formation ou cours sur le sujet (☞section 10.1).❏ Développez une vision, une mission et des buts clairs du réseau que vous puissiez communiquer facilement et que les donateurs publics et privés potentiels puissent comprendre ce que vous faites.❏ Prenez connaissance des stratégies des donateurs potentiels et de ce qui les motive à financer des réseaux.❏ La levée de fonds est une 'levée de relations', ainsi exploitez etDans un réseau, beaucoup de différents membres et d'organisations ou d'institutions publiques sont impliqués et ils viennent de régions culturelles différentes. Ils ont tous des intérêts spécifiques, des différents modes de communication et de travail et des histoires diverses.Comment peut-on établir des relations de confiance à l'intérieur du réseau et extérieurement avec les acteurs clé, étant donné une telle diversité? C'est une tentative de compromis qui doit être maîtrisée par le gestionnaire du réseau, le secrétariat et les membres euxmêmes.Les rapports parmi les membres sont les artères constituant le réseau et on devrait y prendre attentivement soins. Dès que vous connaissez vos membres, votre relation avec eux doit être constamment entretenue. Cela peut être fait de nombreuses manières.■ Impliquez les membres activement dans les projets conjoints.■ Envoyez des bulletins électroniques mensuels ou trimestriels leur fournissant les nouvelles les plus importantes.■ Organisez des opportunités pour se rencontrer face à face au moins une fois par an.■ Invitez les membres annuellement à donner un feed-back concernant leurs besoins par une enquête électronique. L'équilibre parmi les membres peut être compromis par des jeux de force. Un membre peut même essayer de pousser le réseau dans une certaine direction et de le pirater pour ses propres buts ou même saboter le réseau, par exemple en diffusant des informations négatives ou fausses.On ne peut pas éviter ces jeux de force. Les praticiens des réseaux peuvent les contrôler de la façon suivante:■ Définir les règles, les responsabilités et les décisions clairement.■ Être précis sur le but et les objectifs du réseau.■ Garder de bonnes relations et des contacts rapprochés avec les membres.■ Être proactif du point de vue de la communication et de la gestion.■ Mettre en place un code de conduite clair pour les membres.Dans beaucoup de cas, les membres sont très enthousiastes dans la phase de mise en place du réseau. De grandes promesses sont souvent faites à la fin des réunions de planification et des ateliers.Les gens sont souvent exaltés à propos de ce à quoi ils contribueront, mais quand la réalité est là, l'enthousiasme s'émiette. Qu'est-ce qui se passe? Ce n'est pas que les membres soient de mauvaise foi, ils sont juste trop optimistes, irréalistes et, dans certains cas, pas tout à fait honnêtes quant au temps qu'ils sont prêts à consacrer au réseau. Dans tous les exercices de planification, vous devriez être conscients de cette illusion de planification et de vérifier soigneusement avec chacun si leurs promesses sont réalistes.Les réseaux doivent faire attention activement à leur relations externes.Les gens importants pour le réseau ne sont pas seulement les décideurs (☞section 4), mais également les autres acteurs clé. ❏ Apprendre à connaître les membres du réseau.❏ Entretenir constamment les relations avec les membres.❏ Créer des situations gagnant-gagnant.❏ Contrôler la compétition entre les membres.❏ Rester réaliste.❏ Apprendre à connaître les acteurs clé les plus importants.❏ Prendre soins des acteurs clé.❏ Etablir des partenariats stratégiques.Les réseaux doivent donner un compte-rendu des résultats qu'ils ont accomplis à leurs membres, acteurs clé et promoteurs sur une base régulière. En même temps, le secrétariat ou l'administration du réseau et ses membres ont besoin d'un système de suivi pour gérer les services fournis par le réseau ainsi que les projets et programmes planifiés et en cours.La GTZ ou le CAD recommandent un 'système de suivi basé sur les résultats'. En plus, les réseaux doivent réaliser des évaluations plus détaillées de leur travail de temps en temps.  En conclusion, toutes activités ont un impact: positif et négatif, des changements et des effets primaires et secondaires à long terme, soit directement ou indirectement, intentionné ou involontaire. La mesure des impacts des réseaux aura besoin de plus de ressources et dans beaucoup de cas, il sera seulement possible de localiser les impacts par des études et des évaluations détaillées.Une façon pratique d'identifier et documenter les impacts est d'être vigilant et d'enregistrer constamment les impacts probables, par exemple par la collecte systématique d'observations par les membres du réseau ou des récits.De temps en temps chaque réseau a besoin d'une évaluation: une revue détaillée et systématique de son organisation, ses services et ses projets et une évaluation si ses objectifs ont été atteints. Les évaluations remplissent l'obligation de rendre compte vis-à-vis des membres et des acteurs clé du réseau et contribuent au processus d'apprentissage. Normalement, l'évaluation du réseau sera exigée à peu près tous les trois à cinq ans.Dans l'évaluation, les questions suivantes seront posées.■ La pertinence: Est-ce que la mission du réseau est en accord avec les besoins de ses membres et des acteurs clés?■ La signification: Le réseau produit-il de larges impacts au niveau du secteur ou de la région?■ Le rendement: Le réseau produit-il ses résultats économiquement?■ L'efficacité: Dans quelle mesure les objectifs du réseau ont-ils été atteints, en tenant compte de leur importance relative?■ La durabilité: Les productions du réseau ont-elles conduit à des résultats et des impacts durables? Il y aura-t-il suffisamment de financement pour le réseau à l'avenir? Les évaluations peuvent êtres faites par le secrétariat du réseau ou les membres eux-mêmes. Toutefois, il peut être utile de donner la responsabilité à un consultant externe qui peut jeter un coup d'oeil impartial sur le réseau et faciliter le processus entier de l'évaluation. Il est aussi extrêmement intéressant de faire une évaluation plus informelle par les paires, où d'autres responsables de réseau vous évaluent.Plusieurs méthodes peuvent être utilisées pour l'évaluation, la collecte d'information et la formulation de stratégies futures:■ les enquêtes (électroniques ou sur papier) parmi les membres du réseau, les décideurs et les autres acteurs clé ■ les interviews avec le dirigeant, les membres du réseau et les acteurs clé■ les ateliers avec les membres et les acteurs clés du réseau (☞ section 6.2)■ l'analyse de documents, par exemple des plans opérationnels, des rapports, et d'autres documents de suivi L'analyse FFOM L'analyse FFOM est une façon pratique d'analyser le réseau et d'identifier ses orientations futures, les forces et les faiblesses du passé et du présent, ainsi que les menaces futures et les opportunités.Forces OpportunitésIdéalement, l'analyse FFOM est réalisée de manière participative incluant les membres et les acteurs clé du réseau. Les évaluations du réseau ne devraient pas seulement consister en une analyse par un consultant externe, mais également inclure tous les membres et, si possible, les acteurs clé. De cette façon, tous les membres ont l'opportunité d'apprendre du passé et de rafraîchir ou d'ajuster leur vision de l'avenir.Les réseaux devraient être considérés comme des systèmes dynamiques qui évoluent constamment. Les nouveaux réseaux devraient commencer petit et prendre le temps de mûrir et grandir jusqu'au point où ils fonctionnent vraiment efficacement. Cela exige de la patience de la part des membres, des acteurs clé et des supporters. Souvent il faut au moins trois ans pour qu'un réseau puisse commencer à bien fonctionner.Une fois établis, les réseaux sont exposés à de constants changements de contexte. Ce qui est peut-être la bonne chose à faire aujourd'hui pourrait devenir obsolète demain. Les réseaux doivent constamment s'adapter aux circonstances et besoins changeants. Cela peut être un défi, mais seuls les réseaux qui sont en mesure de s'adapter aux changements de l'environnement et de la demande seront en mesure de garantir leur viabilité à long terme. ❏ Mettez de l'ordre régulièrement dans les activités et plans du réseau.❏ Lancez de nouvelles activités et des projets régulièrement d'une manière stratégique.❏ Invitez des experts externes ou d'autres réseaux à donner leurs impressions.❏ Créez une notion commune de combien de temps le réseau aura de la valeur.7 Les services et les projets du réseau L es réseaux ne devraient pas seulement fournir des services basés sur la demande de leurs membres et acteurs clé, mais lancer également des projets ou programmes pour augmenter leurs résultats et impact.Dans cette section, vous verrez qu'il est conseillé de commencer par des services ou des petits projets dès que le réseau a été mis en place. Les réseaux déjà établis doivent se concentrer sur un nombre de services de base et diriger des projets spécifiques ou des programmes. Pour garantir la qualité des activités et services, un système de gestion de la qualité est essentiel.Est-ce le résultat de notre réseau?Pendant la phase de démarrage vous devriez introduire des activités, fournir quelques services ou même réaliser de petits projets. Concentrez-vous au départ sur quelques services ou projets qui peuvent être lancés rapidement et qui ne nécessitent pas trop de ressources. N'attendez pas trop longtemps, faites quelque chose et parlez-en! Des exemples de services initiaux ou de projets sont les suivants.■ Mettre en place un espace de travail électronique avec une liste de discussion e-mail à travers laquelle vous pouvez envoyer des informations régulières sur le progrès du réseau.■ Préparer un document de prise de position sur un thème approprié et l'envoyer aux supporters potentiels du réseau.■ Améliorer un projet en cours d'un réseau partenaire et lui donner le label du réseau.■ Présenter un dossier lors d'une conférence ou d'un atelier, en présentant le réseau en même temps.■ Essayer d'organiser une session de conférence à propos du réseau.Fournir des services et réaliser de petits projets dans la phase initiale vous offriront plusieurs avantages.■ Vous pouvez montrer aux membres et aux acteurs clé que le réseau n'est pas seulement un 'lieu de conversation', mais aussi un 'lieu de travail'.■ Les donateurs publics et privés potentiels s'intéresseront plus à un réseau actif.■ Vous pouvez réveiller l'attention des membres potentiels et des acteurs clé.■ Vous recevrez un feed-back précoce sur les intérêts des gens.■ Les membres se soudent en une communauté de réseau.Les réseaux qui ont réussi fournissent un certain nombre de services de base continus ou réguliers basés sur la demande de leurs membres et de leurs acteurs clé. Ces services aident à maintenir le réseau en Certains services devraient avoir lieu régulièrement, par exemple, les bulletins électroniques trimestriels ou une conférence annuelle tenue le même mois chaque année. Ceci établira une structure temporelle fiable pour tous les membres.Les services de bases du réseau devraient également avoir un rythme correspondant aux préférences de ses membres. Si les membres ont l'impression que rien ne se passe, ils relâcheront leurs attentions et oublieront le réseau. D'un autre côté, s'il y a trop d'activités ils se sentiront trop surchargés. On peut le constater avec les listes de discussion en ligne. Si vous recevez trop de courriers électroniques sur la liste vous ne pouvez pas tous les lire, vous vous énervez et vous les effacez. Inversement, si vous recevez très peu d'e-mails, votre attention diminuera. Vous devez trouver la juste balance, tout en gardant un flux d'information continu.En plus des services de base, les réseaux doivent lancer des projets et des programmes avec l'objectif d'atteindre les résultats planifiés et un impact durable dans le secteur et la région dans lesquels le réseau est actif. Un autre avantage des projets et programmes consiste en ce qu'ils peuvent amener une base de financement plus diverse et sûre (☞ section 6.4).A travers les projets, les réseaux comptent atteindre les objectifs spécifiques. Dans le but de lancer ces projets il se peut que vous ayez à écrire des propositions de financement supplémentaire.Quelques réseaux relient les projets dans les programmes et soumettent des propositions de programme.Trois exemples de projets de réseau sont brièvement décrits ci-dessous.Les agences de développement reconnaissent que le thème du réseau est un des thèmes clé de l'aide publique. En définitive, la survie de chaque réseau dépend de la qualité de ses activités et services. Par conséquent, les réseaux doivent établir un système garantissant des activités et services de haute qualité.D'abord, la réputation du réseau et la qualité de ses activités et services dépendent de la qualité du travail fait par ses membres. Plusieurs organisations adoptent des systèmes de gestion de la qualité certifiés pour garantir que leur travail est efficace et efficient. En encourageant les membres à adopter des systèmes de gestion de la qualité, les réseaux peuvent contribuer à la qualité générale des activités.Ensuite, la réputation du réseau dépend de la qualité de ses services de base, projets et programmes. Dans la plupart des cas, il est trop dans un certain domaine thématique.cas, des projets pilotes ou des analyses de littérature.des recommandations pour l'action à venir.compliqué et trop coûteux d'introduire un système de gestion de la qualité certifié dans un réseau en entier. De ce fait d'autres voies appropriées doivent être trouvées pour garantir la qualité. Le suivi systématique et les évaluations régulières sont le premier pas vers un contrôle de la qualité (☞ section 6.6).Les revues par des pairs sont un moyen pratique de contrôler la qualité des projets et programmes. Une revue par des pairs est une évaluation du travail des membres du réseau par d'autres membres. Ces pairs devraient se considérer comme étant au même niveau hiérarchique et donner des recommandations d'une manière utile et collégiale.Le tableau ci-dessous souligne le but et les avantages des revues par des pairs.Ils reconnaissent l'expertise professionnelle.Ils permettent un feed-back sur la performance.Ils fournissent un environnement 'protégé' pour reconnaître ses erreurs.Aide les membres du réseau à identifier leurs points forts et les domaines nécessitant une amélioration.Encourage le partage d'information.Promeut une approche professionnelle.Aide à organiser l'information.Reconnaît les membres du réseau comme des ressources apportant des perspectives différentes Crée de la confiance et une attitude d'entraide.Contribue à la performance du réseau.Sensibilisation sur les normes et la qualité de la performance Amélioration de la collaborationLes règles suivantes doivent être considérées dans la réalisation des revues par des pairs.■ Ayez toujours un modérateur, utilisez des processus structurés et restez fidèle au processus choisi.■ Soyez coopératif, ayez un esprit d'entraide et n'ayez pas de préjugé dans vos réponses et feed-back, souvenez-vous que les gens feront leur possible avec les ressources qu'ils ont.■ Soyez le plus honnête possible -vous n'avez pas à paraître compétent devant le groupe. Il est important d'apprendre de ses erreurs.■ Signalez n'importe quels conflits d'intérêts.■ Vous avez le contrôle -choisissez votre propre processus, prenez ce que vous voulez et laissez le reste.■ Restez vigilant et respectez les différences de culture, de genre et d'orientation professionnelle qui peut se manifester à travers des différences d'opinions, de points de vue ou de façons de travailler.  Les réunions face à face devraient donc avoir lieu le plus possible malgré tous les autres modes de communication qui sont utilisés.Des règles facilitent l'interaction entre les gens et réduisent les coûts de transaction. Les membres devraient donc se mettre d'accord sur les règles de la communication et désigner une autorité pour les gérer. Des exemples pour de telles règles pourraient être les suivants.■ Chacun devrait avoir une chance égale pour exprimer son opinion.■ Les déclarations insultantes devraient être interdites.■ Les contenus acceptables et non-acceptables, par exemple une promotion commerciale, devraient être définis.■ Les courriers électroniques devraient être répondus dans un délai de 48 heures.Toutefois, on doit faire attention à ce propos, car trop de réglementations ou de standardisations peuvent étouffer ou limiter le partage efficace de l'information. ❏ Etablir des règles pour la communication.❏ Encourager une communication toute fraîche et pertinente.❏ Evaluer la fréquence optimale de communication.❏ Accepter les voix discordantes.❏ Eviter une atmosphère de censure.❏ Eviter un sens de hiérarchie.❏ Encourager la culture de donner et recevoir. ❏ Clarifier le fond et le contexte de la discussion.❏ Assurer une bonne compréhension et clarifier les malentendus.❏ Chercher des exemples concrets et pratiques illustrant la discussion.❏ Avertir les gens qui prennent beaucoup trop souvent la parole et stimuler les participants silencieux.❏ Résumer les discussions et essayer de faire ressortir les aspects essentiels.❏ Stimuler la discussion en posant des questions.❏ Adresser les opinions et positions différentes en rendant les différences transparentes.❏ Essayer d'apaiser les conflits potentiels.❏ Rappeler aux gens les règles de la conversation.❏ Adresser ou clarifier les sentiments des participants dans la discussion.❏ Attirer l'attention des gens sur les différences culturelles, sociales, religieuses ou politiques et favoriser la compréhension.❏ Visualiser les discussions.❏ Permettre aux gens d'exposer leurs idées.❏ Modérer prudemment les gens qui parlent trop.❏ Donner un feed-back aux participants.❏ Assurer une bonne gestion du temps.❏ Réaliser une revue de l'atelier. Trop d'outils dans ce réseau...Le téléphone, et particulièrement la technologie de la téléphonie mobile, facilite les interactions fréquentes. Les coups de téléphone sont une manière efficace de communiquer à partir du moment où une relation est établie. Ils sont utiles pour les informations rapides et urgentes, pour discuter des aspects sensibles qui pourraient être mal compris s'ils sont écrits par e-mail, ou parler de choses confidentielles. Pour les messages très courts et les mémos, le SMS (Short Message Service) ou le texto sont aussi de plus en plus utilisés.De nos jours, la nouvelle technologie de Voix par IP ( VOIP-Internet Protocole) fournit une opportunité de passer des coups de fil sur Internet à bas prix, en révolutionnant ainsi la télécommunication. Avec les services comme Skype (www.skype.com) des appels gratuits sont possibles, et les communications chères de longue distance n'entravent plus la communication fréquente entre les membres du réseau.Les conférences téléphoniques sont une alternative efficace et bon marché aux réunions face à face. Toutefois, il ne devrait pas y avoir trop de participants. Quand plus de cinq à sept participants assistent à une conférence téléphonique, la coordination devient difficile. Ce qui est valable pour les réunions face à face l'est d'autant plus pour les conférences téléphoniques. Une préparation soignée et une facilitation sont cruciales.Les e-mails sont devenus un moyen répandu de communication et ont même commencé à remplacer les communications postales. Le courrier électronique fournit une excellente possibilité d'interaction rapide et bon marché, de dissémination d'informations, ou de collecte de feed-back. Toutefois, le courrier électronique a aussi des inconvénients. Par exemple, les fonctionnaires hauts placés et les décideurs peuvent rechigner à utiliser le courrier électronique car leurs déclarations sont mises par écrit et peuvent être envoyées très vite à une large audience. L'autre inconvénient du courrier électronique est son anonymat ainsi que son langage de plus en plus informel. Les gens hésitent généralement à répondre aux e-mails s'ils ne connaissent pas l'expéditeur.En plus de ces problèmes, les gens ont de plus en plus de difficultés à manipuler le nombre grandissant d'e-mails qu'ils reçoivent chaque jour. Le Spam -les messages publicitaires -inondent les boîtes de réception et aggravent ce problème.Pour une correspondance par e-mail fluide, les règles fondamentales suivantes devraient être considérées:■ Les e-mails devraient avoir une ligne 'objet' courte et instructive.■ Le texte devrait être court et bien structuré.■ Ne mettez pas trop de thèmes différents dans un e-mail; il est préférable d'écrire deux messages.■ N'écrivez jamais des propos insultants dans e-mails et soyez conscients que les messages peuvent être renvoyés facilement.■ Régler les conflits par le courrier électronique ne marche normalement pas; des réunions face à face sont nécessaires.■ Apposez une signature avec votre adresse et numéros de téléphone dans le message.■ Répondez à vos e-mails dans les 48 heures. Si vous ne connaissez pas la réponse ou si vous n'avez pas le temps de répondre, informer l'expéditeur et donner une indication quand vous pourriez répondre. Les contacts face à face demeurent une activité principale essentielle des réseaux. En les associant avec les nouvelles technologies d'information et de la communication, leur efficacité peut encore être améliorée. Storytelling n'est pas seulement un moyen efficace de convaincre les décideurs; c'est également utile pour partager des cognitions pratiques et des exemples entre membres. Les réseaux devraient collecter des histoires de réussites, les mettre par écrit et les utiliser dans leurs communications (☞ sources section 10.1).Une autre façon efficace de partager l'information et les connaissances sur un ou plusieurs thèmes spécifiques dans les réseaux formels est de le faire à travers des communautés de pratique (CdP). Comme défini dans la section 2.1, une communauté de pratique fait allusion à un groupe de gens ayant un intérêt commun pour un domaine spécifique de connaissances ou de compétences et qui sont disposés à travailler et à apprendre ensemble pendant un certain laps de temps pour développer et partager leurs connaissances, pratiques et expertises.L'échange entre les membres des CdP a lieu pendant les réunions et les ateliers, dans les plates-formes de discussion électroniques et les espaces d'équipe ('team spaces'), ou, idéalement, dans les deux: face à face et de manière électronique.Les CdP sont un moyen précieux de partage des connaissances et d'apprentissage dans les réseaux formels, et ceci pour les raisons suivantes:■ Elles assurent aux membres un accès aux informations et connaissances pertinentes sur des thèmes spécifiques.■ Elles contribuent à l'apprentissage et au renforcement des capacités des membres.■ Elles aident à améliorer la qualité des informations et des connaissances qui sont disponibles dans le réseau.■ Elles améliorent l'efficacité en connectant des pairs.■ Elles augmentent le potentiel pour l'innovation.Avant de lancer une communauté de pratique, les questions suivantes doivent être posées:■ Quel est l'objectif primaire de la CdP?■ Quels membres ou acteurs clé du réseau seraient intéressés à participer à la CdP?■ Avez-vous un groupe de base de membres avec des ressources suffisantes pour participer activement à la CdP?■ Y a-t-il une personne compétente et bien documentée disposée à être facilitateur de la CdP?Familiarisez-vous avec les CdPs en consultant les nombreuses ressources qui sont disponibles ou en assistant à des formations (☞ sources section 10.1).Pour mettre toutes les chances de réussite de votre côté, il y a un certain nombre de choses que vous devriez considérer quand vous démarrez une CdP. Vous pouvez éviter beaucoup de pièges en tenant compte des choses 'à faire' et 'à ne pas faire' suivants. ■ Assurer des ressources suffisantes pour les espaces de travail électroniques, les ateliers, les facilitations ou d'autres activités.■ Utiliser les technologies les plus appropriées pour votre groupe.■ Renforcer les capacités des membres pour qu'ils soient à même d'utiliser la plate-forme électronique.■ Promouvoir une facilitation compétente qui soutiendra l'élan, encouragera la participation, promouvra l'identité de la communauté et renforcera la confiance elle.■ Créer un code de conduite pour éviter les mauvais comportements et pour renforcer la confiance.■ Communiquer le but et la valeur de la CdP à travers des histoires et des anecdotes.■ Résumer de temps en temps les discussions et essayer de développer des résultats tangibles.■ Tenir des réunions face à face et initier des événements de communauté en plus des discussions en ligne.A ne pas faire ■ Forcer la mise en place d'une CdP quand il n'y a pas de membres engagés ou intéressés par le thème.■ Commencer par mettre en place une plate-forme électronique et seulement après encourager les membres à participer (Ceci est l'illusion du 'construit-la et ils partagerons les connaissances'!)■ Avoir une facilitation directive, supervisant et autoritaire.■ Aspirer à des résultats immédiats -les CdP ont besoin de temps pour grandir.■ Succomber à la formalisation et la structuration excessive, ce qui peut tuer la CdP.■ 'Réglementer' la participation -les gens participeront seulement quand ils perçoivent la valeur ajoutée. ❏ Considérer que les gens pensent, partagent, apprennent et communiquent différemment.❏ Avoir des contacts face à face réguliers avec les membres de l'équipe de base et les acteurs clé.❏ Considérer que l'accès à l'Internet est encore lent et cher dans beaucoup de pays en voie de développement et pourvoir des alternatives.❏ Mettre à disposition des outils et moyens de communication moins chers que les conférences ou les ateliers internationaux.❏ Choisir les outils de communication appropriés selon l'objectif et la nature de la relation.❏ Utiliser une série d'outils pour l'information et la communication en général.  ´","tokenCount":"9566"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"04732e8189cfc249ed2b411dab7ee70e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ac307a2d-4fbd-40bc-8781-68fa5040600c/retrieve","id":"-1136120270"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d796a035-46dc-4984-abec-d1685d95f23d","pagecount":"83","content":"who provided very helpful peer review comments.Chemicals that can be transmitted in food and the food related health burden .................... Foodborne diseases (FBD) can be defined as any illness caused by ingesting contaminated food or drink. The most common clinical presentation of foodborne diseases is gastrointestinal symptoms, but foodborne diseases can also lead to chronic, lifethreatening symptoms including neurological, gynaecological or immunological disorders as well as multi-organ failure, cancer and death.Foodborne disease matters for development. It is a major public health problem. It presents a barrier to countries that wish to export and to smallholder farmers who wish to sell produce in high value domestic markets. It is also a major concern of consumers.Most of the known health burden of foodborne disease is caused by parasites, protozoa, bacteria and viruses in fresh animal source foods and vegetables. There are also major concerns, but major evidence gaps, on the health impacts of chemicals and fungal toxins in food.Foodborne disease is probably increasing in developing countries. This is the result of: increased consumption of the most risky perishable foods;  the intensification of agriculture that can encourage the spread of disease and can result in more contamination of food; and  the failure to establish effective food safety systems for domestic markets.Problems are especially noticeable in South East Asia and urban South Asia and Africa. Solutions to improve food safety require an enabling policy environment as well as systems that recognise and reward value chain participants for producing safe food.The growth of food exports from developing countries, and the successes (albeit limited) of initiatives to improve food safety in informal markets, suggest that foodborne disease is a problem that can be solved.The full health effects and the full economic costs of unsafe food are not known, but the global impact on health, trade, and development is considered enormous. Worldwide, hundreds of millions of cases of foodborne disease occur each year costing billions of dollars.The material presented in this resource reviews foodborne disease in developing countries. It covers the following: the likely burden of foodborne disease;  the importance of foodborne disease to developing countries;  the causes of foodborne disease and the most risky foods;  trends in foodborne disease; and  the management of foodborne disease.The resource has been put together to help livelihoods advisers and other interested development professionals critically think through the issues highlighted above. Our aim is to engage readers unfamiliar with the subject and to refresh and update knowledge on food safety for others. We hope the material will provide 'non-food safety experts' with a good understanding of foodborne disease within the broader context of 'development' discussions. It is assumed that readers already have a solid grasp of international development contexts, and current development discourse.By reading this resource we hope that development professionals will become more confident in asking further questions or proposing and developing innovative and relevant approaches that consider the implications of foodborne disease in a changing global context.The key debates, evidence, and messages outlined in this resource should provide 'food for thought' for future programme design or policy advice. At the very least, it is hoped that the evidence, messages and questions presented will stimulate thinking about narratives, and the assumptions we often hold about foodborne disease and food safety.The material has been presented in three main sections:1. Foodborne disease and its impact 2. Interventions for managing food safety 3. Trends and drivers that affect food safety Part 1 will help readers to understand what is meant by foodborne disease and its impact. It summarises current best evidence and knowledge gaps on foodborne disease in developing countries. It shows that: there is reasonable evidence that FBD has major impacts on developing countries;  from a global perspective, developing countries bear the brunt of FBD;  developing country consumers are concerned about FBD;  most of the known burden of FBD disease comes from biological hazards. For example, we show there is evidence that: Foodborne parasites (gastro-intestinal worms and protozoa) are an important known cause of foodborne disease causing millions of illnesses and around 18 million Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) lost each year globally.  Microbial pathogens (bacterial and viral pathogens) also impose high health burden, causing millions of illnesses each year, but less is known of their burden. Conservatively assuming only 10% of the diarrhoeal burden is due to these pathogens, and the nondiarrhoeal burden is equivalent to this, around 18 million DALYs are lost each year globally.  Aflatoxins impose a moderate health burden of around 100,000 cases of liver cancer and 1-2 million DALYs a year but health impacts may be greater. In particular, aflatoxins are strongly associated with stunting and immune suppression.  Other toxins. Marine toxins cause tens of thousands of FBD cases a year, methanol and plant toxins hundreds of cases but the global health burden for these is not well established. Chemicals of major health concern can be transmitted through food but there is little quantified evidence of health burden (except for arsenic which has been recently reviewed). Arsenic, cadmium, mercury, dioxins and highly hazardous pesticides are chemicals of especial concern.  Most foodborne disease is the result of consumption of fresh, perishable foods sold in informal markets.Look out for symbols in the text. These will guide you to further information presented as Factsheets. Read these if you want to find out more on: measuring health burden caused by disease;  foodborne parasites -what they are and what they do; and  foodborne bacterial and viral pathogens.We hope that after reading this section you come away understanding the complex nature of foodborne disease and why it is so important in terms of health burden, distribution, trends and cost.Part 2 summarises some of the interventions for managing food safety and gets us thinking about the \"so what\" questions. It shows that foodborne disease is preventable. The material suggests that large scale formal food production and processing are not the only answers to reducing foodborne disease. We look at consumer demand for food safety, a promising way of driving up quality, but highlight three types of important challenges to consider -practical, ethical and economic. We review capacity building initiatives to combat foodborne disease, exploring Good Agricultural Practices and training of market actors. Finally we take a look at the technology interventions and policy approaches to managing food safety.If you want to find out about or explore in further detail food trends, drivers that affect food safety in developing countries then go to Part 3. This section helps us think through: what the implications for agricultural intensification might be;  the changes that are taking place in food consumed;  the changes to how food is sold; and  what potential shocks there might be to food systems.We also review the geography of food safety and how this impacts on people who are poor.We look at what food safety means for: small farmers, export industries, women, the most vulnerable people, and for nutrition.The conclusions presented at the end capture what the current best evidence is telling us: Food safety has been neglected in developing countries. There is growing evidence that foodborne disease may be an important contributor to gastrointestinal disease.  Foodborne disease has been increasing in developed countries and is likely to increase in developing countries.  Foodborne disease is not just a health issue. Already a major determinant of export market access, it is increasingly affecting domestic markets.For more informationIf you want to explore the material further we have also put together an annotated bibliography that lists recommended further reading. You may also find the stocktake note on what food safety initiatives are underway helpful. The glossary and our factsheets are designed as standalone quick refreshers.As a starting point, click on the icon to read our Food Safety Fast Facts.A note on the Evidence Criteria used in this materialRecent decades have seen increasing emphasis on the need to justify decisions on good evidence. The different evidence reviewed in this paper has been graded. Look out for the \"+\" symbols as you read the material.indicates Good Evidence -many good quality studies that consistently show an effect.indicates Suggestive Evidence -several good quality studies that preponderantly show an effect and/or several studies that consistently show an effect but have less rigorous methodologies.indicates Weak Evidence -supported by one or two studies; several weak studies; grey literature; unknown sources; and/or expert opinion.This section provides a useful summary of current best evidence and knowledge gaps on foodborne disease in developing countries. It shows that: there is reasonable evidence that FBD has major impacts in developing countries;  from a global perspective, developing countries bear the brunt of FBD;  developing country consumers are concerned about FBD;  most of the known burden of FBD disease comes from biological hazards; and  most FBD is the result of consumption of fresh, perishable foods sold in informal markets.The full burden of FBD in developing countries is not known but experts believe that developing countries bear the brunt of FBD (Käferstein, 2003 +;UN, 2013 +). This is plausible given that: high levels of hazards are often reported in developing country food (Grace et al., 2010 ++);  high prevalences of potentially foodborne pathogens are found in hospital and community surveys of children and adults with diarrhoea (Fletcher et al., 2013 +++);  a lack of clean water for washing food and utensils is common (around 750 million people do not have access to clean water (WHO/UNICEF, 2014 +++); and  the use of human sewage or animal waste for horticulture production is common in developing countries.The burden of FBD is more challenging to estimate than the burden of single diseases such as malaria or tuberculosis. The most common manifestation of FBD is diarrhoea, but most cases never get a laboratory diagnosis.You can read more in our factsheet on health impacts of FBD. It provides a simple explanation of why FBD is under reported and therefore under estimated.Even if a laboratory diagnosis is provided, there is often no way of telling if the pathogen detected was acquired from food, water, the environment or another person. Moreover, in many countries there is no requirement to report FBD. Even if there is a requirement the reporting system may not be adequate. As a result, for most countries, stakeholders do not know the level of FBD or what issues are most important. For example, in China, reporting of sporadic FBD is voluntary but not required. A population based study in Gansu province estimated 30 million cases of acute intestinal illness occur each year, requiring 22 million medical consultations and 20 million courses of antibiotics. Just 400 cases were sent to the health reporting system (Sang et al., 2014).On the other hand, in Malaysia it is a requirement by law to notify all cases of cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, and food poisoning. During 1990During -2006, annual notifications for these diseases ranged from 2,934 to 10,416 cases. In contrast, a community study estimated at least 13 million episodes of acute diarrhoea annually; most of which are likely to be the result of these notifiable diseases. The figures indicate that cases of acute diarrhoea in Malaysia are grossly under-reported, with less than 0.1% of cases being captured by the national surveillance system annually (Gurpreet et al., 2011).A first global and comprehensive estimate of the burden of FBD by the Foodborne Disease Epidemiology Reference Group (FERG) initiative of the World Health Organization (WHO) is anticipated in 2015. Meanwhile, Box 1 shows that some of the logic and individual case study evidence that suggests FBD is a problem in developing countries.The structure of the food sector in developing countries compounds the problem. Food systems are heterogeneous and fragmented with large numbers of actors, many of them small-scale and most operating in the informal sector.In China food production is said to be dominated by \"elephants and mice\": that is, sprawling, monopolistic enterprises (who have incentives to escape or game regulation) and tiny household producers (who are difficult to monitor) (Alcorn & Ouyang, 2012). In Kenya, it is said \"there is nothing between the cartel and the corner shop\" (personal communication). These structural challenges are compounded by a generally poor capacity to enforce regulation in many developing countries.Stakeholders cite the following governance challenges for food safety regulation: inadequate policy and legislation;  multiple organisations with overlapping mandates;  out-dated, fragmented or missing legislation;  inappropriate standards;  lack of harmonisation and alignment of standards;  failure to cover the informal sector;  limited civil society involvement; and,  limited enforcement (FAO, 2005).National surveys in Europe and North America show that public concern over food safety is high, rising, yet not always rational. For example, chemicals cause less illness than microbes but are more feared (Eurobarometer, 2010;Petrun et al., 2015). In developing countries, there are few nationally representative surveys of food safety concerns. However, smaller studies show high levels of worry and that the priorities of developing country citizens are similar to those in the USA and Europe. For example, a collection of studies from seven countries, found food safety was always a concern for consumers and often the single most important concern about food (Jabbar et al., 2010). Peoples' actions confirm this. When pig diseases were initially reported by the media in Vietnam, the majority of consumers stopped eating pork, shifted to chicken or went to outlets that were perceived to be safer (ILRI, 2010). Similarly, assessments conducted in the context of Rift Valley fever outbreaks in Kenya found that consumers asked to see butchers' certificates and demand for ruminant meat dropped as consumers switched to poultry (ILRI, 2007).Box 1: Findings from developing countries relevant to foodborne diseaseGrowing food in chemically contaminated soils can result in uptake of chemicals by crops. 10% of China's arable land is contaminated with industrial waste (Ellis & Turner, 2008).Human waste is often used for soil fertilisation or aquaculture and contains pathogens that can contaminate fish and vegetables. In south Hanoi, for example, 350 ha of fish ponds fertilised with human waste provide fish for the capital's population (Nguyen et al., 2007).Many animal diseases are transmissible to people. It is therefore a concern that 80% of chickens that die of disease in China end up as human food, either directly or through feeding to pigs (Ellis & Turner, 2008).Travellers' diarrhoea is often the result of food. Travellers returning to countries with good health facilities can act as 'canaries in the mine' to show what diseases are present in the countries they visited. A large study found that people were 151 times more likely to acquire diarrhoeal illness abroad than in their country of origin (Greenwood et al., 2008).Where more people are vulnerable to FBD, more cases can be expected. In developing countries, 1.8 billion people are in the 'at risk' categories -young, old, malnourished, pregnant or immune-compromised (WHO, 2014;FAO, 2014).Food safety has become an issue of enormous public concern in China (Garnett & Wilkes, 2014). This is not surprising given the food safety scares reported in the Chinese media (see examples in Box 2 below).One survey found Chinese people reported FBD was the second greatest risk they faced in daily life (after earthquakes), and 92% of respondents said they expected to soon become a victim of food poisoning (Alcorn & Ouyang, 2012).Box 2: What the public sees: thirteen years of food safety scares in Chinese media2003 Ever Fresh Hams: small producers of Jinhua hams operated out of season to produce hams during warmer months, by treating their hams with pesticides used for crop fumigation to prevent spoilage and insect infestation.2006 Duck Egg of Doom: China culled more than 5,000 ducks that farmers have fed with a cancer-causing dye to make their eggs look redder and fresher.2008 Melamine Milk Scandal: six infants were killed and 300,000 were left sickened after consuming infant formula contaminated with the industrial chemical melamine.2009 Formaldehyde Pudding: inspectors found that pork blood pudding in Wuhan was manufactured with formaldehyde, corn starch, industrial grade salt, artificial food colourings, and a variety of other additives.2010 Pesticide Beans: more than 3.5 tonnes of \"yard-long\" green beans contaminated with the banned pesticide isocarbophos, were destroyed after being discovered on sale in the central city of Wuhan.Cadmium Rice: It was reported that up to 10 per cent of rice sold in China was contaminated with heavy metals, including cadmium.2011 Glow In the Dark Pork: pork sold in Shanghai glowed iridescent blue when the lights were turned off and customers remained suspicious despite reassurances from the Health Department who said pork was contaminated by a phosphorescent bacteria but safe to eat if well-cooked.2013: Cross Dressing Meat: Chinese officials arrested 904 people who allegedly sold adulterated and mislabelled meat products treating rat, mink, and fox meat with chemicals in order to pass them off as beef and mutton.2014 Gutter Oil: this is the name given to illicit cooking oil originating from restaurant fryers, sewers and waste oil that is then passed off as fit for human consumption.2015 Forty Year Old Meat: Chinese authorities seize more than 100,000 tonnes of smuggled meat -some of it more than 40 years old, according to state media.(Source: various online media sources)The causes of foodborne disease: biological, chemical and physical hazardsFoodborne diseases can be caused by many different agents or hazards. In risk analysis 1 terminology these hazards are categorised as: Biological: living organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites which are pathogenic (harmful);  Chemical: substances such as: heavy metals, pesticides, insecticides, disinfectants, which can cause harm;  Physical: solid objects that can cause harm such as glass shards or nails.Health burdens are measured in DALYs to facilitate comparison and prioritisation (one DALY can be seen as one healthy year of life lost).Our factsheet on the \"Burden of Illness\" explains DALYs and provides a \"Do it Yourself\" example. Click the icon to read this Factsheet.Disease burden estimates are based on largescale systematic reviews, but as for all health information from developing countries, they are prone to error and under-estimation. Indeed, estimates for neglected tropical diseases have varied considerably over the past decade and may continue to for many years to come (Hoetz et al., 2014).For this paper, where estimates varied we took the higher value given that neglected tropical diseases and especially zoonoses are prone to under-reporting (Schelling et al., 2007). The WHO launched an initiative in 2006 to estimate the global burden of foodborne disease and the final report is due in December 2015. This will give the most authoritative estimate of the foodborne disease burden in developing countries and this paper will be updated at that time.The next sections will review evidence on health burden, causes, prevalence, distribution and costs for the most important hazards: foodborne parasites; microbial 1 Risk analysis is the gold standard methodology for assessing and managing FBD.pathogens (non-parasitic); fungal, marine and plant toxins; and, chemicals. Foodborne parasites (gastro-intestinal worms and protozoa) are an important known cause of foodborne disease causing millions of illnesses and around 18 million DALYs each year globally.Foodborne parasites are mostly infections by worms and protozoa acquired from food and other routes 2 . These parasites flourish in poor tropical countries. Infections are highest in children living in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by Asia and then South America and the Caribbean. The global burden of the top eight parasites is estimated at 1.7 billion cases and around 18 million DALYs each year (IHME, 2013;Torgerson et al., 2014;Hoetz et al., 2014 +++).Some important foodborne parasites are large organisms, which are visible to the naked eye. These include roundworms, tapeworms (hosted by pig and sheep) and fluke. They are mainly eradicated from, or well controlled in, richer countries. Even within developing countries they often have a restricted geographical range. More than 90% of the global burden of hydatid disease (caused by a tapeworm for which sheep is a host) occurs in China (Torgerson et al., 2014 ++); fishborne fluke are found mainly in East and in South East Asia; and, tapeworms for which pigs are a host are found mainly in poor, pig-keeping communities in Latin America, Africa and North East India.Roundworm infections are common in developing countries while tapeworms and fluke are less common but can cause more serious illness. One quarter of people in Asia are infected with one or more roundworms. Around 56 million people in South East Asia are infected with fishborne fluke. Tapeworm diseases are less common than roundworm diseases, affecting around 2 million people, but cause more serious illness.2The exact proportion of disease attributable to food is not fully known, but food has an important role in the transmission of all these parasites and hence they are called \"foodborne parasites\".Photo: Larva of the roundworm Trichinella viewed through a microscope. Trichinella is the smallest human nematode parasite and people can get infected with its larvae through eating undercooked pork (photo credit: ILRI/Kristina Roesel)The burden of tapeworms and fluke do not appear to be decreasing overall, although there has been progress with control in some areas (Fürst et al., 2012;IHME, 2013).Roundworm infections appear to be decreasing as the result of better sanitation and treatment.The global cost of hydatid (sheep) tapeworm was estimated at more than US$1 billion in human health costs and US$2 billion in livestock production losses annually (Budke et al., 2006 ++). Economic studies from Peru, Cameroon, South Africa and Mexico all put the cost of pig tapeworm at tens of millions of US dollars a year ++. For some zoonotic parasites, a substantial part of this cost is loss to the livestock industry (Carabin et al., 2006;Praet et al., 2009).For more information read our \"Bad Bugs -Foodborne parasites\" factsheet.ILRI: https://goo.gl/ObUzlcOther important foodborne parasites are microscopic organisms called protozoa. These include: Toxoplasma, Giardia, Amoeba and Cryptosporidium.Globally, around one third (33%) of people are infected with Toxoplasma, 11% of people with Giardia, 4% with Amoeba and 4% with Cryptosporidium. Many of these infections will have no or mild symptoms. Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma and Giardia have impacts worldwide. In contrast, nearly all the burden of Amoeba is in developing countries.The burden of Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium appears to be decreasing as a result of better sanitation and treatment for worm infections (IHME, 2013). However, Toxoplasma would be expected to increase where consumption of meat is growing rapidly as prevalence is higher where meat consumption is high. The lack of good monitoring systems for FBD makes trends difficult to detect. Microbial pathogens also impose high health burden, causing millions of illnesses each year +++ but less is known of the full burden. However, based on extrapolation, microbial pathogens probably are responsible for at least 18 million lost DALYs a year +.Diarrhoea is the most common manifestation of FBD. Most diarrhoea that is caused by microbial pathogens occurs when pathogens shed in animal or human faeces are ingested by the human victim through fluids (unsafe water or drinks), food, or fingers (when fingers touch contaminated objects/environment and then make contact with the mouth). Food may contain pathogens because the animal producing food was infected or because food was subsequently contaminated by unsafe fluids, flies, dirty fingers or utensils.The proportion of diarrhoea due to food in developing countries (as opposed to fluid and fingers) is not known. In 2015, the WHO will publish the results of an initiative to estimate the global burden of foodborne disease, which should provide more authoritative estimates.Microbial pathogens can also have nonintestinal, and/or chronic health impacts. These include: septicaemia, reactive arthritis, paralysis, abortion and birth defects. Although these impacts are less common than intestinal disease, the DALYs from these are much higher, reflecting both the greater severity of symptoms and the longer duration of illness (Gkogka et al., 2011;Havelaar et al., 2012;Gibney et al., 2014 ++).There are few studies on foodborne diarrhoea in developing countries, with most coming from South East Asia and relying on the opinion of victims to determine if disease is foodborne 3 . The studies that exist find acute gastro-intestinal disease is common (around one in two people a year) and around one third of cases (12-55%) were attributed to food (Bureau of Epidemiology, 2004;Ho et al., 2010;Chen et al., 2013;Sang et al., 2014).We have better information on the global burden of diarrhoea but even for this, different estimates exist: 89,513,000 DALYs for 2010 (IHME, 2013); 99,728,000 DALYs for 2012 (WHO, 2014) and 2.7 billion cases in 2013 (IHME, 2013).For more information read our \"Bad Bugs -Foodborne bacterial and Viral pathogens\" factsheet.Globally, the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME, 2013 ++) found that the most important viral and bacterial causes of diarrhoea were, in descending order: rotavirus, toxigenic Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Shigella spp., non-cholera Salmonella and cholera. The first systematic review of diarrhoeal pathogens in different world regions had similar findings: bacteria were relatively more important in developing countries and viruses less important (Fletcher et al., 2013 ++). Most studies (summarised in Belderock et al., 2011) find the Indian sub-continent has highest incidence of diarrhoea followed by Africa then other developing regions.In the absence of any conclusive data, this paper conservatively estimates at least 10% of the diarrhoeal burden is due to FBD resulting from bacteria and viruses. This is compatible with the lower end of the two reports from Asia; evidence from Water Sanitation Hygiene (WSH) studies (suggesting perhaps 40% of diarrhoea not attributed to water, sanitation or hygiene); and, good evidence on attribution of diarrhoea from developed countries (which finds 20-40% of diarrhoeal disease attributed to food). This diarrhoeal burden (10% of the global total) is around 9 million DALYs each year. There is reasonable evidence that the burden from nonintestinal health impacts is at least as great as the burden from intestinal disease, adding an additional 9 million DALYs from non-intestinal impacts.Photo: An ILRI-Wellcome Trust laboratory in Busia, western Kenya. A project here is investigating the disease pathogens circulating in both people and animals in the farming communities nearby (photo credit: ILRI/Pye-Smith). In developed countries, FBD associated with microbial pathogens increased for several decades (from the 1970s to 1990s) and is now mainly stable (Crim et al., 2015;EFSA, 2015). Some (developed) countries have reduced certain pathogens (such as Salmonella in Europe) as the result of targeted campaigns, but other FBD (for example Vibrio in the USA) continue to increase. In developing countries, FBD due to microbial pathogens are probably increasing driven by more consumption of risky foods and changing supply chain structure. However, the lack of any solid data on FBD incidence at different time periods makes estimations of trends speculative.There are few estimates of the cost of FBD due to intestinal illness in developing countries.  (Scharff, 2012;Abelson et al., 2006;Mangen et al., 2014;Toljander et al., 2012 ++). This reflects differences in population size, incidence of FBD, year of the study, value of costs, and, which costs were included. Some studies include costs of protozoal parasites. Lost exports are important costs for some countries.For example, the 1991 cholera outbreak in Peru, caused water and seafood to be contaminated by Vibrio cholerae, which resulted in more than US$700 million in lost exports of fish products. More recently, in 2005, malachite green (a controversial compound that has been used as a parasiticide and antibacterial in commercial aquaculture) was found in Chinese eels resulting in export losses of at least US$860 million (Ellis & Turner, 2008).Aflatoxins impose a moderate health burden of around 100,000 cases of liver cancer and 1-2 million DALYs a year +++ but health impacts are not fully known and aflatoxins may contribute to stunting.Aflatoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by some species of the Aspergillus fungus. They are widespread in crops in tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially in maize and groundnuts, and are also found in dairy products and traditionally fermented foods. Ingestion of large amounts of toxin can cause death. Chronic exposure to aflatoxins leads to liver cancer; it is also strongly associated with stunting and immune suppression, but a causal link has not yet been established. Aflatoxins are one of many kinds of mycotoxin. Some other mycotoxins have adverse impacts on human health but the global burden has not been calculated. They are probably less important than aflatoxins (Wu et al., 2014).The first global estimate of DALYs due to aflatoxins suggested that there were 25,200-155,000 cases a year (Liu & Wu, 2010). A second study by the same team based on literature from high aflatoxin areas (China and sub-Saharan Africa) suggested aflatoxins were responsible for 17% of hepato-cellular carcinoma (liver cancer) or 88,400 cases (72,800-98,000) equivalent to 1.1 million DALYs. Another meta-analysis estimated 23% of liver cancer cases could be due to aflatoxin exposure (Liu et al., 2012). Hepatitis B infection appears to worsen the effects of aflatoxins and nearly two thirds of cases are in hepatitis B positive people (Liu et al., 2012).It is difficult to understand the full health burden of aflatoxins (see Box 3 overleaf).Box 3: Why it is so difficult to understand the full health burden of aflatoxinsChildhood stunting has been shown to be strongly associated (that is, correlated) with aflatoxin consumption in some but not all studies. Correlation does not imply causation and epidemiology provides a set of tools to help understand whether association is causal or due to confounding. In the case of aflatoxins, epidemiologists look for: There has been a rapid reduction in liver cancer in China: an aetiological study attributed this to reduced exposure to reduced exposure to aflatoxins and increased hepatitis B vaccination coverage. Reduction in exposure was driven by rapid economic growth that allowed people to switch from maize to rice and to diversify their diets. Little improvement has been seen in Africa (Sun et al., 2013).Annual economic costs of mycotoxins to the US agricultural economy were estimated at US $1.4 billion (CAST, 2003). The cost of aflatoxins to the poultry and pig sectors in Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines was estimated at $156 million Australian Dollars (Lubulwa & Davis, 1994) and the human health effects at $500 million Australian Dollars.A later study from Thailand estimated the costs to the agriculture sector at $6.9 million or $100 million USD per year (based on low and high contamination hypotheses). Most of these losses were borne by the livestock industry (Lubulwa et al., 2015).In 2001, a study estimated that African food exporters lost US$670 million USD per year by not meeting EU safety standards alone (Otsuki et al., 2001). Others conclude the EU standards had no significant impact on groundnut and trade is more constrained by domestic supply issues rather than by limited market access (Xiong & Beghin, 2011). In Kenya in 2010, The Government estimated that 10% of the maize harvest was contaminated by aflatoxin equivalent to US$100 million (PACA, undated). Newspaper reports suggested a much smaller amount was actually condemned and much of the condemned maize found its way back onto the market. A large part of the costs in developed countries is for testing and compliance with regulations. In the USA, the annual cost of regulatory enforcement, testing and other quality control measures for mycotoxins was US$466 million annually (CAST, 2003).Other food related toxins: marine, methanol and plantMarine toxins cause tens of thousands of FBD cases a year, methanol and plant toxins hundreds of cases. The global health burden for these is not well established.Seafood poisoning from marine toxins is increasing because of climate change, pollution, coral reef damage and transport of algae by ships. Algae produce chemicals that give rise to marine toxins when taken up by fish. Ciguatoxins are marine biotoxins found in contaminated tropical reef fish that cause ciguatera poisoning. This is the most common marine toxin disease worldwide with 10,000 to 50,000 cases a year (EFSA, 2010 ++). Paralytic shellfish poisoning is most common in colder waters. The algae producing the toxin cause red streaks to appear in the ocean called \"red tides\". Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning is common in Europe but found worldwide (FAO, 2004). Scombrotoxic fish poisoning is a syndrome resembling an allergic reaction caused by eating fish with high levels of histamine produced by bacterial spoilage. It is most associated with consumption of scombroid fish (e.g. tuna, mackerel).Illicit or unrecorded alcohol constitutes about 30% of all alcohol consumed globally, with poorer countries consuming a higher proportion of illicit alcohol (Rehm et al., 2014). Illicit alcohol may contain methanol due to incorrectly managed distillation processes, but more commonly, as the result of deliberate addition to fortify drinks. As reported in the published literature, methanol poisoning is responsible for fewer than 1,000 deaths in any given year. In India, around 2,000 deaths have occurred since independence (Bodwal, 2014).As such, methanol deaths seem to be primarily individual or regional tragedies rather than a global public health problem.Plants contain some chemicals that are known to be toxic to both animals and humans. Some of these chemicals evolved in plants to protect them from pests or herbivores. Lathyrism, a neurological disease caused by consumption of some types of pulse (Lathyrus spp.) has been a problem in South Asia and Ethiopia. Few cases are reported currently, for reasons that are not fully known (Mishra et al., 2014), but probably linked to increasing income, better health care and more diverse diets. Konzo (an acute paralytic illness) and tropical ataxic neuropathy (a chronic illness characterised by sensory deficits) are caused by high dietary cyanogen consumption from insufficiently processed bitter cassava combined, in the case of konzo, with a proteindeficient diet.Around 2,000 cases of konzo have been reported in the last 20 years but unofficial reports suggest there may be tens of thousands of unreported cases (Nzwalo & Cliff, 2011). Plant toxins are mainly local problems but have caused major outbreaks (thousands of cases or more) in times of famine or war. Deaths from plant cyanogens appear to be declining.Chemicals of major health concern can be transmitted through food but there is little quantified evidence of health burden.The World Health Organization has prioritised ten chemicals as being of major health concern. For two of these (cadmium and dioxins), food is the major exposure route while for three others food is an important (arsenic, mercury, fluoride) or possibly important (highly hazardous pesticides) exposure route. For the other four chemicals of major concern, food is not an important route (air pollution, asbestos, benzene, lead).Although food is a potentially important exposure route for six chemicals of major health concern, the health burden has only been calculated for arsenic and as this is based on only one study it is less reliable than estimates based on multiple studies (see Table 1).There is a high level of concern among the general public about the presence of chemicals in food. Chemicals of most concern to the general public include: pesticides, growth promoters, chemicals added to food during processing, chemicals added to adulterate food, and, toxins produced by cooking (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and acrylamides). We briefly look at some of these in the sections that follow.Table 1: Chemicals that can be transmitted in food and the food related health burdenIn developed countries, chemicals in food are strictly controlled. There is little evidence for major health impacts from chemical hazards, although there is concern about impacts not adequately detected with current technology. In developing countries, there is no credible, comprehensive, quantified evidence on the impact of agricultural chemicals in food on human health (Prüss-Ustün et al., 2011;Käferstein 1997), but there is solid evidence that some health impacts occur, and suspicion that these could be substantial.Various studies have found high levels of agricultural chemicals in marketed food and widespread use of obsolete, cheaper and more hazardous chemicals in developing countries. For example, in Ghana 19% of produce (fresh fruit and vegetables) had pesticide residues above maximum permitted levels compared to typical values of less than 5% in developed countries (Bempah & Donkor, 2011). A survey in Vietnam found 2,500 kg of banned pesticide in use (PPD, 2000). In developed countries, there are more residues found in foods imported from developing countries than domestic foods (EFSA, 2013).Food adulteration to increase profits has led to several high profile outbreaks of food poisoning. In Cambodia, in 1996 and 1998, 70 deaths were linked to drinking rice wine mixed with pesticides to make it stronger. Problems with Sudan Red (an illegal food dye), melamine in formula milk and malachite green have been reported from China (Ellis & Turner, 2008). There are also occasional reports of malicious poisonings. In China, 38 school children died from rat poison when a baker contaminated products of a rival seller to obtain commercial advantage (ISID, 2002). Accidental contamination may be more common in developing countries as a result of lack of stringent health and safety protocols and these incidents are occasionally reported in the media. For example, in India in 2013, at least 22 schoolchildren died after eating a free school lunch contaminated with insecticide 4 .Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and acrylamide 5 can be formed by smoking, grilling, roasting and frying food. Smoked and barbecued meats and fish may contain high levels of PAHs as a result of the smoking process. PAHs are irritating and very high levels may cause death; PAHs and acrylamide are also carcinogens. There has been limited investigation of PAHs and acrylamide in developing countries but one study from Côte d'Ivoire is illustrative (Box 4).4See: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-23353017, accessed September 2015.5Acrylamide: a chemical produced naturally in food as a result of cooking starch rich food at high temperatures.Box 4: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish -an example from Côte d'IvoireMore than 80% of the fish landing in Côte d'Ivoire is traditionally smoked for sale in the local market and for export. Smoked fish accounts for 0.73% of the total export volume (which corresponds to 2.3% of foreign exchange), and the sector employs approximately 70,000 people who feed another 400,000. In 2007, PAH was discovered in smoked fish from Côte d'Ivoire destined for export to Europe. In Europe the main purchasers of these fish products are the West African diaspora. A recent study found 71% of smoked fish in local markets was contaminated and levels were five times higher than EU permitted levels. Most of the people smoking fish were women (90%) without secondary education. High-risk practices were noticed like the use of resinous wood (branches of rubber trees) and high smoking temperatures (Roesel & Grace, 2014). Most foodborne disease comes from fresh, perishable foods sold in wet marketsIn countries where good data exist, most FBD results from consuming animal source foods (ASF) (i.e. fresh meat, milk, eggs, fish) and produce (i.e. fresh fruits and vegetables).In developing countries, less fresh food (animal source foods and produce) is eaten, but the fresh food (animal source foods and produce) eaten is more contaminated.Figure 4 (below) shows the foods implicated in FBD from three large, comprehensive national studies in the UK, USA and Netherlands, one small study in India, and one small, selfreported study from China (Painter et al., 2013;Sudershan et al., 2014;Mangen et al., 2014;Tam et al., 2012;Sang et al., 2014).Meat consumption is a strong predictor of foodborne disease mortality. In a crosscountry study, for every additional metric tonne of meat consumed per 100 people, foodborne disease mortality increased by 6% (Hanson et al., 2012).The parasitic and microbial pathogens responsible for most of the health burden come from animal source food and vegetables. Pesticides are often transmitted through vegetables and fruit but are also commonplace in animal source foods in developing countries. Comparing the problem of FBD in developing countries to the much better studied problem of FBD in developed countries, it is likely that: the burden of microbial FBD is higher in developing countries than in developed countries;  it is caused by similar pathogens; but, bacteria are relatively more important than viruses; and  microbial FBD makes up less of the overall burden of FBD because parasites, mycotoxins and chemicals are mostly uncontrolled in developing countries.Knowledge Gaps: For developing countries, we have no accurate data on the prevalence or impact of foodborne disease. We don't know how much diarrhoea can be attributed to food. We suspect a link between aflatoxins and stunting, but it is not proven. There is high concern about chemical hazards such as pesticides, yet minimum investment in understanding the health burden. In the absence of evidence, it is difficult to target resources to key problems amenable to solutions.Where issues create major concerns but evidence on health impacts is lacking, then generating evidence on the actual importance should be a priority (e.g. pesticides in food or traditional smoking of food using resinous wood). On the other hand, for issues where there is already good evidence that health burdens are high, the priority should be developing, testing and implementing control measures (e.g. for foodborne parasites and microbial pathogens). Impact and cost-effectiveness of different tools and approaches for managing and controlling food safety issuesThe previous section presented evidence that the known burden of FBD is high and the unknown burden of concern. We are fairly sure that foodborne parasites, microbial pathogens in food, aflatoxins, arsenic, and contaminated fresh food sold in wet markets cause substantial health burdens in developing countries.This section summarises some of the interventions for managing food safety in developing countries and the successes and challenges encountered. We should not expect a large body of evidence on food safety interventions. To draw from a related health issue, enormous development efforts have been dedicated to water, sanitation and hygiene (WSH) interventions over the past decades, and much greater efforts have been extended to WSH than to food safety. Yet systematic reviews find it has been difficult to estimate accurately the impacts of WSH on diarrhoea reduction (Cairncross et al., 2013). Therefore, for the neglected area of food safety improvements, it is not surprising that there is even less evidence on interventions and their impacts. This chapter summarises the scarce literature that is currently available.Several developed countries have succeeded in reducing foodborne disease over relatively short periods. The UK reversed an epidemic of Salmonella through legislation, food safety advice, and an industry-led vaccination programme in broiler-breeder and laying poultry flocks (O'Brien, 2013). In Iceland, measures at production, retail level and in the household resulted in Campylobacter declines of more than 70% in broiler flocks and in human infections (Stern et al., 2003). Denmark reduced Salmonella by up to 95% in eggs, poultry and pork, by monitoring herds and flocks, eliminating infected animals, and differential processing depending on Salmonella status. This resulted in savings of US$25.5 million (Wegener et al., 2003). In all three of these success stories, control was along the value chain, with an emphasis on reducing disease in the animal reservoir rather than the retailed product. Although these control approaches are mainly applicable to industrialised countries with modern intensive farming systems and good enforcement capacity, the \"farm to fork approach\" (which as the title suggests takes a value chain approach), is likely to be useful in developing countries also.The limited literature on domestic food safety regulation in developing countries shows that we do not yet have good models for standards and approaches that can work at scale to assure food safety where risks are pervasive, costs of compliance are high, and enforcement capacity is weak (Grace & Unnevehr, 2013). Given the very different farming systems and regulatory environments, the approaches used successfully in Europe cannot be directly applied to developing countries. A number of food safety interventions have been tried and evaluated with little evidence for benefit or sustainability. Nonetheless, other initiatives show promise, and a smaller number have been able to demonstrate sustained and scalable benefits.Caution in assuming that shifts to large scale, formal sector food production and retail will necessarily reduce foodborne diseaseThere is a common belief that many problems of food safety and disease can be ameliorated by transiting to 'modern' agro-food systems.For example, in China, wet markets have been singled out as major sources of poultry disease and there have been several attempts to ban them (Scoones & Forster, 2008). In Vietnam the plan for modernisation of agriculture aims to encourage large-scale intensive farms and reduce smallholder production. Although developed countries do have lower burdens of FBD compared to developed countries, the health outcomes from encouraging modern food systems 6 in poor countries are not well known.Few studies have compared the safety of food in the formal and informal markets. Those that do often find that food sold in the formal sector is no safer than that sold in the informal sector. For example, in the case of milk in Assam, Kenya, and Tanzania and meat in Vietnam and Kenya the food sold in the formal sector was no better (and sometimes worse) at meeting standards than food sold in the informal sector (Roesel & Grace, 2014).Several studies also show use of agricultural chemicals is higher in large-scale production (e.g. antibiotic use appears to be higher in intensive farms (Grace, 2015)).The intensive sector has been associated with emergence of new diseases including: swine influenza in Mexico; Nipah virus 7 infection in Malaysia; and, poultry salmonellosis and 'mad cow disease' in the UK (Jones et al., 2013).Informal sector sellers usually give a higher price to the producer than the formal sector can offer, but at the same time informal sector sellers are able to sell to the consumer at a lower price than the formal sector does. This makes the informal sector the preferred buyer 6 Large-scale, intensive farming, modern supply chains, or formal sector, 'supermarket-style' retail.A newly emerging zoonosis that causes severe disease in both animals and humans. The natural host of the virus are fruit bats of the Pteropodidae Family, Pteropus genus.for farmers and the preferred seller for consumers.Investment in formal dairy processing facilities, both in private and public sectors, has often failed, leading to underutilised capacity (Sirohi et al., 2009)  What does this mean? There is a trend for large-scale formal sector production and retail to increase. Promoting this on food safety grounds is not currently justified. Policy or investments to encourage large, formal sector agro-food industries should be reviewed and monitored for impacts on food safety, poverty, equity, environment and nutrition. These impacts should be factored into donor or government support of agro-food industry relative to other options for producing, processing and retailing food (e.g. smallholders, traditional processing and informal retail). Where the large-scale, formal agri-business is growing rapidly, its performance on food safety should be monitored.Caution in assuming provision of infrastructure to the informal sector will necessarily reduce foodborne diseaseA common approach to improving food safety in the informal sector is the provision of processing and marketing infrastructure. This is often linked with increasing formalisation (e.g. selling packaged and labelled products through modern retail outlets). These types of intervention are expensive and the impact has been surprisingly weak. For example, in developing countries most large slaughterhouses have very poor standards of hygiene, in contrast to better hygiene outcomes from small slaughter slabs (Roesel & Grace, 2014). Some examples: During the bird flu epidemic in the 2000s, there were many attempts to close or upgrade wet markets. Most were unsuccessful in improving hygiene or only covered a tiny proportion of birds sold.  In China, modern beef slaughterhouses were established, but because demand for their services was low, they were not profitable. Presumably as a result, operators used illegal measures to increase profitability, such as infusing fat into muscle in order to mimic marbled beef and injecting water to increase weight (Waldron et al., 2010).  In Lusaka, street sellers were moved to a new ultra-modern market funded by US $2.7 million grant from the European Union after consultation with vendors and other stakeholders. Yet many vendors returned to selling on the streets as they found they made more money by being closer to customers (Ndhlovu, 2011).The World Health Organization (WHO) and FAO have developed numerous programmes to improve the safety of street-vended food but these have been difficult to implement, particularly in regard to the provision of infrastructure (Infosan, 2010).What does this mean? Better infrastructure is needed in most developing country food processing and retail. However, infrastructure provision, though necessary, should not be seen as a sufficient response to poor food safety. Investments that require radical changes in how food is processed, sold, or consumed are often favoured by stakeholders who wish to move to systems they perceive as modern and safe. However, these major changes to food system infrastructure have often not been successful. Incremental improvements may be more useful (for example, organising a milk collection point in a remote rural area rather than building a milk cooling plant with a generator). The most expensive, best practice technologies will be more difficult to maintain than lower-level technologies and when viewed in this way, the best can be the enemy of the good. 'Appropriate', intermediate technologies should be emphasised unless there is clear evidence that more complex and expensive approaches are warranted.Many (10-20) studies have found that consumers in developing countries say they are willing to pay more for safer foods. For example, studies from seven countries found consumers expressed willingness to pay an additional amount for safe food that ranged from 5% to more than 100% of the cost (Jabbar et al., 2010). However, most 'willingness to pay' studies have been based on ex ante assessments (i.e. before an event) that may not reflect what customers will do when faced with real world choices over time.We should also note that there are practical, ethical and economic challenges to using consumer demand for safe food to drive improvements in the safety of retailed food.What is a wet market?\"A wet market is a market selling fresh meat, fish and produce, distinguished from dry markets which sell durable goods such as flour, dried legumes, cloth and electronics. Wet markets often have wet floors, where sellers dose produce with water to keep produce looking fresh: hence the name. Animals are often slaughtered and meat butchered in wet markets\".Click the video thumbnail below to watch a short film about wet markets.  Economic explanations for the reluctance to use food safety as a marketing tool, are: consumers expect food to be safe and hence will not pay a premium;  supermarkets maximise profits by not separating products according to safety; and  competing on food safety will undermine consumer confidence in all types of the food sold, reducing the market for that food (Russo et al., 2011).What does this mean? Supporting segmented markets for safe food may be difficult and unintentionally work against poor people so they should be explored with caution. Low-cost diagnostics that allow value chain participants to directly verify the safety of food would be a powerful tool for improving food safety, even for poor consumers, as has been the case, for example, in the use of low cost technologies that show if a vaccine has been kept at the correct temperature (Box 5). This would allow 'pushing quality control down the supply chain' as traders could also test their suppliers to ensure consumers' demands for safety are met.Box 5: Using low-cost diagnostics to leverage consumer demand for improved safetyImagine the challenge of getting the extremely heat-sensitive polio vaccine from a pharmaceutical company in Europe to a remote village in Ghana. In the past, heat-damaged vaccines were sometimes unknowingly delivered to children, or good vaccine was thrown out because health workers feared it had gone bad. To address this \"cold chain\" problem, PATH (an international health NGO) found a technology originally used by the food industry to label perishable products and worked to adapt it. The resulting product-the vaccine vial monitor, or VVM-is a small sticker that adheres to the vaccine vial and changes color as the vaccine is exposed to heat, letting the health workers know whether the vaccine can be safely used for immunisation. Today, VVMs are available for all vaccines used in immunisation programmes in developing countries, and UNICEF requires them on all vaccines they purchase.Training farmers, extension services, and 'Good Agricultural Practices' likely to be usefulFew capacity-building initiatives focus only on improving food safety. But, hygiene, quality and especially, safe use of chemicals and drugs, are often part of farmer training and extension initiatives. There have been many reports of small scale or pilot training and these often show improvements in practices and hygiene (Omore & Baker, 2011).However, there is less evidence for success at large scale: an illustration of the saying \"pilots never fail, and pilots never scale\". A recent systematic review of Farmer Field Schools, which had a strong emphasis on integrated pest management and reducing pesticides, showed that farmers in the programme had higher yields and used less pesticide, but there was no evidence to show that benefits were either sustained or scalable (Waddington & White, 2014).While some small farmers have been able to comply with Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) required for export, there is less information on domestic GAP programmes and uptake. However, the limited literature suggests impact of domestic GAP is low. For example, a national GAP programme that started in 2009 in Vietnam succeeded in certifying just 491 hectares of the total 823,700 hectares available for vegetable cultivation as VietGAP by 2013 (VNS, 2013). In Thailand, farmers who follow the public GAP have no better pesticide use or outcomes, than those who don't (Schreinemachers et al., 2012).So what does this mean? Training farmers in GAP seems to be most useful when there are clear incentives for changing practices. For example, GAP can help access export markets.Interventions like GAP should be encouraged where they offer livelihood opportunities to farmers, whilst recognising that there is little evidence (so far) that they will improve food safety for domestic consumers.Training informal sector agents likely to be usefulApproaches that are based on working with the existing situation and gradually improving it, have shown success (Infosan, 2010) In Kenya and Assam, initiatives to train milk traders and provide an enabling environment have been effective, economically attractive, scalable and sustainable. An estimated 6.5 million consumers are currently benefiting from safer milk as a result of these interventions (Kaitibie et al., 2010;Lapar et al., 2014). Decisions to train informal sector actors are based on the assumptions that: many workers are well intentioned but illinformed and will change some of their behaviours if given information and instruction;  some of the behaviours promoted will also have other, obvious benefits (such as less food spoilage), which can encourage adoption;  new institutions can be introduced such as branding or licensing which will act as an incentive for behaviour change.An important incentive for changing behaviour is to obtain certificates or other legitimacy which can reduce the cost associated with illegality (e.g. fines, bribes) or improve status in society. However, it cannot be assumed that training alone is sufficient to change behaviour, or that short-term improvements in behaviour will persist. In the few cases where long term effects have been shown, there have been other monetary or social incentives for behaviour change (Kaitibie et al., 2010).So what does this mean? Training informal sector agents in food hygiene can be effective especially when linked with incentives for behaviour change.Technologies are likely to be useful There is general consensus that most developing country governments are not able to ensure the safety of most food consumed in domestic markets. Currently, neither the formal or informal market can consistently provide food that meets the standards in place in most developing countries. Although most developing countries have adopted the Risk Analysis, Farm to Fork and HACCP approaches to food safety, which are considered best practice, they have only been able to implement these for exported food and (to a limited extent) in some larger, formal sector agro-industries.For an understanding of Risk Analysis and HACCP approaches to food safety see our factsheet.Clearly, new policy and implementation approaches are needed. In many developing countries, multiple agencies are in charge of assuring food safety with overlapping mandates and inadequate resources. There has been interest in re-structuring food safety governance. A single unified structure or an integrated system is likely to be more effective, but when it is not possible because of historical or political reasons a national food control strategy can identify roles of the different government divisions involved in food safety (FAO/WHO, 2003).Rational food safety governance systems are important, but experience has shown that even when policies and regulations are good, they are rarely translated into implementation. However, notable achievements have been seen when policy-makers champion food safety (see Box 7).So what does this mean? Policy reform is important, but not sufficient to improve food safety in domestic markets, and needs to be accompanied by regulatory impact assessment and followed by close monitoring to track and adjust the actual implementation. Supporting champions and changing culture are some of the most powerful ways of changing governance.Box 7: A champion for food safetyNigeria had severe challenges with safety of food and drugs; in the 1980s more than 50% of drugs sampled did not meet standards. In 2001, under the leadership of Dr Dora Akunyli the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) underwent dramatic restructuring and reform and the next decade saw substantial improvements in food and drug safety and governance. For example, a reduction in substandard drugs of 80% was achieved. This campaign would not have been possible without the political leadership of the head of NAFDAC, who barely survived two assassination attempts, not to mention several death threats. Some NAFDAC officers were severely beaten and their vehicle destroyed when they confronted drug sellers, and NAFDAC buildings and labs were burned down or vandalised. (Akunyili, 2005).Knowledge gaps: While many pilots show success, there are few studies that have looked at the sustainability and scalability of food safety initiatives. Little is known about the unanticipated risks of increasing unsafe food consumption among the most vulnerable people, by initiatives to improve food safety. For example, if the markets most used by the rich impose strict standards, the food that fails to meet these standards will end up in the markets used by the poor where standards are less observed. There are opportunities to improve food safety through technologies and restructuring of food safety governance, but the feasibility and effectiveness of these is not well understood.In this section we look at some of the trends and drivers that affect food safety in developing countries and the geography of food safety. We also look at what food safety means for: small farmers  export industries  women  the most vulnerable people and  nutrition.Because there is inherently more uncertainty about predictions into the future, in this section we do not use the strength of evidence markers.Despite considerable investments in food safety, the EU and USA have seen an increase in the number of cases of most foodborne diseases over the last five (EU) or ten (USA) years (EFSA, 2013;ECDC, 2012). A notable exception is salmonellosis in Europe, which is declining, largely due to vigorous control in poultry (EFSA, 2012). There is no accurate reporting of foodborne disease in developing countries and it is therefore more difficult to monitor trends. In the US and Europe, food safety was an issue of intense concern during the periods of most rapid industrialisation and urbanisation, and this concern is now reflected and evident in the more rapidly developing countries. Given the strong association between agricultural intensification and increase in FBD it is likely that there will be sharp rises in FBD especially in those areas and countries where intensification is most rapid and least governed.Most experts believe that the emerging market economies will eventually converge with the richer countries (Perry et al., 2011). Panic over food safety can be a driver for improvement. From this perspective, the situation in China where a widely publicised finding is that half of food retail establishments are failing inspection may be more positive than the situation in India where there are no reports on food safety inspection or results are not publically available (Grace & McDermott, 2015).We look at four main drivers of FBD in developing countries as: agricultural intensification, changes in food consumed; changes in the retail sector, and potential shocks to food systems.Populations will continue to increase but nearly all the productive land has already been exploited so to feed the future, agriculture must intensify. Agricultural intensification can be viewed positively. It can, but does not always, lead to: increased profits;  growth of off-farm income;  a reduction in greenhouse gases per unit of animal source food produced; and  higher biosecurity. But, intensive agricultural units have also been linked to negative health impacts: increases in salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis have been linked to intensification of poultry, pigs and cattle (O'Brien, 2013);  increases in use of inputs such as pesticides, resulting in greater risk of contamination of vegetables and fruit with pesticide residues, are commonly seen as horticulture intensifies;  higher, and sometimes excessive, use of fertilisers is seen which can result in eutrophication in water, thus decreasing the quality of ground and public water;  crowding of animals has led to the increased use of antibiotics, which in turn leads to emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria;  historical analyses show a clear link between livestock intensification and the emergence of novel diseases such as bird flu and mad cow disease (Jones et al., 2013); and  intensification with poor biosecurity can lead to rapid disease spread.In developing countries where intensification is occurring rapidly in a context of poor governance and limited transparency, food safety problems are likely to worsen because it is not easy to identify and hold to account the farmers responsible for excessive use of agricultural inputs, pollution and spread of disease.Changes in foods consumed: fresh food and processed foodThe consumption of fresh foods is growing rapidly (see Figure 5). This rapid growth is driven by: increasing population, rises in income, urbanisation and globalisation (through increased export / import of fresh foods). In East and South Africa, per capita expenditure on perishable foods is set to quadruple by 2040 and the total market size increase by a factor of eight (Tschirley et al., 2014). In developed countries, fresh produce is increasingly sourced from other countries and this has led to several FBD outbreaks.Preference for fresh, ready to eat foods in and out of season is established in developed countries and growing in developing countries.The global market for vegetables, fruit, meat, and ethnic foods is increasing. Whilst this offers export opportunities it may have catalytic effects on domestic food production (see next section). Supplying increasing global and domestic demand can expose risk. For example, it can increase exposure to microbes and in particular microbes that can survive at low temperatures (e.g. Listeria monocytogenes the bacterium that causes listeriosis, a serious infection). Another example mentioned previously, in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, a problem of chemicals in smoked fish was not discovered until fish was exported to diaspora populations in France. This led to the identification of food safety problems in domestic markets (Roesel & Grace, 2014).Figure 5: Increase in per capita consumption of perishables and pulses in developing countries with 1963 as index year (FAO, 2009) As well as an increase in demand for fresh produce and animal source food, there is also an increased demand for processed, convenience and snack food. Anecdotally, repeated scares over fresh food safety are prompting switches to packaged and processed food.Processed food is less likely to contain biological hazards, which are the greatest cause of known FBD in developing countries. However, processed food may be more likely to contain chemical hazards. There is also a clear association between consumption of processed foods and obesity.Additives are used in processed food to increase aesthetic appeal, extend product life and increase weight or apparent nutritional content. In recent years in China there have been reported incidents of: using melamine to increase the apparent protein level of baby milk;  using ink to colour noodles; and  using sodium borate to make cheap pork resemble beef (GFSF, 2011).All of these are food safety risks. Xue and Zhang (2013) carried out a meta-review of studies of acute food poisoning sourced from Chinese academic databases for the period 2000-2010, covering 2,387 individual incidents of acute foodborne illnesses. Overall, food additives were responsible for 9.9% of incidents, 3.5% of illnesses and 11.6% of deaths in studies they reviewed.Changes in the retail sector: food chains, supermarkets and street foodEmerging economies have rapidly changing food systems with urbanisation creating bigger markets and longer and more complex food chains. Lengthening of the food chain gives more opportunities for microbial growth while bulking foods from different sources allows cross contamination and makes tracing back through the food chain difficult. Mature and well-governed value chains may be able to reduce FBD by insisting on high standards along the value chain and conducting testing. However, in developing countries the expansion of value chains is happening in advance of effective governance and this increases risk. In China and Vietnam, changing industry structure, rapid market development, rapidly changing prices of products and inputs, low profit margins, lack of bargaining power in key players and lack of government support to stabilise markets all put high pressure on value chain actors to cut corners and sacrifice food safety (FORHEAD, 2014).The number of supermarkets are rapidly increasing in developing countries. In Mexico, Central America and South East Asia their share is 10-50% of the retail market while in sub-Saharan Africa (outside South Africa) and South Asia the share is less than 10%. In India supermarkets would have to grow at rates of 20%, for 20 years to reach just 20% of market share (Tschirley et al., 2010) suggesting the near term food safety priority should be on informal markets rather than the formal sector.In developing countries street food is becoming an important component of the diet in cities. This can be a significant source of income, especially for women who dominate street food trade in many countries. At the same time, street food is often contaminated because of inadequate training of vendors and lack of infrastructure (e.g. clean water and sanitation, solid waste removal).   (Torok et al., 2007). Intentional food contamination is likely to continue to be monitored.In the least developed economies, FBD is probably common but under-reported. The poorest consumers are to some degree protected from foodborne disease by: their limited access to the most risky foods (animal source foods and fresh produce);  the short value chains for these products; and  indigenous practices that mitigate risk such as fermentation and lengthy cooking.Conversely, the poorest people are more at risk from hazards associated with staple foods such as aflatoxins because their diet is more dependent on staples and because the staples they consume are often of poor quality. Important to note is that although aflatoxins are not visible, there is a positive correlation between mouldy and damaged cereals and the presence of aflatoxins. We also need to be mindful that in the poorest countries it is difficult to disentangle foodborne disease from the complex of water-borne, vector-borne, contagious, filth associated and other diseases of neglect and poverty.In countries where infrastructure is lacking, growth of cities stimulates urban and periurban production of perishable foods such as livestock products and vegetables. Emerging economies often have high levels of poorly regulated intensification, high levels of concern over food safety, a relatively advanced ability to detect food contaminants, and a high ability to communicate food scares through mass and social media. It is not surprising then that some of the most serious and widely publicised food safety problems are now occurring in and being reported within emerging market economies (Grace & McDermott, 2015).Food safety for export markets is largely controlled by the private standards that importers require. There is a wide range of standards, although with increasing convergence: GlobalGAP 11 is one of the better known. These standards may improve agricultural practices in countries where regulation is weak or lacking and may also prevent dumping of sub-standard food in developing country markets (Grace & Unnevehr, 2013). Few studies have looked at the spillover health benefits of participating in export markets but a study in Kenya found that farmers who had been given training in food standards and monitored for compliance used safer chemicals and had fewer reported health problems. In contrast, a study found that workers participating in export seafood chains in Brazil did not receive any health benefits (Unnevehr & Ronchi, 2014).Standards tend to ratchet upwards and are driven by the concerns of customers in importing countries. In most cases, this has increased production costs but only in a minority of cases has this improved efficiency (Unnevehr & Ronchi, 2014). International trade studies have found evidence that the fixed costs of meeting standards tends to favour established exporters and leads to a greater reduction in developing-country exports relative to those in developed countries (Unnevehr & Rohnchi, 2014). Participation in export markets benefits some farmers but many do not benefit and there is a tendency for smaller farmers to drop out, as they lack the human and financial capital needed to participate in highly demanding markets. In the 2000s both Kenya and Uganda saw major declines (60% and 40% respectively) in small farmers participating in export of fruit and vegetables to Europe under Global GAP (Graffham et al., 2007). The situation is similar for supermarkets. The farmers who supply supermarkets usually benefit (often substantially) but it is hard for most farmers to enter these more demanding value chains (Andersson et al., 2015). Those who do benefit tend to be richer, better educated and geographically advantaged.There is also concern that growth of supermarkets is increasing the risks and reducing the rewards for local farmers, creating an environment similar to that seen in industrialised countries. For example, South African dairy farmers are facing declining terms of trade and increasing retail margins (from 1-5% under the Milk Board to 15-30%). This has led to a decline in producers, an increase in farm size and a decrease in prices paid to dairy farmers (Qeqe & Cartwright, 2005;Kirsten, 2009).Women's participation in value chains is high but activities and resource use by women and men vary between cultures, systems and stage in the value chain. A review of 21 informal value chains in Africa and India (Grace et al., in press) found that men caught fish, shot game, slaughtered large animals and predominated in meat sales while women predominated in traditional processing, slaughter of chickens and in sale of fish and street food. In some countries they also predominated as meat sellers.Across the value chains studied, both women and men consumed animal source foods but consumption patterns varied by gender. There are many taboos around consumption of food (especially nutritious food) that tend to disadvantage women. Worldwide, meat is the main target of taboos for pregnant women (Fessler, 2002). In Africa men have more access to meat because they predominate in bars that serve meat and alcohol (Roesel & Grace, 2014). Consumption in these places is associated with increased risk. A similar pattern is seen with fishborne disease in China, Vietnam and Korea. Men have more frequent eating opportunities at restaurants than women and have a significantly higher rate of fishborne fluke (Han et al., 2013).Photo: Gender and Market-Oriented Agriculture (AgriGender 2011) workshop, 31 st January to 2nd February 2011, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (photo credit: ILRI/Apollo Habtamu).Food systems are rapidly evolving in developing countries, and this may exclude women, unless additional efforts are made to retain or include them. For example, in South Africa preparing poultry for consumption is traditionally a female role. Privately run, modern poultry plants mainly employ male workers that exclude (perhaps unintentionally) women. But there are examples, where an inclusive approach was deliberately taken: in Mali a milk processing venture deliberately included women in the enterprise because it is women who traditionally process milk. By intentionally including women a high participation of women were retained in the milk value chain (Roesel & Grace, 2014).Gender roles are important determinants of health risk and biological differences are also relevant. Pregnant and lactating women are especially vulnerable to a range of pathogens, especially Listeria spp. and Toxoplasma.Women are risk managers in the realms of food consumption, preparation, processing, selling and, to a lesser extent, production, so gender analysis is important in designing interventions for improving food safety in informal markets.Who are the most vulnerable to foodborne disease?Answer: YOMPI -the young, the old, the malnourished, the pregnant, and the immunecompromised.In the UK, 24% of people are YOMPI and at higher risk from FBD (Lund & O'Brien, 2011).The proportions are less established in developing countries but a significant proportion of the population also fall in the high-risk categories. Immune-compromised people are especially vulnerable to FBD and people with HIV are more prone to many FBD as well as suffering more severe manifestations such as toxoplasmosis enteritis. Liver dysfunction can increase iron availability in the body and this can stimulate the growth of several foodborne pathogens. Immunosuppressant therapies for autoimmune disease or cancer can also increase risk. Salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis are three and four times more common, respectively, in patients with diabetes than in the general population.In infants, the immune system is not fully developed. Exclusive breast-feeding for six months can protect infants from FBD. Infant formula or follow-on formula contaminated with Cronobacter sakazakii or Salmonella has caused serious infection in infants (Bowen & Braden, 2008). Infants are also vulnerable to botulism and honey has been the source in several cases. This is why honey is not recommended for infants under one year old. Age-related deterioration of the immune system also increases susceptibility to infection. Malnutrition is a major risk factor for susceptibility to FBD and FBD in turn is associated with malnutrition.In There are potential trade-offs between food safety and availability. In most developing countries, the informal traditional markets are the major source for the risky, fresh foods that are also among the most nutritious foods: foods such as eggs, green leafy vegetables and fish. Measures intended to improve the safety of food may have the unintended consequence of reducing its availability or the access of people to nutritious food. For example, pasteurisation is considered one of the most effective ways of making milk safe. However, the process adds cost to milk. Most pasteurised milk is sold in packages, which also add to the cost. In 2014 in Kenya the typical cost of a litre of pasteurised milk was US$1 while the typical cost of a litre of raw milk was US$0.5. Nairobi households drink Photo: Kenya boy drinking milk (photo credit: ILRI).most of their milk boiled in tea so there is little health benefit from pasteurisation and potentially large health impacts from lowered access to milk because of increased price and the small number of retail outlets that sell pasteurised, chilled milk (author's observation).Wasting, or extreme thinness (very low weightfor-height), is the result of short-term (acute) undernutrition or insufficient dietary energy intake. Stunting, or extreme shortness (very low height-for-age), is the result of a combination of long-term (chronic) poor dietary intake in terms of quality as well as quantity of food and repeated infectious disease episodes. Both wasting and stunting are associated with increased mortality as well as poor health and longer-term development outcomes. FBD and hazards may contribute to both wasting and stunting through additional pathways for example: a) contaminated or naturally hazardous food can cause diarrhoea; b) aflatoxins may directly contribute to stunting; c) ingestion of faecal material on food or in the environment may contribute to environmental enteropathy. Diarrhoea: One multi-country study found 25% of the stunting burden was attributable to repeated episodes of diarrhoea (Checkley et al., 2008). Each additional episode in the first 24 months of life increases the risk of stunting by roughly 5% (Black et al., 2008). Other studies found diarrhoea had a small but measurable affect on stunting (Richard et al., 2013). A recent meta-analysis suggested WSH interventions (some of the benefits of which are mediated through safer food) slightly but significantly increased growth in height in children < 5 years of age (Dangour et al., 2013). (The specific interventions, evaluated by randomised controlled trials, were solar disinfection of water, provision of soap, and improvement of water quality with an intervention time of 9 -12 months.) Aflatoxins, produced by fungi that infest soil and staple crops, have also been associated with growth retardation, but a causal relation (though plausible) is not yet proven (Leroy et al., 2013).  Environmental enteropathy is linked to stunting. This condition, characterised by a leaky gut, is probably the result of chronic exposure to faeces in the environment (human and animal). Recent studies in India have shown a strong correlation at state level between childhood stunting and open defecation (Spears et al., 2013).Animal faeces could have similar effects and exposure may be even more frequent.In Lima, Peru, infants in compounds with poultry ingested chicken faeces four times in 12 hours. In Zimbabwe chicken faeces were an important source of bacteria ingested by infants (Ngure et al., 2013).Knowledge gaps: Current monitoring is not adequate to track changes in foodborne disease. We know food safety standards tend to exclude women and poor people from food systems, but not how best to build inclusive and affordable systems. There are important unanswered questions on the contribution of diarrhoea and aflatoxins to stunting.Photo: Kadidja Kimba, demonstably malnorished with her hair turned red for lack of nutrition, pounds millet whilst caring for Khadi Boubacar (photo credit: ILRI/Stevie Mann).There is reasonable evidence that developing countries bear the brunt of FBD; that developing country consumers are concerned about FBD; that most of the known burden of FBD disease comes from biological hazards; and, that most FBD is the result of consumption of fresh, perishable foods sold in informal markets. While we don't have good data on the burden of FBD in developing countries, microbial pathogens may contribute 18 million lost DALYs a year, foodborne parasites around 18 million, aflatoxins 1-2 million and known chemical hazards 1-2 millions. However, the burden of chemical hazards is not well assessed.Food safety has been neglected in developing countries, where most efforts have focused on water, sanitation and hygiene. However, these interventions and improvements still leave a large proportion of diarrhoeal disease unmanaged and evidence is growing that FBD may be an important contributor. There is limited evidence on effective, sustainable and scalable food safety interventions but some promising approaches. Building on the existing food system may be more successful than attempting to impose completely new systems.There are opportunities to improve food safety through technologies, vaccinations and restructuring of food safety governance, but the effectiveness and feasibility of these is not well understood.Foodborne disease has been increasing in developed countries and is likely to increase in developing countries. These changes are led by massive increases in the consumption of risky foods (livestock and fish products and produce) and by lengthening and broadening value chains bulking more food and increasing the distance between production and consumption. Livestock and fish intensification is a risk as is urban and peri-urban vegetable production relying on wastewater and untreated human and/or animal waste.Foodborne disease is not just a health issue. Already a major determinant of export market access, it is increasingly affecting domestic markets. Currently, informal markets dominate and offer many opportunities for smallholders and women as well as selling nutritious foods more cheaply than formal markets. Formal domestic and export markets tend to be less equitable, but inclusiveness can be improved by intentional investments. Supporting informal markets to produce safer food, and supporting small farmers and women to engage in emerging formal markets can achieve multiple outcomes of improved health, better livelihoods, enhanced nutrition and equity.Photo: Informal sales of raw milk in Yopougon Lièvre rouge site. Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire (photo credit: ILRI/Sylvain Gnamien Traoré).The safety of perishable foods in informal markets is arguably one of the most important food safety issues in developed countries, and certainly, it is one of the most under-studied issues. The lack of a mature literature on food safety in developing countries makes it difficult to select a comprehensive bibliography. The papers that we signpost here are a selection of resources that help answer broader development questions about the relevance of food safety and provide further information on areas that have been discussed in the accompanying overview paper (produce, parasites, aflatoxins, export, social issues). The papers that we have selected are a mixture of reviews and research. They are all written by experts and are credible sources of further information.Haagsma et al., 2013, Systematic review of foodborne burden of disease studies: Quality assessment of data and methodologyHow are foodborne disease burdens estimated and how accurate are they? Can we trust the foodborne disease estimates?The concept of using health burdens to set priorities has revolutionised approaches to health care in developing countries. Big burden diseases receive more investment than small burden diseases. But how are foodborne disease burdens estimated and how accurate are they? It is challenging to estimate the burden of foodborne diseases because many diseases can be transmitted by several routes (for example by food, water or direct contact). This paper systematically reviews the methods used to calculate foodborne disease. It provides readers with more information on how the burdens are estimated. It shows: Foodborne diseases are a growing public health concern worldwide.  The burden of disease studies relevant to foodborne disease can be subdivided into: agent-based (e.g. burden due to salmonella or aflatoxins); outcome-based (e.g. burden due to diarrhoea); and risk factor-based (e.g. burden due to pork consumption or to unsafe water).  Data may be derived from 1) laboratory-confirmed cases, 2) cohort or cross-sectional data, 3) syndrome surveillance data and 4) exposure data.  Considerable variation exists in methodology (e.g. disability weights, discounting, age-weighting).We know that most infectious diseases are in decline, is this true also of foodborne diseases? Will foodborne disease continue to be important?The last century has seen a marked decline (sometimes called an epidemiological transition) in infectious disease rates and an increase in the importance of non-communicable disease. This started in the developed world but is now increasingly seen in developing countries. While improvements in wealth, income, knowledge, infrastructure and health systems would be expected to reduce foodborne disease there are other factors that might result in foodborne disease remaining high or even increasing. This paper argues: The burden of diseases caused by foodborne pathogens remains largely unknown, with data limited to a few industrialised countries.  Evidence for a decline in foodborne disease is limited.  Pathogens are continuously evolving to exploit new niches and so new foodborne diseases can be expected. Food safety initiatives in developing countries have focused mainly on export and formal markets. Some believe that the rapid transition to supermarkets seen in America, Europe and to a lesser extent in Latin America and parts of South East Asia will spread to the rest of Asia and Africa. The overview paper summarises evidence suggesting that the greatest health burden comes from perishable animal source food and fresh produce sold in wet markets. There is ongoing research into the current and future importance of wet markets as there is little information about wet markets. This paper is based on large scale survey data and gives a good overview for East and South Africa. It highlights that: Wet markets are important: informal markets currently supply 85-95% of market demand and will still supply 50-70% of market demand by 2040.  Wet markets will persist: traditional marketing systems will dominate East and Southern Africa food systems for decades to come, even with robust economic growth and expansion of the middle class.  Supermarkets are anti-smallholder: Robust evidence indicates that smallholders are largely excluded from supermarket procurement in these regions.  Imports are and will remain minor: food imports are currently small and are predicted to remain so at least to 2040.  There will be more urban consumers: urban consumers are currently 52% of the food market and it is estimated that this will increase to 67% by 2040.  There will be explosive growth in animal source foods: in the next 30 years the market for animal source perishables will increase by a factor of nearly eight.  Processed food constitutes a high proportion of household budget spend and this is getting higher: processed foods constitute nearly 40% of the entire food budget across all households surveyed.Jabbar There is a common perception that, in poor countries, food safety is not seen as an important problem by either decision makers or the public. This research report includes findings from surveys in seven countries about public perceptions on food safety. It finds that: Most meat and dairy products are purchased from wet markets.  It is women in Asia and Africa who are mostly in charge of food purchasing decisions.  Consumers are willing to pay higher prices for higher quality and safety in milk and meat, and this willingness is particularly strong among the more wealthy and urban consumers.  Across all animal-sourced foods, freshness, absence of adulteration, fat content (milk) and fat cover (meat), and various aspects of appearance were found to be the quality attributes of major interest amongst consumers.This paper provides more information on foodborne diseases associated with fresh fruits and vegetables.The overview paper gives many examples on food safety problems in developing countries associated with animal source foods and aflatoxins. This is partly because the CGIAR system for developing country agricultural research has major activities in these areas. However, evidence from the literature shows that fresh vegetables (and to a lesser extent, fruits) are also important causes of foodborne disease. This paper discusses foodborne disease linked to fresh produce in developed countries. It is important because the upward trend and critical areas are equally relevant to developing countries. Important points in this paper: Foodborne outbreaks from contaminated fresh produce are increasingly recognised in developed countries. This is due to a number of factors including:  an increase in the consumption of fresh produce;  changes in the production and distribution of fresh produce; and  a growing awareness amongst public health officials of food safety.  Foodborne disease outbreaks are increasingly linked to imported food.  Five areas are critical for safe fresh produce: Quality of water in the supply chain. Protection from contamination of human and animal faeces.  Ensuring washing and sanitising fresh products.  Management of time and temperature in the supply chain. Protecting produce from contamination by handlers.Unnevehr L and Grace D, 2013, Aflatoxins: Finding Solutions for Improved Food Safety, IFPRI 2020 briefsThis package of briefing papers provide more information on Aflatoxins.Much research and programme investment has been carried out on the control of aflatoxins (fungal toxins mainly infesting maize and groundnuts) in developing countries. This set of 18 briefing notes summarise current knowledge on health and agriculture. They show that: Chronic exposure to aflatoxins leads to liver cancer (the risk of which is much higher in the presence of hepatitis B infection). Aflatoxins are associated with stunting and immune suppression in children but a causal link has not been shown.  Markets in developing countries generally do not reward reduced aflatoxins in crops because it is difficult to discern aflatoxin contamination or its risks.  A wide range of control methods exist including cultivation practices and postharvest handling.There are also limited means for mitigating effects of exposure. Control methods are not in wide use in developing countries due to cost, logistics, and lack of incentives.  Differences among countries in aflatoxin standards (and ability to meet standards) tend to reduce international trade or to divert low-quality exports to lower-value markets.  Diagnostic tools would facilitate both public monitoring for aflatoxins as well as the development of commercial markets for improved-quality grain.  Aflatoxins have adverse effects on animal growth, health and productivity. The livestock revolution will exert demand for aflatoxin safe animal feeds. This paper provides more information on foodborne parasites.Recent years have seen marked improvement in our understanding of the burden of foodborne parasites, thanks to work by the WHO Foodborne Disease Epidemiology Reference Group and others. This paper summarises current knowledge and includes important updates. The WHO launched an initiative in 2006 to estimate the global burden of foodborne diseases in terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs).  Intestinal protozoa were reviewed: Giardia appeared to have the highest global prevalence (median = 10.8%), followed by Entamoeba (median = 4.3%), and Cryptosporidium (median = 4.0%).  Toxoplasmosis is mainly foodborne and congenital toxoplasmosis costs 1.2 million DALYs. Other health impacts have not been quantified.  Foodborne trematodiasis, echinococcosis and cysticercosis impose large burdens. There is little evidence for effective control.Unnevehr & Ronchi, 2014, Food Safety and Developing Markets, IFPRI discussion paper 00000There has been a lot of concern over food safety as a barrier to market access by small farmers and women. This paper provides more information on food safety and market access. It shows that: Most studies have looked at horticulture exports to the EU and other sectors are under-studied.  Food safety standards often exclude small firms and farms from export markets but there are some examples where they have been successfully included.  Technical assistance, subsidies for certification costs and managerial support can promote market participation of small farmers.  Intensive farmer monitoring, training, input provisions and farmers groups are successful mechanisms for including small farmers in export markets.  Food safety standards impose costs on exporting firms: in some, but not all, cases adoption of standards leads to improved efficiency that can partially offset costs.  Farms and firms that do participate have clear benefits of market access with emerging evidence on poverty reduction and health.  Technical assistance and government and donor support has positive impacts on compliance.  It is difficult to manage food safety through purely public regulation and public-private partnerships (co-regulation) have untapped potential.  Higher standards for exports can be catalysts for improvements in the domestic industry Quinlan, 2013, Foodborne Illness Incidence Rates and Food Safety Risks for Populations of Low Socioeconomic Status and Minority Race/Ethnicity: A Review of the Literature, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 3634-3652 Provides more information on foodborne disease and equity.Foodborne diseases are not usually considered from an equity perspective. This review summarises evidence from mainly developed countries on how foodborne disease risks vary by socio-economic status and ethnicity. It shows that: Low income people and minorities appear overall to suffer higher rates of foodborne disease.  High incidence of listeriosis among pregnant Hispanic women is an example of where a food culture (consumption of fresh Mexican style cheese) contributes to increased rates of a foodborne illness.  The high incidence of yersiniosis among African American infants has been linked to the seasonal production of chitterlings (boiled large intestines of pigs following removal of fat and faecal material).  Lower household income and lower level of parental education are also associated with greater exposure of children to raw products that are often unsafe sources of food.  Higher microbial loads were found on produce from markets in low socio-economic status areas.  Plate counts (a measure of bacteria) were significantly higher in milk samples from low socioeconomic status and Hispanic tracts when compared to milk samples from higher socio-economic status tracts.Grace, 2015, Food Safety in Low and Middle Income Countries, Int. J. Environ.Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 10490-10507A peer-reviewed paper was based on the literature review conducted for this paper \"FOOD SAFETY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: AN OVERVIEW\". It summarises the information presented in this paper, provides some additional references, and as a peer-reviewed paper has undergone additional checks for accuracy and relevance.Many organisations and initiatives have an interest in food safety in developing countries. This note summarises some of the most relevant and provides a good stocktake of who is who and what they are doing. It is divided into three sections: The 'Three Sisters' and their food safety initiatives  Other international initiatives  Regional and national initiatives Links to further information and training material have been included at the end of this note.The 'Three Sisters' and their food safety initiativesThe 'three sisters' can refer to the three sister organisations with a mandate for global health (WHO, OIE and FAO) or to the three standard setting organisations recognised by the World Trade Organisation (the Codex Alimentarius Commission, OIE and International Plant Protection Convention). Food safety initiatives involving WHO, OIE and FAO are summarised below.The Department of Food Safety and Zoonoses (FOS) aims to strengthen health security and promote sustainable development of Member States. Its mandate is: to develop independent, international scientific advice;  improve international cross-sectoral collaboration on food safety; and  lead and assist in the development of risk based, integrated national food safety systems.WHO initiatives on food safety include:Foodborne Disease Epidemiology Reference Group (FERG). In 2006 the WHO launched the FERG as an initiative to estimate the global burden of foodborne diseases to provide Member States with data and tools to support policy-makers and other stakeholders to set appropriate, evidence-informed priorities of food safety at country level.Global Environment Monitoring System -Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment Programme, GEMS/Food. Since 1976, GEMS/Food has been informing Governments, the Codex Alimentarius Commission (see FAO below) and other relevant institutions, as well as the public on: levels and trends of contaminants in food; their contribution to total human exposure and their significance with regard to public health and trade.The Global Foodborne Infections Network is a capacity-building programme that promotes integrated, laboratory based surveillance and inter-sectoral collaboration among human health, veterinary and food-related disciplines.States in managing food safety risks, ensuring rapid sharing of information during food safety emergencies to stop the spread of contaminated food from one country to another. INFOSAN also facilitates the sharing experiences and tested solutions in and between countries in order to optimise future interventions to protect the health of consumers.A STOCKTAKE OF WHAT IS 'GOING ON' IN FOOD SAFETY:The WHO Advisory Group on Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance (WHO-AGISAR) was set up in 2008 to minimise the public health impact of Antimicrobial Resistance associated with the use of antimicrobial agents in all food-producing animals. WHONET is a downloadable, Windowsbased database software which is used for the management and analysis of microbiology data, with a special focus on the analysis of antimicrobial susceptibility test results.The Antimicrobial Resistance Information Bank (AR InfoBank) provides access to policy-makers and health care workers to information about drug resistance and resistance surveillance networks. It is collaboration between WHO and WHO Collaborating Centre for Electronic Disease Surveillance, INSERM, Paris, France.The Food Safety and Quality Programme within FAO coordinates activities in collaboration with other concerned technical divisions and FAO Regional Offices.The Codex Alimentarius Commission, established by FAO and WHO in 1963, develops harmonised international food standards, guidelines, and codes of practice to protect the health of the consumers and ensure fair practices in the food trade. The Commission also promotes coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organisations.JECFA -Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) is an international expert scientific committee administered jointly by FAO and the World Health Organization. JECFA serves as an independent scientific committee which performs risk assessments and provides advice to FAO, WHO and the member countries of both organisations. The requests for scientific advice are for the main part channelled through the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) in their work to develop international food standards and guidelines under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.While not officially part of the Codex Alimentarius Commission structure, the Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues provide independent scientific expert advice to the Commission and its specialist Committee on Pesticide Residues. FAO and WHO maintain separate websites highlighting the work of the JMPR from the points of view of the two parent organisations.JEMRA -Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Microbiological Risk Assessment While not officially part of the Codex Alimentarius Commission structure, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Meetings on Microbiological Risk Assessment provide independent scientific expert advice to the Commission and its specialist Committees. FAO and WHO maintain separate websites highlighting the work of the JEMRA from the points of view of the two parent Organizations.OIE is working with relevant organisations to reduce foodborne risks to human health due to hazards arising from animal production. In this context, a hazard is defined as a biological, chemical or physical agent in food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect in humans, whether or not it causes disease in an animal. Key areas of focus are: antimicrobial resistance;  the role of state veterinary surgeons in food safety;  meat inspection; and  Good Agricultural Practices for livestock production.This list of words, phrases and food safety terms has been put together to help with understanding the material presented in the text and other related readings on food safety. For ease we have listed terms alphabetically. You may also find our series of factsheets helpful. In particular the factsheets on: Bad bugs -foodborne parasites  Bad bugs -microbial pathogens  Disability Adjusted Life Years Acute diseases or illnesses are of sudden onset and/or short duration.Aflatoxins are a group of metabolic products formed by species of fungus, especially, Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, in several agricultural commodities, including corn or maize.Amoebiasis is caused by the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica and its transmission occurs via the feacal-oral route either directly by person-to-person contact or indirectly by eating or drinking faecally contaminated food or water. Disease ranges from diarrhoea and dysentery to fulminant colitis, peritonitis and extra intestinal amoebiasis.Animal source foods are food items that can be obtained from animals such as meat, eggs, milk, cheese and yoghurt.Antimicrobial resistance is resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial drug that was originally effective for treatment of infections caused by it.Ascariasis is an infection of the small intestine caused by Ascaris lumbricoides, a large roundworm. The eggs of the worm are found in soil contaminated by human faeces or in uncooked food contaminated by soil containing eggs of the worm. A person becomes infected after accidentally swallowing the eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae within the person's intestine. The larvae penetrate the intestine wall and reach the lungs through the blood stream. They eventually get back to the throat and are swallowed.Biological hazards most of the known burden of foodborne disease comes from biological hazards. They include foodborne parasites and microbial pathogens.Biosecurity, as defined by FAO, offers a strategic and integrated approach to analyse and manage risks in food safety, animal and plant life and health, and biosafety. It provides a policy and regulatory framework to improve coordination and take advantage of the synergies that exist across sectors, helping to enhance protection of human, animal and plant life and health, and facilitate trade.Burden of disease can be thought of as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives into old age, free of disease and disability.Campylobacter spp. are bacteria that are pathogenic for domestic animals or humans. Most human illness is caused by one species, C. jejuni, which grows best at 37°C to 42°C, the approximate body temperature of a bird (41°C to 42°C). It seems to be well adapted to birds who carry it without becoming ill. These bacteria are fragile. They cannot tolerate drying and can be killed by oxygen. They grow only in places with less oxygen than the amount in the atmosphere. Freezing reduces the number of Campylobacter bacteria on raw meat.Chronic Diseases are a long-lasting condition that can be controlled but not cured.Clostridium perfringens is a bacterium that is found in many environmental sources as well as in the intestines of humans and animals. C. perfringens is commonly found on raw meat and poultry. It prefers togrow in conditions with very little or no oxygen, and under ideal conditions can multiply very rapidly. Some strains of C. perfringens produce a toxin in the intestine that causes illness.Cryptosporidium is one of the most widespread intestinal parasites and a common cause of severe diarrhoea in immunocompromised people and young children. Cryptosporidium can be found in surface and groundwater sources susceptible to flooding or faecal contamination, and may be present in piped \"improved\" drinking water systems that use these water sources. Opportunistic infections with Cryptosporidium can cause cryptosporidiosis, a potentially severe and life-threatening illness.Cysticercosis is a tissue infection caused by the larvae of a tapeworm. Adult tapeworm live in people and immature forms (cysticerci) are found in pigs. However, if a human eats a tapeworm egg shed by themselves or another human, the immature form can develop inside the human body in a number of tissues such as the muscles, subcutaneous tissues, eyes and brain; those that are located in the central nervous system cause neurocysticercosis, the most severe form of the disease.Disability adjusted life years are the sum of years of potential life lost due to premature mortality and the years of productive life lost due to disability.Disease vectors are organisms that transmit pathogens and parasites from one infected person (or animal) to another, causing serious diseases in human populations.Echinococcosis is a parasitic disease caused by tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus. Humans are infected through ingestion of parasite eggs (shed by the canine host) in contaminated food, water or soil, or through direct contact with animal hosts. Echinococcosis is often expensive and complicated to treat, and may require extensive surgery and/or prolonged drug therapy.Emerging infectious diseases are defined as infections that have newly appeared in a population or have existed previously but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range.Environmental enteropathy also known as tropical enteropathy is a subclinical condition caused by constant faecal-oral contamination resulting in blunting of intestinal villi and intestinal inflammation. It may cause chronic problems with absorbing nutrients resulting in malnutrition and growth stunting in children.Farm to Fork refers to the stages of the production and movement of food. Stages include: planting/breeding, harvesting/slaughtering, storage, processing, packaging, sales, and consumption. Farm-to-table is another common term used often when describing the process of producing food locally and delivering that food to local consumers.Foodborne diseases are illnesses that result from the ingestion of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, chemical or natural toxins (e.g. aflatoxins) that contaminate food.Foodborne parasites are parasites acquired from food.Foodborne trematode infections, or foodborne trematodiases, are a group of parasitic infections caused by trematodes (flatworms or \"flukes\") that are acquired through ingestion of food contaminated with the larval stages of the parasite. Transmission is linked to human behaviour patterns related to methods of producing, processing and preparing foods.Giardiasis is an infection of the digestive system caused by protozoan parasites called Giardia. Giardia is a microscopic parasite that causes the diarrheal illness known as giardiasis. Giardia is found on surfaces or in soil, food, or water that has been contaminated with faeces from infected humans or animals.Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in the context of foodborne disease are a set of principles applied to onfarm production and post-production processes, that result in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products, and take into account economic, social and environmental sustainability. GAPs may be applied to a wide range of farming systems and at different scales.Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Paths (HACCP) is a management system which identifies, evaluates, and controls biological, chemical, and physical hazards from raw material production, procurement, and handling, to manufacturing, distribution, and consumption of the finished product.Hazards are agents or conditions that can cause injury, harm or illness.Health burden is the impact of a disease problem as measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. It is often quantified in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), both of which quantify the number of years lost due to disease.Hyperendemic refers to disease organisms that are present in its host population at a very prevalence.Informal The informal sector or informal economy is the part of an economy that is not taxed, monitored by any form of government or included in any gross national product (GNP), unlike the formal economy.Examples are barter and gift economy. In the food sector, informal often refers to the traditional, smallscale sector which do not pay tax, lack effective sanitary inspection, but are often recognised by authorities and pay municipal and other fees.Intensification can be technically defined as an increase in agricultural production per unit of inputs (which may be labour, land, time, fertilizer, seed, feed or cash).Intestinal illness is a broad term that describes conditions with chronic or recurring immune response and inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract.Macroparasite are parasites that can be seen with the naked eye. They grow in one host but reproduces outside of the host. They include helminths (e.g. nematodes and flatworms). Immune responses evoked by macroparasites are transient and depend on the parasite load. The key epidemiologic measure is the number of parasites per host.Microbial pathogens are microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites that cause disease in their host.Norovirus is cluster of associated, single-stranded ribonucleic acid viruses of the family Caliciviridae that are very contagious. Virus can be transmitted from an infected person, contaminated food or water, or contaminated surfaces to uninfected person. The virus causes inflamed stomach or intestines (acute gastroenteritis).Produce is a generalised term for farm-produced crops and goods, including fruits and vegetables (i.e. meats, grains, oats, etc. are sometimes considered as produce). The term often implies that products are fresh and in the same state as where they were harvested.Protozoan parasites are microscopic, one-celled organisms that can be free-living or parasitic in nature.They are able to multiply in humans, which permits serious infections to develop from just a single organism. Transmission of protozoa that live in a human's intestine to another human typically occurs through a faecal-oral route (for example, contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact). Protozoa that live in the blood or tissue of humans are transmitted to other humans by an arthropod vector (for example, through the bite of a mosquito or sand fly).Public health is the science of protecting and improving the health of families and communities through promotion of healthy lifestyles, research for disease and injury prevention and detection and control of infectious diseases.Reactive arthritis is an inflammation of the joints (e.g. wrists, knees, and ankles) that develops in reaction to an infection in another part of the body).Rift Valley fever is an acute, fever-causing viral disease most commonly observed in domesticated animals (such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels), with the ability to infect and cause illness in humans.Health impacts of foodborne disease and why foodborne disease in developing countries is under-estimated Campylobacter sp. Salmonella sp.Renal failure Toxigenic Escherichia coliMulti-organ failureDefining foodborne disease (FBD)Foodborne diseases can be defined as those conditions that are commonly transmitted through ingested food. Foodborne diseases comprise a broad group of illnesses caused by microbial pathogens, parasites, chemical contaminants, toxins and other hazards.The most common clinical presentation of foodborne diseases results in gastrointestinal symptoms, but foodborne diseases can also lead to chronic, life-threatening symptoms including neurological, gynaecological or immunological disorders as well as multi-organ failure, cancer and death. The tables that follows shows that foodborne diseases can result in many different clinical signs.Health impacts of foodborne disease and why foodborne disease in developing countries is under-estimated There is remarkably little information on foodborne disease in developing countries. The most common manifestation of FBD is diarrhoea, but most cases never get a laboratory diagnosis. Even if they do, there is often no way of telling if the pathogen detected was acquired from food, water, the environment or another person. As a result, for most countries stakeholders do not know the level of FBD or what issues are most important.Only a fraction of foodborne diseases that occur are ever reportedReported cases usually only represent a small proportion of the actual number of clinical cases (See The Surveillance Pyramid that follows overleaf). In developing countries many victims go untreated, or get treatments from unqualified people. Even if treated at a hospital or clinic, there is often no collection of a stool sample for laboratory examination. When laboratory tests are required, they may not cover all potential causes. In many, sometimes most cases, no pathogen is identified. Even if a pathogen is identified, it is not possible to know where the pathogen came from without further investigations (e.g. finding a genetically identical pathogen in food) or evidence (e.g. multiple people report eating the same food before becoming ill).Health impacts of foodborne disease and why foodborne disease in developing countries is under-estimatedNotifiable agent is detected This fact sheet discusses how the burden of illness can be measured. The most common measure for disease burden is the Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY). Use this fact sheet to: explore and understand the DALY;  find out about its history and its utility as a health metric;  get to grips with some of its criticisms; and  work through an example to help understand how DALYs are calculated.What is a DALY?The most widely used and accepted global metric of human sickness and death is the Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY).One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of \"healthy\" life. They are negative and as such should be minimised.DALYs combine the burden of death and sickness into a single number. It is the primary metric used by the World Health Organization and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation to assess the global burden of disease. It is also a primary metric used to quantify the cost-effectiveness of different disease control programmes. DALYs are increasingly used to assess and monitor health within populations and to set priorities within health sectors. The sum of DALYs across a population, also called the burden of disease, is a measure of the gap between current health status and the ideal health situation where the entire population lives to an advanced age, free of disease and disability.How the DALY came about and why it is used as a health metricThe DALY was developed for the World Health Organization as part of its Global Burden of Disease project in 1990. It has several advantages as a health metric: it combines mortality and morbidity (sickness and death) in a single measure.  it allows comparison of different diseases.  it facilitates prioritisation and targeting of scarce resources to where they will have most impact.  it facilitates cost-effectiveness assessments and allows different interventions to be compared.  it facilitates monitoring progress of attaining health goals.Public versus private goods: The earliest attempts to redefine appropriate roles for private suppliers and government led initiatives used the distinction between 'public' and 'private' goods. Public goods and services, once provided to one person, are available to others at no extra cost, and at scale can potentially have a big impact. An example would be a radio programme on food safety. Private suppliers of goods and services tend to be reluctant to supply public goods as they cannot ensure people will pay for them.In cases where the benefits of the goods exceed their costs, there is a strong argument for state intervention. Controlling diseases at a population level by co-ordinated action such as vaccination campaigns or fluoridation of drinking water has strong public good aspects. Choices made by individuals for disease prevention on the other hand would be determined as private goods. For example, we might think that refrigerators have an important role in reducing foodborne disease because they keep food fresh and that it makes sense that everyone should have access to a refrigerator. Economists, whilst appreciating this fact, might think that the supply of private goods is best left to the market. It would be highly unlikely therefore that a development programme is designed to supply and deliver refrigerators to reduce foodborne disease.Diseases associated with externalities or side effects: Many diseases are due to risky behaviours which people choose to do because they derive enjoyment or utility from them. Examples might include, diseases linked to obesity or alcohol. Economists might argue that public investments should prioritise those DALYs, which are not lifestyle related but are the result of something which did not bring any offsetting benefit (e.g. infectious disease).Are development investments driven too much by DALYs?As a numerical value that can be compared across nations, diseases, and interventions the use of DALYs has become widespread in policymaking, academia and nonprofit work. Yet it is not without criticism. DALYs are too subjective and making small changes in assumptions can result in big changes to burdens;  DALYs do not reflect preferences about allocating health care resources;  there is economic justification that not all disease burdens are equivalent.Subjectivity and sensitivity: Deciding the severity to be assigned to sickness is to some extent subjective and when diseases are very common (for example, worm infections) a small change in the severity assigned makes a very large difference to global burden.Preferences about health care: Intuitively, people do not tend to think that all aspects of disease and death can be combined in a single metric.Economic reasons: There are arguments that diseases should be treated differently depending on whether their control is a private or public good, and whether the actions that led to disease had positive externalities. These terms are explained in the box to the right.Let's look at two different scenarios to illustrate these points.Scenario 1: Which intervention from the two choices given would you rather invest in:a) an intervention that reduces the length of diarrhoea from four weeks to two for 4,000 children; or b) an intervention that saves the life of one child?If you were basing your decision on DALYs you would probably prefer the first option (a). Yet many people might think it is better for 4,000 children each to bear the discomfort of an additional two weeks of diarrhoea than for one child to die. If you were basing your decision on DALYs you might prefer the second option (b). Yet many people think public investments should be directed to deal with diseases that occur outside someone's control than common diseases that are the result of lifestyle choices.DALYs for foodborne diseases: a do-it-yourself example DALYs are a complicated concept but are a cornerstone to measuring disease burden. Despite the criticisms, they are likely to remain an important health metric. A good way to understand DALYs is to work through an example of how DALYs are calculated.For this example, we will calculate the DALYs associated with Campylobacter infections, which are often acquired from chicken and other foods. Campylobacter infections most often result in diarrhoea. However, a small proportion of cases may be followed by Guillain-Barré syndrome which causes sudden onset paralysis.Step 1 To work out how many years are lost from disease, we first need to estimate how many years would be lived in the absence of disease. The highest life expectancy observed for any nation -82.5 years life expectancy of women in Japan -is typically chosen as the starting point and will be used in this example.Step 2 Next, information is gathered on disease incidence, symptoms and sequelae (that is, after-effect) by age, sex and geographic region. This statistical information summarises impacts across many people. For example, two infections of Campylobacter may result in very different symptoms:  Edmund, a 20 year old man suffers with diarrhoea for two weeks as the result of Campylobacter infection.  Wachira, a 40 year old woman suffers with diarrhoea for one week and then goes on to develop Guillain-Barré syndrome as the result of Campylobacter infection. She is paralysed for two years and then recovers.Step 3Judgements are made on the disutility of the disease (that is, how bad the disease is) compared to a year lived with perfect health. A judgement on the disutility of the disease can be given by experts and can also be obtained using surveys. We know that one of the aftereffects of campylobacteriosis is paralysis. A survey may ask the question: \"Imagine two people -the first person is paralysed, and the second person has diarrhoea. Who is healthier overall?\" After the decision (which would likely be that paralysis is worse), then further questions would be asked as an attempt to decide how much worse it is.Surveys and experts can estimate how much disability is associated with an outcome when the weight assigned to death is 1 and to perfect health is 0. For example they may estimate: A year lived with paralysis has a disability weight of 0.9 -a year with paralysis is considered to be a week lived with 10% or 1/10 of normal health. 0.9 years of normal health are lost due to the year lived with paralysis.  A year lived with diarrhoea has a disability weight of 0.2 -a year with diarrhoea is considered to be a year lived with 80% of normal health. 0.2 years of normal health are lost.Step 4The DALYs related to the disease are calculated. In this example of Campylobacter infection the results for Edmund and Wachira would be as follows: Edmund has lost two weeks (or 0.04 years) at a disability weight of 0.2. The total DALYs is 0.04 x 0.2 = 0.008 DALYs or years of normal health lost as a result of being infected.  Wachira has lost one week (or 0.02 years) at a disability weight of 0.2 = 0.004 DALYs from diarrhoea. In addition she has lost two years with a disability weight of 0.9 or the equivalent of (2 x 0.09) or 1.8 DALYs from paralysis. In total 1.8004 DALYs.More than a thousand living organisms, from visible to sub-microscopic, can cause human disease. The diseases caused can vary from the rare and trivial to common and deadly. Putting diseases into categories brings order to this huge array of pathogens 1 . A common categorisation is to divide pathogens into parasites, bacteria and viruses. This fact sheet gives information on parasites. 2Many parasites are multi-cellular and macroscopic. This means that their bodies are made up of many cells and they can be seen without a microscope. They can be detected in the bodies and excreta of animals and humans quite easily. Other parasites are uni-cellular and can only be detected with a microscope, protozoa are an example.An FAO/WHO expert group has developed a comprehensive list of 95 human parasites for which food might be an important transmission pathway. From this list the 24 most important have been identified (FAO/WHO, 2012). The Parasitic Disease Taskforce of the Foodborne Disease Epidemiology Reference Group (FERG) 3 also identified foodborne parasites that were likely to have a substantial health burden. Some of the more important are described below under the main groups of protozoa 4 and worms.1 Pathogen: a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease.2 Parasite: An organism that lives off or in another organism, obtaining nourishment and protection while offering no benefit in return.3 For more on FERG, read our information sheet 'What's Going On in Food Safety' 4 Protozoa: A parasitic single-celled organism that can divide only within a host organism. Intestinal protozoa: are microscopic parasites with faecal-oral cycles.Infections occur when protozoal cysts are passed in faeces of people or animals, and then are ingested through food, fluids, or fingers that touch contaminated surfaces. Numerous protozoa normally live in the human gut. Under certain circumstances, some cause severe disease. Giardia lamblia is found worldwide.  Fish tapeworm is acquired from fish, especially in the northern hemisphere but cases have been reported from Uganda and South America. The host for the adult worm is humans and junior stages are found in crustaceans and fish. Hydatid disease (cystic echinococcosis or CE) is caused by infection with the larval stage of a tapeworm through consuming eggs which are passed in dog faeces and can contaminate food, water, utensils or fingers. CE causes slow growing, harmful cysts in organs and occasionally other tissues. In Eastern Europe there have been considerable increases in human CE since the early 1990s. In South America, there has been some progress in control, but the disease remains high. China may have 40% of the global burden. CE is common in the Middle East and North Africa. Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia also have hot spots. In endemic areas, 1-10% of people may be affected.The final host of the worm is dogs; sheep, cattle, goats, and pigs are hosts of a development stage of the worm. Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) disease is caused by infection with the larval stage of a different tapeworm found in foxes, coyotes, and dogs are final hosts, small rodents are intermediate hosts. It is found only in the northern hemisphere and over 90% of the global burden is in China on the Tibetan plateau. AE is a more serious disease than CE producing a slow-growing, tumour-like lesion usually in the liver.Fluke worms (trematodes) are small flat worms. Blood flukes (schistosomiasis) are acquired through contact with water. Fluke which can be foodborne include.Round worms (nematodes). Some types of roundworm infection are acquired when larvae penetrate the skin (e.g. hookworm) or are spread by insects (e.g. river blindness). In this factsheet we discuss only the diseases which can be transmitted by food.Tapeworms (cestodes) can grow up to 30 feet and are mainly acquired by eating eggs in food or water that contains cysts.Bad Bugs: Foodborne parasitesWe used estimates from the literature to summarise the burden of foodborne parasites in the table below. For many of the foodborne parasites there are no global estimates of the health burden. However, there is information on the most important foodborne parasites. Bad Bugs: Foodborne bacterial and viral pathogens More than a thousand living organisms, from visible to sub-microscopic, can cause human disease. The diseases caused can vary from the rare and trivial to common and deadly. Putting diseases in categories brings order to this huge array of pathogens. A common categorisation is to divide pathogens into parasites, bacteria and viruses. This fact sheet gives information on bacteria and viruses.Another commonly used medical term is microbes. Microbes are very small living organisms that can only be seen through a microscope; hence the name. Microbes include bacteria (e.g., Vibrio cholera, which causes cholera), viruses (e.g., influenza, which causes the flu), minute fungi (e.g., Candida albicans, which causes some yeast infections), and minute parasites (e.g., Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria).Globally, the most important microbial causes of diarrhoea are, in descending order: rotavirus, toxigenic Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter, Shigella spp., non-cholera Salmonella and cholera (IHME, 2013). The relative importance of different microbial pathogens varies with context. For example, Vibrio parahaemalyticus lives in coastal waters and is associated with seafood. It is an important cause of illness in Japan, but is rare in inland countries where raw seafood is not consumed.1 Rotavirus causes severe diarrhoea and vomiting. It is acquired by ingestion of virus in small amounts of faeces, which may contaminate hands, vectors, food or water. It is the most common cause of gastro-enteritis in children under five worldwide, and is relatively more important in the developed world. If dehydration is not treated, it can be deadly. However, unlike some bacterial causes of gastro-intestinal disease, long-term health effects are not common. Rotavirus vaccine has been very effective in developed countries and moderately so in developing countries.2 Toxigenic Escherichia coli: Escherichia coli are bacteria commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of people and animals. People are infected when they come into contact with the faeces of an infected animal or person, either directly or indirectly. Major routes of infection are: eating contaminated food; drinking or swimming in contaminated water; directly contacting the faeces of an infected animal or person.Many types of E. coli are harmless but some types of E. coli can produce toxins. These are called Shiga toxigenic E. coli (STEC) or verocytoxin producing E. coli (VTEC). There are various strains of STEC, e.g., E. coli O111 and E. coli O157. The reservoir of toxigenic E. coli is ruminant animals, such as cattle. Toxigenic infections cause a diarrhoeal illness. Sometimes infections can result in haemolytic uraemic syndrome, a severe condition characterised by kidney failure, bleeding and anaemia, which can be fatal.3 Cryptosporidium is a microbial parasite and is discussed in the Fact Sheet on 'Foodborne Parasites'.4 Campylobacter bacteria are a major cause of foodborne diarrhoeal illness in humans and are the most common bacterial cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. Campylobacter can be found in the intestinal tracts of wild birds and various other animals including pets. The main route of transmission is generally believed to be foodborne, via undercooked meat and meat products, as well as raw or contaminated milk. Contaminated water or ice is also a source of infection. A proportion of cases occur following contact with contaminated water.As well as causing diarrhoea, campylobacter may result in septicaemia, hepatitis, pancreatitis and miscarriage. Post-infection complications may include reactive arthritis (painful inflammation of the joints which can last for several months) and neurological disorders such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, a polio-like form of paralysis that can result in respiratory and severe neurological dysfunction or death in a small number of cases.5 Shigella bacteria are closely related to Escherichia bacteria. They are a common cause of diarrhoea, including bloody diarrhoea. It is acquired either by direct contact with an infected person's stool or by eating or drinking contaminated food or water. About 2% of persons who are infected with S. flexneri, the most common type of Shigella in developing countries, later develop reactive arthritis. Other rare complications are toxic megacolon (a paralysis of the colon preventing bowel movements) or haemolytic urinary syndrome.6 Non-cholera Salmonella bacteria are widely distributed in domestic and wild animals. Salmonellosis in humans is generally acquired from meats and eggs, but also vegetables contaminated with animal faeces, and even dry foods like spices, chocolate and nuts. People can be infected via the stool of infected people or contact with animals.Most people infected with Salmonella develop diarrhoea, fever, and abdominal cramps. In some people, the diarrhoea may be so severe that the patient needs to be hospitalised. In about 5% of cases, salmonella invade the blood stream, which can result in abscesses and internal infections. Between 2-15% of people may develop reactive arthritis following infection and there is some evidence salmonella infection increases the risk of developing irritable bowel syndrome. Large epidemics are often related to faecal contamination of water supplies or street vended foods. The disease is occasionally transmitted through eating raw or undercooked shellfish. There are two types of safe and effective oral cholera vaccines currently available. Other important foodborne microbes that do not cause intestinal illness: Typhoid and paratyphoid fever are common in developing countries caused by types of Salmonella. Infection is mainly from contaminated food and water. Symptoms include high fevers, stomach pains, headache, enlarged spleen and clusters of pink spots on the skin. Paratyphoid fever is milder. Some patients become permanent carriers.A vaccine is available for typhoid which is 50-80% effective. Streptococcus infections can be acquired from food. A common symptom is pharyngitis (Strep sore throat).  Botulism can be acquired from improperly processed, home preserved foods. It is rare but causes a paralysis that can be fatal if not treated. Infant botulism can be acquired from honey.  Most types of tuberculosis are not foodborne but zoonotic tuberculosis can be acquired from dairy products.  Brucellosis can be acquired from dairy products and causes undulant fever.  Hepatitis A is a liver disease that can be acquired from food and water or contact with infected people or contaminated objects and surfaces. Hepatitis E is a similar disease, more common in developing countries. It has a wider host range and pigs and pork products may have a role in transmission.We used estimates from the literature to summarise the burden of foodborne pathogens in the table overleaf.Bad Bugs: Foodborne bacterial and viral pathogensFor many of the foodborne pathogens there are no global estimates of the health burden. However, there is information on the most important foodborne pathogens. Risk analysis provides a way of measuring the harm associated with contaminated or naturally toxic food, identifying options for managing these problems, and making decisions about the best management option to choose. Is it safe?  Is it a big and important risk?  What efforts should we make to reduce the risk?1. Risk assessment is a systematic evaluation of hazards and their possible effects. It is the process of identifying a hazard and estimating the risk it poses. 2. Risk management uses outputs from the assessment to put in place actions to control hazards. It is the process of evaluating and selecting alternative regulatory and non-regulatory responses to risk. The selection process necessarily requires the consideration of legal, economic, and behavioural factors. 3. Risk communication is the exchange of information, opinions and concerns about risk among interested parties (stakeholders). Meaning of risk: In risk analysis, risk is the potential for negative consequences. It can be considered a combination of the severity of health impacts and their likelihood of occurrence.  Meaning of hazard: a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or property of, food that may have adverse health effects.  Risk Analysis is a structured approach for dealing with risk. It has three essential elements: risk assessment, risk management and risk communication:","tokenCount":"21481"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dd9ddb987606547ce26501c536746c64","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/92ac551e-7d9e-4928-9427-f159e011bb97/retrieve","id":"2073209926"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"770b65e4-0946-4c40-a858-9ac63ae58bbf","pagecount":"37","content":"CGIAR Technical Reporting has been developed in alignment with the CGIAR Technical Reporting Arrangement. This Initiative report is a Type 1 report and constitutes part of the broader CGIAR Technical Report. Each CGIAR Initiative submits an annual Type 1 report, which provides assurance on Initiative-level progress towards end-of-Initiative outcomes. The CGIAR Technical Report comprises:• Type 1 Initiative and Impact Area Platform reports, with quality assured results reported by Initiatives and Platforms available on the CGIAR Results Dashboard.• The Type 3 Portfolio Performance and Project Coordination Practice Change report, which focuses on internal practice change.• The Portfolio Narrative, which draws on the Type 1 and Type 3 reports, and the CGIAR Results Dashboard, to provide a broader view on portfolio coherence, including results, partnerships, country and regional engagement, and synergies among the portfolio's constituent parts.Score 1: Significant: The activity contributes in a significant way to any of the three CGIAR climate-related strategy objectives -namely, climate mitigation, climate adaptation, and climate policy, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity.Score 0: Not targeted: The Initiative/project has not been found to target gender equality. However, as a minimum requirement for all Initiatives/projects: (i) a gender analysis was conducted; (ii) its findings should be used to ensure that, at a minimum, the Initiative activities/interventions do no harm and do not reinforce gender inequalities; and (iii) data that is collected is gender disaggregated.https://www.cgiar.org/initiative/fragility-to-resilience-in-cwana/ *The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) markers refer to the OECD DAC Rio Markers for Climate and the gender equality policy marker. For climate adaptation and mitigation, scores are: 0 = Not targeted; 1 = Significant; and 2 = Principal.The CGIAR GENDER Impact Platform has adapted the OECD gender marker, splitting the 1 score into 1A and 1B. For gender equality, scores are: 0 = Not targeted; 1A = Gender accommodative/aware; 1B = Gender responsive; and 2 = Principal. These scores are derived from Initiative proposals, and refer to the score given to the Initiative overall based on their proposal.Leafy vegetable farm in the city, Lebanon. Work to promote the in-situ/on-farm management and ex-situ conservation of the Indigenous agrobiodiversity found in the region is ongoing in Lebanon, Morocco, and Uzbekistan and is considered critical to safeguarding biodiversity and cultural heritage, breeding climate-resilient crops, and protecting the food and nutrition security of people across the region.A farmer in front of a man-made lake.Photo credit: Lien Arits/IWMI Initiative inception events were attended by Ministers, NARES, donors, and key partners and marked the beginning of our collaboration as One CGIAR and reaffirmed our commitment to co-creating efficient, inclusive, and climate-resilient agrifood systems.High-level support for the Initiative was received from ministers in Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Uzbekistan, and key regional donors during engagement events. We anticipate that creating and strengthening National Alliances of Stakeholders (NASs) and National Innovation Platforms (NIPs) will result in increased engagement and coordination at local, regional, national and international levels. NARES and partners in Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, Sudan, and Uzbekistan were involved in expert consultations, working group meetings, policy meetings, and trainings on water accounting, water reuse cost benefits analysis, soil salinity, and integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems in an effort to produce scientific methodologies and tools, roadmaps, and guidelines for these water-related issues in the world's most water-stressed region. In addition to stakeholder engagement through research and innovation development, Fragility to Resilience in CWANA scientists made a concerted effort to communicate about the integration of food, land, water, and energy systems in CWANA through events such as 2022 UN Climate Change Conference (COP27), and podcasts, television interviews, and other media outlets.Stakeholder consultations in Uzbekistan and Egypt brought together a diverse mix of NARES, NGO, public, private, and financial sector partners to discuss climate information data services, national innovation ecosystems, and the digital transformation of the agricultural sector in order to better understand the innovation environment around the FVC and climate risk management. The Agritech4Morocco Challenge Call also brought together a unique set of stakeholders to provide training to innovation teams on how to bring to market concrete solutions to address the interwoven challenges of cutting emissions, increasing yields and quality, and protecting business viability.Photo credit: ICARDA    The activity contributes in significant ways to either one of the three CGIAR climate-related strategy objectives -namely, climate mitigation, climate adaptation, and climate policy, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity.The activity is principally about meeting either one of the three CGIAR climate-related strategy objectives -namely, climate mitigation, climate adaptation, and climate policy, and would not have been undertaken without these objectives. 1 -Significant 2 -Principal 0 -Not targeted 123 (71.10%) 45 (26.01%) 0 = Not targeted: The activity/result does not target gender equality.The activity/result contributes in significant ways to gender equality, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity.Gender equality is the main objective of the activity/result and is fundamental in its design and expected results.  This will ensure that we purposefully apply ourselves to the areas of work where outputs, outcomes, and impact can best be achieved with the available resources (financial, human, administrative, technological, etc.).To hire more scientists with expertise in gender transformative research.This will increase the dedicated gender expertise in the Initiative from the current number of one scientist and ensure that more gender research can be done across the countries and theory of change, including the implementation of the Gender and Climate strategy for CWANA. This will lead to a higher likelihood of achieving gender-transformative outcomes and impact in a region where gender inequality is high.Challenge trained 32 teams from around the world to accelerate their solutions for creating climate-resilient agrifood systems.  The Accelerate for Impact Platform supports innovators to create optimal impact and overcome roadblocks in the commercialization and scaling processes that are areas of chief concern for them.In doing so, the Accelerate for Impact Platform strives to facilitate the uptake of new technologies and durable solutions amongst value chain actors and intended beneficiaries.The Accelerate for Impact Platform joined forces with CGIAR Centers with \"boots on the ground\" in Morocco to support country and regional efforts to foster collaborations with stakeholders operating in the innovation space. As part of Fragility to Resilience in CWANA, it co-designed and implemented the AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge for impact-driven entrepreneurs with agrifood tech solutions in the early stage that can make agriculture in Morocco more efficient, resilient, and greener, while aligning with the goals of the Generation Green 2020-2030 Strategy 1 . The Initiative set out to provide technical assistance, mentoring, and business training to build sustainable business models, strengthen the scientific capacity, and better align with investor expectations.The AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge attracted 350+ submissions from talented entrepreneurs representing 31 countries, all with solutions applicable to the context of Morocco. After a rigorous selection process, 20 teams, including 32 purpose-driven entrepreneurs, were admitted to the bootcamp phase, where they received training in design thinking, user-centered design, how to conduct participatory evaluation from customers during pilots, and how to successfully pitch their business idea to investors. The nine-week acceleration program that followed involved 10 teams, representing five countries. The program was designed to help these teams test, validate, and adopt their innovations for positive impact, with a focus on developing an actionable 1 Génération Green 2020-2030, Ministère de l'agriculture pathway to scale and strengthening the scientific validity of their solutions. It adopted a mixed delivery mode, through 30+ hours of workshops, expert talks, and science sessions, 90 hours of one-on-one mentoring, and a blended learning approach that combined business-oriented training and scientific technical assistance from 12 CGIAR researchers. The Accelerate for Impact Platform matched teams with scientists with relevant expertise in Impact Areas to innovators who offered individualized technical assistance and support with regards to the technological development and scientific component of their project. The demo day marked the conclusion of the AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge and the announcement of its three winners. These startups, two of which are women-led, represent three countries. This event offered teams a global platform to pitch their solutions to an audience of ministry agents, scientists, industry players, and investors.The Accelerate for Impact Platform and the accelerator provided flexible, on-demand postacceleration support for winners, ensuring that they could continue reaping the benefits of the acceleration program in terms of visibility, fundraising, and networks. The AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge supported winners to leverage capacity building and partnerships established throughout the program for securing up to $1 million in seed funding, accessing new markets, and expanding their client portfolio.The AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge demonstrated the potential of innovation to offer concrete solutions to address the interwoven challenges of cutting emissions, increasing yields and quality, and protecting business viability. The next step in impact is to incentivize farmers and other value chain actors in the country to adopt these affordable and durable tech solutions that may incur short-term costs but provide significant long-term benefits.The capacity-building framework of the acceleration program helped us refine our business model, connect with ecosystem players, and strengthen the scientific validity of our innovation. Building bridges between science and entrepreneurship is fundamental to tackling inefficiencies in food systems. Through CGIAR A4IP, we can benefit from world-class scientists' technical assistance. \"Benjamin Rombaut, Co-founder and CEO, Sand to Green (AgriTech4Morocco Innovation Challenge winner)","tokenCount":"1538"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fd47692a0742f0a537f08b0a46e1e280","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/359bc34d-946e-4c84-9e78-0c7eaf41c049/retrieve","id":"1601115819"},"keywords":["Livelihoods strategies","Food security","Income diversification","Female-headed households","East Africa"],"sieverID":"fce4b1dd-4138-436a-8b59-d3f6b277ee3d","pagecount":"15","content":"Background: What are the key factors that contribute to household-level food security? What lessons can we learn from food secure households? What agricultural options and management strategies are likely to benefit femaleheaded households in particular? This paper addresses these questions using a unique dataset of 600 households that allows us to explore a wide range of indicators capturing different aspects of performance and well-being for different types of households-female-headed, male-headed, food secure, food insecure-and assess livelihoods options and strategies and how they influence food security. The analysis is based on a detailed farm household survey carried out in three sites in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.Results: Our results suggest that food insecurity may not be more severe for female-headed households than maleheaded households. We found that food secure farming households have a wider variety of crops on their farms and are more market oriented than are the food insecure. More domestic assets do not make female-headed households more food secure. For the other categories of assets (livestock, transport, and productive), we did not find evidence of a correlation with food security. Different livelihood portfolios are being pursued by male versus female-headed households, with female-headed households less likely to grow high-value crops and more likely to have a less diversified crop portfolio.Conclusions: These findings help identify local, national and regional policies and actions for enhancing food security of female-headed as well as male-headed households. These include interventions that improve households' access to information, e.g., though innovative communication and knowledge-sharing efforts and support aimed at enhancing women's and men's agricultural market opportunities.The potential impacts of climate change on food security in East Africa, while complex and variable due to highly heterogeneous landscapes, are a cause for concern considering that more than half of people depend on agriculture for all or part of their livelihoods [1,2]. Impacts of climate change on agriculture include potentially significant yield losses of key staple crops, including maize, sorghum, millet, groundnut, and cassava [3,4]. How well people are able to adapt to climate change, or reduce its negative impacts, will depend upon many factors (e.g., access to timely information, availability of cash, behavioural barriers, etc.) that often constrain the adoption of improved agricultural technologies and management strategies. Just as there are no 'silver bullet' technologies, there is an increasing realisation that 'transformative' agricultural changes are needed [5,6].Food security remains a serious challenge for many households in East Africa. There is evidence that the least food secure households, and especially femaleheaded ones, are less likely to adopt new agricultural technologies and practices that could improve their farm productivity and make them more resilient or less vulnerable to climate change [7,8]. While there is increasing evidence that farmers are changing their practices in response to several drivers-including both climate shocks and longer term climatic trends-adoption rates of new practices remain low and the changes being made typically involve relatively small rather than more forward-looking investments aimed at conserving scarce resources and enhancing resilience [8,9]. Many rural households are unable to try new crop, livestock, water, soil and agroforestry-related technologies and improved management techniques and innovations due to multiple constraints, including lack of money needed for such investments, poor access to natural resources (water or land), lack of inputs (including labour), and lack of information [9,10].Faced with increasing population pressure, rising agricultural input prices, land fragmentation and degradation, as well as a changing climate, farming households will need to pursue new agricultural and non-agricultural adaptation options including leaving farming. While there is a rapidly growing literature on vulnerability and adaptation to increased climatic variability and climate change [11][12][13][14], significant knowledge gaps still exist, especially regarding the assessment of adaptation options in different environments and how these might be appropriately targeted to different types of households to reduce food insecurity [5,15].One approach to addressing this challenge is to learn from households that are doing better than others across different areas. Most studies aimed at explaining differences in agricultural productivity between households find that characteristics such as education levels, land and household size, and off-farm income are key variables that explain the variation in productivity [16,17]. However, there is still little understanding of whether there are specific options that influence food security outcomes and that households are, or could be, implementing-such as the adding or switching types and/or mixes of crops and livestock and other assets. Yet, considering that gender norms play a big role in shaping how well households will be able to adapt [18], additional information that helps us to better target male-and female-headed households regarding agricultural options and management strategies that are likely to benefit them would be very useful.We address these aspects using a unique dataset [19] that allows us to explore a wide range of indicators capturing different aspects of livelihoods and well-being for different types of households (female-headed, maleheaded, food secure, food insecure) and assess livelihood strategies and the ways in which they can influence food security. The paper addresses a call for multidisciplinary investigation of food security challenges, providing much needed evidence on the circumstances of more versus less food secure households [5].We use household survey data collected through a detailed farm characterisation tool called 'IMPACTlite' and implemented in 2012 in East Africa [20]. The data are available online at http://data.ilri.org/portal/dataset [21].The survey includes information on: household size and composition; household assets; ownership of land and livestock; agricultural inputs and labour use for cropping, aquaculture and livestock activities; utilisation of agricultural products including sales, consumption, and seasonal food consumption; off-farm employment and other sources of livelihoods such as remittances and subsidies. It leads to a detailed characterisation of households for broadly representative agricultural production systems, and allows us to develop farm-level indicators that show ranges of income, productivity, etc. These can be used to parameterise household models and to examine ex ante the impact of climate change shocks on food security, for example, and the effects of various adaptation and mitigation strategies on farming households' labour demand, incomes, and nutrition.We used a stratified sampling strategy, described in detail by [20], consisting in identifying key agricultural production systems in targeted research sites. The set of research sites that have been analysed in this study are CCAFS sites, chosen in a highly participatory manner with local partners [8,22]. Within each of the identified production systems, representative villages were randomly selected up to a total of 20 villages per site. In each village, 10 households were randomly selected from a list of households. The surveys covered 68 villages and 600 households. Informed consent was obtained from each household. This cross-sectional approach offers a snapshot in time of highly dynamic agricultural systems. Panel data would better capture annual fluctuations in yields and incomes that occur with variations in rainfall or prices, for example. However, as a key objective is to compare and learn from the differences as well as similarities of households living within key agricultural production systems, a cross-sectional approach was chosen. A goal of the CCAFS program is to follow-up with these same households in the future to better understand longer term changes that they have been making.This paper focuses on data from three sites in East Africa [22] that were identified in 2010 as benchmark sites of CCAFS. These sites are: Rakai (Kagera Basin, Uganda), Wote (Makueni, Kenya) and Lushoto (Usambara, Tanzania).The sites were selected using criteria such as poverty levels, vulnerability to climate change, key biophysical, climatic and agro-ecological gradients, agricultural production systems, and partnerships, etc. [23]. Figure 1 shows the locations of the CCAFS sites and Table 1 provides a description of the sites, summarising climate, farming systems, main crops and livestock. A more detailed description of these sites can be found in [23][24][25] and [22]. These sites are also hot spots of climate change and food insecurity as identified by [26]. The three sites are characterised by bimodal rain, and different levels of rainfall, with Wote being the driest of the sites. All sites present mixed crop-livestock production systems, with one, two and three dominant types of production systems in Rakai, Wote and Lushoto, respectively.The analysis is articulated in two parts. We first analyse the characteristics of food secure and food insecure female-headed and male-headed households and then analyse the factors influencing households' food security. We use a logistic regression model to analyse the factors influencing household food security. The dependent variable in this case, food security, is a binary variable (with a value of 1 if the household is food secure and 0 otherwise).The concept of food security is of course quite complex, relating to availability access, affordability and use of food, as well as stability concerns [26,27]. This study focuses primarily on food availability, considering a household 'food secure' when they have sufficient food (from any source) to meet their dietary (energy) needs throughout the year, as defined below. Prior to including the predictor variables in the regression analysis, we tested them for collinearity. We excluded from the model those variables whose variance inflation factor (VIF) was >5.0.The main explanatory variables (the independent variables) were selected based on previous studies examining factors influencing food security [7,28,29]. These variables included: income, assets, labour, crop and activity diversification, agricultural yields and market orientation.Energy availability was calculated for each household based on production and food consumption data following [14]. Households reported food items consumed on a weekly basis by each member of the household, indicating seasonal differences between what they considered being a 'good period' and a 'bad period' in a given year. This information was used to calculate a food security ratio (FSR) as shown in Eq. (1) to reflect how households rely on farm production and food purchase to meet their energy needs, calculated using World Health Organization standards [30]. FSR is defined as the total energy in available food divided by the total energy requirements for the household. FSR values greater than one (FSR > 1) means that the household meets its energy requirements and has access to surplus energy.where FSR i is the food security ratio for household i; QtyC m is the quantity of food item m produced on-farm that is available for consumption (kg or L); QtyP m is the quantity of food item m purchased that is consumed (kg or L); E m is the energy content of food item m (MJ kg −1 or L); K j is the energy requirement in MJ per capita for j member; and n is the number of members in household j.Income is considered as one of the most important factors impacting food insecurity and hunger of populations, since hunger rates decline sharply with rising incomes [28,31,32]. Gross farm and off-farm income were calculated using revenues from crop, livestock and off-farm activities, respectively. Crop income for each household was calculated based on sales of crops. Livestock income for each household was calculated based on sales of live animals and livestock products. Off-farm income was the sum of the cash earned from all off-farm activities and it included remittances.Land, livestock, domestic, transport and productive assets affect food security in different ways. Land ownership has been shown to strongly influence incomes and livelihoods, and is highly skewed within villages across Africa [17]. Livestock assets contribute directly to food security by providing energy through consumption, and indirectly through the sales of animals and animal products that generate cash, the provision of manure and draft power [33]. Domestic assets such as radios, cell phones, stoves, etc. improve household welfare and assist in the exchange of information, thus facilitating decision making [11,34]. Transport assets (bicycles, trucks, motorbikes, etc.) help increase access to markets and mobility to attend meetings, training and other events, enhancing access to, and use of, information, social capital and social networks [7]. The use of farm machinery, tools, etc. (productive assets) leads to an increase in production and potentially income [35].(1)The ratio of total land area owned per adult equivalent (land per capita) was used in this analysis. To calculate livestock, domestic, transport and productive assets, we assigned weights (w) to each of the items in each asset category, with the weights adjusted according to the age of the item, following guidelines developed for Bill and Melinda Gates funded projects [36]. Asset indices were then calculated as the sum of the number of assets, weighted by type of asset and age [37], as shown in Eq. 2.where w gi = weight of the i'th item of asset g; N is the number of asset g owned by household; a is the age adjustment to weight; G is the number of assets owned by household.(2)  Crop diversity together with diversity of income sources (cash and in-kind, farm and off-farm) are considered to be key 'buffer strategies' households pursue to deal with risk in agrarian environments [29,38]. Activity diversity is one of the strategies that can minimise household income variability, enhance food security, and also represents a primary means by which many individuals reduce risk [16,39]. Crop diversity was calculated as the total number of crops grown by the households. Activity diversity was calculated as the total number of farm and off-farm activities households were engaged in.Labour availability is an important determinant of household agricultural productivity and thus food security, especially in subsistence-oriented households, typically with small farms reliant on variable rainfall [40][41][42]. Crop and livestock labour were calculated as the total number of man/days spent working on crop and livestock-related activities, respectively.Higher crop yields per acre typically help improve household food security as there is more food available, both for consumption and selling [30]. The ratio of total quantity of local varieties of maize harvested to the size of maize plots was used to measure yields since local maize is the main crop produced and consumed across these sites.Market orientation can have differential effects on household food security. It can increase diversification, which helps spread risk, but it can also reduce subsistence production, exposing households to higher risk and food insecurity during periodic shocks [43].Market orientation was calculated as the ratio of products sold to those produced, in energy units, as shown in Eq. 3.where QCs and QLs are the quantities of crop and livestock products i and j sold on the market (kg or litre); QCp and QLp are the quantities of crop and livestock products i and j produced on-farm (kg or L); and E i and E j are the energy contents of products i and j (MJ kg −1 or L).(About two-thirds (76 %) of the households were maleheaded and about one-third (24 %) were female-headed households. Table 2 summarises the descriptive statistics for food secure and food insecure households, those able or not able to meet their food energy requirements throughout the year. An additional table shows this more in detail (see Additional file 1: Table S1). The results show that there are (too) many food insecure households in all the sites-62 % in Rakai (Uganda), 80 % in Lushoto (Tanzania) and 85 % in Wote (Kenya). Of these, many are female-headed (15 % in Rakai, 35 % in Lushoto, and 11 % in Wote). However, the share of female-headed households among food insecure households is not greater (20.7 %) than the share of female-headed households in the population (23.7 %) suggesting that food insecurity may not be more severe for female-headed households than male-headed households.The family size of food secure and food insecure households differs significantly (p < 0.01) across the three sites. On average, food secure households were smaller (4.5) compared with the food insecure households (5.8). This result is consistent with findings of previous studies where larger household sizes have been found to have a negative impact on calorie availability, especially in the context of female-headed households [44][45][46][47]. Since resources are very limited, the increase in family size may put more pressure on consumption than it contributes to the production.Most of these households own livestock (90 %)-41 % have cattle, 81 % own small ruminants (goats, sheep), and 89 % raise non-ruminants (poultry, pigs). We did not find a significant difference in livestock asset ownership between food secure and food insecure households. In fact, Table 2 shows that on average for each asset category, land per capita included, food secure households in all our sites do not have significantly more assets than do food insecure households-contrary to what one might expect, given that assets are often used as a proxy for wealth.Across sites, maize is the most widely grown crop, cultivated by 93 % of the sampled households, followed by beans at 70 % (Table 3). Other common crops include banana, cassava, green pea, pigeon pea and cowpea. Figure 2 shows how land is allocated to the different crop categories in each site by food secure versus food insecure households. It suggests that food secure households allocate more land to all types of food crops, as well as cash crops, than do food insecure households. This is possible as they also own more land than the food insecure.In Lushoto, land is used to grow food crops such as potato and sweet potato, onion, maize, beans, cassava and vegetables, fruits such as banana and avocado and cash crops such as sugarcane, tea and coffee. Whilst both male-and female-headed households grow coffee, sugarcane and tea are the prerogative of male-headed households (Table 3). Food secure farmers have more land allocated to fruits but less to tree-herb-shrubs than food insecure farmers (Fig. 2). Yet, we observe that food secure female-headed households allocate more land to orchards, cereals (in particular maize) and starches (in particular potatoes) than food insecure female-headed households.In Rakai, households cultivate cash crops such as coffee, groundnuts and tobacco. Households also grow fruits such as banana and passion fruit and food crops such as potato, maize, cassava, beans, sorghum and vegetables. Although the difference in land allocation was not significant between food secure and food insecure households in most cases (Fig. 2), the food secure households allocated significantly more land to starches, in particular cassava, cereals (especially maize), and vegetables than food insecure households. An additional table shows this in more detail (see Additional file 2: Table S2). In Wote, land allocation for crops differs between food secure and food insecure households (Fig. 2). Fruits such as mango, oranges and papaya are grown, as well as crops that include green gram, pigeon pea, cowpea, beans, maize, sorghum, cassava and vegetables. Food secure female-headed households allocate on average more than twice the amount of land for cultivation of sorghum, and on average 40 % more for cultivation of green gram, than food insecure female-headed households. An additional table shows this in more detail (see Additional file 2: Table S2). The food secure female-headed households also allocate twice as much land to fruits, such as mango and oranges, than their food insecure counterparts. This could be due to the fact that when female-headed Fig. 2 Land allocation across the sites by food secure and food insecure households households feel more food secure they try to diversify into cash crops, which will increase their cash flow. There is also a marketing cooperative in the area for the sale of mangoes that may represent an additional incentive for food secure households to produce and sell mangoes in particular [48].Overall, the results suggest that food secure households have a higher diversity of crops, although the difference is only highly significant in Rakai (Table 2). Furthermore, male-headed households are more diversified in their crops compared to female-headed households (with 4.7 ± 1.8 crop types versus 3.9 ± 1.9). Larger farms potentially allow for more crop diversification (Fig. 3).Crop diversification is a strategy that allows households to cope with changes in livelihoods [49]. A previous study in East Africa found that loss of markets for traditional crops and opening of new markets for new crops can increase the incentive for households to grown many different crops (e.g. up to six or seven) [50]. Capacity building also plays an important role in facilitating the adoption of alternative crops [51].Across the sites, most households derive income from multiple sources (livestock, crops, and off-farm activities). Food insecure households in all three sites had lower income per capita than food secure households, although the difference is not highly significant. Therefore, even the food secure households are not earning much. Poverty levels are high; 37 % of households fall below the poverty line of USD 1.25 per capita per daytwo-thirds of these are female-headed households. The proportion of households below the poverty line varies across these sites-ranging from 23 % in Wote to 63 % in Lushoto. However, within-site variability in incomes is high, reflecting large wealth differences between households that also emerge from other studies [17,52,53].The relative contribution of crop income to total income can be more than 40 % for food secure households (Fig. 4). In contrast, the contribution of livestock to total income decreases from 10 % to virtually nothing for households with higher levels of food security. The contribution of offfarm income to total income for food insecure households is relatively high, on average 60 %. Livestock production contributes to annual gross income on average 40 USD for female-and 104 USD for male-headed households, while crop income contributes to total income on average 206 USD for female-and 523 USD for male-headed households per year, across all sites.The contribution of livestock revenues to total income is higher for food insecure households. The majority of food insecure households largely dependent on livestock income are found in Wote, the driest of the three sites analysed, characterised by uncertainty of rainfall [54] and low nutrient levels, and low water-holding capacity [55]. These results confirm findings of other studies that show the significant contribution of livestock-related earnings for households' income and livelihoods in areas where rainfall levels are low [52,56,57]. In fact, where cropping is very risky due to low and unpredictable rainfall, the role of livestock as a livelihood option is likely to become even more important in the face of a changing climate [4].Other studies such as [14,[58][59][60] suggest that crop diversification can boost total household income (Fig. 5a), and our data support that hypothesis. However, rather non-intuitively, our data also show an inverse relationship between activity diversity and total household income-i.e., the more agricultural and non-agricultural activities a household is pursuing, the lower the income (Fig. 5b). Thus, it appears that perhaps household welfare y = 0.2609x Fig. 3 Regression between land per capita and crop diversity. The 12 scores are the mean values per household type (male-vs female-headed households; food secure vs food insecure households) and per site depends more on the activity mix than on the total number of activities per se, and/or that low-income households have to diversify their income sources because they are not able to meet their needs with one income source alone.We included in the model the following variables whose variance inflation factor (VIF) was <5.0: livestock assets, domestic assets, productive assets, transport assets,  4.Crop diversity is a significant and important factor in all sites in terms of increasing the likelihood of food security. This study thus confirms findings of other research on the topic of the importance of crop diversification as a potential strategy to mitigate food insecurity by smallholders in Sub-Saharan Africa [61]. A diverse range of crops enhances food security for several reasons-it can increase yield stability, result in more diversified human diets, and lead to more regular and reliable household income that allows purchase of additional food [61].A finding of this study that is rather intuitive is the positive correlation between maize yield and food security. Higher production of this main staple food translates into an increase in food available for home consumption. Where a surplus can be produced, this also can be sold, increasing cash earnings that can be spent on alternative food, mitigating seasonal food shortages.As previously observed, the contribution of livestock revenues to total income is higher for food insecure households. The negative coefficient of livestock income could indicate that the main contribution of livestock to food security comes from the sale of livestock as a safety net during crisis, rather than the sale of animal products. Better-off households would be under less pressure to liquidate livestock holdings because of their ability to selfinsure against the harvest shortfall through other means and would therefore rely less on livestock income [62]. Households in Wote in particular are highly dependent on sources of income vulnerable to agro-climatic shocks, such as drought. Furthermore, they experience low demand, translating into low selling prices, combined with highly regulated markets [62].Livestock labour presents a negative coefficient, which may be linked to much labour being allocated to livestock in a context where households are experiencing an increased difficulty in always finding sufficient feed for their animals, together with lack of price incentives for animal products and increasing costs of keeping livestock [63]. Alternative strategies should be put in place by these households for better coping with challenging conditions [64]. A positive correlation between crop labour and food security is found in Wote and Lushoto, whilst a negative one is found in Rakai. Food insecure households in Rakai have larger farms than the food secure ones, and  therefore they tend to allocate more labour to crop activities. However, these results suggest their use and allocation of land may not be efficient. Market orientation is not significantly related to food insecurity in Rakai, but we observe a decrease in food insecurity with an increase in market orientation for Wote and Lushoto. Thus, trade in local markets seems to be contributing in these sites to smoothing home consumption, increasing income and/or allowing for additional and alternative food purchases.Having more domestic assets increases the likelihood of food insecurity in female-headed households. Domestic assets include goods that are used to process food for consumption (e.g. stoves), and those that aid communication and provide access to information (e.g. radios and mobile phones). Phones and radios are the most commonly used sources of information across the three sites [48,65,66]. Some of the local radio stations provide information on available seed varieties in the market, post-harvest crop handling tips, information on effective preservation of farm products, as well as weather reports. The radio is the major source of weather and climate-related information that is in most cases received by women [67]. However, recent research shows that access to agricultural-related information is largely structured by gender, and that when the information reaches women farmers they may either not see the need for a change or not have enough money and/or enough labour to implement changes [68].The rest of the variables (livestock assets, productive assets, transport assets, land per capita, activity diversity, crop income, off-farm income) and all two-way interactions with gender and country were assessed for inclusion in the model and were not found to be statistically significant at the 0.1 significance level.Our results suggest that food insecurity may not be more severe for female-headed households than male-headed households. In terms of the key factors contributing to food security, our results show that food secure households are largely those that have the greatest diversity of crops. Larger land size could potentially allow for more diversification, however, we also see that this does not often translate into an increase in food security. This particularly holds for female-headed households, where our evidence shows many farm management constraints, including fewer assets, less labour, fewer crop varieties, smaller household sizes, smaller income per capita and less market orientation.We also found evidence that more domestic assets do not make female-headed households more food secure. For the other categories of assets (livestock, transport, and productive), we did not find evidence of a correlation with food security. Since assets have been found to be so key in helping understand poverty, this is somewhat surprising, but does reinforce that poverty is a process, not an event, and food security is also a complex issue that we are only beginning to understand in these types of environments.Livestock labour is negatively correlated with food security, suggesting that the overall efficiency of the system should be improved and that therefore alternative strategies should be put in place (e.g., improving livestock husbandry and health; changing feeding practices; changing breeds; rotational grazing). A more in-depth analysis of livestock labour dynamics could help to better identify and target interventions to increase productivity.What we are seeing is that different factors are important in terms of explaining variations in food security levels across the three sites. This means that site-specific characteristics and factors (agro-ecological zone, type of production system, socio-economic conditions, etc.) are important. Thus, improved targeting of food security or adaptation options to take into consideration these local conditions is critical.What we have learned from examining the food secure households is that larger farms are not necessarily more food secure, even though these households do tend to have higher per capita total incomes. Food secure households typically devote more land to growing vegetables, starches, pulses, fruits as well as cereals than do the food insecure. Different livelihood portfolios are being pursued by male-and female-headed households, with the latter less likely to grow high-value crops, for example.However, further research is needed to better understand intra-household characteristics and factors that underpin food security status from a gender perspective.Other implications of our findings include the need for greater investment in specific actions and initiatives that are likely to contribute significantly to food security. These include, for example, those interventions that improve the targeting of information delivered to farming households, especially to the women within those households, and those that enhance access to new market opportunities.","tokenCount":"4916"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7b3096297f503d82babe3ca7b43b17bf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/261a1992-68bc-4076-bb8a-aa540ddfc04d/retrieve","id":"-1684056951"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0fb3ebf7-d1fc-4696-bd12-6eeec7b009ae","pagecount":"21","content":"Expanding Utilization of Roots, Tubers and Bananas and Reducing Their Postharvest Losses (RTB-ENDURE) is a 3 year project (2014)(2015)(2016)  Cassava is an important source of food and income in Uganda. Consumption of cassava has been increasing especially in the urban areas. Market demand for fresh cassava in 2013 was estimated to be 309,528 MT per annum in 2013. It was projected to increase by 25% to 387,074 MT in 2018 (RTB-ENDURE-Cassava scoping study, 2014). New market segments for fresh cassava roots have been emerging for both niche and mass markets. Fresh cassava was found to be consumed in various forms. According to findings from the Market Study 2015 high-end restaurants had introduced cassava recipes. Fried cassava chips were a delicacy in road-side food catering services, a new phenomenon in urban areas. Further, analysis of respondent responses revealed that the most preferred consumption form was fried (37%), followed by boiled (35%) and steamed in banana leaves (25%).Cassava enjoys a unique position as a convenient food that is easy and fast to prepare. It is in recognition of this, among others, that cassava has been selected as one of the 10 priority crops with a high potential to transform the agricultural sector in Uganda through provision of household food security, incomes, and employment. . However, despite a growth in demand, both the utilization and income derived from marketing of fresh cassava roots are being hindered by the rapid postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD) that causes spoilage of cassava roots within two to three days of harvest. The implication is that it cannot be marketed over a long time and distance, thereby reducing incomes and food security to growers, consumers and traders. This in turn leads to less investments and hence low productivity.To address this challenge, the RTB-ENDURE Cassava sub-project also known as \"Extending the Shelf life of Fresh Cassava Roots for Increased Incomes and Postharvest Loss Reduction\" aimed at introducing, testing, validating the efficacy of two technologies for increasing the shelf-life of fresh cassava roots, and thereby assisting to increase the value to growers, traders and consumers along the entire value chain. These technologies included high relative humidity storage and waxing. This research also focused on investigating and establishing the business cases for the two technologies in Uganda since both technologies are in commercial use elsewhere but the commercial applicability and viability of the new technologies in Uganda was unknown. The next phase of the project, following on-station research and user validation therefore was to determine the commercial and institutional feasibility of these technologies in Uganda.In doing so, the project proposed to set up two packhouses in order to test their commercial viability. They included one packhouse managed by farmers and another managed by an entrepreneur. To facilitate the successful commercial operations of the packhouses, it was necessary to build the entrepreneurial and business skills of the operators. This report describes the capacity building process and activities that were done to enhance the business and entrepreneurial skills of packhouse operators.The capacity building activity aimed at sensitizing and imparting knowledge and skills to packhouse operators, and their business collaborators to support the profitable commercialization of shelf-life enhanced fresh cassava roots in Uganda. The training targeted all key actors along the supply chain such as farmers, processors and traders involved in operating, supporting or doing business with the packhouse owners in Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts in western Uganda. These actors also included extension and NGO staff responsible for and operating in Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts. . Specific objectives included the following:1) Providing knowledge on best business management practices 2) Provide operators with knowledge for increased revenue while reducing expenses 3) Enable operators to keep proper records 4) Build the capacity of operators to ensure good financial management 5) Empower operators to practice best practices for marketing 6) Provide knowledge to operators for increasing capital and investments such as attracting new shareholders and investors by improving credit worthiness and cash flow 7) Improve communication skills and customer care services 8) Provide knowledge and information to operators to create and manage business networks.Shelf-life extension technologies such as waxing and relative humidity storage require market access. Available literature indicated that these technologies were already in commercial use in Latin American countries such as Colombia. Therefore, an initial visit to Colombia was conducted to enable the Ugandan research team acquire knowledge on the commercial context in which these technologies were being applied.Subsequently, a capacity building plan was developed to equip operators of the two packhouses in Uganda with business and entrepreneurial skills. Two training sessions were held in Kyenjojo (Farmer model) and three in Kabarole (Trader model). However, a training session in Kyenjojo targeted both farmer and trader model participants. See Tables 1 and 2 for details on the training sessions. The general approach of the training involved the following steps:1) Assessing current commercial and investment capabilities of identified packhouse operators (Rwibaale Farmers Cooperative and Brica Investments) in agri-business in general and cassava enterprise in particular. 2) Participatory identification of opportunities for and constraints to marketing of shelflife enhanced fresh cassava in Uganda. 3) Participatory identification of business and entrepreneurial training gaps for both traders and farmers in respect of #1 and #2 above. 4) Conducting capacity building sessions.The methodology combined sensitization, lessons as well as both theoretical and practical exercises which were done in groups. The trainings focused on group dynamics and collective action; costing; record keeping; marketing and market information analysis; business management and decision-making; financial reporting and business networking.For packhouse operations, the approach targeted a few selected trainees in the case of the trader model and cooperative's committees and members for the farmer model. These trainees are expected to conduct trainings to new members in the future. These trainees constituted the initial packhouse managers, operators and owners as well as selected nearby supplying farmers.Rwibaale Farmers Cooperative, unlike many other producers organizations, enjoyed some good degree of cohesion. However, there was need to improve networking amongst the members and create stronger structures to support collaboration and joint effort in problem solving.Group cohesion is very essential for success. This session focused on strengthening group cohesion and collective action for the farmers' enterprise. The value of collective action was explained to the members. Participants were sensitized about the importance of joint planning and implementation. They were also taught important things that need to be done to assist in trust building. Every business must have a vision, mission and a clear set of activities. In the case of a farmer enterprise it was extremely important for members to have a shared vision. All the aims and goals of the business were explained and agreed to by members.Collective action may be challenging but it can play an important role in enhancing competitiveness by reducing costs. It also increases the bargaining power of smallholders. Among the others, group cohesion involves assigning each member a role, working together and leveraging the small outputs from each member. This in turn leads to increased economies of scale.The trainings also focused on group dynamics. Leaders and members were trained to spot causes of conflicts and deal with them. They were provided with conflict resolution techniques and approaches. Group leaders were sensitized on the importance of respecting member rights and feelings.Forming a strong business cooperative requires rules, regulations and incentives. This training contributed to achieving the following:1) Planning cassava production schedule to ensure consistent supply of commercial roots to the packhouse 2) Collective transfer of cassava production knowledge and methods to the members 3) Financing: fund mobilization to support production and processing investment plans 4) Approaches to taking-in new members based on the objectives of the enterprise 5) Gender equity in the distribution of both roles and benefits of production, roots handling and processing at the packhouse 6) Scaling-out of the novel technologies by the group to the community at large (farmer-to-farmer knowledge transfer) 7) Group leadership and how members can contribute to the common good of owning and operating a successful business venture. This training session focused on emphasizing the importance of conducting both farming and packhouse operations in a business-like manner. It aimed at enhancing the agribusiness mindset of the trainees. Smallholder farmers view farming in a traditional sense, i.e., as a way of life rather than as a business that requires investments and good planning. Participants were exposed to the meaning of enterprise. They were sensitized about the importance of taking initiative and risks. Business is about identifying an opportunity, taking a decision and the associated risks. Participants were taught that each activity has a cost and therefore should create value. Participants were trained to critically analyze the costs and benefits of each activity.Risk-taking is important in business. There is no such a thing as a \"sure fire bet\" in business. All business investments carry one or more risksa chance or probability that something could go wrong and lead to losses. Participants were trained to take calculated risks and to ensure that likely returns from taking a risk are enough to make the gamble worthwhile. Trainees were introduced to the process of business planning and its importance. They had an opportunity to review and update the information used earlier on to formulate their business plans. Each category of information contained in the business plans was explained. Business plans developed by the project team are living documents which need to be reviewed in the light of actual business performance and the changing environment.One of the critical factors that have hindered the growth of strong agricultural businesses is lack of accountability and transparency. This has been the case for both farmer owned/managed rural enterprises and those that are owned by individual entrepreneurs.Trainees were sensitized about the importance of accountability and what it means to a successful business. Accountability is about leaders having the duty to explain the business actions to members. It is also about members exercising their right to demand explanation and justification from those that lead them. Transparency is about being open, frank and honest in the enterprise dealings. The importance of having open discussions about planned investments, incurred expenses and revenues is very important. Accountability and transparency go hand in hand. They involve leaders being aware of who they are supposed to report to, what pieces of information are important to share and how best to communicate to members and those they deal with. Participants were exposed to some of the key principles of accountability and transparency such as honesty and truthfulness.Many small business and especially those managed by rural farmers have a poor record keeping culture. Records are not consistently kept or are totally lacking. Important business information is usually not captured.Record keeping is crucial for any business. The importance of keeping good and separate business records was emphasized during this session. Any business needs to know its financial standing on a regular basis. In case of cooperatives, it is also important for ensuring group cohesion. Participants were introduced to the benefit of keeping good records by training them on how to undertake the following:1) Monitor the progress of the enterprise 2) Prepare financial statements 3) Identify sources of income 4) Keep track of deductible expenses/costs 5) Identify own weaknesses and strengths 6) Understand the prerequisites for accessing loans 7) Distribute profits to shareholders as dividends or for partnerships where losses and profits have to be shared.They were trained on the basic principles and benefits of record keeping and to understand that records can help show whether the business is improving, which markets are growing and or which changes need to be made. They help the business update its business plan.Good records help a business to prepare accurate financial statements. These include income (profit and loss) statements. Such records help a business in dealing with its bank and creditors. A business can receive income from many sources. Records will help in separating business sources from other non-business categories.Participants were trained to keep all important documents such as those that contain payments, receipts, credit purchases and sales, and assets and liabilities. They were trained to make simple documents. For instance, where it is not possible to obtain a receipt for an expense, they were shown how to make a simple note and record the details.The record keeping system was explained to the participants to include a summary of the business transactions such as accounting journals and ledgers, which will show gross income, as well as deductions and credits.Participants were urged to choose a recordkeeping system that best fits their business. Records should clearly show income and expenses. In the case of small businesses, the business checkbook is the main source for entries in the business books.Participants were made to appreciate the need to keep supporting documents in addition to the business books. These were explained to include sales slips, paid bills, invoices, receipts, deposit slips and cancelled checks.Purchases were explained to be items bought in order to produce cassava with extended shelf-life for sale to customers and the supporting documents were listed as cash register, cancelled checks, sales slips and invoices. On the other hand, the documents for costs incurred by a business were listed as invoices and petty cash slips for small cash payments.Monitoring, collecting and analysing market information is very crucial for any business enterprise. Operators of the fresh cassava paskhouses will be operating in a free market economy characterized by many sellers and buyers with low barriers to exit and entry. Consequently, actors will face a lot of competition. Tracking market trends will help packhouse operators stay ahead of their competitors. Trainees were educated on who and what aspects they needed to monitor. These included prices of other competing goods, customer needs and feedback, behaviour of sellers, demand trends by market segments etc. Market information is used to design and update the marketing strategy.This was explained to participants as the management process by which waxed and relative humidity storage cassava roots will be moved from the packhouse to the consumer. Participants were introduced to the concept of 4 Ps of marketing that included the following:1) Product in this case cassava roots with extended shelf-life 2) Price formation 3) Place and in this case the different market segments, and 4) Promotion strategyParticipants were introduced to the importance of having and implementing a marketing strategy. This combines all the marketing goals into one comprehensive plan. It is ought to be drawn from market research and analysis. It should focus on the right market mix in order to achieve the maximum profit potential. Participants were also educated on how to sustain the waxing and relative humidity storage business with marketing as an important driver. Participants also learned that this strategy is the foundation of the marketing plan. They were requested to typically rely on the customer value proposition as a major part of their marketing strategy.Participants were introduced to the distinction between marketing and sales. The former is crucial and it requires thinking about customer needs and their satisfaction. The participants were introduced to the importance of building a lasting relationship with their customers and to be patient about this. They were educated about having a marketing plan, implementing it, monitoring and evaluating it. Marketing is about developing a demand for waxed cassava which is new on the market and satisfying as much as possible the needs of its consumers at all times and in all places. It is different from selling.Selling was introduced to the participants as all the tricks and techniques of getting consumers to exchange their cash for their cassava. Marketing was explained as the entire business process consisting of a neatly integrated effort to discover, create, arouse and satisfy customer needs. Participants were introduced to the concept of customer value proposition which for waxed and relative humidity storage cassava roots would detail all the reasons/benefits that accrue to buyershence explaining why people should spend their money on the treated cassava. Examples were given to the participants (most of who already have attested to the value of waxed and relative humidity stored cassava) as:1) Having a longer shelf life 2) Safe and clear 3) No need for traders to discount prices during the period of storage and sale 4.6.1. PricingPricing is very important in marketing. It can be a winning factor or lead to loss of sales. It is critical to get the pricing right for both the buyer and the seller. Price enables the seller to recover all his costs and make a margin.Price is the value that will purchase a finite quantity, weight or other measure of a good or service and in this case waxed or relative humidity storage cassava roots.Participants were introduced to the different forms of price determination/formation. Price can be fixed by a contract, left to be determined by an agreed upon formula, discovered or negotiated in the course of dealings between parties or determined by forces of demand and supply.They were also made aware that price is determined by 1) what buyers of waxed or relative humidity stored cassava roots are willing to pay; 2) what seller is willing to accept; and 3) competition (market forces of demand and supply).Waxed or relative humidity storage cassava roots are a new product on the Ugandan market. However, the existing price of fresh cassava has a role to play in terms of being a point of comparison.Participants were introduced to differentiated pricing for the different market segments. For instance, niche markets existed in the case of high end supermarkets. On the other hand, mass open markets would not offer the same higher price as that offered in supermarkets.Moreover, in open markets fresh cassava is currently sold much as it might not be with extended shelf life.Participants were educated about the importance of assessing all their costs in order to determine their break-even price. This will help them to determine whether or not to take a certain price that the market is willing to offer. Given presentation of waxed and relative humidity storage cassava roots, price is one of the variables where packhouse operators can exercise some degree of control.Trainees were educated about the importance of promotion in any business. It combines all the aspects of marketing and sales promotion described in detail above. It keeps customers connected to the business and tends to increase demand. Trainees were introduced on how to use radio, SMS, telephone, print media plus word of mouth as tools that can help them reach out to their customers. Trainees were provided with information that they could share via radio. They were taught how to communicate, be confident and build partnerships with radios, and TV stations to assist in promoting their business activities and events (See Figure 6). They were educated about the importance of doing outreach via adverts and publicity.4.6.3. Place Generally, this training emphasized the need to identify, study and monitor trends in the different markets segments (niche and mass market; rural and urban market). The needs of these markets are different and the opportunities offered also differ.Within the rural areas, the volumes purchased are small in terms of driving the commercialization of shelf-life enhanced fresh cassava roots. The trainees were trained to target the urban markets. Cassava has mainly been consumed in open mass markets. Niche markets (mainly supermarkets) have not been selling fresh cassava due to its high perishable nature. This therefore provides an opportunity to tap into this niche market. However, trainees were exposed to opportunities that are available within the mass markets. This is mainly due to the high volumes consumed in these markets.Participants were sensitized and trained in ways in which they can present high quality cassava fresh roots to attract consumers. Waxed roots should be well packed in crates while high relative humidity storage roots should be sold in bags and clearly labelled by name of variety, number of roots and weight before placing them in crates. Designing a marketing strategy can be a challenging task to rural farmers and agricultural SMEs. It is about developing a planned mix of the controllable elements of a product's marketing plan commonly known as the 4Ps (described above). The trainees were educated about the need to adjust these 4 elements until they obtain the right combination that serves the needs of their customers while at the same time generating optimum incomes to them as packhouse operators.Trainees had their capacity built to convey information effectively and efficiently on radio. They were shown how to use bulk SMS to communicate to their customers. They were educated to use material such as brochures, fact sheets to communicate about their enterprise. Figure 6 below shows the Leader of the Rwibaale Farmers Cooperative speaking about the waxed and high relative humidity stored cassava on a radio talk show. The participants were trained on the principles of cost calculation. Any enterprise has to conduct thorough costing of its activities. Costing is one of the biggest challenges affecting farmer rural organizations. Costing helps the business to monitor its costs and explore ways of reducing them. In a free competitive market system, it does not help a business to increase prices since it become uncompetitive. A better option would be to try and reduce its costs. Each and every activity has a cost. Where costs are not explicit, trainees were request to use proxy costs i.e., costs that are being paid for similar activities in the area.Trainees were provided with weighing scales and trained in their usage and were guided on how weighing is used in calculation of costs on a kg basis.Trainees were sensitized about the importance of building business networks and forming associations. Local cassava platforms were revamped in both Kyenjojo and Kabarole districts as a result of these trainings with the purpose of assisting the new business to develop. The local platforms are private sector driven with the main goal of bringing all major stakeholders to support the packhouse operations. These platforms included both public and private stakeholders. Packhouse operators were trained in managing these local platforms to achieve their business objectives. The two groups of packhouse operators were sensitized about the need to have a simple internal monitoring and evaluation system. In the case of the Farmer Model, each member of the cooperative ought to benefit from the business. The leaders were made aware that there is a need to get internal feedback from each member of the cooperative, to identify reasons hindering members from benefiting and finding solutions. In the case of the Trader model, which is a private entrepreneur, the entrepreneur was sensitized to appraise staff and roots' suppliers and possibly have a reward system to motivate them. The trader was encouraged to offer incentives to staff that are performing above average and to farmers that supplies good quality roots suitable for shelf-life extension treatments (and therefore contributing to minimizing the rejects).At the end of each training session, a training evaluation was carried out to get feedback from the trainees on their experiences. The evaluations covered course content, subject matter relevance, and practicability of imparted knowledge and practices.Participants appreciated capacity building in entrepreneurial and business skills that were imparted to them. All the participants strongly agreed that the course content was suitable and relevant to their training needs. The training approach was very practical with participants having hands-on experience on some of the principles introduced to them. The trainees agreed to provide the project implementation team with regular feedback regarding the progress of their enterprises.","tokenCount":"3895"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d495aedfb2546ee54f3a4f3a50cc741a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/06f10f8d-2b79-4c61-af78-8e9e402511d5/retrieve","id":"-1369943695"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"290fd256-d83a-4cdf-a70a-d9d2c657bbf2","pagecount":"156","content":"Cette publication répond aux droits d'auteur de l'Institut International de Recherche sur l'Elevage (ILRI) et suit la licence Creative Commons Paternité -Pas d'utilisation commerciale -Partage des conditions initiales à l'identique 3.0. Pour voir cette licence visiter http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/deed.fr. Sous réserve d'indications spécifiques, vous êtes libres de copier, dupliquer ou reproduire, et distribuer, afficher ou transmettre tout ou partie sans permission, et d'entreprendre ¬traductions, adaptations ou autres travaux dérivés selon les conditions suivantes:à partir de la carte de la végétation naturelle et de l'occupation du sol de Fontès et Guinko (1995). Tiré de Kagoné (2001) Figure 3. Évolution de la quantité de viande produite par le biais des abattages contrôlés Le Burkina Faso est un pays à vocation agricole et pastorale. Sur le plan sociologique, même si au départ l'élevage de petits ruminants n'était pratiqué que par les Peulh, les Bella et les Touaregs, de nos jours de larges pans de la population rurale s'adonnent à cette activité. Il est également pratiqué dans les zones péri-urbaines des grandes villes (Kagoné, 2001).L'objectif principal de cette analyse de situation est d'évaluer, pour le Burkina Faso, les conditions dans les quelles les chaînes de valeur des petits ruminants et plus généralement du bétail opèrent. L'analyse inclut des aspects liés au genre et des recommandations et a pour objectif de servir de socle à la définition des activités de recherche ultérieures de l'ILRI. Cette analyse de situation implique de s'intéresser aux tendances passées, à l'état actuel et aux orientations futures probables.Conformément aux termes de référence, cette étude s'appuie principalement sur une recherche bibliographique. Des entretiens ciblés avec des acteurs impliqués dans la structuration et le fonctionnement des activités de l'élevage au Burkina Faso sont venus étayer les informations issues de la recherche documentaire.Les conditions agro-climatiques influencent la répartition des races au Burkina Faso. Ainsi (Hamidou, 1987;Traoré et coll., 2008;Kaboré et coll., 2011),• Le nord est peuplé par le mouton et la chèvre Peulh. Ce sont des animaux de grand format.• Le sud est peuplé par le mouton et la chèvre Djallonké ainsi que, dans une certaine mesure le mouton et la chèvre Mossi. Ces races sont caractérisées par leur plus petite taille.• Au centre, nous avons le mouton et la chèvre Mossi et dans une certaine mesure les animaux de race Djallonké, et les métis issus de croisement entre animaux de race Peulh, Mossi et Djallonké.Les produits de l'élevage des petits ruminants Une bonne partie de la production de petits ruminants est commercialisée sous forme d'animaux sur pieds sur les marchés nationaux et internationaux.Le principal produit de transformation de la filière des petits ruminants est la viande fraîche qui est issue d'abattages contrôlés et d'abattages non contrôlés (familiaux ou clandestins). Dans une moindre mesure, d'autres produits tels que la viande grillée, les brochettes, les steaks, les rôtis (restaurants) et la viande séchée (kilichi) sont également trouvés sur les marchés. Les produits de charcuterie moderne préparés dans les supermarchés ont une présence très anecdotique dans le paysage des produits carnés du Burkina Faso.Il y a très peu de transformation alimentaire proprement dite au-delà de la viande fraîche issue des abattoirs. Cela résulterait d'une part, de la maîtrise insuffisante des techniques par les professionnels, mais aussi d'autre part, des habitudes culturelles et culinaires locales et du faible pouvoir d'achat des consommateurs (EASYPol, 2007).L'autre produit important est représenté par les peaux brutesqui approvisionnent les unités industrielles, l'artisanat local (traditionnel ou moderne) ou les marchés à l'exportation que sont le Ghana et le Nigeria (EASYPol, 2007).Des produits marginaux sont le lait, le sang et les matières stercoraires les cornes, les déjections du bétail.La plupart des études s'entendent sur le fait que, pour les petits ruminants, ce n'est que le tiers environ de la consommation de viande qui provient des abattages contrôlés (Tableau A1). Les abattages non contrôlés comprennent les abattages clandestins à destination des circuits de commercialisation et les abattages familiaux réalisés sans raisons particulières ou pendant les périodes de fête. Les marchés sont regroupés en quatre catégories. Les marchés de collecte ou de production se situent dans les zones d'élevage et servent de lieux de collecte primaire des animaux. Les marchés de regroupement sont plus proches des zones agricoles ou des embranchements routiers stratégiques. Les marchés de relais ou de transit sont situés généralement dans les zones plus ou moins proches de la frontière et constituant des centres de remise en forme des animaux avant leur acheminement vers les marchés de distribution qui repartissent les flux de bétails en direction de la consommation interne (revente aux bouchers) ou de l'exportation. Les marchés de consommation ou terminaux sont l'aboutissement de la filière. Ils sont localisés à des proximités ou dans les grandes villes ou d'un lieu d'expédition. Toutes catégories confondues, la demande globale de bétails et de viandes s'organise autour de l'offre présente dans vingt-un (21) marchés (MRA, 2012b).La demande en produits des petits ruminants (sur pieds et viande) au Burkina Faso est aussi bien interne qu'externe.Les exportations sont essentiellement sous la forme d'animaux sur pieds et à destination des pays de la sous-région (Côte d'Ivoire, la Ghana, le Togo, le Bénin et le Nigéria), la demande régionale étant en pleine expansion (Traoré, 2012).Les principaux produits de la demande intérieure sont les carcasses de viandes (abattoirs), les viandes traitées (boucheries modernes), les charcuteries (boucheries/charcuteries modernes), grillades et viandes séchées (boucheries/ charcuteries traditionnelles).L'autoconsommation est bien présente et est plus marquée dans l'élevage caprin que dans celui ovin. La tendance est inverse pour l'autoconsommation des ménages des grands centres urbains que sont Ouagadougou et Bobo-Dioulasso.Les 20% des ménages les plus pauvres allouent environ 70% de leurs revenus aux dépenses alimentaires tandis que les 20% des ménages les plus riches y consacrent environ 42% de leurs revenus (ReSAKSS-MSU-Syngenta ,2011).Il existe une forte dispersion régionale de la part du budget consacrée aux viandes et produits laitiers. Pour les ménages ruraux, à près de 16%, cette part est la plus forte pour la région des Cascades, représentant plus de 5 fois la part de dépenses la plus faible qui est celle observée dans la région du centre. Lorsque l'on tient compte de l'ensemble des ménages les Cascades restent en tête représentant près de 3 fois la part de dépense la plus faible qui est observée dans la région du Nord (MRA-PNUD, 2011). La situation de la région des Cascades pourrait s'expliquer par sa position excentrée avec une absence de véritables marchés de production, de regroupement, de consommation ou d'exportation.La courbe de tendance linéaire montre que la part de budget consacrée aux viandes et produits laitiers croît avec le revenu. L'élasticité de la consommation de viande et de lait par rapport aux dépenses totales de consommation des ménages est de 0,76.En milieu rural, l'élevage de petits ruminants aura un rôle prépondérant dans la consommation de viande et de lait.Par ailleurs, les politiques favorisant la possession d'un élevage de petits ruminants se retrouvent de facto à être des politiques dopant la demande en viande et en lait et par deux canaux : l'augmentation des revenus des ménages et l'amélioration de l'accessibilité à la viande (MRA-PNUD, 2011).Principaux scenarii de croissance de la demande L'ensemble des études prospectives du secteur de l'élevage montre qu'il existe un important potentiel de croissance de la demande en produits issus de l'élevage des petits ruminants en raison (i) de la démographie galopante, (ii) de l'urbanisation et de l'amélioration des revenus des burkinabè, (iii) de la sous exploitations des potentialités des ovins et caprins et (iv) d'un meilleur accès aux marchés de la sous-région (MRA, 2007a).Pour le consommateur final burkinabè les acteurs de la filière doivent travailler à améliorer (i) une hygiène déficiente et (ii) l'accessibilité et la disponibilité en produits des petits ruminants (CEFCOD, 2013).Le déficit en termes de normes constitue un des principaux défis des produits des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants à destination des marchés à l'exportation (Traoré, 2012). Il s'agit notamment de la faiblesse des normes sur la viande fraiche ainsi que de l'absence de normes sur le conditionnement et les emballages.Production L'élevage, au Burkina Faso, repose sur trois systèmes fondamentaux : (a) le pastoralisme transhumant, (b) le système agro-pastoral extensif et sédentaire et (c) le système intensif ou semi-intensif d'embouche avec une stabulation permanente ou temporaire de quelques mois MRA, 2007bMRA, et 2007c;;RECOPA, 2009;Traoré, 2012). Le système d'élevage dominant est celui traditionnel (pastoral et agropastoral) qui dépend fortement de l'accès aux ressources naturelles (disponible alimentaire et d'eau) et aux intrants vétérinaires et zootechniques (sous-produits agro industriels, et médicaments vétérinaire).Comme le montre la Figure A1, depuis 1990, la taille du cheptel de petits ruminants est en nette augmentation : en 2012 plus de 12,5 millions de caprins et près de 6,5 millions d'ovins, contre un peu plus 6 millions de caprins et moins de 5 millions d'ovins en 1990 (FAOSTAT). Les objectifs de la production de petits ruminants sont essentiellement de trois sortes : pour la reproduction, la viande pour l'autoconsommation, et le commerce sur pieds. Aussi bien chez les caprins que chez les ovins, l'objectif principal de l'élevage est le commerce d'animaux vivants. Le commerce des animaux sur pied motive à 96% l'élevage d'ovins et à près de 97% celui des caprins.Les performances techniques des filières des petits ruminants sont globalement faibles. La production de viande et celle de lait (chèvres) sont faibles (Tableau A2) et les taux de mortalité sont très élevés notamment au cours de la première année de la vie des petits ovins et caprins : près de 20% (Tableau A3).Tableau A2. Paramètres de production de viande et de lait Au Burkina Faso, les taux de couverture des besoins alimentaires sont très faibles : 3,3% pour l'énergie, 7% pour les lipides et 10% pour les protéines (FAO-BM, 2002;FAO, 2011). Et, d'une manière générale, sur le plan nutritionnel, la contribution de l'élevage à la couverture des besoins de la population reste encore très largement en dessous des normes nutritionnelles internationales.La disponibilité alimentaire en quantité (g/personne/jour) de viandes ovine/caprine est estimée à 9 g/personne/jour, la valeur étant restée constante sur toute la période allant de 2003de à 2011 (FAOSTAT) (FAOSTAT). Par ailleurs, la contribution des petits ruminants au disponible protéique total qui est pourtant faible au Burkina Faso est ainsi allée en décroissant.L'absence d'une amélioration de la contribution des filières des petits ruminants au disponible alimentaire est due à la combinaison de plusieurs facteurs dont la productivité faible des élevages et des politiques et actions insuffisamment ciblées.Les exportations burkinabè de petits ruminants sont essentiellement des animaux vivants et des cuirs et peaux et en direction de la sous-région ouest-africaine (le Bénin, le Togo, la Côte d'Ivoire, le Ghana et le Nigéria).Les exportations de viandes sont anecdotiques avec de fortes irrégularités. La demande extérieure de peaux de caprins s'avère quasiment le double de celle d'ovins, bien que les deux demandes présentent une tendance à la baisse. Les importations des produits susmentionnés sont très faibles (MRA, 2012b).Les exportations restent relativement en-dessous du potentiel naturel exportable en raison (i) du manque d'infrastructures de production et de transport, (ii) de la difficulté à se conformer aux normes et (iii) de la présence d'obstacles techniques (paperasserie administrative) au commerce (Traoré, 2012 ;ITC, 2011).Formellement, il n'existe aucune mention de politique commerciale spécifique au secteur de l'élevage, encore moins aux chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.L'offre de soins et autres services de santé animale est liée à l'organisation vétérinaire au Burkina Faso. Elle se caractérise par la coexistence d'un secteur public dominant qui offre les mêmes prestations qu'un secteur privé. De plus, il n'y a pas de programmes sanitaires spécifiques aux petits ruminants.Le REseau de SURveillanceEPidémiologique des maladies animales (RESUREP) est, comme son nom l'indique, chargé de la surveillance épidémiologique des maladies animales et de la mise en place de mesures de lutte contre elles. La liste des maladies prioritaires des ovins et caprins ne concerne que la peste des petits ruminants (8 foyers en 2011) alors que plusieurs pathologies sont enzootiques au Burkina Faso (68 foyers de pasteurelloses et 1 foyer de variole en 2011). Elles font seulement l'objet d'une surveillance passive, ce qui ne permet pas d'appréhender leur réalité et leur évolution.La libéralisation de la profession vétérinaire a eu pour effet, à la date du 31 décembre 2013, l'ouverture et la mise en service de 34 cliniques vétérinaires ouverts et gérés par les Docteurs vétérinaires et de 49 cabinets de soins vétérinaires ouverts par les paras professionnels vétérinaires (agents techniques d'élevage et techniciens supérieurs d'élevage). Ces établissements offrent des soins vétérinaires et contribuent à la formation et à l'appui-conseil des éleveurs.La distribution géographique des établissements privés est très inégale : une concentration est observée autour des grands centres urbains et des zones à prédominance des trypanosomiases animales (ouest du pays) alors que le nord du pays qui renferme la majorité du cheptel est très peu fourni. Par ailleurs, la prise en charge des petits ruminants est marginale.L'importation et la distribution en gros est assurée par 13 établissements grossistes-répartiteurs de médicaments vétérinaires privés et leurs succursales. La distribution aux éleveurs est intimement liée et suit les prestations vétérinaires : elle est réalisée au sein des cliniques et cabinets de soins vétérinaires (secteur privé) mais aussi par les postes vétérinaires et les ZATE (secteur public). Cette ambivalence élargit l'offre de distribution mais manque de performance car établissant une concurrence malsaine.La médecine vétérinaire traditionnelle est encore très utilisée en milieu rural en raison de l'insuffisance du maillage du réseau de santé animale, de la faiblesse de la distribution des médicaments vétérinaires et de l'absence de programmes spécifiques de santé animale dédiés aux petits ruminants (Kaboré et coll., 2007). L'organisation vétérinaire ne comporte pas de passerelle institutionnelle avec la pharmacopée vétérinaire, de sorte que c'est dans le domaine de la recherche que les études donnent l'état de lieu de la pharmacopée vétérinaire. Des données statistiques officielles ne sont donc pas disponibles, même si dans le processus de relecture de la réglementation du domaine vétérinaire, des dispositions sur la pharmacopée sont ébauchées.Une des principales préoccupations en débat est le problème de la concurrence entre le secteur public et le secteur privé : la privatisation ne s'est pas accompagnée d'un réel désengagement de l'Etat afin de permettre le développement d'un secteur privé dynamique. Les autres questions importantes liées à la prestation vétérinaire sont relatives à la fraude sur le médicament vétérinaire et l'exercice illégal de la profession, à l'insuffisance du maillage du territoire et à la persistance de nombreuses maladies contagieuses.La faible valorisation du matériel génétique animal utilisé contribue au manque de productivité du secteur des petits ruminants (Mbogo, 1974;Boly, 2000;Toukou, 2001).Sur le plan génétique, avec l'augmentation de la demande en produits animaux, plusieurs politiques volontaristes ont été initiées et mises en oeuvre au Burkina Faso, qui privilégient la recherche rapide et immédiate de races à haut potentiel de production. L'introduction de races exotiques sans tenir compte des conditions du milieu d'exploitation constitue une menace de dilution des gènes entraînant une marginalisation et une \"dilution\" des races locales pouvant déboucher sur un risque réel de leur disparition (Innon, 1999 ;Alvarez et coll., 2009 ;Traoré et coll., 2009).Structures du secteur de l'offre en service de génétique animale L'ensemble des réflexions sur la question de la génétique animale a permis au secteur de l'élevage notamment dans son volet « Amélioration génétique » de mettre en place des outils de promotion sur les plans technique, politique et réglementaire ainsi que sur le plan des équipements et des infrastructures.Au niveau du secteur privé, il n'y a pas d'actions coordonnées d'amélioration génétique en ce qui concerne les petits ruminants même si on assiste ces dernières années à des importations de races étrangères principalement du Niger (chèvre rousse de Maradi) et de Belgique (chèvre sanneem) sur pied et sous formes de semences (races alpine) par certains particuliers. Cependant il s'agit de petits effectifs généralement pour les besoins de croisement chez l'éleveur.L'insémination artificielle ne concerne pas encore les petits ruminants. Cependant, dans le cadre de l'exécution du projet BKF5014, sur financement de l'Agence internationale de l'énergie atomique (AIEA), l'équipe du projet a reçu du matériel d'insémination artificielle des petits ruminants et une formation aura lieu en décembre 2014.Des mesures concrètes d'incitation ou de réglementation ne sont pas encore en place pour influencer le choix de la race, l'accès et l'utilisation de l'insémination artificielle. Toutefois, l'exigence d'une autorisation et du contrôle des importations (animaux, semences et embryons) permet de minimiser les risques sanitaires liés à la pratique de l'IA.Les principales préoccupations actuelles en génétique animale au Burkina Faso concernent :• le manque de durabilité dans les actions entreprises ;• la mise en place d'un plan de financement durable ;• le choix de méthodes de systèmes de sélection ;• la faible coordination/maîtrise du système par le service public.• l'insuffisance quantitative et qualitative des ressources humaines qualifiées.L'alimentation des petits ruminants est essentiellement basée sur l'exploitation des pâturages naturels. Des efforts sont entrepris pour mettre en place des systèmes semi intensifs (embouche ovine, fermes d'élevage en stabulation).Ces éleveurs ont recours aux résidus culturaux, et aux sous-produits agro-industriels (SPAI) en saison sèche en raison de la raréfaction du couvert végétal. Les cultures fourragères restent encore très rarement présentes dans la ration, même si elles constituent une voie d'intensification de la production fourragère (Kagoné, 2000(Kagoné, , 2001)).Plusieurs contraintes limitent l'utilisation optimale des ressources fourragères au double plan quantitatif et qualitatif. Il s'agit essentiellement de la lutte pour les espaces agricoles entre agriculteurs et éleveurs ce qui se traduit en conflits, des feux de brousse et de la faible longueur de la période de végétation active des pâturages (environ 6 mois dans l'année).Au Burkina Faso, les résidus culturaux constituent une ressource fourragère importante pour le bétail. La valeur alimentaire des résidus est très inégale et il est nécessaire de se pencher sur leur valorisation étant donné que, du fait de développement de l'agriculture au détriment des pâturages, ceux-ci seront de plus en plus disponibles. De plus, leur valeur alimentaire déjà faible, est détériorée par les mauvaises conditions de conservation (Kagoné, 2000(Kagoné, , 2001;;MRA, 2007a).Elles sont très peu adoptées, les difficultés majeures d'adoption résidant dans des problèmes fonciers, de temps dans le calendrier cultural et de disponibilité des semences.Des marchés permanents ou saisonniers d'aliments fourragers sont présents au niveau des principales villes du Burkina Faso. Les produits vendus sont constitués de fourrages naturels ou de résidus de récolte. Les principales contraintes liées à la commercialisation des fourrages sont, par ordre d'importance, le manque de moyens adéquats de transport, les difficultés de séchage, de conservation/stockage et l'insuffisance de fonds de roulement. Les autres contraintes relevées sont l'indisponibilité´ des fourrages naturels sur les sites en saison sèche, l'éloignement des sites de prélèvement et de production et les feux de brousse (Sanou et coll., 2011).L'évaluation des disponibilités et de l'évolution des sous-produits agroindustriels (SPAI) est délicate à établir car étant tributaires de la dynamique de croissance des filières agroindustrielles et de la concurrence entre les différentes utilisations des sous-produits. Pour ce qui est de l'alimentation, les principaux questionnements se posent en ses termes : défis associés à l'alimentation sont :• Quelles sont les stratégies qui permettent un développement des cultures fourragères étant donné que leur production est marginale ?• Comment favoriser l'accès à l'aliment bétail à un coût raisonnable et chaque fois que le producteur en a besoin?Systèmesde connaissances et recherche et développement L'école de lutte anti tsé-tsé (ELAT) contribue également à la formation professionnelle des agents.Dans le cadre de ses missions, le MRAH organise régulièrement des formations à l'attention des acteurs des différentes filières. Les données montrent une bonne participation des jeunes et des femmes aux activités de formation qui sont données par le MRAH. Nous n'avons cependant pas de données spécifiques pour ce qui a trait aux acteurs des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.Plusieurs projets et ONG interviennent dans la formation des producteurs et ont des activités d'appui-conseil. L'information n'est cependant pas colligée à une source unique. Aussi, comme déjà souligné, les formations offertes ne sont pas toujours en adéquation avec les besoins des éleveurs.Le secteur privé joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans le renforcement des capacités des producteurs. Ainsi, pour les questions sanitaires, les vétérinaires privés joueront un rôle important. L'appui-conseil réalisé dans ce cadre passera principalement par deux canaux : (i) les vétérinaires profiteront de consultation et de traitement pour conseiller les producteurs ou (ii) les vétérinaires auront des contrats spécifiques avec des ONG et/ou des projets pour la réalisation de formations. L'information spécifique sur les formations n'étant pas colligée, il est cependant difficile d'avoir une idée des opérations réalisées en direction des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.Les laboratoires de recherche rattachés à l'Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso, l'Institut de l'Environnement et de la Recherche Agricole au Burkina Faso (INERA) et des organismes internationaux de recherche (Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD)) sont les principaux acteurs de la recherche sur les filières bétail-viandes au Burkina Faso.Selon les documents consultés, il n'existe pas de soutien public spécifique à la chaine de valeur des petits ruminants. Par contre, lorsque l'analyse porte sur l'ensemble de la filière bétail, le soutien public spécifique agricole est de 24 pour cent sur la période allant de 2006 à 2010. De manière globale, dans le secteur agricole, « l'amélioration des connaissances » représente autour de 20 pour cent des dépenses publiques spécifiques à l'agriculture dont une grosse part (près de 15 pour cent) est affectée à la formation. Par contre une part très faible des dépenses publiques spécifiques à l'agriculture est affectée à la vulgarisation (autour de 2 pour cent), à l'assistance technique (1 pour cent) et à la recherche agricole (5 pour cent). A long terme, la faible part des dépenses spécifiques à l'agriculture dans le domaine de l'inspection, de la vulgarisation, de l'assistance technique et de la recherche agricole constitue un motif d'inquiétudes (MRA, 2012b ;MAFAP, 2013).Le genre dans les effectifs du personnel du ministère en charge des ressources animales Dans le cas de crédit octroyé directement par les institutions bancaires ou de micro-finance, tous les acteurs s'accordent pour dire que le crédit est inadapté : taux d'intérêt trop élevé, délai de remboursement ne correspondant pas à la vente des animaux, montant des crédits trop bas, etc. (MRA, 2007a ;MRA, 2007b;FIDA, 2012 ;MAFAP, 2013 ;SP/CPSA, 2013 ;MASA, 2014). Ainsi, la quasi-totalité des documents de politique estiment que l'amélioration de l'accès au crédit constitue une des conditions au développement des activités d'élevage dont celles des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants. Cette amélioration se décline en :• Amélioration de la capacité des acteurs en formulation de projets bancables;• Zones géographiques couvertes;• Développement de produits diversifiés et adaptés;• Harmonisation en matière de fonds locaux d'investissement.Valeur ajoutée, commercialisation, gouvernance des chaines de valeurLa « filière directe » représente environ un tiers des effectifs de petits ruminants déstockés : l'autoconsommation et la vente directe représentent donc un part importante de l'utilisation des produits des filières des petits ruminants. Par ailleurs, pour ce qui est de la production passant par les collecteurs et les commerçants, plus de la moitié va par la suite à des particuliers.• La collecte : 71% de ovins déstockés et 70% des caprins déstockés passent par les collecteurs.• Le convoyage : deux modes de convoyages vont cohabiter à savoir le convoyage à pieds et le convoyage en camion.• Commerçants et exportateurs : ils négocient et achètent les animaux auprès des collecteurs.• Transformation -Abattages : le Burkina Faso dispose de cinq ( 5) abattoirs frigorifiques dont un (1) privé. Les structures d'abattage dans les petits centres urbains sont de deux types : des aires d'abattages couvertes et datant souvent de l'époque coloniale et des abattoirs séchoirs construits plus récemment. La quasi-totalité de ces abattoirs ne sont pas conformes aux normes internationales.La « filière directe » représente environ un tiers des effectifs de petits ruminants déstockés : l'autoconsommation et la vente directe représentent donc un part importante de l'utilisation des produits des filières des petits ruminants. Par ailleurs, pour ce qui est de la production passant par les collecteurs et les commerçants, plus de la moitié va par la suite à des particuliers (Figures A2 et A3).     Structure du secteur de la santé publique relative à la viande et à ses produits dérivés Le secteur public élabore et met en oeuvre les politiques en matière de santé publique vétérinaire et appuie les autres acteurs dans la commercialisation de la viande de petits ruminants. Le secteur privé est le principal acteur dans la production et la commercialisation de la viande des petits ruminants.Principaux problèmes de santé publique liés à la qualité de la viandeLes saisies les plus fréquentes sont celles des viscères. Les saisies de carcasses entières comme d'organes ont été en croissance à partir de l'année 2008 avant de se stabiliser. Pour les ovins comme pour les caprins, les principaux motifs de saisies sont dans l'ordre : la congestion, la présence d'abcès, la présence de nodules parasitaires, la putréfaction (MRA, 2012c ;MRAH, 2014a).Les principales contraintes liées à la viande de petits ruminants sont liés à :• la prédominance des abattages clandestins dans les grandes villes (surtout Ouagadougou) et la circulation sans règle ni contrôle des viandes foraines;• la vétusté des infrastructures d'abattage et de commercialisation et l'inadaptation des moyens de transport;• la méconnaissance des règles et normes d'hygiène par les acteurs;• la faiblesse des organismes officiels de contrôle qui n'arrivent pas à imposer le respect de la législation en matière de santé publique vétérinaire…Pour accorder aux produits animaux des avantages comparatifs et compétitifs, le Gouvernement du Burkina Faso, à travers son Ministère des ressources animales, table sur : (1) le développement des infrastructures de mise en marché : par exemple, la recherche de financements pour la construction d'un abattoir répondant aux normes internationales à Bobo-Dioulasso ainsi que d'un marché à bétail; la construction supplémentaire de boucheries, d'aires d'abattage.(2) l'amélioration de la qualité des produits animaux : par exemple, de lutter contre l'abattage clandestin; promouvoir les foires ou journées promotionnelles des produits carnés et/ou des cuirs et peaux (MRA, 2007a ;MRA, 2007b).Pour la sous-filière ovine, le coefficient nominal de protection est 0,98 ce qui implique que les agents de la sous-filière ne profitent pas d'une subvention indirecte due à l'intervention de l'état et/ou de ses partenaires. La situation est quasiment identique dans la production caprine avec un CNP de 0,99. Le Coefficient nominal de protection effective (CNPE) intègre les possibles distorsions associées au marché des intrants. Il est de 0,99 pour la sous-filière ovine et de 0,98 pour la sous-filière caprine. Le CNPE < 1 confirme que la filière ne bénéficient pas d'une subvention implicite sur les intrants et/ou d'une protection du prix des animaux et produits animaux (EASYPol, 2007 ;FAO-BM, 2012).Globalement la filière ovine est compétitive avec un CRD de 0,84. Cependant, lorsque l'analyse de fait au niveau des différents segments, le CRD des producteurs traditionnels est de 1,02. Pour tous les autres acteurs le CRD est inférieur à 1. Les gains à faire se situent donc au niveau des producteurs en élevage traditionnel (Figure A5). La Figure A6 montre que la filière caprine a un CRD de 0,54 ce qui lui confère un important avantage comparatif (EASYPol, 2007;FAO-BM, 2012).  La superficie des terres agricoles occupe environ 40% territoire national. Les superficies exploitées augmentent en moyenne de 2,8 pour cent par an et si cette tendance se poursuit, l'agriculture burkinabè épuisera ses terres cultivables à l'horizon 2030. En 2011, la part des superficies agricoles occupée par des prairies et pâturages représentait 51% des terres agricoles soit environ 22% du territoire national (MAFAP, 2013).Le Burkina Faso est très exposé aux impacts négatifs des changements climatiques. Dans le domaine de l'élevage, l'impact de l'augmentation de la température et de la diminution de la pluviosité prévues va se traduire surtout par (i) une réduction drastique et la dégradation des pâturages, (ii) un déficit du bilan pastoral et alimentaire (iii) et une aggravation des conditions d'abreuvement du bétail. Les ressources fourragères de la zone sahélienne ont connu un grave surpâturage durant les années 80 entraînant un déplacement des troupeaux vers le Sud (CONEDD, 2006). Par ailleurs, la loi relative au pastoralisme garanti un accès libre aux ressources pastorales et en eaux et cela sous la responsabilité de l'État et des collectivités territoriales. Cependant, les inter-actions entre élevage en général et environnement sont mal maitrisées (MRA, 2007a).En milieu urbain et périurbain, la progression des systèmes d'embouche ovine familiale et commerciale qui sont très demandeurs en fourrages stimulent le développement incontrôlé des pratiques de fauche et de conservation des fourrages naturels avec des impacts environnementaux qui n'ont cependant jamais été évalués.Les niveaux d'émission de matières polluantes (CO2, CH4,…) par les élevages sont faibles(FAOSTAT). Cependant, le sang et les matières stercoraires ne sont pas valorisés dans les abattoirs. Ils constituent ainsi des déchets. La croissance continue des abattages pourrait faire en sorte que la question de la gestion de ces matières soit posée avec plus d'acuité. Il en est de même pour l'eau utilisée pour nettoyer les salles d'abattage et les instruments et qui est rejetée dans le système d'égout de l'ONEA (Office National de l'Eau et de l'Assainissement) après un traitement préliminaire ne répondant cependant pas toujours aux normes édictées.Contribution du sous-secteur de l'élevage aux stratégies nationales de développement économique et de réduction de la pauvreté Pour faire jouer au sous-secteur de l'élevage le rôle stratégique qui devrait être le sien, le Gouvernement du Burkina Faso a élaboré, en novembre 2009, un document de Politique Nationale de Développement Durable de l'Élevage (PNDEL) à l'horizon 2025, qui donne les grandes orientations de la politique de l'élevage du pays et qui sert de cadre de référence et d'actions à moyen et long termes.L'objectif global de la PNDEL est de renforcer la contribution de l'élevage à la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle, à la croissance de l'économie nationale et à l'amélioration des conditions de vie de la population. Dans cette perspective, des plans d'actions pour le développement des filières: aviculture traditionnelle, bétail-viande, petits ruminants, lait, porcine, cuirs et peaux, ont été élaborés et attendent d'être mis en oeuvre.Trois axes stratégiques majeurs sont définis (MRA, 2007a ;MRAH, 2014a):• L'organisation des acteurs au sein de la filière et le renforcement des services qui leur sont offerts.• L'amélioration et de sécurisation de l'offre nationale durable en produits d'élevage de qualité.• Une meilleure valorisation des animaux et des produits de l'élevage.Le volet Productions animales du Plan stratégique de la recherche agricole est bâti autour de 4 programmes scientifiques, à savoir : i) le programme bovin, ii) le programme petits ruminants, iii) le programme monogastriques, iv) et le programme élevage-environnement. Spécifiquement aux filières bétail/viande et petits ruminants, les contraintes identifiées par le Plan sont les suivantes (MRA, 2007a):• la difficulté d'alimentation en saison sèche (quantité et qualité),• la précarité de la santé animale,• la faible connaissance du potentiel génétique des races locales,• la faible maîtrise des paramètres zootechniques,• l'inadéquation de l'alimentation des bovins/ovins d'embouche,• la faible maîtrise des inter-actions élevage-environnement,• la faible disponibilité fourragère,• et la faible maîtrise de la contribution de l'élevage à l'économie nationale.Ces différents éléments devraient être au coeur des projets de recherche à mettre en oeuvre. Nous constatons cependant que les aspects liés à la transformation, la commercialisation et la consommation sont absents des contraintes identifiées comme étant importantes. Par ailleurs les dimensions plus sociales et/ou associées au comportement des producteurs sont absentes de ce plan (FAO-BM, 2012 ;Fall, 2013).Perspective actuelle sur les possibilités de développement pro-pauvres de la chaîne de valeur des petits ruminants En 2009, l'incidence de la pauvreté au Burkina Faso était 46,7% 2 et, en 2013, avec un indice du développement humain (IDH) de 0,388, il occupait le 181 ème rang sur 186 pays. 3   Les effets des changements climatiques rendent de plus en plus vulnérables les familles paysannes les plus pauvres. Le petit élevage en général, et plus spécifiquement celui des petits ruminants, va constituer une forme d'épargne pour les populations rurales et est parfaitement intégré aux activités agricoles. Et, les femmes sont impliquées dans l'embouche ovine commerciale ou familiale ce qui constitue une source de revenu au bénéfice de leurs enfants. Le petit élevage joue à la fois le rôle d'épargne et de capital (CSAO-OCDE, 2013;Fall, 2013).Tous ces éléments font que le développement des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants sera important dans les politiques pro-pauvres et pro-genre. Cela est d'autant plus le cas que les modes d'élevage pratiqués par les ménages les plus vulnérables, démontrent un réel potentiel en termes de gains de productivité.Notons cependant que, comme le souligne FAO-BM (2012), une amélioration des performances de l'élevage ne peut, à elle seule, prétendre amener le revenu agricole des ménages vulnérables au niveau du seuil de pauvreté. De plus, comme constaté lors de la réalisation de cette étude, même si la plupart des documents de politique reconnaissance la place centrale du petit élevage dans les stratégies pro-pauvres, celui-ci est rarement spécifiquement traité. Il est donc important, pour définir des indicateurs permettant de cibler les pauvres parmi les acteurs du sous-secteur élevage il faudrait impérativement tenir compte des spécificités des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants et rôle de chacun des acteurs. Les contraintes principales sur lesquelles il faut travailler devront également être spécifiquement rattachées aux filières d'intérêt (peaux, viande, lait, animaux sur pieds). Cela est d'autant plus important que les ménages avec quelques têtes d'animaux seront encore présents pour plusieurs décennies dans le portrait des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.Introduction : Contexte general, objectifs et approche methodologique de l'etudecontexte generalLe Burkina Faso est un pays sahélo-soudanien couvrant une superficie de 274 000 km2 avec une population estimée à 17,322 millions d'habitants 4 dont près de 72% vivent en zones rurales 5 . Il est subdivisé en 13 régions représentées à la Figure 1. L'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI) 6 travaille à renforcer la participation de l'élevage aux stratégies et moyens de lutte contre la pauvreté dans les pays en développement. ILRI est membre du Consortium du GCRAI, un partenariat de recherche mondial de 15 centres de recherche et de nombreux partenaires pour un avenir de sécurité alimentaire. 7 Dans cadre du lancement de ses activités au Burkina Faso, l'ILRI a décidé de réaliser une analyse de situation sur les chaines de valeur des petits ruminants au Burkina Faso, le deuxième sous-secteur économique de l'élevage après celui des bovins.L'activité d'élevage occupe une place économique majeure et est pratiquée par plus de 80 % des ménages qui en tirent tout ou partie de leurs revenus (MRAH, 2014b : 1). Le secteur de l'élevage a toujours constitué un pilier de l'économie nationale à côté de l'agriculture. Il contribue pour plus de 18 % (12 % pour les animaux et 6 % pour les cuirs et peaux) à la formation de la valeur ajoutée nationale, à la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle de la population et occupe le second rang en termes de valeurs des exportations après le coton dans le secteur primaire (MRAH, 2014b : 1). L'élevage burkinabè recèle d'énormes potentialités au regard de l'importance et de la diversité du cheptel. Selon les estimations du Ministère des Ressources Animales et Halieutiques (MRAH) 8 , en 2013, le Burkina Faso comptait un cheptel riche de près de 9 millions de bovins (soit 8 912 532), de 22,5 millions de petits ruminants (soit 22 494 494), de 41 millions de volailles (soit 41 008 503), en plus de 2 345 188 de porcins, de 1 114 628 d'asins et de 38 897 d'équins (MRAH, 2014b : 1). Il se caractérise aussi par un système d'exploitation à dominante extensive mais bien adapté à la variabilité saisonnière et interannuelle des ressources pastorales (Traoré, 2012 : 10).Objectifs et approche methodologique de l'etude L'objectif principal de l'analyse de la situation est d'évaluer, pour le Burkina Faso, les conditions dans lesquelles les chaînes de valeur des petits ruminants et plus généralement du bétail opèrent. L'analyse inclut des aspects liés au genre et des recommandations et a pour objectif de servir de socle à l'élaboration des activités de recherche ultérieures de l'ILRI. Cette «analyse de situation» implique de s'intéresser aux tendances passées, à l'état actuel et aux orientations futures probables.Conformément aux TDR, cette étude s'appuie principalement sur une recherche bibliographique et une analyse des rapports produits des directions et des structures techniques intervenant dans les filières concernées (les ovins et les caprins). Il a été également conduit des entretiens ciblés avec des acteurs impliqués dans la structuration et le fonctionnement des activités de l'élevage (en particulier les petits ruminants) au Burkina Faso. Ces entretiens avec les partenaires ministériels, les opérateurs privés, etc., pour complément de données secondaires, ont pour but de préciser et approfondir l'analyse documentaire, afin de mieux connaître leurs capacités, échanger sur leurs contraintes et identifier leurs besoins d'appui.En somme, notre démarche méthodologique se base sur la recherche de données secondaires et des entretiens ciblés. Ce faisant, l'annexe 1 du rapport présente les principales sources de données physiques et électroniques disponibles tandis que l'annexe 2 dresse la liste des personnes rencontrées durant la présente étude.La suite du présent rapport traite des éléments suivants :• L'élevage des petits ruminants au Burkina Faso • La demande : consommation et dépenses  (Kagoné, 2001).L'élevage de petits ruminants est en définitif praticable presque partout sur l'ensemble du territoire burkinabè (voir la section suivante).Au Burkina Faso,« il n'a pas encore été établi un zonage agro-écologique au sens strict du terme.Ce sont les secteurs phytogéographiques, reconnus et définis par Monod (1957) et Guinko (1984) d'après des critères climatiques et floristiques, qui tiennent lieu de zones agro-écologiques » (Kagoné, 2001). La Figue 2 présente les quatre zones agro-écologiques.Figure 2.Carte des zones agroécologiques du Burkina Faso, élaborée par Dembélé O. à partir de la carte de la végétation naturelle et de l'occupation du sol de Fontès et Guinko (1995). Tiré de Kagoné (2001).Les principales caractéristiques des quatre zones agro-écologiques sont synthétisées au tableau 1. Ces caractéristiques détermineront au moins en partie les espèces exploitées et les systèmes de production rencontrés (Voir la section 4). Les conditions climatiques influencent la répartition des races exploitées par les éleveurs burkinabè. Ainsi, suivant les quatre zones décrites plus haut les ovins et caprins se répartissent de la façon suivante (Hamidou, 1987;Traoré et coll., 2008;Kaboré et coll., 2011):• au nord, le mouton et la chèvre Peulh encore appelé mouton et chèvre du Sahel. Ce sont des animaux de grand format dont le poids varie entre 35 et 50 kg pour le mâle et entre 30 et 40 kg pour la femelle pour les ovins tandis que pour la chèvre Peulh, les poids s'échelonnent de 23 à 27 kg pour les animaux mâles et femelles.• au sud, le mouton et la chèvre Djallonké ainsi que, dans une certaine mesure le mouton et la chèvre Mossi. 9 Ces animaux sont caractérisés par leur petite taille. Le mâle des ovins pèse de 25 à 35 kg et la femelle de 23 à 25 kg. Chez les caprins, la femelle pèse de 18 à 22 kg et le mâle de 20 à 25 kg.• au centre, nous avons les Mossis, dans une certaine mesure les Djallonké, et les métis issus de croisement entre mouton Peulh, Mossi et Djallonké.Le phénomène climatique influence beaucoup cette répartition. Dans la partie sud du pays, plus humide et infestée de tsé-tsé, se trouve le Djallonké, et plus au nord, la région sahélienne constitue le berceau du mouton et de la chèvre Peulh qui sont les plus adaptés au climat sec et à la rareté des ressources.Certaines autres races plus marginales sont également exploitées au Burkina Faso. Ainsi, pour les caprins, on retrouve la chèvre rousse de Maradi qui possède un potentiel de production laitière et de viande relativement important (Kaboré et coll., 2012).Produits de l'elevage des petits ruminants Par ailleurs, la figure 4 montre que la part relative des petits ruminants dans la quantité totale de viande produite par le biais des abattages contrôlés est stable se situant un peu en dessous de 30%.    Les abattages non contrôlés comprennent:• les abattages non contrôlés par les services de l'élevage et qui rentrent dans le circuit de la commercialisation (abattages clandestins);• les abattages familiaux non contrôlés par les services de l'élevage et qui sont réalisés sans raison particulière ou dans le cadre de fêtes ordinaires (fêtes de fin d'années), de fêtes coutumières (funérailles, intronisation etc.), de fêtes religieuses (Tabaski, ramadan, Pâques, Noël etc.) et des manifestations diverses (baptêmes, les mariages, etc).Comme nous le verrons dans la section 11, une part relativement importante des animaux issus des élevages ovins et caprins sont vendus à des particuliers. Ces ventes approvisionnent le circuit des abattages non contrôlés de type familial. Des données précises sur les abattages clandestins ne sont pas disponibles.La collecte des peaux brutes s'effectue à travers un réseau dense de petits collecteurs et qui se déplacent jusque dans les plus petits villages. Ces collecteurs approvisionnent les unités industrielles -dont la principale est située à Ouagadougou -en vue des transformations successives jusqu'à la semi finition et la finition.Cependant une part substantielle des peaux est directement transformée en produits d'artisanat traditionnel ou moderne local ou est exportée vers le Ghana et le Nigeria pour la consommation humaine (EASYPol, 2007). La figure 7 présente l'évolution de la production de peaux au Burkina Faso entre 2003 et 2012. Les données collectées ne portent que sur les peaux issues des abattages contrôlés. En moyenne, sur les 10 dernières années, les statistiques du MRAH indiquent que le nombre de peaux produites est égal à environ 90 % du nombre de petits ruminants abattus en abattages contrôlés. Nous pouvons penser que le chiffre de la production de peaux est largement sous-évalué, une partie des peaux produites en abattages non contrôlés réintégrant certainement le marché des peaux.    lait Le lait représente un des produits des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants. Cependant, il ne fait pas véritablement partie des objectifs de production des élevages de petits ruminants au Burkina Faso. Comme nous le verrons aux sections 4 et 7, les faibles potentialités laitières des petits ruminants expliquent sans doute, au moins en partie, cet état de fait. La production de lait de chèvre ou de brebis n'est donc pas documentée. Cependant, autour des grands centres urbains et Ouagadougou notamment, il existe quelques unités de fabrication du fromage de chèvre. C'est le cas par exemple à Loumbila.Autres produits secondairesLe sang et les matières stercoraires constituent de très importants sous-produits des abattoirs, disponibles quotidiennement en grandes quantités. Ils peuvent être entièrement valorisés respectivement dans l'alimentation des volailles ou dans la fertilisation des sols agricoles.Lors des abattages familiaux, le sang et les viscères sont récupérés et entrent dans la préparation de plats spécifiques (boudins, « soupe de boyaux »). Ces plats se retrouvent également dans la majorité des petits restaurants des villes comme des villages.La production annuelle de cornes, incluant celles des bovins, est estimée à près de 400 tonnes. Cependant, même si nous ne disposons pas de données spécifiques sur la question nous pouvons affirmer qu'il s'agit essentiellement de cornes de bovins. Ce produit est essentiellement utilisé pour l'artisanat d'objets utilitaires (chausse-pieds, tables, cuillères, fourchettes, peignes, porte bougies, accoudoirs de fauteuils), d'objets de décoration (tableaux, boutons d'habits) et de bijoux (attrape cheveux, pique cheveux, bagues, bracelets, boucle d'oreilles).La valorisation des déjections du bétail dépend des systèmes d'élevage. Ainsi, dans les systèmes transhumants, seule une partie des déjections animales produites profite à l'exploitation du propriétaire du cheptel. Ce n'est pas le cas lorsque les déjections sont laissées sur les champs en jachère. Ainsi, la proportion des déjections animales qui sont valorisées dépend du système d'élevage et de la saison.  Les marchés de regroupement sont plus proches de zones agricoles ou se trouvent à des embranchements routiers stratégiques. Ils regroupent des animaux venant de plusieurs marchés de collecte. Les animaux regroupés sont destinés à être convoyés vers les marchés frontaliers ou terminaux de consommation intérieurs.Les marchés de relais ou de transit sont des centres situés généralement dans les zones plus ou moins proches de la frontière. Ils constituent des centres de remise en forme des animaux avant leur acheminement vers les marchés Les principaux produits de la demande intérieure sont les carcasses de viandes (abattoirs), les viandes traitées (boucheries modernes), les charcuteries (boucheries/charcuteries modernes), grillades et viandes séchées (boucheries/ charcuteries traditionnelles). L'autoconsommation qui est présente est plus marquée dans l'élevage caprin que dans celui ovin. La tendance est inverse pour l'autoconsommation des ménages des grands centres urbains que sont Ouagadougou et Bobo-Dioulasso. Traoré (2012 : 19) note une pleine croissance du secteur de la charcuterie, avec l'implantation et le développement d'unités semi-industrielles dans les grandes villes burkinabè : une dizaine d'unités semi-industrielles (Petites et moyennes entreprises -PME) se dénombre à Ouagadougou, en plus de quelques charcuteries de petites tailles. Selon Traoré (2012), la filière de la transformation compte des milliers de grilleurs et de restaurants professionnels à travers tout le Burkina Faso. Des PME de transformation, comme la Générale des Viandes, SACS, CPBK, se distinguent déjà dans la capitale burkinabè. Cependant, fondamentalement, la transformation est artisanale et semi-industrielle (bouchers, rôtisseurs/grilleurs et charcutiers). Il n'y existe pas encore de transformation industrielle de viande : la mise en conserves de produits de viande préparée ou autres produits dérivés.Au meilleur de notre connaissance, il n'existe pas de données secondaires sur l'étude des déterminants de la demande spécifique en viande de petits ruminants au Burkina Faso. Par conséquent, dans les sections qui suivent, nous traitons du cas plus général de la demande en viandes. Notons que selon les données de la FAO, au Burkina Faso, les ménages pauvres allouent environ 60% de leurs revenus aux dépenses alimentaires. Selon ReSAKSS-MSU-Syngenta ( 2011  Figure10a. Part des viandes dans la dépense en alimentation des ménages ruraux pour différentes régions du Burkina Faso.3 Deux implications directes et complémentaires découlent de cette étude sur la demande de viande et de lait.Deux implications directes et complémentaires découlent de cette étude sur la demande de viande et de lait.• En milieu rural, l'élevage de petits ruminants aura un rôle prépondérant dans la consommation de viande et de lait.En effet, parmi les ménages ruraux disposant d'animaux, les propriétaires de petits ruminants sont ceux qui sont les plus nombreux.• Les politiques favorisant la possession d'un élevage de petits ruminants se retrouvent de facto à doper la demande en viande et en lait et par deux canaux : l'augmentation des revenus des ménages et l'amélioration de l'accessibilité à la viande.L'encadré 1 présente les principales implications pour les filières des viandes de la faiblesse des revenus des consommateurs.Encadré 1. Principales implications de la faiblesse des revenus des consommateurs La formation des prix sur les marchés de consommation est très fortement encadrée par une limite supérieure donnée par le pouvoir d'achat de la population et donc par les revenus. Ainsi, une hausse de prix se traduit par un espacement voire un arrêt des repas carnés.Cette limitation des prix sur les marchés terminaux … impose aux opérateurs des filières des marges extrêmement faibles (souvent inférieures à 10%) qui conduisent parfois certains de ces acteurs à la limite de la survie… Elle a également pour conséquences majeures:• une fragilité des acteurs des filières face aux [risques] commerciaux;• une grande prudence, voire une résistance, des opérateurs privés face aux changements et, surtout face à l'investissement et à toute concurrence;• une qualité sanitaire peu satisfaisante des produits (les faibles marges ne permettant en effet pas d'investir dans la qualité);• une sensibilité des marchés de produits animaux face à la conjoncture économique générale et aux facteurs externes.Tiré et adapté de MRA (2007a : 72-73).Principaux scenarii de croissance de la demande L'ensemble des études prospectives du secteur de l'élevage montre qu'il existe un important potentiel de croissance de la demande en produits issus de l'élevage des petits ruminants du fait principalement de 4 effets combinés :• La démographie galopante ;• L'urbanisation et l'amélioration des revenus des burkinabè ;• La sous exploitations des potentialités des ovins et caprins qui fait qu'il existe d'énormes gains de productivité à aller chercher ;• Un meilleur accès aux marchés de la sous-région grâce à la formulation et à la mise en oeuvre de politiques à l'échelle de l'UEMOA 13 et de la CEDEAO. 14   Les paragraphes qui suivent reprennent in extenso les éléments qui sont présents dans plusieurs des études sur la demande.Au niveau national, l'urbanisation croissante et la modification des habitudes alimentaires vers davantage de produits animaux qu'elle induit, constituent des facteurs importants de croissance de la demande de ces produits. Même si la consommation par personne restait au niveau actuel, très nettement insuffisant par rapport aux besoins alimentaires théoriques, la demande globale à l'horizon 2016 serait fortement augmentée, entraînant un déficit important en viande ovine (-40.000 tonnes) et caprine (-33.000 tonnes), dans les conditions actuelles de production et d'exploitation des cheptels. » Defis auxquels la filiere fait face du point de vue de la demandePour le consommateur final burkinabè, les défis sont principalement au nombre de trois (CEFCOD, 2013) :Pour le consommateur final burkinabè, les défis sont principalement au nombre de trois (CEFCOD, 2013) :• L'hygiène déficiente sur les lieux d'abattage, de transformation et de consommation;• L'accessibilité en termes de coût : cette situation a tendance à s'aggraver (i) ces dernières années avec l'inflation des prix des produits agricoles et (ii) pendant les périodes de fêtes ou l'on assiste à une plus forte demande 15 ;• La disponibilité de la viande de petits ruminants en général, le phénomène étant accentué pendant les périodes de fête.Le déficit en termes de normes constitue un des principaux défis des filières de production de la viande en provenance d'élevage de petits ruminants. Il s'agit notamment de la faiblesse des normes sur la viande fraiche ainsi que de l'absence de normes sur le conditionnement et les emballages (Traoré, 2012). Par ailleurs lorsque des normes de production et/ ou de transport existent, elles sont méconnues par les acteurs de la filière et/ou le suivi-contrôle est déficient.Plusieurs normes et labels de qualité sont en train d'être élaborés dans le secteur des viandes au Burkina Faso 16 sous la charge de l'Agence de Promotion des Exportations (APEX). Traoré (2012) indique que « Pour la réalisation de sa mission, l'APEX s'appuie sur la Stratégie Nationale d'Exportation (SNE) nouvellement élaboré pour aider à apporter des solutions au maillon commercialisation à travers la recherche de marché et le respect des normes de qualité.» Il n'existerait cependant pas de normes spécifiques pour les viandes fraîche et séchée qui sont pourtant les principaux produits issus de la transformation au Burkina Faso et qui pourraient contribuer à créer de la valeur ajoutée au sein des filières. La question de l'élaboration de normes pour le conditionnement et l'emballage des produits est également posée.Il n'y a pas vraiment de normes qualité identiques du point de vu des pays membres de l'UEMOA, ces pays constituant pourtant les principaux marchés à l'exportation des animaux produits au Burkina Faso. Selon CEFCOD ( 2013  (MRA, 2007b(MRA, et 2007c;;RECOPA, 2009;Traoré, 2012):• une progression des fronts agricoles et urbains ce qui• réduit progressivement l'accès aux terres de parcours, aux pâturages et aux points d'eau;• entraîne des conflits récurrents entre éleveurs et agriculteurs, du fait de l'insécurité foncière et de la difficulté de gestion des parcours;• l'inégale répartition des points d'eau dans l'espace, qui ne permet pas une valorisation optimale de la ressource en pâturage;• des difficultés quant à l'accès et à l'utilisation des ressources partagées pour la transhumance transfrontalière;• Un encouragement à l'intensification de la production afin de tirer le meilleur des potentialités zootechniques des animaux exploités.Les troupeaux sont de plus petite taille et bénéficient très souvent d'une alimentation complémentaire.Pendant la saison des pluies, les animaux sont nourris à base d'herbes (graminées, légumineuses) et de sous-produits artisanaux (son) tandis que pendant la saison sèche l'alimentation est composée de pailles, de résidus de cultures (fanes de niébé, d'arachide et de dolique) et de suppléments issus de sous-produits (son de mil, de maïs et de sorgho, tourteaux et parfois concentrés pour les ovins notamment). Offre de petits ruminantsLe secteur des petits ruminants est important pour l'économie agricole du Burkina Faso, et sa production est constamment en progression (voir la figure 12).Figure 12. Évolution de la production de petits ruminants.   Aussi bien chez les caprins que chez les ovins, l'objectif principal de l'élevage est le commerce d'animaux vivants. Le commerce des animaux sur pieds motive à 96,42% l'élevage d'ovins et à près de 97% celui des caprins. Viennent ensuite l'objectif de reproduction (3% chez les caprins et un peu plus de 3,5% chez les ovins), et plus loin celui de l'abattage pour la viande (0,04% et 0,06% respectivement chez caprins et chez les ovins).Le mode de production pastoral et les lacunes du segment de la transformation pourraient expliquer cet état de fait. La Figure 15 présente la répartition géographique des effectifs de petits ruminants au Burkina Faso. Elle montre une prédominance de du nord et de l'est du Burkina.Figure 15. Répartition des effectifs de petits ruminants.Comme le montrent les tableaux 3 et 4, les performances techniques des filières des petits ruminants sont globalement faibles. La production de viande et de lait (chèvres) sont faibles (Tableau 4) et les taux de mortalité sont très élevés notamment au cours de la première année de la vie des petits ovins et caprins : près de 20% (Tableau 3). La réduction du taux de mortalité dans les premières années de la vie des animaux mais également des autres groupes d'âge est un défi majeur pour les chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.Source : MRA, 2011, Statistiques de l'élevage. limitants: i) la réduction sévère de l'espace et des ressources pastorales à cause principalement de la progression du front agricole, ii) le déficit de capacités de négociation des éleveurs dans un contexte de compétition croissante pour l'utilisation des ressources et de concentration des décisions en matière de gestion des ressources au niveau des collectivités territoriales, iii) les déficits d'investissement en matière de protection, d'aménagement et de réhabilitation des parcours; iv) le ralentissement des programmes d'hydraulique pastorale, et v) la faiblesse des dispositifs de prévention et de gestion des effets néfastes des sécheresses.• l'organisation de la filière avec comme principaux facteurs limitants: i) l'insuffisance d'organisation et ii) le manque de professionnalisme des acteurs. Les organisations et associations professionnelles sont généralement peu efficaces en termes d'apport de services aux membres et présentent souvent un déficit de représentativité. Cette absence de structuration solide et de représentativité forte est particulièrement préjudiciable aux producteurs (éleveurs et agropasteurs) qui ne peuvent ainsi garantir leur représentativité au sein des instances locales de gestion foncière.• la sécurisation des marchés et la valorisation des produits avec comme principaux facteurs limitants: i) la faiblesse des investissements publics et privés de modernisation des infrastructures de commercialisation et de transformation, ii) les difficultés du maintien et du suivi sanitaire et épidémiologique du cheptel, iii) les déficits de formation et de sensibilisation des producteurs, transformateurs et commerçants en matière de sécurité et d'hygiène alimentaires et iv) les difficultés des services publics à assurer les contrôles des produits et denrées d'origine animale.• l'intensification et l'optimisation économique des activités de production et de traitement des produits de l'élevage pour une amélioration de la compétitivité avec comme principaux facteurs limitants: i) l'inégalité et les difficultés d'accès aux intrants alimentaires en raison de déficit dans les disponibilités et de faibles capacités financières, ii) les déficits d'accès aux services d'appui conseil et, par conséquent, de formation en matière de gestion technico-financière des opérations de production et de traitement des produits, iii) la faiblesse des capacités d'investissement des producteurs et des transformateurs, iv) la difficile valorisation du potentiel génétique national.• le financement du secteur de l'élevage avec comme principaux facteurs limitants: i) la faiblesse des investissements publics en faveur du développement de la filière au regard de l'importance économique et sociale de la filière, ii) la rareté et la difficulté d'accès aux services et produits financiers adaptés aux activités d'élevage.Cas specifique du genre dans la production Facteurs influençant la dynamique de production• Des sections précédentes, il découle que, globalement, la productivité des élevages de petits ruminants est faible. Cela constitue également une force étant donné que la production caprine et ovine dispose d'une bonne marge de progression. La section 13 revient en détail sur les stratégies et activités de développement de l'élevage. Cependant, nous faisons notre certains des défis des filières des petits ruminants identifiés par CEFCOD (2013), Fall (2013) ou encore Traoré (2012) :• Agro-pasteurs avec point d'attache en zone sahélienne•. accessibilité sécurisée aux ressources pastorales et hydriques;•. accessibilité à des intrants zootechniques et vétérinaires;•. structuration de l'appui-conseil autour des fonctions sociales et économiques notamment meilleure prise en compte de la problématique pastorale;•. meilleure stratégie de gestion des crises climatiques.• Agropasteurs avec point d'attache en zone soudanienne à transhumance de petite à grande envergure•. sécurisation de l'accès aux ressources pastorales et hydriques;•. accessibilité à des intrants zootechniques et vétérinaires;•. structuration de l'appui-conseil autour de la commercialisation;•. meilleure stratégie de gestion des crises climatiques.• Embouche ovine familiale et commerciale•. encadrement sanitaire et zootechnique spécialisés;•. sécurisation de l'accès aux marchés d'écoulement de leur production;•. structuration des producteurs autour de la commercialisation.• Une dimension transversale est celle des changements climatiques et de leur impact négatif. 21    Malgré l'encourageante production du cheptel burkinabè de petits ruminants (voir Section 4), les exportations restent en dessous du potentiel naturel exportable. La situation est essentiellement imputable au manque d'infrastructures, à la difficulté de se conformer aux normes sanitaires et à la présence d'obstacles techniques au commerce (paperasserie administrative).Le Burkina Faso ne compte que cinq abattoirs frigorifiques dont un privé, en plus de quarante-cinq (45) abattoirs séchoirs de brousse (Traoré, 2012 : 21)  (Traoré, 2012 : 12). Toutefois, des insuffisances sont à relever car il n'existe pas de normes pour la viande fraiche et séchée qui constitue pourtant les principaux produits issus de la transformation au Burkina Faso. La question de l'élaboration de normes pour le conditionnement et l'emballage des produits reste une préoccupation majeure (Traoré, 2012 : 12).Au niveau des politiques commerciales, il n'existe formellement aucune mention spécifique au secteur de l'élevage, encore moins à branche des petits ruminants. Aucune politique n'est envisagée pour diversifier les partenaires à l'exportation des petits ruminants du Burkina Faso.  (Traoré, 2012 : 12). Toutefois, des insuffisances sont à relever car il n'existe pas de normes pour la viande fraiche et séchée qui constitue pourtant les principaux produits issus de la transformation au Burkina Faso. La question de l'élaboration de normes pour le conditionnement et l'emballage des produits reste une préoccupation majeure (Traoré, 2012 : 12).L'offre de soins et autres services de santé animale est liée à l'organisation vétérinaire au Burkina Faso. Elle se caractérise par la coexistence d'un secteur public dominant qui offre les mêmes prestations qu'un secteur privé mis en place depuis 1991 et qui peine à trouver ses marques. De plus, il n'y a pas de programmes sanitaires spécifiques aux petits ruminants.Structuration de l'offre de service de sante animale Cette inspection a pour but de prendre et mettre en oeuvre les mesures nécessaires pour empêcher l'introduction et la propagation des maladies. L'inspection s'exerce sur:• les animaux domestiques et sauvages, les abeilles et les poissons susceptibles de transmettre des maladies à l'homme et à l'animal y compris les locaux et équipements d'élevage, l'insémination artificielle, la production de fourrage etc.;• les produits animaux ou d'origine animale, les locaux et équipements de préparation, transformation et commercialisation de ces produits ;• la préparation et la distribution des médicaments vétérinaires et des produits de diagnostic ou de prophylaxie ;• l'exercice de la profession vétérinaire.• des campagnes de prophylaxie et de lutte contre les maladies ;• de la formation, de l'information/ sensibilisation des acteurs sur la protection de la santé animale et la lutte contre les maladies. • la Direction du Laboratoire National d'Élevage ;• la Direction de la Santé Animale ;• la Direction de la Santé Publique Vétérinaire et de la Législation.La structuration de l'Autorité Vétérinaire Déconcentrée suit le découpage administratif :• au niveau de la Région (13 Régions): c'est le Directeur Régional des Ressources Animales ;• au niveau de la province (45 Provinces): c'est le Directeur Provincial des Ressources Animales.L'autorité vétérinaire au niveau régional et provincial assure le management et la coordination des actions de santé et de production animales.Au niveau départemental, l'organisation des services vétérinaires comprend :• 104 Postes vétérinaires chargés de la santé animale et de la surveillance épidémiologique des maladies animales (dont 20 Postes de contrôle vétérinaire aux frontières qui ont pour mission l'inspection des animaux et de leurs produits aux frontières) ;• 352 Zones d'appui technique d'élevage (ZATE) chargés de l'appui-conseil en santé et production animales et en inspection de denrées alimentaires d'origine animale.C'est le niveau départemental qui est opérationnel et offre directement les services à l'éleveur. Les prestations suivantes sont offertes aux acteurs par le secteur public et le secteur privé:• la prophylaxie médicale des maladies animales (pasteurellose ovine, clavelée…) le plus souvent à la demande car il n'y a pas encore de programme de vaccination obligatoire des petits-ruminants au Burkina Faso;• les soins curatifs;• la distribution des médicaments vétérinaires;• la surveillance épidémiologique;• le suivi et l'appui-conseil en santé animale.La surveillance épidémiologique des maladies animales au Burkina Faso La situation épidémiologique des maladies animales au Burkina Faso est marquée par la disparition de la Peste bovine et l'obtention du statut indemne en mai 2003.Pour parvenir à l'éradication de la maladie en suivant la procédure de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE), il a été mis en place un RÉseau de SURveillance ÉPidémiologique des maladies animales (RESUREP). Le système national de surveillance comprend :• un système d'alerte en cas d'apparition d'un foyer de maladie pour assurer une circulation rapide de l'information du niveau local vers l'Administration Vétérinaire (Direction générale des Services vétérinaires);• un système de surveillance passive par lequel les agents d'élevage transmettent les données sur les maladies animales au niveau central une fois par mois ;• un système de surveillance active par lequel les signes de maladies prioritaires sont recherchés sur le terrain.Le RESUREP est l'ensemble des personnes et des structures des Ministères des Ressources Animales, de l'Environnement et des Ressources Halieutiques, de l'Administration Territoriale, des éleveurs et leurs organisations qui interviennent dans la surveillance des maladies animales sur tout le territoire national.Les objectifs fixés sont :• détecter l'apparition d'une maladie inconnue ou d'une maladie connue mais absente (la peste bovine a disparu depuis 1988) dans le but de repérer de façon précoce tout cas suspect afin de le contrôler et d'éliminer le foyer ;• connaître l'importance de certaines maladies dans notre pays (c'est le cas pour la Péripneumonie contagieuse bovine, la Peste des petits ruminants…etc.) pour mettre en place des plans de lutte efficaces contre ces maladies.Le réseau axe ses efforts de surveillance sur 7 maladies jugées prioritaires :• Peste bovine,• Péripneumonie contagieuse bovine,• Fièvre aphteuse,• Peste des petits ruminants,• Peste porcine africaine,• Maladie de Newcastle,• Influenza Aviaire Hautement Pathogène (Peste Aviaire ou « Grippe Aviaire »). La mise en place du secteur privé d'offre de service de santé animale est récente et rendue possible par la mise en place de la réglementation spécifique suivante : Cette ambivalence élargit l'offre de distribution mais paradoxalement manque de performance elle établit une concurrence malsaine qui empêche les acteurs d'avoir les moyens nécessaires pour assurer efficacement le service.La médecine vétérinaire traditionnelle est encore très utilisée en milieu rural en raison de l'insuffisance du maillage du réseau de santé animale, de la faiblesse de la distribution des médicaments vétérinaires et de l'absence de programmes spécifiques de santé animale dédiés aux petits ruminants. L'organisation vétérinaire ne comporte pas de passerelle institutionnelle avec la pharmacopée vétérinaire, de sorte que c'est dans le domaine de la recherche que les études donnent l'état de lieu de la pharmacopée vétérinaire. Des données statistiques officielles ne sont donc pas disponibles, même si dans le processus de relecture de la réglementation du domaine vétérinaire, des dispositions sur la pharmacopée sont ébauchées. Kaboré et coll. (2007)  Prevalence de maladies, morbidite, taux de mortalite La surveillance épidémiologique des maladies des petits ruminants réalisée par le RESUREP s'articule autour de deux axes :• surveillance active des maladies prioritaires (peste des petits ruminants) : écoute des populations, visites régulières et systématiques sur les marchés à bétail, les villages-cible, les abattoirs…• surveillance passive des autres maladies à travers les rapports mensuels des cas présentés au niveau du RESUREP.Les données fournies par l'Annuaire statistique 2012 montrent la prééminence des suspicions de pasteurellose et de peste des petits ruminants (Tableaux 6 et 7). Les autres affections sont plutôt marginales ou sous renseignées. Malgré tout, la situation sanitaire des petits ruminants est globalement satisfaisante même si, dans les principales contraintes du secteur de l'élevage des petits ruminants, la question sanitaire est régulièrement évoquée. De plus, comme nous l'avons précédemment mentionné, les taux de mortalité sont très élevés dans les élevages de petits ruminants au Burkina Faso.Tableau 6. Evolution du nombre de foyers de maladies contagieuses suspectées chez les petits ruminants  L'utilisation des médicaments est surtout influencée par la fréquentation des services de prestation de soins. Toutefois, le circuit frauduleux commence à prendre de l'ampleur avec le phénomène de médicaments de rue vendus dans les marchés et l'exercice illégal de la profession par des personnes non qualifiées. Cette situation est favorisée par la faiblesse structurelle des professionnels de santé animale (privé et public).Une des principales préoccupations en débat est le problème de la concurrence entre le secteur public et le secteur privé : la privatisation ne s'est pas accompagnée d'un réel désengagement de l'Etat afin de permettre le développement d'un secteur privé dynamique. Les autres questions importantes liées à la prestation vétérinaire sont relatives :• à la fraude sur le médicament vétérinaire et l'exercice illégal de la profession ;• à l'insuffisance du maillage du territoire par des professionnels vétérinaires qualifiés, du fait de l'insuffisance du personnel ;• à la persistance de nombreuses maladies contagieuses qui risquent de compromettre les exportations du Burkina (peste porcine africaine, fièvre aphteuse…Composition du cheptel national En rappel, le mode d'élevage des ovins et caprins est encore dominé par les systèmes traditionnel et pastoral qui se caractérisent par une faiblesse des performances de productions des principales races élevées. Cette faible productivité est liée à des handicaps de plusieurs ordres dont les problèmes récurrents de santé, de faible valorisation des ressources alimentaires et du matériel génétique animal utilisé (Mbogo, 1974;Boly, 2000;Toukou, 2001).Sur le plan génétique, avec l'augmentation de la demande en produits animaux, plusieurs politiques volontaristes ont été initiées et mises en oeuvre au Burkina Faso. Celles-ci privilégient la recherche rapide et immédiate de races à haut potentiel de production par l'introduction de races exotiques sans tenir compte des conditions du milieu d'exploitation. Cette vision, bien qu'apparemment profitable à court terme, constitue une menace de dilution des gènes entraînant une marginalisation et une \"dilution\" des races localement adaptées pouvant déboucher sur un risque réel de leur disparition (Innon, 1999 ;Alvarez et coll., 2009 ;Traoré et coll., 2009). Cette situation peut les exposer aux maladies et à l'émergence de nouvelles pathologies par perte de capacités de résistance.Même si les connaissances actuelles ne permettent pas au Burkina Faso de définir clairement les races, de façon consensuelle, la population de petits ruminants du pays est composée de 3 types génétiques pouvant être considérés comme race (Simon, 1999 ;Traoré et coll., 2008) : la race Djallonké, la race naine Mossi et la race du Sahel. Ces trois races occupent respectivement l'une des trois zones agro-écologiques du Burkina Faso : la zone Soudanienne, la zone Soudano-Sahélienne et la zone Sahélienne.Les races Djallonkés ou races naines d'Afrique de l'Ouest ou encore West African Dwarf sont de petits formats (hypométrique) avec des profils droits et un aplomb de type rectiligne. La taille de ces races varie de 40 à 50 cm au garrot et le poids moyen est de 20 kg (Sangaré, 2005 ;Traoré et coll. 2008 ;Traoré et coll., 2009) Les races sahéliennes occupent les régions sahéliennes du Sénégal et du Burkina Faso, les zones sahéliennes et sahélo-sahariennes du Mali et du Niger (Sangaré, 2005, Dossa et coll., 2007). Ce sont des animaux de grande taille, longilignes. La tête est longue et lourde avec une dépression centrale chez le mâle. La taille au garrot varie de 60 à 80 cm au garrot et le poids moyen est de 45 à 60 kg (Sangaré, 2005 ;Sangaré et coll., 2005 ;Traoré et coll., 2008 ;Traoré et coll., 2009).A côté de ces trois principaux groupes, on retrouve les divers produits de croisement plus ou moins fixés, rencontrés généralement dans les régions soudano-sahéliennes d'Afrique de l'Ouest. Ce sont des races de format intermédiaire entre les deux précédentes (Traoré et coll., 2008).Le tableau 9 présente les principales caractéristiques des moutons et chèvres Mossi. Il est tiré des travaux de Traoré et coll. (2008). Il ressort de ces travaux que les petits ruminants de race locale Mossi sont de petits formats. Ainsi le mouton mâle dont l'âge se situe entre 13 et 24 mois à un poids se situant autour de 23,3±5 kg contre un poids de 38,6±1,4 kg à 15 mois pour le mouton Peulh.Le tableau 9 présente les principales caractéristiques des moutons et chèvres Mossi. Il est tiré des travaux de Traoré et coll. (2006). Il ressort de ces travaux que les petits ruminants de race locale Mossi sont de petits formats. Ainsi le mouton mâle dont l'âge se situe entre 13 et 24 mois à un poids se situant autour de 23,3±5 kg contre un poids de 38,6±1,4 kg à 15 mois pour le mouton Peulh. Structure du secteur de l'offre en service de genetique animaleLes traits caractéristiques de l'élevage au Burkina Faso, demeurent la prédominance des systèmes de production extensifs traditionnels et la faible productivité des races élevées.Au regard de cette situation, le Gouvernement Burkinabé a engagé des réflexions qui ont abouti à l'élaboration et à l'adoption de documents de politique sectorielle, notamment la Politique nationale de développement durable de l'élevage au Burkina Faso (PNDEL) et le Plan d'Actions et Programme d'Investissement du Secteur de l'Elevage (PAPISE). L'ensemble de ces réflexions a permis au secteur de l'élevage notamment dans son volet « Amélioration génétique » de mettre en place des outils de promotion sur les plans technique, politique et réglementaire ainsi que sur le plan des équipements et des infrastructures.Au niveau du secteur privé, il n'y a pas d'actions coordonnées d'amélioration génétique en ce qui concerne les petits ruminants même si on assiste ces dernières années à des importations de races étrangères principalement du Niger (chèvre rousse de Maradi) et de Belgique (chèvre sanneem) sur pied et sous formes de semences (races alpine) par certains particuliers. Cependant il s'agit de petits effectifs généralement pour les besoins de croisement chez l'éleveur.Secteur public L'amélioration génétique, en tant que moyen efficace pour parvenir à assurer la sécurité alimentaire, réduire la pauvreté, sauvegarder l'environnement et créer des bases solides pour le développement du secteur de l'élevage, occupe une place de choix. Le Gouvernement, avec l'appui de ses partenaires au développement, a déployé des efforts qui se sont traduits, entre autres, par:• la création en 2006 du Centre National de Multiplication des Animaux performants (CMAP). L'ensemble des actions du CMAP vise : (i) à offrir du matériel génétique animal (animaux vivants, semences animales et embryons) performants aux producteurs, (ii) à contribuer à la formation des producteurs et des agents, (iii) à contribuer à l'élaboration et à la mise en oeuvre d'un système national d'identification, de contrôle des performances et de suivi de la traçabilité des animaux d'élevage, (iv) à contribuer à l'amélioration des performances de production des animaux de races locales (v) à contribuer à la définition des orientations nationales en matière d'amélioration génétique et (vi) à contribuer à la sauvegarde de la biodiversité et des ressources zoo-génétiques ;• la création d'une direction chargée de l'amélioration génétique (DAG) en 2006 au sein de la direction générale des productions animales (DGPA).• la promotion de l'insémination artificielle;• l'adoption en 2012 de la stratégie d'amélioration génétique du cheptel et de la loi n° 037-2012/AN du 11 octobre 2012 portant réglementation de l'amélioration génétique du cheptel au Burkina Faso.Le secteur public appuie généralement les associations de producteurs en matière d'amélioration génétique par de l'appui-conseil, la délivrance d'autorisations et le contrôle des importations, la fourniture d'animaux et de semences. Toutefois, la plupart des efforts est orienté vers les bovins. Il faut aussi signaler la prise en compte du volet « Amélioration génétique et promotion des animaux de races performantes » dans les principaux projets et programmes de développement en élevage.Composition des troupeaux et utilisation de l'insemination artificielle (ia)En matière d'insémination artificielle, les efforts sont orientés en direction des bovins et parfois des porcs. Elle ne concerne pas encore les petits-ruminants. Cependant, dans le cadre de l'exécution du projet BKF5014, sur financement de l'Agence internationale de l'énergie atomique (AIEA), l'équipe du projet a reçu du matériel d'insémination artificielle des petits ruminants et une formation aura lieu en décembre 2014.Politiques en vigueur influençant le choix de la race, l'acces et l'utilisation de l'insemination artificielle Des mesures concrètes d'incitation ou de réglementation ne sont pas encore en place pour influencer le choix de la race, l'accès et l'utilisation de l'insémination artificielle. Toutefois, l'exigence d'une autorisation et du contrôle des importations (animaux, semences et embryons) permet de minimiser les risques sanitaires liés à la pratique de l'IA.Les principales préoccupations actuelles en génétique animale au Burkina Faso concernent :• le manque de durabilité dans les actions entreprises car elles se font généralement dans le cadre des projets et programmes de développement qui ont des durées de vie limitées, ce qui n'est pas approprié dans l'amélioration génétique animale ;• la mise en place d'un plan de financement durable des actions d'amélioration génétique ;• le choix de méthodes de systèmes de sélection (sélection dans les troupeaux ou sélection orientée par exemple vers la recherche de marqueurs de résistance aux maladies parasitaires gastro-intestinales) ;• la faible coordination/ maîtrise du système par le service public. Ainsi on constate des croisements anarchiques sur le terrain avec un risque important de l'érosion du patrimoine génétique national;• l'insuffisance quantitative et qualitative des ressources humaines qualifiées dans le domaine de la génétique ne permet pas d'atteindre les résultats escomptés par les politiques. Les paturages naturels Kagoné (2000Kagoné ( , 2001) ) abordent de manière systématique la question des pâturages. Nous résumons ici les principaux éléments de ses travaux. Les pâturages sahéliens reçoivent moins de 500 mm de pluie par an sur une période de 2 à 3 mois. Leur période de végétation active et donc d'exploitation en vert est d'environ 52 jours. Les pâturages nord-soudaniens se développent entre les isohyètes 500 et 900 mm, soit 4 à 5 mois de pluies. Leur période active de végétation dure de 99 à 127 jours. Selon Kagoné (2001) l'évolution de la végétation de ces pâturages semble être plus commandée par les actions anthropiques que par les facteurs climatiques et pédologiques. Enfin, les pâturages sud-soudaniens sont constitués de savanes arborées denses dans les vieilles jachères, de savanes boisées et de forêts claires dans les milieux peu perturbés.Le tableau 12montre que la capacité de charge des pâturages sahéliens est largement dépassée alors que les zones soudaniennes, notamment la zone sud-soudanienne, présentent un déficit de charge plus ou moins prononcée. Cela pourrait justifier de recommander la pratique d'un élevage mobile comme moyen optimal de gestion des ressources naturelles.Tableau 12. Capacité de charge des pâturages du Burkina Faso Le tableau 14 présente les principales espèces de plantes fourragères exploitées au Burkina Faso car étant les mieux adaptées aux conditions éco-climatiques du Burkina (Kagoné, 2001) Les principales contraintes liées à la commercialisation des fourrages sont, par ordre d'importance, le manque de moyens adéquats de transport, les difficultés de séchage, de conservation/stockage et l'insuffisance de fonds de roulement. Les autres contraintes qui ont été relevées sont l'indisponibilité´ des fourrages naturels sur les sites en saison sèche, l'éloignement des sites de prélèvement et de production et les feux de brousse.L'alimentation des animaux en embouche est basée sur les résidus culturaux (fanes de niébé et d'arachide, pailles de céréales) et de fourrages naturels. Les animaux sont ensuite complémentés avec des sous-produits agroindustriels qui sont essentiellement du son de blé, graine de coton, tourteau de coton, tourteau d'arachide, aliment de bétail industriel, drèches sèches de brasserie industriel, drèches sèches dolo (bière artisanale de mil ou sorgho), mélasse de canne, coques d'arachide. La complémentation est également un des éléments clé de la résilience des éleveurs et pasteurs. 30 Elle vise à réduire les pertes de poids et les pertes d'animaux, et permet de limiter la diminution des actifs de l'éleveur qui affecterait alors simultanément ses conditions de vie et sa capacité à affronter les crises à venir.L'évaluation des disponibilités et de l'évolution des SPAI est délicate à établir car étant tributaire de la dynamique de croissance des filières agroindustrielles et de la concurrence entre les différentes utilisations des sous-produits. Selon le Réseau des Organisateurs d'Éleveurs et Pasteurs de l'Afrique, sept industries sont impliquées dans la fabrication du tourteau de coton au Burkina Faso. La production globale de l'ordre de 87 à 110 000 tonnes. En ajoutant la production de très nombreuses petites huileries, le Burkina Faso produirait environ 150 000 tonnes de tourteaux de coton par an ce qui est très largement en déca des besoins des filières bétails-viandes surtout durant la période de novembre à mai.La production d'aliments concentrés repose sur un nombre assez retreint d'unités industrielles. Les principaux ingrédients qui entrent dans la fabrication des aliments sont : divers additifs (vitamines, minéraux et acides aminés essentiels, mélasse), le son de céréales (blé, maïs), les graines de maïs, de coton et de soja. En guise de résumé, les questions qui se posent lorsqu'il s'agit de l'alimentation des animaux peuvent être résumées en ces termes :• Quelles sont les stratégies permettant un développement des cultures fourragères qui restent marginale ?• Comment favoriser l'accès à un aliment bétail à un coût raisonnable et chaque fois que l'éleveur en a besoin? • les Aides Laborantin (AL);• les Techniciens Supérieurs de Laboratoire (TSL).Le Le secteur privé joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans le renforcement des capacités des producteurs. Ainsi, pour les questions sanitaires, comme déjà abordé dans la section 6, les vétérinaires privés joueront un rôle important. L'appui-conseil réalisé dans ce cadre passera principalement par deux canaux : (i) les vétérinaires profiteront de consultation et de traitement pour conseiller les producteurs ou (ii) les vétérinaires auront des contrats spécifiques avec des ONG et/ou des projets pour la réalisation de formations. Là également l'information n'est pas colligée même si cela devrait être facile à faire étant donné que dans le cadre des mandats sanitaires, les vétérinaires privés font des rapports. Les aspects de formation des producteurs pourraient également figurer dans ces rapports.Structures du secteur de la connaissance : la recherche-developpementStructures du secteur de la connaissance : la recherchedeveloppement Laboratoires de recherche rattaches a l'UPB 36Quatre laboratoires ayant un intérêt pour les filières animales sont rattachés à l'UPB. Il s'agit de :• Laboratoire de Recherche et d'Enseignement en Santé et Biotechnologies Animales 37• Laboratoire de santé animale tropicale • le CRREA du Centre, siège Saria (Koudougou) ;• le CRREA de l'Est, siège Kouaré (Fada-Ngourma) ;• le CRREA du Nord-Ouest, siège Di (Tougan) ;• le CRREA de l'Ouest, siège Farako-Bâ (Bobo-Dioulasso) comprend deux stations secondaires, Niangoloko et Banfora, et trois antennes, Balla, Dindéresso et Vallée du Kou ;• le CRREA du Sahel (Nord), siège Katchari (Dori).Le Département Productions Animales comprend 3 programmes de recherches: Bovins, Petits ruminants, et Monogastriques (porcs et volailles).Instituts et centre internationaux de recherche L'institut de recherche pour le developpement (IRD) 40 L'IRD est un organisme français de recherche ayant un de ses bureaux au Burkina Faso. Dans ce pays, les principales thématiques de recherches menées par des équipes en affectation de longue durée concernent les maladies à vecteurs (paludisme, maladie du sommeil), l'agronomie, la pédologie et la sécurité alimentaire (nutrition), les sciences sociales (migrations régionales, anthropologie de la santé). Les activités de recherche spécifiques au secteur des petits ruminants sont donc menées de manière ponctuelle.Le renforcement des capacités de recherche des communautés scientifiques du Sud fait partie des missions de l'IRD. Cela se fait par le biais de programmes complémentaires allant de l'appui individuel au soutien institutionnel :• Soutien de la formation individuelle aux métiers de la recherche (programmes Bourses);• Promotion de la constitution d'équipes de recherche et renforcement de leurs compétences, leur autonomie et leur compétitivité ;• Appui à la structuration institutionnelle de l'espace de recherche au Sud et son intégration à l'environnement international de la recherche.Le centre international de recherche-developpement sur l'elevage en zone subhumide (CIRDES) 41   Le CIRDES, structure internationale sous-régionale 42 créée en 1994, mène des activités de recherche-développement, de formation des cadres 43 et des éleveurs, de transfert de technologies. Il intervient dans plusieurs pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest et comme indiqué sur son site, Le CIRDES a pour missions, en étroite collaboration avec les Systèmes Nationaux de Recherche Agricole, de conduire des recherches et activités visant :• l'amélioration de la santé et de la production animales,• la conservation génétique des espèces,• la préservation de l'environnement,• la formation, les échanges et le transfert de technologie.Le CIRDES dispose de plusieurs laboratoires à savoir :• le laboratoire d'analyse et de conservation du sperme et des embryons,• le laboratoire d'élevage de glossines (insectarium),• le laboratoire de génétique moléculaire et cytogénétique,• le laboratoire de biotechnologies appliquées au diagnostic des hémoparasitoses,• le laboratoire d'acarologie,• L'unité d'irradiation des glossines.Deux des unités de recherche du CIRDES sont d'un intérêt particulier dans le cadre d'activités portant sur la chaine de valeur des petits ruminants :• Unité de Recherche sur l'Elevage et l'Environnement et dont les objectifs sont : (i) identifier les contraintes environnementales et socioéconomiques limitant la productivité des systèmes agro-pastoraux, (ii) améliorer l'intégration agriculture-élevage, (iii) spatialiserle risque trypanosomien, (iv) Intégrer les innovations technologiques dans les filières de productions et (v) réaliser des analyses socio-économiques à différentes échelles.• Unité de Recherche sur les Productions Animales et dont les objectifs sont de : (i) contribuer à l'amélioration de la productivité du bétail, (ii) contribuer à une bonne intégration agriculture-élevage, (iii) étudier les performances zootechniques des bovins et des petits ruminants et (iv) maitriser la physiologie de la reproduction chez les bovins et les petits ruminants. Notons que, selon les documents consultés, il n'existe pas de soutien public spécifique à la chaine de valeur des petits ruminants. Par contre, lorsque l'analyse porte sur l'ensemble de la filière bétail 44     • Action 1-Relecture de l'ensemble des outils et procédure par direction pour une prise en compte du Genre• Action 2-Réviser ou mettre en place des bases données et former les acteurs à l'utilisation.• Action 3-Utiliser les différentes instances du MRA pour partager les expériences et les enseignements de la prise en compte du Genre à différents niveau.• Action 4-Instaurer une journée de la cellule GenreObjectif spécifique 4 : Réduire les inégalités d'accès aux appuis du MRA en direction des femmes• Action 1-Encourager les projets à prendre des mesures incitatives en faveur des femmes• Action 2-Accroitre le nombre de bénéficiaires femmes aux appuis du MRA• Action 3-Accroitre la participation des femmes dans les filières porteuses• Activité 4-Améliorer la participation des femmes dans les activités d'élevageObjectif spécifique 5 : Augmenter les capacités d'influence de la cellule genre pour mieux assurer leur mission.• Action 1-Former les membres de la cellule sur la maîtrise du concept Genre• Action 2-Former les membres de la cellule en technique de négociation et plaidoyer• Action 3-Participation de la Cellule genre aux instances du MRA• Action 4-Elaborer et diffuser une note d'orientation• Action 5-Analyser le niveau de prise en compte du Genre dans les politiques et les documents produits par le MRA et ou à sa demande• Action 6-Assurer le suivi de la mise en oeuvre du plan d'action Genre du MRA La valorisation des résultats de la recherche et de l'innovation relève de la compétence de l'Agence Nationale de Valorisation des Résultats de la Recherche (ANVAR) avec également des insuffisances associées à la faiblesse des ressources financières mise à sa disposition par l'Etat et la quasi-absence du privé dans la valorisation des ressources. Parmi les autres difficultés associées à la valorisation des résultats figurent aussi l'absence d'une politique de protection des résultats et le manque de professionnels assurant le lien entre la recherche et la mise en marché des produits (MRSI). 47   Enfin, au Burkina Faso, la question de la masse critique des ressources humaines est également posée (OECD, 2013) et certainement avec beaucoup plus d'acuité dans les chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.Questions de politique actuellement en debat Il est dommage qu'une telle initiative d'autofinancement par une filière, qui ne coûte rien à l'Etat et lui procure même des recettes, ne reçoive pas un meilleur traitement. Le MRA estime que le FODEL est potentiellement un outil puissant de financement de la filière, en particulier en faveur des femmes, dans un contexte de déficit de crédit en milieu rural. Le processus de prélèvement de la CSE par les Douanes doit être revu et amélioré. Par ailleurs, compte tenu de l'importance du sous-secteur de l'élevage dans l'économie rurale, de son potentiel en matière de développement économique pro-pauvres, au centre des objectifs de la SCADD, et du fait que ce sous-secteur a été relativement négligé jusqu'à présent (voir chapitre 3.2), il serait légitime d'envisager que la part de la CSE reversée au FODEL soit augmentée (on pourrait par exemple envisager de la doubler à 80%). Cette expérience pourrait également être utilement étendue à d'autres filières exportatrices.Tiré de SPCPSA (2013)Dans le cas de crédit octroyé directement par les institutions bancaires ou de micro-finance, tous les acteurs s'accordent pour dire que le crédit est inadapté : taux d'intérêt trop élevé, délai de remboursement ne correspondant pas à la vente des animaux, montant des crédits trop bas, etc. Ainsi, la quasi-totalité des documents de politique estiment que l'amélioration du crédit constitue une des conditions au développement des activités d'élevage dont celles des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants. A titre d'exemple, pour l'embouche, l'acquisition d'animaux maigres et l'achat d'aliments requièrent une disponibilité financière largement au-dessus des possibilités de la plupart des producteurs en milieu rural.Cette amélioration se décline en (GBF/PNUD, 2006 ;MRA, 2007a ;MRA, 2007b;FIDA, 2012 ;MAFAP, 2013 ; SP/ CPSA, 2013; MASA, 2014):• Amélioration de la capacité des acteurs en formulation de projets bancables;• Zones géographiques couvertes;• Développement de produits diversifiés et adaptés. Dans la plupart des institutions bancaires et des institutions demicro-finance (IMF), les conditions d'octroi du crédit sont identiques pour tous les clients. Les échéances de remboursement ne coïncident pas toujours avec les entrées d'argent (sortie d'animaux embouchés par exemple) et les garanties demandées peuvent être importantes.• Harmonisation en matière de fonds locaux d'investissement (guichet public et privé), chaque projet opérant selon sa propre méthodologie.Face ces difficultés d'accès au crédit, l'axe 4 de la stratégie de développement de l'élevage porte sur un meilleur accès au crédit l'ensemble des acteurs : producteurs, commerçants, exportateurs, bouchers, etc. (MRA, 2007a). Il s'agit in finé d'avoir un effet positif sur (MRA, 2007b):• L'accessibilité (proximité géographique, barrières administratives liées à l'analphabétisme, garanties mobilisables, etc.)• La facilitation (mécanismes favorisant l'accès aux ressources et l'amélioration des garanties, relations de confiance entre les acteurs de la filière et les institutions financières).• Le développement se traduit à la fois par une (amélioration de l'offre de produits et de services financiers adaptés, augmentation des volumes d'épargne et de crédit).Valeur ajoutee et commercialisation Les figures 23 et 24 qui sont tirées de EASYPol (2007) présentent le graphe des productions ovines et caprines.Comme le montrent ces figures, la « filière directe » représente environ un tiers des effectifs de petits ruminants déstockés : l'autoconsommation et la vente directe représentent donc un part importante de l'utilisation des produits des filières des petits ruminants. Par ailleurs, pour ce qui est de la production passant par les collecteurs et les commerçants, plus de la moitié va par la suite à des particuliers. Collecte D'une manière générale, les producteurs auront tendance à vendre directement sur les marchés leurs animaux aux collecteurs qui sont en général bien connus d'eux. La décision de destokage ne portera que sur quelques animaux à la fois.EASYPol (2007) indique que 71% de ovins déstockés et 70% des caprins déstockés passent par les collecteurs. De nos entretiens avec les acteurs de la filière ce pourcentage reste sensiblement le même en 2014. Comme précédemment indiqué, dans les autres cas (autours de 30%), les producteurs s'adressent directement aux vendeurs sur les marchés et cela en raison de la vente de seulement un ou deux animaux à la fois.En 2007, la marge moyenne du collecteur était évaluée entre 1 000 et 2 500 FCFA par animal (EASYPol, 2007). De nos discussions avec les acteurs, cette marge est restée sensiblement la même.Il n'existe pas de données sur le nombre de collecteurs actifs dans les filières des petits ruminants. Cependant tous les acteurs interrogés d'entendent pour indiquer que les collecteurs sont quasi-exclusivement des hommes.Les collecteurs feront affaire avec les convoyeurs d'animaux sur pieds qui en général joueront également le rôle de gardiens de ces animaux le temps que les animaux collectés aient été entièrement vendus. 50 Par exemple, contre rémunération, du marché de Dori, les convoyeurs conduisent les animaux vers Terra au Niger, Ouagadougou ou Pouytenga.Les filières des petits ruminants doivent répondre à la nécessité de fournir davantage de viande pour satisfaire une demande intérieure et à l'exportation en sensible hausse. Dans ces conditions, le mode d'acheminement des animaux vers les marchés terminaux revêt une importance cruciale, du fait de ses incidences directes sur le coût final au consommateur et, plus globalement, sur la fonctionnalité des systèmes de mise en marché des animaux (Corniaux et coll., 2012).Deux modes de convoyages vont cohabiter (Corniaux, 2014;Corniaux et coll., 2012) : convoyage à pieds et le convoyage en camion.• Convoyage à pieds: il sera systématique entre lorsqu'il s'agira de transporter les animaux de l'éleveur au principal marché à bétail. En général il dure de 1 à 2 semaines. Le convoyage du marché principal vers les abattoirs pourra également se faire Dans certains cas, cependant marginaux, le convoyage vers les marchés à l'exportation se fera également à pieds. Alors le voyage durera autour de 4 mois.•  • marchés dits «de collecte» où viennent vendre et acheter les collecteurs;• marchés dits «de regroupement» où vont acheter les commerçants;• marchés «terminaux» où vont vendre les commerçants et où vont acheter les transformateurs et détaillants.EASYPol (2007) indique qu'en 2000, le Burkina Faso comptait 1418 marchés à bétail disséminés sur l'ensemble du territoire (selon la DAPF/MRA). Les 8 marchés les plus importants sont : Pouytenga, Djibo, Ouagadougou, Bobo-Dioulasso, Fada N'Gourma, Gorom-Gorom, Kaya et Youba.Avantages relatifs du choix de l'un ou l'autre des modes de convoyage    Et, lorsque nous comparons le part relative en % des différentes régions dans les volumes d'abattage des petits ruminants à celle relative en % toujours des aires d'abattage et abattoirs, nous constatons que ces 2 régions sont excédentaires (Figure 28). Le constat reste le même lorsque la comparaison se fait avec les effectifs de petits ruminants. La région du Sahel est alors largement déficitaire (Figure 29).  Domaine 2 : Amélioration de la productivité des animaux par : i) l'intensification des productions animales par une meilleure alimentation, une bonne couverture sanitaire et une amélioration des performances des races élevées, ii) l'appui au développement de l'aviculture villageoise, iii) la lutte contre les trypanosomiases animales iv) la lutte contre les épizooties et la surveillance sanitaire.Domaine 3 : Amélioration de la compétitivité et l'accès aux marchés par : i) l'appui à l'amélioration de l'accès au marché intérieur, ii) l'amélioration de la compétitivité et l'accès aux marchés extérieurs, iii) l'appui au développement des filières porteuses.Domaine 4 : Professionnalisation des acteurs par : i) l'appui à l'exercice privé des professions vétérinaire et zootechnicien, ii) l'appui à la professionnalisation des acteurs et au secteur privé.Domaine 5 : Renforcement du cadre institutionnel par : i) la formation de nouveaux agents, ii) le renforcement du dispositif de suivi-contrôle, ii) la régionalisation de la politique de développement du secteur de l'élevage.Cinq sous-programmes soutiennent sa mise en oeuvre:• Le sous-programme «promotion et facilitation de la commercialisation des produits de l'agriculture»,• Le sous-programme «promotion et facilitation de la commercialisation des produits halieutiques»,• Le sous-programme «promotion et facilitation de la commercialisation des produits forestiers et fauniques»,• Le sous-programme «soutien à la promotion de la transformation et de la conservation des produits»,• Le sous-programme «promotion et facilitation de la commercialisation des produits de l'élevage» vise à améliorer les conditions de commercialisation des animaux sur pied au Burkina Faso et dans les pays voisins et créer un environnement fiscal favorable à l'exportation du bétail sur pied et des cuirs. Principales contraintes liees a la qualite sanitaire de la viande Les principales contraintes liées à la viande de petits ruminants sont liés à :• la prédominance des abattages clandestins dans les grandes villes (surtout Ouagadougou) et la circulation sans règle ni contrôle des viandes foraines;• la vétusté des infrastructures d'abattage et de commercialisation et l'inadaptation des moyens de transport;• L'hygiène déficiente tout au long de la chaine de production;• la méconnaissance des règles et normes d'hygiène par les acteurs;• la faiblesse des organismes officiels de contrôle qui n'arrivent pas à imposer le respect de la législation en matière de santé publique vétérinaire… Où pf est le prix à la frontière et pd le prix sur le marché national.Les distorsions sur un marché affectent aussi le marché des intrants. Par exemple, souvent, une libéralisation d'un secteur agricole est partiellement compensée par une subvention à l'utilisation d'un facteur de production comme les pesticides, l'essence, etc. Il est alors important de pouvoir capter l'effet net des distorsions pour un marché. Pour ce faire, on utilise le coefficient de protection effective (CPE). Le coefficient nominal de protection effective est alors:  (2007). Cela rend important la réalisation d'une étude spécifique de la compétitivité, dans une perspective commerce international, des filières des petits ruminants. Selon les estimations de EASYPol ( 2007), la sous filière caprine a un CRD de 0,54 ce qui lui confère un important avantage comparatif par rapport au reste du monde. La sous-filière caprine est donc compétitive. Et, une analyse plus fine des résultats montre que tous les maillons de la filière ont un CRD inférieur à 1 (voir figure 37). Seuls les grilleurs et les détaillants ont un CRD proche de la valeur de 1. Encadré 7. Le coût des ressources domestiques comme mesure des avantages comparatifs Le Coût des ressources domestiques est un ratio dont le numérateur est constitué du coût des facteurs immobiles qui sont utilisés dans le processus de production (Bruno, 1972). Le numérateur mesure ainsi le coût d'opportunité de la production d'une unité additionnelle d'output dans le secteur d'intérêt. Le dénominateur est constitué de la différence entre le prix (sans distorsions) de l'output et le coût des facteurs mobiles de production. Le dénominateur peut donc être interprété comme la valeur ajoutée (marginale) de la production d'une unité additionnelle d'output. Un CRD inférieur à 1 serait alors un indicateur d'un avantage comparatif. Un pays ayant un CRD bas serait ainsi considéré comme ayant le plus fort degré d'avantages comparatifs. Siggel (2006) montre comment le critère du CRD est une manière de généraliser le concept d'avantage comparatif à la Ricardo. Siggel (2006Siggel ( , 2012) ) estime également que le CRD est le meilleur candidat de mesure des avantages comparatifs surtout dans des conditions ou il existe des distorsions sur les marchés, ce qui est le cas dans la majorité des filières agricoles des pays africains. Cet auteur fait cependant remarquer à juste titre que les avantages comparatifs d'un secteur peuvent également provenir des biens intermédiaires utilisés dans le processus de production. A titre d'exemples, l'abondance de ressources dans le segment de la transformation et/ou des économies d'échelle dans le transport peut permettre à une économie de présenter des avantages comparatifs pour le bien final. Une option est alors d'exprimer le(s) bien(s) intermédiaire(s) en biens primaires avec comme inconvénient de capter de manière imparfaite les avantages comparatifs présents dans le(s) segment(s) intermédiaire(s). Les collectivités territoriales joueront un rôle important dans la gestion des ressources naturelles. Ainsi, entre autres,• Pour la commune•. élaboration de plans communaux d'action pour l'environnement;•. participation à la protection et à la gestion des ressources en eaux souterraines, en eaux de surface et des ressources halieutiques;•. assainissement;•. lutte contre l'insalubrité, les pollutions et les nuisances diverses;•. lutte contre la divagation des animaux et réglementation de l'élevage;•. participation à la conservation et à la gestion de ressources naturelles renouvelables d'intérêt régional ou national;•. prévention et lutte contre les feux de brousse et contre la coupe abusive du bois;•. participation à la protection et à la gestion des ressources fauniques des forêts classées et des forêts protégées;• Spécifiquement, pour la commune rurale,•. gestion de la zone de production aménagée par la commune rurale;•. participation à la gestion de la zone de production aménagée par d'autres personnes morales, sur le territoire de la comme rurale;•. création de zones de conservation;•. participation à la protection et à la gestion des ressources naturelles situées sur le territoire de la commune rurale;•. participation à la protection et à la gestion des forêts naturelles de la faune sauvage, des ressources en eau et des ressources halieutiques situées sur le territoire de la communale rurale;• Pour la région.•. création de bois et de forêts d'intérêt régional;•. participation à la protection, à la gestion et à la mise en défens des forêts classées et des forêts protégées;•. participation à la protection des cours d'eau;•. élaboration, mise en oeuvre et suivi des plans ou schéma régionaux d'action pour l'environnement;Les processus de renforcement de leurs capacités inclus donc la question de la gestion de l'environnement et des ressources naturelles. Amélioration des services offerts aux producteurs et aux opérateurs de la filière : cette stratégie s'adresse essentiellement aux structures de l'appui-conseil (technico-économique), de la formation, de la connaissance et du suivi des marchés, de l'accès au crédit, etc. Les services offerts devront désormais être guidés par les principes suivants: i)répondre et accompagner les initiatives et les besoins d'appuis exprimés parles acteurs de la filière, et ii) privilégier la réalisation des activités d'appui par des opérateurs qualifiés du secteur public ou privé (services publics, bureaux d'études, instituts de formation, ONG, etc.) dans le cadre de contrats de prestations de services ou de protocoles de collaboration. Cette« sous-traitance » permettra de valoriser les compétences existantes aux niveaux régional et national, et de limiter les besoins en personnel propre au Plan d'actions.L'amélioration et de sécurisation de l'offre nationale durable en produits d'élevage de qualité.Amélioration des conditions d'élevage : il s'agit de l'amélioration de la situation alimentaire des petits ruminants, par la facilitation et la sécurisation de l'accès aux ressources pastorales (fourrage et eau), aux sous-produits agricoles et agro-industriels, et la vulgarisation de rations-types; l'amélioration des conditions d'habitat (infrastructures et équipements); l'amélioration de la situation sanitaire des animaux. Il s'agit d'assurer la protection de la santé des animaux et des consommateurs de viande à travers la prévention ou la maîtrise des maladies contagieuses et parasitaires, et la minimisation des risques sanitaires liés à la manipulation des produits animaux.Augmentation de la productivité des animaux :il s'agit de l'amélioration du potentiel génétique des races locales, la maîtrise de la gestion technico économique des ateliers d'embouche ovine, et la rationalisation de la gestion des troupeaux.Une meilleure valorisation des animaux et des produits de l'élevage.L'objectif visé est d'accroître la valeur ajoutée des produits d'élevage à travers un accroissement significatif des investissements pour développer en quantité et en qualité la commercialisation intérieure et l'exportation de ces produits. Le Plan d'actions concentrera ses interventions à trois niveaux: i) la réhabilitation, l'amélioration et la densification des infrastructures de traitement et de commercialisation des produits, ii) l'amélioration de la qualité sanitaire des produits, iii) l'amélioration de l'organisation de la mise sur le marché des produits.Analyse des activites de developpement de l'elevage: strategies passees et actuelles appliquees au Burkina Faso • l'insuffisance numérique du personnel d'encadrement;• la persistance des pathologies animales et la faible adhésion de la population à la vaccination contre la rage malgré ses conséquences dramatiques;• la persistance des conflits agriculteurs et éleveurs;• les velléités d'occupation des zones pastorales de Sidéradougou et de Samorogouan malgré l'adoption des cahiers de charge spécifiques de ces zones et la mise en place des comités de gestion;• les velléités d'occupation de la zone pastorale de Saho dans la province du Tuy malgré son bornage;• la faible organisation des acteurs des différentes filières;• l'insuffisance de moyens de travail limitant les sorties du personnel technique pour l'accompagnement et la supervision des différentes activités des acteurs directs des filières tant au niveau central qu'au niveau déconcentré;• l'insuffisance de financement pour le fonctionnement optimum des services et des investissements;• l'insuffisance d'appui des partenaires techniques et financiers;• l'insuffisance de personnel technique spécialisé par filière;• la lenteur dans le traitement des dossiers par les acteurs de la chaine de la dépense publique; et• le non-respect du délai de transmission des rapports d'activités trimestriels au ministère et annuel et l'incohérence de certains chiffres.Dans la section 9, nous avons traité à la fois de la question de la recherche et de ses défis. Comme élément additionnel, soulignons que le volet Productions animales du Plan stratégique de la recherche agricole est bâti autour de 4 programmes scientifiques, à savoir : i) le programme bovin, ii) le programme petits ruminants, iii) le programme monogastriques, iv) et le programme élevage-environnement (MRA, 2007a). Spécifiquement aux filières bétail/viande et petits ruminants, les contraintes identifiées par le Plan sont les suivantes :• la difficulté d'alimentation en saison sèche (quantité et qualité),• la précarité de la santé animale,• la faible connaissance du potentiel génétique des races locales,• la faible maîtrise des paramètres zootechniques,• l'inadéquation de l'alimentation des bovins/ovins d'embouche,• la faible maîtrise des inter-actions élevage-environnement,• la faible disponibilité fourragère,• et la faible maîtrise de la contribution de l'élevage à l'économie nationale.Ces différents éléments devraient être au coeur des projets de recherche à mettre en oeuvre. Nous constatons cependant que les aspects liés à la transformation, la commercialisation et la consommation sont absents des contraintes identifiées comme étant importantes. Pourtant, à titre d'exemple, une meilleure qualité sanitaire des viandes pourrait en faciliter son exportation et créer un peu plus de valeur ajoutée au sein des chaines de valeurs des petits ruminants. Et, il est plus facile de trouver des saucissons et autres jambons dans les épiceries que des produits traditionnels type « kilichi » à base de viande de petits ruminants. Ces aspects associés à la transformation et à la commercialisation sont d'ailleurs également évoqués dans Fall (2013)  Les effets des changements climatiques (intensité et fréquence des évènements extrêmes) rendent de plus en plus vulnérables les familles paysannes les plus pauvres. L'insécurité alimentaire devient de plus en plus aiguë en raison entre autres, de la baisse et de la perte de la production agricole et de la dégradation de l'environnement. Et, un manque d'accès régulier à des marchés rémunérateurs vient amplifier cette situation. Ces contraintes majeures, poussent les producteurs souhaitant continuer à vivre d'une agriculture durable et rémunératrice à diversifier leurs activités agricoles en s'orientant vers des activités parallèles comme le petit élevage (CSAO-OCDE, 2013;ESF, 2013;Fall, 2013). Plusieurs rapports indiquent ainsi qu'en l'absence d'un système d'assurance agricole comme c'est le cas au Burkina Faso, l'intégration du petit élevage à l'agriculture permettra aux producteurs de réduire les effets de la fluctuation de ses revenus agricoles (CSAO-OCDE, 2008 ;FAO, 2012). Dans le contexte d'instabilité actuelle des prix des produits agricoles cette dimension est importante.De plus, comme déjà évoqué, le petit élevage en général, et plus spécifiquement celui des petits ruminants qui est le sujet du présent rapport, va constituer une forme d'épargne pour les populations rurales et est parfaitement intégré aux activités agricoles. Et, les femmes sont impliquées dans l'embouche ovine commerciale ou familiale 58 ce qui constitue une source de revenu au bénéfice de leurs enfants. Le petit élevage joue à la fois le rôle d'épargne et de capital.Tous ces éléments font que le développement des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants sera important dans les politiques pro-pauvres et pro-genre. Cela est d'autant plus le cas que les modes d'élevage pratiqués par les ménages les plus vulnérables ne permettent pas une pleine exploitation du potentiel des animaux. Les gains de productivité sont très importants.Notons cependant que, comme le souligne FAO-BM (2012), une amélioration des performances de l'élevage ne peut, à elle seule, prétendre amener le revenu agricole des ménages vulnérables au-dessus du niveau du seuil de pauvreté. La protection des ménages et acteurs socioéconomiques vulnérables contre les risques de dégradation de leur situation 59 et la diversification et la sécurisation des sources de revenus non agricoles devraient compléter les interventions spécifiques aux chaines de valeur des petits ruminants. De plus, comme constaté lors de la réalisation de la présente étude et également indiqué dans FAO (2003) même si la plupart des documents de politique reconnait la place centrale du petit élevage dans les stratégies pro-pauvres, celui-ci est rarement spécifiquement traité. Cela est encore plus vrai pour les filières des petits ruminants. Pour une opérationnalisation de l'idée de la place centrale des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants dans les stratégies pro-pauvres, il est important de définir des indicateurs permettant de cibler les pauvres parmi les acteurs qui évoluent au sein de ces filières. Il faudrait impérativement tenir compte des spécificités des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants et du rôle de chacun des acteurs. Les contraintes principales sur lesquelles il faudrait travailler devront également être spécifiquement rattachées aux filières d'intérêt (peaux, viande, lait, animaux sur pieds). Cela est d'autant plus important que les ménages avec quelques têtes d'animaux seront encore présents pour plusieurs décennies dans le portrait des chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.L'objectif principal de cette analyse de situation était d'évaluer, pour le Burkina Faso, les conditions dans les quelles les chaînes de valeur des petits ruminants et plus généralement du bétail opèrent. L'étude s'est principalement appuyée sur une recherche bibliographique, des entretiens ciblés ayant complété et précisé les informations disponibles.Une bonne partie de la production de petits ruminants est commercialisée sous la forme d'animaux sur pieds sur les marchés nationaux et internationaux. Le principal produit de transformation de la filière des petits ruminants est la viande fraîche qui est issue d'abattages contrôlés et d'abattages non contrôlés (familiaux ou clandestins). Il y a très peu de transformation alimentaire proprement dit au-delà de la viande fraîche issue des abattoirs. Cela résulterait entre autres, de la maîtrise insuffisante des techniques de transformation par les professionnels. Les exportations se font essentiellement sous la forme d'animaux sur pieds et à destination des pays de la sous-région, la demande régionale étant en pleine expansion. Cependant, les exportations restent relativement en-dessous du potentiel naturel exportable en raison (i) du manque d'infrastructures de production et de transport, (ii) de la difficulté à se conformer aux normes sanitaires et (iii) de la présence d'obstacles techniques au commerce (paperasserie administrative). L'autoconsommation qui est présente est plus marquée dans l'élevage caprin que dans celui ovin. La tendance est inverse pour l'autoconsommation des ménages des grands centres urbains que sont Ouagadougou et Bobo-Dioulasso. En milieu rural, l'élevage de petits ruminants aura un rôle prépondérant dans la consommation de viande et de lait. Les politiques favorisant la possession d'un élevage de petits ruminants se retrouvent de facto à être des politiques dopant la demande en viande et en lait.L'ensemble des études prospectives du secteur de l'élevage montre qu'il existe un important potentiel de croissance de la demande en produits issus de l'élevage des petits ruminants en raison (i) de la démographie galopante, (ii) de l'urbanisation et de l'amélioration des revenus des burkinabè, (iii) de la sous exploitations des potentialités des ovins et caprins et (iv) d'un meilleur accès aux marchés de la sous-région. Malheureusement, les performances techniques des filières des petits ruminants sont globalement faibles. Le système d'élevage dominant est celui traditionnel (pastoral et agropastoral) qui est caractérisé par la faible valorisation du matériel génétique animal. L'alimentation des petits ruminants est basée sur l'exploitation des pâturages naturels avec un risque de dégradation des écosystèmes. Les éleveurs font peu appel à des intrants zootechniques et vétérinaires. Les sous-produits agro-industriels (SPAI) et les concentrés sont peu disponibles et coûtent chers tandis que les résidus de récoltes ne sont pas toujours de bonne qualité (mauvaises conditions de conservation, absence de traitement préalable à la distribution aux animaux, …). Par ailleurs, les cultures fourragères sont rares en raison de contraintes inhérentes à leur production (coût des semences, calendriers culturaux inadéquats,…). Ainsi, la production de viande et celle de lait (chèvres) sont faibles et les taux de mortalité sont très élevés notamment au cours de la première année de la vie des petits ovins et caprins. Et, la distribution géographique très inégale des établissements privés de médecine vétérinaire ne joue pas en la faveur de troupeaux en santé. Tout cela concours à une compétitivité relativement mauvaise de l'élevage traditionnel ovin. Le coût des ressources domestiques (CRD) des producteurs traditionnels est de 1,02 tandis qu'il est inférieur à 1 lorsque l'on considère l'ensemble de la filière. En effet, pour tous les autres acteurs le CRD est inférieur à 1indiquant qu'ils sont compétitifs. Les gains à faire se situent donc au niveau des producteurs pratiquant l'élevage traditionnel d'ovin ou de caprins.Ces gains ne pourront cependant pas être obtenus sans une amélioration des conditions d'accès au crédit. En effet, le financement des activités des éleveurs est déficient, l'installation d'institutions bancaires en milieu rural s'étant toujours heurtée à des coûts de fonctionnement importants. Les taux d'intérêt sont élevés et le financement disponible est majoritairement de court terme, cet élément étant cependant un facteur favorable aux chaines de valeur des petits ruminants.Le petit élevage joue à la fois le rôle d'épargne et de capital ce qui le rend important dans les politiques pro-pauvres et pro-genre. Cela est d'autant plus vrai que les modes d'élevage pratiqués par les ménages les plus vulnérables présentent un potentiel d'amélioration technique plus que significatif. Ainsi, trois axes stratégiques majeurs de développement ont été définis par les autorités compétentes afin de faire jouer à l'élevage des petits ruminants le rôle de développement qui est le sien. Il s'agit de (i) l'organisation des acteurs au sein de la filière et le renforcement des services qui leur sont offerts, (ii) de l'amélioration et de sécurisation de l'offre nationale durable en produits d'élevage de qualité et (iii) d'une meilleure valorisation des animaux et des produits de l'élevage.La recherche agricole devra jouer sa partition et deux dimensions du volet Productions animales du Plan stratégique de la recherche agricole sont d'intérêt pour les chaines de valeurs des petits ruminants : le programme petits ruminants et le programme élevage-environnement. Spécifiquement, les contraintes identifiées par le Plan sont les suivantes :• la difficulté d'alimentation en saison sèche (quantité et qualité),• la précarité de la santé animale,• la faible connaissance du potentiel génétique des races locales,• la faible maîtrise des paramètres zootechniques,• l'inadéquation de l'alimentation des bovins/ovins d'embouche,• la faible maîtrise des inter-actions élevage-environnement,• la faible disponibilité fourragère,• et la faible maîtrise de la contribution de l'élevage à l'économie nationale.Ces différents éléments devraient être au coeur des projets de recherche à mettre en oeuvre. Il semble cependant opportun d'y adjoindre des dimensions plus sociales et/ou associées au comportement des producteurs. Les activités de recherche devront intégrer à la fois les dimensions techniques, économiques et sociales. Cette intégration est la seule à assurer que les fruits des activités d'innovations techniques, managériales ou même sociales soient appliqués par les différents acteurs opérant dans les chaines de valeur des petits ruminants. Par ailleurs, il est nécessaire de collecter de l'information spécifique aux chaines de valeur des petits ruminants et aux dimensions de genre qui leurs sont associées. En effet, la pertinence des politiques ne peut venir que d'un bon diagnostic qui est lui-même tributaire de la disponibilité de données et de leur qualité. Ces données manquent cruellement pour ce qui est de la chaine de valeur des petits ruminants.Finalement, fondamentalement, il sera important d'effectuer une réallocation des postes de dépenses publiques avec une priorité plus importante à accorder à la recherche agricole, à l'inspection et à la vulgarisation. Le capital humain devra également être renforcé, cette occasion devait permettre d'accorder plus de place aux femmes qui sont sous représentées dans les structures du ministère en charge des ressources animales.Le tableau 28 présente les principales bases de données disponibles. Ce tableau vient en complément (i) de la liste des références bibliographiques, (ii) de certaines notes de bas de page et (iii) de l'annexe 1 qui présente la liste des fonds documentaires disposant de ressources sur les chaines de valeur des petits ruminants au Burkina Faso. ","tokenCount":"18667"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2938b33a148838ed0922423571215c47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/60a09ee3-b7c5-426b-9916-66a672bda42b/content","id":"1992089911"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6567188f-4eaa-48e5-9e56-c5ba58954385","pagecount":"63","content":"The Global Crop Diversity Trust (the Trust) provided support towards this initiative and considers this document as a critical framework for guiding the allocation of its resources. However the Trust does not take responsibilities for the relevance, accuracy or completeness of the information in this document and does not commit to funding any of the priorities identified.This strategy document is expected to continue evolving and being updated as and when information becomes available. The Trust therefore acknowledges this version dated September 2007.In case of specific questions and/or comments, please direct them to the strategy coordinator mentioned in the document.This report has been made possible by the collaboration of maize germplasm bank managers worldwide, who completed several survey questionnaires upon which several parts of this report are based. Ing. Victor Chavez Tobar and Ms. Alejandra Arias, CIMMYT maize genetic resources, should be recognized for compiling the survey data. Besides, in completing the survey and the maize strategy it was a part of the requisite to include the current summary and future strategy for teosinte and tripsacum. For that, Dr. Jesus Sanchez Gonzalez and Dr. Denise Costich are especially acknowledged for their contributions in the appendix sections.We applaud the Global Crop Diversity Trust for spearheading the development of this, and related, crop conservation strategy, and the interest and support given by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) throughout this process.The genetic resources of maize constitute an immeasurable treasure for humankind. Conservation of maize germplasm and knowledge about its variation and uses provide (i) resources for agricultural improvement to reduce hunger and poverty and (ii) a solid knowledge base for future generations of researchers and technological users. The variability among maize landraces exceeds that for any other crop. The collection and study of the accessions of the races of maize are unprecedented in man's agricultural heritage; their maintenance and regeneration has been remarkable, and their widespread and open availability to research workers has been unique (Taba, 2005). Nonetheless, problems remain: 1. Integration of maize germplasm resources and maize breeding is challenging; historically, efforts have been inconsistent. 2. Most racial studies of maize have been New-World-oriented. 3. Regeneration of some eco-specific accessions has been difficult. 4. Distribution of individual seed requests via national germplasm banks has generally been ineffective due to resource and/or policy issues. 5. Phytosanitary restrictions are a major bottleneck in distributing germplasm samples. 6. Teosinte populations are endangered and have scattered (and less than complete) representation in the major international germplasm banks. 7. Documentation of the materials held in national collections is inconsistent, and sometimes poor, and is held in multiple databases that are not necessarily well maintained or easily accessible. 8. Tripsacum populations are part of the secondary gene pool of maize genetic resources, and some are endangered; some populations should be monitored and conserved. 9. Developing a worldwide strategy for preservation, documentation, distribution, and utilization of maize genetic resources will require attention to these and other, generally less difficult, problems.The process of developing the proposed strategic approach began in February 2006 with requesting the expertise of Dr Major Goodman of the Crop Science Department, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA to facilitate the development of a global conservation strategy for maize. The process began with data compilation and analysis of the status of existing maize collections complemented through a survey (format in Appendix 1) to the major maize collection managers (listed in Appendix 2). The information on the holdings of maize was obtained from the Bioversity International Database of Germplasm Collections. A summary of the results of the survey is included in Appendices 6 to 9.Following from the survey, an expert meeting was held at CIMMYT in Mexico, 5-6 May 2006 (Programme in Appendix 3 and list of participants in Appendix 4). The discussions at the meeting guided the development of the approach suggested herein. The strategy consultation meeting was preceded by a workshop, \"Latin American Maize Germplasm Conservation: Regeneration, In situ Conservation, Core Subsets, and Prebreeding,\" 2-4 May 2006 at CIMMYT, where worldwide representatives of maize germplasm collections were invited.A steering committee consisting of Major Goodman (North Carolina State Univ., USA), J. Manuel Hernandez C., (INIFAP, Mexico), J. Jesus Sanchez G. (Univ. Guadalajara, Mexico), Ricardo Sevilla P. (Univ. National Agraria La Molina/INIA, Peru), and Suketoshi Taba (CIMMYT), assisted by Brigitte Laliberté (Global Crop Diversity Trust), gathered opinions from other attendees and made preliminary suggestions for a global maize conservation strategy.Maize was domesticated in southern or southwestern Mexico, most likely from teosinte or some extinct wild maize very closely related to teosinte (Wilkes, 2004;Sluyter and Dominguez, 2006). Maize is highly variable morphologically and is grown from sea level to 3800 m. Maize and the diploid teosintes, both with 2n=20, are interfertile (there is one species of perennial, tetraploid teosinte). While maize covered much of the New World at the time of colonization, the teosintes have a much more restricted geographic distribution; mainly central and southwestern Mexico, with limited populations in northern Mexico, Guatemala, and Nicaragua (see Appendix 5). Maize has been divided into about 300 landraces (summarized in Goodman and Brown, 1988, but  Several early-maturing landraces from the Caribbean area probably were responsible for the early spread of maize into southern Europe; these were most likely Early Caribbean from the islands and Nal-tel de Tierra Baja from Guatemala. These few commercial landraces, which represent perhaps 5 to 10% of the landraces of the New World, were the sources of the bulk of the maize germplasm that reached and spread throughout the Old World. Teosinte was originally divided into 6 races by Wilkes (1967), but since the discovery of Zea diploperennis, species and subspecies names have come into favor (Wilkes, 2004; Appendix 5 of this document) for teosinte. While some races of maize (mostly lowland and mid-elevation races in areas where modern commerce prevails) have been displaced by modern cultivars, and others are threatened, virtually all the teosintes are endangered as a result of modern farming and ranching practices. In areas where populations of Native Americans predominate, their landraces of maize are still being cultivated and can still be collected today. However, economic forces, such as the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), are seriously eroding the well being of the small farmers in Mexico with a resulting serious reduction in the number of landraces being grown and a reduction of land area devoted to most races. In addition to maize and teosinte, there is one other genus of consequence related to maize. Some species of the genus Tripsacum (suggested base chromosome number 2n=18 (Anderson, 1944;Stebbins, 1950), but actually represented by a polyploid series with some apomixis) can be crossed with maize (with difficulty), usually resulting in sterile progeny, but backcrosses to maize are possible. Tripsacum's range is somewhat less than maize, but much greater than teosinte. There are at least 16 species of Tripsacum, ranging from the USA to Bolivia (de Wet et al., 1983). Some species are widespread, but others have very restricted distributions (Appendix 5).While there are numerous regional germplasm networks in the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Europe, most of the networks are more concerned with general information exchange rather than regeneration and active germplasm exchange. Most have budgets suitable only for holding occasional meetings and have had relatively little influence on active national or regional germplasm exchange, except for sometimes setting policies. The networks that have been most effective for maize are LAMP (Latin American Maize Project) and the Latin America Maize Regeneration Project. LAMP was funded in the mid-1980s with a US $1.5 million contribution to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) from Pioneer Hi-Bred International. Their CEO at that time was William L. Brown, who had been instrumental in collecting and studying the accessions of the races of maize in the 1950s and early 1960s. The regeneration project was initiated as a result of a unanimous recommendation of the National Plant Germplasm Resources Board of the USDA in 1983 (Brown was vice-chair). In many ways, the two projects worked together. Over 12,000 Latin American accessions were evaluated through LAMP, sequentially identifying the more promising ones for further breeding work, and eventually identifying an elite set of about 300 accessions. An executive committee worked with a director to distribute funds to the collaborating national projects. This was probably the most extensive evaluation project ever carried out for a set of germplasm accessions. While it covered only 50% of the \"available\" accessions, it quickly demonstrated the sad status of the remaining 50%, for which there were not adequate viable seed to even have two replications at two locations. The regeneration project was coordinated at various times by North Carolina State University, Ft. Collins (then NSSL, now NCGRP), and CIMMYT. It eventually regenerated most of the maize accessions of Latin America, including those of LAMP, starting at a time when many were on the verge of loss due to limited funding and understaffing of national programs. The project director was responsible for the purchase and distribution of supplies and allotment of monies to the collaborating programs. This project has been quite successful, but a number of \"difficult\" accessions remain to be regenerated, while other accessions still need safety backup. Additional funding and some careful decisions on appropriate regeneration sites need to be made to complete this important project.The LAMP project eventually led to the GEM (Germplasm Enhancement of Maize) project in the USA, a cooperative public/private endeavor to quickly expand the germplasm base of commercial maize. Elite germplasm accessions are crossed to private lines from US or foreign companies (or to public lines from foreign countries), families are derived by selfing, and top crosses are tested cooperatively to identify superior families. These superior families are first distributed to cooperators (US and international) and then, with a year's delay, to the general public anywhere in the world via the NCRPIS at Ames, Iowa. GEM is effectively governed by an elected Technical Steering Committee which oversees the efforts of the project directors at Ames and Raleigh; funding is through USDA-ARS and results from direct Congressional appropriations. GEM would be more effective with more international participation; at present there is little encouragement from the USDA (which has traditionally had a minimal interest in international collaboration) to do this. Together, these three projects represent much of the current leadership for protection, promotion, and utilization of maize germplasm resources.The total number of unique New World maize germplasm accessions exceeds 27,000 (Taba survey, 2006; see Appendices 6 and 7). Accession as used herein excludes inbred lines, synthetics, and other breeding materials and, unless otherwise noted, excludes teosinte and tripsacum). These accessions have been classified into some 300 races (Goodman and Brown, 1988). Major New World collections are listed in Table 1. The relative importance of the various collections includes the uniqueness of their holdings, the expertise and historical documentation held by the banks and their collaborators, and the degree to which their holdings are available through the active international distribution centers (CIMMYT and NCRPIS). Historically, the original strains of maize in Latin America collected in 1950-60's with the National Research Council-Rockefeller collection missions were preserved in four national centers (Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru). Later (see Section 3), most were duplicated at CIMMYT and USDA germplasm banks. Not all accessions have been classified by race, and not all can be classified. The latter include some that are mixtures of races; some that are descendants of hybrids; some that are mixtures of hybrids and races, or descendants of such mixtures. Documentation for some accessions requires improvement. Most New World accessions have been regenerated recently, most have duplicate preservation for safety, and most are available for distribution, either from CIMMYT or from the USDA's North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station at Ames, Iowa (NCRPIS), or from both. The number of Old World accessions is somewhat smaller (perhaps 20,000; based on Taba's survey; 40,000, if regional reports are included, but some of the latter may include breeding materials and accessions from other countries). More Old World accessions probably represent descendants of widely-distributed, openpollinated varieties or hybrids, and sample duplication may be more of an issue with Old World accessions. Major Old World collections are listed in Table 2. Their regeneration status, safety backup status, and general availability are much less certain than for New World accessions. Actual availability of accessions governed by MTAs is uncertain. Past experience with seed requests to many of the germplasm banks requiring MTAs suggests that seeds might actually be available from less than half of them. In addition to the major germplasm collections, there is one primary maize bank specifically for genes, the Maize Genetic Cooperation Stock Center. The maize stock center has conserved and annotated the maize mutant stocks and made them available to maize geneticists worldwide for 74 years. It is located in the Department of Crop Sciences of the University of Illinois (123 Turner Hall, 1102 S. Goodwin Avenue Urbana, IL 61801-4798, USA). The center's expertise and service to the worldwide users of maize genetic stocks are well known. Approximately 85% of its core holdings currently have safety backup at NCGRP (Ft. Collins), but it also houses tens of thousands of \"terminal\" segregating families generated by recent multimillion dollar National Science Foundation (NSF) genomics grants as well. In addition, some of these same NSF grants are producing thousands of Recombinant Inbred (RI) populations that are really beyond the scope of the maize stock center's core mission, the study and preservation of stocks containing specific mutant alleles.The reasons for the differing rates among them are the extent of unique holding of the accessions or races of maize either from own country only or those including the adjacent countries. The original strains of maize in Latin America collected in 1950-60's with the National Research Council-Rockfeller collection missions were preserved in the four national centers. Later they were duplicated at CIMMYT and USDA gene banks.The key collections are basically the international collections of the Americas, found at four sites:1. CIMMYT 2. NCGRP (Ft. Collins) 3. NCRPIS (Ames) 4. Genetic Stock Center (Urbana)CIMMYT houses most of the Latin American accessions, both for medium and long-term storage.There are low and high-elevation Bolivian accessions, intermediate and high elevation Guatemalan accessions, and some Caribbean accessions that are missing from CIMMYT's bank or lack regeneration. In addition, despite being THE world center for publi c maize breeding, for historical reasons, CIMMYT's germplasm bank has a very poor representation of public, tropical, inbred lines, and even lacks a few CIMMYT (CML) inbreds in its current inventory. Its representation of other important breeding materials is rather haphazard due to the long-term concept that the germplasm bank was for accessions, not breeding materials. However, the recent organizational reform of CIMMYT has streamlined integration of its maize breeding and maize genetic resources units. CIMMYT is widely regarded for its international collaboration and its willingness to share germplasm. Only recently has it even instituted shipping charges. It also now has a separate unit from the germplasm banks that handles shipping of both maize and wheat germplasm (the jury is still out on whether this is functioning well). CIMMYT houses many teosinte accessions, and it also monitors the existence of stands of wild and weedy teosintes, especially those in Mexico. The other three germplasm banks with large numbers of teosinte accessions are those of INIFAP (the Mexican national program), the University of Guadalajara, and NCGRP (FT. Collins). CIMMYT houses one of three major tripsacum gardens in the world; the others are at the USDA-ARS Subtropical Horticulture Research Station in Miami, Florida, and a USDA-ARS facility at Woodward, Oklahoma (see Appendix 5 for more detail about teosinte and tripsacum).NCGRP (Ft. Collins) is the long-term storage center for the US, and it houses even more Latin American maize than does CIMMYT. It generally does not provide seeds directly, but works in conjunction with NCRPIS at Ames, IA, the medium-term storage facility and the regeneration branch for the USA. NCRPIS is renowned world-wide for promptly sending seed of its holdings postagefree to any location in the world that does not have extremely restrictive phytosanitary requirements. NCRPIS and NCGRP (Ft. Collins) hold many, perhaps most extant, public US inbreds, many breeding populations, and distribute patented and Plant Variety Protection (PVP) inbreds as their protection expires. NCRPIS is the first choice for most germplasm requests, as its holdings are extensive, its shipping is prompt and free, and there are no charges for the seeds. The major drawback is that there is a large backlog of materials that need regeneration and limited funding and facilities for regeneration.The Genetic Stock Center at the University of Illinois is unique in the world. It houses virtually all of the mutants of maize, various chromosomal stocks, multiple mutant stocks, and various other stocks of interest to the maize genetics community. It provides these upon request to anyone, anywhere in the world, free of charge. It is short of space, but is currently expanding.The national centers are important for various reasons. The most important are those of Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. They were the original stock centers holding the NRC-Rockefeller collections of the 1940s-1960s, upon which the races of maize were defined and described. The national centers are not nearly as critical as the international centers for ex-situ seed storage, however. Almost all of the national New World germplasm banks have donated samples of their holdings to either CIMMYT or NCGRP (Ft. Collins), or both. What the national centers have to offer is their knowledge of, and experience with, their national accessions. For the most part, the Old World maize germplasm banks hold materials that are distinctly less important than those of the New World. Most Old World materials represent maize of commerce, which represents only a small segment of the variation found in the Americas, perhaps 10% or less. The bulk of it represents US and Caribbean materials; the remainder is mostly low-elevation Mexican Tuxpeños and Brazilian/Argentine Catetos. These jointly account for about 10 of the 300 races of maize of the Americas. Perhaps the most unique Old World populations are the waxy maizes of South East Asia that are currently threatened by the expansion of hybrid maize.What's missing from all of the germplasm banks are samples of important hybrids and private inbred lines (except recently expired PVP and patented ones which are available from NCRPIS).The four major maize germplasm banks are well managed, with access to, and use of, appropriate medium and long-term facilities. Almost all Latin American accessions are stored at a minimum of two locations; many are stored at three. The storage conditions for all facilities surveyed are summarized in Appendix 8, and seed exchange and database policies are summarized in Appendix 9.Sample sizes are more than adequate at the 4 major locations, except the genetics stock center at Urbana, where sample sizes are deliberately small, to accommodate the large number of mutant stocks. The mutant stocks are virtually always homozygous, and cooperators know that they will usually receive few (often 15) kernels that they will need to increase themselves.Regeneration has proceeded well at CIMMYT, the accessions lacking regeneration there are usually \"difficult\" accessions, poorly adapted to the experimental facilities available. The status of regeneration at NCGRP (Ft. Collins)/NCRPIS is more problematic. The number of accessions is larger, the regeneration budget has been tighter, and the facilities (mostly on Puerto Rico and Saint Croix) more limited. In recent years, all regeneration has been conducted with a goal of 100 sib-mated ears per growout; that is probably an excessively high number, given the numbers of ears originally collected (usually 5 to 20, rarely more). In some cases it may be possible and efficient to combine regeneration efforts with in-situ conservation/farmer-assisted-breeding efforts.Almost all accessions at CIMMYT are duplicated in national collections (although most national programs have very limited budgets and often have badly worn and outdated storage facilities); most have a long-term safety backup at NCGRP (Ft. Collins). Virtually all NCRPIS accessions have longterm backup at NCGRP (Ft. Collins). Most of the accessions at NCGRP (Ft. Collins) that are not at NCRPIS are backed up at CIMMYT, in fact that is where many of them came from. Many of these are also in the appropriate national collections.Passport data are available for almost all maize germplasm bank accessions. However, there is little uniformity in its management. CIMMYT seems to prefer its own accession numbers; NCGRP (Ft. Collins) and NCRPIS use PI numbers almost exclusively; and only the national programs use the original accession numbers initiated with the remarkable National Research Council-Rockefeller studies upon which all the American Races of Maize bulletins were based. Evaluation data are available from both CIMMYT and NCRPIS. The quantity of data is fairly directly correlated with the year of last regeneration. Recently regenerated accessions tend to have more data. Many of the data are descriptive and morphological. Only the US GRIN system is web-accessible, and it can be difficult to go from GRIN's PI numbers to original collection numbers.. There is little standardization, despite published international protocols. Many of the data collected beyond standard passport data consist of morphological data that are highly subject to genotype-byenvironment interactions.Appendix 8 lists standards for both medium and long term storage for maize accessions. The national collections of Latin America are virtually all stored under medium-term conditions (a few have long-term storage), at approximately 5°C and 50% relative humidity (RH). The national banks have been under funded, sometimes unfunded, for the past 50 years (this funding shortcoming basi cally began with the withdrawal of the Rockefeller Foundation support for such activities in the late 1950s and early 1960s). In the mid 1950s, virtually all Latin American maize was stored in three major germplasm banks: Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico. Once CIMMYT was functional, Brazil shipped its holdings (which included the collections from Argentina, Uruguay, eastern Bolivia, and the Guianas, as well as Brazil) to CIMMYT, and they formed the heart of the then newly-formed CIMMYT germplasm bank. Colombia initially held the collections for the Andean and northern regions of South America, from Chile to Venezuela. Peru took responsibility for its collections in the late 1950s, and since that time Colombia has slowly transferred most of the responsibility for the collections of other nations to either CIMMYT (Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia) or the US germplasm system (Chile). As countries developed functional germplasm systems of their own, duplicate sets of the materials have been transferred back to the country-of-origin. The USDA Germplasm Regeneration Project and LAMP have led to renewal and backup of most accessions in recent yearsThe national collections of Africa, Asia, and Europe vary widely in size and scope, but virtually all are based upon the races of maize of commerce, which represent at most about 10% of the races of maize of the Americas. Thus, the materials housed in these banks represent secondary centers of diversity, but diversity of commercial maize that is often overlooked. Some of these banks -China and India, for example -are extremely well designed and managed; some are little more than refrigeration chambers, usually operated at about 5°C and 50% RH (unfortunately the tales of beef and more exotic fare being stored in seed cold rooms are sometimes true).There is a real need to identify core subsets of the races, but this requires expertise not only in statistical procedures (of which there are many), but more critically, expertise on racial and accession classification and the availability of the type of data needed to develop reasonable classification decisions. There are few scientists with this sort of expertise and very little data that are really appropriate for the task (Sanchez et al, 1993). The races were originally defined largely on the basis of a combination of ecogeographical and morphological variation. Accessions typical of the races were chosen on the basis of field studies. These typical accessions have been used for most of the subsequent molecular marker work that has followed (e.g., Sanchez et al, 2000;Matsuoka et al, 2002) and have basically served as core collections for more than 50 years. The need for core subsets rests on two anchors (1) the germplasm banks' needs to focus on specific accessions for regeneration, storage, and distribution; and (2) the users' needs for a rational sampling scheme to facilitate selection of materials to meet their objectives (Franco et al, 2006). While the typical accessions provide an initial, if perhaps slightly dated core, additional collections have been made since they were identified, and molecular techniques have been developed, applied, and have finally started to become economically feasible. Development of core collections is critical, but they must be based on good phenotypic and ecogeographic data (where possible, GIS-based, consistent with the collection's passport data), as well as molecular data. Poorly developed sets of core collections can do real harm, not only by misleading potential users, but also by causing the neglect of important materials omitted from such cores.While molecular data are useful, many of them are largely random with respect to meaningful interpretation. Experience has shown that a very large number of markers are needed. Even Liu et al, 2003, working with 94 micro-satellite (SSR) markers on a very diverse set of 260 inbred lines (which are much easier to classify than are panmictic populations) had problems grouping a few l ines with their close relatives (by pedigree). Attempting to use even fewer markers with open-pollinated populations, as has occasionally been done, clearly will lead to even more errors in classification. While costs per datapoint have finally fallen, the current favorite, single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, unlike SSRs, restriction fragment-length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or isozymes, often require a two-step procedure (i) grouping SNPs into haplotypes and (ii) using haplotype frequencies for grouping accessions or landraces. Molecular data represent just one piece of the relationship puzzle; genotypeby-environment interaction often rules trait-application expression or performance, and ultimately performance determines value for application. The most useful data for racial classification for both maize and teosinte are latitude, longitude, and altitude, if the 10 or so races of maize of commerce are excluded, and the same conclusion applies to many species of tripsacum.One area that has not been greatly explored by maize germplasm banks is the possibility of distributing DNA samples, rather than seed, to the growing number of molecular labs interested in germplasm. This would be particularly important when seed availability is low. Certainly this would be feasible for core collections, as the samples could be cheaply collected during regeneration or germination testing. Feasibility is, of course, dependent on required financial and human resources to collect and distribute DNA or tissues for DNA extraction relative to other priorities, such as regeneration. An efficient system for distribution of tissue or DNA is likely 10 to 100X less costly than the regeneration activities to produce seed and could satisfy a large segment of the research community. Distribution of DNA would not be subject to phytosanitary restrictions that sometimes impede germplasm exchange.The integration of breeding with germplasm management is much too broad an area to develop a complete plan here; however, there are segments that could and should readily be implemented. One example is the addition of materials with superior traits or research value, such as released inbred lines, significant breeding populations, and important commercial hybrids (or advanced generations thereof) to germplasm collections. With adequate safeguards of intellectual property rights, including required timedelays for public release of materials governed by PVP or plant patents, there is no obvious reason that private as well as public materials should not be included. In addition, collecting and providing basic data from germplasm increases (yield, standability, maturity, adaptation) would greatly increase the value of accessions to breeders and others interested in utilizing such materials. User-friendly, internetaccess to such data, along with passport data, is long overdue and should encompass data held in all national and international collections.There is a need to extend the \"Races of Maize\" studies (summarized in Goodman and Brown, 1988) to other parts of the world. Such studies exist for Spain, India, Italy (Brandolini, 2006), and several East European countries. Limited studies exist for certain regions of the Himalayas and Japan. However, few studies like them exist for such maize-rich regions as China, Indonesia, and Turkey or for the entire African continent. Notably absent is an equivalent study for the USA.There are a number of regions in the Americas where accessions have lain dormant in germplasm banks without regeneration due to lack of appropriate experimental facilities or lack of knowledge about where to grow \"difficult\" materials (Goodman, 1984). There have also been cases where regeneration was not possible due to limited funding for germplasm conservation, characterization and distribution. For example, several landrace accessions were collected in Ghana and Burkina Faso but largely lost due to the lack of adequate storage facilities and limited funding. In some cases, recollection of adequate samples makes more sense than regeneration, particularly for high-elevation landraces growing in areas unaffected by improvement programs (much of Oaxaca and Chiapas in Mexico, many Central American highlands, much of Andean Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru). These are cases where national programs should have the knowledge and expertise to recollect. In other cases, appropriate environments for regeneration have been identified (for example, many Bolivian races and all the Amazonian races can be regenerated in winter nurseries in Florida), but have been under-or unused. In almost all cases, however, key accessions exist within these \"difficult\" sets that demand regeneration due to their historical importance (the typical accessions, for example). National programs should be able to assist with these efforts, some of which could readily be coordinated with farmer-assisted selection/in-situ conservation efforts. Much progress has been made on regeneration since the 1980s; many collections were regenerated in collaboration with CIMMYT in the 1990s. CIMMYT does not have duplicates of many national collections that North Carolina State helped regenerate in the 1980s. CIMMYT has received some 500 national accessions of Colombia from Ames, but many accessions from Bolivia as well as some from African countries remain to be regenerated for safety back-ups.The availability of seedstocks of accessions of maize in the New World has changed from dismal (in 1980) to quite good today. Most accessions are stored in reasonable quantities (usually > 1 kg) in both national and international centers. The international centers (CIMMYT and NCRPIS) have functioning programs in place for phytosanitary inspections, packaging, and shipping. The situation for much of the Old World is much less clear, some countries (much of Europe, China, India, and Japan) appear to have adequate stocks and personnel, others may have large numbers of stocks, but quantity and availability are less clear (Appendix 9 has some relevant information).The maize of the Americas is generally accessible through either CIMMYT or NCRPIS or both. Perhaps 10% of the accessions lack regeneration. The status of accessibility of Old World accessions is much more questionable.The limitations that current phytosanitary requirements place on germplasm exchange are often prohibitive, even for well-funded programs. For poorly funded programs, they form an immense barrier. Many of these limitations are of economic origin, designed to act as limiting or prohibiting tariffs to inhibit large-scale commerce (conceptually, at least, this is prohibited or at least limited by the SPS [Sanitary and Phytosanitary] Agreement of the WTO; Jensen, 2002). Examples: requiring freedom from southern leaf blight for seeds sent to countries where the disease is endemic (Argentina, South Africa, etc.) or limiting the percent of seeds with the common fungus Fusarium to 5% (Serbia). Many countries (including Mexico) restrict seeds containing any sign of Stewart's wilt, a minor disease of little real pathological significance. Others require certification of freedom from diseases that do not occur in the regions where the seeds are produced (HPV [High Plains Virus] does not occur in Florida or North Carolina, yet seeds produced in those states sometimes require field inspections or laboratory testing to be shipped to some countries). Some countries require freedom from diseases that are highly unlikely to be seed transmitted (Cercospora zeae-maydis, Kabatiella zeae, and Phyllostica maydis, for example in maize; similar lists exist for soybean and other crops). Others simply greatly hinder or slow usage of materials, for example Australia and Brazil require that all new genetic materials must pass though a post-entry quarantine process with few seeds that require several subsequent increases before any real experimentation can take place. There are legitimate reasons to screen maize seeds from certain areas where important seed-borne diseases occur, but these are often the exception. In many cases, boatloads of maize enter a country more freely than a packet of 50 insectfree kernels of an important germplasm accession. These problems are severe, and they are not restricted to maize, either in their severity or their inappropriateness. Current concerns over the presence of GMOs and related import restrictions simply add to already-existing problems.Both CIMMYT and NCRPIS ship several hundred kernels of an accession to most locations in the world within a few days or weeks (unless unreasonable phytosanitary restrictions exist in the recipient country -see above). To some degree, the general ineffectiveness of national maize germplasm banks in international seed distribution can be attributed to minimal budgets combined with unreasonable phytosanitary requirements restricting seed distribution. Almost none exchange seed freely, although bank to bank interchange is not unusual. Some are better than others at responding to individual international requests. Some of the reasons for the failure to freely participate in international seed exchange are budgetary. However, some of the reasons are political and bureaucratic, occasionally based on overestimates of the potential commercial value of germplasm. Fears associ ated with patenting genes or germplasm have tended to paralyze seed interchange in recent years. Still, the distribution efforts and policies of the NCRPIS at Ames, Iowa, USA, stand in stark contrast to those of all other national New World maize germplasm banks. Only the maize germplasm bank at CIMMYT compares well with the efforts made at Ames, a bank that has often had severe budget limitations (although rarely as limited as most Latin American national banks). Unless these problems, which are sometimes political, sometimes legal, occasionally nationalistic, and almost always budgetary, can be met head-on, the role of national germplasm banks in global efforts will be severely constrained. The resulting loss of genetic diversity and capacity in the form of expertise and research networks will be felt internationally and will be irreversible. As there has been less interest in Old World accessions, there is little past experience with which to judge actual availability.In Latin America, Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Colombia lack funding for international exchange. Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guatemala, and Mexico lack funding and also have legal restrictions.In the Old World, there are funding restrictions, political restrictions, and phytosanitary restrictions for much of Africa and Asia. China has political restrictions, while the situations with India, Japan, and South Korea are currently uncertain (see Table 2).The collections of CIMMYT and the combination of NCRPIS (Ames)/NCGRP (Ft. Collins) generally meet expected international standards for maintenance and distribution. Both do have backlogs for regeneration; CIMMYT's are smaller, but perhaps more troubling, as their backlogs represent difficult ecologies for which regeneration policies have yet to be established. The genetic stocks of the Maize Cooperation Stock Center at the University of Illinois also generally meet such standards, except for lack of on-site, long-term storage. Like NCRPIS, the Urbana center relies upon NCGRP (Ft. Collins) for long term storage, but about 15% of their stocks lack such a backup.For the New World, virtually all the diversity housed in the national centers, which generally fail to meet international standards (for lack of long term storage, lack of resources for meeting international seed requests, and/or legal limitations on seed shipments), is found at CIMMYT and NCRPIS (Ames) / NCGRP (Ft. Collins). The accessions housed in the national collections of the Old World are another story altogether. Few of these are backed up at the international centers; many are essentially unavailable to non-national (and sometimes even to national) users; and assurance of periodic regeneration is often uncertain. The loose-knit European maize network (Lipman, et al., 1997) is one exception to this, but even there long-term storage and secure backup seem not to be well-defined.There are a few areas where adequate collections were never made (portions of the Amazon basin, parts of Central America, waxy maize in SE Asia). The original collections from the island of Dominica (not the Dominican Republic) were completely lost. While France has sampled the maize germplasm from the French Caribbean islands and deposited it in their germplasm collections, no samples have been deposited in the international banks and no published studies of the sampled variation exist. The original collections from Dominica included the typical collections of the important commercial race, Coastal Tropical Flint. Many of the collections sponsored by IBPGR in the 1970s were lost, as there was not an effective germplasm maintenance program active at that time, at CIMMYT or elsewhere. Neither public nor private tropical inbred lines are well represented, nor are important hybrids (or their bulk increases).This information is simply not readily available for many national collections. It is often possible to determine the nominal conditions for seed storage, but if backup generators are not available, not fueled, or not maintained, the end result is many packages of non-or poorly-germinating seed. Simply signing agreements and treaties does not guarantee seed distribution. The restrictions may simply be monetary, but the more severe ones are political/legal. One could send out surveys asking about these points, but there are often limits on what technical staff may say (and such restrictions are not limited to under-developed countries). Even visiting the germplasm bank sites might not be sufficient, although it would greatly increase our present knowledge.The Vavilov Center in St. Petersburg (Russia) once held worldwide accessions of maize. The many years of restricted budgets, poor or non-existent facilities for regeneration, and deteriorating facilities appear to have greatly reduced the integrity of these collections. There may still be important accessions held at the National Seed Storage in Kuban, near the city of Krasnodar. This would require further investigation to verify.13.1 Specific actions that could be undertaken in the short term to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of conservation collectively CIMMYT needs support to finish up the Latin American Maize Regeneration Project at a rate of about US $ 300,000/year, for a period of 5 years. CIMMYT may be able to raise some of this money itself, but given the misery that currently hovers over all the international centers, it probably cannot raise more than half. If outside funds are not available, this project may well cease. NCGRP (Ft. Collins) is in the same boat with NCRPIS, both need funds for a backlog of regeneration needs. Those needs are in the US$ 250,000/year range for the indefinite future, certainly 10 years or more. In addition, NCRPIS is the likely site for initiating the metadatabase for maize. They currently provide the only web-accessible database, the often maligned GRIN system, which more or less works, but not in a user-friendly way. The initial costs for that would be fairly high, at least US$ 250,000/year for 2 years, and US$125,000/year for 2 more years to clean things up. While the US germplasm system might match half or more of the regeneration costs, they would be unwilling to foot very much of the costs for an international database network, perhaps at most 15 to 20% of the overall costs. If outside funds are not forthcoming, the regeneration will proceed at a very slow rate; the metadatabase for maize will not happen.The Genetic Stock Center's major needs are additional cold storage space at perhaps US$ 100,000 (particularly if they are to house the increasing number of recombinant inbred populations) and added technical support at US $60,000/year. This center probably has enough political clout to raise most of these monies from USDA sources (they have recently received a modest increase in cold storage space). US$ 10,000 to 20,000 of seed money might raise it much sooner.A small international committee (or indeed a single person) needs to solicit suggestions for maize germplasm banks worth visiting, then visit them (or have a proxy visit) and report on what needs to be done next. Clearly, there is a need for CIMMYT and INIFAP to collaborate more directly on the 10,000+ Mexican accessions. CIMMYT and NCRPIS could collaborate on germplasm regeneration. National programs could be tapped for more regeneration and more information on the accessions. Until a metadatabase for maize is placed in operation, many of the needs and much of the duplication will go unrecognized.The Latin American Regeneration Project and the LAMP Project should both be extended to other important collections; the LAMP project covered only about 50% of the potentially available Latin American accessions. The maize metadatabase and the international committee should be able to pinpoint such collections. This cost may be about US$ 2 million. The GEM project should be extended to include additional international collaborators at a cost of US$ 500,000 annually for a period of 15 to 20 years; the USA might cover a substantial portion of this, perhaps 50%, but would be unlikely to shoulder the entire burden.The most reasonable starting point is to develop a plan for generating downloadable information lists of all consequential maize germplasm bank holdings available over the internet. A comprehensive, easilyused, metadatabase solely for maize germplasm is needed that could retrieve base data from individual maize germplasm banks (which may each have different types of li sts and different, perfectly functional, software programs). Users must have the ability to download Excel -compatible spreadsheets on sets of accessions circumscribed by geographical origin, race, germplasm type (accession, breeding stock, population, inbred, etc.), core membership (where available), seed availability, and safety backup information. Most existing databases are sound, but even the most accessible of them are not userfriendly, even for knowledgeable users. Minimum data needed would be passport data, but much more would be feasible, including digital photographs. This should be done in collaboration with MaizeGDB (http://www.maizegdb.org/), which already lists inbred lines held in the US germplasm system, and possibly with Gramene. CIMMYT and IRRI are collaborating to develop a germplasm bank management system, and that needs to be coordinated with other maize genetic resource efforts. For the past few years, efforts have been made within the CGIAR centers to establish a system-wide information network for genetic resources (SINGER). This global information system is accessible via the internet (http://singer.grinfo.net/) and is aimed at implementing a one-stop entry point for information on, and access to, the in-trust collections of the CGIAR centers. At this point, SINGER is even less user-friendly than GRIN. The challenges in using information compiled from various database sources are significant. The most pressing problem is to resolve the various acronyms and numbering systems used for the same accessions (e.g., Chs30 = CHS 30 = CHIS 30 = Chiapas 30 = CHIAPAS 0030, a simple example), and allow a user to access the material using any of these (or other reasonable) codes. (For a challenge, try standardizing the collections of Guatemala or Peru or those of the states of Chihuahua or Oaxaca on the CIMMYT database on the CD of the 2006 Maize Germplasm Network Meeting; the NPGS database provided has no real collection names to standardize). Inclusion of digital photos of at least ears and kernels with the passport and field data is critical. Potential users need to know, at a minimum, information on adaptation, relative maturity, plant height, and susceptibility to lodging in order to select materials that can be successfully grown and utilized. Evaluation dataagronomic, phenotypic or biochemical -need to be end-user, trait-oriented, while being aware that (unlike self-pollinated crops) the variation within accessions is often as large as the variation among accessions within a specific region. Resolving these issues needs to involve not only current expertise of both germplasm and database authorities, but the education of a new generation of maize germplasm specialists. Funds are needed immediately to provide resources and expertise to resolve the differences among identifiers of the accessions between various maize databases and to standardize the identifiers; a maize database Swat Team is needed NOW. It must be recognized that accessions with common identifiers but different seed sources may not be exactly (and, occasionally, not even approximately) identical. The CIMMYT maize bank has placed CIMMYT ID numbers on accessions of in-trust collections received from cooperators. The cooperator banks' identifiers of the accessions are registered as associated identifiers. NCGRP (Ft. Collins) has used CIMMYT ID numbers for its inventory in the safety back up collection. This type of labeling system is widespread; the PI numbers in the US follow the same pattern. While CIMMYT ID numbers or US PI numbers are very helpful to curators and other insiders, virtually all outside researchers use the original accession numbers. Neither a CIMMYT ID nor a US PI number has much meaning to users outsi de their respective systems. While GRIN can be (sometimes) used on line to decipher a PI number, there is currently no web access to CIMMYT ID numbers. As an example of the iterations one can encounter, consider Lim 13, a well-known Peruvian accession. It has been assigned at least five identifiers over the past 50 years. First, the Colombian bank assigned it a PER number; then the NAS-NRC assigned it a NRC number; then Peru assigned it \"Lim 13,\" then the USDA assigned it a PI number, and, finally, CIMMYT assigned it a CIMMYT ID number. Along the way, it is quite possible that EMBRAPA assigned it a Brazilian number, and it may have acquired Chinese, Russian, and Yugoslavian numbers as well. And of course we have not considered the various iterations of Lim, LIM, Lima, and LIMA or 0013, 013, 13, 13, etc. Thus, a single accession can acquire a plethora of labels, many of which would be meaningless even to the authors of The Races of Maize in Peru.The next priority would be:(1) to use the maize database, in conjunction with national germplasm bank expertise, to determine which accessions exist but for which viable seeds are NOT available for current distribution (2) to determine which ecogeographic areas are under-or unrepresented in the collections and in need of collection or re-collection, and (3) to establish which existing accessions are most in need of immediate regeneration (based on age and quantity of seed, significance of the accession, etc.).Identification of needs must be followed by prioritization and by immediate action to remedy the problems identified. Resources are critically needed for the recollection of rare, endangered, and nonadapted races, including those landraces that are soon to be replaced by improved maize. Collecting broader-based samples than was done originally would be helpful. The current goal is to obtain regenerations of 100 sib-pollinated ears each from accessions that most often were origi nally collected as five to ten open-pollinated ears. Thus, most often, the initial effective population size was less than 20; at least a few were based on single ears and some were collected as bulk seed at local markets. While recollecting, collection of indigenous knowledge must be a priority (particularly for utilization and cultural uses), and agronomic and phenotypic evaluation data need to be collected during regeneration. These are excellent opportunities for training the next generation of specialists and for international collaboration.One potential strategy suggested for enhancing regional collaboration in sub-Saharan Africa is through the establishment/strengthening of a regional network of maize germplasm conservation. The network needs to bring together germplasm conservation specialists from the various National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) to design appropriate strategies for germplasm collection, conservation and distribution. This network could facilitate the development of collaborative projects for germplasm collection, evaluation, distribution, and information exchange. The network could request that scientists in the NARS from different countries in Africa that need to carry out critical maize germplasm collection expeditions develop project proposals and submit them for funding. Panels could be formed to review proposals and approve those that are well conceived. As a requirement for conducting the collaborative project, the network could insure sharing of the collected germplasm with CIMMYT, IITA, and/or NCGRP for long-term storage. Similar plans might work elsewhere.Safety backup for all accessions should be possible once a comprehensive maize metadatabase is operational. All maize accessions should be backed up for long term storage at NCGRP (Ft. Collins) and at CIMMYT in quantities of at least 1 kg each at each location. Typical accessions and/or core accessions should have 3 kg each. It is far more expensive to regenerate an accession multiple times than to do it right the first time. Current medium term storage conditions (+5° C, 25% RH) easily allow for 20 years storage. At the current distribution rate of the US NPGS, almost 40% of the collection (sans cores) needs regeneration every 10 years. Current long-term storage (-20° C) requires regeneration at intervals of over 100 years (exact statements are not possible, but excellent germination has persisted for well over 50 years). Safety backup is particularly critical for non-New-World accessions; Asian and African accessions appear particularly vulnerable to loss. Even those countries for which routine seed exchange is impossible for political or phytosanitary reasons must make provision for safety backups.In addition, core subsets of maize germplasm should be sent to Svalbard, the international high security seed-vault now under construction in Norway, provided that its temperature and relative humidity conditions meet standards for long term storage of maize.The roles of national versus international germplasm banks must be clarified; each type of germplasm bank needs to determine its role in a global germplasm system and focus its resources and activities accordingly. National germplasm banks that are inactive in terms of fulfilling individual seed requests may have other, equally important, roles to play in terms of germplasm collection, regeneration, maintenance, education, and knowledge. Those maize germplasm banks actively filling international seed requests appear to be largely limited to NCRPIS and CIMMYT at present. While IITA serves as a regional maize germplasm bank for much of Africa, quarantine restrictions (fear of spreading Striga, downy mildew or maize streak are at least some of the causes) limit its role on the wider international stage. IITA's active involvement in the Phytosanitary Council and the establishment of seed regulatory mechanisms should facilitate the distribution of maize germplasm accessions from its bank across countries in sub-Saharan Africa. IITA needs to assess and coordinate maize germplasm collection in West and Central African and cooperate with other germplasm banks in East and South African regional efforts. CIMMYT is willing to provide safety backup for all African accessions and is willing to house, maintain, and distribute core collections, once these are identified, and important breeding stocks, including released African inbred lines. CIMMYT and the NCRPIS (Ames) will remain the main distributors of seeds of germplasm accessions, with CIMMYT and NCGRP (Ft. Collins) sharing longterm storage. For the most part, national programs need to concentrate on local maintenance, education, and within-country distribution and utilization. National collections are important; each country has an obligation to provide its people with their own genetic resources. The contributions of national germplasm banks toward understanding the nature of the accessions, their current and historic uses, particularly for human food, and toward educating the next generation of curators are essential. National banks can also identify those areas that have never had good collections, where it is still possible to do reasonable collecting. For an international system to function, there simply must be cooperative use of resources -for documentation, regeneration, data collection, and preservation of accession history and uses. No single institution can do everything. Germplasm bank managers and curators are the resource experts for users, and a web-based, maize database will greatly help users, but will generate still more questions and requests for information from the national banks, even with seed shipments being handled globally or continentally.While increased maize production is one goal of genetic resources programs, enhancing food security, reducing poverty and protecting the environment are at least equally important goals, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and in Indigenous areas of the Americas. Strategic evaluation of maize germplasm accessions combined with genetic enhancement will be important to achieve this. Maize germplasm accessions must be evaluated systematically in order to search for desirable traits needed in the prevailing production systems, identify sources of resistance to di seases, pests and parasitic plants, as well as to locate sources of tolerance to abiotic stresses. Novel traits identified from the results of evaluations will be invaluable raw materials for supporting genetic enhancement for increasing productivity. The lack of extensive genetic enhancement research activities is considered to be one of the major factors limiting the use of landrace collections maintained in germplasm banks. This is particularly true for maize breeders in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere, who face substantial pressure to generate improved varieties adapted for their particular countries with limited resources and thus cannot afford to invest these resources in long-term genetic enhancement projects. Genetic enhancement will be carried out at IITA to transfer the required traits into suitable genetic backgrounds that can be distributed as breeding materials for use by NARS in Sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere for their maize breeding programs.To address the phytosanitary restrictions on germplasm quantities of seed, a united front with other crops will probably be necessary. The use of seed quarantines solely to limit commerce is indefensible; the impositions of phytosanitary rules that are in conflict with common sense is self-defeating and not in a country's own best interests.Seed collections of the teosintes need to be safely duplicated at NCGRP and CIMMYT. National/International Reserves need to be established to protect the remaining fragments of the Balsas, Guatemala, Huehuetenango, and Nicaraguan races of teosinte. International collaboration of teosinte experts from the Colegio de Postgraduados, ICTA (Guatemala), INIFAP, the University of Guadalajara, the University of Massachusetts, and the USDA-ARS is vital (see Appendix 5). CIMMYT's current ex-situ tripsacum garden at Tlaltizapan, Morelos, should continue to be maintained, with a duplicate garden established in Veracruz (or some equivalent lowland, tropical environment). Seed samples collected from the clones should be conserved in the bank and made available for requests.Another tripsacum garden could be established near IITA headquarters in Africa. IITA has experience in utilizing teosinte, and thus can exploit the available wealth of diversity in both teosinte and tripsacum for genetic enhancement of maize germplasm in different parts of Africa. In-situ monitoring of tripsacum populations should be conducted in Mexico and Guatemala, the center of diversity for the genus, and in other countries in Central and South America, where both widespread and endemic species are found. Ex-situ tripsacum gardens at CIMMYT and USDA in Florida should be enriched with the di versity found in in-situ, and more collaboration should occur between these two unique sites. Unless there is some mechanism to establish who is responsible for the wild relatives of maize, they will continue to fall through the cracks. The most reasonable solution to this problem is to place the responsibility for teosinte and tripsacum conservation with the maize germplasm banks. Until now, collection -and much of the maintenance -of teosinte and tripsacum has been conducted by botanists and geneticists who do not have proper facilities or budgets for such long-term endeavors.The major conclusions are that for maize there are really three major international-level collections:(1) CIMMYT (Texcoco, Mexico), ( 2) NCRPIS (Ames, USA)/NCGRP (Ft. Collins, USA), (3) Maize Cooperative Genetic Stock Center (Urbana, USA). The national collections are primarily -and vitally -important as knowledge and training bases. The collections of the Americas are generally of much greater consequence than the accessions from the Old World.There is a need for financial support of a metadatabase for maize germplasm that is user-friendly and web-accessible, and there is still a need for support of regeneration (or re-collection where it is more efficient and effective than regeneration) in critical regions.There is a serious need to train a new generation of maize germplasm specialists, and that training should include experience at the national centers with the new maize metadatabase. A small, forceful international committee needs to examine the needs of the entire maize germplasm community and be willing to fight to make it more effective and more responsible.The application of projects such as GEM (Germplasm Enhancement of Maize) and CIMMYT's germplasm enhancement efforts would certainly be assisted by having basic agronomic data available for accessions. These and similar germplasm enhancement-type projects would also be greatly aided by having ready access to released international inbreds and elite breeding populations. Various molecular association studies and most disease-and insect-screening trials for molecular or field studies would also greatly benefit from ready access to such materials.While IITA has made some efforts to utilize landrace accessions for combating downy mildew, maize streak virus, Striga hermonthica, southern corn rust and stem borers, the number of accessions used has been very limited. Furthermore, most studies of races, pests, or pathogens have not included a broad spectrum of African or Asian materials, as they have simply been generally unavailable.Comprehensive racial studies of such materials would allow systematic sampling, and safety backups of such materials are imperative. Regional interchange among China, India, Indonesia, the Koreas, Japan, and the Philippines would accomplish a minimal safety backup network for East Asia, although current political realities may present insurmountable temporary barriers to some of this.China, India, and Japan are certainly capable of doing their own collecting, conservation, and maintenance, but safety maintenance and seed availability on an international level are concerns. For example, seed of Southeast Asian waxy germplasm is not held by any of the international germplasm banks. Core collections and important breeding materials need to be sent to CIMMYT or NCGRP (Ft. Collins), depending upon the ease of exchange and latitude of the accession. CIMMYT is willing to maintain and distribute the core collections (including inbreds and important breeding materials) of Southern China and other tropical and semitropical countries of the region.IITA can serve as coordinator for Africa, facilitating germplasm transfer. It should also house the African core collections and advanced breeding materials, which should be shared with CIMMYT. Regional exchange among Turkey and the countries of East Europe would accomplish safety backups for these important accessions, and such materials would most appropriately be housed at NCGRP (Ft. Collins) for permanent protection. Such activities would obviously need to involve the Ministries of Agriculture and, where appropriate, the Agricultural Science Academies. European accessions from both eastern and western Europe need to be incorporated into a unified network, and their accessions need to be permanently stored at NCGRP (Ft. Collins) or some other suitable site, with safety backups in more than one European country. At present, only NCGRP (Ft. Collins) appears to be willing to accept maintenance of all Old World accessions. The database efforts of SINGER, Zemun Polje, and other European systems (Lipman et al., 1997) need to be incorporated into a worldwide web-friendly, metadatabase for maize germplasm. Certainly other options for the backup storage sites, such as the nearly-operational germplasm bank at Svalbard, Norway, will emerge and should be considered in terms of duration of seed viability, institutional policies, shipment costs, and access possibilities.With a relatively small amount of intelligent re-collection and a stronger focus on the most important \"difficult\" accessions, the ecogeographic sampling for maize in the New World will be essentially complete. It is extremely important to act now, as economic and demographic changes are eroding the genetic diversity of maize in many areas that were once untouched by modern agricultural, horticultural, forestry, and industrial practices. Perhaps the greatest problems to be overcome are the various barriers to seed exchange ranging from phytosanitary infelicities to political embargoes. The Global Public Good Project, a World Bank-funded project aimed at improving the operations of CGIAR germplasm banks, may help in optimizing the maize global strategy.Along with the will to provide resources for the regeneration of accessions non-adapted to the ecology of the germplasm banks, and the resources to recollect material, we need to address the depth of expertise in maize genetic resources. It is important to rapidly identify suitable candidates for training in the field of maize conservation and use in the next five years. At least twelve young scientists need to be employed globally in this area within the next 10 years; more would be much better. This training should be in conjunction with both national germplasm resources programs and with allied breeding programs in order to facilitate collaboration between the two. Experience with in-situ conservation efforts would also be desirable. There is an obligation of each nation to train its own essential personnel, but germplasm expertise has international value as well. The training of future maize genetic resource experts, breeders, entomologists, pathologists, and agronomists capable of focusing on the practical aspects of agricultural production challenges is critical. Without these people, most of the potential to apply the genetic discoveries and technologies resulting from use of plant genetic resources will be lost.Opportunities for contributions from the wild relatives of maize to maize breeding challenges may increase in the future as current molecular breeding technologies advance. Social and environmental changes threaten stability of long-term conservation in-situ, and necessitate ex-situ backup.Evolutionary bottlenecks from teosinte to maize and from indigenous maize to commercial maize have occurred. The genetic diversity of teosinte and tripsacum is relevant to maize research and breeding efforts for maize productivity, nutritional quality, bio-energy production, and other uses.The time for holding additional maize germplasm meetings and for writing extensive papers on the woeful status of the maize germplasm system has long past. Had as much effort gone into developing a user-friendly database for maize germplasm as has gone into organizing meetings about the status of maize germplasm, we would be able to Google \"Lim 13\" or \"Chs 30\" and acquire useful information about their racial assignments, agronomic characteristics, and seed availability in a matter of seconds. Much effort toward maize germplasm conservation and utilization has been made over the past 20 years, but many of the fruits of those efforts will remain elusive until a user-friendly maize database is deployed.  Teosinte, the closest relative of maize, is considered to have greatly influenced the high genetic variability and development of the principal Mesoamerican maize landraces. After several decades of studies, the hypothesis of teosinte as the wild ancestor of maize has become widely accepted. Despite profound differences in ear and plant morphology, teosinte and maize are very close genetically; they hybridize and produce viable, fully fertile hybrids. The inheritance of key traits distinguishing maize and teosinte has been under study by Doebley and coworkers for the last two decades. Several of the morphological traits are under the control of multiple genes and exhibit quantitative inheritance; there are five or six regions of the genome that have very strong effects on the observed differences between maize and teosinte (Doebley, 2004). However, a key event in maize domestication, the liberation of the kernel from the hardened, protective casing that envelops the kernel in teosinte is controlled by a single gene (Wang et al., 2005).Teosinte is represented by annual and perennial diploid species (2n = 20) and by a tetraploid species (2n = 40). They are found within the tropical and subtropical areas of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua as isolated populations of variable population sizes, occupying from less than one ha to several hundreds of square kilometers. The distribution of teosinte extends from the southern part of the cultural region known as Arid America, in the Western Sierra Madre of the State of Chihuahua and the Guadiana Valley in Durango, to the western part of Nicaragua, including practically the entire western part of Mesoamerica. A point worth highlighting with regard to the geographic distribution of teosinte is that populations have specific climate, soil, and human circumstances under which they can be found (Sanchez et al., 1998).Teosintes comprise seven taxa (Appendix The major teosinte collections in germplasm banks are those of INIFAP, CIMMYT, USDA-ARS and Universidad de Guadalajara (Appendix 5, Table 2). Only CIMMYT and USDA-ARS have long-term storage facilities. Of the 805 accessions reported by the above institutions, only partial data are available for users: 40% have passport data and only 25% have inventory data. On average, 750g are stored per accession at the Universidad de Guadalajara and about 600g at INIFAP. It is important to stress that most populations have been sampled in small seed quantities, mostly for genetic and morphological studies. Sampling for long-term conservation will be required for most populations.Although the samples on hand may generally represent the variation known and expected in Mexico and Central America, it has not been possible to verify many existing reports of teosinte in the field, due to the difficulties of reaching sites, budget constraints and lack of equipment for exploring and collecting. It is difficult to estimate the danger of extinction for teosinte with precision, however, based on observations over the last 25 years, all populations are threatened. Several populations have practically disappeared, except, until recently, for some populations in the Balsas Basin, which includes many populations from the states of Guerrero, Michoacán, and Mexico (Sánchez et al., 2004;Wilkes, 2006). However, a recent survey (Dr. G. Wilkes, Dr. S.Taba and Dr. J. Sanchez; December, 2004) of southern and northern Guatemala teosinte populations found them nearing extinction. Over the last 500 years, human activities such as deforestation, urbanization (road building) and cattle grazing have been identified as the major threats to teosinte. However, according to Dr. G. Wilkes, the most important threat is when the cultivation of maize landraces is abandoned. Because of these threats, permanent monitoring programs and in-situ conservation projects with participation of local farmer communities are critically needed. For the short term, collecting and ex-situ conservation activities are urgent in Guatemala, Nicaragua and several sites in Mexico.Ex-situ teosinte seed conservation  When collecting existing populations, use appropriate sample size for seed distribution of duplicates and for users.  Monitor seed viability of accessions in the banks.  Upgrade seed storage facilities.In-situ teosinte conservation  Designate in-situ sites or populations for protection in Mexico, Guatemala, and Nicaragua.  Monitor the in-situ populations for changes in demography and genetic diversity.Characterization/evaluation and use  Characterize with minimum phenotypic descriptors.  Characterize with molecular markers.  Develop a database characterizing teosinte populations and races.  Compile information on characterization, use, and prebreeding with teosinte.  Make data web-accessible.  Teosinte database  Compile passport data of the accessions at all banks.  Make seed increases, and inventory the accessions as necessary.  Compile in-situ monitoring data.  Make seed distribution records available.The genus Tripsacum is the genus most closely related to Zea. Two easily discerned morphological features distinguish Tripsacum species from Zea species. First, Tripsacum inflorescences have both distal male spikelets and basal female spikelets, unlike Zea in which there are separate male and female inflorescences (although teosinte, and more rarely maize, do form some mixed inflorescences). Second, tripsacum fruitcases are less indurate, more cylindrical in cross section, and rectangular-trapezoidal in outline. Tripsacum L. is a genus of nearly 20 recognized taxa (Appendix 5, Table 3), all of which are native to the New World. They are distributed from central and eastern United States to Paraguay; growing from sea level to nearly 2,700 meters in tropical and subtropical forests, savannas, grasslands, dry scrubland, and temperate forests. Systematic treatment is difficult because hybridization, polyploidy, and apomixis occur throughout the genus. In addition, there is insufficient herbarium material, especially from South America, for a comprehensive study. Tripsacum and Zea comprise subtribe Tripsacinae, tribe Andropogoneae, subfamily Panicoideae of family Poaceae (GPWG, 2001). Tripsacum is a more distant and diverse American relative of maize than the teosintes. Mexico and Guatemala are the centers of diversity for both genera.Tripsacum is widely distributed in the Americas, however, it is not a very common plant. The species are perennial forage grasses, but even the more widely spread T. dactyloides is not common enough to be of importance. Populations of various size exist, but their colonizing ability is inferior to that of more aggressive grasses, such as Panicum maximum. One species, T. andersonii, is a natural Tripsacum x Zea hybrid (Talbert et al. 1990;Larson and Doebley 1994;Berthaud et al. 1997). Zea luxurians (an n=10 teosinte) was identified as the Zea parent, while triploid T. latifolium (2n=3x=54), the result of a hybridization between T. latifolium (2x) and T. maizar (2x), is proposed to be the Tripsacum parent (Berthaud et al. 1997) This species has been introduced as a forage grass throughout the tropics.Tripsacum species display considerable variation in ploidy level, with a haploid chromosome number of n=18 (Table 3): a few are strictly diploid, others show a range from diploid to tetraploid, and in some cases, pentaploid and hexaploid, while still others are strictly tetraploid. Our imperfect knowledge in this area is highlighted by the results of a population study of Mexican Tripsacum species: in a survey of ploidy levels (2x, 3x, 4x, 5-6x) in 174 populations, 15 out of 37 ploidy level-taxon combinations (41%) had never been reported before, and in more than half of the cases, the \"new\" ploidy was triploid (Berthaud et al. 1997).With respect to reproductive biology, all of the diploids are sexual, while the polyploids exhibit facultative diplosporic, pseudogamous apomixis. This signifies a complete breakdown of meiosis in the embryo sac, and the development of embryos that are genetically identical to the maternal plant. Endosperm development does require fertilization by a reduced or unreduced sperm cell. Male meiosis is also disrupted, resulting in 25% of the pollen grains with variable ploidy (Farquharson 1955;Burson et al. 1990;Leblanc et al. 1995). Despite this dysfunction, sexual offspring are produced on rare occasions by the apomictic polyploids (Grimanelli et al. 2003). This low level of sexual reproduction allows for gene flow among diploid and polyploid species in areas of sympatry, perhaps underlying the complex pattern of overlapping and highly variable morphology seen in the centers of species diversity in Mexico and Guatemala (Randolph 1970;Li et al. 1999;Springer and Dewald 2004).The most important collections of Tripsacum are the field collection at the CIMMYT experiment station at Tlaltizapan, Morelos, Mexico, and the USDA live germplasm collections at Miami, FL, and Woodward, OK, USA.Maize and Tripsacum have been hybridized; de Wet and Harlan (1978), among others, have reported successful crosses with diploid and tetrapoid species; however, no spontaneous hybrids have been confirmed. (other than T. andersonii). Maize breeding programs using Tripsacum germplasm are not common; the more alien nature of Tripsacum germplasm makes its transfer into maize extremely complex. A transfer program for apomixis was underway at CIMMYT during the late 1990's and a program for resistance to Striga hermonthica, started at CIMMYT, is underway at IITA (Gurney et al., 2003). Utilizing Tripsacumintrogressed maize lines developed at the Crop Evolution Laboratory of the University of Illinois in the 1970s by Harlan, De Wet and coworkers (salvaged by Brian Kindiger), Duvick et al. (2006) are successfully altering the fatty acid composition of maize.Tripsacum, as a close relative to maize, is an obvious source of genes for the improvement of this important crop plant, one that is critical to the world food supply. Past efforts have focused solely on T. dactyloides. A thorough study of the genus Tripsacum in its entirety will provide a \"roadmap\" for plant breeders and geneticists to expand their search to all of the natural diversity available in the genus. As the agronomic potential of Tripsacum itself is starting to be realized through its increasing use for pasture, forage, and soil erosion control throughout the world (Springer and Dewald 2004), continued improvement and development of the genus is predicated upon a strong commitment to the preservation of natural populations and the development of germplasm resources. APPENDIX 10: Standards for medium-and long-term storage Medium-term storage for maize is generally considered to be +5 C and relative humidity of 25%. Longterm storage is usually -20 C in hermetically sealed bags, cans or bottles. Almost as important as storage conditions are seed-handling and drying procedures prior to storage. Drying temperatures in excess of 36 o C or conditions that promote fungal growth can both reduce subsequent germination significantly. The latter have a particularly severe effect on soft-kernelled floury maize. Perhaps even more important are functioning back-up generators to cover gaps in electrical service. The quantities of seed needed per accession varies from 1 kg per accession for most accessions to 3 to 5 kg for typical or core accessions.For an example, at CIMMYT maize bank, the seeds are dried at 10 0 C and 25%RH. Medium term storage is at -3 0 C and 25%RH; long term conservation is at -18 0 C. The seed moisture contents can be 6-8% in equilibrium with the drying conditions after 6-8 weeks. Seed is packed in laminated aluminum foil packets that can contain about 1 kg (1,000-2,500 seeds). The packages are hermetically sealed and two packets are prepared for regeneration using long-term conservation; one of these serves as a safety duplicate at another location. For active medium term conservation, one-gallon plastic airtight containers holding 2-3 kg (5,000-10,000 seeds) are used. No fungicides or insecticides are used for seed storage, except in cases where incoming seeds underwent seed treatment required by quarantine regulations. The first monitoring of seed viability is conducted after ten years of storage in the active collection, then after every five years as recommended by Genebank Standards (FAO/IPGRI, 1994) which is available at the website of Bioversity International (www.bioversityinternational.org). If the seed viability falls below 85% or the number of the seeds gets below 1500 in the active collection, the accession is regenerated or multiplied. The seed for regeneration is prepared from the base collection. As much as possible, 100 or more ears are used for the new set of seed.","tokenCount":"12261"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"14b617a727c8c3aa1866e6e148495b65","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a60016f3-eb88-4f2f-a432-1fb11ca7e82b/retrieve","id":"-1853872974"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7ac44bb9-0d68-4e6a-9cde-b792cbdfd588","pagecount":"25","content":"Soil salinization is a significant form of land degradation in agricultural areas. Remote sensing is a better way to assess soil salinity than traditional methods, as it provides non-destructive and repetitive informative assessment for monitoring and mapping soil salinity. Different sensors can identify soil salinity in remote sensing data through direct and indirect indicators. A Brief review of the major soil salinity mapping studies is presented here. This review aims to explore various indicators of soil salinity, evaluate the satellite sensors and methods employed for remote detection, monitoring, and mapping of soil salinity, and shed light on the key challenges that restrict the use of remote sensing for soil salinity mapping in drylands. Additionally, the paper will also examine the context of soil salinity in irrigated lands of Egypt.Studies in CWANA regions are marked in 'Blue'.The distinct characteristics of soil affected by salt manifest through unique reflectance patterns across multiple spectral bands. Consequently, optical remote-sensing techniques can effectively detect saline soils (Lopes et al., 2020). Direct identification of soil salinity is feasible by analyzing original bands and their combinations, particularly within the visible to near-infrared (NIR) bands, where increased reflectance correlates with higher salt content (Metternicht and Zinck, 2003). Thus, broadband sensors have historically been effective in detecting salinized soils, yielding promising results in soil salinity studies (Csillag et al., 1993;Metternicht, 2001;Metternicht, 2003;Khan et al., 2005;Mashimbye, 2005;Douaoui et al., 2006;Fernandez-Buces et al., 2006;Gutierrez and Johnson, 2010;Yu et al., 2010). There are various methods for salinity detection from multispectral remote sensing such as image classification or spectral rationing methods which are discussed below.Image classification methods have been extensively explored to discern salt-affected soils and gypsiferous soils across various geographical regions. Various studies were done by Dale et al. (1986) in Australia, Singh and Dvivedi (1989) in India, and Goossens and van Ranst (1998) in Egypt. Different bands or combinations have shown promise in delineating these soils: Landsat TM bands 1, 3, and 5 or TM bands 2, 3, and 4 along with the thermal band (Dwivedi and Rao, 1992;Verma et al., 1994). In addition, SWIR bands 1 and 2 of Sentinel-2 MSI and Landsat 8 OLI (Bannari et al., 2018) have also shown potential. Dwivedi et al. (2008) conducted a comparative analysis of IKONOS and IRS-ID LISS-III sensor imagery for mapping saltaffected soils. Their study encompassed diverse image classification and transformation methods, revealing an overall accuracy of 92.4% using IKONOS data. In contrast, the IRS-ID LISS-III multispectral sensor yielded 78.4% and 84.3% overall accuracy. This discrepancy underscores the considerable potential of high spatial resolution IKONOS images in soil salinity mapping and detection. Similarly, Setia et al. (2011) employed QuickBird imagery to identify and map soil salinity within an agricultural region. Notably, they observed that bands 2 and 4 encapsulated 99% of the spectral value variance. Employing an unsupervised classification approach, dividing the image into numerous paddocks (small fields), facilitated a more precise mapping of soil salinity severity levels. This method, known as paddock-bypaddock classification, enabled a more accurate delineation and mapping of soil salinity levels within individual paddocks. For instance, Jian-li et al. (2011) utilized Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) imagery, employing a decision tree approach to identify key variables for classifying and extracting salinized soil types using principal component analysis (PCA). Bouaziz et al. (2011) observed moderate correlations between electrical conductivity (EC) and spectral indices using linear spectral unmixing techniques with MODIS data, improving the prediction accuracy of salt-affected soils. Similarly, Ding et al. ( 2011) achieved a 95% classification accuracy of different soil salinity levels using Landsat ETM+ images through PCA and decision tree methods.In traditional classification methods, soil salinity mapping relies on rigid class boundaries that define distinct salt content categories. However, the distribution of salt in soils often presents a gradual transition, creating challenges for conventional classification techniques. Fuzzy classification, grounded in fuzzy set theory, offers a more nuanced approach by allowing continuous membership grades within defined classes. Rather than assigning pixels to discrete classes, fuzzy classification assigns membership values, indicating the degree to which a pixel belongs to different salinity categories. This nuanced representation mirrors the gradual variation of salt content in soils more accurately. Metternicht (1998) proposed the use of transitional 'fuzzy' class boundaries derived from continuous salinity classes to better represent real-world situations. By accommodating gradual variations in salt content, this approach demonstrated an 81% overall accuracy in detecting salt-affected areas, outperforming traditional crisp classification schemes. Fuzzy classification offers several advantages in soil salinity mapping. It allows for a more realistic representation of the gradual nature of salt distribution in soils, capturing subtle variations that conventional classification methods might overlook. Additionally, it provides a more comprehensive understanding of transitional zones between different salinity levels, enabling a more nuanced interpretation of soil salinity conditions.The preprocessing of remotely sensed data is fundamental to extracting meaningful information about soil salinity. Techniques applied include band selection, transformations, and pattern recognition methodologies. Determining the most effective band combination is pivotal in processing remote sensing data for salinity mapping. Dwivedi & Rao (1992) highlighted the importance of specific band combinations like 1-3-5 and 3-5-7 in the Indo-Gangetic plain. While these combinations were considered crucial, discrepancies between index factor values and actual field salinity estimates arose, challenging the reliability of certain band combinations. Metternicht & Zinck (1996, 1997)   Russell (1990), andHick et al. (1984) established the effectiveness of band ratios in identifying salts in soils and stressed crops. Dwivedi (1996) explored PCA, demonstrating its capacity in identifying salt-affected areas but revealed limitations in tracking temporal changes accurately.The intensity-hue-saturation (IHS) transformation coupled with supervised classification significantly improved salt-affected soil mapping in northern India (Dwivedi et al., 2001). Surface feature unmixing using linear mixture modeling and identification of endmembers from imagery has emerged as a robust method in segregating mixed surface components (Metternicht & Fermont, 1998;Taylor & Dehaan, 2000). This approach generates proportion maps and error maps, facilitating better image interpretation and classification.The native satellite bands exhibit limitations in accurately assessing soil salinity (Wang et al., 2018). In the visible to NIR wavelengths, soil reflectance generally increases with higher salt content, making optical bands and specific band combinations indicative of soil salinity (Peng et al., 2016). To address this, numerous indices have been devised as independent variables to augment the visibility of salinity within satellite imagery (Fathizad et al., 2020). The movement and buildup of salt are influenced by parent materials, soil texture, moisture, and vegetation cover (Wang et al., 2021). Sandy soils, with poor water retention, tend to evaporate water, resulting in elevated soil salt content that hampers crop growth (Racetin et al., 2020). Soil color, brightness, and salt content are directly mirrored in spectral curves, offering insights into the degree of salinization (Wicke et al., 2011). Hence, optical bands and diverse salinity indices are frequently used to characterize soil salt content. Previous research has introduced various indices to estimate soil salinity accurately (e.g., Douaoui et al., 2006 in Alzeria). These indices are categorized based on their indicated features into original bands, salinity indices, vegetation indices, and soil-related indices. These indices were formulated through addition/subtraction, ratio, and power forms. Different 2, 3 or 4 band indices can be formed from available multispectral satellite imagery as listed in the table below.  Bi/Bj, (Bi + Bj)/2, Bi − Bj, √Bi 2 + Bj 2 , etc. 3-Band combinations (Bi × Bj)/Bk, (Bi + Bj + Bk)/2, √Bi 2 + Bj 2 + Bk 2 , etc. 4-Band combinations (Bi -Bj)/(Bk + Bh), (Bi x Bj)/(Bk x Bh), etc.A variety of Salinity Indices (SI) have developed and applied by different researchers, though the list is much more extensive than presented here (Khan et al., 2001, 2005, Al-Khaier, 2003;Douaoui et al., 2006;Iqbal, 2011;Elhag, 2016;Fernández-Buces et al., 2006). Several vegetation indices, such as NDVI, SAVI, ARVI, SARVI, OSAVI, EVI, and GDVI, have also been employed for salinity mapping in various regions across the globe by different research studies (Major et al., 1990;Steven et al., 1992;Brunner et al., 2007;Lobell et al., 2010;Wu et al., 2014;Mokarram et al., 2015;Rahmati and Hamzehpour, 2017); Zhang et al., 2015;Paliwal et al., 2018). These vegetation indices can be to evaluate canopy stress induced by salinity.In recent years, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has emerged as an efficient remote sensing tool for detecting soil salinity. Unlike optical remote sensing, SAR is not affected by the weather conditions. SAR technology detects geometric and dielectric properties within images, the latter relating to moisture and salinity characteristics. Extensive research over the past decades has led to both theoretical and practical SAR models (Dobson et al., 1985;Dubois et al., 1995;Fung et al., 1992;Hallikainen et al., 1985;Oh et al., 1992;Peplinski et al., 1995;Ulaby et al., 1981;Shi et al., 1997;Tsang et al., 1985). While considerable attention has been paid to moisture retrieval, fewer attempts have addressed the effects of salinity on SAR backscattering. Microwave bands C, P, and especially L, are deemed suitable for detecting salinity in various settings (Metternicht, 1998;Schmullius and Evans, 1997;Taylor et al., 1996). Earlier studies primarily focused on saline water detection, soil salinity identification, and soil salinity mapping (Metternicht and Zinck, 2003). Shao et al. (2003) observed that soil moisture strongly influenced the real part of the dielectric constant (ɛ'), while both moisture and salinity affected the imaginary part (ɛ''), especially at lower frequencies. Aly et al. (2007) argued that existing scattering models inadequately considered ɛ'' and advocated for a new model to determine soil salt content. Experiments by Lasne et al. (2008) analyzed ɛ' and ɛ'' characteristics through radar backscattering coefficient simulations, affirming the potential of SAR technology for salinity retrieval. Soil dielectric models are pivotal for algorithms retrieving soil components from remote sensing data (Mironov et al., 2004). The fourcomponent mixing model, while detailed in describing dielectric behavior, encounters limitations due to certain input parameters' unavailability and temporal variability (Dobson et al., 1985). The Generalized Refractive Mixing Dielectric Model (GRMDM) based on the Debye formula estimated relaxation spectra linked to bound and free water in soil. This model calculated conductivities and dielectric constants utilizing soil moisture-dependent data (Mironov et al., 2004). Dobson's semi-empirical model, although simplifying soil systems, primarily focused on nonsaline soil behavior (Dobson et al., 1985). Salinity is indicated as the primary factor influencing ɛ'' in soil, suggesting the necessity to include salinity factors, particularly in moist saline soil conditions (Stogryn, 1970). Microwave remote sensing bands, particularly C, P, and L bands, have also been utilized for detecting salinity across various geographic settings as evidenced by studies conducted in India (Singh and Srivastav, 1990;Singh et al., 1990;Sreenivas et al., 1995), Australia (Taylor et al., 1996), China (Shao et al., 2003;Gong et al., 2013), Egypt (Aly et al., 2004), France (Lasne et al., 2008), etc. These bands significantly impact the backscattering coefficient of RADARSAT SAR images, with the signal's ability to penetrate the surface and reach depths exceeding 1.5-2.0 meters, influenced by soil characteristics and moisture content (Shao et al., 2003;Gong et al., 2013). However, the utilization of radar backscattering inversion techniques for characterizing saline soils through complex dielectric constants necessitates soil moisture data, introducing complexity into radar applications (Mougenot et al., 1993). Studies, such as those by Wu et al. (2018Wu et al. ( , 2019) ) in Iraq, have highlighted the efficacy of ALOS L-band radar data combined with Landsat TM images in correcting or minimizing vegetation cover impacts on backscattering coefficients, showing a strong correlation between retrieved backscattering coefficients and measured soil salinity. Additionally, the combination of EM38 readings, a geophysical measurement, with L-band radar data has been identified as an optimal approach for salinity detection. However, it might also be noted that, microwave remote sensing observations have bearing only on saline soils but not on sodic soils, thus limiting its widespread applications.Multispectral satellite sensors have long been the favored tool for mapping and monitoring soil salinity due to their cost-effectiveness, typified by examples like Landsat and SPOT, enabling the detection of extreme surface salinity manifestations. However, their diagnostic capability remains constrained by limited spatial and spectral resolutions. The direct mapping of soil salinity using multispectral imagery faces challenges, especially in areas lacking surface salt features or where saline soils are predominantly covered by halophyte plants, as highlighted by Furby et al. (1995) andHowari (2003). Reflectance confusion arises from multispectral satellite sensors, as evidenced by Furby et al. (1995), who noted the misidentification of non-saline soils as extremely saline areas. Landsat imagery's spectral resolution inadequacies were outlined by Fraser and Joseph (1998) attributing the challenge to insufficient spectral disparity between saline and waterlogged land, compounded by the varied spectral responses of saline soil. Additionally, the absence of narrow bands within specific spectral ranges complicates discriminating plant species and health conditions in Landsat imagery, as noted by Hick & Russell (1987).In contrast, hyperspectral remote sensing has emerged as a promising alternative. While many studies have focused on multispectral satellite sensors for soil salinity mapping, hyperspectral sensors present advancements that transcend the limitations of multispectral imagery, both spatially and spectrally. These sensors offer numerous high-resolution spectral bands, facilitating finer discrimination between halophyte and non-halophyte plants and enabling more detailed identification of surface salt features compared to multispectral counterparts. Hyperspectral remote sensing holds promise in overcoming the limitations of broadband data by providing high-quality spectra for each pixel. The unique spectra in hyperspectral data allow for detailed differentiation between Earth's surface materials (Chang, 2003;Lillesand et al., 2004;Campbell, 2007). Researchers have been exploring hyperspectral remote sensing to enhance salt-affected soil detection (Ben-Dor and Banin, 1994;Drake, 1995;Ben-Dor et al., 2002;Dehaan and Taylor, 2002;Dehaan and Taylor, 2003;Tamas and Lenart, 2006). Hyperspectral remote sensing (HRS) data have numerous narrow (< 10 -20 nm band width) and contiguous bands over the VNIR region and shortwave-infrared (SWIR) region (wavelength: 1100-2500 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum. With high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in each spectral band, HRS approach has the potential to discriminate and map minerals found in salt-affected soils (Crowley, 1993) and also to delineate the degree of salinization with reasonable accuracy (Dehaan and Taylor, 2002;Dutkiewicz et al., 2009). Several pioneering works in the 1990s focused on identifying diagnostic absorption features in the spectra of saline minerals (Crowley, 1991;Mougenot et al., 1993;Drake, 1995). These features are mainly associated with different molecular vibration modes of anions (hydroxyl, bicarbonates, sulphates, borates) or free and/or crystal water within clay lattice (Hunt and Salisbury, 1971). Few laboratory-based studies also focused on artificial salinization to understand the spectral response of a soil in equilibrium with a specific salt (Farifteh et al., 2008;Moreira et al., 2014;Pessoa et al., 2015). Changes in spectral absorption features in these unique signatures can be quantitatively linked to the degree and type of salinization. However, studies on salinity assessment using HRS data majorly focused on severely saline soils as the detectability by the sensor demands salt concentrations to be high for crystallization at the soil surface. Therefore, mapping of moderate to low saline soils is a challenging task. Spectral absorption features of different saline minerals found in the VNIR-SWIR region are, also limited in number or often overlapping (Crowley, 1991;Howari et al., 2002;Weng et al., 2008)  This study produced a soil salinity map of East Delta, Egypt (east of the Nile Delta in the Al-Behira governorate) in 1995 using remote sensing technology. Different salinity indices were used, and the best index was SI5 (Red*NIR/Green, Abbas and Khan, 20027) with a 0.87 correlation with field truth data and a mean relative error of 22.7%. This index was used to produce a salinity map of the Eastern Delta with acceptable accuracy.Efforts have been made to map soil salinity in the Nile delta (Fig. 1). However, the available information is limited and needs to be updated. There have been some recent reports on soil salinity mapping (such as those by Hammam and Mohamed in 2020, andFadl et al. in 2023), which are over small areas.Mapping soil salinity via remote sensing is a multifaceted task with numerous challenges and promising avenues. The increased availability of spaceborne and airborne sensors has led to advancements in environmental covariate mapping, including soil type, land use, topography, and climate, all of which are intricately linked to salinization expansion. Optical data from platforms like Landsat and Sentinel 2, characterized by high spatial resolution, wide global coverage, and long-term data continuity, have been predominantly utilized. However, the applicability of high-resolution commercial sensors, such as ASTER and IKONOS, and active remote sensing like SAR, is constrained by their cost, limited coverage, lower resolution, and high processing requirements. Despite the release of the Global Map of Salt-affected Soils (GSASmap V1.0.0) in 2020, global estimates exhibit significant variations when scrutinized at local or regional scales. The dynamic nature of soil salinity in response to weather changes, irrigation, and management poses a challenge, as remote sensing products have limited temporal coverage. Leveraging historical data from platforms like Landsat, MODIS, and Sentinel offers improved salinity monitoring, yet robust ground data collection remains imperative. Spectral reflectance limitations concerning the soil profile complexity are addressed by combining remote sensing with geophysical surveys and simulation models.However, spectral reflectance challenges persist due to the spectral signals' weakness compared to the noise generated by other factors. Moreover, vegetation cover hinders direct soil salinity detection, necessitating indirect indicators like NDVI, although these methods might overlook other stressors impacting vegetation.The limitations of low spectral resolution satellite images in direct soil salinity detection are being overcome by advances in hyperspectral sensors, allowing for detailed mapping of salt mineral absorption bands. Imaging spectroscopy has emerged as a powerful tool for precisely evaluating soil salinity. Models typically rely on statistical approaches using soil data for calibration/validation or direct extraction of spectral features to predict these soil properties accurately. Many studies have showcased successful soil salinity predictions, from local-scale (airborne) to regional-scale (spaceborne) applications, particularly for exposed soils under suitable surface conditions. The forthcoming generation of orbiting hyperspectral sensors and their routine delivery of high-resolution spectral images globally present a new prospect for operational quantitative monitoring of soil surfaces on a large scale. These satellites, with spatial resolutions ranging from 10 to 30 meters, are poised to offer routine soil maps at various intervals, ranging from regional to global. There is still room for advancement to fully realize imaging spectroscopy's potential in producing credible soil salinity maps and its monitoring. Challenges include addressing issues like low signal-to-noise ratio, geometric and optical distortions, atmospheric interference, vegetation cover, soil moisture, roughness effects, and limitations in sensing the shallow surface layer (approximately 100-200 µm) of soil. Bridging the gap between local and global scale modeling approaches and ensuring the availability of global soil data, including standardized soil spectral libraries, remain crucial hurdles currently being addressed in intensive research. Moreover, challenges in understanding the physical and chemical processes behind soil parameters and the need to account for diverse soil types and their spectral reflectance curves add to the complexity. Multivariate modeling, integrating different soil types and their coupled effects, along with temporal dynamics, is critical for accurate monitoring. Fusion of hyperspectral data with LiDAR, SAR, and high-resolution images holds promise for improved accuracy, yet challenges persist in dealing with various disturbances affecting optical HRS data. Multiscale data assimilation is seen as pivotal for enhancing monitoring accuracy and leveraging the comprehensive application of multiresolution HRS data in soil science.Regarding user and observational requirements, recent studies exploring the potential of upcoming hyperspectral satellite missions for soil mapping have indicated their potential for predicting soil properties including salinity, albeit with slightly reduced accuracy compared to airborne hyperspectral imagery at finer spatial scales. Defining mission scenarios for different spatial scales of user needs, linked to food security, resource management, and sustainable agriculture, sets the stage for future imaging spectrosocpy technology missions. These scenarios could cater to precision farming needs at field scales and address the broader requirement for large-scale soil salinity mapping to support regional and national-level policies and decision-making. Table 2 gives a list of the available potential satellite sensors which could be utilized for remote sensing-based soil salinity mapping and monitoring.   ","tokenCount":"3308"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0c325a436abd3c37e4d7ad7fe1252a56","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/region/sea/publications/download?dl=/MN00120-21.pdf&pubID=4750&li=8932","id":"126393418"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"66422ba6-d46f-4ac6-b022-8f8c9e3ac015","pagecount":"63","content":"https://www.recoftc.orgOne of the key goals of the Vision and Strategic Plan for ASEAN Cooperation in Food, Agriculture andForestry 2016-2025, endorsed at the 37th Meeting of the ASEAN Ministers on Agriculture and Forestry in 2015, is 'expansion of resilient agroforestry systems, where ecologically and economically appropriate', expressed in an action programme under Strategic Thrust 4: To increase resilience to climate change, natural disasters and other shocks.In line with the effort to support wide-scale adoption of resilient agroforestry systems in ASEAN Member States (AMS), three important knowledge products have been developed by World Agroforestry (ICRAF) together with RECOFTC The Center for People and Forests, ASEAN Secretariat, ASEAN Working Group on Social Forestry Secretariat and partners in the ASEAN-Swiss Partnership on Social Forestry and Climate Change.ASEAN Guidelines for Agroforestry DevelopmentTraining Manual: Agroforestry for Climate-Resilient LandscapesThis field guide, designed to accompany the training manual, aims to support the continuous learning and capacity building of agroforestry practitioners. It provides extension workers, farmers and other practitioners with technical guidance on designing, establishing and managing on-farm agroforestry practices that can assist with coping with the negative impacts of extreme climatic events, such as increased temperatures, extreme and erratic rainfall and prolonged droughts.This guide is focused on different types of farmland in AMS. In each country, the guide should be adapted in accordance with the specific biophysical and socioeconomic contexts of a given landscape under climate change.Climate change is increasingly experienced in Southeast Asia in the form of rising temperatures, longer periods of hot weather, prolonged droughts, more powerful typhoons, and extreme rainfall. Farmers in many parts of the region are facing degradation of arable land, shortages of water, increased occurrence of pests and diseases, declines in crop and livestock productivity and loss of yields. Consequently, their income and food security have been severely threatened.Accordingly, climate-resilient land-use practices have become a critical topic. Agroforestry -the practice of deliberately integrating trees with crops and/ or animals on the same land unit to provide a range of agricultural and forestry products and environmental services -can help to increase the resilience of farmlands and whole landscapes to climatic stresses. However, lack of knowledge and technical skills to design, establish and manage agroforestry restricts practitioners from undertaking such climate-resilient practices.This guide has been developed to support the continuous learning and capacity building of agroforestry practitioners. It provides a set of technical instructions and tools for assisting farmers to design, establish and manage on-farm agroforestry practices that are resilient to climate stresses and extreme events.This guide is for agroforestry practitioners who assist farmers to undertake agroforestry practices in the field, including (but not limited to) 1) Extension workers or rural advisors in forestry and agriculture; 2) Forestry and agricultural officers and technicians; 3) Community forestry or natural resource management staff; and 4) Development-project field staff.It may also be useful for farmers who are interested in the design and practice of agroforestry on their farms and researchers and students who want to learn to develop climate-resilient agroforestry systems in the field.This guide is not a ready-made 'cookbook' with recipes to be applied for any location. It is a general, basic guide for designing and practising agroforestry for climate resilience in uplands, lowlands, coastal zones and other areas. In any specific landscape and climatic context, further elaboration of the field guide is needed.   Resilience is 'the ability of a social or ecological system to absorb disturbances while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity for self-organization, and the capacity to adapt to stress and change' (IPCC 2008). CHAPTER 2 AGROFORESTRY: A SOLUTION'Agroforestry' refers to land-use systems and technologies in which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos etc) are deliberately used on the same land-management unit as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.In agroforestry systems, there are both ecological and economic interactions between different components. Agroforestry includes trees on farms and in agricultural landscapes, farming in forests and at forest margins and also tree-crop production. There are several criteria for defining agroforestry practices.• Intentional: trees, crops and/or livestock are intentionally designed, established and managed to work together and yield multiple products and benefits• Intensive: agroforestry practices are created and intensively managed to maintain their productive and protective functions• Integrated: the trees, crops and/or animal components are structurally and functionally combined into a single, integrated management unit  Diversification of agricultural production. Agroforestry involves multiple production activities that are complementary in both economic and ecological dimensions at farm level. Agroforestry is the pathway for sustainable diversification of agricultural systems, helping to provide a variety (crop, tree and animal) of products and benefits to farmers -such as food, fodder, fuelwood -at different times of the year, thereby, reducing the risk of crop failure and food shortages or insecurity when facing climatic stressors.   Ameliorating microclimates. The full genetic potential of many crops and animals can only be exploited under optimal environmental conditions. In an agroforestry system, trees help reduce heat and light, bring favourable changes in microclimatic conditions through influencing radiation fluxes, air temperatures and wind speeds, which protect and improve the productivity of crops, livestock and land.Mitigating droughts. Tree canopies lower temperatures and increase relative humidity, which lead to a lower transpiration rate. Tree litters and pruning materials act as mulch on the surface of the ground, reducing the evaporative loss of moisture. The water-storage capacity of soil is also increased owing to increased content of organic matter. CHAPTER 3Participatory design of agroforestry is an iterative process to ensure maximum potential for climate resilience. Each step requires monitoring and evaluation as a feedback mechanism, learning both from successes and failures in an action-learning process, similar to the planact-monitor-re-plan cycle.The first step includes several activities.• Visit the community or individual farmer to observe the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, particularly, to gather information related to climatic issues and to check the suitability of the area for agroforestry.• Share information about agroforestry as a set of climate-resilient practices, explaining why and what it is. This can be done through a slideshow or other methods. Organize farmers into groups to build leadership and take the initiative. Encourage the election of group leaders.• Identify suitable areas for agroforestry, taking into consideration biophysical and socioeconomic conditions. Agree on achieving common goals and multiple outcomes, such as landscape restoration, ecological and economic benefits like food and nutritional security, employment and income, natural resources management, enhancing biodiversity and sequestering carbon.Steps in participatory agroforestry design for climate resilience 1. Getting started 2. Understanding the field situation 3. Designing field plantingThe objective of this activity is to collect and share information on land use and management practices. Activities include an inventory of local knowledge, innovations and practices and listing useful agroforestry species (native and exotic trees). Several methods can be used.• Mapping of land use and land-use changes• Matrix scoring of species and cultivation practices• Ranking to identify the most promising agroforestry species for planting and the most appropriate management practices to adoptThe assessment covers biophysical parameters for soils, climate, adapted trees and crops.• Soil parameters include soil pH, which determines acidity or alkalinity that can influence availability of soil nutrients• Climate parameters include rainfall, temperature, humidity, occurrence of storms and droughts• Vegetation assessment includes trees and plant species adapted in the area in relation to soil types, climate regime and elevationWhen designing agroforestry systems for climate resilience, the following elements should be considered.A. Components: There are basic sets of components that can be managed by a farmer in an agroforestry system.• Trees, which should be producing fodder, fruit, fuelwood, medicines and/or timber or assisting replenishment of soil fertility; and which are adapted to adverse climatic and soil conditions.• Crops, particularly annual crops like grains and flowers, which are adapted to drought or waterlogging.• Animals, especially those that can be used for draft power (such as buffalo) or produce meat, eggs or dairy products, which have shown the ability to adapt to a changing climate.B. Tree root and canopy structure. This refers to how the roots and canopies of trees are layered and spread. The roots of trees and crops should have a combination of spreading roots for soil binding, which reduces soil erosion during intense rainfall, and deeply penetrating roots for soil anchorage, which provide better water infiltration during intense rainfall, thus, avoiding landslides and liquefaction. Appropriate canopy structures are 1) conical crown; 2) flat-topped, spreading crown; 3) tall bole and small, dense crown; and 4) narrow columnar crown. Canopy shapes that should be avoided are 1) rounded crown with dense canopy; 2) wide conical crown; and 3) wide columnar crown.Socio-economic factors include households' available land, market, labour and capital.• Land: farm size, tenure• Market: distance to markets• Labour: seasonal availability, gender, family size, off-farm employment and availability of family and local labour• Capital: household cashflows, availability and form of credit. C. Arrangement: Two kinds of arrangement are considered in any agroforestry system.• Spatial arrangement refers to how plant components are physically arranged. This can be dense mixed stands, which are common features of home gardens, or sparsely mixed stands.Canopy in layers Tall bole, small dense crownWide conical crown Flat-topped spreading crown• Temporal arrangement refers to the pattern of shifting cultivation on a single piece of land. An example of this is using land for cropping for two-to-four years followed by over a decade of fallow when woody species are planted.This refers to the process in which inputs are introduced, managed and converted into outputs over a certain period to attain desired goals. Examples are propagation, weed control, fertilization, control of pests and diseases.This refers to how the components of an agroforestry system interact with each other. The interactions may be positive, such as complementation or supplementation, or negative, such as competition or allelopathy.F. Hierarchy. This refers to the order of needs and priorities of farmers. Farmers may decide to have an annual cropping or perennial system. Selection of tree species, spatial and temporal arrangements are typically influenced by the farmer's decision to undertake annual cropping or perennial system. There are several factors to be considered in the selection of tree species.• Knowledge about management of tree species • Small and open canopySelection may be conducted following the steps below.Different species respond differently to extreme climate events and have varying resistance to pests and diseases. Selecting species that have different responses to extreme climate events will reduce the risks to the farmer's livelihood.• Select locally grown species that have differing responses to specific climate events Identify the most frequent extreme climate events in the area. This information will be used to decide the role of agroforestry and, ultimately, to identify tree species that can adapt to the area's changing climate. Trees and livestock farming have been reported to be less vulnerable to fluctuating weather conditions than rain-fed crops. Maintaining livestock is important in the event of crop losses.The combination and arrangement of species in an agroforestry system should be based on the farmer's objectives, the biophysical characteristics of the site and the farmer's socioeconomic conditions.To achieve resilience, a system should combine species with various adaptation capacities to extreme climatic and soil conditions, pests and diseases, and market shocks.There are different spatial arrangements of system components in agroforestry, which could be intentional or unintentional. For example, in a parkland type of agroforestry, trees are just allowed to grow, or planted sporadically in the field. Examples of intentional spatial tree arrangements are shown below.• Trees along boundaries. The distance of the trees from other species needs to be considered (Figure 3.4).• The double-row (Figure 3.5) and single-row (Figure 3.6) arrangements are common.• Short-term agricultural plants intercropped between trees (Figure 3.7) or at the centre of the farm (Figure 3.8).  Climate resilience as well as the success of an agroforestry system are very much dependent on proper establishment and management. After designing the desired agroforestry system, farmers should be ready to implement in the field. However, there are a number of key practices that need to be done with care, such as selecting quality seedlings, preparing the land, spacing and planting trees and crops, maintaining, pruning, thinning, controlling pests and diseases, and deploying methods against specific climatic threats.Trees usually require 3-5 years before starting to yield. If seedlings of poor quality are planted, the survival rate could be very low. Farmers would then have wasted 5 years, receiving poor quality and quantity of yields.• Select quality sources of seeds or seedlings (registered or known quality). The mother trees should be known for their high production potential, tolerance to extreme biophysical and climate conditions (for example, have gone through at least two harvest cycles with good yields of quality products), resistance to pests and diseases, and normal or superior physical attributes.• Good performance of seeds or seedlings. They must have good size and colour, free from pests and diseases, strong leaf turgidity, good and sturdy root development.The land must be prepared properly. It should be free from weeds before planting. This can be done through ploughing and harrowing until it is pulverized. Do not plough or till the soil when wet because the soil structure will be destroyed, making clay soil more compact.To completely eliminate weeds, ploughing should be done during the dry season or at least several months before the wet season. Correct spacing between individual trees is essential. Sufficient spacing reduces competition for light, water and nutrients between and among individual plants; otherwise growth will be inhibited. Spacing in agroforestry systems needs to be regulated both horizontally between plants and vertically between their canopies.Horizontal spacing is the distance between individual plants in a system. Information on standard dimensions for horizontal spacing can be obtained from extension officers or research institutes. When there is no known standard spacing, it can be estimated using the steps below.• Find mature, productive trees of the species that grow in a relatively open area.• To estimate the spacing distance between individuals of the same species: measure the crown width in a diagonal direction (a). Repeat the crown-width measurement in a horizontal direction (b) (Figure 4.2, left). The spacing dimension between trees of the same species will be (a) in length and (b) width or vice versa.• For different species: Spacing distance is half of the average canopy width of species A (x) + half of average canopy width of species B (y) (Figure 4.2, right).Vertical spacing is the distance between the canopies of understorey and upperstorey plants.The spacing will greatly depend on the light tolerance of the understorey species and the farmer's long-term objective. For example, coffee requires 75% sunlight; young trees need at least 2 m vertical distance between the coffee canopy with its shade trees and at least 5 m for mature trees (Figure 4.3). Some farmers aim to continuously plant crops in between rows of trees while others may want to shift into perennial systems. These aims will influence the spacing of trees. Make sure that the planting holes for trees are dug in sufficient time before planting to allow sunlight to disinfect the holes from fungus, bacteria and other disease-causing microorganisms. If the soil is heavy clay, dig 50 x 50 x 50 cm. The poorer the soil, the bigger the holes should be. Loamy black soil can be smaller: up to 30 x 30 x 30 cm. For heavy clay and poor soils, mix thoroughly with two sacks of rice hulls, sawdust or sand to one sack of animal manure. Fresh manure or compost should not be used because it produces gas during decomposition that may damage the roots. Fresh organic fertilizer needs to be placed in the holes one month before planting to avoid fungal and bacterial attacks and nutrient immobilization from decomposing organic matters.The best time to plant is during the wet season or at least three months before the dry season, to allow the roots to develop and the plant to adapt to the changing environment.• Harden the seedlings before planting to minimize mortality and stunted growth.• Do not water the seedlings one day prior to planting. Do not subject the plant to water stress, manifested by wilting leaves and shoots.• Apply fertilizer with more phosphorous to enhance growth and deeper root penetration for better anchorage.• Fill the hole with a 30 cm thick mixture of topsoil, manure and rice hulls (or sawdust or sand) for clayey soils. For sandy loam soils, add only manure or compost.• Hold the seedling by its container not its trunk, to avoid damaging the roots.• Remove the seedling container 1 cm from the bottom. In the event that the ball of soil breaks, remove all the leaves to minimize evapotranspiration.• Position the seedling in the middle of the planting hole. Add soil around the base.• Completely remove the container. The roots must be free to grow wider and deeper for deeper anchorage and to make the plant resistant to drought.• Before planting, put a 1.2-1.5 m stake beside the seedling. Tie the seedling to the stake after planting to train the trunk to grow straight.• On sloping land, fill the hole with the planting medium 2.5-5 cm from the surface. On flat land or areas subject to waterlogging, elevate the base by 30 cm.• Water immediately after planting. • Integrated application of a combination of chemical and organic fertilizers is recommended for optimal production. Table 4.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of chemical and organic fertilizers.• Organic fertilizers can be applied at the beginning of the wet season and the end of the dry season; chemical fertilizers are best applied at the start of the wet season.• To support sustainable production of organic fertilizer, keep livestock as sources of both liquid and solid fertilizers and plant fodder crops, such as Arachis pintoi and Gliricidia.Organic fertilizers Advantages • Nutrients are quickly absorbed by plants.• Provide standard dosage of particular nutrients.• Improve soil fertility and structure.• Cheap and easily available.• Expensive and limited stock.• Excessive dosage is dangerous: can kill the plants and destroy soil fertility.• There are many fakes on the market.• Nutrients are slowly absorbed by plants.• Information on the standard dosage of particular nutrients is limited.  The general objectives of pruning are to 1) form the tree crown (formative); 2) eliminate plant parts that are infected by pests and diseases (protective); 3) eliminate unproductive shoots or branches; and 4) improve air circulation (productive). Pruning can be divided into several parts.• Pruning of young plants to improve growth and production (formative).• Pruning of productive trees is done a minimum of once a year to 1) stimulate the process of flower sprouting and pollination; 2) provide branches for fruit for the next harvest; and 3) ease in harvesting (productive).• Pruning of shade trees is necessary to increase light penetration to crops growing beneath. This improves production, for example, of pepper, coffee and cocoa. Thinning removes unproductive trees and abnormal fruit.• Tree thinning removes unproductive trees to reduce competition for water, light and nutrients. Thinning is done if the crown between individual trees overlaps owing to spacing distances that are too close. Remove trees that have low growth rates and abnormal shapes.• Fruit thinning is usually done to enhance quality by limiting the number of fruits per branch. This allows the remaining fruit to receive sufficient nutrition for growth. When thinning, farmers need to estimate the optimal number of fruits that can be supported by the branch and receive adequate nutrition from the tree. For example, to grow one durian fruit requires at least 100 leaves. Smaller sized and abnormally shaped fruits should be removed. The trees and crops should be protected against fire, wind, scorching sunlight, stray animals and pests and diseases.• Fire is a serious threat during dry seasons. Risk of fire can be reduced through regular weeding or brush cutting, composting litterfall and establishment of firebreaks.• Wind damage can be prevented through establishment of windbreaks or temporary stakes to avoid trees rubbing each other during times of strong winds.• Shade plants are needed to protect young trees from scorching sun, particularly, during dry seasons. Some plants require permanent shade-such as coffee, black pepper and cocoa-which can be provided by leguminous trees, such as Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena spp, Cassia siamea.• Stray animals can damage young trees. This can be prevented by fencing either using live fences or barbed wire. Live fences of leguminous trees can also provide fodder for livestock.• Pests and diseases. Healthy plants are able to outgrow pests and diseases. Using hardy species and quality seedlings are the keys to reducing the risk of damage.Too dense. Number of fruits needs to be reduced In a climate-resilient landscape, four management techniques are recommended to mitigate the effects of extreme climatic events on production: 1) improving soil organic matters; 2) maintaining soil moisture to reduce impact of prolonged droughts; 3) preventing soil erosion owing to heavy rainfall; 4) reducing fruiting failure owing to strong winds; and 5) controlling pests and diseases.Soil moisture can be maintained through the application of organic fertilizers and mulch, managing cover crops, and regular irrigation if the soil is too dry.• Integrated application of chemical and organic fertilizers is recommended for optimal production. Organic fertilizers should be applied at the end of the wet season and the end of the dry season; chemical fertilizers should be applied at the start of the wet season.• Mulch maintains soil moisture during drought, acting as a lid that keeps moisture in the soil. Recommended mulch thickness is 10-15 cm of rice straw, grass or leaf litter.The 'rorak' technique (Figure 4.9) can be used to maintain soil moisture and stimulate the growth of new roots. The technique features a pit dug under the tree canopy with the objective to rejuvenate roots. Usually the pit size is 75-100 cm in length, 30-40 cm in depth and 40-60 cm in width. The distance of the pit to the tree trunk is 60-100 cm. The pit is filled with organic fertilizer that maintains soil humidity near the roots. The pits should be prepared and filled at the end of the wet season at least 2-3 months before the dry season. The number of rorak pits per hectare should be 50% of the total number of trees. The rorak pits should be maintained annually.The application of planting techniques that conserve soil and water can reduce the effects of erosion and waterlogging. Establishing 'natural vegetative strips' (NVS) on slopes and along drainage canals on flat land is effective in controlling soil erosion. This technique uses contour hedgerows to minimize labour input and reduce competition between crops, grasses and trees. The strips are established by marking contour lines along a field, leaving them unploughed during land preparation. The retained vegetation will form a natural terrace and organic matters will accumulate along the contour. Native grasses and weeds will soon form stable hedgerows with natural front-facing terraces. The system can be enhanced with trees planted above them (Figure 4.10).  In some areas, strong winds can cause fruiting failure of agroforestry species such as coffee and cocoa. To mitigate the effects of strong winds, windbreak trees can be planted around the plot or between several tree rows for larger fields. They should not be too dense, however, because completely blocking the wind can cause turbulence over adjacent crops (Figure 4.12). If the windbreak is too dense, branches of some of the trees should be pruned.Pests are animals that attack crops or livestock, inhibiting growth and decreasing yields. Diseases are plants, fungi, bacteria or viruses that attack crops or livestock, also inhibiting growth and decreasing yields.Extreme climate events may stimulate outbreaks of pests and diseases. Providing sufficient nutrition for the crops or livestock and maintaining sanitation on the farm can reduce the risk of severe damage.Identifying and increasing populations of the natural enemies of pests or diseases can assist in the prevention of severe outbreaks.Planting cover crops with white or yellow flowers can increase the number of insects that can be natural enemies. ASSESSING RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGEThe following are several steps in assessing reslience of agroforestry practices:Step 1: Decide who will be involved• This most important first step can be best carried out through group meetings in the community. This helps to ensure everyone's perspectives are understood and their issues and wisdom incorporated.• The assessment team may consist of community members, farmers who are undertaking agroforestry and other interested groups.Step 2: Clarify objectives and scope• Several questions need to be discussed: 1) Why do we need an assessment? 2) What do we need to achieve (from the assessment)? 3) What is the intended use of the assessment? 4) How much is the budget of the assessment?• The discussions can be held in small group or whole village meetings.Based on the objectives, criteria and indicators need to be developed for each objective.Criteria and indicators are tools used to guide, monitor and assess the resilience of agroforestry practices to climatic issues in a given context (See 5.2 for more information).• Criteria define essential attributes against which resilience is assessed with due consideration to different (ecological, socio-economic) aspects of the agroforestry practice in question. Each criterion related to a key attribute of resilience is a standard for assessment and may be described by one or more indicators.• Indicators are parameters that correspond to a particular criterion. They are signs that measure resilience. When measured they help to demonstrate or indicate the resilience status of the agroforestry practice in question.Step 4: Determine methods and collect the data Depending on the indicators that have been selected, several qualitative and quantitative methods could be identified for collecting data, for example, document and secondary data reviews, questionnaires, surveys and interviews (See 5.3 for discussion on methods for assessing resilience of agroforestry practices at farm level).Step 5: Develop the questions for the assessmentBased on the indicators, the assessment questions will be developed to generate responses from applying agroforestry practices for climate resilience. The questions should be agreed through group discussion and ranked in order of importance if there are many questions.Step 6: Consolidate and analyze the collected data and informationIn this step, the collected data and information is analyzed and synthesized to see if there are patterns or trends in climatic resilience that emerge (See 5.4 for people to be consulted).Step 7: Interpret findings, provide feedback and recommendationsThis step is the process of providing recommendations about how to strengthen implementation of the agroforestry practices well as making any adjustments and offering incentives for improvement.Step 8: Communicate findingsThis step provides insights to everyone involved in the assessment to help decide how to use the results to strengthen the agroforestry practices and their wider adoption (see also 5.4).A set of criteria and indicators should be employed for an assessment (see below). The selected indicators should be SMART: Simple -Measurable -Achievable -Replicable -Time-bound. Several quantitative and qualitative methods can be defined and employed for assessing the resilience of the implemented agroforestry practices. These include but are not limited to surveys, biophysical measurements (quantitative methods), key informant interviews, group discussions, direct observations and case studies (qualitative methods).For each method, certain tools could be used, for example, structured and semi-structured questionnaires, instruments like soil traps to measure soil erosion, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), and case studies.Survey: commonly used to assess outcomes of the agroforestry practices with target groups. For recording physical measurements, a standardized form may be used, while for socio-economic data, a structured questionnaire can be used to record data from interviews with individual respondents.Biophysical measurements: measurements of physical change over time, for example, crop yields, soil erosion, water table depths and availability. This may require instruments installed on-site, for example, a soil-trap installed on the lower part of a slope to measure soil erosion.focused interviews in which key informants, few in number and purposively selected owing to their particular knowledge and position, are interviewed. This usually makes use of semi-structured or structured questionnaires.conducted with groups of selected people who are familiar with pertinent issues using various PRA tools. This is useful for assessing changes and their causes and for identifying areas that need improvement.Direct observation: involves structured observation of phenomena in the field. This can be used to understand the context and explain results of evaluation and should always be used in conjunction with other methods.Case studies: document the sequence of events over time related to adoption and implementation of agroforestry practices of a household or person or location and facilitate in-depth understanding of the processes and outcomes of agroforestry practices with regard to climate resilience and other objectives as well as the factors behind the observed changes.Ideally, the process of monitoring and evaluation of agroforestry practices should involve not only farmers but also extension workers, research agencies and the private sector.Farmers as agroforestry practitioners are expected to conduct regular monitoring and evaluation of their practices. The results of monitoring and evaluation can be shared with a number of groups.• Extension workers, for technical issues related to agroforestry practices   Local Government Units Technical FacilitatorsFarmers' groups can share experience through meetings, visiting exemplary farms, and field days. Material such as posters, photos and games along with field demonstrations can be produced by farmers' groups and extension workers to share important information. Farmers and extension workers can organize 'farmers' summits' to share designs, approaches, results, benefits and issues related to establishing agroforestry.Farmers' groups can work with neighbours, extension workers and agroforestry specialists to continue the process of participatory agroforestry development. This includes expanding the scale of good agroforestry practices, bringing in new knowledge and planting material, testing new methods and designs of systems and experimenting with new practices, evaluating new species of crops and trees, employing new management approaches to trees, crops and soils, and organizing farmer-to-farmer exchanges and farmers' field schools. In many circumstances, farmers do not have enough capital to undertake agroforestry practices. They encounter common issues, such as lack of knowledge and skills; shortage of available land; low soil fertility; poor quality seeds and seedlings; restricted access to markets; limited or no access to credit and capital for short-and long-term investments; and weak networking or connectedness.  Net Present Value or NPV of an investment in agroforestry refers to the difference between the present value of cash inflows (total revenues) and the present value of cash outflows (total costs) over a period of time. A positive NPV means the investment can yield profit (revenues exceeding costs) over time whereas a negative NPV implies that the costs of investment still exceed the revenues over the specified period of time. Based on the costs and revenues provided in the agroforestry cash-flow plan and assuming the discount rate (R) is 7%, the NPV of the investment in agroforestry can be calculated as follows.  The NPV of the investment in agroforestry as illustrated in the example above is USD 6702.69. This means that over the period of nine years, the investment in agroforestry can yield a positive cash flow (profit) of USD 6702.69.","tokenCount":"5130"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"79eaf5a6cffe0286038ddd8d39579763","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5395cd3a-98d8-4f19-8521-249344497e9b/retrieve","id":"234942131"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"917f338f-ae43-4309-b276-4bee99dbb699","pagecount":"7","content":"Climate change impacts are disproportionately affecting Zambia's agriculture and health sectors in the forms of water stress, food insecurity, health risks, loss of biodiversity, economic production, and livelihoods (Hamududu and Ngoma 2019). Climate change is projected to increase the poverty gap, increase incidents of crop failure, change the length of the growing season and lead to a 13% reduction in water availability by 2050 (Hamududu and Ngoma 2019;Verhage et al. 2018). The impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector may reduce national GDP by 4% (Mulungu et al. 2021;Braimoh et al. 2016). Therefore, more focus and effort are required to build resilience and enhance adapt capacity to climate change of vulnerable stakeholders along key agri-food value chains. This also requires multiple sectors and actors to work together seamlessly to address the multi-dimensional challenges posed by climate change and variability.AICCRA Zambia funded by World Bank aims to improve water security in the drylands of Southern Africa through access to knowledge, technologies and decision-making tools to strengthen climate resilience in Zambia's agriculture and food systems in the face of a hotter and drier climate. AICCRA is carried out by a consortium of CGIAR, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the international Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the World Fish and the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). AICCRA works with Zambian partners to scaling actionable CIS and CSA innovation bundles that will achieve water and food security and build resilience. AICCRA Zambia work with several local partners and stakeholders to operate at different scales which allows multiple pathways to scaling climate smart agriculture (CSA) and climate information services (CIS) innovation bundles. The project provides accelerator grants for SMEs/entrepreneurs to invest in off-grid solar-powered irrigation, fish seed, seed, integrated mixed chicken/goats-legume and gender equality and social inclusion.The project strengthens institutional capacities by training intermediaries to communicate climate services as well as implementing an internship and innovation grant (I2G) program. The project facilitates multistakeholder dialogues to scaling CSA-CIS (CSA-CIS MSDs), enhancing partners' ability to assess and address systemic barriers and opportunities for start-ups doing business in CIS and CSA areas. Finally, it contributes to agriculture and natural resource policy formulation in the drought declaration process and enhance investment plans by identifying suitable financing mechanisms and using fiscal tools to de-risk private sector investments in food value chains.Multi-stakeholder platform and process (MSPs) landscape analysis highlighted that MSPs in Zambia are unique in both role and composition. Four types of MSPs are existing in Zambia, public led, development led, public and development led and development and private sector led. They differ in the governance structure, type of stakeholder and focus issues, objectives and life cycle, the operational mechanism and activities and type of relationship among the members. They also evolve over time due to changes in priorities, challenges and resource availability. For instance, the public led are very formalised and professional in organisations with defined hierarchy of authority from district to national level. Development led MSPs are the most common and are mainly about finding innovative ways to pool resources, core designed project and programmes to address specific or systematic development in manner the deliver mutual benefits to all collaborating parties and stakeholders.Multiple lessons have been documented in leading and facilitating the multi-stakeholder dialogues across MSPs. The landscape indicated that MSPs' real practice and policy influence is achieved when they have clearly specified goals and objectives, collaboration with relevant government ministries and departments is pursued and established early. Early government engagements showed willingness of MSPs to work together with government and observe all political protocol and institutions of the country. This helped reduce antagonism from key public and private institutions. The development led MSPs that are successful in influencing practice and policy have well developed theory of change, strategy, operational, monitoring and evaluation framework, employ a range of coordination and communication strategies.The landscape analysis also highlighted that addressing institutional capacity and information gaps in the public led MSPs influence practice and policy positively. Also, MSPs that contribute to building local institutional capacity and improve information access through upgrading existing infrastructure or services gain recognition and are easily integrated in the sectoral policy decision making process. The review also demonstrated that limited diversity of partnerships and membership in the development and private led, restricted coordination and communication strategies and scaling of proven CSA options. Experience from other countries such as South Africa have shown that mainstreaming climate adaptation and resilience into development requires pro-active engagement of the private sector and cross-sectoral coordination for effectiveness and sustainability. These findings suggest that considerable investments are required to bring on board the private sector in the scaling of the climate smart agricultural technologies.Leveraging these lessons, AICCRA's approach to facilitating CSA-CIS MSDs in Zambia is to interact with existing and relevant MSP through AICCRA CSA-CIS MSD Space at the regional, national level and sub national level. The CSA-CIS MSD Space is a physical and institutional space where members come together to exchange ideas and jointly explore opportunities to scale CSA-CIS innovations in specific agro-ecological contexts (Minh et al. 2020). Together, members in the CSA-CIS MSD Space enable the sustainable and inclusive scaling of CSA-CIS innovation bundles in key CSA value chain to benefit particularly lower part of the pyramid. Figure 1 illustrates the CSA-CIS MSD Space, presenting objectives, operational mechanism and thematic focus of collaboration with the intended new and existing groups of MSPs.Different groups of participants engaging in the CSA-CIS MSD Space, as follows:• Private sector entities consist of agri-businesses, technologies and service distributors undertaking functions in agricultural value chains. It also includes financial, insurance, logistics, networking, incubation and climate information services and digital innovation providers as they support agribusinesses in investing into the value chain chains.• Farmers and farmer-based organizations represent a significant segment of the community in respect of climate smart agriculture. They include smallholder farmers, women's groups, youth's unions, farmer organizations, farmer cooperatives and producer associations.• Government agencies and departments with mandates for agricultural development responsible for policy making on agricultural water management (e.g., Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Green Economy, Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprise, Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Finance, Zambia Metrological Department, Zambia Agriculture Research Institute, Zambia Chamber of Small Business Associations, Zambia Chamber of Commerce and Industry).• Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) consist of international and national NGOs that are contributing to agricultural development, including climate smart agriculture (e.g., CARE International, World Vision, Action aid, Grassroots trust, COMACO, Musika, Oxfarm, Youth alive Zambia, Clean Environment Zambia, Seed for Life Zambia, Catholic Relief Services, Khulisa).• Donors and development partners are donors and international development and research organizations, who are active in the country, including, USAID, World Bank, SIDA, FAO, GIZ, CGIAR, and Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa, as well as the CGIAR Centers, UNDP.• Universities and research organizations for enhancing innovation and capacity development in agriculture development and climate smart agriculture sub-sector (e.g., Copperbelt University, University of Zambia, Mulungushi University, Zambia Agricultural Research Institute (ZARI)). • Support CSA-CIS policy and planning processes through dialogue, information sharing facilitate establishment of an enabling environment for all the climate smart agri-food systems actors (farmers private sector stakeholders, financing institutions and civil society) to scale up CSA-CIS innovations.Working together governments and other key stakeholders to adapt existing policies and regulations; design new coherent policies, strategies, plans and programmes for CSA and CIS scaling; and allocate sufficient resources for their implementation.• Drive possible innovations for sustainable and inclusive CSA-CIS scaling through reflecting, discussing and adapting CSA-CIS innovations to different needs and contexts use, identify novel scaling approaches that are gender sensitive and can reach most of the targeted population (leave no one behind) including vulnerable groups (women and youth).• Catalyze sustainable finance to CSA-CIS scaling innovative business models facilitate and pull new public and private financial capital investments in CSA -CIS scaling. Strengthen linkages between financial institutions and climate smart agri-foods value chain actors (focus particularly on the bottom of the pyramid). Build capacity of the financial institutions to provide services to the diverse smallholder farmers and SMEs. Also build the capacity of the smallholder farmers and SMEs to enhance their access to financial capital through formal channels. This will include reducing the financial risk profiles. • Enhance market and value chain linkages through creation of demand for climate smart agri-food products using digital platform, increased market information access and exploring new market opportunities.Foster interactive learning and raise awareness on CSA-CIS integration and scaling through participatory learning supported by improved access to reliable and real time weather and seasonal forecast information for informed selection of CSA options to manage and adapt to climate change at scale. This will also include leveraging media and communication as a pathway to support the learning and adoption of CSA-CIS innovations.CSA-CIS MSD space will engage with relevant existing CSA MSPs operating at different levels. CSA-CIS MSD will work with existing and relevant CSA MSPs to integrate CSA-CIS scaling in the agriculture, natural resources management, health, nutrition, and other relevant sectors. Systemic, adaptive scaling approach will be employed and tailored to specific socio-economic context. CSA-CIS MSDs seek to institutionalize sustainable and inclusive CIS-CSA scaling pathways based on evidence from the research for development, interactive learning, and scaling/accelerating partnerships. This approach also develops capacity to build and enhance trust, while fostering a sustainable network across sectors. The CIS-CSA MSD space contributes to a resilient agricultural innovation system whilst building a sustainable innovation scaling culture in the agricultural sector that will continue after the project exits.world's 76 poorest countries, 39 of which are in Africa. Annual IDA commitments have averaged about $21 billion over circa 2017-2020, with approximately 61 percent going to Africa.Furthermore, AICCRA Zambia multi-stakeholder dialogue space approach is building on approaches and methodologies from the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Small Scale Irrigation (ILSSI) project. ILSSI is working to identify the best ways to expand the use of, and inclusive access to, small scale irrigation within environmentally sustainable limits. ILSSI was established at the Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture Development at Texas A&M University in 2013 through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). ILSSI works to contribute to the mission of USAID's Feed the Future Initiative and improve progress on the Global Food Security Strategy.","tokenCount":"1697"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"78d1a024636ae2002f6b369cde4675ad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bef888c5-ced6-4377-96e0-7f8af40a8312/retrieve","id":"1011400194"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9cc424ed-3414-4174-b99a-91cd168aac67","pagecount":"51","content":"can be used to do so in the future. Another gap to emerge is that attempts to understand the drivers underpinning experiences with WMOs give significant attention to the institutional characteristics of the state agencies responsible for WMO formation, but far less on the influence of the beneficiaries' own characteristics, and the influence of heterogeneity within and between different water user groups. Assessment of this aspect is limited to recognition of elite capture of WMO functioning and its links with local government agencies and the function of land ownership in determining access to water. While this review does not claim to be comprehensive, the perception of this limited analysis in the existing literature appear to be supported by others such as Chowdhury and Rasul (2011) who observe that \"despite increasing emphasis on incorporating social justice, there has been no systematic study on how social and environmental aspects are being incorporated in water management projects in Bangladesh\".Overall therefore, this review does not provide much information on WMOs within the broader developmental context as was initially anticipated. The content instead consists of tracing the evolution of WMOs; detailing the various forms WMOs have assumed; summarizing the key policy, legal and institutional frameworks in the water sector; using several case studies (selected based on availability of information) to extract a deeper understanding of WMO workings and results in terms of participation, O&M performance and to a limited extent poverty reduction, and identifying key features and lessons that may be relevant to the project's future activities. It is also proposed that the gaps in knowledge that appear to exist especially with respect to WMOs' broader developmental role could provide some direction to the project's research activities.This literature review was commissioned by Project \"G3 -Water Governance and Community-based Management\", one of several projects funded by the Challenge Programme on Water and Food (CPWF) in the Ganges Basin. The project seeks to understand the different modes and outcomes of water governance in selected polders and the role that communities play in such governance. Governance structures at this local level are challenged by high rates of poverty, dense human populations, highly variable fresh water availability, all coalescing into intense competition for water and land resources by a range of users. Facilitating efficient, productive, equitable and sustainable access to these resources thus needs to be a key orientation of these governance systems. This review of past experiences and the current status of Water Management Organizations (WMOs) in Bangladesh are intended to contribute to the context and process of understanding the different governance mechanisms that are in place to manage these conflicts and their comparative advantages and disadvantages.The contents of this report are drawn exclusively from the literature sourced through interlibrary searches, the use of Google Scholar and Google web-based search engines and access to specific project documents from donor agencies.At the outset, the intention was to consider WMOs not merely as water infrastructure management entities whereby performance criteria may be somewhat limited to issues of operation and maintenance (O&M) functions, but within the broader lens of rural development which call for rational water management and allocation mechanisms. In view of the inextricable links between water and other resources such as land, and the multiple inputs required for productive water use (e.g. technologies, finance, skills) that span a range of sectors and actors, a key interest in approaching this review was to what extent and how WMOs have meshed their functions with this broader development paradigm of poverty reduction espoused in government policies (examples) and undertakings such as the Millennium Development Goals at the international level.The degree to which the above objective has been achieved in this review however has been limited by the relatively conventional approach to assessing WMO performance in much of the literature that was available for this review. Much of the literature is absorbed with the traditional issues of participation in project design implementation and especially operation and maintenance of water infrastructure. Assessments of the implementing agencies and descriptions of the various forms taken by WMOs are also abundant, as are project-specific studies that provide useful case-studies for this review. Information and analysis becomes scarce on the overall impacts of WMOs on the management of water as a multi-user resource and its impacts on local poverty indices. The only exception is the recognition of the traditional fisheries system as a key casualty of the government's overall pre-occupation on flood control and agricultural expansion. Furthermore, while literature on the water sector policy, legal and institutional frameworks recognize the movement towards a more integrated water management approach, there is little discussion of how WMOs have or have not contributed to a truly integrated decision making mechanism, or how theyAs stated by DFID (2000), the water resource management system in the floodplains of Bangladesh at its simplest can be analyzed as one whereby choices are made or forced upon stakeholders relating to obtaining an adequate supply of water throughout the year, obtaining water-based products, such as crops and fish, and ensuring access to water for other livelihood activities. This situation results from a paradox in terms of availability of water which falls between the extremes of flood during the monsoon and scarcity during the dry season. Several drivers of scarcity have emerged over time to include human population growth, poverty and the promotion of agricultural intensification as a poverty reducing strategy leading to a rapid increase in water use for irrigation. In the post-monsoon period, soil-moisture content declines rapidly and the deficit needs to be compensated by irrigation (Choudhury 2005). Saline water intrusion in the south western region further exacerbates fresh-water scarcity, as does the emergence of shrimp cultivation as a major competitor to agriculture in the south western coastal polders. This has been largely associated with the increase in water and land salinity alongside the loss of biodiversity of that region (Alamgir 2010). Within this context of increased variable supply of and increased demand for water, water management and distribution issues have become crucial.These same coastal areas have also to contend with severe flooding given the prominence of huge river flows, strong tidal and wind actions and tropical cyclones and their associated storm surges. Bangladesh's topography is formed by three of the largest river systems in the world. Moreover, approximately 93% of the surface water of the river systems comes from outside the country (Chowdhury 2010), thereby further inhibiting the country's ability to manage river flows and water quality at a basin scale. Bangladesh shares 54 rivers with India and another 3 with Myanmar, and has to drain water from an area twelve times its size (Gupta et al. 2005). At other times, an ever-increasing upstream withdrawal of water from these rivers beyond the Bangladesh border is depriving Bangladesh of its traditional uses of water and causing stresses in water management within Bangladesh, particularly in the dry season (Choudhury 2005). Like flood management, the phenomenon of drought also brings into focus the inherent discord among different uses of water (Choudhury 2005). This dichotomy of extreme flooding and scarcity has triggered investments in as many as 800 water infrastructure projects (ranging from less than 1000 ha to more than 15,000 ha) for flood control, drainage and/or irrigation over the past 65 years (Chowdhury and Rasul 2011). Part of these investments has been self-induced as the construction of the polders and embankments resulted in a massive anthropogenic impact to the natural water ecosystem in Bangladesh. The polder/enclosure systems began in 1961 when the government recognized the need for protection of the coastal areas. It intensified from 1964 with the Water Master Plan, prepared by the East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (EPWAPDA) with assistance from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), focused on increasing agriculture production mainly through extensive flood control embankments combined with structures to facilitate drainage in the short run and public-financed medium-to large-scale irrigation in the longer run. This plan was prepared for a nation of fewer than 60 million people of whom more than 90% lived in rural areas producing mainly rain-fed rice with relatively rudimentary technologies. The plan did not reflect input from local stakeholders, since sustainability and related operation and maintenance issues were not addressed, nor did it consider inter-sectoral problems since the flood plain was extensive, fish were abundant, the road network was limited, and there were virtually no water-polluting industries. Also, the priority was to increase rice production. The plan was therefore highly prescriptive and focused on restricting flood waters to prescribed avenues through a clearly defined system of embankments designed to prevent flooding of agriculture lands and ignored the effects of drought on the production system. This approach was firmly embraced by most engineers within EPWAPDA and by its successor, the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) (World Bank 2005).While the primary purpose of empolderment was to increase agricultural production by providing protection against tidal floods, salinity intrusion and sedimentation, the physical structures delinked the wetlands from the rivers and caused drainage problems and water logging (Islam 2005). Due to the embankments constructed on both sides of the rivers the natural process of tidal inundation was halted resulting in water logging and drainage congestion. Large sedimentation and drainage problems in the river beds caused some rivers in the region to die. All these modifications increased people's vulnerability to environmental disasters, and the bias towards agriculture at the expense of water for other uses, such as in fisheries, navigation industries, forestry, domestic water requirements and sanitation, livestock, poultry, horticulture, and other human and environmental services have also undermined the diversity of natural capital available for many traditional livelihoods. In addition, there is an accumulation of salt in the topsoil through capillary action causing increased soil salinity in the polders during the dry season (Alamgir 2010).Water management projects in Bangladesh focused on maximizing economic benefits and are generally biased towards construction of infrastructure to control water for flood control and irrigation. Most of the projects were intended for creating a favorable environment for agricultural growth. As Chowdhury and Rasul (2011) appreciate, many of these infrastructure interventions aimed at flood control and irrigation for agriculture have been poorly planned with limited inputs from local people, and often ignoring the other uses of water, particularly those on which the subsistence of poor people are based (GoB, 2004, Chowdhury andRasul 2011). While this approach has begun to change through the adoption of the Water Policy in 1999 and the Guidelines for Participatory Water Management (GPWM) in 1994(GPWM) in (revised in 2000)), and the evolution of WMOs as will be discussed in this review, the conditions and constraints alluded to above broadly provide the physical and human contexts in which WMOs in their modern sense emerged and have since evolved. Choudhury (2005) notes that community participation in water management is not new to the people of Bangladesh. Historically, people especially in the tidal flood plains of the south and haors (depressions) in the northeast of the country built small earthen dykes around their paddy fields or along riverbanks under the leadership of Zamindars (landlords). At that time, water management was confined to protecting land from monsoon and tidal floods by small dykes and limited irrigation with indigenous methods. Over time, the socio-economic scenario changed dramatically leading eventually to the growth of large scale state public investments in the shape of massive coastal polders and large irrigation projects.Modern WMOs in Bangladesh may be divided into two broad types: those adopting or adapting the Comilla model and those following other concepts. WMOs in the first category vastly outnumber those in the other category due to the government policy to expand irrigation coverage quickly through highly subsidized public sector programs during the initial years of the green revolution. The Bangladesh Agriculture Development Corporation (BADC) and the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) spearheaded this movement respectively for groundwater and surface water irrigation. Comilla type WMO were the principal institutional mechanism through which the expansion program was implemented (GOB 2006).The Camilla model emerged from research conducted by the Comilla Academy for Rural Development, developed in early 1960s a model of cooperative that sought to resolve these problems. This model continues to provide the basic conceptual and structural framework for organizing farmers' groups. These WMOs registered under the cooperative laws are not the exact replicas of the Comilla cooperatives but represent slightly modified versions (GOB 2006).The principal aim of this model is to bind farmers together into a functional unit, providing not only credit but also services to make the credit functional. Four fundamental features:1. Organization: A two-tier cooperative system was introduced bypassing the traditional cooperatives. Farmers must organize themselves by forming the primary cooperatives, called Krishak Samabaya Samity (KSS) at the village level. These are then, over time, federated into a Thana Central Cooperative Association (TCCA) for credit support and supervision. The TCCA is the core of the Comilla Cooperatives' institutional framework. Its functions are the supply and supervision of credit and other inputs. Each TCCA is based at the TTDC and has jurisdiction over all the primary societies within the remit of the thana. The TCCA is run by a managing committee, chiefly consisting of elected representatives of the federating KSS. In addition, there are a few government officials who become exofficio members. 2. Access to credit: It was recognized that if the production function in agriculture were to be raised through the introduction of new technologies, then new inputs will be needed and the farmer is in no position to afford them without having access to significant amounts of credit. 3. Access to other Inputs: Provision of credit was not considered sufficient for higher agricultural production. Farmers needed other inputs, such as fertilizer, seeds, pesticides and pumps for irrigation if they were to implement the new technologies. It was thought that initially subsidies would be required to induce farmers to use the new inputs but that the supports could be removed once their value in increasing production became obvious and their use widespread.As against the practice of bringing an outside 'change agent', the concept of the model farmer was introduced for creating such agents from within the community. There were also tailor-made courses for training the manager, accountant, pump driver and other officials connected with the TCCAs.For more details see: The next phase of evolution began in the early 1980s when the Government and donor community recognized the need for mobilization and promotion of beneficiary participation in water management to realize the potential benefits of investment in water resources projects through sustainable operation and maintenance (ADB 2003b). It was surmised that the supplementary use of minor irrigation in combination with effective flood control and drainage would enable farmers to crop high-yielding varieties and reduce the risk of crop failure from flooding or drought at the beginning and the end of the monsoon season. O&M of water resource schemes was also usually a problem, and it was hoped that active participation of local governments and beneficiaries in the development of small-scale water control schemes would help overcome this burden (ADB 2007).Various forms of beneficiary participation models have been experimented with. Success of the models for enhancing participatory water management, however, was limited and results could not be sustained and replicated (ADB 2003b). A key reason was the centralized, technical paradigm these models reflected (Chadwick et al. 1998), where participation was merely to expedite project implementation. Participation was generally marginal and frequently \"added on\" to projects, and where it was included, the formulation of these activities was extremely weak. They were also compounded by the fact that only farmers, and not all stakeholders, were involved in the process so that vital issues were excluded from the system and had these participatory processes worked, they would generally have widened, not lessened, local inequalities. Consequently, at a workshop on \"People's Participation in the Water Sector: Lessons Learned from Experience\" in 1997, the participants agreed that there had been no real participation in water sector activities in Bangladesh (Chadwick and Datta 2003). In many, if not most cases, establishment of water institutions were being agency-administered, highly directed, target oriented and deadline driven to form a predetermined hierarchy of Water Users' Organizations (WUOs) with a predetermined institutional structure, composition, tasks, and modus operandi (Quassem 2001).Nevertheless, with hindsight these early forays in institutionalizing stakeholder participation in water sector programs can be seen as experiments in a learning process. While these initiatives are not viewed as successes in themselves, they did generate a momentum for further developing the institutional structures and implementing processes. For instance, the second conference of the Flood Action Plan in 1992 produced a set of guidelines for participation in management of projects. Although the Systems Rehabilitation Project (SRP) of BWDB started in 1992 was largely unsuccessful (Soussan et al., 1997), it too espoused the idea of people's participation, and participatory elements were included after a review in 1994 by the World Bank. This involved formation of WUOs, although these WUOs have been criticized as not being representative enough given that most of the WUOs consisted only of farmers rather than all water users (Hussain 2004).A significant development in the 1990s was the emergence at the international stage of the idea of peoples' participation in the management of development projects as a strategy for poverty alleviation. This thinking was crystalized in the water sector by the 1992 Dublin Principles of water management which stated that \"water development and management should be participatory, involving users, planners and policy makers at all levels\". These developments influenced the transition of participation merely as a means of project implementation and to induce the beneficiaries to either fully or partly share the cost of operation of schemes that are beneficial to them. The emergence of participation as a core theme in development activities, in tandem with the concept of integrated water resources management (IWRM) brought to the forefront the complexity and diversity of interests among water resources stakeholders in Bangladesh, and the need for cross-sectoral perspectives and stakeholder consultation in water management interventions.In 1994, the Government formulated the 'Guidelines of Peoples Participation' although they were applicable to water resources projects of BWDB only. Another limitation was that these guidelines mainly focused on irrigation projects and not flood control projects despite the critical nature of flood control and drainage aspects in Bangladesh. Consequently, newGuidelines for Participatory Water Management (GPWM) were formulated in 2000 taking into consideration past experience, and applicable in all flood control, drainage and irrigation projects of the country. However, a World Bank (2005) assessment noted that while the Guidelines for Participatory Water Management constitute an excellent starting point for promoting local stakeholder involvement in water management infrastructure, they fall short of promoting meaningful participation. Rather than establishing mechanisms to improve agencies' ability to respond to local stakeholders, the guidelines approach the participation issue from the perspective of devising mechanisms and procedures to encourage local stakeholders to participate in achieving the objectives of the executing agency.By this time, and in response to the mixed impacts of flood control infrastructure, the Bangladesh National Water Policy (NWP) of 1999 had already promoted a significant shift away from past practice with its goal of ensuring \"progress towards fulfilling national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and safety, a decent standard of living for the people and protection of the natural environment'. It emphasized the establishment of stakeholders' participation for ensuring direct input from people and their fruitful participation at all levels of the water resources development and management through establishing water users institutions (Quassem 2001). The NWP, for the first time, recognized the role of water in poverty alleviation and called for inclusive water management, taking into consideration the national goal of poverty alleviation, along with other goals. The Policy recognized that the \"ultimate success and effectiveness of public water resources management projects depends on the people's acceptance and ownership of each project\". The Policy further requires that the \"interests of low-income water users, and that of women, are adequately protected in water resource management\", and states that an \"enabling environment will be created for women to play a key role in local community organizations for management of water resources\" (Nahar 2002).Furthermore, under the policy, agricultural land everywhere is to be adapted to the existing flood regime. The National Water Management Plan has interpreted this to mean that no new flood control is to be introduced in rural areas, and that the emphasis now is on improving the performance and management of existing schemes. That is, within existing flood control schemes, different interventions are to be considered where required on a case-by-case basis and these interventions are to be driven by stakeholder wishes and their willingness to contribute to costs (World Bank 2005).To facilitate the implementation of the NWP, the government approved a 25-year National Water Management Plan (NWMP) in 2004. The main elements of the NWMP, among others, include the multi-use approach to water (not just flood protection but also irrigation, drinking water and other uses) and an emphasis on 'soft' approaches instead of just hard engineering solutions. The NWP declares clearly the intention of the Government to pursue a policy of IWRM, and also envisages major institutional reform including the decentralization and transfer of water resources management schemes to the private sector and civil society. It states that the \"principle that community resources should be managed by the community concerned, along with local government institutions unless a greater national interest prevails, should guide water resource management.\"These represent key policy departures in the way water has been viewed and managed in Bangladesh. The NWP was a significant landmark that reflected a major shift in the approach to water resources management. In particular, the dominance of floods as the issue and infrastructure as the solution is challenged by the new policy that prioritizes a range of issues and recognizes the importance of, in particular, institutional change (Chadwick and Datta 2003). To ensure better O&M, NWP provides for handing over selected water management functions to stakeholders. Ultimately, the NWP envisages transfer of ownership of the small schemes (those below 1,000 ha) to local government and management to Water Management Associations (WMAs); transfer of management of schemes between 1,000 ha and 5,000 ha to WMAs, with ownership remaining with BWDB.Finally transfer of management of schemes over 5,000 ha to a joint team consisting of WMAs and Local Government with ownership remaining with BWDB.The GPWM built on the NWP by setting out a three-tier institutional framework for The WMGs operate at the grass-roots and are meant to be directly involved in water management while the WMAs are to provide the necessary coordination at the scheme level. The highest common denominator (WMA) is the point of formal interface between a water sector agency and a WMO. This is the level where formal agreements relating to respective duties and obligations of the parties concerned are to be signed. For each scheme, there are to be at least one level of WMO. The number and level of WMOs to be formed in any scheme is to be decided by the stakeholders on the basis of their preference and in consideration of the size and complexity of the scheme.  The GPWM envisions a definite role for the Local Government Institutions (LGIs) consisting of Union Thana and Zila Parishads in facilitating the work of WMOs through the respective standing committees of the different Parishads whose members are expected to act as advisors to the concerned WMOs. The LGIs would also be involved at their respective levels in the transfer of ownership and management of different sizes of schemes.Entry of the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) in the small scale water sector through the Small Scale Water Resources Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP), saw the creation of an alternate WMO model to that recommended in the GPWM. Known as Water Management Associations (WMAs), these are a one-tier institution developed for all its subprojects. Both BWDB and LGED are following the concept of the Camilla model but with significant deviations in structural composition from the original model. While the LGED follows a one-tier system, the BWDB has followed the three-tier model in all its recent projects, focusing on the formation of the WMGs as the primary unit of WMO. The difference in approach between the two agencies might reflect the different types of schemes being handled by them. While LGED is dealing with small schemes having a command of 1000 ha or less, BWDB is looking after very large systems, a few of them having a command of more than 50,000 ha. (GOB 2006).WMOs can obtain legal status by registering under one of four laws: the Societies Registration Act 1860; the Trust Act 1984; the Companies Act 1994 and the Cooperative Societies Act, 2001. After examining various options, LGED opted to get the its WMOs registered under the cooperative law. In a somewhat different form, the WMOs under the BWDB schemes are also registered under the same law.The BWDB and LGED are the implementing agencies for large scale and small scale projects respectively and the case studies attempt to explore their respective approaches to establishing, operationalizing and supporting WMOs. These examples will also provide information on the end results from a water management and development perspectives and identify underlying drivers of these results, to the degree information is available.Water Resource Development Sector Project (SSWRDSP) Funded by ADB and currently in its third phase, the SSWRDSP was in many ways an experimental project for testing new approaches and processes for participatory water management in small-scale water schemes (Akhter et al. 2000). The Project provides flood control, drainage or irrigation infrastructure to subproject areas less than 1,000 ha. The approach relies heavily on local stakeholders' initiative to identify interventions, ratify engineering design, demonstrate commitment to operating and maintaining infrastructure by contributing a specified amount of funds in advance of physical construction, and to sign a post-construction lease agreement for managing, operating, and maintaining the infrastructure. The project's strategy includedes not only the process of organizing stakeholders and beneficiaries, mostly poor people and small farmers, into effective cooperative organizations, but also the introduction within LGED of responsibility for, and commitment to the development of small-scale water resources development schemes and supporting WMCAs in their operation and maintenance (ADB 2003b). In total 280 WMCAs were formed.The ultimate objective of the WMCAs is to increase agricultural production through proper O&M of the infrastructure created for management of the water resources, which will in turn contribute to reduction of poverty (ADB 2003b). The arrangement of the village meetings to discuss various issues related to the project was the major task of the WMCAs (ADB 2003a).Participation was based on three principles:Subprojects are identified by local people and their elected representatives in the Union Parishad; • Local people, beneficiaries and project-affected people are to be involved in all stages of sub-project development; and• The overall approach tried to combine institutional and technical issues which was a significant factor missing in many previous projects.To be a member of a WMCA, each person was required to buy a minimum of one share at a cost that varied between WMCAs. In most WMCAs, the maximum number of shares per member was limited to between 10 and 100, although some subprojects allow shareholdings up to the legally allowed maximum of 20% of total share capital per member.In at least two cases, the provision for allowing up to 20% of capital to be held by any individual has been used by the WMCAs to expand their capital base and thus the funds available for microcredit programs or WMCA commercial activities (ADB 2007).A socio-economist worked with LGED and assisted the WMCAs to be registered under the Registrar of Co-operatives, and establish links with the Upazila level government officers who are their sector-based service providers (Akhter et al. 2000).LGED also enlisted the services of NGOs to motivate community members to form the WMCAs and to make the initial beneficiary contributions (ADB 2003b).Once the WMCA is formed, the final design of the subprojects is presented to the first AGM of the WMCA which decides whether it is to be approved. If approved, and once the Managing Committee of the WMCA is in place (elected at the AGM), an agreement is signed between the WMCA and LGED to proceed with implementation. This process took between 14-16 months. The functions of the WMCA during implementation included collecting the beneficiaries' contributions (totaling one year's O&M costs) towards the construction work.The WMCAs are also responsible for monitoring implementation and resolving disputes over land that may impede implementation. After completion of construction, the project assists the WMCA for a year in O&M of the subproject. After this year, the WMCAs receive the project infrastructure, which include the actual water bodies and other LGED-constructed or repaired infrastructure on leasehold for a 20-year period. Usually the WMCAs have the sole legal right to use, operate and maintain the infrastructure for day to day management of the water for various kinds of water-using activities including cultivation and fisheries (ADB 2003b).Each WMCA has one president and one secretary, but only some of them were found to have a treasurer. The number of female office bearers was only 3 of a possible 76 (ADB 2003b). Each WMCA is managed by a management committee. As per cooperative society rules, WMCAs hold elections every 3 years and regular annual general meetings during which the completed annual audit is presented. The functions of the management committee include: (i) organizing the beneficiaries of the subprojects, including their participation and sharing in the O&M activities of the infrastructure, (ii) helping their members in income-generation activities through microcredit programs, and (iii) facilitating training of their members. Nineteen of the 22 subprojects investigated (ADB 2007) were found to have an active management committee which functions regularly. The active WMCAs have various functional subcommittees such as the construction and observation, O&M, agricultural, microcredit/loan, and women's subcommittees. Some of the WMCAs have village committees for closer connectivity with the beneficiaries. Eleven of the 19 active WMCAs had paid employees. The other WMCAs operated through voluntary service (ADB 2007).With respect to project development and implementation, in SSWRDSP Phase ILGED/Project officials approached the community with the offer to implement a sub project provided the community agrees to form a cooperative organization and fulfill other conditions, including raising of the O&M fund. The sub project proposal had to be initiated formally by the Union Parishad and approved by the Thana Development Coordination Committee (TDCC). A set of 12 conditions have to be met by the WMCA before an Implementation Agreement (IA) can be signed between LGED and the WMCA. One of these conditions stipulates that the plan and design of the sub project must be approved by the WMCA. This situation started changing during Phase II with initiatives coming from the community or a LGI which approaches LGED to implement a particular sub project. The 12 conditions clearly spell out the obligations the beneficiaries will have to discharge should they decide to accept a scheme. The IA in turn, underlines the responsibilities of the LGED with regard to the future upkeep of the scheme. This is thus meant to generate a clear understanding between the parties prior to commencement of any physical work (GoB 2006).Many WMCAs adopted a micro-credit programme to support members' livelihood activities.The capital base for each WMCA microcredit program is made up of the proceeds from the sale of shares and the accumulated savings of individual members with the WMCA. Each member is required to contribute each month to a savings account, usually Tk10 but up to Tk100, depending on the WMCA by-law. Collection rates of WMCAs visited were generally high, but not 100% in all subprojects. The funds generated from monthly savings and purchase of shares are used to provide microcredit loans to members, with an interest rate of up to 15% (ADB 2007).WMO formation and participation: Implementation of a second phase (SSWRDSP-2) provided LGED the opportunity to learn from and incorporate the lessons arising from Phase I, and in that sense, Phase I fulfilled the experimental approach it was meant to. Information in the available literature however is lacking with respect to details of these adjustments. The external evaluation report for Phase I (ADB 2003b) for instance highlights the need for specific measures to ensure that poor people, small farmers and destitute women get benefit from the sub-projects, but the underlying structural and process weaknesses are not explored. The report does mention that interest groups influenced the sub-project preparation and selection processes, but no details are provided.The same report found women in the membership to be low, but this appears to have changed subsequently (ADB 2007) through the WMCAs' women's subcommittees and in income-generating activities funded through the WMCA microcredit programs. This had resulted in higher self-esteem among these women who were able to contribute more to family incomes. In addition, women were more visible in their respective communities. The management committee of each WMCA had 3-4 women members as required by the Project. One of the subprojects was even chaired by a woman. This had enabled a number of women to actively participate in overall management and decision-making process in their respective WMCAs. Women were found to take part substantially in income-generating activities through the microcredit programs. Many women had also been trained in cooperatives, income-generating skills, and environmental awareness.The occupational pattern indicates the WMCA leaders to be non-poor (ADB 2003b). Their land holding pattern showed them to be affluent and quite atypical of the land holding pattern found in rural Bangladesh, with 54% of them owning more than 5 acres. The sample land holding pattern indicated that the leadership of the WMCAs is vested in the hands of the comparatively rich and influential people, although the WMCAs are supposed to work for the community (composed to a large extent of the poor) as a whole.Despite these inequalities within the membership, the beneficiaries of the subprojects visited by a 2007 study (ADB 2007) were found to be moderately to highly motivated and interested in WMCAs overall. Such interest was partly attributed to their sense of ownership, which in turn was to some extent a result of the beneficiaries' involvement in their respective subprojects from planning to implementation and to O&M. The beneficiaries believed that the subproject has brought stability to production conditions and had increased food production and employment for the poor. These findings appear to be corroborated by a study the previous year (GoB 2006) which noted a significant increase in the membership of WMCAs from initial formation. The study found women constituted about 40 percent of the membership of the WMCAs surveyed, with membership increasing by 760% on average.A subsequent study by Sultana and Thompson (2010a) however found that the local fishers (over 50 households in the study site, virtually none of whom joined the cooperative) reported declining catches due to operation in favour of agriculture. They claimed the WMCA completely ignored their interests, and excluded the very poor through its share system and decision making that was dominated by local elites. The same study found that conflicts between richer leaders and poorer cooperative members were serious in about 40 per cent of studied sub-projects, and this included competition for credit: in most cases very poor members did not get credit. Farmers and fishers both need water for their livelihoods but have contradicting uses and objectives. Fishers deed water to enter the floodplain when farmers do not (e.g. during dry season paddy harvest when fish try to migrate in to spawn). None of the WMCAs had fully resolved this conflict of interest between fishers and farmers.The findings of investigations into the WMCAs under the SSWRDSP appear to vary according to the time at which each study was conducted. The assessment of Phase I commissioned by the ADB (ADB 2003b) did not find the WMCAs to be working well. It found that in some WMCAs the O&M sub-committee was inactive, and half of the WMCAs had no O&M Plan. Little significance appears to have been attached to O&M by the WMCAs whose members seemed more interested in poverty alleviation, social development and micro credit programs. When interviewed, no one had highlighted sustainable water resource management through proper O&M as a priority. Though maintenance requirements for facilities of completed sub projects are determined jointly by the WMCA and LGED at present, WMCA contribution towards such maintenance was still found to be insignificant in 2006 (GoB 2006), generally in the region of 10 percent of cost. However, this report was of the opinion that the reason may not be the inability to do so as the report states that some WMCAs are already capable of meeting most O&M fund requirements. A study in 2007 (ADB 2007) however found that all the WMCAs participated in O&M activities-the minimum being to keep the subproject running. Beneficiary contributions to O&M may be in cash, kind, or labor. Labor contributions constitute a significant portion of WMCA contributions to the cost of O&M, since much of the work required, especially for maintenance of embankments and canals, is manual (such as greasing and painting of sluices, repairing rain cuts and small damage to embankments, resetting protective blocks). Emergency works are done with LGED funds. This progression seems to be confirmed by a report two years later (ADB 2009) which concluded that WMCAs are capable of organizing and implementing routine O&M but they need the assistance of LGED for major items of maintenance work. Sultana and Thompson (2010a) confirm that the WMCAs appear to be flourishing, successfully maintaining and operating the flood control infrastructure.Influence on water management: Literature which addressed this aspect could not be found, with the majority of project as well as independent reviews concentrating almost exclusively on levels of participation and the discharge of O&M functions. While conflict over access to water was referred to with respect to conflicts between agriculture and prawn farming, no detailed discussion was available of the role played by WMCAs in this process. A more general discussion of the role of WMCAs within an integrated water resources management framework was also absent.As cooperative associations, WMCAs are entitled to carry out all normal activities of a cooperative which includes credit activities. Under SSWRDSP almost 80 per cent of WMCAs had some kind of micro-credit programme. Mainly the members of the WMCA who are poor, needy and also pay the savings regularly can obtain a loan (ADB 2003b).Nowreen et al. (2011) found that fish culture features as a prominent activity, although the profits were not equally and fairly distributed. Not all landowners of the flooded rice field were allowed to be included as members of the WMCA due to a pre-set limit on the number of members. As a result non-members, the majority of whom were the local poor and marginalized farmers, did not get any profit. While by mid-June, once the water covers the rice fields, the land had traditionally become a common property fishery. The culture fish however tends to exclude a large number of poor households and fewer and fewer households have access to what previously were common pool fisheries. In contrast, business rather than agriculture is the primary source of income of the dominant members of WMCAs (ADB 2007, Sultana and Thompson 2010a, Nowreen et al. 2011). They have in fact diversified livelihoods away from agriculture and have accumulated more financial capital. This had enabled this group to capture control of the project through control of the WMCA and limited its members to 500 to ensure their influence is not diluted. This enabled them to control the operation of existing sluice gate for flood control and drainage in line with their shrimp culture operations. The benefits for the landless appear to be restricted to an increased demand for agricultural labor following the intensification of agricultural production. In addition, the Project helped improve access of the rural poor to credit through the microcredit program of the WMCAs, which supported income-generating activities (ADB 2007). No details of these activities were available.While the overall benefits may have been positive at the community level, the scenario at the household level was quite different with the level of benefits higher for the large land owners and those who successfully adopted shrimp culture compared to and often at the expense of the poorer farmers and the landless. This inequality may have been offset to some extent by the micro-credit programs that have generated tangible benefits such as opportunities for tree plantation, poultry raising, kitchen gardening, and livestock rearing and fattening. By securing management of flooding, drainage, and other aspects of water management in the subproject areas, the Project has established safe conditions for increased investment by households in both agricultural and nonagricultural activities (ADB 2007).Interestingly, despite the differentiated distribution of benefits, a review by ADB (2009) found that all land owners had a positive view of WMCAs -large landholders saw WMCAs as facilitators of O&M while small landholders saw WMCAs as a good source of micro-credit no matter how small available funds were, as WMCA micro-credit is often cheaper than similar NGO supported programs.Sustainability: An external review of SSDWRDSP (ADB 2003b) is of the opinion that even after the first seven years of the Project, even the most successful sub-projects and WMCAs will require additional support to help them to further develop into the required responsible and resourceful organizations in charge of sustainable operations and management of the small-scale water management schemes. The areas requiring support were (i) management and administration of co-operatives; (ii) technical assistance for identification and implementation of the water-related infrastructure; (iii) assistance related to identification and implementation of community development activities, and (iv) management and administration of the associated micro-credit facility, and interagency co-operation.By 2005, Choudhury concluded that the WMCA development process has been effective in enough cases to confirm its viability, noting that many of the interventions have also contributed effectively to increased food production and to poverty reduction. An ADB review (ADB 2007) also believed that the WMCAs are generally sustainable, taking into consideration the WMCAs' survival for the past 5 years. It states that the Project on the whole was responsible for the institutionalization of beneficiary participation in small-scale water projects. One reason for this may be that by 2006 the functions of the WMAs were no longer confined to water management alone. They had evolved into multipurpose cooperative societies, with multifarious activities, micro credit being a significant activity for most. Increased enrollment of new members in the WMCAs also suggested the presence of mutuality of interests among the partner organizations which is an important precondition of their sustainability (GoB 2006).Since not all WMCAs performed the same however. Some factors adversely affecting the sustainability of the Harisona-Kandial WMCA included a non-resident chairman; change in Union Parishad leadership and default of loans provided from external sources. While acknowledging the existence of shortcomings in SSWDRSP I, the authors of this report were of the view that LGED seems to recognize these problems and has tried to avoid those in SSWRDSP II. The insistence on strict adherence to the steps in the project development cycle in the right sequence and the rigorous application of the requirement of fulfilling 12 conditions prior to signing the Implementation Agreement was seen as evidence of recognition of lessons from past mistakes and adopting corrective measures to avoid them in future (GoB 2006).One condition that appears irrespective of the performance of WMCAs is that LGED, through its IWRMU needs to continue the long term maintenance monitoring of physical infrastructure in the interest of sustainability of WMCAs and subprojects (ADB 2009).With respect to microcredit, a relatively recent evaluation (ADB 2009) concluded that LGED is not in a position to manage the microcredit programs of a large number of WMCAs to keep them active. Neither the LGED nor the WMCAs have that capacity to embark on professional microfinance programs. The report recommended that loan guarantee should not be used as an incentive for large-scale expansion of microcredit. This was following a study the previous year (ADB 2008b) which found that only a few WMCAs had microcredit operations that were rated as good performance. Although over half of the SSW-2 WMCAs were rated as \"fair\", most of these showed signs of becoming \"very weak\" or \"inactive\" before long. The study found that direct support from project staff in such tasks as keeping accounts is helping this group to continue to function for the time being. It was also revealed that in 13 out of 30 WMCAs visited, bad debt had accumulated and members had lost their savings and share capital. In the more successful microcredit programs, the loans were limited to small amounts. These WMCAs were mainly CAD schemes where seasonal microcredit fits well with the business of selling irrigation water. Other types of scheme lacked such a regular business on which it is easy to attach a small microcredit operation.Significantly, the study failed to find a link between microfinance operations and sustainable subproject infrastructure O&M.In the case of SSWRDSP Phase I, the external evaluation report (ADB 2003b) found that there appeared to be little consultation between LGED and WMCA or Fisheries Department concerning fishery aspects during project planning and implementation. In a few areas, poor fishermen (making a living out of natural fisheries) were opposed to culture fisheries. The report proposed developing fisheries capacities of the WMCA and stressed that marketing and transportation will also need to feature prominently. This example serves to highlight the critical need for investments well beyond access to and management of resources if the actual value of these resources are to be realized for peoples' development. The situation appears to have changed by 2006 when another evaluation (GoB 2006) reported that LGED and DOC appear to be working closely together in formation and nurturing of WMOs. They had in fact jointly issued a circular regarding the procedure for formation of LGED WMOs. This had engendered a positive attitude among the officials of both the organizations at the field level for a more harmonious and coordinated approach for the further development of the WMOs.No reference was available on the relationships with the other agencies relevant to the water sector and more broadly to rural development. These include the agencies in charge of land, agriculture and fisheries, and the local government organizations.The Systems Rehabilitation Project in the early 1990s was implemented by BWDB aiming at sustainable O&M in rehabilitated projects by forming local Water User Groups (WUGs) comprised of farmers organized around hydrological units. As noted by Soussan at al. (1997) the scale of WUG formation was \"amazing\" especially during 1995-96 when 1,386 WUGs were formed during the year. By the end of June 1997, 3,506 WUGs had been registered in 35 sub-projects. According to Lewins and Robens (2004) however, although participation was established very early in project implementation, it was primarily an attempt to hasten the identification of land for the sub-projects, and to introduce a mode of negotiation and reduce conflict between the plot-owners. Hussain (2004) further observes that as the process of establishing WMOs became target-oriented, the effectiveness and functionality of groups after formation was lost. The same author notes that these are characteristics found in many similar projects and that the WMG formation process has had little success in initiating a community based management of the operation and maintenance of water control structures.The assessment of the participatory mobilization and group formation process within SRP has been characterized as one where local elites are selected into a largely nominal organizational structure which is presented as representing the \"people\" whilst the vast bulk of the population is not aware of the existence of these bodies and has never participated in any activities associated with their formation or functioning (Soussan at al. 1997). There was therefore a lack of any coherent vision on why the WUGs were being formed, and they had no function and quickly became disillusioned. This was also compounded by the fact that only farmers and not all stakeholders were involved in the process, thereby excluding other water users from the WUG system. The participation process reflected the centralized, construction-oriented character of both the project and the BWDB which was responsible for implementing it. This approach paralleled that found in other water sector projects at that time (Soussan at al. 1997).In the late 1990s, the BWDB sought to institute participatory water management in G-K to promote sustainable improvements in irrigation performance and rapid adoption of new HYV technology in rice and wheat. To that end, exiting Outlet Committees were re-named as WMGs comprised of nine members: one-third each from large, medium and small farm categories. 10-15 WMGs from each of the tertiary canals were then formed into Water Management Associations which were expected to manage water distribution in all field outlets from head to tail attached to the same tertiary canal. The WMGs and WMAs worked under close supervision of the BWDB officials, responsible for distribution of water up to the tertiaries and their expansion in the project areas. These institutional changes at the field level were expected to help increase crop production and productivity for all categories of farm households, especially the poor farmers, given equitable access to water and irrigation water use efficiency. Furthermore, the differences in irrigation performance between the head and the tail end reaches were expected to be narrowed as a result of improved water distribution, provided the farmers are equally responsive to improving agronomic practices and input use. Distribution of irrigation water for crop use from available flows in the canals in both G-K and PIRDP was determined by the WMGs and the corresponding WMAs in collaboration with the BWDB field officials. Irrigation water was to be distributed to the crop fields on the basis of requirements with reference to land quality, given the availability of surface water in the tertiary canals. Any conflict relating to the distribution of water was to be addressed by BWDB in consultation with the WMGs (Hussain 2004).According to the study conducted by Hussain (2004), the situation in G-K showed that in the 'best' performing canal area, access of households to WMGs and WMAs was the highest and the member farmers were well-informed about the relevant issues. In these canals, success was determined largely by the active participation of water users through WMGs and WMAs and the efficiency of the BWDB officials in supporting them. In the 'worst' tertiary, proper formation of WMGs and WMAs had not occurred and the farmers did not have access to systematic irrigation information. It was further noted that only few meetings of the general bodies of the groups and associations were held in GK. In PIRDP performance of the WMGs and WMAs was found to be poor. Institutional constraints such as poor performance of the concerned government officials, problems with the patwary, theft of water etc., had not been addressed. Collection of the water charges was poor in both G-K and PIRDP. In G-K as a whole, annual rates of collection in the 1990s ranged from 5 percent to 15 percent of the targeted sum; moreover, the collection rate had fallen overtime. In PIRDP, collection was to only 9 percent for 2000/01.The study found that overall, the head tertiaries performed better, while improved performance was also exhibited by the middle tertiaries, while a mixed picture emerged from the tail tertiaries. Although larger landowners benefit more, small landowners had also secured irrigation water. The land-poor and the landless had also derived benefits from increased employment resulting from more HYV varieties being cultivated. The benefits they derived however remained limited given their very limited access to land. Moreover, the study concluded that proportional sharing of benefits of irrigation accruing to different sizes of farms may not necessarily happen due to various reasons such as shortage of irrigation water in the canal leading to its chaotic distribution, improper location of outlets and irrigation channels, mismanagement by the BWDB staff, and unfavorable land topography. This was exacerbated by land distribution being highly skewed in both G-K and PIRDP. Small farmers (owning 0.21 to 1.0 ha/household) and the landless (defined as owning less than 0.2 ha/household) constituted 71% of all farmers in G-K. This 71% in G-K owned just 25 percent of the irrigated land, while 78 percent of farmers owned 45 percent in PIRDP.These findings appear to be corroborated by a study (GoB 2006) that surveyed 39 BWDB WMOs (21 cooperative organizations and 18 informal groups) distributed in 5 projects (GK, MDIP, PIRDP, CPP, CDSP). WMOs in 4 of the projects were either virtually non-existent or dilapidated. Most WMOs had no office of their own, meet infrequently if at all, and had very little in terms of institutional training. Their activities appeared to be limited to surveillance of the embankment and operation of gates. Collection of member contributions was only 15-25%. The same study states that of the 5 BWDB projects surveyed, the 3 FCDI projects (GK, PIRDP and MDIP) were implemented unilaterally without any thought to stakeholder or beneficiary participation, and efforts to form WMO and realize water rates or service charge began many years after project completion (GoB 2006). It found that differences in terms of institutional context, time, circumstances and opportunities for the creation of the WMO will give different outcomes unless the negative factors are skillfully handled and neutralized. Evidently, BWDB did not think through these inherent impediments and come up with any pragmatic work plan to overcome them.While Bangladesh provides many projects involving WMOs over the past 30 years, review of the available literature suggests that the case studies selected for this review are indicative of the experiences to date. Overall, the documentation suggests poor O&M performance, although a distinctly different set of results for LGED and BWDB emerges, with the former's approach appearing to generate some tangible positive results on the ground, be it subject to some lingering concerns. The continued weak results from the BWDB projects on the other hand do not show the same progress in learning and adapting from experience. By 2001, in excess of 550 projects had been undertaken by BWDB but there was seen to be a serious problem with the lack of local O&M for completed infra-structure and facilities. This section highlights some of the key features underlying these experiences as articulated in the literature.Clarity of purpose and its relevance to stakeholders: Soussan at al. (1997) point out that an effective participatory process will only be effective where the purpose of participating is clear and regarded as useful by local people. These characteristics have been noted to be generally absent in BWDB projects. Committee members often are assumed to have common interests and goals, overlooking social difference and heterogeneity of communities as well as environments. Different water users often have different interests, and because of these assumptions of homogeneity by donors and implementers, intergroup conflicts tend to be suppressed, so that the interests of the less powerful are forgone and existing inequalities are reinforced in name of social cohesion (Sultana 2009). Reference to elite capture indicates that this was an issue with the WMCAs is not clear from the reviewed literature.Both the BWDB WMOs and LGED WMCAs appear to be captive within a narrow conceptualization of what their contributions to local water management should be (i.e. O&M), compared with the accumulation of water user conflicts that are multi-dimensional and multi-actor in nature. The one significant difference has been the flexibility to engage in micro-credit and attract new donor funding enjoyed by the WMCAs. However, while some WMCAs may have had more success in sustaining themselves and their O&M functions through these strategies, they appear to join the BWDB's WMOs in having little influence on local water management issues. A fundamental cause appears to be the failure to envision a role for these organizations as water managers in their own right in keeping with the conceptual evolution of participation at the global (e.g. 1992 Dublin Principles) and national (e.g. 1999 Water Policy, 2004 National Water Management Plan) scales. Instead, they remain dependent on the centralized management in government irrigation systems.The BWDB's definition of water users (exclusively farmers) and integrated water management (surface water for crop production) are at odds with the realities of rural life in Bangladesh (Wood 1999) and exclude key groups of stakeholders (such as fishermen, landless and boatmen) and key aspects of water resource management such as groundwater utilization, domestic water supply, fishing resources and navigation (Soussan at al. 1997). Such factors contribute to the complex realities where access to and control over water resources vary by multiple, interlocking and hierarchical systems of differentiation. Similarly, participation involves processes of inclusion, exclusion, negotiation and resistance, which are insufficiently understood or addressed. Community members are expected to participate in projects in order to enhance equity and efficiency, as well as to feel greater ownership towards projects, which is also expected to lead to better water resources management and greater ecological sustainability. According to Sultana (2009), participation invokes notions of inclusion, of people's abilities to make decisions, and to voice opinions⁄concerns that are heard. As such, participation is linked to notions of deliberative democracy. Participation has become hegemonic in development discourses, yet generally conceals the processes of unjust and illegitimate exercises of power. With respect to the WMCAs, while the literature on SSDWRDSP does not address participation in water management decisions within the WMCAs, the operation of microcredit programs appears to have provided a common point of reference for community members.The spatial factor highlighted by Coupe et al. (2005) to explain the historical lack of organised civil society groups at the local level is another factor affecting participation. The authors point out that Bangladesh has open villages with a dispersed, linear pattern of settlement, different from the close or corporate villages found in other parts of South Asia. Villages in Bangladesh are not administrative units and settlement is based on the para (a cluster of hamlets). This militates against tight integration of the population and common identity within a local space. Coupe et al. (2005) conclude that the formal and informal institutions function not as opposites, but in a mutually reinforcing grip on local resources. The functioning of formal institutions is shaped by local informal leaders who establish patron-client relations which maintain the marginalised segments of the community in a chronic state of dependence. Stated from the perspective of participatory water management, while notions of community in water management may be externally defined by implementing organisations, they are implemented through local power relations, where different people with various strengths and weaknesses based on their structural position in village society will negotiate their positions within such projects vis-a`vis the costs and benefits in the context of their overall lives and livelihoods. As a result, it is important to look at the ways that community institutions operate in creating boundaries, exclusions, inclusions and regulation (Sultana 2009).Ability to generate benefits: The SSDWRDSP's ability to offer tangible benefits, thereby making the subprojects useful to the WMCAs emerges prominently (GoB 2006, ADB 2007, ADB 2008b). WMCAs with good income generating activities were found to be in a better position to perform O&M activities, although there is some concern (and uncertainty) as to whether micro-credit (the primary income-generating activity for most WMCAs) has distracted their memberships from their O&M responsibilities. While some WMCAs tend to focus more on income generating activities especially where leadership lies with entrepreneurs rather than with farmers, the broad mandate of WMCAs 1 has enabled especially the well-functioning WMCAs to attract other sources of funding from different donors. For instance, ADB's Project Performance Evaluation Report (ADB 2007) reports that some WMCAs attracted funds from the Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction (JFPR). The JFPR's Livelihood Improvement for the Poor Project aimed at reducing rural poverty in selected subproject areas through livelihood improvement activities by the poor farmers of wellfunctioning WMCAs, and strengthening the capacities of WMCAs, through self-governance, to manage the poverty-focused activities of the poor.A Government of Bangladesh study (GoB 2006) found that those WMCAs that were thriving through diversification of their activities had more group cohesion and were in fact performing their water management responsibilities well. Since water management activities can engage WMO members for only 4 to 6 months in a year, the year round activity and interaction through micro-credit programs appears to help foster and maintain group cohesion and sustainability. An IFAD study 2 in 2008 found that WMCAs in Command Area Development subprojects have complemented their water responsibilities with seasonal loans for marginal farmers through microcredit. Moreover, the surplus that may be generated by these other activities help meet the O&M costs and also contribute to the socio economic development of the WMO members. The IFAD study did however caution that despite the continued support from LGED project staff to WMCAs to continue microcredit in SSW-2, the sustainability of WMCAs remains a concern.The WMCAs prepare and maintain a Poverty Reduction Plan Book which plans and monitors all poverty reduction activities. Although this was found to require significant effort by WMCA members, LGED field staff, project staff and consultants (ADB 2007), their use was recommended since it provides the beneficiaries a clear indication of impacts on poverty reduction.Moreover, the Microfinance Study commissioned by the ADB (2008b) saw some dangers in this strategy:• there was competition from other microfinance providers with access to large amounts of capital; • there was a lack of paid and trained staff; • non-adoption of good microfinance practices such as holding group meetings and monitoring loan repayment;The Study also questioned the assumption that microcredit will help keep WMCAs active and felt there was no clear evidence that because of the presence of a microcredit program that O&M is being properly carried out. A review by ADB (2003b) however observes that the WMCAs may be compelled to provide credit to gain community support. This would apply particularly to people without much land who may have little or no benefit due to the water resource development. Moreover, given that WMOs are essentially externally-defined organizations, they need to establish a legitimacy in the eyes of the local stakeholders. The expansion of livelihood options through micro-credit appears to be the primary strategy to do this.The WMCAs prepare and maintain a Poverty Reduction Plan Book which plans and monitors all poverty reduction activities. Although this was found to require significant effort by WMCA members, LGED field staff, project staff and consultants (ADB 2007), their use was recommended since it provides the beneficiaries a clear indication of impacts on poverty reduction.An ADB study (ADB 2003a) notes that there has been very little progress in the revival of the local government system. Many of the water schemes are not properly functioning; so the intended beneficiaries are not deriving any benefit from those. Many of these had fallen in serious disrepair and some may actually be generating dis-benefits and dampening interest in participation by the intended beneficiary groups. Stakeholder participation will have little sustainable impact on investment efficiency if the infrastructure with which they are provided is either inappropriate or dysfunctional. This is especially the case considering, as described by Hussain (2004), the colonial attitude that \"any property built/developed by the government is not people/community's property but property of the government\" has also contributed to lack of community ownership and awareness. He opines that the common attitude of the community continues to be that management, maintenance and operation of those projects are supposed to be performed by the government. Moreover, Mukherji et al. 2010   (GoB 2006). The beneficiaries were also trained in fish production techniques, and pond fish culture and fingerling production (ADB 2007). Capacity building was also extended to LGED officials and consultants (GoB 2006). No such investments are associated with BWDB in the reviewed literature.A critical determinant of successful and sustainable WMOs is the orientation, interest and attitude of the sponsoring entity in general and of its senior management in particular (Gob 2006). The senior management atLGED appears to have recognized the imperatives of peoples' participation and community organization in the conception, execution and management of projects, and tried to acquire the capability to foster such peoples' participation and community organization. This is seen through the provision of a strong technical assistance team at LGED headquarters, the provision of a Sociologist at the district level, a Community Organizer at the thana level and a NGO facilitator for each sub project/WMCA. The BWDB on the other hand seems to view this more as a donor conditionality that has to be met. More often than not BWDB appears to go through the motions of meeting the requirement without any conviction. Consequently, as in the cases of G-K and PIRDP, hundreds of WMO were created in days without adequate preparation to meet a deadline. The senior management in BWDB does not appear very interested in, or aware of, these non-engineering activities (Gob 2006).LGED is also at a distinct advantage being a relatively new entrant in the water resources sector, having been given a formal mandate for projects up to 1,000 hectares through the NWP, although it had started implementing water schemes several years prior to acquiring this formal authority (GoB 1996). By the time LGED entered the water sector, the concepts of people's participation in project formulation and management had become a major issue.LGED therefore had the opportunity of developing and implementing projects incorporating the concepts of peoples' participation in formulation, implementation, operation and management, and without any historical organisational culture to inhibit this process. The fact that LGED sub projects are relatively small in size and generally complete in themselves makes it possible to have the rather simple arrangement of one single tier WMO for each sub project as the appropriate institutional arrangement.BWDB in contrast is challenged with unburdening itself of a very different institutional culture that was in place during its creation in 1959. Most BWDB projects (particularly the FCDI projects) were implemented many years ago, when there was little talk or requirement of peoples' participation. Both PIRDP and MDIP for instance were completed and became operational many years back, while the WMOs were formed during 1998 to 2000 (GoB 1996). Unlike with LGED, BWDB's projects were large, complex and, according to the philosophy prevailing at the time, implemented unilaterally. Beneficiary participation was sought to be introduced by BWDB as an afterthought without acquiring the necessary skills for doing what is a challenging task. Formation of a WMO anew for a project that is in operation for many years is also more difficult than forming a WMO prior to project implementation. Making people pay for a service they have enjoyed for free is also difficult.The preparation for formation of the WMOs was also inadequate. In contrast to the LGED projects, the size and complexity of BWDB projects makes this task infinitely more difficult. BWDB projects may have hundreds of WMOs, with each WMO dealing with only a small part of the project and dependent on the overall project to provide benefits.Apart from the difficult nature of the task itself, BWDB seems not to have the orientation or the in house capability to manage the transition to participatory water management. It is fundamentally not suited to developing and managing a participatory process in the opinion of Soussan at al. (1997). Institutional deficiencies relate to lack of understanding of water management issues, persistence of inappropriate skill mix of their professionals, inadequacy of non-engineering water management personnel in the field and lack of training of the such professionals (GOB 2006). Local-level BWDB staff are squeezed between the emerging need for local accountability and joint decision-making and their accountability to the centre and lack of full local decision-making authority in a highly centralized organizational culture.There are therefore profound contradictions between expectations of the role of the participatory organizations and the operational characteristics of the BWDB (Soussan at al. 1997).Although the BWDB Act of 2000 promotes participatory water management, and the Land and Water Use Directorate has been converted into the Water Management Division for institutionalizing participatory water management in BWDB projects, this needed to be supported by reorientation of the staff of the new Division to the principles and precepts of participatory water management. During the past two decades, the BWDB has tried to cover its staffing deficiencies for water management by hiring temporary help from outside, mainly NGOs or consultants. Unfortunately, there never have been any counterpart permanent units in the project organization who were to own and preserve the valuable and expensive outputs generated by outside help for internalization within the Board and continuous dissemination afterwards. Despite huge investments on community mobilization over these years, there is hardly any capacity building within the organization (GoB 2006).LGED's commitment to adapt to implementation challenges contrasts quite significantly. The organization's management has thrown its weight behind the necessary internal reform processes (ADB 2007). Through the SSDWRDSP, the management has ensured investments in LGED's present capacity at all levels to implement small-scale water resources development activities with the participation of beneficiaries. A process for beneficiary participation was developed under the SSDWRDSP, which LGED has adopted as an integral part of the subproject cycle.LGED has institutionalized coordination mechanisms, including the use of ICT, in keeping with organizational theory. Its particular strength is in standardization of inputs: training of staff and other stakeholders, including beneficiaries and contractors. In spite of the rigid GOB's rules, LGED exercises discretion in providing both direct and indirect staff incentives: early promotion, private use of official vehicles, training opportunities, official recognition, welfare services by the staff association, and good working environment, among others.LGED's group cohesiveness, collective decision-making practices, internal communications, leadership, and organizational culture have impacted positively its effectiveness, thus complementing the division-of-labor system and coordination mechanisms (Fujita 2011). Not surprisingly then, most of the LGED staff trained under the Project is still with the organization (ADB 2007).In 2003, LGED established the Integrated Water Resources Management Unit (IWRMU) with the support of SSW-2. This Unit is dedicated to the process of identifying and implementing water resources development. The Unit is also a key difference between LGED and BWDB. It monitors completed projects and is to ensure they are being operated and maintained in accordance with agreements signed between LGED and local stakeholders, and provides maintenance support. The monitoring framework includes monitoring the health of the WMCAs as well as the operability of the infrastructure. Under the SSW 2 project, it has been recommended that ten \"revenue \" positions for Socio-economists be created in the field at regional centers, and two positions within IWRMU at National level, one a Socio-economist and one a Gender and Development Officer. These field appointees will monitor the performance of subprojects within their region. During the implementation of SSW-2, a DAE officer was permanently assigned to IWRMU, and this arrangement is to continue for the Project's duration. In addition it has been agreed that a Fisheries Specialist from the Department of Fisheries will be seconded to IWRMU under a similar arrangement (Fujita 2011). Recognizing the plight of affected people engaged in floodplain fisheries, LGED signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Ministry of Land in October 2002 to ensure user rights to water bodies within the subproject area of the affected people. The MOU helps ensure that the beneficiaries have priority access to these water bodies after paying standard fees to the Ministry of Land (ADB 2007).LGED has also recognized the need to actively seek additional funding through the Livelihood Improvement for the Poor through Water Management Associations Project. Of the total JFPR budget of US$1.05 million, almost $500,000 was given as small loans to the Project's WMCAs to help promote the WMCAs' sustainability, which in turn is hoped to translate in to the sustainability of the subprojects. The anticipated availability of additional resources as a result, it is hoped, will increase the WMCAs' ability to channel some of their funds for the O&M of their respective subprojects (ADB 2007).More fundamentally, as argued by Suhardiman (2008) and Mukherji et al. (2010) with respect to WUAs in general, policy makers assume the relationship between the state (usually irrigation) agencies and the WUAs to be neutral and apolitical as the state agency tasked with creating the WUAs is assumed to lack any identity or interests of their own. This assumes erroneously that new WUAs can be empowered by the very institution these organizations are formed to replace. In reality, management transfer has been characterized by power struggles between the state agency as the existing power holder and the WUAs as the designated future decision makers in irrigation systems management. While this aspect is not explicitly discussed in the literature with respect to WUAs in Bangladesh, it is a relevant additional perspective in considering especially BWDB's failure to adjust to the evolving discourse on local stakeholder participation in the water sector outside of and within Bangladesh.While the discussion above focuses on project-specific results and learning, the following discussion covers aspects that emerge as more generic and provide the broader policy, institutional, socio-economic and biophysical contexts in which WMOs function and in deed appear to exert significant influence over their performance.The literature provides examples of but does not adequately explore what Sultana (2011) describes as \"the complexities, entanglements and messy relations that constitute political ecologies of resources management\". Water hardship, conflicts and marginalisations are found to be products of social processes (that are gendered, classed and spatialised) as well as natural processes (local geohydrology, depth of arsenic sediments), in addition to the very ways that community and participation are conceptualised and practised (Sultana 2009). The same author concludes that conflicts over resources are therefore grounded in emotional geographies of places, people, and resources, enabling us to better understand the ways resources and emotions come to matter in everyday survival struggles.The complexity involved in water management and in the relationship between water and human well-being is reflected in that access to safe water in rural Bangladesh is predicated upon a variety of factors, such as ownership of land, ownership of a tubewell, socio-spatial location in relation to surface or ground water, membership in a water committee, or kinship and/or patron-client relations that enable access. While access is often discussed in terms such as proximity, distance, time needed, and physical burdens, it is also linked to socio-cultural factors such as class barriers, power relations, gendered spaces, and the emotional labor needed to negotiate water rights (Sultana 2011).Onto this highly contextualized canvas has been imposed what Wood et al. (2010) have described as 'the tyranny' of the participation and empowerment approach as best practice in the organizational form of WMOs. The literature on WMOs in Bangladesh begins to show that these structures, conceptualized based on an imagined typology of local stakeholder interests and behavior (Mukherji et al. 2010) rather than on any specific context, are unable to deal with the messiness of ground scenarios. Viewing community ahistorically, as well as out of its social and political context, can reinforce existing asymmetrical social/power relations. As noted by Sultana (2009), these relations that play out in water management can challenge notions of democracy and equity that are increasingly embodied in national water development policies uncritically espousing community and participation. Similarly, Mukherji et al. (2010) conclude that \"farmers' participation became the goal, rather the means of IMT, thereby obliterating the basic fact that farmers are interested in receiving adequate and reliable supplies of water in order to increase their production and not interested in participation for the sake of it.\" Based on case studies and readings of history of IMT policy, the same authors claim that it is not so much of an implementation failure of IMT/PIM as it is a flaw in the conceptual idea behind it. They argue that the policy discourse on IMT has stagnated at the level of consensual discourse given that its policy assumptions are never questioned or even discussed, even though from the farmers' side there is little motivation to perform regular maintenance, as this does not significantly increase the actual water flow in the canal, despite the link between maintenance and irrigation systems efficiency. In practice, they find that farmers solve their water scarcity problem either by approaching the irrigation agency staff for additional water supply, or by arranging it illegally, rather than through regular maintenance. Coupe et al. (2005quoting Shivji 2002) thus conclude that it is \"counterproductive to attempt to resolve contentions over common pool resources through ad hoc measures such as creating project led village natural resources committees….outside the regular organs of village governance. Whatever the short term successes of such measures, in the long run, they are neither sustainable nor politically viable and, much less rooted in local politics.\"The National Water Policy acknowledges that Bangladesh, as the lower riparian, has limited control over rivers entering its borders and that it is affected by the significant upstream diversions and abstractions that reduce water availability during the dry winter months; by the absence of upstream hydrometric data that inhibits responses in periods of both flood and drought; and by the general poor quality of water entering the country from upstream in some of the basins (World Bank 2005).Political legacy of centralized government: Soussan at al. (1997) note that rural areas of Bangladesh have lacked strong civil institutions which are representative of all stakeholders, and the absence of a tradition of accountable state organizations which have a clear mandate understood by the rural population. The Union Parishad (a local council covering about 10 villages) remains the only locally elected form of government (Thompson et al. 2003). With the enactment of the Gram Sarkar (village government) Act (February 2003), the government commenced a program to form 40,000 gram sarkars. However, these are not intended to be a separate tier in the local government but rather a component part of the Union Parishad (World Bank 2005). The development of effective organizations for participation in water resource management and good working relationships between such local organizations and WMOs will thus be a long process. The experience of LGED since the 1999 Water Policy however suggests it is an exception to this observation, although the same cannot be said of the BWDB.Prominent examples are the trade policies stimulating growth of shrimp cultivation that are in conflict with the goal of the BWDB. While BWDB seeks to prevent saline water intrusion, without any change of the rules concerning water management, saline water was taken in the polder areas for shrimp cultivation. Shrimp cultivation was initiated by either the local elites with large landholdings or big investors from outside with political power. The profit interest of these investors in shrimp sector and the state's interest in foreign currency given the increased demand and high price for shrimp on the international market, resulted in an expansion of shrimp culture even without putting into place any policies regarding water, shrimp and agriculture at the beginning.Although BWDB has been working in building water infrastructure to bring in saline water in the polders in the areas where fisheries projects have been implemented, in the National Water Policy (1999) their objective still remains a check on salinity (Alamgir 2010). Widescale land use conflicts and social unrest have now emerged even though shrimp farming is now established as an important industry, contributing 5.2% to GDP, and is the secondhighest foreign exchange earner of the country (Islam 2005). The study by Nowreen et al (2011) referred to below suggest that WMOs have been used as vehicles to transform local land and water use from agriculture to commercial shrimp production.Most public sector investments in the water sector have been provided through (relatively) short term projects with donor support provided through centralized executing agencies. The government, burdened with the responsibility of providing counterpart financing for the implementation of these projects, under significant time pressure to implement sometimes unrealistic schedules, and unable to predict what priorities the donor community would next assume, has been poorly positioned to manage long-term operation and maintenance of public sector-financed water management interventions (World Bank 2005).LGED and the BWDB which sometimes find themselves as joint implementing agencies. Inadequate levels of cooperation between these two organizations over the operation and maintenance of the water structures owned by one institution in the project area of another had led to distrust, confusion and conflict that results in low performance of the whole physical system (Akhter et al. 2000, Nowreen et al. 2011).More broadly, not all issues can be or should be addressed at the purely local level and there is consequently a need to develop structures which integrate local institutions into the wider fabric of the state and civil society. Alamgir (2010) observes that one of the main reasons for conflict over water is the absence of coordination among different institutions.The Upazila Executive Office carries out projects like dredging canals to provide support to the poor but it is not coordinated with BWDB's polder management plan. Similarly, Department of Fisheries is responsible for leasing out public water bodies, which is not planned with the active participation from officials from Department of Agriculture and BWDB. Sultana and Thompson (2010a) submit that the ability of the various resource management institutions (RMIs) to address different floodplain resource management issues is affected by their origins and remit. The water sector RMIs seem to take a narrower approach to resource management than the wetland and fishery management RMIs. They found that decision making appeared more balanced and participatory in the fishery-related projects, which took a more integrated view of floodplain resources. A small scale was not necessary for successful resource management, since in the two larger areas the combination of local community organizations and higher co-management bodies appeared to allow local decision making and appropriate rules to be coordinated between lower RMIs and government. Alamgir (2010) thus points out that the struggle between stakeholders for water relating to livelihoods is constituted within these contradictions in institutional arrangements and conflicting policies. Related to this, Soussan et al. (1997) emphasize the need to integrate the process of WMO development and local water resource governance into the wider framework of local agencies and civil society. They point out that since in the water sector issues are inherently multi-dimensional and dynamic, actions in any one place potentially affect other interests upstream and downstream. Therefore, participation at the local level needs to be integrated into a wider process of reform of decision-making structures and institutional mandates.The issue of shrimp cultivation also bring to the surface the influence of corruption that, according to Alamgir (2010) occurs in the Upazila Executive office in permitting large shrimp farms and also not resolving the cases of conflicts between rice cultivators and shrimp cultivators. The same author states that corruption also takes place in the Department of Fisheries, Upazila Executive Office and Union Council with respect to leasing out water bodies, and in creating gates and opening sluice gates in the embankments which are related to the BWDB officials.Land as a source of power and elite capture: Blair (1985) in his analysis of attempts to establish local government structures by successive Bangladesh governments between 1958 and 1985, demonstrates the political and bureaucratic complexities involved in putting a culture of local level participation into practice. Those that did exist were captured by the rural elite to reinforce the status quo and strengthen the position of the dominant elites at the local level. Alamgir (2010) shows that determining which water will be available in the water system and the distribution of the available water is shaped by relations of power which are strongly linked to land ownership. Farmers' access to water is found to be determined by their ownership of land. Ownership of land as a productive resource not only facilitates access to water but is also crucial for production of power to determine control over the water resources. Thus it has been observed that the land rich people are connected to the local politics and the local administration. The Union Council was also aligned with the land rich people. Therefore, the larger land owners have power to manipulate local administration and rules pertaining to the access to and allocation of water. Rich farmers usually control the operation of flood control, drainage and irrigation structures that are simple and relatively small. In this way, public goods are used as private goods and operate against attempts to reduce existing inequalities in the distribution of project benefits (Chowdhury and Rasul 2011). Although the Union Council has a crucial role to play in increasing participatory management of water and allocation of water resources, this responsibility appears to be at odds with those who control the decision making.A study by Nowreen et al. (2011) of two neighboring projects (Mondolbari Drainage and Kakuibunia-Chinguri) implemented in 1999 by LGED under the first phase of SSWRDSP, illustrates the operation of these power dynamics with respect to shrimp farming. They report that the WMCA agenda in Mondolbari Drainage was heavily biased towards their own economic gains neglecting the social impact they have. The WMCAs were mostly controlled by the power group in the community (Rahman et al. 2007). Continuing culture fish in the floodplain water body system is an example of this. Most of the benefit, if not all, of this culture fish goes to the influential and wealthy farmers creating social issues such as access to floodplain fisheries by the poorer traditional fishermen. This has jeopardized household nutrition, public health and general social well-being of communities, in particular, widows, single women and children. The power group controlling the WMCAs has been able to divert the project objectives in favor of culture fish, ignoring the requirements for Aman rice cultivation even though the project's original objective was to enhance agriculture. In contrast to Mondolbari Drainage, the absence of any institutional conflicts (e.g. between BWDB and LGED), the presence of religious homogeneity (e.g., mostly Hindus) and discontinuation of culture fish in the rice fields helped the Kakuibunia-Chinguri project to be successful (Nowreen et al. 2011).Reference to institutional and policy conflicts made earlier are played out in the arena of land use and ownership, and the many diverse uses of the very limited land especially in the coastal zone creates the potential for conflict, with each land use having manifold implications for socio-environmental conditions.Although the above sections focus on the existing challenges to WMOs realizing their potential to contribute to local water resources management and overall development, past experience also represents a process of evolution through experience. It could be argued that this is evident in the removal of two of the most important causes of poor beneficiary response: the repetition of the phenomena of inducting beneficiary groups as an afterthought towards the close of the scheme, and the transfer of funds collected from the beneficiaries to the treasury (GoB 2006). Involving the scheme beneficiaries from the very conceptual stage of a scheme through the entire scheme cycle has been made mandatory through the National Water Policy and the GPWM. The new generation schemes in the water sector are mostly designed to meet this requirement, at least on paper. Regarding the use of service charges collected by scheme authorities for providing irrigation services, until 2003, scheme authorities were not allowed to retain the revenue for O&M and were required to deposit the entire amount in the government treasury. The beneficiaries were reluctant to pay in as much as they did not see the money being used for the benefit of the scheme. The Imposition, Collection and Use of Service Charge Regulation (2003) now enable the scheme authorities to retain the fund locally and use it for O&M of the scheme by following prescribed government guidelines (GoB 2006).The GPWM represents progress in that they recognize the central importance of participatory decision making, and emphasized a need to move the approach to participation beyond BWDB's \"blue-print\" approach of establishing target numbers of Water User Groups, Water User Committees and Water User Associations each with fixed membership rules and remits (Lewins and Robens 2004). However, by codifying the process and structure to be followed in establishing WMOs, the GPWM is rather prescriptive without appreciating the highly contextual nature of the tasks involved. As such, they may be seen as still oriented towards achieving the objectives of the executing agency rather than establishing mechanisms to ensure that the agencies are better able to respond to the local stakeholders. The disparity between the guidelines (what should happen) and practice (what does happen) is also explained (ADB 2003a) as a logical outcome of the lack of emphasis on training. The guidelines, as with many institutional and policy changes, are promulgated by the Government but the individuals responsible for implementing these are not provided with an understanding of how this is to be done (ADB 2003a).Furthermore, Chadwick and Datta (2003) are of the view that whereas in the past government agencies were hostile to concepts of local level involvement in decision-making, today, whilst there are still formidable barriers to the emergence of widespread and sustained participation, a consensus has been reached in Bangladesh, at least in principle, of the need for such a process, and this consensus is reflected in the new National Water Policy. The emphasis has been shifted from flood control to water management; from purely structural solutions to combinations of structural and non-structural measures, designed to meet a broader range of water management needs; and from project development purely on considerations to the stakeholders' participation during in all stages of the project development. The participatory water management approach is now considered as an effective way to manage the complexity of water management in Bangladesh (Choudhury 2005). Chadwick and Datta (2003) further emphasize that the importance of the direction this new policy provides cannot be over-stated. What has not yet emerged is a robust process through which meaningful participation can be achieved.The National Water Policy adopted in 1999, talks of water rights, but not specifically about irrigation rights and obligations. It is necessary to spell out equitable irrigation rights and obligations at the policy level and involve WMGs and WMAs at the field level in the process of ensuring that the codified irrigation rights and obligations are properly observed by all concerned to ensure equity in water distribution and efficiency in water use. (Hussain 2004) Perceptions of success will depend on the criteria applied to assess an intervention or policy. In this study, there are two sets of criteria: the first in line with the original functions of O&M assigned to WMOs when introduced in Bangladesh; the second, the far broader challenge of being a key, if not the primary, local institution for rational and sustainable water resources management. As such, one could argue that the first criterion is historical and retrospective in nature, while the second is more an expression of current needs.Many of the assessments of WMO performance in Bangladesh available for this review are limited mainly to the historical perspective. While noting that the history of participation in modern water resources management programs in Bangladesh is relatively recent, the literature suggest that a robust process through which meaningful participation could be achieved has not yet emerged. Success has been elusive in the many attempts to achieve effective long-term operation and maintenance of flood control and drainage interventions (World Bank 2005). With respect to the broader criteria, the experiences, especially under SSDWRDSP, seem to suggest that indirect poverty reduction through private investment in and maintenance of small-scale water control systems may work under certain conditions. SSDWRDSP has demonstrated that, in general, the best WMOs should have the following characteristics: (i) subprojects offering direct and tangible benefits, (ii) good and strong leadership, and (iii) support from proactive implementing agency and project staff. It was also noted that the WMCAs with good income-generating activities were better positioned to conduct O&M activities, although we have already recognized the fine balance that exists between income generation activities and attention to core responsibilities. All the above factors identified, moreover, will be applicable to any institutional structure expected to operate in this context, and are not peculiar to WMOs.From the iterative approach of SSDWRDSP and the 'one-size fits all' approach of BWDB emerges the fundamental importance of treating each WMCA on its own merits, avoiding generalized solutions. This includes assessing what maintenance the WMOs are capable of doing and what is beyond their financial and technical capability. This will help define more practically, the continued investments required from the government for a specific scheme. More fundamentally however, there appears to be an urgent need to recognize that there is no logical reason why WMOs in the Bangladesh polder context should succeed any more than any alternative institutional mechanism. As is the case in much of South and Southeast Asia, WMOs in Bangladesh do not represent a natural evolution of institutions out of the local context. They are imposed from outside, and as Mukherji et al. (2010) state, can often have no relationship with the ground realities in which they are expected to operate. In most cases, they represent a panacea articulated in the imaginations of actors (mainly donors) far removed from local realities. As Mukherji et al. (2010) conclude based on a review of 108 case studies, IMT/PIM is in fact far from a panacea to all problems and there is no magic formula for crafting successful WUAs. In fact, they found that farmers were often unwilling to take over management of water infrastructure (mainly irrigation systems), but did not have a choice about whether or not they were interested in IMT. These paradoxes manifest themselves through overall poor performance of schemes after transfer and in the difficulty in convincing farmers and irrigation bureaucracy alike about the virtues of managing public irrigation schemes on behalf of the government. This, they argue, requires us to re-assess our assumptions and focus on what the water users perceive as their interests, and the differentiation between and amongst various water users. This literature review is meant to be an expression of this line of argument in its intention to form a basis for seeking a deeper grasp of the details involved in making sound water resources management possible in the specific polders in which this project intends to work.Another outstanding factor underpinning the experiences with WMOs in Bangladesh is the nature of the implementing institutions and their ability to respond to changing developmental paradigms, as was the case with the emergence of notions of poverty reduction, participation, integrated water resources management and decentralization on the world stage through the 1990s in particular. The literature clearly demonstrates the strong implications for WMOs of the implementing institution's orientation and capacities.Here too, the contrast in approaches between BWDB's rigidity in the face of change and LGED's willingness to re-structure itself to suit changing needs has been instructive. In addition to the discussion of these features in the prior section, LGED's strategy of building on prior work through several phases of SSDWRDSP spanning well over a decade must be highlighted as a particular advantage when seeking to manage a dynamic resource within a heterogeneous and complex context. These cycles of project phases have allowed for periods of stock taking, learning and adjustments, and the opportunity to work continuously in the same locations provides the conditions for adaptive management.The importance of decentralization and the strengthening of local organizations and collaboration between them also emerges as a critical contextual condition given that WMOs need to be better linked to the horizontal and vertical decision making processes.Water management is closely linked to all aspects of rural livelihoods systems and many formal and informal organizations are already in place that in one way or the other deal with water management. It however is also the case that decentralization will not in itself resolve local level resource conflicts given the susceptibility of local organizations to influence by dominant groups. Consequently, water management is subject to the same power structure as the rest of rural society, and competing demands on water resources for different uses in fact continue to intensify.These dynamic processes of conflict over and co-operation around water resource scarcities, and their social and institutional expressions, are a dominant feature of life in rural Bangladesh. Some commenters believe they remain poorly-understood and little researched, and have to date been largely ignored at project and policy levels. This failure to understand and build upon these processes is seen as one of the principle reasons why past attempts at participatory development in the water sector have had so few successes. The review of literature for this report also supports this view that many of the socio-economic and political issues especially at local scale have not been appreciated. Almost all reports reviewed (numbering approximately 70) for this report present an assessment of WMOs confined to the traditional criteria surrounding operation and maintenance and related aspects such as collection of fees. This approach reflects water management from the limited technical perspective rather than the more expansive lenses of a) how WMOs have facilitated the resolution or management of local level conflicts over access to water, and b) how water as a resource contributes to local development overall and the narrowing of the gap between the rich and the poor. Despite references to power dynamics at community scale, no in-depth analysis of these dynamics was forthcoming, and consequently, there appears to exist a gap with respect to the role of heterogeneity as a core theme in the assessment of the participatory process that is to be embodied by the WMOs. It is moreover proposed that a more in-depth understanding of these dynamics will shed practical light on the nature of the policy, legal and institutional reforms that will also be needed to facilitate institutions like WMOs reach beyond their traditional roles. It may be argued that the SSDWRDSP experiences provide part of the foundation for doing this in its willingness to expand and explore the boundaries of its WMCAs' mandate. It is also suggested that thereThe focus of water sector policies in Bangladesh have been dominated by either combating natural disasters like floods and cyclones or attaining self-sufficiency in food production through dry season irrigation (GoB 2006, Chowdhury andRasul 2011)  (1987) and II (1991) emphasized agriculture production. What was common to these and other initiatives was the lack of a comprehensive approach to water as an inherent part of an ecosystem having multiple and competing uses. Since there was no framework for integrated water resources planning, the schemes executed under those plans did not bear any mark of an integrated approach, with agriculture remaining the dominant component (GoB 2006).As explained by Chadwick and Datta (2003), the real beginning of water sector planning was marked by the completion in 1964 of a 20-year Water Master Plan which envisaged a strategy of massive flood control and drainage to be followed by irrigation in a later phase. However, in actual implementation of the plan, much emphasis was put on the construction of embankments and polders over much of the country. Although the activities carried out under the Master Plan generated results, later evaluations found a rapid rate of decline in performance, especially in terms of operation and maintenance, of much of this infrastructure. The orientation of all water sector development to this time was almost exclusively aimed at achieving the goal of increasing agricultural production to achieve national self-sufficiency. This bias towards agriculture meant that solutions tended to be in the form of flood control drainage and irrigation (FCDI) projects. In reality, emphasis was placed on flood control mainly. Then, as is still the case today, the majority of staff at the East Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (now the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB)) were civil engineers and the organization was inclined to seek structural engineering solutions at the expense of all alternatives.The country's most devastating flood events of 1987 and 1988 put immense pressure on socalled structural flood intervention, necessitating further investment in flood defense works. The World Bank coordinated the activities of the donors to prepare a Flood Action Plan (FAP). A feature of FAP (1989FAP ( -1994) ) was the construction of still more embankments and polders along the major rivers. However, after massive failures of the FAP and the huge economic losses sustained during the 1997 and 1998 floods, it became clear that structural interventions alone were not enough and a shift of emphasis from structural intervention to integrated planning with non-structural flood-control measures was required. This led to an emerging new consensus on the need for, firstly, an integrated water resources management approach which considers all aspects of water resources and uses, and, secondly, on the need for approaches which are built around the social, and not the technical, dimensions of water resources management. This consensus is reflected in both the new policy framework of the Bangladesh Government (reflected in key policy changes such as the 1995 Strategy Paper on Water and Flood Management; Water Policy of 1999 and the Guidelines for Participatory Water Management (GPWM) in 1994 (revised in 2000)).Flooding has also been a major driver of agriculture policy. Water resources development and management initiatives in Bangladesh are strongly driven by the need for sufficient food grain production for the country's teeming population, and must be achieved in the context of perennial flooding. The monsoon rainfall is paramount for crop production and without it agricultural production would almost certainly stagnate. However, at the same time, its gigantic power of destruction usually creates floods of various magnitudes and extent (Sudip et al. 2011).The stated goal of NWP is \"to ensure progress towards fulfilling national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, food security, public health and safety, a decent standard of living for the people and protection of the natural environment\". The NWP declares clearly the intention of the Government to pursue a policy of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and further pledges to take all necessary measures to manage the water resources of the country in a comprehensive, integrated, equitable and environmentally sustainable manner. Thus it provides a comprehensive policy framework for dealing with such issues as river basin planning, water rights and allocation, delineation of public and private domains, water supply and sanitation, preservation of the natural environment and the developmental concerns of fisheries, navigation and agriculture. It also provides guidance on its disposition towards water as an economic good, water pricing, and fuller participation by stakeholders, decentralized management and delivery structures. The Policy also formulates views on regulations, incentives, public investment plans and environmental protection and on the inter-linkages among them. Finally, the Policy enunciates the basic principles for reforming the water sector institutions, and specifically focuses on the participation by concerned stakeholders at the service delivery level. This concern is evident from the directive that the participation of all project affected persons, individually and collectively, is to be ensured in the planning, design, implementation and operation and maintenance of publicly funded surface water resources development plans and projects.It is the intention of the Government that the policy will be given effect through a National Water Code which will outline the specific provisions of the water policy required to facilitate implementation. This code is likely to revise and consolidate the laws governing ownership, development, appropriation, utilization, conservation and protection of water resources.In 2001, the government introduced a National Water Management Plan, prepared by WARPO. The plan's aim is to implement NWPo directives and decentralize water sector management. It provides a framework within which line agencies and other organizations are expected to coordinate planning and implementation of their activities.The Plan is intended to identify the needs and priorities for water resources management, the institutional structure through which these resources should be managed and the process through which both institutional reform and priority interventions can be realized. If successful, the NWMP will represent a radical break with the past and provide a framework domestic uses, for bathing, and for navigating small watercraft. For other purposes, use rights must be acquired through a general authorization or license.Water rights are tied to land ownership, and individuals and communities can hold water rights based on their rights to the land. State-owned closed water bodies of less than 3 acres in size are to be subject to common-property principles, and poor people living in the area will be allowed to access the water for their domestic use. In addition, private individuals may have and control small household ponds.Originally legislated in 1984, this Ordinance was revised in 2001 to better accommodate water user groups. Key changes are (i) individuals can now belong to more than one cooperative, (ii) registered water users cooperatives can exact an irrigation service charge from both members and non-members provided that all benefit from the irrigation services, and (iii) the Department of Cooperatives cannot take direct action against a water users group without the concurrence of the sponsoring agency. Together, these changes effectively removed earlier barriers to establishing and nurturing water users groups. Many of the WMOs are currently registered under this Ordinance.WARPO was set up under Water Resource Act of 1992 under the Ministry of Water Resources as the multi-disciplinary planning organization at the national level. Its mandate was further elaborated in National Water Policy of 1999 according to whicg, WARPO has two broad responsibilities: (a) to work as the exclusive government institution for macro level water resources planning and (b) to work as the Executive Secretariat of the WRC and its Executive Committee. WARPO has become the exclusive government institution for macro-level planning.The preparation and updating of both the National Water Policy and the National Water Management Plan is a key responsibility of WARPO. It is also mandated to advise other water-related organizations in the development, use and conservation of water, and provide specialized multi-disciplinary and cross-sectional training to concerned functionaries. While WARPO is responsible for water sector macro planning, it is also expected to promote appropriate linkages between macro and micro level planning and provide guidelines for the efficient use of the country's water resources by all users and in all uses.The character of the BWDB was paralleled by the dominant approach of the government to water resources management in Bangladesh until very recently. Major investments in the water sector are made by the Ministry of Water through the BWDB which carries responsibility for the planning and execution of over 500 projects, ranging from flood control, drainage and irrigation to coastal protection and erosion control. As WARPO is responsible for national and regional level plans BWDB is supposed to develop projects fulfilling the requirements of their plans. It was and still is predominantly an engineering, construction-oriented agency. It has a large professional staff, almost all of whom are engineers by training, and a centralized structure which is suited to large scale constructiontype activities but far less appropriate for any management functions which require significant devolution of responsibilities and the capacity to respond to local conditions and events (Chadwick and Datta 2003). Although the focus of water management has shifted towards joint management, user directed activities, transparency and efficient management techniques over the years, the organizational culture has been slow to change (ADB 2003A).Over time, its original mandate has become inappropriate, as economic, social and demographic changes and the consequent increasing competition for water use added new and complex dimensions to its original basic tasks. With the formulation of National Water Policy, there have been attempts at institutional reform to achieve decentralized and devolved management with greater role for local government, community groups and the private sector. A major institutional step forward since the formulation of national water policy has been the revision of BWDB's mandate, as embodied in the new Act (ADB 2003b).In an attempt to adapt, BWDB has begun to partner with NGOs for such activities as mobilisation of beneficiary's group formation, and resettlement (Hussain 2004).Under NWP, BWDB will no longer be the only key player, the overall policy, macro planning and strategy functions was taken out of BWDB (and given to WARPO), and even for implementation of water projects local government and water users themselves was to assume increasingly important roles (ADB 2003a).development. The involvement of BADC is highly concentrated in seed distribution. RKUB distributes agricultural credit according to its own programmes. It has both short-term and long-term credit programmes in the G-K and PIRDP areas as also elsewhere in Bangladesh. It does not provide any special credit for shallow tubewells and other agricultural equipment.Clearly, support for agricultural development in the area is dependent on public sector agencies such as BWDB, DAE, and RAKUB.The Cooperatives Division distributes credit to farmers' associations formed within the framework of its mandate, which are known as Krishak Samabaya Samity (KSS), for agricultural and rural development.Department of Cooperatives is the most important partner in the development and continued sustainability of the WMO. Technically, its principal role, so far as these relate to WMO affairs, is regulatory in nature. It is charged with the responsibilities of timely registration of the cooperative associations and closely monitoring their activities through inspection of their activities and regular audit of their accounts. Other responsibilities include education and training of the sponsoring agency officials, members of the cooperative associations, advisory and consultancy services and assistance in arranging finances for development work by the associations. Timely discharge of all these functions is essential for the smooth operations of the WMOs. The DOC is one of the oldest Departments of the Government. However, there has not been any recent effort at its institutional development suiting to the challenges of the times. Like most other departments of the Government, the DOC also follows a standard staffing pattern, each Thana having two Cooperative Inspectors. However, deployment of field staff of the DOC should be based on the volume of active case load. The main reason hampering the DOC officials in discharging their duties more efficiently and at regular intervals were lack of logistics (GoB 2006).Although BWDB is the main organization with responsibilities in polder management, Union Council and Upazila Executive Office are also involved in maintenance work indirectly by taking canal excavating projects for creating jobs for the poor that have consequences on the water availability for cultivation (Alamgir 2010).Unfortunately, there is hardly any institutional base for local level planning, although the district and thana level offices of the central government agencies make some efforts at involving the local people in various stages of the scheme cycle. Except for the Union Parishad, the Thana and Zila Parishads have had no elected representation for long. These parishads are run on an adhoc basis by members of the bureaucracy (GoB 2006).The Department of Cooperatives is the principal government organization responsible for the promotion, development, and registration of cooperative societies in Bangladesh. ","tokenCount":"18407"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7587eec4eb486b8cec9232c22bdef611","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b3ea8cc4-a70d-47cf-8f24-994001d54838/retrieve","id":"857642803"},"keywords":["MaxEnt","predicción","clima","Google maps MaxEnt","prediction","weather","Google maps Administrador del Sistema API: Application Programming Interface CCAFS: Climate Change","Agriculture and Food Security. CGIAR: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CSS: Cascading Style Sheets. CSV: Comma-separated values Groups","Algorithms","Programming--a System for Computational Discrete Álgebra. GARP: Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction. GCI: Genetics and Crop Improvement. GCM: Global Climate Models. GDET4RT: Global Data Entry Tools for Roots and Tubers GIS: Geographic Information System"],"sieverID":"8b105005-2ca3-45e4-b1ec-a8d4ba625f16","pagecount":"380","content":"En primer lugar doy infinitamente gracias a Dios, por haberme dado fuerza y valor para culminar esta etapa de mi vida.Agradezco también la confianza y el apoyo brindado por parte de mi madre Ysabel, que sin duda alguna en el trayecto de mi vida me ha demostrado su amor, corrigiendo mis faltas y celebrando mis triunfos.A mi tía Nancy, por su apoyo incondicional y por demostrarme la gran fe que tiene en mí.Y gracias a todos los que me brindaron su ayuda en este proyecto.A Dios por estar conmigo en cada paso que doy, por fortalecer mi corazón e iluminar mi mente y por haber puesto en mi camino a aquellas personas que han sido mi soporte y compañía durante todo el periodo de estudio.A mi madre por ser la persona que me ha acompañado durante todo mi trayecto estudiantil y de vida, quien con sus consejos ha sabido guiarme para culminar mi carrera profesional, y a mi tía quien ha velado por mí durante este arduo camino para convertirme en un profesional. El Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) es el mayor centro dedicado a la investigación científica en el mundo en papa, camote, yuca, otros tubérculos y raíces. Inició sus labores en 1971 con el objetivo de reducir la pobreza, aumentar la sostenibilidad ambiental y ayudar a garantizar la seguridad alimentaria en las zonas más pobres y marginadas. Personal de casi 30 países de Asia, África, Europa, Oceanía y América Latina, investigan e intercambian constantemente información sobre todas las variedades de papa actualmente existentes en el mundo.En el presente trabajo de investigación proponemos una Aplicación Web para calcular la distribución geográfica más probable para un sitio o localidad de un determinado cultivo. La metodología está basada en la generación de un modelo de predicción de ambientes calculado con el algoritmo \"MaxEnt\", seleccionado por ser eficaz y el más óptimo para el CIP cuando se estima la probabilidad de ocurrencia de la localidad o especie, buscando la distribución geográfica más uniforme, generándose nuevos mapas geográficos que ayudarán a la toma de decisión de los investigadores del CIP en sus diferentes regiones de influencia.Cada localidad es simplemente una ocurrencia de latitud y longitud par que denota un sitio o sitios de plantación donde se aplicará el modelo predictivo de la distribución geográfica de acuerdo a las circunstancias que el mejorador elija, basado en las condiciones ambientales o climáticas de los sitios de ocurrencia.El Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) es una organización de investigación agrícola internacional sin fines de lucro con un mandato mundial de realizar investigación en papa, camote, yuca, otros tubérculos y raíces, la gestión sostenible de los recursos naturales y la agricultura urbana.El CIP tiene su sede en Lima, Perú y es donde se realizara el presente trabajo, cuenta con personal y actividades en sus oficinas de África, Asia y América Latina. El CIP es miembro del Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR), una red de 15 centros de investigación localizada mayormente en el mundo en vías de desarrollo y auspiciado por más de 60 miembros donantes.La investigación en el CIP está dirigida a incrementar la producción de alimentos y fortalecer los sistemas agrícolas, para mejorar la calidad de vida de los países en desarrollo beneficiando a aquellos que no tienen ni capital, ni recursos, ni la semilla de calidad que el CIP les ofrece.La mejora de raíces y tubérculos para la vida de los pobres.El Centro Internacional de la Papa trabaja con sus socios para lograr la seguridad alimentaria, el bienestar y la equidad de género para las personas pobres en agricultura de raíces y tubérculos, y sistemas de alimentos en un mundo en desarrollo. Lo hacemos a través de la investigación y la innovación en la ciencia, la tecnología y fortalecimiento de capacidades.El CIP es una organización internacional financiada por el CGIAR (Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional), quien reúne y alianza a organizaciones dedicadas a la investigación para un futuro seguro de alimentos.CGIAR Research está dedicada a reducir la pobreza rural, el aumento de la seguridad alimentaria, mejorar la salud y la nutrición humana, y una gestión más sostenible de los recursos naturales.Se lleva a cabo en 15 centros, que son miembros del Consorcio CGIAR, en estrecha colaboración con cientos de organizaciones asociadas, incluidos institutos de investigación: regionales y nacionales, organizaciones de la sociedad civil, academias y sector privado.Las prioridades de los Centros globales incluyen el sostenimiento de la biodiversidad de raíces y tubérculos; mejoramiento de nutrientes, variedades resistentes a las plagas y enfermedades, y la construcción de sistemas agro-económico-sociales flexibles para las poblaciones marginales en los países en desarrollo.El CIP tiene cinco programas científicos globales que son transversales entre las raíces y tubérculos:La división de Recursos Genéticos investiga el rasgo de abastecimiento, la filogenia, la estructura de genes, capacidad de cruce de rasgo y la introgresión de genes.  Lleva a cabo la selección genotípica recurrente para aumentar la frecuencia de genes deseables de rasgos complejos, y la hibridación de conseguir mejoras genéticas y saltos en el rendimiento de heterosis. Aplica genotipado y fenotipado para diseccionar los rasgos complejos, aclarar su composición genética, monitorear su transmisión y aumentar la precisión de la selección de los padres. Implementa nueva variación alélica de los parientes silvestres y variedades locales para ampliar la diversidad y reducir la vulnerabilidad de los cultivos. Desarrolla la cría de sistemas de información y de divulgación, herramientas analíticas y capacidades para fortalecer la cría regional, atraer a los interesados y crear asociaciones eficaces. Mejora los niveles de rasgo objetivo, revierte la genética y genómica funcional de genes y la detección de redes, el papel de la epigenética en la adaptación y la heterosis, trans y cisgenics.El objetivo de la división de \"Cultivos Integrados y Sistemas deInvestigación\" (ICM por sus siglas en Inglés) es contribuir a la reducción de la pobreza y el hambre, el desarrollo de sistemas rurales y urbanas resilientes, medios de vida sostenibles mediante el desarrollo y la difusión de nuevas y apropiadas tecnologías relacionadas con la gestión integrada de los factores principales que influyen en la papa y el cultivo saludable del camote. El ICM lleva a cabo investigaciones para consolidar soluciones a las limitaciones de producción, por ejemplo: tizón tardío, marchitez bacteriana, degradación del suelo; de manera que sea apropiada para la región de cada población, el sistema y las limitaciones socioeconómicas.Realiza caracterización de poblaciones objetivo, perspectivas de los usuarios, modelado del impacto económico/salud de la mejora rasgo, encuestas de nutrición y consumo, el cambio de comportamiento y estudia el entorno político.El primer paso fue definir las regiones agroecológicas donde la papa y otras raíces y tubérculos cultivo están muy extendidas entre la gente pobre, y donde el aumento de la productividad es muy probable para mejorar sus medios de vida. Estos datos se combinaron con un análisis de los indicadores de medios de vida (ingreso per cápita, el estado nutricional, las tasas de mortalidad infantil, la mortalidad materna, etc.). Las cuatro regiones seleccionadas del CIP son: América Latina y el Caribe. Sudáfrica subsahariana. Asia Central Suroeste. Este y Sureste de Asia y el Pacífico.Además de las dificultades usuales relacionadas con las plagas y enfermedades, los productores de papa se enfrentan cada vez más a problemas abióticos. La obtención de suficiente semilla (de tubérculo) de cada genotipo o variedad es un cuello de botella en un programa de mejoramiento de papa, cada vez que se quiere realizar pruebas de adaptación. En mejoramiento es importante el estudio de adaptación de los cultivos y el ambiente, quien juega un papel importante, sobre todo en el estudio de la interacción GxE (Genotipo x Ambiente). El modelo MaxEnt permite trabajar con muestras incompletas de la distribución, ayudando a ahorrar tiempo y dinero en la predicción de la adaptación de nuevos materiales en localidades o ambientes donde no se haya llevado a cabo experimentos, con lo cual se genera una distribución hipotética. 2. Brindar información detallada de una corrida de predicción de ambientes.Ofrecer una gama de herramientas Web que apoye a la predicción de ambientes.Centralizar la base de dato climática e información para un mejor acceso. Permitirá la reducción de tiempo y costos por parte de los mejoradores para seleccionar un nuevo sitio de plantación ya que podrán hacer uso de esta nueva aplicación como un servicio adicional sin complicaciones mayores. Oportunidad de negocio en capacidad de consolidar gran información climática de todo el mundo. Acceso a la información en una forma más accesible. Disminución en el tiempo del mejorador necesario para la toma de decisiones.La importancia de esta investigación radica en la implementación de una aplicación web que determine una nueva localidad para comenzar un proyecto en papa de manera satisfactoria, se entregaría una solución para diversos tipos de investigación que requieran encontrar nuevas localidades para las siembras de forma eficiente y gozando de todos los beneficios que ofrece una aplicación basada en plataforma web. Uso de las funcionalidades del software desde distintos equipos conectados a la red. Visualización de la información a través de un navegador web estándar. Actualización del software en un solo equipo servidor que es replicado instantáneamente por todos los equipos usuarios. Mejora el proceso de toma de decisiones.La finalidad de la presente implementación es desarrollar una Aplicación Web que sirva de herramienta para predecir nuevas localidades o sitios de plantación para el Centro Internacional de la Papa y sus regiones, el presente aporte se centrará en dicha premisa la cual enmarcará el presente aporte. En la predicción de ambientes basado en MaxEnt (la máxima entropía) intervienen diversos procesos, desde la recolección de data climática, selección de ubicaciones geográficas hasta el procesamiento del algoritmo matemático MaxEnt.El alcance del proyecto cubrirá:1. Administración de localidades a nivel mundial. En este proceso se administra las localidades registradas en el sistema, como son a nivel de países y continentes.En este proceso se administra los parámetros requeridos para correr el modelo de predicción, como son periodos de tiempo, escenario de emisiones, modelos y resoluciones climáticas.En este proceso se administra las variables climáticas y bioclimáticas requeridas para correr el modelo de predicción. Estas variables determinaran la magnitud del proceso a correr.En este proceso se administra los archivos físicos asociados a las variables y parámetros climáticos. Estos archivos se subirán al servidor y son requeridos por el algoritmo de predicción MaxEnt a la hora de correr el modelo.En esta consulta se procede a buscar localidades, elevación y perfil de elevación requeridos por el investigador para ayuda en el proceso de predicción.6. Procesamiento del modelo de predicción. En este procesamiento se procede a correr el modelo de predicción gracias al algoritmo de MaxEnt, variables y parámetros climáticos.7. Consulta y administración de resultados. En esta consulta se procede a observar, analizar, descargar y navegar los resultados obtenidos gracias al modelo de predicción.Los procesos mencionados serán incluidos en el presente trabajo de investigación.Debido a que el sistema de predicción de ambientes se encuentra en la fase inicial no cuenta con toda la información climática necesaria para ejecutar el programa en todos los países del mundo, por lo tanto la información climática disponible que se mostrara en la presente solución será del país de Burundi perteneciente al continente Africano. Pero a futuro se planea contar con toda la información climática real del mundo a través de la implementación de la fase final.El sistema no cubrirá: La fase final del proyecto con la información climática del más del 70% de países involucrados al CIP. Interacción con otros centros de investigación que no se contempla dentro del CGIAR. El sistema no contempla en guardar la información física de los resultados obtenidos en el proceso de predicción.CAPÍTULO II -MARCO TEÓRICOLos modelos de distribución geográfica han ganado importancia como herramienta para valorar el impacto acelerado del uso de suelo y otros cambios ambientales en la distribución de los organismos. La cuantificación de las relaciones de las especies con el ambiente representa el núcleo de los modelos geográficos de predicción en Ecología (A. Guisan, 2000).Estos modelos de distribución son poderosas herramientas para convertir puntos individuales, como los registros de las colecciones en distribuciones hipotéticas de especies. Así también, presentan gran potencial para proponer estrategias de conservación. Uno de los principales problemas es la gran variedad de algoritmos existentes, los cuales producen diferentes distribuciones y por lo tanto diferentes recomendaciones para estas estrategias de manejo. Las discrepancias en los modelos usados para los planes de conservación pueden ser muy grandes, y se deben analizar a fondo.El asunto no es trivial, ya que la elección de uno u otro modelo puede tener profundos efectos en la conservación. Los modelos de distribución son de gran utilidad cuando se aplican apropiada y cuidadosamente (Loiselle, 2003).Los primeros intentos en crear modelos de distribución se basaron en programas sencillos como por ejemplo el BIOCLIM, el cual predice condiciones viables para las especies en un contexto bioclimático.Posterior Por otro lado, el modelo GAP, que une la información distribucional con la información de uso de suelo y áreas protegidas para detectar prioridades y aplicar acciones de conservación, también, tiene la capacidad de modelar distribuciones hipotéticas. A diferencia de GAP, el programa GARP ha demostrado predecir de manera poderosa distribuciones de especies; sin embargo, en GARP no se toma en cuenta información de protección, solo se consideran georeferencias de los organismos (presencia y ausencia) y variables ambientales que influyen en su distribución (Lee, 2004); (Payne, 1996). Peterson y Klusa (Peterson, 2003), realizaron una comparación entre el Análisis GAP y el método GARP.Los resultados de la comparación indicaron que el software GARP es mucho más poderoso para realizar predicciones de la distribución de las especies que GAP. Posterior a éstos, estudios realizados por Phillips et al. (Phillips, 2006), quienes compararon el programa GARP contra el programa de MAXENT, concluyeron que MAXENT presenta una mejor discriminación de las variables más significativas para la especie y una integración más fina de los datos y de las variables en el modelo.MAXENT es uno de los modelos más sencillos de utilizar, y a diferencia de GAP, MAXENT no requiere información sobre protección. Comparado con GARP solo requiere puntos de presencia y demuestra una mejor discriminación de las variables, así como también una mayor precisión en los resultados que produce y menor sobre predicción. Finalmente es fácil de interpretar, lo cual lo hace el método idóneo para utilizar en el presente proyecto de investigación.El propósito general de MAXENT es hacer predicciones o inferencias a partir de información incompleta. MAXENT estima la distribución probable de máxima entropía (la distribución más lejana a lo uniforme) para cada especie, está sujeto a un grupo de restricciones (puntos de presencia) que se complementan con información de variables ambientales para producir la mejor distribución (la más restringida) que satisface las restricciones proporcionadas por los puntos de presencia (Mateo, 2011).La probable distribución desconocida, la cual se denominará π, se estima a partir de un conjunto finito de X píxeles (el conjunto de píxeles en el área de estudio) y un conjunto de elementos individuales (puntos de presencia); la distribución π asigna una probabilidad no negativa π (x) a cada punto de X, y estas probabilidades suman 1. La aproximación a π es una distribución de probabilidad y la denotamos como la entropía de es definida como: La entropía es no-negativa y es al menos el log del número de elementos en X (Phillips, 2006). Entropía es una \"medida de qué tantas decisiones están involucradas en la selección de un evento\". Una distribución con alta entropía involucra muchas decisiones posibles.El algoritmo que se utilizará en este proyecto de investigación generará probabilidades de máxima ocurrencia con base en la máxima entropía posible, bajo el conjunto de restricciones dadas por los datos de presencia, esto se logrará manteniendo la media de los datos estimados lo más parecida posible a la media real de los puntos observados. La información disponible a menudo se presentará como valores reales llamados \"características\" y \"restricciones\", serán los valores esperados de cada característica que podrían coincidir con su promedio empírico (valor promedio para un conjunto de puntos tomados de la distribución).Al permitir el libre acceso y de manera gratuita al sistema GPS a nivel mundial (Gilbert, 1993).Un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG o GIS, en su acrónimo inglés [Geographic Information System]) es una integración organizada de hardware, software y datos geográficos diseñada para capturar, almacenar, manipular, analizar y desplegar en todas sus formas la información geográficamente referenciada con el fin de resolver problemas complejos de planificación y de gestión (Buzai & Baxendale, 2011).El SIG funciona como una base de datos con información geográfica (datos alfanuméricos) que se encuentra asociada por un identificador común a los objetos gráficos de un mapa digital. De esta forma, señalando un objeto se conocen sus atributos e, inversamente, preguntando por un registro de la base de datos se puede saber su localización en la cartografía.La razón fundamental para utilizar un SIG es la gestión de información espacial. El sistema permite separar la información en diferentes capas temáticas y las almacena independientemente, permitiendo trabajar con ellas de manera rápida y sencilla, y facilitando al profesional la posibilidad de relacionar la información existente a través de la topología de los objetos, con el fin de generar otra nueva que no podríamos obtener de otra forma.Las principales cuestiones que puede resolver un Sistema de Información Geográfica, ordenadas de menor a mayor complejidad, son:1. Localización: preguntar por las características de un lugar concreto.2. Condición: el cumplimiento o no de unas condiciones impuestas al sistema.3. Tendencia: comparación entre situaciones temporales o espaciales distintas de alguna característica.4. Rutas: cálculo de rutas óptimas entre dos o más puntos.Pautas: detección de pautas espaciales.6. Modelos: generación de modelos a partir de fenómenos o actuaciones simuladas.Por ser tan versátiles, el campo de aplicación de los Sistemas deInformación Geográfica es muy amplio, pudiendo utilizarse en la mayoría de las actividades con un componente espacial. La profunda revolución que han provocado las nuevas tecnologías ha incidido de manera decisiva en su evolución.Las modernas tecnologías SIG trabajan con información digital, para la cual existen varios métodos utilizados en la creación de datos digitales. El método más utilizado es la digitalización, donde a partir de un mapa impreso o con información tomada en campo se transfiere a un medio digital por el empleo de un programa de Diseño Asistido por Ordenador (DAO o CAD) con capacidades de georreferenciación.Dada la amplia disponibilidad de imágenes orto-rectificadas (tanto de satélite y como aéreas), la digitalización por esta vía se está convirtiendo en la principal fuente de extracción de datos geográficos. Esta forma de digitalización implica la búsqueda de datos geográficos directamente en las imágenes aéreas en lugar del método tradicional de la localización de formas geográficas sobre un tablero de digitalización.Los datos SIG representan los objetos del mundo real (carreteras, el uso del suelo, altitudes). Los objetos del mundo real se pueden dividir en dos abstracciones: objetos discretos (una casa) y continuos (cantidad de lluvia caída, una elevación). Existen dos formas de almacenar los datos en un SIG: raster y vectorial. necesarias en fenómenos no discretos; también en estudios medioambientales donde no se requiere una excesiva precisión espacial (contaminación atmosférica, distribución de temperaturas, localización de especies marinas, análisis geológicos, etc.) (Burrough, 1998).Para localizar un punto determinado de la superficie terrestre utilizamos la red geográfica de líneas imaginarias que forman los paralelos y meridianos.Tomando como referencia el meridiano de Greenwich y el Ecuador, podemos establecer las coordenadas geográficas llamadas latitud y longitud y así ubicar cualquier punto en el mapa terrestre (Kaplan, 2006).Las coordenadas geográficas son líneas imaginarias trazadas sobre la superficie de la Tierra que nos sirven para localizar un punto cualquiera sobre el planeta. Existen dos tipos de coordenadas: Los PARALELOS permiten medir la LATITUD. Los MERIDIANOS permiten medir la LONGITUD.  Por convención internacional, el meridiano que pasa por el Real Observatorio Astronómico de Greenwich (en Londres, capital de Inglaterra) se eligió como longitud 0°. Ahora el observatorio es un museo y existe una banda de metal que señala el meridiano. Los turistas se fotografían a menudo, con un pie en el hemisferio Este y otro en el Oeste de la Tierra.La resolución es el número de píxeles que integran un sensor de satélite.Es decir la capacidad de discernir objetos o detalles de un determinado tamaño en las imágenes captadas. A mayor número de píxeles por unidad de superficie, mayor resolución del foto-sensor, pero también mayor es el volumen del archivo informático generado. Es lo que se denomina resolución espacial y constituye uno de los tipos de resolución que definen a las imágenes satélites (Armand, 1998).Este concepto designa al objeto más pequeño que se puede distinguir en la imagen. Está determinada por el tamaño del píxel, medido en metros sobre el terreno, esto depende de la altura del sensor con respecto a la Tierra, el ángulo de visión, la velocidad de escaneado y las características ópticas del sensor (Cheng, 2002).Por ejemplo las imágenes Landsat TM, tienen una resolución espacial de 30x30 m en las bandas 1,2,3,4, 5 y 7 y de 120x120 m en la 6 (térmica DataSet Clima 1km (datos anuales a 1km de resolución) (Herrera, 2011). Medias anuales de temperatura mínima. Medias anuales de temperatura máxima. Acumuladas anuales de precipitación.Los escenarios de emisiones SRES están agrupados en cuatro familias (A1, A2, B1, B2) que exploran vías de desarrollo alternativas incorporando toda una serie de fuerzas causantes demográficas, económicas y tecnológicas, junto con las emisiones de GEI resultantes. La decisión sobre cuál de los diversos escenarios descritos parece más probable, se deja abierta, puesto que el IPCC no asume el riesgo de asignar probabilidades a cada uno de ellos (Z. Chen, 2007).  El otro puntal del éxito del WWW ha sido el lenguaje HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up Language). Este es un lenguaje de marcas (se utiliza insertando marcas en el interior del texto) que nos permite representar de forma rica el contenido, así como referenciar otros recursos (textos, imágenes, fotografías, audio, sonido, animaciones, video), enlaces a otros documentos (la característica más destacada del WWW), mostrar formularios para luego procesarlos, etc. El lenguaje HTML actualmente se encuentra en la versión 5.0, las novedades más destacables de HTML 5 serán la inclusión de API's para realizar dibujos en dos dimensiones, controlar la reproducción de audio y vídeo, editar documentos de forma interactiva en el navegador, y mantener datos de forma persistente en la parte cliente de la comunicación para acceder más tarde a ellos.Una aplicación Web, básicamente, es un programa, en sí muy parecido a cualquiera de los programas que todos nosotros tenemos en nuestra computadora, pero con la salvedad de que la computadora que hace correr ese programa, es el servidor al que nos conectamos a través de nuestro navegador, convirtiéndose éste en la \"pantalla\" o ventana en la que visualizamos las cosas que ocurren al ejecutar las acciones de la aplicación.El servidor nos devuelve la información en formato HTML y así cualquier navegador es capaz de interpretar este código para poder visualizar de forma correcta la información que nos envía la aplicación. Son numerosas las ventajas de las aplicaciones Web en cualquiera de los campos para los que se utilicen, ya que permiten facilitar mucho la estructuración y sobretodo el mantenimiento de la información que se muestra en el sitio Web.Las aplicaciones Web se pueden utilizar con múltiples fines, desde un sencillo uso para facilitar la creación de un sitio Web más o menos extenso, hasta para centralizar toda la información (contabilidad, pedidos, logística, etc.) de una empresa multinacional, con sedes en diferentes países del mundo. Al partir toda la información de un mismo punto o base de datos, permite a todos los usuarios que trabajan con esta información conocer en tiempo real el estado de la misma (Meloni, 2009).Un proceso para el desarrollo de software, también denominado ciclo de vida del desarrollo de software es una estructura aplicada al desarrollo de un producto de software. Hay varios modelos a seguir para el establecimiento de un proceso para el desarrollo de software, cada uno de los cuales describe un enfoque diferente para diferentes actividades que tienen lugar durante el proceso. Algunos autores consideran al modelo de ciclo de vida, un término más general que un determinado proceso para el desarrollo de software. Por ejemplo, hay varios procesos de desarrollo de software específicos que se ajustan a un modelo de ciclo de vida de espiral (Jonas A. Montilva, 2003).Gran cantidad de organizaciones de desarrollo de software implementan metodologías para el proceso de desarrollo. Muchas de estas organizaciones pertenecen a la industria armamentística, que en los Estados Unidos necesita un certificado basado en su modelo de procesos para poder obtener un contrato.El estándar internacional que regula el método de selección, implementación y monitoreo del ciclo de vida del software es ISO 12207.Durante décadas se ha perseguido la meta de encontrar procesos reproducibles y predecibles que mejoren la productividad y la calidad.Algunas de estas soluciones intentan sistematizar o formalizar la aparentemente desorganizada tarea de desarrollar software. Otros aplican técnicas de gestión de proyectos para la creación del software. Sin una gestión del proyecto, los proyectos de software corren el riesgo de demorarse o consumir un presupuesto mayor que el planeado. Dada la cantidad de proyectos de software que no cumplen sus metas en términos de funcionalidad, costes o tiempo de entrega, una gestión de proyectos efectiva es algo que a menudo falta (S. Pressman, 2003).Soluciones de Imágenes Satelitales de alta resolución: Una nueva perspectiva confiable del mundo real.DigitalGlobe y GeoEye son ahora una sola: DigitalGlobe. Luego de la fusión de ambas firmas se está construyendo el mayor archivo digital de tomas satelitales de alta resolución en todo el mundo. Con las soluciones globales de imágenes de Digital Globe, cualquier persona puede tener a su alcance imágenes satelitales de cualquier parte del mundo, precisas y de alta resolución. DigitalGlobe posee la constelación de satélites comerciales tecnológicamente más avanzada, capaz de colectar más de 500 millones de kilómetros cuadrados de imágenes de calidad por año. Con una gran variedad de productos pre procesados, se dispone de muchas opciones para ordenar tomas de áreas específicas. Además aprovechamos esta enorme capacidad para tomar áreas predefinidas estratégicas, y de esta forma construir una gran biblioteca de imágenes de archivo en anticipación de sus necesidades.Posteriormente a la toma se dispone de imágenes de rápido y fácil acceso, tal como y donde se necesite: offline u on-line, en el escritorio, aplicación web o dispositivo móvil. Incorporar imágenes de alta resolución de la Tierra, en los proyectos o aplicaciones nunca ha sido tan fácil.Las aplicaciones van desde la administración de activos, detección de cambios, exploración, navegación, aplicaciones de mapeo remotas en línea y más, entregando una perspectiva del mundo real en la que se puede confiar (DigitalGlobe, 2013).En los últimos años están proliferando numerosos servicios que nos permiten almacenar y publicar datos geográficos en la nube. En la web www.pearltrees.com tenemos un espectacular gráfico interactivo creado por Barry Dyer (@DrBazUK) que nos permite explorar las distintas opciones cuando queremos publicar nuestros mapas online.Otra opción para disponer de nuestros datos GIS en la nube, es utilizar una solución comercial, en esta imagen vemos un esquema con las diferentes opciones.  GISCloud. GISCloud ofrece una cuenta gratuita en la que se puede subir datos geoespaciales a la nube y crear composiciones de mapas mediante su interfaz de usuario. Es un GIS genérico con una personalización limitada. Es interesante su extensión de publicación para ArcMap gratuita (Cloud, 2014).Lo mismo sucede con Google Fusion Tables. Esta API de Google nos permite subir capas a la web y compartirlas de una forma sencilla e implementar después en una web utilizando la API de Google Maps. Solo es necesaria una cuenta de google. De nuevo es una opción con muchas limitaciones para analistas GIS o para crear una auténtica arquitectura web mapping.Google Maps Engine Lite. Permite a los usuarios crear fácilmente sus propios mapas sobre los mapas base de Google Maps. Esta versión \"ligera\" de Google Maps Engine está diseñada para usuarios que quieren crear mapas sencillos que luego pueden ser fácilmente compartidos. El único requisito es tener una cuenta de Google.Google Maps Engine Lite está diseñado para proyectos muy pequeños, tiene un límite de 100 registros al importar hojas de cálculo de Google,Google Fusion no son una opción de importación.Google Maps que es sin duda el sistema GIS más utilizado por los desarrolladores. Si hacemos un poco de historia encontramos que la aplicación, originalmente hecha en C++ para ser desktop, fue adquirida por Google Inc. en el año 2004, siendo 2005 el año de alta del servicio.Desde esa primera idea de poder visualizar mapas, el servicio se ha agrandado a una numerosa serie de funcionalidades, varias de ellas muy conocidas y utilizadas, y otras no tanto.Google Maps provee un conjunto grande de APIs para utilizar en diferentes situaciones que permite embeber sus funcionalidades en un sitio web o en una aplicación, aunque no nos centraremos en explicar cada una de las mismas. En cambio, la idea es mostrar nuevas e interesantes maneras de utilizar los servicios que provee para darle una dinámica diferente a nuestra aplicación, más interesante y a su vez más funcional (Deheza, 2011).Gran parte del nuevo potencial de Google Maps está en los overlays que son objetos que están por encima de la capa base, que viene a ser el mapa. El ejemplo más conocido seguramente es el de los marcadores, que son overlays que se posicionan en el mapa para señalar diferentes ubicaciones, pero existen otros: Circles and Rectangles. InfoWindows. KML & GeoRSS Layers.KML es una notación XML que permite expresar notaciones geográficas para definir diferentes overlays. De esta manera se puede crear un archivo KML para definir diferentes overlays y que se vean por encima del mapa. KML es un estándar, por lo que no funciona solo con Google Maps sino que también con cualquier sistema GIS que lo soporte.Una de las grandes bondades de Google Maps y que no todo el mundo sabe es que posee un API REST. ¿Por qué usar esta API en vez de la típica de JavaScript? Porque no siempre queremos mostrar algo en una página, si no obtener los datos y poder manipularlos para utilizarlos de una manera determinada. A su vez, no es necesario utilizarla en el entorno de un explorador web por lo que podemos consumirla desde cualquier lenguaje (sea .NET, Java, Python, Ruby, etc.), abriendo un nuevo espacio para utilizar Google Maps en aplicaciones.Se presenta el uso del método de máxima entropía (MaxEnt) para el modelamiento de la distribución geográfica de especies, con datos de presencia solamente. MaxEnt es un método de aprendizaje de propósito general con una simple y precisa formulación matemática, y tiene una serie de aspectos que lo hacen muy adecuado para el modelado de la distribución de especies y la determinación de nichos ecológicos.La Rabia transmitida principalmente por Desmodus rotundus es una enfermedad mortal prevalente en Perú. Con la finalidad de determinar la distribución geográfica de esta enfermedad, se desarrolló un modelo de distribución de Rabia, prediciendo áreas geográficas y combinaciones de factores medioambientales adecuados para la presencia del murciélago y la enfermedad.El estudio ha estado orientado a la elaboración de un modelo que toma como base los requerimientos ambientales de una especie a partir de un conjunto de localidades (para el caso: zonas prevalentes de rabia), conjuntamente con un grupo de variables ambientales bioclimáticas que describen algunos de los factores que influyen en la probabilidad de la idoneidad del medio ambiente para la especie en estudio (Brown, 1998).Cada localidad de presencia de especies es más que un par datos de latitud y longitud, que denota un sitio donde se ha observado la especie; estos datos de ocurrencias georeferenciadas a menudo se derivan de especímenes en los museos de historia natural y herbarios (Peterson A.S., 2002). Los datos de presencia de murciélagos han sido proporcionados por el Museo de Historia Natural del Perú (1920-2010).Todas las variables ambientales en formato GIS pertenecen a la misma zona geográfica del área de estudio, la cual ha sido dividida en una cuadrícula de píxeles. La tarea de un método de modelado es predecir la idoneidad del medio ambiente para la especie como una función de las variables ambientales dadas. Un modelo basado en el nicho representa una aproximación del nicho ecológico de una especie en las dimensiones ambientales examinadas.\"Nicho fundamental\" de una especie es el conjunto de todas las condiciones que permiten su supervivencia a largo plazo, mientras que \"Nicho realizado\" es un subconjunto del nicho fundamental del cual forma parte y que en realidad ocupa. Nicho realizado de la especie puede ser más pequeño que su nicho fundamental, debido a la influencia humana, las interacciones bióticas (por ejemplo, la competencia inter-específica, depredación), o barreras geográficas que han obstaculizado la dispersión y colonización; estos factores pueden impedir que la especie que la habita encuentre condiciones que abarcan todo su potencial ecológico completo (Anderson RP, 2004).Por lo tanto, dado un suficiente esfuerzo de muestreo, modelando en una zona de estudio con una extensión geográfica más grande, es probable que aumente la fracción del nicho fundamental representado por la muestra de localidades de presencia/ocurrencia, y en este caso es preferible que así sea.Es un método de uso general para hacer predicciones o inferencias a partir de información incompleta. Sus orígenes se encuentran en la mecánica estadística, y sigue siendo un área activa de investigación con el uso de métodos de máxima entropía y métodos bayesianos, que explora las aplicaciones en diversas áreas, tales como la astronomía, la portafolios de optimización, la reconstrucción de imágenes, la física estadística y procesamiento de señales. Presentamos aquí como un enfoque general para un modelo de distribución de especies de solo presencia, adecuado para todas las aplicaciones existentes que involucran presencia de datos. La idea de MaxEnt es estimar una distribución de probabilidad de destino mediante la búsqueda de la distribución de probabilidad de máxima entropía (es decir, que está más disperso, o más cerca de ser uniforme), sujeto a un conjunto de restricciones que representan nuestra información incompleta acerca de la distribución de destino. La información disponible acerca de la distribución de destino a menudo se presenta como un conjunto de variables con valores reales, llamado \"características\", y las limitaciones son que el valor esperado de cada función debe coincidir con su promedio empírico (valor medio de un conjunto de puntos de muestra tomadas de la distribución de destino). Cuando MaxEnt se aplica a la modelación de distribución de especies de solo presencia, los píxeles del área de estudio constituyen el espacio en el que se define la distribución de probabilidad MaxEnt, los píxeles con datos conocidos de presencia/ocurrencias de especies constituyen los puntos de muestreo y las características son las variables climáticas, de altura, categoría de suelo, tipo de vegetación u otras variables ambientales, y las funciones de los mismos.El CCAFS (Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security) Climate Analogue Tools permite al usuario identificar e investigar el cambio climático, la variabilidad climática y las posibles adaptaciones a estos, mediante la identificación de áreas de todo el mundo que actualmente tienen las condiciones climáticas proyectadas sobre la ubicación del usuario de interés. Esta herramienta viene en 2 formas; la primera es una versión en línea, fácil de usar, lo que permite a los usuarios investigar uno de los posibles 24 modelos climáticos individuales (o un conjunto que utiliza el promedio de todos los 24 modelos climáticos).Dentro de 40 años, cuando la población mundial llegue a 9.000 habitantes, la producción de alimentos deberá incrementarse en un 70% para satisfacer la demanda global. Un reto difícil de cumplir si se tienen en cuenta los efectos negativos que ha generado el cambio climático en la agricultura y el riesgo que conlleva para la seguridad alimentaria (Gaviota,Pero de ese panorama hoy incierto surgen iniciativas que crean esperanzas. El aumento de las temperaturas, los períodos de sequía cada vez más largos y el incremento de las lluvias que causan inundaciones devastadoras, entre otros fenómenos, han llevado a que la tierra se empiece a agotar. Regiones fértiles y ricas en agricultura empiezan a perder su capacidad de producción y no aparecen recursos para detener una realidad que afecta las economías y las sociedades.Mientras los Estados no parecen tener políticas para enfrentar la baja de productividad, ni respuestas para adaptarse a esos cambios, repensar la agricultura y brindarle a la humanidad la posibilidad de asegurar su alimentación a futuro, éstas empiezan a producirse desde el Valle del Cauca, en el Centro de Investigación en Agricultura Tropical, CIAT, ubicado en Palmira.Climáticos, el CIAT ha desarrollado una herramienta digital denominada Climate Analogues que detecta lugares en el mundo donde la temperatura se asemeja a la proyectada para fin del siglo, conecta regiones que tendrán características similares dentro de unas décadas y desarrolla a partir de esa información granjas agrícolas que se adapten a los cambios.Se trata de identificar qué variedades de semillas y cultivos serán más resistentes, así como las técnicas para aprovechar la fertilidad de la tierra.En resumen, es crear ahora las fincas del futuro para asegurar la alimentación del mañana. Proyectos como este demuestran que si es posible hacer algo por el planeta que experimenta transformaciones climáticas drásticas e irreversibles. Sin duda se necesita de la inversión de recursos, pero más de la decisión de los Estados y de la sociedad para adaptarse a esos cambios.Tanzania ha sido el primer país en acoger el programa y comunidades como la de Mbinga sirven de ejemplo para el resto de África. Colombia, una de las naciones con mayor riqueza ambiental y de vocación agricultora, donde empiezan a sentirse los efectos del cambio climático, sigue en mora de emprender acciones para garantizar la producción de las próximas décadas. Aquí está el CIAT y tiene las condiciones para ser el gran laboratorio agrícola del mundo. Se requiere voluntad.Los beneficios de sostener la agricultura y adaptarla a los cambios del clima son incuestionables: si hay suficiente producción se podrá satisfacer la demanda, los precios bajarán, más gente tendrá acceso a los alimentos y se reducirán los índices de malnutrición. Hoy 800 millones de personas pasan hambre, el 11,5% de la población mundial. ¿Qué sucederá cuando sean 9.000 millones los que habiten el planeta si desde ahora no se asegura su alimentación?CAPÍTULO IV -MODELADO DEL NEGOCIOPropósito. El propósito del presente documento, es el de informar acerca de las políticas y condiciones que se establecen dentro del negocio al cual vamos a aplicar nuestra solución.Negocio indicadas por el Usuario del Negocio.Referencias. Se tomó como referencia lo siguiente: entrevistas al mejorador de papa y al asistente de investigación del CIP (Ver Anexo 01).Descripción. El presente documento servirá como un marco de referencia para conocer el comportamiento del negocio, así como a conocer con mayor detalle los procesos del negocio de la organización.Regla 01: El usuario del negocio deberá saber de manera inmediata las localidades de un determinado lugar, una vez realizada la búsqueda.Regla 02: El usuario del negocio deberá saber de manera inmediata las localidades de un determinado lugar, ingresando coordenadas geográficas.Regla 03: El usuario del negocio deberá saber de manera inmediata las coordenadas geográficas de un determinado lugar, utilizando el método \"arrastrar marcador -drag marker\".Regla 04: El usuario del negocio deberá saber de manera inmediata la altitud o elevación de un determinado lugar, seleccionando un punto georeferencial en el mapa.Regla 05: El usuario del negocio deberá estar registrado para poder acceder al modelo de predicción.El Investigador es el actor principal del negocio, ya que da inicio a los principales procesos como solicitar un corte geográfico de un determinado lugar al área de SIG (Sistemas de Información Geográfica), solicitar correr el modelo de predicción MaxEnt al área de Integrated IT & Computational Research con requerimientos ya establecidos.Ingeniero Informático: Es el responsable de atender los requerimientos para correr el modelo de predicción y administrar los sistemas necesarios para procesar la información.Ingeniero Geógrafo: Es el responsable de administrar la base de datos climática y realizar los cortes geográficos requeridos por el Investigador.Estadístico: Es el responsable de procesar la información utilizando el algoritmo MaxEnt.  El Caso de Uso del Negocio \"Solicitar correr modelo de predicción\" describe la continuación del proceso inicial del El usuario podrá acceder a la página principal de predicción de ambientes desde el Portal (página principal de los mejoradores de papa y camote).MaxEnt en el \"Home\" de la página de predicción de ambientes.búsqueda por localidades, búsquedas por coordenadas geográficas y búsqueda dinámica por medio del marcador de Google Maps.El usuario podrá utilizar herramientas de elevación de terrenos de localidades como: perfiles de elevación y servicios de elevación.El usuario podrá acceder a la herramienta de predicción de ambientes MaxEnt desde un menú principal en la parte superior de la página principal.El usuario podrá ingresar localidades para el modelo de predicción de manera dinámica en un mapa de Google Maps.El usuario podrá seleccionar localidades directamente de la base de datos (BIOMART) del CIP.El usuario podrá subir directamente localidades en un archivo de tipo .CSV al modelo de predicción.acompañarán al modelo de predicción y ayudarán a decidir qué tipo de corrida se va a realizar, entre las variables tenemos por ejemplo: temperatura mínima, máxima y promedio, precipitación, elevación, etc.El usuario podrá seleccionar la magnitud del modelo a correr, si es a nivel mundial, a nivel de continente o a nivel de país.12. El usuario podrá seleccionar la resolución que se aplicara en el modelo, entre ellas tenemos: 30 segundos, 2.5 minutos y 10 minutos.13. El usuario podrá observar los resultados después de un determinado tiempo, dependiendo de la cantidad de información que se agregue al modelo de predicción.El usuario podrá interactuar con los resultados, entre ellos tendremos datos estadísticos, análisis de omisión / comisión, imágenes del modelo, Salida de datos sin procesar para descarga, parámetros de control e interacción del modelo en Google Maps.El usuario podrá eliminar la sesión activa dentro del sistema.El administrador del sistema podrá gestionar los modelos de predicción que se están corriendo en el servidor de uno o varios usuarios.El administrador del sistema podrá asociar los roles de los usuarios del CIP al modelo de predicción, de tal manera que los usuarios fuera del CIP solo puedan acceder a algunas herramientas como también algunas características del modelo.El administrador del sistema podrá listar, registrar y actualizar la información referida a los lugares donde se desea correr el modelo de predicción, como son continentes y países.El administrador del sistema podrá listar, registrar y actualizar la información referida a la resolución de la imagen vinculada al nivel de detalle que puede observarse en ésta.El administrador del sistema podrá ingresar nuevos roles al sistema, y asociarle permisos de funcionalidades a cada rol del sistema.El administrador del sistema podrá listar, registrar y actualizar la información referente a variables climáticas en data cruda que se alojará en el servidor y que el modelo podrá utilizar para correr MaxEnt.Desempeño:1. El tiempo de la presentación de la consola web para el modelo de predicción no deberá de exceder los 5 segundos.El tiempo para la selección de localidades en sus tres opciones representativas no deberá exceder los 4 segundos.La selección de las variables climáticas del modelo de predicción no deberá exceder los 4 segundos.La búsqueda de localidades de la consola web, deberá ser inmediata.1. El sistema en general deberá ser accesible desde los siguientes navegadores: Firefox 6.* +, Google Chrome 11 +, Safari 5 +.La consola web de monitoreo deberá ser comprendida en una sola pantalla, donde el usuario podrá tener acceso a las funcionalidades más importantes del modelo de predicción de manera inmediata.El diseño web del sistema deberá ser minimalista y ocupar lo necesario de las dimensiones del monitor.El sistema podrá ser accedido las 24 horas del día, los 365 días del año, desde cualquier navegador web anteriormente mencionado.1. Cualquier usuario que desee tener uso del sistema de predicción de ambientes, deberá identificarse mediante su nombre de usuario y contraseña, su nombre de usuario deberá ser especificado de acuerdo a los estándares del CIP.No podrá existir otro medio de acceder a la información que no sea mediante el formulario de autenticación y/o el manejador de la base de datos del CIP.Investigador: El actor Investigador representa al actor del negocio cuyo papel en los casos de uso del sistema es acceder a los principales procesos como búsqueda de un determinado lugar mediante ubicaciones o coordenadas geográficas, seleccionar opciones en el modelo para establecer coordenadas y establecer los parámetros requeridos por el modelo como son periodo, escenario, modelo, resolución, ubicación y variables climáticas.Administrador del Sistema: El administrador del Sistema puede acceder a toda la información generada en el sistema de predicción de ambientes, ejecutar tareas de mantenimiento y configuración en la solución software.Usuario: Representa a los actores del sistema en general que utilizan alguna funcionalidad del sistema.Usuario Autenticado: Representa a los usuarios del sistema que han sido identificados y validados por un método de autenticación y pueden acceder a las funcionalidades que requieren como la identificación confirmada del usuario.Usuario No Autenticado: Representa a los usuarios del sistema que no han sido autenticados por el sistema y solo pueden acceder a funcionalidades que no requieren identificación confirmada. interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Continent\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los continentes, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Continent\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del continente y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Continent\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Actores: Administrador del Sistema.Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad registrar nuevos países al sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Country\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los continentes y sus países asociados, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Continent\", \"Country\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del país y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Continent\", \"Country\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información del país registrado o actualizado.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Period\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los periodos de tiempo, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Period\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del periodo de tiempo y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Period\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información del periodo de tiempo registrado o actualizado.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.Prototipo del Caso de Uso del Sistema 28Figura 5.9: CUS_Mantenimiento de Periodos de Tiempo -Prototipo del Caso de Uso del Sistema. Fuente Elaboración Propia, 2013Actores: Administrador del Sistema.Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad registrar nuevos escenarios de emisiones al sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Scenario\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los escenarios de emisiones, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Emission Scenarios (SRES)\"y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del escenario de emisión y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Emission Scenarios (SRES)\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información del escenario de emisiones registrado o actualizado.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Model\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los modelos, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Global Climate Models (GCMs)\"y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del modelo y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Global Climate Models (GCMs)\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información del modelo climático registrado o actualizado.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.Prototipo del Caso de Uso del Sistema Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad registrar nuevas resoluciones espaciales al sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Resolution\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista las resoluciones, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Spatial Resolution\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información de la resolución y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Spatial Resolution\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información de la resolución espacial registrada o actualizada.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"ClimateVariables\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista las variables climáticas, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Type\", \"Climate Variable\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información de la variable climática y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Type\", \"Climate Variable\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información de la variable climática registrada o actualizada.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.Prototipo del Caso de Uso del Sistema Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad registrar nuevos tipos de variables climáticas al sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Climatic VariableTypes\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los tipos de variables climáticas, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Type\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del tipo de variable climática y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Type\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información del tipo de variable climática registrada o actualizada.Excepción: No presenta excepciones. Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad subir al servidor archivos de cortes geográficos de países y continentes al sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"GeographicalCuts\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los cortes geográficos, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Continent\", \"Country\", \"Period\", \"Scenario\", \"Model\", \"Resolution\", \"Climate Variable\", \"Select Files\" y \"Status\", el usuario ingresa los datos indicados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema registra la información del corte geográfico y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos:\"Continent\", \"Country\", \"Period\", \"Scenario\", \"Model\", \"Resolution\", \"Climate Variable\", \"Select Files\" y \"Status\", el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información del corte geográfico registrado o actualizado.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.Actores: En general.Descripción: El presente caso de uso tiene por finalidad utilizar el servicio de elevación de Google Maps, para conocer con exactitud a que altitud se encuentra una localidad o centro de experimentación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Elevation Tools\" del menú principal y el sub menú \"Elevation Service\", el sistema presenta una interface con un mapa web geográfico de todo el mundo y un panel de control de zoom en él, el usuario hace clic en un objetivo específico del mapa, el sistema le muestra la altitud o elevación de la coordenada asignada.Post condición: El sistema muestra una ventana de información de la altitud sobre la coordenada asignada.Excepción: No presenta excepciones. Actores: En general.Descripción: El presente caso de uso tiene por finalidad ver los perfiles de elevación de Google Maps, para conocer la altitud entre dos o más puntos de diferentes coordenadas.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Elevation Tools\" del menú principal y el sub menú \"Elevation Profiles\", el sistema presenta una interface con un mapa web geográfico de todo el mundo y un panel de control de zoom en él, el usuario hace clic en dos o más objetivos específicos del mapa, el sistema le muestra la altitud o elevación de las coordenadas asignadas y también la altitud entre ellas.Post condición: El sistema muestra la altitud o elevación de los puntos seleccionados en un recuadro interactivo, que se encuentra en la parte inferior del mapa web geográfico.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.Actores: En general.Descripción: El presente caso de uso tiene por finalidad utilizar el motor de búsqueda de Google Maps para encontrar localidades de interés en un mapa web geográfico.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Search Tool\" del menú principal, el sistema presenta una interface con un mapa web geográfico de todo el mundo, un marcador central (drag marker), un panel de control de zoom del mapa, en la parte inferior del mapa se muestran resultados de búsqueda textual de localidades y búsqueda dinámica de coordenadas geográficas, el usuario ingresa una palabra o frase en un cuadro de texto asociada a una localidad, el sistema le muestra una lista de localidades y marcadores en el mapa como resultado de la búsqueda.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la búsqueda mediante coordenadas del flujo principal del caso de uso e ingresa una coordenada (longitud, latitud) en un cuadro de texto, el sistema le muestra un marcador y una ventana de información (InfoWindow) superpuesta en el mapa web como resultado de la búsqueda.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la búsqueda dinámica de localidades del flujo principal del caso de uso y mueve el marcador del mapa con el cursor del mouse a un determinado punto de interés, el sistema determina el estado del marcador (drag marker), en que coordenada se encuentra y una dirección coincidente asociado a él.Post condición: El mapa web es cargado, junto con un panel que lista las localidades y los marcadores son visualizados en el mapa.En caso que el motor de búsqueda de Google Maps no encuentre ningún resultado o sea nulo, el sistema no mostrará ningún marcador ni ventana de información en el mapa web.En caso que el marcador se encuentre ubicado sobre agua, el motor de búsqueda de Google Maps indicara dentro de los resultados el siguiente mensaje \"Can not determine address at this location.\". Descripción: El presente caso de uso tiene por finalidad procesar la información necesaria para correr el modelo de predicción de ambientes (MaxEnt).El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"MaxEnt\" del menú principal, el mismo que presenta una interface para correr el modelo de predicción, acompañado de tres opciones para establecer los puntos geo-referenciales, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Select points on the map\", el sistema presenta en la parte inferior de las opciones un mapa web de todo el mundo y en él un cursor dinámico que muestra en qué coordenada se encuentra uno, el usuario ingresa los puntos georeferenciales en el mapa web y selecciona la opción \"Set points\", el sistema registra la información de los puntos y muestra un formulario indicando \"Continent\", \"Country\", \"Period\", \"Scenario\", \"Model\", \"Resolution\" y \"ClimateVariable\", el usuario ingresa los datos indicados y selecciona la opción \"Run MaxEnt\", el sistema registra la información del procesamiento mediante la selección de puntos en el mapa web y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.Descripción del flujo secundario -Procesamiento mediante selección de puntos desde Biomart:El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Select points from Biomart\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema presenta en la parte inferior de las opciones una lista de todos los registros de Biomart donde lista los puntos geo-referenciales asociados a libros de campo de experimentos, el usuario selecciona los puntos geo-referenciales de la lista y selecciona la opción \"Set points\", el sistema registra la información de los puntos y muestra un formulario indicando \"Continent\", \"Country\", \"Period\", \"Scenario\", \"Model\", \"Resolution\" y \"ClimateVariable\", el usuario ingresa los datos indicados y selecciona la opción \"Run MaxEnt\", el sistema registra la información del procesamiento mediante la selección de puntos en el mapa web y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Upload the .CSV file\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema presenta en la parte inferior de las opciones un formulario indicando \"Select Files\", el usuario selecciona el archivo con los puntos geo-referenciales, el sistema registra la información de los puntos y muestra un formulario indicando \"Continent\", \"Country\", \"Period\", \"Scenario\", \"Model\", \"Resolution\" y \"Climate Variable\", el usuario ingresa los datos indicados y selecciona la opción \"Run MaxEnt\", el sistema registra la información del procesamiento mediante la selección de puntos en el mapa web y muestra un mensaje de éxito confirmando la operación.Post condición: El sistema comienza a procesar los parámetros ingresados por el usuario, que luego de un determinado tiempo los resultados del modelo de predicción se mostrarán en la siguiente pestaña del explorador web.Excepción: No presenta excepciones.resultados generados por el modelo de predicción en un mapa de Google Maps.El usuario del sistema habiendo hecho clic en la opción \"Run MaxEnt\" del modelo de predicción, el sistema comienza a procesar la información durante un tiempo determinado y muestra una interfaz con los resultados del modelo de predicción, el mismo que presentará tres secciones claramente establecidas una debajo de otra, entre ellas tenemos a: \"Analysis of omission/commission -Pictures of the model\": para explorar y analizar los resultados estadísticos generados por el modelo de predicción. \"Raw data outputs and control parameters\": para explorar y descargar los resultados de análisis de datos generados por el modelo de predicción. \"See the results in Google Maps\": donde se abrirá una nueva pestaña en el explorador web mostrando las imágenes generadas por el modelo.Post condición: El sistema muestra información textual y gráfica de resultados estadísticos, también muestra una lista de archivos para su descarga y análisis, finalmente muestra un mapa de Google Maps y sobre él una capa (layer) del resultado gráfico. Adicional al mapa en la parte lateral derecha de la pantalla se muestra un panel de resultados con información referida a: \"Opacity (0-100 %)\", \"LEGEND MaxEnt Results layer\", \"Locations\" y \"Points +/-100 meters\".Excepción: No presenta excepciones. Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad consultar todos los recorridos realizados por los usuarios para correr el modelo de predicción.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Model Runs\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de todos los registros donde lista los recorridos realizados por los usuarios, junto con las opciones de \"Points\" y \"Remove\".Recorrido:El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Points\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario indicando \"Longitude\", y \"Latitude\", el usuario puede visualizar los puntos utilizados en el recorrido.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Remove\" de la secuencia principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra el detalle del recorrido junto con la opción de eliminar, el usuario confirma eliminar el recorrido del sistema, y el sistema muestra un mensaje indicando el resultado de la operación.Post-Condición: El sistema eliminará todos los puntos geo-referenciales asociados al recorrido.No presenta ninguna excepción. uso, el sistema muestra el detalle del recorrido junto con la opción de eliminar, el usuario confirma eliminar el recorrido del sistema, y el sistema muestra un mensaje indicando el resultado de la operación.Post-Condición: El sistema eliminará todos los puntos geo-referenciales asociados al recorrido.Excepción: No presenta ninguna excepción. Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad iniciar sesión en el sistema a través de un formulario de identificación.El Caso de Uso se da inicio cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"login\" en la pantalla de inicio del sistema, el sistema presenta un formulario de identificación solicitando el \"Username\" y \"Password\", el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Login\", el sistema valida la correspondencia entre el nombre del usuario y la contraseña, de ser positiva la validación se creará una sesión en el sistema, en caso contrario el sistema mostrará el siguiente mensaje \"The username or password is incorrect\".Post-Condición: El usuario habrá iniciado sesión en el sistema de predicción de ambientes.No presenta ninguna excepción.Prototipo del Caso de Uso del Sistema Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad reemplazar la contraseña existente por una nueva, mediante un procedimiento de identificación.El Caso de Uso se da inicio cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Forgot your password?\" del flujo principal del caso de uso \"CUS_Ingresar al Sistema\". El sistema muestra un formulario solicitando el correo electrónico, el usuario ingresa un correo electrónico válido y selecciona la opción \"Send\", el sistema verifica que el correo electrónico corresponda a un usuario del sistema, en caso de no corresponder mostrará un mensaje indicando el error, en caso de que la correspondencia sea positiva, el sistema enviará un mensaje a la cuenta de correo electrónico ingresada indicando el procedimiento de recuperación de contraseña.Contraseña:La secuencia secundaria se da inicio cuando el usuario no autenticado abre el correo electrónico enviado por el sistema y hace clic en el enlace de recuperación de contraseña, el sistema valida el código de autenticación del enlace y presenta el formulario de restauración solicitando una nueva contraseña y la confirmación de la nueva contraseña, el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Update password\", el sistema valida que los datos ingresados sean correctos, en caso no ser así el sistema mostrará un mensaje de error, en caso de que la validación sea correcta, el sistema dirigirá al usuario al flujo principal del caso de uso \"CUS_Ingresar al Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad actualizar los datos relacionados a la cuenta del usuario del sistema.Usuario:El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Upgrade account\" del menú de sesión del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface con la siguiente información: Información de acceso: Nombre de usuario, tipo de cuenta, estado (activo o inactivo). Datos personales: Nombres, apellidos, correo electrónico, teléfono, centro de investigación, país, ciudad y dirección.El sistema presenta toda esta información, junto con las opciones de: \"Update system access\" y \"Update personal information\".La secuencia secundaria se da inicio cuando el usuario dentro de la secuencia principal, selecciona la opción \"Update system access\", el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos: \"Username\", \"User account type\" \"Password\" y \"Repeat password\", si el usuario deja la contraseña en blanco y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema no actualizará la contraseña, si el usuario introduce otro nombre de usuario o escoge otro tipo de cuenta de usuario y selecciona la opción \"Update\" el sistema obligará al usuario a iniciar la sesión nuevamente dentro del sistema.La secuencia secundaria se da inicio cuando el usuario dentro de la secuencia principal, selecciona la opción \"Update personal information\", el sistema muestra un formulario con los siguientes campos: nombres, apellidos, correo electrónico, teléfono, centro de investigación, país, ciudad y dirección, el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presentará un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post-Condición: Los datos de la cuenta del usuario han sido actualizados.Excepción: En caso que se cambie nombre de usuario o el tipo de cuenta, el usuario deberá iniciar sesión nuevamente.Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Users\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de usuarios, junto con las opciones de \"Register\", \"See details\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" de la secuencia principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario solicitando el nombre de usuario, contraseña, confirmación de la contraseña, tipo de cuenta, estado (activo o inactivo), nombres, apellidos, correo electrónico, teléfono, centro de investigación, país, ciudad y dirección, el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema valida los datos ingresados y muestra un mensaje indicando la conformidad de la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con la siguiente información: nombre de usuario, contraseña, confirmación de la contraseña, tipo de cuenta, estado (activo o inactivo), nombres, apellidos, correo electrónico, teléfono, centro de investigación, país, ciudad y dirección, el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post-Condición: El usuario registrado podrá iniciar sesión en el sistema.Excepción: No presenta ninguna excepción.Actores: Administrador del Sistema.Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad registrar y actualizar perfiles en el sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Profiles\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de roles, junto con las opciones de \"Register\", \"Permissions\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" de la secuencia principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario solicitando el nombre del perfil, descripción y estado (activo o inactivo), el usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema valida que el nombre del perfil sea único y muestra un mensaje confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con la siguiente información: nombre del perfil, descripción y estado (activo o inactivo), el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post-Condición: El perfil registrado podrá ser asociado posteriormente a un usuario del sistema.Excepción: No presenta ninguna excepción. Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad registrar y actualizar permisos en el sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"System Administration\" del menú de Configuración del sistema, el mismo que presenta una interface de administración de MaxEnt, acompañado de un menú vertical ubicado en la parte lateral izquierda de la pantalla, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Permissions\" del menú lateral, seguidamente el sistema muestra una lista de permisos, junto con las opciones de \"Register\" y \"Update\".El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Register\" de la secuencia principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario solicitando el nombre del permiso y el link de enlace para una página específica, el usuario ingresa el nombre del permiso, la URL, el estado (activo o inactivo) y selecciona la opción \"Register\", el sistema valida que el nombre del permiso sea único y muestra un mensaje confirmando la operación.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Update\" del flujo principal del caso de uso, el sistema muestra un formulario con la siguiente información: nombre del permiso, URL, estado (activo o inactivo), el usuario actualiza la información solicitada y selecciona la opción \"Update\", el sistema valida la información ingresada y presenta un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post-Condición: El permiso registrado podrá ser asociado posteriormente a un perfil del sistema.Excepción: No presenta ninguna excepción.Prototipo del Caso de Uso del Sistema Descripción: El presente caso de uso del sistema tiene por finalidad asociar permisos a los perfiles del sistema.El Caso de Uso se inicia cuando el usuario selecciona la opción \"Permissions\" del flujo principal del caso de uso \"CUS_Mantenimiento de Perfiles\", el sistema muestra la lista de Perfiles del sistema junto con los Permisos asociados, el usuario selecciona la opción \"Associate Permissions\", el sistema le presenta un formulario con las opciones de \"Profile\" y \"Permission\", el usuario asocia un Permiso a un Perfil y selecciona la opción \"Associate\", el sistema actualiza los permisos asociándolos al Perfil seleccionado y muestra un mensaje confirmando la operación.Post-Condición: Los permisos serán asociados al perfil seleccionado.Excepción: No presenta ninguna excepción. En cambio, bajo el supuesto de que se puede asignar un valor conocido de probabilidad de observación a los pixeles llamados \"típicos\", se considera que la salida logística de MaxEnt es una aproximación a la verdadera probabilidad de presencia. El usuario debe decidir cuál es ese valor de probabilidad típica. MaxEnt asigna un default de 0.5, no se recomienda cambiarlo.El Sitio Climate Analogues del CGIAR proporciona analogías climáticas para cualquier lugar en el mundo.Estos son lugares que en el presente tienen el clima futuro de otros lugares dadas las tendencias del cambio climático.Esto es útil para la planificación de medidas de mitigación del cambio climático, utilizando ejemplos de la vida real.  A continuación se presenta una tabla comparativa de las funcionalidades del proyecto a implementar, junto con las soluciones encontradas. Se entiende por realización de Caso de Uso a la descripción de cómo el Caso de Uso se comportará de manera interna y a continuación se presenta la realización de Casos de Uso de Análisis agrupados por paquetes:  Descripción del diagrama de colaboración -Actualizar:El usuario a través de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Mantenimiento_Periodo\" actualiza los datos del Periodo y selecciona la opción \"Update\", la interfaz de usuario solicita a la clase controladora \"C_Periodo\" que valide los datos del Periodo y solicita a la clase entidad \"E_Periodo\" que actualice los datos del Periodo, la clase entidad confirma la actualización de los datos y la clase controladora solicita a la clase interfaz de usuario presentar un mensaje de confirmación de la operación al usuario. El usuario a través de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Mantenimiento_Variable\" actualiza los datos de la Variable y selecciona la opción \"Update\", la interfaz de usuario solicita a la clase controladora \"C_Variable\" que valide los datos de la Variable y solicita a la clase entidad \"E_Variable\" que actualice los datos de la Variable, la clase entidad confirma la actualización de los datos y la clase controladora solicita a la clase interfaz de usuario presentar un mensaje de confirmación de la operación al usuario. Descripción del diagrama de colaboración -Actualizar:El usuario a través de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Mantenimiento_Tipo_Variable\" actualiza los datos del Tipo de Variable y selecciona la opción \"Update\", la interfaz de usuario solicita a la clase controladora \"C_Tipo_Variable\" que valide los datos del Tipo de Variable y solicita a la clase entidad \"E_Tipo_Variable\" que actualice los datos del Tipo de Variable, la clase entidad confirma la actualización de los datos y la clase controladora solicita a la clase interfaz de usuario presentar un mensaje de confirmación de la operación al usuario.Diagrama de Clases El usuario al hacer clic en un objetivo específico del mapa hace la solicitud de ver la Elevación a la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Elevación\", esta le pide al dominio externo \"API_Google_Maps_V3\" obtener la Elevación de la coordenada asignada, quien después de procesar la solicitud devuelve el valor de la Elevación y la presenta en el mapa de la interfaz de usuario. El usuario solicita Procesar la información necesaria para correr el modelo de predicción de ambientes (MaxEnt) en las opciones de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Proceso\", el sistema a través de la interfaz de usuario, invoca a la clase controladora \"C_Proceso\" que valida los datos ingresados verificando que los parámetros sean correctos, una vez que los datos hayan sido validados, invoca a la clase entidad \"E_Proceso\" y registra la información del Proceso, la clase entidad \"E_Proceso\" confirma el registro y la clase controladora invoca a la clase entidad \"E_Puntos\", quien registra los puntos geo-referenciales del Recorrido y confirma el registro, y la clase controladora solicita confirmar la operación a la clase interfaz de usuario. Descripción del diagrama de colaboración -Eliminar:El usuario a través de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Historial\" selecciona la opción \"Remove\", la clase interfaz de usuario invoca a clase controladora \"C_Historial\" para obtener los Puntos asociados a un Recorrido consultándolo a la clase entidad \"E_Puntos\", la clase entidad \"E_Puntos\" devuelve los Puntos asociados y solicita a la clase entidad \"E_Proceso\" eliminar el Recorrido de un Usuario, la clase entidad \"E_Proceso\" confirma la eliminación a la clase controladora, quien solicita presentar la confirmación al usuario a través de un mensaje a la clase interfaz de usuario.de usuario solicita a la clase controladora \"C_Autenticación\" que valide los datos de ingreso, a fin de verificar que la contraseña corresponda al nombre de usuario ingresado, la clase controladora solicita a la entidad \"E_Usuario\" que valide si existe un usuario en el sistema que posea dicho nombre de usuario, si existe el usuario con dicho nombre de usuario, entonces verifica que su contraseña es igual a la contraseña ingresada, si el usuario con dichas credenciales existe, la clase controladora solicita a la interfaz de usuario crear una nueva sesión con dichas credenciales, en caso de que las credenciales no coincidan, la clase controladora solicita a la interfaz de usuario presentar un mensaje de error al usuario. El usuario a través del menú de sesión, selecciona la opción \"Update personal information\", el sistema a través de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Actualizar_Cuenta\" presenta el formulario de datos personales del Usuario, el usuario llena los datos solicitados y selecciona la opción \"Update\", la interfaz de usuario solicita a la controladora \"C_Usuario\" que valide los datos personales del Usuario y solicita a la clase entidad \"E_Usuario\" que actualice los datos personales del Usuario, la clase entidad confirma la actualización de los datos y la clase controladora solicita a la interfaz presentar un mensaje de confirmación de la operación al usuario. El usuario a través de la interfaz de usuario \"IU_Mantenimiento_Permiso\" actualiza los datos del Permiso y selecciona la opción \"Update\", la interfaz de usuario solicita a la clase controladora \"C_Permiso\" que valide los datos del Permiso y solicita a la clase entidad \"E_Permiso\" que actualice los datos del Permiso, la clase entidad confirma la actualización de los datos y la clase controladora solicita a la clase interfaz de usuario presentar un mensaje de confirmación de la operación al usuario. La sencilla interfaz de servicios web de Amazon EC2 permite obtener y configurar su capacidad con una fracción mínima.Proporciona un control completo sobre sus recursos informáticos y permite ejecutarse en el entorno informático acreditado de Amazon.Servidor Web de Aplicación y BD (Amazon EC2) PC Amazon EC2 reduce el tiempo necesario para obtener y arrancar nuevas instancias de servidor en minutos, lo que permite escalar rápidamente la capacidad, ya sea aumentándola o reduciéndola, según cambien sus necesidades. Amazon EC2 cambia el modelo económico de la informática, al permitir pagar sólo por la capacidad que utiliza realmente. Amazon EC2 proporciona a los desarrolladores las herramientas necesarias para crear aplicaciones resistentes a errores y para aislarse de los casos de error más comunes.A continuación se muestra las características del Servidor:  Descripción del diagrama de secuencia -Registrar:El usuario en la lista de Variables, hace clic en la opción \"Register\", este evento ejecuta la opción registrarVariable de la clase \"View_Variable\", la función registrarVariable hace una llamada a la función registrarAction de la clase \"VariableController\" la cual invita a la función registrarVariable presentar el formulario. El usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y hace clic en el botón \"Register\", este evento ejecuta la función guardar de la clase \"View_Variable\", la función hace una llamada a la función registrarAction de la clase \"VariableController\" el cual trata de verificar que el nombre de la Variable sea único a través de la función getVariableByNombreVariable de la clase \"BD_Model_Variable\", si se cumple la condición se ejecuta la función registrar de la misma clase, posteriormente la clase \"View_Variable\" puede presentar un mensaje indicando que la operación tuvo éxito.  Descripción del diagrama de secuencia -Procesar:El usuario en el menú principal, hace clic en la opción \"MaxEnt\", este evento ejecuta la opción registrarProceso de la clase \"View_Proceso\", la función registrarProceso hace una llamada a la función registrarAction de la clase \"ProcesoController\" la cual invita a la función registrarProceso presentar el formulario. El usuario ingresa los datos solicitados y hace clic en el botón \"Run MaxEnt\", este evento ejecuta la función guardar de la clase \"View_Proceso\", la función hace una llamada a la función registrarAction de la clase \"ProcesoController\" el cual trata de verificar que el código del Proceso sea único a través de la función getProcesoById de la clase \"BD_Model_Proceso\", si se cumple la condición se ejecuta la función registrar de la misma clase y también se ejecuta la función registrarPuntos de la clase \"BD_Model_Puntos\", posteriormente la clase \"View_Proceso\" puede presentar un mensaje indicando que la operación tuvo éxito.Diagrama de Clases Descripción del diagrama de secuencia -Eliminar:El usuario en la lista de Recorridos, hace clic en la opción \"Remove\", este evento ejecuta la opción eliminarRecorrido de la clase \"View_Recorrido\", la función eliminarRecorrido hace una llamada a la función eliminarAction de la clase \"RecorridoController\" el cual invoca a la función getProcesoById de la clase \"BD_Model_Proceso\" a fin de   \"View_Usuario\" redirige la página a fin de visualizar el detalle del Usuario con la función redirect y presenta un mensaje de éxito a través de la función presentarMensaje.A continuación se lista todas las tablas de la base de datos:Tabla DescripciónAlmacena la información de los continentes.Almacena la información de los países.Almacena la información de los periodos de tiempo del sistema.Almacena la información de los escenarios de emisiones del sistema.Almacena la información de los modelos climáticos del sistema.Almacena la información de las resoluciones espaciales del sistema.Almacena la información de las variables climáticas del sistema.Almacena la información de los tipos de variables climáticas del sistema.Almacena la información de donde se encuentran los cortes geográficos de las variables requeridas por el modelo de predicción.Almacena la información del proceso cuando corre el modelo de predicción de ambientes.Almacena la información de coordenadas geográficas pertenecientes a los procesos.Almacena la información de los usuarios del sistema.Almacena la información de los tokens de recuperación de contraseña.Almacena la información de los perfiles del sistema.Almacena la relación entre los perfiles y permisos.Almacena la información de los permisos del sistema.  Los resultados obtenidos que genera la predicción respectiva se guarda en una carpeta llamada \"uploads\".  Evolus Pencil: Es una herramienta para hacer presentaciones, diseño de aplicaciones y de páginas web de una forma rápida y sin complicaciones.Se utilizó para la elaboración de los prototipos.Firebug: Herramienta utilizada frecuentemente en el desarrollo de aplicaciones y es una extensión de Firefox creada y diseñada especialmente para desarrolladores y programadores web. Es un paquete de utilidades con el que se puede analizar (revisar velocidad de carga, estructura DOM), editar, monitorizar y depurar el código fuente, CSS, HTML y Java Script de una página web de manera instantánea. Las Fases del Plan de Pruebas son:-Planificación de las Pruebas: Identificar los requisitos para las pruebas, desarrollar la estrategia de pruebas, identificar los recursos necesarios para realizar las pruebas y generar el Plan de Pruebas.-Diseño de las Pruebas: Desarrollo de las pruebas, identificar y describir los casos de prueba.-Implementación de las Pruebas: Establecer el entorno de prueba, desarrollar las clases de prueba, los componentes de prueba y los datos de prueba.-Ejecución de las Pruebas: Ejecutar los casos de prueba, evaluar la ejecución del proceso de prueba, verificar los resultados, investigar los resultados no esperados y registrar los defectos.-Evaluación de las Pruebas: Evaluar la cobertura de los casos de prueba, evaluar la cobertura del código, analizar los defectos, determinar si se han alcanzado los criterios de las pruebas y crear los informes de evaluación de las pruebas.A continuación se le presentan los casos de uso del sistema representado por paquetes, posteriormente cada módulo se presentará en cuadros con sus requerimientos de pruebas bien definidos para ser llevados a cabo con éxito: -Aceptación de paquetes: Revisión y aceptación de los software de desarrollo, y que estos cumplen con las condiciones de aceptación.-Aceptación de ambiente: Revisión y aceptación del ambiente de certificación, y que estos cumplan con las condiciones de aceptación.Base de Datos datacippotato -Errores Medios (comunes): Errores en presentación de datos, incumplimiento de objetivos en funciones secundarias, caídas de programas auxiliares, entre otros.-Errores Leves: Errores en presentación de datos secundarios, no adecuación a estándares, comportamientos correctos pero diferentes en situaciones similares, dificultades de operación, entre otros. Para el personal del CIP será una Aplicación Web amigable, ya que no se necesita un nivel alto de conocimientos en el área de la computación para poder utilizarlo, solamente que el usuario tenga un poco de experiencia en el uso de Internet y que tenga acceso a este servicio; puede asumirse que no existirán mayores dificultades a la hora de utilizar los servicios de la Aplicación Web.A continuación se presenta un estudio que dio como resultado la factibilidad económica del desarrollo del nuevo sistema de predicción de ambientes, se determinaron los recursos, costos y beneficios que se obtendrá de la adquisición de este aplicativo.Costos  Recursos humanos.El proyecto de investigación ha requerido cuatro recursos humanos con las siguientes características.Arquitecto  Recursos de hardware.-3 PC de escritorio con procesador Intel Core i5 (Programación de código, verificación de requerimientos y supervisión de proyecto).-1 PC de escritorio con procesador Intel Core i7 (Realización de cortes geográficos). Recursos de software.-RStudio Para levantar la aplicación en producción no se tendrán costos de dominio y hosting ya que la institución cuenta con ellos. Muebles e inmuebles y otros medios de comunicación.Uso de la oficina.El proyecto tiene una duración de 9 meses para la fase inicial. Este tiempo considera la concepción, diseño, implementación y puesta en marcha de la aplicación Web.La tabla de costos se muestra a continuación (Nuevos Soles).   De acuerdo al estudio costo/beneficio, en la tabla de flujo de fondos se observa que el tiempo de recuperación es de once meses con una tasa máxima de descuento del 10.24% para continuar siendo un proyecto rentable.La implementación del presente trabajo es totalmente factible desde el punto legal. Identificación de riesgos y sus consecuencias:La poca receptividad por parte de los usuarios del software.El proyecto no cumple con sus objetivos. La pérdida de interés de los usuarios a medida que utilizan el software.La no aportación de material valioso que contribuya con el proceso de predicción.La poca disponibilidad para enriquecer y mantener al día el contenido del software por parte del administrador del sistema. Abandono de la herramienta, provocando su expiración.El sistema no resulta fácil de usar ni de aprender.Abandono del uso del sistema.Dificultad para identificar los requerimientos.El cumplimiento de los objetivos del proyecto se retrasa.Aparición de problemas con las herramientas de desarrollo.Dificultad para comprender y aplicar los principios de sistemas de información geográfica necesarias. La no aportación de material valioso que contribuya con el proceso de predicción. El procedimiento de gestión de los cambios realizado en el Centro Internacional de la Papa, es para preservar el equilibrio entre los requerimientos y el cronograma/costo del proyecto.Aun cuando este proceso puede presentarse en cualquier etapa a lo largo de la realización del proyecto, es preciso mencionar que un cambio debiese ejecutarse como último recurso, indispensable para el éxito del proyecto.Para la implementación de un Cambio se presenta una solicitud formal y está conformado por las siguientes actividades:El solicitante inicia el requerimiento de cambio:Describe el propósito del cambio y su justificación, la solicitud también incluye el impacto de la acción en el proyecto si esta se realiza y el efecto de no llevarla a cabo (Ver Anexo 02).El responsable de proyecto revisa la solicitud y determina si esta procede o no. De continuar, la solicitud deberá someterse a una revisión por parte de la unidad de RIU para que realice un análisis del impacto. Si en la revisión se determina tratar la solicitud de cambio como un problema, deberá aplicarse el procedimiento establecido para la resolución de problemas.A continuación se expone una lista de los roles y responsabilidades que contempla el equipo de desarrollo del presente proyecto: Mi persona se involucró en todos los roles mostrados en el cuadro anterior. Al desarrollar el presente sistema es de importancia economizar el uso de la red, esto permite optimizar los recursos con los cuales se está trabajando. Se debe de dar libertad a los usuarios (mejoradores de papa e investigadores de otros tubérculos y raíces), para que así ellos decidan cuando es conveniente hacer interacciones con las herramientas del sistema. Es importante tener presente los principios del diseño web y el tiempo es fundamental, con lo cual es de suma importancia optimizar los tiempos de respuesta. Se tiene en cuenta los estándares para que el código propuesto en el presente sistema sea compatible en los últimos navegadores, solucionando los posibles fallos en navegadores antiguos, con detección de capacidades. Se toma en cuenta el uso de las imágenes en el presente sistema.Aunque son vistosas y ofrecen un atractivo al usuario, cuantas más imágenes, más pesado se vuelve el sitio web, y por tanto más tiempo tardará en mostrase. Las páginas deben mostrar textos cómodos: cortos, concisos, puntuales y originales. Seguir un procedimiento adecuado para el mantenimiento de la base de datos. Lo más importante que se tuvo que probar son los requisitos funcionales que definen el alcance del proyecto. En definitiva, esto es lo que conforma la parte del negocio que fijamos con los usuarios como entregable y tiene que satisfacer sus necesidades. La gestión de configuraciones y versiones es un apartado fundamental del alcance y la gestión de cambios. No se descuidó este apartado que nos pudo acarrear problemas a corto o mediano plazo. Siempre que corregíamos un error se volvió a testear todo. Ha sido fundamental asegurar que no se haya roto nada por el lado del sistema. Aunque parezca obvio, nunca se hizo pruebas en el entorno de producción. Se invirtió lo que hizo falta en un entorno de pre-producción sólido y lo más parecido posible. Es una inversión que salvará de muchos apuros y permitirá asegurar que no habrá diferencias entre las pruebas y cuando se suba definitivamente a producción. Fue importante involucrar a los usuarios claves que han participado en la definición de los requisitos de la aplicación. Mientras se realice pruebas puede obtenerse un importante feedback de usabilidad.1. En el presente trabajo, se concluyó que la información generada por el modelo de predicción MaxEnt resulta vital para la modelización de la distribución geográfica de un genotipo, pues permite orientar a los investigadores a encontrar un conjunto de ubicaciones de ocurrencia produciendo un rango de cultivos. Por lo tanto la identificación de una nueva localidad por medio de una herramienta informática en plataforma Web otorga al investigador una nueva experiencia permitiendo un proceso alternativo en la búsqueda de localidades con ambientes similares.En base a ello, el sistema desarrollado proporciona al CIP una herramienta valiosa para tener un conocimiento global del modelo de predicción, permitiendo al investigador realizar una mejor toma de decisión en la búsqueda de nuevas localidades mediante de la tecnología.Las tecnologías Web aportan a los investigadores grandes alternativas de canales de información para llevar a cabo diversos procesos en el área de la investigación. Es por ello que el proyecto presenta una solución Web con la tecnología mencionada en el punto anterior, logrando mejores resultados en la obtención de semilla de cada genotipo, la adaptación de las variedades de papa a nuevos escenarios climáticos y el interés de otras organizaciones de investigación.La solución Web que integra diversos lenguajes de programación, en base a un desarrollo de requerimientos, entrega una amplia gama de resultados de acuerdo a la búsqueda de ambientes similares por parte del investigador, el cual brindará mayores alternativas de información de la localidad con climas similares. Por consecuencia el investigador estará más informado y se concluye que a mayor información, se podrá realizar una mejor toma de decisiones.La implementación de la presente solución Web permite integrar la tecnología a los procesos tradicionales de predicción como la búsqueda avanzada de localidades, la utilización de herramientas de elevación de terrenos y realizar la predicción de ambientes, permitiendo nuevas alternativas al investigador. A partir de ello, el sistema propuesto podrá servir como base para nuevas soluciones de predicción a futuro, como es el caso del modelo de predicción forestal \"Random Forest\".El objetivo principal de este proyecto aplicado fue alcanzado, implementando una solución Web que da servicios múltiples a usuarios sin necesidad de instalaciones personales, solo con el uso de internet y un navegador Web. Esto permite que los usuarios puedan gozar de las más representativas funcionalidades que una solución de predicción de ambientes puede brindar.Ampliar la funcionalidad de obtención de reportes de resultados con información estadística mucha más detallada que permitan describir en forma visual la corrida del modelo de predicción y mantener la información de los países actualizada, para evitar inconvenientes con los procesos que se llevan a cabo.Se recomienda que el Hardware y Software sea actualizado continuamente para que los investigadores del CIP cuenten con una herramienta tecnológica que sirva de apoyo al proceso de predicción; por lo tanto se les debe de dar más apoyo técnico y capacitación continua en las diferentes áreas de influencia.Se ha detallado el proceso de desarrollo de software de la presente solución que posee la mayoría de las funcionalidades de las aplicaciones más reconocidas de tecnologías libres, pero esto no habría sido posible sin un correcto proceso de desarrollo, por lo tanto, se recomienda siempre llevar a cabo el proceso de desarrollo de software, desde el modelado del negocio hasta las pruebas a fin de garantizar un producto de calidad y que cumpla las expectativas de los investigadores del CIP.Es preciso mencionar que este sistema por ser relativamente nuevo en nuestro medio requiere de un mayor estudio del comportamiento y de manera complementaria incluir más modelos de predicción como Random Forest, sistema que se adapta a las necesidades de una mayor variedad de organizaciones relacionadas al CIP.Aeroponía: Es el proceso de cultivar plantas en un entorno aéreo o de niebla sin hacer uso de suelo.Alélo: Es cada una de las formas alternativas que puede tener un gen que se diferencian en su secuencia y que se puede manifestar en modificaciones concretas de la función de ese gen.Amazon EC2: Es un servicio web que proporciona capacidad informática con tamaño modificable en la nube. Está diseñado para facilitar a los desarrolladores recursos informáticos escalables basados en web.Aplicación Web: En la ingeniería de software se denomina aplicación web a aquellas herramientas que los usuarios pueden utilizar accediendo a un servidor web a través de Internet o de una intranet mediante un navegador.Bioclim: Las variables bioclimáticas se derivan de la temperatura mensual y de valores de precipitación, con el fin de generar las variables más significativas biológicamente.Biomart: Provee servicios de software y datos libres para la comunidad científica internacional a fin de fomentar la colaboración científica y facilitar el proceso de descubrimiento científico. El proyecto se adhiere a la filosofía de código abierto que promueve la colaboración y la reutilización de código.Elevación o altitud: Es la distancia vertical a un origen determinado, considerado como nivel cero, para el que se suele tomar el nivel medio del mar.Entropía: Mide la incertidumbre de una fuente de información. La entropía también se considerar como la cantidad de información promedio que contienen los símbolos usados. Los símbolos con menor probabilidad son los que aportan mayor información.Epigenética: Hace referencia, en un sentido amplio, al estudio de todos aquellos factores no genéticos que intervienen en la determinación de la ontogenia o desarrollo de un organismo.Estrés abiótico: Alteración en el metabolismo celular, inducido por factores abióticos (luz, temperatura, agua, etc.), con efecto sobre la fisiología y desarrollo de las plantas.Estrés biótico: Es la suma de reacciones biológicas a cualquier estímulo adverso, interno o externo que tiende a distorsionar la homeostasis. Si las reacciones compensatorias son inadecuadas o inapropiadas estas pueden derivar en desórdenes fisiológicos.Estrés hídrico: Cuando la demanda de agua es más importante que la cantidad disponible durante un periodo determinado o cuando su uso se ve restringido por su baja calidad.Exogamia: Define en el contexto de los sistemas de parentesco como una regla que rige para la elección del cónyuge y que prohíbe la relación matrimonial entre los miembros de un mismo grupo.Fenotipo: Conjunto de caracteres morfológicos, funcionales, bioquímicos, conductuales, etc., que presenta un ser vivo.Filogenia: Es la historia del desarrollo evolutivo de un grupo de organismos.Resolución satelital: Designa al objeto más pequeño que se puede distinguir en la imagen. Está determinada por el tamaño del píxel, medido en metros sobre el terreno, esto depende de la altura del sensor con respecto a la Tierra, el ángulo de visión, la velocidad de escaneado y las características ópticas del sensor.Es un conjunto integrado de programas para manipulación de datos, cálculo y gráficos. También es un lenguaje de programación bien desarrollado, simple y efectivo, que incluye condicionales, ciclos, funciones recursivas y posibilidad de entradas y salidas.Es un sistema global de navegación por satélite, que permite determinar en todo el mundo la posición de un objeto, una persona, un vehículo o una nave, con una precisión hasta de centímetros.Tizón tardío: Es una enfermedad que afecta al cultivo de papa, manifestándose inicialmente en forma de pequeñas manchas negras, que crecen con rapidez. Este hongo presenta una rápida dispersión, de manera que si no se controla a tiempo, las pérdidas pueden llegar a ser cuantiosas.El sistema de predicción de ambientes es una aplicación Web para calcular la distribución geográfica más probable para un sitio o localidad de un determinado cultivo. La metodología está basada en la generación de un modelo de predicción de ambientes calculado con el algoritmo \"MaxEnt\", seleccionado por ser eficaz y el más óptimo para el CIP cuando se estima la probabilidad de ocurrencia de la localidad o especie, buscando la distribución geográfica más uniforme, generándose nuevos mapas geográficos que ayudarán a la toma de decisión de los investigadores del Centro Internacional de la Papa en sus diferentes regiones de influencia. El sistema de predicción de ambientes es una aplicación Web para calcular la distribución geográfica más probable para un sitio o localidad de un determinado cultivo. La metodología está basada en la generación de un modelo de predicción de ambientes calculado con el algoritmo \"MaxEnt\", seleccionado por ser eficaz y el más óptimo para el CIP cuando se estima la probabilidad de ocurrencia de la localidad o especie, buscando la distribución geográfica más uniforme, generándose nuevos mapas geográficos que ayudarán a la toma de decisión de los investigadores del Centro Internacional de la Papa en sus diferentes regiones de influencia.Para el presente manual de usuario se llevara a cabo una serie de  Luego de seleccionar los puntos georeferenciales, se procede a seleccionar la resolución satelital y la ubicación donde se desea realizar la predicción para determinar la distribución más probable.","tokenCount":"16746"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce160516c4f62def004c90dbf2b44cdb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/38bf494d-6a8c-4919-b5fe-4eec3bca37ee/retrieve","id":"1873854876"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c97c8341-cc16-4d7f-9d6c-ea52100a8c65","pagecount":"7","content":"Women are comparatively more predisposed than men to invest in climate change adaptation solutions, even though they receive less income from agricultural activities and less investment from their farms. Compared to men, women have lower access to credit or loans to help them carry out their agricultural activities, but when they do, they are more likely to invest them in strategies that address the risks of climate change  The fact that women and men receive weather forecast information does not necessarily mean that they will use it. The reason for not using the climate information received has gender connotations. For example, in Olopa, the men tend to not use the information because they don't know what decision to change while women say they don't trust that information. In the Climate-Smart Villages of Olopa (Guatemala) and Santa Rita (Honduras), men report participating more in the implementation of the climate-smart agricultural practices (CSA) than women. In Olopa, most women report that they decide jointly with their spouses on the implementation of the CSA practices, while in Santa Rita women's participation in joint decision-making processes is lower. In general, both men and women perceive that the implementation of CSA practices provides higher agricultural productivity and income This Info Note summarizes the findings from the monitoring efforts of CSA practices conducted in 2018 in the Climate-Smart Villages of Guatemala and Honduras within the framework of the project \"Generating evidence on gender-sensitive climate-smart agriculture to inform policy in Central America\" led by the International Center of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), with the financial support of the International Development Research Center (IDRC).Climate change is posing serious threats to the production systems and rural livelihoods of smallholders in Central America and these effects are expected to worsen even more in the coming years (IPCC, 2014). Due to the different roles, responsibilities, social norms and rights of men and women, climate change will affect them differently (Alston and Berry, 2013). To overcome the threats and challenges that climate change poses to agriculture and food security in the region, adaptation and mitigation strategies will be required to make farming systems more resilient to the climate, and to ensure that both men and women can benefit from these strategies.Among these strategies, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) seeks to promote interventions that reduce the vulnerability of the agriculture sector to climate variability and change through: i) the sustainable and equitable increase of productivity, income and food security; ii) the improvement of the adaptive capacity and resilience of agricultural systems; and iii) the contribution to the reduction of its greenhouse gas emissions (FAO 2010).Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs) provide a space where the people in the community work together with researchers and local partners, in a participatory manner, to prioritize and evaluate the CSA options (agricultural practices and technologies, as well as climate information services) that are most appropriate for each context. To study the gender differences in the access, use and perception of these actions it is essential to adapt them to the differentiated needs of men and women in these areas.Developed by researchers of the CGIAR program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), the gender-sensitive Smart Household Monitoring system is a tool that allows the compilation of standardized datawith a gender dimension -in almost real time and at multiple scales. Through a series of indicators, it seeks to evaluate and monitor trends (e.g. access, motivations and limitations) in the adoption of CSA practices and technologies by men and women as well as the benefits perceived at the level of farm performance, household livelihoods, workload, degree of participation in decision making and access to generated resources (Bonilla-Findji et al., 2018).The objective of this Info Note is to present some of the most significant gender differences in the adoption of CSA options, as well as in the processes of adaptation to climate change in the CSVs of Olopa (Guatemala) and Santa Rita (Honduras). The study is based on the implementation of the CSA monitoring system carried out in April 2018 that covered a total of 279 farmers in Olopa (152 women and 122 men, belonging to 158 households), and 256 farmers in Santa Rita (127 women and 129 men, belonging to 149 households). The CSA practices that were monitored in the CSV of Olopa were: vegetable gardens with and without water harvesting, irrigation, and improved black bean varieties; while in the CSV of Santa Rita the practices were: vegetable gardens with and without water harvesting, solar grain dryers, and improved varieties of red beans.Both the CSV of Olopa and the CSV of Santa Rita are predominantly agricultural: 97% of men and 93% of women in Olopa, and 89% of men and 86% of women in Santa Rita declared agriculture as the main source of household income in the previous year. However, when asked who received the income from agricultural activities, important gender gaps were found (Figure 1). Compared with men, women of both CSVs reported having less frequency received income for their agricultural work. These differences were more pronounced in the CSV of Santa Rita.In terms of investment capacity, men of both CSV reported more frequently that they had invested the money in the farm (90% in Olopa and 80% in Santa Rita), compared to women (78% in Olopa and 28% in Santa Rita). However, the women who reported having invested in the farm declared more frequently that the investment was directed at recovering from or preventing the negative effects of climatic events (Figure 2). These results may indicate a greater tendency for women to invest in adapting their production systems to climate change and/or climate variability. The main climatic events that affected the agricultural activity of the farms of the CSV of Olopa were excess rainfall (64%), droughts (59%), hailstorms (35%) and storms (34%). In the case of Santa Rita, the main climatic events reported were excessive rainfall (74%), followed by storms (33%), strong winds (14%) and droughts (12%). These climatic events affected the production of the farms. For example, in the CSV of Olopa, 67% of households reported that the production or income generated on the farm had been affected by some climatic event, while in the CSV of Santa Rita this percentage was somewhat lower (56%).In general, the majority of households in Santa Rita (88%) and Olopa (76%) reported not having made any changes in the infrastructure of the farm, in the types of crops grown or in the agricultural management practices in response to these climatic events, while 16% and 6%, respectively, declared they had made changes in response to climatic events. In both CSVs, men reported more frequently than women having made changes in crop management practices due to climate impacts. In the CSV of Olopa, 10% of men and 15% of women also declared having made crop changes as a climate risk mitigation action, while in Santa Rita it was only an action followed by 17% of the men.Examining the percentage of women and men who reported having implemented specific changes in their activities due to climate impacts, the most important changes reported by women were changes in the infrastructure of the farm (Figure 3). These changes include changes related to small structures for agriculture or animal husbandry (e.g. fence construction, barn construction, the purchase of a water tank for irrigation, construction of a greenhouse for certain crops). The use of credit or loans for the development of agricultural activity revealed important gender differences.In the CSV of Olopa and Santa Rita, 32% and 38% of men respectively reported having used loans, in contrast to only 19% and 13% of women (Figure 4). Of the women who reported having obtained credit, only between 18% (Olopa) and 6% (Santa Rita) obtained it from a formal banking institution, compared to 33% and 16% of the men in Olopa and Santa Rita, respectively. The majority of women in Santa Rita obtained the loan from cooperatives and microcredits (59%) and from private lenders (24%), while the majority of women in Olopa obtained credit from family and friends (50%), cooperatives and microcredits (32%).Gender differences in the access to loans from banking institutions can limit women's ability to cope with climate change risks, or to make significant investments in their farms. This is important, especially considering that women have a greater preference (or need) to use the credit to help them cope with the impacts of climate change: 61% (Olopa) and 59% (Santa Rita) of women who resorted to credit did so to help them cope with the negative effects of climatic events (compared to only 28% and 44% of men in Olopa and Santa Rita). Regarding access to climate information, the majority of the farmers surveyed at the CSV of Olopa reported having received climate information services i.e. early warnings, rain forecasts for the next days and forecasts for the next months (70% of women and 64% of men).In contrast, in the CSV of Santa Rita, only one third of the population reported access and use of climate services (31% of women and 35% of men). In both CSVs, and for both men and women, the most common communication channel for accessing climate information was the radio, television or community speaker (94% and 92% of women and 84% and 88% of men in Olopa and Santa Rita respectively).Even though women received climate information as much or more frequently than men, the use of that climate information did not follow the same trend. For example, 54% and 20% of women in Olopa and Santa Rita respectively reported having received weather forecast information, but not being able to personally use it (in contrast to 42% and 11% of men in Olopa and Santa Rita respectively).In general, there is a lower use of climate information by women. When examining the reported reasons for the non-use of the daily forecasts (Table 1), it was found that 70% of the women of Olopa did not trust the information they received or felt it was not accurate enough to be able to take any decisions based on it. In Santa Rita, the two fundamental reasons for the non-use of climate information on rainfall forecasts by women were the lack of understanding of the information and the lack of knowledge about what decisions to make. In the case of men, the fundamental reason for not using the information in Santa Rita was the lack of understanding of the climate information received, while in the lack of knowledge about what decision to make. These results exemplify the importance of considering the specific needs of men and women, for each location and context, when designing climate information delivery services. In general, the level of implementation of CSA practices in the households is higher in the CSV of Olopa than in the CSV of Santa Rita. In both CSVs, the CSA practice with the highest level of implementation was vegetable gardens without water harvesting. The perceived level of participation in the implementation of CSA practices was much higher in men than in women in both CSVs. A higher percentage of men than women answered 'Yes' to the question: 'Were you the person in charge of doing most of the work related to the practice?'. This occurred for all CSA practices examined, except for the implementation of vegetable gardens without water harvesting (33% of men, 55% of women) and with water harvesting (58% of men, 59% of women) in Olopa (Guatemala).Analyzing the decision-making dynamics involved in the implementation of CSA practices, in Olopa both men and women largely reported having made the decision jointly with their partners (Table 3). In the case of irrigation, compared to other practices, relatively more women reported not having participated in the implementation decision.In the CSV of Santa Rita, there was a lower prevalence of joint decision-making processes, compared to Olopa. In addition, in Santa Rita there were also larger discrepancies between men and women with regard to their perceptions of decision-making processes. For all practices, the majority of men reported having made the decision to implement the practice individually, with the implementation of improved varieties of red beans and vegetable gardens with water harvesting being especially relevant, where all male respondents reported having made the decision without consulting his spouse. The majority of women reported not having participated in the decision to implement solar grain dryers and improved red bean varieties (71 and 67% respectively), while 17% of women individually decided to implement vegetable gardens without water harvesting.These differences in decision-making processes may be due, at least in part, to differences in roles between men and women. For example, the cultivation of improved red bean varieties might be a practice developed mostly by men in Santa Rita, and hence the lower involvement of women in decision-making processes.In general, there is a lower contribution of women in decision-making processes related to the implementation of CSA practices in the CSV of Santa Rita, compared to Olopa. Socio-cultural aspects may influence these differences between the two CSVs. For example, about 65% of the population of the CSV of Olopa is of the Ch'orti 'ethnic group, while the population in Santa Rita is predominantly not indigenous, which could influence gender dynamics and decision-making processes in these territories. In Olopa for each of the CSA practices, the majority of men (92%) and women (88%) perceived an increase in production derived from their implementation. In Santa Rita, the same percentage of women (47%) perceived an increase in production as a result of the implementation of vegetable gardens without water harvesting. In the CSV of Santa Rita, the majority of men perceived (52%) an increase in production associated with the implementation of the practices, except in the case of solar grain dryers.For all CSA practices, the women of Olopa perceived more frequently than men having obtained an additional income for the household derived from the implementation of the practice. In Santa Rita, this trend was also observed in the practice of vegetable gardens without water harvesting (Table 4). Both men and women from Olopa reported that the use of additional income derived from the implementation of the practices was mostly used in the purchase of food (73 and 83% respectively). In Santa Rita, the practice of vegetable gardens without water harvesting also followed the same trend (100% of men and 67% of women reported the use of additional income for the purchase of food). These results highlight the potential of CSA practices in improving the food security of rural households affected by the effects of climate change in Central America. This analysis has shown important gender differences that became visible during the initial implementation of the monitoring system in the CSVs of Honduras and Guatemala. The results show that women receive a lower personal income from agriculture and have less access to agricultural credit compared to men. However, women presented a greater willingness to invest this income, or credit, in solutions to adapt and mitigate the impacts of climate change and climate variability. It is essential to improve personal income and women's access to financial services in order to strengthen the climate resilience of agricultural territories and the livelihoods of rural communities in the region. Moreover, the gender differences found in the access to, and use of, climate information demonstrate the need to produce climate information that fits the capacities and needs of men and women in each territory.Regarding the CSA practices evaluated, the results show that men generally had a greater perception of participation in the implementation of the practices than women. The participation of women in the decision on the implementation of these CSA practices was greater in Olopa than in Santa Rita. The differences in the dynamics of decision-making processes for the adoption of CSA practices between the two CSVs highlight the importance of having an in-depth knowledge of the local and socio-cultural context of each territory. It is important to take into account the gender roles within each territory, in order to know the effects they may have on the decision-making processes between the couples associated with the implementation of specific CSA practices.In both CSVs, the majority of men and women, perceived an increase in the production and income derived from the implementation of CSA practices. The income derived from the implementation was mainly destined to the purchase of food. This highlights the potential of CSA practices to improve food security in rural households in Honduras and Guatemala is evident.Finally, it is important to emphasize that these two locations in Guatemala and Honduras may not represent the rest of the country or region, due to the influence of activities and programs associated with the approach to sustainable territories adapted to climate (CSV), and therefore, a greater exposure of men and women to climate information and CSA practices.As part of the project \"Generating evidence on gender-sensitive climate-smart agriculture to inform policy in Central America Gustavo Adolfo Bejarano (G.Bejarano@cgiar.org) is a statistical data analyst at CIAT.José Gabriel Suchini (suchinijg@gmail.com) is an agricultural engineer and MSc. with agroecology concentration.With the financial support of:","tokenCount":"2828"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9322054539.json b/data/part_1/9322054539.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7a06e46929d1b3d8787f1d9eb072cca4e3ca6686
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ed5c4901bc644eda6545b660cf6a903","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c758b8b8-b060-498b-a223-f97127c2fd08/retrieve","id":"1281690272"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a2b907e-c3d7-4d71-aa3f-bf1455d26d43","pagecount":"4","content":"Without sufficient food and care the first two years of life, children will struggle with mental and physical development. They may not grow in weight and height to their potential and they may struggle with intellectual achievement in school. In some cases, these deficiencies cannot be overcome in later years. Thus, the amount of food children eat, the number of times per day children eat, and the texture of food children eat will impact how they grow.A bowl with lines and symbols that cue age appropriate meal frequency and volume for children at different ages 1 : 6-9 mos., 9-12 mos., 12-23 mos.A slotted spoon to guide optimal thickness/texture of infant foods and complementary foods. If the food does not drip through the holes in the spoon, it is thick enough to ensure sufficient energy and nutrient density.A pictorial counseling card that uses locally adapted images to explain how to use the toolkit to achieve optimal dietary diversity, infant and young child feeding practices, and safe handwashing and food/water preparation.Use clean water to prepare food Clean bowl and spoon after each useInfants ONLY need breastmilk for the first six months of life. It is their food, water, and medicine. Babies tummies aren't fully developed until 6 months. An infant under six months who is given other foods / drinks gets sick more often, and does not achieve optimal physical and mental development compared to those infants who are given only breastmilk.If a baby urinates several times a day and defecates every day, then s/he is likely getting enough breastmilk, even if the baby is crying a lot. Breastfeed frequently during the day and at night at least 6-8 times every 24 hours. Mothers should eat two extra meals per day while they are breastfeeding. This extra food gives mothers strength and energy.Infants can get the benefits of milk, porridge, water, and/or traditional medicine from their mother's breastmilk. Instead of giving these to the baby directly, give it to the mother and the baby will benefit. Infants are ready for food and liquids other than breastmilk when they are able to sit up and move their heads on their own.To help children > 6 months learn how to eat, feed them food before switching to breastfeeding. That way they will be most hungry when food is given to them and will be more likely to practice eating, chewing and swallowing.Begin with 2 tablespoons and gradually increase to the level of 6-9 months as indicated on the toolkit bowl.As a child ages and their stomach grows, they should be fed more often and more food at each meal. Food provides the fuel for children to grow, learn and play. Without it, they will not be as active, healthy or smart as they could be. Different types/groups of food help children's bodies in different ways.For example, foods from animals -like meat, milk and eggs -build up muscles and help their bodies grow strong and fight illness. Fruits and vegetables provide essential vitamins and help build immunity to protect against illness. It is important for children to eat foods from these different groups as often as possible to gain all the possible benefits.Serve the baby food up to the level of 9-12 months indicated in the toolkit bowl.When children are just starting to learn to eat (at 6 months) they may not be able to eat a lot of food. Parents should encourage children to eat more food and gradually increase the amount fed to them at each meal until they are able to eat up to their mark on the toolkit bowl.3-4 meals with breastfeeding and 1-2 nutritious snacks per day. Boiled orange-fleshed sweetpotatoes are a safe, tasty and healthy snack for children.Ensure that children eat from at least 4 of the 6 food groups.Mashed or finely chopped food that can be picked up by the child.Foods that can stay on the toolkit spoon are thick enough for children.Older infants may try to feed themselves -encourage them to do so! Children may be messy and take a long time to eat. That is normal and a part of learning to feed themselves.Serve the baby food up to the level of >12 months indicated in the toolkit bowl.Never force children to eat. If the child does not finish the food, families should cover the food and store it for up to one hour in case the child gets hungry later. It should be eaten or discarded after one hour.Feed the child a variety of locally available family foods from 4 or more of the 6 food groups.Children in this age group should eat 5 times a day (3 meals and 2 snacks). Continue to breastfeed.Finely chopped small, soft pieces of food which can be picked, chewed and swallowed comfortably by the child.Mashed foods and porridges can also be given.Foods that can stay on the toolkit spoon are thick enough for children.CIP thanks all donors and organizations that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders","tokenCount":"836"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9330291477.json b/data/part_1/9330291477.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..303e2b0e7ad2b3e5a8e5d623c4c7a94b1bdd3dfc
--- /dev/null
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b7d16a035bb979352c650d95a35c66dc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d0703a62-05af-4caf-a833-fa3797c6b6a0/retrieve","id":"874352234"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a9751d05-c787-458d-b891-bad8e9d20a07","pagecount":"19","content":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is Ihe mas! important crop in Ihe hill farming system in Nepal. It plays an important role in the livelíhood of the people living in lbe Mis. The hilIy area of the Palpa, Gulmi, and Arghakhanchi districts eXlending lowards Pyuthan and further weSI has a unique geophysical environmenl, which is different from other maize-growing areas in Nepal. Farroers in Ihis area not only have poor aecess lo agricultural inputs, including improved genetic materials, bUI the improved varieties tested so far do not exactly match Ihe unique growing condilions .nd the needs of farmers in the area. Therefore, Ihe major proportion of maize in the Palpa, Gulmí, and Arghakhanchi districts is domínated by local variolies. Several f.cton; are responsible for low productívity and for other associated problems of maíz. production in Ihe area. lnitia!ly researchers perceived low yields assocíated with inferior local vanetíes as lhe main constrainl in maize produclion for lbe area. Based on pasl expenence and success in upgrading the productivity of local landraces through lbe introductíon of high-yielding varieties and subsequenl seed selechon, a breedíng program was formulaled in order lO address Ihe problem. The inít.al objective of the program was to increase fanners' access to new, improved genetic materials and provide them with trainíng on mass seleelion. However, a dífferenl seenario emerged during lhe site-selecrian survey and lhe process of settiog research goals. Farroers reported lhal maíze productíon in lhe area was aff.cled maínly by lodging problerns, Farmers in Ihe area have deveJoped and maínlaíned a variety called Thulo pínyalo Ihal produces good yields and a1so meets theirfodder requiremenls. However, the variety is prone lO severe lodgíng, resulting in yield losses of 15% lo 85%. Farrners lherefore strongly suggesled tha! ralher lban introducing new varieties, their local varieties be improved 10 address Ihe problem. In Ihis way, Ihe breeding program changed trom increasing grain yield to reducing lodging in Ihe target envíronrnenl. Thís paper discusses how farmers set their own breedíng goals and Ihe implícalions for methodological approaches ro participatory plan! breeding.Note: The more eornmon landraces are marked with solid círcles and labeled with names. Tthe less cornrnon landraces are marked witb grey circles and are Phake Dhan, Gunta, Pahenle, Rakse, Maísare, Takmare, Galaiya, Tarkaya and Anga. Figure 5 Change in area and household adopters from 1996 to 1999 for M-3 and M-9 in seven villages (see table 1)As an example, the changes in adoption of rice cultivars from 1996-1999 were analyzed for the seven villages shown in figure 3. The decrease in area was statistically significant for eight oflhe 10 most common landraces, i,e., Chhomrong Dhan, K.hate, Kalopatle, and Sinjali (p < .001), Raksalí and Rakse (p < ,O 1), and Darmali and Maisare (p :::; .05). In al! cases, this decrease was largely accounted for by a compensating íncreasc in M-3 and M-9. Ofthese six landraces, four ofthem had becn mentioned by farmers for possible replacement in the 1998 survey.Most sígnificantly, tbree ofthe eight landraces where the number of adoptíng households declined were those that were grown by the most households. Hence, it was mainly Ihe most common landraces Ihat had fewer adopters in 1999 than in 1996, and the less common landraces were the most buffered against change, AH of Ihe five landraces with only a single household in 1996 were also grown by a single household in 1999 (figure 6). :._-lt-........• _.Household numberNote; Cultivars with significant changes in area have been indicated by asterisks (*.* = p .$ .001; ** = P S .01; *' \"' \" P ｾ ＠ .05).Nonsignificant changes are indicated with 'n,' elose 10 the 1996 ori¡¡in of!he lineo Tho significance of changes in adopting households was not tested.Figure 6. Change in area and household adopten from 1996 to 1999 for higb altitude rice landraces alter ¡be introduction of M-3 and M-9 in seven villages (see table 1)Varietal change is a common and continuous process in most subsíslence farming where farrners allocate different proportions oftheir land lo a cultivar from one season to anolher. Landraces !hat most c10sely match Ihe new varieties, but have a lower yield or other undesirable traits, are replaced first. The landraces wilh Ihe greatest reduction in area and adopting households were Chhornrong Dhan, Kalhe, and Kalopatle. The niches ofthese varieties closely match Ihose ofM-3 and M-9.By 1999, six years after Ihe commencement of the PPB program, Ihe products of PPB occupied about 11% of Ihe total rice area and about 14% of Ihe surveyed households. There is a continuing trend ofincreasíng adoption ofM-3 and M-9 in both area and household number. In Ihe past, in spite of concerted efforts by government extension agencies lo promote modem rice varieties, Iheir adoption was very poor. For example, only 100/.,-11 % of farming households were growing improved rice cultivars in a survey of 1688 households in 11 districts of eastem and westem Nepal nearly three decades after the intervention of improved varieties (Chemjong e! al. 1995;LARC 1995). Targeting specific niches that were not addressed by conventional breeding programs is one ofthe objectives ofPPB. The increasing acceptance ofPPB products in the study villages provides evidence for its success.To conserve landraces, maintaining diversity at the community leve! should be sufficient. Although there was an oyeran 105s in landrace richness in the sample, it was no! severe and M-3 and M-9 added to the diversity. Landraces found to be mos! al risk can be utilized in particípatory plant breeding programs so tha! their useful genes are incorporated in more productive genotypes and hence conserved. In terms ofutility and food security, diversity at the household level may be more important, and the addition of either or both M-3 and M-9 to the varietal portfolios of about 14% of the farmers would contribute to this diversity.An important finding was tha! the adoption of landraces was highly dynamic, wi!h losses and gains at the village level and cornmon changes in areas. Ex situ conservation is simply a \"snapshot\" of a situation in the year in whích the coHechon was marle. PPB, in producing varieties that farmers Iike, contributes to the dynamism. It accelerates cbange by introducing genes and genotypes but may not fundarnentally cbange the age-old process ofvarietal adoption. Indeed, as argued by Witcomhe et al. (1996), PPB in ils collaborative form in farmers' fields is a dynamic form of in situ genetic conservation.Maize (Zea mays L.) is the second most importan! crop after rice in Nepal. It is grown largely on ban land (rainfed upland cornmonly associated with farm forestry) during summer and usually rotated with millet or beans. Maize is also grown as the sole crop at lower altitudes (below 1000 m) and at higher altitudes (above 1600 m). It is also grown in khet land (bunded land where at least one crop of puddled rice is cultivated) at altitudes below 1000 m during the spring season. Maize cultivation occupies nearly 0.8 million hectares (almost 30% of the total cultivated area), and 80% of this is under terraced hill fanning, producing over 1.3 millíon tones/annum (MoA 1995).The productivíty ofmaize is quite low (about 1.7 tonneslhectare), which is reflected by a high incidence offood-deficit households in the hills ofNepal. A number of factors appear to be involved in M, Subedi is a prograrnme officer (plant breeder), P.K. Shrestha is a programme officer (socioeconomist), S. Sunwar is an asst, plant the low productivity ofmaize in the middle hílls ofNepal. These ínclude raínfed farming with uncertain rainfall, poor access to chemical fertilizers and declining application of organic manure, and lack ofvarietal options and access to improved genetic malerials suitable lo local conditions.ln areas where improved maize varieties have been introduced, farmers tend lo grow the same seed for a number of years without replacing it or without practicing standard seed-selection procedures. As a result, these varieties generally deteriorate rapidly due to genetic contamination with poorer heterogeneous landraces aml/or due lo unconscious selection for negative traits, as farmers generally use either grain for seed or seleet harvested cob for the seed. Practice ofselecting standing plants for the seed is rarely seen among the farmers.From the point ofview ofvarietal improvement, the problem ofmaize production in the hilly areas ofNepal is therefore threefold. First, farmers' access to new, improved germplasm is highly limited; second, the recommended varieties do no! mee! the multiple varielal needs of local farmers; and third, varietal deterioration occurs over time in the farmers' fields. To address these problems, Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LI-BlRO) is currently researching a farmer-Ied participatory plant-breeding (PPB) exercise in maize in the Gulmi district ofthe westem hills ofNepal.The maize-growing envirornnent of Gulmi has a unique geophysical envirornnent and represents the large hi1ly areas of the Palpa, GuImi, and Arghakhanchi districts extending towards Pyuthan and further west. The maize is grown in outward sloped terraces of bari land under raínfed conditions, with minimal external inputs (seeds, fertilizers, and plant-protection measures). Farmers in the area have poor access lO agricultural inpuIs, including improved genetic materials (Kadayat et al. 1998;Sthapit el al. 1997). Moreover, access 10 new sources of maize germplasm-thal closely matches farmer-preferred traits-in the traditional seed-supply system is limited. A survey ofpreferred trails carried out in 16 villages in the Gulmi district revealed that grain and fodder yield, aato (grit) recovery, taste in various cuisines, graín color, resistance to lodging, and time ofmaturity are the most cornmonly cited preferred traíts (Subedi and Shrestha, Unpublished; Kadayat et al. 1998). As a result, the major proportion of the maize area in the Palpa, Gulmi, and Arghakhanchi districts is planted to local varieties. The local varieties are the products of continuous seed selection carried out by farmers, consciously or unconsciously, over many generations and are well adapted to the local envirornnents and meet furmers' multiple needs. However, these varieties have a number of undesirable traits that require urgent attention in order lo ensure food security in the regíon.LI-BIRO carried out a study to analyze the situation in the Gulmi and Arghakhanchi districts lo develop a future strategy for agriculture. Maíze was the most important crop; however, average productivity was reported to be low: below 1.5 tfha in both districts (Kadayat et al. 1998;Sthapit et al. 1997). This may be partly due lO a low supply of inputs in these districts, as the improved seed sold by Ale during 1996/97 was 1.22 mt in Gulmi and 0.91 mI in Arghakhanchi (Kadayat et al. 1998;   Sthapit et al. 1997). Researchers concluded that the low maíze 'yields were due to poor access to new, improved genetic materials and deterioration offarmers' maintained variety because ofpoor seed-management practices (figure 1). In such a situation, providing farmers with improved maize varieties and seed-selection skills appeared to be a practical and sustainable solution. As a resuIl, helping farmers improve local maize varieties for yield-related traits became the goal of the programo An extensive reconnaissance survey was conducted in large areas of the Palpa, Gulmí, and Arghakhanchi distrícts during the process of selecting research sites for the project A rapid survey of28 villages was done, and farmers were consulted to verify the research problems in maize production and determine lhe suítability of these villages for implementation ofthe research programo Potential sites were screened and narrowed down to síx villages. Particípatory rural appraisal (PRA) and field observations were done by a multidisciplinary team in lhese villages. Discussions were held in the farming cornmunities during the site-selection process in order to colleet information about lhe geophysical condition ofthe area, socioeconomíc situation ofthe farming cornmunities, and farmers' interest ín ｾ ＠ lhe proposed programo Problems were discussed with farmers in greater length during lhe survey. Preferred-trait analysis was done during the PRA to verify the researchable problems. Major traits of interest and problems associated with the preferred traits were identified in the process.Varietal performance for the trait of interest was díscussed wilh farmers duríng lhe site-selectíon survey in order to understand farmers' needs and varíetal strengths and weaknesses in relation to a particular trait. Thís exercise was important in order to develop a breeding program based on needs and problems. In this process, ínformatíon on lhe desirable and undesirable characteristics ofbolh local and reeornmended ímproved varietíes was colleeted.Farmers were found to grow a number ofvarietíes (viz. Thulo pinyalo, Thulo seto, Sano pinyalo, Sano seto, Amrikane, Kaude, Rato dhanthe, Thorgeli pinyalo) to suit their growing environment and to meet theír household needs. Thulo pinyalo is the mosl popular variety ofthe region and occupies as rnuch as 80% ofthe maize area in sorne villages. Farmers liked rnost ofits traits. This variety has good taste in all recipes, good grain and fodder yield, the biomass (both green and dried) is very rnuch líked by the livestock, and it is easy to sel! and barter because it has bold, fiint grain with an attractive grain color. However, farmers had lodging problems with this variety, leading to as much as 85% production 1055 in the worst season (table 1). Lodging problerns are equally high in other local varieties (viz. Thulo seto and Amrikane); however, the arca under these varieties is very low. It was reported that the low production of Thulo pinyalo has more significant implications for the food security ofthe region than any other variety. So, the lodging in Thulo pinyalo was considered a major problem.Resistance to lodging frorn thick stalks and strong, stout plants has been perceived by the farmers of the surveyed villages as the rnost desired characteristic in a recommended improved variety (table 2). The least desired characteristics were a relatively low grain and fodder yield compared to that of large local varieties, followed by inferior taste. Low fodder yields have been found to be associated with the low height of improved maize varieties, compared to local varieties. Farmers of Banjha reported lhat al! fue improved varieties under cultivation in the village were introduced nearly six years before, and now there is no difference between local and ímproved, due to heavy and récurren! cross-fertilization with local varieties.F armers of the surveyed villages reported that high-yield potential and resistant to lodging were the most preferred traits for maíze, followed by good taste and high stover yield (table 3). Farmers perceived that graín yield is closely associated wíth the extent of lodging; they felt that these two parameters are highly interrelated and essentially synonymous. Farmers ofDarbar-Devisthan reported that lodging problems are due to tall plant height, and therefore, they perceived relatively shorter plant height as one of the mos! preferred traits to be considered in the maize improvement programo Revisiting farmers 10 discuss maize-production problems in the targeted area and to verify research hypotheses with farmers revealed that causal relationships in poor maize performance were no! properly established. Earlíer, a new research hypothesis surfaced, which explained Ihat the poor       performance of maize in the area is not due to yield traits but to lodging tendencies, and this, in turno leads to poor production (figure 2).In light ofthe new research hypothesis that emerged during the site-selection survey, a one-day village workshop was organized with the farmers at each research site selected for the implementatíon of the program. Farmers at the research siles opined that the local variety Thulo pinyalo has good yield and meets their requirements. They strongly suggested improvíng Thulo pinyalo for lodging resístance rather than just introducing new varieties. The underlying causes of lodging in Thulo • The very tall plant stature ofthis variety is the main reason for lodging. Farmers reported it having as high as 27 ¡eaves in one plant. In field observations, the plant height of Thulo pinyalo was found to be as high as 5.1 meters. Ear height has been found lo be more than two meters under good growth conditions. The weight of the tassel and eob al such a height contributes to the extensive lodging of the thin-stalked Thulo pinyalo, even under mild wind pressure.• Thulo pinyalo artains luxurious grov.ih in fertile land, which is one ofthe reasons for lodging.• Disease and insects attack the stem.• The lodging is greater after prolonged rainfall foIlowed by winds. Aceording lo farmers, they faee substantíal yield reductíons even with mild winds, as very weak plants lodge under such conditions and fall on other, nonlodging plants. This phenomenon oecurs in cycles and can affeet large areas.• The plants are more prone lO lodging during the lasselíng stage because of Ihe increased weighl al the top of the plant.• Yield is inversely related lo lodging. Yield los ses due to lodgíng in this variety are as high as 85% in the worst season. Thulo pinyalo produces more grain than high-yielding varieties (HYV s) in a normal season and less if there is a Jot of rain and wind.• Lodging is greater in wet areas al lower e1evations than in flat areas at the lop of the hills.• Lodging does not QCcur every year. However, there is no distinct partero. High winds during tasseling contribute to severity of the problem.Several possible options were discussed with the farmers lO achieve the goal. The options that could be implemented within Ihe project framework and which farmers considered possible lo imple-ment, considering their resources (time), knowlcdge, and skills, were chosen by the farmers' group. There were mainly three types of activities: a mass-selection program, a crossing program, and a participatory variety selection (PVS) programoThe involvement of farmers in analysis of researchable problems helped change the researchers' perceptions ofthe problem (table 4) and redefine the goal oflhe maize-improvement programo The redefinirion ofthe breeding goals ofthe maize-improvement program provided guidelines for refining the research process !hat had been proposed initially. A multiple approach (mass selection, crossing, screening of improved/pipeline varieties, and PVS) was taken to address the problems, some of which had not been considered before, F armers liked the mass-selection technique because they perceived it as a simple method and as a possible option to improve specific traits, keeping the desirable traits ofthe variety intact. The crossing program was chosen in consideration ofthe slow genetíc gain in fue mass-selection method, partícularly in farmers' fields, Considering the long gestation period ofthe variety-improvement program, which may delay the delivery ofbenefits to the farmers, the variety-selection program was planned. This would provide farmers with access to new, improved genetic materials to test in ruverse farming situations,A farmers' research committee was formed at each site in order lo empower farmers and to ensure farmers' leadership in the project. It was decided that the committee would be equally responsible for the planning, implementation, and mO!litoring ofproject activities. The committee works as an interface between farmers and researchers. It is expected that involving farmers in the planning and  implementatíon process will help in capacity building and increase ¡he farmers' sense of ownership in the programo Farmers are very supportive and cooperative in the project area. However, in some technical matters farmers' had different perceptions and altitudes, which changed along with the time. For exampie, farmers perceived that plants with short height could not produce good yields, that detasseling leads to total sterility in maíze, etc. In the beginning, Ihis made it difficult for researchers to facilitate some oflhe field activities, such as crossíng, demonstrating short-statured varietíes, etc. Later, the farmers found thal their perceptions were not correct, and their faith in the researchers increased, leading to better understanding, cooperation, and collaboratíon. Some farmers who were no! positive about the program in the begirming are the strongest members ofthe team now.Involvement offarmers in the plarming process resulted in the development of more specific breeding objectives, which were more focused on the farmers' perceíved needs. It has helped to refine the context and process of the participatory plant-breedíng program and has gíven farmers a leading role in the decision-makíng process. In eastem India, rainfed rice represents a major component in thediet and income,of.millions of resource-poor people. In these harsh environments, the rate of adoption of modem rice varieties is Iow. Subsístence agriculture ís stilI quite important, although market integration is slowly progressing (Pingali 1997). In these transition systems, grain quality and taste strongly ínfluence the adoplion of modem vaneties. The maín source of vanation in grain qualíty ís the vanety, although envíronment and genotype-x-environment interactíons also affect grain quality. Different grain types, and therefore dífferent vaneties, are needed for self-consumptíon, market sale, and vanous preparatiollS or to pay wages in kínd. For plain rice, precooking practíces influence the vanetal choíces. Among the most common is parboíling, which is an age-old practíce in sorne regions of eastem India, where rice ís partly cooked before being air-dried and then sun-dried to improve íts nutritíonal, cookíng, and storage attributes, Preferences may vary across income levels, various social groups requiring vanous vaneties.Qualíty tests for breeding lines are routinely conducted by scientists in the laboratory. Eva/tia/ion o{ Uplalld Rice Varieties-\"w\"'it!!.\".!-F:-\"'arcem\"'e;e:rs'--_______________ _ sensory evaluation of a set of upland rice varieties was organized in a village of eastem India. The objectives of this study were (l) lo document the process of rice preparation at the farm level for raw and parboiled rice, (2) to estimate the influence of the two modes of preparation on rice quality and identify the best varÍeties in each case, (3) to colleet informa1Íon about quality characteristics that determine varÍetal acceptability by female and male farmers, and (4) 10 relate the preferences with the physico-chemical properties of the varieties determined in laboratory.Fifieen modem upland rice varieties and a local check (Brown Gora, widely grown by upland farmers) were tested. The test was conducted in 1998 in the village ofthe Korahar dÍstrict ofHazaribagh, Bihar, India. These varieties had been prevÍously tested for their agronomic values in a participatory varietal tria! conducted in the same víllage (Courtois et al., submitted).Rawrice F or each variety, two kilos of sun-dried paddy of good quality were used. The paddy was dehulled and mílled using a dhenld, a big wooden bar moving up and down around an axis. The dhenld was operated by two women, one of them moving Ihe dhenld wÍIh her leg, the other shuffiíng the paddy grain afier every stroke of the dhenki. Al! Ihe varieties were dehulled and milled by Ihe same two persons under the same condítions. The times necessary for completion of dehulling and milling, and Ihe milling recovery (percentage of milled rice weight on rough rice weight) were recorded.The head rice recovery (unbroken grains) was not quantified but estimated visually (milled rice appearance ).Before cooking, one kilo of c1eaned rice was washed with water. Aluminum vessels called bhude/i were used to cook each variety separately. All bhude/i were ofthe same capacity. The women sug• gested using 3 liters of water to cook I kg of raw rice. The bhude/i wilh water was kept on the fire up to Ihe boiling point, when the washed rice was added. The cooking test was done by pressing the cooked rice between Ihumb and index finger. The same woman did the eooking test for all varie1Íes.The cooking time of each variety was recorded. The excess water was drained and Ihe cooked rice was displayed on a pattal (leaf mat) for sensory evaluation.As decided by the women, 2.5 kg of paddy were soaked in 3 liters of water in a tin container for 18 houis. A common belief is that the soaking of paddy should be done in the evening rather than during daytime, wilh the excess water drained in the moming, to avoid Ihe heat oflhe day. A temperature Ihat is too high would induce Ihe soaked paddy to ferment, leading to poor rice quality, high breakage, and bad odor (Bhattacharya 1985). The soaking ofpaddy in water startedat 4:00 p.m. and the water was drained al 10:00 am the next day. Afier decanting Ihe water, the soaked paddy was steamed on Ihe fire. During Ihe steamÍng process, the tin containing the soaked paddy was covered with a gunny bag to avoid loss ofheat. When Ihe husks of the paddy started cracking, Ihe container was taken off the fire. The steamed paddy was spread in the shade on a mud floor for drying. The paddy was dried in the shade for 48 hours wilh intermittent mixing. It was then exposed lo Ihe sun for complete drying. An indigenous technique was used to test the proper drying ofpaddy. Twenty lo 30 grains ofpaddy were dropped on a hard floor. The graíns were crushed underfoot by rotating Ihe heet If this removed Ihe grain husk, Ihe rice was considered to be well dried and ready for dehulling. For dehullíng and milling, 2 kg of c1eaned paddy were used and the same process as for raw rice was followed.More water is needed to cook parboiled rice than lo cook raw rice. The women suggested adding 7 liters ofwater to cook 1 kg ofparboiled rice. For the subsequent operations, the same process was followed as for raw rice.A protoco! for lhe practica! organization ofthe sensory evaluation was desígned following the recommendations of Arnerine, Pangborn, andRoessler (1965) andDel Mundo (1991) and adapting them to the realities of an eastern lndian village.Twenty-four farmers (12 women and 12 men) particípated in Ihe sensory evaluation, A hedonic scale was used. The farmers were asked lo indicate whetherthey líked (score 1) ordisliked(score O) the varieties for mílled grain appearance, cooked rice appearance, odor, color, texture (softlhard), stickiness, laste, and overall acceptability. The samples were numbered and randomized to límit the \"first-sample bias.\" The raw rice and parboiled rice were evaluated on different days to limil the teslers' fatigue.The tests were perforrned at the technology laboratory Gf the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, India, for raw rice and in N.D. University of Agriculture and Technology, Masodha, Faizabad, India, for parboiled rice, The parameters measured for raw rice were milling recovery, head rice recovery, grain length and width, alkali value, volurne-expansion ratio, kernel-elongation ratio, and amylase content. For parboiled rice, hulJing and milling recovery and grain shape were measured.Forrank comparison, Spearrnan's coefficient of correlatíon was used when only two rankings were compared. A Kendall coefficient of concordance was used, as described in Siegel (1956), when more than two rankers were involved. The mean comparisons were perforrned using a Student's t-test.No difference between the two modes ofpreparation was observed for mílling time (table 1). Raw rice took significantly less time to cook as compared to parboiled rice. Milling recoverywas significantly higher for parboíled rice in comparison to raw rice. There was no significant difference between farmers' practices and laboratory method for raw rice but recovery was higher with farrners' practices for parboiled rice. The lower coefficients of variation in the case of parboiled rice índicated a buffering effect ofparboiling across varieties for recovery, which explains why parboiling is considered an excellent means to recover poor-qualíty samples.The method of rice preparation had a great impact on the ranking ofthe rice varieties for aH traits, as shown by the nonsignificant and sometimes negative rank correlations between the two seis of Note: ** = signifieant at (be 1% leve1; ns ｾ ＠ flot significant seores (table 2). The preferred varieties in tenns of aeceptabilíty were RRI51-3, RR352-1, and RR354-1 for raw rice, and RR50-5, RR352-1, and RR354-1 for parboiled rice. For breeding purposes, it was interesting to identifY varieties that could perfonn well under both preparations. RR352-1 and RR354-1 scored quite well in this respect.The farmers were also asked to indicate the fOUT varieties they liked the mosl (high seore indiealed high preferenee) and the fOUT varieties they liked the least (this time high seores indicated high dislíke). By this means, only one variety, RR354-1 recorded a good seore for both raw and parboiled rice (table 3), being liked by 67% ofthe farmers as parboiled rice and 58% ofthe fanners as raw rice. RR151-3 and RR352-1 were apprecíated by the farmers as raw rice but not as parboíled rice.Inversely, RR2-6, RR I 66-645 , and RR265-1 were líked by the farmers as parboíled rice but not as raw rice.For raw riee as well as parboiled rice, the rank correlatíons among characteristícs scored by funners were very strong and posítive (table 4) except for stickiness, for which they were also positive but more seldom significant. This means that there is probably no need ID ask the fanners to seore aH these traits. The aeceptability or the choice of the three or four most preferred varieties should be enough to represent the group of traits. A simplification of the testing procedure an important in order to facilítate the integratíon of partícípatory approaches ín the fonual breeding system and tD sustaín fanners' participatíon.    Opinions of women and men fanners were similar, with significant to highly significant correlations between their rankings for milled rice appearance, cooked rice appearance, texture, color, and taste (table 5). The on1y traite for which their agreement was weaker was stickiness ami, to lower extent, odor. In terrns of overall acceptability, there was no difference in women and men farmers' opinions on the tested varieties nor in their final choices of the varieties they liked most and leasl.The ranks given by farmers for the various quality traits were compared with the ranks ofthe same varieties for the main chemical properties of raw rice measured in the laboratory: alkali value, volume expansion, amylase content, and eIongation ratio. Elongation ability was negatively correlated with stickiness r -0.55, significant at the 5% leve!) but that was the only significant case. In the samples tested, amylase conten! did not seem to have any link to farmers preferences for texture r = -0.14) or stiekiness r = 0.04).It is unexpected to see so few relationships between consumer preferences and measurable chemical properties, since these are standard parameters used by all chemistry laboratories. However, for the varieties inc1uded in the evaluation, the variability for sorne traits was limited and therefore consumers had difficulty assessing differences.There was little relationship between farmers' field ranking and grain quality for parboiled rice, as shown by the very low coefficients of correlation for rank and a negative one for the ranking based on yieJd (tabIe 6). The relationship was stronger and positive for raw rice. Thete was no particular reason why the rankings should be correlated, but a strong negative correlation would complicate the breeding work. These results confirm tha! participatory varietal selection should not stop afier harvest. Sinee a compromise might be necessary, at least for parboiled rice, the trade-offbetween eritena for agronomic performance and cooking quality applied by farmers has to be assessed. Grain quality is an important selection criterion (Juliano and Villareal 1993), Sensory evaluation with farmers allows us to assess varietal preferences under conditions of food preparabon very close to that of the final consUmer. F or the set of varieties tested, men and women seemed to share the same opinions. The physico-chemical analysis <lid not indicate much power to predict the results of farmers' rankings, The methodology was satisfactory although quite costly in tenns of organizabon time. It is importan! to define whích of the two modes of preparation (raw rice or parboiling) is mos! prevalent in the target area, since they lead to different varietal cholees. A slmplification of the ranking system by reducing the number of ranked traits is possible,","tokenCount":"5164"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"92c3b2b43f2dea62ba6f3b4722de30cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/99d21f34-6710-464a-b8b5-bb63ef04ee0e/retrieve","id":"-1367131042"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a02871a5-a4ea-48d5-8889-3dfe3d4211d5","pagecount":"40","content":"We are the co-founders of the Center and have been involved from the start. It began with a single research partnership project between Swiss institutions and HSPH. With the support and commitment of HSPH, our partners, colleagues, mentors, supervisors, students, and donors, we have been able to institute diverse projects and generate research and training portfolios with a special focus on environmental health and food safety in Vietnam and in the Southeast Asian region. While the research group is still in its early stage, the following report documents our achievements thus far for our partners who have helped us pursue common goals.We would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to HSPH leaders, colleagues, and students; to communities in Vietnam; and to regional and international partners for their support and collaboration.We Having been appointed as the director of the CENPHER in July 2014, I see lots of potential positive developments of the unit in the future. This model, with no doubt, will be one of the contributions to the success of the Hanoi School of Public Health in the future.Vietnamese universities are generally perceived to be teaching oriented-institutions. Research is not always prioritized and is often given limited resources. This leads to modest visibility in the international sphere, especially in regards to international publications, funding, and social impact compared to the research of national research institutes worldwide. Research centers at universities have been to strengthen research at the university level. Many research centers are established to implement specific projects that are usually supported by international funding. As a result, the sustainability of these centers beyond the lifespan of the funded research projects is questionable as they cannot function without funding. Moreover, postdocs have the potential to start new research groups, often bringing new fields of study to their institutions and the research centers. The intermixing of disciplines is an essential ingredient for integrated research. However, the concept of a research group nuclei comprised of postdocs appears to be rather new to Asian academic institutions, which largely operate with limited resources.  Director of Swiss Tropical and Public Health (Swiss TPH).The creation and the development of CENPHER reflects not only a result of North -South partnership in research and public health action, but also how one can jointly tackle the great issues in national public health and global health. Effective health development is most effective when shared and compared across cultures and health and social and ecological systems. It is this process of mutual learning for change that will reveal the key determinants that will lead to new evidence and innovative solutions to improve health and well-being. SwissTPH is happy to be a partner of CENPHER and will continue to support its development.   CENPHER Strategic Plan (2012-2020) Our mission: To study the impact of environmental, ecological, cultural, socio-economic and demographic factors on health and well-being, using the integrative approaches of Ecohealth and One Health in Southeast Asia and similarly in Africa. Integrative health research (IHR): Ecohealth and One HealthWe aim to understand how human health is determined by the inter-linkages between human, animal and environmental health in a socio-ecological context, using the Ecosystem approach to health (Ecohealth).The context we consider covers environmental pollution, agricultural intensification, urbanization, and environmental sanitation. The primary health issues we focus on are neglected tropical diseases, zoonoses, and chronic diseases.Our past research has focused on water, sanitation and health issues in developing countries. We have developed a conceptual framework for integrated health and environmental assessments, combining health status with physical, socioeconomic, and cultural environments to improve health and minimize the environmental impact of environmental sanitation (Figure below). The assessments provide the basis for the understanding of the key issues important for the improvement of health and the environment in a given area or setting. We applied this framework as a case study in Hanam Province to assess the health and environmental impact of human and animal excreta and of waste water reuse in agriculture. Three components of the framework were implemented, namely environmental, health, and socioeconomic assessments, leading to the identification of critical control points.Conceptual framework of the combination of Health and Environmental risk assessment for Health and Environmental Sanitation Planning (Nguyen-Viet et al. 2009) The results revealed that the agricultural system was a significant source of nutrients (N and P) due to the overuse of chemical fertilizers, which affect the surrounding environment. 48% of the farmers were infected with at least one of the three helminth species in the rainy season and 46% in the dry season. Other protozoal intestinal infections were also diagnosed. The estimated annual risks of diarrhoea values were at least 3-fold greater than the upper threshold risk of 10 3 per person per year; and the annual burden of diarrhoeal disease was significantly higher than the health target of 10 6 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) (≤ 1 DALY/million persons) recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). The social assessment showed that people recognized the black colour and smell of wastewater, the smell of excreta, inappropriate practices of excreta management, and the suspected diseases associated with contact with excreta and wastewater as threats and that 63% of the households studied were willing to pay for the construction of flush toilets (US$ 800). No statistically significant difference in the willingnessto-pay by socioeconomic status was observed. Further studies were conducted on the factors influencing the die-off of human fecal pathogens, the nutrient values of excreta, and on assessing the pathways, frequency, and intensity of human exposure to excreta due to handling it throughout the process of storage or composting, and use in agriculture.In light of this assessment, we conducted a field intervention that examined how the combination of human and animal excreta composting influences helminth egg die-off in excreta, while maintaining its nutrient value. The intervention aimed to improve the current storage practices of human excreta and to identify the best option for the safe use of excreta in agriculture. Results showed that the variation of the helminth concentrations of the different sampling dates was influenced by the composting options and the composting time.The average number of helminth eggs was less than 1 egg per gram in all of the composting options after 84 days . This parasite egg reduction meets the WHO standard (≤1egg/L or 1g total solid) for the safe use of wastewater, excreta, and greywater in agriculture and aquaculture. This implies a significant reduction in the estimated annual risk of infections. Therefore, the combined human and animal waste management strategy shows the benefit of financial savings and helps to reduce environmental and health risks.The model is currently being promoted in Hanam province. This research was conducted with NCCR North-South and funded by SDC.Study of the NCCR program in Hoang Tay commune show that local people view black water and bad smell of waster water as threats to their health.Head of the health station of the Hoang Tay commune, Kim Bang district, Hanam province.Hoang Tay commune is a poor province with lots of issues related to health and environment. In 2009, the researchers from CENPHER carried out research activities on the use of human excreta in the area with new models of excreta treatment, which benefitted the local households' health and economy. In 2012 they continued the research on human and animal waste management with a new approach. We (the locals) have opportunities to be involved in the research and address our concerns; especially through the stakeholder. I think this model of collaboration between universities and communities should be widely promoted in the future.Tackling the issue of health and agricultural intensification via Ecohealth approach, the research \"Using the Ecohealth Approach for Better Human and Animal Waste Management in Hanam Province, Vietnam\" aims to i) study the impacts of human and animal waste management on health, the environment, and on socio-economics; ii) develop and implement practical and innovative solutions for better livestock and human waste management to improve the health and well-being of people and the environment; and iii) disseminate research outputs to related ministries, local and national institutions, NGOs, communities, and wider audiences through publications and presentations. The research is conducted within the framework of the regional Ecohealth We have involved many stakeholders (preventive medicine staff at all levels, veterinary experts, livestock and agriculture experts, and farmers) in identifying the health and environmental issues of Hanam. The issues identified are: i) household waste management (organic and inorganic waste), ii) hormone and antibiotic residues from human and livestock, iii) misuse of plant protection chemicals and pesticides, iv) management of animal waste and solid waste, v) water quality (arsenic contamination), iv) livestock diseases and weak veterinary services, v) knowledge and behavior of the population in regard to various environmental and health issues. The survey showed that the process of agricultural intensification of farming households has changed for the period analyzed from 2008-2013. Pig production is still a major activity at the sites studied, accounting for 47% of the households. Most of the pig production remains small or medium scale with the pig populations varying from 36 to 56 pigs per farm. Animal feed is normally bought from industrial feed markets. The most important problems faced by the farmers are risks from the market and from production (diseases, water contamination), and financial and personal risks (the health of producers). Pig production was ranked as having the second largest impact on farmer's health after rice cultivation.Small-scale pig production is the majority activity in Hoang Tay, Le Initiative that involves formal partnerships with four countries: China PDR, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia. Its young and dynamic professional staff consistently present innovative ideas, strong leadership skills, and ability to coordinate regional actors. These working principles prove CENPHER's ability to continue growing as a Centre of excellence in applying integrated approaches to research, in particular the Ecosystem Approach to Human Health (Ecohealth), to promote sustainable solutions for improving human health. IDRC is pleased to have the opportunity to work with CENPHER and highlights its positive regional outreach and networking potential for research and knowledge transfer across Asia and globally.Leptospirosis is a zoonosis found worldwide; it causes major problems for human and animal health due to the complexity of its transmission pathway and the difficulties to diagnose it. This research aimed to estimate the seroprevalence of human leptospirosis and the risk factors associated with agricultural occupation in Thanh Hoa Province, Viet Nam in 2013. The research used the Leptospira immunoglobulin G enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (IgG ELISA) method to diagnoseLeptospirosis. An epidemiological survey was conducted in eight clusters, representing 300 randomly selected people 18-60 years of age. The findings demonstrate the high level of circulation of leptospires (49% positive with Leptospira) and the potential importance of leptospiral infections among the rural population in the area. They also identify groups of people and professions at high risk that should be prioritized for risk mitigation measures based on an integrated approach, such as One Health.Rabies is an important zoonosis in Vietnam, killing approximately 50 -100 people per year. Thus, rabies has become a re-emerging public health issue in Vietnam, particularly in high prevalence areas like the Thai Nguyen province. Currently, there is no standardized curriculum for training medical or veterinary students on rabies prevention and control. Therefore, we brought research and teaching professionals from the MOH, the MARD and Institutes and Universities to Thai Nguyen province to discuss developing a rabies curriculum for medical and veterinary students, as well as creating a health education program for local human and animal health professionals. The purpose of the study was to understand the rabies situation in Thai Nguyen and Tuyen Quang provinces and propose an integrated rabies curriculum for medical and veterinary students at Thai Nguyen universities.Further, the study aimed to develop a case study on Rabies for use in One Health educational activities.Vaccination for dogs and cats is one of the effective ways to tackle rabbies (Photo taken by Thai Nguyen University)Our main food safety issues relate to microbial contamination and toxins, pesticide use, antibiotic resistance, and growth promoters. The risk-based approach to food safety management is still not-well known and is rarely applied in the developing world. We generated evidence of how risk assessments can be used for specific cases of food safety management and how they are important to assist policy makers in the use of this approach for food safety management.In a 2013 study of Salmonella contamination in four pig slaughterhouses in Hung Yen, samples were taken from pig carcasses, workers' hands, cutting boards, and belly skin material. The prevalence of Salmonella on pig carcasses was found to be 35% and the most common contamination point was workers' hands. This very high Salmonella prevalence likely presents real risks to human health. The study suggests that interventions emphasising good hygienic practices, especially hand washing, would reduce contamination risks.In Hanoi we examined how people's household cooking and eating habits exposed them to Salmonella. Evidence of Salmonella contamination was found in 25% of the pork samples at markets where people shopped, and people's food preparation methods risked spreading the bacteria to other foods in their households. Given the difficulty of changing the food-handling practices of millions of people, the best interventions are likely those that control Salmonella in the value chain before it reaches consumers.The five year (2012-2017) project \"Reducing human disease risks and improving food safety in smallholder pig value chains in Vietnam\" (PigRisk), funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) through the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), and implemented by CENPHER and its partners, aims at assessing the impact of pork-borne diseases on human health and the livestock sector to identify critical points/opportunities for risk management, and develop and test incentive-based innovations to improve the management of human and animal health risks in smallholder pig value chains.Program Leader Food Safety and Zoonoses Flagship Leader Agriculture Associated diseases A4NH International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya.From our perspective of international agriculture research for development, it is very exciting to see the emergence and evolution of national centres that can work at the interface of human health and agriculture. CENPHER has been a key partner for ILRI and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health in Vietnam. The explicitly integrative approach to human health and the strong grounding in ecohealth, one health and risk assessment make CENPHER an ideal health partner for us.Assistant Country Manager, ACIAR Vietnam at Australian Embassy, Hanoi.Some of the early risk and economic assessment achievements of PigRisk were a series of literature reviews on foodborne hazards, pig zoonoses and pig diseases that showed biological hazards as the most serious cause of human diseases (salmonellosis, coliosis, staphylococcosis). Antibiotic residues and heavy metals are common in pork. Streptococcus suis is an important emerging disease, representing 40% of acute adult bacterial meningitis in cities. Several potentially important hazards have never been assessed. Most of the pig health burden is due to a small number of diseases (especially FMD and PPRS). An in-depth study of the pork value chain actors was conducted in Hung Yen and Nghe An Provinces (n=1,025). The results are being analysed, but pigs continue to be important source of income and diet, although disease, feed costs and the lack of value addition remain serious constraints.The results of the first round of biological sampling showed that: 36% of the farm samples, 38% of the slaughter house samples and 40% of the pork sold were positive for Salmonella. A slaughterhouse study identified risk factors for S. suis exposure and measures needed to reduce these (especially bed/suspended carcass dressing, en bloc removal of viscera, protective clothing for workers, and biosecurity).In Vietnam, the national Law of Food Safety (in effect since July 2011) mandates the application of risk assessments to high-risk food products intended both for domestic consumption and for export. In May 2013, the government of Vietnam announced its support for the development of a rapid food safety detection system. The MARD issued a circular on how to use risk assessments in food safety management. However, there is a lack of local capacity concerning the practical application of risk assessments. The situation is especially urgent in Vietnam's informal markets, where most domestically produced food is bought and sold; risk assessments are rarely applied in these settings. One important way by which risk assessment capacity is being strengthened in Vietnam is through a Risk Assessment Task Force. It brings together representatives from the MOH and MARD of Vietnam and researchers involved in risk assessments and food safety from key universities and research institutes (20 experts). The Task Force is developing guidelines for the use of risk assessments on behalf of food safety management in informal markets that cater to local consumers. These guidelines will be used to train a wide range of decision-makers, including high-level policymakers. A technical course and case studies of food safety in informal markets are being used to increase risk assessment capacity among implementers. This is followed up by mentoring and on-the-job support. The support of international and regional research institutes is already in place for such activities, in particular, for conducting specific cases studies to apply risk assessment for food safety management. The latter are to: i) assess the health risks of vegetables and fish grown/caught in wastewater; ii) assess the health risks related to chemical hazards (antibiotic residues) in pork; and iii) interact with stakeholders, disseminate research results, and advocate for the use of risk assessments as a tool in food safety management.Group discussion at the first meeting of the Taskforce for Risk Assessment in Food Safety in Hanoi, September 2013Using participatory risk assessment to estimate health risks caused by fresh food from informal markets Fish sampling at a dioxin hotpot at Da Nang airport for risk assessment related to dioxin exposureHealth Risk and Health Impact Assessments (HRIAs)The risk-based approach to environmental health management is still not-well known in. We conducted research to generate evidence of how risk assessments can be used for specific cases of environmental related issues such as dioxin contamination in the environment and Arsenic contaminated drinking water. In addition, there is a clear need for Health Impact Assessments (HIA) in South East Asia where many large infrastructure development projects, i.e., dam construction, mining industries, and agricultural production are taking place and where HIA capacity is lacking. Therefore, through research and training with partners we will build capacity and expertise in HIA in the region.We applied the Australian Environmental Health Risk Assessment Framework to assess the risk of dioxin exposure through the foods of local residents living in dioxin hot spots, i.e., the seven wards surrounding the airbases in Bien Hoa and Da Nang cities. These wards served as bulk storage and supply facilities of Agent Orange and other herbicides during the Vietnam War and are currently considered as dioxin hot spots in Vietnam. Various stakeholders were involved in the risk assessment process and the related publications on dioxin characteristics, its toxicity, and its levels in local soil, mud, food, milk, and blood samples. A food frequency and knowledge-attitude-practice survey of 1000 randomly selected local households, together with food sampling and analysis for dioxin/furan concentrations, were undertaken to provide data for exposure assessment. Results showed that local residents who consumed local high risk foods, especially freshwater fish, snails, crabs, free range chicken meat and eggs, duck meat and eggs, beef and buffalo meat, pumpkin, and lotus caught/raised/ harvested inside or in the surroundings of the airbases were at very high risk. Their dioxin daily intake levels exceeded the recommended tolerable daily intake level recommended by WHO (1-4 pg/kg/day). Followed this risk assessment, a multi-approach risk reduction program was developed and implemented by the Vietnam Public Health Association and its provincial branches in Bien Hoa and Da Nang during 2007-2009and 2009-2011 to reduce the risks of dioxin exposure to local residents. Risk communication activities should be integrated into local routine health promotion programs in order to continue reducing the risks to the local residents from dioxin in the upcoming years.Vice Rector of Thanh Do University and Dean of School of Medicine.Despite its being young unit, the CENPHER has proved that this kind of research center with universities should be the one for future. With its excellent and dedicated team, especially those working in field of Ecohealth, One Health, risk assessment, food safety and health impact assessment, the CENPHER has been taking the role of the national and regional research center.The issue of health impact due to arsenic (As) contamination of drinking water is a great public health challenge. According to UNICEF, there are approximately 10-15 million people in Vietnam at risk of arsenic poisoning due to consuming tube-well water. We applied an environmental health risk assessment approach to analyze the arsenic contamination in tube-well water and to assess the health risks of people in the Chuyen Ngoai Commune, Duy Tien District, Hanam Province. A total of 150 households were included in the study; water and hair samples were taken and drinking water consumption characteristics were surveyed. Cancer risks were calculated, using the Cancer Slope Factor (CFS) for arsenic and the estimated daily dose. Results showed that arsenic concentration in tube-well water ranged from 8-579 ppb (mean 301 ppb) before filtration and that the sand filters currently used by the households did not meet the standard for As removal. The arsenic daily consumption of 40% of the adults exceeded the TDI level (Tolerable Daily Intake) of 1 ug/kg/day. The average skin cancer risk in adults due to consuming filtered tube-well water for drinking purposes was 25.3x10 -5 (using only well water) and 7.6 x 10 -5 (using both well and rain water). The skin cancer risk would be 11.5 times higher if the water was not filtered. Improving filtration measures or replacing the current drinking water sources is urgently needed to minimize the health risks to the local population.CENPHERs first experience in HIA was its participation in a collaborative project entitled: \"Resource Recovery Reuse (RRR)\" with Swiss TPH. Swiss TPH and CENPHER jointly conducted health risk and impact assessments (HRIAs) along the waste management and wastewater chains in Hanoi. The research consists of four parts: 1) a cross-sectional study with 1000 participants to assess the existing exposure risks due to wastewater in different exposure groups with a specific focus on parasitic infections, skin diseases, eye diseases, and diarrhoeal episodes. The survey comprises of two components: (i) a questionnaire study; and (ii) the collection of stool samples to determine the prevalence and the intensity of helminth and of intestinal protozoa infections; 2) a pathogen flow analysis to observe the variance of pathogen contamination at critical control points over two months. Over a two month period, we will analyze wastewater for microbial contamination from bacteria (total faecal coliform, E. Coli, Salmonella spp., including antibiotic resistance testing of the 10 most commonly used antibiotics in Vietnam), helminth eggs and physiochemical factors (pH, rainfall); 3) quantitative microbial risk (QMRA) assessment interlinked to pathogen flow analysis to estimate diarrhoeal and parasitic infection risks of exposure groups and validate the results with the findings obtained under objective 1. One of CENPHER's principles is to translate research outputs (evidence) into practice and into publications that would inform policy. Therefore, the Centre actively builds bridges for knowledge exchange between researchers, practitioners, and policy makers in many shapes and forms.The research team has worked to convey their first results to policy makers through a number of policy briefs and outcome highlights on issues that need to be tackled in the short-term.Issues derived from the risks and benefits of using doublevault composting latrines to risk assessments of food safety in Vietnam have been produced, targeting at officials of the MOH and MARD.The Task Force program aims at developing guidelines for the use of risk assessments on behalf of food safety management in informal markets that cater to local consumers. These guidelines will be used to train a wide range of decision-makers, including high-level policymakers. At the request of Department of Animal Health/MARD, the CENPHER team ran two workshops on Risk Assessment for Food Safety for more than 120 veterinary staff in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in 2013. This is the model that CENPHER uses to inform policy based on our areas of expertise, i.e., environmental sanitation and waste reuse.Lastly, apart from influencing policy makers, we have worked with farmers to implement a field intervention that will examine how the combination of human and animal excreta composting influences helminth egg dieoff in excreta, while maintaining its nutrient value. This intervention aims to improve the current storage practices of human excreta and to identify the best options for the safe use of excreta in agriculture. Name Abbr.Deputy Director General of the International Cooperation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), Vietnam.CENPHER is an outstanding research model that needs to be multiplied in Vietnam. During 5 years of operation, CENPHER has provided a significant contribution to a wide range of areas including food safety, water, sanitation, etc., and especially One Health. We from the Partnership Secretariat for Avian and Human Influenza always consider CENPHER as one of our strategic partners to support the Vietnamese Government to promote One Health approach in Vietnam. ","tokenCount":"4180"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bd4b21fd42962b428c7f97a6d4e3ca34","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/72d0db7f-0d8c-4ef6-8151-ff8e620baa81/retrieve","id":"1332344714"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fae14f1d-5161-4d96-a3db-582a58bf3188","pagecount":"2","content":"and Uganda. Currently, the program is comprised of 9 innovation and policy project consortia involving 57 institutions drawn from the 6 countries and outside the region.The application of bio-resource innovations to support sustainable growth and transformation of the agricultural and environmental sub sectors from primary production to value addition, while enhancing adaptability to climatic change and strengthening innovation policy. The 9 project consortia are comprised of a range of value chain actors critical to span the process from science to production and markets. e) To strengthen and operationalize an enabling mechanism for mobilization, catalysis and nurturing of a strong bio-resource and science-led economic growth agenda for Eastern Africa.The Bio-Innovate program is hosted and managed by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). The day-to-day management is provided by the program management office (PMO), led by the Bio-Innovate program manager. The PMO is advised by an independent technical advisory committee (TAC) that provides technical oversight on program activities, peer review expertise for the competitive grant scheme, and program monitoring and evaluation. The PMO is also supported by an independent expert panel providing scientific and technical review support for concept notes and full proposals. Technical input is also provided by the project consortia leaders responsible for their respective projects.To develop into a program of excellence that contributes to sustainable and integrated utilization of bio-resources for economic growth and development of Eastern Africa.Bio-resources Innovations Network for Eastern Africa DevelopmentPromoting biosciences and product oriented innovations in Eastern AfricaTo create and promote bio-resourcebased innovation systems for sustainable utilization and integration of the innovations into Eastern Africa's economic development processes.The program has been rolled out under four thematic areas and through nine regional, multi-disciplinary innovation and policy project consortia selected through the program's competitive grant scheme. These 9 projects were selected following two rounds of calls: first call focused on \"Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture and the Environment in Eastern Africa\" and is supporting five projects working to improve the productivity of sorghum, millet, cassava, sweet potato, potato and bean farmers; to help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change; to improve the processing of wastes in the production of sisal and coffee; and to better treat waste water generated in leather processing and slaughterhouse operations; Where We Are • Nine competitively selected project consortia proposals approved for full funding.• Signing of the sub-agreement and the consortium agreements between SIDA, ILRI and the implementing institutions undertaken.• Development of implementation manual on Standard Operating Procedures for Bio-Innovate program supported projects.• Disbursement of respective project funds to implementing institutions for the period January to December 2011.• Submission of consolidated technical and financial reports for 2011 on-going.• All the 9 project consortia are ona full implementation stage except to be completed in 2014.Bio-resources Innovations Network for Eastern Africa Development ","tokenCount":"459"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"50531ba72745cc1ad22ee3816a5ac3e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3145718e-6165-4149-ab8f-d30a9289bea1/retrieve","id":"-1240138349"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d581298b-4ce3-47cf-be20-956f4e2e40df","pagecount":"8","content":"Le changement climatique rend les prévisions météorologiques plus incertaines, et inondations et sécheresses sont plus fréquentes dans les pays à revenus faibles et intermédiaires. Cela cause pertes économiques importantes et chômage pour le secteur agricole et les paysans hésitent à investir. Les personnes qui dépendent de la petite agriculture, en particulier les femmes, les jeunes, les personnes handicapées ou les communautés indigènes, peinent à améliorer leurs conditions de vie, et on note une augmentation de la pauvreté et des conflits liés à l'accès aux ressources naturelles.Trois problèmes principaux empêchent les communautés de s'adapter au changement climatique. D'abord, les autorités n'ont pas assez de données sur la vulnérabilité de ces communautés vis-à-vis des chocs climatiques et manquent de systèmes de suivi et d'alerte sur les désastres imminents. Deuxièmement, la coordination et le partage d'information ne sont pas assez développés entre institutions concernées (services météorologiques, agriculture, gestion des désastres, finance) et il y a souvent un décalage entre le niveau local des impacts climatiques au sein des communautés et la fourniture d'aide par les institutions centrales. Enfin, sans données précises et un processus structuré de collaboration intersectorielle, les autorités ne peuvent développer des plans cohérents de gestion de crise et adoptent une approche réactive et non préventive, y compris sur le déblocage de financements sur le terrain.La plateforme AWARE aide les pays à surmonter ces problèmes et anticiper les crises climatiques imminentes pour protéger la population avant qu'un désastre ne frappe. La fonction \"Alerte Précoce\" permet aux autorités d'accéder à des indicateurs clés sur l'environnement, les marchés agricoles, des maladies importantes comme la malaria, la situation nutritionnelle et les mouvements de population. Ce tableau de bord leur permet de suivre et anticiper les impacts de chocs climatiques à venir. La fonctionnalité \"Action Précoce\" résume le plan d'action selon les scénarios spécifiques indiqués par les outils d'alerte précoce de la plateforme. Le mécanisme de \"Finance Précoce\" garantit que chaque institution impliquée ait accès aux financements nécessaires au début de la catastrophe climatique pour s'assurer, par exemple, que les évacuations se déroulent sans accroc, que la sécurité alimentaire soit maintenue et que les vies et les moyens de subsistance soient protégés.La plateforme a été développée dans le cadre de l'initiative CGIAR sur la Résilience Climatique (ClimBeR) pour transformer la capacité d'adaptation des systèmes foncier, eau et alimentaires. Cette recherche est guidée par la demande sur le terrain, avec la vision de renforcer les capacités des politiques à répondre aux besoins locaux, avec les outils à disposition, et promouvoir une \"Gouvernance de la Résilience\" (G4R) efficace à différents niveaux et échelles. Cette vision complémente les principaux objectifs de l'Initiative, à savoir réduire les risques pour les producteurs et les autres acteurs des filières agricoles, fournir aux décideurs politiques les évidences nécessaires pour des décisions efficaces et de comprendre et agir selon les risques sécuritaires qui découlent du changement climatique. La plateforme AWARE est développée dans les pays suivants: Guatémala, Kenya, Maroc, Nigéria, Philippines, Rwanda, Sénégal, Sri Lanka, et Zambie -des pays très exposés et vulnérables au changement climatique, avec une faible capacité de résilience.La plateforme AWARE vise les services gouvernementaux et agences publiques, les organisations humanitaires et les bailleurs. La première étape pour sa correcte utilisation est d'identifier les risques encourus par les communautés et de développer des plans d'atténuation de ces risques. Ce travail est fait en utilisant les outils fournis par le tableau de bord d'Action Précoce. A ce stade, les utilisateurs conduisent des évaluations de risques au sein des communautés concernées, des groupes de discussions thématiques et des entretiens de personnes clés, en utilisant les guides méthodologiques disponibles sur la plateforme.Ces données sont rentrées dans quatre sections distinctes: 'Catégorie', qui couvre les conditions de vie de la communauté et le capital physique qui peut être affecté par un désastre; 'Impact', qui concerne les impacts directs et indirects de différents risques climatiques sur la communauté; 'Actions préventives possibles', définies selon les impacts identifiés; et un Plan d'Action Préventif complet basé sur toutes les informations collectées. Ce plan souligne les actions à mener durant trois phases: 'Planification', six à neuf mois avant un danger climatique potentiel; 'Préparation', quand un risque est prévu pour la semaine suivante; et 'Actif', quand l'événement est imminent.Par exemple, une communauté rurale de 4000 personnes peut être identifiée comme largement dépendante de l'élevage pour leur survie, avec des routes et infrastructures en mauvais état, des sources d'eau facilement contaminées et un faible niveau de protection sociale des ménages. Dans le cas d'une inondation, les impacts directs anticipés incluent la mort et blessures corporelles, notamment pour les plus vulnérables, personnes âgées et à mobilité réduite, ainsi que la perte de cheptel animal, la destruction de maisons, des moyens de subsistance et une interruption de l'approvisionnement en eau potable. A cela s'ajoutent les impacts indirects comme une détérioration de l'assainissement, l'émergence de maladies liées à l'eau, touchant notamment les enfants qui se déscolarisent.Les actions préventives possibles en réponse à ces risques incluent la mise en place d'un système d'alerte pour les inondations, former un plan d'action des urgences et des équipes de secours, planifier des routes d'évacuation et des refuges pour la population et le bétail, et conduire des exercices de simulation. Au sein de ce Plan d'Action Préventif, les différentes mesures sont fléchées selon les phases de planification, préparation et active. Plus de détails sont requis sur qui fait quoi, et quand, pour chaque intervention spécifique: eau et assainissement, éducation, habitat et refuge, et la restauration des moyens de subsistance. Les mesures habitat peuvent inclure l'identification des maisons en zone inondable (deux mois avant), la fourniture de sacs de sable pour les familles exposées et savoir combien de refuges temporaires sont nécessaires (3 à 7 jours avant), et la mobilisation d'équipes locales de premier secours pour assister le personnel d'urgence professionnel déployé sur la zone (1 à 3 jours avant). Les Plans d'Actions Anticipatrices comprennent aussi les budgets requis pour couvrir le coût des interventions. Ces fonds peuvent être approuvés à l'avance avec les autorités responsables pour être débloqués rapidement dès que la phase \"Préparation\" ou \"Active\" est enclenchée.Traditionnellement, la plupart des pays du Sud établissent un système d'alerte précoce qui sert de fondation pour fournir des informations en temps opportun sur les risques liés à l'eau. AWARE va plus loin, en encourageant des mesures proactives pour réduire l'impact des désastres. Le tableau 1 ci-dessous compare les systèmes actuels d'alerte et souligne les avantages de la plateforme AWARE, dont l'originalité est de traduire les signaux d'alertes précoces en actions préventives concrètes pour atténuer l'impact d'un danger ou désastre climatique. Les actions précoces peuvent inclure des plans d'évacuation, la pré-allocation de ressources, la consolidation d'infrastructures, des accords de préfinancement entre acteurs humanitaires et l'évaluation de l'état de préparation des communautés. La plateforme AWARE rassemble un éventail large d'acteurs, agents gouvernementaux, gestionnaires des services d'urgence, organisations humanitaires et les communautés locales exposées.  Des groupes de discussion thématiques impliquant des hommes et des femmes de différents âges ont permis de développer un Plan d'Actions Anticipatrices dans le but d'atténuer les effets de ces catastrophes. Un exercice de simulation sur trois jours a permis de tester la faisabilité de ce plan. Le test commença avec un signal déclencheur de la phase de préparation, quand le CGC envoya une prévision de fortes pluies par SMS, et informa les communautés sur ce qu'ils devaient faire en cas d'inondation ou glissement de terrain. Les actions conseillées incluaient le nettoyage des canaux et savoir où se réfugier pendant les évacuations.Le deuxième jour, les communautés ont reçu un signal \"Etre Prêt\", où ils ont été avertis de se préparer à un danger imminent. Cette préparation comprenait l'utilisation de bons monétaires pour obtenir des rations de légumes secs auprès d'un magasin local. Cette mesure assurait que la population avait suffisamment à manger pendant la crise. Ils ont aussi nettoyé le canal en utilisant l'équipement préparé la veille. Cela impliquait d'élever des digues avec des sacs de sable pour réduire les effets des inondations.Le troisième jour, 145 familles localisées dans trois sites -Kotagala, Yulli Field Estate et Kuduoya -ont reçu le signal \"Actif\" de la part de leur personne focale désignée \"Alerte Précoce\" 459 personnes ont participé à cet exercice, comprenant 216 hommes, 243 femmes, 77 étudiants, 13 mères allaitantes et trois personnes handicapées. Chaque personne focale \"Alerte Précoce\" ont utilisé un mégaphone pour alerter leur communauté du risque imminent d'inondation et conseillé une évacuation des maisons pour aller vers les refuges, en emmenant leurs rations qu'ils avaient collectées la veille.Une fois dans les refuges, désignés à l'avance, les gens étaient recensés pour s'assurer que personne ne manquait. Les \"blessés\" ont été traités par la Croix Rouge et tous les évacués avaient accès à de l'eau potable, de la nourriture et des toilettes. Les femmes, enfants et hommes étaient séparés pour s'occuper de leurs besoins spécifiques, avec notamment un espace privé pour les mères allaitantes. En fournissant un espace dédié aux enfants, ceux-ci pouvaient continuer leur travail scolaire et faire de la musique ou du théâtre dans le but de les distraire pendant cette période éprouvante. D'autres membres de la communauté préparaient les repas pour les évacués en utilisant les rations apportées. Ana Maria Loboguerrero Rodriguez, Responsable de l'initiative, a.m.loboguerrero@cgiar.org Jonathan Hellin, Co-responsable de l'initiative, j.hellin@irri.org Issa Ouedraogo, Responsable ClimBeR Sénégal, i.ouedraogo@cgiar.org Giriraj Amarnath, Responsable AWARE et Gouvernance pour la Résilience, a.giriraj@cgiar.org CGIAR est un partenariat de recherche mondial visant à assurer un avenir de sécurité alimentaire. La science appliquée par CGIAR a pour but de faire évoluer les systèmes alimentaires, terrestres et aquatiques dans un contexte de crise climatique. Ses recherches sont menées par 13 centres/alliances de CGIAR travaillant en étroite collaboration avec des centaines de partenaires, dont des instituts de recherche nationaux et régionaux, des organismes de la société civile, des universités, des organisations de développement, et du secteur privé. ","tokenCount":"1630"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1033da46d93c7db330293ddc05e30aa8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/63b68824-5bae-4f39-b6e6-45c433a695a5/content","id":"1952702285"},"keywords":["durum wheat","landraces","Puccinia triticina","seedling resistance","adult plant race-specific resistance"],"sieverID":"803f2c94-cd2f-49cf-9212-6df62296e9e6","pagecount":"14","content":"A collection of 482 tetraploid wheat accessions from the CIMMYT Germplasm Bank was screened in the greenhouse for resistance to leaf rust disease caused by the fungus Puccinia triticina E. The accessions were screened against two races CBG/BP and BBG/BP in the field at two locations: against race CBG/BP at the Norman E. Borlaug Experimental Station (CENEB) located in the Yaqui Valley in the northern state of Sonora in Mexico during the 2014-2015 growing season; and against race BBG/BP at CIMMYT headquarters in El Batan, Texcoco, in the state of Mexico in the summer of 2015. Among the accessions, 79 durum genotypes were identified, of which 68 continued demonstrating their resistance in the field (past the seedling stage) against the two leaf rust races. An additional set of 41 genotypes was susceptible at the seedling stage, but adult plant race-specific resistance was identified in the field. The 79 seedling-resistant genotypes were tested against 15 different leaf rust races at the seedling stage to measure the usefulness of their resistance in a breeding program. Among the 79 accessions tested, 35 were resistant to all races used in the tests. Two sample sources, CIMMYT (18/35) pre-breeding germplasm and Ethiopian landraces (17/35), showed seedling resistance to all races tested except for seven landraces from Ethiopia, which became susceptible to the Cirno race identified in 2017.Spring durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var. durum) is grown on about 13 million hectares worldwide, half of which are found in developing countries. Most durum varieties under cultivation in developing countries are either derived from germplasm improvement programs at the International Maize and Wheat and Improvement Center (CIMMYT) or the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Durum wheat is host to two species of fungi that cause leaf rust: (1) Puccinia triticina E., which is the most common and widely distributed [1]; and (2) P. tritici-duri V.-Bourgin [2,3] geographically limited to Morocco [4] and Portugal [5], and most recently in South Spain [6]. Virulence studies conducted from rust pathogen collections made in Chile, Ethiopia, France, India, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Morocco, Spain, Turkey, and the United States [7][8][9][10][11][12][13] determined that P. triticina races virulent on durum wheat (T. turgidum) are different from those that are virulent on bread wheat (T. aestivum). The durum P. triticina races are avirulent to the majority of the known leaf rust host differentials, carrying resistance genes that are commonly present in bread wheat cultivars; therefore, their survival, selection, and spread are usually restricted to durum growing areas. During the last two decades, new durum leaf rust races with specific virulence have rendered many cultivars susceptible in several countries. In Mexico for example, during the 2001 growing cycle, race BBG/BN [9] defeated the resistance present in the Altar C84 cultivar, which has been grown since 1984. Resistance genes present in Altar C84 have recently been cataloged as Lr72 [14], which remain highly effective against all leaf rust races, commonly attacking bread wheat in Mexico and elsewhere, including races virulent to Lr14a identified in Mexico. The economic losses in Mexico to durum wheat producers because of epidemics from 2001 to 2003 caused by the Altar C84 virulent race BBG/BN were estimated to be over USD 32 million [9]. During 2008, two new durum leaf rust races were identified. Race BBG/BP and CBG/BP both overcome the resistance genes Lr27+31 present in cultivar Jupare and Banamichi, and CBG/BP with additional virulence for Lr3 defeated the genotype Storlom [15]. In 2017, one of the two races identified in 2008 (BBG/BP) evolved to defeat the resistance gene present in Camayo, which is one of the parents of the cultivar Cirno C2008 [16].Among the cataloged leaf rust resistance genes originating from durum or other tetraploid Triticum species, i.e., Lr10, Lr14a, Lr23, Lr33 [17], and Lr72 [14], only Lr14a remains effective in Mexico. However, virulence to Lr14a among durum leaf rust collections was reported [17] and confirmed by Goyeau et al. [18] in France. Genetic studies, virulence analysis, and molecular mapping have confirmed the presence of resistance genes Lr14a [19], Lr3 [20], Lr27+31 [15], and Lr16 [21]. These genes are known to be present in bread wheat cultivars. Two additional genes, Lr61 and LrCam, which are unique for durum wheat, were also identified [20][21][22][23] The effectiveness of Lr3, Lr27+31, and Lr61 was rapidly lost in Mexico due to the appearance of new virulent leaf rust races. Lr3 and Lr61 were not deployed in farmers' fields, indicating not only the genetic vulnerability of durum wheat to leaf rust in Mexico and other countries, but also the urgent need to search for new sources of resistance genes.Durum wheat landraces may take precedence as a good option over wheat wild species in the search for sources of resistance to leaf rust. One example is the resistance found in the Camayo cultivar derived from an Ethiopian landrace and released in Mexico as Cirno C2008 [23]. Cirno C2008 occupied nearly 85% of the durum wheat growing area in Mexico during 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 [24]. Cirno C2008 carries a race-specific major gene located in repulsion with Lr3 on chromosome 6B [20]. Therefore, a gene designation for this gene is pending. Another example is the identification of two durum wheat landraces (Aus26582 and Aus26579) collected from Portugal that were resistant to leaf rust [25]. From these two accessions, Lr79 was identified in Aus26582 [26].It is generally accepted that farmers may have repeatedly selected against extreme susceptibility generation after generation among wheat landraces, and there is no evidence to believe the contrary in the case of durum wheat landrace cultivation. Natural selection could also take place in leaf-rust-prone areas, where the rust affects the vigor and plumpness of host plant seed and hence its rate of reproduction. Therefore, it is likely that during this long, historical pathogen and plant population coexistence, natural selection has favored plant genotypes with an adequate level of resistance and those with race-specific resistance.In this paper, the resistance of 482 different durum wheat accessions from the CIMMYT Germplasm Bank was evaluated against leaf rust in greenhouse trials at the seedling stage and in field trials at the adult stage at two locations.Among the 482 accessions tested, at the seedling stage, 69 resistant durum wheat cultivars were identified, from which 68 retained their resistance in the field against the two leaf rust races BBG/BP and CBG/BP [27] at both locations (Table 1). Additional information regarding the accessions such as local name of the landrace or cross in the case of improved material is provided in the Supplementary Tables S1-S4.Among the 68 lines, only 35 were resistant to all 12 additional leaf rust races with which they were tested (Table 2). These races included the durum wheat that originated from BBG/BP, CBG/BP, and BBB/BN-61 [27].  Intrid a = CIMMYT Germplasm Bank accession number. b = Greenhouse infection type follows Roelfs et al. [28] # Race nomenclature follows Long and Kolmer [29] and Singh [30]     Two types of responses were identified in the field tests. One group comprised resistant genotypes whenever hypersensitivity was noticeable, independent of percent infection or final disease severity (Table 1). These were recorded as resistant (R) or moderately resistant (MR). Among the 299 seedling-susceptible lines, 41 showed race-specific adult plant resistance (Table 3), including 14 accessions that showed either winter or facultative growing habit (Table 4).    The second group was classified as susceptible, independent of the final disease severity. A condition for classifying lines into this group was a lack of hypersensitivity and compatible infection type or susceptible response (S).Among the durum cultivars evaluated, 258 accessions were seedling susceptible to both races and displayed different degrees of slow rusting type of resistance at the adult stage (data not shown), and 114 seedling resistance were considered as susceptible to both races (data not shown). Therefore, no agronomic value from the disease resistance point of view at this time was considered.The seedling-susceptible accessions that displayed compatible infection type at the adult stage are not reported in the present study as a different approach to describe them is needed. When grouping the seedling-resistant and seedling-susceptible adult plant-resistant accessions by their origin, they represented 24 countries, the CIMMYT prebreeding program, and other unknown or non-specified origins. Out of 110 entries, 69 were resistant from seedling to the adult stage (Table 1), and 41 were seedling susceptible, adult plant resistant with hypersensitive response (Tables 3 and 4).Between the two locations used for the adult plant testing, the conditions for rust development at El Batan are more favorable since the growing cycle coincides with the rainy season where more daily moisture is available, and days with prolonged dew formation favor successive reinfections by the fungus. However, in some entries, the level of the disease was higher at the CENEB location since some resistance genes are more effective at lower temperatures, such as Lr11, and Lr18 [28], whereas other genes, such as Lr13, could be more effective at higher temperatures [28].Seedling resistance to all races tested could be the most valuable resistance identified for the short term in a breeding program for countries where both durum and bread wheat are cultivated in the same areas. Several accessions identified as seedling resistant to both durum leaf rust races BBG/BP and CBG/BP were seedling susceptible to at least one race that prefers to attack bread wheat. These genotypes represent a valuable source of resistance against durum leaf rust races, but in this case, resistances identified must be used in combination with other effective sources against all races coming from bread wheat such as Lr72 present in Altar C84 and Atil C2001 cultivars.Recent studies have clearly demonstrated the potential of landraces to contribute diverse alleles for economic traits [32][33][34][35][36][37]. There are several examples of mining sources of resistance among the durum and tetraploid accessions in collections available in germplasm banks [6,[33][34][35][36][38][39][40][41][42][43]. Mining these sources of resistance at times are very specific: for leaf rust as an example [6,38,41], yellow rust [39,40,43], stem rust [40,41], or other diseases [37]. However, in only a few cases was resistance screening undertaken with the appropriate leaf rust races [25,38,44]. In fact, in the screening process, the most virulent or the most prevalent race was used to evaluate the resistance of durum genotypes, but usually an isolate or race that preferably attacks bread wheat and not durum [41]. A proposal to rethink the classification of rust races into weak and aggressive categories for hexaploid and tetraploid wheat was suggested [45]. In other words, no leaf rust race specific to durum wheat was used in screening due to the lack of knowledge of the existence of physiological specialization among the leaf rust populations from durum wheat [8]. The use of an inappropriate rust race might lead to classifying resistant genotypes that are indeed susceptible or postulating the wrong resistance gene in other situations [46]. However, if the aim is to search among the durum landraces for leaf rust resistance sources to use in the bread wheat, it is probably correct to test against P. triticina races coming from bread wheat isolates [47]. The P. triticina races used in these studies will determine the sources of resistance identified, keeping in mind that in some instances, most durum accessions could be resistant to races collected from bread wheat, but the same accessions could be susceptible to races collected from durum wheat [38]. In other instances, durum wheat and bread wheat are cultivated side by side such as in Mexico, Chile, Argentina, Ethiopia, and North Africa [1], and durum cultivars are required to possess both resistance to races coming from durum wheat and resistance to races coming from bread wheat. Given our objectives to identify sources of resistance to leaf rust to improve the levels and diversity of resistance in durum wheat, it is necessary to test using the race or races that are causing the loss of the resistance in the current durum cultivars. Aoum et al. [38] and Martínez-Moreno et al. [6] have reported similar results. Although most landraces have been reported as susceptible to leaf rust, resistant landraces have been identified that potentially may be used in durum wheat breeding programs [6,34].Among the seedling-resistant accessions identified in the present study, the majority are true landraces, and therefore, resistance could be considered as unique and different from what has been used in breeding programs already. In other instances, resistance can be traced back either to a bread wheat parent or to a close wild relative, particularly in genotypes from the CIMMYT pre-breeding program. For example, in the seedling resistance lines G5375 and G5369, the presence of RL6010 in the pedigree will allow us to postulate the presence of Lr9 [28]. The presence of Lr9 in these accessions was confirmed by inoculating them with a culture virulent to Lr9 and one avirulent to Lr9 (data not shown). Entry G5392 is a cross with RL6043/Nacozari, which could indicate the presence of Lr21 [28]. However, since this gene is in chromosome 1D, the resistance might come from Nacozari M76, a non-identified gene different from Lr10 [48]. In the line G3543, the resistance might come from the cultivar H567.71, which based on the infection type could be Lr16, a leaf rust resistance gene identified in Olesen dwarf or from Santa Elena, both of which are parents of H567.71. Alternatively, Lr16 may descend from a durum parent since Zhang and Knott [49] postulated its presence in durum cultivars 30 years ago, and more recently, Lr16 was identified in a Triticum carthlicum Blackbird cultivar through molecular markers [21]. The effectiveness of Lr16 as a race-specific gene, however, is limited since at the adult stage Lr16 behaves more like a slow-rusting resistance gene-at least against leaf rust races, which preferably attack bread wheat. In bread wheat cultivars, when Lr16 is alone, disease severity goes from 30MS to 60MS in response to isolates avirulent on seedling (IT 1 to 11 + ). This explains why, among the race-specific resistant seedlings, a few (11/79) were considered as susceptible at the adult stage. Other possible sources of resistance coming from bread wheat are entries G8743 from Sonora 64 (Lr1), and G5394 from Nacozari. The resistance in entries G5235, G5207, G5208, G5424, G3988, G6904, G5421, G8813, and G6857 might have come from the wild relatives T. diccocum, T. boeticum, T. monococum, T. carthlicum, T. rartu, T. polonicum, and Khapli-Emmer, respectively, as the durum parents involved in these crosses were susceptible. Among the wild emmer types of wheat, T. dicoccoides could be considered as the closest wild relative of the durum type [50].The resistance identified in G8731, G3543, G67857, G6904, G5359, G5364, G5369, and G5394 possibly derives from a bread wheat source effective against all races tested in the seedling stage. However, these sources-although very useful-might be very similar if not the same as the resistance genes Lr3, Lr10, Lr11, Lr12, Lr16, Lr23, Lr33, and Lr27+31, which are already common in bread wheat germplasm. In the case of G3988, G5424, and G5207, resistance is possibly coming from a wild relative. This resistance is effective against all leaf rust races tested at the seedling stage, which indicates that it might be very useful in the short term for breeding purposes if the aim is to incorporate race-specific resistance genes in breeding durum wheat for leaf rust resistance.Among the 17 lines from Ethiopia, which were resistant to all races tested at the seedling stage, except for CWI22214 and CWI20872, 15 lines appeared to belong to T. diccocum types. These sources of resistance may uniquely belong to the closest wild relative of the T. turgidum var. durum since they are still grown in farmers' fields in Ethiopia; in fact, the dominance of violet, purple, or red grain color atypical to the more prevalent yellow color of improved germplasm confirms this assumption.Among the seedling-susceptible adult-resistant plants, two growth habits could be identified: spring and/or winter photoperiod-sensitive types. In both groups, resistance varied from 0 to 40MR, similarly but with less frequency, and resistance coming from a bread wheat source or wild relative was identified. However, most of the resistant genotypes identified were true durum landraces. It is important to notice that, in many instances, lines could not be true landraces, but were introductions from centers of origin or centers of diversification, those whose origin is recorded as being from the Americas when early introductions occurred during the 15th century [51].Independent of the origin of durum wheat genotypes, the study reveals the existence of sources of race-specific resistance to leaf rust in the CIMMYT Germplasm Bank for both seedling resistant-adult resistant and seedling susceptible-adult resistant. In fact, these two sources can be combined to obtain higher levels of resistance and to assure not only diversity, but to increase the number of resistant factors in improved genotypes, which in time will confer higher and stable resistance across environments.However, the use of these sources of resistance to leaf rust in a durum wheat breeding program will require at least one backcross to an adapted genotype due to the variation in plant height. Most true landraces are typically tall (higher than 100 cm) except for those coming from pre-breeding programs, which are semi-dwarf (less than 100 cm). The second issue will be the red, violet, or purple seed coat color of the grain, and white to mild yellow endosperm. Although simply inherited, the preferred color for improved durum wheat is a very intense yellow pigmentation for not only the seed coat color, but also the endosperm color and its end-use quality of semolina and dry pasta [52].This relatively small sample of the tetraploid collection from the CIMMYT Germplasm Bank represents a subset of the entire collection. However, the presence of high levels of resistance to wheat leaf rust suggests there is enough variation in the collection, and that in the short term, it is not necessary to look farther into the secondary gene pool for resistance other than into the tetraploid closest relatives such as T. diccocum, and T. dicoccoides. The present subset could be used in an association mapping study to understand the degree of diversity among the resistant accessions against the durum leaf rust races in different countries and environments. Resistant landraces and pre-breeding genotypes identified in the present study will complement the efforts of searching for new sources of resistance and their use in breeding durum programs against leaf rust.The response of the resistant lines to the new race virulent on Cirno C2008 [16] indicated that a few genotypes might carry the same resistance factor(s) as Cirno C2008 (Lr Camayo). This is evidenced by the following previously resistant lines becoming susceptible to the Cirno race: ABYSSINIAN 26 (CWI23065), ELS6404.131.3 (CWI23440), ELS6404.61.2 (CWI23473), HARLAN J.R 1939 (CWI21737), IAR.W.63.1 (CWI22175), IAR.W.84 (CWI22201), and IAR.W.92.1 (CWI22214). All these landraces were collected from Ethiopia. The defeated gene present in the Camayo parent of Cirno C2008 has an Ethiopian landrace origin-ETH-LRBR A1-133/3*ALTAR 84 [23] also. When the Altar gene (Lr72) was defeated in 2001 [9], Camayo was resistant. All other evaluated landraces from different origins remained resistant to the new leaf rust race.Seedling resistance was determined by evaluating 482 durum wheat accessions from CIMMYT's germplasm bank against two of the most recently identified leaf rust races, which have evolved in Mexico since 2001. These accessions comprised landraces and pre-breeding lines from 45 countries and included pre-breeding accessions coming from crosses made at CIMMYT.For the greenhouse evaluation, 8 to 10 seeds of each line were sown in plastic trays filled with steam-sterilized soil. Plants were grown in a greenhouse at 18 to 22 • C with 16 h of supplemental light. Fourteen-day-old seedlings at the two-leaf stage were inoculated by spraying fresh urediniospores of P. triticina races BBG/BP and CBG/BP [27] suspended in non-phytotoxic mineral oil Soltrol 170 ® (Phillips Petroleum Company, Borger, TX, USA) at a concentration of 5 mg/mL [20]. After air drying for 30 min, the inoculated seedling plants were incubated in a mist chamber for 16 to 20 h at 22 • C and 100% relative humidity and then moved to the greenhouse for further incubation. Infection-type responses were recorded about 14 days after inoculation using the 0-4 scale described by Roelfs et al. [28]. In this scale, infection types 3 and 4 are categorized as susceptible responses, and the remaining infection types are considered as resistant.The differences between CBG/BP and BBG/BP are found only in Lr3 based on the North American system of nomenclature [29] and additional sets describing the variation in Mexico [30]. Their identical avirulence/virulence formula for other genes are Lr1, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3bg, 3ka, 9, 13, 14a, 15,16,17a,18,19,21,24,25,26,28,29,30,32/Lr10,12,14b,17b,20,23,27+31,and Lr33 [27].Seedling-resistant genotypes against BBG/BP or CBG/BP races were further evaluated against an additional race from durum wheat: BBB/BN-Lr61, which is avirulent to cultivar Altar C84 (Lr72), but virulent to Lr28, Gaza, and Lr61. Besides the durum leaf rust races CBG/BP, BBG/BP, BBB/BN-Lr61, an additional 12 different rust races isolated from bread wheat-CBJ/QB, CBJ/QL, CBJ/QQ, MCJ/SP, MCJ/QM, MCD/SN, MBJ/SP, NCJ/BN, MFB/SP, MBB/QN, MBB/BN, and TCB/TD-were included in the test, following the same procedure described above and used in the seedling test against races BBG/BP and CBG/BP.To accurately measure the response to the two most common durum leaf rust races-CBG/BP and BBG/BP-whose avirulence/virulence formula is described above, the 482 durum wheat lines were planted at two locations and inoculated with different races at each location. The 482 accessions were sown in the field in plots of paired rows 1 m long from 20 to 25 November 2014 at the Norman E. Borlaug Experimental Station (CENEB) located in the Yaqui Valley in Sonora, Mexico. The experiment was sown on raised beds spaced at 80 cm intervals. Spreader rows of the susceptible variety 'Storlom' wheat (Lr3 carrier) were planted on each side of the experimental plots and as hills in the alleys between plots to assure the leaf rust artificial epidemic inoculum was distributed evenly. The plots were protected from weeds and insect pests with agrochemicals applied as necessary. They were well managed with N, P, and K fertilization, and irrigated until all lines reached physiological maturity. Spreader rows and hill plots were inoculated with urediniospores of the leaf rust fungus race CBG/BP on 20 January 2015. Inoculation was repeated thrice to assure the onset of the epidemic. Adult plant leaf rust severity and response to infection were recorded when the susceptible check plots of Atil C2001, planted every 100 rows, displayed approximately 80 to 100% leaf rust severity. The rust severity was based on the modified Cobb Scale [31]. Disease development on the lines was first recorded on 10 March, then on 22 March, and finally on 5 April 2015.A second field test was planted at the CIMMYT headquarters El Batan research station near Mexico City from 15 to 25 May. The spreader rows were a mixture of the durum cultivars Jupare C2001 and Banamichi C2004, which both carry Lr27+31 resistance genes [15]. They were planted on both sides of the experimental plots and as hill plots in the alleys to assure the leaf rust artificial epidemic inoculum was spread evenly. The plots were protected from weeds and pests using agrochemical applications as necessary and were well managed with N, P, and K fertilization. Irrigation was only required for germination since the growing season at El Batan coincides with the rainy season. Spreaders were inoculated on 28 and 29 June by spraying fresh urediniospores of the leaf rust fungus race BBG/BP suspended in the lightweight mineral oil (Soltrol 170 ® ). Adult plant leaf rust severity and response to infection were recorded when the susceptible check plots of Atil C2001 planted every 100 rows displayed approximately 80 to 100% leaf rust severity. The severity estimation was based on the modified Cobb Scale [31].In both field experiments, plant height, days to heading, grain color, growth habit, and the presence of leaf tip necrosis (LTN), were recorded.In the present study, high levels of diversity for leaf rust and other agronomic attributes were found among the core subset of durum landraces and pre-breeding lines from the CIMMYT durum wheat collection. High levels of resistance to durum wheat leaf rust identified at the seedling and adult stages suggest that there is enough variation in the collection, and that in the short term, it is not necessary to look farther into the secondary gene pool for resistance, other than into the tetraploid closest relatives such as T. diccocum, and T. dicoccoides. The sources of resistance to leaf rust here identified at the seedling and adult stages can be combined to obtain higher levels of resistance and to assure not only the diversity, but to increase the number of resistant factors in improved genotypes, which in time will confer higher and stable resistance across environments. Several resistant sources identified in the present study are already incorporated in durum lines by the durum wheat breeding program at CIMMYT, which in the short term will enhance the gene pool diversity against P. triticina E. the causal agent of the wheat leaf rust.Small seed samples of all accessions are available upon request to the first author or through CIMMYT (seed request by Intrid, CIMMYT Germplasm Bank accession number).The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/plants12010049/s1, Table S1. Intrid (CIMMYT Germplasm Bank accession number) and cross or cultivars and seed source origin of durum cultivars tested at seedling in the greenhouse and field of selected seedling resistant. Table S2. Intrid, and cross or cultivar and seed source origin of tetraploid accessions tested against 15 leaf rust races at seedling stage in the greenhouse. Table S3. Intrid and cross or cultivar and seed source origin of seedling susceptible in the greenhouse, but adult plant resistant. Table S4. Intrid and cross or cultivar and seed source of selected seedling susceptible, but adult plant-resistant winter or facultative tetraploid accessions.","tokenCount":"4281"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"47f7daf22f833f92ef829b54ae776385","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ddf47e97-88ca-4213-9eb1-7c0391113909/retrieve","id":"-1648011384"},"keywords":["Horn of Africa","Wealth Index","Environmental poverty mapping","livestock","discriminant analysis","multi-temporal, Fourier-processed satellite data"],"sieverID":"c65e5b05-7e8a-4759-b209-8c764351e1ef","pagecount":"44","content":"and heads the Trypanosomiasis and Land use in Africa (TALA) Research Group within the Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group in the Department of Zoology. The Fourier processing and discriminant analytical techniques used here have been developed by the TALA research group.Annex 2lIvesTock ModelIng 29 ivTABLES Table 1: Field survey indicator variables. Table 2: Predictor variables used in the WI analysis.Figure 1: PCA Loadings.Figure 2: Regional Wealth Index, for the 1 519 geo-referenced DHS clusters. Figure 3: Modelled Wealth Index by household clusters. Figure 4: Modelled Wealth Index by individual households.Figure 5: Modelled Wealth Index by household clusters, using the same category boundaries as in Figure 4.v viAround 2.6 billion people in the developing world are estimated to have to make a living on less than $2 a day and of these, about 1.4 billion are 'extremely' poor; surviving on less than $1.25 a day. Nearly three quarters of the extremely poor -that is around 1 billion people -live in rural areas and, despite growing urbanization, more than half of the 'dollar-poor' will reside in rural areas until about 2035. Most rural households depend on agriculture as part of their livelihood and livestock commonly form an integral part of their production system. On the other hand, to a large extent driven by increasing per capita incomes, the livestock sector has become one of the fastest developing agricultural sub-sectors, exerting substantial pressure on natural resources as well as on traditional production (and marketing) practices.In the face of these opposing forces, guiding livestock sector development on a pathway that balances the interests of low and high income households and regions as well as the interest of current and future generations poses a tremendous challenge to policymakers and development practioners. Furthermore, technologies are rapidly changing while at the same time countries are engaging in institutional 'experiments' through planned and un-planned restructuring of their livestock and related industries, making it difficult for anyone to keep abreast with current realities.This 'Working Paper' Series pulls together into a single series different strands of work on the wide range of topics covered by the Animal Production and Health Division with the aim of providing 'fresh' information on developments in various regions of the globe, some of which is hoped may contribute to foster sustainable and equitable livestock sector development.This paper follows on from a previous FAO study that used remotely sensed and other environmental data to map poverty in Uganda (FAO, 2006) and extends it to the Horn of Africa, incorporating additional environmental and sociological variables. Furthermore, instead of using a direct measure of poverty, this study investigates the use of the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) Wealth Index (WI) as a proxy for a regional welfare measure. Poverty measures are usually based on economic indicators, such as income or expenditure, or on a number of social indicators such as life expectancy, under-five mortality, nutritional status, and so on, usually collected through household surveys. Recently, researchers and policy makers started to analyze poverty through the use of geographically disaggregated indicators that provide information about the spatial distribution of inequality and poverty within a country: these are usually referred to as 'poverty maps'. The most common approach to poverty mapping is the small area estimation technique, developed by the Word Bank, which combines census and survey data to provide sub-national estimates of welfare.Another, more recent approach involves the combination of household survey data with a suite of environmental and other spatial variables not only to map but also to try and explain and possibly predict the distribution of poverty. In Uganda, satellite data have proved useful in understanding and possibly predicting the causes of poverty. Such imagery, when appropriately processed, captures habitat seasonality associated with the growing seasons for crops, or transmission seasons for vector-borne and other diseases. These seasonal signals were used within a discriminant analytical framework to describe the different levels of household expenditure.By using an appropriately reconstructed Wealth Index (WI) from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data as a proxy for poverty, the same approach can be extended to larger regions. The results of the present study conducted in the Horn of Africa indicate that the lowest levels of Wealth Index are associated with dry conditions; intermediate Wealth Index levels are associated with moister, greener conditions; and high Wealth Index levels are associated with less green conditions and human activity -high population densities and proximity to population centres. The detailed nature of the relationships remains to be investigated.The approach described here shows that it is possible to use the DHS WI as a regional poverty indicator, provided that it is reconstructed from a set of common indicators from the individual, national DHS surveys. Many questions remain to be addressed in developing the environmental approach to poverty mapping, but the present analysis confirms that environmental variables are important correlates of human welfare and may be used to describe welfare levels across climatically and sociologically diverse regions. FAO (2006) showed how the spatial pattern of household expenditure in Uganda could be described in terms of environmental data derived from satellites. This approach to poverty mapping escapes from the somewhat circular approach adopted by the small area estimation technique (Hentschel et al., 2000;Elbers and Lanjouw, 2000;World Bank, 2000) that exploits the internal correlations within socioeconomic data sets. Poorer, in contrast to richer, people cannot afford bicycles or radios, and are unlikely to have access to clean drinking water. One might therefore use the possession of such assets, or lack thereof, to describe any chosen single index of poverty, such as household expenditure. Linking the same index of poverty to environmental data begins to break out of this circularity and looks for causes of poverty rather than the consequences of it. The underlying assumption in this approach is that people in rural settings are poor because their environments fail to provide the goods and services available to richer people. Soil fertility, good health, access to fuel and water all have environmental correlates for which satellite data may act as proxies: people are often poor because of an inadequate supply of these vital resources. By incorporating the driving factors that are associated with the different levels of poverty, the modelling approach allows not only for a description, but potentially also for an explanation and, ultimately, a prediction of the distribution of poverty.It is obvious that a strict environmental approach to poverty mapping will apply best to subsistence agricultural systems, where external inputs in the form of soil improvements (e.g. fertilisers), carbon subsidies (e.g. oil for tractors) or cash subsidies (e.g. tariffs) are minimal or lacking. It cannot apply also to urban communities, which are variously connected to external cash economies, and so less dependent on the immediate environment.The vast majority of rural people in less developed countries, and especially in sub-Saharan Africa, still practice subsistence agriculture, where environmental constraints are likely to be critical and limiting to welfare. This assumption appeared to be borne out by the Uganda analysis that used a set of socio-economic data from the Uganda Bureau of Statistics and a set of environmental variables, including satellite data derived from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellites' Advance Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). This satellite series provides a more or less uninterrupted sequence of monthly global imagery from the early 1980's to the late 1990's. Such imagery, when appropriately processed, captures habitat seasonality associated with the growing seasons for crops, or transmission seasons for vector-borne and other diseases, and these seasonal signals were used within a discriminant analytical framework (that naturally allows for any non-linearity in the relationship between the index of poverty and the environmental data) to describe the different levels of household expenditure. The analysis showed how the correlations between satellite data and household expenditure increased in strength from finer to coarser spatial resolutions (a common feature of all poverty mapping exercises) and were equivalent to, or better than the small area mapping results at a spatial resolution of c. 20 to 30 km (FAO, 2006;Robinson et al., 2007).Following on from the Uganda study, the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) supported an initiative that sought to extend this approach to the Horn of Africa, including Sudan, Eritrea 1 , Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya and Uganda. This working paper describes the results of this new study undertaken to support the EC funded IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (LPI). All data and results are archived in digital format (compatible with ESRI GIS software) on the IGAD Livestock Information Portal: http://www.igad-data.org/.The next section discusses the analytical methodology and the data used. This includes a description of the DHS Wealth Index (WI) and the steps required to construct a Regional WI. The predictor variables are then described as is the modelling approach, which involves non-linear discriminant analysis applied to the socioeconomic and environmental data. The following section presents the results of the analyses -exploring issues of data aggregation by comparing the analysis of clusters of household data against that based on individual households. In the final section we draw some conclusions from our analyses and discuss some ways in which the environmental approach to regional poverty mapping may be taken forward in the future.In this section we describe the input data and the methodology used to map the Wealth Index in the Horn of Africa.For many economists, household income would be the indicator of choice to determine economic status. It is, however, extremely difficult to measure income accurately for a number of reasons. People often try to hide their income from interviewers, for example by not providing accurate estimates; all elements of income may not be shared among household members; or income may vary considerably depending on the time of year. As well as difficulties in estimating income, it may not represent an equivalent estimate of welfare across different social contexts. For example, in pastoralist societies welfare tends to be more closely related to livestock assets held rather than to income generated. An alternative approach is to measure household consumption expenditure. Consumption expenditure estimates are generally easier to collect and more readily standardised across countries (World Bank, 2003). Moreover, consumption is thought to be a more stable measure of poverty over time than is income in agricultural economies (Deaton and Zaidi, 2002).Income or expenditure data are collected either through household surveys that are specifically designed to collect such information (welfare monitoring surveys) or through more generic surveys, primarily designed to collect and update social and demographic indicators. Such surveys may also include socio-economic modules in their questionnaires.In most IGAD member states, the World Bank, in collaboration with the national governments or other international agencies, has conducted a series of household surveys to collect socio-economic data at the household level. In some cases, such as Uganda, the central government conducts regular national household surveys, with very similar objectives. These surveys usually contain information on demographics, health, education, employment, income and expenditure, as well as household characteristics and agricultural and livestock assets. Whist these surveys provide good relative comparisons of welfare within a country at a particular time, the results are not comparable across countries (and not necessarily across different time periods in a particular country). This means that regional analyses and comparisons are not possible using such data.Another type of household survey that may be able to overcome these problems of standardisation is the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS). The DHS program was established by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in 1984. It was designed as a follow-up to the World Fertility Survey and the Contraceptive Prevalence Survey projects. The DHS project was established at the Institute for Resource Development, Inc. (IRD), which was subsequently acquired in 1989 by Macro International Inc. (OCR Macro), the company that manages the collection, analysis and dissemination of data, and has been implemented in overlapping five-year phases. In 1993 DHS was folded into USAID's multi-project MEASURE program as MEASURE DHS+, which incorporated traditional DHS features, expanded the content on maternal and child health, and added biomarker testing to numerous surveys. The MEASURE DHS program is still funded principally by USAID with contributions from other donors.The objectives of the DHS program are, among others, to provide decision-makers in participating countries with improved information and analyses in support of making informed policy choices; to improve coordination and partnerships in data collection at the international and country levels; and to develop in participating countries the skills and resources necessary to conduct high-quality demographic and health surveys. The basic approach of the DHS program is to collect data that are comparable across countries. To this end, standard model questionnaires have been developed, accompanied by user guides and manuals. Since 1984, more than 130 nationally representative household surveys in about 70 countries have been completed under the DHS project. Many of the countries have conducted multiple DHS surveys to establish trends, enabling them to gauge progress in their programs.The DHS surveys are designed to collect household data on marriage, fertility, family planning, reproductive health, child health and HIV/AIDS (Rutstein and Rojas, 2003). They do not collect information on economic measures of poverty, such as income or expenditure, but data are collected about the dwelling itself, such as the source of water, type of toilet facilities, materials used to construct the house and ownership of various assets. These asset indices may be used as a proxy for the wealth status of the household (see the sub-section below on the DHS Wealth Index).The most recent DHS survey data are accompanied by global positioning system (GPS) coordinates at the cluster level, where a cluster is usually a census enumeration area, sometimes a village in rural areas or a city block in urban areas. Collecting only one location point for a cluster greatly reduces the chance of compromising the confidentiality of respondents, but it is enough to allow the integration of multiple datasets for further analysis (Montana and Spencer, 2004).DHS surveys have been carried out in all IGAD member states with the exception of Djibouti and Somalia. In Sudan the surveys are representative only of large administrative units so, for the current analysis, we used only the datasets for Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda to develop welfare models, though predictions were made for all countries in the region. For each country, the most recent dataset available was used, specifically: Eritrea 2002, Ethiopia 2005, Kenya 2003 and Uganda 2001 2 . These four surveys included a total of 37 352 households, which were grouped into 1 519 geo-located clusters.Whilst the DHS surveys do not collect information on income or expenditure, a proxy that can be used is the Wealth Index (WI), which is constructed from a number of indicators that are thought to be correlated with a household's economic status (Rutstein and Johnson, 2004). Component indicators include, for example, possession of assets such as a television, radio, telephone or refrigerator, and variables describing the dwelling, such as the type of flooring, water supply, sanitation facilities and number of people per sleeping room.The WI, as computed from individual national surveys, cannot be used for direct cross-country comparisons since the indicators included vary from country to country. The WI is in fact a relative measure of wealth within a given survey (Rutstein and Johnson, 2004). In an FAO study, the authors discuss the WI in relation to other welfare estimates within individual countries of the IGAD region, showing a good correlation between the different measures (FAO, 2008). The objective here is to explore its value as a regionally consistent measure of welfare that can be used to produce regional poverty maps.The WI is constructed by way of a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on the recorded set of assets and services (Filmer and Pritchett, 2001). DHS uses the SPSS factor analysis procedure (see for example Field, 2005). This procedure first standardises the indicator variables (by calculating z-scores); then the factor coefficient scores (factor loadings) are calculated; and finally, for each household, the indicator values are multiplied by the loadings and summed to produce final values on each PCA axis. Each resulting sum is a standardised score with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one. In the present analysis, following convention, only the first of the factors produced is used to represent the WI.Many of the indices of poverty cannot easily be put on a quantitative scale (Rutstein and Johnson, 2004), but they can usually be coded in some way, and hence included in quantitative analyses. PCA uses only quantitative data, but this can include binary or dummy-coded qualitative data such as the presence or absence of something. Care must be taken, however, not to introduce variables falsely giving the appearance of a quantitative scale. For example, one could assign scores of '1' to the possession of a bicycle, '3' for a motorcycle and '5' for a car, but such a weighting scheme would be arbitrary and would not provide an acceptable pre-treatment of data destined for PCA. Dummy coding these same variables (i.e. creating a separate variable for each mode of transport and assigning scores of 1 or 0 to indicate presence or absence, respectively) would, however, be acceptable.The use of a single score (PCA axis 1) for any index of wealth assumes that the majority of the variation within the dataset can be captured within this one dimension alone. Whilst PCA axis 1 by definition captures the largest percentage of the variance within the dataset, in complex data sets (such as those contributing to the WI) this may in fact be a small proportion of the total variance. There are as many axes within a PCA as there are variables (n) in the original data set, and since each axis captures some of the variance (in decreasing amounts from PCA axis 1 to PCA axis n). The larger the number of variables, the less likely it is that PCA axis 1 captures an absolute majority of the total variance (in fact it will only do so if all the indicator variables are highly correlated with each other; in which case some of these variables are redundant, and could be excluded from the questionnaires, thus saving time and resources). Using PCA axis 1 scores alone to capture poverty must therefore be approached with caution.As mentioned above, each of the country-specific datasets has in the past been subjected to a separate PCA. This has two consequences. First, each country's PCA will be derived from a different set of input variables, only some of which might be shared with other countries. Second, even if the same set of variables were used for each country (with PCA again carried out separately for each country), the WI cannot be directly compared between countries. This is because all PCA scores are spe-cific to the datasets being analysed, and the PCA's outputs are mean-centred scores on each of the PCA axes. To illustrate this further, consider two countries, A and B, one on average much richer than the other: there is a range of variation of wealth around each country's average wealth. Let the richest people in the poorer country be poorer than the poorest people in the richer country (i.e. there is no overlap in the wealth of any of the citizens in the two countries). PCAs carried out on each country's data will put the relatively wealthier people of each country on the positive side of its PCA axis 1 3 , and the relatively poorer people on the negative side. The WI values of certain individuals within both countries may therefore be the same, despite the fact that they are not equally wealthy in absolute terms. They are only equally wealthy in relative terms, and compared only with their fellow country-men and women, not with the foreigners from the other country. Individualcountry PCAs thus hide the difference in mean wealth between the two countries.The solution to this dilemma, of course, is to carry out a single PCA for all countries together. To do this we must use a set of input socio-economic variables common to all countries. Table 1shows the DHS indicators used to construct the WI in individual countries in the Horn of Africa (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda), and whether they were used in the present analysis to build the Regional WI. Some of the indicators were excluded because data were not available in all 4 surveys.It is also important to check that combining countries' data in this way does not distort the results from the individual countries' PCA (it should not do so because the data themselves are not transformed in any way within PCA: each point stays at the same distance from all other points in the dataset within the rotated axes as it was within the un-rotated axes). We want to achieve both the same relative ranking of individuals within each country as was obtained by the country-specific PCA and also a single-scale measure of WI applicable across all countries combined. In this way, the absolute richest individuals across all countries will end up with the same WI scores; similarly for people at all other absolute levels of wealth or poverty 4 .In order to check that a regional measure of WI was accurately reflecting the previous within-country estimates, we first calculated the correlations between the regional and country-specific WIs (shown in Tables A2 to A5 in Annex 1). The latter were calculated in two ways: first using all of the variables available within that country and secondly using only those variables common to all countries. It was expected, and generally found, that correlations of Regional WI with the first sort of within-country WI were less strong than they were with the second (respectively the red and blue highlighted figures in Tables A2 to A5), but the differences were small.PCA axis scores may have reversed signs, with the richest people ending up with the highest negative scores, and poorest people with the highest positive scores. It is the absolute difference between scores that is the real index of absolute differences in the WI.Combining data across countries in this way will give the same relative weight within the PCA -and therefore the calculation of WI -to the possession, for example, of a bicycle in all countries. This may not actually reflect reality on the ground. The song \"Oh Lord, won't you buy me a Mercedes Benz?\" might change in the poorest country of all to one that simply requests the Almighty's supply of a decent bicycle. Secondly, in order to ensure compatibility across datasets we also examined the weightings of individual indicators of wealth 5 across the within-country analyses. This addresses questions of the following sort (and raised in footnote 4) 'Does a bicycle in Eritrea have the same PCA loading as a bicycle in Uganda?' In general the correlations were very good (Figure1). The exceptions to this general rule were 5 Weightings in PCA are the natural cosines of the angle between the original (raw variable) axis and each rotated (PCA) axis. The axis of a raw variable that is highly correlated with the WI will have a small angle to the rotated axis, and will therefore end up with a high weighting (since COS(0 degrees) = 1, and COS (90 degrees) = 0). also of interest. For example, the variable WCBush (indicating use of surrounding vegetation for toilet purposes) had a weighting of -0.15 in Eritrea but only of -0.06 in Uganda. This indicates a greater (negative) correlation of this variable with the WI in Eritrea than in Uganda. Generally differences were smaller than this.After the above comparisons were examined, it was decided that a single Regional WI provides an acceptable measure of region-wide, rather than country-specific, welfare, and all the results here are based on the Regional WI values, using the common variables listed in Table 1. Figure 2 shows the resulting Regional WI for the geo-referenced clusters.PCA may be carried out on the raw data or on the standardised data (in the latter case the mean value for that variable is subtracted from the data value and the result is divided by the standard deviation of the variable concerned; standardised variables tend to be in the range -3.0 to +3.0). The original WI analyses first standardised the input socio-economic data (Rutstein and Johnson, 2004), and that was also the practice adopted here.The WI values were either based on the data aggregated to the cluster level (i.e. the values of each socio-economic variable were the average for all households within each cluster), or on the individual household survey data. There were 37 352 households in the entire dataset, grouped into 1 519 geo-located clusters. Both sets of data were eventually modelled.A first test was carried out to investigate whether the authors could repeat the results of the original analyses for each country. Care was taken to establish that we knew exactly how the data had been processed within the PCAs carried out previously. We were able to obtain the same values for the WI as the original survey analyses reported.  In addition to the MODIS data, the team obtained actual and potential evapotranspiration and precipitation data derived from METEOSAT, provided by EARS-NL, a high-tech remote sensing company, based in the Netherlands.Both the MODIS and the METEOSAT data (listed in Table 2), were temporal Fourier processed to extract the seasonal fingerprint of each pixel in each channel (Scharlemann et al., 2008). Temporal Fourier analysis transforms time-series satellite observations into a set of (uncorrelated) sine curves, or harmonics, of different frequencies, amplitude and phases that often have a clear biological interpretation (Rogers and Williams, 1994). For each variable the Fourier process outputs the mean, amplitude and phases of annual, bi-annual and tri-annual cycles, and, in addition, the minimum, maximum and variance of the smoothed data values.Additional data made available to the models are also listed in Table 2. These included distance to markets, population and livestock densities and the probability of occurrence of different tsetse species. Some of these variables (e.g. livestock densities) were themselves derived by modelling and the process by which they were derived is explained in Annex 2.The population density layers used in this analysis were those developed by CIESIN, and in particular the Gridded Population of the World (GPW) version 3, (CIESIN and CIAT, 2005) and the Global Rural and Urban Mapping Project (GRUMP) (CIESIN et al., 2004). Both GPW and GRUMP gridded data are derived from a simple proportional allocation gridding algorithm of national and sub-national level population data. GPW data are available at a resolution of 2.5 arc-minutes (Balk and Yetman, 2004). GRUMP distinguishes urban and rural population from around the year 2000 and is available at the finer spatial resolution of 30 arc-seconds (Balk et al., 2004). GRUMP also supplies a database of human settlements, which comprises some 55 000 cities and towns with populations of 1 000 or more, and a map of urban extents, which was derived largely from the nighttime lights (Elvidge et al., 1997).In order to determine the contribution of human population, not only in terms of population density, but also in relation to its impact on the environment, it was decided to include also the Human Footprint layer, from the Last of the Wild project (WCS and CIESIN, 2002;Sanderson et al., 2002). The Human Footprint (HF) layer is produced through an overlay of a number of global data layers that represent the location of various factors presumed to exert an influence on ecosystems: human population distribution, urban areas, roads, navigable rivers, and various agricultural land uses. The combined influence of these factors yields the Human Influence Index. The Human Influence Index (HII), in turn, is normalised by global biomes to create the HF data set, according to the methodology developed by Sanderson et al. (2002). HF values range from 1 to 100. A score of 1 in moist tropical forests indicates that that grid cell is part of the 1 percent least influenced or 'wildest' area in its biome, the same as a score of 1 in temperate broadleaf forests (although the absolute amount of influence in those two places may be quite different). The areas that have the least influence (HF grid values less than or equal to 10) are included in The Last of the Wild data set (WCS and CIESIN, 2002). For this analysis, version 1 was used.Arguably some of these additional variables are effectively the same, but it was decided to include them all and see which ones the models selected. Variables which are perfectly correlated with those already selected will not themselves be selected in the step-wise approach adopted here, since the inclusion of effectively the 'same' data for a second time cannot possibly improve the fit of any model. The same argument applies to closely correlated variables; these too are unlikely to be selected together within the final predictor variable set unless some important differences between them allow an improvement in the overall model fit.  As in the Uganda case study, the modelling approach was based on non-linear discriminant analysis (FAO, 2006), which allows the prediction not only of binary (presence/absence) data, but also of continuous (i.e. socio-economic) and multiple category data. In the present discriminant analyses the WI data (our 'poverty' measure), divided into ten approximately equal-sized categories, were the dependent variable and the environmental and temporal Fourier data layers were the independent or predictor variables.The algorithm examined the predictor variables one at a time to discover which one maximised the discriminant criterion selected by the user (in our case kappa, the index of agreement between model-predicted and observed data). This variable became the first selected variable of the eventual predicted WI map. The algorithm then went through the remaining variables, again one at a time, to select which one, in association with the first one selected, maximised the same discriminant criterion. The algorithm continued in this stepwise fashion until a pre-set number of variables  (10 in the present case) was selected. The set of selected variables was then used to make a map of the model-predicted poverty categories. More details on the discriminant analytical methods and on various metrics of model accuracy are provided by in Annexes C and D of FAO (2006). Two types of model were run. In the first, the clustered data were used, in the second the individual household data. By definition, the predictor variable values for all households within the same cluster must be the same (because the households are given the same geo-location), and each cluster of households formed a single point (i.e. a single mean WI) which could go into only one of the ten WI categories in the model based on the clustered data. For the model based on individual household data, however, each household in a cluster might be assigned to a different WI category, depending on its individual WI. Thus one might expect a different set of predictor variables for each WI category of the clustered or individual household data.A first model was run using the clustered data (Model 1). Then a second model was run using the individual household data (Model 2). The mapped results of these two models differed in appearance, and it was thought that this might arise because the category boundaries in the two models differed (although, it seemed, only marginally). To test whether the differences were due just to category boundaries, a third model was run using the clustered data sorted into ten categories and using the same category boundaries as were used in the household level model (Model 3).The predictions of Models 1 to 3 are shown in Figures 3, 4 and 5 respectively, with further details in the Annex Tables A6, A7 and A8 respectively.Key predictor variables for all three models involved human populations, either the human footprint layer (Models 1 and 2) or the GRUMP human population density surface (Model 3). The 'spaghetti-like' appearance of Model 3 (Figure 5) could be explained by the second selected variable (distance to roads), which the other models do not have. In all cases, the WI increases with increasing values of the human population variables. Because the same variable was chosen first by the first two models, the subsequent variables are quite similar. The choice of GRUMP as the first variable in Model 3 is likely to have affected the choice of all subsequent variables in Model 3 that appear to be quite different from the variables chosen in the first two models. This is most likely due to the correlation structure of the data: it is possible that the sets of variables chosen by Models 1 and 2 are relatively closely correlated with the variables chosen by Model 3.The general consensus on these three Models is that Model 2 is the 'best' in capturing what we know about the distribution of poverty across the region, and the following discussion concentrates on this Model (Table A7), but similar trends are shown in the other Models (Table A6 and Table A8).Measures of green-ness (specifically the EVI mean for Model 2) and precipitation (igpp51a0) peak at intermediate values of WI, whilst maximum actual evapotranspiration (iget41mx) and the annual amplitude of this variable (iget41a1) both progressively decrease with increases in WI (Table A7). These collectively suggested that the lowest levels of WI are associated with dry areas, intermediate WI levels are associated with moister, greener areas whilst the highest WI levels suggest impacts of human population pressure on the landscape with lower EVI and rainfall values, but with no associated increase in actual evapotranspiration or its variation throughout the year. EVI and rainfall are very strongly correlated (r 2 = 0.91 across the 10 WI categories), and it is important to try to understand in which direction this correlation works; does rainfall determine EVI, or EVI determine rainfall? In habitats unaffected by humans, the former must apply, but it is possible that in human-dominated landscapes the latter applies.Whilst overall model accuracy as determined by the kappa values is relatively low (kappa was 0.344, 0.207 and 0.348 for the three models respectively), the kappa statistic is a very severe judge; classification other than in the correct category is severely penalised regardless of whether or not the miss-classification represented a near-miss or a far-miss. The fourth and fifth columns of the model accuracy figures (lowermost tables) in Tables A6, A7 and A8 show the accuracy figures obtained by allowing errors of plus or minus one or two categories respectively. That is to say, an observation in Category 5 is considered correctly predicted if it is assigned by the model to any category in the range of Categories 4 to 6 (+/-1 category) or 3 to 7 (+/-2 categories). There is a considerable increase in model accuracy allowing errors of only +/-1 category, suggesting that the model fit for all three models is much better than the kappa statistic indicates.   This study confirms the utility of the environmental approach to welfare or poverty mapping, and over a much larger region than heretofore demonstrated (i.e. Uganda). Furthermore the approach appears valid for a region in which there is a much wider range of eco-climatic conditions showing a less obvious trend over the region (as was the case in Uganda, where the dominant eco-climatic trend, and resulting poverty metric, ran from the South-West to the North-East).The study also shows that it is possible to use the DHS WI as a regional poverty indicator, provided that it is reconstructed from a set of common indicators from the individual DHS surveys.Obviously there are still some issues to be discussed and steps to undertake. First of all, it is important to test the present models against new field data, or new experts' perspectives of the region. Feedback would tell us both where the current maps are 'right' and where they are 'wrong'.Whilst the present analysis is region-wide, it is of interest to see if models of the Regional WI at the individual country level are as accurate, or more accurate, than the region-wide model. This will only be possible for the four countries that contributed data to the present exercise; there are no data for the other countries to run the model for them.As was the case in Uganda, it is important to investigate the scale-dependent accuracy of the current predictions. It is expected that accuracy will increase as the household and satellite data are aggregated into larger geographic units. It is important that this trade-off between accuracy and spatial resolution is resolved at a sufficiently fine spatial unit for the approach to be considered useful by planners, agencies, non-government organisations (NGOs) etc. that are concerned with welfare improvements and poverty alleviation. To know that half a country is poor is of no use if you do not know precisely where the poorest people are located.High WI values seem to be associated with high human population densities. The reasons for this are difficult to determine with only the data we have at present. It could be because humans acting as individual, free agents congregate in particularly productive areas of the landscape (and consequently enjoy high WI levels), or because aggregations of humans, no matter where they occur, or for what reason, generate sufficient trade and exchange among them so that they collectively enjoy high WI levels regardless of environmental conditions. It appears that these high WI levels are associated with particular sets of environmental conditions, but not the obvious ones that might be expected (e.g. high EVI levels indicating greater photosynthetic activity of all types). Instead the highest WI levels are associated with declining EVI values. Are these lower levels of EVI a cause or a consequence of the high WI values? Has human population pressure in the highest WI areas actually reduced the EVI values through greater or lesser destruction of the natural habitat? Or is it simply that agricultural areas have lower mean EVI values than uncultivated areas (the natural cropping cycle leaves the earth bare for a few months of the year), and the reduction in EVI simply reflects a greater percentage of the ground being brought into the cultivation cycle? These questions raise several key issues about environmental sustainability in areas of highest WI values. We need to know whether high WI values are being achieved at the cost of long-term sustainability. This paper marks the coming of age of the environmental approach to poverty mapping in Africa. Environmental data may be used to describe welfare across the climatically and sociologically diverse region of the Horn of Africa. One other question remains about this approach. If targeted intervention succeeds in lifting people out of poverty, what changes might we expect to see in the descriptor variables including the environmental signals derived from satellites? For example, cattle densities in Model 3 are at their lowest values in the two highest WI classes. The question is whether these numbers might change as other people currently in lower WI categories (and with more cattle) enter these highest welfare categories. Similarly, this approach raises the question of whether primary production, as indicated by the EVI, will decrease as people currently in the intermediate WI classes (and with high EVI values) become richer.In this section we report the correlations between the different wealth indices, in particular the estimated Regional WI, and a set of wealth indices derived from the original DHS data (Tables A2 to A5). The critical correlation between the original country-specific WI using all the variables available for that country, and the Regional WI using just the variables common to all country datasets is highlighted in red. The correlation between the country-specific WI calculated using only the common regional variables and the same Regional WI is highlighted in blue.Tables A6, A7 and A8 show the results of the model (at the cluster and household level), through the list of the predictor variables and their means, and the accuracy results.  Annex 2: Livestock modelingThe predictor layers used in the WI mapping exercise for cattle, camel, chicken, pig, goat and sheep densities and cropping percentage were themselves derived by modelling a set of point or administrative level data for these variables. This Annex describes how this was done.The underlying process of livestock and crop distribution modelling is covered extensively in FAO (2007). Once the available agricultural statistics have been collected, standardised, enhanced with supplementary data and adjusted for the extent of land deemed suitable for livestock production, the resulting data provide a sound base for statistical distribution modelling. The model then relies on the use of raster images to store both observed (or training) data (i.e. livestock densities) and all the predictor variables. Statistical relationships are established between observed and predictor variables using values extracted for a series of regularly spaced sample points, as illustrated in Figure A1. The resulting equations are then applied to all the pixels in the predictor images, to produce a predicted distribution map. Step 1: Convert all data maps to images with same pixel size (resolution)Step 2: Extract values for observed values of livestock density, and for each predictor variable at fixed sample points (hatched squares)StepThe technique can therefore be used to predict livestock or crop distributions in areas for which no livestock data are available, i.e. filling in gaps. Moreover, because predicted distributions are produced at the resolution of the raster imagery, the models generate heterogeneous distributions within polygons that have only a single observed value, thus disaggregating the original data. For limited datasets therefore, the method has the major advantage of both filling in gaps and refining the level of detail that can mapped.A wide variety of predictor variables is used in the modelling process, embracing environmental, demographic, climatic, agricultural, topographic, and infrastructural factors. The majority of environmental and climatic parameters are derived from either public domain global datasets (elevation, land use and land cover, human ","tokenCount":"6956"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2fbdf5940f109966234d500069f85f08","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a4e3125-30d5-4695-87b8-9ecb675ec432/retrieve","id":"943495957"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1568b307-dab6-4a75-ac5d-b18f112991b8","pagecount":"8","content":"En Nicaragua, el programa HarvestPlus 1 apoya al sector agrícola de diferentes maneras, incluyendo la asistencia técnica y financiera al Instituto Nicaragüense de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) en diversas actividades relacionadas a los cultivos biofortificados (mejoramiento genético, multiplicación de semilla, eventos de difusión, etc.), fomentando las relaciones entre diversos actores interesados en este tipo de cultivos, y mediante su propia multiplicación y difusión de semilla con el apoyo de diversas organizaciones (no gubernamentales y de la sociedad civil). Los esfuerzos en la difusión tienen el objetivo de dar a conocer estas nuevas 1 Más detalles en: https://www.harvestplus.org/ y https://lac.harvestplus.org/ variedades y sus bondades (agrícolas y nutricionales) entre productores, aumentando así su adopción e impacto.El concepto de biofortificación se refiere al mejoramiento de cultivos (mediante técnicas convencionales) para aumentar su contenido de micronutrientes. Mediante este proceso, INTA ha liberado cinco variedades de frijol (con mayor contenido de hierro y cinc) en Nicaragua, además de una de maíz (con más cinc), una de yuca y una de camote (ambas con mayor contenido de vitamina A). HarvestPlus multiplicó (18,342 lb) semilla de tres variedades biofortificadas de frijol-INTA BioApante, INTA Nutritivo y Rendidor, e INTA Biofortificadoen la época de Postrera 2019/2020, y difundió parte (4,500 lb) de esta semilla para la siembra de Primera 2020/2021, con el apoyo de tres organizaciones.La difusión se realizó en 33 comunidades (Tabla A 1) distribuidas en seis municipios y cuatro departamentos del país, incluyendo por primera vez la Isla de Ometepe en el departamento de Rivas (Figura 1). Como se observa en la Tabla A 1, Asomupro distribuyó semilla de una variedad a 65 productores (89% mujeres, Foto 1), Nitlapán distribuyó semilla de dos variedades a 90 productores (21% mujeres) y Self-Help International (SHI) distribuyó semilla de las tres variedades a 172 productores (48% mujeres, Foto 2).Para aprender sobre el comportamiento de estas variedades en las fincas de los productores, el efecto de haber recibido la semilla para la siembra de Primera y el impacto de la pandemia causada por el COVID-19 en las decisiones agrícolas, HarvestPlus implementó una encuesta telefónica corta, y en este documento se presentan los resultados de dicha encuesta.Las entrevistas se realizaron entre el 8-31 de julio de 2020, mediante llamadas telefónicas, usando un instrumento conteniendo 13 preguntas. Para esto, las tres organizaciones proveyeron un listado de los productores beneficiados, con información básica sobre su ubicación y contacto.De los 327 productores beneficiados, los listados incluían información de contacto (número de celular) para 135 productores, y aunque se intentó entrevistar a todos, sólo se completaron 74 entrevistas. Entre los principales retos para contactar a los productores estuvieron la falta de señal celular, números repetidos, números bloqueados y números equivocados. Las entrevistas duraron 8 minutos (Tabla A 2). Debido a que las entrevistas se realizaron durante el ciclo productivo, no se obtuvo información sobre la cosecha y uso de cosecha, por lo que este informe sólo presenta información parcial sobre el comportamiento de las variedades en las fincas de los productores. Además, su representatividad se limita a los productores beneficiados, y no a las comunidades, municipios o departamentos alcanzados.Del total de entrevistados, 55% fueron hombres, y esto varió por departamento, siendo este porcentaje el más alto (71%) en Matagalpa y más bajo (0%) en Nueva Segovia (Figura 2), y por variedad recibida, siendo este porcentaje más alto (67%) entre los que recibieron la variedad INTA Nutritivo y Rendidor y más bajo (49%) entre los que recibieron la variedad INTA Biofortificado (Tabla A 3).Los entrevistados tenían casi 47 años de edad, con aproximadamente 23 años de experiencia produciendo frijol. Los beneficiarios más jóvenes y con menos años de experiencia sembrando frijol estaban en el departamento de Matagalpa (Tabla A 2) y recibieron la variedad INTA Nutritivo y Rendidor (Tabla A 3). En la Foto 3 se observa una de las productoras beneficiadas sembrando la semilla recibida.Los esfuerzos previos de HarvestPlus, INTA y otras organizaciones en la promoción de cultivos biofortificados parecen haber tenido un efecto positivo en estas comunidades, dado que uno de cada cuatro productores beneficiados reportó haber escuchado sobre estos cultivos con anterioridad (Figura 3). Esto varió por departamento (Tabla A 2) y de acuerdo a la variedad recibida (Tabla A 3), siendo más común haber escuchado sobre estos cultivos en Madriz (casi el 38%) y entre los productores que recibieron la variedad INTA Biofortificado, y menos común en Matagalpa (14%) y entre los que recibieron la variedad INTA BioApante (11%).Dado que este tipo de actividad de difusión tiene como propósito dar a conocer estas nuevas variedades a los productores, HarvestPlus recomienda entregar 5 libras de semilla por beneficiario. En promedio, los productores recibieron 15 libras de semilla, y en el departamento de Rivas (donde SHI distribuyó semilla), los productores recibieron la cantidad recomendada por HarvestPlus (Tabla A 2), y lo mismo se observó entre los productores que recibieron la variedad INTA BioApante (Tabla A 3).Los productores mencionaron que haber recibido esta semilla les ayudó porque tuvieron acceso a semilla (en lugar de grano como material de siembra) o a semilla de calidad (25.7%), seguido de haber tenido acceso a una nueva variedad (24.3%) o haber ahorrado recursos dado que no tuvieron que comprar semilla (24.3%) (Figura 4), y estos resultados variaron por departamento (Tabla A 2). La mayoría de los productores reportó que la calidad de la semilla recibida fue buena (50%) o muy buena (47.3%), independientemente de la variedad recibida, aunque INTA BioApante parece haber tenido la mejor calidad entre las tres variedades, y ningún productor reportó que la semilla era de mala calidad (Figura 5). A pesar de esto, casi un 5% de los productores que recibieron la variedad INTA Biofortificado reportó que la calidad de la semilla fue regular (Tabla A 3).Entre los productores que reportaron que la calidad de la semilla era buena o muy buena, las principales razones fueron la buena germinación, su uniformidad (en color, forma y aspecto) y el buen tamaño del grano (Tabla A 3), lo cual se evidencia en la Foto 4.Tal como se mencionó anteriormente, la encuesta se implementó cuando el cultivo todavía se encontraba en desarrollo (pero no se preguntó en qué etapa fisiológica se encontraba el cultivo), y a los entrevistados se les preguntó cómo se había comportado (agronómicamente) la variedad en su finca hasta el día de la entrevista. Como se observa en la Figura 6, la mayoría de los entrevistados reportó que el comportamiento de la variedad recibida había sido muy bueno (42%) o bueno (39%). A pesar de esto, el 16% reportó que el comportamiento había sido regular y casi un 3% dijo que era malo. Esta percepción varió por departamento (Tabla A 2) y variedad sembrada (Tabla A 3).Mientras la mayoría de los entrevistados en los departamentos de Rivas, Matagalpa y Madriz reportaron un buen o muy buen comportamiento agronómico de la variedad biofortificada, en Nueva Segovia un alto porcentaje (30.8%) reportó un comportamiento regular (Figura 6), sugiriendo que la variedad INTA Biofortificado (única distribuida en dicho departamento, Tabla A 2) podría no adaptarse bien a algunas de las comunidades en dicho departamento. Este año, la difusión de semilla se realizó bajo condiciones inusuales debido a la pandemia causada por el COVID-19, lo cual generó restricciones en la movilidad y preocupación por riesgo a contagiarse con esta enfermedad, forzando a las organizaciones a entregar semilla bajo estrictas medidas de bioseguridad. HarvestPlus tenía interés en saber el efecto que la pandemia tuvo en las decisiones y actividades de la finca, y la principal preocupación de los productores para el resto del 2020.Aunque la mayoría de productores reportó que la pandemia no afectó sus decisiones sobre la siembra de Primera 2020/2021 (por ejemplo qué cultivos sembrar o cuánta área sembrar), el 23% reportó que debido a la pandemia, decidió sembrar frijol y el 13.5% dijo que sembró más área con cultivos (Figura 7). Si bien el efecto de la pandemia en las decisiones de siembra varió por departamento, esta variación fue mínima (Tabla A 2).Tal como se mencionó anteriormente, una de las consecuencias de la pandemia fue la restricción en la movilidad de las personas, restricciones auto-impuestas por cada organización, empresa o individuo, y no por mandato gubernamental. Esto pudo afectar la implementación adecuada de las actividades necesarias para el manejo de los cultivos. A pesar de que el 50% de los entrevistados reportó que sus actividades agrícolas post-siembra no fueron afectadas por la pandemia, casi uno de cada tres productores reportó haber experimentado la falta de ingresos o dinero, y el 9.5% reportó que los insumos estuvieron escasos o si estaban disponibles, eran más caros (Figura 8). Este efecto varió por departamento. Mientras la mayoría de productores en Rivas, Nueva Segovia y Matagalpa reportó que sus actividades no fueron afectadas por la pandemia, la mayoría de productores en Madriz dijo que el principal efecto lo experimentaron en la falta de ingresos o dinero. El segundo importante efecto fue la falta de dinero o ingresos en Rivas, la movilidad limitada en Nueva Segovia, otros efectos en Matagalpa y la escasez o costo de los insumos en Madriz (Tabla A 2). ","tokenCount":"1509"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8dbe73f2422d082c55abb425b20518ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d37330fb-23a1-4311-a615-31162faaaabb/retrieve","id":"-2062976369"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a996bf96-373e-4039-81de-c15a7c6145e9","pagecount":"4","content":"Empowerment is a key outcome of many development and women's rights programs. It can be defined as the ability to translate one's choices into desired actions and outcomes, the ability to envisage options and to make a choice, and inclusion in agriculture. Efforts to measure empowerment have, however, been fraught with challenges owing to the complexity of the concept.Most existing indices measure empowerment at regional, national or community levels, where men and women are combined as a homogenous group -although some only measure women's empowerment. Such indices do not normally measure levels of empowerment within households.The Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) is a composite measure of empowerment of men and women at the household level. It was developed collaboratively by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) to track multidimensional changes in women's empowerment levels as a direct or indirect result of development initiatives, and is composed of two sub-indices: the five domains of empowerment (5DE) and the Gender Parity Index (GPI).The 5DE are: production, resources, income, leadership and time. Each of the domains has indicators, which are measured to establish any change within the domain (Table 1). The 5DE is an aggregate measure of empowerment among groups of women and men which demonstrates the number of domains in which they have attained 'sufficiency' or 'adequacy' and the extent to which these have been attained in percentage form. The GPI shows the percentage of primary women in dual-adult households who are as empowered as, or more empowered than, the primary men in the household. It also shows the empowerment gap between these men and women when one is less empowered than the other. WEAI is obtained from a weighted product of 5DE and GPI (i.e. WEAI = 0.9*5DE + 0.1*GPI). The adapted WEAI differs from WEAI in five main ways, namely: inclusion of a health domain and indicators; addition of an indicator to the leadership domain; lowering of domain weights and empowerment thresholds; removal of 'jointness' as a measure of adequacy; and adapting data collection tools to cover the changes. The authors made these changes in order to meet the intentions of the Kenya study.Each of these changes is explained hereafter.The WEAI has five domains. In the Kenyan study, a sixth domain, labeled 'health', was added, because the programs being evaluated had a strong focus on economic empowerment and were silent about women's rights, especially reproductive health rights. The addition of this domain enabled the team to investigate individuals' capacity to make informed and appropriate reproductive health decisions and their perceptions on gender-based violence (GBV).Inability to make one's own reproductive health decisions and holding attitudes that supported GBV represented vulnerability in terms of rights and, hence, disempowerment. In this study, health is defined as \"a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity\".In the WEAI, the leadership domain has two indicators; group membership and speaking in public. In the Kenya study, an additional indicator -being in possession of an identity card -was included. An identity card is an extremely important document in Kenya because it determines access to opportunities such as joining a registered group, owning a mobile phone SIM card, using mobile money transfer services, having a bank account, accessing credit, and the ability to vote. The inclusion of this indicator was informed by the need to establish whether women owning identity cards were able to keep them and use them at will, without seeking another person's consent. In the WEAI, a woman is considered empowered if she has adequate achievements in four of the five domains or is empowered in some combination of the indicators that reflects 80% adequacy (termed the 'empowerment threshold'). Each domain is accorded a weight of 20%. In the adapted index, a woman is considered empowered if she has sufficient achievements in four of the six domains or is empowered in a combination of indicators that reflects 67% adequacy. Due to the addition of the health domain, the weight of each domain is 16.7%.Joint ownership of property and joint decision-making regarding purchase and transfer of productive assets by women and men in male headed households represent adequacy in the WEAI. However, during the pre-testing of the adapted WEAI questionnaire, women indicated that if they did not agree with their husband regarding use, purchase and transfer of productive assets, their husband's decisions carried the day. On ownership, women left all assets with the husband in the case of divorce thereby negating the perceived joint ownership. Informed by these experiences, the authors of the Kenyan study decided to remove 'jointness' as a signifier of empowerment. By so doing, the data presented in this study shows, in absolute terms, who the main decision-makers are regarding various activities of agricultural production and the assets that men and women can own. Quantitative data used in the study were collected using household and individual questionnaires. The study was conducted in three different research and development partner projects located in five geographical locations.The dairy program uses a hub approach that incorporates dairy farmers into a value chain production system, thus improving earnings from dairy production. The indigenous chicken program organizes farmers into groups, trains them on chicken rearing and produces improved indigenous chicks for farmers to buy and start production with. The micro-credit program provides agricultural loans in the form of livestock and agricultural equipment to farmers. These assets double up as collateral and farmers are not required to produce additional collateral.The WEAI, modified through the addition of the health domain and its indicators and an additional indicator on ownership of a national identity card to the leadership domain, is an adaptable tool that can be used to track women's empowerment. The methodology is also flexible enough to be adapted to the local context, as shown with the removal of 'jointness' as a measure of empowerment and lowering the adequacy threshold to 67%.Ability to measure multiple domains of empowerment simultaneously and to show how each domain influences empowerment is another key strength of the WEAI and its adaptation. The index can be used to measure the extent of men and women's empowerment at intra-and interhousehold scales and track impacts of projects or programs on men and women's empowerment. It is a quantitative methodology, yielding data that can be used to strengthen and test findings from qualitative studies on empowerment, which tend to be dismissed owing to their anecdotal nature.WEAI, 5DE and the GPI, like all other composite empowerment indices, have some limitations. Although these measurements can be aggregated at various levels, such as project, region, and country, one is not able to test for significance of difference between the aggregated categories. Nevertheless, one can test for the significance of difference between categories by comparing empowerment scores, which are measured at the individual level. The authors recommend that more studies be undertaken to develop metrics of empowerment that take into account inequality between primary men and women in the households, and which at the same time are capable of determining the significance of differences between the aggregated categories. Ownership of assets provides a means for women's empowerment by increasing their bargaining power and authority within the household and community ","tokenCount":"1214"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0700d0b3f05b667e3c6fcca94c634831","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7cdf7dbd-63ac-4dc6-96a8-f981c947160e/retrieve","id":"-1982995309"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ec562dbe-f7f0-41df-8712-a58595ea0aed","pagecount":"9","content":"L\" .~g_a W~ tores que limitan o hacen al menos dif:tcil el mejQramiento de la prOducc!6n-ganadera en el Tr6pico ser:ta muy~rga de detallar. Algunas. de las grandes•categorias de factores son: EcolSgicos. Zoot'cnicos, Econ6mi J cos, Sociales y Politicos.'Debido a mi especialidad creo tener apenas la capacidad para hablar d.e los dos primeros y entrever las implicaciones econom:tcas de los cambios en la . producci5n. Los factores Sociales y Políticos, en ese u otro orden. tienden actualmente a ocupar la atenci6n del pGblico posiblemente con toda justifi-caci6n. porque si sabemos que es difícil estimular el aumento'de la producci5n ganadera debido a las limitantes econ6micas de los paises tropicales, tambi~n sabemos que la organizaci6n so~ial y el inter~¡ político han c~nstituido y en muchos casos contindsn constituyendo fuertes trabas para el progreso. Le tEcnica. definida como el acopio de conocimientos ha sido m's afortunada porque a pesar de la estrechez econ6mice. hemos sabido encontrar los medios para investigar y para aprender.Parecerte que solamente ahora nos vini'ramos e dar cuenta de que el proDlema del mejoramiento de la producci6n si bien es un problema bio16gico-cientifico, solamente tiene sentido real para el hombre cuando es examinado en su contenido econ6m1co y que muchas prActicas t~cnica8 obviamente estimulantes de la producci6n. son inGtiles por su incapacidad de incrementar igualmente el ifl~~~Rn ~r.nn6mieo del nroductor oecuario.-. -Esta es seguramente la gran diferencia. la fundamental diferencia. entre la lnvestigaci6n cientffica .bAsica que es Gtil al hombre en cuanto hace el mantenimiento de su bienestar personal directo y~la investigací6n agrlcola que atalle. no al agricultor, sin6 a la empresa agr~cola.Este punto creo yo que es particularmente importante de recalcar en esta reuni6n en que los ci~ntificos que investigan al hombre han querido invit~ a quien investigan una actividad creada por el hombre para su beneficio.Los factores eco16gicos ponen limites a la capacidad de producci6n animal de los tr6pioos. El suelo y el clima han formado una gran cantidad de uaidades ecol6gicas en el tr6pico, todmellas de naturaleza diferente y con capacidad muy diferente de producci6n. Para objetos de desarrollar un pr,2 grama de investigaci6n 16gico y de alcance in~ernacional. hemos consideradoo que el Tr6pico Americano puede dividirse en tres grupos dLacu.er.d.p_a_li\"'u\"\"s\"-___ _ , .. \",.1... CC~~A¡ 1-J 1) en suelos de aluvi6n de las planicies costeras y valles fluviales; 2) tierras fErtiles y valiosas cercanas a centros de poblaci6n y 3)treas de pradera~ lato~icas (eLAT, Informe Anual, 1972). Esta divisi6n. a-_ priori, en tres tipos de 'reas de producci6n ganadera, encuentra coincidencia en los palses del tr6pico Latinoamericano.En la primera encontramos ganederta de naturaleza semi-intensiva, caractérlstica de las zonas de media a alta precipitaci6n pluvial-yen las cuales se pr6ctica una ganáderla muy mezclada entre la lecherla. el engorde deganado y la crla de ganado de carne. El suelo es generalmente entre rico y marginal en f5sforo, y notablemente desprovisto de nitrogeno. Las esp~ -2 cies de pasto prevalentes son: Guinea (Fanicum maximum), Puntero,(HyParrhenia ~, Gordura (tlelinis minutiflora). pangola (Q!zitaria decumbens), y en las 'reas mis humedas Para (Brachiaria mutica). La productividad inicial de estas praderas es elevada. aprovechando al máximo la existencia de nitrogeno acumulado con la descomposici5n del bosque tropical, pero esta productividad disminuye r~pidamente. Por p~rdidas de la capacidad de cre-cimiento debido a. la carencia de nitr6geno y, en una gran tantidad de casos, tamli~n de f5Sóro. y por el consumo excesivo d~ los animales de las especies forrajeras se ofrece oportunidad para que las malezas comiencen a invadir las praderas. Esta invasi6n se agrava rápidamente al extremo de que si no hay control oportuno y constante de las malezas, las espacies forrajeras ll.!!, gan a desaparecer completamente. Obviamente la soluci6n a este problema r~ side en la provisi~n del fertilizante necesario. La t~cnologla de su uso y aprovechamiento es conocida, pero es menos conocida o casi desconocida la respuesta econ6mica que se puede esperar de la fertilizaci6n.Se considera que a pesar d.-~ efectiva respuesta que se obtiene con la fer tilizaci5n nitrogenada, esta no es econ5mica en el caso del ganado vacuno dw -:'uL'ilé, y cleb.e ir ,¡cCtmÍ''¡~dda del ;:ié8v aiJ. La. ~PÚ\\;tf. .. lt: b\":'iULC1 !Jiu.a llV agro! var la fuerte diferencia en la disponibilidad de alimento que ya existe de todas formas en el tr5pico. La aplicaci6n de f6sforo, por otro lado, se considera uns necesidad imperiosa en las treas de carencia.En el segundo tipo de ~rea, caracterizada por suelos ricos, que originalmente han soportado una gansderla muy extensa:y los cuales han ido siendo Ílrre:batados por la agricultura. van quédando solamente~s ganaderías lecheras, de explotaci6n intensiva, y algunas empresas de engorde de novillos para el consumo de las poblaciones cercanas. Los suelos de estas ~reas normalmente no responden a la fertilizac15n fosf6rica., pero presentan gran potencial para explotar su respuesta al nitr6geno sobre todo en la. lecherla.Finalmente, las lrea.s de suelos latos6licos se caracterizan por la explota-ci6n extensiva de ganado, sobre praderas naturales y de muy bajo rendimiento.Estos suelos son notablemente deficientes en f6sforo, al extrémo de que en algunos casos las especies'mejoradas de pasto no crecen sin la previa apli-caci6n de f6sforo. En el manejo de las pastizales naturales, el fuego aparece como dntca herramienta de trabajo empleada por ,el hombre para controlar el crecimiento excesivo de especies no deseadas y estimular el crecimiento de rebrotes tiernos aceptables para el ganado. La revisi6n de los tres tipos de ireas enunciadas hace resaltar que el problema fundamental es el' de mantener la fertilidad del suelo en un nivel permanente, que permita el d,esarro;Llo adecuado de las especies, y pErmita as1,mismo el aumento en la cantidad del forraje disponible para el ganado.En la Am~rica Latina no disponemos de estudios que prueben la ventaja eco-n6mica de la fertilizaci6n fosf6rica y casi ni siquiera del nitr6geno, sal vo pocas y limitadas excepciones (Vicente-Chandler:.!:!!l. 1967) Las investigaciones Australianas del sub-tr6pico demuestran que se obtiene un aumento progresivo en el rendimiento de la pradera natural, hacia la pra dera natural en la cual se Iia'introducido una leguminosa •forrajera adaptada\";\" y hacia la pradera natural que ha recibido la leguminosa y la aplicaci6n de f6sforo (Shaw and t•Mannetje, 1970). El incremento en la producci6n alcanzado con la introducci6n de la leguminosa (Stylosanthes humilis) fue del 360% y d,el 600% con la leguminosa mb f6sforo. Brumby (1972) ha calculado que en esas condiciones resulta muy ventajoso econ6micamente la inversi6n én la siembra de la leguminosa y mis aGn en la siembra' y en la fertilizaci6n.Parece entonces particulármente urgente dos cosas: 1) Provisi5n de fertilizan .te fosfatado a bajo costo (los productores de paises de gran consumo como -Australia y Nueva Zelandia reciben subsidio al uso del fertilizante fosfatado) 2) investigaci6n local sobre la adaptaci5n y ~todos de introducci5n de legu minos as tropicales, a ,la vez que eS necesario estimular el desarrollo de 18industiia productora áe semillas de leguminosas tropicales.Los problemas de adaptaci5n del ganado a condiciones tropicales han sido debatidos por largo tiempo. Mucho de la investigaci6n realizada en latinoame ' rica ha 'tenido que ver en una forma u otra con estE problema, ya sea porque'''~ se ha tratado de buscar la manera que razas no tropicales (principalmente ' Europeas ) se adapten a las condiciones eco16gicas del tr6pico y produzcan al mismo nivel que en sus regiones de origen, o porque se ba,'tratado de conseguir un mejoramiento, al menos parcial, en la producci6n de los animales criollo o indicas a travEs del cruzamiento de las hembras locales con machos europeos importados. Muy a pesar del esfuerzo desarrollado, las respuestas no son claras y sobre todo no lo son cuando se pretende encontrar resultados aplicaBles a la explotaci6n ganadera.Se puede decir que en el Tr6pico la raz6n final por la cual la productividad de los ,animale's es menor se debe a que el consumo de forraje por loa animales es inferior. Presumiblemente el consumO es menor porque la digestibi1i dad de los pastos tropicales es tambiEn inferior y porque en las razas euro peas, llegado un punto de temperatura ambiental los animales disminuyen suconsumo. Esta Gltima indicaci6n, obtenida en c!maras climSticas no ha sido demos~rada igualmente en el campo.-4 , Preston y Willis (1970) creen que de las diferencias observadas entre las razas de ganado europe~~lndico, la mSs significativa es la menor producci~n de calor en las razas rndicas lo cual les dS una ventaja sobre las europeas para soportar el calor ambiental elevado. . Por otro lado, la producci~ de calor del cuerpo aumenta con el consumo de alimento y pOr consiguiente in~ directamente con el nivel de producci~n. Asl, cabe preguntarse si serta mSs adaptado al ambiente tropical un animal indico de producci6n igualmente elevada a otro europeo. Los mecanismos de adaptaci6n a h's condidPnes tro picSes de parte de los animales de razas indicas parecerlan estar ligadosa su menor capacidad de producci6n de tal manera que si •se~etende.sobra~ pasar esta capacidad, cabe preguntarse si se sobrepasar1an tambi~n los me~ canismos de adaptaci6n.Willis y Preston (1969) encontraron en Cuba que un hato de ganado Charolais (Frances) tuvo una eficiencia reproductiva superior al Brahaman (IndiO), al Criollo y al Santa Gertrudis (IndiO x Europeo). En esta caso, el ganado Charolais habla sUfrido un proceso de adaptaci6n y selecc16n natural al tr~pico por espacio de 40 aftos, sugiriendo asl mismo la poeibilid8d de que se produzca un mecaDSmo de adaptaci~ a las condiciones adversas de clima.El caso parece reducirse en su ~ayor parte a la-provisi6n de alimento suf! cientemente rico en energla y protelna para el consumo del ganado, en cuyo caso las diferencias clim'ticas se hacen menos notorias. Se cita el caso de !rael que con ganado europeo mantiene el promedio nacional de producci~n lsctea.superior en el mundo (4,500 kg por vaca) en clima de temperatura ambiental superior a 34\"C, si bien muy seco. En este caso la alimentaci6n del ganado es principalmente a base de granos y concentrados. Es decir, es posible obtener una producci6n elevada en temperaturas altas cuando la alimentaci6n es adecuada.En el concepto que hemos expresado de que las prScticas tandientes al aumento de la producci6n deben ser medidas en su capaCidad de elevar la producci6n con beneficio econ6mico para la empresa ganadera (o puede ser dieho \"en su habilidad para reducir el cesto de producci6n lf ) no debemos necesariamente aceptar que se debe tender a aumentar la producci6n de cada animal al mSximo sin tomar en cuenta lo que se invierte en ese aumento de la producci6n. El caso m's claro ee presenta en muchas fireas del tr6~ pico en las cuales la producci6n de leche o carne es .factible y Elevada con la provisi~ de granos y concentrados (como en Israel), pero el costo de producci~n es tan alto que hacé imposible su•aplicaci6n.De todas las soluciones hasta ahora estudiadas. la alimentaci6n a base, de forrajes parece ser la mSs indicada y factible. En el tr6pico la pro~ ducci6n de forraje as superior a los climas templados. SegGn el resumen .J~ de Cooper (1970) en el tr6pico se pueden obtener rendimientos de forraje que sobrepzan las 80 teneladas de Materia Seca por afto en Pasto Elefante , (Pennisetum purpureum) y rendimientos superiores a• las 50 toneladas• en Pa~to Pangola (Digitaria decumbens) en tanto que en climas templadas los rendimientos superiores no sobrepasan las JO toneladas (Lolium perenne). Otra forma de expresar la gran capacidad de producci6n de las praclaras tropicales es obs•ervando el incremento en la producci6n obtenido por la aplicaci6n de Nitr6geno, que en climas tem~lados•esti alrededor de 20 f:!1l.\"''''i!~'''' r kilogramos de !/ ,. & Of en cambio en el tr6pico es del orden de 3S a 40 kilogramos..-5Actualmente se estin obteniendo rendimientos por hectirea en producto an! mal en los tr6picos superiores a los que se consiguen en climas templados. Si bien el rendimientó por animal. es generalmente inferior en los tr6picos, la gran cantidad de• forraje disponible en condiciones favorables (Humedad y fertilizaci6n) hace que se puedan usar cargas animales muy ele vadas y permanentes a trav~s del afta.El Significado de la Investigac16n en el Aumento de la Producci6n Ganadera en el Trogico Americano.El titulo mismo. de esta secci6n lleva impllcito el objetivo senalado a la investigaci6n. El aumento de la producci6n es sin duda el objetivo b~sico. Nif\\tamos, sin embargo, definir en qu~ condiciones econ6micas se produce este aumento y bajo que limitantes de precios el aumento es econ6micamente factible.Aceptando que el aumento de la producci6n es el objetivo bAsico, es necesario definir claramente el objetivo particular de cada una de las inves-•tigaciones que se realicen. Es preciso localizar la investigaci6n dentro del marco de•. empresa agrlcola a la cual se va aplicar.Es preciso recordar que la empresa agrleola constituye un todo ligado entre sl, que une intimamente y en forma intcrdependiente a los factores de tierra, suelo, animales, capital y gente. Evidentemente todos ellos afectan la productividad de la empresa agrlcola. Es resultado de esa interdependencia el hecho de que el cambio d.e un factor sea. generalmente, causa de cambios en los otros factores y•en el resultado final de la productividad de la empresa. Asl mismo. llama la atenci6n el hecho de qúe muchas veces el cambio de Uno de los factores, que en términos bio16gicos produce aumentos notables en la producci6n, econ6micamente no alcanza a producir incrementos de la misma magnitud . (Brumby, 1972.) Asl pues, al plantear un proyecto de investigaci6n deberemos definir claramente el marco de referencia de la empresa~ricola a la cual se va a referir y asegurarnos que el factor estudiado no interactGe con los de-mAs factores de la producci6n, es decir que sea independiente, o ~or lo menos que los resultados obtenidos puedan ser referidos a los grados de interacci6n con los otros factores.creemos por eso que la investigaci6n agrlcola que va a servir a la produc-ci6n debe plantearse en t~rminos del o los productos agrlcolas obtenidos. Asl al estabkéer programas de investlgaci6n creemos mls efectivo el montar programas para la producci6n de leche o de carne vacuna antes que programas orientados de acuerdo a disciplinas cientlficas como Fisiologla, Nutri ci6n 6 Gen~tica. La nécesidad de trabajar interdiciplinariamente quedaestablecida al organizar programas por producto antes que por disciplina ci~ntlfica.Esto de ninguna manera degrada la importancia de las ciencias, solamente implica la necesidad de coordinar y orientar las ciencias hacia el servicio de la producci6n. Bello (1971) describe grlf!camente las relaciones de la investigaci6n y su\" enfoque hacia la soluci6n de problemas.PROBLEMA -----1;> I=AN~AL~IS[!I §S/7----+) RESULTAOO--9t ¡ SINTESIS¡---.. sobre el \",,\",\"-1 _ _  \"circulo vioioso\" el cual no llega a ofrecer nunca resultados utilb.ables sin\"/) que por el contrario se sigue cada vez alejando mb y mis de la Realidad de la cual pudo haber partido. Por ejemplo. un programa de inves-tigaci6n comenz6 debido a la realidad de que para mejorar la producci6n ganadera era preciso encontrar una o varias especies de forrajes que Se adaptaran a las condiciones de suelo pobre y poca humedad. El conocimie~ tO de la realidad identific6 el Problema de seleccionar especies adaptadas y productivas. esto origin6 el Analisis investigativo por medio de un campo de introducci6n de especies. En el primer ano se encontr6 que una especie aparentemente adaptable tenía una gran variabilidad en la forma y tamano de la hoja. Para estudiarlo se establecieron nuevas parcelas de esta especie en las cuales se trataba de determinar la frecue~ cia y distribuci6n de los tipos de hoja. Aparentemente se ~ensaba que tanto el tipo como el tsmafto de la hoja tendrían estrecha relacl0n con SU productividad, Al encontrar que ciertas hojas eran mas frecuentes y estaban siempre distribu1das en el tercio superior de las plantas se creylS del caso investigar los mecanismos genl!ticos que controlaban esta distribui6n. Para entonces, habtan pasado un buen nOmero de aftos y se habta tenido que crear un equipo t~cnico y físico muy diferente al original. Tambil!n, desafortunadamente, se habta perdidO la relacilSn con la Realidad y el Problema. cay~ndose en un \"circulo vicioso\". La SituacilSn d,e la produccilSn permaneci6 sin cambios, La segunda posibilidad es aquella en la cual la éadena no se detiene has ta llegar a la incorporacilSn de resultados (sintesis) en los sistemas de producci6n. En el mismo ejemplo anterior, se hubiera cumplido si el o los investigadores hbbieran pro~eguido sU investigaci6n hasta determinar una o dos especies forrajeras las más adaptadas y si con ellas se hubiera procedido a introducirlas en los sistemas de:\",producci6n existentes proveyendo al comercio de la semilla necesaria y los ml!todos de intro ducci6n adecuados. -Lamentablemente un gran pDrcentaje de la investigaci6n agrlcola de Latinoamérica ha sufrido el vicio de su propia perpetuaci6n en el estudio de problemas ajenos. \"Más aGn. con frecuencia se encuentra en America Latina investigaciones tendientes a resolver problemas creados por \"circulas vici.osos\" forllneos, resultantes\"del eBtrenamie~to exterior de los t~cnicos, ereemos entonces que la orientaci6n de la investigacilSn agr1cola debe ser hacia la soluci6n de problemas de la producci6n y que debe ser realizada de tal manera que se evite el estudio aislado de \"factores cuando su accilSn en el conjunto de la empresa agrtcola no sea aislada de los demas factores.El estudio de conjuntos empleando la Unidad de Producci6n como Unidad Expe rimental. sirve para resumir y medir el efecto final y conjunto de las interacciones entre los fe~tores de la produccilSn del tipo espec1fico del producto buscado.La Unidad de ProduccilSn es igual~ente v~lida para reunir niveles y tipos de factores que afecten la producii6n. sean estos obtenidos a base de la • -7• investigacl&n de segmentos de producci&n o del resultado de computaci&n electr~nica y •simulaia.La tendencia actual es a pensar que existe suficiente informaci5n• aislada, prÍlpia o adaptable, que per-mita la confeccl~n de \"Sistemas de l'roducci~n\" .•los cuales deben ser probados, en su conjunto, en Unidades• Experiment.alea de l'roducci~n antes de ser recomendados al productor. Si• bien en algunos casos se exagera la aprente disponibilidad de conocimientos suficientes para aumentar la productividad de los suelos y explotaciones sanaderas del tr5pico, creo que constituyen una buena base para partir.desde• sl11 con la investigaci&n orientada hacia el aumento de la IX' 0.ducci611. . ..","tokenCount":"2989"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4cbe5da597f37e1432dc1bc4a08d3801","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77a32e3d-3655-4a99-bc6c-d9704334c33f/retrieve","id":"1816909084"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d26e6cea-ef8c-470b-b2d3-20374da3cd29","pagecount":"18","content":"The variability observed during previous years in the patterns of weather parameters, such as rainfall and temperature, has led to the occurrence of prolonged periods of drought, which has severely affected farmers in northern Nicaragua. The situation is even more serious for those located in the Dry Corridor of Central America, whose economy relies on agriculture and who generally constitute very poor families; therefore, they are the least prepared to confront an extreme drought. The Nicaraguan dry zone covers 23 out of 153 municipalities in the country, located in the departments of León and Chinandega in the west; Estelí, Madriz, Matagalpa, and Nueva Segovia in the north; and Boaco in the central part of the country.According to statistics from the Nicaraguan Institute for Territorial Studies (INETER, its Spanish acronym), Nicaragua's Dry Corridor is characterized by low precipitation: the annual average rainfall ranges from 650 to 800 mm, concentrated in the rainy season which lasts six monthsleading to water scarcity during the dry season. This amount of rainwater would be considered enough for use in agricultural and livestock production if there were a way to retain it, but this is not the case.On the other hand, the indiscriminate tree-cutting, typical of the area, has caused an increase in the speed of surface runoff, which results in very little soil moisture retention, in addition to soil erosion. The high speed of surface runoff is also the cause of the absence of surface-water sources, such as rivers, lakes, and streams, so farmers mostly rely on the precipitation during the rainy season.On 15 July 2014, the newspaper El Nuevo Diario wrote: \"there have been more than 2,500 (dead) livestock; this is a difficult situation, especially in the (Nicaraguan) Dry Corridor, because food is scarce,' said CONAGAN's president, René Blandón, to local television's Channel 2.\" Moreover, the follow-up report, titled Impacts of Drought on Nicaragua's Dry Corridor, Action Against Hunger (2010), claims: \"In every community visited, the same pattern was observed regarding the losses on the second crop: losses vary according to crop (maize, sorghum, or beans) and terrain height, but they have exceeded 50% in almost every case, which has had a strong negative impact on household economies.\"These examples show how crucial water security is for climate resilience and, thus, how necessary it is to invest in water collection infrastructure so that farmers can rely on a reserve that will allow them to supply the required amount of water during the periods of intermittence taking placesometimes even during the rainy seasonand avoid crop losses. These types of infrastructure are implemented for Construction of water reservoirs. Community of Sasle, located in Jinotega.• PROGRESA collected 226,523 cubic meters of water during the rainy season to be used during the dry season.• 45 sinks to collect spring water.• 112 hand-dug wells.• 62 reservoirs constructed on farms.• 16 ponds established. The program served 4,700 medium-and smallscale crop and livestock producers in four northern departments of Nicaragua (Matagalpa, Jinotega, Madriz, and Nueva Segovia) with the purpose of improving their livelihoods, increasing productivity, and expanding the trade of their products. The value chains supported by the program include fruits and vegetables, beans, and dual-purpose cattle (milk and beef).One of PROGRESA's main goals was increasing crop and livestock production, and one way of helping to raise this production was improving water availability, especially during dry periods. Thus, part of the support provided to the beneficiary families through the rural water program was smallscale rural infrastructure works, which allowed the improvement of agricultural productivity applying Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and Good Animal Husbandry Practices (GAHPs). Similarly, PROGRESA improved the water supply for human consumption with rural mini-aqueducts, although the main purpose of this document is sharing the experience constructing three types of infrastructure to collect water for production: water-harvesting works (ponds and reservoirs), hand-dug wells, and sinks to collect spring water.A baseline study for the PROGRESA project was conducted in June 2013 on a sample of 576 productive units; this study gave a better insight into the farmers' initial situation using the Five Capitals Methodology. 1 Drawing from the analysis of the outcomes of the study, it was possible to identify the farmers' main needs, including water storage infrastructure (only 13.0% of the sample was in possession of any such infrastructure), which was decisive for allocating project funds to the construction of infrastructure for water storage and exploitation, with the purpose of rendering the Dry Corridor farmers less vulnerable to drought, such as those occurring previously.Before the project started, it was possible to visit some farms and become acquainted with the difficulties they were facing in relation to agricultural production (low crop yields as well as low productive and reproductive rates in livestock).As a consequence of droughts, major crop losses and the death of livestock resulted in a reduction in income and an increase in poverty because farmers could not produce food for their own consumption or to sell on the market. Usually, producers would start the cycle using irrigation systems, but their water sources would dry out before completing the crop cycle, which resulted in the loss of all their investment since they did not have water storage infrastructure they could rely on, nor did they have the means to build it.Adding to this situation is the lack of interest of the private sector in financing the implementation of this type of works, which makes it impossible to establish any partnership with this sector. The situation is further aggravated by the limited resources available through non-government agencies and the government in general to meet the increasing demand for such infrastructure (although resources have been allocated to cope with adversities in this connection).Three types of works were built to collect water for agricultural production: for water harvesting (ponds, reservoirs), sinks to collect spring water, and handdug wells.Technical assistance was crucial for the successful construction of this infrastructure. One of its roles was to bring about efficiency in the use of resources, which was achieved by permanent supervision and control of the infrastructure built, with the help of the direct beneficiary farmers.The implementation process of the infrastructure started with a training plan carried out by technicians from the partner organizations and CRS advisors; it aimed at helping farmers develop their capacity in the use and maintenance of the infrastructure and equipment. The training elaborated on the concept of water resource management, which was applied by undertaking an inventory of water resources available to cope with a crisis within each community; this helped producers to identify the local capacity to sustain animals and crops.In addition to the management of water resources, another major topic covered was related to plant water needs for the crops more frequently grown by farmers. This made it possible to determine how to better use the infrastructure in the dry season for each case, depending on the cultivated area or the number of livestock units (see examples in Table 1). During the implementation process, some local actors also became involved, including mayoral offices of every municipality where PROGRESA was operating, and the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA, its Spanish acronym), besides the direct beneficiary farmers. This process started between February and April 2013 by introducing the PROGRESA partners' technical teams to each municipal council and presenting each of the components and goals and the scope of the project. Moreover, these presentations emphasized the benefits expected from the increase in production that finally translate into an improvement in the quality of life of households, as well as the importance of the infrastructure to collect water for production.CRS technician advising during reservoir construction. Community of Sasle, located in Jinotega.MARENA also supported the site selection process to construct the water-harvesting infrastructure; specialists from the Ministry supported the PROGRESA technical teams by offering their skills and knowledge to optimize site selection, especially in the case of those closer to protected areas or natural reserves, also known as buffer zones, since in such cases there is a higher risk of having an environmentally damaging effect if the site is not chosen properly.Water harvesting is a technology to collect surface runoff water from rainfall to be used in production.The implementation of this type of infrastructure requires heavy earth-moving machinery (tractors) to dig out an earthen bowl (a pond or reservoir, depending on the dimensions), where the walls are made of clay or silt (fine impermeable materials that prevent infiltration) to retain the rain. Reservoirs are infrastructure that does not cost more than US$1,200, whereas ponds are larger in size and capacity, costing more than US$5,000. Both types of infrastructure can be used in agriculture (crops), for animal consumption, or to irrigate pastures for livestock.As mentioned, a careful analysis was carried out to select the sites where the infrastructure would be built, which was a critical and decisive action to guarantee the success of the technology. The following are the most important criteria taken into account when selecting the sites:• Higher terrains were sought in order to avoid the use of electric or fuel pumps to deliver the water to the crop areas or its final destination; this reduced production costs.• Priority was given to sites with favorable topography, that is, sites with a natural shape of a bowl (with natural walls on the sides) to be able to collect water in a sufficient amount to justify the investment. The optimal slope of the natural terrain should be between 2% and 8%.• In every case, observations were made of the area of water recharge, the amount of precipitation, and the evaporation (it is estimated that the evaporation of stored water can reach 30% at an average temperature of 25-30 °C), since the calculations of the quantity of water that can reach the storage area depend on these variables.• Soil texture was also considered, as it is very important for water retention; for instance, there is a higher infiltration rate on sandy or stony soils, which do not retain water for very long; in contrast, clay or loamy soils (with very fine particles of soil) have a better water retention capacity and, thus, are ideal for this type of work. However, in some critical cases, a geomembrane had to be used (a liner made of a special plastic that will not allow water infiltration; when used on top of the soil, it works as a waterproof layer to avoid leaks or water infiltration into the subsoil), but its use was gradually abandoned due to its high cost, 2 which prevented its benefit from reaching more farmers (and not all of them could afford the counterpart, an issue discussed below).• To avoid exposing people and infrastructure to a possible collapse of the reservoir caused by unexpected natural events, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, etc., it was sought that infrastructure be located in areas far from houses, schools, and power lines, among others.• Sites showing rocky mantle outcrop were avoided since this would limit the depth of the reservoir, which would result in reduced storage capacity.• The main purpose of the reservoir was given special consideration (for agricultural production or animal consumption), and those sites with a greater potential for cultivated areas or livestock production were prioritized.• Optimal sites should avoid cutting trees to be consistent with the policy of CRS, its partners, and the project itself, which does not allow for environmental damage. In order to support this, environmental profiles were created for each site, for which potential damages were identified for every stage of the implementing process (site selection, design, construction and operation, and maintenance), as well as the mitigation measures required in every case, and follow-up was conducted for their enforcement.• If the site was in a buffer zone, the construction required a special assessment from MARENA; without its approval, the works could not be implemented.• Another aspect taken into account during the implementation process was that the beneficiaries would be as close to the ponds or reservoirs as possible. This would represent an additional advantage in terms of cost, since better prices could be negotiated for the mobilization of machinery, depending on the distance.• Once the site was selected, digging soil pits (a 1-meter-long, 1-meter-wide, and 1-meter-high -1 cubic meterdugout) was recommended to identify the texture, type of material, depth, and infiltration rate of each stratum. The pit was filled with water to observe the rate at which water moved into the soil; sites where water was immediately absorbed or infiltrated quickly (i.e., in the course of one day) were discarded.In the case of reservoirs, a storage volume of 1,000 cubic meters for each was sought; in the case of ponds, it was intended that each would have a volume of approximately 5,000 cubic meters. Nonetheless, finding a contractor at the right time would prove to be a major challenge: in order to reduce costs, it was necessary that the owner of the machinery be working around the area where the infrastructure was to be constructed, and it should be during the dry season, since it became difficult to dig once the rainy season started due to the high degree of soil saturation (excess of moisture).Once the works were completed, the farmer was advised to surround the water mirror with barbedwire and living fences (trees used as poles, which root easily and grow fast) to avoid microbial contamination (with animal excrement or urine). Another recommendation to prevent landslides was wall and slope stabilization by planting grass to hold the soil and protect the structure from an excess of water retained or rainfall.To increase the number of beneficiary farmers, PROGRESA adopted a policy to have every farmer on whose property a pond or a reservoir was built to contribute 30% of the total cost as a counterpart. This policy had a high degree of acceptance, which was evidenced by the high number of producers who applied to be beneficiaries of one such infrastructure.The use of geomembrane became necessary in highly permeable soils (sandy or gravel soils), in which the infiltration rate was too high or it was almost impossible to store an adequate amount of water.This technology was piloted on the farm of producer Aura del Socorro Fernández Guillén, from the Casilí Abajo community, in the municipality of Telpaneca, department of Madriz. The total cost was US$2,833 and it covered an area of 490 square meters. Its high cost and lower storage capacity (86 cubic meters) prevented this technology from being the most appropriate.Once the construction of each work was completed, the start of the rainy season was awaited (usually from May to October) and water was harvested to be used during the dry season and sometimes also during the \"very rainy\" season, since, in recent years, the rain expected to fall during the course of one month has fallen in one single day.In the case of infrastructure for agricultural production, in addition to soil preparation, farming activities required irrigation systems, both drip irrigation 3 (which mainly relies on gravity and does not need high water pressure) and sprinkler irrigation 4 (artificial rainfall that does need high water pressure to transport the water stored from the reservoir to the cultivated area). The approximate cost of these technologies was US$1,700/ha for drip irrigation and US$933/ha for sprinkler irrigation.The installation of these systems was carried out by the partners' technical team, with support from the farmers, and overseen by CRS technical advisors. An irrigation program was prepared for each case, based on the flow rate of the source, the pressure needed, the distance between rows, and the type of crop, since it was necessary to regulate the flow of water (number of irrigation hours in a day) according to the crop's requirements. During the process, the farmers were supported with training plans for the efficient management of such systems, their maintenance, and the application of fertilizer.This is a simple technology that consists of handdigging the subsoil, using basic tools such as picks, shovels, pickaxes, bars, buckets, wedges, hoes, and sledgehammers to break the rocky mantles.During the digging process, basic safety measures were implemented, such as safety helmets, gloves, goggles, and safety harnesses to be able to pull up the person digging, in case of an emergency. The most common accidents that can cause terrible losses are slides of loose or sandy material; however, it was possible to avoid them in every case. This is why pit-props were used (wooden panels installed to hold the walls and prevent landslides).The well depth varied according to the purpose, groundwater depth, and cost. For instance, wells for use in agricultural irrigation would not exceed 10 m in depth, whereas wells for use in animal consumption could reach 25 m in depth. Once the groundwater was found and it reached a sufficient flow for its exploitation, a permanent protection was placed on the walls, using mud bricks or stone pebbles (large pebbles from rivers or streams), which were bound with mortar (a mixture of cement and sand in a 1:6 ratio; i.e., 1 part cement and 6 parts sand).The excavation diameter ranged from 1.5 to 3 meters, depending on the maximum counterpart the farmer could afford (the larger the diameter and the well depth, the more coating material required). One of the recommendations related to the design was that the wells should have a wellhead (a wall that protrudes from the surface) to prevent accidents, and also that they should be properly covered to avoid any contamination inside.To use the well, it was usually necessary to have pumping equipment, whose capacity depended on the water flow and the distance to the irrigation areas. 5 For short distances and flat surfaces, flow pumps were used, whereas pressure pumps had to be used for longer distances and in cases where steep slopes had to be overcome.Apart from the pumping equipment, water supply systems were also used, which could consist of polyethylene hoses or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubes (both materials are acceptable for the supply system), with diameters ranging from 2.5 to 5 cm, to irrigate 0.71 ha. Besides the supply system, drip irrigation was implemented with wells.In the case of wells for animal consumption, the pump implemented was the rope pump, which is operated manually and is used when the well is 10 to 25 m deep. The water extracted was used to fill concrete sinks or drinking troughs, which were built close to the well so that the animals could have access to water.Type 3 infrastructure: sinks to collect spring waterThe most important step in the implementation of this type of work was the identification of farmers who would have a spring on their property with sufficient water flow 6 to grow crops. The infrastructure consisted of a dam built around the spring, with walls (made of mud bricks, iron structures, and concrete) no more than 4 meters long and 1.5 meters high, of which 0.5 meter was below ground and 1 meter above ground. The water is transported from the spring to the sink through polyethylene hoses of 1 inch in diameter. Then, it is further transported to the cultivated area, also through polyethylene hoses ranging from 1 to 1.5 inches according to the irrigation system and the crop.An extraordinary event that took place during the implementation process was a severe drought in May, June, and July of the 2014 crop cycle, which affected two departments (Madriz and Nueva Segovia) out of the four served by PROGRESA. Against this background, a diagnosis was carried out with the support of technical teams from the eight partnering organizations, and the results were dramatic.A decrease in groundwater levels was observed in the wells used for irrigation; some rivers and streams had dried out or their water flow decreased. The production of beef and milk was also affected, as were livestock's reproductive rates. The following also occurred: increased heat stress (impairment of the animal's well-being caused by excess heat); floral abortion (the flowers of crop plants prematurely fall off and this affects production); crop failure and a reduction in cultivated areas; undercapitalization of the households (selling livestock at low prices); reduction in biomass production; low income; an increase in pasture and crop pests; migration of people and livestock; and high costs of feed supplements.These adverse conditions were reflected in terrible losses of major cultivation areas of staple grains, such as maize (640 hectares) and beans (638 hectares), as well as losses of pasture areas (41 hectares), which affected the basic food basket and well-being of farmer households, which also ran out of financial resources to acquire seeds and agricultural inputs for the second crop. Furthermore, the animals lost weight and 1,119 died from a lack of fodder. This confirmed just how vulnerable to drought are the farmers served by the project.Drip irrigation on the farm owned by producer Tomás Cruz of the community of San Antonio de Padua, located in the municipality of Yalagüina.The water program represents the response of PROGRESA to the situation in which it was implemented, and it was an important measure to mitigate the impacts of climate change and variability on the area of intervention. Through the construction of 235 infrastructures, the resilience of the same number of families was increased (a total of 1,092 beneficiaries) to cope with possible droughts that could bring along -as has occurred in the past -a reduction in the yield of milk and beef production, floral abortion, crop failure, reduction of the cultivated areas, death of livestock, undercapitalization of the households, pests, among other adverse impacts that directly affect household income.Such infrastructures were very helpful to maintain enough soil moisture and prevent crop losses. As of June 2015, the project had built 45 sinks to collect spring water, with a total investment of US$86,087; a total of 112 hand-dug wells investing US$123,785; apart from 62 reservoirs constructed on farms, with a total investment of US$65,081, and 16 ponds with a total investment of US$80,000. As observed in Table 2, a total of US$354,953 was disbursed for the implementation of these water collection infrastructures. The story behind the numbers According to the statistics from the monitoring and evaluation system, as of March 2016, the project total sales amounted to US$29,954,362, of which US$19,680,015 (66%) corresponds to income reported by farmers using the irrigation systems fostered by the project and US$10,274,347 (34%) corresponds to the income of fruit and vegetable producers who irrigate their crops the traditional way. As for cropped areas, for fruits and vegetables, a total of 873 ha were cultivated, 445.2 (51%) using irrigation systems and 427.8 (49%) under the traditional way.It is important to mention that mayoral offices have been strong allies for the project. In many instances, the successful implementation of complementary works was achieved as a result of their support; such is the case of the improvement of access roads to the sites where the infrastructure was built, which, in turn, improved the conditions to get the products to the market.Water reservoir for vegetable irrigation in Sisle, Jinotega.One of the lessons learned is related to the need for building partnerships with the different actors who became involved and should take part in the implementation of these types of works. The first actor is the beneficiary, since without him the project loses its fundamental purpose; his financial contribution (30% of the total cost of works) was a significant complement that allowed for the construction of more infrastructure than originally planned, and a broader coverage in terms of the number of beneficiaries. On the other hand, the mayoral offices and MARENA played an important role because they not only provided support in the identification of optimal sites to implement the infrastructure, but, in some cases, they also became involved with significant contributions, such as plantlets for the reforestation of water recharge areas (e.g., the mayoral office of La Concordia, in Jinotega, provided more than 1,000 plantlets for that purpose).Moreover, the availability of financial resources has a direct influence on the size of the infrastructure.In addition, it is necessary to take into account environmental parameters, such as climate, soil conditions, and topography, as well as the knowledge of local people to build functional works and minimize the risks of a collapse that could damage the infrastructure and require more investments, as was the case of a reservoir built in the department of Nueva Segovia, on the farm of Ezequiel Rodríguez, located in the community of El Zapote, characterized by severe droughts, which was the reason why a small overflow channel, 1.5 m long and 0.5 m wide, was deemed enough to drain excess water. However, because of the unpredictability of rainfall (including heavy downpours), the overflow channel collapsed during the first rainy season, the trial period, and corrective measures had to be implemented, which translated into higher costs. Therefore, the designs should foresee this kind of situation, which entails allocating a greater share of the budget to build infrastructure with dimensions in line with new climatic conditions, or to reduce the total number of infrastructure works if resources are limited.Another lesson learned, regarded as a success factor, is related to the exchange of experiences and knowledge to strengthen the capacity of farmers as well as cooperatives and the partners' technical staff. The training plan implemented to become acquainted with the different water collection technologies, including visits to similar infrastructure (especially for water harvesting, which is somehow the most novel technology), enhanced the knowledge of the technical staff involved (technicians, advisors, and farmers), showing those features that should be replicated as well as the technical procedure for building it.Regarding risk factors to bear in mind for future initiatives, some infrastructure showed a delay in its implementation, because the workers failed to make the most out of the dry period to advance with the construction. In the case of ponds and reservoirs, during the rainy season, it becomes impossible to operate the heavy machinery required because the soils become saturated with water and this makes Onion production with drip irrigation in the community of Sacaclí, located in San Rafael del Norte.it difficult to maneuver the equipment; in addition, surface runoff increases the risk of destruction or deterioration of works in course.On the other hand, during the rainy season, there is a higher risk of obtaining misleading data regarding the depth of groundwater (i.e., the level of water found during the excavation process) and water flow.It is normal for groundwater levels to rise during the rainy season and be at a lower depth, while in the dry season the levels drop and the depth increases; thus, if the well was dug at a lower depth, there won't be water available when it is needed the most. Therefore, this infrastructure must be built during the dry season to be able to store water during the rainy season and start using it in the next dry season.Sink for water supply for irrigation. Community of Qubito, located in the municipality of Telpaneca.","tokenCount":"4471"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1d1487d0a1d4af6ba64d429843a30c24","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H041799.pdf","id":"-752046462"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f8edb171-93bf-4344-ad53-f91616c4b4d6","pagecount":"16","content":"The National River Linking Plan (NRLP) was designed to alleviate emerging water scarcity problems in India. Transfers of 'surplus' water from primarily Himalayan rivers to more 'deficient' peninsular rivers have been predicted to reduce imbalances in water availability in the country. The Himalayan component intends to transfer 33 km 3 and the peninsular component 141 km 3 of water through the combined network of 30 links, amounting to a total length of 14,900 km (GOI 1999). The proposed plan, if fully completed, will be the largest ever infrastructure project in the world, costing an estimated 120 Billion US Dollars. The additional benefits claimed by the NRLP include, flood control, drought mitigation, increased irrigation, additional food-grain production and electricity generation. The NRLP, however, remains a controversial issue in India. This is partially due to the non-transparent and, largely, uni-sectoral nature of water resources planning, which places the major focus on irrigation development, as well as a lack of confidence in the characterization of particular river basins as either 'surplus' or 'deficient'.The main objective of this present study is to independently evaluate the water availability as against the water demand in one of the NRLP links i.e., from the Godavari River (at Polavaram) to the Krishna River (at Vijayawada). This transfer is further referred to in the paper as the 'Polavaram Project'. The Godavari has been characterized as a 'surplus' basin whereas the Krishna Basin as a 'deficit' one (GOI 1999). In Indian engineering practice, 'surplus basins' are defined as those which have a positive balance: i) of 75 % assured annual river flow volume; and ii) in the total annual volume of all water demands, projected up to the year 2050. Basins which have a negative balance of the above two components are classified as 'water deficient'. The analysis to characterize the rivers is done using annual flows (GOI 1999). Smakhtin et al. 2007 have argued however, that this planning process adopted by the Indian Government has ignored the seasonal variability of flow within a year, which is extremely high in monsoon-driven Indian rivers. As a result, much more water is perceived to be originally available at a site of transfer than is the actual case. This paper attempts to examine whether the planned water transfers will satisfy the growing water demands in the Polavaram link command area as well as identify the link's impacts outside of the command area, and uses the Water Evaluation and Planning Model Version 21 (WEAP 21) for this exercise. Further, in order to examine the effects of seasonal variability, the analysis is done at a monthly time step. The main reason for selecting this particular link is because the Polavaram Project is to be implemented in the near future, regardless of other NRLP water transfers.The Godavari River is the second largest river in India with a catchment area of 312,812 km 2 and a long-term average annual surface flow of 110 km 3 , of which 76 km 3 is estimated as non-utilizable (NCIWRD 1999). The cultivable area in the basin is about 18.9 million ha. There are already two major diversion structures in the basin. The Sri Ram Sagar Project (upstream of Polavaram) and the Arthur Cotton Barrage (downstream of Polavaram) provide irrigation water to 390,000 ha and 170,000 ha, respectively, in the Lower Godavari Basin. Similar to other parts of India, the use of groundwater to meet irrigation water demands is also a common practice in the Basin. Based on annual water balance calculations as well as the current and projected (for 2025) water requirements, the Central Water Commission (CWC) has concluded that the Godavari Basin has sizeable surpluses that can be transferred to the water-deficit Krishna Basin.The Krishna River basin is the fourth largest in India with a total catchment area of 258,948 km 2 and a long-term average annual surface flow of 78 km 3 , of which 58.0 km 3 is considered to be utilizable (Amarasinghe et al. 2005). The cultivable area in the basin is about 20.3 million ha. Three large irrigation projects are operational in the basin. The Krishna Delta Project near Vijayawada, which is expected to directly benefit from the Polavaram water transfer, was constructed in 1852 (Figure 1), and was designed to irrigate 530,000 ha of land. The Krishna Delta plays a vital role in the rice economy of the nation and in addition to the major dam, a large number of informal irrigation sources such as groundwater tubewells, tanks and minor reservoirs are spread throughout the area. Due to the massive surface irrigation development and the rapid expansion of groundwater irrigation, the annual river flow at the Krishna outlet has decreased to approximately 36 % of its pre-development level, and certain studies have reported on the 'closure' of the basin (e.g., Biggs 2005).Several links have been proposed to transfer water from the Godavari to Krishna. Some of them are planned as parts of much longer transfers from the Himalaya to the peninsula. The most 'downstream' link -Polavaram (Godavari River) -Vijayawada (Krishna River) (Figure 1) -can, however, be seen as a 'local' project because the main aim of this link is to transfer, to an already water-deficient and over-utilized Krishna Delta, what is perceived as 'surplus' water from the more water-endowed Godavari River. Furthermore, the project is expected to reduce informal irrigation and the use of groundwater in the Krishna Basin.The climate in the command area of the Polavaram Project (Figure 1) varies from hot, semi-arid to sub-humid, to tropical. The monsoon season (known as kharif in India) extends from June to October, and the post-monsoon season (rabi) -from November to March with a usual annual dry spell during April to May. Average annual rainfall is 1,000 mm, with over 80 % falling during kharif due to southwest monsoons. The temperature varies from 44 0 C in May to 22 0 C in December. The overall population density in the command area is 543 persons per km 2 with 60 % of the population being dependent on agriculture (GoAP 2003).Figure 1 shows the proposed project including the site of the Polavaram Reservoir and the command area of the link canal. The project includes two canals, i.e., one on the right and one on the left bank of the Godawari River. The Polavaram -Vijayawada link command area is located on the right bank, with the link canal starting from the proposed Polavaram Reservoir. The left main canal will transfer 3,663 MCM (million cubic meters) for irrigation and industrial needs. The link canal on the right bank will divert 5,325 MCM for irrigation, domestic supply and industrial use. The planned Polavaram Dam is to have a live storage of 2,130 MCM. The annual total water use is, however, estimated to be 8,000 MCM. Since the planned storage is small in comparison to the water use, run-of-the-river flows will be utilized to ensure the expected benefits of the project. Thus the project will function more as a barrage combined with limited storage use. The project also includes a hydropower component (GOI 1999). It has been estimated that the proposed reservoir will submerge around 63,000 ha of land, which at present hosts 250 villages with a total population of 145,000 (Census 1991;GOI 1999;GOI 2006).The government feasibility report states that the total cultivable area of the Polavaram link canal is 139,740 ha. Of this area, 71 % (99,755 ha) is irrigated by bore wells, tanks and open head channels taking off from the river, and the balance 29 % (39,985 ha) is non-irrigated (GOI 1999). An independent survey conducted by Bhaduri et al. (2007) in the Polavaram area to assess the irrigation benefits, showed that these figures are outdated and that 95 % of the cultivated area in the link command area is under irrigation at present. Table 1 shows the different sources of irrigation in the link command area. Bhaduri et al. (2007) indicate that all cultivable area is irrigated and the remaining 5 % that is not irrigated is not under cultivation. Therefore, the assumption that 39,985 ha of new irrigated area will develop due to the link canal is overestimated, as the existing Sir Arthur Cotton Barrage in the Godavari, the Prakasham Barrage in the Krishna, and lift irrigation from the main river channel, all supply surface water to the Deltas. Therefore, most of the 'new area', which according to the feasibility study is to be brought under irrigation, already is being irrigated with groundwater and water from either tanks or canals. Table 1 shows that currently 84 % of the command area is irrigated with groundwater and 9 % by canals (Bhaduri et al. 2007).  Once the link is built, it is proposed that paddy, sugarcane, chilies and pulses should be planted -considering the soil suitability, agro-climatic conditions and local practices (GOI 1999). Furthermore, irrigated crop intensity, which is the ratio between irrigated crop areas (where double or triple cropping areas are counted twice or three times, respectively,) and the physical areas equipped for irrigation, is expected to reach 150 %. The current existing cropping pattern in the command area is dominated by paddy, sugarcane and tobacco during both the kharif and rabi seasons (Bhaduri et al. 2007). Increased upstream development, especially through the construction of reservoirs and irrigation systems in the Krishna, has resulted in a decline in downstream flows, which has affected the cropping patterns in the Krishna Delta. When enough water is available, usually two rice crops are grown per year, but in the Krishna it has been observed that during dry years, only one rice crop is grown with another less water intense crop being grown during the rabi season (Dr. Chandrashekhar Biradar, IWMI, pers. Comm.). In the Godavari Delta on the other hand, two paddy crops are grown but only with supplemental groundwater use.The Water Evaluation and Planning Model (WEAP), developed by the Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI), is designed to evaluate scenarios of water resources development and changes in the bio-physical and socioeconomic conditions of catchments over time (Yates et al. 2005). One of WEAP 21's strengths is that it places the demand side of the water balance equation on par with the supply side. In WEAP, water supply is defined by the amount of precipitation that falls on a catchment or a group of catchments. This supply is progressively depleted through natural processes, human demands and interventions, or enhanced through accumulations/storages. Thus, WEAP 21 adopts a broad definition of water demand, where the catchment itself is the first point of depletion through evapotranspiration. The core of the model is a water balance equation that includes components such as catchment-scale evaporation demands, rainfall-runoff processes, groundwater recharge and irrigation requirements. These are linked to the stream network and water allocation components (demand sites) via the WEAP 21 interface, where a stream network keeps track of water allocations and accounts for streamflow depletion and addition (Yates et.al. 2005). The model optimizes water use in a catchment using an iterative linear programming algorithm, the objective of which is to maximize the water delivered to demand sites, according to a set of user-defined priorities. All demand sites are assigned a priority between 1 and 99, where 1 is the highest priority and 99 is the lowest. When water is limited, the model progressively restricts water allocation to demand sites with lower priority. More details of the model are available in Yates. et al. (2007) and SEI (2001).In order to assess the benefits of the proposed Polavaram Project, two main scenarios were developed and simulated.• Scenario 1 -Reference Scenario: water use under the current supply and demand network. The water sources are groundwater and the river channel.• Scenario 2 -With the Polavaram Reservoir and link canal: water supply versus demand after the construction of the Polavaram Project. The water sources are the Polavaram Reservoir and link canal, groundwater and the river channel.As 95 % of the cultivable area is already under irrigation (Bhaduri et al. 2007), it was assumed that substantial increases in new irrigated area will not be possible. Therefore, in the two scenarios, the agricultural land in the link command area was kept constant. Figure 2 shows WEAP set up with the link canal and reservoir. In both the Krishna and Godavari Deltas, agriculture is still the major water user compared to domestic and industrial demands (Figure 3) and increased agricultural production is the main goal of the Polavaram Project. Therefore, the anticipated benefits of building the Polavaram Reservoir and the link canal system are mainly based on the improved water supply and the subsequent increases in cropping intensity  and yields. The effect of the Polavaram Project was tested by running the above two main scenarios under different crop rotation systems: i) paddy-paddy, ii) paddy-pulses (representing a low water intensity crop) and iii) sugarcane only. Each crop rotation condition was run with and without environmental flow (EF) requirements/demands. These cropping patterns reflect the regional practices of planting two paddy crops or only sugarcane if farmers perceive no water scarcity, and of planting paddy during monsoon and a low water intense crop (e.g., pulses, tobacco) during the dry season, under water-scarce conditions. The domestic, industrial and livestock water demands were kept constant in all runs. The scenario results were compared with each other and discussed in terms of unmet demands.The starting point of the analysis was the development of catchment water demands. The demands in the study area are from agriculture, domestic sector, industry, and livestock. Each demand in the model is represented by a node. Monthly water demands from each demand node need to be assigned a priority level and linked to its available supply sources. Domestic water demand was given the first priority, followed by agriculture, industry and livestock -in that order.In reality, each demand node also represents a certain geographical space. Therefore, in the model set up, the link canal command area was divided into sub-catchments based on a drainage map extracted from a digital elevation model (DEM). For the six sub-catchments (Figure 2 shows their boundaries) that fell under the link command area, demand nodes corresponding to agriculture and domestic demand were created. However, as livestock and industrial water demands were minimal, one demand node representing livestock and one demand node representing industrial demand were created for the entire command area. The demand data were available at mandal level (mandals are India's third-level administrative subdivisions after state and district) whereas in the model, the sub-catchment represents the hydrological demand unit. Therefore, the mandals in the command area were assigned to the six sub-catchments by merging them together using geographic information systems (GIS). The demand nodes which were closer to the supply sources were given higher priorities.The Agricultural water demand for each sub-catchment was calculated using the FAO Crop Requirements Method option in WEAP (FAO 1998). The domestic, livestock and industrial water demands were calculated using Indian government statistical reports (District at a Glance, 2003).Water demands outside the link command area and that could be affected by the proposed water transfer were also added to the model set up. These additional demands include:• Demands from mandals on the left bank command area of the Godavari River (Figure 1), based on the quantity of water to be transferred from the left bank canal (GOI 1999);• Irrigation demands from the Prakasham Barrage;• Irrigation demands from the Arthur Cotton Barrage.The irrigation command areas of the Arthur Cotton and Prakasham barrages lie in the Krishna and Godawari deltas, downstream of the proposed Polavaram Reservoir and command area (Figures 1, 2). These additional demand sites were not represented in the model as catchments but as sites where a fixed quantity of water was extracted from the supply sources on a monthly basis. Each demand site was assigned a priority that determined the water allocation order. In Scenario 1, the Arthur Cotton Barrage command area in the Godavari Delta was given a higher priority than the irrigation demands in the link command area catchments. In Scenario 2, however, the link command area demands were given higher priority than the lower delta.The supply sources built into the model were precipitation (for the catchments), surface water and groundwater. Precipitation was calculated based on the monthly data obtained from a climate station located in the Krishna Delta. Surface water flows in the Krishna and the Godavari were obtained from river gauging stations upstream of the Polavaram Project. Groundwater in the model was represented by a node and water availability was calculated based on the storage capacity and natural recharge values of the Andra Pradesh Groundwater Report (GoAP 1995;GoAP 2006). Simulations were conducted over the period from June 1991 to May 2005. The Polavaram Reservoir was simulated using the salient features published in the government feasibility report (GOI 1999). According to this report, the link canal is designed to transfer 5,325 MCM of water per annum. The proposed dam operating rules are not described at a monthly time step. Therefore, in the model, the reservoir releases were based on seasonal variations in water demand i.e., more water is transferred during the dry season.The EF requirements have been estimated using the desktop method described by Smakhtin and Anputhas (2006). The method takes into account the limitations of available hydrological and ecological information in India at present, but ensures that elements of natural flow variability are preserved in the estimated environmental flow time series, as required by the contemporary hydro-ecological theory. The method is based on the use of a flow duration curve -a cumulative distribution function of monthly flow time series. The curve is calculated for several categories of aquatic ecosystem protection -from 'largely natural' to 'severely modified', and the required EF volume and elements of flow variability are set to progressively reduce with the decreasing level of ecosystem protection. The EF calculated for the least acceptable category, Class D ('largely modified' rivers), was used in this analysis. In the model runs with EF requirements, the highest priority was given to environmental demands. The runs with EF requirements used a paddy-paddy and paddy-pulses rotation.Under the current water use system, the average annual unmet demand for the period from June 1991 to May 2005 in the command area of the link canal is 1,655 MCM for a paddy-paddy system. Figure 4 shows the monthly average unmet demands aggregated for agriculture, domestic use, industry and livestock for the link command area. The unmet demands occur in all months except July and August (peak of the monsoon), and are for surface water as no further withdrawal from groundwater is possible. The maximum withdrawal rates from groundwater were based on the storage capacity and groundwater recharge rates for the area. Changing cropping patterns may decrease the unmet demands. For example, planting only one paddy crop during the rainy season and pulses (a low water intensity crop) during a rabi season will decrease water deficits up to 51 % (Figure 4). As expected, giving EF (even very small ones -corresponding to the least acceptable environmental Class D) a high priority in the water allocation scheme, increased the unmet demands for other users (agriculture, industry, domestic). The unmet demands are highest for the simulation, which combines paddy-paddy rotation and EF requirements (Figure 4).Annual demands from the Arthur Cotton Barrage are 8,199 MCM for irrigation and 378 MCM for domestic and industrial use (GOI 1999). Assuming these demands are coupled with a paddy-paddy cropping system, the mean annual simulated unmet demand for the command area of the Arthur Cotton Barrage in the Godavari Delta would be 818 MCM. This constitutes 10 % of the mean total annual demand. The model also considered loss and reuse during transmission. For the areas outside of the Polavaram link command area, groundwater information was not available. Therefore, the demands in the model were linked to surface water supplies. Bhanduri et al. (2007) showed that groundwater is used in this area (Table 1). Consequently, the unmet demands at present are probably being met by groundwater extraction. The water deficit in the Godavari Delta is in the rabi and dry seasons (December to May -Figure 5). There is no deficit in the months from June to November. Therefore, the analysis shows that although there may be surplus water during the kharif season, in other months, there is a deficit in the Godavari Delta, which is being met by groundwater. In the area supplied by the Prakasham Barrage in the Krishna, the annual total demand is 5,139 MCM (GOI 1999). The model calculated 27 MCM of annual average unmet demand after 2003. Similarly, 2,057 MCM mean annual unmet demand were calculated for the left bank command area in the Godawari. Similar to the Arthur Cotton Barrage command area, water deficit in the left bank command area is only in the rabi and dry seasons (December to May, Figure 5). In order to check if EF requirements are met in the Krishna under present conditions, the estimated EF for Class D were plotted against measured flow from the gauging station at Vijayawada (Figure 6). The Vijayawada gauge is downstream of the Prakasham Barrage. As can be seen from Figure 6, the situation in recent years has worsened as more water is being used upstream for various purposes. Annual analysis for the Godavari showed that within the 14-year modeling period, the EF requirements are not met during the dryer years (based on rainfall data). Figure 7 illustrates that the unmet EF requirements are highest in June, when water demand for agriculture is high. The unmet EF plot seen in Figure 7 is simulated with a paddy-paddy cropping pattern. Delays in the onset of the rainy season will affect water availability for EF. Paddy sowing was assumed to start in June, therefore, if the monsoon does not start in June, irrigation water demand will increase. The EF for class D is met from August to November.  The simulations with the link canal and reservoir show that within the link command area, there are minimal unmet demands for agriculture, domestic, and livestock requirements (Figure 8). Figure 9 shows monthly average unmet demand (for 1991-2004) for agriculture, domestic use, industry and livestock for the link command area under different cropping  patterns as well as with EF requirements. The unmet demands occur during the period from December to June and changing the cropping pattern to paddy-pulses almost nullifies the unmet demands, which exist under other crop rotations (Figure 9). This is definitely an improvement for the link command area compared with Scenario 1 (Figure 4). Introducing EF for the downstream of the Krishna and the Godavari, especially coupled with a paddy-paddy cropping pattern, increases the unmet demands during the months of January till June (Figure 9). When comparing these values to Scenario 1 in Figure 4, one can conclude that although the water deficit situation improves within the link command area, if and when EF requirements are set, there will be a deficit in the link command area under a paddy-paddy cropping system.The mean annual unmet demand for the left bank command area was 799 MCM and the Arthur Cotton command area was 5,270 MCM. Compared to Scenario 1, water deficit is smaller for the left bank command area, but higher for the Arthur Cotton Barrage command area, which is expected since water in the Godawari is being stored and diverted to the Polavaram command area. As with the current situation (Scenario 1), the water deficit in the Arthur Cotton command area is only in the rabi and summer seasons (December to May). The unmet demands situation for the Prakasham Barrage irrigation area shows improvement as there was no water deficit, with the exception of the year 2003, which was a particularly dry year. This water deficit occurs again only in March and can be alleviated by growing pulses or another lower water-intensive crop during the rabi season. Therefore, the analysis with the link canal (Scenario 2) showed that although the pressure on water resources within the left and right bank command area reduces, there will be increased deficit in the Arthur Cotton command area. This deficit is however, only during the rabi and summer seasons. In this analysis (Scenarios 1 and 2), demands from the mandals in the link command area were also supplied with groundwater but, due to lack of groundwater recharge data from the Arthur Cotton Barrage, Prakasham Barrage and the left bank command area, demands were linked to surface water availability. In reality, however, a part of the unmet demand used in the analysis is met by groundwater. It is possible that increased aquifer recharge due to irrigation in the Polavaram link command area will provide additional groundwater resources for the lower delta where the Arthur Cotton Barrage command area is located. However, more studies are necessary to make accurate predictions on the sustainability of groundwater use. A key objective of the Polavaram Project is also to reduce groundwater use. Therefore, if groundwater pumping in the lower delta is increased (due to less water delivered), in order to maintain the existing levels of agricultural production, then this objective will not be met and the pressure on the natural aquifers will increase.Figure 10 shows a graph of simulated storage volumes for the Polavaram Reservoir. The monthly net evaporation as published in the government feasibility report was used to calculate the evaporation losses from the reservoir. The reservoir reaches the inactive zone (3,381 MCM) during every dry season, which means that the water stored during each monsoon season will be utilized during the dry season of that same year. The reservoir storage capacity does not provide storage nor ensure water for inter-annual variations.Analysis for the Godavari showed that within the 14-year modeling period, the EF requirements were not met during June in 1993, 1997, 2000 and 2003. In the simulation presented in Figure 11, EF requirements were set under a paddy-paddy cropping pattern where paddy sowing was set to start in June. Therefore, as the agriculture demands during this month are high, and if the monsoon rains that start usually in June are delayed, there will be unmet demands for agriculture as well as for environmental requirements. In both scenarios, June has the highest unmet EF for the Godavari. The storage in the Polavaram, as mentioned above, is utilized within each year, therefore, in this case, the reservoir also does not provide water to compensate for delays in the onset of the monsoon rains. The EF requirement situation, which is more critical in the Krishna (Figure 6), does not improve after the link and water transfer, as most of the water that is transferred will be utilized for en route irrigation demands. In the Krishna, the highest unmet EF demands are also in June and July -at the start of the monsoon season.This study suggests that water resources management in the region has to be done on a seasonal basis by taking monthly variability into consideration. The simulations show that the proposed Polavaram Reservoir and link canal will reduce the seasonal pressure on water resources for the proposed command area of the reservoir. However, this will result in increased water deficits during rabi and summer months in the Lower Godavari Delta, which is being supplied through the Arthur Cotton Barrage. Therefore, water deficits may simply be transferred from one area to another. The water deficits exist only in the dry months. Changing cropping patterns, such as planting paddy during the monsoon and a low water intensive crop such as pulses in the dry season in the link command area, will decrease unmet demands for the Lower Godavari Delta. However, this will not be enough to continue the present water use patterns in the Arthur Cotton command area.Similarly, the need to ensure EF should also be considered in the context of seasonal variability, as it is mostly in the dry months that the water allocation problems become critical. In the Godavari, it will not be possible to meet EF requirements in June, just before the start of the monsoon if the onset of the rainy season is delayed. Meeting EF requirements in the Krishna is a bigger problem than in the Godavari and the situation is not likely to improve even after the Polavaram Project, as most of the water that is being transferred will be used for en route irrigation. In this study, the analysis for the transfer is done purely in hydrological terms as the main justification for the NRLP is based on the transfer of 'surplus' waters to 'deficit' basins. It is however, also recommended to integrate economic analysis into the assessment, whereby the benefits of the project's incremental water supply can be compared against the losses (e.g., second season rice crop in the Godavari Delta). The planning of water transfer schemes should also consider the land and production loss, displacement costs and other impacts associated with water infrastructure development. Despite many attempts, it was not always possible for the authors to acquire the best input data available and, as such, a number of assumptions had to be made. Available economic and social analysis information looks similarly fragmented (GOI 1999).Inter-basin water transfers have been an integral part of water resources management all over the world. However, without careful integrated planning and analysis, the proposed highinvestment schemes might not be able to operate as planned and eventually might not deliver the expected long-term benefits.","tokenCount":"4883"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1658f65d5310376a1cfbe197fa3f0732","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9a153b92-1d90-40d5-9fd6-c2cd7d6a82e1/retrieve","id":"-1253152647"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6546cd06-5a61-4401-9d91-48abc71a9378","pagecount":"3","content":"In several workshop/webinar sessions the findings of our CCAFS research were presented. Consequently, the Dutch Ministry of LNV defined and financed a follow-up project on food-system issues on FLW and relation with climate: \"Food Systems Approach: Food Losses & Waste\".In January to March 2021 the Dutch ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality LNV organized several webinar on Food Loss and Waste (FLW) for all Agricultural Counsellors worldwide. WUR was asked by LNV to share its rich experience on the relation between FLW and climate mitigation and gave presentations on the relation between FLW and Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGE's) during the plenary sessions. These presentations,, combined with previous discussions and the adoption of the Food System approach by LNV, triggered LNV to rethink its approach on FLW reduction and initiated a project on food systems perspective on FLW and associated GHG emissions reduction.• https://www.dropbox.com/sh/sr727cukrlrs62k/AACjLSkoWHP7s1cUk4knnfYha?dl=0Part II: CGIAR system level reporting The general results achieved in the underlying research, including the ACE calculator and case studies.• 1880 -A variant of the Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emissions (ACE) calculator, including specific operation in rice chains, and simplified for target users (extension services) (https://tinyurl.com/2jeuth9o)• 1879 -Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emissions (ACE) calculator: user-friendly and accessible tool for rapid assessment of net climate impact effect of food loss reducing interventions (https://tinyurl.com/2gjj7jdh)Based on the findings in the CCAFS project LNV rethink its approach on FLW reduction, more stressing the relevancy of food systems and food chain approach. Through presentations we showed that a FLW significantly affects food security and that reducing intervention often benefits multiple actors along the chain, consequently a food chain approach is essential to come to practical solutions. Jeanet Smids -Goosen (LNV): \"Based on WFBR's work we draw the main conclusion that reducing FLW is a priority for food security, as it is for climate change.\" Hans Hoogeveen: \"Based on WFBR's work the following advice is given by me in my role as an Ambassador and Permanent Representative of the Netherlands to the UN Organizations for Food and Agriculture and in my role as a Champion 12.3: -Reducing FLW is not only a priority for food security but moreover for climate change, it contributes to SDG 12 and SDG 13. Actions should target regions and stages in the supply chain with high levels of loss and waste and supply chains with high emissions, e.g., dairy, meat, rice, fruits and vegetables -Most FLW reduction interventions induce additional GHGE, the total balance should more than be positive.\"","tokenCount":"410"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e407216321fbc438c298f041ead918c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e1189a01-18b5-4760-ac1b-e568f48bdaf1/retrieve","id":"193356001"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2d94f4fb-e4bc-436a-966c-8cb8278747e4","pagecount":"38","content":"The limited progress in improving livelihoods of smallholder farmers and pastoralists is challenging the international, sub-regional and national agricultural research community to have greater impact. A technology exhibition and workshop, organized by the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in 2002 concluded that the technologies which have been developed by international, national and sub-regional research organizations were not benefiting the rural population to the extent desired. Based on this, ILRI in collaboration with other research organizations was asked to design a project which would lead to increased uptake and impact of technologies for smallholder farmers and pastoralists. Following the Ethiopian government's newly introduced strategy, the project was to focus on market orientated agricultural development, including private sector involvement. Based on these general directions, the IPMS project was designed as a research for development project, to be implemented in Pilot Learning Woredas (PLW), aimed at assisting the MoARD to develop a more efficient system to give a fillip to market-oriented agricultural development.This document, in the following sections, proposes the program of work from April 2006 to end of March 2007. The plan was developed on the basis of the Project Implementation Plan (PIP) as well as the lessons learned during the first year of implementation. The plan takes into consideration activities planned by \"sister\" projects, in particular the newly formulated Rural Capacity Building Project (RCBP).The project's core principle is that market-led development is essential for agricultural growth. Appropriately designed and adopted, such a strategy is believed to lead to equitable growth which can benefit poor men and women farmers and pastoralists. The Government of Ethiopia also adopted market orientation as a pivotal strategy, in addition to the emphasis on food security and natural resource management.Farmers, the MoARD/Regional Governments and the Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research have been the key players in agricultural development in the country. Even though they would continue to play a key role, it appears opportune now to involve the private sector and other actors to become important partners in the agricultural development process. With evolving challenges and changing needs of the time, it might be important for the Government and other public sector actors to join hands with the private sector and exploit the latter's capacities and competencies to address the needs which can be efficiently and effectively addressed by them, leaving the public sector to play a more strategic role.Casting the net wider to engage a broader set of actors to achieve developmental objectives is an integral part of an Innovation Systems Approach (ISA), which has been adopted by IPMS for its research and development activities. ISA is usually taken to describe the procedures and institutions needed to ensure that scientific results/available formal and informal knowledge are able to contribute to social and economic development. The recourse to this approach was influenced by the fact that:  It helps identify and understand the web of actors in a system (involved in the creation, diffusion, adaptation and use of all types of knowledge relevant to agricultural development) and how they function both individually and collectively. In looking at the web of actors, it can be seen that a broad framework of actors outside the public domain have an important role the relative importance of actors changes during the innovation process as circumstances change and as actors learn, roles can evolve actors can play multiple roles  It helps understand how actors interact in the process of generating and sharing information in different ways learning from each other changing their roles and relationships  It helps understand the critical nature of enabling policy and institutional environment to support pro-poor, equitable and sustainable innovation and development processes enabling multi-directional flows of information and development of feedback loops that can enhance competence building, learning and adaptationThe existing system mostly uses a linear, top-down/non-participatory, transfer of technology (ToT) model in which knowledge generated by the research system is transferred to the farmers through the extension system using a \"package approach\". This approach has not brought about the desired results and the need for new operational models is becoming evident. Generally, the right configuration of actors which is needed for innovation to happen is not present, or actors do not interact in a way that supports the process of innovation. Enhancing the capacity of public institutions and private sector including farmers to forge new linkages and to develop and implement new approaches and methods to utilize available knowledge is very essential. The IPMS project therefore, is investing heavily in capacity building. This is expected to pave the way for stimulating and enhancing innovation capacity, to change the habits and practices so that new linkages are formed and productive interactions are fostered.In Ethiopia, the supply of agricultural inputs and services has been dominated by the public sector (MoARD), which often led to a poor service delivery due to a number of organizational and institutional constraints. IPMS is placing considerable emphasis on developing private sector involvement in input marketing in PLWs. Such development includes capacity building, provision of credit and technical assistance.Knowledge management for the actors involved in the agricultural sector is a critical factor that would accelerate agricultural development. The objective of IPMS is to improve access to relevant (tacit and codified) knowledge by bringing relevant actors together for exploiting it for social and economic change. It was noted that little or no modern knowledge management is practiced in the MoARD. IPMS is therefore placing considerable emphasis on developing various knowledge management mechanisms and processes in the Pilot Learning Woredas with linkages to regional and federal levels.All interventions will be studied by project staff and partners through action research and learning, complemented by special studies to define interventions and to determine key factors influencing their adoption and impact.The ultimate beneficiaries of the research are the smallholder farmers and pastoralists in Ethiopia, and during the project life, smallholders in the PLWs are expected to increase market oriented production and productivity from the project interventions.The results of this research will be translated into a set of policy recommendations, approaches, methods, analytical tools and training materials. The intended users of the research outputs are government, non-governmental and private sector organizations, as well as donor organizations that are involved in market oriented agricultural development. These actors in turn are expected to use these outputs for scaling out to other Woredas. The lessons learned will also be documented as research outputs for possible use of market orientated agricultural development efforts in relevant contexts outside Ethiopia.After an inception phase during which the PIP was developed and approved, the IPMS project started implementation in April 2005. The first year of project implementation was officially completed in March 2006.To increase institutional involvement, two additional Agricultural State Ministries (Marketing and Inputs, and Natural Resource Management) and EIAR were included in the project's management structure.The project team consulted with the Advisory and Learning Committees at national, regional and Woreda levels and interacted with project research and development stakeholders through participation in national and regional research review meetings and follow up meetings with individual scientists on various occasions during the previous year. The feedback from this, coupled with the experiences in implementing various activities in the PLWs, was used to distill some lessons. These together with some potential IPMS responses are presented below.(i) IPMS in the past year has established credible networks in the PLWs, valuing different knowledge and providing effective platforms for actor interactions. Several innovative processes and approaches for knowledge management, innovation capacity building, market oriented technology application and input/output marketing have been introduced based on the needs identified in the different PLWs. Lessons from the different PLWs have been shared during the recent NALC workshop held in Mekelle and will be documented. These innovations will be further developed in the PLWs together with new emerging ones. Simultaneously, promising innovations will be expanded to other PLWs. This is reflected in the program of work presented under the different project components.(ii) It is fair to say that many of these innovations in the initial phase were \"driven\" by project staff, rather than the public sector partners. This was highlighted during the NALC workshop, which called for increased institutional involvement. However for such institutional involvement to take place, the capacity and willingness to innovate has to be developed. It has been realized, during the course of the year, that not all the key national actors and stakeholders understand/appreciate/accept the project principles and approaches. This is very critical for IPMS as the project purpose is \"to strengthen the effectiveness of the Government's effort to transform agricultural productivity and production, and rural development in Ethiopia\". The IPMS project has a finite role and life, and looks up to the national institutions and actors for adopting and scaling out the successful approaches, processes, methods and lessons learned through the project. This can only become possible if the government stakeholders adopt a new way of operating, in particular adopting an innovation system perspective as an organizing principle for market oriented agricultural research and development.The project, therefore, intends to emphasize the strategies to increase the response capacity and the increased involvement of the Ethiopian agricultural research and development stakeholders in the project's activities in the second year, The public sector actors need to develop capacities to:understand the enabling environment required to allow actors (farmer organizations, private sector) to play their role provide information/knowledge management system to better inform all actors create enabling institutional arrangements to make input supply more privatized, easier and more efficient provide support for programs to ensure the quality and safety of products from the poorThe project intends to improve the institutionalization of the project activities by strengthening the Advisory and Learning Committees with staff which have /will receive project sponsored MSc and BSc training in local Universities. This will require commitment from the PLWs and regions to keep such staff posted in the project areas. IPMS will identify change agents and champions at various levels within public sector and work with them to build their capacities. IPMS will also explore the possibilities of developing farmer organizations and/or other community based organizations as champions of change.(iii) Closely related to the institutionalization is the scaling out issue. The present IPMS way of operation depends on specially recruited project research and development officer. As explained before, the project has a finite life and responsibilities for scaling out should be in the hands of government as well as non government partners. Testing the scaling out of project results to other districts, through different partners, was therefore identified as an appropriate strategy. The project therefore proposed to expand the number of Woredas from 8 to 12 in the coming years, i.e. one additional site in each Region. These new Woredas were proposed to be used to test scaling out of approaches, processes, methods used and lessons learned in the initial 8 Woredas. IPMS proposed that the responsibility for project implementation in these Woredas would lie with the Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and Rural Development, the Regional Agricultural Research Institutes and the OoARD of the selected additional Woredas. The role of the IPMS project in these additional Woredas would be advising and monitoring and the provision of funds for project implementation. In the National Advisory and Learning Committee (NALC) Workshop held in March 2006 in Mekelle, national and regional participants advised that it may be too early to start scaling out. The development of commodity specific technology and input output marketing is only starting and lessons are still being learned on approaches, processes and tools. Neither are they totally convinced that the innovation system approach is the only alternative; i.e the Pilot Learning Woredas (PLW) will have to provide proof of this concept, demonstrating that a more market oriented development is taking place. The specific project activities that will address the above are shown below grouped in the specific areas of expected project outputs prepared early in the PIP.Knowledge requirements will be identified throughout the year and be based on demands from farmers and other stakeholders.IPMS will continue to assemble, capture and synthesize knowledge from project activities being carried out in each Pilot Learning Woreda (PLW) and bring new information/knowledge that may be of relevance to each PLW. Analysis and prognosis gained from the baseline surveys conducted at the start of the project will be made available through various meansincluding the project website. The national agriculture portal (see 140) will be used extensively to document and make available information/knowledge on the agricultural commodities promoted in each PLW. The content manager group (see 135) will actively contribute to this effort.Enabling processes and mechanisms are critical for better knowledge dissemination and use. Institutionalization of processes and mechanisms that have proved useful in test scenarios will be one area where the project will devote its resources. Below are some such examples:The Tigray technology exhibition/workshop held in March 2006 was received with great enthusiasm by the regional authorities and indications are that such exhibitions may be repeated at District (Woreda) level. In particular the involvement of farmers and private sector in the exhibition as well as additional funding mechanisms that augmented the support from IPMS show the commitment of the region to partner with IPMS to bring about shared outcomes. The project will monitor/document the process and impact of the Tigray technology exhibitions as part of its research activities (see 400 series). In addition, IPMS will facilitate a similar technology exhibition/ workshop in the other 3 Regions.During the first year, the project initiated the establishment of Woreda Knowledge Centers (WKC) in the OoARD. These centers will have both electronic and print publications to support the knowledge/information needs of Woreda experts in each PLW. They will also be promoted as venues for face-to-face discussion (knowledge sharing) among practitioners in each Woreda. To further facilitate knowledge dissemination in these venues, the project will complement existing information resources in WKCs with additional training materials as well as TVs and DVD players where various training resources will be screened. The centers will also be available for use by other partners for similar endeavors. For example, market information systems are planned by government and quasi-government marketpromotion agencies in Tigray and the South and both periodic as well as general reports from these entities will be available in the WKC. The PLWs will be encouraged to broaden the utility of these centers to meet the needs of the Woreda agriculture stakeholders. The project will also provide some assistance in maintenance and repair of the designated buildings to bring these to a condition conducive for the intended use. Training will be provided to the staff of these centers in basic ICT tools and basic library/information center operations. The centers are scheduled to become operational by the third quarter. Four centers will be established in the newly selected Woredas in the first quarter of 2007.IPMS will monitor/document the process and impact of the WKC as part of its research activities (see 400 series).In the coming year, most FTCs are expected to become operational in all PLWs. The project will facilitate the use of as many of these centers as possible for disseminating knowledge on HIV/AIDS, market information and technologies. This may be done by providing posters, demonstration materials, or screening of training materials via portable TVs and DVD players. This will be coordinated with other stakeholders in this field, in particular marketing agencies, NGOs and HAPCO. IPMS will monitor/document the process and impact of the FTCs as knowledge centers as part of its research activities (see 400 series).In the first year, the project introduced the concept of CoP for staff of the agricultural offices at the Woreda level in two PLWs. This concept will be introduced in the other 6 PLW.The CoPs are intended to help develop a culture of knowledge sharing and collaborative problem solving among Ethiopian agricultural stakeholders. The project focus in 2006/07 will be to promote and support the development of CoPs among the Woreda office of agriculture staffincluding DAs. Based on the lessons we learn from these endeavors, similar concepts will be promoted at regional and federal levels.IPMS will monitor/document the process and impact of the CoP as part of its research activities (see 400 series).In the past year, the project developed an agricultural portal for the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) in which relevant information for a market-oriented agricultural development can be entered. To a large extent, the success of this portal will depend on an active and sustainable participation of the staff of MoARD (especially experts in various commodity areas) in making sure the portal will always have current, relevant, and actionable information and knowledge assets. This requires the establishment of \"content managers group\" from the MoARD and a clearly defined set of processes that foster continuous upkeep and improvement of the agriculture portal. Appropriate sensitization and training will be provided to the content managers group. It is important to note that the demand for market information is considered to be of great importance. Inclusion of staff from the market information division (to be established in the near future) in the content manager group is therefore essential.IPMS will monitor/document the process and impact, including the portal upgrading by the content managers group as part of its research activities (see 400 series).The feedback the project got from study tours conducted during the past year was very positive and it is felt that such tours bring about much needed insight and \"new\" reference frameworks for participants and indirectly to a broader audience when the lessons of the tours are shared effectively. The project will facilitate targeted study tours as one more means of experience and knowledge sharing during this year.Forums will be organized with discussants invited from countries with relevant experience, to share experience, progress and plan actions in a two-way flow. IPMS will explore possibilities of inviting some key people from other countries to look at IPMS from their perspective and give some external \"review\" ideas.A portion of the equipment and hardware needed for upgrade of the data center is currently under procurement. The upgrade is expected to be operational in July 2006. Relevant application, productivity, database, and web software tools will be made available throughout the year.Effective internal and external communication is one of the key enablers that increase the effectiveness and efficiency of MoARD to respond to its own needs and the needs of its \"clients\". Effective communication includes a range of interrelated factors including people, processes, technology, and organizational setup. IPMS project will facilitate some of this by leveraging the upgraded data center infrastructure to introduce better e-mail, intranet, and internet connectivity to the Ministry. Some of these tools are expected to be operational by September 2006including training of appropriate staff that will be charged with supporting the established system.The portal which was developed during year one (see 136) is expected to be maintained with current, relevant, and actionable information and knowledge assets by the content managers in the MoARD. IPMS will upload selected documents to the portal to test operational efficiency and serve as examples (guidelines) for more extensive content uploads. This test phase is expected to be completed by July 2006. Upon completion of the data center upgrade at the MoARD, the portal and all associated hardware and software will be moved to the ministry and data center. The portal is meant to be accessed by all stakeholders with an Internet connection. It can be updated and maintained remotely (with proper authentication) using any Internetconnected web browser. The content managers group will be responsible for maintaining the portal is the content managers group. IPMS will facilitate this process by providing technical assistance and contributing relevant information and knowledge assets from its PLW research and development activities.It has been noted by IPMS that within the MoARD, the development of a content structure has been in progress for some time. However no structure is operational at this point in time. The portal can be adapted/used to include any other information considered essential for the development of the agricultural sector in Ethiopia. As mentioned earlier the portal can/should also be used to link up with any market information linkages developed in the MoARD and elsewhere.The ENRAEMED meta database is developed by Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources can be used to document the metadata on all spatial and non-spatial information resources (both printed and electronic) in easily searchable formats. This tool can go a long way in giving visibility to the information resources available at various organizational units of the MoARD and the IPMS project plans to promote the adoption of this tool by all organizational units under the MoARD, BoARD in the project regions, and relevant Woreda-level entities.Training will be provided to regional staff from the BoARDs and RARIs to access the agricultural portal and ENRAEMED meta database. Possibilities for engaging Regional content managers will be explored/operationalized in the last quarter of 2006. Provision of CDs and regular updates of the agricultural portal (on CDs) will take place during the year (until fast access is possible).During the past year, computers and printers have been provided for 8 PLWs. Appropriate computer training is being provided for several staff members in each Woreda to enable them to take full advantage of the tools provided. While one computer has been placed in each Woreda Knowledge Center (WKC), more may be provided if initial monitoring and evaluations reveal the demand and a favorable return on investment.In the first quarter of 2007, additional four PLWs are expected to be provided with similar ICT tools as part of the test in the scaling up process.It has been noted by IPMS that the \"Capacity Building for the Agricultural Sector Project\" (CBAS) now known as \"Rural Capacity Building Project\" (RCBP) has proposed an ICT strengthening component, which is intended to be tested in 100 Woredas. It is expected that the experience gained in the IPMS sites will be of direct benefit to this RCBP project.IPMS will provide technical assistance to facilitate internet access through WoredaNet and/or land lines and budgetary support (limited to a fixed number of hours each month until the next GoE budget year). Contents of the agriculture portal may be provided on CDs, DVDs, and/or external hard drives to facilitate access to the portal content until direct online access to the portal becomes feasible.Objective: To build, test and strengthen gender balanced capacity of existing public and private organizations and individuals (farmers, pastoralist, traders) engaged in the agricultural sector to foster institutional learning and change so that new collaborative arrangements across sectors and levels are developed to better support the dissemination, use and impact of market oriented agricultural technologies and information.The project will continue to develop and influence the skills, behavior and attitude of the actors in the agricultural innovation system to enable them to innovate/invent, link/partner/network and learn with each other. In the PIP, building this capacity of the public sector and private sector partners and the farmers was split into two objectives i.e. 200 and 300. During the first year of implementation, it was realized by the project partners 1 that conceptually it was better to consider the capacity development of the different actors in one objective (the 200 series) since a major aim is to learn from and link with each other. This change, which will not affect the project's activities, outputs and outcomes, has therefore been introduced in the definition of this objective (see above).During the first year (spontaneous) innovations took place in the capacity building activities itself by way of introducing/using different approaches, tools and methods 2 (as compared to the traditional ways of capacity building). The project will document the outcomes and scaling out of some of these innovations (including the processes involved from introduction to the actual adoption) as one of its research activities (see 400 series) and also initiate some experimentation based on some promising approaches/methods emerging from the first year's experiences (also see 400 series).To embed the innovation systems perspective into the agricultural sector, IPMS planned to focus some of its activities on the educational organizations responsible for developing the capacity of public sector staff.A choice was made during the project planning phase to focus on the Technical Vocational and Education Training (TVET) Colleges since they are responsible for providing a 3-year training to Development Agents (DA). It is noted that the RCBP is also supporting the TVETs. IPMS is already closely working with the CIDA funded gender component of the TVETs and will also liaise closely with the RCBP once the project becomes operational.During this year, IPMS has become increasingly aware of the need for strengthening the capacity of higher education institutions, especially to introduce new knowledge on subjects, research approaches and tools. The project will explore the possibilities for strengthening the support to these organizations with the help of IFPRI/ISNAR.To increase the TVETs capacity to support market oriented development using innovative extension methods, IPMS will provide in-service courses for TVET instructors in the following topics:-innovative extension -agricultural marketing -environment -gender and HIV (in collaboration with the CIDA gender expert)Courses will be around one week each and be attended by participants from the Regional and Federal TVETs (25 in total). In addition, efforts will be made to integrate the gender and HIV issues (in collaboration with the CIDA gender expert) and, innovative market-oriented extension approaches into the TVET curriculum. Once this is accomplished, the delivery of these new aspects of the curriculum will be tested in one or two TVETs.As indicated above, the TVETs were created to train Development Agents to fill the diagnosed deficit in skilled manpower at the village level 3 (Peasant Association -(PA). This training of additional staff will be completed in 2 years time, after which the role of the TVETs will be modified. The present thinking is to use the TVETs in future for: Training of Development Agents (to replace the ones leaving the system)  Training of non-government staff in various agricultural subjects in 1, 2 or 3 year programs (trainees to be self employed or employed in the private sector)Only one TVET -Alage, has been selected to continue with training of \"replacement\" DAs. The project will therefore focus its support for MSc training for this Federal level TVET. A total of 5 candidates will be sponsored in the following \"IPMS\" fields: extension, agricultural marketing/ economics, gender, environmental assessment and knowledge management/IT.During the year, TVET students and instructors will be attached to PLWs for specific short term research and development tasks as required.During the last quarter of the year, regional and federal level TVETs will be linked to the NAIRC through an introductory workshop. Possibilities for linking specific TVETs for content management will be explored during that workshop.So far no formal program for introducing new concepts and tools has been initiated with the Universities. In the past year, project staff did however interact intensively with University staff through joint supervision of project sponsored MSc thesis research. This is expected to intensify through the development and supervision of thesis research on innovative extension and market chain analysis (starting upon completion of the second semester MSc course -October 2006).Possibilities for providing \"formal\" support to strengthen the University's capacity will be explored in close collaboration with IFPRI/ISNAR, which has started some joint activities on innovation system approaches as well as agricultural marketing training with Alemaya University.In 2005, a total of 48 MSc positions were offered to staff members of the four For 2006, the project proposes 4 to operationalize 4 additional PLW, one in each Regional State (also see 300). A total (including the 2005 candidates) of 6 positions shall be offered to each PLW, totaling 72 fellowships. Each Regional BoARD will be offered four fellowships, totaling 16, while 5 positions are made available at the federal level for extension, agricultural marketing/economics, gender, environment, knowledge management/IT. This will bring the total number of MSc fellowships offered in 2005/06 to 98 (including the 5 TVET fellowships). The percentage distribution shall be 73.5% to PLWs, 16.3% to Regional BoARD and 10.2% to Federal BoARD and one ATVET.While the training will build the skills of the staff as individuals, it is also expected that they become members of the change teams assisting the WALCs and RALCs in facilitating and implementing the change processes (also see 413).During the first year, building the capacity of public sector research and development partners, involved joint (all levels) awareness training/creation in innovative extension, agro business/seed enterprise development, HIV/AIDS and gender. This training will be followed up in year 2 with innovation system awareness workshops and workshops on knowledge management and IT. These will be scheduled during 2 and 4 quarters of the reporting year.In two PLWs, the project organized stakeholder awareness and planning workshops on HIV/AIDS and gender, based on PLW-specific findings from the gender and HIV studies. This resulted in an action plan for addressing these issues in the IPMS project in particular and in the woredas in general, identifying appropriate partnerships to accomplish this. Similar workshops will be completed by the second quarter of 2006 in the remaining six PLWs. An experience sharing workshop, bringing together relevant stakeholders from all PLWs, will be organized in the last quarter.The project is planning to provide a 3 day skills training on innovation system concepts and principles, tools for understanding, monitoring and documentation of innovation processes for staff from the national and regional agricultural research institutions and project staff. The project is also planning a 2 day skills training on environmental assessment for project staff and natural resource management staff from the federal, regional and PLW level. The training will also include staff from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is the regulatory authority for environmental issues in Ethiopia.Several market chain studies have been initiated in the past year by project staff, international partners and MSc students. In the coming year, additional studies are planned (see 400) in close collaboration with national and regional research and marketing agency staff. To prepare these stakeholders, a skills training combined with on the job training on market chain analysis will be provided.To develop and implement a market oriented R&D program in PLWs, IPMS has been using GIS as a tool for planning. To scale out the planning function, the use of GIS tools should be mainstreamed in Ethiopian institutions. Most of the GIS work at present is undertaken by the regional (agricultural) planning departments, while little or no GIS capacity is available in the research organizations. It is therefore proposed to institutionalize the IPMS GIS functions in those Regional/Zonal Bureaus of Agriculture and Rural Development, where GIS capacity exists. Skills training for the use of the planning tools will be provided for selected staff of those institutions.In the past year, the project has supported some in service training of Woreda Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) and DAs. In Alaba this training focused on innovative extension (based on the awareness workshopsee 223) and agricultural supervision. Such training will also be facilitated in the remaining PLWs in the second and third quarters of 2006. Extension agents have been trained in computer skills in Miesso.During this year, the project intends to start supporting one PA/Farming system in the eight woredas (16 PAs/FTCs) to build capacities to implement innovative extension approaches. The DAs and supervisors in these PAs will be trained in Participatory and market-oriented Extension approaches, in an action learning mode spanning a cycle of about 18 -24 months. This will also allow testing of various models of capacity building and M&E. These DAs and Supervisors are expected to be trainers of other DAs in the woreda after this. As a part of this capacity building activity, linkages would be created with local Research Institutes for creating a pipeline of knowledge and technologies to the extension system and; with agencies like TAMPA in Tigray, Agricultural Marketing Agency in SNNPR, Oromiya Agricultural Marketing Agency for enabling access of extension services to market information. There will also be series of computer training for Woreda staff in all the PLWs.To develop the technical skills of the public sector staff in the PLWs, IPMS used two approaches i.e. Staff training (SMS and DAs) on topics in which a gap in knowledge was identified. This will be continued in the next year. Specific attention will be paid on water harvesting and management based on a manual which is under preparation by IWMI as well as NRM tools developed by the African Highland Initiative (AHI). Efforts will be made to facilitate the dissemination of such knowledge and understand the diffusion and adoption patterns. Joint training of DAs and lead farmers from different PAs on a topic of interest. Such training also included field visits and study tours. This model will continue to be used in the coming year (see 231).During this year, the project will identify demonstration and training materials needed for various FTCs and woredas, on a need/demand basis and will continue to source/develop and supply them.The project will explore the possibility of creating some specialized FTCs like one for Apiculture in Atsbi, which could serve as a training center for the woreda and beyond.The project's approach to development of the capacity of farmers was based on a joint DA and lead farmer training (see 225). This will be continued in the coming year and be monitored (see 400 series).Various models of training (demand-driven vs pre-decided, couple training vs men training, different training providers) will be employed during this year based on context and relevance, and these will be assessed for outcomes in due course. Various methods of knowledge sharingfor example through contact/model farmers, social/church gatherings, demonstrations, focus groups, Farmer Field Schools and Community Conversations will be tried and lessons learnt will be documented (see 400 series)In the first project year the project initiated such training for small scale entrepreneurs and farmers on agro processing and sale of agricultural produce (Fogera and Atsbi), privatized onion seed supply (Fogera), private fruit tree nurseries (Dale) and, agricultural processing and marketing for women (Atsbi).In the coming year, increased attention will be paid to capacity development of private input suppliers (including village shops, farm equipment producers and maintenance, animal health service providers, genetic services etc) in support of potential interventions in the PLW (see 320)A major objective of the innovation system approach is to link different partners in order to learn and have greater impact. In the first year IPMS therefore established NALC, RALCs and WALCs as Learning platforms, which would enable scaling up successful approaches. IPMS will try to structure and strengthen the learning processes through these bodies. These bodies will be facilitated to develop into potential \"change teams\" at various regional levels, who would drive the institutional learning and change processes. The MSc and BSc trainees from the PLWs and Regions (see 221) are expected to become members of these teams.In the second year of the project, IPMS will focus on developing some commodity platforms in the PLWs. This will enable fast tracking market-oriented development of selected commodities by engaging all the relevant actors and capitalizing on the variety of capacities and capabilities for synergy. The conditions and constraints that necessitate the need for platforms will be defined before we get on with the formation.The processes of platform formation, functioning and outcomes will be monitored and documented to draw out best practices and principles, for various priority commodities in PLWs (see 400 series).In the past year, several other stakeholders and networks have emerged, in particular at the regional and federal level and IPMS is participating in some of these formal and informal networks. Examples are the recently started networks by Land O Lake's Ethiopian Dairy Development Project and the Texas A&M University Ethiopian Meat Marketing project and SNV's platforms on dairy, pineapple, oil crops and honey/wax. IPMS will continue participating in these partnerships and in any emerging ones during the coming year to learn and promote ideas.Some knowledge oriented linking and learning mechanisms have already been included in the knowledge management section.Objective: To introduce, test and strengthen gender sensitive processes, approaches and methods to facilitate the introduction and adoption/adaptation of technologies and, innovative input/output marketing arrangements and small scale agri business financing in PLWs in support of market oriented development.As explained in the previous section, building the innovation capacity of farmers and private sector partners has been merged into the 200 series because of the innovation systems perspective of the project. In this project component emphasis is placed on the development of approaches and processes for market oriented agricultural development and the development of commodity based technology, input output marketing and finance innovations. This is reflected in the revised objective statement presented above.IPMS proposes to start the process of scaling out the lessons learned through the existing public research and development organizations in 4 additional Woredas (one in each of the 4 Regions). This is a change from the earlier plan, in which a total of 10 PLWs would be used to develop approaches, processes and methods.To develop these programs, use will be made of the approaches, tools and methods applied to the initial 8 PLWs. New tools/methods developed in the past year, including rapid assessment for HIV/AIDS, gender and environmental assessment methods as well as commodity identification will be integrated in the approach (also see 423).The issue of scaling out to additional PLWs through existing government and/or non governmental institutions was discussed at length during the recent NALC workshop, the steering committee meeting and informal discussions with other stakeholders. In general the scaling out idea is supported, but there are certain apprehensions about the readiness of the project and the stakeholders to do this. It is therefore proposed to develop a conceptual framework for the scaling out process and a corresponding strategy. Based on this scaling out activities in the additional Woredas will be initiated in a phased manner.In the past year, IPMS has facilitated the introduction of interventions of technology and input output marketing arrangements for priority commodities. Most of these interventions were in response to diagnosed problems and potentials and were facilitated through training, support for demonstration including value adding, onfarm experimentation facilitation of group formation and market linkages. In 2006/07, these interventions will be continued and be monitored by the project through action learning (see 400 series).Promising interventions will be introduced into the other PLWs and at the same time the project will actively pursue the introduction of interventions resulting from ideas generated from focus studies and/or experiences gained elsewhere.During 2006/07, the project will be able to facilitate these interventions further by introducing a credit, loan guarantee and insurance component. The proposal is attached as Annex 1. The Steering Committee discussed the proposal and emphasized that the project should only use credit institutions, which have a good track record. It also indicated that the Development Bank of Ethiopia developed an insurance scheme for livestock loans in the past; however this had not been very successful. It was agreed that attachment of the insurance scheme to the local lending institutions and/or cooperatives would enhance possibilities for local monitoring of claims, thus enhancing the viability of the insurance scheme. It should also be understood that insurance schemes may not be introduced in all PLWs. IPMS will also attempt to understand how critical insurance schemes are and test different approaches for insurance. Finally it was stressed that the use of the funds by the end of the project could be targeted at community and/or public good investments in the PLWs after discussion and agreement with the major stakeholders of the project.The Woreda platforms (see 441) in collaboration with the WALCs will develop and monitor plans for the different commodities as well as the overall development of a market oriented development.The IPMS project facilitates the introduction of new varieties and production, natural resource management technologies and sustainable veterinary service delivery for the control of trypanosomiasis in support of the priority commodities. Some of these introductions are experimental in that they are in the early stages of adoption and the project therefore facilitated such introductions through demonstration plots in which agronomic observations were made. Other interventions are ready for wider adoption and the project has facilitated such interventions through capacity building.The interventions facilitated in 2005/06 will continue to be facilitated in 2006/07 including new crop varieties of chickpeas, rice, banana, papaya, sesame, peanuts, fruits, vernonia, paprika, hot pepper, coffee and vegetables. Promising varieties will be expanded to other PLWs, based on identified priority commodities and market demand. Besides crop varieties, the project facilitated the introduction of some natural resource management technologies, including minimum tillage and donkey traction.Based on the initial diagnostic studies and subsequent focus studies and interactions in the PLWs, the project will facilitate new crop technology interventions in the coming year, including soil and water conservation measures/tools, grape introduction, spice introduction, and gum and incense production systems. A summary the crop technologies to be facilitated in each PLW is provided in section 2.4.1 (activity 411).The project facilitated the introduction of livestock production methodologies including, development of communal/swampy area for grazing land/fodder production; fodder species introduction, sorghum stover utilization, use of Urea Molasses Blocks (UMB), dairy production, trypanosomiasis control, honey wax production, bee forage production, sericulture production. Promising technologies will be expanded to other PLWs based on market demand as well as the introduction of new technologies including improved cattle (with the help of project micro finance), improvement local cattle (Fogera and Mahebereselassie), cattle fattening, improved sheep and goat production systems (also see breeding and fattening under the input supply) , queen bee rearing and fish production technologies. A summary the livestock technologies to be facilitated in each PLW is provided in section 2.4.1, (activity 411).The IPMS project encourages the establishment of an efficient and effective input supply system for market-oriented agricultural development activities. The support to the input supply system shall be primarily focused at the PLW level. Farmers or individuals from the farming community with entrepreneurial orientation shall participate in the delivery of various types of inputs. Farmer cooperatives and or CBOs shall also benefit from this exercise.The types of inputs required by the farming community could differ between PLWs depending on the type of identified marketable commodity. IPMS shall consider enhancing the input supply system through two main channels. These are in the areas of capacity building (training) and targeted provision of necessary start up funds or credit administered through existing micro-finance institutions.The project facilitated the introduction of some crop input supply systems in 2005/06, including the chickpea and haricot bean seed supply system through cooperatives/unions, farmer based coffee seedling supply system, farmer based banana sucker supply, private onion seed supply system, private ago-chemical supply system and farmer based fruit seedling supply system. Based on the initial studies and subsequent focus studies and interactions in the PLWs, the project identified a number of key input supply interventions.In almost all crop production systems the supply of improved seeds is a major bottleneck to development. The project therefore started facilitating the introduction of some crop input supply systems in 2005/06, including the chickpea and haricot bean seed supply system through cooperatives/unions, farmer based coffee seedling supply system, farmer based banana sucker supply, private onion seed supply system, farmer based fruit seedling supply system. These interventions will continue to be facilitated in 2006/07 and be expanded to other PLWs based on market demand. I will focus on the production and marketing of vegetable (mainly onion, hot pepper, tomatoes, etc) and fruit (mango, avocado, papaya, banana, pineapple, apple, plum, etc) seeds/seedlings. This year the project wants to complement the farmer based crop input supply ssytem with the introduction of village shops, which may also be used for the supply of agricultural chemicals, sprayers, vet drugs and supplies. Training shall be provided on the handling, storage, distribution, finance management, of supplies, depending on the item(s) in question (see 200 series). In addition, project credit funds shall be made available to shop owners through existing financial institutions.The project did not yet intervene in the livestock input supply system, except that private potential suppliers and input supply interventions were identified in the field of animal health, animal feed and genetic improvement through bull stations and the establishment of breeder farms/groups for small ruminants.The project will support the training of paravets to provide village based basic animal health services wherever feasible. Young farmers, preferably women, shall be selected from farming communities in the PLWs and will be trained in basic animal health services. These paravets shall be embedded in the community to deliver the services. Mechanisms of implementation shall be worked out with the respective BoARD. In addition, village drug vendors shall be trained for enhanced veterinary services at village levels. Credit funds shall be made available on need basis through existing financial institutions.The supply of animal feed, particularly concentrate, ago-industrial by-products has been identified as one of the bottle necks for the development of market-oriented beef, dairy and small ruminant production in the different PLWs. Interested individuals or cooperatives shall be selected to be involved in the supply of concentrate feeds at village levels. These feed resources may include roughage (grass hay, straw, etc), concentrate (bran, oil cakes, etc), UMB, and forage seeds. Training will be provided to interested individuals and cooperative members (see 200 series). Credit funds shall be made available on needs basis through existing financial institutions.In areas where farmers are interested to enhance the genetic merit of their cattle, bull stations shall be established for breeding purposes including Zebu, Fogera and Friesian. Elite and capable farmers shall be selected from the community to manage a bull station. Farmers shall be trained in the management and handling of breeding bulls. Selected bulls shall be made available through the facilitation of the IPMS project. These bulls shall be handed over to the handler and a special contractual agreement shall be made with the project. Feeding and management of the animal shall be the entire responsibility of the farmers. Bulls shall be allowed to serve for one year only in order to avoid inbreeding. Handlers shall be required to register a minimum number of allowable matings per year. Farmers shall be charged for mating their cows. Credit funds shall be available for the purchase and maintenance of breeding bulls through existing financial institutions.Where there is potential for market-oriented sheep and goat production, IPMS shall attempt to established a production system whereby farmers involve in the breeding and/or fattening operations depending on their resource endowment. Farmers could be divided into two groups.One group of farmers shall be encouraged to undertake breeding activities only to ensure production of adequate number of lambs/kids for fattening. Training shall be provide on the selection, management, breeding and handling of young animals, with consideration on the resource based and the optimal reproductive cycle. Young animals shall be kept and managed until weaning and shall be sold out. Credit funds shall be available to farmers through existing financial institutions. For marketing purposes, this group of farmers shall be linked with the second group charged with fattening of animals Another group of farmers shall be targeted for the production of marketable animals. Weaned animals shall be purchased from the first group of farmers. Animals shall be managed with a clear objective of producing animals for the market. This group of farmers shall be linked with export abattoirs. Credit funds shall be available for this operation through existing financial institutions.In the past year, the project started intervening improving the skills of small scale village level entrepreneurs for repair and maintenance of farm equipment in Atsbi. This will now be expanded to other PLWs based on demand.Village blacksmith and/or individuals with technical orientation shall be selected from the community to enhance their skills for the production of farm tools and/or repair and maintenance of farm equipment. Technical training shall be provided to enhance their skills for the production of various farm tools. In addition, some training on repair and maintenance of farm equipment such as treadle pumps, motor pumps, etc shall be provided. Credit funds shall be available through existing financial institutions.A summary of planned activities for input supply and credit facilitation is presented in the Table below.Activity Ada'a Meisso Dale √ √ √ √IPMS is also facilitating improvements in marketing and value adding. This is specifically targeted at small scale traders/entrepreneurs and primary cooperatives.In the past year, the project has facilitated the introduction of marketing interventions including interest group formation around commodities (fruit, dairy, fish, honey, sheep and goat), introduction/demonstration of value adding equipment including small scale processing equipment (dairy and honey). Wherever opportunities exist, the project will also facilitate the introduction of contract farming/out growers' schemes. These interventions, facilitated by the project's micro finance component, will be expanded to other PLWs based on market needs. (Also see section 2.4.1, activity 413)Objective: To generate, communicate and promote gender sensitive policy options and strategies, on technology generation and use, input/output marketing and small scale agri finance for scaling out and up market oriented agricultural development of national and international relevance.As stated earlier, IPMS is following an ISA in its research and development activities.It takes a holistic view of the commodity system/sector, with a focus on actors, their habits and practices, their interactions and linkages, the learning processes. Building innovation capacity and various approaches to doing this are also a focus area.IPMS propose to test the following hypotheses as a part of its research:  Following an ISA (bringing the right network of actors together and fostering the right kinds of interactions, considering the policy and institutional context) for promoting market-oriented agricultural development will lead to the desired impact  Development of an effective Knowledge management system and learning behaviours is crucial for accelerating market-led agricultural development  Targeted capacity strengthening efforts (public and private sector) coupled with efforts to bring about changes in habits and practices are critical for enhancing the capacity to innovate IPMS in the first year of its operations has gained considerable knowledge about key actors operating in some commodity systems/sectors. This will now be used as the base for developing a conceptual framework of the innovation systems that are at play in various contexts. This overarching framework will help strategize on how various project components feed on each other and contribute to the innovation processes.IPMS is taking up a series of complementary research activities to test these hypotheses. The IPMS research started with rapid assessment studies on priority commodity (production, input supply, and marketing) and institutional arrangements in the PLWs (see 310). This research was conducted by the IPMS team in collaboration with the main stakeholders. These assessments were complemented with baseline studies at household, village, district (Woreda), Regional and Federal levels. These studies provide information to measure project results and impact over time, as well as provide more quantitative information on commodity-specific technologies and institutional arrangements, thus complementing the qualitative knowledge generated through the initial PRA studies.Whenever more information on the existing situation was required to design interventions, IPMS facilitated focus studies through its own staff, regional/national/international research staff and MSc students from Ethiopian Universities. These focus studies will be completed and documented in the coming year and are summarized below. It was pointed out by the Steering Committee that in general research conducted by MSc students was dictated by research agendas set by the Universities and the academic requirements for MSc. Such research was therefore often lacks relevance to the development community. Influencing the university's research agendas through platform discussions as well as the involvement of development actors in defining research and co-supervision was recommended.As indicated before, IPMS also started to facilitate 5 the introduction of technologies, processes, approaches and methods for market-oriented commodity development in the past year and these will be monitored 6 and documented, together with any new interventions in the coming years. This is referred to as action research and learning.All the above mentioned research activities in various forms feed upon each other and will be synthesized to test the proposed hypotheses. They have been split into various heads to make their organization and monitoring easier.While reviewing last year's activities, a number of observations were made on the project's research component. These are: Insufficient attention had been paid to defining \"institutional\" research (outputs), in particular for knowledge management, capacity building, and processes and approaches for planning and developing a market oriented research and development program. Within the context of an innovation systems approach, integration of the different research and development components for a commodity should be highlighted and documented. Some of the research could lead to the development of methodologies and tools applicable in and outside Ethiopia. These outputs should also be stated clearly as outputs in the project component. The dissemination of the project's findings through participation in seminars/conferences, policy briefs, mass media should get emphasis. The project will develop a communications strategy and strengthen the communication tools and approaches, including joint learning processes.To take into consideration the above, the activities and outputs of the project's 410 and 420 series were reorganized as follows: 410 Commodity component and system research  420 Institutional processes, approaches, tools and methods research  430 Promotion of project strategies and recommendationsCommodity development research includes component research on production, natural resource management, input supply and marketing as well as system research which bring together the different research and development components into an innovation system aimed at increasing impact. In this section, the commodity and system research activities are presented.The baseline study contains household, farming system level data on technology uptake and performance in the rural areas. This information will be analyzed, including an analysis of biophysical, socioeconomic and spatial factors affecting uptake and impact. The results will be published in the project working paper series (a separate paper). -IPMS/IFPRIThe The base line study contains household, farming system, village and district level data on input supply/services in the rural areas. This information will be analyzed and be added to the PRA studies of the PLWs. These enhanced PLW studies will then be published in the project's working paper series -IPMS.A special paper on livestock input supply system will be developed for the annual conference for the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production. This paper will be developed on the basis of the PRA studies and the baseline data -IPMSThe project facilitated some rapid assessments of input supply systems in particular on haricot bean seed multiplication in Dale and Alaba with CIAT. This information will be incorporated in the documentation of the proposed haricot bean intervention in both PLWs (see below). Some other existing input supply systems will be studied and documented through construction of institutional histories. Some of the potential cases to be taken up this year include: Seed supply systems (Institutional history + process monitoring)leading to a comparative analysis of more traditional and new cropsin particular on teff, wheat, and sorghum.Institutional history of changes in water management practices and implications for rice and vegetable cultivation and livestock production (Fogera, Alamata, Atsbi)To design appropriate interventions, a study on smallholder breeding and production strategies for small ruminants will be undertaken in Miesso, Alaba, Atsbi and Dale in 2006/07.During the past year, IPMS facilitated the introduction of innovative input supply systems in some of its PLWs. These innovations will continue to be monitored in 2006/07 and documented as \"work in progress\" case studies in the project working paper series. Farmer/Union chickpea seed multiplication/supply system in Ada'a Woreda -ICRISAT/DZ EIAR  Farmer to farmer teff seed supply system in Ada'a -IPMS/EIAR  Farmer based fruit tree nursery system in Dale -ICRAF/EIAR (Melkassa)  Farmer based vegetable seed multiplication/supply system (onion, tomato, carrot, etc) in Alamata, Fogera and Miesso -IPMS  Farmer based banana sucker multiplication/supply in Metama -IPMS  Farmer based sorghum seed multiplication/supply system in Metama -ARARI/IPMS Alaba, Metema -IPMS/RARIs  Fodder seed supply system in Dale, Alaba and Ada'a -IPMS/ILRI/RARIs  Inputs for skin and hides processing in Atsbi, Dale, Alaba -IPMS  Veterinary drug supply and service delivery system in Metema, Fogera, Alamata, Dale, Alaba, Atsbi, Ada'a -IPMS/RARIs  Livestock feed supply system in Dale, Alaba, Miesso, Alamata, Fogera and Ada'a -IPMS  Dairy and small ruminant genetic material supply system in Dale, Fogera, Ada'a, Alaba, Miesso, Atsbi -IPMS  Public vs private AI delivery system in Ada'a -IPMS/EIAR  Apiculture input supply system -Fogera, Atsbi, Alaba, Ada'a -IPMS/Sap Tech/RARIsThe base line study contains household, farming system, village and district level data on marketing/services/participation in the rural areas. This information will be analyzed and be added to the PRA studies of the PLWs, which will be published in the project's working paper series -IPMSDuring the past year, IPMS facilitated market chain/potential studies on a number of commodities. These studies will be completed in the 2006/07 and documented in the working paper series.- In the past year, IPMS facilitated marketing, processing interventions in a number of its PLWs which will be monitored and documented as \"work in progress\" case studies in the working paper series, including:  Sheep and goat production and marketing groups in Miesso, Dale, Alaba, Atsbi -IPMS/RARIs  Honey production, processing and marketing groups in Atsbi, Ada'a and Fogera -IPMS/RARIs  Dairy group formation and milk processing in Fogera, Alamata, Dale, Ada'a, Miesso -IPMS/RARIs  Skins and hides processing and marketing in Atsbi, Dale, Alaba -IPMS  Fish production and marketing groups in Fogera -IPMS/ARARI/WorldFish  Cattle fattening and marketing groups in Fogera, Miesso, Alamata -IPMS/RARIs Some of these innovations will be expanded to other project sites including honey groups to Alaba, dairy groups for Atsbi and skins and hides groups to Fogera.IPMS will also start experimentation with livestock market information systems at PLW level in Alamata, Miesso and Metama and Alaba. This will include various forms of information sharing at Woreda and FTC level.tools which were developed later (see tools/methods) and/or brought to the attention of the IPMS project can be integrated in this approach and be tested in the development of plans in the additional PLWs.The approaches and processes for implementing the project including participatory learning are still being developed. This includes new use of knowledge management mechanisms, alternative capacity building. Over time the project will develop guidelines based on the learning which takes place in the PLWsIn the past year the need for tools/models to support market oriented development has become clear in the following areas:-Tools/models for identifying production potentials. The project has started to develop some simple GIS tools for fodder livestock production systems in the PLW -ILRI/IPMS -Models to demonstrate land use changes resulting from the introduction of marketable commodities. Such models will be used to assist agricultural staff and farmers in decision making. A start will be made with a district level chickpea model in Ada'a -ICRISAT/EIAR/IPMS -Decision tools on soil and water management developed by AHI. Testing of these tools has started and will be completed in Dale and Alaba -AHI/SARI/IPMS -Market chain analysis methodology. The project has initiated a number of market chain studies and is in the process of developing a manual on these studies in collaboration with CIAT's Rural Enterprise studies -Guidelines for documenting institutional histories -Guidelines for process monitoring -Innovative extension source book -Training modules on Innovation Systems -In the past year the project tested a methodology to assess the status of Gender and HIV/AIDS in PLWs in order to mainstream gender and HIV/AIDS considerations in planning of a market oriented development. This methodology will be further tested in the additional PLS and then be published IPMS/Gender/HIV-AIDS consultant -In the past year the project developed guidelines for Environmental Assessment Screening Reports following CIDA guidelines. These guidelines have been tested in 4 PLWs and will be tested further in the remaining PLWs. IPMS/Environmental consultant Besides these studies, the project is expected to produce a manual for the rapid market chain analysis in collaboration with CIAT's rural enterprise development project.In the past year, the project has promoted its strategies and concepts on market oriented research and development through participation in conferences, seminars, research review meetings and occasional mass media (radio, TV, news paper). With research findings becoming increasingly available, these efforts will be intensified during the coming year. The following activities are planned for 2006/07 -Participation/presentation in the review meetings of the national and regional research organizations (first quarter 2007). Participation/presentation in dairy, pineapple, oil and pulses platforms organized by SNV. -Participation/presentation in donor group meetings on food security (regular) -Co-organizing the annual Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) conference on Institutional arrangements and services for market-oriented livestock development (September, 2006) -A conference on market chain analysis studies in collaboration with EIAR, CIAT, ICRISAT, World Fish (first quarter 2007) -Joint newsletter production with BoARD/RARIs -Any other relevant conference opportunity which arises during the year The project will provide articles/policy briefs for news papers during the year. Our website and news letters will also contribute to the promotion of project concepts and findings.During the past year the project's environmental strategy was revised and guidelines were produced for environmental assessment screening reports (EASR). Four of these reports were completed and the remaining PLWs (including the additional ones) will be completed during this year.The Steering Committee emphasized that specific attention should be given to the environmental aspects of water harvesting and use; especially since the use of water for market oriented development is considered an important component. Ground water levels are either rising or dropping resulting in negative environmental effects. The use of water balance models can be explored with the help of IWMI and irrigation researchers.Monitoring the possible environmental impacts and development of mitigating measures will be initiated during this year, together with capacity building (see 200).In the past year, gender studies were completed for priority commodities in the 8 PLWs. Woreda workshops aimed at using these findings to integrate gender concerns in the program of work have been conducted in 2 PLWs in the past year and such workshops will be held in the remaining 6 PLWs during this year. Some focused /case studies will be taken up during the course of this year, which will result in working papers. Some suggested topics include:  Ability and constraints of extension services to reach out to women farmers  Role of farmer organizations and other social institutions in empowering women through knowledge sharing  In-depth case studies to capture changes in gender-based participation in aspects of market-led agricultural development in IPMS PLWs  Studies on impacts of training women  Hot pepper productiongender dimensions in Fogera and Alaba  Mapping of knowledge flows with focus on women  Comparing information needs of men and women especially in livestock related activities  Role of gender in market decisionsIn the past year, HIV/AIDS studies were completed for priority commodities in each of the 8 PLWs. Woreda workshops aimed at using the findings of these studies to integrate HIV/AIDS concerns in the program of work have been conducted in 2 PLWs in the past year. The initial assessments and the impact on project planning will be documented in a case study, and published in the project's working paper series -IPMS/HIV-AIDS consultant. Some special studies which are proposed to be conducted this year include  Impact of HIV/AIDS on agricultural/livestock production  Documentation of successful innovative approaches (including an assessment of the Community Conversations approach) to addressing gender and/or HIV/AIDS issues in the agricultural sector 3 Project management (500 series)In the first year, most HQ positions proposed in the PIP were filled, except the local gender consultant and the monitoring officer Both are under recruitment. The project also requested an additional position in support of the operationalisation of the knowledge management component.Research and Development Officers for all PLWs have been completed. Some of the vacant positions for assistants and drivers will be filled during this year.Recruitment of staff for the additional PLWs is subject to the decision taken by the governing board.The project's RBM consultant will be employed to review the project's management framework (PMF) vis a vis the proposed changes in the structure and outputs. The consultant will also be asked to review the indicators and frequency and methods of monitoring as well as develop a detailed monitoring and evaluation plan, once the newly developed project monitoring officer has been recruited.The project gender and HIV/AIDS consultant will be employed to provide guidance on the project's gender and HIV/AIDS activities and will be responsible for","tokenCount":"10689"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aaeb332ed3981e90e4e469d5113ec238","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/15336a41-bed4-426d-8ee4-696f75a8ac10/retrieve","id":"652976845"},"keywords":["social differentiation","gender","impact","capacity","climate change"],"sieverID":"7830ec4a-78df-4dad-98ab-ced2bd70b45c","pagecount":"86","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. This document is published by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is a strategic partnership of the CGIAR and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP).The research programme on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a major research partnership between the CGIAR and the global environmental change community. It started with three initial regions (South Asia, East Africa and West Africa), and in 2013 two new regions (Latin America and Southeast Asia) were added. The programme emphasizes linking research knowledge to action through outcomes that are measurable as changes in behaviour and practice in next and end-users. It is testing innovative approaches to participatory research, decision-support, communication, social learning and empowerment, particularly for achieving gender equity.The CCAFS Gender Training and Strategizing Workshop was designed for National Research Agricultural Systems (NARS), Non-governmental Organisations (NGO) and CGIAR partners working on gender and equity, as part of theme 4.1. The workshop objectives were to:1. Support the gender research of CCAFS' public, NGO and CGIAR partners by reviewing research tools available through CCAFS and its partners, and best practices in planning research and identifying tools and partners based on study objectives. 2. Help partners develop and/or improve their organisational gender research strategies. 3. Develop a plan with partners for achieving CCAFS' gender development outcome targets through research in the CCAFS regions.The main theme of the first two days was quantitative and qualitative approaches to research that combines gender and climate change. The focus was on study design and identifying the right research tools and partners, as well as on developing organizational gender research strategies.The training was divided into three tracks. The quantitative research methods track focussed on definitions, statistics, sample gender questions, research design and methods of data collection. Other topics highlighted were sampling procedures (probability and non-probability) and data analysis using descriptive or inferential statistics.The qualitative research methods track looked at strengths and limitations of qualitative research, types of qualitative research, validity, research design cycle and conceptual framework for mixed method study. This track also focussed on elements of basic and experimental research and field research methods.The organizational gender research strategies track focussed on working definitions of various gender concepts, elements of an effective transformative organizational gender research strategy, CCAFS Gender Strategy, building and implementing a transformative strategy and good practices for facilitating organizational strategy development. An organizational assessment tool from InterAction was presented covering political will, technical capacity, organisational culture and accountability. A scanning tool was also discussed showing movement from gender blind, gender neutral, gender aware to gender redistributive or transformative policies and interventions. This was noted to be an effective tool for initiating conversations on the status of gender in organisations.In a world cafe format, participants discussed integrating gender analysis into tools for adaptation, modelling approaches for analyzing quantitative gender and climate change data, and changing cultures of organizations, research communities and other sectors in order to understand the value and validity of using qualitative approaches in gender and climate change.The last two days looked at the future of gender and climate change research in CCAFS' five regions, as well as co-developing plans for research that contributes to CCAFS' impact pathway and achievement of gender development outcome targets. This resulted in the elaboration of gender-specific impact pathways for each of the five regions. The regional impacts identified were:• Latin America: balance in power among members of different social units.• East Africa: balance in power and access to resources.• South Asia: men's voices are not dominant; women and other marginalised groups have equal voice in decision-making. • Southeast Asia: confident women who are free to make decisions.• West Africa: increased and equal control by women and youth to land, markets, information, extension services, etc.; women and youth have equality in control of livelihood support systems.The research programme on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a major research partnership between the CGIAR and the global environmental change community. It started with three initial regions (South Asia, East Africa and West Africa), with two regions (Latin America and Southeast Asia) added in 2013.The CCAFS programme emphasizes linking research knowledge to action through outcomes measurable as changes in behaviour and practice in next and end-users. It is testing innovative approaches to participatory research, decision-support, communication, social learning and empowerment, particularly for achieving gender equity.The CCAFS Gender Training and Strategizing Workshop was designed for National Research Agricultural Systems (NARS), Non-governmental Organisations (NGO) and CGIAR partners working on gender and equity and focused on gender research training and strategizing. The workshop took place between the 22nd and 25th of October 2013 at the World Agroforestry Centre in Nairobi, Kenya. The first two days were organized around qualitative and quantitative approaches to gender and climate change research with a focus on study design and identifying the right research tools and partners, as well as on developing organisational gender research strategies. The last two days looked at the future of gender and climate change research in CCAFS' five regions, co-developing plans for research that will contribute to CCAFS' impact pathways and achievement of gender development outcome targets. The workshop objectives were to:1. Support the gender research of CCAFS' public, NGO and CGIAR partners by reviewing research tools available through CCAFS and its partners, and how to plan research and identify tools and partners based on study objectives; 2. Help partners develop and/or improve their organisational gender research strategies;3. Develop a plan with partners for achieving CCAFS' gender development outcome targets through research in the CCAFS regions.The facilitation team consisted of Christine Jost and Patti Kristjanson (ICRAF organizers), Apondi Nyang'aya (lead facilitator), Crystal Kiarie (assistant facilitator), Agnes Otzelberger and Marie-Katherine Waller (Organizational Gender Research Strategies track), Maria Nassuna-Musoke and Monica Kapiriri Namumbya (Quantitative Research Methods track) and Carla Roncoli and Nafisa Ferdous (Qualitative Research Methods track).During a plenary session participants discussed how they first learnt that they were either girls or boys. The following narratives were told: \"I was born with a twin sister. To play a trick on my grandfather, he was told that my mother had been given birth to twin boys. My grandfather bought drinks for the whole village to celebrate. However, when he was told the truth, he became glum. I learnt from this that boys were celebrated more.\" \"I was born in a big extended family where we were treated the same. In my early school d a y s , I went to a girls' only school. Then I was later transferred to a co-educational school where I was suddenly told that I should not fight with boys, raise my voice, play soccer or compete with boys. Considering that I had been socialised differently earlier, I thought I no longer wanted to be a girl!\" \"I was born in a family of three sisters. I never interacted with boys until I was four years of age. At this time, I learnt that I was different because boys urinated standing while I had to squat.\" \"I grew up with three sisters and had freedom to do whatever we wished. At teenage, I learnt that boys did not appreciate my assertive behaviour. I was required to change my behaviour to be accommodated by boys.\"\"I am the first born in my family. I grew up in an extended family where I learnt that there were roles specified for boys and others for girls.\"Using these anecdotes, sex (natural, biological and hormonal characteristics) and gender (socially constructed identities which are contextual, change with time and differ with communities) were differentiated. The facilitator then put up cards with statements and had participants slot them as sexual or gender characteristics (figure 1): A distinction was made between Women in Development (WID) and Gender and Development (GAD). WID sought to integrate women into development based on the concern that women were absent or invisible from mainstream agendas. This gave rise to initiatives focusing exclusively on women. The shortcomings of WID and its skewed assumptions led to the emergence of GAD, which focuses on unequal power relations between men and women.Climate change concepts were clarified. The summary of these concepts can be found below.Weather versus climate: the difference between weather and climate is a measure of time. Weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months) changes in the atmosphere, including temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, etc. Climate, however, is the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. Climate is what you expect, like a rainy season from October to December.Weather is what you get, like an unusually hot day with thunderstorms.Climate change: in various parts of the world, people have noticed that springtime comes earlier now than it did 30 years ago. An earlier springtime is indicative of a possible change in the climate. In addition to longterm climate change, there are shorter-term climate variations. This so-called climate variability can be represented by periodic or intermittent changes related to phenomena like El Niño, La Niña, volcanic eruptions or other manifestations of changes in the earth system.Climate change adaptation: this refers to measures to protect against actual and expected harmful effects of climate change, to exploit any opportunities it may generate and to ensure sustainability of investment and development interventions in spite of more difficult conditions. It aims to reduce sensitivity to effects of climate change.Climate change mitigation: activities and interventions that aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and/or enhancing the capacity of 'sinks' for greenhouse gas for the ultimate purpose of stabilising their concentration in the atmosphere; reducing global exposure to effects of climate change.Vulnerability to climate change: the extent to which a system, individual or group of people is susceptible to and unable to cope with the adverse effects of climate change. Vulnerability to climate change depends on exposure to climate change, sensitivity to its effects and adaptive capacity.Resilience: the ability of a system, individual or group to absorb disturbances and adapt to stress and change (basically the opposite of vulnerability).Adaptive capacity: the vulnerability of an agricultural production system to climate change hazards depends on how this system is exposed to hazards and how sensitive it is to those hazards. This will influence the impact that that hazard can have on the agricultural system. That potential impact, combined with the capacity of systems to adapt to hazards and its impacts, determines the vulnerability of agricultural systems.Traditional knowledge about a location and how to produce and care for crops, livestock, trees, water, soil and other resources contributes to adaptive capacity. CARE International has a local adaptive capacity framework that describes the factors influencing adaptive capacity as:• Access and control over assets  The starting point for quantitative research is identifying variables or issues to be assessed using statistics.One of the tools commonly used is the Harvard model. The model generates gender issues in terms of the overall gender situation, problems and opportunities, and the feasibility of options for different gender groups. Two key components for the Harvard Model are:1. Work profile• Household (reproductive) roles: affect day-to-day well-being of the household • Productive roles: generate resources for the household • Community roles: representation and participation in community events 2. Resources profile• Access rights: freedom to use a resource • Control rights: freedom to determine how a resource is used • Ownership rights: freedom to dispose of a resource and use the income/benefits accruing from the disposal Samples of the Harvard Model in use can be found below. Four topics were listed and participants were asked to select one for discussion. Then they had to list the key gender questions for these topics. The options were:1. Access to agricultural productive resources 2. Reconciliation of work and family life 3. Household income level/consumption 4. Intra-household allocation of resourcesThe participants were advised to note that at times it is good to unpack the \"gender\" label and identify who really is affected (often women and youths need to have equal focus). Also, although we set up research 'experiments' to answer research questions, those questions should be reflected on during the research process and as a result sometimes change once a research team begins to collecting data. The criticalthinking process also involves definitions, statistics, generating gender issues, clarifying the gender question and stating the objectives and hypotheses.Big question: What are gender-sensitive climate change adaptation and risk management strategies for marginalized smallholders at the household and intra-household levels?Objective: To enhance adaptive capacity and increase resilience of smallholders to cope with climate-related production shocks and to provide evidence-based policy recommendations.1. How do different gender groups perceive climate change? 2. What are gender-differentiated past experiences, exposures and severity of climate-related production shocks? 3. How do different gender groups anticipate climate-related production risks?Definitions: Different gender groups refer to male vs. female-headed households and male vs. female household members.Hypotheses: Each gender group has different perceptions, exposures and ways to adapt to climate-related production shocks and each adaptation and risk management strategy has different impacts on each gender group.Big question: How do gender relations affect patterns of access and distribution in biodiversity research on climate change adaptation?Hypothesis: People who have better access and more equal distribution to biodiversity have more options for adapting to climate change.1. Who decides which crops to plant, which varieties and where the crops will be put? 2. Who decides how the decisions taken are put into action? 3. What are the different roles and responsibilities in terms of land management?Big question: Identify gender appropriate and equity enhancing climate smart agriculture (CSA) technologies and practices.We can improve gender equity by targeting CSA to the needs of vulnerable groups.1. What are gender norms and beliefs regarding adaptation and mitigation? 2. Are there gender constraints to adoption of CSA? 3. What are gender determinants of adoption of CSA? 4. Which CSAs are more attractive to women? 5. What needs to be done to achieve gender equity (to include CSA technologies, practices, extensions, etc.)?When one is designing a quantitative research process, it is important to examine each stage and determine how gender can be applied (figure 3). Consider how to formulate the research design and identify the sampling methods so as to pull out gender issues. Keep in mind that it is useful to combine qualitative and quantitative methods in analysis and interpretation.The research process can involve a series of observations (over a long time or single period), experiments and case studies (in-depth follow up of the selected subject).    The considerations are very important for quantitative research because they guide the numbers of measurements. Also, knowing the audience for the final product and what the research will be informing will be helpful when considering a research design. Think about how much you want to involve stakeholders in the whole process. Another important step is to identify, according to the research questions, what the most crucial areas of the research are and keep in mind, or identify, the gender issue beginning with a basic question.There are three broad categories of studies that can be used for gender-based quantitative research projects. First there are observational or descriptive studies. These types of studies are characterized by noninterference with the subjects by the researcher, and can be either longitudinal or cross-sectional. They consider the different gender groups and observe them separately. Observational studies can be used as a baseline for information to describe resources, tasks, existing stresses and to evaluate impact.The second category is experimental study. The researcher intentionally interferes with the subjects through treatment, procedure or program and observes the results. Researchers consider the different gender groups and treat them separately. An experimental study can be both qualitative and quantitative. Experimental studies can be used to determine how or which technologies get introduced when there is an intervention.The third category is the case study. This is an in-depth study of a specific individual, group of subjects or topic, e.g. effects of fish export on fish consumption by female-headed households in Kisumu. Case studies are more useful after data is collected. They can be used to inform the research design process as a justification for the use of certain methods, to give an in-depth understanding of the community and the key issues to tailor the study to.Different types of sampling procedures can be used for quantitative research projects. For instance, probability sampling is a type of procedure that gives a representative sample, ensures that relevant gender groups are represented, and is mandatory in quantitative research. It is used to reduce bias in sample selection and ensure gender-responsiveness. It may involve simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, multi-stage random sampling and cluster sampling.Another type of sampling procedure is non-probability sampling. This procedure includes snowball, purposive, judgmental, quota and convenience sampling. It is also useful in qualitative research. Sampling methods can be random, systematic, snowballing, quarter sampling, cluster, incidental and convenience. The choice depends on the analysis and approach. One has to be exact to make sure the sample is representative.Through quantitative studies, people can generate confidence in their results. Some challenges that researchers might face when collecting gender-disaggregated data include lack of female researchers to speak to women, writing a good questionnaire and identifying the right questions to generate the required responses.Once a sampling procedure has been chosen, the next step is to determine sample size. This involves looking at the information required for sample size calculation and confidence level (significance level) or t-value.Other aspects that need to be taken into account are minimum differences expected to be detected by the study (d), measure of variation expected (standard deviation -s) and the expected power of the study in detecting significant differences.When one is collecting data, the following checklist may be useful:  What data collection methods are you going to use? (survey, interview, records review, physiological assessments, biological tests, ICT based data collection -crowd sourcing, data loggers etc.)  How will you collect gender disaggregated data?  Will the tools and methods used generate data on gender outcomes and impacts?  Is there need for baseline data?Different types of qualitative research require different levels of researchers' control and participants' involvement. Ethnographic and participatory research require a large amount of time to be invested, and therefore it is important to be conscious of the strengths and the limitations of different types of qualitative research (figure 6). How do gender equity considerations relate to issues of validity in qualitative research? Validity is affected by subjectivity (theories, beliefs, values, goals, commitment and expectations of researchers) and reactivity (what participants say is influenced by the researcher's reactions). These can be managed through long-term relationships, use of triangulation across methods and participants' validation. The reflexivity of the researcher (understanding one's own research position and evaluating the researcher rather than the participants) plays an important part. The following questions can be useful for self-reflexivity in qualitative research projects:• What kind of relationships will you establish with people in the study site? How do you plan to initiate or negotiate these relationships? • How do you expect to be perceived by participants in your study? How will such perceptions be influenced by gender, social status and power differences? • What can you do to ensure that these perceptions do not negatively affect the research?The research design cycle and conceptual framework for mixed method studies below (figures 7 and 8) can be helpful when one is designing a qualitative research project.  With the two conceptual frameworks (figure 7 and 8) in mind, think about the next example -a qualitative research project on climate forecasting and agricultural resources and the following questions (see figure 9).  When developing a gender responsive research project using the provided conceptual framework of climate change vulnerability and case studies for context, make sure to include research goals (what you are trying to accomplish), research questions (what you need to know) and participant recruitment strategies (who will be involved). Also involve methods to address those questions (how will you know it), justification of why these methods are the most suitable, and team composition and roles (who will do what).The 'Cheat sheets' on field research methods below (figure 10-14) can be useful when designing a qualitative research project.   There are certain challenges that come into play when dealing with sampling (figure 13). Common trade-offs and uncommon pitfalls for instance are distance, accessibility and participants' availability (daily, seasonal). Names of participants can also cause confusion: are they fixed or fluid? It is also important to take the meaning a researched group gives to certain words into account. For instance: what is a \"household\" in this specific context? Does the male household head not speak for everyone in the household (may not know what's going on)? Does it include not only women heads of households, but also women in different roles within the household? Women's roles and gender relations within households are dynamic and sampling must account for this fluidity. So reconsider the notion of \"headship\" (who counts as a \"household head\"? On what basis? The notion of \"farmer\" (include laboring, processing, marketing of products etc.) can also be fluid. Also do not assume that \"ownership\" or \"access\" to resources equates with \"management\" or \"decision-making.\" Another example is the word community. People's social identities are multiplex (e.g. someone may be both a farmer and a fisherman) and dynamic. The boundaries of the system may also vary in time, be contested or manipulated to exclude some groups. Communities are highly heterogeneous; leaders and gatekeepers do not represent everyone. Identities, boundaries and allegiances are highly situational and may shift over time.Qualitative data analysis is both a science and an art (figure 14). As a science, it requires deductive reasoning, evidence-based, empirical and scientific rigour. As an art, it requires inductive reasoning, interpretation, processual creativity and intuition. There are two strategies for code development. Deductive coding derives from research design, questions and instruments e.g. information sources, forecast use. Inductive codes (in vivo) emerge from the data and listens to local voices e.g. moral responsibility associated with forecast and intensifying effort due to forecasted good rains. The gender research strategies in organizations track explored some of key concepts, effective elements and steps for developing a strategy for gender and climate change in an organization. After 20 years of work on gender mainstreaming, integrating gender into research is still largely piecemeal. A good gender strategy is one way of getting an organization and its research agenda on the right track. It can show partners that gender is important to your organization. The actual process of developing an organizational gender research strategy can be as important as the document itself. It should engage staff and partners in learning on the links between gender and climate change as a relevant and exciting topic. It can build staff gender knowledge, capacity and ownership of the issues, and provide a master plan that clearly defines the organization's internal commitments, research agenda and what steps will be taken to address gender issues in climate change adaptation and mitigation. Recognize that organizations use gender terms and concepts with different shades of meanings and so it is advisable to come up with working definitions. For example, in terms of what concepts like gender mainstreaming/women's empowerment, gender justice, gender equity and gender equality mean and what the difference is between them.Participants were asked to take positions according to their level of agreement or disagreement with the statements below (figure 15). They had to explain why they took that particular stand. This exercise can be used to challenge prevalent assumptions. The CGIAR has developed its gender strategy for the consortium (see http://www.cgiar.org/resources/ overarching-documents/). It says that each collaborative research project, like CCAFS, must have a gender strategy, and it provides guidelines on how to develop a strategy within a research context.The CCAFS' gender and climate change strategy focuses on research themes built around core flagships, namely:1. Linking knowledge to action in member centres and partners. 2. Doing research in a different way to put gender at the centre of the research. 3. Measuring the impact of gender work (thus CCAFS has included gender as one of its outcomes). 4. Using strategies that include gender disaggregated data and include women and other marginalised groups.A starting point for an organization's gender research strategy can be a vision statement or goal supported by a justification: why is gender important to climate change and food security? Think of an approach, e.g. GAD and a theory of change. The CGIAR's gender transformative strategy has an outcome pathway for its gender research agenda. Concrete interventions in existing organizational and programming arrangements ensure internal gender capacity, skills, commitment and systems, and gender sensitive programming. Think about a communications strategy, roles & responsibilities, and M&E and a learning system. Action plans, gender targets and indicators of success for tracking progress and of course a budget should be part of the strategy.Before developing a strategy (figure 16), there is need to gain buy-in and understand gaps, strengths, opportunities and threats. It is better to create lots of discussion space first to find out what staff members really think gender is about, and learning spaces for them to understand that their commitment to gender is needed. It may be necessary to conduct a gender audit/assessment as part of the strategy. Also set up crossorganizational working groups or teams with senior management representation. The goal is for gender to be part of everyday work as well as big events. Gender should be fully integrated into regular internal and research programming, but also be addressed by a specific gender research agenda. A strong facilitator could be brought in to lead discussions and influence thinking. Use could also be made of internal experts and gender champions, especially from the leadership levels of the organization. What is working and not  It is also important to constantly engage your staff in the process, emphasizing internal communication. Men need to be purposefully included. It is important to have a meeting with the organization before facilitating any workshop/training; and engaging in mentorship after the workshop is also very useful to make sure there is continuity. For large organizations consider a cascade approach to awareness and capacity building. One project in Nepal reported having first trained lead women, and then gaving them a duty to conduct training in their respective districts. This model can be replicated. Working with women's groups and in cooperatives has also been effectiveGender is a latecomer to the climate change discourse. Now it is accepted that gender dimensions have to be considered. The first adaptation approaches were in infrastructure. But original solutions were quite superficial, e.g. just mentioning women in statements was considered gender mainstreaming. What followed were debates and gender side event. The Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has now made gender part and parcel of the agenda. Today, gender is increasingly visible and is demanded by donors. The Global Gender and Climate Change Alliance is thus pushing the gender agenda. CCAFS joined it recently. But where are we?The article \"Of virtue and vulnerability\" by Arora-Jonsson (2011) looks at the narrative on gender and climate change and reveals that there are basically two discourses: one of women as virtuous and the other of women as vulnerable (green house heroines, engineers, nurtures, careers). One particular iconic picture has been popularized around the world of the later discourse using the picture of an Indian girl fixing a solar panel. But even these kinds of projections limit women to village level actions. When we start thinking about strategies, how can we move beyond these two narratives?Okali and Naess (2013) point out the need to challenge the tokenistic approaches e.g. thinking we are addressing gender by stating \"particularly women\" in strategies without doing analysis. We must avoid static reporting of \"women did this\" and \"men did this\" without asking why and how.A 2010/11 review of the organisational mechanics of integrating gender into climate change work revealed that reasons why gender mainstreaming has not worked include: fatigue and disillusionment, disconnect in the programme cycle, assumptions that policy is enough, lack of capacity, superficial approaches of ticking boxes, varying models, dependence on champions with lack of continuity when the champions leave, and restricting gender mainstreaming to increasing the number of women in institutions without changing institutional cultures.In an exercise meant to generate a common destiny and commonality in purpose, participants were divided into four groups and asked to visualise what it would look like for them, their organisations and the broader world to have equitable climate change adaptation and mitigation (see results below).25Group one: gender equality means leadership and political will, interdisciplinary team membership, availability of resources, evidence, research and extension, communication network, interaction with the outer world, access to and control of resources, distribution of benefits and women and men working together.Group two: gender equality means bridging the gaps between knowledge, action and policy, including having everyone at the table and reflecting on gender balance within the organisation.Group three: gender means creating impact, sustainability and happiness.• There is an inter-dependence and interaction between communities of men and women with the outer world and research organisations. This effect can be positive or negative.• Research organisations have a responsibility to promote gender equality for climate change adaptation and sustainable environment.• If the climate and environment are sustainable, both men and women benefit.• Gender equality is good for the environment.In order to tease out the means of achieving the visions outlined in the foregoing visioning exercise, participants were issued with cards and individually asked to respond to the following questions.  Group four: gender equality means reversing the current top down situation to a bottom-up approach and including gender within the system.  Researchers tend to work so much in boxes that we don't see the connection between the physical and social sciences. But if we do not allocate resources for gender, we will not succeed in either science. But if gender is to be part and parcel of everything, then how do we get it funded so it is not lost? It is easy to do gender as an addition, but when you want to do a cross cutting topic it becomes complicated because it cannot have a budget on its own. We need evidence (data and knowledge) to challenge assumptions and think differently.We often think about women and men separately and don't look at the relations/synergies that exist between them in adapting and coping with climate change. We need to challenge the notion that gender is primarily about women.Gender as a standalone issue is not the focus; rather, the focus is on how it is addressed across sectors. We can generate specific research questions to tackle the synergies. And with more research we can create a motion and interest on gender. But the question is how to integrate gender into climate change issues and sub-issues while keeping both gender and these issues as priorities? We need to consolidate existing research and knowledge to inform current and new research, and we need case studies of success. Partners that have a big commitment to gender (like CCAFS) are extremely important.To assess the current situation in an organization, there are audit tools that can be used. These include SWOT analysis and gender and diversity assessments. The tool in figure 20, developed by InterAction, is a sample tool that can be used. According to this tool, organizations first need to have a 'political will'. From there you can start working on technical capacity, organizational culture and accountability. Gender must be present in everything that an organization does.To move from stock taking to identifying activities that would fit into a gender strategy, there is need for specific scanning. Concepts with particular focus on the types of policies (gender blind, gender neutral, gender aware to gender redistributive or transformative) can be used as a way of scanning the status of an organisation. These concepts can be plotted on an incremental table where ideally an organisation should move from a gender blind to a gender transformative situation. The progression would look like this.This template (figure 21) can be used for different purposes. For example, it can be used to assess the extent of gender mainstreaming in your organization's internal operations and/or programming as part of developing a gender and climate change research strategy. As a second step, you can use it to plan out what your team or organization wants to aim for as an improved score from its current scoring and what might be the priorities. You may choose to use a traffic light colour coding in the marked boxes with gender-blind and neutral being red. Gender sensitive to gender transformative may be marked green but with different shading from lighter to darker.   The resulting discussions are summarized in figures 24-26.Figure 24 shows responses expressed during the world cafe.Figure 25 shows responses expressed during the world cafe.Figure 26 shows responses expressed during the World Cafe.The following three tools were shared during the World Cafe.The Integrated Modelling Platform for Mixed Animal Crop Systems (IMPACT, Herrero et al., 2007) is a generic tool for characterizing agricultural systems for climate and global change studies. It is a data collection protocol and linked computer software designed to gather minimum datasets in smallholder croplivestock systems, and allows for gender-disaggregated data. The protocol collects information ranging from household composition to crop and livestock production, to household food consumption and household assets. The objective of the survey is to capture within-site variability on key livelihood indicators that could be used for a range of analysis, including impact modelling of adaptation and mitigation strategies on livelihoods, food security and the environment. Furthermore, the collection of standard indicators across sites could derive suitable parameters for regional integrated assessments. This survey has been carried out in all the CCAFS sites and provides a value baseline database for monitoring the impact of CCAFS interventions.The questionnaire is currently available on request to CCAFS, and all materials as well as the data will be freely available on the DATAVERSE in early 2014: http://dvn.iq.harvard.edu/dvn/dv/CCAFSbaselineThere is a complementary 'gender module' that builds upon the IMPACT-LITE survey, also to be available on DATAVERSE in early 2014. Being implemented with local partners, this approach aims to empirically and systemically assess gender-differentiated climate change adaptation strategies and preferences. This intra-household survey, implemented in CCAFS sites in Senegal, Uganda, Kenya, and Bangladesh in 2013, includes detailed information on household plot ownership, decision-making, agricultural practices, assets, sources of information, credit, insurance, group membership, perceptions, and personal values, collected from the primary male and primary female decision-makers. The following questions guided the development of the survey:• How might men and women be (differentially) affected by long-run climate change and short-term climate shocks? Do men and women adapt differently to climate change? • What are the characteristics and causes of gender differentials in vulnerability/resilience to weatherrelated risk (e.g. assets, information, empowerment in decision-making, rights, etc.)? • What are the adaptation options, strategies, and approaches (individual, household, or collective) that are available to and preferred by men and women? • Do men and women have different perceptions of climate change and climate risk? How do perceptions of climate change, climate risk, and personal values shape adaptation decisions and approaches?These results provide useful information for a wide range of audiences, from communities on the ground to implementers and to policy makers.Both women and men play a significant role in safeguarding food security, and their respective roles and responsibilities need to be well understood to ensure that men and women benefit equally from climate-smart agriculture practices. Little research, however, has been undertaken to understand how men and women are adapting to climate change, mitigating emissions and maintaining food security. This is a tool to determine the participation of farmwomen in decision making regarding agricultural, investment and domestic (e.g. education of children) matters. It is a very simple tool that enables straight forward calculation of the index that informs us about the areas where women are the major decision makers as well as in what areas we can help women rice farmers become more empowered.CCAFS considers that there is a lot of research on the important role that women play in agriculture and food security. Therefore the organization it does not prioritize research to address whether this is important: the evidence is there. Based on this evidence, CCAFS assumes that by targeting women and youths they will achieve faster, more significant, positive impacts on the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate change, food security in emerging economies, mitigation of climate change, enabling institutional environments for adaptation and mitigation at local to international levels, and transforming gender. The basic question then is how best to do this in relation to climate smart agriculture (CSA) or mitigation-focused strategies. The last two days of the workshop focussed on people's research questions and how they relate to the CCAFS framework.A theory of change is an explicit documentation of the assumptions we make about how impact comes about.It includes the strategies we have for getting outputs, outcomes and impact. The entry points for CCAFS are:1. Climate-smart agricultural practices 2. Climate-information services and climate-informed safety nets 3. Low emissions development 4. Policies and institutions for climate resilient food systems Six strategies have been identified by CCAFS, namely focus on gender, capacity building, open access to information, monitoring and evaluation, communication and engagement, and partnerships. The overall CCAFS impact pathway outlines the vision that the entire CGIAR is working towards, which is \"a healthy food secure world\". The global gender impact that the CGIAR is trying to achieve is \"increased control by women and other marginalised groups of assets, inputs, decision making and benefits\". Figure 27 shows the pathway from the four research themes and outputs through to this outcome, and some of the key partnerships and strategies for achieving those outcomes. After the introduction, participants were assigned in their five regional groups to identify the kind of gender impacts that are needed in order to reach the target CGIAR global gender impact considering norms, beliefs, rules and values that regulate gender and what kinds of transformations need to occur. These were identified as:• Latin America: Balance in power among members of different social units.• East Africa: Balance in power and access to resources.• South Asia: Men's voices are not dominant. Women and other marginalised groups have equal voice in decision making. • Southeast Asia: Confident women that are free to make decisions.• West Africa: Increased and equal control by women and youth to land, markets, information, extension services etc. Women and youth have equality in control of livelihood support systems.The participants worked in regional groups and generated the following regional gender impact pathways for achieving these impacts. The detailed information behind these regional gender impact pathways can be found in Annex 1.PLANNING • Fund raising and communicati on.• Openness to partnership.• NGOs becoming important change agents.by small holders and marginalized women.Media.• Sensitization on gender aspects and issues in the context of climate change.• Innovative use of ICT, wide dissemination and participatory development communicati on.• Openness to cover livelihood issues.• • Gender as an important aspect of interdisciplin ary research.• Create evidence and knowledge around gender.by small holders and marginalized women.Financial institutions, private sector, market providers and processing service providers.• Sensitization on gender needs and climate change.• Customizing products and services for vulnerable groups.• Corporate social responsibilit y (CSR).• Partnerships on gender inclusive climate change adaptation.by small holders and marginalized women.Legal and advocacy groups.• Sensitization on gender inequality, social injustice and climate change.• Legal advocacy and communicati on tools to safe guard interests of the marginalized.• Adopting pro poor standpoints with gender and climate perspectives.• Legally empowered community.by small holders and marginalized women.• Sensitization about climate change vulnerability, insecurity and gender.• Participatory budgeting and project planning.• Change from competition to collaboration .• Increased budgetary allocations for climate change and gender issues.Gaps that need to be addressedLocal government bodies.• Sensitive policies and participatory planning and actions.• • Some funds are given.• Lack of synergy due to competition. • Networking.• Create enabling policy environment at regional level. • Simplify reporting procedures.Financial institutions, private sector, market providers and processing service providers.• Partnerships on gender inclusive climate change adaptation.• Lack of participation and pro-activeness. • Profit motive and lack of pro-poor approach.• Lack of incentives.• Less of awareness on burning issues.• Support efforts for preparing gender and climate change-friendly products and services. • Build partnerships using publicprivate partnership approach. Legal and advocacy groups.• Legally empowered community.• There is support for gender issues• Lack of skills and awareness on burning issues. • Very little contribution of groups in climate change.• Sensitize them and capture best practices from their existing work.Universities and research organisations.• Create evidence and knowledge around gender.• Growing awareness but lack of implementation.• Mechanisms and institutional efforts not adequately gender responsive. • Safeguarding interests of marginalized groups.• Creating products and services on gender and climate change. 1. Likeminded funders like GiZ, Swiss Aid , World Bank, Oxfam etc.• Creating alliances for common goals and achieving synergy e.g. SATNET. 1. Academic institutes focusing on development.• Skill, knowledge and attitude building.• Influencing curriculum to include gender and climate change issues. 1. Media.• Forging key contacts with local, national and regional journalists. • Communicating research findings to the media 1. Consultants /experts on gender and climate change.Gate keepers: Women themselves, men in the household, family, society, local and central government, women's unions, local government officials, ministries and governors (provincial, district).Women are no longer objectified.Older women • Protectors of culture and social status. Women are no longer objectified. Men • Masculinity, power, household responsibility, respect and fear of losing face.Women are no longer objectified.• Focus on what sells/is popular, not being socially conscious and being controlled by higher powers.Women are no longer objectified.• Blind devotion and uncritical attitude.Women are no longer objectified.Social services • Biased and discriminative policy.Women own land. Land policies • Lack of gender-sensitive policy makers. Women own land.• Belief that women cannot own land due to tradition.Women are strong, their work is valued, have self-esteem and are independent.Older women • Protectors of culture, social status and closedmindedness.Women are strong, their work is valued, have self-esteem and are independent. Men • Masculinity, power, household responsibility, respect and fear of losing face.Women are strong, their work is valued, have self-esteem and are independent.Women themselves• Low status, socialization, limited exposure and low selfesteem.Women are strong, their work is valued, have self-esteem and are independent.• Gender-insensitive practices.Women are strong, their work is valued, have self-esteem and are independent.• Blind devotion and uncritical attitude.Women are strong, their work is valued, have self-esteem and are independent.• Discrimination in labour and remuneration.Women are skilled farmers. Women themselves• Belief that farming is a domestic role and that trainings are for men. • Lack of confidence and time.Women are skilled farmers.• Masculinity, power, household responsibility, respect and fear of losing face.Women are skilled farmers.• Gender-blindness, no acknowledgement of women's contribution, lack of policy.Women are skilled farmers.Family members • Devaluing women's capacities.Women are skilled farmers.Society/Culture • Devaluing women's capacities.Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment.Local authorities • Resistance to change from the current system. Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment.• Resistance to change from the current system.Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment. ASEAN • Gender equality not a priority.Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment.• Lack of funds, suitable women candidates, organizational will and support services for women to apply for jobs.Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment.• Lack of funds, gender not a priority, deficient expertise and being donor driven.Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment.• Gender-blindness and gender not a priority.Regional and national organizations and government are investing in women's empowerment.• Gender-blindness and gender not a priority.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Lack of knowledge, technology, resources, opportunity, access to market and information.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels. Communities • Lack of knowledge, technology, resources, opportunity, access to market and information.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Lack of funds and comprehensive strategies.• Corruption and poor accountability and transparency.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Lack of support from the government, comprehensive strategies and collaboration.Development institutions• Lack of comprehensive strategies, collaboration and context-specificity. Informed and educated women.• Lack of respect for women's capacities.• No recognition of the value of education.Informed and educated women.Family • Limited resources and male preference.Informed and educated women.Society/culture • Belief that there is no need to educate women.Informed and educated women.• Not gender transformative.Informed and educated women.• Lack of gender-sensitive dissemination of information and knowledge.Informed and educated women.• Lack of educational priorities.Informed and educated women.• Gender-blindness and gender not a priority.Informed and educated women.• Not gender transformative.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Households • Lack of knowledge, technology, resources, opportunity, access to market and information.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Communities • Lack of knowledge, technology, resources, opportunity, access to market and information.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam). • Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Laos).• Lack of funds and comprehensive strategies. • Corruption and poor accountability and transparency.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• NGOs.• Lack of support from the government, comprehensive strategies and collaboration.Food-secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Research institutes (local & regional).• Lack of gender strategies.• Gender-blind research groups. • Leadership.• Women are equal to men.• Change without compromising culture. • Support and encourage women.• Acknowledge that women should not be objectified.• Women and men should support each other.• Support and encourage women. • Encourage other men not to objectify women.• Objectifying women is unethical.• Gender sensitive media skills.• Women are equal to men.• Stop using women as sex symbols.• Promote women as leaders. Religion• Women are human beings and should not be objectified.• Communication. • Women are equal to men.• Encourage leading female personalities. • Allow women to own land.Women are strong, their work is valued, have selfesteem and are independent.Older women • Culture will be stronger if women are empowered.• Strong, independent women are ideal.• Encourage, support and respect women.Women are strong, their work is valued, have selfesteem and are independent. Men • Women are capable and can work independently .• It is cool to have independent and strong female partners.• Encourage, support and respect women.Women are strong, their work is valued, have selfesteem and are independent.Women themselves• Realize their potential and capability.• Belief in themselves.• Assertiveness.Women are strong, their work is valued, have selfesteem and are independent.• Genderinsensitive practices are wrong.• Encourage, support and respect women.Women are strong, their work is valued, have selfesteem and are independent.• Provide platforms for constructive critiques and dialogue.• Women and men should be equally valued for doing the same work.• Encourage female employment and ensure nondiscriminatory wage structure. Women are skilled farmers.• More advanced and diverse farming skills.• Believe that they have time to do it.• Get training and apply it in farming.Women are skilled farmers.• Women having more farming skills is beneficial to the household.• Informed and educated women.Informed and educated women.Informed and educated women.Informed and educated women.Informed and educated women. Food secure households and reduced poverty levels.• Gender strategies should be integrated in projects and programs.• Develop internal capacity on gender equality.• Gender is an important issue for food security and poverty reduction.• Develop or improve gender strategies. • Institutionalize gender strategies in all projects and programs.Women are strong, their work is valued, they have selfesteem and are independent.Older women • Culture will be stronger if women are empowered.• Strong, independen t women are ideal.• Encourage, support and respect women.strong, their work is valued, they have selfesteem and are independent.• Women are capable and can work independently.• It is fashionable to have independen t and strong female partners.• Encourage, support and respect women.strong, their work is valued, they have selfesteem and are independent.Women themselves• Realize their potential and capability.• Belief that they can do it.• Assertiveness. Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Social welfare government institutions (health, education, family, etc)WID approach / lack of equality perspective.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Local government Gender imbalance, resistance to change, lack of gender sensitivity.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Civil society (women and gender organizations)WID approach.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.NGOs WID approach.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Exclusion of women's interests.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Machismo.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Perpetuates gender stereotypes.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Extension • Implement actions that ensure equal access and distribution of resources and assets (land tenure reform, natural resources property rights allocation).• National budgets are allocated to finance land reforms to benefit women and other marginalized groups.Balance in access and control of resources and assets to improve adaptation to climate change.Balance in access and control of resources and assets to improve adaptation to climate change.Balance in access and control of resources and assets to improve adaptation to climate change.• Men • To understand the social construction of gender.• A mindful attitude towards the role of the different members of the family.• Equal distribution on decision making both at the family and farm levels.Women and youth • To understand the social construction of gender.Trained on managing resources and assets.• Women and youth empowered.Equal and active participation in decision making processes. Donors Native communities • Train women and youth in the use of productive technologie s.• Take into account special needs of women and youth.• Make available new technologies that meet the needs of women and youth.• Gender sensitive attitude.• Create equal conditions for women and men to access and control the markets.Value chain actors (traders, consumers, producers etc)• Improved understanding of GAD approach.• How to manage the GAD approach.• Gender sensitive attitude.• Create equal conditions for women and men to access and control the income and benefits from the value chain. Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Social welfare government institutions (health, education, family, etc).• Medium change: From WID and GAD.• Low change: narrowing skills towards GAD.• Changes in policy.• Changes in budget.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Local government • High change: Cross-level training in GAD.• Medium change: Ability to design policy with GAD.• High change:Be receptive and open minded.• Changes in local policy within the institutions.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.• High change: Develop GADoriented guidelines to project funding.• High: gender sensitivity.• Increase approval projects based on GAD.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.Civil society (women and gender organizations)• High change: cross-level training in GAD.• High: including GAD within the organizatio ns.• High: Inclusion of other marginalized groups.• Equality in funding all groups.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.• Increase of number of development projects using GAD.Needs and interests of rural women and men of different ages and ethnicities are met.• High change: GAD training.• High change: women empowerm ent in leadership skills.• High change: open-minded receptive.• Increase number of women as members and in positions of leadership.• Change of bylaws of farmer organizations.Needs • How to use GAD approach.• Promote the • How to use the GAD approach.• Promote the • GAD approach in programmes and projects.Cultural change in social norms at family, community, state and market levelsLocal government • Understanding of GAD approach.• How to use the GAD approach.• Gender sensitive attitude.• Promote the GAD approach in programmes and projects. • ECADERT is a gender blind strategy that doesn't address special needs of women and disadvantaged groups. • Most decision makers are not reached by the media.• Improve media strategies to reach the right decision makers.Consejo Agropecuario Centroamericano (CAC)-SICA• Regional policy making -agreement on regional priorities that are reflected at the national level.PRAT -ECADERT -SICA • Technical advisory group to support ECADERT implementation.Regional business groups • Promote markets .• Facilitate alliances and collaborative work with international, regional and national institutions. • Ensure that target groups have access to and training on the new technologies with gender focus.• Share information about GAD approach in knowledge alliances, government and private sector in Central America. • Build up evidence on GAD approach in Sustainable Agriculture Chains (SACD) • Financial support to researchers on GAD approach related to SACD.International NGOs (World Vision, CARE, CRS, Prolinnova) 1. Increased confidence of women and other marginalized groups to make independent decisions. Capacity 1. Increased confidence of women and other marginalized groups to make independent decisions.1. Increased confidence of women and other marginalized groups to make independent decisions. • No capacity to articulate gender issues in its work.• No capacity to articulate gender issues in its work.As above.Makerere University • Gender is not an integral part of the curriculum but taught as an independent discipline.• Gender is not an integral part of the curriculum but taught as an independent discipline.As above.CIAT & IITA • Discipline focused.• Gender is not a priority.• Discipline focused.• Gender is not a priority.As above.• Limited coverage and capacity for gender.• Limited coverage and capacity for gender.As above.• Lack funding, have limited coverage and lack gender strategy.• Lack funding, have limited coverage and lack gender strategy.As above.• Lack funds and staff and gender is not a priority.• Lack funds and staff and gender is not a priority.As above.Government administrator (CAO, RDC, DAO)• More political than development agenda. Active participation of women and marginalized groups in rural development.Equitable access to assets and other livelihoods support systems among women and other marginalized groups.Increased confidence of women and other marginalized groups to make independent decisions.Gaps that need to be addressed New activities that can fill the gaps Regional organizations mainstreaming gender in their research agenda (ASARECA, CIAT, ILRI, ICRAF)• Some have gender strategies and are targeting to mainstream.• Efforts to mainstream gender but how complete or how well it is working is not known.• Document and learn about gender activities, gender strategy and mainstreaming. • Facilitate a gender strategy and mainstreaming process. Regional organizations understand and apply gender concepts, tools and methods.• Some research programs have some knowledge on how to mainstream gender in their research.• No specific processes for mainstreaming it into the research agenda.• Build capacity on gender and gender mainstreaming through a variety of methods. • Limited skills for analyzing, using and communicating gender data.• Build capacity on gender and gender mainstreaming through a variety of methods.• Identify the training opportunities on gender mainstreaming within the region (AGRIPROFOCUS). • Hire subject matter specialists to support gender mainstreaming in institutional programs. Regional organizations and their staff embrace gender mainstreaming as an integral part of their research agenda and their organizations.• Some research organizations have mainstreamed gender in their research agenda.• Most research organizations and their researchers still equate gender with women.• Develop and implement gender mainstreaming strategies. • Include gender in TORS and staff performance evaluation. Universities understand and apply gender concepts in their teaching and research agenda.• Some universities are teaching gender as independent disciplines.• Teaching gender as integral part in relevant disciplines is a challenge. • Biological scientists perceive gender as a social issue and therefore not relevant for their disciplines.• Build capacity of university staff to integrate gender in their teaching. • Some staff especially from the social sciences have some skills of integrating gender into their teaching.• Build capacity of university staff to integrate gender in their teaching. Government appreciates and embraces the role and contribution of women and marginalized groups to agricultural development.• Strategies to embrace the roles and contributions of women to development are available but not functional.• Women and other marginalized groups are sometimes aggregated together as small-holder farmers and this makes them invisible as a special need group. • Women and their groups are not homogenous and therefore government targets on marginalized women are underestimated.• Deliberately target and invest in women and other marginalized groups. • Periodic reviews and implementation of gender policy.International research organizations Capacity building of NARs and extension; fund local research; deliver and disseminate research findings at international, regional and national levels.Capacity building; research and dissemination; knowledge sharing and outreach.Provide the environment and institutional framework to operationalise implementation and sustainability.Capacity building; advisory services; lobbying and advocacy.Farmer organizations Lobbying and advocacy; farmer mobilization and co-ordination; capacity building.• Be informed about existing family codes and related policies.• Believe that women can participate in household decision making.• Allow women to participate in household decision making.• Migration from WID to GAD.• Understanding of gender concepts.• Internalise the responsibility to include gender issues in their agenda.• Enforce implementatio n of family codes and existing policies.Women and men local associations• Recognize opportunities available to them.• Enhanced capacity for organizational & financial management.• Prioritise gender equality in their programmes. • Lobby for implementatio n of family codes. Religious leaders • Be informed about existing family codes and related policies.• Believe that women can have equal rights within the household.• Lobby and sensitise on the need for equal rights within the household. Increased access to assets for women e.g. equipment, household assets.• Recognition of the value added by equitable allocation of assets.• Equitable resource management skills.• Believe in the inherent equality of women and men, boys and girls. • Identification of sources of reliable information on gender.• Improved literacy among all household members.• Increased proactivity among women in the types of information they seek.• Allow direct access to information for all members of the household regardless of gender.Increased access to relevant information for women and men.• Know information users and their management options.• • Family courts.• Family lawyers.• Traditional dispute resolution mechanisms/local land commissions.• Intra-household gender power dynamics that constrain women from claiming their rights.• Sensitisation of men and women on existing laws and mechanisms and their implications. Partner Role• Develop gender sensitive laws and policies.• Disseminate f laws and policies.• Enforcement of laws and policies.• Monitor and evaluate.• Allocate resources.• Coordinate various actors.• Establish legal aid and other necessary structures and services.• Provide national level data. NGOs• Disseminate laws and policies in simplified versions.• Train and sensitize.• Research.• Advocacy.• Experience sharing. Local women's and men's associations• Sensitize communities and popularize laws and policies.• Advocacy.• Role modeling.• Partner with government on monitoring & evaluation.• Mainstream gender in the research agenda.• Disseminate research findings to influence policy and legislation.• Popularise gender mainstreaming among partners. Religious leaders• Advocacy.• Role modelling.• Enforce religious laws.• Conduct training and cultural re-orientation. Traditional rulers• Advocacy.• Role modelling.• Enforce gender responsive customary laws and practices.• Discourage discriminatory cultural laws and practices.• Conduct training and cultural re-orientation. Household heads• Sensitisation.• Role modelling.• Practise gender responsive customary laws and practices.• Discourage discriminatory cultural laws and practices.•","tokenCount":"9840"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9f942ec97530644e6b43a4b5f754e350","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d671ca38-bb6c-4f38-908f-d7fb47b8a126/retrieve","id":"-1004013777"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d2735ef2-5b20-49e5-bfc5-cb9129051768","pagecount":"38","content":"CGIAR Technical Reporting has been developed in alignment with the CGIAR Technical Reporting Arrangement. This Initiative report is a Type 1 report and constitutes part of the broader CGIAR Technical Report. Each CGIAR Initiative submits an annual Type 1 report, which provides assurance on Initiative-level progress towards End of Initiative outcomes. The CGIAR Technical Report comprises:• Type 1 Initiative and Impact Area Platform reports, with quality assured results reported by Initiatives and Platforms available on the CGIAR Results Dashboard.• The Type 3 Portfolio Performance and Project Coordination Practice Change report, which focuses on internal practice change.• The Portfolio Narrative, which draws on the Type 1 and Type 3 reports, and the CGIAR Results Dashboard, to provide a broader view on portfolio coherence, including results, partnerships, country and regional engagement, and synergies among the portfolio's constituent parts.The CGIAR Technical Report constitutes a key component of the CGIAR Annual Performance Report (APR).Chumki Mondol (27) is a female farmer from Rajbari District, Bangaldesh. She used seeder fertilizer drills to plant wheat on her fields. Previously this was done manually. SFD has resulted to a better harvest for Chumki. Photo credit: Ranak MartinThe overall outcomes planned to be tackled by Seed Equal as per the theory of change were mostly addressed in 2022. More than 100 cereal products have been scaled through cereal seed value chains, and access to quality seed ensured through functional formal or farmer-based seed systems (outcome 1). This includes maize, where 57 elite products were licensed through 47 partners in 35 countries (in Africa, South Asia (SA), East and Southern Africa (ESA), and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC)) and 8 provitamin-A-and zinc-enriched maize Section 2 Initiative progress on science and towards End of Initiative outcomes materials (VPMs) and integrating farmer-managed seed systems for the first time. In Uganda, recent work highlighted gains achieved from policy innovations, regulatory reforms, and market experiments in the seed sector, while emphasizing the political economy factors limiting growth. In Rwanda, Seed Equal continued to support the government's efforts to accelerate commercialization of the seed sector with new data and evidence.Outcome 3 has been successfully addressed with critical public as well as private partnerships established in different countries, regions and for different crops. For vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs), consultative meetings involving international partners, national research, and seed regulatory agencies were held in Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda. A tool for gender and social inclusion requirements for estimating seed demand (Tanzania), a user-friendly tool to estimate demand for early generation seed for VPCs (Uganda), a needs assessment to quantify demand for seed in \"geo-targeted\" regions of Nigeria, and a geospatial analysis approach for quantifying linkages between VPC seed demand and supply were implemented. For wheat, a determination of the feasibility of wheat flour blending, as a short-and medium-term solution to the current wheat and food price crisis, was undertaken by Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), who conducted lab analyses on cereal properties for consumer preference with a view to stimulating the uptake of, and hence seed demand for, locally adapted varieties. In rice, five public-private partnerships in SA and four in ESA have been established for early generation seed production. The maize team reported partnerships with 10 Latin American National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), and small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) partners who were supported with direct one-on-one technical backstopping for product selection, varietal registration, line maintenance, seed production, and post-harvest. In legume seed systems, 16 country-based MSPs were established, bringing together 10 National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), 42 seed companies, 23 NGOs, extension agents, agro-dealers, 45 grain off-takers, and farmers -all critical actors in creating demand within the legume seed and grain value chain (outcome 3). The updating of guidelines for the registration and release of varieties of all the major VPC crops emerged from stakeholder consultations with national partners in Nigeria.Altogether, Seed Equal results contributing to outcomes 1 to 3 also addressed Action Area (AA) outcome statements 4 and 5, promoting the integration of public and private seed systems for increasing the quantity of seed of improved varieties available to farmers (AA outcome 4) and the respective adoption of new varieties (AA outcome 5), for the priority crops and geographies listed above.More than 5,000 innovative smallholder farmers, including women and youth, were engaged in and trained on improved on-farm validation systems, seed marketing tools, awareness, and technical know-how (outcome 4). In rice, master trainers/ farmers (2000 in SA, 165 in ESA) were trained in quality seed production -targeting quality assurance in farmer-managed seed systems, 70% of whom were women. Community driven demonstrations were reported for 10 validated promising rice products in SA and 13 in ESA, and 41 field days organized in ESA targeted diverse stakeholders (farmers, dealers, seed producing officers, seed firms, etc.) to take part in participatory product selection. In maize, training courses on seed production were implemented for 25 staff from the Guatemalan NARES institution and international training on maize hybrid seed production and seed business management for SA were conducted with 26 institutions from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. Early generation seed production models were promoted for cassava in South-East Asia through the socialization of new rapid tunnel multiplication techniques with 20 seed system stakeholder organizations from Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam. NARES staff were trained in 6 different countries in Southeast Asia and Africa on late-stage product advancement using the Seeds2B seed toolkit; follow-up monitoring is needed to estimate the level of use of these tools. Capacity-building activities were implemented for rice seed production in India, Bangladesh, Tanzania, and Kenya, with the focus on fostering seed systems innovations and ensuring best practices in seed production. A new tool for variety adoption monitoring (VarScout) was piloted in two countries with local extension and NGO staff inputting data from the field. This capacity will be extended to further crops and countries in 2023-2024. A first draft towards a One CGIAR germplasm licensing strategy was produced, based on best practice across participating CGIAR crop centers. Activities relating to the design and roll-out of a One CGIAR variety/product catalogue will start in 2023. Investment in capacity development to strengthen policy analysis and introduce a predictable policy environment were pursued through continued support to communities of practice and learning, including the Integrated Seed Sector Development (ISSD) Africa initiative -a critical platform for sector stakeholders across the region. Seed Equal also began work on advancing new methods, tools, data, and systems to monitor and evaluate policy change processes in seed system and market development. New features were added to the SeedTracker ICT platform in 2022 for use in the potato (Georgia) and sweet potato (Tanzania) seed value chains, enabling registered users to upload additional required information.Finally, CGIAR partners have developed and scaled seed innovations, policies, validation systems, marketing tools, and technical know-how, that contribute to the empowerment of women, youth and other social groups in food, land, and water systems, addressing AA outcome statement 6.A deficit of this report is that we still lack the ability to report across crops and geographies in overall improvements in the functioning of seed systems and delivery from our own from and partners' breeding pipelines (in terms of both variety adoption and seed availability) in aggregated and simple \"headline\" or dashboard style. The required indicators, associated targets, and methods for data collection, along with agreed definitions of allowable attribution, are complex in nature and are being finalized. They will be available in 2023 along with available baselines. Reporting for 2023, along with estimates of progress in 2022 against baselines, will be included in the following report. In a number of cases the initiative is actively working to develop new metrics, particularly around inclusive access to seed, for use both within the Genetic Innovation (GI) Action Area but also to be available for global seed development sector. These new indicators are likely to be available and to have been piloted within the current business cycle.A priority for 2023 will be the increasing alignment of Seed Equal activities with the newly launched Market Intelligence Initiative Seed Product Market Segment Database (SPMS) to prioritize seed value chains with the highest potential impact and for which breeding pipelines and candidate varieties are available. Priorities to identify further capacity-building in order to strengthen national program seed production capability will be further aligned with the breeding capacity development needs assessments and implementation undertaken by the Accelerated Breeding Initiative (ABI) TRANSFORM Work Package. Identification of future needs for seed policy analysis and development in an African context will be increasingly driven by gaps identified by the SeedSAT program implemented by the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). Continuing dialogue with AGRA on seeking opportunities for where Seed Equal can support the emerging AGRA Center of Excellence in Seed Systems in Africa (CESSA) will continue in 2023 and as that initiative becomes operational.   for the rapid detection of seed-borne yam mosaic virus (YMV) and banana bunchy top virus (BBTV). In India (Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh), an assessment of community seed banks and seed villages to understand their ability to promote inclusive and gender-responsive access to seed has been initiated by WP6 and will be completed in Q2 of 2023.Seed system actors promote uptake of quality seed of new improved varieties derived from breeding programs by women and men farmers in selected countries.WP1 worked with actors involved in seed maintenance and/or direct multiplication of cereal products for mass scaling, commercialization, dissemination, and targeted adoption. A diverse range of multiplying and scaling institutions, including private companies (targeting hybrids or high-value products), SMEs, public seed firms (large volume products and inbred focus), registered NGOs and community institutions, farmer producer companies (FPCs), were involved, targeting smallholder, women and \"last-mile\" delivery to develop and implement a decentralized and inclusive approach. Many products introduced through transnational seed movement resulted in a positioning of those products in these new countries through a more localized ownership and delivery system. WP2 undertook collaborative promotional activities with 42 seed companies, 23 NGOs, extension agents, and agro-dealers, resulting in 2,190 demonstrations of 56 modern varieties of common bean, cowpea, and soybean in Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, Burundi, DRC, Ghana, and Nigeria. The \"hand-over point\" between breeding outputs and seed systems is a bottleneck in the VPC seed-value chain and WP3 is developing a tool for NARES to use a systematic approach to plan seed delivery and provide feedback to breeders.Increased number of public and private early generation seed enterprises are playing their roles more effectively by adopting models that reduce their cost and increase their output.WP2 developed cost-benefit analysis tools to help seed producers to reduce production risks and costs of seed production; 10 public seed enterprises and 42 further seed enterprises are partly outsourcing seed multiplication to contracted spatially dispersed seed growers. WP3 developed case studies of profitable inclusive VPC businesses in smallholder systems, such as seed potato production planning, and using a business decision tool which shows the profitability of the planned production schemes. The main progress focused on promoting inclusive policy solutions to improve regulatory frameworks guiding the introduction of new plant variety protection laws (Nigeria), the production and distribution of quality planting material for VPCs (Kenya), the acceleration of private sector engagement in the seed sector (Rwanda), and market-led innovations in seed distribution and quality assurance (Uganda).These efforts were augmented by continued efforts to put evidence-based policy analysis at the center of cross-country communities of practice and learning, and to promote rigor in both the legal and economic analysis being undertaken by WP5's national partners at all levels. For VPC (WP3   For WP1 outcome 3 (Four to five critical public as well as private partnerships established for each key cereal for accelerated varietal turnover), in wheat, a determination of the feasibility of wheat flour blending, as a short-and medium-term solution to the current wheat and food price crisis, was undertaken by JKUAT to conduct lab analysis on cereal properties for consumer preference to stimulate the uptake of local varieties. In rice, five public-private partnerships in SA and four in ESA have been established for early-generation seed production. The maize team reported partnerships with 10 Latin American NARES and SME partners who were supported with direct one-on-one technical backstopping for product selection, varietal registration, line maintenance, seed production, and post-harvest.For outcome 4 (At least 5,000 innovative farmers, mostly representing women and youth or smallholders, are engaged and capacitated with improved on-farm validation systems, marketing tools, awareness, and technical know-how), in rice, a training of master trainers/farmers (2,000 in SA, 165 in ESA) was achieved around quality seed production targeting quality assurance in farmermanaged seed systems, 70% of whom were women. Community-driven demonstrations were reported for 10 validated promising products in SA and 13 in ESA; 10 varietal \"cafeterias\" were hosted in South Asia and 41 field days organized in ESA targeting diverse stakeholders (farmers, dealers, seed-producing officers, seed firms, etc.) for participatory product selection. In maize, a training course on seed production was implemented for 25 staff from the Guatemalan NARES institution, and international training on maize hybrid seed production and seed business management for SA was conducted with 26 institutions from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. In wheat, a paper describing the link between seed delivery timing to farmers, wheat production and food security in Afghanistan (Poole et al., 2022) was published and a novel partnership of local and international partners established to develop a national seed roadmap for the rehabilitation of the wheat seed system.Stephanie Angomwile displays bags of Afriseeds bean seed at the company's warehouse in Lusaka, Zambia.   WP6 outcome 1 (at least 5 entities -public, private, or non-profit -deploy gender transformative strategies to reach women seed users and producers), given the limited data and evidence available on the gender-transformative strategies on this aspect, a global scoping review was taken up and protocols developed. The review will be completed by Q1 of 2023. Situational analysis of gender dimensions of information and delivery pathways and seed choices have been initiated in Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh in India which offer very different situations for seed systems. An assessment of community seed banks and seed villages to understand their ability to promote inclusive access and be gender-responsive has been initiated and will be completed in Q2 of 2023. Regarding WP6 outcome 2 (At least 20 women and 10 youth will establish seed production and marketing enterprises in India, Uganda, Rwanda, and Kenya), a scoping review was conducted to understand the effectiveness of different capacity-development and business models for women's entrepreneurship in seed systems. Final reports are to be ready by Q1 of 2023. Action research with women's collectives and other farmer producer organizations for building their capacities and establishing seed businesses has been initiated in Odisha, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh in collaboration with IRRI and ALF,CSA and Pragati.Seed value chain analysis of key crops has been initiated in Odisha, India. This action research will be expanded to Africa in 2023. On outcome 3, a synthesis of evidence on formal and informal systems coordination was conducted and will be completed in Q1 2023, which will inform action research in 2023. Finally, results towards WP6 outcome 4 (At least five public, private, or community-based seed-producing organizations are piloting new metrics to track inclusive access to seed) are on track, with the review of existing indicators on inclusive access and a proposal for new metrics in final stages. Piloting of the metrics will be initiated in three countries in Q2 of 2023, after validation with key stakeholders.WP1 progress is so far on track and many of the achievements in Year 1 for singular commodities are beyond what was envisaged for all commodities collectively. This is partly due to capitalizing on products emerging from ongoing breeding pipelines and their adaptive testing, and strengthening existing seed system partner networks. However, in the case of GI, many specific interventions achieved results much beyond initial targets (e.g., 70% women against 40% target for capacity-building on quality seed productions). WP4 progress is on track even if 2022 was primarily a year of building the foundation for achieving the set goals, mainly setting up partnerships and getting sub-award agreements.The One CGIAR licensing strategy (a key strategic document) was prioritized and achieved, and activities on the One CGIAR variety catalogue have already started in 2023 in collaboration with the Market Intelligence Initiative.WP5 is on track as annual progress aligns well with the Plan of Results and Budget across four African countries for policy recommendations that advance inclusive and sustainable seed system and market development. Progress is also reported at the global and regional levels, improving capacity of partners to conduct policy analysis for seed system and market development through existing communities of practice.  The activity/result contributes in significant ways to gender equality, even though it is not the principal focus of the activity.Gender equality is the main objective of the activity/result and is fundamental in its design and expected results. Diverse partners from national bodies and formal and farmer-managed seed systems are playing a critical role to strengthen seed systems actors' capacities (EOI-O 1) and promote the uptake of quality seeds of new improved varieties (EOI-O 2). For cereals (WP1), public sector seed corporations or trade associations, larger private seed companies (e.g, hybrids), seed SMEs (for OPVs) or registered farmer producer companies are critical for product positioning and to produce and deliver increased quantities of quality seed of improved varieties. For legume seed systems, WP2 engaged with nine NARS and two African universities to catalyze processes that influence local seed system actors to respond to variety demands from the off-taker/traders or processors. The collaborating NARS' influence then cascades to other local seed system partners: seed producers, nongovernmental organizations, traders, agro input dealers, and extension agents, to facilitate promotion of improved varieties and use of quality seed. For VPCs, WP3 has facilitated crosscollaborations, based on comparative advantage, between research teams partnering with NARES on banana, cassava, potato, sweetpotato, and yam, and downstream private companies and decentralized seed multipliers, with a particular focus on \"geo-targeting\" regions of Nigeria (southern states), Tanzania (north-west) and Uganda (south). To actively promote policy solutions WP5's scaling partners are governments themselvesministries of agriculture, finance, commerce, and trade, as well as their specialized agencies -where decisions are made that accelerate varietal turnover, adoption, and quality seed use. Examples include the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI) in Rwanda and the National Agricultural Seeds Council (NASC) in Nigeria, among many others. In India, WP6 is building a range of research for development (R4D) partnerships, including national and international research organizations such as the National Note: CGIAR Centres are excluded from the analysis. Partners and edges are sized by the number of results. Labels are shown for the partners involved in the most results. Yet farmers in Kenya cultivate much more than maize, and KEPHIS's mandate covers a much wider range of crops. This includes vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs), such as potato, sweetpotato, and cassava, that are critical to the livelihoods of Kenya's many smallholder farmers (McEwan et al., 2021). Ensuring that these farmers have access to quality seed remains a challenge.Working closely with Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), the International Potato Center (CIP), and other partners, KEPHIS has made significant advances in regulating the multiplication and sale of VPC seed. But unique challenges remain, which impact in different ways on the women, men, and youth smallholders who produce, exchange, and use VPC seed themselves. The unique biological and economic characteristics of vegetative propagation -bulkiness, perishability, low multiplication rates, and susceptibility to seed-and soil-borne pests and diseases -make it distinct from maize, requiring radically different regulatory approaches to quality assurance (Spielman et al., 2021). This challenge is most acute in smallholder production systems where VPC seed is often exchanged between farmers within limited geographies, but sometimes without the associated benefits of clean seed or genetic improvement.The Centre for African Bio-Entrepreneurship (CABE), the Tegemeo Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development, CIP, IITA, and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) have been collaborating for several years to expand and deepen the national discourse on seed policy and regulation. Central to this collaboration is an ongoing research and outreach effort to better understand the tradeoffs and policy processes that enable regulatory reforms in the seed sector -the actors, their interests, their histories, and their steps on the road to reform (Ayieko et al., 2021) Building on the success of this work, in 2022, Seed Equal leveraged cross Work Package expertise to support the groundwork for a national policy engagement process to design new regulatory guidelines for VPCs. The Constitution of Kenya, 2010 (CoK 2010) under Article 11 (3) (b), requires Parliament to enact legislation to recognize and protect the ownership of indigenous seeds and plant varieties, their genetic and diverse characteristics, and their use by the communities of Kenya. Moreover, there are initiatives to provide for an Access and Benefit-sharing (ABS) system that will allow for access and exchange of seed among communities, i.e., recognizing the importance of farmer-managed seed systems. This effort is led by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Co-operatives with engagement from CABE, CIP, IFPRI, and IITA, among many other actors.This work speaks directly to at least two of Seed Equal's End of Initiative outcomes: Section 7 Key result story• Seed system actors promote uptake of quality seed of new improved varieties derived from breeding programs by women and men farmers in selected countries.• Government partners in public policy design and implementation actively promote policy solutions to accelerate varietal turnover, adoption, and quality seed use by women and men.Seed Equal will continue to support this engagement in 2023. The next steps, as required by the Kenyan Constitution, are County and National stakeholder consultations, followed by a Regulatory Impact Assessment (RIA). These processes are overseen by the Sector Wide Agriculture Group (SWAG) to ensure that the draft regulations are revised to reflect concerns raised. By the end of 2023, the new Regulations for Vegetatively Propagating Seeds will have been submitted to the Attorney General's Office for subsequent gazettement.While a national consultation process may seem like a lengthy, tiresome means to affecting policy change, it should never be overlooked. Consultations ensure that key groups in Kenya's agriculture sector -women and men farmers, seed companies, farmer-based seed businesses, and small-scale seed entrepreneurs, as well as national regulators, county administrators, researchers, and extension service providers -have a voice in the change process. And, when combined with effective coordination across organizations and the application of evidence-based analysis, consultative processes can lead to improved institutional architecture for seed sector policy and, ultimately, to delivering genetic gain and quality seed to farmers' fields.","tokenCount":"3771"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e743a6491e6e2a4ea5fbbda39f947e3b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c6866c5-5d3a-4408-8b9e-deb1e9e5642d/retrieve","id":"-733618169"},"keywords":["altitude","corm","cultivar","macro-propagation","Musa","net profit","scarification","temperature"],"sieverID":"c2609dc5-7ee3-448d-9c9f-a03191feb514","pagecount":"16","content":"This study assessed simple macro-propagation methods, which build on methods reported for enset multiplication, for producing banana seedlings in four different Musa cultivar use groups across four unique agro-ecologies (900-1,815 m a.s.l.). The methods consisted of a substrate of loosened soil or a soil-and decomposed farmyard manure mixture under either a semi-cylindrical tunnel made of wooden/stick frames covered with knitted elephant grass stems or a 5 cm thick mulch cover of spear grass/elephant grass. A standard macro-propagation unit, made of wooden planks and thick plastic polythene sheet covering, with sawdust as substrate, served as a control. The average number of harvested plantlets per corm, irrespective of cultivar and site, varied between 7.5 under semi-cylindrical tunnel without manure and 12.6 under the standard macro-propagation unit. In general, and across sites and cultivars, there were no significant differences (P>0.05) between macro-propagation methods in the mean number of harvested plantlets. Irrespective of method and cultivar, fewer plantlets were harvested at the high altitude sites. Significantly more plantain plantlets (12.1-14.5) were produced at low altitudes (900 and 1,066 m) while dessert (12.8) and cooking (12.7) types performed better at 1,700 m. Significantly fewer plantlets per corm were produced by the ABB types (7.9), while the highest numbers were realized for the plantains (12.2). The net profit from sale of plantlets from the simple macro-propagation units was comparable and sometimes higher than that from the standard unit. The high initial cost and skills needed for establishing the standard macro-propagation unit have often hindered its adoption. The low cost, use of local materials and comparable returns from the simple macro-propagation units suggest that they could be a good alternative for banana seedling production under small-scale farmer conditions.What is already known on this subject? • Standard banana/plantain macro-propagation units made of wooden planks, thick polythene sheets and saw dust/rice hull substrate have been poorly adopted due to the high cost of establishment.What are the new findings?• Performance of novel, simple and less costly macropropagation units made of soil or soil-manure mixture as substrate and mulch cover is comparable to standard units.What is the expected impact on horticulture?• The novel units will improve adoption of macropropagation and improve access to clean seed by resource-poor farmers.Banana and plantain (Musa spp.) are the staple food for over 20 million people in the Great Lakes region of central and eastern Africa (Karamura et al., 1998). In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo), Musa spp. is the second most important staple food crop after cassava (Bakelana, 2004). In DR Congo, banana production is constrained by numerous socio-economic, biotic and abiotic factors, including pest and disease pressure and an often-declining soil fertility (Bouwmeester et al., 2009). Among these constraints, banana Xanthomonas wilt has recently become one of the most important, indiscriminately affecting all Musa cultivars and causing up to 100% yield loss (Blomme et al., 2014). The disease has often been followed by destruction of banana plants on large swaths of land. This has had dire negative effects on the environment, food security and income of affected households and communities, and has been compounded by the lack of access to 'clean' and affordable planting material to replenish the devastated plantations. Clean seed is urgently needed for re-establishment of destroyed plantations, establishing new fields and expansion of existing plantations. The Musa crop is sterile and parthenocarpic (Heslop-Harrison and Trude, 2007) and thus vegetatively propagated. Most farmers depend on natural regeneration of existing banana mats to obtain suckers (Kasyoka et al., 2010;Ocimati et al., 2013), which is a slow process and quite often does not yield adequate numbers of suckers of the desired varieties (Kasyoka et al., 2010;Manzur, 2001). Naturally-produced suckers are also a source of pests and diseases that reduce productivity and increase the cost of production due to the need for pest control measures (Kasyoka et al., 2010).Micro-propagation through tissue culture techniques is an efficient method of producing large quantities and good quality Musa seed, but is constrained by high capital and skill requirements and occurrence of somaclonal variation (Kasyoka et al., 2010). In addition, these facilities are either lacking or few across the largest part of the east and central African region. At the time of this study, for example, there was no single commercial or public tissue culture facility for crop multiplication in the eastern part of DR Congo. As such, the cost of tissue culture plantlets in the region was very high and out of reach of resource-poor households. Macro-propagation has been advocated for as an effective alternative method which requires less capital and skills to produce large numbers of better-quality banana seedlings. Depending on variety, one corm can yield an average of 10 seedlings, which can be increased by a factor of 3-4 through scarification (i.e., removal of the apical meristem of emerging lateral buds) (Njeri et al., 2010) using this method. This technology therefore has the potential to narrow the gap between demand and supply of affordable healthy banana seedlings. However, the standard recommended macropropagation units (using wooden planks, thick plastic sheets and sawdust as a substrate) are still unaffordable for many resource-poor farming communities (Lepoint et al., 2013). Macro-propagation units made from local materials (branches and woven mats) with rice hulls, coffee husks and sawdust as substrates in Burundi (Lepoint et al., 2013), also have not gained the anticipated level of adoption due to the availability of the substrates. To increase adoption within resource-poor communities, an alternative low cost propagation method, requiring low skill to implement and use of local materials, is needed (Kasyoka et al., 2010).Simpler methods of producing plantlets have been demonstrated with enset (Ensete ventricosum) in Ethiopia. Enset corms are buried in a mixture of soil and farmyard manure and covered with mulch (Dougherty, 2002). Large numbers of plantlets are produced using this method, which may also prove to work for banana and plantain.The objective of this study was to assess and compare the performance of modified simple and cost-effective methods reported for enset multiplication for producing banana seedlings against the standard recommended macro-propagation unit, as an alternative for resource-poor communities with limited access to clean planting materials.Macro-propagation experiments were established at four sites representing a range of altitudes: the INERA Mulungu research station (1,700 m above sea level (m a.s.l.)) and at Kamanyola (900 m a.s.l.) in South Kivu province (SK), and at the Catholic University of Graben, Butembo research station (1,815 m a.s.l.) and Mavivi, Beni (1,066 m a.s.l.) in North Kivu province (NK). The soil characteristics of these sites are described in detail in Kamira et al. (2016).The macro-propagation experiments compared two simple and cost-effective macro-propagation unit types made out of readily available local materials and substrates against a standard unit with a saw dust substrate. The first simple macro-propagation unit type consisted of wooden  sticks inserted in the soil and bent to make a semi-cylindrical frame (tunnel) and covered with knitted elephant grass stems (Penisetum purpureum, elephant grass). The knitted elephant grass stems were attached in such a way that it could be easily removed, e.g., for watering or the assessment of plantlet growth (Figures 1B and D). Instead of using standard substrates (i.e., saw dust, coffee husks or rice hull), corms were buried in loosened soil or a mixture of loosened soil and decomposed farmyard manure (cattle manure in SK, goat manure in NK). A total of 120 kg of manure was added to a seed bed with a dimension 1 m (width) × 4 m (length) × 0.3 m (depth). In the second simple macro-propagation unit type, the prepared corms were buried in the loosened soil or loosened soil and decomposed farmyard manure mixture and directly covered with a 5 cm thick layer of spear grass (Loudetia arundinacea)/elephant grass mulch (Figure 1E). The soil in these two simple unit types was loosened up to 30 cm depth. These two unit types were compared with a standard macro-propagation unit made out of wooden planks and thick plastic polythene sheet covering, with sawdust as substrate (Figures 1A and C). Eucalyptus wood sawdust was used in South Kivu, while Afromosia wood sawdust was used in North Kivu. A small gutter was dug around each set of macro-propagation units to divert possible excess rainwater. Each trial site was fenced off to prevent foraging small ruminants from browsing the emerging plantlets. Twenty corms (four replications of five corms) of four different cultivars were assessed for all substrate and macro-propagation unit types at each of the four sites. A total of 200 corms per cultivar were assessed across the two experimental sites in each province, with 100 corms (20 corms × 5 propagation types) assessed in both sites at (low and high altitude). The assessed Musa cultivars comprised 'Kotina' (plantain, AAB genome), 'Pisang Awak' (syn. 'Kayinja', ABB), 'Vulambya' (AAA-EA highland cultivar) and 'Giant Cavendish' (AAA, dessert) in North Kivu, while 'Musheba local' (plantain), 'Pisang Awak', 'Vulambya' (syn. 'Barabesha',) and 'Giant Cavendish' were assessed in South Kivu. Very few plantain cultivars are found in the study region in South Kivu province. Of the limited plantain cultivar pool, a French plantain cultivar ('Musheba') with similar growth and yield characteristics as 'Kotina' in North Kivu was selected. This was anticipated to have minimum influence on the results of the experiment. These cultivars were selected on the basis of their relative abundance and to represent the major genomic groups in the region.Corms of similar-sized sword suckers were used. All corms were sourced from the high altitude sites [i.e., INERA Mulungu research station (1,700 m a.s.l.) for SK and Butembo research station (1,815 m a.s.l.) for NK] that have no weevil incidence and limited nematode presence. All corms were nevertheless pared (Njeri et al., 2011) to avoid any risk of these banana pests. Supplemental treatments included corm treatment in boiling water for 30 sec in South Kivu or dipping in a fungicide (Agrolaxyl-MZ-72-WP) solution for 20 min in North Kivu (Hauser, 2007) and removal of all leaf sheaths to expose the lateral buds (Figure 2). The authors however anticipate that the variation in the supplementary treatments across the two provinces did not significantly influence the study findings.The circumference of each prepared corm was measured. Subsequently, the apical meristem of each corm and any visible lateral bud were scarified before planting in the seed bed. Corms were planted at a depth of 20 cm, at a spacing of 5 cm within a cultivar line and 20 cm between cultivar lines, and covered with up to a 5 cm thick layer of soil or sawdust. A second round of scarification was done on the emerging lateral shoots/seedlings at 4 to 5 weeks after trial initiation. Seedlings were harvested at a height of at least 20 cm and at least two leaves (i.e., two to three weeks after the last round of scarification). The experiment was repeated twice during 2013, each experiment taking a period of four months.Data collected included cost of the various inputs used for establishing the macro-propagation units (Table 1), circumference of corms used for seedling production, number of scarified plantlets per corm, number of plantlets harvested per corm, time to plantlet harvest and the time to complete corm decay. The subsequent cost of maintaining the macro-propagation units after their establishment were also recorded for the later determination of profitable time of terminating the units. The air temperature (minimum and maximum) was measured above each unit (5 cm above mulch layer, grass cover or plastic sheet) and just above the soil or sawdust surface. In addition, the soil/substrate temperature was measured at 5 and 20 cm depth. Air and soil temperature measurements were carried out at 5.30 a.m., 12.00 noon, 15.00 p.m. and 18.00 p.m.   Profits attained from the different macro-propagation units were determined by the number of plantlets harvested, the costs of unit establishment and maintenance and the site characteristics. The net profit (US$) from the sale of harvested banana plantlets per site, cultivar and macropropagation unit type was calculated as the difference between the income realized from the sale of harvested plantlets (price of plantlets based on the local market price) and input costs (cost of unit establishment and maintenance) (Table 1). The input costs that applied only to the standard macro-propagation units included labour (technical) for unit construction, transparent thick polythene sheets to ensure high humidity and temperature, timber/wooden planks for standard unit construction, nails and sawdust as a substrate. The inputs for the semi-cylindrical tunnel units included wooden sticks, elephant grass, ropes, labour for semi-cylindrical tunnel unit construction and manure (for substrate with manure only). Finally, the 'mulched' units required mulch material, labour for mulch unit construction and manure for the option of mulch with manure. Crosscutting input costs included labour (for corm planting, corm scarification, general unit maintenance and plantlet harvest), woven bags for transporting corms, corm cost, fuel wood for boiling water for corm disinfection, a knife for corm paring, a watering can and plastic pots/bags for seedlings. Net profits were computed for two extremes: i) where a farmer used own seed and inputs thus incurring fewer expenses and ii) when a farmer had to purchase seed and other needed inputs for macro-propagation unit establishment.All data were subjected to analysis of variance using GenStat V. 12 statistical software (VSN International Ltd., 2009). A calculation of least significant difference (LSD) was used to determine significant differences between means at 5% probability level using GenStat V. 12 statistical software. The PAST -PAlaeontological STatistics, ver. 2.17c statistical software (Hammer et al., 2001) was used for computing the linear correlations and for principal component analysis.A significantly lower (P < 0.001) mean number of scarified plantlets per corm for all genome groups across macro-propagation unit types was observed at the highest altitude site of 1,815 m a.s.l., characterized by lower ambient temperatures compared to the other three sites. The lowest elevation (900 m a.s.l.) had the highest number of plantlets scarified per corm (Table 2). A higher average number of buds were scarified per corm in the standard units (Table 2) at the three highest altitude sites compared with the lowest altitude of 900 m a.s.l. Significant interactions were observed between the sites, macro-propagation methods and the genome groups. A total of 6.1, 4.3 and 4.5 buds were scarified per corm under the standard unit compared to 3.8-4.7, 2.4-2.9 and 3.3-4.3 in other macro-propagation methods at 1,700, 1,815 and 1,066 m a.s.l., respectively. At 900 m a.s.l., the standard unit had the least mean number of scarified plantlets of 4.6 per corm compared to 4.7-5.3 in the other methods.Cultivar differences were observed between the different cultivar groups irrespective of the macro-propagation methods and altitudes. Fewer scarified plantlets were observed for 'Kisubi' (beer type, ABB, 3.85), the AAA highland cooking types ('Vulambya', 3.86) and 'Cavendish' (dessert, AAA, 3.90) compared with the mean of 5.1 in the plantains ('Musheba' and 'Kotina') (Table 2).Significant interactions (P < 0.001) were observed for the number of scarified plantlets. For example a significantly (P < 0.001) higher mean number (6.4-8.8) of scarified plantlets was produced per corm for plantain at the 900 m a.s.l. site located in the warm Ruzizi lowlands compared with 2.7-5.3 at the high altitude site of 1,815 m a.s.l. (Table 2).The mean time from corm planting to the first plantlet harvest and the percentage of harvested plantlets at successive harvest times varied with altitude/site (Table 3). The first plantlets were harvested 10 weeks after planting the corms at 900 m a.s.l., the lowest altitude site, and 13 weeks at 1,815 m a.s.l., the highest altitude site (Table 3). The total time to harvest 95% of the plantlets also varied with altitude, with longer time periods of 21 and 37 weeks recorded at 1,815 and 1,700 m a.s.l., respectively and lower time periods of 17 and 20 weeks recorded at 900 and 1,066 m a.s.l., respectively (Table 3).The cost of nursery management until 95% of plantlets were harvested generally averaged between $ 0.01 and $ 0.11 per produced plantlet at the low altitude sites compared with $ 0.01-0.42 at the high altitude sites (Table 3). The cost of producing a plantlet increased up to $ 0.42 per plantlet at the low altitudes and $ 0.84 at the high altitudes if 100% harvesting was to be obtained, as fewer and fewer plantlets were produced at the end of the production cycle (Table 3).The average number of harvested plantlets per corm, irrespective of cultivars, varied between 7.5 under semicylindrical tunnel without manure at 1,815 m a.s.l. and 12.6 under the standard macro-propagation unit at 1,700 m a.s.l.Table 2. Mean number of scarified plantlets per corm according to site, macro-propagation (MP) method and genome group. MP methods A, B, C, D and E, respectively denote the semi-cylindrical tunnel with manure, semi-cylindrical tunnel without manure, mulch with manure, mulch without manure and the standard unit.  (Table 4). In general, there were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in the mean number of harvested plantlets per corm across the sites and irrespective of the cultivars between the different macro-propagation methods evaluated. However, though non-significant, in most cases, at the high altitude sites, the standard macro-propagation unit had a higher number of plantlets per corm compared to the simple units.Irrespective of methods and cultivars, slightly fewer plantlets per corm were harvested at the high altitude site. An interaction was observed between the sites and cultivar groups irrespective of the macro-propagation methods. Significantly more plantain plantlets (P < 0.001) were produced at 900 m a.s.l. (14.5 plantlets per corm) and 1,066 (12.1) whereas more plantlets were realized in the dessert (12.8) and cooking (12.7) types at 1,700 m a.s.l. (Table 4).Significant cultivar differences (P < 0.05) were observed in the mean number of plantlets produced per corm (Table 4). Significantly fewer plantlets were harvested in the ABB beer types (7.9 plantlets per corm) while most were produced by the plantain group (12.2 plantlets per corm) (Table 4).The cost of establishment was two to four times higher for the standard macro-propagation unit compared to the simple units during the first cycle of production. However, in the second cycle, the standard unit registered the lowest cost as the unit was reused (Table 5). The wooden/plastic structure for the standard unit can be used for up to two production cycles (each cycle taking about six months).The thick plastic sheets, however, disintegrate after a year of exposure to UV rays. In contrast, mulch gathering and application, and semi-cylindrical tunnel construction have to be carried out at the onset of each production cycle when using these macro-propagation unit types.No consistent trends in the net profit (averaged over two seasons) were observed across the sites, macro-propagation units and cultivars. The average net profit varied between 381 and 1,135 US$ for the standard unit and between 388 and 1,303 US$ for the simplified macro-propagation unit types in South Kivu province (Table 5). In North Kivu province, mean profit varied from 302 to 898 US$ for the standard macropropagation unit and 302 to 1,134 US$ for the simplified macro-propagation units (Table 6). The highest net profit in South Kivu was obtained at Mulungu (1,700 m a.s.l.) for dessert banana under semi-cylindrical tunnel/without manure (1,211-1,303 US$) (when a farmer used own corms and other inputs), while the lowest (286-380 US$) was obtained for Table 4. Means of harvested plantlets per corm according to site, macro-propagation (MP) method and genome group. MP methods A, B, C, D and E, respectively denote the semi-cylindrical tunnel with manure, semi-cylindrical tunnel without manure, mulch with manure, mulch without manure and the standard unit.  List of inputs can be found in Table 1. The costs are presented as a range varying from when a farmer uses own seed and inputs (lower value) to when a farmer has to purchase seed and other inputs (higher value).V List of inputs can be found in Table 1. The costs are presented as a range varying from when a farmer uses own seed and inputs (lower value) to when a farmer has to purchase seed and other inputs (higher value). * Means in a column followed by the same letter (a-j) and in the same row (x-z) are not significantly different from each other according to LSD at P = 0.05.Ntamwira et al. | Macropropagation of banana/plantain using selected local materials the ABB beer type at Kamanyola (900 m a.s.l.) under semi-cylindrical tunnel with manure (Table 5). In contrast, the highest net profit in North Kivu was obtained for plantain under a standard unit (1,032 to 1,134 US$, when a farmer used own corms and other inputs) at Butembo (1,815 m a.s.l.), while the lowest net profit (302-398 US$) was obtained at Mavivi (1,066 m a.s.l.) for the ABB beer type with standard units (Table 6). The ABB beer type had the lowest plantlet yields and profits across all altitudes. Profits within the same altitude and for the same cultivar were comparable across the different macro-propagation types (Tables 5 and 6).Contrasting the simple macro-propagation methods does not show a consistent trend in profitability between the site and genome groups, though the cost of the local materials was observed to affect the profit margins. However, the cost of materials for nursery establishment was higher in the South Kivu site compared to the North Kivu sites. In North Kivu, no marked differences were observed in cost of materials between the mulch-based units and the semi-cylindrical tunnels. The cost of nursery establishment was lower for mulch treatments compared to the semi-cylindrical tunnels at the South Kivu sites (Table 5). For example at the South Kivu sites (Table 5), the cost of production for the simple units varied from 48-150 US$ for the mulch treatments compared with 67-167 US$ for the semi-cylindrical tunnels, while from 18-121 US$ for mulch and 29-127 US$ for the semi-cylindrical tunnels in North Kivu.The different potential factors affecting plant yields assessed in this study across macro-propagation units included the corm circumference, number of scarified lateral buds/ plantlets, the time to corm decay, altitude, above ground temperature and temperature within substrate.A linear correlation revealed a high negative correlation (P < 0.001, R 2 > 0.7) between altitude and temperature (above and below ground) (Table 8). The highest altitude (1,815 m a.s.l.) had the lowest mean air temperatures, varying between 17 and 18°C (measured 5 cm above the macro-propagation structures), while the lowest altitude (900 m a.s.l.) recorded the highest air temperature (26-27°C). For a specific site and across the different macro-propagation units, the average temperature differences were in most cases only one to three degrees (Figure 3). Similar trends were observed for temperature values within the substrates at 5 cm and 20 cm depth. Generally, slightly higher temperatures were recorded for the standard macro-propagation units. Negative correlations were also observed between altitude and number of scarified and harvested plantlets per corm, though the correlation was only significant (P < 0.01) for scarified plantlets. In contrast, significant positive correlations only occurred for number of scarified and harvested plantlets per corm; and above ground temperature, temperature at 5 cm within the substrate and the mean temperature. Though positive, no strong correlation was observed for temperature measured at 20 cm substrate depth and the number of plants scarified or harvested (Table 8). This could be attributed to the low temperature difference at the 20 cm depth.The time to corm decay was positively correlated (P < 0.001) with the altitude while negatively correlated to the different temperatures and the number of scarified and harvested plantlets per corm (Table 8). The average number of months from corm planting to corm decay was significantly (P < 0.05) higher at 1,815 m a.s.l. site (7.3 to 7.8 months) that had the lowest temperatures compared with 4.8-5.6 months at 1,700 m a.s.l., 5.4-5.5 months at 1,066 m a.s.l., and from 4.7 to 5.3 months at 900 m a.s.l., the lowest elevation and hottest site. No significant differences (P < 0.05) were observed in the time to corm decay for the different macro-propagation methods irrespective of the sites, with the time to corm decay varying between 5.5 months in the standard unit to 6.0 months in the semi-cylindrical tunnel without manure .The mean corm circumference across macro-propagation methods, cultivar groups and sites ranged between 41.7 and 48.9 cm (Tables 7 and 8). Slightly smaller corms were used at Mavivi. No strong correlation (R 2 = 0.04-0.14; P > 0.05) was, however, observed between the circumference of the corms with either the number of scarified plantlets or plantlets harvested per corm and the time to corm decay, suggesting that the corms did not affect the outcome of the experiments.The number of scarified plantlets had a significant positive relation (P < 0.001) with the number of harvested plantlets per corm and a negative correlation (P < 0.001) with time to corm decay (Table 8).A principal component analysis of the different variables measured at the different sites and unit types gave higher but Table 8. Linear correlation coefficients between altitude, substrate temperature at 20 cm depth (ST_20), average temperature (T_mean; for temperatures measured above ground, at 5 cm substrate depth and 20 cm substrate depth), above ground temperature (T_ag), substrate temperature at 5 cm depth (ST_5), corm circumference (CC; cm), number of scarified plantlets per corm (SP), total number of plantlets harvested per corm (HP), and time to corm decay (T_CD; weeks). The total number of corms per macro-propagation method was 80. NA denotes not applicable.  more or less equal loading to altitude, temperature at 5 cm depth within the substrate, above ground temperature and mean temperature in the first principal component. A higher loading was observed for mean temperature compared to the temperatures above and below ground level suggesting that the performance of the macro-propagation units was more of a compounded effect of both below and above ground temperatures. The second principal component was mainly influenced by the number of harvested plantlets, scarified plantlets and corm circumference (Table 9; Figure 4). Similar to the observations for the correlations, altitude and the time to corm decay contrasted with temperature (measured at different points), the corm circumference, the number of scarified plantlets per corm and the number of plantlets harvested (Table 9; Figure 4).This study evaluated different novel, simple and less costly macro-propagation options against a standard more complex and costly macro-propagation unit, with sawdust as a substrate, at different altitudes in eastern DR Congo. The study also assessed the performance of different Musa genome groups comprising AAA (cooking and dessert types), AAB (plantain) and ABB (beer type) cultivars under the different macro-propagation methods and altitudes.The results show that the performance of the novel approaches matched that of the standard macro-propagation units being promoted in the region in terms of the number of harvested plantlets and net profits realized. No significant differences (P > 0.05) were generally observed in the mean number of plantlets scarified and plantlet yields per corm between the simple and standard macro-propagation units across the altitudes/sites. The profits from the sale of plantlets from the different macro-propagation units were generally similar and in some cases higher for the simple units compared to the standard unit type, suggesting that the simple units could potentially be used by resource-poor households or entrepreneurs in communities with limited access to clean seed.The adoption of the standard type of macro-propagation units has been low, and limited to a few farmers with a good resource base due to its complexity and associated high initial financial investments at establishment. A cost-benefit analysis showed that the initial cost of the standard units was two to four times higher than that of the novel simple approaches evaluated in this study. The wooden planks,   nails, thick polythene sheets and sawdust are not always readily available in remote villages. These items make the initial costs out of reach of most subsistence farmers and thus discourages them from establishing the standard macro-propagation units. The cost of a standard unit in this study varied between 218 and 320 US$ for 80 corms in the first cycle, while it ranged from 18 to 114 US$ in the second cycle. The figures in the first cycle are comparable to the estimated budget of 2,301 US$ for constructing a standard unit comprising four chambers with a total capacity of 800 corms reported by Njukwe et al. (2009). This for example in regions such as in eastern DR Congo is compounded by the absence of or weak extension services. In contrast, the novel approaches use garden soil as a substrate and make use of local materials such as sticks, reeds, mulch (which are readily available within the vicinity of the households) with a lesser need of technical know-how, potentially making these macro-propagation units more attractive and more easily applicable by resource-poor farmers. The cost of these simple units in both cycles in this study ranged from 10 to 174 US$, depending on the site and macro-propagation type, access to the local materials and whether the farmer buys (or not) the planting materials. Generally the mulch based unit was observed to be less costly to establish than the semi-cylindrical units due to the higher costs for making the tunnels. No profound differences were observed in plantlet yields and profits between these two unit types. Thus there is no justification for advocating for the more costly semi-cylindrical tunnels. Similarly, higher costs were observed for manure treatments. However, no marked differences were observed between the plantlet yields and profits obtained from the manure and no manure treatments in this experiment. In several cases, the treatments without manure actually out-performed those with manure. This can be attributed to the fact that the plantlets mainly rely on corm reserves for their development and growth and to a lesser extent on the nutrients in the substrates. This therefore suggests that, a farmer could rely on a mulch-based macro-propagation unit without addition of manure, thus avoiding unnecessary costs. However, caution has to be taken to avoid infection of plantlets with pests/diseases while using the novel approaches. For example, macro-propagation units and nurseries have to be established away from banana plantations, on soils not previously cropped with banana, to avoid infection by banana pests such as weevils, nematodes and banana bunchy top virus-spreading aphids; and diseases, especially black sigatoka and fusarium wilt. Materials obtained from the banana crop (e.g., leaves and pseudostem sheaths) should not be used as a source of mulch cover in the macro-propagation units to prevent black sigatoka spores from infecting plantlets at an early age.The performance of the macro-propagation units across sites and genome groups was negatively influenced by increasing altitude while positively by increasing temperatures, number of scarified plantlets and corm circumference. For example, lower numbers of plantain plantlets were obtained at the higher altitude sites, which are characterized by lower ambient temperatures. Higher yields were consistently observed in the standard macro-propagation unit treatments compared to the simple macro-propagation units at the high altitude sites. This can be attributed to the higher temperatures under the standard unit type. For example, the temperatures above and in the substrate for the standard unit were 2 to 3°C higher compared to the simple units at Butembo, the highest altitude site.Longer harvest times were recorded at the high altitude sites compared with the low altitude sites. For example, the time to the first harvest was shorter at the lowest altitude site (10 weeks) compared to the high altitude site (13 weeks). The longer growth duration at the high altitudes can be attributed to the low temperatures that slow down the growth and development processes. Temperature influences all plant growth processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed germination, protein synthesis, and translocation. At high temperatures the translocation of photosynthates is faster so that plants tend to mature earlier (Bareja, 2011). Enzyme activity and the rate of most chemical reactions also generally increase with rise in temperature (Bareja, 2011). The time to the first harvest at Kamanyola coincided with the first plantlet harvest of 'Grande Naine' reported by Kwa (2003). Higher nursery management costs per plantlet were therefore realized at the high altitude sites. Computation of the nursery management costs can be a good guide to when the plant harvests can be stopped to avoid reducing profits. From this study, such recommendations should be site-specific. For example, across all sites in this study, nursery management costs per plantlet were moderate up to when 95% of the plantlets were harvested, corresponding to about 17 weeks in the low altitude sites of Mavivi and Kamanyola, 20 weeks at Butembo and 29 weeks at Mulungu.Plantlet yield varied with banana cultivar (genome) group. The ABB beer types generally had lower yields, while the plantains had the highest yields. In a study of cultivar effects on harvested plantlets conducted by Kwa (2003), differences in plantlets harvested per corm were also reported between dessert and plantain cultivars, with the cultivar 'Grande Naine' (dessert AAA), producing a lower number of plantlets compared with plantain (AAB) cultivars. There is strong evidence that cultivars with a high apical dominance (e.g., most AAB plantains) and corresponding inhibited suckering (i.e., very few large suckers are produced before flowering of the mother plant) (Swennen and Vuylsteke, 1991;Ortiz and Vuylsteke, 1994) produce a larger number of plantlets under macro-propagation compared with Musa cultivars that have an un-regulated suckering ability after the removal of the apical meristem. A similar observation has been reported in Ensete ventricosum, widely cultivated in south-western Ethiopia, which does not produce lateral shoots under field conditions. However, when the apical meristem is removed and the corm placed under macro-propagation over 100 seedlings can be produced per corm (Brandt et al., 1997). The number of plantlets harvested were also strongly correlated to the number of lateral buds or plantlets scarified in this study.Variations in time to corm decay were observed, with longer time durations recorded at higher elevations. The variation in time to corm decay between sites can be explained by the differences in ambient temperature and associated yields in plantlets. For example, an average ambient temperature of 18°C was recorded at the high altitude site of Butembo, with a longer time for corm decay, compared with 26°C at the low altitude site of Kamanyola, which had a shorter time to corm decay. The rate of corm decay was highly correlated with the number of plantlets produced. This could relate to the exhaustion of the corm's food reserves by the plantlets produced. A higher number of plantlets on a corm will consume a higher portion of the limited corm reserves, leading to accelerated corm decay. Plantlet production from corms under macro-propagation mainly depends on the corm's reserves, as the continuous harvest of plantlets prevents influx of additional photosynthesis products.","tokenCount":"5762"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"aecdf384e5f4a48c45e20121e2532ee1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87d7d767-324a-4ba3-87f3-748ae490958a/retrieve","id":"1958783552"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"df51e132-ca11-4dee-a88c-29d1716d3cc4","pagecount":"2","content":"A cost-benefit analysis was completed and presented to public authorities for decision-making purposes. This study used a policy-oriented analysis to incorporate changes in land use and water flow to fill up the dams. For this purpose, scenarios for production intensity and water use were determined.Through the use of a Monke and Pearson policy analysis matrix, private and social returns, as well as employment and income linkages were estimated using the De Janvry and Glikman approach. Results indicate that the private internal rate of return was 4% annually (only agricultural use) and 9% if water was used for both agriculture and human consumption. Social benefits were estimated at 30% and 33% respectively. Producers captured 9% of the benefit and the remaining 91% was captured by direct andInternational Forum on Water and Food indirect actors (through income and employment linkages) as well as consumers. Producers were not willing to incur this cost and the study shows that dam construction was not feasible unless returns to forward and backward linkages were included.","tokenCount":"169"}
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@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e7dfde92374ff92e1cbc5fe2489c256","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/96173dde-b839-4fed-bedc-d484921540a2/retrieve","id":"234469761"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"710f0858-c325-4be9-a1dd-c27aadb6d400","pagecount":"362","content":"species using an Agarose-Aluminon method 99 2.1.2.4 Phenotypic differences in aluminum resistance of landraces and bred lines 2.1.2.5 Phenotyping for aluminum resistance in recombinant inbred lines (RILs) of vii genes for disease and insect resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, nutritional quality and yield potential. Most traits are still selected by conventional means in field sites (in some cases backed up by greenhouse evaluations) where most important diseases, edaphic constraints and drought can be manipulated for purposes of selection. However, Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) is employed selectively but strategically, in most cases for disease resistance genes. CIAT pioneered participatory selection with farmers and this practice is being extended and systematized. While most products are seed based, others involve agronomic practices or are knowledge based. Our research is strategic combined with both basic and applied elements, as called for by the particular challenge.There have been no essential changes in relation to the MTP of 2007. However, in 2008 an agricultural economist, Dr. Enid Katungi came on board under the Tropical Legumes-II project, with base in Kampala, Uganda.Sy ys st te em m P Pr ri io or ri it ti ie es s CIAT's bean product line is housed principally under CG System Priority Area 2: Producing more and better food at lower cost through genetic improvements. Efforts are dedicated to improving yields through control of diseases and pests, tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, aluminum toxicity and low soil fertility in particular), and expanding the adaptation range of climbing beans. The bean product line also places heavy emphasis on improvement of nutritional quality, especially through increase in iron and zinc content in the grain. There is potential to contribute to Priority Area 3A: Increasing income from fruits and vegetables, through the improvement of snap beans for both Africa and Latin America. The bean team collaborates with marketing specialists to create varieties with better market potential, including international export markets (Priority Area 5B). Finally, strengthening national institutions (Priority Area 5A) continues to be an important product, both in Africa where novel institutional arrangements and relations have been productive to achieve wide impact, and in Latin America where staff reductions have weakened national programs. On both continents national programs seek support to incorporate modern selection techniques.Pa at th hw wa ay ys s Product 1 (Beans with improved micronutrient concentration that have a positive impact on human health) is targeted to small farmers and poor rural and urban consumers in Africa and Latin America. Targeting is developed in collaboration with nutritionists and with experts in GIS, to address human populations with nutritional deficiencies in iron and zinc. This product involves both small seeded germplasm that is often targeted to warmer climates or more difficult environments in Central America, Mexico, Venezuela, East Africa and Brazil. Large seeded germplasm is usually cultivated in more temperate climates in the Andean zone, the East African highlands and southern Africa, although in the African highlands small and large seeded types overlap, sometimes differentiated by soil fertility gradients within the farm, prevailing biotic constraints and household preferences. Improved germplasm is shared or developed jointly with NARS partners, who supply basic seed to a range of organizations interested in production of seed (local seed companies, NGO's, CBO's, women's groups) who in turn distribute to farmers. NGOs and health workers play a special role in delivery. Benefits accrue to farmers/consumers through stable food supply of more nutritious beans for home consumption, and potentially to poor urban consumers. Assumptions for the successful delivery of these products include institutional and financial stability of partners, political stability, and institutional support. The role of CIAT is that of a primary research provider (of improved germplasm), at times a secondary research provider (backing up national bean improvement programs with technical expertise and training), and catalyser (to promote downstream alliances in the uptake chain). This product is complementary to those of CIMMYT and CIP. viii Beneficiaries of Product 2 (Beans that are more productive under low input agriculture of poor farmers) are in some cases researchers (both inside and outside of CIAT), and in some cases are bean producers. For example, molecular markers for resistance genes benefit researchers directly, and farmers indirectly as subsequent beneficiaries. Uptake pathway for such methodologies is direct communication through workshops and courses, and indirectly through publications, leading to benefits of more efficient and effective bean research. This assumes that partners are in a position to implement such technologies. On the other hand, crop management practices are of direct benefit to farmers as users, potentially across all bean ecosystems. Uptake chains for agronomic practices are similar to those for seed based technologies; results are communicated to NARS and other partners (NGO's, CBO's etc) who have successfully diffused practices to farmers, to the benefit of farmers who enjoy more stable productivity. Improved germplasm is diffused through many of the same channels as beans with improved nutritional value, with the exception that partners may have less specific interests, and may be more production oriented. The role of CIAT is that of primary source of research for development.Product 3 (Beans that respond to market opportunities) benefit small farmers in both Latin America and Africa. Farmers in Ethiopia have already benefited from tapping into export markets for canning beans, and other countries are positioning themselves to follow suite. In Central America exporters are seeking to fill a niche created by the Latin population in the USA. This is a demand-driven activity, and in large part has generated its own impact pathway. Exporters and international grain buyers have established market chains that give them access to export quality beans. CIAT's role has been that of supplying germplasm in some cases, and in others to facilitate communication, and to give support in seed systems to avail quality seed to farmers of very specific varieties.Product 4, (Strengthened institutions that enhance product quality and delivery) seeks to benefit partners at multiple levels through facilitated interaction, including farmers who are at the end of the organizational chain. NGOs, government extension agencies, farmer organizations, local seed companies, and non-conventional seed actors such as women groups, people living with HIV/AIDS and tobacco companies all participate and benefit. The product will generate impact on target beneficiaries through their participation in development of innovations, knowledge and technologies in strategic alliances with multidisciplinary research teams and NGOs. Scaling out of innovations and best practices to areas with similar environments will be done through strategic alliances of research and development actors. The latter will use their network and other communications mechanism to adapt knowledge and results relevant to them. Scaling up regionally and internationally will be done through international NGOs, advocacy, and communication. The outcome is enhanced communication and complementarity of actors with resulting cost efficiencies, and in the case of technology diffusion, increased and diversified adoption. Another dimension of this product is support to NARS in development of projects, benefiting national program researchers and with the outcome of their integration into the product line research mode. This assumes a degree of consistency in partner personnel, while CIAT's role is that of facilitator.The IPG of the bean product line include:• Improved germplasm with biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and/or enhanced nutritional value, drawing upon the genetic resources of CIAT's extensive gene bank, and 30 years of experience in bean improvement. CIAT's geographical position and access to varied altitudes and research sites facilitates study and selection of germplasm. • Improved practices for the management of pests and diseases, including monitoring of pathogen populations with modern molecular tools developed at CIAT. • Knowledge and tools that contribute to the development and implementation of the above IPG's. For example, molecular markers for useful traits, developed with CIAT's in-house resources of genetic maps and markers. Knowledge of the structure of genetic resources housed in the gene bank, and ways to exploit them. Screening methods to identify biotic and abiotic stress resistant genotypes. Participatory breeding methods with varying degrees of involvement of farmers, traders and other key actors. • Methods for networking, both formal among official sector researchers, and less formal among a broader range of partners, with special emphasis on research partnerships and on effective and sustainable seed systems reaching a large number of households.Most important partners and the respective person-years of professionals dedicated to bean research within the (several) products are:Product 1: NARS in Latin America, including those of Mexico (6), Guatemala (2.5), Honduras (2, including EAP-Zamorano), El Salvador (2), Cuba (2), Brazil (4) participate in the AgroSalud project to improve nutritional quality and productivity of bean. NARS in South America, including those of Colombia (5 between university staff, an NGO and the NARI), Bolivia (4 between university staff and a foundation) collaborate in the improvement of disease resistance of Andean bean with better nutritional quality, also under the AgroSalud project. NARS in East, Central and Southern Africa, including those of Kenya ( 5), Rwanda (6), Uganda (5), Malawi (1), Zimbabwe (1) are partners in the improvement of nutritional qualities in large seeded Andean beans. Linkage funds finance a project with one Canadian university, and with a partner in USDA.Product 2: Nicaragua (4.5) and Honduras (2) are partners in breeding for drought tolerance. NARS in East, Central and Southern Africa including those of Ethiopia (3), Kenya (2), Tanzania (3), Rwanda (4), Malawi (1), Zimbabwe (1) and DRCongo (4), participate in the improvement of productivity under low soil fertility and/or drought. The University of Hannover, Germany participates in a project to define physiological mechanisms of aluminum tolerance and drought resistance (2), which also includes Malawi (2) and Rwanda (4). Catholic University of Leuven (3) is a partner to improve nitrogen fixation technology. NARS in South America, including those of Colombia (5 between university staff, an NGO and the NARI), Bolivia (4 between university staff and a foundation) collaborate in the improvement of disease resistance of Andean bean. NARS in East, Central and Southern Africa, including those of Kenya (5), Rwanda (6), and Uganda ( 5) Tanzania ( 4) are partners in the development of disease resistance, medium altitude climbing beans (MAC), and productivity in large seeded Andean beans. NARS in Honduras (Zamorano) (1), Colombia (2), Uganda (3), Rwanda (4), and South Africa (2) share in the use of markers for MAS, especially for resistance. South Africa (3) participates in pathogen characterization, evaluation and validation of resistance sources. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) is a partner in diagnosis and characterization of soil borne pathogens (especially Pythium species) using molecular techniques, and development of molecular based diagnostic assays for soil borne pathogens.Product 3: Partners in Latin America with specific attention to breeding market quality include NARS in Honduras and Nicaragua. NARS in Africa with active participation in canning beans include those of Ethiopia and Uganda. Partners in the development of snap beans include a university in Colombia, and one in Kenya.Product 4: NARS as above -plus a wide range of NGOS, CBOS, farmers' groups, women's groups,totaling over 300 direct-link partnerships, to make users aware of technologies and to get these technologies widely disseminated.The ECABREN and SABRN bean networks coordinate nine NARS in East Africa and ten NARS in southern Africa, respectively. These networks participate in Products 1, 2, 3 and 4 with input from African NARS cited above, plus NARS in Burundi (3), Sudan (2), Zambia (1), Zimbabwe (1), Mozambique (3), Lesotho (3) and Swaziland (3).x Beans that respond to market opportunities NARS in Africa and Latin America Adoption of commercial varieties by farmers, enhancing access to markets Higher income, especially for the poor and women farmers• 10 lines of snap beans with confirmed resistance to Gemini virus in Colombia • 1 variety released in Nicaragua for export market• NARS, NGOs, CBOs, farmer groups, seed producers• Farmers reduce pesticide use, assuring production and profitability• Less pesticide intoxication in rural communities and urban consumers • Increased production and incomes.• At least 3 snap bean lines with resistance to rust and quality characteristics preferred in regional and export markets for Africa. • 4 bean genotypes with very high commercial or export quality made available to farmers in 4 countries in Latin America and Africa• NARS, NGOs, CBOs, farmer groups, seed producers• Adoption of snap bean and reduced chemical use.• Farmers in marginal environments assure market access• Increased production and incomes.• 5 canning bean lines with acceptable quality characteristics in yield trials in two countries in eastern Africa• NARS, NGOs, CBOs, farmer groups, seed producers• Farmers improve yields and quality of product with improved varieties • More than 30 F 3 . 5 small seeded Mesoamerican families were selected for high mineral concentration and some degree of drought resistance. • Eighteen lines derived from interspecific crosses were coded as MIB (high mineral) lines, with levels of iron above those of the high iron check MIB 465. Some also have superior resistance to foliar pathogens. • Over 200 pollinations were generated combining multiple sources of resistance to diseases and drought with high mineral (Fe and Zn) content in SABRN countries. • Some good donor parent for drought resistance in common bean (SEA5,SEA15 and SER16) were also good parents for high Fe and Zn content. • Several populations combining different market classes and disease or drought resistance, but also with high mineral (Fe and Zn) content have been generated, and some may have high Fe and or Zn content. Four bush and three climbing micronutrient dense bean varieties with high yield potential are pre-released for smallholder production in eastern Africa. This marks the first time biofortified mineral dense bean varieties are formally recommended for release following independent evaluations. • Bioavailability of Fe in raw samples of fast track bean lines varies from 1.1% to 6.6%.• Bioavailability of Zn in raw samples of fast track lines varies from 0.5 to 2.5%.• Cooking enhances Fe and Zn bioavailability in beans by more than two fold.• Freshly shelled beans have more bioavailable Fe and Zn compared with dry beans.Highlights:• NUA35 and NUA56 were tested for yield potential and mineral accumulation across 15 sites in Latin America (72 replicates), showing that both lines have a 15 to 25 ppm differential iron advantage over CAL96. • Significant genotype x environment interactions indicate that grain mineral concentration is influenced by soil type, soil nutrient status, moisture concentration and other environmental factors but the magnitude varies with genotypes. Some genotypes show high stability for mineral density. • Fertilization regimes and other agronomic practices can be used to enhance expression of high mineral density traits.Highlights:• The inheritance of seed phytate content was analyzed to determine if this anti-nutrient could be reduced and how it is related to seed phosphorus content. Quantitative inheritance was found xvii with several QTL explaining both traits independent of seed size. The results of this study show some genotypes with low levels of phytates which would seem to be sufficient for breeding attempts. The other anti-nutrient being analyzed is condensed tannins and an HPLC method was adapted to look at the tannin monomers that accumulate in genotypes from an inter-genepool population.Product 2: Beans that are more productive in smallholder systems of poor farmers Activity 2.1 Developing germplasm tolerant to abiotic stressesHighlights:• Mesoamerican crosses among drought resistant parents that had expressed a degree of tolerance to low soil P availability, produced more than 20 lines that were excellent in drought resistance. Some lines subsequently showed adaptation to low P in Darién, producing grain of excellent quality under combined drought and low P stress. • Another 15 Mesoamerican families combined drought tolerance and bc-3 gene for resistance to BCMNV.• In an effort to incorporate drought tolerance in Andean bush beans we have created a series of 216 advanced drought Andean beans (DAB) lines from inter and intra-gene pool crosses involving 5 commercial genotypes from Southern Africa and 10 drought tolerance sources of which half were Andean and half were Mesoamerican to produce 46 populations. The lines represent large red, red mottled and cream mottled seed types. Selection has stressed bush bean architecture, adaptation to drought stress and yield potential under favorable conditions using alternate dry versus rainy season plantings. • A reference collection of landraces from the CIAT core collection has been evaluated in the field for drought tolerance compared to a series of check genotypes. The reference collection was stratified into Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools and the association of drought tolerance with subgroups and common bean races was analyzed. • Mid-elevation adaptation was tested in Darién for a series of SAB (drought resistant Andean) lines originally developed from crosses between the drought-resistant genotypes SAB 258, SAB 259, and ICA Quimbaya crossed with drought susceptible but commercial type genotypes ABA36, ABA58 and COS16. Results confirmed the genetic gain for drought tolerance and yield potential that has occurred in the breeding of the SAB lines compared to both their droughttolerant and susceptible parents. The same lines were tested in rainfed conditions in Palmira and several maintained their yield advantage over local checks. Certain SAB lines can be selected with greater stability across mid-elevation and lower-elevation sites based on this analysis. • Field evaluation of elite lines at Palmira resulted in identification of five lines NCB 226,SEN 56,SER 113,SER 125 and SER 16 that were outstanding in their adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod harvest index, leaf area index and canopy biomass. The SER lines that were developed in the last few years seem to combine the desirable traits for drought adaptation such as greater mobilization of photosynthates to seed with efficient use of water through stomatal control.• Field evaluation of 33 RILs of the cross DOR 364 x BAT 477 at Palmira over two seasons under terminal drought stress conditions resulted in identification of two lines (BT 21138-17-1-1 and BT 21138-6-1-1) that were superior in their adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest xviii index, pod harvest index and seed and pod number per area indicating the importance of greater mobilization of photosyntates to pods and to seeds under rainfed conditions. • Field evaluation of 97 RILs of the cross DOR 364 x BAT 477 under intermittent drought stress resulted in identification of two RILs BT 21138-68-1-1 and BT 21138-74-1-1 that were outstanding in adaptation to intermittent drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under intermittent drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod partitioning index, stem biomass reduction, seed number per area and pod number per area indicating the importance of greater mobilization of photosyntates to pods and seeds under rainfed conditions. • Field evaluation of 121 RILs of the cross MD 23-24 x SEA 5 over 3 seasons resulted in identification of the lines MR 81 and MR 25 that were superior in adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines was associated with higher vigor, higher values of pod harvest index, harvest index and seed number per area, highlighting the importance of the photosyntate mobilization to pods and seeds under intermittent drought stress. • The response to inoculation with the strain Rhizobium etli CIAT 632 under drought stress was tested using 7 common bean genotypes. We found that Pinto Villa was better adapted to drought due to its ability to decrease stomatal conductance while Alubia cerrillos was more affected due to drought stress. Although there was no response to inoculation, the effect of terminal drought stress on nodulation was very marked on all 7 genotypes.Highlights:• Lines derived from an interspecific cross of SER 16, a drought resistant line, by Phaseolus coccineus (G35346) yielded well under both rainfed and aluminum toxic conditions. Some actually yielded more in intermittent drought than SER 16. • SER 16 proved to be an excellent common bean parent to cross with P. coccineus, perhaps due to its characteristic of excellent remobilization to grain. • A filter paper-styrofoam sandwich germination method was developed to improve the phenotyping capacity for Al resistance in common bean and a primary root marking method was developed to evaluate short-term effects of Al on root elongation process. • A method was adapted and validated for screening for aluminum resistance in common bean based on qualitative determination of aluminum-complexing compounds including citrate released from the roots. • Phenotypic evaluation of 20 common bean genotypes for aluminium resistance confirmed the higher level of Al resistance of three Andean genotypes (ICA Quimbaya,BRB 198 and G5273) and identified one Mesoamerican genotype (G24601) also with higher level of Al resistance. • Phenotypic evaluation of 97 RILs of DOR 364 x BAT 477 for aluminium resistance resulted in identification of a few RILs with low inhibition of root growth under high Al in solution. Two RILs (BT 21138-128-1-M-M-M and BT 21138-2-1-1-M-M-M) were found to be outstanding in root growth both with and without aluminum in solution.Highlights:• New accessions from the gene bank were evaluated for insect resistance • Resistance to Zabrotes subfasciatus was reconfirmed • New breeding lines that have resistance to the leafhopper (Empoasca kraemeri) were identified xix• Some Andean bean lines presented high level of tolerance to Empoasca and less yield lossHighlights:• A large number of crosses were made to pyramid insect (bruchid) and disease (BCMNV and CBB) resistance with drought tolerance or mid-elevation adaptation in Andean bush beans. The arcelin gene was used as the source of bruchid resistance and was effectively selected for in 115 different cross combinations. Meanwhile, 187 cross combinations were generated for disease resistance. These crosses are being advanced at our drought stress and mid-elevation sites in Colombia.• Twelve new, large seeded red mottled bean varieties with multiple resistance to diseases and up to 30% better yield compared to commercial varieties released in six countries in eastern Africa. • Thirteen new red kidney varieties combining multiple stress resistance with high yield potential and marketable grain characteristics are released in seven countries in east and central Africa.• Eight new speckled sugar varieties with multiple disease resistance, marketable grain types and high yield potential (up to 24% over commercial checks) released for smallholder production in four countries in eastern Africa. • Eight new small and medium red bean varieties combining multiple disease resistance, high yield potential and marketable grain characteristics released for smallholder production in three countries of eastern Africa. • Eighteen new tan, brown and yellow seed varieties with multiple resistance to diseases and high yield potential released for production by smallholder farmers in four countries in eastern Africa • Twenty-six new climbing bean varieties combining multiple resistances to diseases with high yield potential and marketable grain characteristics released for smallholder production in seven countries in east and central Africa. • Several segregating populations and fixed lines in different market classes from South Africa, Malawi and Tanzania are available for distribution to interested NARS partners within SABRN and others in Africa • From the regional breeding program 24 (brown/khaki), 73 (sugar) and 213 (red mottled) developed for resistance to angular leaf spot, or common bacterial blight or low soil fertility or a combination of these stresses were distributed to various NARS programs. • Twenty-nine lines in various market classes which were developed for rust resistance or a combination of rust and angular leaf spot or rust and halo blight resistance by the NARS in South Africa were sent to the SABRN coordinator for seed increase and onward distribution to other interested NARS for the next planting season. • Twenty four new lines with a resistance gene to Pythium root rot were identified and included in the Pythium root rot nursery. • Forty lines combining resistance to Pythium root rot and angular leaf spot were identified and available for sharing with partners Activity 2.4 Yield potential: climbing beans Highlights:• QTL for growth habit and climbing ability were identified on six chromosomes, although many were located on B04. This illustrates the complexity of growth habit, and implicitly, of crop domestication as growth habit was reduced from climbing to bush type. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the world's most important grain legume for direct human consumption. Its total production exceeds 12 million MT, of which 7 million MT are produced in tropical Latin America and Africa. Beans are the \"poor man's meat\" and are particularly important in the diet of the underprivileged. Beans, like other legumes, supply proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, and complement cereals, roots and tubers that compose the bulk of diets in most developing countries.Common bean is also one of the most diverse crops in terms of its cultivation methods and its uses. It serves as mature grain, as immature seed, and as a vegetable (both leaves and pods), and after harvest the stover is used as animal fodder. It is cultivated from sea level up to 3000 masl in monoculture, in association, or in rotations. The possibility of obtaining a harvest in as little as two months offers quick income, quick food supply, and also permits rotating with other crops or inter-planting among fruit trees or coffee before the primary crop produces income. At the other extreme are the aggressive climbing beans that subsistence farmers maintain in the garden for food security and continual harvest over a six month period.Apart from subsistence cultivation, beans have become increasingly commercial over the past thirty years in national, regional and international markets. In Central America beans are the #1 income generator among the traditional field crops. In Africa, farmers tap into regional bean markets in Nairobi, Kinshasa and Johannesburg. With the onset of globalization, the past decade has seen a growing international market that is now reported to reach 2.4 million MT. This heightens issues of equity for the small bean producers that have little other stable source of income, but some also see this as an opportunity. For example, bean represents 6% of external income for Ethiopia, and small farmers in Bolivia produce the large white and red mottled classes for export. Snap beans are a high value, labor intensive crop of small farmers in Kenya and the Andes.Besides the common bean, another four cultivated species are conserved in the CIAT gene bank, as well as wild relatives. This collection is the largest of the genus in the entire world, representing more than 35,000 accessions that have been declared as part of the designated collection before FAO. These other cultivated species fill niches that are unsuitable for the common bean, for example, P. acutifolius that thrives in desert environments.Our primary mission is to contribute to household and global food security by assuring an adequate supply of beans as a culturally acceptable and traditional staple; and to improve the income of small bean producers of Latin America and Africa, by making bean production more profitable. We also seek to improve human nutrition, both by augmenting the supply of beans, and by improvement of their nutritional value.Our products are designed to respond in particular to the needs of small, resource-poor bean farmers in Latin America and Africa. Thus, we seek to create solutions to biotic and abiotic production limitations that require minimal inputs, and in the case of improved germplasm, with good market potential. Our research strategy focuses on the exploitation of the vast genetic resources of bean that exist as a complex array of major and minor gene pools, races and sister species. CIAT's gene bank with 41,000 accessions of common bean and related species is our most unique resource, and has been the source of genes for disease and insect resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, nutritional quality and yield potential. Most traits are still selected by conventional means in field sites (in some cases backed up by greenhouse evaluations) where most important diseases, edaphic constraints and drought can be manipulated for purposes of selection. However, Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) is employed selectively but strategically, in most cases for disease resistance genes. CIAT pioneered participatory selection with farmers and this practice is being extended and systematized. While most products are seed based, others involve agronomic practices or are knowledge based. Our research is strategic combined with both basic and applied elements, as called for by the particular challenge.There have been no essential changes in relation to the MTP of 2007. However, in 2008 an agricultural economist, Dr. Enid Katungi came on board under the Tropical Legumes-II project, with base in Kampala, Uganda.Ch ha an ng ge es s CIAT's bean product line is housed principally under CG System Priority Area 2: Producing more and better food at lower cost through genetic improvements. Efforts are dedicated to improving yields through control of diseases and pests, tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, aluminum toxicity and low soil fertility in particular), and expanding the adaptation range of climbing beans. The bean product line also places heavy emphasis on improvement of nutritional quality, especially through increase in iron and zinc content in the grain. There is potential to contribute to Priority Area 3A: Increasing income from fruits and vegetables, through the improvement of snap beans for both Africa and Latin America. The bean team collaborates with marketing specialists to create varieties with better market potential, including international export markets (Priority Area 5B). Finally, strengthening national institutions (Priority Area 5A) continues to be an important product, both in Africa where novel institutional arrangements and relations have been productive to achieve wide impact, and in Latin America where staff reductions have weakened national programs. On both continents national programs seek support to incorporate modern selection techniques.Sy ys st te em m P Pr ri io or ri it ti ie es s I Im mp pa ac ct t P Pa at th hw wa ay ys s Product 1 (Beans with improved micronutrient concentration that have a positive impact on human health) is targeted to small farmers and poor rural and urban consumers in Africa and Latin America. Targeting is developed in collaboration with nutritionists and with experts in GIS, to address human populations with nutritional deficiencies in iron and zinc. This product involves both small seeded germplasm that is often targeted to warmer climates or more difficult environments in Central America, Mexico, Venezuela, East Africa and Brazil. Large seeded germplasm is usually cultivated in more temperate climates in the Andean zone, the East African highlands and southern Africa, although in the African highlands small and large seeded types overlap, sometimes differentiated by soil fertility gradients within the farm, prevailing biotic constraints and household preferences. Improved germplasm is shared or developed jointly with NARS partners, who supply basic seed to a range of organizations interested in production of seed (local seed companies, NGO's, CBO's, women's groups) who in turn distribute to farmers. NGOs and health workers play a special role in delivery. Benefits accrue to farmers/consumers through stable food supply of more nutritious beans for home consumption, and potentially to poor urban consumers. Assumptions for the successful delivery of these products include institutional and financial stability of partners, political stability, and institutional support. The role of CIAT is that of a primary research provider (of improved germplasm), at times a secondary research provider (backing up national bean improvement programs with technical expertise and training), and catalyser (to promote downstream alliances in the uptake chain). This product is complementary to those of CIMMYT and CIP.Beneficiaries of Product 2 (Beans that are more productive under low input agriculture of poor farmers) are in some cases researchers (both inside and outside of CIAT), and in some cases are bean producers. For example, molecular markers for resistance genes benefit researchers directly, and farmers indirectly as subsequent beneficiaries. Uptake pathway for such methodologies is direct communication through workshops and courses, and indirectly through publications, leading to benefits of more efficient and effective bean research. This assumes that partners are in a position to implement such technologies. On the other hand, crop management practices are of direct benefit to farmers as users, potentially across all bean ecosystems. Uptake chains for agronomic practices are similar to those for seed based technologies; results are communicated to NARS and other partners (NGO's, CBO's etc) who have successfully diffused practices to farmers, to the benefit of farmers who enjoy more stable productivity. Improved germplasm is diffused through many of the same channels as beans with improved nutritional value, with the exception that partners may have less specific interests, and may be more production oriented. The role of CIAT is that of primary source of research for development.Product 3 (Beans that respond to market opportunities) benefit small farmers in both Latin America and Africa. Farmers in Ethiopia have already benefited from tapping into export markets for canning beans, and other countries are positioning themselves to follow suite. In Central America exporters are seeking to fill a niche created by the Latin population in the USA. This is a demand-driven activity, and in large part has generated its own impact pathway. Exporters and international grain buyers have established market chains that give them access to export quality beans. CIAT's role has been that of supplying germplasm in some cases, and in others to facilitate communication, and to give support in seed systems to avail quality seed to farmers of very specific varieties.Product 4, (Strengthened institutions that enhance product quality and delivery) seeks to benefit partners at multiple levels through facilitated interaction, including farmers who are at the end of the organizational chain. NGOs, government extension agencies, farmer organizations, local seed companies, and non-conventional seed actors such as women groups, people living with HIV/AIDS and tobacco companies all participate and benefit. The product will generate impact on target beneficiaries through their participation in development of innovations, knowledge and technologies in strategic alliances with multidisciplinary research teams and NGOs. Scaling out of innovations and best practices to areas with similar environments will be done through strategic alliances of research and development actors. The latter will use their network and other communications mechanism to adapt knowledge and results relevant to them. Scaling up regionally and internationally will be done through international NGOs, advocacy, and communication. The outcome is enhanced communication and complementarity of actors with resulting cost efficiencies, and in the case of technology diffusion, increased and diversified adoption. Another dimension of this product is support to NARS in development of projects, benefiting national program researchers and with the outcome of their integration into the product line research mode. This assumes a degree of consistency in partner personnel, while CIAT's role is that of facilitator.The IPG of the bean product line include:• Improved germplasm with biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and/or enhanced nutritional value, drawing upon the genetic resources of CIAT's extensive gene bank, and 30 years of experience in bean improvement. CIAT's geographical position and access to varied altitudes and research sites facilitates study and selection of germplasm. • Improved practices for the management of pests and diseases, including monitoring of pathogen populations with modern molecular tools developed at CIAT. • Knowledge and tools that contribute to the development and implementation of the above IPG's.For example, molecular markers for useful traits, developed with CIAT's in-house resources of genetic maps and markers. Knowledge of the structure of genetic resources housed in the gene bank, and ways to exploit them. Screening methods to identify biotic and abiotic stress resistant genotypes. Participatory breeding methods with varying degrees of involvement of farmers, traders and other key actors. • Methods for networking, both formal among official sector researchers, and less formal among a broader range of partners, with special emphasis on research partnerships and on effective and sustainable seed systems reaching a large number of households.Most important partners and the respective person-years of professionals dedicated to bean research within the (several) products are:Product 1: NARS in Latin America, including those of Mexico (6), Guatemala (2.5), Honduras (2, including EAP-Zamorano), El Salvador (2), Cuba (2), Brazil (4) participate in the AgroSalud project to improve nutritional quality and productivity of bean. NARS in South America, including those of Colombia (5 between university staff, an NGO and the NARI), Bolivia (4 between university staff and a foundation) collaborate in the improvement of disease resistance of Andean bean with better nutritional quality, also under the AgroSalud project. NARS in East, Central and Southern Africa, including those of Kenya ( 5), Rwanda (6), Uganda (5), Malawi (1), Zimbabwe (1) are partners in the improvement of nutritional qualities in large seeded Andean beans. Linkage funds finance a project with one Canadian university, and with a partner in USDA.Product 2: Nicaragua (4.5) and Honduras (2) are partners in breeding for drought tolerance. NARS in East, Central and Southern Africa including those of Ethiopia (3), Kenya (2), Tanzania (3), Rwanda (4), Malawi (1), Zimbabwe (1) and DRCongo (4), participate in the improvement of productivity under low soil fertility and/or drought. The University of Hannover, Germany participates in a project to define physiological mechanisms of aluminum tolerance and drought resistance (2), which also includes Malawi (2) and Rwanda (4). Catholic University of Leuven ( 3) is a partner to improve nitrogen fixation technology. NARS in South America, including those of Colombia (5 between university staff, an NGO and the NARI), Bolivia (4 between university staff and a foundation) collaborate in the improvement of disease resistance of Andean bean. NARS in East, Central and Southern Africa, including those of Kenya (5), Rwanda (6), and Uganda ( 5) Tanzania ( 4) are partners in the development of disease resistance, medium altitude climbing beans (MAC), and productivity in large seeded Andean beans. NARS in Honduras (Zamorano) (1), Colombia (2), Uganda (3), Rwanda (4), and South Africa (2) share in the use of markers for MAS, especially for resistance. South Africa (3) participates in pathogen characterization, evaluation and validation of resistance sources. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) is a partner in diagnosis and characterization of soil borne pathogens (especially Pythium species) using molecular techniques, and development of molecular based diagnostic assays for soil borne pathogens.Product 3: Partners in Latin America with specific attention to breeding market quality include NARS in Honduras and Nicaragua. NARS in Africa with active participation in canning beans include those of Ethiopia and Uganda. Partners in the development of snap beans include a university in Colombia, and one in Kenya.Product 4: NARS as above -plus a wide range of NGOS, CBOS, farmers' groups, women's groups,totaling over 300 direct-link partnerships, to make users aware of technologies and to get these technologies widely disseminated.The ECABREN and SABRN bean networks coordinate nine NARS in East Africa and ten NARS in southern Africa, respectively. These networks participate in Products 1, 2, 3 and 4 with input from African NARS cited above, plus NARS in Burundi (3), Sudan (2), Zambia (1), Zimbabwe (1), Mozambique (3), Lesotho (3) and Swaziland (3).HarvestPlus Challenge Program: IFPRI, CIMMYT, and CIP are immediate collaborators in the CP and the AgroSalud (Latin American) nutritional improvement project, working in the same agro-ecological zones, while ICRISAT, IITA, IRRI, and ICARDA are indirect collaborators under HarvestPlus. ECABREN and SABRN networks in Africa also participate in HarvestPlus.Generation Challenge Program: Partners include EMBRAPA-Brazil (2), INTA-Cuba (1), Pairumani (an NGO) in Bolivia (2), National University in Colombia (2).Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program: ICIPE, AHI and NARS in Rwanda, Uganda and D.R. • At least 3 snap bean lines with resistance to rust and quality characteristics preferred in regional and export markets for Africa. • 4 bean genotypes with very high commercial or export quality made available to farmers in 4 countries in Latin America and Africa• NARS, NGOs, CBOs, farmer groups, seed producers• Adoption of snap bean and reduced chemical use.• Farmers in marginal environments assure market access• Increased production and incomes.• 5 canning bean lines with acceptable quality characteristics in yield trials in two countries in eastern Africa Several lines expressed an advantage of about 50% in the drought trials over check cultivars in three grain classes (large red; cream striped; and large white) while progress in the red mottled class was more modest. Furthermore, in the irrigated plots and in the mid-altitude site, where the Andean beans normally adapt especially well, some drought tolerant lines yielded as much as a ton more than the checks. This finding is comparable to that with Mesoamerican beans, whereby drought-selected lines expressed improved yield potential, a finding that has been attributed to better remobilization of biomass from vegetative parts to grain. The current results suggest a similar trend in Andean beans. Yield improvement has been especially difficult in Andean beans, and these results may indicate a means to overcome this long term bottleneck.Contributors: E. Katungi, L. Sperling, A. FarrowThe bean program is undertaking massive diffusion of drought resistant varieties in drought prone areas of east Africa. A socio-economic baseline survey was conducted in semi-arid areas of Kenya (Eastern province) and Ethiopia (Oromia and Southern region) to contextualize this effort and to orient the breeding for drought resistance. A total 360 farming households in 18 villages, and 120 traders along the value chain were interviewed in the two countries. In Kenya farmers integrate a diversity of crops, cropping systems and farming management practices with local ecosystems and livelihoods to cope with drought. They dry-plant their crops, make terraces to harvest water, intercrop intensively, keep livestock, invest in social capital, work outside their farms for food or wage and undertake petty trade and handcraft but still experience an average of 5 months of inadequate food supply per year. Drought is ranked the most important constraint to livelihood improvement, causing about 70% yield loss in common beans when it occurs. Nevertheless, common bean is ranked the second most important food crop after maize, with about 70% of households growing from 3 to 10 varieties simultaneously, primarily for home consumption. Household characteristics, as well as consumption and production attributes are the driving factors that underlie variety choice and extent of planting. The breeding effort should target both categories of attributes.  . 182-185). It is also associated with the target, \"Improved germplasm available to NARS, regional networks, and farmers, combining better yield with disease resistance\", by availing root rot resistant lines to partners in Africa (MTP 2004(MTP , 2005)).Context: Intensified land use in the highlands of Eastern and Central Africa has been associated with the increased incidence of bean root rots, a devastating disease caused by a complex of soilborne pathogens, mainly Pythium species. In 2001, over 75% of farmers reported calamitous declines in bean production associated with root rots in a survey in western Kenya districts of Kakamega and Vihiga. These districts and those of southwestern Uganda and many parts of Rwanda are typical of regions affected by root rot: farm sizes are small (average 1-2.6 ha), population densities high (404 persons /km 2 in Kakamega and 938 in Vihiga), and crop rotation near nil.CIAT identified major Pythium species prevalent in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda on the basis of cultural and molecular techniques. Species distribution and prevalence were mapped, including at key root rot \"hot spots\". This basic information was then used by breeders in East Africa to guide germplasm evaluations and varietal improvement programs.  Reports). Similarly NARS breeders from Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, and southern Democratic Republic of Congo used the knowledge to evaluate nurseries and segregating populations for resistance to prevalent Pythium species (Musoni, et al. -in press;Otsyula, PhD thesis;Kimani et al, 2005; ECABREN Report; CIAT Annual reports) at respective \"hot spots\" (Vihiga, western Kenya; Kabale, southwest Uganda; Runyinya, Rwanda. Representative isolates (maintained at Kawanda, Uganda) were used to artificially screen germplasm from the three countries. A breeder from KARI, Kakamega, Kenya used the identified species to study the nature of resistance and mechanism of inheritance in selected sources of resistance (Otsyula, 2005-Rockefeller meeting, PhD 2009 thesis). In addition he and his counterparts in Rwanda (ISAR) and Uganda (NARO) used the \"hotspots\" above and artificial inoculation of identified Pythium species to select resistant progenies from populations developed to improve root rot resistance in local bush (e.g. GLP-2, CAL 132, Urugezi) and climbing beans.Following extensive artificial inoculations with key Pythium species (P.ultimum var ultimum, P. salpingophorum, P. spinosum , P. torulosum, P. pachycaule) and evaluations under natural conditions at \"hotspots\" by CIAT and NARS partners in Uganda, Rwanda and Kenya, resistant germplasm was used to constitute a root rot nursery. About 80 entries were made available to several NARS partners in Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, DRC, Ethiopia, Malawi, South Africa, and Cameroon) (CIAT Annual Reports). These partners in turn involved farmers to evaluate the materials. As a result in Uganda, two genotypes originally from Rwanda (RWR 2075 andRWR 1946) were highly appreciated by farmers and traders in evaluations over a 2 year period. The farmers gave them local names; RWR 1946 with a large dark red seed type was named \"Murwanisa\" meaning 'resistant to harsh conditions' and RWR 2075 'Muzahura', meaning 'restorer' (Namayanja et al. Euphytica). These genotypes have been released in Uganda as NABE 13 (RWR 1946) and NABE 14 (RWR 2075), and have entered national performance trials in Kenya as well. In Kenya SCAM-CM80/15 has also been released. • More than 30 F 3 . 5 small seeded Mesoamerican families were selected for high mineral concentration and some degree of drought resistance. • Eighteen lines derived from interspecific crosses were coded as MIB (high mineral) lines, with levels of iron above those of the high iron check MIB 465. Some also have superior resistance to foliar pathogens. • Over 200 pollinations were generated combining multiple sources of resistance to diseases and drought with high mineral (Fe and Zn) content in SABRN countries. • Some good donor parent for drought resistance in common bean (SEA5, SEA15 and SER16) were also good parents for high Fe and Zn content. • Several populations combining different market classes and disease or drought resistance, but also with high mineral (Fe and Zn) content have been generated, and some may have high Fe and or Zn content. Four bush and three climbing micronutrient dense bean varieties with high yield potential are pre-released for smallholder production in eastern Africa. This marks the first time biofortified mineral dense bean varieties are formally recommended for release following independent evaluations. • Bioavailability of Fe in raw samples of fast track bean lines varies from 1.1% to 6.6%.• Bioavailability of Zn in raw samples of fast track lines varies from 0.5 to 2.5%.• Cooking enhances Fe and Zn bioavailability in beans by more than two fold.• Freshly shelled beans have more bioavailable Fe and Zn compared with dry beans.Rationale: Iron deficiency anemia and other micronutrient deficiencies affect large numbers of people worldwide and biofortification is an approach to address this problem by breeding for higher micronutrient content in staple food crops. Legumes are a good source of iron and other essential micronutrients that are found only in low amounts in the cereals or root crops. Also beans and other grain legumes are usually consumed whole, thus conserving their nutritional content. An ongoing project has shown that bean seeds are variable in the amount of minerals (iron, zinc and other elements) that they contain and that these traits are likely to be inherited quantitatively. Over the past 4 years we have developed an initial set of Andean bush beans that have higher mineral content and red mottled seed type and named this set the NUA (Nutritional Andean) lines. These genotypes have now been widely distributed and a few of the advanced lines are near varietal release; their one drawback being a limited number of genetic parents used to develop the lines (predominantly CAL96 as recurrent parent and G14519 as high mineral parent). The objective of this research and varietal development program has been to create a new generation of NUA lines based on triple, double and multiple crosses using the original NUA lines as well as additional sources in various breeding combinations. This report summarizes the nutritional analysis of the F 6 derived lines which are currently in yield testing before shipment to partner countries in Eastern and Central Africa and further testing in Colombia. Most of the new genotypes aim to combine the high iron trait into red mottled background but we also derive some large red and cream mottled genotypes.Advanced lines were developed from the following donor parents for the high mineral trait: G14519, G23823E, G21242, NUA35, NUA56, BID29, BID115, through a series of backcrosses, simple crosses, triple crosses, double crosses and multiple crosses with the commercial parents: CAL96, CAL143, CAL144, PVA773, AND277 and AFR612 (all red mottled); as well as AFR298, RADICAL SAN GIL, RADICAL CERINZA, RED CANADIAN WONDER (G6592) (all large red seeded); SUG131 (cream mottled), KABLANKETI (G22454) (purple stippled), and DORE DE KIRUNDO (G21715) (large yellow). Some combinations contained the angular leaf spot resistance sources G5686 and MEX54 to complement those crosses with AND277 and CAL143 which also provide some resistance to the disease.After initial crosses and generation advance, single plant selections were made in the F 3 and F 6 generations.Seed multiplication for one generation was used to obtain seed for iron and zinc analysis which was carried out with atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in CIAT analytical lab. Advanced lines were also selected for highly acceptable architecture, growth habit, yield potential and seed types.The selected genotypes were numbered consecutively beginning with the numbering of the previous NUA lines developed from the initial crosses for the biofortification program. A total of 490 advanced lines were developed with these listed as NUA101 through NUA591. The new NUA lines were organized based on pedigree and information on seed type was used to create separate nurseries for red mottled, large red and cream mottled genotypes for planting in Darién 2008B (Andic Dystrudept, pH 5.5, 1500 masl, average temperature 19°C, 500 mm during the crop cycle) season. Due to heavy rains throughout the season the planting was delayed until December which was a better period for planting into moist soils.In addition, a new plot was selected based on its soil type, which contained higher concentrations of iron and zinc compared with previous plots used.A total of 76 pedigrees were represented by the 490 selected NUA lines and these were divided into backcrosses, triple, double and simple cross derived genotypes. Table 1 shows the summary of genotypes per pedigree, cross number, NUA codes and range of iron and zinc content (measured as parts per million or ppm) within each pedigree as well as the seed colors of the F 6:7 advanced lines derived from each cross.For example, lines NUA101 to NUA265 (165 in total) were derived from backcrosses with AFR298, AFR612, RED CANADIAN WONDER (G6592), CAL144, PVA773, SUG131, DORE DE KIRUNDO (G21715) using the high mineral parents G14519 (Mesoamerican) and G21242 (Andean). Lines NUA266 to NUA411 (145 in total) were derived from triple crosses using a wider range of high iron parents (NUA35, NUA56, G23823E, BID29 and BID115) in the genetic background of commercial type parents AFR612, SUG131, PVA773, CAL96, CAL143 and CAL144 (these last two genotypes being sister lines with different yield and adaptation potential).Lines NUA412 to NUA442 (31 lines in total) were derived from double crosses involving some of the same high iron parents (G23823E, BID29, BID115) and the large red seeded genotypes RADICAL SAN GIL, RADICAL CERINZA, AFR298, RED CANADIAN WONDER (G6592) as well as KABLANKETI (G22454). Finally, the lines NUA443 to NUA591 (143 in total), were derived from simple crosses between high iron genotypes NUA35, NUA56, G23823E, G21242, BID29 and BID115 with commercial red mottled and large red genotypes AFR298, AFR612, AND277, PVA773, KABLANKETI (G22454), G5686, MEX54, CAL96, CAL144, SUG131 and RADICAL CERINZA. In terms of iron and zinc content the genotypes varied between 90 and 40 ppm iron and 35 to <10 ppm zinc in backcrosses, 98 to 43 ppm iron and 28 to <10 ppm zinc in triple crosses, 105 to 49 ppm iron and 34 to <10 ppm zinc in double crosses and 90 to 37 ppm iron and 36 to 10 ppm zinc in simple crosses. In each case some lower zinc advanced lines were kept because the corresponding iron levels were high or vice versa and for all the lines there are plans to confirm iron and zinc content either through NIRS or through a repetition of AAS analyses. These results show that there is large variability for iron and zinc content in the germplasm pool for Andean bush beans after improvement for mineral levels through the nutritional breeding. We were also pleased to find that high iron and zinc levels seem to be combining well with very commercial seed type and with better plant architecture and yield potential which was somewhat deficient in the first set of NUA lines.In terms of seed colors, the commercial types could be classed into 145 large red, 127 dark red mottled, 125 light red mottled, 44 cream mottled, 19 purple speckled, 13 yellow, 7 pink mottled , 4 large white and 4 beige types. This set of NUA lines will provide a basis for additional breeding in each of these seed classes as the previous NUA lines were all of the red mottled seed class. Within the red mottled seed class, variability for seed brightness and tone will also be useful for ensuring that future combinations of breeding crosses have variability for this important commercial class which is preferred as a predominant type in Eastern and Southern Africa as well as parts of the Andean region.The present genotypes will be useful for studying mineral accumulation in large-seeded Andean beans and will be essential for further biofortification breeding efforts. They also may be useful for bioefficacy and bioavailability studies since they all show advantageous production characteristics which will allow them to be mass produced for nutritional promotion program. However, further testing to evaluate GxE interaction and to select the best NUA lines from this set are needed. Currently the yield potential of the genotypes is being tested at one mid-elevation site and seed multiplication is underway for shipment to the ISAR, INERA, ECABREN and SABRN breeding programs. It is expected that regional trials will be conducted with the best genotypes and that farmer preferences will be considered in the selection of the best candidate biofortified varieties prior to consumer testing for cooking time and culinary quality.Contributors: M.W. Blair, F. Monserrate, C. Astudillo, A. Hoyos, Y. Viera, A. Hincapié (SBA-1)Rationale: Improvement of the nutritional value of common beans has become one of the central themes of the CIAT program, both in Latin America and Africa. The CIAT Bean program continues to be fully committed to developing agronomically acceptable bean lines with varietal potential and with higher levels of iron and zinc. In the case of Mesoamerican beans, our goal is to produce lines that are also drought resistant to make them attractive to farmers. This selection scheme is outlined in Figure 1.The 71 selected families were planted in 3 different lattice designs. 867 individual plant selections were taken within the plots of the most promising families based on visual evaluation of productivity for planting plant-to-row, and the grains of these were weighed and added to the plot yield. Minerals were analyzed by atomic absorption of bulked seed of selections, and by NIRS of individual plants, and both data were used in the selection of F 6 families.The correlation between iron estimated by NIRS in F 3.4 and atomic absorption in F 3.5 was 0.49. While only moderate, this in fact is quite good considering that, 1) the population was severely truncated between the F 4 and F 5 generations, reducing the genetic variability on which the correlation was calculated; 2) the F 4 generation represented a bulk of selected plants, and thus the value of NIRS reflects an average of the variability within the family as compared to the F 5 families; 3) the environments of the F 4 and F 5 generations were very different.Drought was intermittent in 2008 and the crop suffered moderate drought stress. Nonetheless several of the selected lines out-produced the commercial check, Tio Canela which averaged 1781 kg ha -1 over the three trials (Table 2). Tio Canela is well adapted to intermittent drought, and thus a yield which is superior to that of Tio Canela is quite promising.   COL=Color; Lt rd=light red; rd=red; bl=black; cr=cream; cr str=cream striped; Drt= drought; ANT=anthracnose (1-9 scale); ALS=angular leaf spot (1-9 scale); bgm-1 and W12=QTL for resistance to BGMV.Among the 867 F 5 individual selections made within the 71 F 3 . 5 families under evaluation in drought, a total of 201 F 6 lines were maintained, derived from 38 of the F 3.5 families (Table 2). Both NIRS and atomic absorption evaluation suggest that some of these may be drawing close to the level of iron in the high iron check, MIB 465. Most have acceptable levels of resistance to anthracnose, several are resistant or intermediate to ALS, and a number of them are segregating genes for resistance to BGYMV (pending evaluation). Very few have acceptable red grain color, but a number are black seeded, and others are cream or cream-striped (carioca) type.It must be noted that the values of iron represented here tend to be lower than the real values. Accuracy of the atomic absorption and NIRS values is monitored using uniform, universal checks of bean flour (DOR 500 and MIB 465) in each evaluation. These samples were evaluated by ICP in Adelaide and in Cornell, giving respective values of 64 and 102 ppm iron. Our values of both NIRS and atomic absorption tend to be about 16% below these values.Crosses from cycle 2 of the recurrent selection scheme were also sent to Central America in 2007. These have been selected on site. We have analyzed grain of 96 selections from Zamorano, Honduras; we are awaiting the release of some 97 samples from Nicaragua from Colombian quarantine; and we are expecting the shipment of 54 samples from El Salvador and 99 from Guatemala.A second set of crosses within cycle 2 of recurrent selection were planted as F 1.2 populations in drought in July, 2008, and in Popayán as F 1.3 populations for anthracnose evaluation. These are undergoing the same selection process described above, with the possible modification of NIRS evaluation of individual plants, if this procedure proves to be effective.Collaborators: S. Beebe, C. Cajiao, M. Grajales, M.L. Cortés, A.F. GuerreroRationale: In previous reports we have informed about the utilization of Phaseolus polyanthus and Phaseolus coccineus as sources of high iron to improve common bean. In some trials the former species has presented as much as 127 ppm in iron, or perhaps 20 ppm higher than that found in common bean. Since these two species cross readily with P. vulgaris, they were used to improve the levels of minerals in common bean. These species are also resistant to several fungal pathogens of bean, and although often used as sources of these traits to improve common bean, this is the first attempt to use them as a source of nutritional traits.Materials and Methods: High mineral accessions G35575 (P. polyanthus) and G35999 (P. coccineus) were crossed to three common bean genotypes: FEB 226 (carioca), CAL 96 (calima type), and G2333 (Mesoamerican climber). Only crosses of FEB 226 with G35575 have proved to be promising and are reported here. Populations were selected from the F 2 to the F 4 generation using pedigree selection. In each generation individual plant selections were made and seed was sampled from each individual plant within a family for evaluation as a bulk for mineral concentration. All mineral concentrations were estimated by atomic absorption in CIAT's Analytical Services laboratory, using both uniform checks in the field, and laboratory checks of known mineral concentration. In the course of 2008 these families reached the F 5 generation.Results and Discussion: Over several seasons some families and lines have maintained an advantage of 40 ppm over the low iron checks (Table 3). For example, MIB 755 presented levels of iron of 85, 72 and 80 ppm versus DOR 500 with 45, 39, and 43 ppm. Furthermore in the Popayán environment the iron values tend to be compressed such that the range in values is narrower, and the high iron check, MIB 465 (which normally presents 85-90 ppm iron) expresses only 65-75 ppm. The interspecific lines have presented 10-15 ppm more than the high iron check! It is fully possible that if these genes can be introduced into other genetic backgrounds that give adaptation to other environments, this range of iron expression could be even wider. These lines could well represent levels of iron that meet the goal of 95-100 ppm. In two preliminary tests in Palmira, some of the lines continued to express high iron, as high as 100 ppm (data not shown). However, data from Palmira must be taken with caution in this case, as the lines tend not to adapt well in Palmira (as expected). Under higher temperatures most tend to be late maturing and with poor pod load, which may augment their iron concentration in this environment.Several lines also express levels of zinc of 45-56 ppm in Popayán, which are above that of the high mineral check, MIB 465 with 38-36 ppm (Table 3). This is also very exciting, considering that the levels of zinc in the newest lines from intraspecific crosses have improved modestly at best (Table 2 Section 1.1.2).  Rationale: Following on the breeders' workshop which was held in Kampala, Uganda 2005, several countries within SABRN started breeding activities to improve Andean beans for higher mineral content and superior agronomic traits. During this reporting period, various countries continued to generate crosses combining multiple sources of resistance to diseases, high mineral content and drought.Crosses were generated by various NARS programs (South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe) and the regional breeding program in Malawi. The female parental sources representing the major market classes, as well as the donor parents for resistance to targeted diseases and for high Fe and Zn content were identified during the breeders training workshop in Kampala.In Tanzania, they noted that the first set of high micronutrient density NUA and other lines were not well adapted due to susceptibility to diseases, particularly ALS. The NUA lines were also low yielding compared to the standard bean varieties in southern highlands of Tanzania. To improve the Fe and Zn content in bean varieties, a crossing program was initiated. Over 50 pollinations were made to build up disease resistance and to get better grain type. The progenies were grown as bulk population at F 3 generation and F 4 seed has been harvested. Selected lines under disease pressure at F 4 generation were crossed to NUA 45 and NUA 56 during the mid-August 2008 planting. In addition 40 pollinations were made between varieties Kirundo and Uyole 04 and also between Kirundo and OR-BRa local breeding line which is resistant to several diseases at Uyole Agricultural Research Institute. The progenies were at F 3 generation, and sufficient seed had been harvested to plant F 4 population, which will be evaluated under disease pressure. The selected best progenies will be crossed to NUA45 and NUA56 for high micronutrient content.In Zimbabwe, over 25 new crosses were initiated where they used three NUA lines as male donor parents for high mineral content -NUA45, NUA59 and NUA35 to improve the following female parents: Red Canadian Wonder, DRK68, CIM9314-17, CAL143, VTTT923/10-3, MG38, AND897, DRK134, RAA34, purple, brown and G17722 -representing the red kidney, red mottled, sugar, purple and brown market classes. Purple and brown were local landraces with good attributes (resistance to drought, good pod load, good market class). The crosses also included parents with multiple traits for disease resistance. The progenies from the earlier crosses were at F 4 generation.In Zambia, the breeding program had generated over 40 crosses combining attributes from various landrace varieties (Kablanketi, Solowezi Rose, Pembela, Lusaka Yellow) which had good market classes and some released varieties which had good disease resistance (Lyambayi and Lukupa) with high mineral content from AND620, NUA45 and NUA59.In Malawi the regional breeding program made 80 new 2-way crosses, resulting in 320 seeds at F 1 generation, combining preferred market classes and disease resistance, using MEX54 and AND277 as sources of angular leaf spot (ALS) resistance and XAN159 or VAX6 or RMX27 as sources of resistance to common bacterial blight (CBB). These will be grown in a screen house, and will be crossed either as F 1 xF 1 to combine more than one resistance genes for diseases or to AND620 and NUA56 as sources of high Fe and Zn. In addition there were 88 families in F 1:2 generation and 606 F 2:3 generation originating from 3-way crosses combining good parental lines for ALS (MEX54, CAL143) or CBB (XAN159, VAX6 or RMX27) and high Fe & Zn (NUA56 and AND620) were planted in single row plots 4 m long (41 plants) at Chitedze and Bembeke to evaluate them for CBB and ALS respectively. These populations were in various market classes: Calima (CAL113), Khaki (Nasaka) and purple (Kablanketi). Both sites were hit by drought, because the rains cut off early this year, and disease pressure, especially for CBB at Chitedze was not significant, but more importantly, grain harvest was very limited, such that selection was not justified. Remnant seed of these families has been grown at Bwanje, this June 2008 under irrigation to generate F 3 and F 4 families, which will be further evaluated during the coming rainy season. Grain samples from select plants at F 4 generation will be evaluated for high Fe and Zn.In South Africa, 57 new 3-way crosses were made, realizing 225 seeds at F 1 generation, combining preferred bean market class, disease resistance and high micronutrient content. The focus was on improving the nutritional value of red speckled sugar (RSS) with resistance to rust, angular leaf spot (ALS) and common bacterial blight (CBB) and halo blight (HB) and using AND620 and NUA56 as donor parents for high Fe and Zn content. Apart from the new crosses, some countries had advanced generations of segregating populations from the earlier crosses, which combined parental sources for various diseases and high mineral content. In addition, there were some plants which were selected from progeny rows with SEA5, SEA15 and SER16 as donor parents for drought as well as high Fe and Zn content. These together with the redundant plants from progeny rows of AND620 and NUA56 as donor parents were harvested in bulk at Cedara in 2008 and retained for Fe and Zn analyses. Forty one (41) samples of grain each consisting of seeds (± 10-15g each), preferably in RSS and cranberry types were selected for analyses at the ARC-soil, climate and Water Institute (ISCW), Pretoria, South Africa. In addition 19 samples of parental lines and cultivars were included as checks. Results from the analyses showed that some of the progenies like P743, P748, P750, P751 and P780 had higher Fe and Zn content than one or both of their parents (Table 4). It was also worth noting that some bred varieties like OPS-RS4 from South Africa showed good levels of Fe content.In addition, lines used in crosses as good sources of resistance to drought, SEA15, SER16 and SEA5 also showed to have good levels of Fe and Zn, indicating that we might have more sources of parents for high Fe and Zn, and that some parents are both good sources for drought as well as Fe and Zn A three-pronged approach has been followed in alleviating the micronutrient deficiency problem in Africa. These are: supplementation of vulnerable groups with micronutrients, fortification of common processed foods, and dietary improvement. Mineral supplementation is effective for easy-to-reach vulnerable groups with access to medical facilities. In East and Central Africa, this constitutes a very small group. It requires a large capital input, an elaborate and costly distribution network and patience compliance. It has to be carried out on a regular basis. This approach often leaves out those hard-to-reach or practically unreachable at-risk groups as well as other household and community members not targeted to receive any kind of supplementation. In Africa, the latter group constitutes the majority who are located in rural communities with limited access to medical facilities and too ill from the effects of the deficiency. Fortification of common foods has had a limited degree of success in Africa because of the underdeveloped food industry and lack of effective legislation. For example, at present food fortification programs are operational only in two of the ten ASARECA member countries in East and Central Africa: Kenya (vitamin A and iron in wheat flour, maize flour, millet porridge, margarine and cooking oil) and Uganda (iron in wheat flour). The number is equally small in southern Africa. Food fortification is effective for small affluent communities mostly in urban areas and households with a capacity to purchase fortified foods on a regular basis. This again leaves out the majority of urban poor and rural communities. Dietary improvement is probably the most effective and sustainable strategy for reducing micronutrient deficiencies in Africa. This approach aims to increase dietary availability, regular access and consumption of mineral-rich foods in at -risk and micronutrient-deficient groups of populations. It involves development and promoting enhanced consumption of culturally acceptable, mineral rich grains, vegetables and root crops.Program Objectives: A regional program led by PABRA, and based at the University of Nairobi and the Malawi National Bean program in partnership with CIAT and HarvestPlus was initiated in 2001. The objectives of this program were to: (i) Characterize the variation of grain iron and zinc concentration in east, central and southern Africa, (ii) identify potential parents for further breeding work, and iii) determine whether there are regions with high diversity for this trait and complement existing collection at Genetic Resources Unit at CIAT, Colombia, iv) identify lines which could be fast-tracked as mineral dense lines for cultivation by farmers in regions with severe Fe and Zn malnutrition, v) assess the cooking, bioavailability of Fe and Zn and other organoleptic characteristics of promising mineral dense lines.Variety development. Major steps in development of common bean varieties rich in micronutrients has involved collection and screening of varieties, landraces, germplasm accessions and advanced lines for micronutrients, participatory evaluation of promising lines for adaptability and agronomic traits in observation and preliminary on-farm and on-station trials, advancement and further characterization of selected lines in advanced and multi-location yield trials to generate data required for formal release, and production of breeder seed to facilitate production and dissemination of commercial seed to end users. Genotypes with high concentration of micronutrient but lacking in agronomic traits and susceptible to major diseases entered hybridization programs to generate segregating populations and select for lines combining mineral density with resistance to biotic and abiotic stress factors, marketable grain types and high yield potential. We previously highlighted the regional strategy adopted in the development of micronutrient rich bean varieties (CIAT, 2007). This report highlights key milestones reached by the  , 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004). Thirty-eight fast track lines were identified and distributed for regional evaluation across agro-ecological zones in more than 15 countries in east, central and southern Africa, and later in West Africa (CIAT, 2004(CIAT, , 2007)). Fast track lines were also evaluated for anti-nutritional factors (tannins and phytates), cooking time, mineral retention and other organoleptic characteristics (CIAT, 2005(CIAT, , 2006(CIAT, , 2007)). Genotypes with high micronutrient concentration but lacking in preferred agronomic traits and susceptible to major diseases were entered in hybridization program at Kabete to generate segregating populations and select for lines combining mineral density with resistance to biotic and abiotic stress factors, marketable grain types and high yield potential. Mineral analyses were performed used ashing and wet digestion techniques (Zarcinas et al., 1983). Normal agronomic practices were followed in field trials. Data was analyzed using Genstat and/or SAS statistical software.Germplasm screening. Although PABRA partners had a target of 2000 accessions, more than 2853 germplasm accessions were collected in nine countries in east and central Africa in the last five years (Table 5). They included landraces, old varieties and some breeding lines. Mineral analyses showed that there was considerable genetic variation for grain iron and zinc concentration among the local germplasm, which could facilitate development of mineral rich bean varieties. For example, analysis of 300 lines from D. R. Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania showed that iron concentration varied from 40 to 105 ppm. Sixty-six lines had more than 90 ppm indicating that potential of increasing iron concentration in the grain by more than 90%. Analyses of four landraces collected in central and southern Tanzania showed that iron concentration was lowest in white beans (73 ppm) and highest in grey (114 ppm) and yellow beans (120 ppm). Kidney beans had intermediate levels of iron (87 ppm). Bean showed higher iron concentration compared to whole maize (19 ppm), dehulled maize (7 ppm), cassava (5 ppm), cassava flour (5 ppm), cocoyam (4 ppm), potato (3ppm) sweet potato (5 ppm) and cooking bananas (5 ppm), which are widely consumed in the region. Mineral concentration in grey and yellow beans was higher than beef (98 ppm) and comparable to fish (124 ppm). This implied that beans are among the most important sources of iron in local diets, and is critical to the vast majority who have limited access to animal sources. Although mineral density was affected by the growing conditions (soil type, soil nutrients) and methods of analyses, results showed that most of the lines consistently showing high levels of micronutrients originated from the Great Lakes region especially D. R. Congo and Rwanda. Genotypes with high levels of iron included Maharagi Soja, Gofta, AND 620, MLB 49 89A, HRS 545, Nakaja, VCB 87013, Nain de Kyondo, TY 3396-13, PVA 8, Nguaku Nguaku, Urugezi, Lib 1, Roba-1 and Mwamfutala. All except Gofta, Roba-1 (Ethiopia) and HRS 545 (Sudan) originated from the Great Lakes Region. Blair et al. (2007) also reported Nakaja and Urugezi as a high Fe lines. Lines with high levels of zinc included VNB 81010, MLB 49 89A, AND 620, LIB 1, Ranjonoby, Naindeky, Nakaja, Jesca, K131, K132 and Kiang'ara. When these lines were grown under uniform low N conditions in the greenhouse at Kabete, they showed lower levels of Fe (21-81 ppm) and Zn (8-38 ppm) compared with results with original samples. This suggested possible genotype x environment interaction for these traits, or possibly contamination, which is common in work with minerals. Large seeded Andean varieties from SABRN and ECABREN regions had higher Fe concentration than the small seeded Mesoamerican varieties from the same region. Finally, a total of 38 lines were selected for next stage of variety development. These were dubbed 'fast track' lines because they combined high mineral density with other important traits preferred by farmers and consumers, and would therefore require less time for testing before being released as varieties.Selection of Mineral dense Climbing Varieties. Although the current initiative to develop mineral dense bean lines initially focused on bush bean with marketable grain characteristics, it became necessary to develop a parallel program for the more productive biofortified climbing bean types. Climbing beans typically give a three to four fold yield increase per unit area and can be ideal in urban and rural areas with high population pressure and declining land size. To realize this objective, CIAT introduced advanced climbing bean lines selected for high mineral density (referred to as NUVs) for preliminary observations in primary evaluation sites in east, central and southern Africa. The objective of these trials was to conduct preliminary adaptability trials, and to increase seed for distribution to national programs and communities for further participatory evaluation and eventual release as commercial varieties. In East and Central Africa region, two sets of climbing beans have been introduced and evaluated. The first set of climbing beans originated from fast track nursery which comprised of local landraces, released varieties, and advanced breeding from the national bean programs. This nursery was created in 2001 but new accessions have been added in the last eight years. Genotypes in this nursery were screened for grain iron and zinc concentration. Genotypes with iron levels above 70 ppm and zinc levels above 30 ppm were evaluated in participatory on-farm and on-station trials for agronomic traits and consumer acceptance. Results show that considerable progress has been made in Burundi, D. R. Congo, Kenya, Madagascar and Cameroon. In Rwanda, one line (G59/1-2) has been selected for advanced yield trials because it combined high yield potential (2.5 to 3.5 t ha-1 ) with mineral density (110 ppm Fe). More than 2400 kg of seed was produced with partners in Ruhengeri region. In Cameroon, TY 3396-12 with type III growth habit is among the most promising lines from the fast track nursery. In Burundi selection was done in multilocation trials in on-farm and on-station trials in high, medium and low altitude locations. Five climbing bean lines (Nakaja, VNB 81010, VCB 81012, Kiangara and G59/1-2) were selected in 2008 as candidates for final evaluation and seed production. In D. R. Congo, ten climbing bean lines from fast track nursery were selected in participatory variety selection conducted at three high altitude locations in eastern part of the country. They included (in decreasing order of preference) VCB 81013, G59/1-2, AND 10, LIB 1, MLV 224/97B, VCB 81012, VNB 81010, Kiang'ara, MLV 59/97A and MLV 06-90B. Low mineral check M211 was selected in Madagascar, Burundi and D. R. Congo because of its good productivity. In western DRC, four climbers which combined high mineral density and agronomic potential were selected (Table 7). In Kenya, seven climbing bean candidates from the fast track nursery were evaluated in national performance trials (NPT) conducted at eight locations for two seasons between 2007 and 2008. Regional important cultivars, Vunikingi, Umbano and recent releases (MAC 13,MAC 34 and MAC 64) were used as checks. Four candidate varieties were pre-released (MV 14, MV17, MV18 and MV19). MV 19 was the best yielding. The pre-released lines were evaluated for a second round of NPT in 2008. Table 8 shows a summary of the combined results over the two years.Three candidate varieties (MV 19,MV17 and MV 14) were recommended for full release in December 2008. This marks the first time bean genotypes selected for micronutrient density reached full release status after independent, multilocation evaluation for agronomic traits. These results also confirmed that it is possible to combine high mineral density with good agronomic potential. Evaluation of NUVs. 264 NUV lines were planted in observation trial at Mwea during the 2007 long rain season. Grain yield varied from 420 to more than 3000 kg ha -1 . Yield was adversely affected by moisture stress during the flowering and pod filling growth stages. Twenty-five lines had yields of more than 3 t ha -1 despite the stress. Some of the best performing lines included NUV 16, NUV 35, NUV 41, NUV 71, NUV 72, NUV 73, NUV 90 and NUV99. This trial also facilitated seed increases. The lines are currently being evaluated in replicated trials at Kabete, Laikipia, Thika and Mwea. Mineral analyses of grain from the observation trial is in progress.Status of biofortified fast track bush lines: Considerable progress was made during the year in evaluation of fast track bush lines in eastern Africa. Table 9 shows the status of these lines in the region. In Burundi, fast track lines were evaluated in advanced yield trials at three locations during 2008 A and B seasons. The trial sites were Moso (1250m), Mparambo (800 m) and Murongwe (1500m), representing the major agroecological zones for bean production. Eight lines were selected based on yield, reaction to diseases and adaptation and better performance compared with the local check variety Mukungungu. The selected bush lines were GLP 2, PVA 8, MLB49-89 A, MLB40-89A, Maharagi Soja , Gofta and Nguaku -Nguaku. However, Nguaku Nguaku showed poor performance at the low altitude site due to weak stems and prostrate growth habit, excessive vegetative growth and poor pod load. These lines will be evaluated in on-farm trials in 2009.In eastern D. R. Congo, eleven lines were selected based on their performance at five locations and farmer evaluations.   In Rwanda, four bush varieties from the fast track nursery were selected in advanced yield trials. These were AND 620, Maharagi Soja, MLB 49 -89 A and MLB 40-89A. These lines had mean grain yield of 1 to 1.6 t ha -1 in multilocation testing. Seed of the four lines and Gofta was produced in Gitarama, Ruhengeri, Kigali-Ngali, Bugesera and Kibungo regions with partners (NGOs, Ministry of Health and communities) and on-station.In Tanzania, 11 lines selected from the fast track nursery were evaluated in uniformity cultivar multilocational trials (UCT).    Rationale: Biofortified genotypes of common bean hold promise for improving nutritional status in many countries but require agronomic testing to determine their yield and adaptation potential. Andean biofortified beans from the NUA series have generated interest in various countries of Africa and Latin America and are potential releases for Bolivia, Colombia, Malawi and Zimbabwe. Two sister lines (NUA35 and NUA56) were selected for their high iron and zinc content. Both of these were developed from the high iron source genotype G14519 in backcrosses with the recurrent parent CAL96 and have good red mottled seed type. These genotypes have now been tested over a large number of sites and seasons and this report outlines the iron and zinc levels found in them.Materials and Methods: Two genotypes, NUA35 and NUA56 were grown across 15 sites and analyzed uniformly for seed mineral content with atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Before analysis and to reduce variability, seed for each experiment was hand harvested and processed to avoid soil contamination and then shipped to CIAT for analysis where grain was cleaned with a damp cloth. Seed mineral content was evaluated for 4 g of grain dried overnight in an oven at 37ºC. Each sample was then ground into a fine powder using a modified Retsch mill with a teflon capsule chamber and zirconium grinding balls. Mineral content is reported in parts per million (ppm), equivalent to mg of iron or zinc per kg of seed.Results and Discussion: Mean seed yield for NUA35 at a moderate-elevation/rainfall site in Colombia (Darién at 1459 masl with 20°C seasonal average temperature, 1328 mm average yearly rainfall, with soil pH 5.5-6.0 and 5 to 8 % organic matter) was 1099 kg ha -1 with a range from 632 to 1787 kg ha -1 over 6 seasons (given bimodal yearly rainfall at this sites, the line was tested over three and a half years over both March -June and September -January growing seasons). The mean seed yield of NUA56 at this same site was 1076 kg ha -1 with a range of 704 to 2095 kg ha -1 over 5 seasons. In comparison, control genotypes AFR612 and CAL96 yield between 700 and 1800 kg ha -1 at this site.At a high rainfall site in Colombia (Popayán at 1725 masl with 17°C seasonal average temperature, 1991 mm average yearly rainfall with soil pH 5.5-6.0 and 10 to 20 % organic matter), mean seed yield for NUA35 was 1521 kg ha -1 with a range from 719 to 2810 kg ha -1 while mean seed yield for NUA56 was 1324 kg ha -1 with a range from 526 to 2839 kg ha -1 . At a lower elevation site in Colombia (Palmira at 967 masl with 24°C seasonal average temperature, 1043 mm average yearly rainfall, soil pH 7.0-7.5 and 2 to 4 % organic matter), mean yields for NUA35 and NUA56 were 946 and 810 kg ha -1 , respectively.Meanwhile, in Santa Cruz, Bolivia (Andres Ibañez at 398 masl with 24°C seasonal average temperature and 1406 mm average yearly rainfall with soil pH 6.0-6.5 and <2 % organic matter), average yields for NUA35 and NUA56 were 1265 and 1452 kg ha -1 , respectively, both surpassing the average yield of the control genotype, CAL96, with a yield of 997 kg ha -1 but beneath the average yield of a local check, 'Rojo Oriental' a released variety based on CIAT line PVA773, with 2000 kg ha -1 .Nutrition quality evaluations for seed iron and zinc content (Table 14) showed that the NUA lines always produced more than the average amount of iron for common bean which is 55 ppm; and close to the average amount of zinc for the crop which is 35 ppm. While both lines were high in iron, NUA56 had somewhat higher average seed iron content (81 ppm) than NUA35 (76 ppm) across the 15 sites where the genotypes were tested; while the opposite was true for average seed zinc content where NUA35 had 34 ppm and NUA56 had 33 ppm. Considering that Andean beans usually have lower than average seed zinc content, this amount of zinc can be considered moderate within the genepool. 1 Iron and zinc content were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry by the CIAT analytical services lab. To avoid variability seed for each experiment was hand harvested and processed to avoid contamination and then shipped to CIAT for analysis where seed mineral content was evaluated by grinding 4 g of grain from each sample into a fine powder using a modified Retsch mill with a teflon capsule chamber and zirconium grinding balls. Powder was transferred to 25 ml plastic tubes and analyzed for both iron and zinc concentration measured in parts per million (ppm) with a wet digestion method. NA = not applicable.Rationale: Biofortification seeks to alleviate micronutrient deficiencies through the development, production and consumption of mineral rich varieties on-farm and across agricultural regions. Bean programs in east, central and southern Africa recently embarked on developing nutrient rich and stable bean varieties which can contribute to alleviation of micronutrient malnutrition in the region (CIAT, 2002). Initial activities focused on screening available germplasm for genetic variation in iron and zinc (CIAT, 2003). These studies showed that considerable variation exists to increase seed iron concentration by more than 80% and zinc by 50%. Thirty-eight promising lines were selected following screening of landraces, advanced lines and varieties grown in eastern Africa (CIAT, 2005). However, stability of micronutrient density in bean cultivars across environments is not well known. Productivity and stability in the diverse bean growing environments is influenced by many environmental factors. Soil fertility factors are among the most important influences. Plants require considerable amounts of macronutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium. Comprehensive agronomic approaches including specific fertilization strategies to enhance seed nutrient concentration have yet to be pursued (Rengel at al, 1999). However, fertilization aimed at increasing grain nutrient density to allow good establishment when the seed is sown in nutrient-deficient soil has been reported occasionally. Limited literature indicates that fertilization with inorganic and organic forms of micronutrients has potential to increase their concentration in grain. For example, Marschner (1995) showed that concentrations of Zn and Fe in cereal grain increased with an increase in Zn or Fe fertilizer additions. Addition of macronutrients (N, P and K) which promote root and shoot development, can increase the uptake of all nutrients required by the plant (Constant and Seldrick, 1991;Rengel et al, 1999).Soils in many bean growing environments in East, Central and Southern Africa are deficient in soil phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium and are acidic (pH below 6.5). Recent information indicates that concentration of iron and zinc in seeds is influenced by several quantitative loci (CIAT, 2005). It would therefore be expected that mineral density traits are determined not only by the genotype, but also may be influenced by environmental factors and the differential response of genotypes to agronomic management, soil and climatic factors. To test this hypothesis, studies were conducted to determine the influence of soil type, season, inorganic soil amendments (phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, iron and zinc) on seed iron and zinc concentration and the associated genotype x environment interactions. Effects of N, P and K fertilization were reported in 2006. In 2008 trials were planted to confirm earlier results.Ten bean lines were grown at four levels of N, P, K fertilization at three locations in Kenya during the short rain season (November to February) and long rain season (April-August). The bean lines included nine with high levels of iron and/or zinc, and a check (M211). P treatments were 0, 25, 50, 75 kg P ha -1 . Source of P was triple super phosphate (46% P 2 O 5 ) fertilizer. The four N levels were 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg N ha -1 . Potassium was applied at 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg ha -1 . Potassium fertilizer in the form of potassium sulphate (K 2 SO 4 -50%K 2 O) was preferred to potassium chloride (KCL) because the SO 4 -2 ion enhances phosphorus. Fertilizer was applied in the furrows and thoroughly mixed with the soil before planting. The factorial experiments were laid out a split-plot with three replicates. Varieties were the main plots and N, P, K and lime levels, the subplots. A plot consisted of 3 m rows. Spacing was 45 cm between rows and 10 cm within rows. The trial was conducted at Thika (1548 masl) and Kabete (Field 16, 1849 masl) during the short rain season, and at Kakamega (1583 masl) and Kabete (Field 10, 1794masl) in the long rain season. Soils at Kabete are humic nitisols (FAO, 1990;Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983), slightly acidic (pH 5.5) and deficient in available phosphorus and nitrogen (Mwaura, 1995). Soils at Thika are eutric nitosols and acrisols, and low in nitrogen and phosphorus. At Kakamega soils are Dystro-Mollic nitisols, low in phosphorus (MOA, 1987;Siderius and Muchena, 1977). Soil samples were collected at each site before planting. Leaf samples were collected before flowering. Seed samples for mineral analyses were taken at harvest. Ground samples were digested with hydrogen peroxide, sulphuric acid and salicylic acid following methods of Novozamsky et al. (1983) andOkalebo et al. (2002), and read on atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer Corporation, USA). Data was collected on phenology, disease incidence, 100-seed mass and grain yield following the CIAT standard scale (Schoohoven and Pastor-Corrales, 1987). Genstat (2005) software was used for analyses of variance.Results and Discussion: Results showed that there significant location, season, treatment and genotypic effects on the grain iron and zinc concentration. Significant genotype x environment interactions were detected.N effects. Fertilization with N up to 100 kg N ha -1 increased grain Fe and Zn concentration in all four environments. This result is similar to that obtained in 2006. However, grain mineral density varied with locations and seasons. Figures 7 and 8 illustrate genotypic differences averaged over N treatments. P Effects. Phosphorus fertilization significantly (P<0.05) increased seed Fe concentration. Results showed that grain iron concentration increased with P fertilizer application up to 50 kg P ha -1 rate for bean lines grown in Kabete Field 16, Thika and Kabete Field 10. However, at Kakamega, grain iron concentration increased with P fertilization up to 25 kg P ha -1 . Application of P at 75 kg P ha -1 rate led to a decline in seed Fe concentration in all the sites for the two seasons. This is similar to the pattern observed in 2006, although in that year iron continued to increase at 75 kg ha -1 except at Kakamega. Genotype x environment interaction effects on grain Fe concentration are shown in Figure 9.K effects. Mean seed Fe increased but not significantly with increasing levels of K up to 150 kg K ha -1 . In 2006 also, response of grain iron to K application was minimal. AND 620 had the highest grain iron concentration when grown at Kabete 16 (105 ppm), while the lowest grain concentration was observed for TY 3396-12 grown at Thika (Figure 10). Zn concentration increased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing levels of K up to 150 kg K ha -1 . In 2006 an increase was also noted, but not at the highest level of K application. VNB 81010 showed the highest Zn concentration (34.3 ppm) when grown in Kabete Field 10, while lowest Zn levels were recorded from Roba-1 (19.6) grown in Kabete Field 16 (Figure 11). The results obtained indicate that adequate levels of K have the potential to increase bean yields, seed iron and zinc concentrations. However, the significant genotype x environment interactions suggest that grain mineral density varies with locations and genotypes.In general, results in 2008 were consistent with previous results. N and P gave the most dramatic increases in grain iron, while K application gave modest increases in seed zinc.Contributors: Paul Kimani, Ben Okonda, J. K. Keter and S. Beebe Collaborators: Bean Team at Kabete, Kenya.    • The inheritance of seed phytate content was analyzed to determine if this anti-nutrient could be reduced and how it is related to seed phosphorus content. Quantitative inheritance was found with several QTL explaining both traits independent of seed size. The results of this study show some genotypes with low levels of phytates which would seem to be sufficient for breeding attempts. The other anti-nutrient being analyzed is condensed tannins and an HPLC method was adapted to look at the tannin monomers that accumulate in genotypes from an inter-genepool population.Rationale: Phytates are an important anti-nutritional component of legume seeds because they chelate mineral uptake in human digestion. Phytates can also bind certain charged proteins making them less digestible as well and the lack of phytase production in monogastric digestive systems prevents phytates from being hydrolyzed and utilized by humans. On the other hand phytates are important as a seed supply of phosphorus and as a health-promoting factor in some human populations susceptible to diseases such as heart disease and certain cancers. It is notable that phytate levels are often correlated with total seed phosphorus (P) and are the main storage form of P in plant seeds with phytates representing 65% or more of the P present in cereal or legume grain; and therefore both seed P and phytates are characteristics that should be considered jointly. From this perspective our goal has been to understand the inheritance of phytate content and its relationship with seed phosphorus in common bean seeds. The objective of this research was to evaluate quantitative trait loci (QTL) for seed phosphorus and phytate content in an intergenepool (G2333 x G19839) recombinant inbred line population of common beanPlant material: An inter-genepool recombinant inbred line population derived from the cross of G2333 (Mesoamerican, type IV climbing bean from Mexico) by G19839 (Andean, type III bush bean from Peru) and consisting of 84 F 5:8 lines was grown in two experiments in Popayán, Colombia in the 2004 growing season on soils that are inceptisols with a native P content of 2 ppm which is considered deficient. The two experiments differed in P fertilization: a total of 200 kg ha -1 of 10-30-10 N-P-K fertilizer was applied for a medium phosphorus treatment and 400 kg ha -1 was applied for a high phosphorus treatment. The two levels of phosphorus fertilization were used since P supply is thought to influence seed phytate content. All other agronomic management except for P supply was the same for the two trials with plants grown on trellises and plot size consisting of double rows that were 3 m in length and 2 m wide. Both medium and high P experiments were randomized complete block designs with two repetitions each and included the parents as control genotypes.Seed P and phytate analysis: Seed was hand harvested from each plot at full maturity, dried to 12% humidity prior to storage at 4ºC and used in seed phytate and total phosphorus analysis. Seed P and phytate content were quantified with spectro-photometric methods based on acid digestion with molybdenum blue and Wade reagents, respectively, and net seed P and net phytate content were calculated on a per seed basis using seed weights for each experiment.Analyses of variance were conducted for the seed phosphorus and seed phytate concentration traits in the RIL genotypes and parents across the two environments (medium P and high P fertilization) using SAS with all effects considered random and each term assumed to be independent.The means for each genotype in each environment were used for quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis with the probability of a QTL being present expressed in terms of LR (likelihood ratio) values.The molybdenum blue / Wade reagent method was found to be rapid as a quantification technique for total phytates, compared to more expensive, time consuming and multi-step analyses implemented for common beans with high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). In addition, the solid phase extraction column was found to be highly reproducible and coefficients of variation for the genotypes with this method were less than 5%. The analyses of variance showed significant differences between RIL genotypes for seed weight, total seed phosphorus, percentage seed phytate, net seed phytate and net seed phosphorous (Table 15). Total seed P in the RILs varied from 2.8 to 6.1 g kg -1 and phytates varied from 0.29 to 1.78 % across fertilization levels. Calculations of net phytate and net P content were used to evaluate the amount of phytate or phosphorus per seed rather than on the percentage bases as described above. This was justified by the fact that we analyzed a Mesoamerican x Andean inter genepool population that segregated widely for seed size and by the hypothesis that larger seeds serve to store greater amounts of nutrients than smaller seeds but that nutrient requirements are similar for seedling establishment. Given the larger average seed size of G19839 (0.62 to 0.73 g seed -1 ), this parent had up to 100% higher net phytate and net P content than G2333 (0.29 to 0.31 g seed -1 ) under both soil P levels. Population histograms for percentage total seed phosphorus, percentage phosphorus, net phytate content, net seed P content and seed size in the G2333 x G19839 RILs were normally distributed in both environments and there was no evidence of kurtosis or skewing in any of the histograms. These results suggest that all of the traits measured were inherited in a quantitative manner. In each case, parental means tended to be less distinct than the lowest and highest seed P or phytate containing RILs suggesting that transgressive segregation was important in the inheritance of the traits and that both parents contributed positive and negative alleles for the traits. A total of six QTL were found for total or net seed P while three were found for percentage or net seed phytates. In addition six QTL were found for seed weight. QTL for seed P and percent phytates were located independently. Meanwhile the QTL for net seed P or phytate content were related to seed weight QTL. The QTL were of moderate effect and the phytate and seed P QTL were independent of each other and of QTL for seed size.The ability to select QTL for seed phosphorus or phytate separately is important since seed phosphorus is important for plant growth while phytate is a major factor influencing the bioavailability of iron, zinc and calcium. The results of this study show that some genotypes have levels of phytates which would seem to be sufficiently low for breeding attempts. Furthermore, the results suggest that bean plants can adapt to different initial supplies of phosphorus and that seed P and phytate levels in common bean can be modified through plant breeding. We plan to use the methodology developed here to evaluate additional populations and to consider marker assisted selection strategies for reducing phytates while maintaining seed P levels. We are also exploring candidate genes for phytate content as potentially suitable markers for this work in the future.Blair MW, Sandoval TA, Caldas GV (SBA-2-CIAT), Beebe SE (SBA-1, CIAT) , Páez MI (Univalle)Introduction:Seed coat color in P. vulgaris is determined by the amount and presence of flavonol glycosides, tannins and anthocyanins. These compounds are synthesized by the flavonoid pathway and although the pathway is well characterized in some species, in common bean the genes are not yet well known. On the other hand, extensive genetic analyses have identified specific Mendelian genes that control seed coat pattern and color. However, it has not been possible to identify the genes responsible for producing specific flavonoid compounds. This means that until now the relationship between genes which control the enzymes in the pathway and the Mendelian genes for seed coat color is not clear. With this in mind and because of our previous studies on QTL mapping for tannin content, we decided to begin analyses in tannin composition on some genotypes from the DOR364 x G19833 bean population.Plant Materials: We chose 20 genotypes from the DOR364 x G19833 population with contrasting seed colors ranging from red to yellow to brown. The population was harvested in Darién 2006 with three repetitions by genotype. The genotypes were contrasting in tannin content. Samples of 10 seeds each were analyzed for each genotype. The seeds were peeled and the seed coats were ground for analysis.HPLC analysis: Condensed tannins were extracted using 70% acetone and converted to anthocyanidins by the butanol-HCl method in triplicates. For the HPLC analysis we dried 1mL of each sample after the reaction with butanol-HCl in a sample concentrator. The dried samples were re-dissolved in a methanol-HCl 1% solution, filtered (Millipore PTFE, 0.45uM) and placed in a vial for the injection. Separation of anthocyanidins (resulting from the de-polymerizing of the tannins via butanol-HCl method) was achieved using a 8 x 100 mm Nova-Pack C18 column (4um, Waters). The solvents were A, 100% Methanol and B, 5% acetic acid. The gradient consisted of: 40% B for 1 min, 30% B for 1.3 min, 35% B for 20 sec, 40% B for 1.3 min, 60% B for 2 min. Detection was carried out in a UV detector (Shimadzu CL-10A) using 530nm as wavelength.Data Analysis: The standards that we used for the identification were the three anthocyanidins, cyanidin chloride, delphinidin chloride and pelargonidin chloride (Supplied by Apin Chem Ltd, Abington, UK). The control sample was the standard cyanidin chloride and the data were analyzed by Statistix v.8.0. Overall, we collected 567 datapoints and these were expressed as area percentage of each anthocyanidin and also as seed coat percentage.The chromatographic analysis of the samples treated with butanol-HCl, showed the existence of 3 principal anthocyanidins (Figure 12). The retention times for delphinidin, cyanidin and pelargonidin were 2.18, 2.9 and 3.5 minutes respectively. Analysis of variance for each trait indicated the existence of significant variability among the chosen genotypes (Table 16). This analysis was based in the data expressed as percentage of anthocyanidin in seedcoat. The highest anthocyanidin in content was cyanidin, followed by delphinidin and then perlargonidin, indicating that in the analyzed genotypes the most representative monomer was catequin. Pelargonidin was significant only in a few cases.  Overall, the red genotypes had less amount of cyanidin and were the highest in pelargonidin content, whereas the other colors had similar content in the three anthocyanidins. However, according to our results, the proportion of anthocyanidins related to the type of monomer in the tannin polymer changed notably among field repetitions. Thus, in some genotypes it was possible to observe traces of pelargonidin in just one of the field repetitions. In terms of anthocyanidin content in the seed coat, the average for cyanidin was 0.19%, for delphinidin was 0.13% and for pelargonidin was 0.04%. A sample of cyanidin chloride was run during each analysis as a control, the standard error and coefficient of variation was 0.07 and 3.7% respectively, indicating the suitability and reproducibility of the method.The differences between genotypes evidence the existence of segregation in the population for tannin composition; therefore the next step is the evaluation of the entire population in order to carry out QTL analysis. The information about the regions which control condensed tannins, will be more specific and along with the anthocyanin analysis we could establish regions in the genome, specific for steps in the pathway and at the same time a type of association between them and the Mendelian genes for seed coat color. Future activities are QTL analysis for tannin monomer composition and anthocyanin content in the DOR364 x G19833 population. • Mesoamerican crosses among drought resistant parents that had expressed a degree of tolerance to low soil P availability, produced more than 20 lines that were excellent in drought resistance. Some lines subsequently showed adaptation to low P in Darién, producing grain of excellent quality under combined drought and low P stress. • Another 15 Mesoamerican families combined drought tolerance and bc-3 gene for resistance to BCMNV.• In an effort to incorporate drought tolerance in Andean bush beans we have created a series of 216 advanced drought Andean beans (DAB) lines from inter and intra-gene pool crosses involving 5 commercial genotypes from Southern Africa and 10 drought tolerance sources of which half were Andean and half were Mesoamerican to produce 46 populations. The lines represent large red, red mottled and cream mottled seed types. Selection has stressed bush bean architecture, adaptation to drought stress and yield potential under favorable conditions using alternate dry versus rainy season plantings. • A reference collection of landraces from the CIAT core collection has been evaluated in the field for drought tolerance compared to a series of check genotypes. The reference collection was stratified into Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools and the association of drought tolerance with subgroups and common bean races was analyzed. • Mid-elevation adaptation was tested in Darién for a series of SAB (drought resistant Andean) lines originally developed from crosses between the drought-resistant genotypes SAB 258, SAB 259, and ICA Quimbaya crossed with drought susceptible but commercial type genotypes ABA36, ABA58 and COS16. Results confirmed the genetic gain for drought tolerance and yield potential that has occurred in the breeding of the SAB lines compared to both their droughttolerant and susceptible parents. The same lines were tested in rainfed conditions in Palmira and several maintained their yield advantage over local checks. Certain SAB lines can be selected with greater stability across mid-elevation and lower-elevation sites based on this analysis. • Field evaluation of elite lines at Palmira resulted in identification of five lines NCB 226,SEN 56,SER 113,SER 125 and SER 16 that were outstanding in their adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod harvest index, leaf area index and canopy biomass. The SER lines that were developed in the last few years seem to combine the desirable traits for drought adaptation such as greater mobilization of photosynthates to seed with efficient use of water through stomatal control.• Field evaluation of 33 RILs of the cross DOR 364 x BAT 477 at Palmira over two seasons under terminal drought stress conditions resulted in identification of two lines (BT 21138-17-1-1 and BT 21138-6-1-1) that were superior in their adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod harvest index and seed and pod number per area indicating the importance of greater mobilization of photosyntates to pods and to seeds under rainfed conditions. • Field evaluation of 97 RILs of the cross DOR 364 x BAT 477 under intermittent drought stress resulted in identification of two RILs BT 21138-68-1-1 and BT 21138-74-1-1 that were outstanding in adaptation to intermittent drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under intermittent drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod partitioning index, stem biomass reduction, seed number per area and pod number per area indicating the importance of greater mobilization of photosyntates to pods and seeds under rainfed conditions. • Field evaluation of 121 RILs of the cross MD 23-24 x SEA 5 over 3 seasons resulted in identification of the lines MR 81 and MR 25 that were superior in adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines was associated with higher vigor, higher values of pod harvest index, harvest index and seed number per area, highlighting the importance of the photosyntate mobilization to pods and seeds under intermittent drought stress. • The response to inoculation with the strain Rhizobium etli CIAT 632 under drought stress was tested using 7 common bean genotypes. We found that Pinto Villa was better adapted to drought due to its ability to decrease stomatal conductance while Alubia cerrillos was more affected due to drought stress. Although there was no response to inoculation, the effect of terminal drought stress on nodulation was very marked on all 7 genotypes.Rationale: Abiotic stresses tend to be associated with marginal environments and seldom occur individually. Rather, co-occurrence may result in interactions and greater yield losses than when stresses occur singly. This is especially the case when drought and low soil fertility co-occur. It appears that nutrient deficiencies may limit root development and result in greater susceptibility to drought. It is therefore desirable to combine resistance or tolerance to drought and to low soil fertility, especially low soil P, which is the most common edaphic constraint of beans. Some progress had been made in this regard already, both in the small red class and in carioca type. In the genotypes reported here, we sought to obtain greater expression of multiple stress tolerance and in a greater number of genotypes.Materials and methods: Double crosses of four parents were created involving drought resistant parents, especially those with small red grain, with lines that had been observed to perform well under fertility stress. Sources of low P tolerance included: SXB's 407, 409, 415, 418 (all derived from crosses for Brazil including carioca parents); small reds SER's 118 and 119; NCB 226 (black seeded); and BFB's 611 and 613 (from low P crosses). Other parents carried the bc-3 gene for BCMNV and had also been selected under drought stress (RCB's 588, 589, 591, 592). F 2 populations were selected under drought in 2007 as F 1.2 families, and as F 1.3 families in Popayán. F 3.4 families were selected in Santander de Quilichao under inoculation with angular leaf spot and moderate fertility stress. The F 3.5 bulks were returned to the drought nursery in August, 2008 in two lattice designs: a 5 x 5 and a 6 x 6. Yield data under drought stress are reported here. Data on response to the NL-3 (necrotic) strain of BCMNV were obtained in the greenhouse.Results and Discussion: Although most trials in the drought nursery in 2008 suffered only intermittent, moderate drought, these two trials were planted late and matured in September when days were sunny and drought stress was more reliable. These trials received an estimated 134 mm of water, from one furrow irrigation and 99 mm of rainfall. Thus, although stress was still moderate, it was more severe on these trials than in others in the main planting. Yields of checks were similar in the two trials: average yields of Tio Canela were 1463 kg ha -1 , and those of SER 16 were 1959 kg ha -1 (Tables 17 and 18). About 40% of the lines yielded significantly more than the Tio Canela check. Among lines that out yielded Tio Canela, two lines in Table 17 presented evidence of the bc-3 gene combined with drought resistance, and four lines in Table 18 appeared to be segregating this gene. This gene is especially important in Africa, where multiple stress tolerance is a high priority. These lines were planted under drought and low P stress in Darién, and individual plants were selected. These will be evaluated under drought stress in the upcoming season.Collaborators: S. Beebe, M. Grajales, C. Cajiao, M. Castaño, A. Guerrero  COL=Color; rd=red; Sd=rojo de seda light red; ALS= angular leaf spot (1-9 scale); BCMNV=bean common mosaic necrotic virus; N=necrotic reaction; 0=no symptoms; g/100s=grams per 100 seed.Rationale: At the outset of the Bean Program in the 1970's, BCMV was highlighted as a priority, and in Latin America the dominant I gene was amply deployed for this problem. Over time it has become necessary to broaden the genetic base of the BCMV resistance with the bc-3 gene, on the one hand to avoid certain problems of genetic linkage to dark grain color, and on the other hand to address the threat of necrotic strains of BCMNV in Africa and elsewhere. As drought resistance has become one of the central priorities of the bean breeding programs, we have sought to develop a gene pool with drought resistance and key genes including the bc-3. The present report informs on the performance of families derived from populations segregating for drought resistance and bc-3 gene.Simple crosses were created between elite drought resistant lines with the I gene and sources of bc-3 gene, and well as crosses among the elite lines. Individual plants were selected from populations of simple crosses in F 3 generation, seed was bulked in the F 4 generation, and trials were planted in the drought season as F 5 families in two 6 x 6 lattices. Reaction to the NL-3 strain of BCMNV was obtained in greenhouse inoculations.Results and Discussion: These trials received an estimated 170 mm of water (see section 1 above) but soil structure was not favorable. Root development may have been limited, contributing to greater stress. About half of the lines yielded significantly more than the Tio Canela check, which averaged 1279 kg ha -1 in these two trials (Tables 19 and 20). Only two of the families with superior drought yields were homozygous for the bc-3 gene (as evidenced by the reaction of \"0\" in Tables 19 and 20), but at least 12 families showed evidence of segregation of bc-3, requiring additional selection to purify lines for bc-3. Such lines will augment a growing number of such genotypes that are creating a gene pool based on drought and in which the bc-3 gene must become the basis for BCMNV resistance.Collaborators: S. Beebe, M. Grajales, C. Cajiao, M. Castaño, A. Guerrero   Rationale: In 2007 we reported on the yield of Andean lines under rainfed conditions. In that year different trials performed quite differently according to their position in the field, although several new lines were promising. To have more confidence in the drought reaction of these lines, the trials were repeated in 2008 in the drought season. In 2008 the same lines were also planted under irrigated conditions to establish their yield potential in a favorable environment in Palmira.Materials and Methods: Yield trials were established in Palmira (1000 masl; 26 o C average temperature) as described in previous years, in lattice designs of 4 x 4, 5 x 5, or 6 x 6 in three replications. Two row plots 3.75 m long were planted in July under rainfed conditions to induce drought stress. Irrigation was applied twice up to 20 days after planting, after which all additional moisture resulted from rainfall. An irrigated treatment was established with the same design in which plots were furrow irrigated as needed.Pests were controlled as needed.Results and Discussion: Excessive rain prior to planting made field preparation extremely difficult in the 2008 drought season, and the soil structure in the drought treatement was especially poor. As a result plant development was sub-optimal, and root penetration might have been limited. As with other trials in this field, the crop received an estimated 170 mm of water during the crop cycle, but in this field the crop appeared to suffer severe drought stress. Compared to the irrigated treatment, yield reduction averaged 48%. Furthermore, weeds were plowed down only shortly before planting, and the fresh organic matter generated a severe attack of Sclerotium rolfsii.The local check 'Calima' fared badly in these conditions and was the poorest yielding in every trial where it appeared. In spite of agronomic problems, yields were quite acceptable in several lines, approaching 1.5 MT or more in some materials (Tables 21 to 25). In every trial except for that of the red-mottled types, at least one line significantly out yielded the drought resistant check, ICA Quimbaya. Some lines performed well in both years, for example: red seeded SAB 680; white seeded SAB 711; cream striped SAB's 627, 684, 686, and 702; and red mottled SAB 641.Several drought resistant lines also yielded well in irrigated conditions. For example, red-seeded SAB's 623 and 671 yielded very well in drought, and comparably to ICA Quimbaya with irrigation, but were four days earlier to mature (Table 21). Cream-striped SAB's 685 and 686 yielded well in both drought and irrigation, and were 3-5 days earlier to mature than the checks (Table 24). However, in general the yield advantage in relation to checks was narrower in the red mottled class than in other grain types in both 2007 and 2008.These results serve to confirm the advantage under rainfed conditions of the selected Andean genotypes. Furthermore, when compared to the results under rainfed but favorable conditions in Darién (section 2.1.1.6) and irrigated conditions in Palmira (this section), in which yields of these lines were superior to checks, this suggests that selection for drought resistance has increased yield potential. This is the same pattern that has been observed in Mesoamerican beans. However, in determinate Andean beans it is especially significant, since yield improvement in these types has always been a particular challenge. Physiological analysis will serve to determine if the drought resistant Andean types also present improved remobilization to grain, as in the case of the Mesoamerican drought selected lines. It is important to note that the sources of drought resistance included in these Andean lines, SAB's 258 and 259, have Mesoamerican genes derived from race Durango which has served as drought resistance source in much breeding work.Collaborators: S. Beebe, I. Rao, M. Grajales, C. Cajiao, A. Guerrero   , 1998). Furthermore, although common bean is often grown on marginal soils in drought-prone areas where yields are low, they are still the second source of protein and third source of calories in the African highlands (Asfaw et al., 2007). Therefore breeding for drought tolerance in Andean beans is a priority from the perspective of both agricultural productivity and food security. With this in mind we have developed a series of advanced lines from inter-and intra-genepool crosses using 10 sources of drought tolerance and 5 commercial cultivars from the region. These lines have been called Drought Andean Bean (DAB) lines and are now being tested in a yield trial under drought stress at CIAT. two sites in Colombia, alternating between dry season plantings in Palmira and Darién, and pedigree selection was used to make selections. Final single plant selections were made in the F 5 generation and two sets of lines were made: one derived from inter-genepool crosses (AxM) and one from intragenepool crosses (AxA). The F 5:6 lines were then planted for agronomic evaluation in Darién (Andic Dystrudept, pH = 5.5) in the case of the AxA lines and Palmira (Aquic Haplustoll, pH 7.0) in the case of the AxM lines in the June -September 2008 dry season under rainfed conditions, where the experiments consisted in 1354 and 492 lines respectively and these were interspersed with the parents as drought control genotypes. Rainfall during the season in Palmira was 163 mm with minimum temperatures of 17 to 25 °C and maximum temperatures of 25 to 33 °C; while in Darién, rainfall during the season was 280 mm, with average temperatures that fluctuated between 13 and 26°C. Only those advanced lines with favorable field production characteristics (earliness, compact growth habit, yielding ability and agronomic suitability) were harvested, each as F 5:7 bulks, and these were in turn evaluated for yield (g plant -1 ), seed weight (g 100seed -1 ) and seed color. The resulting best selections were coded as DAB lines and prepared for further analysis.Results and Discussion: During the 2008 dry season a total of 1846 F 5:6 selections were planted over the two sites selected for testing of the AxA and AxM progeny and of these 1390 were harvested (75%).In the case of the AxA progeny (Table 26), 898 lines out of the 1354 single plant selections were harvested representing 60% of the total planted, while in the case of the AxM progeny (Table 27), almost all 492 genotypes were harvested, representing 97% of the genotypes.Comparison of each cross combination showed that the pedigree resulting in the best average yields among the AxA cross combinations were G4523(ICA PALMAR) x NATAL SUGAR, G4523(ICA PALMAR) x RED CANADIAN WONDER and RAA21 x PAN127 with yields greater than 15 g / plant equivalent to 3000 kg ha -1 . In contrast the cross producing progeny with the lowest yields was AFR298 x NATAL SUGAR with average yield of 9.7 g/plant or 1950 kg ha -1 . Combining ability was best therefore for G4523 and worst for NATAL SUGAR and PAN127 and this was reflected in the number of selections advanced per cross combination. Average seed weight was highest with selections from ICA QUIMBAYA and RAA21, the two large-red seeded parents and was lower for G4523, SAB259 and SEQ1003 which were the mottled parents.Among the AxM cross combinations, SER8 and SER22 were the best female combiners, SER16 and SEQ11 were intermediate and SEC16 was the worst, but mostly in combination with SUG131 and RED CANADIAN WONDER as male parents. NATAL SUGAR and PAN127 were intermediate combiners and CAL 143 was the worst combiner for the plantings in Palmira, mostly due to an undesirable green stem characteristic reflecting less mobilization of photosynthates to grain leading to lower yields. Despite this many well-adapted progeny were found from the cross of SER22 x CAL143 with average yields among the harvested genotypes of 2821 kg ha -1 . Lowest average yields were found for SEC 16 x NATAL SUGAR with 1168 kg ha -1 .Future Plans: A total of 216 lines were selected for seed multiplication and coding as DAB lines consisting in 162 from the AxA experiment and 54 from the AxM experiment. The AxA derived lines included 41 from the crosses with ICA QUIMBAYA, 46 from crosses with G4523, 32 from crosses with SAB259, 6 from crosses with SEQ1003 and 28 from crosses with RAA21. Meanwhile the AxM derived lines included 26 from crosses with SER22, 13 from crosses with SER16, 8 from crosses with SEQ11, 7 from crosses with SER8 and none from crosses with SEC16. Grain types in the AxM lines tended to be smaller in seed weight (around 30 g 100seed -1 ) compared to those from the AxA crosses (48 to 57 g 100seed -1 ), as would be expected given the genepool combinations made. It was surprising that SER22 x SUG131, produced some larger seeded progeny which is why this combination was overrepresented in those that produced DAB lines from the AxM crosses. The new DAB lines will be tested in additional environments and in replicated trials. As a first set of drought trials, the DAB lines have been planted as a replicated yield trial in the January -March 2009 dry season under rainfed conditions in Palmira. These trials consist in 4 lattice design experiment each with three replications. Three of the lattices contain the 162 AxA derived lines while a fourth lattice contains the 54 AxM lines. The three Andean lattices are distinguished by seed color with large-red, red mottled and cream mottled experiments planted separately and are planted only in drought treatment. The AxM lattice has been planted under drought and irrigated treatments.Control genotypes for the lattices include the Andean DIACOL Calima and the Mesoamerican Tio Canela.  Rationale: Common bean improvement relies heavily on the genetic diversity of parental sources used for various purposes in a breeding program. The widest genetic diversity for cultivated germplasm is thought to exist in landraces and yet these have not been widely exploited in most common bean improvement projects, although they have been important for finding sources of insect or disease resistance (Singh, 2001). Screening of a core collection of mostly landraces has also been useful for finding new sources of low fertility tolerance. Broadening of the genetic base for cultivated common bean and for specific commercial classes of beans is very important given the narrow genetic based of some cultivar groups (Kelly, 1999), especially within the Andean genepool (Beaver et al., 1999). The objective of this work was to screen part of the CIAT core collection (termed a reference collection) for the identification of new sources of drought tolerance among bush bean landraces. In the process, a large number of phenotypic traits associated with drought tolerance were considered. The reference collection is a smaller more manageable subsample of the core collection and has been selected based on molecular marker fingerprinting to represent most of the diversity in cultivated common bean and in the initial collection. It also is a collection with a well-understood population structure based on the previous molecular analysis which allows it to be efficiently analyzed for marker associations, something that was not possible previously with quantitative traits and with a loosely understood collection. Given this, the reference collection was carefully stratified according to Andean and Mesoamerican genepools with known subdivisions according to each of the common bean races that we validated in previous studies.A total of 199 genotypes were evaluated in the July-September 2008 season across three location/treatment combinations: 1) Darién -rainfed; 2) Palmira -rainfed and 3) Palmirairrigated. Of these genotypes, 169 belonged to the CIAT core collection and 30 were additional genotypes added to create the reference collection and considered as checks (12 Andean controls and 18 Mesoamerican controls). The genotypes were stratified according to gene pool with separate experiments for the Andean genotypes (64 entries in an 8 x 8 lattice) versus the Mesoamerican genotypes (121 entries in an 11 x 11 lattice). Soil conditions in Palmira (Aquic Haplustoll, pH= 7.7 and available P levels of 67 to 77 ppm) were fairly different than in Darién (Andic Dystrudept, pH 5.7 and 2 to 6 ppm available P) and fertilizer application was necessary in the latter location (400 kg ha -1 of diammonium phosphate, supplying 79 kg ha -1 P) but not in Palmira. In addition the altitude difference in Palmira (1000 masl) versus Darién (1500 masl) led to differences in adaptation to climate regimes. For example in Palmira minimum and maximum temperatures varied between 17 / 25 °C for lows and 25 / 33 °C for highs while in Darién average temperatures were 16°C (average low) to 25°C (average high). Rainfall also varied with 163 mm unevenly distributed during the growing season in Palmira compared to Darién where 280 mm rain fell but mostly towards the end of the season (R7 and R8 pod filling growth stage). Drought stress was therefore more intense but intermittent in Palmira with severe stress around early establishment (V2 and V3 growth stages) compared to Darién where it was moderate but early.For Palmira, two treatments were implemented, one with adequate irrigation and one with rainfed conditions (i.e. to induce drought stress after establishment). Both treatments were established with three early gravity irrigations of about 35 mm each at (-1, 15 and 34 days from/after planting). The irrigated treatment received three additional gravity irrigations of the same amount at approximately 1.5 to two week intervals (45, 55 and 72 days after planting).In all three environments data were collected on basic phenological and yield component traits. These included days to flowering (DF), days to maturity (DM), yield (kg ha -1 ), number of pods per plant, number of seed per pod and number of empty pods. Physiological measurements including chlorophyll content (SPAD), stomatal conductance (mmol m -2 s -1 ), photosynthetic efficiency (Fv′/Fm′), canopy temperature depression (°C) and leaf area index were also taken during the R6 to R7 growth stage. Scatterplots were made to graphically represent the rainfed (drought) versus irrigated (control) averages for each trait and each genotype. In addition, the data were used for a principal component analysis (PCA) to determine the relatedness of genotypes from each race within each gene pool based on the phenological, physiological and yield traits.Preliminary analysis was conducted separately for each experiment representing each gene pool and each growing environment (Table 28 and Figures 13 and 14). Average yields across all Andean genotypes were 1644 kg ha -1 in rainfed treatment in Palmira, 1614 kg ha -1 in rainfed treatment in Darién and 1016 kg ha -1 in irrigated control treatment in Palmira. Meanwhile, average yields across all Mesoamerican genotypes were 1724 kg ha -1 in rainfed treatment in Palmira, 1941 kg ha -1 in rainfed treatment in Darién and 1596 kg ha -1 in irrigated control treatment in Palmira. The lower yields in the irrigated control treatment in Palmira were due to Sclerotium rolfsii infection. This root rot is favored in the warm, alternating humid-and-dry conditions of the irrigated treatment during the dry season and was more prevalent in the field used for irrigated treatment which is not tiled as compared to the field which is used for rainfed treatment which was tiled for additional drainage. The lower yields of the irrigated field made some comparisons of yield potential and drought effects difficult. For example, least significant differences were higher in the irrigated control treatment in Palmira than in the rainfed treatments in both sites, also reflecting the variability in disease incidence. However, the results of the two rainfed treatments in Palmira and Darién allowed us to analyze the effects of different stress treatments on the different genotypes while the comparison of the drought and irrigated treatments allowed us to analyze the effect of the irrigation treatment and disease pressure on these same genotypes. Below we summarize some results for the genotypes tested from each gene pool.  Andean genotypes: The best yielding genotypes among the Andean reference collection genotypes were G11727 (2230 kg ha -1 ) in Darién -rainfed; G18255 (2455 kg ha -1 ) in Palmira -rainfed and LRK31 (2018 kg ha -1 ) in Palmira -irrigated control. Among the check genotypes the best were SELIAN97 (2445 kg ha -1 ) in both Darién -rainfed and Palmira -irrigated as well as SEQ1003 (2566 kg ha -1 ) and SAB645 (2596 kg ha -1 ) in Palmira -rainfed. On the other hand, a number of Andean genotypes from the reference/core collection were very poorly adapted, yielding nothing at all in either the Palmira -rainfed (G19831, G11787, G19841) or Palmira -irrigated (G19841) treatments. Darién was a more favorable location for Andean genotypes due to the cooler temperatures encountered there during the growing season.    Scatterplot comparisons were made between the drought and irrigated treatments in Palmira (Figure 13A) and between the Palmira and Darién rainfed treatments (Figure 13B) to detect the stability of each genotype and to compare the different races/groups. These comparisons showed that check genotypes were more resistant to this stress and higher yielding generally than the majority of the reference collection genotypes. This was to be expected since the checks were selected to be drought tolerant and high-yielding while the reference collection represents diverse landraces which have not been improved through breeding. Meanwhile, the Nueva Granada group NG1 was higher yielding generally than group NG2 or than race Peru, which shows the adaptation of some Nueva Granada race bush beans to hotter and drier conditions than race Peru bush beans.Mesoamerican genotypes: The best yielding genotypes among the Mesoamerican reference collection genotypes were G4017 (3055 kg ha -1 ) and G5694 (3025 kg ha -1 ) in Darién -rainfed; G3142 (2660 kg ha -1 ) and G21212 (with 2551 kg ha -1 ) in Palmira -rainfed; and G278 (2799 kg ha -1 ) and G2199 (2864 kg ha -1 ) in Palmira -irrigated control. It was evident that the Mesoamerican genotypes had a higher yield potential than the Andean genotypes in all three environments. Furthermore, there were no Mesoamerican genotype that failed to produce seed in any of the environments and the lowest yields were 1164, 475 and 497 kg ha -1 , respectively; with Darién under moderate level of water stress being more productive generally for Mesoamericans than Palmira with irrigation or under drought stress. This may be the result of cooler temperatures in Darién and heat stress being a factor in Palmira as well as disease pressure from Sclerotium rolfsii as mentioned above.Using the same Scatterplot comparisons as described for Andean genotypes, the Mesoamerican control genotypes were found to generally outperform the reference collection genotypes, although some Mesoamerica race and Durango-Jalisco group 2 genotypes were also high yielding. Durango-Jalisco group 1 genotypes were found to perform lower as did Guatemala race genotypes. The race Guatemala genotypes are normally climbing beans, therefore the production system of non-trellised field grown plants was not favorable for them, a factor that probably was also important for some of the Durango-Jalisco genotypes.Principal component analysis: Principal component analysis was also used to determine the relationships between the genotypes and corresponding groups within each gene pool considering the variables for yield, 100 seed weight, and percent empty pods in the three environments (subfigures C and D of Figures 13 and 14).Biplots showed the separation of the subgroups and races discussed above, especially the separation of Mesoamerica and check genotypes from Durango-Jalisco group 1 genotypes within the Mesoamericans and Nueva Granada versus Peru race genotypes in the Andeans. This confirmed something observed in the field which was the poor adaptation of \"Durango\" type cultivars to the tropical environments of Palmira and Darién, both in terms of overall vegetative growth and disease pressure (mainly powdery mildew and Sclerotium rolfsii) and the high levels of flower abortion in the case of Peru race genotypes.Biplot analysis also showed that high yield in the three environments (letters A, B and C in the PCA) was associated with the check genotypes while empty pods (letters D, E and F) were associated with the less adapted groups (race Peru for the Andeans and the Durango-Jalisco group 1 genotypes for the Mesoamericans) and that these two characteristics were located in opposite quadrants as would be expected. Seed size (letters G, H and I) was associated with some genotypes of races Peru and Nueva Granada as well with certain race Durango and Guatemala accessions. Empty podding (lack of seed filling) was negatively correlated with yield potential, a reflection of heat and drought stress symptoms. Meanwhile, seed size was somewhat correlated with yield potential since drought tolerant genotypes filled seed better than drought susceptible genotypes.This project was useful because we were able to establish a rainfed season planting in Darién to simulate moderate level of water stress, something which had not been done before, and we were able to obtain reliable data from that location for moderate drought stress tolerance in Andean beans. Conditions at our new site were equivalent of moderate drought stress throughout the season which would be typical of many growing environments where beans face this stress. Likewise, Palmira presented good intermittent drought stress conditions but heat stress may be a confounding factor in some cases for Andean or Durango race beans. Conditions in Palmira presented moderate stress with intermittent drought consisting in only 23 mm of rainfall between V2 and V3 stages and 47 mm between R6 and R8 stages. In terms of the genotypes evaluated from the reference collection and the check genotypes, interesting results were obtained differentiating the best accessions within each race and obtaining an understanding of differences between each group (races Durango Jalisco 1 and 2, Guatemala, Mesoamerica, Nueva Granada 1 and 2, Peru). It was notable that better adaptation was found in the Nueva Granada group 1 than in NG2 or in race Peru and that within the Mesoamerican genotypes, race Mesoamerica and Durango Jalisco group 2 were better adapted than Durango Jalisco group 1 or race Guatemala. This may be due to photoperiod, relative humidity and prevalent diseases at the altitudes the two sites used compared to the region to which these genotypes are better adapted and highlights the challenge of using Durango genotypes in cultivar development for the sub-humid tropics.Apart from the 8 x 8 and 12 x 12 lattices another small lattice of 36 genotypes (6 x 6 lattice) was also planted and will be analyzed soon. The genotypes have also been re-arranged into a larger Andean lattice design experiment as well as the Durango-Jalisco-Mesoamerica experiment, for testing in Eastern and Southern Africa as part of the TL1 drought project. From this study, the Nueva Granada genotypes G18255 (33), G16115 (31), G4001 (22), G17070 (32), G1688 (18), G5625 (24), G22247 (36), G6639 (25), G7945 (27), G11957 (29) are of interest for further studies or use in breeding of drought tolerance. Among the Mesoamerican genotypes, a large number of lines could be of interest but the G21212 genotype stands out as was found previously by CIAT researchers. Further analysis will be conducted to evaluate drought sensitivity indices and comparisons of drought versus control values for a number of phenotypic traits in Palmira and severe versus moderate drought across the two sites to determine the relative effect of drought on trait expression in the genotypes. In addition, further statistical analysis as well as the analysis of variance (ANOVA) are ongoing. Finally, the new lattices will probably be planted in the June-September drought season in Palmira and Darién to test the trends identified so far.As part of the drought screening activities described in the previous section, we have evaluated additional breeding lines for drought tolerance at a mid-elevation site useful for selecting Andean beans and instituted a dry season planting. The breeding lines (SAB series) are the product of recurrent selection for drought stress tolerance and earliness in CIAT headquarters and were tested in a new field in Darien in replicated yield trials during the July-August dry season. The SAB lines have Andean grain types and are of red mottled, cream mottled, large-red and large white commercial classes. These genotypes were developed from triple crosses between the drought-resistant genotype ICA QUIMBAYA crossed with drought susceptible but commercial type genotypes ABA36, ABA58 and COS16 and drought sources from the first cycle of selection (such as SAB258 and SAB259) that were derived from multiple crosses including a Durango source. Since ICA QUIMBAYA has wide adaptation we decided to test the resulting lines under mid-elevation conditions but with an off-season planting to coincide with drought stress.A total of 5 yield trials were planted in Darién (Valle del Cauca, Colombia) during the July-August dry season in 2008. The soils in Darién are Andic Dystrudept and the site is located at 1500 masl elevation with average temperature of 19°C. A new field was used for the experiment to reduce the chances of root rot against which ICA Quimbaya and many SAB lines are highly susceptible. The soil pH was 5.7 and available P levels were 2 to 6 ppm, which were supplemented with 90 kg ha -1 of P fertilizer. The yield trials were organized as lattice design experiments with each trial containing SAB lines of a different commercial seed color class and 3 repetitions each. The first two experiments consisted in separate 6x6 lattices for red mottled and cream mottled grain types, respectively. The second two experiments consisted in separate 5x5 lattices for large-red and large-white grain types, respectively while a fifth lattice consisted on a 4x4 lattice with additional red mottled, cream mottled and large red lines. In addition the following check genotypes were included in the experiments: AFR298 (=ICA Qumbaya; large-red), COS16 (cream mottled), ABA36 (large-white), SAB560 (large red) and the local commercial variety Calima (red mottled).Rainfall pattern: Growing conditions during the season were appropriate for drought testing since total rainfall was 280 mm. Soil texture was heavier than in our previous fields in Darién, so residual water from the rainy season probably supplemented this moisture level. Drought stress was highest early in the season and especially soon after flowering since 198 mm of the rain during the season fell during pod filling (R7-8). Meanwhile, temperatures varied from 16 to 25 °C during the growth cycle.Yield data: Genotype yields for the five experiments are summarized in Figure 15 which compares the average yield in kg ha -1 for the check genotypes and advanced lines from each commercial class. In that figure each lattice is represented as a column of datapoints with the least significant difference (LSD) given at the base of the column and the check genotypes highlighted as diamonds.Comparisons of the trials, shows that the average yields of the large-red lines (column C) were higher than for the red mottled and cream mottled lines (columns B and D), while the lowest yields were in the lattices with the large-white beans (column E) and the mixed group (column A). Meanwhile, comparisons of the SAB lines with the check genotypes shows that for all of the trials (columns A through E), some of the advanced lines were significantly superior to the controls (AFR298, CALIMA, COS16 and ABA36) based on the LSD for each trial. For example, SAB 663 with an average yield of 2047 kg ha -1 was significantly higher yielding than the check genotype CALIMA with 1472 kg ha -1 within column B for the 6x6 red mottled trial (LSD = 560 kg ha -1 ). As expected in all the lattices except the 4 x 4 lattice (column A), AFR298, the moderately drought tolerant parent, had higher yields than COS16 or ABA36, which were susceptible parents although again these differences were not significant. Surprisingly AFR298 and Calima performed about equally well.Conclusions and Future Plans. In general, the results confirm the genetic gain for drought tolerance and yield potential that has occurred in the breeding of the SAB lines compared to both their droughttolerant and susceptible parents. In addition, certain SAB lines can be selected with greater stability across mid-elevation and lower-elevation sites based on this analysis. The most promising series of lines appear to be those of the large-red commercial class followed by some of the cream-mottled genotypes. However, differences between the trials could have been due to the innate drought tolerance and yield potential of the genotypes in the trials or to their location in the field, since available P levels were found to vary along a gradient from the upper part to the lower part of the field (from 2.4 to 6.2 ppm), which also reflected differences in organic matter and clay content. Future plans are to repeat these yield trials in other years or locations as part of the drought projects we are developing and to evaluate if selection for drought tolerance in the advanced lines improves adaptation to low fertility conditions. Rationale: Development of drought adapted bean varieties is an important strategy to minimize crop failure and improve food security in bean growing regions. Previous research indicated that the superior performance of common bean genotypes under drought was associated with their ability to mobilize photosynthates to developing grain and to utilize the acquired N and P more efficiently for grain production. Among the plant traits evaluated using elite lines and recombinant inbred lines, higher values of pod partitioning index, pod harvest index and stem biomass reduction were identified as useful traits to consider in the breeding program in addition to grain yield for identifying bean genotypes that are better adapted to both terminal and intermittent drought stress conditions. We evaluated drought adaptation of 36 elite lines including checks from the on-going breeding program on improving drought resistance to quantify phenotypic differences in drought resistance under field conditions and to define the physiological basis for improved drought adaptation.  29) to determine genotypic differences in tolerance to drought stress conditions. A 6 x 6 balanced lattice design with 3 replicates was used. Two levels of water supply (irrigated and rainfed) were applied. For the irrigated treatment, a total of 4 gravity irrigations (approximately 35 mm each) were applied while for the rainfed treatment only 2 irrigations were applied to assure good crop establishment (one before planting and another 24 days after planting). Details on planting and management of the trial were similar to those reported before. Experimental units consisted of 4 rows, 3.72 m long by 0.6 m wide. A number of plant attributes were measured at mid-podfilling under rainfed conditions in order to determine genotypic variation in drought resistance. These plant traits included leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD), canopy temperature, canopy temperature depression (CTD), leaf area index, canopy dry weight per plant and shoot TNC content (total nonstructural carbohydrates).Canopy temperature was measured with a Telatemp model AG-42D infrared thermometer. The instrument was held at a 45 o angle at 50 cm from the canopy surface to measure canopy temperature and canopy temperature depression. At the time of harvest, grain yield and yield components (number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, and 100 seed weight) were determined. Stem biomass reduction (mobilization of photosynthate reserves) was determined based on difference in stem dry weight at harvest from the stem dry weight at mid-pod filling. Pod partitioning index (dry wt of pods at harvest/dry wt of total biomass at mid-podfill x 100), pod number per area, seed number per area, pod harvest index (dry wt of seed/dry wt of pod at harvest x 100), yield production efficiency (seed biomass dry weight at harvest/total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling), seed production efficiency (seed number per area/ total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area), pod production efficiency (pod number per area/ total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area) and grain filling index (100 seed weight of rainfed/100 seed weight of irrigated) were also determined.Eight genotypes (DOR 390, SER 16, SER 109, G40001, G24390, SXB 418, SEA 5 and Tio Canela 75) were selected to determine differences in root growth and distribution across soil depth. Root samples were taken at 53 days after planting at both levels of water supply. Samples were taken at 5 soil depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm), using a 5 cm diameter soil corer. Five soil cores were taken, three cores between rows and two within rows. To facilitate washing, samples were first soaked for 30 minutes in 5% sodium hexametaphosphate solution. Soil and roots were separated by hand washing, cleaning and scanning. Root length and diameter were determined by image analysis system (WinRHIZO V. 2007b).Results and Discussion: Palmira -Soil, temperature, rainfall and evaporation: The soil is a Mollisol (Aquic Hapludoll) with no major fertility problems (pH = 7.7), and is estimated to permit storage of 130 mm of available water (assuming 1.0 m of effective root growth with -0.03 MPa and -1.5 MPa as upper and lower limits for soil matric potential). During the crop-growing season, maximum and minimum air temperatures were 30.2 and 18.6 o C (Figure 16). The incident solar radiation ranged from 11.2 to 25.1 MJ m -2 d -1 . The total rainfall during the active crop growth was 235.6 mm. The potential pan evaporation was of 316.2 mm. These data on total rainfall and pan evaporation together with rainfall distribution indicated that the crop suffered intermittent drought stress during active growth and development. The mean yield under rainfed conditions was 1560 kg ha -1 compared with the mean irrigated yield of 2063 kg ha -1 (Figure 17), although the difference in drought versus irrigated yield was wider for the commercial checks.  Under drought stress conditions in the field, the seed yield of 36 genotypes ranged from 200 to 2374 kg ha -1 . Among the lines tested, the lines NCB 226, SEN 56, SER 113, SER 125 and SER 16 were outstanding in their adaptation to rainfed (drought stress) conditions. These lines were also responsive to irrigation (Figure 17). Among the 36 lines tested, G19902 (Andean wild bean germplasm accession) and G24390 (MesoAmerican wild bean germplasm accession) were the most poorly adapted lines under both irrigated and rainfed conditions (Figure 17).Under rainfed conditions, significant genotypic differences were observed in canopy biomass production at mid-pod filling growth stage (Figure 18). Cowpea cv. Mouride showed greater vigor than the common bean lines. However this line showed lower value of harvest index indicating a limitation on mobilization of photosynthates to pod development. Among genotypes of P. vulgaris tested, SEN 56 and NCB 226 were outstanding in canopy biomass production (Figure 18); also the line SEN 56 yielded well under rainfed conditions due to greater ability to partition photosynthetically assimilated carbon to seeds as reflected by higher values of harvest index (Figure 19). The line SER 118 was outstanding in its harvest index value but it had lower canopy biomass under rainfed conditions indicating the need for adequate vegetative vigor to achieve higher values of grain yield. Among the 36 genotypes evaluated, G19902 and G24390 presented the lower values of canopy biomass and grain yield (Figure 18).   Results on the relationship between rainfed pod harvest index (PHI) and rainfed grain yield indicated that SER 125, NCB 226 and SEN 56 were superior in mobilizing photosynthates from pod wall to seeds (Figure 19). The PHI values of G19902 and G24390 were markedly lower than that of other bean genotypes. The superior performance of lines SER 125, NCB 226 and SEN 56 was associated with greater values of pod harvest index, higher values of stem biomass reduction (Figure 19), higher values of seed and pod number per area, and 100 seed weight (Figure 20). Higher stem biomass reduction values indicate higher photosynthate mobilization from the stem to other plant structures such as pods.-   Yield production efficiency of SER 118 under rainfed conditions was outstanding and this was because of its greater value of harvest index while its canopy biomass production was only above average value (Figures 21,18). Yield production efficiency is an integrated measure for photosynthate mobilization and SER 118 could be an excellent parent to improve yield under rainfed conditions.     Since a major role of transpiration is leaf cooling, canopy temperature depression (CTD) relative to ambient air temperature is an indication of how capable is transpiration in cooling the leaves under a demanding environmental load. Relatively lower canopy temperature under drought stress could indicate a relatively better capacity for taking up soil moisture and for maintaining a relatively better plant water status. But CTD can be a poor indicator of resistance to drought if grain yield is highly dependent on limited amounts of soil-stored water. Relationship between CTD (canopy and ambient temperature difference at 1 pm) with rainfed grain yield indicated that the lines SEN 56, NCB 226, SEA 5, Cowpea, Carioca, G19902 and G24390 showed higher values of CTD that indicate greater rates of transpirational water loss (Figure 22). However SEN 56 and NCB 226 combined higher values of CTD with higher grain yield under rainfed conditions while Carioca, G19902 and G24390 yielded less. Thus it is important to identify which genotypes are resisting drought by combining mechanisms such as photosynthate mobilization with efficient water use (e.g., SER lines including SER 118), and which genotypes are using deeper roots to maintain higher values of CTD but were not efficient in using water to produce greater seed yield under rainfed conditions (e.g., Carioca, G19902 and G24390). Identification of genotypes that combine superior seed yield with lower values of canopy temperature depression (CTD) when grown under rainfed conditions in a Mollisol at Palmira. Genotypes with greater seed yield and minimum differences were identified in the upper, right hand quadrant.Among the 8 genotypes evaluated for root attributes, the line SER 16 and G24390 (Table 30) presented the higher values of total root production under rainfed conditions in terms of length while SEA 5 and G40001 presented the lowest production. Results on root distribution through soil profile showed that G24390, SEA 5 and Tio Canela 75 had developed deeper root system as revealed by the length and biomass of roots at 40-60 cm soil depth (Table 30). By comparing the root distribution data with CTD values, genotypes such as G24390, Tio Canela 75 and SEA 5 used deeper roots to cool the leaves, i.e., higher CTD values probably due to higher rates of transpiration. But lines such as SER 16 presented relatively less amount of roots and lower values of CTD with higher grain yield under drought conditions compared with the other genotypes. These results indicate that SER 16 was more water use efficient than G24390, Tio Canela 75 and SEA 5 due to its greater ability to mobilize photosynthates to grain. Further work is needed to verify these observations. Correlation coefficients between final grain yield and other shoot attributes under rainfed conditions indicated that greater seed yield was positively related to leaf area index, canopy biomass, harvest index, pod harvest index, stem biomass reduction, shoot and seed TNC content (Table 31). Significant negative correlations were observed between rainfed grain yield and seed production efficiency, pod production efficiency, days to flowering and days to maturity. These significant negative associations indicate that while earliness has contributed to superior performance under rainfed conditions, the formation of pods and seeds was not the factor limiting the grain yield. It was rather the ability to fill seeds as reflected by the significant positive associations between grain yield and harvest index, pod harvest index and 100 seed weight under rainfed conditions. Alternatively, the correlations were markedly influenced by including the two wild bean accessions that had greater values of pod and seed production efficiency per unit dry weight of shoot biomass. Conclusions: Field evaluation of elite lines at Palmira resulted in identification of five lines NCB 226, SEN 56, SER 113, SER 125 and SER 16 that were outstanding in their adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod harvest index, leaf area index and canopy biomass. In contrast, results on root growth and distribution under field conditions indicated that G24390, Tio Canela 75 and SEA 5 were more deep rooted than the drought adapted SER 16, suggesting that root growth in G24390 and Tio Canela 75 occurred at the expense of photosynthate mobilization to seed under drought stress. G19902 and G24390 were identified as the most poorly adapted to drought, suggesting that wild beans do not have inherent drought resistance, and that domestication has improved this trait. The SER lines that were developed in the last few years seem to combine the desirable traits for drought adaptation such as greater mobilization of photosynthates to seed with efficient use of water through stomatal control.Contributors: J. Pod partitioning index (dry wt of pods at harvest/dry wt of total biomass at mid-podfill x 100), pod number per area, seed number per area, pod harvest index (dry wt of seed/dry wt of pod at harvest x 100), yield production efficiency (seed biomass dry weight at harvest/total shoot biomass dry weight at midpod filling), seed production efficiency (seed number per area/ total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area), pod production efficiency (pod number per area/ total shoot biomass dry weight at midpod filling per area) and grain filling index (100 seed weight of rainfed/100 seed weight of irrigated) were determined. Seed P content, ash content and TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrate) content were also measured. These data on rainfall and pan evaporation together with rainfall distribution indicated that the crop suffered significant terminal drought stress during active growth and development in both years. The mean yield under rainfed conditions was 723 kg ha -1 compared with the mean irrigated yield of 1655 kg ha -1 (56% decrease in grain yield due to drought stress).Under drought stress conditions in the field, the seed yield of 33 RILs ranged from 537 to 1029 kg ha -1 (Figure 24). Among the RILs tested, two RILs BT 21138-17-1-1 and BT 21138-6-1-1 were outstanding in their adaptation to rainfed (water stress) conditions. The relationship between grain yield of rainfed and irrigated treatments indicated that several RILs were superior to the best parent, BAT 477 and the check genotype, SEA 5. Among the 33 lines tested, BT 21138-31-1-1 and BT 21138-28-1-1 were found to be very poorly adapted RILs under rainfed conditions. Significant genotypic differences were observed in canopy biomass production at mid-pod filling growth stage (Figure 24). The RILs BT 21138-30-1-1, BT 21138-3-1-1 and BT 21138-83-1-1 showed greater vigor than the rest of the RILs; however these RILs showed lower value of harvest index indicating a limitation on mobilization of photosynthates to pod and seed development. The two RILs BT 21138-17-1-1 and BT 21138-6-1-1 with moderate values of canopy biomass (Figure 24) yielded well under rainfed conditions due to greater ability to partition photosynthetically assimilated carbon to pods as reflected by higher values of harvest index (Figure 24). The relationship between rainfed seed yield and other plant attributes indicated that the outstanding performance of lines BT 21138-17-1-1 and BT 21138-6-1-1 was associated with higher values of pod harvest index (Figure 24) indicating greater mobilization of photosynthates to the grain.Rainfall BT 6-1-1 Correlation coefficients between final grain yield and other shoot attributes under rainfed conditions indicated significant negative relationship between seed yield and total chlorophyll content and seed N and P content under rainfed conditions (Table 32). This observation indicates that genotypes that mobilized greater amounts of N and P together with photosynthates yielded better under rainfed conditions. It is important to note that the pod harvest index was significantly associated with seed yield under rainfed conditions. This indicates that the genotypes that mobilized a greater proportion of photosyntates from pod to seed performed better under rainfed conditions (Figure 24). Significant positive associations were also observed between rainfed grain yield and seed number per area, pod number per area, yield production efficiency, seed production efficiency and pod production efficiency indicating the contribution of improved plant efficiency under drought stress to produce grain. However reduction in stem biomass showed no significant correlation with rainfed grain yield and this may be due to the late rains in 2005 season that might have allowed some lines to grow during seed filling. Conclusions: Field evaluation of 33 RILs of the cross DOR 364 x BAT 477 at Palmira over two seasons under terminal drought stress conditions resulted in identification of two lines (BT 21138-17-1-1 and BT 21138-6-1-1) that were superior in their adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod harvest index and seed and pod number per area indicating the importance of greater mobilization of photosyntates to pods and to seeds under rainfed conditions. Materials and Methods: A field trial was conducted at Palmira in 2007 (June to September). The soil is a Mollisol (Aquic Hapludoll) with no major fertility problems (pH = 7.7), and is estimated to permit storage of 130 mm of available water (assuming 1.0 m of effective root growth with -0.03 MPa and -1.5 MPa upper and lower limits for soil matric potential). The trial included 97 RILs of DOR 364 x BAT 477 along with 1 check (SEA 5) and 2 parents (DOR 364, BAT 477) to determine genotypic differences in tolerance to drought stress conditions. A 10 x 10 balanced lattice design with 3 replicates was used. Two levels of water supply (irrigated and rainfed) were applied. For the irrigated treatment, a total of 4 gravity irrigations (approximately 35 mm each) were applied while for the rainfed treatment only 2 irrigations were applied to assure good crop establishment. Experimental units consisted of 2 rows, 3.72 m long by 0.6 m wide. A number of plant attributes were measured at mid-podfilling under both rainfed and irrigated conditions in order to determine genotypic variation in drought resistance. These plant traits included leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD), canopy temperature, canopy temperature depression (CTD), leaf area index, canopy dry weight per plant and shoot TNC content (total nonstructural carbohydrates).Canopy temperature was measured with a Telatemp model AG-42D infrared thermometer. The instrument was held at a 45 o angle at 50 cm from the canopy surface to measure canopy temperature and canopy temperature depression. At the time of harvest, grain yield and yield components (number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, and 100 seed weight) were determined. Stem biomass reduction (mobilization of photosynthate reserves) was determined based on difference in stem dry weight at harvest from the stem dry weight at mid-pod filling. Pod partitioning index (dry wt of pods at harvest/dry wt of total biomass at mid-podfill x 100), pod harvest index (dry wt of seed/dry wt of pod at harvest x 100), pod number per area, seed number per area, yield production efficiency (seed biomass dry weight at harvest/total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling), seed production efficiency (seed number per area/ total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area), pod production efficiency (pod number per area/ total shoot biomass dry weight at mid-pod filling per area) and grain filling index (100 seed weight of rainfed/100 seed weight of irrigated) were determined. Shoot and seed TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrate) contents were also measured.During the crop-growing season, maximum and minimum air temperatures were 30.56 and 18.61 o C (Figure 25). The incident solar radiation ranged from 11.2 to 25.1 MJ m -2 d -1 . The total rainfall during the active crop growth was 243.1 mm (a significant portion falling during grainfilling). The potential pan evaporation was of 431 mm. These data on rainfall and pan evaporation together with rainfall distribution indicated that the crop suffered intermittent drought stress during active growth and development. The mean yield under rainfed conditions was 849 kg ha -1 compared with the mean irrigated yield of 1741 kg ha -1 showing 51% decrease in mean grain yield due to drought stress (Figure 26).Under drought stress conditions in the field, the seed yield of 97 RILs ranged from 603 to 1171 kg ha -1 (Figure 26). Among the RILs tested, two RILs BT 21138-68-1-1 and BT 21138-74-1-1 were outstanding in their adaptation to rainfed (water stress) conditions. The relationship between grain yield of rainfed and irrigated treatments indicated that several RILs were superior to the best parent, BAT 477 and the check genotype, SEA 5. Among the 97 lines tested, BT 21138-31-1-1 and BT 21138-34-1-1 were found to be very poorly adapted lines under rainfed conditions.  Significant genotypic differences were observed in canopy biomass production at mid-pod filling growth stage (Figure 27). The RILs BT 21138-64-1-1 and BT 21138-69-1-1 showed greater vigor than the rest of the RILs; however these RILs showed lower value of harvest index indicating a limitation on mobilization of photosynthates to pod and seed development. The relationship between rainfed seed yield and other plant attributes showed that the outstanding performance of lines BT 21138-68-1-1 and BT 21138-74-1-1 was associated with higher values of stem biomass reduction indicating greater mobilization of photosynthates from stems to pods (Figure 28). BAT 477 DOR 364 SEA 5  The relationship between rainfed seed yield and seed number per area, pod number per area and 100 seed weight showed that the line BT 21138-74-1-1 was outstanding in producing greater number of seeds and pods and also in filling the grain (Figure 29).Correlation coefficients between final grain yield and other shoot attributes under rainfed conditions indicated significant relationship between seed yield and leaf area index and canopy biomass under irrigated and rainfed conditions (Table 33). It is important to note that the harvest index, pod partitioning index, pod harvest index, seed number per area and pod number per area showed significant positive association with seed yield under rainfed conditions. This indicates that the genotypes that mobilized a greater proportion of photosyntates from plant structures to pod and seed formation performed better under rainfed conditions (Figures 28 and 29).  BAT 477   Conclusions: Field evaluation of 97 RILs of the cross DOR 364 x BAT 477 under intermittent drought stress resulted in identification of two RILs BT 21138-68-1-1 and BT 21138-74-1-1 that were outstanding in adaptation to intermittent drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines under intermittent drought stress was associated with higher values of harvest index, pod partitioning index, stem biomass reduction, seed number per area and pod number per area indicating the importance of greater mobilization of photosyntates to pods and seeds under rainfed conditions. and 2 parents (MD 23-24, SEA 5) to determine genotypic differences in tolerance to drought stress conditions. An 11 x 11 balanced lattice design with 3 replicates was used. Two levels of water supply (irrigated and rainfed) were applied. Details on planting and management of the trial were similar to those reported before. Experimental units consisted of 2 rows, 3.72 m long by 0.6 m wide. A number of plant attributes were measured at mid-podfilling in order to determine genotypic variation in drought resistance. These plant traits included leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD), leaf area index; canopy dry weight per plant; shoot and seed ash content; and shoot and seed TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrates). At the time of harvest, grain yield and yield components (number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight) were determined. Seed ash content and TNC (total nonstructural carbohydrates) were measure.Pod harvest index (seed weight/pod weight x 100) and grain filling index (100 seed weight of rainfed/100 seed weight of irrigated x 100) were also measured.  31).Under drought stress conditions in the field, the seed yield of 121 RILs ranged from 690 to 1574 kg ha -1 (Figure 31). Among the lines tested, three RILs, MR 81, MR 112 and MR 25 were outstanding in their adaptation to rainfed (water stress) conditions. These three lines were also responsive to irrigation. The relationship between grain yield of rainfed and irrigated treatments indicated that several RILs lines were superior to the best parent, SEA 5 and the 4 common bean check genotypes. Among the 121 lines tested, MR 8 was the most poorly adapted line under rainfed conditions.High significant correlation was observed between canopy biomass and grain yield; the genotype Cowpea Mouride showed the highest vigor with the highest canopy biomass under stress conditions (Figure 32). But this genotype showed a lower harvest index, indicating its limitation to mobilize photosyntates to seeds. Results on the relationship between rainfed grain yield and harvest index (HI) indicated that MR 25 and MR 81 were superior in mobilizing photosyntates to seeds (Figure 32). The HI value of EAP 9510-77, MR 109 and MR 40 was markedly lower than that of other bean genotypes. Results on the relationship between rainfed grain yield and pod harvest index indicated that MR 81 and MR 25 were superior in mobilizing photosyntates from pod to seeds (Figure 33).The superior performance of RILs MR25 and MR 81 was associated with greater values of harvest index, higher values of pod harvest index and seed number per area, higher values of stem biomass reduction (Figure 33). Higher stem biomass reduction values indicate higher photosyntates mobilization from the stem to other plant structures such as pods. Harvest index (%)    Correlation coefficients between final grain yield and other shoot attributes under rainfed conditions indicated significant positive relationship between final grain yield and leaf area index and canopy biomass under rainfed conditions (Table 34). Total chlorophyll content showed positive relationship with grain yield under irrigated conditions. It is important to note that the harvest index, pod partitioning index and pod harvest index were significantly associated with grain yield under rainfed conditions. This indicates that the genotypes that mobilized a greater proportion of photosyntates from vegetative organs to developing grains performed better under rainfed conditions (Figure 33). Seed number per area and pod number per area also showed significant positive association with grain yield only under rainfed conditions. Pod production efficiency showed significant negative association with grain yield under both irrigated and rainfed conditions. Days to maturity also showed significant negative association with grain yield indicating some contribution of earliness to superior performance under rainfed conditions. Conclusions: Field evaluation of 121 RILs of the cross MD 23-24 x SEA 5 over 3 seasons resulted in identification of the lines MR 81 and MR 25 that were superior in adaptation to drought stress conditions. The superior performance of these lines was associated with higher vigor, higher values of pod harvest index, harvest index and seed number per area, highlighting the importance of the photosyntate mobilization to pods and seeds under intermittent drought stress.Contributors: J. Polanía, M. Grajales, C. Cajiao, R. García, J. Ricaurte, S. Beebe and I. M. RaoRationale: Published research from Mexico indicated that the inoculation of common bean genotype, Negro Jamapa, with over expressed trehalose-6-phosphate synthase gene in recombinant strain of Rhizobium etli CE3, increased grain production of common bean that was subjected to drought under greenhouse conditions. Before considering bean inoculation with mutant or recombinant strain of Rhizobium etli CE3, it is necessary to validate the efficacy of inoculation to improve bean growth under greenhouse conditions. We evaluated the response of 7 common genotypes to inoculation under terminal drought stress or maintenance of 80% of field capacity (well watered) in sterilized soil inoculated with or without Rhizobium etli CIAT 632 using greenhouse soil tube method.A greenhouse study was conducted at CIAT -Palmira using a mix of an Andisol (from Darien of Colombia) with river sand (2:1 w/w), sterilized with steam for 2 h each day for 2 days and packed in soil cylinders (80 cm of height with 7.5 cm of diameter). Soil was fertilized with nutrients (kg ha -1 of 80 N, 50 P, 100 K, 101 Ca, 29.4 Mg, 20 S, 2 Zn, 2 Cu, 0.1 B and 0.1 Mo). The trial included 7 bean genotypes: BAT 477, BAT 477NN, DOR 364, DOR 364NN, Negro Jamapa, Pinto Villa and Alubia Cerrillos. The trial was planted as a randomized complete block arrangement with two levels of water supply: 80% field capacity (well-watered), and withholding of watering (to simulate terminal drought stress conditions); and 3 replications. For the treatment with inoculation, we added 1 ml of inoculum with the strain of Rhizobium etli CIAT 632, cultivated in YMA (yeast mannitol agar) liquid.Treatments of terminal drought were imposed at 14 days after planting. Plants with well-watered treatment were maintained by weighing each cylinder every two days and applying water to the soil at the top of the cylinder and plants with terminal drought were monitored for water stress by weighing each cylinder every two days for determination of decrease in soil moisture. Plants were harvested at the age of 35 days after establishment, i.e., 21 days of withholding of water application.After 2 weeks of establishment a number of shoot physiological characteristics were measured at weekly intervals: total chlorophyll content (SPAD) by chlorophyll meter SPAD-502; chlorophyll fluorescence FV'/FM' by Fluorpen FP-100 (PSI -Photon Systems Instruments); stomatal conductance by porometer SC1 (Decagon Devices) and leaf temperature depression by the infrared thermometer (Telatemp model AG-42D). At the time of harvest, the following plant attributes were measured: leaf area; dry weight of stems, leaves, and pods; and root parameters including nodulation (nodules number and dry weight), root length and biomass distribution at different soil depths (0-5; 5-10; 10-20; 20-40; 40-60; 60-75 cm). Roots in each soil layer were washed free of soil and sand and root length, mean root diameter, specific root length, and root dry weight were measured. Root length and mean root diameter were measured using an image analysis system (WinRHIZO, Regent Instruments INC.).The average of soil moisture at 35 days after planting in the drought treatment was at 50% of field capacity and the maximum temperature in the greenhouse was between 35 to 40 o C and the minimum temperature was between 19 to 20 o C. Terminal drought condition decreased the nodulation, biomass production, and leaf area of all bean genotypes studied (Table 35). But there was no response to inoculation with the strain Rhizobium etli CIAT 632 either in well watered or with terminal drought treatment in terms of shoot biomass and leaf area. The inoculation only increased the nodule number and their dry weight under terminal drought (Table 36). The steam sterilization of soil for 2 h each day for 2 days was not adequate to eliminate native Rhizobia. Alubia Cerillos was found to be more sensitive to drought in terms of shoot biomass and leaf area reduction compared with the well watered condition (Table 35). All genotypes decreased the stomatal conductance after two weeks of drought stress but the decrease was more pronounced with Pinto Villa than the other genotypes (Figure 34). This ability to reduce stomatal conductance contributed to its superior performance under drought stress. BAT 477 and its nonnodulating line BAT 477NN maintained their photosynthetic efficiency (yield of quantum efficiency) during drought stress (Figure 34). There were no significant differences between the nodulating and nonnodulating lines because the N supply from soil was adequate. The greenhouse soil tube method was found to be very effective in simulating drought stress and the genotype Pinto Villa was better adapted to drought due to its ability to decrease stomatal conductance while Alubia Cerrillos was more affected due to drought stress. Although there was no response to inoculation with the strain Rhizobium etli CIAT 632, the effect of terminal drought stress on nodulation was very marked. Soil sterilization with steam was not effective in eliminating native Rhizobia. We need to use a soil type with low nitrogen availability and improve the efficiency of sterilization of soil to test the response to inoculation.Contributors: N. Asakawa, E. Melo, and I. M. RaoHighlights:• Lines derived from an interspecific cross of SER 16, a drought resistant line, by Phaseolus coccineus (G35346) yielded well under both rainfed and aluminum toxic conditions. Some actually yielded more in intermittent drought than SER 16.SER 16 proved to be an excellent common bean parent to cross with P. coccineus, perhaps due to its characteristic of excellent remobilization to grain.A filter paper-styrofoam sandwich germination method was developed to improve the phenotyping capacity for Al resistance in common bean and a primary root marking method was developed to evaluate short-term effects of Al on root elongation process.A method was adapted and validated for screening for aluminum resistance in common bean based on qualitative determination of aluminum-complexing compounds including citrate released from the roots.Phenotypic evaluation of 20 common bean genotypes for aluminium resistance confirmed the higher level of Al resistance of three Andean genotypes (ICA Quimbaya, BRB 198 and G5273) and identified one Mesoamerican genotype (G24601) also with higher level of Al resistance.Phenotypic evaluation of 97 RILs of DOR 364 x BAT 477 for aluminium resistance resulted in identification of a few RILs with low inhibition of root growth under high Al in solution. Two RILs (BT 21138-128-1-M-M-M and BT 21138-2-1-1-M-M-M) were found to be outstanding in root growth both with and without aluminum in solution.Rationale: Aluminum toxicity is a primary constraint of crops in tropical soils, limiting root development and nutrient and water capture. Phaseolus vulgaris is considered to be relatively sensitive to aluminum, while previous field observations of Phaseolus coccineus and subsequent greenhouse evaluations demonstrated that this latter species has superior aluminum tolerance. Aluminum toxicity is thought to exacerbate drought stress by limiting access to soil moisture. Thus, combining resistance to drought and tolerance to aluminum is an important objective. Interspecific crosses were created for this purpose.Two drought resistant common bean parents (Mesoamerican SER 16; Andean ICA Quimbaya) were crossed to several accessions of P. coccineus (G35346; G35066; G35464) that had been selected in the field based on vegetative vigor in an aluminum toxic soil. The F 1 plants were backcrossed to the common bean parent, and pedigree selection for vigor was practiced over several generations in the field in an aluminum toxic soil in Santander de Quilichao, from the F 2 to the F 4 generation when selection was performed under drought pressure. These families had reached the F 5 generation at the time of this evaluation, while other selections that were not planted in the drought season and had only been subjected to selection for aluminum tolerance were in the F 4 .Ninety F 4 and F 5 families were planted in Palmira under rainfed conditions in the dry season (July-September, 2008). Two-row plots 3.75 m long were used in three replications. Ten check lines were included to complete a 10 x 10 lattice design. Checks included elite drought selections as well as intraspecific selections for aluminum tolerance from previous breeding work. The same trial was planted in Santander de Quilichao in an aluminum toxic soil (66% saturation) in a lattice design with 4 replications in the October-January planting season. Data on yield and days to maturity were taken, and yield per day was calculated as an indicator of crop efficiency in remobilization of biomass to grain.In the rainfed treatment, the crop received an estimated mm of moisture derived from one irrigation with sprinklers, one furrow irrigation, and 115 mm of rainfall up to 68 days from planting. However, drought stress was only moderate, due to excellent soil structure and cloudy days with low evapotranspiration. Based on common checks in another irrigated trial, yield reduction was estimated to be 25-30%. Under these conditions several lines yielded exceptionally well, and two lines (ALB's 205 and 167) significantly outyielded the drought tolerant parent, SER 16 (Table 37). This yield advantage was in part due to a longer growth cycle, these lines being 5-6 days later to mature than SER 16. Nonetheless, these lines maintained their efficiency, yielding marginally better per day than SER 16. Other elite lines from previous years (e.g., BAT 477; A774; Tio Canela) presented comparable days to maturity as the ALB lines but yielded less. Thus it appears that better yield potential with the ability to resist at least moderate drought stress has been obtained in some lines. This may reflect improved rooting derived from G35346 combined with good remobilization of biomass to grain, derived from SER 16. COL=color; bl=black; rd=red; cr str=cream striped; pk=pink; v=variable; DTF=Days to flower; DTM=Days to maturity.In the aluminum toxicity treatment, no line significantly outyielded the SER 16 recurrent parent, which in fact resulted to be intermediate in its reaction to aluminum. Thus, based on this data it cannot be stated that we successfully transferred improved aluminum tolerance from P. coccineus to SER 16. However, several lines outyielded the tolerant check, VAX 1, by as much as 60%. What was more important is that a few lines performed relatively well in both treatments (Table 37). In the rainfed and aluminum treatments, respectively, ALB 213 ranked 3 rd and 19 th , ALB 188 ranked 5 th and 13 th , ALB 214 was 8 th and 9 th , ALB 252 was 9 th and 5 th , and ALB 204 was 10 th and 1 st . The correlation in yield across the two treatments was 0.54. These lines merit wider evaluation, given their positive performance and the fact they represent unusual genetic variability that has not previously been exploited in cultivated common bean. We speculate that it was possible to obtain better progenies from this cross as compared to other interspecific crosses in the past, due to SER 16's excellent remobilization of biomass to grain. We hypothesize that that this trait serves to overcome the tendency for such crosses to produce lines with excessive vegetative growth and poor harvest index.Collaborators: S. Beebe, I. Rao, C. Cajiao, M. Grajales, M.L. Cortés, A.F. GuerreroRationale: Screening for Al resistance using hydroponic-based methodology normally requires that large amounts of genotypes or accessions should be tested at the same time under the same climatic and experimental conditions. Independently of the amount of materials to be tested, obtaining healthy and homogenous plantlets or seedlings to reduce the variability originating in the germination process is of great importance. Previously, germination of bean seedlings involved use of growing mediums such as peat, sand or a mix of both substrates. However, this method is time consuming, special skills are required to clean the peat from the roots in order to reduce the interference with the Al in the nutrient solution and in many cases the roots are not uniform. Normally, it was required up to 16 h to establish, germinate and transplant a trial with 60 genotypes. In spite of careful manipulation, in the end high standard deviations did not allow clear differentiation between genotypes for their level of Al resistance.After reviewing the previous method used in the screening of bean for Al resistance, some key modifications were made to increase the capacity to screen larger number of genotypes while reducing the time needed for the establishment and the sources of variability between replicates. These key modifications in order of importance were: 1. Replacing the sand-based germination by filter-paper/styrofoam sandwiches; 2. Manipulation of plantlets during the transplant to nutrient solution to avoid damage of basal roots (very important in the determination of root architecture parameters); 3. Measuring root length after 24 or 48 h of Al treatment using marked roots (important to correlate with physiological studies); 4. Controlling the pH of the nutrient solution, especially during the preparation of the Al treatments; 5. Controlling the aeration system to avoid root damage during the treatment time.Results: After the implementation of the sandwich system to germinate the plants, healthy (straight tap and basal roots) and homogenous plantlets were obtained (Figure 35 b and c), allowing quick selection of pairs of seedlings to be transplanted to containers with or without Al. The time to arrange and establish the whole germination system is less than 2 h, and after germination the transplanting of 120 genotypes (15 seeds x 2 treatments x 4 replicates) corresponding to circa 14,400 seeds could be completed in less than 4 h. Physiological studies of Al resistance normally require measurements of root elongation of tap and basal roots during short periods of time (few hours) after Al treatment. Marking roots (Figure 36) 3 cm above the root tip (root zone already differentiated) just prior to the Al treatment, allows measuring the direct effect of Al on root elongation at different Al treatment times. After obtaining homogenous seedlings from the germination system, results from Figure 37 shows that no noticeable differences were observed between marked and complete root measurement methods using an Al resistant Quimbaya and Al sensitive VAX 1 genotypes. Therefore, for routine screening of Al resistance the complete root measurement could be used. However, to measure the Al effect during short or consecutive treatment times, the marking method is recommended. Influence of two different methods (marking and complete root) to measure root growth rates of two common bean genotypes (Al-resistant, Quimbaya; Al-sensitive VAX-1) after germination using filter-paper/styrofoam germination system.A filter paper-styrofoam sandwich germination method was developed to improve the phenotyping capacity for Al resistance in common bean and a primary root marking method was developed to evaluate short-term effects of Al on root elongation process.A.F. Rangel, J. Ricaurte, S. Beebe, I. M. Rao (CIAT); W. Horst (Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany)Rationale: Previous studies have shown that citrate exudation contributes to Al resistance in common bean. Two protocols were implemented in order to check the contribution of citrate exudation to Al resistance in different Phaseolus species using 1 cm excised root tips in nutrient solution (quantitative) or intact plants in agarose gels containing aluminon as color indicator (qualitative). The agarose gel technique shows that organic acid exudation occurs along the entire root system but mainly to the first 1 to 2 cm of the root tip, the most Al sensitive root zone. The amount of organic acids secreted to the agarose media of the three Phaseolus species tested decreased in the order of P. coccineus > P. vulgaris > P. acutifolius. The presence of Al-complexing chelators in root exudates and rhizosphere soil solution can be visualized using agarose gels, containing red-colored Al-aluminon complexes on the root surface. The presence of Al chelators with higher affinity to Al, compared to aluminon (e.g. organic acid anions, phenols) is indicated by discoloration zones.Materials and methods: Gels of agarose (low gelling point) of 3 mm (1 % w/v) were used as carrier matrix for the Al-aluminon complex. Agarose gels were prepared in nutrient solution containing 5 mM CaCl 2 , 0.5 mM KCl and 8 µM H 3 BO 3. Aluminum (250 µM) was added to the agarose containing nutrient solution after cooling down to 50 o C and adjusting the pH to 4.5. Aluminon stock solution was prepared by mixing NaOH (24g), Aluminon (175 mg) dissolved in acetic acid (120 ml) and adjusted to 500 ml with bi-distilled water and adjusting the pH to 4.2.Different bean accessions with contrasting levels of Al-resistance were pretreated for 24 h in nutrient solution containing 20 µM of Al. This treatment time is enough to detect significant differences in Al resistance among common bean genotypes based on inhibition of root elongation. Also, it has been demonstrated that these differences corresponded with the capacity to exude organic acid anions, mainly citrate. After Al pretreatment four plants of each accession were carefully placed into flat transparent acrylic cuvettes, the root system was dispersed and a mix of 25 ml aluminon, 70 ml of agarose containing nutrient solution and Al, and 5 ml ascorbic acid (0.5%) at 40 o C, was carefully poured to cover the whole root system (3 to 4 mm thickness). Thereafter, the cuvettes were covered with plastic sheet to avoid desiccation of the agarose. Depending on the amount of Al-complexing compounds released from the root or accumulated in the rhizosphere, discoloration was visible after 6 to 8 h.In general terms, the appearance of bleached zones were observed in the complete root system but mainly in the first 1 to 2 cm root apices. Similarly, all accessions showed the capacity to exude Alchelating substances from the roots. However, the grade and magnitude of discolored areas were in the order of P. acutifolius < P. vulgaris < P. coccineus. Additionally, the extent of discolored areas were in agreement with the known Al resistance rating of all six accessions used, so less blanched areas were observed in G40159 and VAX-1, both rated as Al-sensitive. SER16, an Al-intermediate accession, showed discolored areas mainly in the first 1 to 2 cm from the root tips and in areas where more root tips appeared. G19833, Quimbaya and G35346-3Q, all classified as Al-resistant, showed a greater capacity to exude Al-chelating substances along the whole root system (Figure 38). However, the capacity to exude these substances by the coccineus accession was outstanding. The validation of this result requires quantification of the Al-chelating substances exuded from the roots. According to previous studies, this should correspond mainly to citrate exudation. Thus, this method can be used as a fast test to check the existence of citrate exudation as a mechanism of Al resistance in different bean accessions.Rationale: Toxicity of Al in acid soils in the tropics is a major problem to resource-poor farmers for producing beans. Amending soils with lime is not economically feasible for most farmers. Improving the level of Al resistance in common bean could help farmers to produce beans locally in acid soils with high aluminum. Field screening of 5000 germplasm accessions and breeding lines in Al-toxic soils with and without lime (65% Al saturation) indicated significant genotypic variation in seed yield. Likewise, significant genotypic differences for Al resistance have been found in nutrient-solution based screenings using inhibition of root elongation after 48 h at 20 µM Al supply as a parameter for Al injury. The present work aimed to identify bean genotypes with Al resistance as determined by Al-induced inhibition of principal root elongation and total root length per plant. Genotypic differences in root vigor in the absence of Al in nutrient solution were also evaluated to identify genotypes that combine Al resistance with high root vigor.Three days old seedlings of 20 common bean genotypes listed in Table 38 were grown in nutrient solution containing 5 mM CaCl 2 .2H 2 O, 0.5 mM KCl and 8 µM H 3 BO 3 under glasshouse environmental conditions at CIAT-Palmira. After 2 days of pH adjustment from 5.5 to 4.5 with a step wise decrease, plants were exposed to either 0 or 20 µM AlCl3.6H 2 O for up to 2 days (Figure 39). The experiment was repeated twice with 4 replications and the mean values are reported. Primary root elongation rate (mm h -1 ) was measured through marking of the primary root 3 cm above the root tip at the beginning and at the end of the treatments. The difference between the two markings was used to measure primary root elongation rate and percent inhibition of root elongation rate due to Al treatment. At 48 h of treatment with or without Al, total root length (cm plant -1 ), mean root diameter (mm), root volume (cm 3 plant -1 ) and surface root area (cm² plant -1 ) were measured using Winrhizo software (WinRHIZO 2003, Regent Instruments INC). Root weight (g plant -1 ) was determined after drying roots until constant weight in an oven at 60 o C for 48 h. Specific root length (m g -1 ) was calculated dividing root length by root weight.   Table 39. Pedigree of 98 RILs of DOR364 x BAT 477 evaluated in a solution containing 0.5 mM Ca, 0.5 mM K and 8 µM B with 0 and 20 µM Al for up to 48 h, pH 4.5.RIL Pedigree      • New accessions from the gene bank were evaluated for insect resistance • Resistance to Zabrotes subfasciatus was reconfirmed • New breeding lines that have resistance to the leafhopper (Empoasca kraemeri) were identified • Some Andean bean lines presented high level of tolerance to Empoasca and less yield lossRationale: Identification of sources of resistance to major insect pests of beans is a continuous activity. Additional work is conducted to identify and characterize the mechanisms of resistance to major specific pests.Materials and Methods: Germplasm accessions and breeding lines are planted in the field under high levels of natural leafhopper infestation, usually with 4-5 replicates per genotype in randomized complete block designs. Evaluations for resistance include damage score and bean productivity ratings, insect counts, damage counts and in some cases, yield components and yields. In the case of Zabrotes, the combination of biochemical tests to confirm the presence of arcelin and insect feeding bioassays has given excellent results.No useful sources of resistance to the leafhopper were found among about 150 accessions of bean germplasm evaluated in 2008. In trials conducted under field conditions at CIAT headquarters, Mesoamerican parents with different resistance sources were evaluated with 240 lines in replicated nurseries. 26 of these lines were selected as resistant to be evaluated again in 2009 to confirm their resistance.In 2008, special emphasis was placed upon the reconfirmation of resistance in previously selected RAZ lines. These materials were later tested in nurseries with 3 repetitions with six pairs of Z. subfasciatus per 30 seeds. The genetic improvement method using backcrosses that combine biochemical tests to confirm the presence of arcelin and insect feeding bioassays have had satisfactory results whenever the resistance to the Mexican bean weevil (Z. subfasciatus) is to be incorporated into bean cultivars. It is necessary to reconfirm resistance in the RAZ lines with the objective of assuring purity of the obtained lines. Rationale: The identification of arcelin as a biochemical marker for the selection of progenies with resistance to Z. subfasciatus has greatly facilitated the incorporation of this trait into a range of cultivated beans. Using arcelin-1 donor parents in simple crosses or backcrosses to the cultivated parents we have been able to generate additional progenies (RAZ lines) that have shown high levels of resistance to Zabrotes. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the segregation of arcelin-based bruchid resistance in crosses of two RAZ lines with a red-mottled, drought tolerant Andean parent.The work on the development of a molecular DNA microsatellite marker for arcelin presence and resistance to the Mexican bean weevil was as described in the 2003 Annual Report. The crosses were made between the drought tolerant Andean breeding line SEQ1006 and RAZ 105 and RAZ 106 as arcelin-donor parents in 2006 and advanced to the F 2 generation where all individuals were tested for the arcelin marker and the F 3 seed harvested from each single plant selection. The resulting 247 F 3 progenies from two different crosses were tested for resistance to Z. subfasciatus in replicated nurseries in the laboratory. The resulting F 3 progenies were used to reconfirm marker selection.As shown in Tables 41 and 42, very high levels of resistance to the Mexican bean weevil were identified with absolute correspondence between the presence of arcelin and resistance to the insect. Rationale: The Arcelin resistance gene is the most effective resistance factor for the most common storage pests of common bean, namely the Mexican bean weevil, Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman). We have been making crosses between arcelin containing RAZ lines and a series of Andean and Mesoamerican beans with drought tolerance useful for Eastern and Southern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Zimbabwe). In addition we have been conducting marker assisted selection for the arcelin gene. The long-term objective of this work is to increase the efficiency of breeding for multiple constraint resistance and facilitate the pyramiding of bruchid resistance with other biotic and abiotic stress resistances.Crosses were generated to incorporate Arcelin-based bruchid resistance into a drought tolerant background and then transfer that resistance/tolerance to the small white, Ethiopian variety Awash Melka and to various Andean bean types. The bruchid resistance sources used in the crosses were RAZ44, RAZ105, RAZ106, RAZ 107, RAZ168, RAZ169 and RAZ170, the first of these with small white grain type and the remainder all with large red mottled grain type. The drought tolerance sources were the DRK, RAA, SAB, SEA and SEQ lines described in other sections of the report as well as RCB588, RCB591, SER16, SER119, SXB405, SXB412 and SXB418 used in crosses with Awash Melka. In addition some triple crosses were generated for the nutrition breeding program using NUA35 and NUA56, and some double crosses were generated with the RMA lines discussed previously, the Malawian release CIM9314-34, the Kenyan releases KAT B1 and KAT B9 and other African released varieties, such as Canadian Wonder, CAL96 and CAL143. Marker assisted selection was carried out as described previously using microprep DNA.Results and Discussion: For Andeans, a total of 251 F 1 plants segregated for the arcelin locus in Palmira 2008a (with 141 of these segregating for the arcelin locus alone and 110 segregating for both arcelin and the bc3 gene). Of these 236 amplified with the arcelin marker and the proportion of resistant and susceptible genotypes are shown in Table 43. For Mesoamericans (Awash Melka), a total of 498 F 1 plants segregated for the arcelin locus in seven different pedigrees and the resulting resistant, susceptible and heterozygous selection are shown in Table 44.Pedigrees of crosses with arcelin genes that have been advanced to the F 2:4 and F 1:3 generations appear in   Rationale: Although there is little direct breeding for Empoasca tolerance today, routine evaluations of breeding materials is a service to the breeding programs to complement data on other traits. In 2008 support was given to the breeding program with the evaluation of resistance to the leafhopper in a large nursery of red, black, carioca, cream and white colored beans, with different resistances and agronomic characteristics (anthracnose, angular leaf spot, BCMV, BGYMV, CBB, drought, low fertility and high concentrations of grain iron).Evaluations for resistance to E. kraemeri were done in the field under high level conditions of natural infestation. A randomized complete block design was used for this evaluation with 5 repetitions per genotype. Evaluations for resistance include a damage score and bean production rating, insect counts, damage counts and in some cases, yield and yield components.Continuing with the search for resistance to leafhopper in 2008, 73 lines characterized by their resistance to drought and with the bc-3 gene, low fertility and/or high iron with codes MAB, SQX, SBX, NEB, MIB, SER, SEN, INB, and AQB were evaluated for leafhopper damage. Nine selections were made under high levels of leafhopper infestation (12.4 nymphs per leaf at 50 days after planting) (Figure 45). The selected lines will be reconfirmed in a field evaluation in 2009. These reconfirmations will include a damage score and yield production rating, insect counts, damage counts and in some cases, yield and yield components. Rationale: Most progress in breeding for resistance to leafhopper has been performed with Mesoamerican beans. Special effort is needed to improve the resistance of Andean types that tend to be highly susceptible. In 2008, efforts were aimed at the development of Andean type beans with tolerance to the leafhopper, Empoasca kraemeri. In particular, Empoasca is a problem in warm, dry climates where bean golden yellow mosaic virus (BGYMV) is also prevalent, and thus combinations of these two resistances are desirable.Highlights:• A large number of crosses were made to pyramid insect (bruchid) and disease (BCMNV and CBB) resistance with drought tolerance or mid-elevation adaptation in Andean bush beans. The arcelin gene was used as the source of bruchid resistance and was effectively selected for in 115 different cross combinations. Meanwhile, 187 cross combinations were generated for disease resistance. These crosses are being advanced at our drought stress and mid-elevation sites in Colombia.• Twelve new, large seeded red mottled bean varieties with multiple resistance to diseases and up to 30% better yield compared to commercial varieties released in six countries in eastern Africa. • Thirteen new red kidney varieties combining multiple stress resistance with high yield potential and marketable grain characteristics are released in seven countries in east and central Africa.• Eight new speckled sugar varieties with multiple disease resistance, marketable grain types and high yield potential (up to 24% over commercial checks) released for smallholder production in four countries in eastern Africa. • Eight new small and medium red bean varieties combining multiple disease resistance, high yield potential and marketable grain characteristics released for smallholder production in three countries of eastern Africa. • Eighteen new tan, brown and yellow seed varieties with multiple resistance to diseases and high yield potential released for production by smallholder farmers in four countries in eastern Africa • Twenty-six new climbing bean varieties combining multiple resistances to diseases with high yield potential and marketable grain characteristics released for smallholder production in seven countries in east and central Africa. • Several segregating populations and fixed lines in different market classes from South Africa, Malawi and Tanzania are available for distribution to interested NARS partners within SABRN and others in Africa • From the regional breeding program 24 (brown/khaki), 73 (sugar) and 213 (red mottled) developed for resistance to angular leaf spot, or common bacterial blight or low soil fertility or a combination of these stresses were distributed to various NARS programs. • Twenty-nine lines in various market classes which were developed for rust resistance or a combination of rust and angular leaf spot or rust and halo blight resistance by the NARS in South Africa were sent to the SABRN coordinator for seed increase and onward distribution to other interested NARS for the next planting season. • Twenty four new lines with a resistance gene to Pythium root rot were identified and included in the Pythium root rot nursery. • Forty lines combining resistance to Pythium root rot and angular leaf spot were identified and available for sharing with partnersRationale: Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV) is an aphid and seed transmitted Potyvirus that is very important in Eastern and Southern Africa where it causes necrotic symptoms on I gene containing genotypes. The related virus BCMV causes typical potyvirus symptoms on susceptible genotypes that do not contain the I gene. Both BCMV and BCMNV resistance is very important in dryland areas of Africa were aphid vectors are common. The most appropriate resistance combination is the I gene with a recessive resistance gene bc-3 which protects I gene containing genotypes from necrosis or the bc-3 gene alone due to its wide spectrum of resistance. Another important disease in the region is common bacterial blight (CBB) which is a foliar and seed-borne disease of beans grown in most tropical lowland and subtropical areas of production especially during hot, humid summer weather. The disease is caused by the pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Xap), which is widespread and part of a complex of Xanthomonad bacterial pathogens attacking many broadleaf and vegetable crops. Resistant bush beans were developed to both of these diseases in CIAT in the 1990s but have not been widely deployed in Andean breeding lines. As both diseases are important constraints in the same areas where drought occurs, it has been our goal to pyramid resistance to both diseases together with drought tolerance. This project describes the crosses made so far for this goal and outlines the initial attempts at pyramiding through marker assisted selection.Materials and Methods: Hybridizations were made in CIAT greenhouses between commercial Andean seed types and drought tolerance genotypes (SEA, SEQ, SAB lines) with sources of bean common mosaic necrosis virus resistance (BRB lines), common bacterial blight resistance (VAX, RMX lines) and arcelinbased bruchid resistance (RAZ lines). F 1 seed was then planted in the Darien 2007b for triple and double crosses. These F 1 in turn were planted in Palmira 2008a so as to make gamete selections that were used for marker validation using the markers ROC11 for BCMNV resistance, SU91 for CBB resistance and two new microsatellites associated with bruchid resistance. The Andean parents were from the red mottled, cream mottled, yellow and large red commercial classes, namely AND277, AND279, Canadian Wonder, CIM 9314-3, CMB106, CMB107, KATB1, KATB9, RMA44, RMA46, RMA52, RMA58, RMA60, RMA63, RMA66, RMA68, RMA69, RMA70, RMA71, RMA72, RMC57, RMC58, RMC65.The specific CBB resistant lines were VAX3, VAX6, RMX2, RMX8, RMX19, RMX20; while the BCMNV resistant lines were BRB198, BRB211, BRB263, BRB264, BRB265, BRB 266, BRB267, BRB268. The drought tolerant parents were DRK149, DRK156, RAA21, RAA34, SAB514, SAB516, SAB560, SAB568, SAB575, SAB576, SAB581, SAB630, SEA5, SEQ11, SEQ1003, SEQ1004, SEQ1006, SEQ1027, SEQ1032. Finally the arcelin containing parents were RAZ105, RAZ106, RAZ 107, RAZ168, RAZ169 and RAZ170.Results and Discussion: A total of 196 multiple F 1 combinations were generated (88 from triple crosses and 108 from double crosses). Examples of these are given in Tables 48 and 49. In addition, 91 other F 1 combinations from simple crosses (28 with BCMNV genes, 31 with CBB genes and 32 combining drought tolerance from SAB lines with larger seed size) were made and advanced to the F 2:3 generation. Most of the combinations target Andean seed classes (red mottled, large red).Table 48. Examples of triple crosses combining BCMV, CBB or insect resistance genes together with drought tolerant and non-drought tolerant Andean parents. Marker assisted selection was used on a total of 383 gametes developed from BRB lines containing the bc-3 resistance gene, and 79 gametes developed from VAX lines containing a CBB resistance QTL. Some of the gametes for BCMV resistance (110) also segregated for arcelin-based insect resistance effective against the bruchid, Zabrotes subfasciatus. The ROC11 based selection was carried out with alkaline extraction DNA and agarose gel multiplexing as described previously, while the SU91 evaluation was performed with a mixture of different dilutions of alkaline extraction or miniprep DNA without multiplexing which made it more time consuming and expensive to carry out.Collaborators: M.W. Blair, F. Monserrate, A. Hincapie, S. BeebeRationale. The large seeded red mottled bean is probably the most important market class in East and Central Africa and in major bean producing countries in southern Africa such as Malawi. Red mottled beans are an important grain type in west and central African countries such as Cameroon. Red mottled beans command an estimated 22% market share of bean markets in East, Central and Southern Africa. An estimated 740,000 ha are sown with red mottled bean in Africa annually. Despite the rapid growth in demand for red mottled bean, supply has not kept pace in some countries. For example, Kenya is net importer of red mottled bean. Attempts to increase productivity have been severely constrained by biotic and abiotic stresses. Major biotic stresses include angular leaf spot, anthracnose, root rots and common bacterial blight. The most important abiotic stresses in red mottled bean growing areas are low soil nitrogen, phosphorus, soil acidity and frequent droughts. Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi are not only the leading producers of red mottled beans but are also major consumers. Red mottled bean is gaining popularity in other countries in the region. For example, red mottled is now a popular grain type in southern Ethiopia since its introduction in the area in 1999/2000. In Awassa, the red mottled bean was selling at a higher price in local markets (20 to 30 Birr per kg, equivalent to US$ 2 to 3) five years after introduction, compared to the traditionally popular small red (CIAT, 2004). However, most of the regionally important red mottled commercial cultivars such as GLP 2 (Rosecoco), K20, K132 and Lyamungu 85 are susceptible to diseases, pests and low soil fertility (CIAT, 2005). This has contributed to decline in national production and low yields in farmers fields, adversely affecting food security, nutrition and incomes of bean growers in the region. A regional program was started in 2001 to develop improved red mottled bean lines with resistance to diseases (especially angular leaf spot, anthracnose, common bacterial blight and root rots) and tolerance to abiotic stress factors especially low soil fertility and drought. Development of the new varieties involved assembling a working collection, identification of sources of resistance, development of breeding populations, identification of lines combining resistance to two or more biotic and abiotic stresses, regional evaluation of promising lines and release of varieties. Since 2000, the regional program adopted a decentralized market-led breeding strategy with responsibilities shared among the nine network member countries (CIAT, 2001;Kimani, 2005)  (Freytag et al., 1985). RWR 2075 and RWR 1946 are also resistant to root rots (Namayanja et al., 2003). Characteristics of other parental lines are shown in Table 50.Population development. A multiple stress breeding approach based on multi-parent crosses was used to create breeding populations (Singh, 1994). Backcrosses and simple crosses to correct specific deficiencies for simply inherited resistances also were made at Kabete and Namulonge. Complex crosses were made to combine single resistances from selected parental lines. Three sets of populations were created: KP 01, KP 86 and KP04. KP01 was developed from bi-parental and multi-parent crosses among 51 genetically diverse lines from Andean and Middle-American gene pools. The parents included lines with known resistance to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, common bacterial and other diseases and tolerance to low soil fertility. KP 86 was derived from a seven parent complete diallel cross at Kabete. It was used to generate 33 F 2 populations. KP04 was derived from bi-parental crosses among recent sources of resistance and popular commercial varieties. This population was designed to correct deficiencies of the commercial parents.Selection for resistance from KP01 populations. Selections were made for resistance to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, common bacterial blight, bean common mosaic and necrotic viruses (BCMV/BCMNV), rust and plant type in the early generations (F 2 to F 4 ). Both artificial inoculations and natural epiphytotics were used to identify resistant genotypes. Fifty-two segregating populations from KP 01 and lines from other crosses were advanced to F 4 generation at Kabete Field Station and subjected to natural epiphytotics of angular leaf spot, root rots, anthracnose and rust. F 2 plants were advanced as progeny rows in F 3 and F 4 .Selection criteria included growth habit, reaction to diseases, vegetative vigour, pod load and seed characteristics. Seed harvested from F 4 plants was separated into seven market classes (red mottled, dark red kidneys, small reds, yellow and brown, sugars, carioca and pintos). Seed of each market class was divided into four parts. The first part was screened for tolerance to angular leaf spot and Pythium root rot under artificial inoculation at Kawanda; the second part was screened in a field plot heavily infested with root rots in Sabatia. A third part was grown in low soil phosphorus test site in Kakamega, in Western Kenya, for soil acidity at Mulungu Research Station in Kivu province (D. R. Congo), and for tolerance to low soil nitrogen at Selian Agricultural Research Institute (Tanzania). These low soil fertility screening sites were selected by the Bean Improvement for Low soil Fertility (BILFA) working group (Lunze et al., 2007). Selection from KP86 populations. The segregating populations were selected for eight generations for resistance to six diseases (rust, angular leaf spot, anthracnose, halo blight, BCMV and common bacterial blight), yield and seed characteristics both in the greenhouse and in the field. Disease assessment was based on artificial inoculations and natural epiphytotics in the field. Disease assessment was done 21 days after inoculation (R6) and also at mid-pod filling (R8). Susceptible plants were discarded. To determine the yield potential of early generation lines, more than 200 F 4 and F 5 lines were evaluated at five locations for two seasons.Selection from KP04 Populations. Eleven F 2 populations segregating for red mottled grain types and resistance to diseases were developed from the KP04 crosses (KAB02, KAB 03, KAB 04, KAB05, KAB06, KAB 07, KAB10, KAB11, KAB12, KAB 13 and KAB 14) (CIAT, 2005). Single plants were selected from F 2 populations grown at Thika and Kabete during long rain (LR) season (April to August). The selected plants were used to establish F 2.3 progeny rows at Kabete and Thika during short rain (SR). Plants were rated for diseases, phenology, grain yield and other agronomic traits using the CIAT standard scale (Schoonhoven and Pastor-Corrales, 1987). Susceptible plants were discarded. Resistant plants within a progeny row were bulk-harvested and evaluated in replicated trials at the two locations during the LR (F 2.4 ) and SR (F 2.5 ) seasons. F 2.5 generations were screened for angular leaf spot at Kabete and root rots in an infested field in Sabatia (western Kenya), and at a disease hotspot in Laikipia (Rift Valley region). Line development. One hundred red mottled lines selected from KP01 were evaluated in major agroecological zones in Uganda, Ethiopia, D. R. Congo, Cameroon, Kenya, Rwanda andTanzania between 2004 and2008 to identify lines with broad and country specific adaptation both on-station and in farmers' fields. Regionally important red mottled commercial cultivars were included as checks. The trials were laid out in lattice design with three or four replicates. Each plot had four, 5 m rows. Agronomic data was collected from the inner two rows. Intra-row spacing was 10 cm and 45 between rows. Rating for biotic and abiotic stresses followed CIAT (1987) standard system. Collaborators added other promising red mottled lines to the standard set (25 entries) for comparison.Fifty-one lines were selected from KP 86 populations and evaluated in advanced yield trials at 10 locations for three seasons. Four commercial varieties (GLP2, GLP 24, GLP 92 and GLP 1004) were included as checks. Twenty-one lines were selected for participatory on-farm evaluations in eight locations for two seasons. They were distributed as a regional nursery.Two hundred eighty one F 2.6 lines selected from seven KP04 populations were evaluated in preliminary and intermediate yield trials at Kabete, Laikipia and Ol Jorok (Kenya). The 281 F 2.6 lines were originated from seven of the 11 populations: KAB 02 (67 lines), KAB 05 (16 lines), KAB 06 (70 lines), KAB 12 (25 lines), KAB 10 (47 lines), KAB 11 (30 lines) and KAB 13 (26 lines). These lines were previously selected for resistance to diseases, plant type and other agronomic traits for five generations at Kabete, Sabatia, Ol Jorok and Laikipia field sites in Kenya.Variety release. Each country selected candidate varieties from the regional nurseries for final evaluations and variety released based on the national variety release procedures.Natural epiphytotics facilitated elimination of plants and progeny rows susceptible to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, rust, and common bacterial blight in F 2 , F 3 and F 4 at Kabete (1860 masl). However, the severity of diseases varied with seasons. Root rots occurred sporadically especially after the heavy rains. In Kawanda, 453 lines were inoculated with Mesoamerican and Andean races of Phaeoisariopsis griseola in a screenhouse. One hundred seventy-two lines were resistant to Mesoamerican races; 173 showed intermediate reactions and 86 were susceptible. When inoculated with Andean races, 184 lines showed resistant reactions, 99 were intermediate and 148 were susceptible. Both Andean and Mesoamerican races and their intermediates occur in many bean growing areas in East and Central Africa. However, Andean races are more widespread. Results showed that 143 lines were resistant to races from the two gene pools. Table 51 shows some of the genotypes with combining resistance to races from the two gene-pools. Two lines NM 12667-4A-1 and UBR (93)22-5-1 had no disease after inoculation with the two race groups. NM 12667-4A-1 was selected from the cross (PVA 773 x ICA Tunduma)F 1 x(PVA 800A x((XAN 309 x A193)F 1 x(MAR3 x G5653)F 1 ) . ICA Tunduma, PVA 800A, A193, MAR 3 and G5653 are resistant to angular leaf spot (Table 50). This suggested that NM 12667-4A-1 may have several alleles conditioning resistance to races of Mesoamerican and Andean Phaeoisariopsis griseola.  A total of 715 lines were artificially inoculated with Pythium spp at Kawanda. Results showed that three lines were resistant, 239 intermediate and 473 were susceptible. Promisnig lines are presented in Table 52. Pythium spp. are frequently the initial incitant of root rots in bean growing areas of East and Central Africa. Outstanding lines resistant to Pythium were NR 12631-7-1, NM 12657-5C-2 and NM 12646-3-1. All were derived from multi-parent crosses. Three hundred lines were screened for resistance to root rots in a field plot heavily infested with the disease in Sabatia. Twenty-five lines succumbed to the disease and produced no seed. All the other lines produced seeds which varied from 0.5 to nearly 400 g m -2 . Table 53 shows that the best lines produced significant amounts of seed despite heavy disease pressure.Outstanding lines included selections from RAB 475, DFA 62, NR 12797-8-1, NR 12633A-6-1, NR 12633-5-1 and NM 12805-7C-1. These lines produced over 300 g m -2 . The results showed that some of the outstanding lines in greenhouse and field screening originated from the same crosses: NR 12631, NM 12657, NM 12646 and NR12633 (Tables 52 and 53). Mortality among the best lines ranged from 0% (DFA 62-1 and NM12646-3-1) to 48% (NR 12656-8A-1). A total of 275 lines were selected for further evaluation. These represented not only the red mottled class but another four commercial classes as well.The methodology described here is relevant for those classes, especially the red kidney class.    (Kimani, 2006). In Kenya, five lines were recommended for full release after evaluation in national performance trials in December 2007 (Table 57). The results showed that the candidate varieties were more resistant to angular leaf spot, BCMV, halo blight and common bacterial blight compared to the susceptible checks. All candidate varieties, except KK22, were more tolerant to anthracnose compared with GLP 2. KK22 also was more susceptible to bean common mosaic necrotic virus (BCMNV) compared with other varieties and checks. Release of new varieties: Table 58 shows some of the bush red mottled varieties released in east and central Africa since 2003.Contributors: Paul Kimani, Robin Buruchara (CIAT), Annet Namayanja (Uganda), Félicité Nzansebara, (Rwanda), Asrat Asfaw (Ethiopia) and Nkonko Mbikayi (D. R. Congo).Collaborators: Bean Teams of Madagascar, Uganda, D. R. Congo, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Kenya and TanzaniaRationale: Red kidney bean is one of the most important grain types grown by smallholders and consumed in rural and urban centres in East and Central Africa. An estimated 350,000 ha are grown annually in Africa (Wortmann et al., 1998). Red kidneys are highly marketable in many areas and have potential for export. They account for about 11% of beans marketed in this region. A market survey conducted in 2000 by the East and Central Africa Bean Research Network (ECABREN) showed that red kidney bean was important in Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Cameroon, southern Ethiopia, southern Sudan and Madagascar. However, these seed types are relatively low yielding under the lowinput management. They are susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses. Their productivity is severely constrained by angular leaf spot, anthracnose, root rots, bean stem maggot, low soil phosphorus and nitrogen, and drought. Production is dominated by a single variety, Canadian Wonder which was introduced in the region more than 50 years ago (CIAT, 2004). However the productivity of this variety has been on the decline because of susceptibility to diseases, especially angular leaf spot, anthracnose, common bacterial blight, root rots, drought and declining soil fertility. More recent releases such as Selian 97 have yet to meet consumer acceptability comparable to Canadian Wonder. Red kidney bean is predominantly produced by smallholder farmers, with limited options for inputs to reduce effects of biotic and abiotic stresses (CIAT, 2003). Because most of the resource poor smallholder farmers can hardly afford purchased inputs, breeding cultivars tolerant to the major stresses is considered as the most effective strategy for developing improved cultivars. A regional breeding program led by Selian Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) in Arusha, Tanzania and University of Nairobi, Kabete (Kenya) was started in 2001 to develop new high yielding red kidney cultivars with resistance to two or more biotic and abiotic stresses and with desirable grain characteristics for smallholder farmers in East and Central Africa ( Kimani, 2005). Selection was carried out concurrently from existing and new populations at Arusha and Kabete. Promising lines with resistance to two or more or biotic and abiotic and improved yields were constituted into a regional nursery in 2003. The regional red kidney nursery was distributed to other national programs for participatory evaluation by farmers and researchers. This report highlights progress made in development of red kidney varieties fro smallholder farmers in eastern Africa between 2003 and 2008.Red kidney program started with development of segregating populations from simple and multiple crosses, and introduction of red kidney grain type from CIAT, Colombia. During the first phase of this work, the segregating populations were selected for six to eight generations under natural and artificial disease epiphytotics, low soil fertility and drought stress. In second phase, red kidney lines with acceptable grain and resistance to major stresses were entered into regional evaluations to expose them to a wider range of pathogen diversity and production environments in East and Central Africa and to identify candidates for national and regional releases.Population development. Germplasm from multiple constraint nurseries, segregating populations, advanced lines, regional disease nurseries and the regional program at Kabete (Kenya) and Selian Agricultural Research Institute, Arusha (Tanzania). Sources of resistance to anthracnose, angular leaf spot and root rots were identified and used in crosses with susceptible commercial cultivars.At Selian, G 5686, BAT 332 and Mexico 54 were the used as sources of resistance to angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, powdery mildew and rust based on local validation trials. UBR (92)25 was the source of resistance to low soil N, P and drought. G 22501, G22258 and G11746 were used as sources of resistance to bean stem maggot and drought. A total of 11 single, 21 three-way and 11 double cross populations were developed (Table 59).At Kabete, breeding started with creation of segregating populations from bi-parent and multi-parent crosses. Parents were selected for known resistances to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, drought and tolerance to low soil fertility.Selection at Selian. Selection for priority stresses was performed from eight multiple constraint nurseries (MCN) constituted at Kabete in 2000, and also from segregating populations. MCN nurseries had 294 red kidney lines distributed as follows: MCN I (12 lines), MCN II (157 lines), MCN III (20 lines), MCN IV (47 lines), MCN V (12 lines), MCN VI (21 lines), Kabete PSP (18 lines) and KS-PSP (7 lines). These lines were evaluated for most important diseases in northern Tanzania which include angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, anthracnose, rust, bean common mosaic virus and bean stem maggot at Selian and Olmotony field sites. Starting in 2001, a regional nursery of 100 red kidney advanced lines from the regional program at Kabete was evaluated for resistance to angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, anthracnose, bean common mosaic virus and tolerance to manganese and iron toxicity at Selian. Selection at Kabete. More than 60 F 2 populations were initially grown Kabete Field station and selected for tolerance to diseases, seed type, type I or II growth habit over two generations. Selected plants were advanced in single plant progeny rows in F 3 and F 4 generations. F 4 bulks were screened for resistance to Pythium root rot, angular leaf spot and anthracnose using artificial inoculation at Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute (Uganda). They were concurrently tested for tolerance to low soil phosphorus in Kakamega and in a root rot infested field plot in Sabatia (Western Kenya). To select for yield potential, F 5 and F 6 lines were grown in preliminary and intermediate yield trials at four locations in Kenya. About 102 selected lines were evaluated in advanced yield trials at three locations. Two regionally important red kidney cultivars, Canadian Wonder and Selian 97, were included as checks. The 102 were constituted into a regional red kidney nursery which was distributed to collaborating countries interested in this grain type (CIAT, 2004).Selection for multiple resistance. More than 140 populations from single, three-way and double crosses were generated at Selian and Kabete. F 2 populations were screened for resistance to diseases at Kabete Field station and selected for seed type, type I or II growth habit over two generations. Selected plants were advanced in single plant progeny rows in F 3 and F 4 generations. Populations were managed as described for the red mottled class, including disease inoculations and evaluations. Red kidney lines found to combine tolerance to low soil P included NM 12806-2A-1, AND 1055-1, RWR 1742-1, NR 12634-6-1 and NR 12634-13C-1. AND 1055-1 was resistant to root rots in Kakamega and under artificial inoculation in Kawanda. Lines with combined tolerance to low P and low N included RWR 1742-1 and full sibs from the crosses NM 12806-2A and NR 12634-13C, NR 12638-1B, NR 12639-5 and NR 12634-9B-1, RWK 10, VTTT 920-26, NM 12806-2A and NR 12634-13C. Two lines showed high levels of tolerance to the three stresses. These were NM 12806-2A-1 and NR 12634-13C.Selections were also made from KP86 populations. Canadian Wonder (GLP 24) was one of the parents from which these populations were derived (Table 60). Evaluation of Advanced lines. At Selian, 43 lines selected from the MCN nurseries were subsequently distributed for further evaluation in Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda (Table 61). In Tanzania, 23 lines with multiple resistance to diseases, low soil fertility and drought were selected from 294 MCN lines and evaluated in preliminary and advanced yield trials, uniformity cultivar trials (UCT) and finally the national bean yield trials (NBYT). However, selection from the segregating populations was delayed following of departure of the breeder for further studies.Low yields were recorded in Madagascar. Yields of the best 12 lines varied from 710 to 1693 kg ha -1 . However, only five lines had better yields than Canadian Wonder (GLP 24) with a mean yield of 825 kg ha -1 . These were ECAB 0240 (889 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0247 (875 kg ha -1 ), AND 931-B1 (982 kg ha -1 ), TZ 201-439-3 (777 kg ha -1 ), EMP 250-51 (1142 kg ha -1 ), VTT 926/2-4 (1693 kg ha -1 ) and UBR (91)45-1 (1266 kg ha -1 ). ECAB 0240 and UBR (91)45-1 flowered in 40 days. TZ 201-439-3 was the last to reach 50% flowering (48 days). Table 62 shows some characteristics of these lines. is grown in eastern D. R. Congo for export to urban centers in the western part of the country. Brown and speckled sugars are also important for domestic markets in Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda. Speckled sugars are exported to regional markets by D. R. Congo and to international markets by Madagascar. However, productivity of speckled sugars is constrained by rust, angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, halo blight and poor tolerance to low soil nitrogen and phosphorus. Varieties with multiple resistance to diseases is probably the most effective and efficient strategy for managing these diseases, especially in low input systems common in eastern Africa. The East and Central Africa Bean Research Network (ECABREN) in collaboration with Southern Africa Bean Research (SABRN) network started a collaborative program to develop high yielding speckled sugar varieties with resistance to two or more biotic and abiotic constraints and marketable grain characteristics. The national bean program of D. R. Congo (INERA) has been leading a regional initiative to develop and disseminate improved varieties of speckled sugars for the last eight years, with a back-up regional program in Kenya, focusing on smallholder production. Objective of the program is to develop speckled sugar cultivars with improved grain yield and resistance to angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, rust and tolerance to low soil fertility (Kimani, 2005). Selection activities were conducted collaboratively in Kenya and D. R. Congo countries with promising candidate lines constituting a regional nursery for evaluation by interested member countries. This report highlights progress made in this program since its inception.Materials and Methods: A regional germplasm collection was assembled at Kabete and screened for sugar grain type. The collection comprised of segregating populations (KP01) derived from 52 parents of diverse genetic backgrounds and known resistance to specific stress factors, especially angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight and halo blight. Included in this collection were six multiple constraint nurseries (MCN) constituted from advanced lines developed at CIAT, Colombia and from regional breeding programs in East and Central Africa. The materials were initially screened for adaptation and tolerance to biotic stress factors at Kabete Field Station, University of Nairobi and at INERA-Mulungu Research Station in D. R. Congo. At Mulungu, lines selected from F 2 and F 3 populations were evaluated in participatory trial sites in eastern D. R. Congo (Mbikayi and Kimani, 2004). In Kenya, single plant selections were selected from KP01 population and used to establish F 3 and F 4 progeny rows at Kabete Field Station. Progeny rows were selected on basis of reaction to angular leaf spot, rust, root rot, common bacterial blight and plant characteristics. F 5 lines were grown in preliminary yield trials. F 6 lines were grown in intermediate yield trials at three locations. Twenty-seven selected lines were finally selected for advanced regional yield trials in Uganda, D. R. Congo and Kenya. 'Brown Speckled' released in Ethiopia and Sugar 73 (Uganda) were included as checks. Disease scoring followed the standard CIAT scale (Schoonhoven and Pastor-Corrales, 1987).In Kenya, progeny from KP 86 F 2 populations were selected for eight generations for resistance to six diseases (rust, angular leaf spot, anthracnose, halo blight, BCMV and common bacterial blight), yield and seed characteristics both in the greenhouse and in the field. Disease assessment was based on artificial inoculations and natural epiphytotics in the field. Disease assessment was done 21 days after inoculation (R6) and also at mid-pod filling (R8). Susceptible plants were discarded. To determine the yield potential of early generation lines, more than 200 F 4 and F 5 lines were evaluated at five locations for two seasons. Fifty-one lines were selected and evaluated in advanced yield trials at 10 locations for three seasons and also distributed to countries interested in this grain type (Tanzania, Uganda, D. R. Congo and Kenya). Four commercial varieties (GLP2, GLP 24, GLP 92 and GLP 1004) were included as checks. Twenty-one lines were selected for participatory on-farm evaluation in eight districts for two seasons. Yield data for 51 lines and the four check cultivars in 24 environments were analyzed for type 1 and type 4 stability parameters (Francis and Kannenberg, 1978;Lin et al 1986;Lin andBinns, 1988, 1991). Finally, nine lines were selected for multi-location national performance trials conducted at nine sites for three seasons.Results and Discussion: Performance of F 8 lines selected from the KP01 populations in Kenya is shown in Table 64. Results showed that there were significant genotypic differences for duration to flowering, maturity, pod m -2 , 100-seed mass and grain yield (Table 64). Environmental effects were significant for phenology, angular leaf spot, anthracnose, rust, root rot, 100-seed mass and grain yield (P>0.01). Significant genotype x environment interaction was detected for days to flowering, root rot, days to maturity, 100-seed mass and grain yield. Angular leaf spot incidence was higher at Thika. Anthracnose incidence was highest at Juja. Rust incidence was highest at Juja during short rain season. Root rot was most severe at Thika. ECAB 0811 and ECAB 0822 showed intermediate reactions to root rot at this site. All other lines were rated resistant. The results indicated that some of the new lines had considerable yield advantage compared to the check cultivars. The results showed that 21 new lines produced higher grain yield compared to 'Brown Speckled' (Table 64). Seven lines produced higher grain yield than Sugar 73. These results were subsequently confirmed in advanced yield trials. Ten lines showed better yield that Sugar 73 and Brown Speckled. These were ECAB 0806, ECAB 0822, ECAB 0810, ECAB0807, ECAB 0805, ECAB 0808, ECAB 0817, ECAB 0826 and ECAB 0802. Mean yield of test lines over two environments varied from 1484 to 1675 kg ha -1 compared with 1455 kg ha -1 for Sugar 73 and 1411 kg ha -1 for Speckled Sugar. The test lines showed resistant reactions to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, rust and root rots in two environments.Results from INERA-Mulungu are presented in Table 65. Seven sugar lines were selected from 40 test lines. Five of the selected lines flowered and matured earlier than M'Mafutala, the check variety. Five lines showed higher 100-seed mass and grain yield than the check. These lines showed either resistant or intermediate reactions to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, ascochyta blight and rust at Mulungu. Two lines had more than 500 kg ha -1 yield advantage over the check.Advanced yield trials were conducted at INERA-Mulungu for the 27 lines received from the regional speckled sugar nursery in Kenya. These were separated into bush growth habit (Type I and II) and climbers (Type III and IV). Results showed that lines with bush growth habit (Types I and II) flowered in 39 to 48 days, and matured in 82 to 94 days. As expected, climbing bean lines flowered and matured later. There was high disease pressure due to angular leaf spot at Mulungu. However, all selected lines had intermediate reactions to angular leafspot. Most of the lines showed resistant scores to anthracnose, aschochyta and rust. Grain yield varied from 1009 kg ha -1 for RWV 1128-2 to 2004 kg ha -1 for KS 151-3F11-1, and 2024 kg ha -1 for P94056. The climbing sugar bean lines did not show the expected superiority for grain yield compared to the bush lines. Ten bush lines and three climbers were selected for further evaluation. The selected bush lines were P94056, KS 65-2, NM 12652/9A-1, NM 12650/4A-1, NM 12633/9A, VTTT 926/3-5, NM 12656/14-1, MX 875-3T, NM 12647/A-1 and KS 151-3F11-1. The selected climbers were MAC 70-2, RWV 1134 and RWV1128-2.In Western Congo, two lines KS 65-2 and KS 47-1 which performed well in lowland conditions were recommended for pre-release. In Uganda, MAC 31 was selected. This line became very popular in local markets because of its large seeds and pods. It is now widely grown in eastern Uganda (Mbale district) for domestic and export markets.  Participatory Variety Selection. A total of 113 on-farm trials were conducted in Kenya; 47 in the long rain season and 66 during the short rain season. Sixty-six farmers were interviewed during the post-trial evaluation. Most farmers had grown the test lines for the two seasons. Over 95% of the participating farmers were women. Except for Nakuru, Embu and Kisii, farmers in other districts grew the lines in pure stands. In Nyeri, farmers selected line E2 because of high yield, taste, thick soup and fast cooking. In Taita-Taveta, farmers selected E7 based on grain color, yield, earliness, seed and pod size, disease resistance and tolerance to heavy rain. In Embu, farmers selected E4 and E7. Primary selection criteria included maturity, yield, seed traits, taste, reaction to diseases and pests, and tolerance to excess rain. Farmers in Kisii, Kakamega and Machakos listed similar criteria.Stability analysis. Plotting the grand mean yield against the coefficient of variation (CV%) divided the genotypes into four groups: Group I had high yield, small variation; Group II had high yield, large variation, Group III had low yield, small variation, and Group IV had low yield and large variation. E7 showed the showed the smallest variation across environments. GLP 585, a commercial check had the lowest grain yield and the largest CV across environments. Analyses based on type 1 stability parameter showed that E2 and E7 combined high yield and stability. These two lines were rated better than the commercial checks. E2 was rated as high yielding and stable by type 4 stability analyses.National performance trials and release. Based on farmer assessments and on-station evaluation, four sugar lines were registered for the nation performance trials (NPT). This trial with 16 bush entries lines and three checks was conducted at nine sites. The national trials were conducted over two long rain (March-August) and short rain seasons (November -December). The check varieties were GLP x 92 ('Mwitemania'), GLP 2 (Rosecoco) and GLP 1127 ('New Mwezi Moja'). Table 66 shows the performance of sugar lines in these evaluations. The results showed that E2 had 17.7% yield advantage over the best check and 24.8 % over the mean of the checks. E4 had a 4.2% yield advantage over the best check across the nine environments and 11.1% over the mean of the checks. E7 showed a 5.1% yield advantage over the best check and 12.1% over the mean of the checks. Disease severity rating showed that the test lines had favorable reactions to several diseases, and showed lower levels of susceptibility compared with the check varieties. For example GLP 92 had 6.63% incidence for angular leaf spot compared to 4.4% for E2, 4.6% for E4 and 5.3% for E7. For anthracnose, GLP 2 had a 3.5% incidence compared with 1.9% for E2, 1% for E7 and 1.9% for E4.BCMV incidence was 23.8% for GLP 92 compared with 12.5% for E2, 18.9% for E7 and 19% for E4. Incidence of common bacterial blight was 17.4% for GLP 92 compared with 9.7% for E2, 9.8% for E7 and 7.6% for E4. Mean incidence for halo blight was 3.6% for GLP 2, compared with 2.7 % for E2, 3.2 for E7 and 1.5% for E4. The three sugar lines (E2, E4 and E7) were recommended for full release the National Variety Release Committee.Variety Release and Conclusions: Several new speckled sugar varieties were released in eastern Africa between 2003 and 2008 (Table 67). In Uganda, Sugar 73 was released as NABE 5. MAC 31, a climber was released as NABE 12. In Ethiopia, 'Kranskop', which originated from South Africa was released. In Kenya, three bush and one climbing bean speckled sugar varieties were formally released in 2008. These results indicate that improved sugar bean varieties were identified from the working collection and locally developed populations. However, color retention in sugars remains a challenge. Most sugar varieties change from preferred wine red speckles on cream or white background to brown after storage, thus losing their consumer appeal. Breeding small and medium red bean varieties resistant to multiple stresses for smallholder producers in eastern Africa Rationale: Small and medium red bean cultivars are the second most important grain type grown by smallholder farmers in East and central Africa after the red mottled class. They account for more than 20% of bean grown and marketed in East, Central and Southern Africa. An estimated 670,000 ha are sown with small red bean each year. They are widely grown by smallholder farmers and consumed in rural and urban centres in the region. Small reds are of high to moderate importance in Ethiopia, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Madagascar, D. R. Congo, Uganda and Tanzania (Wortmann et al., 1998). Although they are generally moderate to high yielding, their productivity is severely constrained by rust, angular leaf spot, root rots, low soil P and N. For example, a recently released and widely adopted climber 'Umubano' succumbed to Fusarium wilt in Rwanda and bean common mosaic virus in Kenya. Many farmers have stopped growing this variety despite its good yield potential. Red Wolaita, probably the most important variety in Ethiopia for domestic market, is susceptible to rust, angular leaf spot, anthracnose and common bacterial blight. GLP 585, released in 1984, is probably the most popular small red cultivar in Kenya. It is however very susceptible to rust, anthracnose, root rots and angular leaf spot. Masaai Red is a popular landrace in Tanzania but susceptible to rust and other diseases. A regional program led by Ethiopian national program in partnership with University of Nairobi, Selian Agricultural Research Institute at Arusha, Tanzania and CIAT was initiated in 2001 to develop high yielding, marketable small red bush bean cultivars with tolerance and/or resistance to a combination of three or more biotic and abiotic stresses and suitable for production in sole and intercrop systems in Africa. Our specific objectives were to: i) initiate crossing programs to develop new populations segregating for priority traits at Awassa, Selian and Kabete, ii) identify recombinants from the populations, iii) evaluate promising lines for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, iv) constitute a small and medium red bean nursery for regional evaluation, and v) conduct multi-location and participatory evaluations with farmers and release candidate varieties.Materials and Methods: A regional breeding nursery for small and medium red was constituted from advanced lines from CIAT and national programs of Kenya and Ethiopia in 1998/1999(CIAT, 2002). Multi-parent crosses were used to create segregating populations. Parents included in the crossing block were selected based on known resistance to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, rust and tolerance to low soil fertility. Selected commercial varieties and donor parents for specific traits were used in crossing programs in Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania to combine resistances to biotic and abiotic stresses with farmer preferred traits in single, three way and double crosses. The segregating populations were grown at Kabete Field Station, (Kenya) and at the Southern Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) in Awassa (Ethiopia) and selected for tolerance to diseases, plant and grain type for three generations. F 4 and F 5 bulks were screened for tolerance to root rots and tolerance to low soil fertility in Kakamega and Mulungu Station in Eastern Congo. Lines selected from segregating populations for disease resistance and other agronomic traits were evaluated in preliminary, intermediate and advanced trials in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Madagascar and Rwanda. Twenty-five advanced generation small red lines were evaluated at eight locations in Kenya, three in Cameroon, two in Ethiopia (Awassa and Melkassa), and one each in Madagascar and Tanzania (CIAT, 2003). The trials were laid out in a 6 x 6 lattice design with three replicates. Each entry was sown in four, 5 m rows. Regionally important commercial cultivars were included as checks. These were: Red Wolaita from Ethiopia, Maasai Red from Tanzania and GLP 585 (Wairimu) from Kenya. The entries were also included in participatory variety selection trials at two sites in Uganda, three in Rwanda and two in Kenya.Population development. In Kenya, crosses were made to transfer rust, anthracnose, root rots and angular leaf spot resistance to GLP 585 (locally known as 'Red Haricot') and Maasai Red. Roba-1 and Awash were used as sources of rust resistance in these crosses. G2333 and Vunikingi contributed resistance to root rots and anthracnose. Mexico 54 and G5686 were donors for angular leaf spot resistance genes. Four hundred twenty successful pollinations were made for the GLP 585 improvement program and 469 pollinations for Maasai Red program.The Ethiopian crossing program for small reds was started in 2001 at Awassa Regional Research Centre. It focused on improvement of Red Wolaita, the most popular and widely grown small red in Ethiopia. Red Wolaita is low yielding and susceptible to rust angular leaf spot (ALS), common bacterial blight (CBB), anthracnose, drought and bean stem maggot (BSM). It is widely adapted and has attractive and marketable seed color. Donor parents used in the crossing program included G6, EMP 376, G6450, DOR 794, DOR 716, EMP 375 and EMP 252. Additional donor parents selected for the expanded program included Mexico 54 (ALS), G5686 (ALS), XAN lines (CBB), G2333 (anthracnose), Beshbesh and Melka (BSM), Awash-1 and Roba (rust). In addition to simple crosses, the crossing program developed multiparent males with multiple resistances for backcrossing to the recurrent parents (Red Haricot, Maasai Red and Red Wolaita). Several populations were developed at Awassa in 2005 and 2006 (Table 68). These populations were advanced through single pod bulk and modified pedigree methods and also used for genetic studies (Asrat, 2006). Selection criteria include resistance to angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight, floury leaf spot, rust and drought.  92)25 (low soil N), G5686 (angular leaf spot), G11746 and G22258 (bean stem maggot). Fourteen three-way and 11 double crosses were subsequently made with the same set of parents to generate combinations of resistance to angular leaf spot, bean stem maggot and adaptation to low soil fertility and small red grain type. Due to departure of the breeder for further studies, limited selection was conducted on these populations.Early generation selection. Five populations developed at Awassa were evaluated for different constraints including moisture stress. Five F 1.2 populations were first evaluated at Awassa under early and late sown conditions during the main season (meher). The best performing F 1.2 's were advanced to F 3 . 169 F 1.3 seeds of each family were divided into three equal parts and evaluated for stresses prevalent at each of the three contrasting test sites during the short rain season (belg); Awassa (1750 m) for common bacterial blight, Kokate (2161m) for tolerance to low soil P and N, and at Amaro (1426 m) for drought. Five checks Omo-95(RWR-719), DOR-554, DICTA-105, Roba and Red Wolaita were included in the trial. The best populations were selected and advanced to F 4 using single pod bulk method. Seventy-one F 1.3 families combining high yield with biotic and abiotic stress resistance/tolerance under natural conditions were selected and advanced to F 4. The moisture stress was very severe during the cropping season at Amaro and even cowpea which is drought tolerant totally failed at Amaro in this season. A majority of the families did not yield at all, but 12 families gave grain yield of more than 1000 kg ha -1 (Table 69). CAW-02-03-10-7, CAW-02-04-7-7 and CAW-02-01-2-1 gave the best yields of 1549, 1520 and 1442 kg ha -1 under moisture stress, compared with yields of DOR-554 and Omo-95 that gave 678 and 661 kg ha -1 , respectively. These families also expressed good yielding potential and resistance to diseases both Awassa and Kokate test locations (Tables 69 and 70).The 71 F 1.4 families from five populations were further evaluated for two generations (F 1.4 and F 1.5 ) under drought stress at Amaro during the meher and belg seasons following population bulk method. From best performing families, five most vigorous plants were selected to create progeny rows for line selection. This resulted in 265 F 1.6 lines. These lines were evaluated in a preliminary yield trial at Awassa during the meher season. The trial was laid in augmented randomized block design. Three checks (Omo-95, Red Wolaita and DOR-554) were included. The lines were planted in single, 2m row plots spaced at 80cm. The test lines expressed variability for grain yield. Grain yield of the 2 m row plots varied from 251 g for (CAW-02-04-7-7-2) to 967g for (CAW-02-03-8-1-1). Fifty-one lines out-yielded the best check variety. Two populations (RWR-719///Red Wolaita/ICTA JU-95-4//XAN-317/DOR-794 and ROBA///EMP-445/DFA-64//Red Wolaita/RAB-589) accounted for more than 92 % of the best yielding lines. The best performing 95 lines were advanced to F 7 and planted in advanced yield trials at six locations during the meher season. Results showed that lines developed from drought tolerant families expressed good performance in favorable environments.Advanced Yield Trials. In Kenya, 10 advanced lines were selected from the preliminary and intermediate yield trials at Kabete, Juja and Thika (Tables 71 and 72). These had a yield potential above 2 t ha -1 and matured in less than 95 days. CAL 170B-4, DFA 52-1, DFA 57, EMP250-3-1, FEB 200-1, ECAB 0408, ECAB 0416, ECAB 0424, ECAB 0428, ECAB 0426 and ECAB 0411 were susceptible to rust (score of 7 and above) at Thika (CIAT, 2001). BRB 71-1 and TLP 8-1 were discarded due to susceptibility to black root. FEB 200-1 showed moderate tolerance to low soil P at Kakamega. All lines showed intermediate or resistant reactions to rust, angular leaf spot and anthracnose at the three sites.  In Ethiopia, advanced medium and small red lines from the first regional nursery constituted in 2001, were evaluated at 13 sites representing a wide range of production zones. The most promising entries from national variety trials were DOR 527, DOR 711 and DOR 811. Farmers also evaluated and selected advanced lines in on-farm trials conducted in Melkassa, Awassa and Alemaya in participatory variety selection program (Assefa et al., 2007). Two new regional small red nurseries were developed at Awassa between 2005 and 2008; the first nursery had 97 SNNPR lines, and second had 74 ETAW lines. The nurseries were distributed for further evaluation and identification of candidate varieties to programs in D. R. Congo, Kenya and Tanzania.Ninety-seven SNNPR lines and three checks were evaluated at Amaro in southern Ethiopia during the belg season. The 33 best yielding lines selected at Amaro were further evaluated in multi-location trials in nine environments in southern Ethiopia for two years. The test lines expressed highly significant variation for grain yield both at Awassa and Amaro. The mean yield ranged from 3531 (local) to 6355 (SNNPR-1-30) kg ha -1 at Awassa location and 178 (SNNPR-1-11) to 675 (SNNPR-1-29) kg ha -1 at Amaro test location. Sixteen test lines significantly out-yielded the best check DOR-554 (4556 kg ha -1 ) at Awassa. At Amaro under severe drought conditions, five lines out yielded the best local check. Among checks used in the trial, local farmer variety performed better under moisture stress at Amaro. Seventy 74 ETAW lines along with four checks were evaluated at Kokate (low soil P and N) in 2 m row plots using a lattice design with two replicates. The grain yield ranged from 1859 (ETAW-02-2-7) to 6537 kg ha -1 (ETAW-02-4-9). Thirty five lines performed better than the best check DOR-554.In Madagascar, seven small red lines were selected. Grain yield of the selected lines varied from 771 to 1278 kg ha -1 . The selected lines were ECAB 0427 (771 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0418 (707 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0411 (1155 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0417 (1278 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0415 (1072 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0422 (824 kg ha -1 ) and ECAB 0410 (780 kg ha -1 ). This compared with 870 kg ha -1 for GLP 585. The selected lines flowered in 42 to 48 days in Madagascar. GLP 585, ECAB 0415 and ECAB 0410 flowered in 48 days. All other lines flowered in 42 to 43 days.In Tanzania, 20 small red ECAB lines were evaluated for two seasons in Madiira. Growing conditions were favourable for plant growth and disease development. Results showed that test lines showed had intermediate to resistant reactions to rust and common bacterial blight. ECAB0411, ECAB0417 and MCM 2001 showed intermediate reactions to anthracnose. All other lines showed resistant reactions. Disease pressure was high for anthracnose, bean common mosaic virus and angular leaf spot. Diseases with the highest mean score on this trial were angular leaf spot (mean 4) and BCMV (mean 5). Nevertheless all genotypes showed resistant to intermediate reactions to diseases (scores 1-6), except entry Red Wolaita which was susceptible to BCMV. Flowering duration was between 41 and 48 days. Plant vigor ranged from 2.0 to 5. Nine lines had better yields compared to the check varieties (GLP 585, Red Wolaita and Maasai Red). The best yielding entries were ECAB0420 (4717 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0429 (4485 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0421 (4366 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0412 (4319 kg ha -1 ), ECAB 0426 (4286 kg ha -1 ) and ECAB0401 (4091 kg ha -1 ). Yield of checks varied from 2.9 to 3.3 t ha -1 in these trials.Regionally, four new lines were selected in the three countries. These were ECAB 0418, ECAB 0411, ECAB 0417 and ECAB 0410. Eight lines were selected in two of the three countries. Three lines were selected in one country.Variety Release: Several varieties have been released in countries where this grain type is important (Table 73). Melka Dima (XAN 310) was released in Ethiopia in response to demand for a cover crop that reduces loss of soil moisture. It is high yielding and resistant to common bacteria blight. Nasser (DICTA 105) is high yielding, resistant to common bacterial blight and early maturing. Omo 95 (RWR 719) was selected during the participatory breeding program in southern Ethiopia. It has light red seeds that cook fast. Omo 95 is high yielding, resistant to common bacterial blight and root rots. It has been reported to be drought tolerant in southern Ethiopia. Batagonia is a red seeded, high yielding climbing bean variety, and probably the first formally released climbing bean in Ethiopia. Contributors: Paul Kimani, Asrat Asfaw and Teshale Assefa (Ethiopia)Collaborators: Sostenes Kweka (Tanzania), Hery (Madagascar), Beam Teams at Kabete (Kenya), Selian (Tanzania), Awassa (Southern Ethiopia), FOFIFA (Madagascar), Melkassa (Central Ethiopia) and Mulungu (D. R. Congo) environments. Carioca bean may have potential in niche markets. For example, carioca grain type has been in high demand in the Copper Belt of Zambia and sugar estates of Swaziland which are underexploited markets for ECABREN countries. However, available cultivars of brown, tan and yellow beans are susceptible to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, root rots, rust, and halo blight, low soil P and nitrogen and Al/Mn toxicity. These factors contribute to the low production and inability to meet demand in domestic and regional markets. Although these grain types are important to smallholder farmers, little effort has been devoted to their improvement in Africa. Regional programs were therefore started in 2001 to develop improved cultivars of these grain types with a high yield potential, a combination of tolerance to three or more biotic and abiotic stresses and grain characteristics acceptable to consumers in target markets. The main achievements of these programs are presented briefly in this report.Materials and Methods: Brown, tan, yellow and carioca bean grain types were selected from F 2 and F 3 segregating populations at Kabete. The populations were derived from multi-parent crossing program, which included lines with known tolerance to major biotic and abiotic stresses (Kimani et al., 2004;Lunze et al., 2007). The selections were grown in progeny rows at Kabete to increase uniformity within families and to expose them to disease and drought stress. F 5 and F 6 lines were grown in preliminary and intermediate yield trials at three locations in Kenya including Thika. Thirteen lines selected in advanced yield trials and lines from other multiple constraint nurseries were used to constitute a regional nursery. The regional nursery was distributed for further evaluation to member countries interested in these grain types between 2000and 2005(CIAT 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004and 2005)).Breeding populations were also generated at INERA -Mulungu Research Station in eastern D. R. Congo. This program started in 2001, and focused on improving resistance to angular leaf spot (ALS) in three locally popular but susceptible cultivars: Kirundo (yellow), Munyu (brown) and Nakaja (tan). Six hundred sixty-nine pollinations were made with A285, A235, Mex 54, G5686, MLB-36-89A and A339 as sources for resistance to ALS. Other resistance sources used were: G11727, ACC 714 and Besh-Besh for bean stem maggot. VEF(88), LPY6, CIM 9314, LSA 32 and PAN 150 were used a sources of resistance to low N, P and low pH complex. These sources were combined in complex crosses and backcrossed to the three recurrent parents. Early generation (F 2 to F 4 ) populations were evaluated for resistance to angular leaf spot, root rots, anthracnose and common bacterial blight in disease 'hot spots'. F 5 and F 6 generations were evaluated for grain yield and other agronomic traits in replicated trials at 2 to 4 locations in Kenya and D. R. Congo. Selected lines with multiple constraint resistance were subjected to participatory selection with men and women farmers to identify lines that met breeder, farmer and consumer criteria in F 7 and F 8 generations. Gofta, a brown seeded variety released in Ethiopia, line A197, Kirundo, and other yellow and tan colored local varieties were included as checks. Standard agronomic practices were followed. Best performing lines were entered in multi-location national variety yield trials to identify candidates for release in collaborating countries.Results and Discussion: ECAB 0761 showed an intermediate reaction to root rot at Thika. All other genotypes showed resistant reaction to angular leaf spot, anthracnose and rust. Genotypes flowered and matured earliest at Thika and later at Kabete. Average duration to maturity was 87 days at Kabete compared to 82 days at Thika. Average pod yield was 161 pods m -2 at Thika compared with 162 pods m -2 at Thika. Mean seed mass was highest at Kabete (30.8 g per 100-seeds) and lowest at Thika (24.1 g per 100-seeds). Mean grain yield was highest at Juja. Only four lines produced higher grain yield than A197 (Table 74). Five new lines had higher grain yield than Gofta. However, the yield advantage was modest.In eastern D. R. Congo, two lines DRK 7 (1620 kg ha -1 ) and MAC 16 (997 kg ha -1 ) had higher yields than the best check, MLB 118/96B (943 kg ha -1 ) in preliminary yield trials. However, seven lines had better yields than the second check, Kirundo (623 kg ha -1 ). The selected lines showed better tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses compared to the checks. In the confirmatory yield trial (CYT), nine lines retained their superior performance compared to Kirundo (check). These were MLB 118/94B (1693 kg ha -1 ), CODMLB 001/03 (1690 kg ha -1 ), LSA 144 (1624 kg ha -1 ), COD MLB 007/03 (1605 kg ha -1 ), MLB 174/94B (1557 kg ha -1 ), COD MLB 033/03 (1489 kg ha -1 ), CODMLB 005/03 (1482 kg ha -1 ), M'Sole (1301 kg ha -1 ) and COD 037/03 (1210 kg ha -1 ). In these trials Kirundo had a yield of 1198 kg ha -1 . Fifteen bush bean lines were tested for consumer and farmer acceptability at five sites in South Kivu. Seven were selected as potential candidates for release. In descending order of acceptability, they were: ZKA 93-10M/95 (30% acceptability), SCAM 80 CM/2 (22%), KS 65-2 (18.5%), RWR 1873 (11%), LSA 60-1 (11%), G5686 (3.7%) and MCD 2518-1 (3.7%).Table 74. Mean duration to flowering, maturity, pods m -2 , 100-seed mass and grain yield of selected F 8 brown, yellow and tan colored bean lines grown at four environments in Kenya. In western D. R. Congo, bean germplasm was introduced to INERA-M'vuazi in western D. R. Congo from INERA research stations at Mulungu, Gandanjika, FOFIFA (Madagascar) and University of Nairobi (Kenya) from 2000 (Kimani, 2006). The collection comprised of 80 sugar bean lines and 40 BILFA 5 nursery lines from Mulungu, 8 entries from FOFIFA bean program, more than 86 F 2 and F 3 segregating populations from the regional multiple constraint nurseries at University of Nairobi, and local collections. The collection was evaluated at M'vuazi, Kisantu and several on-farm sites in Bas Congo, Kinshasa and Bandu Provinces. All trial sites were below 1000 masl. The evaluations were conducted in collaboration with farmer groups, NGOs and community based organizations (CBOs).Variety Release: Table 75 shows some of the tan, yellow and cream colored varieties released in eastern Africa between 2003 and 2008. 'Wedo' is a medium seeded, high yielding cream/light tan colored variety with combined resistance to common bacterial blight and rust. 'Haramaya' is a large seeded variety with light tan seeds. It was released by Haramaya University (formerly 'Alemaya University') for production in eastern Ethiopia. Inamunihire is yellow seeded determinate bush variety. It is high yielding and has good taste and other cooking characteristics. 'Lumbua' is a tan seeded bush (type 1) variety with combined resistance to common bacterial blight and web blight. It is tolerant to heat, low soil nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. 'Sepe' has large tan colored seeds. It is a bush variety with combined tolerance to web blight, common bacterial blight, heat, low soil nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. 'Manseki' is yellow seeded climbing bean variety with combined resistance to common bacterial blight, web blight, heat and low soil fertility. It is a large seeded tan colored bush (type 1) variety adapted to hot humid lowlands of western D. R. Congo. It is resistant to common bacterial blight, and tolerant to heat and low soil fertility. G22501, BF 10 and BF 12 are cream seeded varieties with resistance to common bacterial blight, tolerance to web blight, bean stem maggot, heat and/or low soil fertility. They have type 1 growth habit. RWR 2172 and RWR 2154 have medium, cream seeds, and determinate bush growth habit. Collaborators : Bean Teams at Kabete (Kenya), Mvuasi and Mulungu (D. R. Congo), Melkassa (Ethiopia), Alemaya University, Bujumbura (Burundi) and Rubona (Rwanda).Rationale: Although climbing beans a relatively recent introduction in most of the countries in East and Central Africa, they have gained popularity in the last decade among smallholder farmers because of their conspicuous yield advantage over bush types, and more effective and efficient utilization of cultivated plots which are decreasing rapidly in size due to fast population growth. Climbing beans, which were introduced in Rwanda in mid 1980's spread rapidly to Burundi, D. R. Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. However, continued expansion and adoption of climbing bean technology is constrained by susceptibility of available cultivars to anthracnose, angular leaf spot, root rots complex, aschochyta, common bacterial blight, halo blight, low soil N and P drought and lack of preferred grain types. Expanding cultivation of climbing beans from their traditional production high altitude zones with adequate rainfall, moderately fertile soils and high population pressure to the less densely populated and more expansive middle altitudes is constrained by poor adaptation of popular cultivars, moisture, heat and low soil fertility stresses. Spread of climbing beans to regions where traditional mixtures do not adequately meet new market demand for specific seed types has put pressure on national programs to develop cultivars that respond better to these demands. A regional program was therefore initiated in 2000 to develop high yielding, marketable climbing beans cultivars with resistance to two or more biotic stresses and wider adaptation. In this report, we highlight major milestones reached in development and release of improved climbing beans in east, central and west Africa between 2003 and 2008.A working collection was made from climbing bean genetic resources maintained by CIAT, Colombia and the national program of Rwanda, which has the regional mandate for development of climbing beans. Additional germplasm was received from national program of D. R.Congo. The collection included entries from CIAT's core collection, advanced breeding lines, landraces and commercial cultivars. Parental lines were selected for the crossing programs at Kabete (Kenya) and Rubona (Rwanda). Crosses were made to incorporate root rot, fusarium wilt, angular leaf spot, and anthracnose resistance and red mottled seed type into popular and well-adapted climbers. Adapted parents included Umubano, Vunikingi, Ngwinurare, Puebla and Urugezi. Umubano is resistant to anthracnose but susceptible to fusarium wilt. Vunikingi is high yielding and resistant to root rots, fusarium wilt and anthracnose. However, its small pink seeds are not popular in major markets in the region. Ngwinurare was included in the crosses because of its large red seeds popular in certain market sectors. It is not resistant to priority constraints. Puebla is tolerant to low soil fertility. Mexico 54 provided resistance to angular leaf spot, and SCAM 80/CM 15 resistance to root rots. Rubona 5, PVA 8 and Urugezi are popular red mottled cultivars but susceptible to anthracnose, angular leaf spot, fusarium wilt, and root rots. These parental lines were combined in single, three way and double crosses (Table 76). More than 691pollinations were made at Kabete to create populations segregating for red mottled, red kidney and other priority seed types and resistance to angular leaf spot, anthracnose, root rots and fusarium wilt.Screening for multiple disease resistance. Both advanced lines and segregating populations were screened for multiple disease resistance in Rwanda, Kenya and D. R. Congo. In Rwanda, 11 F 2 populations were divided into four portions and their F 3 , F 4 , F 5 and F 6 progenies screened in a systematic rotation in disease hot spots at Rubona (angular leaf spot), Rwerere (anthracnose), Gikongoro (root rots) and Ntendezi (fusarium wilt and anthracnose). Disease pressure was moderate at Rwerere (2300m), high at Rubona (1650m), and very high at Ntendezi (1600m) and Gikongoro (2300m). At each planting cycle, pedigree selection method was used to obtain diseases resistant plants based on a severity score rating of 3 or less on a CIAT scale of 1-9. Sixty-six F 7 lines resistant to 2 or more diseases and different market seed-types were planted in replicated yield trials at Rwerere and Rubona sites representing the high (2300 m) and mid altitude (1650 m) zones. In Kenya, 75 advanced lines and segregating populations were evaluated at Kabete, Thika, Ol Jorok and Embu. Ol Jorok (2350m) received heavy rainfall from planting to mid-pod filling, creating favourable conditions for disease development. At Embu, participatory selection was conducted among 25 F 4 segregating populations of medium altitude climbers from CIAT, Colombia and from the regional climbing bean nursery. Preliminary evaluation for morphological traits (growth habit, pod clearance and plant height) and yield components was conducted on-station during the long rain season. During the following short rain season, representative farmer groups from Meru, Embu and Kirinyaga districts were invited to evaluate and select single plants (F 4.6 ) with preferred traits. Farmers agreed on the most important selection criteria. Progeny rows of the F 4.6 lines were established at the station during the following long rain season to produce adequate seed for on-farm testing. About 32 F 4.7 lines were subsequently evaluated on-farm and on-station in the three districts. Five lines were selected for national performance trials which were conducted at seven sites (Katumani, Thika, Embu, Eldoret, Njoro, Kakamega and Kapsabet) over two years (CIAT, 2007).Between 2003 and 2007, the regional nursery was also distributed for further evaluation and selection by programs in D. R. Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, Madagascar, Burundi, Cameroon and Ethiopia. Additional crosses were generated at INERA-Mulungu (D. R. Congo) and selected for multiple resistance to common bacterial blight, angular leaf spot and tolerance low fertility acid soils (Mbikayi and Kimani, 2004). At Ol Jorok (Kenya) test lines showed delayed flowering (64 to 94 days) compared with 40 to 49 days at Kabete and Thika (Table 81). Most of the lines were attacked severely by anthracnose, web blight, angular leaf spot, CBB, BCMV, ascochyta and halo blight or a combination of these diseases. However, a few lines were either completely free of the diseases or showed very low levels of infection. Eleven lines were selected because of their vigor and low infection. These were: MLV-76/97A, VCB 87012, AND 10, VCB 81012, MLV 198/97A, MLV 222/97A, MLV 227/97A, MLV 216/97A, G24517, Urugezi and G20751. Urugezi showed moderate infection by viruses. Umubano and Vunikingi were susceptible to BCMV. Lines apparently adapted to conditions prevailing at the three sites were: G24517, G20751 and Urugezi.At Embu, the F 4 populations segregated for a wide range of grain types, which included red mottled, red kidney, small reds, pinto, sugars and yellows. The lines also showed considerable variation in duration to maturity, plant height, vigor, pod load and grain yield (Table 82). The broad variation observed in these populations suggested possible outcrossing, in addition to the expected segregation. Some lines showed instability with segregation persisting in F 4.7 and F 4.8. For example, selections from MAC 26 continued to segregate for grain type even in advanced generations. Pinto, grey (mwezi moja type), yellow pinto and red mottled types could be identified from progeny rows in F 4.8 generation. Grain yield varied from 800 to 3800 kg ha -1 . Duration to maturity varied from 80 to 108 days at Embu (about 1550 m). Twenty-two bean F 4.6 lines combining preferred grain, yield and plant traits were selected. Five lines (Table 82) were registered for national performance trials. Results showed that Umubano and Vunikingi were very susceptible to BCMV (score of 9) at Thika and Kabete. MAC 34 showed intermediate reaction to rust and angular leaf spot. MAC 13, MAC 34 and MAC 64 showed outstanding performance across agroecological zones.Release of New Varieties: Considerable progress has been made in development and popularisation of climbing bean varieties in east and central Africa in the last five years. Nearly all countries are evaluating or have released improved climbing varieties. Table 83 shows some of the new climbing bean varieties released in eastern Africa between 2003 and 2008. Seed size: S= small (< 25g/100 seeds), M= medium (25-39 g/100 seeds) and L=large (> 40 g/100 seeds) * CBB= common bacterial blight, ALS= angular leaf spot and BCMV= bean common mosaic virus. Rationale: Within the SABRN, not all NARS programs have the capacity to generate segregating populations of their own. The countries that have active breeding programs include, Malawi, South Africa, southern highlands of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. All these NARS bean breeding programs have embraced the market class breeding program initiative, where each country concentrates on a market class or two, usually focusing on market classes which are important to the nation, and improve them for specific biotic and or abiotic stresses of importance to the nation as well as to the region. The resulting germplasm is shared to all NARS programs with interest in the said market classes. In this reporting period, a number of countries in the region, including the back-up regional breeding program had developed segregating populations and lines which combined specific market classes and one or more biotic and or abiotic stresses:Progress in breeding for market classes• In Malawi, the focus is on red kidney, khaki, red mottled (calima) market classes, and important stresses are common bacterial blight (CBB), angular leaf spot (ALS), halo blight (HB), and low soil fertility (LSF). Many lines in these market classes developed by the national program were in preliminary trials (PYT) and some in advanced yield trials (AYT). In addition, there were some sugar lines, which were developed using molecular tools (marker assisted selection) in collaboration with Washington State University.• In South Africa, the focus is on sugar and navy bean, targeting such stresses as: ALS, CBB, Rust, bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) and halo blight (HB). During reporting period there were over 1800 lines in different generations (F 3 -F 6 ), and in different populations which combined sugar bean market class with various multiple stresses like: CBB/rust/ALS/BCMV; Rust/ALS/BCMV; Rust/CBB/BCMV and Rust/BCMV. Likewise there were several lines at different generations which combined navy bean market classes with different combination of biotic stresses. In addition some lines were in check-row trials, and many others in replicated yield trials. Some of the lines in different market classes, which were developed for rust and ALS or rust and halo blight (HB) or only rust resistance were sent to the SABRN regional coordinator for seed increase and distribution to other interested NARS programs within the region. The southern highlands of Tanzania (SHTZ) focus on such market classes as: red beans (small, medium and large) and yellow beans, targeting such traits as: ALS and anthracnose (ANTH).There are several lines in the red market class which were in F 5 , F 6 , F 7 and F 8 generation. Some of these lines are ready for distribution to various interested NARS partners in SABRN or beyond.The progenies in the yellow bean market class are at F 4 generation. They also had some calima bean lines which were doing very well in the SHTZ environments and they were ready to share the lines with other national programs.• In Zambia, the focus is on yellow and brown/tan (khaki), targeted such traits as: ALS and CBB. They had over 300 lines at various F 3 , F 4 , BC 1 and BC 2 in different populations combining different parental sources for the market class and donor parents for ALS and CBB resistance.• In Zimbabwe, the target market classes were: red beans (large red kidney, medium and small red) and sugar bean, targeting such traits as: ALS and CBB for biotic and drought and low P for abiotic stresses. They had a total of 56 lines from 13 populations at F 5 generation.• The regional network breeding program has a back-up breeding program to support the NARS breeding programs in various market classes: red mottled, brown/khaki, sugar, reds, and purples.The targeted stresses include; ALS, CBB, bean stem maggot (BSM), low P and drought. During this reporting period, there were over 20 populations at F 3 -F 5 generation combining red mottled market class with various stresses such as ALS, CBB, BSM and low P. In addition there were 300 lines at F 7 and above. In the brown/khaki market class, there were 10 populations in F 2 -F 3 generations and 70 lines at F 7 generation combining grain type with ALS, CBB, BSM and drought. In addition there were over 100 lines in red kidney, 80 lines in sugar and 70 lines in purple, all at F 7 generation and above. These lines are ready for distribution to NARS partners within SABRN and others.The active national breeding programs in SABRN are making progress in generating segregating populations in different bean market classes, to improve them for resistance to various biotic and abiotic constraints. The segregating populations were at different generations, ranging from F 2 through F 7 and above. In some countries like Malawi, South Africa and southern highlands of Tanzania, they also had some fixed lines which were already in preliminary and advanced yield trials. These countries were ready to share the segregating populations as well the fixed lines with others in the network, who are interested in the available market classes. This is particularly useful to national programs which have interest in several bean market classes, but they do not have the resources and capacity to run breeding programs in all market classes. Thus sharing breeding responsibility among various NARS programs, and exchange of resulting germplasm becomes a key to ensure that a number of bean market classes are included in the breeding programs across the region -unleashing the power of networks.Collaborators: A. Liebenberg, M. Liebenberg, D. Fourie, J. Bokosi, C. Madata, G. Makunde, K. Muimui, S. Beebe, M. Blair, R. Buruchara, P. KimaniDeveloping bush and climbing bean lines with resistance to Pythium root rot, angular leaf spot, and bean common mosaic and necrotic viruses Rationale: Pythium root rots and angular leaf spot (ALS) are some of the important diseases affecting bean production in Africa, particularly, on major commercial and adapted bush and climbing bean cultivars. At the same time, some of the good sources of resistance to other diseases are either susceptible (e.g. CAB 19, G2333) to bean common mosaic (BCMV) and bean common mosaic necrotic virus (BCMNV) or have the dominant \"I\" gene (RWR 719, RAB 487, RWR 2075, RWR 1946) which confers resistance to a wide range of BCMV strains. However, BCMNV strains induces the lethal black root hypersensitive resistant (HR) reaction on germplasm with \"I\" gene and therefore limits their usefulness.To provide stable, broad-based resistance to the latter, a suitable strategy is to protect the \"I\" gene by combining it with race non-specific (bc-3) or race-specific resistance recessive genes (typically bc-2 2 ).Efforts have been on-going to improve resistance against these diseases by new introductions or pyramiding resistances. Several populations have been generated, and selection is done using a variety of methods, including marker assisted selection (MAS). Last year, we reported progress made in improving resistance against Pythium root rot ALS and efforts to introgress BCMV and BCMNV resistances in commercial and adapted bush and climbing bean cultivars. This year we continued selection from segregating populations and lines with a focus on resistance, yield and seed types.Since 2004, selections from 20 backcross populations developed as an effort to introgress Pythium root rot resistance to into key commercial bean varieties have been going on. Selections are based on resistance to Pythium root rot and ALS using both phenotypic and genetic markers. This year, phenotypic selections were done on three F 4 BCS 4 families having RWR 719 as a Pythium root rot resistant donor parent, i.e., F 4 BCS 4 GLP 585 x RWR 719, F 4 BCS 4 CAL 96 x RWR 719 and F 4 BCS 4 URUGEZI x RWR 719. Five plants per selected plot were selected based on plant architecture, pod load, disease and pest resistance, early maturity and physical similarity to the recurrent parent (seed size, seed color, growth habit etc.). The selected plants were assayed for the presence of the Pythium root rot resistance gene using the PYAA19 800 SCAR marker.Three hundred and eleven back cross (F 5 BCS 4 ) lines from populations developed from AND1062, AND1055, SCAM-80CM/15 and MLB-49-89A as Pythium root rot resistant donors were planted and fifty plants selected per population based on phenotypic similarity (growth habit, seed size and color etc) to the recurrent parent.ii) Marker assisted selection from families developed for combined resistance to Pythium and Angular leaf spotEfforts to combine resistance genes to Pythium root rot and angular leaf spot (ALS) resulted in a number of combined crosses. Seventy-eight F 8 lines that were F 6 derived progenies previously selected under screenhouse condition for resistance to angular leaf spot were assayed for the presence of PYAA19 800 SCAR marker associated with Pythium root rot resistance gene in RWR 719 and OPE 709 SCAR marker associated with the ALS resistance gene in MEX54.Commercial varieties that are resistant to Pythium root rots but susceptible to bean common mosaic necrosis virus (RWR 719, RWR 1946, RWR 2075) were crossed with nine bean lines, MCM 2001, MCM 5001, MCM 1015, UBR 92(25), USWK-6, TARS-VR-7S, USCR-9, USCR-7, that have both the I and bc-3 gene that confers resistance to bean common mosaic necrosis virus. F 1 populations were generated and advanced to F 2 by selfing. The rationale was to introgress the bc-3 gene into the market class varieties and use both phenotypic selection and molecular markers to select and advance only those materials that had either bc-3 gene alone or a combination of both genes. This past season, 50 plants from each of the 12 crosses involving UBR (92) 25, MCM 1015, MCM 2001 and MCM 5001 (a total of 600 F 2 plants) and the four susceptible parents MLB-49-89A, RWR 719, RWR 2075 and RWR 1946 were screened for the presence of the \"I\", \"bc-3\" and Pythium root rot resistance genes using molecular markers.In addition a backcross program was set up for these crosses. At F 2 , plants were inoculated with BCMV inoculum and resistant plants backcrossed to the respective recurrent parents. BC 1 S 1 seed was planted in the field to get BCS 2 plants. Single plants selected from the F 2 BCS 2 populations based on good plant architecture, seed characteristics and phenotypic background of the susceptible parents (RWR719, RWR 1946 and RWR 2075) from each population were inoculated BCMNV inoculum. Those not showing symptoms of black root (Plate 1) were assayed for resistance genes using molecular markers as described below.Plate 1 a. F 2 Plant showing black root symptoms Plate 1b. F 2 plant showing typical BCMV symptoms DNA Extraction: Using a 2mm bore, 5 discs per leaf were cut out from 2-week old plants and placed on a Whatman plant saver card (taking precautions to prevent cross contamination) and spotted by applying gentle pressure using a pestle. The latter (saver card) were air dried at room temperature for 1 hour. Two millimeter plant saver card discs impregnated with leaf tissue were cut and each washed twice with 200µL Whatman purification reagent, incubating for 3 minutes at room temperature after each wash. The card discs were similarly washed twice with 200µL of isopropanol as described above and left to completely dry before being used as DNA template in a PCR reaction.DNA Amplification: Leaf discs were used as template in a 20µL PCR premix (Bioneer Corp, Korea) containing the following: 1U Top DNA polymerase, 250mM dNTPs, 1.5mM MgCl 2 , 10mM Tris-HCl (pH 9), 30mM KCl, stabilizer and tracking dye. 0.5µM of the primer and water were added to top up to the required volume. The mixture was vortexed gently and loaded in a Biorad Mycycler (BIO-RAD laboratories, Hercules, California) thermocycler. For the SW13 marker which is associated with \"I\" gene and PYAA19 800 SCAR marker associated with Pythium root rot resistance gene in RWR 719, the mixtures were subjected to 35 amplification cycles which consisted of: an initial denaturation step at 95 o C for 5 minutes and 34 cycles at 94 o C for 15 seconds, annealing temperature 65 o C for 40 seconds, extension 72 o C for 1 minute, a final extension of 72 o C for 10 minutes and a holding temperature of 4 o C. For ROC 11 marker associated with \"bc-3\" gene, the amplification cycles were similar except that the annealing temperature of 54 o C for 40 seconds. Amplicons were resolved on 1.2% agarose gel stained with 10mg ml -1 Ethidium bromide and the gel subsequently immersed in 0.5XTBE. Electrophoresis was performed at 70V for 1 hour and bands visualized under UV light and the image captured on a digital camera mounted on a computer.i) Selection of backcross (BCs) populations for resistance to Pythium root rot:The RWR 719 SCAR marker identified 28 plants from three F 4 BCS 4 families having the gene linked to Pythium root rot resistance in RWR 719 (Table 84).Three hundred and fifty six plants were selected from 11 backcross populations based on agronomic characteristics (Table 85). ii) Screening of combined crosses for resistance ALS and Pythium root rot:The SCAR markers identified 40 lines combining PRR and ALS resistance genes (Figure 46 and Table 86). Agronomic data is being assessed to characterize the materials and make them available to national program partners.iii) Introgressing bc-3 gene into commercial root rot resistant cultivars with I-gene through backcrossing.Locally adapted resistance sources were successfully used to transfer the bc-3 gene into commercial root rot resistant cultivars. Although a relatively higher number of plants had the bc-3 gene (Table 87, Figure 47), very few had a combination of I and bc-3 genes. Plants with at least bc-3 gene (alone or in combination with \"I\" gene) have been advanced. Furthermore other results show that RWR 2075, a newly released variety in Uganda for its root rot resistance, seems to have a similar marker as that associated with resistance in RWR 719. Results are underway to confirm this observation. RWR 1946 (also newly released for its root rot resistance in Uganda) seems not to have the marker.  A total of 95 plants (Table 88) were selected based on their phenotype and advanced to F 3 BCS 2 where selections will be based on the presence of the bc-3 and I gene using the respective molecular markers. • QTL for growth habit and climbing ability were identified on six chromosomes, although many were located on B04. This illustrates the complexity of growth habit, and implicitly, of crop domestication as growth habit was reduced from climbing to bush type.Rationale: Common bean varies in growth habit from aggressive climbing types to bush beans. While most production of common beans worldwide has been with bush beans, the highest yields are obtained with climbing types, which under favorable growing conditions, can produce as much as 4,500 kg ha -1 . One inherent characteristic of climbing beans is their capacity to climb, which is closely related to growth habit. Growth habit is determined by a combination of factors including determinate versus indeterminate growth, total plant height, degree of branching and internode length. Together these factors make up climbing ability. The objective of this research was to determine the quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling climbing ability in a F 5:8 recombinant inbred line population derived from an inter-gene pool cross of an aggressive indeterminate climbing bean with type IV growth habit (G2333) by an indeterminate bush bean of type IIb growth habit (G19839).Plant materials: A total of 84 F 5:8 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) were developed from the cross G2333 x G19839 by single-seed descent where G2333 is from Mexico and possesses type IVa growth habit, while G19839 is from Peru and possesses type IIb growth. Both are somewhat tolerant of low phosphorus and have been used to study phosphorus use efficiency.Planting sites: The population was planted in four experiments across environments that varied in altitude (from 1000 to 1750 masl) and soil fertility (low versus high phosphorus) over three sites: Darién (1,485 masl), Palmira (965 masl), both in the department of Valle de Cauca while a final experiment was in Popayán (1,730 masl). In Darién, the two trials were planted under conditions of high (64.3 ppm) and low phosphorus (1.7 ppm), respectively. Agronomic management was the same for the four trials, except for fertilizer applications for the low-phosphorus trial in Darién, where, to maintain the low phosphorus levels, only 7.5 kg ha -1 of phosphorus in the form of triple super-phosphate was applied. The other trials received high phosphorus treatment of 45 kg ha -1 .Experimental design: At each of the four sites, an experimental design of randomized complete blocks was established, with 86 treatments and 2 replications. The size of the plot or experimental unit was one row, 3 m long, in which 30 seeds were sown at 10-cm intervals each, with a distance of 1.2 m between rows. Field data were collected for climbing ability, plant height, internode length and branch number.Climbing ability (CA) was measured according to a visual scale that ranged from 1 to 9, where 1 corresponded to the highest and most aggressive plants and 9 to the smallest and least aggressive plants. Two evaluations were made, one at 45 days and the second 75 days after planting for both climbing ability and plant height.Results and Discussion: QTL were identified by composite interval mapping for plant height, internode length and number of branches per plant on a genetic map covering all common bean linkage groups with a total length of 1175 cM. A total of 7 QTL were found for plant height, 9 for climbing ability, 6 for internode length and 1 for branch number (Table 89). LR values ranged from 14.8 to 25.3.QTL number varied per location with the favorable environmental conditions in Darién HP and Popayán producing a higher proportion of significant marker association (with 7 and 9 QTL, respectively) than the less favorable environments of Palmira and Darién LP (with 6 and 1, respectively). In addition more QTL were observed at the earlier evaluation stage of 45 DAP compared to the later evaluation stage of 75 DAP for both plant height (4 versus 3 QTL) and climbing ability (7 versus 2 QTL).The largest number and most significant QTL were found on the lower half of linkage group B04 suggesting a major pleiotropic locus for growth habit traits at this location of the genome that is distinct from previously characterized genes which control plant morphology of the crop.M.W. • Sixteen Pythium species were found to be associated with beans root rots in Rwanda and the cultivars CAL 96, RWR 617-97A, Urugezi and RWR 1668 were susceptible to all these species. G2331, AND 1062, MLB-40-89A, Vuninkingi, AND 1064 and RWR 719 were resistant.Rationale: Monitoring the changes that could occur in white fly populations and the composition of species in the target areas of the Andean Zone, where bean and snap bean crops are important, is one of the main objectives of the Project financed by the Regional Fund of Agricultural Technology (FONTAGRO). In addition, the Project financed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MADR), also has as important goal to periodically sample whitefly species on hot and sweet peppers in the Cauca Valley, in order to measure resistance to insecticides. Since the same species of white fly pass between bean and peppers, this activity is relevant for the bean program. This information is necessary to modify the existing management systems and to be prepared for new situations in the future.In 2008 a total of 20 white fly samples (adults and pupae) were processed. These were collected in 8 locations of the Antioquia, Cundinamarca and Tolima departments of Colombia, at altitudes ranging between 1730 and 2465 meters above sea level (masl). Samples were taken from beans and snap beans within the project financed by FONTAGRO. For the MADR project, a total of 12 whitefly samples (adults and pupae) were processed, having been collected in 4 locations of the Cauca Valley Department of Colombia, at altitudes ranging between 941 and 1437 meters above sea level (masl). Samples were taken from both hot pepper and sweet peppers. RAPD techniques (primer OPA-04) were used to identify species of pupae and adults. The identification was based on morphological characteristics of pupae and comparisons between RAPD patterns in samples brought from the field with those of existing mass-rearing colonies maintained at CIAT.The analysis of 20 samples taken in 8 locations in the Antioquia, Cundinamarca and Tolima departments of Colombia (Figure 48), showed that 100 % of the whiteflies collected belong to Trialeurodes vaporariorum, identified as the most important whitefly species on bean and snap beans crops in the hillside areas of Antioquia, Cundinamarca and Tolima.In order to determine the distribution of the whitefly in sweet pepper, other areas in Colombia continue to be monitored, where it is considered to be an important pest. Four areas located in the northern and central part of the Valle de Cauca department were sampled, with altitudes ranging between 941 and 1437 masl. As an example of the RAPD patterns obtained, Figure 49 shows that 17% of the collected samples were of T. vaporariorum and the other 83 %, found between 900 and 1400 masl, correspond to B. tabaci biotype B. Presence of biotype B of B. tabaci was evidenced in the field by proofs of physiological disorders (irregular ripening) and by morphological differentiations with T. vaporariorum. These identifications were confirmed by the means of RAPD type molecular trials. Since Bemisia spp. are vectors of Gemini viruses of Phaseolus, these results are directly relevant to common bean.  Rationale: Beans (P. vulgaris L.) is a major source of protein in Eastern Africa and particularly in Rwanda. Produced under low input agriculture, beans are vulnerable to attack by diseases and other constraints. One of these diseases is Pythium root rots. The increase in severity and incidence of root rots have been associated with a relatively recent evolution of farming systems especially under high demographic pressure and the resulting decline in soil fertility (Rusuku et al., 1997). This is typical of Rwanda where the importance of root rots was recognized as far back as late 80s (CIAT, 1992). There are efforts in Rwanda to routinely incorporate resistance to Pythium root rots in improved bush and climbing beans varieties. However, as this is done, it is considered important to determine and monitor the variation, distribution and pathogenicity of Pythium species in Rwanda. The information will then be used to identify or verify sources of resistance and for phenotypic evaluations in varietal improvements.The aim of this study was to characterization Pythium species responsible for bean root rot in Rwanda.Materials and Methods: Soil and plant samples were collected from fields in 24 districts of Rwanda (Table 90) at predetermined positions and at different altitude levels [low (900 -1400 m), medium (1400 -1650 m) and high (1650 -2300 m)]. At each field, information was taken on the physical location including: Province, District and Sector; GPS location. Attributes of the beans varieties in the fields were observed and noted, e.g. type of growth; as well as on the cropping systems. Isolation and purification of Pythium species: Initial steps of isolation were done at ISAR's laboratories at Rubona and Ruhengeri in Rwanda. Follow-up laboratory and screenhouse activities were carried out at Kawanda Agricultural Research Laboratories. Isolation of Pythium spp. from plant tissues was done as described by White (1988). Infected root pieces from the field samples (approximately 0.5-2 cm long) were cut from expanding lesions and plated onto the selective medium of cornmeal agar (CMA) amended with 2ml/l and 3ml/l of antibiotics pimaricin and rifamycin respectively, to stop bacterial growth. Cultures were incubated at 20 o C for 2-5 days. Hyphal tip method was used to sub-culture and transfer mycelia onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants.Molecular characterization of Pythium spp: DNA was extracted from harvested mycelia according to the procedure described by Mahuku (2004). Mycelia were ground to a fine paste in a mortar containing TES extraction buffer (0.2 M Tris-HCl [pH 8], 10 mM EDTA [pH 8], 0.5 M NaCl, 1% SDS) and sterilized acid-washed sea sand. Additional TES buffer containing Proteinase K was added and the mixture incubated at 65ºC for 30 min. DNA was precipitated using ice-cold isopropanol and the pellet was washed twice with 70% ethanol, dried and dissolved in TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl [pH 8], 1 mM EDTA). PCR analysis was performed using Oomycete ITS (Internal Transcribed Sequence) region primers to differentiate Pythium from other closely related fungi (White et al., 1990). The PCR reaction was performed in 50µl-reaction volumes containing 5µl of 10X PCR buffer, 8µl of 25mM MgCl 2 , 2.5 µl of 1.25mM dNTP, 0.2 µl of each primer (20µM) 18S (5'-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3') and 28S (5'-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC-3'), 20 ng of DNA, and 0.2µl Taq DNA polymerase (5U/µl). Amplification was performed in a BIORAD Mycycler Thermocycler programmed for initial denaturation at 94°C for 5 min, for 35 cycles at 94ºC for 1 min, annealing at 68°C for 1 min, and extension at 72°C for 1.5 min, followed by a final extension for 7 min at 72°C. The products were run on 2% agarose gels containing 5mg ml -1 of ethidium bromide at a voltage of 100V for 2 hours and visualized under UV light. rDNA sequence analysis. Residual primers and dNTPS in the PCR products were removed using QIAquick TM PCR purification spin columns following the manufacturer's protocol (QIAGEN, Crawley, 1997). Direct sequencing of the PCR amplified products was carried out using ITS 2 primers (White et al., 1990). Sequences from ITS 1 region of the ribosomal gene were edited using the Editseq program (DNASTAR Inc., Madison, Wis). The ITS1 sequences of the test isolates were compared with ITS 1 sequences of known Pythium species available in the public databases using Seqman program (DNASTAR). Multiple alignment of the sequenced product of ITS 1 was performed for comparison.Pathogenicity of Pythium species: The pathogenicity of the characterized Pythium spp was evaluated on the susceptible bean cultivars CAL 96 and \"Urugezi\", using 2 or 3 isolates of each species. Similar evaluations were carried out on a few Rwandan varieties (G2331, R617-97A, RWR 1668, Vuninkingi) and other sources of resistance (RWR 719 MLB-40-89A AND 1064 and AND 1062) in the screenhouse. Seed of these cultivars were planted in wooden trays each infested with a distinct Pythium species. The trial was set up in a completely randomized block design (CRBD). Three weeks after emergence, the surviving plants were uprooted, washed and severity of root rots assessed using the CIAT scale of 1-9 (Abawi and Pastor Corrales, 1990). Isolates that had a mean disease score of 1-2, were considered non pathogenic; those with a score of 3-5 were considered mildly pathogenic and those that gave a score of 6-9 were highly pathogenic.Distribution of Pythium spp: Results of this study showed that, P. vexans was the most widespread species (23 isolates), followed by P. indigoferae (9 isolates); P. rostratifingens (6 isolates), P. torulosum (5 isolates), P. ultimum and P spinosum (4 isolates each) (Table 91).Molecular characterization: A total, of 231 isolates were collected. However, 96 representing different regions were sequenced. ITS sequences were compared using Blast searches with sequences deposited at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Identity of species with sequences having less than 100% similarity to published sequences in GenBank were further analysed using phylogenetic analysis using parsimony (PAUP) version 4•0b (Swofford, 2001). The criterion for the selection of closely related species was based on clades of Pythium spp. generated by Lévesque and de Cock (2004). As a result a total of 16 different Pythium species were identified (Table 91). These were P. indigoferae, P. chamaehyphon, P. torulosum, P. cucurbitacearum, P. diclinum, P. conidiophorum, P. arrhenomanes, P. pachycaule, P. ultimum, P. vexans, P. folliculosum, P. macrosporum, P. spinosum, P. rostratifingens, P. dissotocum and P. rostratum. Pathogenecity: All the Pythium species identified were pathogenic to the susceptible varieties [CAL 96 (Plate 2) and URUGEZI] and other varieties (RWR 617-97A and RWR 1668) evaluated (Table 92). Bean cultivars G2331, AND 1062, MLB-40-89A, Vuninkingi, AND 1064 and RWR 719 (Plate 3) gave resistant reactions. The study confirmed previous reports regarding resistance of some of the known sources of resistance and the value of this resistance (Otsyula et al., 1998;Buruchara et al., 1999;Buruchara and Kimani 2001, Buruchara et al., 2007, Gichuru et al., 2008). It was however interesting that the known susceptible varieties were affected by all the species identified indicating the potential impact of Pythium species under favorable disease conditions.    A reduced response to the growth regulator buprofezin was detected in first instar nymphs of T. vaporariorum collected in El Cerrito and Pradera in Valle de Cauca. The Pradera strain exhibited intermediate levels of resistance to the neonicotinoid imidacloprid (Table 94). Periodic resistance measurements were also made on nymphal populations of T. vaporariorum collected in Pradera and El Cerrito (Valle de Cauca). A significant increase in the level of resistance to buprofezin was detected in Pradera and El Cerrito, possibly due to excessive use of this insecticide in those areas of Valle de Cauca in Colombia (Figure 51). Cundinamarca-Tolima region: In this region greater changes were detected. In general, the response (mortality) of T. vaporariorum adults to methamidophos was low (Table 95); however, nymphs are still susceptible to the insecticides that were tested (Table 96).   Ecuador zone: The mortality response of T. vaporariorum to methamidophos was low in 80% of the sampled sites in Ecuador. Although neonicotinoids (imidacloprid) are not widely used in the northern region of Ecuador, a slight decrease in the response to this insecticide was found in Chalguayacu (Table 97).The excessive use of organophosphates in Ecuador is responsible for the significant increases in resistance levels through time (Figure 52). It is possible that the use of neonicotinoids at dosages below recommended levels has led to the development of resistance to neonicotinoids (Figure 53). No major changes were detected in nymphal populations.The B biotype of B. tabaci has been shown to be more aggressive and to have a major capacity to develop resistance to insecticides. As can be seen in Table 98, the insect presents high levels of resistance to organophosphates, and intermediate levels of resistance to pyrethroids and neonicotinoids in Roldanillo (Cauca Valley of Colombia).   The evaluation of nymphs was done with three insecticides. No significant changes were detected. The Roldanillo race in Colombia showed intermediate resistance to imidacloprid. In general, the response of B. tabaci nymphs (Table 99) is still that of susceptibility to the insecticides that were tested.  In Ecuador, T. palmi showed a high incidence in the province of El Carchi. The levels of resistance evaluated with six products show the development of resistance to organophosphates, carbamate, and pyrethroid insecticides (Table 101). As in Colombia, resistance to products that had been recently introduced into the market were found to be high (imidacloprid and fipronil). This insect is the cause of numerous applications in regions located above 1400 masl. Although it has very good biological control, the great amount of insecticides used in the zone affects populations of beneficial insects. This may be one of the reasons for periodic outbreaks of this pest in dry and snap bean crops. The continuous use of carbamates, pyrethroids and abamectines that in previous years were efficient to control this pest, has led to the development of intermediate resistance levels to these insecticides (Table 102). Figure 55 shows some of the results obtained in 2008. It is evident that adults of the B. tabaci biotype have developed high levels of resistance to methamidophos and cypermetrine, intermediate resistance to imidacloprid and thiocyclam hydrogen oxalate. Figure 56 shows that nymph populations of this biotype are still susceptible to buprofezin and diafenthiuron. Our results also show that in some areas of the Valle de Cauca (Roldanillo, Yotoco) the B biotype is in the process of developing intermediate resistance levels. This situation has to be reconfirmed because resistance to novel insecticides like the neonicotinoids would make management of the whitefly extremely difficult. The genus Pseudomonas comprises the relatively large and important group of gram-negative, non-spore forming, motile rod bacteria. They produce a wide variety of antibiotics, which confer a competitive advantage and microbial fitness to survive in most environments (Haas and Keel, 2003;Paulsen et al., 2005). This genus also comprises beneficial bacteria such as plant growth promoters and biocontrol agents (Raaijmakers et al., 2002). Antibiotic 2, is a polyketide compound with broad-spectrum antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, and antitumor activity and phytotoxic properties (Raaijmaker et al., 2002;Haas and Keel, 2003). It is synthesized by several plantassociated fluorescent pseudomonads, and it plays a key role in the suppression of a wide variety of soil-borne diseases (Haas and Defago, 2005;Ramette et al., 2006). 2,4-DAPG inhibits zoospores produced by Pythium spp. and also damages the membrane of this Oomycete (de Souza, 2003b). The aim of this study was to isolate and assess the in vitro antagonistic potential of fluorescent Pseudomonas towards Pythium spp causing root rot in common beans.Materials and Methods: Plant samples including maize (5), sorghum (2), pigeon peas (2) and beans (1) were collected from different sites (suppressive and non suppressive) around Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute. Isolation was done according to Mazzola et al., 2004. Briefly, the bean plants in their third growth phase (V3) were harvested, separated from the loose soil by gentle shaking and 0.5 g of the root system were excised from the plants and placed in 10 mL sterile distilled water. The roots and associated rhizosphere soil were vortexed for 60 s and serial dilutions of the resulting roots washed and plated on King's medium B (KB) agar amended with ampicillin (100µg mL -1 ), chloramphenicol (13 µg mL -1 ) and cycloheximide (75 µg mL -1 ). Plates were incubated at 25 o C for 48 h and colonies of fluorescent pseudomonads were differentiated from non-fluorescent colonies under UV light (wavelength 366 nm). Fluorescent pseudomonads were selected and transferred to fresh KB+ agar plates. A Gram stain was performed to examine to cell types.Inhibition assays were performed using the central disk method (McSpadden Gardener et al., 2005). Agar plugs (6mm) containing the fungal mycelium, taken from the growing edge of each culture were placed in the centre of fresh potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates and incubated at room temperature for 24 h. A loopfull of fluorescent inoculum were inoculated at three equidistant positions along the perimeter of the assay plate. Two plates, one with no bacteria inoculum and the other with bacteria alone were included as controls. The assay plates were incubated at 24 o C. Each bacterial isolate was replicated in three plates entire assay was repeated three times. Fungal growth was assayed when the growth on the Pythium control plates extended the full radius of the plate. Two measurements were made: distance from the edge of the plug to the growing edge of the fungus (X), and the distance from the edge of the bacterial growth to the growing edge of the fungus (Y). Inhibition index (I) was calculated as: I=Y/(X+Y) (McSpadden et al., 2005).After 48hrs of incubation, cream bacterial colonies could be observed growing at different intensities from different dilutions of all the 10 root washes. On examination under UV light, 9 isolates had mixtures of fluorescent and non fluorescent colonies. Of the 9 fluorescent isolates, one (from bean) was Gram positive and was excluded from further investigation. Eight Gram negative rod-shaped isolates found were tested for antagonism against Pythium ultimum isolate on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) plates according to McSpadden et al., 2005. One isolate, P4 from pigeon peas, showed the highest antagonism with an inhibition index of 0.38 (Table 104, Figure 57).   (Kamenya, 2008). This detection is via amplification of phlD, which is a key gene in the biosynthesis of 2,4-DAPG. We have obtained these primers and will use it to detect the presence of the phlD gene in Pseudomonas isolate P4 and further screen more isolates for inclusion into this trial. Phaseolin analysis: Phaseolin, the major seed storage protein of common bean, was analyzed using primers developed by Kami et al., (1995) that differentiate S phaseolin gene family from the T phaseolin types. The S phaseolin genomic DNA, that is characteristic of the Mesoamerican gene pool, yields two homoduplex PCR products whereas T phaseolin DNA produce three homoduplex amplification bands that is characteristic of the Andean gene pool. Both phaseolin types produce identical smallest amplification products (Figure 58, g). The primer pair Phas1 (5'-AGCATATTCTAGAGGCCTCC-3') and Phas2 (5'-GCTCAGTTCCTCAATCTGTTC-3' was used under optimal conditions of 2mMMgCl 2 , 200µM dNTPs, 0.2µM primers, and 40 cycles of 94 o C for 30 s, 55 o C for 30 s, and 72 o C, for 45 s, with 10ng of DNA. Each clearly separated SSR amplification band was considered as an allele and coded for presence (1) or absence (0). The amount of genetic diversity was quantified using various indices implemented in the program ARLEQUIN version 3.11 (Schneider et al., 2007). The relationships between selected varieties and gene pool groups were derived from calculated genetic distances and dendrograms constructed with the neighbor joining method using NTSYS computer software.Results and Discussion: A total of 39 alleles were obtained from the 5 loci amplified across all genotypes with an average of 7.8 alleles per locus ranging from 2 alleles for X80051 to 14 alleles for U18791 (Figures. 58,. This observed average number of alleles is comparable to those obtained in other studies such as the average of 7.7 alleles reported by Maras et al., 2006. This finding suggests that a significant number of germplasm accessions have to be preserved in order to retain the original diversity. A total of 38 haplotypes were observed in the first 102 genotypes showing 36 polymorphic sites over the 39 alleles (94.7% polymorphism) and an average gene/allele diversity of 29.3% over the loci. Haplotype real differences were checked before tests (Ewens et al., 1972) and an observed and expected F values of 0.068 and 0.059 were obtained (p = 0.93).The microsatellite analysis uncovered two major groups (Figure 59) corresponding to Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools based on the position of the control genotypes CAL 96 and RWR 719 in a cluster analysis performed using the Neighbor Joining method according to Nei (1978). There was a significant difference between the haplotypes of the two groups (F = 0.11, p = 0.000). However members of the Andean gene pool were much fewer than those of the Mesoamerican types. What was more remarkable was that, despite the few numbers, the Andean group was more diverse in terms of both haplotype diversity and percentage polymorphism compared to their Mesoamerican counterparts. This finding is in congruence with those of Santalla et al. (2004) who established that the Andean gene pool in Argentina has a large genetic base on the basis of morphological and adaptive variability as well as biochemical (allozymes and phaseolin) analysis. This high diversity in a susceptible group could be a result of the presence of infrequent alleles in the Andean group. All the four growth habit types were present in both Andean and Mesoamerican groups although growth type IV and III were more prevalent (54.3% and 35.9% respectively) in the Mesoamerican group while there was a more even distribution of growth types in the Andean group.The phaseolin seed protein PCR analysis revealed the presence of the two phaseolin types i.e., the S and T phaseolin types. The former is found among cultivars of Mesoamerican origin whereas the latter is found among cultivars descended from the Andean origin (Kami et al., 1995). Phaseolin analysis generally agreed with microsatellite groups providing further strength for the structure. Fewer genotypes were found in the Andean group than in the Mesoamerican group. The Andean clade was composed of 37 genotypes made of 16 haplotypes (43.2%). The observed and expected F values for this group were 0.12 and 0.10 respectively (p = 0.78). 71.8% of the loci were polymorphic for this group with a 9.62 mean number of pairwise differences.The Mesoamerican group comprised of 65 genotypes and 22 haplotypes accounting for 33.8% haplotype frequency, almost 10 times less than the Andean haplotype frequency. Percentage polymorphism over loci was observed at 69.2% with a mean pairwise difference of 7.27. The observed and expected F values were the same as those of the Andean genotypes (p = 0.95). The dominant seed shape in the Andeans was elongate flat (69.4%) most of which presented primary coat colors of red (36.1%) and cream (25%). 58.3% of this group was monochromatic leaving only 15 genotypes which had secondary colors, 8 of which were cream, 5 purple and 2 brown. These secondary colors were mainly patterned as speckles or zebra stripes across the seeds. Mesoamerican genotypes, on the other hand, were principally comprised of round flat seeds (50%) bearing cream primary colors (54.7%). 67.2% of Mesoamerican seeds were monochromatic and the dominant secondary color occurring on 52.3% of the seeds in this group was black that were mainly mottled in pattern.Urban markets mainly prefer large red mottled-to-maroon colored seeds most of which probably belong to the Andean gene pool. Hence farmers' sources of these seeds could have been markets or NGOs. Additionally, the patterns of secondary colors on seeds were mainly speckles or Zebra stripes for the Andean group and mottled in Mesoamericans.Diversity in phaseolin types has been very useful for the classification of beans into Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools since most of the cultivars from one center of domestication possess a certain set of phaseolin type which is not found in cultivars from the other center of domestication (Duran et al., 2005). However, in this study the Andean group comprised of only 55.6% genotypes which possessed the T-type phaseolin characteristic of Andean races. Meanwhile 75% of the Mesoamerican genotypes had Type S phaseolin which is mainly used to designate this group.Average yield per plant was slightly higher in the Mesoamerican group. In terms of pathogenicity, the overall average disease score for Pythium in the Andean group was 5.7 (standard deviation = 1.94) compared to 4.7 (standard deviation = 1.71) for the Mesoamerican group. This is consistent with previous findings that the genotypes of Mesoamerican origin are more resistant to the root rot disease (Buruchara, 2003). Since large-seeded Andeans have more market potential, we recommend crossing between the two gene pools to transfer original resistance genes from Mesoamerican genotypes into the Andeans with a major focus on those genotypes that have already been naturally introgressed. • Crosses have been developed to combine alubia grain type (uniform, milky white, long cylindrical seed) with drought resistance.Rationale: International bean markets in some cases demand the same grain types as local and regional markets. For example, the small red type is widely accepted in Central America and in East Africa, and also finds a modest market in Pakistan and in the United States. Other types are cultivated in East Africa primarily for export, with a relatively minor component of local consumption, such as navy beans.Although productivity is relevant in such market types, meeting stringent market criteria to obtain the best prices often takes priority in farmers' choices of which varieties to plant. One of the highest value beans is the large white class, which in several parts of the world demands very high prices. In Spain for example, the very large fabada type sells for as much as US$10 per kilo. Alubia beans are one of the highest value types on the international market, and can sell for almost double the price of small black beans. The alubia type presents seed size and long cylindrical shape more typical of Andean beans, and with milky white grain. Argentina has been one of the largest producers of alubia beans, but East Africa has the opportunity to enter this market for sale to the mid-eastern countries. Some production of large white types already occurs in the region, but there is potential for much more.Materials and Methods: In section 2.1.1.3 we reported on the development of large white beans for drought resistance. This is a particularly valuable trait for white beans, since production in dry areas is conducive to avoiding grain spotting and maintaining grain quality, but implies risk of drought. While the lines reported in the above section represent gains in agronomic traits, grain size and shape are still not adequate for the most demanding markets. It has been a particular challenge to obtain large, long cylindrical grain type with the best drought resistance, in spite of the fact that our drought resistant check, ICA Quimbaya (AFR 298) has excellent grain size and shape.In 2008 F 2 populations developed within the drought breeding project were evaluated under intermittent drought. These included populations with alubia parents, and that were segregating excellent white color (milky, uniform, without veins or hilum discoloration). Out of F 2 families that expressed relatively good productivity under intermittent drought we selected the seed with the best grain color and to the extent possible, acceptable alubia size and shape, although grain type still fell short in this regard. These were crossed to ICA Quimbaya to recover the grain characteristics of Quimbaya with the alubia color. This represents a divergence from the standard drought breeding approach, in that it places primary importance on the grain characteristics. Additional crosses were planned to combine the sources of grain color with the best drought sources, as a back up plan to the crosses with Quimbaya. Crosses are presented in Table 106. because of ease of harvesting and threshing. We also made 97 pollinations to combine the high canning quality, tolerance to rust, bean stem maggot resistance and type 1 growth habit of Awash 1 with high yield potential and resistance to anthracnose of Goberasha. The F 1 was backcrossed to Mexican 142 to generate segregating populations. Navy bean grain type was selected from 52 F 2 segregating populations at Kabete Field Station, and used to establish F 3 progeny rows. Progeny rows were rated for disease reaction, plant type and tolerance to moisture stress at Kabete. F 4 bulks were evaluated for tolerance to low soil P at Kakamega and root rots in Sabatia test sites. The F 4 bulks, F 5 and F 6 lines were grown in preliminary and intermediate yield trials at three locations. Thirty-eight new lines were finally selected for regional distribution and advanced yield trials.In Melkassa, crosses were made to generate new breeding populations. The adapted parents in the new crosses were PAN 182, Dresden, Mex 142 and Awash 1. Donor parents for anthracnose were Roba and Goberasha. PAN 182 and Awash contributed resistance to rust. HAL-5 was used a source of resistance to halo blight. A262, A197 and TY 3396-3 were included in these crosses due to their high yield potential. Awash also contributed type 1 growth habit. Dresden has excellent canning quality but is susceptible to anthracnose, CBB, rust and angular leaf spot. The first single crosses were made in 2000 main season. Development of three way, double and backcrosses started during the 2001off-season. Included in these crosses was 'Omar', a medium sized white bean that was identified by exporters for its quality. It is however susceptible to rust and other diseases. In Ethiopia, advanced lines were evaluated in multi-location trials.In Madagascar, selection was conducted from 19 advanced lines from the regional program at Kabete, and from new populations generated from crosses between Ranjonoby (a commercial large white variety) and sources of resistance to angular leaf spot, anthracnose , rust, common bacterial blight and tolerance to low soil fertility (Ikinimba). Ikinimba has shown good levels of resistance to rust, angular leaf spot, anthracnose and low soil fertility under Madagascar conditions. Awash was used as source of resistance to rust and anthracnose. XAN 74 was source of resistance to common bacterial blight. F 1 were backcrossed to Ranjonoby for three generations.Results and Discussion: Ten high yielding small white lines were selected from the preliminary and intermediate trials in Kenya. Some of their characteristics are shown in Thirty-eight advanced lines were evaluated in multi-location trials in Kenya and compared with regional check varieties. Results showed significant genotypic differences for days to flower, maturity, rust, pod load, 100-seed mass and grain yield (Table 108). Effects of environment were significant for all traits (P>0.01). A significant genotype x environment interaction was detected for phenology, rust, pods m -2 , 100-seed mass and grain yield. Rust was most severe at Kabete. Sarrag was rated very susceptible in three of the four environments with scores of 9, 9 and 8. All other lines and checks showed resistant reactions. Mean grain yield was lowest at Kabete during the long rain season and highest at the same site during the short rain season (Table 108). This was partly attributed to effects of rust and moisture stress at Kabete. Results showed that 37 new lines produced more grain than the best check (Mexican 142) (Table 108). ECAB0601 was the best line among the new lines with a high yield advantage over the check varieties. The results indicated that new lines have considerable yield potential compared to the commercial cultivars. However, these lines need to be evaluated for canning quality.In Ethiopia, advanced lines were evaluated in multi-location trials at Alemaya, Awassa, Bako, Jimma, Melkassa, Ziway, Ambo, Mekele, Asassa, Adet, Pawe and Sirinka. Four lines promising were identified. These were UTT 24-131, UTT 27-24, NZBR 2-5, BZBR 2-8 (Teshale et al., 2007). Several lines were selected at Melkassa and Alemaya for the national yield trials (NYT) and farmer verification trials (FVT) under the supervision of the National Variety Releasing Committee (NVRC). Similar evaluations were conducted in Madagascar and Sudan.Release of New Varieties: Contributors: Paul Kimani, Teshale Assefa (Ethiopia), Amee Rakoriahanta (Madagascar), Bulti Tesso and Chemeda Fininsa (Alemaya University, Ethiopia), Festo Ngulu (Tanzania) and Ghamal Khalifa (Sudan)Collaborators: Hery Andrimazaolo ( Madagascar) and Bean Teams at Kabete (Kenya), Melkassa (Ethiopia), FOFIFA (Madagascar), Alemaya ( Ethiopia) and Hudeiba (Sudan) scale producers threaten to push smallholder farmers out of business ( Kimani, 2005;CIAT, 2004). In East and Central Africa, production is based on determinate types. Unlike their counterparts in South America, East African farmers normally do not grow the indeterminate types, which are higher yielding and have longer harvest duration. Breeding for high yield, disease and pest resistance, tolerance to abiotic stresses, general adaptation to tropical conditions and acceptable market quality is a critical component of an integrated strategy to address constraints to snap bean production in the region. Unlike snap beans, the main constraint to snap runner bean production is requirement for extended light. Current varieties are long day. They require at least three hours of additional lighting to stimulate flowering and pod setting. This demands installation of expensive infrastructure in production fields. Consequently, only large commercial firms can produce and market this high value crop. Runner beans are generally more resistant to major bean diseases and have been proposed as possible source of resistance to common bean. Development of short day runner beans will facilitate smallholder farmers to gainfully participate in runner bean sub-sector and also reduce production costs and make local produce more competitive in international markets. A regional program was therefore started in 2006 to support the development of improved snap bean varieties with high yield potential, resistance to biotic stresses and consumer preferred pod quality, and short-day runner beans for smallholder production. This report highlights progress in this program.Materials and Methods: Snap bean is a relatively new sub-sector in Tanzania. Activities at Selian, therefore focused on a baseline survey to better understand the major constraints and the production and marketing environment, evaluation local bush lines and 35 advanced climbing bean lines from CIAT, development of agronomic and crop protection management practises. In Rwanda, focus has been on evaluation of 40 advanced climbing and 18 bush snap lines received from CIAT, Colombia and selection for pod characteristics, (colour, shape, texture and taste) and resistance to rust, angular leaf spot and anthracnose from local variety 'Vunikingi' and its crosses with bush snap beans.Results and Discussion: In Uganda, 11 lines introduced from CIAT and Kenya were evaluated for three seasons. Paulista and Helda were used as checks. Major constraints were rust, angular leaf spot and common bacterial blight. However, field surveys showed that rust was most limiting in farmers' fields.Results showed that pod inoculation was most effective for screening for resistance to common bacterial blight. Six lines (HAB 433,BC 4.8,A 20,J 12,L1 and L 12) showed combined tolerance to the three major diseases (Table 110). Line HAB 433 was selected on-farm for yield and quality (pod size and shape, length, snappiness and taste). Twenty-one F 6 climbing bean lines introduced from Rwanda, 14 commercial varieties of European origin and 35 F 5 climbing bean lines from CIAT were sown in an observation nursery at Kawanda. A survey of economic pests in farmers' fields in Uganda showed that bean aphids, pod borers and bean fly were the most important insect pests in the surveyed locations, while bean leaf rust, root rot and angular leaf spot are the most important diseases. All farmers interviewed invariably use pesticides in their fields to control the pests and diseases. Results showed that application of inorganic and organic fertilizers increased pod yield from 6.8 t ha -1 to 7.4 t ha -1 . Paulista and Teresa were the best yielding commercial varieties with yields of 8.3 and 8.9 t ha -1 , respectively.In Rwanda, five F 6 lines were selected from Vunikingi x Amy populations. Yield of 58 lines introduced from CIAT and local collections varied from 5 to 12 t ha -1 . As expected climbers were better yielding compared to bush varieties. The most promising lines were Boon, Cabbra, G685, Ncekarkonnigia, Saxa, Khaki and Loiret.Survey results showed that major constraints to snap bean production in Rwanda were diseases, pests and weeds. Major diseases included root rots, angular leaf spot, rust and bean common mosaic virus. The main pests are aphids, bean stem maggot, spider mites and crickets. Major weed species were Commelina spp, Digitaria spp, Bidens spp, and Oxalis specie. Diseases were controlled with a range of fungicides. Evaluation of commercial varieties and introductions for reaction to diseases showed that Tarrot was susceptible to rust, Saxa and Cabbra to anthracnose and Ncekarkonnigia to BCMV. In Tanzania, 35 climbing bean lines from CIAT and 5 local bush varieties were sown in observation nursery and to increase seed at Madiira.In Kenya, three snap bean accessions were collected from farmers' fields in Murang'a district, five from KARI-Thika and three from Madagascar. These were added to the working collection at the University of Nairobi. Thirty-three bush and seven climbing bean lines were sown in observation nurseries and seed increase plots at Mwea and Kabete. One pre-release variety and 12 rust resistant advanced lines were selected at Thika. Thirty four new crosses were made to transfer resistance to root rots, angular leaf spot and common bacterial blight to susceptible commercial varieties (Paulista, Amy, Julia, Teresa, Vernadon, Morgan, Alexandria, Kutuless and Morelli). Sources of resistance included Beldakmi and Beltglade lines with ur genes and L227 which has multiple resistance to root rots, angular leaf spot, rust and common bacterial blight. F 1 's were advanced to F 2 .The characteristics of the 12 lines selected at Moi University in the national performance trials at six locations are presented in Table 111. Flowering was earliest at Thika (37 days) and latest at Njoro (50 days). Duration to first picking was shortest at Thika (56 days) and longest at Njoro (62 days). Picking period varied from 22.6 days at Marigat to 36 days at Njoro and 40 days at Thika. On an average, Lanet and Njoro showed better pod quality scores than Marigat and Eldoret. The pod quality at latter location was poorest, probably due to the poor plant growth in general. The interaction between locations x trial entry was highly significant, suggesting that different entries respond differently to environmental conditions in respect of pod quality. The variety differences for reaction to rust were significant. The entry with the severest symptoms was No. 1, showing a mean score of 7.6. It differed significantly from those that had a score of 6.6 or less. Entry No. 7 had the lowest rust score of 1.2, differing significantly from those having a score of 2.2 or more. On an average, Marigat showed significantly more severe rust symptoms than other locations. The interaction between location x entry was significant, suggesting that possible differences in rust races occur. Variety differences for fresh pod yield were significant. The entry with the lowest yield was No. 3 with an average of 9.6 t ha -1 , followed by No.1 with 9.7 t ha -1 . These differed only significantly from those that had 12 t ha -1 or more. Entry No. 11 had the highest yield of 13.1 t ha -1 , differing significantly from those having a yield of 11 t ha -1 or less. The locations differed significantly pair-wise: Marigat and Njoro had the highest yields; Lanet and Kakamega were intermediate, and Eldoret and Thika lowest. The mean yields per location ranged from 3.1 t per ha -1 at Thika to 19.7 t ha -1 at Marigat. No significant interaction between location and trial entry was observed which indicates that varieties had no differential response to environment. It suggests that the yield adaptation of the entries to different environments was similar. At Kabete, five F 3 populations were developed from crosses between a long-day commercial runner snap variety and five short day dry grain type, short-day varieties. The F 3 progenies were advanced to F 4 and F 5 generations at Ol Jorok and Laikipia. Pod set and pod characteristics were the main selection criteria under short day conditions. The population showed considerable segregation for pod traits. Progenies were grouped into six categories (Table 112). Long, straight pods are preferred by exporters. Curved short pods are associated with local short day parental genotypes. F 5 lines showed heavy podding at Ol Jorok during the 2008 cropping season. Two to three harvests were made from most of the lines. Runner bean lines showed high levels of resistance to angular leaf spot, root rot, common bacterial blight, anthracnose and frost despite heavy disease pressure which caused severe damage to climbing and bush bean lines in adjacent plots. However, some runner bean lines showed intermediate reactions to rust infection. • More fixed lines with high yield potential and resistance to diseases and cultivars of commercial value for export market were distributed in a regional yield trial to various NARIs partners in different countries. • Early generation selections of interspecific crosses for high iron have been realized in ICTA, Guatemala and are pending shipment to CIAT for analysis. • Selections from EAP-Honduras have been analyzed and returned to the breeder there.• High iron lines are in validation trials in Nicaragua and a variety could be released in the course of 2009.Rationale: As part of the Fontagro and Agrosalud funded projects on nutritional breeding, we have developed a strong collaboration with the Bolivian bean-breeding program and the corresponding genebank for this crop. Bolivia is a primary center of diversity for Andean genepool germplasm within the Andean region of South America. The country has the most significant problems of malnutrition on the continent (51% anemia in children under 5 year old and 33.1% in women 15 to 49 years old) and there is a need for higher micronutrients in the diet of most consumers. Common bean, especially biofortified varieties, could provide significant levels of iron and zinc to diets of consumers who eat 10 Kg or more per person per year. Common bean, however, is a relatively new grain crop for the country with most production in the eastern lowlands or sub-Andean valleys of Santa Cruz, some of it for local consumption and some for export to Colombia and other countries in the region. In this region, common bean is growing in importance compared to other pulses such as faba bean, lupines and lentils. Per capita consumption of dry beans has increased particularly among lowland producers and for people living in Santa Cruz and neighboring cities despite the fact that common bean was traditionally consumed previously as fresh green pods. The objective of this research was to screen some of the genotypes held in the national genebank collection at the \"Centro de Investigacion Fito-ecogénetico\" (which is part of the Pairumani Foundation) for baseline mineral content, with the aim of moving the best genotypes into the breeding program at the Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno. Conclusions and Future Plans: In general the results reflected the higher iron status, but lower zinc status of Andean grain types. While some high iron genotypes were found none were as high as for values seen for improved breeding lines from the biofortification program. Therefore the Bolivian genotypes should be considered as intermediate sources of high-mineral traits that can be used in breeding programs with improved varieties such as the NUA lines.M.W. Blair, C. Astudillo (SBA-1, CIAT), T. Avila, G. Avila, R. Rios (Fund. Pairumani, Cochabamba); J. Ortubé, T. Anzoátegui, J. Padilla (UAGRM, Santa Cruz)In 2007 elite populations combining high mineral parents with sources of agronomic traits were distributed to collaborating partners in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. These populations were created simultaneously with those reported under product 1. These have been selected for local adaptation and for resistance to diseases, especially BGYMV, and have reached the F 5 generation in most cases. In Nicaragua the populations have been managed as bulks to date and advanced lines are not yet available for mineral evaluation. Grain is being shipped to Colombia for mineral analysis on the selected families made in El Salvador and Guatemala (Table 115). In the case of the populations selected in a highland environment in Guatemala, it is noteworthy the number of families that are derived  • 68 F 4 families from CIAT for high minerals The EMBRAPA laboratory for mineral analysis has also reported atomic absorption data on two universal checks sent from CIAT that approach the values with ICP quite satisfactorily (61 with atomic absorption versus 65 with ICP for low iron; 94 versus 102 for high iron).Although plans were made during the annual meeting of the PCCMCA in April, 2008 to execute a broad evaluation of advanced lines as selected in previous years, very few trials were salvaged given the very excessive rainfall throughout the growing seasons. Nearly all trials were lost in El Salvador.Nicaragua is the country where the testing of advanced lines in regional trials has advanced the most. In a regional trial the selections from populations for high iron were compared with local check INTA Rojo (Table 118). Across all five environments only two lines compared favorably with INTA Rojo. But in the less favorable environments (Boaca and Las Segovias) with yields that are more typical of those obtained by farmers, more lines yielded comparably or with a modest advantage. However, the widest advantage in relation to INTA Rojo was in the trial in San Isidro, a high yield environment. In Nicaragua it is common for genotypes to present local or regional adaptation, and the varietal release procedure there permits the registration of cultivars for regional use. Grain has been recovered from these trials, and is awaiting chemical analysis in CIAT.  Genotypes: A total of 28 genotypes were used in initial testing of the SU91 marker. The control genotypes were the resistance sources RMX2, RMX19, RMX20 (Andean) and VAX3, VAX6 and XAN159 (Mesoamerican), while the other genotypes were the red, cream mottled or red mottled advanced lines CAL143, CMB106, DRK149, RAA21, RMA68, RMA70, RMA71 and RMC57. In addition the drought adapted genotypes SAB575, SAB581, SEQ11, SEQ1003, SEQ1004, SEQ1006 and SEQ1027 were tested as well as the BCMNV sources used in crosses with these previous parents BRB264, BRB265, BRB266 and BRB267.DNA extractions: Two types of DNA extraction were used, namely alkaline extraction (microprep) and proteinase K (miniprep) derived DNA. Once these parental genotypes were evaluated the SU91 marker was tested on a set of gamete selection F 1 plants from semester 2008b derived from simple, double and multiple crosses between the parents and using alkaline extraction. Initial marker assisted selection targeted those crosses with VAX3 and VAX6 where the SU91 marker seemed to be more reliable.Results and Discussion: SU91 was found to amplify multiple background bands with alkaline extraction DNA as template compared to miniprep DNA as template when using 2.5 mM MgCl2 (Figure 61). The strongest band was found for the genotypes VAX3, VAX6 and XAN159 at the expected size of 700 bp, but the SU91 marker was also found to be sensitive to template DNA concentration with a weak band of the expected size appearing when concentrations were high in susceptible genotypes, especially with alkaline extraction DNA.Given these initial results, we tried two different dilutions of miniprep and alkaline extraction DNA for VAX3, VAX6 as resistant controls and MAR1 as a susceptible control. The results showed that a dilution of 1:9 produced a strong band in the resistant genotypes and no band in the susceptible genotypes; while a dilution of 1:14 produced a weak band only for VAX6 not for VAX3 or the susceptible check (Figure 62). We then attempted marker assisted selection using alkaline extraction DNAs from a set of 331 gamete selection from the Palmira 2008B season that were used for leaf tissue harvesting 18 days after planting. Amplification of the template DNA was based on a 1:9 dilution and the same PCR conditions as used for the control genotypes. Since the marker is dominant and in cis orientation with the resistance QTL only those plants containing the 700 bp SU91 band and no other background bands were selected. Given this stringent evaluation, a much lower number of positive genotypes (2.1%) were identified than expected based on the pedigrees of the triple, double or multiple crosses evaluated.    Rationale: Some national programs within the SADC region (Angola, south D. R. Congo, Lesotho, Mozambique and Swaziland) still do not have adequate personnel to support breeding programs of their own. The SABRN co-coordinates regional germplasm nurseries and trials, which contain improved lines and released cultivars with the aim of sharing germplasm within the network so that each national program or private sector can benefit from the research that is carried out by others in the region.Materials and Methods: Various countries within SABRN grouping requested for specific nurseries. These nurseries were organized either by market class, or production constraint or plant growth habit. Such nurseries serve as sources of germplasm with good attributes that might be useful to NARS partners. (FLS), and rust. The ALS disease pressure was highest at Bembeke, Malawi with score rating as high as 8 in some varieties, but there were a few varieties which showed reasonable resistance to ALS with such diseases score ratings of 2-3) on the following varieties: MC12832-129-11, GCI-CAL-172-AR, MN12686-15, CAL143, GCI-LR-171, VTTT923/10-3, MR13557-16-7 and MC13832-129-1. The pressure for CBB was highest at Uyole, Tanzania, where the most susceptible variety had a score of 8. Floury leaf spot was the other disease where some varieties recorded high scores of 8 to 9, at Bembeke, Malawi. In general, a good number of varieties had good resistance to ALS, CBB, ASC and rust, but were susceptible to FLS. The only two varieties which were resistant to all diseases including FLS were: 12832-129-11 and 13832-129-1 (Table 125). Grain yield data showed that Lubumbashi (D. R. Congo), Greytown (South Africa) and Harare (Zimbabwe) were badly affected by drought, and the average site means were less than 1000 kg ha -1 , whereas Chitedze and Bembeke (Malawi), Misamfu (Zambia) and Uyole (southern highlands of Tanzania) were less hit by drought and they had better site means, above 1000 kg ha -1 . There were 2 carioca varieties (MC13832-129-1 and MC12832-129-1), both with medium seed size, which were among the top yielding varieties across locations. One large red seeded variety (VTTT 924/10-4) also showed good yield potential across sites, with an average grain yield above 1400 kg ha -1 , which was similar to the yield of the carioca varieties, and the standard check variety, CAL143. Among the least yielding varieties across locations were those bean varieties which were introduced by ACOS, a commercial firm which exports beans across continents, with the intention of identifying some varieties which could be promoted in SABRN for them to export to Europe. These are the varieties with commercial grain types, which were mostly in cranberry (sugar) and white market classes, but they seem not to be adapted to the environments in most countries, and they are also susceptible to ALS, CBB, FLS and rust in most sites -calling for future breeding activities to incorporate genes for adaptation and resistance to prevalent diseases in the region, into the varieties of commercial value for export to European markets.NARIs Bean Research Teams within SABRN; S. Beebe, R.Buruchara, P. Kimani, M.Blair In south highlands of Tanzania, every site (village) where PVS is taking place each farmer group was given 2 kg, and in addition some selected farmer groups and individuals had planted larger plots: a) Ilembo Peasant Group in Mbozi district planted Uyole 04 and Njano on 4.5 ha, b) J Mwampashi's Ivwanga Group, in Mbozi district planted Uyole 96 on 2.5 ha; and c) a farmer in Kilolo district produced seeds on 2 ha. This PABRA work is linked to a McKnight-funded project.Some NARS have also embarked on innovative seed supply models especially facilitating the marketing of small packs (80, 400 and 2000 g) of certified seeds which are more affordable.  The majority of buyers were women (56.1%) who mainly bought the 80 g pack size (see Figure 64). The small pack of 80 g was the most preferred by farmers because it was affordable, and with as little money as Ksh 40 =USD 0.50, a farmer can buy certified seeds of each of the four different varieties.Using lessons learned from PABRA dissemination approaches and efforts in Kenya, the Ministry of Agriculture supplied 120 tons of the four Katumani bean varieties (Kat B1, Kat B9, Kat x 56 and Kat x 69) to 50 districts in Kenya. The supply is through farmers' groups as loan to the group and the members take the responsibilities to ensure subsequent farmer-to-farmer exchanges as well as repayment of the seeds loan to other farmers. As result of this partnership and local capacity building (exposure to new varieties, imparting knowledge and skills in areas of pre and post harvest crop management), beans are being introduced for the first time and are slowly being adopted in communities where the bean crop was unknown, e.g. among some members of Masai communities in Kenya (see Figure 67) who gradually are become sedentary. Backstopping activities include field visits, support to national planning workshops, and writing seed systems proposals. All these activities are aimed at strengthening PABRA members in seed systems and wider impacts. For instance, a field visit in Cameroon helped scientists from NARS and their partners to understand the existing supply and demand for bean seeds (existing varieties, seed policy, seed sector actors, potential partners in variety promotion, and farmers' and traders' variety preferences -see Figure 68). This will help in laying down strategies to disseminate seeds of the promising and pre-released varieties in Cameroon.  A study on assessing the status of partnership within the PABRA countries was conducted in four countries representing the rest of PABRA members. These countries were Uganda and Ethiopia in ECABREN and Malawi and South Tanzania in SABRN. The study has the following specific objectives: 1. To understand relations between partners -what is working, what is not working and what needs to be improved 2. To map existing network patterns in order to identify which linkages need to be improved 3. To relate partnership process to outcomes 4. To identify gaps and suggest improvement in the futureThe partnership was evaluated based on the following elements:1. Agreement on purpose and shared vision of partnership 2. Engagement and commitment of partners 3. Trust and reciprocity 4. Accountability and decision making 5. Partnership arrangement including legal and institutional arrangement 6. Leadership and effective communication Key findings and suggestions for improvement include:• The partnership is very strong in terms of having a shared vision that is agreed on by a majority of the partners in the surveyed countries. Subsequently the roles and responsibilities of the different partners are clearly articulated and understood by most partners. However, the partners do not have agreed norms, approaches and processes for achieving the objectives of the partnerships. • The partnership has high levels of trust and reciprocity at national level with members indicating high levels of honesty, openness, and willingness to help each other • The partnership is not strong in terms of partnership arrangements on issues of IPR and resource access • In terms of accountability and decision making, while this may be clear between the key partners namely CIAT/PABRA/networks, National Bean Programs, it is not as clear within national and local partners. • Communication across the countries needs improvement, especially the extent to which partnership meetings at national level are held with a frequency that ensures full communication and information sharing as well as providing effective feedback mechanisms between partners. • Participation of the private sector (apart from seed companies) in the partnership is low in most of the countries. • There is a multitude of secondary partners (partners of our partners!). There is potential for widening the scope of partnerships through building better links with secondary partners. • A coherent framework for partnership is needed with clear engagement strategies for different types of partners especially private sector and the secondary partners. However this needs to be strategic in order to balance the need for reach and quality of work. • A national level forum of partners should be created during which national level works-plans, resource sharing, monitoring and feedback are actualized. This should be included in the coordination mechanisms of the partnerships. • There should be mechanisms to promote transparency in resource allocation at this level.• Transparent mechanisms for sharing the success of the partnerships and for individual and collective intellectual property rights including authorship should be developed in a participatory process.Collaborators: J.Njuki, P. Sanginga and M. Mapira This study was initiated following 5 years of consistent capacity building. The study assessed training provided to national partners in selected areas.The findings are reported for decentralized seed system and participatory monitoring and evaluation. The study objectives were to assess changes in individuals trained in terms of changes in their knowledge, attitudes, and practice (KAP); to analyze the outcomes of capacity developments at different levels (individuals, institutions and communities); to determine extent of use and adaptation of the approaches by partners; to assess extent of institutionalization and to draw generic lessons and principles for broad application.A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to collect data on: changes in knowledge, attitudes, and practice (KAP) of individuals trained; the outcomes of capacity developments at individual, organization and community levels; target communities; as well as to evaluate the relevance of capacity building activities. The study applied a modified 'Ripple' Model as the conceptual framework for assessing change. The Ripple model provides a useful framework to link capacity building activities to outcomes and impacts. Change was assessed at several levels; individual, organization, and target community levels. Data was collected using qualitative and quantitative methods.A modified \"Most Significant Change (MSC)\" approach was used. MSC is a story based technique that is used to identify and give value to changes that were unintended or unexpected but were nevertheless significant impacts for those involved. Training was defined as an activity that involved theoretical sharing of information and practical interactions intended to develop or impart skills. This kind of learning environment should have taken at least three days for it to be useful to the trainees.The number of people assessed was 39. The respondents had different professional backgrounds that included agriculturalists, social scientists, extension, animal health, environmental management and laboratory technician. Additionally respondents also cut across different positions in the organizations (Table 128) Against a scale, all trainings were rated average, reasons for this rating were that methods used by facilitators utilized a variety of practical and theoretical methods and tools, many stakeholders were involved and training materials given were relevant and adequate. Changes were assessed in two main ways. Respondents were required to rate their knowledge and skills before and after the training using pre-determined variables.Results from PM&E indicated that there were significant levels of change in the knowledge and skills on the subject matter covered during trainings (Figure 69). Significant changes were noted in areas of sharing and making use of information, capturing stakeholders' indicators, periodic reports from stakeholders, presence of functional PM&E plans and frequency of monitoring. Forty two percent (42%) of respondents reported that they had integrated PM&E in other projects. Most commonly integrated aspects in other It can be seen that capacity building has played a major role in facilitating implementation. This is not only in availing capacity but was as well a source of skills for managing stakeholders. Continuous follow up is also a major factor enabling implementation of PM&E.Results from decentralized seed system indicate that there were significant changes among trainees in the use of seed manuals, in involving farmers in testing new varieties, involving stakeholders in dissemination and sharing of roles (Figure 70). Respondents gave examples of the changes observed on individuals trained. The list included:• Increased interaction with communities (92%)• Use of manuals (39%)• Improved interaction with NGOs and CBOs (54%)• Improved interaction with research centers (31%)• Improved interaction with project managers (77%)Individuals that had been trained in Seed Systems felt that there were significant changes at community level, which they attributed to the training received. Outstanding changes were noted in the extent to which communities were supporting other communities, there were new partnerships formed, more farmers were getting involved in technology development and dissemination and there was increased sharing of roles and responsibilities (See Figure 70). Additional benefits within communities included the increased number of farmers involved in seed multiplication (33%), the fact that beans were considered a cash crop (20%), and there was increased exchange of seed among farmers (13%). The farmers interviewed listed additional benefits as follows:• Acquired good agronomic skills (50%)• Access to fertilizers (17%)• Access to improved seed (67%)Farmers attributed these benefits to availability of inputs -seed and fertilizer (50%), trainings (100%) and group marketing (25%). Clearly, building the capacity of the individuals in organizations was translating into benefits for farmers.Changes at organizational level as a result of training in decentralized seed systems were assessed on the basis of indicators for the integration of the approach at the level of organizations, results were recorded in Table 129.1. Capacity building in participatory approaches has accrued benefits mostly at individual and community levels 2. A gap was defined between individual empowerment and institutionalization 3. The study reveals scarcity in the diversity of methods for training 4. Limitations on follow up on capacity building activities and limited resources Contributors: E. Lubega, J. Njuki, R. Muthoni, J.C.Rubyogo, P.Mukishi  (informal and formal) and centralized (commercial) seed actors, to produce and supply bean seeds to farmers. Before the WIP was initiated, seed dissemination of improved bean varieties was limited to farmer research groups, or to areas with a presence of development partners e.g. Non-Government (NGOs) or Government organizations (GOs), schools or through parastatals/seed companies, especially for relief seed supplies. A study which assessed the effectiveness of existing seed systems was carried out in Ethiopia, Southern Tanzania and Uganda was carried out between September and December 2007. The information was collected at five levels along the seed supply chain; NARIs, seed companies and parastatals, partner organizations and seed producers (both individual and farmer groups) and grain producers who were the beneficiaries of the seed suppliers. The study has the following objectives To characterize the existing bean seed systems actors and their roles/responsibilities 2. To assess the bean seed production and supply capacities of decentralized seed producers (farm based systems) 3. To assess the potential and drivers of wider dissemination in decentralized seed systems Findings about the WIP 1. As result increased awareness, there is a very high demand of improved bean varieties in all the three countries and more particularly where the farmers have been exposed to varieties. When a variety was still new in certain area, farmer seed producers sold its seeds between 50-100 % above the average grain market price. For instance, NABE 12-C in Kisoro (S-W Uganda) was being sold at UgSh 1200/kg and NABE 13 was being sold at UgSh 1500/ kg in Kabale while the average grain bean price was at UgSH was 1500 /kg (1USD= Ugsh 1760). However as these varieties gained popularity and were available in the local market, the price fell to a level of the grain market in about three to four years and their seeds were no longer attracting premium price.2. The time lag between variety release/official approval and the wider use was reduced from five years to less than one year especially if the varieties have been released or tested in other bean network countries, e.g. as with Roba in southern Tanzania and several varieties in Ethiopia. The situation was different before 2003 (launch of wider impact). For instance Awasha Melka which is very popular variety in Ethiopia was released in 1999; it stayed on the shelf till 2004 when wider impact approach was launched in Ethiopia. However, new varieties released after wider impact was launched were immediately used by farmers. This was due to institutionalizations of wider impact by NARS and the bean industry. Similar results were found in southern Tanzania where pre-released varieties (Uyole Njano, Calima Uyole, Bilfa 4 and Nyeupe Mpya) are being used by farmers. In Uganda regionally adapted varieties e.g. NABE 13 and 14 (root rot tolerant) and NABE12-C (climbing) which are not supplied by any commercial seed companies are widely disseminated in Kabale and Kisoro Districts (south west of Uganda) where NGOs, CBOs and individual farmers played a role in the dissemination.3. NARS in Ethiopia and Tanzania have developed the capacity to produce foundation seed to supply to strategic partners. For instance, NARS in Ethiopia doubled their breeder seed supply to partners between 2003 and 2007 period from 4 to 8 tones in that period. During this period, the supply of basic seeds also increased from 40 to 110 tones. Also in southern highlands of Tanzania, since 2004, the bean program at Uyole Research Institute has been supplying 10 tones of foundation of new and preferred bean varieties to strategic partners while the Research Farm sells more than 60 tones of certified seeds of released varieties every year on cash and carry basis.4. The dissemination of improved varieties was more efficient where NARS was engaged in partnership with local service providers e.g. seed company, farmers' organization, and if there was good social and human capital in farmers groups. For instance in Kisoro (south west Uganda) NARO teamed with the Africa 2000 network (a local NGO) and district extension service to disseminate NABE 12C (MAC 31), a variety released in 2003. In 2007 (4 years after the release), the variety was planted on about ¼ of the district areas where climbing beans are grown. The variety represented about 30% of bean grain market in Kisoro District.5. Commercial seed companies focused on already very popular bean varieties e.g. K132 and NABE 4 in Uganda which were released 1994 and 1999 respectively. However farmer seed producers supplied both locally adapted or site specific (e.g. root rot tolerant) varieties, and widely popular varieties.According to seed company owners, the production and supply of beans seeds is not profitable, unless there is an opportunistic market such as organised massive seed relief distribution by NGOs/GOs. This market represented about 80% of bean seed sold by seed companies in Uganda. More often, farmers did not participate in the bidding processes and their varieties choices were not considered. Some amounts of seeds were likely to be shipped to neighbouring countries e.g. South Sudan and East DRC.6. The research farm in Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Uyole which operates commercially though subsidized avails about 60 tones per year of assorted varieties released by the Uyole Bean Programme. This may due to good linkage with the bean programme and the determination to see the varieties released by their institute in the hands of farmers rather than being driven by simple commercial interests as it would be in the case of commercial seed companies.7. The multiplier effect of training is relatively high among farmers. In addition to seeds, the trained farmer seed producers also are resource people. They trained other farmers in their groups and beyond; passing on information and knowledge on improved varieties while selling seeds and also about improved management practices. Annually, a trainer-farmer was able to train 35, 14 and 72 in Ethiopia, southern Highlands of Tanzania and Uganda respectively.8. Farm based seed production and or supply increased business opportunities and incomes at either farmer seed producers or local seed traders e.g. in 2007 in Kabale' south west Uganda, there were four agro-input suppliers selling seeds of NABE13 and 14 sourced from the Nyamabale Farmer Field School (a farmer group seed producer). The lowest seed sale by the four agro-input was 2 tones while the highest was 3 tones. Their major clients were farmers who were buying between 0.5 to 2 kg. 9. Farmer based (decentralized) seed production/supply respond to farmers variety needs more than commercial seed sector whose clients are mainly NGOs or GOs relief operations.10. For improving on their seed business opportunities, farmer seed producers promote their seeds through diverse means -local market, farmer to farmer, and/or local development/church organizations.11. The majority of farmers of seed producers would like to continue in seed production and supply because they find it to be a source of income, and a very profitable enterprise and that the varieties used were higher yielding than their local ones.Collaborators: J.C. Rubyogo and F. TemboBackground Emergency agricultural assistance seeks to accelerate farmers' recovery from crises such as drought or short-term conflict, aiming to help them continue with crop production, and reduce vulnerability to future stress. Seed aid is the most common example of this type of assistance, and has been extensively implemented; for instance, the FAO alone managed 400 such projects between 2003and 2005(FAO, 2005) ) and, in response to the current food crisis, has seed aid plans for 48 countries.(http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=27313&Cr=Global&Cr1=Food)This type of activity is expanding and involves important sums of money: e.g. Ethiopia has received at least $500 million in emergency seed aid since 1974 (Sperling et al., 2007). Further, 'emergency' seed aid is commonly used to help vulnerable households in chronic stress, i.e. the types of populations which public sector agricultural research particularly aims to serve.Research shows that seed system interventions (seed aid) present serious challenges, and even more so more so during crisis periods. As seed is often replanted, even short-term seed-related interventions can have effects over many seasons. Intervention monitoring and evaluation (M+E) also shows that the dominant design of interventions, from the supply-side, as well as their repetitive nature, (for example in Burundi, 26 seasons in a row) can result in a range of negative effects, skewing crop profiles, undermining local and commercial seed markets, and creating farmer dependencies (McGuire and Sperling, 2008;Sperling et al., 2008).For all these reasons, it seems illogical (and unwise) that emergency seed-related assistance has received relatively little attention within research circles. CIAT has aimed to help correct this key research gap, by coordinating an active \"Seed Systems in Stress\" research program since 2003.The latest research product to emerge from this program is the first-ever 'Seed System Security Assessment Guide' (SSSA). The rationale for the guide, its form, and initial use are summarized below.Farm families are 'seed secure' when they have access to seed of adequate quantity, of acceptable quality, and in time for planting. Helping farmers obtain seed enables them to produce for their own consumption and sale. So fostering seed security contributes to food and livelihood security more generally.While seed security and food security have some elements in common, they are nevertheless quite different. One can have enough seed to sow a plot, but lack sufficient food to eat -for example, during the 'hungry season' prior to harvest. Conversely, a household can have adequate food but lack access to seed (or the right seed) for planting. This happens more rarely, but can occur if seed stocks kept in the house become infested with insect pests or are otherwise contaminated, or if a disease outbreak requires a switch to a resistant crop variety.Despite these key differences between food security and seed security, determinations of seed security have nearly always been based, implicitly or explicitly, on food security assessments. Evaluators assess food needs and then just extrapolate seed requirements as part of the aid package. Similarly, they may estimate existing food stocks by measuring harvests or crop losses. If there is a sharp drop in the harvest, they know there will also be a steep decline in food availability. However, this direct link is not necessarily true of seed systems; that is, a production shortfall doesn't necessarily lead to a seed shortfall.For most cereal crops harvests can drop as much as 80%, and seed would potentially still be available.Ways of calculating seed system needs versus food security needs also differ. We stress the concept of a seed 'system' here since assessments of seed security go well beyond tallying up seed needs on a calculator, although that may be part of the work. Attaining seed security means finding ways to support the systems that give farmers ongoing access to seed of the crops and varieties they require. In many cases, this has little to do with delivering seed directly to farmers and a lot to do with supporting and strengthening the channels through which farmers obtain planting materials on their own.The development of a Seed System Security Assessment Guide emerged from the need for agencies to better understand what happens to farming systems in periods of acute stress, but also in periods of chronic, longer term stress. The guide has also been designed to help organizations (NARS, UN organizations, Humanitarian agencies) explore how to take advantage of development opportunities. So the optic of the assessment guide has been to link relief and recovery operations to developmental strategies, from the start.The challenge of guide development has been to assess the multi-dimensions of seed security per se, including issues of seed availability, seed access and seed quality, in the short and long-term. After years of research, CIAT (with partners, particularly Catholic Relief Services) has developed a method for assessing seed security which blends focus on informal and formal seed channels, and which encourages clear thinking about strategic goals. Seed aid entails making a large number of choices around implementation approaches, which have significant implications, but which rarely have been considered explicitly. For instance, should aid aim to restore the system to the status quo ante, or to strengthen elements of it (e.g. by introducing new crops, or supporting local markets)? Should interventions focus on the most affected crops, those that generate income, or those that can produce food quickly for recovery? Different goals entail distinct strategies (for instance, women may grow different crops from men, HIV-affected households often have serious labor constraints). Seed systems are complex and dynamic. Interventions need to engage with this complexity if they hope to have lasting impact.The 'Seed System Security Assessment (SSSA) was designed for the 'lay person' but reflects considerable specialized agricultural and seed system insight. To develop the method, researchers conceptualized the links between harvests and future seed needs and provided tools for practitioners to calculate these links (See Boxes 1 and 2). Further, research had to pioneer methods for analyzing the functioning of local seed markets, versus food markets, as these often serve primary sources of seed in crisis periods (Sperling, 2008).For a given crop (and variety) and area to be planted, it's easy to calculate the amount of seed a farmer will need for sowing, as well as the size of harvest to be expected.Let PA be the area to be planted by a farmer, in hectares. Let SR be the seeding rate, that is the amount of seed, in kilograms, that needs to be sown for each hectare of the crop and variety in question. Let MR be the multiplication rate of that crop or variety, namely the ratio of harvestable grain to seed sown. Using these three variables, we can determine sowing needs (SN), in kilograms, for the area to be planted, and the expected harvest (H), in kilograms (some of which may be used in the next cropping season as seed), using a few simple formulas: Here's an example of the inputs and outputs for a hypothetical case.As a brief overview, the guide presents a seven step method for understanding seed systems during a crisis and its aftermath, and for identifying what seed-related assistance is needed. It walks the decision maker, relief worker, research through a series of discrete steps. These include analysis of the effects of the disaster on seed systems, identification of possible problems to be addressed, and choice of actions to alleviate the constraints identified.More specifically, the guide is structured to: 1. Identify zones for assessment and possible intervention.2. Describe the normal status of the crop and seed systems.3. Describe the broad effects of the disaster on these farming systems. 4. Set goals for agricultural relief and recovery operations based on farmers' needs. 5. Assess the post-crisis functioning of seed channels to determine whether short-term assistance is needed. 6. Identify any chronic stresses that require longer-term solutions and identify emerging development opportunities. 7. Determine appropriate short-and longer-term responses based on the analysis of priority constraints, opportunities, and farmer needs.Steps 5 and 7 merit special mentionStep 5, assessing the functioning of seed channels during a period of stress, is at the heart of the guide.Step 5 leads the assessor through different loops to understand how home production and social networks are functioning during a crisis and in the stressful aftermath; how the local seed and grain markets are holding up or have changed under stress; and possibilities for tapping into the formal seed sector and commercial supplies. These different types of seed channels need to be assessed and then their joint potential for meeting farmers' needs evaluated.Step 7 matches responses to the situation. It provides decision trees for examining possible interventions and discusses when they may or may not be appropriate. Box 3 gives an example of one decision-making tree. In the accompany text, we focus only on variety quality. (See Sperling, 2008, for full narrative).The Seed System Security Assessment (SSSA) Guide was published August 2008. It is readily available on line as well: http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/africa/seed_manual.htm It has proved useful for a range of users (the UN, governments, humanitarian agencies, research organizations), and represents a broadly demanded International Public Good (IPG). In terms of reaching varied constituencies, the follow actions have taken place:• USAID (US Government) has posted it on its website. This organization is among the biggest seed aid donors in the world. • The guide has been recommended as the seed security assessment guide in the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Seed Unit's study for the upcoming 'State of the World on Plant Genetic Resources.' The FAO Emergency Unit (TCE) is among the leading global advisors on emergency response. • The guide has been reported on several wide-reaching NGO and humanitarian practitioner websites: e.g. ReliefWeb, Catholic Relief Services, and Drylands Coordination Group (Norway). • The guide has also been picked up by several prominent knowledge management groups: Eldis, CTA, SPORE, and UNESCO's OpenTraining Programs. Hard copies are also being distributed via CIAT, USAID/Government, the FAO and CRS.Participatory varietal section/breeding to identify crops tolerant to emerging stress. May use modern and farmer varieties as base.Promotion and awareness raising of existing modern or farmer varieties which are stresstolerant. Lack of appropriate varieties Poor seed healthVariety quality: Farmers do not often experience short-term problems of variety quality, that is, shortages of varieties adapted to their overall conditions. Of course there are cases where crops or specific crop varieties suddenly seem 'unadapted' because of marked disease or pest build-up -as with cassava mosaic virus, or root rots in beans, or infestations of the parasitic weed striga in maize and other cereals. More often, short-term concerns over variety quality arise when implementers sense that a potentially useful modern variety, not yet available to farmers, could be made available, and quickly, via emergency aid. Curiously, then, this concern comes not from a 'problem', but from the identification of a potential opportunity.In the face of a significant environmental stress, and the need for a short-term response to it, implementers must be careful that what they offer is indeed adapted to the emerging situation. Whether the materials on offer are farmer varieties or improved varieties, they should have been previously tested or grown under the specific conditions now at hand. A cautious but useful approach is to promote a basket of varieties. In the face of adversity, diversity can be the key to encouraging production stability.Over the longer term, farmers may need novel materials, either modern varieties or ones from other local farming systems, to allow them to respond to shifts in their cropping system. These may have been made necessary by environmental changes (like atmospheric warming), rising disease and pest incidence, or inappropriate promotion of unadapted modern varieties. In some cases, farmers may not be able to maintain the levels of purity they desire in their own saved seed or that from the market. So the introduction of local (i.e., nearby) varieties may also contribute to reinvigorating the gene pool farmers' rely on.In the case of popular or well-known varieties already in use, implementers may wish to concentrate on promotion: making farmers more aware of the varieties, packaging or selling them in user-friendly quantities, and putting them on offer at agricultural and other events. In some instances varietal development (plant breeding, selection, and field trials) may be necessary. Farmer participatory models should be considered for this R&D, especially where growing conditions are stressful. Collaboration between farmers and formal breeders ensures that the varieties eventually selected will actually grow under real production conditions, including farmer management practices, and that they meet local cultural, social, and economic preferences.These socio-economic surveys adopted an approach that accounts for conditions with and without as well as before and after the project and is part of an overall monitoring and evaluation framework aimed at measuring and attributing the short-and long-term impacts of the TL-2 project. The survey involved focus group discussions in the selected communities, individual households interviews and interviews of key informants in the grain markets. The interviews were complemented with transact walks through the selected villages to make direct observations on the farming systems and constraints. The household survey questionnaires were developed to gather data on: (1) basic farm and household characteristics; (2) cropping patterns, input use, production, and yields; (3) gaps between research, extension and farmers; ( 4) vulnerability (drought, pests, diseases, and prices) and coping strategies; (5) gender roles in input supply, food production and marketing and women's access to productive assets and financial resources; (6) adoption of common bean varieties and dis-adoption of bean varieties as well as variety trait preferences; and (7) bean seed systems. In addition to the questionnaires, other supporting tools included improved and local seed samples and GPS equipment.A total of 360 farming households selected from 18 villages in the two countries and 120 traders along the value chain (i.e. small collectors, big collectors, retailers, wholesalers, exporter/processors and consumers) in Ethiopia and Kenya were interviewed. Ten markets including Shashamene, the biggest market, were surveyed in Southern region and Oromia in Ethiopia; while five markets from eastern Kenya and one big market, Nairobi, were studied in Kenya (Table 131). In each market common bean varieties were recorded and key informant interviewed. Data entry has been completed for all 360 sampled households and data entry for the market studies questionnaires is in progress. Of the 360 entered data, 120 taken from Kenya have been fully cleaned and the analysis of this data is in progress. The results from the analysis so far, indicate that farmers in Eastern Kenya engage in a diversity of crops, cropping systems and diverse distinct farming management practices that are integrated with local ecosystems and livelihoods to cope with drought. They dry plant their crops, make terraces to harvest water, intercrop intensively, keep livestock, invest in social capital, work outside their farms for food or wage and undertake petty trade and handcraft but still cannot meet their food requirements the whole year round. On average, each household experiences 5 months of inadequate food supply per year. Drought is ranked the most important constraint to livelihood improvement, causing about 70% yield loss in common beans when it occurs. Nevertheless, common bean is ranked as the second most important food crop after maize, with about 70 percent of the household surveyed growing it primarily for home consumption. Consistent with the existing literature, data from eastern Kenya reveals a great diversity of common bean varieties at community level with each farmer growing about 3 varieties simultaneously on the farm but with as many as 10 varieties on some farms. Popular varieties include GLP2 (allocated 21% of bean area) Mwitemania (allocated 30 % of the area) and KatB1. Household characteristics, as well as variety consumption and production attributes are the driving factors that underlie variety choice and extent of planting. Market imperfections continue to induce farmers to select varieties they would prefer to eat even when such varieties are rated low for drought tolerance. Current trade-offs between consumption and production attributes are very small demonstrating that farming households value both attributes highly and they will be less likely to accept big trade-offs. The implication for the breeding effort is to target to improve both categoriesNon-degree training of enumerators was through the surveys. However, special sessions were always held at the beginning of each survey to train enumerators on the questionnaire, the art of interviewing covering establishing rapport and probing, as well as GPS reading. In total five such training sessions were organized at different times and venues (namely in Nazereth, Siraro woreda, and Dale woreda in Ethiopia, and Kari-Katumani in Kenya) during the reporting period. A participatory approach was used to facilitate sharing of experience, to stimulate discussions and to enhance learning. Nineteen trainees attended from: the Melkassa agricultural Research Center; IPMS (an NGO partnering with Awassa Agricultural Research Center and CIAT in seed systems and PVS activities); and government extension offices in the study areas.","tokenCount":"61239"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6e11a319cb3556683b5c012274cd919a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b2d9c6a9-0322-4206-aaca-a0257f3d06d6/retrieve","id":"-1300993310"},"keywords":["Desai, B.","Meddings, G.","Laderach, P.","Campbell, R. (2023) Reactive assistance or proactive protection? Social protection and climate resilience in the Sahel region"],"sieverID":"414a8728-8d4f-40d7-86ca-cc4f9e05aa37","pagecount":"48","content":"The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan faces a plethora of climate challenges, from rising temperatures to drought and desertification, exacerbating issues of water scarcity.Concurrently, the country is home to an expanse of social protection and humanitarian assistance programs, varying in delivery modality and responsible actors. The potential and necessity of combining these programs with climate adaptation measures is recognized within Jordan, identified by program participants, social protection and humanitarian assistance program practitioners, as alluded to in the National Adaptation Plan (NAP), and as highlighted by the priorities of the National Social Protection Strategy (NSPS). However, gaps and barriers to developing adaptive social protection abound. These include holes in coverage, siloed approaches, and lack of program development with the local communities. These barriers, and the subsequent recommendations have been identified and formulated through a literature review, key informant interviews and workshops with social protection practitioners and individuals involved in the provision of humanitarian assistance, and key informant interviews, workshops and focus group discussions with local communities in Azraq and North Shuna in Jordan. Recommendations include greater involvement of local communities throughout a program's monitoring, evaluation, and learning (MEL) framework to promote contextual suitability and the efficacy of programs in providing support against climate impacts. This improved vertical coherence should be accompanied by greater coordination between government ministries and between international organizations to ensure complementary action and programming. Coverage of workers in climate vulnerable sectors, such as agriculture, by the Social Security Corporation (SSC) should be expanded through formalization and contribution support. Additionally, targeting of communities vulnerable to climate change impacts could be ameliorated through the widespread use of climate vulnerability assessments and GIS mapping. Whilst programs should be designed to address climate shocks (i.e shock-responsive), a longer-term perspective is also required to ensure programs exist that build long-term resilience to climate change impacts, such as through training in climate-resilient agricultural techniques and livelihoods.Social protection and humanitarian assistance programs are not yet mainstreamed as adaptation strategies or in climate change policies. It is recognized that, as climate impacts become more widespread and intense, social protection and humanitarian assistance programs could play a key role in tackling climate vulnerabilities. For example, they could play a role in protecting against climate change impacts and risks, and in promoting the adoption of more climateresilient livelihoods. However, approaching social protection and humanitarian assistance programs as climate adaptation strategies is not common, and greater awareness is needed on the adaptive potential of these programs. This would be supported by bringing together researchers from differing fields, such as climate experts, social protection and humanitarian assistance experts, and policy makers.Shock-responsive programs should continue to be developed and respond to a pre-determined set of indicators and triggers, such as drought severity and food insecurity. As the Government of Jordan works to add a shock responsiveness chapter to the NSPS with support from international organizations, it should be noted that such programs need to be flexible and adaptable, and supported by early warning systems and comprehensive and unified databases. The National Unified Registry (NUR), which aims to act as unified front-end registration form for social protection programs provides a good example. In designing such programs, inspiration can be drawn from programs implemented elsewhere, such as Kenya's Hunger Safety Net Programme (HSNP) which expands in times of drought. However, in addition to addressing climate shocks, the design of social protection and humanitarian assistance in Jordan must be accompanied by a longer-term perspective, so programs are designed to promote long term resilience to climate change and compound risks.For social protection programs to play a meaningful role in contributing to climate adaptation, coverage must increase, especially for workers in climate vulnerable sectors. For example, in part owing to work in the informal sector or financial constraints, limiting the perceived value of contributory schemes, there is a lack in coverage provided by the Social Security Corporation (SSC). At present, informal employment in Jordan represents 46.1% of total employment, and the attractiveness of a program, particularly for workers with irregular incomes, should be increased by providing support with the necessary contributions (such as in the ESTIDAMA++ program), in addition to expanding formalization. This is key for workers in climate vulnerable sectors such as agriculture, in which often work refugees and migrant workers. Further, some commentators argue for an extension of social protection programs by incorporating a greater number of refugees into such programs.To ensure that the most vulnerable to climate impacts are included in social protection and humanitarian assistance programs, GIS and climate vulnerability assessments should be integrated into program design and eligibility assessments to improve targeting. For example, these maps could overlay socio-economic vulnerability, climate risks, livelihoods, and agro-ecological zones (AEZs), and supported by more integrated indexes and indicators to measure climate risk and social vulnerability.Monitoring, Evaluation, and Learning (MEL) framework, from design to evaluation, in order to improve contextual suitability and efficacy of the program, and to understand longer-term consequences. Programs have been criticized for being insufficiently co-developed with local communities. Greater involvement is crucial to ensure contextual suitability of programs, avoid maladaptation, and promote longevity of program benefits (for example a sense of ownership will encourage the maintenance of infrastructure developed in Cash for Work programs). Involvement throughout MEL frameworks will enable the improved design of existing or future programs and will enable improved assessment of the longer-term impacts of a program.cash transfers delivered on the basis of households, in recognition of the gendered impacts of climate change. In recognition of both the role of women, and the gendered impacts of climate change, gender considerations must be prioritized to ensure programs are inclusive, with improved targeting, systems monitoring and evaluation. This is also important to improve the efficacy of household-, rather than individual-based cash assistance programs. The National Aid Fund (NAF) is an example of a household-based assistance program under which women, due to social norms and structures, face extra barriers to access finance, underlined by the predominance of male-headed households.training in line with climate resiliency and the demands of the labor market.To help cope with slow onset climate risks, individuals should be trained, for example through Cash for Work programs or extension packages, in livelihoods that are at once appropriate for the demands of the labor market, and resilient to climate impacts. These could incorporate training in, and deployment of, climate-smart agricultural techniques and technologies. The German Development Cooperation (GIZ)'s Cash for Work programs in Jordan provide examples of shorter-term employment programs for mixed groups of refugees and Jordanians. Other organizations, such as the Danish Refugee Council (DRC), provide entrepreneurship programs for refugees, some of which are in the \"green jobs\" sector. In addition to input by social protection practitioners, this recommendation is further grounded in feedback by local communities in North Shuna and Azraq. Not only was a lack of agricultural trainings and workshops for local communities highlighted, but the need to train, equip and build the capacity of the community to combat the negative impacts of climate change was promoted, as was the desire for employment opportunities through agricultural development projects.organizations through data sharing and interoperability between databases, and to encourage bundling of programs to boost resilience. Whilst the call for greater co-development with local communities highlights the need for greater vertical coordination between practitioners and participants, greater horizontal coordination is necessary too. Communities in Azraq and North Shuna identified the siloed and often short-term nature of programs as a problem, as well as overlapping agendas between programs and actors reported. A greater degree of coordination should be reflected in data sharing, improved interoperability between government databases, and registries, therefore boosting the capacity to address the gaps that are currently preventing the mainstreaming of climate risks through social protection and humanitarian assistance programs. Further, better coordination increases the benefits of convergence between programs, which may enhance climate resilience and reduce resource waste stemming from multiplicity between programs. This is crucial given the shrinking fiscal landscape, including falling foreign aid to Jordan, and challenges with funding amounts, donor expectations, and short funding cycles.must be supported by advocacy and research, and resulting recommendations aided by policy evaluation to encourage uptake. There must be top-level direction and recognition promoting the role of social protection and humanitarian assistance in adaptation, supported through advocacy, research involving a multitude of stakeholders from local communities to decision-makers, and buttressed by the publication of resultant literature, including policy briefs and peerreviewed work. This is key to bridge the gap between evidence and policy. Further, to encourage incorporation into national strategies, any recommendations and their implications for policy and program design should be thoroughly analyzed, perhaps following the Pragmatic Enlightened Model (PEM) (Edenhofer and Kowarsch, 2015). This exploration of the various overlaps, trade-offs, and consequences of different approaches to social protection would increase any assessment's policy relevance and therefore likely uptake and incorporation of recommendations into national strategies.Background and Scope of Study Social inequality, persistent poverty and the impacts of climate change across the globe combine to drive crises risk and undermine progress against the sustainable development agenda (United Nations 2023; IPCC 2022). The negative impacts of climate change are disproportionately felt in low and middle-income countries that also have limited resources and mechanisms in place for social protection (Hallegatte et al. 2016;UNISDR 2011). Thus, climate risks affect already under-resourced systems for poverty reduction as well as generating new risks that are not covered by existing programs (Aleksandrova & Costella 2021). This country report is part of a global review of recent experience in linking social protection and climate change adaptation across the globe, presenting key findings from Jordan. The full study consisted of a global review of literature and social protection programs and instruments, a series of expert interviews from academia, think tanks, international organisations, civil society and governments, and three regional case studies. 1   Examples of social protection programs and instruments were identified and studied for how they may address existing and new risks by generating, by design or unintendedly, climate adaptation benefits and thus a climate resilience dividend that goes beyond immediate social protection targets. CGIAR decided to undertake this study based on its unique expertise of food systems, land and water management, which it applies to processes and practices that promote equality and social inclusion as well long-term climate security.For the study, two aspects were of primary interest: First, which types of social protection mechanisms may support the climate resilience of vulnerable populations while also promoting longer-term equality and social inclusion. 2 And second, how adaptation action and social innovations can be bundled to accelerate climate-smart 1 A summary of the key findings can be found in this policy brief 2 See CGIAR's HER+ initiative agriculture and long-term climate security. 3 Addressing this would provide the basis for promoting more successful integration of existing and new social protection interventions with climate-smart agriculture, land use and water management practices.Through the three regional \"deep dives\" (Jordan, The Sahel, and India) we sought to answer the question of what the potential long-term benefits are of aligning social protection and climate resilience objectives, and how existing and fragmented examples may be scaled. In addition, the study focused on better understanding whether and how practices on the ground are changing, if climate risks are considered in the design of social protection programs, and whether adaptation measures are built into the support provided through existing schemes.Adaptive Social Protection: Evolution of a Term and Concept Over the past years, an increasing number of policy dialogues, research programs and publications have been dedicated to the links between social protection and climate change adaptation (Sengupta & Dahlet 2023;Costella et al., 2021;Aleksandrova, 2021;Johnson et al., 2013;Kuriakose et al., 2013;Solórzano & Cárdenes 2019). They all build on the premise that social protection contributes to individual and social resilience and that climate change adaptation must work for the most vulnerable and enhance social inclusion.Creating synergies across these domains, is the claim, will accelerate action and enhance outcomes. At the policy level, integrating climate action and social protection objectives offers a strategic entry point for synergies across national programs and budgets. Including social protection in national climate adaptation and mitigation plans enables authorities to allocate resources more efficiently and also report more coherently against regional and international policy commitments (Sengupta & Dahlet, 2023). On the other hand, integrating climate change as a risk factor for human security and sustainable livelihoods into the risk spectrum covered by social protection as well as social and humanitarian assistance programming will help provide further synergies between social security and resilience to climate change impacts.Concepts have evolved from shock-responsive to adaptive to transformative social protection -all, in various ways, seeking to unpack how economic and non-economic losses and risks associated with climate change may be anticipated, buffered and reduced, in the short-and long-term. But have policy and practice changed along with this progress in thinking? Several terms have been proposed to date to describe climate-sensitive social protection schemes, including \"adaptive\", \"transformative\", \"climate-responsive\" and \"shock-responsive\" social protection. These terms have been used interchangeably even though there are nuanced, but there are important differences between them (Tenzing, 2020). These differences relate to the main social, economic and, ultimately, moral logic that underlies the concepts. Whereas the concepts of \"shock-responsive\" or \"climate-responsive\" approach social protection from a coping or maybe growth-oriented perspective, the terms \"transformative\" or even \"adaptive\" point to a rights-based approach.In high income countries, social protection instruments are usually part of a national system and policies that define social protection floors through a set of basic social security guarantees (ILO, 2021). In most low and many middle-income countries however, such national systems do not exist or are weak, and social protection is provided by multiple actors as distinct, separate, and even disparate programs and projects, mostly in the form of social assistance (see Box 1 Social protection terminology).Social protection is a set of policies and programs, including services and transfers, that are designed to reduce and prevent poverty and vulnerability. The terms \"social security\" and \"social protection\" are often used interchangeably and are meant to include benefits for children and families, maternity, unemployment, old-age pensions, sickness and disability, and health services. While there is no universally agreed definition for the term, most actors and literature agree on the range of functions that it serves: transferring income or assets to the poor; protection the vulnerable against livelihoods risks; and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised. Some experts limit the term social protection to services provided by governments for their citizens (refugees may be integrated into such state social protection systems, but according to this conceptualization, the humanitarian assistance provided by non-state actors would be seen as a separate system).Transfers are an integral part of social security benefits and can include the transfer of money, goods and services, through contributory schemes (such as pensions schemes to which recipients previously contributed), categorical schemes (where recipients fulfil certain specific criteria, such as age), social assistance schemes (based on resource conditions) or universal schemes (based on residence or citizenship). In addition, some schemes require that recipients engage in specific tasks as in the case of employment guarantee schemes or public works programs, or adopt specific behaviours as found in conditional cash transfer programs.During the last decade, the concept of social protection floors has emerged as social protection is increasingly recognised to be an indispensable element of equity and sustainable and inclusive development and resulted in the adoption of the ILO-led international legal instrument, the Social Protection Floors Recommendation of 2012, which promotes nationally defined basic social security guarantees related to income and health care. 2Social assistance refers to schemes or programs that provide benefits to vulnerable groups of the population, especially households living in poverty. Most of the social protection programs reviewed in this report series fall under this category.A cash transfer programme is a non-contributory social assistance scheme or programme providing cash benefits to individuals or households. In low-income countries, such programs are usually financed out of a combination of taxation and other government revenue and external grants or loans. Cash transfers can be unconditional, based on specific vulnerability criteria usually related to income and food security, or conditional, requiring specific behaviour or actions, such as ensuring that recipients ensure their children attend school regularly, or that they utilize basic preventative nutrition and health-care services. Most international humanitarian and development actors use a similar definition of social protection as a set of policies and programs that address poverty and exclusion, and seek to reduce economic, environmental and social vulnerabilities to shocks (Mumtaz, 2022;ILO, 2021). Over the past two decades, existing programs have been reviewed for their potential to contribute to crises response and climate adaptation, and humanitarian organizations may provide support to governments in making their social protection systems more shock-responsive and climate resilient. Some humanitarian agencies and international organizations separate their humanitarian assistance programs for refugees and displaced people from state run social protection, although these programs often mirror the modalities of state programs (WFP, 2023a).  (Tenzing, 2020) Also, while the former terms see the role of social protection in helping people cope with what are perceived to be external shocks, the latter -at least in principle -seek to transform the shock drivers inherent in social and economic systems, i.e. the root causes of social exclusion and of vulnerability to climate change (Fedele et al., 2019).Depending on the focus and timeframes chosen, the different functions of social protection then relate in more or less direct ways to the ways in which they might people protect people from climate change impacts, as well as in their potential contributions to climate change adaptation (Figure 1).Adaptive social protection has also been promoted as a potential connector between social protection, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation. In such a framing, social protection can, in principle, contribute to disaster preparedness and prevention through the provision of social insurance and risk diversification programs, support effective response to disasters through social assistance or public or Cash for Work programs, and promote longer term adaptive capacity through livelihood diversification and support (Aleksandrova, 2020;Davies et al., 2013;Ulrichs, Slater & Costello, 2019;).There is still limited evidence on the extent to which social protection can build longer-term resilience to climate change, rather than simply buffering shocks arising from existing climate variability (Davies et al., 2008;Heltberg et al., 2009;Kuriakose et al., 2013). Also, disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, and social protection are still mostly implemented in isolation from one another (Aleksandrova, 2020).Although research suggests that social protection measures can improve livelihood opportunities, they are unlikely to lead to climate change adaptation outcomes without complementary programming, adaptation measures, targeted incentives, and sufficiently generous benefits (Costella et al., 2021;Tenzing, 2020). Aligning climate adaptation policies and social protection policies requires more cross-and multi-ministerial collaboration, the sharing and integration of data, the construction of multi-sectoral indexes, as well as enhanced coordination in the implementation of policies and programs (Arab Water Council and WFP, 2023). Our research has confirmed Tenzing's (2020, 11) argument that \"the transformative objectives of the original ASP concept are increasingly forgotten. Little is said about its potential for empowering recipients and re-dressing structural inequalities that are the social root causes of vulnerability to climate change\" (Tenzing, 2020). Maybe we have to ask how realistic it is to have ambitious goals for global social protection coverage that goes beyond immediate protection objectives, particularly in light of existing resource constraints in low-and middle-income countries (see Figure 2). Today, only 46.9 per cent of the global population are covered by one or more social protection benefits and in Africa, less than 17.4 per cent of the population in Africa is covered (Aleksandrova et al., 2023;WFP, 2023b). The overarching question, therefore, becomes: should focus remain on increasing coverage and quality of basic social protection first, or is there an opportunity in current constraints for accelerating action and improving outcomes by making climate resilience an explicit objective of social protection?In general, we can distinguish between programs and national systems that have a Other programs that do not have a specific focus on climate resilience and where climate change may not even be referred to, can still, however, contribute to climate change adaptation. This is particularly the case where schemes support already tried and tested investments in climate-smart agriculture, or where horizontal as well as vertical coverage increases so significantly as to also cover climate vulnerable populations, including, for example, those working in climate vulnerable sectors such as agriculture.For this series, we reviewed examples from across the globe, several of which are striving for climate change adaptation outcomes by design and others that have achieved some of these outcomes without explicit intention. Where programs had an explicit climate focus, they were either pre-emptive or reactive shock-response interventions where pay-outs and in-kind support meant to buffer an extreme loss event, or featured climate-smart of \"green\" public works, such as soil and water conservation, reforestation, or agroforestry. Some proponents of adaptive social protection advocate for a more explicit consideration of climate risks in new and existing programs (Johnson and Walker 2022). Creating synergies by design seems like a logical step towards both accelerating impact and navigating resource-constrained environments and making the most of available financial and human resources.At the same time, existing social protection practices may already be sufficiently addressing climate risks in certain areas and may only need to be brought to scale.In a recent review of social cash transfer programs, Sengupta and Costella found that while most of them were not designed with climate change adaptation as a key outcome, they tended to produce \"unintended positive contributions to climate resilience capacities\" (Sengupta & Costella, 2023, 14). To assess the capacity of social protection programs in Jordan to contribute to climate adaptation in Jordan, several key informant interviews were conducted with social protection practitioners.Further, given the large number of refugees in Jordan, these interviews extended to those working in delivering humanitarian assistance. In addition, key informant interviews, workshops, and focus group discussion were carried out with local communities in two locations, Azraq and North Shuna, to gauge both the challenges faced on the ground and experiences with social protection and humanitarian assistance programs (see Methodology).Jordan is a particularly interesting case study for the combination of climate change adaptation efforts with social protection and humanitarian assistance programming, owing to the diverse array of programs, actors, and delivery modalities. Other factors that create challenges for social protection approaches are Jordan's demography, the large refugee population Jordan is hosting, challenges around unemployment and poverty, the absolute water scarcity Jordan is experiencing, as well as the severe climatic challenges the country faces.Jordan is exposed to many negative impacts of climate variability and change which may have detrimental consequences for water scarcity and human security (Läderach et al., 2022), notably drought, rising temperatures, and landslides, as well as flooding and desertification linked with high evapotranspiration rates (Binder et al., 2022). Further, Jordan has experienced an influx of refugees from neighboring states, namely Syria, Iraq, and Palestine, in response to regional conflict and turmoil.Refugees are not eligible for support from the National Aid Fund (NAF), which is the primary social assistance mechanism in Jordan, providing in-kind and cash assistance to nearly 220,000 households living below the poverty line. Rather, refugees largely rely on humanitarian assistance from international agencies such as UNHCR and UNRWA, while WFP, UNICEF, and INGOs such as the Danish and Norwegian Refugee Council, as well as national NGOs such as ARDD, also provide essential refugee support for example through support with food access, legal support, as well as educational and entrepreneurship programs. North Shuna, the second case study location, is situated in the irrigated AEZ.In between the Jordan Valley and the Badia lie the Western Highlands where the majority of the rainfed AEZ, in addition to most of Jordan's population centers, are located. This zone, four times larger than the irrigated AEZ, receives the highest volume of precipitation annually, averaging between 300mm and 500mm (USAID, 2017). Common agricultural production systems include vegetable crops, tree crops, and field crops.  ). However, this will display regional variability, for whilst the entire county is projected to see a decline in precipitation, this is projected to be greatest in the north (Figure 5).Evapotranspiration rates are expected to rise too, worsening water scarcity (Binder et al., 2022).Whilst the decrease in overall precipitation amounts and rising temperatures will Further, agriculture consumes 60% of available water resources owing to waterintensive crop production, further encouraged by water subsidies.   (Kamil & Malle, 2023;World Bank, 2022). This is one of the lowest in the World, and diminishes their capacity to respond to climate shocks. As water scarcity increases and collection becomes more difficult, women, who are largely responsible for water collection, are increasingly pushed into domestic and care work at the expense of education and employment (Kamil & Malle, 2023), and this can increase the risk of sexual violence (Andrew, Pamioli & Borges, 2020). According to UN Women, 9.1% of female-headed households are food insecure or vulnerable to food insecurity, compared to 5.7% of male-headed families.Jordan experiences high levels of unemployment, standing at 22.6% in 2022 (World Bank, 2022). As previously discussed, unemployment is high amongst women, whilst 46.1% of Under 25s are unemployed (Ibid.). Further, regional insecurity has impacted income from tourism and undermined trade routes. The economic fragility was amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic and increased financial precarity, especially for workers in the informal sector who face barriers to the receipt of social assistance from the state. Jordan leans heavily on donor assistance and foreign loans, and this economic situation, coupled with a lack of natural resources and dependence on food and energy imports, renders the country vulnerable to the corollaries of climate change and climate-related security risks (Läderach et al., 2022). In addition, rapid population growth, in part driven by an influx of refugees from Syria, Iraq, and before this, Palestine, provides a further strain on the country's institutions and economy (Fishman, 2014)  1). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the NAF was essential in providing emergency cash assistance to the most vulnerable. Takaful-2 was launched, which provided 237,000 households that relied on informal income and had become poor, with cash transfers for three months. This was buttressed through Takaful-3, initiated in December 2020, that provided emergency cash transfers to 160,000 households over 12 months (World Bank, 2023c). Though nascent in Jordan, the development and implementation of social protection and humanitarian assistance programs that respond to climate shocks (i.e shock-responsive), could take inspiration from this  2019). Moreover, as discussed nearer the end of this section, programs that build longer term resilience, including to slow onset climate impacts, should also be deployed in addition to shock-responsive programs.The second main cash assistance program in the Kingdom is the Zakat Fund, which is available to both Jordanians and foreigners. Like the National Aid Fund, it provides cash assistance and in-kind assistance to approximately 58,000 households that don't receive any other form of regular assistance and qualify as \"poor and needy\".Furthermore, social insurance in Jordan is administered by the Social Security Corporation (SSC). Contributary in nature, around 65% of the work force is covered by social insurance (ILO, n.d.), and is available to all form all workers regardless of gender, migrant status and nationality, and therefore can cover refugees and migrant workers. However, as was repeatedly emphasized during key informant interviews practitioners, there is a swathe of people not enrolled, owing to the need to pay contributions to the program, and the widespread informality of labor. The latter is especially an issue for some of the most vulnerable groups, who also work in the climatically vulnerable agricultural sector, such as refugees and migrant laborers (Key Informant Interview 3, 2023;Key Informant Interview 7, 2023;Key Informant Interview 9, 2023). Additionally, as highlighted in Kawar, Nimeh & Kool (2022), which presented formal social protection programs in Jordan with their implementing actors, there is overlap between programs and implementing actors in terms of targeted groups and sectors. This problem was raised on numerous occasions during interviews with social protection and humanitarian assistance practitioners, who called for greater coordination across actors to avoid wasted resources, duplication of benefits, and diminished economies of scale (Key Informant Interview 5, 2023;Key Informant Interview 9, 2023;Kawar, Nimeh & Kool, 2022).As seen in the case of the Takaful program, international organizations play a key role in providing support, including technical support, to governments in developing their social protection programs. As a further example, WFP has supported the NAF by validating eligibility through household (WFP, 2021). However, in Jordan, it should be noted that social protection programs target citizens, as opposed to refugees, therefore the term refers to government programs and not the humanitarian assistance provided by international organizations (in the case of the SSC, refugees are incorporated once they have work permits, becoming part of the national employment system). International organizations, as well as assisting with the design of social protection programs, provide a plethora of humanitarian assistance programs in Jordan. These can be valuable in supporting social coherence and preventing conflict between Jordanians, refugees, and migrant workers. For example, both UNHCR and UNICEF provide cash transfer to Syrian refugees (Table 2). Other  In response to the previously discussed challenges facing Jordan, ranging from climate impacts to unemployment, the Government is seeking to expand the It was suggested during interviews that the Jordanian government could consider expanding its state-run social protection programs to enroll refugees as well as Jordanians, as is done by other refugee-hosting countries, such as for example South Sudan. However, other commentators highlighted the difficult position Jordan faces in permanently integrating the large number of refugees it has been hosting into its workforce and communities.Returning back to shock-responsive programs, whilst implementing these in the face of climatic challenges is key, a long-term perspective must also be incorporated into the social protection and humanitarian assistance landscape, for example building        \"There is no work. A lot of the work and training are short-term and there is a lack of longer-term employment opportunities\" -North Shuna community member \"Because of how the program [NAF] is designed is household based, it's not individual based as it is in the other programs. Therefore, women based on our social norms and social structure, they are facing multiple challenges here. For example, there are women who have left their families, separated women from their husbands, and so we have those, categories of women who would be not able to benefit from the cash subsidies even though they are the most vulnerable as well.\" -social protection practitioner \"There is political will, to address gender inequality through social protection, and there is talk about climate change right now through social protection.\" -social protection practitionerThe results show that, whilst there is widespread recognition of both the threat of climate change, the promise of social protection in addressing these risks ","tokenCount":"5122"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6144c8d20426e6b25067824f8d7aac37","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/82161016-4b44-416f-bc3f-480df3dbe13e/retrieve","id":"605890160"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"aad40fa8-72d2-4f31-abeb-f3571754ef00","pagecount":"9","content":") is a vital tropical root crop providing essential dietary energy to over 800 million people in tropical and subtropical regions. As a climate-resilient crop, its significance grows as the human population expands. However, yield improvement faces challenges from biotic and abiotic stress and limited breeding. Advanced sequencing and assembly techniques enabled the generation of a highly accurate, nearly complete, haplotype-resolved genome of the African cassava cultivar TMEB117. It is the most accurate cassava genome sequence to date with a base-level accuracy of QV > 64, N50 > 35 Mbp, and 98.9% BUSCO completeness. Over 60% of the genome comprises repetitive elements. We predicted over 45,000 gene models for both haplotypes. This achievement offers valuable insights into the heterozygosity genome organization of the cassava genome, with improved accuracy, completeness, and phased genomes. Due to its high susceptibility to African Cassava Mosaic Virus (ACMV) infections compared to other cassava varieties, TMEB117 provides an ideal reference for studying virus resistance mechanisms, including epigenetic variations and smallRNA expressions.Cassava has a haploid genome of about 750 Mbp, a highly heterozygous and repetitive plant genome 8 . Despite the use of various sequencing technologies over time, there are unresolved gaps in the genome. The reference genome AM560-2, derived from a Colombian cassava line MCol505, has undergone steady improvement over a decade and has had five major releases, with the current version being AM560-2 version 8 4 . While this reference genome benefits the cassava community, it does not capture the genetic diversity in African cassava cultivars grown by smallholder farmers due to its homozygous nature. Recently, attempts have been made to assemble genomes of African cassava lines such as TME3 and 60444, using a combination of Illumina short reads, PacBio long reads, bio-nano optical mapping, and chromatin conformation capture (Hi-C) sequence technologies producing assemblies of N50 of 98 and 117 Kbp. The assembled genomes had large contiguous assemblies but lacked haplotypic separation, containing multiple copies of duplicated sequences in the primary assembly 9 . The TME7 genome was assembled using a combination of Illumina, PacBio, and Hi-C sequencing technology to generate a contiguous genome assembly of N50 of approximately 320 Kbp. This genotype was successfully deduplicated and phased using Hi-C sequence data 10 . The most recent African cassava genotype to be assembled is TME204, which was phased using Hi-C technologies and PacBio high-fidelity (HiFi) sequencing reads, resulting in a highly contiguous assembly of N50 > 18 Mbp 11 . PacBio HiFi sequencing technology has proven effective in creating long and highly accurate reads for assembling complex genomes 12 . Recent studies demonstrate its potential in assembling high-quality plant genomes, including Populus tomentosa Carr, the 35.6 Gb California redwood genome and Bletilla striata [13][14][15] .In this study, we have generated a haplotype-resolved diploid assembly of TMEB117, a farmer-preferred cassava cultivar, using PacBio HiFi reads. TMEB117 (also called TME117, TME 117, and ISUNIKANKIYAN) is a Nigerian cassava landrace highly susceptible to African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) 16 . This genotype served as a reference for ACMV studies 16 and a high-resolution genome will pave the way for future investigations in epigenetics and small RNA expression analysis to learn more about the mechanisms of ACMV resistance in cassava to support future breeding programs. The TMEB117 hap1 assembled genome had a total size of 694 Mbp and hap2 665 Mbp with a contig N50 length of 18 Mbp (hap1) and 17 Mbp (hap2) (Table 1). These assembled haplotigs were further ordered and scaffolded using the TME204 reference genome to produce a chromosome-scaled genome for TMEB117 and enhanced contiguity with an improved N50 length exceeding 35 Mbp in both haplotypes (Table 1). The haplotype-specific annotations for TMEB117 hap1 and hap2 genomes resulted in 47,138 and 49,163 gene models, respectively. Within the TMEB117 hap 1 genome, a total of 442 Mbp (65.34%) was occupied by repetitive elements, whereas hap2, 408 Mbp (60.32%), encompassed by transposable elements. Evaluation of the final genome exhibited a high completeness of 98.9%, according to BUSCO 17 . The two haplotype genomes attained a high base-level accuracy of QV > 64. Furthermore, in the raw data, we detected reads that closely matched the entire genome of the fungus Alternaria alternata, despite the plants being healthy and showing no symptoms. We eliminated these contaminant reads and excluded them from the final assembly. The phased and annotated homologous chromosomes provide a comprehensive perspective of cassava's heterozygous genome organization with improved accuracy and completeness at a haplotype-resolved level (Fig. 1a). These chromosome pairs are anticipated to be a valuable resource for cassava breeders and essential for functional analysis to characterize molecular mechanisms important agronomical.Sampling, sequencing, sequence quality and contamination check. Cassava plants of the TMEB117 genotype, obtained from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Genebank collection 18 , were grown in pots in a screen house (Fig. 1b). Third and fourth fully-expanded leaves of a potted plantlet hardened from in vitro culture were used for genomic DNA extraction using an optimized version of the CTAB (2% CTAB, 2% PVP-40, 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 1.4 M NaCl, 20 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) total nucleic acid extraction protocol as described by Carluccio, A. V. et al. 19 . After RNase treatment, the resulting DNA was cleaned using the Genomic DNA clean and concentrator kit (Zymo Research) according to the manufacturer's instructions. We improved the gene annotation step by utilizing RNA data from another project, previously extracted from leaves of approximately two-month-old greenhouse plants at IITA Ibadan. The extraction process employed a combination of CTAB and spin column-based purification methods. The total RNA was then sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq. 2500 with a paired-end 2 × 100 cycle approach. The total DNA sample was sequenced with PacBio technology (PacBio Sequel II platform) using two SMRT cells. In the first cell, 875,686 reads and 1,163,062 reads in the second cell were generated. The raw sequence reads obtained from the two SMRT cells were combined. Fastp version 0.23.1 20 (parameters: --length_required 10000 --length_limit 30000) was used to filter the raw sequencing reads, with acceptable read lengths between 10 Kbp to 30 Kbp. Adapter-contaminated reads were removed using HiFiAdapterFilt 21 with the default setting. Filtering and adapter removal resulted in 2,029,912 retained out of 2,038,748 raw reads (99.57%). The quality of the remaining reads was assessed with the default setting of FastQC version 0.11.5 (https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/), and the GC content graphs from the FastQC outputs were further investigated. GC content showed three peaks (Fig. S1a) (see figure deposited at Figshare) 22 . It is generally anticipated that the distribution of GC content follows a normal distribution close to the theoretical distribution. However, the peaks deviate from the theoretical normal distribution in this case. The first peak at ~35% and the second peak at 44.5% mean GC contents represent the GC content of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes, respectively 23,24 . Since the GC % of the chloroplast genome is similar to the nuclear genome, the third peak at ~51% mean GC content could be explained by contamination. Pbbm2 version 1.10.0 (https://github.com/PacificBiosciences/pbmm2), an SMRT minimap2 version 2.15 25 (parameters:-unmapped-log-level INFO-log-file) wrapper was used to then map the raw reads to the cassava reference genome AM560-2 version 8 26 . BLAST search was conducted on unmapped reads to detect the presence of contaminants. BLAST results indicated that the third peak of the GC content originates from reads of A. alternata 27 . We further mapped the filtered reads to the A. alternata genome. A total 58,703 reads (2.89%) mapped with a consensus of 23.7 Mbp, roughly 69% of the A. alternata genome of 34.38 Mbp. The GC content of the A. alternata genome is 51%, confirming the third peak of the GC content plot. We extracted all the reads mapping to the A. alternata genome, resulting in 1,971,209 sequence reads with GC content having two peaks in the GC content plot, which we process as clean reads for the assembly (Fig. S1b) (see figure deposited at Figshare) 22 . Extracting mapped and unmapped reads was done using samtools v1.15.1 (parameters: samtools fastq -F 4 & -f 4) 28 .Genome assembly, scaffolding, and assembly quality check. Clean HiFi sequence reads of 45x estimated coverage with read length N50 of 17,513 bp (Table S1) (see table deposited in Figshare) 29 were assembled de novo using hifiasm v0.16.1-r375 default settings, HiCanu v2.3 (parameters:-p out -pacbio-hifi genome-Size = 750 m -useGrid = false -merylThreads = 4 -merylMemory = 8 corOverlapper = ovl), and Flye v2.9.1-b1780 (parameters: --pacbio-hifi -o out --genome-size 750 m) assembly tools 13,30,31 . Utilizing outcomes from benchmarking analysis of these tools 11 and outputs of these three assemblies, we opted to use the hifiasm assembly based on contiguity and achievement of haplotype resolved assemblies. Assembly statistics were compiled using QUAST 32 default setting. The assembly comprised two haplotigs, hap1 and hap2. Before scaffolding, the two haplotigs assembly metrics showed hap1 and hap2 to consist of 362 contigs with a total length of 694 Mbp with a contig N50 length of 18 Mbp and 159 contigs with a total size of 665 Mbp with contig N50 length of 17 Mbp, respectively (Table 1). Scaffolding and ordering of the contigs were improved by RagTag 33 (parameter: scaffold -o out -t 12) using TME204 reference, a chromosome-scaled genome 11 . The contiguity of the TMEB117 chromosome-scaled genome was improved, with hap1 N50 of 37 Mbp and hap2 N50 of 35 Mbp (Table 1).Eighteen pseudo-molecules representing the chromosomes were compiled for further annotation analysis. The unplaced contigs were separated from the sequences of chromosomes. These unplaced contigs of both haplotypes were then mapped to the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes 23,24 . The alignment revealed a complete 100% coverage to the chloroplast genome and 90.39% and 62.63% coverage for hap1 and hap2, respectively, to the mitochondrial genome. These haplotigs provided representative sequences for the mitochondrial and chloroplast genome. The final scaffolded assembly of TMEB117 eighteen chromosomes was utilized for downstream analysis.Repeat landscape and gene annotation. The annotation of transposable elements (TE) was accomplished by using the Extensive de novo TE Annotator (EDTA) 34 (parameters:-genome-overwrite 1-sensitive 1anno 1-evaluate 1), combining structure and homology-based detection to identify predominant TEs in the assembled genome. The pipeline applies various tools, such as HelotronScanner, LTR_FINDER, LTRHarvest, LTR_retriever, TIR-Learner, RepeatModeler2, and RepeatMasker [35][36][37][38][39][40][41] , to classify novel TE sequences. We screened the outputs of EDTA using R and tidyverse package, resulting in non-redundant TE annotations and visualizations for both haplotypes. The generated repeat-masked genome was subsequently used for gene prediction. Consistent with other African cassava genomes 10,11 , over 50% of the genome constitutes repetitive elements. Specifically, in this study, 65.34% and 60.32% of the genome in hap1 and hap2 are transposable elements.The long terminal repeats -retrotransposons (LTR-RTs) are the most abundant, covering 57.37% (hap1) and 54.42% (hap2) of the genome size (Fig. 2a,b). Gypsy was the most abundant retrotransposons superfamily, occupying 41.14% (hap1) and 38.35% (hap2) of the genome (Table S2a,b) (see tables deposited at Figshare) 29 . The annotations are classified as families and superfamilies. Between the two haplotype genomes, there is a minimal difference in transposable element annotation percentage (Fig. 2a,b). However, the distribution of the TEs across the chromosomes differs between the two haplotypes (Fig. 2c,d). We used the Funannotate v1.8.9 singularity pipeline (see the script in the code availability section) to annotate the TMEB117 genome. The annotation pipeline involves three primary steps: genome masking, gene prediction, and functional annotation. Prior to annotation, the genome assembly as an output of EDTA annotation underwent soft-masked using scripts provided by the EDTA tool make_masked.pl. PASA alignment tool 42 was used to generate an initial set of gene models by integrating RNA-seq data and protein homology to improve the accuracy of gene models. We used a set of 568,002 reviewed and curated protein sequences from a diverse array of species found in the UniProtKB/ Swiss-Prot database release 2022_03 for the gene prediction step. Gene prediction was conducted using ab initio gene prediction tools, Augustus v3.3, SNAP v2013-02-16, and GlimmerHMM v3.0.4 43,44 were employed for gene prediction. EVidenceModeler v1.1.1 45 integrated gene models from various gene predictors and generated a consensus of the gene models. These gene models were used to generate protein sequences, which underwent filtering to remove proteins with less than 50 amino acids and to check for homology to transposable elements. The predicted genes were functionally annotated using the EggNOG database, UniProtKB, MEROPS, and CAZYmes [46][47][48][49] , giving insights into the biological functions and pathways. The resulting annotations were manually curated to correct errors and adjust gene models as necessary using the Funnannotate interface. Non-overlapping tRNA genes were predicted using tRNAscan-SE v2.0.9 50 . Transcript evidence was generated by Trinity v2.11.0 51 through de novo transcript assembly, which was used in correcting, enhancing, and updating the predicted gene models. The haplotype-specific annotations for hap1 and hap2 genomes resulted in 47,138 and 49,163 genes, 53,264 and 55,222 transcripts, 836 and 814 tRNA, and 52,428 and 54,408 proteins, respectively. BUSCO analysis reveals 90% protein sequence completeness for both haplotypes.Orthologue analysis. The predicted protein sequences from the study were further analyzed by comparing them to other phased African cassava genomes, namely TMEB7 and TME204, with the AM560-2 v8.1 genome. Each haplotype was analyzed separately with the AM560-2 v8.1 genome. The OrthoVenn2 online tool (https:// orthovenn2.bioinfotoolkits.net/) was used to identify orthologous protein groups across the genomes. The analysis was conducted with default parameters, including an inflation value of 1.5 for the Markov clustering algorithm and a BLASTP e-value of 1e-2. The resulting orthologous groups were visualized using the OrthoVenn2 web interface, which displayed Venn diagrams that indicate the number of unique and shared groups across the genomes. The OrthoVenn2 analysis identified 37,384 and 37,518 orthologous clusters, with 18,770 and 19,588 core genome orthologs for hap1 and hap2, respectively, indicating the presence of conserved groups across the genomes. In the TMEB117 hap1 and hap2 genomes, we observe fewer unique protein sequences (931 and 1042) than other cassava genomes, as shown in Fig. 3a,b.Raw PacBio Hifi reads utilized for the assembly can be accessed from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Sequence Read Archive (SRA) database under BioProject PRJNA1002255, with accession numbers SRR25517176 52 and SRR25517175 53 . The two chromosome-scaled haploid genomes have been submitted under distinct BioProject identifiers within NCBI, PRJNA1002865 for hap1 and PRJNA1002864 for hap2 with accession numbers JAWPHJ000000000 54 and JAWPHK000000000 55 , respectively. The transcriptome data employed to annotate the genomes are available at NCBI with accession numbers SRR25537339 56 , SRR25537340 57 , and SRR25537338 58 . The genome annotation files are uploaded to Zenodo 59 .The genome was validated by ensuring that the constructed assembly conforms with the data used to generate it. Over 99% of the raw sequence reads mapped to both the haplotigs. To evaluate the completeness, we used BUSCO v5.3.2 (parameters: -m genome eudicots_odb10) with orthologs from the eudicots lineage datasets, which included 2326 reference sets of genes specific to plants. BUSCO completeness score for the hap1 and hap2 assemblies was 98.9% (Fig. 1c). We employed Blobtools 60 using the default setting to ascertain the absence of contamination by blasting the nucleotide database against the assembly and mapping the coverage of the assembly using HiFi reads to generate blobs. Blobs in the blob plot (Fig. S2) (see figure deposited at Figshare) 22 were plotted at expected GC content percentages consistent with the GC plot after contamination removal. BLAST hits from the blob plot showed Streptophyta, which is a clade of plants. Therefore, we conclude that the assembly was free from contaminants. Haplotypic separation and assembly quality were achieved by performing a k-mer-based analysis using Merqury 61 (k-mer = 21). The assembly has a quality value (QV) score of 64.38 for hap1 and 67.99 for hap2. The k-mer completeness for each haplotype assembly and the combined set was 78.63%, 77.95%, and 98.79%, respectively. This was approximately 20% of k-mers being haplotype-specific. So far, this genome is of better quality assembly, based on the QV score, compared to already assembled African cassava cultivars 10,11 (Table 2). Figure 4 illustrates that the assembled sequence resulted in a nearly completely haplotype-resolved genome, as indicated by the copy number and assembly k-mer plots. Most heterozygous haplotype-specific k-mers were observed once in the assembled sequence, and the majority of homozygous  k-mers were shared by the two genome haplotypes (Fig. 4a). In the heterozygous peak, slightly fewer k-mers differed between the two haplotypes (Fig. 4b), confirming that the reconstruction of heterozygous variants was almost thorough. We assessed the completeness of the predicted protein sequences within the eudicots lineage using BUSCO v5.3.2 (parameters: -m proteins eudicots_odb10) to validate the gene annotations. BUSCO analysis reveals 90% protein sequence completeness for both haplotypes (Fig. 1c). Subsequently, we performed a conditional reciprocal BLAST 62 , extracting the predicted gene model sequences from both haplotypes and compared them to the gene sequences of AM560-2, the cassava reference genome. Out of the predicted 47,138 genes in hap1 and 49,163 genes in hap2, we identified 30,456 in hap1 and 30,370 in hap2 reference gene sequences.Particularly, the reference AM560-2 genome, with a total of 32,805 genes, exhibited similarity to most predicted genes of both haplotypes of the TMEB117 genome. ","tokenCount":"2853"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"43c10c67edba82a6c2e46398c79b1332","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/608c4470-a1e9-4514-a2ad-48c56d6f5f63/retrieve","id":"467537107"},"keywords":["Anantapuramu","arid zone","Kurnool","poverty","socio-economic characteristics"],"sieverID":"bbc1a85c-08f4-4cf9-aa18-43f7b11dbcef","pagecount":"8","content":"India, the second largest producer of potato in the world almost doubled its potato production during 2003-2013 adding additional 22.18 million tonnes and taking total production to 45.34 million tonnes (FAOSTAT). During this period of time the country increased its potato productivity by 31.4% (augmentation of 5.44 tonne/ha) (Rana, 2015). This rapid growth in potato production figures in India were largely backed by the unnoticed food security role assumed by the potato (Thiele et al. 2010, Singh and Rana, 2013). The projected urban population of 840 million and total population of 1619scenario in southern states is very dismal and depressing. Against national average of 34.2 kg/capita/ year potato production, the South Indian states produce just 2.2 kg/capita/year (Rana et al. 2015). All southern states produce just 1.95% of national potato output (based on NHB, 2015). The ratio of potato prices in southern and northern Indian states ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 (Rana, 2015). Since, per capita fresh consumption of potatoes in India is estimated to be 48.47 kg/ year during 2050 against the 19.78 kg/capita/ year during 2010 (Singh et al. 2014) and this demand is likely to increase proportionately in Southern India states too, these states are betting high on strengthening their own or local potato production in big way (Rana et al. 2015).Government of Andhra Pradesh is quite particular about it and the positive results, though on very small scale, are visible in Table 1.Considering the significance and aptness of the problem and research preparedness (Minhas and Kumar, 2005;Schafleitner et al. 2007;Hassanpanah, 2010;Rana et al. 2011;Sharma et al. 2011  (Minhas et al. 2011) Anantapuramu and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh. Since socio-economic analysis of respondents is very important in assessing their decision making pattern and capabilities (Rana et al. 2014), the current article targets socio-economic analysis of potential potato growers in these districts as a subset of the overall feasibility study.Current study is based both on secondary as well as primary sources of data. The secondary sources of data were Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and National Horticulture Database, Government of India. For primary information a survey was carried out in the August 2014 for obtaining statistics on demographic and socio-economic indicators of the responding family. The survey was conducted in two arid districts of Andhra Pradesh viz.Anantapuramu and Kurnool. Forty respondent farmers were selected from three villages of Anantapuramu district viz. Kurlapalli, Mallapuram and Chintralapalli.Similarly twenty seven respondent farmers were selected from two villages of Kurnool district viz. Bonthiralla and Yerragunthla. Guidance of ICRISAT, Patancheru, and Agricultural and Horticultural Research Stations of Anantapuramu was considered for making final selection of the villages. Respondents were selected using simple random sampling. A specially designed questionnaire for the study was used to record responses of sampled households in a personal interview. Education level, occupation pattern, house condition, tractor ownership, food security level, access and affordability to civic amenities, children's education type, possession of household amenities, expenditure pattern and level of mechanization adoption by the respondents were the points of key focus during this survey. In order to assess independence of mean responses from two different districts, t test for comparison of 'two population means' was employed. Andhra Pradesh has shown tremendous growth in potato area, production and productivity during the past one and half decade (Table 1). However, this rapid growth is on very small base and still a lot needs to be done before the real impact of the potato development in the state is ensured. Incidentally, positive growth in potato area, production and productivity is visible in other states and at country level as well.Age of the head of the household plays an important role in ability and rationality of decisions. On one hand young aged head are likely to make impractical decisions and old aged heads are likely to suffer from inability to make quick decisions. The overall age of head of the sampled households in the study area was 43 years without a statistical significance between the two districts (Table 2). Age of the family head indicates right environment for taking optimal farm decisions in the study area. Level of education of the respondent households' head was quite low which indicates their limitation to have sufficient assess to latest knowledge in the field of their concern. Inadequate level of formal education is likely to be one of the reasons for poor transfer of technology (Rana et al. 2015) in the study area. Average schooling of the family's head in Anantapuramu (5.9 years) was statistically higher than that of Kurnool (4.5 years) district. Better farm profitability indicators of Anantapuramu vis-à-vis Kurnool (Rana et al. 2015) confirm the indications. Despite being small holders about 91% of the respondents were primarily employed in agriculture indicating lesser development of the study area and lack of non-farm employment opportunities.Different indicators of socio-economic wellbeing were studied in order to assess poverty/ prosperity of the respondent farmers (Table 3). These indicators have been pointwise described in the following text:House condition: House condition is the strongest indicator of socio-economic wellbeing of a family. Average worth of the households of the responding families being less than ` 1 lakh doesn't indicate any prosperity of farmers in the study area. On the contrary it is a strong indicator of deep poverty or deprivation.Tractor ownership: Ownership of a tractor indicates relative prosperity of a farm household. In the study area no respondent possessed a tractor in Kurnool district while only 9.9% respondents possessed a tractor. An interrogation into the matter clarified that in the study area tractor services are provided by non-farmers having tractors and using them for various purposes including transportation of materials even from mines. Hence, findings on this indicator are likely to be inconclusive.The definition of food security in this study was very simple and primitive i.e. whether a family is able eat all full meals irrespective of nutritional part. Thanks to public distribution system and rural development schemes, all members of responding families were able to eat all full meals.  Water purifier: Having a water purifier, though not very common in Indian rural areas, is an indicator of economic wellbeing of a family. While none of the responding families in Kurnool possessed a water purifier only 7.3% possessed it in Anantapuramu.Electrification: Electricity is the basic need of a family at this point of time hence lack of electrification of household is a strong indicator of backwardness of an area. However, all respondent households in both the districts had electrified households.Sanitation: Incidentally the survey was conducted just few weeks before the Prime Minister of India launched \"Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (Clean India Mission)\" on 2 October 2014 stressing highest focus on building adequate toilets to eradicate open defecation by 2 October 2019. There was emphasis on eradicating open defecation, although of lower magnitude, even prior to launch of this high profile and mega program. The study indicates really grim situation of open defecation in the study area as 89% respondent families in Kurnool district were not having toilets in their houses. However, this proportion was statistically much lower at 65% in Anantapuramu, even then the situation was quite bleak in this district too.Children's school type: School type of children is another indicator of economic wellbeing and access of the household to modern amenities. Respondents from Anantapuramu showed better level of economic wellbeing even on this indicator as higher proportion (26%) of children from these families were taking studying in private schools compared to Kurnool (18.5%).Social participation: Social participation of family member(s) ensures better access to the latest knowledge on the subject(s) of farm business and taking right and timely decisions. Farming families of Anantapuramu district scored better even on this count as their social participation score was significantly Table 3: Socio-economic wellbeing indicators of respondent households in Anantapuramu and Kurnool districts of AP #: Worth of house (1: < ` 40000; 2: ` 40000 to < 1 lakh; 3: ` 1 to < 5 lakh; 4: ` 5 to < 10 lakh; and 5: > ` 10 lakh) $, $$ and $$$: Based on t test, the mean responses between two districts were statistically different at 10, 5 and 1% level of significance, respectively @: Social participation by any member of house i.e. in self-help group, Panchayat and cooperative society etc. higher at 67.8% compared to 59.3% in Kurnool indicating higher propensity of the former district to better respond to agricultural extension initiatives.Cooking gas: Possession of cooking gas in the kitchen of a rural household indicates better socioeconomic status in an Indian village. Surprisingly on this count, Kurnool scored significantly better (70.9% respondents) compared to Anantapuramu (59.9%). Nearness of Kurnool sampled villages to the main road compared to the villages in Anantapuramu was one of the principal reason for this development.In present day world television has highest influence in every aspect of our life. This is one of the most potent source of information dissemination including the agricultural knowledge. Significantly higher proportion of farm families possessing television in their homes in Anantapuramu (84.8%) compared to 70.9% in Kurnool further confirm better chances of success of agricultural extension agencies in the former district.Direct to home TV connection: Cable connected TV content providers are generally absent in rural areas due to low population density, hence viewers either have to be contented with the free to air antenna based few TV channels viewing or they have to opt for direct to home (DTH) TV connection. In the study area about 62% respondents had DTH connections in their houses, though most of them were based on one time installation charges (DD Direct). It indicates that entertainment is quite high on the agenda of the rural people.Mobile phone connection: Mobile phones have been the strongest mode of communication these days. Most of the telemarketing and agricultural extension agencies are these days opting mobile phone network as the most preferred mode. The farm households having at least one mobile connection in the family were statistically higher in proportion in Anantapuramu (95%) compared to Kurnool (81%) indicating better prospects of the farmers in former district as far as getting stimulated to new knowledge or change is concerned.Home internet: Internet being another important mode of communication and perhaps the most important source of general information, its home availability was assessed. Overall a meagre (5.7%) proportion of farm households in the study area possessed internet facilities at their houses, hence rural development agencies should not expect farmers to learn from internet for the time being.Email users: Email being the fastest and cheapest mode of written communication in the present day world, was also studied for its use, at home or out of home, by any member of the farm household in the study area. The findings were quite dismal at 4.4% in the study area indicating that this mode of communication is yet not the right choice for dissemination of information in the study area.In Indian context any enquiry on income of the household is a sensitive question and may lead to uncomfortable situation or even failure of interview process, hence, expenditure was taken proxy for household income and pertinent investigations were made. Expenditure pattern was studied under four broad heads viz. food, children's education, travel cost and cost of periodic bills (Table 4).Food expenditure: Food expenditure is the most unavoidable or essential expenditure of any household.@: Monthly expenses include petrol, diesel and bus tickets etc. it excludes expense on family holiday trips and other tours of casual nature #: Periodic bills include expenses on electricity, water, newspapers, telephone, LPG refills/ charges and medical bills etc. $, $$ and $$$: Based on t test, the mean responses between two districts were statistically different at 10, 5 and 1% level of significance, respectively However, higher proportion of expenditure on food is an indicator of poverty. In the study area about 58% of the total expenditure was made on food which indicates lower level of prosperity in the area. The absolute expenditure on food was significantly higher in Anantapuramu compared to Kurnool.Children's education expenditure: This expenditure was about 66% higher in Anantapuramu compared to Kurnool district indicating access as well as willingness of Anantapuramu farmers to opt expensive education for their children.Traveling is another important reason of household expenditure for people including the sampled farmers. In study area farmers spent about 15.8% of their total average expenditure on travelling including fuel charges for personal transport and actual charges for public transport by all family members.Periodic bills: Periodic expenses on electricity, water, newspapers, LPG refills/ charges, medical expenses and other miscellaneous activities constituted this head. Since, most of the periodic expenses are linked to level of development and earning these expenses in Anantapuramu were nearly 79% higher than Kurnool. Overall 11.55% of total monthly expenditure was incurred on such bill in the study area.Total expenses: On an average ` 7870 were spent every month by the responding households. However, farmers in Anantapuramu district spent 35% higher money every month for their family needs compared to their counterparts in Kurnool.Level of mechanization is an indicator of preparedness and propensity to adopt profitable and management intensive crops like potato. Mechanization level for different field operations like field preparation, planting, inter-culture operations and harvesting were studied and presented in Table 5.Field preparation: This is the operation in the study area where use of farm machines is noticeable, even then, nearly 60% farmers in Kurnool and 15% in Anantapuramu still use bullocks for preparing their fields for sowing of seeds. The average mean level of mechanization in these two districts was different at one per cent level of significance.Planting: For this farm operation overall higher use of bullocks was exercised. Noticeably significantly higher proportion (55.8%) of farmers used bullocks for planting operations in Anantapuramu district compared to 42.3% in Kurnool.Inter-culture operations: No mechanization was adopted for performing inter-culture operations in the study area meaning thereby that these operations were done manually. Significantly higher proportion of farmers in Kurnool performed this operation manually (78.9%) compared to Anantapuramu (59.5%). Remaining proportion of this operation was carried out using bullocks.Harvesting: Very high proportion of the crops were harvested manually in the entire study area, however, this proportion was much higher (83%) in Kurnool This study was a component of big diagnostic study on feasibility of introducing potato in non-traditional Anantapuramu and Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. Socio-economic characteristics of potential potato growers in these two districts were analysed taking their suitability for potato cultivation into consideration. Most of these characteristics such as education level, socio-economic wellbeing indicators, financial strength and mechanization adoption level in Anantapuramu district were found better suited compared to Kurnool district. Hence, findings of this study support the other findings based on analysis of pre-requisites for introduction of potato in nontraditional arid zone of Andhra Pradesh (Rana et al. 2015) and the study recommends introduction of potato in the first phase only in Anantapuramu district of Andhra Pradesh.","tokenCount":"2480"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b2b4e8e987a607b04b3e2bf509d3f29f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1de8e437-b2b6-4c0f-a851-33b684d33675/retrieve","id":"-430023592"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6702e36f-e42c-4e4f-85a1-0c2b9c7ab63b","pagecount":"14","content":"In preparing this chapter, advantage was taken of the knowledge base provided by other authors whose valuable contributions should be recognized. Of the publication Cassava: research, production, and utilization (edited by Carlos E Domínguez [1983]), the chapters used were written by Carlos E Domínguez, Luis F Ceballos, and Cilia Fuentes (\"Morphology of the cassava plant\"); Clair Hershey and Alvaro Amaya (\"Genetics, cytogenetics, floral structure, and techniques of hybridization in cassava\" and \"Cassava germplasm: evolution, distribution and collection\"); and James H Cock (\"Physiological aspects of the growth and development of the cassava plant\"). Of the book Cassava in the face of hunger in the tropical world (edited by Alvaro Montaldo 1996), information was extracted from the chapters written by Jocelyne Ascencio (\"Some aspects related to the physiology of the cassava plant\"); and JJ Castilloa, A Castillo, and LT Pino (\"Notes on leaf and root histology of cassava\").All 98 species of the Manihot genus are native to the Neotropics from where cassava was introduced to other regions of the world (Rogers and Appan 1973). The origin of cultivated cassava is still unclear. Three relevant questions were raised by Allem (2002): its botanical origin (parental wild species that eventually led to the emergence of M. esculenta), the geographic area where this emergence took place, and the region where it was domesticated (agricultural origin). The prevailing hypothesis is that cultivated cassava originated in South America (Olsen and Schaal 2001;Allem 2002), but many questions remain unanswered.Cassava belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family, which is made up of about 7200 species, characterized for their notable development of lactiferous vessels, themselves made up of secretory cells called lacticifers. These produce the milky secretion, or \"latex\", that characterizes the plants of this family. Plant architecture varies enormously within this family, ranging from arboreal types such as rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) to shrubs, also of economic importance, such as the castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis). Also representing this family are numerous weeds, ornamental plants, and medicinal plants. A highly significant genus of this family is Manihot to which cassava belongs.The Manihot genus is native only to the Americas, with species being distributed from southwestern USA (33º N) to Argentina (33º S). Although all species of the genus can cross with each other, evidence suggests that, in nature, they are reproductively isolated. About 98 species have been described as belonging to this genus, of which only cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has economic importance and is cultivated. Perhaps more than 100 common names now exist for this species, owing to its spread throughout the tropical world by early traders. In Latin America, it is usually known either as yuca (Spanish) or as mandioca (Portuguese). In Brazil, sweet cassava (aipim) is distinguished from bitter cassava (mandioca). Other names in different languages include manioc, manioca, tapioca, and mhogo (Cock 1989).Cassava's scientific name was first given by Cranzt in 1766. It was then reclassified by Pohl (1827) and Pax (1910) as two different species, depending on whether it was bitter (M. utilissima) or sweet (M. aipi). However, the Italian R Ciferri (1938) recognized that, for cassava's scientific name, priority should be given to Crantz's work in which he had proposed its current name of M. esculenta. Allem (1994) proposed that the species M. esculenta be divided into three subspecies: M. esculenta subsp. esculenta, subsp. flabellifolia, and subsp. peruviana. The author also suggests that the last two subspecies are wild forms of the cultivated version M. esculenta subsp. esculenta.Very little is known of either cassava genetics or cassava cytogenetics. The basic chromosome number in the Euphorbiaceae family is usually 8, although this may vary between 6 and 11. About 50% of euphorbia species are polyploid (Martin 1976).Although cassava is frequently considered as a polyploid species, analyses conducted during diakinesis and metaphase I indicate the presence of 18 small and similar bivalents in cassava (Hahn et al. 1990). Univalents, trivalents, and late bivalent pairings have also been observed in cassava. This plant is therefore a functional diploid, that is, 2n = 2x = 36 (Jennings 1963;De Carvahlo and Guerra 2002;Nassar and Ortiz 2008). Magoon et al. (1969) have suggested that certain portions of the genome may be duplicated and, therefore, cassava may in fact be a segmental allotetraploid.Every botanical description is based on the analysis of morphological characters that, where these are constant, typify the species. However, many characteristics are expression in a variable fashion and are profoundly influenced by environment. The effect of the variety-by-environment interaction is most notable in the case of cassava. For example, a given variety's architecture, known to be typical in a specific environment, will change drastically when that variety is grown in another site with different environmental conditions. This variety-byenvironment interaction hinders both the morphological and varietal description of the species.Cassava is a perennial shrub. It is monoecious, that is, a single plant may carry both male and female flowers, but these are separated from each other. The cassava plant has sympodial branching and variable plant height, ranging between 1 and 5 m, although maximum height usually does not exceed 3 m.Stems are particularly important in cassava, as they are the means by which the species propagates vegetatively or asexually. Lignified parts of the stem, commonly called stakes or cangres (cuttings), serve as \"seed\" for the crop's commercial production. The mature stem is cylindrical, with a diameter that varies from 2 to 6 cm and coloring that may be silvery gray, purple, or yellow. Both stem diameter and color vary significantly with plant age and, obviously, with variety.Stems are formed by the alternation of nodes and internodes. The oldest parts may show protuberances, which mark, within the nodes, the position that leaves had initially occupied. The node is that place where a leaf joins the stem, and the internode is that part of the stem between two successive nodes. Inserted into the node are the leaf petiole, an axillary bud protected by a scale, and two lateral stipules. The length of internodes in the principal stem is highly variable and depends, not only on the variety, but also on other factors such as plant age, drought, thrips attacks, and available soil fertility. In a certain sense, the stem provides a lasting record of the history of the plant's development, enabling one to deduce the conditions and events that had influenced it.The presence of axillary buds in each node is important as, from these, a stake can produce a new plant. In theory, a stake can produce the shoot of a new primary stem from the bud in each node. However, the number of stems produced depends heavily on the way in which a given stake is planted. For example, when the stake is planted horizontally, all nodes tend to emerge, but if the stake is planted in a vertical position, usually only the apical bud is activated. The number of shoots from a stake also depends on the apical dominance that characterizes each variety. When it is strong, only the upper bud generates a primary stem. General conditions of the stake, particularly of the axillary buds, also determine the number of stems a stake will produce.The typical phyllotaxis observed in cassava stems is 2/5. This means that the leaves are located in spiral fashion around the stem. If leaves are counted successively upwards from a given leaf (number 1), the sixth leaf will be exactly in the same position as leaf number 1, but farther up the stem. The fraction 2/5 also implies that two turns have to be taken around the stem before finding a leaf that perfectly overlaps leaf number 1 and that, in the process, five leaves are counted. The primary stem, after a certain growing period, ultimately produces branches that may be either reproductive (producing inflorescences) or vegetative (producing lateral branches). The \"reproductive\" branches are important, as they constitute a very stable characteristic for varietal description. They also determine, to a great extent, the architecture that is characteristic of each variety. The latter, as will be seen in other chapters of this volume, is significant for defining the agronomic value of each material, as it influences the quantity of planting material or \"stakes\" that the plant produces, and other factors such as ease in carrying out tasks of cleaning and general care of the crop.Although the reproductive lateral branch is induced by flowering of the principal axis (hence its name), reproductive branching may also occur without the presence of inflorescences. What factors determine the moment in which reproductive branches will be produced are not yet clear, as this event is very strongly influenced by the environment. Reproductive branching may give rise to two, three, and even four secondary branches, which, in their turn, may ultimately produce tertiary branches, and so on (Figure 2-1).The number and promptness with which such branching occurs notably influence plant architecture. Early flowering results in the primary branches being located in relatively lower positions in the plant. Hence, early and multiple branching will therefore tend to produce a short plant that hinders the cleaning and care of the crop. However, it rapidly covers the soil, protecting it from, particularly, hydric erosion. Reduced and/or late branching tends to produce erect plants, with good stake production, that facilitate crop care, but leaves the soil exposed to erosion.In addition to the number of reproductive branches, the angle of these also greatly affects the plant's general architecture (Figure 2-2). The greater the angle of incidence of the branches, the more open the plant architecture and the shorter it is. In general, this type of architecture is undesirable from the agronomic standpoint.Lateral branches from the same node (called chupones in Spanish) are sporadic and depend on planting density, climatic conditions, soil fertility, and cultivar. They stem from the axillary buds of the principal stem, and are usually thinner than this stem, with long internodes and smaller leaves. Wounds or damage in the apical area (e.g., from lancefly [Silba pendula] or thrips) will also induce lateral buds into producing branches that will assume the role of the principal stem, replacing it.The internal structure of the cassava stem is typically dicotyledonous. The outermost layer in young stems is the epidermis, followed by (going towards the interior) cortical tissue. Pigmentation in these two layers will define the color that the stem ultimately assumes. Internally, the layer is ligneous. The center of the stem is occupied by a prominent pith, composed of parenchymatous cells. As stem diameter increases, large quantities of xylem accumulate, giving the mature stem a ligneous consistency and generating the suber or cork that replaces the epidermis.Leaves are the organs in which photosynthesis mostly occurs, transforming radiant energy into chemical energy. Leaves are caducous, that is, with age they senesce, and fall from the plant as it develops. The total number of leaves produced by the plant, their longevity, and photosynthetic capacity are varietal characteristics, which are profoundly influenced by environmental conditions. Leaf size is a typical characteristic of each cultivar, although it depends heavily on environmental conditions. Leaves produced in the first 3 to 4 months of the plant's life are larger than those produced after the fourth month. For example, in variety M Col 72, the average leaf area at 4 months old is about 250 cm 2 ; at 7 months, it is 130 cm 2 ; and at 10 months (harvest), only about 90 cm 2 .Leaf color is also a varietal characteristic but may vary with plant age. Mature leaves may be purple, dark green, or light green. Purple buds may, as the leaves grow and develop, ultimately become greenish in coloring. Bud color is a very useful characteristic for varietal identification, as it is relatively constant. The color of the nervure ranges between green and purple, and may also be used for varietal description. This color may be the same or different for the two sides of the leaf blade.The leaf petiole may be between 9 and 20 cm long. It is thin, with variable pigmentation (green to purple), depending on variety. Petiole color does not always coincide with that of the nervure.Mature leaves are always glabrous, that is, they lack pubescence. Leaves of buds, however, may or may not be pubescent-a relevant feature as pubescence in bud leaves is closely related to resistance to thrips. The upper surface of the leaf is covered by a brilliant waxy 18 Cassava in the Third Millennium: … cuticle, while the lower surface is opaque. Most stomata are found on the lower surface, although, in some varieties, abundant stomata may also appear on the upper surface.At the petiole's point of insertion in the stem, two stipules, 0.5 to 1.0 cm long, can be found. These stipules may or may not remain adhered to the stem once the leaf is fully developed.Although the principal economic product of cassava is the root, leaves are also important. In several regions of Africa and Asia, leaves are processed for human consumption. Cassava leaves have a valuable nutrient content with high protein levels that range between 18% and 22%, dry weight (Buitrago A 1990). Young cassava foliage also has several vitamins and minerals. Table 2-1 shows ascorbic acid and carotene contents for cassava roots and leaves. Data are based mostly on evaluations of more than 500 genotypes belonging to the core collection held by the cassava germplasm bank at the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) 3 . Information on contents of principal minerals is also presented from the viewpoint of human and animal nutrition (Table 2-2), extracted from a representative sample of 20 varieties.Not all cassava varieties flower under the same environmental conditions. Those that do show marked differences in flowering times and quantities of flowers produced. The environment greatly influences the induction of flowering. As with all plants of the Manihot genus, cassava is a monoecious plant, that is, it bears 3. For an explanation of this and other acronyms and abbreviations, see Appendix 1: Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Technical Terminology, this volume.19Cassava Taxonomy and Morphology  unisexual flowers, with some being male and others female, with both usually found on the same inflorescence.Cassava u ndergoes cross pollina tion, which means that it is a heterozygous plant, with each individual being a hybrid. Pollinati on is typ ically carried out by insects. Self-poll ination is prevented b y the female flowers of a raceme opening first before the male flowers of that same raceme. This phenomenon is known as protogyny. However, oc casionally, the male and female flowers of different racemes on a single plant may open simultaneously. When this happens, self-pollination may naturally occur.Cassava \" flowers\" are produced in inflorescences. The basic arrangement of flowers is the ra ceme (Figure 2-4), where the female flowers occupy basal positions and the male the distal ones. The latte r are smaller and usually more numerous than the female ones. Frequentl y, pa nicles are also produced, that is, from the botanical viewpoint, a raceme of racemes develops. In such c as es, a principal raceme exists, which is composed of secondary racemes.Each flo w er, whether male or female, has a primary bract and a bracteole. These foliaceous organs appear in the inflorescences and may either remain or drop off once the flowers develop.In most c ases, inflorescences are formed from buds at the point of insertion of reproductive branches. Occasiona lly, inflorescences may develop from buds in leaf axils in the plant's upper parts.The evolution of flower structures in the Euphorbias is, compared with other flowering plants, remarkable. Cassava flowers are in fact apetalous, having no petals or sepals. They are also monoecious, that is, male and female flowers are separately found on the same inflorescence. Female flowers are single, and are reduced to a pistil that is protected by petal-like bracts. Male flowers are also reduced-to a single stamenbut, unlike female flowers, they form inflorescences of 10 single-stamen flowers. These inflorescences, known as cyathia (sing. cyathium), are also protected by bracts. Together, the female flowers and male cyathia form inflorescences of a secondary order known as panicles.What are commonly called tepals (i.e., petal-like sepals) in cassava flowers are actually bracts. In this volume, the male cyathia will be treated as if they are single flowers, as the distinction is only relevant from the botanical point of view.The mal e \"flower\" is about half the size of the female. It posses ses a straight and very short pedicel, while th at of the female flower is thicker and longer (Figures 2-4 and 2-5). Inside th e male flower is a basal disk that is divided into 10 lobes. In the center of this disk a r ud imentary ovary can be seen. At the po ints of separation of the lobes of the basal disk, arranged in two series, are the 10 stamens that support anthers. Of these stamens, t he 5 outer ones are separate and longer than the 5 inner ones. Together, they form the 20 Cassava in the Third Millennium: …  Because cassava can reproduce vegetatively, reproductive dysfunction is not, from an evolutionary viewpoint, as negative as it would be in crops that have exclusively sexual reproduction. As a result, cases of male-sterility, for example, can be frequently found. Such cases are of two types: one where the flowers abort before reaching maturity, and the other when flowers mature but the anthers do not produce pollen. Genetics of such sterility, however, has not yet been fully studied.Once the female flower has been pollinated, fruit begins to form from the ovary. Fruit maturation requires about 3 months to complete. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule that is trilocular, and ovoid to globate, with a diameter of 1.0 to 1.5 cm and six longitudinal, narrow, and prominent ridges (Figure 2-6). Cross-sections of the developing fruit show a series of clearly discernible tissues: epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.As the seed matures, the epicarp and mesocarp dry up. The endocarp, which is ligneous, opens abruptly when the fruit is mature and dried, releasing and dispersing seeds to a certain distance. During dehiscence tissues separate both, throughout the mid-vein of each fruit loculus and between the separations themselves.The seed is the medium for the plant's sexual reproduction. While it is not important in reproduction and commercial multiplication, it has incalculable value for plant breeding, as only through sexual reproduction can new, genetically superior, cultivars be developed.The seed is ovoid-ellipsoid in form and measures about 1 cm long, 6 mm wide, and 4 mm thick. The seed coat is smooth, coffee-colored, and mottled gray. In the upper part, especially of new seed, the caruncle is found. This structure is lost once the seed falls to the ground. At the other end of the seed, opposite the caruncle, a small cavity is found. A slender suture leaves from the caruncle and finishes in this basal cavity. Figure 2-7 shows the typical structure of a cassava seed.The seed coat is the outermost part of the seed. Immediately inside the seed coat is the endosperm, which is formed of polyhedral parenchymatous cells that protect and nourish the embryo, itself located in the central area of the seed. Within the endosperm are found the cotyledons and embryonic axis that will give rise to the new plant after germination. The embryo is  Although currently see d does not play a predominant role in cassava multiplication, it may well do so in the future. A phenomenon in n ature, especially among grasses, known as apomixis, consists of producing botanical seed without th e usual sexual reproduction. In other words, the seed embryo produced by apomixis is genetically ide ntical to t he mother plant. This means that, when the embryo grows into a plant, it will also produce an individual p lant that is i dentical to its mother. Apomixis has been reported for the Manihot genus (Nassar et al. 2000). It could be incorporated into commercial systems because of its a ppreciable advantages: it would enable seed storage for more than the month or 2 months that stems can be kept and the rate of multiplication of a material could be increased significantly. Also th ey ar e less likely to carry pathogens than stem cuttings.The principal characteristic of cassava roots is their capacity for starch storage, which is the reason wh y, so far, it is the plant organ that has the greatest economic value. However, not all roots produced ultimately become storage organs.When t he plant grows from sexual seed, a primary root develops and then , several seconda ry on es.Apparently the primary root always evolves into a tuberous root, and is the first to do so. If the plant grows from a stake, the roots are adventitious, forming at (1) the lower end o f the stake, which produces a callosity, an d (2) from buds in that part of the stake that is buried in the soil. These roots i nitially form a fibrous system but, later, some (usually <10) begin thickening and become tu berous roots. The number of tuberous roots is determined, in most cases, by the plant's early growth.Although root density is low, penetration into the soil is deep. This is a highly relevant characteristic, as it c ontributes to the plant having the capacity to endure prolonged droughts. Fibrous cassava roots can reach depths of up to 2.5 m. The plant absorbs water an d nutrients through the fibrous roots, a capacity that is lost w hen t hey become tuberous.Morphologically and anatomically no d if ferences are found among fibrous and tuberous roots. What happens is that, as starch accumulation begins, the directio n o f root growth changes from longitudinal to radial. Howeve r, this does not necessarily mean that the root absolutely stops longitudinal growth. As mentioned above, tuberous r oots co me from secondary enlargement of fibrous roots. This means that the root system first pene trates the soil while roots are thin and only after such penetration, do roots begin thickening.Externally, the parts that are disting ui shable of tuberous roots of an adult cassava plant are the tuberous portion proper; its dist al extreme, which may still retain its fibrous character (Figure 2 upper or proximal extreme, or neck or \"peduncl e\" , which also remains fibrous and joins the tuberous section to the stem. N eck size ranges from being absent or very short (<1 cm) to being longer than 8 cm. The depth at which t he stake is buried affects peduncle length, which tends to be longer as stake depth is greater. Neck length is a characteristic of commercial interest. When it is very short it hinders separation of tuberous roots from their ste m s, resulting in injuries to the tuberous area and accelerating postharvest physiolog ic al deterioration (PPD). When the peduncle is too long, it results in higher losses, as the peduncle breaks more ea sily during harve st, leaving roots of commercial interest in the ground.Roots may be highly variable i n shape and size, depending on both variety and the environmental conditions under which the plants grow (Figure 2-9). However, when varie ti es are evaluated over numerous experiments, clear differences do appear, with some varieties tending to produce large roots and others having consistently smalle r roots than the rest. The roots may be cylindrical, fusiform, or conical in shape, with intermediate forms such as cylindrical-conical frequently occu r ring.The distribution of roots in the soil depends on both genetic and cultural factors. Varieties that tend to produce roots with long necks or peduncles also have their roots distributed in a scattered fashio n, covering a greater area of soil than those varieties with \"sessile\" roots (i.e., with absent or very short necks). The way st akes are planted also affects the pattern in which roots will be distributed. When a s take is planted vertically, it produces roots around the callosity that forms at the stake's lower extreme. Some roots growing from lateral buds on the stake may also become tuberous roots. Tuberous roots tend to explore and be located in d eeper strata of the soil. When the stake's position is at an angle to the soil's surface, tuberous roots again tend to f or m at the callosity and, as in the previous case, other roots may emerge from t ho se lateral buds that are under the soil. If the stake is placed horizontally, then tuberous roots are distri bu ted along the stake, as they are formed at both the lateral buds and the two extremes of the stake. Roots location also tends to be closer to the surf ac e and more disperse, thus facilitating harvest.The tissues that compose a tuberous root are, successively from ou ts ide in, the peel, pulp, and central fibers (Figure 2-10). A highly relevant aspect in cassava use is the presence of a cyanogenic glucoside called linamarin. This glucoside, in the pres ence of an enzyme (mainly linamarase) and acids, is hydrolyzed to produce hydroc yanic acid in dosages that range from innocuous, through poisonous, to lethal. This reaction occurs spontaneously in decompose d plant tissues or in the digestive tract of animals. Hydrocyanic acid production is particularly hi gh in root peel. Other plant tissues (including leaves) also have cyanogenic potential. Depending on cyanogenic glucoside levels, some publications will classify sweet cassava (low cyanoge ni c potential) as M. utilissima, while classifying bitter cassava (high cyanogenic potential) as M. esculenta.The cyanogenic potential of di fferent tissues of a cassava plant is greatly affected by the environmental conditions under which i t grows and its age at harvest. Roots of a given cultivar can be sweet in a particular site, but bitter in other locations. Usually, however, the cyanogenic potential of bitter varieties tends to be 23  Domínguez et al. [1983]).Peel Pulp consistently higher (to as much as 1000 mg of acid per kg of fresh roots) across numerous evaluations than for sweet varieties (20 mg/kg of root). Apparently, there are no cyanogen-free cassava varieties.Root peel. This tissue comprises the periderm and cortex. The periderm consists of dead cork cells (suber or phellem) that envelop the root surface. As the root increases in diameter, the continuity of cellular layers breaks, causing longitudinal fissures that characterize the surface of the cassava root. The way in which these fissures are produced, and the resulting appearance, are frequently used to identify cultivars for marketing purposes. Underneath these fissures, new cork cells are formed from the phellogen, re-establishing the continuity of this type of tissue over the root's entire surface. In addition to the periderm's texture, which can be rugose to more or less smooth, external color is also used to identify cultivars, as it is a highly stable morphological characteristic. Root color may range from white or cream, through pale coffee-colored, to dark brown.Below the periderm is the cortex or cortical layer (phelloderm). This tissue is 1 to 5 mm thick (Pérez et al. 2011), with a color of its inner layer ranging from white, through cream, to pink. This characteristic is also used, even by housewives, to identify cultivars. Within the cortex, compressed phloem tissues are found, containing the highest concentrations of cyanogenic glucoside. In this layer, lactiferous canals can also be seen, especially in young roots.Pulp. This tissue constitutes the usable part of the root and is therefore the tissue of greatest economic interest. It appears as a solid mass, composed mainly of secondary xylem tissue derived from the cambium, the cells of which contain starch in abundance and in the form of round granules of unequal sizes. Pulp is also formed by parenchymatous cells that, in the case of cassava, develops to such a magnitude that the conductive xylem tubes remain reduced to small isolated groups scattered throughout the reserve parenchyma. The cambium from which pulp tissues are derived is found in the pulp's outermost part, separating the pulp from the cortex. This cambium also generates secondary phloem cells towards the exterior.The parenchyma cells that form most of the cassava root pulp contain one to numerous amyloplasts. Within these, starch is accumulated as more or less spherical often truncated granules, although a great diversity of shapes exists such as cupuliform, biconcave-convex, and mitriform (Castilloa et al. 1982). Starch granule size is variable, and is, to some degree, determined genetically according to the variety. Starch granule shape and size are characteristics of great practical relevance to industry, as described below.Central fibers. These fibers, forming the center of the root, comprise rows of parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma vessels, whose hardness, length, and width are varietal characteristics of economic importance, as they affect the culinary quality and appearance of roots cooked for human consumption. About 80% of root fresh weight corresponds to pulp. Dry matter content of cassava roots ranges between 30% and 40%, although this range can sometimes be exceeded. The dry matter found in the parenchyma mostly (90% to 95%) constitutes the non-nitrogenous fraction, that is, carbohydrates such as starch and sugars. The rest of the dry matter corresponds to fiber (1% to 2%), fats (0.5% to 1.0%), ashes or minerals (1.5% to 2.5%), and protein (about 2%). Finally, we point out that starch comprises most of the carbohydrates (96%) and is, therefore, the principal component of dry matter in the root.Nutritional value of the roots. Without a doubt, the principal economic value of the cassava crop lies in its roots. Cassava roots, being storage organs for energy, have various uses as human food, animal feed, and starch extraction. Table 2-3 summarizes the principal chemical characteristics of cassava roots that have been chipped, dried, and processed into dry flour.Most of the root content constitutes available carbohydrates. Compared with other energy sources such as maize, cassava roots have less protein (2% to 3% versus 8% to 10% for maize). This difference in protein content justifies cassava flour having a cost of about 70% that of maize, when it is used to formulate animal feed.Cassava roots undergo rapid deterioration once harvested, a process mentioned above as \"postharvest physiological deterioration\" (PPD). As a result, cassava roots must be consumed within a few days of harvest because, during the first 3 days, bluish spots begin appearing, concentrating on the root's periphery. The spots then extend to the entire tissue, turning it coffeecolored or brown and, in longitudinal sections of the roots, appearing as vascular streaks (Wheatley et al. [1983]). While little is known about PPD, its occurrence is directly associated with any mechanical damage that occurred during harvest and also on variety. Some evidence suggests that varieties with less dry matter content are more tolerant of PPD. Roots with high carotene content (the so-called \"egg yolk\" cassava) also tend to suffer less from PPD (Morante et al. 2010).One cultural practice that does reduce the incidence of PPD or delay its appearance is to prune plants several days in advance of harvesting the roots (van Oirschot et al. 2000). However, pruning also notably reduces dry matter content and, as a result, starch content, while increasing total sugars content. These results illustrate the way in which these variables can be affected according to the conditions under which the plant grows and the cultural practices to which it is subjected.Starch is one of the dominant reserve substances in nature and is found as small granules deposited in seeds, tubers, and roots of different plants. Starch is a mixture of two polymers: amylose, which is linear, and amylopectin, which is branched. Table 2-4 lists some of the most relevant qualitative characteristics of cassava roots, with emphasis on starch. These results were consolidated, based on information published in several articles (Chávez et al. 2005;Ceballos et al. 2008;Morante et al. 2009;Sánchez et al. 2009).The relative proportion of the polymers amylose to amylopectin in any starch, and their specific molecular weight, determines the physicochemical properties of the starch and its industrial properties (Sánchez et al. 2010). Analysis of these properties is fundamental to achieving an exact use of the existing genetic variability within the Manihot genus. Furthermore, the typical characteristics of cassava starch differ from that obtained from maize or potato, thus creating a niche whereby certain industrial processes may prefer the use of one starch over another. Two mutations affecting functional properties, granule morphology, and/or biochemical characteristics of cassava starch have also been reported (Ceballos et al. 2007(Ceballos et al. , 2008)).The principal physicochemical properties of a starch are proximal composition; granule characteristics (size and shape); crystalline nature; molecular weight; swelling power; solubility; relative amylose content; and characteristics of the starch paste.The protein content of cassava starch (0.1%) is very low, compared with that of rice (0.45%) or maize starch (0.35%). Residual protein can impart a floury flavor and give these starches a tendency to foam.Potato and cassava starch granules contain negligible amounts of fatty substances, compared with cereal starches such as maize (0.6%) and rice (0.8%). Such a composition favors cassava starch, as these lipids form a complex with amylose that tends to prevent starch granules from swelling and solubilizing, therefore requiring high temperatures (>125 o C) to break the amylose-lipid structure and dissolve the amylose fraction. The presence of fatty substances can also create problems of rancidity during storage.Cassava starch granules are round, with truncated terminals and a well-defined nucleus (thread). Size varies from 5 to 35 μm, with averages between 15 and 18 μm. A mutation that severely affects granule size has recently been reported (Ceballos et al. 2008;Figure 2-11)  granules of rice, maize, and waxy maize have a polyhedral form, while potato starch granules are ovoid and larger, with sizes ranging between 5 and 100 μm, with an average of 33 μm. The granule size for maize and waxy maize starches is intermediate, between 3 and 26 μm, with an average of 15 μm, and similar to that of cassava starch granules. Rice starch granules are smaller, varying between 3 and 8 μm. They are regarded as more resistant to high-temperature processes such as sterilization and to be more digestible.X-ray diffraction patterns of native cassava starch granules have been reported as intermediate (type C) between the characteristic patterns of cereal starches (type A) and fruit and tuber starches (type B). Crystallization levels in cassava starch are about 38% (Rickard et al. 1991). Granule crystallinity is essentially due to amylopectin. The small granule mutation of cassava affects crystallinity, branching pattern, and amylose content (Rolland Sabaté et al. 2012).When an aqueous starch suspension is subjected to heating, granules slowly begin absorbing water and increasing in size. They initially hold their optical properties, including the ability to refract polarized light (birefringence), which is due to the alignment of molecules with no starch granules. Birefringence in cassava starch granules declines at temperatures between 58 and 64 o C, compared with that in maize starch granules, which declines between 62 and 68 o C.Starch granules, as mentioned, are composed of two polysaccharides with glucan links: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is basically a linear polymer of α (1-4) units. Amylopectin comprises the greater component and consists of a branched polymer of α (1-4) and α (1-6) units. In some starches, granule size is related to the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio (Delpeuch and Favier 1980). The average amylose content in the following starches are: for cassava, 20.9%; maize, 26%; potato, 24%; rice, 17%; and waxy maize, <1%. Amylose content of starches is very strongly related to some of their properties. For example, starches with high amylose content retrograde very quickly. In contrast, waxy maize, which is 100% free of amylose, is highly stable and resistant to retrogradation (i.e., the reorganization of amylose and amylopectin molecules in a crystalline structure when starch pastes are cooled). A mutation in cassava, resulting in amylose-free starch, has recently been reported (Ceballos et al. 2007). Although varietal differences are found for rheological or functional properties of cassava starches, Brabender amylogram curves for cassava starch follow a similar pattern to that of starches with a high amylopectin content. Cassava starch gelatinizes, as do rice and waxy maize starches, at relatively low temperatures (60-67 o C), rapidly reaching the maximum peak. This implies that it is an easy starch to cook, requiring less energy for cooking. Furthermore, it has a low tendency towards retrogradation, and produces a very clear and stable gel.Cassava starch gelatinizes in water at temperatures of more than 60 o C but, at more than 90 o C, although paste viscosity is initially high, it declines abruptly, with continuous solubilizing and agitation, and no gel is formed with subsequent cooling. Such behavior in cassava starch makes it technologically convenient as a substrate for hydrolytic processes, but inappropriate as a substitute for cereal starches in processes requiring retrogradation.The cassava starch's properties of clarity and low retrogradation can be used in many food products. Its rheological characteristics closely resemble that of waxy maize starch.Quality properties of starch pastes are modified during freezing, with the paste structure usually deteriorating through increased exudation of water or \"syneresis\". Some native starches like those of cassava and oca (Oxalis tuberosa) are regarded as resistant to this process (Rurales 1995;Sánchez et al. 2010).Cassava starch pastes are stable in acid media where pH < 2.4. Normally, such acidity would destroy starch granules and the paste's physical aspect through partial or total hydrolysis.","tokenCount":"6198"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"597b49ab04fd5f5858b70a0f0ec6d51c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H041542.pdf","id":"1618303070"},"keywords":["Environmental Impact Assessment","Hydropower projects","Water resource","National environmental act","Project screening"],"sieverID":"e60324d9-fdb5-44da-bebc-4a39c8e785e4","pagecount":"2","content":"Sri Lankan society has supported the development and improvement of water resources for the human well-being through agriculture and energy for a long period. Since the introduction of the National Environmental Act, in 1980 EIA has been widely discussed and implemented for multi-disciplinary projects. EIA was made mandatory for d l development projects through a cabinet decision in 1984 but since then EIA process exhibit numerous shortcomings in its implementation. Despite that it was revealed in the comprehensive survey of Sri Lankan National Archives that over 500 EtAs were completed in the period of 1981-2007.By looking at the Sri Lankan experience in hydropower, we evaluate how the EIA instruments used by the government influence on development. This article addresses both the EIA processes as well as the EIA screening in the development process. It will demonstrates that in the EIA screening process has changed over time for hydro power generation projects and other selected projects due to the higher consumer demand place on water resources based energy and the mooted policy direction of the government. Paper will also investigate the circumstances that forced the government to make a legislative change of the EL4 process and try to find whether it has been able to sustain the environmental the social cost caused in the process. For this we will look at two case studies, i.e, the Upper Kotmale hydropower project and the Bomuruella Mini hydropower project.","tokenCount":"235"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9634070714.json b/data/part_1/9634070714.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..59418815e1117564ccdcd208785839af5d367117
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1bbe6addba4d13b398ce1579a226f8b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f762db69-eece-4861-a1c2-21a12f4fb270/retrieve","id":"2005560085"},"keywords":["Coffea mauritiana Credit","Ehsan Dulloo Elaeocarpus bojeri Credit","Mukesh Rughoo"],"sieverID":"7cc03a77-9fa7-464b-ba2e-9a033ad88a98","pagecount":"2","content":"Crop wild relatives (CWR) are plant species that are related to cultivated crops. They include the ancestors of cultivated crops.CWR are a critical source of genes for resistance to diseases, pests and stresses such as drought and extreme temperatures that can be used in plant breeding, with the potential to enhance sustainable food security in the face of challenges such as climate change and population growth.CWR can be found in all types of habitats. They are often vulnerable and require urgent conservation, but are not commonly included in national conservation programmes. The ACP-EU supported SADC CWR Project, implemented in Mauritius, South Africa and Zambia, aims to enhance the in situ conservation of CWR by developing capacity in the SADC region to conserve and sustainably utilize CWR for climate change adaptation and to persuade governments to endorse national strategies and implement an action plan for the effective conservation of CWR.Mauritius and Rodrigues are islands in the southwest Indian Ocean, part of the Mascarene islands east of Madagascar. The islands are volcanic in origin and the organisms on them evolved in a relatively isolated environment until human travellers arrived. As a result, both islands have many endemic species, organisms found nowhere else.Several crops of economic importance cultivated in Mauritius have wild relatives that occur locally, including banana, eggplant, ground nut, pigeon pea, pineapple, potato, and tomato. However, they are not native to Mauritius. In Rodrigues, wild relatives of cultivated crops include those of eggplant and pineapple.Mauritius has a long-standing programme for the conservation of endangered endemic species. The Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security hosts several units (Forestry Division, National Parks and Conservation Services, Plant Genetic Resources Division and the National Herbarium) that carry out conservation and eco-geographic surveys on a regular basis. In addition, other organisations including the Mauritius Wildlife Foundation (MWF), the Mauritius Sugarcane Industry Research Institute (MSIRI), Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute (FAREI), and the University of Mauritius have also contributed to research on plant genetic resources and conservation.While these groups know about the conservation of priority species, the idea of CWR was relatively unfamiliar. The project introduced the concept of CWR and, with the support of the Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Ministry, established a local committee of members of the different units.In Mauritius, the CWR checklist contains 234 genera and 528 species, 131 of which are endemic to Mauritius. The priority CWR species for conservation in Mauritius are those of coffee (Coffea 3 species), fonio (Digitaria 2 species), fig (Ficus 2 species), (Elaeocarpus 2 species; Olea 1 species) and palm (Acanthophoenix 1 species; Dictyosperma 2 species). The CWR checklist for Rodrigues identifies 116 genera and 142 species, 28 of which are endemic to Rodrigues. The priority CWR species in Rodrigues are aloe (Aloe 1 species), asparagus (Asparagus 1 species), fig (Ficus 2 species), fonio (Digitaria 2 species), olive (Olea 1 species) and sweet potato (Ipomoea 2 species).As a result of the workshops and prioritysetting exercises, the committee was able to draft a National Strategic Action Plan and submit it to the Ministry.The project has been a major driving force for collaboration among different institutions. Data from many sources had to be collected and collated in order to derive the lists and describe the occurrence of CWR on the two islands. Public and private organisations and NGOs contributed fully to the results obtained.The project resulted in greater interest in CWR in the Republic of Mauritius, where the Ministry of Agro-Industry and Food Security is now more aware of their importance. Many of the CWR identified as a result of the project checklists are already within conservation management areas, and the various conservation units are now taking steps to ensure that all the listed CWR will be properly managed for conservation. In addition, a research student has been recruited to carry out molecular characterization of selected CWR in Mauritius.","tokenCount":"642"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9663617896.json b/data/part_1/9663617896.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e832fd06702d3718682f78f58f0a95a11f74d580
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9280dc79b3d56e255b33a8a175799925","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f0f35d37-da8e-4ebe-a584-7e172c85f01e/retrieve","id":"-1535614789"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ef8e2d4a-3761-41b2-821c-43d142bb5cd8","pagecount":"9","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa is a research program designed to deliver much-needed, cutting-edge science on the relationships between ecosystems, zoonoses, health and wellbeing, with the objective of helping people move out of poverty and promoting social justice. It is funded by the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation Programme (ESPA).The three-and-a-half year program focuses on four emerging or re-emerging zoonotic diseases in four diverse African ecosystems. Its innovative, holistic approach marries the natural and social sciences as it builds an evidence base designed to inform global and national policy players seeking effective, integrated approaches to control and check disease outbreaks.The Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa Consortium (DDDAC) comprises 20 partners spanning Africa, Europe and the United States of America and includes researchers in the environmental, biological, social, political and human and animal health sciences. They will generate new knowledge on:  ecosystem change;  how ecology and people's interactions with ecosystems affect disease emergence; and  disease transmission and exposure.They will also make significant contributions to understanding, measuring and modelling diseases and the effect of disease on human wellbeing.The project will see natural and social scientists working on four zoonotic diseases, each affected in different ways by ecosystem changes and having different impacts on people's health, wellbeing and livelihoods. These are: Henipavirus infection in Ghana;  Rift Valley fever in Kenya;  Lassa fever in Sierra Leone; and  Trypanosomiasis in Zambia and Zimbabwe.The field trip and training was organized and facilitated by Absolomon Kihara, ILRI's Biorepository Manager. To conduct extensive field training  To access the practicability and usability of the Open Data Kit (ODK) system in the field  To pre-test the developed questionnaires in the mobile phone and make changes, if necessary  To guide the field personnel in using the tools in an actual field scenario  To ascertain that the field personnel were well equipped for field work and had gained the necessary skills to collect the samples and associated metadata to the required standards.The team We had earlier identified the field personnel who would be trained on the sample and data collection exercise. I introduced the team to the new technologies to be used in the field and conducted a training exercise in Nairobi. From their expertise, we identified possible roles for each person who was going to the field. It was decided that Damaris would be in charge of data entry while John would coordinate the actual sampling exercise by scoring the animals and dictating the information to Damaris. In addition, he would act as a link between the two technicians (Kimani and Wilson) and Damaris. Kimani and Wilson would bleed the animals when there was community support in restraining the animals, else, one would bleed while the other one restrained the animal in case there was no one to restrain the animals. The target was to sample 1000 animals in 10 days (approximately 100 animals per day). After analysing the sampling questionnaire which the team had developed, I decided to divide it into two parts: one to capture the farm details and the other the animals' details. They were both very short questionnaires although the farm questionnaire was a bit longer.On 25 September 2013, the day we arrived in Bura (Coast Province), I conducted another round of training in the hotel where we had pitched camp. This was a refresher of what I had trained earlier in Nairobi. This training was on the complete process that the samples would go through but focused more on the end of the process, namely, aliquoting, sample preservation and maintaining the cold chain, an essential component of proper handling of samples. The team started sticking the labels to the vacutainers and cryo vials. Due to the large number of cryo vials, the team could not barcode all of them. It was therefore decided that the barcoding of the cryo vials would be a continuous exercise each day after sampling and aliquoting.The following day was the onset of the field work. We woke up early and proceeded to the field. This was more of a pre-test of the sampling tools as well as assessment of the actual situation in the field. Immediately we started the field work, we identified some sections of the animal questionnaire which delayed the sampling exercise and rectified them, resulting in a leaner questionnaire that was easier to administer. The farm questionnaire was administered before or after bleeding the animals of that farm, depending on the availability of the farmers and the number of animals waiting to be bled.After the samples were collected, they were transported to the hotel where we had rented an additional room that was used as a store and a processing place. The serum was spun and aliquoted into two aliquots. The whole blood was directly aliquoted. The samples were stored in well labelled boxes and the position of each sample recorded as part of the aliquoting exercise. All this was done using ukasimu, an aliquoting system which was designed and developed by the biorepository team. The well labelled boxes were immediately placed in dry ice, ready for transportation to Nairobi. The identified field personnel were up to task to conduct the sampling exercise.  Data was recorded as soon as it was captured, minimizing errors and ensuring all metadata was captured. This was the biggest advantage and a paradigm shift from previous sampling exercises. All the sampling metadata was stored in the phone and the aliquoting data was saved in the laptop.  The system was very usable in the field albeit with some minor challenges which are highlighted later on in this report.  The field personnel were comfortable using the systems.  Any changes that were requested were analyzed and, if accepted, incorporated into the systems.  The power bank was a major score as the field personnel were able to charge the phone as it was being used. The power bank sustained the charge the whole day even when it was being used to charge the phone and had enough power left for another 2 or 3 charging cycles. This removed the need to charge the phones using the car charger which at times did not work.  There was great support from the community members who helped in restraining the animals. With this help, Kimani and Wilson bled the animals in parallel.  For the two days, we bled roughly 110 animals per day in roughly 5 hours which included moving from one farm to another, selecting the animals per farm, administering the two questionnaires in each farm and for each animal that was sampled, and de-worming all the animals that were brought by the farmers to be sampled irrespective of whether they were bled or not. Due to the very good support from the community, two people did the bleeding while I entered the data. The bleeding was much faster than the data entry and this at times created a back log of samples and data to be recorded. This was the biggest bottleneck in the sampling exercise.  The transition between farmers, especially when all the animals were assembled together was a challenge. We needed 3-5 minutes to administer the farm questionnaire. At times these were considered precious minutes for the bleeding team as they would have to wait for the questionnaire to be fully administered before proceeding with the bleeding exercise.  There was a challenge of maintaining the cold chain during days when box was not fully filled. When we had over 100 animals sampled, the additional samples (usually between 5 and 20) would be stored in a box which would not be full. These samples were also meant to be put in the dry ice for proper storage. The following day, aliquoting was meant to start from the last position, in the box which was not yet full. If the box was stored in dry ice, it would create a thaw process of the samples which were already stored in the dry ice. This challenge was solved by creating a makeshift +4 fridge. Dry ice was placed at the bottom of one of the cool box and was overlaid with a layer of cotton wool. The trays with the aliquoted samples were then placed on top and the cool box closed. The dry ice would maintain the cool temperatures while the layer of cotton wool would keep the samples from freezing. There should be more people available for data entry than the bleeders since bleeding is a much faster exercise, especially if they are well skilled. If not possible, the data entry clerks should match the number of people bleeding the animals.  If there is need to have a very fast process of sample and data collection, multiple teams should be formed, each with a bleeder, a coordinator and a data entry person. The teams can bleed the same herd if need be or can go to different farms altogether.  The questionnaires should be as short as possible to facilitate the bleeding exercise. Any questions not pertaining to the animals being bled should be removed and transferred to another questionnaire which should be administered separately. If this is not possible, an additional data entry person should accompany the team with the sole responsibility of administering the longer form questionnaire while the bleeding team conducts the bleeding and data entry.  All the vacutainers and cryo vials should be barcoded in Nairobi before going to the field.Barcoding should not be done in the field as it eats into the team's precious time of rest and recovery. Having to carry out the barcoding in the field often meant that the team members were not well rested for the following day's work.  Additional labels should be printed for the additional vacutainers and cryo vials. This will ensure that the team has extra labels to replace any labels that cannot be scanned with the phone.Overall it was a successful exercise and we learned some additional vital operational points which would be very useful in subsequent trips.","tokenCount":"1719"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9663939361.json b/data/part_1/9663939361.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..816114c6ec16f049c05294e363e93be8fe3cf289
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"de7eeb6b618ae6280f2185339479f478","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/254242ae-1406-44ae-b430-f929cfe5daff/retrieve","id":"1081747686"},"keywords":["breeding","cowpea","genetics","genomics","productivity","Vigna unguiculata"],"sieverID":"57723fbc-0476-4bd7-b40e-21efb64b8fbe","pagecount":"10","content":"Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.), is an important grain legume grown in the tropics where it constitutes a valuable source of protein in the diets of millions of people. Some abiotic and biotic stresses adversely affect its productivity. A review of the genetics, genomics and breeding of cowpea is presented in this article. Cowpea breeding programmes have studied intensively qualitative and quantitative genetics of the crop to better enhance its improvement. A number of initiatives including Tropical Legumes projects have contributed to the development of cowpea genomic resources. Recent progress in the development of consensus genetic map containing 37,372 SNPs mapped to 3,280 bins will strengthen cowpea trait discovery pipeline.Several informative markers associated with quantitative trait loci (QTL) related to desirable attributes of cowpea were generated. Cowpea genetic improvement activities aim at the development of drought tolerant, phosphorus use efficient, bacterial blight and virus resistant lines through exploiting available genetic resources as well as deployment of modern breeding tools that will enhance genetic gain when grown by sub-Saharan Africa farmers.Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers) also known as black eye pea is a herbaceous annual crop mostly grown in the dry agro-ecologies of the tropics in Latin America, Africa and south Asia. It is a legume and belongs to the family Fabacea, tribe Phaseoleae, genus Vigna and section Catiang (Marechal, Mascherpa, & Stainer, 1978). Cultivated cowpea, which is in subspecies unguiculata, is divided into five cultivar groups namely Unguiculata, Sesquipedalis (yard-long-bean), Textilis, Biflora and Melanophthalmus. The commonly cultivated cowpea belongs to cultivar group Unguiculata while members of cultivar group Textilis, characterized by long peduncles are grown in some parts of Nigeria for production of fibre. Cowpea is a diploid with 2n = 22 and a genome size of about 620 million base pairs. According to Padulosi and Ng (1997), the area where maximum diversity of land races and cultivated cowpeas is present is West and Central Africa.The bulk of cowpea production and consumption is in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) particularly West and Central Africa. Nigeria produces the most quantity of cowpea grains annually at approximately 2.14 million metric tonnes (FAOStat, 2017) and consumes more than 3.0 million metric tonnes. The other major producers are Niger Republic and Burkina Faso with an average of 1.59 and 0.57 million metric tonnes, respectively (Table 1). Another major cowpea producing country is Brazil with an annual production of more than 491,000 tonnes on an area of about 1.5 million hectares (Singh et al., 2002).Being drought tolerant, cowpea is grown predominantly in the dry savannahs to the Sahel in the fringes of the Sahara Desert with annual rainfall of about 300 mm or even less. Cowpea is cultivated ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------mainly for its grains, which are rich in protein with most improved varieties containing between 20 and 25 per cent protein on dry weight basis. Fresh leaves are also used as pot herb especially in East Africa. Samireddypalle et al. (2017) reported that cowpea haulm (dried leaves, stems and pod walls) could be a good source of income for farmers in the dry savannah areas where the farmers also keep livestock. In an earlier study, Duke (1990) found that cowpea fodder could contain up to 18.6 g protein per 100 g dry weight.Depending on the region, seed coat colour and texture could be very important to consumers. For example, in northern parts of Nigeria where cowpea is generally produced because of favourable climatic conditions white-coloured grains are preferred by consumers, whereas in the southern parts of the country, preference is for brown-seeded types. Consumers also have preference for varieties with short cooking time, as less fuel is needed when cooking such varieties. This article reviews key achievements in the genetics, genomics and breeding of cowpea which contribute to the enhancement of the productivity of this crop.The productivity of cowpea in typical SSA farmers' fields is abysmally low at less than 600 kg/ha when compared with a potential grain yield of over 2,000 kg/ha. A number of abiotic and biotic factors are responsible for these low yields. The adverse effects of these yield limiting constraints can be reduced to their barest minimum through genetic improvement. Cowpea seedlings can be attacked and even killed by aphids (Aphis craccivora) if not controlled with insecticides or planting of resistant variety. Aphids are more devastating when drought occurs shortly after seedling emergence in the field. The single dominant gene that conferred resistance to aphid and assigned the symbol Rac-1 by Bata, Singh, Singh, and Ladeinde (1987) has become ineffective against aphid. This is a typical example of a major resistance gene breaking down in cowpea. Ombakho, Tyagi, and Pathak (1987) and Pathak (1988) reported another dominant gene, derived from induced mutation and confers resistance to aphid, was given the gene symbol Rac-2. The flower bud thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti) is yet another major insect pest of cowpea with devastating effects mainly on flower buds thereby inhibiting anthesis and pod formation. As no pods develop on plants attacked by this insect, they tend to remain vegetative for a longer period of time. The legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata, the most cosmopolitan of cowpea pests, is capable of causing extensive grain yield reduction (20%-80%) if not controlled (Singh, Jackai, Dos Santos, & Adalla, 1990). A number of pod sucking bugs (Clavigralla tomentosicollis, Riptortus dentipes and Nezara viridula among others) attack pods and suck sap from the seeds while still developing within the pods. Such seeds become seriously reduced in size and malformed thus making them unviable and unattractive to farmers and consumers. When cowpea seeds are placed in storage, weevils (Callosobruchus maculatus), which often accompany seeds from the field, cause extensive damage by the insect's larvae, that feed and develop inside with adults boring holes through which they emerge. Low levels of resistance to a few of these insect pests have been identified among some cowpea germplasm lines. Host plant resistance through incorporating desired genes in improved varieties would be the preferred approach to protect cowpea plants in the field and seeds in storage against these pests.Effective insecticides are not readily available and could be unaffordable to majority of the farmers.  Although cowpea is known to be drought tolerant when compared to other crops, the productivity of cowpea could be hampered by erratic rainfall in the beginning and towards the end of the rainy season-a common phenomenon, in the semi-arid tropics where cowpea is mostly grown. With the current effects of climate change, the pattern of rainfall in the subregion, which either comes late or stops earlier than usual, requires that efforts be made to enhance the level of drought tolerance in currently existing improved crop varieties being grown by farmers (Fatokun, Boukar, & Muranaka, 2012). Cowpea yield can also be affected considerably by heat in sensitive varieties. When the night temperature reaches about 35°C, cowpea flowers abort due to poor pollen development, which can result in poor seed and pod set (Hall, 1993). Low soil fertility due to low organic matter and low phosphorus in the savannah soils is also a major constraint for cowpea production.Comprehensive reviews of cowpea genetics were published by Fery (1980Fery ( , 1985)), Fery and Singh (1997) and Singh (2002). These reviews covered relevant literature on cytologic, qualitative and quantitative genetics. We will cover here some more recent literature. Padi (2003) studied the inheritance of leaf node pigmentation, flower (petal) colour, immature pod colour, seed coat colour, seed eye colour and seed eye colour pattern and reported that presence of pigment was dominant over the absence of pigment and the black seed eye was dominant over brown eye. He further reported partial dominance of the very small eye pattern to the Holstein eye type. Mustapha and Singh (2008) also reported that pod pigmentation is digenic while pigmentation in the pod tip followed two patterns of inheritance (monogenic and digenic), which agreed with Harland's (1920)   (1985) already mentioned that the complete mechanism of seed coat pigmentation was complex and not yet understood. Lachyan, Desai, and Dalvi (2016) studied also the inheritance of some traits in cowpea. The results showed monogenic inheritance for all four qualitative traits including growth habit, flower colour, seed coat colour and seed coat colour pattern. Joint segregation was observed between seed coat colour and seed coat colour pattern. Lopes, Gomes, and Filho (2003) reported that the number of genes that control 100-seed weight in cowpea is five and the high values for narrow sense heritability indicates that selection for seed size can be made in early generations. Pandey and Dhanasekar (2004) reported the presence of connate foliaceous stipules of primary leaves and their inheritance in cowpea genotype EC394736. They found the rudimentary stipules (RS) to be dominant over foliaceous stipules (FS). The F 2 segregation into 15 (RS): 1 (FS) indicated that duplicate recessive genes control the presence of the FS. Ishiyaku, Singh, and Craufurd (2005) showed that photoperiod in the field of 13.4 hr per day was long enough to delay flowering of photoperiod-sensitive cowpea genotypes and photoperiod sensitivity was found to be partially dominant. Additive and additive 9 dominance interactions were the most important gene actions conditioning days to flower. Narrow sense heritability of 86% was observed while at least seven major genes with an average delay of 6 days each control time to flowering in the cross.Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV) is a major virus disease that causes substantial cowpea yield loss. Orawu, Melis, Laing, and Derera ( 2013) have reported that CABMV resistance is conditioned by more than one recessive gene in eight populations, single recessive genes controlled resistance in other seven populations.The continuous distribution of progeny for severity data observed in the F 2 populations suggests significance of quantitative inheritance for CABMV resistance. The general combining ability effects (59.8%)were more important than the specific combining ability effects (40.2%) in determining virus resistance in the tested cowpea varieties. In another study using genotypes KVx640 and KVx396-4-5-2D, Barro et al. (2016) found that resistance to CABMV is governed by two dominant genes, each variety contributing a resistant gene.Three types of host reaction to bacterial pustule were observed by Patel (1981) during the screening of cowpea lines: brown hypersensitive resistant (BHR), non-hypersensitive resistant (R) and susceptible (S). Inheritance study of the BHR, R and S host reactions produced by three races of the bacterial pustule pathogen (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vignae unguiculatae) revealed that BHR reaction was dominant over R and S reactions, and R was recessive to S reaction (Patel, 1982). BHR reaction seemed to be controlled by two genes: one governing BHR reaction to race 1 and the other to races 1 and 2. Both of these genes were ineffective against race 3. The study showed that R reaction seemed to be controlled by one, two or three recessive genes that are effective against all the races.Using six populations (Parent 1, Parent 2, F 1 , F 2 , BC 1 and BC 2 ) generated from each of four crosses involving four resistant and two susceptible cowpea varieties evaluated for resistance to Cercospora leaf spot (CLS), Booker and Umaharan (2008) found that mode of inheritance of resistance to Pseudocercospora cruenta can be oligogenic or polygenic depending upon the cross. This is the first report of polygenic inheritance of CLS resistance. In another study, the evaluation of CLS disease in F 2 plants and F 2:3 families derived from a cross between \"CSR12906\" (susceptible) and \"IT90K-59-120\" (resistant) revealed that the disease scores were continuously distributed, suggesting that the resistance in IT90K-59-120 is a quantitative trait (Duangsong, Kaewwongwal, Somta, Chankaew, & Srinives, 2016).The genetics of flower thrips resistance was studied in crosses of four cowpea lines. Omo-Ikerodah, Fatokun, and Fawole (2009) found that resistance to thrips is quantitatively inherited with broad sense  2016). Informative markers associated with quantitative trait loci related to biotic and abiotic stresses resistances were generated while QTLs for drought tolerance and stay green (Muchero, Ehlers, Close, & Roberts, 2009;Muchero et al., 2013) and for heat tolerance (reproductive stage) (Lucas et al., 2013) were identified. QTLs related to aphid resistance (Huynh et al., 2015), bacterial blight resistance (Agbicodo et al., 2010)  (Singh & Ntare, 1985).Early breeding activities in sub-Saharan Africa involved germplasm collection, evaluation and maintenance, followed by screening for disease resistance. Efforts were directed to breeding for insect resistance, early maturity, improved plant types and desired seed quality. Pure line and mass selection were initially conducted to identify the lines with high yield potential, meanwhile followed by activities involving hybridization, population advance and selection. Seed quality, high grain yield potential, early maturity, insensitivity to day length, erect growth habit, lodging resistance and best fitting to intercropping were among the initial key desired traits. Some level of work on disease resistance was initiated in Tanzania with technical support from IITA. Mass selection, conventional bulk method and pedigree of bulk-progeny test were among the main breeding methods. Lines developed by IITA were evaluated and seeds of promising lines multiplied and released for general cultivation by national partners (Singh & Ntare, 1985). So far, more than 80 varieties from IITA breeding nursery have been released in over 60 countries.The priorities for cowpea improvement at IITA were reviewed and modified regularly. In the 1970s, the focus was on diseases which resulted in the identification of lines with high potential: TVu 201(S), TVu 1190, TVu 1977 and TVu 4557 (Singh & Ntare, 1985). In the  7) highyielding, bush-type vegetable varieties (Singh, Chambliss, & Sharma, 1997). Over the years, systematic incorporation of desirable genes for resistance in improved breeding lines as well as some selected varieties as recurrent parents was also carried out.A number of improved lines were developed and released by national programs in Africa. In Nigeria, landraces/breeding lines released for cultivation by farmers included Westbred, Prima, Dinner (vegetable cowpea variety), Ife brown, IAR 339-1, IAR 341, IAR 345 and IAR 355. In Senegal, there were Ndambour, Mougne, Bambey 21 and 23, while in Tanzania and Burkina Faso, there were TK-1, TK-5, TKx133-16D-2 and Cross 1-6E-2 and Suvita-2, KN-1 (Vita 7)and TVx3236, respectively. A total of 15,003 cultivated cowpea from 89 countries are maintained in IITA's genebank. Based on geographical, agronomical and botanical descriptors, a core collection of 2062 accessions was established. The diversity in the core collection was similar to that of the entire collection and correlated traits that may be linked were also preserved in the core collection (Mahalakshmi, Ng, Lawson, & Ortiz, 2007). A reference set, also called mini core, composed of 370 accessions representing the entirety of the genetic diversity of the core was constituted. The minicore is a critical resource for scientists to study new adaptive traits, conduct comparative genomics studies, and discover new favourable alleles and new lines for prebreeding activities.In addition to the cowpea minicore, the first eight-parent cowpea multiparent advanced generation intercross (MAGIC) population was developed recently as an important genomic community resource for trait discovery and breeding. The eight founder parents were selected based on abiotic and biotic stress tolerance or resistance and agromorphological trait variability (Huynh et al., 2017). The eight parents were intercrossed using structured matings as described by Cavanagh, Morell, Mackay, and Powell (2008) with some modifications. Pairwise crosses (AxB; CxD; ExF; GxH) were performed followed by 600 double crosses producing F 1 seeds (300 ABxCD; 300 EFxGH). A total of 300 four-way random pair crosses were made (ABCD x EFGH). Three hundred and sixty-five (365) F 1 s were generated from the crosses and advanced by single seed descent (SSD) till F8 generation (Huynh et al., 2017). Prior to the advancement of the population through SSD, each of 365 eight-way individuals was genotyped using SNP genotyping with the cowpea Illumina 60K iSelect BeadArray to confirm each individual was derived from an eight-way cross.Cowpea is grown mostly in the dry northern guinea savannah, Soudan Savannah and Sahel agro-ecologies characterized by low annual rainfall. In recent times, the amount of rainfall received in these areas is declining and the distribution of the rains is irregular especially during early or late stages of the cropping seasons. These predispose cowpea to drought while also undermining yield in  (Fatokun, Boukar, Kamara, et al., 2012). More than 24 IITA breeding lines were released during the last 10 years in 13 different countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Table 2).In order to identify sources of new genes to use in the development of better performing breeding lines, some germplasm and improved breeding lines available at IITA were screened for different desirable traits under the Tropical Legumes Project. was suspended. Some of these stay-green type had delayed flowering under drought (Fatokun, Boukar, & Muranaka, 2012). A total of 190 lines were found to show enhanced levels of drought tolerance as proportions of grain yield reduction due to drought were relatively lower among them. These were further evaluated, and the best 10 were selected for use in making crosses aimed at developing populations segregating for drought and from where selections have been carried out for breeding lines with superior drought tolerance.The marginal soils in which cowpea is mostly grown in the Sahel and Soudan savannah agro-ecologies are generally sandy with very low levels of organic matter. The soils are also deficient in minerals needed by plants for good growth. Cowpea is a legume, which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the crop's root nodules. It can therefore obtain some of its needed nitrogen from the root nodules while also leaving some in the soil for crops that follow in rotation. For good nodulation to occur phosphorus is an essential mineral that is generally lacking in the marginal soils where most cowpea is grown.Fifty improved breeding lines from IITA cowpea breeding nursery were evaluated in pots placed on benches in the glass house for their responses to phosphorus applications (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha). Nodulation was highest in a dual-purpose breeding line IT98K-166-44. Response to added phosphorus was higher in IT89KD-288 than in IT98K-166-44. Line IT89KD-288 was superior to all others in terms of efficiency in the utilization of P, while line IT99K-7-21-2-2 was found to be least efficient under low P application. The study showed that the application of 90 kg P per hectare could adversely affect cowpea's performance; hence, application of P between 30 and 60 kg per hectare would be most beneficial to many lines. It is possible, from this work, to develop cowpea breeding lines that can utilize efficiently low amounts of phosphorus application.Aphid (Aphis craccivora) is a major insect pest of cowpea especially during the crop's seedling stage in the field. Aphid attack on cowpea is most devastating when drought occurs in the seedling stage.Entire crop can be wiped out in such situations. The single dominant gene that confers resistance to this pest and which had been incorporated in several improved breeding lines and varieties has now become ineffective as such plants now succumb to the pest. There is need for identification of new sources of resistance. A number of germplasm lines and some cross compatible wild relatives were screened for resistance to aphid in the seedling stage. A wild cowpea relative, line TVNu 1158, was found to be resistant to aphid, and this has been crossed to some improved breeding lines with the aim of transferring the resistance gene to good background through backcrossing. A set of about 210 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) has been generated from the cross which has been used to produce a genetic linkage map of cowpea comprising about 17,739 SNP markers. The RILs have also been phenotyped for aphid resistance, and the data will be used for QTL analysis.Bacterial blight, caused by Xanthomonas axonopolis pv. vignicola, is one of the major diseases of cowpea. It causes considerable yield losses in susceptible lines. Fifty improved cowpea breeding lines (Table 3) were inoculated by spraying a suspension containing the bacterium obtained from a culture maintained in IITA's pathology laboratory. The results showed that fourteen of the 50 improved breeding lines tested were resistant to bacterial blight. These breeding lines are good sources of genes for resistance to bacterial blight.The bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) is one of the important viruses affecting cowpea in SSA. About 100 germplasm lines were screened for resistance to this virus, and two showed good levels of resistance using both visual scores and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. An evaluation of F 1s from a diallel cross involving 10 (both resistant, tolerant and susceptible) lines revealed that both additive and non-additive genetic variability are important which suggests that integrated breeding strategies can be adopted to efficiently utilize the additive as well as non-additive genetic variability (Inegbenose, 2016) in the development of BCMV resistant cowpea breeding lines.Although cowpea has for some time now been regarded as an orphan crop in view of the relatively low level of research attention given to the crop, modest progress has been made in the assemblage and conservation of its germplasm, generation of genomic tools for more effective breeding and development of improved varieties some of which are already available in SSA farmers' fields. The challenge of striga to cowpea production especially in the dry savannah agro-ecologies is being effectively contained with the development of varieties that show immunity to this parasitic weed. There is however room for the development of better performing varieties that will be characterized by high stable grain yield, good amount of protein, large seed size, white or brown seed coat colour, resistance to some insect pests which presently creating huge losses to the crop.The over 15,000 and 2,000 accessions of cultivated and wild compatible wild relatives in the gene bank at IITA, respectively, need to be systematically screened for adaptive genes that control the abiotic and biotic stresses still limiting its productivity. In addition, cowpea breeding programmes at IITA and NARS are currently engaged in the implementation of modern breeding practices that will improve their efficiency. With the development of various platforms such as phenotyping, genotyping and data management coupled with necessary resources now being committed to cowpea research, more impacts in term of variety development and integrated crop management practices will be achieved.","tokenCount":"3659"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ff0f7ede2424efa1883df13979eb8d8f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ff35c01-41a5-4445-8b13-1d88d7147ed6/retrieve","id":"-1636919384"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"de8117d0-f980-4604-a0e5-20c377b9675c","pagecount":"43","content":"un campo de fríjol en Sombrerete, Zacatecas, México, julio de 1978Importancia de la protección de cultivosLecturas adicionales: Carson 2002, Clawson 1985, Evans 1998, Rice 1983 8/42Importancia de la protección de cultivos SOLUCIONES:1. Solución 'precolombina': disminuir la densidad de planta hospedera/ Ha. cultivada en contravía del actual contexto demográfico y técnico-económico del cultivo 2. Solución tecno-química: usar el arsenal de fungicidas y plaguicidas riesgos potenciales o reales para la salud humana y/o ambiental; repetición 4. Solución biológica: usar los enemigos naturales de las plagas y enfermedades implica mucho conocimiento; resultado puede ser variable; afuera de origen 3. Solución biológica: identificar resistencias y transferirlas vía mejoramiento implica conocimientos; segura para salud humana; resistencia puede perderse Los parientes silvestres y el concepto de acervo genético Único en el reino vegetal ! y varios géneros con 2 especies, a menudo una en Mesoamérica , la otra en los Andes:Amaranthus, Canavalia, Chenopodium, Gossypium, Helianthus, Pachyrrhizus (3), Physalis, Solanum (sect. Lasiocarpa)• prueba que se intentó domesticar muchas plantas en muchas familias• estas familias contienen muchas arvenses, colonizando espacios baldíos• la agricultura pre-colombina arrancó con una modificación ambientalAlgunas características de las domesticaciones americanas• domesticación de la calabaza: 10,000 años a.P.Fuentes: Coe et al. 1986, Cook 1919, Debouck 2017, Hawkes 1983, Smith 1997 • dominio del fuego para la 'roza-tumba'• es una horti-cultura donde: cada semilla es sembrada individualmente• ausencia de animales de tiro• aparición de la metalurgia en tierras bajas de México 1,200 años a.P.• escasez de mano de obra; participan familia y otros en siembra + cosecha gigantismo, selección 'estética' y reduccionista (efecto fundador), poliproducción Consecuencia de haber sembrado semilla de un fríjol silvestre afuera del rango = reducción de la diversidad genética en el silvestre ya \"cultivado\"  • siembra silvestres• afuera rango silv.• flujo genes → razas   • colectado en Gro., México a \"espaldas\" del donante• obtenido en CIAT en 1976 por intercambio• evaluado contra gorgojos en 1978-1980• lleva su propio 'insecticida' (antibiosis)• la arcelina cambia en la cocción• la larva del gorgojo no se desarrolla en presencia de arc-1, arc-5, arc-7• sólo pocas poblaciones en W de México de los ~8,000 km en las Américas • permite al agricultor vender en mejor momento• la resistencia no pasó por flujo génico• el beneficio $ no ha sido calculado;se da principalmente en el trópico < 2,000 msnm• el mejoramiento se hace mediante marcadores• se encontró una CMS en un cruce H. petiolaris x H. annuus en 1969• se tiene hoy ocho CMS derivadas de seis especies/ formas silvestres fuentes: Berville 1988, Leclercq 1969, 1988, Vear 1988 23/42 ejemplo: los híbridos en girasol (Helianthus) (2)• heterosis en F1: 60-140 % en rdto versus poblaciones fuentes: Heiser 1976, Khoury et al. 2020, Serieys & Vincourt 1988, Vear 1988, 1992, Warburton et al. 2017 • problema: producción de semillas híbridas: un capítulo puede tener hasta flores diminutas• idea: que las abejas produzcan las semillas híbridas!• 2) plantas que aportan polen: restoración de fertilidad + vigor híbrido• silvestres como fuentes resistencia a: Plasmopara, Phomopsis• implicación: 1) plantas sin polen (CMS) serán cosechadas CMS: para que el inductor no esté en cromosomas  • color de fruto: afectado por 5 QTLs; en cromosoma 2, pim alelo da +36%, pero reduce tamaño de fruto en 38%!• rendimiento: afectado por 6 QTLs; en cromosoma 9, pen alelo da +86%, pero los otros 5 QTLs en cromosomas 5, 8 y 12 contribuyen entre -71% a -128%• sólidos solubles en fruto: afectados por 12 QTLs; en cromosoma 7, pim alelo da +18% y en cromosoma 12, pen alelo da +48%• pericarpio de fruto: afectado por 2 QTLs; en cromosoma 12, pen alelo da +16%• aire en tejidos de fruto: afectado por 4 QTLs; en cromosoma 2, pen alelo da +90% revelados por el \"advanced backcross QTL analysis\" con L. pennellii y L. pimpinellifolium• peso de fruto: afectado por 8 QTLs; en cromosoma 9, pim alelo da +14%, pero en 7 QTLs como esperado pim alelo da reducción, en cromosoma 2, hasta -38% Un rfg puede tener un valor determinante para cierto usoLecciones de estos casos• las ventajas de los silvestres pueden depender sólo de la variación natural• estos beneficios $ son reales, aunque muchas veces con fecha impredecible• no cuadra ni es sostenible \"privatizar los beneficios y socializar los costos\"• estas ventajas no corresponden sistemáticamente a presiones de selección aunque hay casos claros (salinidad, T o C) de respuesta a presiones de selección• los beneficios $ de los silvestres pueden tardar en materializarse, y claro se necesita una larga cadena de I & D muchas veces trans-fronteriza• para varios cultivos, hoy, sin los silvestres, no hay cosecha• los beneficios $ de los silvestres a menudo dependen de circunstancias externas  Desafíos para la conservación de silvestres in situ:Archipiélago de Bermuda: ~30 islas; 52 km 2 ; 72,000 habitantes; densidad 1,385 personas/ km 2 para el fríjol de Bermuda: georeferenciar poblaciones, comprar terrenos, planes de manejo → $ $ $ el fríjol de Bermuda produjo 6,768 semillas en CIAT! (Debouck 2015) foto: Debouck 2013Convertir áreas actualmente subutilizadas y que cuestan dinero para mantenimiento en reservas genéticas para parientes silvestres que sí necesitan un habitat alteradoInterstate Rd 30, 13/09/2013 población fundadora de Helianthus petiolaris Nutt.","tokenCount":"856"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8afefe0690b3703796be6705b90798e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d70feefb-6d3b-4746-8837-69704e7ab578/retrieve","id":"2097702635"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a4d1204-913b-405f-a328-b0e900dd48ac","pagecount":"18","content":"The plan focused on serving farmers: a change from the previous mindset of only focusing on pure scientific research to solve production problems and improve farmers' capacitybuilding. Especially after the expansion of the coordinator team of the AsiaBlight-China team, each coordinator actively gives play to their professional advantages and expertise in their respective posts and regions, combines online guidance with field explanation, and always strives to be in the front line of agriculture and serve local farmers anytime, anywhere. As a result, the coordinator worked tirelessly to solve the difficulties for farmers, winning unanimous praise from farmers' friends -a virtuous circle -and everyone was united and willing to contribute. At present, in the face of the substantial anti-pandemic pressure at home and abroad, the AsiaBlight-China team has actively completed most of the task indicators formulated in the work plan at the beginning of the year, further expanded the coverage of national potato late blight monitoring and early warning, and significantly improved the social service image and economic benefits of the cooperative enterprises with AsiaBlight, AsiaBlight 's overall influence in China's potato industry has been further improved and recognized. Relying on the International Potato Center for Asia Pacific (CCCAP), the AsiaBlight network operates and works. It is an open and inclusive non-profit cooperation and exchange platform composed of scientists, entrepreneurs, growers, agricultural technology extension workers and administrative decision-makers committed to solving the problem of late blight in the Asia Pacific region. Its purpose is to serve potato farmersin the Asia Pacific region and improve the ability to solve potato late blight in the region.At present, the AsiaBlight network has more than 300 members in China. The existing professional monitoring and prediction points of potato late blight have reached more than 900 stations (these 900 monitoring points can also be regarded as sales outlets of fungicide enterprises), increasing more than 200 units over the previous year. AsiaBlight network coordinators are distributed in the main potato-producing areas in China and provide technical support and professional services to prevent and control late blight for local farmers.At present, the social influence of the AsiaBlight Network is gradually expanding, and it has become an active group of professional academic and technical exchanges related to the potato late blight in China. At the same time, it is also an effective channel for pesticide enterprises at home and abroad to show their high-quality products and late blight solutions. As a result, after nearly two years of cooperation between some domestic fungicide enterprises and the AsiaBlight Network, Chinese farmers are gradually using high-quality domestic fungicides to replace expensive imported fungicides, which not only dramatically reduces the control cost but also continuously innovates the service mode of Chinese pesticide enterprises, steadily improves the enterprise's reputation, and significantly improves the economic and social benefits. More importantly, the precise and scientific prevention and control strategy advocated by the cooperation network can save costs and reduce pollution for most growers. Furthermore, for the ecological environment, it can actively integrate into the overall national development situation and implement and practice the concept and advocacy of the nation's green development.Although AsiaBlight-China completed a vast amount of successful work in 2021, there are still regrets among the endeavors. Under the pressure of COVID-19, the international exchange activities of the AsiaBlight Network 2021 almost entirely stopped.The Yakeshi Inner Mongolia conference and annual collation meeting were forced to be canceled. In particular, at the annual summary meeting, we lost an opportunity to meet with the industry, share and exchange face-to-face ideas, and work together. Some large growers in China failed to fulfill their expectations of attending the meeting. I hope the epidemic will pass soon, and everyone will have the opportunity to have in-depth exchanges again.The following is a summary report on the work progress of the AsiaBlight Network in 2021, one by one according to the work plan formulated by the AsiaBlight-China team at the beginning of the year.The AsiaBlight Network is an open and inclusive service platform jointly established by scientists, policymakers, entrepreneurs, farmers and personnel related to potato late blight. The healthy operation of the platform must follow the principles of scientificity, impartiality, independence and non-profit. Therefore, the growth and development of the platform need to establish a high-quality and dedicated team. In that way, we can ensure the sustainable development and high influence of the AsiaBlight Network.China has a vast territory, and the potato area of several main potato-producing areas and counties is greater than or equal to the total potato planting area of some EU countries. A few people do not write, let alone publish articles on late blight on various publicity platforms and serve farmers. Therefore, the publicity work in 2022 needs to be strengthened and enriched.According to the work plan of the Asia Pacific Regional the results can be expected to succeed. Hebei Lishijie Biotechnology Co., Ltd. submitted the test reagent report for controlling potato virus disease and underground pests for the first time. The test results show that the \"Huazhengfa\" control effect of controlling potato virus disease is effective but not significant because this technology clashes with Consensus methods of the whole potato seed potato industry. Therefore, it is recommended to promote it carefully. \"Asadi,\" a pesticide for controlling underground pests, has a good control effect, significantly reduces the moth rate compared with the control, has low pesticide residue, and significantly improves the commodity rate of tubers, which is worthy of popularization.If we make a technical summary of the test and demonstration work of the AsiaBlight Network in 2021, the \"Enshi Consensus\" can be fully illuminated. From May 30 to 31, 2021, Che Xingbi, Regional Representative of the AsiaBlight Network in China, organized relevant enterprises, experts and local farmers to hold an on-site meeting in Enshi. First, through on-site expert evaluation and field observation, and then through collective discussion, the following consensus was reached:1. Establishing and strengthening the monitoring and early warning system of potato late blight and carrying out accurate prediction are the basis for green prevention and control of potato late blight; 2. The results of field experiment and demonstration in Enshi, Hubei Province show that high-quality domestic products (fungicides) can effectively control potato late blight, reduce the control cost and increase the efficiency of pesticide reduction;3. The government, scientific research, promotion, enterprises and farmers need to be deeply integrated to form a joint force to promote the green development of the potato industry jointly; 4. As the main potato producing area and the frequent and heavy potato late blight area in the Wuling mountain area, Enshi, Hubei Province, has achieved phased results in the green prevention and control of potato late blight and explored green prevention and control solutions for potato late blight, which can be used as a reference for other main potato producing areas in China;In October 2021, the expert group went to the test site in Yunnan for on-site investigation and random sampling to measure the yield. As a result, the yield of fresh potato per mu in the plot of pesticide control of AsiaBlight Network can reach more than 2 tons. Compared with the plot of farmers' self-control in the non-demonstration area, the average yield of fresh potato per mu in the demonstration area is more than 1 ton, and the yield per mu in the demonstration area is about 37.7% higher than that in the nondemonstration area. This gratifying achievement not only brings hope for local potato farmers to have a good harvest, but it is also a concrete embodiment of adhering to the national green development strategy and its implementation.Mongolia provide a template for large potato growers in northern China and indeed reproduce the comprehensive prevention and control technology of late blight adhered to and adopted by Yakeshi Senfeng Potato Industry Co., Ltd. for many years, \"Under the guidance of the early warning system, domestic fungicides with high-cost performance are used in the whole process control scheme to achieve the best control effect with the best control time and low control cost.\" The cost of prevention and control per mu is less than 100 yuan, saving and improving efficiency compared with expensive imported fungicides.The test and demonstration work in 2021 achieved remarkable results and proved that domestic fungicides with \"high-cost\" performance and high quality also have a broad Hubei Enshi South China Potato Research Center planted 37 hybrid combinations.After germination and transplanting, a total of 1011 genotypes of seedlings survived. Six seedlings were planted for each genotype. After natural disease identification in the greenhouse, the results are as follows:1) 493 genotypes of 15 hybrid combinations showed moderate or above disease resistance, and each genotype harvested six healthy tubers;2) 415 genotypes of 16 hybrid combinations were moderately susceptible to late blight, and six healthy tubers were harvested from each genotype;3) 103 genotypes in 6 hybrid groups were susceptible, and no tubers were harvested;In 2022, the field resistance test will continue to be conducted, and the tuber resistance and tuber characters will be evaluated simultaneously.Shangqiu Golden Land Potato Research Institute planted 33 hybrid combinations, and a total of 1228 genotypes of seedlings survived. According to the conventional breeding method, 30 clones of the second generation, 273 genotypes of hybrid combinations and 1258 tubers were harvested through open planting. The disease resistance identification results are as follows:There were 24 combinations with high disease resistance and four hybrid combinations with low disease resistance.Resistance identification was conducted in Guyuan County, Zhangjiakou City, Hebei Province, in 2022.In 2022, Hubei Enshi South China potato research center and Shangqiu Golden Land Potato Research Institute will exchange materials for field planting and conduct a twoyear disease resistance identification test to verify the disease resistance of hybrid combinations making efficient use of clones. CCCAP will back up all materials, plant them in the greenhouse, and retain disease-resistant clones according to the identification results. In addition, CCCAP also selected the seeds of 37 combinations to generate tissue culture seedlings and sent samples to the James Hutton Laboratory in the UK for disease resistance gene identification.  3)Some pharmaceutical enterprises and seed potato enterprises are also interested in the Asian market; 4)Expand the international vision of all members of the network.","tokenCount":"1687"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"340bca72888fe2b6a5e29b8a835abb05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6d6575e0-0504-4260-a8f3-ca87ee867d47/retrieve","id":"-1338836269"},"keywords":["Anopheles gambiae","Culex quinquefasciatus","midgut","DNA","diversity"],"sieverID":"e2852b61-e73f-4a78-bee2-b7008624cdf6","pagecount":"13","content":"Midgut symbiotic bacteria are known to play fundamental roles in the biology of mosquitoes, however knowledge of midgut bacterial communities associated with mosquitoes is scanty due to limitation of the isolation techniques based on culturing. In this study, the composition and diversity of midgut bacteria in field collected and lab reared adult female Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes was explored using the Illumina sequencing. Deoxyribonucleic acid was isolated from the pooled midgut extracts and their 16S rRNA gene sequenced using Illumina sequencing platform. Operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were analyzed using QIIME 1.8.0; taxonomy was assigned using BLASTn against SILVA 119 and hierarchical clustering was done using R program software. Out of the total number of sequence reads obtained, 145 OTUs were realized at 3% genetic distance. The 145 OTUs spanned 12 phyla; Proteobacteria,Mosquitoes transmit diseases like malaria, dengue, lymphatic filariasis, yellow fever among others. Among these diseases, malaria is the most important mosquito borne disease with an estimated 214 million new cases of malaria worldwide (World Health Organization (WHO), 2015). The African region accounted for most of the global cases of malaria (88%), followed by South-East Asia region (10%) and Eastern Mediterranean region (2%) (WHO, 2015). In Kenya, there were an estimated 6.7 million new clinical cases and 4,000 deaths each year and those living in Western Kenya have an especially high risk of malaria (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2015). Most of the deaths are caused by the parasite Plasmodium falciparum whose major vector in Africa is the mosquito species Anopheles gambiae that is widely distributed throughout the Afrotropical belt (Boissière et al., 2012).Another mosquito species Culex quinquefasciatus is the principal vector for Wuchereria bancrofti, the filarial worm that causes filariasis and Japanese encephalitis (Agrawal and Sashindran, 2006). Lymphatic filariasis is a major public health problem worldwide. It is estimated that 1.3 billion people from 83 countries are living with the disease or are at risk of infection (Agrawal and Sashindran, 2006). Lymphatic filariasis is present on the East African coast especially in Kenya (Njenga et al., 2011).Current mosquito vector control strategies include insecticide treatment delivered through spraying houses and insecticide-impregnated mosquito nets. While these methods are effective at decreasing mosquito vector numbers, they have also contributed to the rise in insecticide resistant mosquitoes (Bando et al., 2013).Various alternative approaches are being tried to reduce malaria cases in the world, and one such approach is paratransgenesis. Paratransgenesis is a method where by a symbiotic bacteria is used to express effector molecules inside a targeted vector. The symbiotic bacteria are genetically modified to produce effector molecules and then reintroduced into the mosquito to produce the required effect (Chavshin et al., 2012). Understanding the microbial community structure of the mosquito midgut is therefore necessary in order to identify possible bacterial candidates for paratransgenesis. The mosquito midgut plays a critical role to the survival and development of the parasites and is therefore, the most attractive site to target malaria parasites (Whitten et al., 2006). The midgut microbiota of mosquitoes is still not well investigated and a few studies have been carried out on microflora of wild caught malaria vectors (Wang et al., 2011). The available conventional culture techniques limit the scope in determination of the microbial diversity since it sometimes misses out on non-culturable microbes (Pidiyar et al., 2004).In laboratory-raised mosquitoes, the midgut bacteria can be acquired through contaminated sugar solutions, blood meals and transmitted transstadially. However, in wild mosquitoes, the origin of the midgut bacteria, is still unknown (Riehle and Jacobs-Lorena, 2005). In the current study the bacterial composition and diversity in the midgut of lab reared and field collected A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes were determined using the illumina sequencing.The study area for field collected mosquitoes was Ahero, Kenya, which is a malaria endemic region. It is located at latitude 0º 11'S and longitude 34º 55'E and is approximately 1153 m above sea level. The area has a tropical climate with significant rainfall throughout the year and with an average temperature of 23.0°C.Adult A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes were captured from pit shelters by use of Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps. The CDC light traps were hung at least one meter above the ground on a tree or pole between 6:00 and 7:00 pm in the evening and left overnight. The collection bags containing the mosquitoes were picked between 6.00 and 6.30 am in the morning. The mosquitoes were then put into vial/jars from the collection bags using mouth aspirators and stored at 4°C. One hundred and thirty eight adult female Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes were identified to species level using a standard morphological key according to Gillies and De Meillon, (1968). The specimens were then transferred to the laboratory at the Institute for Biotechnology Research, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT).One hundred and thirty eight laboratory reared adult female A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes were acquired from the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Kasarani, Nairobi. They were transferred live to the laboratory at the Institute for Biotechnology Research, (JKUAT) and maintained in a mosquitarium at 28°C and 70 to 80% humidity until dissection. The mosquitoes were offered resins and 1% glucose solution as a source of energy and were not fed on blood.Dissection of mosquitoes was done according to Rani et al. (2009). Before dissecting, the mosquitoes were chilled to death and sterilized with 70% ethanol then transferred into sterile distilled water in a sterile hood. The mosquitoes were dissected individually under sterile conditions. The midguts were mashed and suspended in 100 µl of sterile phosphate buffered solution (PBS). The mashed midguts were ground to homogeneity. Each midgut extract consisted of 20 pooled midguts of adult female mosquitoes. Field collected and lab reared mosquitoes had seven pooled midgut extracts each. The midgut extracts were stored at -80ºC until further analysis.The total microbial genomic DNA was extracted separately from each group of mosquito midgut extracts using purelink genomic DNA mini kit (Invitrogen), following the manufacturer's instructions (CAT number, K1820-02 Life technologies, California, USA). Genomic DNA concentration was quantified using a nano drop spectrophotometer and the DNA stored at -20°C until further analysis.Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the 16S rRNA gene V4 variable region was carried out on the extracted DNA using primers 515F (GTGCCAGCMGCCGCGGTAA) and 806R (GGACTACHVGGGTWTCTAAT) that had a barcode (Caporaso et al., 2010). PCR amplification was carried out in 30 cycles using the HotStarTaq Plus Master Mix Kit (Qiagen, USA) under the following conditions: 94°C for 3 min of intitial heating, followed by 30 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 53°C for 40 s and 72°C for 1 min, followed by a final elongation step at 72°C for 5 min. PCR products were visualized on 2% agarose gel to determine the success of amplification and the relative intensity of bands. Multiple samples were pooled together in equal proportions based on their DNA concentrations from the gel images. Pooled samples were purified using calibrated Ampure XP beads (Agencort Bioscience Corporation, MA, USA).The pooled and purified PCR products were used to prepare DNA library by following Illumina TruSeq DNA library protocol (Yu and Zhang, 2012). Sequencing was performed at Molecular Research DNA (www.mrdnalab.com, Shallowater, TX, USA) on a MiSeq platform following the manufacturer's guidelines. The resulting raw sequences were submitted to NCBI (Sequence Read Archive) with the following study accession numbers; sequences for field collected A. gambiae SAMN04386463; field collected C. quinquefasciatus SAMN04386464; lab reared A. gambiae SAMN04386465 and lab reared C. quinquefasciatus SAMN04386466.Sequences obtained from the Illumina sequencing platform were depleted of barcodes and primers using a proprietary pipeline (www.mrdnalab.com, MR DNA, Shallowater, TX) developed at the service provider's laboratory. Short sequences < 200 bp, sequences with ambiguous base calls, and those with homopolymer runs exceeding 6 bp were removed. The sequences were denoised, chimeras and singleton sequences removed (Capone et al., 2011;Dowd et al., 2011;Eren et al., 2011). De novo OTU clustering was done with standard UCLUST method using the default settings as implemented in QIIME Version 1.8.0 at 97% similarity level (Caporaso et al., 2010). Taxonomy was assigned to each OTU using BLASTn against SILVA SSU Reference 119 database at default e-value threshold of 0.001 in QIIME (Quast et al., 2013).Diversity indices (Shannon, Inverse Simpson, Evenness), rarefaction, Venn diagram (to compare the shared OTUs between the samples of mosquitoes) and hierarchical clustering were computed, using Vegan package version 1.16 to 32 in R software (R development Core Team, (2012). Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test was used to compare the relative abundance of gut microflora among A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus from lab reared and field collected samples using R programming language (R development Core Team (2012). Significance was tested at 95% confidence interval (p = 0.05). To support OTU-based analysis, taxonomic groups were derived from the number of reads assigned to each taxon at all ranks from domain to species using the taxa_summary.txt output from QIIME pipeline Version 1.8.0.After removing chimeras, denoising and demutiplexing, a total of 24,025 sequence reads greater than 200 bp were attained from the 16S rRNA data. Total OTU richness at 3% distance amounted to 145. The OTUs per data set ranged between 26 and 102. OTUs comprised 87% bacteria, 0.7% Archaea, 2% Fungi, 1.4% Eukarya and 8% no blast hit (sequences reads that were not assigned). Rarefaction curve was plotted in order to evaluate if all the diversity within the samples had been exhaustively recovered (Figure 1).The slopes of the curves flatten out in cases where full diversity has been detected. This indicates that even if more sequences were obtained, the number of OTUs detected in the samples would not increase. However, more sequences would be required to exhaust the full diversity within the samples if the slopes did not flatten out (Chao et al., 2014). The sequencing depth as shown by the rarefaction curve was exhaustive enough to ensure the inclusion of the entire diversity of the microbes in the midgut of the two species of mosquitoes collected from field and lab reared.The distribution of shared OTUs across the two species of mosquitoes and the sample source (lab reared and field collected) is shown in (Figure 2). Seven OTUs were common in all the samples, fifty four (54) OTUs were only found in field collected A. gambiae while 18 OTUs were detected only from the field collected C. quinquefasciatus samples. Lab reared C. quinquefasciatus and A. gambiae samples had one and 10 unshared OTUs, respectively.A diversity index is a quantitative measure that reflects how many different types of species there are in a community and simultaneously takes into account how evenly the individuals are distributed among them.The estimated Shannon diversity index varied between (3.54) for field collected A. gambiae and (1.93) for lab reared C. quinquefasciatus (Table 1). The Shannon diversity index for field collected C. quinquefasciatus (2.73) was higher than lab reared A. gambiae (2.52) and lab reared C. quinquefasciatus (1.93). The Shannon index is a representation of species abundance and evenness, when either of these two factors increases, the diversity index also increases. Evenness index was used to estimate how well the species are evenly distributed in a community. The highest evenness was recorded from field collected A. gambiae (0.767) indicating that OTUs were evenly distributed as compared to other samples. The lowest evenness was recorded from lab reared C.   The microbial community composition, based on Kruskal-Wallis test, at OTU level showed significant difference between field collected and lab reared mosquitoes (ᵪ 2 = 45.0799, p = 3.2 × 10 -5 ). Similarly, there was significant difference in microbial community composition at OTU level between Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus (ᵪ 2 = 31.2257, p = 7.7 × 10 -4 ). The SILVA SSU Reference 119 database (Quast et al., 2013) was used to assign reads to appropriate taxonomic ranks. The OTUs spanned 12 phyla (Figure 3); Proteobacteria (62.04-95.11 %), Firmicutes (0.00-6.13 %), Bacteriodetes (0.42-4.89 %), Actinobacteria (0.00-4.97%), Eukaryota (0.00-3.46%), Gemmatimonadetes (0.00-0.86%), Spirochaetae (0.00-0.21%), Verrucomicrobia (0.00-0.76%), Chloroflexi (0.00-0.80%), Acidobacteria (0.00-0.68%), Archeabacteria (0.00-0.39%) and Cyanobacteria (0.00-0.10%). The no blast hits had relative abundance ranging from 0.00 to 16.58%.OTUs belonging to the Phylum Proteobacteria were the most abundant and were represented by the most genera as shown in Figure 4. In lab reared C. quinquefasciatus sample the OTUs were affiliated to following genera; Aeromonas, Asaia, Elizabethkingia, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Rahnella, Serratia and Wolbachia. Serratia marcescens was the most abundant species in this sample with a relative abundance of 64.29%. Other species present in higher abundance were Rahnella uncultured bacterium 18.13%, Serratia uncultured bacterium 5.08%, Wolbachia Embioptera sp. 4.37% and Elizabethkingia meningoseptica 4.88% (Figure 4). However, in field collected Culex quinquefasciatus sample genera represented were, Wolbachia, Sphingomonas, Streptococcus, Serratia, Rhizobium, Rahnella, Pseudomonas, Methylobacterium, Ixodes, Helicobacter, Gamma proteobacterium, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Bartonella, Bacteroidetes, Bacillus, Asaia, Arcobacter, Akkermansia, Agrobacterium, and Aeromonas. The most abundant species in field collected C. quinquefasciatus sample were Arcobacter uncultured bacterium with relative abundance of 34.83%, while Bartonella grahamii as4aup had 24.45% (Figure 4). Arcobacter uncultured bacterium, Bacteroidetes uncultured bacterium, B. grahamii as4up, Gamma Proteobacteria uncultured bacterium, Helicobacter sp. B52Seymour and Ixodes scapularis were unique species in the field collected C. quinquefasciatus sample.In lab reared A. gambiae sample, Asaia uncultured bacterium was the most abundant species with 39.30% relative abundance. Other taxa represented in the sample include Aeromonas sp. DMA1, Rahnella uncultured bacterium and Serratia marcescens each scoring a relative abundance of 10%. The genera found in lab reared Anopheles gambiae sample include; Aeromonas, Serratia, Bacillus, Asaia, Chryseobacterium, Gluconacetobacter, Delftia, Pseudomonas, Rahnella, Thorsellia, Enterobacter and Stenotrophomonas. Thorsellia anophelis was unique to lab reared A. gambiae sample (Figure 5). The field collected A. gambiae sample was found to harbor a higher diversity of bacterial species. The most abundant species were Agrobacterium sp. 12.63% and Methylobacterium uncultured bacterium at 11.14% relative abundance. The most predominant genera found in field collected include; Serratia, Bacillus, Agrobacterium Stenotrophomonas, Gluconacetobacter, Methylobacterium. Rahnella (Figure 5). The unique species in field collected A. gambiae sample include  C.quinquefasciatus respectively (Figure 5). information on all the bacterial species recovered in this study is given in additional file 1 Table S1.Hierarchical clustering, based on Bray-Curtis (%) The microbes inhabiting mosquito midgut have drawn special attention in the recent past due to their interactions with both the mosquito host as well as disease causing parasites. The present study sought to investigate the composition and diversity of microbes in midguts of lab reared and field collected A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes. The field collected mosquitoes showed more midgut bacterial composition and diversity than the lab reared mosquitoes. A similar observation was reported by Rani et al. (2009) in their study involving the analysis of bacterial diversity in larvae and adult midgut microflora in lab reared and field collected Anopheles stephensi mosquito vectors. The higher bacterial diversity in field collected mosquitoes could probably be due to the fact that wild mosquitoes are exposed to the natural environment where they feed on various natural foods that could be the source of the diverse microbes, whereas the lab reared mosquitoes are fed on artificial diet of glucose and resins. Furthermore, adult female mosquitoes require a blood meal for their egg development and the blood acquired in the field could also be a source of various bacterial flora. On the other hand, the blood given to the adult female lab reared mosquitoes is from infection-free rabbits/mice (Rani et al., 2009). In the present study, the highest number of bacterial species was detected from field collected A. gambiae mosquitoes followed by field collected C. quinquefasciatus and lab reared A. gambiae. The least number of bacterial species were detected from lab reared C.Diversity indices analysis at OTU level from field collected and laboratory reared mosquitoes revealed a significant difference in microbial community composition. Field collected A. gambiae had the highest value of Inverse Simpson index and while the lowest was lab reared C. quinquefasciatus samples. The value of Inverse Simpson increases with diversity (Chandel et al., 2013). The Shannon index is another widely used index for comparing diversity between various habitats (Chandel et al., 2013). The Shannon index is a representation of both species abundance and evenness, when either of these two factors increase, the diversity index increases. Evenness was used for the estimating how well the species are evenly distributed among the samples. The lowest evenness was recorded from laboratory reared C. quinquefasciatus sample indicating that the bacterial species in this sample are less evenly distributed, that is, some species are more dominant than others. Comparative diversity was visualized using heatmap based on Bray-Curtis dissimilarities at species level. The microbial composition of the field collected samples at species level, were more similar compared to the laboratory reared. However, the laboratory reared samples the bacterial composition seemed to differ between A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus.Members of the phylum Proteobacteria, were predominantly recovered from both the field collected and lab reared samples than those of phylum Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Bacteriodetes. Proteobacteria were also shown to be dominant in a previous study conducted in Kenya on A. gambiae mosquitoes (Wang et al., 2011). Proteobacteria was the largest phylum represented by 43 species belonging to 26 genera. Some of the groups of bacteria recovered in the present study are similar to those recovered from previous culture dependent and culture-independent studies (Rani et al., 2009). Phylum Firmicutes consisted of ten species which were affiliated to nine genera. Actinobacteria represented fifteen species belonging to thirteen genera whereas Bacteriodetes consisted of five species belonging to five genera.Cyanobacteria, Gemmatimonadetes, Spirochaetae, Verrucomicrobia, Chloroflexi, Archeabacteria and Acidobacteria represented only a small portion of the mosquito midgut communities.The dominant genera recovered in the present study belong to Serratia, Asaia, Arcobacter, Rahnella, Bartonella, Aeromonas, Agrobacterium, Methylobacterium and Wolbachia. The results of the study are consistent with earlier reports which have shown that that above genera are dominant (Pidiyar et al., 2004;Demaio et al., 1996;Favia et al., 2007;Dong et al., 2009). This suggests that at least a fraction of the mosquito midgut inhabitants could be common for different mosquito species inhabiting similar environments and may represent evolutionary conservation of association between bacteria and mosquito gut. Members of the genera Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Asaia, Rahnella, and Stenotrophomonas have been frequently reported in mosquito gut in previous studies (Pidiyar et al., 2004;Boissière et al., 2012;Chandel et al., 2013). Sequences belonging to genera Asaia, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Rahnella and Serratia were recovered from all the samples and comprise a major part of microbiota of A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in the present study.Serratia marcescens appeared to be the core species (23.6%) in the present study, as it was observed in both lab reared and field collected samples, suggesting that it possesses a competitive advantage over other bacterial species. S. marcescens is abundant in nature, and especially in the artificial foods given to the lab reared mosquitoes. Similar results were reported in five generations of lab reared A. gambiae (Dong et al., 2009).Asaia uncultured bacterium species was recovered at 39.30% was more abundant in lab reared A.gambiae. Asaia has been associated with Anopheles species, in particular field collected Anopheles funestus, Anopheles Maculipennis, Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles coustani, and Anopheles stephensi in which Asaia bacteria was dominant and stably associated (Favia et al., 2007). The presence of Asaia species in Anopheles mosquito could be a target for malaria control it produces antiparasite molecules in mosquitoes that could be exploited in paratransgenic control of malaria (Damiani et al., 2010;Favia et al., 2007).Elizabethkingia meningoseptica and Wolbachia sp. have repeatedly been detected in both lab reared and wild caught mosquitoes (Pumpuni et al., 1996) indicating their prevalent symbiotic association with mosquitoes. In the present study, Wolbacha was detected in both field collected and lab reared C. quinquefasciatus, previously it has been reported in several other mosquito vectors including, Aedes, Coquillettida and Masonia (Ricci et al., 2012). Bacillus sp., Stenotrophomonas, Micrococcus Acinetobacter, and Rhizobium frequently isolated from soil and environmental samples were recovered at significantly greater numbers from the field collected mosquitoes. This suggests that the local soil and water environment plays an important role in colonization of the mosquito midgut at breeding sites or during nectar/blood feeding (Chandel et al., 2013). Parathelohania divulgata, Parathelohania obesa and Takaokaspora nipponicus fungal species were recovered from the field collected A. gambiae and C. quinquefasciatus but were absent in lab reared mosquitoes.From the foregoing, the mosquito midgut has a rich diversity of symbiotic bacteria. The parasite mosquito relationship is believed to have been in existence for many years and it is likely that the acquired microflora permit the maintenance of pathogenic parasites in mosquitoes. The microbes could be benefiting the mosquitoes by protecting them against harmful bacteria the mosquitoes could be benefiting the parasites by lowering the mosquito immunity against the parasites.The results obtained present an analysis of the composition and bacterial diversity of lab reared and wild mosquitoes using Illumina sequencing technology. The bacterial flora of adult female A. gambiae and C. quinquefansciatus midgut is diverse and is dominated by bacterial species S. marcescens. In future, understanding the tripartite mosquito-microbes-parasite interaction will enable us gain more insight that may be useful in the development of novel approaches for the control of malaria and other mosquito borne diseases like filariasis, dengue, Zika and Chikungunya.","tokenCount":"3530"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac7eae917428dd84da0e3ff43ff07a8a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H005742.pdf","id":"414500440"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5c668960-bf44-4bde-b09b-f6aee8c0d8d5","pagecount":"56","content":"National Income in 1989-90. The Plan Outlay in the public sector during 1985-90 would be 1,800 billion (approximately US$150 hillion).' The share of major sectors in public sector ou!lap.during the Seventh Plan is expected to be as follows: agriculture 6 percent, irrigation and flood control 9 percent, energy 30 percent, industry and minerals 12 percent, transport 13 percent, awl social servim 26 percent.India's Gross NationalProduct(GNP) atfactor cost w a s h 1,884.6hiIlion (approXimatelyUSS157 billion) at current prices in 1984-85. At 1970-7 I prices the GNP was Rs 612 billion (USSSl billion).PercapitaNet NationalProduct(NNP)in 1984-85 wasRs2,343 (UW95)at currentpnmandQ 772 (US$64)at 1970-71 prices. Annualgrowthratesforpercapitaincome,at constantprim,ha~ ranged from 1.1-2.9 percent during the 1970s to 0.2-5.5 percent during the 1980s. The index 4For this study, the States of Bihar and Haryana in northern India have been selected for in-depth analysis of available data and evaluation of alternative policies for f m c i n g irrigation services. The irrigation systems in both States are characterized by a mix of centuryald projects and new ones built in the last few years. Both States are in the IndoCangetic Plains of northern India While Bhar, in the East, is known for its high water resource base (both groundwater and suface water) and its low utilization, Haryana is known to be nearing its limits in using available water resources. Per capita income in Bhar in 1980-81 was 35 percent lower than the all-India average; that of Haryana was higher than the country average. The economic development of Bihar has decelerated in the 1970s and the I980s, compared with the I96Os, on account of a number of'political, social, and economic factors. The economy of Haryana has been growing fast; an increase of 76 percent in state income (Net State DomesticPrcduct) at constant prices over the decade 1973-74 to 1983-84. The per capita income. during the same period, rose from Rs 8 18 in 1973-74 to Rs I, 127 in 1983-84 (at constant prices) ~ an increase of 38 percent. Bihar is known for its high density of population, high unemployment levels, and a faskxpanding bureaucracy. Haryana is characterized by low density of population and by amore efficient bureaucratic setup (relative to Bihar). Hence, it was expected that an analysis of these two States would throw some light on different practices followed and the problem faced in the two environments.India is a union of 23 Federal States and 8 Union Territories. The total geograpnical area of lndia is about 328 million hectares (ha). Though India is the seventh largest country in the world in terms of area, its population makes it the second mmt heavily populated country (after China) in the world.India has adopted the path of planned economic development with the objectives of removing poverty, building a strong and self-reliant economy, and creating a social system based on equity and justice. The rate of growth of GDP has accelerated over the past decade or so, and the Sixth Plan (1980-85) target ofaggregategrowth of 5.2 percent has beenachieved. Theseventh Five Yearplan ( 1985-90) has targeted growth of the economy at an average annual rate of 5 percent. The sectoral growth rates expected over the Seventh Plan are: 4 percent per annum for agricultural output; 8.3 percent per annum for mining and manufacturing; 12 percent per m u m for electricity, gas and water supply; and 8 percent per annum for transport services. Agriculture, which accounted for 37 percent per annum ofthe National Income in 1984-85, is projected to contribute about 33 percent to and total area under high yielding varieties (HW) from 15 to 62 million ha, respectively. In 1984-85 almost 60 percent of the total area under rice and 83 percent of the total area under wheat were under HWseeds. Similarly, in 1982-83,42percent ofthe totalareaunderrice, 72 percent ofthetotalarea under wheat, and 79 percent of the total area under sugarcane were irrigated.The area under irrigation increased at the rate of 0.7 million haiyear during the First Plan paiod (195 1-56), and the growth rate accelerated to 1.6 and 2.2 million ha/ year during the Fifthand S i Plan years, respectively.3Tahle 6. I gives data on ultimate irrigation potential, potential created,and potentialutilizedfors~aceandgroundwaterresources. Out ofanareaofabout 304millionhqnet sown area was estimated in 1980-8 I at 140 million ha and gross cropped area at I73 million ha The ultimate irrigation potential from major, medium and minor irrigation schemes is e s t i e d at 113.5 millionha Ofthis, 58.5million haisfrommajorand mediumschemes (surface water), ISmillionha from minor surface water schemes, and 40 million ha from minor groundwater schemes.' Table 6.2. A comparative profile of India, Bihar, and Hruyana ( I 980-81).Unit All-India Bhar Population (1981) Populationgrowth m e  Rural population The total production of food gain in Bhar increased from 9.2 million tons in 1975-76 to 10.32 million tons in 1984-85, an increase of 12.2 percent over the decade. The ColTeSponding figura for Haryana are 5.0 million tons to 6.8 million tons, i.e., an increase of 36 percent. lrrigaion development in Bihar. Before 195 I, there was only one major scheme, the Sone Canal Irrigation System. The irrigation development achieved by 195 1 from major and medium schemes was 0.4 million ha. In the year 1968, a new barrage was commissioned at Inderpuri, eight kilometers (km) upstream of the old anicut (diversion). The new barrage supplies water through newly constructed canals into eastern and westem low level canals.After the start of planned development, I9 major and 86 medium schemes were taken up from 195 I to 1980. During the Sixth Plan, an outlay of Rs 8,500 million was provided to create an additional potential of 665,000 ha (i.e., Rs 12,800iha). There were 42 major and 87 medium schemes during the Sixth Plan, in addition to 10 modernization schemes.According to the Central Water Commission, the cumulative potential created by major and mediumschemes by 198 I was to be increased to 2.532 million ha. Estimated utilization wasonly 1.8 million ha, while the actual area irrigated by canals (as reported by the Irrigation Department) was I .2 million ha. The cumulative expenditure was estimated at Rs 7,640 million, i.e., an estimate of Rs 3,020iha of potential created and Rs 4,44O/ha of potential used. Table 6.3 gives details of capital costs of some major projects. Table 6.3. Capital costs and potential created of a number of major irrigation projects in Bhar. Haryana came into existence on 1 November 1966, after the bifurcation of the erstwhile State 6 .;Punjab. One major scheme undertaken during 195 1-64 was the Bhakra-Nangal Projed @onion hHaxyana) which was completed in 1963-64, adding potential irrigation of 676,000 h a Cumulatiw . ~1 potentialaddedfrommajorand mediumschemesupto 1980-81 wasestimatedat 1.785millionhq ~: while the cumulative utilization was estimated at 1.66 million h a The outlays and potential aclllcd of some major and medium projects are given in Table 6.4.  Historically. in India, two contradictorypositions have beentaken withrespectto the levelsat which water rates are fKed (Ansari 1968). The Planning Commission has emphasized the need for raising rates so as to augment irrigation revenues. Certain academic and even certain official and semioficial circles, on the other hand, argued that the level of irrigation charges should be kept low even ifthis implies that full irrigation costs may not nenssarily be recouped. Two major arguments are advanced for assessing charges which do not cover costs. First, because the benefits of investment in major irrigation projects are spread over a wide range of people, with some people r e d i g direct benefits and others only indirect benefits, the full recoupment of costs from direct beneficiaries may not be j ~~t i f i e d . ~If appropriate charges can be levied on the indirect beneficiaries, irrigation can still be a paying proposition. If, however, the indirect benefits are in part or wholly not chargeable, there would seem to be a case for the State's subsidizing of irrigation in the overall social interest. Second, water rates should be kept low so that fanners are motivated to exploit the full irrigation potential. This argument implies that under-utilization of irrigation potential (of major projects) is due to high water rates. Therefore, by lowering rates better utilization can be achieved. Against this argument, it is generally contended that low water rates result in overirrigation and/or wastage of water. Besides, lower water rates for crops which are irrigation-intensive (e.g., rice, sugarcane) relative to those which are not (e.g., wheat, sorghum, millet) would result in the use of irrigation for crops which need not be optmum from the view point of society.Thus, the level of water rates has to be determined not only from the narrow viewpoint of an accountant for whom cost recovery and fmancial returns are objectives in themselves. The level of, and changes in, water rates have to be related to the benefits obtained from the use of irrigation, and have to be considered in the context of overall macro policies relating to agricultural prices, input pricing, trade policies and tax or subsidy policies.According to the Irrigation Commission \"from the irrigator's point of view, therefore, water rates should be related to the benefit which irrigation confers rather than to the cost of irrigation projects\" [Government of India 1972( 1:268-26911. Because irrigation requirements of crops vary accordingto season and regioq the quantity of water supplied is also relevant in determining water rates. As irrigation projects differ widely in their capacity to meet the irrigation requirement of crops, adequacy and dependability of supply become important considerations in timing irrigation rates. The lnigation Commission came to the conclusion that \"with so many considerations involved, there can be no precise formula for fiation of water rates, which must therefore remain a matter of administrative decision.\"The Irrigation Commission recommended the following principles for guidance:Water rates should be levied on a 'crop hasis' except in the case of irrigation from tube wells;The rate should be related to the gross income from the crop and not to the cost ofthe project. It should range between 5-12 percent of gross income, the upper limit being applicable to each crop;6iii) The rates should be within the paying capacity of irrigators and should aim at ensuring full utilization of available supplies;( iv) Among regions with asimilarclass ofsupply, thereshould bethe minimumdisparity,ifany,in the rates charged;For fixing rates, lrrigation should be divided into A, B, and C categories on the basisofthe quantity and timelines of supply. Lower rates may be fixed where, on account of good rainfall, the demand for irrigation water is less or where the supply is inadequate and un& andThe general level of rates in a State should be such that, taken as a whole, the irrigation schemes do not impose any burden on the general revenues.The irrigation Commksion calculated the ratio of water rate to gross value of output for rice and wheat in a number ofstates (in the late sixties) and found that \"the irrigation rates anually inforce in different States are exceedingly low.\"For example, in Rihar, the water rate as a percentage ofgross value of produce was 7 for rice and 2.7 for v~lieat. The corresponding figures for Haryana were 3. I for rice and I. I for wheat.Aparf from raising water rates, the Government can also claim a share of the unearned increase in land values as a result of irrigation. All the States have enacted legilation for raisingthis levy which was determined by the difference between the market value of irrigated and nonirrigated land inthe project area or in its vicinity. The Acts, however, have not been implemented by most of the States, and in some no assessment has been made, let alone any recovery. The main obstacle inenforcingthe Betterment Levy Act has been the difficulty in assessing the increase in the value of land as a result of irrigation. It is contended that tenancy laws coderring permanent ownership rights upon tenants and the implementation of other land reform measures, such as the abolition of intermediaries, fixation offair rent, ceilina on land holdings, and regulation oftransfer to prevent fragmentationof holdings, have all affected the market value of land. Hence, it becomes dCicult to assess the increase in land prices attributable to irrigation [Government of India ( I972280)]. Apart from the proceducal difficulties, implementation ofa Betterment Levy is also constrained by the lack of political will in taxing better-off farmersAlthough much data on capital costs are available, the fibvres are not comparable across projecls or states. This is becaue: a) irrigation p r o j e a differ in terms of type of structure (storage Venus diversion). size of system, type of scheme (modemiration scheme. gravity flow, or lit irrigation schemes) and the duration of construction; b) capital expenditures are incurred over a long period, sometimes over 15-20 years. and. on account of price changes in cost of materials and labor, the expenditures in diiferent years cannot be added; and c) imgation potential created or utilied maybe a subjective concept. and the figures of potential area that can be (and when) irrigated vary from one project to another. Subject to these limitations, some data on capital costs of irrigation projects are presented below.Here, a distinction is to be made between major and medium projects, and minor projem. According to a recent estimate (Vohra 1986) the cost ofcreatingone haof irrigation potential (in India) through the major and medium irrigation route stood at Rs 1.200 in the First Plan (195 1-56); it rose to as much a? Rs I9,27 1 during the Sixth Plan ( 1980-85). It is now projected to be as high as Rs 26,872 in the Current (Seventh) Plan. Although these figures are not comparable due to price changes over time, recent figures do indicate the order of magnitude involved. Thus, on average, at I98485 prices, the capital cost ofan additional hectare ofarea to be irrigated (potential created) would be around Rs 27.000 (liS$2,250).According to the latest estimates, a total expenditure of Rs 7, I35 million was spent on creating an additional potential of427,000hd.ThisgivesanaveragefigureofRs 16,71O/haofpotentialcreated. However. it has been found thatoutofthecumulativeirrigationpotentialcreatedof2.88million ha hy the md of the Sixth Plan, the cumulative utilkition was only 2. I8 million ha, i.e., 76 percent. If this is taken into account, the capital costs of major and medium irrigation projects would be Rs 22.000 (llS$1,832) per ha of potential actually utilized An estimated expenditure of Rs 6,023 million is expected to he spent on 3 major and 20 medium schemes during the Seventh Plan ( 1985-90).Table 6.3 presents data on capital costs and potential created of a number of major projects over approximately the last twenty years. Some of these projects, e.g., Kosi and Gandak Canal System, have been under construction for 20-25 years, and hence, these figpres cannot be used unless a hrrdkdown of the capital cost of each year is available and these figures can be re-estimated at 1984-85 prices. The only figure which seems to be usable is that ofsubamarekha Project which has recently been taken up and the cost estimate is based on 1984-85 prices. 7111s gives a capital cost of Rs 24,050 (USS2.000) per ha of potential created at 1984-85 prices.It has been suggested hy the Government of Bihar that the main reasons for the gap between potential created and potential utilized is nonavailability of 5-8 ha field channels, specially in the Kosi and Gandak command areas. Hence, the government has proposed some activities under the CADA progranx u,hich involve expenditures on direction and administration, surveys, demonstration and training, construction of field channels and field drains, on-farm development work, and land levelling. During the Sixth Plan, investments of Rs 775/ha on construction of field channels and Rs 120/ha on infrastructural items were made (Table 6.5). Even with these investments and the establishment of Command Area Authorities, the construction of field channels is not matching the creation of additional potential every year.  The main difficulty in construction of field channels is non-availahility of land. At present, farmen arc expected to donate land for these channels, and this is not forthcoming as per program. Whatever land h a been obtained is along the periphery of the plots, resulting in longer channels involving higher costs and increased conveyance and seepage losses. In view of these difficulties, it is being suggested in government circles that the land acquisition cost of field channels should be borne by the government to accelerate the construction program. Thii would further rake the capital cost of providing irrigation through surface projects. Tq recapitulate, the total cost of utilizing potential created in Bihar, at 1 9 8 4 5 prices, is around Rs 25,00O/ha or approximately USS2,100/haTable 6.4 givesddta on capital costs ofsome recent projects undertaken in Haryana. The average cost of projects undertaken during 1973-78 was Rs 6,074/ha of potential created and Rs 29,73O/ha of potential utilized. The average cost of ongoing major schemes during the Sixth Plan (1980-85) was estimated at Rs 24,930/ ha of potential created. The corresponding figure for medium schemes was Rs 5,272iha. Estimated expenditureonnew majorschemes was Rs 14,81O/haofpotential created. The capital costs for a number of major and medium lift irrigation schemes ranged between Rs 3,675 and Rs 6,084/ha. However, it is difficult to judge these figures because many of these are not new schemes (i.e., where irrigation is being provided for the fmt time), and it is difficult to estimate the potential actually utilized. Thus, a representative figure for Haryana will he an average of ongoing and new major schemes undertaken during the Sixth Plan, i.e., a capital cost of Rs 22,230 or US$1,850/ha of potential created.  1986),thecapital costsofgenerationand transmission for energlrationofanelectricpumpsetareRs 20.0001 kilowatt (kw) or Rs 40,000 per pumpset oi 2 kw. Since the demand for pumping will coincide with other loads, it would not be possible to use this generation and transmission capacity created for meeting the demand of pumpsets.  Liability in the form \"fa bank l oan. cleiznciry bill. subsidy and paymenu 10 contraCton etc.6. Total expenditures (4 5) 7.Total expendilures per ha of potential mealad Capital costs per ha oi p~tential created (encludhg elemicily bill etc.) 4.0 I .9 5.9 However, to allow for some utilization for other purposes, only 50 percent of the total cost is attributed to water pumping, i.e., the capital cost included is Rs 20,000 per pumpset. To this one should add the cost of subtransmission (i.e., I I-kilovolt, low-tension line) and connection which would be around Rs 10,000 per pump-set. particularly in Bhar where a large number of villageshave not yet been electrified. Thii gives a total capital cost of electrification of a pump-set at Rs 30,000. The area irrigated by a 2-kw pumpset depends on a number of factors such as farm size, fragmentation of holdings, and cropping pattern. If only supplementary irrigation is provided for rice, a 2-kw pumpset can easily irrigate 2 ha of wheat. Given the fact that 76 percent of the total number of holdings are helow 1 ha and the number of fragments per holding are between 17 and 20, it is very unlikely that, on average, an electric pumpset will effectively irrigate more than 1 ha Thus, the capital cost to society of providing irrigation to 1 ha would be Rs Rs 4,25O/ha Thus. the estimated capital cost of providing irrigation through state tube web is Rs 8,26O/ha when considered from the viewpoint of society (ie., when total costs are included).A comparison of capital costs of an irrigated ha is presented i n Table 6.7. It may be noted that from the viewpoint of society, use of groundwater through state tube wells has the lowest capital cost per ha, followed hy surface irrigation through major and mediumprojects.aHowever, as will bediscussed BDataonsu~aceinigationlhraughminorprojecU wereconsidered not reliableenough(bo1hcapitalandpolentialcreated)lo be wed for ComDariw\".in the next section, O M expenses (including electricity charges) for state tube wells range between Rs 1,724 and Rs 4,257 per ha for potential created and gross irrigated area, respectively. Sirurce: Tables 6.3, 6.4, 6.5. 6.6.Allocations by State governments for O&M of irrigation projecfs has been the concern of a number of government committees or commissionsg. According to the Public Accounts Committee (1983), which examined the planning process and monitoring mechanism in relation to irrigation projects, \"maintenance of existing irrigation systems is not getting the attention of the States as required. The main reason for this is seen to be inadequate allocation made available by the States.\"The Imgation Department (Central Government) in anote sent to theseventh Finance Commission in November 1977 suggested that the department considered that neglecting maintenance of irrigation and drainage system was the main reason for underutilition of irrigation potential. The department reported that a Central Water Utilization Team had found O M budgets to be grossly inadequate in many cases and the systems to be gradually deteriorating.  Similar data for a period of five years are available for four major projects (Sone, Kosi, Badua and Chandan), and are presented in Table 6.9. The costs of establishment (salaries and wages) have risen significantly over the last five years, particularly during the last two years. The increase in 1984-85 over 1980-8 I was 260 percent for expenses on irrigation establishment.  As between expenses on establishment and works, the share of works has declined from about 85 percent in 1980-8 I to about 60 percent of the total in 1984-85. This decline may he reflecting either a change in policy (where more work is being donedepartmentally) or a genuine reduction in expenses on repain on account of increasing expenses on maintaining the establishment. Since salaries and wages for regular employees of the department would be the fmt charge on funds allocated to'O&M, it S quite likely that a threefold increasein establishment is at the cost ofrepair and maintenance work onthecanab, distributaries and minors Similar trends may be noted in the O&M costs and the expenses on revenue establishment in the m e ofSone Canal, the oldest system in thestate (Table 6.10). While establishment costsand expenseson revenue collection have each almost doubled over the 5-year period, the expenses on works have increased only marginally (%). T'he figures for the Kosi project also show the same pattern: a stagnation (actually adeclinefrom Rs 33.6 million to Rs 30.1 million) in the expensesshownunder 'Works'and an increase of more than 700 percent in O&M establishment costs (Table 6.11).Establishment costs of revenue collection have also increased by 125 percent from Rs 10.7 million to Rs 24. I million over the 5-year period. Thus, these phenomenal increases in establishment expenses need to he analyzed in-depth and it would he necessary to evaluate the reductions in 'Works'costs and their implications for thequality of O&M functions performed by (or on behalfon the Irrigation Department. The increase in establishment costs of O&M as well as revenue collection is very high, even when adjustments for price changes are made. In fact, the reductions in expenditure on'works' in real terms would be even higher, i.e., 20 percent for Sone and 32 percent for Kosi projects. respectively. Table 6.10. Costs of establishment, works and revenue collection a for Sone Canal Project (in Rs million).   T h e performance of public tube wells has not been satisfactory in Rihar. As shown in Table 6.12. out of 5. .Table 6.12. Financial performance of public tube wells in Bihar. The working expenses (direct and indirect) for irrigation projects in Haryana are presented in Table 6.13. Duringthepericd 1975-7610 1981-82,theseexpenseshaveincreased (atcurrent prices)from Rs I15milliontoRs 207million,i.e.,an increaseof80percentoverthe'I-yearpericd.However.the estimated index of O&M charges, accounting for changes in prices of field labor and materials (cement. steel structure, paints, etc.), increased from I00 in 1975-76 to I62 in I98 1-82. Whentotal working expenses are deflated by this index used by the Eighth Finance Commission i n its report ( 1984). the increase in working expenses in real terms h a been quite low (only I I%). This shows that the near doubling of total working expenses in Haryana is mainly due to changes in prices of labor and materials.  Comparison of O&M Expenses According to this, establishment costs, i.e., salaries of workers and officers. account for two-thirds of the total current expenses. Revenue establishment accountS for about 60 percent of these establishment costs which are predominantly (90 percent) salaries and wages. Motor vehicles account for about 2 percent of the total while machinery, tools, and plant account for less than one percent of the total expenses. The Irrigation Department spent about one-third of the total allocation. i.e., Rs 32. I million, on repair and maintenance. Senior officials (superintending engineer and executive engineen) said that at the field levels, approximately I0 percent ofthis cost is incurred on fixed expenditure on labor and vehicles, 40 percent on earthwork in canals, 25 percent on repair ofstructures, I5 percent on repair and maintenance of buildings, and around 10 percent on new buildings and quarters. Of the total allocation for repair and maintenance, about 50 percent is spent on materials (cement, steel. bricks, sand) and the rest on labor. Thus, almost 80 percent of the total O&M expenses are essentially payment? ofsalaries to oflicen, wages to laborers, and office expenses.(See Tables 6. I 6 and 6. I7 for further details for major irrigation projects as well as for the Kosi  Since revenue establishment accounts for a major share of total current expenditures in Bihar, further disaggregated information on these expenditures has been provided in Table 6.18. Salaries of workers account for about 70 percent of the total expenditures, while their living allowances take up another 15-20 percent. Travel expenses and payments for commercial services account for 2 and 3 percent, respectively. The share of salaries and living allowances ciofkers is rather low at less than 2 percent of the total expenditures. There are a large number of people working for revenue collection at the tehsil (an administrative and revenue unit consisting of a number of villages) level as well as at the circle level. There are officers (zilladars) and revenue clerks for assessment and collection work.The number of posts sanctioned is determined by the number of water charge receipts to be prepared.  Because Bhar has a large number of small farms (about 7Wo of the total are less than 1 ha), it takes a large number of people to prepare the receipts and then approach farmers for collection of money.Because of high population density and largescale unemployment, there are strong political pressures to provide employment in the Irrigation Department. As a result, the number of people actually working exceeds the number of sanctioned posts. The State Government has recently appointed a Committee to review the functioning of revenue administration in the higaiion Department. This Committee is considering a number of suggestions which will rationalize the structure of revenue administration and improve its efficiency.In the case of Haryana, revenue establishment costs acwunt for 11 percent of the total for multipurpose projects and 10 percent of the total for irrigation projects. Salaries of oficers (excluding revenue stan) accounted for about 33-39 percent ofthe total (Table 6.19). Repair and maintenance accounted for about two-thirds of the total expenses on O&M. However, these maintenance expenses include the wages of workers and technical personnel at the lower level. Hence, these expenses do not really reflect the quality of maintenance work carried out in the canal system. As mentioned earlier, the Public Acwunts Committee (1983) and the Irrigation Department (Central Government) think that \"maintenance of existing irrigation systems is not getting the attention of the states as required\"and \"one of the main reasons for under-utilization of irrigation potential was that the maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems was neglected.\"From the analysis of O&M expenses in the last section, one can conclude that expenditures on repair and maintenance of structures and canals have declined while expenses on staflsalaries and wages have increased over time. In fact, the pressures at the field level are such that only a minimum of repairs is carried out with the money that is left after payments of wages have been made.Given the fact that relatively old structures need more maintenance and repair, the impact of neglect of hasic repairs is difficult to estimate in the case of old systems such as the Sone canal. It is essential to conduct detailed studies on O&M expenses, on the type of repairs and maintenance done, and on the impact of lack of repairs on productivity of irrigation projects. Such investigations alone can provide information for corrective action.However, since such data on the impact of existing levels of O&M expenses are difficult to obtain, it may he useful to review the \"estimates\"of n o m of expenditure on irrigation projects d) The States should also review and revise their water charges upwards with regularperiodicityto ensure that the costs of operation and maintenance are met fully, and a return on capital investment of at least one percent is realized.Fblmlchg Irrigation Sewires h Mia The objectives of agricultural price policies as included under the terms of reference of the Agricultural Prices Commission, 1955, are: a) to provide incentives to the producer for adopting improved technology and for maximizing production and b) to ensure rational utilization of land and other production resources. In designing policies, the likely effect of the price policy on the rest of the economy, particularly on the cost of living, level of wages, and industrial cost structure must be considered. Accordingto the revised terms of reference ( I978), the Agricultural Prices Commission is required to take into account the changes in the terms of trade between the agricultural and the nonagricultural sector.13 The Commission considers the cost of production, demand, and supply of Finmrcing Irrigation Services: A Llrerature Review m2d Selected Case Sndies fm Asia 257 agricultural commodities and discusses various aspects of policy with the ministries concerned, Planning Commission, and State Governments before it is put up for the approval of the Union Cabinet. Thus, the fmal decision is taken at the Cabmet level (Tyagi 1982).Although, in theory, all efforts are made to ensure that fanners get remunerative prices, in practice, the price that the fanner gets for his produce depends upon the organizational and operational efficiency of the market stmcture. According to Kahlon and Tyagi (1983), \"it is, therefore, not enough to have a price support/procurement policy for agricultural commodities. In fad, it is more important to develop a market structure which enables the fanner to realize at least the minimum support price. \"The analysis of data on procurement prices and open market prices during the harvest season shows that in the States where infrastructure facilities are good (e.g., Punjab, Haryan4Westem Uttar M e s h ) , market prices for wheat were higher than procurement prices fied by the government, but in Rajasthan wheat was quoted at prices which were about 20 percent lower than the procurement prices. Similarly, in the m e of rice, whereas in Andhra M e s h , Punjab, andHaryana, the open market prices remained either equal to or higher than the procurement prices during the late seventies, in Madhya M e s h and Orissa the prices of unmilled rice were occasionally lower than the procurement price (Kahlon and Tyagi 1983415). The phenomenon of fanners getting prices which were 14-18 percent lower than the procurement prices for rice has been reported in a few surveyed districts in h t e m Uttar M e s h , for the agricultural year 1985-86.14Thus, it is quite likely that fanners in Bihar are receiving prices which are much lower than the support prices and/or procurement prices announced by the government on account of inadequate infrastructure for purchase and storage of food grains. In contrast, farmers in Haryana are able to receive remunerative prices for their agricultural output, mainly on account of govemnient infm-. These ditkences have to be kept in mind while estimating the additional benefits to irrigation across regions and over time. A comparison of water rates with procurement prices may not reveal the true relationship between input and output prices.Government policy on agricultural prim may be so designed as to protect consumers from high prices rather than allowing the producers to get higher prices through sales in deficit regions within the country or abroad (i.e., agricultural exports). The fmt objective may be achieved by \"zoning,\"i.e., by restricting the movement of agricultural commodities from one state-zone to another. ' 5 In the case of wheat and rice, restrictions on imports and/or exports of food grains may result in domestic prices which are lower than the corresponding border prices.As pointed out in a recent study (Mkhra 1985), the domestic prices of wheat and rice in Mia were much lower than their corresponding border prices in 1975 and 1980. For example, in 1980, the domestic price of wheat was US$177 per metric ton at the official exchange rate and USS142 at the shadow exchange rate. Thecorresponding border price was much higher at US$308 per metric ton.\"J. P. Sigh, Personal Communication. \"Zonal restnnions were followed from time to time in India renrining free movement of f o a l Bairn.Finmtrkg Irrigmion Services k Mia l%e negative values of nominal rates of protection show taxation of agriculture rather than protection of agriculture. This is also a method hy which returns to the use of higation can he affected indirectly by macro policies oftrade restrictions, 'zoning,'and other administrative controls.These should also be taken into account while analyzing various alternatives for raking resources from the agricultural sector. This is only to emphasize that raising of irrigation fees is only one (direa) method. Transferring resources from agriculture (or irrigated agriculture) 'to rest of the economy' can he done through policies which affect prices of outputs and inputs as well as through policies of direct and indirect taxation of incomes accrued or realized in the agricultural sector.Changing theterms-of-tradebetwcenfarmandnonfarmsecta~isalsooneofthe waysoftransferring resources from one sector to another. By changing 'administered' prices of outputs and inputs, the government can influence resource flows from the farm sector to the government and/or to the manufacturers of agricultural inputs and implements and other commodities purchased by the farmers. A detailed analysis of commodity termsaf-trade in India has been reponed in Rath (1985).Tahle 6.20. Conlmodity terms of trade between farm and non-farm sectors in Bihar and Haryana (Rsiha).Ratio or farm haws1 As may be noted in Table 6.20, the ratio of farm harvest prices to prices of inputs purchased from non-farm sectors has been on the decline since 1974-75 and has fallen to very low levels in 1980-8 I and I 98 1-82, This is true for rice and wheat in Bihar and Bajra and wheat in Haryana. Although this ratio has been slightly higher in Bihar in 1982-83. it has declined or remained stagnant in the case of the two crops in Haryana.Similar trends may be noted in the ratio of farm harvest prices to prices paid by rural households for goods of household consumption. The ratio of these prices has not only declined continuously (with the exception of the period 1977-78) since 1974-75. but has fallen much below that prevailing in 1960-61. Thus, the changes in farm harvest prices have not kept pace with increases in prices of inputs and other commodities purchased by fanners, and there has been a defmite erosion in the 'purchasingpower'ofgocdsproduced bythe farmsector. Thesefactorsshould betaken intoaccount when considering raising of irrigation service fees to recover O&M expenses and capital costs. Such comprehensive analyses alone can ensure that both the productivity and equity aspects of benefits from irrigation projects are taken into account when formulating agicultural policies.Apan from irrigation service fees, farmers pay land revenue, agricultural income tax, and indirect taxes on commodities and services levied by the Central and State governments. The amount of indirect taxes paid by the farmer depends on the quantity and type of commodities purchased which, in turn. depend on the level of income or expenditure. An attempt has been made here to estimate the amount of indirect laxes paid by farmers who use canal irrigation as well as by farmers who do not use irrigation. The difference in the amount of indirect taxes paid by the two categories of farmers will provide an estimate of indirect taxes which could be attributed to provision of gravity irrigation. Thisdifference inthetotallaxespaid will beconsidered asthe indirectflowoffmancialresourcffasa consequence of higher incomes/ expenditures generated by the use of irrigation.Table 6.2 I provides details of the assumptions made in calculating the incidence of indirect taxes.First, the area under the two categories of farms ( I ha and 2 ha) receiving canal irrigation in Bihar has been estimated. Thus, the total net area irrigated by canals (1.18 million ha) is divided as 0.48 million ha withanaveragefarmsizeof I haand0.70millionha withanaveragefarmsizeof2ha.Thisgives the estimated number ofhouseholds in each farm size as 0.48 and 0.35 million, respectively. Second, net income in each category is calculated based on the data used in Table 6.22. Per capita income or expenditure is then calculated assuming a) a family sue of 6 adultquivalents, b) that nonagricultural income will be, on average, equal to farm savings, and, thus, c) that net income from agriculture represents total consumption expenditure of the family. The amount of taxes paid per m u m have been calculated using the estimates of per capita expenditure and the estimates made in a study conducted by the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP), New Delhi. This gives estimates of total indirect taxes paid by each farm family to the Central and State governments. For example, a farm family having, on average, a I-ha irrigated farm would pay a tax of Rs 690 per annum. The estimated tax for a 2-ha irrigated farm is Rs 1,848 which is about 13.2 percent of the total income or expenditure per annum.. The corresponding figures for unirrigated f m are Rs I I 5 for a 1-ha farm and Rs 241 for a 2-ha farm. These families pay 6.2 and 8.9 percent, respectively, of their annual income as indirect taxes.When these figures of tax payments per family are multiplied by the total number offarm families in each category, we get the estimates of total indirect taxes paid by these groups (Table 6 In this section, three approaches16 are used to analyze the ability of farmers to pay for irrigation services. Under the first approach, irrigation's net benefits to water users (exclusive of payments related to irrigation services) are estimated. Benefit recovery ratios (the propoltion of these net benefits which must be paid directly or indirectly) are calculated for alternative policies with respect to water charges. The second approach involves the net income earned from irrigated cropping and comparing it with the magnitude of direct and indirect payments for water which would be required under alternative policies. The third approach compares higation-related payments with gross income earned from irrigated production. To facilitate comparisons with similar studies in other countries, all values have been calculated in t e r n of equivalent amounts of unmilled rice per hectare per year.Table 6.24 presents data on gross income, Cam expenditure, and net income of irrigated and unirrigated farms in Bihar. These data have been obtained from a farm-level survey conducted in the Sone River Basin in 1983-84 by the National Council of Applied Economic Research, New Delhi, which found that the intensity of cropping on a I-ha farm in the region was 180, i.e., for a representative farm. one could assume I ha of rice plus 0.8 ha of wheat. Gross income on the I-ha irrigated farm was estimated at Rs 8.438 compared with Rs 4,450 on an unirrigated farm. The cstimate of net income per hectare per year has been presented as returns to all family resources (including land, labor, capital, and manslgement) under the assumption that the family o m all the land farmed. Net income (returns to farm family resources) has been estimated at Rs 5,774/ ha/ year on irrigated farms, compared with Rs 3,263/ha/year on unirrigated f m . The net benefits of irrigation (i.e.,afterdeduningincreased productioncosts)areRs 2,51 I /ha/year. Imigationcosts (or water rates or irrigation service fees) have been estimated at Rs 72/ha:yearfor this crop rotation.Then, irrigation costs are only I .2 percent of the net income on irrigated farm and about 2.9 percent of the estimated net benelit from irrigation.Similar estimates of net income and net benefit from irrigation have also been calculated from data obtained by thcMinistryof A~iculture, New Delhi. undcrthestudies on cost ofcultivationofmajor crop\\. Analysis offarm-le\\~eldatafor theSone Canal region is presented inTables 6.22and 6.25.The irrigation cost from these surveys is estimated at Rs 130;; ha,;yearon canal-irrigated farms. Using,an CStimdtCd intcnsity of cropping of I70 (k, 1 ha rice+ 0.7 ha wheat), the net income (i.e., returns to Iarmf~imilyresources)onan irrigatedfarmh~heenestimatedat Rs 7,0lZ/ha:year,Theestimateof net income on an unirrigated farm is Us 2,639 taking an intensity ofcropping of 133 (i.e., I ha ricet 0.33 ha wheat). This gives an estimated net benefit of Rs 4,373: ha/ year from irrigation. 1t may be noted that this cstimate of net benefit of irrigation is almost 75 percent higher than that estimated from NCAER ( 1985) data. Both these estimates have been used in evaluating alternative policies as indicatd in Table 6.22 and Tables 6.26 through 6.30.Similar estimateb of water rates for canal irrigation and net income have been obtained fromdata given in a report on Economica of Farming in Haryana ( I98 1-82) brought out by the Economic and Statistical Organization of the Government of H a p n a . The estimates of water rat= (Rs These estimates of water rates and net income for Bihar and Haryana have been brought together in Table 6.27. Irrigation charges or water rates for canal irrigation range from 43 kg unmilled rice per hectare per year in Bihar to 98.1 kg i n Haryana. Net returns to farm family resources range between 3,458 kg unmilled rice per hectare per year in Bihar and 5,709 kg in Haryana. Similarly, benefits from imgation range between 1,504 kg unmilled rice per hectare per year in Bihar and 3,709 kg in Haryana. Total direct and indirect irrigation-related payments\" by water usen under alternative policy assumptions have been presented inTable 6.28. The f i t column of the table shows the average or typical amounts farmers arc charged under current policies. The estimated water rates are equivalent to 43-8 I kg unmilled rice per hectare per year in Bihar depending on the source of data used. For Haryana'g, the actual payment is equivalent to 98 kg unmilled rice per hectare per year.I'll should be mrntiond that in India, under gmvity irrigation system water charges are paid in cash only. There are no contribution. made in lahx (or fad gmins) except in the case of some emergencies.  Sources: Tables 6.21 and 6.24.Table 6.28. Total direct and indirect irrigation-related payments h water usen under alternative policy assumption in Bhar and H a q q (Kg rice per ha per y d 7 . The second column of Table 6.28 shows the estimated amounts that would be needed if current policies are modified so that irrigation service fees per hectare would equal the costs of O&M. This represents the level of paymhts that would be necessary to provide full recovery of O&M costs via an irrigation service fee, assuming that collection rates are 100 percent. The last column of the table indicates the charges necessary for the per hectare amounts charged to equal the full cost of both O&M and capital investment. It should be noted that increases in irrigation fees amounting to 97 percent are indicated in Bihar if one uses the irrigation charges paid by farmers indicated in the National Council of Applied Economic Research survey. However, for recoverig O&M costs, no increase is indicated if the actual irrigation charges are based on cost of cultivation studies. In Haryana, the actual amounts reportedly paid by farmers are about 10 percent higher than the average O&M costs. Thus, full recovery of O&M costs does not indicate any increase in water rates (it suggests a decrease of 9 percent) but would require higher collection efficiencies. However, water rates would have to be increased substantially (i.e., 18-34 times in Bihar and 19 times in Haryana) if full cost of both O&M and capital investment is to be recovered.  6 22. 6.27 and 6 2X.Ben@ rtwverc' rutim. From the figures given in Tables 6.22 and 6.27, estimated benefit recovery ratios under alternative policies for Bihar and Haryana have been displayed in Table 6.29. Under actual policies (and water rate levels), the estimated benefit recovery ratio is around 3 percent for Bihar and 2.6 percent for Haryana.19 For full recovery of O&M costs, the estimated benefit recovery ratios rise for both the States, although marginally for Bihar (Estimate I1 in parenthesis) and Haryana. The last column in Table 6.29 shows that the benefit recovery ratio would be almost 100 percent in Bihar if the net benefit to irrigation is similar to that estimated in the National Council of Applied Economic Research survey. However, with a higher figure of net benefit of irrigation (based on cost of cultivation study), the benefit recovery ratio to cover full costs of O&M and capital investment is 55.9 percent for Bihar, and for Haryana, 59.3 percent.''Thebe may be compared with 5 percent lor Nepal, I0 percent for the Philippines and 26 percent for Korea repoaed in those \\tudies in this volumeBased on the estimates presented in Table 6.29, it can be said that in both the States, wherever there is a reasonable irrigation service, the incremental benefits derived from irrigation will be adequate to make possible the full recovery of irrigation O&M costs and still leave the farmers with significant increases in net income due to irrigation. Table 6.29 also indicates that the benefits of irrigation are not high enough to make possible the full recovery of O&M plus capital costs and leave enough margin for the farmer to use irrigation*('.Net incme,frm irrigation. InTable 6.30, the estimates of net income (derived in Tables 6.24,6.22, and 6.26) are compared with the amounts of irrigation-related payments required under the three alternative policies. The comparison is presented as the amount of the payment as a percentage of the net income remaining with the water user after payment has been made. Under the actual policies of the two States, the estimates range between 1.2 and 1.8 percent for Bihar and 1.7 percent for Haryana. Raising irrigation service fees to cover O&M costs results in relatively modest changes in the percentage of net income needed to pay for water, except in the case of Bihar (Estimate I, using the National Council of Applied Economic Research Survey). The percentage of net income needed to cover O&M costs remains less than 2 in both States. However, raising irrigation service fees still further to cover the full capital costs as well as O&M costs leads to irrigation charges generally in the range of 35-43 percent of net income of the farmers. The implications of the figures of Table 6.30 are generally consistent with conclusions drawn from Table 6.29, namely, that farmers generally have the ability to pay for the full cost of irrigation O&M through irrigation service fees, but the payment of the full capital cost is not feasible. (1.8) (1.9) (34.9) Haryana 1.7 1.9 39.2 dNet income estimates are presented as returns to all family resoutces (including land, labor, management and capital) under the assumption that the family owns all of the land farmed. These estimates of net income are compared with the amounts of irrigation-related payments required under the three alternative policies. The comparison is presented as the amount of the payment as a percentage of the net income remaining with the water user after payment has been made.bFigures in parentheses are based on data from cost of cultivation studies. Source: Table 6.22.Pqments as apercentage of gross incme. Comparisons of payments for irrigation services with gross income are conceptually less meaningful than either of the previous two approaches to analyze farmers'ability to pay, but they avoid the need for data on farm income, which often are limited to a 2% this case, the situation in Indian States is similar to those in Nepal and the Philippines assuming moderate capital costs.few specific surveys or projects. Estimates of the typical p e r c e n w of gross income which are required as payments for irrigation under the three alternative policy situations are presented in Table 6.3 1. Under the actual policies, these range between 0.9 and 1.4 percent, and if water charges are raised to cover O&M costs the range is between I .4 and 1.6 percent. However, about 30 percent of the gross value of output would have to be paid if irrigation service fees are raised to cover O&M costs as well as full capital investment.Table 6.3 1. Total direct & indirect irrigation-related payments by water users as a percent of gross productiona under alternative policy assumption (in percent). in parentheses are for data from cost of cultivation studies of the Minist~y of Agricultm, New Delhi Sources: Tables 6.22 and 6.21. rice and wheat. In Bihar, the intensity of Table 6.32. Water rates, gross value per ha and cost of higation in Bihar and Haryana in the late sixties (1969-70/ 1970-71). water rate (Rs per ha) 37.5 225 24.4 14.53.  1972). As shown in Table 6.32, water rates in Bihar were 7 percent of the gross value of produce in the case of rice and 2.7 percent in the case of wheat, giving a weighted average of 4.6 percent. This figure is much higher than the estimates ranging between 0.9 and 1.4 percent in the early eighties. This shows that in the early seventies, a much higher proportion of gross value of produce was collected as water charges, and this ratio has declined signifcantly over the decade. Similarly, water rates of Rs 55 /ha were much higher than the estimated O&M costs of Rs 15/ha In Haryana, water rates were relatively lower for both crops, and the weighted average (assuming intensity of cropping of 170) was Rs 34.6/ha which was only 2 1 percent of the gross value of produce. This ratio has declined to 1.3 percent over the decade (Table 6.3 1).As shown in Table 6.32, in the early seventies, water rates as modified to cover O M charges and annualized capital costs of irrigation projects would have been 10.2 percent of the gross value of produce in Bihar. This percentage is much lower than the range of 26.5-28.9 percent estimated for the early eighties. The corresponding figures for Haryana are 4.0 percent for the early seventies and 29.3 percent for the early eighties. This shows that the increase in goss value of produce has been much less than the increases in O&M expenses and capital costs. In other words, the increases in capital costs of surface irrigation projects have been so hgh that covering these costs by raising irrigation service fees would not be possible. Although these figures may not be strictly comparable on account of differences in assumptions and sources of data, they do point toward the trends in increases in costs of irrigation vis-a-vis the grm value of output from irrigated agriculture. The conclusions from the above analysis can be summarized as follows:a) Increasing inigation service fees or water rates to cover O&M costs results in moderate increases in the proportion of the gross value of output (or net inigation benufit) that must be paid.b) Attempting to raise the irrigation service fees further to cover the full capital cost, would require payment of a very high proportion of the cropbetween 27-30 percent.c) Raising irrigation services fees to cover both O&M costs and capital investment may result in disincentives for use of water for irrigation resulting in lower output, incomes, and employment.Hence, policies regarding water rates should be thoroughly evaluated in terms of their impact on welfare of the farmers, incentives to use water and other inputs, and on agricultural output, employment, and income distribution.The water charge for a crop is usually a charge per hectare of area under the crop. The croparea basis has been adopted for irrigation water charges because it is convenient for measurement. Besides, in almost all irrigation systems, facilities for measuring water quantities on a volume basis are absent. The advantages and disadvantages of the crop method have been discussed by experts and field engineers.According to them \"the crop method does not offer any economic incentive to a cultivator to be more frugal with the use of water or to pay any heed to such water management practices as are recommended by ex-\" (Malhotra 198563;Malhotra 1982;Government of India 1972).The most prevalent method of water charges, both in Bihar and H q a n a , is the crop method under which water charges are levied on an area basis for different crops irrigated in any year2'. Table 6.33gives figures for water rates for two major cropsrice and wheatover time in Bihar. It may be noted that in 1984-85, the water rate (or m i o n charge) for rice (&r& was 80 percent higher than that for wheat in perennial canals such as the Sone canal system. The water rates for nonperennial canals (other than Sone) were nearly equal for rice and wheat. The water rate for rice has increased from Rs 25 /ha during 1953-65 to Rs 9O/ha in 1984-85. The corresponding figures for wheat are Rs 12/ha and Rs 5 I /ha Thus, in nominal terms, the water rate for rice has increased 3.6 times over the last 20 years, while for wheat it has increased 4.25 times over the same period. The data also show the stickiness in revising water rates. These did not change at all over a 13-year period 1953-1965 or during the decade 1974-1983. The most recent increase has been of 1 3 to 15 percent in the year 1984-85.\"In Haryana some experiments have been made with the Wuri-mrrric method which is said to be a proxy for the volumetric method under wnditions where the W u r h d i (rotational) system of water distribution is used. The Warimetric method of aSSeSSment was intmduced on SothaDistributaryintheHissarDistria withektfrom Kharif 1976:Thepriceofuntitimeof Wori(tum)foreach watercourxcanbefmed in wveral ways. but in this particular case it was fvted in a manner so that the level of taxation remained the Same as with the crop method. The average of 3 yeas aSSsSment of eafh water wurx was divided by its net Wuri (turn) time to pet the price of unit time of Wuri with no regard to number of times a cultivator received hb water.\" Under Wari-murric method, field-to-field collection of crop data for preparation 01 water bils 1 not necess;uy. as the water bill can now be prepared with d& already available in the oflice.The experience of the Sotha Distributary. where the Wuri-mtlric mahod is still continuing has not been critically evaluated. The experiment did not privide any apparatus for observing whether this method provided any inducement to cultivators for better and more economic use of water. However. the \"enquiries made from cultivators after 4 years reveal that they are happy because for their water bill they have no longer to depend upon the integrity and efliciency of any one individual\"(Mahotr;l 1985. p. 73.).However, when the changes in water rates are adjusted for changes in the wholesale prices of rice and wheat, respectively, one furls that the water rates in real terms have not increased at all during the last decade. In fact, these have declined by 1 1 percent for rice and 14 percent for wheat in the case of perennial canals.Water rates in Bihar are charged on the basis of a season (involving three waterings) or of a single watering22. The rates for a single watering are about 80 percent of those for the season in the case of rice, but are almost equal in the case of wheat (Table 6.34). The water rates to be charged by the State tube wells for 3 watering to rice (in 198685) were Rs 125/ ha, about 37 percent higher than those for canal irrigation. The water rates for wheat under State tube wells may turn out to be higher by . 40-140 percent, depending on the number of waterings required. Finmtcing Irngatbn services m India  Every year, in Bihar, the irrigated area of each farmer under each crop is assessed by revenue staff in the field. A collection peon moves from door to door to contact each farmer for collection of arrears and current charges with a blank receipt book. The farmer can make payment in full or in part, and the collection peon is required to issue a receipt for the amount paid. Certificate proceedings (in courts) are initiated against farmers for pending charges, and warrants are issued against defaulters.In such cases, surcharge and interest are also realked from the farmers along#with the outstanding charges.In A recent review of the revenue administration carried out by the Directorate has sugg&ted that there is urgent need to: a) redefine the junsdiction of the existing I8 divisions to bring about a balance between assessed area in each division, b) review existing work loads of field staff and supervisory staff, and c) suggest norms for work load of permanent and seasonal staff.In Haryana, the particulars of the crops sown along with the names of the cultivators are recorded in a register called khusru. \"This register is the initial record of the area irrigated and all disputes about the irrigation status of a particular piece of land are decided on its basis.This record is recognized by the courts and hence the necessity for its maintenance according to rules. Thus the importance of an Irrigation Booking Clerk who maintains this initial record can well be imagiined.\" Although the rules provide a number of checks on the work of Irrigation Booking Clerks by the zilludur, the Deputy Collector, the Sub-Divisional Officer. and the Executive Engineer, in practice, the crop method of water charges places great reliance on the efficiency and integrity of the Irrigation Booking Clerk.Collecfion e8cienc:v dcusrs.  6.36). These costs are quite high when compared with the actual collection or current assessment. For example, in 1982-83, costs of collection were about 78 percent of the total revenue from irrigation projects. Because revenue from industrial water supply to the Bokaro steel plant was a significant proportion of the total revenues (3 1 percent), the total collection from irrigation charges at Rs 53.4 million was about 10 percent less than the expenditure on  1982-83, 1983-84, and 1984-85. This would have been over and above the Rs 47.9 million collected from Bokaro Steel Limited during the 3-year period.Thus, the increasing expenditure on revenue administration should be treated as a means of providing employment to a large number of people rather than as a cost towards providing irrigation services.Hence, it would be unfair to raise water rates to cover the ever-inming expenditure on revenue administration when this expenditure does not result in improvement in irrigation services, but reflects a welfare measure to provide employment which, as such, is politically motivated. It is in this context that the possibilities of collecting water rates along with land revenue or through enhanced land revenue on irrigated land should be considered. If this is politically difficult, it may be useful to explore the possibility of recovering irrigation charges through a tax on the use of fertilizers, after a careful analysis of the impact of this tax on the incentive to use fertilizers and resulting impacts on crop yields. Gross receipts from the Kosi system are only Rs 19 million compared with Rs 60.6 million in Sone.After deducting the cost of revenue establishment, the net receipts are negative (Rs -5.1 million) for Kosi, but positive (Rs 2 1.1 million) for Sone. Net receipts covered 86 percent of the total O&M costs in the Sone system. It has been estimated that in order to cover the entire O&M costs, gross receipts (or water charges actually collected) would have to go up by 300 percent in the case of the Kosi system. The corresponding estimated increase necessary is only 16 percent for the Sone canal system.The financial performance of state tube wells is shown in    6.12). Gross receipts per hectare, at current prices, remained around Rs SO/ ha in 1982-83. Gross receipts covered only 52 percent of O&M expenses m 198 1-82 and only 38 percent of O&M expenses m 1982-83.It is important to take a comprehensive view of resource flows related to irrigation financing in India. This requires estimates of capital and current flows into the agricultural sector in terms of investments and O&M expenses incurred on government-managed irrigation systems. It also requires estimates of subsidies on the use of fertilizers, electricity (for water pumping), and diesel oil (for pumpsets and tractors). Resources flow out of the rural sector through payments of land revenue, agricultural income tax, irrigation charges, tax on commercial crops, and indirect taxes on commodities used by households and rural enterprises.In Table 6.41 an attempt has been made to estimate total resource flows related to irrigation financing in Bihar for the year 1984-85. These estimates have to be taken as preliminary and need further refinement. However, these estimates do provide order+f-magnitude numbers to put in perspective various policy alternatives relating to irrigation financing.25 Total O&M expenses including revenue establishment were Rs 242.8 million on surface irrigation projects. Total O&M expenses including electricity charges for public tube wells are estimated at Rs 149.6 million. Thus, current expenditure on government-managed irrigation systems is Rs 392.4 million for 1984-85. As against this, collections from irrigated farm sector are: Rs 126.4 million as irrigation charges and Rs 622 million as additional indirect taxes paid by farmers using canal irrigation (Tables 6.23 and 6.4 1).Thus, net financial flows from the canal-irrigation sector are Rs 505.6 million. When public tube wells are also considered, net flows are reduced to Rs 356.0 million on account of their high O&M costs but very low irrigation benefits. If gross collections of land revenue are also considered, the area irrigated by canals ( 1.18 million ha) has contributed about Rs 27 million (an average of Rs 231 ha).Thus, the total estimated current resource flows (revenues) to the Central and State governments on account of canal irrigation were much higher than the current expenditures.Gross receipts obtained directly from farmers through charging irrigation fees were only 17 percent of the total receipts from this sector. Similarly, net resource flows into irrigation (Rs 1 16.4 millionX Rs 242.8 million -Rs 126.4 million) were about the same as subsidies on the use of imported fertilizers (Rs 103 million) consumed on these farms. This analysis shows that canal irrigated agriculture is providing substantial financial (and real) resources indirectly through commodity taxes etc., and efforts to raise more resources from this sector need not be confined to a mechanical approach which suggests raising irrigation fees to cover O&M expenses plus a percentage of capital costs.T h e analysis here is confined to current (annual) revenues and expenditures owing to lack of data on transfers of a capital nafure (e.g.. plan funds). ix) At the present levels of irrigation charges (or water rates) fanners are paying a small proportion of the net benefit that is due to irrigation. They are also paying a rather small component (less than 3 percent) of the net income (i.e., returns to farm family resources) from irrigated agriculture. The proportion of irrigation-related payments to gross value of output is also very low (less than 2 percent).x) If irrigation charges are raised to cover O&M expenses of irrigation works, it would result in moderate increases in the proportion of net benefit due to irrigation (or net income) being diverted for irrigation-related payments. However, if water rates are raised to cover full O&M costs and capital investment, it would result in a substantial (50-90 percent) share of net benefits being diverted to irrigation-related payments. It would be necessary to evaluate welfare and disincentive effects of raising irrigation fees to cover O&M expenses as well as full capital cost. It is in this context that prospects of''ful1 cost recovery'heed to be considered and analyzed.Since 80 percent of O&M expenses are on salaries and wages, and expenses on the entire revenue administration seem to be for the purpose of creating employment it is unfair to ask the farmers to bear the burden of these (ever-increasing) expenditures. Given the fact that 55 percent of the capital costs of reservoir-type irrigation projects are labor-related payments and there are signiticant \"leakages\" in other costs, it is important to consider why the farmers should bear the brunt of it.xi) Canal irrigation provides substantial increases in incomes which result in higher expenditures and payments of additional indirect taxes to Central and State governments. According to the estimates made in this study, such indirect resource transfers are much higher (around two-and-Financing Irrigation Services: A Literature Review and Selected Case studies fm Asia 283 one-half times gross O&M expenditures) than direct transfers or payments received in return for irrigation services. Thus, there is a need to explore the possibilities of raising financial resources indirectly through commodity taxes, and efforts to raise more resources from gravity irrigation system need not be confined to a mechanical (an accountant's) approach which suggests raising irrigation fees to cover O&M expenses plus a percentage of capital costs.","tokenCount":"10842"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"309ef58ddca6417c778b78ef40913f15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ce8ae094-b812-484d-9e5a-f12efd622834/retrieve","id":"196283402"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6769cc57-7344-4e01-9bb4-fa101c8a6a6e","pagecount":"162","content":"The purpose of this summary ts to provide a starting potnt for a forward-looking discusston of CIATs Enhancing Rural Innovation Research and Development Challenge (RDC). For thls purpose. tt is useful to place the achievements highlighted in the 2005 annual reports in the context of the research questions and strategy that gulde the overall work of this Development Challenge, based in the Rural Innovation Tnstitute (RTI). This includes the participatory research methods project (IPRA). the rural agro-enterprise project (RAeD). the tnformation and communications for development project (INFORCOM) fonned in 2002 and the CGIAR System wide Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis (PRGA). The RDC lag frame in the CIAT mid-term plan includes a fifth area ofwork. termed \"participatory technology development\" that refers toa large body ofwork carried out in CIATs germplasm and land use projects and by the Tropical Soil Biology Institute (TSBF) applying participatory or agro-enterprise development methodologies.Although projects are the principal organizational unit for carrying out this work. there has been a steady process of cross-fertilization of ideas and shared proposal development since 2002. As a result there are several cross-cutting research themes and impact strategtes that link related work across projects, but these Unkages are not always apparent from reporting done on a project basis. These themes provtde an important starttng point for a forward-looking discussion.One aspect of the common ground among the projects is the theory of change that underpins their impact pathways, or in other words. the expected outcomes and impacts of the projects' research results that are embedded in the project log frames. A second common aspect Ues In the research themes that project scientists address, albeit In different countries, with different institutions and in diverse rural development contexts. A third common feature ls the strategy used for producing international public goods. Each of these will be discussed In turn. approaches.ixThe tmpact pathway. and the theory of change that proVide the underlying framework for research priority setting and problem identification is summarized in Figure A. This discussion will start from the final impact identified at the bottom of Figure A and work back up the impact path, in arder to explain the theory of change that justifies the initial research products (these appear at the top of Figure A).Research Questions l. What aspects of fanner organization and their relationships with R&D or business service providers can benefit from methodological improvements that strengthen local innovation systems? 2. Do interventions using these methodologies work? (Do the hypothesized cause and effect relationships hold?) Are the properties and performance of local innovation systems improved as a result of using the methodologies? 3. To what extent, why and how does use of the methodologies and their outcomes make innovation systems work better for the poor? Outcomes from use Methods result in institutional and technological innovation: R&D processes more client-oriented and technologies more relevant to the poor. Rural social capital enhanced. Information flows, oetworks, business development services and market chains more inclusive of the poor, women and ethnic minorities. Farmers more organized and \"market ready.\" Amount, quality and diversity of experimentatíon, knowledge generation and sharing by the poor increased.Improved food security, nutrition, resource management, income and employment of the poor, especially women and minoritiesThe final impact issue for research is the question of whether the outcomes of interventions ustng RII research products do make innovation systems work better for the rural poor. (Question 3 in Figure A). The units of analysis for research addressing this question are typically individuals or farmer groups within an organizational or territorial unit that may be quite large, such as a municipality. a watershed, a project or national program. a network of organizations or a cluster of market chains. The entry points consist of for example, farmers' groups. small agro-enterprises. farming communities or farmer associations, their market chains or social networks. their business development partners and R&D service providers, whether local government or non-govemmental. Together. these actors, their strategies and their technologtes represent innovation subsystems or local innovation ecologies that interact with parts of much larger lnnovation systems such as national R&D systems, national science and technology policy-making bodles as well as natlonal and multinatlonal prívate sector businesses.Local innovatlon ecologtes can be analyzed both In terms of how they interact with a larger 1nnovation system, and in terms of their interna! propertles and performance. The lnstltute's research products are mainly the result of applied research addressing issues of how to strengthen interna! properties and performance (Questlon 2 in Figure A). Specifically, this refers to whether the use of RII methodologies and approaches affect the propertles and performance of local innovatlon ecologies, defined as improvtng farmers' collectlve actlon. cooperatlve decision-making, gender empowerment. shared expertmentatlon and leaming in informal groups, formal associatlons. social networks and market chains. However, as the next sectlon will explain in more detan. movtng intematlonal public goods along the impact pathway from research results to development impact necessartly involves RII in \"thinking beyond the farm\" and engagement with innovation systems ata non-local scale.In general. RII research products are approaches or suites of methodologtes that build on a variety of participatory research or particlpatory learntng principies. These products must be understood as ways of introducing new institutions, in the sense that they provide novel sets of \"rules\" and norms as well as \"roles\" or strategtes for pattemed interactlon among actors (North, 1995;Leach et al. 1999). For example, participatory monitortng and evaluation methodology provides a bundle of rules and norms about how farmers and service providers can interact to improve their performance. In a different example. mark€t opportunity identification methodology introduces new rules and norms enabling farmers to produce what they can market, instead of trying to market what they produce. A third example is partlcipatory plant breeding that involves farmers in novel ways in the plant breeding process and so alters the norms and procedures of plant breeding in several respects. such as how breeding objectives are set and plant ideotypes are designed.The theory of change that drives the research strategy says that interventions using partlcipatory approaches, methods and tools will result in instltutlonal or technologtcal change. Participatory plant breeding is a good example because it changes the way research is done and the kinds of plant vartetal technologies developed as a result. Methodology for irnproving market chain governance by giving more decision-rnaking power to wornen producers is prtncipally an institutional innovation but can also lead to technology innovatlons such as post-harvest processing technologtes that are favored by women. One of the basic research questlons for RII is therefore: do the methodologies and tools work? I.e. do they result in institutlonal or technological change? (Questlon 2 in Figure A).Approximately sixty percent of the research efTort is invested in addressing Questlons 1 and 2 in Figure A: what are the opportunitles and needs for applied research to develop methodologtes and approaches to improve science and technology instltutions, markets and rural institutlons so that they work better for the poor? Is the application of participatory principies the best way to design these methodologtes? And in practlce, do they work?One of the key characteristics of small, poor producers is their lack of organization. This limits their access to information, their ability to articulate a coherent demand for innovation from R&D and other service providers; their negotiatlng power in markets and in forming xi partnerships. Cross-cutting research themes in the projects are concemed with understanding how institutional innovations (such as those embedded in methodologies for farmer research groups. agro-enterprise development. leaming networks and alliances) affect: l.Levels of farmer organization, in particular types, dimensions and levels of social capital requlred for improving: experimentation and participatlon of poor farmers in research to ensure more gender-equitable, pro-poor agricultural technologies that tmprove food security, make the poor more competltive (especially in higher value crops such as fruits and vegetables) and increase their income generation chain govemance and power asymmetrtes among market chain Actors, leading to successful, sustained market engagement with value chain opportunitles by poor producers (especially women and mlnority groups) networks for leamtng and sharing knowledge that enhance productivity and competltlvity and reduce gender and ethnic disparities 2. Levels and types of market engagement What is the relatlve effectiveness of a market-led versus a supply-led innovation process. and of the different types of market linkages and chain govemance these entail, in empowering small producers, improving their productivity and competitivity, and reducing gender and ethnic disparities? What are the mínimum asset, capacity and skill levels, including decisionmaking, and negotiation skills, required for successful organization and sustained market engagement by poor producers(especially for women and minority groups)?How can tnformation flows, knowledge generation and sharing be optimized among farmer organizations, their service providers and other actors to tmprove the planning, decision making, evaluation and negotiation power of the poor? What properties of local innovation ecologtes provide an enabling environment for successful and sustained farmer organization, market access, chain transparency, network diverstty and shared leaming that favor the poor? What tnstitutional lnnovations and policies influence \"enablingM properties of innovation ecologies?Public goods research is defined as research that provtdes benefits for individuals and society that cannot be made exclusive or proprietary. The research carried out through the RDC projects produces generic methodologies, approaches and tools that are developed and tested stmultaneously in different countries with contrasting institutions and agro-ecologies.As a result, these research products have broad applicab!lity internationally and are used by a variety of users, ranglng from University researchers to networks of NGOs to farmer associations In numerous countrtes. The resultant technological and institutional innovations may, or may not be site-speclfic: there are for example, varietles produced by participatory plant breeding that have broad applicability; and agro-enterprise or farmer research committees that appear under numerous different guises in various countries but that all practlce the same basic principies encapsulated in those methodologies. Site xii spectflcity of results depends largely on the degree of co-development and local adaptation carried out by partners testing and validating the genectc approach or methodology. For example, impact studtes show that propensity to innovate with new varteties, species and cultural practtces among members of farmer research commlttees ts much higher that of non-members and that rates of technology adoption are stgnificantly faster and higher in communities with fanner research committees compared to communlties that do not have these comnúttees. Similar results are conststently observed by partners using a verston of the same methodology in dtfferent countrtes. Use of the territorial agro-enterprise developrnent approach has led to an average annual income tncrease for smallholders of up to 20% across a range of products in the agro-enterprise project's research si tes.The cornrnon strategy used by the \"heartland projectsn in the RDC for productng intemational public goods in the forrn of approaches and methodologies for enhanctng tnstitutional and technological innovation is best descctbed in terms of a product cycle. The type of research carried out to develop a methodology evolves as it moves through the product cycle illustrated in  The cycle begins with a diagnostic assessment of demand and feasibility that essentially involves addressing the first question in the impact pathway. Often demand arises from experience with partners in the field who identify an institutional bottleneck, such as the need for improving business development services for small agro-enterprises. This leads to design of a prototype that may consist of a single methodology such as Community-Driven Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (CD-PM&E), ora suite of methodologies and applications, such as the Territorial Approach to Agro-enterprise Development.At the next stage of the product cycle, action research is undertaken with a few partners to co-develop the prototype into a finished product. These partnerships test and evaluate the feasibility and outcomes of applying the prototype methodology within their ongoing development processes or projects. This research addresses Question 2 in the impact pathway. For example, farmer groups and their service providers took part in testing, evaluating and refining methods for development of profitable enterprise options and business models. Research was designed to discover if in practice the prototype methodology in question did foster mutually beneficia! relationships between small holders and large commercial buyers.The result of thts work is the preparation of manuals. training guides and software that systematize what has been leamed from prototype testing loto a teachable set of procedures. Often partners wrtte thetr own manuals at this stage and there is a process of crossfertilization between the product of their site-speclfic experience and the generic or more broadly appltcable product sought by the intematlonal center. An example is the several manuals on Community-Driven Partlcipatory Monitoring and Evaluatlon produced interactively by teams in Colombia. Bolivia and Uganda.At this point in the product cycle, the challenge is to establish whether the methodology that has been tested in a few sites is robust enough to be taught and used by large numbers of potential users in many diverse institutlonal settings and development contexts. Research will have established flrst stage cause and effect relationships by this point in the product cycle: for example, those groups ofwomen farmers using CD-PM&E are more organized; or that farmers trained in the market opportunity identiflcation methodology reorient their production and increase sales. However. the issue of whether the tmproved level of organizatlon or sales lead to improved food security. nutrition, tncome and employment of the poor. especially women and minorities (i.e. questlon 3 in the impact pathway) has yet to be addressed.Research at this stage is focused therefore, on assessing the robustness. broad applicability, outcomes and (where feasible) impacts of the methodology. Larger scale testlng and validation requtres traintng of trainers, often implemented in cooperation with sorne of the partners who tested the prototype methodology. One-off courses are avoided and there is typically an lnstitutional commitment to test the methodology for an agreed period of time by the trainees' organizations. Trainers follow a general strategy of hav1ng trainees develop an action plan that is to be implemented on their home ground. and there is a process of mentortng and shartng of good practices fostered among researchers. trainers and trainees, that includes evaluatlng the process of applying the methodology and its outcomes. The most elaborate fonn this procedure is the Leamtng Alliance, a process of identif)rtng. shartng and adapting good R&D practtces undertaken jointly with partners.The results of this stage of the product cycle are:Co-developed reflnements and adaptations of the methodology. For example, the Global Learning Alliance with Catholic Relief Serv1ces (CRSJ is streamlining, repackagtng and bundling together several of our methodologies together with sorne complementary ones from CRS. • Scaling up use. as sorne partners decide to apply a methodology on a larger scale. An example is the decision of the Boliv1an Chaco Foundation, one of the four national R&D serv1ce providers. to implement CD-PM&E in all of their projects in 2005.Applied comparative research or impact assessment examining how the application of a participatory methodology or toolln different instltutlonal settlngs and development contexts ís correlated with certatn key variables. such as social capital or gender equity, and influences speciflc outcomes, such as marketing outcomes or the types of technology developed. An example ls the PhD study of innovatlon processes in Colombia and Honduras.Publication and dissemination of research flndlngs and trainíng materials. • Development impact (as outlined in Figure A) together with evidence on the outcomes and impacts of usíng the methodology, based on evaluations that include systematized experiential learning, collections of case studies and empirical research often in the form of dissertation research. An example is the impact studies of farmer research committees carried out in Colombia and Honduras. and that will be replicated in Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador with new funding.At the end of the product cycle, research information about the costs. beneflts and impacts of a given methodology or approach are used to spur its institutionalization or mainstreaming. This involves \"thinking beyond the farm\" when organizations testing the methodology decide to incorporate u. making the necessary policy. procedural and cultural changes. An example is the integratton of multiple elements of the agro-enterprise territorial approach into CRS projects in over 30 countries. Another is the use of our impact flndings into the policy debate in the Bolivian nationalinnovation system. SIBTA. about the desirability of requiring CD-PM&E to be included in all their technology innovation project proposals. A third is the gender mainstreaming initiative of the PRGA program with African NARis.One of the issues for the future is how to make this cycle more agile, increasing the number and diversity of intemational public good-type of research products while reducing the time it takes to get them tested, published and disseminated. Improving the division of labor and specializatlon among staff in implementing different stages of the product cycle might help to make the process more agile: currently small cliques tend to form around a given methodology and then to nurse and perfect it through every stage of the product cycle. Leaming Alliances where research and methodology development are in demand may be a step towards greater agility and a more efflcient division of labor. Another might be increasing the number or importance of strategic alliances With Universities. business schools. or corporate networks such as the Sustainable Food Lab to enhance the flow of novel ideas for methodology development and the supply of graduate students who are able to do in-depth research. A major challenge is how to maintain a strategic and coherent research effort that is interacttng with development practlce without it being hijacked by the need to meet development partners' and short term projects' demand for fast results, as they have become the dominant sources of fundlng for this type of applied social science in the Center.    Market trends are rapidly changJ.ng the liveUhood prospects for poor smallholder farmers in developing countries. The effects of liberallsatlon and free trade agreements have led to increasing competltlon in both domestlc and export markets. Iteratlve rounds of mergers and acquisitlons in the prtvate sector have also led to considerable market concentratlon. These changes have beneflted wholesalers, retailers and consumers, but for most farmers, partlcularly those in developing countries, income earrúng potentlal and tenns of trade has steadily declined.To compound these negatlve effects, many developing countries, have also undergone structural readjustment programmes which has meant that many Govemments no longer provide farming communitles with direct flnancing and few offer services. Reduced support means that many smallholders are less organised now than they were 20 years ago and many eam less in real tenns.The consequences of these changes are profound. as farm incomes fall, supply and prices are more prone to volatile movements, thin margins lead to lack of tnvestments in natural resources, business services cannot be supported and the result is that poorly managed farming systems are spreadtng into íncreaslngly marginal areas. As recogntsed in many major commoditles, the markets then are subject to increasing volumes of lower quality produce, whtch further weakens the market and suppresses prtces.Given the magnltude of the marketing challenge faced by smallholders, there is both considerable scope anda presslng need to address this challengl.ng situation. This sense of urgency is increasingly reflected in the agenda's of many development agencies which are re~ focussing their efforts on \"making markets work for the poor\".To support this endeavour, the Rural Agro-enterprtse Development Project (RAeD) project, working closely with other CIAT projects and partners from the public and prtvate sector, is conductlng research to develop and test a range of new partlcipatory tools, business models, services and policy based approaches to assist in promotlng enterprise development and employment in poor rural areas of developing countrtes.Sorne of the key events of the project thts year have included: These actlvities are helping to renew the research agenda of the RAeD team and laylng the foundation for a global \"action basedM research platform with hubs in West Afrtca, Eastem Africa, S. E. Asia, Southem Asta and Latín America. To support these ongoing initiatlves the RAeD team is currently publishing the updated set of leaming tools and introducing new titles into the good practices gutde series. The project ls also involved in renovatlng web-based actlvities to foster our scaling up processes. Advanced copies of the manuals and lin.ks to the new websites are already available on the project website.New initlatlves include (1) insurance for smallholder farmers, (ti) impact analyses of market lnformation servtces in Uganda, (iii) new strategic partnerships being established with Oxfam In Nicaragua and SNV across Central America, (iv) support to the Challenge program projects in Sub-Saharan Africa and (v) new studles on services for the agrtcultural sector. These activities were initiated in late 2005 and we hope to expand and intensi.fy this work with partners in 2006.To improve market access of poor rural communities in developing countlies by promoting improved business support services, better means of organisation and polictes that enhance smallholder competitiveness.To develop strateglc research products in collaboration with research and development agencies. prtvate enterprtse and the State to promote improved market access of poor smallholder fanners with profitable and dynamic markets.To develop methods, tools and applications that address the entrepreneurtal needs of business development partners that support rural communities, with an emphasts on market linkage based on collective action, diversification and value-addltion.Secular decline in commodity prtces does not overwhelm incremental economic and employment advances due to agro-enterprtse activtties. Technical personnel of GOs, NGOs in rural developrnent. policy rnakers from public sector and commerctal partners from the priva te sector.Fanner groups (men and wornen). entrepreneurs (small, mediurn and large-scale); and BDS provtders.Development of methods and technology components  Central American Learning Alliance: (GTZ, CARE. Swisscontact, CATIE. SNV, UNA): Andean Region Learning Alliance (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia).CRS globallearning alliance: (Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzanla, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Eritrea, Madagascar, Burklna Faso, Mali, Niger, Gambia, Senegai. Sierra Leone, Ghana, Liberta Democratic Republic of Congo, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, Haiti, Peru , Ecuador, Afghanistan, India, Paklstan, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Timare l'est, Aceh and Myanmar.                      • Projects developed to link maJor prtvate sector ftrm and • Advocacy groups. NGO's .• Debate for alternatlve trade smallholder farmers wtth crtterla of equlty, NRM and Pollcy and economtcs pollcy optlons. economtc sustatnablllty, wtth reference to the impact of researchers, Natlonal - • Gulde on pollcy mechanisms to link small-scale fanners • Pollcy groups as above• Broader understandtng of effectlvely to regional, nattonal and lnternattonal agrt-trnpact of current pollcles on chatns. and to improve govemance and equlty In the CGIAR cllents and productlon chatn approach validated and adjusted. beneflclaiies lntroduction Making Mmarkets work for the poor\" is a critical challenge being faced by many research and development agencies as a means of underpinning processes and pathways to achieve targets such as the MUlennium Development Goals. Increasing attentlon on the market focus is clearly reflected in the science council's recent shift to place greater emphasis on high value products as a means of providing smallholder farmers wtth new lncome streams. The private sector is also keen to strengthen supply chatns dueto concerns about the viability of margtnallsed. farmers as regular suppliers of quality goods and Governments also need to secure competltive supplies of baste food to feed rapldly expandtng urban centres.The changtng research agenda of the CGIAR clearly needs to address the destres of these dlfferent constituencies in finding tnnovative ways to achieve stable supplies of agricultura! produce that provides food security but also promotes growth. The role of market research ls equally lmportant however, in monitortng the effects of greater commercialisation in terms of equity, governance. risk management and environmental parameters. particularly for the more margtnalised communities who have llttle volee in process of change and have much to loose when markets fall or when shocks severely lmpede their abtlity to access markets.lt is unfortunately the case that the marketing problems faced by smallholders in identifying and accessing markets wtth existing and new products are complex and mountlng. There are few silver bullets and strategies to lmprove market access for the poor, depends upon many factors and circumstances. These include:-location, history, assets, education. skills, organisation, natural resources, access to services, leve! of tnnovatlon, surrounding economic growth conditlons and political stability.Clearly. the marketing prospects for smallholders, toa large extent, depend upon how well the surrounding economy is doing. For example in many parts of S.E. Asia, Southern Asia and Latin America the economies are currently achieving strong growth and in these countries. farmers near market centres are rapidly becomtng more organised and taking advantage of new productive technologies. modero communication services and ftnance options. Strategtes In these regtons are often focussed on findtng ways of linking margtnalised areas and ethnlc groups into the economic success that surrounds them for both high volume and higher value products. In Africa, the poorest contlnent, growth ls elusive, wtth much depending upon local governance issues and political stability. In many African countries however, marketing strategtes are focussed on malntaintng stable product supplies and ralsing competitiveness where possible to offset declining market share in traditional export markets and tmports.Given the complex nature of the marketing context, market lntervention projects requtre sk.1lled and knowledgeable staff to devise practicalinterventions that willlmprove market linkage. Thts is especially the case if development projects are of a short duration and ongoing marketing strategtes are to be implemented by the communities themselves. Invartably, market interventlons need to be tallored to local situations and take best advantage of the avatlable human and natural resources.To support and facilitate rural communitles and thelr service providers in a transitlon towards greater market engagement, RAeD is developing strategies that seek to leverage to maximise benefits for smallholder farmers. To be successful the rnethods, tools and applications that have been developed by RAeD need to be used in a flexible and innovatlve manner. such that marketing rhetortc ts translated tnto simple, practica! and posttive impact in the field.Whilst strong partnershtps and sound market analysis are essential steps in devistng effective market tnterventions. the point of intervention within a market chain depends on local conditions and the parameters of a given market chain 1 sub-sector. When working with rural service providers. RAeD ts emphasising the need to \"thlnk outside the farm\", thts is because many research and development agencies find it difflcult to evaluate opportuntties for change that do not START at the farm. To support the broader market chain perspective, we are also emphasising the positive role played by traders. with the mantra \"all traders are wonderful\". Whllst many agencies are still disparagtng about the role of traders, our expertence shows that in many remote, poor rural areas, traders are often the only reliable service provider. Traders can play a crttical role in change marketing prospects of farmers particularly when attempts are made to strengthen business relations based on equity and trust.Expertence shows that in many cases, market linkage can be achieved more quickly by introducing a buyer to farmers within a productng region, rather than working from the farmer up. Similarly, market interventions should always evaluate 1f and how an improved local service could play a catalytic role in opening up the possibility of accessing new markets, improving product quality and or reducing product costs. In addition to these options, it is very often the case that organising farmers is a helpful process, particularly with bulky goods that are being sold into distant markets. However, once again, this is not always the case and therefore market facllitation needs to be assessed from an objective analytical perspective and not based on dogma.RAeD ts keenly aware that assisting poor. often marginalised communities in raising their marketing linkage is not a simple task and that in sorne situations it will take severa! years of incremental change before most national R&D institutions and non Govemmental organtsations, the front Une of R&D activities. will have the necessary skills and capaclty to support market based projects. However, the process of change ts taking place and one of the key roles for the RAeD team ts to provide research outputs on processes and impact, foster new partners in the marketing arena, help to share knowledge and leamtng processes and provide well documented best practices and case studies to support the case for market intervention with poor communities.Demand for CIATs agro-enterprtse research flndings and methods are increasing wlth new requests for joint actlvities from a range of partners wanting to test and adapt the information systems. methods and traintng matertals to local needs. The current developments in the \"leaming alliances\" have expanded rapidly with partners in at least 30 countrles from Afrtca. the Amertcas and Asia. seeklng more specialised types of partnerships. sorne tools based, sorne more strategic in nature and others focussing on business requirements. These new Guides are currently being developed with partners and based on the CIAT materials, many partners aim to published their own guides for spectftc localized needs. These guides are also supplemented with other manuals on marketing bastes and appllcation of business techniques in ruralinnovation.The original RAeD Guides, written in Spanish, have now all been translated lnto English and partners are now assistlng in translating the materials lnto French, Vietnamese and Lao. The original Collective Marketing gutde has been translated into Chlnese and there are plans to translate sorne of the new guides into Swahili, Amharic and Urdu. As these matertals become available they will be posted onto the RAeD website which is currently being revamped for a new launch in late 2006.Lack of accurate and relevant market information is a major obstacle in efforts to improve the competitiveness of smallholder agrtculture in developtng countrtes. However, few poor farmers have access to such infonnation and vtrtually all market information servtces developed by Govemments in the 1970s. have subsequently collapsed dueto poor performance and management.Given this problem. partners from public and plivate sectors. have been working to develop effectlve, low cost business development services 4 (BDS), as indicated tn CIATs MTP 2002-04. One BDS developed in Uganda. Eastem Afiica. through ASARECA'ss FOODNETB. was a simple market informatlon service. This service was one of the first outsourced marketing services in Mrtca. wtth autonomy to test new data management systems.In 2002, FAO fac111tated a meeting between Busylab. a Ghanaian based ICT company and the Ugandan MIS team. This collaboratlon led toa beta version ofTRADENET. TRADENET is the first of a new generatlon of software products that offers organlzations an off-the-shelf solutlon to their market tnformation con ten t. aggregation and dtstribution needs. The system can be uploaded from the field using mobile phones. email or through a cyber café Interface. TRADENET provtdes a platform to syntheslse the lnformation and disseminate lt back to users through valious formats tncluding Internet. radio. email and Mobtle phone SMS messagtng.In 2003, TRADENET 1.0 was used as the Uganda n marketing informa tlon service informatlon platform. Based on the success of the product, projects in West Mrtca. such as MISTOWA, have purchased TRADENET and are uslng the software in 11 countries in West Mrica, www.tradenet.btz. New sites have also been launched in Latin Amertca. The TRADENE'f7 service supports 5-7 mtllion farmers in Uganda alone. As such this is a majar new development using prtvate publlc partnerships and cuttlng edge ICTs to make markets work for the poor.In many parts of the world, climates are consldered less predictable now than 20 years ago and many poor farmers. uslng rainfed production systems. find themselves increasingly exposed to crop failure caused by extreme weather conditions. In industlialised countrtes farmers are lnsured against weather based crop failure, whereas poor farmers in developing must suffer stgniftcant asset losses when drought occurs. Dueto the rtsks associated with ratnfed agrtculture, formal banks have shied away from farmers wtthout irrigation and therefore the poorest are most exposed to fmancial ruin. To address this situation CIAT has developed a software appllcation to support insurance schemes for smallholder farmers. The approach is site-spectfic, is not dependent on pre-existing yleld data and can be applied to a wtde range of crops. The premlums and payouts can be adjusted as circumstances require. and the insurance instrument and lts trtgger points are transparent.The methodology was developed in Honduras where slx sites were chosen to represent a spread of annual rainfalls from 1000 to 2200 mm. Ninety-nine years of cltmatic data were generated for each stte uslng CIAT's climate simulator MarkStm. Thts data was used as 4. Business Development Services , s ee Unk to CIATs SN-1 2004-2006 MTP output  In general, the pllot work supported by CTA has been successfulin finding new ways of disseminattng market tnformation however; stakeholders felt there was a need to enhance the utility of such services so that fanners and rural traders who receive thts tnfonnation can act on 1t more effectively. Similarly. tnvestments in the development of market institutions such as auctions and product exchanges have also proven to be a success in testing new ideas, but problems rematn as many fanner groups are unable to use these services effectively for their commerctal advantage. Key issues discussed included the value of practica! sequenctng in the introductions of new marketing institutions based on speciftc pre-conditions. This would assist 1n enabling interventions to play an additive role rather than introduclng stand along projects. The group felt that management of an MIS was a crttical area of action and that this should not be solely the domatn of the Govemment. but rather a partne~ship between Govemment, prtvate sector and development groups. In terms of the development of commodity exchanges. there was less support and or consensus for greater investment in this area. A compromise positlon was to pllot new approaches to warehouse receipt systems. From 3-5 October 2005. the Secretariats of GFAR and the CGIAR Science CouncU convened an expert meeting to develop a common understandtng about how smallholder producers can benefit from engagtng in market opportunlties for hlgh value products. To achieve this objective, the workshop brought together strategtc thlnkers and knowledgeable practltloners from different points in the research and development continuum and from different stakeholder groups to explore options for actions in the field of high value agricultura! products (HVAP) wtthin research and development. The meeting underwent a sertes of discusston sesslons that addressed the following questions: a) How to tdentify HVAP market opportunlties for tncreaslng the income of the poor? b) How to stlmulate the domestic demand for HVAP? e) How to organtse small-scale farmers to realise the opportunities afforded by HVAP? d) How to ensure access to business servtces 1n support of farmers and entrepreneurs lnvolved in production and marketing of HVAP? e) How to tnfiuence policy to create an enabling envtronment for pro-poor high value agrtculture?The meeting commenced with a sesslon to define the parameters of high value markets and definlng areas of action. The meeting then outlined a number of poten tia! projects and partners who would be responsible for elaborating and developtng project proposals. The final sesslons then focussed on key prtnctples and conclustons.The meeting was an opportuntty to highlight many tnitlatlves in the high value area that are being undertaken by the CGIAR and its partners and to revtew pragmatlc and practica! ways of ltnking poor, margtnalised people lnto hlgh value markets. The inevitable question of MRisk management\" was ralsed on severa! occaslons and a key prtnclples that emerged from the meeting was to consider starttng such an initlative in high potentlal locations, to learn from a range of expertences and if successful to then move to more marginal areas.Based on the findings of the eastem Afrtca learntng alliance CRS, CIAT and local partners established an advanced study team, to revtew. strength. and develop more robust processes to facilitate the linkage of poor and margtnaltsed farmers to markets. Areas of particular lnterest to the study team included (i) how to strengthen farmer groups for the marketplace. (U) how to lntegrate rural finance methods into agro-enterprtse projects and (ill} how to tntegrate approaches to innovation and experimentation into an agro-enterprise context.The study tour began in Uganda and reviewed best practices being used by NGOs to form farmer marketing groups. Findings revealed how rapid but well targeted tralning, wtth no subsidies were proving an effective means of fostering groups into prtmary and secondary associations. The second stage of the evaluatlon was conducted in India. where the team focussed on Self-Help Groups (SHG). This part of the study evaluated how SHGs scaled out and the prospects of this approach being applied beyond the Indian contex:t. There are currently 23 million people involved with SHG's. The SHG's mainly comprised of women and this highly versatile group method is being used for many actlvitles, such as savtngs and internalloans, adult learning and politlcal advocacy. These groups are not yet working in agro-enterprtse and this offers an interestlng opportunlty to link enterprise methods to thts expanding movement. In Latin America, the study team focussed on how Farmer Research Groups, aka CIALs were developed through partlcipatory research approaches at CIAT and offer an interestlng way of integratlng research methods and innovation processes into the rural community.The study team identlfied si.x critica! elements, including social cohesion, financia! management skills. NRM development, enterprtse capacity, innovatlon and advocacy. as key elements requlred for successful preparatlon for market engagement among poor producers. The team also developed a typology of market readiness at three levels that incrementally enable farmers to be better placed to link to markets. The study tour will conclude with a wrtte-shop to compile the outputs of the AST and this will be held at CIAT, in Cali, Colombia in July 2006.In Latin America Severe funding cuts in CIAT at the end of 2005 have led to increased concerns about staffing stability. However. agatnst this trend the RAeD team has been relatlvely successful in accessing additlonal local funds.Staff has made considerable efforts to address the funding gap. wtth severa! new projects coming on stream to support both senior and support staff.Incentives are being developed such that if natlonal staff members are able to flnd additlonalinvestment then RAeD will seek ways to provide an annual bonus. This system is currently under discussion.Key issues raised in the Mid term review of SADU were to make changes in: (1) project management, (U) stafflng, (iii) financia! systems (iv) progress in dtstrtcts of Vietnam and (v) project permits. The project has contlnued to suffer from high turnover of staff, losing 3 project managers in 2 years, which has affected project performance. This project will be reviewed in August with a decision on renewal being made at that time.Project management was changed wtth management reporting shiftlng to CIAT-Asta. Following intematlonal recruitment, a new project manager was hired in January 2005 and a senior marketing economist in March of 2005.New management systems were put in place on anival of new manager. Financia! systems were upgraded with Oracle links between Lao and Calt. New d.Jstrtcts were operationaltsed in two new provinces of Vietnam. Hao Binh and Dak Lak. New provincial staff were htred to support tlús expansion in work. Project permits have not been obtained in either Laos or Vietnam. Changes in the legal system in February of 2006, may offer sorne prospects of a permit. within an internatlonal category. but progress is unlikely to be rapid.Project work in Africa has been funded through support from a series of projects in particular the PABRA project. Funding cuts from CIDA have led to a series of new initlatives to raise additional funds. SNV marketing book entitled \"Learning from lmplementing Pro-Poor Marketing Chains with smallholder fanners tn Africa\". Contributed to introductlon methods and learning alltance chapters. Shaun Ferris, Peter Robbins and Vincent Fautrel. 2006  Much of the project activities in 2006 will focus on the topic of market chain analysis, BDS evaluation and then movtng from analysis to action. However, there is an urgent need to evaluate progress in the process and to start to gather information based on key issues that enable farrners to engage in markets.As part of the impact analysis, RAeD is working with partners in RII to develop an evaluation questionnaire on core competencies and market access options that are being used to link farmers to markets. The information gathered will be used to initiate a RII wide database. The data will focus on the concept of Market led Innovation systems and the ability of service providers to generate successful methods that not only link farmers to markets but also enable the cornmunities to re-invest in more sustainable and competltive agrtcultural system. Key issues include social cohesion, finance, NRM, Market access, marketing competence, innovation and expertmentatlon and advocacy for empowerrnent and change. Data on these issues will be collated from groups in severa! countrtes in Africa, Asia and Latin America, to evaluate how context affects marketing capacity and how marketing strategtes can be strengthened through using this knowledge base.   . Parttclpatlng marginal groups enjoy soctoeconomtc benefits to a greater extent than slm11ar groups where sald declslonmaldng has not been lncorporated.Particlpatory research. Set of at least flve partlctpatory declstons taken on methodologtes for organlza.tional technologtcaltnnovatlon (PM&E, case histories of and technologtcal tnnovatton In tnnovatton, enabling ruraltnnovatton. evaluatlon of tmpact agrtculture. co-developed, tested of technologlcallnnovatton and knowledge management and w!dely dlssemtnated, to beneflt projects) evaluated and adapted for different contexts and poor farmer groups and thelr stakeholder groups In margtnal envtronments In Afrtca and organJzatlons, parttcularly ethnic latln Amertca (lA) mlnorttles and women . At least three sets of new methods and tools (e.g .. analysls of social networks. apprectatlve lnqut.ry) that 1ncorporate equlty and gender developed, applled and dtssemlnated at the leve! of members and stakeholder groups at the end of the thtrd year (2007) . A set of lnstltutlons not prevtously lnvolved In the SN-3 actlvltles tmplement. together wtth the project. codevelopment processes of declslon-maklng and ecotechnologles wtth a partlctpatory approach.. A set of tnstttuttons not prevtously lnvolved In the SN-3 actlvltles tmplement processes of lntegrated 1ncorporatlon of parttctpatory declslon-maklng (t.e .. Agroenterprtses + CIALs + InforCom).• The approaches and dectslon-maklng developed by SN-3 ortented toward.. Evaluatlons of the performance of the project and tts members show that they are In Une wtth the m1sslon and vistan of SN-3 and CIAT.-----Meana ofVerlfteatlonProjects, plans and reports of nattonal publlc-sector entltles, donors, NGOs and communlty-based organtzatlons In the three reference sltes and CIATs mandated agroecosystems that refer to thetr use of project products. Impact study . Financtng for traJnJng actlvttles, publicatlon and dissemtnatlon of matertals.• lnstltutlons W1lling to prepare and support facllitators and share lnformatlon.. End-users-above all, farmers-willJng to participa te. • Final report of Frr-8 proJect • Methodology for knowledge management at the locallevel . Arttcle on procedures for part:lctpatory val!dated and made avatlable to the suppllers of technJcal evaluatlon of forages submitted for asslstance and member organtzauons evaluatlon prtor to publlcatlon• At least 7 cases on the methodology of knowledge   . Ftve projects and programs applytng the set of R-to-C tools .  . Publlcatlons of tntemal projects and and adapt communtty-managed Our theoretlcal framework in this output is Cornplex Adaptlve Systems (CAS)l. Rural innovatton systems are complex adaptlve systems because they contain agents and strategtes that tnteract and adapt to each other. CAS theory states that tnnovative performance is mediated by the nature of pattemed interactlons between agents (e.g., organtzatlons, individuals). We are applytng Social Network Analysls plus the Innovatlon Htstory method to analyze this tnteraction.This output is testlng two hypotheses:l.The performance of a ruralinnovatlon system can be predicted by the structure of its networks: 2.Planning and evaluatlon methods based on network models can improve tnnovatlve performance.The research task is therefore: 1) to tdentify and analyze key interactton patterns between agents in dtfferent innovatlon systems; and, 2) asslgn performance measures to the innovatlon systems being studies. In 2005 we mapped and analyzed the innovatton systems associated and two farmer research groups in Cauca, Colombia (wtth support from PRGA). We developed a prototype method for partictpatory network analysis, planntng and monltortng and evaluatton. We also ~sed the tnnovatton history method to map and analyze wtth the successful development of four bean variettes in East Afrtca (wtth support from PABRA). We also recetved fundtng for an irnpact assessment project that w1ll allow us to map the networks of 18 CPWF projects in Afrtca and Asta. While the work in Cauca enables us to study the structure of individual farmer groups, the PABRA and CPWF work allows us to investiga te the position of farmer groups in research and development networks. Comparatlve network analysis wtll begtn in 2006, however early results from Cauca show that there are clear network dtfferences between a well-establlshed and active CIAL and a newer, less dynamtc one.Application of a modified verston of the Innovation Htstory method, that included network analysis, allowed us to derive and publish policy lessons based on the analysis of four NRM projects in India in November 2005. We drafted a journal article that compares and contrasts the networks that have promulgated CIALs in Colombia and Honduras.  What are sorne of the successful methodologtcal arrangements tested on farm which can be scaled out and disseminated across the decision-making ladder?Results showed that (a) adoption of new structure and the development of new altitudes regarding the farmer-professional relationship. on the part of the so called \"knowledge managers\". is possible and (b) greater satisfaction and technology appropriation on the part of producers is reported. This has made possible to set a model in place. in the four agro ecologtcal regtons of Bolivia, to make a tum in regards to the traditional top-down. delivery-oriented methods to facilitate agrtculturalinnovations.The knowledge management research project has been developed withln the context of the objectives for reducing poverty. empowering poor farmers to utillze technologtcal knowledge and strengthening the conditions for guaranteeing food security within the framework of SIBTA. the FDTAs and the enterprises supplying technical assistance services.In arder to comply with the foregotng. the FIT 8 project has brought together foundations. suppliers and demanders of technologtcalinnovations around \"leaming alllances.\" in which different versions of an approach we have called \"knowledge management,\" have been experimented with. This particlpatory approach for sharing knowledge brings together the local know-how with the technical know-how and they are submitted to validation on farmers ftelds as the local capacity for adopting the technologtes is strengthened in the producers through the strategy we refer toas \"development of competencies in the fteld\": (a) Induction of the project among members and users; (b) implementation of the project\"s activities with the participating actors. including trainlng. formulation of action plans for applying the approach, preparation of working documents, socialization of outcomes; and (e) M&E of the action plans.Sorne of the outstanding results of thls study which help make a tum in technology dissemination within the SIBTA system are:• Creation of a favorable environment for apply:ing a nontraditional approach for communicating technological innovations, incorporating the local know-how and the active partlcipation of the producers • Consciousness-raising of an important group of technicíans whose organizations operate in the four ecoregions frarnework in arder to incorporate the management approach when developlng the projects of technological innovatlon • Evidence (testimonies and evaluations) of the acceptance of the methodological approach arnong foundations, technicians. suppliers and producers • Evidence of the complimentartly between CIAL and ECAS methodologies. using the knowledge management approach In a case in Sucre (FDTA-Valleys and UNEC-Agrocentral). Products: A CD with all the material of the project, a manual for forming knowledge managers and a video that shows the essentials components of the methodologies.Institutional strengthening of local innovation processes: Thís study has been deslgne_ d to provide responses to the question Mhow can pro-poor local innovation processes be strengthened so that there ls faster access to new relevant knowledge, technologtes and markets by the poor?The setting for this study ts a Iarge group of Centers for Learning and Knowledge Interchange (CAIS, for its Sp.Ac.)2 dispersed throughout Latin America ands the Caribbean. Our hypothesis is that institutlons such as these, engaged in the development and dtssemination of ruralinnovatlons, need to develop capacltles to conduct Mco-developmentft3 efforts. To be effective co-developers of pro-poor innovations local institutions wtll have the abtlities and skills that enable them to draw down successfully, resources from extra-local innovation systems and then adapt these locally.The research task ts therefore, to identify the processes, capabilities and ways of organlzing that are needed to strengthen co-development, and to incorporate these into approaches and methodologies that can be applied by local institutions to (a) identify local opportunity for innovation (b) network effectively wtth local and non-local sources of knowledge. technology and market opportunlty to acquire promising innovatlons (e) interact wtth no:.1-local providers to test and adapt these innovations to local conditions (d) accelerate their own learning processes. Research was conducted to examine the market-led hypothesis that Unking farmers to better market opportunities provides incentives for adoption and re-investment in NRM innovations, using empirtcal data from cross-sectional household surveys and actlon research on linking farmers to markets in selected sites in Malawi, Uganda and Tanzania.Analysis revealed mixed results. with significant differences based on gender. wealth categortes, crops and survey areas. There is evidence that better access to markets and increased income led to increased investments farm inputs (including inorganic fertllizer) and the applicatlon of soil conservatlon measures. However, for the majortty of women and poor farmers in Uganda, re-investtng in ISFM was not among the first three prtorttles.Investment on other livelihood needs (buying or renting more farmland, livestock, paying school fees and buying clothes) seem to receive higher priority.Results of an extemal evaluation conducted in Malawi sites revealed that gender and equity lssues have been well addressed in ERl: Altemative enterprise options, to diversify • income generating opportunities and satisfy the needs of different categories of fanners (men and women) have been identified by comrnunities in pilot leamtng sites. At community level women are able to speak in a group, partlclpate in project activities either as mere project partlcipants oras comrnittee members serving in different capacities. With cash earned through sale of bean seed, the comrnuntties are able to diversify thelr diets. purchasing fish , meat, beans, chicken, fresh vegetables, etc. Severa! poor fanners are now able to send pocket money to their children in secondary schools. pay school fees, buy school uniform, notebooks. clothes, etc. Other benefits from the project have been assessed in tenns of generation and utiltzation of cash income from sale of bean seed, improvements 1n nutrition (dietary diversification) and children' perceptions about project lmpact. Two graduate research theses are being conducted to further assess the dlstributional impacts of communlty-based agroenterprlses,etc, with focus on intra-household gender dynamics and poverty.Scientlsts from IPRA in Africa successfully develop a project for strengthening research for development capacltles in tnnovatlve partlcipatory research approaches for integrated soil fertility management in Africa, in collaboration with the African Soil Fertility Network of the Tropical. Soil Biology Institute. IPRA scientists ha ve al so actively particlpated In the inception phase of the Lake Kivu Pilot Leamlng Si te of the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme.An tmportant research focus has been on understanding the various dimensions of social capital as a strategy for strengthenlng the dectslon-making capacity of communitles. A diagnosis of social capital in Uganda has generated understanding on the different dimensions, levels and types of social capital; strength of social capital and potential for joint community actlon; forms of in ter-and intra-household support, village-levelinteractions and wtder scale linkages; gender roles, responsibilitles and resource access; pattems of participatlon and interest in NRM initiatlves and local bylaws formulated by different stakeholder groups; and constralnts to thelr adoption and/or compllance with them by different groups, partlcularly women. the elderly and the poor.  and peer assist. two participatory techniques for facilitating collectlve reflectlon and critlcal leaming, highlight the dynamic process of partnership formation and the key elements that contribute to their success. These include: (i) shared vision and complementarity, (11) consistent support from senior leadership; (lii) evidence of instltutional and individual beneflts; (iv) investments in human and social capital; (v) and joint resources mobilization and shartng. However, instltutionalizing partnerships requires creative strategies for coping with high staff tumover and over-commitment. conflictlng personalities and instltutlonal differences, and transaction costs. Sustaining partnerships with the prlvate sector still remains an important challenge.• Once agaln. one of the great difficulties that we have had in severa} LA countries is the lack of continuity and in sorne cases, a low level of commitment of the personnel that work in GOs. This causes constant inconformity in the communities. affecting the results signiflcantly on sorne occasions. Thus we have been t:Jying to establish commitments wtth the directors of the instltutlons based on the institution's priority needs and how the activities will impact; e.g., improving the group's effectlveness and efficiency.In Bolivia, 2004-2005 was a highly conflictive period. during which the changes 1n govemment and the social protests affected the work pace in general. Our project, as in earlier years. had to overcome the resulting setbacks and delays in the activitles. It is expected that with the possession of the new Head of Sta te, a community leader, the country can retum to the desired course and the normal development of our project's activitles.Although individual case studies show promising signs of success and robust results at the community level, the greatest challenge líes in linking micro-leve! cornmunity processes to higher macro-level processes. where market opportunitles and instltutional conditlons may offer better opportunitles for small-scale farmers. The challenge is creatlng conditlons under which natlonal market initiatives can support and benefit small-scale poor farmers in marginal conditions. These include promotlng efftcient institutlonal market innovatlons and support services such as rrúcrofinancing, market information systems, business support services. pricing policies, marketing inputs. extension advice and rural infrastructure.The success of PMR is highly dependent u pon the development of effectlve quality partnershtps with research and extenslon systems. NGOs , business support services and farmer communities. However, considerable efforts are still needed to forge effective partnerships with the private sector, business services and high-level policy and goverrunent institutions.Given the diversity of actlvitles in volved in ERI, the success of this work is highly dependent on developing effective quality partnerships with research and extension systems, business support services. private-public partnerships, NGOs and farmer communitles. The lessons leamed suggest that it is important to build a critlcal amount of human and social capital to create instltutional commitments and clarity in understanding the roles. responsibilitles and expectatlons of the different partners. It is also critlcal to develop a simple and functional PM&E early on in the project in arder to build in regular reflection actlvities with communities and partners, to ensure that lessons are documented, and to enable adjustments to be made to the project in a tlmely manner. However, considerable efforts are still needed to forge effective partnerships with the private sector and high-level policy and govemment instltutlons and initlatlves in marketing. These are key for the sustainabillty of rural agroenterprises and for scaling up, linklng community micro-initlatlves to high-level macro economic policies. There are sorne important challenges of linking farmers to markets. These are related to improving market instltutions and market behavior for small-scale farmers. Market instltutlons are indeed critlcal to the expansion of productlon possibilitles and to improving of the performance of small-scale agriculture.• Does market orientation benfdit women and the poor? When promotlng marketoriented productlon, there is need for a better understanding of intra-household and community dynarrúcs to assess the differentlal and distrtbutlonal effects of marketoriented production on different categories of farmers. Rather than focusing only on women as is the case in many gender-oriented strategies, our strategy has been to encourage and sustain active partlclpatlon and cooperatlon of both men and women in the project actlvities and creatlng gender awareness at the community level through the use of interactive adult education methods.Job tumover continues to be a serious problem in many govemment instltutions and especially In the NGOs in LA. above all in Bolivia. These organizatlons contract their personal for specific periods of time, generally no longer than 18 months. This type of contractlng restricts their participation in new initiatives because work plans are set by the project directors so it is very difficult to include new activitles or to make changes in them. A possible solutlon to this problem would be to get outstanding results, followed by a strong diffusion to the decision-makers at the level of SIBTA in arder to convince them of the benefits that these methodologles could have and adopt them as part of the evaluation parameters from the standpolnt of the end-user or requester. When contracted, the technicians should initlally be trained before working with the different groups of requesters.The present situation of competltion for limited resources has resulted in a greater detraction from our time as researchers to become searchers of resources, which has affected the quality and quantity of research. Moreover, a large part of the resources are available mostly for projects where the technologies developed by our projects are required in development programs for thelr immediate implementation. Thus it would be convenient to create teams within each project or institution that can support these initiatives. providing sufflcient inputs so that said people can write and negotlate the proposals with the partners and/or donors. Similarly. these projects for developing capacities without much commitment to research could eventually finance other scientlftc initiatives for generatlng new approaches or methodologies. Proposed Future Plans• Contlnue research in the pilot zones, where there are stlll ongoing applicatlons in the PM&E method that require recording informatlon in order to do a partial analysis in their PITAs.Adjust the PM&E database to the conditlons of the local partners, the FDTAs, so that it contrlbutes informatlon coming from the farmers to the natlonalinformatlon and communicatlon system • Contlnue with the analyses and documentatlon of experiences related to the methodologies for the partlcipatory adjustment of proposals, mid-term and final evaluatlons of development projects as a contrlbutlon to the new SIBTA • Prepare and present the new phase of the project: in Bolivia, which is being concerted with CIP (Internatlonal Patato Center), DfiD-Andes and IPRA at CIAT for research on a model for development that permits the natlonal research centers to make decisions with respect to the generatlon of pollcies related to the agricultura! and llvestock area • Contlnue to strengthen the communltles' capacity to apply PM&E lnformatlon for selfreflectlon and leamlng. This will also involve contlnuous capacity development at the community level and the design of simple tools for data collectlon and analyses that can be applied easlly in the field by communitles and project staff.Develop tools for analyzlng and syntheslzing data gathered from the learning sites and designan tnteractive, user-friendly database system to manage the data . • Design a simple PM&E reporting system for llnking the different PM&E systems to allow the agile flow of informatlon and feedback between rural communitles and R&D systems (communitles-projects -centers -instltutlonal). This will include simple tools for aggregatlng and reporting the micro-level data collected by PM&E processes to facllltate their use for decision-making at different levels and to provlde feedback and leaming.Conducta systematlc evaluation and review of PM&E processes in place to document lessons and experiences. This will involve an analysls of achievements to date, identlficatlon of methodological aspects that are effectlve, areas for further research and specific areas that need to be adapted and modlfied. Lessons and experiences will be documented and disseminated through feedback and review meetlngs with key stakeholders and policymakers in KARI. presentatlons at meetlngs and seminars, and dlfferent types of publications.• Inltlate the processes of co-development in the CAIS, where we will partlclpate in the applicatlon and adjustment of dtverse technologies and methodologies that should generate technology with the active partlcipatlon of the farmers from the inltlal research phases. Likewise, the project should study what would be the ideal model of co-development in which the particlpatlon of the different actors is clearly establlshed. This experience will be carrted out in 9 LA countrtes.• In a process of knowledge management. PR and studies to strengthen the rural agroenterprtses. the strengthening of the integrated sets of projects will begin in the Andean zone of Peru and Bolivia • Finalize the establishment of PM&E processes at remaining learning si tes (Kakamega and Embu). including capacity-bu1lding workshops as well as practlcal tratning actlvities • Contlnue to strengthen the communities' capacity to apply PM&E informatlon for selfreflection and learning, including continuous capacity development at the community level and the design of simple tools for data collectlon and analysis that can be applied easily in the field by communitles and project staff • Develop tools for analyzing and synthesiztng data gathered from the learning sites and destgn an interactive user-friendly database system to manage the data • Design a simple PM&E reportlng system for linking the different PM&E systems to allow the agUe flow of information and feedback between rural communities and R&D systems (communities-projects -centers-instltutional). including simple tools for aggregattng and reporting the mtcro-level data collected by PM&E processes to facllltate their use for decision-making at different levels and to provide feedback and leaming • Conduct a systematic evaluatlon and review of PM&E processes in place to document lessons and expertences. which entails analyses of achtevements to date, identlfication of methodologtcal aspects that are effective, areas for further research, and specific areas that need adaptatlon and modificatlons • Document lessons and experiences and disseminated them through feedback and review meetlngs with key stakeholders and policymakers in KARJ, presentatlons at meetings and senúnars. and different types of publications.Consolidate lessons and scaltng up the ERI framework, including the following strategtes:• ERl will scale up to severa! other countries includtng Kenya, Ethiopia, Rwanda and DRC. To support this scaling-up process, the ERl team will also support partners to mobilize funds to support this process.Gender and equity dimensions of ERI will be strengthened, includtng the development of a strategy and research on HN 1 AIDS and lmpact of agrtcultural technology choice, and how linkage to markets can support people living with HIV 1 AIDS, especially women who are the most vulnerable. • ERl will focus on ensuring that comrnunity enterprise projects are functlonal and document the lessons and experiences from this process.Enhance the focus on strengthening our partnerships and creatlng new ones. • Scaling up at different levels will be implemented within the community, across to other communitles. within the district, within the country (natlonally) and across countiies (íntemationaliy). Continue adjusting the database that wíll feed into the database of the Bolivian foundations so that the information of the farmers' groups on the execution of their projects will be incorporated in their current evaluation systems • Strengthen the contribution of PR methods to the improvement of SIBTA • Identify farmer organizatlons to initiate joint activities and evaluate the contribution of particlpatoxy methods in the arttculation of their demands within SI BTA.• Complete histories of the adoption of four bean varteties in East Afrtca and share the flndings wíth the stakeholders involved through an institutionalleaming and change process • Complete CIAL and CLAYUCA cassava-processing innovatlon histories •Present the approach at the American Evaluation Association Conference in Atlanta. GeorgiaSupport the Kellogg Foundation's integrated project sets, CIP and the CAIS in Latín America in the incorporation and adaptation of partlcipatoxy methodologies in their projects.Emphasis is on creating a capacity in the different regions to implement M&E to analyze the lessons leamed for similar institutionaltzation processes. That choice makes sense to the extent that center research focuses on seed-based technologtes of the sort that have driven the so-called Green Revolution in the developing world. With important exceptions. the products of that and related research were and still are disseminated in rural areas through what sorne call a \"pipeline~ model of technology transfer (Gurung and Menter 2004). Under thls approach the results of intemational germplasm improvement programs are disseminated among national partners. who in turn may further refine them and then promote the final products among farmers through extension programs. A similar approach is often used with other types of technologies, including practices for integrated management of crop pests, postharvest handling of agrtcultural produce. and soil management.The type of communications strategy implied by the pipeline model of technology transfer is relatively straightforward. Diverse media may be used to disseminate messages about the advantages of new agricultura! technologles. with the aim of persuading farmers to adopt them. Though sorne of these technologtes origina te from CGIAR center research. they are generally refined and released by national organizations. So, in general. center scientists and communicators assume that massive dissemtnation of agrtcultural information at the local level-the logtcal companion of technology transfer-ís also mainly the responsibillty of natlonal partners.In the last 10 or 15 years. three things h ave happened that compel us to revisit the role of CGIAR centers in development communications.First is the general weakening of agrfcultural extension systems. especially in much of Latin America, as a result of drastlc reductlons in public expenditures and changes in national development priolitles and strategies. Nowadays, these systems are hard-pressed to provide adequate technical assistance through fleld visits, much less to take on additlonal responsibtlities for massive informatlon dissemtnation.A second factor is the new emphasis on technologies whose adoption and use is more knowledge intensive than that of improved seeds. Often, these technologtes take the form of partlcipatory methods for better handling relatlvely complicated procedures in local research and development. Such methods were developed ortglnally in response to the limitations of the conventional approach to transfening seed-based technologies, especially in diverse and remate. marginal zones for agrtcultural production. But later they were applied to more complex tasks. such as community-based watershed management. rural agroenterprtse development. and rural planntng. Sorne such methods have resulted from the efforts of CIAT and other internatlonal centers to combat poverty more effectlvely and to improve the management of natural resources in fragile agroecosystems.Knowledge-intensive technologies naturally involve a good deal of interactlon between diverse actors. For that reason their effectiveness and large-scale diffusion depends heavily on improved handling of informatlon and communications. But it is not at all clear how this can be accomplished, especially in view of weakened and fragmented extension systems, involving many organizatlons with different prioritles and approaches.Finally. there is the emergence of new informatlon and communicatlons technologtes, or ICTs. Digital video and photography. e-mail. the World Wide Web, and so forth have generated keen interest worldwide, giving rise toa global movement focused on ICTs for development. A central aim of this movement is to extend the so-called \"information society\" or \"knowledge economy\" to marginal urban and rural sectors of developing country populatlons through initlatlves aimed at overcoming the \"digital divide\" between ICT \"haves\" and \"have-nots\" (Morrow 2002). In fact. sorne organizatlons and governments have setas the goal of their ICT policies and initlatlves the achievement of \"universal access.\" This generally means affordable and convenient access to telecommunicatlons services, such as a telephone and the Internet. for every household.Against that background CIAT management and staff proved receptlve when center communicators proposed to embark on a research project dealing with rural community telecenters, which offer pubUc access to new ICTs and ortentatlon in their use. In this work, which was funded by Canada's Internatlonal Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the Rockefeller Foundatlon in the USA, we explored questlons such as the following. If rural people can conduct adaptlve research and cany out other tasks ustng partlcipatory methods, as social scientists have shown, can't they also be effectlve communicators? And won't improved use and sharing of informatlon enhance the quality of their work, just as it tends todo tn formal research and development organizatlons? Moreover, if rural people have access to new ICTs shouldn't this boost their communicatlons capacity? In seeking answers to such questlons, through our own research and the work of others, we have learned a great deal about both the ltmitatlons and possibilitles of community telecenters in relatlon to rural innovatlon.Several years ago CIATestablished a project called InforCom-for Informatlon and Communications-to butld on the galns of our telecenter research. InforCom was incorporated into CIAT's Rural Innovation Institute. along with Center projects on agroenterprlse development and partlcipatory research methods. In thus propostng a new role for a CGIAR center in development communicatlons, our idea was not that CIAT or other centers should assume responsibilities that properly belong to governments, universities, development organizations, and the prtvate sector. Clearly, it is their Job to develop telecenters and implement other information and communicatlons initlatlves involving the use of ICTs. This document introduces the vartous products that have resulted so far from InforCom's collaboratlve research. As explained in Section 1 (Strengthening Infonnation Networks in High-Value Agriculture), the central aim of this work is to find practica! ways by which rural people and the organizations that serve them can make better use of Lnfonnation and communicatlons to improve the productlon, processing, and marketing of agrtcultural products, especially those whose value exceeds that of baste staple crops. We believe the resultlng improvement in local capacities will Lncrease the pace and effectlveness of technologtcal and social innovation in higher value agrtculture. generating tangible benefits for rural people.In each of the seven subsequent sections, we provide an overview of key concepts. methodologies. or approaches for strengthening local capacities. as follows:Sectlon 2: Social network analysis Sectlon 3: Community telecenters Section 4: Rural infonnation intermediaries Sectlon 5: UsLng market information Sectlon 6 : Partlcipatory research and development Section 7: Knowledge shartng between organizations Section 8: Scaltng outIn each section we describe the thínking and research from which we dertved the ideas presented in this publication. We also refer to vartous motlvatlonal and training matertals, which we have prepared to help others apply, adapt. and tmprove those ideas.Our intended audience consists mainly of development professionals with tnternatlonal and natlonal NGOs: university professors and students; and scientlsts and technicians Ln natlonal agrtcultural research and development organizations.We hope this document proves useful to our colleagues in those organizatlons, and we welcome any feedback from their experience.Anyone who has worked with rural people in the developing world is aware of the daunting challenges they face, as well as the numerous possibilities open to them. as they work to build more sustainable livelihoods. One appealing option for many of these people is to improve their communications capacity and put tt to good use in various dimensions of their Uves. economic development. human rtghts. sports, culture, and others. So, one of the first questions we must pose is: \"communicatlon about what?\"Naturally, the answer will vary from one individual, place, and project to another. For the purposes of communicatlons research at CIAT. we made a strategic decision several years ago to focus our work mainly on the development of rural enterprtses, particularly for the production, processing, and marketing of agricultura! products whose value exceeds that of baste staple crops.Even so, the ideas that have resulted from our work. though developed or tested mainly in connectlon wtth enterprtse development, can be adapted and applted to other aspects of rural development as well. In fact. our expertence suggests that rural people welcome a broader approach in communications, since they face many urgent problems in their ltves and thus will not necessartly want to specialize in their use of information. as research organizatlons tend to do.Why, then. did we choose to focus our work in development communicatlons on rural enterprise development? Or to put the questlon another way, why did we consider this toplc a good entry point for initlatlves in development communicatlons?The answer has much todo wtth the emerging global economy. Developing country governments. in trying to improve their competitlve position within the new economic system, have made tmportant policy changes, which have profound implicatlons for the livelihoods of the rural poor, presentlng them with both threats and opportunitles.On the one hand, decline of govemment support for gratn production and the removal of tariffs on gratn imports, in line with market liberalization policies, have made it increasingly difficult for small farmers to produce certatn staple foods at a profit. At the same, though, rising demand for a wtde vartety of tropical products. in both domestlc and export markets, has opened up new optlons for them to diverslfy thelr productlon and market tles. In recent years many rural people have seized the new market opportunities in the hopes of finding an exit from rural poverty. In dotng so they have switched from almost total reliance on staples, like matze, potato. cassava. and beans. to rnixed systems that tnclude higher value products. such as horticultura! crops and tropical frutts.In Latin America, for example, trade in maize has rematned essentially stagnant over the last two decades. while exports of non-staple foods. such as fruits and vegetables, have tncreased in Latln Amertca generally and Central America specifically by 400 percent (Reardon 2005). This reglan, says Reardon, is \"a clear winner from the produce market globalization.\"It comes as no surprise. though, that new agricultura! market opportunities are being setzed mainly by medium-and large-scale farmers, who occupy lands with favorable growtng conditions, possess specific techntcal knowledge, and have direct links to buyers. Given the limited economies of scale assoctated with high-value crops, however, the doors are open for assoctatlons of small growers as well. So, an tmportant challenge is to determine how best to support these fanners, as they try to build profitable ties with growth markets, etther by addtng value to thelr traditional crops or by diversifying into new enterprtses.One measure that should help ls to improve rural people's capacity to find, use. generate, and share lnfonnation and knowledge. Their ability to analyze and act on infonnation about tapies such as prtce trends, production and processtng technologtes, and quality standards, for example, is crttlcal for building sustainable and competitive rural enterprtses strongly linked to dynamic markets.In focustng on enterprtse development. CIATs InforCom Project thus hopes to demonstrate how improved communications can complement and reinforce a potentially powerful strategy for ratsing rural incomes. Many national and intemational development organizations in Afrtca, Asia, and Latin America have embraced this strategy in recent years. And CIAT supports those organizations by devisíng wtth them improved methodologtes for strengthening the market links of farmers and other actors in rural areas.As ts to be expected. though. the new emphasls on linking small farmers to markets has lts crttics. Sorne argue that, since medium-and Iarge-scale farmers are better prepared to seize market opportunities, any development strategy centertng on rural enterprises and hlgh-value crops will lnevttably wtnd up benefittng matnly more affluent rural people and further margtnaliztng small fanners and others.Certalnly, that danger exlsts. All we can say is that the challenge for agricultura! research and development organizations ls to devise enterprtse development strategtes that speclfically target the poor.Well-concelved communications tnitiatives offer a means of broadening the parttcipatlon of the rural poor in the technologtcal and social tnnovation requlred for successful productlon and marketing of high-value crops. How can we best ortent communications initlatives so as to accompllsh that end? Many projects centertng on high-value crops are organized around the concept of \"agrtcultural supply chalns.\" This tenn refers to the series of actors and functlons that lead from the production of a crop. through postharvest handling and processtng, to marketing and consumption. The supply chaln also includes al! the support services (such as technical assistance, input supply, and credit) that contrtbute directly or indirectly to those functlons. In general, small producers. because thelr resources are limited, occupy the least favorable positlon in agrtcultural supply chalns. They are parttcularly handicapped by a lack of infonnatlon and lmowledge, which rnight enable them to capture more of the value added to their produce or shlft to other, more lucrattve supply chains or markets.To help farmers and other supply chain actors overcome the disadvantages they face, CIAT has developed what we call a \"tenitorial approach for rural enterprtse development\" (Lundy et al. 2002). The approach features four main components. The first involves the establishment of interest or working groups consisting of communtty leaders and local development professionals who are committed to enterprtse development within a rural territory. In a second stage, group members identify and analyze market opportunities, resulting in a portfolio of htgh-potential options. Next, they conduct parttcipatory analysis of the supply chains for promlsing optlons. Based on the results. they then destgn strategies that enable small farmers to establish competltlve advantages and stronger market links. Finally, the interest groups seek ways to strengthen the local network of business support services. such as credit, tnformatlon. inputs. and technlcal assistance.Recent experience in Honduras and Peru suggests that farmers using this approach can significantly boost thetr incomes. In Honduras, for example, a group of coffee farmers negotlated a 16 percent premium on their product. Though world prices have fallen since then, participating farmers stlll earn twice as much for a kilogram of coffee as what nonparticipants receive. In Peru producers of black pepper who applied the territorial approach ended up with price gatns rangtng from 20 to 100 percent over prices paid to other farmers.The aim of CIATs territorial approach to rural enterprise development and other, s imilar efforts is to make agricultura! supply chains more fatr and equitable, particularly for small farmers. With this alm in mind, one author (Bouma 2000) has proposed the notlon of convertlng traditional supply chains into \"val u e chalns.\" The idea is that chatn actors, rather than always seek profit at the expense of others. need to work more collaboratively toward the shared goal of providing a higher value product that generates greater benefits for all.To better express this vision of interdependent chaln actors. we believe 1t is helpful to view agricultura! supply chatns essentially as information networks. If we expect to strengthen supply chains, we must, among other things, improve information flows and relationships between chain actors by helping them build communlcations capacity. Putting that capacity to use in favor of enterprise development is one of the various business support services that rural entrepreneurs requlre.Promoting technological and social innovation within agricultura! supply chatns also involves improved handling of information and communications. After all, innovation is not just the product of individual genius or inslght but rather involves a social process in which numerous people may play a role in putting an tnnovation to practica! use (Douthwaite et al. 2002). This betng the case. we expect that better communication between supply chain actors should strengthen the innovation process.Suppose. then, we find that stronger informatlon networks do contribute to innovation withln agricultura! supply chains, and. as a result, poor members of rural communitles are able to improve their market links and raise their incomes. Will higher incomes translate into more sustatnable rurallivelihoods? Not necessartly, but raising lncomes will at least provide a start by enabling rural people to better afford the luxury of investing in other aspects of their work and Uves. tncludtng health, houstng, education, and the management of natural resources on whlch thelr livelthoods depend.Rural enterprise development should thus be viewed orlly as a good point of departure for efforts to tmprove communlcations in rural areas, but a partlcularly tmportant one. which can open the door for advancement in many other spheres of rural development.Agricultura! supply chains are complex information networks, involving numerous actors living and working at diverse locations. So, if tmproved communications are i.mportant for boosting innovation within such networks, as suggested in the precedtng sectlon, we need to decide where, wtth whom, and how to begtn worktng toward this end.Common sense suggests that any effort to enhance ínformation flows wtthl.n supply chatos should focus on places where improved communications can complement ongotng technology development. farmer organization. or other efforts to strengthen supply chatos. If such efforts are already under way. they can provide relevant content or messages, potential collaborators. andan overall framework for action.For communications initiatives that will involve the use of new ICfs. which are still a novelty in most rural areas. 1t is espectally important to gain a clear ptcture of who has or lacks information and what communtcations media are already available. Much of the literature on the Mdtgital divide\" points to the folly of introducing ICfs wtthout an adequate knowledge of the local sttuation wtth respect to current patterns of infonnation shartng (Gtrard 2003).One promtsing methodology for helping groups of people gatn a shared vistan of themselves in relation to infonnation flows is social network analysis (SNA). In this rapidly developing area of the social sciences, various applications have been created, covertng a wtde range of tapies, such as health care, psychology. business organizatton. and immigration.By focusing on the relationships between different actors in a particular social setting, SNA helps us understand how their posttion in a network (that is, the degree to which they are connected) influences thelr access to resources, such as infonnation, goods, and capital. The methodology has been used to tdentify information blockages in networks and as a gutde for tailortng infonnation more closely to the needs of specific groups (Haythornthwaite 1996).In addition to offertng access to infonnation, networks provide contacts wtth people who know how to use that infonnation. Indivtduals can thus actively improve their networks by wtdening thetr contacts to capture more beneftt from the information avaHable (Burt 1992). Using networks to access information and other resources is an important strategy for bullding social capital. which Lin (2001) defines as \"an investment in social relations wtth an expected return in the marketplace.\" SNA can help us gatn a better understanding of supply chains, particularly the relationshtps and tnformation flows between actors. Classical economtc theory explatned these relationshtps in terms of markets or hierarchies (Willlamson 1975). But especially since the advent of new Icrs. whtch have had a profound impact on the way individuals and organizattons work (Castells 2000). it makes more sense to take a network approach in examtntng the tnterplay of vertical and horizontal relationshtps between actors in supply chatos.In agricultura! supply chains of the industrtalized world. the abílíty of small and medtum-sized enterprises to compete and survive depends increastngly on their access to information about changes in dynamic global markets. And this, in turn, depends on their success in building networks, based on relationships of trust with customers and suppliers.That experience has clear implications for small farmers in the developing world, as they shift to higher value crops, build stronger market ties, and partlcipate more in the global economy. These farmers will increasingly be exposed to risk from price fluctuations, changing weather conditions, and attacks by crops pests and diseases. To remain competltive under these circumstances, it will be critlcal for small farmers to become better connected within networks. This should help them access current, reliable, and inexpensive information as well as practica! knowledge about market prices and tendencies. production and processing technologies, and a wide range of other topics.CIAT staff first employed SNA in a rudimenta.ry form severa! years ago with producers and other actors in the supply chain for panela (unrefined sugar) in Colombia's southwestern Cauca Department. Our reasons for conductlng this analysis were to give chain actors a more concrete idea of what networks are and help them form a shared vision of themselves as members of a network within the panela supply chain. This analysis formed part of our fi.rst effort to find practica! ways of lmproving communications within agrtcultural supply chains.In 2004 the InforCom Project gained an opportunity to explore the potential of SNA more deeply through a project funded by the UK's Department for International Development (DFID) through its Facilitatlng lnnovative Technology (FI11 Program in Bolivia. The purpose of the program was to strengthen the Sistema Boliviano de Tecnología Agropecuaria, or SIBTA (Bolivian System for Agricultura! Technology) and its four Fundaciones para el Desarrollo de Tecnología Agropecuaria, or FDTAs (Foundations for the Development of Agricultura! Technology). The objective of the FIT project (called RedCampo, or NRural Network\") carried out by InforCom, was to design and implement effective approaches for using ICTs to enhance lnfonnation networks involving small-scale productlon of high-value crops.In preparation for designing a capacity-bullding program to accomplish this aim, IrúorCom carried out social network analysis with farmers , technicians, and other actors in three supply chains atas many locatlons in Bolivia: coffee at Caranavi, La Paz Department; chili at Monteagudo, Chuquisaca: and peach at Valle Grande. Santa Cruz. Our aim in uslng SNA was to avoid the technology-centered, informatlon-diffusion approaches that characterize many ICT-related projects and to sharpen our focus on the people involved and their capacity to communlcate with one another. SNA offered us a baste tool for creatlng maps of infonnatlon flows in the supply chains, indicatlng key actors in the supply chains, the infonnatlon flows between them, communication bottlenecks, and information needs.When InforCom undertook SNA at the locatlons in Bolivia. there was no ready-made procedure for applying the methodology to agricultura! supply chains. One had to be created essentially from scratch. Although the RedCampo Project accompltshed much toward this end. the methodology is stlll to sorne degree a work in process. We contlnue to adjust and adapt it. based on lessons learned from the RedCampo expertence. so that it can yield more useful results.Even so. the methodology is sufficiently refined that we can recommend 1t for wtdespread use in relatlon to agrtcultural supply chains. As an aid to potential users, we have prepared a practica! guide entltled Social Network Analysis: A Diagnostic Tooljor Agricultura! Supply Chains (Clark, in press). This gutde explains step-by-step how to carry out the analysis and provides samples of the various formats used in data collection and analysis and of the results obtained. For a detailed account of the research that gave rise to this methodology, see the InjorComAnnual Reportjor 2005(CIAT 2006). Below we present only a brief descrtption of the steps involved and results obtained wtth the methodology.Field surveys: The first step in applying SNA is to plan a fleld survey. The challenge at this stage is to define exactly what informatlon ts required and what questions will best solicit this information. It is always a temptation to ask too many questlons. Not only does this bore and confuse the informants (a particular problem in rural areas), but it generates far more data than can be realistically analyzed and wtthout necessarily adding useful insights. This is a particular danger with SNA. since the literature offers little guldance on how to design surveys for this purpose.A helpful way to reduce problems in survey design and data collectlon is to make preliminary visits to the survey sites and hold participatory workshops with supply chain actors. This enables the survey team to gatn a better understanding of chain actors' perceptlons. to build relationships of trust (both among actors and between them and the survey team). and to carry out a prelirnlnary analysis of information demands.The baseline survey we used in Bolivia was divided tnto three sections. The frrst was aimed at creatlng a catalog of different actors in the supply chains and gatntng an understanding of their roles. influence. and use of informatlon. Toward this end the questions were tailored to different actors-producers, associatlon members. traders. and support service providers. The second section was designed to identify the position (or degree of Mconnectedness\") within the network of all actors surveyed, regardless of their profile. The third section, also applied to all informants. centered on information demands. The format we used thus takes tnto account the fact that every actor in the supply chain ts a potential informatlon source, while also having specific information demands. With the data gathered in this fashlon, we were able to analyze the flow of information between different actors in the supply chains.Data analysis and results: Various software packages are available for analyzing data for SNA, tncludtng Inflow, Pajek. and Ucinet. Little information is avallable on the advantages and d!sadvantages of the different products for speciflc purposes. The InforCom team used Pajek to analyze data from the three Bolivian sttes. and this gave good initial results. But more detailed analysis proved frustrating with thts software, so the team exam!ned other altematives. Detailed analysis preved easter with Ucinet. which has an accompanying visualization software package called Netdraw. At present thts is the software most commonly used for SNA.--~~ .......... _ ~---\"'1'-\"'H¡o.~~::::.. . . . . _ , . . L;J~~-!!5\"\"''-~~- Once the InforCom team began analyzing the data, the huge advantages of SNA over more traditlonal methods became quite clear. For each supply chain, the survey data were transferred toan Excel spreadsheet in about 2 hours, and this information was then fed into Pajek. The software instantly produced \"soctograms\" for each chain, gtvtng a clear image of information flows between actors. As show in the accompanying figure, the network actors or nodes are shown as circles: the relationship between two or more nodes is represented by lines, whose color or thickness varies. depending on the strength of the relationship; and the directlon or flow of the relatlonshtp is indtcated by arrows.Despite tnitial difflculties, the team found that SNA software is also versatile enough to produce images that clearly depict the information demands of supply chain actors.Though the method requtres further refinement, the InforCom Project has found it to be useful and effective as a diagnostic and planning tool for initiatives aimed at tmprovtng communicatlons in agrtcultural supply chains. InforCom has also designed a methodology for more general use of SNA tn rural development and has prepared a manual on thts subject entltled Social Network Analysis: A Diagnostíc Tooljor Rural Deuelopment Projects (Clark 2005).Over the last decade or so, many organizatlons and individuals around the world have come to see new ICTs as potentially powerful tools for helping achieve sustainable development in countrtes of the South. Initially, there was a tendency to see these technologtes as a panacea. Sorne believed that access to new ICTs would quickly produce a dramatic difference in the lives of the poor, offertng them easier access to health services, educattonal opportunities, govemment agencies, and intemattonal markets for agricultura! products and crafts, to cite sorne of the main applicatlons. But making e-health, e-education, egovemment, ande-business a reality for the poor has proved far more difficult than was originally envisioned.Not nearly enough research has been canied out to measure the impact of new ICTs on the livelihoods of the poor, particularly in rural areas, where access to these tools is still limited. Even so, enough experiences have been documented-involving both failures and successes-that we now have a realistic idea of what to expect when ICfs are introduced in rural communities. We also have a reasonably good understanding of how thls can be done successfully (Gómez et al. 2001: Gómez andCasadiego 2002).One of the main vehicles for introducing ICTs in rural areas. notably in Latin Amertca, has been the community telecenter. Deftnittons of thts term abound in the literature, but for the purposes of this document, we refer to them as public facilities, generally operated by local NGOs or other organizatlons, that offer access to new ICTs as well as training and orientatlon in thelr use for individual and community development. Thus, in contrast to privately ru.n cybercafes and Internet access points. which have proliferated in developing country citles and towns, community telecenters have a mainly social purpose (Menou et al. 2004).By placing this discusston right after the sectlon on the use of social network analysis as an tnformation diagnostic tool, we do not mean to imply that telecenters are the flrst or most important step toward enhancing communications in agrtcultural supply chains or in rural areas generally. Though ru.ral community telecenters have much potentlal, as we explain below. there are pitfalls in establlshing and operating them, and they have clear limitations in servtng rural people.Nonetheless, technology is an important tool for improvtng communications in agrtcultural supply chains, and it deserves stgnificant emphasis and investrnent. The key is to know which is the most approprtate technology for a given purpose and to invest accordingly. Thus. we encourage project planners-rather than leap too hastlly on the telecenter bandwagon-to examine first the kinds of information and communications services that most need strengthening and to then invest in the technologies that seem most suitable for delivertng these services.In going through this exercise, it is helpful to bear in mind the distinction that economist Nigel Poole (2003) draws between market and marketing information. The former consists mainly of commodity prices. As discussed later. government agencies in many developing countries disseminate price information as a public service, and much expertence in Afrtca• and Latin Amertca has shown that radio is the most powerful communications medium for this purpose.Sorne organizations are also ustng short message services (SMS) to deliver price information vía cellular phone. But arguably the real potential of cellular phones. as Poole suggests, líes in facllitating the communication of marketing information, which consists of quite specific and valuable details, such as the product volumes and quality required by particular buyers at particular places and times. This infonnatlon is of a more prívate character than commodity prices, so a more personalized communications technology is needed to faciUtate its exchange. The rapid spread of cellular phone service throughout the developing world promises to make a real difference in farmers' ability to gatn timely access to marketing infonnatlon.Internet is arguably the tool of choice for enabling rural organizations, including farmer associatlons. to widen and strengthen their web of contacts with sources of support. opportunitles. and new ideas beyond the rural community. Infonnatlon intennediaries in organtzatlons and communitles can work toward thts end by searching the World Wide Web for usefullnfonnatlon and contacts, by followtng up on these vta e-mail, and by projecting their strengths through Web publishtng of content generated from their own experience and environrnent.One way of concentratlng and channeling such efforts ls through the construction of local. Web-based infonnatlon systems for rural enterprtse development, provtding details about such topics as productlon and processing technologtes, business organizatlon, and the local contexts in which enterprises operate. Such systems have been developed in Colombia on a provincial basis (www.caucasider.org), in Peru for coastal irrtgatlon districts (www.huaral.org), and in Bolivia for a natlonwide associatlon of organic crop producers (www.aopeb.org).CIAT has gained valuable experience in detennlntng how to promote the generation of market-related content at the regional and natlonallevels as well. A notable example is our relatlonship with the African software developer Busylab. With this ftnn we have developed market infonnation systems for Africa (www.tradenet.biz) and, more recently, Central Arnertca (www.agroemprendedor.org).In order for technicians, farmers, and other supply chatn actors to use and contrtbute to these systems. they must obvtously have access to the Internet. Communlty telecenters are perhaps ideal for this purpose, because the organizatlons that administer them offer training in ICf use and encourage the use and creatlon of development-related content. But. as mentloned above, establishing effectlve and sustatnable telecenters is a significant challenge.Another optlon is to use privately run Internet access potnts in major towns. But these lack key features of community telecenters-namely their development ortentation and personal touch-which appeal strongly to rural people.A further possibility in sorne countries consists of government-sponsored Internet access points. In recent years sorne governments (for example, in Colombia. Honduras. Peiu, and South Afrtca) have embarked on ambitlous telecommunications programs that offer Internet access to remote rurallocatlons on a quite large scale. Colombia's COMPARTEL Program, for example, has established Internet access points in hundreds of rural towns over the last 4 or 5 years.The aim of such programs is purportedly to promote economic and social advancement. But they generally lack effectlve mechanisms for incorporatlng the use of ICTs into local development. Rather, they tend to be technology-centered and based on the microbusiness model that characterizes piivately run cybercafes, with the important difference that government-sponsored access centers are subsidized. Whether these have a strong social orientation depends a great deal on the profile of the person destgnated to operate them.Despite their shortcomings, government connectivity programs are probably the best hope for most rural people to obtain convenient and cheap access to Internet and other ICfs any time soon. Through the efforts of local development organizations, it should be possible to link the use of these services to enterprise development and other su eh inltiatives. Because of their presumably social aims, government Internet access points may lend themselves more to development application than privately run cybercafes. This alternative may also prove easier and less expensive than establishtng rural community telecenters.If rural organizations do opt to establish community telecenters orto link govemmentsponsored Internet access centers to rural development initiatives, what benefits can they reasonably expect to come from their efforts? Befare answertng this question, we should perhaps make clear what they should not expect.CIATs experience and that of others (Amariles et al. 2006;Parkinson 2005) suggests that it is unlikely for large numbers of individual fanners to vislt telecenters on their own in!tiative. This is beca use of formidable geographical, economic, and cultural bariiers, which prevent them from using the formal sources of information to which telecenters can provide access.In the first instance, the majortty of farmers Uve great distances from the small towns where telecenters have been established, and the nonnal hourly fees are generally prohibitive for them. Other barriers have to do with culture and content. In general, farmers obtain the infonnation on which they base key decisions from people they know personally and trust, such as family, neighbors, and possibly agrlcultural extension agents. Only a small proportion of fanners obtain lmportant information from documents, such as pamphlets and manuals, and much less from the Internet. Even when Colombian farmers availed themselves of telecenter services, we found they had difflculty find!ng tnformation relevant to their specific concerns and local circumstances.Who does use rural telecenters then? According to our results for two rural telecenters in Cauca. Colombia, early users tended to be fairly young and well educated; their average age was 28, and 97 percent had completed secondary education. Thus, telecenter users were not representative of the general population but rather constituted a relatively elite group fitting the typical pro file of \"early technology adopters.\" Thus. far from brtdgtng the so-called \"digital divide\" in rural communities, telecenters seemed to created new inequities, whtch particularly affect small-farm families.While showtng stgnificant drawbacks, however, telecenters can generate considerable social value in rural areas, particularly if they are managed by socially committed local organ1Zations with effective and imaginary leadership.At Tunía, Cauca, in southwestem Colombia, for example, a quarter of the population in this town of 2,000 became users of a community telecenter within a few years after tts establishment by a local NGO. When asked about their perceptlons of the telecenter's impact. 83 percent of users said it had generated benefits.Among the predominant telecenter uses at 1\\mía were helping chlldren do homework assignments through Web searches and keeping in touch with frtends and relatives via email. These may seem superficial in terms of rural development. But they represent important gains for the townspeople. resulting in significant savings in time and money. Maintaintng contact with relatives abroad is especially important for rural communities like 1\\mía, because they depend heavily on remittances sent home by migrant workers (Robinson 2003).Apart from those gains. the telecenter appears to fulfill many people's destre to leam about and connect themselves with the wider world. The parents ofyoung telecenter users in particular express high expectations that, by leaming to use ICTs, their chlldren w1ll gain new opportunities for educatton and advancement.The real power of community telecenters. however, lies in their ab1lity to enhance the performance of rural organtzations. In an impact study of two rural community telecenters, for example, we observed strtking changes in the motivation and capacity of staff in the organizatlons hosting these telecenters. Both organizations incorporated the use of ICTs into their development programs-focusing on topics such as enterprtse development. rural education, and human ríghts-and they raised new project funds to support these efforts. Individual staff found information on the Web that served them in their activities with rural communities, and they bullt virtual support and collaborative networks that translated into concrete opportunities for building new knowledge, capacities. and projects.Presumably. more efficient and effective organizatlons do a better Job of helping rural communities develop new sources of income and address other aspects of sustainable Uvelihoods. Thus, in their early years. community telecenters can have an indirect, though stlll significant, impact in fostertng sustatnable development.An obvious questlon is whether rural organizatlons can derive such benefits from the use of telecenters. without necessartly assuming responsibility for operating them. Recent expertence in Colombia's Cauca Department suggests they can. Take, for example, the case of an association of fiower producers at Tunia, which had received business support services from a local NGO called CorpoTunía. When this organization established a community telecenter, sorne of the flower producers obtained training in baste computer software, and they quickly identified useful applications. For example, to determine the requirements for entertng flower export markets. they consulted the Web sites of other, larger associations, with guidance from a CorpoTunía agronomist. The group determined that. in order to export their flowers, they would need to improve their infrastructure, meet new demands in terms of product volume and quality, obtain credit. and so forth . Thus, access to information enabled the group to clartfy its vision for the future and to identify specific needs. Of course, this does not guarantee the association w1ll realize its vision, but having new information at least represents a step forward on the road toward change.With the airo of encouraging and facilitatlng such developments, InforCom has devised a methodology for using lCfs to strengthen rural organizatlons. It draws mainly on our expertence with local NGOs and grassroots organizatlons in southwestern Colombia. The methodology has been documented in a publicatlon entitled Conectese al Mundo y Hagalo Suyo: Una Guía para Fortalecer Pequeñas Organizaciones Mediante el Uso de Las Nuevas Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación (Connect Yourself to the World and Make lt Yours: A Guide for Strengthening Small Organizatlons though the Use of New Information and Communicatlons Technologies). This publicatlon is a companion piece for a multimedia product developed by lnforCom, which is entitled Telecentros Comunitarios: Una Estrategia para Promover el Desarrollo Sostenible in Comunidades Rurales (Community Telecenters: A Strategy for Promoting Sustainable Development in Rural Corrununities). Offertng practica! advice in an interesting and entertaining manner, thls tool is useful as a guide to planning the establishment a¡td development of telecenters, with the participation of rural organizatlons and communitles.Another obvious questlon-perhaps the question-is whether rural community telecenters are sustainable, given the continued high costs and urneliability of connectivity in rural areas as well as other difficultles, such as maintenance and replacement of hardware and the high cost of commercial software. This is not purely a financial issue, as our colleagues at Fundación Chasquinet have repeatedly stressed in their capacity as coordinators of Somos@Telecentros (\"We are telecenters\"), which is a virtual support network for telecenters in Latln America. Much experience in this and other regions of the developing world has shown that Internet access centers in rural towns can be operated at a modest profit.But, as potnted out above, community telecenters do much more than simply provtde access to Internet and other ICfs; they actlvely promote the use of these technologies for personal and community development. Our experience in Colombia as well as that of colleagues elsewhere in Latln America and in Africa suggests that telecenters do not generate sufficient financia! returns to cover the full costs of this social functlon.How then can rural communities achieve sustainabtlity? The three telecenters establlshed durtng 2000 in southwestern Colombia, with support from CIAT and a local university. are all stilltn operatlon, though they constantly struggle for survival. Why do the organizations that host these telecenters go to the trouble? Primarily because they are driven by a deep social commitment. and their expertence has demonstrated how telecenters can generate important social benefits in rural communltles as well as stronger capacities that enable local organizatlons to offer rural people better social, technical. and other services. This, in turn, has prompted the organizatlons to divert funds from other sources into telecenter maintenance and to develop new ICT-related projects that bring further resources to bear on telecenter operations. Thus, a key to successful development of rural community telecenters is the willingness and ability of soclally committed local organizations to incorporate telecenters into their development initiatives and to actively seek funds to support this work.Should, then, organizations supporting small farmers and rural entrepreneurs embark on community telecenter development? If they believe the kinds of social and organizatlonal benefits descrtbed above justlfy the effort, then the answer might be yes.But if these organizatlons seek to generate more direct benefits for rural people, then telecenter development will need to be accompanied by other interventlons. These must be deslgned to create brtdges between small farmers and rural entrepreneurs. on the one hand, and the informatlon and knowledge sources to which telecenters can provide them easier access. on the other. As explained above. telecenters by themselves tend to widen rather than lessen the digital divide in rural communitles. So, we must find other, complementary means by which rural people can partlcipate in the global informatlon so<;iety and knowledge economy. Speclftcally, we must seek ways of overcoming the cultural and other barrters that individual farmers and other rural people face in availing themselves of ICTs and formal informatlon sources generally.In search of ways to accompllsh this, the InforCom Project began in 2002 to develop an approach centertng on what we refer to genertcally as sistemas de irifonnación para el desarrollo empresarial rural, or SIDER (that is. Minformatlon systems for rural enterprtse development\"). This concept was developed through an actlon research initlatlve involving two parallel processes, one centering on groups of informatlon intermediartes within an agricultura! supply chain selected on a pilot basis and the other on the creatlon of a Webbased informatlon system.The parallel processes unfolded roughly as follows:l. Design-This phase consisted of the followtng steps: (1) formatlon of working groups.(2) definitlon of strategic alms, (3) diagnosis of informatlon and knowledge needs, (4) characterizatlon of information and communicatlons networks, and(5) designing a plan to improve local informatlon dynamics. 2 . Implementation-This involved (1) shartng the SIDER design in partlcipatlng rural communitles and (2) carrying out a plan for capacity strengthening, content development. establishment of alliances, and training of system users. 3. Di(fusion-The aim of this phase was to promete the system with local organizatlons and community members through personal contact, agrtcultural or knowledge fairs, and a high-profile publtc event to launch the system.The work with informatlon intermediartes was 1ntended to strengthen the network of lndividuals and organlzatlons interested in informatlon about a particular supply chaln. For thls purpose CIAT staff helped form three working groups in southwestem Colombia, referred toas grupos gestores de comunicación (communicatlons development groups). All three were made up malnly of small-scale producers of panela. or unrefined sugar. though sorne agricultura! techniclans took part as well.The groups received lntensive communlcations training to enable them to develop relevant agricultura! content with only modest asslstance, drawing on local knowledge as well as information avallable from nearby research and development organizatlons or through the World Wide Web. In developing local content, an irnportant challenge for the gestores, which they met successfully, was to \"translate\" the terminology of formal organizations into a Ianguage that farrners can easily understand. They also learned to share the resulting content through communicattons strategies combinlng Internet use with a vartety of conventtonal and altemattve media, including radio, prtnted materials, and drarnattzations.The cornrnunications groups played a key role in developing the Web-based infonnatlon system, which provided a means of making content centrally available for diffuslon via the media mentioned above. The gestores indicated thelr infonnatton needs, the fonn in whtch they wanted to find infonnation, and thelr preferences with respect to graphic design. The final product {www.caucasider.org) consists of four main components, as outlined below: l. Prices and markets-This component of the system offers prtce information for more than 25 products that are important in Cauca's agricultura! economy and for 13 cities in or around Cauca. whose markets influence prices in the area or represent a market opportunity for producers. These prices are supplied by the Colombia Intemational Corporation {CCI). with which we established an agreement for obtaining weekly price infonnation. 2. Agricultura! supply chains-The purpose of this component was to provide infonnatlon on various supply chains in Cauca Departrnent that are considered to be of high priority by producers and traders in the local econornic context. So far. the site contains only inforrnation about the panela supply chain. The information covers the steps involved in panela production and processing, the current status of this supply chain, and recent technological advances in the panela industry of Cauca and other reglons of Colombia. 3. Enterprtse deuelopment-Thls component includes seven sectlons: development of rural micro-enterprises, project development, financtng and strengthening enterprise development, legal aspects. business support services. capacity strengthening and events. and a virtual library on enterprise development. 4. Ou.r network-This section is dedicated to the municipalities in which the SIDER was developed and to the producers who took part in the process. Here they have the opportunity to share their social context with the rest of the world through the creatlon of content on culture, education. htstory, tourism, and local personalitles. They complled this information with the support of community members and organizations.For a detailed report on our experience with the communications groups and Webbased information system , see Hurtado et al. {2006).In 2004 we gained an opportunity to further develop the SIDER methodology under a project funded by DFID in the UK through its Facilitating lnnovative Technology (Fl11 Prograrn in Bolivia. In Bolivia, as in Colombia, we saw good opportunitles for exploring the potential of informatlon intermediaries to use new ICTs and other comrnunicattons tools for rural enterprtse development.The central objecttve of the FIT3 Project (which we subsequently renamed RedCampo, for \"Rural Network\"} was to design and implement effective approaches for using ICTs to enhance supply-chain information networks involving small-scale production of high-value crops. More speciftcally, we wanted to learn what was entailed in adapting a method ortginally developed in Colombia to the more difficult conditions of rather remote locations in Bolivia.Upon completion of social network analysis (SNA) at three locations in Bolivia, as descrtbed earlier, the results were shared with supply-chain actors who had participated in the analysis. At each of the three locations, a group of volunteers referred to as promotores de información y comunicación (information and communications promoters) was formed, with the aims of improving communicatlons between the vartous chain actors identlfied through SNA and meeting the information needs determined. Each group, with 8 to 16 members. consisted mainly of small farmers belonging to associations, though at one site many members were students whose parents are small farmers . Group members tended to be young. and all were involved or had a particular interest in the supply chain for a spectfic high-value crop of considerable importance at their locatlon: coffee at Caranavi, La Paz: chili at Monteagudo, Chuquisaca; and peach at Valle Grande, Santa Cruz. From August to November 2005, the groups participated in monthly training workshops. each covertng 2 or 3 of a total of 11 communications trainlng modules.The methodology used to strengthen the capacity of informatlon promoters is based on a partlcipatory communications approach, which draws on insights from expertence with adult education in rural areas. In applying the methodology with information promoters. trainers facilltate a process of active investlga~on, in which partlcipants generate and apply knowledge themselves, drawing on their own experience as well as new ideas. Moreover, the knowledge they create is related to specific objectives for change in their behavior and attltudes, and each training module deals in a practica! way with concrete problems or opportunities.The methodology developed by RedCampo was implemented in collaboration with three project partners. FDTA-Valles (Valleys). FDTA-Trópico Húmedo (Humid Tropics), and the Asociación Boliviana de Organizaciones de Productores Ecológicos de Bolivia, or AOPEB (Bolivian Association of Organizatlons of Ecologtcal Producers). Following are brtef descrtptions of the 11 communications trainlng modules developed by the Red Campo Project and covered with information and communlcations promoters at three sites in Bolivia.First workshop l. The agricultural supply chain-Partlcipants leam what a supply chain is. and they identify its vartous llnks as well as the actors who contrtbute to its functiontng either directly or indtrectly. They also consider why it is useful to analyze supply chains and how increased collaboration within chains can help strengthen them. 2 . InfonnatiDn and communications-This module covers basic concepts of information and communicatlons. 3 . InfonnatiDn networks-Here the focus is on the functlons and components of information networks. the benefits of being a part of such networks, and the role of promoters in strengthening them.4. Communications media-The promoters gatn an overview of comrnunications media, including new ICfs, print media (such as pamphlets, posters, and bulletln boards). electronlc media (e.g .. megaphones, radio, etc.). and alternatlve media, such as soclodramas and puppet shows. They also learn how to select media, based on thelr suitabllity In tenns of coverage, cost, and so forth to convey particular messages toa given audlence. For the purposes of this capacity-buUding workshop, the promoters re-examine problems In the supply chain of interest, which they identified and prioritized in connectlon with the social network analysls. Then, each group of promoters collectively destgns a comrnunications campatgn atmed at meeting an informatlon need in relatlon to one or a few of those problems.Creating radio programs-Promoters draft the script for a radio drama deallng with the problem(s) they have prioritized and determine how 1t can be produced and broadcast locally. 8 . Creattng prtnted products-similarly, the promoters develop a preliminary design for a printed product and plan its production and distributlon in connectlon with the infonnation campatgn. 9. Using market injonnation-In this module promoters consider the importance of a specific type of local content and learn how it is disseminated and how farmers can be tralned to make better use of it, using a methodology descrtbed below.Fourth workshop 10. Organizing tnjonnation and communications initiatives-Here the idea is for the promoters to imagine how they can work independently as a group to implement their comrnunicatlons campatgn in collaboratlon with local organizations. 11. Evalu.ati.ng the capacity-building process-ln this last module, the promoters reflect on what they have learned over the 4-month period. They describe changes that have taken place in their attitudes and capabillties. recording impressions about the past, present, and future.For details on the achlevements of each group of promoters. see Ram.írez et al. {2006). Suffice it to say here that all of the groups identified important informatlon needs, developed messages that responded to these needs, and deVised and implemented strategies for sharing these messages, uslng mainly radio and posters. In this work they received support from the RedCampo Project but also from local development organizatlons.The results of the evaluation carried out in the final tralning session confirmed that the subject matter was novel and interesting for participants. Most gave evidence of important changes in their attitudes and capabilities. They felt confident about their ability to disseminate information relevant to their respective supply chalns and to share their knowledge with other chain actors.Viviana, an information and communications promoter at Caranavi, wrote as follows:Past: 1 used to be very timid. 1 wanted to get ahead, but in my organization they don't take women's opinions into account.Present: 1 have changed the way 1 handle myself. I have better relationships with organizations, and 1 have gotten closer to the leaders of my own organlzation.Further evaluation of the capacity-building methodology presented here took place In March 2006, as the RedCampo Project carne toa close. The results suggest that small-scale fanners and others conslder the methodology to be interesting and relevant. Implementation of the methodology with groups working at diverse locations in different agrtcultural supply chains has shown that small farmers are fully capable of acquiring new information and communications skills in a remarkably short time. Applying those skills boosts farmers' confidence in their ability to share information, using diverse media, and to collaborate and communicate with other supply-chain actors.The interest of intemational and natlonal development organizations. local universlties. and municipal authorities in the methodology is also noteworthy. Agaln, this tells us that the methodology is highly relevant to problems or issues that many colleagues are eager to address. What remains to be seen. of course. is what impacts are generated by changes in the attitudes and activities of the information and communications promoters. Are the benefits large enough to justify investing in the implementatlon of these methodologtes? In seeking to detect such benefits. we envision two possibilities.One is that the information disseminated by the information and communications promoters might influence farmers' decisions about crop production, postharvest handling. or marketing and thus have an economically signiflcant effect. It would also be useful to determine whether farmers serving as promoters and facilitators have any particular advantage over agrtcultural technicians and other chaln actors as sources of technical and market information.A second possibility is that empowerment of the promoters will improve their position with respect to knowledge access and perhaps enable them to promote stronger relationships and communication within the supply chain. In other words the promoter groups might provide a mechanism for knowledge sharing between chaln actors. One would then have to examine whether this has economically significant consequences for farmers and other actors who tend to occupy a weak positlon in supply chalns.Another critica! issue, as in the case of community telecenters. is that of sustainability. Is the support of local organizations sufficient for enabling the promoters to function as a group? Do that support, plus enhanced self-confidence and social status. provide the promoters with sufficient incentives to continue? If the promoters do not continue working as a group. can they have an impact by applying their new skills individually? And whether they work as a group or as individuals, can promoters offer their inforrnatlon and communications services on a business basis? In other words are markets for inforrnation in rural areas emerging, or could they, and could the promoters cater effectively to such markets and make a profit?Based on the Colombian and Solivian experiences summarized here. InforCom is documenting a methodology for strengthening the capacity of individuals and organtzations to act as information intermediaries within supply chains. We hope this publication will encourage others to embark on further experiments that explore the potential of rural people to enhance their information networks and in this way open up new possibilitles for improved livelihoods.One of the most fundamental servl.ces that farmers require in arder to strengthen their market and entrepreneurial orientation is access to reliable infonnatlon about current prices for diverse agrtcultural products. Govemment agencies in many developing countries operate price information systems, largely as a publtc service, but their performance has been somewhat uneven. The main problem is that minlstries of agriculture and related entities often stmply do not have the capabilities or funds required to run a reliable price infonnation system that gains and maintains fanners' confidence through consistent reportlng of accurate price information.Nonetheless, sorne countries have registered tmportant gains. For example, the Colombia Intemational Corporation (CCI), mentioned above, operates a quite comprehensive price information system, based on daily reports from wholesale produce markets in majar towns and cities across the country. Similarly, FDTA-Valles in Bolivia (as mentioned abave, one af the country's four Foundations for the Development of Agricultura! Technology) has for severa! years operated the Servicio Informativo de Mercados Agropecuarios, or SIMA (Agricultura! Markets lnfonnatian System). an behalf of the country's Ministerea de Asuntos Campesinos and Agropecuarios. or MACA (Ministry of Peasant and Agricultura! Affairs). Thaugh the quality of the service is excellent. FDTA-Valles is highly concemed abaut its sustainability, given that 1t is currently supported with project funds from the US govemment.Foodnet, a netwark af argantzations dedicated to marketing research in Eastem and Central Mrica, has tried ta address this issue in its support for natianal price infannatian systems in Uganda and ather countries. Thaugh tt has made progress in this regard. proposing a series of measures far generating income and suppart, sustalnability remains a majar concem for national and regional agricultural plice information systems in the regían.Another key concem ts about the extent to which farmers are capable of using price infarmation effectively to make better decisions about marketing of agricultura] praducts. Common sense would suggest that, if farrners ha ve infarmation indicatlng they can sell under more favorable terrns at one time and one place than another, they will act accordingly. But the matter is hardly that simple. Circumstances beyond their control may dictate that they sell at a loss. Moreover, price infarmation alone does not provide a sufftcient basis for dectsian-making. Farrners must also k:naw their production casts with sorne accuracy, but many small-scale growers are not in the habit of making such calculations.Other barriers have to do with the massive dissemlnation of price informatlon on a national scale. The logical approach for accomplishing this is through the use of radio. In developing countlies no other communicatlons medium has such wide coverage, is as readily accessible, or is as well regarded by farmers and other rural people. One reason for this has to do with the high value assigned to oral communication in the largely traditional societies of rural areas.Despite those advantages. though, it is probably a mistake to assume that massive dissemination of prtce lnformation via radio results in nearly perfect communicatlon. We slmply cannot take for granted that farmers and others have recelved and understood the ínformation and know how to act upon it.Based on such concems, FDTA-Valles established severa! years ago a small program for training farmers and others to use the prtce information generated and disseminated by SIMA. Foundation management see this program as essential for ensurtng that their sizable investment in SIMA generates high retums through increased rural incomes from more adept marketing of agricultura! products. Thus, when the above-mentioned RedCampo Project was being designed in early 2004, FDTA-Valles saw itas an opportunity to develop collaboratlvely a more effectlve training methodology.The tralning program of FDTA-Valles was ortginally directed mainly at farmers, focused heavily on simply promoting SIMA, and employed fairly conventional training methods. To tncrease the scope and boost the effectiveness of the program, Red Campo proposed changes in its orientation and methodology.First. the project proposed to ortent the training to potential information intermediartes (agricultura! technicians, development professionals, farmer leaders, and others). who in tum could help large numbers of farmers strengthen their capacity to use market information effectlvely.Moreover, the project devised a methodology, which, like the information promoters methodology descrtbed above, is based on a partlcipatory approach to communications. Such an approach assumes that learning by doing in an informal settlng is more effectlve than conventional classroom lectures for prepartng adults to better manage real-life situations.Early in 2005 the RedCampo Project developed a proposal for strengthening the training efforts of FDTA-Valles in the use of market information dissemlnated through SIMA. The proposal has four main components.The first involves improvements in the díffusion of SIMA prtce information via radio. This can be accomplished through analysis of the use of prtce information by farmers and organizatlons. continuous updating of lnformation on radio stations and their coverage, and workshops with radio station staff aimed at improvtng their presentation of the prtce ínformation.The second component of the proposal-its centerpíece really-is a methodology based, as mentioned above, on a partlcipatory communications approach to adult education. Using this participatory tool. information intermediaries (referred to in this case as SIMA facllitators) can multiply local capaclty to use market information by offering the trruning to farmers.The capacity-building methodology is designed to be implemented through a one-day workshop involving about 20 farmers. The event is divided into lO segments, each with a specific purpose, as follows: l. Create a mood of confidence and explrun the content of the workshop. 2. Reach an understanding of the concept of agrtcultural supply chains. based on farmers' experience. 3 . Prompt farmers to reflect on their current knowledge and practices with respect to the sale of agricultura! products. 4. Introduce the concept of negotiating prices. 5. Help farmers lmprove their ability to calculate the production costs of their crops. 6. Describe what SIMA does and how it works. 7. Help farmers improve their ability to listen to and note down price information disseminated by SIMA. 8. Analyze, interpret, and calculate sale prices for agrtcultural products. 9. Identify barriers to effective price negotiation and altematlves for overcoming these. 10. Evaluate the workshop in a participatory manner.As explained earlier. the idea is that the SIMA facílitators, rather than simply instruct farmers in the conventional way, will facilitate workshops. helptng farmers reflect on their experiences with price information and strengthen their knowledge through practica! application of new ideas.For this purpose RedCampo has developed four products for use by potential SIMA fac111tators. These include a set of ten posters, each correspondlng to one of the 10 segments described above; a brief guide to the use of the posters, which describes participatory techniques for lnteracting with farmers; a more detailed manual explainlng the methodology and the thinking behind it; and a soclodrama developed for radio and recorded on cassette, called Para Ganar, Hay Que Saber Negocíar (To Make a Profit, You Have to Know How to Bargatn). The dramatization is useful for prompting farmers to reflect on and discuss issues related to the use of price information.The thlrd and fourth components of the proposal for strengthening SIMA's training program involve the creation of alliances with development organizations. local govemments and schools, and the mass media for large-scale implementation of the new tralníng methodology.The proposal was finalized and dlscussed with FDTA leaders and staff during April-May 2005. and implementation was begun in July. In collaboration with the NGO Food for the Hungry International (FHI). the methodology was tested at Sucre, Chuquisaca. with a group of technicíans. Under a more formal agreement with FHI and other organizations, the methodology was further refined, and the training materials described above were developed and tested. Through this agreement we were able to test on a pilot basis the potential of alliances with local organizations for massively scallng out training for fanners in the use of market information.Enhancing the flow of information within agricultura) supply chatns and in rural communities generally through the kinds of measures described in foregoing sectlons is important for promoting ruralinnovatlon. Even so. this alone provides no guarantee that fanners and other rural people will be able to translate relevant infonnatlon into practica) knowledge and on that basis act effectlvely to solve problems or seize new opportunlties.For that reason creating natlonal or localinformatlon systems may not make much difference, if all they do is passively disseminate informatlon. Even if these systems are designed creatlvely, using dtverse locally available media, they may still fall short of expectations. Further measures are required to promote genuine communicatlon between actors in agricultura! supply chains and other rural settings-that is, dialog based on trust and shared lnterests. Our experience in Colombia and Bolivia underscores three points in this regard.First, we have observed that providing potentialinformation intennediaries with íntensive communicatlons tratning. together with opportunities to put new skills into practlce, can bring about a remarkable transformation of groups and individuals. Within a relatlvely short time, they begin to show greater confidence in their dealings with others, including actors in formal sector organizatlons. These kinds of attltudinal changes are highly conducive to improved communications, which we understand as ongotng dialog directed at building confidence, enhancing participation in key decisions. and forming shared visions and actlon plans.Second, the participatory communicatlons approaches outlined in preceding sectlonsspecifically those aimed at strengthening the capacity of lnformation lntermediarles-appear to be effectlve at generating knowledge through a collectlve process. And thts process can lead dlrectly to collaborative action. such as the design and implementation of communicatlons strategies and improved use of market information.Third, particlpatory approaches to communlcatlons seem to be more effectlve when linked to the adoptlon of other kinds of particlpatory methodologies.Since the late l980s. CIAT and other organizatlons have developed and promoted a wide vartety of methodologies for partlclpatory research and development. As explained in the introductlon. these emerged in response to limltations of the conventlonal pipeline model of technology transfer and in an effort to take up new challenges for agrtcultural research, specifically poverty reductlon and lmprovement in the management of natural resources.Among the first products of this work was a method centering on Comités de Investigación Agrícola Local. or CIALs (Local Agricultura) Research Commlttees). These are small groups of farmers lnterested in experimentatlon, who volunteer to conduct local adaptive research on behalf of their communities. They are trained for this purpose by local NGOs or grassroots organlzations and receive follow-up support from them. The CIALs have proved especlally effective for testing. selecting. conserving, and promoting supertor local or introduced germplasm of staple crops. But the methodology has also been employed for other kinds of local research. There is a marked tendency among CIALs, once they have identified useful technologies, to transform themselves into small rural enterprtses cen tertng on the application of those technologies.Currently, about 300 CIALs are operating in eight Latín Amertcan countrtes. Moreover, CIAT researchers working in other regions have developed partlclpatory research methods tnsplred by the CIALs, and they have actively promoted these, with culturally suitable modifications. In Southeast Asta and in Eastern and Southern Mrtca. Durtng recent years further research centertng on the CIAL methodology has produced important tnsights into the creation of so-called \"second-order assoclations\" to support CIAL members as well asan effective methodology for parttclpatory monitortng and evaluatlon of the research and development activlties of these and other fanner groups.As the CIAL movement gatned momentum in the early 1990s, CIAT embarked on the development of other participatory methodologtes. A particularly ambltious approach lnvolves the formation of community-based watershed management assoclatlons in hillside areas that face sertous threats to biodiversity, soil, and water. The central a1m of these consortia ts to reach negotiated solutions to conflicts over the management of threatened natural resources. Under a typlcal arrangement. local organizations act in a coordtnated fashion to offer small farmers new opportuntties for enhancing production and tncomes in exchange for their commitment to measures designed to protect natural resources. Developed ortginally in southwestern Colombia, this approach was subsequently trted in Honduras and Nicaragua, with favorable results.At about the same time. CIAT researchers began developing the terrttortal approach for rural enterprtse development descrtbed in Section l. Based on action research carrted out in Colombia, Honduras, and Pero. the approach is now being widely applied in Central Amertca and Eastern and Southem Mrtca through collaborative arrangements with severa! major intemational NGOs. More recently, Center land use specialtsts have devlsed parttcipatory methodologies for rural planntng at the municipal leve!, in whtch a wide cross-section of stakeholders play active roles In plannlng, monitortng, and evaluating local research and development tnitiatives.In trying to reflect the vartety of participatory methodologies. we have emphaslzed those developed by CIAT, because they are the ones wlth which we are most familiar. But many other organtzations have been active in this field as well. Parttcularly noteworthy is the Farmer Field School approach developed by the Untted Nations Food and Agriculture Organlzation (FAO). which ls widely promoted and practiced throughout the developing world. The point here ts simply that a wide array of participatory methodologies are available to rural communities and the orga nlzations that serve them.One notable charactertstic of the methodologies descrtbed above ls that they promote the fusion of knowledge based on local expertence and experlmentation with that resultlng from the work of formal research and development organlzations. The result should be technologtes and other soluttons that are at once sclentifically sound and locally relevant.Not until quite recently, though. have CIAT researchers working on participatory methodologies descrlbed them explicitly as tools for generattng new knowledge and for ensurtng local appropriatton of this knowledge. Under the above-mentioned FIT Program in Bolívia, CIATs Participatory Approaches Project undertook a 2-year inltiattve called Pro-Poor Methodologies for Knowledge Generation. The central outcome of thls project was a methodology whereby agrtcultural technlctans and development professionals can construct knowledge about technology options collectively with farmers. building on methods such as the CIALs, Farmer Fleld Schools, and so forth. It ls based on a constructivist philosophy of educatton, whlch proposes that, rather than simply receive knowledge, indtviduals actively construct lt by means of expertence and interactton with others in changing contexts.This methodology represents a radical departure from the conventtonal model of technology transfer in agrtculture. The latter mainly tnvolves vertical communication from technlcians \"down\" to fanners. and the messages communicated deal mainly with technologtes generated by formal organtzattons, often without taking local knowledge into account. It is assumed that technicians possess knowledge, which fanners lack. and that the role of technicians is principally to transfer this knowledge (which they. in tum, have received from researchers) to farmers through presentattons and deinonstrations.With the knowledge generation methodology, in contrast, local knowledge is the point of departure for a dialog between technicians and farmers. Through this dialog the two groups first arrive at a shared understanding of what farmers know and what gaps may exist In their knowledge, which could be filled by knowledge based on formal research. The role of technicians in this process is thus not to transfer knowledge but rather to facilitate a process whereby knowledge is constructed collectively. And the techniques employed are not presentations and demonstrations but rather encuentros, or \"encounters.\" These are meetings essentially, in which technlcians can employ diverse techniques to eliclt local knowledge. gain farmers' percepttons of the knowledge shared by technictans, and document the results of this collective process, using posters, other types of documents. photographs, and/ or video.Another key feature of thls methodology is its emphasts on farmers' approprtatton of the knowledge they have constructed collectively with technicians. The idea is that. rather than merely acquire new knowledge. farmers should also receive approprtate support in determining how they can transform 1t into action. Thls is accomplished through a sertes of capaclty-building exercises carrted out in the field.The theory underlying thls methodology, together with an explanation of how to put it into practtce, ls presented in a publication entitled Manual para la Formación de Gestores de Conocimiento, or \"Training Manual for Knowledge Generation\" (Zapata et al. 2006). The manualls accompanied by a video based on expertence with the methodology at lO locations in Bolivia.From the outset of CIATs work on communications for development. we have conceived of this as complementing the use of particlpatory methodologtes of the sort descrtbed above. lOO Preliminary experience in southwestem Colombia suggests that. lf applied in an integrated fashion. participatory communications and other participatory research and development methodologtes can reinforce one another in important ways.From the communications perspective, two advantages in particular are worth noting. First. by linking communications initlatives with enterprise development, participatory research. or rural planning, for example. we ensure that the fonner will have a clear thematic focus. That ls, such initiatives will not just be about communlcations for its own sake but rather will deal with relevant content. Second, we also ensure that the investment in local communications capacity will be aimed at partlcularly receptive candidates-that is, rural people who are actively engaged in the construction of new knowledge and who therefore are motivated and well placed to seek, use. and share information.For participatory research the link to well-concelved participatory communications initiatlves offers one key advantage. It helps keep participating fanners and other rural people from gotng about their research and development activities in isolation, and it helps ensure that the constructlon and use of new knowledge are not confined to the relationship between a specific group of fanners and the technicians who happen to be on hand to support them. A community telecenter, for example, can enable participants in such processes to tap a much wider world of contacts and sources of information and opportunities. Moreover. the activities of well-trained tnformation and communicatlons promoters can help broaden particlpation in the research and development process and ensure that a much larger rural audtence is aware of the new knowledge being generated through such processes.In Sectlon 1 of this document, we made the case that strengthening rural information networks ls important for promoting technologlcal and soctalinnovation within agricultural supply chains and other rural contexts. Here we suggest that, by incorporating work on information and communtcations into partlcipatory research and development, we can perhaps accompllsh something far more beneficia!. We can bulld rural knowledge networks that, beyond simply keeping rural people tnforrned. better enable them to act on new opportunities for lmproving their Uvellhoods.Another possible use of strengthened information or knowledge networks in rural areas is to create new and more effective channels for getting feedback from farmers and other rural people to research and development organízations. The true value of this feedback will depend a great deal on the institutional cultures of those organízations. If they are open to new knowledge-even that which may contradict the status quo. threaten vested interests, and imply costly or difficult changes-then feedback from the field should contribute to a leaming process that results in more efficient and effective research and development. It also helps if organtzations are inclined to share new knowledge with others, so that it can have the widest posstble effect, leading to more coordinated and coherent efforts. This latter point is especially important gtven the diversity and fragmentation of technical and other support in many rural areas.Unfortunately, however. those are not the attltudes that generally prevail in agrtcultural research and development organtzatlons. It is more typtcal for them to react defensively in the face of new knowledge that calls into questlon current views and practlces. And they are frequently reluctant to share knowledge--such as improved research and development methodologtes or insights into the attltudes and ctrcumstances of rural people--because they fear this may put them at a disadvantage compared to other organlzatlons. with which they compete for resources and even access to rural communitles.The persistence of such attltudes poses a sertous hindrance to any effort to enhance communicatlons in the rural sector. For how can organtzatlons promote a new culture of informatlon and knowledge shartng in rural communities if they do not even practlce it themselves? Toward this end the project undertook four pilot initlatives. one in each center. aimed at examining the potentlal of major meetlngs for stlmulating knowledge sharing among staff. These experiences Iargely bore out the project's hypothesis that major events are an effectlve entry point for KS. permittlng large numbers of staff to gain experience and capacity in the use of KS techniques and creatlng positlve attltudes toward KS on the part of both staff and leadership. A case study reporting partial results of the pilot initlatlves appeared in the second issue of the KM4Dev Joumal.. which was guest edited by the \"core team\" of the KS Project (Staiger-Rivas et al. 2005).Open space-This is a highly democratlc method of group agenda settlng, followed by small-group discussion, reportlng, and preparation of actlon plans. Peer assist-This technique brtngs together a small group of individuals to share their expertences, insights. and knowledge to help one person solve a specific problem. Knowledgefair-This is an exhibition on a given theme, which gives partlcipants great fiexibility as to how they will present and gather knowledge and experlence.102 Chat show-An alternative to conventional presentations. this technique tnvolves a panel of experts on a gtven topic, who answer questions (the more provocative and controversia!, the better) posed by a host. In their replies panel members may use items such as publications, photographs. and videos. Speed datíng-Commonly used asan \"ice breaker\" at the outset of meetlngs, this technique gives participants 10 minutes to talk toas many others as posslble about a specific question or topic. Collaborative software-A wide array of software products are now available that facilitate more transparent e-mail communication. joint planning, the shartng of documents and other resources. and other kinds of exchanges. Much expertence has demonstrated the need for a concerted effort to enhance KS attitudes and habits before and durtng the adoption of such products.The pllot initiatives were complemented by other actlvities, includlng workshops on the facilitation of group decision-making, and the creation of an online KS toolbox (http:/ /www.ks-cgiar.org/toolbox/). These activities, together with the KS pllot inltlatives, were presented at the CGIAR's 2005 Annual Oeneral Meeting and are reported in a publication entitled Knowledge Sharing Solutions for a CGIAR without Boundarles (Russell and Staiger-Rivas 2005).The KS Project represents a good start toward introducing techniques and fostertng attitudes in the CGIAR that are conducive to improved teamwork and broader particlpation in decislon-making. But lt remains to be seen whether enhanced KS will actually lead to those outcomes and whether more collaboratlve and particlpatory patterns of work will con tribute to better performance, learning, and innovation.In order to explore those questlons, it is important for the CGIAR and the centers it supports to expand their work on KS beyond intemal processes. Failure todo so will expose the CGIAR toa rtsk noted by King and McGrath (2004): \"There is a sertous danger that knowledge shartng will be seen asan irrelevant luxury if 1t ls not more visibly and genuinely addressed to Southern knowledge needs and challenges.\"To avoid that danger, the CGIAR needs to begin applytng KS approaches in a wide sampling of its increasingly complex partnerships with national, international. and local partners. The most lmportant tmpacts of KS are llkely to come from 1ts beneficlal effects on such arrangements. Recent expertence at IWMl and CIAT in shartng KS approaches with research partners is quite promising.As center staff and partners realize the potential of those approaches in facilitating research and development collaboration. we believe they will become more committed to incorporatlng KS into their day-to-day actlvities. Once the approaches become normal practice in our organlzations, KS could have a profound effect on the way we work. reinforcing a more demand-drtven, interactlve approach. in whlch knowledge-intensive methods and tools are devised collaboratlvely through a shared learning process. If we manage to bring about such changes, then our organlzations will be far better positloned to foment informatlon and knowledge sharing in agricultura! supply chains and other spheres of rurallife.Learning alliances are coalitions of research organizations. donar and development agencies. and other partners. such as policy makers and prtvate companies. Intemational NGOs. such as CARE lntemational and Catholic Relief Services (CRS), are playing especially prominent roles in these collaborative arrangements, and they, in tum, operate through dozens of local NGOs. Together. alliance members identify, share, adapt, and implement the best available development approaches in a territory of mutual interest, with a strong emphasis on capacity building and joint learning. In the process they reflect collectlvely on what is worklng and what is not and then put the lessons into practice, leading to new cycles of learning.The power of this approach Ues, at least partly. 1n tts focus on cumulatlve, shared learning about effective practices across organlzatlonal and geographical boundaries. The resulting synergies between diverse actors should lead to more rapid processes of social and technological innovation, a sharper focus in research on the problems that really matter to rural people, and new insights for shaping policies that are more conducive to rural development.Another obvious advantage of the learning alliances is that they allow promising innovations to be implemented on a quite large scale. given the large number of partners involved and the wide swathes of territory in which they work. During recent years learning alliances involving CIAT and various development partners and centertng on the territortal approach for rural agroenterprise development have been created in Central Amertca and Eastem Afrtca. An alliance for the Andean Regían of South America is now taking shape as well.Startlng in 2005, partners in the Central Amertcan learning alliance have expressed keen interest in CIATs work on infonnation systems for rural enterprise development. or SIDERs. Center staff have organized workshops on this tapie for them in Honduras and Nicaragua. So, at least the first steps have been taken toward implementlng and adaptlng the SIDER concept on a stzable scale 1n the regton.To the task of building sustainable rural livelihoods, local and intematlonal NGOs bring a strong social commitment, stgniflcant resources, and valuable knowledge and capabilltles. What they often lack, however, ts contlnuity and pennanence. and this is a sertous drawback, since rural innovation is an ongotng process, not something that can be accomplished easily within limited project time frames.Local govemments, in contrast, may often be corrupt, inept, and weak. But they are ever present, and they are growing in tmportance, as national govemments in many developing countries decentralize decision-making power, services, and resources. So. it 1s important to find ways of helping local govemments become more effectlve and transparent in fomenting rural development. Our experience with irúonnation systems for enterprtse development in southwestem Colombia and severa! parts of Bolivia suggests that rural municipallties are a useful focal polnt for local content development and that municipal authorities are central in securtng institutional support for infonnation and communications promoters.An important questlon is how such actlvitles can be incorporated more thoroughly tnto rural development planning at the municipallevel. A group of CIAT land use specialists. who became part of the InforCom Project several years ago. have gained significant experience In using partictpatory plannlng methods wtth municipal authoritles and other stakeholders in local development. So. the group is now well posttloned to explore ways In whlch tnformatlon and communicatlons initiatlves can support and enhance rural planning. If the results are positlve, then thts wUI perhaps tndlcate that rural planntng is a potentlally important mechanism for scaling out efforts to strengthen localinformatlon and communications capaclty.Universities are another critlcal actor with much potentlal for contributlng even more than they already do to development communications. In both Colombia and Bolivia, local universities have proved to be strong partners in CIAT-coordinated projects dealing with community telecenters and information intermediartes. Likewtse. universitles in both countrtes have welcomed CIAT partlcipatlon in projects they have initlated on communicatlons or ICTs for development. Among the strengths of universities in these areas are thelr research capabilities, thetr wealth of content on many development-related themes, and their communications and information technology departments, which can brtng the talents and energies of professors and students to bear on initlatlves in development communicatlons.Another potentially important contributlon of unlversities to development communications involves e-learning (that is. computer-supported collaboratlve learntng). Many are already heavily involved In offertng distance courses on a vartety of rural development -related toptcs.Durtng recent years CIAT has become tnvolved in thts area and has just completed a thorough evaluatlon of its first e-learning venture. It focused on ex si tu conservatlon of plant genetlc resources and was completed in January 2005 (Hesse 2006). Building on this successful first effort, CIAT's Information and Capacity Strengthening (InforCap) Unit has entered into an e-learning partnership wtth the University of Florida (UF) in the USA. In collaboratlon wtth two eastern Afrtcan universitles. CIAT researchers based in the region will provide on-site coachtng and mentortng for local students enrolled in UF's distance educatlon program. and they wtll serve on the students' thesis advisory committees (for further details. se e www.ciat. cgiar .org/ inforcap 1 strengthening. htm).In addttlon, InforCom staff are working with the International Fund for Agrlcultural Development (IFAD) and numerous partner organizatlons to develop projects for developtng and offerlng an e-learntng course entltled \"Managtng Innovatlon,\" accompanied by face-toface training and support for field implementatlon of concepts and methodologies presented in the course. One of the course modules will deal wtth knowledge generatlon and communicatlons in rural communitles. It will be interesting to see whether e-learning. as a complement to other learntng approaches, will prove effectlve for strengthening local capactty to enhance tnformatlon and knowledge networks.How vigorously CIAT and its partners pursue the options described above for further reftning and scaling out approaches to strengthen local communications capacities will depend on various factors. including the availability of funds and decisions about priorities in research for development. But the progress of this endeavor wiU also depend on their commitment to professionalism in communications.One of the things that distinguishes this field from others is that it deals with an activity in which literaUy every human being partlcipates with remarkable proficiency every single day. This ls one of the reasons why communications-for-development lnitlatives offer such wide scope for strengthening local capacities. Every member of a rural community has potentlal for improving communications. whereas relatlvely few will come forward to conduct local adaptive research or lead the way in fomenting agroenterprise development.But precisely because so many people show strong potentlal as communicators, it is aU too easy for the managers of research and development projects to accept current levels of communications capacity as good enough or evento dismlss the issue as irrelevant. Andas a result, they miss important opportunities to involve communicatlons professionals. as members of multl-disciplinary teams, in developtng the huge potentlal of rural people to ftnd a path toward sustainable Uvelihoods.Capacity developed for mainstreaming gender analysis and participatory research in selected CG Centers and NARS.Project heading: Project on Mainstreaming and Support to Partners. 2.Evidence of impact of gender-analysis and participatory research methods assessed, and methods developed to permit impact-assessment results to be effectively integrated into research and development decision-making.Project heading: Project on Impact Assessment.EstabUshed communication strategies for learning and change with partners.Project heading: Project on Communicatlon and Publications.Accelerated learning and change from the generatlon of new, widely applicable methodologies for enhanced gender analysis, partlcipatory research, impact assessment for institutional learning and change. and organizatlonal development for mainstreaming these approaches in the practlces. structures and processes of organizatlons. Considerable savings for, and increased impact of, participatlng CGIAR Centers and NARis through increased and efficient use of these methods. Capacity for these methods will be strengthened and disseminated through an established network of trained trainers from these participatlng instltutions.Poor rural women will be important participants in, and beneficiarles of, research. The development and adoption of diverse gennplasm will be greatly accelerated in major food crops. • CGIAR Centers and partner instltutlons are will1ng to become involved in learning and change by committlng staff and budget to using PR&GA methods, contributing to capacity development of their members, and making the necessary organizational adjustments for integratlng such approaches into thelr organlzations. • Donor commitment to the PRGA Program is constant over the period.IARCs and other institutions collaborating with the PRGA Programare able to include results in their institutional reports and annual reviews.Stakeholders are willing to contribute actively to PRGA Program planníng and evaluation.Poor rural women farmers. poor fanners in general. CGIAR Centers. NARis. NGOs and rural grassroots organizations.The collaboration of the PRGA Program With its partners (IARCs, NARS, NGOs, universltles. grassroots organizations) has been through the provision of small grants. workshop costs and in-kind contribution of senior staff for joint proposal development and studies. The collaborative arrangements are detailed below. Institutional analysis to identify opportunities and constraints jor mainstreaming gender analysis in ILRI: Research Theme representatives met in March 2005 to reflect on the role of PR and GA within ILRI. and to learn about matnstreaming methods. An e-mail discussion among key sctentlsts and PRGA focused on strategies for institutional assessment of PR and GA. One or two ILRI staff will implement the instltutional analysis, while ensurtng engagement of a wide ILRI audience. A protocol for a gender audit andan action plan for mainstreaming were destgned. and a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between ILRI and PRGA.Quality of participatory research and gender analysis at ICRAF: Without formal policy. strategy or conceptual model. participatory research has become integral to ICRAF's work, reflectlng a diversity of methods. quality and outputs (mainly a result of ICRAF's decentralized working mode and rather weak intemallearning and exchange mechanisms). ICRAF emphasizes work with and through partners to ensure impact and sustainability, while focusing on its strengths as an intemational organization. Meanwhile, gender Issues are more vartably integrated tnto the Center's work. A number of areas have been highlighted where improvements could be made in all these areas. Mainstreaming gender analysis in the research process of CIP: Workshop on \"Women feeding cities: Gender malnstrearning In urban agrtculture and urban food securtty,\" co-organized by CIP's Urban Harvest program and RUAF in September 2004 (part-funded by PRGA). Strategy for gender mainstrearning (developed by Urban Harvest under 2004 PRGA grant) will be pilot-tested. CIP has committed itself to gender malnstreaming. Activities involving PRGA, Urban Harvest, CIP and at least ene East Afrtcan NARI will feed into the development of a framework for the application of gender analysts throughout CIP's research agenda.Assessment oj capacity deuelopmentfor participatory and gender analysis among !CARDA and its partner institutions: The domlnant view of PR and GA among ICARDA and partner researchers is that of functionality-improving the efficiency, effectlveness and impact of research; and prtmarily based on researcher-generated technologies. Within !CARDA, researchers are divided between those who favor a multidisciplinary approach (handling research from a variety of dlsciplinary perspectives, which tends to assign PR responsibility to social scientlsts on the team) and those who favor an interdisciplinary approach (integrating concepts and methodologies from vartous disciplines and perspectives into a common framework, which tends to result in shared responsibility for PR) . Concems raised lncluded the following: institutional-more support needed from management; methodological-lack of clear methods, especially for data collection and analysis: integration-would like to see lntegration across disciplines, projects and with other actors (e.g. NARS, NGOs, private sector); capacity-insufficient in-house expertise in PR and GA, too few women researchers; and capacíty development. ICARDA uses díverse approaches for capacity development (e.g. workshops, fleldwork, on-the-job training), which is aimed primarily at NARS researchers and research assistants-ICARDA has a large fonnal trainlng program (320 people trained in 2005). Lessons have been leamed, but there is room for improvement (the assessment made recommendations).Mapping gend.er mainstreaming at CARE La.ns: An 8-month study documented organizational \"best practices\" for mainstreaming gender; identified opportuníties and constraints for mainstream1ng; and identifled key areas for further input. CARE Laos has come a long way in a short time (less than 3 years). The study made 1 O recommendatlons for the next steps in the gender-mainstreamtng process.Assessing participatory leaming and action in China (China Agricultura! University):The final Learning Workshop was postponed to February 2006, which willlead to a comprehensive assessment of outcomes and an action plan.  • Participatory research projects at CIMMYT: Eighteen CIMMYT scientists reported on 19 self-deflned PR projects. The most conunon goal is increasing productivity, and the main motivation for using PR is to understand farmers' preferences better: primary beneflciaries are marginal farmers, but these are not generally disaggregated by gender. An \"averageM CIMMYT PR project lasts for less than 5 years, has an annual budget less than US$100,000, works in either Africa or Asia, and has six project sites. involving 400 farmers and 8 scientists (this \"average M masks a great deal of variation). The majority use functional types of PR-divided between tncreased relevance through knowledge of farmers' preferences and constratnts. and improved dissemination. However, interaction among PR projects is limited, as is experience-sharing-areas that are highlighted for potential investment. especially given CIMMITs dedication of about US$9 mtllion per year to projects with PR components. The report lays the groundwork for further advances at CIMMYT.• Assessing impacts of fanner participatory research approaches-A case study of local agricultura! research committees (CIALs) in Colombia: Prelimtnary results show signiflcant social and human capital benefits for CIAL members, who leamed more about agrtculture, experimented with new technology, and were seen as experts and advisors in thetr communities. They had improved communtcation and leadership sktlls. and increased relationships with neighbors and outside institutions. They experimented more with new crops. leamed new skills, and had higher levels of commttment to their communities, which in tum led to increased communtty participatlon. Where CIALs had identifled new technology and converted tnto commercial seed producers, communities beneflted from easy access.• Participatory cassava breeding in northeast Braza: Four communities involved in an 8year cassava-breeding project were surveyed in 2002. Project participants proved to be representative of their communities in most characteristics (except for area planted to maize, income from processed cassava and tncome from non-cassava crop sales), despite representivity not being an original selection criterion. However. women were overlooked by the project, whose contribution in selecting varietles for dumpling production was therefore missed. Adoption rates were high after 4 years. although sorne farmers had tried and rejected experimental varieties. Sorne 44% of farmers were willing to pay for planting material, although this is not common practice. However. no large increases in yield or revenue were reported-but this should be viewed in the context of declining cassava yields, whereby adoption had stabilized yields. Reports of increased time devoted to cassava production are likely to be a direct result of increased area. stnce no labor-saving technologies were introduced by the project.• Impact of participatory natural-resource management research in cassava-based • cropping systems in Vietnam and ThaUand: Data were collected from 800 farm households from 16 villages: 4 that participated in a 10-year farmer participatory research project and 4 that did not from each country. The cassava technologies themselves (conservation techniques. management options and varietles) and farmer knowledge (measured by project participation) signiflcantly affected adoption and productivity. Whereas 100% of project farmers adopted technologies in Thatland, only about 50% of project farmers in Vietnam di d. The differences between participant and non-participant farmers were smaller in Thailand. The impact assessment was hampered by lack of a baseline survey. which also restricted rate of retum analysis to financia! analysis.• Institutional impacts oj the cassava participatory research and extension project in Thailand andVietnam 1993-2004: Five focus-group discussions were conducted in 2004, comprising two disciplinary groups (research and extension) in Thailand and three geographical groups in Vietnam, to identify positive project impacts and hindrances to greater success. The impacts (benefits) and hindrances (constraints) were then ranked by each group.Beneftts, Thailand: Both researchers (28%) and extension workers (22%) appreciated irnproved work management; extension workers perceived 62% of benefits from a combination of improved efficiency and motivation, while scientists felt that 55% of benefits arose from increased scientific and professional knowledge and understanding of farmers and their envtronments combined.Beneftts, Vietnam: All three groups highlighted improved scientlftc and professional knowledge (25-30%), and improved management (14-23%); two groups allocated 18-28% to each of efficiency and understanding of farmers and their envtronments, while the third group allocated 37% and 8%, respectlvely, to these benefits; all three groups allocated less than 8% to irnproved motlvatlon.Constraints, Thailand: Both researchers (35%) and extension workers (49%) saw intemal management issues as the single most important instltutlonal constraint to greater success; both groups perceived similar. relatively low, level of constraint coming from extemal economic and market conditions or lack of knowledge; divergence was shown in operating budgets (31% extension v. 2% research) and govemment policies (18% extension v. 29% research).Constraints, Vietnam: The two groups that included universitles saw knowledge and informatlon as the major constraint (33% and 48%), while the remaining group highlighted operating budget (23%, cf. less than 8% in the universityinclusive groups): two groups highlighted externa! economic and market conditlons second (30% and 35%). whlle the third group considered this ofno signiftcance.• lmpact Assessment Workshop, website and eLectronic discussion group jor impactassessors: The workshop, co-organtzed with CIMMYT in October 2005, provided 25 empirical impact-assessment studJes, which used a valiety of approaches and methods. These studies, together with summalies of discussions, are available via the PRGA website in the form of draft papers and presentatlons. Particular highlights were: the need to \"build on the positive\" -leaming from the positlve experiences of others (rather than dissecting \"what went wrong\" all the time); the realization that there is no \"one way\" of doing impact assessment of partlcipatory R&D. and that principies are more easily transferable than methods in many cases; that it is profitable to include all types of stakeholders (especially end-users and donors) in planning for and conducting impact assessment; that impact-assessors need time to reflect on their results; that effective communlcation of results is vital.As a dírect spin-off from the workshop, we established an electron1c dtscussion forum for continued shartng and instltutionalleaming. ","tokenCount":"26534"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"51f1a3ce903c977569a148c0d4e78438","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/686bc96a-dd84-4d6b-8baa-eeec96b37791/retrieve","id":"1792738742"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e248c7a7-b1f7-4830-a240-c64234291077","pagecount":"3","content":"Un projet de profilage numérique agricole est en train de porter ses fruits pour les petits cultivateurs de café en Ouganda. Ce système innovant garantit l'origine du café et leur permet ainsi de vendre leur production à des prix plus élevés. David Muwonge nous décrit cette expérience qui illustre parfaitement le potentiel du géoréférencement comme levier marketing de premier plan.U ne base de données géospatiales pour soutenir les producteurs de café. Voici l'idée de NUCAFE (National Union of Coffee agribusinesses and farm Enterprises, Union nationale de l'industrie et des producteurs de café) qui, avec l'appui du CTA, a établi des profils d'agriculteurs et des cartes d'exploitations caféières dans le cadre d'une stratégie de marketing ciblé. Ayant bien identifié l'impact de la traçabilité des produits sur la courbe des prix, NUCAFE mise sur la technologie pour garantir un meilleur suivi. Son objectif est d'aider les 205 120 familles d'agriculteurs qu'elle représente en leur facilitant l'accès aux ressources et services, mais aussi en leur ouvrant les portes des marchés locaux et internationaux.Au départ, NUCAFE avait créé une base de données Excel avec des informations élémentaires sur ses membres, collectées à partir de questionnaires et encodées manuellement. Consciente des limites de cette méthode, l'organisation s'est associée avec le CTA afin de mettre au point un système de gestion des données spatiales.Entre juin 2017 et avril 2018, les profils des agriculteurs ont été établis grâce à un questionnaire sur tablette qui a permis de recueillir des précisions sur les individus, la production et les coordonnées GPS des exploitations. Après l'obtention du consentement relatif à l'utilisation des données personnelles, ces données ont été transférées sur les serveurs de NUCAFE à l'aide d'ONA (une entreprise sociale kényane qui développe des solutions open source afin de promouvoir un usage intelligent des données). Elles ont ensuite été traitées par les logiciels d'information géographique QGIS et ArcGIS pour générer des cartes des exploitations et des champs de café individuels. Afin d'obtenir des images en haute résolution, des plans de vol pour drones sont dessinés à partir des coordonnées GPS. Les clichés serviront à identifier plus précisément l'origine des produits et à proposer des services de conseil adaptés aux agriculteurs.Dans la deuxième phase du projet, la base de données augmentée permettra à chaque lot de café de recevoir un passeport, sous la forme d'un code QR, qui attestera de son authenticité et de son origine. Il comportera des informations relatives au cultivateur, au groupe agricole, à la situation géographique de l'exploitation, au produit luimême, à la date de livraison à l'entrepôt et à tous les détails du trajet du café au fil de la chaîne d'approvisionnement.Six mois après son lancement, le projet se satisfait déjà de résultats prometteurs. Des acheteurs italiens et sud-coréens ont ainsi proposé des prix plus élevés pour le café des producteurs profilés, soit 3,51 €/kg contre le tarif de 2,16 €/ kg habituellement accordé pour un café similaire mais d'origine non connue. Cette augmentation de 24 % du prix de base est directement liée à la traçabilité du produit. Elle offre en effet au consommateur la garantie que son achat bénéficiera bien au producteur, alors que la qualité du Le goût et la qualité du café peuvent varier en fonction des conditions environnementales dans lesquelles il est produit. Le développement d'un caféier dans une région donnée dépend du sol, de l'altitude et du climat. Une même variété cultivée dans des zones géographiques différentes pourra ainsi avoir une saveur et une qualité qui changent en fonction des conditions climatiques. Ces facteurs influencent le goût de base des fèves mais aussi les choix des méthodes de production et de transformation. L'indication de provenance peut donc être considérée comme un marqueur de qualité pour le café et jouer sur sa valeur au niveau du marché mondial.David Muwonge, petit exploitant et directeur exécutif adjoint de NUCAFE. david.muwonge@nucafe.org produit est certifiée par les marqueurs géologiques et géospaciaux. Concrètement, pour une exploitation de café Arabica de 0,4 ha qui produit en moyenne 600 kg chaque année, le revenu annuel supplémentaire sera de 850 €. « Grâce au revenu supplémentaire généré par la traçabilité et la certification, nous avons pu scolariser nos enfants et nous investir dans le centre de santé de notre communauté », explique Gibezi Yunus, agriculteur de la Bufumbo Organic Cooperative Association.La Bufumbo Organic Farmers Association, membre de NUCAFE, a rapidement discerné le pouvoir associé aux données. L'organisation a utilisé la base de données spatiales dans le cadre d'un audit externe crucial pour l'obtention des certifications bio et UTZ (un label international garantissant une production équitable, durable et transparente). Grâce à ces deux certificats, elle a pu vendre 19,8 Mt de café bio/UTZ à un torréfacteur italien et 160 Mt supplémentaires à différents acheteurs. Cette réussite a incité d'autres agriculteurs à modifier leurs pratiques afin d'obtenir eux aussi les certificats et plusieurs associations d'agriculteurs ont manifesté leur intérêt pour utiliser la base de données à des fins d'authentification. La certification bio impliquant des coûts de conformité supplémentaires, NUCAFE sensibilise ses membres à ces exigences tout en les aidant à trouver les ressources internes et externes nécessaires afin de bien négocier cette période de transition.Sur le terrain, les données géoréférencées ont permis aux professionnels de la vulgarisation, aux entreprises et aux gestionnaires de hubs de collaborer avec des associations de producteurs de café afin d'améliorer la logistique. Une vue d'ensemble détaillée du territoire et de la localisation des exploitations permet aux agriculteurs de planifier plus efficacement la récolte des fèves. Par ailleurs, les conseils et services supplémentaires sont mieux adaptés selon les profils et les besoins. La sensibilisation à l'intérêt de souscrire une assurance contre la sécheresse, la formation à une agriculture intelligente face au climat ou le positionnement stratégique de machines de transformation par voie humide au sein de la Mabira Coffee Farmers Association figurent notamment parmi les services fournis par NUCAFE.Cet impressionnant succès a permis à NUCAFE d'obtenir plus de 1,2 million € de la part de l'Union européenne afin d'aider six coopératives membres situées dans la région de Rwenzori. Le projet consiste à déployer un système reposant sur les données géolocalisées pour le café dans les quatre années à venir (2018-2022). Vingt mille ménages, la plupart situés dans la zone reculée des montagnes de Rwenzori, sont concernés par cette initiative visant à leur offrir la certification bio, équitable et de provenance. Ainsi, un pas supplémentaire sera réalisé en direction de l'objectif ultime qui reste l'amélioration durable des moyens de subsistance, la création d'emplois et la diminution de la pauvreté au sein de ces familles.Une prise de conscience sur les bénéfices liés au profilage est en train de s'opérer et de plus en plus de nouveaux membres intègrent NUCAFE. Par ailleurs, l'Office de développement du café ougandais (UCDA, Uganda Coffee Development Authority), un organisme public, souhaite standardiser la méthode de profilage pour tous les producteurs du pays. Tout en facilitant la fourniture et la distribution des intrants, ce procédé permettra également de renforcer l'image de marque du café ougandais sur la scène internationale. • Dans cet entrepôt, des sacs de café NUCAFE attendent d'être exportés vers les marchés internationaux.","tokenCount":"1180"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c92203ee49db656fb6c5d05df04de089","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f0f33419-71b3-491f-befc-b09d7693eeda/retrieve","id":"-413727551"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a8170858-159d-4c12-a3d0-5525c874b26e","pagecount":"30","content":"With adverse impacts of climate change growing in number and intensity, there is an urgent need to reduce emissions from food systems to net zero. This can only be achieved if rural areas in low-and middle-income countries gain access to clean energy. A review of the research and capacity building contributions of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) over the last 10 years suggests important contributions in the areas of energy policy and energy investment planning, cost and feasibility frameworks, and business models for clean energy technology uptake. WLE has also conducted successful pilot projects on solar irrigation to provide an evidence base for scaling up innovative energy initiatives. Finally, the program also considered non-agricultural uses of energy where relevant to food systems, and implemented capacity building activities.Going forward, CGIAR has a key role to play in providing information, supporting access and piloting innovative, scalable clean energy interventions to support the achievement of multiple impacts for the poorest and most food-insecure women and men farmers and entrepreneurs.Over the past two decades, the energy sector has made significant progress toward growing the share of clean energy sources in electricity generation, due to rapidly declining costs of renewables and a growing political will to address climate change challenges (Arndt et al. 2019). Investments in renewable power generation drastically increased, and public policies in many countries now include deployment of solar and wind power, and other clean technologies, as key investment priorities. This rise in clean energy sources has posed both challenges and significant opportunities for agriculture and the rural poor.The CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) has responded to this challenge, and has dedicated a significant part of its research portfolio to supporting opportunities and reducing barriers to accessing renewable energy sources for agricultural transformation. However, CGIAR is not a well-known actor in the rural energy space. A key question that this synthesis addresses therefore is whether, and to what extent, the world's largest global agricultural innovation network should engage in this area or not.Following an overview of the analytical framework linking energy access with key agricultural and other development outcomes, motivating WLE's research in this space, the next section highlights selected achievements. This is followed by an identification of key gaps that should be taken forward under the 'One CGIAR' research agenda and beyond.WLE contributions to accelerating rural energy access were assessed based on a review of journal articles, discussion papers, briefs and blog posts available on its website (https://wle.cgiar.org/), CGSpace, the repository of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (https://ebrary.ifpri.org/), and Google Scholar using the search words energy, CGIAR and WLE. Results included peer-reviewed journal articles, grey literature, briefs and blog pieces. These were grouped by umbrella themes and then by type of contribution. This helped develop a broader understanding of WLE's research foci. The overall themes that were identified based on WLE's research contributions are described in Table 1.  An analytical framework was developed to visualize the links between clean energy access and agricultural development outcomes, and the areas where WLE's research has provided important contributions (Figure 1). The following questions guided the development of the analytical framework: 1) How can energy access transform agriculture? 2) What are the drivers and barriers to increased energy access (are there gendered challenges)? and 3) What are the factors that link agricultural outcomes to energy use? The legal, policy and institutional environments determine the speed, quality, equity and environmental outcomes of reaching rural areas with clean energy. These environments shape policy frameworks, subsidy and financing ecosystems, partnerships with the private sector, and the availability and pricing of energy sources.Accelerating rural energy access requires information on which energy sources and mixes are suitable for which context. Moreover, energy investors are seeking information on the locations of productive uses and users of energy, as other uses, such as lighting or cooking, often do not generate enough income for poor rural households to pay for energy access. On the other hand, using energy for irrigation, cooling poultry pens or for agro-processing can increase rural incomes and support the expansion of rural energy access. WLE has developed substantial research on identifying productive use locations.Even if clean energy sources are available, many farmers cannot access the resource, for economic or social reasons, or due to social norms and traditions. They suffer from energy poverty, a lack of choice to access adequate, affordable, reliable, high quality, safe and environmentally benign energy services (Reddy 2000). For example, in much of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, men farmers traditionally purchase and take decisions over solar-powered irrigation pumps, potentially widening the gender gap. WLE has focused on strengthening access to clean energy sources for the poor.Energy use in agriculture refers to the use of agricultural inputs, such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and also agricultural machinery, such as irrigation pumps or tractors, as well as the energy to heat or cool animal stables, or to aerate fishponds. These uses of energy are typically geared toward improving agricultural production levels. In a wider sense, human and animal labor in food production, processing, etc., are also energy uses. These are not considered in this review. Some of the energy work of CGIAR has focused on RRR of fecal sludge to develop fertilizers, and to also generate income opportunities for women and young people.Energy use in agricultural processing refers to storage, drying, ventilation and transportation, as well as processing and packaging of agricultural produce until it reaches the retail sector. Processing can add considerable value to primary production, enhance the shelf life of nutrient-dense foods, and reduce food loss and waste. Improved food safety and nutrition and rural income generation directly supports One CGIAR's mandate to end hunger by 2030. This could be an important focus of CGIAR's energy research, in collaboration with other partners.Other rural energy use refers to all non-agricultural uses, such as lighting and cooking, that can also affect important well-being outcomes, including an improvement in women's time burden and health through accessing more fuel-efficient cookstoves and improved nutrition and health. The reduction of fuelwood and other resource use can also directly improve agricultural productivity (Mekonnen et al. 2017).Accelerated rural energy access can have multiple benefits for human well-being outcomes and the environment. They include changes in women's empowerment, food security, nutrition and health, agriculture and rural development, value addition and the environment. Different energy uses have differential impacts on these well-being outcomes, many of which have yet to be fully explored. Moreover, more research is needed to understand gendered pathways from rural energy access to agricultural transformation, rural development and the environment.Based on the review of documents, WLE has worked on energy policies and provided investment recommendations; developed cost and feasibility frameworks; created businesses models; conducted pilot projects to provide an evidence base for scaling up innovative energy initiatives; considered nonagricultural uses of energy where relevant to food systems; and implemented capacity-building activities. Some of these activities are described in more detail below.Energy-economic modeling tools can support investment in clean energy technologies. WLE undertook an analysis to understand the impacts of a carbon tax on fossil fuels, and water and food security. The analysis found that a fossil-fuel tax would not substantially adversely affect food security and could be a boon to global food security if resulting emission reductions lower the climate change impacts on food production systems (Ringler et al. 2016).A further analysis at the global level supported by WLE assessed the irrigation water security impacts from hydropower development across major river basins (Zeng et al. 2017). The analysis found that globally 54% of installed hydropower capacity competes with irrigation, including in the central United States, northern Europe, India, central Asia and Oceania. On the other hand, globally 8% of installed hydropower capacity complements irrigation, particularly in the Yellow and Yangtze river basins of China, on the east and west coasts of the United States, and in most river basins of Southeast Asia, Canada and Russia. No significant relationship was found for the rest of the world. At the regional level, both water and energy scarcities have been driving tension and conflicts between governments. Joint water-energy-food security analyses can help identify pathways for collaboration. Several such analyses were carried out under the umbrella of WLE for the Aral Sea Basin, the Eastern Nile Basin and the Niger Basin using hydro-economic modeling tools. Scenario analyses in the Aral Sea Basin found that cooperation to maximize basin-wide benefits between upstream Tajikistan and downstream Uzbekistan would increase upstream hydropower production with small reductions in downstream irrigation benefits, while unilateral maximization of energy production would substantially reduce overall benefits (Bekchanov et al. 2015). In the Eastern Nile Basin, a regional TIMES (energy systems) modeling framework for the electricity sector covering Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudan assessed the potential of energy trading for cross-border collaboration in this rapidly growing region. The study found that electricity-trading scenarios outperformed a reference scenario that assumed no energy trading, lowering the energy systems cost by 4.5-7.2%. Costs were lower with trading, even when transmission costs associated with trading were considered (Mondal and Ringler 2020). Finally, an analysis in the Niger River Basin found that dam development can increase the sustainability of water availability for basin-wide hydropower generation and ecosystem health (Yang et al. 2018).Energy policy assessments are particularly important at the national level to support governments in their design of energy development strategies based on their own development goals, as well as on major drivers of change (i.e., population growth, climate change, economic development). As with many other low-and middle-income countries, Ethiopia was lacking this type of assessment. Research conducted under WLE, through financial support by the African Development Bank, has filled some of these gaps.The research assisted the Government of Ethiopia in developing alternative energy investment pathways based on national priority goals, which include universal electricity access and clean energy generation from renewable resources. The research identified the economic feasibility of investing in solar photovoltaic (PV) and wind power for electricity generation to meet projected demand . In doing so, WLE developed the first-ever homegrown Ethiopia TIMES energy systems model for Ethiopian energy stakeholders to identify least-cost solutions to meet the country's rising electricity demand while improving energy security, promoting access to modern energy sources and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. To ensure local ownership, an Ethiopian energy modeling group was formed and trained through a series of face-to-face and online workshops.A separate set of investment recommendations was linked to the assessment of the development of a decentralized rural energy system comprising solar PV arrays, wind turbines, a diesel generator and batteries to electrify a remote rural village in Ethiopia (Gebrehiwot et al. 2019).A further Ethiopian policy analysis focused on the potential energy savings from expanding efficient lighting and improved cookstoves (using the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning [LEAP] model) (Mondal et al. 2018).Energy investment and policy analysis is important not only for overall energy planning and reducing tradeoffs between energy, irrigation and food security goals, but also to support accelerated development of agro-processing and to fuel rural economic growth. In the case of Ethiopia, Borgstein et al. (2020) identify six agricultural production and processing opportunities -horticulture, grain milling, injera baking, milk cooling, bread baking and coffee washing -with a joint potential to generate USD 4 billion annually following electricity rollout by 2025. The acquisition of energy appliances is a further economic development opportunity, as would be the income generated for the energy supplier (Borgstein et al. 2020).Agricultural research centers around the world have carried out extensive research on the linkages between labor, fertilizer and agricultural productivity. A much less studied area relates to energy use in irrigation. Realizing the irrigation potential of poor countries is an important step toward improving agricultural production, food security, nutrition and climate resilience. WLE research has stepped in to fill important research gaps in this area.In partnership with the Asian Development Bank, WLE developed an energy checklist for irrigation systems (ADB 2017) to support irrigation development and rehabilitation specialists to jointly improve water and energy productivities, and to avoid tradeoffs that would result in increased energy use in irrigation investments that strive to reduce irrigation water use. This research directly supported the Government of Vietnam's plans to increase the adoption of high efficiency irrigation systems (HEIS). If there is a medium or high risk that energy could affect irrigation outcomes, the study recommends the development of a screening report and the monitoring of energy-irrigation indicators during the project cycle. Also, as part of this research, elements of a business model for the introduction of HEIS were developed and tested in two sites in Vietnam (Box 1). WLE also developed an integrated framework for off-grid solar irrigation (Lefore et al. 2021), noting the need for multisectoral alignment and coordination in policy and regulation that is often absent but crucial for the sustainable and inclusive scaling of solar irrigation. The framework combines social equity with energy, water and food security (Figure 2). It is intended to support policy, regulation and monitoring for environmentally sustainable and socioeconomically inclusive solar irrigation investment. An additional framework by Pavelic et al. (2021) focuses on managing groundwater depletion risks associated with solar water pumping. Another framework was developed, together with the Niger River Basin Authority and its nine member states, to increase understanding of water-energy-food-environment (WEFE) synergies and tradeoffs across the 350 investment projects of the authority as part of its 2016-2024 operational plan. The framework and checklist include information on the locations of proposed Niger Basin investments, as well as an assessment of their contribution to various nexus objectives, such as energy, water and food security, and environmental sustainability. Importantly, investments are not discouraged if they reduce the achievement of certain sectoral objectives, such as environmental sustainability. Instead, proponents are asked to identify mitigation actions or additional activities that would need to be advanced for negative linkages to be reduced or eliminated (Seidou et al. 2021). The framework has supported the agency in strengthening cross-sectoral synergies of the operational plan.Rural energy access can be accelerated through the identification of appropriate productive uses in the agri-food and water sectors. Various efforts have now started to co-locate energy and productive users -generally irrigation operations or agro-processing centers. As the price of solar PV panels has decreased and solar water pumps have become more affordable and can offer a climate-smart solution for small-scale farmers across Africa, Asia and beyond, the identification of suitable locations for solar pump-based irrigation has become increasingly relevant to support small-scale irrigation development led by governments, donors and private-sector initiatives.A key investment under WLE was the development of an online solar suitability tool (IWMI n.d.) using a geographic information system (GIS)-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) technique, which includes solar irradiation, slope, groundwater levels, aquifer productivity, groundwater storage, groundwater sustainability, population, roads and travel time to markets. WLE also developed national-level solar suitability maps to help public and private investors choose the right locations to unlock the full potential of solar-based PV pumping for irrigation. This framework has been applied in Ethiopia, Ghana and Mali, where scenarios accounting for availability of groundwater and surface water were established to assess the suitability of solar water-lifting devices (IWMI 2018, 2021) (see Figure 3 for suitability maps for Ethiopia). The Ethiopia study identified that 9% of irrigated land and 18% of rain-fed land would be suitable for solar PV pump irrigation (Schmitter et al. 2018). In Mali, the total area suitable for solar-based irrigation varied between 11% and 69% of the country's croplands (IWMI 2019). Currently, the tool is being adapted to the needs of private-sector companies. 1 Another study mapped the economic feasibility of solar-based irrigation versus diesel-based irrigation based on cropping patterns, and technology costs of solar and diesel pumps, as well as a series of biophysical factors using life cycle analysis across sub-Saharan Africa. Groundwater-fed solar irrigation was found to be cost-effective in southern and central Africa but less so in countries that subsidize diesel fuel (Angola, Nigeria and Sudan), and economic feasibility was higher where more waterintensive crops were irrigated (Xie et al. 2021). An important takeaway of this study is that results vary across location and scenarios, and they depend on factors such as sunlight, cropping systems, and fossil-fuel subsidies. Research suggests that richer, male farmers are more likely to be able to access irrigation technologies, including solar technologies (Lefore et al. 2019;Kafle et al. 2020). In response to this challenge, WLE embarked on the development of various business and finance models to help identify how sellers and buyers of energy technologies can benefit from the exchange of such technologies while lowering barriers to entry. Box 1 describes a series of business models focused on advanced, energy-intensive irrigation technologies, and also the circular economy or RRR.Box 1: Making the case for business models.Research under WLE in two areas of Vietnam showed that there was limited understanding of the full benefits and full costs of HEIS, and farmers generally lacked incentives for the adoption of HEIS. Seven different characteristics for a HEIS business model were suggested, related to prioritization of areas with water scarcity, credit, technology, extension services, holistic water management and governance (ADB 2017).Smallholder solar pump irrigation business model: WLE developed a business model approach for encouraging investments in smallholder solar pump irrigation. Ethiopia was used as a case study for the development of three business models that presented opportunities for investing in smallholder solar pump-based irrigation. The scenarios were based on the value proposition to supply water to smallholder farmers for irrigated agricultural production (Otoo et al. 2018). See also Gebrezgabher et al. (2021) for business models on solar irrigation for Ghana.In collaboration with the Tata Trusts and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), WLE developed an innovative model of grid-connected solar irrigation systems that offer farmers the option to 'grow' solar energy as an additional crop, adding a new source of income. This SPaRC model was piloted in three locations in western India and has become an inspiration for provincial and national solar irrigation expansion programs and policies (Shah et al. 2017).The floodplains of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin -covering Nepal Terai, eastern India and Bangladesh -are home to a quarter of the world's rural poor. The basin's excellent aquifers are underutilized due to a lack of affordable and reliable energy access. WLE, CCAFS and the Tata Trusts have developed an enterprise-based business model that can deliver reliable and affordable irrigation to small farmers through equitable and competitive irrigation service markets (Shah et al. 2019).Business models for energy, nutrient and water reuse: RRR business models were developed based on a large number of empirical case study examples, including: 1) the value proposition and value chain of the business; 2) the institutional setup; 3) risks in terms of viability and safety; and 4) overall performance data. The business models proposed include methods for transforming human waste into fertilizer, food waste into biogas and wastewater into irrigation sources (Otoo and Drechsel 2018).WLE, through the Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) and Livestock and Irrigation Value Chains for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES) projects, piloted eight solar pumps for smallholder irrigation in selected farm households in Oromia and the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR) in Ethiopia (Gebregziabher et al. 2019). The goal of the project was to test whether solar pumps could provide smallholder farmers with affordable and sustainable irrigation through water pumping and, as such, be a less costly and more environmentally friendly alternative to diesel pumps.Results showed that investment in solar pumps was profitable, depending on crop type and water delivery systems. The use of solar pumps was combined with three water application methods (drip, furrow and overhead), with benefit streams largest under the drip system. Key lessons and challenges identified by the project on the use of solar pumps are listed below:• Cost sharing can be a solution to the high initial investment cost, especially if additional investment is made for drip systems which allow the irrigated area to grow to around 0.5 hectare (ha) for these smaller pumps. • Partnerships between key actors, including rural financial institutions, are essential to lower barriers to entry for poorer farmers. • Targeted subsidies are needed at an early stage until solar pump prices become competitive.Ongoing work addresses bottlenecks for solar irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa, directly working with private-sector solar pump providers, using a market-based approach to scale solar pumps in Ghana and elsewhere.In the past decade, WLE researched a series of solutions to the complex energy-irrigation crisis that has affected parts of the South Asia region, threatening water resources and agricultural sustainability, and generating an enormous financial burden to the energy utilities (Verma et al. 2018). The research built on foundational analysis of the impacts of subsidies on groundwater depletion, the impacts of subsidy removal and the reasons why alternative policy approaches were needed (Box 2). India is the world's largest user of groundwater, mostly for irrigation but also for industrial and domestic use. While this 'groundwater boom' has helped India sustain national food security, it has also imposed a huge socioeconomic cost.✓ More than 72% of India's roughly 20-21 million groundwater irrigation structures run on highly subsidized electricity. The annual subsidy burden exceeds USD 15 billion, affecting the financial health of the country's energy utilities, and has contributed to severe groundwater depletion. ✓ Heavy subsidies have also been linked to low energy efficiency and crop productivity in the country (Rajan and Ghosh 2019). ✓ Subsidized electricity for groundwater irrigation has fuelled groundwater depletion. This, in turn, required farmers to install higher capacity pumps, increasing electricity use. To address financial losses, electricity utilities have started to ration supply hours; in response, farmers have resorted to illegal hook-ups to the grid and oversized pumps, further reducing energy efficiency and crop productivity. ✓ The complete withdrawal of these perverse subsidies would come at a high political cost. ✓ A solution pre-dating WLE was the separation of agricultural and non-agricultural electric grids in Gujarat (Shah et al. 2004); this was later replicated in several other Indian states (Shah and Verma 2008). ✓ Farmers without electricity subsidies or access in India continue to rely on highly polluting diesel, mostly in eastern India and central India's tribal heartlands. ✓ A 2009 study noted that farmers in India's water scarce regions that benefited from access to subsidized electricity faced little or no economic water scarcity while India's water rich regions were net virtual water importers in the form of agricultural commodities (Verma et al. 2009).Together with policy research, WLE tested innovative approaches to reduce farmers' dependence on energy subsidies through the adoption of solar pumps. Experiments have shown that solar pumps can save money and require less maintenance compared to diesel pumps. However, results are contextspecific and solar pumps are not a panacea. Instead, they could worsen the groundwater depletion crisis in northwestern and peninsular India, for example (Durga et al. 2016). Specifically, the Tata Trusts, WLE and CCAFS piloted a Solar Pump Irrigators' Cooperative Enterprise (SPICE) located in the village of Dhundi in central Gujarat, India (Shah et al. 2017). The idea of the cooperative was to promote SPaRC; that is, rather than using all the solar energy for pumping groundwater, farmers augment their income through the sale of surplus energy to the local electricity utility. The cooperative established a mini-grid connected to the local power utility grid for the sale of surplus energy under a 25-year power purchase agreement. To kick off the program, tariffs received by farmers were topped up with a green energy and water conservation bonus. This small pilot inspired the Government of Gujarat's 'Suryashakti Kisan Yojana' initiative, under which more than 4,500 farmers participate in this business model. The SPaRC model also forms part of the Government of India's ambitious Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM) campaign with the goal of reaching two million farmers (Verma 2021).In eastern India -where groundwater is abundant, but energy access is expensive and unreliable -the Tata Trusts, WLE and CCAFS piloted 'Solar Irrigation Service Providers' (SISP) with a view to catalyzing pro-poor, competitive irrigation service markets -replacing the prevalent oligopolistic and highly polluting diesel irrigation regime (Shah et al. 2019). In Bihar, studies have shown that government programs that offer very high capital subsidies for solar irrigation pumps are highly inefficient and poorly targeted (Durga et al. 2016). A better approach towards ensuring delivery of affordable and reliable energy for irrigation to the maximum number of small farmers would be to set up efficient and equitable solar irrigation enterprises. Each of the solar irrigation entrepreneurs set up in the pilot in Chakhaji village of north Bihar services 80-100 small farmers at prices that are less than half of diesel-based irrigation services (Durga et al. 2020;Durga and Rai 2018).Overall, researchers emphasize that solar irrigation pumps need to be promoted through models that fully understand the local context, particularly with respect to the availability of water resources, the potential negative impacts, and the agricultural system within which the water-energy-food-climate operates (Verma et al. 2018).The India experience is currently being transferred to Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan where solar programs are piloted and South-to-South learning is promoted with African countries (Verma 2021).Although the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) envision a world with \"access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all,\" in sub-Saharan Africa, around 75% of households continue to rely on biomass for cooking (Mekonnen et al. 2017). Furthermore, electricity in many places is used only for lighting while biomass continues to be used for cooking, as electricity access is either unreliable or no electrical cooking appliances are available. The use of biomass for cooking can adversely affect women's available time for agricultural activities, in addition to negative health impacts from related air pollution. Moreover, biomass removal from agricultural fields can adversely affect agricultural productivity, and the clearance of forests has broader biodiversity, climate and agro-ecosystem impacts. Lessons from WLE's research on biomass energy are shown below.• In Malawi, biomass sources are the main cooking energy source in rural and urban areas and will continue to be so due to high population growth, despite policy measures aimed at increasing energy efficiency. Simulations of alternative scenarios have shown that agroforestry interventions are an essential tool to ensure sustainable supply of fuelwood and food security in Malawi (Schuenemann et al. 2018). • In rural Ethiopia, many households collect firewood and cow dung to be used as fuel for cooking. The removal of cow dung from crop fields was associated with lower agricultural productivity, while on-farm production of fuelwood was associated with higher crop productivity and labor savings, by making fuelwood collection easier and more convenient for households (Mekonnen et al. 2017). • Initiatives encouraging farmers to grow additional trees on their farmland are a way of improving the availability of firewood stocks and decreasing the amount of time needed for collecting natural energy resources by women (Scheurlen 2015).WLE research also investigated innovative approaches for the reuse of available waste materials. As noted earlier, the burden of the collection of biomass for energy and other uses often falls on women and children. Through the development of business models and capacity building, the WLE RRR subprogram has helped women and young people to transform local waste into business opportunities (see Box 3 for advantages of RRR approaches).Specifically, business models have focused on the conversion of crop and forestry residues, animal and human manure, or market waste into fuel pellets, briquettes or biogas, with a focus on involving women in such small enterprises. Waste-based bioenergy sources have advantages over coal and wood because they are cleaner, virtually free from incombustibles, easy to handle and cost-effective, and have lower ash and moisture contents.Case studies described in Njenga and Mendum (2018) showed that recovering energy from organic waste had multiple positive impacts, in particular, for women and young people. RRR approaches required little investment capital, and were a simple and adaptable technology with cheap input materials. Through different partnerships, RRR initiatives have improved energy access, reduced waste, and empowered women in Kenya, Uganda and Ghana, among other countries. These measures were supported by capacity building in the form of development and expansion of university curriculums.Box 3: Advantages of RRR approaches.• Reusing waste materials from urban markets and highly populated neighborhoods, with limited sanitation services, can help to keep streets and public spaces clean while providing raw materials for briquette production. • In extreme cases, such as refugee camps in arid locations, human waste that would otherwise be a threat to drinking water and human well-being can be directed toward fuel production. • Providing indoor urine-diverting dry toilets for recovery of human excrement can prevent refugees, especially women and children, from having to go outside at night to use pit latrines and can also supply fecal sludge for briquette production. • RRR for energy contributes to providing cheap, accessible cooking and heating energy that burns cleaner than firewood and charcoal. • Bioslurry from biogas production has been shown to increase yields of coffee cherries, and can also be used as feed for pigs and poultry. • Burning biomass in gasifier stoves produces biomass gas for cooking and also charcoal as a by-product, which can be used as biochar to improve soil quality in gardens or used again as fuel for cooking. • The RRR-to-energy innovations reduce pressure on trees that would otherwise be cut down for charcoal or firewood.Source: Njenga and Mendum (2018).First, while WLE developed a broad set of research activities in the energy space, the research did not consider the multiple impacts of accelerated rural energy access -for example, on nutrition, health, women's empowerment and environmental sustainability.Given One CGIAR's focus on making a difference in five impact areas -1) nutrition, health and food security; 2) climate adaptation and mitigation; 3) environmental health and biodiversity; 4) gender equality, youth and social inclusion; and 5) poverty reduction, livelihoods and jobs -research on accelerating rural energy access should more proactively assess these contributions. Similarly, a cost of inaction study should be considered, given the significant climate and environmental health costs of continued slow expansion of energy access and energy technologies in rural areas. Both such analyses could also further strengthen the business case for rural energy investment.Second, while research suggested that small-scale, poorer and women farmers were less likely to directly benefit from accelerated energy access -for example, from owning and making decisions over a solar irrigation pump -there was little research focused on how to remove gendered barriers to energy technologies. 3 Under One CGIAR, in-depth assessments are needed on the suitability for, and distribution of benefits to, women farmers, including possible financial models that reach women and contribute to transforming gender relations. Initiative that aims to strengthen energy use in the post-harvest sector. Several proposed regional initiatives also consider energy as a key factor for rural well-being and environmental sustainability.To ensure synergies in CGIAR's energy work and to increase impacts across these and other initiatives, a cross-initiative working group could be established.The urgency of accelerating rural energy access for agricultural transformation is acute, as evidenced by intensifying climate change, growing food insecurity and malnutrition, and severe environmental degradation, including groundwater depletion. There is much to do and CGIAR has a key role to play in providing information, supporting access and piloting scalable energy interventions to support the achievement of multiple impacts for the poorest and most food-insecure women and men farmers and entrepreneurs.","tokenCount":"5233"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d463f57c8233eca79ee649dbf7279b68","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd555b41-48a6-43e6-9865-4c7482ff22ac/retrieve","id":"1897845172"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"436050f3-258b-418c-954c-aca803107991","pagecount":"69","content":"Dissemination of Agricultural Reference Books (DORA) is a program set up to provide agricultural information for Africa, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries. The main objective is to make sources of information (books) available to rural development practitioners, which will enable them to find their own solutions to the technical, socioeconomic and human problems that they face on a daily basis. The goal is to help ACP countries have better access to agricultural information services by making available relevant information and documentation to serve as a resource base for agricultural and rural development. Several institutions in Nigeria receive books mainly in agriculture, through Intermediate Technology Publication (ITP), under the DORA program. This program is of immense value in Nigeria particularly where there are numerous institutions of higher learning, and shortage of foreign exchange prohibits acquisition of literature. It is uncommon to find in some schools and institutions of higher learning upto-date books on agriculture.The purpose for which CTA commissioned this study is to determine DORA's impact on the performance of beneficiaries (teachers, students, and participating institutions) so as to facilitate necessary improvement in the efficiency and usefulness of the program.The specific objective is to determine the benefits resulting from the DORA program.DORA was launched in 1991, to cater in general for the needs in ACP countries for agricultural information. However, the evaluation meeting of 1993 in Swaziland, and the inventory of agricultural training institutions made by CTA in 1997 by BDPA for CTA, shifted the focus of DORA to agricultural training institutions within the ACP countries because of the dearth of information within agricultural training institutions.This study is to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the publications distributed to various agricultural institutions in Nigeria; in addition to assess the relevance of the content of the books procured under the DORA program. The information about the usefulness, benefits and impact of the DORA program to stakeholders was gathered through questionnaires, interviews, site visits, focus group discussions and structured observations.The approach employed was to visit the London office of ITP, and all the institutions participating in the DORA Program in Nigeria, conduct a series of interviews of stakeholders, particularly program contact persons (Librarian) and institution/Faculty Deans and Heads of Department. This was followed up with focus group discussions with students and lecturers to obtain information which ordinary interview or questionnaire cannot give.A structured survey instrument was administered to both students and staff.A combination of objective and subjective approaches were employed to gather information. These approaches are as follows: Designing questionnaires in English, which examines relevance, satisfaction and use of DORA books. Distributing questionnaires to participating institutions. Visit by the consultants to all the participating institutions. Conducting structured interviews and focus group discussions. Analysing the results in terms of the objectives with emphasis on use and benefits. Desk study which included review of literature concerning the DORA. Citation analysis of user's publications in which DORA books are used for reference. Review of previous impact assessment studies especially with respect to information dissemination.The framework for impact assessment was designed to motivate all stakeholders within National Agriculture Research Service (NARS), and to assist CTA in making informed decisions with respect to the DORA program. This framework covers effectiveness, access, adoption, use of agricultural technologies, priority setting, program formulation, efficiency, networking, and reduction of duplication.Results are presented in 17 tables designated (a) and (b) together with 10 figures illustrating the benefit and impact of DORA as reflected by students and lecturers who are the main beneficiaries in all the institutions surveyed.The National average is shown on the tables. Approximately 42% of students and 61% of lecturers are satisfied with library opening hours.On important aspects of library use such as reading space and library distance, 38% of students and 30% of lecturers indicated that there is always enough space, and distance from the library does not impede library use.Among those who are not using DORA books, three major reasons were given: Approximately 40% of students and lecturers claimed the books are not readily available. About 30% (students and lecturers) claimed that they couldn't locate the books in the library. The third reason given by 24% of students and 10% of staff was difficulty in burrowing the books. Both students (52%) and staff (48%) in the institutions surveyed have better success of finding DORA books in the library because the library staff offer valuable assistance, by providing information on the availability and location of DORA books in the library.In institutions having very high enrollment of students, there is a higher demand for DORA books than available. About 60% of respondents indicated that DORA books can be found in the library by browsing, using catalogues or using the subject index.Corresponding percentage for students is 50 percent. Locating DORA books sometimes through a friend or colleague is 41% possible for students and 51% for lecturers.As a source of information library books rank highest, with 47% of students and 65% of lecturers considering this source very useful. In all institutions surveyed the library staff performance is rated very high (52% by students, and 59% by lecturers).There is need for improvement in the physical condition and arrangement in all the libraries visited with only 36% of students and 24% of lecturers rating them good.Physical disabilities of students and staff do not hinder their accessibility to DORA books; neither does gender.The main thrust of the results is that the DORA books are immensely valued by the various institutions, the books' content are relevant to the agricultural curriculum and practical training in virtually all the institutions. Users of the books are satisfied with the quality, and the coverage of the subject matter. The only set back is that the quantity of books sent is grossly insufficient for the users, and therefore strong attempts should be made to increase the quantity of the books. It is suggested that this could be done in discouraging individual in favour of institutional acquisitions. It is further suggested that where CTA has a program like DORA, a local consultant should be engaged to ensure efficiency, proper usage and documentation. countries. The main objective was to make sources of information available to rural development practitioners; thereby enabling them find their own solutions to the technical, socio-economic and human problems, which they face on a daily basis. The goal is to help ACP countries have better access to agricultural information by making available, relevant information and documentation to serve as a resource base for agricultural and rural development. DORA operates through three main partners i.e. The Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA); agencies acting for CTA in connection with DORA; and the ACP countries taking part in the program as beneficiaries.The CTA was set up in 1983 under the Lome Convention between member states of the European Union and the ACP Group; with the responsibility of providing information service to ACP States; to enable them improve their access to information, research, training and innovations in the fields of agriculture, rural development and extension work. The CTA funds the DORA program, manages, coordinates and promotes its activities. CTA has since 1985 been working on the distribution of books and other information documents and materials for the benefit for the benefits of these countries.During the first phase of its operation, in 1991/93, many ACP countries benefited from the DORA program. During the following phase, 1993/94, twenty-nine centers located in countries, which were not included in the first group, benefited from the DORA program.In 1993, CTA made an evaluation of the DORA program and one of the major recommendations was that DORA should focus on providing information support to agricultural training institutions.Consequently, during 1995-1999 period DORA activities focused on agricultural training institutions. Following the information provided through a questionnaire sent by DORA sponsors, some higher institution libraries were selected to benefit from the DORA program.At the start, 6000 ECU was made available in two phases, to each participating library.Catalogue of books from which selections are to be made were sent to each participating institution, in return, list of selected books were sent by each institution to DORA after consultation with and input from end users.One of the important responsibilities of CTA is to provide ACP nationals with information on demand. The target groups are students and lecturers in institutions of higher learning, research, extension workers, planners, and farmer's organizations. The aim is to facilitate these groups involved in agricultural development with up-to-date information to enable them perform creditably in their responsibilities.The major visit within CTA concerned with the book distribution is the Publication Distribution Service (PDS) which provides gratis, books on request to those in the target group comprising researchers, extension workers, planners, farmers' organizations, trainers, information officers and policy makers involved with agriculture and rural development. Books numbering about 700 titles are distributed to this target group.Approximately sixty per cent of the books are jointly produced by CTA and other organizations, close to thirty five per cent are CTA's own published proceedings, seminar reports, and occasional technical publications. The remaining five percent are specially purchased publications to meet the request of the target group.The PDS already has some expertise in purchasing books for distribution. The CTA has direct control of book distribution, under the PDS whereas in the DORA program, beneficiaries mainly agricultural training institutions, select the books of their choice from many catalogues provided; and distribution is carried out by Intermediate Technology Publications (ITP) and Bureau pour le developpement de la production agricole (BDPA), who implement the program on behalf of CTA.In this study, twenty-one institutions in Nigeria are participating in the DORA program.They receive books mainly in agriculture, through ITP based in the United Kingdom.Training institutions in most ACP countries are confronted with a teaching approach that is more theoretical than practical. They suffer from a crucial need for accessibility to technical documents (books, journals and periodicals), and low utilization of modern communication techniques in training program (computers E-mails and internet access).Poor networking in communication between institutions in the region has also been documented. In addition, lack of financial resources to enable libraries and information centers in institutions of higher learning (Universities, Colleges of Agriculture, Polytechnics) in the region update their books and literature is a major impediment to the acquisition of new knowledge. This situation is critical in developing countries, and in Nigeria particularly where there are numerous institutions of higher learning acute shortage of foreign exchange prohibits acquisition of up-to-date literature.The easy access to relevant books and newly published literature to provide solid back-up to lectures, discussions, projects, assignments and individual student reading, is often a problem that requires amelioration. At the same time, in spite of steady rise in the provision of information services in developing countries, quite a lot of fundamental issues need to be resolved. Do the beneficiaries in recipient countries consider the services offered relevant and/or appropriate? To what extent does the information services offered contribute in the actual sense to the empowerment of people and higher productivity? Are the institutions receiving these facilities accountable? Are program on information dissemination sustainable? There is no doubt that information can bring about development, however, the extent to which the linkage between information investment enhances development need to be ascertained. This can be done through a study like this, which can generate empirical evidence to show that acquisition of information is critically essential to development. This is an important way by which international agencies concerned with information dissemination to developing countries can justify their activities as priority in the disbursement of scarce and increasingly limited financial resources in the light of other competing forces.The overall objective of the study is to determine the impact of DORA on the performance of beneficiaries (teachers, students, and participating institutions) so as to facilitate necessary improvements in the efficiency and usefulness of the program.The specific objective is to determine the benefits resulting from the DORA program to beneficiaries and their institutions. Each library was allocated 6000 ECU for acquisition of books. The money was made available in two installments of 3000 ECU and after the first installment, a questionnaire was sent to participating institutions to find out how the books are being used, before the remaining fund was released.Book catalogues and instructions on how to order books from the ITP were sent to beneficiaries to assist them in book selection.The steps followed for the program evaluation included: identifying and analysing information needs of users, browsing through publishers catalogue, and collating statistics on usage of the book.Information was sent back on the effect of donated books on library patronage after procurement of DORA publications, including the frequency with which the books were consulted and the reason for consulting the books.The role and responsibilities of the partners involved in the DORA program were clearly specified. There are three main principal actors namely: CTA, implementing agencies for CTA, and African Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP).CTA funds, manages, co-ordinates and promote the activities of the DORA program.CTA also identifies the information requirement of the participating centers; and passes it on to implementing agencies. CTA complements program implementation by ensuring effective communication, giving up-to-date information and providing useful guidance.Here they foster CTA relationship with the beneficiary centers by providing necessary information (books), monitoring and evaluating the activities of participating institutions.They support promotional activities and ensure the stamp of CTA -DORA is placed on each donated book.They ensure that there is well-established co-operation and information exchange with participating centers. They note, specify and convey the needs of the centers to CTA, undertake to provide quality service and to deliver ordered books within reasonable time.They also send various book catalogues to the participating institutions to ensure that the book choices emanate from beneficiaries based on their needs. At the beginning of this study, the consultant visited the London office of Intermediate Technologies Publication UK, (ITP) the agency charged with the responsibility of distributing books to Nigerian institutions under the DORA program. While at this office, the consultant was given various useful materials and documents relating to the books disseminated to Nigeria, under the DORA program. This information was used to crosscheck the various institutions' records, to verify and ascertain the number and cost of books received.The ACP countries ensure that the centers can access the books; they monitor it and also evaluate program activities. The ACP countries select and distribute the materials they receive; they also promote the DORA program.Participating Centers are selected on criteria based on:(1). Handling of materials (books) (2). Experience in documentation and documentation network (3). Library Materials.The centers identify the needs of their users, publicize themselves, keep record on attendance and consultation received and also send summary of their management statistics to CTA for evaluation. This is an evaluation exercise designed to gauge the effectiveness, relevance, efficiency and the level of satisfaction derived from the use of CTA-DORA publications donated to selected agricultural institutions of higher learning in Nigeria.The approach employed was to make an initial visit to the London office of ITP, for discussions on the DORA program, and to collect relevant information and data for use in the evaluation process.Information about stakeholders' views in Nigeria was gathered through questionnaires, interviews, site visits, focus group discussion and structured observations. All the institutions participating in the DORA Program in Nigeria were visited to conduct a series of interviews of stakeholders, particularly program contact persons Librarians, Faculty Deans and Heads of Departments.Structured interviews were conducted at two levels. At the first level, people managing DORA were interviewed to give their opinion about the program, to enumerate any impediments in the implementation of the program, linkages and networking within and outside own institution, and to suggest ways of improving the service delivery for better value.The second level of interview was administered to librarians in charge of the institutions where DORA books and other information materials were kept. The major emphasis of this interview was to ascertain their ability to assess the needs of and communicate with users. Other interview points are ability to create demand for services, the ability to teach users, and the ability to provide specialised services.Focus Group Discussions were carried out with students and lecturers, to obtain information which ordinary interview or questionnaire cannot give.Focus group sessions are a qualitative research technique widely used in industry, where it is considered essential to understand the psychological and behavioural underpinnings of consumer action, and identify ways and means to influence this behaviour positively Folch-Lyon and Trost, (1981).A series of focus discussion sessions were used to gain insight into dynamic relationships of attitudes, opinions, motivations concerns and problems related to current and projected usage of DORA publications and other information materials including the electronics media. Two group sessions were held at each institution; one focused on teachers of agricultural subjects, and the other was conducted for students. The groups vary in number from 5-10.The Focus Group Discussions complimented the survey method because it emphasised the creation of unstructured, informal and free environment in which a dynamic group action develops to favour disclosures that might not be consciously revealed in structured questionnaires or individual interview sessions.Survey research was employed in the measurement of the needs of users and potential users of information system and in the measurement of the success of these systems in response to these needs. This involved the collection of systematic data to measure identified variables across a sample of cases in order to determine the existence of patterns. The process of randomisation was used to collect all samples in this study.The instrument for the collection of data for this study was the structured questionnaires, which was pre-tested and was administered to both student and staff. A total of 1000 questionnaires were administered nation-wide in all the 5 zones. Approximately 60% of these questionnaires were administered on students and 40% on the lecturers. Seventy eight per cent (78%) out of the total administered on the students and 68% for the lecturers were received respectively. Out of the total questionnaires administered in the South-west 65% (334) was received, followed by 30% (141) from the North-East, while 20 % response was received from Middle-Belt and the North-West respectively. The lowest respondents were received from the South-East accounting for 11%(54), due mainly to fewer DORA participating institutions.The approaches taken for data collection are: Together with the people managing DORA centers in all the participating institutions, the key indicators to be used in this study were defined.It was considered necessary to work and collaborate with representatives of the beneficiary groups (both decision-makers and end-users) to agree on the indicators in the study framework, so as to enhance a participatory approach to the study, and to bring to the fore any hidden factor(s) that has possibly been overlooked. This procedure enriched the study.The framework for impact assessment was designed to motivate all stakeholders within NARS and assist CTA in making informed judgment with respect to the DORA program.It covers a series of indicators with which impact of DORA on users can be determined. This includes personal information, study situation, frequency of information use, relevance, satisfaction, need assessment, appropriateness, effectiveness, access, adoption, and use of agricultural technologies, priority setting, programme formulation, efficiency, networking, and reduction of duplication.The collection of data was very detailed in all the institutions surveyed and the exercise was very exhaustive. The statistical analysis of survey data involved basic descriptive univariate statistics (frequency count, percentages and means) that was successfully used to classify the respondent in line with major parameter being examined. The bivariate analysis (cross-tabulation and chi-square), were used to assess the extent of relationship between the dependent variables and a number of other independent variable with the view to determine the degree of association for all these major important parameters. This approach helped to determine the impact of CTA-DORA books amongst both the students and staff in the various institutions within each of the five zones.All participation institutions were classified into five zones in line with the geo-political demarcations in Nigeria. These five zones have distinct ecosystems, crop/livestock emphasis, culture and tradition. The institutions and the zones in which they are located are shown below.SOUTH-WEST The CTA-DORA books have been received and the staff and students are making use of them though some other donor agencies give books to the same library. The major one is Book aid International, London, and the World Bank, since 1997. Three out of four of those participating in the focus group discussion subscribe personally to CTA publication. All the participants are familiar with the CTA-DORA books in the library.The program is good and affords users the opportunity of sharing most recent information with people outside the country. New areas of research are promoted in the books and new laboratory techniques are learnt. The books are of good quality, they are current therefore, and the program should be continued.However, it is a bit lopsided with respect to the discipline represented. For example there are not many books on animal breeding and agricultural extension.Creating more awareness on the books and computerization of the library operations to facilitate easy book search will improve access to CTA-DORA books in the library.About 75% of participants' felt that the library has performed below expectation for the following reasons: lack of infrastructure facilities, poorly trained library attendants, lack of recent books and journal acquisition except those from the CTA-DORA.There are departmental libraries apart from the faculty library and most of the DORA books here are distributed to the departmental librarians. For the Department of Plant Science, the library is okay while Agricultural Economics require more current books. In the case of the Department agricultural extension, there is a problem of space, thus the books are kept in the Head of Department's office. This creates the problem of accessibility especially for students. In the case of the Home Economics Unit, there are no new publications in the four areas covered by the unit; these are food and nutrition, clothing, resource management and child management.Facilities in the library are merely average. This is because the books are old, not current, and outdated. There are also not enough books in the library. It is not easy to borrow books since there are not enough copies. There is need for more chairs in the library. On subscription to CTA publications from PDS, only 3 of the 7 participants (42.9%) personally subscribed to CTA publications. About 86% of the participants are familiar with the CTA-DORA books in the library. None of the students subscribe personally to any of the CTA publications. Only 2 out of 13 students (15.4%) are familiar with the CTA-DORA books in the library, this perception changes to full familiarity when they are shown the books.The program is good and helpful for developing countries. It should be continued. The topics treated are tropical issues. The program should be extended to journals and other informative periodicals. More than one copy of each book should be given to the library to give opportunity to users who may need to borrow books. This is because the DORA books are kept in the reference section.The books are highly precise, very good and highly informative. There should be better awareness of the books; for example a list of the books should be pasted on the notice board for staff and students to see. The libraries are not computerized hence computers are needed.The CTA-DORA books are processed for 1-2 days on arrival. Then they are displayed on new arrival shelves for 2-4 weeks. Sending memo to lecturers publicizes the books and some are pasted on notice boards for students. Though there is no specific shelf for the DORA books, they are placed on regular shelves according to subject classification after the period of display on new arrival shelf.Students are allowed into the library based on presentation of identity cards. They can borrow books for 2 weeks while lecturers can borrow for 4 weeks and renew for the same period of time. Some of the books are placed on reserves (to be read in the library only) depending on demand.Books are searched in the library by browsing through shelves because of the small volume of books available. The library is located very close to the students' lecture rooms (about 2 minutes walk). There is enough reading space to accommodate 25% of the student population at a time.All the lecturers (100%) subscribe personally to CTA publications from PDS. All the lecturers (100%) are familiar with the CTA-DORA books in the library.The following are comments on the DORA program: the books are good, adequate, relevant and up to date. There is however the need to have specialised and relevant books published by other publishers not listed by ITP.To improve access to the books there is need to computerise the library. CD-ROM and Internet facilities should be provided.The management of the library is fair, but the structure is sub-standard. There are no current journals; effort should be made to procure agricultural journals.None of the students subscribe personally to CTA publications. All the students are familiar with the CTA-DORA books in the library. The DORA books are simplified and easy to comprehend.There is the need for more books in the library; those available are inadequate and outdated. There are insufficient copies of relevant and current books.The library should be computerized and Internet facilities made available.The library is located too close to the lecture rooms; thus the environment is prone to noise. The library space is inadequate especially during examination periods when more students use the library.Seven out of ten lecturers subscribe personally to CTA publications. Two third of them are also familiar with CTA-DORA books in the library. The books are regarded as excellent sources of information, appropriate and well simplified for the general public readership. However some subjects are not covered these includes: aquatic pollution and toxicology, fish processing and preservation, aquaculture, engineering, fish hatching management, fish breeding and genetics, wild life etc. More awareness on the existence of the books is required. Computerisation with CD-ROM facilities, and Internet connectivity are needed in the Faculty library. The books are old, few, with no current books and journals.Three out of four of the participating staff subscribes personally to CTA books. All the staff is familiar with the CTA-DORA books in the library, they indicated that the program is good. New areas of research are promoted in the books and also new laboratory techniques are learnt.The books are of good quality and recent, the program should be continued. Creating more awareness on the books and computerisation of the library operations to facilitate easy book search can do this.About 80 percent of the staff subscribed personally to CTA books, especially the Spore is a very popular document, which has immensely popularized the CTA. The CTA-DORA books are very useful to the student and staff of this institution.This institution is located in a very rural community of about 150,000 inhabitants. All the lecturers interviewed are very aware of the CTA and the DORA books, and they use the book actively in their lecture notes. They require more information and more books in the area of agriculture engineering, home economics and fisheries. The library is a temporary structure, which lacks infrastructure, and has limited reading space. There are no book catalogues, no indexing but the library keeps accessioning register. This institution receives books also from the World Bank. Books are placed on open shelves; there is no reference library. Students have access to borrow books but only for two weeks at a time. The lecturers refer students to CTA books for projects. The creation of a reference room in the library will improve book circulation, but may also reduce personal access of students to books.The CTA-DORA books have been received and both staff and students have found them very useful. The library of this institution has 500 sitting capacity, though there are over 24,000 students with about 15,000 registered readers. Students are allowed to borrow 4 books at a time for 30 days and staff can borrow 6 books for the same period. Most of the books in this library are out-dated. Only the CTA-DORA books are new within the last 2 years. There has been no subscription to journals or text books in the last 2 years.There are about 2,000 students in this institution. Students consider the DORA books interesting, the contents are relevant, but there is need for more copies. The books are usually used for assignment and research, compiling reports, writing projects and sometimes applied to fieldwork. The language is simple. Out of 15 students in the group discussion none is aware of the DORA program but when shown the CTA-DORA books all of them are aware of it, they have seen it and have used it.CTA books focuses on rural development. Lecturers use the books for teaching and developing research models for Postgraduate students for Postgraduate students. The staff of this institution has little information on the selection and receipt of books.The number of books donated to the institution by CTA need to be increased. The books are very current (all new books).Many lecturers (30%) receive books regularly from CTA. They are reluctant to borrow others from their personal collections because of the fear of loosing them. Users believe that the books are fantastic, very useful and the contents are modern, but then, there should be a system of notifying staff and students when new books arrive.Because of the distance of the library from offices and residence of staff, most of them do not use the library. In addition the lecture load is heavy and does not permit much time for literature search. Other than CTA acquisition, no other source of new books in the library, no fund to do research, therefore there is any incentive to search for information.The CTA publication 'spore' is very popular. It has village-type practical pest control strategies, which are appropriate for rural areas. It contains periodic articles on Pest Management, Environmental Protection, these information are useful for Crop Protection Classes.There have been three librarians in this institution in as many years. All the books are packed still in boxes in the librarian's office. There is no faculty of Agriculture in this institution.This institution has not received the CTA-DORA books and therefore no study can be conducted there.Although both the teachers and students express surprise when they were told that according to CTA and ITP records they should have received the books. They however remain anxious and very interested. They showed concern that they may not benefit from this laudable program.The division of Agricultural Colleges of Ahmadu Bello University has three colleges located at Kabba, (tree crops) Kaduna (livestock) and Samaru (food crops). The DORA books when received are shared amongst the institutions according to discipline. The book selection process needs to be improved, especially with respect to obtaining input by relevant subject matter lecturers.Although the books are not enough, the existence of the books should be better publicised among the students and staff of the participating institutions. Arrangement of the books should be improved upon so that better access can be assured. The lecturers are quite aware of CTA and of the DORA Program. All of them have also seen and used the books in the library.Three separate classes of students were grouped into the Focus Group Discussions. The main findings are as follows:Most of the books in the library are old and out-dated.  The library needs to be computerised and there is need for procurement of recent journals and current books. The faculty library is to be strengthened through donation of more books. In order to meet this demand, books donated to individuals should be discouraged. Low edition books (paper backs), cost less especially for professional books (medicine), which are more expensive. In the light of this there should be more fund allocation to veterinary medicine.Many of the students are neither aware of CTA nor DORA but when the books were shown to them they are all familiar with the books and they make use of them. The library needs computerization, more books, better reading conditions and the provision of more power source (electrification). Many students need assistance in locating books in the library, many do not know how to use catalogue, so there must be some kind of orientation training in library use. Like other libraries there are more outdated books, not enough personnel, inadequate opening hours of the library. There should be better opportunity for students to borrow books. There is need to expand the space of the library, increase books shelves and supply of more CTA books. In general CTA is considered to be an organisation, which supplies new books and supply source of information.This is a relatively small post-secondary institution; the student's population is only 400 with 14 members of staff. This institution offers in-service training in the area of agriculture extension and cooperative economics at the National Diploma level. The library facilities in this institution are under construction, so the CTA-DORA books are kept in a designated room accessible to both staff and students.Cooperative movements nation-wide, banks, businesses employ the graduates of this institution either as trainees or on attachment programs.This institution has a newly built library, about 2,500 students and 231 academic staff.Some staff members have personal subscription to CTA books. The books are considered excellent and very useful in lecture preparation and students assignments.This library needs more books and journals.In general, students are allowed to borrow not more than 2 books at a time for 30 days and staff can borrow 4 books for the same period. The books return rate is good. In the library anything new are CTA-DORA books.This institution also has no faculty of agriculture. The books are still intact in the boxes in the faculty of science library. Neither students nor staff has used the books up to date.This is a post-primary school for boys. It is not a higher institution of learning therefore it is not supposed to be a beneficiary of the DORA programme.At the time of visit to this institution 220 books have been received. Some teachers in the school were consulted about the books and said they accepted the books because they are free, and if they reject them they may loose participation in the programme. The books are still in the boxes and kept in the principal's office. The books are not in the library because the library is under construction and therefore it is not safe. The students have not had the opportunity of reading the books because they are too advanced and they are not related to their syllabus. There is no problem of accessibility to books. Where a book is on high demand it is kept in reserved section of the library. In other situation a lecturer can recommend that a valuable book should be kept in the reserved section of the library. When the library receives CTA-DORA books, publicity is accorded.Global cooperation and inter-dependence in all areas of human endeavor is fast becoming a normal phenomenon where communities, organizations come to the aid of one another for the development of humanity. From this standpoint, DORA project, which is aimed at helping ACP countries to gain better and timely access to agricultural information through the provision of relevant agricultural literature, is a welcome development.The selection of Abubarkar Tafawa Balewa University as one of the beneficiaries of DORA project for two years running is a great honour to the institution. This kind gesture has gone a long way in revamping agricultural book acquisition with current literature having high scholarly value. The hall-mark of DORA project is the freedom granted the recipient libraries to freely compile the list of publications required in agriculture and rural development based on their local needs, rather than with strings attached.The books in this institution are being well used. They are kept in the faculty of agriculture library. Fifty per cent of the staff subscribed to CTA books individually.The books are very easy to understand and the language is direct. understanding and the teaching quality of staff.This aspect of the report applies in general terms to all the participating institutions of higher learning, universities and colleges of agriculture visited. In these institutions, the librarians, library staff, academic staff and students were interviewed. The key points from the interviews are summarised below:1.The university is the major activity around which economic, social activities hang in many institutions visited. They provide services particularly basic amenities.The relationship is cordial especially as the university provides business opportunities and in some cases water supply. Some members of the community participate in sporting activities and some use the library. The University is closely linked to the community there is a large market where goods and services are exchanged. Many students live off-campus. The University provides jobs, extension and ambulatory services to the community. The university provides recreation (sports and television), business and job opportunities to the community.Respondents were asked to rank the priorities of the community according to the level of importance. The ranking were arranged as follows: Money, Food, Health, Water, Education, Religious Freedom, Provision of housing, Politics, Survival, Peace, Social Amenities, Marriage, Food processing, Employment and better Transportation.The following issues were highlighted: Lack of modern agricultural technology including agricultural machines and farming implements, no storage facilities for farm produce, and poor drainage system. Others are: lack of land, instability in climatic conditions, primitive method of farming, lack of capital for investment, insecurity, lack of high expense of farm labour, scarcity and high expense of fertilizers, poor farm product preservation.In addition, high level of illiteracy, low input technology, low investment, agricultural policy inconsistencies, high incidence of livestock diseases, poor breed potential, poor quality of livestock feeds, insufficient funds (credit), limited technical knowledge, poor transportation system for farm produce, improper soil fertility maintenance, all mitigate against improved agricultural production.It was clearly stated that shortage and high expense of fertilizers results in high cost of production. Poor storage/processing facilities, inadequate transportation, poor disease control, unfavorable marketing conditions and pilferage, all combine to limit agricultural productivity.There is need to improve all these, and to institute a sustainable means of information dissemination in local languages coupled with better extension services.Respondents provided valuable answers some of which are summarized as follows: Problems can be solved through provision of loans and credit, improved extension services, better control of input distribution, improved varieties of seeds and seedlings, intensive agricultural mechanisation, technical training, funding for research, development and technology generation and subsidy for agricultural inputs.It is essential to embark on public education to enhance religious harmony and peace. Provision of government subsidy and better remuneration for farm workers will go a long way in enhancing agricultural productivity and improving profit.Establishment of agricultural processing industries near high producing areas will limit produce wastage. Government should support private sector with credit facilities and loans. There should also be price stabilization and elimination of middlemen in the marketing process.It was clearly stated that the most effective means of information dissemination and public awareness creation are carried out through radio in Nigeria in general.Other methods include newspapers, extension information leaflets, posters, and handbills. This is supplemented by indigenous information Systems (town criers)and mouth-to-mouth.Information can improve productivity, dispel superstition and empower.Information dissemination using local languages will be highly beneficial.Interviewers were unanimous in their assessment of CTA as a caring organization; they should provide more new books, containing new information.Assistance should be extended to computerisation of the library and participating institutions should conduct orientation programs to educate students about the use of the library. Management of the institutions should provide better reading conditions and improve power (electricity) supplies.There should be better opportunity to borrow books. The library space and shelves should be expanded. More CTA books should be supplied, particularly those with specific focus on single commodities.Providing clear chart of book location in the library, training of students in the use of catalogue, continuous replacement of books on the shelves after use, so books are placed in their proper locations.Books that are in high demand in the library should not be borrowed. There should be a special display shelve for new books. There should be proper markings of shelves to ease book search. The number of books should be increased to reduce shortage of very popular books.The DORA program is important, and helpful, however recommended textbooks and books authored by local experts should be included in donations.Staff participated in selection of CTA books in almost all the institutions visited.CTA books are kept in reference section of the library in some institutions with well-developed library system; this is a measure of the importance of the books.So more should be supplied. In other less developed libraries especially in Colleges of Agriculture, books are kept in open shelves.The library condition is considered fairly conducive in most institutions. Length of time the library is opened should be increased. There should be provision of more textbooks to be supplied in multiple copies. Journal acquisition is poor this should be improved. In many institutions the library is considered not current with respect to new acquisitions. Access to books should be improved. Shelves should be rearranged to separate old and outdated books. Provision of more constant electricity and better reading space will improve reading customs.In order to ensure the usefulness of DORA books, regular monitoring and evaluation are built into the management of the Program, to ensure that the donated books are meeting the needs of the students and staff of the participating institutions, and that this results in the maximum utilisation of the books.Although many institutions do not bother to return evaluation forms and even those that are returned are badly completed with no clear understanding of what is expected of them.The information obtained through periodic evaluation process, however, permits CTA to determine problem and difficulties arising from participating institutions in the course of implementation of the DORA Program. This facilitates improvement, which enhances and maximises the usage of the program.The data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS Inc, 1999) and Statistical Analysis Systems (SAS Inc, 2000). The results of the impact assessment studies are presented in the following Tables and graphs.Tables and graphs are presented in respect of students and staff in all institutions in the zones considered. Under each set of table is an explanation of the results; the graphs are explained especially with implications for the zone highlighted. The cross-tabulation tables within the report reveals different significant level of associations with marks of (***) as significant association at 1% which a highest probability of associations. The (**) mark indicates significance at 5%, and (*) indicates significance at 10%, while (ns)indicates non-significant association existing between variables. shows that for most library users in the Northwest (62 percent) the distance to the library is less than one kilometre, whereas for 37 per cent of users in southeast the library is 1-2 km., and for 26 per cent of the Northeast users the library is 3-5 Km. Away from living quarters, and reading space is only sometimes available, and for 23 percent respondents reading space is never available. Table 2b (Lecturers) in the Northeast zone 21 per cent consider the library far and reading space is only sometime available. In the Southwest and Northeast zones 25 percent of the respondents indicated that the library is less than 1 Km., and that space is always available, compared with 38 and 36 percent respectively for the Middle belt and Northwest.  (Students) showed that in all institutions within each zone those who seek library assistance are more successful in finding CTA-DORA books in the library when needed. The rate of success is rated good in the Southeast 60 per cent, Middle-Belt 51 per cent, North-East 56 per cent and North-West 59 per cent. In the Southwest corresponding ratings are Good 37 per cent, Fair 30 per cent and Poor 25 per cent. In Table 5b (Lecturers), similar responses were obtained with the highest success rate at finding CTA-DORA books in the library recorded by institutions in the Southwest -Good 58 per cent, and in the Southeast -Good 60 per cent. Amongst Lecturers in the institutions in the Middle-Belt, Northeast and northwest the ratings are mixed, but the highest -Good ratings of 43, 32 and 45 per cent respectively. This is a sure reason why institutions should consider conducting orientation training and make their students and lecturers familiar with the library.  6a (Students) shows that in almost all cases those who have difficulty in locating CTA-DORA books also have reduced success in finding the books in the library. In the Southeast and Middle-Belt where there is less difficulty in locating CTA-DORA books, rate of success are 44 and 45 per cent respectively. In the Northeast those who have the most difficulty in locating CTA-DORA books were still able to record a 56 per cent -Good success rate in finding the books.    Table 10a (Students) Among responding students, over 70 per cent in the South-East and North-East expressed confidence in finding CTA-DORA books in the library by using library catalogue, while 65 per cent in the Middle-Belt, 52 per cent in the South-West and 47 per cent in the North North-West expressed similar level of confidence.      In the Northeast and Northwest zones, students consider the books most relevant with the highest level of satisfaction (fig. 1a). This is an important finding considering that in general the North of Nigeria is not as educated as the South, but agriculture especially crop and livestock production is much more developed in the North than in the South.More lecturers in the Southeast in addition to the Northwest and Northeast consider the books relevant and satisfactory.When all the CTA-DORA books are considered in general all the zones over 70% of students and over 80% of lecturers consider the books relevant and satisfactory. This is a good measure of the impact of CTA-DORA books. When the subject matter covered by CTA-DORA books are considered (fig. 1b) more students and lecturers in the Southeast gave the highest ratings. Closely followed by students in the Northwest and lecturers in the Southwest.On the quality of CTA-DORA books (fig. 1c) over 60% student respondents in all zones except the Middle belt consider the books to be of good quality. However the highest rating over 80% for the books among lecturers was in the Middle belt. This shows clearly that the books are more useful to lecturers than students in the Middle belt. In (fig. 1d) it is clearly shown that in all zones particularly in the Southwest the books are not sufficient for students and lecturers.The relevance of selected CTA-DORA books on time saved by students and lecturers in terms of obtaining correct information in limited time is shown in fig. 2.On selected CTA-DORA books (fig. 2a) students and lecturers in the Northeast (over 80%) consider the books relevant and time saving. Closely followed among students by the Northeast and Southwest, but among lecturers the Southeast indicated higher ratings for relevancy and time saved. Opinion was divided among respondents as to whether the subject matter was well covered and contributed to saving time of student and staff; with equal number of respondents indicating that although the subject matter was well covered, it did not save time.The CTA-DORA books are of good quality and saved time (fig. 2d) of staff and students but they are insufficient in quality, but did not save time of students and lecturers.Figure 3a shows that selected CTA-DORA books improved the productivity of students and lecturers most in the Northeast zone. But in all zones considered CTA-DORA books productivity of students and lecturers improved (fig. 3b) tremendously according to 90% of respondents.The subject matter covered improved productivity of students and staff best in the Southeast. Over 80% of staff and students in Northeast and Northwest indicated that the quality of CTA-DORA books improved their productivity. However in the Middle belt more lecturers (80%) than students ( 50%) signified that the quality of the books improved their productivity, indicating that lecturers value the books more than students in their zone. Similar pattern but to lesser degree was noticed in the Southwest.Fig. 3c shows that because the books are insufficient in quantity, productivity was adversely affected.In figure 4a it is clearly shown that selected CTA-DORA books improved the quality of work of students and lecturers highly in the North east and North west zones and least in the Middle belt zone probably because of lack of access.There was improvement in the quality of work of both students and staff in all zones (fig. 4b) because of the relevance of the books. In the South east up to 70% respondent asserted that quality of work of students and staff were improved. The Northeast, Northwest and Southwest students consistently appreciated the quality of the CTA-DORA books. Lecturers in major agricultural universities in all zones rated the books to be of high quality (fig 4d) with the best rating coming from the Northeast, Northwest and Middle belt. In these zones lecturers appear to value the CTA-DORA books more than students this may be due to better access to the books, more experience in their use and better understanding of the subject matter.There is consistent indication throughout the study that because the books are few, it negatively impacted on their use (fig. 4e).In figure 5a, it is clear that the highest impact of the books on students was recorded in the Northeast and very high impact in the Northeast with respect to reference search. The impact of the books on availability of information was high in general but highest in the Southeast, Middle belt and Northeast. So also on value of information obtained, this indicates that the Southeast zone students appreciates the books for the information contained in them more than any other zone, except for reference search where little impact was recorded (fig. 5a).The highest impact of the books when students/lecturer relationship was considered was in the Middle belt and Southeast, which indicates better level of closeness between lecturers and students in these zones in the use of CTA-DORA books.The CTA-DORA books had the highest impact as a reference, source for valuable information and as a source of discussion points between lecturers and students in Southeast and Middle belt zones.In the Southeast 45% of students surveyed valued the information obtained compared with a low of 12% in the Northeast.In general with respect to students, the highest impact was made in the Middle belt. This is not surprising as the belt is considered the breadbasket of Nigeria where tubers, legumes (soybean) and maize, cereals thrive most in Nigeria.The highest impact of the books was on academic performance (fig. 6). This is the major value of the books. The CTA-DORA books made high impact in all the zones in academic performance except in the Northeast.In the Middle belt while the books had little impact on practical training (fig. 6b) it made high impact as a source of acquisition of knowledge (fig. 6c). The CTA-DORA books are more accessible in the Northeast. This is mainly due to less stringent borrowing condition and fewer students enrollment in agriculture.Northwest and Middle belt had highest impact. The least impact was in Northeast.  A general point made by librarians, lecturers and students is that the books sent are too few, compared with the number of users and titles which are popular and in high demand are not supplied in multiple copies as would have been most appropriate. The infrastructure in Nigeria institutions of higher learning (especially those visited) is so poorly developed. The situation is better in Universities but infrastructure at the Colleges of Agriculture visited presents a picture of neglect and inadequacy, not only in books but also services and facilities. In many cases CTA is considered the only saviour otherwise the library would be completely bare and unused. There is little or no communication between library, modern communication systems, telephones, E-mails are lacking, no computerization in any of the library visited. Because of this shortcoming, lecturers seldom use the library and even students use the library to fill the gap in between lectures and to do literature search for important assignments and projects. Almost all the lecturers in the institution visited are aware of CTA, although many do not know DORA as a programme, but they are ware that books are donated to libraries and individuals by CTA. In contrast only very few students are aware of CTA, and even fewer are aware of DORA as a programme, but when CTA donated books were shown to them then (as it was done always during Focus Group Discussion) the response is positive, they have all seen and used the books. This means that more publicity is desirable for DORA, so as to call attention to the existence of this information service. With respect to the DORA Programme, departments should participate more in the selection of books. Departmental and Faculty libraries should be strengthened; individual acquisition of CTA books should be discontinued or otherwise is ready to pay for the books. The total number of books given to each institution, and the number of copies of each book is grossly inadequate. More copies of books in high demand should be made available. Many more people still request to be put in individual subscription list and at this rate if the entire request were granted, there would be less books available to DORA to distribute. It is most desirable that there should be concentration of efforts at enhancing the available books to Faculty/Departmental Libraries of Institutions, which would be available to all users all the time.It is very difficult in situation of dwindling resources to satisfy all individual requests for a book, when a larger number of users can benefit from this same book.Institutional Libraries in Nigeria are seldom used by members of the public, who are neither students or lecturers, attempts should be made to reach these people through book donation to a few public libraries instead of to individuals.It is clear that student and lecturers greatly value the DORA Program. However on the whole the books have made more impact on the lecturers than students.The value of the CTA-DORA books is in the extremely good quality of information contained in them.Seminar for all librarians in DORA participating institutions can be organized, to discuss procedures, the results and highlight strength and weaknesses of the program.Five key action points, which will enhance the impact of the DORA program if they are considered as part of the implementation strategy of the DORA program are  Both DORA and PDS are offering support services in information transfer to ACP countries.In the light of these, the PDS and DORA should coordinate and concentrate efforts.The DORA is viewed as a specialized service of the PDS, since it is just a program with limited life span; the PDS on the other hand is a permanent department of CTA.PDS can actually do the job presently being done by ITP, this way more money may be available for book procurement, and CTA will have a better control of the DORA program. The PDS already has experience in book purchasing and distribution.  There should be some advocacy to sensitise all stakeholders through:  National Seminar/Workshop. Training program for library staff. Sub-regional Policy dialogue in West Africa to articulate emergency issues in agriculture as a result of increasing democralisation, poverty alleviation and improved farming system. Appointment of representatives to do co-ordination and follow-ups on public relations. Establish local distribution channels. Intensify purchase of local books and compile local book catalogues. Assist authors of agricultural manuscripts to publish good materials from ACP countries, which can be widely distributed. Encourage renown experts worldwide to write on specific specialized topics of interest to ACP countries and publish same for distribution  Reprinting and publishing out of stock books for wider audience. Agriculture and rural development books emanating from ACP countries, which are published or co-published by CTA, can be included among the books to be selected under the DORA program. CTA's home page on the worldwide Web is also a good source of information about books where a large array of books can be viewed for selection. In addition to listing of titles in book catalogues, they should contain a one-paragraph synopsis on each book. This would further enlighten beneficiaries on the books and thereby aid selection process. Improvement in the delivery of books to institutions would be strengthened if it were done in cooperation with a designated local representative.","tokenCount":"9407"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"34ebdb85bf9f17fb8117f90be65e9c9f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b0be8f9-ca2d-4683-8cae-60a84e2a329a/retrieve","id":"166451782"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"9d027650-46f3-4cbe-bb59-8b5da9aa05cc","pagecount":"64","content":"VERCON -Compartir conocimientos entre los sistemas de investigación y de extensión agrícola .En enero de 2009, cuando los organismos con sede en Roma que trabajan en agricultura y desarrollo y en seguridad alimentaria unieron fuerzas para organizar juntos la primera \"Feria del Conocimiento\", no imaginaron el impacto que dicha iniciativa tendría ni las positivas consecuencias. Permitir a profesionales de la agricultura, de la alimentación y del desarrollo sostenible mostrar, recrear e inventar maneras de compartir el conocimiento, así como mejorar el acceso a éste, se convirtió rápidamente en un objetivo compartido entre las distintas organizaciones del sector; desde entonces, este esfuerzo se tradujo en una multiplicidad de Ferias del Conocimiento alrededor del globo.La Feria del Conocimiento América Latina y el Caribe se realizó entre el 25 y el 27 de mayo de 2010 en el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) en Cali, Colombia, cuya sede albergó a cerca de 200 profesionales de más de 70 organizaciones y 18 países, quienes compartieron 43 experiencias relacionadas con la gestión de conocimiento en la agricultura, el desarrollo y la seguridad alimentaria.El evento fue organizado por el Programa de Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación y Gestión del Conocimiento (ICT-KM) del Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR), la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO), el Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA) y la Comunidad de Gestión de Conocimiento para el Desarrollo (KM4Dev, sus siglas en inglés).Los principales objetivos de la Feria fueron demostrar cómo la participación activa y estratégica del conocimiento mejora la eficacia, la eficiencia y el impacto del trabajo; dar una oportunidad a los participantes de experimentar con herramientas y metodologías para compartir el conocimiento; e intercambiar y aprender buenas prácticas de compartir conocimiento.En América Latina y el Caribe (ALC), esta Feria es parte de un esfuerzo que se viene construyendo en la región; como preevento, el Centro Latinoamericano para el Desarrollo Rural (RIMISP) realizó un foro sobre \"Estrategias de acceso a mercados de los productores rurales pobres en América Latina\" y después de la Feria se llevó a cabo la reunión de la Comunidad KM4Dev, con el objetivo de avanzar en el desarrollo de una red más activa de profesionales de gestión de conocimiento en la región.Por Simone Staiger-Rivas \"Hay una relación entre todo tipo de conocimiento. Lo interesante es hacer las conexiones\" Arthur Aufderheid, University of Minnesota eL proCesoTres meses antes del evento se difundió un llamado para la presentación de propuestas, en el que se recibieron más de 100 respuestas, sobrepasando las expectativas. Un grupo de evaluadores voluntarios de las organizaciones coordinadoras seleccionó 43 experiencias, con base en criterios como:(1) el uso de herramientas innovadoras para compartir conocimiento, (2) el papel de las redes en las experiencias propuestas, y (3) el nivel de análisis de los retos relacionados con la gestión de conocimiento.Cabe anotar que la agenda se construyó con las propuestas aceptadas, las cuales fueron agrupadas en nueve sesiones temáticas:1. Bases de datos 2. Portales web 3. Comunidades y redes 4. Investigación participativa 5. Conocimiento local 6. Monitoreo y evaluación 7. Herramientas y métodos para compartir conocimiento 8. Acceso abierto y propiedad intelectual 9. Compartir conocimiento en cadenas de valor.Cada sesión temática duró 2 horas y media y agrupó entre tres y cinco experiencias. Las sesiones temáticas fueron llevadas a cabo en tres grupos de reuniones en paralelo.• \"Difundir información no es igual a compartir conocimiento. Implica involucrar gente en un ámbito más complejo de diálogo\". • \"En la investigación participativa se crea conocimiento que se sostiene porque se crea en el lugar donde se necesita\". • \"Abrir acceso no es un objetivo final sino el principio de una divulgación más amplia\". • \"El valor agregado de compartir conocimiento viene del aprendizaje\".• \"Toda comunidad es una red, pero las redes no necesariamente son comunidades\". • \"Lo más difícil en sistemas es el manejo de las personas, no de la tecnología\".• \"Al final de un proyecto, todos quieren aprender de la experiencia, pero no se planea ni se invierte suficientemente desde el inicio\". • \"Las herramientas son parte de un proceso social: no se puede evaluar el impacto de una herramienta, sino el del conjunto de actividades\".• \"Las conexiones entre lo presencial y lo virtual, lo local y no local, requieren intermediarios: el agente multiplicador\".Todos los presentadores de las experiencias fueron invitados a preparar sus intervenciones sin usar diapositivas, y se ofreció la posibilidad de hacer demostraciones en línea, mas no el uso de \"PowerPoint\". Adicionalmente, con el objetivo de quebrar el esquema \"presentación-discusión\", cada sesión temática tuvo un moderador encargado de diseñar los procesos y las dinámicas grupales, quien con anticipación contactaba a los presentadores de experiencias para definir las dinámicas que se iban a usar. De esta forma, cada moderador sugirió los procesos que le parecían más adecuados para manejar su temática, por lo que ninguna sesión se desarrolló de la misma forma que otra. Junto al moderador hubo un profesional experto en el tema de cada sesión, quien contribuía con una introducción y guiaba la discusión. Los moderadores y los facilitadores fueron voluntarios del CIAT y participantes de las organizaciones socias. Cada mañana, los participantes se reunían en plenaria para revisar y compartir algunas conclusiones de las sesiones del día anterior.Con esta modalidad se cumplió con un doble propósito: dar espacio para discusiones informadas sobre temas de gestión de conocimientos en aspectos precisos de la investigación y desarrollo agrícola y, al mismo tiempo, demostrar varios formatos de reuniones y dinámicas grupales.Adicional a las sesiones temáticas, la Feria contó con tres espacios más: en el primero se ofrecieron talleres técnicos cortos en métodos y herramientas para compartir conocimiento, tales como wikis, blogs, dinámicas para reuniones, análisis de redes sociales, Google Apps, y Twitter, cuyos instructores fueron todos miembros de la Comunidad KM4Dev; en Fotografía: Simone Staiger, CIAT• Sobre el alcance, la complementariedad y la diversidad de herramientas y me agradó la combinación de herramientas clásicas y virtuales, presenciales y digitales. • Me gustó la descentralización de responsabilidades con base en el voluntariado entre organizadores, facilitadores y moderadores. • Viví la Feria como un espacio de experimentación. El estilo informal favorece que salga lo tácito, la Feria es un ejemplo poco común de eso -procesos informales que permiten la informalidad con orden y disciplina. Me di cuenta de cómo puedo yo organizar una Feria (formas de inscripción, sesiones abiertas, tiempos de los recesos), sin PowerPoint. • Reafirmé que la actitud personal es un elemento clave en la gestión de conocimiento.• Un nivel de análisis de los aspectos de gestión de conocimiento en las presentaciones -las discusiones se quedaban en una presentación de iniciativas. Me hubiera gustado una sesión específica para tratar el marco conceptual acerca de lo que es el ciclo de gestión de conocimiento. • Actores locales y que las experiencias fueran contadas por los actores.• Dinamizar el espacio de los stands; ha quedado poco conectado con la Feria.• Un poco más de la revisión de las herramientas e incluir más sobre su manejo. el segundo se brindaron oportunidades adicionales para compartir experiencias a través de 25 stands, una pequeña sala de video y el ejercicio de \"Árbol del Conocimiento\", que fue retomado de la Feria de Roma en el 2009; y finalmente, en el tercero se contó con un espacio abierto donde los participantes convocaban a reuniones de última hora para seguir debatiendo temas o compartiendo sus propias experiencias.Como soporte, se constituyó un equipo de \"reporteros sociales\", quienes aseguraron el debido cubrimiento del evento usando herramientas de Web 2.0. Aprovechando los canales existentes desde la Feria de Roma se contó con un sitio web para información general, un blog para la documentación de las sesiones e impresiones de los participantes antes, durante y después del evento, una cobertura a través de medios sociales como Twitter para los Análisis de la Feria por parte de los participantes en la reunión de la Comunidad KM4dev mensajes instantáneos, Flickr para compartir las fotos y, finalmente, Blip.Tv para videos. Toda la información publicada en Internet se identificó con la etiqueta (tag): #sharefaircali.La Feria fue evaluada en varias oportunidades: durante la reunión de la Comunidad KM4Dev, justo después de la Feria; durante un análisis post-evento del equipo socio de la FAO y, finalmente, mediante una encuesta en línea enviada a todos los participantes del evento. La encuesta fue respondida por 60 participantes, de los cuales el 42% consideró la Feria como excelente, un 53% como muy buena, y un 5% como buena.Para la mayoría de los asistentes, lo novedoso fueron las metodologías empleadas para las diferentes presentaciones, talleres y exposiciones, que generaron un ambiente amigable y la disposición de todos para compartir y proponer acciones que incrementen la gestión de conocimiento en la región. En una escala de 0 a 5, más del 92% evaluó el alcance de los objetivos como excelente o muy bueno.Las diferentes respuestas dadas en la evaluación, resaltan el aprecio de los participantes por las sesiones y los talleres de métodos y herramientas; asimismo, expresan interés en seguir trabajando estos temas, al igual que otros relacionados con comunidades y redes, portales web, o teorías de gestión de conocimiento.Durante la Feria se aplicó una encuesta de análisis de redes sociales, con el fin de entender las redes de colaboración existentes. Inicialmente se preguntó a los participantes acerca de quiénes se conocían entre sí y quiénes tenían una relación de tipo profesional desde antes del evento (mediante un formulario que se distribuyó al inicio). Al final del evento y una vez que los participantes habían te,nido la oportunidad de enterarse a lo que se dedicaban sus colegas, se solicitó a los participantes que mencionaran a las personas con quienes les gustaría colaborar en el futuro (esta parte se hizo mediante la encuesta electrónica de Fotografía: Simone Staiger, CIAT evaluación, después del evento). El ejercicio mostró que ya existían muchas relaciones entre los participantes antes de la Feria. La red futura muestra que hay 148 nexos adicionales (los nexos indican las relaciones de trabajo conjunto que los participantes desearían establecer en el futuro).Muchos participantes se unieron a la comunidad virtual sobre gestión de conocimiento para ALC llamada SIWA, con el fin de seguir intercambiando experiencias. El grupo de la FAO y del ICT-KM siguió su ruta hacia África para organizar eventos similares; por su parte, el Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA) planea mantener la dinámica con un evento en Costa Rica. Esta publicación es, igualmente, una contribución a una mayor difusión de la experiencia.En menos de 2 décadas, los desarrollos de las tecnologías de comunicación han contribuido a transformar, de manera significativa, los procesos de comunicación social. Al inicio de la década anterior, proyectos destinados a compartir conocimientos se concibieron sobre la base del intercambio cara a cara y dentro de las posibilidades virtuales, sobre el uso del fax, el teléfono y el correo postal; sin embargo, en muy poco tiempo se vieron abocados a repensarse para continuar su desarrollo sobre plataformas electrónicas y virtuales. Este salto cualitativo tuvo implicaciones, en términos tecnológicos, en el aprendizaje colectivo y, por supuesto, en el frente cuantitativo por la amplia cobertura que las nuevas tecnologías ofrecían.Así, las entidades gestoras se vieron en la necesidad de resolver, sobre la marcha, problemas puramente técnicos, como decidir cuál era la aplicación más adecuada, aprender su uso y, a la vez, adquirir las competencias para facilitar foros electrónicos, dinamizar listas de correo, crear espacios de enseñanza y aprendizaje en plataformas virtuales, utilizar videos y otras formas multimedia para apoyar sus proyectos. En este sentido, la entrada al mundo Internet ha implicado para los promotores y gestores del desarrollo la necesidad de aprender haciendo y, a la vez, enseñar a sus usuarios cómo utilizar las nuevas posibilidades tecnológicas.Los casos incluidos en esta publicación dan cuenta de estas dinámicas asociadas con los procesos sociales y de aprendizaje, tanto por parte de los gestores como de los usuarios, y a la vez muestran las transformaciones que se han seguido en el campo puramente técnico.Del conjunto de casos presentados en la Feria, se seleccionaron ocho que abarcan en buena medida los temas abordados durante el evento. Las personas responsables de dichas experiencias fueron invitadas a participar en esta publicación y se les suministró una guía para facilitar la redacción de sus casos.Cada una de estas personas fue entrevistada con un doble propósito: por un lado, introduCCión Por Camilo Villa aportar ideas acerca de cómo enfocar la preparación del caso y, por el otro, para obtener una visión de conjunto y de los aspectos centrales de cada experiencia. Los borradores recibidos fueron editados y, en la mayoría de los casos, se acudió a los autores para completar información y profundizar en el análisis.Si bien los ocho casos seleccionados tratan diversos ámbitos del desarrollo agropecuario y presentan distintas modalidades de intervención, todos muestran cómo los procesos asociados con el conocimiento involucran, de manera complementaria, factores tecnológicos y técnicos con factores humanos. Cinco de los casos ilustran experiencias de carácter puramente regional, en tanto que los otros tres aportan una interesante perspectiva global. Los casos incluidos en esta publicación con sus particularidades y aportes, se describen a continuación.Las cinco experiencias regionales se pueden agrupar en dos categorías. En la primera, que hace mayor énfasis sobre los factores tecnológicos involucrados en la gestión de conocimiento, se encuentran tres experiencias que muestran el valor del uso de tecnologías de comunicación para apoyar el desarrollo de iniciativas de intercambio de conocimientos y aprendizaje. Cada una de ellas hace un uso diferente de herramientas virtuales. Las dos primeras: Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregión Andina (CONDESAN) y la Red social para la promoción de los negocios rurales vinculados con la agricultura, (PRODARNET) se han apoyado en foros, correo electrónico y otras tecnologías para apoyar comunidades de aprendizaje en torno a problemáticas específicas del ecosistema andino y de la agroindustria rural. En el caso de la Plataforma Regional de Desarrollo de Capacidades en Evaluación y Sistematización de América Latina y el Caribe (PREVAL) las herramientas multimedia y de capacitación en línea han sido un instrumento para apoyar el aprendizaje y la apropiación de una metodología específica de evaluación y seguimiento.En la segunda categoría se presentan iniciativas donde el rol de las tecnologías de comunicación es menos relevante en los procesos de gestión del conocimiento y aprendizaje, y el protagonismo está dado principalmente por las dinámicas sociales que promueven la investigación participativa y el intercambio entre productores, investigadores y organizaciones para faci-Fotografía: María Fernanda Mejía, CIAT litar la innovación. Es el caso del Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuarias (INIA) del Uruguay, con su experiencia en producción orgánica, y del CIAT, con la iniciativa de los Gestores de Innovación en Agroindustria Rural (GIAR) para el fortalecimiento de cadenas de valor.A esta escala se cuenta con tres casos que evidencian cómo es posible facilitar el intercambio y la generación de conocimientos entre actores localizados en distintas regiones del planeta, combinando espacios virtuales y presenciales. Aquí se encuentra la experien-cia adelantada por el CGIAR; por la iniciativa Coherencia en la Información para la Investigación Agraria para el Desarrollo (CIARD); por la Red Virtual de Comunicación de Extensión e Investigación (VERCON, sus siglas en inglés) promovida por la FAO; y, por último, por la Base de conocimientos sobre los Bancos de Germoplasma de los Cultivos, iniciativa del Programa de Recursos Genéticos para todo el sistema (SGRP, sus siglas en inglés) del CGIAR Finalmente, en las conclusiones se retomarán estos procesos alrededor de los aprendizajes sociales y técnicos para discutirlos de una manera más profunda y en una perspectiva regional.Los foros electrónicos de CONDESAN han sido pioneros en la región. Desde la primera experiencia en 1995 hasta la fecha, se han realizado 30 foros que se han convertido en una rica fuente de aprendizaje, tanto para las más de 4.000 personas quienes han participado en ellos, como para el equipo que está detrás de la iniciativa.Cuando CONDESAN creó la herramienta de los foros electrónicos, el uso de la Internet era limitado, aunque ya se vislumbraba el potencial que podía ofrecer, sobre todo para el intercambio rápido de experiencias. En la región andina, a pesar de que existía voluntad de intercambiar ideas de manera amplia y sostenida entre organizaciones que trabajan sobre el desarrollo sostenible de los Andes, no se tenían los medios para hacerlo a distancia, por lo que los foros electrónicos de CONDESAN surgieron como una respuesta a esa problemática; sin embargo, los foros pronto se convirtieron en herramientas para:• Identificar y sintetizar conocimiento disperso sobre temas específicos. • Dar a conocer experiencias que no estaban en la esfera pública. foros electrónicos donde comparten experiencias, y recientemente promueve la investigación colectiva posicionándola como herramienta eficaz para gestionar el conocimiento entre sus usuarios. La experiencia refleja la evolución en la tecnología y en los procesos de facilitación del diálogo y aprendizaje a distancia entre organizaciones en América Latina que trabajan para el desarrollo sostenible de los andes.Los foros electrónicos de Condesan han sido un espacio para aprender compartiendo.litar la comunicación grupal a distancia y el aprendizaje participativo sobre alguna temática relevante. Esta herramienta ha estado en constante evolución desde su creación, y actualmente está siendo probada como un instrumento de apoyo a procesos de investigación y no solo como espacios para el diálogo.Pese a que los Andes albergan una extraordinaria diversidad ecológica y cultural y una larga historia de tradición que los hacen especiales, un gran porcentaje de la población vive aún en estado de pobreza y, en muchos casos, en estado de abandono. En los siete países que conforman esta región (Perú, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Venezuela y Colombia) donde vi-ven aproximadamente 100 millones de personas, la toma de conciencia por la conservación y uso sostenible de los recursos naturales comienza a asumirse como necesidad regional, y las estrategias hacia un desarrollo sostenible están siendo parcialmente implementadas gracias a intereses económicos y políticos en la región.Es en este contexto donde organizaciones como CONDESAN, creada a inicios de la década de los 90, buscan generar conciencia sobre la importancia del desarrollo con una mirada responsable. CONDESAN toma en cuenta la riqueza de la biodiversidad andina, revalúa la cultura ancestral de sus pobladores y analiza las oportunidades que ofrecen las dinámicas del mercado. Desde esta perspectiva, el Consorcio consideró que era necesario propiciar el diálogo para encontrar soluciones más adecuadas y sostenibles, por lo que los foros electrónicos surgieron como un instrumento para promover y facilitar este diálogo.El rol de la tecnología en la gestión de conocimiento es el de ampliar las fronteras de aprendizaje sin importar las distancias físicas; mientras que el rol de la facilitación es el de conectar diversos actores sociales e incentivarlos a compartir sus aprendizajes, a pesar de las distancias organizacionales y culturales.Cada nueva herramienta tecnológica de comunicación prueba nuevas oportunidades para conectar los actores sociales y, a su vez, genera nuevas habilidades entre los participantes para el intercambio y el aprendizaje. La dialéctica entre tecnología de comunicación y facilitación conlleva a nuevas formas de construcción colectiva de conocimientos. Vale la pena destacar dos aspectos de este proceso: por un lado, el rol que la tecnología ha jugado en su desarrollo y consolidación, y por el otro, el crucial papel del equipo humano que soporta la iniciativa y el conocimiento desarrollado y acumulado a lo largo de este período.Desde un comienzo, CONDESAN le apostó al uso del correo electrónico como principal medio de comunicación, priorizándolo, incluso, frente a la plataforma web porque permite que participantes de zonas con ancho de banda limitado y dificultades para acceder a la red, sean parte de estos procesos, y también porque el correo electrónico es ya parte de los hábitos de consumo de los participantes.En sus inicios, el diálogo en los foros solo fluía por correo electrónico a través de listas de discusión creadas en Dgroups, y en la web se construía un repositorio de los documentos como respaldo. Cada foro de-mandaba un esfuerzo especial de diseño del sitio web funcionando en ese entonces con el sistema Aplicaciones de Acción de Colnodo.Desde 1995, y por 10 años, los foros solo compartían por la web un documento síntesis, los casos por discutirse y algunos comentarios, pero no se visualizaba el proceso de discusión. Actualmente, y desde el 2005, se adoptó la filosofía de que todos los mensajes dirigidos al foro debían estar disponibles para los participantes y otros usuarios que visiten el sitio web. Es así como CONDESAN trabaja hoy en la integración de ambos sistemas: web y correo electrónico en una sola plataforma, usando el sistema gestor de contenidos Drupal.Este cambio no fue una consecuencia de la demanda de los usuarios sino un esfuerzo del equipo de InfoAndina, para ofrecerles más a aquellos usuarios del portal, quienes no necesariamente participan en el proceso de discusión.Un actor clave es el moderador temático, quien es el especialista en el tema del foro y cumple la función del facilitador principal del evento. Él es quien presenta la discusión, hace las preguntas y las síntesis, y además monitorea que las contribuciones de los participantes no se alejen del objetivo general del foro.Si bien un foro electrónico simula un foro presencial donde existe un panel de exper-tos, un moderador y una audiencia cautiva, la metodología CONDESAN permite que los participantes comenten a través de mensajes enviados al \"auditorio\", pero pasan previamente por una revisión del moderador. Se decidió proceder así porque, con el tiempo, CONDESAN ha aprendido que para evitar que la discusión se desvíe del tema o se emitan mensajes malintencionados, es necesario realizar un filtro.También existe una moderación técnica y de acompañamiento brindada a través de InfoAndina, cuyo objetivo es motivar la participación y facilitar el diálogo. Adicionalmente, CONDESAN cuenta con un manual sobre cómo desarrollar foros electrónicos. Luego de cada foro se recibe retroalimentación de quienes participaron, y aunque el manual no ha incorporado de manera sistemática los aprendizajes obtenidos en cada foro, éste constituye una \"guía para aprender\" y las lecciones se han ido incorporando en los siguientes foros.A fines de 2009 se organizó un foro electrónico que no cubrió las expectativas de los organizadores, pues CONDESAN confió en que tan solo compartiendo con el moderador técnico el manual para la moderación técnica de los foros electrónicos, y brindando todas las herramientas tecnológicas necesarias, era posible tener un foro electrónico exitoso. La realidad demostró que CONDESAN, a través de InfoAndina, debe hacer un seguimiento permanente, no solo tecnológico, sino también de acompañamiento a cada foro.El 2002 fue el Año Internacional de las Montañas, por lo que el Programa de Fotografía: CONDESAN las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) comisionó al Foro de Montañas, un concurso y la organización de una serie de consultas electrónicas para enriquecer, con contribuciones de todas las regiones, los documentos magistrales que serían presentados en la Cumbre Global de Bishkek (Kyrgyztan Noviembre de 2002). La responsabilidad para América Latina fue asignada a CONDESAN, y con este ejercicio se reconoció la versatilidad de esta herramienta que, más allá de promover el diálogo, permitió realizar la consulta y el aporte a la investigación y documentación.Actualmente, CONDESAN también está usando los foros electrónicos como una herramienta de apoyo para los procesos de investigación internos, por ejemplo para afirmar una hipótesis de una investigación, para recoger casos de estudio que aporten a la investigación o para validar un inventario de casos.Según el objetivo del proceso de investigación o diálogo y los resultados que esperan obtener, los foros electrónicos se plantean como espacios abiertos, cerrados o combinados, dependiendo de los objetivos que se busquen con la realización de los foros, donde la única diferencia se da en el proceso de convocatoria y registro de los participantes. La herramienta como metodología se ha hecho versátil, y además de apoyar lo que en un inicio fue vulgarizar cierto nivel de conocimiento y generar incidencia sobre temas particulares, hoy es una herramienta de investigación.• Los foros electrónicos son una herramienta muy útil para la construcción participativa de conocimientos. Su versatilidad permite que pueda ser utilizada con éxito en un gran número de situaciones de intercambio, diálogo y apoyo a la formación de grupos de interés. Sin embargo, es solo una herramienta de por sí que debe ser parte de un proceso mayor. No es un fin, sino un medio. • Un factor clave de éxito es la presencia y la actuación del moderador temático, quien promueve la activa participación y la elaboración de síntesis en las discusiones, así como en las conclusiones finales. El moderador promueve el aprendizaje colaborativo y facilita los procesos de intercambio de conocimientos. • Al hacer la pregunta a los integrantes del equipo acerca de qué han aprendido Fotografía: www.infoandina.org a lo largo de estos años, la respuesta sería que cada foro electrónico, si bien tiene una lógica común, es un proceso único. El aprendizaje temático es rico desde la misma participación de los usuarios a través de sus comentarios, y para el equipo involucrado en el foro electrónico es siempre un reto estar al ritmo de los participantes y de las dinámicas que se van dando a lo largo del foro. • Si bien se tiene establecida una metodología de trabajo, es claro que el aprendizaje adquirido por el equipo se ha dado básicamente por la práctica, la cual permite reconocer los momentos en que es necesario intervenir para dinamizar la discusión, realizar coordinaciones personalizadas, animar a algunos participantes claves a intervenir, buscar expertos en un tema para dar su opinión especializada, establecer reuniones para coordinar las próximas acciones durante el foro y para coordinarlo más de cerca cuando el tono de las discusiones alteran el orden del diálogo. • El fortalecimiento de las capacidades de los participantes de los foros electrónicos se da porque (1) permite aprender y conocer de experiencias similares en la región, contrastadas con las propias experiencias de los participantes;(2) permite exponer sus ideas, puntos de vista, estudios de caso y sus propias vivencias sin mucha presión; (3) porque son parte de procesos de investigación y síntesis regional que CONDE-SAN viene llevando a cabo mediante sus programas; y (4) porque facilita la profundización de ciertas problemá-ticas o la convocatoria y el análisis de casos exitosos de la región.Hace más de 17 años, lo que inicialmente se creó como un medio para comunicarse y discutir sobre alguna temática específica acortando las distancias, ahora se presenta como una metodología que, apoyándose de una plataforma virtual madura, genera espacios de diálogo, intercambio y aprendizajes, donde sin tantas complicaciones tecnológicas para los usuarios, cada participante sale fortalecido y tiene la oportunidad de presentar sus experiencias, casos y conocimientos de manera horizontal. Los foros no serían lo que son hoy de no ser por la experimentación que se hizo de ellos en el pasado, y de la aplicación del aprendizaje obtenido durante todo este tiempo. Esta experiencia muestra cómo la adaptación a las nuevas oportunidades que ofrecen los desarrollos tecnológicos plantea retos, tanto en los aspectos puramente técnicos como en el aprendizaje por parte del equipo técnico y de los usuarios.Los desarrollos tecnológicos han marcado de manera significativa la evolución de esta iniciativa. A pesar de las limitaciones de la tecnología vigente en su fase inicial, que hacía lenta y costosa la interacción, se logró construir una red hemisférica de especialistas en el tema de la AIR.LA red virtuAL pArA LA proMoCión de LA AGroindustriA rurAL en AMériCA LAtinAPRODARNET es una comunidad de práctica para la agroindustria rural en la que participan académicos, técnicos gubernamentales y no gubernamentales, productores/empresarios y estudiantes, quienes comparten de manera voluntaria información y conocimientos en torno a esta temática. La experiencia de esta red virtual que ha logrado mantenerse vigente por casi 20 años (sumando las fases impresa y electrónica), muestra la evolución en los esquemas de comunicación para promover el acceso a la información y al conocimiento, que van desde las listas de correos electrónicos hasta el uso de redes sociales.El principal factor de éxito ha sido la persistencia en la idea de informar sobre un tema específico.Caso 2 -PRodARneTCon la llegada de la conexión a Internet al IICA en 1995, se conformó una lista de correo simple de alrededor de 25 direcciones.Un año después se creó la lista electrónica PRODARNET, que operó en un servidor del IICA, utilizando el programa administrador de listas \"Majordomo\". La lista creció de manera lenta por las limitaciones de cobertura y acceso al Internet en América Latina y el Caribe, y por limitaciones técnicas del programa Majordomo.Es así como en el 2001, la lista se trasladó a la plataforma Yahoo Groups, con la que creció de manera vertiginosa hasta llegar a cerca de 8.000 inscritos. Sin embargo, como resultado de las depuraciones que realiza Yahoo periódicamente, en la actualidad se cuenta con 2.500 miembros activos. Desde esa fecha hasta la actualidad se han registrado un total de 4.100 mensajes, para una media mensual de 38 mensajes.Por último, en el 2010 la lista electrónica se complementó con una red social que funciona en la plataforma Ning, la cual tiene una serie de herramientas interacti-vas para fortalecer la comunicación entre los miembros, y cuenta actualmente con más de 1.100 miembros. Recientemente se tomó la decisión de complementar el servicio con redes sociales en la plataforma Ning, Facebook y Twitter, para llegar a otros segmentos de mercado.La lógica de funcionamiento de PRODAR-NET ha sido la misma desde el comienzo, los miembros hacen consultas técnicas o comerciales, las cuales son respondidas a través de la red. Sin embargo, como resultado de las innovaciones tecnológicas, el proceso de gestión de conocimiento se ha modificado en función de las herramientas de comunicación utilizadas. Al principio, la información por comunicar era recibida mediante correo impreso y luego era digitalizada y difundida por el equipo técnico del PRODAR. Con la llegada del correo electrónico, este proceso experimentó un El principal objetivo de una comunidad de práctica es desarrollar conocimiento especializado y mejorar el desempeño de cada miembro a partir de la reflexión conjunta; en este contexto, los medios sociales abren la posibilidad de ampliar el alcance de la comunidad y democratizar el acceso a información y conocimiento empoderando al participante y dándole mayor poder de decisión.desde la perspectiva de la Gestión de Conocimiento… cambio paulatino, dándose una creciente apropiación por parte de los miembros de la lista electrónica, pues pasó de un sistema centralizado que difundía información, a uno más participativo donde son los mismos miembros quienes intercambian la información y responden en forma voluntaria las inquietudes de otros participantes, con el apoyo del equipo técnico del PRODAR.Esta transformación no ha sido tarea fácil, ya que ha requerido un esfuerzo importante de capacitación de los miembros y del equipo técnico de apoyo en diversos aspectos. Por ejemplo, para lograr la apropiación de la lista por los miembros, se envían reiteradamente tutoriales cortos explicando cómo redactar un mensaje o cómo responder a una consulta, y en el pie de página de cada mensaje se incluyen indicaciones de cómo reaccionar al mensaje. Ese proceso de aprendizaje ha sido lento y, aún después de casi 10 años, es necesario enviar recordatorios sobre el funcionamiento de la herramienta, así como sobre las pautas de comportamiento en la lista.Para asegurar la operación de esta comunidad, el Programa cuenta con el equipo de profesionales del PRODAR, que apoya de manera permanente todos los aspectos. La lista electrónica ha tenido desde su inicio un moderador, quien lleva el control de las suscripciones, aprueba y desaprueba los mensajes, regula el número de mensajes diarios, edita aquellos con problemas de redacción o comprensión, genera información, responde consultas, apoya a los usuarios a canalizar sus consultas y promociona la lista en otros medios electrónicos. Algu-nos miembros del equipo técnico apoyan, de manera ocasional, con la respuesta a consultas técnicas o comerciales, y se tiene un convenio con Soluciones Prácticas para atender el servicio consulta-respuesta.Como complemento, este proceso de gestión de conocimiento es monitoreado de forma constante. El administrador de la lista registra todos los mensajes y los clasifica por mes, con lo cual se pueden establecer metas teniendo en cuenta los mensajes circulados, y aplicando estrategias de motivación cuando la lista baja su nivel de actividad.• Aprovechar las tecnologías de información y comunicación para fortalecer el sistema de gestión de conocimiento, primero con la lista electrónica y complementándola luego con las redes sociales, ha sido una de las ganancias y aprendizajes más importantes. Tanto los integrantes de la red como el equipo del PRODAR, han aprendido que la adopción de las nuevas tecnologías implica un proceso importante de adaptación y flexibilidad para aprovechar la oportunidad que representan. • A lo largo de su historia, los dos obstáculos más importantes se dieron en el campo humano y en el tecnológico.Con respecto al primero, hacia finales de los años 90 hubo un relevo temporal en la moderación de la lista, lo cual bajó el nivel de actividad durante varios meses. Con respecto al segundo, ya se mencionaron las dificultades técnicas que presentó el programa Majordomo y que obligó el traslado hacia una plataforma comercial. En este sentido, contar con una herramienta más confiable y con soporte informático, así como con un moderador capaz de manejarla y mantener un nivel alto de motivación entre los miembros, han sido factores de éxito. • En tiempos recientes con la aparición de sistemas más interactivos como las redes sociales, se evidenció un estancamiento en la membresía de la lista y el intercambio de mensajes, por lo que PRODARNET tomó la decisión de complementar el servicio de lista de correo con redes sociales en las plataformas Ning, Facebook y Twitter, para hacer frente al reto, mantener la fidelidad de los antiguos miembros y captar nuevos, empleando una combinación de medios electrónicos.• La plataforma que mejor resultado ha dado es la de Ning porque el conjunto de herramientas que ofrece ha permitido un mayor acercamiento e interacción con el público objetivo, así como concentrar en un solo espacio varios servicios de intercambio de información que estaban dispersos en páginas web, listas electrónicas y bibliotecas digitales. La red social en Ning, que se ha denominado PRODARNET 2.0, ha sido un complemento perfecto para la lista electrónica PRODARNET. • El uso de Facebook y Twitter ha tenido resultados más modestos, en tanto pareciera que Facebook no es tan utilizado para gestionar información técnica, mientras que en el caso de Twitter no se dispone de un flujo de información de alta frecuencia como para constituir un sistema de seguimiento. Sin embargo, se mantienen como herramientas de reserva para un eventual desarrollo futuro.• Para PRODARNET, el principal factor de éxito ha sido la persistencia en la idea de informar sobre un tema específico como AIR, sobre el cual no hay mucha información en los centros de documentación, pero en el que PRO-DAR-IICA tiene experiencia. Asimismo, contar con el apoyo institucional del PRODAR ha permitido tener el Fotografía: Shutterstock.com sistema vigente durante casi 14 años; de igual forma, cuando PRODAR ha tenido limitaciones de acceso a recursos para realizar acciones de fortalecimiento a la AIR, ha sido la red virtual la que ha permitido mantener activo el programa por medio de la diseminación de información técnica.PRODARNET se ha convertido en un referente para pequeños agroindustriales de América Latina en lo relacionado con la difusión de información técnica sobre AIR y afines. Con esta iniciativa han ganado los pequeños agroindustriales al tener a su disposición un sistema de información técnica y comercial para mejorar la gestión de sus empresas; también los técnicos y estudiantes, quienes han encontrado un espacio para compartir y complementar su conocimiento entre pares; y finalmente, PRODAR-IICA, porque la red electrónica se ha constituido en una de las principales herramientas de cooperación técnica. Sin embargo, es pertinente mencionar que una debilidad por considerar es que no se le ha dado la suficiente promoción dentro del IICA y, por consiguiente, no se aprovecha todo su potencial al interior de la organización ni mediante sus redes institucionales.Ante la ausencia de programas de capacitación sobre gestión y moderación de listas y redes sociales, PRODARNET ha aplicado estrategias de aprender-haciendo, retroalimentación entre el equipo del Programa y benchmarking de listas similares. Se ha buscado intercambiar información de manera interactiva, sin exagerar en el origen y estilo de las comunicaciones, procurando que se mantengan dentro de la temática de la lista y que sean de interés para al menos dos países.Se ha comprobado que a los colisteros les gusta el estilo informal y abierto de la Red, pues les genera confianza para formular sus consultas y compartir su conocimiento. Asimismo, la realización de encuestas periódicas para establecer el perfil del usuario y las áreas de interés, han permitido hacer ajustes en los temas de información.La experiencia de PRODARNET es totalmente replicable y de hecho han sido creadas otras redes temáticas sobre quesos artesanales, agroturismo y sistemas agroalimentarios localizados, empleando la misma plataforma de yahoo-grupos. Para hacerlo es necesario asegurar un equipo Fotografía: Marvin Blanco animador del sistema, por lo menos tres personas que monitoreen permanentemente y moderen por un tiempo prudente hasta que la red madure y logre autonomía. En este sentido, para garantizar la continuidad de una iniciativa como éstas, se requiere apoyo financiero para pagar parcialmente al moderador de la red y para complementar el apoyo técnico en la organización de foros, concursos y encuentros presenciales de los miembros de la red.Como recomendación para otras iniciativas afines se sugiere concebir el sistema de información como un proyecto dividido en fases con plazos y metas claras. Por ejemplo, contar con marcadores de progresos que reflejen la maduración de la lista a los 3 años y permitan evaluar la conveniencia de seguir adelante o no, de cambiar a otra plataforma o de modificar la temática de trabajo.Finalmente, para compartir esta experiencia, la forma más efectiva es demostrar en la práctica cómo funciona la herramienta, algo que se ha hecho mediante cursos de capacitación sobre diseño de comunidades de práctica. La Planificación, el Seguimiento y la Evaluación (PSE) constituyen una herramienta estratégica para la adquisición y la construcción del conocimiento, con el fin de facilitar la toma de decisiones y el aprendizaje social e institucional. Aunque el concepto de participación está presente en la agenda del desarrollo desde la década de los 70, hoy se nutre más de los recientes cambios en las concepciones y estrategias de lucha contra la pobreza rural. De proyectos que concentraban las decisiones exclusivamente en el nivel gerencial y técnico, se ha pasado ahora a sistemas de planificación y ejecución en los cuales el papel activo compete a los propios destinatarios de los proyectos y a la sociedad local, en el marco de procesos de desarrollo territorial.Este énfasis en el aprendizaje se expresa claramente en la existencia de espacios para la recolección, análisis, comunicación y uso de la información por parte de la población objetivo y en contenidos que vayan acordes a su cultura. Mediante la participación en los procesos de PSE se empodera a las personas y comunidades para mejorar sus prácticas y su calidad de vida mediante la reflexión acerca de sus propios procesos y de la adquisición de habilidades y experiencias.Un desafío importante que enfrentan las organizaciones rurales y los proyectos de desarrollo rural es lograr verdaderos pro-LA evALuACión por iMáGenes: unA propuestA de CoMuniCACión pArA eL AprendizAje soCiALLa iniciativa de PRevAL sobre el uso de medios audiovisuales para la evaluación muestra cómo éstos amplían las posibilidades de participación de los actores sociales superando barreras comunicacionales y culturales. También potencializa la narración visual para un aprendizaje social más rápido, eficaz e integral que el ofrecido por el intercambio de conocimientos solo por medios escritos u orales.Un desafío importante que enfrentan las organizaciones es cómo lograr verdaderos procesos de aprendizaje sobre buenas prácticas e innovaciones y a partir de los tropiezos y fracasos. Otro reto es el que se relaciona con la documentación de los proyectos, que a menudo resulta extensa y de limitada difusión, por lo que la información de PSE no llega en forma adecuada a las audiencias, dado que suelen usarse formatos comunicacionales inapropiados que desaprove-chan el potencial de PSE para promover y adoptar el aprendizaje social, así como institucionalizar las estrategias exitosas mediante las políticas locales, regionales y nacionales.Un sondeo de necesidades a proyectos cofinanciados por el Fondo Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (FIDA) en América Latina, realizado por PREVAL a inicios del año 2005, reveló que el uso de los resultados del sistema PSE era incipiente aun en la revisión de la estrategia de implementación de los proyectos en función de los cambios logrados. Por medio del sondeo se encontró también que las Unidades de Seguimiento y Evaluación gubernamentales disponen de presupuesto y personal profesional entrenado, así como de equipos tecnológicos, pero están muy débilmente orientadas hacia el uso de información obtenida sobre el impacto con los actores locales y nacionales.El uso de medios audiovisuales para la gestión de conocimiento facilita el reconocimiento y la identificación entre los actores sociales, lo cual resulta clave en un proceso de apropiación social de conocimiento.Evaluar un proyecto de desarrollo por medio de imágenes cumple un doble propósito: Primero, multiplicar las formas en las que se evidencian los resultados, tomando en cuenta diferentes preferencias en la apropiación de contenidos para abrir así el diálogo entre un mayor número de actores; y segundo, compartir los aprendizajes por varios medios y formatos de evaluación para aumentar las probabilidades de institucionalizar los cambios.desde la perspectiva de la Gestión de Conocimiento… evaluación facilitada por los nuevos medios de comunicaciónEn el año 2008, PREVAL desarrolló la propuesta \"Uso de las comunicaciones basadas en imágenes como herramienta complementaria de PSE\" , que tuvo como objetivo promover la difusión de conocimientos sobre impactos y buenas prácticas en el desarrollo de innovaciones tecnológicas, sociales e institucionales para el desarrollo rural en América Latina, por medio de:1. Comunidades de aprendizaje virtual.2. La formación a la comunidad de usuarios y equipo técnico del proyecto en el uso de nuevas tecnologías basadas en imágenes (mapas temáticos, videos, fotografías, etc.) y herramientas de la Web 2.0 (wikis, blogs, YouTube, Ning, etc.), las cuales, gracias a su cada vez mayor acceso, creatividad y simplicidad, pueden marcar una diferencia importante en la eficacia de los sistemas de PSE. En este proceso participaron cerca de 60 personas, cuyo trabajo está documentado en diversos medios Web 2.0 1 . 3. Un curso virtual. 4. La conformación de una comunidad de practicantes.Para desarrollar esta iniciativa se conformó un equipo colaborativo integrado por el programa subregional Alianza Cambio Andino y la Plataforma Latinoamericana de Gestión de Conocimientos (ASOCAM) como socios y aliados de PREVAL. Participaron miembros de unidades operativas de proyectos gubernamentales cofinanciados por el FIDA, procedentes de Bolivia, Colombia, Panamá, Perú y Venezuela; adicionalmente, se extendieron los beneficios de la propuesta a otros proyectos no financiados por FIDA, 25 personas de universidades, programas subregionales y expertos(as) de Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala y Perú.InfoAndina/CONDESAN desarrolló una plataforma web considerando el uso de las herramientas 2.0, la cual quedó habilitada para llevar a cabo cursos virtuales, conferencias electrónicas, comunidades virtuales y un sitio multimedia. La sección multimedia del sitio web de PREVAL cuenta con unos 28 videos elaborados en el marco de ésta y de otras experiencias similares que muestran, de manera sencilla, la voz de los agricultores y los resultados de sus procesos de cambio. Contiene además una galería de fotos y audios con enlaces a testimonios recogidos en el marco del Proyecto de Desarrollo de la Sierra Sur (PDSS), cofinanciado por el FIDA en el Perú.El curso virtual sobre \"Uso de TICs e Imágenes en el Seguimiento y Evaluación\" se desarrolló entre julio y diciembre de 2009, promovido por PREVAL y sus socios. El curso se implementó mediante tres módulos: (i) Evaluación, comunicación y aprendizaje; (ii) Uso de fotografía, video y audio en el PSE y (iii) Uso de tecnologías de información y comunicación en el PSE. Participaron 64 personas entre miembros de la comunidad, equipos técnicos de proyectos cofinanciados por el FIDA, proyectos de desarrollo rural, expertos y universidades de Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panamá, Perú, y Venezuela. Los módulos fueron impartidos mediante audios, textos y videos 2 .Al final se conformó una comunidad de aprendizaje de carácter temporal sobre el uso de imágenes en el PSE para debatir sobre aspectos relacionados con el uso de imágenes. Adicionalmente se cuenta con un blog para intercambiar experiencias.• La evaluación por imágenes dentro de los sistemas de PSE propicia aprendizajes en las comunidades, organizaciones y equipos técnicos, ya que favorece la reflexión crítica por medio de la narrativa audiovisual que es mucho más rica y compleja que la narrativa escrita y, por lo tanto, facilita una mayor apropiación de la visión, de los resultados y de los compromisos. • La evaluación por imágenes complementa la información proporcionada por textos y datos cuantitativos y permite mostrar gráficamente cómo se transforman e incrementan los recursos y activos en distintas etapas (antes, durante y después). • Esta metodología facilita la participación de las mujeres -mayormente marginadas-y la expresión en su propio contexto, ya que el medio audiovisual posibilita el uso de lenguas maternas de las comunidades en las que usualmente son los hombres quienes saben español, lo que les permite expresar sus perspectivas desde y hacia adentro. Las imágenes son vías de entrada a la comprensión al asociar resultados con contenidos de valor local relacionados con la realidad cotidiana.Fotografía: Ruta de Aprendizaje Procasur y Preval 2008 2. Por ejemplo, ver www.youtube.com/watch?v=0eBN9xPeeeI• Algunos factores restrictivos para ampliar la convocatoria a más proyectos son el escaso tiempo disponible por parte de miembros de los equipos técnicos, incluso cuando exista motivación y la situación de conectividad en áreas rurales donde es aún incipiente, por lo que los equipos deben trasladarse hacia ciudades intermedias.Las imágenes y los testimonios son poderosos instrumentos para transmitir sentimientos, experiencias y perspectivas locales. Como indican los agricultores, \"las imágenes no mienten\" y favorecen la reflexión colectiva y el logro de acuerdos.Como evidencias cualitativas, las imágenes muestran el antes y el después de una iniciativa. Por medio de ellas es posible leer los resultados y establecer su efecto en las condiciones de vida de las personas. Adicional-mente, el uso de imágenes promueve procesos de aprendizaje más efectivos, ya que:i. llega a más destinatarios, ii. tanto los medios audiovisuales como la plataforma web facilitan la difusión de información entre las personas, promueven los procesos de aprendizaje, la creación de consensos y facilitan la toma de decisiones, iii. contribuye a la institucionalización y adopción de buenas prácticas, y iv. facilita la interacción entre grupos y organizaciones, al reducir las distancias geográficas.Como recomendación para iniciativas similares, es necesario mencionar que un elemento clave es la disposición de tiempo de los participantes, puesto que se trata de equipos técnicos que tienen poco espacio para la reflexión, dadas las abundantes tareas de campo asignadas. Ésta fue la primera experiencia de investigación participativa realizada explícitamente en Uruguay y se concretó con un grupo de productores orgánicos de cuatro predios ubicados en tres localidades de los departamentos Canelones y Colonia, quienes se han enfocado en la tecnología de abonos verdes. El proyecto contó con el seguimiento de un Grupo de Trabajo en Agricultura Orgánica que incluía la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad de la República.Tres hechos fueron fundamentales para dar inicio a esta iniciativa que combinaba la investigación participativa y la producción orgánica, dos nuevos enfoques de trabajo para el INIA:1. Una demanda muy fuerte por parte de los productores orgánicos por medio de su principal organización, la Asociación de Productores Orgánicos (APODU). 2. La presencia de un grupo de investigadores en el INIA con especialización en producción orgánica. 3. Un impulso institucional dado por el nuevo Plan Estratégico del INIA, queEl instituto nacional de investigación agropecuaria (inia), del Uruguay y la asociación de Productores Orgánicos (aPODU) desarrollaron conjuntamente una investigación sobre abonos verdes mediante una metodología con enfoque participativo que facilitó la combinación de los conocimientos científicos con las prácticas de los productores, reconfiguró sus relaciones y el enfoque de investigación, resultando en innovaciones campesinas e institucionales.Los mayores aprendizajes se han dado porque los productores comprendieron lo que es realizar experimentación, tener que medir, analizar y sacar conclusiones; y los técnicos comprendieron que las condiciones reales de producción no son iguales a las de las estaciones experimentales.enfatiza aspectos vinculados con la sustentabilidad económica, social y ambiental, fomentando nuevas formas de relacionamiento con los productores.Es importante mencionar que la iniciativa tuvo resistencias internas por parte del INIA, debido al apego a enfoques tradicionales de investigación. Por su parte, los productores orgánicos de APODU, quienes tuvieron ciertas dificultades organizativas durante el proceso, desde sus inicios, fueron adaptando tecnología generada para la producción tradicional que pudiera ser de interés para sus sistemas orgánicos, pero manifestaron que no les servía la investigación clásica realizada en las estaciones ex-perimentales y que, además, ellos querían participar en la toma de decisiones sobre \"qué\" y \"cómo\" investigar.Esta situación contribuyó a que, tanto los investigadores del INIA como los productores de APODU, reconocieran uno el conocimiento del otro. El INIA era consciente de que si comenzaba a trabajar en producción orgánica, no podía empezar de cero porque existía una trayectoria larga de experimentación empírica realizada por los productores cuyos avances debían ser incluidos en el futuro proceso y, por su parte, los productores debían ir agregando los conocimientos obtenidos por la investigación en agricultura en sus experiencias cotidianas.Para el desarrollo de innovaciones, la investigación participativa basada en experiencias cotidianas abre la posibilidad de nuevas formas de relaciones entre productores e investigadores, un proceso que enriquece sus conocimientos.El intercambio de aprendizajes que posibilita la experimentación conjunta, contribuye a la construcción colectiva de nuevos conocimientos e innovaciones efectivas y sostenibles, ya que responden más asertivamente tanto al contexto como a las necesidades rurales.La innovación rural va a la par y exige la innovación institucional. Incorporar en las organizaciones de I&D nuevas formas de generar conocimiento detona un círculo de cambio: la innovación en proyectos debería tener como consecuencia el cambio y aprendizaje en las organizaciones involucradas. En este sentido, la gestión de conocimiento es un vehículo que facilita y enfatiza ese proceso de cambio.desde la perspectiva de la gestión de conocimiento… Caso 4 -iniaLa Facultad de Agronomía aportó un marco metodológico llamado Desarrollo Participativo de Innovaciones (DPI), que considera el conocimiento, habilidades y experiencias de los productores para combinarlos con el conocimiento y análisis de investigadores mediante espacios que les permitían experimentar juntos para la adaptación y difusión de innovaciones.El DPI brindó elementos teóricos al proyecto, al indicar los pasos metodológicos por seguir y los roles de cada uno de los actores involucrados en la búsqueda de nuevas alternativas tecnológicas. La presentación teórica de la información por el DPI también facilitó la acción y el trabajo coordinado para lograr un aprendizaje continuo y compartir saberes entre los participantes que, en este caso, fueron productores, técnicos locales, huerteros urbanos, estudiantes y representantes de instituciones vinculadas a la producción orgánica.El grupo de trabajo conformado por productores, técnicos, consumidores, estudiantes de la Universidad e investigadores, definió de manera participativa el tema de investigación: abonos verdes; asimismo, analizó las experimentaciones durante los \"Días de campo\" y realizó varios talleres de seguimiento y evaluación que permitieron estudiar, de manera participativa, las experiencias. Por su parte, el video reveló ser una manera eficiente de difundir tecnologías, permitiendo compartir los resulta-dos con vecinos e interesados; en una de las tres zonas se dio inicio a un segundo ciclo de investigación participativa mediante el uso del video participativo.Sobre la metodología • Se observa un incremento en el uso de abonos verdes, así como de iniciativas que lo fomentan a través de políticas públicas; sin embargo, aún no se alcanzan los niveles que pudieran esperarse.• A nivel del INIA se pudo demostrar que es posible iniciar y finalizar un proyecto de investigación con una metodología diferente, y se ha observado que muchos investigadores están interesados en incorporar aspectos del enfoque participativo en sus proyectos, sin llegar a adoptar en un 100% la investigación participativa como metodología. • Por su parte, el Programa de Producción Familiar dentro del cual tuvo lugar esta experiencia, inició trabajos participativos en tres zonas del Uruguay, con un enfoque de co-innovación basándose en diversos aspectos conceptuales y metodológicos del DPI. • A nivel de los investigadores y productores involucrados, la introducción de este nuevo enfoque de investigación incorpora no solo una nueva metodología, sino que permite, a todos los actores involucrados, abordar e intentar solucionar los problemas en forma compartida, fomentando una actitud más abierta no solo a nivel personal, sino a nivel institucional. En este sentido se fortalecieron las capacidades de los participantes, lo cual queda de manifiesto en el video, dados los testimonios y las reflexiones ahí registrados.La conclusión por parte de los participantes es que es posible compartir saberes \"teóricos\" de los técnicos y \"prácticos\" de los productores. Los mayores aprendizajes se han dado porque los productores comprendieron qué es realizar experimentación, tener que medir, analizar y sacar conclusiones, y los técnicos comprendieron que las condiciones reales de producción no son iguales a las de las estaciones experimentales. Como lo mencionaron los productores, \"fue posible en la práctica lograr complementar conocimientos entre los técnicos y productores y, de esa manera, obtener nuevos resultados\". En las últimas décadas se han desarrollado tecnologías poscosecha para pequeñas agroindustrias con poca participación de los beneficiarios y una deficiente integración entre sus oferentes. Esto ha generado un bajo uso comercial de dichas tecnologías, lo que le impide al agroempresario posicionarse en el mercado con productos que cumplan las nuevas exigencias de los consumidores.A lo anterior se suma la dificultad que enfrentan los pequeños agroempresarios para acceder a información sobre tecnologías, mercados y precios, así como los bajos niveles de cooperación y apoyo que exis-ten entre ellos y la falta de experiencia empresarial. Éstas son algunas de las barreras que dibujan el escenario rural y demandan de los actores locales el ejercicio de un rol más protagónico para convertir las barreras en oportunidades para mejorar.La idea de diseñar una metodología participativa como los Gestores de Innovación en Agroindustria Rural (GIAR) surgió en 1998 cuando se buscó construir un mecanismo en el que los actores participaran activamente en la toma de decisiones y que les permitiera identificar y fortalecer capacidades locales para el desarrollo agroempresarial, fortaleciendo así los sistemas de apoyo local (asistencia técnica y empresarial, ca- La metodología GIAR está diseñada para que sean los mismos agroempresarios quienes determinen cuál debe ser el rumbo de sus procesos de innovación a partir de las características particulares de su entorno y de lo que les demanda el mercado.pacitación, crédito, servicios de información y comunicación, entre otros) y no fue sino hasta el 2003 cuando se cristalizó al ser desarrollada en el Cauca, Colombia.Para iniciar el proceso, los gestores de innovación (que son representantes de distintos eslabones de una misma cadena agroindustrial), acompañados inicialmente por una institución facilitadora, identifican las oportunidades de mercado existentes; y a partir de allí evalúan sus propias prácticas y las alternativas de innovación propuestas por organizaciones oferentes de tecnología, para ajustarlas y mejorar la calidad de sus productos o crear otros nuevos a partir de la demanda. Para lograrlo, la metodología involucra 10 pasos metodológicos que buscan apropiar a los productores rurales de su proceso de innovación así:1. Motivación al concepto GIAR 2. Conformación del grupo de gestores 3. Establecimiento de un sistema de seguimiento y evaluación 4. Giras en la cadena productiva 5. Análisis de la cadena 6. Diseño del plan de acción para la innovación 7. Difusión del diagnóstico y del plan de acción 8. Ejecución del plan de acción 9. Sistematización de resultados 10. Difusión e intercambio de innovaciones La metodología involucra un proceso cíclico para reflexionar e incorporar los aprendizajes en las prácticas de los productores. Para desarrollarla hay tres tipos de actores involucrados: los gestores de innovación, el facilitador y los oferentes de alternativas de innovación.Los Gestores de Innovación: son un grupo de entre 6 y 12 agroempresarios, representantes de distintos sectores de una misma cadena productiva. Ellos son los actores centrales y quienes ejecutan directamente el plan de acción para la innovación.Caso 5 -CIAT la cadena, pero que no obtiene beneficios económicos de ella. Puede ser una ONG, una universidad o un centro de investigación internacional. Esta organización es la encargada de acompañar a los gestores de innovación en su etapa inicial para compartirles su conocimiento y experiencia, así como fortalecer las capacidades de sus integrantes, de modo que éstos puedan desarrollar en el futuro, y de manera independiente, nuevas innovaciones. Además, el facilitador es el encargado de gestionar los recursos económicos necesarios para la aplicación de la metodología.Al igual que el facilitador, el oferente puede ser un centro de investigación, una universidad o una ONG. Este oferente usualmente posee una herramienta metodológica, técnica, tecnológica, o un conocimiento que pueda ser adaptado por los GIAR para atacar la amenaza identificada o para aprovechar la oportunidad descubierta en el mercado. También puede ser una organización que no tenga aún la herramienta, pero que desee desarrollarla con la participación de sus usuarios.Dado que el trabajo se realiza con un grupo variado de actores de diversos niveles de lectoescritura, económicos, de raza, entre otros, la metodología privilegia la utilización de herramientas que faciliten: i. el aprender haciendo para la adaptación y desarrollo de innovaciones; días de campo, las giras en la cadena (mercado y tecnológicas), ii. la visualización; mapeo de la cadena, diagrama de relaciones, iii los intercambios entre los actores con saberes específicos; café DEL, lluvia de ideas, y iv. la difusión de innovaciones; días de campo, medios de comunicación locales, estudios de caso.Todo esto enmarcado en un elemento determinante: la facilitación de grupos.Promover la gestión de conocimiento en cadenas con productores de pequeña escala requiere promover la \"co-innovación\", un tipo de innovación colaborativa que busca reconocer el conocimiento técnico y tradicional en un proceso mediado por la experimentación conjunta.Aquí la gestión de conocimiento primero promueve el aprendizaje entre los actores de la cadena, teniendo en consideración las prácticas que se deben mejorar o el nuevo trabajo por hacer para ser más eficientes, más sostenibles y más competitivos; y segundo, busca hacer más transparente el manejo de información y las transacciones al interior de la cadena, donde las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación tienen un papel protagónico.Caso 5 -CIATLa metodología GIAR ha sido aplicada en dos cadenas agroindustriales (yuca y panela) del departamento del Cauca (Colombia), y aunque los resultados del último proceso de innovación se obtuvieron hace más de 7 años, algunos gestores siguen replicando sus aprendizajes y las innovaciones logradas, que involucran una oferta tecnológica ajustada a las condiciones locales la cual, técnica y económicamente, se encuentra al alcance de los pequeños productores de panela de esta región. Lo que redundó en el incremento de la disponibilidad de este producto en volumen y calidad por medio de una Asociación 3 .Del mismo modo, algunos técnicos extensionistas de las Unidades Municipales de Atención Técnica Agropecuaria (UMATA), cuyo trabajo consiste en asistir técnicamente a las comunidades rurales para mejorar sus condiciones productivas, se convirtieron en un apoyo técnico importante para sus compañeros gestores durante el proceso, y adquirieron nuevas herramientas para desarrollar su trabajo. Actualmente siguen replicando lo que aprendieron.La curiosidad que suscitaron los GIAR en sus comunidades y los resultados tan visibles de sus innovaciones en sus parcelas, en sus unidades de procesamiento y en su producto, llevó a que cada vez más vecinos buscaran la asesoría de estos gestores y adoptaran los criterios de producción limpia (abonamiento orgánico, escalonamiento, distancias entre surcos y sistemas de siembra, entre otros) y de calidad que ellos mismos investigaron y adoptaron teniendo en cuenta las demandas del mercado.Hasta ahora, alrededor de 200 familias, principalmente de pequeños productores, se han beneficiado directa e indirectamente con los procesos de innovación desarrollados por los GIAR, y se espera que la cifra se multiplique con la aplicación de esta metodología en otras cadenas agroindustriales, en otras regiones y países.Durante el 2010 se desarrolló en Colombia y en Ecuador un proyecto, financiado por el Fondo Regional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (FONTAGRO), en el que se aplicó la metodología GIAR en las Cadenas de mora y lulo en Colombia y Ecuador. Asimismo, Fotografía: Jhon Jairo Hurtado, CIAT 3. Asociación de Paneleros de Santander de Quilichao, Cauca.se han realizado experiencias con distintos socios de la Alianza de Aprendizaje para el Desarrollo Empresarial Rural en Honduras, Nicaragua y El Salvador, mediante un proceso de aprendizaje dividido en tres fases de desarrollo, durante las cuales los participantes tienen la oportunidad de construir sus propios modelos de aplicación de la metodología, implementarlos y evaluarlos con el acompañamiento presencial y virtual de personal técnico del CIAT.• Uno de los principales aspectos que determinan el éxito de los GIAR es el perfil de sus integrantes. El perfil de los aspirantes a gestores es decisivo para que el facilitador juegue un papel secundario y los actores se apropien de su proceso de aprendizaje, del resultado de sus innovaciones y, principalmente, de su rol como difusores en comunidad. • Por las características de esta metodología, es necesario que la organización facilitadora tenga disposición para el trabajo participativo, el cambio, la equidad de género y el diálogo de saberes. Así podrá generar el ambiente de confianza, cooperación y compromiso de los que requieren los GIAR. Además, es deseable que esta organización conozca las principales necesidades de la cadena y disponga de conocimientos técnicos (ya sean propios o externos) sobre tecnologías para ella.• Por otra parte, un factor de éxito de este proceso es que el facilitador oriente a los gestores en el manejo de instrumentos de recolección y análisis de información, y los sensibilice en temas participativos y empresariales.• Es fundamental que quienes se inician como gestores tengan expectativas reales respecto al tiempo y la dedicación requeridos para lograr una innovación. De ello dependerá, en gran medida, que estos actores mantengan su compromiso. • La organización facilitadora deberá encargarse de verificar que las expectativas sean reales -tanto dentro como fuera de los GIAR-y de vigilar que los niveles de interés y motivación se mantengan. Para ello, es importante que el facilitador evite convertirse en ejecutor pues corre el riesgo de truncar no solo el proceso de aprendizaje de los participantes, sino también la autosostenibilidad de los grupos conformados. Vinculando Productores con el Mercado Programa de Análisis de Políticas (DAPA) CIAT Cali Colombia. Jhon Jairo Hurtado B, j.hurtado@cgiar.org Tel: +57 (2) 4450100 ext. 3378Érika Eliana Mosquera E., erikaeliana.mosquera@gmail.com, Consultora 4. El Sistema de Información para el Desarrollo Empresarial Rural (SIDER) es una iniciativa desarrollada para que el pequeño productor y las organizaciones que los apoyan puedan generar, acceder, intercambiar y aprovechar la información que necesitan para fortalecer su desarrollo como empresarios, mediante el uso orientado de las nuevas tecnologías de información (Internet) y a los medios y canales tradicionales de comunicación.Caso 5 -CIATSi hemos de enfrentar el reto de mejorar la seguridad alimentaria y el bienestar de los pobres, es esencial que los productos de la investigación agrícola lleguen a las personas que más los necesitan. Sin embargo, el impacto que el conocimiento público y la investigación pueden tener en el desarrollo agrícola y rural y en el manejo de los recursos naturales es limitado, porque no se tiene acceso fácil y amplio a la mayoría de los productos. Se debe entonces hacer más énfasis en el uso y en la adopción del conocimiento científico entre todos los ac-tores del escenario agrícola, ya sean éstos agricultores, extensionistas, formuladores de políticas, investigadores u otras personas. Para que haya adopción, es necesario que los resultados cumplan tres requisitos:1. Estar disponibles; deben almacenarse en formatos digitales abiertos y describirse usando estándares públicos para metadatos, de tal manera que se puedan encontrar mediante sistemas estructurados de búsqueda y acceso. 2. Ser accesibles; se refiere a que estén disponibles en línea para el público en versiones completas de texto, de taldeL diCho AL heCho: inForMACión sobre investiGACión AGríCoLA disponibLe AL púbLiCo, ACCesibLe en su totALidAd y que se puede ApLiCArAgrícola para el Desarrollo (CIARD, sus siglas inglés) muestra que es posible desarrollar colaborativamente normas comunes para compartir conocimientos proveyendo incentivos y metódos concretos.Aunque abundan las publicaciones científicas, para tener un verdadero impacto los investigadores necesitamos mejorar la manera en que comunicamos nuestras ideas. Los resultados de nuestra investigación deben tener impacto entre las personas \"en el campo de batalla\". Por tanto, tenemos que incorporarlo en nuestros proyectos desde el principio y tratar de buscar ayuda en estos asuntos de la comunicación 5 .Lieven Claessens, Científico del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Perú.manera que se puedan consultar, ver y descargar en su totalidad. 3. Ser aplicables; es decir, que la investigación y los procesos de innovación estén abiertos a diferentes fuentes de conocimiento, y los resultados sean fáciles de adaptar, transformar, aplicar y reutilizar.Para atender los problemas y las necesidades mencionados, se ha desarrollado en el pasado una gama de iniciativas y tecnologías pero, a pesar de la preocupación de los actores de la ciencia y de la tecnología y el desarrollo de diversos mecanismos para mejorar el manejo de la información y el conocimiento, estos esfuerzos no han estado bien coordinados en el pasado o no se han realizado de manera coherente.Mediante dos consultas internacionales realizadas por expertos en \"Sistemas Internacionales de Información para la Ciencias y la Tecnología Agraria\", (IISAST, sus siglas en inglés) se identificó que se requería una alianza mundial más estructurada para un mejor manejo de la información en el campo de la ciencia y la tecnología agrícolas.Es así como en enero de 2008 surgió una iniciativa internacional para lograr la 'Coherencia en la Información de la Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo (CIARD)', con el propósito de que la información sobre in-vestigación agrícola estuviera disponible al público, fuera accesible en su totalidad y se pudiera aplicar.CIARD es una alianza internacional que incluye la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO), el Foro Global de Investigación Agropecuaria (GFAR sus siglas en inglés), el Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR) y el Centro Técnico para la Cooperación Agrícola y Rural (CTA) de los Estados de África, del Caribe y del Pacífico y de la Unión Europea (ACP-UE), entre otras organizaciones, para brindar una plataforma de coherencia entre las iniciativas relacionadas con el manejo de la información.Los socios de CIARD coordinan sus esfuerzos, promueven formatos comunes para compartir e intercambiar información y adoptan sistemas de información abiertos. Las actividades están impulsadas por la creencia de que la creación de una red mundial de productos de la investigación y la innovación realmente accesibles aumenta significativamente la probabilidad de que éstos se puedan usar a escala local, nacional e internacional.CIARD ha desarrollado un Manifiesto que explica por qué existe esta iniciativa y los principios que la sustentan. Sin embargo, aunque los socios estén de acuerdo con el raciocinio general de la iniciativa CIARD, para que ésta funcione se necesita la participación de varios actores sociales -tales como investigadores, gerentes, gestores de información, formuladores de políticas, etc.-y es necesario también convencerlos a ellos acerca de la importancia de compartir su información.Por tanto, una de las tareas emprendidas inicialmente por CIARD fue la de desarrollar una 'propuesta de venta única', indicando los beneficios e incentivos que fueran argumentos persuasivos para convencer a las organizaciones y a los investigadores de que ellos se beneficiarían al permitir el libre acceso a la información, y argumentos persuasivos para convencer a los formuladores de políticas y a los donantes de que hay una ganancia al apoyarlos en este empeño.Para garantizar que los productos de la investigación de dominio público -en la forma de información, datos y conocimiento-hagan parte del 'conocimiento común' para la agricultura, se deben crear, recopilar, manejar y difundir a través de medios que garanticen que estarán tan disponibles y serán tan accesibles y aplicables como sea posible.Para lograrlo, la iniciativa CIARD ha desarrollado una Lista de verificación que se puede usar para entender los flujos de contenidos, y representa un conjunto de elementos mediante los cuales las investigaciones, los sistemas de investigación y las personas pueden progresar hacia el cumplimiento del Manifiesto y los Principios del CIARD. Hay varias maneras de dar cumplimiento a la agenda de la Lista de verificación, dependiendo del ámbito específico de actividad de la organización y las necesidades locales; por tanto, cada cual podrá diseñar su propio camino usando la Lista de verificación que involucra actividades dirigidas hacia dos objetivos: (i) Desarrollar buena disposición institucional, y (ii) Aumentar la disponibilidad, accesibilidad y aplicabilidad de los productos de la investigación.Algunas de las vías efectivas que CIARD ha aprendido para que la información esté disponible y sea accesible y aplicable son:1. Desarrollo de una buena disposición institucional a. Promover los beneficios de la accesibilidad digital a contenidos 3. Facilitar el acceso amplio a contenidos en la web a. Difundir los productos de la investigación -bases de datos internacionales b. Hacer visible el contenido de un sitio web en la web c. Crear servicios con valor agregado que realicen búsquedas en varias plataformas d. Publicar y promocionar productos a través de alimentadores de noticias e. Usar medios sociales para difundir los productos de la investigación f. Usar audiovisuales para difundir los productos de la investigación g. Usar soluciones de la Web 2.0 para su sitio web h. Analizar cómo se están utilizando sus sitios web y aplicar este conocimiento.Esta Hoja de Ruta para Nodos y Puertas de Entrada a la Información de CIARD es una herramienta que permite que los científicos y centros proveedores de información registren sus servicios en diversas categorías y facilitar así el descubrimiento de fuentes de información agrícola en todo el mundo. Como se mencionó existen diversas rutas, por lo que CIARD está buscando la retroalimentación para mejorar el sistema.Fotografía: Nadia Manning-Thomas (CGIAR ICT-KM)Cuando CIARD inició sus actividades, dos elementos saltaron a la vista:1. Las diferentes regiones del mundo tienen contextos, necesidades, oportunidades y prioridades específicas. 2. Es necesario atender los diferentes grupos dentro de las organizaciones agrícolas para que el conocimiento les sea más accesible y para conocer sus diferentes roles, habilidades, necesidades y prioridades.Entre regiones (África, América del Norte, América Latina, Asia, Asia Central, Euro-pa) si bien se encontraron pocas diferencias en cuanto a las razones, los incentivos y los beneficios de compartir la información, sí se encontraron grandes divergencias con respecto a las rutas que se podrían adoptar para compartir información con base en disparidades en la infraestructura, capacitación y habilidad para compartir, y las oportunidades de acceder a la información; por ejemplo, dificultades en el acceso a Internet, la velocidad y el ancho de banda en algunas partes de África limitan el uso de ciertas tecnologías de la información y las comunicaciones, y de herramientas de medios sociales.Por su parte, los diferentes grupos objetivo de trabajo (investigadores, gestores de laNo hay un compartir eficiente del conocimiento que no se base en una filosofía de acceso abierto a la información. Adoptar tal filosofía a nivel organizacional requiere de decisión y buena disposición institucional para propiciar los cambios organizacionales que este reto conlleva. Requiere también desarrollar y fortalecer las capacidades en aquellos actores que son quienes finalmente comparten conocimiento y de esa manera promueven los cambios.Para lograrlo, la experiencia de acceso (tanto en términos de las redes humanas como tecnológicas) debería ser tan agradable, y el valor que agrega acceder a información y conocimiento (para escalar aprendizajes y para desarrollar nuevos productos de investigación) debería ser tan alto que incentive a compartir el propio. Es en este balance en donde se encuentra el reto para convertir el concepto de accesibilidad, disponibilidad y aplicabilidad de la información en una práctica generalizada y sostenible.desde la perspectiva de la Gestión de Conocimiento… información, gestores de la investigación, formuladores de políticas) tienen diferencias en el porqué compartir y cómo hacerlo. Por ejemplo:• Para los gestores de la investigación, su incentivo es conseguir fondos para la institución, y la mejor forma de compartir son las políticas sobre publicaciones de acceso abierto. • Para los investigadores, el beneficio es obtener reconocimiento en el trabajo personal, y el mecanismo son las ciberbitácoras, talleres, publicaciones, etc. • Para los gestores de información, el incentivo es usar herramientas interesantes e innovadoras, y su método son los repositorios en línea, las bases de datos y los sistemas de manejo de contenidos, entre otros. • Finalmente para formuladores de políticas, el incentivo es tener acceso a información para la toma de decisiones, y para ello consideran que la mejor ruta son las mesas redondas, diálogos, entre otros.Aunque la iniciativa aboga por la coherencia mediante la coordinación de esfuerzos, la promoción de formatos, comunes para compartir e intercambiar información y la adopción de ciertos formatos tales como los sistemas de información abierta, una de las principales lecciones aprendidas es que no hay una talla única que sirva en todas las circunstancias. Las rutas de cómo compartir deben ser distintas y apropiadas para los diferentes contextos (por ejemplo, las regiones), así como para los diferentes grupos objetivo que las usan (gestores de la investigación versus gestores de la información). Es clave entender los contextos y las capacidades de las regiones y los grupos objetivo para poder recomendarles las rutas apropiadas que podrían utilizar. El resultado será una mayor adopción y sostenibilidad en el uso de estas rutas.CIARD está constituida por diversos socios fundadores y promueve la vinculación de otras organizaciones. A pesar de reconocer que cada institución tiene su propio nicho y grupo de clientes, se recomienda que se interconecten y trabajen en equipo para complementarse. Es un reto trabajar con esta diversidad de organizaciones, cada una con sus propios sistemas e ideas. Para lograr la colaboración efectiva, los socios deben también ver cómo se beneficiarían. CIARD ha reconocido este punto y ha hecho una lista de los beneficios que pueden obtener las instituciones de investigación agrícola al vincularse a esta iniciativa.Los socios de CIARD buscan apoyar y complementar los roles e iniciativas de las instituciones nacionales, regionales e interna-cionales. CIARD aprendió que no puede ni debe tratar de replicar los esfuerzos ni reemplazar las instituciones existentes; en cambio, debe facilitar la coherencia y abogar para que las instituciones aprovechen las elecciones y las rutas que de allí se deriven.La iniciativa CIARD no siempre ha podido adoptar muchas de las rutas que ha promovido, por diversas razones. Necesita encontrar una manera de dar ejemplo en el uso de estas rutas.CIARD y sus socios deben proporcionar directrices más detalladas en la escogencia y adopción de herramientas y rutas. CIARD ha venido adoptando un marco de traba-jo para la planeación de actividades para compartir el conocimiento en varios ciclos de trabajo (por ejemplo, compartir el conocimiento en la investigación), que sirve de guía sobre cuáles herramientas utilizar en las diferentes etapas de los proyectos y para alcanzar metas y propósitos específicos. El modelo de la Red Virtual de Comunicación de Extensión e Investigación (VERCON, sus siglas en inglés), es una iniciativa de la FAO que tiene por objetivo mejorar la interacción y los vínculos entre la esfera de la investigación agrícola, los servicios de extensión, los agricultores y otros interesados en la agricultura, y el desarrollo rural para promover el intercambio de conocimientos y tener mejor acceso a la información agrícola, así como para contribuir a incrementar la seguridad alimentaria.Más que una red virtual de comunicaciones para la divulgación de la investigación, se trata de un modelo conceptual elaborado por la la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimen- La singularidad del modelo veRCon es su capacidad para reunir a personas de diferentes instituciones para que trabajen codo a codo en una estructura menos jerárquica y más colaborativa. En las actividades de comunicación e intercambio de conocimientos interviene una gran variedad de actores nacionales (personas e instituciones), tanto gubernamentales como no gubernamentales, que trabajan en las esferas de la investigación agrícola, la extensión, la educación y la formulación de políticas, así como los medios de comunicación, en particular las radios comunitarias. En el nivel nacional, lo más recurrente es que sean los ministerios de agricultura o sus equivalentes los que coordinen la iniciativa.La singularidad del modelo VERCON está en su capacidad de reunir personas de diferentes instituciones y, dentro de éstas, de distintos niveles, para que trabajen conjuntamente en una estructura menos jerárquica y más colaborativa. Este enfoque engloba tres componentes completamente integrados e interdependientes que deben combinarse adecuadamente: las dimensiones humana y tecnológica y el desarrollo institucional.El acceso y la cobertura de Internet se han ampliado mucho en los últimos 10 años, lo que ha facilitado el desarrollo del proyecto; sin embargo, se han presentado dificultades en dos frentes específicos:1. La institucionalización de los procesos y la capacidad técnica para el mantenimiento de los nuevos equipos y tecnologías. En muchos lugares es recurrente la poca institucionalización de los procesos. Los proyectos e iniciativas están muy ligados a las personas y no a las organizaciones. Por ejemplo, hay un cierto sentido de propiedad sobre los equipos, lo cual hace que se les Fotografía: Sophie Treinen considere más como parte de una dotación personal que institucional, por lo que al rotar las personas de un puesto a otro llevan consigo su computadora con toda la información del proyecto.Al ser este un recurso escaso, en algunos lugares se dan luchas de poder y celos por el control de computadoras.Haciendo frente a esto y como instrumento para el intercambio de información, hace unos años se distribuyó una llave USB con información del programa, pero curiosamente las llaves no fueron asumidas como algo para las organizaciones sino para el uso personal, por lo que la información no quedó en las entidades.En algunos países, el desarrollo institucional es mayor, lo que ha permitido avanzar de manera más sostenida; por el contrario, sin las capacidades para asumir localmente los requerimientos tecnológicos, el avance y la sostenibilidad de los proyectos se ven comprometidos.2. La dimensión humana y la apropiación de los procesos. Hay diversidad en los estilos de trabajo y en la forma de apropiación del proyecto. Por ejemplo, en Egipto esta iniciativa fue asumida por los técnicos locales como algo propio y lo hicieron parte de su agenda de trabajo. Por el contrario, en Uganda, quienes fueron asignados a la iniciativa piloto, lo vieron como un proyecto externo y su apropiación fue reducida.El enfoque y la forma de operación que tiene esta iniciativa implica cambios en la cultura de las organizaciones de las entidades locales, por lo que es necesario ajustar el modelo a la forma de trabajo y de relacionamiento entre personas e instituciones, lo cual ha hecho necesario manejar el conflicto que puede existir entre individuos vinculados con la iniciativa.Una forma de atender estas dificultades ha sido la realización de mesas de trabajo con todos los socios (multistakeholders workshop) para:• crear una visión compartida,• identificar las ventajas para cada uno, • tomar conciencia de las capacidades y competencias con las que cuentan y las que hacen falta.En lo posible se busca involucrar a otras personas de la institución, además de la Fotografía: Laura Ramírez directa responsable del proyecto, para promover una mayor apropiación y asegurar una mejor continuidad de los procesos.Una barrera cultural importante es la dificultad que se tiene para trabajar de manera colaborativa y comprender que esta iniciativa se desarrolla con una perspectiva gana-gana, es decir, que trae beneficios para todos y que es necesario compartir.Hemos aprendido de los fracasos y de los éxitos.Centralización y control de la información que se publica. El principal fraca-so de esta iniciativa se dio en un país de África. Los gestores involucrados con los sitios pilotos comprendieron los alcances y las ventajas de VERCON; sin embargo, el proyecto fracasó porque el gobierno quería ejercer un control centralizado y total sobre los sitios web de todos los ministerios, algo que VERCON evidenció cuando el proyecto había iniciado.Falta de visión y liderazgo. Al caso anterior se sumó que en la primera fase hubo un campeón que movilizó los recursos requeridos, pero que se retiró; después de esto no se encontró un nuevo liderazgo a su nivel.Miedo al cambio tecnológico. Se encontró un problema generacional frente a las tecnologías; a los mayores les parecía que era algo de ciencia ficción, lo cual limitó el alcance de resultados.La Web 2.0 tiene gran potencial para solucionar las barreras de gestión de información y conocimiento en instituciones con escasos recursos técnicos, al poner disponible y accesible la información; sin embargo, lograr la implementación de estas herramientas depende, en gran medida, del desarrollo institucional y tecnológico de las naciones.En este sentido, las barreras culturales y políticas, tanto públicas como privadas, en el manejo de la información y el trabajo colaborativo inciden potencializando o limitando el impacto del trabajo de las iniciativas en gestión de conocimiento. Es en estos casos en los que el mandato de organizaciones internacionales puede contribuir significativamente al cambio.desde la perspectiva de la Gestión de Conocimiento…El intercambio entre experiencias con contextos similares genera mayores sinergias.La experiencia más interesante de cooperación se estableció entre los coordinadores de las iniciativas de Bután y Costa Rica. Se organizó una visita del equipo de Bután a Costa Rica, donde sus estructuras institucionales, sus sistemas productivos y sus zonas agroecológicas eran similares; los dos son países pequeños, montañosos y con alta diversidad biológica; a su vez tienen problemáticas comunes en torno a actividades más cotidianas como los cultivos de arroz o el ganado, por mencionar solo dos ejemplos. En este caso, por iniciativa propia, la gente de Costa Rica descubrió que existe un programa de apoyo de los Países Bajos a la cooperación Sur-Sur que involucra a Bután, Benín y Costa Rica. En el marco de ese programa elaboraron un proyecto conjunto que continuó después de que FAO se retiró. El proyecto involucró acciones con respecto a temas de fuente abierta, intercambio de tecnologías agrícolas (arroz rojo, por ejemplo) y de metodologías de participación (en esto Bután tiene una amplia experiencia).Políticas públicas de inclusión digital. La iniciativa es determinada en este marco de políticas públicas (conectividad a Internet).Por ejemplo, la política egipcia en materia de Internet es muy favorable, ya que ofrece acceso a Internet al costo de una llamada local en todo el territorio. En Bután hay también un cambio favorable, dado que sus políticas estimularon la conectividad móvil (telefonía e Internet) que facilita el acceso en zonas rurales de montaña.Voluntad y constancia. La continuidad ha variado de un país a otro. En el caso de Bután y Costa Rica ha habido una enorme voluntad de los centros involucrados y de los proyectos, lo cual ha permitido su continuidad en el tiempo. En caso contrario, en Uganda, la iniciativa se desaceleró por falta de un gestor con poder de decisión. En Armenia hay una brecha generacional muy fuerte: los jóvenes comprenden los alcances del proyecto, pero no lo hacen de igual forma los adultos mayores. En Egipto, la experiencia piloto fue muy exitosa y decidieron ampliarlo a todo el país. En Colombia, la iniciativa ha tenido bastante continuidad.Desarrollo de la infraestructura y de capacidades. En general se puede decir que muchos países latinoamericanos presentan condiciones favorables de infraestructura (conectividad) y competencias que contribuyen al éxito de estas iniciativas. En varios países africanos, las condiciones di-Fotografía: Sophie Treinen fieren, por lo que se requiere de ajustes al modelo para su establecimiento.Todo el proceso de creación de una red VERCON, desde la fase de formulación hasta la de evaluación, se basa fundamentalmente en la determinación y en el empeño de los asociados que tratan de sortear obstáculos burocráticos con el fin de mejorar el sistema nacional de conocimientos e información agrícolas. El proceso conlleva, en todas sus fases, el compromiso humano, financiero y de gestión de los interesados, y requiere determinación y empeño para alcanzar un entendimiento común de la red, una visión compartida y una meta estratégica.No existe una combinación mágica de aplicaciones para crear una red VERCON que sea válida para todos los países en desarrollo, pero el proceso tiene lugar con la colaboración de expertos en tecnologías informáticas y las aportaciones constantes de los agricultores para hallar formas creativas y prácticas de aprovechar las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TIC), en particular Internet y las computadoras personales. El Proyecto fue organizado según 38 actividades específicas con un coordinador principal, quien tuvo el apoyo de un equipo pequeño de trabajo. Muy pronto se evidenció que los mecanismos normales para presentar información (informes escritos cada 3 a 6 meses) eran demasiado engorrosos para un proyecto de este tamaño, por lo que se usó la herramienta administrativa DotProject, una plataforma abierta en la cual la información sobre el estatus de las actividades y los informes eran actualizados directamente en línea. La herramienta era protegida con contraseña y estuvo dis-ponible para todos los colaboradores del proyecto y coordinadores de actividades, y hacía posible compartir el conocimiento sobre lo que pasaba en el proyecto.de la gestión de información a la gestión de conocimientosPara compartir información sobre reuniones y actividades del Proyecto se creó una página web interna en Drupal, en la que miembros del Proyecto empezaron a subir informes relevantes, presentaciones en PowerPoint, videos, fotos y gráficos.Por otra parte, para difundir información se diseñó un sitio web con la plataforma Gestionar el conocimiento requiere de disposición institucional al cambio que facilite la transición cultural de concentrar información, a compartir y construir entre socios, algo que demanda un mayor esfuerzo en su etapa inicial; y el uso de herramientas que permitan obtener productos a los que todos pueden acceder, retribuyendo así el esfuerzo inicial con mayor agilidad en el acceso y uso.La descentralización del manejo de la información y de generación de conocimiento en iniciativas donde participan tantos y tan diversos socios, brinda mayor transparencia y reconfigura el concepto de lo público cuando la información y el conocimiento se encuentran disponibles, accesibles y son aplicables a todos.Caso 8 -sGRP abierta Joomla, que se convirtió en una fuente de información técnica sobre gestión de bancos de germoplasma. Luego, otros colegas del proyecto aprovecharon esta plataforma técnica para compartir resultados, eliminando así la necesidad de múltiples y paralelos sitios web. Al inicio, los participantes del proyecto no se dieron cuenta del pleno potencial de este sitio interactivo, pero después de un tiempo se notaron claramente los beneficios que ofrecía, y muchos de los socios empezaron a contribuir activamente al contenido.La disponibilidad de esta gama amplia de información técnica confiable y relevante contribuyó a darle un alto perfil al sitio web y a su crecimiento y expansión continua. Se incorporaron otras herramientas en el sitio (blog, Wikis, foros de discusión, Flickr, Delicious, Google Docs), lo que reflejó la voluntad de pasar del compartir información a la construcción de conocimientos. El éxito del sitio web se debe a algunas personas abanderadas del concepto, quienes se dedicaron a promoverlo y a contribuir al contenido y a la calidad. Esto facilitó la aceptación por parte de otros científicos, quienes también empezaron a contribuir y a visibilizar sus resultados.El proyecto contó con tres mecanismos para el intercambio de conocimientos.1. Asegurar la calidad de la información: los colaboradores acordaban colectivamente y agrupaban la información que luego fue subida, compartida entre pares, revisada y actualizada. 2. Facilitar el acceso: los colaboradores proveían los datos en un formato estándar acordado y los archivos se centralizaron en un repositorio para facilitar el acceso externo. 3. Agregar valor: los socios del Proyecto entregaban información relevante a un sitio web donde era entonces remitida a uno de los Centros para su procesamiento y análisis.Cada uno de estos métodos llenaba las necesidades de los diferentes (y diversos) tipos de información, datos y conocimiento producidos durante el Proyecto.Para evaluar el proyecto se contó con dos equipos externos de evaluación que mejoraron su implementación a mediados del programa y elevaron el impacto de los resultados del Proyecto al final. Para cada período de evaluación se implementó una encuesta de autoevaluación, utilizando Fotografía: RDA, Corea del Sur Survey Monkey para captar las opiniones, críticas y sugerencias de los actores principales del Proyecto. Esta información entonces fue analizada y compartida con todos los miembros, y como resultado se implementaron recomendaciones de mejoramiento. Este proceso fue muy importante en la detección de problemas potenciales y en la temprana toma de acciones para resolverlos y poder concluir exitosamente.La implementación de este grande y complejo Proyecto demostró que no siempre es fácil coordinar el trabajo de numerosas personas y científicos físicamente dispersos, y si bien la importancia del trabajo colaborativo fue positivamente reconocido por los socios, no se debe subestimar el gran esfuerzo y tiempo requeridos para que éste funcione bien. También demostró la importancia de las relaciones personales en la colaboración y cómo éstas pueden influir en el éxito de cualquier proyecto.¡Señaló qué tan importante es la comunicación, la comunicación y la comunicación! Se pueden resolver muchos obstáculos y dificultades cuando está disponible la información y cuando las expectativas para lograr el objetivo común son discutidas abierta y claramente.El Proyecto fortaleció a dos sitios web existentes, haciéndolos más útiles e informativos:1. SINGER un portal del conocimiento sobre las accesiones de germoplasma, administradas por los Centros CGIAR, haciendo más útiles estas colecciones para los investigadores, los cultivadores, los agricultores y los conservacionistas. 2. SGRP provee a los Centros CGIAR un medio flexible para la colaboración en el campo de recursos genéticos, volviéndose un 'paraguas' a nivel del sistema y un mecanismo de comunicación y coordinación para todo el rango de actividades de los recursos genéticos de CGIAR.Igualmente, hizo posible el establecimiento, crecimiento y expansión de un sitio web, base de conocimientos sobre cultivos de recursos genéticos, (Cropgenebank) que provee acceso de fácil uso y en línea a procedimientos técnicos, normas y mejores prácticas para el manejo del germoplasma de cultivos de semilla o las propagadas clonalmente.Fotografía: RDA, Corea del Sur Caso 8 -sGRPEl Proyecto fortaleció la capacidad para la colaboración de trabajo de varios socios, a niveles nunca alcanzados anteriormente. También se fortaleció la capacidad de los socios en la administración de proyectos (la herramienta de administración DotProject, Google Docs, Wikis), en compartir conocimientos e información (páginas web Joomla y Drupal, páginas Wiki, Google Docs, blogs, Delicious, Flickr) y en el uso de herramientas de diseminación más tradicionales (artículos científicos, afiches, folletos, presentaciones verbales, películas cortas, animación con dibujos).Asimismo, enfrentó varios retos:• Los niveles de colaboración e involucramiento dependían mucho de los distintos intereses de los socios, las limitaciones de tiempo y el compromiso personal. • El aprovechamiento de las nuevas herramientas web se demoró por la resistencia de varios científicos. Debido a la falta de conocimiento de la efectividad de las herramientas, les parecían simplemente una manera más complicada para la presentación de los resultados. • Es difícil el monitoreo del uso y la cobertura de las herramientas, porque a pesar del gran número de personas que las utilizó, pocas entregaron retroalimentación.• El Proyecto contaba con numerosos participantes y con un nivel de rota-ción relativamente alto de los actores principales, por lo que los encuentros cara a cara eran de gran importancia para el intercambio de información y para empujar las acciones necesarias por cada uno de los participantes. Todos los medios de comunicación disponibles (email, blogs, wikis, teléfonos, Skype, chats) fueron utilizados para mantener las líneas de comunicación abiertas y suficientemente flexibles de acuerdo con las diversas necesidades y preferencias de los colaboradores y coordinadores de las actividades. Un tiempo asignado al inicio en actividades de lanzamiento y fomento del espíritu del grupo pudo haber reducido algunos retrasos y puede ser considerado para otros proyectos. • Las interdependencias de actividades claves (algunas solo podían proceder con los resultados disponibles de actividades previas) resultaron en demoras inevitables durante los dos primeros años del Proyecto y provocaron un alto volumen de trabajo para poder cumplir con las actividades al final. Al respecto se aprendió que los costos de negociación y del trabajo en conjunto necesitan más esfuerzo a lo largo de todo el proceso y normalmente no son planeados inicialmente; asimismo, aprender las normas básicas del trabajo conjunto toma mayor tiempo. • Un aspecto crucial para el éxito del Proyecto estaba relacionado con las acreditaciones para los productos generados. La acreditación individual e institucional se hizo de la manera más visible y fue actualizada frecuentemente en to-dos los sitios públicos donde se difundió la información. Se hizo mucho énfasis en no publicar información sin la aprobación previa de los colaboradores relevantes. Para cada producto se establecieron acuerdos con los integrantes, cuidando las acreditaciones y derechos del autor de todo el material que fue publicado en línea. La implementación de estas normas facilitó la diseminación de los resultados del proyecto.Una idea común entre muchos científicos es que el último paso en la diseminación de resultados científicos es la publicación de artículos científicos. Sin embargo, este proyecto evidenció la pertinencia de compartir el conocimiento en todo momento, pues esto involucra mucho más que compartir solo los resultados científicos, ya que son las experiencias y prácticas comunes que muchas veces no se escriben, las que brindan mayor aprendizaje.En este sentido, el conocimiento sirve únicamente si se lo puede compartir. Aunque suene demasiado sencillo, el intercambio de conocimiento es algo que debe pasar con más frecuencia, y es un área en la que los científicos deben mejorar. Obviamente, requiere de un tiempo y esfuerzo extra, pero vale la pena al ver que los resultados científicos se vuelven más fáciles de usar, más disponibles y con mayor tendencia de ser adoptados, contribuyendo así a un cambio positivo. La Feria del Conocimiento reunió experiencias relacionadas con el desarrollo rural, principalmente agropecuario, que pueden ser consideradas como una muestra de lo que viene ocurriendo en gestión de conocimiento en América Latina.Como se mencionó en la presentación inicial, durante la Feria se realizaron tres tipos de actividades: exposiciones en stands, presentaciones de casos y talleres de capacitación. Las exposiciones contaron con una participación muy amplia que permitió conocer las experiencias, recoger los materiales producidos, conversar con los expositores y establecer redes de relaciones. En los talleres se compartió conocimiento sobre tecnologías digitales, metodologías de trabajo y conceptos sobre gestión de conocimiento. Las presentaciones de casos permitieron conocer en detalle las experiencias y discutir brevemente con los expositores. Como complemento, en las diferentes actividades informales que rodearon el evento se desarrollaron innumerables conversaciones entre los participantes. El hecho de que los participantes hayan podido cono-cerse y reconocerse como profesionales dedicados a la generación e intercambio del conocimiento ha comenzado a desarrollar un sentimiento de comunidad que, trabajado adecuadamente, puede posibilitar el desarrollo de una red regional ligada a la gestión de conocimiento para el desarrollo (KM4Dev, sus siglas en inglés).Los procesos de intercambio más notables fueron alrededor de tres temas: (1) El uso de tecnologías digitales para el intercambio de conocimientos; (2) el uso de metodologías de intercambio de conocimientos para el enriquecimiento de otras metodologías como el monitoreo y la evaluación, y la sistematización de experiencias de los proyectos; y (3) una exploración inicial de las posibilidades de articulación y aprendizaje social que son ahora viables con las nuevas tecnologías digitales.A su vez, tres necesidades se hicieron claras con la Feria en Cali:1. El escalamiento y la masificación del enfoque de gestión de conocimiento enGestionAr eL Aprender sobre eL hACer, un propósito que debe hACerse expLíCitoLa dimensión de la Feria: Del manejo de tecnologías a la articulación de actores Sebastião Ferreira, Simone Staiger y Camilo Villa los proyectos de investigación y desarrollo, donde el reto más importante en el mundo de la investigación y el desarrollo agrícola se encuentra en contribuir activamente a la apropiación social de los resultados en la investigación y el desarrollo 2. La capacitación en el uso de las tecnologías y metodologías por parte de los profesionales que están trabajando la gestión de conocimiento todavía es una demanda en muchas organizaciones de la región. 3. La articulación de las experiencias regionales con experiencias globales más desarrolladas. Para algunas agencias internacionales como la FAO y el CGIAR, el tema de las tecnologías ya es conocido y por ello secundario; en cambio, para muchas de las organizaciones de América Latina pareciera que la tecnología es aún todo un reto. La Feria, en este sentido, ha contribuido al intercambio entre agencias internacionales e iniciativas nacionales o locales dando la oportunidad de resaltar las fortalezas y necesidades de cada actor; sin embargo, es una actividad que requiere continuidad.Si bien se menciona con alguna frecuencia, no se visualiza muy claramente que el aprendizaje sea un tema central en las distintas intervenciones descritas. Por supuesto éste se da, pero queda la sensación de que promover el aprendizaje no es par-te del mandato de las agendas. Esto puede ser un reflejo de que los aspectos tecnológicos son los que demandan un mayor esfuerzo por parte de las organizaciones en la región; si bien esto explica, no justifica tal rumbo, pues la adopción y el uso de cualquier herramienta tecnológica debería ser el complemento de los propósitos de aprendizaje. Es decir, promover el aprendizaje debería ser un objetivo más central y explícito, y los desarrollos tecnológicos una materialización de dichos propósitos.Las formas de trabajo colaborativo han implicado un reto, no solo por lo que las nuevas tecnologías demandan e implican, sino además porque obligan a un cambio cultural. Pareciera que este cambio no se ha promovido y manejado de manera consciente, sino que se ha dado (e incluso forzado) sobre la práctica. Son los retos y obstáculos que surgen del uso de las tecnologías los que llevan a explorar y a modificar prácticas de relacionamiento, a compartir información y trabajo; como resultado, poco a poco se crean manuales y guías que recogen lo avanzado, pero pareciera que se trabaja más de manera reactiva que proactiva.En síntesis, con base en estas tendencias, nuestras recomendaciones son las siguientes:• Es urgente que el aprendizaje mismo entre a formar parte de las agendas de intervención. Esto implica adquirir y compartir conocimientos sobre prácticas de aprendizaje en la región y en otras latitudes. Los procesos de aprendizaje deben ser parte de las agendas de las agencias de promoción del desarrollo: gestionar el aprender sobre el hacer es un propósito que debe hacerse explícito. • Para la FAO y el CGIAR, el tema de las tecnologías es secundario (ya lo saben); en cambio, para las otras organizaciones participantes es algo por aprender; complementariamente, para estas últimas, la política doméstica y las diferencias culturales son algo sabido, algo que para la FAO y el CGIAR es un reto conocer. En este sentido, sería de utilidad promover más intercambios de conocimientos entre estos dos grupos de organizaciones, para compensar las diferencias mencionadas.Por último, quisiéramos destacar el inmenso valor que esta Feria aportó al desarrollo de una comunidad de gestores del conocimiento en América Latina. El saberse reconocidos, el descubrir que hay pares en otros países contribuyó a avanzar en la creación de una identidad y de nuevos canales de interacción. En este tema, la región pareciera rezagada si se le compara con los países del norte; por ello, toda Fotografía: Clausura de la Feria. Neil Palmer , CIAT acción que permita recuperar, sistematizar y compartir lo que América Latina sabe sobre aprendizaje y gestión de conocimiento conduciría a la región, sin lugar a dudas, a una rápida actualización en la materia.Hoy, el conocimiento se ha convertido en un eje clave en muchas políticas de desarrollo y esto ha ido acompañado de un valioso es-fuerzo en el frente informático y de las TIC en general. Sin embargo, el aprendizaje y la ingeniería social que le acompañan deberían pasar a ser el motor principal para promover el conocimiento y la innovación y no lo contrario, que es lo que hoy sucede; pues el conocimiento por sí solo, sin los adecuados procesos de aprendizaje, es como tener un buen manual que nadie lee ni aprovecha.","tokenCount":"16578"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4fa7cbe675d3ab9dbcfc1bcebf8bbdc1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0e5987eb-c75c-42e5-8c38-9d738c1cece7/retrieve","id":"1667237690"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f1213a2a-e91b-4b1f-85d1-e70236abd3e6","pagecount":"4","content":"oil erosion by water is a major problem in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian highlands have undergone substantial land use/cover changes that have resulted in changes in the hydrological processes of the landscape of the highlands (Tesemma et al., 2010). More surface and subsurface water flow is produced, which, in turn, leads to the creation of gullies that carry off this excess water.Gullies are a major threat to food security by swallowing fertile land, endangering environmental sustainability, and diminishing prospects for water resource development on the Ethiopian highlands (Teshome et al., 2013;Tebebu et al., 2010). In addition to its direct biophysical effects, gully erosion negatively affects the community's social and economic activities (Poessen et al., 2003;Frankl et al., 2011). The soil and water conservation practices so far on the Ethiopian highlands have usually targeted the steep slope areas through a top-down approach (Bewket and Sterk, 2002), not giving enough attention to gullies. For example, the new soil and water conservation campaign initiated by theBiological and physical conservation measures the farmers undertook were check dams from wood and stones placed within the gully. They, then, planted local grass species and 214 Sesbania sesban in a mixed pattern. They also set 50 Ethiopian birr per animal as a fine for anyone who allowed his cattle into the enclosed gully.The amount of sediment deposited in and around the gully was measured using 15 erosion pins installed in the gully and along the right and left sides of the shallow subgullies. Cross-sectional measurements were taken before and after the rainy season on the studied gully and on two other control gullies located near the rehabilitation gully. The measurements were taken on 23 April 2013 and on 3 September 2013.The conservation practice was able to reduce soil loss with the harvest of soil water in the gully. The measurements of cross-sectional change revealed that the cross-section of the studied gully was reduced in depth by 0.68 m and 0.55 m in the lower and middle areas of the gully, respectively. The width of the gully in the lower and middle areas of the gully remained unchanged. On average, the total depth of sediment trapped throughout the gully by both physical and biological conservation was 0. 26 m, and the total amount of soil trapped in one rainy season was approximately 2,300 tons. During the same period, the two non-treated gullies expanded greatly. One gully expanded in length by 23 m, the depth increased by 1.9 m and the width expanded government in 2012 focused only on putting bunds on the hill slopes and cultivated lands. However, gully erosion removed soil with an equivalent depth of 4 cm per year over these highlands (Tilahun et al., 2013;Tebebu et al., 2010).The Birr watershed on the Ethiopian highland is one of the hot spot areas affected by gullies, swallowing agricultural and cultivated land (Ayele et al., 2014). The bottom part of a particular sub-watershed (called Ene-Chilala) in the upper Birr watershed is dominated by active gullies on grazing and cultivated land. However, the communities have been mobilized through a top-down approach to dig deep infiltration furrows in the uplands since 2012. The overall objective of this case story is, therefore, to develop a participatory gully rehabilitation approach incorporating religious leaders and local elders in the Ethiopian highlands. To start the community mobilization process, the researcher first conferred with religious leaders and local elders, and then with local village farmers about the possibility of rehabilitating the gully. by 13 m. Soil loss was estimated at 1,900 tons. The gully that began in 2013 became 19 m long, 0.9 m deep, and 40 m wide with a soil loss of 1,500 tons.The estimated forage yield from 0.7 ha of gully during the rainy season was 8.36 tons. This generated an estimated income of 10,200 Ethiopian birr from grass harvested in one rainy season. Most of the farmers used the grass harvested as feed for their cattle during the dry period. Those who did not have cattle, one male and two female household heads, sold the grass to other farmers for 460 Ethiopian birr each. Farmers as a group were able to negotiate with the Wereda Office of Agriculture to use their mandatory labor contribution for constructing soil and water conservation structures to rehabilitate the gullies.However, this economic benefit resulted in conflict among the communities. The 22 farmers whose land surround the rehabilitated gully were reluctant to share the grass with the other 20 farmers who assisted with rehabilitation activities. In addition, they argued that they had not been allowed to graze their cows on this land as would have been the case if the rehabilitation had not been there and, therefore, demanded a greater share of the benefits. On the day that the 22 farmers began to harvest the grass, the farmers from the other villages stopped them from harvesting additional grass. This conflict was resolved by the elders in the village who eventually made the 22 farmers apologize and sign a promissory note to contribute labor and wood in the next program (2014 rainy period) to rehabilitate a gully in a second village.This conservation practice was advocated to the adjacent villages, the development agents, and the community, and there was an uptake by the general community in the Ene-Chilala area of the Birr watershed. In the 2014 rainy season, communities from different villages of the watershed are taking their own initiatives to rehabilitate five more gullies.The most significant accomplishment of the project was that the rehabilitation process, endorsed by the religious leaders and elders, modified the belief of farmers that God created gullies as a means of punishing them for their wrongful acts. The study showed that it is possible to alter the erosion dynamics of gullies. However, the study also notes that it is essential to address the root causes of the problem to prevent gullies from being formed in the first place.A limitation of the study is that it is based on applied research in only one watershed where the community shares the same religion. It should be applied and tested in other communities with more diverse social backgrounds.The importance of rehabilitating gullies should be advocated to soil conservation experts, development organizations, and policymakers. This form of environmental protection is often neglected. However, it can provide economic benefit to communities, decrease sediment concentration in rivers, and slow down siltation of downstream reservoirs. This case study also showed the value of an approach that addressed a single hot spot erosion area and that communities would replicate the approach once they are convinced of its value. It also showed that farmers can be empowered to negotiate with authorities about the kind of land rehabilitation work they should be doing. Finally, the study found that it was important to involve religious leaders and elders in the process, since the possibility of conflict is significant, especially given that the environmental management initiative results in an economic benefit.","tokenCount":"1154"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"621c83da622490718a4703c4ec27afc6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/29f4be50-d86e-46cd-b0f7-15f4a56909ea/content","id":"-199656829"},"keywords":["DArTseq","genome-wide association study","Pyrenophora tritici-repentis","tan spot","wheat"],"sieverID":"2e1cf44e-3f78-4bad-910f-340788c6388f","pagecount":"15","content":"Tan spot, caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, is a serious foliar disease of wheat in Kazakhstan with reported yield losses as high as 50% during epidemic years. Here, we report the evaluation of a collection of 191 hexaploid spring and winter wheat lines for tan spot resistance and its underlying genetic architecture using genome-wide association study (GWAS). Our wheat collection comprised candidate varieties from Kazakhstan, Russia, and CIMMYT. It was genotyped using the DArTseq technology and phenotyped for resistance to tan spot at seedling and adult plant stages in Kazakhstan. DArTseq SNPs revealed high genetic diversity (average polymorphic information content = 0.33) in the panel and genome-wide linkage disequilibrium decay at 22 Mb (threshold r 2 = 0.1). Principal component analysis revealed a clear separation of Eurasian germplasm from CIMMYT and IWWIP lines. GWAS identified 34 marker-trait associations (MTA) for resistance to tan spot and the amount of phenotypic variation explained by these MTA ranged from 4% to 13.7%. Our results suggest the existence of novel valuable resistant alleles on chromosomes 3BS, and 5DL and 6AL for resistance to Race 1 and Race 5, respectively, in addition to known genes tsn1 and tsc2. On chromosome 6AL, a genomic region spanning 3 Mb was identified conferring resistance to both Race 1 and Race 5. Epistatic interaction of associated loci was revealed on chromosomes 1B, 5B, 7B, 5A, and 6A contributing to additional variation of 3.2-11.7%. Twenty-five lines with the best allele combinations of SNPs associated with resistance to both races have been identified as candidates for future variety release and breeding. The results of the present study will be further validated in other independent genetic backgrounds to be able to use markers in breeding.Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is grown in more than 85 countries with a gross annual production of 761.5 million tons (FAO, 2020). Consumed by more than 40% world population, it is the primary source of calories for millions of people worldwide. Central Asia, including Kazakhstan, plays a significant role in regional and global food security as most of the grain produced is traded in these regions (Morgounov et al., 2014). The total area sown to wheat in Kazakhstan represents over 85% of total cereal production. Tan spot caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Died.) is an economically important disease in most wheatgrowing regions worldwide, including Europe, North and South America, Australia, and Asia (Duveiller et al., 2005). In Central Asia, the disease was discovered in the 1980s in Tajikistan (Khasanov, 1988), and since then, it has spread throughout Central Asia and Kazakhstan (Postnikova and Khasanov, 1998;Lamari et al., 2005;Koyshibaev, 2018). On an average, losses due to tan spot vary from 10% to 15% but may reach up to 50% during epidemic years (Rees et al., 1982;Shabeer and Bockus, 1988). Tan spot reduces total yield, grain weight, number of grains per head, total biomass, and grain quality (Shabeer and Bockus, 1988;Fernandez et al., 1994).Currently, eight races of P. tritici-repentis (PTR) have been identified based on necrosis and chlorosis symptoms induced by host-selective toxins (HST) on a set of differential wheat varieties (Lamari et al., 2003). Races 2, 3, and 5 can be designated as basic races, while Races 1, 6, 7, and 8 are combinations of the three basic races except for Race 4, which is avirulent (Lamari et al., 2003). To date, three host-specific toxins, Ptr ToxA, Ptr ToxB, and Ptr ToxC, of P. tritici-repentis have been identified and well characterized. Ptr ToxA is produced by Races 1, 2, 7, and 8 (Lamari et al., 2003) and associated with necrotic symptoms in Ptr ToxA-sensitive cultivars. Ptr ToxB is produced by Races 5, 6, 7, and 8 and is responsible for the induction of chlorosis in Ptr Tox-B-sensitive cultivars. Both Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB are proteins in nature, while Ptr ToxC (produced by Race 1 and Race 3) is a non-ionic, polar non-protein (Effertz et al., 2002).There are a number of studies conducted on the racial composition of P. tritici-repentis worldwide (Lamari and Bernier, 1989;Ali andFrancl, 2002, 2003;Lamari et al., 2003Lamari et al., , 2005;;Maraite et al., 2006;Gamba et al., 2012;Kokhmetova et al., 2016Kokhmetova et al., , 2017)). The greatest diversity in the pathogen population was observed in Azerbaijan, where Races 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8 were identified, and in Syria, where Races 1, 3, 5, 7, and 8 were observed. Race 1 is the most widespread race in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (87%), and Races 2, 3, and 4 are prevalent infrequently (Maraite et al., 2006). Recently, Race 8 was also found in high frequency in Kazakhstan (Kokhmetova et al., 2016(Kokhmetova et al., , 2017)).The inheritance of resistance to tan spot is both qualitative and quantitative; toxicity resistance genes and quantitative trait loci (QTL) are known (Faris et al., 1996(Faris et al., , 2013;;Gamba and Lamari, 1998;Anderson et al., 1999;Faris and Friesen, 2005;Tadesse et al., 2006a,b;Chu et al., 2008Chu et al., , 2010;;Singh et al., 2008Singh et al., , 2010Singh et al., , 2016;;Li et al., 2011;Hu et al., 2019). Qualitative genes identified through conidial inoculations have been given the designation \"Tsr\" for \"tan spot resistance, \" and genes associated with reaction to HST-containing cultures are designated as \"Tsc\" or \"Tsn\" depending on the necrosis or chlorosis symptom exhibited by the HST (McIntosh et al., 2008). To date, eight major Tsr genes (Tsrl, Tsr2, Tsr3, Tsr4, Tsr5, Tsr6, TsrHar, and TsrAri) located on chromosomes 2BS, 3AS, 3BL, 3DS, and 5BL have been identified (McIntosh et al., 2013). Two Tsc genes (Tsc1 and Tsc2), conferring sensitivity to Ptr ToxC and Ptr ToxB, have been mapped on chromosomes 1AS (Effertz et al., 2002) and 2BS (Friesen and Faris, 2004;Abeysekara et al., 2010), respectively.With the availability of millions of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in almost all crops, genome-wide association study (GWAS) has become a common approach in dissecting genetic architecture of traits and in identifying beneficial alleles for use in marker-assisted selection (Santure and Garant, 2018). In wheat, GWAS has been conducted for several diseases, including resistance to Stagonospora nodorum blotch (Tommasini et al., 2007), stem rust (Bajgain et al., 2016;Elbasyoni et al., 2017), stripe rust (Yu et al., 2011(Yu et al., , 2012;;Sehgal et al., 2016), fusarium head blight (Miedaner et al., 2011), and Septoria tritici blotch (Gerard et al., 2017). GWAS studies for tan spot resistance have led to significant advances in the identification of loci on chromosomes 2B, 3B, 4A, 6B, 6A, and 7B (Gurung et al., 2011;Patel et al., 2013;Kollers et al., 2014;Singh et al., 2016;Hu et al., 2019). However, hitherto, the genetic basis of tan spot resistance in wheat germplasm from Kazakhstan has not been yet investigated. Our objectives were therefore (1) to evaluate a Kazakhstan collection of winter and spring wheat cultivars/breeding lines for tan spot resistance, (2) to identify genetic loci associated with tan spot resistance via GWAS, (3) to explore gene-by-gene interactions among significant genetic loci, and ( 4) to identify best combinations of alleles and lines for future phenotyping trials and breeding.A total of 191 spring and winter hexaploid wheat accessions (Triticum aestivum L.) were evaluated in this study.  1). The collection comprised important wheat genotypes that have been widely used as parental lines in breeding programs across the Kazakhstan and Central Asian countries. The 111 cultivars from Kazakhstan included in the collection were chosen based on their contrasting phenotypic expression for traits of agronomic and disease resistance. Three differential lines, cultivar \"Glenlea\" carrying the Tsc1 gene, line \"6B662\" carrying Tsc2, and cultivar Salamouni resistant to all known races and insensitive to toxins Ptr ToxA, Ptr ToxB, and Ptr ToxC were included as checks.The isolates Pti2 and DW7 used in this study were previously obtained from bread wheat (T. aestivum L.) and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf), respectively, and stored as dried mycelial plugs at −20 • C (Jordahl and Francl, 1992). The isolate Pti2 was from spring wheat and the isolate DW7 was collected from a durum wheat field in North Dakota (Ali and Francl, 2003), and they were used for inoculum production in this study. The inoculum and inoculations were carried out as described in Ali and Francl (2001). To prepare the inoculum, a single mycelial plug (0.5 cm in diameter) was placed on V8PDA (150 ml of V8 juice, 10 g of Difco PDA, 10 g of Difco agar, 3 g of calcium carbonate, and 850 ml of sterile distilled water) (Lamari and Bernier, 1989) in 9-cm petri plates. After placing the mycelia plug of both isolates individually in petri plates, the plates were wrapped with aluminum foil and incubated at 21 • C for 5 days. Thereafter, the petri plates were filled with sterilized distilled water, and hyphal growth was knocked down with a flamedsterilized glass test tube. After suppressing the hyphae, excess water was removed from the plates, and then they were incubated in an alternate cycle of 24 h light at 22 • C and 24 h dark at 16 • C to induce conidiophores and conidia. The conidia were dislodged with an inoculating loop wired needle. The conidial suspension was obtained by adding 30 ml of distilled sterile water in each plate, and conidia were dislodged with a looped wire needle. The conidial suspension was adjusted to 3,000 spores/ml using the hemocytometer. One drop of Tween 20 was added/100 ml of conidial suspension before inoculation. Inoculated seedlings were moved to a mist chamber at 21 • C with a 16-h photoperiod for 24 h to enhance the chances of infection. The chamber was misted for 16 s at 3-min intervals to keep 100% RH. The plants then were moved to a growth chamber at 22 • C.Seedlings of all 191 wheat accessions were raised in containers (3.8 cm in diameter and 20 cm long) as described in Ali and Francl (2001). For each race of P. tritici-repentis (Races 1 and 5), separate experiments were conducted in the growth chamber. Three seeds were planted in a plastic container (Stuewe & Sons, Inc., OR) filled with Sunshine Mix #1 (Fison Horticulture, Vancouver, BC, Canada). All containers were placed in 96-slot racks to hold them straight. Each container was considered as an experimental unit, and each single plant in a container with three seedlings served as an entry. All entries were arranged in a randomized complete design with three replications. Thus, nine seedlings of each genotype were evaluated individually at the two-leaf stage against Race 1 (isolate Pti2) and Race 5 (isolate DW7). In each experiment, replications were treated as random effect and the wheat accessions as fixed effects. All experiments were conducted in growth chambers at South Dakota State University (SDSU), Brookings, SD, in 2015. Seedlings were rated 8 days post-inoculation using the rating scale 1-5 (Lamari and Bernier, 1989) where 1-2 is resistant to moderately resistant, 3 is moderately susceptible, and 4-5 is susceptible. BLUE (best linear unbiased estimators) across replications were calculated in META-R (Vargas et al., 2013).The 191 wheat entries and three checks were tested for their reaction to purified toxins Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB at a concentration of 10 µg/ml. Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB were kindly provided by Dr. Steven Meinhardt, North Dakota State University, Fargo, and Dr. Timothy Friesen, USDA, Fargo, ND. Four leaves (second leaf fully expanded), of each genotype were infiltrated as described by Faris et al. (1996) with pure Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB culture filtrates separately. After infiltration, the plants were kept in a growth chamber at 21 • C during the day and 18 • C at night with 16 h photoperiod in the growth chamber. Leaves evaluated 4 days post infiltration and scored as insensitive (−) or sensitive (+). This experiment was repeated twice. Wheat genotypes \"Glenlea\" (ToxA sensitive), \"6B662\" (ToxB sensitive), and \"Salamouni\" (ToxA and ToxB insensitive) were also included in the experiment to verify the results and toxin viability (Ali and Francl, 2003;Lamari et al., 2003).The experimental material was phenotyped at the Kazakh Research Institute of Agriculture and Plant Growing (KRIAPG), Almalybak (43 • 13 09 N, 76 • 36 17 E) in Southeast Kazakhstan, Almaty region, during the 2016 to 2018 cropping seasons. Experiments were conducted as a completely randomized design with three replicates. Individual plot size was 1 m 2 . Fertilizer treatments, 60 and 30 kg/ha of N and P 2 O 5 , respectively, and other management practices were corresponded to those normally recommended for the region (Dospekhov, 1985).Experiments were planted in mid-September and were harvested in mid-August the following year for 3 years. The weather conditions at Almalybak were characterized annually by over 400 mm of rainfall. The irrigated foothill zone, where KRIAPG is located, is a relatively high moistured location; the experimental wheat materials were irrigated thrice during the growing season and were kept free from weeds.The field evaluation was carried out under natural epidemic conditions in 2016 and 2017, whereas in 2018, it was carried out under natural conditions as well as using artificial inoculation. Ten Flag-1 leaves were evaluated for each disease assessment of genotypes. The disease was assessed three times. The experiments on an artificial infectious background were made with naturally infected straw stubbles. In October, before sowing, the infected straw (1 kg/m 2 ) was incorporated into the soil. For evaluation of field response, disease severities were assessed on first leaves and flag leaves in GS 65-69, Zadoks scale (Zadoks et al., 1974). The percentage of Ptr-infected leaf area was determined on each leaf, and the average value for all evaluated leaves was calculated for each wheat entry in order to determine the PTR score. A rating system based on% leaf area infected developed for appraising the foliar intensity of diseases (Kremneva and Volkova, 2007) was used to categorize host reaction to P. triticirepentis. This scale of disease severity was rated numerically based on% necrotic or chlorotic area as follows: 0-10%-resistant (R), 11-20%-moderately resistant (MR), 21-30%-moderately susceptible (MS), and 31-100%-susceptible (S). The standard wheat differentials included \"Glenlea\" (susceptible check) and \"Salamouni\" (resistant check) and were included in the field trials. Plant height (PH) was recorded in centimeters from the soil surface to the tip of the spike of 10-15 plants per plot in GS 90-99. Days to heading (DH) were recorded as the number of days from planting to the 50% spike emergence in GS 49-50 (Zadoks et al., 1974).Analysis of phenotypic resistance ratings to tan spot based on the area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) was performed. AUDPC was calculated annually by summarizing the progress of disease severity. AUDPC values from double digit and AUDPC from flag leaf (F) and penultimate leaf (F-1) were separately calculated by using the following formula described by Das et al. (1992). ANOVA analyses of phenotypic data was done using linear mixed effect model with package lme4 in R using replications as fixed effect and entries as random effect. The package reshape was used to transform the data for ANOVA analysis. Broad-sense-heritability was estimated using the formula: h 2 = V g /(V g + V err /r), where V g is the genotypic variance, V err is the error variance, and r = the number of replications.Genomic DNA was extracted from fresh leaves collected from a single individual plant using a modified CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide) method described in the CIMMYT laboratory protocols (Dreisigacker et al., 2012(Dreisigacker et al., , 2016) ) and quantified using a NanoDrop 8000 spectrophotometer V 2.1.0. Genotyping was performed using the DArTseq TM technology provided by the Genetic Analysis and Service for Agriculture (SAGA) laboratory in Mexico. Briefly, the genotypes were sequenced at 192-plexing on Illumina HiSeq2500 with 1 × 77-bp reads. A proprietary analytical pipeline developed by DArT P/L was used to generate allele calls for SNP and presence/absence variation (PAV) markers (Sansaloni et al., 2011). A 100K consensus map provided by SAGA was used to obtain genetic positions of the SNPs (Sansaloni et al. unpublished). To obtain physical positions of SNPs, sequence reads of the SNPs were blasted to the reference genome of RefSeq V1.0 in the Ensemble Plants database 1 .Polymorphic information content (PIC) (Botstein et al., 1980) was calculated to characterize the genetic diversity of the panel using PowerMarker version 3.25 (Liu and Muse, 2005). Population structure was investigated by principal component analysis (PCA) using the STATS package in R and using STRUCTURE v 2.3.4 (Pritchard et al., 2000). The STRUCTURE program was run by setting replication number to 50,000 for the burn-in and the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) periods. K values were run from 1 to 7 using \"admixture\" and \"correlated allele frequency\" models. The correct estimation of K was provided by an ad hoc statistic delta K, calculated using the program STRUCTURE HARVESTER 2 . A weighted neighbor joining tree was constructed in DARwin version 6.0 3 . GAPIT v. 2.0 (Lipka et al., 2012) was used to obtain squared correlation coefficient (r 2 ), a measure of linkage disequilibrium (LD), for all pairwise comparisons among markers. Pattern of LD decay was visualized in individual subpopulations and in the 1 https://plants.ensembl.org/Triticum_aestivum/Info/Index 2 http://taylor0.biology.ucla.edu/structureHarvester/ 3 https://darwin.cirad.fr/product.php whole panel by plotting pair-wise r 2 values against the physical distance. A smooth line was fit to the data using second-degree locally weighted scatterplot smoothing, LOESS (Breseghello and Sorrells, 2006) as implemented in SAS. For the LOESS estimation of LD decay, genetic distance was estimated as the point where the LOESS curve first crosses the baseline r 2 of 0.1.The BLUE and average scores for disease severity at seedling stage and AUDPC values at adult plant stage in the field were used for conducting GWAS. To map Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB resistance loci, all insensitive genotypes were scored as 1 and all sensitive genotypes as 5, and the average of the two scores was used for GWAS. VanRaden algorithm (VanRaden, 2008) was used to calculate the kinship matrix in the GAPIT package vs. 2.0 (Lipka et al., 2012). GWAS was conducted in the TASSEL software vs. 5 (Bradbury et al., 2007). A mixed linear model (MLM) was applied in which PCA was a fixed variate (first three PCs) and kinship as random. A false-discovery rate (FDR) was used to assess the significance of the p value (<0.05). The allelic effect of significant marker-trait associations was estimated as the difference between the mean value of lines with and without favorable allele and was presented as box plots. A second GWAS analysis was conducted in which we included 8,947 unmapped markers along with a filtered set of markers. Interestingly, eight unmapped markers crossed the FDR threshold, but these showed very low R 2 values, ranging from 2.2 to 3.1%. We have not shown these results.Two-and three-locus epistatic interactions among associated SNPs and among genome-wide SNPs were explored using a custom-made in-house script described in Sehgal et al. (2017). Briefly, a stepwise multiple regression was performed using a linear regression model to calculate P values for pairwise marker interactions. A threshold of P < 0.0001 was used to declare significant marker-marker interactions. The parameter R 2 was used to describe percentage variation explained by the significant interactions. The interactions showing percentage variation <10% were discarded from the output.Uniform and consistent tan spot development was observed in the seedling evaluation in growth chambers. ANOVA showed significant differences among genotypes (P < 0.001) for the reaction scores to both races (Supplementary Table 2). The checks Glenlea and 6B662 developed necrosis and chlorosis to Race 1 and Race 5, respectively, and verified the Race identity and the success of inoculation. Salamouni did not develop any symptoms and exhibited resistant reaction. Salamouni and Glenlea showed scores of 1.0 and 4.5 for Race 1, whereas for Race 5, Salamouni and 6B-662 showed scores of 1.1 and 4.3.Of the 191 genotypes, 50 genotypes (26.2%) revealed a disease score of less than 2 and were considered resistant to Race 1, whereas 130 wheat accessions (68.6%) were resistant to Race 5 (Figure 1A). Sixty-two accessions showed resistance against both races.One hundred thirty-two genotypes (69.1%) showed no symptoms of necrosis and were determined to be Ptr ToxA insensitive, while the remaining 59 genotypes (30.9%) were scored as sensitive (Figure 1B). Salamouni and Glenlea exhibited insensitive and sensitive reactions to Ptr ToxA, respectively. Ptr ToxA sensitivity was associated with disease susceptibility in field conditions in all years (Pearson's correlation r = 0.22 to 0.38, P < 0.001).For Ptr ToxB, Salamouni and 6B-662 exhibited insensitive and sensitive reactions, respectively. Twelve genotypes (6.3%) exhibited chlorosis in the toxin-infiltrated leaf area and were rated to be Ptr ToxB sensitive. The remaining 93.7% (179) did not develop chlorosis symptoms and were rated as Ptr ToxB insensitive (Figure 1B). The correlation of Ptr Tox B sensitivity with disease susceptibility in the field was not significant (r = 0.03-0.11, P = 0.3029).Of the three field experiments conducted in 2016, 2017, and 2018 under natural epidemic conditions, the disease pressure was minimum in 2017, and more than 95% of lines were resistant. Hence, phenotypic data from 2017 was not used for any further analysis, i.e., calculating AUDPC scores or GWAS. There were significant (P < 0.001) differences for tan spot response in the field in 2016 and 2018 (under both natural conditions and under artificial inoculation in 2018). Days to heading (DH) and plant height (PH) also showed significant variation (P < 0.001) (Supplementary Table 3). Field severity of tan spot varied between three experiments (2016-2018). The disease severity was generally higher under artificial inoculation conditions (2018_infect) than under natural inoculum conditions in 2016 and 2018. The number of accessions in each reaction class across three experiments is presented in Figure 2. On an average, 9, 27, 44, and 25% of genotypes were resistant (R), moderately resistant (MR), moderately susceptible (MS) and susceptible (S) in the field. Under artificial inoculation conditions in 2018 (2018_infect), the number of accessions in class S increased to 73%. Six genotypes, i.e., Tungysh, JAC161/TEMU51.80, TOO11/TOOOO7, SOMO/SORA/ACTS5, NANJING 82149/KAUZ, and ALTAR 84/AE. SQUARROSA exhibited the highest level of resistance. A significant number of wheat entries from CIMMYT (13%) demonstrated high or moderate level of resistance. Correlation of days to heading and plant height with AUDPC scores was not significant in all field seasons (Supplementary Table 4).Comparison of the phenotypic data under field conditions with the green house experiment showed that out of 69 entries that showed R and MR response in field, 31 and 62 genotypes had disease scores less than 2 for Race 1 and Race 5, respectively.A total of 40,429 SNPs were obtained across the 191 genotypes after allele calling. Of these, 10,186 markers with missing data >20% and 8,947 unmapped markers were removed from the dataset. Further, markers with minor allele frequency (MAF) <0.05 and >0.95 were culled. Three lines, CATBIRD, BR35/BR14, and KR12-5001, showing more than 25% missing data were also culled, and a final filtered set of 8,154 SNPs on 187 lines was utilized for further analyses. Marker distribution on the 21 wheat chromosomes, PIC, and LD statistics are shown in Table 1. The least number of markers were distributed on the D genome (11.2%). The highest numbers of markers were found on chromosome 2B (870; 10.7%), followed by chromosome 5B (769; 9.4%) and 3B (762; 8.1%) (Table 1).The average PIC for the 8,154 SNPs was 0.33. Comparison of the average PIC of winter versus spring wheat lines showed that diversity was lower in winter wheat (0.38) compared to spring wheat germplasm (0.41).  Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed three broad groups in the panel, and the first three principal components explained 11.8, 9.9, and 5.5% of the genetic variation, respectively (Figure 3A). Groups 1 and 2 containing Eurasian germplasm with winter and spring wheat lines, respectively, were separated from the group of lines developed by the CIMMYT and CIMMYT-ICARDA-IWWIP program (Group 3). The weighted neighbor-joining (NJ) dendrogram confirmed the three groups obtained in PCA (Figure 3B). Further K vs. K plot, based on results obtained in Bayesian model-based STRUCTURE analysis, showed the highest likelihood at K = 3 (Figure 3C). At K = 3, the three subpopulations corresponded with both PCA and NJ-based groups (Figure 3D).The average LD was highest in the D genome (0.42) and was higher compared to A (0.35) and B (0.34) genomes. Genome-wide LD decay patterns were investigated in the three subpopulations individually and in the whole panel (Supplementary Figure 1). The results revealed that LD decay was faster in the CIMMYT and IWWIP germplasm, i.e., Group 3 (18 Mb at cut off r 2 = 0.1) compared to Eurasian lines (30 and 25 Mb in groups 1 and 2, respectively). The LD decayed at 22 Mb in the whole panel (Supplementary Figure 1D).Ten SNPs on chromosomes 1B (3), 3B (1), 4B (1), 5A (1), 5B (1), 6A (1), and 7B (2) were associated with resistance to Race 1 of P. tritici-repentis with 7.3-10.5% variation explained (Table 2 and Supplementary Figures 2A,B). The phenotypic mean difference between the alleles for the significant SNPs ranged from 0.2 to 1.3. The SNP identified on chromosome 6A with clone ID 1004240 showed the strongest allele effect followed by SNPs on chromosomes 4B (ID 3958510) and 3B (ID 1147153). Favorable alleles at these loci were present in 5-9% frequencies. For Race 5, three genomic regions on chromosomes 5A, 5D, and 6A were identified to be associated with percentage variation from 6.8 to 8.0% (Table 2 and Supplementary Figures 2C,D). Compared to associations identified for Race 1, markers associated with Race 5 showed lower phenotypic mean differences between alleles. Interestingly, the genomic region spanning 3 Mb on chromosome 6AL was identified to be associated with resistances to both races, Race 1 and Race 5. This indicates the importance of chromosome 6AL in imparting race-specific resistance to P. tritici-repentis. In silico analysis of the genomic region identified on chromosome 6A revealed two candidate gene hits, TraesCS6A02G37880 and TraesCS6A02G384600 with SNPs 1004240 and 1862737, respectively, both with oxidoreductase activity. Oxidoreductase family proteins are known as important components of pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity via production of reactive oxygen species in response to pathogen attack (Heiser and Elstner, 2002). Of the two candidate genes, TraesCS6A02G384600 has been investigated for expression analysis (Expression Atlas 4 ), and it is known to express in outer pericarp layer of developing grain.Allelic effects of important associations identified for resistance to Races 1 and 5 are shown in Figure 4. Twenty-five tan spot resistant lines have been identified with different allelic combinations for seedling resistance to Race 1 and Race 5 (Supplementary Table 5).Four MTA were identified associated with insensitivity to Ptr ToxA on chromosomes 2B (1) and 5B (3) with percentage variation explained by them ranging from 7.0 to 13.7% (Table 2). The phenotypic mean difference between the alleles for the three significant SNPs on chromosome 5B ranged from 1.0 to 2.4, whereas for the SNP on chromosome 2B, the allelic difference in alleles was 0.6. For insensitivity to Ptr ToxB, important loci were identified on chromosomes 2A (1), 2B (2), 3A (1), 3B (1), and 4B (1) with percentage variation from 7.2 to 10.6%. The QTL identified on chromosome 2B related to SNPs 1095982 and 1065699 had the strongest allelic effect among all (Table 2).Analysis of AUDPC for two seasons (2016 and 2018) under natural epidemic conditions revealed eight associations on chromosomes 1B (1), 2B (4), 3B (1), 4A (1), and 6B (1) (Table 3). On chromosome 2B, four MTA were identified, which were delineated into two QTL, one between 18.5 and 28.0 cM associated with 2018 AUDPC scores and the second between 86.5 and 89.8 cM associated with 2016 AUDPC scores. The second QTL located 86.5-89.8 cM explained higher (8.7-11.9%) percentage variation compared to the other 2BS QTL (4.0-7.3%). In addition, the association identified on 1B also explained high percentage variation (11.6%). Under artificial  inoculation conditions in 2018, two associations were identified on chromosomes 3A (1) and 5B (1), both explaining moderate percentage variation. QQ plots for all traits investigated by GWAS are shown in Supplementary Figure 3.Two-and three-locus interactions were estimated among associated loci, and among associated and genome wide loci (Figure 5, Supplementary Table 6, and Supplementary Figures 4-6). For Race 1 and Race 5, associated loci showed epistatic interactions among them with R 2 explained from 10.7 to 18.7% for Race 1 and 16.0-21.1% for Race 5, respectively (Figure 5). The R 2 explained by marker combinations was higher than individual markers for both Race 1 and Race 5. Further, the three-marker combination resulted in the highest additive interactions explained by R 2 of 18.7 and 21.1% for Race 1 and Race 5, respectively. For other traits, no significant interactions were observed among associated loci. However, significant interactions among unassociated genome-wide markers were observed for  all traits except insensitivity to Ptr ToxB (Supplementary Figures 4-6).Tan spot, caused by P. tritici-repentis, is a serious foliar disease affecting wheat production in Kazakhstan, especially in the northern region of the country where farmers lose anywhere from 10% to as much as 50% of their crop due to this disease (Koyshibaev, 2018). It has been predicted that outbreaks of this disease in Kazakhstan are likely to increase in severity and frequency due to an increase in mean annual temperatures and altered precipitation patterns (Salnikov et al., 2015). Characterization of the current germplasm for resistance to prominent races of the pathogen in Kazakhstan has therefore become more imperative than ever before (Kokhmetova et al., 2018(Kokhmetova et al., , 2019)). Here, we evaluated registered cultivars and lines from Kazakhstan and Russia representing promising spring and winter wheat germplasm along with lines released by the CIMMYT and CIMMYT-ICARDA-IWWIP program.Most wheat entries evaluated in the study showed a susceptible response to Race 1 (72.6%), whereas for Race 5, 67.5% of lines were resistant. It is a common observation in most germplasm collections (Liu et al., 2015;Halder et al., 2019), and our results reinforce that finding resistance against Ptr Race 1 is very challenging compared to other races. Race 1 is the most prevalent worldwide (Ali and Francl, 2003;Abdullah et al., 2017) and is reported to contain the virulence of Races 2 and 3, making it more aggressive than other races (Lamari et al., 2003). Nevertheless, 25 lines (13%) resistant to both races (Race 1 and Race 5) have been identified in the present study. Regarding toxin sensitivities of the genotypes, a low but positive correlation was observed between Ptr ToxA sensitivity of the genotypes and disease susceptibility in the field, which is in contrast with the observations made by Friesen et al. (2003); Faris and Friesen (2005), Noriel et al. (2011), andHalder et al. (2019). We did not obtain any significant correlations between days to heading and plant height with Ptr resistance in field, suggesting that none of these phenological traits significantly affected tan spot resistance in the germplasm investigated. Li et al. (2011) and Pandey et al. (2018) obtained similar results, i.e., no association of tan spot resistance with phenological traits. Many previous studies have detected a negative correlation between heading date or plant height with disease resistance (Srinivasachary et al., 2009;Mao et al., 2010;Kollers et al., 2013a,b), including tan spot resistance (Kollers et al., 2014). The broad sense heritability (h2) estimates for tan spot across years and different infectious background were high (from 0.83 to 0.91) indicating that resistance to tan spot can be improved by selection (Supplementary Table 3). Similar heritability estimates for tan spot disease reaction have been reported by Singh et al. (2016Singh et al. ( , 2019)). Heritability ranged from 0.70 to 0.96 for DH and was 0.98 for PH in different years. Jamil et al. (2019) reported heritability estimates for these traits in a similar range.The mean PIC of the panel based on 8,154 SNPs was 0.33, which is in the same range as observed recently in wheat cultivars from China (Gao et al., 2016) and higher than those obtained in United States wheat cultivars (Chao et al., 2009(Chao et al., , 2010) ) or other germplasm sets (Somers et al., 2007;Alemu et al., 2020). The higher diversity can be explained by the diverse origin of the lines included in the panel such as those from CIMMYT. CIMMYT germplasm has shown substantial genetic diversity in previous studies (Dreisigacker et al., 2005;Reif et al., 2005;Warburton et al., 2006;Sehgal et al., 2015). Population structure through PCA, NJ, and STRUCTURE analyses of the panel revealed a clear distinction of spring and winter wheat types from Kazakhstan. Chao et al. (2010) also obtained distinct groups of spring and winter wheat from the US. A third group of spring and winter wheat was exclusive to lines released by the CIMMYT and IWWIP program, thus clearly separating CIMMYT germplasm from Eurasian lines. The panel, therefore, shows a moderate population structure along with high diversity rendering it fit for trait dissection using the GWAS approach.The pattern of LD across the three genomes revealed the highest LD in the D genome followed by the A and B genomes. This pattern is common in wheat and reflects the recombination history of the three genomes and population bottleneck accompanying the origin of hexaploid wheat (Akhunov et al., 2010;Chao et al., 2010). Genome-wide LD decay was observed at 22 Mb in the whole panel, which is in the same range as reported recently in a CIMMYT spring wheat collection (Jamil et al., 2019) and in a composite collection made of CIMMYT and South Asian genotypes (Phuke et al., 2020). It was not possible to compare the LD decay of the panel with other germplasms because LD decay has been reported as a measure of genetic distance (in cM) in previous studies (Somers et al., 2007;Benson et al., 2012;Chen et al., 2012;Würschum et al., 2013;Edae et al., 2014;Zegeye et al., 2014;Sehgal et al., 2017;Erginbas-Orakci et al., 2018). A comparison of LD decay among three subpopulations of the present study revealed a faster decay in the subpopulation composed by CIMMYT and IWWIP lines compared to the two subpopulations of Eurasian lines, which is attributed to higher diversity of CIMMYT and IWWIP germplasm vis-à-vis Eurasian germplasm. Breeders at CIMMYT have successfully broadened the genetic diversity of the elite germplasm through incorporation of primary synthetics into the breeding programs and consistent introductions of additional materials from all over the world (Sehgal et al., 2015). Similarly, the pedigree of IWWIP lines incorporates diverse CIMMYT parents and a wide range of genetically un-related winter wheat from Turkey and Iran, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and United States winter wheat.Genome-wide association study identified a total of 34 MTA for tan spot resistance. Of all the MTA identified for seedling resistance to Races 1 and 5, the genomic region on chromosome 6AL showed the biggest phenotypic effect. In fact, two MTA were identified within a 3-Mb genomic region on 6AL for resistance to both Race 1 (Clone ID 1004240) and 5 (Clone ID 1862737) (Table 2). The favorable allele of the SNP with Clone ID 1004240 was predominantly present in CIMMYT lines and three Kazakhstani winter wheat types (Naz/GF55-5, 428 g/MK-122A-2 and Almaly/Obri), while the favorable allele of the SNP with Clone ID 1862737 was predominant in Kazakhstani winter and spring wheat lines. Singh et al. (2016) reported two QTL on 6AL (6AL 1 and 6AL 2 ) for tan spot resistance in CIMMYT germplasm for resistance to Race 1, and the SNP with clone ID 1004240 represents 6AL 2 QTL. The allelic effect obtained by this SNP is, however, three times larger than reported by Singh et al. (2016). The second marker on chromosome 6AL (Clone ID 1862737) represents a novel QTL for resistance to Race 5 because the only QTL reported on 6A for resistance to Race 5 (Gurung et al., 2014) is on 6AS. For resistance to Race 1, MTA on chromosomes 4BS and 3BS also showed strong effects. Halder et al. (2019) recently reported a novel QTL on 4BS for resistance to Race 1 in the United Kingdom Watkins core collection, and the associated marker identified here on chromosome 4BS corresponds to this QTL. No gene or QTL has so far been reported on chromosome 3BS for resistance to Race 1. Hence, MTA obtained on chromosome 3BS is likely to be novel.The collection investigated was comprised of 12% spring wheat lines distributed by CIMMYT and evaluated to be resistant to both Septoria tritici blotch and tan spot. In CIMMYT's germplasm, a large QTL on chromosome 1BS (∼19 cM based on consensus map and ∼130 Mb based on physical position) has contributed significantly for resistance to Race 1, which was suggested due to the 1B.1R translocation harboring several resistance genes including Lr26, Yr9, Sr31, Pm8, and others (Singh et al., 2016;Juliana et al., 2018). The three MTA identified here on chromosome 1BS covered ∼5 Mb on reference genome and were in the middle of 1BS QTL. Similarly, MTA identified on other chromosomes for resistance to Race 1 and Race 5 coincided with known QTL except the one on chromosome 5DL for resistance to Race 5 (Faris et al., 2013;Singh et al., 2016;Hu et al., 2019). The only reported QTL on chromosome 5DL is for resistance to Race 1 (Faris et al., 2012). Therefore, the associated marker identified on chromosome 5DL for resistance to Race 5 represents a new QTL.Isolates of Race 1 and Race 5 are known to produce toxins Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB, respectively. Qualitative resistance in the host has been reported to be manifested by two toxin insensitivity genes on chromosomes 5BL (tsn1) and 2BS (tsc2), conferring resistance against Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB, respectively (Singh et al., 2010;Faris et al., 2013). We obtained three MTA on chromosome 5BL associated with insensitivity to Ptr Tox A, which were within the same genomic region as the tsn1 gene (Faris et al., 2010). Of the three, two SNPs (Clone ID 3955588 and 1128605) had higher allelic effects on toxin insensitivity compared to the third SNP (Clone ID 1138872). An additional locus for insensitivity to Ptr ToxA was identified on chromosome 2BS, which coincided with previous QTL reported for resistance to Race 1 (Gurung et al., 2014). For insensitivity to Ptr ToxB, important associations were obtained on chromosomes 2AS, 2BS, 3AS, 3BL, and 4AL. Of all associations, two SNPs (clone IDs 1095982 and 1065699) on 2BS showed the strongest allelic effect and were in the same genomic region as the cataloged tsc2 gene. The SNP on chromosome 2AS was the second most important genomic region with a strong allelic effect on insensitivity to Ptr ToxB. Previous studies till date have reported only minor effect QTLs on 2AS for insensitivity to Ptr Tox B and/or resistance to Race 5 (Friesen and Faris, 2004;Chu et al., 2008). On chromosome 3AS, tsr4 has been mapped, and the associated marker obtained here on chromosome 3AS is around 70 cM from tsr4 locus and hence unlikely to be in the location of tsr4 gene. The known genes on chromosome 3BL are tsn2 and tsn5 that confer resistance to the necrosis induced by Race 3 and Race 5, respectively (Singh et al., 2008). The locus obtained on chromosome 3BL is of moderate effect and corresponds to minor QTL reported by Faris and Friesen (2005) and Chu et al. (2010) on the same chromosome. The locus identified on chromosome 4AL also represents another minor effect QTL as also previously reported for resistance to Race 5 (Friesen and Faris, 2004).Regarding MTA identified for AUDPC scores, most associations except the one on chromosome 3AL were identified within 2-3 Mb genomic region of the markers associated with seedling resistance to Races 1 and 5 or insensitivities to toxins Ptr ToxA and Ptr ToxB in the present study, thus confirming to be major genes (tsn 1, tsc2). Three associations on chromosomes 2BS, 4AL, and 6BS overlap with minor QTL reported for tan spot resistance in previous studies (Gurung et al., 2011;Halder et al., 2019). The QTL found on chromosome 3AL is likely new for adult plant resistance, which was identified only at adult plant stage in the present study.The role of epistasis in the genetic architecture of disease resistance has been investigated for stem rust resistance and stripe rust resistance in wheat using both biparental and GWAS designs (Kolmer et al., 2011;Yu et al., 2011). However, investigations on the contribution of epistatic interactions to the genetic architecture of tan spot resistance have been rarely investigated (Singh et al., 2019). Singh et al. (2019) revealed epistatic interactions between QTL on chromosomes 1B and 5B and between QTL on chromosomes 1A and 6A for seedling resistance to Race 1 in a biparental population, however, with small effects. We confirm significant epistatic interactions between associated loci on chromosomes 1B and 5B in the present study with even larger percentage variation explained (up to 18.7%). In addition, we obtained significantly higher interactions between associated loci on chromosomes 1B and 7B with a percent variation explained as large as 14.1% for resistance to Race 1. The associated locus on 7B (SNP 1081730) was also involved in genome-wide interactions with other loci on chromosomes 7A, 2D, and 3B, and contributed to additional 4% variation. For seedling resistance to Race 5, associated loci on chromosomes 5A, 5D, and 6A contributed to additive epistatic interactions of 21.1%. These results indicated that both additive and epistatic effects are important for tan spot resistance to both races, Race 1 and Race 5. The results also suggest that three marker combinations identified for resistance to Race 1 and Race 5 can be used efficiently in marker-assisted selection.Our results suggest the existence of valuable resistant alleles on chromosomes 3AS, 3AL, 3BS, and 6AL for tan spot resistance in the investigated germplasm in addition to known genes tsn1 and tsc2. The study therefore confirms that resistance to tan spot in the collection is attributed to both the known toxin insensitivity genes with major effects as well as broadspectrum and race-non-specific genes, which have minor effects. Twenty-five tan spot-resistant lines have been identified with different allelic combinations for resistance to Race 1 and Race 5 for future variety release. The candidate genes identified on 6A are important targets for future validation studies for tan spot resistance.","tokenCount":"6992"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8af4a980c340b9e86961e876a87ffd5b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/51ef9969-ef82-4dab-81e9-9e95b5a426ee/retrieve","id":"-323711356"},"keywords":["Farmer evaluations","Participatory research","Crop traits","Varietal selection","Literature review","Roots","Tubers","Bananas","Trait prioritisation"],"sieverID":"a3be8b4f-820e-4348-ace9-f57c25fc15f5","pagecount":"17","content":"User-oriented research is important in breeding improved genotypes, for developing and validating product concepts (mostly involving trait prioritisation), as well as evaluating breeding products in use situations (mostly involving participatory variety evaluation). This paper examines key aspects that enable cumulative learning in user-oriented research for root, tuber and banana (RTB) crop breeding. We reviewed empirical user-oriented studies on RTB crops published between 1996 and 2020. We examined the ability of user-oriented research to foster cumulative learning by examining four key aspects: spatial and temporal coverage; gender aspects; the range of traits considered and publishing practices as evident in reports and datasets. We conclude that user-oriented studies have received attention in RTB breeding but fall short of enabling cumulative learning. Substantial investments in methodology development and capacity are needed to bring greater coherence to this field and enable cumulative learning about user perspectives to iteratively increase the fit between improved genotypes and user preferences.User-oriented research helps plant breeding programmes in establishing goals to generate breeding products that accommodate end-user preferences (Goa and Ashamo, 2017;Weltzien and Christinck, 2017). User-oriented research is a crucial part of breeding product design and management, the process through which a new product is developed, tested/evaluated and introduced into the seed system (Crawford, 1997). User-oriented research for breeding consists of two main areas of work. The first area, trait prioritisation, precedes plant selection and aims to generate information about current, projected or potential demand to better inform breeding objectives and define product profiles. This work can make use of surveys, choice experiments and other methods. We refer to the second area as participatory variety evaluation (PVE), involving variety assessment by different users, including farmers, processors and consumers. Although the term participatory variety selection (PVS) is more often used to describe participatory on-farm testing, we will refer to PVE to include testing that does not target selection. Variety evaluation can be done through on-farm trials, participatory assessment in on-station field trials or through product testing studies with processors or consumers. At different stages of the product management cycle, user-oriented research provides feedback to ensure breeding is on the right track.User-oriented research is particularly necessary for root, tuber and banana (RTB) crops. These are often produced in heterogeneous, small-scale tropical production systems, where farmers act as producers, consumers and frequently also as local processors and traders (Dufour et al., 2021). These activities place various demands on new varieties. However, until recently, breeding programmes often prioritised agronomic performance over other target traits valued by farmers, especially consumption-related traits and those specific to local cultures, hindering the adoption of modern varieties in tropical RTB production (Thiele et al., 2020). In 2011, the CGIAR Research Program on RTB started addressing this by incorporating stakeholder perspectives more systematically in plant breeding (https://www.rtb.cgiar.org/). These efforts provide important insights for drivers of technology adoption (Thiele et al., 2017).User-oriented research provides insights about which traits are important to future users of varieties and how trait preferences differ between different user groups. Thiele et al., (2020) highlight the importance of consumption-related traits and gender differences in consumer preferences for post-harvest traits as issues that influence adoption of modern RTB varieties. Other reviews have found that gender significantly influences respondents' trait preferences (Weltzien et al., 2019;Marimo et al., 2020). Different perspectives on traits and trade-offs may be associated with gendered roles in decision-making and involvement in different production, processing and distribution stages.Researchers working on these issues in the Global South have made important investments in methodology and published different frameworks, methods and tools (CGIAR, 2018;de Haan et al., 2019;van Etten et al., 2020;Moyo et al., 2021;Forsythe et al., 2021). This methodological research builds on previous work by innovatively synthesising, standardising, streamlining and digitalising approaches. This renewed methodological effort is necessary to shape an improved, coherent product management process.Ideally, user-oriented research would lead to cumulative insights regarding interactions between users and breeding products, enabling knowledge synthesis (cf. Gorman et al., 2021). This places important requirements on user-oriented research. First, sampling methods should ensure that actual use contexts are represented (Kool et al., 2020). Second, cumulative learning requires that gender aspects are explicitly accommodated, as this has been a limiting factor for understanding especially non-agronomic trait preferences, as indicated above (Thiele et al., 2020). Third, cumulative learning can only happen if data are consistently recorded (Brown et al., 2020;Gorman et al., 2021), to facilitate aggregation and comparisons and ensure the data reflect dimensions relevant to user experiences with breeding products. PVE focuses on similar sets of traits as trait prioritisation, so that researchers can evaluate (1) if breeding has indeed led to varieties with improvements in the traits that farmers have given most weight and (2) whether trait prioritisation effectively predicts what farmers prefer when they are presented with actual crop varieties. Fourth, learning across time can only take place if past research datasets are published and well-documented, so that data are accessible and understandable for researchers in the future.This study examines these four requirements for cumulative learning in user-oriented research supporting RTB breeding. We reviewed the existing unpublished and published literature for five RTB species: Musa spp. (bananas and plantains), Manihot esculenta (cassava), Solanum tuberosum (potato), Ipomoea batatas (sweetpotato) and Dioscorea spp. (yams). The literature search found publications that report on user-oriented research linked to breeding work on these crops over the last three decades. We created a database on these publications and recorded different characteristics for each publication, covering the four aspects indicated above (Valle, 2021;Valle et al., 2022 ;Supplementary Material Table S1). A systematic meta-analysis was not feasible or desirable given that much of the relevant literature is not in peer-reviewed journals. To examine representativeness, we analysed the overall geographic coverage of the studies. On gender, we examined if studies addressed this aspect explicitly and if they did so which types of methods were used. To examine data harmonisation, we focused on a main aspect: trait definitions and inclusion in studies. Such explorations give clear indications whether the current state of the field allows for knowledge synthesis and cumulative learning.We describe the methodology in more detail in the 'Materials and methods' section, and our findings in the 'Results' section. We synthesise these findings and provide indications that can help to focus future efforts in the 'Discussion' section. We close with broader remarks about the remaining challenges for user-oriented research in RTB breeding.The aim of the literature search was to obtain access to a reasonably comprehensive set of literature on user-oriented research related to RTB breeding. Much of the literature in this area is not published in peer-reviewed publications and is called 'grey literature'; our searches in Scopus yielded a very low number of publications. This made it difficult to follow the standards of a systematic literature review. Our aim was therefore rather to maximise the number of publications through different search strategies.In Google Scholar, we searched with the following keywords: 'traits', 'farmer', 'participatory', 'selection', 'evaluation', 'preferences', 'assessment' and 'variety' together with the respective RTB crop names (banana, cassava, potato, sweetpotato, yam). We also searched with their equivalent translations in Spanish, Portuguese and French. Some keywords are very broad but ensured that we captured a broad set of literature and did not inadvertently exclude papers; filtering was done in the next step. Publications referenced in the identified publications were also retrieved if available online. Most pre-2000s publications could not be retrieved this way, so the literature was limited to post-2000. We received some unpublished papers and theses from researchers' personal archives and also added these to our collection. We performed our search in September 2020, so this is the cut-off point for the inclusion of publications; no publications from after this date were included.While the publications were only selected if they involved participatory evaluations and trait prioritisation exercises, other forms of participation by processors consumers and sensory-panel evaluations were recorded in the database when they occurred in the selected publications. However, in a next step, we narrowed down the reviewed studies to those which actively included crop variety end-users in the research, focusing on trait prioritisation with farmers and participatory variety testing done with farmers (which may also involve non-agronomic aspects). Specifically, we excluded any reports on on-farm trials that collected agronomic data but did not examine farmers' perspectives or preferences regarding the tested varieties. All scholarly publications and grey literature available online were compiled, and information was extracted and entered into an MS Excel database (Table S1). This database forms the basis of this research and is made available through the Dataverse repository (Valle, 2021). Valle (2021) provides additional information about other variables extracted into the database, which are not all used for this paper.Extracting general data: crop, geolocation, type of study, gender First, we extracted from each study the date of publication, whether it contained open datasets, and the names of the study locations and their geographic coordinates. If coordinates were not reported, we retrieved those using online resources, including latitude.to, tageo.com, Google Maps and Open Street Maps.Second, we recorded the crop for each study. In the database, we recorded banana and plantain separately, as well as their use type: cooking, dessert, roasting or beverage (beer and juice). In the analysis, however, it was difficult to separate them. Cooking banana and plantain are often used for the same purposes and many studies involved both plantain and banana, and various use types. Publications on banana and plantain were therefore treated as a single group: banana.We identified the type of study, mainly 'farmer evaluation' and 'trait prioritisation', which often are combined in one paper. For each study, we recorded information on study protocols such as the use of focus group discussion (FGD) or questionnaires, trial type and management, number of participants and sampling strategy.Lastly, we extracted data on gender aspects of each study. In relation to gender-related effects in user-oriented research, Weltzien et al. (2019) indicate that the usual gender disaggregation does not necessarily lead to relevant insights. Therefore, we subdivided this into several aspects and recorded: (a) the proportion of female participants, (b) gender-sensitive sampling strategies, (c) gender-disaggregated data analysis and (d) explicit discussion of gender aspects.We characterised the datasets in terms of the coverage across regions and time periods. Also, we determined if the geospatial coverage of the study coincided with the production areas of the different crops. This analysis was done only for sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), as this was the region that corresponded to most of the studies in the database.To analyse temporal and broad regional trends, we grouped publications into six macroregions: South America and the Caribbean (no publication was identified for Central America); Southern Africa; East Africa; West Africa; Central Africa and Asia and the Pacific. Papers were selected considering the inclusion in the studies of farmer evaluations and/or trait prioritisation. To analyse the temporal distribution, we grouped entries by 5-year periods based on the first year in which the trial was conducted or established. This date is more informative than the date of publication, which may have taken place sometime after trial completion. Information on the first year of trial execution was absent in 37 publications (30%), so we used the year of publication to assign a study to a period.For the specific analysis of coverage of the production areas, we clustered location coordinates of the different studies by country and first administrative level unit using QGIS3 (QGIS Development Team 2021). To map the production areas, we used the MapSpam 2017 SSA dataset (IFPRI, 2020) since it was the only one with complete data for all relevant countries. We generated maps showing the country-level distribution of studies by methodological framework. For country-level analysis, centroids were generated based on the study coordinates.Researchers often preselect traits for studies that farmers are asked to consider in their scoring/ rating or ranking of varieties. Researchers should ideally select these traits considering previous research and include those traits that are important from the perspective of farmers and other users. Knowledge synthesis requires that studies are comparable and representative in this respect. Our analysis assesses to what extent traits selected by researchers for closed questions in variety evaluations are representative of farmer priorities.To obtain the data for this part of our study, we extracted the traits that were mentioned in the 'Results' section of the papers and noted them in the database in the original reported name as well as in a standardised form. Standardisation was done in a conservative way. This means that we grouped traits together only if they had the same meaning with no place for ambiguity or alternative meanings, or else we preserved them in their original form. The preferred trait state, for example, tall or short in the case of the trait plant height, was recorded if this preference could be considered to be non-universal. On the other hand, a preference for higher yield can often be considered universal, all other things being equal. We also placed each trait into a broader category (e.g. agronomic, morphological, quality) and linked each trait to a unique trait/variable identifier, following the CGIAR Crop Ontology (Shrestha et al., 2012;Pietragalla et al., 2020). Farmers' preferences could not always be related to the Crop Ontology, which tends to cater to quantitative protocols. To expand our functional classification, we drew on Marimo et al. (2020) (Supplementary Material Table S2).From the set of studies with farmer evaluations, we retrieved the sets of traits that researchers asked farmers to consider in scoring and/or ranking varieties. For brevity, we call these 'researcher-prioritised traits'. To generate a list of traits prioritised by farmers, we extracted traits from trait prioritisation studies that reported free-listing exercises, in which farmers expressed preferences in an open-ended way. For brevity, we call these 'farmer-prioritised traits'.We used R to generate matrices that represent trait frequency by publication (R Core Team, 2017). Due to the number of studies available, we could only analyse cassava and banana in a meaningful way.For each category of traits, we calculated the number of unique traits included in that category and recorded the most frequent single trait. The average weight of each category was calculated across all publications in terms of the number of traits per category as a percentage of all traits mentioned in one publication. To assess the level of homogeneity in the traits studied, we plotted a unique-frequency matrix for all traits and publications, both farmer-and researcher-prioritised (Supplementary Material Figure S1).As part of the analysis, we consulted 11 experts, including 7 breeders for each crop, 1 social scientist and 3 data scientists through informal interviews to collect their vision and suggestions. We discussed the limited production of peer review papers for the studies as well as the reduced number of open datasets. They provided us with additional grey literature that we integrated into the review. The experts also indicated possible reasons for the high-density location of studies in certain regions and helped us to understand why some breeders misinterpret farmers' traits or how the user-oriented research revealed the importance of traits that were overlooked by scientists.The database contains 123 entries, of which 41 correspond to banana, 31 to cassava, 22 to sweetpotato, 16 to yam and 13 to potato. The oldest publication is from 1996 and only two publications are pre-2000s; therefore, our results describe research in the last two decades. The temporal distribution shows two cycles, the first peaking in 2005 and the other in 2015, after which publication of user-oriented research diminishes, possibly reflecting a lag in publications for the last 5-year period. Banana studies prevailed until 2010, whereas in the subsequent period cassava was the crop with most user-oriented research studies.Figure 1 represents the spatial distribution of studies. The nature of the location data also means that our sub-national maps should be taken to offer only information about the broad trends and should not be overinterpreted. First, the level of detail provided varied greatly across publications. This also affected our analysis, as papers reporting individual village location have more location data points than publications that only indicated the total number of sites (e.g., 'ten locations in Ogun State'). The weight of locations from a few precise papers results in a coverage density bias towards some regions. Also, first-level administrative units are of very different sizes.Figure 1a shows that user-oriented RTB research is mainly clustered in two areas: one in West Africa, mainly Nigeria and Ghana and another in East Africa, mainly Uganda. In Latin America, Brazil and Cuba stand out although user-oriented research has been less prevalent in this region, and in Asia even fewer studies have been reported. Figure 1b and c shows the two main areas of concentration of the two major crops: banana and cassava, and trial locations of the studies at first administrative unit level. We observe that banana studies concentrate around the Great Lakes Region of East Africa whilst for cassava, West Africa is the centre of user-oriented research, specifically the coastal crescent along the Gulf of Benin, between Ghana and the Niger Delta.Figure 1d and e illustrates the overlap of the sampled locations with the main areas of cultivation for cassava and banana. In the case of cassava, the area of study corresponds with the main areas of cultivation around the Gulf of Benin but lacks coverage of Northern Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire as well as Central Africa. As for banana, studied locations are concentrated around a diagonal line extending from Kampala (Uganda) to Bukavu (DRC) passing through Mbarara (Uganda), Kagera (Tanzania) and northern Rwanda, missing main areas of cultivation further north and south.Trait prioritisation studies are the most frequent type of study in the review (Supplementary Material Table S3). They were reported by 60% of the overall set of publications. They have been particularly common in cassava and banana research and less common in potato, sweetpotato and yam (Figure 2). Farmer evaluations have been particularly common in potato but relatively rare in banana.In 59% of instances, PVE exercises were performed by researchers or by farmers under supervision by researchers or using their recommended practices. In 41% of the studies, on-farm trials were managed by farmers (individually or collectively) and without recommendations from researchers.Trait prioritisation studies have been concentrated in both East and West Africa (Figure 3), especially Nigeria and Uganda. Farmer evaluations have been more frequent in West Africa as well as in South America (mainly Brazil) and the Caribbean (mainly Cuba), yet most studies of this type were performed in East Africa, mainly in Kenya and Ethiopia. (Supplementary Material Tables S4, S5 and S6). Of all publications in our database, 51% recorded the gender of the participants. Only 28% of the studies disaggregated participants by gender during data collection by conducting women's and men's FGDs or during the analysis by disaggregating responses of individuals. Yam, banana and potato have higher percentages of gender-disaggregated studies (all between 33 and 37%), whilst sweetpotato (23%) and cassava (13%) are lower. The two regions of Central and Southern Africa each show larger percentages of gender disaggregation than other regions (Supplementary Material Table S7).The proportion of publications that perform gender disaggregation declined over the period studied, but these studies include those that just report gender as one more socio-economic variable and give it a superficial treatment. The proportion of studies that explicitly discussed genderspecific findings has increased in this same period. The latter group constitutes 19% of all publications, of which 75% was published in the last decade. These studies also paid more attention to processing-related traits. Studies that explicitly discussed gender aspects reported on average on 4.5 processing-related traits. Those studies that did not explicitly discuss gender reported on average 2.3 processing-related traits.Across all studies, the average percentage of female participants is close to half of all participants (49%), but the standard deviation is high. We can identify a pattern with higher participation in Central and East Africa and in banana research which are also the areas and crops for which gender disaggregation is more frequent. The reduction in standard deviation over time suggests a tendency towards more gender-balanced sampling.In this section, we focus on cassava and banana/plantain research since the steps to filter traits issued from free-listing exercises by the farmer considerably reduced the number of papers for other crops (Table S3).Most banana and cassava traits that were freely listed are mentioned only in one paper: 95 out of 126 (75%) farmer-prioritised traits, and 62 out of 99 (63%) researcher-prioritised traits. In Tables 1 and 2, we explore this in more detail by showing the frequency of traits by category. We indicated the most frequent trait per category and its frequency to show the level of convergence within each category (the extent to which a category is dominated by one or few traits). There is some harmonisation between studies in the sense that researchers often include the same major trait categories, which are also mentioned by farmers in free-listing exercises. Otherwise, there is a wide spread of traits for banana and cassava, which can be further appreciated in Supplementary Material Figures S2 and S3.For banana, the top 5 trait categories show one difference between farmers and researchers (Table 1). Farmers include abiotic stress, especially drought frequently in their top traits but this trait is not often included by researchers as a trait to assess directly in on-farm testing. Researchers can analyse drought tolerance through yield, a trait they prioritised in most studies. A more important difference is that farmers give importance to marketability, while researchers do not include it among the most important trait categories. Marketability may be related to fruit appearance, which researchers did give much importance, but may also include other aspects.Productivity and organoleptic categories are the most common amongst both farmerprioritised and researcher-prioritised traits. 'Taste' is the most important organoleptic trait for both. Bunch size ranks first amongst farmer-prioritised traits, while the near-equivalent trait of bunch weight is third amongst researcher-prioritised traits. Another trait prioritised more by farmers than researchers includes early maturity (72% vs 50%). Diverse organoleptic traits are emphasised by researchers, with 'texture', colour of cooked food and flavour appearing amongst the top 10 (Figure S2). 'Fruit appearance' appears as the third most included category for researchers but is 10 th for farmers. In the fruit appearance category, peel colour, finger length and finger size were the most frequently included by researchers while farmers most frequently mentioned flesh colour. Pest and disease incidence is almost equally important for researchers and farmers. Researchers are more specific, indicating Mycosphaerella fijiensis (Black Leaf Streak) tolerance as the single most-mentioned trait within this category. Plant height is the most common trait in relation to plant morphology for both researchers and farmers; however, this category did not enter the top 10 for farmers. Performance in poor soils appears as an important trait to farmers and is mentioned in over 50% of publications yet it is uncommon among researchers. Production of sufficient planting material in terms of quality and quantity is of paramount importance to farmers (56%) and although it is underpinned by multiple biological traits, it was mostly mentioned in general terms as planting material availability (44%). When it comes to researchers, the frequency of this category comes down to 33% and appears fragmented into many different traits, with no clear emphasis on traits related to planting material among breeders.As for banana, the cassava trait priorities for farmers and researchers show the same broad trend (Table 2). In the top 5 list for farmers and researchers of trait categories, there is only one category that does not occur in both lists.A striking difference is the importance that farmers give to cassava root conservation, mainly referred to as storability in the soil, which is lacking among the top traits included by researchers to be studied in on-farm trials (Figure S3).Fresh root yield appears as the single most common trait in both cases and the main indicator of productivity. Early maturity is the second most frequent trait amongst farmers and is mentioned in 82% of the publications; however, surprisingly it did not appear amongst the researcher-prioritised traits. Instead, the single most-mentioned phenological trait selected by researchers was height at first branching (29%).It is also clear from Table 2 that the organoleptic traits are important to farmers (86%) and dominated by taste (63%), followed by root fibre. For researchers, the organoleptic traits appear less important overall (57%). Planting material availability is also mentioned more frequently by farmers (59%) than it is included by researchers in studies (36%).The database includes a large proportion of grey literature (PhD thesis, reports). Of all the entries in our database, 56% did not have a digital object identifier. Even though the reviewed literature was relatively recent and considering there has been an increasing trend to include raw datasets in scientific journals, only 5% of all publications included raw open-access datasets.The sampling strategies most often recorded in the database are voluntary, random or convenience sampling, generally based on lists of members in organisations or project beneficiaries. Only 19% of all publications included coordinates and most publications omitted the exact locations for data collection or the information was limited to the number of villages within an administrative region. Local village names are often difficult to trace to a location, due to homonymity, lack of spelling standardisation or absence of geographical records; a few villages could not be located with certainty. Overall, it is possible to reconstruct the geographic location at least at the level of sub-national areas, which was sufficient for our study, but for cumulative learning in user-oriented research, it is important that data extraction can be done with less effort and more geospatial precision.Reviewed publications did not follow a standard format in reporting. This also means that many aspects that may be important for interpretation and accumulative learning are not systematically reported. Plot management is often not explicitly described or described in general terms for the entire trial as being representative of farmer practice, but without describing variation between individual plots. The criteria used to sample participants in studies and the reasons for these methodological choices are often not described in detail. Another area in which reporting is important is the relation between management in the experiment and under farmer conditions (Kool et al., 2020). Most on-farm trials were done with researcher supervision and recommendations, but the relation with farmer management is often not clear. Also, traits were recorded in ways that made it difficult to trace interpretation and translation. There was no access to verbatims or details on how original traits were grouped and classified, which would have allowed better interpretation and contextualisation.We observed an uneven spatial distribution of user-oriented research in RTB breeding which does not clearly match the banana and cassava main production areas. From our interviews with experts, we derived various factors that influence this pattern.The first factor is the proximity to local research institutes. For example, there is a large concentration of studies around the National Root Crops Research Institute in Umudike, Nigeria. Convenience in terms of proximity, logistical access and transportation costs is likely to explain this pattern. Second, user-oriented studies are generally focused towards areas where cassava makes a relatively large contribution to food security (SSA), which are not necessarily areas with large production, as production may be destined to industry (Thailand or Paraguay) or export (Costa Rica) (Hernan Ceballos, personal communication, September 2020). Third, the spatial pattern can be explained by international funding targeting. SSA has been the most-targeted region for all crops, which is also the region for which most international development funding is available. A fourth factor is the relative operational costs of different types of user-oriented research for different crops. The length of the crop cycle may explain the emphasis on trait prioritisation in banana (long cycle) and the emphasis on PVE in potato (short cycle). The temporal distribution, with distinct peaks in user-oriented research over time, is possibly related to trends in international funding. Given the moderate number of studies, a single project can have a large influence on the distribution over time and space.Overall, the proportion between the two types of user-oriented studies, trait prioritisation and PVE, is not drastically different between regions. This means that in broad areas where one type of study is available, the other type is also available. This is positive in terms of cumulative learning, because, at least in principle, trait prioritisation can feed into breeding. The resulting genotypes can then be tested with PVE, and findings can feed into new rounds of trait prioritisation. Only in Asia and the Pacific, trait prioritisation with farmers was not evident, which can be explained from the strong focus on production for industrial use, rather than direct household consumption. At a lower level of geographic aggregation, the balance between the types of studies may vary, but our dataset is too small to draw conclusions at this level.We observed that trait prioritisation studies are more frequent than farmer evaluations. One explanation for this trend is that trait prioritisation studies are cheaper and take less time to execute than PVEs. Evidence for this interpretation is that the preference for trait prioritisation studies is especially accentuated for banana, which has a long growth cycle and is difficult to reproduce at scale. The difference is smallest for potato, for which on-farm experimentation is less complicated than the other RTB crops.Another explanation concerns the perceived relevance of each type of study to decision-making. In our informal interviews, one breeder claimed that current-format farmer evaluations often contribute little to guiding breeding objectives. This opinion is shared by others. Cobb et al., (2019) suggest that farmer evaluations are not particularly efficient, as they do not address traits that are important to non-farmer stakeholders (millers, processors, consumers, etc.) and miss traits that are not visible in the field during selection. They indicate that product profiles are a preferable way forward as they are 'designed in consultation with men and women farmers, marketers, processors, and end users, distilling the requirements of all stakeholders into a blueprint for varietal development'.This position, however, does not preclude a role for farmer evaluation in later breeding stages. Trait prioritisation and product profile generation have their own limitations and cannot elicit farmers' tacit knowledge that can only be expressed and elicited in interaction with tangible varieties. The complexity arising from trait correlations and farmer trait preferences can be contextspecific and therefore best evaluated in concrete contexts. For example, early maturity in cassava is associated with poor dry-matter content and soil storability, and conversely relating to easier peeling, lower fibre content and higher yield in marginal environments (Teeken et al., 2018). Preference for early or late maturity depends on how each farmer prioritises different underlying characteristics and whether their environments are marginal or not. From this example, it is clear that farmer evaluations have a complementary value to trait prioritisation exercises and provide a 'preview' of farmers' adoption decisions before variety release and seed distribution. For cumulative learning in user-oriented research, it is important that both trait prioritisation and farmer variety evaluation are done for each crop and region, so that breeding programmes can manage the product development process consistently, from user preference to breeding objectives and products, ending with on-farm performance and user acceptance of these products. As we found very different proportions of each type of study in different regions and for different crops, it is not likely that there is a healthy balance between these two types of studies.Our research shows a promising trend of increased attention for gender and traits associated with processing. This shows that efforts to increase awareness and understanding of gender roles in crop production has had some influence. Such initiatives include training courses by the GREAT programme (https://www.greatagriculture.org/) and the CGIAR RTB programme through its Gender and Breeding Initiative (http://www.rtb.cgiar.org/gender-breeding-initiative/).At the same time, our findings show that more work on this is needed, as also found by Thiele et al. (2020). Few publications that record participants' gender then proceed to report genderdisaggregated results. This could be improved by adopting standard protocols. For example, simple field protocols have been developed for disaggregated participatory voting exercises (de Haan et al., 2019).On average, female participation is balanced. This is positive in itself, although it does not necessarily imply a proportional representation of the targeted end-user segment. The large variation in these proportions between studies may partially reflect researchers' responsiveness to cultural differences across locations, since in some communities, specific crops and activities are genderspecific. However, the surveyed literature does not mention prior studies on the influence of gender roles on production systems to design sampling strategies. Therefore, our results suggest that even though gender-disaggregated research has increased in the last decade, gender-related considerations are not streamlined into the research design, sampling and analysis, which still makes it challenging to gain insights in gender-related effects on user preferences. These findings confirm similar conclusions drawn by Weltzien et al. (2019) in their review. Teeken et al. (2018) provide an exemplary study on cassava trait prioritisation, showing how gender and intersectionality can be incorporated in such studies.In broad terms, the frequency of trait categories that farmers prioritised for new varieties showed the same trends as the frequency of trait categories that researchers included in their trait lists to be evaluated. This is evidence that researchers use the results of trait prioritisation studies or other evidence on farmers' preferences when they design questionnaires for farmer evaluations. Even so, there are important differences between the farmers' and researchers' lists of traits, which we will discuss below. Another important result that invites reflection is that trait names and frequencies of inclusion vary much across farmer evaluation studies, which constrains comparisons.There are some important traits that farmers prioritised, and researchers generally omitted. These are marketability, early maturity and drought tolerance in banana, and storability in the soil, and early maturity in cassava. Also, we have highlighted the ability to provide abundant planting materials. These differences are relative indications, as trait prioritisation studies and farmer evaluation studies did not match completely in geographical coverage. The reason that not all trait categories were included in all studies may have been that many researchers consciously chose to focus a subset of traits. For example, not all studies include yield, even though few researchers will disagree with its importance to farmers. However, we observed a clear trend that researchers more often choose traits that are measured as biologically defined variables rather than trying to match the terms that farmers use to indicate their preferences. Farmers generally express their preferences for traits that are composites in biological terms. Marketability or taste depends on many biological factors. Researchers may intend to capture such preferences by including associated biologically defined traits. For example, researchers may approach marketability in the case of banana as fruit appearance, which is directly observable. Another example is the traits related to the provision of abundant planting materials, which was emphasised by farmers for both banana and cassava. This preference translates into several morphological traits: germination, branching, architecture, number of stems and plant height. Drought tolerance is yet another example. Farmers emphasise it as a single characteristic, but for researchers it is a complex combination of low yield and the occurrence of certain seasonal climatic conditions. Moreover, drought conditions can be defined in different ways and are not under experimental control in farmer evaluations.A major underlying issue here is that researchers are managing two dimensions at the same time. Farmer evaluations provide insights for variety performance in a realistic use context as well as farmer preferences. Researchers need to translate farmer preferences into biologically measurable variables to be able to make breeding decisions. Our results show that researchers tend to approach this conundrum by directly measuring these biologically defined traits in farmer evaluations. This ensures that farmer evaluations can be compared easily with breeding trials. However, it does not give additional insights into farmer preferences relative to those traits, which is one of the unique values of farmer evaluations. It precludes closing the feedback loop with the trait prioritisation studies, translating breeding progress on biologically defined traits back into progress along farmer-defined preferences, which drive variety adoption.Focusing only on farmer preferences will not solve the issue, because this will still not allow for a translation from farmer appreciation back to crop biology. Improving translation is the key issue, which suitable methodological strategies will need to address. Combining biological measurements and farmer appreciation in farmer evaluation studies is one possible strategy. If traits are highly heritable and the evaluated set of varieties has sufficient diversity, statistical or modelling strategies can relate trait levels and farmer preferences. We have not observed such strategies in the farmer evaluation studies we have reviewed here.The second issue that we address is the wide divergence between studies in trait inclusion and definition. The translation between different studies requires that they (1) clearly define traits and link them to underlying protocols and (2) share the same traits so that the studies are comparable, at least for a minimum set of traits. These conditions were not met for most of the studies. Researcher-prioritised traits are not standardised across studies, resulting in great variability, which precludes comparisons across time and space. Generally, trial documentation does not precisely define traits or how questions were posed to farmers. This can lead to confusion. For instance, the Crop Ontology defines poundability as related to texture: 'mealiness of boiled cassava storage root rating' (Trait ID: CO_334:0000437). In contrast, other studies refer to poundability as non-toxicity (non-bitter, low cyanogen content), sweet varieties (Bentley et al., 2017;Nweke, 2004, p. 103). Therefore, explicit definitions of traits, linked to measurement methods, are necessary.User-oriented research on RTB crops is predominantly published as grey literature. This shows that there are important barriers to peer-reviewed publication of results. In our interviews, it became clear that much research even remains unpublished (Elisa Salas, personal communication, August 2020). One important barrier mentioned in the interviews is that scientific journals require some degree of novelty in terms of methods or approaches, as the findings themselves are often not found to be of sufficient value for publication. This stands in the way of creating an environment in which accumulative learning can happen, as it becomes more difficult for researchers to compare results across time and geographical space. As this rarely happens, the trend may be selfreinforcing: data are not published due to the perception of limited value, and not used because it remains inaccessible.To counter this trend, a data culture needs to be fostered, which encompasses various aspects. Technical barriers are not insurmountable. In principle, it is already possible to publish datasets for free in public repositories, such as Dataverse (https://dataverse.org/) or Zenodo (https:// zenodo.org/). Dataset documentation can be published as part of the dataset and in so-called data journals (e.g. Data in Brief, Scientific Data). Novelty is not required for publication in data journals. However, researchers and journal editors may have low expectations regarding the benefits and possibilities of using crop trial data beyond the immediate decisions that trials are supposed to inform.Therefore, it is important that analyses using on-farm trial data become more prominent. Data synthesis of crop trial results can provide important new insights in variety performance across geographical space or to detect genetic gain, a measure of breeding progress over time. In principle, data synthesis can be applied to heterogeneous on-farm crop trial data, which could already spark interest in data sharing for such analyses with extant data, hopefully starting a virtuous cycle of data sharing (Brown et al., 2020).As such data synthesis efforts develop, it would be clearer to researchers that data standardisation would provide even more possibilities for data synthesis. Electronic field books for on-farm testing could implement standardised forms that link each variable to ontologies and standardised formats, such as the Crop Ontology (https://www.cropontology.org; Arnaud et al., 2020) and, for socio-economic data, Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey (Hammond et al., 2017) and the G tools for gender-responsive breeding product management (Ashby and Polar 2021). Data publication should adhere to data standards, such as the Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable (FAIR) standards (Wilkinson et al., 2016). Data publication standards for on-farm trials could help to set new expectations in this area of research.The various requirements may be bewildering for researchers. Training is necessary to learn about them. However, at the same time digital tools can help to make tasks easier. New digital tools can integrate different aspects (standardisation, analytics and data publication) in a streamlined way and facilitate experimental design, drastically reduce data cleaning needs and give access to advanced analytical procedures. Digital tools do not only enable the implementation of these aspects but can be more efficient and user-friendly than current paper-based alternatives. In having access to high-quality digital tools, researchers will have stronger incentives to become part of a new data culture.In the period examined here, a substantial volume of user-oriented research has been done on RTB crops. In this study, we examine if the way in which these studies are executed allows for cumulative learning. Although breeding product management requires both trait prioritisation and PVS, we found that many crops and regions have a strong tendency to report much more of one type than of another type of study. We interpret this as an indication that the field is still at an early stage in its progress towards an integrated use of user-oriented research for breeding product management.On the methodological front, we also found that studies have increasingly become gendersensitive but generally address this aspect in a limited way. Second, we found that traits included by trait prioritisation and PVS do not facilitate the linking of social and biophysical dimensions, which makes it difficult to translate user preferences into breeding selection strategies. From a methodological point of view, much could be gained from further reflection by groups of experts, working on common guidelines and protocols to improve user-oriented research methodologies.We also found that limitations in publication of user-oriented studies and datasets hamper cumulative learning. A data culture requires access to high-quality digital tools and training, as well as clear examples of the ensuing benefits of data sharing and synthesis. Building a data culture requires a consistent, broad investment in tool development, training and continuing dialogue among professionals. Investors and decision-makers need to foster experimentation with innovative, data-driven research across disciplines. They need to drive the most successful innovations to be combined into integrative tools and standardised procedures in product management cycles so that user-oriented research can enable cumulative learning in demand-led breeding and enhance variety adoption. Supplementary material. For supplementary material for this article, please visit https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0014479722000539","tokenCount":"7075"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c73946f90188279dd9942f929526ae8c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7932d35-b994-4a22-aca6-6bfd1495622b/retrieve","id":"1844270722"},"keywords":["OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","Livestock -Livestock Contributing Flagships:","F4: Livestock and the Environment Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing external partners:","NLC -National Land Commission (Kenya)"],"sieverID":"098857f6-f7bb-4881-9a2f-f10335d8b5a6","pagecount":"5","content":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) worked with the Kenya National Land Commission (NLC) to develop an Annex to the NLC Guidelines for County Spatial Planning and three accompanying toolkits for use by staff of county governments, which were launched in 2019. This work drew on ILRI research on the use and governance of land and other resources in pastoralist settings. This research identifies a series of challenges for the management and protection of rangelands and extensive livestock production.• https://tinyurl.com/vho4s5y  ILRI research investigated the governance, management and use of land and other resources in pastoral systems and identified a series of challenges for the management and protection of rangelands and extensive livestock production (e.g. 1, 2, 3). The findings and insights from this work was shared in various ways with key stakeholders from government-particularly personnel from the Kenya National Land Commission and county governments-and from civil society. The communication and engagement included informal face-to-face meetings, but also more formal events. The latter included a national workshop with diverse stakeholders in 2016 (8), and policy dialogues in December 2017 (9) and June 2018 (10).Transforming the research insights into the \"innovation\" -the actual guidance materials on county spatial planning (4, 5, 6, and 7) -took place in stages over roughly the same time period. It began with ILRI taking the lead in laying out the structure for the Annex and toolkits. Then in 2017 a writeshop was held with personnel from the National Land Commission, FAO Kenya, the NGO RECONCILE, and ILRI. Subsequently, personnel from these organizations worked individually on parts of the Annex and toolkits. Then again a series of writeshops were held through late 2018 and the first half of 2019, with the National Land Commission increasingly taking on leadership of the process. The materials were finalized and officially launched at a ceremony attended by stakeholders from across Kenya in August 2019. That event was used to publicize the materials to county governments and other stakeholders in an effort to ensure that they are put to use in the counties' spatial planning processes. During all this time ILRI also encouraged stakeholders to support county spatial planning through blogs and other social media engagement.Gender relevance: 0 -Not Targeted Youth relevance: 0 -Not Targeted CapDev relevance: 2 -Principal Main achievements with specific CapDev relevance: County spatial planning as a tool for the development of extensive livestock production is not on the radar of all county governments in northern Kenya. The Annex to the spatial planning guidelines and the three toolkits will guide county staff and consultants in the development of land use plans. ILRI and the National Land Commission are now working on plans for trainings using the materials. Climate Change relevance: 1 -Significant Describe main achievements with specific Climate Change relevance: Changing rainfall patterns have made forage and water availability unpredictable. In this highly variable context, which are now more unpredictable than ever, mobility to reach water sources, pastures, and markets is more important than ever, even as the growing human population, economic change and land use change have tended to limit mobility. County spatial planning can make a significant contribution to climate change adaptation, by protecting migration corridors and other key rangeland resources.Other cross-cutting dimensions description: <Not Defined> Outcome Impact Case Report link: Study #3108Fiona Flintan, Senior Scientist, Livestock CRP, ILRI. f.flintan@cgiar.org","tokenCount":"552"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bb7777cf92229e4b2578067ca83f18a5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9015c614-6dcb-47f1-9588-d64f30fb6ab5/retrieve","id":"1759244878"},"keywords":["Climate information services","smallholder farmer","Decision tree","Decision making","Seasonal climate forecasts","Data analytics","Climate variability","Groundnut farming","Risk management","Mobile messages Ram Dhulipala, Head, Digital Agriculture & Strategic Initiatives, Innovation"],"sieverID":"b538c0d5-6aec-4629-a17c-7bbd1e3986cf","pagecount":"63","content":"One of the strategies for helping smallholder farmers cope with climate variability and change is the provision of climate services that better decision making around the planning and management of agricultural systems. However, providing such services with location specific timely and actionable information to millions of farmers operating across diverse conditions requires innovative solutions. ICRISAT and its partners have developed and piloted one such system called \"Intelligent agricultural Systems Advisory Tool -ISAT\" capable of generating and disseminating data driven location specific advisories that assist farmers in anticipating and responding to the emerging conditions through the season. Using a decision tree approach, a structured and systematic approach to decision making was devised that considers the insights obtained from the analysis of historical climatic conditions, climate and weather forecasts and prevailing environmental conditions. Microsoft India developed a platform to access real time data from various 'public' sources, perform the data analytics, implement the decision tree and generate and disseminate messages to farmers and associated actors. The ISAT generated advisories are designed to support both pre-season planning and in-season management.During the 2017 monsoon, ISAT was piloted with 417 farmers across four different locations. The messaging system worked extremely well in picking appropriate location specific message from the database and delivering the same to the mobiles of the registered farmers. Mid and end season surveys revealed that more than 80% of the farmers from all villages were satisfied with the frequency, relevance and understandability of the messages delivered. About 58% of the farmers rated the messages are reliable by being correct more than 75% of the times and helped them in managing their farms better by conducting farm operations timely with reduced risk.Compared to farmers in the control villages, groundnut yields of farmers in 5 treatment villages are higher by ~ 16% but this results varied between -7.7 to 56.2%. This study has demonstrated the opportunities available to harness the untapped power of digital technologies to provide actionable advisories timely to smallholder farmers using appropriate data analytics and information dissemination systems.Traditionally, smallholder agriculture in developing countries is intended at meeting the primary objective of producing sufficient food to meet the family needs and doing it without taking risks or compromising on the household financial security. However, the growing demand for cash income and the need to make production more economical and efficient is transforming smallholder agriculture into a more commercial activity that seeks profit. Such transformation calls for well-planned and carefully managed systems that make best use of available resources and technologies (FAO, 2014). Since performance of crops depends on a number of location specific soil and climatic conditions which are highly variable both in space and time, planning and management of agricultural systems should consider both risks and opportunities to maintain productivity and achieve higher levels of profitability.Coping with the impacts of variable climatic conditions is one of the most complex and difficult challenges that the smallholder farming community in dry tropics is facing. Climate variability which occurs at many temporal scales, from seasons to years to decades and beyond, has both direct and indirect impacts. While variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall during the season has a direct impact on the productivity of agriculture, the uncertainty and risk associated with this variability over the seasons and years makes decision making difficult and subjective affecting the profitability and overall viability of the systems (van de Steeg et al., 2009, Rao et al., 2011). Overlaid on this are the projected changes in climate which are likely to exacerbate existing variability in rainfall and frequency of occurrence of extreme events. Despite uncertainty over the precise nature and extent of these changes, most climate change projections for the region indicate an increase in temperatures by about 2.5 0 C to 3.0 0 C accompanied by modest and seasonally variable increases in precipitation(5-10 %) by mid-century (IPCC, 2007). These small changes in climate can have huge impact on agriculture especially in the semi-arid tropics where conditions are marginal for crop production. Under such variable and changing climatic conditions, effective and efficient management of agricultural systems should aim at both reducing the risks and capitalizing on the opportunities through adoption of proactive risk management practices which unfortunately have not received much attention. In the absence of science based information, farmers tend to rely on their own perceptions and experiences which may not match reality.Over the years, agricultural research has generated enormous amount of data, information and knowledge which when properly analysed and interpreted has the potential to generate useful insights into how crop growth and performance responds to the effects of various stresses and their interactions. Research has also developed a number of tools and models, which make it possible to translate these insights and knowledge into relatively simple decision rules that can guide decision making by farmers operating under uncertain and risky conditions (van Ittersum and Donatelli, 2003). However, the full potential of this knowledge and tools remained untapped due to a number of constraints. Important among them are nonavailability of data analytics enabled decision support systems and lack of information dissemination systems for timely delivery of regularly updated advisories to millions of end users (Jones et al., 2017).coupled with the exponential growth in access to and use of internet have opened the doors for huge never seen before opportunities for developing integrated services with unlimited capacity to capture and process data from multiple sources and generate and deliver useful information to end users (Wolfert et al., 2017). A large number of Internet of Things (IOT) networks and services are already in operation and these networks also include drones and other unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) which can provide real time information on growth and performance of crops. Such information will greatly enhance the capacity to identify emerging problems and provide timely advice on interventions (PWC, 2016). These networks, which experts estimate to link about 30 billion objects by 2020 (Nordrum, 2016), are expected to be the primary sources of data collection and its flow to multiple users. In order to monetize on these emerging opportunities, there is a need to develop intelligent platforms that bring together seamless field data from millions of connected devices and advanced data analytics that link data with process models to generate information that help farmers in making more informed decisions. Such systems that convert big data into actionable information have the potential to bring revolutionary changes in the way farmers understand, think and act in managing the systems profitably and sustainably.ICRISAT in collaboration with Indian Meteorological Department (IMD),Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU) and MICROSOFT has developed and piloted an automated messaging system, \"Intelligent agricultural Systems Advisory Tool -ISAT\", capable of generating and disseminating data driven location specific advisories that assist in farm level decision making. This integrated system compiles the required data including real time data from various sources, analyses the data, identifies relevant management interventions and disseminates the same to registered users. This report summarises the steps followed in the development and implementation of the tool and key learnings from the pilot studies conducted on groundnut based farming systems in Anantapur district in Andhra Pradesh, India. The focus of this study is more on developing data analytics as required to support informed decision making in planning and managing agricultural systems productively and profitably using climate information. Attention was also paid to scalability and flexibility to customize to meet additional requirements.Key decisions that ISAT is designed to support are those which are influenced by climatic conditions. This includes pre-season planning activities such as selection of right crops and allocation of land to selected crops and in-season management operations such as land preparation, planting, inter-cultural operations and harvesting. Since pre-season planning depends on a realistic assessment of conditions during the coming season, the analysis made a critical analysis of historical trends in rainfall, realistic assessment of the skill in predicting climate and weather conditions and the value of this information to serve as a basis to anticipate and manage climate risks by making more informed decisions. This information was then used to develop a decision tree in which a specific decision rule was developed for each of the decisions that the end user is expected to make while managing the systems.This report provides a detailed account of the process followed in developing ISAT. It includes a brief description of the target district and the major challenges that the farmers in the district are struggling to cope with, followed by a stepwise description of ISAT tool development and testing.For the development and testing of ISAT, the chronically drought prone Anantapur district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India was selected.Predominance of rainfed agriculture, low and erratic rainfall conditions which make the district highly drought prone with seven drought years out of every ten years and past work by ICRISAT is the basis for selecting the district.Anantapur is the largest district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India with a geographical area of 1.913 m ha divided into 63 mandals, administrative units above village (Figure 1). According to 2011 census of India, it is the 7th most populous district in the state with a population of 4.1 million of which 72% is rural (APEDB, 2018). Agriculture remains the predominant activity in the villages, with 80 percent of total workers engaged, either as cultivators or agricultural labourers. The Gross District Domestic Product (GDDP) of the district is ₹35,838 crore (US$5.6 billion) of which agriculture contribution is ₹9,944 crore (US $ 1.6 billion) or 27.7%. For the FY 2013-14, the per capita income at current prices was estimated to be ₹69,562 (US$1,100) which is 35% lower than the state and national per capita income of about ₹ 1.07 lakh (US $ 1602.6) (APEDB,2018). The district is predominantly agrarian with lands that are marginal for crop production. Of the total area, about 60% is under agricultural use and 10% is under forest cover. The landscape is characterised by hills, ridges and undulating to gently sloping lands. According to the land capability classification, nearly 70% of the land in the district falls in groups III and IV which are lands suitable for cultivation with intensive soil conservation practices. More than 80% of the 1.15 m ha area under agriculture is rainfed.Farmers in the district are largely dependent on a single crop of groundnut which is cultivated on more than 80% of the land under rain-fed agriculture.Sorghum, maize, cotton, foxtail millet and pigeonpea, mostly as intercrop, are the other crops grown during the kharif season under rainfed conditions.Chickpea is cultivated as a rabi crop mostly in the black soils. As is the case with any rainfed agriculture, productivity and profitability of groundnut is greatly influenced by the amount and distribution of rainfall which varies widely both within and between the seasons.Due to its position in the rain shadow area, the district fails to get the benefit of either of the monsoons which are the main sources of rainfall in the district. While Western Ghats cuts off the movement of south-west monsoon, the location of the district in the margins of the North-East monsoon zone limits the amount and duration of rainfall during this season.As a result, the district receives low and erratic rainfall during both southwest and north-east monsoon periods making it chronically drought prone.With an average annual rainfall of 550 mm, it is the second lowest rainfall receiving district in the country after Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. Annual and seasonal rainfall exhibits high variation both within and between the seasons. With a coefficient of variation (CV) of 45% in the south-west monsoon (kharif season) and 60% in the north-east monsoon (rabi season) rainfall, the climate is highly risky for crop production. Management of climate sensitive systems such as agriculture under these highly variable conditions requires informed decision making in planning and managing the systems to minimize risks and take advantage of favourable conditions.The first step in the process of developing ISAT is to identify key decisions that the farmers make and understand the factors influencing those decisions. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were held with farmers and extension officers of Ministry of Agriculture from the four selected mandals of Gooty, Kalyandurg, Kanaganapalli and Singanamala.Farmers identified climate variability as the biggest challenge that they are struggling to cope with. Given the low and erratic nature of rainfall and its strong influence on the performance of crops, it is not surprising to note that more than 80% of the farmers have ranked climate variability as the number one constraint in managing their farms profitably (Figure 2). About 77% of the participants have indicated that in more than 50% of the years they fail to recover the investments made and more than 70% of the farmers claim that farming is getting worse due to worsening climatic conditions.While farmers claim that the amount of rainfall has declined over the years, no such trend was observed in the monthly or seasonal rainfall amounts recorded at ANGRAU research station at Rekulakunta in the district.Declining soil fertility and increased incidence of pests and diseases are the other two high ranking constraints. No major differences were observed in the perceptions across the villages or levels of education.  The mean annual rainfall at this location is 567 mm of which 62% occurs during the kharif (June to September) and 25% during rabi (October to December) seasons (Table 2). Annual rainfall varied from 175 to 990 mm with a coefficient of variation (CV) of 31%. The variability is much higher with seasonal rainfall. During the main kharif season rainfall varied between 117 and 857 mm with a CV of 45% while that during the rabi season varied between 10 and 378 mm with a CV of 60%. Rabi season rainfall is important for crops planted late during the kharif season, long duration crops such as pigeonpea which come to flowering and pod formation during rabi season and for crops such as chickpea sown in rabi season on black soils. The number of rainy days and weekly rainfall amounts were analysed to understand the distribution of rainfall during the crop season (Table 2). In this analysis, any day with 2 mm or more rain was considered as a rainy day.During the kharif season, number of rainy days varied between 10 and 39 with an average of 22.1 and that during rabi varied between 2 and 20 with an average of 10.4 days. This highlights the importance of distribution of rainfall during the 110-120 day crop growth period. Average weekly rainfall during kharif season is 20.3 mm but varied from nil to as high as 306 mm creating wet and dry periods of different length. Prolonged dry spells of 4weeks or longer occur in many years (Figure 3) impacting adversely the growth and productivity of most crops. This within and between the season variability in rainfall, generates high levels of uncertainty and risk. When faced with uncertainty and in the absence of more specific and relevant information, decision makers tend to make decisions based on their perceptions which are founded on casual observations. Such perceptions tend to be biased towards higher risk and the decisions made under their influence may not incorporate the true risk involved (Rao et al., 2012). Integrating true risk into decision making requires quantified information on risk and its consequences as well as possible options to manage it. One of the most widely used measures to quantify risk is the one based on probability distribution functions.Available evidence from experiments conducted at ANGRAU research station in Anantapur suggests that groundnut crop performs well in almost all seasons that receive at least 300 mm rain during the Kharif season. From the historical data the chance of getting the same is 58%, which is the true risk for groundnut production in this environment (Figure 4). Millets or short duration legume crops such as black gram or green gram require 200 mm rainfall and probability of getting the same during kharif season is 90%.Hence, depending on their risk taking ability farmers can make informed decision in selecting the crop(s) that best meets their requirement. Based on the FGDs, it is evident that farmers should harvest at least 1 t/ha to recover their investment and make profit from groundnut cultivation.Using system simulation model APSIM, simulation analysis was conducted to identify the minimum amount of rainfall required during the crop season to achieve one ton groundnut pod yield (Figure 5). Since the amount of rainfall required depends on plant available water holding capacity (PAWC) of the soil, simulations were carried out under a range of PAWC conditions. Resultsindicate that on a relatively deep soil with more than 100 mm PAWC, groundnut yields tend to be more than one ton in the seasons with 300 mm or more rain irrespective of its distribution. This requirement increased with decreasing PAWC of the soil and on a medium soil with 80 mm PAWC the amount of seasonal rainfall required to achieve the same yield increased to 350 mm. Distribution of rainfall, especially for the length and frequency of occurrence of dry spells, was assessed using weekly totals. A week with less than 10 mm rainfall and with no day during the week recording more than 5 mm is considered as dry week. The analysis is focused on the probability of occurrence of dry spells of four week or longer, which according to simulation analysis severely constrain the growth and performance of groundnut.Dry spells of four week or longer have occurred in 29 of the total 55 years or in 53% of the years. It is significant to note that most of these dry spells have occurred during the years in which kharif season rainfall is less than 350 mm. Of the 29 seasons with long dry spells, 22 or 76% of the seasons have occurred during the 32 years in which the amount of rainfall received during the season is less than 350 mm and the remaining 7 or 24% of the seasons have occurred in the 23 years that received more than 350 mm rainfall (Figure 6). This clearly establishes that the chance of getting a long dry spell of more than four week is much higher during the seasons in which rainfall is less than 350 mm compared to those with more than 350 mm.Further analysis of annual and seasonal rainfall totals showed no increasing or decreasing trend as perceived by farmers but the ten year moving coefficient of variation (CV) of seasonal rainfall showed an increasing trend during kharif season and declining trend during rabi season (Figure 7). The  Several studies have indicated that statistically significant inverse relationship exists between El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon and inter-annual variability of the Indian monsoon (Walker and Bliss, 1932;Gadgil et al., 2007;Kumar et al. 2006;Rajeevan andPai, 2007, Azad andRajeevan, 2016). Hence, most seasonal forecasts including the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) predictions use ENSO as one of the predictors (Rajeevan et al., 2006). An important feature of ENSO is its high predictability.The occurrence and intensity of El Nino or La Nina events is computed based on the magnitude and direction of change in parameters such as Oceanic Nino Index (ONI), Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and Sea Surface Temperature (SST). Though all indices predict the occurrence of ENSO events fairly well, they differ in predicting the intensity of the event. Based on the ONI, events are defined as warm (El Niño) events when five consecutive overlapping three month periods at or above the +0.5o anomaly and at or as cold (La Niña) events if ONI is below the -0.5 anomaly. The threshold is further broken down into Weak (with a 0.5 to 0.9 SST anomaly),Moderate (1.0 to 1.4), Strong (1.5 to 1.9) and Very Strong (≥ 2.0) events.  In general, depressed rainfall was recorded in the district during El Nino years while enhanced rainfall was recorded during La Nina Years (Figure 8).  Another important feature of El Nino and La Nina years is the occurrence of long dry spells of four week or longer duration (Figure 9). Using the criteria described above, distribution of dry spells of four weeks or longer were assessed for all those years that were classified as medium to strong El Nino or La Nina events by all the three indices. In the 14 El Nino years between 1962 and 2016, the chance of occurring a long dry spell of four weeks or longer is nearly 80% while the same in case of La Nina years is less than 15%.These trends in the amount and distribution of seasonal rainfall and dry spells and probabilities associated with them are valuable insights which when used in decision making contribute to substantial risk reduction. Though seasonal climate forecasts have the potential to serve as a basis especially for pre-season planning operations, the probabilistic nature of the information and relatively lower skill compared to short-term weather forecasts suggests the need for caution in using them. Despite these limitations, several studies across the world have shown that the available skill in SCF has the potential to make significant contribution to the planning and conducting farm operations with reduced risk (Hansen et al., 2011). In India, seasonal climate forecasts are issued by IMD in two stages -first stage in April/May and the second stage in June. These forecasts are prepared using the dynamical global climate forecasting system (CFS) model, which is an adopted version of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), USA. The first stage forecast predicts rainfall over the country as a whole while the second stage predicts seasonal rainfall over various geographical regions. Currently, efforts are on to provide forecasts at the block level.We have analysed block level forecasts generated on an experimental basis by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) and by the Extended Range Forecasts System (ERFS) for their usefulness in planning farm operations in Anantapur (Figure 10) district. The available forecasts from 1985 to 2016 were compared with actual rainfall during that season. The forecast skill was assessed based on the outcome of the decisions made using the forecast than on the amount of deviation between predicted and observed. For example, during 1988, 1989 and 2007, actual rainfall is much higher than the amount predicted by ERFS downscaled forecasts. Since higher rainfall in these environments will have no negative impact on the performance of cops and farmers are not expected to suffer any loss on their investment, such forecasts are considered as useful. The chance of suffering a loss on investments is high in case the predicted rainfall is less than the actual rainfall, as is the case in 2003.Since the season must receive a minimum of 300 mm rainfall to achieve the breakeven yield of 1 t/ha groundnut yield, we used this as a threshold value to assess the skill in the SCFs. In general, the downscaled forecasts from IITM were found to overestimate the wet seasons compared to ERFS forecasts which tend to overestimate the dry seasons. Of the 16 years that were predicted to get more than 300 mm rainfall by the IITM methodology, the forecast was found to be true in 10 years (Figure 10). Similarly, ERFS system predicted below normal conditions in 20 years with six misses. The important feature of ERFS predictions is that, though it missed to predict correctly the above normal rainfall in 6 years, its prediction of below normal season has only one miss. With only one miss out of 32 forecasts, ERFS forecasts are considered to be well suited for decision making especially by the risk averse farmers since the possibility to lose on the investments is extremely low. Based on the results from the above analysis, a decision tree was developed to support important pre-season planning decisions that included which crop to grow, which cropping system to adopt, how much land to allocate to identified crops and systems and what inputs to be purchased or prepared for. Since the outcome of all these decisions depends on the expected seasonal conditions, informed decision making requires a realistic expectation of the seasonal conditions. The decision tree for pre-season planning is focused on this.Analysis of 55 years climatic data has indicated that there is a 58% probability to get 300 mm or more rain during kharif season. This probability has changed substantially when the years were grouped using the seasonal climate forecast and occurrence and strength of ENSO events. Using the downscaled SCF from IITM and ERFS, the years were grouped into two based on whether the predicted rainfall is more or less than 300 mm. Of the 25 years for which IITM downscaled forecasts are available, 12 years were forecasted to get more and 13 years to get less than 300 mm. Similarly, of the 32 years for which ERFS forecasts are available, 12 years were predicted to get more and 20 years less than 300 mm (Table 4). The probability to get 300 mm rain in each of these groups is significantly different and varied from 0% in the years forecasted to get less than 300 mm rain with El Nino conditions to 100% in the years forecasted to get more than 300 mm with a La Nina event. Hence, the seasons forecasted to get above normal rainfall with La Nina type conditions are least risky and those forecasted to get below normal rainfall with El Nino conditions are highly risky for groundnut cultivation. To facilitate the decision making, a decision tree was developed with SCFs and ENSO conditions as internal nodes (Figure 11). The test conditions at these nodes are amount of rainfall expected based on the SCF and presence or absence of El Nino or La Nina phase. This guides the decision maker to pick the most optimal scenario from the four possible scenarios and make decisions based on the risk level associated with that scenario. Using the outcome of FGDs and expert opinions, which identified a number of different crop and management options that are best suited to each of the four types of seasons, a short advisory that is convenient to send through SMS or share in social sites like facebook, twitter and google+ was developed. Below are the messages relevant for the four scenarios that the decision tree analysis leads to.Message 1. Above normal seasons with La Nina conditions: These type of years receive more than 600 mm rain during June-September and tend to be very good seasons for most crops, including groundnut. Long dry spells of four weeks or more are not common (p<0.14) and there is a good possibility of high rainfall during September and October. An intercrop of groundnut with pigeonpea in the ratio of 3 to 5:1 is a good option. There is also a good potential for rice under wells with limited irrigation and cotton as rainfed crop in high water holding soils.These type of years generally receive more than 400 mm during June-September and are well suited for most crops, including groundnut. Rainfall is generally well distributed with less than 17% probability of dry spells of four weeks or more. Good rainfall is also expected during September and October in some years. Intercrop of groundnut with pigeonpea in the ratio of 5:1 is a good option. It is also a potential season to allocate a part of the land to cotton and other commercial crops.These type of years receive depressed rainfall, and average rainfall during these years tend to be less than 250 mm which is inadequate for most crops. There is a very high chance (75%) of a dry spell of 4 weeks or longer. Consider planting a mix of crops to minimize risk. It is advisable to allocate up to 50% of the farm to drought tolerant crops. Use a row ratio of 7:1 or higher if planning a groundnut pigeonpea intercrop.During these type of years, average rainfall during kharif (June-September) tends to be less than 300 mm. There is 44% or higher chance of getting a dry spell of 4 weeks or longer, leading to severe reduction in the yield potential of various crops. It is advisable to allocate at least 25% of the farm to drought tolerant crops.In-season crop management is another important componet of rainfed agriculture since the poerformance of crops is significantly influenced by the timeliness and precision with which various operations from land prepareation to harvesting are carried out. Most of these operations are influenced by the start and progress of the rainy season. Initially, a scenario analysis was conducted to identify the best planting time, plant population and cropping systems using APSIM with historical climate data. Simulations were conducted with three representative soil types classified as deep (PAWC = 118 mm and OC in 0-15 cm layer = 0.31%), medium (PAWC= 80 mm and OC in 0-15 cm layer = 0.21%) and shallow (PAWC = 45 mm and OC = 0.31%). Locally popular groundnut variety TMV 2 was used in the simulations. We used the version calibrated by Nageswara Rao et al. (2004) for this location.Optimum planting time was identified by setting up fortnightly sowing windows from the beginning of June to end of August. Planting was done on any day within the window after receiving 30 mm or more rain over a period not exceeding five days. Groundnut planted between the second fortnight of July and first fortnight of August gave best yields, especially on medium and shallow soils which constitute majority of the soil types in this region (Figure 12). On deep soils, planting up to the end of August is feasible. Planting earlier than 15 July is not a preferred option. In this area September is the wettest month and is best suited for pegging and pod formation. Groundnut planted during the first fortnight of July or earlier fails to make use of these favourable conditions.Faced with uncertainty, farmers tend to go for planting with the earliest opportunity that occurs after the onset of monsoon in the month of June. This is not a good practice since groundnut planted during this period performs poorly (Figure 13). Two factors are responsible for this. First, the hot dry summer period from March to May, during which temperatures in excess of 40 0 C are common, dries the soil close to air dry moisture limits.Planting with first rains in the month of June without giving time to build profile moisture will face severe moisture stress in case planting is followed by a dry spell of one or two weeks. Second, June planted crops come to flowering in August, during which time the probability of occurrence of a dry spell is very high and this adversely impacts the pegging and grain formation. Hence, it is advisable to skip planting in June though farmers in the region prefer it, perhaps influenced more by the fear of losing a crop season than by the actual performance of the crop.In the moisture stressed areas, crop yields are strongly influenced by planting density. In case of groundnut cultivation, seed cost constitutes nearly 30% of the total cost of production. Hence, optimizing plant density is one of the options to reduce cost of cultivation and utilize available soil moisture efficiently. The effect plant population on groundnut yields on deep, medium and shallow soils was assessed by simulating the performance of groundnut under a range of plant densities between 200 and 450 K plants/ha with a spacing of 30 cm between rows. The response of groundnut yield to increasing plant population was different on different soils and during different season types. In the seasons during which amount of rainfall is less than 300 mm, plant density above 300 K plants/ha showed no benefit on all types of soils (Figure 14). In the seasons with more than 300 mm rainfall, yields responded positively to increased plant density, up to a density of 400 k/ha on deep soil. On medium and shallow soils, the increase in yield with plant populations higher than 300K/ha is marginal. Though groundnut-pigeonpea intercropping is the most favoured system, farmers make adjustments to the row ratios of main and intercrop depending on time of planting. When planted during the optimal planting window, farmers plant one row of pigeonpea for every five rows of groundnut which will be increased to seven rows of groundnut with delayed planting. The performance of groundnut-pigeonpea intercrop system under different row ratios was assessed using APSIM. The simulation analysis has indicated that groundnut performed better in years with less than 300 mm rain during the season and pigeonpea did well in the years that received more than 300 mm rain (Figure 15). Most of these seasons which received less than 300 mm are shortened seasons either due to delayed onset or early cessation. During the 17 week rainy season, from standard meteorological week no 23 (4-10 Jun) to 39 (24-30 Sep), the probability of receiving 10 mm or more rain during a week exceeds 50% in only four weeks and CV of weekly rainfall is always greater than 100 for all weeks during this period (Figure 16). Such high variability introduces lot of uncertainty and makes decision making extremely challenging. gauges distributed all over the state with at least one gauge in every 100 km2. The data from these weather stations is accessible through internet (http://www.apsdps.ap.gov.in/pages/weather_observations/automatic_we ather_station.html). Also available are the weekly weather forecasts at block level and bi-weekly outlooks at district level from IMD which are regularly updated and made available through their web site. Together, they make it possible to assess weather conditions over a three week period reliably which when integrated with decision making can assist in planning of various operations.Time of planting is one of the key decisions that farmers have to make after the onset of monsoon to achieve good yields. Early planting without allowing time to accumulate sufficient moisture in the soil profile can lead to poor establishment or sometimes complete failure when planting is followed by a dry spell of two week or longer. Using the same decision tree approach, a week by week decision matrix that can guide decision makers towards making balanced and well-reasoned decisions from planting to harvesting was developed. The decision tree is based on rainfall during the past week, forecast for the next week and outlook for the next two weeks leading to eight possible scenarios every week. Each scenario will lead to a decision which is captured and sent as a short message. An example decision matrix for the meteorological weeks 23 (4-10 June) and 24 (11-17 June) is presented in Figure 17 and associated messages in Figure 18. The threshold values used to test the condition are based on results from simulation analysis. Generally, planting and other operations are conducted based on moisture content in the soil. However, considering the high variability and associated difficulties in making accurate estimates of real time soil moisture, rainfall is used as a surrogate measure of soil moisture. Under rainfed conditions, rainfall is the only source of soil moisture and there exists a good relationship between amount of rainfall and soil moisture content. Similar decision trees were constructed for all weeks during the main cropping period from June to October and the decision tree for a specific week focuses on activities that are expected to be carried out in that week. The content of the message linked to eight possible scenarios every week changes to cover the key decisions that are to be made during that week, location and crops of interest to the registered farmers. The portal was configured to compose messages in local languages and send automatically to the corresponding recipients based on their locations (Figure 20). The messages are customized at mandal levels and all farmers registered to that mandal receive the same set of advisories. The dashboard is flexible enough to handle even finer grained separation, for example village level. The configuration settings for the tool allows the user to perform the following operations and the same can be altered from the dash board. Threshold settings: to configure the weekly thresholds and override them if needed  Message settings: to configure the exact message in any language which needs to be sent to a recipient, based on the decision tree  Mappings: to bind the messages to the nodes of the decision tree  Outlook Settings: to configure the short term outlooks to the decision tree.The dashboard sends out automated message every Friday, based on the rhythm decided upon. The messages are picked from the message configuration setting as described above. The admin group has an option to edit the message before sending it out to the farmers. The dashboard is linked to an information dissemination system that includes a list of farmers registered to receive the messages with details about their mobile number, village, mandal and district. The list of farmers can be edited and modified from the 'Farmer' tab on the portal. This is maintained under more stringent administrative control to make sure that the correct message reaches to the correct farmer based on his/her location.ISAT was field tested at four locations in Anantapur district to assess the was made to conduct gender disaggregated analysis. This low level of women participation is a true reflection of the conditions in the district. In these areas, participation of women in decision making is extremely low.However, most farmers indicated that within the household women make significant contribution while making various decisions including those related to farm management. Further, most women do not own or have access to mobile phone.In general, the system worked very well by delivering messages regularly to 95% of the registered farmers (Table 7). In the case of remaining small percent of farmers, the failure is mainly due to the type of mobile phone and the way message inboxes were configured. Most mobiles owned by farmers are very old basic models with limited storage. Some of these mobiles were not set to automatically overwrite older messages when the inbox is full. This affected the delivery of new messages when old messages were not deleted from inbox. This problem was fixed by making required changes to settings with help from a local service provider. Among other problems, splitting the messages into two or more messages while delivering the original message was experienced by some farmers. This is partly due to the use of local language whose word or character count tend to be higher compared to that in English. Because of this, the original message was spilt into two or more messages as per the character limit set by the service provider. This splitting is arbitrary and the resultant messages are not clearly understood unless they are put together to read as one message. Nearly 79% of the farmers are satisfied with the weekly frequency of the messages and with updates coming on every Friday which is also the day on which IMD releases its weekly weather forecast. In terms of clarity and understandability of the messages, 89% of the farmers felt that the messages are clear and easy to understand. However, some differences were observed between the expectations of farmers and the issues covered by the messages. While most farmers, about 78%, felt that the messages are covering all major issues relevant at that time, some farmers felt that the messages have no information about the management of mango and other horticultural crops and about the occurrence and management of pests and diseases. Lack of information on horticultural crops is understandable since the focus is on annual field crops. However, the demand for information on pests and diseases is extremely high but there are serious challenges in meeting this demand. There is a possibility to send general alerts about possible pest and disease scenarios based on climatic conditions such as prolonged wet and dry periods but their reliability is very low. Sending frequent alerts with low probability of success, will impact adversely the reliability and acceptability of the entire system. Hence, no efforts were made to incorporate pest and disease alerts in ISAT generated messages.Major differences were observed in the opinions expressed by farmers from AES and ABS villages. While more than 93% farmers from AES villages are satisfied with the coverage of issues, 61-65% farmers from ABS villages have expressed satisfaction. Similar differences were also observed in the rating of clarity and understandability of the messages. This highlights the need to create awareness and enhance capacity of end users to understand and use the information provided.End user perception about reliability of the information provided is one of the essential performance parameters, since acceptance and utilization of the information largely depends on it. Across the villages, 72% of the farmers rated the information provided through short messages is highly reliable and useful while another 19% rated it as acceptable (Table 8). This rating of reliability is based on the observations farmers have made by comparing the advance information received through SMS at the beginning of the week with actual conditions during the week. About 58% of the farmers rated the information as \"mostly correct\" or \"correct 75% of the times\" and another 33% rated it as \"correct more than 50% of the times\".This observation reflects the farmer's practical experience rather than systematic assessment. Since the opinions are captured immediately after the season, they are considered to be more unbiased and credible. Since much of the information in the advisory is based on climate and weather forecasts, the reliability scoring given by farmers is a direct reflection of forecast skill. Though the forecasts are not accurate, the good rating given by farmers is a clear indication that the current skill is useful in decision making. For example, before start of the season and SCF was made available, 58% of the farmers were expecting a poor season (Table 9).Majority of these farmers (68%) have indicated that their expectation is based on the poor rainfall during the previous season which they expected to repeat. After climate forecast from IMD, which predicted a normal rainfall, was made available 86% of these farmers changed their opinion and expected a more favourable season than they were anticipating initially.One of the main reasons for changing their expectation is that the forecast is more scientific compared to local information which is based on beliefs and unscientific measures. In the end season survey, 74% of the farmers rated the season as good compared to 12% before the start of the season and only 6% of all farmers rated the season as poor which is a substantial drop from 58% at the start of the season. The mandal level weekly rainfall forecasts from two sources, IMD and \"aWhere\", were also evaluated by comparing the predicted and observed rainfall amounts for sixteen weeks starting from 26th week (25 Jun-1 Jul), except for the weeks 37 (10-16 Sep) and 38 (17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23) for which forecast data is missing. Though there is no one to one match between the amount of rainfall forecasted and actual rainfall during that week, the forecasts were able to provide a reasonable indication about the type of wet or dry conditions that can be expected over the coming week (Figure 21). It is important to note that the comparison is between the site based observation and grid based forecast. Comparison of daily cumulative rainfall amounts also confirm the close relationship between the trends in observed and forecasted (one day advance) rainfall amounts. However, major deviations were observed in case of heavy rainfall forecasts. The opinions expressed by farmers about reliability of the information provided through SMS highlights how imperfect information can be used as a basis for informed decision making and derive benefits. During the pre-season FGDs, only 3% of the farmers have indicated that the forecast information is reliable and useful in making decisions related to planning and management of their farm activities.However, more than 90% of the same group of farmers rated the forecast based advisory as reliable and useful. This is a highly significant change in the attitude of the farmers towards climate information brought by their exposure and awareness about the uncertainties and limitations associated with climate information and by the practical experience gained by using the information. Such attitude changes will have far-reaching consequences by changing the way in which farmers make decisions and conduct various operations.Since the value of advisory depends on its contribution to make better decisions, attempts were made to capture the same in both mid and end season surveys. The mid-season survey collected information about the type of crops planted, time of planting and area planted to each crop. In this area time of planting is one of the most important operation and major differences were observed in the way planting was carried out by farmers in treatment and control villages. Most farmers in the treatment villages planted the crop within the optimal planting window while those from control villages planted either very early as in Kalyandurg and Kanaganapalli or late as in Gooty (Figure 22). Another contrasting feature is the difference in the period during which the planting was carried out. In control villages planting was done over a long period of time compared to treatment villages in which more than 80% of the farmers completed the sowings over a short period of 2-3 days. In case of Singanamala, most farmers planted castor which is a long duration drought tolerant crop and it is generally planted using the earliest planting opportunity.These results clearly establish that farmers planting decisions are influenced by the information provided through advisories.  10). While almost all farmers in the AES villages of Gubanapalli and Turkapalli have used the information in planning various operations, the utilization is low in case of ABS villages. About 46% of the farmers from Ramapuram and 79%from West Narasapuram have used the information. Among the operations, more than 66% farmers used the information in planning harvesting and 57% used it in scheduling spraying and fertilizer applications. Though a significant difference was observed in the sowing pattern between treatment and control villages, only 46% farmers have indicated that their sowing decision was influenced by the advisory. The percentage is especially low in case of West Narasapuram where most farmers planted castor.Advisory has least influence in conducting land preparation, which is understandable since most farmers will prepare the land irrespective of the type of season and crop to plant. To get an idea about the level of advisory influence on the final decision, farmers were asked to indicate the same on a scale of 0-100%, where 0%indicates no influence and 100% indicates that the decision is entirely based on the advisory. Farmers have a difficulty in responding to this mainly due to the difficulty in separating the contribution of advisory information from that of their own rationale or influence of information from other sources.With help from the enumerators, farmers were able to make some indication about potential contribution of advisory. Majority of the farmers have rated the contribution of advisory as 50% or more and much of this is on timing the operation (Table 11). Another approach we tried to assess the farmer perceived value of the advisory is by gauging their continued interest in receiving the messages and by getting an idea about the value they attach to the advisory based on the observed benefits. In case of farmers interested to continue with the program, the level of interest was assessed by asking them to select one of the three options provided. The first option is for farmers who are fully convinced about the value of the information and certainly want to continue to receive the advisories. The second option is for those farmers who are convinced with the value of the information and interested in receiving the advisories but at no cost. The third option includes those farmers who believe that the information is useful but do not mind missing the advisories. About 96% of the farmers have indicated their interest in continuing with the program and receive the messages (Table 12). While 91% of them selected the first two options, 5% opted for the third. These differences are also reflected in the perceived value of the information which is the portion of the income earned during the season that they   entered the active growing period. In case of control village, farmers missed this opportunity by planting 10-15 days late (Figure 23). In case of Kalyanadurg mandal, farmers from control village started planting very early in the season and the planting continued for more than a month. The plots which were planted very early in the season faced severe stress during the prolonged dry spell that followed sowing. In the treatment village, most farmers planted groundnut in the second week of July after receiving 40 mm rainfall and benefitted by the good rainfall that followed. The small negative difference in the yields achieved by farmers in the control and treatment villages of Kanganapalli mandal reflects the very similar planting pattern followed by farmers in these villages (Figure 23). Though a 38% higher increase in groundnut yield was recorded in the treatment village over control village in Singanamala mandal, the total area under groundnut in the treatment village is very low. In this village most farmers planted castor and the area planted to groundnut accounted less than 12% of the total 543 ac planted during the season. As indicated earlier, the decision to plant castor was influenced by the failure of groundnut crop during the past four seasons and recommendation by the local agencies. This highlights the importance of informed decision making. Most farmers who followed this advice failed to capitalize on the season since castor is not a profitable options during the seasons that receive normal or above normal rainfall.Hence, empowering farmers to make informed decisions by providing the required information will be more appropriate and effective over prescriptive extension which is directive and rigid.Though planting time seems to be the major contributor to the observed differences in yields achieved by farmers in the control and treatment villages, the contribution of climate information in conducting operations such as scheduling fertilizer and pesticide applications cannot be ignored.The benefits from these and from timely harvesting may not reflect in the production or productivity figures, but contribute significantly to the grain and stalk quality whose value cannot be assessed precisely. Also difficult to measure are benefits accrued from risk reduction and change in the attitude towards managing climate induced uncertainties.Considering various tangible and intangible benefits, farmers were asked to rank the usefulness of climate information in planning and managing agricultural systems on a scale 1-5, where 5 represents highest level of benefits. More than 87% of the farmers rated the service by assigning 3 or higher score with an average score of 3.3. About 86% of the farmers gave a rating of 3 and 4 while 13% farmers rated it as 1 and 2 (Figure 23). Most of the farmers who gave a low score are the farmers who are concentrating on irrigated component of their farm or involved with cultivation of mango and other perennial tree crops which are not covered by the advisory. Though the average score of 3.3 is good, it does not reflect well the significant benefits that the farmers gained. This probably is an indication of the difference between their expectations and those realized. To meet their expectations fully, the advisories should be tailored to meet the full needs and requirements of individual farmers. Given the diversity of smallholder farmers, meeting individual farmer requirements is a formidable challenge.However, there are opportunities to improve the current system and provide farmer specific advises. This change in the attitude of farmers towards the role of climate information will have far-reaching consequences on the way farmers make decisions and conduct operations.Climate services also play an important role in reducing biases or influences of certain extreme events and make decision making more realistic. The case of Singanamala is an example of this. In this village farmers decided to","tokenCount":"8647"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9829048072.json b/data/part_1/9829048072.json
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..501a89a4e27ac04586d1e03c8658d199cf0a255e
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8b9bbbd667d4edaf6c5b51ecf65c4243","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/de9db06f-9590-4922-aead-62740a68d275/content","id":"945291790"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"68d8aa16-34e2-4e2b-833a-01a2cba7086c","pagecount":"1","content":"At the coaJ'cmw:e io Rio de Janeiro in 1992 'su.stainablc 1griculture' was postulated as the means to mC'd the Deed for food or •ri-.roximutdy 9 .7 billion rcorlc hy 2030 (World Bank, 1992). Breeding o( low-input varieties i.t c<>Midc:Rd of great promise i r associal&:d with im(ll\"OVOmcnu io management t«lmiquca.At present. pr05f><CIS or hiihcr productiviiy through i.ocrcasing use or rcrtilizc:a ond pesticides, new varieties and moJcrn agrieullllral monagcment l<x:hniqucs ore not exliaustcd (Evans. 1987). In the Northcm lnJian s lit.cs Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and 11.aryana nc:irly by 50% 56 Mio. t (l' AO 1993) or lhc 10ta1 wheat production in India is proo.htccd with high input levels. However, problems due to dccrusiog soil Ccrtility, loss of soil structure:. leaching or Ccrliliz.er and incrca.•ing rc:si..wicc lo pe<licidcs is bo-con1ing man: evident. The LMl>r\"tb1lity or a rlunt lo rutun: rcduL1iun.• in in(lUL• is lhcrcfote gaining in impot1ancc. /\\ coll:.boralion between the Dcpartmmt or J>l:.nt Breeding, lloryona Agncultural University at llisar/lndia aad the ln.<titute of /\\groaomy in the Trapics ( IA1)1Gc:rmany was initialed in 1991. The aim was to evaluate the adopuition o f summer whc.>t gcnotypes (Trilicwm usth'IUn L ) to drought conditi~. The role of the root system and the inrection or the roolS by the indigenow arb...culw myeorrhizal rungi (/\\MF) porulalion in cfficiml nulri<..-nt and waler upbkc was LDvestigalal by LLDdcrtalting several field expcrimcnts..  1970) 111d uprcssc:J as rcn:cntago or root iofectioa (Giovandti and MO&SC, 1980).The The carbon isocopc di.scriminatioa ( 6) was nccatively correlated (r=-0.37') wilh root lalglh (Fig. 2) and positively correlated with aboveground biomau (0.42 .. ) md grain yield (0.43 .. ) al high and ~uced rcrtiliz« inp.it W>Jer restricted irrigatioa (Fig. 3). Si.occ A is known to be strongly negatively concbl.cd with WUE. il appears that A may be used as an eO'cc:tive selection aitaia for adaf>'ive pbeaotypic traits.The A-value or a gccotype wilh aa i.otcnsivc root system but with a low grain yield QI ofteo found IO be die same u a gcnotype havi.og a small root system but high abc>veground biomass. IA thal case A JCCms to be a useful ac:l- ","tokenCount":"348"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9872645634.json b/data/part_1/9872645634.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e8fead373f33eb6030cc6ea762edb8df845e0093
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9879786836.json b/data/part_1/9879786836.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b0dd88ab1686ee435785da5e5de91678d954e77e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/9879786836.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"23a77aae28201cdb4f65335cdfd99e00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/64063baf-9037-4f84-8e24-100e5586c671/retrieve","id":"615985412"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dd662978-9065-44c5-af73-68a5b2022ad2","pagecount":"1","content":"In the last decade there has been a significant increase in the efforts to improve the nutritional quality of different crops. With the support of HarvestPlus, CIAT and other institutions developed and implemented a rapid cycling recurrent selection scheme to increase total carotenoids content (TCC) and total b-carotene (TBC) in cassava roots.The breeding scheme takes advantage of the high heritability of the traits to improve. Selection was made at the seedling stage when only one plant (from germinated botanical seeds) per genotype is available. Selected genotypes were cloned and planted in crossing blocks the following season which lasted for a year and a half. Each cycle of selection, therefore, lasted two or three years (Figure 1). All measurements are reported on a fresh weight basis (unless otherwise stated). Year-to-year results suggested continuous gains. However, these comparisons are affected by year to year variation. Therefore, a replicated trial in two locations was planted with the best five clones from each seedling nursery from 2004 to 2010 were grown side by side for comparison. Plants were harvested from eight to eleven months after planting. However average results will be presented here.Ten years ago maximum TCC levels were around 8-10 μg/g, whereas those for TBC were around 5-6 μg/g. Maximum levels of TCC now have surpassed 25 μg/g and the nutritional goal of 15 μg/g for TBC has been reached. Results indicated statistically significant gains to increase TCC and TBC (0.904 and 0.542 μg/g per year, respectively). Interestingly data from the original seedling nurseries on sexual seed (Table 1) and in the replicated trial in 2011 based on clonned materials: 5 highest carotene content by year (Table 2) suggest that improvement of the nutritional quality can be accomplished while maintaining (or even increasing) dry matter content (DMC) in the roots. DMC (%) TCCSPEC (μg g -1 FW) TCCHPLC (μg g -1 FW) TBC (μg g -1 FW) TCCDW (μg g -1 DW) ","tokenCount":"319"}
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diff --git a/data/part_1/9888014097.json b/data/part_1/9888014097.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..629ea4eb5a400ddd6d0e433623161b5057e710bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data/part_1/9888014097.json
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f5b63976e6998f072935e108eacf3a90","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ba4ae3bd-7bf5-41f9-9857-19ab339e4954/retrieve","id":"-469729579"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6e13a836-6305-4826-bfe2-117eee4a4c6b","pagecount":"52","content":"T he Inter-University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) is a strategic institution of the East African Community (EAC) responsible for the development and coordination of higher education and research in the region. The EAC considers higher education as critical for the attainment of socio-economic development and regional integration. As such, after having been recognised as the surviving institution of the former Community responsible for coordinating the networking of universities in the region, IUCEA assumed a broader role as a building block for the achievement of sustainable socioeconomic development and regional integration. In that regard, the mission of IUCEA now focuses on the promotion of strategic and sustainable development of higher education systems and research for supporting East Africa's socio-economic development and regional integration. The IUCEA has set its vision to become the leading EAC Institution for an exemplary Common Higher Education Area for a prosperous and sustainable East African Community.Hence, in 2006 IUCEA initiated a process aimed at harmonising regional quality assurance by establishing a common East African quality assurance framework, regional quality assurance office at the IUCEA Secretariat, and setting regional higher education benchmarks quality standards based on internationally recognised frameworks. The process would also prepare a user-friendly quality assurance handbook based on existing national benchmarks and systems and streamline national and institutional quality assurance systems according to the local perspectives with the aim of promoting international competitiveness of universities in East Africa.The initiative also focused on capacity building through providing appropriate training on the implementation of the quality assurance system to staff in universities and national commissions and councils for higher education in the Partner States. It is linked to the establishment of a regional qualifications framework. It was anticipated that the regional qualifications framework would facilitate harmonisation of education and training systems, and qualifications thereby clearly indicating the programme learning outcomes, the different qualification levels, credit system and recognition of prior learning, among others.Therefore, the framework would easily facilitate mutual recognition of qualifications across the region as envisioned in the EAC Common Market Protocol. All these interventions contributed significantly in transforming East African Community into a Common Higher Education Area, a declaration that was made by the 18th Summit of the EAC Heads of State on 20th May 2017.In developing the regional quality assurance system for higher education in East Africa, IUCEA in collaboration with the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Germany Rectors' Conference (HRK) within the framework of their joint Higher Education Management support programme referred to as \"Dialogue on Innovative Higher Education Strategies (DIES)\", started to work on this initiative through a consultative process involving various stakeholders of higher education in the region. The process involved holding several consultative meetings and workshops at country and regional levels, aimed at building consensus and mapping out a strategy on how to establish a regional quality assurance framework. This included the development of an operational tool in the form of a Quality Assurance Handbook. The consultative forums were also aimed at ensuring that all performance indicators and quality benchmarks were agreed upon and owned by all end-user institutions.Additionally, IUCEA intended to develop more specific-subject benchmarks as part of the tools for the harmonisation of academic programmes offered in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in the region. The first benchmarks developed were for Bachelor of Business-related Studies. Subsequently, benchmarks were developed for the Bachelor of Computer Science and Bachelor of Information Technology; Bachelor of Science in Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal Science, Food Science and Technology; Bachelor of Education Programmes; Medicine (MD/MBChB) and Dentistry Programmes (DDS/BDS). Other programme benchmarks in several disciplines including Sports Sciences are at different stages of development and approval. This publication contains benchmarks for Bachelor of Science in Food Safety. The benchmarks for the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety were developed through a consultative process involving experts from universities, industry, government agencies among other partners. The draft document was subjected to the IUCEA quality assurance processes and was approved by the Executive Committee on 4th July 2022.On behalf of the IUCEA secretariat, it is my sincere hope and expectation that the higher education fraternity in the region will make use of these benchmarks in all educational processes and world of work to ensure that our programmes are relevant and of expected quality. Over the years, IUCEA has developed a Regional Quality Assurance System that seeks to harmonise the quality of higher education in East Africa. The development of benchmarks is therefore an important component of this System in the harmonisation of the training in the Higher Education Institutions. The Regional Quality Assurance System is one of the key pillars in the realisation of the East African Common Higher Education Area.The benchmarks for Bachelor of Science in Food Safety contained herein have been developed as one of the set milestones for the development of programme benchmarks. The main objective of benchmark in food safety is to provide a baseline for comparability of the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety and their graduates within and outside the East Africa Community by harmonising practice in the region. The benchmarks developed are not prescriptive nor absolute standards but serve as a yardstick or a point of reference for curriculum programme developers. This document has been structured into three (3) parts:• Part 1 presents the background, objectives, and the justification of need for the benchmarks in food safety. It also articulates the benchmarks development process.• Part 2 shows the use of benchmarks. Specifically, benchmarks and qualifications, benchmarks and curriculum design and benchmarks and quality assurance.• Part 3 provides the details of the programme in food safety focusing on the gaols, expected learning outcomes, the course content for Bachelor of Science in Food Safety.There has been an exponential increase in demand for access to higher education in the East African region. This increase has been attributed to the rapid growth in population and the growing need for higher education qualifications in the labour market. Such increase has led to growth of students' enrolment which is not matched to the available educational resources and has constrained the quality of provision of higher education. In addition, the liberation of higher education led to increased trend of privatization of higher education provision with some private players paying less attention to quality. As a result, the debate for the need for QA in higher education is gaining prominence among all stakeholders, including policy makers, parents, employers, and students. It is also recognized that different partner states have put mechanisms to regulate quality and standards through the Higher Education Councils and Commissions. However, the need to coordinate and harmonize efforts towards regional quality assurance has necessitated the expansion of IUCEA mandate to establish and maintain high and comparable academic standards in higher education across the region. To this end, IUCEA has put in place mechanisms to promote quality assurance and quality management.In recent years, there has been a tremendous increase in student and staff mobility in the region which has triggered the need to institute mechanisms for comparability of the quality of education in universities in East Africa. For comparability of quality of education to be made possible, there is need for comparable programmes of study and competences. It is therefore imperative that programme benchmarks are developed to facilitate comparability of programmes of study. The development of the benchmarks on food safety seeks to popularize food safety as a fully-fledged academic programme and also achieve harmonized training programmes.The Bachelor of Science in Food Safety benchmarks follows a similar framework of benchmarks developed by IUCEA. The Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programme benchmarks were developed by IUCEA in collaboration and support of ILRI and the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).The objectives of the food safety benchmarks are to:i. act as a guide and tool for the HEIs in designing the curriculum for Bachelor of Science in Food Safety.ii. enable the National Commissions and Councils for higher education to assess the quality of the Bachelor of Science in Food Safetyiii. promote harmonization of the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programmes in the region.iv. support staff and student mobility within food safety programmes in the region.v. enhance the mobility of food safety professionals within the region in accordance with the EAC Common Market Protocol.vi. guide the labor market in making informed decisions regarding the quality and employability of food safety graduates vii. contribute to the capacity development a of recognizable food safety teaching workforce in the region It should be noted that these benchmarks are output rather than learning processoriented, focusing more on expected learning outcomes. Specifically, the outcomes are skewed towards the building of competencies by emphasizing on learner centred pedagogies. The process of ensuring commensurate curriculum content, pedagogy and assessment for the achievement of the learning outcomes is left to the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and to individual National Commissions and Councils for Higher Education.Food safety is a global concern as food security cannot be achieved without access to safe and nutritious food. It is important to address food safety challenges in the region to reduce costs in public health due to foodborne disease burden, improve trade and social development.The public health cost due to food borne disease burden globally has been estimated by WHO  The cost of consumption of unsafe food is high for low and middle-income countries.The cost is often felt in different forms which may be socio economical. In Sub-Saharan Africa alone, the loss of productivity has been estimated at 16.7 billion dollars a year. For instance, the EAC countries; Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, the cost in 2019 has been estimated at 800, 600 and 400 million dollars annually respectively. Further, the costs of treatment of the illness incurred is approximated at 15 billion dollars a year 1 . The cost of intangibles associated with foodborne diseases such as preventing foodborne diseases from occurring, disruptions in markets, could increase these values considerably. In the East African Community these costs of real burden are underestimated due to high predominance of unregulated domestic (informal) markets and poor reporting.Food safety is a critical aspect in enhancing fair trade and market access. The AU Malabo declaration projected a threefold growth in intra-African trade in agricultural commodities by 2025 . Food Safety assurance of the traded food commodities is integral to the realization of this commitment. In the second round of African Union biennial peer review process of 2020, the AU added the food safety index signifying the importance of food safety in trade between African countries. For food safety assurance of traded food commodities to be made possible, there is need for food inspectorate service. In the EAC, the number of food safety inspectors varies and thus not well distributed across the food value chains. In addition, the food safety inspectors are concentrated largely in the export and high-end markets in food commodities. Food safety experts in the region estimated that for animal source foods, fruits and vegetables intended for export and high-end domestic markets, the probability of products being inspected range from 1 in 100 to 1in 1; while the same products destined for domestic markets (informal), the probability of these being inspected range from 1:100 to 1: 1000 . For the EAC to participate effectively in the global and other regional food commodity trade and lower the public health costs associated with food borne diseases, food safety professionals are urgently needed to manage the complex food value chains.In cognizance of the above, the IUCEA in conjunction with ILRI, FAO and other stakeholders undertook to a process to develop benchmarks in food safety. The Bachelor of Science in Food Safety is designed to respond to global, regional and national quests for provision of safe food by developing capacities and competences of the food safety professionals.The development of the benchmarks for the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety has undergone several discussions and dialogue meetings among different stakeholders. These meetings were informed by the outputs of a number of projects including Safe Food Fair Food in informal markets by ILRI and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in Veterinary Public Health by FAO in 2009 and 2012 respectively.These projects showed that there was a gap in knowledge and practices on food safety in both formal and informal markets. The meetings identified strategies on how to close the gaps and this in turn led into development of CPD modules to build capacity of lower-level cadres. However, it was later realized that the CPDs were not sufficient to produce the kind of professionals needed. To remedy this, in a meeting in 2019 held in Addis Ababa between ILRI and FAO and attended by International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), University of Laval, Canada and four food safety Experts from Universities in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, it was agreed that a fully-fledged Bachelor of Science in Food Safety benchmarks are developed. The benchmarks are expected to also be relevant for any tertiary course covering food safety.The meeting requested a review of programs in the EAC universities on the teaching of food safety. This document showed that there was no undergraduate program on food safety but courses (modules) relevant to food safety were being taught in programs such as veterinary Medicine, Food Science and Technology, Nutrition, hospitality management, and animal and crop science across all the regional universities . This signifies that the human capacity to train food safety professional already exists within the region and in addition, Postgraduate programs are available in a number of universities.Following consultation with the EAC desk on Development and Social Sectors, ILRI was guided to contact the Inter University Council for East Africa (IUCEA) which is mandated to coordinate the development of programme benchmarks for harmonization of curricula in the EAC. ILRI in 2019 engaged IUCEA to discuss the prospects of the development of benchmarks on food safety.In 2021, the process of the development of the Benchmarks formally started with the establishment of a Technical Working Group from the region (EAC-TWG) and subsequently a Joint Technical Working Group. The experts in the EAC -TWG were recruited from the premier universities, University of Nairobi, Kenya, University of Rwanda, University of Burundi and University of Juba, South Sudan, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania and Kampala International University, Uganda. The experts were persons holding specialization in Veterinary Public health, Food Science and Technology, and Agriculture. The EAC-TWG were supported by teams from ILRI, FAO and IUCEA. Meanwhile, the Joint Technical Working Committee (J-TWC) made of representatives IUCEA, ILRI and FAO. Their role was to offer guidance and mobilize funding for the development of the benchmarks.Several meetings were held (both physical and virtual) to agree on the framework of the benchmarks. The framework focused on expected learning outcomes, core and supportive courses (modules), alignment matrix and course descriptions.The benchmarking process engaged a number of key stakeholders in consultative meetings. These stakeholders include higher education experts, professional bodies, employers and industry. The stakeholder consulted included experts drawn from the disciplines of Agriculture, Horticulture, Veterinary, Public Health, Food safety, Animal Science, Nutrition, Food Science and Technology among others. In addition, relevant departments of HEIs, National Commissions and Councils responsible for Higher Education, research organization, Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies, NGOs, professional bodies, employers and representatives of industry from all the EAC Partner States were consulted.The engagement process with the stakeholders was through the Delphi process. The Delphi method involves the structuring of expert communication on complex issues. The process consists of convening a panel of experts, asking several rounds of a set of questions, and refining responses. The questions and responses are anonymous to ensure participation of all in decision-making. After each round, facilitators review responses and share the curated answers with the other experts. Once the experts hear and digest the other panellist's answers, they may adjust their own answers. The choice of experts is key in this approach. The improved document can be circulated again in further rounds (typically three) until a final document is obtained.The Delphi method was adopted from the field of business and is widely used for planning, forecasting and consensus building. The Delphi process entails the use of a dedicated software. In this case, Mesydel software was used in the development of the food safety curriculum benchmarking : Based on review of literature and existing curricula, the facilitators developed and pre-tested an instrument for round one (1) of the set of questions based on five core domains of food safety as follows:• Food production, manufacturing, retail and consumption • Food sciences • Food legislation and policy • Public health • General skills Each Core Domains comprised several sub-domains. Experts were asked to rate their agreement with the Core Domain and sub-Domains (strongly agree to strongly disagree), then rate their agreement with the descriptions of these, then suggest improvements. At the end there was space to add any other comments or suggestions.A total of 769 experts were identified from the EAC Partner States. From this, 308 experts were selected (Burundi 51; Kenya 74; Rwanda 51; South Sudan 107; Tanzania 65; Uganda 79) to participate in the Delphi process. The EAC-TWG facilitated the process of contacting the experts, sending reminders (two) and obtaining responses. The respondent rate was at 54% with a completion rate of 65% which was acceptable for this type of exercise. The TWG received 1060 comments from the respondents which were well detailed. Generally, there was significant consensus among experts on the Core and sub-Domains. As a result, only one round of Delphi was found to be adequate. This process informed the core and sub-domains of the benchmarks contained in the benchmarks.In addition to the Delphi process, the TWG reviewed the existing modules, courses related to food safety with EAC, and this informed the process of developing programme objectives, expected learning outcomes, course descriptions, teaching and assessment methods for benchmarks contained herein. 6 Grace, D., Caminiti, A., Torres, G., Messori, S., Bett, B.K., Hu Suk Lee, Roesel, K. and Smith, J. 2019. How external factors (e.g. climate change, conflicts, socio-economics, trading patterns) will impact veterinary services and the adaptations required. The benchmarks for food safety recognises the existing standards and qualifications frameworks within the respective EAC partner states. The benchmarks are not in any way a replacement of the existing benchmarks but rather to provide a regional benchmark as a reference document in the development of programmes in food safety. The benchmarks were aligned to the East African Qualifications Framework for Higher Education (EAQFHE) as well as to the various National Qualification Frameworks (NQF). In last decades, there has been significant global efforts in the development of NQFs in various countries. These NQFs may be regarded as the policy framework that defines all qualifications recognized nationally in post-compulsory education and training within a country. The NQFs comprise titles and guidelines which define each qualification together with principles and protocols covering articulation and issuance of qualifications, and Statements of Attainment. In the same spirit, the East African countries have been working on National Qualification Frameworks with various level of development. The East African Qualifications Framework for Higher Education (EAQFHE) defines Qualifications Framework as \"an instrument for the development and classification of qualifications according to a set of criteria for levels of learning and skills and competences achieved.\"A review of the European Qualifications framework, NQFs in Europe and other NQFs in other parts of the world, show concerted efforts to describe the different levels of education. Qualifications Framework describe education in a spectrum from basic to higher education. The levels defined in higher education include Higher Education Certificate, Diploma, Bachelors, Masters and Doctorate. For purposes of this benchmarks, only the Bachelor's degree level is considered. Regardless of the levels defined in the various NQFs, the descriptors for the Bachelor's degree level is considered in the development of competencies, rigor of training and the expected assessment and qualification. In the EAQFHE, the bachelor's degree is defined as Level 6.According to the EAQFHE, the holder of the Level 6 qualification will be able to demonstrate comprehensive specialized, factual and theoretical knowledge of the relevant major discipline, analyse new or abstract data and situations using a range of techniques, application of skills and understanding in a wide and unpredictable variety of contexts with substantial personal responsibility for the work of others and responsibility for the allocation of resources, policy, planning, execution and evaluation.Benchmarks are an important tool that provides guidance in the development and review of curricula in HEIs. The National Commissions and Councils for Higher Education in the EAC Partner States use programme standards and benchmarks in the assessment and accreditation of curricula. Therefore, benchmarks are required in providing guidance in harmonization of programmes, improving quality of higher education and in facilitating student mobility.One of the key facets of Benchmarks is emphasis on learning outcomes, which are needed because they guarantee: i. Comparable quality levels of the graduates; ii. Comparable chances for the graduates in the labour market; iii. Labour market understands the competencies that food safety graduates possesses; iv. Increased national, regional, and international mobility of students; and v. Increased national, regional, and international mobility of staffThe benchmarks for the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety were designed to address the concerns of different stakeholders. Such concerns should be highlighted in the programme objectives. These objectives can be grouped into three categories: i. Academic ability ii. Employability iii. Personal developmentThe findings of the Delphi process on the existing learning outcomes of food safety courses in various HEIs in the region showed that universities in general, had not formulated programme objectives nor learning outcomes since such food safety programmes had not been previously mounted despite being taught within other programmes.One of the key steps in designing or redesigning programmes is the formulation of the learning outcomes. The purpose of the learning outcomes is to describe clearly what the student is expected to demonstrate competencies after completing the whole programme, a module or a course. HEIs are expected to compare and align their formulated learning outcomes with the benchmarks. Each learning outcome should show how it will be measured and assessed. Benchmarks therefore are formulated based on learning outcomes.The European Qualification Framework (EQF) defined expected learning outcomes as: statements of what a learner knows, understands and is able to do on completion of a learning process, which are defined in terms of knowledge, skills and competence. A Competence, according to the EQF, is the proven ability to use knowledge, skills and personal, social and/or methodological abilities, in work or study situations and in professional and personal development. According to EAQFHE, competences are contextualized learning outcomes. Competences are fundamentally a statement of what a person is able to do after achieving a particular level of learning.Incorporating learning outcomes in food safety programmes can improve quality of education in HEIs by building prerequisite skills and competencies of the graduates. In short, learning outcomes should not be equated to competencies but the two are not mutually exclusive. A graduate exhibiting competency at a work place will have partly acquired the skills as outcomes of his/her study, or may have been acquired from elsewhere.It has been observed that although universities are engaged in the practice of defining objectives and measuring outcomes in one form or another, many do not approach the process of formulating Learning Outcomes in a uniform and collaborative way. It is important to note that focusing on and defining learning outcomes would create an opportunity to:i. Enhance students' learning and mobility. ii. Provide guidance to course instructors. iii. Identify and overcome barriers to effective learning and teaching. iv. Facilitate collaboration among HEIs in the region and beyond. v. Improve students' learning, retention and completion. vi. Produce quality graduates vii. Increase students´ chances for employability.Learning outcomes are statements of the knowledge, skills and attitude that a learner is able to demonstrate on completion of a learning process.Learning Outcomes can be separated in three domains In the Bloom taxonomy, the learning and teaching hierarchy is important for coherent building of the knowledge. The cognitive domain comprises six levels starting with the lowest level of remembering and ending with the highest level of creating (see Figure 1).  Learning outcomes can be divided into:i. Knowledge: is the body of facts, principles, theories and practices that is related to a field of work or study. Knowledge is described as theoretical and/ or factual; ii. Skills: are the ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems. Skills are categorized as: a. Cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking); b. Practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools and instruments); c. Interpersonal (the way of communication, cooperation, etc).iii. Attitude: is a settled way of thinking or feeling about something. Four major components of attitude are: affective (emotions or feelings), Cognitive (belief or opinions held consciously), Conative (inclination for action), and Evaluative (positive or negative response to stimuli).Figure 3 shows the relationships between knowledge, skills and attitude. The model is also used to categorize the learning outcomes for Bachelor of Science in Food safety.In formulating learning outcomes, a distinction has to be made between generic learning outcomes and subject specific learning outcomes. Generic learning outcomes are those outcomes expected from all academic trained graduates. Examples of generic learning outcomes should focus on: problem solving, communication skills, and ability to cooperate. A key characteristic of a generic learning outcome is that you have to practice it in a specific field. Subject specific learning outcomes are those that are typical to that disciplineAfter the formulation of learning outcomes, the next step in the process is to identify what courses are needed to achieve the learning outcomes. A distinction has to be made between the core courses and the supporting courses. There maybe several supportive courses in existing programmes and therefore programme developers need to take cognizance of such courses that may be included for the programme under development. In addition, in the review of a programmes, there may be contemporary aspects that maybe considered valuable to the programme and thus may be integrated.A curriculum alignment matrix helps to check if planned courses address the learning outcomes as shown in Table 1. The benchmarks provide the learning outcomes derived from the core courses in the programme. Higher Education Institutions are expected to develop the courses, starting with the formulation of the learning outcomes for those specific courses. For each course, the benchmarks provide a succinct and clear description. An essential part of the programme that will be developed from the benchmarks is to assess how far the student has achieved the learning outcomes. Therefore, it is necessary for the HEIs to determine how each learning outcome will be assessed.The details of course description and assessment methods of courses in Bachelor of Science in food safety is provided in Part Three of this document.It is now well established that benchmarks play a significant role in quality assurance of programmes. Regional benchmarks play a significant role in harmonization of quality of education in HEIs in EAC Partner States. Although National Commissions and Councils for Higher Education may apply their own criteria in assessing the quality of programmes in accreditation process, it is expected that they will ideally align their standards with these benchmarks. The benchmarks also provide a frame of reference for external assessment teams in assessing the quality of a programmes for accreditation. In addition, benchmarks offer a good instrument for HEIs in evaluating the quality of their own programmes.HEIs in the region are primarily responsible for the implementation of the benchmarks through the development and or review of relevant programmes. The respective National Commissions and Councils for Higher Education are responsible for oversight roles in the implementation of the benchmarks through the programme accreditation processes and monitoring activities. IUCEA will provide the overall coordination and evaluation of the benchmark's implementation process.This Benchmarks are subject to a review after every five-year period to take care of emerging trends in the specific disciplines.Food safety is defined as actions/measures during production, handling, processing, storage, transportation, preparation and consumption that are taken to prevent food borne diseases and harm. Illnesses are caused by hazards in food that could be biological (bacteria, viruses, and parasites), chemicals (metals-lead, cadmium, mercury and bacterial, fungal and plant toxins) and physical (metal sharps, chips, hair). The provision of safe food is the responsibility of all stakeholders. However, the primary responsibility of food safety lies with the handler of food at any stage in a food value chain. Food safety concerns should be addressed along the farm to the fork continuum. The governments' role is to provide an enabling environment for food actors to provide safe food.Graduates of Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programmes will be employed in the following areas: food safety inspectorate; research; food safety audit firms; Bureau of standards; food laboratories, standards and compliance, prosecution among others.The goal of the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programme is to produce graduates who are professionals in food safety who are capable of solving emerging and re-emerging challenges in food safety.The objectives of Bachelor of Food Safety programme should be designed in such a way that they address the concerns of different stakeholders. This can be achieved by focusing on the following groups of objectives:The programme objectives under this category are to equip learners with: i. Knowledge in principles, concepts and theories in food safety ii. Knowledge in food safety technologies and applications. iii. Ability to design and implement food safety interventions. iv. Ability to apply skills in developing effective ways to solve food safety problems. v. v. Ability to adopt and adapt emerging/evolving food safety technologies. vi. Ability to undertake research and to progress to higher levels of studies.The programme objectives under this category are to equip learners with:i. Skills that enable creativity, innovativeness and entrepreneurship in the field of food safety. ii. Ability to adapt to current practices and trends in the food industry. iii. Problem-solving skills for food safety related tasks. iv. Analytical skills to understand impacts of food safety on individuals, organizations and society. v. Ability to integrate theory and practice to work effectively and efficiently in organizations.The programme objectives under this category are to:i. Prepare learners for life-long learning and research.ii. Empower students to progress in their personal and professional career with the relevant ethics and attitude to work in multicultural and global environment. iii. Equip the learner with knowledge and skills to work as a team in the food safety field. iv. Enable the learner to develop skills to perform effectively in technical and nontechnical environment.To make the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programme coherent and consistent with the EAQFHE, the following learning outcomes have been formulated to be used as benchmarks. The formulated ELO's are the threshold that all graduates of Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programme should achieve. The HEIs may consider adding Learning Outcomes as and when necessary, in line with their mission and vision or other identified need(s). Table 2 outlines the expected learning outcomes for a Bachelor of Science in Food Safety.The graduate should be able to:1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of food safety hazards and risks. 2. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of food systems and value chains. 8. Predict food safety hazards and risk in a food systems. 9. Apply risk-based approaches to prevent food safety hazards in a food system. 10. Detect food safety hazards and risk in food systems and undertake mitigation measures. 11. Design and deploy tools and approaches to Assess food safety hazards and risk in food systems. 12. Apply approaches to Control food safety hazards and risk in food systems. 13. Undertake approaches to Respond and food safety hazards and risk in food systems. 14. Communicate appropriately on food safety hazards and risk in food systems.15. Work effectively as part of a team 16. Communicate, orally and in writing, effectively individuals, organizations and groups with diverse backgrounds and experiences and perspectives, both in technical and lay terms. 17. Demonstrate professional integrity, ethics, and respect for gender and cultural diversity.18. Show commitment to the practice and promotion of food safety culture across all professional activities. 19. Demonstrate a willingness to pursue continuing education to stay appraised of changes in technology, transitions in agricultural systems and emerging food safety threats.The learning outcomes in the Benchmarks have been translated to the Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programme and this has been demonstrated in the courses that have been outline and described in the document.In the context of this benchmarks, a programme is understood as a coherent set of courses leading to a Bachelor of Science in Food Safety degree. The Bachelor programme may be organized in courses, modules or units. The benchmarks have structured the programme in core courses and supportive course which are easily distinguishable.• Core courses (or subject areas) These are the essential courses that typify the philosophy and foundation of the discipline. The core courses are the backbone of the discipline. They are the typical Food safety courses mandatory for every student.• Supporting courses (or subject areas) These are courses that supplement and aid the core courses without which it may be difficult to understand the core courses. Example of supportive courses include General Microbiology, Biochemistry Mathematics among others. These courses are also compulsory for all students.Table 3 shows the core and supporting courses in a Bachelor of Science in Food Safety programme. In stating the core and supporting courses in Table 3, the following may be noted: i. The titles of the courses with regard to food safety programmes may differ from one HEI to another. The emphasis should be on content rather than title.For each core course, a short description is given for a better understanding.ii. The autonomy and the uniqueness of HEIs should be taken into consideration in the formulating the supportive courses in food safety. The respective HEIs may have the choice to add their own courses beyond the core and supporting courses.The courses in the benchmarks have been aligned to the learning outcomes as shown in the matrix in Table 4. The The course description provides an ideal snapshot of the course content. It contains short and concise statements on the courses highlighting the key elements of each course. Higher Education Institutions are expected to develop details of each course stating the course aim, the course objectives, learning outcomes and the course content among others.The descriptions of the Core and Supporting courses are provided below.The course introduces students to core concepts and historical background underlying the emerging discipline of One Health. It explores the inter-disciplinary nature of One Health and the role of the key actors within this framework, understanding of emerging disease dynamics in the 21st century, and the role of One Health in addressing emerging One Health threats such as zoonoses, antimicrobial resistance and food safety.This course introduces the fundamentals of food processing and the scientific principles of production techniques and technologies including freezing and thawing, thermal processing and canning, fermentation and dehydration. The course also covers food engineering, food safety, quality and preservation and packaging technologies.The course introduces students to technical skills in use of statistical tools to respond to real-world food safety issues. Students are expected to design and implement a short survey related to food safety area and analyse data using relevant and available statistical software. The course will cover courses such as numerical and graphical summaries, measures of association, and hypothesis testing.This course introduces students to major food hazards (biological, chemical and physical), their epidemiology and associated foodborne disease burden. It also covers surveillance and the link between timely decision-making and action, approaches to outbreak investigation and control of foodborne illnesses including zoonoses; food allergies/intolerance, adulterants, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and food defence.The course covers the biology and epidemiology of foodborne microorganisms and parasites (bacteria, yeasts, fungi, protozoa and viruses), food spoilage microorganisms; nematodes, tapeworms, and trematodes; AMR; beneficial microbes, spoilage, pathogenic, foodborne zoononses, micro biological quality control and quality schemes; Microbiological analytical techniques and practical laboratory; microbial food ecology; Chronicity of parasite infection and its significance; Host pathology; Evasion of host responses by parasites; Serodiagnosis, vaccination, chemotherapy and drug resistance.The course introduces students to physiology and anatomy especially as related to food and covers linkages between food safety and nutrition, trade-offs, functional foods, food additives. It also covers under nutrition, nutritional epidemiology, nutritional surveys, monitoring and surveillance are key for food safety.This hands-on course introduces students to preparation of stained smears, culturing micro-organisms, conducting immunology experiments, identification and characterization of bacteria and fungi, including testing for AMR in bacteria cultures, and studying microbial growth control methods including bacterial phages in food safety.The course introduces students to principles of risk analysis i.e., risk assessment, risk management and risk communication using the Codex Alimentarius and the OIE import assessment frameworks, including consumer behaviour. Quantitative, semiquantitative and qualitative methods are outlined.This course explores the relationship individuals and populations have with their environment, and covers factors associated with the development of environmental health problems; the risk management choices made, and the resulting associations that affect health and physical well-being for the individual, communities and susceptible populations.This course covers the history, legal and ethical aspects of food including Food laws, right to food, food legislation, SPS agreement, food safety culture, professional ethical behaviour, and attitude toward food safety.The course covers methods of public health surveillance for food safety, the strengths and limitations of the data held within those systems; descriptive analyses of surveillance data and its interpretation.The course introduces students to crop value chains, concepts, principles and approaches; value chain development process and actor empowerment (VCD&AE). It also covers crops grown in different ecosystems, production cycles, household consumption and supply chains including production, processing, transport, storage, consumption and retail influence in food safety.This course covers farmed and captured aquatic animals (freshwater and saltwater) and insects (including honey-producing bees), production cycles, household consumption and supply chains and how terrestrial animal production, processing, transport, storage, consumption, and retail influence in food safety.This course covers livestock value chains, poultry, farmed and captured wildlife. It also covers production cycles, household consumption and supply chains and terrestrial animal production, processing, transport, storage, consumption and retail influence food safety.The course covers typology of food markets; regulatory requirements; the principles of food hygiene and sanitation, personal hygiene, informally vended/prepared/ ready to eat foods and associated risks, food marketing, consumer behaviour and communication.The course covers aspects of cultural beliefs, values, norms and traditional ways of handling food; consumer food handling and preparation; risk perceptions; food safety behaviour change, risks mitigation at consumer level.The course covers aspects of food safety assurance programs to control biological, chemical and physical hazards and assure the safety of foods applicable to SMEs. These include prerequisite programs, HACCP, food safety management systems (FSMS) and the application of current technologies in reducing foodborne illness; national and international regulation and issues, legal and insurance issues, consumer concerns such as education, social, moral and ethical issues.The course covers aspects of a food supply chain, structures and food systems, management and sustainability of supply chains. The course also covers concept of food product traceability and recall (wholesale and retail); design of effective food product traceability system; and use of technology solutions.The course covers concepts on food product quality and management, Quality control and QC tools, Quality Assessment/Quality Control (QA/QC) programs; types and techniques of food packaging; factors that contribute to packaging decision such as access, capital, feasibility, shelf life, and market preferences.These are supporting courses which are relevant to food safety.The course covers the definition and concepts of gender, gender roles and gender analysis. The course also covers starting a business, financial risks, and exploring new business opportunities.The course covers the study of living organisms and vital processes, including basics of taxonomy, morphology, anatomy, histology, cytology, zoology and botany.The course covers the introduction chemistry, inorganic chemistry; chemistry of water; acidity and alkalinity; properties of colloids; radiochemistry; energy relations and kinetics of chemical reactions; and organic chemistry.The course covers the basic mathematical principles and methods including set operations, arithmetic and algebra, logarithms; Equations, Matrices; Methods of differentiation, integration, exponential function, calculus, among others.The course covers the history and economic importance of microbiology; diversity and habitats; nutrition growth factors; media design; bacterial cell structure and morphology; microscopy; microbial culturing; isolation and identification techniques.The course covers the Mendalian principles and gene interaction; DNA structure and replications; Chromosomes; mitosis; meiosis; linkage, crossing over and mapping; mutations; recombination fundamentals of Genome Sequencing; and genetic engineering.The course covers the five keys developed by WHO, Codex; importance of prerequisite programs in food safety at the farm/food plant; establishment hygiene; equipment hygiene; layout and maintenance; control and monitoring devices; potable water management and supply; liquid and solid waste management, and environmental hygiene.This course examines how individuals affect and are affected by others. It deals with how individuals think, behave, and are influenced by others. Current theories in the field will be applied to real-life situations to make sense of human behaviour. Topics covered include behaviour and attitudes, social beliefs, cultural influences, conformity and obedience, self-knowledge and self-esteem, persuasion, group influence, aggression, altruism, prejudice and discrimination, stress and health and interpersonal relationships.The course covers innate and active resistance; humoral and cellular responses; hypersensitivity reactions and vaccinology.These are the essential subjects offering a thorough foundation of the discipline. The core subjects are the backbone of the disciplineA self-contained, formally structured learning experience. It should have a coherent and explicit set of learning outcomes and appropriate assessment criteria. Course /units can have different numbers of creditsAn instrument for checking the contribution of a course, unit or module to the achievement of the programme learning outcomesThese are subjects out of which a student has to make a selection, to deepen or to broaden their learning experience in the programmeHaving the same value, without being uniformGeneric Learning outcomes are those learning outcomes, expected from all academic trained graduates, irrespective of the study programme.Examples of generic learning outcomes are problem solving, communication skills, and ability to cooperateHarmonization of programmes means that the programmes in the region are comparable based on agreed benchmarksIs a period of supervised training at the workplace and is an important part of the programme. It offers the student the opportunity to become acquainted with his /her future job. It provides the student with experiences at working floor levelIs the body of facts, principles, theories and practices that is related to a field of work or study. It is the outcome of the assimilation of information through learning and is described as theoretical and/or factualStatements of what a learner knows understands and is able to do on completion of a learning process, which are defined in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudeIt is a degree in which the holder of the qualification will be able to display mastery of a complex and specialized area of knowledge and skills, employing knowledge and understanding to conduct research or advanced technical or professional activity, able to work autonomously and in complex and unpredictable situationsA formal learning experience encapsulated into a block of study, usually linked to other modules to create a programme of studyModule description is statement of the aims, objectives/learning outcomes, content, learning and teaching processes, mode of assessment of students and learning resources applicable to a block of studyThe policy framework that defines all qualifications recognized nationally in postcompulsory education and training within a country. The NQF comprises titles and guidelines, which define each qualification, together with principles and protocols covering articulation and issuance of qualifications, and Statements of Attainment. See also Qualifications frameworkA set of coherent educational components, based on learning outcomes, that are recognized for the award of a specific qualification through the accumulation of a specified number of credits and the development of specified competences. (T) (IUCEA definition)Overall specification of the intention or purpose of a programme of study (T)Is a form of study, which is problem oriented. The project is normally based on an actual existing problem which may be linked to internship and leads to possible solutions. The project may be practical or research orientedIs an instrument for the development and classification of qualifications according to a set of criteria for levels of learning and skills and competences achievedThe ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problemsExplicit levels of academic attainment, which are used to describe and measure academic requirements and achievements of individual students and groups of studentsAre those learning outcomes that are typical for that discipline. See also generic learning outcomesThese are subjects for backing the core subjects. Without these subjects it will be difficult to understand the core subjectsTuning is a collaborative, consultative process involving academics working in subject groups with employers and other stakeholders in curriculum development to enhance student competences. Tuning projects which are funded by the European Commission in higher education have been successfully completed in over sixty countries around the world ","tokenCount":"7459"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f02ff9a9c1af151ba48b3072bc40df36","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/52967e36-95da-4ba0-976b-ccbeaf0eea0d/retrieve","id":"-537071859"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3a15047b-5c9a-4cf7-8e7d-1eefa6e33e64","pagecount":"197","content":"The standard selection scheme for germ plasm evaluation targeting the humid forest, forest transition/moist savanna. mid-altitude and dry savanna agroecologies in Africa is a systematic and progressive selection of genotypes which starts with a seedling nursery at one site within each relevant agroecology in Nigeria (Fig. 1).Selections from the nurseries were cloned, designated with TMS (Tropical Manihot Selection) numbers and evaluated in successive trials -preliminary, advanced and uniform yield trials -fo~ performance with respect to ecological adaptation and quality of produce at eac~ site. This scheme also provided for the progressive multiplication of planting material originating from one seedling. At , the uniform yield trial stage several locations were used as testing sites to assess stability of performance. In all breeding trials, fertilizer application was avoided. However, cassava cultivation alternated with Mucuna fallow for trials at liT A headquarters. Until 1992, the first clonal trials, termed clonal evaluation, comprised genotypes represented by two plants at 1 m x 1 m spacing in unreplicated plots. Several plots of the best improved genotype were included as standards. Preliminary yield trials (PYT) were set up in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two replications and the same plant spacing as above but five plants per plot. The number of plants per plot, and hence plot sizes, were tripled for clonal evaluation and doubled for PYTs from 1992 planting season. Advanced yield yrials (AYT) and uniform yield trials (UYT) were set up in RCBD with four replications and 1 m x 1 m plaht spacing. The former had single row plots of ten plants per row whereas the latter had four row plots with ten plants per row. Net plot size for the UYT s was the inner two rows (20m 2 ).For the humid forest, the selection criteria during evaluation emphasize tolerance to high soiJ acidity, low soil phosphorus, low solar radiation as well as resistance to pests and diseases like cassava green mite (CGM), African cassava mosaic virus (CMV), cassava bacterial blight (CBB) and cassava anthracnose disease (CAD), agronomic and food quality characteristics. For the humid forest-savanna transition and southrn Guinea savanna agroecology, the selection criteria during evaluation emphasize resistance to CGM, CMV, eBB and CAD, agronomic and quality characteristics. In the mid•altitude agroecology, the evaluation emphasizes initial vigor and rapid growth under cold air temperatures improved checks (Table 11). Twenty four cassava genotypes selected for mealiness of tuberous roots and two check clones popularly grown by farmers were also evaluated at the uniform yield stage in the humid forest agroecology (Onne) in 1992 (Table 12). Surprisingly. the two checks did not portray the mealiness of the tuberous root when boiled (poundability). The local clone, Panya in the South East. synonymous to the Isunikankiyan variety in the South West. showed higher susceptibility to CMV. Only five selected genotypes exhibited mealy roots in this trial with two of them having higher dry yield than the popular check. There were significant differences among the improved genotypes for reactions to CMV and CAD but not to CBB and CGM. Poundability in cassava seemed to be affected very much by the environmental condition and time of harvesting. It has been observed that even the most popular local varieties with very good mealy characteristics lack this attribute if harvested at the onset of the rains when the plant is mobilizing its stored food to reflush new leaves. This explains why farmers may not harvest at some particular periods in a year. Our target then is to select for genotypes that show consistency for poundablity. Our hypothesis is that simultaneous selection for stay .. green ability and the mealiness character will enhance the consistency of poundabflity but how. much retention of green leaves is optimum for a given genotype without being negative for the plant remains to be answered.The performance of 22 cassava non•poundable genotypes selected and combined from various uniform yield trials conducted in 1991 for adaptation to acid soils and 3 popular checks were evaluated in a combined uniform yield trial at Onne in 1992. The dry yields of 14 of the genotypes and general performance were comparable to that of the best check 30572. Significant differences among the genotypes existed only for CMV and CGM with regards to their pest and disease reactions (Table 13).This archival report of cassava breeding and related research in cytogenetics and histology covers the period January 1989 to June 1993. During the early years, three breeders contributed in an interdisciplinary/m ultidisciplinary research team to achieve the results reported. In 1991, there was a major shift of responsibilities and personnel, leaving the task of cassava breeding research with mainly two breeders. The major research thrust on cassava breeding has been on population improvement, host plant resistance breeding, interspecific hybridization, investigations on genetic manipulation (e.g. ploidy manipulation, production of aneuploid genetic stocks, 2n gamete production, inheritance studies, stability analyses). Most aspects of population improvement at the polyJoid level during the period 1989 to 1993 have been excluded from this report as it will be covered in another report under polyploid breeding. Any form of researchl investigation can never be one person's achievement. Such a task has naturally been done in collaboration with other scientists of different disciplines as well as the numerous support staff.In guiding our research activities, we are constantly reminded that diseases (African cassava mosaic virus, bacterial blight), insects (mealybug, grasshoppers, termites), mites (green spider mite, red spider mite) and nematodes still take their toll, occ~sionally in epidemic proportions. Post-harvest processing is laborious: the high water content of the root must be reduced quickly to avoid spoilage and high transport costs, and the cyanogenic potential could pose a health risk if roots are not properly handled before consumption and if the nutritional status of the population is low.Despite the proven track record in cassava improvement, many challenges remain. Clones with high levels of green mite resistance are yet to be available to most NARS. Most of our work has previously been carried out in the lowland humid tropics, but germplasm adapted to other agroecologies is also needed, particularly the cool mid-altitudes and the dry savanna. Root dry matter and storability, cyanogenic potential and different flour qualities for various end~ products need to be addressed. As always, increasing yield potential and stability is a fundamental objective.Cassava germplasm from Latin America (center of origin/diversity of cassava) has been continually introduced in seed form, evaluated and hybridized to local populations since 1972. This was revealed by the archives and pedigree analysis of leading genotypes. Selections from the improved populations will be available to national cassava improvement programs in Africa. New and more diverse resources would thus become available for cassava improvement in Africa. Additional introductions between 1989 and 1993 from latin America via the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) are described in a separate report. National programs in Africa are also contributing true seed populationsto IITA which serve as useful sources of adaptation and quality characteristics (see Table 1 for a list of recent introductions). In 1990, 194 landraces were also collected around Nigeria. These clones are ' known to be very good in terms of culinary quality.The standard procedure of TRIP for the utilization of exotic germ plasm introduced in seed form is as follows:Seed populations are initially evaluated in the seedling nursery. Seedlings are cloned the following year for further testing if their potential contribution is expressed in the nursery or they do not succumb to heavy disease or pest pressure. Our experience is that almost aU of the exotic germ plasm introduced into the humid forest and forest transition zones succumb to the heavy disease pressure by the second year. To ensure that time and resources are not wasted. and acknowledging the theory that half sib families have half the contribution from the parents whose characteristics we are interested in, we start hybridization right from the seedling nursery. This then is followed by at least two backcrosses and selfing to improve on their resistance levels and at the same time recover the desirable trait before incorporation into the population of interest for further improvement by recurrent selection. In the case of introductions from NAAS. seed populations from • such conversions (Systematic Conversion Program) resulting in increased level of resistance, as well as retaining the target trait for which introduction was made, are sent to the respective NARS upon request for selection under their local conditions.Another approach we have adopted is to grow unadapted materials in a low disease pressure eCOlogy for hybridization, backcrossing and selting, without selection. Actual selection will have to be practised in the ecology where the genotypes are intended to be released as cultivars.as well as resistance to CBB, tip die-back/stay green ability, CMV, agronomic and quality characteristics. For the northrn Guillea , and Sudan savannas, the selection criteria during evaluation emphasize survival under severe water stress, initial vigor and growth rate, leaf retention {stay-green} as well as pests and diseases, agronomic and quality characteristics. Seed populations tor initiation of the nurseries include: progenies of half sib and full sibs seeds from complex populations . such as polycross blocks (open and controlled pollination/ hybridizations), hybrids among IITA elite genotypes (two-way and three-way crosses and backcross derivatives), recent introductions from CIAT, introductions from African national root crop programs, progenies resulting from introgressions of IITA elite genotypes, other exotic germplasm as well as interspecific hybrids and their backcross derivatives. Evaluation and selection were established yearly at the breeding sites of each target ecology and trials were harvested at 12 months after planting. Selections were made on the above criteria for each agroecology and advanced to the next selection stage. Upon gathering of adequate information from evaluations, selections were used as parents for hybridization or passed on to NARS as improved genotypes for testing and refinement under their local environmental conditions. So far many clones have reached advanced stages in the humid forest•savanna transition and southrn Guinec;t savanna agroecologies. Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 show the various field activities on evaluation and selection carried out in the various agroecologies, in each oLthe years between 1989 and 1993.Uni'form yield trials (Onne selection): 1990The performance of 22 cassava genotypes selected from the germ plasm maintenance plot in the humid forest agroecology was evaluated with three popularly grown checks in uniform yield trials in 1990. The performances of the genotypes were generally equivalent to that of the best popular check (30572). Two genotypes (71762 and 1095-0) had significantly higher dry yield than the best check (30572). Resistance to pests and diseases of the genotypes compared well with that of the best check which has been released and adopted widely in Nigeria (Table 6).A selection of 22 cassava genotypes that was made from the advanced yield trials in 1986 was also evaluated at the ' uniform yield trial stage in the humid forest agroecology (Onne) in 1990. Six of the genotypes •gave significantly higher dry yields than the best popular check (30572). Resistance to major pests and diseases was in most cases equivalent to the best check (Table 7). Twentytwo genotypes selected from the advanced yield trials in 1987 • and 3 popular checks were evaluated in a uniform yield trial in the humid forest agroecology (Onne) in 1990.85/00145 gave higher dry yields than the best check. Many other genotypes equalled the check in this attribute. Their resistance to diseases and pests were comparable to the best check 30572 with regards to CMV, CGM and CMS and showed significant differences among the clones (Table 8).Uniform yield trials (Onne selections): 1990 -1991 Twenty two cassava genotypes were also selected from the advanced yield trials in 1989 and evaluated along with three popular checks for two years (1990 and 1991) in the humid forest agroecology (Onne). Most of the new genotypes gave yields equivalent to the best check (30572). The genotype (87/00619) gave the highest dry yield which was • significantly different from .the best check. Resistance to pests and diseases were generally equivalent to that of the best check clone (30572). The fresh and dry yields, root ; number and dry matter percentage were significantly better in 1991 than those of 1990 (Table 9) . . : 1991 -1992 Twenty two cassava genotypes were selected from the advanced yield trials in 1990, in the humid forest agroecology and together with three popular checks were evaluated for two years (1991 and 1992) in uniform yield trials at Onne. Many genotypes gave higher dry yields similar to that of the best popular check. Several of the new genotypes showed better resistance to major pests and diseases when compared to that of the checks. The 1991 performance of the genotypes in terms of yield and its components was significantly better than the performance of 1992. Pest and disease reactions were generally the same for both years except for CBS and CAD which showed significant differences between years (Table 10).Twenty two cassava genotypes were selected from the advanced yield trial in the humid forest agroecology (Onne) in 1991 and were advanced to uniform yield trial with 3 popular checks in 1992. The clone 89/00023 gave the highest dry yield of 9.3 Vha. The root numbers were generally high in a number of the new genotypes and in general, the pest and disease reactions were comparable to the Collaboration between TRIP and Shell Petroleum Company, Nigeria Ltd in Warri (Delta State) dates back to the 1970s when Nigeria saw the worst outbreak of disease (CBB) that almost wiped out the cassava crop_ The collaboration has continued up to the present day. The performance of 21 cassava genotypes and three checks were evaluated in a uniform yield trial at the Shell farm, Agbarho in 1991. Clone 86/00520 gave the highest significant dry yield surpassing the check variety (30572) while the others were equivalent to it. Most of the pest and disease reactions of the clones were also comparable to the check clone (Table 14).Collaborative uniform yield trials (Shell Farm. Agbarho, Delta State): 1992 The performance of 15 cassava genotypes selected for adaptation to acid soil were evaluated with two popular checks in a uniform yield trial at the Shell farm, Agbarho in 1992. The dry yields of some of the genotypes were equivalent to that of the best check ( 30572) which itself was originally identified at Agbarho as a good performer years back. However the clone that gave the highest yield (86/00417) had good levels of resistance to prevalent pests and diseases (Table 15). Some of the improved clones showed more susceptibility to CMV than the best improved check variety (30572).Collaborative advanced yield trials (Shell Farm, Agbarho, Delta $tate):1992 Two sets of advanced yield trials were jointly evaluated with Shell Petroleum Company in 1992 at their Agbarho Farm. The performance of the first set of 24 cassava genotypes selected under acid soil conditions and a popular check (30572) are presented in Table ,16. Dry yield was comparable in ten of the genotypes to the popular check. Reactions to disease and pest pressures and by CAD and CGM were not significant among the clones. Reactions of most of the clones to CMV, CBB and CMB were 'similar to the check (30572). Some of the clones had better and significant reaction: to CMB relative to the improved check. However, some showed more susceptibiliW to CMV than 30572.The performances of the second set of cassava genotypes (25) selected under acid soil conditions and two popular checks (30572 and 60447) grown in the locality are presented in Table 17. Clones 88/00821 and 88/00482 gave higher dry yields than the best check. I n terms of resistance to diseases and pests, most of the genotypes were comparable to the best check (30572).Uniform yield trials {lbadan selections): 1990 -1991 Seventeen cassava genotypes were selected from the advanced yield trial in 1989 and advanced to uniform yield trial in 1990 at Ibadan. The following year the same genotypes were evaluated in multilocational trials at three locations (Ibadan, Ota and Mokwa) (Table 18). The general performance, and dry yields in particular. of 12 of the genotypes were either better than or equ'ivalent to the best improved checks, 30572 and 50395. ;The dry matter percentage of five of the clones were significantly higher than that of the most popular improved check in the trial (30572). The dry matter percentage of clone 87/01004 was very impressive and has been incorporated in crossing blocks for increasing further the dry matter of our improved genotypes. Fresh and dry yield at Ibadan were the lowest in all the environments (year x location combinations). Yields and root number at Mokwa were higher in 1991. The CVs across all environments were also very high. Notwithstanding the high CVs, there were significant differences among clones and among environments. The results show that genotypes selected in Ibadan would perform equally well or better at Mokwa (southern Guinea savanna zone of the moist savanna). The CGM pressure at Ibadan in 1990, and at Ibadan and Mokwa in 1991 were similar and significantly different from that at Ota in Ogun State which is in the humid forest zone.The performance of 20 improved cassava genotypes and three improved checks were evaluated in 1990 in an advanced yield trial. Reactions of some of the genotypes to diseases and pests were comparable with those of the best check though their CGM scores were still on the susceptible side. The resistance to CMV of the clone, 88/00011, was very good and significantly better than almost all of the clones evaluated. This clone is being improved on and is routinely used as one source of incorporating resistant genes for CMV into susceptible clones. The dry yields of the genotypes were comparable and in some cases significantly higher than those of some of the improved clones used as checks except for 91934 which gave the highest fresh and dry yields. The incidence of CGM was unavoidably high at I bad an which made it a very good field screening zone for the pest (Table 19).The performances of 25 cassava genotypes selected for low cyanide, sweet taste and mealiness of the tuberous roots were evaluated with five popular checks with known cooking quality traits in an advanced yield trial in 1990. On dry yield basis, three genotypes were significantly bettEH than the best check (50395) for dry yield. Sixteen genotypes gave comparable levels of mealiness to the best check for the trait (Isunikankiyan: a local landrace). Reactions to diseases and pests were comparable and even better in some genotypes than the best check (Table 20).The performance of 98 polyploid cassava genotypes (triploids and tetraploids) were evaluated using three leading diploid genotypes as checks at the advanced yield trial stage at Ibadan in 1990. The triploids had a higher mean fresh root yield comparable to the diploids but significantly higher than that of the tetraploids (Table 21). However, the diploids were superior to the other ploidy levels in their total dry yields. The higher mean for total dry yield noted for the diploids was due to the higher dry matter level of their storage roots selected for during their improvement. The triploid progenies showed greater fresh yielding capacity (Table 22). Some triploids from the polyploid parents gave fresh yield as high as 76 tlha. dry yields as high as 14 tlha and dry matter percentage as low as 13%. in this trial. The low mean dry matter of the triploids and tetraploid progenies would have been inherited from one of the tetraploid parents (84/00136) that flowered profusely during the pollination season, had good female fertility but very poor combining ability for dry matter. The performance of this parent per se for dry matter was not indicative of its performance in hybrid combinations. It is still possible to improve on the dry matter content and overall performance of triploid hybrids by improving by recurrent selection both diploid and tetraploid populations separately for their performance per se, and finally testing selected diploid and tetraploid lines in hybrid combinations for specific combiners that would result in triploid hybrids with both greater fresh yield potential and higher dry matter percentage.Twenty seven low cyanide clones and two popular checks were evaluated in an advanced yield trial in 1991. The dry yields of most of the genotypes were equivalent to that of the check clones (Table 23). Three genotypes (88/02018, 88/02189. 88/02343) gave significantly ,higher dry yield than the most popular check (30572) in the trial. Few genotypes (88/02015, 88102122, 88/02170, 88/02332 and 88/02576) had noticeable root rots after 12 months of growth.Another 28 cassava genotypes ~elected for CGM resistance and three popular checks were evaluated in an advanced yield trial at Ibadan in 1991. This trial was affected by chemical spray. The check clone 30572 showed the best CMV disease rating (Table 24). Clone 88/00088 which had very good CMV, eBB and CGM scores had a low fresh yield, On dry yield basis, one of the check clones, 91934, performed better than all genotypes except clone 89/00797 which did not show an appreciable level of resistance td CMV and CGM.Twenty seven improved cassava genotypes and three check clones were also evaluated in an advanced yield trial at Ibadan in 1991. Twelve of the genotypes had equivalent dry yield performance with the best improved check, 30572. Two others (89/01013 and 89101733) .had significantly better dry yield than the best check (30572). Resistance to CBS were similar for all genotypes but resistance to CMV and CGM varied among the genotypes with some selected lines showing much better resistance, especially to CMV, than the best check (Table 25).Sixteen cassava'genotypes selected• for their ' stay~green .abilities and CGM resistance and two improved popular check (91934 and 30572) were evaluated in advanced yield trial in 1992 :atlbadan; The dry .matter content, root number and fresh yield of the 'clones were generally •Iow at this 10cation(BS 2-tail end) even for the populartmproved clone (30572) (Table 26). The . . dry yield, however, of one of the improved clones , (91934) used as a check was high but not significantly different from that of one of the new lines, .90101718. The reactions to the prevalent pest and diseases of the new clones were generally comparable to the checks.Another set of fifteen cassava genotypes selected for the.r CGM resistance and mealiness of tuberous roots were evaluated along with two improved popular checks (91934 'and 30572) in an advanced yield trial in 1992 at Ibadan. The dry yields of four clones (90/00136, 90/01058, 90/01204 and 91/00453) were equivalent to that of the popular improved check clone (30572). The pest and disease reactions of most of the genotypes to prevalent pest and diseases at Ibadan were generally similar (Table 27).However, the clone. ~1/00453 showed good levels of resistance to CGM, far better than the check for this trait (91934). This clone was identified as being resistant to CGM right from the seedling nursery stage in 1990 and was confirmed during the dry season screening at the yam barn in 1990. It was rapidly multiplied as a promising clone in 1991 and was entered in an advanced yield trial in 1992, by-passing the preliminary yield trial stage. The genotypes tested also showed various degrees of the poundabiHty trait, but clone 90101329 gave the highest score of 2.7 on a scale of 0-3 (where 0 =:poor and 3 = very good).Two sets of 22 genotypes each were selected under. Mokwa conditions (southern Guinea savanna) from advanced yield trials conducted in 1988 and advanced to uniform yield trials with three check genotypes in 1989. The trials were gutted by bush-fire during the dry season and only one replication was harvested for yield assessment. However. fourteen genotypes from the first set performed better than the best of the check genotypes in terms of fresh yield and had comparable pest and disease reactions to the best check (Table 28). The incidence and severity of cassava mealybug and cassava anthracnose disease were minimal.In the second set of 22 clones improved clones and three checks, two of the genotypes (6298 and 86/00005) apparently gave higher fresh yield than the best check, 30572 while two other clones (41627 and 83/00214) gave comparable yields as that of the best check. Reactions to pest and diseases in some of the new lines, however, were better than the best check (Table 29).Uniform yield trials (Mokwa selections): 1990 -1991 In 1990, the two sets of genotypes in the 1989 uniform yield trials (Mokwa selections) were combined into a single set of 22 genotypes based on their overall agronomic performance and pest and disease reactions in 1989. They were evaluated in uniform yield trials with three standard checks at Mokwa in 1990 and in multilocational trials at 1I0rin, Mokwa and Zaria in 1991. The performances of all the genotypes evaluated were not significantly different for fresh tuber yields, root number and reactions to anthracnose disease and cassava green mite (Table 30). The popular check (30572) had the highest fresh tuber yield and dry matter and hence the highest dry yield but its dry yield was not significantly different from the dry yields of four of the new genotypes (85/00313, 10.1 Vha; 6298, 9.6 tlha; 81/00018, 9.1 t/ha and 85/00274, 9.0 tlha).One genotype, 82/00062 showed consistency in the mealiness of its tuberous roots across the environments.The yields at Mokwa were not significantly different from the yields at Ilorin but there was a distinct reduction in yield at Zaria (northern Guinea savanna) relative to the two southern Guinea savanna locations.A set of 15 genotypes were selected for their mealiness of the storage roots and low cyanogenic potential (CNP) from uniform yield trials of selections made at Onne, Warri, Ibadan and Mokwa, were evaluated in a combined uniform yield trial at Mokwa in 1991. Clones 4(2)1425 (an improved high yielding clone with the above traits and popularly grown by farmers) and a local land race (ISU) were used as checks. Clone 83672 gave the highest dry yield of 14.8 tlha followed by the improved check with 12.2 tlha (Table 31). The local clone had the highest severity score for CMV but its reaction to the other pests and diseases were equivalent and sometimes better than some of the improved genotypes. Only 3 improved genotypes as well as the local clone were found to be mealy when evaluation was done in the dry season. Even the popular improved clone for this character was not among the clones. When evaluation was done during the rainy season, only the local clone and an improved clone (1095-0) which was not mealy during the dry season evaluation, were found to be mealy. The consistency of mealiness characteristic of some local clones such as the local check used here should be our goal in breeding for mealiness of the storage roots. In iact, we observe that the mealiness character is very much influenced by the environment (climate/weather, soil, etc).Evaluations and Selections in the Northern Guinea & Sudan SavannasIn 1989, breeding activities started in the northern Guinea savanna and Samaru, Zaria was designated the breeding site. Previous data had shown that materials developed in the humid forest~moist savanna transition, or even the southern Guinea savanna, did not do weH in the drier climate of the northern Guinea savanna. Thus our first objective was to evaluate and identify breeding \" parents for creating source populations. The IITA germ plasm collection (2060 genotypes representing introductions from NARS, CIAT, India, Brazil and other Latin American countries, as well as local land races in Nigeria and liT A improved genotypes) were evaluated at Sam aru in a clonal evaluation format in 1989.Seeds representing 66 iamilies were obtained from Ibadan and Zaria in 1990. These were from crosses (half sibs) involving introductions from NARS and several parents with potential adaptation to the drier ecologies as identified from the preliminary evaluation of the germ plasm collection in 1989. They were sown at Samaru in a seedling nursery (11,815 seedlings) for evaluation of agronomic traits, reaction to prevalent pests/diseases and food quality characteristics.In 1991 60 half-sib families (5,630 seedlings) from parents identiiied from the evaluation of the germplasm collection in Zaria for two consecutive years (1989 and 1990) were similarly evaluated.In 1992, half-sib seeds comprising 183 families were obtained in Zaria from the polycross set up in 1991 (30 genotypes) as well as from several introductions from NARS .(Ghana, Benin, Uganda, Sierra Leone) and half sibs from polycross blocks set up at Ubiala of Nigerian land races collected from northern Nigeria. These were evaluated in the seedling nursery. In 1993, 210 families representing half sib seeds from potential genotypes in existing trials at Samaru, Zaria (Zaria population including CIAT germplasm introgressions) and population including CIAT germplasm introgressions) and several introductions from NARS) were sown and are being evaluated in the seedling nursery.In 1990 a total of 14,803 seeds from several families of the germp\\asm adapted to dry areas of Latin America were introduced for the first time. These were sown at the IITA research farm at Minjibir, near Kano and evaluated for survival under severe water stress, initial vigor and growth. as well as leaf retention and plant types. In 1991 another seed lot of 38,700 seeds (356 families) was again introduced to Minjibir and evaluated under severe drought stress du ring the dry season. In 1992, a new seed lot of several families was again introduced and evaluated in Kano. Several families of two sets of seed lots of Latin American germplasm (CIAT and Brazil introductions) were introduced in 1993. They are currently undergoing evaluation in the seedling nursery in Kana together with several half-sib families of the northern Nigerian 'boil and eat' local germplasm, obtained from polycros block that was set up at Ubiaja in 1992. Selections from each year's seedling nursery were made after 12 months of growth, cloned and advanced to the next stage for further evaluation under severe drought in Kana. Clones from each year's seedling nursery were duplicated at Samaru, Zaria, for evaluation of reaction to prevalent pests and diseases, agronom ic and quality characteristics. These were also hybridized to Zaria populations.In 1989 2060 clones from the liT A cassava collectlon were subjected to clonal evaluation at Samaru, Zaria. The objective was to identify breeding parents adapted to the dry savanna ecology.In 1991, clonal evaluation at Samaru included 186 and 435 clones selected among and within families from the 1990 seedling nurseries from Zaria and Kana, respectively. Six hundred and one clones selected from eXisting trials set up at Mokwa in 1990 were included in the Zaria1s clonal evaluation in 1991. Similarly at Kano, 474 selected from the seedling nursery were advanced to the clonal evaluation stage in 1991 for further testing for adaptation to severe drought conditions.In 1992, 91 and 194 genotypes were selected from the previous year's seedling nurseries set up at Zaria and Kana, respectively, and cloned for further testing at Samaru. In 1993, 108 and 147 genotypes were cloned from the two nurseries set up at Zaria and Kano, respectively for further testing at Samaru. The selections from the 1991 and 1992 seedling nurseries at Kana selections were incidence and severity of cassava mealybug and cassava anthracnose disease were minimal.In the second set of 22 clones improved clones and three checks, two of the genotypes (6298 and 86/00005) apparently gave higher fresh yield than the best check. 30572 while two other clones (41627 and 83/00214) gave comparable yields as that of the best check. Reactions to pest and diseases in some of the new lines, however, were better than the best check (Table 29).In 1990, the two sets of genotypes in the 1989 uniform yield trials (Mokwa selections) were combined into a single set of 22 genotypes based on their overall agronomic performance and pest and disease reactions in 1989. They were evaluated in uniform yield trials with three standard checks at Mokwa in 1990 and in multilocational trials at lIorin, Mokwa and Zaria in 1991. The performances of all the genotypes evaluated were not significantly different for fresh tuber yields.root number and reactions to anthracnose disease and cassava green mite (Table 30). The popular check (30572) had the highest fresh tuber yield and dry matter and hence the highest dry yield but its dry yield was not significantly different from the dry yields of four of the new genotypes (85/00313, 10.1 tlha; 6298, 9.6 tlha; 81/00018, 9.1 tlha and 85/00274, 9.0 tlha). One genotype.82/00062 showed consistency in the mealiness of its tuberous roots across the environments.The yields at Mokwa were not significantly different from the yields at Ilorin but there was a distinct reduction in yield at Zaria (northern Guinea savanna)relative to the two southern Guinea savanna locations.A set of 15 genotypes were selected for their mealiness of the storage roots and low cyanogenic potential (CNP) from uniform yield trials of selections made at Onne, Warri, Ibadan and Mokwa. were evaluated in a combined uniform yield trial at Mokwa in 1991. Clones 4(2)1425 (an improved high yielding clone with the above traits and popularly grown by farmers) and a local landrace (ISU) were used as checks. Clone 83672 gave the highest dry yield of 14.8 tlha followed by the improved check with 12.2 tlha (Table 31). The local clone had the highest severity score for CMV but its reaction to the other pests and diseases were equivalent and sometimes better than some of the improved genotypes. Only 3 improved genotypes as well as the local clone were found to be mealy when evaluation was done in the dry season. Even the popular improved clone for this character was not among the clones. When evaluation was done during the rainy season . only the local clone and an improved clone (' 095•0) which was not also grown at Minjibir, Kana for further evaluation of adaptation to severe dry conditions.Preliminary yield trialsIn 1990, preliminary evaluation of the germplasm collection in 1989 at Samaru identified 60 potential genotypes which were selected and advanced to the preliminary yield trial for further evaluation. Selections from two years (1989 and 1990) of evaluation of the IITA germ plasm collection also resulted in the identification of 140 poundable and 200 non-poundable genotypes which were advanced to the preliminary yield trial in 1991, for further testing for agronomic and quality characteristics as well as yield potential. In 1992, 90 genotypes were selected from the clonal evaluation set up in 1991 at Samaru and advanced to the preliminary yield trial. In 1993, 47 genotypes were advanced from the 1992 clonal evaluations.At Kano, a total of 38 clones were selected from the 1991 clonal evaluation of 474 clones and were grown with three checks in a preliminary yield trial in 1992 in two replications. They were further tested for adaptation to severe drought, disease and pest reactions, quality characteristics, as well as for yield. In 1993, 160 clones were selected from the 1992 clonal evaluation and are being evaluated for the above characteristics along with 13 promising local selections from northern Nigeria and 3 standard checks.Thirty five clones identified as potential parents from the germplasm collection were further tested in an advanced yield trial in 199~. Further selections were made in 1993 and retested in an advanced yield trial together with 25 selected genotypes from the 1992 preliminary yield trial in Samaru.At the end of the 1992 growing season, twenty five genotypes were also selected from the preliminary yield trial and advanced for further testing in the advanced yield trial stage in 1993.Active breeding activity actually started in the mid-altitude agroecology (National Root Crops Research Institute Station based at the Vom, Jos) in Nigeria in 1990. Before then (1989) it was merely used as a testing site . Data from multilocational trials have shown that altitude is an important factor affecting cassava adaptation and that materials developed in the forest-savanna transition and southern Guinea savanna do not perform well in the mid-altitude regions. Thus our first objective was to evaluate and identify potential breeding parents and create source populations.3.4.2 Activities: 1990Activities: -1993 Seedling nursery (Vom populations) In 1990 the first seedling nursery was set up in the mid-altitude ecology at Vorn near Jos. Twenty eight families of open pollinated seeds obtained from the liT A germ plasm collection (2060 genotypes representing introductions from NARS, CIAT, India, Brazil and other Latin American countries as well as local land races in Nigeria and liT A improved genotypes) were grown and evaluated for adaptation to the cool conditions prevalent in the mid-altitudes. The criteria used were vigor and growth rate during the growth cycle of twelve months and reactions to prevalent pest and diseases as well as food quality traits. Another set of 64 families (about 5000 seeds) from crosses involving several diverse parents were sown in a seedling nursery in 1991 for evaluation of adaptation, agronomic and cooking quality traits. Also in 1991 t a total of 13,168 seedlings from 64 families (introductions from CIAT) were grown at Vom and evaluated for the criteria given above.In 1992, several thousand half sib seeds were obtained comprising 240 families from the polycross set up in 1991 (30 genotypes including prior introductions from Brazil and CIAT). Also included were several introductions from NARS (Ghana, Benin, Uganda, Sierra Leone) and half sibs from polycross blocks set up at Ubiaja with Nigerian land races collected from northern Nigeria and IITA leading genotypes. These were evaluated in the seedling nursery in 1992. A new set of introductions (several families) from CIAT was also established in a seedling nursery in 1992.In 1993, 212 families (4,483 seedlings obtained from hybridization of promising Vom selections and introductions from NARS and CIAT) were planted and are being evaluated together with seedlings of 212 families introduced from CIAT in 1993.In 1991, 823 plants including poundable and non-poundable types selected from among and within families from the 1990 seedling nursery wer~ cloned for further testing. Also, the IITA germ plasm collection (2,060 genotypes) was transferred to Jos for evalJ,Jation in a clonal evaluation.In 1992, a total 165 genotypes from the seedling nurseries set up in Jos in 1991 were selected and cloned for further testing. In addition 456 genotypes were also selected in 1993 from the seedling nurseries set up in 1992 and cloned for further evaluation in the selection cycle.. In 1992, evaluation of the 1991 clonal evaluation and the germplasm collection identified 52 promising genotypes which were advanced for further testing in a preliminary yield trial. In 1993, 41 clones including 34 from CIAT introductions were selected for further testing at the PYT stage.Twenty eight promising clones selected from the 1992 preHminary yield trial were entered in the advanced yield trial for further testing in 1993. 3.5 Multi .. locatlonal Trials 3.5.1 National Coordinated Research Project (NCRP): 1990-1992 TRIP participated in NCRP trial for evaluation of improved cassava genotypes nominated by both TRIP and National Root Crop Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike. Nigeria at locations suggested by the project. In 1990, 15 cassava genotypes comprising 12 from liT A and three from NACAI were evaluated under the NCRP at Ubiaja and Mokwa in 1990. The dry yield of all the genotypes were not significantly different from that of the improved check (30572) except that of 90853 which had significantly lower dry yield than the improved check (Table 32). This could have been due to its high susceptibility to CMV (score of 3.3). The pest and disease ratings of the other genotypes were roughly equivalent to the improved check.The performance of 10 cassava genotypes, 7 nominated by lIT A, one from NRCAI , one improved check (30572) popularly grown by farmers and a popular local selection (TME 1 or Antiota) was evaluated in three ecologies in 1991 . These were Ibadan, Mokwa, and Zaria) representing the humid forest-savanna transition, the southern Guinea savanna and northern Guinea savanna respectively.The dry matter percentage across the three locations were generally low and hence the mean performance of the genotypes in terms of dry yield across the three locations was also generally low. The genotype 82/00661 gave the highest dry yield (5.4 tlha) across the three locations. This yield as well as those for the other genotypes were not significantly different from those of the two checks except for NR 8208 which gave the lowest and significantly different dry yield from all the other genotypes. Clone 90257 gave the highest significant fresh yield but also had the lowest dry matter percentage (Table 33).The reaction of the genotypes to CMV was equivalent to both the improved check and the local check which has been identified earlier as being resistant to both CMV and CGM. At peak eBB infection, 3 months after planting t all the genotypes including the improved check were significantly different from the local check which showed susceptible reaction.Significant differences also existed among the clones for their reaction to CGM and the local check was significantly more resistant than all the other clones evaluated.The location means for various traits evaluated in 1991 showed that disease and pest pressures varied very much according to location. They were least at Zaria. but lbadan and Mokwa were comparable in most pest and disease pressures except for CGM which was significantly higher at Mokwa than at Ibadan.Similarly, the fresh tuber number and weight were comparable at Ibadan and Mokwa but were significantly different from what was obtained in Zaria. Zaria location had very low dry yields. The genotype 82/00661 which gave the highest dry yield (5.4 t/ha) across the three locations had a dry yield ot 14.4 tlha at the 'badan location.It is evident from the data that as one goes from south to north with material developed down south, there is sharp decline in pest and disease pressure as well as in storage root number and fresh and dry yield in the northern Guinea savanna as compared with more southerly locations. This is similar to the results obtained in the uniform yield trials {refer Section 3.2.3 above). The root number at Ibadan was 84 roots per 20m 2 and that in Zaria was about half at 40 root per 20m 2 . The fresh yield at Ibadan was 23.8 tlha and that in Zaria was 6.3 tlha. Dry matter content varies little according to the data, although the mean dry matter percentage at Zaria was just significantly greater relative to Mokwa and !badan. We conclude that selections made in Ibadan should perform comparably well at Mokwa but less well at Zaria. Nineteen cassava genotypes were evaluated at four locations (Onne, Owerri, Calabar and Uyo) for two years (1990 and 1991) in humid forest ecology (south~eastern Nigeria) under NCRP. Fourteen genotypes were nominated by \\ITA as well as the improved check 30572, widely grown by farmers, and four genotypes were nominated by NRCRI. The genotype means for various traits across locations and years are presented in Table 34. Although dry matter was relatively higher for most of the genotypes, root number and fresh yield were moderate, hence the dry yields were also moderate for the genotypes. The dry yields of the genotypes were roughly equivalent to that of the improved check 30572 except for clone 81/00401 which was apparently lower than the check. The pest and disease reactions were generally low for most genotypes but some genotypes had significantly higher scores for CMV than that of 30572. The fresh yields of the genotypes were generally better in 1991 than in 1990.In 1992, the performance of 10 cassava genotypes, a new . set of 9 clones nominated by \\ITA and one improved check (30572) popularly grown by farmers was evaluated in the same three ecologies as 1991 (represented by Ibadall, Abuja and Zaria) in 1992.The trial at Ibadan was harvested and the data an~lyzed. Dry matter was generally high in all the genotypes and so were root number and fresh yield. All the genotypes showed some level of poundability (Table 35). Only one clone ( 4488) had significantly lower, dry yield than th,e check variety. Sprouting was• generally good for all clones except .for clones 30337 and 4092. Clone 518 had the best score for CMV (1.4)' while clones 5818 and 4492 had scores significantly higher than the check clone. All the clones showed good resistance to CBB.In a second trial in 1992, ten cassava genotypes, 7 nominated by IITA, one from NACAI, one improved check (30572) and one local selection (TME 1 or Antiota) were evaluated at the same three locations (Ibadan, Abuja, and Zaria).The clones completed the second year of evaluation in 1993. The trial at Ibadan was harvested and the data analyzed. Dry matter as well as root number and fresh yield were generally high in most of the genotypes (Table 36). The best clone in terms of dry yield was 82100661 and was significanUy better than the improved check (30572). Sprouting was moderate in most of the genotypes but was particularly poor in the local check, TME 1 (Antiota). This check, however, had the a CMV score significantly better than those .of the other genotypes including the improved check (30572). The CBS scores were not significantly different among the genotypes.Fifteen leading genotypes. comprising mainly clonal selections made prior to 1980, were evaluated at seven locations in Nigeria in 1989. These locations represented the humid forest (3 locations). forest-savanna transition (1 location), southern Guinea savanna (2 locations) and mid-altitude (1 ,location) ecologies of Nigeria. Table 37 shows the mean performance of the entries across the environments. Many clones equalled the best check 30572 in dry yield and its components. 90257 was particularly productive largely due to its high root number which compensated for its relatively low dry matter percentage. Ubiaja was a very productive site. High root numbers accounted for the relatively high dry yields obtained there. Yields at Mokwa, lIorin and Ibadan were relatively low compared with yields at Ubiaja and cnne. Horin had high CGM pressure.In another trial of 25 genotypes conducted at four locations in Nigeria in 1989, Ubiaja (humid forest ecology) was outstanding with respect to mean dry yield (Table 38). Performance at Jos was extremely poor. Ten clones selected out of the 25 were evaluated at eleven locations during 1990 and 1991 . These locations covered ecologies ranging from the humid forest to the northern Guinea savanna. Most genotypes were comparable to the checks (Table 39). lIorin was outstanding in terms of overall dry yield. CMV pressure was lowest at Zaria. Yields at Zaria were impressive in these trials. However, they were due to residual fertilizer in plots of previous maize crops.TRIP has collaborated with various NARS in the international testing of improved cassava genotypes as an extension of our breeding activities, which enablesgermplasm transfer, study of genotype by environment interaction, monitoring of pathogenic variation of prevalent diseases and biotype formation of prevalent pests of cassava, determination of the stability of genetic resistance to the major diseases and pests and provides feedbaCk on the performance of our improved genotypes. The trials were analyzed, results summarized and dispatched to the respective NARS for utilization in the selection of genotypes for their breeding program and on-farm trials.The results of various trials carried out with selected NARS during the period 1989-1991 are presented in Tables 40 to 47 for Ghana, Tables 48 to  52 for Togo, Tables 53 to 60 for Benin and Tables 61 to 67 for Nigeria. Other uses and the impact of such trials are discussed under various sections: collaboration with NARS; genotype x environment studies; cyanogenic potential. The performance of seven improved clones and three local checks were evaluated in Ghana at several locations for three years. Overall, the improved genotypes out-yielded the local checks. The clones, 30572, 4(2)1425, 50395, 91934 and 63397, consistently gave the highest yields in each of the three years of testing and across locations and years (Tables 40, 41, 42 , and 43). Fumesua and Ohawu were the most productive locations (Table 44) and 1990 was the most proquctive year (Table 45). Cassava mosaic virus featured prominently in al/ years and the local checks were very susceptible. Fumesua apparently had the highest CMV pressure. The performance of 16 improved genotypes and 3 local checks evaluated in Fumesua in 1991 is presented in Table 46. Clones 82/00661, CB5•10(80411) (with yellow flesh storage roots), and 81/00110 gave the highest dry yields of 15.0 t/ha, 13.3 Vha and 13.1 tlha respectively. As is common, the local checks gave the lowest yields and highest CMV scores but had good cooking qualities. Clones 4(2) 1425 with moderate yield and resistant to most of the prevalent diseases and pests had a cooking quality score which was comparable to the local clones. Though 30001 had a good cooking quality score, its yield was poor. Food habits vary in Ghana and depending on the region, the poundability character or gari quality is preferred. So both types of cassava are welcome in Ghana. In another set of 16 improved poundable types and one local check evaluated at Fumesua in 1991, most of the improved genotypes far outyielded the local check. Five clones, 30555P3-2, 82/00447, 82/00422, 82/00003 and 4(2)1425 gave the highest dry yields of about 12 tlha (Table 47) . The dry matter percentages of the most of the improved genotypes were high and equivalent to that of the local Clone.The performance of 10 cassava genotypes (7 liT A improved and 3 local checks) were evaluated at two locations in 1989 and three locations in 1990 in Togo. Overall, 30572 and 4(2)1425 gave the highest yields (Tables 48, 49 and  50). The CMV'pressure was high in the local cu/tivars and in the improved c: lon6, 91934. The CMV pressure was much pronounced in the Davie location !n both 1989 and 1990 (Tables 51 and 52).The performance of 7 improved cassava genotypes and three local checks were evaluated at 5 locations during the period between 1989 and 1991 . Overall, Ben 86052 (a locally improved cultivar) and 30572 gave the highest dry and starch yields followed by 50395 and 4(2) 1425 (Tables 53,54,55 and 56). In terms of quality and yield, Ben 86052, 4(2)1425) and 30572 would be preferred since in Benin, mealiness of the roots, flour and gari qualities are all important criteria for acceptability. The local clone, NiaouJi 84, was very susceptible to CMV. The starch yields were generally low for al/ the genotypes. A, lot of losses due to leaching from the traditional method used in determining the starch content would probably have resulted in the low yields. CGM was more pronounced in Benin than the other pests and diseases and particularly so at Ina and Save (Table 57) and 1990 was the most productive year (Table 58).The performance of 16 IITA improved genotypes and 2 local checks evaluated in Niaoli in 1991 is presented in Table 59. Clones BEN 86052 and 30572 gave the highest dry yields. The dry matter percentages were very low at this location in particular and in Benin in general. This may not be representative of the genotypes owing to some problems in drying the materials. The method of determination will have to be improved on and for the 1992 trials, liT A Station in Cotonou consented to the use of their electric ovens for drying.In another set of 16 improved poundable types and an liT A improved poundable check evaluated at Sekou, Benin in 1991, clones 61036, 82/00447 and 82/00422 gave higher dry yields comparable the the Check clone (Table 60). The higher root numbers of clone 82/00447 ~nd 82/00422 very much contributed to their higher dry yields. The genotypes showed variable reactions to the prevalent disease and pests. Six of the genotypes (1095-0,40764, 60121,61036, 81/01135 and 84/00184) showed intermediate to susceptible reactions to CMV.Between 1989 and 1991 the performance of 7 improved cassava genotypes and two local checks were evaluated at several locations in N igera covering all major agroecologies except the Sudan savanna. Overall, two improved clones (30572, 63397) and a popular local selection grown in Western Nigeria (TME 1) gave the highest dry yields followed by the improved clones, 91934. 50395 and 4(2)1425) (Tables 61, 62, 63 and 64); TME 1 consistently gave the highest score for CAD and CBS among the clones tested. On the other hand. it gave the lowest scores for CGM and CMV overall. CAD was more prominent in the forest and forest-savanna transition zones; CGM in the forest-savanna transition and southern Guinea savanna; CMV in the forest, forest-savanna transition, southern Guinea savanna and mid-altitude zones; and eSB in the forest transition and southern guinea savanna (Table 65).Yields were drastically reduced when lowland genotypes were grown at altitudes of about 1,300m a.m.s.1. (Table 66). Yields decreased sharply from Sabon Gida to Kaduna to Vom, Jos. Saban Gida (9° 25' N 8° 30' E. 508m a.m.s.l.) and Vom (9° 44' N 8° 47' E. 135m a.m.s.l) are roughly within the same geographical co-ordinates). The data showed that altitude is an important factor regulating cassava performance. In terms of productivity I 1990 and 1991 were roughly equivalent and better than 1989 (Table 67).As issues of impact assessment intensify and as natural hybridization occurs on farmers fields. the need for a thorough objective genotype identification and documentation becomes inevitable. Also biochemical markers such as isozyme analysis through polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing have been developed for a good number of these genotypes and is ongoing. These biochemical fingerprints, morphological and physiological characteristics as well as pest and disease reactions will facilitate objective identification of improved • germplasm and landraces ,identification of heterotic groups and for hybrid confirmation, efficient selection of backcrosses derivatives. and investigation of phylogenetic relationships.It is also necessary to take a look at what we have got the rate of progress and the need for more diversification of our germplasm base without sacrificing resources and efficiency and ways to reformulate breeding strategies. Nigeria: 1992 In 1992, 428 UTA elite cassava germplasm developed for the humid forest, forest-savanna transition and southern Guinea savanna agroecologies were evaluated for morphological and physiological characteri'stics as well as pest and disease reactions at various locations (Onne Ibadan, Zaria and Niaouli, Benin) . The list of liT A improved genotypes developed in various agroecologies, their pedigrees, source of origin, ecology of selection, their morphological, agronomic and quality characteristics as well pest and disease reactions are provided in a separate dossier (which is available in the CID Admin Office, UTA, Ibadan). Mba/mayo, Cameroon: 1991-1992 To facilitate genotype and heterotic group identification of cassava, the characterization of elite breeding clones and local cassava germ plasm collection at the Humid Forest Station in Mbalmayo started in 1991. The materials were originally assembled at Mbalmayo by the IITA Plant Breeder in Cameroon. Evaluation for traits like mealiness of the boiled tuberous root and CNP were carried out. From the preliminary evaluations of the old planting of 656 clones in the collection, 161 clones were found to be very mealy.These were also evaluated for their CNP (see TRIP Archival Report 1989-1993, Volume II). Two sets of preliminary yield trials (a poundable and non-pound able set) were set up at the same site in 1992 to further evaluate under the Mbalmayo conditions their yield potential, agronomic and quality characteristics and reactions to pests and diseases. Five plants at 1 m x 1 m spacing in two replications represented a clone. Morphological characterization was also conducted.The Cameroon germplasm collection of local landraces (totalling 105 accessions) acquired from the Njombe Research station in Cameroon was duplicated at Mbalmayo. They were further evaluated for their pest and disease reactions with the aim of identifying potential sources of resistance to pests and diseases for the breeding program.The yield potential data, agronomic and quality characteristics and reactions to pests and diseases of the improved germ plasm are presented in Tables 68 for the poundable selections and Table 69 for the non-poundable selections. The performance of the majority of the poundable selections far exceeded the performance of the most popular local variety grown in the Mbalmayo area of southern Cameroon). The tuberous roots of this variety have very good cooking characteristics when boiled (sweet and mealy). The nonpoundable selections also proved superior to the local check, The sprouting ability of the cuttings and the final stand at harvest in both trials was striking for the majority of the clones when one considers that more than 2 years old planting materials were used for replanting. CMV and CAD as well as CGM were shown from the data to be the most important diseases and pest. The dry matter percentage seemed very high but in relative terms, most of the clones were equivalent to that of the local check or higher for both poundable and nonpoundable selections. The apparent higher dry matter percentage observed (some as high as 50%) could be due to the insensitive balance used for measuring in the field where shredding of samples was done and should therefore not be taken as definitive.Evaluation of loca/ germplasm for reactions to pest and diseases at the humid forest station in Mba/mayo, in 1992 The results of the evaluation of reactions to pest and diseases carried out on the 105 land races in the germplasm collection are presented in Table 70. CMV, CAD and CGM pressures were very high on the local clones. However, there were some clones with very low scores for these pressures and they would provide additional sources of resistance to the breeding program for diversification of its resistance base. The relative sprouting abHity was exceptionally poor for a large number of the landraces. However the long haulage of the material from Njombe to Mbalmayo concommitant with bruising, could partly explain the general low sprouting of the clones. Their true potential for this trait will need to be evaluated further. The importance of the inland valley system (IVS) for cropping cassava as a second season crop after rice for its tuberous roots and leaves, combined with its short growing cycle in this system has necessitated the screening of improved cassava germ plasm for adaptation to this ecosystem given a six month growing cycle. Screening of cassava for IVS adaptation is a continuous activity undertaken by TRIP in collaboration with the IITA Resource and Crop Management Division (RCMO).Sixty elite cassava clones and two standard varieties popularly grown in the IVS were evaluated during the 1991/92 dry season in a hydromorphic area of IITA, Ibadan. The experiment was also repeated on the upland at Ibadan during the first growing season of 1992 for six months and in the hydromorphic area again during the dry season of 1993. The specific objectives were to evaluate their potentials under the IVS and upland ecosystems given a six month growing cycle and to assess the relationship in performance in the upland and IVS in order to identify possible constraints in the IVS. The results of three seasons of evaluation are presented in Table 71. The results demonstrate the availability of genetic variability in the three trials among the improved genotypes tested for adaptation to the inland and upland ecosystems during a six month growing cycle.When grown in the IVS in 1991, Clone 85/00025 gave the highest dry yield . The dry yield of the best local check popularly grown in the IVS, Bida Local (3.36 tlha) was equivalent to those of the elite clones, 63397, 84/00003, 85/00665, CB5-1 0(80411), 30555, 30572, 85/00313 and 82/00447. In the upland of 1992, most of the improved clones (top performers in 1991) out-yielded Bida Local in terms of dry yield. TME 1 a popular local land race from western Nigeria gave a comparable dry yield with some of the elite clones. In 1993, Bida local gave the lowest dry yield among the top performers in 1991. The dry yields of improved clones (CB5-10(80411), 82/00447, 30555. 85/00313 and 30572) were equivalent to that of TME I. The dry matter percentages of the locallandraces (TME 1, TME 2 and Bida local) were generally higher than those of the improved clones which in some cases compensated for their low fresh yield to give better dry yields. However, most of the land races included in these trials were among the most susceptible to CMV and would not ensure stability of performance. In particular, Isunikankiyan and Bida local were very susceptible both in the upland and in the IVS. TME 1 showed very high levels of resistance to CMV and CGM. It was not shown that pest and disease attacks were more severe in IVS than in the uplands. However, noticeable root rots were evident for some clones in blocks that contained higher moisture content. Some of the improved clones (C85-10(80411). 30572, 85/00313 and 821000447) and the landrace (TME I) seemed to give reasonably good and stable yields in both uplands and the IVS, while clone 30555 seemed to do better in IVS than the upland when grown for six months. Combined analyses of all data sets are expected to allow more conclusions to be made about the stability of performance and other inter-relationships among traits of the genotypes. This is an on-going MS student project.There was a general linear relationship across all genotypes used in the studies between pest and disease reaction of the clones in the upland and those in IVS except for CBB (Table 72). This could be explained by the fact that for good eBB disease development. the relative humidity has to be very high and during the dry season when the trials were conducted in the IVS, such relative humidity was unlikely to be attained.Overall. the yield and yield components as well as weight of tops and harvest index in the upland were correlated with those in the IVS. Sprouting of the stem cuttings in the uplands was not correlated with that in the IVS. This was probably due to the age of stem cuttings used in these studies. Genotypes selected at Ibadan upland conditions show more significant correlations than genotypes selected at other agroecologies.Cassava breeding programs have hitherto concentrated on breeding for high yield in terms of dry matter/un it area/unit time given a 12 month harvesting cycle, while farmers prefer cassava that would be harvested as early as 6 months but at the same time want the flexibility of extended harvesting as much as up to 18-24 months. There is little knowledge on the optimum bulking and maximum dry matter/starch accumulation as well as deterioration in the ground after 12 months of the improved genotypes.In 1991, evaluation of 10 elite clones to identify clones and breeding parents possessing these traits commenced in the forest-savanna transition zone (Ibadan). When cassava was planted at the end of the wet season dry matter percentage decreased between the fourth and eight month after planting and then sharply increased up to the 12th month . After the 12 month, their was a gradual decrease of dry matter percentages for aI/ genotypes up to the 15th month an~ generally a slight but insignificant increase for some of the genotypes up to the 18th month.The fresh weight per plant of three clones (30001,30555,30572), reached their maximum at the 12th month and decreased gradually up to the 18th month.Clones 4(2)1425, 81/01623, 63397, 81/01635, 82/00661 and 91934 increased their fresh weight of roots per plant to a maximum at the 15th month petore declining. Clone 81/00110 attained its maximum at the 9th month and stayed constant up to the 12th month before declining. The dry yield per plant of the clones generally increased gradually up to the 8th month and thereafter sharply up to the 12th month. After the 12th month some clones (30001, 30555, 30572, 81/001110) decreased the dry yields per plant up to the 18th month while others (4(2)1425, 63397, 81/01623, 81/01635, 82/00661 and 91934) continued to increase their dry yields per plant up to the 15th month before declining.The starch content (%) of the clones increased gradually up to the 6th month and thereafter decreased up to the 8th month. After the 8th month there was a sharp increase up to the 9th month followed by a gradual decrease up to the 18th month.The starch yield per plant of all the clones generally increased rather slowly.Between the 1 st and 6th month after planting, starch yield per plant was virtually non-existent but after then it increased gradually up to the 12th month and then gradually declined up to the 18th month. However fOr the clones 4(2) 1425, 81/01623, 82/00661, 81/01625 and 91934, starch YIeld per plant continued to increase up to the 15th month before declining.The number of storage roots harvested per plant gradually increased for most of the clones up to the 9th month. The number of storage roots per plant of two clones(81/01635 and 91934) started decreasing as from the 8th month up to the 18th month. At the 12th month, the number of storage roots per plant of two additional clones (81/01623 and 82100661) started decreasing up to the 18th month. At the 15th month, the root number per plant of the mentioned four clones increased again together with those of the other clones except for those of 30572 and 63397 which started decreasing then . At the 18th month the storage root number of all the clones decreased.The trends in growth rate of the parameters which were measured seemed to follow the wet•dry season cycle and the dry season seemed to have a profound effect on dry matter partitioning even well into the early part of the rainy season for all the traits measu red. There was very little gained by the crop in terms of yield during the dry season, when it was planted in October (Le. towards the end of second season rains).Most of the gains are incurred during the next wet season. The results of the starch yield showed that when cassava was planted in October, there was nothing gained by the crop when it was left unharvested after 15 months of growth . The optimum harvesting time based on starch yield was between 9 months and 15 months after planting depending on the genotype. The starch yield in kg per plant of the genotypes between 8 months and 15 months after planting were as follows : When cassava was grown during the second season at Ibadan, root weight and number showed a consistent and significant linear relationship with dry yield up to the 15th month. At the 18th month, only root weight was statistically correlated with dry yield (Table 73). The Jack of correlation of root number with dry yield at 18th month could be probably due to the rotted roots observed in some clones. Dry matter was correlated to dry yield at only the eighth and fifteenth month after planting. Harvest index and top weight did not show consistent relationships with dry yield. There was generally no linear relationship between the value of a trait at any given harvest date and its corresponding value at another harvest date except for harvest index which, generally, was inter-related between 8 months and 18 months after planting (Table 74).Two trials, one containing 35 elite genotypes and the other contining 10 elite genotypes (a repeat of 1991 dry season tria/) were planted in May, 1992 (wet season) at Ibadan to investigate the bulking rate and pre-harvest storability among the clones. The trials are still in progress. Preliminary results from correlation analysis conducted for the trial with 35 genotypes show that when cassava was planted in the first wet season, dry matter was not correlated with dry yield at three harvest times (6, 9 and 12 months after planting, map). Harvest index, number of roots per plant and weight of root per plant were significantly related to dry yield at all harvest dates (Table 75). The above ground biomass (weight of top) was linearly related to dry' yield at the 6 map and 9 map but not at 12 map. In the second trial of 10 clones planted in the mid-wet season (May) 1992 on a different site but at the same locatidn, dry matter was not related to dry yield between the sixth and twelfth month after planting (Table 76). It was only significantly correlated to dry yield at the fourth month after planting. Root weight and number were correlated to dry yield at all months after planting except the twelfth month after planting when root number was not correlated with dry yield. The correlations of the respective traits between different harvesting times for the two wet season trials are presented in Tables 77 and 78. For the trial planted with 35 clones, all traits measured (root number per plant, root weight per plant, top weight per plant, dry yield per plant, dry matter percentage, and harvest index) were linearly related between 6 and 9 map, between 6 and 12 map and between 9 and 12 map. In the other trial with 10 clones, none of the same traits measured showed consistent and significant linear relationships with each other over time. The probable explanation for the disparity between this trial and that with 35 clones is sample size « 12 population means).Wet season trial in the humid forest zone (Onne), May, 1992 A trial comprising 26 eUte genotypes selected for the humid forest agroecology in a twelve month breeding cycle planted at Onne. in May, 1992 to investigate the bulking rate and preharvest storability among the clones is ongoing. Prelim inary results from correlation analysis conducted showed that there was a general linear relationship between yield components and dry yield at all harvest dates except between dry matter and dry yield at 9 MAP (Table 79). Harvest index was not correlated with dry yield at any harvest date and thus harvest index proved to be an unreliable selection criteria for higher dry yield in the humid forest zone. This could be attributed to luxurious growth with plenty of rainfall (high rainfall zone) and compensatory attributes as a result of biotic and abiotio stresses at different times in the growth cyole.There was a general linear relationship between traits measured at an earlier date after planting and their corresponding traits measured at a later harvest date (Table SO). The exception was for dry yield between harvest dates of 6 map and 12 map (p=O.06) and for root weight per plant between harvest dates of 9 map and 12 map (p=O.06). With the set of clones used, root number appeared to be consistently related to dry yield and within itself at any given time after planting in the humid forest zone.Generally. it would seem that selection for early maturity in terms of dry yield per unit area per unit time would also be predictive of the yield at a later date and that emphasis should be given to root number in developing seleotion criteria in combination with dry matter for breeding for both early maturity and flexible harvest time in the forest zone.These trials were set up to assess:the relative bulking rate and pre~harvest storability of improved clones developed by the program but results from the correlation analyses showed that performance of genotypes at the early stage of the growth cycle may not necessarily imply the performance at a later stage and generally depended on the agroecologicat zone, and time of planting. From these preliminary results, it may seem appropriate that selection of cassava for a six or twelve month cycle may be two separate entities in the forest transition zone. The variations of environmental conditions interacting with the physiology of the plant could be. responsible for the inconsistencies observed and the use of these environmental factors should be considered as covariates in interpreting and drawing valid conclusions from these evaluations.Evaluation of cassava for low CNP is a high priority in the program since its inception because of the possible health implications. In 1989, 28,087, plants representing 49 families from controlled and open pollinations were evaluated in the general seedling nursery for their CNP using the picrate leaf test. Those found to be low the first time were tested for two subsequent times during the growing season to confirm their low potential to generate cyanide. Result of such evaluations are shown in Table ' 81. The average frequency of plants with low cyanide for all the families was 6% (1,757 plants). However some families showed higher frequencies than others. The range was from 1~14%. Selections from plants with low CNP were cloned and planted in the clonal evaluation trial in 1990. Based on this progeny performance of the parents, selections were made for 1990 crossing block to increase the frequency of low cyanide alleles. Additional sources of low CNPare the derivatives from interspecific hybridization (Table 82).Multilocational trials were conducted (as part of the international collaborative testing of cassava genotypes) in standard uniform yield trial format with 10 cassava genotypes in 1990 at four locations (anne, Ubiaja, Ilorin and Mokwa) in Nigeria. The trial was repeated in 1991 with the an additional six genotypes making a total of 16 at six locations (anne, Ubiaja, Ibadan, Ilorin, Mokwa and Zaria). The trials were harvested 12 months after planting and the CNP was measured using Cooke IS enzymatic assay method. Data on yield and yield components and associated traits were measured. The dry matter of the various genotypes was determined using the standard laboratory method of oven drying. The CNP was determined on both a fresh weight [CNP(FW)] and dry weight [CNP(DW)] basis in HeN equivalent per 100g of fresh and dry root, respectively. The CNP yield in kg/ha, based on fresh weight (CNPFYLD) and dry weight (CNPDYLD), were also determined. Various covar' iate adjustments were made for differential biomass partitioning of the genotypes by dividing the CNP yield (kg/ha) of each genotype by its total fresh biomass (Vha) , above-ground fresh biomass (tlha), root number per hectare. fresh and dry root yields (tJha). As a result the following additional related measures of eNP yield were derived: -eNP yield on fresh weight basis per unit ton of fresh biomass (CNPFYPB); -eNP yield on fresh weight basis per unit root number (CNPFYPRN); -CNP yield on fresh weight basis per Llnit ton fresh root yield (CNPFYPFY): -CNP yield on dry weight basis per unit ton dry yield (CNPDYPDY) and -eNP yield on fresh weight basis per unit ton above-ground biomass (CNPFYPTW).The analyses of variance showed highly significant differences among locations and clones when the data for each year were analyzed for all the measures of cyanogenic potential (CNP(FW), CNP(DW). CNPFYLD, CNPDYLD, CNPFYPB. CNPFYPRN, CNPFYPFY. CNPOYPDY and CNPFYPTW). In 1991, the sources of variation due to the clones, locations and their interaction were highly significant for all the above measures of eNP. When combined analysis was done for the two years data with four common locations and nine common genotypes in both years, the variation due to years, locations and clones as well as year x location and year x clone interactions were highly significant for all the measures. The year x location x clone interaction was, in general, not sign ificant except for CNPFYPTW at the 5% level of probability. The location x clone interaction was also not significant for most of the above traits except for the CNP yields on both fresh and dry weight basis (CNPFYLD, CNPDYLD) and for CNP yields on fresh weight baSis per unit ton of total fresh biomass (CNPFVPB).tn 1990, 50395, followed by U/41044, had the highest values for all the measures of cyanogenic potential (Table 83). In 1991, both 50395 maintained its position with the highest values for the traits (Table 84). The local clones TME 1 in 1990 and both TME 1 and TME 2 in 1991 had the lowest values. There was not a consistent trend in the values of the traits measured with decreasing rainfall as one goes through the south-north axis • as evident in the location means for both years of evaluation. Judging by the highly significant yearl location and clonal effects as well as the consistently significant year x iocation and year x clone interactions, it woul~ suggest that CNP was influenced by many environmental factors of which rainfall could be just one. In order to gain a better understanding of cyanogenesis of cassava, it would be necessary to investigate the effects of different environmental variables on its synthesis and transloction to the root in controlled environmental conditions.Correlation analyses among various measures of CNP t yield and yield components as well as associated traits were performed on data obtained from the multi/ocational trials conducted at various locations in Nigeria in 1990 and 1991 respectively (refer Section 3.5).Simple Pearson's correlations coefficients among the various measures of CNP were determined. All the measures were highly intercorrelated for both datasets. The results of four of the measures are presented in Table 85. The correlation coefficients ranged from 0.96-1.00 and from 0.83-1.00 for the 1990 and 1991 datasets respectively. These results imply that it does not matter which of the measures is used to express the potential to generate cyanide in cassava, as all measures are basically saying the same thing. This finding is useful in breeding as one does not necessarily have to determine the dry matter percentage or the fresh and dry yield per hectare when selecting cassava for low potential to generate cyanide especially in the early breeding stages such as seedling nursery. When the correlation ahal'ysis was performed between the four measures of eNP and yield, yield comp~ments and associated traits, it was found that dry matter percentage was significantly correlated with CNP on dry weight basis and that the relationship was negative in both 1990 and 1991 trials (Table 86). Th is seems to have a physiological explanation in view of the fact that glucose is an intermediate for the synthesis of both starch and cyanogenic glucosides. A possible explanation could be that the sink strength of the roots for glucose in starch synthesis is far .greater than that for the glucosides in the leaves i.e glucose is driven towards starch synthesis in the roots at the expense of glucoside synthesis. This finding is interesting because it is difficult to breed for cyanogenic potential and by breeding for high dry matter (an important objective in cassava improvement), we would be alSO breeding for low cyanogenic potential.This result is preliminary but the finding is obviously a researchable issue because of its implication for cassava bre~djng.By 1989, seven clones had been selected that consistently showed strong yellowish pigmentation of the flesh of the storage roots. The colour was confIrmed to be largely due to beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. This colour provides an additional aesthetic appeal in traditional food products prepared from such roots. The genotypes were evaluated over a three year period at Onne and Ibadan and were also planted at Uyo in 1990. Tables 87 to 90 show the results obtained. Apart from an apparent higher susceptibility to CMV, the yellow-rooted genotypes were comparable to the checks (white-rooted) in reaction to pests and diseases. Clones 71693 and 82/01438 were comparable to the best check in terms of root yield. They would be attractive owing to the advantage of higher beta-carotene content.4.Collaborative research schemes help identify regional research priorities, catalyze information exchange, preclude duplicative research efforts and increase the transfer of technologies among partners. Making use of the comparative advantage of NARS to conduct different types of research benefits both the NARS and IITA. Feedback on IITA technology from NARS is invaluable in the continuous refinement of our own research strategies.Through concerted breeding efforts, TRIP has developed improved cassava genotypes which combine multiple resistance or tolerance to major pests and diseases in sub-Saharan Africa with desirable agronomic and food qualities. Such materials need to be evaluated by NARS for selection and refinement under their local conditions. Two forms of improved populations are distributed to our NARS partners; improved seed populations and in vitro plantlets.Improved germplasm in seed form is distributed and evaluated yearly in several NARS. The distribution for 1989 to 1993 is shown in Tables 91, 92, 93,  94 and 95. Between 1989 and 1993, several hundred thousand seeds of cassava representing about 482 families segregating for pest/disease resistance(CGM, CMV, CBB), high yield and dry matter and cooking quality (culinary quality, yellow roots, etc) were distributed to 33 countries in sub• Saharan Africa for evaluation and selection under their under their local conditions. These included Malawi, Angola. Republic of Benin, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Uganda, Gambia, Zaire, Niger, Lesotho, Mali, Cameron, Mozambique, Sao Tome, Cote d'lvoire, Togo, Zambia, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Congo, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Cape Verde, Sudan, Gabon, Senegal, Angola, Rwanda, Burundi, Zimbabwe and Nigeria. In 1992 alone over 200,000 seeds were distributed. In 1993, about 120,000 has so far been distributed to various NARS in sub-Saharan Africa. The evaluations of these planting materials has been the responsibility of the NARS with only technical backstopping from TRIP. A procedure for evaluating these seed populations has been in collaboration with the NARS. Results of the yearly evaluations of seed populations are presented in country reports by our main collaborators during collaborators meetings. Clone 80/40 in Sierra Leone and clone 30572A in Benin which are now being tested on-farm and multiplied for distribution to farmers have resulted from this venture (both are selections from half-sib progenies of 30572). NARS such as in Rwanda, Liberia, Cameroon, Sierra Leone, Gabon, Congo, Zambia, etc have earlier on (prior to this period) selected and released varieties from such populations. For example, in Liberia, the Caricass series 1,2,3 were released and Caricass 1 was supplied to Guinea and Sierra Leone as well. Zambia has selected LUC 133. Seychelles have selected and released to farmers Say 14, 28, 32, 41 and 52. In Mozambique, 35 genotypes have been selected from IITA improved seeds and are being evaluated in multiloca. tional trials. In Cameron, 8 high yielding, disease resistant genotypes including; 8034,8061,8017,820516,224,658,856 and 1005 have been selected, multiplied and are being distributed to farmers . In many countries, selection of adapted genotypes from such seed populations have reached advanced stages as in Uganda, Ghana and Benin. Technical assistance was given to cassava programs in selected African countries in the establishment of their seedling nurseries, evaluation and selection of desirable genotypes from seedling populations. Germplasm collections, characterization/ evaluation and utilization in germ plasm development has been encouraged. Advice was also given for the establishment of crossing blocks within their own countries towards building their institutional capacities for breeding. Selected countries included Guinea Conakry, Benin , Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, and Niger during the period 1989 -1993.In pursuance of the objective of massive supply of more recent elite clones (near finished product) to NARS and hence more genetic variability for selection under specific local conditiof.1s, account is taken of the relevant agroecologies.The findings of the collaborative study of cassava in Africa (COSCA) have further helped in identifying attributes of the genotypes that cou ld suit best the conditions in the countries covered.At the request of the following NARS in 1992, technical assistance was given in the establishment of in vitro cassava plantlets. Five conSignments with 300 to 400 plantlets each comprising 50 cassava clones were delivered to and established in Cameroon, Gambia, Niger, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde and Chad.The national technicians were also trained in the handling of tissue culture derived materials until they become established in the field.Also from the improved germ plasm collection maintained in Cameron, two sets of 40 genotypes with mealy root characteristics were given to two national scientists in the Cameroon National Root Crops Program for multiplication and further evaluation. Samples of the complete set of 656 genotypes in the collection was delivered to Congo. on their request, by the IITA Research Laison Scientist for Central Africa in 1993.TRIP collaborates with various NARS in the international testing of improved cassava genotypes across West Africa. This is a means of germptasm transfer and generating information on the performance of a range of leading genotypes across West Africa. It also offers the opportunity to study genotype by environment interaction in cassava, monitor variatiol1 in the prevalent diseases and biotype formation of prevalent pathogen and pests as well as determining the stability of crop genetic resistance to the major diseases and pests. The genotypes were established. multiplied and evaluated in each country's agroecologies using the standard methods for international cassava testing produced jointly with the NARS.In 1989, 1990 and 1991, the performance of seven improved clones was evaluated in comparison with three standard checks in four countries that already had enough planting materials. In Ghana. the genotypes were tested at five locations; in Togo, two; in Republic of Benin, four and in Nigeria, seventeen. Results of the analyses of 1989 and 1990 on the data have shown high performance of 30572, 4(2}1425 in Ghana. Togo, Benin and Nigeria, 50395 and TMS 91934 in Ghana and Nigeria from two years of testing. As a result of this exercise these improved materials were used for on-farm trials under the IITAlEEC OFAR Project in 1991 and 1992 and are also being multiplied for further distribution to farmers under the same EECIIITA-OFAR Project.The Ghana National Root Crops Program recommended four of these clones (30572. 4(2)1425, 91934 and 50395) to the National Varietal Release Committee in 1992. In 1993, the Crop Research Institute of Ghana, through the National Varietal Release Committee officially released to farmers three of the four varieties as 'Abasa fitaa' (4(2)1425), 'Afisiafi' (30572) and 'Gblemo duade' (50395) .A set of 19 clones was established and multiplied in the various NARS in 1991 and was tested at several locations in 1992. These clones were also established and multiplied in Sierra Leone and Guinea Conakry. They have completed their first year of testing and are being tested in multilocational trials in 1993 for their second year. In 1992, a third set of 16 low cyanide , poundable (Le. with mealy roots after cooking) clones were established and multiplied In Benin, Togo, Ghana, Sierra Leone and Guinea, Gambia and Cameroon, Guinea Bisau for international testing in 1993. Collaboration on cassava improvement between NRCRI and TRIP has lasted for close to two decades. Essentially, the objective has been to release improved cassava varieties and improved production technology packages to Nigerian farmers exploiting the synergistic impact of IITA wide gene base and the adaptive research capacity of the NRCRI. Efforts were aimed at: developing a broad gene bank to improve national capability for sustaining the generation of eUte varieties to address prevalent ecological production stresses: multilocational testing of new varieties from the two institutions to identify varieties with positive interactions with specific environments; and the evaluation of varieties under varying fertility regimes to identify varieties for low-input production systems.Backstopping of NRCRI (Nigeria) has been provided since 1989 in the identification and nomination of genotypes for the statutory NCRP trials required for the release of cultivars to farmers. TRIP also participated in the joint evaluation of performance of improved cassava clones as well as provided combined data analyses of such trials.Ten IITA improved clones were multiplied and provided to NACRI for such trials in 1990 and were tested alongside NRCAI improved clones in 16 diverse environments in Nigeria in 1990 and 1991. A new set of 8 improved clones were nominated. multiplied for the 1992 trials. These have been tested for the first year in 16 diverse locations and are being tested for the second year in 1993. A third set of 5 elite clones (low cyanide and poundable) were nominated for the 1993 trials and were multiplied in 1992. The clones are being tested alongside 5 other clones nominated by NACRI in trials at 15 locations in Nigeria ior the first year in 1993. Results of trials conducted at some locations and evaluated by TAIP are reported in an earlier section (see sub-section, NCAP trials under main section evaluation).TRIP has provided resource persons for the NCAP annual review and workplanning meeting of the NeRP Project since 1990. During the annual review and workplanning meeting in 1991 and based on combined analyses for the previous set of trials that completed its second year of testing in 1991. clone TMS 91934 was nominated to the National Accelerated Food Production Program (NAFPP) for multiplication and mini-kit trials in 1992 (pre-release stage). 30572 and 4(2)1425 were recommended for release prior to this period.In 1992, 269 elite IITA cassava breeding lines (95 adapted to forestsavanna transition zone; 130 adapted to the humid forest and 44 adapted to the southern Guinea savanna) were provided to the NRCRI for evaluation and use as parents in their breeding program. TRI P also provided thousands of seeds from improved pest and disease resistant populations every year to NRCAI, Umudike for evaluation and selection in their breeding program.TRIP collaborated with NRCRI between 1989 and 1991 for the Nigeria component of the international testing across West Africa of seven elite clones. TRIP also collaborated with NRCRI in the study of the stability of five elite cassava genotypes (30572,50395,4(2) 1425, U41044 under intercropping and different fertility regimes for two years (1990 and 1991). The results have shown that the varieties respond differently to varying levels of soil fertility. Clone 4(2) 1425 gave a yield improvement of over 60% on appjication of 60 kg/haN 30 kg/haP and 90 kg/haK. Clones 30572,50395 and NRl41044 responded I~ss : 21%, 15.2% and 18% respectively. These three give economic yields on low fertility soils and are amenable to low input systems. Although varieties 30572 and NR/41 044 showed no significant yield differences, their effects on intercropped maize were significantly different with 30572 showing a more depressive effect on maize yield.The collaboration between TRIP and Shell dates back to the early seventies when CBa almost wiped out the cassava crop in Nigeria. Shell, jointly with TRIP, evaluated breeding materials and rapidly multiplied and distributed promising genotypes to farmers. Currently TRIP collaborates with Shell in the joint evaluation of breeding populations for adaptation to the humid forest zone, in multilocational trials of improved genotypes and, since 1991, in the multiplication of breeders seeds of IITA entries for the NeAP trials. Results of collaborative trials are reported in an earlier section. Shell is also active in the multiplication and distribution to farmers of improved genotypes released in Nigeria. Since 1989 Shell has distributed several thousand cassava bundles to farmers (Table 96) .Meetings [1989][1990][1991][1992] Recognizing the growing importance of root and tuber crops research in Africa over the years, TRIP and many root crop programs in Africa developed a mutually beneficial collaboration through annual meetings. The aim of these yearly meetings was to:(1) Evaluate research results and plan future research taking note of research successes and failures (2) Exchange new knowledge (3) Standardize procedures (4) Assess research needs (5) Plan future collaborative research.The first of these meeting was held in 1987 followed by others. A collaborative meeting was held 13-14 June 1989. The purpose of the meeting was to review past and present efforts, to discuss and adopt strategies to achieve common goals in collaborative. research and to improve understanding of regional issues. Fifty-seven participants from 13 countries attended the meeting. and presented country reports of research activities and results. At the close of the meeting the participants resolved to cooperate with liT A and among themselves in the international collaborative testing of roots, tubers and plantains in order to assist in studying genotype X environment interaction and determining agroecological zones.For a detailed report of the 1989 meeting and earlier meetings {1987, 1988), refer HT A Meeting Report Series 1989/3: Root Crop Research Collaboration in Africa.In 1990, eighty participants from 20 countries took part in the annual meeting (6•7. June). Country reports of research activities and results were presented. Discussions were also held on existing research methodologies and ways of improving them.The 1991 (11-13 June) Collaborators meeting was an extraordinary one that led to formation of the Collaborative Group for Root and Tuber Crop Improvement and Systems (CORTIS).For several years, TRIP and the Resource and Crop Management Program have both collaborated with the NARS for the advancement of root and tuber production in sub-Saharan Africa. Increasingly the need was felt to integrate root and tuber crop breeders and cropping system researchers in Africa into one body to avoid duplication and increase interaction between the two group of researchers. In collaboration with the HlImid Forest Program of RCMD, a joint collaborators meeting was held in June 1991 to explore ways of improving collaboration within and between the two groups. Eighty-three participants from 18 countries attended the meeting. Country reports were presented on a variety of topics. At the end of the meeting it was decided to set up two action committees, one for plant breeding and one for cropping systems research, as well as a joint committee consisting of some members from the two committees. The action committees met in Ekona, Cameroon from 30th Sept -1 st October; 1991 to develop an action plan for both groups and work out procedures for better collaboration between crop improvement and cropping systems researchers which finally led to the formation of the Integrated group now called CORTIS. It was also agreed in this meeting that then Tropical Root Crops Network Newsletter II published by TRIP should be extended to include systems aspects. A possible new title for the newsletter was also suggested. The newsletter is how called\" Tropical Root and Tuber Crops Bulletin. It has been modified to serve as an organ among NARS researchers for the reporting of scientific research activities and results. The bulletin is produced biannually_ For a detailed report of this meeting, please see liT A meeting Report Series 1991/2: meeting of Collaborators in Root and Tuber Crop Improvement and Cropping Systems ResearchIn 1992 (5-9 October) COATIS met at the IAR and T, Moor Plantation, in Nigeria attended by 40 participants from 11 countries. The theme of the meeting was 'Choice and on-farm testing of improved varieties with special emphasis on root and tuber crops'. The objectives of the meeting were to:(1) Review how the crop breeding-cropping systems/on-farm research interface functions in various national and international research institutes (2)\" Identify inadequacies in need of improvement (3) Develop methodology for better integration of crop breeding and cropping systems research/on-farm research.The meeting recommended that a methodology be developed for the conduct and interpretation of fully farmer-managed on-farm trials.TRIP had held the responsibility for the technical coordination of the earlier Tropical Root Crops Newsletter which evolved into Tropical Root and Tuber Crops Bulletin (English and French versions) in 1992 and produced biannually and distributed to root and tuber crops researchers in the NARS and elsewhere. In 1993, one issue has been produced and distributed while the other issue is in preparation. Emphasis has been put into encouraging more NARS to utilize this medium for exchange of information among NARS and between liT A and NARS in root and tuber crop improvement and production research in sub-Saharan Africa.The ISTRC-AS was created in 1978 to stimulate research, production and utilization of root and tuber crops in Africa and the adjacent Islands. The activities include encouragement of training and extension, organization of workshops and symposia, exchange of genetic materials, and facilitation of contacts between personnel working with root and tuber crops.The society's headquarters is located at TRIP of liT A in Ibadan, Nigerla, but its executive council comprises eminent root and tuber crop researchers from national programs throughout the continent. Three members of TRIP served as members of the executive council between 1989 and 1992. Four members of TRIP were elected to the executive council; A.G.O. Dixon (secretary), S.Y.C. Ng (Treasurer). M. Bokanga (Assistant editor) and R. A. Asiedu (ex-officio), during the last general meeting of the society held at Kampala, Uganda in November, 1992. TRIP provides coordination in the SOCiety. In collaboration with the Government of Zaire. the Society's fourth triennial symposium was held in Kinshasa, Zaire (5-8, Dec., 1989). The theme of the symposium was . \"Promotion of Root Crop-based Industries: an incentive for research and development\" . Over 81 participants from various parts of Africa and the globe attended the symposium and various papers covering disciplines of root and tuber crops were presented. The proceedings including the resolutions of the symposium has been published and is available for sale at a cost of 10 dollars per copy from the editor, c/o TRIP.In collaboration with the Government of Uganda, the Society'S fifth triennial symposium was also held in Kampala, Uganda (22-28, Nov, 1992). The theme of the symposium was \"Root Crops for Food Security in Africa\". Over 130 participants from various parts of Africa as well as from different parts of the globe attended the symposium and several papers covering various disciplines of root and tuber crops were presented by root and tuber crop researchers in Africa and outside Africa. Also during the symposium, a half day was set aside for the presentation of country reports of collaborative research activities with IITA (CORTIS). Nine countries presented reports of their research activities and the results will be included in the proceedings which is in preparation.At the close of the meeting also, it was agreed that the society shall have a journal to be called the M African Journal for Root and Tuber Crops\" to serve as an organ for the publication of scientific research results by root and tuber crop researchers.Technical backstopping was provided to root crop projects agreed upon under Regional Research Project an Maize and .Cassava (RRPMC). On-Farm Adaptive Research Project (OFAR). East and Southern African Root Crop Network (ESARRN) and the Ghana Smallholders Rehabilitation Project as well as COSCA (Collaborative Study of Cassava in Africa) and CORTIS (Collaborative Group for Root and Tuber Crop Improvement and Systems) during the period 1989 -1993. TRIP also participated in monitoring tours of the aFAR Project in 1991. As a result of the exercise. the need for improved germplasm in many NARS was confirmed. TRIP is making desperate efforts to satisfy requests received from NARS.                                        32.9 8.6 26.9 30.6 7.1 1.9 PH=No of stands harvested (/1()m2)# ::: Scale of 1-5 in increasing severity?:; = Nurrber of plant sprouta:i (110 m2) for all pests and diseases * = Checks Rar = Prcp)rtion of rotten tul:::erous roots           2.9 1.9 0.1      for all pests and diseases * = Checks      Table 44.Location means of multilocational trials of 10 cassava genotypes conducted for three years (1989)(1990)(1991)   28.8 19.9 5.6 0.53 28.8 25.4 7.2 0.59 29.0 20.5 6 . 3 0.50 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.00 0.1 0.9 0.0 0.00 0.4 0.7 0.0 0.01                                     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------      19.8 5. 9 21.2 5.6 6.72.0 10.3 2.6 10.9 3.6 10.5 3.2 15.5 4.2 13.9 4.9 11.5 3.1 10.3 3.0 0.73 0.21  ","tokenCount":"16380"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"07a9898eda7fed40221352a9f4f2c2c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d71c3d4f-b198-4cb2-83e5-d2f65eaab37f/content","id":"1214171549"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6f7ccf6a-b36c-4242-8c23-80b5687cfb40","pagecount":"30","content":"Through collaborative research, partnerships and training, CIMMYT works throughout the developing world to improve livelihoods and foster more productive, sustainable farming.Generate $3.5 -4.5 billion in annual benefits to farmers in developing countries.50% of maize and wheat grown in the developing world based on CIMMYT varieties. 10,000 researchers and professionals worldwide alumni of CIMMYT training. The StatusSource: CABI Evidence Note (Sept 2017)• 29 countries in Africa confirmed the pest incidence (compared to 12 in April 2017).• A further 8 countries have conducted or are presently conducting surveys, and either strongly suspect its presence or are awaiting official confirmation.• More than 1.5 M ha of maize is currently affected in just six countries: Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Ethiopia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.• The potential impact of FAW on continental wide maize yield lies between 8.3 and 20.6 million tonnes per year of total expected production of 39 m tonnes per year -> losses lying between US$2.5 and US$6.1 billion per year of total expected value of US$11.5 billion per year (CABI Evidence Note, Sept 2017)• Other impacts:• Losses to maize seed production fields ","tokenCount":"179"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7675a80c908d88a10e76cb7ae301d58c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b825158c-fc59-4c90-b9e6-94cb33109df5/retrieve","id":"-566117337"},"keywords":["additive gene effect","non-additive gene effect","micronutrient deficiency","orange maize"],"sieverID":"a750c67c-5a90-4033-8fc8-64f22d490d0c","pagecount":"17","content":"Breeding maize with high contents of zinc, iron and provitamin A (PVA) could be effective in mitigating micronutrient deficiency in developing countries with a high reliance on maize-based diets. Information on the mode of inheritance of zinc, iron, PVA and grain yield (GY) would facilitate the development of varieties with enhanced contents of these nutrients. Twenty-four yellow to orange maize inbred lines and their 96 F1 hybrids generated using North Carolina Design II, were evaluated alongside four checks for two years at two locations in Nigeria. The effects of environment, hybrid and inbred line were significant for GY and contents of zinc, iron and PVA. The GY, and contents of zinc, iron and PVA of the hybrids ranged from 1.49 to 6.05 t ha −1 , 22.51 to 33.33 mg kg −1 , 20.04 to 29.65 mg kg −1 and 3.55 to 15.28 µg g −1 , respectively. Additive gene effects controlled the accumulation of PVA and Fe, whereas both additive and non-additive gene effects controlled the inheritance of Zn and GY. Inbred lines with high general combining ability for GY and single or multiple micronutrients were identified, and could be used to develop hybrids and synthetics that combine high GY with high micronutrient content. Six hybrids combined high GY with high contents of all three micronutrients, and are recommended for further evaluation and possible release. Our study revealed the feasibility of enriching maize with multiple micronutrients without compromising grain yield.Maize is an important crop for global food security and its grains contain about 72% starch, 10% protein, 4.8% fat, 8.5% dietary fibre, 3.0% sugar with no anti-nutrients [1]. However, most maize genotypes are low in content of vitamin A and valuable minerals including Fe and Zn [2,3]. Zn acts as a catalyst for the activation of several enzymes in the body [4]. It is involved in the regulation of gene expression, proper functioning of the immune system, physical growth, reproductive health and neurobehavioral development [5,6]. The role of Fe is manifest in several biological processes such as respiration, energy production, cell division and formation of genetic materials [7]. Vitamin A is necessary for visual health, cellular growth and development and control of gene expression [8]. Symptoms of Zn deficiency include stunted growth in infants, increased oxidation stress, low immunity to infections and slow mental development, whereas Fe deficiency is largely associated with anaemia and fatigue [9]. Vitamin A deficiency has been implicated in blindness and 17% of all deaths in children younger than 5 years in developing countries [10]. Deficiency of micronutrients in the diet leads to 'hidden hunger', necessitating the need for the consumption of foods enriched with adequate content of bioavailable micronutrients. Micronutrient deficiency is widespread in developing countries where there is high reliance on maizebased foods. The low cost of maize production and its growing use in processed products in these countries make it a suitable vehicle for biofortification [11,12]. For example, the estimated Zn requirement is 1860 µg day −1 , therefore, the development of maize varieties with Zn content exceeding 37 mg kg −1 would have a significant impact in alleviating Zn deficiency [12]. In addition, on the basis of retention, bioavailability and daily requirements of vitamin A and Fe, coupled with an estimated daily maize consumption of 200 g day −1 , increasing the PVA content of maize to 15 µg g −1 as set by Harvestplus and Fe content to 40 mg kg −1 would positively impact human nutrition in developing countries [13].The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture with the support of the HarvestPlus challenge program has been involved in developing maize varieties with high levels of Zn and PVA. Previous diversity studies for PVA, Zn and Fe in maize reported the presence of substantial native variation for the three micronutrients in inbred lines [10,[14][15][16], suggesting that breeding maize varieties for enhanced contents of these nutrients is feasible. Maize accumulates provitamin A, through the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway and is later changed to Vitamin A in the human body through activities of certain enzymes [17]. Orange and yellow colour in maize have been associated with higher nutritional value than white, due to the presence of carotenoids, especially zeaxanthin and β-carotene which impart the colour [18,19]. According to [16,20], β-carotene represents about 70% of the PVA content in maize. On the other hand, accumulation of Fe and Zn occurs through uptake from the rhizosphere to the roots, translocated to the shoots, leaves and stems at the vegetative stage and later to the grains during the reproductive stage [15,21]. Micronutrient accumulation in plants is highly influenced by climatic and edaphic factors which may mask the genetic potential of the crop. Nonetheless, high heritability estimates for Zn and Fe accumulation have been reported in maize, highlighting the low presence of environmental effects on phenotypic expression of these traits and the possibility of transferring them to progenies [12,15,22].Combining ability studies unravel the effects of genes involved in the expression of PVA, Fe and Zn content and facilitate the selection of parents for developing source populations and hybrids with high levels of the three micronutrients. General combining ability (GCA) is the mean performance of an inbred line in a series of hybrid combinations and is associated with additive gene effects while specific combining ability (SCA) is linked to the non-additive genetic effects [23]. Provitamin A in maize, has been the subject of many combining ability studies. While [24] reported that non-additive genetic effects were more important in the inheritance of carotenoids, several other studies have reported the preponderance of additive gene effects conditioning provitamin A content in maize [16,20,[25][26][27][28]. Similarly, several genetic studies in maize have reported that (GCA was more important than SCA in the regulation of Zn accumulation in maize [15,29,30]. In contrast, [31] found non-additive gene action to be more important than additive gene action for Zn and Fe levels in maize. Considering the contradictory results reported in previous studies, as well as the use of fewer inbred lines for genetic analyses in those studies, there is additional need to unravel the mode of inheritance of Zn, Fe and PVA in tropical maize using more maize inbred lines with diverse genetic backgrounds. Furthermore, most of the genetic studies also focused on one or two micronutrients at a time, whereas deficiencies in Zn, Fe, and PVA have been recorded together in many low-income communities in sub-Saharan Africa. Micronutrients interact during their transportation and functioning in the human body which may increase the bioavailability of each micronutrient [32]. For example, higher PVA levels in cereals could improve the intestinal absorption of Fe from cereals [33]. Therefore, understanding the gene action controlling the three micronutrients is important in identifying parental lines that can be crossed to develop source populations and high-yielding maize hybrids with high levels of PVA and minerals. Increasing PVA, Zn and Fe content should also be achieved without compromising grain yield and other important agronomic traits. The objectives of the present study were therefore to determine (i) the mode of inheritance of Zn, Fe, PVA content as well as grain yield and (ii) the correlations of Zn, Fe and PVA content with grain yield and other agronomic traits in maize.Twenty-four (24) yellow to orange endosperm tropical maize inbred lines with low to high levels of Zn and provitamin A (Table S1A) were used in the present study. The inbred lines were crossed using the North Carolina design II [23] at IITA's main research station, Ibadan (7 • 29 11.99 N, 3 • 54 2.88 E, altitude 190 masl). The inbred lines were divided into six groups each containing four inbred lines to generate six sets of crosses. The inbred lines were separated into groups based on similarities in Zn and provitamin A contents that were determined in previous seasons as well as the genetic backgrounds of the lines to maximize productivity in hybrids. Each inbred line in each group was used both as a male and a female parent to generate a total of 96 hybrids (Table S1B).The 96 hybrids plus two commercial provitamin A biofortified hybrids (Ife Hybrid 3 and Ife Hybrid 4) and two conventional orange maize hybrids (M1124-31 and Oba Super 2) used as checks were arranged in a 25 × 4 alpha lattice design and planted at two testing sites in Nigeria in 2020 and 2021. The testing sites were (Ikenne 3  34 N, altitude 760 masl). The inbred parents were also evaluated in 4 × 6 alpha lattice design in a separate trial alongside the hybrids at two of the testing sites (Ikenne and Saminaka). Each entry in both hybrid and inbred trials was planted in a single 5 m row plot with a spacing of 0.75 m between rows and 0.50 m within rows with two replications. Three seeds were placed in each hill and later thinned to two plants giving a population density of about 50,000 plants ha −1 . NPK 15:15:15 fertilizer was applied at the rate of 60 kg N ha −1 , 60 kg P ha −1 , and 60 kg K ha −1 at planting. Urea (46-0-0) fertilizer at 60 kg N ha −1 was applied as top dressing at four weeks after planting. Weeds were controlled by application of gramoxone and atrazine as pre-emergence herbicides at the rates of 1.5 L gramoxone and 2.5 L atrazine in 200 L of water per hectare. Manual weeding was subsequently performed to manage the weeds.Agronomic data were collected from each plot at the two testing sites in both 2020 and 2021. Days to anthesis (DA) and days to silking (DS) were recorded as the number of days at which 50% of plants in a plot shed pollen and had emerged silks, respectively. Anthesis-silking interval (ASI) was estimated as the difference between DS and DA. Plant height (PH) and ear height (EH) were measured in centimetres as the distance from the base of the plant to the top of the first tassel branch and the node where the upper ear is attached, respectively. Plant aspect (PA) was scored on a scale of 1-5, where 1 represented uniform, clean, vigorous plants with good appearance and 5 represented non-uniform, unhealthy plants with poor appearance. Ear aspect (EA) was scored on a scale of 1-5, where 1 represented clean, well-filled, uniform and large ears while 5 represented incompletely filled ears with pest or disease damage. Harvested ears were shelled and grain moisture content of the grains was measured using a hand-held moisture meter. The grain weight and moisture content were used to compute grain yield adjusted to 15% moisture content. Grain yield was not recorded in the inbred lines trials as most of the plants were weak.Five representative plants were self-pollinated in each F1 hybrid for each replication every year. Similarly, uniform plants of each inbred line were self-pollinated in each replication at the two locations for two years. To minimize field contamination, harvested ears were placed into paper bags and carefully shelled by hand in the laboratory. Samples were drawn from the hand-shelled grains and submitted to the Food and Nutritional Sciences Laboratory of IITA for mineral and carotenoid analyses.A 10 g sample was taken from each plot and milled to fine powder (flour approx., 0.05 mm) using Perten Laboratory Mill 3100 (Perten Instruments). A 7 g sample was then drawn from each milled sample and loaded in sample cups [34], which were sealed on one end with 4 µm Poly-4 XRF sample film. The sample cups were then loaded into Bruker S2 Ranger for the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. Sample films were changed after each reading and cups were cleaned to avoid cross-contamination between samples. Measurements were performed twice per sample and mean values were recorded. A 10% sample was also analysed using the inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) to further confirm the accuracy of values obtained from the XRF analysis.Self-pollinated ears were harvested, dried under ambient temperature with minimal exposure to direct sunlight and shelled separately. Samples of 100 kernels were drawn from each plot in duplicates for carotenoid analysis. Carotenoids were extracted and quantified using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) (Water Corporation, Millford, MA, USA) at Food and Nutritional Sciences Laboratory, IITA-Ibadan using a protocol described by [35]. Each 100 kernel-sample was ground to pass a 0.5 mm screen using Perten Laboratory mill (Perten Instruments). A 0.6 g ground sample was transferred to a 50 mL glass centrifuge tube. Then, 6 mL ethanol containing 0.01% butylated hydroxyl toluene was added to the glass tube, which was capped and mixed using a vortex mixer for 15 s. The glass tube was then incubated in 85 • C water bath for 5 min. The glass tubes were removed from the water bath and 500 µL of 80% potassium hydroxide was added to the tubes. Vortexing and incubation were repeated. The samples were moved immediately into an ice bath and 3 mL cold deionized water was added to tube and mixed using a vortex mixer for 15 s. To each sample, 3 mL hexane was added, vortexed and then centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 10 s. Then, 200 µL of internal standard β-Apo 80-carotenal was also added to 10% of the number of samples alongside hexane to validate the efficiency of the extraction process. The hexane fraction was then extracted and transferred into a concentrator tube. Extraction of the hexane fraction was repeated three times by adding 3 mL hexane each time. The hexane extracts from each sample were then dried at 40 • C under nitrogen gas using a concentrator (Organomation Asscociates, Inc., Berlin, MA, USA). The samples were reconstituted in 1 mL of 50:50 methanol/dichloromethane and the tube capped immediately. The extracts were vortexed and transferred into HPLC vials, placed in an autosampler tray and inserted into the HPLC machine. A 50 µL aliquot per sample was injected automatically into the HPLC (Water Corporation, Milford, MA, USA) for analyses of a-carotene, β-carotene (cis and trans-isomers), β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin based on calibration of the standard of each carotenoid. The Waters HPLC components, operated with Empower 1 Software, includes a 717 Plus autosampler with temperature control set at 5 • C, a Waters 1525 binary HPLC pump, and a 2996 photodiode array detector for carotenoid quantification. Carotenoids were separated on a 3 µm C30 Carotenoid Column (4.6 × 250 mm) eluted by a mobile phase methanol/water (92:8 v/v) with 10 mM ammonium acetate as solvent A and 100% methyl-tert-butyl-Ether as Solvent B. The gradient was applied for 30 min from 70% solvent A:30% solvent B, to 40% solvent A:60% solvent B. The flow rate was 1.0 mL per minute, the absorbance was measured at 450 nm.Chromatograms were extracted after analyses and major carotenoids were identified and concentrations calculated using the formula [36]:where Cx and Ax were concentration and peak area of carotenoid x, while Cs and As were the concentration and peak area of the standard.Total carotenoid was calculated as the sum of concentrations of α-carotene, lutein, βcarotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin. Provitamin A was calculated by adding the concentrations of β-carotene, and half concentration each of β-cryptoxanthin and α-carotene [37].Analyses of variance for hybrid and parent trials were carried out using PROC MIXED procedure of SAS 9.4 [38] to generate entry means for micronutrients and agronomic traits for each location-year combination, which is hereafter referred as an environment. Cross-environment analyses were then conducted using adjusted means for block effects.The test hybrids excluding checks were thereafter subjected to analysis of variance based on North Carolina Design II to estimate combining ability effects for the micronutrients and agronomic traits. In the combined analysis of variance using a mixed model, hybrids, sets, male and female parental lines were considered as fixed effects, while environments, replications within environment and blocks within replications were considered as random effects. The variance components due to hybrids within sets were divided into variance due to female (set), male (set) and female × male (set) interaction and the interaction of each respective variance component with environment was used to compute F tests. The variance due to environment × female × male (sets) was tested using the pooled error variance. The pooled error variance was obtained by dividing error sums of square from all environment combinations with the corresponding sum of error degrees of freedom. The main effects of female (sets) and male (sets) represents the general combining ability (GCA female and GCA male) while female × male (sets) interaction represents specific combining ability (SCA) effects [23].The relative importance of GCA and SCA (predictability ratio) was calculated as:where σ 2 gca and σ 2 sca are variances due to GCA and SCA, respectively.AGD-R was used to calculate variance components and broad sense heritability for each trait [39]. Simple correlation coefficients between micronutrients and agronomic trait were also calculated from means averaged across environments using PROC CORR of SAS 9.4 [38].The inbred line and environment had significant effects on Zn, Fe and PVA contents (Table S1). Inbred line × environment interaction had significant effects on β-carotene, PVA, and Fe, but not on Zn. The contribution of inbred line × environment interaction to total variation was much smaller relative to the variability among inbred lines for the micronutrients. Heritability estimates were 0.94 for Zn, 0.80 for Fe, and 0.96 for PVA. Mean micronutrient content of inbred lines averaged across environments ranged from 27.82 to 41.59 mg kg −1 for Zn, 19.20 to 31.01 mg kg −1 for Fe, and 2.12 to 15.15 µg g −1 for PVA (Table 1).The differences among hybrids and environment were highly significant for the micronutrients and grain yield. Hybrid × environment interaction mean squares were significant for grain yield, PVA and Fe content, but not for Zn content (Table 2). Again, the mean squares for hybrids were much larger than the mean squares for hybrid × environment interaction for all micronutrients including grain yield. The GY, and contents of zinc, iron and PVA of the hybrids ranged from 1.49 to 6.05 t ha −1 , 22.51 to 33.33 mg kg −1 , 20.04 to 29.65 mg kg −1 and 3.55 to 15.28 µg g −1 , respectively. The overall mean micronutrient content in hybrids was 28.51 mg kg −1 for Zn, 23.61 mg kg −1 for Fe, and 8.32 µg g −1 for PVA, whereas mean grain yield for hybrids was 4.88 t ha −1 . The number of hybrids that accumulated above average concentrations of the micronutrients was 51 for Zn, 35 for Fe and 28 for PVA. Six hybrids combined high grain yield with high contents of Zn, Fe and PVA (Table 3).   In the combined analysis, the effects of sets, female (sets), male (sets), and female × male (sets) interaction were also highly significant for all micronutrients including grain yield (Table 2). Environment × female (sets) interaction was significant for all micronutrients but not for grain yield, whereas environment × male (sets) interaction was significant for PVA and grain yield only. Environment × female × male (sets) interaction was not significant for Zn, Fe and grain yield. Heritability estimates in the hybrid trial were 0.88 for Zn, 0.87 for Fe, 0.92 for PVA, and 0.60 for grain yield. The additive variance (σ 2Additive ) was about 1.3 to 12 times higher than the non-additive variance(σ 2 Non-additive ) for Fe, Zn, PVA and grain yield. The predictability ratio was closer to one for the micronutrients and 0.76 for grain yield (Table 2).The contribution of GCA male to the total sum of squares for hybrids was 30% for Zn, 51% for Fe, 48% for PVA and 32% for grain yield, while the contributions of GCA female was 30% for Zn, 27% for Fe, 45% for PVA and 27% for grain yield (Figure 1). The contribution of SCA effects to the total sum of squares was 40% for Zn, 22% for Fe, 7% for PVA, and 41% for grain yield. Some inbred lines combining positive GCA and SCA effects for multiple micronutrients and grain yield were identified (Tables 4 and S3). Inbred line 16 combined positive GCA effects on Fe, Zn, PVA contents and grain yield. This inbred line accumulated 35.33 mg kg −1 of Zn, 27.89 mg kg −1 of Fe and 9.31 µg g −1 of PVA (Table 1). Inbred lines 1 and 5 had positive GCA for Zn, Fe and grain yield, whereas inbred line 23 displayed positive GCA effects for PVA and Fe levels. In contrast, inbred lines 2, 15 and 24 combined negative GCA effects for the three micronutrients. Eleven hybrids combined positive SCA for Zn, Fe and PVA levels, whereas five hybrids combined positive SCA effects for Zn and Fe levels. Three hybrids combined positive SCA effects for Zn and PVA, while two hybrids combined positive SCA for PVA and Fe content. GY: grain yield, SCA: specific combining ability, GCAm: general combing ability male, GCAf: general combining ability female, PVA: provitamin A. Most inbred lines displayed positive GCA and SCA effects for at least one micronutrient (Tables 4 and S3). Significant and positive GCA effects on Zn were recorded in inbred lines 1, 7, 9, 11 used as females and lines 1, 6, 7 and 16 used as males. These inbred lines were parents of nine best 10% of the hybrids in Zn content, accumulating more than 31 mg kg −1 of Zn in their grains (Table 5). In contrast, inbred lines 3, 23 and 24 when used as females and 2, 3 and 20 used as males had significant negative GCA effects for Zn (Table 4). These inbred lines were either the male or the female parents to eight of the worst 10% of the hybrids in Zn content (Table 3). Of the 96 hybrids, SCA effect for Zn content was significant and positive for nine hybrids, while the effect was significant but negative for seven hybrids (Table S3). Inbred lines 1 and 11 when used as both male and female parents displayed significant and positive GCA effects for Fe content. Additionally, inbred line 16 used as female and 17 used as male had significant and positive GCA effects for Fe content (Table 4). These inbred lines were parents of eight of the best 10% of the hybrids in Fe content (Table 5). In contrast, inbred lines 8 and 24 had significant and negative GCA effects when used as females, while lines 4, 8, 15 and 24 had significant negative GCA effects when used males (Table 4). Only two hybrids had positive SCA effects for Fe content, whereas seven hybrids showed significant negative SCA effects for Fe content (Table S3). Inbred lines 6 and 19 showed significant positive GCA effects for PVA when used as males and female. Inbred lines 22 and 23 used as female and inbred line 20 used as male displayed significant positive GCA effects for PVA content (Table 4). These five inbred lines were parents of the best 10% of the hybrids in PVA content (Table 5). In contrast, inbred lines 5, 15, 21 and 24 had significant negative GCA for PVA content when used as both males and females (Table 4). Four hybrids had significant positive SCA effects for PVA content (Table S3). Most inbred lines displayed positive GCA and SCA effects for at least one micronutrient (Tables 4 and S3). Significant and positive GCA effects on Zn were recorded in inbred lines 1, 7, 9, 11 used as females and lines 1, 6, 7 and 16 used as males. These inbred lines were parents of nine best 10% of the hybrids in Zn content, accumulating more than 31 mg kg −1 of Zn in their grains (Table 5). In contrast, inbred lines 3, 23 and 24 when used as females and 2, 3 and 20 used as males had significant negative GCA effects for Zn (Table 4). These inbred lines were either the male or the female parents to eight of the worst 10% of the hybrids in Zn content (Table 3). Of the 96 hybrids, SCA effect for Zn content was significant and positive for nine hybrids, while the effect was significant but negative for seven hybrids (Table S3). Inbred lines 1 and 11 when used as both male and female parents displayed significant and positive GCA effects for Fe content. Additionally, inbred line 16 used as female and 17 used as male had significant and positive GCA effects for Fe content (Table 4). These inbred lines were parents of eight of the best 10% of the hybrids in Fe content (Table 5). In contrast, inbred lines 8 and 24 had significant and negative GCA effects when used as females, while lines 4, 8, 15 and 24 had significant negative GCA effects when used males (Table 4). Only two hybrids had positive SCA effects for Fe content, whereas seven hybrids showed significant negative SCA effects for Fe content (Table S3). Inbred lines 6 and 19 showed significant positive GCA effects for PVA when used as males and female. Inbred lines 22 and 23 used as female and inbred line 20 used as male displayed significant positive GCA effects for PVA content (Table 4). These five inbred lines were parents of the best 10% of the hybrids in PVA content (Table 5). In contrast, inbred lines 5, 15, 21 and 24 had significant negative GCA for PVA content when used as both males and females (Table 4). Four hybrids had significant positive SCA effects for PVA content (Table S3).Seventeen inbred lines displayed positive GCA for grain yield when used both as males and females. Inbred lines 8 and 18 showed significant positive GCA effects for grain yield when used both as males and females (Table 4). The largest GCA effect for grain yield was observed in inbred line 8 as a male parent, whereas the lowest GCA effect was observed in inbred line 14 as male parent (Table 4). The SCA effects for grain yield were positive for hybrids 8, 47, 86. (Table S3). H: hybrids, GCA: general combining ability, F1: value of hybrid, M: male, F: female, PVA = provitamin A, *: significant at p < 0.05, **: significant at p < 0.01.The mean performance of hybrids partitioned into six mating sets are shown in Table 6. Set I hybrids combined high levels of Zn (29.24 mg kg −1 ) with high Fe content (24.45 mg kg −1 ). Hybrids in set II combined highest Zn content (30.14 mg kg −1 ) with average levels of PVA and Fe, and highest grain yield (5.23 t ha −1 ). Hybrids in Set VI accumulated the highest levels of PVA (9.87 µg g −1 ), but had the lowest Zn content (26.43 mg kg −1 ). The correlation between PVA and Zn content was significant and negative but weak (r = −0.19, p < 0.05). While Zn content was positively correlated with Fe content (p < 0.01), the correlation between Fe and PVA content was not significant (Table 7). In most cases, the correlations between agronomic traits and micronutrients were not significant (Table 8). PVA had significant negative correlation with ear aspect. Both Zn and Fe contents were positively correlated with flowering dates. Fe had significant and negative correlation with plant height and grain yield. While Zn had significant and positive correlation with ear height, its correlations with plant aspect and ear aspect were significant but negative. Zn had no association with grain yield.  Combining ability studies provide information which aid in the understanding of the gene action involved in the inheritance of traits. This understanding will guide the design of breeding strategies for further enrichment of maize varieties with Zn, Fe and PVA, targeted to areas affected by deficiencies in micronutrients. This study was conducted to determine the gene actions involved in conditioning the inheritance of Zn, Fe, PVA contents and grain yield in maize.In the present study, a wide range of variation was found among the parental lines and their hybrids for contents of Zn, Fe and PVA contents, as well as grain yield. The Zn and Fe contents reported in this study were slightly higher than the values reported by [15], and [10] but lower than the ranges reported by [40,41]. The PVA content reported in the present study was higher than the values reported by [16], but lower than the values reported by [28]. The similarities or differences in micronutrient content obtained in our study relative to values found in previous studies could arise due to differences in genetic backgrounds of the test materials, as well as the climatic and edaphic conditions prevalent at experimental sites. In general, micronutrient contents recorded in hybrids were lower than their parental lines, consistent with the results reported in previous studies for maize [15,28,42].Increasing PVA, Zn and Fe content in maize may sometimes be associated with lower yields due to the dilution effects on micronutrients content caused by higher carbohydrates level in high yielding maize materials [2]. The absence of a significant correlation between grain yield and contents of Zn and PVA, and its weak association with Fe content in the present study, highlight the possibility of improving these nutrients in maize hybrids without compromising grain yield. These findings are consistent with the reported low correlations between grain yield and Zn [14,15,42], and between grain yield and PVA content [24]. The significant positive correlation between Fe and Zn in the hybrid trial suggests that both micronutrients can be concurrently enhanced in maize, possibly due to tight linkages of the genes involved in accumulation of these micronutrients [43] and the similar physiological processes involved in nutrient uptake from the soil and their translocation to the grains [14,44]. As the vegetative parts of the maize plants serve as sink for Zn accumulation during the V7 to VT stages of development, taller plants could accumulate a higher content of Zn which is later remobilized to the grains. Therefore, plant height could be considered as a secondary trait for indirect selection of Zn [15]. However, in our study, Zn content and plant height had no significant correlation. This result is consistent with the findings of [14]. The significant positive correlation of Fe and Zn content with flowering dates reported in this study agrees with the findings of [15] suggesting that the longer the duration before flowering, the greater the content of minerals accumulated in vegetative parts of maize which may also be remobilized to the grains at maturity stage [45,46]. However, this association of flowering dates with Zn and Fe may be genotypespecific, as [14] reported significant positive correlation between mineral micronutrients and flowering dates in extra-early maturing maize while no significant associations were found in early-maturing maize in the same study. Although the correlation between PVA and Zn contents was significant and negative, it was too weak to hinder concurrent improvement of these nutrients. The fact that we found four hybrids that combined high contents of Zn and PVA levels supports this observation. The identification of inbred line 16 which had positive GCA effects for Fe, Zn and PVA gives additional credence to the possibility of enriching maize with high concentrations of the three micronutrients.The significant male and female parent GCA and their SCA effects on PVA, Zn and Fe contents including grain yield imply the presence of both additive and non-additive gene effects controlling the inheritance these nutrients. However, the variance due to SCA represented a small fraction of the total variation in PVA and Fe contents, indicating the preponderance of additive gene effect over non-additive in the control of these nutrients. These results are consistent with results from previous studies [20,30,47] but contradicts with the findings reported by [24]. Inbred lines with the high significant and positive GCA effects for each of the micronutrients and grain yield are good combiners, highly adaptable and less influenced by environmental conditions. However, the low negative significant GCA effects for these micronutrients and grain yield displayed by some inbred lines in this study indicated their low combining ability for the traits and poor adaptability to varying environmental conditions. Hybrids with the high positive and significant SCA effects for the micronutrients content and grain yield implied desirable specific cross combinations for the traits. In this study, the PVA and Zn contents of the parental lines were encapsulated in their hybrids. For example, high-Zn × high-Zn crosses resulted in hybrids with high Zn content (Set I and II), whereas low-Zn × low-Zn crosses produced hybrids with low Zn content (Set V1). Similarly, high-PVA × high-PVA (Set III) and high-PVA × medium-PVA (Set VI) crosses produced hybrids with the highest PVA contents. Interestingly, low-Zn, high-PVA × high-Zn, high-PVA lines produced some hybrids with Zn content exceeding 29.0 mg kg −1 , implying that an inbred line with low Zn could have high genetic potential for use as a parent to develop hybrids combining high Zn with high PVA content. It is important to note that the best 10% of the hybrids for PVA, Zn and Fe contents had at least one parent with significant positive GCA effects for Zn, Fe and PVA, likewise the worst 10% of the hybrids for Zn and Fe content had at least one parent with significant negative GCA effects for these traits. Similar observations have been reported in previous combining ability studies for minerals in maize [15,25,48] and pearl millet [43,49]. The significant GCA × environment interaction effects on all three micronutrients including grain yield observed in at least one of the parents highlight the importance of selecting specific desirable inbred parents for a given environment.The preponderance of additive gene action in the regulation of PVA and Fe contents implies that recurrent selection can significantly improve contents of the micronutrients in source populations which could be used to develop inbred lines with much higher levels of these nutrients. The superiority of GCA effects over SCA effects in this study for PVA and Fe is also an indication of the effectiveness of early generation testing to identify promising lines to develop hybrids with high micronutrients content. Since the SCA effects were also significant for the micronutrients and grain yield, predicting hybrid performance based on parents alone may not always be accurate. It was also observed that per se performance of inbred lines did not always correspond with their GCA effects on micronutrient content. For example, inbred line 1 which manifested large GCA effects for Zn and Fe content had relatively low content of the nutrients. This weak association between per se performance and GCA effects could be due to epistatic interactions [50] and thus selection of superior parents for micronutrient enrichment should be carried out in hybrid combinations.Among the 12 inbred lines initially classified as high-Zn (GPI-GP III), seven inbred lines had positive GCA effects on Zn contents when used as males and as females. Positive GCA effects on Zn were also shown in inbred lines 21 and 22 (low-Zn group) as males. This result was consistent with the findings of [15] who found only three of the 10 inbred lines in the high-Zn group displaying positive GCA effects for Zn content. In contrast, [30] in their study reported that all inbred lines in the high-Zn group had positive GCA for Zn while all inbred lines in the low-Zn group display negative GCA for grain Zn content. Inbred lines 1, 5 and 16 combined positive GCA effects for Zn and Fe with positive GCA effects for grain yield. These lines could thus be used as potential parents for transferring favourable alleles to develop maize hybrids combining high Zn and Fe contents with high grain yield. Inbred line 16 which showed positive GCA effects for all three micronutrients and grain yield can be used as a parent for developing new maize hybrids. Some parental lines with significant positive GCA produced hybrids with significant positive SCA for a specific micronutrient. For instance, inbred line 7 with high GCA effects for Zn was a parent of hybrids 71, 26 and 27 showing positive SCA effect for Zn content. In contrast, some hybrids with significant positive SCA effects had parents with negative GCA for a trait. For example, inbred line 15 which had negative GCA effects for Zn was a parent of hybrids 73 and 76 with significant positive SCA effects for Zn content. Such contrasting potentials of parents could arise from differences in combination of dominant or recessive alleles from one of the parents [51].Our study demonstrated that PVA and Fe content in maize were controlled predominantly by additive gene effects, whereas both additive and non-additive gene effects were important in the inheritance of Zn content and grain yield. Inbred lines with high GCA effects on micronutrients content and grain yield were identified for use as parents to develop synthetics, hybrids and new maize inbred lines enriched with high levels of micronutrients and superior agronomic performance. Hybrids with significant SCA effects on PVA, Fe and Zn were also identified. Further studies are necessary to investigate the potential of exploiting heterosis for PVA and mineral nutrients in maize.The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy13010266/s1, Table S1A: parental inbred lines used in factorial mating scheme and their groupings. Table S1B: description of the crossing scheme for each main set. Table S2: means squares from analysis of variance for Zn, Fe and PVA concentrations of 24 parental lines across environments. Table S3: estimates of specific combining ability (SCA) effects for micronutrients and grain yield in 96 hybrids evaluated across environments. Table S4: mean values for agronomic traits of 96 hybrids evaluated across environments. Table S5: the physical and chemical properties of soils (0-30 cm) of the study sites. Table S6: agroecological zones, average rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and soil type of the study locations.Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.M., A.A. and E.U.; methodology, E.U., A.M. and S.M.; data curation: E.U., A.M. and W.M.; writing-original draft preparation: E.U.; writing-review and editing, E.U., A.M., A.A., S.M. and W.M.; supervision, A.M., A.A., S.M. and W.M., project administration, A.M.; fund acquisition, AM. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.","tokenCount":"6320"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"47aee6557d7e251ea98d03fbb06d18be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e39d9547-3b55-402f-9230-bf3b20af91d2/retrieve","id":"-713702688"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d39c6221-8c8c-4c83-8ef5-7809c0943d9c","pagecount":"1","content":"Several species of Brachiaria, a pan-tropical grass genus comprising about 100 species, are forages of economic importance in tropical America and elsewhere. Acremonium implicatum forms a symbiotic endophytic association with at least some of these economically important Brachiaria species. We sought to ascertain whether endophytic A. implicatum could be seed-transmitted in Brachiaria. Twenty tillers were vegetatively propagated from a single, endophyte-infected mother plant. Ten tillers were treated with the fungicide Folicur® to eliminate the endophyte while the remaining ten tillers were untreated. Seeds were harvested individually from these genetically identical plants, with or without the endophyte. Some of the seeds were germinated and seedlings grown in the glasshouse. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)based method developed previously uses a pair of endophyte-specific primers to amplify a single DNA fragment of about 500 bp. DNA both from remnant seeds and from 2-month-old seedlings was amplified with these primers to detect presence of the endophyte. The diagnostic DNA fragment was consistently amplified in DNA of seeds harvested from the endophyte-infected plants and DNA from seedlings grown from seeds harvested from endophyte-infected plants, but not from seeds or seedlings originating from fungicide treated endophyte-free plants. We conclude that A. implicatum can be transmitted through seeds.Brachiaria is a pan-tropical genus of grasses with about 100 species. The fungus Acremonium implicatum can develop an endophytic association that is mutually beneficial with Brachiaria species.DNA from isolates of A. implicatum was amplified using 10-base random primers. Primer OPAK 10 (Operon Technology Inc.) amplified bands including a 500-bp product common to all of the isolates tested. This fragment has been cloned and sequenced. Based on this sequence data, several primers were designed and synthesized. A primer pair designated P1 (5'-TTCGAATGATAAGGCAGATC-3' and P4 (5'-ACGCATCCACTGTATGCTAC-3') amplified a 500-bp product with template DNA from isolates of A. implicatum in pure cultures and in tissues of Brachiaria infected with A. implicatum. No amplification product was detected in plants free from A. implicatum or using DNA of nonendophytic fungi or the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. graminis, a pathogen of species of Brachiaria (Kelemu et al., 2003. Molecular Plant Pathology 4: 115-118).This primer pair was used to conduct seed transmission studies in plants with and without A. implicatum. We report here the results of A. implicatum transmission studies in seeds of Brachiaria. The primer pair amplified a 500-bp product with template DNA of seeds harvested from A. implicatum infected Brachiaria plants, but no amplified products were observed with DNA of seeds from endophyte-free plants.The fungicide Folicur® was used to generate endophyte-free Brachiaria clones. Twenty or more plantlets were propagated from a mother plant naturally or artificially infected with the endophyte. Half of these plantlets were soaked in a solution of 0.6 mL/L of Folicur® (250 g a.i./L) for 6 h to eliminate the endophyte, and the other half were left untreated to serve as controls. All plantlets were individually planted in small pots and placed in the greenhouse. Plants were examined 4-6 weeks after treatment for the presence or absence of A. implicatum.Fresh mycelia of endophyte isolates cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates, endophyte-infected or endophyte-free plant leaves, or seeds were collected and macerated in liquid nitrogen for genomic DNA isolation. Genomic DNA was extracted using the DNeasy Plant Mini Kits (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA) according to the manufacturer's instructions.Specific primers P1 (5'-TTCGAATGATAAGGCAGATC-3') and P4 (5'-ACGCATCCACTGTATGCTAC-3') were used in the PCR reactions. Amplifications were carried out in a Programmable Thermal Controller (MJ Research, Inc.), programmed with 44 cycles for genomic DNA of endophyte pure cultures or plant leaves, and 54 cycles for DNA from Brachiaria seeds, of a 30 sec denaturation step at 94°C (3 min for the first cycle), follwed by 1 min at 65°C, and primer extension for 1 min (10 min in the final cycle) at 72°C. The amplification products were separated by electrophoresis in a 1.0% agarose gel (Bio-Rad), stained with ethidium bromide and photographed under UV lighting.Seed samples were collected from plants confirmed to be endophyteinfected or endophyte-free using the PCR tests with template DNA isolated from plant tissues, and fungal endophyte isolation on culture media.The primer pair, P1/P4, allows the precise and rapid detection of A. implicatum in Brachiaria plants and permits a differentiation between endophytic and non-endophytic fungi (Kelemu et al., 2003. Molecular Plant Pathology 4: 115-118).A single band of about 500-bp in all examined isolates of A. implicatum was amplified. Endophyte-containing and endophyte-free plants were also consistently differentiated using this primer combination (Fig. 1). Seeds were collected from plants whose tissue samples were used in Fig. 1 as well as other plants. All seed DNA from endophyte-containing plants had a 500-bp amplified product. No amplification product was detected with seed DNA from endophyte-free plants (Fig. 2).Seedlings generated from seed samples of endophyte-containing and endophyte-free plants had consistently tested positive or negative, respectively, for the diagnostic 500-bp amplified product (Fig. 3). From these results, we concluded that A. implicatum maintains its symbiotic association with species of Brachiaria through seed transmission.   ","tokenCount":"822"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d428821609907deaaba764d3a3d45061","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/12f6224f-71cf-4b5a-94ba-db873fc1d95e/retrieve","id":"852189110"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e44f8796-4f69-4cd4-a1fe-87bc2c6ff155","pagecount":"4","content":"There is a woeful lack of data about pastoralist communities, and figures for their number vary greatly. This is partly because pastoralism is defined in different ways. Using the strictest definition -pastoral nomads depend on livestock, are mobile, use communal grazing areas and recognise customary rules as a source of authority -there are at least 20 million pastoralists in Africa. However, a less rigorous definition suggests there may be some 200 million pastoralists on the continent.Protecting and promoting pastoralism in Africa case. Pastoralism is a highly specialised activity, requiring considerable knowledge and skills. Mobility is a key feature, enabling livestock owners to find fresh pastures during dry seasons and times of drought. According to a recent review by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), pastoralists achieve higher rates of productivity per unit of land for their livestock than modern, Western-style ranches operating under similar conditions.Pastoralism makes a major contribution to the economy in many African countries. In Mali, it accounts for 44% of agricultural GDP; in Ethiopia, it provides the raw material for the leather industry, the second P astoralism supports tens of millions of people, makes the best use of harsh environments and provides many economic and social benefits. Over much of Africa, livestock convert grass into protein in areas where other agricultural activities would be risky or impossible. However, policy-making tends to favour sedentary populations and marginalise pastoralist communities, many of which are threatened by drought, fragmentation of their grazing lands, restrictions on mobility and poor access to basic services. Protect pastoralists' rights to land and water and help them to secure their assets.Invest in essential services for pastoralists, including education, health and ICTs rights should be enshrined in law. Just as importantly, policies should protect pastoralists' right to pursue a nomadic way of life. Mobility enables pastoralists to seek the best grazing land and maximise the productivity of their herds. It is also an essential part of their trading strategy. One example of the sort of measure required is the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Stock-Rearing Action Plan, which was adopted in 2011. This recognises pastoralists' right to move stock from one region to another, protects their access to water in settled agricultural regions and facilitates cross-border trade.In Africa, the loss of livestock is a major cause of poverty. Unlike livestock owners in many developed countries, pastoralists have been unable, until recently, to take out insurance. However, a scheme launched by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Northern Kenya in 2010, based on work funded by the World Bank in Mongolia, has shown that it is possible to design insurance policies which are attractive to both pastoralists and financial institutions.Index insurance allows herders to insure against a negative event which can be verified by proper data. In Kenya, this is a satellite measure of environmental greenery. Payments are made when data shows that the availability of forage has fallen below a certain level. Of the 3,000 policyholders in the Marsabit region, 600 received payments following the drought of 2011. These enabled pastoralists to buy food and livestock fodder. In India and the United States, governments subsidise similar index-based insurance schemes for agricultural crops. African countries could consider subsidising index-based insurance schemes for livestock.Governments should introduce measures to promote the trade of pastoral livestock.This could involve investments in infrastructure, the reduction of non-tariff barriers, and the harmonisation of animal health stan-largest source of foreign currency after coffee; in East Africa, over 90% of the meat consumed comes from pastoral herds. Pastoralists also have an important role to play in protecting biodiversity, promoting tourism, and managing grazing lands which have the potential to sequester significant quantities of carbon.In recent years, there have been a number of initiatives designed to stimulate pastoralist economies. The African Union (AU) 'Policy Framework for Pastoralism in Africa' , adopted in 2011, is the first continent-wide measure which aims to secure, protect and improve the livelihoods of African pastoralists. Several regional initiatives are also providing greater support for pastoralism. Nevertheless, more needs to be done.It is essential that governments provide pastoralists with secure access to communal grazing lands and water resources. These Pastoralism is not an evolutionary dead end. it is a specialised, sophisticated, highly productive system.\" A Fulani cattle herder with his Angole-Watusi animals at the Oluwainshola cattle market on the outskirts of Lagos dards across borders. An example of the latter is a regulation, signed in 2007, which applies to all the countries of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). Pastoralists should also be encouraged to add value to their produce. This is what the Tiviski Dairy has achieved in Mauritania. Founded over 20 years ago, Africa's first camel milk dairy now has over 1,000 suppliers and 200 employees. Tiviski sells milk and cheese directly to small retailers in the capital, Nouakchott. By creating a market for fresh milk, and processing milk into cheese, Tiviski has enabled pastoralists to participate in local markets and improve their incomes.Although current regulations make it difficult for pastoralists to sell their produce on the international market -Tiviski cannot export camel cheese to the EU -pastoralists could still consider taking advantage of the Geographical Indications (GI) schemes which link the quality and uniqueness of a product to a specific location. GI statusthink, for example, of Roquefort cheese or Parma ham -guarantees authenticity and adds value for producers.Pastoralists should be encouraged to diversify their economies. This could involve taking advantage of schemes which protect the environment -such as carbon sequestration -or setting up new businesses, for example in tourism and handicrafts. The Northern Rangelands Trust in Kenya has shown how pastoralism can benefit from its coexistence with wildlife. With an expanding membership of community conservancies, controlling over 1.5 million ha of land, the Trust is promoting conservation and land rehabilitation, helping pastoralists develop their own business ventures and improving social services.Livestock herders now have their own representatives in some national parliaments; in some countries, they are increasingly active in local government. However, pastoralists need to become more involved in designing policy and influencing the political process at every level. The AU is encouraging pastoral networks to set up forums which will help them to engage more effectively with the AU itself and the regional economic communities. In many African countries, Members of Parliament representing pastoral areas are now joining together to lobby on behalf of their constituents.An important requirement for greater visibility is better statistics. For a variety of reasons, statistics concerning pastoral society and the pastoral economy are non-existent or deeply flawed. These include basic figures such as the total number of pastoralists, and their contribution to national economic affairs. Improving statistics of this sort is a vital task.Pastoralists should play a key role in determining their own future, a principle which guides the activities of Pastoral Field Schools, first established in Africa in 2006. Field School sites are mobile, but weekly sessions are usually conducted near a water source. Consisting of 30-40 pastoralists who meet at regular intervals, the schools encourage them to identify challenges and develop practices to overcome them. These could include animal health and disease prevention, improved breeding practices and technical innovations that increase the animals' resilience to drought and disease. Pastoral Field Schools have helped to improve incomes and family welfare.Scientists need to pay much greater attention to the traditional knowledge of pastoral communities. This is particularly relevant for the issue of climate change. Most of the information provided by meteorologists is inaccessible and unintelligible to pastoralists. At the same time, meteorologists are failing to benefit from the pastoralists' long experience in coping with variations in the climate.In CTA Policy Brief have had some success in Nigeria, although they face problems of staffing, supervision and quality. Governments should also consider investing in 'distance learning' through the use of radio, and in improving vocational training for adults. Pastoralists would also benefit from greater investment in human health and veterinary services.Mobile phones allow pastoralists to receive up-to-date market information, identify where to sell their livestock, send and receive remittances and participate in insurance schemes. They also help to reduce transaction costs when buying and selling livestock and provide livestock owners with access to advisory services. Although they have not yet been used among nomadic populations, there is every reason to think that mobile phones will soon offer a significant new mechanism for 'distance learning' of a sort suitable for pastoralists. Investing in improvements in communication in rural areas should be a priority. n ralists and meteorologists together to share knowledge. Initiatives such as these could play an important role in future climatechange policy making.There is no clash between the traditional way of pastoral life and modernity; on the contrary, pastoralists willingly embrace new technologies and new ideas. However, government investments in basic services, such as education, health and communications frequently fail to acknowledge the significant contribution pastoralists make to national and regional economies.There is an urgent need for greater investment in the education of pastoralists' children. Education strategies must be tailored to the specific needs and lifestyles of specific communities, and should pay particular attention to disadvantaged groups, especially women. Mobile schools, which involve teachers and schools moving with livestock migrations, threats to mobility are a threat to both pastoralists' livelihoods and the health of the environment.\"","tokenCount":"1549"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2258e25049d3e15a782a90a8ba380e00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fa358a95-b022-466d-9e14-01369b513fcf/retrieve","id":"-1769140245"},"keywords":["☒ Peer review ☒ Supplementary material CMD resistance","SNP markers","KASP genotyping","prediction accuracy","marker-assisted selection African Union Commission"],"sieverID":"ae6c49a0-1555-4bf9-b583-29430ecb2acc","pagecount":"7","content":"Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) is one of the main constraints that hamper cassava production. Breeding for varieties that are CMD resistant is a major aim in cassava breeding programmes. However, the use of the conventional approach has its limitations, including a lengthy growth cycle and a low multiplication rate of planting materials. To increase breeding efficiency as well as genetic gain of traits, SNP markers can be used to screen and identify resistant genotypes. The objective of this study was to predict the performance of 145 cassava genotypes from open-pollinated crosses for CMD resistance using molecular markers. Two SNP markers (S12_7926132 and S14_4626854), previously converted into Kompetitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) assays, as well as CMD incidence and severity scores, were used for selection. About 76% of the genotypes were revealed to be resistant to CMD based on phenotypic scores, while over 24% of the total population were found to be susceptible. Significant effects were observed for alleles associated with marker S12_7926132 while the other marker had nonsignificant effects. The predictive accuracy (true positives and true negatives) of the major CMD2 locus on chromosome 12 was 77% in the population used in this study. Our study provides insight into the potential use of marker-assisted selection for CMD resistance in cassava breeding programmes.Cassava is one of the staple crops in Africa. The importance of this crop lies in the high starch content of its storage roots, which provides a cheap source of calories in developing countries where malnutrition and calorie deficiency are widespread. 1 In 2019, Africa accounted for 63% of the 303 million metric tons produced globally, with Nigeria being the highest producer. 2 Cassava leaves and delicate shoots are eaten as vegetables in many parts of Africa. 1 Cassava is also used to make cassava starch, which is used as a raw material in the food, textile, paper, and glue industries. 3 Despite the economic importance of the crop, a large number of constraints hinder cassava production in Africa, especially in Nigeria where a high incidence of pests and diseases, unavailability of agrochemicals and insecticides, and degradation of soil fertility as a result of erosion and urbanisation have been reported. 4 Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) is one of the most devastating viral plant diseases in Africa. It can cause yield losses ranging from 12% to 82% depending on infection type and cassava variety. 5 These translate into an annual reduction of more than 30 million tons of fresh root yield. 6 The disease is caused by cassava mosaic geminivirus of the family Geminiviridae and genus Begomovirus 7 and the symptoms vary from irregular yellow to yellow-green chlorotic areas on the leaves, leading to leaf distortion and plant stunted growth.The deployment of host plant resistance and the application of cultural treatments, particularly phytosanitation, are the most extensively utilised approaches in reducing the negative impacts of CMD. 8 However, the use of resistant varieties is the most sustainable solution because it decreases disease-related production losses as well as the inoculum source for whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) which is known to be the disease vector. 9 Genetic mapping studies have identified three sources of CMD resistance: CMD1 (recessive and polygenic), CMD2 (monogenic and dominant), and CMD3 (quantitative trait locus or QTL for CMD resistance) 9,10 , but CMD2 remains the most commonly employed 11 . CMD1, known as the polygenic source of resistance, was derived from the wild species Manihot glaziovii. 12 The CMD2, which is monogenic, was discovered in some West African cassava landraces (tropical Manihot esculenta). 12,13 The complementary effect between the CMD2 locus and a newly identified QTL confers CMD3 source of resistance. 14 A traditional cassava breeding programme relies on phenotypic characterisation of mature plants 15 , which makes it last for about a decade, leading to a delay in releasing a new variety. The low multiplication rate of planting material needed for phenotypic screening across multi-environments, and variation in performance of the plants due to the physiological status of the cuttings, are some of the several factors that reduce breeding efficiency in cassava programmes 16 thus resulting in a low rate of genetic gain. To overcome the aforementioned limitations, molecular markers such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can be incorporated in cassava breeding programmes for rapid genetic improvement of traits of interest through markerassisted selection. Marker-assisted selection is a technique that involves establishing a link between a molecular marker and the chromosomal location of the QTL that controls the desired trait. 17 Understanding the genetic architecture is necessary for the development of molecular tools to speed up the transfer of beneficial genes into farmer-preferred cultivars. 18 Significant loci linked to some important traits including CMD resistance were identified through a genome-wide association study which was conducted at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria. 18 The favourable alleles at the most significant markers associated with CMD resistance, S12_7926132 (allele G/T) and S14_4626854 (A/G), were T and A, respectively. 18 SNPs tagging major loci could be useful for screening and identifying individuals with favourable alleles during the early stages of selection if allele-specific high-throughput SNP tests are developed. Before largescale implementation, a validation study of these loci is required to guarantee their relevance across environments and populations. 18 The major objective of this work was to predict the performance of cassava genotypes for CMD resistance using SNP molecular markers and phenotypic data.A population comprising 145 cassava genotypes was evaluated for CMD incidence and severity at the Teaching and Research Field of the Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, during two cropping seasons (2019/2020 and 2020/2021). The seeds of the genotypes were derived from open-pollinated crosses and were collected from five female parents (IITA-TMS011368; IITA-TMS011371; IITA-TMS011412; IITA-TMS070593 and IITA-TMS070539).To minimise experimental error related to the large experimental field size, the genotypes were divided into four sets. The trial was laid out using a randomised complete block design with two replications per set. The experimental site was cleared and ridges were made with a row spacing of 3 m between sets. A total of 20 cuttings (25-30 cm long) from matured stems of each genotype were planted in a plot size of 20 m 2 at a spacing of 1 m x 1 m. The experimental location was chosen because of the high disease pressure by cassava mosaic virus. 9 Moreover, the early stage (first 6 months) of the plants corresponded with the period of high whitefly activity, resulting in a significant risk of disease exposure. Variety IITA-TMS-IBA070593 was included as a resistant control while IITA-TMS-IBA30572 and IITA-TMS-IBA30555 were used as susceptible controls.Data on CMD incidence and severity scores were collected at 1, 3, and 5 months after planting. The incidence was recorded as the ratio of the number of plants with symptoms to the total number of plants per plot. The severity of CMD was measured on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 denoting no symptoms, 2 denoting mild chlorotic areas on most leaves, with the remaining parts of the leaves and leaflets appearing green and healthy, 3 denoting a pronounced mosaic pattern on most leaves, with distortion of the lower one-third of most leaves, 4 denoting severe mosaic pattern on most leaves, and 5 denoting very severe mosaic symptoms on all leaves, often accompanied by stunting of the plant. 1,19 A modified Dellaporta approach was used to extract genomic DNA from freeze-dried leaf samples. 20 The DNA quantification and purity were checked using a NanoDrop spectrophotometer (ND-8000, Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). The absorbance at a wavelength of 260/280 nm ranging from 1.80 to 2.0 indicates that the DNA solution was free of contaminants. The quality of the DNA samples was checked on 1% agarose gel (Sunrise 96, Biometra, Göttingen, Germany) and bands were viewed on a gel documentation system (Labnet ENDURO GDS Gel Documentation System Aplegen) incorporated with an ultraviolet transilluminator.Markers S12_7926132 and S14_4626854 derived from Rabbi et al. 18 were used to screen the cassava genotypes for resistant and susceptible alleles. The sequences of the specific forward and common reverse primers used for the Kompetitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) genotyping were extracted from Ige et al. 21 and are presented in Table 1. A positive (IITA-TMS-IBA070593) and two negative (IITA-TMS-IBA30572 and IITA-TMS-IBA30555) control varieties were included in the genotyping as well as a no-template control of 5 µL of distilled water. The KASP reaction mix consisted of 5 µL of DNA at a concentration of 50 ng and 5 µL of the prepared genotyping mix [5 µL (2 × KASP master mix) and 0.14 µL primer mix]. The PCR cycling was performed as follows: hot-start activation at 94 °C for 15 min followed by 10 touchdown cycles (20 s at 94 °C; touchdown at 61 °C to 55 °C initially and dropping by 0.6 °C per cycle for 60 s), followed by 26 additional cycles (20 s at 94 °C; 55 °C for 20 s). The KASP genotyping reactions were run on the Roche Light Cycler 480-II at the Biosciences Unit, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria.The SNPs were called using KlusterCaller software (LGC, Biosearch Technologies, USA) and visualised based on the fluorescence signal using the SNPviewer software (LGC, Biosearch Technologies), where data on SNP allele calls were visualised graphically. Fluorophores FAM and HEX plotted on the x-and y-axes, respectively, allowed the distinction of the assayed genotypes.The mean cassava mosaic disease severity scores (CMDSS) were subjected to a combined analysis of variance across the two years of experimentation to assess the genotypes, year, and block effects on the expression of the disease using aov function in Agricolae R package. 22 The disease progress curve for the average CMDSS across the three periods of observation was plotted using Agricolae package in R software. To obtain the BLUE (best linear unbiased estimator) value for each genotype, a linear mixed model was fitted using the lm4 R package to estimate the performance of each genotype independent of the season, block, and replication. The year, block, and replications were treated as random variables while the genotypes and checks were considered fixed. The statistical model for randomised complete block design 23 used with few adaptations is as follows: Equation 1 where yij is the phenotypic value, µ is the overall average (shared by all observations), βi is the effect of block i, τj is the specific effect to genotype j, yk is the specific effect to year k and ℇij is an effect specific to each experimental unit (combination block and genotype).Least significant difference was used to compare the genotypes' BLUEs for CMDSS at 5%. Broad-sense heritability for CMDSS was determined as described by Ige et al. 21 according to Equation 2: Equation 2where H 2 stands for broad-sense heritability, vg for genotypic variance and ve for residual variance.Polymorphism information content (PIC) and favourable allele frequency were calculated using R base package 22 and Tassel software jointly. 24 The lm function from the lm4 package was used to compute the analysis of variance of the markers. Boxplots were plotted using the ggpubr R package to assess the discriminative power of each marker allele combination. The correlation analysis between the two markers was performed using the cor.test function in stats package.For evaluation of the marker's accuracy, two main groups of genotypes were constituted, following Lokko et al. 25 's classification method: resistant group (comprising individuals with CMDSS of 1 to 2) and susceptible group (comprising individuals with CMDSS of 2.1 to 5). Thereafter, a confusion matrix was generated as described by Olasanmi et al. 26 which enabled the estimation of false positive and false negative individuals. Breeding metrics such as accuracy, precision, and misclassification were calculated as follows:Equation 3 Equation 4Equation 5where TN is true negative, TP is true positive, FP is false positive, and FN is false negative. The FP refers to the number of genotypes predicted to be resistant by the marker and were susceptible in the field while the FN are the individuals that had unfavourable alleles at the marker but were resistant based on field screening.To assess the probability of markers in predicting resistance or susceptibility, a binary logistic regression analysis was performed.The entire data were used to fit the model using the glm function in tidymodels packages in R software. CMD severity BLUE value was used as a dependent variable while marker data were considered independent variables (predictor). Individuals with CMDSS of 1-2.0 were considered as unaffected while those with CMDSS 2.1-5 were categorised as affected according to Lokko et al. 25 The mathematical formula used as described by Ige et al. 21 is: Equation 6where π indicates the probability that a genotype is resistant or susceptible, β0 is the intercept constant, and β1 is the regression coefficient associated with the x1 explanatory variable (S12_7926132).The logistic regression model fitted was validated on a bootstrapped sample (n=10).The evaluation of the disease progress over time revealed that the average CMD severity score recorded during the first year of the experiment (2019/2020) was 1.71 while that of the 2020/2021 season was 1.64 (Figure 1). A decrease in disease severity was observed after the first 3 months of planting during the two years of experimentation (Figure 1).The frequency distribution of the mean CMDSS across the two years was observed to be bimodal. However, the majority of the genotypes were within the first peak with a severity score of 1 (Figure 2). The combined analysis of variance across the 2 years revealed significant effects for year, genotypes, and genotype x year for CMD severity with a coefficient of variation of 16.68% (Table 2). There was a significant variability at 5% among the genotypes as revealed by the least significant difference test (Supplementary table 1). Based on the severity scores, about 76% of the genotypes evaluated were resistant to CMD while the remaining were susceptible (Figure 2). The broad-sense heritability of cassava mosaic disease was 0.97 in the African cassava population. In the study population, the frequencies of the favourable alleles at marker S12_7926132 (T) and marker S14_4626854 (A) were 0.65 and 0.22, respectively. The two markers had polymorphism information content (PIC) values of 0.36 (S14_4626854) and 0.46 (S12_7926132).The markers were shown to have a high call rate (>98%) as revealed by the KASP genotyping results. For each marker, three distinct clusters (favourable homozygous genotypes, unfavourable homozygous genotypes, and heterozygotes) were observed (Figure 3).Boxplots showed that only the marker on chromosome 12 was able to discriminate favourable allele (T) from susceptible allele (G) for both CMDSS and mean incidence (Figure 4). The majority of the genotypes carrying at least a copy of allele T had a CMDSS of 1 (resistant) while individuals with two copies of the allele G had a mean CMDSS of 3.42 (susceptible). Similarly, for mean incidence, most of the genotypes with allele copies TT and TG had a mean incidence of 0%, whereas 76.67 was recorded for marker genotype GG (Figure 4). Also, a non-significant correlation (r=0.16; p>0.05) was observed between the two markers.The analysis of variance based on the marker and phenotypic data revealed a significant (p<0.01) association between S12_7926132 and the genotypes' response to CMD while S14_4626854 was not significantly associated (Table 3). It was observed that the interaction between the two markers was significant (p<0.01) on the mean CMDSS (Table 3). For mean incidence, a similar trend was observed (Table 4). These findings suggest that the newly identified locus associated with S14_4626854 could be polygenic with additive effects.Discriminating marker S12_7926132 was used as an independent variable in a binary logistic regression model. The effects of allele combinations TT and TG associated with the explanatory variable were    significant in predicting genotypes' CMDSS (Table 5). This observation corroborates the results presented in Figure 4 which further highlights the crucial role of the T allele in conferring resistance to CMD. The model's area under curve (AUC) value was 0.61 and the probability that the marker would predict resistance and susceptibility is 0.20 and 0.56, respectively, with an accuracy of 0.77. Bootstrapped samples used for model validation resulted in accuracy values ranging from 0.72 to 0.83 with a mean of 0.77 and AUC values between 0.54 and 0.68 with an average of 0.61 (Supplementary table 2).in their young stages. 27 The slight decrease in the average CMD severity observed in the 2020/2021 cropping season could be as a result of the recovery of some genotypes from CMD infestation or reduced whitefly population. The high broad-sense heritability for CMDSS in the African cassava population suggests that CMD resistance is highly influenced by genetic components. Ige et al. 21 reported a broad-sense heritability of 0.90 in a breeding population of cassava derived from IITA's elite genotype crosses at the clonal evaluation trial stage in 2018.Three major categories of metrics are usually considered when studying the ability of a marker in a population for the absence or presence of QTLs linked to a trait. 28 These include technical metrics which evaluate the performance of the marker in the genotyping assay, the biological metrics which describe the association of the marker with the QTL/ gene/allele, and breeding metrics that check the accuracy of a marker in a particular breeding programme. 28 In our study, there were more false positives than false negatives. This result is consistent with the findings of Javid et al. 29 who validated marker PsMlo on a set of 171 field pea genotypes for powdery mildew disease resistance and boron tolerance. The low false negative rate observed indicated that the natural exposure method to cassava mosaic geminivirus for phenotypic CMD screening was efficient and Ibadan remains a confirmed area of high disease pressure. The absence of symptoms as observed by the low false negative rate in the field does not reflect genetic resistance to the virus infection; instead, it could suggest a lack of virus infection. 25,30 Symptomless plants could be CMD-free (escapes) or they could have been extremely tolerant. 31,32 Therefore, in combination with field evaluation for CMD, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection methods using cassava mosaic geminivirus strain-specific primers is an alternative method that could give more precision about the presence or absence of the virus coat protein in the assayed genotypes. 25,30 According to Platten et al. 28 , the ideal genetic distance between a marker and its associated QTL/gene should be 0 cM. Rabbi et al. 9 reported that marker S12_7926132 is about 45 kbp away from the two candidate peroxidase genes, Manes.12G076300 and Manes.12G076200, for CMD resistance. Possible recombination between the marker and the locus, the presence of a marker haplotype indistinguishable from the expected allele size, or possibly another available source of CMD resistance that can be exploited in new breeding programmes might have resulted in the false positives and false negatives. 29 False positives and false negatives are usually high when a marker is applied to a small breeding population, as in this current study. 28 Many QTL-linked markers discovered might be informative in the mapping population but will perform poorly in other independent populations when used for marker-assisted selection. 28 This usually happens when the marker is used in a population in which at least one parent's QTL status is unknown. 28 This could have also explained the observed false positive and false negative rates as the genotypes screened in this study were derived from open-pollinated crosses. Thus, as the male parents' resistance status are unknown, the resistance allele may not be associated with the CMD2 locus. The level of accuracy reported in this study is similar to the value (79%) reported for marker PsMlo for its Of the 145 assayed genotypes, 103 were true positives and 9 were true negatives (Table 6), resulting in an accuracy of 77%. Thus, the misclassification (1-accuracy) was 23%, of which 26 genotypes were false positives and 7 were false negatives. The highest peak of the average disease severity observed at 1 month after planting in the first year of the field evaluation might be due to an increase in the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) population. Time et al. 27 observed a peak in the whitefly population during the early plant growth stage of cassava (first 30 days after planting) and a decline thereafter during the period of slow cassava growth due to maturity. The observation could also be due to the vector's preference for the succulent nature of plants association with powdery mildew resistance and the boron tolerance trait across a set of pea germplasm by Javid et al. 29 In a recent study by Ige et al., 21 similar accuracy values of 80% and 78% were reported in pre-breeding and breeding cassava populations, respectively. On the other hand, the accuracy values reported by Olasanmi et al. 26 , who used simple-sequence repeats to screen five cassava populations at the seedling nursery stage, were lower (61% to 74%) than the value found in the present study. The marker on chromosome 12 was more accurate in predicting susceptibility (56%) than resistance (20%) in our cassava population, which is in contrast with the findings reported by Ige et al. 21 This could be attributed to the higher number of false positive genotypes recorded compared to that of false negatives.Our study also confirmed the role of the dominant T allele which confers resistance at the CMD2 locus on chromosome 12 as previously reported by Akano et al. 12 and Rabbi et al. 9 The introgression of this locus into susceptible elite varieties is relatively easy because of its qualitative nature of inheritance. 33 However, vertical resistance is strain-specific and non-durable compared to horizontal resistance which protects the host plant against a wide spectrum of strains with an intermediate level of resistance. 33 Marker-assisted selection has been revealed to be efficient in increasing the selection accuracy, and hence decreasing the rigours of genotype screening across seasons and locations. 26 However, its combination with genomic selection for the selection of genotypes with horizontal resistance would also be recommended for sustainable breeding for CMD resistance.We investigated the use of SNP markers S12_7926132 and S14_4626854 in predicting resistance to CMD. Marker S12_7926132 was efficient in detecting the CMD2 locus in the study population with an accuracy of 77%; hence, the marker could be deployed for markerassisted selection in African cassava genetic backgrounds. However, its efficiency might be tested on other cassava breeding populations across the globe to expand its deployment for marker-assisted selection. Also, the 103 resistant genotypes identified and selected based on phenotypic scores and marker data could be used as potential parents in breeding programmes targeting CMD resistance on the continent and should also be tested for agronomic traits stability in multi-environments.","tokenCount":"3751"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c0e493459c2d469f46822cfd2dfc4b47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9170d650-8784-417f-bef2-adad9e6a72c0/retrieve","id":"-1373206438"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"efc73ff8-ccb9-48c0-9ee1-cae583faa07d","pagecount":"13","content":"FMD in endemic countries causes a global economic impact, due to production losses and vaccination costs, of around US$6.5 to 21 billion per year [1]. This does not include the impact of loss of trade or restricted development of the livestock sector, which are potentially enormous. Much of this burden falls on Asia, with China and India the worst affected. Estimated production losses for affected cattle range between US$100 to US$370 per case [2-6]. In addition, losses from FMD outbreaks in free countries average at >US$1.5 billion per year, one of the most notorious being the UK 2001 outbreak with estimated losses of >US$9 billion [7].Recent studies of FMD incidence in East Africa found that 70-90% of herds experienced clinical FMD each year [8, 9]. This is in line with sero-prevalence studies, which find that in many areas of Africa and Asia about a third of young cattle are infected with FMD each year.FMD incidence is highest in regions where smallholder farming is commonplace. One study in South-East Asia estimated that outbreaks resulted in a reduction in household income of 4-12% [4], in parts of Laos they may account for 60% of annual household income [10]. The impact of FMD on food security is exacerbated by a reliance on livestock as a means of traction by many smallholders in Asia and Africa [11, 12]. Studies in Laos and Cambodia estimated that affected cattle lose a quarter to three-quarters of their original value [13, 14]. As cattle play an important role as assets that are cashed in at times of need, this has a severe impact on livelihoods. This high incidence in endemic countries translates to a high risk of virus incursion in free countries. Countries that have eradicated FMD face ongoing costs from periodic outbreaks and the costs of maintaining preparedness. Many countries reduce the impact of the disease with extensive ongoing vaccination programmes. The global scale and costs associated with these programmes are vast with billions of doses administered annuallyThe rewards of successful FMD control are such that some nations vaccinate all cattle as much as five times a year, monopolising the resources of the veterinary services. The costs associated with mass vaccination discourage some countries from attempting to control FMD. Successful FMD control takes many years or even decades, and programmes that are not fully committed are unlikely to reduce disease impact.FMD losses in India, due to deaths, milk loss, draught losses and treatment costs were estimated to be US$2.7-3.6billion [15] and control is now a priority. Mass vaccination will require billions of doses and biosecurity measures, if effectively implemented, cause additional indirect losses. However, in the long term, such approaches have brought significant returns in South America and elsewhere.The impact of FMD outbreaks in free countries has been studied in detail and the devastation FMD causes is well understood. Yet our knowledge of FMD impact in endemic countries has, until recently, largely been based on hearsay. From this absence of evidence, FMD control in endemic countries has often been deemed a lesser priority by governments and international funding agencies, particularly for countries without the potential to benefit from FMD free export markets. It has been argued that, in southern Africa, only wealthy farms benefit from FMD free status [16], whilst the control costs are carried by the tax-paying public at large. Others have stated that a significant proportion of the benefits of international export filter down through the supply chain to low-income households [17].Although mortality from FMD is low, the continued, and widespread, high disease incidence clearly leads to a heavy burden of disease at the population level. However, more studies are needed that measure this impact in order to fill the void of evidence. Benefit-cost analysis requires estimates of the impact of control. Although FMD control measures have proved to be effective in much of the world, efforts to control FMD in developing countries have experienced variable success. Guidance is needed, and control programmes in this setting need to be better evaluated and their impact quantified. As for other areas of FMD research, despite many decades of progress, there is much that needs to be done.Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bangalore, India Current FMD vaccines do not induce a protective response until 7 days post-vaccination. Due to the short incubation period, signs of disease can appear as early as 2 days post-exposure. This situation has underlined the importance of developing antiviral strategies capable of limiting the multiplication of the infective virus and stopping the spread of the disease. To develop therapeutics which can stop the multiplication of FMDV at the early stage of infection we selected two approaches: i) interferon based, and ii) small interfering RNA based.Interferon based therapeutics 3'UTR RNA was able to induce interferon(IFN) α production when transfected into PK15 cells and inhibited FMDV replication as analysed by qRT-PCR. FMDV 3' UTR transfected PK15 cells were infected with 0.1 pfu/cell FMD type O virus. Viral RNA in the infected cells was quantified by qRT-PCR. Inhibition of viral replication in the cells pre-transfected with UTR RNA was observed. Further, UTR pcDNA plasmid was able to induce IFN α production when transfected into PK15 cells and inhibited FMDV replication as analyzed by qRT-PCR.The sequence coding for IFN λ was cloned into pShuttle 2, an adenoviral transfer vector, and the presence of the insert was confirmed by PCR. The linearised vector along with the linearised adenovirus was transfected into HEK 293 cells. Recombinant adenovirus with IFN λ was isolated and confirmed by PCR. The recombinant adenovirus expressing IFN λ will be tested for its therapeutic potential.Small interference RNA (siRNA) is a rapid and effective antiviral approach where double-stranded RNA induces the homologydependent degradation of cognate mRNA. FMDV 3C protease (3Cpro) is the principal enzyme involved in processing the precursor to a proteome of virus, thereby making it a very attractive target for the design of antivirals. By using bioinformatics computer programs, all FMDV genome sequences in public-domain databases were analysed. Based on the results of homology analysis, four specific siRNAs targeting the conserved 3C region of FMDV were prepared and four siRNA-pSIREN expression vectors under the control of the U6 promoter were constructed. pCDNA3C FMDV and pCDNA 3CFMDV-GFP marker clones were also produced to evaluate the gene silencing efficiency using real-time qRT-PCR, and showed a 4fold reduction of 3C transcripts in BHK-21 cells. On further analysis of four siRNA's, Si1 and Si2 showed a 100-fold decrease in viral quantity compared to the virus control after 12 hr infection with 1 moi FMDV O. The results demonstrated that transfection of BHK-21 cells with siRNA-expressing plasmids significantly decreased the FMDV O titre. A 3-fold reduction in viral growth was observed when BHK-21 cells were transfected with anti-FMDV siRNAs and treated with 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID 50 ) of FMDV O, compared to control cells. FMD is major livestock disease of transboundary importance affecting cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, pigs, goats and sheep. Tests based on assaying non-structural proteins (NSP) antibodies in animals, particularly targeting the 3ABC antigen, have been widely used for differentiating infected from vaccinated animals. In our laboratory, an in-house, indirect ELISA was developed for application in multiple species. This is an improvement over the earlier reported ELISA system that was species specific. The test uses recombinant 3ABC protein expressed in insect cells using a baculovirus system. The assay has been validated by testing serum samples representing an endemic situation. Its performance was compared with a similar commercial kit.Though highly sensitive, use of ELISAs requires trained personnel to perform and interpret the test results. Tests that don't need sophisticated instruments and trained manpower are a valuable addition to the available tools for diagnosis of FMD infected animals under field conditions. Keeping this in mind, the institute, in collaboration with M/s ubio Biotechnology, India, developed a rapid test for detection of NSP antibodies. The lateral flow device (LFD) test has the advantage that it does not require cold chain for transport or storage, and results can be read with the naked eye without the need for instruments and trained personnel. This pen-side diagnostic can be performed in 10-15 minutes by veterinarians or farmers.The LFD assay was compared with an indirect ELISA using a panel of known positive and known negative sera available in the lab. Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were found to be 87.4 and 97.4, respectively, in comparison to the ELISA.Sera collected from multiple vaccinated animals that received double the recommended dose of vaccine were also tested to verify the NSP content in the vaccine used. Bull calves received three doses of vaccine within a 2 month period and sera were collected 28 d after the last booster. About 60% of these animals showed reactivity in ELISA while the LFD test showed positivity in 27% animals. The vaccine used here was not certified to be free from NSP contaminants.The assay has been optimised to screen different FMD target species of animals including sheep, goat, cattle and buffalo, to validate the assay compatibility using either blood or serum (Figure 1). Both the diagnostics have been transferred to M/s ubio Biotechnology, Kochin for commercial scale up. The kit is marketed at a price of less than 1 USD per sample in India by M/s Ubio Biotechnology.The test is useful to detect NSP antibodies from either serum, plasma or blood. Blood samples collected from experimentally infected bull calves can be directly applied in the LFD assay. Whole blood collected with anticoagulant in a tube or fresh blood collected from ear puncture (using a lancet) can be collected in a dropper and applied after dilution in the diluent tube provided. It was of priority throughout the trip to ensure that the Nakuru team were engaged with our activities and were provided with opportunities to partake in the work (Figure 1).   2). During this time we tested the Genie ® II, molecular LFDs, Enigma ® FL and Ag-LFDs on thirteen archived epithelial suspensions, which had been previously characterised as positive or negative for FMDV by rRT-PCR (Tanzania Veterinary Laboratory Agency). Epithelial suspensions were processed by dilution in nuclease free water before adding to RT-LAMP; suspensions were run neat on the Enigma ® FL. High concordance was seen between RT-LAMP, molecular LFDs (RT-LAMP-LFD's) and rRT-PCR. Ag-LFDs consistently displayed lower analytical sensitivity compared to RT-LAMP-LFD and rRT-PCR. No amplification was detected in any of the known negative samples.We then began field trials at two Maasai farms (Morogoro, Tanzania). No acute FMD infection was encountered, therefore eight Ankole crossbred cattle, known to have been infected with FMD one month previously, were selected and sampled for oesophagealpharyngeal (OP) fluid and serum. Samples were diluted in nuclease free water before adding to RT-LAMP/RT-LAMP-LFD and run neat on rRT-PCR (Figure 3). Good concordance was shown between the Genie ® II, molecular LFD, Ag LFD and the Enigma ® FL, with FMDV detected in the OP fluid of two cattle. For RT-LAMP/RT-LAMP-LFD, results were obtained in less than 30 minutes from OP collection to result calling; melt curve analysis confirmed LAMP amplicons to be FMDV specific. No FMDV was detected in serum samples.  Liquid-phase blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (LPB-E) are accepted tests for post-vaccination monitoring. The current method of LPB-E utilises chemically inactivated FMDV as the diagnostic antigen. However, this practice is risky due to the need for handling live FMDV during antigen preparation.Empty virus-like particles (VLPs) generated by baculovirus expression systems retain the antigenicity of the whole virus antigen.Considering the fact that LPB-E is extensively employed for seromonitoring in FMD control programmes, the baculovirus expressed empty capsid antigens are valuable reagents. The developed technology would make consistent antigen availability without batch to batch variation. Further, the non-infectious nature of empty VLPs may widen the acceptability of empty capsid reagents for diagnostic assays across geographical barriers. We have demonstrated that the test performance of VLP based LPB-E was comparable with conventional LPB-E, qualitatively as well as quantitatively, thus emphasising the diagnostic application of recombinant FMDV VLPs. Analysis of the LPB-E results showed that titres obtained using empty capsid antigen were significantly similar with those obtained by inactivated virus antigen. The recombinant empty capsid antigen when evaluated against sera with a broad range of antibody titres, from low to high, showed good correlation with inactivated virus antigen.Our last day in Tanzania was spent at the Tanzanian Veterinary Laboratory Agency (TVLA), providing a training session in methods including Ag LFDs, rRT-PCR and RT-LAMP/RT-LAMP-LFD (Figure 3). To demonstrate the techniques, four known FMDV positive epithelial were assayed using Ag-LFDs, Genie ® II and Enigma ® FL. High concordance was seen between all platforms.  Application of baculovirus expressed virus-like particles in liquid-phase blocking ELISA for sero-monitoring vaccinated animalsVaccination is a well-accepted strategy for control of FMD in endemic countries. Currently, chemically inactivated virus antigens are used for preparation of FMD vaccine. To develop a noninfectious and safe recombinant vaccine, we expressed the structural polypeptide of FMDV (O/IND/R2/75) using a baculovirus expression system.We showed that inclusion of mutated viral 3C protease in frame with the polypeptide (P1-2A) enhanced the yield of structural proteins.The structural proteins retained antigenicity and assembled into empty virus-like particles (VLPs). Immunisation of guinea pigs with purified fractions of the VLPs resulted in comparable humoral and relatively higher cell-mediated immune responses by 4 weeks, when compared to conventional vaccine in guinea pigs. Further, up to 70% of the VLP immunised guinea pigs were protected against challenge with homologous guinea pig-adapted virus. Our results highlight the application of recombinant FMDV VLPs in FMD vaccination.Baculovirus-expressed FMDV O VLPs reacted in a sandwich-ELISA indicating antigenicity which could be exploited further for use as an alternative antigen in diagnostic assays.   Development and evaluation of adenovirus vectored FMD vaccine using Indian vaccine strains of FMDV The proof of concept vaccination trial in Indian cattle was carried out as follows: Six months to one year-old indigenous breed male calves purchased from a local animal market were screened for antibodies against three serotypes of FMD virus (O, A and Asia1) and hAd5 virus. Animals that tested negative (<0.9 log 10 ) for FMD and hAd5 antibodies were used for a vaccination trial in a six animals per group format. The animals were inoculated subcutaneously with Ad5-FMDV monovalent or Ad5-FMDV trivalent vaccine in 2 ml phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Ad5-Blue virus was used as a vector control and inactivated oil adjuvanted trivalent vaccine obtained from a commercial vaccine manufacturer was used as positive vaccine control (inoculated intramuscularly). Monovalent Ad5-FMD vaccine groups were inoculated with 5x10 9 pfu per animal. Trivalent Ad5-FMD vaccine was prepared by mixing 5x10 9 pfu of each of the monovalent vaccine in a final volume of 2ml per dose. Vaccines were inoculated at two sites on either side of the neck. All the animals used in the experiment were co-housed.To assess the humoral immune response in the vaccinated animals, post-vaccinate sera was collected on days 7, 14, 28 and 63. Serum samples were collected on 14 and 28 days after booster vaccination. Neutralising antibody titres were estimated by virus neutralisation test as well as liquid phase blocking ELISA (LPBE).The results of the cattle immunisation study can be summarised as follows: In the monovalent Ad5-FMD type O group, five of six animals (83%) sero-converted. Out of five responders, peak antibody titres (log 10 SN 50 ) were 2.1 in two animals and in the range of 1.36 to 1.65 in the remaining three animals. Except one animal which maintained peak titre of 2.1, antibody titres declined in all the responders and by week 9, titres declined below 1.65 (Fig. 3). In LPBE, all six animals (100%) showed detectable antibody titres with peaks ranging from 1.65 to 2.56. In the monovalent Ad5-FMD type A group, four of six animals (67%) developed a specific antibody response. These four responders showed peak antibody titres (log 10 SN 50 ) of 1.5, 1.65, 1.8 and 2.4. Except one animal which maintained peak titre of 1.95, antibody titres declined in all the responders and by week 9, titres declined below 1.65 (Fig. 4). In LPBE, three out of six animals (50%) showed detectable antibody titres with peak titres ranging from 1.65 to 2.26. In the monovalent Ad5-FMD type Asia-1 group, two of six animals (33%) developed a specific antibody response with a peak antibody titre (log 10 SN 50 ) of 1.36. Except one animal which maintained a peak titre of 1.95, antibody titres declined in all the responders and by week 9, titres declined below 1.65 (Fig. 5). In LPBE, five of six animals (83%) showed detectable titres with a peak titre ranging from 1.65 to 1.96. In the trivalent Ad5-FMD group, detectable levels of antibodies were found in one of six animals (16%) for type O (Fig. 3) and two of six animals (33%) for type A (Fig. 4). None of the animals responded for type Asia-1 (Fig. 5). By LPBE test, a titre of ≥1.65 was detected in four of six animals (67%) for type O, two of six animals (33%) for type A and three of six animals (50%) for type Asia-1. All animals vaccinated with standard inactivated trivalent vaccine sero-converted against all the three types of FMDV (Fig. 3, 4 & 5). Following booster immunisation in monovalent Ad5-FMD groups and inactivated vaccine groups, a significant increase in neutralising antibody response was observed when sera collected on days 14 and 28 were tested by VNT (Fig. 3, 4 & 5) and LPBE.From the observations, we can conclude that: The vaccination trial in Indian cattle showed that after primary immunisation, the animals responded comparatively better in monovalent Ad5-FMD O & A groups than Ad5-FMD Asia-1. Trivalent Ad5-FMD vaccine did not induce significant antibody responses compared to monovalent Ad5-FMD vaccines. Neutralising antibody titres increased significantly after booster immunisation.  Ad5-FMD vaccinated cattle had lower titres than the animals immunised with inactivated oil adjuvanted trivalent FMD vaccine. Neutralising antibodies against Ad5V appear to peak early and decline drastically (Fig. 6).  There is also a substantial feral deer population present. Furthermore, deer and other livestock species are often farmed alongside each other, which may lead to spread of the virus between them.It has been reported that FMDV infected deer often do not show clinical signs 1) . This means that laboratory testing is required in order to identify infected deer during an incursion and the subsequent proof-of-freedom phase. A large number of test methods for FMD are available 2) but their appropriateness for deer is currently unknown, as these tests had been developed for other livestock species, namely cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The aim of this project was to evaluate a number of FMD test methods for use in red deer.The FMD in Deer Project is a collaborative project between the Animal Health Laboratory (AHL), Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI), New Zealand, and the National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (NCFAD), Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), Winnipeg, Canada. The project consists of two components: the Winnipeg Component and the New Zealand Component.The Winnipeg Component was completed in November/December 2013. Ten red deer were experimentally infected with an O-strain FMDV. Samples were regularly collected over a 4 week period: nasal swabs, oral swabs, probang samples, whole blood and serum.In addition, lesion samples were collected. Samples were tested by IRES and 3D real-time RT-PCR, virus isolation, virus neutralisation test (VNT), two types of SP O ELISAs, four types of NSP ELISAs and an NSP antibody penside test. Some samples were also tested by two antigen penside tests and in the O-serotype antigen ELISA. Experimental infection was the only way to obtain samples from infected red deer, as field samples do not exist worldwide.In the New Zealand Component, which is currently underway at the AHL, the diagnostic specificity will be determined for those test methods that performed well with experimentally infected animals. A total of 1000 serum samples will be tested in SP O-and NSP ELISAs and a penside test, and another 200 serum samples with matching nasal swabs will be tested in both RT-PCR assays. Furthermore, with inactivated serum samples obtained from the experimentally infected animals from the NCFAD, another SP O ELISA that has recently become available will be evaluated at the AHL. In addition, a proportion of the RNA samples from Winnipeg will be used for evaluating sensitivity and specificity in AHL's own RT-PCR assays.Not unexpectedly, one outcome of this project was that deer are difficult to infect 3,4) . FMD has been consistently considered a major threat on a worldwide scale for livestock industries and international trade of meat and meat derivatives. Work proposed here is aimed at addressing current gaps in basic knowledge related to immunity to FMDV in cattle, focusing on the mechanisms underlying the induction of memory responses by FMD vaccination upon infection via the oronasal route and its impact on the further protection to the disease.Research conducted in collaboration between PIADC and the Institute of Virology at INTA, have clearly indicated that primary immune reactions after oronasal infection or parenteral vaccination generate antibody responses at mucosal and systemic levels (J Virol 87:2489-2495). Similarly, induction of secondary responses in FMDV vaccinated cattle after aerogenous infection is evident at both systemic and local levels. However, vaccination/infection-related factors (viral antigen persistence, recruiting signals, etc) that trigger this FMDV-specific B-cell anamnesis, as well as its origin and timecourse, remain unclear. Whether the vaccine antigen reached the local lymph tissues (alone or associated to antigen-presenting cells) or if FMDV-specific B-lymphocytes migrated from the vaccination site to other lymphoid tissues is also unknown. In the same way, contribution to protection of these mucosal FMDV-specific antibody responses is yet to be elucidated. We hypothesise that parenteral vaccination promotes generation of resident B-cell memory cells in mucosal lymph nodes and that the induction of local secondary responses at the respiratory tract of vaccinated cattle after oronasal infection play a role in preventing the virus to gain access to blood stream and generalise the infection to secondary replication sites in foot (and other) epithelial tissues.Wilna Vosloo, Jacquelyn Horsington, Nagendra SinganallurAustralia is in the enviable position that it has not suffered an outbreak of FMD since 1872. This freedom from disease, together with the absence of other diseases such as BSE, has provided the country with trade advantages worth billions of dollars. In fact, it is estimated that a widespread outbreak of FMD could lead to losses of up to 50 billion Australian dollars over a 10 year period, mostly due to trade embargoes and market losses. FMD is therefore a severe risk that warrants investment in risk mitigation and research. However, despite the presence of a national state-of-the-art high containment facility, the risk of working with live FMD virus is deemed too high, and any such research has to be done offshore in collaboration with partners. The FMD Risk Management Project, started in 2010, is funded by Meat and Livestock Australia and Animal Health Australia with support from all major livestock industries, and is managed by the CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL). AAHL has relied heavily on the GFRA partners to perform a number of vaccine efficacy studies using vaccine strains held in the Australian vaccine bank against viruses currently circulating in South East Asia, using cattle, sheep and pigs. The outputs from this project aims to ensure the Australian livestock industries, and the Australian community, will be better prepared to minimise the inevitable disruption to trade that would be caused by an outbreak of FMD. Some of the highlights of these collaborations include testing a newly developed vaccine developed from the 2010 outbreak virus in South Korea in collaboration with Merial and The Pirbright Institute. This vaccine was compared with O1 Manisa for efficacy in cattle and pigs. In collaboration with the National Centre for Foreign Animal Diseases, Canada, we tested the protective capacity of high potency vaccination (>6 PD 50 ) with O1 Manisa 4 days prior to challenge with O/SKR/2010 by direct contact with infected sheep. A second trial was of similar design but used the A22 Iraq vaccine and the A/VIT/15/2012 strain as challenge. Further studies were done in sheep at the Plum Island Animal Diseases Centre, USA where different routes of infection (intra-nasopharyngeal instillation, aerosol exposure, coronary band inoculation and direct contact) and different vaccine doses were tested using the O1 Manisa vaccine and challenging with O/SKR/2010. Although not a GFRA partner, collaborative studies were done in Vietnam as part of capacity building and also to introduce GFRA activities to the region. The O1 Manisa and A Malaysia 97 vaccines were tested against the type O and A viruses, respectively, currently circulating in SEA by vaccinating pigs and challenging at early time points postvaccination.In addition, the experiments were designed to determine whether vaccination lowers virus excretion thereby preventing infection of pigs in close, but not direct contact with vaccinated and infected animals. As part of the vaccine efficacy testing in pigs, the use of cotton ropes as a diagnostic tool for FMDV in pigs was investigated (Vosloo et al. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2013 Dec 11. doi: 10.1111/tbed.12196.). The ease in which oral fluid samples from ropes were collected and extracted makes rope sampling an extremely useful, non-invasive method of sample collection that may complement FMD monitoring efforts in pig populations. Upcoming collaborations are currently planned with the Central Veterinary Institute, the Netherlands, and SENASA, Argentina, to examine vaccine efficacy of serotype O and A viruses in cattle.GFRA has ensured that FMD research could continue for Australia, if not in country, then abroad where resources could be shared. It is AAHL's vision that these collaborative projects will continue into the future and that the FMD field at large will benefit more and more from collaborations such as these.  Scant resources were available to tackle this ambitious goal, but with the oversight and authority of DAH Headquarters, including Principal Investigator Dr. Do Huu Dung, and study design input from ARS-USDA, two teams of field investigators were assembled. One team would be led by Dr Nguyen Tung and based out of National Center for Veterinary Diagnostics (NCVD), Hanoi. The other team would be led by Dr. Ngo Thanh Long at Regional Animal Health Office No.6 (RAHO6) in Ho Chi Minh City. The teams would engage in activities that had overlapping themes, but some operational differences.Both teams set out to conduct targeted surveillance in regions of known recent outbreaks. The goal was to identify carriers for various downstream research activities. The NCVD team focused on buffalo which are present in greater abundance in northern provinces whereas the RAHO6 team focused on cattle. Confirmed carriers were enrolled in longitudinal analyses, transmission studies, and/or necropsy studies. Although data analysis is still ongoing, initial results demonstrated important differences in disease occurrence and circulating FMDV strains between locations in northern and southern Vietnam.Various forms of data from these activities are intended to be available in a handful of manuscripts and meetings in coming months and years. But, in short, the collaboration has been a great success in various manners. Most importantly, the relationship between the two institutions has been established and fortified to facilitate ongoing and continuing collaboration. Joint design and execution of the sub-projects by DAH and ARS scientists was the foundation for the relationship; but, the highly successful output delivery cemented the positive experience. The productivity of this new relationship is reflected in a newly awarded grant to support another four years of follow-up research. Additionally, several new technologies were delivered from ARS to DAH which have now been expertly incorporated into routine diagnostics and research practices. These new practices combined with the dedication of DAH and ARS scientists ensure the future success and productivity of this partnership.Mariano Perez-FilgueiraThe FMDV strains A/Argentina/2000 (A/Arg/00) and A/ Argentina/2001 (A/Arg/01) were isolated from infected bovines during the 2000-2001 FMDV epidemics that occurred in Argentina. While strain A/Arg/00 was said to produce mild lesions in the affected animals, strain A/Arg/01 caused severe lesions in cattle in the field as well as in experimental challenge trials. In order to identify viral genetic determinants of the differential virulence displayed by both FMDV isolates, a molecular clone of A/Arg/01 strain and viral chimeras containing the S-fragment or the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) of A/Arg/00 in the A/Arg/01 backbone were constructed (A2001clone) and characterised in terms of plaque size and replication kinetics in cell culture. The IRES appeared as a determining factor of the lower level of A/Arg/00 replication in BHK-21 cells. High-throughput RNA probing revealed structural differences between both IRESs, which in turn were differentially modulated by the viral 3´untranslated region (3´UTR), as determined by in vitro and in vivo translation experiments. These data support a role of the IRES-3'UTR modulation in determining the level of FMDV replication in field strains (García Núñez et al., Virology 448:303-313, 2014).More recently, we demonstrated that FMDV strain A/Arg/01 was more pathogenic than A2001clone in mice, in spite of the fact that these viruses shared similar growth properties in cell culture. Sequence comparison studies showed 6 amino acid changes in the polyprotein (in viral proteins VP2, VP1 and 2C) and 26 synonymous changes throughout the viral genome between the parental FMDV strain and A2001clone. Experiments are in progress in order to evaluate the role of each amino acid change on the lethality of FMDV in adult mice.Collaborative project between PIADC-ARS (USA), the CBMSO (Spain) and the Institute of Biotechnology-INTA (Argentina)Soren AlexandersenIn the past year, the National Centres for Animal Disease (NCAD, Winnipeg and Lethbridge) have focused their efforts on developing and/or improving specific FMDV diagnostic tests. In a recent study, a panel of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was produced and used in an antigen detection ELISA for the characterisation of new isolates of FMDV serotype O. The mAbs were characterised using peptide array and mAb resistant mutant selection. Seven out of nine mAbs reacting with 5 known antigenic sites and two other non-neutralising mAbs were identified. The mAbs were then evaluated by antigen detection ELISA for the detection of 46 FMDV serotype O isolates representing 7 of 10 known topotypes. This panel of mAbs is useful for monitoring the emergence of antigenically distinct strains and determination of relevant antigenic site differences.A panel of FMDV serotype A specific mAbs has also been developed. These were examined for their ability to compete with a polyclonal anti-serum from cattle experimentally inoculated with FMDV serotype A. The aim was to develop a sensitive and specific serotype A competitive ELISA. Two mAbs were selected and are currently being evaluated in the competitive ELISA.Additionally, the mAbs generated at the NCAD have been used in the development of rapid lateral flow strip tests for pen-side diagnosis of FMDV and the development of a rapid immunoassay method for quantitatively measuring FMDV particles in infected cultures. Some mAbs have also been supplied to other laboratories for various purposes.The NCAD is also investigating the feasibility and suitability of a poly-specific virus capture Apolipoprotein H-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ApoH-ELISA) for detection of FMDV and other vesicular disease viruses. FMDV and SVDV particles were shown to bind to ApoH-coated plates based on real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction amplification of RNA extracted from contents of the plate. Preliminary results show that using ApoH-ELISA for FMDV detection is comparable to the conventional FMDV antigen detection.A multiplex assay for simultaneous detection of seven swine viruses (FMDV, SVDV, VESV, CSFV, ASFV, PCV2, PRRSV) and an FMDV typing assay were developed for a user-friendly electronic microarray system that integrates and automates capture probe printing, amplicon hybridization, washing and reporting. We are open to transfer these protocols and help in the set-up of the assays within each particular laboratory. This kind of joint project will provide information on the kinetics of total Abs, neutralising titres, isotypes and avidity maturation after vaccination, and the behavior of the immune responses measured by all serological assays after experimental infection of naive and vaccinated cattle. This basic information will provide a proof-of-principle on the potential of these assays in endemic settings.The inactivated vaccine is currently applied to adult animals or young animals without maternal antibodies. It has been shown to be effective in these age groups, as inactivated vaccines are well-known to be unable to stimulate neonatal immunity in the presence of maternal antibodies; only cellular responses are obtained with low or no induction of specific antibodies. However, field and experimental data show contradictory results, while some reports show some inhibition by colostral antibodies, others found that purified FMD-oil vaccines are able to overcome the inhibitory effects of maternal antibodies inducing protective levels of antibodies in young animals.We have recently published a study on the immune responses induced by vaccination and re-vaccination in calves with maternal antibodies (Mat-Abs). Calves with or without colostral antibodies were immunised with commercial FMD vaccine. Humoral responses were assessed, using traditional and novel techniques. We demonstrated that Mat-Abs interfered with the induction of virus neutralising responses, while total antibody assessment did not reveal the same magnitude of interference FMD vaccination in Argentina and other regions within South America is performed under the control of the regulatory authorities and conducted by certified veterinarians. These organised campaigns may facilitate the controlled application of other vaccines against other endemic diseases. There is very little published information on the efficacy of FMD vaccines when co-administered with other vaccines, particularly live vaccines. We started evaluating the simultaneous application of the currently used commercial tetravalent oil FMD vaccine used in Argentina together with the anthrax live vaccine. We measured total antibodies by LPBE and also IgG isotypes. We demonstrated that the combined application of these vaccines did not interfere with the antibody FMDV-booster responses. Antibody titres were similar in both groups and followed comparable kinetics over time. We are now pursuing new studies with other vaccines of regional interest. ","tokenCount":"5600"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"486415a11f8477f90003bdc464e7c90d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/633e8ca8-d516-4210-928e-5889c6519a49/retrieve","id":"1633767181"},"keywords":["apple","banana","land use intensity","nematode community","Pratylenchus","Radopholus","soil biodiversity","soil ecosystem service","soil microbiome Citation: Lazarova, S.","Coyne, D.","Rodríguez, M.G.","Peteira, B.","Ciancio, A. Functional Diversity of"],"sieverID":"0b085c1d-e4a9-4dac-b9eb-30ace719182d","pagecount":"23","content":"The analysis of the functional diversity of soil nematodes requires detailed knowledge on theoretical aspects of the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationship in natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems. Basic approaches applied are reviewed, focusing on the impact and value of soil nematode diversity in crop production and on the most consistent external drivers affecting their stability. The role of nematode trophic guilds in two intensively cultivated crops are examined in more detail, as representative of agriculture from tropical/subtropical (banana) and temperate (apple) climates. The multiple facets of nematode network analysis, for management of multitrophic interactions and restoration purposes, represent complex tasks that require the integration of different interdisciplinary expertise. Understanding the evolutionary basis of nematode diversity at the field level, and its response to current changes, will help to explain the observed community shifts. Integrating approaches based on evolutionary biology, population genetics and ecology can quantify the contribution of nematode fauna to fundamental soil functions. These include carbon transformation, nutrient cycling, pest control and disease transmission. In conclusion, different facets of nematode diversity such as trophic groups, life history traits, variability in body size and/or taxa identities in combination with DNA-based techniques are needed in order to disclose nematode-soil-ecosystem functioning relationships. Further experimental studies are required to define locally adapted and sustainable management practices, through ecosystem-based approaches and nature-based solutions.Biological diversity is the foundation of ecosystem processes (functions) and services. Climate and habitat changes, invasive alien species, overexploitation and pollution are the most important direct drivers of biodiversity loss and ecosystem service changes induced by human activities [1]. Approximately 60% of the world ecosystem services are considered as degraded or unsustainably used [2]. More than 75% of Earth's ice-free land shows evidence of alteration as a result of land use and human habitation [3]. The land use and the associated loss of natural habitats were rated as the most important drivers of biodiversity decline in the terrestrial realm [4]. The changes showing marked spatial variation and future losses appear concentrated in biodiverse but economically poor countries [5]. The conversion of natural land from complex to simplified agricultural and forestry systems can have substantial, often strongly negative, effects on soil biological communities and their activities [6,7]. Croplands, pastures and permanent plantations are the predominant land uses related to agriculture, where the degree of intensity can range from minimal to intense. In general, conventional crop systems are characterized by simplified land cover, degraded soil, low organic matter (OM) content, more extreme wet-dry cycles and high residual nutrient levels. In particular, soil degradation results in accelerated erosion, soil habitat changes and biodiversity losses, induced by multiple agricultural practices, such as excessive tillage, inadequate residue management and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. We have, however, almost no information on species loss, biodiversity decline or composition shifts in soil communities, and the related impacts on ecosystem processes, such as primary production, biogeochemical cycles and decomposition [8].Nematodes represent one of the largest phyla in the animal kingdom, both in terms of diversity and abundance. They have great genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity that enables them to occupy a vast range of habitats. Nematodes are the most numerous soil-dwelling multicellular animals that feed and reproduce in the water film around and within soil aggregates. However, a small group of plant parasitic species spend a significant part or their lifecycle in roots. Being a widespread and diverse group, nematodes display a wide range of adaptations and functional traits that make them ideal for ecological and evolutionary biology studies. Moreover, they are involved in complex ecological networks through their interactions with other soil organisms, at multiple levels. The implementation of molecular methods, including next-generation sequencing (NGS), has greatly facilitated the study of nematode diversity, enabling new insights into our understanding of their distribution patterns [9][10][11][12][13].This review focuses primarily on nematode functional diversity in terrestrial ecosystems. We first discuss the functional diversity concept in ecosystem ecology and some current understandings on the ecology of terrestrial nematodes related to their functional role, spatial distribution and community assembly. Experimental results and findings linking nematode functional diversity to human-induced changes are presented, taking as examples plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) or entomopathogens in two perennial crops with high impact, focusing on cover changes or agricultural intensity.The biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationship is one of the most explored topics in ecology. In general, scientists and conservationists measure species richness and diversity. However, recent studies and theoretical developments show that ecosystem processes depend heavily on the functional characteristics (traits) of the organisms present in an ecosystem [14,15] or functional diversity. It is defined as \"the range and value of those species and organismal traits that influence ecosystem functioning\" [16]. Moving from a taxonomic to a functional trait-based approach enables large-scale comparison of general patterns and principles across communities and ecosystems [17,18]. This approach allows us to understand how much trait diversity is necessary to maintain multiple ecosystem functions simultaneously (i.e., ecosystem multifunctionality), and to reveal the complex nature of the community changes and response to disturbance [19][20][21][22].Ecosystem processes and services depend on the structure, function and dynamics of soil communities. To understand the relationships between soil biota and ecosystem services, the utility of the \"functional groups\" approach appears to be limited, as it fails to consider within-group variation in traits, underestimating the link between functional diversity and ecosystem functioning [23,24]. Functional groups are usually defined at one trophic level, and the relationship between such groups and ecosystem functioning is not always straightforward. The functional trait (physiological, morphological, behavioral, or phenological), is a well-defined property of organisms, usually measured at the individual level [15]. They affect fitness indirectly, via their impact on growth, reproduction and survival [25]. It is crucial to distinguish both the effect traits, i.e., the species traits that affect ecosystem functioning, and the response traits, that determine a species response to an environmental change [26].Studies on the role of nematode diversity are less represented when compared to the interactions involving plants, fungi or bacteria, which comprise the greatest number of studies currently available in the literature (Figure 1). This prevalence is also indicated by the wordcounts for biodiversity and nematode studies, as shown in Figure 2.  Being an important component of soil food webs, nematodes have an essential role in all soil processes and ecosystem functions. They are involved in carbon (C) transformation and nutrient cycling originating from living plant roots (\"direct pathway\") and dead plant residues (\"indirect pathway\"). Through their metabolic and behavioral activity, nematodes contribute to plant growth and primary productivity, C and nutrient cy-cling, as well as pest and disease control, such as by entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) [27]. Nematodes also indirectly contribute to decomposition of soil OM [11,28].The functional grouping of nematodes is generally synonymous with their allocation into feeding groups, however the link between ecosystem functions and functional groups is not always straightforward or clear [23]. Different feeding groups can be involved in a given function (e.g., nematodes from all feeding groups contribute to the C transformation or nutrient cycling, directly or indirectly). The majority of free-living nematodes feed on bacteria and fungi, and their role can be direct, via the excretion of (in)organic compounds into soil, and indirect, by altering the size, composition and activity of the microbial community [29]. Microbial feeders can promote the competitive ability and dispersal of beneficial microbiota by selectively grazing on harmful soil microorganisms [30] or by transferring, as vectors, beneficial bacteria to the rhizosphere [31], and vice versa, harmful bacteria and viruses can also be transmitted in this way. Soil nematodes have developed numerous feeding strategies within each trophic group and a great variety of morphological structures used for food ingestion [11]. Dissecting the complex web of services resulting by nematodes' evolutionary history requires intense analytical efforts. A schematic summary of nematode functional roles is given in Table 1. The impact of nematode diversity and functional roles varies at different spatial scales, ranging from single root systems to cultivated field or wider space levels. Moreover, the activity of phylogenetically distant taxa may converge towards the same functional role. This trend is mirrored by species from the same taxonomic lineage (i.e., Tylenchida or Dorylaimida) that have distinct functional roles. Another representation of nematode functional diversity is related to their life history strategies. A combination of traits (e.g., body size, reproductive potential, longevity, tolerance) have been used to classify nematodes along a colonizer-persister (c-p) scale (i.e., classification into r-and K-selected species), reflecting the habitat quality, maturity and stability [32]. Non-parasitic nematode families were assigned to five classes. These range from r-strategists, having short lifecycle, high reproduction rates, high colonization ability and tolerance to stress (c-p 1), to k-strategists, having long lifecycle, very few offspring, low colonization ability and sensitivity to stress (c-p 5) [33,34]. Based on this classification, the nematode maturity index was developed and extensively tested over three decades. Generally, the c-p ranking is recognized as a functional trait, however it is based on a combination of selected physiological, morphological and behavioral traits. The knowledge on the nematode trophic and life history traits was integrated into a matrix classification of nematode 'guilds' [34]. The soil food web diagnostic framework was then developed, by providing a weighting system for the presence and abundance of nematode \"functional guilds\" in relation to enrichment and soil food web structure [35].Nematode communities are mostly surveyed to the genus level and subsequently assigned to feeding and life history groups (at the family level). However, the trophic position and functioning of non-parasitic species continue to be poorly understood, despite their ubiquity and abundance. Moreover, recent studies on Pristionchus spp. showed great polyphenisms (alternative phenotypes produced by the same genotype) in mouth morphology, larval development and reproductive or feeding mode [36][37][38]. Such a nematode phenotypic plasticity allows individuals to adapt easily to changing environments, therefore a great functional diversity can be maintained in the absence of substantial genetic variation [39]. With other experimental studies, these observations indicate that the functional role of nematodes may be highly species-specific [40] and that certain functions might involve a complex of multiple species with different specific temporal and spatial cues [41]. An overlap of functional roles is evident in EPN, as these nematodes are both bacterivores and insect parasites.Although nematodes often represent the dominant eukaryotes in terms of abundance and diversity, most experimental studies used for evaluating their functional role involve a limited number of species. For example, studying the effect of within-trophic level diversity of bacterivorous nematodes and population interactions on nitrogen mineralization, Postma-Blaauw et al. [42] found that the life history strategies of the species of the same trophic group significantly affected their communal impact on the soil ecosystem processes. A single nematode species is able to influence the population size of other species that may, in turn, alter the functioning of the system [43]. How experimental observations can be generalized remains, however, uncertain, in particular if we consider the broad range of ecosystem types and processes globally present. A better approach to adopt would be to investigate these complex systems through long-term field experiments or in situ studies [17].At first, the functional diversity was assessed mainly as functional group richness (i.e., the number of feeding groups and functional guilds) and their relative abundance. In recent years, the analyses of single or multiple nematode traits were regarded as reliable alternatives to assess the community-level response to disturbances and biodiversity-functions relationships. In terrestrial ecosystems, the functional trait-based approach has been undertaken for nematode assemblages alone [44,45] or for more complex systems that involve several trophic levels, e.g., bacteria, nematodes and collembolans [46]. Body size, measured either at the individual or species level, has been used to evaluate the interaction strengths between consumers and resources [47], and is correlated directly with properties that influence the performance of organisms and communities [15]. The body size/mass spectra of free-living nematodes as response/effect trait metrics alone or in combination with behavior (feeding structure) and life history strategies have been used to evaluate nematode functional diversity [48][49][50]. The combination of discrete and continuous traits (trophic groups and body size) distribution rather than the functional diversity indices (functional divergence, functional evenness and functional richness) was found to better reveal the soil food web structure and trait-mediated responses of nematode communities to environmental filters in different ecosystem types [51].The influence of environmental factors and biotic interactions on biodiversity, community assembly and dynamics in soil is so far unclear. The current meta-community concept postulates that the structure of local communities is shaped by at least three interacting forces: dispersal, environmental filtering and biotic interactions [52]. Being small-bodied organisms, soil nematodes exhibit an aggregate distribution at a microscale level tied to their limited dispersal, niche partitioning and trait plasticity, with plants being one of the key determinants [53]. The soil spatial heterogeneity and the temporal variation in resource availability create high microhabitat diversity, potential for resource utilization and niche partitioning, and hence complex biotic interactions. In natural systems, deterministic (i.e., niche-based) rather than stochastic processes were found to be more important in delimiting the phylogenetic nematode community structure [54]. Closely related nematode phylotypes tended to co-occur more often, demon-strating that closely related lineages occupy similar niches. This provided evidence for the existence of self-organized communities (functional units) that soil supports at a given scale as a result of long periods of coevolution that have selected for the best combination of organisms [55].In contrast to natural and semi-natural systems, the nematode community structure and diversity in agricultural soils are strongly modified by the habitat structure and human activities. These are combined with the ability of local organisms to adapt to greater perturbations and constantly changing factors. Differences in the spatial and temporal availability of major plant resources, i.e., litter and rhizodeposits, separate the nematode fauna into metacommunities [56]. The patterns may also be associated with a complexity of relationships that nematode species have with soil components as a whole, including their own density and that of prey, predators and/or microbial parasites.Nematode communities also tend to be dynamic, and constantly changing (adapting) over time, as they do in space, as shown by changes in nematode composition and population dynamics, due to endogenous or external drivers. In newly colonized environments, the identification of a \"path towards equilibrium\" may reveal unexpected external drivers, that contribute to the construction of a stable community. For example, when studying the nematode succession on a pristine volcanic island (Surtsey, Iceland) 50 years after its original formation, Ilieva-Makulec et al. found a progressive increase of nematode taxa over time [57]. However, the presence of seagull colonies on the island increased the diversity and abundance of bacterial and plant-feeding taxa inside the colony area, rich in nutrients and plants, whereas higher numbers of mycophagous species occurred outside, in other less fertile zones. The manner in which soil fertility and vegetation directly and indirectly shape soil communities can vary greatly across organism groups and over the system timescales (chronosequences) [58]. However, the empirical analyses explaining the temporal heterogeneity effects on community assembly and dynamics remain insufficient, calling for more research efforts and investments.Deforestation in the tropics is one of the most dramatic contemporary examples which results in a decline in species diversity, including nematode fauna [59,60]. Species richness was greater in undisturbed tropical forest than after clearing, cultivation or during regeneration. Re-analyzing the data from south-central Cameroon regarding the effects of tropical forest disturbance and clearance on eight animal groups (birds, butterflies, flying beetles, canopy beetles, canopy ants, leaf-litter ants, termites and soil nematodes), it was found that the effects were stronger on species composition than on richness, and were mostly concordant among taxa [61,62]. In contrast to previous findings [61], species richness for most groups did not decline with disturbance level, thus supporting the view that changes in species richness at local scales do not always reflect the ecosystem response to disturbance. The strength of the relationships between disturbance and community composition relationship depends on the disturbance drivers and the functional groups considered [62]. The greatest observed response was from organisms feeding on plant material (living or dead), including herbivorous nematodes which were, with beetles and termites, the most sensitive to forest disturbance.Recovery following destruction of vegetation (secondary vegetation) is yet another land process [4] that will result in a marked effect on the after-disturbance nematode communities, although the response appears to be idiosyncratic and case-specific [63,64]. The shifts in nematode composition and diversity depend on the initial community structure and appear mediated by plant-soil legacy and the assemblage response to novel conditions. Changes in diversity and trophic structure of nematode communities were studied in relation to both natural and human-driven modifications, e.g., woody plant invasion of grasslands [65], secondary successions after land abandonment [66][67][68] and ex-arable lands restoration [69]. Using a chronosequence approach to study vegetation shifts from grassland to woodland, Biederman and Boutton [65] found that the taxonomic diversity and overall nematode abundances were unaffected by the development of forest stands in grassland areas. However, the change reduced the evenness component of the taxonomic diversity. Reductions in root-parasitic nematodes ranged from 40% in grasslands to <10% in the older wooded areas, while the abundance of bacterivores increased from 30% of the nematode communities in grasslands to 70-80% in older woody areas. The effect of spreading hay and soil (independently or combined) and transplanting intact turfs was tested on plant and soil nematode community development, when studying the restoration practices and tools in ex-arable lands [69]. The soil spreading and turf transplantation did not affect the soil nematode community composition at the receptor site, and the introduction of later successional soil organisms into a topsoil-removed site did not facilitate the establishment of later successional plants.The degree of soil habitat perturbations in agrosytems depends on the type and intensity of the production system (e.g., annual-perennial cropland, conventional-organic management, pasture) and on the previous management (e.g., tillage, rotation regimes, fertilizer application, grazing intensity). Intensive agriculture decreases the abundance/biomass of most groups of soil organisms, and the functional diversity of individual groups of soil biota, altering the community structure and reducing the complexity of the soil food webs [70][71][72]. Simplification of the soil food webs affects multitrophic interactions, an effect that can significantly impair soil processes, ecosystem functions and services [71,73]. Moreover, land use can strongly affect the resilience of soil food webs and their response to extreme events due to climate changes [74].Agricultural management practices directly and/or indirectly affect the soil fauna with limited abilities of dispersal and re-colonization, including nematodes. Planting crops (e.g., sugar beet) susceptible to plant parasitic species (e.g., Heterodera schachtii) and long-term intensive cultivation are known to significantly affect nematode diversity by providing a pest selection pressure, modifying the soil structure and increasing chemical pollution [75]. However, not all taxa or functional groups will decrease in density or diversity with increasing crop intensity. Some groups (taxa) are even favored by more intensified cropping practices, such as bacteria, or bacterial and plant feeding nematodes. A general pattern often observed in studies dealing with land use intensification (e.g., increased tillage, fertilizer use and grazing) is the increased role of bacterial-vs. fungal-based food webs [76]. These changes are usually associated with a shift in the proportion of bacterial to fungal feeding nematodes and changes in plant-feeding abundance and taxa composition [77][78][79][80][81][82]. The nematode operational taxonomic units (OTUs) richness and, to a larger extent, OTUs (and genus) diversity and evenness, and abundance of herbivorous nematodes were higher in reduced compared to conventional tillage, however a soil depth stratification effect of reduced tillage on nematode OTUs and genera, as well as in the relative abundance of trophic groups was found [81]. Nematode communities were more strongly affected by tillage than by organic matter addition.Another general pattern often observed in disturbed agricultural soils is the lack or decreased abundance of organisms of higher trophic levels, such as carnivorous and omnivorous nematodes [78], assigned to the group of K life strategists (persisters). However, the opposite trend was also occasionally detected [83,84]. Studies comparing conventional to no-tillage management showed a greater abundance in no-tillage of nematodes from both trophic groups, while others did not reveal a clear effect on either feeding group [81,85,86]. A study on nematicide applications revealed no significant impact on omnivorous and predatory nematode populations, with an observed yearly recovery [83]. The contrasting results could be related to the different response of species (genera) present in the community rather than of the trophic group as a whole. The physical disturbances and chemical/nutrient changes reported likely alter the nematode genera differently, and the indirect effects of management were likely greater than the direct ones [87].Plant-mediated effects may also cause differences in the nematode response to management practices. Reduced crop diversity in agrosystems, and related reduction in food source variety (e.g., litter quality) with root heterogeneity, decreased nematode diversity, altering the community structure and function, thus decreasing the food web complexity [79,88,89]. Other studies showed that the nematode abundance was significantly reduced after nematicide applications, especially for plant feeders and predators. When studying different maize crop management systems, monoculture was found to reduce plant and bacterial feeders' diversity [90]. Another study showed that, over five years, complex plant communities developed more complex nematode communities, with a higher ratio of predators to plant feeders and of fungal to bacterial feeding nematodes, thus reducing the relative abundance of plant feeders that were more common in simplified plant communities [91].Other studies, however, found stronger effects of plant identity rather than diversity on nematode composition [92][93][94]. Changes in nematode diversity were linked to the presence of a specific crop plant. Plant-soil biota feedbacks can affect the primary productivity in terrestrial habitats and certain ecosystem processes [95][96][97]. These links are well-known for many parasitic nematodes but are still not well-understood for other herbivorous and free-living species. The plant developmental stage appeared as a dominant determinant of the rhizosphere community, significantly affecting most abundant nematodes [98], and vice versa, by altering competition among plant functional groups, nematodes were found to modify the community structure and functions of semi-natural plant communities [90].Farming integrating low-impact, system-oriented and sustainable practices is an alternative to the increasing intensification of conventional agriculture. Organic agriculture is a management system with emphasis on the minimal use of off-farm inputs, aiming at restoring, maintaining and enhancing biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. Different agricultural systems affect nematode communities in diverse ways, which depend on the specific combinations of management practices and environmental factors. These impede the extrapolation of the results from experimental and field studies to other different environmental conditions. Impacts of various practices applied in organic or natural agrosystems on soil biota, including nematode communities, have been extensively studied and compared to conventional agrosystems [99][100][101][102][103]. The effects of various forms of agricultural management on nematode diversity range from negative to positive, depending on the type of practice and the measure of diversity applied [10]. Soil nematode assemblages appear resilient to many management practices. However, the level at which biodiversity is assessed can strongly bias our interpretations. Most analyses are at the generic and trophic levels, but greater changes, or taxon replacement, may occur at the species level [75]. Complementary changes at the taxonomic level may not be detected at the functional diversity level.Bananas (Musa spp.) are typically grown in highly commercial, large-scale monoculture plantations. They consist primarily of a single Cavendish genotype and minor variants, while single plantations are usually composed of clones from a single source. This narrow genetic pool represents a major risk for pest and disease outbreaks. Consequently, the banana industry has traditionally relied heavily upon the use of synthetic pesticides to mediate the impact of pests and diseases, including nematodes. As with many tropical crops, bananas are challenged by and susceptible to a range of PPN species. At any one time, they are mostly infected by multiple species [104], which could severely compromise the fruit production and other services provided by plantations.Most studies on nematode assemblages and functional groups' diversity in banana agrosystems explored the effects of plant cover composition and diversity changes on regulation of the most common PPN [105][106][107][108][109]. The stability and beneficial ecosystem functions and services (e.g., regulation of weeds, pests or pathogens) of intensively managed agrosystems can be enhanced by increasing plant diversity through cover plants or associated crops. Increasing the cover crop species diversity is expected to enhance plant productivity through increased resource use efficiency [110]. Multispecies cropping agrosystems perform multiple functions and services other than crop production, increasing soil OM and C sequestration, regulating soil moisture, suppressing weeds, pathogens and pests, retaining N, sustaining higher soil biodiversity, etc. Increasing plant richness tends to increase pest regulation in the field. The cover plants may control PPN directly, by various self-defense mechanisms and traits (morphological, physical and chemical) and indirectly-through soil food web modifications, including changes in the relative abundance between PPN and their predators, e.g., carnivorous nematodes or arthropods [111]. The abundance of bacterivorous, omnivorous and root-hair feeding nematodes, and the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, tended to increase when a cover crop was introduced between rows [105]. However, data showed specific effects of cover crop species, as PPN were less abundant in plots with Poaceae than in those with Fabaceae.Poeydebat et al. [106] investigated the processes leading to PPN regulation in banana agrosystems, evaluating the effects of plant richness (crop and non-crop), soil properties (humidity, soil OM, C:N ratio) and nematode trophic groups on multitrophic interactions. Different pest regulation pathways were found, including regulation of Radopholus similis by plant community effects, of Helicotylenchus multicinctus and Meloidogyne spp. by non-trophic interactions with free-living nematodes and of Pratylenchus coffeae by both effects. No regulation of PPN by predaceous nematodes was found. Other studies showed that previous crop plants, biochemical characteristics of cover crop litter, management type (conventional vs. organic, mixed vs. monoculture) and the type of organic amendments also applied strongly influenced the nematode assemblages, their trophic interactions and complexity, possibly leading to PPN suppression [107][108][109][112][113][114].The PPN biology and host adaptation also play a key role in the damage induced. The burrowing nematode, R. similis, is the most important PPN of banana, largely as this tends to be the prominent nematode in commercial dessert banana plantations, where close attention is paid to pest management. However, R. similis rarely occurs alone but, as an aggressive species, it often overshadows the presence and damage of other nematode species. Other co-occurring species, such as H. multicinctus and Meloidogyne spp., result in damage beyond that caused by R. similis alone [115]. In addition, significant differences in the aggressiveness and damage potential of different populations of R. similis have been demonstrated, which are themselves differentially affected by host resistance [116].Depending on the geographic location, climate and banana genotype, the nematode diversity may differ substantially. In Africa, for instance, R. similis has tended to dominate the nematode communities (and damage) in the East African Highland cooking bananas, at altitudes below 1400 m. Above this altitude, Pratylenchus goodeyi, which is more tolerant of cooler temperatures than R. similis, becomes dominant [117][118][119]. Helicotylenchus multicinctus remains ever present across the altitudinal gradients, while Meloidogyne spp., Rotylenchulus spp., Rotylenchus spp. and other Helicotylenchus spp., among others, regularly occur [103]. In the hotter lowland areas in East Africa, the nematode community composition has shifted away from R. similis, with Pratylenchus coffeae, as well as P. goodeyi, becoming more prevalent [120][121][122]. In West Africa, however, where R. similis has previously been the dominant nematode pest species, a trend in the rise of P. coffeae has been observed [117]. Overall, this demonstrates the continuously dynamic nature of PPN on banana and the need to be aware of this dynamism when developing appropriate management options.The occurrence of multiple damaging species has relevance for management options, especially selective options that may be species-specific, such as host resistance or biological control. Options, therefore, of a more general nature or that combine alternatives with specific target species should be considered in order to effectively manage multiple infections. Previously, in commercial plantations, the regular and repetitive use of the same chemical nematicide was relied upon, but the adaptation of microbes, which quickly degraded them, rendered some treatments ineffective, resulting in the alternate use of different compounds [123]. Chemical nematicide treatments, in addition to fungicides and insecticides, have amounted to extreme levels of application, however, a situation that questions the ecological sustainability of such systems [124,125]. The long-term persistence of some compounds, such as Chlordecone, has also occurred in some instances, leading to their progressive removal from use, and to the search for less hazardous options [126,127].In general, the monoculture of banana should be avoided to suppress the build-up of nematode population densities and high, long-term pathogen pressure. In the commercial dessert banana systems, this is not always practical or feasible, while the smallholder systems tend to comprise a tapestry of different cultivars and crops. Although different, both production systems tend to be heavily affected by nematode damage, but for varying reasons. For instance, high pathogen pressures are created in dessert monoculture systems, while infected planting material and a poor understanding of nematode pests perpetuate a nematode infection cycle (and build-up) in smallholder systems. These two very different production systems are also similarly characterized by their associated microbial communities, which contain antagonists capable of suppressing biotic constraints, including PPN [128,129]. Banana plants that appeared to be growing well in otherwise nematode-infested fields were targeted for sampling. Isolation and testing for efficacy against nematodes established a number of microbial candidates that have proved to be effective at managing nematodes and improving banana yields. They have since been employed as biocontrol inoculants, plant strengthening agents and biofertilizers on banana, as well as other crops [115,130].Banana has a rich microbiome diversity, which is influenced by plant health. In East Africa, banana plants with (symptomatic) and without (asymptomatic) Fusarium wilt were the major drivers of the fungal community composition in the rhizosphere [131]. Isolating specific candidates or mediating the microbial composition towards improving plant vigor or health, or for managing banana pests and diseases, offer much potential and benefits to production.Nematode pest densities can also be mediated through the use of various intercrops, which have differential host status for nematode pests. Interestingly, preference should be given to intermediate or good R. similis hosts (e.g., common bean and sorgho-Sudangrass), which can result in lower nematode build-up and reduced (long-term) pathogen pressure on the banana crop. Including a poor or non-host crop (e.g., marigold and sunn hemp) can result in an adverse effect on long-term pathogen pressure, as nematodes migrate to banana plants, the good host, aggravating the problem [132]. Conversely, break cropping with non-hosts can be effective where plantations are regularly shifted or replanted. Planting sugarcane (Saccharum hybrid) was found to eliminate R. similis after 10 weeks [133]. Consequently, diversifying the cropping system can have beneficial effects on microbial/nematode diversity, with positive impacts on crop health and productivity. Although Van Asten et al. [134] did not assess the microbiome, they found substantial improvement in productivity and economic benefits in the combined cropping of coffee and banana, compared to either alone.The mixed and often complex diversity of smallholder cropping conditions may provide multiple benefits that are at first not obvious. For example, banana plants grown in agroforestry systems in Nicaragua and Costa Rica were characterized by greater potential plant-beneficial bacteria, such as Pseudomonas and Stenotrophomonas, while disease-causing species, such as Erwinia, were less represented [135]. Banana plants have also been found to benefit from the presence and colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which can improve crop production through various mechanisms, including protection against nematodes [136]. AMF inoculants supported more vigorous plantain plants and prevented root invasion by P. coffeae and R. similis in Nigeria [137]. However, the interplay between crops in mixed cropping systems can additionally influence the population levels and diversity of AMF, as well as other microbes. Van der Veken et al. [138] demonstrated that a number of intercrops were more or less compatible to AMF, which could increase or sustain the AMF rhizosphere population. Among them, groundnut and sweet potato are regularly intercropped in banana-based cropping systems in West Africa.As with most crops, banana similarly responds positively to the practice of mulching. Indeed, banana appears heavily dependent on mulching as an important source of nutrient cycling [139]. However, although organic mulching may facilitate weevil build-up, the benefits tend to outweigh the detrimental aspects, through crop nutrition and the suppression of damage caused by nematodes. There are numerous reports available demonstrating the beneficial effect of mulching on nematode damage. However, it is difficult to separate the individual effects of a better nutrition from reduced PPN damage. The rhizosphere microbial diversity will undergo substantial modification following organic mulching, which will depend on the type of OM, the climate, soil type, etc. [140]. The possible negative impact by P. goodeyi on banana in Rwanda, for instance, was likely masked by the fact that nematode populations were positively correlated with high plant density and/or mulching practices, which reduced root necrosis and led to relatively high plant vigor, irrespective of soil type [141].There is no doubt that sturdier banana plants, that have been mulched, become more resilient under nematode attack. This is likely due to multiple reasons, including the modification of the rhizosphere soil microbial community, which becomes richer and more populated with mulching. Studies on plantain in West Africa have consistently demonstrated the improved productivity and longevity of plantations infected with nematodes following mulching, irrespective of the type of mulch [137,[142][143][144], and similarly elsewhere on other banana types [140,145,146]. The regular application of relatively small amounts of fresh Tithonia diversifolia leaf material to plantain heavily affected by nematodes in Nigeria demonstrated great beneficial effects on crop performance [147].EPN (Rhabditida) have an important role in ecosystem functioning by acting as biological control agents of insect pests [42,148], including relevant pests of banana. They have developed mutualistic-symbiotic relationships with entomopathogenic bacteria, members of γ-Proteobacteria [148] that are vectored into the hosts, causing their death by septicemia. EPN occur in soils both in natural and agricultural ecosystems in all continents, except Antarctica. Some species from tropical and subtropical regions show potential for practical exploitation in banana crops [149][150][151].Although four genera of EPN have been described (Steinernema, Neosteinernema, Heterorhabditis and Oscheius), those with the highest impact in agricultural ecosystems belong to genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis. Almost all of the EPN lifecycle occurs inside the insect host, and only the third stage, infective juvenile (IJ) (representing a dauer or stress-resistant stage) resides in soil, searching for a new victim and acting as a vector for its associated bacteria [148]. The IJ is also the life-stage that is applied as a biocontrol agent in most commercial formulations based on insect cadavers or as aqueous suspensions in sponges [152][153][154].When an insect species is naturally infected, the associated EPN may be considered as a locally adapted population, with a likelihood to act as an effective pest-regulating biocontrol agent. Species from five insect orders (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera) have been found naturally infected by EPN [154]. Nevertheless, the majority of EPN species/populations have been isolated from soils, using Galleria mellonella as bait [149,154]. EPN epizootics appear uncommon in nature. The patchy EPN distribution [155] and persistence in soil depend on biotic and abiotic factors such as the presence of hosts, or organisms such as mites, collembolas and fungi, that could predate on the EPN populations, the soil type (pH, texture, clay/sand percentage, moisture), geographic regions, altitude, vegetation (specie/cultivars) and agricultural practices [156].EPN play several roles in soil ecosystems. Beside their function as insect regulators, they are natural components of the soil food webs. When they are applied as augmentative biological control agents, they are integrated as a natural component to the soil food web [157]. The relationship between EPN and other trophic guild nematodes in soil involves competition for resource exploitation, observed between indigenous free-living bacterivorous nematodes and EPN [158]. In Florida, EPNs and members of the Acrobeloides-group were detected in all sites sampled, and the abundances of the two guilds were positively related [159]. The correlation between prevalence of S. riobrave and free-living bacterivorous nematodes revealed the possibility that application of EPN induced a population growth of bacterivorous species [160].The presence and persistence of EPN populations has also been related to land use change and degradation. It is known that modifications in the above-ground area also produce changes in the rhizosphere, as intensification of land use often negatively affects the occurrence and recovery of EPN. Several studies showed that EPN occurrence is lower in agricultural soils, i.e., annual cropland or pastures, than in natural and secondary forests [161,162]. Other studies, however showed that EPN abundance and frequency were higher in annual crops than in natural areas [163]. In conventional agricultural lands, some practices may affect the presence, survival and infectivity of different EPN species/populations. They include tillage and intensive use of pesticides [164]. According to Barker and Barker [165], organisms in the higher trophic levels of soil, such as EPN, may be sensitive to environmentally induced, bottom-up cascade effects that alter the availability of hosts.The EPN efficacy as biocontrol agents of several above-or below-ground insect pests and production conditions (pastures, orchards, greenhouses, or others) encouraged several companies to produce EPN in vivo or in vitro, formulated using many species or populations [166,167]. Several insect pests affect Musa-growing areas, with Cosmopolites sordidus (banana weevil, BW) as the main and specific rhizome pest. Its larvae feed and produce galleries, whereas the adults emerge from the rhizome and move in soil around the pseudostem [168]. This type of insect habit represents a severe challenge for efficient control, due to the vast network of feeding galleries produced. Excellent control of BW was obtained by applying EPN in moist and cryptic habitats, considered as alternative methods [169][170][171]. Several EPN species/populations were evaluated in laboratory and field assays for BW management and other pests, such as the banana moth Opogona sacchari (bunch pest in the Canary Islands and Brazil) and Metamasius spp., minor or sporadic banana pests in America [169][170][171][172][173]. EPN diversity is an important resource in BW bio-management, but few studies have been conducted on the variability of local EPN populations. Local and foreign species/populations of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis were evaluated in different conditions, causing variable mortalities in larvae and adults of BW and other pests as well. Several Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp. have been tested in tropical and subtropical areas [171][172][173][174][175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184]. Many species/populations were recovered in several tropical countries, when prospecting for EPN, both in Musa spp. monocrops or mixed with others species [176][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189][190][191][192][193][194].In agricultural areas with more frequent organic or agroecological management, EPN adapted to local conditions are more abundant and persistent, compared with more intensive farmed habitats [195]. Several studies indicated that practices, such as conservation tillage, use of mulching or application of crop residues over soil surface, do not affect EPN persistence and activity. Meanwhile, other factors affect EPN, i.e., the use of sugarcane filter mud as manure in clay soils, reinforcing the pertinence of studies on EPN populations under different environmental conditions and agricultural technologies [195][196][197][198][199].Apple (Malus domestica) crops are produced in all temperate and subtropical regions of the world and represent the fourth most important fruit crop after citrus, grapes and banana [200]. EUROSTAT data indicated this crop as the most commonly planted fruit tree in the European Union (EU), with a cultivated area covering 473,500 ha or 37% of the land covered by orchards in 2017. Similar to other agrosystems, apple production systems can provide numerous services or disservices that depend on locality, management type and applied practices [201,202]. In addition, apple orchards contribute to services, such as pollination, pest control, soil fertility, nutrient cycling and soil biodiversity conservation in more environment-friendly production systems, when either organic management or novel biodiversity-enhancing practices are used [202][203][204]. The trade-offs between provisioning and other ecosystem services and disservices usually arise from the management choices and should be evaluated in terms of the spatial and temporal scales [205].Most nematode studies in apple orchards have focused on PPN. However, several recent studies investigated nematode community structure in relation to crop management type or soil management practices [103,[206][207][208][209]. A more comprehensive approach including other soil organisms, such as protozoa [208], AMF [209] and soil microbes and microfauna (e.g., fungi, bacteria, algae and protozoa), has been used [207] for studying soil management practices. DNA-based methods were applied too [102,210]. The community structure and diversity of bacteria, fungi and nematodes, and their relationships from naturally and conventionally farmed apple orchards, were studied in Japan using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) [102]. The results indicate that crop type as well as management practices improved the nematode community structure and functional diversity in organic and natural apple orchards, as compared to conventional apple production. However, data relating these results to fruit production and quality were not shown.Studying the functional diversity of nematodes and their relationship with other organisms of the soil food web may help to reveal their contribution to ecosystem services and disservices provided by apple orchards (e.g., pest/disease control vs. apple replant disease, ARD). ARD is common to all major apple growing regions worldwide [211]. It affects plant propagation in nurseries and replanted apple orchards reducing plant growth, as well as fruit yield and quality [212]. Studies on the ARD etiology and soil biology in apple orchards have defined a complex of soil-borne pathogens and parasites as causal agents. In particular, some fungi (Fusarium and Rhizoctonia), oomycetes (Phytophthora and Pythium) and nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) have been identified as key causal agents [213]. Previous research on ARD focused on PPN, mainly Pratylenchus penetrans [214], while the role of free-living nematodes in the disease complex was neglected. However, a recent study proved the importance of free-living nematodes and their synergetic role to induce ARD [210]. The authors explored the source of the inoculated nematodes (ARD or control soil) and the interaction between ARD nematodes and microbes as factors determining the disease insurgence. They found that when nematode communities extracted from the ARD soil were added to microbes, regardless of their origin, they affected plant growth more severely than treatments without ARD nematodes. The nematodes extracted from control soil in combination with microbes, either from ARD or control soil, did not induce ARD symptoms. The outcomes underline the indirect role of free-living nematodes in transmitting pathogenic microbiota.Although our knowledge on the ecology of terrestrial nematodes has greatly improved over the last few decades, our understanding on the effect of nematode diversity on specific soil functions and ecosystem processes remains insufficient. This can be attributed to difficulties in identifying and functionally classifying the great diversity of taxa in field studies and to the challenges encountered in assembling manageable and well-defined multispecies model systems, when studying the role of nematodes in soil and ecosystem processes. As part of the immense soil biodiversity, nematodes are involved in complex ecological networks, having various interactions with other soil organisms, therefore the ecosystem approach and DNA-based techniques should be embraced when future studies are designed.Land-use conversion and land-use intensity are the two major impacts related to agriculture that significantly affect soil biodiversity, food web structure and complexity, causing shifts in below-ground communities, including nematode fauna. Intensively managed agrosystems, characterized by higher levels of disturbance and lower plant diversity, are more vulnerable to the detrimental effects of soil-borne pathogens and pests, which compromise their functioning and services. Frequent perturbations in intensively managed land may select for genera with particular life history traits, such as r-strategists with high reproduction rates and small body size, and plant parasitic species, thus creating simplified networks and disturbed relationships. Permanent crops, such as banana and apple production systems, provide a rich platform to study both the nematode pests and beneficial species in relation to the soil microbiome. The diverse and ever-evolving complexity of nematode communities demands the development of dynamic management practices that account for nematode functional diversity and multi-species interactions. Understanding the soil microbiome and microfauna diversity and composition in banana/apple cropping systems, and harnessing the related beneficial interactions, can provide a significant and positive impact on the environment. Enhancing research on nematode functional diversity and links with above-and below-ground biota is an important step toward understanding soil ecosystems' processes and services. Coordinated, interdisciplinary and long-term studies on soil biodiversity-ecosystem function relationships may provide comprehensive empirical data needed to develop multi-component models [17]. Results will provide knowledge for the development of management and restoration activities, by manipulating above-and below-ground associations-a major challenge in future agroecology [215].","tokenCount":"7378"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7056ad1b857421ba79c92f66bab47375","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/688c049b-308f-4c75-bf36-aba3b63444bd/retrieve","id":"409886880"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d5e70878-8911-4ac1-ae45-8af030bda188","pagecount":"2","content":"Through its advocacy e orts since 2011, RAC has generated new investments for promoting orange-eshed sweetpotato (OFSP) worth 11.4 million USD. RAC has also built institutional capacity to design and implement gender-sensitive projects to ensure wide access and utilization of vitamin A rich OFSP in ve selected African countries (Mozambique, Tanzania, Nigeria, Ghana, and Burkina Faso).Governments are inadequately aware about the extent of the vitamin A problem and the potential of vitamin A rich orange-eshed sweetpotato (OFSP) to contribute to its solutions. In addition, organizations that do want to work on sweetpotato often lack adequate technical knowledge. The Reaching Agents of Change (RAC) project is a unique e ort to strengthen advocacy and technical capacity for successful nutrition interventions using OFSP.Through development of strong advocacy e orts at country level through a strategy of identifying and training a cadre of African advocates, RAC is generating new investments by governments, donors, and NGOs to scale up adoption of OFSP in the ve target countries as a tool to combat vitamin A de ciency (VAD) and improve food security. By 2014, we aim to help mobilize at least $18 million devoted to OFSP programmes in the ve target countries.The project's Regional Advocacy Advisor and a cadre of OFSP ambassadors are leading e orts to ensure that OFSP is included as an integral part of strategies that address food insecurity and malnutrition at regional and sub-regional levels in Sub-Saharan Africa. E orts target policy makers in regional and sub-regional bodies such as the African Union (AU), the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Major accomplishments to date include: 1. Through advocacy and awareness raising e orts, RAC has generated $US 11.4 million in new investments from governments, donors, NGOs, private sector to scale up adoption of OFSP in the three principal countries.to in uence leaders in agriculture, nutrition and health elds on the importance of OFSP in combating vitamin A de ciency (VAD), improving food security and creating favourable policy environments for food-based interventions.• A regional situation analysis has been carried out, leading to the identi cation of partners to facilitate policy advocacy and resource mobilization for OFSP;• Advocacy strategies for Mozambique, Nigeria and Tanzania have been developed and are being implemented, focusing on demand creation for OFSP, policy change and resource mobilization;• An OFSP Advocacy Stakeholders' workshop has been conducted in Ghana;• RAC's participation at regional and national for a has helped integrate OFSP into a number of CONTACT Kirimi Sindi k.sindi@cgiar.org Jean Ndirigue ndrick3@yahoo.fr Damien Shumbusha shudam@yahoo.com important documents, such as in food security and nutrition assessments in Mozambique; in the National Agriculture Policy of Tanzania; and in Nigeria, lobbying by SASHA and RAC has led to the inclusion of OFSP as a priority crop in the agricultural transformation agenda;• At regional level, RAC participated in the development of the Regional Agriculture Policy for the SADC Region, which was approved by the Ministers of Agriculture in June 2013, and will be involved in the development of the regional agriculture strategy, where there is the opportunity for including food-based approaches for addressing VAD.3. RAC convened a multi-stakeholder workshop to establish a revitalized Vitamin A for Africa (VITAA) platform (Fig. 1). The platform purpose has been reformulated to share best practices concerning e ective advocacy techniques and lessons learned on how to in uence regional and national policies and strategies around food-based approaches to VAD (beyond the focus on OFSP).   ","tokenCount":"564"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0cf97ea42be3588765d8f2d943240b04","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f95a418-ae17-4a4b-9aed-66249d7b4c20/retrieve","id":"-797246523"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f0adaff6-f9c5-4c56-b597-cef5ff99d50f","pagecount":"31","content":"SeJlllilivity in many crop spccies lo ebanges in nalural daylength mm oue latitude or seasou lo aMlbe. has a pronounced \"ffee! on plant developmenl and evenlual production. Thís seu.¡Uve reaelion also limitE/ Ibe rlUlJ!\" of adaptE/lion of comm\"rcial hyhrids and vari\"lies, and ntak •• lhe eDiliIUlJ!\" af germ plasm amang improvemenl progtllIllll very difficult. Altbongb factol'S sueh as temperature, maíslure, Íusect/dio\"a .. compl .. _, and albero also eonlribule lo adaptalion or its shsence, Ibe single factor \"pholoperiod\" ¡. Ihe one wilb most striking \"ffects on plant develapment. Abo, ít ís possible lo m\"asure and .tudy Ibe iufIuen .. of daylength, and by Ibis proceso daveIop malerial. insen.i!ive to photoperiod ehlUlJ!\"s. Then one may proeeed lo ovalua!e tempetature and othor faeloro without th\" confounding effects of photoperiod.'Ihe !remendan. voIue of pboloperiod insensilivity has heen demnnstratad clearly in Ibe new varioties oí wheat and rice developed by !he Internatinnal Wheat and Rice Programs iu Meneo snd Ibe J>hilippm...., respeclively. These varietes moyo easily acroso latitudes snd U'Onnd Ibe globo, and currently form a major part oí the basi. for Ibe grecn revo-Iution. The same advances will soon be made in olber crops.. but more infonnation on \"aeh erop and Ibe reaClÍon to different natural photoperiodo must be datermined in order lo pusb back Ihe harriero lo wider adaptalion.An importanl stop in tbis proceso is the definition of natural pbotoperiodo. Moa! elementary texts in geography inelude curves whieb show honro ol sunlight and \"darkness\" (í.e~ non..mnlighl hours). These are baaed on time oí sunrise and time ol su\"\"\"t. However, !he eritieallight intensitios tbat control pboloperiodíe roaetious in plants are eonaidershly lower Iban Ievels ooourring only during Ibe houro of sunlight. Thus, tb. \"off\"\"tive\" daylengtb for 8 pholoperiod ... nsitive reaolion may bo mucb Ionger Iban Ibe hou .. of SUD. The \"Iwilighl\" :rone is important.To adequately evaluat. plant dovelapment data foom past plantinga o,. lo ehoose IoeatioJlll between whicb one may alternate sellSOlIlI in a field program lo develop ÍD8eDSÍlÍve genotypes, Ibe eritieal number of honro oí effeetive lighl and darkne ... musl be known. This l. equaIly impor• tant if natural dayIengths are lo be extendCli artifioially in Ibe field. In • MaptecI Ifrom tecbnleal jouma! a:t!J:le, \"Effectlve dI;¡>Iengtbs for !he study of pbotoperiod sensitive reactions in plants\". C. A. l'rancls. Aaro-1l<lImY JournaI 611: '190-'192 (November•December). ll1lD (1).a recent fi.ld study of maize in lbe trapics (2), we used 5 hour. oí addilional Iight lo shorten lhe dark periodo Lighl intensiti ... hove the criticalleveis oí 5 root <andles and 1 lo 2 foo! eandles were effe.tive in delaying floral differenlialion hy Mout 20 snd .bou! S days, respec• tively, in photoperíod sensitive genotypes (oue foot candle js app-rGxi~ mately .qual to 10.76 lux). These critical intensilios have nol been established for many crup spedes. Therefore, to extend the applicatioil of these curves of \"Photoperiod Effeelíve Hours\" lo m.ny specios .nd locatiúDs; calculations were made uslng four critical intensitíes;: 10, 5. 2 and 1 fool candle (108, 54. 22 aud 11 lux). latitudes from 70° N lo 60~S. and 15-<1oy interval. Ihrough Ihe year. These cutves are reproduced in hulletin form to allow increa~d size and accuracy in their use. compared to lhe original puhlicalion (1). Tne tables of original data from which the curves were drawn are a1st\\' included to give more detail and precision 101' each latitude and season.To calculal. th. number of hours in the day with a Iight intensity aboye a eertain level., tbe time in the morning at which lhat intensity is reached and the time in the evcning al whích it 15 passed must be known. The NautÍcal AhnRnac (5), publ¡,hed yearly by the U.S. Naval ObseI'valory, gives the time. (jf Civil twiligh! (sun 6? below horizon). sunrise, and sunset. Frotn tabIes in the 1965 edition of this a]manac~ the hours of sunlight and hGur. wíth a light íntenoi!y above Civil twilight were calculated for latitudes at 10' intervals fram 70~N lo 60?S. Tbe light intensity oí the sun on a dear day with the disk near the horizon is 1.885 Lambert. (3). Thi. intcnsity Í5 approximately 42 ft.-c. Factors rol\" light energy oonversions are given in Table 1, Befóre the SUD reaches the horizon, the Hght intensities on a clear day at -69, -5?~ -4~~ -3?~ -2?~ aud -l? (angle ohun below horizon) are 2, .5. 13. 40, 113, and 250 luxo respectively (4). These v.Iu .. , in tbe order given. are abont 0.2, 0.5. 1.2,3.7. 10.5, and 23.2 ft..c. From these data a Hght intensity curve is drawn fol' SUD angles helow the horizon frOom Civil twilight to sunrise. This curve may be :reveI'sed for the period fmm su\"\",t lo Civil Iwilight in the evening. The sun angle below the horizon at whieh eaeh specifíc foot candlo intensity 15 reached on a elesl' day is then deterrnined.Because of the essentially uniform angular velocity of Ihe oarth relativo to tbe sun, Ihe ratio of the dcgrees below Ihe hQriwn for a _cific Iight intensity lo -6<:' gives tbe proportion uf the time hetween Civil twHght aud sunrise, and between sunset and Civil twilight, which 18 aboye the crítica! intensily. This time is added to the hnurs oí sunlight lo give Ihe total hours pel day with an intensity aboye suy chosen leve!.     \" \" v cE ., 'j '\" L o '\" J:  ~ vi '6.. . .     Ir numher of day. lo floral initialion is correlated with 8nthesi., day. lo f10wering of speeific genotypes when grown in several loeslion. could he oompared to determine which fnctors in the environment were signifi. cant in their influenee on developmenl.The precise data (rom which these curves were drawn are listed in Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5, :for the 54ime critical íntensities. The data presented are hours and decimalf:i of hours, Le., 14.50 is 14 hours and 30 min, while 12.75 i. 12 hours and 45 mino These table. are useíul if the exaet honrs and minutes of light are needed ro. a specIfic loeatl\"n and date.Intermediate dates and latitudes may he interpolated from these lables. Pinally, the hours of sunlight for Ihese same latitudes aud dates are prescnled in Table 6, along with exaet times of Sunri ... nd Sunset (5).These intensity cw:'ves for effeelive daylengths may he used lo evaluate field reactions ro photoperioo 1 one of the impGrtant factors whieh influences Ihe complex pattero of adaptation. Data on both erit. iea! iotensity and critica! daylength are needed íor eaeh apeeific crop lo oorrectly apply Ihe iniormation in these curves to sludies of davel• opment.As the faelors which influenee survival, adaptation and productivity beoome better understood for each er'Op apecies, Ihere will he inere.sed attention given lo those dates of planting .nd harvest which maximize the eeonomic yield per day. Since photoperiod ha. a direc! influenee on floral initiation in many sensitive specios, th. daylength during the ~ \"\\Jl8r1y growth and developmenl of the crop is frequently an Importanl '\"'. ' -40'N 15.40 15.05 14.56 13.98 13.21 12.56 11. 91 11.28 10.71 10.24 9.92 9.80 ' \" 30'N 14.42 14.20 13.87 13.46 12.93 12.49 12.06 11.62 11.24 10.92 10 La. sensibilids.d al fotoperíodo de cultivos ha mostrado tener un efecto nota• ble en el desarrollo y en su producción. El valor de la insensibilidad al largo del día demuestra ser de amplia adaptación para las variedades nuevas de arroz y de trigo; estas variedades se adaptan il.varias taUtudos. Actualmente, forman parte fundamental del conjunto tecnOlógico que se ha denominado ia \"Revolución verde\".Esta publicación presenta. los datos de la duración natunl del día, con una intensidad mínima. de lO. 5, 2 Y 1 bujfa U07J>, 53.8, 21,5 Y 10,8 lux, respectiva. mente), Las figuras Y cuadros incluyen tambíén los datos para cada 15 días durante todo e1 año y para cada latitud, desde los 'lO? N a lds 6O? S, La información fue presentada por primera vez en publicación Journal ot Agronomy (1); en la presente publicación se ha aumentado el tanlaüo de las gráficas y se han incluido los datos •onginales partt dal' al .investigador una idea más precis'!i de las condiciones que existen en su localidad. Esto ayuda en la interpretación de los resultados obtenidos en el campo y orientarle en la phneación de proyectos que pretenden resolver el probléma de sensibilidad al fotoperíodo.A seneibilidade BO lotoperíodo tem mostrado p08suir um efeito notável nO desenvolvimento da planta e na sua prodw;ao. O valor da insen~ $ibilídade ao comprimento do dia demostra ~er de grande valor para as novas variedades de arroz e de trigo; estas variedades se adaptam a vária'S latitudes e atualmente~ sa.o parte fundamental do conjunto tecnológico denominado ~•Rev()lu<;áo Verde\".E~ta publica'Yao apr~enta 0$ dados da dura~iio natural do día~ oom ,una intensidad. mínima de 10, 5,2 e 1 vela (107.6.53.8,21.5 e 10.8 luxo rCfpectivamente). As figuras e quaclros encluem tam.bém os dados quinzenais durante (} ano e para cada latitude~ desde 70 o N. até 60°5. A informac¡ao foi apresentada pela primeira vez em publica~ao no .1, J OU1\"11al of Agronomy (1).; na presente publiru:u;ao se aumentou (; tao manho dos gráficos e \"!6 íneluiu os dados originaís para dar ao investigador urna idéia mais precisa das éondit;oes existentes em 'Sua looalidade. Na interpreta.¡;ao dos resultados nhtidos no campo e orientá•lo no p1anejamento 'de trabalhos que pretendem resolver o problema da fensí. bilid.de 30 fowperiOtlo.","tokenCount":"1555"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9e2e032913aab914649fa4942231154b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0d50eb87-010d-49d8-9150-e14c4a526309/content","id":"-1182830456"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"259c234c-4296-49cb-8f9d-c1e950310d97","pagecount":"9","content":"Drought and poor soil fertility are among the major abiotic stresses affecting maize productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Maize breeding efforts at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) have focused on incorporating drought stress tolerance and nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) into tropical maize germplasm. The objectives of this study were to estimate the general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) of selected maize inbred lines under drought stress (DS), low-nitrogen (LN) and optimum moisture and nitrogen (optimum) conditions, and to assess the yield potential and stability of experimental hybrids under these management conditions. Forty-nine experimental three-way cross hybrids, generated from a 7 9 7 line by tester crosses, and six commercial checks were evaluated across 11 optimum, DS and LN sites in Kenya in 2014 using an alpha lattice design with two replicates per entry at each site. DS reduced both grain yield (GY) and plant height (PH), while anthesis-silking interval (ASI) increased under both DS and LN. Hybrids 'L4/T2' and 'L4/T1' were found to be superior and stable, while inbreds 'L4' and 'L6' were good combiners for GY and other secondary traits across sites. Additive variance played a greater role for most traits under the three management conditions, suggesting that further progress in the improvement of these traits should be possible. GY under optimum conditions was positively correlated with GY under both DS and LN conditions, but GY under DS and LN was not correlated. Our results suggest the feasibility for simultaneous improvement in grain yield performance of genotypes under optimum, DS and LN conditions.Maize production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is constrained by several biotic and abiotic stresses. Maize fields managed by smallholder farmers in this region experience multiple stresses either simultaneously or at different stages of crop growth. Recurrent drought and suboptimal soil fertility are among the major abiotic stresses impacting maize grain yields in SSA (Shiferaw et al. 2011). Climate change is also exacerbating the frequency and/or intensity of drought, further aggravating the challenges smallholder farmers face in SSA. This may lead to greater food insecurity and can place the livelihood of farmers and their families at risk. Poor infrastructure, high cost of irrigation and inadequate capacity to accurately predict rainfall patterns leave maize farmers with limited ability to cope with drought. The inherent poor soil fertility of most African soils, coupled with poor access to inorganic fertilizers due to economic or social constraints, lack of awareness, or poor infrastructure, also contributes significantly to low maize yield in the region (Salami et al. 2010).Breeding for stress tolerance is advocated as an affordable option to tackle the challenges of yield reduction and crop failure resulting from drought and low soil fertility (B€ anziger et al. 2006). The aim of any plant breeding programme is to develop cultivars that are well-adapted to the target environment (s). Virtually, all plant breeding programmes use multi-environment trials (METs) to evaluate newly developed germplasm. With METs, breeders aim at capturing a variety of on-farm conditions by testing genotypes for important traits at multiple locations across several years within the target agroecology of the breeding programme (Hohls 2001, Cooper et al. 2014). However, as some abiotic stresses such as drought are sporadic in nature, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) uses managed abiotic and biotic stress screening sites to complement METs at its breeding hubs in Africa, Asia and Latin America.In SSA, an extensive network of managed low-nitrogen and drought stress screening sites are available for routine screening of experimental maize genotypes. Over the past three decades, CIMMYT, in collaboration with the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS), has made significant progress in developing maize germplasm with tolerance to drought and lownitrogen stress (B€ anziger et al. 2000, 2006, Wegary et al. 2011, Masuka et al. 2012, Weber et al. 2012, Beyene et al. 2013). Improved maize inbred lines have been used to successfully develop and deploy drought-tolerant and nitrogen-use efficient hybrids and synthetics.Several studies were undertaken to assess the performance of genotypes, and the gene action of traits under optimum-nitrogen and managed low-nitrogen stress or optimum moisture and managed drought stress environments (B€ anziger et al. 2006, Derera et al. 2007, Worku et al. 2008, 2012, Weber et al. 2012, Beyene et al. 2013). However, most of these studies considered only one stress at a time. However, under farmers' management conditions in SSA, multiple stresses, particularly drought and low soil nitrogen, occur concurrently or at different times during the same growing season. The need to combine both drought and lownitrogen tolerance within maize varieties has long been recognized by breeders in SSA. Makumbi et al. (2011) evaluated diallele crosses of maize inbred lines under optimum moisture and nitrogen, moisture stress and low-nitrogen conditions and identified inbred lines with good GCA. The authors also reported different gene actions in the control of grain yield under different management conditions. Meseka et al. (2006) evaluated droughttolerant hybrids with different doses of drought-tolerant parents and reported higher yield under low-nitrogen stress in most hybrids involving at least one drought-tolerant parent. Betr an et al. (2003) reported the importance of additive gene effects for grain yield under drought, non-additive under low-nitrogen and both additive and non-additive under optimum moisture and nitrogen conditions. Similarly, Derera et al. (2007) found additive gene action for grain yield under drought, but both additive and non-additive gene actions operate under optimum conditions. Although several studies have been conducted in the past using lines developed through pedigree breeding method, this study will attempt to identify new lines and hybrids that are preforming well under drought and low-nitrogen conditions but also have no yield penalty under optimum conditions. In this study, new lines and testers recently developed in SSA using conventional pedigree breeding, double haploid technology and molecular breeding (Beyene et al. 2013(Beyene et al. , 2016b) ) under the framework of the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project (DTMA), Water Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA) and Improved Maize for African Soil (IMAS) were used.The objectives of this study were to estimate the general and specific combining abilities (GCA and SCA) of selected maize inbred lines under drought stress, low-nitrogen and optimum moisture and nitrogen conditions, and to assess yield potential of three-way cross hybrids under these different management conditions.Experimental materials: Seven drought-tolerant inbred lines were used to form testcrosses with seven single-cross testers from the complimentary heterotic group (Table 1). The inbred lines used in this study were selected from a group of elite inbred lines developed from seven tropical biparental crosses. Details on line development were described previously by Beyene et al. (2016a). In brief, the inbred lines were extracted from F 2:3 lines based on testcross performance across 5-7 optimum and 2-3 drought stress locations. The selected lines were then advanced to F 5:6 with visual selection at each stage of inbreeding. The top 10% of F 2 -derived lines were selected based on phenotypic trait BLUPs of F 2:3 testcrosses within each population from the combined analysis of the drought stress and well-watered trials for grain yield and agronomic traits. The selected lines from each population were planted in a nursery at Kibos, Kenya. Selections were made within and among families, and selected plants were self-pollinated to form F 3:4 lines. Selection was based on germination and good stand establishment, plant type, low ear placement, and well-filled ears as well as resistance to grey leaf spot caused by Cercospora zeae-maydis; leaf blight caused by Exerohilium turcicum; common rust caused by Puccinia sorghi; and maize streak virus caused by maize streak geminivirus. Selected F 3:4 plants were planted at Kiboko, Kenya, at a high plant density (80 000 plants/ha), selected visually for low root and stalk lodging as well as low ear placement, and then self-pollinated to form F 4:5 lines. The above procedure was repeated to form F 5:6 lines. Seven F 5:6 lines were selected for this study and crossed with seven single-cross testers from a complimentary heterotic group. The CIMMYT-derived testers are well-adapted to SSA and have proven useful previously in hybrid formation for subtropical and mid-altitude environments. These testers have also been used in many successful commercial hybrids (Beyene et al. 2013).Experimental design and management: Forty-nine experimental hybrids and six commercial checks were evaluated across 11 locationyear combinations in seven well-watered and well-fertilized sites, two managed drought stress sites and two managed low-nitrogen sites in 2013 and 2014 (Table 2). At all sites, the entries were hand-planted in two-row plots, 5 m long each, with 0.75 m spacing between rows and 0.25 m between hills, except at Kiboko where a row length of 4 m with 0.2 m intrarow spacing was used. Two seeds were initially planted per hill and then thinned to one plant per hill at 3 weeks after emergence to  Data were recorded on grain yield (GY), anthesis date (AD), silking date (SD), number of ears per plant (EPP) and plant height (PH) at all sites and under all management conditions. GY was measured in tons per hectare adjusted to a grain moisture content of 12.5%. Number of days to anthesis was recorded by counting the total number of days from planting to when 50% of plants in a plot started shedding pollen in the primary tassel axis; PH was measured in centimetres from the base of the plant to the first branch of the tassel; EPP per plot was obtained by dividing the total number of ears harvested from a plot by the total number of plants at harvest. ASI was calculated by subtracting the number of days to anthesis from the total number of days to silking. In DS and LN trials, ears harvested from each plot were shelled and weighed to determine GY and grain moisture per cent. In the optimum experiments, ears harvested from each plot were weighed, and subsamples were shelled to determine representative grain moisture. GY was estimated assuming a shelling percentage of 80% and adjusted to 12.5% moisture content.Data analysis: Individual site and combined analysis across sites was conducted using META-SAS (Vargas et al. 2013). Correlations among optimum, LN and DS environments were determined using combined mean grain yield of each management condition. The 'Line by Tester' procedure embedded in AGD-R (analysis of genetic designs with R, Rodr ıguez, et al. 2015) software was used to estimate general and specific combining abilities and variance components for all traits with significant entry effects. Correlation analysis was performed with MINITAB 14.2 software (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA) while SIGMAPLOT version 10 (Systat Software, Inc., San Jose, CA, USA, www.systatsoftwa re.com.) was used to create graphs. GGE biplot (Yan 2001) was used to estimate genotype-by-environment interaction and generate 'which-wonwhere' and 'ranking' graphs.Combined analysis of variance across environments showed significant (P < 0.01) genotype (G), environment (E), and G 9 E interaction (GEI) mean squares for GY and all other measured traits under optimum, DS and LN conditions. Entry effect for GY, AD, PH, EPP and ASI was highly significant across optimum, DS and LN sites (data not shown).Average GY of trials was 7.5 t ha À1 under optimum conditions, 3.7 t ha À1 under DS and 2.3 t ha À1 under LN environments (Table 3). On average, GY under DS and LN management conditions was 49% and 31% of the GY under optimum condition, respectively. LN resulted in delayed male flowering (70.6 days) while DS triggered early flowering (63.1 days) compared to optimum management (67.8 days). ASI was highest under LN (4.3 days) and was lowest under optimum management (0.6 days). Plants were tallest (245 cm) under optimum condition and were shortest (146 cm) under LN condition (Table 3).From combined analysis by management, hybrids L4/T2 and L4/T1 were consistently high yielding across all three management conditions, suggesting the possibility to identify hybrids that can perform across management conditions. Average GY of the top ten hybrids and the highest yielding hybrid against the average yield of all checks was higher under all management conditions (Table 3). Grain yield of the top 10 hybrids under each management over the mean of commercial checks was 46%, 59% and 61% higher under optimum, DS and LN, respectively.Genotypic variance for GY was higher than error variance under optimum sites, except at Kaguru and Mtwapa (Table 2). For DS and LN sites, the error variances were slightly greater than entry variances. The average ratio of genotypic to error variance from individual sites was 1.89, 0.59 and 0.91 under optimum, DS and LN, respectively. The higher genotypic variances were translated to higher heritability for GY under optimum sites followed by LN. The highest heritability among optimum sites was recorded in Kakamega (0.90), whereas the lowest was recorded in Kaguru (0.51) with the overall average of 0.73. Average heritability was 0.54 for DS sites and 0.64 for LN sites. For combined data, we observed higher variance components and heritability under optimum than under managed stress sites. Also, the proportion of genotypic variance to both genotype 9 environment and error variances were higher under optimum than under the managed stress site indicating less effect of genotype 9 environment interaction and error variances on traits heritability estimated under optimum condition.Among the top 15 hybrids under each management, optimum and LN had the highest number of hybrids in common (8) followed by DS and LN (6), and optimum and DS (5) (Table 3).   Grain yield showed higher correlation between optimum and LN (r = 0.64; P = 0.00; n = 55), followed by optimum and DS (r = 0.55; P = 0.00; n = 55) and LN and DS (r = 0.30, P = 0.03; n = 55) (data not shown).The total variation due to genotypes was partitioned into lines, testers and line by tester (Table 4). Genotype effect was significant (P ≤ 0.05) for all traits under all management conditions except GY and EPP under DS. Line and tester mean squares were significant for all traits under the three management conditions except EPP of line under DS, EPP of tester under optimum, and GY and ASI of testers under DS and LN conditions. Line 9 tester mean square was significant for most traits under optimum except EPP and PH, but line 9 tester mean square was not significant for all traits under DS and LN, except AD under LN (Table 4). Genotype 9 site, line 9 site and tester x site interactions were significant for most traits while line-by-tester-by-site interaction was significant only for AD under optimum and for ASI under LN condition (Table 4). The proportion of additive variance relative to the total variance was consistently higher for GY, PH and ASI under all management conditions (Fig. 1). The proportion of both variance components was equal for EPP under optimum, but dominance variance contributed more than 80% of the total variance for EPP under DS. Whereas additive variance was important in the control of AD under optimum and DS conditions, dominance variance was more important in the control of AD under LN conditions (Fig. 1).The contribution of lines and testers to crosses was not consistent across traits and management conditions, with a few exceptions (Table 5). Among the lines, L4 and L6 had positive GCA for GY under all management conditions while L2 had positive GCA for GY under both optimum and low N conditions. Among the testers, T1 had small but positive GCA for GY under all management conditions while T4 and T6 had positive GCA effect for GY under optimum and DS conditions. Among all parental lines, L4 and L6 manifested desirable GCA effect for GY and most secondary traits under the three management conditions. The correlation between GCA effects of GY from optimum and LN was positive and significant (r = 0.62, P = 0.02; data not shown), but there was no significant correlation between the GCA effects of optimum and DS, and LN and DS (P > 0.05). Among secondary traits, the relation of GCA estimates among the three management conditions was positive and significant (r > 0.65, P < 0.01) for AD and ASI.The SCA effects of some cross-combinations for grain yield and management conditions are summarized in Fig. 2. L7/T5, L4/T2, L3/T6 and L6/T1 were ranked among the best specific combiners with highest SCA estimates in all the three management conditions. In contrast, L1/T1, L2/T2, L5/T5, L6/T5 and L7/T7 ranked among the worst cross-combinations for GY with negative SCA effect under all management conditions. Some other cross-combinations were good under optimum and DS, DS and LN or optimum and LN (Fig. 2). Significant positive relationship between mean GY and SCA estimates under optimum (r = 0.40; P = 0.01; n = 55), DS (r = 0.64; P = 0.00; n = 55) and LN (r = 0.59; P = 0.00; n = 55) was observed (Table 6). Mean GY under optimum was not related to SCA under DS or LN. Also, the SCA estimates under the three management conditions (P > 0.05) for GY were not correlated (Table 6).The genotype-by-environment interaction was plotted using mean grain yields, at each site (Fig. 3). The GGE biplot divided all environments into two major mega-environments, each with a winning genotype. The first group predominately encompassed optimum environments, except Homabay (DS), with entry 47 (L7/T5) as a winner genotype. The second cluster was mainly formed with stress environments, except Kakamega and Shikutsa, with entries 36 (L6/T1) and 39 (L6/ T4) as winning genotypes. Genotypes 53, 54 (commercial check) and 55 (local check) were the losers in all the environments, highlighting the superior performance of the experimental hybrids for GY over three popular commercial hybrids grown by farmers in those areas. To identify high yielding and stable genotypes, all the genotypes were ranked relative to the 'ideal genotype' based on their mean GY and stability across environments (Fig. 4). The centre of the concentric circles represents the position of the 'ideal genotype'.  *Significant at P = 0.05; **Significant at P = 0.01; + Significant at P < 0.01. Genotypes 47 (L7/T5), 50 (commercial check), 22 (L4/T1) and 23 (L4/T2) appeared to be high yielding and the most stable genotypes.Performance of hybrids, genetic variance and heritabilityCompared to optimum management, DS and LN reduced GY by 50% and 69%, increased ASI by 149% and 573%, and decreased PH by 1% and 40%, respectively. The effect of DS and LN on GY and secondary traits observed in our study was in agreement with previous studies (Ribaut et al. 1996, Banziger et al. 1999, Betr an et al. 2003, Meseka et al. 2006, Pswarayi and Vivek 2007, Worku et al. 2007, 2008, 2012, Makumbi et al. 2011, Wegary et al. 2011, Hansey et al. 2012, Beyene et al. 2013). However, the effect of the two stresses on ASI was very high in our study. Menkir et al. (2006) reported relatively higher increase (144%) in ASI due to moisture stress relative to optimum condition in drought-tolerant germplasm adapted to West Africa. The high yield reduction under stress environments could be partly explained by the wider ASI under stress, as ASI typically has a high negative correlation with GY under stress conditions (Westgate 1997, Beyene et al. 2013). Drought stress before or at flowering delays silk elongation but has little or no effect on pollen shed (Westgate 1997, Beyene et al. 2013). For this reason, indirect selection to minimize ASI has been an effective approach for selecting genotypes with improved synchronization of male and female flowering under stress. In addition to yield reduction, stress also reduced genetic variance for GY and other secondary traits and increased error and GEI variances leading to relatively lower heritability estimates under DS and LN conditions.The average GY of the top ten experimental hybrids was higher than the best check under all management conditions indicating that most of the experimental hybrids were superior for drought and low-nitrogen stress tolerance and had greater stability than the commercial checks. Duvick (1996) and Duvic and Cassman (1999) reported better tolerance to drought and LN stresses in new varieties compared to older varieties released in different eras in the USA. CIMMYT and other partners in eastern and southern Africa have been working to improve tropical maize germplasm for both DS and LN for the last three decades (B€ anziger et al. 2000, Makumbi et al. 2011, Worku et al. 2012), and these findings confirm the progress made through this effort. Knowledge of the correlation of a trait between different management conditions can be used to make decisions regarding indirect selection in breeding for stress tolerance and can ultimately be useful for designing a breeding strategy. The magnitude of correlation we observed for GYs between optimum and DS, and between optimum and LN was relatively higher than those reported by Ribaut et al.(1996) and Weber et al.(2012). The use of recent germplasm in our study, which have been simultaneously selected for optimum and multiple stress tolerance through several cycles of selection, might have contributed to this observation.High GY under optimum and improved yield under stress conditions combined with stable performance across sites, and acceptable secondary traits under stress conditions are considered high-priority criteria for selecting genotypes that perform best across optimum and stress environments. In this regard, hybrids, L4/T2 and L4/T1 were the best experimental hybrids with high mean yield and most stable performance across environments. These hybrids perhaps have combined water and nitrogen-use efficiency possibly due to the contribution of favourable genes with additive effects by both parents and/or as a result of heterosis (Makumbi et al. 2011). The two parents of L4/T1 and one parent of L4/T2 had positive GCA effects, and their single crosses testers had positive SCA effects for GY under all management conditions. The fixation of favourable alleles in parental lines of the hybrids that performed well across stress environments might have contributed to superior performance of hybrids. Improvement of these lines was achieved through selection for favourable alleles of secondary traits such as ASI in addition to selecting them for good GCA for GY under optimum, managed and random stress environments in early generation test cross evaluations.  Knowledge of the amount of additive and dominance variance components is important for setting breeding strategy to improve a target trait. The proportional contribution of additive and dominance variances showed greater importance of additive variance for GY and all secondary traits under all management conditions, except for EPP under optimum and DS, and for AD under LN. Our results are in agreement with previous studies (Betr an et al. 2003, Derera et al. 2007, Makumbi et al. 2011, Adebayo et al. 2014) that reported a higher role of additive variance for GY and other secondary traits. In contrast, Oyekunle and Badu-Apraku (2014) reported a sizeable contribution of non-additive variance for GY under DS, suggesting the importance of selection for drought tolerance to develop hybrids with enhanced stress tolerance. Traits controlled by additive genetic effects can be improved through selection during inbred line development and through recurrent selection scheme. Selection of lines during different stages of selfing for GCA under optimum and DS environments might have contributed to higher additive variance under all environments. Previously, it had been shown that genotypes with improved performance under DS showed improved performance under LN condition, which could be due to contribution of favourable stress-tolerant alleles by parents. But under both optimum and LN conditions, the contribution of dominance variance was significant and breeding programmes should exploit both components by evaluating parents for GCA followed by testing the resulting hybrids in target environments (Makumbi et al. 2011) as the genetic basis of GCA and SCA effects is different (Qi et al. 2013).The GCA effects of line-by-environment interaction were significant for GY across optimum, DS and LN environments, but GCA effects of testers were not. The GCA effects for GY were not consistent across optimum, DS and LN environments, which indicates the need to select lines for specific adaptation (Makumbi et al. 2011). The single-cross testers, however, were less affected by environment as opposed to the inbred lines. Among secondary traits, AD was consistently affected by environment under all management conditions, but the ranking of genotypes for plant height was consistent across environments under all management conditions.Inbred lines with desirable GCA effects for GY and other agronomic and secondary traits could be used in (i) recurrent selection programmes; (ii) as parents to form synthetic varieties; (iii) for recycling of inbred lines; and (iv) as testers for evaluating newly developed inbred lines (Makumbi et al. 2011). In this case, the desirable GCA values of Lines L4 and L6 for GY and other secondary traits across the three management conditions make them the best candidate inbred testers for evaluating new inbred lines under optimum, DS and LN conditions. More testers were found to be good under optimum and DS condition than optimum and LN and across all environments likely due to the fact that these testers were developed from long-term droughttolerant breeding pipelines. This may reflect the stronger relative focus of the CIMMYT Africa breeding programmes on drought tolerance compared with LN tolerance. Results of the current study demonstrate that it is possible to identify good lines and testers that can be used across management conditions. The prediction of GCA under stress conditions based on GCA under optimum condition is not advisable due to the observed weak relationship between optimum GCA and DS GCA. Several combinations manifested positive or negative SCA effects across optimum, DS and LN conditions for grain yield, indicating the possibility of identifying specific hybrids that can perform well under the three management conditions. This suggests the feasibility of developing varieties which can tolerate multiple stresses. SCA between parental lines can be used as a predictor of GY within the same management condition (Betr an et al. 2003). Conversely, SCA estimates among management conditions were not related despite the positive relationship of mean GY among the different management conditions probably due to the preponderance of additive genetic variance in the control of grain yield.The current study used lines and hybrids recently developed in SSA and identified hybrids having higher grain yield than the best check under drought, low-nitrogen and optimum conditions. Commercialization of the outstanding hybrids identified in the present study (e.g. L4/T2 and L4/T1) with high mean yield and stable performance across management conditions would contribute to the productivity and yield stability for small farmers' fields in SSA. The high correlation observed in our study between grain yields under optimum and managed drought stress, and under optimum and low-nitrogen condition may be partly due to the use of recent lines that have been simultaneously selected for optimum and multiple stress tolerance through several cycles of selection. We have identified two new lines (L4 and L6), that have high general combining ability effects for grain yield and other secondary traits across the three management conditions, and can be nominated as candidate inbred testers for evaluating new inbred lines under optimum, managed drought stress and low-nitrogen conditions. Results of the current study demonstrate that it is possible to identify good lines and testers that can be used across management conditions and may also reflect the stronger focus of the CIMMYT Africa breeding programmes in developing multiple stress-tolerant lines and hybrids without yield penalty under optimum condition.","tokenCount":"4522"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"075519e7c7c901e19ea9d2939da7594a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/04b0fe32-9883-41fc-928d-887e886b4d61/retrieve","id":"-1607143601"},"keywords":["Ratnayake, S.S.","Reid, M.","Larder, N.","Hunter, D.","Hasan, M.K.","Dharmasena, P.B.","Kogo, B.","Senavirathna, M.","Kariyawasam, C.S climate change","land use change","farmers' perceptions","perception determinants","Village Tank Cascade Systems"],"sieverID":"1e581a4f-0027-4b03-927f-e1c8551ddd7f","pagecount":"23","content":"Climate and land use change pressures are critical to food production in Social-Ecological Systems (SESs). This study assessed farmers' perceptions of the pressures of climate and land use changes alongside their impacts on food production in Mhahakanumulla Village Tank Cascade System (MVTCS), a SES maintained by traditional agricultural land use systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. This study used both rating and ranking scale questions to quantify farmers' perceptions. The tobit regression model was employed to evaluate how farmer perception was influenced by socio-economic factors. The results showed that most of the farmers had experienced that the climate of the MVTCS area had changed over time, and they perceived variability of rainfall patterns as the most prominent and influential climate change. The increased cost of production, wildlife damage, and land degradation were ranked by the farmers as the most impactful factors of food production due to climate change. The farmers rated deforestation and land clearing as the most influential and impactful changes in land use, while wildlife damage and land degradation ranked as the highest impacts on food production due to land use changes. Among the socio-economic determinants, training and income/profit positively influenced farmer perceptions of the severity of both climate and land use change. The level of farmer's adaptation to climate change had a negative association with their perception of the severity of climate change. Household size negatively influenced the perceptions of the severity of climate change while positively influencing perceptions of land use change impacts. Among the spatial determinants, farm size and downstream locations of MVTCS positively influenced perceptions of the severity of both climate and land use change. Thus, the effectiveness of adaptation strategies towards climate and land use change pressures depends on how well they are understood by the farmers. The study findings provide helpful insights for formulating localized land use policies and climate change adaptation strategies in these globally important landscapes with a combination of both top-down and bottom-up approaches.Global food systems are under increasing pressure from climate and land use change impacts [1,2]. Social-Ecological Systems (SESs) are critically dependent on traditional food systems for food production and have experienced various climatic and non-climatic pressures over time [3]. These external and internal pressures have impaired the capacity of ecosystems to produce ecosystem services and have increased food production challenges in SESs [4][5][6][7]. In Sri Lanka, the Village Tank Cascade System (VTCS) is a socialecological system maintained by traditional smallholder agricultural systems, which have been recognized as a globally important agricultural heritage system [8]. The VTCS have withstood seasonal climate variability during the last 2000 years [9]. However, this rainwater harvesting-based agricultural system has faced challenges due to the changing climate and land use patterns, particularly over the last fifty years, making food production in this region vulnerable [10,11].The adverse impacts of climate change can be observed in both natural ecosystems and social systems [3]. Regional climate change projections indicate that more climate variability and extreme events are likely to adversely impact agricultural production, particularly in most South Asian countries [12,13]. Due to limited adaptive capacities, these countries are less resilient to the harmful impacts of climate change and variability [14]. Being a country in the South Asian region, Sri Lanka is no exception when it comes to the impacts of climate change on food production [15,16]. Thus, climate change is likely to impact both the natural ecosystem and social system in the VTCSs. In particular, farming communities in the VTCS areas are likely to be vulnerable to crop failure, yield reductions, and limited livelihoods and incomes due to climate change characterized by variability in rainfall and temperature [10,[17][18][19]. Land use changes have been observed in VTCS areas due to the expansion of agricultural land use and demographic changes during the last three decades [11,20,21]. Both structural and pattern changes in land use have occurred, especially in the natural land cover system, causing degradation of the hydrosocio-ecologically important land uses [9,22]. These changes lead to the impairment of ecosystem functions and ecosystem services impacting sustainable food production and livelihoods [23][24][25][26][27].Other than the scientific observations and measurements, farmers' perceptions are an alternative and complementary approach to assessing climate and land use change impacts and adaptation needs [28]. This participatory research approach with inclusive methodologies can lead to an accurate and effective way of assessing farmers' perceptions that help identify and address the issues faced by farmers [29]. Participatory methodologies ensure effective participation, especially marginalized communities who are most likely to face vulnerabilities and also help better understand the local context [30]. Understanding farmers' perceptions of influential factors of changing climate and land use variables that impact food production is important because their adaptation decisions are shaped by their perceptions [10,28,31,32]. Farmers are the most important decision-makers in their farming operations [33]. Thus, the effectiveness of adaptation strategies depends on how well the impacts of climate and land use changes are perceived by farmers [34]. Despite this obvious need, no studies have evaluated farmers' perceptions, and the determinants of their perceptions regarding climate and land use change in VTCS areas has particularly focused on the impacts of farm-level food production [35].Farmers' perceptions of assessing climate and land use changes may be influenced or confounded by many other socio-economic and environmental factors in addition to changing farm-level biophysical factors [36]. Thus, identifying potential indicators and relationships related to the above factors is vital for better understanding and recording of farmers' perceptions of climate and land use changes that impact food production. However, in past VTCS research, climate and land use change perception assessments and related indicators are potentially lacking [35]. This study adopted the general framework of analyzing SES characteristics proposed by Ostrom [37] and Berkes and Folke [38] to explore and identify such potential indicators and relationships. Accordingly, a VTCS is characterized by diverse multifunctional subsystems associated with climate, land use, water use, food production, ecological production, and socio-cultural production. Furthermore, various external (e.g., climate change) and internal (e.g., land use change) influential factors interact with these subsystems, which can affect the sustainability and productivity of VTCSs and could influence farmers' perceptions [6,[39][40][41][42]. Understanding of such indicators and relationships (Figure 1) could also help scientists and planners to better understand the local context, taking account of farmers' perceptions (bottom-up approach) and combining them with the observed data (top-down approach) for precise decision-making for successful adaptation planning [10].  This study aimed to investigate farmers' perceptions of climate change and land use change pressures that affect food production systems in the Mahakanumulla Village Tank Cascade System (MVTCS), an agriculture-dominant rural SES located in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. The specific objectives were: (i) to examine the socio-economic characteristics of farmers; (ii) to evaluate the challenges that farmers consider critical for sustainable food production; (iii) to assess the farmers' perceptions of the behavior of influential factors of climate change and their impacts on food production; (iv) to assess the farmers' perceptions of the behavior of influential factors of land use change and their impacts on food production; and (v) to analyze the determinants of farmers' perceived risks of climate and land use change.This study was conducted in MVTCS, located in the upper Nachchaduwa cascade complex in the Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka (8 2). The MVTCS is a branch-type cascade system, consisting of 12 villages and 28 small tanks, which occupy approximately 4000 ha of land, with ten major land-use types: dense forests, open forests, scrub lands, seasonal crops, chena lands, home gardens, paddies, water bodies/streams, rocky areas and built-up areas [43]. The MVTCS has an undulating landscape, which is characterized by slopes and valleys that support water movement through a network of cascade tanks drained into the Nachchaduwa reservoir. The population of the study area was 3432 (47.8% male and 52.2% female). Of the 1193 households, 364 families were practicing full-time professional farming [43]. Considering a 10% margin of error and 90% confidence interval [44], a sample of 81 household heads from the full-time professional farming households of the MVTCS was randomly selected for face-to-face interviews. A government Agriculture Instructor from the Department of Agriculture of the north-central province who was responsible for the study area assisted in identifying the full-time farming households in the study area.This study area is characterized by a tropical monsoonal climate with a well-defined bi-modal rainfall pattern. The annual average rainfall of the study area is 1320 mm (with intra-annual variation of 798 to 2483 mm), and the average daily temperature is 28 • C (ranging from 27 to 29 • C) according to the weather data of the last fifty-year period (1971-2020) of the Anuradhapura meteorological station [45]. The average monthly rainfall of the area varied from 24.1 mm to 261.5 mm between 1870 and 1970 (non-global warming period) and from 13.7 mm to 258.4 mm between 1971 and 2020 (global warming period) according to the weather data recorded at this station [46,47] (Figure 3). Evaporation varies from 3.5 mm/day to 7.5 mm/day (highest from May to September), and evapotranspiration varies from 1000 mm/year to 1400 mm/year [48]. The variations in annual rainfall patterns enable farmers to adapt to two cultivation seasons: (i) Yala (March to August), a low rainfall dry season with approximately 482 mm/season; and (ii) Maha (September to February), a high rainfall wet season with an approximately 839 mm/season average according to the 1971-2020 rainfall data. Unpredictable seasonal variability in the temporal distribution of rainfall and extreme events such as droughts, especially during the Yala season, have affected food production and livelihoods in the study area [10]. A recent study indicated that observed climate variability during the past three decades and projected climate change impacts on paddy production in the study area will make sustainable food production more challenging in the future [45].364 families were practicing full-time professional farming [43]. Considering a 10% gin of error and 90% confidence interval [44], a sample of 81 household heads from full-time professional farming households of the MVTCS was randomly selected for to-face interviews. A government Agriculture Instructor from the Department of Agr ture of the north-central province who was responsible for the study area assisted in i tifying the full-time farming households in the study area. This study area is characterized by a tropical monsoonal climate with a well-defined bi-modal rainfall pattern. The annual average rainfall of the study area is 1320 mm (with intra-annual variation of 798 to 2483 mm), and the average daily temperature is 28 °C (ranging from 27 to 29 °C) according to the weather data of the last fifty-year period (1971-2020) of the Anuradhapura meteorological station [45]. The average monthly rainfall of the area varied from 24.1 mm to 261.5 mm between 1870 and 1970 (non-global warming period) and from 13.7 mm to 258.4 mm between 1971 and 2020 (global warming period) according to the weather data recorded at this station [46,47] (Figure 3). Evaporation varies from 3.5 mm/day to 7.5 mm/day (highest from May to September), and evapotranspiration varies from 1000 mm/year to 1400 mm/year [48]. The variations in annual rainfall patterns enable farmers to adapt to two cultivation seasons: (i) Yala (March to August), a low rainfall dry season with approximately 482 mm/season; and (ii) Maha (September to February), a high rainfall wet season with an approximately 839 mm/season average according to the 1971-2020 rainfall data. Unpredictable seasonal variability in the temporal distribution of rainfall and extreme events such as droughts, especially during the Yala season, have affected food production and livelihoods in the study area [10]. A recent study indicated that observed climate variability during the past three decades and projected climate change impacts on paddy production in the study area will make sustainable food production more challenging in the future [45]. Three traditional farming systems (lowland paddy, rainfed upland crops, and homestead farming) are mostly practiced in the MVTCS. Lowland paddy cultivation (approximately 20% of the land area) is the predominant agricultural activity in the study area [11]. The agricultural lands of the MVTCS are highly fragmented, and many farms are less than 2 ha [23]. Farming in the MVTCS has relied on relationships with rich biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and culture of the area since ancient times for food production and Three traditional farming systems (lowland paddy, rainfed upland crops, and homestead farming) are mostly practiced in the MVTCS. Lowland paddy cultivation (approximately 20% of the land area) is the predominant agricultural activity in the study area [11]. The agricultural lands of the MVTCS are highly fragmented, and many farms are less than 2 ha [23]. Farming in the MVTCS has relied on relationships with rich biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and culture of the area since ancient times for food production and wellbeing. However, land use and land cover changes and landscape pattern changes during the past three decades in VTCSs have impacted the ecological functions and supply of ecosystem services in the study area, making sustainable food production more challenging [11,49]. Studies indicate that over the last century (1910 to 2019), there has been a 27-fold increase in population a 7-fold expansion in home gardens, as well as 79% and 49% declines in the areas of forest and scrub lands, respectively, in the MVTCS [50]. These trends indicate increasing threats to ecosystem health of the MVTCS landscape due to the impacts of human activities [11,43].Data on farmers' perceptions were collected using structured interviews undertaken between December 2022 and February 2023. Ethical approval for this participatory survey was granted by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of New England, Australia (Approval No: HE22-030). The interview schedule was created using ArcGIS Survey123 (version 3.17 Both open-ended and closedended questions were included to collect qualitative and quantitative perception data for the above thematic areas. The survey questionnaire was pre-tested and improved before the survey. We selected fifteen explanatory (predictor) variables related to socio-economic, knowledge, and spatial factors used in previous studies [51][52][53][54][55][56], which are shown in Section A of the interview schedule, that were assumed to influence the farmers' perceptions about land use and climatic change pressures in the VTCSs areas (Table 1). Further, challenges experienced by farmers on food production in the study area were evaluated using the eighteen indicators identified in Section B. The farmers rated the challenges using a five-point rating scale, where each variable was weighted as 5 = extremely challenging, 4 = highly challenging, 3 = moderately challenging, 2 = less challenging, and 1 = least challenging, representing the extents to be very high, medium, low, and not at all based on the farmers' experiences. Age of respondents in years [14,57] 2 GenderGender is involved in different scales of operations in smallholder farming systems. Thus, perceptions of climate change and adaptation may be varied according to gender.Gender of respondents: 1 = male; 0 = female [14,51,55,57] Table 1. Cont.Marital status is likely to influence perception score because it may influence the performance of farming activities, productivity, and household food security status.Marital status of respondents: 1 = married; 2 = single; 0 = widowed [14,57] Education level Education level enhances access to information and quantitively understanding climate and land use changes and their impacts more accurately. Thus, farmers' perceptions may be influenced by their educational level.Level of education of respondents: 0 = no education; 1 = primary; 2 = secondary; 3 = higher [14,55,57] Farming experience Similar to age, long-term farming experience may influence understanding of the impact of climate and land use changes, successes and failures, and challenges facing food production.A farmer living with a greater number of generations in the area stimulates knowledge enhancement and sharing and thus may influence farmers' perceptions.[52] Household sizeThe number of family members in a farming household is assumed to be a proxy for labor availability for farming and an increased family burden for the household head; thus, this may influence the perceptions related to changing climate and land use change issues.Total number of family members (2-6) [14,55,57,58] Employed household membersEmployed household members are likely to access to farm inputs and, improved technology for higher food production, thus, may influence perceptions of farming challenges and impacts of climate and land use changes.Number of household members employed (0-4) [52] Membership in farmers' organization An advantage of belonging to a farmers' organisation is well-informed farming decisions based on formal evidence-based discussions supported by extension services. Thus, the perceptions of a member may differ from a non-member.Membership in a farmers' organization: 1 = Yes; 0 = No Size of land under crop (1-16 acres) [52] Table 1. Cont.Variations in spatial and socio-economic factors from upstream to downstream of the VTCS meso-catchment can be observed. Accordingly, variations in farming characteristics and productivity potentials may influence farmers' perceptions of climate and land use change impacts.1 = upstream; 2 = midstream; 3 = downstream [56] The climate and land use change pressures were measured using closed-ended questions in sections C and D of the interview schedule. These questions were aimed at quantifying farmers' perceptions of Climate Change Influential Factors (CCIFs) and Land Use Change Influential Factors (LUCIFs) and their impacts on farm productivity based on the selected indicators. The farmers may not have knowledge and awareness about the reasons for climate and land use change vulnerabilities. Still, they can understand and realize the consequences of climate and land use change impact on food production. In this regard, we developed five CCIFs and five LUCIFs describing the consequences of climate and land use change vulnerabilities to measure farmers' perceptions. This study adopted the measurement tools for the assessment of farmers' perceptions of climate change vulnerability suggested by Shrivasatava [59], Raghuvanshi [60], and the assessment of land use change impacts suggested by FAO-LADA-Tool [61].This study used both rating and ranking scale questions to quantify the farmers' perceptions. The CCIFs and LUCIFs were evaluated through farmers' perceptions, measuring the severity of each influential factor rated on a five-point Likert scale: 1 = very low or no severity (0-9%); 2 = low (10-25%); 3 = medium (26-50%); 4 = high (51-75%); and 5 = very high severity (76-100%). Similarly, the impacts on food production caused by these CCIFs and LUCIFs experienced by the farmers were evaluated based on twelve climate change impact indicators and ten land use change impact indicators [3,13,23,61,62]. The impacts were rated on a five-point Likert scale: 1 = least or no impacts (0%); 2 = less impacts (0-25%); 3 = moderate impacts (26-50%); 4 = high impacts (51-75%); and 5 = severe impacts (76-100%) based on the farmers' experience in the past 10 years. The rated weights were analyzed to calculate the weighted mean score of each impact factor, and these were ranked accordingly (Table 2). Often, the farmers were uncertain of how to convert their perception of the consequences of climate and land use change influential factors (CCIFs and LUCIFs) into a Likert scale score. Therefore, during the interview, an agricultural instructor assisted in transforming their perceptions to a numerical scale of zero to five, where the higher the value, the higher the influence or impact on food production.Furthermore, the farmers' views on climate change characteristics (trends, variability, frequency, intensity, and extreme events) in the area during the past 10 years were prioritized based on their perceptions, using rank order scale close-ended questions. Similarly, the farmers' agreements on land use change trends from present to future based on their experience were rated on a five-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree. The weighted mean was calculated using the following formula: ∑(Score × Frequency)/∑(Frequency) [63]. The farmers' perceptions attributed to the adaptation measures being practiced were evaluated in Section E to rate their effectiveness using four-point rating scales, where each variable was coded as 1, 2, 3, and 4, representing not effective, low, medium, and high, respectively. Warming trends with increased hot days and heat stress affect yield quality and quantity and some ecosystem services. Increased evapotranspiration leads to shortages of irrigation water. The emergence of new insects, diseases, and invasive aquatic plant infestation affects human health and capacity [13,45,64].Inter-annual monsoonal and seasonal changes (variations/shifts) in rainfall patterns such as changes in the timing of rainfall, including untimely rain, and early and delayed onset of rainy season/monsoons, lead to water stress and reduced food production [10,45].The less frequent but heavy intensity of rainfall within a short period results in high runoff, flash floods, and landslides, leading to crop loss, soil erosion, and sedimentation [65].Long dry spells and prolonged droughts lead to reduced water quantity and quality, affecting food production and human health [65].Land Use Change Influential Factors (LUCIFs)Clearing of natural forests in catchment areas for agriculture, settlements, and critical infrastructure. This would create a mosaic of patches in undisturbed forest, leading to land degradation, reduced soil moisture, groundwater recharge, and reduction of ecosystem service supply from natural forests [21,43].The severity of LUCIFs is rated based on a 5-point Likert scale in terms of percentages (severity score): 1 = very low or no severity (0-9%); 2 = low (10-25%); 3 = medium (26-50%); 4 = high (51-75%); and 5 = very high severity (76-100%).Encroachment into natural forest and semi-natural scrub lands due to agricultural and urban expansion and intensification, leading to the destruction of ecologically sensitive habitats important for maintaining ecological functions essential for food production sustainability [21].Refers to changes in spatial composition-changes in presence and amount (richness/diversity) of land use patches in a particular land use category. This would change the habitat variability and landscape heterogeneity and affect changes in biodiversity values [23,49].Refers to changes in spatial configuration-the physical arrangement (position or orientation) of land use patches within the land use category or in the landscape and their spatial characteristics. This would lead to the destruction of ecological functions and the reduction of biodiversity values and ecosystem services. Additionally, changes in wild animal movements increase wild animal damage to crops and livelihoods [23,49].When the natural and human-managed landscape is altered, its composition and configuration are called landscape fragmentation.It could be explained as a subdivision of land use types due to human choices. This would lead to effects on biodiversity and weaken the ecological processes and functions of the landscape that are essential elements of maintaining the sustainability and productivity of tank cascade systems [49].Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to obtain information within the data. The mean, standard deviation, percentage distributions, and weighted mean were used to explore the data, while the tobit regression model was used to determine the impacts of socio-economic variables on the perceptions. Thus, the influential factors (determinants) of farmers' perceptions of climate change and land use change pressures were scrutinized using the tobit regression model. This regression model was used for censored dependent variables that restrict or censor the predicted values within the range of observed values [66]. The dependent variables in this study were censored within a range of 12-60 for climate change perceptions and 10-50 for land use change perceptions because these two variables had a total of 12 and 10 statements, respectively, scored as 1 to 5 on a 5-point rating scale. We used the VGAM package of the R statistical program (version 3.6.1) to perform the tobit analysis [67].Descriptive statistics for the responses are presented in Table 3. The socio-economic and farming characteristics of the respondents were assumed to influence their perceptions of climatic and land use change pressures in the MVTCS, linked with food production. Concerning gender, the majority of the respondents were male farmers (74%). The age range of the farmers was 26-81 years, of which 60.5% were 45-65 years, while 30.9% were more than 65 years of age. The mean number of years of farming experience for the household heads was 32.88 years. Farming across generations can be seen in MVTCS. About half of the farmers interviewed were fifth-generation farmers, while 45% were secondgeneration. Information collected on marital status indicated that 97% of the respondents were married and 3% of them were single. The average household size was 3.69, which is similar to the average size of 3.7 persons per household in Sri Lanka [68]. Among the respondents, 50% achieved primary education (equivalent up to grade 10), 46.4% up to secondary education (equivalent to high school education), and 3.6% completed diploma or degree-level education. The average farm size of the MVTCS was 1.85 ha, ranging from 0.4 ha to 6.484 ha. More than half of the farmers interviewed were not aware of adaptation measures, and nearly half of the respondents had not received any training and awareness on mitigating climate and land use change impacts from relevant agencies. Farming location is another important factor that determines the perception [56]. Nearly half of the interviewed farmers were from the midstream area of the MVTCS meso-catchment.  The farmers in the MVTCS were cultivating more than one food group in different types of farming systems based on water availability. Tank water was the major water source for irrigation for farming paddies. In addition, the farmers used agro-wells (91%) and domestic wells (7%) for their seasonal and home gardens' horticultural crops. Only 7% of the farmers depended on direct rainwater (rainfed) for their shifting cultivation in upland areas of the MVTCS. About 98% of the farmers were practicing paddy cultivation; hence, rice was the major food crop produced. In addition, the community consumed substantial amounts of wild edible foods collected from non-farming areas of MVTCS (Figure 4). The farmers in the MVTCS were cultivating more than one food group in different types of farming systems based on water availability. Tank water was the major water source for irrigation for farming paddies. In addition, the farmers used agro-wells (91%) and domestic wells (7%) for their seasonal and home gardens' horticultural crops. Only 7% of the farmers depended on direct rainwater (rainfed) for their shifting cultivation in upland areas of the MVTCS. About 98% of the farmers were practicing paddy cultivation; hence, rice was the major food crop produced. In addition, the community consumed substantial amounts of wild edible foods collected from non-farming areas of MVTCS (Figure 4). The respondent farmers identified and rated eighteen major challenges that affected farming and food production in the MVTCS. Crop damage by elephants and deteriorating farmers' health were ranked as the top challenges that influenced food productivity in the area. The majority of the farmers weighed these challenges as being on the 'high' and 'extreme' scales, thus justifying their consideration in food production. Other major challenges, such as pests and diseases, reduced soil fertility, and dependence on agrochemicals and subsidized fertilizers, were also highlighted and seemed to be influenced by the farmers' decision-making regarding food production (Figure 5).foraging from non-farming areas.The respondent farmers identified and rated eighteen major challenges that affected farming and food production in the MVTCS. Crop damage by elephants and deteriorating farmers' health were ranked as the top challenges that influenced food productivity in the area. The majority of the farmers weighed these challenges as being on the 'high' and 'extreme' scales, thus justifying their consideration in food production. Other major challenges, such as pests and diseases, reduced soil fertility, and dependence on agrochemicals and subsidized fertilizers, were also highlighted and seemed to be influenced by the farmers' decision-making regarding food production (Figure 5). All of the interviewed farmers responded that the climate of the MVTCS area has changed over the past two decades. The farmers prioritized past climate change events based on their perceptions using rank order scale close-ended questions in the interview schedule. Among the past climate change events in the study area, 69% of the interviewed farmers had rated short-term changes in rainfall variability and patterns as the most prominent (Rank 1) climate change event during the past 10 years. However, 28.4% of the respondents rated long-term changes in average rainfall (decreasing trend) as the most prominent climate change in the area. Among the respondents, 93.8% rated the occurrence of extreme climate events (hazards) as the least prominent climate event in the area. In contrast, the trend of increasing average temperature was rated as a less prominent climate event in the area (Figure 6). In the case of the severity of CCIFs, 47 (58%) and 33 (41%) rated the influence of changes in rainfall patterns as being of amoderate and high severity, respectively. Likewise, 57 (70%) of the respondents rated the influence of dry hydrological extremes as being of a moderate severity in the study area. Overall, changes in rainfall patterns were rated as the most severe factor affecting food production (Table 4; Figure S1a). In terms of the weighted impacts, the respondents ranked the top five impacts on food production due to climate change as follows: (i) increased cost of production; (ii) increased wildlife damage; (iii) impact on human health (human stress); (iv) emergence of pests, diseases, and invasive aquatic plants; and (v) decreased biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Among the respondents, 75 (93%) weighed wildlife damage as having a high impact on food production, followed by an impact on human health (73; 90%) (Table 5; Figure S1b). All of the interviewed farmers responded that the climate of the MVTCS area has changed over the past two decades. The farmers prioritized past climate change events based on their perceptions using rank order scale close-ended questions in the interview schedule. Among the past climate change events in the study area, 69% of the interviewed farmers had rated short-term changes in rainfall variability and patterns as the most prominent (Rank 1) climate change event during the past 10 years. However, 28.4% of the respondents rated long-term changes in average rainfall (decreasing trend) as the most prominent climate change in the area. Among the respondents, 93.8% rated the occurrence of extreme climate events (hazards) as the least prominent climate event in the area. In contrast, the trend of increasing average temperature was rated as a less prominent climate event in the area (Figure 6). In the case of the severity of CCIFs, 47 (58%) and 33 (41%) rated the influence of changes in rainfall patterns as being of amoderate and high severity, respectively. Likewise, 57 (70%) of the respondents rated the influence of dry hydrological extremes as being of a moderate severity in the study area. Overall, changes in rainfall patterns were rated as the most severe factor affecting food production (Table 4; Figure S1a). In terms of the weighted impacts, the respondents ranked the top five impacts on food production due to climate change as follows: (i) increased cost of production; (ii) increased wildlife damage; (iii) impact on human health (human stress); (iv) emergence of pests, diseases, and invasive aquatic plants; and (v) decreased biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Among the respondents, 75 (93%) weighed wildlife damage as having a high impact on food production, followed by an impact on human health (73; 90%) (Table 5; Figure S1b).     Weighted scale: 1 = very low impacts; 2 = low; 3 = moderate; 4 = high; 5 = very high impacts.3.4. Farmers' Perceptions of Land Use Changes and Their Impacts on Food Production Among the respondents, 77 (95%) and 76 (93.8%) rated the influence of deforestation and encroachment due to land use change as the highest severity factors, respectively. Likewise, 66 (81.48%) and 14 (17.28%) of the respondents stated the influence of structural changes on land uses as being of a moderate and high severity in the study area, respectively. The influence of fragmentation on food production was perceived as similar to the influence of structural changes. The influence of changes in land use patterns was marked as being of the lowest severity in affecting food production (Table 6; Figure S2a). In terms of the weighted impacts, the respondents ranked the following as the top five impacts on food production due to the influence of land use change: (i) increased wildlife damage; (ii) increased land degradation; (iii) reduction of soil moisture/groundwater; (iv) loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services; and (v) decreased water quality (Table 7; Figure S2b).  Weighted scale: 1 = very low impacts; 2 = low; 3 = moderate; 4 = high; 5 = very high impacts.The tobit regression model on the perceptions of climate and land use change pressures presented in Table 8 shows that these two dependent variables were differently affected by different sets of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. Compared to the respondents in upstream locations of the MVTCS, when other predictors were held constant in the respective models, the respondents from downstream locations graded the effects of both climate and land use change as more severe on average. The respondents from the midstream zone considered land use change pressure as being more severe than the respondents from upstream locations (2.490 higher average score; intercept 1 = 27.616), but they had similar perceptions to the upstream respondents with regard to climate change pressures. Larger households considered climate change to exert less severe impacts and land use change to exert more severe impacts than smaller households. Farmers with decreased profits considered climate change impacts as more severe than farmers with constant profits. Farm size was positively related to perceptions of the severity of both climate and land use change. The number of generations was negatively related to perception of the severity of both climate and land use change, and the level of training was positively related. The levels of the farmers' adaptation to climate change were negatively related to the farmers' perceptions of climate change. The tobit models of the perceptions of climate change impacts and land use change pressure explained 29.6 and 38.3% of the variance in the dependent variables, respectively. A large proportion of the variance is still unexplained, which could arise from one or more extraneous variables that could not be included in the present study because of its fundamental nature.In this study, farmers' perceptions of climate change were examined using indicators of climate change such as the occurrence of climate events and severity of CCIFs and their impacts on food production. The farmers' perceptions demonstrated that they considered several specific types of climate change over the past decade as challenges (ranging in severity) threatening food production. Moreover, a perception analysis revealed that the majority of the farmers recognized the temporal variations of climate change events in the study area, such as changes in seasonal rainfall patterns, rainfall intensity and extreme events, and long-term increasing trends in temperature. About 99% of the farmers perceived short-term changes in rainfall variability and changes in seasonal rainfall patterns as the most prominent climate change events in the study area and rated their severity as high to moderate. Similarly, more than 70% of the farmers perceived dry (droughts) and wet (floods) hydrological extremes and rated their influence as moderate to low severity, respectively. The increasing trends in temperature and variability of rainfall pattern are comparable with the findings of several empirical studies conducted based on observed meteorological data in the study area [11,64,65,69].About 80% of the farmers perceived a trend of decreasing long-term average annual rainfall with a high to moderate severity. However, decreasing long-term average annual rainfall is contrary to the findings of several studies conducted using meteorological data of the study region, which show an increasing trend [10,65,69]. Mismatches between perceived and observed data could be related to the temporal variation of rainfall patterns [45]. Although the amount of long-term average annual rainfall is increasing, the trend of decrease in the number of rainy days, delay in the onset of seasonal rainfall, and the shorter rainy season (short duration/early cessation) in the study region may be influencing farmers' perceptions of rainfall [10]. This outcome possibly indicates that the respondents did not have a clear understanding of the impact of long-term climate change. This could be the reason why short-term weather variability was prominent in their perceptions. Thus, climate change communication strategies need to be reshaped among communities for better understanding [70].Although the farmers perceived a decreasing trend of annual rainfall, it was not reflected in the ranking of farming challenges they perceived, as shown in Figure 5. The farmers put the statement 'inadequate water for farming' into a moderate priority, and 95% of the farmers perceived it as have a less to moderately effect on food production. This could be due to their recent experience of decreased rainfall. It was difficult for the farmers to perceive the long-term trend based only on their experience without any sophisticated tools. Thus, the availability heuristic could have influenced their perception of the trend [71,72].Even though the observed temperature in the study area had increased by approximately 1 • C between 1971 and 2020 (Figure 3) with an increasing trend [45], the farmers' perceptions did not reflect this. More than 90% of the interviewed farmers categorized the increasing temperature as a less prominent climate change event with low to moderate severity, as shown in Table 4. The reason for the difference might be due to the effects of rising temperatures being less visible in a short period of time and indirectly impacting food production by limiting irrigation water availability. An increase in temperature could aggravate water stress in VTCSs (e.g., transpiration/evapotranspiration), a phenomenon that the farmers may not have been aware of [73].Changes in rainfall patterns (variability), which were perceived by the farmers, could have a significant impact on food production by limiting the water availability for farming in the study area. However, the farmers did not rate the shortage of water as being within the top five factors that affected food production (Table 5). In contrast, the farmers rated the increasing cost of production and crop damage by wild elephants as the top two challenges for farming. Thus, we observed potential synergistic effects between rainfall changes and the cost of food production and wildlife impacts. This is likely to occur in a situation where water becomes a limiting factor, putting farmers at risk of increasing costs of production and crop damage by wild elephants [23,56].The farmers ranked the effects on human health as the third most impact factor due to climate change. This is because human health is indirectly affected by a combination of climate change stresses such as heat stress, drought, and impairment of critical ecosystem services that ensure human health and wellbeing such as air and water quality regulation [42]. Therefore, in some cases, the impact of climate change on food production could be the result of combined or interactive effects of more than one impact factor [40,74]. Thus, further research is needed to examine such combined or interactive effects.Almost all the farmers interviewed reported a range of land use changes in the MVTCS landscape that impacted food production. In terms of the severity of LUCIFs, the farmers reported that deforestation in catchment areas and clearing of natural ecosystems (encroachments) had the highest influence on food production in the area. The farmers also perceived an impact of landscape fragmentation and structural/pattern changes on food production, and they reported their influence mostly as being moderately severe (Table 6). However, hardly any empirical studies were found on landscape pattern change analysis and its significance on food production and ecosystem services in the VTCSs. The farmers ranked crop damaged by wild animals and land degradation as the most impactful on food production due to land use change. Land degradation could have the most impact on food production in the study area because it can indirectly contribute to other land use change impacts perceived by farmers such as wildlife damage, decreased water quality, increased fallowing of lands, impact on human health, and increased cost of production [43,75]. Most of the farming challenges perceived by farmers are directly or indirectly related to climate and land use change consequences or/and their combined effects [40]. Thus, land use change impacts could be aggravated due to the interactive or combined effects of climate and land use change [41,74], and further studies are needed to investigate how such interactive effects impact food production in VTCSs.We found that several variables influenced the farmers' perceptions of climatic and land use change and their pressures on food production. Among the socio-economic variables, household size negatively influenced the perceptions of the severity of climate change impacts. This is in agreement with the findings of Mekonnen, et al. [76], who found that family size had a negative effect on farmers' adaptation to climate change. However, household size positively influenced the perceptions of the severity of land use change impacts. Increasing family size may result in family members spending more time on their farms, facilitating greater awareness of local land issues (soil erosion, soil fertility, land degradation, biodiversity loss, etc.) [70,[77][78][79][80]. Furthermore, in larger families, family members (especially women and children) are more likely to be involved in the collection of wild foods from the forest and scrub lands (Figure 4); thus, are likely to be exposed to evidence of degradation of their surrounding natural environment [81].The number of generations of households was negatively correlated with both climate and land use change perceptions, which may suggest that more experienced farmers in the study area were more skeptical and uncertain about climate and land use change issues compared to younger generations. A further reason for this could be that some senior farmers may prefer adopting traditional farming practices that they are familiar with and which have evolved with time based on their traditional ecological knowledge, and they may not be knowledgeable regarding these issues affecting food production [79,82]. However, the results of similar studies suggest that an increased number of generations is likely to positively influence the perceptions of climatic risks because more senior farmers in the area tend to have a better awareness of the long-term trends of a changing climate due to greater experience, living across several generations [78].All the categories of training received by the farmers were positively correlated with perceptions of the severity of both climate and land use change. This implies that training resulted in enhanced knowledge and awareness, influencing the farmers' perceptions of climate change and land use change, which could be taken as a significant predictor of adaptation to climate and land use change risks [80]. Adaptation negatively influenced perceptions of severity of both climate change and land use change. This implies that farmers with a better understanding of adaptation measures are less likely to rate threats from climate and land use as severe because they know how to manage these threats. The survey revealed that the farmers had been adopting different autonomous traditional agricultural practices (e.g., traditional soil management practices, cultivation of traditional crop varieties, applications of fertilizers of organic origin, traditional pest and weed management by maintaining biodiversity and bio-pesticides, etc.) shaped by their traditional knowledge and socio-cultural and cosmo-spiritual dimensions as a result of long-term system adaptation to cope with climate change (Figure S3) [12,43]. However, this study did not carry out an in-depth perception analysis related to the effectiveness of adaptation measures practiced by the farmers.Both increasing and decreasing income/profit positively influenced perceptions of the severity of climate and land use change. Thus, the farmer's income/profit may influence how they perceived climate and land issues risks [83]. However, the farmers who experienced decreasing income/profit perceived a higher severity of climate change impacts than that of land use change. This implies that the farmers with low incomes/profits from their farms were more vulnerable to climate change impacts. The reason for this is that the low-income/profit farmers were likely to divert most of their profit to meet the essential costs of farm production and household needs; therefore, this may decrease their ability to undertake adaptation practices to withstand climate change impacts on farm production [14].Among the spatial variables, farm size positively influenced perceptions of severity of both climate and land use change. However, this relationship was stronger for climate change impacts than land use change. This implies that farmers of large farms are more likely pick up on the overarching changes in climate than farmers of small farms that pick up more local changes that might dominate their smaller holdings [57,[77][78][79]84]. Downstream areas of the study meso-catchment located adjacent to the Nachchaduwa reservoir forest area account for a larger extent of the command area, with larger sizes of individual farms [43,56]. Thus, compared to the respondents in the upstream locations of the study area, the downstream respondents perceived climate change threats as being more severe. Though the larger command area positively impacted productivity due to its large extent of intensive agricultural land uses, it could be subjected to negative consequences of climate change and wild elephant damage, resulting in crop production losses. Downstream areas of MVTCS are dominated by irrigated paddy cultivation rather than rainfed crop framing. Furthermore, more elephant habitat encroachments were recorded in downstream areas of MVTCS [56,85]. This could be the reason for the downstream farmers having shown a higher positive correlation than the upstream farmers with their perceived climate and land use change risks. However, the midstream areas of MVTCS regarded a higher average threat than the upstream with respect only to the land use change. This could be the reason that upstream farming is mostly restricted to small-size rainfed shifting cultivation and the midstream areas reporting larger farm sizes with high agricultural land use intensities [43].This study investigated the perceptions of farmers towards climate and land use change and their impacts on food production in the VTCSs of Sri Lanka. The results revealed that short-term seasonal rainfall variability, deforestation and encroachment of natural ecosystems were perceived as the most prominent influencers on food production in the area. Among the socio-economic determinants, household size negatively influenced the perceptions of the severity of climate change and positively influencing perception of","tokenCount":"7573"}
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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"701d1fac0f4d048c8dde4cdf73d4d546","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/382e1969-9ec9-4471-8a7f-05581647b3bc/retrieve","id":"1336228794"},"keywords":["nitrogen fertilizer","microorganisms","nitrification inhibitor","bacteria","archaea","fungi"],"sieverID":"8755b0c9-9a4d-4a8c-bc63-a53e74ac5a77","pagecount":"13","content":"Dicyandiamide decreased N 2 O emissions even under 40°C.• Ammonia oxidizers and nirS were well adapted to 40°C in manured soils.• Fungal nirK tolerated high temperature better in urea than manure treatment.• Compared to nosZII, nosZI adapted to all temperature regardless of fertilization.• nirS-denitrifier dominated N 2 O emissions at high temperature in fertilized soil. Heat waves associated with global warming and extreme climates would arouse serious consequences on nitrogen (N) cycle. However, the responses of the functional guilds to different temperatures, especially high temperature and the cascading effect on N 2 O emissions remain unclear. An incubation study was conducted to examine the effect of different temperatures (20°C, 30°C, and 40°C) and fertilizer types (urea and manure) on N 2 O-producers and N 2 O-reducers, as well as the efficacy of dicyandiamide (DCD) on N 2 O emissions in a vegetable soil. Results showed that ammonia oxidizers and nirS-type denitrifiers were well adapted to high temperature (40°C) with manure application, while the fungal nirK-denitrifiers had better tolerance with urea application. The nosZ clade I microbes had a strong adaptability to various temperatures regardless of fertilization type, while the growth of nosZ clade II group microbes in non-fertilized soil (control) were significantly inhibited at higher temperature. The N 2 O emissions were significantly decreased with increasing temperature and DCD application (up to 60%, even at 40°C). Under high temperature conditions, fungal denitrifiers play a significant role in N-limited soils (non-fertilized) while nirS-type denitrifiers was more important in fertilized soils in N 2 O emissions, which should be specially targeted when mitigating N 2 O emissions under global warming climate.Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is a powerful greenhouse gas (GHG) with a global warming potential approximately 300 times that of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) on a 100-year time horizon (IPCC, 2007(IPCC, , 2014)). Additionally, N 2 O destroys the stratospheric ozone layer (Ravishankara et al., 2009). Agriculture is the main source of anthropogenic N 2 O emissions because of N fertilizer application (Kuypers et al., 2018). N 2 O emissions are expected to increase continuously with the excessive use of fertilizer to meet the growing demand for food production (Thompson et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2020).Nitrification and subsequent denitrification are thought to be the main pathways of N 2 O emissions in soil (Voigt et al., 2020). These pathways are mainly driven by functional microbes, including N 2 O-producers and N 2 O-reducers (Xu et al., 2020). Ammonia oxidizers (i.e., archaeal and bacterial ammonia oxidizers, respectively AOA and AOB), bacterial denitrifier (i.e., nirS-and nirK-type denitrifiers), and fungal denitrifiers (i.e., fungal nirK-type denitrfier) are common N 2 Oproducers. These functional microbes are temperaturesensitive and their relative contributions to N 2 O emissions vary, depending on their inherent sensitivity of temperature, fertilizer types, and soil types (Lai et al., 2019;Mukhtar et al., 2019;Li et al., 2021;Xu et al., 2021). For example, it was reported that ammonia oxidizers and bacterial denitrifiers were all significantly inhibited under high temperatures, while fungal denitrifiers were well adapted and might be the dominant contributor of N 2 O emissions in an acidic soil (Xu et al., 2017). Other studies have also indicated that temperature change may cause niche differentiation of these N 2 O-producers during the production of N 2 O emissions (Yin et al., 2017;Duan et al., 2019a;Lai et al., 2019). However, the responses of N 2 O-producers to different temperatures and the underlying pattern, depending on fertilizer type are still poorly understood (Stein, 2020;Yin et al., 2022).The currently known N 2 O-reducers are nosZ clade I (nosZI) and nosZ clade II (nosZII), which are responsible for encoding the N 2 O reductase, the enzyme catalyzing the last step of denitrification (N 2 O→N 2 ) (Domeignoz-Horta et al., 2018). This pathway represents the only known biological sink of N 2 O emissions (Samad et al., 2016). Compared with nosZI group, nosZII group is newly identified and less studied (Xu et al., 2020). Recent studies have indicated that these two clades have largely different characteristics, and their sensitivities to environmental variations and agricultural practices also largely differ (Stein, 2020). It was reported that nosZII group, rather than nosZI group, was better adapted to warmer and drier conditions (Xu et al., 2020), and explained the variation of in situ N 2 O emissions (Domeignoz-Horta et al., 2018). Comparably, other studies have found that the nosZI-type denitrifiers adapt to various temperature conditions and are sensitive to high temperature, playing an important role in N 2 O consumption (Cui et al., 2016;Xing et al., 2021). Thus, the niche separation of the two clades of nosZ-type denitrifiers in response to increased temperature remains unclear. Considering that these two clades dominate the only known biological sink of N 2 O emissions, their responses to different temperatures need further investigation to better predict future N 2 O emissions and develop mitigation strategies under global warming.Dicyandiamide (DCD) is an effective nitrification inhibitor which is widely used to mitigate N 2 O emissions (Di et al., 2014). The efficiency of DCD strongly depends on soil conditions, especially soil moisture contents and soil temperature (Di and Cameron, 2016;Wu et al., 2017;Guo et al., 2021). The application of DCD can effectively inhibit ammonia oxidization to decrease nitrate production, inhibit denitrification, and hence decrease N 2 O emissions (Guo et al., 2014;Di and Cameron, 2016). Since DCD is susceptible to biodegradation, it is commonly used in autumn or winter when the temperature is relatively low (Kelliher et al., 2014). In the context of global warming, extreme heat climates will appear more frequently (IPCC, 2014;Zhang et al., 2020). However, the effectiveness of DCD at the temperature higher than 30°C has not yet been tested. Additionally, the efficacy of DCD can be modulated by different fertilizer types (Sha et al., 2020a(Sha et al., , 2020b)). The interactive effects of fertilizer types and increasing temperatures on the efficacy of DCD require further investigation to provide accurate fertilization tactics and mitigation strategies under the on-going climate warming conditions.This study aimed to examine the interactive effects of temperature (20°C, 30°C, and 40°C) and fertilizer type (urea and manure) on N 2 O-producers (including AOA, AOB), nirS/ K-type bacterial denitrifiers and fungal nirK-type denitrifiers) and N 2 O-reducers (including nosZI and nosZII clade) in a vegetable soil. It also examined the efficiency of DCD on reducing N 2 O emissions under different temperature conditions. We hypothesized that 1) increasing temperature would decrease the inhibitory efficiency of DCD on N 2 O emissions; 2) AOA and fungal nirK-type denitrifier would be more adapted than other N 2 O-producers to high temperature with manure application; 3) different temperature conditions would lead to niche separation of the two clades of nosZtype denitrifiers.The soil used in this study was collected from a vegetable field in Quzhou, Zhejiang Province (28°45′ N, 118°20′ E) and is classified as Alfisol (yellow-brown soil). The sampling site was characterized as a subtropical monsoon climate, with a mean annual temperature of 17.3°C and precipitation of 1843 mm. The soil samples were collected from 0 to 20 cm surface soil at five random locations, and then mixed to make a composite sample. Fresh soil was passed through a 5-mm sieve and stored at 4°C until the commencement of the incubation experiment. About 500 g soil was air-dried to determine the physical and chemical properties. The soil had the following properties: pH (1:2.5 H 2 O) 7.2, organic C (carbon) 10.02 g kg −1 , total N (nitrogen) 1.21 g kg −1 , available P (phosphorus) 12.4 mg kg −1 and available K (potassium) 131.2 mg kg −1 .Pig manure was obtained from a local pig farm and composted with sawdust. It had pH (H 2 O) 7.3, the mean organic C, total N, total P and total K concentrations of 298.8, 15.5, 12.6 and 0.1 g kg −1 (dry matter), respectively, and the NH 4 + -N and NO 3 --N concentrations of 72.1 and 6.3 mg kg −1 , respectively.The experiment consisted of 5 fertilizer treatments, 3 temperatures and 3 replicates. The five treatments were: 1) Control (no fertilizer application); 2) Urea (400 kg N ha −1 ); 3) Manure (400 kg N ha −1 ); 4) Urea (400 kg N ha −1 ) + DCD (20 kg ha −1 ) and 5) Manure (400 kg N ha −1 ) + DCD (20 kg ha −1 ). The N amount was chosen to simulate the local management practice of the intensive vegetable production. The three selected temperatures were 20°C, 30°C, and 40°C. Two sets of parallel incubation experiments were set up, with one set for soil sampling and the other for gas sampling, according to Xu et al. (2017).For each treatment of the soil sampling experiment, 1 kg of sieved soil (dry weight basis) was placed into a 1-L plastic incubation container (12 cm diameter) with two 1-cm holes on the lid to maintain air exchange. Urea was dissolved in deionized water and added to soil evenly. Manure was passed through a 3-mm sieve and well mixed with soil. Soil sampling of each treatment was performed after 0, 5, 10, 19, 26, 41, 54, 68 and 90 days of incubation. For the gas sampling set of the experiment, 500 g of sieved soil was placed into a 1-L glass jar (10.0 cm diameter). Three fifths volume of the jars was left empty for gas sampling. Gas sampling was carried out twice a week in the first month of incubation, and then weekly until the end of experiment. During the gas sampling, the jar was sealed by a lid with rubber stopper, which was linked with a three-way valve and syringe. Gas samples were taken at 0, 20 and 40 min and stored in 9-mL glass vials.The soil water content was adjusted to field capacity (the water content was 23.4%) in all treatments. The weight of the containers was adjusted twice to three times per week to maintain the 100% field capacity of soil moisture content during the incubation period.Soil NH 4 + -N and NO 3 − -N were extracted from 5 g soil sample with 50 mL of 1 M KCl, shaken at 250 rpm for 1 h. After filtration, NH 4 + -N and NO 3 − -N in the filtrates were measured using a flow injection analyzer (SAN + + , Skalar, Netherlands). N 2 O concentration of the gas samples was determined by gas chromatography (GC-2010 Plus SHIMADZU, Japan).Soil samples from days 0, 20, and 65 were used for DNA extraction and functional gene analyses. Soil DNA was extracted from 0.5 g fresh soil using a FastDNA spin kit for soil (MP Biomedicals, OH, USA), according to the manufacturer's protocol. The quality of DNA extracts was checked by gel electrophoresis and concentrations were determined using a Nanodrop® ND-2000 UV-vis spectrophotometer (NanoDrop Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA). Real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR analysis of the functional genes of ammonia oxidizers (bacterial and archaea amoA genes) and denitrifiers (nirS/nirK, fungi nirK, nosZI and nosZII) was performed by the LightCycler® 480II (Roche, German). The details of the primers and thermal profiles for each target gene were described in Liu et al. (2019). Each 20-μL reaction system included 1−10 ng of the template DNA, 0.16−0.3 μL of each primer, 10 μL SYBR® Premix Ex Taq™ II (TaKaRa, Japan) and milli-Q water to the final volume. Melting curve analysis was performed at the end of each run to confirm the PCR product specificity. Standard curve for qPCR were made as follows: each target gene was first PCR amplified and then purified by a PCR cleanup kit (Macherey-Nagel Inc, Germany). The purified PCR products were cloned into the pGEM-T Easy Vector (TransGen Biotech, China), and then transformed into Escherichia coli JM109 competent cells (TransGen Biotech, China). The plasmid was extracted by a MiniBEST Plasmid Purification Kit (TaKaRa, Japan). The concentration of the plasmid was measured by a Nanodrop® ND-2000 UV-vis, and 10-fold serial dilutions of plasmid with known gene copy number were used as standard curve. To avoid possible inhibitions of the qPCR reactions, a series of 10-fold dilutions of the DNA samples were included during the assessment. The amplification efficiencies reached 90%−101% after 10-fold dilution which was used for the final qPCR analysis. The reaction specificity was confirmed by the melting curve analysis at the end of each run.The AOA and AOB communities were analyzed by MiSeq sequencing of 16S rRNA genes in the V4-V5 regions with the universal primers 515F and 907R (Xu et al., 2020). A total of 2 361 339 16S rRNA gene high quality sequence reads were obtained. The raw data were processed using the Quantitative Insight Into Microbial Ecology (QIIME2).Only sequences with quality score > 20 and read length > 200 bp and without ambiguous calls were included for the subsequent analyses. These selected sequences were then binned into one operational taxonomic unit (OTUs) at a 97% identity threshold. Reads classified as AOB and Thaumarchaeota or unclassified archaea were screened out for phylogenetic trees construction by the Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA 4.0) with 1 000-fold bootstrap.The data set of gene sequences was deposited under BioProject accession number PRJCA005798 in National Genomics Data Center's Genome Sequence Archive (GSA).Hourly N 2 O emissions were calculated according to Hutchinson and Mosier (1981) by using the slope of glass jar headspace N 2 O concentration change from the collected three samples. Cumulative emissions were calculated according to Di et al. (2007) by integrating the measured daily fluxes which were calculated using hourly N 2 O fluxes.One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan-test was performed to check the differences in total N 2 O emissions and functional gene abundances (Wang et al., 2023). Two-way ANOVA was conducted to test the significance of the effects of fertilizer type and temperature and their interactions on the abundances of N 2 O-producers and N 2 O-reducers. One-way and two-way ANOVA were performed by SPSS version 20 (IBM Co., Armonk, NY, USA). P < 0.05 was regarded as statistically significant. The correlation analysis of inorganic N, functional gene abundance and N 2 O emission was calculated and visualized in GGally, ggplot2 and wesanderson packages of R. Structure equation modeling (SEM) was used to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of temperature on mineral N concentrations, functional gene abundances and N 2 O emissions using AMOS 24.The treatment during 41 days of incubation at 30°C (P < 0.05) (Fig. 1D, E). The application of DCD reduced NO 3 − -N concentrations at 20 and 30°C (Fig. 1D, E). However, the NO 3 − -N concentration at 40°C was low and was not significantly affected by fertilizer treatment (Fig. 1F).At 20°C, the application of manure significantly increased hourly N 2 O emissions compared with the urea and control treatments (P < 0.05) with a significant N 2 O peak of 0.64 mg N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 at day 20 (Fig. 2A). The hourly N 2 O emissions with urea were significantly higher than those in the control treatment between days 11 to 27 (P < 0.05) (Fig. 2A). At 30°C, significant N 2 O peaks of 0.12 mg N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 at day 20 and 0.25 mg N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 at day 27 were observed in the urea and manure treatments, respectively (Fig. 2B). However, at 40°C, the application of manure hardly affected N 2 O emissions with a small peak of 0.06 mg N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 and 0.04 mg N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 observed at days 33 and 56, respectively (Fig. 2C).Total N 2 O emissions in the manure treatment were significantly higher than those in the urea and control treatments at 20°C and 30°C (P < 0.05) (Fig. 2D). At all temperature conditions, the application of urea significantly increased total N 2 O emissions compared with the control (P < 0.05) while DCD addition significantly decreased total N 2 O emissions (Fig. 2D).The inhibition efficiency of DCD at 20°C was higher than that at 30 and 40°C in the urea and manure treatments. At 40°C, DCD decreased N 2 O emission by approximately 60% (Table 1).Fertilizer type and temperature and their interaction had significant effects on AOA and AOB abundance (P < 0.01) (Table 2). Specifically, the application of manure significantly increased the abundance of archaeal amoA gene by one to two orders of magnitude at 20°C and 40°C after 65 days of incubation (Figs. 3A and C) and at 30°C after 20 days (P < 0.05) (Fig. 3B). The application of urea significantly increased the bacterial amoA gene abundance at 20°C and 30°C by day 65 (P < 0.05) (Fig. 3D and E). Manure addition significantly increased bacterial amoA gene abundance at 30°C and 40°C compared with the control treatment after incubation for 65 days (P < 0.05) (Fig. 3E and F). The application of DCD significantly decreased the abundance of AOA and AOB in the urea and manure treatment at 20°C and 30°C after 65 days of incubation, but decreased the abundance of AOA and AOB only in the manure treatment at 40°C. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA genes showed that 98.8% of the AOA-like sequences affiliated to group 1.1b (Fig. S1A). Specifically, half of the total archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences were affiliated with Nitrosocosmicus cluster with manure application at 30°C. In addition, at 40°C, 15.9%, and 15.2% of the total archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences were classified into Nitrososphaera cluster in the manure and control treatments, respectively (Fig. S1). As for AOB community, most of the AOB 16S rRNA gene sequences were affiliated with Nitrosospira cluster 3 (Fig. S1B). At 20°C, the sequences affiliated with Nitrosospira cluster 3 occupied 7.7%, 29.2% and 5.6% of the total AOB 16S rRNA gene sequences in the control,   urea and manure treatments, respectively. At 30°C, 6.5%, 35.3% and 5.3% of the total AOB 16S rRNA gene sequences were classified into Nitrosospira cluster 3 in the control, urea and manure treatments, respectively (Fig. S1B). Fertilizer type, temperature and their interaction had significant effects on nirS gene abundance (Table 2). There were significant increases of the nirS gene abundance in all treatments over time after incubation for 65 days at 20 and 30°C (P < 0.05) (Fig. 4A and B). At 40°C, only manure application significantly increased the nirS gene abundance which was higher than that in 20°C and 30°C (Fig. 4C). The application of DCD significantly increased the abundance of nirS gene in the urea treatments after 65 days of incubation at 20°C and 30°C. Manure application significantly increased the nirK abundance at 20°C at day 65 (P < 0.05) (Fig. 4D), but did not affect it at 30°C and 40°C (Fig. 4E and F). The addition of urea and manure significantly increased the nirK abundance after incubation for 20 and 65 days at 20°C and 20 days at 30°C in the urea and manure treatments (Fig. 4D  and E). The application of DCD significantly decreased the abundance of the nirK gene abundance in manure treatment after incubation for 20 and 65 days at 20°C. Fertilizer type had no significant effect on the fungal nirK gene abundance at day 20 (P > 0.05) (Table 2). The fungal nirK gene abundances at 40°C were higher than those at 20°C and 30°C (Fig. 4G−H). Moreover, the fungal nirK gene abundances significantly increased from 5.43 × 10 5 at day 0 to 2.53 × 10 6 and 2.86 × 10 6 at days 20 and 65 with urea application at 40°C (P < 0.05) (Fig. 4I).Significant increases of nosZI gene abundance were observed in the control, urea and manure treatments at all three temperatures after incubation for 20 and 65 days (P < 0.05) (Fig. 5A−C). Fertilizer type and temperature had significant effects on nosZ gene abundance at day 20 (P < 0.01), but only fertilizer type affected nosZ gene abundance at day 65 (P < 0.01) (Table 2). Comparably, the abundance of nosZII gene was significantly affected by both fertilizer types and temperature (Table 1). After 20 and 65 days of incubation, the application of urea and manure significantly decreased nosZII abundance at 20°C, while the application of urea significantly increased its abundance at 30°C. The application of urea and manure had no significant effect on the abundance of nosZII gene at day 20, but the application of urea and manure, together with the DCD addition, significantly increased their abundance at day 65 (Fig. 5D−F).Linear and polynomial regression analysis showed that N 2 O emissions had a positive correlation with the abundances of AOA, AOB, nirK gene, nirS gene and nosZII at 20°C, with the abundance of nirK gene at 30°C and with nirS gene, fungal nirK and nosZI gene at 40°C (P < 0.05) (Fig. 6).The impact of temperature on mineral N concentrations, related microorganisms and N 2 O emissions varied, depended on fertilizer type (Fig. 7). In the control treatment, temperature had negative direct influence on NO 3 − -N concentration (P < 0.001), AOB abundance (P < 0. 01) and N 2 O emissions (P < 0.001). The concentration of NO 3 − -N had a negative effect on the abundances of nosZI (P < 0.05) and fungal nirK genes (P < 0.001). The abundance of AOB and fungal nirK respectively had direct negative and positive effects on N 2 O emissions (Fig. 7A). In the urea treatment, temperature also had direct negative effect on NO 3 − -N concentration (P < 0.01). The concentration of NO 3 − -N positively influenced the abundances of AOB (P < 0.001), AOA (P < 0.001) and nirS gene (P < 0.05), but negatively influenced the abundance fungal nirK gene (P < 0.05). AOA and nirS-type denitrifier were negative and positive direct contributors to N 2 O emissions, respectively (Fig. 7B). In the manure treatment, temperature had direct negative effects on the abundances of nirK (P < 0.001) and nirS (P < 0.001) genes and N 2 O emissions (P < 0.05), but had a direct positive effect on AOA abundance (P < 0.05). The abundance of  nirS gene was positively related with N 2 O emissions (P < 0.001) (Fig. 7C).4.1 The effect of temperature on N 2 O emissions and the DCD efficacyOur results showed that the N 2 O emissions were significantly decreased with the increased temperature, and were the lowest at 40°C (Fig. 2). The decreased N 2 O emissions had mainly resulted from lower nitrification rate as indicated by the concentrations of ammonium and nitrate at 40°C (Fig. 1).In addition, increasing temperatures had a significant negative effect on N 2 O emissions in the control and manure treated soils but not in the urea-treated soils (Fig. 7). This might be because the application of different fertilizer types modulated the adaptability of the functional guilds under different temperatures and thus consequently affected the response of N 2 O emissions (Duan et al., 2019b;Jansson and Hofmockel, 2020;Stein, 2020). Our results showed that N 2 O emissions were linked to the abundances of AOA, AOB, nirK-and nirS-type denitrifiers, and nosZII group at 20°C, but only linked to the abundance of nirK-type denitrifiers at 30°C, and to the abundances of nirS-type denitrifiers, fungal nirK-type denitrifiers and nosZI clade at 40°C (Fig. 6). These findings indicate that ammonia oxidizers and bacterial denitrifiers were the dominant microbes at 20°C and 30°C, while bacterial denitrifiers and fungal denitrifiers were the dominant microbes at 40°C, showing a significant niche differentiation under different temperatures.The application of DCD significantly inhibited the N 2 O emissions at all temperature conditions, but the efficiency of DCD decreased with increased temperature, supporting our first hypothesis. The results are also consistent with a previous report that DCD was easy to biodegrade under high temperatures (Di and Cameron, 2016). It has been suggested that the DCD is better to be applied at a temperature under 10°C to achieve the maximum effectiveness and longevity (Kelliher et al., 2014). Nevertheless, under the high temperature of 40°C, DCD still had a significant effect to decrease N 2 O emission by approximately 60%.The inhibitory effect of DCD was linked to both of AOA and AOB in the urea-and manure-treated soils (Fig. 3). The targeted group of DCD could reflect the active ammonia oxidizers during nitrification (Fan et al., 2019;Prosser et al., 2020), and our results showed that both of AOA and AOB played significant roles during nitrification and N 2 O emissions under different temperatures in this slightly alkaline vegetable soil. It was previously reported that the abundance of both AOA and AOB was significantly inhibited at 40°C in an acidic forest soil (Xu et al., 2017). Comparably, the abundance of AOA and AOB was significantly increased at 40°C and was inhibited by the application of DCD. This could cause a cascading effect on denitrification and lead to a significant reduction of N 2 O emissions at 40°C.In this study, the abundance of AOA and AOB was strongly affected by the fertilizer types and temperature. The application of manure rather than urea significantly increased AOA growth at the three selected temperatures (Fig. 3). The SEM result further suggested that temperature had a direct positive effect on AOA abundance in the manure treatment. Our results were consistent with previous studies showing that organic N rather than chemical fertilizer stimulated the abundance of AOA (Zhou et al., 2015;Gao et al., 2022). The AOA preferred N-poor environments compared with AOB, and high level of urea-N input (as high as 400 kg N ha −1 ) would inhibit their growth (Di et al., 2009;Stein, 2019).This study also showed that AOA abundance in the manure treatment at 40°C was an order of magnitude higher than that at 20°C and 30°C (Fig. 3). Previous studies found some AOA were obligately thermophilic (e.g., Ca. Nitrosocaldus yellowstonii and Nitrosocaldus islandicus) which can grow well at extreme high temperature habitats (de la Torre et al., 2008;Daebeler et al., 2018) or even some moderately thermophilic AOA (e.g., Ca. Nitrososphaera gargensis) can grow at 46°C (Roland Hatzenpichler, 2008). However, phylogenetic analysis showed AOA in the manure treatment not only affiliated with Nitrososphaera cluster but also with Nitrosocosmicus cluster at 40°C (Fig. S1). Pure cultures demonstrated Nitrosocosmicus franklandus grew at 30− 45°C and the optimal temperature was 40°C (Lehtovirta-Morley et al., 2016), which concurred with our results. Thus, the Nitrososphaera and Nitrosocosmicus clusters might be the dominant ammonia oxidizer archaea which were well adapted to high temperatures with manure application.The significant growth of AOB at 20°C and 30°C with urea application demonstrated that AOB are favored with high-N environments (Xu et al., 2021). However, at 40°C, no significant increase of the AOB abundance with urea was observed, indicating that high temperature had inhibited AOB growth (Cui et al., 2016;Duan et al., 2018). Previous studies showed that the optimum temperature for AOB ranged between 20 and 31°C, and 12°C lower than that for soil AOA (Ouyang et al., 2017;Taylor et al., 2017). The community of AOB was mainly affiliated with Nitrosospira cluster 3, and the maximum ammonia-oxidation activity for the isolated strains of Nitrosospira was between 10°C and 33°C (Avrahami et al., 2003;Zhao et al., 2020). Interestingly, manure application significantly stimulated the abundance of AOB at 40°C (Fig. 3). This could be because the soil microenvironment in manured soil matrix had lower temperature than ambient temperature, thus more suited for AOB growth (Stein, 2019;Li et al., 2020;Xu et al., 2020). However, to date, no literature reported the activity of AOB at a temperature higher than 40°C.Significant increases of nirS-type denitrifiers in all treatments and nirK-type denitrifiers in the manure treatment indicated that fertilizer type had a significant effect on the abundance of nirS and nirK genes. The high content of organic C in the manure could be an energy source for denitrifiers (Kuypers et al., 2018;Stein, 2020). Furthermore, the significant amount of C in the manure could accelerate microbial activity, and facilitated soil anaerobic conditions (Zhou et al., 2017;Xu et al., 2020), creating a more suitable environment for denitrifiers. Compared with nirK-type denitrifiers, nirS-type denitrifiers could be well adapted to high temperature as evidenced by their higher abundance. Our findings are consistent with previous studies showing that the abundance of nirS rather than nirK gene increased with increasing temperature with organic fertilizer in alkaline soils (Cui et al., 2016;Xu et al., 2020).The application of manure also significantly increased fungal nirK gene abundance at 20°C and 30°C while urea addition enhanced it at 40°C (Fig. 4G−I), displaying an interactive effect of fertilizer type and temperature (Table 2). Furthermore, the fungal nirK gene abundances at 40°C especially with urea were one order of magnitude higher than those at 20°C and 30°C, suggesting some fungal nirKdenitrifiers had better tolerance to high temperature (Xu et al., 2017). However, the effect of fertilizer type on thermotolerant fungal nirK needs further investigation because the species of fungi denitrifiers have been reported to be thermotolerant with organic fertilizers (i.e., manure) rather than inorganic fertilizers (i.e., urea) (Chen et al., 2015;Xu et al., 2017;Xu et al., 2020).Fertilization affected the responses of N 2 O-producers to high temperature condition, thus modulating their dominant role in N 2 O emissions (Figs. 6 and 7). Our results indicated that the fungal denitrifiers played a significant role in N 2 O emissions under high temperature conditions in non-fertilized soil at 40°C, while the bacterial denitrifiers played a significant role in N 2 O emissions with sufficient substrates (urea-and manure-treated soils), with the nirS-type denitrifiers being specifically important under high temperatures (40°C). This was consistent with a previous observation (Cui et al., 2016), and thus nirS-type denitrifiers might be targeted microbes to decrease N 2 O emissions under the warming climate, especially in intensive agroecosystems with heavy use of fertilizers.The responses of nosZI and nosZII clade microbes to different fertilizer types and temperatures differed largely (Fig. 5). The nosZI group was well adapted to all the temperature conditions regardless of fertilizer treatment, and its abundance in both control and fertilized soils significantly increased with incubation time. Additionally, the growth of nosZI group was not affected by temperature after 65 days of incubation, indicating that this clade nosZ microbes had a strong adaptability to various temperatures (Xu et al., 2020;Xing et al., 2021). Comparably, the abundance of nosZII group microbes was significantly affected by both fertilizer type and temperature, showing a niche differentiation between these two different clades. Increasing temperature significantly decreased the abundance of nosZII in the nonfertilized soil (control), but increased it when urea or manure was applied, indicating that the nosZII clade microbes could only adapt to higher temperatures when substates were sufficient. This was consistent with a field study showing that the nosZII clade microbes were adapted to a warmer and drier condition with the application of urea and manure (Xu et al., 2020). The regression analysis showed that the nosZII group microbes were dominant at lower temperature (20°C), while the nosZI clade microbes were dominant at higher temperature (40°C) (Fig. 6). Similar results were observed in an acidic soil where the nosZI group exhibited a significant variation at 35°C, and played a significant role in N 2 O consumption (Xing et al., 2021). Comparably, the diversity of nosZII rather than nosZI explained more of the variation of in situ N 2 O emissions at relatively lower ambient temperature conditions (Domeignoz-Horta et al., 2018). Taken together, these results indicate that different temperatures could lead to a significant niche separation of the two clades of nosZtype denitrifiers as we hypothesized. We highlighted the important role of nosZII at lower temperature (< 30°C), and of nosZI at higher temperature (> 35°C) in N 2 O consumption. As these two clades represented the only known biological sink of N 2 O emissions, we suggest that this should be further studied in various agroecosystems in order to develop efficient mitigation strategies.Our results showed that temperature and fertilizer types had interactive effects on both N 2 O-producers and N 2 O-reducers. AOA, AOB and nirS-type but not nirK-type denitrifiers were well adapted to high temperature as high as 40°C with manure application. Comparably, the fungal nirK-denitrifiers had better tolerance to high temperature with the application of urea. The nosZI microbes had a strong adaptability to various temperatures while the nosZII clade microbes were only adapted to higher temperatures with fertilization, showing a niche differentiation between these two different clades. Temperature and fertilizer types also caused a cascading effect on N 2 O emissions and the dominant functional microbes. Increasing temperature and the application of DCD significantly decreased N 2 O emissions. Generally, fungal denitrifiers played a significant role in N 2 O emissions under high temperature conditions in non-fertilized soils, while bacterial denitrifiers were more important in soils fertilized with urea or manure, with the nirS-type denitrifiers being specifically important under 40°C. Our results indicate that different functional groups should be targeted to mitigate N 2 O emissions under various temperature conditions. Specifically, the important role of nirS-type and nosZI denitrifiers in N 2 O emissions under high temperature conditions should be further studied in various ecosystems to better predict future N 2 O emissions and develop effective mitigation strategies under global warming.","tokenCount":"5528"}
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